.

.
.
I, 769 f.

*

Formed from and an unattested subst. or ( hollow hand). This gives us
, to !ledge," to engage"# then and . Thus , ad$. offering
se%urit&," subst. guarantor," i.e., the one who a%%e!ts legal obligation (for !a&ment
et%.) in a bond. 'eno!h.(e%t. , ), *+# ,ristot.
-
e%. , II, !. ./0+a, .9 (
)#
,
es%hin.1!. , .., .*# 2lut. 3e ,matorio 4ibro , 9 (II,
70/d)5 . (er& %ommon in !a!. , e.g.,
2
. 1le!hant. , 6, .9#
2
. 7amb. , *), .7.
.
is also found in the 4'', as in * 8a%%. .+5*6 . In 9ir. *95.0 we see how far the !ledge
might go5 q g, q q 5
the ma& have to guarantee the other with his life.
This lin:s u! with the onl& ;T !assage in whi%h the meta!hor is used, namel&, 7b. 75** .
4i:e the rest of the ;T , 7b. s!ea:s of the !resent !ossession of the gifts and !owers of the
:ingdom of <od ( .*5.*ff .). =et salvation finds fulfilment or %om!letion onl& in the future
( )5. # 65.. f. # 95.0 # .+5/6 ). 7b. em!hasises !arti%ularl& this element of ho!e in salvation,
and thus gives !rominen%e to the !romises of <od. 2romises, however, demand assuran%es or
guarantees. In distin%tion from the -T , 7b. does not find these in the words or oaths of <od (
65.7f .). ,s in earl& >hristianit& generall&, !resent and future are lin:ed to the divine a%tion in
?esus. Thin:ing in terms of the !romises of <od, 7b. finds in ?esus the <uarantor. @ith 7is
life, death and as%ension ?esus has given us the assuran%e (%f. 9ir. *95.0 ) that the beginning
of the saving wor: of <od will ne%essaril& be followed b& its %om!letion.
P
reisker
, ,
i to bring near"5 2ol&b. , (III, ), 75 g g , mostl& intr. 5 to a!!roa%h"5
2ol&b. , I(, 6*, 0 with gen.# 3iod. 9. , 'III, 77, /# with dat. , 2ol&b. , '(II, ), .# 1!i%t. et 3iss. ,
III, .+, .)5 q q q 6 # ibid. , I(, .., /. Aare in the
!a!. , 2. -B&. , I', .*+*, 6. @ith gen., e.g., 2a!. de Theadel!hie , 2ierre ?ouguet (.9..), .7, .*#
with dat. 5
2
. <en. , 7), .7.
a. in the vi%init&," %lose b&." ,bs. Thu%. , III, 00, . ( ) et%.# with
, ,es%h.9e!t. %. Theb. , 09 f.# with 9o!h.2hil. , 766# usuall& with gen.5
C . ,. @aldeD?. 2o:orn&, Vergleichendes Wrterbuch d. indog. Sprachen , I (.9*7), 6/6 f.# F. 2arts%h,
Griech. Brgschaftsrecht , I (.9+9), ../ff., **6 ff., *6.# @. 2rellwitE, 7omeri% , 3er FGnstler ,"
Zeitschr. f. vergl. Sprachforschung , )6 (.9.)), .69ff.# ?. Hehm, Der Begriff i !" (.9.*), 77# 1.
4ohme&er, Diatheke (.9./), .)0# 8itteisD@il%:en , II, ., *6) ff.# >. 9%hwegler, De #eschinis $uae feruntur
epistulis (.9./), *9ff.
-e%. %econoica .
,es%hin. ,es%hines, ,thenian orator and !oliti%ian (%. /9+I/.) H.>. ), who gained fame b& o!!osing
3emosthenes. The letters as%ribed to him are not authenti%, ed. F. Hlass, .696.
2. 1le!hant. &lephantine Pap'ri , ed. -. Aubensohn, .9+7.
2. 7amb. Griechische Pap'rusurkunden der (aburger Stadtbibliothek , ed. 2.8. 8e&er, .9.. ff.
. >f. 2reisig:e @Jrt. , I, ).+# 9%hwegler, op. cit.
2reis:er 7erbert 2reis:er , Hreslau ((ol. .I/), ((ol. )), ?ena ((ol. 0I6).
2. <en. )es Pap'rus de Gen*ve , ed. ?. ;i%ole, .696 ff.
7om.Il. , .+, *7)5 q i #
2
. 8as!. , /./, 0). 7en%e with gen. in the sense of
in the !resen%e of someone"5 , 2. 4ond. , I(, .66+, *.# H<K , III,
6.), /+ ( ). 8ore rarel& with the dat. , as in 7om.Il. , **, )0/# 1ur.
7
era%l.
, /7. b. Tem!orall& near at hand." 1!i%t.3iss. , III, *6, 65 q

%. In %ounting almost"5 2. -B&. , III, )7*, /)5 #
'eno!h.
7
ist. <rae%. , II, ), /*5 . d. 9imilar"5 2lat.2haed. ,
60a5 i # 2lat.<org. , 0*+a# 1!i%t.3iss. , I(, .., /6. e.
Aelated"5 2lat.Aes!. , III, /9.e# ,es%h.
9
u!!l. , /66# 1!i%t.3iss. , III, ., *+. f. Figur. of a s!iritual
attitude, 1!i%t.3iss. , I, *, .)# II, .7, )+# I(, ., ./0.
i is ver& %ommon in the 4'', though the trans. is rare ( <n. )65.+ , ./ # Is. 056 et%.).
?ose!h. uses i onl& in the s!atial sense ( Hell. , 0, )+6 # 6, .6 # ., 6.7 ), but LMN in older
7eb. is used also for tem!oral !roBimit&, 9!atiall&, we find i with c and gen. in ?u.
950* # . 8a%%. /5*6 # with the dat. of !erson or ob$. in 1B. .95** 5 iq # 3t. )57 5
i . >f. I. 23:23 , where i is used to denote the nearness rather
than the remoteness of <odOs wor:ing (as in the 8as. ). @ith , <n. *75** et%.# with
l (H5 ) and a%%. , 2 B. 11:20 # .95)* # with i , 26:2 . To some eBtent
LMN and PQ RS a%Tuire te%hni%al %ulti% signifi%an%e. The !ure in the sense of %ulti% ritual (!riests)
ma& draw near to <od, e.g., 1B. /50 # 4v. *.5*. ( i )# 1E. )+5)6 et%. 1lsewhere in the
!ro!hets and hagiogra!ha i is used generall& for a !ious dis!osition (with or without
or ), Is. *95./ # 31:6 # ?dt. 65*7 et%. Tem!orall& it is found in ;u. *)5.7
#
.
7ab. /5* # Is. *65.7 . In 3t. Is. the a!!roa%h of the time of salvation is alwa&s denoted eB%e!t
in ).5*. , e.g., 0+56 5 i 6 # 0.50 5 i q #
0656 5 q i . 1E. s!ea:s of the i of the
da& of $udgment in 757 (UU 75) )# **5) . >f. VWXYZ [X \[] ^_R `Sa[b c\d^e[ReZcf YSfPZQ LMf NZ Yea PXQ WeZ UU
ig q 6, 6 , Tan%h. McL ) , .+0 .
9imilarl& is a te%h. term for the !roBimit& of $udgment in -T !ro!he%&, e.g., ?l. .5.0 5
q q i # *5. 5 q q /())5.)# -b. .0 # ge!h. .57 # .5.)
5 q q i q # Is. ./56 # 1E. /+5/ . In the 4'' also has the
sense of neighbour," 1B. /*5*7 ( ); 14:3 ( ), usuall& for the
8as. L^_MNd , but also for h[d in ?ob 65.0 and `S]ieZ `[] M_ in 1st. .5.) . -ften it denotes the relation
between <od and the righteous5 2s, //5.6 5 t q
i, 118:151 5 l ; # .))5.6 5
. 2hilo uses i as an eB!ression for en%ounter with <od5 4eg.
,ll. , II, 07 ( l i , of earthl& death leading to the vision of <od)# 3eus Imm. ,
.6. ( A i ). ?ose!h. has without %ase in ,nt. , .), /)0 5
q q # 7, *6) # 6, /)+ # Hell. , 0, *76 # with dat. 5 ,nt. , ., //0 5
# Hell. , *, ./6 # ,nt. , 7, *.6 . 8ore %ommon is the use with the gen.5 ,nt. , .), 60 5
J et%. In the tem!oral sense ?ose!h. uses onl& in the edi%t of >aesar
in ,nt. , .), .9/ 5 Aiq q .
.. The ;T usage is based on 3t. Is. In the older writings the distin%tive feature of both
and i is that the& eB!ress the %hara%teristi% as!e%t of the earl& >hristian
situation, being used of the es%hatologi%al fulfilment, of the great turning !oint in world
histor&, of the %oming of the :ingdom of <od dire%tl& into the !resent as the mira%le of <od.
1.g., 8t. /5* 5 q q i , %f. 8:. .5.0 and !ar. 8t.
.+57 # 4:. .+59 , .. # *.56 . ,gain, we read in 8t. *.5/) 5 q
2. 8as!. Pap'rus Grecs d+,po$ue B'-antine , ed. ?. 8as!jro, .9.. ff.
7era%l. (eraclidae .
7ist. <rae%. (istoria Graeca .
9u!!l. Supplices .
. ti o%%urs onl& here in ;u. LMN in the %ulti% sense is alwa&s translated differentl&, and onl& on%e is
PQ RS rendered i .
ka similitude for the time of fulfilment# %f. also in 8:. ./5*6 and !ar. 5
, and 8:. ./5*9 and !ar. 5 .
*
,gain,
i is lin:ed with the destin& of the 9on of 8an, whi%h is sim!l& a sign of the final
event ( 8t. *65)0 # 8:. .)5)* and !ar. ), as is also the %oming destru%tion of ?erusalem ( 4:.
*.5*+ ) or the a!!roa%h of the risen 4ord to 7is dis%i!les ( 4:. *)5.0 ). 8t. *65.6 refers to
?esusO hour of destin&, whi%h means so mu%h for the ultimate fulfilment. In 4:. .95.. the
eB!resses the belief that the $ourne& of ?esus to ?erusalem and the dawn of the
:ingdom of <od %oin%ide. 9ometimes 4:. %an also use i in the stri%t es%hatologi%al
sense as a sa%red word" in relation to the m&ster& of the final fulfilment ( .+59 , .. # *.56 , *+
# *.5.0 ).
2aul uses i onl& to des%ribe the uniTue as!e%t of the >hristian life. It ma&
indi%ate the %oming of the rule of <od in A. ./5.* or the fa%t that 1!a!hroditus is !la%ed in
danger of mart&rdom in 2hil. *5/+ . 7e uses onl& in the short es%hatologi%al message
in 2hil. )50 5 , and in A. .+56 in a Tuotation from 3t. /+5.) whi%h is
eB!ounded in terms of es%hatologi%al !rea%hing on the basis of the !resen%e of the 8essiah.
In 1!h. *5./ and *5.7 the <entiles, who on%e had no !art in the %ommunit& and were without
ho!e and without <od, are des%ribed as those who have drawn near in >hrist, and therefore in
es%hatologi%al terms. The >atholi% 1!istles ( 7b. .+5*0 # ?m. 056 # . 2t. )57 ) also use
i for a situation of tense es%hatologi%al eB!e%tation. In 7b., as in -T !ro!he%&,
refers to es%hatologi%al $udgment. In 7b. 656 defe%tion from >hrist brings destru%tion
in the imminent $udgment. 65./ s!ea:s of the overthrow of the -T order b& the new
established in >hrist. -n the other hand, in 7b. 75.9 and ?m. )56 we have the formula
i from the 4'' and 2hilo, eB%e!t that the %ertaint& of the a%tualisation of
the drawing near is now stronger and surer and more %om!lete than in the -T and later
?udaism. 4i:e the
9
&n!t. , Aev. uses onl& as a term for the near %oming of the :ingdom
of <od. Thus we have in .5/ # %f. **5.+ .
*. , ver& different use of i and as indi%ations of time and s!a%e is also to be
found, es!. in 4:. and ?n. ti is used a. with the dat. to indi%ate !la%e and movement in 4:.
75.* # .05. , *0 # **5)7 # ,%. 95/ # .+59 # **56 , or with l in 8:. ..5. # 8t. *.5. # 4:. .65/0 #
.95*9 # *)5*6 # with i in 4:. .+59 (%f. 4:. .*5// ), , 2hil. *5/+ # also in the
abs. in 4:. .65)+ # .95/7 , ). # ,%. *.5// # */5.0 . -n one o%%asion 4:. uses it to indi%ate a festival
( **5. )# in ,%. 75.7 it denotes the time of !romise given to ,braham. b. Tem!orall&, of the hour (
8t. *65)0 ) or the da& ( A. ./5.* # 7b. .+5*0 ) or an end ( 4:. *.5*+ ) et%. In 8t. and 8:.
i is onl& on%e used s!atiall& ( 8:. ..5. and !ar. ), and this in relation to the hol& %it&.
i does not o%%ur at all in ?n.ka !ossible sign of the transmutation of es%hatologi%al
eB!e%tation whi%h leaves no !la%e in his vo%abular& for the sa%red word of the !revious !eriod. In
,%. is used onl& for !la%e5 .5.* 5 # 95/6 # *756 . t is used
tem!orall& in ?n. *5./ # 75* # ..500 , and it is worth noting that on two o%%asions this refers to the
!assover, whi%h elsewhere ( *5*/ 5 ).5)0# 65)# ..500 ) almost %ertainl& has es%hatologi%al
signifi%an%e in relation to the !as%hal lamb ( .5*9 ). @e thus have here a final es%hatologi%al e%ho,
the festival being lin:ed with the death of ?esus with its signifi%an%e for the last time. 1lsewhere in
?n. is used s!atiall&, e.g., /5*/ 5 2i # 65.9 # 65*/ 5 ,
# ..5.6 5 Bi J # ..50) 5 q # .95*+ ,
)* .
Thus in the earl& da&s of >hristianit& and i are among the words whi%h
suggest the sa%red awe of all eB!e%tation of the telos . The& eB!ress ho!e of the imminen%e of
the %oming world and are therefore sa%red words used onl& in %onneBion with the great ho!e
of %onsummation. -nl& later, when the !assion of faith de%lined, did the usage %hange, as
* 4:. *.5/. adds q i as sub$., but it would be sim!ler to refer it to the parousia of the 9on
of 8an, or, with 9%hl. 8t. , ad loc. , to the %ertaint& that the whole !romise of ?esus %omes to fulfilment and
initiates eternal life."
9&n!t. 9&no!tist.
es!e%iall& in 4:. and ?n., and the& were again used in the se%ular sense to denote time and
!la%e.
/

Preisker
, , , !
"#!$
*

%
.. i in nonDbibli%al <ree:. a. trans. to awa:en" from slee!, 7om.Il. , 0, )./#
%ulti%all&5 # 1g&!t.5 2or!h&r.,bst. , I(, 9#
.
intr. ( !ass. ) to wa:e u!," 7om.Il. , *,
).5 # ?os.,nt. , *, 6* et%.# of wat%hful states of the soul,
2
lot.
1
nn. , I(, 6, .# (, 7, **. b.
trans. 5 to arouse," to stir u!," 7om.Il. , 0, *+6# with im!ersonal ob$. 5 , 7om.Il. , ./,
776# , 2lat.2olit. , *7*d# intr. ( !ass. )5 to stir oneself," 3emosth. , .9, /+0. %. Trans. to
set u!," rare in se%ular <:. with !ersonal ob$. (though %f. d.)# to ere%t" buildings, !osts, images,
4
u%.
,
leB. , .+# 3itt. -r. , 677, / (*nd. %ent. ,.3. )# Hito 8e%hani%us
*
, !. 66, 0# ?os.,nt. , .0, /9. #
/ i trans. 4u%. ,mores, 0/# often in the 4'', e.g., <n. //56 f. # ?os. /5) # 118:150 . In the ;T
the teBt of 8:. *5) is %ontested. [ H, and with them Tis%hendorf, ;estle et%. read . -n the other
hand, ,F3it, and with them v. 9oden, have i for the bringing of the si%: of the !als& to ?esus. -n
the basis of our findings on the use of i in 8:., the former is to be !referred# the alteration to
i is to be regarded as later (%f. what is said on 4:.). The attestation of the term in ,%. *75*7 vl. is
ver& wea:.
C i . >f. in general the bibl. listed under i . 1. Fas%her, 3ie ,uferstehung ?esu und ihr
(erhlltnis Eur ur%hristl. (er:Gndigung ," g;@ , *6 (.9*7), .I*6# ,. 3. ;o%:, , ;ote on the Aesurre%tion," in
,. Aawlinson, &ssa' on the "rinit' and .ncarnation (.9*6), )7I0+. 9. (. 8%>asland, "he /esurrection of 0esus
(.9/*)# 8. <oguel, )a /,surrection de 0,sus dans le 1hristianise priitif (.9//). -n the raising of the dead
b& ,es%ula!ius, I, /69 # 2aul&D@. , II, .60/ f.# A. 7erEog, Die Wunderheilungen von &pidauros (.9/.), .)*#
on the raising of the dead b& men, -. @einrei%h, #ntike (eilungs2under (.9+9), .7.ff. -n d&ing and rising gods
and the raising of believers with >hrist, >hant de la 9aussa&e, IndeB #uferstehung des Gottes and the individual
names of gods# %f. also 2aul&D@. For s!e%ialised lit. v. F. >umont, Die orientalischen /elig. i r. (eidentu
/
(.9/.). 8ore general studies are ?. <. FraEer, "he Golden Bough
/
(.9*+I*/)# -. 2fleiderer, Das 1hristusbild d.
urchristl. Glaubens (.9+/), 00I69# 8. HrG%:ner, Der sterbende und auferstehende Gottheiland in den
orientalischen /eligionen (.9+6)# ,. ?a%ob&, Die antiken 3'sterienreligionen und das 1hristentu (.9.+)# ,.
3ieteri%h, &ine 3ithrasliturgie
/
(.9*/)# @. Housset, 4'rios 1hristos
/
(.9*6), ./)ff.# F. 3eissner, Paulus und
die 3'stik seiner Zeit
/
(.9*.), .*)ff.# ,. -e!:e, Die 3issionspredigt d. #p. Pls. (.9*+), ./6ff.# ,. Fir%hner,
3arduk von Bab'lon und 0esus 1hristus (.9**)# 7. gimmern, Zu bab'l. !eu5ahrsfest6 7. Beitrag (.9.6)# ?.
4ei!oldt, Sterbende und auferstehende Gtter (.9*/)# Fittel 2robleme , 6*ff.# /eligionsgesch. u. 8rchrtt. (.9/*),
.*0, .*6# F. ;Jts%her, #ltorient. u. at.licher #uferstehungsglaube (.9*6)# ?. 9%hneider, Die Passions'stik des
Paulus (.9*9)# F. 8ittring, (eils2irklichkeit bei Paulus (.9*9), /*ff.# 1. 4ohme&er, Grundlagen paul. "heol.
(.9*9), 9+ff.# ./9ff.# 1. 9ommerlath, Der 8rsprung des neuen )ebens nach Pls.
*
(.9*7), 6/ff.# 7. 1. @eber,
&schatologie und 3'stik i !" (.9/+), es!. .+)ff.# ,. 9%hweitEer, Gesch. der paul. 9orschung
*
(.9//), .).ff.#
Die 3'stik des #postels Pls. (.9/+), es!. .+*ff.# Fhl. and 4tEm. on A. 6 # ;T theologies b& 7. ?. 7oltEmann
*
, II
(.9..), ..7ff.# 2. Feine
0
(.9/.), .9/, .99# 7. @einel
)
(.9*6), *)+ ff.# *)/# *0+# //7 ff.# ))/. -n the Tuestion of
the mode of resurre%tion, 9tr.DH. , es!. I, 667 ff.# III, )7) ff.# I(, .+.7 ff.# @eber , /66 ff.# ?oh. @., H%hm., 4tEm.
on . >. .05/0 ff. # 7oltEmann, op. cit. , *+9 ff.# @einel, op. cit. , /*) f.# ,. -e!:e, 3ie 1s%hatologie des 2ls. ,"
#llg. &v. )uth. 4irchen-. , 6+ (.9*7), )06 ff.
. ,%%. to an ins%r. from Ahodes ( -estr. ?hft. , 7 m.9+)n, 9/), mone& is to be !aid g i
(Ha%%hus). It seems ver& doubtful whether this refers to the resurre%tion of Ha%%hus (F. ,bel, /ev.
Bibl. !S , 0 m.9+6n, 077). Far more li:el& it denotes the of the god for the sa%rifi%e b& musi%,
%f. 2lut.Is. et -s. , /0 (II, /60a). ?. ouasten, 3usik und Gesang in den 4ullen der heidnischen #ntike und
christlichen 9rh-eit (.9/+), )+. ,rnobius, ,dversus ;ationes , (II, /* (,. Aeiffens%heid in >914 , I(), sa&s
%ontem!tuousl&5 obdoriscunt superi. >f. . F. .65*7 . There is a suggestion of new life in the awa:ening of
3ion&sus 4i%nites, who %omes ba%: from 2erse!hone# %f. -tto ( n. .* ), 76 ff.
2lot. 2lotinus, of 4&%o!olis in 1g&!t (*+)I*7+ ,.3. ), the last great thin:er of antiTuit& who brought ;eoD
2latonism to s&stemati% %om!letion, ed. A. (ol:mann, .66/ ff.
1nn. &nneads .
4u%. 4u%ianus, of 9amosata in 9&ria (.*+I.6+ ,.3. ), bestD:nown, though renegade, re!resentative of the 9e%ond
9o!histi% 9%hool, rhetori%ian and livel& satirist of his e!o%h, ed. >. ?a%obitE, .6/6# @. 3indorf, .606.
,leB. #le:ander sive Pseudoantis .
* 1d. >. @es%her, Poliorc,ti$ue des Grecs (.667) (/rd. or *nd. %ent. H.>. ).
*96 # /*6 et%.# %f.
,
nth. 2al. , 9, */6# to raise u!" (,gra!hon 2. -B&. , ., ., re%to 65 )#
/

intr. to raise oneself," to rise u!," ,tti% onl& in the formal intr. a%t. ( n.
6
) im!er.
u! p" ( ,risto!h.
A
a. , /)+). d. Trans. to awa:en the dead," seldom found in se%ular <:.
2
s.
D,!ollodorus Hibliothe%a,
)
II, .*)5 c (7era%les in 7ades) O c q
q belongs under %. rather than d., sin%e a%%ording to the stor& Theseus and
2eirithoos go down to 7ades alive and are %hained to a throne. Intr. ( !ass. ) to rise from the
dead"#
1
!igr. <rae%. 2raefatio , 6)6a, 05 (from the grave) 6
i| . ,lthough the eu!hemisti% des%ri!tion of death as slee! is %ommon among the <:s. (
), this use seems to derive from %. rather than a. 2reis. gaub. , I(, .90 (in a !ra&er
s!o:en in the attitude of death)5 , l, , l, i # this is
followed b& a sign of rising again (*.* f.).
*. The Hibli%al Ksage.
,ll these meanings are found in the Hible, but with different nuan%es and develo!ment due to
the influen%e of the 7eb. ( M^eq , V^eN , rsf qd :al and hi!h. et%.) and the distin%tive nature of
bibli%al religion. For a. trans. %f. 8:. )5/6 # ,%. .*57 , and intr. <n. ).5) , 7 # 8t. .5*) # *057 # 8:.
)5*7 , and figur. of the setting aside of %arnal assuran%e in A. ./5.. 5 6 q
q # 1!h. 05.) 5 , .
0
For b. trans. with im!ers. ob$. %f. 2hil. .5.7
( )# with !ers. ob$. to %ause to a!!ear or to rise u! in histor&" ( i , I, /69 )5
?u. *5.6 , .6 # /59 , .0 # 3 B. 11:14 , */ (,)# ,%. ./5** (3avid), */ ( vl. ).
A , 8t. /59 and !ar. , %f. 4:. .569 5 q i q . >f.
1
:a r. ,
0, / on 4am. 05/ 5 The Aedeemer, whom I will %ause to rise u! from among &ou ( r`Yq `S[P
r`sqc\ )"# 9hemoneD1sre Hab. Ae%ension, .0th Henedi%tion5 Hlessed be Thou, - =ahweh, that
Thou dost %ause to shoot forth the horn of hel! ( cqd ^ePQ `Z tMX NX hf `sa uZ sf )." For b. intr. to stir
oneself," %f. ?er. 65** # 8:. ./56 and !ar. , %f. Is. .95* # to rise u!," of !ro!hets5 8t. ..5.. # 4:.
75.6 # ?n. 750* , # 8t. *)5.. , *) # 8:. ./5** , in $udgment as an a%%user5 8t.
.*5)* and !ar. For %. trans. %f. <r. 9ir. )95./ # . 1sr. 05)) (UU )/)# ?n. *5.9 f. , also with !ers. ob$.
to hel! to raise," to set u!," an idol in . 9. 05/ # an animal in 8t. .*5.. # in 1
B. 2:8 # 112:7 # those who sin: to the ground in awe in 3a. 65.6 # .+5.+ # %f. 2 B.
12:17 # ,%. .+5*6 # the si%: in 8:. .5/. # 95*7 # ,%. /57 # im!l&ing to ma:e well" in ?m. 05.0
(%f. ?os.,nt. , .9, *9) 5 i ). For %. intr. %f. to rise u!
strengthened" in 8t. .757 # ,%. 956 # to stand u! whole" in 8t. 65.0 # 956 f. # 8:. *5.* # also gen.
to rise u!"5 i , ?n. ./5) (%f. 1st. 757 7eb. , solemnl& in ;u. .+5/0 )# 8t. 65*6
and !ar. # in a wea:ened 9emiti% sense, mar:ing the beginning of an a%tion, to %ommen%e" (
i , I, /66 )5 1B. 056 # . >h. .+5.* # **5.9 # * >h. *.59 # **5.+ # 8t. 95.9 # ?n. ..5*9 #
often in the im!er.5 , 8t. *5./ , *+ , or more dire%tl& 8:. .)5)* and !ar. #
,nth. 2al. #nthologia Palatina , a %olle%tion of minor 7ellenisti% !oetr& based on an%ient %olle%tions of
e!igrams, assembled b& Fonstantinos Fe!hales in H&Eantium in the .+th %entur& ,.3. , and so %alled be%ause the
onl& 89. is in 7eidelberg 4ibrar&, ed. 7. 9tadtmGller and F. Hu%herer, .9+6.
/ >f. ,. 7arna%:, ;ber die 5ngst. entdeckten Sprche 0esu (.697)# ,. Aes%h, #grapha
*
TK , ;F, '( /v)
(.9+6),69, /0/# 7. <. 1. @hite, "he Sa'ings of 0esus fro %:'rh'nchus (.9*+), 4'III# AeitEenstein, g;@ , 6
(.9+0), *+/# <<, , .6/ (.9*.), .60 ff. This does not denote blessing in dail& wor: (7arna%:) but has a
!antheisti% sense, !erha!s based on ooh. .+59 .
6 Further instan%es ma& be found in 3alman @? , I, .6 f. V^eN is %ommon for u! p" in Aabbini% writings.
2ossibl& is an ita%ist substitution for , as some later grammarians thin:. >f. AeitEenstein
<<, , op. cit. , .67.
Aa. /anae .
2s. 2seudo, often grou!ed under the names of the su!!osed authors, e.g., 2s.D or 2seud.D2lat. under 2lato.
) *nd. %ent. ,.3. in 3'thographi Graeci , I, ed. A, @agner (.69)).
1!igr. <rae%. &pigraata Graeca e: lapidibus conlecta , ed. <. Faibel, .676.
0 -n the origin of the Tuotation, %f. 3ib. <efbr. , ad loc. # 9%hGrer , III, /6*, /60# >lemen , /+7. ,risto!h.Aa. ,
/)+ ff. offers a !ar. but %an hardl& be the dire%t basis. The sa&ing has a genuinel& ethi%al and >hristian ring.
8ateriall& //6 .
1:a r. &ka rabbati , 8idrash on 4amentations (9tra%:, &inl. , *.*).
?n. .)5/. i, (arise, let us go")# the form is found not onl& in 1!h.
05.) ( supra ) but in man& !assages ( 8:. *59 , .. and !ar. # /5/ # 4:. 656 # ?n. 056 # Aev. ..5. )
with mid. variants (%f. $
H
i:. , 60d, //5 \[] Md PZw `arZ [qd MZ [f \Z x\e]cf YZ [a V^eN .(
6

9ense d. to raise the dead," or !ass. to be raised," to rise from the dead" (
i , I, /69 ) is found in relation to individual resurre%tions, negativel& in 4 B.
4:31 5 q , and !ositivel& in <r. 9ir. )650 # 8t. 95*0 # .+56 # ..50
and !ar. # 8:. 05). and !ar. # 65.) and !ar. # 4:. 75.) # ?n. 05*. # .*5. , 9 , .7 # 7b. ..5.9 . In
%onneBion with the !erson of ?esus these resurre%tions are signs of the 8essiani% age and of
the %oming resurre%tion of all the dead. >f. also 8t. *750* , , //7 . In relation to
the resurre%tion of ?esus, we find that its signifi%an%e for the ker'ga is intimated alread& in
the !ro!he%& of ?esus ( 8t. .65*. # 4:. 95** # 8t. .759 , */ # *+5.9 # 8:. .)5*6 and !ar. ,
i being a favourite word of 8t.).
7
It is then refle%ted in the 1aster stories ( 8:. .656
m .) n# 8t. *657 # 4:. *)5/) # ?n. *.5.) ), and ta:es a !rominent !la%e in the !rea%hing of the
a!ostles ( ,%. /5.0 # )5.+ # 05/+ # .+5)+ # ./5/+ , /7 # A. )5*) f. # 65) , 9 # 75) # 65.. , /) # .+59 #
. >. 65.) # .05) , .* et%.# * >. )5.) # 05.0 # <l. .5. # 1!h. .5*+ # >ol. *5.* # . Th. .5.+ # * Tm.
*56 # . 2t. .5*. ). <od has a%:nowledged the >ru%ified b& the resurre%tion, and glorified 7im
(%f. ,%., also A. 75) # 2hil. *59I.. # 1!h. .5*+ff .), thus giving for%e to the redem!tion (%f. es!.
A. ) m 7+ # **) n and 6# . >. .0 ). If, in distin%tion from 7ellenism ( I, /66 # II, infra ),
the ;T !refers i and i to and i (though not, of
%ourse, to ), this is !erha!s be%ause it brings out better the %on%rete
nature of the divine a%tion. The idea of the selfDresurre%tion of ?esus is first found in
?ohannin% theolog& ( ?n. *5.9 , *. # .+5.7 , .6 ).
Though 2aul a%%e!ts the em!t& tomb ( , . >. .05) #
6
, A. 65) ),
a%%ording to . >. 65./ f # .05)7 , 0+ # 2hil. *56 , 9 he does not thin: of the bod& of the risen
4ord in material terms, but as the
9
of the -ne who is eBalted to
universal !ersonalit& in all things, and es!e%iall& in the >hur%h ( >ol. .5.6 ff. ). -n the other
hand, a!ologeti% interests in%line the evangeli%al and !ostD%anoni%al tradition in a more
material dire%tion ( 4:. *)5/9 ff. # ,%. .+5). # ?n. *+5*0 ff. #
1
v. ;aE. in
7
ier. 3e girls
Illustribus , .6,
8
24 , */, 6//b (%f. 824 , *), 6*6a UU Ign.9m. , /5*5 ,
, l 6.
q i #
?
ust. 3e Aesurre%tione , 9, >o!t. Ae%ord, 7enne%:e,
67). ;evertheless, s!iritual features are not wanting ( ?n. *+5.7 , .9 , *6 ), and a distin%tion is
!erha!s to be made between the immediatel& risen and the eBalted 4ord.
The oriental m&th of the d&ing and rising saviourDgod (TammuE, HelD8ardu:, ,donis,
9andanD7era%les of Tarsus, ,ttis, -siris, the >retan geus, 3ion&sus, and %f. the 8ithras sa%rifi%e
and the double life of Fore) %onstitutes neither the native soil
.+
of the <os!el nor a true !arallel
to it. i and i hardl& o%%ur at all in the relevant !assages (though we do find
Hi:. Bikkuri , 8ishnahD, ToseftaD, Talmud tra%tate 9irst<fruits (9tra%:, &inl. , /6).
7 -n the resurre%tion and !arousia in the !rior intimation of ?esus, %f. @. 8i%haelis, "=ufer6 0esus6 8rgeeinde
(.9*6), 66 f., 99 ff. I, /7+, n. .. .
6 F. Harth, Die #uferstehung der "oten (.9*6), 70 ff. gives us a model of ingenious reinter!retation.
9 ,. 9%hweitEer, Die 3'stik des #p. Pls. (.9/+), ..6 ff.# *6* ff.
1v. ;aE. Gospel of the !a-arenes .
7ier. 7ieron&mus (?erome), of 3almatia (%. /)+I)*+ ,.3. ), who after stud& in Aome lived as a mon: in the
;ear 1ast and engaged in eBtensive s%holarl& wor:, !arti%ularl& on the teBt of the Hible, ed. in 824 **I/+, .660
ff.# &pistulae , ed. ?. 7ilherg, .9.+ ff.
824 Patrologia6 Series )atina , ed. ?.2. 8igne, .6)) ff.
?ust. ?ustin 8art&r, eBe%uted %. .60 ,.3. , author of an a!olog& against the atta%:s on >hristians, and also of a
dis%ussion with ?udaism in the Dialogue 2ith "r'pho , ed. 1. <oods!eed in Die =ltesten #pologeten , .9.)# ed.
<. FrGer, .9.0.
.+ -n ,. 3rews, Die 1hristus'the (.9*)), 2. ?ensen, @. H. 9mith, 9. 4ublins:i et%.5 ,. 9%hweitEer, Gesch. d.
)eben<0esu<9orschung (.9*6), ))) ff.
, //7 ). It is rather said that the god is delivered (
F
irm. 8at.
1
rr. 2rof. Ael. , **) or
that he or the deliveran%e has %ome from 7ades ( 2lut.Is. et -s. , .9 mII, /06bn#
2
hot. Hibliothe%a ,
*)* m 82< , .+/, .*6.an, or that he lives (
2
s. 4u%.
9
&r. 3ea , 6). Indeed, sometimes the %ontinued
life is onl& !artial (,rnobius, ,dversus ;ationes , (, 7 and .) m,. Aeiffens%heid in
>
914 , I(n#
2
aus. , (II, .7, .*), or !erha!s even s&mboli%al in the form of budding almonds or figs in the
m&ths or wild $ubilation and dramati% re!resentation in the %ults. 3e%om!osition ma& ta:e !la%e (
3iod. 9. , III, 09, 75 q 6 ). The resurre%tion of
the god is not original in the ,ttis %ult.
..
2lut.Is. et -s. , .. (II, /00b)# 06 (II, /7)e) %ontests the
histori%al %hara%ter of the m&ths. Imaginar& eroti% !i%tures sim!l& eB!ress the unfailing !ower of
nature. The %ase seems to be rather different when we %ome to 3ion&sus. In him the <ree:s
!er%eive not so mu%h the su%%essiveness as the identit& of life and death. @e thus have an
advan%ed identit& m&sti%ism of a s!e%ulative t&!e. @hile the s!iritual and ethi%al note is almost
%om!letel& la%:ing in the eastern world, it is !resent here, but in a form ver& different from that of
the ;T , In neither %ase do we find the distin%tive es%hatologi%al %on%e!t, e.g., of A. 65.+ .
.*
For
all the !oints of %onta%t and mutual influen%e between the ;T and the surrounding world, there is
the de%isive differen%e that in the ;T the :ernel and basis is s!irituall& and ethi%all& signifi%ant
histor& rather than nature m&th or s!e%ulative m&th.
/. The resurre%tion of believers with >hrist is wor:ed out !arti%ularl& b& 2aul, but in its
main features it forms !art of the general tea%hing of the earl& >hur%h ( A. 65)I.. # <l. *5*+ #
>ol. *5.* ff. # 1!h. *5. , 0 # * >. )5.+ ff. # . 2t. .5/ ). ;aturall&, this is not to be thought of as
distin%t from the life of $ustifi%ation ( A. 05.6 ), whether in terms of a !ersistent %leavage in
the thin:ing of 2aul
./
or with a onesided em!hasis on >hrist m&sti%ism.
.)
The m&sti%al"
train of thought is based on the $uridi%al ( >ol. *5./I.0 # * >. 05.7I*. # <l. *5*+ # A. 65*6I
/9 # and the whole %onteBt of A. 0 and 6 ). A. 6 does not des%ribe analog& magi%# in the first
instan%e it de!i%ts the new situation of salvation histor& in whi%h believers are set with >hrist
( ). The new life is thekas &et %on%ealedkrealit& of faith ( * >. )57 ff. # 057 # >ol. /5/
), not in the sense that it %annot be gras!ed !s&%hologi%all& (%f. A. 65.6 , */ # <l. /5* # )56 # *
>. .5** ), but in su%h a wa& that it %annot be eB!lained as a magi%al %hange, that it is
withdrawn from human %ontrol, and that it is a divinel& !osited, es%hatologi%al realit& whi%h
awaits the %onsummation ( A. 65.9 ff. # * >. )5.6I.6 # 2hil. /5.. ff. ).
.0
9trongl& realisti%
though the thought is, it does not im!l& that in an& stri%t sense the resurre%tion of the dead has
ta:en !la%e alread& ( * Tm. *5.6 des%ribes this view as hereti%al# and %f. 2hil. /5.+ f. # A. 65..
et%.). There are late analogies to 1!h. 05.) in the 8andaean tradition.
.6
, %loser eBamination
of all the relevant religioDhistori%al material shows us that these thoughts are !artl& ethi%al,
!artl& %ulti% and !artl& es%hatologi%al.
.7
1ven in ?ohannine theolog&, though there is a strong
Firm. 8at. ?ulius Firmi%us 8aternus, of 9&ra%use, 4atin author of the )th %entur& ,.3. , %onverted from ;eoD
2latonism to >hristianit& and a shar! o!!onent of the an%ient %ults and m&steries, ed. @. Froll, F. 9. Futs%h and
F. giegler, .697 ff.
1rr. 2rof. Ael. De &rrore Profanaru /eligionu .
2hot. 2hotius, !atriar%h of >onstantino!le (606I666 ,.3. ), author of a leBi%on ( ) to aid
readers of the %lassi%s and the Hible, ed. 9. ,. ;aber, .66) f.
2s. 4u%. 2seudoD4u%ianus.
9&r. 3ea De S'ria Dea .
>914 1orpus Scriptoru &cclesiasticoru )atinoru , .666 ff.
2aus. 2ausanias, the 2eriegete, !robabl& of 8agnesia b& 8t. 9i!&los, author under the em!eror >ommodus of
his 0ourne' through Greece ( H t ) in .+ boo:s, ed. ?. 9%hubart, .66.# F. 9!iro, .9+/ ff.
.. F. >umont, Die oriental. /etigionen i r. (eidentu
/
(.9/.), **6, n. )6.
.* -n 3ion&sus, %f. @. F. -tto, 3ion&sos, 9rankfurter Studien -ur /eligion und 4ultur der #ntike , (ol. )
(.9//), .70 ff.
./ Thus es!. 7oltEmaun, op. cit. @einel even sees a threefold wa& of salvation.
.) 1. @issmann, Das Verh=ltnis von HI2TI2 und 1hristusfr>igkeit bei Pls. (.9*6)# ,. 9%hweitEer, Die
3'stik des #postels Pls. (.9/+).
.0 7. 1. @eber, op. cit. , 76, n. ., 9* ff. et%.# F. 8ittring, 6) ff.# ,. -e!:e, g;@ , *) (.9/+), .+) ff.
.6 4idE. <inEa , /6*, 7 ff.# /67, ) ff.# )70, .+ ff.# 00+, 6 ff.# 076, // ff.# 060, .6 ff.
.7 >f. AeitEenstein Ir. 1rl. , 6, ./0 et%. >f. also the three variants in . >. 65.) 5 i, ,
.
em!hasis on !ossession ( ?n. ..5*0 # 05*) # /5.6 # . ?n. /56 , 9 , .) # 05.6 ), we do not have a
%om!lete s!iritualising of es%hatolog& ( ?n. *.5** # 05*6 f. # 65/9 f. , )) # .75*) # . ?n. *5.6 , *6
# /5* f. # )5.7 # %f. .56 ). .
). -n the future resurre%tion of the dead ( Is. *65.9 # 3a. .*5* ,# 8:. .*5*6 # 4:. *+5/7 #
,%. *656 # . >. .05.0I0* passi # * >. .59 # )5.) ), i , I, /7. . In the ;T the
Tuestion of the %onstitution of the resurre%tion life re%eives a more uneTuivo%all& s!iritual
answer than in ?udaism.
The ?ewish ho!e of resurre%tion tends to be materialisti%. The resurre%tion o%%urs at the !la%e
of death (
o
oh. r. , . on .57,
9
tr.DH. , I(, .+*0 f.), in %lothes ( b.
F
et. , ...b, 9tr.DH. , III, )70), at the
sound of a trum!et .+++ divine ells long.
.6
and with an& !revious %hara%teristi%s (blind, deaf or
dumb, <n. r. , 90, . on )65*6), though an&thing bro:en is healed ( loc. cit. ). The statement in 9.
Har. 0+ f. %on%erning a future %hange is a %om!romise between the s!iritual and the material. The
new is based on an indestru%tible s:eleton ( <n. r. , *6, / on 657 a%%ording to a !ronoun%ement of
?ehoshua ben >hanan&a), though it is debated between the s%hools of 7illel and 9hammai whether
this ta:es !la%e in the same order as 1E. /7 or the reverse ( <n. r. , .), 0 on *57). The feast of the
blessed is de!i%ted at length.
.9
8arital inter%ourse will %ontinue, even if onl& for the da&s of the
8essiah (to a eunu%h in ?os.,nt. , .7, )0 ), although also for the da&s of the resurre%tion (%f.
b.
9
anh. , 9*b, 9tr.DH. , I, 666). ,%%ording to ?alTut, . y ... on <n. *05/. # b. Her, .7a#
,
b A;at , .
et%. ( 9tr.DH. , I. 69+)# 8idr. 2s. .)6 y ) ( 9tr.DH. , I, 669), however, eating and drin:ing and
%ommer%e and traffi% and marital inter%ourse will also %ease. The righteous, who are essentiall&
the ?ews, will shine li:e stars or (seven times more than) the sun ( 3a. .*5/ # 1th. 1n. /957# 0.5) f.#
.+)5*# .+65..I.)# ) 1sr. 7597 , .*0 # 9. Har. 0.5/).
The Tuestion of the 9addu%ees in 8:. .*5*/ and !ar. is mali%ious, but it %orres!onds to
Aabbini% theolog& as &et unaffe%ted b& s!iritualising tenden%ies.
*+
The s!iritual %on%e!tion
of ?esus ( 8:. .*5*0 and !ar. ) is Tuite new b& %ontrast. Though ?esus s!ea:s of the feast of
the blessed, 7e does not de!i%t it ( 8:. .)5*0 and !ar. # 8t. 65.. # 4:. ./5*9 # %f. also the
!arables whi%h s!ea: of a banTuet). 2aul s!e%ifi%all& eB%ludes eating as well as seBual
inter%ourse ( . >. 65./ ). The will be destro&ed and the %hanged ( . >. .05)*
ff. , 0+ ff. # on .05)+ff . %f. 8t. ./5)/ and supra # on v. /7 , I, 77) # b.Fet. ,
...b, 9tr.DH. , III, )70). ?ohannine theolog& avoids an& materialisti% eB!ressions while
!resenting a realisti% belief in the resurre%tion.

This o%%urs from the time of 1m!edo%les ( Fr. , .*/ mI, *7+, 7, 3iels n) and 7i!!o%rates (
>oa%ae 2raenotiones , 6*), though it is not found in 2hilo. a. Trans. it means the rousing" or
stimulation" of the s!irit ( 2lat.Tim. , 7+%# ,ristot.1th. ;i%. , III, .., !. ...6b, /+), the ere%tion"
of walls, buildings et%. ( 7erodian , (III, 0, )# . 1sr. 056* mUU 09n), the raising" of a dead man.
2reis. gaub. , 'III, *775 6 (followed b& an in%antation for the
resurre%ting of a %or!se), b. intr. awa:ening" (4'' ?u. 75.9 ,), rising" ( 138:2 ),
re%over&" (
,
ret. , II, .., 0), rising" from death (8enander 1!hesia. in ?os.,nt. , 6, .)6 UU ,!. ,
., ..9 )5 H Hiq i .
.

ooh. r. ?ohelet rabba , 8idrash on 1%%lesiastes (9tra%:, &inl. , *./).
9tr.DH. 7. 4. 9tra%: and 2. Hillerbe%:, 4oentar -u !" aus "alud und 3idrasch , .9** ff.
Fet. 4etubbot , 8ishnahD, ToseftaD, Talmud tra%tate /ules for 3arriage (9tra%:, &inl. , )6).
.6 ,l!habetD8idrash of A. ,Tiba, .7%, in ?elline:, Heth haD 8idr. , /, /., 9tr.DH. , III, )6..
.9 9tr.DH. , I(, ..)6 ff.
9anh. Sanhedri 8ishnahD, ToseftaD, Talmud tra%tate %n the court of 5ustice and its procedure (9tra%:, &inl. ,
0. f.).
,b A;at ,bot of Aabbi ;athankan eBtra%anoni%al Aabbini% tra%tate (9tra%:, &inl. , 7*).
*+ 9%hl. 8t. , 60+ ff.
,ret. ,retaeus 8edi%us, of >a!!ado%ia, !h&si%ian in the Aoman 1m!ire, !robabl& in the *nd %entur&, ,.3. , ed.
>. 7ude in 1orpus 3edicoru Graecoru , .9*/.
. For the view that is also to be read in ,!. , ., ..9 , and that the referen%e is not to the ere%tion of the
tem!le of 7era%les but to the feast of the resurre%tion of 7era%lesD,donis, v. F. ,bel, /ev. Bibl. 6 !S , 0 (.9+6),
077 f.
8t. *750/ 5 q UU after the awa:ening or resurre%tion of
?esus" ( i , //0 ). 9in%e the %onteBt s!ea:s of signs at the death of ?esus, these
words are !erha!s a later %orre%tion in terms of . >. .05*+ # >ol. .5.6 .
*

%
From the time of the tragi% dramatists and 7dt. to 2lut. and 1!i%t. this is found in most of the
senses of the sim!le form, though not of ob$e%ts.
.
There are onl& two meanings in the ;T 5 a. to
%ause to a!!ear in histor&," to %all into eBisten%e"5 ge%h. ..5.6 (UU V^eN hi!h)# ?os.,nt. , 6, *7. 5
i

# b, to awa:en ( !ass. to rise) from the dead"5 ,es%h.

>
hoe!h.
, )905 p i

i, # %f. A. @Gns%h, #ntike 9luchtafeln (.9.*), 0,

*.5 l i (UU the s!irits of the dead are raised u! b& %on$uration). In the
4'' onl& 6 5:11 # 3a. .*5* (,5 ).
.. 9ense a. A. 95.7 to 2haraoh5 l , i
q i . 1B. 95.6 5 xd `Yea rZsf qz cX , I have s!ared thee,
*
4'' ,
shar!ened b& 2aul to %alled thee into being." The wea:er raised thee from a si%: bed"
/
is
im!ossible in s!ite of ?m. 05.0 (%f. v. *+ff .). 2rovo:ed thee to o!!osition" (%f.
in v. .6 )
)
is !ossible in view of * 8a%%. ./5) , but is hardl& what 2aul %an have had in view.
*. 9ense b. is found in . >. 65.) . There is no !arti%ular signifi%an%e in the alternation
between the sim!le and %om!ound forms.
! " #!$
*

, later 7ellenisti% re%onstru%tion of (2lu!erfe%t understood as
i ). -utside the Hible we find it in
,
%hill. Tat. , I(, .7# ?os.,nt. , .., )7 vl. # %f. 7, )6 # Hell.
, ), /+6 5 to wat%h," in the 4'' lit. onl& in ;eh. 75/ # . 8a%%. .*5*7 # >ant. 05* (,, 2 )# figur. to
:ee! Eealous wat%h over," of men and lur:ing beasts and also of =ahweh5 ?er. 056 5 . 38:28 #
Har. *59 # 4am. .5.) # 3a. 95.) O # in a religious and ethi%al sense we have in 2rv.
65/) # -r. 9ir. /65.6 .
In the ;T .. literall& to wat%h"5 8:. .)5/) and !ar. , /7 and !ar. # and in !arables with
some transition to sense *5 8t. *)5)/ # 8:. ./5/) # 4:. .*5/7 , /9 .
*. Figur. onl& of men5 to be vigilant," . >. .65./ , es!. in relation to the !arousia5 8t.
*)5)* # *05./ # 8:. ./5/0 , /7 ( 4:. .*5)+ 5 i c )# . Th. 056 # Aev. /5/ #
.65.0 # with in . Th. 056 , 6 # . 2t. 056 , lin:ed with !ra&er in 8:. .)5/6 # 8t.
*65). # >ol. )5* # of %on%ern for the salvation of the %ommunit&, ,%. *+5/. # Aev. /5* .
(onl& figur.) is found in similar %onstru%tions in 8:. ./5// # 4:. *.5/6 # 1!h.
65.6 # 7b. ./5.7 .
/. is found as the o!!. of , to be alive," onl& in . Th. 05.+ .
%epke

!
* The ver& wea:l& attested reading q (om s&r
h
) %an hardl& be %onsidered. >f. Fl.
8t. , ad loc.
. 4iddellD9%ott and 2r.DHauer , s.v.
>hoe!h. 1hoephori .
* 9o also the ?ewish translators and eB!ositors, 9tr.DH. , III, *66 f.
/ 7ofmann, et%.
) ,s o%%asionall& held from the time of ,ugustine, also 9i%:b. A. , ad loc. # %f. Fhl., gn., 4tEm., ad loc.
C . 7elbing , 6*, 6)# Tha%:era& , *6/# Hl.D3ebr. y 7/# ;. lgeli#, )).
,%hill. Tat. ,%hilles Tatius of ,leBandria ()th. %entur& ,.3. ), so!hist and >hristian, the last novelist of
antiTuit&, ed. <. ,. 7irs%hig, in &rotici Scriptores , .606.
&
(,%t. to wra! u!," band"), to %lothe oneself with {," to draw on %losel&" (
an arti%le of %lothing over the na:ed bod&).
.
It is not found in the 4'' ( O Is.
/5*+ 5 ).
In the ;T we find it onl& in . 2t. 050 5 to invest oneself with," to ma:e oneOs essential
*

%hara%teristi%"kwhether in relation to brotherl& inter%ourse among >hristians or in relation to
the attitude to <od. In both %ases 6 em!hasises that
determines de%isivel& the religious attitude and %ondu%t of >hristians.
@e %an divide the senten%e before , in whi%h %ase is a dat. so%iat.
meaning in &our dealings with one another," though this is a strange %onstru%tion. -n the other
hand, the division ma& %ome after , in whi%h %ase v. 0b should !erha!s be lin:ed with
what follows and es!. with v. 6 (in whi%h the :e& word is 6
D
elling
"#$, "#$,

*

.. The word grou! - ta:es its sense from the stem - , whi%h denotes
!ower or lordshi!, and whi%h eB!resses the !ower or lordshi! whi%h one has either over
oneself or over something.
The basi% sense is most %learl& eB!ressed in the ad$. . 2urel& formall& this ma& be
derived from () with its im!li%ation of having !ower in oneself, or from
(6) im!l&ing a status of !ower. means one who has a status of !ower or
rule, who has !ower over something, whether this !ower be fa%tual or s!iritual. In the first sense,
%f. 7dt. , (III, )95 li . 2lat.Aes!. , (I, 0+.e5
c # * 8a%%. 65/+ 5
# in the se%ond %f. 2lat.4eg. , ', 697b of q
c q q {# (III, 6/9b5 l
q l # %f. also q
(s%. i ) ( 9ir. .05. ). It thus means to have !ower or dominion
over all things and over oneself," i.e., to be inwardl& strong," %f. 2lat.2haedr. , *06b# 2lat.1!. ,
(II, //.d. These meanings favour a derivation from 6 , sin%e %annot mean
over" in . >f. Thu%. ,II, *95 , a :ing with real !ower.
The o!!. is , one who has no inner strength, who is undis%i!lined."
thus means the dominion whi%h one has over oneself or something" in the sense
that one ma& or ma& not have it, that one %an bear it, that one thus %ontrols it, e.g.,
i i (desire) pi
, 'eno!h.8em. , II, ., .. It ma& thus mean enduran%e" or
steadfastness." 2s. D2lato sa&s of : q
,
3
ef. , ).*b.
For the sense of selfD%ontrol %f. 2lat.Aes!. , III, /9+b# the o!!. is i , la%: of %ontrol
or restraint," e.g., 'eno!h.
9
&m. , 6, *7# ?os.Hell. , ., /) .
. 1Bam!les ma& be found in the leB., es!. Thes. 9te!h.
* It is thus stronger than , though %f. >ol. /5.* 5 { .
3elling <erhard 3elling , <la%hau (9aBon&) ((ol. .I/), ((ol. )), 7alle ((ol. 0I9).
C . -. 3irtri%h, Geschichte der &thik (.9*6), v. IndeB# <. 3elling, Paulus+ Stellung -u 9rau
und &he (.9/.), 66, 6)# A. 9teiger, Die Dialektik der paulinischen &:isten- (.9/.), 7+f.
3ef. 3efinition, definition.
9&m. S'posion .
. This word is on%e used in
%
lass. <:. in ,ristot.
.
It is more %ommon in
7ellenism. In the 4'' we have 6 in <n. )/5/. in the sense of he
%om!osed himself."
*. !la&s an im!ortant role in the !hiloso!hi%al ethi%s of %lassi%al <ree%e and
7ellenism.
It is re%:oned a %ardinal virtue b& 9o%rates5 { q q q
l (foundation) {, 'eno!h.8em. , I, 0, ).
*
,ristotle devotes a full se%tion to it in
1th. ;i%. , (II, .I.., !. ..)0 ff., %f. 1th. 8., II, )I6, !. .*++ ff. ,t the end of the dis%ussion he
defines it as follows in distin%tion from :
,
l q l l l .
c 6 q i
{, 6 6 q 6 c
6, q ,

q q l
8., II, 6, !. .*+/b, ./ ff. 7e briefl& defines as q
,

q q i
q , 3e (irtutibus et (itiis , *, !. .*0+a, 9 f. 9toi%ism ta:es the same view. The
most %om!rehensive 9toi% definition is given b& 9eBtus 1m!iri%us5 {
, q q
q l ,
8
ath. , I', .0/ (%f. 9tob.1%l. , II,
6., .. f.# 3iog. 4. , (II, 9*). For the 9toi%s it is a subordinate virtue to ( 9tob.1%l. ,
II, 6+, *+ f.# 3iog. 4. , (II, 9*) and belongs to the ( 2lut.
9
toi%. Ae!. , .0 mII, .+)+ f.n).
The %on%e!t of , behind whi%h stands the ideal of the free and inde!endent man, of
the man who is under no %ontrol but who freel& %ontrols all things and who in selfDrestraint
maintains his freedom in fa%e of the qi whi%h would de!rive him of it, a%hieves its
ethi%al signifi%an%e from the humanisti% understanding of life whi%h has freedom as its goal.
2ol&bius gives us a s:et%h of this in his !ortra&al of 9%i!io, to whom a is handed as a
gift and whok ', .9, )kgives her ba%: to her
father. The !ortrait %on%ludes5 l q i q
i {, ', .9, 7.
/. is highl& estimated b& 2hilo. For him it means su!eriorit& to ever& desire. This
su!eriorit& is eB!ressed in restraint. It relates to food, seB and the use of the tongue ( 3et. 2ot. Ins.
, .+. ff. # 9!e%. 4eg. , II, .90 ). 8an must turn i l ( ,br. , *) )#
i l (
(
irt. , .6+ )# i l ( 2raem.
2oen. , ..6 ). This is for him the 6 , and it leads to and
i and , whi%h resist i and i ( 9!e%. 4eg. , I, .7/ ). 7e
eB!resses his view of it as follows5 i c i , q
g g
liq g , 9!e%. 4eg. , I, .)9 . It is lin:ed
with as%eti%ism, 4eg. ,ll. , III, .6 . It is the !resu!!osition of human feli%it&5 c q
(s%. ) i , c 6 { q

l q i , 9!e%. 4eg. , I(, ..* . The
as%eti% attitude of 2hilo derives from a %osmologi%al dualism in whi%h matter is de!re%iated.
aims at the dis%arding of all material wants whi%h are not ne%essar& to eBisten%e.
There is thus a shift of a%%ent as %om!ared with the %lass, view.
is highl& esteemed among the 1ssenes5 c q i
, q c q i q
, ?os.Hell. , *, .*+ . relates to material %ondu%t, food, seB ({
%lass. %lassi%al.
. >f. 4iddellD9%ott , s.v.
* >f. 2hilo9om. , I, .*) 5 , , i 6 i

8ath. #dversus 3atheaticos .

9toi%. Ae!. De Stoicoru /epugnantiis .
(irt. De Virtutibus .
c p i , ibid. , *, .*+). Their life is !ure ( ibid. , *,
.0+). Those wanting to $oin must give a i (*, ./6).
is of religious signifi%an%e in the 7ermeti% writings, whi%h ado!t <nosti%
elements. -n the rebirth of the initiate rises u! in him in the de%ade of !owers. It is
hailed5 6 qi , 6 , q .
6 q i , >or!. 7erm. , 'III, 9.
). In view of all this, it is stri:ing how small a !art is !la&ed b& the term in bibli%al
religion.
In the 4'' it is most %ommon in the 7ellenisti%all& influen%ed @isdom literature.
/
In the
few !assages at issue the term im!lies restraint from seBual and other eB%esses ( 9ir. .65/+ , %f.
1!. ,r. , *76). The :nowledge is !resent5 q q
( @is. 65*. ).
)
In ) 8a%%. 05/) , and therefore in a !assage greatl& influen%ed b&
7ellenism, it is said of : i .
In the ;T the word grou! is not found at all in the <os!els. This is sur!rising when we
remember that later s%hools have tried to see, e.g., in ?ohn the Ha!tist an 1n%ratite as%eti%. -n
the other hand, 2aul %om!ares himself with the athlete5
. >. 95*0 . =et here does not denote the as%eti%ism of merit
( ). It sim!l& tells us that for the sa:e of the goal towards whi%h he strives, the
%ommission whi%h he has been given and the tas: whi%h he must fulfil, he refrains from all
the things whi%h might offend or ham!er. It is not for his own sa:e, or for the sa:e of an&
ne%essit& to salvation, but for the sa:e of his brethren that he !ra%tises .
This is the fundamental differen%e from all <ree: and 7ellenisti% %on%e!tions. In the list of
virtues in <l. 05*/
0
is the o!!osite of i, i, {
, . The word has been ta:en over from the surrounding world of 7ellenism.
1n%ratite tenden%ies are !erha!s !resent in view of their o!en o%%urren%e in . >. 759 5 l c
, refers to seBual restraint,
whereas in this %onteBt i in v. 0 denotes the seBual im!ulse and its satisfa%tion.
8arriage is instituted q g q i .
2aul is %on%erned to !rote%t the new man from seBual defilement even in marital inter%ourse.
6
=et in general we are for%ed to sa& that restraint in the as%eti% sense is for him finall& an
alien %on%e!t" (3elling). o%%urs as a virtue in the <ree: 7ellenisti% sense in ,%.
*)5*0 5 c i # * 2t. .56 5
c g 6 q , c g iq q , and Tt. .56 5
{ i l { q { In these writings whi%h betra& 7ellenisti%
influen%e there emerges alread& the 7ellenisti% do%trine of virtue whi%h !la&s so strong a !art
in earl& >hristianit&.
The heav& use of the word grou! in 7ermes is t&!i%al. 7ermes himself is des%ribed
!ragmati%all& as q i v. , ., *, ).
o%%urs in 7erm.v. , *, /, *5 6 { q q # /, 6, )5 q c
(), q , t
/ , different translation from the 4'' underlies the marginal notes in 8. on 4v. */5*. , *6 , *9 , where
or obviousl& rests on Vuq misunderstood as V^_u ka substitution more easil&
!ossible on the assum!tion of trans%ri!tions ( in . >h. )5*9 and in 34:12 ). In ;u. 650 , .6
or is the rendering of ^_M|ZSa MrXSX or M`|aSedcf . In these !assages the referen%e is to
as%eti%ism as a !ious a%hievement mHertramn.
) usuall& im!lies having !ower over an ob$e%t. 9ir. 65*7 # .05. # 9us. /9 .
0 o%%urs in the list of vi%es in * Tm. /5/ in the sense of undis%i!lined." ?esus a%%uses the 2harisees
of i in 8t. */5*0 . The meaning here is not a s!e%ifi%all& seBual but a more general la%: of moderation
or %ontrol," %f. 9%hl. 8t. , 66., with man& instan%es from ?ose!h.
6 >f. 3elling, es!. 66I7)# 6)I66.
q i . >f. also m. , 6, ., .# 6, .#
s
. , 9, .0, *# 5
7erm.m. , ., *# 6, . ff.# s. , 0, ., 0.
It is signifi%ant that bibli%al religion finds so little !la%e for the %on%e!t of
whi%h in the 7ellenisti% and <ree: world is so essentiall& ethi%al. The reason for this is that
bibli%al man regarded his life as determined and dire%ted b& the %ommand of <od. There was
thus no !la%e for the selfDmaster& whi%h had a !la%e in autonomous ethi%s. ,gain, belief in
%reation %ut off the wa& to as%eti%ism. It saw in the world with its gifts the hand of the
>reator. Finall&, the gift of salvation in >hrist left no !la%e for an as%eti%ism whi%h merits
salvation.
Grundann
i .
'
*

The ;T uses 6 in IDformulae whi%h after the 9emiti% !attern are %onstru%ted without
%o!ula,
.
es!. in solemn ID!ro%lamations
*
and IDsenten%es where it is desired to em!hasise the
sub$e%t
/
in distin%tion from or in o!!osition to others.
)
The ;T 6 a%Tuires religious
signifi%an%e in three res!e%ts5 first, in !ro%lamations of <od, whi%h are im!ortant in the
,!o%al&!se# se%ondl&, in the selfDwitness of >hrist, es!. in ?n.# and thirdl& in the selfDutteran%es of
the >hristian (the 6 of A. 7 reTuiring !arti%ular elu%idation). -ne ma& thus s!ea: of a
theologi%al, a %hristologi%al and an anthro!ologi%al 6 .
A. The Theological ' .
.. 3ivine 2ro%lamations in the ,n%ient -rient and 7ellenism.
The IDst&le is solidl& established in divine !ro%lamations in the an%ient 1ast. , selfDrevelation
of Ishtar forms the %entral !art of a Hab&lonian liturg&.
0
In an 1g&!tian magi% !a!. the su!reme
ruler A} des%ribes %reation and the destru%tion of the dragon as follows5 I am he who arose as
>he!eri { I %reated { I destro&ed" et%.# I" o%%urs a doEen times.
6
The selfDrevelation of ,hura
8aEda is %ou%hed in the same st&le in the ,vesta5 I am <uardian and I am >reator and 2rote%tor
{ I am %alled the 9aviour {"
7
Through the %enturies this form of selfD!redi%ation be%ame a
%ommon feature in ;ear 1astern liturgies. 9ometimes names and attributes are re%ounted in this
st&le, sometimes a%ts, and sometimes both in alternation. In the 7ellenisti% world Isis is
!arti%ularl& !rominent in this form of h&mni% !redi%ation5 I am Isis { I am the eldest daughter of
Fronos { I divided earth from heaven {"
6
In the main !art of the Isis h&mn of F&me there are
some *6 analogous statements beginning with 6 (l) .
9

The meaning and !ur!ose of these !ro%lamations is first one of sim!le selfDre!resentation. The
reader or hearer is to be a%Tuainted with the !erson of a !arti%ular deit&, and there are so man&
s. siilitudines .
C 6 . -n ,. and H.5 <. 2. @etter, I%h bin das 4i%ht der @elt ," Beitr. -. /el2iss. , I (.9./v.)), .66I*+.#
I%h bin es ," Th9tFr , 66 (.9.0), **)I*/6# #ltchristliche )iturgien , I, Das christl. 3'steriu (.9*.), ..6ff.,
.)0ff.# F. gi%:endraht, t6 l , Th9tFr , 9) (.9**), .6*I.66# Fittel 2robleme , 6*# 1. 4. 3ietri%h, Das
Selbstbe2usstsein in den /abbinen ( 89 ). -n >.5 F. 3i%:, Der schriftstellerische Plural bei Paulus (.9++)# ,.
v. 7arna%:, 3as ~@irO in den ?oh. 9%hriften " ( 9,H , .9*/), 96I../# 1. v. 3obs%hGtE, @ir und I%h bei
2aulus " ( g9Th , .+ m.9/*n), *0.I*77# @. <. FGmmel, /er @ und die Bekehrung des Paulus (.9*9)# A.
Hultmann, AJmer 7 und die ,nthro!ologie des 2aulus " in .ago Dei6 9estschr. f. G. 4rger (.9/*), 0/I6*#
K. 7olEmeister, De plurali categoriae in !ovo "estaento eta Patribus adhibito6 Biblica AB (.9//), 66I90.
. Aev. **5./ 5 6 # %f. Is. ))56 .
* ?n. 65.* 5 6 l .
/ <l. *5*+ 5 c 6 # 4:. **5/* 5 6 c # 8t. *.5*7 5 c 6 .
) For the most im!ortant !oints %on%erning usage, forms and s&ntaB, %f. 2r.DHauer
0 >f. ,. Kngnad, Die /eligion der Bab'lonier u. #ss'rer (.9*.), *++ ff.
6 >f. ,-T , . ff.
7 Cast , ., .* ff. in 7. 4ommel, Die CDsts des #vesta (.9*7), .0# %f. also Cast , ., 7# .+, ..
6 3eissmann 4- , .+6 ff., with related teBts from 3iodor., I, *7# 2reis. gaub. , ( (4ondon), .)0 et%.
9 @. 2ee:, Der .sish'nus von #ndros (.9/+), .** ff.# .0 ff. ( v. 7, *6, 9*, 97, .06). ,lso 3er Isish&mnus von
,ndros ," #ntike 6 (.9/+), /*0 ff.
gods. Hut selfDre!resentation be%omes selfDglorifi%ation. The !redi%ates %laimed b& the deit& are
brought into %om!etition with those of others. Finall&, selfDglorifi%ation serves selfD
%ommendation. The deit& %laims worshi! and offers hel! as none other god in heaven. Thus these
!ro%lamations are !ol&theisti% in assum!tion but monotheisti% or monolatrous in tenden%&.
*. 3ivine 2ro%lamations in the -T and ,!o%al&!ti% ?udaism.
The IDst&le a%Tuires a s!e%ifi% ring in the mouth of the true and onl& <od who reveals 7imself
in Israel. @hat is onl& a tenden%& or beginning in !ol&theism is here fulfilled.
Thus the divine name c^c` is !ara!hrased in the monumental formula5 I am who I am" ( 1B.
/5.) ). The Ten >ommandments are introdu%ed b& a `WaS_[d whi%h %laims all worshi! for itself and
eB%ludes all other %ults5 For I, =ahweh, th& <od, am a $ealous <od."
.+
This eB%lusivism is even
more !owerful in the great revelation of 3t. /*5/9 ff. 5 9ee now that I, even I, am he, and there is
no god beside me { neither is there an& that %an deliver out of m& hand { I { I { I { I {" It
is in 3t. Is. , however, that we find the fullest develo!ment and that the 6 of <od a%Tuires its
most !regnant signifi%an%e. It is used for <od as the 9ub$e%t who %an never be%ome an ob$e%t and
before whom all realit&, being, ha!!ening and volition is ob$e%t. This 6 of <od will not tolerate
an& se%ond sub$e%t, an& other god.
..
It has !osited the world as an ob$e%t.
.*
The being of <od is
!owerful in relation to that of the world. The will of <od is unlimited and inde!endent of an& alien
influen%e. <od has the first and final word.
./
,nd the allD!owerful being and will of <od are
manifested in 7is unwear&ing and in%essant a%tion. This is what gives d&nami% %hara%ter to the ID
s!ee%hes of 3t. Is. and the whole of the -T .
.)
The& s!ea: more of what ta:es !la%e than of what
is.
.0
1ven in relation to man <od is the final 9ub$e%t. 8an is what he is alwa&s with referen%e to
<od.
.6
7e is lost when <od %ondemns him, !ure when <od !urifies him5 I blot out th& sins for
m& sa:e, and do not remember th& transgressions" ( Is. )/5*0 ). ;ot on%e in the :nowledge of <od
is man the determining sub$e%t. <od is :nown rather where 7e ma:es 7imself :nown, where 7e
reveals 7imself ( Is. ).5*. ff. ).
The IDst&le of the -T is %ontinued in ?ewish ,!o%al&!ti%5 I will lead into bright light those
who love m& hol& name. I will set ea%h on his throne of honour."
.7
9elfD!ro%lamation is
!arti%ularl& %ommon in theo!hanies5 I am the <od of th& father ,braham { I am with thee { I
will bless thee" (?ub. *)5**). These IDrevelations !la& the greatest role in the ,!o%al&!se of
,braham5 I am before the aeons and a might& <od { I am a shield over thee and I am th&
7el!er."
.6
7ere we %an see %learl& the two histori%oDreligious %hara%teristi%s of ?ewish
,!o%al&!ti%, namel&, the Israelite heritage and oriental influen%e.
/. ID9!ee%hes of <od in the ;T.
<od is the absolute 9ub$e%t. This is the final meaning of the 6 in the divine revelations
of the -T and ?udaism. The ;T maintains this %on%e!t, but it gives us onl& a few revelations
in IDst&le, and mostl& in Tuotations. 2aul Tuotes the divine oath of Is. )05*/ in A. .)5.. , and
he also Tuotes from 3t. /* the sa&ing %on%erning revenge, to whi%h he adds an 6 .
.9
8u%h
Tuoted are the ado!tion formulae in whi%h <od de%lares the :ing 7is son# these are a!!lied to
the sonshi! of >hrist.
*+
Aev. refers again to the eB!osition of the divine name in 1B. /5.) (
t6 { 6 ), but adds two new members to the timeless !resent !redi%ation and thus
.+ 1B. *+5* ff. >f. the IDaddress of the :ing at the beginning of the >ode of 7ammurabi n. *6 .
.. Is. )050 , */ # %f. )/5.. # ))56 .
.* Is. ))5*) # %f. )/5./ .
./ Is. ))5*) # )65.* .
.) Is. ).5*0 , *7 # )/5. ff. , .0 ff.
.0 Thus in the !roem of 3t. /*5/9 ff. we read of the essen%e of <od, and in the %or!us of 7is !ast and future
a%ts.
.6 Is. ).5) , 9 ff. # )*56 .
.7 1th. 1n. .+65.*. >f. the great IDs!ee%h in 7eb. 1n. )6 >.
.6 ,!%. ,br. (Honwets%h m.697n), 9.
.9 i, 6 6 , A. .*5.9 on the basis of 3t. /*5/0 . >f. 7b. .+5/+ .
*+ 2s. *57 in ,%. ./5// and 7b. 050 # and together with * 9. 75.) in 7b. .50 .
a%hieves a threefold formula after the manner of the 2ersian threeDtenseDs%hema5
q , Aev. .56 .
*.
,longside this develo!ment there are also twofold
forms whi%h newl& eB!ress the divine !ro%lamation of Is. ))56 et%.5
**
6 l
6, q q ( AO , I, . ff. # l , /97 ). Thus Aev. attests the
!referen%e for the IDst&le in a!o%al&!ti% generall&.
*/
Hut here too, as in the rest of the ;T ,
the s!ee%hes of <od are far less !rominent than those of >hrist. It is onl& in the IDs!ee%hes of
>hrist that 6 ta:es on its de%isive signifi%an%e in the ;T .
B. The Christological ' .
.. Auler and 9aviour 9a&ings in the ,n%ient -rient and 7ellenism.
In the an%ient -rient we find ID!ro%lamations not merel& on the li!s of gods but also of :ings,
deliverers and !ro!hets. ,:hnaton sa&s in his h&mn to the sun5 Thou art in m& heart. ;one
:noweth thee but th& son ,:hnaton. Thou hast initiated him into th& !lans and th& !ower."
*)

7ere the :ing s!ea:s of himself, or %auses himself to be s!o:en of, in the heDst&le.
*0
In the ro&al
ins%ri!tions of the 1u!hrates, however, the same IDst&le !redominates as in s!ee%hes of the gods.
Thus 7ammurabi !ro%laims in the introdu%tion to his >ode5 7ammurabi, the she!herd, the %alled
of 1llil, am I { The !rin%e of :ings, who sub$ugated {"
*6
The 2ersian :ings and their
su%%essors ado!ted this form5 I, >&rus, the :ing of the world." Hut the tone of selfDglorifi%ation
!rominent in the ,ss&rian ins%ri!tions now &ields to one of a humbl& !roud sense of mission
whi%h reminds us of ,:hnaton. 3arius orders the affairs of the nations and ushers in the age of
feli%it& in virtue of his divine installation. There is onl& one god, namel&, ,hura 8aEda. 3arius is
%ons%ious of bearing his %ommission. 7e a%ts in his name and ma& thus s!ea: in his language.
*7

In the 7ellenisti% !eriod the 3iado%hi %ontinue this st&le.
*6
,bove all, however, the 6
(l) be%omes a slogan in religious !ro!aganda. The most diverse saviours see: to win adherents
with the %laims made in ID!ro%lamations. The >or!. 7erm. in%lines to the st&le of divine
!ro%lamation5 , , 6 l ,
q i .
*9
The redeemer of the 8andaeans s!ea:s more !ersonall&5 I
am the messenger of light { I am the true messenger { I am the messenger of life {"
/+
The
influen%e of this st&le ma& still be seen in the Foran.
/.
;or are su%h addresses %onfined to
writing. 1ver& streetD%orner !ro!het or se%tarian !rea%her sought to outbid his !rede%essors or
%om!etitors in im!ressive selfD!ro%lamation. Tri%:sters imitated the st&le and used the an%ient
form as an eas& means of ma:ing an im!ression. The !eo!le lost %onfiden%e, and the edu%ated
sneered. Thus >elsus o%%asionall& alludes to !ro!aganda of this :ind5 t6 l (q
q ) { 6 c
i .
/*
The %ontent shows the influen%e of >hristian modes of
thought, but the IDst&le itself is more an%ient and wides!read.
*. The I of <odOs Ae!resentatives in the -T and ?udaism.
*. The formula is found without 6 in .5) # )56 , and in shortened form in ..5.7 . -n the develo!ment of the
threeDtenseDs%hema, v. <athas (ed. >. Hartholomae m.9+0n), *, )# 6, .+# .+, 7. =asna, /9, * et%.# Cast , ./, .0) (F.
@olff, #vesta m.9.+n).
** The first and the last" is also found in the <athas, ), 6# 9, / ff.
*/ The li:ing of the seer for the 6 in divine s!ee%h is attested b& the %ontinuation of *.56 5 6
6 . 7ere a sa&ing of 3t. Is. is handed down in the IDst&le, %f. Is. 005. .
*) ,-T , .6.
*0 >f. ,-T , 6+ ff. with //9 ff.
*6 ,-T , /6. ff. For further details %f. 9. 8owin%:el, 3ie vorderasiatis%hen FJnigsD und FGrstenins%hriften ,"
in &ucharistetion fr (. Gunkel (.9*/), I, *76 ff. >f. also @. Haumgartner, gur Form der ass&r.
FJnigsins%hriften ," -4g , *7 (.9*)), /./ ff.
*7 F. 7. @eissba%h, Die 4eilinschriften der #ch=eniden (.9..), /, .. ff., 69, .*0 ff. 8owin%:el, too,
em!hasises the !arti%ular !la%e of these ins%ri!tions, op. cit. ( n. *6 ), *6., /*+ f.
*6 >f. the ,ntio%hus ins%r. in @eissba%h, op. cit.
*9 2oimandres (2arthe& m.60)n) ., 6# %f. 0, ...
/+ 4idE. <inE. , A. 6) f. (!. 06 f.), *00 (!. *00), *70 ff. (!. *7/ ff.)# 4. /6 ff. (!. )0) ff.).
/. 1. ;orden, #gnostos "heos (.9./), .9..
/* -rig.>els. , (II, 6 f., %f. ;orden, op. cit. , .66 ff. n. 0* .
a. The IDst&le of ;ear 1astern ro&al ins%r. is also found in the -T . In a long series of ID
senten%es ;ehemiah lists his a%hievements on behalf of the !eo!le of <od,
//
with the ultimate
!ur!ose of reminding <od 7imself of his a%ts and of see:ing 7is mer%&.
/)
-n the other hand,
selfD!redi%ations as god or lord are arrogant and offensive in ?ewish e&es, sin%e the& violate the
honour of the one <od. The :ing of T&re forgets that he is <odOs re!resentative, and !roudl&
!ro%laims5 I am <od# I sit on the throne of <od, in the midst of the sea."
/0
2om!e& thin:s5 I am
4ord over land and sea."
/6
<od answers su%h !retension, and b& means of frightful %atastro!hes
shows these men their im!oten%e. ,leBandrian ?udaism, however, was able to give an ethi%al turn
to the oriental glorifi%ation of :ings, and thus to give a new %ontent to the old form.
/7

The !ro!hets eB!ress more !urel& and for%efull& the idea of being <odOs re!resentatives, as in
the 9ervant 9ongs of Is. <od %alls5 7ear me, - ?a%ob" ( Is. )65.* ), and in the same st&le the
9ervant %ries5 7ear me, &e isles# hear:en, &e !eo!les."
/6
The ID%ons%iousness of the !ro!hets is
<odD%ons%iousness, not selfD%ons%iousness5 The 9!irit of the 4ord is u!on me" ( Is. 6.5. f. ). =et
this <odD%ons%iousness be%omes in%reasingl& rarer in the later !eriod. The !ro!het with his
!leni!otentiar& !ower is re!la%ed b& the a!o%al&!tist, whose su!reme tas: is to de%lare the se%ret
revelations of <od.
/9
The IDsa&ing of the !ro!het is thus re!la%ed b& the authoritative t6
,
)+
whi%h be%omes a fiBed and nonDde%linable formula5 6 ,
6 .
).

b. 8eanwhile the IDst&le of 3t. Is. is ado!ted and develo!ed in the IDsa&ings of heavenl&
wisdom in 2rv. 6 5 7ear, for I will s!ea: { whoso findeth me findeth life." Hut as the :ing b&
divine gra%e is %onfronted b& the des!ot and the !ro!het b& the !seudoD!ro!het, so wisdom is
%onfronted b& foll&, whi%h imitates its st&le and reverses its message ( 2rv. 95) f. , .6 f. ). The
same form is used of wisdom in 9ir. ( 6 i q { {
6 {, *)5/f .) and in the s&n%retisti% -des of 9olomon5 =e sons of men, turn, and &e
daughters, %ome { and turn to me { I will ma:e &ou wise in the wa&s of truth." In su%h ID
sa&ings, however, there are also <nosti% motifs5 I have be%ome strong and might&, and have
ta:en the world %a!tive."
)*

@isdom is not the onl& heavenl& being to use solemn IDsa&ings to men. ,ngels and other
su!ernatural messengers use the same st&le. Thus the angel of <od in ) 1sr. does not merel& s!ea:
in the name of <od, but %an sometimes re!resentativel& use the divine I ( 756+f .). In the
,
!%. ,br.
, whi%h here again shows its !redile%tion for this form, the angel %an even sa&5 I am ?aoel { I am
he who ordains { I { I { I am sent to thee {"
)/
,nd in the
T
est. ,br. death sa&s5 6 l
6 l {
))

%. ;or is this solemn IDst&le %onfined to literature, or to heavenl& beings, in later ?udaism. -n
2alestinian soil, too, we find !rin%el& figures who feel that the& are <odOs re!resentatives, or who
ma:e themselves out to be su%h. >ertainl& we do not find su%h %ommon heathen selfD!redi%ations
as or .
)0
The 3amas%us Tea%her is rather imitating 2rv. when he sa&s to his
adherents5 7ear me, %hildren, I will o!en &our e&es that &ou ma& see."
)6
,nd in relation to ?ohn
the Ha!tist, who in man& wa&s resembles the 3amas%us Tea%her, the 9&no!tists sim!l& have the
restri%ted 6 . The negative IDsa&ing in ?n. .5*+ f. # /5*6 5 6 l
, !oints in the same dire%tion, this being !resu!!osed also in ,%. ./5*0 . The 6 of
// -n ;eh. ./56 , *0 , v. Is. 6/50 f. and 8owin%:el, op. cit. ( n. *6 ), *97 ff.
/) ;eh. 05.9 # ./5.) , ** ,, /. .
/0 1E. *65* , 9 # 9&r. Tr. /05*7# %f. 3a. 05*+ # Is. )757 f. , .+ .
/6 2s. 9ol. *5//# %f. * 8a%%. 956 # ,%. .*5*. f.
/7 >f. the image of the !rin%e in 1!. ,r. # also @. @eber, (er. , 0+ (.9.0), )7I9*# Der Prophet und sein Gott
(.9*0), 66, .00.
/6 )95.ff .5 %f. 0+5)ff .
/9 9l. 1n. /95*5 ;ow { I do not instru%t &ou with m& own mouth, but with the mouth of the 4ord."
)+ 3a. O 75*6# 75.0# 650. >f. 9&r. Har. ./5. et%.
). 3a. O 65..
)* -d. 9ol. //56 ff.# .+5)# %f. -d. 6f. and )*.
,!%. ,br. #pocal'pse of #braha .
)/ ,!%. ,br. (Honwets%h), .+.
Test. ,br. "est. of #braha .
)) Test. ,br. , ./. 8. A. ?ames, "e:ts and Studies , II, * (.69*), ..6.
)0 >f. 1E. *65* and * Th. *5) 5 This abomination is %harged against ,nti%hrist.
)6 3amas%. , *, .) (9taer:).
?n. .5*/ is obviousl& a ?ohannine tri%: of st&le, but it eB!resses the same basi% stand!oint as the
other IDsa&ings of the Ha!tist, sin%e in the restri%tive or negative 6 he does not !oint to himself
but !ast himself. -f Theudas, however, traditions sa&s that he s!o:e great things of himself,
li , and in 9amaria 9imon had himself worshi!!ed as
q q and !ro%laimed himself li (
,%. 659 f. ). The s%hemati% wa& in whi%h ,%ts re!orts these !henomena ma:es it %lear that there
were man& men who %ould o%%asionall& ma:e su%h %laims in IDformulae. In a%%ord with this is the
%ommon use of the Tuestion i l .
)7
It is a !robing Tuestion, sin%e it was no eas& tas: to
find oneOs wa& among all these !ro!hets and !seudoD!ro!hets, these 8essiani% messengers and
false 8essiahs ( v. 8:. 65.) ff. et%.). The !eo!le ran from one to the other, and a!o%al&!ti% %ir%les
moved from one ho!e and disa!!ointment to the neBt.
d. -n the other hand, the 9&nagogue held aloof from these things.
)6
@e often find a high
sense of offi%e in Aabb. writings.
)9
Hut the Aabbis avoid an eBaggerated IDst&le.
0+
It was
offensive to them. The& had a basi% sus!i%ion of the ID!ro%lamations of little !ro!hets and
!retended 8essiahs. The su!erior tone and %autious attitude of <amaliel in ,%. 05/6 f. is t&!i%al.
0.
,nd the real or a!!arent !retension of man& IDsa&ings was an abomination whi%h the& fought
against in the name of monotheism. 1ven the >hristolog& of the <os!els was to man& Aabbis
sim!l& one heathen heres& among others5 If a man sa&s5 I am <odkhe lies# I am the 9on of 8an
khe will regret it# I as%end to heavenkhe will not a%%om!lish it."
0*

/. t6 in the 9&no!ti% 9a&ings of ?esus.
-n the li!s of the 9&no!ti% ?esus the em!hati% 6 is relativel& infreTuent. It is found in
warnings, !romises and %ommands uttered b& ?esus with the sense of 7is divine !ower and
authorit&.
0/
@e find it indire%tl& in 4:. )5.6 in the introdu%tor& sermon in whi%h 7e Tuotes
Is. 6. . -n the other hand, we see: it in vain in the 8essiani% formula
0)

et%.
00
The more signifi%ant, therefore, is the IDst&le in the 9ermon on the 8ount,
the >r& of ?ubilation and the >all of the 9aviour.
In 8t. 05** ff. there o%%urs five times the shar! t6 c b& whi%h sa&ings
of old time are su!erseded or o!!osed. This %loses an e!o%h in the histor& of
religion and ethi%s and %reates a new situation. @hat ?esus is de%laring is not sim!l& an
eB!li%ation of old truth# what 7e is demanding is not sim!l& a new ste! on the endless wa& to
an eternall& valid ideal. The validit& of 7is demand is wholl& and utterl& lin:ed with
a%%e!tan%e of 7is !erson and the authenti%it& of 7is mission. The 8essiah has %ome, and
with all the authorit& of <od
06
7e issues a summons to 7is !eo!le. The 6 alone validates
7is word.
?esus 7imself s!ea:s of the authorit& of 7is offi%e in the >r& of ?ubilation in 4:. .+5** 5
.
07
7e is on earth the full& authorised
re!resentative and eBe%utor of <od.
06
,ll <odOs wor: is done through 7im. 7e is 8ediator
)7 ?n. .5.9 ff. # 65*0 # ,%. *.5/6 # 8:. .)56. # indire%tl& 8:. 65*7 ff. # ..5*7 ff.
)6 V. 9tr.DH. , II, 0)*# 1. 4. 3ietri%h, Das Setbstbe2usstsein der /abbinen ( 89 ).
)9 9a&ings li:e 9l. 1n. /95* ( n. /9 ) are handed down similarl& b& 9imon b. 9hata%h and Aabbi ,:iba, 9anh.
, .9a# $ 9anh. , .6a5 Thou standest before him who s!a:e and the world %ame into being." 3ietri%h, op. cit. also
draws attention to the tradition in Taan. , */a, a%%ording to whi%h the divine utteran%e in ?ob **5*6 ff. is
transferred to the great man of !ra&er >honi, who also %alled himself the houseDfellow" of <od, Taan. , /, 6.
0+ 9o 3ietri%h, op. cit.
0. @e find the same s%e!ti%ism in relation to the Ha!tist and ?esus in 8:. ..5*7 ff.
0* $ Taan. , *, . in 7. 4. 9tra%:, 0esus6 die (=retiker und die 1hristen (.9.+), /7# 9tr.DH. , I, )66. >f. 9tr.DH. , II,
)60# ?. Flausner, Die ess. Vorstell. d. 5d. Volkes i. Zeitalter d. "annait . (.9+)) n. /* .
0/ 8:. 95*0 5 .)506 . The !arallels ta:e a different form.
0) >f. 4:. 75*+ .
00 8t. 05.7 # 95./ 5 .+5/)f .
06 >f. the rea%tion to the 9ermon on the 8ount among the !eo!le ( 8t. 75*6 f. ).
07 >f. 8t. *65.6b .
06 -n 4:. .+5** , %f. ,:hnatonOs h&mn to the sun n. *) . >f. 1. ;orden, #gnostos "heos , *77 ff.# 7.
9%huma%her, Die Selbstoffenbarung 0esu bei 3t. AAE7@ (.9.*). l .
for the whole world, and the 8ediator of revelation. ,longside the absolute 9ub$e%t <od there
%omes a se%ond 9ub$e%t in a uniTue ThouDrelationshi!, namel&, that of the 9on who is :nown
b& the Father alone and who alone %an :now the Father. There is no :nowledge of <od eB%e!t
through the 9on.
If the relationshi! of the 9on to the Father is %entral in this sa&ing, in the >all of the
9aviour, whi%h follows the form of the @isdom literature in 8t., the main !oint is the
relationshi! of the 9on to the human ra%e5 {
09
The 6 , whi%h
re!resents the !la%e of <od in this world, and whi%h o!ens u! a%%ess to 7im, is ne%essaril& a
gathering !oint for the . ,nd as in the -T <od is the
model whom man should follow, so is the 9on in this !assage5 . The
>hrist of the ;T re!la%es not onl& sophia but all the intermediaries of ?ewish theolog&,
uniting their offi%es in one. ,ll histori%al and %osmi% lines interse%t in 7is 6 . 7e stands at
the heart of the times and in the %entre between <od and the world.
This !osition of >hrist as 8ediator is most %learl& eB!ressed when the 6 of >hrist is
related both to <od on the one side and to a %ir%le of men on the other. This is true in the
a%tive sense of the threefold relation <oD?esusDthe dis%i!les, and in the !assive sense of the
relation of the wea: in the world to ?esus and <od. ?esus sends out the dis%i!les with the 6
of divine authorit& ( 8t. .+5.6 # %f. 4:. *)5)9 )# and 7e gives the !romise5 l 6

( 8t. *65*+ ). -n the other hand, 7e inter%edes with <od for 7is own5 6
( 4:. **5/* ). ,bove all, however, 7e sends them out with the words5
, c c c
i .
6+
The a!ostles ( ) re!resent >hrist as 7e
re!resents <od.
6.
In this sense >hrist is <od, and the a!ostle is >hristkfor the world. ?esus
s!ea:s in similar terms
6*
of the least of 7is !eo!le, eB%e!t that now it is a matter of hel!ing
men rather than !ro%laiming <od. >hrist en%ounters us in the wea:, and in them %alls for our
hel!. For the wa& of <od as ?esus treads and indi%ates it is not that of !romoting the strong
but of delivering the wea:. For this reason what is done to the wea: and need& is done to
>hrist and therefore to <od. ,lwa&s >hrist 7imself, 7is 6 , 7is ,
6/
stands in the
%entre. <od has made 7im the absolute !oint of interse%tion of all ages and !aths, and the
!oint of division of s!irits and destinies. In this sense the %hristologi%al 6 of the 9&no!tists
eB!resses in nuce the %laim of ?esus to absoluteness.
). t6 in the 9!ee%hes of >hrist in ?ohn.
The <os!el of ?ohn %arries this line of thought a stage further.
6)
7ere the 6 is a
%hara%teristi% st&listi% feature of the revelator& s!ee%hes of the 9on of <od whi%h %onstitute
the ma$or !art of the !rea%hing of ?esus. The 6 is often ne%essar& to !oint a %ontrast
( 05)/ # .+5.+ )# it is sometimes indis!ensable ( .+5*0 )# and it gives to the sa&ings of ?esus a
solemn and almost liturgi%al ring.
60
@e see this when the 9on of 8an sa&s5 l i 6
l q ,
66
l q l
, while the blind man who %an now see is !rostrate in
worshi! before 7im ( 95/9 ).
09 8t. ..5*6 ff. >f. Is. 005. ff. # 9ir. 0.5. f. , */ ff. , /. ff. # *)5*6 ff. and the !arallels from 2rv. and -d. 9ol.
Tuoted /)6 f.
6+ 4:. .+5.6 # %f. 8t. .+5)+ .
6. >f. * >. 05*+ .
6* 8:. 95/7 and !ar. # %f. 8t. .+5)* # *05/. ff.
6/ with l , 8t. .65*+ # with , 8:. ./5./ # with c 4:. *.5.* # with i , 8t. .650 #
with , 8:. 95). 5 i , .
6) >f. also F. HG%hsel, 0oh. und der hellenist. S'nkretisus (.9*6), /7 f.
60 In ?n. the Tuotation about the one %r&ing in the wilderness be%omes an 4Dsa&ing of the Ha!tist himself, ?n.
.5*/ 5 6 q . >f. /5*6 . The st&listi% influen%e is !lain.
66 The 9&no!tists would have written something li:e5 l i q l {
In ?ohn the 6 ta:es on greater %on%e!tual fullness and signifi%an%e. , long series of ID
sa&ings refers to the relationshi! of the 9on to the Father, whi%h ?ohn %on%eives of far more
narrowl& and stri%tl& than the 9&no!tists. 9ome /0 times we have the eB%lusive
, and some *0 times the analogous , the most su%%in%t eB!ression of
?esusO sense of mission. 6 q q c
,

.
67
The Father is with 8e, 6
( 65*9 ). The Father is also in 8e, 6 i .
66
7is whole a%tion is to de%lare the realit& of <od in world realit&. Thus 7e %an sa&5 7e that
hath seen me hath seen the Father" ( .)59 ), and even more strongl& and %om!rehensivel&5
6 q c ( .+5/+ ). The shortest and most em!hati% eB!ression of this
unit& is the q of the highD!riestl& !ra&er, whi%h in the mouth of an&one else would be
blas!hem&. >hrist see:s to draw the dis%i!les into this fellowshi! with the Father. This is the
great theme of the farewell dis%ourses5 6 i
69
6
i .
7+
This fellowshi! is the !resu!!osition of all true a%tion5
( .050 ). The basi% datum of this fellowshi!, however, is
, and it is a%tualised in the in%lusive relations of whi%h the ?ohannine >hrist
%ontinuall& s!ea:s5 q q q 6
( .75*6 ). ;or is the %ir%le of those who are to belong to the 9on restri%ted to the twelve. The
?ohannine >hrist, too, sends out 7is %all to all the !eo!le as 9aviour5 ,
.
7.
Indeed, 7is a!!earan%e has signifi%an%e for the whole
world.
This %osmi% and de%isive rea%h of the >hrist event is eB!ressed b& ?ohn in IDsa&ings of a
singular %hara%ter whi%h st&listi%all& go be&ond the similar sa&ings of !retended saviours or
even the IDsa&ings of the 9&no!tists, and whi%h belong rather to the same %ategor& as divine
!ro%lamations ( /)/ f. ), though even this %ategor& is trans%ended. @e refer to statements
in whi%h the 6 is lin:ed with an im!ersonal !redi%ative noun, and often with something
abstra%t, whi%h is alwa&s defined b& the arti%le.
7*
These formulae are !arti%ularl& %ommon in
?n. .+ , but the& are found throughout the <os!el. Thus ?esus sa&s5 6 l ,
q q, q q , q , q , and
again5 q , q q .
7/
The logi% of these sa&ings follows its
own laws. The definite arti%le with a !redi%ative noun ma:es it %lear that we have here
eTuation rather than subordination. 7e is light. Hut 7e is the true and !ro!er light whi%h alone
deserves this name5 .
7)
,nd in the same sense 7e is the bread, the
life, the truth. 7e is these things in the su!reme and ultimate sense, and 7e alone. In short, all
these %on%rete or abstra%t definitions are names whi%h ?esus %laims for 7imself and denies to
an& other being or ob$e%t. ?ohn is not s!ea:ing of the fa%t of >hrist in abstra%t s!e%ulations.
1ver&thing great and signifi%ant in the world be%omes a name %hara%terising the uniTue
!osition of this 6 . ,ll %reation !oints be&ond itself to 7im who trans%ends it !h&si%all&,
s!irituall& and ethi%all&. Thus no single name is adeTuate# and all finall& brea: down before
this realit&.
Hut the ?ohannine >hrist s!ea:s of 7is %osmi% being and nature onl& to introdu%e 7is
de%isive signifi%an%e for the human ra%e and its a%tion and as!irations.
70
This is adeTuatel&
shown in ea%h %ase b& the %on%e!tion or the setting of the IDsa&ings. ?esus does in fa%t bring
light, bread, wine, !h&si%al life et%. These are signs revealing to those with e&es to see 7is
67 ?n. 65)* f. # %f. 05/6 5 6507 # 75*9 .
66 ?n. .+5/6 # %f. .75*. # .)5*+ .
69 ;ote this . The s!e%ial !osition of the 8ediator is alwa&s maintained.
7+ .)5*+ # %f. .057ff .# .75** # also .75.6 5 6 .
7. 75/7 # %f. )5.) 5 6 6 ( /)6 f. 5 2rv. et%., also Is. 005. ).
7* -%%asionall& we have a !ersonal noun li:e q in .+5.. n. *6 .
7/ 65.* # 65/0 , )6 # .05. , 0 # .+57 , 9 # .)56 # ..5*0 . >f. the influen%e on A. <inEa, 6) f. (!. 06 f.).
7) ?n. .59 # %f. . ?n. *56 and in .05. and 65/* .
70 -n the teleologi%al orientation of this 6 %f. ?n. .65/7 .
su!raterrestrial glor& and !ower. The 9on delivers 7is own from the unnatural world of
dar:ness, hunger, thirst and death and sets them in the world of true being, in fellowshi! with
7imself, in vital union with <od. This is what 7e guarantees and !romises with 7is t6
l q q q . The %hristologi%al 6 in ?ohnOs <os!el is the
%at%hword for a %hristo%entri% view of the world.
0. t6 in the 9a&ings of >hrist in the ,!o%al&!se.
The ,!o%al&!se, too, shows a li:ing for %hristologi%al IDsa&ings whi%h have a twofold
solemnit& on the li!s of the heavenl& 9on of 8an. t6
q i. t6 l q pi
i, q ( 22:16 ). @hile the ?ohannine
1!istles, li:e the other writings of the ;T , o%%asionall& a!!eal to the 4ord and 7is @ord and
9!irit, the letters of Aevelation %laim to be heavenl& e!istles in whi%h the
7imself s!ea:s in admonition, warning or !romise. The introdu%tor&
formulae, with their ri%h liturgi%al !redi%ation, s!ea: of >hrist in the third !erson5
. Hut in the trium!hant words at the %lose >hrist often s!ea:s !ersonall&,
!romising an analogous future or !osition5 6 i,
6 6
The %on%luding !romise of the whole series is as follows5 , 6
i q , 6 i
q ( /5*. ).
The ,!o%al&!se brings out the full analog& of >hrist and <od even more %learl& than the
analogi%al relations between >hrist and the dis%i!les whi%h are also re%ognised in the !arting
dis%ourses.
76
Thus the !roverbial sa&ing %on%erning <odOs love and %hastisement a!!ears in
the final letter as a !ro%lamation of >hrist with a !re%eding 6 .
77
Indeed, the >hrist of
Aev. often uses the ver& same IDsa&ings as are also as%ribed to <od. In the !roem, for
instan%e, <od sa&s5 6 l 6, q
( .56 ), and the 9on of 8an also sa&s5 6 l
( .5.7 ). 7ere the first two members borrow linguisti%all& from the divine sa&ing in Is. ))56 #
there is a material !arallel to the AO of .56 # and the whole
76
falls within the threeD
tenses%hema of the divine sa&ings in Aev. The strongest analog& is at the end of Aev. in *.56
6 6, q q , **5./ 5 6 6,
, q q . The two IDsa&ings sa& eBa%tl& the
same thing. In the one, however, the s!ea:er is <od, and in the other >hrist.
79
The
,!o%al&!se %ould hardl& s!ea: of ?esus with greater boldness. =et neither here not in the ;T
generall& %ould one s!ea: of a re!la%ement of <od b& >hrist or of an admiBture of two
magnitudes. >hrist is neither another <od in the !ol&theisti% sense nor is 7e in <od in the
m&sti%al sense. 7e is instituted b& the one <od as the authoritative Hearer of the divine offi%e
for the whole s!here of this world and its histor&.
6. t6 l ( l ).
, se!arate !roblem is raised b& the o%%asional use in the <os!els of 6 l without an&
!redi%ative definition. It !robabl& derives from the theologi%al I am he" of the -T and
,!o%al&!ti%. This em!hati% formula rests ultimatel& on the I am that I am" of 1B. /5.) .
6+
It
ta:es %learer sha!e in 3t. /*5/9 5 9ee now that I, even I, am he, and there is no god with me"# and
it be%omes a fiBed formula in the divine !ro%lamations of 3t. Is. I, even I, am =ahweh# and
76 V. and 6 in ?n. .75.) et%.
77 2rv. /5.* # Aev. /5.9 5 6 # %f. Is. 005. with ?n. )5.) # 75/7 . >f. the referen%e
to >honi n. )9 .
76 @e have the same s%hema in the , l l and of .5.6 .
79 *.57 and **56 , .6 .
6+ -n the re%onstru%tion of this formula in Aev. n. / .
beside me there is no saviour."
6.
@ho hath wrought and done it { I =ahweh, the first and the
last, I am he" ( ).5) ). 7ear:en unto me, - ?a%ob and Israel, m& %alled# I am he# I am the first, I
also am the last" ( )65.* ). It is in :ee!ing with the st&le of the IDsa&ing that the meaning of I am
he" is eB!lained in an a%%om!an&ing formula, whi%h is usuall& to the effe%t that the -ne who thus
s!ea:s is the true and onl& 9ub$e%t of all o%%urren%e, the true and onl& <od.
6*
The li:ing for this
im!ressive formula is well brought out in the 4'' translation
6/
and es!. in ,!o%al&!ti%.
6)
In the
,!%. ,br. , whi%h is !arti%ularl& ri%h in IDsa&ings, <od sa&s5 3ost thou see: the <od of gods {
I am he."
60
,nd again5 I am he, fear not, for I am before the aeons."
66
The Hoo: of 1li$ah ta:es
u! again the formula of 3t., this time in a !urel& es%hatologi%al sense (6). If the >reator <od has
revealed the goal of all histor&, then the :nowledge of <od will rea%h its goal and the old sa&ing
will be fulfilled5 9ee now that I, even I, am he."
67
The >hrist of the ;T s!ea:s in the same st&le,
though not ever& 6 l in the <os!els has this full em!hati% sense.
In ?n. 9
66
%ontention had arisen %on%erning the identit& of the with the blind man
who was :nown to the whole neighbourhood. 7e himself thus said in v. 9 5 6 l i.e., I am
the man. 9imilarl&, ?esus twi%e sa&s to the soldiers in <ethsemane5 6 l ,
69
i.e., I am the
man. 7ere we have an ordinar& use in relation to the identit& of someone who is either :nown or
sought. 9imilarl&, in the dar:ness in whi%h the dis%i!les %an hardl& trust their e&es, ?esus sa&s to
them5 I am he# fear not."
9+
=et here, as in the similar formula in ,!%. ,br. , we should not miss
the em!hati% overtone. This is strengthened b& the %ontinuation, 8:. 650.f. There is another
eBam!le of ordinar& use in 8:. .)56* , though here the referen%e is to the %laim of ?esus to be the
8essiah. To the Tuestion5 l , l # ?esus answers5 6
l , I am." ,nd then, in substantiation of 7is %laim and revelation of 7is 8essiahshi!, 7e
adds5 { The IDsa&ing is eB!ounded es%hatologi%all& as in the Hoo: of 1li$ah 65/
(UU 3t. /*5/9 ). ?esus is something whi%h will be manifested onl& at the end of the da&s.
9.

=et, as ?esus sa&s in 8:. ./56 , at the end of the da&s man& will %ome i
6 l, . ,nd in ./5*.ff . 7e gives
the warning5 { g , , q
. { { c i
. 7ere the %onteBt does not !rovide an& !redi%ate for 6 l . It is rather a
fiBed and !regnant formula whi%h a!!lies onl& to >hrist and whi%h is abused b& false
!ro!hets and !seudoD8essiahs
9*
at a time when the final manifestation of >hrist is eB!e%ted
and when the Tuestion5 l , must be as:ed again of ever& signifi%ant figure.
>hrist 7imself must %ombat misuse of the IDformula whi%h is !ro!er to 7im alone, and 7e
tells 7is dis%i!les what will ha!!en (%f. 8t. *)5*6 f. ) in order that the& will not give %reden%e
to an& arrogant I am he," but wait !atientl& for the de%isive 6 l from the li!s of the
eBalted >hrist. t6 l thus be%omes here a te%hni%al formula for the selfDrevelation of
6. Is. )/5.. # %f. 095.6 # 6/50f . and 8owin%:el, op. cit. ( n. *6 ), *97 ff.
6* >f. 3t. )5/0 # Is. )/5.* f. # )050 .
6/ Thus in ?ob //5/. <od sa&s5 , 6 l for the 7eb. MLe] rf[b `WaS_[d ^Z %f. Is. )65.* .
6) I am he" is used in the ordinar& sense in ,!%. 8os. , .7 and Test. ?ob, *9, /. and /6# %f. >. Tis%hendorf,
#pk. #pkr. (.666)# and 8. A. ?ames, "e:ts and Studies , (, . (.697).
60 ,!%. ,br. , 6 (Honwets%h). The !redi%ative noun is to be su!!lied from what !re%edes, but there %an be no
mista:ing the em!hati% overtone.
66 .bid. , 9. The %ontinuation in eB!lanator& IDstatements %orres!onds to the form of 3t. Is. and shows that we do
not have here a !urel& !a%if&ing statement.
67 V. 8. Huttenwieser, Die (ebr=ische &liasapokalgpse (.697).
66 It is stri:ing that 6 l o%%urs in ?n. eBa%tl& 7 times. Hut the use is varied and is not restri%ted to ?esus.
7en%e individual eBegesis must be our startingD!oint.
69 9o H, the -ld 4at. and the 9in. 9&r. in ?n. .650 , the referen%e in .656 and the re!etition in .656 .
9+ 8:. 650+ # 8t. .)5*7 # ?n. 65*+ .
9. 8t. *656) not in%orre%tl& has l for 6 l (%f. ?n. .65/7 ), but the q wea:ens the
material %onneBion with the !ro!he%&. 4:. **567 ff. is better.
9* 8t. again !ara!hrases5 6 l (thus showing how we are to ta:e the of 8:. ./56 ). This
is %orre%t, but robs the formula of its !regnant %hara%ter.
>hrist whi%h has alread& made a modest beginning in the !resent and will be %om!leted in the
future.
9/
This gives the 6 l of 8:. ./ a !arti%ular signifi%an%e and leads to the
?ohannine meaning and use of the formula.
The %entral !assage is ?n. 65*)I*9 . There is a !re%eding %hain of ID!redi%ations5 6
l ( v. .* ), 6 l ,
{ ( v. .6 ), 6 , g iq
( v. *. ). 4ife and death de%ision is de%ision for or against >hrist ( v.
*) )5 q 6 l, { It is thus !lain that the
6 of ?esus is the !oint where there is the =es of belief or the ;o of unbelief. This is the
%riti%al !oint on whi%h the waves of world histor& brea:. Hut 6 l is still a !uEEling
!redi%ate. The hearers find it so, and thus as:5 i l # Hut it is to remain !uEEling. ,s in
4:. **567 f. , ?esus refuses to elaborate5 q q . 7e is silent, and
lets histor& s!ea:. ,s in 8:. .)56* , the future will dis%lose the meaning and validit& of this
!uEEling sa&ing. The Father will bear witness for 7im (%f. 65.6 )5 6
l 6, 6 6 l . For the future will dis!la& the
as &et %on%ealed identit& of 7is wor: with that of <od. ( 6 )
, 6 i , . The
6 of the 9on is lin:ed with the I of the Father in an absolute unit& of a%tion5
q , 6
.
9)
?esus is the a%ting 9ub$e%t of the histor& of <od. 7e is this from the beginning
(%f. ?n. .5. ff. and . ?n. .5. ff. ). A 6 l . Hut onl& now has
7is a%tion entered its de%isive stage ( 6506 ). From now on ever& ste! of the histor& will be a
%ontribution to the revelation and glorifi%ation of the 9on, to the fulfilment of the meaning of
7is 6 l: ,
6 l ( ?n. ./5.9 ).This is the final thrust of 6 l without !redi%ate.
The 6 of >hrist is the 9ub$e%t of the histor& of <od, and this histor& will be nothing but a
!owerful selfD!ro%lamation of >hrist. In ever& vi%tor& of the histor& of <od >hrist %alls to
those who hear:en5 I am he."
,ttem!ts have been made to derive the %hristologi%al IDsa&ings of the <os!els, and
es!e%iall& of ?ohn, from 7ellenisti% models. This is a shortsighted view. Kltimatel& the
em!hati% IDsa&ing goes ba%:, as we have seen, to a twofold root, namel&, the an%ient oriental
tradition whi%h rea%hes its full flower in s&n%retism, and -T forms whi%h wither awa& in the
9&nagogue. These two traditions %ome together in ?ewish ,!o%al&!ti%, and in %on$un%tion
influen%e the %ontem!orar& world of ?esus and the <os!els. ,%%ording to the 9&no!tists,
?esus ado!ts the IDformulae, %laiming eB%lusivel& for 7imself the IDsa&ings of the most
diverse re!resentatives of <od. In the IDsa&ings of ?ohn 7e %ontests the right of the !seudoD
saviours and !seudoDgods of the !ol&theisti% world to soteriologi%al ID!redi%ations. 7e
7imself trans%ends them all, and reveals 7imself as the definitive Ae!resentative of <od in
the absolute divine formula 6 l , the !urest eB!ression of 7is uniTue and
immeasurable signifi%an%e.
It is in :ee!ing with the eB%lusive %hara%ter of the IDsa&ings of ?esus that in !ost%anoni%al
teBts em!hati% IDsa&ings are often used to eB!ress !seudoD>hristian or antiD>hristian !retension.
90

The ,!%. of 1li$ah and 1Era follow 8:. ./ when the& %ause anti%hrist to sa&5 I am the anointed"
or I am the 9on of <od."
96
In the !seudoD>lementine 7omilies the st&le of 8:. .)56. and !ar. is
ado!ted, and 9imon is as:ed5 l l 6 , to whi%h he re!lies5 6 l .
97

9/ , different view is ta:en b& 1. ;orden, #gnostos "heos , .9) ff.# <. Flein, Der =lteste christliche
4atechisus { (.9+9), 00 ff.
9) 65*9 . >f. the eB!lanation of the 6 l in ./5.9f .5 { .
90 >f. also * Th. *5) .
96 ,!%. 1liae , /. (9teindorff, TK ;F, * m.699n)# ,!%. 1sr. ) (Tis%hendorf, ,!%. a!o%r. m.666n).
97 2s.D>lem. 7om. , *, *) in Hau. ?.
/
1B%urs. on 65.*, with further information on 3emon, 2seudomithras,
2seudomessiah. The Tuestion (l ) and answer (li, 6 l ) o%%ur freTuentl& in Test. 9ol. (8%>own),
C. The Anthropological ' .
.. I and @e in the @ritings of 4u:e.
In the dedi%ation of 4u:eOs <os!el, after some remar:s on his sour%es and !rede%essors, we
find the words5 q
, O ( .5/ ). This is <ree: st&le.
96
7ere for the first time an
1vangelist ma:es !ersonal referen%e. 7e has in view a biogra!h& whi%h will go be&ond the form
of !revious <os!els
99
as he diligentl& and artisti%all& sha!es the varied testimonies into a i
of ?esus. This is a <ree: ideal. The eBe%ution of the !ro$e%t is <ree: also in the sense that the
great mass of tea%hing material, whi%h %annot be fitted q into a %hronologi%al or
biogra!hi%al s%heme, is made into the a%%ount of a $ourne&.
.++
9imilarl&, the
, i.e., ,%ts, o!ens with a short !ersonal address to the same Theo!hilus ( .5. ). 7ere, too,
es!e%iall& in the se%ond !art, a%%ounts of $ourne&s !la& an im!ortant !art. The missionar& a%tivit&
of 2aul, whi%h obviousl& %om!rised several missions, is here %om!ressed into a s%hema of three or
four $ourne&s. @ithin the a%%ounts the author sometimes uses the @e form5 c
T l 2 et%.
.+.
It is usuall& dedu%ed that the
author or his informant too: !art in the events re%orded in these se%tions (%f. *+50f .5 c
q { q c ) and that the @e !assages are
thus !arti%ularl& reliable. ,nother !ossibilit&, however, is that the @e is a literar& devi%e to give
vitalit& and variet& to the re%ord, as in similar 7ellenisti% a%%ounts.
.+*

*. @e and I in the ?ohannine @ritings.
In eloTuent %ontrast to 4u:e ?ohnOs 2rologue introdu%es a @e senten%e among its %osmi%
statements %on%erning the 4ogos and 7is in%arnation5 q ,
this being followed shortl& after b& an eB!ress q: 6
q .
.+/
These are words of %onfession behind whi%h stands a whole
%ir%le of witnesses and %onfessors. ,s thus introdu%ed, the <os!el is not meant to be a
biogra!h&. ,long the lines of 8ar:, it is to be a %onfessional do%ument (%f. *+5/. ). -ne is
s!ea:ing in the name of man&
.+)
with whom he :nows that he is united in faith and
:nowledge, $ust as 2eter s!ea:s in the name of the dis%i!les5 q
6 l ( 6569 ). . ?ohn has the same ?ohannine @e at
the ver& beginning, in stri%t !arallelism with the 2rologue of the <os!el and its %on%lusion5
q q q ( . ?n. .5) # %f. ?n.
*+5/. ).
The same @e re%urs in the most diverse %onfessional forms ( )5.) .6 et%.). It a!!ears !lainl&
in demar%ation from false tea%hers5 q q,

q q ( *5.9 ).
This is the %ertaint& of the ele%t who have surmounted the %risis. Hut above this faithful q
there stands in hours of tem!tation the who has ele%ted us, who :ee!s us, who :nows us as
we do not :now ourselves5 i q i q,
6g q q i, i q i q
6 ( /5.9f .). The fa%t of ele%tion is !resent onl& before and for <od. Hehind this
binding @e, however, there also a!!ears from *5. onwards the authoritative I of the writer5
i , q . This is alwa&s used when ethi%al
%on%lusions are drawn from the %ommon theologi%al assum!tions ( *57 , .*ff .). It is even more
e.g., *5. ff.# *05. ff. (demon).
96 ;orden, op. cit. , !. /.6.
99 8. 3ibelius, 9orgeschichte des &vangelius
*
(.9//), *9+ f. .
.++ The !seudoDhistori%al %hara%ter of the $ourne& ma& be seen b& %om!arison with 8t. The general outline of
the <os!el is influen%ed b& 8:. and is not the result of new and inde!endent investigation.
.+. >f. *+50ff .# *.5. ff. # *75.ff .
.+* >f. ;orden, op. cit. , /*. ff.
.+/ ?n. .5.) , .6 .
.+) ?n. *.5*) 5 q { q q
i i (%f. .95/0 # / ?n. .* ).
!ronoun%ed at the end, ta:ing u! again the of .5) 5
lq q l6 ( 05./ ). -n the other hand, * ?n. begins in the sing.,
.+0

then asserts the unit& of the 6 with the fellowshi! of believers
.+6
and finall& unites the two in
a %om!rehensive q . / ?n. is wholl& !ersonal.
The most subtile relationshi! of @e and I is to be found in Aev.5 t6
g i iq g ( .59 ).
.+7
This ?ohn is a brother, a before >hrist, a mortal and feeble man ( .5.7 # 05) # 75.)f .5
.95.+ 5 6 { q, q ). Hut he has seen things to
%ome and has thus re%eived from <od a %ommission whi%h he dis%harges with !ro!heti% !ower
and with the steadfastness of an a!o%al&!tist. The first 6 in .59 stands between the IDsa&ings of
<od and >hrist, and the final 6 is followed b& a last 6 of ?ohn, with a divine %urse
on those who atta%: his boo: ( **5.6f .). The selfDawareness of the author rea%hes its %limaB at
this !oint. Hut it is b& no means selfDglorifi%ation. It is an awareness of offi%e, and ultimatel& of
<od.
.+6

/. @e and I in 2aul.
The !lur. q in 2aulOs letters is essentiall& st&listi%.
.+9
,ll the letters begin with the name
of 2aul as the sender. The most !ersonal of them (2hilemon) maintains the sing. to the ver& end5
( v. ) )# 6 H g g i, 6 i
{ 6 i ( v. .9f .). 2hili!!ians is also !ersonal, and so, too, is Aomans, whi%h is
the !ersonal letter, not of a beloved missionar&, but of an isolated thin:er
..+
and %ontroversialist,
...
The @e tone is more noti%eable in the other letters. It is the st&le of the %ultured man who
wishes to :ee! his !erson and !ersonal affairs in the ba%:ground. @here q is used, it is
usuall& with a s!e%ial nuan%e. 9ometimes the wider %ir%le gives added authorit& ( . >. ..5.6 ).
9ometimes the referen%e is to 2aul !ersonall& as distin%t from, or even in o!!osition to, the
re%i!ients of the letter. Thus * >orinthians begins5 c
q g .
..*
Hut 2aul soon has an ( .5.0 ), and from this !oint on the I
and @e alternate in swift and irregular su%%ession
../
until a new beginning is solemnl& made
with the A c 6 H of .+... @hen 2aul wishes to ma:e %lear his own !osition, he
mostl& uses the sing. and often has the !re%eding em!hati% 6 . Thus the 6 of . >. .059
refers to his s!e%ial !osition in relation to the twelve, whi%h is then relativised again in the
6 of .05.. . The 6 of . >. 7 has !arti%ular signifi%an%e as the 6 of a
!neumati% who %onstitutes an eBam!le and authorit&, though as su%h he is %learl& distinguished
from the .
..)
It is in <alatians that the 6 eB!resses most %learl& o!!osition to the
authorit& of others and the assertion of 2aulOs own authorit&5
..0
6 i
6i ( 65.7 ).
The first !ers. ( sing. and !lur. ) !la& an im!ortant !art in ethi%al and eBhortator& !assages
in 2aul.
..6
2aul has a great li:ing for the %ohortative,
..7
whi%h eBhorts the readers to the
.+0 @ith the sender5 { { 6 .
.+6 6 . {
.+7 >f. 6 . in 3a. 65. ( n. )+ f. ). Hut unli:e the ?ewish a!o%al&!tists the ;T author does not use
a great name of the !ast as !seudon&m.
.+6 >f. 9l. 1n. /95*, 7 et%.
.+9 >f. the table in 3obs%hGtE, *0).
..+ >f. * 2t. /5.0 f.
... .56ff .# 95. ff. # .+5. # ..5. f. # .*5. ff. # .05.) ff. , /+f . et%.
..* .5.. # %f. .5)ff ., .*ff .
../ .5.6ff . we# .5*/ 5 6 c ( *5.+ 5 6 )# /5.ff . we ( )5.* 5 q, q q
)# 65.. 5 q # 65./ 5 .
..) 757f ., .+ , .* , *0 , )+ .
..0 *56ff .5 l {# 05*ff .5 6 H { t6 c, i #
65..ff .5 { g g i .
..6 >f. v. 3ohs%hGtE, *0. ff. and the fine %olle%tion in FGmmel, .*..
..7 A. ./5.* f.
moral dut& less shar!l& than the im!erative.
..6
7e thus li:es to %hange from the se%ond
!erson to the first to s!are the sus%e!tibilities of his flo%:.
..9
In . Th. 050 ff. he begins with
the assertion5 , and there then follows the %ohortative5 .
,fter a gnomi% intermediar& %lause he then draws the same line from the fa%ts to the tas: in v.
6 , and then a third time in v. 9 , though not in a %ohortative but in a final %lause5
q , { ,n im!erative %loses the !assage. The negative %ounter!art is to be
found in A. 65. ff. 7ere the %on%lusion5 t g iq is !ut at the beginning,
and 2aul eB!resses it onl& to re$e%t it.
.*+
7e o!!oses to it the fa%t5 g
i , and then, in a develo!ment of the same motif, ,
. -nl& after long dis%ussion does he transfer to the se%ond !erson in v.
.. . Hut the train of thought follows the same line again in v. .0ff .
The eBhortator& goal served b& the %ohortative %an be attained also b& h&!otheti%al I and @e
senten%es
.*.
whi%h usuall& have no true realit& behind them.
.**
7ere, too, we have an admiBture
of assertions and !ersons.
.*/
In su%h %onteBts the 6 has onl& eBem!lar& signifi%an%e,
.*)
and is
more or less eTuivalent to the indefinite or one." The !ro!er tense of su%h modes of s!ee%h is
the !resent, as in . >. ./ 5 Though I s!ea: with the tongues of men and of angels, and have not
%harit&, I am be%ome as sounding brass, or a tin:ling %&mbal."
, c q , l .
.*0
These are gnomi% statements designed to indi%ate

q and having nothing to do with selfD%onfession.

.*6
This gnomi% and
timeless sense is maintained even in statements where a general truth is illustrated in the !ast
tense5 q , { ,
i .
.*7
-nl& the %on%luding v. .* forsa:es the gnomi% form and refers to the a%tual
situation of the !resent and state of the future.
The %ase is rather different in the great argumentative !assage in <l. *5.0ff ., where the st&le
is not so mu%h that of the diatribe as of Aabbini% dis!utation and debate %on%erning the Torah.
,fter an introdu%tor& , whi%h is addressed to 2eter rather than to men generall&, 2aul %ontinues
with a @e statement whi%h refers to the histori%al !osition5 q
i .
.*6
The neBt senten%e s!ea:s of a new situation in salvation histor&, the
signifi%an%e of whi%h is indire%tl& su!!orted b& a Tuotation from 9%ri!ture. This leads to the
!ra%ti%al %on%lusion5 q ( v. .6 ). There follows a fundamental
%on%lusion in the @e st&le ( v. .7 ) and then another in the I st&le5 l {
( v. .6 ). This statement, in the familiar h&!otheti%al form, has a gnomi% sense, the
6 having the same meaning as one." Hut now 2aul goes be&ond general dis%ussion of
!ossibilities and truths to the de%isive realit&5 6 q ,
.
.*9
It is the same event as des%ribed in v. .6 b& , but now
formulated in su%h a wa& that the brea: with the 4aw is %learl& seen to be inevitable. ,t this !oint
..6 <l. 05*0 f.
..9 * >. 75. # %f. . >. .+56 ff. # A. .)5./ .
.*+ >f. A. /56 # also . >. .+5** .
.*. . >. 65.* ff. # ..5/. .
.** A. /50 ff. # . >. .+5*9 f.
.*/ . >. .)5.. ff.
.*) <rotius %alls this metas%hematism" in allusion to . >. )56 5 l # %f.
FGmmel, .*+.
.*0 . >. ./5.I/ # A. Hultmann (2aulus," A<<
*
, I(, .+/* f.) %om!ares with this * >. .*5.0 (6 c q
) to show that 2aul %an use 6 in the sense of .
.*6 -n the st&le, v. A. Hultmann, Der Stil der paulinischen Predigt und die stoischk'nische Diatribe (.9.+). 1.
4ehmann and ,. Fridri%hsen, . F. ./, eine stois%hD:&nis%he 3iatribe ," Th9tFr , 9) (.9**), 00I90. .
FGmmel, .*6 ff.
.*7 The I of the !i%ture %orres!onds to the @e of the frame ( v. 9 5 6 # v. .* 5 ). @hat
a!!ears as !ast in the !i%ture (q ) is in realit& !resent ( 6 ) . -n the use
of the tenses, %f. also 2s. 9ol. /50 ff.
.*6 1ven shar!er, and with !arti%ular relevan%e for 2l., is 2hil. /56 5 q q
.
.*9 -n the anal&sis of this statement, v. 1. 9tauffer, (om und seiner 4ogi: ,"
Th9tFr , .+/ (.9/.), .79 ff.
2aul has to use I rather than @e be%ause he sees more !lainl& and a%ts more %onsistentl& than
2eter. 7e thus draws the %on%lusion in an I senten%e5 q .
;evertheless, this is not be%ause we have here his own !rivate %on%ern or !ersonal wa&. It is rather
that he ta:es seriousl& the situation of salvation histor& whi%h must be eB!ressed in his life,
./+

and has ta:en a wa& whi%h 2eter and the rest must also tread. 7e has made the brea: and ta:en the
ste! as a who summons to i .
./.
The s:et%h of salvation histor& in <alatians is
further develo!ed b& 2aul in Aomans. Thus we move on methodi%all& from <al. * to A. 7 .
). The I of A. 7 .
The autobiogra!hi%al inter!retation of A. 7 has a long histor&,
./*
In v. 9a and 7b eB!ositors
have found reminis%en%es of the inno%en%e of %hildhood, and in v. ./ff . %onfessions of the inner
%onfusion of 2aul !rior to his soD%alled %onversion. This inter!retation is %hallenged, however, b&
the brief !hrase { whi%h 2aul uses to des%ribe his !reD
>hristian !eriod in 2hil. /56 .
.//
The 3amas%us event is hardl& the %onversion of a des!airing
sinner but the %alling and overthrow of a selfDrighteous 2harisee. Thus the autobiogra!hi%al
inter!retation of A. 7 has been in%reasingl& re!la%ed b& a rhetori%all& general view,
./)
i.e., that
here is the same im!re%ise use as in . >. ./ , and that the I statements of A. 7 are thus to be ta:en
as a des%ri!tion of man generall& under the 4aw. This inter!retation is shattered, however, b& the
fa%t that on a %loser anal&sis the I st&le of A. 7 is not the h&!otheti%al eBhortstor& of A. ./ but the
histori%all& !aradigmati% of <l. * . Hoth the autobiogra!hi%al and rhetori%all& general
inter!retations are finall& destro&ed b& the further fa%t that Aomans deals neither with eB!erien%es
and %onfessions of the individual soul nor with investigation of the %onstitution and forms of
human eBisten%e, but first and last with the !rogress of salvation histor&. This is !arti%ularl& true
of A. 7 . In A. . ff. 2aul s!ea:s of the wa& in whi%h humanit& in its various histori%al grou!ings is
led to its lowest !oint. In A. 6 he s!ea:s of the saving >hrist event. ,nd in between in A. 7 he
s!ea:s of the fulfilment of the %risis b& the Torah. @e have thus to understand the I st&le of A. 7
in terms of salvation histor&.
,gain and again Aomans refers to the three great stages of histor&. The divine im!ulsion
is turned into its o!!osite b& demoni% %ounter!ressure. Hut ever&thing enter!rised against
<od finall& destro&s itself and thus leads to the third and final ste! of histor&, the
a%%om!lishment of the will of <od in a final trium!h whi%h sur!asses ever& beginning. The
de%isive third ste!, however, has now been initiated in the >hrist event. It is now being
wor:ed out in the destin& and will of man.
./0
It is of this turning !oint in the ages that 2aul
s!ea:s in A. 750 f. 5 q g i,
q { c
{ 6 q . @hat is
eB!ressed in this brief statement is more full& eB!ounded in A. 757I65. ff. ,
./6
and as in <l.
*5.7f . there is a transition from the %olle%tive q to the t&!i%al 6 .
7aving s!o:en of the end of the 4aw in 756 , 2aul s!ea:s of its beginnings in 757I.* .
6 { . This is the time before 8oses,
./7
when i
was ( v. 6 ). Hut now the 4aw enters human histor&,
./6
in itself hol& and good ( v.
./+ 9tauffer, op. cit. , .66 ff.
./. >f. in * Th. /59 # 2hil. /5.7 # and in . >. and * Th.# also <l. )5.* 5 i
6 .
./* ,mong more re%ent s%holars, %f. ,. 3eissmann, Paulus (.9..), 6) f.
.// n. .*6 .
./) , !ioneer of this line of inter!retation is Hultmann ( A<<
*
, I(, .+** f., and more re%entl& in 9estschr. f.
G. 4rger , 0/ ff.). FGmmel goes even further, and 1. Fu%hs, 1hristus and der Geist bei Paulus (.9/*) *9 f.
goes furthest of all, rather strangel& regarding the de%isive !assages as unreal h&!otheses.
./0 A. /5*. ff. # 05. ff. # 65. ff. , */ .
./6 -n ,ugustineOs eBegesis of A. 7 , %f. 7. ?onas, #ugustin und das Paulinische 9reiheits<proble (.9/+), *)
ff.
./7 A. 05.*I.) .
./6 A. 05*+ # <l. /5.9 , */ f. # A. /5.9 f.
.* ). @hat in itself is l , however, wor:s l a%%ording to the
!aradoBi%al law of the threefold ste! of v. .+ (%f. )5.0 # . >. .0506 ). The sign of <od whi%h
demands submission !rovo:es o!!osition ( v. 6a , v. ..a ). @here <od intervenes, the !ower
of evil rises u! against 7im. 9in turns the o!eration of the 4aw into its o!!osite5
c q q q i k 6 c ( v. 9f ., %f. ..a
). The time of freedom and %ontinuit& has !assed ( 757 # /5*+ )# the %risis has
%ome.
2aul begins to s!ea: of this %risis in a se%ond train of thought in vv. ./I*+ . The 4aw is in
the first instan%e a radi%al means to bring into a%tion a dormant si%:ness. Its aim is to bring sin
to its full develo!ment and thus to lead the ra%e to its nadir ( v. ./ ).
./9
The 4aw !lunges man
into an inner %onfli%t of the 1go whi%h tears him. This is the anthro!ologi%al s&m!tom of the
new age. Thus 2aul s!ea:s of an 6 ( v. .7 ) whi%h assents to the 4aw of <od ( v. .6 ),
whi%h has the will to !erform the 4aw ( v. .6 # v. .9f .) and whi%h !assionatel& negates sin
( v. .0 ). Hut man also %onfesses5 l { l i, g
i , ( v. .6 ). In him ( v. .7 , *+ ), i.e., in his flesh,
.)+
there dwells sin,
whi%h !owerfull& %ontrols all his a%tions ( v. .6 , .6ff .). In this sense it is true5 6
l, q i ( v. .)b ). It is in vain that the true
6 does not a%:nowledge this sinister I, dis%laiming res!onsibilit& for its a%tions5
6 ( v. .0a ). ouite without ho!e is the !rotest of $udgment and
will against the terror of i , this alien usur!er and t&rant5 6
q i . ;evertheless, man %an
twi%e sa&5 This is no longer m& 1go ( v. .7 , *+ ).
(v. *.I*/ , with a %on%luding , give us the result of this anal&sis5 i
, .
, law of %orru!tion reigns over manOs eBisten%e. <ood will gives rise to evil a%tion. The
( * >. )5.6 ) $o&full& assents to the of <od.
.).
The re%ognises it to
be 7is . Hut man stands under the swa& of another law whi%h reigns in his members,
the i . 7e is an im!otent !risoner.
, !assionate %r& for redem!tion from this state whi%h %an end onl& in death, and an
anti%i!ator& %r& of than:sgiving for the redem!tive a%t of <od,
.)*
now follow in vv. *) , *0a .
Then v. *0b gives us the final %on%lusion with another . The various ideas are brought
into %on$un%tion and $uBta!osition in a last %larifi%ation of the state of tension5
6 c q , g c q i ( v.
*0b ). This is how 2aul sees the situation of man in the age of the 4aw. The self of man, one
and the same I, stands under a twofold determination. In $udgment, it stands under the
%om!elling 4aw of <od# in life under the enfor%ed law of sin.
.)/

Hut this divided state is alread& over%ome. The anthro!ologi%al a%%ount of the twofold
%orru!tion of man does not a!!l& to the 6 of the >hristian. The %risis of man sim!l&
!re!ares the wa& for the vi%tor& of <od. The great age of %risis under the 4aw is !re!arator&
for the third ste! of histor& mar:ed b& the >hrist event. c
.))

. In 65. 2aul rea%hes again the histori%al !oint of 756 at whi%h he
was aiming shortl& before with his . In %. 6 he des%ribes the situation of the new
man whose !osition
.)0
is determined b& the fa%t of ?esus.
./9 A. 05*+b # <l. /5.9 , *) # A. /5.9 .
.)+ >f. v. */ 5 . Hoth denote a potiori the whole man in his determination b& the q
. >f. on this !t. A. Hultmann, Paulus , A<<
*
, I(, .+/* f.# FGmmel, ./6# Fu%hs, .+6 f.
.). >f. v. .6 5 .
.)* >f. 65.7 (also 65*/) and . >. .0507 .
.)/ 6 , not as in * >. .+5. , but in the em!hati% sense of A. 95/ . >f. the of . >. /5.0 .
9&n%retisti% eBam!les of and its eTuation with the ma& be found in AeitEenstein 7ell. 8&st. , )+/
ff., )+6 ff., )./, %f. //6.
.)) %f. A. 05.6 .
.)0 >alled conditio b& ,ugustine in >iv. 3. , 'III, l)# ''I, .).
q q q q i
( 65* ). The im!risonment ( 75*/ ) is at an end# the %r& for liberation
( 75*) ) has been heard ( 65.+ ). @e are free (%f. 65** ). , new law has entered our eBisten%e,
.)6
su!erior to the , more !owerful than the q i ,
namel&, the , whi%h is !osited and whi%h aims at
. , new sub$e%t has ta:en !ossession of our will and a%tion, su!erseding the and
resisting i . This is the pneuo .
T is the new %on%e!t introdu%ed in
%
. 6 as %om!ared with %. 7. The
!neumati% I is the basi% anthro!ologi%al fa%t of the new situation after >hrist. This !neumati%
I is des%ribed b& 2aul in three res!e%ts, namel&, in relationshi! to the >hrist event, to <od and
to our somati% being.
@hen the lost its !ower, and histor& rea%hed its nadir, <od intervened, atta%:ing sin in
its own most !ro!er s!here of the and %ausing it to destro& itself through the >hrist event.
@hat has ta:en !la%e t&!i%all& and re!resentativel& in the ,
.)7
however, see:s
eB!ression and eBe%ution in the >hristian i g q .
If i on%e dwelled in us, >hrist now wills to dwell in us, and 7e does dwell in those who
are . 7ere, as in <l., the re%i!ro%al formula I in >hrist" and >hrist in me" does not
refer to a m&sti%al relationshi!# it des%ribes a histori%al fa%t. The >hristian is in the
same sense as the old man is A and the ?ew q . 7e is in the situation %reated b&
the >hrist event. 7is eBisten%e stands under a new sign ( 65.+ , %f. * >. 05.7 # 2hil. .5*. ). ,nd to
the eBtent that he ta:es seriousl& the new determination of his eBisten%e with all its !ossibilities
and tas:s, >hrist is eB!ressed in him and his a%tion. -n%e again the a%t is de%isive. It was in a%tion
that he %ame to see his non posse non peccare .
.)6
,nd it is in a%tion alone that he is now granted
the posse non peccare ( 65)ff .). The !neumati% I is a realit& for man onl& in actu .
-ver and in all this, however, <od is the absolute 9ub$e%t in the -T sense.
.)9
It is 7is
whi%h is now realised. 7e has sent >hrist into the world and thus brought man to
de%ision, the de%ision whi%h in an& %ase brings the old situation to an end, whether in the
liberation of will and a%tion and therefore in life ( 65*ff .) or in tragi% !erversion of the will and
therefore in death ( .+5*ff .). In the last resort man is wholl& himself onl& before <od. <odOs %all
awa:ens the dee!est self in man, and a %r& to <od is the first eB!ression of the !neumati% I.
.0+
In
!neumati% %onverse with <od we :now the vitalit& and %ertaint& of the 9!irit ( 65.6 # <l. )56 ).
.0.

@hen man himself %an find no more words, his !neumati% self s!ea:s in
whi%h <od alone understands. The !neumati% sub$e%t %an never be an ob$e%t for us.
It %annot be %ontem!lated or %ontrolled. It is a%%essible onl& to <od. It never eBists eB%e!t in a
ThouDrelationshi! to <od. Its eBisten%e is thus wholl& de!endent u!on <od5 l c
q, i

q ( 65/. # %f. . >. *5.+ ff. ). It remains in the hands of <od even in
$udgment,
.0*
It ma& be determined onl& b& <od, and it is manifest onl& to the
i ( 65*7f .). In the last anal&sis, therefore, the new anthro!ologi%al situation eBists onl&
6 .
In an& %ase, and this is the third !oint, the new situation does not eBtend be&ond the !neumati%
I. >reation still lies in its an%ient distress. 1ven the somaDdetermined being of the man who has the
pneua still bears the mar: of the old era ( * >. )5.6 ). The pneua is onl& an ( I,
)6) # * >. .5** # 050 ). Thus the man who before >hrist %ried out for liberation from the bondage
of the now longs for the 6 itself,
.0/
Hut
.)6 >f. also 1. Fu%hs. op. cit. , )..
%. %ha!ter.
.)7 A. 65*9 5 6 { .
.)6 A. 657 5 c .
.)9 /)) (also . >. .05.+ ).
.0+ 65.0 # , I, 6*0 .
.0. , different view is ta:en in b. Her., /)b and T. Her., /, /5 @hose !ra&er runs smoothl& on his li!s, to him it
is a good sign." >f. @. Ha%her, #gada der "annaiten , I
*
(.9+/), *76.
.0* >f. in . >. /5.0 with the in A. 95/ .
.0/ q q q
( 65*/ ). >f. <l. 05.7 .
the pneua is trul& an whi%h guarantees our future5 i
6
( 65.. ). Thus the !resent anthro!ologi%al situation !oints forward
to a new one in whi%h the !neumati% I has also seiEed %ontrol over the somati% eBisten%e of man.
,nd this is a sign of the redem!tion of %reation whi%h through the fall of man fell vi%tim to
%orru!tion and whi%h now waits eB!e%tantl& for the manifestation and liberation of the sons of
<od. It is thus that the threefold movement of <od rea%hes its goal. -nl& from this stand!oint %an
we see the tremendous s%o!e of the anthro!ologi%al situation brought about b& >hrist. The
!neumati% I is the !oint of de!arture for a %om!rehensive renewal of the world whi%h will be
revealed onl& in the final %onsummation.
The train of thought moves %ontinuousl& from 757 to 65.. . In 65. , however, 2aul
suddenl& abandons the 6 # in 65* he uses a
.0)
instead of the a!!arentl& more suitable
, and from 65) he alternates between q and . Thus in the !lur. !ronouns of A.
6 he refers dire%tl& to the man& who were in view in the 6 of A. 7 , the q ma:ing it
%lear that 2aul himself is to be numbered among them. Thus the referen%e of the 6 of A. 7
to the !eo!le of the 4aw does not eB%lude a referen%e to 2aul himself# it rather in%ludes it.
This raises the !roblem of tension between A. 7 and the
of 2hil. /56 . There is no es%a!ing this !roblem, however, b& a rhetori%all&
general inter!retation. For su%h an inter!retation involves tension with the eTuation of <l.
*5.0 5 UU i . 9in%e there is tension either
wa&, we must fa%e the !roblem sTuarel& and tr& to find a solution. The !reD>hristian 2aul is
in one %ase des%ribed as and in the other as a des!airing wrestler. The !eo!le of
the Torah is in one %ase des%ribed as a morall& stri%t grou! and in the other as a mass of
ho!eless sinners. There %an be no Tuestioning the validit& or the tension of the two
statements. 7en%e their a!!arent %ontradi%tion is to be eB!lained onl& from the differen%e in
stand!oint. In 2hil. /56 and <l. *5.0 2aul is s!ea:ing from the !rovisional stand!oint of the
?ews and in A. 7 f rom the final stand!oint of >hristians. -nl& from the stand!oint of those
who have be%ome >hristians is the situation of !reD>hristian ?ews seen in all its ho!elessness.
For now even the !revious selfDassessment reveals the terrible danger, namel&, the danger of
selfDglor&, whi%h is the !e%uliar sin of the ?ew who is Eealous for the 4aw
.00
and the most
dangerous form of sin generall&, though !rovo:ed b& the Torah. Thus 2aul himself re$e%ts the
!osition of <l. *5.0 in *5.9 and that of 2hil. /56 in /57 5 q ,
q { i {. . The selfDassessment of the ?ews thus !roves to be a
dreadful delusion. -nl& %an the ?ew !er%eive the delusion and thus re%ognise the
ho!elessness of his !revious situation. 2aul does this in A. 7 .
7e does this with a sense of un%onditional solidarit& with his !eo!le.
.06
Hut he is not $ust
an& ?ew. 7e is the" ?ew. In him there is de%isivel& fulfilled the movement of the !eo!le of
the Torah from the %risis to >hrist. 2aul is the of his !eo!le.
.07
This is what gives to
the 6 of A. 7 its distin%tive sense.
That 2aul s!ea:s authoritativel& of the situation of the !eo!le of the Torah is !roved b& the
?ewish %ounter!art to A. 7 in ) 1sr. 7 . 7ere, too, we read of the %onfli%t and %risis whi%h are onl&
in%reased b& the 4aw.
.06
7ere, too, we are astonished b& the selfDevident solidarit& of the seer
.0) Formall& the same alternation as in . >. .)5.0 f. ( .+59f .# A. 656 ff. , .0 f. # .)5./ ). Thus the best 1g&!t. (H
[ ) and -ld 4at. attestation. Hut, as shown alread& b& the 9ahid. trans. , the was ver& earl& felt to be
disru!tive, and the smoother was substituted for itkan alleviation whi%h has made its wa& into the @estern
teBts. -thers went even further and introdu%ed the !lur. q elsewhere dominant in A. 6 . Indeed, even in the
da&s of -rigen the %onfusion was so great that man& left out the debated !ronoun altogether ( v. %riti%al a!!ar.).
.00 A. .+5/ .
.06 >f. A. 95. ff .# .+5. # n. .)/ .
.07 >f. A. ..5. # ..5.6 # . >. .65.0 # .05*+ .
.06 75.0I)6 , 7* , .*6f .# %f. /5.9ff .
and s!ea:er with his !eo!le.
.09
7ere, too, the de!i%tion of the terrible situation %ulminates in a
%r& for hel!.
.6+
There is a great differen%e between A. 7 and ) 1sr. 7 . Hut this differen%e is to be
eB!lained b& the differen%e in stand!oint, and it thus %onfirms the inter!retation advan%ed above.
S
tauffer
,
first means in se%ular <:. sitting," seated," settled," of men or trades.
.
The !a!.
%all an established domesti% em!lo&ee a .
*
then %omes to
denote what is as fiBed as a %ube ( ), steadfast" or immovable." The natural
!hiloso!hers as: whi%h is the , the most solid of the four elements,
and the& answer5 q q . 2lotinus as:s what is , and answers5
.
/
In both %ases, the thrust of the Tuestion is the same, namel&, what is firm and steadfast b&
nature." 2lotinus, however, loo:s further afield, see:ing that whi%h is absolutel& fiBed above the
relativities of the world of !henomena# and he rea%hes his answer b& a !ro%ess of s!e%ulative
abstra%tion. Hehind all be%oming and %hange there must be a being whi%h is !ermanent b& nature.
The -T does not as: %on%erning natural stabilit&# its %on%ern is with histori%al !ersisten%e.
That whi%h is steadfast is what endures in ever& %hange and %ontradi%tion. Hut where in the whole
world is there an&thing that %an be %alled steadfast, that has the guarantee of !ermanen%e b&
nature There is onl& -ne who stands fast, namel&, 7e who is in heaven. There is onl& one thing
whi%h !ersists in the fluB of o%%urren%e, namel&, 7is %reative and overruling hand. If an&thing
stands fast on earth, it must be established b& <od, owing its steadfastness, its !ermanen%e, its
abilit& to withstand assault, solel& to 7im.
It is along the lines of this understanding of realit& that the <:. translators of the -T use
,
)
and more rarel& the verb and the subst. c . In the first instan%e
the words refer to <od, or rather to the throne of <od. This is how c used in 2s. //5.)
A and in 2:2 . ,s the %onteBt shows, the referen%e is not to the lasting Tualities of
the material of whi%h the throne is made, but to the !ermanen%e and sovereignt& of the divine rule.
,t the same time, there is no attem!t to define <ods nature. <od is not immutable b& nature in
the <:. sense. 7e is the -ne whose firm hand is !er%e!tible in all o%%urren%e.
This <od has established the mountains and so the& stand fast.
0
7e has set u! the throne of
3avid and given a !romise to his house, this alone being the guarantee of its stabilit& and future.
6

7e must assent to a mans wor: if it is to stand.
7
7e must hold 7is strong hand over the heart of
man if it is to be :e!t against tem!tation. 7en%e a steadfast heart is not a Tualit& or virtue or
dis!osition# it is a determination. It is not !ossible or %ertain of itself. There must alwa&s be a
!ositing whi%h %an %ome from <od alone, and %an be assured onl& b& 7im. The heart %an show
itself to be onl& when in need and !eril it is orientated to <od, as In 56:7 and
111:7 .
6
In 9ir. **5.7 this referen%e to <od does not have Tuite the same immedia%&# the
i q is the heart whi%h is filled with the fear of <od and with !ra%ti%al wisdom.
In %ontrast with the heart or wor: whi%h finds its stabilit& in <od is that whi%h see:s it in itself
and whi%h will not survive the de%isive test. 9olomon %onfidentl& %alls his tem!le a c
q l , but the author, translator and reader of 3 B. 8:13 %annot
but refle%t that this bold %laim was not substantiated in histor&. The o!!onents of 1Ee:iel build a
.09 75)6ff .# %f. 65)7ff .# .*57 . Though 1Era himself is not one of the sinners, or at an& rate one of the re!robate,
he %ons%iousl& uses @e (e.g., in 75..7f .) in solidarit& with the wi%:ed and re$e%ted. >f. ,!%. 9hadra%h 0 and
es!. 65 i q (8. A. ?ames, "e:ts and Studies , II, / m.69/n, .//).
.6+ 756)ff ., ..6f .# %f. 65/0f .
9tauffer 1thelbert 9tauffer , 7alle ((ol. .), Honn ((ol. *I/).
. , to stabilise"# i , stabilising."
* 2reisig:e @Jrt. , s.v.
/ 7era%l.7om. ,ll. , ). and 2lot. , (I, *, 6 ( 4iddellD9%ott , s.v. ).
) onl& in 2 .
0 8:2 [ C5 q .
6 in 88:37 .
7 in 8:17 .
6 >f. 7b. ./59 , , I, 6++ .
wall and daub it with lime, but <od sends a whirlwind to swee! off the lime and to shatter the wall
( 1E. ./5.+ff. ). 7en%e in a late ?ewish teBt false tea%hers and leaders are sim!l& %alled builders of
the wall.
9
If 9ir. %alls the i q a wellbuilt house whi%h will stand in ever&
storm,
.+
he %om!ares the heart of the fool to a bro:en hedge.
..
;othing %an stand that is not
established b& <od.
In the ;T the ad$e%tive o%%urs onl& three times (in 2aulOs letters)#
and c do not o%%ur at all, nor does i . -n the other hand, we now have
for the first time the subst. i
.*
in the 2auline %or!us. -T ideas are !resent in the
terms, though now referred to the >hrist event and the situation thereb& %reated. Ta:en
together, the four instan%es &ield a %hara%teristi% shift of meaning.
In . >. 75/
./
is used to des%ribe the man who ado!ts an as%eti% life be%ause he
%an %ontrol himself and stand inwardl& fast against the assualt of im!ulse (%f. 759 , /6 , /6 ).
This steadfastness, however, is (%f. 757 ). In . >. .0506 >hristians are to
be and i . This is !ossible. For <od has over%ome death. 7en%e
their life and wor:, and the earth on whi%h the& stand, have a future and are thus of serious
im!ort in the !resent. The !resu!!osition of the steadfastness whi%h is here !ossible and
im!erative is a :nowledge ( l ) of the histori%al situation and future of human
eBisten%e. >f. .05.9 , 07 . ,%%. to >ol. .5*/ those who are re%on%iled with <od must remain
q q i in order
that the& ma& stand blameless before 7im. <od has begun the wor:. Hut there is great danger
of a!ostas&. 7en%e the wor: of <od and the future of 7is ele%t are in !eril.
.)
The anBiet& of
the world has atta%:ed the >olossians and will drive them, as formerl&, from one su!erstition,
%ult and ritual to another (%f. *57f .). @e must :ee! to the wa& on whi%h we are set, remaining
steadfast ( g i ) in the %ertaint& that <od alone has the !ower and that to
>hrist alone belongs the future in s!ite of all earthl& !owers. The !ower and faithfulness of
<od are eB!ressed in the steadfastness of our faith. In . Tm. /5.0 the i is %alled
i g i . , >hur%h is established whi%h !rote%ts and
defends the truth against the %onfusion of m&ths ( ). It gives the faith and thin:ing
of individuals a sure ground in %onfession (%f. /5.6 et%.). ;o longer <od alone, but also the
>hur%h of <od, now guarantees the !ermanen%e of the . The steadfastness of faith
has now be%ome lo&alt& to the >hur%h and the %onfession.
.0

Stauffer
()(
(, (& ( ).
A. People and Peoples in the LXX.
.. In the 7eb. -T the main terms for !eo!le" are Vuf and `^_Re . Hoth denote a grou! of men or
animals asso%iated visibl& and a%%ording to eB!erien%e. There is no em!hasis on the !arti%ular
mar:s or bases of fellowshi! or relationshi!, on !oliti%al or %ultural %onneBions, as in su%h words
as MX [X , t^_PQ \d , chd ied PZQ sa
.
( <n. .+5/. ), whi%h %an be used for !eo!le" in a more ra%ial,
9 3amas%. , passi .
.+ In 9ir. **5.6 we also have the !i%ture of the wall and !laster.
.. 9ir. **5.7 ff. # %f. 8t. 75*) f.
.* -i on the analog& of - .
./ 9o with the 7es&%h. teBt against the Itala, whi%h omits the word.
.) >f. Aev. *50 5 .
.0 In . Tm. the >hur%h is the !illar of truth, whereas in 9&r. Tr., )) true do%trine is the basis of the >hur%h.
. 9in%e the <:. eTuivalents to the 7eb. terms often interse%t in the 4''. it is best to treat and
together in relation to the 4''# on the other hand, the ;T will be found at the !ro!er !la%e in the
al!habet.
linguisti% or geogra!hi%al sense. -nl& in the %ourse of the histor& of ?ewish religion did the words
`^_Re and Vqf %ome to be more !re%isel& distinguished. The se%ular sense retreated into the
ba%:ground. The !lur. V`a^_Re %ame to be used as a te%h. term for the <entiles, and the sing. Vqf for
the hol& !eo!le.
This is refle%ted in the <:. translations of the -T . The word q ,
*
whi%h denotes the
<:. %ommunit& on its !oliti%al side, is rare in the 4'' and is not found at all in later renderings.
Indeed, we find it onl& in ;u., ?os., ?u. and on%e in ;eh., and it is used eB%lusivel& for chd ied PZQ sa in
the sense of smaller %lanDli:e so%ieties within the main grou! or nation. In the sense of a !oliti%al
nation it is first found in 3a. three times for Vqf and more freTuentl& in I 8a%%. In the ;T q
is used four times in ,%. for a gathering of the !eo!le. The less !rominent ;T use is in :ee!ing
with the more general %ultural histor& of 7ellenism. 7ellenisti% and Aoman im!erialism destro&ed
both the <ree: polis and the q in the older sense. To some degree, however, the roots are
also to be found in the develo!ment of -T religion. In s!ite of the theologoumenon of ,brahami%
sonshi! and the %hosen !eo!le, ?ewr&, as distin%t from Israel and ?udah, was not reall& a !eo!le,
but, for !rosel&tes and :indred %ir%les, a religion.
/
This fa%t naturall& affe%ted in large measure
the relevant -T terminolog& ta:en over from an%ient Israel. This is !arti%ularl& true of the
translation of the %orres!onding terms in the 4''. 7ere we have in the first instan%e an
eBtraordinaril& %lear and uniform !i%ture, being almost alwa&s used for `^_Re and for
Vqf . In man& individual !assages, and sometimes in whole boo:s,
)
this !urel& !hilologi%al
eTuation determines the translation.
=et material reasons have also to be %onsidered. ,s we %an see from V`a^_Re and Vqf , and
indeed from man& deviations in the translation, sometimes to a stronger degree, and
also a%Tuire a terminologi%al %hara%ter in the sense of <entiles on the one side and the %hosen
!eo!le on the other. 7ow this wor:s out in detail, we ma& see from a review of the o%%urren%e of
Vqf and its 4'' eTuivalents, using the 2entateu%h as an eBam!le. ;ote should first be ta:en of the
im!ortant distin%tion between the sing. and the !lur.
0
In <n. to 3t. we have Vqf in the sing. /6*
times and V`sea qf in the !lur. 06 times. -f these )*+ instan%es, /0. are rendered b& in the
sing. , whi%h is often used for the !lur. V`sea qf , i for V`sea qf o%%urs onl& twi%e. 1lsewhere Vqf is
rendered )6 times ( Vqf UU ./ times# V`sea qf UU twi%e# Vqf UU three
times# V`sea qf UU thirt& times). In !assages where the referen%e is to several nonD?ewish
!eo!les, there is obviousl& a tenden%& to use for V`sea qf .
6
-n the other hand, the 4''
seems intentionall& to avoid the !lur. i . The interrelationshi!s are mu%h the same in the other
boo:s as in the
2
ent. , whether we ta:e the original or the translation. -f *+++ o%%urren%es of
, onl& some ./0 are in the !lur. -f these, /0 are in the 2s.,
7
and often there are !urel&
formal reasons for it, e.g., its use alongside in !arallel statements.
* -n the s&non. q, , %f. Tren%h , *// ff.
/ -n the thesis that ?ewr& is a religion rather than a ra%e, %f. <. Hertram in <. Aosen. 0uden und Phni-ier ,
revised b& F. Aosen and <. Hertram (.9*9), es!. %. *5 3as anti:e ?udentum als 8issionsreligion ."
) It is interesting to %om!are . and * t . The former translates freel&# the latter follows the 7eb. original
more %losel&.
0 @e are using the statisti%s of 8andel:ern, who li:e the 4'' does not distinguish between Vqf !eo!le" and
Vqf relative."
6 The other transl. of the 7eBa!la ado!t a more !urel& !hilologi%al !ro%edure. Thus A uses the !lur. i for
V`sea qf where the 4'' has and where there is a definite sense of <entiles," e.g., <n. )95.+ . 9o, too, do
A2O at 3t. )5.9 # 75.9 , and 2 at 1B. .950 . In the sing. , too, there is a stronger eTuation of Vqf and in A
than in 4''5 3t. *5*. .
2ent. 2entateu%h.
7 The use of for <entiles" is ver& %onsistent in the 2s. -nl& on%e in 105:5 do we have as
a !ar. of i and i . -ther !arallels between and are to be found onl& in
32:12 and 42:1 5 . -f other boo:s, ;eh. is mar:ed b& !hilologi%al a%%ura%&,
*. In a number of !assages Vqf and `^_Revs`a^_Re or and are !lainl& and
intentionall& differentiated. Thus in 1B. //5./ is used for !eo!le" in general, whereas
denotes the %hosen !eo!le5 . is so
fiBed a notion that it %an even be used sometimes for !agan !eo!les, e.g., in * >h. /*5.0 5 q
i
. From the stand!oint of the god %on%erned, denotes his !eo!le and thus
eB!resses the %lose relationshi! between <od and !eo!le. In this %onneBion, denotes rather
the s!here of dominion. There is a similar use of in the following 7ellenisti% dedi%ation5
q 6 .
6

In 3t. 756 the 4'' ( 8as. V`sea qf , !eo!les") shar!l& distinguishes between , <entiles, and
, the !eo!le of <od, while in the !ar. !assage in 1B. .950 , 6 )c\edRZ )sqf UU
and V`sea qf is rendered , but with !hilologi%al a%%ura%& PQ ^_rNd `^_Re is translated
( 3t. 756 5 PQ ^_rNd Vqf UU ).
The 4'' is even more inde!endent in 2 t. :11 , when it renders Y^_uMd [b cd `se] qf
, so that i is used for !eo!les" generall& and te%hni%all& for the <entiles.
The %orres!onding !assage in 1 t. 8:80 has q q . 7en%e in 2 t.
:7 , too, is to be ta:en in the sense of <entiles. The univerDsalism of 4'' !iet& finds
%hara%teristi% eB!ression in 3a. 956 , where the 8as. has5 \[X xd sZ PaQ LeZ ^eMLeZ rea MPXQ [b V`[a `La SeZcf
MX [d cd Vqf \Wed \[X ^Z ^eS`Y] L_ [b ^f ^eS`M] Pdw ^eS`W]\dsZ { and the 4'' translates ,
i q q
q q q . This means that for the 4'' !ro!heti%
!ro%lamation is dire%ted to ever& nation on earth. O gives an a%%urate rendering of the 8as. with
its s!e%ifi% referen%e to the ?ewish !eo!le in the land of >anaan5 {
q q . >f. also 2 B. 7:23 # . >h. .75*. # * >h. /65.) UU 1 t. 1:47 .
is obviousl& used in the sense of <entiles" in man& religious and ethi%al %onteBts also. Thus we
often read of the , %f. 3 B. 14:24 # 4 B. 16:3 # *.5* et%.,
also 4 B. 21: UU * >h. //59 # . >h. .65*6 .
@hile `^_Re , V`a^_Re is onl& rarel& translated (7 times sing. and 6 !lur. )
9
or other <:.
words than , the rendering of Vqf is more varied. To establish the %ontent, i.e., the
so%iologi%al indefiniteness, of all four words `^_Re , Vqf , , it is inDstru%tive to surve&
the various <:. words used for `^_R e and Vqf , and the various 7eb. words whi%h are the originals of
and . , large measure of agreement results. @e %an best a!!re%iate this b&
%om!aring the %orres!onding 4'' and 8as. terms5 q k MX [X , `[a , V^_Nsd # , ,
k chd ied PZQ sa , qMf |X , f , Y`aLef # k \cd Nd # q # csed [ , V[_ \Z # ,
q k t^_scd # k \`ahf , [Ld ud , cSXhb sf # , k Vrd[d , PQ ^_S[X #
# MLed hf # k MWdS]tLeX , M|d # i; , k MLX uX #
q k [`Pdw Sd # # t[u_ . If these eTuations are onl& o%%asional %om!ared with the
total number of (some .+++) and (some *+++) !assages, the& show the s%o!e and
%ontent of the %on%e!t !eo!le," whi%h %an denote an indefinite grou! of !eo!le, whether in the
sense of %ourt %ir%les ( 1st. .5/ 5 UU V`raLd ub # %f. .5.6 5 q UU V`sea uf ) and
therefore a narrower stratum, or in the broadest sense the human ra%e, whi%h is the sense of Vqf in
Is. )*50 (=ahweh is the <od { who gives breath to the !eo!le on earth). To dedu%e from this
!assage, whi%h sim!l& refers to the dwellers on earth a%%. to their natural determination as Vqf , a
universal %on%e!t of humanit& su!!osedl& !resent in Is. )*56 # )956 ( ,
alwa&s being used for V`a^_Re and for Vqf .
6 >f. 8itteisD@il%:en , I, *, ;o. 6, *.
9 9ing.5 ?os. /5.7 # )5. # Is. 95/ # *65* # 065* # ?er. 959 # )+ ( // )59# 2lur. 66:4 ( vl. 5 )# ge%h. .)5.) #
Is. 0050 # 6+50 # 1E. *+5). # *65*0 .
k V`a^_Re M^_[ , Vqf Y`Ma LeZ ), is going too far. Vqf Y`Ma LeZ refers to the %hosen !eo!le. The
mission of the 9ervant of the 4ord goes be&ond this !eo!le to the <entiles. ,t least, this is how the
!assage is understood in the 4'', whi%h !resu!!oses Vqf Y`Ma LeZ in )956 as well.
.+
The situation
is mu%h the same in 47:10 . 1ven if we a%%e!t the reading of the 8ss.5 ^eid [Z SX V`sea qf `L] `raSZ
Vcd Md LZ [f `c] \_[z Vqf , these !rin%es %an hardl& be regarded as re!resentatives of the whole ra%e,
..

and we should sim!l& translate5 2rin%es of the nations gather as the !eo!le of the <od of
,braham."
/. @hen the term ( V`a^_R e ) is used in the sense of <entiles. it is often with no sense of a
!luralit& of nations. The word is used nonDso%iologi%all& to des%ribe all the individuals who do not
belong to the %hosen !eo!le.
.*
Hut <od is the Fing of the !eo!les ( ?er. .+57 # %f. Aev. .05/ ).
The divine order of the table of nations ( <n. .+ ) is in a%%ord with this fa%t. From the first
!atriar%hs there does not des%end a single humanit&, but a grou! of nations divided a%%ording to
%lans and differing in language, %ustom and situation. The attem!t to resist this in <n. .. has its
origin in human !ride. <od intervenes to reDestablish the order im!osed b& 7im. 9imilarl&, in 3t.
/*56 the division of the world into nations is a divine order and not a !unishment for human sin5
@hen the most 7igh divided to the nations their inheritan%e, when he se!arated the sons of
,dam, he set the bounds of the !eo!le a%%ording to the number (of the sons of <od) {"
./
The
4'' ma:es the final subsidiar& %lause into the main %lause5
, l A,
.
2hilo eB!ounded both this !assage and <n. .. allegori%all&. ,s he sees it, the referen%e here is
to q ( 2ost. >. 9. ). <n. .. , however, he understands in terms of the
destru%tion, the , i of the i . -nl& in this negative sense
%an we ta:e i: c i , c i
( >onf. 4ing. , .96 ). Thus the view, if not of 2hilo, at least of the underl&ing tradition %on%erning
the rise of the nations, is mar:ed b& the fa%t that, as an allegori%al eB!ositor who has no histori%al
interest, he formulates the Tuestion of 3t. /*56 as follows5 q q
q ( 2ost. >. , 9+ ). 7e thus assumes that a divinel& !osited good is to be seen
in the ordering of the nations. -n the other hand, it is due to the influen%e of 7ellenisti%
im!erialism and !a%ifism in the Aoman 1m!ire that these ideas do not a!!ear either in 2hilo or
elsewhere, but rather that on the basis of <n. .. the rise of the nations is attributed to human sin,
as in ?ub. .+5**5 The& shall be divided into %ities and !eo!les, and there shall no more be one
mind among them until the da& of $udgment." ;evertheless, in ) 1sr. /57 , .* there is no referen%e
to a fall to whi%h the rise of the nations ma& be tra%ed ba%:. In this !assage their eBisten%e is to be
seen as a natural %onseTuen%e of the in%rease of men under the blessing of <od. Indeed, in man&
!assages this blessing is related to nations
.)
rather than individuals (%f. <n. .7 and es!. the
es%hatologi%al blessings in <n. .65.6 # **5.6 # *65) ).
.+ >f. finall& @. 9taer:, g,@ , ;F / (.9*6), *)6 ff.# also the >omm.
.. 2 and O seem to have ta:en the !assage universalisti%all&. 2: qi,
A. O: , A . -n the other hand
the 4'' has5 A . 9imilarl&, in AO 3t. /*5)/ the
designation as !eo!le of <od seems to be transferred to the <entiles. The 7eb. is ^_se qf V`a^_R ^eS`SaMZ cf . For this
there are 0 <:. renderings. The 4'' has two neBt to one another5 .. , , # *.
, , ( A. .05.+ )5 /. A: l, , #
). O: A, , # 0. t: l, , .
.* >f. the Tuestion of V`[a Re] in the 2s. (%f. <es.DHuhl , s.v. `^_Re , also g,@ , ;F, / m.9*6n, .)9). The
%hara%terisation of the <entiles here %orres!onds at least to the idea whi%h the righteous have of the V`[a Re]
(9addu%ees 7). >f. also the !assage Tuoted above from 2 t. :11 .
./ F. 8arti in FautEs%h. The same tradition a!!ears in 7eb. Test. ;. 6 on <n. .+5*0 5 For then (in the da&s of
2eleg) the 7ol& -ne %ame down from his high heaven { 7e s!o:e and %ommanded ea%h of them that the&
should tea%h 7+ languages to the 7+ ra%es of those who %ame forth from the loins of ;oah {"# .+5 7ereu!on
the most 7igh divided the nations, and gave and restri%ted to ea%h its !ortion and lot" (FautEs%h). ,%%ording to y
9 the fall of <n. .. is a%%e!ted, but it is nations alread& a!!ointed b& <od whi%h %ons!ire against 7im.
.) In the -T <od is <od and 4ord of the nations. >f. @. <raf Haudissin, 4'rios , III (.9*9), 606 ff.
The nations !la& an im!ortant !art in the !ro!heti% view of histor&. The& are agents of the
wrath of <od ( 7os. 65.+ et%.) towards sinful Israel. The& themselves fall vi%tim to this wrath
be%ause the& do not dis%harge their mission as a divine tas:, but in human !ride (e.g., Is. 659 ).
The& are finall& the re%i!ients of salvation, whi%h the Fing of the world will allot to the nations.
The :ingdoms of the world, whi%h unite in themselves man& !eo!les, languages and %ultures (e.g.,
3a. 4'' )5/)b ), stand in %ontrast to the :ingdom of <od, whose Inaugurator the nations eB!e%t
as the 8essiani% Auler.
.0
This is how the 4'' and (g understand <n. )95.+ 5
i . The 8as. has V`sea qf Ycf NeZ `a ^_\^Z , whi%h 4uther renders5 To him will the
!eo!les %leave"
.6
%f. also A: . 8an& !ro!heti% !assages s!ea: of the
es%hatologi%al salvation whi%h the !eo!les shall re%eive, e.g., Is. *5*I) # 8i. )5.I/ # Is. *056I6 #
0.5) f. # ge%h. 95.6 # ?er. .65.9 et%.
If a%%ording to these !ro!heti% utteran%es nation and !eo!le as su%h will maintain their !la%e
in the es%hatologi%al :ingdom of <od, there is generall& a mar:ed dissolution of the %on%e!ts of
nation and !eo!le in ?ewish !iet&, so that referen%es are to the <entiles rather than the nations.
,!art from the !assages mentioned, this is alwa&s true when the referen%e is to the attitude of
individuals, e.g., their %onversion to =ahweh ( ge%h. 65*+I*/ # Is. ))50 et%.). 1ven where the
union of the <entiles with the ?ews is !resu!!osed, and in all referen%es to the mission and
!ro!aganda of ?udaism as a religion, whi%h is naturall& rather a different matter from divine
revelation to the nations, the %on%e!t of !eo!le is absorbed into that of the <entiles (e.g., Is.
665.7I*. 4''). Indeed, the term finall&, %omes to be asso%iated with the lower elements in the
!o!ulation (the !lebs). Thus Aabbini% ?udaism uses the term MX [d cd Vqf in a dis!araging sense. In
the !ostDeBili% !eriod it %ame to be used for the <entiles dwelling in the land ( 1Er. .+5* , .. #
;eh. .+5/. , /* ), %hara%terising the inhabitants as ?ewishD<entile mongrels. In%reasingl&, the
term served to eB!ress the religious and theologi%al !ride of the se%ts, who tried to draw a stri%t
line of demar%ation between themselves and the !eo!le, and whose attitude is t&!i%all& de!i%ted in
the ;T in the dealings between 2harisees and !ubli%ans. In <:.
.7
is used for !eo!le" in
this dis!araging sense, ?n. 75)9 . although a%%ording to se%ular usage either or
might have been used eTuall& well. In the Hible, however, is an established term for the
%hosen !eo!le, and in ) 8a%%., for instan%e, the sing. is regularl& used, and o%%asionall&
elsewhere, rather after the manner of populus for the Aoman !eo!le. >ertainl& %onve&s a
negative $udgment from the ?ewish stand!oint. =et even in the -T this $udgment has no final
validit& in fa%e of the !romise of revelation to all !eo!les, and this is !arti%ularl& so in the ;T in
fa%e of the dire%tion of the everlasting <os!el ( Aev. .)56 ) and the missionar&
%ommand5 (ma:e dis%i!les of all nations," 8t. *65.9 ).
Bertra
B. ( in the NT.
.. This word, whi%h is %ommon in <:. from the ver& first, !robabl& %omes from , and
means mass" or host" or multitude" bound b& the same manners, %ustoms or other distin%tive
features. ,!!lied to men, it gives us the sense of !eo!le# but it %an also be used of animals in the
sense of herd" or of inse%ts in the sense of swarm" (though %f. also for the
ra%e of bees). The original sense ma& still be seen in the 6 of ,%. .75*6 .
In most %ases is used of men in the sense of a !eo!le." 9&non. are (!eo!le
as a national unit& of %ommon des%ent), (!eo!le as a !oliti%al unit& with a %ommon
histor& and %onstitution) and (!eo!le as a linguisti% unit&). is the most
general and therefore the wea:est of these terms, having sim!l& an ethnogra!hi%al sense and
denoting the natural %ohesion of a !eo!le in general.
.6

.0 In the -T Is. )05. seems to treat >&rus as a messiah, and in ?os.Hell. , 6, /./ even (es!asian is hailed as
su%h. >f. AosenDHertram, op. cit. ( n. / ), // f., ./6 f.
.6 In 7ag. *57 4uther translates V`a^_Recf \Wed YrefsZ hX the salvation of the <entiles," more re%entl& amended to
the good of the <entiles." This is a %hristologi%al re%onstru%tion. The 8as. and indeed the 4'' both refer to
the %ostl& treasures whi%h will adorn the tem!le in ?erusalem. >f. <. Hertram, ThHl , ) (.9*0), *+6 ff.
.7 >f. 9tr.DH. on ?n. 75)9, II, )9)I0.9.
.6 In Aev. 059 # 759 # ..59 # ./57 # .)56 we find all four eB!ressions together (of. also .+5.. # .75.0 ).
-f some .6+ instan%es in the ;T , about )+ are Tuoted from the -T , and there are man& other
more or less %lear reminis%en%es or e%hoes. This relationshi! to the -T , and es!. to the 4'',
does not affe%t the general sense of , but is of signifi%an%e from the stand!oint of bibli%al
theolog& in so far as ma& be given a s!e%ial sense b& the %onteBt.
*. There are 6) !assages in the ;T where we have or without an& s!e%ial
sense or %hara%teristi%s. These o%%ur in all four <os!els (9 in 8t., ) in 8:., 9 in 4:., 0 in ?n.),
in ,%. (.6 times), in 2l. (7), in . 2t. (.), and in Aev. (./). ,bout 6+ refer to a !eo!le or
!eo!les in the general sense, and of these the following have in view the ?ewish !eo!le5 4:.
750 # */5* # ?n. ..5)0 , 0+ , 0. , 0* # .65/0 # ,%. .+5** # *)5* , .+ , .7 # *65) # *65.9 # . 2t. *59 .
That the ?ewish !eo!le is meant in the same sense as others, with no !arti%ular distin%tion,
ma& be seen from the various %onteBts and also from !hrases li:e i in
,%. .+5** and in . 2t. *59 . In this res!e%t and are used
inter%hangeabl& ( ?n. ..50+ # ,%. )5*0 , *7 # .05.) # A. .05.. ). That the eB!ression
refers to all nations ma& be seen from the addition of in 8t. *)59 , .) # *05/* # *65.9 #
8:. ..5.7 # ./5.+ # 4:. *.5*) # *)5)7 # A. .05.. # <l. /56 .
/. In s!ite of this addition, however, we sometimes have the feelingkit is hardl& morek
that the referen%e is not to all nations in%luding Israel, but to the nations or all nations in
distin%tion from Israel as the V`a^_Re . Thus A. .05.. , on the basis of 2s. ..75. , summons all
nations to !raise <od. Hut this %an hardl& in%lude Israel, sin%e it is selfDevident that Israel
should !raise <od. ,gain, on the basis of another -T Tuotation <l. /56 s!ea:s of the blessing
of all nations in ,braham. Hut this surel& has in view the nations a!art from Israel, sin%e the
blessing of Israel in ,braham as its !rogenitor ma& be assumed. This raises the !ossibilit& of
similar referen%es to the <entiles rather than to all the nations elsewhere, e.g., 8t. )5.0 (
i UU V`a^_Recef \`\aReZ in Is. 65*/ )# *+5*0 (where
are more naturall& !rin%es of the nonD?ewish or <entile world)# 4:. *.5*) (
q , the hol& %it& tram!led down b& the <entiles)# ,%.
)5*0 (a%%ording to 2s. *5. f. the <entiles rage against the 4ord and 7is ,nointed)# 757 (the
same)# ./5.9 (seven >anaanirish and therefore <entile !eo!les)# A. .50 (2aul is !erha!s
thin:ing here of the <entiles in his mention of all nations)# Aev. .+5.. # .)56 # .05/ , ) (where
the ?ewish or ?ewish >hristian view of the seer suggests a natural use for <entiles). There is,
of %ourse, no !roof that in these !assages we have a te%hni%al use of in the sense of
<entiles even though the %onteBt, often based on the -T , indi%ates that the <entiles are
meant.
). There are also man& !assages in the ;T ksome .++ as %om!ared with the !revious 6+
kin whi%h , li:e the %orres!onding V`a^_Re in the -T , is undoubtedl& used as a te%hni%al
term for the <entiles as distin%t from the ?ews or >hristians5 8t. 6 times# 8:. . # 4:. / # ,%.
*6 ( infra )# A. */# . and * >. 0 # <l. 6# 1!h. and >ol. 6 # . Th. * # 2ast. *# . 2t. * # / ?n. . #
Aev. .+ . The %on%e!t, though not the term, is found also in ?ohns <os!el ( /7. ).
To %larif& and establish the sense of <entiles as distin%t from ?ews
.9
it is enough to
mention a few outstanding !assages. In 8t. 65/* , for eBam!le, ?esus dire%ts 7is hearers not
to !ra& as the kan ethi%oDreligious %ontrast between ?ews and <entiles whi%h is based
on the s!e%ial !osition of Israel in salvation histor&. The !arallel in 4:. .*5/+ deliberatel&
em!hasises the distin%tion b& the !hrase (the to
whi%h no true ?ew belongs as a member of the !eo!le of <od). In 8t. .+50 these are set
.9 It is !ossible that the word heathen" %omes from . >f. F. gorell, )e:. Graeco< )at. -u !" , * (.9/.),
s.v. 5 Sic noen Fcu spiritu aspero koinesG in alias linguas transiitE %o!t. nihethnos , arm. hethanosT , goth.
fem. haithno ( 8:. 75*6 ), probabiliter angl. heathen, germ. (eiden . If this is %orre%t (%f. ,. @aldeD?. 2o:orn&,
Vergleich. Wrterb. d. indoger. Sprachen , I m.9*7n, /*9), we have here a bibli%al loan word li:e ,glise (UU
i ) or church6 4irche (!robabl& derived from i ).
alongside the des!ised 9amaritans.
*+
In 8t. *+5.9 (UU 8:. .+5// UU 4:. .65/* ), in the
foretelling of the !assion, the 8essiah ?esus is to be delivered u! to the kthe ver& last
!eo!le to whom the 8essiah of the !eo!le of <od should be handed over. The same
distin%tion between <entiles and ?ews dominates ,%ts and the a!ostoli% and !ostDa!ostoli%
letters, and therefore the missionar& witness of the !rimitive %ommunit&. The as
<entiles goDtheir own wa&s and are left to themselves in ,%. .)5.6 # the& are
q i q q
i in 1!h. *5.* # the& are outside revelation, o!!osed to the 4aw of <od and
therefore q in 1!h. *5.* . There is a !arti%ularl& %lear distin%tion
between the and the in . >. .5*/ , where some 899 have (
) for . -bviousl& we have here a te%hni%al term, though this %an easil& be
lost in the teBt, as in 1!h. )5.7 , where some 899 have added the e!ithet . That the
, as <entiles of the world, are riveted to this world or aeon ma& be seen from Aev.
.05/ , where there is a reading l6 for .
*.

7ow fiBed and wides!read the usage is, is illustrated b& the fa%t that 2aul %an still %all
<entile >hristians in A. ..5./ (though there is some doubt as to the eBa%t bearing of
) and 1!h. /5. (where there is no doubt that <entile >hristians are
numbered among the ).
It is true that in . >. 05. # .*5* # . Th. )50 # . 2t. *5.* # / ?n. 7 ( * al) and various !assages
in Aev. the are <entiles in distin%tion from >hristians, but this usage rests on the fa%t
that >hristians are %onsidered true Israelites and the >hur%h as Israel .
It is %urious that the Fourth <os!el does not use for <entiles. The eB!lanation is
that in this <os!el the ?ews in their obdura%& are eTuated with the , the evil world,
and are thus themselves to be addressed as . This s!e%ifi%all& ?ohannine %on%e!tion
belongs materiall& to a %ommon line of thought in the earl& >hur%h, as we ma& see from
2aulOs %lassif&ing of ?ew and <entile together from the stand!oint of the <os!el.
0. ,ll that we have said ma& be gathered %learl& from the ;T itself, though the Tuotation
of a number of -T !assages shows the influen%e of -T usage. The de%isive !oint is the
ethi%oDreligious distin%tion in relation to salvation histor&. , most su%%in%t and &et also the
most %om!rehensive eB!ression of this is to be found eTuall& in the -T and the ;T . Thus
q l in . Th. )50 UU q l , MPXQ [b V`a^_Recf
xd ^ eqrd`Z[\_ in ?er. .+5*0 .
It is in a%%ord with the relationshi! of the -T to Aabbini% ?udaism on the one side and
7ellenisti% ?udaism on the other that the D V`a^_Re %on%e!tion is maintained in the former
s!herekthis is so obvious that individual instan%es are unne%essar&kand abandoned in the latter.
The %ase is eBa%tl& the same as with i (I, 07) ff.) . 2hilo, for eBam!le, does not have
the distin%tion whi%h here %on%erns us. 7e uses for ever& !eo!le, in%luding the ?ewish (
i , 9!e%. 4eg. , II, .6/ et%.). The same is true of ?ose!hus. In his writings the
Aomans s!ea: of other !eo!les as (e.g., Titus in Hell. , 6, /)* ).
8ight it be that there is some tra%e of 7ellenisti% influen%e in the ;T eTuation of with
<entiles 2rior to the Aomans, the <ree:s des%ribed foreigners as in distin%tion from the
.
**
@hen a!!lied to nonD<ree: !eo!les, the word often has a dis!araging
sense rather li:e the unambiguous . There is at least in the sense of
*+ >f. @il:eD<rimm. , s.v. 5 , ut in V" V`a^_Recf , gentes e:terae a veri dei cultu alienae6 pagani6
gentiles . FranE 3elitEs%h in his 7eb. trans. of the ;T rightl& uses V`a^_Re for but Vqf for (the
?ewish !eo!le).
*. That we have here a te%hni%al term is !erha!s also shown b& the fa%t that is sometimes used without
art. for the <entiles" li:e the 7eb. V`a^_Re , e.g., ,%. )5*0 # A. .05.6 . >f. Hl.D3ebr. y *0), /.
** Individual eBam!les ma& be found in 8oult.D8ill. , 4iddellD9%ott , 2r.DHauer , s.v.
!rovin%ial" in the outer and above all the inner sense.
*/
If, then, the <ree: Hible of the -T and
;T s!ea:s similarl& of as the 7eb. did of V`a^_Re , is it not !ossible that we sim!l& have the
same eB%lusivism of Israel and ?udah as is found also amongst the <ree:s
*)
The answer is that
even at its greatest what we find in <ree%e is onl& analogous to what is seen in Israel in its
relationshi! to all other !eo!les. ;or does the analog& indi%ate the true signifi%an%e or
!arti%ularit& of the statements in the -T .
6. In nonD%anoni%al writings of the earl& >hur%h and in the !ostDa!ostoli% fathers the
s!e%ifi%all& bibli%al view is maintained. , single stri:ing eBam!le is the des%ri!tion of the
<entiles as in 8art.2ol. , 9, *. The situation is the same in an%ient >hur%h histor&,
%f. >anones <rae%i >on%ilii 4aodi%eni , /95
g .
*0

(& .
This o%%urs five times in the ;T 5 8t. 05)7 # 657 # .65.7 # / ?n. 7 #
.
<l. *5.) (
a
dv.
).
In a%%ordan%e with what we have said %on%erning , means national,"
foreign," <entile." In the first two senses it is found onl& in later <:. It does not o%%ur at all in
the 4''.
The -T and ?ewish %laim is %learl& eB!ressed in 8t. 05)7 , where the i are set in
o!!osition to those who fulfil the 4aw. If is !ossible instead of i , we need
hardl& be sur!rised at the %ombination 6 in 8t. .65.7 , with
whi%h we ma& %om!are the i of 4:. .05. . There is no Tuestion
here of national distin%tion, but of the inner mar: of a re!resentative of the . This is
wh& i is teBtuall& !ossible instead of i in 8t. 657 .
*
The !hrase
in <l. *5.) ma:es it %lear that the distin%tion from ?udaism
is alwa&s de%isive. If 2aul the ?ew here sets himself on the side of the q , this
merel& shows us on%e more that in the e&es of the a!ostle mere are not ran:ed
above mere , $ust as the 4ord 7imself %ould %all the i , the and
therefore also the i blessed.
In the !ostDa!ostoli% fathers we find onl& on%e in 7erm.m. , .+, ., )# it is more
%ommon in the ,!ologists (?ustin, ,ristides).
4
arl )ud2ig Schidt
(
a. 7abit," use"5 9o!h.2hil. , 69)# Thu%. , II, 6), * ( { g g
q )# 2lat.2haed. , 6*b# Iso%. , 6, 9.# 1!i%t.3iss. , I, *7, /# III, .*, 6# 2. -B&. , I,
.00, 7# 2. Fa&. , .*0, 0 ( i )# . 8a%%. .+569 ( i
*/ >f. on this !t. 9. 4Js%h, 3ie 3an:esrede des Tertullus (,g. *)5.I))," Theol. ouart. , ..* (.9/.), /+*# also
8oult.D8ill. , s.v.
*) This is the view of 8oult.D8ill. , s.v. ,5 7i%:s in >A (UU "he 1lassical /evie2 ), ., !. )* f. has shown that
~7elleni% life found its normal t&!e in the , and barbarians who lived 6 or in some less
organised form were ,O and that similarl& in the 4'' and ;T ~des%ribes the !agan world, outside
the ?ewish >hur%h,O but o%%asionall& stands for the itself, as in ,%. .+5** # *)5.7 al."
*0 >f. Thes. 9te!h. , s.v.
. , /7. # the reading is found as well as .
adv. adverb.
* The attem!t of 1. ;estle ( Th9tFr , 69 m.696n, .+* ff.# %f. his 2hilologia 9a%ra m.696n, *7 ff.) to ma:e ML] hd the
7eb. or ,ram. original of in 8t. 657 ( V`Ma L] hb UU fellows, i.e., 2harisees) is rightl& re$e%ted b& >r.D
FJ.
Farl 4udwig 9%hmidt Farl 4udwig 9%hmidt , Honn ((ol. .), Hasel ((ol. *I/, 0I6).
)# * 8a%%. ./5) # 2hilo1br. , .90 and .96 # ?os. , 6/ ( @is.
.)5.6 5 c of the %ult of idols).
.
b. >ustom," %ulti% ordinan%e," law"5 3itt. 9&ll.
/
.+7/, *+ ( )# used for ?ewish laws in the 4''5 * 8a%%. ..5*0 (
)# ) 8a%%. .650 ( i )# 2hilo4eg.
,ll. , III, /+ # (irt. , 60 # 9!e%. 4eg. , II, .)9 ( )# I(, .)9 et%. ?os.,nt. , 9, *6* (
i )# 9, *6/ # *+, .++ ( i { )# .0, *66 (
c ) with referen%e to the ?ewish sa%rifi%es.
The ;T , too, uses in these two senses. 4:. alone of the 1vangelists re%ords in
**5/9 that it was the %ustom of ?esus to sta& on the 8ount of -lives. This obviousl& does not
mean that 7e sle!t there while sta&ing in ?erusalem, but rather that this was the mountain to!
on whi%h 7e followed 7is %ustom of !ra&er when in ?erusalem. is thus used for a
religious habit whi%h 7e did not ta:e over from the %ulti% %ommunit& but ado!ted for
7imself. In ,%. *05.6 denotes the %ustom of Aoman $usti%e that the a%%used should be
%onfronted b& his a%%users and have the %han%e to defend himself. In 7b. .+5*0 there is
%ensure of a bad %ustom of nonDattendan%e at gatherings whi%h was establishing itself in the
%ommunit&. In ?n. .95)+ is used for the burial law of the ?ews. This leads on to the use
of the term for the %ulti% laws of the ?ews. In this sense it is found onl& in the 4u%an writings.
The ?ewish %ultus is designed to eB!ress the faithfulness and %onstan%& of <od, to dis!la& a
dignit& and solemnit& %ommensurate with the divine ma$est&. 7en%e it has a fiBed order and
law li:e ever& %ultus. This is eB!ressed on the one side in the regulation of the !riestl& offi%e
(%f. q li , 4:. .59 ) and on the other in an infleBible order, so
that the life of the !ious is ruled q q ( 4:. *5)* ). Finall&,
therefore, is used for the whole of the %ulti% law attributed to 8oses ( ,%. 65.) # .05. #
.65*. # *.5*. # *65/ # *65.7 ).
Preisker
+ .
+, ,! ",!$
.. @hat is visible" (in a man or ob$e%t)5 figure"#
.
a!!earan%e." 4:. /5** 5 the
a!!ears # 95*9 5 { c (of ?esus) c .
It is %ommon from the time of 7omer and 7erodotus (e.g., l q
, 7dt. , I, 6)# %f. ?os. ( ,nt. , 6, *96 # 7, .69 )
/
and 2hilo.
)
In the 4'' it is
used es!. for c[X MZ sf and M[f Ye_ , e.g., l l ( ?u. ./56 ), but also
q ( <n. *95.7 et%.). Is. 0*5.) 5 { l q
(A : q )# 0/5* 5 l { l
# 0/5/ 5 l ( 8as. 5 c|XLZ Sa # 2: ).
6

It %an be used of <od. Thus 4'' translates 2eniel" ( <n. /*5/+ f. UU /.f.)5 l
. ;u. .*56 5 (<od sa&s %on%erning 8oses) q 6
l ( I, .76 # I, *.7 f. ). It is against this
ba%:ground, in the %onteBt of hearing and seeing, that we have the sa&ing in ?n. 05/7 5
q 6 l .
. >f. * 8a%%. )5.. ( )# also 9ir. */5.) (UU habit)# <n. /.5/0 (UU xZ MX reX UU !eriod,
menstruation).
. -n the relation to , %f. >r.DFJ. , /69# Tren%h , .70.
/ 9%hl. 4:. , )).
) 7. 4eisegang, .ndices (.9*6 ff.), ***.
6 -n the teBt of this verse in the 4'', A and 2 , %f. F. F. 1uler, Die Verkndigung vo leidenden Gottesknecht
aus 0es. HI in der griech. Bibel UU H@,;T , ), .) (.9/)), .* ff.
>f.
1
B. r. , )., /5 Two things Israel as:ed of <od5 to see 7is form ( ^Y^sr ), and to hear the
words from 7is mouth." It is most signifi%ant for the !osition of the Aabbini% eBegete that in 9.
;u. , .+/ on .*56 the eB!lanator& c[X MZ sf LeZ
6
is not lin:ed with the I of <od %ontained in the
MLe] rf[b , but is understood as the seeing of s!ee%h5 Thou sa&est5 the seeing of s!ee%h. -r !erha!s
of the 9he:inah
9
This is %orre%t, for it is written5 ~,nd he said, Thou %anst not see m& fa%e5 for
there shall no man see me, and liveO ( 1B. //5*+ )."
*. In * >. 057 the usual rendering
.+
of i ,
as not b& sight" does not seem to be ver& a!!osite. The !resu!!osed a%tive use of l is
without a !arallel,
..
the word alwa&s being used of the fa%t of being seen rather than the a%t
of seeing. 1lsewhere when 2aul indi%ates b& what a is determined he does not
use the !re!osition but ( A. 65) # .)5.0 ) or ( * >or. )5* # A. 65) ), or the dative
( * >. .*5.6 # <l. 05.6 ).
.*
7ere the does not denote the manner of wal:ing, i.e., the
%ir%umstan%e whi%h determines it,
./
but rather the a%%om!an&ing %ir%umstan%e ( , /b#
66 ). 7en%e the onl& !ossible sense is that we wal: in the s!here in whi%h we are referred to
faith and in whi%h there is no visible form.
The onl& remaining Tuestion is what form is at issue. It might be the
.)
in whom
we now believe (%f. the l li of . >or.
./5.*a ) and whose l we shall see onl& in the neBt aeon (%f. the c
of . >or. ./5.*b ). This view, however, involves a diffi%ult introdu%tion
of the sub$e%t of both i and l , and it stands in no ver& strong %onne%tion with the
general argument of the !assage. Hoth these ob$e%tions are over%ome if we ta:e the alternative
view that the referen%e is to the form of the >hristian
.0
whi%h in its full and !ro!er sense
belongs onl& to the !eriod of the q ( v. 6 ). In its !rovisional
%hara%ter the !resent earthl& state is related to the true l whi%h the believer will en$o& at
the last time in eBa%tl& the same wa& as the q is to the li i ( v.
. ), or the 6 and i ( v. 6 ) to the ( v. 6 ).
The situation denoted in the verse is $ust the same as that of . ?n. /5* 5 6
i .
.6

>f. the 2latoni% use of l in the sense of model," idea," essen%e of a thing" ( 9&m!. ,
*.+b#
7
i. , I, *69d# 2haed. , .+*b# .+/e# Theaet. , .)6d# 2hilo-!. 8und. , .+/ # (it. 8os. , II, 76 ),
and !erha!s also the use of l for form as distin%t from matter ( )5 ,ristot.
2
h&s. , I, ), !.
.67a, .6# 8eta!h&s., (I,/, !. .+*9a, *9. It is both instru%tive and selfD%onsistent that the 2latoni%
use does not o%%ur in the ;T .
1B. r. &:odus rabba ( Sheot rabba ), 8idrash on 1Bodus (9tra%:, &inl. , *+6).
6 The 8idrash !resu!!oses this reading, n. 7 .
9 In the Herlin 89 of the 8idrash V`c\[ is the seeing of <od. >f. Fuhn, *69, n. ...
.+ 9o also @nd#, 4tEm., ad loc. # also <. Fittel, /eligionsgesch. u. 8rchrtt. (.9/*), .+/.
.. >f. 4iddellD9%ott , )6*# also <. 7einri%i, Das -2eite Sendschr. d. #p. Pls. an die 4orinth. (.667), *6.# Der
-2eite Brief an die 4or. (.9++).
.* >f. 7einri%i, Der -2eite Brief , .60.
./ 9o @nd., ad loc. , .67.
.) 9o 7einri%i# also ,. 9%hlatter, Paulus6 der Bote 0esu (.9/)), /6/, 0.9, 00*.
.0 9o >r.DFJ. , /9+.
.6 >om!arison with . >. ./5.* is thus no less mista:en than referen%e to the of ;u. .*56 4''. This is
!arti%ularl& true of the latter, sin%e even in . >. ./5.* 2aul does not seem to be de!endent on the <:. form of the
-T verse ( I, .6+ ).
7i. (ippias , I 3a5or , II 3inor .
2h&s. Ph'sica .
/. l is often used
.7
for manner,
.6
and this is the most li:el& meaning of . Th. 05** 5
l , :ee! &ourselves from ever& evil manner."
.9

The lin: with v. *. ma:es this !referable to the older rendering5 ,void all a!!earan%e of evil."
*+

The lin: is all the stronger if the theor& is %orre%t that we have here a Tuotation of the sa&ing of
?esus %on%erning the mone&D%hangers often referred to in the earl& >hur%h.
*.
This seems ver&
li:el& in view of the strong verbal similarities and the use of l for a mint."
**
In this %ase v.
*.b and v. ** would be the !ositive and negative outwor:ing of the main advi%e in v. *.a 5 (,s
good mone&D%hangers) test all things5 :ee! the good and re$e%t the bad."
4ittel
-), ,)&(, ,),
), ,)), ,))
-)%
*

.. - , from l- , videre , to see" (%f. l , figure"), means !i%ture" or
%o!&," whether artifi%iall& made, selfDre!rodu%ed or sim!l& !resent. Thus might mean
figure of a man" in the sense of a %o!& of the man de!i%ted, but not the man himself,
.
It %an also
be used for images of gods et%.
*
-n the other hand, the usual term for the %ulti% images of the
<ree:s is , while the statues of men are normall& %alled and l6 . The
relevant %ulti% ob$e%t as su%h is not , but the relation to the deit& %an be formulated in
su%h a wa& that it is its . It hel!s us to understand the <ree: %on%e!tion and sense of the
word that the& %all refle%tions in water ( ,ristot. , 3e 3ivinatione
!er 9omnum , *, !. )6)6, 9 and ..), and that the& also %all the shadow (
2lat.Aes!. , (II, 0/*%). %an also be used for shades or a!!aritions,
/
and is !ar. to
.
)
Indeed, the inhabitants of the underworld are %alled ,
0
though the& are no
.7 >f. 8oult.D8ill. , .6*. 2hilo, %f. 4eisegang, *** ff.
.6 2artl& identi%al, !artl& as a subDdivision of , as in ,ristot.Ahet. , II, *+, !. ./9/a, *7.
.9 It %annot be fiBed with !re%ision whether is used as an ad$. or a subst. (from evil of ever& :ind").
In the one %ase %f. ?ob .5. , 6 5 , and in the other
?os.,nt. , .+, /7 5 l i .
*+ 9o ,. (., %f. 4uther, >alvin, 1rasmus ( apparentia )# on the other hand %f. (g ( ab oni specie ale ).
*. i , c , c . There is
a good anal&sis of the tradition in ,. Aes%h, #grapha
*
(.9+6), ..*I.*6.
** Aes%h, .*0.
C . 2a!e, 2ass. , >r.DFJ. , 2r.DHauer , s.v. . 9tr.DH. , III, 0.I6+, 9i%:b., . F., /6f.
. 7om.-d. , ), 7965 i, q i # 7dt. , (I, 06, *5

q
g, q c ig g
# I, 0., /5 , q q i
l l # 2ol&b. , ./, 7, *5 q { c q q
l g # 2hilo>ongr. , 60 5 l6
# ?os.Hell. , 0, 0./ 5 c i 6
.
* 2ol&b. , /., /, ./I.05 c q
6 p 6 q i q q6
{ H q ,
i . This is the onl& established !assage in whi%h a !agan <ree: uses for an idol, and it is
obviousl& for the sa:e of st&listi% variation.
/ ?os.Hell. , 7, )0* 5 # (ett. (al. ,
II, .*, !. 67, 05 i i l6 # II, /6, !. ../, .75
c iq # 4u%. 3ial.
8ortuorum, .6, 05 , l q, c 6 l .
) 2lut.Them. , .0 (., ..9e)5 c c #
2hilo9om. , II, .// 5 l6 , i # 9!e%. 4eg. , I, *6 5
, q l i # 2lut.9u!erst. ,
/ (II, .60e)5 6 .
0 7om.-d. , .., )765 # *), .)5 i i,
# 9o!h.,i. , .*65 q c q

, q
et%.
longer the men %on%erned, but onl& %o!ies of them. , wor: of art is %alled in the sense
of an un%ons%ious and immobile %o!& Tuite distin%t from the living being in Tuestion,
6

is !ar. to in o!!os. to (I, *)6) .
7
2lato uses for individual things
as the nonDreal in distin%tion to ideas or i .
6
%an also denote the image
awa:ened b& an ob$e%t in the soul.
9
It is %ommon in 2hilo in the sense of what is unreal or
de%e!tive,
.+
Though it would be too mu%h to eTuate it with what is without substan%e, it %ertainl&
denotes %o!&" as distin%t from the true realit&.
*. The 4'' uses for man& words meaning images of the gods or heathen
deities, namel&, Lud ud ,
..
\`a ied ,
.*
\X ieX ,
./
V\XuX ,
.)
V`ia Md YeZ ,
.0
and tsed hf ,
.6
whi%h
indi%ate idols as su%h, V`\a^e\eRea
.7
and ^eNe PaQ ,
.6
whi%h eB!ress %ontem!t and loathing, \`\a[z
9
and \LX c] ,
*+
whi%h %all the gods rather than the images em!t&, and finall& \[] ,
*.
Vca \_[z ,
*
\qf Lef
*/
and csd Led
*)
, first !oint to noti%e is that rather than is used for
images of gods. 1ven more im!ortant is that the term is a!!lied to the gods themselves.
Hehind the usage there is obviousl& a !olemi% against !aganism. The !resen%e of images as
the fo%us of worshi! is used to em!hasise the unrealit& of heathen belief and the heathen gods.
*0
For the ?ews idols and heathen deities are identi%al, and the& !rove that the heathen have
images but no true <od. Thus %o!&" (as distin%t from the realit&) is the word for both images
and gods. The word idol" in its %urrent use does not alwa&s %onve& the !re%ise meaning. Too
great an em!hasis is often laid on the idea of an ob$e%t of false worshi! rather than on that of
something without realit& whi%h fools have !ut in the !la%e of the true <od. In its stri%t sense
the idol is not merel& an alternative god# it is an unreal god, and therefore false as distin%t
from true and real. 2hilo and ?ose!hus are both familiar with this use of .
6 'eno!h.8em. , I, ), )5 l
i l q l #
7 2lat.Theaet. , .0+%5 { i { i q
q . >f. 2lat.9o!h. , *6065 q i ii i ,
l6 , ,

. >f. 2hilo9om. , II, .6* 5 l6

i .
6 >f. 1. >assirer, 1idos und 1idolon " in Vortr=ge der Bibliothek Warburg , .9**v.9*/, . (.9*)), .I*7.
9 4eu%i!!us, 3emo%ritus and 1!i%urus eB!lained this to mean that !ro%eed from ob$e%ts and bring
vision to the e&es (II, 6, //ff., 3iels ). >i%ero 1!istulae, '(, .6, . s!ea:s ironi%all& of the whi%h man
should %arr& in his %ons%iousness.
.+ >f. 4eisegangOs .nde: , and es!. >onf. 4ing. , 7), where
is the o!!. of # -mn. 2rob. 4ib. , .)65 q # >onf.
4ing. , 69 and 7. 5 and are !ar. 5 2raem. 2oen. , .9 5 q qq .
.. . 9. /.59 # . >h. .+59 # * >h. *)5.6 # 2s. ..05) # ./05.0 # Is. .+5.. # )650 5 ( LuX q_ )5 7os. )5.7 # 65) # ./5* #
.)59 # 8i. .57 # ge%h. ./5* .
.* * >h. //5** # /)57 # Is. /+5** .
./ 1B. *+5) # 3t. 056 .
.) ;u. //50* # * >h. */5.7 .
.0 <n. /.5.9 , /) f.
.6 * >h. .)50 ( ) )# Is. *759 ().
.7 4v. *65/+ # 3t. *95.7 ( .6 )# 4 B. 17:12 # *.5.. , *. # */5*) # 1E. 65)I6 , ./ # 65.+ # .65.* # */5/9 # /65.6
(,), *0 # /75*/ # ))5.* .
.6 3 B. 11:5 , 7 .
.9 4v. .95) # . >h. .65*6 # 6:7 # 7ab. *5.6 .
*+ 3t. /*5*. # ?er. .)5** # .65.9 .
*. Is. 0750 .
** ;u. *05* # 1 B. 17:43 (,)# 3 B. 11:2 , 7 ( 6 ), // # Is. /75.9 .
*/ * >h. .75/ .
*) 1E. .65.6 .
*0 3t. )5*6 # *65/6 # *95.6 # Is. *56 , *+ # )+5.9I*+ # ))59I*+ # )65.I7 # ?er. .+5/I9 # 7ab. *5.6I.9 # 2s. ..05)I6 #
./05.0I.6 # @is. ./5.+I.9 # .)5.I.) # .05)I.7 # 1!. ?er. )I7* # %f. 9tr.DH. , III, 0/I6+.
Thus 2hilo Tuotes 4v. .95) in 9!e%. 4eg. , I, *6 , and <n. /.5/0 in 4eg. ,ll. , II, )6 and >onf.
4ing. , 7) . 7e uses the other sense of in his allegori%al inter!retation. Aa%hel is
( I, .67 ) and the on whi%h she sits are the unreal things indi%ated b& the
senses ( 4eg. ,ll. , II, )6 ). ?os.,nt. , .+, 0+ 5 ?osiah q l6
q # 9, *7/ 5 # 9, *)/ 5
l6 # .+, 60 5 l l
l6 . -n ,%. .05*+ , %f. ?os.,nt. , 9, *7/ 5 q
l6 (%f. also .+, 69 of ?osiah5 l6 ).
In !agan <:. we do not find this usage. The <:s. did not share this view. For either the&
honour as gods what the ?ews %all , or, even if the& no longer do so, the& have no
%om!rehensive eB!ression for what the ?ews %all . The language om the 4'' is
bibli%al or ?ewish <:. in this res!e%t. ?ewish religion has %oined a new eB!ression out of an
eBisting term.
3itt. -r. , *+. (%f. n. 6) is a late do%ument under (?ewish ) >hristian influen%e, and therefore
its use of for gods is no eviden%e of !agan usage !rior to the 4''.
>
atal. >od. ,str.
<rae%. (ed. >umont, Holl, Froll, -livieri), (II, .76, **5 c Bc q
6
6 l6 , is so !lainl& de!endent on bibli%al
usage that its use of for %ulti% images does not !ermit us to draw an& %on%lusions as to
the normal !agan !ra%ti%e.
/. The ;T usage rests on that of the 4'' or the ?ews. In the ;T is used for
heathen gods and their images. The word and its derivatives do not o%%ur in the <os!els. The&
are found onl& in ,%. 75). # .05*+ # the writings of 2aul, A. *5** # . >. 65) , 7 # .+5.9 # .*5* #
* >. 65.6 5 . Th. .59 5 and in . ?n. 05*. and Aev. 95*+ , derivatives also being found in 1!h.
and 2t. In relation to 2aulOs use of , the Tuestion arises how far he regards them as
realities. It is evident from . Th. .59 that the& are no gods in %om!arison with <od, and from
<l. )56 and A. .5*/ that the& are not divine b& nature but onl& !rodu%ts of human sin and
foll&. Hut he seems to see demons behind their worshi! ( . >. .+5.9 # %f. 650 ), so that we do
not have here a !urel& intelle%tual dismissal. 7e gave full weight to 3t. /*5.7 5
i . In this res!e%t he is wholl& ?ewish.
*6

In view of the s!arseness of the eviden%e, we %annot sa& how far he eTuates idols and demons
and how far he distinguishes them. @e gather from . >. 650 that the realit& of demons stands
behind idols. Hut demons are not the same as what the heathen believed their gods to be# the&
de%eive men into believing in these gods.
*7
9ee also # i .
,)&(%
*

l , subst. neuter of the ad$. l , is obviousl& a ?ewish term for
l or the rare .
.
It denotes the meat whi%h derives from heathen sa%rifi%es,
though without the intolerable im!li%ation of the san%tit& of what is offered to heathen gods, or the
divinit& of these gods ( i ). The heathen in . >. .+5*6 refers to l ,
while 2aul uses l . The term is first found in ) 8a%%. 05* 5 i
l .
*
It does not o%%ur in ?ose!hus. In se%ular <:. it
>atal. >od. ,str. <rae%. 1atalogus 1odicu #strologoru Graecoru , .696 ff.
*6 9tr.DH. , III, )6I6+, es!. 0. f.
*7 >f. ?. @eiss on . >. 65)I6 # .+5.6I*+ # F. Harth, Die #uferstehung der "oten (.9*)), *6.
C l . 2r.DHauer , >r.DFJ. , s.v. # 9tr.DH. , III, 0), /77# ?oh. @., H%hm., 4tEm. on . >. 6I.+ # 8.
Aauer, Die Sch2aehen in 4orinth und /o (.9*/), )+I0*# 7. v. 9oden, 9a:rament u. 1thi: bei 2ls. ,"
3arburger theol. Studien , I (.9/.), .I)+.
. 2hr&n.1%l. , ./6. !. *)95 l ,

. 2rae!aratio 9o!histi%a (ed.

Horries, .9..), 7)5 , l i l .
* 2s. D2ho:&lides, /.5 l c q l

, is regarded as a later addition

b& ?. Herna&s, Gesaelte #bhandlangen (ed. 7. Ksener), I (.660), **/I**6.
is as rare as in the sense of idol. The Aabbini% words are V`Ya s] `h] LZ |a , sa%rifi%e to the
dead, and V`\a`\a[z Yrf^_Lub YLX M_ NZ Yef , sa%rifi%e in honour of unreal entities.
/

?ews were forbidden to eat flesh sa%rifi%ed to idols. The& were also forbidden to trade in
it.
)
It defiled li:e a %or!se if one %ame into %onta%t with it in an en%losed s!a%e.
0
To for%e a
?ew to eat it was to enfor%e a!ostas&.
6
The referen%e was not to the flesh whi%h went into the
tem!le, but to that whi%h %ame out.
7
The stri%t !rohibition refle%ts the resolute resistan%e of
?udaism to an& :ind of religious s&n%retism.
6
Its basis, namel&, that the flesh is offered to the
dead or to unreal entities, shows that it is !rimaril& religious. It rests on a stri%t a!!li%ation of
the first %ommandment and not on su!erstition, fear of s!irits et%.
2aul will allow the en$o&ment of l a!art from the %ulti% a%t itself ( . >.
.+5.)I** ) and so long as it does not violate the law of love ( 65.I./ ). In this %onne%tion he
a!!eals ( .+5*6 ) to 2a. *)5.. 7e %an ta:e this attitude onl& be%ause faith has over%ome ?ewish
legalism from within. In the a!ostoli% de%ree of ,%. .05*9 # *.5*0 , and in Aev. *5.) , *+ , we
do not have full freedom from legalism. ,mong the ;i%olaitans the desire the eat meat
sa%rifi%ed to idols is an eB!ression of 4ibertinism, i.e., of %om!lete renun%iation of an&
%ommitment to the will of <od, as ma& be seen from their general li%entiousness. The same is
!robabl& true of 2aulOs o!!onents at >orinth.
9

,)%
1

This word is found onl& in the Hible at 3a. .5* # Hel. .+ # 1 t. 2:10 # . 8a%%. .5)7 ( [ (
.+56/ # . >. 65.+ , and e%%lesiasti%al writers (not ?ose!hus). It derives from in the sense
of idols, and is a s%ornful term for the heathen tem!le as a house of idols.
) .
This o%%urs onl& in ,%. .75.6 . It is !erha!s to be understood b& analog& with ad$e%tival
%onstru%tions li:e (ri%h in trees") or (ri%h in stones"),
.
in whi%h
%ase it means ri%h in idols." -r it is !erha!s a %ari%ature
*
of (godl&" or !ious")
/

in the sense of idolatrous." The (ulgate idolatriae dedita ta:es the se%ond view, whereas the
2eshitta full of idols"
)
is based on the first. 1ither is %onsonant with vv. ** , */ .
,)), ,))%
*

li , whi%h in terms of the derivation is more %orre%t than li ,
and l %ome from the subst. l as i and
%ome from . li is not, therefore, a %om!ound of
l and i . =et, sin%e the meaning is the same, the reading li ,
whi%h is alwa&s found in H eB%e!t at . >. .+5.) , is Tuite natural, es!. as the word !robabl& %ame
into use at a time when there was no %lear distin%tion between -i and -i
/ 9tr.DH. , III, 0). /77# ,b. , /, /# b.>hul. , ./b, Har. # ,g , *, /# b.,g , 6a, Har. # T. >hul. , *, .6 and *+.
) ,g , *, /.
0 b.>hul. , ./b, Har.
6 ) 8a%%. 05* .
7 ,g , * and /.
6 >f. F. HG%hsel, 0oh. u. d. hellehist. S'nkretisus (.9*6), .+ ff.
9 >f. F. HG%hsel, Geist Gottes i !" (.9*6), /67 ff.
. ,%%ording to Hl.D3ebr. y .0# y ..., 0, l6 is !robabl& a better reading than l .
. >f. @dt. ,g. , ad loc.
* >f. the %onstru%tion l for l ( /76 ).
/ 2hilo9!e%. 4eg. , II, *06 # 2oll.-nom. , I, *+.
) >f. gn. ,g. , 6+., n. )6.
C l . 2r.DHauer , >r.DFJ. , s.v. # Hl.D3ebr. y ..9, *.
,s i %hara%terises the ?ews ( A. 95) ), so li %hara%terises the heathen.
The word and the related subst. l
.
are found onl& in the ;T and de!endent
>hristian writings, and even in the ;T the& o%%ur onl& in 2aul, . 2t. and Aev. The terms are not
used b& the 4'', 2hilo, ?ose!hus or other ?ews, let alone b& !agan authors. 7owever, the word is
!robabl& a !reD>hristian ?ewish term li:e in the sense of idol," and in Aabbini% s!ee%h
V`\a`\ a[z YrfL_ qb
*
gives us a full !arallel.
The words denote a gross sin and o%%ur in the lists of vi%es in . >. 05.+ , .. # 659 # .+57 ,
.) # <l. 05*+ # >ol. /50 # 1!h. 050 # . 2t. )5/ # Aev. *.56 # **5.0 . 2arti%ularl& stri:ing is the
eTuation of i and li in >ol. /50 and 1!h. 050 . 8ammon is
regarded as an idol in 8t. 65*) , 2arti%i!ation in heathen feasts is li a%%ording
to . >or. .+5.) , 7 .
/

B
chsel
,.
*

This is a dat.
f
em. used adverbiall&.
.
H& ,tti% rule it should thus be written with l
subs%r., though this had alread& fallen into disuse in the 7ellen. !eriod.
*
There are no instan%es
of the ad$. l .
/
The basi% meaning is at random," with no !lan or goal," for no ob$e%tive
reason." It thus %omes to mean without true right," and the further senses of in vain,"
moderatel&" and sim!l&"
)
have also to be ta:en into a%%ount.
0

In the ;T lg
6
usuall& means in vain" ( A. ./5) # . >. .05* # <l. /5) # )5.. ). It means
without basis" in >ol. *5.6 .
-n 8t. 05** %f. the teBtual dis%ussion in gn. ?ustin is no real witness for the omission of lg
(without a %ause") after , sin%e he is Tuoting ver&
freel&. -rigen, followed b& ?erome, (ulgate and ,ugustine, !robabl& introdu%ed a %orre%tion on
moral grounds to ma:e all anger re!rehensible. [ and H are surel& de!endent on -rigen. In the
@estern and 9&rian there is unanimous su!!ort for lg , and it is !robabl& genuine.
Hoth and lg %ame to have a mu%h wider range than their original meaning, es!.
, in the usage of the <:. Hible ( .66 ). Hoth ta:e on the sense of in vain," and,
although the& rea%h it from different stand!oints, no distin%tion of meaning %an be seen between
them in this regard, at least in the ;T .
Bchsel
. In 7ermas s. , 9, *., /# m. , .., ) we also have the verb l .
* b.>hul. , ./b, Har.
/ The attem!t made in >r.DFJ. , /9) to find l in . >. 659 and l (not found in the
;T ) in . 2t. )5/ and <l. 05*+ ta:es the order in these lists too s&stemati%all&.
HG%hsel Friedri%h HG%hsel , Aosto%: ((ol. .I)).
C lg . 2a!e, 2ass. , 4iddellD9%ott , s.v.
fem. feminine.
. >f. g , whither, how, wh&, g , twoDfold, g , in %ommon et%.
* Hl.D3ebr. y *6.
/ ,%%. to 4iddellD9%ott 6 (voluntaril&") is !rob. lin:ed with lg ( -g) , as also c (b& the
gra%e of a god," for the sa:e of {"). Hut we have also to ta:e into a%%ount , whi%h gives us the im!erf.
l (it seemed good") in 7om.Il. , .6, 0*+ and the !erf. .
) 1Bam!les ma& be found in 2a!e, 2ass. , 4iddellD9%ott , 2r.DHauer .
0 From lg there derives l , he who a%ts without !lan or at random or in vain," but also the average
or %ommon man." For eBam!les, %f. 2a!e et%.
6 lg o%%urs onl& on%e in the 4'' at 2rv. *65*0 , with no 7eb. eTuivalent. It is more %ommon in 2 and .
Instead, the 4'' usuall& has in the more general sense of in vain."
,'
*

A. The Prohibition of Images in the OT.
The %onvi%tion that =ahweh is not to be de!i%ted in the form of an image is intrinsi% to
true =ahweh worshi!. Its basis is to be found in the %ommandment in 1B. *+5) .
.
In this
res!e%t the offi%ial %ultus !resents a uniform !i%ture. ;owhere in the literature do we find an&
sign either of deviation from or of develo!ment to this !osition. There is thus no reason to
%ontest the 8osai% basis. For it is indis!utable that the fundamental tea%hing of the
%ommandment %on%erning a $ealous <od who %annot be made stati% gives us a firm reason for
the !rohibition of images. -n the other hand, we must not attem!t to anal&se the motives, for
it is onl& too eas& to redu%e the wor: of 8oses to the level of !o!ular religious !edagog&. It
must also be %onsidered that not all the %onseTuen%es of the !rohibition of images for the faith
of Israel were alread& at wor: in the first beginnings. -bviousl& a strong belief in the s!iritual
nature of =ahweh underlies the 8osai% !rohibition. =et this is not s!e%ulative. <od is not
%on%eived as essentiall& remote from matter or from this world. 7e is rather a <od whom man
%annot master and %ontrol, least of all in the form of a visible, material re!resentation. The
literar& a!!roa%h %onforms to the %ulti%. Imagination is not allowed free rein in the des%ri!tion
of =ahweh. In both 1B. *)59 f. and Is. 65. ff. we have de!i%tion of what is seen, but referen%e
is made onl& to the brightness at the feet of <od and to the train of 7is garment.
The oldest :nown %ult of =ahweh was in relation to the ar:, and there is no longer an&
doubt that there were no asso%iated images.
*
7owever we imagine the ar:, and even if it was
an em!t& !ortable throne, it is lin:ed onl& to the s!iritual !resen%e of =ahweh. 3avid brought
the ar: to ?erusalem, and 9olomon !la%ed it in the tem!le. Though this involved %hanges,
there is no eviden%e to suggest that the traditional !rohibition of images was abandoned. The
dedi%ation of the tem!le, if we a%%e!t as original the fuller 4'' version,
/
em!hasises the
fa%t that =ahweh dwells in obs%urit&, and thus denotes 7is !resen%e a!art from images. For in
the -T \iX Md qb is often used in %onne%tion with theo!hanies, and it refers to the %on%ealment of
<od. Thus in both 1B. *+5*. and . F. 65.* it is a term for the deus absconditus . It is worth
noting that the dedi%ation !aradoBi%all& lin:s the sun in the firmament with =ahweh in the
tem!le, but em!hasises the fa%t that =ahweh, who is !resent in nonDmaterial form, %ontrols
the sun. This referen%e to the de!enden%e of even the greatest star on =ahweh suggests that
from a ver& earl& !eriod the !rohibition of re!resentations of =ahweh was grounded in the
do%trine of %reation. There is a similar distin%tion between =ahweh and the %reated elements
in the a!!earan%e of =ahweh to 1li$ah in 7oreb ( . F. .95.. ff. ). =ahweh is not in the storm,
the earthTua:e or the fire. 7e is !aradoBi%all& be&ond the natural s!here, as here denoted b&
the m&sterious rustling of a gentle breath. @e have to a!!eal to su%h !assages to understand
the !rohibition, for the ar%haeologi%al eviden%e, i.e., the la%: of re!resentations in graves, is
not of itself enough, sin%e there is a similar la%: of re!resentations of Haal.
)
-bviousl& there
is a great differen%e between the la%: of images of divinised natural for%es li:e Haal and the
la%: of images of =ahweh.
C l6 . -n ,5 A.7. 2feiffer, Images of =ahwe," ?H4 , )0 (.9*6), *..I***# 7.T. -bbin:, ?ahwebilder ,"
g,@ , ;F, 6 (.9*9), *6)# 9. 8owin%:el, @ann wurde der ?ahwl:ultus in ?erusalem offiEiell bildlos ", #cta
%rientalia , 6 (.9/+), *07I*79. -n >f.5 8oore , I, ))6 ff.# 9tr.DH. , I(, /66 ff.# @nd. * F. , ./7# 4tEm. . F. on
.05)0# 4oh. Fol. , 00f., .)+f.# 3ib. Fol., on .5.0 (with eB%ursus). ?. 7ehn, gum Terminus ~Hild <ottesO " in
9estschr. f. &. Sachau (.9.0), /6I0*# @. >as!ari, Imago 3ei " in 9estschr. f. /. Seeberg (.9*9), .97I*+6# 2.
Ha%hmann, 3er 8ens%h als 1benbild <ottes " in Das &rbe )uthers. 9estschr. f. ). .hels (.9*6), *7/I*79# F.
F. 9%humann, Imago 3ei " in 9estschrift f. G. 4rger (.9/*), .67I.6+.
. The !rohibition in 3t. *75.0 also goes ba%: to the earliest da&s.
* <ressmann suggested that the ar: %ontained images of a male and female deit& ( Die )ade 0ah2es m.9*+n, ))).
/ 3 B. 8:12 5 ?ahweh set the sun in heaven ( t`Wac] for t`La c] ), but said that he would dwell in the thi%:
dar:ness {"
) >f. ?. 7em!el, g,@ , 0. (.9//), *97.
It ma& be doubted whether there is in the 8osai% original the hidden %onne%tion with the
do%trine of %reation, but the !resent form of the %ommandment ( 1B. *+5) # 3t. 056 ) is sha!ed
b& this do%trine. For wherever we go in %reationkheaven, earth or under the earthkall things
are %reated b& =ahweh and sub$e%t to 7im, so that the& %annot be %om!ared with 7im. 7en%e
it would be ridi%ulous to see: a li:eness of =ahweh in the %reated order. @hen we %ome to
3t. Is. the re$e%tion of images is based solel& u!on the do%trine of %reation, and we have a
%lear theologi%al formulation. In Is. )+5.* ff. there is a h&mn to the >reator of the world,
before whom the nations are as the dro! of a bu%:et and who lifts u! the isles li:e grains of
sand# and then the !ro!het drives home his message against idolatr&5 To whom then will &e
li:en <od or what li:eness will &e %om!are unto him"
@e are not to assume, however, that the reasons for the %ommandment were alwa&s the
same. 9ometimes the em!hasis in atta%:s on images lies sim!l& on the fa%t of disobedien%e
and selfDwill ( ,m. 05*6 # 7os. 65) f. # ..5. ). The 3euteronomist ta:es a distin%tive !ath of
his own. 7e bases the !rohibition on the fa%t that Israel at 9inai saw no figure of =ahweh
when 7e s!o:e to it from the fire ( 3t. )5.0 f. ).
The older histori%al and es!e%iall& !ro!heti% boo:s give %lear eviden%e that the stri%tness
of the %ommandment was too mu%h for the !eo!le. @e must remember, however, that the
authors were !itiless $udges of an& de!arture from the !ure worshi! of =ahweh. Thus modern
ar%haeolog& has taught us that the golden %alf was not reall& an image or s&mbol of =ahweh
but merel& the !edestal of <od,
0
and the sa&ing of ?eroboam (These be th& gods {") ma&
!erha!s re!rodu%e the !rimitive %on%e!tion of the !eo!le ( 7os. ./5* ) but in fa%t distorts the
original intention. 1ven where there is referen%e to foreign gods,
6
the borderDline is still
diffi%ult to fiB, for we %an hardl& thin: that there was an& %om!lete a!ostas& from =ahweh
eB%e!t in ver& rare %ases. Thus man& Israelites who !ra&ed before images of 7adad most
li:el& had =ahweh in mind. 1ven the introdu%tion of ,ss&rian %ulti% vessels into the tem!le
did not denote an& %ons%ious a!ostas& from =ahweh, who was still the su!reme <od and
-wner of the tem!le# the %osmi% world and its idols were brought in onl& as guests.
7
The
!ro!hets saw, however, that these images and the sa%ral traditions lin:ed with them !erverted
the religion of the worshi!!ers, and their %onstant !rotests hel!ed to !reserve the full authorit&
of the %laim that there must be no images in the worshi! of =ahweh. -f %ourse, it was onl& in
the !reDeBili% !eriod that the !rohibition was a burden and that idolatr& %onstituted a
tem!tation. 3t. Is. with his humorous de!i%tion of the ma:ing of images made a !owerful
%ontribution to the over%oming of the threat ( Is. ))5.* ff. ).
v. /ad
B. Images of ods and !en in "#daism and Christianit$.
.. The an%ient !rohibition ( 1B. *+5) f. , */ # 4v. *65. # 3t. )5.6 ff. # 056 f. # *75.0 ) had
three !ra%ti%al im!li%ations5 a. the avoidan%e and so far as !ossible the removal of %ulti%
images of alien gods# b. the la%: of images in the native %ultus# and %. the avoidan%e of
re!resentations of men and, !artiall& at least, of other living %reatures.
The first im!li%ation has been selfDevident for ?ews and >hristians in ever& age (
, /77 ), and an& violation has been regarded as a!ostas&. The se%ond has also been
a strongl& em!hasised and strongl& asserted !rin%i!le in the ?ewish world.
@ith regard to a. the !i%tures of animals and stars on the great %urtain of the tem!le ( ?os.Hell.
, 0, *.) ) were not regarded as de!i%tions of deities as one might thin:. The& were merel& artisti%
s&mbols. In the newl& dis%overed s&nagogue mosai%s of ,in edD Du and Heth ,l!ha there is in
the middle of the !i%ture of the Eodia% a re!resentation of the fourDsteeded %hariot of the sun with
0 -bbin:, op. cit. , *66# @. 1i%hrodt, "heologie des #" (.9//), 0*.
6 MWdSe]cf `c] \_[z , e.g., * >h. //5.0 # %f. MWdS] `\]LZ hf , ?er. 65.9 .
7 F. Hudde, #uf de Wege -u 3onotheisus (.9.+), .+ ff.
7elios
6
as the driver. Hut even here the H&Eantine artists had no thought of de!i%ting the sunD
god# the& were sim!l& ado!ting the traditional form of re!resenting the sun. b.
,
g , )/b, Har.
forbids !i%tures of the sun, moon and stars be%ause these are servants of <od (ministering angels).
@ith regard to b. the de!i%tion of the hand of <od in the s%ene of Isaa%Os sa%rifi%e at Heth
,l!ha
9
is astonishing for a ?ew. There is a similar de!i%tion on one of the newl& dis%overed
murals of the s&nagogue at 3ura, whi%h also has a !i%ture of the divine hand lifting 1Ee:iel b& the
hair# both these are several %enturies older than the !i%ture at Heth ,l!ha.
.+
-n the other hand,
these ver& inde!endent !ainters of bibli%al s%enes ( infra ) sto! short of de!i%ting more than
<odOs hand, the s&mbol of the divine a%tivit& ( i ). @e %an thus $udge how strong was the
!rohibition.
In relation to the third im!li%ation, there were various results in !ra%ti%e. 9o far as we %an
see, ?ewish art strongl& disli:ed re!resentations of men and therefore s%ru!ulousl& avoided
them. ,n an%ient !rin%i!le is that all !i%tures are !ermissible eB%e!t those of men" ( b.,g ,
)*b). The %ru%ial reason was that man is in the li:eness of <od, as suggested b& the
!rohibition in 1B. *+5*/ ,
..
so that a de!i%tion of man is a de!i%tion of the image of <od. For
this reason orthodoB ?ewish art avoids for the most !art even bibli%al s%enes, es!e%iall& those
whi%h in%lude men.
.*
-n the other hand, re%ent eB%avations have shown that these
restri%tions were widel& ignored under the influen%e and after the eBam!le of nonD?ewish art
( infra ).
The great mosai%s of Heth ,l!ha and ,in edD DJ might be regarded as unusual eBam!les from
a later !eriod (0thI6th %ent. ,.3. ). Hoth have the Eodia% and the sun, Heth ,l!ha has the sa%rifi%e
of Isaa%
./
and ,in edD DJ has 3aniel in the lionsO den.
.)
It is !robable that in the H&Eantine
!eriod !ious ?ews began to de!i%t bibli%al in%idents be%ause the rival >hur%h was a!!ro!riating
-T s%enes whi%h the& had regarded as eB%lusivel& their own. -n the other hand, 7ellenisti% art
seems to have eBerted mu%h the same influen%e in Aome# thus in the ?ewish %ata%omb of the
(igna Aandanini on the (ia ,!!ia we find the figure of ;i:e with 2egasus and other s&mbols.
.0

The dis%over& in the s&nagogue of 3ura for%es us to the %on%lusion that in the s&nagogues of
the dis!ersion there develo!ed to a !reviousl& unsus!e%ted degree a de!i%tion of bibli%al s%enes of
ver& high Tualit&. ,!art from the sa%rifi%e of Isaa%, we %an identif& either 1no%h or ,braham,
8oses at the burning bush, the 1Bodus, the death of the 1g&!tians in the Aed 9ea, ,aron with the
tem!le and the ar: of the Torah, the mira%ulous water in the desert ( /66 ), the bringing ba%: of
the ar: of the Torah from the tem!le of 3agon, 1Ee:iel 1Era with the s%roll et%.
.6
The !i%tures
bear the date of the se%ond &ear of 2hili! the ,rab, i.e., *)0 ,.3. ,t this !eriod in the 1ast there
6 For re!rodu%tions %f. 1.4. 9u:eni:, "he #ncient S'nagogue of Beth #lpha (.9/*), Fig. )9# 2late '# 2i%tures of
the Eodia% from Fefar HirO in5 9u:eni:, 2late 7b# Ae%onstru%tion, Fig. 0+.
,g #boda Zara , 8ishnahD, ToseftaD, Talmud tra%tate .dolatr' (9tra%:, &inl. , 0)).
9 9u:eni:, 2l. 'I'. In an%ient >hristian de!i%tions of the sa%rifi%e of Isaa% the hand of <od is %ommon# it is thus
!ossible that this mosai% shows the influen%e of >hristian art on 0th and 6th %entur& ?udaism.
.+ 2lates ma& be found in >. 7o!:ins, ?ewish 2rotot&!es of 1arl& >hristian ,rt" in "he .llustrated )ondon
!e2s , ;o. )9.9 (?ul& *9, .9//), .66 ff., Fig. .+ (,braham)# . and .* (1Ee:iel)# %f. also >omte du 8esnil du
Hutsson, 4es 2eintures de la 9&nagogue de 3ouraD1uro!os ," Aev. Hibl. , )/ (.9/0), .+0I..9 (III, *,
,braham). >. 7. Fraeling was so good as to lend me some !hotogra!hs of these sensational dis%overies, and 7.
4ietEmann (%f. g;@ , /* m.9//n, 9) f.) had a great number of !hotogra!hs whi%h he had been given b&
eB%avators.
.. 1B. *+5*/ 5 =e shall not ma:e beside me" UU `Yea [a . A. ?oshua ( c. , /++ ,.3. ) read `Y[ as `Ya ^_[ , m&
sign," m& image" ( b.,g , )/b). >f. 9tr.DH. , I(, /9..
.* In the ?ewish %ata%omb of the (illa Torlonia there are at least two murals whi%h !erha!s de!i%t bibli%al
s%enes, first, of a meadow in 2aradise with animals but no men (%f. 7. @. He&erD7. 4ietEmann, Die 5dische
4atakobe der Villa "orlonia in /o m.9/+n, *6, 2l. .)b), and se%ondl&, of what seems to be the ar:, though
again without ;oah (%f. F.7. Aengstorf, g;@ , /. m.9/*n, )* ff.# on the absen%e of ;oah %f. es!. )) ff.# for a
re!rodu%tion, %f. He&erD4ietEmann, 2l. 0).
./ 9u:eni:, 2late 'I'.
.) F.7. (in%ent, Aev. Hibl. , *6 (.9.9), 0/* ff. (Fig. 0/0)# /+ (.9*.), ))*f., 077 f. (2lates '( and '(I).
.0 A. <arru%%i, 1iitero degli antichi &brei scoperto recenteente in Vigna /andanini (.66*)# also 1. >ohnD
@iener, Die 5dische 4unst (.9*9), Fig. 77, 76.
.6 For re!rodu%tions, %f. >. 7o!:ins, op. cit.
%an be no Tuestion of a develo!ed >hristian
a
rt. ,lthough the %hur%h in 3ura has similar !aintings
to those of the s&nagogue, the& seem to be mu%h %ruder.
.7
@e have thus to %onsider the
!ossibilit& that the murals in the heathen tem!le, whi%h were !arti%ularl& signifi%ant in 3ura,
.6

!rovo:ed the ?ews to rivalr&. 4i:e 2hilo in the s!here of !hiloso!h&, the& %ould not bear to be
inferior to the heathen even in res!e%t of tem!le de%oration. >om!arison with the 2alm&rene
!i%tures, however, reveals a distin%tive s&nagogue st&le in form as well as %ontent, as Farl
@atEinger has !ointed out to me. It ma& be that 7ellenisti% artists were brought, !ossibl& from
,leBandria,
.9
who im!orted their own form and %ontent with its distin%tive ?ewish features.
*+

2erha!s in su%h %ases more orthodoB ?ews later removed human figures. This seems to have
ha!!ened to the s%ul!tures in <alilean s&nagogues,
*.
and to the mosai%s of ,in edD DJ ,
**

8urals %ould not be removed, and therefore the !ra%ti%e was not to loo: at them ($ ,g , )*b, 06).
*/

In the %ase of animals, it de!ends on whether the& were regarded as the s&mbols of a deit& or
%ult. If so, the& were $ust as intolerable as idols, e.g., the eagle on the door of a tem!le or
s&nagogue,
*)
or the dragon.
*0
-ther animals were mostl& a%%e!ted as harmless de%oration.
*6

-b$e%ts used in ?ewish worshi! %onstituted a !rivileged grou! for ?ewish art. Thus the s%roll
*7
and the ar: of the Torah were often de!i%ted as s&mbols of the religion of the Torah. @e also find
the sevenDbran%hed %andelabra, the light of the Torah,
*6
alongside the ar:. -ther ob$e%ts de!i%ted
are the !alm bran%hes ( L\d^e\ ), !omegranates, %itrus fruits ( R^_MYZ [X ), of the feast of taberna%les
(%f. 4v. */5)+ ), the horn used at festivals ( Mid ^_PQ ), the :nife of %ir%um%ision et%.
*9

art. ,rti%les.
.7 >. 7o!:ins, 3uraD1uro!os 3is%overies" in "he .ll. )ondon !e2s , )669 (,ugust ./, .9/*), */9 ff., Fig. .*I
.6.
.6 >f. ?. 7. Hreasted, %riental 9orerunners of B'-antine Painting (.9*))# and es!. F. >umont, 9ouilles de
Doura<&uropos (.9*6)# also Fittel, op. cit. , Fig. .0 ff.
.9 @atEinger has suggested verball& that the origin of this t&!e of histori%al !ainting in ?udaism is !robabl& to
be found in ?ewish 7ellenisti% illustrations for the -T . ,t the ver& earliest it might be %onne%ted with the
%ommunit& in ,leBandria.
*+ @hether this ?ewish art influen%ed -T >hristian art, and if so to what degree, must be determined b& future
investigation, whi%h now has the materials to dis%uss the Tuestion. >f. alread& -. @ulff, #ltchr. u. b'-. 4unst , I
(.9./), 69.
*. >f. the s&nagogue at >a!ernaum, 7. FohlDF. @atEinger, #ntike S'nagogen in Galil=a (.9.6), ./, Fig. .6# F.
@atEinger, 3ie anti:en 9&nagogen <alillas ," in Der 3orgen , 6 (.9/+), /6)# <. Fittel, /eligionsgesch. u.
8rchrtt . (.9/*), Fig. /0.
** -f the 3aniel at ,in edD Du onl& the arm outstret%hed in !ra&er has survived ( n. .0 ). In the !i%tures of
the sun and animals the men and animals have been intentionall& s%rat%hed out (9u:eni:, 2l..I0 and es!. Fig.
)9). The destro&ers ma& well have been orthodoB ?ews (as in >a!ernaum, n. *. ) rather than 8ohammedans,
for the dedi%ator& ins%ri!tions were intentionall& s!ared, and were therefore read and honoured. For the erasion
of animals, %f. FohlD@atEinger, Fig. .6.
*/ 9tr.DH. , I(, /9.:.
*) For the destru%tion of the golden eagle !la%ed b& 7erod above the gate of the tem!le, %f. ?os.,nt. , .7, .0.
ff. # for the halfDdestro&ed eagle above the door of the s&nagogue at >a!ernaum, %f. FohlD@atEinger, Fig. .7 f.#
Fittel, Fig. /0. >f. also FohlD@atEinger, .90 ff.
*0 b.,g , )*b5 ,ll figures are !ermitted a!art from the dragon."
*6 >f. the dol!hins and !ea%o%:s in He&erD4ietEmann, 2late 7b, 9b# Fittel, Fig. /7b. It is debated whether the
!ea%o%: is !urel& de%orative or has s&mboli%al signifi%an%e (the resurre%tion and eternal life), %f. 7. 4other, Der
Pfau in der altchr. 4unst (.9*6). 9everal animals are de!i%ted on the mosai% in the <erasa s&nagogue, 9u:eni:,
2late 7a, ''(I.
*7 He&erD4ietEmann, 2late )# Fittel, Fig., /9.
*6 The ar:, usuall& with the %andelabra, is found in the ?ewish %ata%ombs, %f. He&erD4ietEmann, 2late .* f.# ;.
8GllerD;. ,. Hees, Die .nschriften der 5d. 4atakobe a 3onteverde -u /o (.9.9), ;o. .79# Fittel, Fig. )+
f.# on gold vessels, %f. Fittel, Fig. )* ff.# 9u:eni:, Fig. **, /) f., /6, 2late la# on s&nagogue mosai%s, %f. 9u:eni:,
Fig. *7 (,in edD Du ), *6 (?erash), 2late (IIIvI' (Heth ,l!ha)# 7o!:ins, Fig. .) (3ura). In inter!retation of the
ar: of the Torah, %f. 4ietEmann in He&erD4ietEmann, *. ff. on the one side and <. Fittel in -4g, /0 (.9/*), )09
f. on the other# in inter!retation of the sevenDbran%hed %andlesti%:, %f. es!. F. 7. Aengstorf, g;@ , /. (.9/*),
//I6+.
*9 He&erD4ietEmann, 2late 6 (horn)# .+ (ethrog)# 6, .+, .* (lulab)# .* (:nife of %ir%um%ision)# ), 6
(!omegranate). >f. Fittel, Fig. /9 f.
To determine the %ontent of ?ewish art, it is hel!ful to %om!are it with the !aintings in
heathen tem!les, e.g., at 3ura. In the latter we have on the one side the !riest or devotee
bringing an offering, and on the other the de!i%tion of the deit&.
/+
There is nothing
%om!arable in the ?ewish !i%tures. @here the heathen has a !ainting or s%ul!ture of the god,
the ?ew has the ar: of the Torah and the %andlesti%:, the @ord of his <od. This is his <odp
,nd if he is bold and wants to !ortra& the greatness of his <od for the !rosel&te who see:s
outward re!resentation, he uses his art to de!i%t the sa%red histor&, i.e., the a%tion of his <od.
This histor& and its de!i%tion are genuine histor&, i.e., the living histor& of real men with
whom and on whom <od a%ts. 7ere is the differen%e from de!i%tions of the m&ths of 8ithras,
,ttis, or -siris, where we have t&!es of divine a%tion suggested b& the m&ths, but not a real
histor&. The ?ew !ortra&s <od when he de!i%ts the histori%al a%tion of <od. 7e does not need
a !i%ture of <od, of 7is fa%e and form. ,t the ver& most he will introdu%e the divine hand to
show that it is <odOs wor:. 8oreover, he ignores the worshi!!er whose !ious eBer%ises are
!ainted b& the heathen. The great figures of the !ast whom he de!i%ts are not heroes !ainted
on their own a%%ount. ,braham is de!i%ted be%ause <od a%ts on him, 1Ee:iel be%ause the <od
who awa:ens the dead seiEed him, 8oses be%ause he !oints to the burning bush, the Israelites
and 1g&!tians be%ause <od !rote%ts the former and smites the latter, 1Era be%ause he reads
the @ord of <od. The real sub$e%t is not men, whether devotees of the !resent or great figures
of the !ast# it is <od and 7is histor&.
Thus, even though these !i%tures ma& be te%hni%all& influen%ed from without, the& refle%t
a genuine ?udaism. The artists forgot that !art of the !rohibition whi%h %on%erns men. Hut
the& maintained the more trul& the essen%e of their religion as a histori%al religion of
revelation.
In %onne%tion with the !i%ture of water in the wilderness, 7. 4ietEmann has !ointed out to me
that the -T !assage whi%h refers to twelve s!rings in the desert is the stor& of 1B. .05*7
%on%erning 1lim. Aabbini% tradition eB!ounded this stor& in a !e%uliar wa&, as ma& be seen from
the statements in 8. 1B. , .0, *7 (!. .06 f., Aabin)5 (.) The teBt shows us that the !la%e was more
famous than all other !la%es be%ause of the water.
/.
(*) =ou %an see that this is so, for there were
twelve s!rinos and onl& sevent& !alms, but when Israel %ame and 6++,+++ men %am!ed there,
there was enough for them, not on%e onl& but a se%ond time and a third { (/) A. 1leaEar of
8odiim said5 @hen the 7ol& -ne, blessed be 7ep, %reated 7is world, 7e %reated there twelve
s!rings %orres!onding to the twelve tribes of ?a%ob and sevent& !alms %orres!onding to the
sevent& elders. ()) ,nd what do we learn from the fa%t that it is written5 ~,nd the& en%am!ed there
b& the watersO It tells us that the& o%%u!ied themselves there with the words of the Torah whi%h
were given them in 8arah." This shows us how im!ortant was the religious inter!retation of the
mira%le at 1lim (more famous than all other !la%es be%ause of the water"), so that we %an
understand wh& the !ainter in%luded this event in the series of sa%red events for de!i%tion. ,s ma&
be seen from the lam!s whi%h stand between the tents and above the s!rings, he !aints it !rimaril&
be%ause the stud& of the 4aw is s&mboliEed b& the water. >f. also 8egillat Taanit., 6, 9tr.DH. , I(,
/)6. From this !i%ture we %an see how strongl& rooted this art is in the eBegeti%al tradition of
?udaism, and therefore how genuinel& ?ewish it is in %ontent, whatever the te%hni%al influen%es.
*. Ae!resentations of <od were obviousl& $ust as ob$e%tionable to earl& >hristianit& as to
?udaism. =et it must be remembered that, so far as we %an see, the Tuestion of de!i%ting <od
or even man or animal never arose at all in the ;T , whether from the !ositive or the negative
stand!oint. It never entered the head of an& earl& believers to hand down a !i%ture of ?esus or
the a!ostles, let alone to set u! a %ulti% image. The %om!lete la%: of interest in this regard
mar:s off the &oung religion from the s&n%retisti% religions in the surrounding world. The
/+ >f. the 3ura !i%ture of the sa%rifi%e of the eunu%h -tes to the five and of the tribune ?ulius Terentius to the
three 2alm&rene deities# Fittel, Fig. .6 f.
/. The teBt ne%essaril& be%ame unintelligible when the tradition was lost that this was the most im!ortant of all
the water mira%les# hen%e the variant \\^Ns . meaner than all other !la%es" (8e:ilta deDA. 9imon b?o%hai, ed.
3. 7offmann m.9+0n, 7)# %f. ?. @interD,. @Gns%he, 3echiltha m.9+9n, .0., n. .).
%ulti% image of 8ithras is an integral !art of the whole %ult# the image of 9era!is was %reated
with the rise of this religion#
/*
there %ould be no worshi! of the em!erors without statues. In
the religion of the >hristians, however, the im!ortant thing is not worshi!!ing an image and
%onsidering the m&th thereb& de!i%ted, but listening to the @ord ( , I, *.6 ff. ).
-nl& in the .st and *nd %enturies do we have a develo!ment in the %ata%ombs, via religious
de%oration, to the !ainting of >hristian s&mbols and s&mboli% figures, es!e%iall& the <ood
9he!herd,
//
and then to the de!i%tion of >hrist and the a!ostles and other bibli%al sub$e%ts.
/)

, model and im!ulse for this develo!ment might have been !rovided b& the newl&
dis%overed, !reD>hristian bibli%al !aintings of the ?ews, es!e%iall& in relation to -T s%enes.
-nl& graduall& do we have the formation of a distin%tive %ontent and st&le determined b&
>hristianit& itself and !rodu%ing >hristian art.
/0

,s there is little !ositive interest in the earl& >hristian !eriod, so there is little negative.
The absen%e of in%lination towards artisti% de!i%tion means also the absen%e of o!!osition.
There is no !rohibition of !i%tures.
-nl& when !i%tures of >hrist began to a!!ear was the Tuestion raised whether the& are
!ermissible,
I
ren. , I, *0, 6#
,
%t. ?n. , *6 ff.#
1
us.
7
ist. 1%%l. , (II, .6, /6# the %anon of the 9&nod of
1lvira (8ansi, II, *6))5 placuit picturas in ecclesia esse non debere6 ne $uod colitur et adoratur in
parietibus depingatur .
/6

/. In the ;T itself the Tuestion of images arises in the following !assages.
a. 8:. .*5.6 and !ar. , where the referen%e is to the image of the em!eror. ;either 7erod
the <reat nor the !ro%urators seem to have dared to !rint images on %oins, but 7erodOs
su%%essors, and es!e%iall& 2hili! the Tetrar%h, introdu%ed their own images and those of the
em!eror,
/7
These were bound to be offensive to true ?ews, !artl& be%ause the& de!i%ted alien
rulers, !artl& be%ause the& violated the %ommandment ( /6) ) and !artl& be%ause images
were lin:ed with !agan s&mbols.
/6
;ahum in Tiberias, the most hol&," never in his life
loo:ed at the image on a %oin" ($ ,g , )*%).
/9
=et for obvious !ra%ti%al reasons there was no
a%tual re$e%tion of the %oins (%f. T,g, 0, .).
)+

/* F. >umont, Die 3'sterien des 3ithra
*
(.9..), *++ ff.# Die orient. /el. i r. (eidentu
/
(.9/.), 7..
// 1.g., the %ata%omb fres%oes from the 7&!ogaeum of 4u%ina (first half of the /rd %ent.)5 ?. @il!ert, Die
3alereien der 4afakoben /os (.9+/), 2lates /0 and 66# 7. 2reuss, Das Bild 1hristi i Wandel der Zeiten
/, )

(.9/*), Fig. .. -n the develo!ment, %f. F. Fo%h, Die altchr. Bilderfrage nach den lit. ?uellen (.9.7)# @.
1lliger, Die Stellung der alten 1hristen -u den Bildern in den ersten vier 0hrhdten . (.9/+)# also 7. ,%helis,
A<<
*
, I, *0..
/) For >hrist and the a!ostles, %f. the fres%o in the 3omitilla %ata%omb (first half of the )th %ent. ,.3. )5 @il!ert,
2late .)6# 2reuss, Fig. 6. -ther sub$e%ts are the raising of 4aEarus, the healing of the si%: of the !als&, the
adoration of the 8agi, the feeding of the five thousand et%.
/0 >f. 7.@. He&er, 3ie 1igenart der %hristi. Funst im Aahmen der 9!ltanti:e ," in 9estschr. f. V. Schult-e
(.9/.), 67 ff.
Iren. Irenaeus, of ,sia 8inor, bisho! of 4&ons, mart&red *+* ,.3. during the !erse%ution under 9everus, ed. in
82<, 7, .66*.
,%t. ?n. #cts of 0ohn .
1us. 1usebius of >aesarea (*6+I/)+ ,.3. ), e%%lesiasti%al historian, ed. b& different s%holars in Die Griech.
christl. Schriftsteller der ersten I 0ahrhunderte , .9+* ff.
7ist. 1%%l. (istoria &cclesiastica .
/6 >f. ;. Honwets%h, A1/ , III, ***.
/7 9%hGrer , I, )/+, n. .+# Fittel 2robleme, /6, n. *# 2. Thomsen, 4opendiu der pal. #ltertuskunde (.9./),
96 (y /7, IId)5 %oins with the head of ,ugustus or Tiberius and the ins%ri!tion5 i 2 or
T 2 .
/6 The reverse of the %oins mentioned in n. /7 shows the tem!le of ,ugustus in 2aneas ( 9%hGrer , I, )/+). >f. F.
@. 8adden, (ist. of 0e2ish 1oinage (.66)), *)7, where there is a %oin with the head of Tiberius and the
ins%ri!tion5 "i ( berius ) 1aesar Divi #u ( gusti ) 9 ( ilias ). The ?ews here use 3ivus of ,ugustus.
/9 9%hl. 8t. , 6)6.
)+ )oc. cit.
b. q l6 i , the image of the beast," i.e., the em!eror, whi%h is to be
worshi!!ed, a!ostates %onsenting and the lo&al resisting. This is one of the great themes in the
se%ond half of Aev. ( ./5.)f .# .)59 , .. # .05* # .65* # .95*+ # *+5) ).
This :ind of %lash with the %ult of rulers or em!erors is not new in ?udaism. -beisan%e to the
divine image of the ruler is the !roblem in 3a. /50 ff. The ere%tion of a statue of >aligula in the
tem!le
).
was !revented onl& b& his death (). ,.3. , %f. 2hilo
4
eg. <a$. , .66 # ?os.,nt. , .6, *6. ),
while in ,leBandria from /6 ,.3. the mob, with the %onnivan%e of the governor, began to set u!
images of the em!eror in the s&nagogues ( 2hilo
F
la%%. , ). ff. ), whi%h were removed onl& under
>laudius.
)*
9imilarl& under 2ilate there arose the serious struggle about the i
l (militar& standards) whi%h the !eo!le resisted so
!assionatel& that 2ilate finall& removed them from ?erusalem ( ?os.Hell. , *, .69 ff. # ,nt. , .6, 00
ff. ). @e %an see from 2lin. 1!., ', 96 that worshi! of the im!erial image !la&ed a similar role in
the !erse%ution of >hristians. The !resumed life of the image whi%h enables it to s!ea: ( Aev.
./5.0 ) reminds us of man& !riestl& devi%es to ma:e images move. Thus in the 8ithras m&ster&
the statue of the god with a lionOs head was made to s!it out fire b& means of a %on%ealed !i!e
ending in the mouth,
)/
and it was said of 9imon 8agus5 ego statuas overi feci et aniavi
e:ania (
2
s.D>lem. Ae%g. , III, )7).
4ittel
C. The ree% &se of ,' .
l6 (et&m. lin:ed with , , to be similar," to be li:e," to a!!ear"), means an
image in various senses5 a. in the stri%t sense as an artisti% re!resentation," e.g., a !ainting, statue
or im!ress on a %oin ( 7dt. , II, ./+# 8t. **5*+ ), the image of a god" ( 3itt. -r. , 06, 6.# 2. -B&.
, I', ./6+, ./9# Aev. ./5.) f. ), or naturall& a refle%tion" ( 1ur.
8
ed. , ..6*) or a!!arition" (
2lat.2hileb. , /96)# b. in the meta!h. sense of a mental image," q q ( 2lat.Tim. , *9b),
q ( 1!igr. <rae%. , )/0, )), a similitude" ( 2lat.Aes!. , (I, )67e)# and finall& %. in the
sense of a %o!&," a living image," a li:eness," an embodiment," a manifestation" ( 3itt. -r. ,
9+, /# %f. the sa&ing of 3iogenes of 9ino!e5 l l ,
3iog. 4. , (I, 0.# also 4u%. Imagines, *6).
))

I. In >ol. .5.0 >hrist is des%ribed as the l6 . To modern
logi% this seems to be a %ontradi%tion, for how %an there be an image of something whi%h is
invisible and without form
)0
The !e%uliarit& of the eB!ression is related to that of the
an%ient %on%e!t, whi%h does not limit image to a fun%tional re!resentation !resent to human
sense but also thin:s of it in terms of an emanation, of a revelation of the being with a
substantial !arti%i!ation ( ) in the ob$e%t.
)6
Image is not to be understood as a
magnitude whi%h is alien to the realit& and !resent onl& in the %ons%iousness. It has a share in
the realit&. Indeed, it is the realit&. Thus l6 does not im!l& a wea:ening or a feeble %o!&
). ,s%. Is. , ), ..5 7e will set u! his image in all %ities." >f. 3ib. Th.
*
, /9.
4eg. <a$. )egatio ad Ga5u .
Fla%%. .n 9laccu .
)* For im!erial tem!les and statues in 9amaria, 2aneas and >aesarea, %f. ?os.Hell. , ., )+/ f. , )./ f. >f. Fittel
2robleme, /6, n. ..
)/ >f. F. >umont, "e:tes et 3onuents figur,s relatifs au: 3'st*res de 3ithra , II (.696), .96, Fig. **# 7aas,
.0 (.9/+, 4ei!oldt), Fig. /0v/6.
2s.D>lem. Ae%g. Pseudocleentine /ecognitions , the title of a novel whi%h is !artl& made out of the ,%ts of
2eter and whi%h tells the stor& of a Aoman famil& %alled >lemens, ed. 2. ,. de 4agarde, .66..
8ed. 3edea .
)) In what mans divine li:eness %onsists for the <ree:s. a!art from the whi%h unites gods and
men, we %an see from 2indar5 q q ,
;em. , 6, ).
)0 4oh. Fol. , ad. loc. >f. <oethes %on%e!t of the basi% !henomenon, and his wellD:nown verse whi%h as:s
what would be either a!!earan%e without realit& or realit& without a!!earan%e.
)6 The same relation is !resent in the %ase of and .
of something. It im!lies the illumination of its inner %ore and essen%e. In the <ree: and
7ellenisti% world this line of thin:ing too: on a strong monisti% and o!timisti% %hara%ter. @e
first find it in 2lato in the %losing words of the Timaeus (9*%, where there is almost a dire%t
!ar. to >ol. .5.0 )5 , l6
(s% ) l,
6 l q 6 .
)7
In 2latoni%
%osmolog& the world as a whole and not merel& man, as in the >hristian s!here, is the visible
image of the intelligible . The !hiloso!hi%al line leads on from 2latoni%
%osmolog& to 2hilo ( /9) ). ,s in 2lat.Aes!. , (I, 0+9a, 7elios is %alled the l6 of the
l . In 2lutar%h, too, the sun is the image of <od (
1
i. 3el!h. , *. mII, /9/dn#
9tob.1%l. , I, *9/, *.), and in the h&mn of 2ro%lus (
-
r!h. , !. *77) to 7elios, in v. /) the latter
is addressed5 l6 . This %on%e!t of images seems to be of s&stemati%
im!ortan%e in the 7ermeti% %on%e!tion of the worldDorganism, the world being the first and
man the se%ond image of <od ( >or!. 7erm. , (III, *.05
i c
l ,
, li et%.# 2s.
D,!uleius ,s%le!ius, .+).
)6
<od holds the world together, and the world man. 7ere, then, we
have the basi% thought of the harmon& whi%h is established b& the
of the 9toa.
*. ,longside this %osmologi%al, s!e%ulative and !hiloso!hi%al line, there is in the <ree:
world a no less monisti% religious line. @e thin: first of the general religious %on%e!t of
images. 7ere the wides!read view, %onstantl& assailed, of %ourse, b& the !hiloso!hers, is that
in the image man has the god himself somehow !resent in his own being. This is %onfirmed
b& the mira%les and magi% asso%iated with the images. The %o!ies have the same !owers and
the same %a!a%ities of feeling and a%tion as the originals (
,
thenag.
9
u!!l. , *65 q
l6 ).
)9
8ore s!e%ifi%all&, if the l6 thus eB!resses the
manifestation of the divine in this world, it is not sur!rising to find the term l6
used as a !redi%ate es!e%iall& in the 7ellenisti% %ult of the ruler in 1g&!t,
0+
e.g., in the
ro&al st&le of 2hilo!ator5 l (
8
itteisD@il%:en , I, *,
;
o. .+9, .., /rd %ent.
H.>. ). -n the Aosetta stone ( 3itt. -r. , 9+, /) 2tolem& 1!i!hanes is %alled l 6
, l Hi . The 7ellenisti% ruler is su!!osed to be the god in visible
manifestation ( ).
4
leinknecht
'. The 'i(ine Li%eness in the OT.
)7 This is the best reading in s!ite of @. 2reus%hen, g;@ , .6 (.9.7v.6), *)/# %f. ,.1. Ta&lor, # 1oentar'
on Plato+s "iaeus (.9*6), 6)6 f., where it is suggested that the reading l6 might derive
from a >hristian reader.
1i. 3el!h. De &i apad Delphos .
-r!h. %rphica , -r!hi% h&mns, of whi%h 66 have survived, belonging to later antiTuit& but %ontaining man&
older materials, and %ulti% in %hara%ter, ed. 1. ,bel, .660.
)6 >f. 3ib. <efbr. , 1B%ursus on >ol. .5.0 .
,thenag. ,thenagoras, of ,thens, >hristian ,!ologist, who %ame over from 2latonism and wrote a defen%e of
>hristianit& to the 1m!eror 8ar%us ,urelius in .77, ed. 1. <oods!eed in Die =ltesten #pologeten , .9.).
9u!!l. Supplicatio .
)9 >f. -. @einrei%h, ,nti:e 7eilungswunder ," A(( , (III, I (.9+9), .)+ ff., and finall& and %om!rehensivel&
?. <eff%:en, ,A@ , .9 (.9.6v.9), *66 ff.
0+ ?. 7ehn, op. cit. , /6 ff. has shown that in the religions of 1g&!t and Hab&lon various gods are %alled the son
and image of the su!reme god. 9imilarl& 2lut. %auses the 2ersian ,rtabanus to sa& to Themisto%les, who wants to
be the great :ing5 q c ,
l ( 2lut.Them. , *7 mI, .*0%n). ,n
interesting !oint here is the lin:ing of the l6 %on%e!t with the soteriologi%al as!e%t.
8itteisD@il%:en 4. 8itteis and K. @il%:en, Grund-ge und 1hrestoathie der Pap'ruskunde , .9.*.
;o. number.
Flein:ne%ht 7ermann Flein:ne%ht , TGbingen ((ol. .I*), 7alle ((ol. /), ((ol. )), 8Gnster ((ol. 0I6).
.. The distin%tive meaning of the divine li:eness in the -T %an be understood onl& when
we see it in stri%t %onne%tion with a faith whi%h is basi%all& orientated b& the sense of the
greatest !ossible distan%e from <od. The %entral !oint in -T anthro!olog& is that man is dust
and ashes before <od and that he %annot stand before 7is holiness. Thus the witness to manOs
divine li:eness !la&s no !redominant role in the -T . It stands as it were on the margin of the
whole %om!leB. =et it is highl& signifi%ant that -T faith ado!ted this theologoumenon in
dealing with the m&ster& of manOs origin.
@hereas in ? man is made u! of earthl& material on the one side ( csd rd[b cd tsa Midqd ) and
the breath of life from <od ( V``eahf Ysf PZQ Sa ) on the other,
0.
2 loo:s in a different dire%tion
from the theologi%al stand!oint.
0*
The stri%t seTuen%e of the !ro%ess of %reation is bro:en
after the %reation of the animals, and a s!e%ial resolve on <odOs !art !oints to something
eBtraordinar& whi%h is to follow. It is im!ortant that in <n. .5.I*5)b the tenden%& is to
se!arate <od from the %reature. Instead of dire%t a%tion, the word of %ommand is enough to
%all forth the %reatures. In the %reation of man, however, there is a signifi%ant %hange. In <n.
.5*6 we have the te%hni%al term for %onstru%ting out of a material ( [Md Led ) so that b& origin
man is brought into a dire%t relationshi! with <od. To give theologi%al !re%ision to this
relationshi! is the main !oint of the divine resolve in <n. .5*6 5 4et us ma:e man in our
image, after our li:eness."
*. To understand this statement it is ne%essar& to realise that here is no freel& ventured
theologoumenon but the re%onstru%tion of a m&th. In fa%t man& fragments of 8eso!otamian
literature show to what remote m&thologi%al de!ths the bibli%al statement finall& !oints us,
whether in terms of a divine being whi%h in the %reation of man first ma:es a s:et%h or !i%ture
on a tablet or in terms of the des%ri!tion of this new %reature dire%tl& as the %ounter!art or
li:eness of the deit&.
0/

To refer to the m&thi%al ba%:ground of the bibli%al statement is not to maintain that this is
itself a m&thologoumenon. It is sim!l& to show that we are not to inter!ret the %on%e!t of
divine li:eness in a wa& whi%h bears no resemblan%e to an%ient oriental thin:ing. The divine
li:eness is not to be found either in the !ersonalit& of man, in his free 1go, in his dignit& or in
his free use of moral %a!a%it& et%.
0)
Indeed, we must be %areful not to em!hasise the
differentiation in the twofold statement ^eSY] ^esrZWea ^eSs] \Zuf LeZ with its distin%tive %hange of
!re!ositions. The author is here wrestling with the eB!ression. 7e has ado!ted an an%ient
formula, and in the terms V\Xuf and Y^esreZ he is %autiousl& a!!roa%hing the m&ster& that man is
an earthl& image of <od, that he is %reated in the li:eness of 1lohim. For this reason the
debate whether the divine li:eness refers to the s!iritual or !h&si%al being of man is not ver&
hel!ful. If we had to thin: in terms of su%h an alternative, we should have to de%ide in favour
of a !redominantl& !h&si%al li:eness, not in the sense of s!e%ulation on <odOs form or
%or!orealit&, but in the sense of a referen%e to the 1lohim nature !ro!er to man. 8an is here
designated as a %reature whose being is not from below but who belongs b& nature to the
u!!er region. There are two !assages in !arti%ular in 2 whi%h !revent us from inter!reting the
theologoumenon of the divine li:eness in a oneDsidedl& s!iritual sense. In <n. 05. ff. referen%e
is made to the !h&si%al !rogen& of the first man, and it is said of 9eth, ,damOs son, that he
was begotten in the image and li:eness of ,dam. This statement is most im!ortant. It ensures
the theologi%al a%tualit& for all generations of the witness to the divine li:eness. For in itself
the stor& of a being originall& %reated in the divine li:eness would be of no great signifi%an%e
0. <n. *57 .
0* <n. .5*6 .
0/ >f. the <ilgamesh e!i%, in whi%h 1n:idu is %reated as the li:eness of the god ,nu, I, 6+ ff. ( ,-T , .0.). -n
material in the an%ient Hab&lonian fragments 1a and ,tar%hasis ( ,-T , *+0 f.), %f. 7ehn, op. cit. , )0. In this
%onne%tion 7ehn also draws attention to the distin%tive name of TammuE, image of 1a," op. cit. , )/.
0) >f. the -T theologies of 1. Aiehm (.669), .7+# ,. 3illmann (.690), /0)# <. -ehler
*
(.66*), **.# 1. FJnig
(.9**), */).
for -T faith. In relation to the !arti%ular Tuestion, <n. 05/ tells us that the transmission of the
divine li:eness is thought of in terms of the !h&si%al seTuen%e of generations and therefore
obviousl& in a !h&si%al sense. The se%ond !assage is <n. 956 , where the !rohibition of
murder is grounded in the divine li:eness. 7ere the thought is the same. ,tta%: on manOs
bod& is violation of <odOs honour.
,!art from the !assages in 2, the onl& -T !assage whi%h refers to the divine li:eness is
2s. 650 f. , and this %onfirms what we have alread& said, trans%ending the !h&si%alvs!iritual
alternative. @e are here told that man is onl& a little lower than <od and is %rowned with
glor& and honour. It will be seen that the se%ond !art of the !arallelism develo!s the first,
eB!ounding it in terms of Mrdcd and r^_LWed. Mrdcd undoubtedl& refers to the glor& of outward
a!!earan%e, eB!ressing the same naive astonishment as we find in the an%ient Hab&lonian
teBts.
00
r^_LWd , however, has a dee!er meaning ( , */6 ). It is the gravitas of man,
what is im!ressive in him, stri:ing the senses but %onsisting !rimaril& in the inner for%e whi%h
is native to him.
06
This gives us a m&sterious !oint of identit& between man and <od, for on
the -T view r^_LWed belongs su!remel& to =ahweh. @hen we turn to ?esus 9ira%h, who is to be
treated with %aution, we find a basi%all& similar understanding of the divine li:eness.
07
The
divine li:eness %onsists in the fa%t that man was invested with might at %reation.
06
There is no
other eviden%e in the -T as to the !ro!er inter!retation of the divine li:eness.
09
It is natural
that the ineffabilit& of the divine being should hel! to draw a veil on this <odward side of
man.
-n the other hand, there are man& answers to the Tuestion how man is to use his divine
li:eness and to what it summons him. Thus even in the divine resolve in <n. .5*6 we are told
that man is to be %reated in the divine image that he ma& %ontrol the whole of %reation. This
as!e%t is eB!ressed ver& strongl& in 2,
6+
whi%h argues that %reation is referred to man and
needs his dominion as an ordering !rin%i!le.
6.
That man should be furnished with the divine
li:eness for this !ur!ose is logi%al enough, for even earthl& rulers, when the& %annot be
!resent in !erson, usuall& set u! their images as signs of ma$est&.
6*
Thus man in his s!here of
rule as <odOs vi%eDgerent is summoned to re!resent the dominion and ma$est& of <od. It is
signifi%ant that 2s. 6 , whi%h at most is onl& loosel& related to <n. . , brings the divinel&
given tas: of ruling %reation into similar relation to the divine li:eness,
6/
and the train of
thought is the same in 9ir. .75/ f.
/. The -T sa&s nothing about the divine li:eness being lost. 2 em!hasises that it was
transmitted to 9eth. ;evertheless, the stead& de%line from the long lives of the earliest
!atriar%hs (2) has the theologi%al im!li%ation of a degeneration of manOs original !owers and
divinel& given habitus . ,nd if our eB!lanation of the divine li:eness is %orre%t, this
degeneration is not unrelated to it.
v. /ad
). The 'i(ine Li%eness in "#daism.
00 >f. the ,ss&r. fragment on the %reation of man ( ,-T , ./6)5 In the host of the throng he (1a) made their
form glorious" (,. ?eremias, Das #" i )icht des #lten %rients
)
m.9/+n, )6 f.).
06 >f. also 8. Huber, 4nigtu Gottes (.9/*), *.), n. .75 4abod is the for%e or dignit& of a being whi%h shines
out and therefore assumes visible form.
07 9ir. .75/ f.
06 9mend, A&ssel et%. have rightl& argued that we should read

for

in 9ir. .75/ .
09 It ma& be !urel& a%%idental that 1E. *05./I.0 , the most highl& %oloured m&thologi%al reminis%en%e of earl&
man, refers onl& to manOs sinlessness and not to his divine li:eness.
6+ <n. .5*6 5 ^ereMZ `a^Z # v. *6 5 cd PQ LZ Wea # %f. also <n. 95* .
6. Ha%hmann, op. cit. , *7) f.
6* >as!ari, op. cit. , *+6 em!hasises this thought.
6/ >f. the hi!hil ^ec\]`PaQ sZ Yef .
.. Aabbini% theolog& found the divine image mu%h less of a !roblem than 2hiloni%
eBegesis ( /9) ) and later >hristian theolog&. 1Begeti%all& the main !roblem in <n. .5*6 f.
was not its relation to <n. *57 ,
6)
as in 2hilo, but how to understand the us" in 4et us ma:e
man{" 7ow to ta:e this us"kwhether in terms of <odOs %onsultation with 7is own heart,
60

with angels,
66
with the Torah,
67
or with heaven and earth
66
kwas a freTuentl& and hotl&
debated Tuestion both in Aabbini% %ir%les and also in debates with hereti%s.
69

-n the other hand, the bibli%al statement that this man, and indeed this earthl&, %or!oreal,
em!iri%al man, was made in <odOs image, is one that was never doubted or regarded as
%onstituting a !roblem.
7+
;or do we find that this image, li:e the kabod ( *)6 ), was
thought to be forfeited be%ause of ,damOs fall.
7.
,mong the siB things whi%h will be
restored, and whi%h have thus been lost, the Aabbis mention radian%e ( ^`| ), length of da&s
and an u!right figure, but not the divine image.
7*
There are %ertainl& statements to the effe%t
that the divine li:eness has been diminished or even effa%ed b& reason of sin. Hut this is not
lin:ed with the fall of ,dam and a resultant, general, meta!h&si%al sinfulness, but with the
individual sin of s!e%ifi% men or grou!s of men.
b 8oed :atan, .0b5 Har Fa!!ara taught5 ~8& li:eness ( `SN^`r Y^sr ) I had given to them,
but through their sin ( Vc`Y^S^qL ) and therefore not ,damOs) I %hanged itO." ,%%ording to ,bha
Fohen ( <n. r. , */ on )5*) ) the divine li:eness ( Y^sr^ V\u ) %eased after 1no%h. 9ignifi%ant,
too, is the legend re%ounted b& A. Hanaah ( b.
H
H , 06a)5 @hen he wanted to surve& and see the
graves of the !atriar%hs, he was allowed to do so in the %ase of ,braham but forbidden in that of
,dam# for ,braham is `SN`r Y^srL (the li:ehess of m& image),
7/
but ,dam hsuq `SN^`rL
(m& image itself). This redu%tion to a se%ondDgrade li:eness does not a!!l& to ,dam himself in
s!ite of the fall.
7)

9in%e the affe%ting of the divine li:eness is not thought of as a meta!h&si%al !rin%i!le, there is
no radi%al forfeiture. The same distin%tion is found in almost the same words in b.
>
hul. , 9.b,
though in relation to the angels who as%ended to %onsider c\qs \P Y^srL (i.e., <od 7imself)
and then des%ended to loo: at Vs \P `SN^`r Y^srL (i.e., man). The divine li:eness might still
be found in men of the !resent age, and not merel& in outstandingl& religious men, but in men
generall&. @hen the dis%i!les of 7illel were astonished that he %alled bathing a good wor:, he
a!!ealed to the divine li:eness of his bod& ( Y^srL^ V\uL `Y[MLSP `S[ ), whi%h it is
6) It is worth noting that this Tuestion !la&s almost no !art at all in Aabbini% literature ( 9tr.DH. , III, )77 f.),
although it seems to invite eBegeti%al dis%ussion. ,s in man& similar %ases, the reason is !erha!s that the Aabbis
avoided an eBegesis that might be ta:en u! b& >hristians for their own eBegeti%al !ur!oses.
60 <n. r. , 6 on .5*6 ( a%%. to A. ,mmi).
66 )oc. cit. , and also .7 on *5.9 ( a%%. to A. ,%ha)# %f. 9tr.DH. , III. 66..
67 2irTe A. 1lieEer, .. ( 9tr.DH. , III, )79).
66 <n. r. , 6 on .5*6 (A. ?osua in the name of A. 4evi# a%%. to @. Ha%her, #gada der pal. #or=er , I m.69*n,
.6), n. .. A. ?osua is the author of the o!inion).
69 b.9anh. , /6b# $Her., .*d (%f. 9tr.DH. , III, 0)/, n. .). -n the >hristian side we find the same eB!lanation in
?ust.3ial. , I, 6*.
7+ -n the other hand, the eB!osition of <n. /5** gives rise to Tuestions (the man is be%ome as one of us"). >f.
the broad dis%ussion in <n. r. , *., and es!. the shar! o!!osition of ,:iba in 8. 1B. , .), *9 to 2a!!usO
eB!osition in terms of ministering angels.
7. >f. 8oore , I, )79.
7* <n. r. , .* on *5) # Tan%h. Huber Hereshit, .6. Though the image is not mentioned in ) 1sr. 75..f ., it remains
in Aabbini% tradition.
HH Baba Batra , 8ishnahD, ToseftaD, Talmud tra%tate )ast Gate (4egal ouestions, Immovables) (9tra%:, &inl. ,
0.).
7/ >f. A. .5*/ 5 i l # /90 .
7) @e have the same gradation, though a!!lied to ,dam too, in 2hilo, where it eB!resses dualisti% meta!h&si%al
s!e%ulation on man ( /9) ).
>hul. 1hullin , 8ishnahD, ToseftaD, Talmud tra%tate Profane (the :illing of nonDsa%rifi%ial animals) (9tra%:, &inl.
, 06).
meritorious to %are for, sin%e it is <odOs image (
4
v. r. , /) on *05/9 ). To shed blood is to harm the
figure of the :ing, i.e., the li:eness of <od ( 8. 1B. , *+5.7). @hoever des!ises a man, sa&s A.
Tan%huma, should realise that this one whom he des!ises <od made in 7is image ( Y^sML
^Y^[ cPq V`h\[ , <n. r. , *) on 05. ). Thus the famous thesis of Hen ,EEai on <n. 05. as the
%entral statement of the Torah
70
is in this res!e%t no eB%e!tion to the general eBegeti%al tradition
of ?udaism. ,nd
A
. ,:iba, his o!!onent in
9
. 4v. , .9, .6, sa&s in ,b. , /, .)5 Heloved is man, for
he is made in the image ( V\uL ".(
76
It is true, of %ourse, that none of the other Aabbis eTualled
Hen ,EEai in dedu%ing from the -T words the %om!rehensive thought of humanit& and in drawing
out the logi%al im!li%ations.
Thus the !reservation or loss of the image be%omes a matter of !ersonal moral %ondu%t
and fulfilment of the 4aw. ,%%ording to A. ?a%ob of Fefar >hanan
77
man will rule if he is our
image and li:eness ( ^S`Y^srW ^S`s\uL ), and fall if he is not5 4et there %ome then he who
is our image and li:eness and reign over him who is not" ( <n. r. , 6 on .5*7 ). To be the
image is to be worth&.
76
The %on%e!t %an be ta:en in this individual ethi%al sense be%ause
there is no in%lination to give it a s!e%ulative meaning and %ontent
79
and be%ause the %on%e!t
of sin in this bran%h of ?udaism relates !rimaril& to the sinful individual ( I, *9+ ).
*. The influen%e of the <ree: s!irit, however, introdu%es the Tuestion wherein the divine
li:eness %onsists as a meta!h&si%al gift.
6+
@is. *5*/ f. answers5
iq , and %on%ludes in v. *) that this gift is ta:en awa& b& the
, the obvious referen%e being to the fall.
6.
It is 2hilo,
6*
however, who eB!ounds
the l6 in the ri%hest wa&.
Knder 2&thagorean influen%e he lin:s it with the number seven5
( -!. 8und. , .++ ), but also with the : q i 6
l6, q ( 9!e%. 4eg. , II, .76 ).
6/
Hut the
i , too, is q l6 (as distin%t from the i i:
i , 4eg. ,ll. , I, )/ ).
6)
The heavenl& : q l
6 q l (s%. ), 4eg. ,ll. , I, // and )* .
60
The 6 is
shar!l& distinguished from it5 q 6 # though it, too, is ,
!artl& be%ause it derives from the breath of <od ( <n. *57 ) and !artl& be%ause it is fashioned after
the as its l .
66
The q is formed q l
, but this l6 is the .
67
There is often referen%e to the (and the
) as the l6 ( >onf. 4ing. , 97 and .)7 # Fug. , .+. # 9om. , I, ..0 and */9 # II,
)0 ).
In Aer. 3iv. 7er. , */+ f. there is a more eBa%t distin%tion between the c q and the

q . The first is , for 8oses %alls it l6 #

the se%ond is i , for of it we read onl&5 l . 7en%e it is onl& q l
4v. r. )eviticus rabba ( Wa55ikra rabba ), 8idrash on 4eviti%us (9tra%:, &inl. , *+)).
70 9. 4v. , .9, .6# $ ;ed. , ).%, /.# <n. r. , *) on 05. . >f. @. Ha%her, #gada der "annaiten
*
(.9+/), ).7 f.# 9tr.D
H. , I, /06.
A. /abbi .
9. 4v. Sifra )eviticus , Tannaiti% 8idrash on 4eviti%us (9tra%:, &inl. , *++).
76 In ,b A;at , /9, 6 the same statement is attributed to A. 8er# %f. Ha%her, op. cit. , I, *79.
77 .bid. , III, 069 f.
76 >f. the !arallel sa&ing in <n. r. , 6 on .5*7 .
79 8oore , I, ))6 f.
6+ .bid. , ))6.
6. Test. ;. *50 uses the fa%t that man is %reated in <odOs l6 to dedu%e an intimate :nowledge of the %reature
b& the >reator.
6* >f. @nd. * F. , ./7# 4tEm. . F. on .05)0# I, .)* .
6/ >f. Aer. 3iv. 7er. , .67 # 9!e%. 4eg. , III, .6+ .
6) >f. @is. 75*6 5 (i) l6 q .
60 >f. 9om. , I, *)+ f. # 9!e%. 4eg. , III, *+7 .
66 4eg. ,ll. , I, // # 9!e%. 4eg. , III, *+7 .
67 9!e%. 4eg. , I, 6. , %f. III, *+7 .
(refle%tion), at the third stage from the >reator ( i
), whereas the first is its original ( ) and the dire%t image (
) of <od. This distin%tion is of the greatest im!ortan%e for the understanding of
man. To be sure, even earthl& man, u!on whom <od breathes ( <n. *57 # infra ) and whose soul
is formed , is l6 and not l6
, 2lant. , .6 f. Hut this is not true of his bod&, for <od has no human form and the
human form has no divine li:eness. It a!!lies rather q q q ,
-!. 8und. , 69 . 2hilo finds his eBegeti%al basis for the distin%tion in the twofold a%%ount of
manOs %reation in <n. .5*6 f. and <n. *57 . This gives rise to the freTuentl& des%ribed or assumed
distin%tion, whi%h %hara%terises all 2hiloOs theolog& and anthro!olog&, between the heavenl& man
who in <n. .5*6 f. is %reated as the l6 and has no !art in mortalit& or earthliness, and
the earthl& man who a%%ording to <n. *57 is fashioned out of dust ( 4eg. ,ll. , I, /. ff. # I, .)*
).
66

*. The !etaphorical &se of Image in the NT.
.. In the ;T the original is alwa&s !resent in the image. @hat is de!i%ted is here given
visible manifestation. Thus l6 in 7b. .+5.
69
is shar!l& distinguished from mere 5
9+
,
q q l 5 the 4aw deals onl& with the and not
with the essen%e of things.
9.

This understanding is found throughout the ;T . Thus in A. .5*/ , though with no
!arti%ular em!hasis, we read that men eB%hanged the of the immortal <od for the
i l of mortal man, birds, fourDfooted beasts and ser!ents. It is obvious that
we have here o!!osition to the heathen %ult of images. The distin%tiveness of the eB!ression
lies in the $uBta!osition of i , whi%h here means the %o!&, and l6 , whi%h is
the original %o!ied, i.e., the thing itself and its form. The& eB%hanged { for the %o!& of the
figure of men and animals."
9*

>f. @is. ./5./ 5 the wood%arver who ma:es idols i l q .
>f. b.HH , 06a ( /9/ ). A. Haanah is visiting the graves of the !atriar%hs, but when, having seen
,braham, he wants to see ,dam, he hears a voi%e5 Thou hast seen the li:eness of m& image (
`SN^`r Y^srL ), m& image itself ( tN^`r ) thou ma&est not see." -ther inter!retations are to be
re$e%ted, e.g., the& eB%hanged { for a li:eness ( i ) whi%h %onsists in an image of
man,"
9/
or for the model ( i ) of an image ( l6 ) in the %reation of whi%h men et%.
have served as models."
9)

*. >hrist as l6 .
@hen >hrist is %alled the l6 in * >. )5) # >ol. .5.0 , all the em!hasis is
on the eTualit& of the l6 with the original. >hrist is l g , in the state of
( 2hil. *56 ). In ?ohannine language 7is being as l6 means5
6 c 6 ( ?n. .)59 # .*5)0 ).
90
1ven if the eB!ression in
>ol. .5.0 were not a%%om!anied b& the !arallel l q ( v. ./ ), it
66 >f. also ibid. , I, 0/, 9+ and 9)# II, )# Aer. 3iv. 7er. , 07 # >onf. 4ing. , 6* and .)6 # -!. 8und. , ./) # 4eg.
9!e%. , III, 6/ et%.
69 >f. Agg. 7b. , *9/, es!. n. 9/# F. @. <rosheide, De Brief aan de (ebreen (.9*7), *69.
9+ ,s against this, in 2hilo4eg. ,ll. , III, 96 the l6 itself is eTuated with the shadow. 4i:e the shadow, it is
%reated dire%tl& after the divine original and man after it (and not <od 7imself).
9. ,lread& ?. ?. @ettstein, ;T , II (.70*), ).6, n., referred to 2lat.>rat. , /+6e5 l l
.
9* 4tEm., ad loc. # also ,. 9%hlatter, 1rl. E. ;T , ad loc .
9/ 7ofmann, gn., ad loc.
9) Fhl., ad loc.
90 >f. @is. 75*6 5 (@isdom is) l6 q () .
would still he a!!arent that the being of ?esus as image is onl& another wa& of tal:ing about
7is being as the 9on.
There is, of %ourse, a %onne%tion with the divine li:eness in the -T . For 2aul the l6
is undoubtedl& a magnitude whi%h he owes to <n. .5*7 .
96
If he here refers it to >hrist
instead of ,dam, it is be%ause he eTuates >hrist with the ,dam intended in <n. .5*7 . This is
%onfirmed in . >. .05)0 ff. , where he s!ea:s of >hrist as the se%ond ,dam ( A , I,
.). ff. ). This follows the lines of 2hiloOs %onne%ting of <n. .5*7 with the heavenl& man (
/9) f. ), this man being >hrist for 2aul and the 4ogos for 2hilo. In 2aul, however, there is no
s!e%ulative interest.
97
The most signifi%ant things are !erha!s in this %ase what he does not
sa&. 7e ado!ts a line of eBegesis, and %onsistentl& refers %ertain statements, in%luding that
about <odOs image, to ?esus, not to show that the Father begat 7is image in >hrist, but that
>hrist is given us as the image of <od b& whi%h we ma& :now what <od wills and does. This
formula does not undermine the !ersonal nature of >hrist, as though 7e were onl& a divine
!ower or nature." 2aul uses the %on%e!t of the image of <od also to ma:e %lear to the
%ommunit& who ?esus is."
96

/. 8an as Image.
That there is no s!e%ulation on <n. .5*7 behind the thought of 2aul is evident from the
fa%t that in . >. ..57 he %an unhesitatingl& a!!l& the same !assage to man, or more !re%isel&
to the male, whereas in . >. .05)0 ( l q ) it would seem that <n. *57 alone
a!!lies to man. If the usual eBegesis is %orre%t, the eB!ression used in . >. .05)9 is even more
remar:able. In . >. ..57 2aul had been able to dedu%e from manOs divine li:eness %ertain
!ra%ti%al %onseTuen%es in terms of the %on%rete life of his da&. Hut onl& a few %ha!ters later in
. >. .05)9 he %an regard the l6 dedu%ed from <n. 05/ as determinative of
earthl& eBisten%e
99
and the l6 i of a future.
.++

The main em!hasis in 2auline anthro!olog& is on this being of man as l6 whi%h is
still to be established, or better restored. ,nd this will be done b& %onne%tion with the being of
>hrist as l6 . In A. 65*9 5 q l l , there is no
tautolog& in and l6 . The general statement that the >hristian is to be %onformed,
or to be%ome the brother ( I, .)0 ) of the Firstborn, is given its distin%tive em!hasis b& the
fa%t that the >hristian will !arti%i!ate in the divine li:eness manifested in >hrist. The man
who is an image of >hrist is an image in the s!e%ifi% sense whi%h is the true and original sense
for those familiar with the Hible, namel&, the sense of <n. .5*7 . This li:eness is the goal of
the divine 6 and the divine l . ,s the %onteBt shows, it is thus identi%al with the
, with the divine essentialit& whi%h is now !resent in >hrist. The tea%hing of * >. /5.6
is eBa%tl& the same.
.+.
Those who behold the i will attain to a share in it5 q
q (i.e., that whi%h %onsists in ) l . The em!hasis is
not on the fa%t that we shall be li:e an image manifested in the , but that that
whi%h is manifested in the is the one l6 to whi%h the name rightl& belongs.
The >hristian is alwa&s %on%erned to attain to the l6 li whi%h
96 9o also 9%hl. Theol. d. ,!. , *99.
97 Thus the Tuestion whether 2aul %alls the !reDeBistent or onl& the eBalted >hrist l6 is Tuite
irrelevant.
96 9%hl. Theol. d. ,!. , *99# Pls. der Bole 0esu (.9/)), 0*6.
99 The aor. is surel& an anti%i!ator& retros!e%t from the future. <. 7einri%i (.66+), 0)*# (.696), 0+. ta:es a
different view when he s!ea:s of the time whi%h is !ast for the believerkhe has alread& re%eived the 9!irit as a
!ledge." Hut the %onteBt does not su!!ort this. It is s!ea:ing of the %ontrast between the earthl&, !h&si%al
on the one side and the heavenl&, !neumati% on the other. The turningD!oint between the two halves of v. )9 is
not, then, %onversion, but death and resurre%tion.
.++ In s!ite of strong su!!ort for , most modern s%holars sin%e HeEa read . In fa%t,
and are so often %onfused in the 899 that the strong attestation of should not be regarded as %on%lusive (%f.
in A. 05. ). In the %onteBt ( n. 99 ) a %ohortative view of the %on$. is hardl& !ossible (in
s!ite of 7einri%i and others)# in this sense even a %on$. ne%essaril& a!!roBimates ver& %losel& to a future. >f. ?oh.
@. . F. , //7.
.+. , *0. # i .
in%or!orates the divine li:eness, and this is the A , i.e., >hrist ( . >. .05)0
ff. ). -r, as we read in >ol. /5.+ , im!lies !utting on the
new man
.+*
l i . 7ere it is Tuite %lear that restoration of
the divine li:eness of %reation is identi%al with the establishment of fellowshi! with >hrist.
The >olossian !assage also shows us on%e more how slight is 2aulOs interest in m&thi%al
s!e%ulation and how strong is his %on%ern for the su!remel& %on%rete ethi%al %onseTuen%es of
this restoration of the l6 , namel&, that we should !ut off forni%ation, blas!hem& and
l&ing ( v. 0 , 6 , 9 ).
@e have here an answer to the Tuestion when the restoration of the l6 ta:es !la%e.
The !osition is eBa%tl& the same as in all 2aulOs tea%hing. It is true that there is an
es%hatologi%al future in . >. .05)9b . It is also true that A. 65*9 !oints us in the same
dire%tion. ;evertheless, in this !assage, and even more so in * >. /5.6 , the es%hatologi%al
statement is lin:ed to an event whi%h is alread& !resent for the >hristian.
.+/
,nd in >ol. /5.+
the restoration of the l6 !osits a goal of ethi%al a%tion in this aeon. 4i:e all the gifts in
whi%h >hristians share, the l6 is an ( I, )66 ). This means that it now is, and
&et that it is still to be. It is en$o&ed, but not &et en$o&ed. Its es%hatolog& is even now at wor:,
and its !resen%e has an es%hatologi%al basis.
4ittel
/), /)
*

l derives from ( , q ), meaning warmth or light of the sun," and
i , so that the full sense is tested b& the light of the sun," %om!letel& !ure," s!otless."
The derived subst. li
.
means !urit&." The ad$. is mu%h more %ommon. There is also
a verb l , to !urif&."
*
The ad$. is fairl& freTuent in 2lato
/
and %ommon in 2hilo.
)

In the 4'' it is found onl& in @is. 75*0 of wisdom5 q
l ( A 5 li ). From the time of 2lato it is used in a moral sense.
In the ;T we have l in 2hil. .5.+ # * 2t. /5. # li in . >. 056 # * >.
.5.* # *5.7 .
0
The ad$. and subst. alwa&s denote moral !urit&.
6

Bchsel
,,
1
0 1
*
6
.+* ,long the lines of . >. .05)9 we might !ara!hrase v. 9 5 2ut off the old man l .
.+/ >f. the dis%ussion of the %onteBt of * >. /57I.6 on /06 , and es!. what is said about l
( * >. /5.6 ) as a bridge between the !resent and es%hatolog& ( /07 ). 2aul might also sa&5
l l l .
C l, li . >f. 2ass. , 2a!e, >r.DFJ. , 2r.DHauer , s.v. @nd. * F. , 0)# 4oh. 2hil. , //, n. 0#
9i%:b. F. , *6, .+*.
. 4ess a%%urate forms are li and li # %f. Hl.D3ebr. y ..9, ).
* 2s. ,ristot.8und. , !. /97a, /0# 9tob.1%l. , I, 9.6.
/ 2hileb. , 0/a, 09%# 2haed. , 66a# 6.%# 9&m!. , *..e.
) *6 times a%%. to 4eisegangOs IndeB.
0 l is also found in . >l., *, 0# * >l., 9, 6, and l in . >l., /*, .. li does not
o%%ur in the !ostDa!ost. fathers.
6 @einrei%h, op. cit. , .76.
. -n the forms of li , %f. Hl.D3ebr. y 96 and the bibl. given there# on the use of li in the ;T , and its man&
variations, %f. 2r.DHauer , s.v. -ur !resent %on%ern is onl& with s!e%ifi% uses whi%h are of theologi%al or religious
signifi%an%e.
C l . -n .. Hss., gn., 4oh., on Aev.# -. @einrei%h, ,A@ , .9 (.9.6v.9), .7)ff.# ?. ,llo, )+#pocal'pse de S.
0ean (.9*.), Introd. >'4(III et%. -n *. gn., Hau., 9%hl. on ?n.# @. 4Gtgert, 0oh. 1hristologie
*
(.9.6), 00ff.# <.
2. @etter, Th9tFr , 66 (.9.0), **)I**6# F. HG%hsel, 0oh. u. d. hellen. S'nkretisus (.9*6), /6ff. -n /.
3eissmann 4- , .+9I..*# Hultmann Trad.
*
, .6.I.76# Hau. ?.
/
, ..9# 1. ;orden, #gnostos "heos (.9./), .77I
*/9.
.. ,lread& in the 4'' the abstra%t 6 is used for <od. In 1B. /5.) the intentionall&
obs%ure selfDdesignation c`XcZ [X MPXQ or c`XcZ [X is !regnantl&, if with a %ertain rationalisation,
translated 6 l 6 or 6 . This leads <ree: s!ea:ing ?ews to use 6 as a name for
<od.
*
2hilo em!lo&s it freTuentl&, as also the wea:er #
/
for him 6 is the true name
of <od ( ,br. , .*. ), and worshi! of <od as 7e who is %onstitutes true !iet& ( 3eus Imm. , 69 ).
?ose!hus, too, is familiar with 6 as a divine !redi%ate, %f. c
6, q ( ,nt. , 6, /0+ ). In his rendering of 1B. /5.)
he eB!ressl& %on%eals the name whi%h <od gave 7imself ( ,nt. , *, *76 ).
In the ;T 6 is a name for <od onl& in Aev. in the forms q ( ..5.7 #
.650 ), q ( .5) , 6 ), and q
( )56 )# /)0 # /0. . The formulae o%%ur in <odOs selfD!redi%ation ( .56 ), in
worshi! ( )56 # ..5.7 # .650 ), and in salutation ( .5) ). This eB!lains the nonde%linabilit& of
6 and the use of q as a :ind of !arti%i!le. 4inguisti%all&, this is diffi%ult, but it is not due to
negligen%e. It is designed to !reserve the san%tit& of the divine selfDdesignation.
)
The formula
eB!resses the su!raDtem!oralit&, eternit& and deit& of <od. It is thus used with
( .56 # )56 # ..5.7 ), as also with the , , of Is. 65/ .
@e find similar formulae in ?ewish tradition. 1B. r. on /5.) gives the rendering5 I am who I
have been, who I now am, and who I will be in the future." Tg. ?. I 1B. /5.) 5 I am who I was and
will be." Tg. ?. I 3t. /*5/9 5 I am who is and who was, and I am who will be, and there is no
other <od but me."
0
It is interesting that we have here both the tri!le and the double formula, as
in Aev., and that it is used in inter!retation of 1B. /5.) . The of Aev. is thus set into
all the greater relief. It shows how vital is the eB!e%tation of the end in Aev. >f. the distin%tive
in .57 , the in **5.7 , *+ (followed b& the ), and the in
*50 , .6 # /5.. # **57 , .* , *+ . In Aev. the formula assumes that salvation histor& is !ressing to its
%lose ( c , 65.+ ). <od is not $ust nonDtem!oral# 7e is the 4ord of time.
,mong the <:s. a threeD or twoDtense formula
6
is found as earl& as 7omer to denote eternit&
( g mthe seern , 7om.Il. , ., 7+).
7
@e also
find it in the !reD9o%rati%s5 q .
6
It re%urs in 2latoOs des%ri!tion of
the l6 ( Tim. , /7d ff.), on an 1leusinian ins%ri!tion of the ,ugustan !eriod ( 3itt. 9&ll.
/
,
..*0), as a geus formula in an ora%ular sa&ing of 3odona5 Z q, Z i, Z
, 6 Z ( 2aus. , ', .*, 0), as an Isis formula from 9ais5 6 l
( 2lut.Is. et -s. , 9 mII, /0)%n), and as a term for <od in the
7ermeti% writings5 hoc est6 hoe fuit6 hoe erit seper #sclepius , .) ( >or!. 7erm. , /.*, .+).
9
It is
unli:el& that Aev. too: the formula from the <:. tradition and ada!ted it. -n the other hand, the
<:, formula !robabl& !assed into the ?ewish tradition and then%e into Aev. It is !ossible that a
%ommon oriental sour%e stands behind both the <:. and ?ewish traditions, but we %annot assume
this, sin%e the formula is found among the <:s. 6++ &ears before it is used b& the ?ews.
* This is shown b& its !enetration into the 4'' through a misunderstanding of the 7b. teBt. In . 1:6 #
.)5./ # /9 ( /* )5.7, the ce cd [b of the 8as. is to be understood along the lines of 1B. /5.) as c`XcZ [X and is to be
inter!reted a%%ordingl&. >f. @. <raf Haudissin, F&rios (.9*9), I, 0*/, .# III, 699 and 7+6. The -T designation of
<od is used as a name for >hrist in s&n%retism too. It is found on a <nosti% %ameo along with IOYC and IAO
(%f. F. ?. 3Jlger, .chth's I m.9.+n, *67 ff.). In the <:. . >hur%h it is still found toDda& on !i%tures of >hrist, whi%h
have the three letters O on the three ends of the %ross within the halo, and also on re!resentations of the
Father and the 7ol& 9!irit. It eB!resses the eternit& of <od in the 4'' sense, being understood b& 7ellenisti%
?udaism and >hristianit& in this wa&. mHertramn.
/ >f. 4eisegangOs IndeBes, **6 ff.
) Hl.D3ebr. , 9u!!l. to y .)/.
0 9tr.DH. , III, 70+, 766.
7 The religious meaning of the formula (the seer has divine :nowledge) is worth noting, as also the substitution
of for the missing !art. having been"# %ould not be used, at an& rate in 7omer, for
whom are also .
6 >f. the !assages in 3iels a%%ording to FranEO IndeB, .9*.
9 The formula seems to be of !hiloso!hi%al origin, and to have %ome into religious usage onl& later.
*. 6 l or 6 l is a selfDdesignation of ?esus in ?n. 6506 and 65*) , *6 # ./5.9 .
In 6506 it stands in unmista:able %ontrast to A . This is the onl&
!assage in the ;T where we have the %ontrast between l and . The verse
as%ribes to ?esus %ons%iousness of eternit& or su!raDtem!oralit&.
.+
To the 9on who is eTual to
the Father ( 05.6ff .) there is here as%ribed what 9%ri!ture attributes to the Father# %f. the `Sa[b
[^ ec in Is. )/5.+ (4''5 l6 l ), in whi%h the whole <odhead of <od is dis%erned,
i.e., all that distinguishes 7im from false gods. The ?ewish %on%e!tion is full& adeTuate to
eB!lain the strong em!hasis here laid on l .
The %onteBt is also ?ewish. ?esus is %om!ared with ,braham, and 7e sur!asses the glor& of
,braham of whi%h the ?ews boast. ?ewish, too, is the 6 formulation, whi%h does not denote
antithesis to other !ersons, but is to be eB!lained in terms of the 9emiti% c^ec `Sa[b .
..
The
8essiani% inter!retation of 6 l , whi%h gn. advo%ates for 65*) , *6 # ./5.9 ,
.*
disru!ts the
%onteBt of 6506 and the other !assages, does not fit in too well with 65*) , *6 # ./5.9 , and ignores
the allusion to Is. )/5.+ . The rendering I am 7e" is also to be re$e%ted.
./
@hat is at issue is not
so mu%h what ?esus is as the fa%t that 7e is. The attem!t of <. 2. @etter to eB!lain the 6
l in terms of 7ellenisti% s&n%retism is Tuite wide of the mar:.
.)

There are interesting eBam!les of 6 l in the 4''. It o%%urs as the sub$e%t of a
following or !re%eding finite verb and is a translation of `Sa[b or `La S_[d 5 6 l i (
?u. 65.6 )# 6 l ( 2 B. 11:5 ).
.0
7ere it is not used as a divine name,
sin%e the referen%e ma& be to men, and there is insuffi%ient eviden%e in !o!ular s!ee%h for an&
su%h usage. @e ma& thus !resume that it is sim!l& an em!hati% form of the !ers. !ronoun. This is
shown b& the fa%t that at least on%e in 2 B. 7:2 we find a !ar. l with the finite verb.
.6

/. For 6 l with following nouns of !redi%ation ( es!. in ?n.), 6 /0* .
Bchsel
,, ,, ,&, ,&,
,! .
,%
*

A. The ree% Concept of , .
.+ >f. also in 65*) the %ontrast between 6 l and , in 65*6 the eBaltation of ?esus (i.e., 7is
trium!h over death) as the !reD%ondition of faith in 7is being, and in ./5.9 the %onne%tion with the death of
>hrist# the thought of eternal life is alwa&s !resent in the 6 l , %f. 4Gtgert, op. cit.
.. >f. Hl.D3ebr. *77, . and *.
.* Hut not for 6506 , %f. gn. on 65*) and HG%hsel, op. cit. , /7, n. /.
./ @etter, op. cit. # Hau. ?. , ad loc.
.) >f. HG%hsel, op. cit. , /7.
.0 There are some *+ !assages, %f. 7at%hDAed!. , I, /67.
.6 >f. Tha%:era&, 00, .+, /+# ?Th9t. , 6 (.9+7), *7*.
C l . 7. Fu%hs, ,ugustin und der anti:e Friedensgedan:e ," ;. 2h. K. , / (.9*6), /9I)/# .67I**/# 1. de
@itt Hurton, "o the Galatians (I>> m.9*.n), )*)I)*6# 1. 4ohme&er, g;@ , *6 (.9*7), .6*# ?. 7einemann,
Philons gr. u. 5d. Bildung (.9/*), ).)# ?oh. @. . F. on .5/. -n ,5 H. Feil, IP4 ," UU Berichte ber die
Verhandlungen der 4nigl. S=chsischen Gesellschaft6 Phil.<hist. 4lasse , 66, ) (.9.6)# <. 7erbig, Friede,"
/ektoratsrede , Aosto%: (.9.9). -n H5 @. >as!ari, Vorstellung und Wort K9riede+ i #" ," HFTh , .), )
(.9.+)# Der biblische 9riedensgedanke (.9.6)# @. 1i%hrodt, 3ie 7offnung des ewigen Friedens im alten Israel
," HFTh , *0, / (.9*+). -n > and 35 ?. 7em!el, g38< , 79 (.9*0), 0.f.# 9%hn. 1uang. , )/# 8oore , II, .90# ,.
8e&er, Das /=tsel des 0akobusbriefes (.9/+), .+6# 4oh. Fol. , .)9, n. .. -n 15 ,. Titius, Die nt.liche )ehre von
der Seligkeit , 3er ges%hi%htli%hen 3arstellung *. ,bt.5 3er 2aulinismus unter dem <esi%hts!un:t der 9elig:eit
" (.9++), 9+f.# H. @eiss, Die bibl. "heologie des !"
7
(.9+/) y 6/b# F. 8ittring, (eils2irklichkeit bei Paulus
(.9*9), .7, n. *# -. gln:er, g9Th , 9 (.9/.v*), ).6# ,.8. Hrouwer, De Bergrede (.9/+), *)* f.# most of the
%omm. have brief notes on the relevant !assages, es!. gn. 4:. on .579# H%hm. F. on . >. .5/ # ?oh. @. on . >.
75.0 # 7au!t <efbr. on >ol. .5* # 3ob. Th. on . Th. 05*/ # Fl. 8:. on 05/) # Fl. 4:. on .+56 .
The basi% feature of the <:. %on%e!t of l is that the word does not !rimaril& denote a
relationshi! between several !eo!le,
.
or an attitude,
*
but a state, i.e., time of !ea%e" or state of
!ea%e," originall& %on%eived of !urel& as an interlude in the everlasting state of war.
/
@hile the
4atin pa: in the first instan%e denotes a re%i!ro%al legal relationshi! between two !arties,"
)

l is !rimaril& no more than the !assionatel& asserted, emotionall& felt and !al!able
o!!osite of ."
0
The $uBta!osition in the caren saeculare of 7ora%e ( v. 07ff.)
%hara%terises the former5 ia 9ides et Pa: et (onos Pudor$ue priscus et neglecta redire Virtus
audet
6
the latter is defined in
2
s.D2lat.3ef. , )./a5 l qi q .
7
l is often a%%om!anied b& qi as an eB!lanator& %on%e!t, e.g., 2lat.Aes!. , I', 070b.
T&!i%al of the <:. %on%e!t are also the attributes as%ribed to the goddess 1irene in !oetr&, e.g.,
(dis!ensing ri%hes), , (nurse) , and also
the wa& of de!i%ting her in art, e.g., with the small 2luto %hild, as in ,thens, or with the horn of
!lent&, the heraldOs staff or the ears of %orn,
6
the Aoman 2aB in %ontrast being %rowned with the
laurel.
9
l is the state of !ea%e from whi%h flow all blessings for both land and !eo!le and
whi%h is eBtolled b& 2hilemon as the su!reme good5 , , , ,
i, , i, , l, qq, (s%. l ) i ( Fr. 7.
m >,F , IIn )96 f.).
The sense of treat& of !ea%e," and therewith the %on%lusion of !ea%e" and %onditions of
!ea%e," %omes in with the l , the 2ea%e of ,ntal%idas, and re!la%es the older
eB!ressions i, q . The oldest eBam!le of the use of l in this
new sense is 3itt. 9&ll.
/
, .)*, 7 (/6)v/ H.>. )5 { q l q i
, 6 {"
.+

The basi% %on%e!t of the state of rest" also ma:es !ossible the lin:ing of l with the
gen., e.g., qi ( 2lat.4eg. , I, 6*6b5 l q , the end of %ivil war). l
%an also denote the o!!osite of disturban%e, e.g., laughing ( 2lat.9&m!. , .69avb5
, i ,
g, lg ).
l %an also signif& a !ea%eful attitude" ( 2lat.4eg. , I, 6*6%5 q
q { l c
# 1!i%t.3iss. , I(, 0, *)5 { , l
6 ). Hut here, too, it is !rimaril& negative. Thus Iso%. , 7, 0. brings together
qi and l , and in the
1!i%tetus !assage the !hiloso!her is thin:ing more of the absen%e of hostile feelings than of the
!resen%e of :indl& feelings to others. The !ro!er eB!ression for a !ea%eful dis!osition is i or
( 1!i%t.3iss. , I(, 0, /05 liq i ,
, l . Thus l is seldom used for %on%ord between men.
. For this reason the derivation from the stem ,2 with redu!li%ation, whi%h is advan%ed b& F. Hrugmann,
IP , Berichte ber die Verhandlungen d. 4nigl. S=chs. Gesellschaft d. Wissenschaften6 Phil.<hist.
4lasse , 66, / (.9.6), ./ ff., does not seem ver& !robable# v. Fu%hs, .67# %f. ,. 3ebrunner, <<, , .76 (.9.6),
7)+, n. /# 1. 7ermann, 34g , /6 (.9.7), )6/I)60# 2. Frets%hmer, <lotta , .+ (.9*+), */6 f.# F. 9tlhelin in
ATIOP ( 9estschrift fr 0. Wackernagel m.9*/v)n, .0.. >f. ,. 3ebrunner in 8. 1bertOs /ealle:ikon der
Vorgeschichte , I(, * (.9*6), 0*6.
* Hrugmann, * f. thin:s we have eBam!les of the sense of !ea%eful nature" in 7om.-d. , *), )60 f.5

, c l , and also in 7es.Theog. ,
9+. f., where 1irene, 3i:e and 1unomia are %alled daughters of geus and Themis, but these instan%es do not give
us adeTuate !roof.
/ 1. @eiss, Griech. Privatrecht , I (.9*/), .7., .6# Feil, 7 ff.
) Fu%hs, )+. ;evertheless, the Aoman %on%e!t of pa: is !resent in 1!i%t.3iss. , III, ./, 9, where the l of
>aesar means se%urit& against robbers and !irates.
0 %p. cit. , /9.
6 For another im!ortant eBam!le from (elleius, v. Fu%hs, .9..
2s.D2lat. 2seudoD2lato.
7 9o Feil, 0, n. ..
6 1Bam!les ma& be found in -. @aser s.v. &irene in 2aul&D@. , ( (.9+0), *.*6 ff.# <. @issowa s.v. Pa: in
Aos%h%r, III, *, .7.9 ff.
9 Fu%hs, *+..
.+ ,s found in Feil.
In a%%ordan%e with its basi% sense it was more ada!ted to denote the state of mind desired b&
the 9toi%s. =et it is not %ommon in 9toi% writings. It o%%urs in 1!i%t. , III, ./, ./5 l
, i , but this is be%ause of the %ontrast with the im!erial l .
8ore %ommon is , whi%h is often found in
8
ar%. ,urel.
..
>f. 2lut.
T
ranT. ,n. , .9 (II,
)77a)5 i iq , q
{ i iq
, q .
.*

9!e%ial mention must be made of the l whi%h held swa& in the 8editerranean world
with the government of ,ugustus. ,s in this !eriod we have strong e%hoes of the an%ient longing
for redem!tion, so !a%ifi%ation is a%hieved b& the strong hand of the em!eror, so that this is hailed
as the golden age, e.g., in (ergilOs Fourth 1%logue. If we have here the %ontent of the <:. l
, in ever&da& realit& it im!lies the legal se%urit& of the pa: /oana 5 1!i%t.3iss. , III, **, 005
i g, q 6 , g g lg l
; .
9oerster
B. +,-./01 in the OT.
.. 9eldom do we find in the -T a word whi%h to the same degree as V^_\PdQ %an bear a
%ommon use and &et %an also be filled with a %on%entrated religious %ontent far above the level of
the average %on%e!tion. This does not ma:e its investigation eas&. If V^_\PdQ is a general eB!ression
of a ver& %om!rehensive nature, this means that there is something im!re%ise about it in almost
ever& instan%e. In our attem!t at a theologi%al enTuir& we must :ee!, therefore, to the !assages
where the word is not isolated but where it ta:es on s!e%ifi% meaning from the %onteBt or where it
is the %ulmination of a !re%eding train of thought. ;or should we leave out of a%%ount statements
where the thought of !ea%e is %entral even though the term itself is not used.
@e %onstri%t the term V^_\PdQ if we eTuate it stri%tl& with !ea%e." ,t root it means wellD
being," with a strong em!hasis on the material side.
./
In meetings or letters wellDbeing is wished
to others, and in %onversations one as:s about their wellDbeing.
.)
In !ra&er the good fortune of
the ungodl& is %alled V`qa PdQ MZ V^_\PZQ .
.0
7ere and in man& other instan%es V^_\PdQ reall& signifies
bodil& health
.6
or wellDbeing and the related satisfa%tion,
.7
8ore %ommonl& V^_\PdQ is referred to
a grou!, e.g., a nation en$o&ing !ros!erit&. This brings us %loser to the thought of !ea%e. Thus
7eEe:iah too: IsaiahOs !ro!he%& of doom lightl& be%ause he eB!e%ted !ea%e to last in his
generation.
.6
In this !assage there is a %urious lin:ing of V^_\PdQ with YsX [z . The %on$un%tion
shows that !ea%e im!lies stabilit& of relationshi!. Thus in the wellD:nown !assage in 1%%l. / we
have the terse antithesis of V^_\PdQ and csd hd \Zsa . =et here, too, there are man& %ases where V^_\PdQ
means something more fundamental than our !ea%e," as in the eB!ression V^_\PdQ PQ Mf red i.e., to be
%on%erned for the V^_\PdQ , the wellDbeing, of a !eo!le.
.9
This brings us to the great number of
!assages in whi%h V^_\PdQ denotes a relationshi! rather than a state. Thus there is V^_\PdQ , i.e., a
8ar%. #d 3arcella .
.. V. IndeB of the editio aior of 7. 9%hen:l (.9./).
TranT. ,n. De "ran$uillitate #nii .
.* l is used for the harmon& and order of the soul in -:ellos, Fr. *, 7arder in ;2hK, . (.9*6), *7, . f.5
{ i l i .
./ ?u. .95*+ # . 9. .650 # * 9. .65*6 et%. >f. also 1Er. 057 .
.) <n. *956 # )/5*7 # * 9. .65*9 # *+59 f.
.0 2s. 7/5/ # but %f. Is. )65** .
.6 >f. the o%%asional lin:ing of V^_\PdQ and [id Md ?er. 65.) # Is. 075.6 f. , also 2s. /65/ .
.7 This is !arti%ularl& %ommon in eB!ressions li:e to go in !ea%e" ( <n. *65*9 # 1B. .65*/ # Is. 005.* et%.), to
slee! in !ea%e" ( 2s. )56 ), or to be buried in !ea%e" ( <n. .05.0 # ?er. /)50 # * F. **5*+ ).
.6 * F. *+5.9 # %f. * 9. .75/ # . F. *50 .
.9 3t. */57 # ?er. *957 # /65) .
relationshi! of friendl& allian%e between 9olomon and 7iram.
*+
The relationshi! ma& be that of a
!eo!le.
*.
Those who enter into it are %alled V^_\PdQ `W][b \Zsf .
**
It ma& naturall& eBist between
individuals too ( ge%h. 65./ ).
9in%e the 7ebrews sometimes use Y`Ma LeZ for this :ind of allian%e, it is not sur!rising that
V^_\P dQ o%%urs when there is referen%e to a %ovenant. Indeed, the %onne%tion between the two words
is so strong that in this %onteBt V^_\PdQ seems to have be%ome a :ind of offi%ial term. The thought
ma& be that the relationshi! of V^_\PdQ is sealed b& both !arties in a %ovenant.
*/
>onversel&, it
ma& be that the %ovenant inaugurates a relationshi! of V^_\PdQ . 1Ee:iel in !arti%ular ma& be %ited
in favour of the latter. In two !assages he tells us that =ahweh ma:es a V^_\PdQ Y`Ma LeZ for Israel,
and in both eases the %onteBt ma:es it %lear that the relationshi! of V^_\PdQ is the result ( 1E. /)5*0 #
/75*6 ). It must be said that onl& rarel& among its man& !ossibilities of a!!li%ation does the word
refer to so s!iritual a matter as here. For in these !assages V^_\PdQ does not mean material wellD
being, but a relationshi! of !ea%e de!endent on the dis!osition of those who %on%lude the
%ovenant. It is not sur!rising that with this em!hasis the word %ould eB!ress the final !ro!heti%
insights on the interrelation of <od and the !eo!le of <od. ,long with the 1Ee:iel !assages whi%h
refer to the V^_\PdQ Y`Ma LeZ that =ahweh grants to 7is !eo!le, we ma& Tuote es!e%iall& Is. 0)5.+ 5
8& :indness shall not de!art from thee, neither shall the %ovenant of m& !ea%e )`sa ^_\PZQ Y`Ma LeZ (
be removed."
*. V^_\PdQ as the gift of =ahweh. ;aturall& the goods and values asso%iated with V^_\PdQ
were alwa&s referred in Israel to =ahweh, whether in !ra&er for them, or in re%ognition that
the& are 7is gift when !resent. This religious use must not be regarded as a dedu%tion or a
later develo!ment. -n the %ontrar&, if we said above that there is a basi% material element in
V^_\PdQ , we must a%:nowledge that when it is used in its full %om!ass V^_\PdQ is a religious
term. In this res!e%t it is more li:el& that an original religious signifi%an%e was to some eBtent
lost in the %ourse of time than the reverse.
<ideon had built an altar and gave it the name V^_\PdQ c^d_c`Z
*)
If it is im!ossible to give a
stri%t, s&nta%ti%al eBegesis of this ver& an%ient eB!ression, one might venture to sa& that in its great
!regnan%& this %onfession embra%es at root all that the !ious tried to sa& later in man& different
situations, es!e%iall& as this finds eloTuent eB!ression in the !ra&ers of the -T . =ahweh %reates
V^_\P dQ in the heavenl& s!heres, high above all human affairs ( ?ob *05* ). Hut 7e is also the !ledge
of V^_\PdQ to man. 7e blesses the !eo!le with V^_\PdQ . Indeed, it ma& be said that 7e wills )Si] hd (
the !ros!erit& of 7is servants ( 2s. /05*7 # %f. .)75.) ). 8a& 3avid and his house eB!erien%e
V^_\PdQ ) p . F. *5// ). 2ra& for the V^_\PdQ of ?erusalem" ( 2s. .**56 ).
The belief that V^_\PdQ trul& %omes onl& from =ahweh, but from 7im allDsuffi%ientl&, is
stri:ingl& eB!ressed in 2s. 60 . The author in his !ra&er hears the ora%le5 7e will s!ea: !ea%e
unto his !eo!le { that glor& ma& dwell in our land. 8er%& and truth are met together#
righteousness and !ea%e have :issed ea%h other." In this train of thought <odOs dis!osition to
*+ . F. 05*6 # %f. also ?u. )5.7 # . F. 05) # <n. /)5*. # . >h. .*5.6 .
*. 3t. *+5.+ V^_\PdQ \Z [Md Nd # %f. ?u. *.5./ .
** Is. //57 # in the broader sense of a messenger with news of salvation, ;ah. *5. # Is. 0*57 )s^_\PdQ qf `sa PZQ sf ( .
*/ ?os. 95.0 # . F. 05*6 . In -b. 7 those who are in league )Y`Ma LZ `P]Q SZ[f ( are also %alled V^_\PdQ `P]Q SZ[f in the
!arallelism.
*) ?u. 65*) # we must ta:e V^_\PdQ c^d_c`Z as a nominal statement, %f. 1B. .75.0 (>as!ari, op. cit. , .). ff. ta:es a
different view).
save 7is !eo!le is regarded as the %ause of !erfe%t earthl& !ea%e. 7ere we have a %limaB in
the -T use of the term V^_\PdQ .
*0
In the eBhortations of the 7oliness >ode we find the
!romise that <od will give 7is !eo!le V^_\PdQ in the land ( 4v. *656 ). The %onteBt shows us
Tuite !lainl& that a solid blessing is meant, i.e., !ea%e from enemies and wild beasts. =et this
is a blessing of salvation in the s!e%ial sense. It is rest and !a%ifi%ation in the land of !romise,
and therefore that whi%h 3t. eB!resses in the distin%tive term chd ^eSsZ .
*6
@e are thus in the
immediate !roBimit& of the !ro!heti% !romise of V^_\PdQ .
/. V^_\PdQ in the !ro!heti% message. From 8i%aiah the son of Imlah to 1Ee:iel there is a
minorit& of !ro!hets of doom who !assionatel& resist the message of salvation !ro%laimed b&
false !ro!hets. In this %onfli%t, %ontinuall& renewed through the %enturies, the %at%hword u!on
whi%h ever&thing turns is V^_\PdQ . Indeed, even the te%hni%al term V^_\PdQ \Z [L] Sed`a a!!ears in this
%onne%tion ( ?er. *659 ). V^_\PdQ seems to have been the %ulminating !oint of the theolog& of
some !ro!heti% %ir%les, and therefore the term be%ame the %entre of bitter %ontrovers&
between two !arties. The issue ma& be seen alread& in the stand of 8i%aiah against the
!ro!hets of salvation, though the term itself does not o%%ur ( . F. **50 ff. ). 8i%ah %ontends
against the same o!!onents, a%%using them of !ro!hes&ing for gain. -nl& so long as it is of
!rofit to them will the& !ro%laim salvation ( 8i. /50 ff. ). ?eremiah flung himself most dee!l&
into the struggle and was most hotl& resisted b& these !ro!hets. In great affli%tion he as:s
=ahweh what will be the fate of those who !romise ?erusalem eternal salvation ( YsX [z V^_\PZQ ,
?er. .)5./ ). The& have healed also the hurt of the daughter of m& !eo!le slightl&, sa&ing,
2ea%e, !ea%e# when there is no !ea%e" ( ?er. 65.) ). In ?er. *6 we have the stor& of a dramati%
en%ounter between ?eremiah and these !ro!hets. The !oint at issue between ?eremiah and
7ananiah is V^_\PdQ or cqd Md . Finall&, 1Ee:iel ma:es the same %om!laint that the false !ro!hets
have led the !eo!le astra&, seeing visions of salvation )s^_\PdQ t^_|hb ( where there is none ( 1E.
./5.6 ).
The !roblem of false !ro!hets goes mu%h be&ond the Tuestion of V^_\PdQ and %annot be
!ursued in this %onteBt.
*7
There %an be no doubt, however, that the V^_\PdQ whi%h the&
!ro%laimed was not a final es%hatologi%al !ea%e %lothed in m&thi%al %on%e!tions but real
!oliti%al !ea%e for Israel, i.e., the !romise that all the serious !oliti%al !roblems would be
solved for the best so that Israel %ould live in a !ea%e guaranteed b& =ahweh. It seems as
though ?eremiah originall& shared this view ( ?er. )5.+ ), but he then %ame to see that =ahweh
had ta:en awa& !ea%e from this !eo!le" ( .650 ). The of the false !ro!hets was not
that tha& !ro!hesied V^_\PdQ , for ?eremiah and 1Ee:iel %ould also do this in other situations. It
was rather that the& ignored the sin of the !eo!le and therefore %ould not inter!ret the
dar:ening !oliti%al s%ene in terms of im!ending $udgment. ?eremiah and 1Ee:iel for their !art
%oin the %ounterDslogan V^_\PdQ t`[] .
*6

If ?eremiah and 1Ee:iel brought the battle between V^_\PdQ and V^_\PdQ t`[] to its su!reme
%limaB, the defeats of 097 and 066 led to a %ertain relaBation of tension in this res!e%t, and the
!romise of V^_\PdQ in a new and larger sense be%ame one of the most im!ortant elements in
their !ro!he%&. Thus ?eremiah %an write to the eBiles the wonderful statement that =ahweh
has for them thoughts of salvation and not of evil ( ?er. *95.. ). 7ere we have the basis of the
later !ro!he%ies of salvation in ?eremiah. -ther nations will tremble at the salvation whi%h
*0 >as!ari, op. cit. , .6..
*6 -n this theologoumenon, %f. <. v. Aad, gdg, .. (.9//), .+) ff.
*7 >f. <. v. Aad, 3ie fals%hen 2ro!heten ," g,@ , 6+ (.9//), .+9 ff.
*6 ?er. 65.) # 65.. # .*5.* # /+50 # 1E. ./5.+ , .6 .
=ahweh will bring to ?erusalem.
*9
The same theme re%urs in 1Ee:ielOs %ulminating
announ%ement of a %ovenant of !ea%e whi%h <od will ma:e with 7is !eo!le ( 1E. /)5*0 #
/75*6 ff. ). @e do not find the %onfli%t over V^_\PdQ in the later %ha!ters of Isaiah. 7ere V^_\PdQ
is no longer a %at%hword whi%h enables us to see an im!ortant as!e%t of the !ro!heti%
!osition. It is sim!l& one of the full and ma$esti% notes %hara%teristi% of this !ro!he%&. If Israel
had listened to =ahweh, its V^_\PdQ would have rolled down li:e a river and its cNd rduZ li:e
waves of the sea ( Is. )65.6 ). The !arallelism here shows us that the term is now given a
s!iritual sense. 9imilarl&, the blessing of salvation !romised to the sons of ?erusalem in Is.
0)5./ is asso%iated with that of cNd rduZ . The same %on$un%tion of V^_\PdQ and cNd rduZ is found in
the !ro!heti% de!i%tion of the new %it& of <od5 I will also ma:e thine offi%ers !ea%e, and
thine eBa%tors righteousness ) )cNd rduZ ".
/+
@e are not to gather from this more than the
loftiness of the term V^_\PdQ . In this !oeti% !ro!he%& there is a %on%ern to sound the ri%hest
!ossible notes, as we %an see again from Is. 665.* , where V^_\PdQ in a rather more material
sense is lin:ed with r^_LWed . 7ere, as in the beautiful %r&5 2ea%e, !ea%e to him that is far off,
and to him that is near" ( Is. 075.9 ), !ea%e is a term whi%h eB!resses a wealth of eB!e%tation
but whi%h is not to be inter!reted in terms of a more eBa%t theologoumenon. It has a %ertain
inner im!re%iseness, so that the translator who has no su%h man&Dsided term at his %ommand
is often at a loss to :now whether in these !assages, sin%e V^_\PdQ is a gift of <odOs gra%e to
7is restored !eo!le, he should use the more %on%rete wellDbeing," the more obvious !ea%e,"
or the theologi%all& more %om!rehensive salvation." In Is. )057 , of %ourse, the last is the
onl& real o!tion5 I am =ahweh { I a%%om!lish salvation, and %reate evil."
). V^_\PdQ as an element in es%hatologi%al eB!e%tation. 1B!e%tation of a final state of eternal
!ea%e is an element in -T es%hatolog& whi%h finds %onstant eB!ression in the !ro!hets and
other writings. The fa%t of this wides!read and man&Dsided eB!e%tation must be mentioned
even though the term V^_\PdQ is not alwa&s found in the relevant !assages. @hen we have
!ro!he%& of a restoration of the %onditions in 2aradise,
/.
or !romise of international !ea%e
under divine dire%tion ( Is. *5* ff. ), or eB!e%tation of a humble :ing in the last age who will
bring in a time of !ea%e ( ge%h. 959 f. ), even though the word V^_\PdQ is not used in these
%entral es%hatologi%al !assages, or is used onl& alongside man& others, as in ge%h. 95.+ , this
should not blind us to the fa%t that we have here a !ro!heti% !ro%lamation of V^_\PdQ of the
widest !ossible im!ort. 7en%e we are not to as%ribe an& greater signifi%an%e to !assages in
whi%h the word is a%tuall& found. In the names of the 8essiani% >hild in Is. 950 the final MPfw
V^_\PdQ is no more signifi%ant than those whi%h !re%ede. The name tells us that as the -ne who
bears <odOs %ommission ) )MPfw
/*
the 8essiah is the <uarantor and <uardian of !ea%e in the
%oming 8essiani% :ingdom, In v. 6 this is eB!ressed again in the most im!ortant statement
that to the salvation asso%iated with the throne of 3avid there shall be no end )t`[] V^_\PdQ \Z^e
uN] ( . -ne might sa& that the formula of 8i%ah5 This man is !ea%e (or salvation)," sums u!
the essen%e of this whole !ro!he%&. The teBt, however, is somewhat un%ertain.
//

*9 ?er. //59 . The authenti%it& of the sa&ing is dis!uted b& man& %ommentators.
/+ Is. 6+5.7 . ,%%ording to Is. /*5.7 V^_\Pd Q is the result of cNd rduZ .
/. Is. ..5. ff. # 7os. *5*+ ff. # ,m. 95./ ff.
/* @. >as!ari, 1%htheit, 7au!tbegriff und <edan:engang der messianis%hen @eissagung Is. 95.I6," HFTh ,
.*, ) (.9+6), .. ff.
// 8i. 050 . The statement does not fit into the metre, and in an& %ase we %annot be sure whether the demonstr.
!ronoun refers to what !re%edes (the 8essiah) or what follows (7is saving wor:).
@hen we %onsider the ri%h !ossibilities of V^_\PdQ in the -T we are stru%: b& the negative
fa%t that there is no s!e%ifi% teBt in whi%h it denotes the s!e%ifi%all& s!iritual attitude of
inward !ea%e. There are, indeed, more !assages in whi%h it is used of grou!s rather than
individuals. 4am. /5.7 might be ta:en as a t&!i%al eBam!le of the latter usage5 ,nd thou hast
removed
/)
m& soul far off from !ea%e5 I forgat !ros!erit&." Hut even here V^_\PdQ is not
something %on%ealed and inward# it manifests itself in the form of eBternal wellDbeing. In the
ma$orit& of eBam!les, in whi%h the referen%e is to a grou!, the term V^_\PdQ %learl& denotes
something whi%h ma& be seen. @hen we remember the wa& in whi%h it is lin:ed with cNd rduZ
) .77 ), with ied PZQ sa ( ge%h. 65.6 ) or with credN ieZ ( Is. 6+5.7 ), we are for%ed to sa& that in
its most %ommon use V^_\PdQ is an em!hati%all& so%ial %on%e!t.
/0

v. /ad
C. , in the LXX.
.. If the main sense of the <:. word l is a state of rest, the 7eb. V^_\PdQ %ontains the
thought of wellDbeing or salvation. 9in%e, then, the 4'' uses l for almost all the
V^_\PdQ !assages in the -T , and for these alone (for eB%e!tions )+6 ), it is natural that the
%ontent of the 7eb. term should have !enetrated into the <:.
/6
The usage fashioned b& the
4'' not merel& eBerted an influen%e on the <ree: s!ea:ing >hristian %ongregations, but
%aused the word l to be filled out with the sense of the ;eoD7ebrew or ,ramai% V^_\Pdw
.
*. >ommon to both V^_\PdQ and l is the meaning of !ea%e in %ontrast to war# l is
used for V^_\PdQ in this sense in 2rv. .75. )c^d\ZPfQ ( and Is. .)5/+ )hf LeX ( . It signifies the time of
!ea%e in Is. .)5/+ 5 l , or !ea%e between nations in ?u. )5.7 5
l q { , or the state of !ea%e in .
>h. **59 5 l qi 6 q q . =et for
all the a!!arent identit& there are here, too, differen%es between the <:. and the 4'', as ma& be
seen in ge%h. 65.* 5 i l q 6 q, q q
6 q, 6 q , where
fruitfulness is not a %onseTuen%e of !ea%e as in the <:. , but is rather the %ontent of divine
l . It ma& be that originall& the Tuestion of the reason for the %oming of someone (q
l) was the Tuestion of warli:e or !ea%eful intent, as in 4 B. :17 ff. , &et when
Hathsheba re%eives ,doni$ah with the words l q # ( 3 B. 2:13 ) she is
reall& as:ing whether his %oming means good. In the 4'' l does not seem to mean
%on%ord instead of !ersonal strife and hatred,
/7
nor is it used in the sense of ma:ing !ea%e" or
re%on%iling." ge%h. 65.+ 5 l q i , is good <:. , even in%luding the
!
re!. ,
whi%h is also found in 1!i%t.3iss. , III, ./, .+.
If in these !assages the <:. word l ne%essaril& ta:es on a broader sense for readers of
the 4'', this is even more true in the great number of !la%es where V^_\PdQ has nothing to do with
war but is used in the general sense of wellDbeing in %ontrast to evil in ever& !ossible form. @e
/) Aead ho!h hSf|ZYed ^f .
/0 >as!ari, op. cit. , 0).
/6 ?. @a%:ernagel, .ndolger. 9orschungen , /. (.9.* f.), *6/, eB!resses the o!inion that the 4'' often ta:es
a <:. word whose fun%tion is !artl& %oDeBtensive with the use of the 7eb. and uses it to render the 7eb. in its
other senses, so that man& <:. words are given meanings whi%h are otherwise alien and whi%h the& would never
have %ome to have of themselves."
/7 The ad$. l is %ertainl& used in this sense ( ).6 ), and it is worth noting that in almost all the
!assages where V^_\PdQ means %on%ord between men l is used, e.g., . 45:22 # -b. 7 # ` /)5*+ #
<n. /75) # 3t. *5*6 # ge%h. 65./ , and the free rendering of ?er. *+5.+ . 40: is an eB%e!tion.
!re!. !re!osition.
have first to %onsider the man& !assages in whi%h l means the !ros!erit& or salvation of
man. This ma& be in the form of an introdu%tor& greeting ( l , ?u. 65*/ ), !erha!s in a
letter ( l i 3a. /596 ). It ma& be in the form of a farewell (
lg , ?u. .656 # but more %ommonl& { l l , 1 B. 20:42 ). It ma& be an
enTuir& as to the welfare of someone ( l , 2 B. 18:2 ). It ma& be referen%e to a
greeting ( l l , 1 B. 10:4 , or sim!l& l l , ?u.
.65.0 ). It ma& be a matter of going or returning l ( <n. *65*9 ) or lg ( 2
B. 15:27 ). It ma& be that the righteous is tem!ted b& seeing the l ( `
7*5/). It ma& be with referen%e to the l whi%h the !h&si%ian brings on the earth ( 9ir. /656
). Hut alwa&s the reader of the 4'' is given the im!ression that l has a !ositive %ontent,
that it does not merel& mean rest, that it denotes the whole" state of man whi%h %annot be
overthrown b& an& violen%e or misfortune. ;owhere is this seen more %learl& than in the %ommon
eB!ression to die" and to be buried" l ( . 41:5 ) or l ( <n. .05.0 ),
whi%h signifies the o!!osite of suffering violen%e, %f. 3 B. 2:6 5 (read )
q lg l q . ,lso worth noting is Is. *95*) , where, even
though the 7eb. does not have V^_\PdQ , we read5 l l i
l , and from the %onteBt this %an hardl& mean an&thing but that the& will learn to
s!ea: %orre%tl&. 9o %ommon is the use of l for !ros!ering that 3avid %an not onl& as: l
l l l but also l l ( 2 B.
11:7 ), and so firml& established is l as a greeting that it %an be shortened5
l l l , i.e., to greet" ( 4 B. 10:13 ). It %an thus
be%ome a %r& of salvation ( . >h. .*5.6 ).
/6

In addition to eBternal !ros!erit& l %an denote the total wellDbeing of man, as in `
/)5*75 i l q
l i , l q l
. In ` .*.56 again we read5 c l , i.e., on
?erusalem, for whi%h the author has alread& wished l and i . In other words, the
term easil& moves from the sense of %on%rete !ros!erit& to the wider sense of good. Thus in 2rv.
/5.7 , along with l q (s%. of wisdom) i , we have also l
i q lg . 7ow far l in this sense %an differ from !ea%e more stri%tl&
s!ea:ing ma& be seen in . 45:4 , where the war !art& sa&s to the !ro!het, who is advising the
%on%lusion of !ea%e5 l q

q , i.e., he is not giving good advi%e. The term is broadened &et again in the 4''
to denote ethi%al good, e.g., ` //5.) 5 i ,
l i , and %f. ge%h. 65.9 # 8al. *56 # 2rv. .*5*+ # Is. *65/ .
/. This leads on Tuite naturall& to the use of l for the good whi%h %omes from <od,
both in this age and in the age of salvation. It is %hara%teristi% of -T !iet& that the term %an signif&
this divinel& given good in an& s!here of life. @e have the general statement in Is. )057 5 6 {
l i , whi%h in%ludes ever&thing from the blessing of the
land a%%. to 4v. *65/I6 5 i { 6 l
g g { i q q , u! to the blessing of
;u. 65*6 5 c l . @hile it
is often im!ossible to give the eBa%t %ontent of l , it is alwa&s what is good for man, that
wherein his wellDbeing or salvation lies5 ?er. /65.. 5 l
. The %ovenant of !ea%e with 2hinehas ( ;u. *05.* # 9ir. )05*) ), with 4evi ( 8al.
*50 ) and with 3avid ( 1E. /)5*0 # /75*6 ) is a %ovenant of salvation. Thus in ` ..65.60 the great
!ea%e of those who love the 4aw is %ontrasted with the whi%h will not affe%t them.
2ea%e here brings inner salvation and not destru%tion. Thus in 9ir. .5.6 l , whi%h is
nourished b& the fear of <od, is lin:ed with i l (%f. Is. 957 m 6 n). @hen <od
glorifies 7imself, it means !ea%e, i.e., salvation, l and being lin:ed in ` 6)56
and 9. This salvation is eB!li%itl& %alled <odOs salvation in ?er. .650 . In these !assages l
/6 ,%%ording to the %onteBt, the greeting has b& oriental %ustom the a%tual meaning and %ontent of re%ognition or
homage, e.g., 1 B. 30:21 # 2 B. 8:10 # . >h. .65.+ # %f. also 121:6 ( ).* ).
does not mean a state of inner !ea%e. 4am. /5.7 5 6 l , must be
inter!reted in terms of the !ar. .
). ,s regards the %onstan%& of the rendering of V^_\PdQ b& l , we should note that other
terms are sele%ted in a number of !assages. These are almost eB%lusivel& %on%erned with eBternal
welfare, with greetings, or with %oming and going. ,ttem!ts have been made to find alternatives
more in :ee!ing with <:. usage, es!. in <n., e.g., %oming and going i , <n.
*65/. (A2O: lg) # *65*. (A2: lg) et%.# and !erha!s <n. ).5.6 (,
2: l) # or the use of i, in enTuir& as to welfare in <n. *956 # /75.) (A2:
l) # ?os. .+5*. # or the greeting in <n. )/5*7 5 # or the rendering of \[f PdQ
V^_\PdQ \Z b& in 1B. .657 (%f. 1 B. 25:5 4'', vl. and 2 ). In <n. )/5*/ we have
the greeting (A2: l) , and ?er. *+5.+ , instead of the 7ebrai%
q l , has i . @orth noting are Is. )65** (A2O: l)
and 075*. 5 i . o%%urs for V^_\PdQ in ?ob *.59 ,
and in Is. 005.* (A2O: l) . This means that the use of l is %onstant onl&
when it denotes the !ros!erit& whi%h %omes to man from <od.
In some %ases l is used for other words besides V^_\PdQ 5 for NPQ in . >h. )5)+ # for
hf LeX in ?ob ..5.6 ()# 2rv. /5*/ # Is. .)5/+ # 1E. /)5*7 # /656 , .. , .) # /956 , *6 # for c^d\ZPfQ in
2rv. .75. # 7os. *5.6 2 . 9ometimes there is misreading of the 8as. , as in 2 B. 3:24 # 2
t. 4:16 # 8i. *56 # Is. /*5) # ( )05*) [ C#) 1E. /)5*9 # 2rv. 65.6 A .
'. +,-./01 in 2abbinic 3ritings.
There is an eBtended use of V^_\PdQ in Aabbini% literature. @e first find the %ommon -T sense
of to greet" in V^\PL \[P , !9heT, * ( 9tr.DH. , I, /6*d), also used of dumb greetings b& signs,
<n. r. , 0 on .59 , %f. also V^\P tYS , b. Her., .)# ,ram. [s\PLc` , 4am. r. on .5.. For
answering a greeting we have s^\Pm L`Pcm , Her., *, .. The ,ram. e!istolar& salutation is
[R` t^Ws\P , T. 9anh. , *, 6,
/9
or sim!l& \ )[(s\P ,
)+
though there are also formulae li:e
[s\P^ [shM , 9. Har. , 76, *. The oral greeting x`\q V^\P o%%urs in !Her., *, )b, *7 ( 9tr.DH. ,
I, /6/h), and also \Z in b.
<
it. , 6*a ( 9tr.DH. , I, /6)o). >ustomar& fareDwells are V^\P\ x\ and x\
V^\PL or V^\PQ S \`| .
).
In the Aabbis, too, V^_\PdQ means wellDbeing. Thus in !Her., 6+ it is said
that from the 6th to the 9th month of !regnan%& there is !etition that the %hild will %ome out
V^\PL , and there is also referen%e to V^\P\ in %oming and going, i.e., to !rote%tion from
robbers. In Tan%h. V`iPs , 99 a ( 9tr.DH. , I, 76*) we have the %ontrast to go mad" and to
remain at !ea%e." The sense of rest o%%urs in 4v. r. , 0, . on )5/ ) )rhis V^\P . V^_PdQ is also
found on ?ewish graves in the sense of wellDbeing or salvation.
)*

4i:e the -T , the Aabbis use V^_\PdQ for the gift of <od to 7is !eo!le. In the Hab&lonian !ra&er
of .6 !etitions, whi%h see: <odOs blessing on 7is !eo!le, the final !etition %on%ludes as follows5
/9 <. 3alman, #ra=ische Dialektproben (.696), /. -n the Aabb. greeting, %f. 9tr.DH. , I, /6+I/60# II, 06) f.# ?.
Friedmann, Der gesellschaftliche Verkehr u. die 8gangsforen in taladischer Zeit ( 3iss. @GrEburg, .9.)),
*7I/6.
)+ b.9anh. , 96a, 9tr.DH. , II, 9).
<it. <ittin.
). ,%%. to b.8o , *9a V^\P\ x\ is %ustomar& in life and V^\PL x\ at the grave. Hut a%%. to 9%hl. 4:. on
*5*9 this is an overfine distin%tion not :nown in ?m. *5.6 .
)* 1. 9%hGrer, Die Geeindeverfassung der 0uden in /o (.679), Ins%r. ;o. /.# 2. <. -rfali in /ev. Bibl. , /*
(.9*/), *06# 7. @. He&er and 7. 4ietEmann, Die 5dische 4atakobe der Villa "orlonia in /o (.9/+), /., ;o.
.6# /7, ;o. )6. >f. also <. Hertram, 1ro-er ?uart. , .+ (.9//), *6). From the ?ewish ins%r. the wishing of !ea%e
!assed into earl& >hristian ins%r., >. 8. Faufmann, Die sepulkralen 0enseitsdenk=ler der #ntike u. des
8rchristentus (.9++), ). ff.
V^\PL \[MP` ^sqY[ xMLsc `` cY[ x^ML # !ea%e is the !ortion of the righteous.
)/
7ere
V^_\P dQ is a !ar. of cWdM] LeZ ,
))
and, as in the -T , it sums u! the blessings of the 8essiani% !eriod.
Is. 0*57 is usuall& referred to this,
)0
and one of the eB!lanations of the final %lause of the ,aroni%
blessing is that it refers to the !ea%e of the dominion of the house of 3avid.
)6
-n the other hand,
the idea of !ea%e in the 8essiani% age %omes to be limited to %on%ord in Israel, and this shows a
strong influen%e of the new usage whi%h develo!ed after the -T !eriod.
For among the Aabbis V^_\PdQ is also used for !ea%e as o!!osed to strife between individuals
and not merel& nations. Thus we have freTuent and em!hati% referen%e to the ma:ing of !ea%e (
V^\P cPq , also P [`Lc ) between men. ,%%ording to 2ea., ., . this is one of the things
whose fruits are en$o&ed alread&. For 7illel ,aron was a model of one who !ursued !ea%e )irM(
, ,b. , ., .*.
)7
1ven though the <entiles or Israel are guilt& of idolatr&, so long as the& are at
!ea%e 9atan %annot tou%h them, 9. ;u. , )* on 65*6 (Har), and in the same great %ha!ter it is
eB!lained how even 9%ri!ture %ontradi%ts itself to maintain !ea%e between men (%f. also 9lav. 1n.
0*5..I./). -ne might almost sa& that the role whi%h !ea%ema:ing assumes among the Aabbis
%omes nearest to the ;T %on%e!t of love and ta:es the !la%e in later ?udaism whi%h the
reTuirement of love o%%u!ies in the ;T . There is, of %ourse, a restri%tion to the negative side. It is
not a matter of see:ing the V^_\P dQ or salvation of oneOs neighbour, but of see:ing V^_\PdQ in the
sense of the end of strife. 2erha!s some !art was !la&ed in this develo!ment b& the idea that
dis%ord was holding u! the %oming of the 8essiah. Thus a%%. to 1d. 657 1li$ah must first establish
!ea%e in the world. ;evertheless, the Aabbini% statements evin%e a strong !ersuasion that env&,
strife and dis%ord are %ontrar& to <odOs will. -n this view the ver& %ontinuation of the worldkand
for this there are <:. !ar.
)6
kde!ends on !ea%e ( ,b. , ., .6), though there is also referen%e, of
%ourse, to dis%ord in the u!!er famil&."
)9

This leads to a use of V^_\PdQ whi%h we do not find in the -T , namel&, for the relationshi!
between <od and man. 3amas%. begins (., *) with the fa%t that <od is in %onfli%t )L`M( with all
flesh. This %onfli%t !revails until the ma:ing of the taberna%le, whi%h brings !ea%e.
0+
9ins li:e
idolatr& %reate enmit& between <od and Israel
0.
but the stones of the altar %ast )Y^\`s( !ea%e
between them.
0*
2ea%e and strife between man and <od involve a re%i!ro%al relationshi! in
whi%h man is a%tive both !ositivel& and negativel&.
). , in the Pse#depigrapha4 "oseph#s and Philo.
In the !seude!igra!ha we need %onsider onl& the religious and ethi%al usage. In the Test. 'II ,
as in the imager& of 1no%h, we meet with the angel of !ea%e,
0/
who a%%ording to Test. 3. 65* is
i 6 and q l q q
i . 7ere, as in Test. 4. .65) and 3. 059, .., l means the
salvation dis!la&ed in the %essation of war ( Test. ?ud. **5. f.), though this does not eBhaust it. It
is im!ortant, however, that in the Test. 'II and es!. in 1th. 1n. its o!!osite is not the strife
)/ 9. ;u. , )* on 65*6 . For further eBam!les of !ea%e as <odOs gift, v. 7. @indis%h, g;@ , *) (.9*0), *)0 f.
)) ?. 7em!el, g38< , 79 (.9*0), 0. f. with ref. to b.>hag. .*b5 In the seventh heaven )Y^LMq( are the
treasures of life, !ea%e and blessing5 cWML `|SR^ V^\P `|SR^ V``h `|SR , and K:Ein, /, .*.
)0 9tr.DH. , III, *6* f.
)6 9. ;u. , )* on 65*6 # %f. also 2esi:t. , .* ( 9%hl. ?. on 65)0) and Tan%h. LP`^ , 7 , .6+ (9%hlatter). 7ere we %an
see the narrowing of the 8essiani% V^_\PdQ %on%e!t mentioned in the teBt.
)7 For further eBam!les, %f. 9tr.DH. , I, *.7.
)6 Fu%hs, .+. ff.
)9 For eBam!le, %f. 3ib. <efbr. on >ol. .5*+ # also 9. ;u. , )* on 65*6 . -n this whole sub$e%t, v. 7. @indis%h,
g;@ , *) (.9*0), *)/ and 9tr.DH. , I, *.0 ff.
0+ Tan%h. Huber [PS y *0 # 9tr.DH. , III, 09*.
0. 4v. r. , 7 on 65* # 9tr.DH. , III, *)+ f.
0* 8. 1B. , *9 UU *+, *0 UU THo, 7, 7# 9tr.DH. , I, *.0# %f. also III, *.7 f.
0/ >. Fa!lan, #nglican "heol. /evie2 , ./ (.9/.), /+6I/./.
between <od and Israel or humanit&, as in the Aabbis, but the $udgment of <od. @e thus read that
for the ungodl& there will be { l ( 1th. 1n. 050), and for the fallen
guardians of heaven l (.*50), while !ea%e is !romised to the
righteous. For the sa:e of %larit& we should addu%e 1th. 1n. .57 f., where, after the announ%ing of
natural %atastro!hes, we read5 q , i
i q l ,
l, ,
q i 6
q,
l . 7ere !ea%e is the nonDeru!tion of
$udgment, and it is thus lin:ed with !ardon () and with the mer%& of the $udge
() . It %an also be lin:ed with , however, and this means that it is not merel& negative,
but %an also signif& salvation. >ou!led with this traditional sense of salvation we thus have the
meaning left in !ea%e," as in 1th. 1n. 0565 (s%. )
l i .
4i:e V^_\PdQ in the Aabbis, l in the !seude!igra!ha %an mean !ea%e or %on%ord between
men, as in Test. <. 65/5 l , lc l .
?ose!hus follows the -T and Aabbini% usage. In ,nt. ., .79 # 6, )+0 l means
!ros!erous, and in Hell. , *, ./0 (the 1ssenes are l i ) l means %on%ord.
There are 7ebrew and <ree: !ar. when in ,nt. , 6, *.. ?ose!hus s!ea:s of the l
, s% i , and there are <:. !ar. for the lin:ing of l and i
in ,nt. , .., *.6 .
0)

Hoth linguisti%all& and materiall& 2hilo stands in the <:. tradition. It is t&!i%al of him that in
his usage l means both !oliti%al !ea%e
00
and also the !ea%e of inner rest whi%h, in %ontrast
to the %onfli%t of desire, belongs to <od alone
06
and is to be sought onl& from 7im.
07
Thus
l is again a mainl& negative %on%e!t, as in the <:. use, in 1br. , 97 5 q c
c q, c c { q q c qi l
, c i . Inward and outward war and !ea%e belong
together. Inward war is the worst,
06
and it is the sour%e of all evil, ?os. , 07 5 l c
i , q
l i q
.
4i:e 2hilo, and under the same influen%e of <:. !hiloso!h&, the >hur%h fathers, too, thin: of
l as the o!!. to ,
09
as in 1!. ,r. , *7/5 6 {
q l .
*. , in the NT.
In the ;T the meaning of l is mu%h the same as that of the Aabbini% V^_\PdQ This ma&
be seen first in its use in greetings and similar eB!ressions, where it has the sense of wellDbeing or
salvation. @e thus have or l l in 8:. 05/) and !ar. # 4:. 750+ , and
the lg of ?m. *5.6 , as a farewell, and l with the dat. as a greeting on
arrival in 4:. .+50 # ( *)5/6 #) ?n. *+5.9 , *. , *6 , a translation of the greeting then %urrent in
2alestine. In ,%. .65/6 4u:e as%ribes the greeting lg to the Aoman :ee!er
of the !rison, an ana%hronism whi%h he must have !i%:ed u! from the 4'' and whi%h he no doubt
thin:s !ro!er on the li!s of a new %onvert. 2aul, too, %onstantl& uses the salutation
l
6+
in his e!istles, and we have the same formula in Aev. .5) . This follows the
7ebrew and ,ramai% greeting. is added in . and * Tm., * ?n. and ?d. and i is
0) Fu%hs, .7+.
00 7einemann, )./ ff.
06 9om. , II, *0/ 5 q l, q c q
q i q .
07 (it. 8os. , I, /+) 5 c 4 ,
l, l 6 .
06 -!. 8und. , 6. .
09 For eBam!les, %f. Fu%hs, *.) ff.
lin:ed with it in . and * 2t., ?d., and these bring it even %loser to attested ?ewish formulae ( )+6
f. ). l also o%%urs sometimes in the %losing greeting, . 2t. 05.) # / ?n. .0 # %f. <l. 65.6 . The
<:. form i is also found in ,%. .05*/ # */5*6 # ?m. .5. # %f. * ?n. .+ . The final greeting
o%%urs onl& in ,%. .05*9 ( */5/+ # or as vl. ). @e ma& %om!are
,%. .05// 5 l , and . >. .65.. 5 c
lg , with the -T eB!ressions to go lg, l ."
6.
The sa&ing of 9imeon
in 4:. *5*9 5 { lg , has the same formal sense. The
wider use of l in the sense of se%urit& ma& be seen in 4:. ..5*. 5 lg
(%f. also . Th. 05/ ). l is the o!!. of disorder in . >. .)5// ( ).* )
and of !erse%ution in ,%. .)5* 35 c l .
That it is not the <:. sense whi%h !redominates in the ;T is !arti%ularl& !lain when we
%onsider that the !rin%i!al meaning is salvation in a dee!er sense. @e are also brought into the
Aabbini% s!here b& its freTuent use for %on%ord between men ( ,%. 75*6 # <l. 05** # 1!h. )5/ # ?m.
/5.6 # %f. . 2t. /5.. ) and b& its lin: with the word 6 UU rM ) )+9 ) ( A. .)5.9 #
7b. .*5.) # %f. . 2t. /5.. ). In the ;T , as in Aabb. literature, there is referen%e to !ea%e with <od.
In the !arables and narratives l li:e V^_\PdQ , is used for !ea%e as o!!osed to war, e.g., ,%.
.*5*+ # *)5* (state of !ea%e)# 8t. .+5/) # Aev. 05) .
2aul, too, uses l in a sense whi%h undoubtedl& a!!roBimates to the rarer <:. sense of
!ea%e of soul, es!. in A. .05./ .
The -T and later ?ewish ba%:ground ma& also be seen in eB!ressions li:e l oiueun,
to ma:e !ea%e," ?m. /5.6 ( )+6 ), l UU \`ea ca 8t. .+5/) ( )+9 , 4:.
), l UU to give a greeting of !ea%e," ?n. .)5*7 .
6*
There is !erha!s a
s!e%ifi% ,ramaism in 4:. .)5/* , where the :ing who feels inferior i i
l . This does not mean that he as:s for %onditions of !ea%e. It means
that he greets the other. In the %onteBt, however, this %arries the im!li%ation of homage and
therefore of un%onditional submission.
6/

,s regards the material use of the term in the ;T three %on%e!tions %all for noti%e5 a.
!ea%e as a feeling of !ea%e and rest#
6)
b. !ea%e as a state of re%on%iliation with <od#
60
and %.
!ea%e as the salvation of the whole man in an ultimate es%hatologi%al sense.
66
,ll three
!ossibilities are !resent, but the last is the basis. This %onfirms the lin: with -T and Aabbini%
usage.
.. l in its widest sense as the normal state of all things.
In . >. .)5// 2aul o!!oses to the %onfusion %aused b& !ro!he%& at >orinth the
%onsideration5 i l .
67
In %ontrast to
6+ In addition to the %omm. v. ?. >. T. -tto, 0bcher. f. deutsche "heologie , .* (.667), 676I697# 2. @endland,
Die urchr. )iteraturforen (.9.*), ).* f.# 1. v. 3obs%hGtE, Der #p. Pls. , I (.9*6), /+ f.# ?. @obbe, Der
1harisgedanke bei Pls. (.9/*), )) f.# -. Aoller, Das 9orular der paul. Briefe (.9//), 6. f. -tto notes the ver&
small influen%e of the ;T greeting.
6. ?oh. @. . F. , ad loc. suggests an es%ort in !ea%e and harmon&.
6* )+6 and 9%hl. ?. on .)5*7.
6/ @e should read l or l , whi%h brings out better the basi% 7eb. formula. >f. 7. 9t.
?. Tha%:era&, ?Th9t. , .) (.9.*v./), /69I/99, n. /6 .
6) >f. ?oh. @. . F. on .5/. The ?ewish greeting is lin:ed b& 2aul with an eTuable tem!erament, so that l
is !ro!erl& the basi% religious dis!osition whi%h the >hristian owes to 7is <od and 4ord."
60 H%hm. F. on I, 75.05 l denotes the state of !ea%e whi%h is granted to the believer when his
relationshi! to <od is freed from all tension." ?oh. @. . F. also thin:s that the referen%e here is to the
harmonious and feli%itous dis!osition of the soul whi%h is im!ossible in the misallian%e to whi%h 2aul refers.
66 8ostl& without eB!ress indi%ation of the es%hatologi%al element, e.g., 1w. <efbr. on 1!h. .5* 5 l is
the state of !ea%eful being un%louded b& an& tension," the over%oming of a sense of guilt not being the real
%on%ern in the desire for l . >f. @bg. 2t. on II, /5.) ( ).) ).
67 ,. 7arna%:Os eB%ision of (with 8ar%ion and Tertullian), 9,H , .9.9, .,0*7 ff., is hardl& ne%essar&.
The %onteBt !lainl& shows that 2aul does not regard it as ne%essar& to sa& that the s!irits of the !ro!hets are
s!irits from the 9!irit of <od.
i, l , is the normal state of things. @e need not thin: of this in
narrowl& ethi%al terms,
66
but along the lines of the Aabbini% use of V^_\PdQ . Hut the fa%t that
in this sense l is lin:ed eB!ressl& and em!hati%all& with <od dis!la&s the %onneBion
between the inward and the outward noti%eable elsewhere in the ;T . The health&" or normal
state whi%h %orres!onds to the will of <od is not to be limited to the soul or even to man. It
eBtends basi%all& to the universe as a whole.
*. as the es%hatologi%al salvation of the whole man.
a. -ur startingD!oint is the -T word V^_\PdQ in the sense of the salvation whi%h %omes from
<od, es!e%iall& the es%hatologi%al salvation. Thus we read of the eB!e%ted salvation in the
song of ga%harias in 4:. .579 5 q l
l . { q l l .
69
The song
of the angels in 4:. *5.) 5 i q l
6 i ,
7+
is not to be ta:en as a wish, es!e%iall& in its se%ond !art.
7.
The
referen%e is not so mu%h to !ea%e among men or with <od, but to the salvation whi%h has
%ome to earth. The same is true of 4:. .95)* 5 l g qq g
l ,
7*
i.e., to th& salvation. The remar:able sa&ing in 4:. .95/6b 5
l i , must be ta:en in the same sense. The %losest !arallels are
Aev. .*5.+ 5 q i { q , and Aev. .95. 5 q
i q q q , and the meaning is that
l (the same as i in Aev.) is !resent and is fashioned in heaven.
7/

9alvation has %ome as a histori%al event through ?esus >hrist. This is !i%tured in Aev. .*
and it is intimated in 7b. ./5*+ b& the lin:ing of q l and 6
. 7b. 75* em!hasises that
8el%hisede% as the t&!e of >hrist is 2, l .
7)

This salvation is !ro%laimed in the q l ( 1!h. 65.0 , %f. ,%. .+5/6 #
1!h. *5.7 ).
70
It is the salvation of >hrist ( ?n. .)5*7 ). If ?esus here borrows from the ?ewish
greeting,
76
this is in itself a warning not to thin: in terms of inner !ea%e of soul (H. @eiss).
The world wishes onl& ^_\PdQ # >hrist gives the salvation se%ured b& 7im. ,gain in in. .65//
the o!!osite of l as wellDbeing or se%urit& is not anBiet& but affli%tion () .
This was the note heard b& the dis%i!les when ?esus used the %ustomar& farewell. It is for
this reason that it is re%orded in the <os!els in 8:. 05/) !ar. # 4:. 750+ . ?esus 7imself gave
the greeting of !ea%e !arti%ular signifi%an%e on the li!s of the dis%i!les. The greeting whi%h
the& give on entering a house is not a wish. It is a gift whi%h is either re%eived or re$e%ted as
su%h. 9o real is this that if re$e%ted it returns to the dis%i!les, 4:. .+50 f. # 8t. .+5./ .
77
2aul
maintained and dee!ened the usual ?ewish greeting along the same lines.
76

66 ?oh. @., ad loc.
69 ,. 2lummer, 9t. 4u:e
)
(I>>., ad loc. ) relates this to the !ea%e between <od and 7is !eo!le, and 3aus%h
9&n!t. , ad loc. to true feli%it&, but we are reall& to %onstrue it with H. @eiss, Die &v. des 3arcus u. )ucas
(.9+.) and Fl. 4:. , ad loc. as 8essiani% salvation.
7+ It is now generall& re%ognised that the true reading is i , %f. ?. ?eremias, g;@ , *6 (.9*9), ./ ff.
7. >f. also Aev. .*5.+ and .95.f .5 That i and be%ome <odOs is an event.
7* This is the true reading, without .
7/ >f. gn. 4:. and 9%hl. 4:. , ad loc.
7) For !ar. from ?os. and 2hilo, v. @nd. 7b. , ad loc.
70 In A. .+5.0 the :oine reading, whi%h adds l , is se%ondar&.
76 9o H. @eiss, ?oh. 1v. (.9+*)5 ?. 7. Hernard, St. 0ohn (I>>., .9*6)# 9%hl. ?. # Hau. ?. , ad loc. .
77 8t. rather obs%ures the !oint for <ree: readers b& using instead of to sa&, 2ea%e."
76 ,%%. to Aoller ( n. 6+ ), 6. i is firml& established in <:. letters. ,t the ver& most we onl& have
o%%asional infin. li:e i or . It is thus most unli:el& that 2aul should have been thin:ing
of the <:. i in his ( l) . This greeting is newl& %oined b& the earl& >hur%h or
!erha!s b& 2atti himself on the formal basis of the ?ewish greeting, whi%h allowed other substantives as well as
@e are admonished to see: this salvation in 7b. .*5.) 5 l 6
, , . In this %onteBt
l %annot mean %on%ord with others, !artl& be%ause this would demand
rather than ( n.
9
6 ) as in A. 05. , !artl& be%ause it would not fit the %onteBt. ,fter
the admonition to ma:e straight !aths for our feet that the lame ma& be healed there follows
the in$un%tion to see: salvation in %om!an& with all men. This salvation is a !ower whi%h
!rote%ts man in 2hil. )57
79
and whi%h rules in the heart in >ol. /5.0 . It is a :ingdom in
whi%h the believer is !rote%ted. =et it is not identi%al with manOs eBternal affairs and ma& lead
to the eB!erien%e of bitter enmit& ( 8t. .+5/) f. !ar. ).
b. In these !assages l is materiall& determined b& the fa%t that it is !arallel with
, %f. A. 656 5 q , c
q l . 2aul is telling us what the striving of the flesh and the
striving of the s!irit ob$e%tivel& signif& and finall& lead to, namel&, death on the one side and
l on the other. 7e bases the first !art of the verse on v. 7 . The striving of the flesh is
enmit& against <od and %an onl& lead to death.
6+
7e is not thin:ing in terms either of a
harmonious dis!osition of soul
6.
or of !ea%e with <od.
6*
,s and are modes
of eBisten%e whi%h will be revealed as su%h es%hatologi%all&, so it is with l , the
!arallel of . For l (UU V^_\PdQ UU salvation) is the state of final fulfilment, the
normal state of the new %reation. , %hara%teristi% !arallel is !robabl& to be found in * 2t. /5.)
5 , i, 6
q lg . 7ere, too, l is neither a basi% inner dis!osition
6/

nor the gra%e of <od
6)
but, as @ohlenberg, ad. loc. suggests, the !erfe%t wellDbeing or
normalit& whi%h is in%on%eivable a!art from a restitution of the !s&%hoDsomati% being of his
readers after the image of <od."
60
In this sense 2aul in his %losing greetings more often
s!ea:s of the q l . This designation is firml& lin:ed with what 2aul eB!e%ts
of the <od of !ea%e. The %ontent of !ea%e ma& thus be determined from the %onteBt. Thus in
A. .65*+ 5 c q l i
, the destru%tion of 9atan is a !art of salvation. The !hrase q
l does not mean, then, that <od will dis!ense !ea%e and blessedness,
66
but that 7e
will destro& 9atan. In a material !ar. to * 2t. /5.) , the !ositive %ontent of salvation and wellD
being is unfolded in . Th. 05*/ 5 c q l
, q q
g iq i q i.
l is not $ust s!iritual !ros!erit&"#
67
it is the salvation of the whole man both bod& and
soul. 9omething of the same sense is to be found in 7b. ./5*+ f. 5 c q l
V^_\PdQ ) )+6 f. ).
96 @bg. 2ast. , ad loc. # also 8einertE 2ast. , ad loc. To eB!ress a !ea%eful relation to someone the <:. tongue
uses rather than , and in su%h %ases the 7eb. uses t`Le] UU .
79 In view of v. 6 we %annot agree with 7au!t <efbr. and Tillm. <efbr. , ad loc. that this means a sense of !ea%e
in o!!. to anBiet&. @e are rather to follow 4oh. 2hil. , ad loc. , who ta:es it to mean <odOs !ea%e in the stri%t
sense. >f. also -. 9%hmitE, Die 1hristus<geeinschaft des Paulus i )ichte seines Genetivgebrauchs (.9*)),
*.0 f.
6+ V. H. @eiss (.699) and gn. A. , ad loc.
6. 9o ?oh. @. . F. , on .5/, and to some eBtent @. 9anda& and ,. >. 7eadlam, /oans ( n. 9/ ), ad loc.
6* 9o 9anda&D7eadlam.
6/ Fn. 2t. , ad loc.
6) (rede Fath. Hr. , ad loc.
60 It is worth noting, and ver& sur!rising, that this 7ebrai% V^_\PdQ %on%e!t o%%urs in a letter whi%h is otherwise
so strongl& <ree: in feeling as * 2t.
66 9i%:b. A. , ad loc.
67 ?. 1. Frame, "hess. (I>>, .9.*, ad loc. ).
{ i .
66
This hel!s us to understand both the <od of
!ea%e" and l generall& in other %losing greetings. It does not mean the !ea%e of soul
whi%h is the result of , but the salvation of man whi%h %omes from <od.
69

-n the basis of -T and Aabbini% usage l thus a%Tuires a most !rofound and
%om!rehensive signifi%an%e It indi%ates the es%hatologi%al salvation of the whole man whi%h
is alread& !resent as the !ower of <od. It denotes the state of the q i as the state
of definitive fulfilment. In this sense salvation has been revealed in the resurre%tion of ?esus.
/. l as !ea%e with <od.
-nl& rarel& in the ;T is l used for the relationshi! of !ea%e with <od. -ur first
referen%e is 1!h. *5)I.7 .
9+
2aul is thin:ing of Is. 075.9 , so that the sense of salvation is
!resent. @hen the term o%%urs in v. .0 , however, eB!ositors are divided whether its o!!osite
means the enmit& of men against <od or the enmit& between ?ews and <entiles.
@e hardl& do $usti%e to the !assage if we do not !er%eive that the 4aw !la&s a double role,
dividing the <entiles from the %ommonwealth of Israel and also Israel from <od. H& the 4aw
there arises both the enmit& between ?ews and <entiles
9.
and also that of man towards <od.
7en%e in v. .) q l q is to be ta:en in a %om!rehensive
sense. @hen >hrist abolished the 4aw, 7e set aside the twofold disorder of the ra%e both
among men and toward <od. l means !ea%e with <od and within humanit&. It thus
denotes order, the healing of all relationshi!s. 7en%e the stri:ing eB!ression in v. .)
is to be ta:en generall&. Its sur!rising and almost abru!t !osition for%es us to see a wealth of
%onne%tions in the sa&ing the 4aw whi%h means enmit&." In v. .0 , too, the disorder of
humanit& in its twofold sense is denoted b& the two ad$. l c .
l is thus to be ta:enm generall& in this verse, as also in v. .6 5
i q . @e ma& sa& that and l are here
ob$e%tive states whi%h ta:e man& different forms in the human ra%e.
9*

If !ea%e with <od is !art of the sense of l in this !assage, it is the sole meaning in
A. 05. , and the verse enables us to %onsider this more !re%isel&. @e need not here de%ide
between the indi%, and the
%
on$. -ur %on%ern is with the %ontent of l . ,s the addition
shows, the referen%e is to a relationshi! with <od. This agrees with the fa%t
that in A. 05.+ men are the enemies of <od and 7e has re%on%iled them ( ,
I, *00 )# %f. 1!h. *5.6 ( , I, *06 ). 7ere, then, !ea%e is not a mutual
relationshi! between <od and man whi%h man has altered, as among the Aabbis. It is the
relationshi! in whi%h the believer is !la%ed towards <od.
The %onteBt of vv. .I.. suggests . The better attestation of is offset b& the
fa%t that in A. .)5.9 there is better attestation of the im!ossible
i
ndi%. 6 instead of the
%on$. , whi%h alone is !ossible. In manus%ri!t tradition there is an un%ontrollable va%illation
between the indi%. and %on$. of the .st !ers. !lur.
66 ?. 8offat, "o the (ebre2s (I>>, .9*)), ad loc. 5 l has a sense li:e the full -T sense of the se%ure
!ros!erit& won b& messiani% trium!h over the hostile !owers of evil."
69 9o, e.g., 1. de @ilt Hurton, Galatians (I>>., .9*.) on <l. .5/ 5 l denotes the blessed state of wellD
being into whi%h men are brought and in whi%h the& are :e!t b& the divine ."
9+ >f. 2. Feine, Th9tFr , 7* (.699), 0)+I07)# 7. ?. 7oltEmann, )ehrbuch der nt.lichen "heologie , II
*
(.9..),
*60 f. and the %omm.
9. In s!ite of 7au!t <efbr. , ad loc. the term is Tuite in !la%e. Through the 4aw and for the sa:e of it the
?ews had to se!arate themselves from the <entiles and regard them as enemies, and the <entiles re!aid them
with enmit& on their side.
9* The eB%ision of q in v. .) (7au!t) and the assum!tion of a :ind of ana%oluthon (Feine) in whi%h
q in v. .) is ta:en u! again in the i q of v. .6 are both
des!erate measures, the latter being ruled out b& the fa%t that 2aul %ould never have let the isolated q
stand in this wa&.
%on$. %on$un%tion.
indi%. indi%ative.
). l of men with one another.
In A. .)5.7 2aul sa&s5 q i ,
l iq . 7ere neither the
religious inter!retation of gahn and H. @eiss, the ethi%al of 9anda&D7eadlam,
9/
nor the
mediating of 9i%:enberger, is reall& a!!ro!riate. 2aul is addressing the strong. 7e tells them
that the :ingdom of <od does not %onsist, as the& thin:, in bringing others to eat and drin:,
but in the rule of righteousness, !ea%e and $o& among them. has in view the
of v. .0 # reminds us that no manOs %ons%ien%e must be violated# l
indi%ates that in the :ingdom of <od there will be no :ind of si%:ness, evil or dis%ord. 2aul
%an thus go on to sa& that those who serve >hrist in this s!here ( q) are !leasing to
<od and a%%e!table to men. 7e %an thus give the final eBhortation to follow after q
l q lq q l . 7ere l is !arallel with
l , and it %learl& denotes !ea%e with one another. In v. .7 , however, there is more
to l than this. The building of the :ingdom of <od im!lies the %reation of something
salutar&, i.e., l , in the 7ol& 9!irit. >on%retel& a!!lied in the %hur%h at Aome,
however, this salutar& thing is undoubtedl& !ea%e. For !ea%e is salutar&. @e have something
of the same thought in the diffi%ult sa&ing in . >. 75.0% 5 c lg
(q) . 2aul seems to be %ontradi%ting the sa&ing of the 4ord about divor%e when
he states that if the heathen !artner brea:s off the marriage the >hristian !artner is to a%%e!t it5
q q q . This %an refer onl& to
the 4ords sa&ing, to whi%h we are not bound li:e slaves in su%h %ases. In v. .0% we do not
have a restri%tion but a reason. -nl& thus %an the following verse begin with a . 7en%e
the has the sense, not of but," but of rather."
9)
The mention of %alling establishes a
basis for what !re%edes, but a basis whi%h, as we ma& see from the rather," goes be&ond the
individual %ase mentioned and tells us generall& that <od has %alled us to !ea%e.
90
l
thus means far more than the o!!osite of strife in a relu%tantl& maintained marriage. 7ere,
too, it im!lies the divinel& willed and therefore salutar& state of all things, the normal state, to
the degree that sin is a disru!tion of the normal. The !ea%e of men with one another is
in%luded, however, in this normal state. This %ontent of l , whi%h ma& ta:e different
%on%rete forms a%%ording to the %onteBt, is nowhere Tuite so a!!arent. Thus * Tm. *5**
%ertainl& does not mean that we are to foster !ea%e with the inwardl& !ious,"
96
sin%e
. does not refer to l but means together with," and in itself l might well
mean that whi%h brings salvation." -n the other hand, it is %ertainl& not said without a glan%e
at the whi%h gender strifes ( v. */ ). In a whole list of !assages l sim!l&
means %on%ord between men. 1!h. )5/ 5 q
q q l # also ?m. /5.6 5
lg i l 5 the seed from whi%h
righteousness grows is sown in !ea%e b& those who ma:e !ea%e, q and i being
the o!!osites of l .
97
It is diffi%ult to sa& !re%isel& in what sense . 2t. /5.. uses the
!hrase l in the long Tuotation from 2s. /) , but
the meaning is !robabl& %on%ord" (%f. v. 9 ).
0. l as !ea%e of soul.
This meaning is undoubtedl& !resent in A. .05./ 5 c q i
6 l . @e must
9/ "o the /oans (I>>
0
, .9+7), ad loc.
9) 9o ?oh. @. and H%hm.
90 UU l # v. 4tEm., ad loc.
97 ,. 8e&er, Das /=tsel des 0k.<Briefes (.9/+), *6/, inter!rets the !assage in a 2hiloni% sense, !ea%eful
im!l&ing free from !assions as one of the attributes of heavenl& wisdom.
remember, however, how the word %omes to ta:e on this sense, namel&, from its general use
in the ;T for the normal state. ,s the !hrase q l has im!li%ations for
eBternal life, and as l is used for the normal state of manOs total being, so <od %reates
in man the salvation whi%h is the normal state of the soul that is in orderka state inse!arable
from . 7en%e the %on%e!t of l differs from the negative of the 9toi%s
( )+. ).
, .
a. To live in !ea%e," to be at !ea%e" (as a state).
H
8I , 69)
.
5 l c q
. In this sense it also o%%urs in the mid. 5 2ol&b. , (, 6, 75 l
q 6 . In the 4'' it is often used for NPQ and V^_\PdQ ) * >h. *+5/+ # ?ob 05*/
# .05*. ), ^\]PdQ or c\]PZQ ( I 16:13 # 3a. ) 5l), c\PQ ( ?ob /5*6 ). In ?ose!h. it o%%urs onl& in the
mid. or !ass. 5 ,nt. , .., *.) 5 lg q i # Hell.
, 6, /++ 5 q l # %f. also ,nt. , *+, )9 # (it. , 76 .
This use is not found in the ;T , but %f. . >l, 0), *5 i
l # Ign. 2ol., 7 et%. b. to :ee! !ea%e," to live at !ea%e with someone" (an attitude).
,ristot.Ahet. , ., ), !. ./09b, /95 c i l . In the
4'' it is used for V\PQ hi!h and ho!h, and in 9ir. 656 f or the !hrase ts^\P `PS[ . Those with
whom one is at !ea%e are in the dat. 5 9ir. 656 5 l l i (also
?ob 05*/ ), though is also used5 3 B. 22:45 . >f. . >l, .0, . and 0 times in
7
erm. on the
basis of . Th. 05./ . %. to ma:e !ea%e," to re%on%ile"5 3io >. , 77, .*, .5 c
Ai li i c
q l . >f. in the 4'' . 8a%%. 656+ 5
l , to %on%lude !ea%e." It is not found in this sense in the ;T ,
though it o%%urs in ?os.Hell. , *, /67 et%. and in 3id. , ), /# Harn. , .9, .*.
In the ;T it is used onl& in the sense of to :ee! !ea%e" with and . In the
obs%ure !assage 8:. 950+ 5 l ,
severit& in selfDdis%i!line is %ontrasted with !ea%e towards others. In . Th. 05./ eBternal
%riti%ism does not enable us to de%ide between the readings l and
{ , sin%e the latter might well be . @e ma& best begin b& !resuming
that the three words have no %onneBion either with what !re%edes or with what follows. If we
were to lin: them with what !re%edes, i.e., with the leaders, we rob the !rior in$un%tion of its
for%e.
*
7en%e we should %onstrue UU as , so that the
admonition is to be at !ea%e with one another.
/
l has the same sense in A. .*5.6 5
l , , 6 l , and * >,
./5.. 5 , i, i, i, ,
, l (in whi%h l is !ar. to the !re%eding
).
,& .
a. That whi%h relates to !ea%e," 'eno!h.-e%. , ., .7 distinguishes and
l q , 2lut. 9ertorius , 6 (I, 07.%)5 q c l
i, c g g i . b.
H8I >olle%tion of ,n%ient <ree: Ins%ri!tions in the Hritish 8useum, .67) ff.
. >f. @endland 7ell. Fult. , ).+, ;o. 9.
7erm. (eres6 Zeitschrift 9r klassische Philologie , .666 ff.
* This is !er%eived in 3ib. Th. , ad loc. , but the diffi%ult& is not avoided b& su!!osing that in v. ./a we have the
ideal and in v. ./b the !ra%ti%al demand.
/ This view is su!!orted b& the fa%t that in all the five !assage in whi%h 7ermas refers to the sa&ing ( v. , /, 6, /#
/, 9, * and .+# /, .*, /# s. , 6, 7, *) he is thin:ing of a mutual relationshi! of !ea%e among the members of the
%ommunit&. ?. 1. Frame, "o the "hessalonians (I>>, .9.*), ad loc. , relates the sa&ing to leaders who under
atta%: did not alwa&s defend themselves too wisel&, but this is an artifi%ial inter!retation.
!ea%eful," of words and men, also in o!!. to war, Iso%. , 0, /5

l6 l , Iso%. , *, *)5 c
, l c c i . %. in a
wider sense as the o!!. of unrest, 2lut.
>
. <ra%%h. , .+ (I, 6/9b)5 c
lq . It is diffi%ult to distinguish between l and
l . In 7dt. , (I, 07 the . of the 9!artan :ing are o!!osed to the
l (UU l , a.)# in Thu%. , I, *9, )5 c q
c l i (UU l b.)# and in
2
hilodem. 2hilos. 3e
-e%onomia , ed. ?ensen, !. *+5 l

q c l q
li l i (UU l %.).
In the 4'' we find onl& l , in sense a. as a transl. of )V^_\PdQ )s^_\PdQ `M] LZ rea , 3t.
*5*6 # *+5.. , often in . 8a%%., also * 8a%%. .+5.* # ?dt. /5. # 75*) # in sense b. in . >h. .*5/6 5
g lg (
7
T 5 v. /9 5 V\]PdQ LLd \]LeZ ) and in <n. )*5..I/) , where the Tuestion is whether
?ose!hOs brethren are li )s`SaWe]( or , also in <n. /)5*. )s\]PdQ ( and *
8a%%. 05*0 . l is freTuentl& used in the 4'' to denote the friendl& word of a man in
o!!. to a divisive rather than a warli:e word, the eTuivalent being V^_\PdQ ) ^_PQ iZSf Y^efcf in 8i. 75/
and Y`Ma LeZ in -b. 7 ), %f. <n. /75) # 34:20 # ..957 # 8i. 75/ # -b. 7 # . :8 # )05**.
9ometimes one might assume a wider meaning %orres!onding to that of l in the 4'', %f.
3t. */56 5 l , where the
!arallel to suggests the sense of saving or salutar&. In 9ir. )56 5
, i l q , the meaning is friendl& as
distin%t from hard words. In 36:37 i and is 6q
l in o!!. to the , so that the meaning is almost righteous." In ge%h. 65.6 5
i l i , the meaning is true,
orderl&, salutar& $udgment.
2hilo uses both l and l of the life of the wise who have !ea%e of soul5
9!e%. 4eg. , I, **) 5 q l iq 6 # 9!e%. 4eg. , II, )0 5 the wise
i l .
In the ;T onl& l is used, and this onl& in 7b. .*5.. and ?m. /5.7 . In the latter5
q c i c , l, ,
{, l is the o!!. of q and !arallel to i , and
means read& for !ea%e," !ea%eful." In 7b. .*5.. 5 c i { {
l l q i ,
l is an attribute of and means salutar& in the sense of l F.
* .
.

,&%
*

7e who ma:es !ea%e" in the <:. sense of the o!!osite of war5 2lut. ;i%ias., II (I, 0/+%)5
q (strife) l ,
es!. as a translation of fetiales together with , 2lut.
o
uaest. Aom. , 6* (II, *79b).
2hilo %alls <od li and l when 7e !rote%ts the !eo!le from enemies
and natural disasters, 9!e%. 4eg. , II, .9* .
>. <ra%%h. De Ga5o Graccho .
2hilodem. 2hilos. 2hilodemus 2hiloso!hus, of <adara (%. ..+I*6 H.>. ), !o!ular !hiloso!her of 1!i%urean
tenden%ies. There is no %om!lete edition. For individual writings, v. 4iddellD9%ott, '''.
7T 7ebrew TeBt.
. Agg. 7b. , ad loc. ma:es the unli:el& suggestion that l refers to a feeling of feli%it& whi%h
a%%om!anies the fruit of righteousness in %ontrast to the !re%eding la%: of $o&.
C l . >omm. on 8t. 059 , es!. 9%hl. 8t. # gn. 8t. # 3aus%h 9&n!t. # 7. @indis%h, g;@ , *) (.9*0),
*)+ ff.# F. Hornhluser. Die Bergpredigt
*
(.9*7)# Fu%hs ( )++ n. ), *+7# ,.8. Hrouwer ( )++ n. ), *)* ff.#
H. @. Ha%on, 1B!. T. , ). (.9*9v/+). 06I6+.
ouaest. Aom. ?uaestiones /oanae .
The word is sometimes used for the strong ruler who establishes !ea%e in the world and who is
thus to be res!e%ted. Thus >ommodus %alls himself l q l
i ( 3io >. , 7*, .0, 0). This !a%ifi%ation is b& for%e, so that in the great s!ee%h of
,nton& on the murdered >aesar there is an antithesis of the words (unarmed)
l to the !re%eding .
.
This for%eful !a%ifi%ation is %learl&
distinguished from that whi%h the Aabbis eBtol and the term for whi%h )s^\P cPq( %orres!onds
to the ;T l or - .
*
For the Aabbis eBtol !a%ifi%ation as an a%t of love, humilit&
and selfDdenial.
The onl& ;T use is in 8t. 059 5 l li, l
. This is to be understood in terms of the Aabb. V^\P cPq , whi%h denotes
the establishment of !ea%e and %on%ord between men. It is thus a mista:e to refer with 3aus%h
to those who !romote human ha!!iness and wellDbeing. ;or is it a matter of hel!ing others to
!ea%e with <od, as Hrouwer suggests. The referen%e is to those who disinterestedl& %ome
between two %ontending !arties and tr& to ma:e !ea%e. These <od %alls 7is sons be%ause the&
are li:e 7im.
,!%
*

To ma:e !ea%e." The mid. is found in 9tob.1%l. , I, )+9, where it is said of the soul after
death5 l , it has a !ea%eful wa&. In 4'' 2rv. .+5.+ we
read5 c
i l . In view of the %ontrast with this means !romoting wellD
being rather" than more narrowl& ma:ing !ea%e." In Is. *750 A2O have l instead
of the 4'' l .
In the ;T the word o%%urs onl& in >ol. .5.9 f. 5 { l
l , l
, l q q
. 7ere, as in the !hrase V^\P cPq , the referen%e is to ma:ing !ea%e or %on%ord.
There is a !arallel in Aabbini% statements %on%erning strife in the u!!er famil& ( ).+ ). ,s
in 1!h. *5.) ff. , we are to thin: of a rift in the terrestrial and su!raterrestrial world both in
themselves and in relation to <od.
9oerster
,
*

. 3io >. , )), )9, *. This %orres!onds to the Aoman view of !aB.# ei$rhvnh, n. ) .
* @indis%h !er%eived this distin%tion, but did not ma:e enough of it.
C l . >omm. on >ol. .5.0 # 7. ?. 7oltEmann, )ehrbuch der nt.lichen "heologie , II
*
(.9..), *6) f.
C l . 4iddellD9%ott , s.v. # 2r.DHauer , s.v. # 2reisig:e @Jrt. , s.v. # F. 2reisig:e, Giro2esen i griech. Lg'pten
(.9.+), .)7ff.# 8oult.D8ill. , s.v. # Hl.D3ebr. , es!. y *+0I*+7# )+*, *# Aaderma%her,
*
es!. .), *+ f., .**, .*6,
.)+, .)0# @. Fuhring, De praepositionu Graecaru in chartis #eg'ptiacis usu ( 3iss. Honn, .9+6), ./, *6,
/.# ?. Flser, Die Pr=positionen bei Dion'sius ugh (alicarnassus ( 3iss. 1rlangen, .9.0), )*ff.# >. Aossberg, De
praepositionu Graecaru in chartis #eg'ptiis Ptoleaeoru aetatis usu ( 3iss. ?ena, .9+9), .7, /+ff.# 8.
?ohannessohn, 3er <ebrau%h der 2rl!ositionen in der 9e!tuaginta " in 3itteilungen des Septuaginta<
8nternehens der Ges. d. Wiss. -u Gttingen , III, / (.9*6), *9/ ff.# also Der Gebrauch der 1asus u. d.
Pr=positionen in der Septuaginta , I ( 3iss. Herlin, .9.+), )f.# 2. F. Aegard, 1ontribution M l+&tude des
Pr,positions dans la )angue du ;T (.9.9), .06 ff# /*0 ff.# 7. 4$ungvi:, Studien -ur Sprache der apkr.
#postelgeschichten ( 3iss. K!!sala, .9*6), /+ff.# <. Audberg, &ranos , .9 (.9**), *+.# <. ;. 7atEida:is,
&inleitung in die neugriechische Graatik (.69*), *.+ f.# ,. ;. ?annaris, (istorical Greek Graar (.697),
IndeB and es!. y y .0/6 ff.# F. Frumba%her, 9tudien Eu den 4egenden des hl. Theodosius ," Sit-ungsberichte
der 4gl. Ba'er. #kadeie d. Wiss.6 phil.<hist. 4lasse (.69*), /6) f.# 3eissmann H. , ../ff.# ;H , */# 4- , 96f.,
./6, .)7# @. 7eitmGller, . !aen 0esu (.9+/), 99ff.
-riginall& s!atial, this word ta:es on theologi%al signifi%an%e es!e%iall& in 2atti and ?ohn,
though also in the 9&no!tists and ,%ts. Though wea:er and more de!endent than the related
, as ma& be seen in the !hrases l and , l has a distin%tive
sense in the ;T .
A. The 5patial &se of , .
.. The >osmi% and 9oteriologi%al 9ense.
@ithin the world of ;T thought l gives uniTue eB!ression to the living %onne%tion
between the se!arated divine and %osmi% realities.
-n the <:. view, the gods belong to the world. is a %on%e!t whi%h ma& be set
alongside and even above the divine. The dualism of !hiloso!h& ma:es no radi%al %hange. It
distinguishes between <od and matter, but stati%all&, along the lines of a finall& monisti% idealism.
The l and the are interrelated. 7ades is trul& be&ond as
another !la%e, but not the world of <od. Thus l has no theologi%al signifi%an%e a!art from a few
modest beginnings ( infra , )*/ ).
7om.Il. , .9, .*65 ,
7
era%l. Fr.
, /+ (I, 6), 3iels ) 6 i,

q
. ,%%. to 2lato things are %ontained in the ideas.
.
It is hard to
find an eBam!le of l being used for the transition from the one world to the other.
*
A
l (UU to the u!!er world) is a !hiloso!hi%al fig. of s!ee%h ( 2lat.Aes!. ,
(II, 0*.%). For ,nti!ater of T&re the world is a ( 3iog. 4. , (II,
./9). means the earthl& world as distin%t from the underworld ( Iambl.
(
it. 2&th. ,
*7, .*/). 1ven (q ) is an immanent %on%e!t ( 9tob. , ., /9+, .*).
>hara%teristi%all& monisti% is >or!. 7erm. , '(I, /5
q i, c
, ,

. The
embra%es () the l ('(I, .*). In s!ite of -T
and ?ewish reminis%en%es 2hilo %ontinuall& des%ribes the as%ent of the soul without l in the
relevant sense ( 9a%r. ,>. , 0 # ouaest. in 1B. , II, )0 f.). In (it. 8os. , II, *66 l is used, but all
the em!hasis is on Tualitative %hange,
/
In %ir%les influen%ed b& oriental m&tholog& we find the
idea of a $ourne& of the soul,
)
as among the 8andaeans. =et in the 8ithras 4iturg& there is no
em!hati% l , in s!ite of the stress on %ertain frontiers between below and above (
, , 2reis. gaub. , I(, 06) f., 66*). The %on%e!t
( ibid. , 069) is still orientated to !ole and %om!ass (%f. l UU , ibid.
, 0)+ f.).
Hehind -T !iet& stand a !rimitive view of things and an anthro!omor!hi% %on%e!tion of <od.
0
,n abstra%t divine s!iritualit& is Tuite alien to it. It thus s!ea:s of =ahwehOs %oming down in a
wa& whi%h would be felt to be !urel& m&thologi%al in other religious settings ( <n. .65*. # 1B. /56
# 2s. .659 et%.). It is worth noting that no goal is given. @e have a %hange of movement within the
same %ir%le, not transition from one realit& to another (this is es!e%iall& !lain in <n. .65*. ). The
freTuent referen%es to the <od of heaven and earth ( <n. *)5/ # %f. 7 # 1Er. 05.. , %f. .* # 659f .)
and to =ahwehOs dwelling in heaven do not in themselves im!l& the absolute distin%tion of the
<odhead in nature and !la%e, nor the divine trans%enden%e over s!a%e and time. The& %an be ta:en
in a !rimitive sense, and were so ta:en (%f. the use of LWM in these %onteBts, 3t. //5*6 # 2s. .65.+
# 665/) ). The distin%tive feature in -T religion is that under %over of the anthro!omor!hisms and
7era%l. 7era%litus, of 1!hesus (0/0I)70 H.>. ), !reD9o%rati% !hiloso!her, ed. 7. 3iels in Die 9ragente der
Vorsokratiker , I, .9**.
. 1. geller, Philosophie der Griechen
)
, II, . (.669), 7)) ff.
* F. ,st, )e:icon Platonicu , I (.6/0), 6/7 f., s.v. 2lat.9o!h. , *)6a5 l c (the materialists) l q
c , is semiDm&thologi%al and meta!hori%al.
(it. 2&th. Vita P'thagorae .
/ 1. Hrjhier, )es .d,es Philosophi$ues et /eliieuses de Philon d+#le:andrie (.9+6), *)+ ff.
) >f. A<<
*
, II, .696.
0 >f. for what follows the a%%ount in @. 1i%hrodt, Die "heologie des #" , I (.9//), .+) ff.5 3ie <eistig:eit der
<ottesvorstellung ."
anthro!o!athisms, whi%h eB%lude an& !ossibilit& of dissolution, the s!e%ifi% su!eriorit& of <od
over all %reatures is strongl& felt and asserted. In this res!e%t !assages li:e 1B. //5.6 ff. and Is. 6
are %lassi% for all time. ,s the time grew ri!e, the& led to the %on%e!tion that heaven and the
heaven of heaven %annot %ontain 7im, as in the 3euteronomisti% dedi%ation !ra&er of 9olomon in
. F. 65*7 . 7en%e the dwelling of <od %an no longer be understood as a natural !resen%e, let alone
a natural need, but onl& as a willed and gra%ious address of the %ovenant <od ( v. *6ff .). This is
vividl& de!i%ted in the %ulti% legend of the Hethel san%tuar& in <n. *65.+ ff. In the fine a%%ounts of
the stor& in ? and 1 the m&thologi%al elements are far less eBtensive than might a!!ear. If the
!re!osition at issue does not here have greater theologi%al signifi%an%e than it does (%f. v. .* ), this
is due to %ontingent fa%tors of st&le.
?udaism has a strong aversion to m&tholog& and a highl& develo!ed understanding of <odOs
trans%enden%e. It re!la%es the %on%rete eB!ressions of the -T , whi%h might give rise to
m&thologi%al misunderstanding, b& more abstra%t statements, and removes <odOs heaven to the far
distan%e. The trans%enden%e of <od is %arried so far, as in some ,!o%al&!ti%, that the lin: between
<od and the world threatens to brea:. This does not ha!!en.
6
?udaism, es!. Aabbini%, maintains a
strong belief in !roviden%e. ,t this ver& time the belief in mira%les ta:es man& strange forms. Hut
belief in !resent manifestations of <od is redu%ed to a mere fragment (Hath Tol et%.). For all the
magnif&ing of the %ovenant and the Torah, there is no %ons%iousness, as in >hristianit& (%f. 7b.
.5. et%.), of having eB!erien%ed a definitive &et ongoing revelation of <od. The em!hasis in !iet&
is on retros!e%t of the !ast and !ros!e%t of the future. @orld realit& is thought of stati%all& and
dualisti%all&. Two worlds lie alongside one another, or rather the one over the other. The& are
%ontem!orar&, and both eTuall& real.
For 1B. .05/ 5 The 4ord is a man of war5 the 4ord is his name," the 4'' has5
i , # and for 1B. *)5.+ 5 ,nd the& saw the <od
of Israel," it has5 l , l . In the
8ishnah we often have !ara!hrases li:e the !la%e," heaven," s!ee%h," dwelling," name."
The rendering of the <enesis stories in ?ub. is t&!i%al. In /5*/, for eBam!le, there is evasion of the
fa%t that the& heard the 4ord <od wal:ing in the garden in the %ool of the da& (%f. <n. /56 ). In
!art, 2hiloOs fear of anthro!omor!hism is !hiloso!hi%al.
7
Hut even 2alestinian ?udaism, !artl&
under alien influen%e, distinguishes <odOs heaven from the starr& heaven and thus %omes to have
three, four, seven or even ten heavens,
6
The long $ourne&s in the ,!o%al&!ses (e.g.,
<
r. Har. )
et%.) are a !rimitive attem!t to !ortra& the trans%enden%e of <odOs world. -ur !re!osition ta:es on
great theologi%al signifi%an%e in this %onteBt (%f. ?ub, )5.0, where the angels, %alled wat%hers,
%ome down to earth to tea%h the %hildren of men and to eBer%ise right and righteousness on earth),
and es!. in %onneBion with a!o%al&!ti% vision ( 1th. 1n. 7.5.5 into heaven# %f. * >. .*5) 5 l
# Aev. 650 et%.5 l q q ). -nl& tem!oral %ategories of the s%heme of aeons
:ee! the u!!er hand. 9initu non capa: infiniti # l6 , I, *+* .
In general the theologi%al signifi%an%e of the word remains undevelo!ed in the ?ewish world.
The world of ;T thought ta:es over the shar! distin%tion between the two worlds as a
%on%rete %on%e!tion with no tenden%& towards idealisti% or !antheisti% dissolution. Hut it
bridges the gulf with the hel! of the %on%e!t of fulfilment. Thus es%hatolog& gives rise to the
distin%tive m&sti%ism" of the ;T ,
9
whi%h is not natural m&sti%ism, but s!iritual and ethi%al.
There is no identit& m&sti%ism in the ;T . The unit& of the world is !resent onl& as it %omes
into being. Hut it %omes into being through the gra%ious selfDoffering of <od in >hrist. Knder
these %onditions the theologi%al signifi%an%e of the ;T use of l develo!s as follows.
6 Fittel 2robleme , ./* f.# 8oore , I, ).7, )*., )*/ ff.
7 >f. 4eg. ,ll. , I, /6 (on <n. * )5 q i i, 6 i
q q q ,
. In I, )/ 2hilo des%ribes anthro!omor!hi% views of <od as .
6 For material and bibl. %f. @nd. * F. , /7. ff. on * >. .*5* ff.
<r. Har. The <ree:D9lavi% ,!o%al&!se of Haru%h, a des%ri!tion of Haru%hOs $ourne& to heaven (*nd %entur&
,.3. ), ed. 8. A. ?ames in <ree:, .697 and 9t. ;ova:ovits%h in 9lavi%, .666.
9 This was noted at mu%h the same time b& both 7. 1. @eber, N&schatologieO und N3'stikO i ;T (.9/+) and
,. 9%hweitEer, Die 3'stik des #postels Pls. (.9/+). @hether we are $ustified in using the word m&sti%ism" is
another Tuestion.
a. l in different %ombinations delimits the earthl& %reation, with its
twofold de!enden%e, from all other realit&.
In ?n. .59 l is used of all men.
.+
Hased on the %ommon Aabb.
eB!ression V\d^_q\Z [Le_ or [sd \Zqd LZ [Yd [b ,
..
it does not im!l& !reDeBisten%e, but the idea of a
trans%endent ba%:ground su%h as we also see in . Tm. 657 5 c l l
. 9in and death also %ome into the world of <od from without, from a side whi%h is
hostile to <od, as we read in A. 05.* . Though we have the %ausal l 6 , in
view of the stor& of the fall we %annot rule out the thought of the trans%enden%e of evil. >f. also .
?n. )5. and * ?n. 7 .
The <:. eB!resses the same ideas ver& differentl&. ,nth. 2al. (2allados), ', 065 q
,

. 2lato sa&s with no sense of %on%rete !la%e5 l

i ( 9o!h. , *.9b). 1ven when tra%ed to demoni% influen%es, evil for the <:s. is
within the world.
.*

b. 9u!raterrestrial love %omes into the world to bring salvation. This thought, unheard of
for both ?ew and <ree:, is lin:ed in the ;T with the eternal origin of the 9on of <od, though
not alwa&s with the same %larit&. 1s%hatologi%al faith loo:s to the goal rather than the origin.
It attests the soundness of the 9&no!ti% tradition that the soteriologi%al l is
alien to it. 1ven in the 2auline e!istles, though these thoughts are !resent ( A. .+56 # 2hil. *50 ff. #
* >. 659 # <l. )5) ), there is a strong sense of the dualism of the %osmos and therefore the l is
not overDsignifi%ant.
./
Isolated statements ma& be found in . Tm. .5.0 # 7b. .56 # .+50 et%.
The idea that <od sent 7is onl& 9on into the world that we might live ( . ?n. )59 ) is
distin%tive of ?ohannine theolog&. The related ideas of !reDeBisten%e
.)
develo! almost
im!er%e!tibl& from the underl&ing general %on%e!tion ( a. ).
In ?n. 65.) 5 6 l , there is a lin: with .59 , as
also with the whi%h is so im!ortant from the stand!oint of salvation histor& in the
9&no!ti%s. In ?n. .75.6 the mission of mortal men is made !ar. to that of the 4ogos into the world.
This shows how elasti% l still is. Hut it has a dee!er sense in ?n. /5.9 5
l . For the %onteBt ma:es it %lear when%e this light is and who it is. It is 7e
whom the Father sent from 7imself ( .5.ff .) into the world ( /5.7 # .+5/6 ) and who as the 4ogos
be%oming ( .5.) ) %ame into the world ( ..5*7 # .*5)6 # .65*6 # .65/7 ). Thus even the
derived mission of the dis%i!les ta:es on the Tualit& of eternit&.
The ?ohannine thought of sending finds man& !ar. in <nosti%ism, es!. in the 8andaean
writings. 4idE. <inEa , !. 06, .7 ff.5 I am the -ne sent b& light, whom the <reat -ne hath sent
into this world. I am 7e who is trul& sent, in whom there is no falsehood."
.0
In a !assage li:e this
it is hardl& !ossible to distinguish with %ertaint& the !reD or eBtraD>hristian element. Its eBtent has
!robabl& been eBaggerated.
.6
Hut even though it wor:s with the ?ohannin% !resentation of the
theme of >hristianit&, it fails to bring out that on whi%h ?ohn la&s su!reme em!hasis, namel&, the
uniTueness of the !erson of ?esus, the in%om!arable . -n no a%%ount
must we fail to see the distin%tion between an ontologi%al and an ethi%al religion of redem!tion (
I, ))/ ).
%. The wa& of the -ne who is sent goes through humiliation to the u!!er world. This
thought rather than !reDeBisten%e is !rimar& in the ;T .
.+ For the %ombination of . and %f. 9%hl., @ellhausen, ad loc. # a
different view is ta:en b& gn., Hau., Tillm., ad loc.
.. For eBam!les, v. 9tr.DH. , II, /06 on ?n. .59 .
.* F. 4atte, 9%huld u. 9Gnde in der grie%h. Aeligion ," ,A@ , *+ (.9*+v*.), *0)ff.
./ The %ontesting of !reDeBisten%e in 2auline theolog& b& 1. Harni:ol, 3ensch u. 3essias (.9/*) and Philipper ,
* (.9/*) is not ver& %onvin%ing.
.) In s!ite of 7arna%:, Dogengesch .
)
, I (.9+9), .+9 f., the signifi%an%e of the !rologue for the whole wor:
ma& be a%%e!ted. >f. 7. ?. 7oltEmann, !t.liche "heol.
*
, II (.9..), ))) ff.
.0 For ri%h materials %f. Hau. ?. , 00.
.6 >f. 7. 4ietEmann, 1in Heitrag Eur 8andlerfrage ," 9,H , *6 (.9/+), 096 ff.
@hether the a%%ounts of the as%ension with their l ( 4:. *)50. mn# ,%. .5.. m
8:. .65.9 n) are earlier or later, the original !ro%lamation had as its sub$e%t the -ne eBalted to
heaven, to the glor& of <od ( l l , 4:. *)5*6 # l || , 7b.
95*) # . 2t. /5** # l , ,%. *5// f. # l , 1!h. )56 ff. # and materiall&
,%. /5*. # A. .5) # 2hil. *59I.. ).
That a $ourne& to the lowest regions !re%eded that to the u!!er is seldom em!hasised in
the ;T but ever&where !resu!!osed.
The originalit& of . 2t. /5.9 # )56 is to be found in the des%ri!tion of the a%%om!an&ing
%ir%umstan%es and in the dogmati% dedu%tions,
.6
l is found in a similar %onne%tion in A. .+57 #
elsewhere we have (%f. also 8t. .*5)+ ). -n the other hand, l 6 q
q (e!eBeg. gen.) in 1!h. )59 is to be understood in the sense of b. >f. also Aev. .5.6 .
2arallels are found not onl& in * F. *5. ff. but also in an%ient s%enes of divinisation es!. in the
ruler %ults,
.9
m&ths li:e that of the $ourne& of Ishtar to hell,
*+
the general motif of a $ourne& to
heaven or hell,
*.
and related eB!erien%es in the dedi%ations of the 8&steries (
,
!ul.
8
et. , 'I, */
ff.# 2lut. in 9tob. , I(, .+69, / ff.). @e should not overloo: the differen%es in religious %onteBt.
d. The divine a%t of salvation sets man with full seriousness before the de%ision where his
own !ath is to lead. l %an be used either wa&.
3isobedien%e, whi%h in%ludes unbelief ( ), leads to destru%tion.
This is shown b& a series of !artl& meta!hori%al eB!ressions, es!. in the 9&no!tists, whi%h use
verbs of motion with l , e.g., l 6 ( 8t. 75./ # Aev. .756 , .. )# l (q)
( ) ( 8t. 05*9 f. # 8:. 95)/ , )0 , )7 and !ar. # 4:. .*50 )# l ()
( l6, ( 8t. /5.+ and !ar. # 75.9 # *0 5 ).# 8:. 95)/ # ?n. .056 )# l
q i ( Aev. .95*+ # *+5/ , .+ , .) f. )# l ( 8t. ./5)* , 0+ )# l (
8t. 05*0 and !ar. )# l 6 ( 8t. 65.* # **5./ # *05/+ )# l
l6 ( 8t. *05)6 ). The s!atial sense must be maintained. @hat is meant is the !la%e whi%h
%auses even the demons to tremble ( l q , 4:. 65/. ).
-bedien%e, whi%h in%ludes faith, leads to life.
l (q) ( 8t. 75.) # .656f. )# l q ( 8t. *05*. , */ )# often
meta!hori%all&, l q ( 8t. /5.* and !ar. )# l A ( 4:.
.65** )# mostl& on the assum!tion of a ma%ro%osmi% es%hatolog&, es!. l q i
( , ) with l ( 8t. 05*+ # 75*. # .65/ # 8:. 95)7 # .+5.0 m 4:.
.65.7 n# .+5*/ , *0 # ?n. /50 )# with ( * 2t. .5.. )# with ( 8t. *.5/. )# with
6 ( * Tm. )5.6 )# with ( 4:. .65.6 ), The onl& instan%e in ?n. seems to be a
distant e%ho from the 9&no!tists. 2aul has the %on%e!tion (%f. . >. 65.+ with 4:. .+5*0 ), but does
not use l . This is !erha!s a sign of in%i!ient s!iritualising ( //7 ). The idea o%%urs es!. in
relation to the !resen%e of the :ingdom ( q q i
l q i l q , >ol. .5./ ). This
movement into the !resent is !arti%ularl& %hara%teristi% of ?ohannine theolog&5 the believer l
i l q ( ?n. 05*) #
%f. . ?n. /5.) ).
The <:. sa&s l A . Hut the eB!ression l (eternal)
( 3itt. -r. , 06, )6), found on a gravestone in >ano!os dating from the /rd %entur& H.>. ,
is fairl& isolated. The $o&s of the blessed and torments of the damned are vividl& !ortra&ed, es!. in
.6 >f. @nd. 2t. , ad loc. , where there are materials and bibl.
.9 >f. the de!i%tion of the a!otheosis of ,ntoninus and Faustina on the base of the ,ntoninus !illar, now in the
<iardino della 2igna of the (ati%an. @. ,melung, Skulpturen des Vatikanischen 3useus , I (.9+/), 667 ff.,
2late ..6# %f. 4. 3eubner, /. 3itteilungen , *7 (.9.*), . ff., %f. @endland 7ell. Fult. , )*/, 2late (, *.
*+ A<<
*
, ., 7...
*. A<<
*
, II, .697 f., .967 f.
,!ul. ,!uleius, of 8adaura in ;umidia, novelist, rhetori%ian and !hiloso!her with strong religious interests
(*nd %entur& ,.3. ), ed. A. 7elm, .9+7.
8et. 3etaorphoses .
the !iet& of the 8&steries, e.g., the -r!hi%.
**
There are similar des%ri!tions in ?udaism ( 1th. 1n.
*)I*0# b.HH , 7)b5 The Israelites will en$o& with delight the fabulous beasts !re!ared for them# %f.
<r. Har. )). =et these are %om!arativel& restrained, es!. on the !ositive side. In ) 1sr. 756.ff .
there are some definite beginnings of s!iritualisation. 8ore modest, but so mu%h the more
im!ressive, are the ;T statements. -nl& in Aev., and later in the soD%alled ,!%. of 2eter.
*/
do we
have a !enetration of sadisti% !i%tures of hell into >hristianit&.
The use of is !arallel, though less !regnant.
*. The 2s&%hologi%al Kse.
a. l denotes the intrusion of %orru!tive or salutar& influen%es into the %entre of
!ersonalit&.
3emons go into a man ( 8t. 95*0 # 4:. 65/6 # %f. also 8t. .*5)) and !ar. ). 9atan !uts evil into
the heart of a man ( ?n. ./5* ), or himself %omes into him ( 4:. **5/ # ?n. ./5*7 ). The former is
also true of the avenging <od ( Aev. .75.7 # and materiall& %f. Is. 659 , .+ # 8:. )5.* # A. 95.6 ).
-n the other hand, <od sends 7is 9!irit into (the hearts of) believers ( . Th. )56 # <l. )56 ). In
%ontrast to unhealth& distra%tion, return to oneself denotes a restoration of normalit&. The return of
the 2rodigal begins when he goes into himself or %omes to himself ( l 6 , 4:.
.05.7 ).
b. @ith verbs of sending, s!ea:ing, tea%hing, !ro%laiming and !rea%hing l denotes
address to someone, and is often used for the sim!le dative.
?esus is sent to the lost shee! ( 8t. .05*) ). <od reveals 7imself to the ?ewish !eo!le ( l
, ,%. *5** ). The <os!el must be !rea%hed l ( 8:. ./5.+ # .) # 9 # 4:.
*)5)7 # %f. l , . Th. *59 # l , >ol. .5*0 ).
The ?ohannine >hrist s!ea:s l ( ?n. 65*6 ). >f. also l
( 4:. 75. )# l ( * >. .+5.6 )# and for the
underl&ing s!atial sense, %f. l i ( 8:. 65.9 ). In .
2t. .5*0 , however, this is so wea: that l is merel& used for the dative. @hen verbs of
!ro%lamation are lin:ed with !la%es, l is used for .
H& its %ommon use of these %onstru%tions, whi%h are good <ree: but whi%h are also based
on 7ebrew, >hristianit& shows itself to be a religion of the word, of s!ee%h, of %ommanding,
of heating and obe&ing ( , , , , ,
, ).
7om.Il. , ., )+*5 T # 7dt. , (III, *65 l #
Thu%. , I, */5 l li # 2lat.Tim. , *6%5 q
{ { l . <n. *)5*6 5 l
l UU Y`L] \Z rRe]Yef ^f , %f. ?er. 05*+ . @ith () the 4'', li:e the ;T , often
uses the good <:. ( 1B. /5.+ # ?er. 75*0 et%.), and with and i
the dative ( Is. 6.5. ). 9o also >or!. 7erm. , I, *75 q 6
q i 6 .
/. The use of l to des%ribe a situation.
This use a!!roBimates to 3. ,t root there is often the idea of (%om!ulsor&) leading.
;ot to be led l is the !ra&er of the dis%i!les of ?esus ( 8t. 65./ and !ar. # %f.
8:. .)5/6 and !ar. # . Tm. 659 ). <od has shut u! all in disobedien%e that 7e might have
** -n 2ol&gnotusOs 3el!hi% ;e:&ia, %f. 2aus. , ', *0I/.# 1. Aohde, Ps'che
9, .+
, I (.9*0), /.7. There is ri%h
material in the burial art of the 1trus%ans. >f. F. @eege, &truskische 3alerei (.9*.)# 2hoto ,linari, *6+96 (the
blessed dan%ing), *6+96 (a man and wife at the feast of the blessed), /06/6 (9is&!hos and Tit&os), et%.
*/ -n !ossible %onne%tions with the -r!hi% 8&ster&, %f. ,. 3ieteri%h, !ek'ia
*
(.9./).
mer%& on all ( A. ..5/* ). The tas: of the a!ostle is to bring ever& thought %a!tive into the
s!here of >hrist, to sub$ugate it to the obedien%e of >hrist ( * >. .+50 ).
2erha!s we should eB!lain A. 65.7 along the same lines. 9in%e l is not used,
we are tem!ted to read5 q q, l . This gives
better sense than or . The %onteBt suggests the figure of
a %a!tive sub$e%ted to another !ower.
*)
A. 05* 5 q { l q and <l. .56 5
i l c ma& also be mentioned. The <ree:s would sa&5 l
( 2lat.4eg. , I, 6/0%).
B. The Temporal &se of6 , .
.. In a !urel& tem!oral sense, when a !oint of time is given, l means until," e.g., endure
l , until the end" ( 8t. .+5** # *)5./ and !ar. ), unless there is also a suggestion of
>. to the utmost." It o%%urs in other es%hatologi%al %onteBts li:e * Tm. .5.* 5 <od !roves faithful
l i q q . @hen a s!an of time is mentioned it has the sense of for," e.g.,
l ( 4:. .*5.9 ), es!. in a more formal usage to denote eternit& l6 , .
-n l , %f. )*7 . 7om.Il. , .), 665 { q # Il. , .9,
/*5 l , for a &ear." l in 7dt. , III, )+ sim!l& means finall&," %f. also 4:.
.650 .
*0
, ?ewish eB!ression underlies . Th. *5.6 (%f. 76: ). ?ob .)5*+ UU huf SX\d # Test. 4.
65..5 c q q l (for ever"). >f.
3
ib. Th. , ad loc. In
the koine the tem!oral sense of the formula is not %om!letel& obliterated.
*6

*. 8ore %ommon in the ;T is the tem!oral and final use in whi%h an a%tion is !erformed
or a state of affairs is maintained or sought with a view to some a!!ointed end.
, l q , to %are for the neBt da&" ( 8t. 65/) # ,%. )5/ # %f.
?n. .*57 # ,%. *05*. )5 q l q 6 ( Aev. 95.0 ). The da& of ?esus >hrist is
the goal both of the saving !ur!ose of <od and of the eB!e%tation of believers. The latter are
sealed for the da& of redem!tion b& the 9!irit ( 1!h. )5/+ ). The& strive to be without offen%e, to
be a!!roved, to la& a good foundation l q
i q ( 2hil. .5.+ # *5.6 # . Tm. 65.9 ). There is a hardl&
!er%e!tible line between * 2t. *5) , 9 # /57 and . 2t. .50 . This sheds a light on the twofold use in
<l. /5*/ 5 l q i
q and /5*) 5 q l , to
faith," to >hrist," and with a view to both a%%ording to <odOs !ur!ose. -n the li!s of the
?ohannine >hrist there is sometimes an a!!roBimation to 3. ( ?n. 65*7 5 q
q l q l6 , food whi%h remains until and unto eternal life,
whi%h eBtends to eternal life,
*7
%f. )5/6 ).
In se%ular <:. this tem!oral and final usage seems to be %ommon onl& in %onne%tion with a
s!an of time. l c q , 3iod. 9. , 'I', .0, 0# q l
l q , the sum of tas:s a!!ointed for a &ear is given
out for the month, 'eno!h.-e%. , 7, /6. -n the other hand, it is rare in relation to a fiBed !oint in
time. >f. 2lat.7i. , I, *66b5 l i q , I will give the
*) Hl.D3ebr. y *9), 0# gn. A. , ad loc. # %f. A. .5*) , *6 , *6 .
*0 Hl.D3ebr. , !. /+* suggests the rendering that she ma& not %om!letel& ma:e an end of me b& her %ontinual
%oming," and elsewhere transition to the modal sense >. is !er%eived. Hut too mu%h stress should not be laid
on the !resent (instead of ). , greater effe%t is a%hieved if is ta:en in its
stri%t sense of to ma:e bla%: and blue." and the order does not su!!ort an eB%lusive %ombination of l
with g .
3ib. Th. 8. 3ibelius, 4oentar -. d. "hessalonicherbriefen
*
, .9*0.
*6 Verffentlichungen aus der Pap'russalung der 4. (of< und Staatsbibl. -u 3nchen , I. B'-antin. Pap'ri
(ed. ,. 7eisenberg and 4. @enger, .9.)), ./, 7+ (6th %ent. ,.3. )5 l , to bring to an
end" (%f. also 2reisig:e @Jrt. , s.v. ). 7ere the formula a!!roBimates to the more %ommon l
( 2. -B&. ,(III, ..*/, .6) and l (%ommon at the end of letters).
*7 >f. gn. ?. , ad loc.
address the da& after toDmorrow#
2
. 2ar. , )/, 05 i l q q . Hut here
there is no genuinel& final element, as there is in the %om!arable ,%. ./5)* 5 4:. .5*+ # ./59 . F.
..
C. The !odal &se.
In some %ases l denotes intensit&.
?n. ./5. 5 l q . In view of the !re%eding !art. the l is first tem!oral,
but it is also modal5 to the utmost"
*6
%f. l , 7b. 75*0 #
*9
%f. also 4:. ./5.. .
/+
1ven !lainer is * >. .+5.0 5 q { l i , to find re%ognition in ri%h
measure." The eB!ression in * >. .+5./ , .0 distinguishes, Tualitativel& rather than Tuantitativel&,
between un$ustified boasting resting on the wor: of others ( i ) and
$ustifiable boasting. 2leonasti%all&
/.
2aul sa&s in * >. )5.7 that the light affli%tion of the !resent
time wor:s for us

q l (in eB%ess to eB%ess") an eternal weight

of glor&. -n l and i l i , )/+ .
l , 3iodorus on 2s. 0.57 ( 82< , //, .069b)# q i
,
,
!!ian.
A
om. 7ist. Hell. 8ithridati%um , ))5 l
# <n. )65) # ?os. 65*) # * >h. .*5.* # 73:1 # ?ob 659 # * 8a%%. 65*9 # l
c q , full& destro&ed," 2hilo4eg. <a$. , .)) # ?os.,nt. , ., *67 # %f. /, *6)
and *7)# 6, /+# 7, /*0. -n the other hand we have the tem!oral sense of for ever" in 3itt. -r. ,
6)*, *5 l c l6 # 2. 4ond. , III, ..6) f., ... 3iog. 4. , II, 6, 0.5
i q l # 1ur.
7
i!!. , 9/95 l q .
'. , in a Logical Connection4
.. (er& o%%asionall& l states the reason.
The transition from a s!atial to a %ausal sense is seen in A. )5*+ 5 l q i
i , in view of the !romise of <od he did not doubt." There is a similar use in the !hrase
l ( 8t. .*5). # 4:. ..5/* ), with a view to the !rea%hing of re!entan%e," as also
in l c ( * >. .+5.6 ), to boast of what others have done" ( )*7
).
/*
9imilarl& the referen%e in <l. 65) 5 l c
l c , is not merel& to o!en or ta%it eB!ressions of selfDglor& but, as the %onteBt
shows, to the ateries gloriandi ( v. )a, 0). Knless honest selfDeBamination shows that there is
nothing to boast of, he must find his own $ustifi%ation rather than following the standards of
others, thus ta:ing !ride onl& in himself and not in others (UU q {
iq , * >. .+5.0 f. ).
//

2. 2ar. !otices et &:traits des 3anuscrits Grecs de ta Biblioth*$ue .p,riale , '(III, * (.660), ed. b& @.
Hrunet de 2resle.
*6 gn., Tillm., ad loc. argue for a !urel& tem!oral, Hl.D3ebr. , !. /+*, for a !urel& modal use (%f. 7. 2ernot,
&tudes sur la )angue des &vangiles m.9*7n, *+7# ,. 3ebrunner, Gnoon , I( m.9*6n, )))). ,%%. to Hau., ad loc.
and 2r.DHauer , s.v. the two merge into one another.
*9 The immediate %onteBt su!!orts a tem!oral understanding ( vg , s&r. , %o!t. , @nd. 7b. , Aohr 7b. , ad loc. ),
but the modal as!e%t (armen, Agg. 7b. , ad loc. ) %annot be ruled out (%f. v. .. i ). The salvation is
eternal and therefore !erfe%t.
/+ 2urel& modal. 1ither with q , %ould not stand u!right at all" ( vg 5 nec onino poterat ), or
with , %ould not stand u!right !ro!erl&" ( Fl. 4:. , ad loc. # s&
s
s&
%
allow both meanings). The order
and sense su!!ort the latter.
/. ,ttem!ts to sim!lif& b& eB%ision do not do $usti%e to the thrust of the statement. >f. @nd. * F. , ad loc.
,!!ian. ,!!ianus, of ,leBandria, im!erial governor, who in *) volumes wrote a Aoman histor& u! to his own
times (%. .6+ ,.3. ), mu%h of whi%h is lost, ed. 4. 8endelssohn, .679 ff.
Aom. 7ist. /oanae (istoriae .
7i!!. (ippol'tus .
/* @nd. * >. suggests not ver& %onvin%ingl&5 l (or l )
.
// 9ieffert <l., ad loc.
>f.
2
. <iess. , I, 66, 9 (*nd %ent. ,.3. )5 l ( 4at. per ) q
I besee%h thee b& the fear of the gods" ( , 66 f. ).
*. l denotes a!!ointment ( 8t. 05** # . >. ..5** # .)5** # >ol. *5** # ?m. 05/ # Aev. **5*
).
In religious %onteBts there is referen%e a. to the divine a!!ointment.
The angels are s!irits whi%h in the divine servi%e are sent to minister to those who shall inherit
salvation ( 7b. .5.) ). 8oses was l , a
minister a!!ointed to bear witness to what should be said ( 7b. /50 ). @hat was written in
9%ri!ture was written for the instru%tion of later generations ( A. .05) ). 2aul is a!!ointed to
!ublish the good news ( A. .5. ). 7is readers are not a!!ointed to wrath but to the winning of
salvation ( . Th. 059 # * Th. *5./ ), to sonshi! ( 1!h. .50 ). <od has begotten believers again to a
living ho!e and an in%orru!tible inheritan%e ( . 2t. .5/ f. ). In the ;T , however, there is an
a!!ointment not onl& to eternal life ( ,%. ./5)6 5 l q l6 ) but also
$udi%iall&, though not as a decretu absolutu , to stumbling in the %ase of the disobedient ( . 2t.
*56 5 l ms%. ) , i . If <od does not have
the dire%t !ur!ose, 7e %ertainl& has the right and the !ower to a!!oint vessels to 6 as
well as to ( A. 95*. ff. , and a little less shar!l& in * Tm. *5*+ f. ). 7ow to define and to
delimit the do%trine of twofold !redestination is another Tuestion. Hut it %ertainl& %annot be ruled
out altogether.
There is also referen%e b. to the human a!!ointment whi%h ma& also be a fulfilment of the
divine a!!ointment.
The 9!irit demands the se!aration of missionaries to the wor: to whi%h 7e has %alled them (
,%. ./5* ). l q q is how the summons to the 4ordOs
9u!!er runs. It ma& be fashioned b& 2aul, !ossibl& along the lines of <:. formulae, but it
%orres!onds to the intention of ?esus ( . >. ..5*) f. ). Helievers should do all things to the glor& of
<od ( . >. .+5/. ). The distin%tion from 3. /. a. is fluid.
This l of a!!ointment ma& well %orres!ond to the 7eb. \ZD ( <n. /56 5
l UU \Ld [b sf \Z { L^_ ), but it is not a 7ebraism. In <:. it often o%%urs in formal
%onteBts, es!. sa%ral.
I
ns%r. 2riene , 0+, /9 (
c
. *nd %ent. H.>. )5 c l l q
q . Ins%r. from the 3el!hinion at 8iletus (ed. <. Fawerau and ,. Aehm, .9.)), ./),
// ff. (.st %ent. ,.3. )5 c l l
2 q q i.e., serving both the !ious honouring of gods and
Their 8a$esties and also the se%urit& of the %it&.
/)
The will of 1!i%urus ( 3iog. 4. , ', .6)
arranges a %ommemorative meal for the writer and his friend in the words5 l q l
q { l q q 6 .
/0

/. >onse%utive and final l . The !re!osition denotes the dire%tion of an a%tion to a
s!e%ifi% end. @hether this is in%idental or intentional must be dedu%ed from the %onteBt and is
not alwa&s %lear.
a. @ith the subst. or !ronomin, a%%. it usuall& has a final sense. This usage, resting on
s!atial ideas, is lin:ed with 3. *. , as ma& be seen from a %om!arison between
l ( 4:. 05/* , also l i , . >. .59 and l . 2t. 05.+ ) and
i l ( 8t. /5.. ). The final for%e of in%reases to the degree that the
asso%iated !re!ositional eB!ression be%omes an inde!endent adverbial definition.
>f. the %ommon eB!ression l , 8:. .5)) and !ar. # 65.. # 4:. 950 #
%f. 8t. *)5.) # 8:. ./59 ( 4:. *.5./ %onse%ut.5 l )# also l
2. <iess. Griechische Pap'ri -u Giessen , ed. -. 1ger, 1. Fornemann and 2.8. 8e&er, .9.+ ff.
Ins%r. 2riene Priene .nscriptions , ed. F. 7iller v. <lrtringen, .9+6.
%. circa .
/) 3eissmann 4- , 96 f.
/0 ?oh. @., 4tEm. . F. on ..5*).
q , 8:. .)59 and !ar. ?ohn ba!tises, and ?esus sheds 7is blood, for the
forgiveness of sins ( 8:. .5) # 4:. /5/ # 8t. *65*6 # %f. ,%. *5/6 ). The >hristian message is the
!ower of <od to salvation to those who believe ( A. .5.6 # %f. .+5. , ) ). <od has set u! >hrist as a
l in 7is own blood, effe%tive through faith with a view to demonstrating 7is
$udi%ial but es!e%iall& 7is gra%ious righteousness ( *+) )5 l q
( A. /5*0 ). The a!ostoli% mission of 2aul is with a view to the obedien%e of faith among
all nations, or among the <entiles ( A. .50 ). In the !ower of his a!ostoli% authorit& 2aul delivers
u! the in%estuous !erson at >orinth to 9atan for !h&si%al destru%tion, that the s!irit ma& be saved (
. >. 050 ). The eternal life of the blessed, the u!building of the bod& of >hrist, and the !raise and
glor& of <od, are the aims whi%h are !ursued b& the saving rule of <od and whi%h are thus to be
fulfilled through human a%tion ( l q l6 , . Tm. .5.6 # l lq
6 , 1!h. )5.* # l , 1!h. .56 , .) # l ,
A. .057 ). , final sense is also !resent in !ronominal %ombinations li:e l i # ( 8t. .)5/. # 8:.
.)5) and !ar. # .05/) m 8t. *75)6 5 li n) and l () ( 8:. .5/6 ), with the final
%lause in ?n. .65/7 # ,%. 95*. # *65.6 # A. 95.7 # .)59 # * >. *59 # 1!h. 65** # >ol. )56 # . 2t. )56 .
=et in other %ases there is an undoubted %onse%utive use.
. >. ..5.7 5 l l q is not so mu%h
%riti%ising the !ur!ose as the a%tual result. 9imilarl& in ..5/) the meaning is not so mu%h that the
>orinthians might have aimed at $udgment as that their %ondu%t %ould have the a%tual result of
$udgment ( q l i ). Further eBam!les are Aev. ./5/ 5
l # * >. 65* 5 l q , so that there was a
ri%h a%%ess of liberalit&"# >ol. .5.. 5 l # * >. 759 f. 5
l , l i # A. .+5.+ 5 l k
l i # A. ./5) 5 l . The antitheses of A. 05.6 , .6 , *. # 65.6 , *. ,
whi%h are denoted b& the use of l , are goals rather than %onseTuen%es, and there is a strong
final element in A. 65.9 . >f. also A. /57 # 65.0 , *. , *6 # ./5.) # * >. 95.. . In A. 75.+ there is an
instru%tive fusion of both elements.
In man& %ases the one merges into the other, so that a !re%ise differentiation is im!ossible.
A. .)5. 5 q l i , not to dis!ute about o!inions," or without giving rise to
argumentation."
/6
. >. .*5./ 5 l c i , in order that there ma& be one
bod&." or with the result that there is one bod&." 7ere both are %orre%t. >f. A. ./5) 5 l .
2hil. .5.. # 7b. )5.6 . This fa%t should not be used to obs%ure the final sense where it is !resent
but %reates diffi%ulties, e.g., in relation to !redestination ( )*6 # infra ).
A. .5.7 5 i l i , and * >. /5.6 5 l , are not to be
understood in terms of -T analogies li:e l ( ?er. /59 ), l
( 83:7 ) and l c l ( 8:1 ), or of
in ?n. .5.6 .
/7
In A. .5.7 i is a loose addition, li:e i in A.
/5** , to define the !hrase ( *+7 )
/6
in a 2auline sense, whereas l
i is final5 The $udi%ial righteousness !romised b& <od ( *+) ), as the ?ew desires it (
UU Y^eW|Z , whi%h in its forensi% sense %annot be rendered b&
alone), is revealed in the <os!el (as a righteousness) from faith with a view to faith. In * >. /5.6
%orres!onds to i and is thus to be related to the of >hrist, so that
l is %onse%utive and !redi%ative ( also F. *. ). @e are transformed from glor& to
glor& ( *0. ).
/9

b. @ith substant. infin. or a%%us. %. infin. l is !redominantl& final, though also
%onse%utive.
/6 >f. the var&ing translations of ,lthaus and ?Gli%her.
/7 4tEm. A. and *F# a%%e!ts this inter!retation in both !assages, @nd. * F. in the former.
/6 Though we %annot ado!t his eB!osition, Fhl. A. es!. draws attention to the fa%t that this !hrase needs to be
filled out. >f. Th4Hl , 00 (.9/)), .79 f. >f. also 9i%:b. A. , ad loc. # *F# /5.6.
/9 @nd. * F. has renewed this earl& eBegesis.
7ow the final use develo!s from the lo%al ma& be seen in eB!ressions li:e l
in A. .*5/ or l , , q,
in 8t. *+5.9 # *65* # *75/. ( 8:. .05*+ )# 8:. .)500 ( 8t. *6509 ).
@here there is no final %on%e!t, we have the autonomousl& final %ombination with the
i
nfin. , as A.
.5.. 5 l q # 7b. *5.7 5 l l # ?m. .5.6 5 l
l q , that we ma& be in some sense the
firstfruits of 7is %reatures" et%. >learl& %onse%utive are su%h !hrases as 7b. ..5/ 5 i
l p , l q ,
that the worlds were framed b& the @ord of <od, with the result that things whi%h ma& be seen
have !ro%eeded from those whi%h do not a!!ear"# A. 65.* 5 q q i {
l i . >. 65.+ 5 q i { l
l l i # * Th. *5.+ 5 l q # A. 75) 5 l
. ( . is subordinate)# 750 5 l q . ( v. 6 5
6 . and !ar. )# .*5* 5 l . There is instru%tive alternation in A. )5.. ff.
5 l l . and l q , %onse%utive# l l ( v. .6 ), final# l
( v. .6 ), %onse%utive again. There are some middle %ases where a !ur!ose is
!resent but the em!hasis is on the result. ,n eBam!le of this is to be found in * >. )5) 5 @hose
unbelieving minds the god of this world has blinded that the& do not see the light of the gos!el of
the glor& of >hrist." In * >. .5) 2aul s!ea:s of the %omfort with whi%h <od %omforts him that he
ma& %omfort others, suggesting that the !ur!ose is a%hieved in this result. >f. also A. /5*6 5 l
l i ., where there is obviousl& a %ontinuation of the l
of v. *0 , but more !arti%ularl& the assertion of a result.
The linguisti% fa%ts give rise to the theologi%al !roblem whether in %ertain statements
%on%erning the guilt of man this is to be understood as an immanent %onseTuen%e or as the
!ur!ose of the divine ?udge.
In . Th. *5.6 l i is de!endent on
and %annot be ta:en %onse%utivel&, sin%e this would demand the a%%. %. infin. The
sim!le infin. means in order that" and stri%tl& im!lies that the ?ews intended to bring their sins to
a %limaB, though !robabl& we have here a less !re%ise and griml& ironi%al eB!ression for the
!rovidential !ur!ose of <od,
)+
namel&, that sin%e the& will have it thus, the& must now fill u!
their sins to the limit. In * Th. *5.. l %an be ta:en
%onse%utivel&, but this is unli:el& in view of the final %lause whi%h follows. 7ere, too, we have a
referen%e to the !rovidential !ur!ose.
).
A. .5*+ 5 l l ,
%annot !ossibl& be final.
)*
>ertainl& the thought that the& are to be ineB%usable is in line with the
thought of the a!ostle (%f. the threefold in vv *) , *6 , *6 ). Hut onl&
logi%all&, not grammati%all&, is <od the sub$e%t of the senten%e. 8oreover, the !oint is to show the
ground of the %om!laint. 7en%e we should render5 9o that the& are without eB%use."
)/

). The , of Personal 2elationship.
In general the ;T ma:es a %orre%t distin%tion between l and . l in the sense of to"
(to go to someone et%.) is 7omeri%. @hether it is also %lassi%al is debated.
))
The 899 var&. 4ater
l be%omes more %ommon for . In the sense of !ersonal relationshi! l is not restri%ted
to a s!e%ifi% linguisti% %ir%le.
.. l denotes the relationshi! as su%h, in the neutral sense. , %om!arison is made with
referen%e to, or it is valid of, a %ertain !erson ( . >. )56 # 1!h. 05/* # %f. 7b. 959 5 q
l ).
infin. infinitive.
)+ 3ob. Th. , ad loc . In A. 750 ma:es !ossible the sim!le infin.
). 3ob. Th. , ad loc .
)* Fhl. A. , ad loc .
)/ 4tEm., 9i%:b. A. , ad loc.
)) FGhnerDHlassD<erth , II, ., )66.
4:. .*5*. 5 l , hardl& fits the !re%eding !arable if it is ta:en along the
lines of A. .+5.* or in the sense that alms are a treasure laid u! with <od ( F. .. ). >riti%al
%on%lusions have been drawn from this.
)0
Hut there are no linguisti% reasons ( infra ) wh& we
should not thin: of being ri%h in relation to <od, so that a wealth whi%h has value in <odOs e&es,
or even <od 7imself, is the ob$e%t of !ossession. The elli!ti%al %onstru%tion in A. 05.6 , whi%h is
best ta:en with in the first %lause and with in the se%ond, wor:s out the
!arallel neutrall& with a %hanging material %ontent. Through one offen%e %ondemnation %ame with
effe%t u!on all, and through one a%t of obedien%e lifeDgiving $ustifi%ation %ame with effe%t u!on
all. Though l is neutral in itself, it has in 2aul a !redominantl& friendl&
%onnotation ( A. 05.0 # * >. .50 # 956 # 1!h. .56 # 1. / .).
1ur.-r. , 0)*5 , to be ha!!& with referen%e to %hildren." >f. 2lato ,!.
, /0b5 l Ai l , %learl& distinguished from
g , ibid. , /0a.
*. l denotes relationshi! in a hostile sense. 1nmit& is dire%ted a. against <od, the 9on of
8an, the 9!irit, the emissaries or institutions of <od, in the form of sin.
q l ( 4:. .05.6 , *. ). The %arnal mind is l ( A.
657 ). Knloving %ondu%t in matters of %ons%ien%e is l ( . >. 65.* ).
l ma& sometimes be lin:ed with material ob$e%ts in su%h a wa& as to be finall&
dire%ted against <od ( ,%. *056 # . >. 65.6 ). Hlas!hem& is a !arti%ular form, e.g., ,
l ( 8:. /5*9 # 4:. .*5.+ # ,%. 65.. ).
b. It is also dire%ted against men. The ;T warns us es!e%iall& of the hostilit& of
!erse%utors against the dis%i!les of ?esus ( ?n. .05*. # ,%. 95. # */5/+ ). =et it also %onsiders
the !ossibilit& that one man might sin against another, or even one brother against another
( 8t. .65.0 , *. # 4:. .75/ , ) # . >. 65.* ). In su%h a %ase it en$oins the ne%essit& of %onstant
readiness to forgive, but it does not ignore the !ossibilit& of withdrawal within the limits
drawn for believers in >hrist. In the same %onne%tion 2aul %an even sa& of >hrist5
l ( * >. ./5/ ). The ;T does not use l for <odOs rea%tion against sin
and the sinner. For <od is not the enem& of men, nor are men %alled the i of <od in
the !assive sense.
7dt. , (I, 605 # I, 665 {# ,es%h.
2
rom. , 9)05 l
# %f. * 8a%%. 75.6 # <n. *+56 5 q l .
/. l denotes friendl& relationshi! a. between man and man.
8t. *65.+ of the woman of Hethan&. In A. .5*7 l is used to show how gross is the
!erversion of seBual love.
Its s!e%ifi% usage in the ;T is for >hristian brotherl& love5 l
, l , ( A. .*5.+ ,
.6 # .656 ). The l of A. .)5.9 is mu%h wea:er, being little more than an
eTuivalent of the genitive. -n the other hand, the l is most signifi%ant when 2aul s!ea:s of
the %olle%tion for the !oor saints at ?erusalem ( A. .05*6 # . >. .65/ ).
The origin and eBem!lar of this love is the divine love b. of <od for man. <od reveals 7is
love for those who were enemies in the death of 7is 9on ( A. 056 ). The righteousness whi%h
<od gives rea%hes out or s!reads its wings l | |
( A. /5** ).
)6
@hat the !ro!hets saw from afar, and what %auses the blessed
to !raise <od, is the gift of gra%e to believers ( . 2t. .5.+ # * >. .5.. ).
)0 >f. ? Gli%her<l?#, II, 6.) ff. and Fl. 4:. , ad loc .
2rom. Proetheus Vinctus .
)6 The fuller reading attested b& * 3< and some minus%. et%. is !robabl& due to the %ombination of an old
variant with the original. >f. 4tEm. A. , ad loc .
It %an also denote %. the love of the world and man for <od. , basi% ;T !rin%i!le is that
all things are %reated for <od or to <od, or more narrowl& for >hrist or to >hrist ( . >. 656 #
A. ..5/6 # >ol. .5.6 ). ,fter the fall the original situation was restored b& <odOs re%on%iling
all things to 7imself through >hrist ( >ol. .5*+ ).
)7
The !ra%ti%al !oint of what might
otherwise be a loft& theoso!hi%al s!e%ulation is that divinel& sent messengers !rea%h q l
( ,%. *+5*. ). The !ositive %orrelative of this re!entan%e, or more
%orre%tl& !erha!s its !ositive side, is i ( ,%. *)5*) # *65.6 # >ol. *50 ) or
l , i.e., the faith whi%h is believing in or on the 4ord
?esus. This eB!ression is not merel& an eTuivalent of \Z t`sa [z cX , whi%h is rare with referen%e
to <od in the -T and whi%h is rendered b& the dative in the 4'' ( 3t. 95*/ # Is. )/5.+ ). ;or
does it %orres!ond to LeZ t`sa [z cX ) )/) ). It is an original ;T %onstru%tion. The alternation
between the substantive and the verbal forms, whi%h re%urs in relation to the %ognate term
ho!e" ( ,%. *)5.0 # . 2t. .5*. # * >. .5.+ ), is less signifi%ant than the full material
!arallelism and even %ongruen%e between l and l (%f. es!.
?n. .) 5l# . 2t. .5*. ) and the var&ing distribution of the latter !hrase in the ;T writings.
l in relation to >hrist is found in the 9&n!t. onl& at 8:. 95)* # 8t. .656 # in ,%.
three times ( .+5)/ # .)5*/ # .95) ), in 2l. three times ( A. .+5.) # <l. *5.6 # 2hil. .5*9 ), in ?n. over
thirt& times between *5.. and .75*+ , and in the ?ohannine 1!. onl& on%e ( . ?n. 05.+ ),
or being mu%h more %ommon.
The %on%entration of belief in >hrist seems to have undergone a develo!ment lin:ed with
the growing a!!rehension of what was !resent in 7im from the ver& first as 7e is de!i%ted in
the 9&no!ti% <os!els. ,t the end of the !ro%ess we have eB!ressions li:e i l
and i l . ( I, 0/9 ), whi%h ma& be %om!ared
with te%hni%al !hrases in 7ellenisti% finan%e and whi%h ma& have been influen%ed b& these
terminologi%all&. l never be%ame a formula li:e . There is
hardl& the slightest im!ulse in this dire%tion in an eB!ression li:e q q Ai l
( A. .650 ).
Thu%. , II, 95 i . l with !ro!er names is often found in dedi%ations,
8
. ,nt. , ), */ (to nature)5 , , l c . Ins%r. on a magi%
ring ( >od. 8ar%ianus, ..th %ent. ,.3. )5
)6
c l l
.
2
. ,mh. , .)), *+ (0th %ent. ,.3. ). 1g&!tian %ommer%ial formulae5 l 2 (
2. Fa&. , 6/, 6 m.6/ ,.3. n)# l { li , !utting to the a%%ount of
8aron" ( >2A , ., .. m6/v6) ,.3. n)# l (%urrent abbrev. for )
2 (-stra% Theb., *nd %ent. ,.3. , 3eissmannOs %olle%tion).
)9
The ;T l ()
is !arallel to the Aabbin. VP]Q \Z onl& in 8t. .+5). f. # .65*+ and !erha!s 7b. 6 . .+ .
0+

*. Indi(id#al Points and the 7#estion of 8ebraisms.
.. l often o%%urs where one might eB!e%t . 9ta&ing in a !la%e ma& be re!resented as
the result of movement towards it.
)7 The debated Tuestion whether l refers to <od or to >hrist need not be dis%ussed here. The former
is more !robable.
8. ,nt. 8ar%us ,urelius ,ntoninus, em!eror and !hiloso!her (.6.I.6+ ,.3. ), influen%ed b& 1!i%tetus and one
of the &ounger 9toi%s. 7is 3editations ( l ) in .* boo:s are the last signifi%ant !rodu%t of
9toi%ism, ed. 7. 9%hen:l, .9./).
)6 8. Herthelot, 1ollection des #nciens #lchiistes Grecs (.666), Introdu%tion, ./*# 1. ;orden, #gnostos
"heos (.9./), *)+, *)9.
2. ,mh. "he #herst Pap'ri , ed. H. <renfell and ,. 7unt, .9++ ff.
)9 3eissmann 4- , 96 ff.# 2reisig:e <irowesen, .)7 ff.
0+ 7eitmGller, 99 ff.
Thus l o%%urs with !la%es and !la%eDnames together with verbs denoting !resen%e, dwelling
et%.5 l { , he settled again in ;aEareth" ( 8t. *5*/ )#
l q Ai ( ,%. .95** ). >f. also 8t. )5./ # 4:. )5*/ # ,%. 75.* # 65)+ # .65*. vl. #
*+5.) # */5.. # *05) # also with a sim!le subst. 5 l , 8:. .5/9 # l
, 8:. ./59 ( 8t. .+5.7 )#
0.
%f. 8t. .+59 # 8:. 656 # 05.) and !ar.
5 i l ( >ol. .56 # . 2t. 05.* , if is the
%orre%t reading). In both 8:. .59 5 i l , and ?n. 957 5 i
l q , we have the idea of di!!ing into the water. >f. also the !regnant
%ombinations , l ( * >. .5*. # 1!h. .5.0 )# q
q l q ( A. 65.6 ). -n the other hand, in eB!ressions li:e l
( ?n. .5.6 ), l ( * >. *59 ), or i
q q l q ( ,%. *5*7 , /. , in the sense of the author), l and are full&
inter%hangeable. >om!lete eTuation is dis!la&ed in the use of l in ,%. 750/ in the sense of the
instrumental : l UU (%f. 8t.
95/) ). l is used for the tem!oral in 4:. .5*+ # ./59 # ,%. ./5)* (with a final suggestion
)*7 ). The substitution of for l is rarer ( 4:. 95)6 # .95/+ # A. 050 # ?n. 05) , a doubtful verse),
but not 4:. 75.7 (went abroad in ")# 8t. .65*6 and 4:. */5)*
0*
(%ome 2ith "). -n * >. )56
.
The inter%hanging of l and is not a 7ebraism but is 7omeri% (Il., ./, 6*65
# .9, .*.5 ), %lassi%al ( 7dt. , (I, .5 q 2 ) and
above all 7ellen.,
,
%t. Thom. , .6 ( "e:ts and Studies , 0, . m.697n, ?ames)5 q l
l . In modern <:. l has su!!lanted .
0/
In the ;T most of the eBam!les are
in 4:., while 8t. and Aev. (though %f. Aev. ..5.. ) generall& distinguish between the two
!re!ositions. In some %ases, however, the alternation is to be eB!lained b& the differen%e, or the
differen%e in translation, of 7ebrew !refiBes ( <n. .650 5 q i l
UU xd NX `h] LeZ , otherwise mostl& ). >f. also in 8t. 05/) ff. (UU
LeZ qLef PZQ Sa , stri%tl& to swear in %ommon with someone")# (UU LeZ i] hd , * 2t. .5.7 l ,
9&n!t. in all !ar. )# and (with in 8:. .5.0 #
0)
also i with dat. in A. 95// et%.,
with a%%. in A. )50 # ,%. 95)* et%. UU LeZ t`sa [z cX , though it is not alwa&s to be derived from this (%f.
77:22 # 3a. 65*/ m *) n m O n# Is. *65.6 m [ ,on# @is. .*5* ). In this %onne%tion we should also
mention () l l in 8:. 05/) # 4:. 65)6 # 750+ (UU V^_\PdQ \Z xZ \] , %f. 1
B. 1:17 et%.# ?m. *5.6 # ,%. .65/6 and 3. in both !assages in 4:. ).
*. l serves to denote the !redi%ate with verbs li:e i ( 8t. *.5)* # 8:. .*5.+ # ?n.
.65*. # ,%. )5.. )# l ( 8:. .+56 # . ?n. 056 )# ( 8t. *.5)6 )# i ( ,%. ./5** ), or
the result with ( Aev. ..56 )# i ( 8t. *750. )# ( ?n. ..50* )#
( ?n. .75*/ et%.). i is found in A. )5/ # <l. /56 # ?m. *5*/ ( . 8a%%. *50* ,
nomin., %f. <n. .056 in the original). This usage, again, is not sim!l& a 7ebraism. In Theogn. , .6*
(6th %ent. H.>. ) we alread& have5 i l , and in
7
eliod.
,
eth. , (I, .), where there is no sus!i%ion of ?ewish <:. , we read5 q l
. -n the other hand, the influen%e of \Z has strengthened an original
tenden%&.
00

0. For man& similar instan%es, %f. Aegard, //. ff.
0* It is im!ossible to sa& with %ertaint& whether l q i (H4 lat) is here a !oor emendation or
g iq ( [ > * !l) is an assimilation to 8t. .65*6 .
,%t. Thom. #cts of "hoas .
0/ Hl.D3ebr. , *, n. . y *+0 f., *.6# 7atEida:is, ?annaris, Frumba%her, op. cit .
0) This is an isolated instan%e. In ?n. /5.0 and 1!h. .5./ is used in the absol. i is hardl&
used in A. /5*0 or <l. /5*6 , where the !re!ositional eB!ression belongs to the verb. ;or do we have the more
!regnant sense of , in the sense of , in 1!h. .5.0 # >ol. .5) # or even . Tm. .5.) # /5./ # *
Tm. .5./ # /5.0 , as the !re%eding arti%le shows.
7eliod. 7eliodorus, of 1mesa (/rd %entur& H.>. ), writer of stories, his ,ethio!i%a %onsisting of 1thio!ian tales of
Theagenes and >hari%leia, ed. I. He::er, .600.
,eth. #ethiopica .
/. l %an also re!la%e the gen. or dat. # . 2t. .5.. 5 l the
sufferings of >hrist"# .5) 5 { l , reserved for &ou"# 1!h. /5.6 5
q l to grow strong in the inner man" et%. In the koine
and in modern <:. this is %ommon usage. 2ol&b. , I, 7, .*5 q l i i . 2.
2ar. (ed. @. Hrunet de 2resle, ;oti%es et 1Btraits des 8anus%rits de la HibliothTue Im!eriale ,
'(III m.660n, 0, II, * (..) H.>. )5 q l () , outside her house"#
ibid. , 0, ., 7 (..) H.>. )5 l T l , the house built for Tage."
%epke
2 , , , .
.. The Knderstanding of KniTueness in the ;T.
-nl& rarel& is l used as a digit in the ;T (e.g., * 2t. /56 ).
.
It usuall& means single,"
on%eDforDall," uniTue" or onl&," or unitar&," unanimous," or one of two or man&,"
*
onl&
one."
Its main theologi%al signifi%an%e is in relation to the formula l . <od is one" is the
tea%hing of the sh a in 3t. 65) 5 rh[ c^c` . There is no <od beside 7im ( 8:. .*5*9 , /* ).
7is uniTueness is es!e%iall& signifi%ant for 7is !eo!le5 q l ,
q l k l , l
q l ( . >. 656 ). In the one <od the origin and goal of the world, and in the one
>hrist histor& and salvation histor&, are a unit&.
/

This !regnant l , however, has another signifi%an%e in earl& >hristianit&. It resists all
dualism and eliminates an& eitherDor relationshi! between <od and antiDgod. 8an %an serve onl&
one 4ord ( 8t. 65*) ). It denotes the elemental and inviolable union, the henosis , of married
%ou!les ( Ign. 2ol., 0, *), and also !oints to a higher union with the 4ord ( . >. 65.7 # 1!h. 05/. #
, I, 6)9 , 60. ).
, thought !arti%ularl& eB!ressed b& the em!hati% l is that ever&thing de!ends on one
thing, that manOs whole wa& and future are de%ided b& one Tuestion ( 8:. .+5*. # 4:. .+5)*
vl. ). Thus the :ee!ing of the 4aw stands or falls with one %ommandment. @e all be%ome
disobedient with one transgression. The fulness of the divine will is en%losed in the one
%ommandment of love ( 8t. 05.6 # ?m. *5.+ # <l. 05.) ). It is ne%essar& to be vigilant and
strong for one hour. 2ower is given to evil for one hour. In one hour %atastro!he des%ends on
all sides and in all forms.
)
1arl& >hristianit& has a %om!rehensive awareness of the
astonishing im!ort of the single and uniTue. The !arti%ular is not lost in the vastness of the
world and histor&. The individual bears the whole within it and de%ides on%e and for all.
;T thin:ing is neither individual nor %olle%tive, but organi%. <odOs will is dire%ted neither
to the isolated soul nor the mass as su%h, but alwa&s to the %onditioned and %onditioning
member of a unitkthe house, the !eo!le, the ra%e, %reation ( A. 65.9 ff. ). <odOs a%tion
alwa&s im!lies a threefold relation, namel&, to <od, man and the world ( , I, )/ #
6 /6* ). The individual is not solitar& before <od. 7e stands in the name of the man&,
united with them, bound to that whi%h binds them. The Tuestions of their destin& are the
Tuestions of his destin&. The one man is not saved or %onverted for his own sa:e# he is %alled
00 1Bam!les ma& be found in ?ohannessohn, I, )f. -n the Tuestion of 7ebraisms, %f. Hl.D3ebr. y .)0 and
a!!endiB on !. *96, where older and more re%ent literature is listed.
. i ( 8:. .65* # ,%. *+57 # . >. .65* ) is a 9emitism (UU YLPL rh[ )# v. 9. Frauss,
"alud. #rch=ol . II (.9..), )** f.# <. 3alman, #rbeit u. Sitte in Pal. , I, . (.9*6), .6, /# Fl. on 8:. .65* .
* -n 8:. .)5.+ ( l 6 ), v. 2r.DHauer , s.v.
/ The !roblems of monism and monotheism are dealt with under .
) 8:. .)5/7 # Aev. .75.* # .656 ff. >f. the late ?ewish Yhf [f cqd PdQ and on this 9%hl. 8t. , 70* on 8t. *65)+ . In
the !assages Tuoted the ordinar& eB!ression ta:es on the !regnant sense of 4:. **50/ 5 { q 6 {
i .
for the sa:e of the man& ( <l. .5.0 ff. # . >. .059 f. ). 2ersonal interest is fulfilled in the
sa%rifi%e of what is most individual. The !ersonal eB!ression of the heart before <od is
realised in inter%ession for those who are brethren b& blood ( A. 95/ # * >. .5) ff. # >ol. .5*) ).
>onversel&, the destin& and wa& of the totalit& are de%ided b& those of individuals, to whom
the divine a%tion is s!e%ifi%all& dire%ted ( A. ..5. , .) , .6 ). -ne for all is the main !rin%i!le
of organi% thin:ing. Hut this organi% thin:ing is assumed into a higher histori%al thin:ing
whi%h grows out of the understanding of the uniTue and its im!ort. The ;T does not s!ea: of
!ast events, men and things with a view to re%onstru%ting the !ast idiogra!hi%all&"
(@indelband). ;or does it s!ea: of them with a view to the attainment of general truth in the
nomotheti%" sense. The alternative of %ontingent fa%ts or eternal rational truths is as little
a!!osite in fa%e of the realities of the ;T as is the alternative of the individual or the
%olle%tive. For the ;T , events, men and things are determined b& the heritage of the !ast and
the dawning of the future, b& the de%isive %hara%ter of the now or never ( <l. 657 ff. ). The ;T
s!ea:s of !ast ages, figures and events whi%h will never re%ur as su%h but whi%h are
nonetheless mightier than all !resent realit& be%ause what is to %ome is de%ided in them.
0

-n%e for all is the main !rin%i!le of histori%al thin:ing.
,ll these lines of thought, however, %onverge in a %entral thought whi%h is s!e%ifi%all&
%hara%terised b& the ;T l , namel&, the thought that the de%ision %on%erning the destin& of
%reation and the %ourse of histor& is ta:en at one !oint in !arti%ular. This idea is wor:ed out in
two great %om!leBes, the first that of ,dam and the %ommon destin& of the ra%e, the se%ond
that of >hrist and the unit& of the >hur%h.
*. ,dam and the >ommon 3estin& of the Aa%e.
a. ,lread& in the <enesis a%%ount of the first father ,dam and the fall we have the basi%
%onvi%tion that the ra%e is one both in des%ent and destin&. 4ater ?udaism develo!ed both these
as!e%ts ( I, *9. f. ). ,leBandrian ?udaism did so along the <ree: lines of a general destin& of
man:ind ( 1!. ,r. , *+6# / 8a%%. )5) ), but in ,!o%al&!ti% we still have a histori%al understanding,
and therefore the Tuestion of the origin of sin is still a live one. , sa&s 1ve,
i l g i .
6
,ll suffering, even in the animal world, ma& be
tra%ed ba%: to this original event, and es!e%iall& death ( 9. Har. 0656 ff.# ,!%. 8os. ..5*6 et%.).
Hut is death the !unishment for ,damOs sin !assed on%e and for all over the whole ra%e -r is it
the !unishment for ea%h individual sin %ommitted b& individuals as followers of the first father of
the ra%e <enesis gives the first answer, and it is develo!ed in ) 1sr with all the basi% elements of
a do%trine of original sin. @hen thou didst sin, sa&s the seer to the first father, non est factu
solius tuus casus6 sed et nostru6 $ui e: te advenius ( 75..6 ). The cor alignu of ,dam lives
on in his des%endants, et factu est peranens infiritas ( /5*+ff .). Thus the one seed of evil,
on%e sown, bears a %ontinuing overluBuriant %ro! ( )5/+ ). @ith this radi%all& histori%al
anthro!olog& ) 1sr was %ons%iousl& o!!osing the !o!ular dogma of the !eriod whi%h seemed to
be demanded both b& moral %ons%iousness and b& the !roblem of theodi%&, namel&, that ea%h
individual has %hosen his own wa& in voluntate sua .
7
, re!l& was naturall& given, for 9. Har. is
a !ious %orre%tion of ) 1sr in terms of the !o!ular view that ea%h is his own ,dam (0)5.9). In both
%ases, however, ,dam is the de%isive startingD!oint of histor& and its woes ( 9. Har. 0)5.0# 06, 6).
,nd a%%ording to the a!o%al&!ti% view histor&, whi%h thus stands under the sign of a tragi%
original event, has as its goal a final event of salvation, the %oming of the 9on of 8an, who as
9aviour will renew and sur!ass the original and de%isive offi%e of the first man ( l
6 ).
8u%h the same basi% views and differen%es are found in the 9&nagogue. 7ere ,dam is the
first man and the head of all the %hildren of men.
6
Hut it is debated how his a%t determines the
will and destin& of his !rogen&. ,:iba !assionatel& su!!orted the freedom and res!onsibilit& of
the individual ( b.oid. , 6.a# ,b. , /, .0# %f. 8. 1B. , .), *0). -thers o!!osed him ( b.9anh. , .+.a#
0 , I, /6. # , I, )66 # , , .
6 ,!%. 8os. /* (Tis%hendorf, !. .6). >f. 9ir. .)5.7 ff. 5 q i and 9. Har. )65)*.
7 ) 1sr. /56 , also 2s. 9ol. 95) ff.5 i { g { . 9o, too, 1E. .65* ff. ,
as distin%t from 1B. /)57 .
6 ;u. r. , .+ on 65* in 9tr.DH. , III, )76.
b.
8
a:. , *)a). Thus <od sa&s to ,dam5 3o not thin: of %orru!ting and destro&ing m& world, for if
thou dost %orru!t and destro& it there is none to restore it to order"# and to 8oses5 Thou diest
be%ause of the sin of the first man, for he has brought death on the world." 9in%e the %atastro!he of
the head, men now %ome into this world li:e the %hildren of !risonerskin !rison.
9
Therefore
learn from the first man5 7e was given a %ommand { and how man& deaths hung over him and
his des%endants."
.+
Those who %ontend for individual retribution, however, !ut on ,damOs li!s
the words5 In m& hand is onl& one sin" but in &ours are man& transgressions. 1ven the death of
the righteous is easil& eB!lained, for it is the !enalt& of man& venial faults,
..
;o less divergent
than the answers to this Tuestion are the attem!ts of the Aabbis to draw a %onne%ting line between
the original disaster and the %orres!onding a%t of deliveran%e. @e hear of the great figure who was
%reated even before ,dam in order that some da& he might restore what ,dam %orru!ted. This
figure, however, is not the son of man, but ,braham ( <n. r. , .) on *57 ). =et the 8essiah also
bears a name whi%h refers ba%: to the first man and his fateful signifi%an%e5 t^P[M UU the First.
.*
It will be seen how tentative these views are. -nl& in the ;T are the thoughts and !roblems
wor:ed out %onsistentl& in a single histori%al s%heme revolving around the figures of the first man
and the se%ond.
b. The growth, s!read and histor& of the ra%e start from a single !oint5 i (
) 6 6 q
q, i { ( ,%. .75*6 ). ;or is
it onl& the !h&si%al inheritan%e whi%h %omes from ,dam. In addition, there is the heritage of a
%ommon destin& ordained b& <od. Thus the %ommon distress under whi%h the ra%e labours
ma& also be tra%ed ba%: to the original datum of all histor&, to ,dam.
The first man transgressed the %ommandment of <od and thus involved himself in
suffering and death. Hut this one event is not $ust !ast histor& whi%h we ma& re%ount or not.
;or is it merel& a s&mboli% re!resentation of general truths %on%erning sin and its effe%ts. The
histor& of ,dam is the histor& of the origin of sin and of its %onseTuen%es as these ma& be
seen throughout histor&5 l
./
6 q i l
lq, q i , l
6 q ( A. 05.* ). The on%eDforDallness of this event is not to
be %onstrued in terms of an automati% !ro%ess or of a law of life or inheritan%e. It must be
understood in terms of time and histor&. -nl& be%ause the realit& of the world is histori%al
does that whi%h is on%e and for all be%ome that whi%h is the first of a series, the startingD!oint
of a wa&. -nl& be%ause of this does the event of sin be%ome the !rin%i!le of sin whi%h engulfs
all members of the ra%e Tuite a!art from an& %ausal or organi% %onne%tions.
%. -nl& those who :now the seriousness of the on%eDforDall %an a!!re%iate the histori%al
definiteness and ines%a!abilit& of the situation in whi%h man now finds himself. 7e is in a
%osmos in whi%h is and all i is sub$e%t to ,
, ( A. 05.) , .7 , *. # 65*+ ). This is the wor: of the
one. The dis!osition of the will of man is now su%h that it im!els him to %ommit sin willingl&
and thus delivers him u! to deathkall eTuall&.
.)
In this wa& 2aul settles the old and futile
debate whether death is inherited or merited. The fall of ,dam %reated a histori%al fa%t whi%h
8a:. 3akkot , 8ishnahD, ToseftaD, Talmud tra%tate Scourging (9tra%:, &inl. , 0*).
9 3t. r., 9 on /.5.)# %f. b.9hab. , 00a (both in 9tr.DH. , III, **7 ff.).
.+ 9. 4v. , .*+a on 05.7 in 9tr.DH. , III, */+.
.. ?al:ut 9imeoni on ;u. *+5*) (y 76)) in 9tr.DH. , III, **9 ff. -n the theor& of general sinfulness, v. 9tr.DH. , III,
.06 f.
.* 9tr.DH. , I, 60 ( A , I, .)/ , , I, /66 ).
./ (l) in A. 05.*I*. is used 6 times of ,dam and ) of >hrist.
.) A. 05.*b 5 , q. refers ba%: to . It thus reTuires the
%hiasti% %orres!onden%e of the four !arts of v. .* 5 H& sin %ame death"kto death ( q ) sin
led." (>f. the i of <l. 05./ # . Th. )57 # * Tm. *5.) .) 9in thus im!els towards death. 8ost %ommentators are
%ontent with the rendering5 -n the ground that the& all sinned."
im!lies not merel& eBternal im!ulsion but also inner %orru!tion of the will, so that the
des%endants of ,dam individuall& go the wa& of their !rogenitor. i
c l, { . @ithout an& eB%e!tions, the ra%e has
missed its destin&5
.0
c , A. /5.+ ff. Thus all %reation stands under a
%ommon lot, and the ra%e of ,dam also stands under a %ommon guilt. It is one with the first
father in sin and therefore in res!onsibilit& for the suffering of the world. ;one is eBem!t. ,ll
are A .
.6

/. >hrist and the Knit& of the >hur%h.
a. ,dam is the , the . 7e !oints be&ond
himself to the , >hrist ( A. 05.) # . >. .05)7 ).
.7
This means5
6 A ,
. The validit& of this %on%lusion is established5 q
l 6 , l 6 ( . >. .05*. f. ). In
this verse we miss the twofold before the twofold 6 , as in A. 05.0 . There is
a good reason for the omission. The term #nthropos is not used here in the generi% sense, but
as a title whi%h a!!lies to onl& two figures, ,dam and >hrist. The mass of those who lived
and died between these two does not %ount beside them. In this full sense
,dam is the first man and >hrist is literall& and trul& the se%ond.
In 7im, the antit&!e of ,dam, the ra%e is given a new beginning
.6
and !rin%i!le5 l
6 l 6 l , l
( n. ./ ) 6 l 6 l i q ( A.
05.6 ). ,s even in ?ewish tradition ,dam is %alled the head of the human ra%e (%f. ;u. r. , .+),
so the l is %alled the of the new ra%e, ,
.
.9
7en%e with %onstantl& new names and in %onstantl& new forms the relation of
the one to the all and &et also the !arti%ularit& of the one are established.
>hrist is man and &et more than man. The -ne is set in analog& to the man& and &et finall& 7e
trans%ends ever& analog&. 7e %ontinues the line of humanit&, brea:s it, and begins a new line. 7e
is more than those who !re%eded, and &et 7e is also more than the i who follow and
whose 7e is. 7e is not onl& more# 7e is different, uniTue.
7e is also uniTue in relation to the first ,dam with whom 7e is %om!ared. 7e is man and &et
more than man ( . >. .05)0 ff. ). ;evertheless, 7e is the !ositive %ounter!art of ,dam, and, as
2aul tries to show in A. 0 ,
*+
the !ositive influen%e of the >hrist event far trans%ends in s%o!e the
negative of ,damOs.
?esus is alwa&s one of a series, &et 7e is also a s!e%ial !oint in the series. In ever& series 7e is
the eB%e!tion whi%h trans%ends the series. The same !rin%i!le is often found in the <os!els. 7e is
a !ro!het and more than a !ro!het. 7e is not merel& the last in the series of !ro!hets# 7e is the
l , uniTue5 c l, l , 8:. .*56 # %f. 7b. .5. f. ,gain,
as the 9on 7e endows us with sonshi!. 7en%e we be%ome sons. Hut 7e is the 9on in a uniTue
sense, q l .
.0 )/7 5 ,%. .75*7 5 .
.6 2aul thus goes be&ond su%h ideas as we find in 9. Har. )65)* f.# 0)5.9.
.7 () in v. )7 is hardl& a re!etition of the last" in v. )0 . For in v. )0 A is the
sub$e%t, not . The of v. )0a is made ne%essar& b& the Tuotation and disturbs the
s%hematism of v. )0ff ., whi%h is obviousl& balan%ing the two %ontrasts and A,
and . 3o and refer to the same e!i!han& (-n
, %f. <. Har. 95.7.)
.6 The one ,braham is the an%estor of the !eo!le of <od and the starting!oint of its histor& in Is. 0.5. # 1E.
//5*) # 8al. *5.0 .
.9 >f. also in 1!h. (I, )6/) , in 7b. ( I, )66 ). -n v. ? H. 2re&, Biblica ,
.. (.9/+), /7/I/9+.
*+ A. 05.6 5 l { l i # %f. 05.0 5
i , and *+ 5 i . -n the antithesis li n. .+ .
In the ;T , however, the uniTueness of ?esus is not established b& s!e%ulations on 7is
meta!h&si%al essen%e. It is manifested b& 7is uniTue histori%al !osition. 7is wor: is the
%entral !oint of all o%%urren%e. ,ll !revious histor& moves !ositivel& or negativel& to the
, <l. /5.6 # A. 05.) . 7e brings it to a %on%lusion and a new beginning5 c
l c

q { i,
i c i {
i l c { iq { i {, 7b.
.+5..I.) ( , , I, /6. ). 7e gives future histor& its dire%tion and goal, for 7e
has introdu%ed the new as the -ne for all5 l c l
. c , l {, * >. 05.) f. In
?n., too, we read that the l had to die for 7is !eo!le, and not for 7is !eo!le
alone.
*.
8ateriall&, indeed, the !rin%i!le of the -ne for all is to be found in the !rimitive
%onfession whi%h underlies . >. .05/ . It is ever&where !lain that the fa%t of ?esus is not $ust a
!arti%ular event of the !ast whi%h graduall& loses its signifi%an%e. ;or is it a mere eBam!le or
illustration of an eternal law of life whi%h has a su!ratem!oral meaning. This l is trul&
singular, and &et it is the !oint at whi%h all the lines of histor& interse%t. It stands at the heart
of histor&. 7en%e this l is both uniTue and allDde%isive.
b. The destin& of the ra%e was on%e de%ided on%e and for all in ,dam. 9imilarl& in the
>hrist event the destin& of the new humanit& is determined in copendio (Irenaeus).
im!lies the unit& of the !eo!le of <od5 l
, <l. /5*6 . In A. .*50 2aul des%ribes the same situation as follows5 l
c .
**
It is in this histori%al and in no wa& m&sti%al
sense that 2aul %alls the 4ord the . >hrist is first the q q
i . ,ll dominion %omes from 7im and finds in 7im its %limaB, >ol. *5.+ . 7e is
then and su!remel& the to whi%h the i as is sub$e%t.
*/
,ll the
growth of the >hur%h has its origin in >hrist, { q
, >ol. *5.9 .
The eBisten%e and realit& of the >hur%h derive onl& from the histori%al fa%t of ?esus. Its
%ommon %entre is in the pneua 5 { { c ( .
>. .*5) , %f. v. 9 , .. ). 2ledges of its %ontinued life are found in the sa%ramental fellowshi!, in
whi%h ea%h individual a%Tuires a share in one and same living realit& en%losed in >hrist5 l
, c l i l .
*)
2aul %ontinuall& returns to the image of the to bring out the organi% unit& of the
%ommunit& in all the diversit& of its gifts and tas:s5 6 ( A. .*5) # %f.
. >. .*5.* ff. ). The >hur%h is a fellowshi! with a %ommon destin& standing under the
. 1a%h must inter%ede for and suffer with the others. ,ll stand or fall with the one5 l {
c , ( . >. .*5*6 # %f. <l. 65* # . >. )56 ).
This thought is !arti%ularl& !ursued and wor:ed out in 1!hesians. The unit& of histor& is
attained again onl& in >hrist. -nl& in 7im %an the histor& of salvation be%ome universal
histor&. For >hrist has destro&ed the old order of salvation, ig
l c { g ( 1!h. *5.)
f. ). 9in%e, however, the >hur%h is to bring unit& to men, its own unit& is a !aramount
%onsideration and it must remember the %entral guarantees of unit&5 c c
{ l , i i, c l q (
1!h. )5) ff. ).
*. ?n. ..50+ , 0* # .65.) . >f. ,!. 1srae (Tis%hendorf), !. *05 { i q ,
q l 6 .
** >f. >ol. /5.0 5 6 .
*/ >ol. .5.6 5 %f. the thoroughl& hierar%hi%al sa&ing in . >. ..5/ 5 q { q
. The two motifs are %on$oined in 1!h. 05*/ .
*) . >. .+5.7 # %f. .*5.*f .# also 3id. , 9, )# Ign.1!h. , *+. *.
There is a !arti%ular interest in unit& in ?ohnOs <os!el. The -ne died for the man&5 {
g l c ( ..50* ). ,ll !revious
distin%tions between men and nations are erased and a new grou!ing arises with a%%e!tan%e or
re$e%tion of >hrist. -n the one side are the %hildren of !erdition who must !erish in hatred and
unbelief.
*0
-n the other side we have the i i gathered around the one 9he!herd.
*6

>hrist 7imself stands in unit& with the Father and draws 7is own into the new fellowshi!,
6 l c ( ?n. .75*/ # %f. .75.. , *.f .).
@e thus see that >hrist is %onstantl& de!i%ted as the startingD!oint and %entre of the new
fellowshi!. 7e is this in virtue of 7is hierar%hi%al !osition as the 8ediator. This is !arti%ularl&
%lear in 1!h. and ?n. This !osition, however, is based on the histori%al wor: whi%h 7e has
a%%om!lished. This is the !resu!!osition. The total view is thus as follows. @ithin a world whi%h
stands under the sign of the fall, or whi%h now de%ides for this sign in a new fall, there is built u!
under the sign of the %ross the one %ommunit& of the one 4ord. The >hur%h is the new humanit&
whose author is >hrist. It is the ( 1!h. *5.0 ). The new situation of the
world %reated b& the uniTue >hrist event is a !ositive realit& in this aeon onl& in the form of the
>hur%h. 4i:e ever& divine realit&, however, it is attained in the >hur%h onl& to the degree that the
>hur%h ta:es this realit& seriousl& in faith, thought and a%tion. Thus 1!h. demands the of
faith,
*7
?n. the fellowshi! of love ( ) and 2hil. the invin%ible fellowshi! of %onfli%t5
, g ( 2hil. .5*7 # %f. *5*ff .# A. .*56 ).
7en%e the most signifi%ant thing whi%h ,%. %an sa& of the >hur%h in its earl& develo!ment is5
c q i q i ( )5/* # %f. *5)* , )6 et%.).
%. This unit& of the >hur%h does not im!l& uniformit&. It is organi% unit&. @ithin it there are
differen%es between the ri%h and the !oor,
*6
freemen and slaves.
*9
These are trans%ended but not
removed. 8en and women are both members of this organism, but in their own wa&.
/+
It is
!re%isel& in the >hur%h that the distin%tion of seBes a%Tuires its final seriousness from the
biologi%al and !ra%ti%al stand!oint. @oman is to be silent in the >hur%h, not be%ause she has no
gifts or is !erha!s too eloTuent, but sim!l& be%ause she is woman ( . >. .)5/) f. ). The
sub$e%tion" of woman to man is established rather than overthrown in the >hur%h.
/.
-ther
differen%es emerge in the >hur%h. For eBam!le, there is the differen%e between the strong and the
wea:, whi%h is not effa%ed but whi%h is to be ta:en ver& seriousl& in theolog& and ethi%s.
/*

Indeed, the pneua in whom the >hur%h has its unit& manifests 7imself in a ri%h !luralit& of
charisata 5 c c ( . >. .*5.. ff. ).
9imilarl&, national and histori%al differen%es are not erased but subsumed in the >hur%h.
//
2aul em!hati%all& %alls himself .
/)
7e wor:s and !ra&s c
( ) .
/0
7e be%omes a ?ew to ?ews to win them to
>hrist.
/6
@e see here neither the individualisti% and %osmo!olitan s!irit of late antiTuit& nor
*0 The&, too, %onstitute a united blo%:, v. Aev, .75.) , .7 # %f. ) 1sr. ./5/) 5 colligetur in unu , and 9. Har.
/650# )+5..
*6 ?n. .+5.6 # %f. ) 1sr. 657 5 solus eni es et una plasatio nos suus P also 9. Har. /+5*# 605.)# 9%hmone 1sre
, .6 ( 2al. re%., 9tr.DH. , I(, *.))5 Hless us all at all times."
*7 o%%urs twi%e in 1!h. ( )5/ , ./ ) but not elsewhere in the ;T , though it is %ommon in Ign. For its
se%ular use, %f. 1!i%ur. 1!., I, 0*.
*6 . >. .5*6 ff. # * >. 659 ff. # <l. *5.+ # ,%. 05) # 65. ff. It is in the light of this that we are to understand the
%ommunism" of the earl& >hur%h. For the !ostDa!ost. !eriod, %f. 7erm.s. , *, 0 ff.
*9 . >. 75.7 ff. # >ol. /5** ff. # 2hlm. .. ff. These give us the %lue to a %orre%t understanding of !assages li:e <l.
/5*6 # . >. .*5./ # >ol. /5.. .
/+ In <l. /5*6 q stand in unit& and distin%tion li:e and # in
. >. ..5.. both belong together iq .
/. . >. 75/6 ff. # ..5/ ff. # .)5/) f. # A. 75* .
/* . >. 657 ff. # 95** # .+5// # .*5** ff. # A. .)5. f. # %f. 7erm.s. , *, 0 ff.
// <l. /5*6 # 65.0 # . >. 75.7 ff. # .*5./ # A. .+5.* # >ol. /5.. .
/) <l. *5.0 # * >. ..5** # 2hil. /50 # %f. also A. ..5*)b .
/0 A. 95/ f. # %f. ..5.) 5 q .
/6 . >. 95*+ 5 i 6 . There is no q in analog&
to the following q , for 2aul is a ?ew b& ra%e, while in terms of salvation histor& he is
no longer under the Torah. ;or is there an& %ontinuation su%h as {, for 2aul %annot be a
the im!erialism of the ?udaism of ?erusalem. 2aul !assionatel& resisted ?udaisers who would
ground the unit& of the >hur%h in the unit& of >hristianit&, !ro%laiming the absolutism of this
>hristianit& instead of the absolutism of >hrist and thus ma:ing the %ross su!erfluous.
/7
In
the servi%e of the one <os!el he was read& to be to those Y and
to the .
/6
7e set himself and his message in the world of his hearers in
order to show both the offen%e and the fulfilment whi%h the %ross im!lied for this world. To
the theologi%al realism of the ?ew it was first an offen%e but then the !ower of <od. To the
!hiloso!hi%al meta!h&si%s of the <ree: it was first foolishness but then the wisdom of <od.
/9

2aul did this wor: in this wa& not merel& in dis%harge of the divine tas:
)+
but also on the
divine model.
).
7e saw how <od allowed both ?ews and <ree:s in their different wa&s to
%ome to an end of themselves in order to lead them to the goal of salvation.
)*
,%. understands
this tas: along the same lines as the a!ostle to the <entiles, and ma:es this %lear in the stor&
of 2ente%ost. -ne pneua fills the a!ostles and from this !oint the& !rea%h the one
in man& . The nations listen to the <os!el as it %omes to them in their own
tongue and either a%%e!t or re$e%t it.
)/
This means that earl& >hristianit& :nows onl& one
saving event, the %ross, and onl& one >hur%h. Hut this is neither a national >hur%h nor a
universal >hur%h# it is the >hur%h of the nations.
Stauffer
, , I, *** .
,!3 , 07 .
,!3 .
,)! .
- .
,! .
4 ! 6 , /*) .
)) , I, 0*7 .
!3 , 06 .
fellow %ountr&man to the <ree:s as he is to the ?ews. Thus in 95*+b and *. he s!ea:s in theologi%al terms,
whereas in *+a he s!ea:s in national %ategories, as also in <l. *5.0 # A. 95/ f ,# ..5.) , *)b # >ol. /5.. 5 ,
, 2 .
/7 <l. *5*I*. 5 . The soD%alled a!ostoli% de%ree ( ,%. .05*+ # *.5.0 )
shows some ?ewish !oints of st&le and was !erha!s the !rogramme whi%h the ?udaisers advan%ed at the
dis%ussion in <l. *59 , but were not then able to %arr& ( *56b ). If so, the ?udaisers !erha!s misre!resented the
result of the %onferen%e, allowing their !ro!osal to be !ro!agated as an authoritative de%ision of the %hur%h of
?erusalem. -n this view its !la%e in ,%. %ould be a%%ounted for b& the fa%t that the author ma:es %onsiderable
use of traditions from ?erusalem.
/6 . >. 95*+ f. It is in this light that we are to understand a%%ounts li:e those in ,%. .65. ff. # *.5*) , in s!ite of F.
-verbe%:, ,g. (.67+), *0+, /76 ff. Fulfilment of the Torah does not bring salvation a%%. to <l. *5.6 . =et 2aul
does not sa& either that the Torah brings destru%tion or that its nonDobservan%e brings salvation. Fulfilment of the
Torah has been finall& done awa& as a means of salvation, hen%e q (with all good
899# omission of this !hrase is onl& for the sa:e of %on%ealing the antinomianism of 2aul and the tensions of the
earl& >hur%h). Hut observan%e of the Torah %an still be im!ortant for 2aul as a means of missionk
, . This is the !ossibilit&, the tas:, whi%h -verbe%:
overloo:s.
/9 . >. .5** ff. -n the bearing of the <os!el on the ?ewish world, %f. A. .+5) # /5/. # also ,%. ./5.) # .65) ff. #
*65./ ff. , and for its bearing on the 7ellenisti% world, %f. >ol. *56 ff. # . >. .05.* , /0 # and with some
reservations ,%. .75** ff. , /* .
)+ . >. 95.6 f. , */ .
). The goal in . >. 95** ( 6) is also stated in A. ..5.) 5 6
q 6 . This method of is, however, !rese%ribed for
the a!ostle b& the word and will and a%tion of <od, A. .+5.9 # ..5.. .
)* The end of natural theolog& and ethi%s, the end of nomisti% theolog& and ethi%s, the end of human resour%es,
and the saving a%t of <odkthis is how 2aul develo!s the wa&s of <od with both <ree:s and ?ews in A. .I/ .
)/ ,%. *5.. f. 5 q 6
kk li .
! q , 6/ .
!, ,
!%
*

, whi%h b& assimilation to a%Tuires es!. the sense of to avenge," to
!unish" ( b.), is, li:e , develo!ed in this dire%tion onl& in later <:. , for the
Ftesias fragment in ,thenaeus ( ))/ ) is no guarantee of the a%tual wording of Ftesias (0v)
%ent. H.>. ).
The
b
ibl. usage develo!s under the influen%e of the idea of the absolute holiness of blood
among the ?ews. Thus in the 4''
.
is often used in the s!e%ifi% sense of revenge for
VNS and rNi sometimes, es!. in 1E., for iPQ less freTuentl& for L`M hi!h and PQ Mr . a. ,bsol.
we find it in the !ass. to be !unished," 36:28 4ow. 1g&!t. teBt, *./O,
>
&r. ,leB.5
# 9ir. .*56 # */5*. # ?os.,nt. , ),*77 # 6, /+7 # also to be avenged"5 <n. )5*) (%f.
v. .0 ) of >ain5 i ( VNS ho!h)# ?os.,nt. , 7, *60 . b. The %ause of
!unishment, or o%%asion of revenge, is in the a%%.
*
5 Ftesias Fr. , /7 (>. 8Gller, .6)), !.
6/, ..). 5 2lut.
,
nton. , 67 (I, 9)7b)# ?os.,nt. , 7, /66 et%. l,
5 3itt. 9&ll.
/
, ..6., ..# the !ra&er for revenge of Aheneia (*ndv.st %ent. H.>. )
/
# 4
B. :7 5 )sNS(
, for to avenge blood on her and to liberate from her hands" ( e. and ))) ),
%f. ?os.,nt. , 9, .+6 . In the 4'' %f. also ?l. /5*. , (H5 ), i,
i, i # ,m. /5* , .) )rNi( # ?os.,nt. , .0, .06 . %. The !erson avenged is
also in the a%%. (rarel& the dat. )5 1 B. 24:13 5 )iPw ( # 2. -B&. , (I, 9/7, 7 (/rd %ent. ,.3.
)5 . , # 2lut. ,gidis et >leomenis %um <ra%%his
>om!aratio , 0 (I, 6)0e)# . 8a%%. 65** . 5 ?os.,nt. , .*, *6) . q 5 ,nt. , .6,
//0 . 5 ,nt. , *+, ..6 . 3at. ?os.,nt. , .6, /)7 5 , !ersonified.
T
est. 9ol.
*+5*5 . d. The !erson !unished is normall& in the a%%. , ver& rarel& the dat. q, ,
5 * 8a%%. 65.0 # ?dt. 65*7 # Is. 075.6 )L`M( # 9ir. 05/ . 1nemies5 1 B. 14:24 # .65*0 ( VNS ).
;a. .5* ( VNS )# 9ir. )65. ( * ). , !eo!le, a distri%t, the earth5 ?er. *05.* ( MNi )# -b. *. ( iPQ )#
?dt. .5.* # *5. . 3at. ?u. .65*6 , ( %. ) . e. The !erson to be !unished ma&
also be lin:ed with b& or i , less freTuentl& or . 5 ;u. /.5* ( f. )#
4 B. :7 ( VNS b. ). i 5 ,m. /5* , .) ( rNi ) 7os. *5./ ( *5.0 )# )59 ( rNi )# . 23:2
( rNi #( *75.0 ) VNS #( *65)) ) rNi )# 5 ?er. 059 ( VNS ,( *9 . 5 ?os.,nt. , 6, /+/ . l 5
1E. *05.* ( %. ). f. @e often find (q) i or i with the gen.
of the !erson or %ause for whi%h revenge is ta:en. Ksuall& the underl&ing 7eb. is the formula VNf Sd
csd Nd SZ et%. ;u. /.5* # ?u. .65*6 ,# 1E. *05.* # %f. . 8a%%. *567 # 95)* . i with the
gen. is found in 4v. *65*0 5 to ta:e vengean%e for the brea:ing of a %ovenant. >f. also 1E. .65/6 #
*+5) ( ied PZQ sa if PdQ )# similarl& */5)0 ( )5 to $udge or !ronoun%e
senten%e," !unishment with a wholl& negative result being intended. The use in 1E., however,
C . ,nE 9ubsidia, /6)# ;lgeli, //# 8oult.D8ill. , .9*# 2reisig:e @Jrt. , ))*.
bibl. bibli%al.
. ,gainst >r.DFJ. , /)+ it ma& be !ointed out that is not attested in the 4''. In 4v. .95.6 # 3t. /*5)/
is the fut. of , %f. 7elbing, 66# Tha%:era&, I, **9. 9imilarl& in ?dt. ..5.+ . -n the other
hand in * 8a%%. 65.0 %an hardl& be a fut. in view of . In . 8a%%. 95*6 i is a !oorer reading
than i ( - a%%. to 7elbing, ..., Tha%:era&, *)*, %f. , m -g (n). -n et%. %f. in the
;T et%. ( Hl.D3ebr. y 9+).
>&r. >&ril of ?erusalem (%. /.0I/66 ,.3. ), ed. in 82<, // (.607).
* -n the %ase with %f. A. 7elbing, 4asuss'nta: der Verba bei den )QQ (.9*6), /7 f. >f. Hl.D3ebr. y
.0. for the alternation of a%%. and dat. >f., too, the %lass. () i , to hel!," and the man&
%onstru%tions of and m3ebrunnern.
,nton. De #ntonio .
/ 3eissmann 4- , /0) ff.
Test. 9ol. "estaent of Soloon .
a!!roBimates to that of the !a!. , sin%e the thought of vengean%e is re!la%ed b& that of $udi%ial
!ro%ess.
The varied use in the !a!. reveals a more !ositive %on%e!tion lin:ed to the $uridi%al eBer%ise of
i . The referen%e is alwa&s to legal a%tion. Thus means to de%ide a %ase"5 2. -B&.
,(II, .+*+,6 (*ndv/rd %ent. ,.3. )#
)
to %ontest at law"5 <:. 2a!. of the 4ib. of 9trassburg (ed.
2reisig:e, .9+6 ff.), 79, 7 (.st %ent. H.>. ). The sense of to bring someone to $udgment" (
supra on 1E.) is later5 2. <en. , )7, .7 ()th %ent. ,.3. ).
0
The %ommonest use in the !a!. ,
%om!arable with 4:. .65/ , 0 # A. .*5.9 , is for to fight, to defend, or to !lead someoneOs %ause,"
with an a%%. of !erson or ob$e%t5 <:. 2a!. of the 4ib. of 9trassburg, )., 9 (/rd %ent. ,.3. )5
q q # 2. ,mh. , ./), .+ (*nd %ent. ,.3. )5 q
.
6
4ater in the !a!. often means to hel! someone to $usti%e."
7

In the ;T o%%urs 6 times. .. ( b. ) * >. .+56 5 iq
q 5 the a!ostles are read& to !unish all disobedien%e in the
%am!aign against the fortified strongholds of the enem&. -n the other hand, Aev. 65.+ 5 c
, O , i l , and .95* 5 i
l , follow the 4'' !attern with the meaning of revenge. Hoth
!assages %ome under e. in view of the %ontinuation q q
or q . Aev. .95* is analogous to 4 B. :7 ( b. ).
*. ( %. ) A. .*5.9 5 q , does not mean do not !ro%ure
$usti%e for &ourselves" but avenge not &ourselves," for the divine $udgment to whi%h we
&ield re!la%es revenge.
/. ( supra ). -n the other hand 4:. .65/ 5 i i (
i , I, /70 ) refers to the $usti%e of the $udge, k is more %ommonkbeing a
!regnant %onstru%tion eB!ressing the element of liberation (though %f. also i d.5
i , ?u. ..5/6 ). In 4:. .650 is used in the same
sense with the a%%. of !erson.
It is worth noting that Aev. is %losest to the -T usage (to ta:e vengean%e"), whereas 4:.
the 7ellenist, a!art from an e%ho of the 4'' in , follows the ordinar& forensi% usage of
the time. 2aul, too, is more strongl& influen%ed b& the -T .
%
*

first means a. O (UU ) i 6 , i.e., he who b& an offen%e !la%es
himself outside the limits of the law." Thus , - , means %ontrar& to the law,"
unrighteous." -f !ersons, 9o!h.-ed. >ol. , 9*+5 i . ;eut., ,es%h.2rom. ,
.+9/5 # 1ur.
7
el. , .6/65 ( o!!. ). b. The main sense of
and deriv., however, is given b& assimilation to . This is made u! of and ,
and does not derive from , though does5 I am outside the right."
means I de%ide a legal !ro%ess," I avenge." The in 1ur.9u!!l. , ..0* is the
avenger." H& assimilation thus %omes to have the sense of avenger" rather than
outlaw," and of to avenge" rather than to be without law." Hoth %hanges seem to be
) 8oult.D8ill. , .9*.
0 The other eBam!les of this usage ( 2reisig:e @Jrt. , s.v. ) also %ome from the )th %ent. @e ma& ignore the
senses to ma:e a legal %laim on" ( 4iddellD9%ott , s.v. ), %f. 2. A&l. , II, 9), .* (.)I/7 ,.3. )# to defend legal
%laims" ( 8oult.D8ill. , s.v. )# to raise a %om!laint" ( 2. 4i!s. , //, >ol. II, .0, )th %ent. ,.3. ). These are all
%onne%ted with the lawD%ourts.
6 2a!. D,nal&ses5 8oult.D8ill. , .9* f. Ins%r.5 4iddellD9%ott , s.v.
7 >f. the instan%es from the /rdI6th %ent. in 2reisig:e @Jrt. , s.v. is %ommon on ins%r. for the
$udge"# %f. ;lgeli, //. -n ( Ign. -rig. , 1us. ), %f. 2r.DHauer , s.v.
C . ;lgeli, //# 8oult.D8ill. , .9/# 8illigan on . Th. )56 # -. <radenwitE, &in<fhrung in die
Pap'ruskunde , I (.9++), .6+# 8itteisD@il%:en , I, ., 6+f.# II, ., /.# -. 9ee%: in 2aul&D@. , I( (.9+.), */66 ff.#
4. 8itteis, /eichsrecht (.69.), .67ff.# 2reisig:e Fa%hwJrter , s.v. # @Jrt., III, 6, s.v. does not o%%ur in
2hilo.
7el. (elena .
7ellenisti%. Thus as an ad$. means su!!orting, defending, ovenging the right" in
Hatra%hom&oma%hia, 97 (ed. T.@. ,llen, 7omeri -!era)5 , and as a
noun the avenger" who eBe%utes a $udi%ial senten%e. 2lut. 3e <arrulitate , .) (II, 0+9 f.)5 l
# 7erodian , (II, ), 05 # II, .), 65
Hi . 9o also in the 4''5 8:8 2 5 for ( VN] S_ )
, of <od# 9ir. /+56 5 i
, the d&ing father in his %hild# ) 8a%%. .05*9 5 6 ,
. In ?os.Hell. , 0, /77 , too, <od is i (!reviousl& ).
Hut ?os. also uses 5 ,nt. , .7, *)* of ,nti!ater (%f. 4'' 8:2 5
). %. 4egal offi%er." This use is earl&, %f.
I
ns%r. 8agn. , 9/ (*nd %ent.
H.>. ). >i%ero
F
am. , 'III, 06, . uses the borrowed word ecdici with legati . 2lin. 1!., ', ..+, .5
ecdicus #isenoru civitatis . 3itt. -r. , )06, 6)# 3itt. 9&ll.
/
, II, 679, .6 et%. d. ,dvo%ate" or
legal adviser"ka %ommon use in the ins%r. and !a!. 2. -B&. , II, *6., .) (00 ,.3. )# II, */7, >ol.
(II, /9 (.66 ,.3. )# H<K , I, ./6, ) (*nd. %ent. ,.3. )# later
2
. 4i!s. , /6, .7 ()th %ent. ,.3. ). e. In
the H&Eant. !eriod the q is the defensor civitatis or plebis who is a!!ointed
to !rote%t the huiliores and who is normall& a %ivi% offi%ial, 1g&!t ( 2. -B&. , ., 6, 9+.) as earl&
as //6 ,.3. 2. -B&. , (I, 9+*, . and .+ ()60 ,.3. ) (in 8itteisD@il%:en , II, *, 7*).
.

In the ;T is found onl& as a noun in sense b. It is said of <od in . Th. )56 5
5 fraud and similar sins, whi%h are the o!!osite
of , will %ause the , as an avenger, to intervene either now or in the final
$udgment. It is used of the authorities in A. ./5) 5 ,
l q . Their !osition as avenger, as eBe%utor ( vinde: )
of divine $udgment, is here insisted u!on in o!!osition to revolutionar& tenden%ies in the
Aoman >hur%h.
.
a. i , revenge," !unishment," retribution," is !redominantl& a 9e!tuagint term.
This de%ides the ;T usage. The 4'' uses it for the following words5 Yhf Wf^_Ye , VNd Sd , csd Nd SZ ,
credN ieZ , V`a idPZQ . @e also find the !lur. in 8i. 75) # 1E. .65). # *05.7 . , %ommon eB!ression is
q or # for V^_` or credN ieZ Yq] or csd Nd SZ et%. 3t. /*5/0 5 qq
6 in a free translation ( 8as. ))6 )# 7os. 957 # . 26:10 , *. #
*75/.#
.
*656 # *65.+ # 9ir. 057 ( 9 ). ?ose!hus has onl& i , not i . 7e uses it es!.
for blood revenge. @e find i for a guest and friend in ,nt. , ., *+6 # .9, *+ # for a brother
in ,nt. , *, .+7 # %f. ./7# ./, .9# for all who have been overthrown, murdered or o!!ressed in .7,
*9. # Hell. , *, */7 # ,nt. , 7, *9) # %f. also ,nt. , *+, .*6 , alwa&s in the sense of this hol& dut& of
blood revenge or the overhanging threat of divine retribution. In the !a!. i is used for
!unishment"5 2. 8as!. , 97, verso 3, 0. (6th %ent. ,.3. )# defen%e" ( 2. 4ond. , (, .67), .+*,
6th %ent. ,.3. ). 7ere we again have a $udi%ial use ( , ))/ ).
*
The !erson on whom
revenge is ta:en or !unishment eBe%uted is in the gen. ( 57:10 , VNd Sd # 1E. 95. , Y^_reN ieZ # 9ir.
75.7 # ?dt. 65/0 # 95* ), or with , %. gen. ( ?er. ..5*+ , csd Nd SZ ) or with i %. a%%. ( 1E. *05.) , .7
). %. The !erson or %ause on whose behalf revenge is ta:en is also in the gen. This is alwa&s so in
?os. ( supra ). For ;u. /.5* # . 8a%%. *567 # 95)* and the formula q i ,
, ))/ . >f. also 78:10 5 q i ( csd Nd SZ ). d.
Ins%r. 8agn. .nscriptions of 3agnesia on the 3eander , ed. -. Fern, .9++.
Fam. #d 9ailiares .
2. 4i!s. Griechische 8rkunden der Pap'russalung -u )eip-ig , ed. 4. 8itteis, .9+6.
. The %hange of meaning in the %ase of is ver& strange. 2erha!s there are here two distin%t
%onstru%tions5 .. ,tti%5 standing outside the law"# and *. Ioni%5 standing outside the $udi%ial !ro%ess," i.e., as
the re!resentative of one of the !arties m3ebrunnern.
. >f. H7F/ , ad loc.
* , 3itt. 9&ll.
/
06/, .) UU 1. 9%hw&Eer, Dialectoru Graec. &:epla (.9*/), /67, .) (*+.
H.>. , aetol.), %omes from i (%f. 4iddellD9%ott ), not i (;lgeli, //) m3ebrunnern.
ii . @hile in 2ol&b. , III, 6, .+5 q i we have the
sense of to ma:e retribution," and in
>
I< , II, *6*6, .05 i i , the
meaning is to demand this from someone, the 4'' uses this eB!ression in the sense of to !ro%ure
revenge," for csd Nd SZ cPdw qd , et%., %f. Test. 9ol. **5) (8%>own !. 60)5 q i
q , of the eBe%ution of !unishment. In the 4'' the !erson on whom
revenge is ta:en is usuall& denoted b& 14:7 ( csd Nd SZ )# 8i. 05.0 ( VNd Sd )# 1E. .65). ( cPdw qd
V`a idPZQ #( *05.7 ) Y^_sNd SZ #( . 8a%%. /5.0 et%. -%%asionall& we have , ?u. ..5/6 ( Y^_sNd SZ )#
%f. ?os.,nt. , 6, *.. 5 q i i # rarel& also l 5 1E. *0 , .. ( V`a id PZQ ).
e. i or 5 1E. *05.) # *05.7 # 2 B. 22:48 (UU 17:47 ),
alwa&s for csd Nd SZ tYf Sd . The !erson !unished ma& be in the gen.5 2 B. 4:8 ( Y^_sNd SZ ), but we
never have the dat. as elsewhere (%f. * Th. .56 # infra ), though this is used with 5
;u. /.5/ ( c^d_c`Z Ysf NZ Sa YY] \d )5 9ir. .*56 , and with i 5 9ir. /*5*/ .
In the ;T , too, i means .. ( a. ) revenge," threat," !unishment," usuall&
the last. There is a $udi%ial eBam!le, together with i , in * >. 75.. .
/
-n the other
hand, when 3t. /*5/0 is Tuoted in A. .*5.9 # 7b. .+5/+ 5 i, 6
6 kthere is a rather sur!rising agreement against the 4'' ( ))0 ),kthe
divine retribution is denoted.
In both %ases the Tuotation follows the 8as. %losel& ( V\e]PaQ ^Z VNd Sd `\a ), and also Tg. -.
)
@e
also find the !ro!heti% q in the !lur. in 4:. *.5** , where it refers to the 4ast
?udgment as the da&s of divine retribution.
*. ( b. ) . 2t. *5.) 5 q l l
i means that the magistrates are sent to !unish evildoers.
/. ( d. ) 4:. .657 f. twi%e has q i , using the gen., whi%h is rare
with this eB!ression. 2ossibl& 4:. had in view the use of q i (
, ))/ ). ,s %on%erns the meaning, it is again ( ) less influen%ed b& the
4'' than b& ordinar& 7ellenisti% usage5 <od will vindi%ate 7is ele%t in the sense of
retribution ( d. ). -n the other hand, ,%. 75*) 5 i i
q , is %loser to the 4'' (to !ro%ure revenge"), this a!!roBimation to -T
usage %orres!onding better to the st&le of 9te!henOs address.
). ( e. ) * Th. .56 5 i q l , should be
rendered5 to eBe%ute revenge." In this !assage the dat. is used for the !erson !unished
be%ause there is free referen%e to Is. 665.0 5 i , and this
formula ta:es the dat. ( e. ).
Schrenk
, /.6 .
! .
( i .
!
*

>I< 1orpus .nscriptionu Graecaru , .6*6 ff.
/ >f. @nd. * F. , */0.
) 9tr.DH. , III, /++, %f. 4tEm. A. , .+6# Agg. 7b. , //+. 7. (ollmer, #t.liche 1itate bei Pls . (.690), /+ ff.,
suggests as a basis a <:. transl. not identi%al with the 4''# Agg suggests Theodotion.
C . ,. Aahlfs. ber TheodotionsD4esarten im ;T und ,TuilaD4esarten bei ?ustin ," in g;@ , *+
(.9*.), .6*k.99.
To !ut out" (the e&es), ,ristot.
7
ist. ,n. , II, .7, !. 0+6b, 6# to !ier%e" with a lan%e or sword,
and thus to :ill"5 2ol&b. , 0, 06, .*# .0, //, )# *), 7, 6#
2
ol&aen.
9
trat. , (, /, 6# 4'' ;u. **5*9 #
?u. 950) # . >h. .+5) et%. -ften the :ind of death fades from view, %f. ?os. .65.+ 5
c # also * 8a%%. .*56 , so that in
44:10 %an mean severel& wounded," and in 4am. )59 smitten." The 7eb. eTuivalent is
tq !u in Is. .)5.9 , \Mc Tal in ;u. **5*9 , otherwise MNr Tal and !u. ,s ma& be seen from ;u.
*056 , MNf red %an also be translated .
In the ;T the term o%%urs onl& in two !assages, both based on ge%h. .*5.+ ( .* ).
.. ?n. .95/7 5 q l . The
basis here is the obs%ure 7eb. of ge%h. .*5.+ 5 ^eMNd red MPXQ [b Y[b `\f[] ^e`Lea ca ^Z the& shall loo: on
{ him whom the& have !ier%ed. A, 2 and O (!robabl& assuming MPXQ [b `\][z ) ta:e this Tuite
literall&. 2 has instead of . Hut ?n. is not de!endent on these,
as we %an see from his use of instead of the of the translations. The
4'' has5 ,

, whi%h !resu!!oses
MNf Md instead of MNf red . ,s ?n. understands it, this verse is torn from its immediate histori%al
%onteBt, in whi%h it !ossibl& referred to -nias III, and is treated as a !ro!he%& whi%h !ro%laimed
the %om!leted realit& of the death foreordained for >hrist."
.
The -T !ro!he%& of the !ier%ing of
the onl& 9on and Firstborn is fulfilled when the s!ear is thrust into the dead bod& of ?esus. For ?n.
the l denotes the !lunging of the s!ear into the side, and it is not, therefore,
to be ta:en with , whi%h is intrinsi%all& !ossible.
*

*. In ?n. there is onl& a fragmentar& a!!li%ation of ge%h. .*5.+ %om!ared with what we
find in Aev. .57 5 ,
, l
q q . 7ere ge%h. .*5.+ ( .* ) is lin:ed with the earl& >hristian eB!e%tation of
the return of >hrist. The -ne whom the inhabitants of ?erusalem will bewail as the Heloved
(4'') and Firstborn is the returning ?esus >hrist, who will be seen b& both ?ews and <entiles
as the -ne who was !ier%ed. 8ention of serves to em!hasise the fa%t that the
-ne !ut to death b& the world will be manifested at the last as the 4ord %on%erning whom the
world in tard& remorse and fear of $udgment (both indi%ated b& the )
/

will lament. >losel& related to Aev. .57 is 8t. *)5/+ 5
l 6 , l q
q l 6
q . The formulation (instead of
), and the referen%e to ge%h. in l q q , as
in Aev. .57 , show that there is a formal interrelationshi! between the two !assages. It is thus
!robable that the& are also related in %ontent, and that the returning, !ier%ed 4ord is here
!resented as the -ne who a!!ears with the sign of the 9on of 8an. In 3id. , .6, 6 the sign of
truth, of heavenl& de%laration, !re%edes the %oming of the 4ord on the %louds of heaven.
)

7ere the %ross seems to be se!arated from the returning 4ord. ,%%ording to 8t. *)5/+ there is
to be the shining of this sign in heaven, and the %oming 9on of 8an will then des%end. The
%ross and !ower and great glor&" belong together. In the 4ast 3a& the %ross whi%h the world
7ist. ,n. (istoria #nialiu .
2ol&aen. 2ol&aenus, of 8a%edonia, author of a %urious wor: on the arts of war dedi%ated in .6* ,.3. to 8ar%us
,urelius, ed. 1. @oelfflin, A. 9%hoell and F. 8elber, .667.
9trat. Strategica .
. 9%hl. ?. , /00.
* >f. ?ust.3ial. , .), 6# /*, *# ,!ol. , 0*, .*# as against Hau. ?. , ad loc.
/ >f. ?ust.,!ol. , 0*, .*# 3ial. , /*, *# 6),7 ()# ..6, ..
) >f. @. Housset, Der #ntichrist (.690), .0) ff.
set u! in se%ret will threaten the whole world o!enl& as the vi%torious sign of the 4ord of
glor& hastening ba%: to it.
The thought of Aev. .57 , with its free ada!tation of ge%h. .*5.+ , is of freTuent re%urren%e.
There is, !erha!s, a %loser a!!roBimation to ?n. .95/7 in Harn. , 7, 95 ,
q 6
# but %f. with Aev. .57 ?ust.
3
ial. , /*, *5 { , i
, i c g ,
c 6 l , l Y { >f.
also ?ust.
,
!ol. , 0*, .*# 3ial. , .), 6# 6), 75..6, ..
Schlier
) .
& .
)!, ), )& .
) .
.
6 .
.
i .
)&, ) .
! .

*

To s!it out"
.
ka vulgar koine word
*
whi%h o%%urs in the ;T onl& at <l. )5.) 5
Y g i c ,
O , O . It is not used here in
the meta!hori%al sense of to eB!ose," to des!ise," to re$e%t" et%.,
/
but Tuite literall& in the
sense of the an%ient gesture of s!itting out as a defen%e against si%:ness and other demoni%
threats. The <alatians resisted the tem!tation to see in 2aul someone demoni%all& !ossessed
be%ause of his si%:ness, but re%eived him as an angeli% manifestation, indeed, as >hrist ?esus
7imself.
In relation to ( despuere ) we have to distinguish between the gesture of s!itting
out or s!itting on, and the intention of either warding off the demoni%, misfortune or si%:ness, or
of healing b& means of s!ittle. The last two, of %ourse, are often related and even merge into one
another. There are several instan%es of the a!otro!ai% use, whi%h is here our onl& %on%ern.
)

2
laut
>a!tivi , 0)9, s!ea:s of a morbus Tui s!utatur, and 2lin& in
7
ist. ;at. , ', */, // of orbus despui
suetus , meaning e!ile!s&. In 7ist. ;at. , ''(III, ), 7 2lin& deals with the healing !ower of
3ial. Dialogus cu "r'phone 0udaeo .
,!ol. #pologia .
C . 4tEm. <l. , ad loc. # 9teinmann <l., .+/# 8. Fren:el, Beitr=ge (.69+), 67ff.# <. 9ittl, Die Geb=rden
der Griechen und /er (.69+), ..7ff.# ?. 3Jlger, Der &:or-isus i altchristlichen "aufritual (.9+9), ./0f.#
Die Sonne der Gerechtigkeit und der Sch2ar-e (.9.6), .+ff.
. 4iddellD9%ott , s.v.
* ;lgeli, 06.
/ 1.g., v. 7ofmann <l.
*
, .*9# 9ieffert <l.
7
, *7. f.,# 9%hlfer <l. (.69+), /.7# Hurton <l. (.9*.), *)*.
) -n the signifi%an%e of s!ittle in !rimitive belief %f. 8. 1bert, /ealle:ikon der Vorgeschichte (.9*) ff.), '(
(IndeB), ).. s.v. Speichel . >f. also (I, .9. -n the use of s!ittle in healing, %f. 8:. 75// # 65*/ # ?n. 956 # and 9tr.D
H. , II, .0I.7.
2laut T. 8a%%ius 2lautus, of 9arsina in Kmbria (%. *0.I.6) H.>. ), the most im!ortant Aoman %omi% dramatist,
ed. 8. 4indsa&, .9+) f.
7ist. ;at. !aturalis (istoria .
s!ittle# he in%identall& shows how greatl& the medi%inal use is lin:ed with and even grounded in
the a!otro!ai%. @e thus read among other things5 Despuius coitiales orbos6 hoc est contagia
regerius6 siili odo et fascinationes repercutius de:trae$ue clauditatis occursu. Venia
$uo$ue a deis spei alicuius audacioris petius in sinu spuendo. &ade ratione terna despuere
praedicatione in oni edicina os est at$ue ita effectus adiuvare6 incipientis furunculos ter
praesignare ieiuna saliva . The hoc est contagia regerius is a rationalisti% eB!lanation of
something whi%h was originall& magi%al. >f.
T
heo%r.
I
d&ll. , 7, .*0 f.5

i
i i, q # 2laut ,sinaria, I, l,
*0 f.# >atull., 0+, .6 ff. 9!itting in healing or at in%antations naturall& has also an a!otro!ai%
signifi%an%e. >f.
2
lin.7ist. ;at. , ''(I, 9, 69#
T
ibull. , I, *, 0/ f., where 3elia !ronoun%es an
ora%le three times and on ea%h o%%asion a%%om!anies it b& s!itting. Theo%r.Id&ll. , *, 6*5 The slave
is to s!read !oison on the threshold of the unfaithful lover
i # (arro 3e Ae Austi%a , I, *. To this defensive gesture against the
hostile atta%:s of gods or demons there also belongs spuere in sinu . >f. Theo!hr.
>
har. , .05
c l6 q i, i l { c
l6 q i, i l # 4u%. ,!ologia !ro 8er%ede >ondu%tis,
6. ,mong other defensive uses we should also number s!itting at someone, as 2lin& attests in 7ist.
;at. , ''(III, ), 75 { cur non et haec credaus rite fieri6 e:tranei interventu6 ant si doriens
spectetur infans6 a nutrice terna adspui in os. >f. also 4u%.
;
e%. , 7, where the magi%ian s!its three
times in the fa%e of his %lient. This is !art of his q .
T
&r. , .*5 {
i l , 6 .
This !agan gesture is often found in >hristianit&. It is true that in
8
art. 3asii , .+ (Fno!f
/
,
9))5 l q
, is used in the figurative sense of to des!ise," but earlier
in ) we see that behind this stands the realisti% ba%:ground of the ba!tismal %eremon&5 O
{
Y t
{ >f.
2
all.
7
ist. 4aus. , .05 (8ar:os)
iq iq i q6 ,
g # 1us.7ist. 1%%l. , ', ), .65 6 q { {
c l6 6 # Tertullian 3e Idolatria , ... 2robabl&
0

the oldest instan%e of the use of sputatio in ba!tism to drive off the devil is to be found in the
%hur%h order of the (erona !alim!sest !ublished b& 7auler. If so, the use goes ba%: to the /rd and
even the *nd %ent. 4ater the gesture is mentioned after the third ba!tismal eBor%ism in the
euchologiu of the orthodoB %atholi% >hur%h. 7ere the !riest sa&s to the %andidate5
.
Schlier
,
Theo%r. Theo%ritus, of 9&ra%use (born %. /+0 H.>. ), %elebrated 7ellenisti% !oet and master of bu%oli% !oetr& (the
id&ll), later at %ourt in ,leBandria under 2tolemaeus II 2hiladel!hus, ed. K. @ilamowitE in Bucolici Graeci ,
.9+0.
Id&ll. .d'llia .
2lin. >. 2linius 9e%undus, of >omum in K!!er Ital& (*/v)I79 ,.3. ), historian, natural s%ientist and geogra!her,
ed. 9. 8a&hoff, .670 ff.
Tibull. ,lbius Tibullus, Aoman !oet of the ,ugustan era, ed. @. 4ev&, .9*7.
>har. 1haracteres .
;e%. !ec'oantia .
T&r. 1ataplus sive "'rannus .
8art. 8. (alerius 8artialis, of 9!ain. the most famous 4atin e!igrammatist in the .st %entur& of im!erial Aome,
ed. @. 7eraeus, .9*0.
2all. 2alladius 7eleno!olitanus, of <alatia (/66I%. )/. ,.3. ), mon: and bisho! of 7eleno!olis, later of ,s!runa
(<alatia), %lose to -rigen in outloo:. 7e dedi%ated a %olle%tion of edif&ing biogra!hies of mon:s to a
%hamberlain 4ausos ( (istoria )ausiaca ), and was !ossibl& the author of a Vita 1hr'sostoi .
7ist. 4aus. (istoria )ausiaca , ed. 3.>. Huttler, .696 ff.
0 3Jlger, Die Sonne der Gerechtigkeit , .9 ff.
%
*

a. 4iterall& %hange of !la%e," ,ristot.,n. , I, /, !. )+6b, ./5 i i
#
7
i!!o%r. 3e ,rti%ulis , 065 fault& !osition of the thigh, b. Figur. renun%iation of
goods" ( cessio bonoru ), a te%hn. term in the !a!. ( H<K , III, 9.), 6# 2. -B&. , III, )7*, )/)# %.
Figur. degeneration"# Theo!hr. 3e >ausis 2lantarum , III, ., 65 q , es!.
%onfusion of s!irit," , 2lot. , (, /, 7 ( o!!. qi )# abs. 7i!!o%r. ,!horismi , (II, 0# in
astonishment or fear5 c 6 ,
8
enand. Fr. , .)9 ( >,F ,
III, )))# in env&, Test. 9. )56# alienation," , ,ristot.
>
at. , 6, !. .+a, .# not
alwa&s,
.
but often in the sense of almost %onvulsive, transitor& eB%itement5
l6 ,
T
est. A. /5.# trans!ort,"
>
ornut. 3e ;atura 3eorum , /+, %f. 2hilo1br. ,
.0 5 , q li . To the eBtent that the one
alienated or trans!orted is full of <od, or ins!ired, or gifted with !ower, it thus means d.
e%stas&." 2lato in 2haedr. , *))a s!ea:s of i, iq , and in *06b of
i i 2hilo distinguishes ) senses of 5 .. alienation (%f. 9!e%. 4eg. III, 99 ,
>her. , 69 )# *. astonishment and fear (Israel at 9inai)# /. !erfe%t rest, slee!, stu!or (,dam in <n.
*5*. , %f. 4eg. ,ll. II /. , 2lant. , .)7 )# and ). c i
(ins!iration) i, g q (,braham, <n. .05.* ),
( Aer. 3iv. 7er. , *06 , %f. *6) ). There is
originall& no idea of the soul being outside the bod& for a !eriod. This %omes in later, Aer. 3iv.
7er. , 69 . >f. 4eg. ,ll. III, )+ f.
In the -T we find onl& %. either in the sense of illusion" (onl& 3t. *65*6 , where
i UU LLd \] t^_csZ Yea ) or fear" or terror" ( crdMd hb , rhf ief , csd ^ecsZ , Mqf Pfw et%.), !artl& for
natural %auses ( <n. *75// # 1 B. 14:15a ), but !artl& at the numinous ( 30:22 # ..05. #
ge%h. .*5) # ?er. 05/+ # 1E. *65.6 5 *75/0 # /*5.+ # 3a. 75*6 # .+57 O )# often in the !hrase
i , 1 B. 11:7 # .)5.0b # * >h. .)5.) # .050 # .75.+ # *+5*9 # ge%h. .)5./ .
In <n. *5*. # .05.* , is used for csd re]MZ Yef , the dee! slee! sent b& =ahweh. ,t this !oint
the 4'' %hanges the sense of the original, im!orting its own theologi%al and anthro!ologi%al
!resu!!ositions. In ;u. ./5// ( /* ) is used for ce Ld rea when anBiet& is %aused b& the
C . For liter, u! to .9+6, v. A1, '', 066 f.# for more re%ent wor:s %f. A<<
*
, II, 90I97, also I(,
.0*9 ff. The most signifi%ant are @. 1i%hrodt, "heol. des #" , I (.9//), IndeB, s.v. 1:stase," es!. .6*ff., .77 ff.#
1. Fas%her, H (.9*7), IndeB, s.v. 1:stase"# >hant de la 9aussa&e, IndeB, s.v. 1:stase," 3lmonen,"
-ffenbarung," 9%hamanen" et%.# F. A. 4ehmann, 2ro!hetismus in d. 9Gdsee " ( 1hristentu und
Wissenschaft , .+ m.9/)n, 06ff.)# ?. @arne%:, Die /eligion der Batak (.9+9), 69ff., .+)ff.# T. >anaan,
D=onenglaube i )ande der Bibel (.9*9)# ?. Tambornino, 3e ,ntiTuorum 3aemonismo ," A(( , 7, /
(.9+9), es!. 6*ff.# 1. Aohde, Ps'che
9, .+
ed. -. @einrei%h (.9*0), es!. .)ff., 06 ff., 9)ff., /)9 ff.# 8ithr. 4iturg. #
F. 7eiler, Das Gebet
0
(.9*/), es!. *0* ff., *06 ff., *77 ff., /+) ff., /.6 ff., 0*) ( bibl. )# AeitEenstein 7ell. 8&st.
/
, es!. /// ff.# 7. 4eisegang, Der (eilige Geist (.9.9), .6/ff.# Pneua (agion (.9**)# 7. @indis%h, Die
9rigkeit Philos (.9+9), 6+ff.# HoussetD<ressm. , /9) ff., ))9 ff.# 2. (olE, Der Geist Gottes u. die
ver2andten &rscheinungen i #" u. i anschliessenden 0udentu (.9.+)# F. 7lussermann, Wortepfang u.
S'bol in der at.lichen Prophetie (.9/*)# 7. <un:el, Die Wirkungen des hl. Geistes nach der popul=ren
#nschauung der apost. Zeit u. nach d. )ehre des #postels Pls.
/
(.9+9)# 7. @einel, Die Wirkungen des Geistes u.
der Geister i nachapost. Zeitalter (.699)# F. HG%hsel, Der Geist Gottes i !" (.9*6), IndeB, s.v. 1:stase"# >.
9%hneider, Die &rlebnisechtheit der #pokalgpse des 0oh. (.9/+)# ?. 4ei!oldt, Dion'sos (.9/.)# @. F. -tto,
3ion&sos," 9rankfurter Studien -ur /elig. u. 4ultur der #ntike , ) (.9//), 96ff., .*)ff.# ?. ouasten, 3usik u.
Gesang in den 4ulten der heidnischen #ntike u. christlichen 9rh-eit (.9/+), 0.ff., 09, 7+. I, 7.9 ,
, , , , i , , , .
7i!!o%r. 7i!!o%rates, of >os (%. )6+ H.>. ), the founder of the s%ientifi% medi%ine of the <ree:s. The authenti%it&
of man& of the wor:s handed down under his name is dis!uted, ed. 1. 4ittrj, .6/9 ff.# ?. Ilberg and 7.
FGhlewein, .699 ff.# ?. 4. 7eiberg in 1orpus 3edicoru Graecoru , .9*7.
8enand. 8enander, of ,thens (/)/I*9+ H.>. ), re%ognised master of the new ,tti% %omed&, ed. T. Fo%: in
1oicoru #tticoru 9ragenta III, .666# >.,. ?ensen. .9*9.
>at. 1ategoriae .
. , !rosel&te desires i for the disturber of his sours rest ( 3itt. 9&ll.
/
, .*)+, .) f., %f. 3t.
*65*6 ), though as a lasting !unishment.
Test. A. "estaent of /euben .
>ornut. 4. ,nnaeus >ornutus, ot 4e!tis in ,fri%a, at the time of ;ero, who in his (ellenistic "heolog' gives us a
!i%ture of later 9toi% theolog& and allegor&, ed. ,. ;o%:, .9*6.
bad re!ort of the s!ies. The use of and the %orres!onding verb ( )09 ) shows that
the 4'' regards !s&%hologi%all& events and fa%ts whi%h the 8as. views from a ver& different
angle.
In the ;T we find %. in the sense of astonishment" or terror" at numinous revelations, 4:.
05*6 , s&non. , 8:. .656 # , ,%. /5.+ # g ,
8:. 05)* . @e also find d. in ,%. It is used of 2eter in .+5.+ 5
, and ..50 5 l , and of 2aul in **5.7 5 .
,lthough se%ondar& 7ellenisti% sour%es eBert no influen%e on the te%hni%al meaning of the
word in the -T , and onl& a wea: influen%e in the ;T , the im!ortan%e of the matter demands
a %loser eBamination of e%stas& in the narrower sense, of its nature and its theologi%al
signifi%an%e.
A. )cstas$ o#tside the NT.
.. The Foundations and 8ethodi%al 2rodu%tion of 1%stas&.
1B%e!tional states of soul attributed to su!ernatural %auses are wides!read throughout the
whole ra%e. The Tuestion whether we have here genuine %onta%ts with divine or demoni% !ower on
the one side, or neuroti% disturban%es and autosuggestion on the other, need not be regarded as
!osing flat alternatives. >ertainl& there ma& be illusion and de%e!tion. Hut even true eB!erien%e of
<od %annot be divor%ed from histori%al and !s&%hologi%al %onditioning, and &et it is not to be
dis%ounted for this reason. In e%stas& we have !ro%esses whi%h var& widel&, so that ea%h instan%e
must be treated on its own merits. Though the boundar& between e%stas& and illusion ma& seem to
us to be ver& tenuous, the same distin%tion, as also between e%stas& and !ossession, was made at
an earl& !eriod.
*
1%stas& in the narrower sense involves benefi%ial a!!rehension and infilling b&
a higher !ower whi%h ma& sometimes be eB!erien%ed as an im!ersonal substan%e and sometimes
as a !ersonal being. Indeed, the two ma& be %ombined, as when a god !uts man in a state of
e%stas&, not b& entering into him, but b& breathing u!on him.
,lread& in the earliest stages there are attem!ts to indu%e e%stas& b& nar%oti%s, musi% ( es!. b&
!er%ussion instruments), dan%ing, rh&thmi% %ries and selfDmutilation.
/
7igher forms of m&sti%ism
find the goal rather in an absor!tion asso%iated with visions and auditions. 7ere, too, we have the
develo!ment of a definite method whi%h rea%hes its %limaB in =oga, ;eoD2latonism and the
<erman 8&sti%s.
)

*. 1%stas& in the <ree: and 7ellenisti% @orld.
0

The <ree:, too, %lassifies illusion and e%stas& together ( from i ), though
without eTuating them (but %f. . >. .)5*/ ff. ). @e do not :now how earl& e%stati% !henomena are
amongst the <ree:s. 7istori%all& :nown forms are thought to have %ome from the -rient at the
ver& earliest in the 6th %ent. 8ore re%entl&, however, this has been %ontested in the %ase of
3ion&sus.
6
7e is :nown to 7omer.
7
Hut he does not fit into the -l&m!i% s&stem and therefore
he is largel& ignored in the %hivalrous e!i%. The ,nthesteria festival %ommon to the Ionians seems
to !rove that 3ion&sus was at home in the <:. world from at least the end of the se%ond
millennium. The lo%ation of his grave in 3el!hi seems to indi%ate a long tradition. @e thus %annot
assume a %ulti% union of two deities in whi%h ,!ollos sought his own advantage when threatened
b& a usur!er. @e are rather dealing with a basi% fa%tor in <:. religion. The distant -l&m!ian and
the god of frenE& %om!lement and see: out one another. Together the& %om!rehend the totalit& of
the world as the <:s. eB!erien%ed it.
* >anaan, op. cit. , )6 on the distin%tion, not alwa&s maintained, between a dRb and a nRn c .
/ 9o among the 9hamans, the dan%ing and howling dervishes. >f. also . F. .65*6 , *6 f.
) The stages of absor!tion are listed in 7eiler, /.* f.
0 In !art b& 7. Flein:ne%ht.
6 -tto, op. cit. , 0. ff. -n this view, 1ur.Ha. , ./ ff. is not a missionar& message but a %hara%terisation of the near
and distant god.
7 Il. , 6, ./+ ff.# **, )6.# .), /*0# -d. , *), 7/ ff.# .., /*0# though %f. K. v. @ilamowitED8oellendorff, Der
Glaube der (ellenen , II (.9/*), 6+ ff.
The divine human figure of the son of geus and 9emele %omes u! from !rimitive de!ths. It is
not %reated b& a rationalisation of the hunger for life, as the evolutionar& theor& maintains. It
arises from the !rofoundest sense of the boundlessness of being. In !art bewit%hingl& friendl&, in
!art untameabl& wild, the god lavishl& dis!enses his gifts even to the !oint of the wilful sa%rifi%e
of life. The women swarming around him %areful& nourish the wild beasts of the forest and then
tear in !ie%es the &oung deer and bears, if not their own %hildren. @ith the same un!aralleled
im!ressiveness 3ion&sus is the distant and hidden god on the one side, the near and manifested on
the other. 7e loves both noise and stillness. 7is s&mbol is the mas: with its em!hasis on !resen%e
and &et also its withdrawal from ob$e%tivit&. The !ortion of the god no less than his worshi!!ers is
drun:en desire, wild dan%ing, %reative
6
and !ro!heti%,
9
&et also sinister and destru%tive
.+

frenE&, e%stati% life and lifeDdestro&ing death. 7e eB!erien%es and suffers himself what he gives
and does to others. The !rofound image of this tragi% tension is the vine with its $ui%e whi%h both
%heers and liberates and &et also in%ites and bemuses. @ine, the aulos, hand%la!!ing,
..
dan%ing
and Ha%%hi% %ries are means of !rodu%ing e%stas&# but here alread& we have degeneration, an
imitative me%hanisation, rather than the true root. The basis lies in a religious eB!erien%e whi%h
%arries awa& in its greatness, whi%h terrifies and shatters b& its la%: of measure or goal.
1%stas&, li:e musi% and traged&, arises out of these de!ths %hara%terised finall& b& death. In its
3ion&sia% form it is eB!ressed su!remel& in the swarms of dan%ing women (maenads). 9everal
des%ri!tions %ombine to give us a %lear !i%ture.
.*
The wellD:nown de!i%tions in 1ur.Ha. , .*+ ff.,
66+I766, .+)/I..)7, give us the best %ommentar&. Ksing themes from fair&Dstories, the& give us
a vivid im!ression of the wa& in whi%h the world is bewit%hed for e%stati%s, and also of the wa& in
whi%h the& feel themselves trans!orted will&Dnill& into a union with nature whi%h is !artl& id&lli%
and !artl& wild. The transition to the !ro!heti% is given us in the words of Teiresias ( ibid. , *96
ff.)5
The god is also seer, for he doth bring us
Into a frenE& of selfDforgetfulness.
This gives us vision, and when the soul
7as wholl& absorbed the god into itself,
In de!ths of ra!ture it %an !ro!hes&.
./

In the 3el!hi% %ult, !erha!s with some %lever ada!tation to that of ,!ollo, we have the mass
e%stas& of the th&iads with their tor%h dan%es b& night through the wintr& lands%a!e of 2arnassus.
The manti% e%stas& of the individual, on the other hand, is embodied in the 2&thia who, on a threeD
legged seat, intoBi%ated b& s%ents arising from a vent in the earth, delivers her ambiguous ora%les
as delivered to her b& the in a language whi%h is onl& halfDunderstood. 7ere is the
o!!ortunit& for a good deal of !riestl& de%e!tion.
.)
The Aoman Ha%%hanalian rite (.66 H.>. )
offers a !i%ture of e%stas& whi%h %orres!onds eBa%tl&. The onl& thing is that the mas%uline element
seems to be more !rominent in this %ase. The im!ulse %ame from a less %ultured <ree: of 1truria
variousl& st&led sacrificulus and vates .
.0
In the nightl& gatherings men !ro!hesied li:e those
!ossessed, with wild %onvulsions of the bod&. @omen are also mentioned.
.6
It was thought that
6 -tto, .*) ff.
9 -tto, ./) ff.
.+ -tto, 96 ff.
.. 1ur.Ha. , .*+ ff., .0* ff.
.* >f. illustr. in 4ei!oldt, op. cit. , 2late 9# !hoto ,nderson, */, 7+9.
./ 2lut.ouaest. >onv. , (II, .+, * (II, 7.6b) uses this verse for a not ver& !rofound meditation on the theme in
vino veritas .
.) 4. H. 7olland, The 8anti% 8e%hanism at 3el!hi," #erican 0ournal of #rchaeolog' , /7 (.9//), *+. f.,
ma:es the li:el& suggestion that the threeDlegged seat of the 2&thia, the basis of whi%h has been found, originall&
%ontained the ora%le, also des%ribed as the bones of 3ion&sus or 2&thon, and that the grave of 3ion&sus was
identi%al with the redis%overed om!halos situated before the tri!od (%f. the illustr., also 7aas, ./v.)# Aum!f, .9).
It is !robable that the 2&thia herself manufa%tured the intoBi%ating s%ent in the ad&tum under the ora%le, burning
barle& meal, laurel leaves and hem! seed over a fire. This rose u! through a vent in the om!halos and was
breathed in. 4eisegangOs theor& that we have here a %on%e!tion s%ene ( Pneua (agion , /* ff.) is not in :ee!ing
with the a%tual de!i%tions (4ei!oldt, 2late III, 0th %ent. H.>. ). 9u%h ideas seem to have been im!orted later b&
those not so %onversant with the fa%ts and !re!ared to !ut a less favourable %onstru%tion on them.
.0 4iv. , /9, 6, /.
.6 4iv. , /9, ./, .*.
there were ra!tures to the gods, simulated b& ma%hiner& a%%ording to the rationalisti% eB!lanation
of 4iv&.
.7

9imilar wild e%stasies are also :nown in the ,ttis %ult,
.6
and to a lesser degree, lin:ed with
$ourne&s to 7ades, in the %ult of Isis.
.9
,!!arentl& un%onne%ted with an& s!e%ifi% m&steries, but
also with no more %ertain %onne%tion with !o!ular religion, we also find in <ree%e, !robabl& from
around the 6th %entur&, %ertain individual e%stati%s both male and female (Ha%ids and 9ib&ls).
*+

The individual names ma& !erha!s %on%eal names of t&!es. , !arti%ular tas: is the !ro!hes&ing of
disaster. From the ora%les %ommitted to writing there develo!s a varied form of literature whi%h no
longer has an&thing to do with genuine e%stas&, namel&, the 9ib&lline ora%les. These %ould be
%onsulted for !arti%ular !ur!oses, as we :now from Aome# and the& were later filled out
a!ologeti%all& in ?ewish and >hristian !seude!igra!ha.
In !hiloso!h&, too, e%stas& gained a footing. 7era%litus a%%e!ted what the 9ib&llines !ro%laim
with frenEied li!s.
*.
8&sti%al e%stas& has a se%ure !la%e in 2lato. 7e borrows from it in his
famous des%ri!tion of !oeti% ins!iration5
**
The !oet is an ethereal, easil& moved, sa%red being,
and not able to %om!ose,
g { { i ."
The idea that <od is in man ( , Iambl.8&st. , III, ..) alternates with that
of the i or ( 2lat.Tim. , 7.e). The a!!arent %ontradi%tion
was not felt in view of the more neutral %on%e!tion of and the more fluid and less !ersonal
view of god. To both ideas there %orres!onds a third, that of the tem!orar& se!aration of the soul
from the bod&. , !la%e must be found for the entering deit&. Hut the soul itself, liberated from the
bod&, %an also attain to vision. It ma& thus be a hindran%e to e%stas&, as the bod& alwa&s is. Hut it
ma& also be an organ.
3ifferent views follow in ra!id su%%ession in the 8ithras 4it. The i q
must give !la%e for a short time ( , 2reis. gaub. , I(, 0*/ f.). There
follows ra!ture with a view to the vision of <od, !rimaril& in the bod& divested of the weight of
earth ( ibid. , 0/6 ff.). =et %f. 7*0 f.5 c g g
. (>f. also * >. .*5* f. , i , I, 0*. ). The !ower of <od is m&sti%all& !ortra&ed
as the true being of man5 First be%oming of m& be%oming, first beginning of m& beginning, s!irit
of the s!irit, first of the s!irit in me" ()66 ff.). Hut it is also drawn in with the breath5 Hreathe in
the breath ( ) of the ra&s, drawing in three times to th& fullest eBtent" (0/7 ff.# %f. 6*6 f.5
c i { l ). It finall& %onfronts the e%stati% in
!ersonal and bodil& form (6/0 ff.# 690 ff.). >i%.
3
ivin. , I, 0+, ..)5 &rgo et ii6 $uoru anii spretis
corporibus evolant at$ue e:currunt foras6 ardore ali$uo inflaati at$ue incitati cernunt ills
profecto6 $uae vaticinantes pronuntiant6 ultis$ue rebus inflaantur tales anii6 $ui corporibus
non inhaerent6 ut ii6 $ui song $uoda vocu et Phr'giis cantibus e:citantur (%f. 0., ..0). >hr&s.
7om. in ,%. ''II, . ( 82< , 6+, .7*)5 i ; , i, i
6, , q . The word
, originall& understood of hol& frenE&, seems later to have ta:en on the sense of
ra!ture.
*/

9o far as we :now, 2hilo was the first to use the term in this te%hni%al sense. =et he did not
%oin the meaning.
*)
Aational and m&sti%alDe%stati% :nowledge are for him %om!lementar&, not
identi%al. Hut the em!hasis is on the latter. -n the basis of <n. .05.* he gives the following
!i%ture of e%stas& ( Aer. 3iv. 7er. , *6/ ff. )5 9o long as our rational thin:ing streams around,
!ouring midDda& light, as it were, into the whole soul, we remain alone and do not eB!erien%e an&
divine indwelling ( ) { For when the divine light dawns, the human sets (and
.7 4iv. , /9, ./, ./.
.6 >atull., 6/.
.9 ,!ul.8et. , 'I, 6# *.# *).
*+ 2aul&D@. , II (.696), *6+. f.# *nd series II (.9*/), *+76.
*. Fr. 9* (I, 96, 7 ff., 3iels ).
** Ion, 0/)bId.
3ivin. De Divinatione .
*/ >f. the word m&sti%ism, originall& derived from , to %lose the mouth," and later from , to
%lose the e&es." 7eiler, op. cit. , *)6 f.
*) This is !roved not onl& b& 2hiloOs artifi%ial %lassifi%ation ( )0+ ) but also b& the inde!endent use in 4:.
( )0+ ).
vice versa ) { The in us de!arts ( ) at the %oming of the divine s!irit, and
returns ( li ) at 7is de!arting. For it is a law that the mortal %annot dwell with
the immortal." , higher for%e %ontrols the tools of language (the e%stati% be%omes an
q, , Aer. 3iv. 7er. ,
*09 , %f. 66ff.# 4eg. ,ll. , III, )+ f. , )) , )6 , 6* , 6) # 1br. , .)6 ff. # -!. 8und. , 7. et%.).
In 7ellenism the e%stati% theolog& of revelation rea%hes a final %limaB in ;eoD2latonism. The
im!ortant statements are found in 2lot.1nn. , I(, 6, .# (I, 7, **# 9, ... 4i:e 2lutar%h, Iambli%hus
see:s to su!!ort the value of e%stas& and to eB!lain its nature on rational grounds, sometimes
almost materialisti%.
*0
The !oint is to tr& to do greater $usti%e to the human fa%tor and &et at the
same time to ensure %ontinued interest in e%stas&. Iambli%hus, too, %alls the e%stati% the
of deit& ( 8&st. , III, ..).
/. The 9ignifi%an%e of 1%stas& for -T Aeligion.
If we affirm e%stas& in 7ellenism, but ignore the analog& in the -T and ?ewish field, we bar
the wa& to a trul& histori%al understanding of original >hristianit&.
*6
The analog& must be seen as
su%h, though there are s!e%ifi% differen%es in detail.
The unusual and e%%entri% as!e%t forms the startingD!oint. 2athologi%al features are not
un%ommon ( ;u. *)5.0 ff. # 1E. /5*0 f. # )5) ff. ). The root [LS seems to have the original
sense of to s!ea: with frenE&." 2ro!hets are re!eatedl& des%ribed as mad ( * F. 95.. # ?er.
*95*6 # 7os. 957 ), and though this %omes from o!!onents we %annot fail to see the
%onne%tion.
In the -T , so far as we %an see, we have at the beginning the man of <od who dis!oses of
su!ernatural !ower, and the seer who is gifted with su!ernatural :nowledge, the latter being a
seer rather than an e%stati% ( ;u. *)5/ # . 9. *5*7 # 956 ff. # * 9. *)5.. # . F. ./5. # .75.6 # * F.
)57 et%.). 7e %an !ass on his gifts et%. to others ( * F. 65.0 ff. ). There are also true e%stati%s
li:e 3eborah ( ?u. )5) ). These are the givers of ora%les both for ever&da& o%%asions ( . 9. 956
ff. # . F. .)5. ff. ) and for more im!ortant, in%luding !oliti%al ( * 9. *)5.. ), li:e the
soothsa&ers of the 2hilistines ( . 9. 65* ) and the ,rami% t`|h of the ins%ri!tion of Fing ga:ir
of 7amath (6th %ent. H.>. ). This does not eBhaust their wor:, however, for in%reasingl& the&
%ome to de%lare the will of =ahweh and to enfor%e 7is ethi%al demands. ;or are we dealing
onl& with great figures li:e 9amuel ( . 9. .05** ) and ;athan ( * 9. .*5. ff. ), but also with
lesser figures ( . 9. *5*7 ). ,t the beginning of the monar%h& there arises the new
!henomenon of grou! e%stas&.
*7
Aenoun%ing ever&da& life, swarms of nebii wander
through the land to the sound of the har!, %&mbal, flute and Either. Knas:ed, the& announ%e
the future, often in the form of $udgment and disaster. Their e%stas& is infe%tious, and gri!s
even those who stand aloof ( . 9. .+50 ff. # .95*+ ff. ). 8en li:e 1lisha stand out from the rest
( * F. *50 # )5/6 ). If there are !rimitive features and a %ertain amount of %orru!tion, nebiism
%annot sim!l& be inter!reted and dismissed as a >anaanitish intrusion into =ahweh religion.
The sa%red dan%e of the =ahweh %ult left room for it, and in the main the nebii are o!!osed
to %ultural degeneration. The& re!resent the stri%t ethi%al ma$est& of the wilderness <od ( . F.
.6 # *.5.7 ff. # * F. 05*6 f. # for the %onne%tion of 1li$ah with nebiism, %f. * F. *50 , and of
1lisha a!art from the !assages alread& mentioned, %f. * F. 65. ff. # 95. ff. ). The& have a
%onstant sense of the histori%al leading of the !eo!le b& =ahweh. It is not im!robable that
their !ro%lamation also has es%hatologi%al features. The feeling of distan%e in relation to the
<odhead is %hara%teristi%. =ahweh 7imself does not enter into men# 7e wor:s in them
through 7is 9!irit ( hf ^eM ).
*0 For fuller details %f. Fas%her, op. cit. , 7+ ff.
*6 AeitEenstein and 4eisegang in !arti%ular are to some eBtent eB!osed to this danger.
*7 ,s &et there is not enough eviden%e to su!!ort a genealogi%al %onne%tion between e%stas& in 2alestine and
e%stas& in ,sia 8inor and <ree%e.
>lassi%al !ro!he%& holds aloof from institutionalised nebiism ( ,m. 75.) # Is. *657 ff. #
*959 f. # ?er. */59 ff. # 1E. ./ ). =et this should not !revent us seeing the !oints of %onne%tion.
@hat is atta%:ed is the %orru!tion of nebiism. 1ven ,mos allows that the nebii are one of
<odOs valuable gifts to 7is !eo!le ( *5..f .). In %lothes and manner of life, in the whole
re%e!tion of revelation and even in the message, there are broad areas of agreement. 8an& of
the !ro!hets a%%e!t the designation nabi ( Is. 65/ # 7os. 957 ). 9ome of them %ome from the
!ro!heti% s%hools, and e%stati% eB!erien%es, visions and auditions are indis!ensable, es!e%iall&
in %alling ( Is. 65. ff. # ?er. .5)ff .# 1E. .5. ff. et%.# ,mos 7I9 # ge%h. .I6 ). -n the whole,
however, there is an unmista:able de%line in the e%stati% element. @e no longer have the
attem!t to indu%e e%stas& b& artifi%ial means. This %omes u!on the instrument of =ahweh with
irresistible for%e, %ausing !erha!s more !ain than !leasure to the frail human vessel.
Aenun%iation of e%stati% methodolog& is %hara%teristi% of -T !iet& from now on. The formula
c^c` V[ SZ does not normall& im!l& the re%e!tion of the word b& e%stati% audition. (isions
ma& be a de%e!tion ( Is. *657 ff. # ?er. */59 ff. # 1E. ./ ). The de%isive !oint is the moral will
of =ahweh. The absolutel& indis!ensable instrument of !ro!heti% !ro%lamation is
understandable s!ee%h, i.e., the word.
-n the borders of a!o%al&!ti% the visionar& and e%stati% element seems at a first glan%e to
resume its im!ortan%e. This is es!e%iall& true of 1E., ge%h. and 3aniel. -n the other hand, the
visions here are literar& artifi%es and we do not have to su!!ose that the& all too: !la%e eBa%tl& as
narrated.
). 1%stas& in ?udaism.
For all the abundan%e of visions, develo!ed a!o%al&!ti% reall& attests a de%line in e%stati%
eB!erien%es. The visions of the !seude!igra!hi%al writers are artifi%ial !rodu%ts of the stud&. This
does not mean, however, that the e%stati% element had %om!letel& vanished. 4ater ?udaism
%ertainl& !la%es ins!iration in the !ast and in the 8essiani% future (dramati%all& so in . 8a%%. )5)6
# 95*7 # .)5). ). =et des%ri!tions of 8essiani% eB!erien%es show that the& still ta:e !la%e ( I,
7*) ). The a!o%al&!ti% writer does not re$e%t all su%h eB!erien%es as false. 2hilo %ontinuall& %laims
to be an e%stati%, and we have no reason to distrust his statements.
*6
For all his 7ellenism, he is a
true ?ew in the sense that he does not thin: of <od entering into man, but rather of the in$e%tion of
divine !owers and intermediaries.
In Aabbini% %ir%les there is freTuent referen%e to visions, fier& a!!earan%es
*9
and auditions.
/+
Four Aabbis are su!!osed to have seen 2aradise while still in the bod&,
/.
though it is not %ertain
that this is an e%stati% eB!erien%e. In general, the Aabbis engaged in %osmologi%al s!e%ulation for
whi%h 1E. . (%f. $ >hag. , 77b, 6 ff.) !rovided the basis, as sometimes in modern ?udaism. The
fier& !henomena seem to indi%ate a!!roa%h to the s!heres in whi%h <od dwells.
/*
In b.>hag. ,
.)b Har. the& o%%ur in the stor& of a dis%ussion between A. ,Tiba and his dis%i!le A. 1leaEar b.
,ra: on the cLd WedMZ sX of 1E. . , and the& are here a legendar& a%%retion along with the singing of
the trees and the voi%e of an angel from the fire. The older but still legendar& a%%ount is to be
found in $ >hag. , 77a, 0. ff. -ften the fier& !henomena have a !urel& s&mboli%al sense.
//
The&
o%%ur in dis%ussions of 9%ri!ture, a s!e%ial role being again !la&ed b& the cLWMs . It is also
%hara%teristi% of the Hath ool that ratio still has its !la%e. 9ometimes it denotes a voi%e of
un:nown origin, as in the ane%dotes in ?eb. , .6, 6# b. Her., /a (a heavenl& voi%e li:e a dove and
%oming from a ruin) et%.
/)
-ne of the earliest eBam!les of e%stas& in ?udaism is the dan%e of the
old rabbis in the fore%ourt of the tem!le at the feast of the taberna%les (9u::a, 0, )# %f. b. 9u::a,
0/a), though here, too, a rational element is dis%ernible.
*6 For eBam!les v. HG%hsel, 69.
*9 9tr.DH. , II, 6+/ f. I owe this !aragra!h to Aengstorf.
/+ -n Hath ool, %f. 9tr.DH. , I, .*0 ff.
/. T. >hag. , *, /. There is also a fier& a!!earan%e and a voi%e from heaven in the !ar. b.>hag. , .)b.
/* >f. also the legend in 8. Huber, Der grosse 3aggid und seine !achfolge (.9**), ) f.
// >f. the !assages in 9tr.DH. , II, 6+/ f.
/) For the basi% fa%tors %f. 3alman, Bath 4ol , A1/ , I (.697), ))/ f. 8oore , I, )**5 ,n arti%ulate and
intelligible sound !ro%eeding from an invisible sour%e." Though %f. 4. Hlau, 0e2. &nc. , s.v.
B. )cstas$ in the NT.
.. Hoth in eBternal a!!earan%e and in his !rea%hing ?ohn the Ha!tist has obvious and
!robabl& %ons%ious lin:s with nebiism. It is all the more signifi%ant, therefore, that su%h
re%ords as we have show no tra%e either of e%stati%ism or of the attem!t to attain it b& artifi%ial
means. 7e !ra&s and fasts in the wilderness. Hut he does not use an& other means. The goal is
%on%entration rather than e%stas&. @e %annot sa& whether an e%stati% %all !re%eded his wor:.
The ;T as%ribes to him neither e%stati% eB!erien%es nor mira%les.
/0
This is a mar: of its
authenti%it&. ?ohn is a t&!i%al !ro!het of the word, full of ethi%al seriousness and glowing
with es%hatologi%al !assion, but sober and restrained.
*. That ?esus was an e%stati% has been affirmed in some %ir%les.
/6
There is truth in this
view as o!!osed to the %on%e!tion whi%h, in %onne%tion with e%%lesiasti%al or hellenised
dogma, as%ribes to 7im a %alm, earthl& and more than earthl& eTuanimit&. Hut it is based on
an im!re%ise definition of e%stas&.
/7
;ot ever&thing unusual or eB%e!tional is e%stati%. ;ot
even the es%hatologi%al sense of mission shown b& ?esus is ipso facto e%stati%. 7is highl&
develo!ed life of !ra&er and mira%ulous gifts are better des%ribed as !neumati%.
/6
The
%ontem!oraries of ?esus often regarded 7im as e%stati% in the sense of !s&%hi% derangement
( 8:. /5*. 5 )
/9
or even !ossession ( 8:. /5** and !ar. ). Hut these are
mis$udgments due to inadeTuate :nowledge and re%e!tivit&. 1B!erien%es li:e the ba!tism
with its voi%e from heaven ( 8:. .5.+ f. and !ar. ), the tem!tation ( 8t. )5. and !ar. ), the %r&
of $ubilation ( 8t. ..5*0 ff. and !ar. ), and the transfiguration ( 8:. 95* ff. and !ar. ) ma& with
greater or lesser $usti%e be des%ribed as e%stati%.
)+
Hut even in these we see a distin%tion from
the sensationalism of %urrent e%stati%ism. ?esus does not se!arate 7imself from sinners# as the
8essiah, 7e ranges 7imself with them along the lines of 3euteroDIsaiah. 7e over%omes the
tem!tations lur:ing in the ?ewish %on%e!t of the 8essiah. 7e than:s <od for 7is revelation to
the sim!le. 7e des%ends from the 8ount of Transfiguration to the need of humanit& (%f. 8:.
95.) ff. and !ar. ). ,t ever& !oint 7e dis!la&s the same normalit& (%f. also 4:. .+5.6I*+ # 8t.
75** f. ).
).
The sear%h for !arallels in the histor& of religion %ontributes less to a true
understanding than regard for the %onteBt of these eB!erien%es in 7is !erson and %alling.
)*

The uniTue %ombination of su!raDhuman %hara%teristi%s and the greatest sim!li%it& is !art of
the in%om!arable ri%hness of this !ersonalit&. The essen%e, however, is to be found in the
uniTue relationshi! to <od, the resultant %alling and the !erfe%t fulfilment of this %alling. Hut
this %annot be des%ribed in terms of e%stas&.
/. , !owerful, e%stati% element Tui%:l& emerges in earl& >hristianit&. It is not so mu%h a
basis as an a%%om!animent and mar: of the %limaB. The a!!earan%es of the risen 4ord are
/0 ?n. .5/* shows signs of develo!ment, b& wa& of 8t. /5.6 f. and 4:. /5*. f. , and is not therefore to be
!referred to 8:. .5.+ .
/6 -. 7oltEmann, War 0esus &kstatiker S (.9+/)# >. ,. Hernoulli, 0esus 2ie sie ihn sahen (.9*6), .*/ f.
/7 >f. ?. 4ei!oldt, Vo 0esusbilde der Gegen2art
*
(.9*0), .*9 ff.# also <. Hertram, 3ie 2ersJnli%h:eit ?esu.
2s&%hologis%he 3arstellung u. %hristologis%her <ehalt in der evang. berlieferung ." Ztschr. f. evangelischen
/eligions<(nterricht , )/ (.9/*), es!. .)6 ff.
/6 >f. F. HG%hsel, op. cit. , .)9 ff., .07 n.
/9 -n modern attem!ts to %ontest the !s&%hi%al health of ?esus, %f. ?. 4ei!oldt, op. cit. , .// ff. The best re!l& is
that of ,. 9%hweitEer, Die ps'chiatrische Beurteilung 0esu6 Darstellung u. 4ritik (.9./).
)+ ,. 7arna%:, 9,H (.9**), 6* ff., es!. 7) f., though more with referen%e to 2eter.
). This is rightl& em!hasised b& 7oltEmann, ..) ff. 8edi%al authorities li:e 8antegaEEa, T. ?. 7udson and
Hinswanger tell us that o%%asional hallu%inations are riot un%ommon in men who are otherwise health&. 4ei!oldt,
.6+, .6*# ?. ;in%:, 0esus als 1harakter
/
(.9*0), *6). Hut the t&!i%al e%stati% finds it diffi%ult to return to normal
life. 7e would rather indulge in further e%stas&, and the final result is %om!lete derangement.
)* ?esus had also moments of e%stas& when 7e saw what no e&e has seen and heard what no ear has heard,
when 7is inner life made a great lea! forward. 9u%h %limaBes are harmful onl& when the& have a wea:ening and
disru!ting effe%t. If the& ins!ire to greater a%tivit& and fo%us and in%rease energ& the& are a sign of health and a
benefit," ;in%:, op. cit.
never asso%iated with e%stati% eB!erien%es in the ;T .
)/
2aul !uts a %om!letel& different
%onstru%tion on his 3amas%us eB!erien%e ( . >. .056 ff. # <l. .5.6 ) and on the
eB!erien%e des%ribed in * >. .*5. ff. 4ater visions of the eBalted >hrist are des%ribed in the
%olours of e%stas& ( ,%. 7500 f. # %f. 65.0 # ,%. .659 f. 5 l # **5.7ff .5
),
))
but not the first a!!earan%es. ,t 2ente%ost ( I, 7*) f. ) the %on%rete
histori%al and es%hatologi%al %onne%tions in whi%h it is set b& the earl& >hur%h deserve
attention. The analog& to 7ellenisti% e%stas& is eB!ressed b& 4:. in a few traits ta:en from the
%ult of 3ion&sus, and es!e%iall& the Ha%%hae" of 1uri!ides.
)0
Hut the e%stati% eB!erien%es of
the >hur%h rest basi%all& on ?ewish soil, as glossolalia belongs to 7ellenisti% ( I, 7** ). The
!ra&er life of the >hur%h also borders on the e%stati% ( ,%. )5*) ff. # /59 # .65*0 ff. # %f. also
the %anti%les in 4:. .5)6 ff. , 66 ff. *5*6ff .). Knder !erse%ution, in serious emergen%ies and in
fa%e of diffi%ult de%isions in missionar& wor:, dire%tion and strength are found in more or less
evident e%stati% eB!erien%es ( ,%. 7500 # .+5.+ ff. # ..50 ff. # ./5* # .656 f. , .+ # .659 f. # **5.7
ff. # *75*/ ff. # <l. *5. ). -n the other hand, the >hur%h steadfastl& o!!oses an e%stati%ism
whi%h is destitute of the fruit of righteousness, of moral dis%i!line, of integrit& and love ( ,%.
659 ff. , 9imon 8agus# . >. .*I.) ).
@e :now that 2aul was an e%stati%, not so mu%h from * >. 05./ ( )6+ ), but rather from
. >. .)5.6 and * >. .*5. ff. It is !ossible that his thorn in the flesh
)6
in%reased the tenden%&
towards e%stati% eB!erien%es. Hut his !owerful a%hievements forbid us to assess him
essentiall& from !s&%ho!athi% stand!oints. In s!ite of <l. *5. f. , the a!ostle differs from the
usual e%stati% b& not attributing too great im!ortan%e to his e%stasies ( * >. .*5. , .. # . >.
.)5.9 ). Though there are formal analogies to the 7ellenisti% !neumati%, these do not $ustif&
us in regarding him as su%h.
)7
The higher :nowledge whi%h 2aul %laims ( . >. *5.+ ff. ) is
orientated to salvation histor&, and for him the brea: in %ons%iousness does not serve an
arrogant !ride but humble modest& ( * >. .*5* , 0 ).
)6
7e wages a bitter fight against the
eB%esses of orgiasti% e%stas&. Aegarding the ;T !ro!hets .
9imilarl&, the visions of the ,!o%al&!tist are not sensational but are designed to stir and to
strengthen the %ommunit& in the serious situation of threatened %onfli%t with the world !ower
of im!erial des!otism in a heightened religious form. The& are thus genuine !ro!he%&.
,nal&sis in terms of religious !s&%holog& shows us that we have here true e%stati% and
visionar& eB!erien%es, of an emotional but not a !athologi%al :ind, whi%h do, of %ourse,
undergo further develo!ment in refle%tion and literar& !resentation.
)9

C. The )cstatic )lement in the )arl$ Ch#rch.
The term is found neither in the !ostDa!ostoli% fathers nor in the a!ologists.
;evertheless, the thread of e%stati% eB!erien%es does not brea: off in the !ostDa!ostoli% and earl&
%atholi% !eriod. The Didache is sus!i%ious of individual selfDsee:ers, not of e%stati%s as su%h (..,
7ff.). These are still highl& regarded. 3evotional !ra&er ma& lead to visions, though these are not
deliberatel& indu%ed. ,%%ording to the stor& of his mart&rdom, 2ol&%ar! in !ra&er saw a vision of
his !illow in flames three da&s before his im!risonment, and he then said to those around5 I must
be burned alive" ( 8art.2ol. , 0, *). In the Shepherd of (eras e%stati% endowment a!!ears within
the >hur%h# in 8ontanism it brea:s awa& from it.
)/ It would solve man& diffi%ulties to eTuate the a!!earan%e to over 0++ brethren at on%e ( . >. .056 ) with
2ente%ost (1. v. 3obs%hGtE, %stern u. Pfingsten m.9+/n, /)# F. 7oll, 9,H m.9*.n, 9*/), but there are no grounds
for so doing in the ;T itself.
)) The identifi%ation of these eB!erien%es with those re%ounted in * >. .*5* ff. is rightl& re$e%ted b& 1. ?a%Tuier,
#ctes des #pTtres (.9*6), 60. ad loc.
)0 -n these %onne%tions %f. F. 9mend, #ngelos . (.9*0), ). ff.
)6 >f. on this !t. @nd. * F. , eB%ursus on .*57 .
)7 9o es!. AeitEenstein, op. cit.
)6 F. 3eissner, Paul. u. die 3'stik seiner Zeit
*
(.9*.), *. ff., 6. ff.
)9 ?ohn is no more !athologi%al than <rGnewald or 3Ger," 9%hneider, op. cit. , .)..
That oriental !ro!hetism %ould !rodu%e strange fruits well into the se%ond %entur& ma& be
seen from >elsusO wellD:nown des%ri!tion of >hristian e%stati%s (
-
rig.
>
els. , (II, 9)5 8an&
nameless figures who for some %asual reason remain inside or outside the tem!le, !artl& begging
and haunting %ities and barra%:s, ma:e out that the& are !ro!hets. 1a%h has the usual sa&ing read&
to hand5 ~I am <od, or <odOs 9on, or the divine 9!irit. I have %ome be%ause the world is !erishing
and &ou, - men, are lost be%ause of &our wi%:edness. I will save &ou, and &ou will see me %ome
again with the !ower of heaven. @ell for those who have served me in that da& p Hut on the rest,
on %ities and %ountries, I will bring eternal fire {O ,nd when the& have enlarged on this, the& add
some stu!id and unintelligible nonsense whi%h no one of understanding %an ma:e out# for it is
without meaning, but it enables an& fool or %harlatan to inter!ret it as he will." It is highl&
!robable, of %ourse, that >elsus is here %onfusing the fa%ts with his own %on%e!tions of
>hristianit&, or generalising from isolated %ases. -n e%stati% eB!erien%es in <nosti%ism I, 7*/ .
In general we ma& sa& that, while the >hur%h did not eB%lude e%stati% revelations,
es!e%iall& in !eriods of stress, it in%reasingl& re%ognised and fought against the dangerous and
unhealth& features. Thus the e%stati% be%ame more and more hereti%al. In the >hur%h the
orderl& ministr& assumed %ontrol. This might mean im!overishment, but as things stood it
brought %larit& and se%urit&.
"$ .
.. Trans. to remove from its !la%e," fig. to alter," i , 2lut. 3e >i%erone , .+ (I,
666b), , Timaeus 4o%rus , .. (.++%# ed. >. F. 7ermann m.9+7n)# to sha:e,"
, 1ur.Ha. , 60+# , 'eno!h.8em. , I, /, .*# 6 (
s&non. ), 3emosth. , *., 7*# with sim!le a%%. 5 l , 9tob.1%l. , III,
0.7, .0, %f. Is. *657 5 to set in terror"5 6 ,
8
uson. Fr. , 6, !. /0, .* f.# 4'' ?u. 65.* # 2 B. 17:2 # of =ahweh5
, 1B. */5*7 # ?os. .+5.+ # ?u. )5.0 # 2 B. 22:15 et%.
In the ;T it is found in 4:. *)5** 5 q , to %onfuse," and in
,%. 659 5 , and v. .. 5 { i
, to bewit%h."
*. Intr. ( mid. !ass. aor. *, !erf. a%t.)5 to remove oneself," used of the loss of %a!a%ities in the
!a!. ( 2. A&l. , II, 70, 6# ..7, **), and fig. to lose oneOs wits" either a. in the sense of to go out of
oneOs mind"5 , 1ur.-r. , .+*.# ?os.,nt. , .+, ..) # , 2ol&b. , /*, *0, 6#
8
aB. T&r. , *7, 0# abs. i i , ,ristot.7ist. ,n. , (I, **, !. 077a, .*#
,
l%i!hr.1!. , /, *# i ,
3
io >hr&s.-r. , /*, )*# and more rarel& b. in
the sense of to be terrified out of oneOs wits," 2hilodem. 2hilos. 3e Ira , %ol. , /6, *6 f. (ed. >.
@il:e m.9.)n), though the 4'' often uses it of fright at natural %auses, with an inner ob$e%t5
, <n. *75// , and more generall& <n. )/5// # it usuall&
eB!resses terror before =ahweh or at 7is $udgments5 ?er. )59 # 1E. *65.6 .
-rig. -rigen, of ,leBandria (.60I*0) ,.3. ), !u!il of >lement of ,leBandria, and most learned and fruitful
re!resentative of an%ient >hristian s%holarshi! and %ulture, ed. b& different s%holars in Die griech6 christl.
Schriftsteller der ersten I 0ahrhunderte , .699 ff.
>els. 1ontra 1elsu .
8uson. >. 8usonius Aufus, of (olsinii in 1truria at the time of ;ero, 9toi% with %&ni%al tenden%ies, ed. -.
7ense, .9+0.
8aB. T&r. 8aBimus of T&re, in Aome at the time of >ommodus (.6+I.9* ,.3. ), 9o!hist and wandering
!hiloso!hi%al orator, an e%le%ti% 2latonist with >&ni%al and 9toi% tenden%ies, author of !hiloso!hi%al essa&s in
the st&le of diatribes ( ), ed. 7. 7obein, .9.+.
,l%i!hr. ,l%i!hron, 9o!hist of the *nd %entur& ,.3. , distinguished for his e!istolar& s:et%hes of ,tti% life, ed. 8.
,. 9%he!ers, .9+0.
3io >hr&s. 3ion, of 2rusa in Hith&nia (%. )+nd#.*+ ,.3. ), later %alled >hr&sostomus, the most im!ortant
re!resentative of the soD%alled 9e%ond 9o!histi% s%hool in the Aoman 1m!ire, ed. 7. v. ,rnim, .69/ ff.
In the 4''
.
i is a te%hn. !s&%hologi%al term used b& the translators to grou! under
a %ommon !s&%hologi%al stand!oint things for whi%h different eB!ressions are used in the 8as.
,%%. to 7at%hDAed!ath i o%%urs 70 times in the 4''. In 60 !assages /+ different 7eb.
words are rendered (the root rMh .6 times). The more %ommon intrans. usuall& has the sense of
the !s&%hi%al emotion of terror, anBiet& or astonishment, with a strong sense of the numinous. The
inde!enden%e of the 4'' in relation to the 8as. ma& be seen most %learl& in the following
!assages. In 1B. .95.6 the 4'' uses !eo!le" instead of mountain" as the sub$. of this verb, and
thus ma:es a human eB!erien%e out of a natural event. In 7ab. /5* e%stas& o%%urs onl& in the 4''
as manOs rea%tion to the revelation of <od in word and wor:. 1B!ressions of $o& are also !ut in
terms of numinous eB!erien%e in 1B. .659 and 4v. 95*) (%f. 7os. /50 ). In teBtual transmission we
sometimes have an alternation between i (!s&%hologi%al) and i
(!h&siologi%al). In ?u. /56 the 8as. !resu!!oses a !h&si%al movement, whereas !arallelism with
what follows suggested to the translators the %hange to an emotional movement. -n the other
hand, in 3 B. 1:4 the 8as. ( rMh ) reTuires an eB!ression of emotion whereas the %onteBt
seems to favour a !h&si%al movement. %. In 2hilo alone the term is also used for selfDalienation in
divinel& %aused ra!ture ( , )0+ ). The 7ethites ,
9om. , II, 69 # the enra!tured soul seems , 1br. ,
.)6 . There is !erha!s here the additional suggestion, not found elsewhere, of the soul in e%stas&
leaving the bod&, its natural home5 q q Aer. 3iv. 7er.
, 69 . -n the nature of e%stas& , )0/ .
In the ;T the meaning a. o%%urs in 8:. /5*. 5 , he is beside himself." 8:.
is em!hasising the eBtraordinar& nature of ?esus. It is unwarranted to su!!ose that his sour%e
was merel& intending to sa& that 7e de!arted."
*
In * >. 05./ is the o!!. of
# if we were beside ourselves, it was for <od, and if we are sober, it is for
&our sa:es. 9o far as we %an gather from . >. .*I.) , the %harge that 2aul was out of his mind
%ould hardl& arise out of his e%stati% eB!erien%eskthis is also refuted b& v. .* . It is !robabl&
to be eB!lained in terms of a su!!osedl& e%%entri%" assertion of a!ostoli% authorit&.
/
The
word also bears the sense b. when used of astonishment at the revelation of the divine glor&,
whether in the %hild ?esus ( 4:. *5)7 ), 7is mira%les ( 8t. .*5*/ # 8:. *5.* # 8t. 956
# 05)* # 8:. 650. , 8t. .)5// # 4:. 6506 ), or the wonderful
eB!erien%es of the earl& %ommunit& ( ,%. *57 , s&non. , .* , s&non. #
65./ # 95*. # .+5)0 # .*5.6 ). The term refle%ts the !owerful religious eB!erien%e of the earl&
>hur%h. The meaning %. is not found in the ;T , though %f. .
%epke
, "!$, !,
5
%
*

In the ;T , eB%e!t in ,%. *75/+ , it is used onl& in the eB!ression to stret%h out the hand"
( 4:. **50/ # ?n. *.5.6 , hands)# 8t. 65/ # .*5./ , )9 # .)5/. # *650. # 8:. .5). # /50 # 4:.
05./ # 65.+ # ,%. )5/+ # *65. .
. This !aragra!h u! to %. is b& <. Hertram.
* F. 9!itta, Zur Geschichte u. )iteratur d. 8rchristentus , III, * (.9+7), ./+ ff. The variants
(he es%a!ed from them," 3 it) and (for the& were related to him," or
de!endent on him," @ *6) are interesting, but sim!l& show how offensive the almost uniforml& attested teBt
was felt to be.
/ H%hm.* F. , ad loc. 9i%:b. F. , ad loc. suggests gifts of tongues or visionar& states, @nd., ad loc. a selfD
see:ing and boastful assertion of su%h s!e%ial advantages.
C i . 2r.DHauer , s.v. # >. 9ittl, Die Geb=rden der Griechen u. /er (.69+), /0+ ff. and 0+, n. 0#
9%hl. 8t. , *7., )*/, )7*# 9%hl. 4:. , 06, )//, )/6, 6)6.
.. i originall& means outstret%hing either as a single movement or as !art of a larger
%om!leB, and in terms of either eBtent or tension, %f. someone outstret%hed in slee! in 'en.,n. ,
(, ., *5 { , or the de!lo&ment of an arm& ( 'eno!h. ) or of words for
s!ee%h, 2lat.4eg. , ', 667a5 i # but also the
stret%hing of the will in eagerness, 7dt. , (II, .+, 75 i i , and es!.
the stret%hing of a !art of the bod& to introdu%e or a%%om!lish an a%tion ( ,es%h.2rom. , /*/5
6 q ), sometimes
the hand ( 2lat.Aes!. , (, ))9b5 i q li ), and
as a gesture, %f. the outstret%hing of the hand in friendshi! ( 2ol&b. , II, )7, *5 i
q i i ) or in to:en of a s!ee%h (
o
uint.
I
nst. -rat. , I', /, 6) ff.).
In ,%. *75/+ 5 i , we obviousl& have a te%hni%al use,
.
designed to
ma:e !lain the intention of the sailors. In v. *9 we sim!l& read5 pi
. Hut then the sailors tr& to ta:e advantage of their %alling. The& need
the boat to !a& out an%hors at the front, i.e., to stead& the shi!. In view of the forward drag,
however, this is nonsensi%al. The& %annot a%hieve the tension indi%ated b& the movement
referred to (i.e., !a&ing out the an%hor). In other words, there %an be no an%horing the shi! to
the front, and therefore their intention is to flee.
*

*. i . 9in%e the word has no im!lied meaning but sim!l& denotes a
gesture, it is used in the 4'' for man& 7eb. eTuivalents whose nuan%es are not re!rodu%ed b& it.
This is !arti%ularl& true in the !redominant 4'' eB!ression i , whi%h is
used es!e%iall& for the words cd Sd and h\fPdQ ( I, )++ ff. ). It ma:es no differen%e whether the
one who stret%hes out the hand is a messenger of <od, <od 7imself, or a man.
/
;or does it
matter for what !ur!ose the hand is outstret%hed. It ma& be noted, however, that when there is an&
gras!ing at <odOs !ro!ert& the stronger word is used instead of i ( <n.
/75** # 1 B. 24:7 , .. # *659 # 1st. 657 ). In general we ma& sa& that i
em!hasises a gra!hi% element in the stor& to ma:e it more vivid. 9omething must alwa&s follow
the i , whether a gift ( 9ir. )5/. ) or a !ra&er ( 1 t. 8:70 # ) 8a%%.
)5.. ). To this eBtent it often eB!resses resolve u!on a %ertain a%t. This gives us a lin: with ;T
usage in so far as this has s!e%ifi% features of its own. The usage of ?ose!hus (as distin%t from
2hilo) follows eBa%tl& that of the 4'' ( ,nt. , ./, /*7 # 6, *// # 6, */9 ).
This brings us to a dis%ussion of the use of i in the ;T .
@hen we read in 4:. **50/ 5

l
i .

q 6 q i
, 4:. is !erha!s em!hasising the solemnit& of the moment, whi%h the o!!onents of
?esus do not realise, b& using, instead of the %ommon or of 8t. and 8:.,
an eB!ression familiar from su%h !assages as 1E. 65.) ff. =et there is also the sim!ler eB!lanation
that he wants to ma:e the s%ene more vivid b& bringing before us the hands whi%h want to seiEe
?esus. The hand is stret%hed out to atta%:, as in 8t. *650. 5 l i
q q
6i . -ften this ta:es !la%e un%ons%iousl&. If the a%tion is
stressed, it loses its gra!hi% Tualit&. In 4:. **50. , instead of 6i
l , the author might have said5 i q q
6i l . Hut this would have disturbed the dramati% !ers!e%tive, whi%h has v. 0/ in
view.
ouint. 8. Fabius ouintilianus, of >alagurris in 9!ain (%. /0I90 ,.3. ), rhetori%ian and author in Aome in the
earl& da&s of the 1m!ire, ed. 4. Aaderma%her, .9+7.
Inst. -rat. .nstitutio %ratoria .
. >f. ,. Hreusing, Die !autik der #lten (.666), .90.
* Though %f. A. Fno!f in Schriften des !" , ad loc.
/ The thesis argued b& Aengstorf in I, )+., n. */ needs %orre%tion in view of the fa%t that i q
in ?er. .59 is a rendering of h\fPdQ (%f. also 7at%hDAed!. ).
8t. .*5)9 is also to be understood gra!hi%all&. Instead of
q q . ( 8:. /5/) ), we
have the more em!hati%5 i q l
l q . Instead of a de!i%tion in terms of the gaEe of ?esus, as in 8:.,
8t. gives us a gesture whi%h lends em!hasis to the words whi%h follow. There is here
revealed the will of ?esus whi%h is identi%al with that of 7is Father in heaven ( 8t. .*50+ #
8:. sa&s5 ). The goal of this will is the # it does not eB!ress
itself in a general truth, as 8:. might suggest. Hut if the will of ?esus aims at me, I am alread&
a!!rehended b& it. Thus the eB!ression i mediates between a gra!hi%
made of narration and one whi%h %arries with it emotional em!hasis and even an im!erative.
That we should not underestimate the gra!hi% signifi%an%e a!!ears ver& !lainl& in 8t.
.)5*6I/. .
7ere the %ourse of the narrative is as follows5 .. ,s ?esus wal:s on the water, 2eter sa&s to
7im5 4ord, if it be Thou, bid me %ome to thee on the water#" *. ?esus sa&s5 >ome#" /. 2eter
%omes# ). 2eter is afraid and begins to sin:# 0. 2eter %alls5 4ord, save me#" 6. c
i q , l
i i # 7. The& get into the shi!, the wind falls and the dis%i!les worshi! 7im5
l l .
)
The s%ene de!i%ted in 8t. is obviousl& viewed from within the shi!,
as we %an see from v. // . This hel!s us to understand the gras! of ?esus, for if the others had been
!ulling 2eter ba%: into the boat the same eB!ression would have been used. =et the im!ortant
!oint is not the gras! as su%h# it is the fa%t that 7e alwa&s rea%hes after us. 7en%e the s%ene
illustrates the statement formulated above, namel&, that if the will of ?esus aims at me, I am
alread& a!!rehended b& it.
The mira%le in the healing of the withered hand in 8t. .*59I.) is obviousl& the
restoration of movement. To the %ommand of ?esus5 q , there thus
%orres!onds the obedien%e5 , so that it %an be re%orded5
q q ( 8t. .*5./ ). That this is !ubli% ma& be seen from
8:. /5/ and 4:. 656 ( | q| l ). If 4:. uses onl& i
instead of , this underlines the logi%al seTuen%e. Thus 4:. tells us that there too:
!la%e what ?esus said, whereas 8t. and 8:. tell us that it ha!!ened as ?esus had said. There is
no !arti%ular stress on the obedien%e of the man who is healed. @e sim!l& see that through
7is @ord the will of ?esus heals a withered arm so that it %an be stret%hed out again. The
%harm of the narrative is that the same movement whi%h leads to gras!ing or whi%h serves as a
gesture %an now illustrate the !ower of the will of ?esus.
0

@hereas in this stor& the gra!hi% element in the gesture de!ends u!on the fa%t that it ma&
be followed b& gras!ing (%f. 9ir. .05.6 ),
6
in 8t. 65/ and !ar. the dramati% effe%t of the
gesture obviousl& im!lies that there is no a!!rehending5 i q q
, i . The %onta%t is not a!!rehension but a gesture with
whi%h, to the a!!eal of the le!er5 , g, i i ( 8t.
65* ), ?esus answers5 , i . If elsewhere is one of the
te%hniTues of healing in mira%le stories, here it is a gesture answering the a!!eal of the le!er
) .)5/*f .# in 8:. 6 l stands uneB!lained in the middle of the stor&, and the s%ene ends in 650.f . with the
astonishment of the dis%i!les. ?n. brings the s%ene to a sudden end with the %oming of the shi! to land ( 65*. ).
0 3aus%h 9&n!t. on 8t. .*5./ s!ea:s Tuite wrongl& of an a%tive !roof of his de%ision, the healing of the
withered hand { This was brought about as the si%: man stret%hed it out at the %ommand of ?esus. The
outstret%hing of the hand thus seems to be a %ondition, a test of faith rather than a sign of healing." 8ore %orre%t
is the statement that the effe%tive %ause of healing was a mere a%t of will on the !art of ?esus." -n i
q in mira%les of healing, %f. the similar eB!ression, whi%h obviousl& seems to have been a te%hni%al
term in medi%ine too, in the mira%les of 1!idauros5 3itt. 9&ll.
/
, ..66, *65 q
i . -n the te%h. term , %f. 7i!!o%r.1!id. , (. */# 3io%les. Fr. , .). (!.
.76, /# .6/, * f. 8. @ellmann. 9ragentensalung der gr. Lr-te .9+.). A. 7erEog, Die Wunderheilungen von
&pidauros (.9/.), 99# -. @einrei%h, #ntike (eilungs2ander , A(( , 6, . (.9+9).
6 >f. A. Fno!f on 3id. , ), 0 in the 9u!!l. to 4tEm., (andb. -. ;T (.9*+).
and thus manifesting the will of ?esus. The healing itself is then to be shown to the !riest, who
will %ertif& it to the le!er in the regular wa& ( 8t. 65) ). This is not %ontradi%ted b& the fa%t
that when the .+ are healed in 4:. .75.) there is no gesture and the& are healed as the& go, for
here the %limaB of the s%ene is the return of the 9amaritan ( v. .0f .). If we ta:e the gesture
and the healing together, we have thus to sa& that in the outstret%hing of the hand of ?esus in
healing there is revealed the outrea%h of 7is will. The will and a%t of ?esus are to be
manifested in their uniTue unit&.
This is true, however, of the general outrea%h of <odOs will for whi%h the %ommunit&
!ra&s5 ppi
q i l i
i ( ,%. )5*9f. ). The referen%e is not to a
!arti%ular a%tion ne%essar& for the !erforman%e of a mira%le, but to a de%laration of 7is will in
a%tive selfDdemonstration. He%ause we %annot se!arate the divine a%t and the divine will, the
a%ts of <od are mira%les to us. The !roblem in ,%. )5/+ is not the outstret%hing of the hand of
<od, but the meaning of the , and , whi%h is %onfused b& the
mira%ulous effe%t of the !ra&er des%ribed in v. /. .
In a te%hni%al sense we find i q in ,%. *65. , where 2aul introdu%es his
defen%e before ,gri!!a with the regular oratori%al gesture5 i q
. This eB!ression, whi%h is good <:. , reminds the eBegete that the element %ommon to both the
gras! and the gesture is the will whi%h I have in relation to something. 2aul is relating himself to
,gri!!a as an orator. This is to be noted in what follows (the most artisti% s!ee%h in the ;T ).
It is o!en to Tuestion whether we have a similar te%hni%al use in ?n. *.5.6 . The stru%ture of
the verse is against this view5 q q , q 6, 6
q c g,
, 6 ( vl. , 6i ) ( vl. , i k
i k i ) . The variants show that !la& is
here made on the violent death of 2eter. The outstret%hing of the hands %an refer to %ru%ifiBion, %f.
,
rtemid.
-
neiro%r. , I, 7+5 c q
,
7
and 1!i%t. et 3iss. , III, *6, **5 i l
, %f. Harn. , .*, *. -n the other hand, the outstret%hing of the hands here
%orres!onds to the movement of girding. Thus there seems to be no dire%t allusion to the violent
end of 2eter. The meaning is that the a%:nowledged she!herd has finall& undergone the most
diffi%ult submission of will whi%h man %an eB!erien%e.
In the !ostDa!ost. fathers i is mostl& found in -T Tuotations. >f. . >l., 07, ) with
2rv. .5*/ ff. # Harn. , .9, 9 and 3id. , ), 0 with 9ir. )5/. # Harn. , 0, ) with 2rv. .57 # Harn. , .*, *
with 1B. .756I./ . 7erm.v. , ), ..95 i i (on the earth), %orres!onds to <:.
usage. The statement in . >l., *, /5 i
l ., !oints forward to an in%reasing future use in
liturgi%al !ra%ti%e (
)
6), n. /. ).
, ! .
4i:e i , from the time of ,es%h. and 7dt. , and also in 2hilo, ?ose!h. and the !a!.
, the word is used of tension of the will and means tense," resolute," eager," %f. 3itt. -r. , //9,
*+5 # 767, .05 ( sic U )
# 767, 65 l i
i . In the 4'', where o%%urs onl& 6 times, it is used adv. for the fervour
,rtemid. ,rtemidorus, of 1!hesus, inter!reter of dreams in the da&s of 7adrian, author of a boo: on dreams with
eBam!les of fulfilled dreams, ed. A. 7er%her, .66).
-neiro%r. %neirocriticu .
7 >f. Hau. ?. , ad loc.
)6), n. /. Thus in the %ase of 7ermas !ra&er as an attitude is !s&%hologi%all& the sour%e of his visions. -n the
relevant usage in >onst. ,!. , 6, 0# 7, ., %f. A. Fno!f on . >l., /), 7 ( e$:teivnw, n. 6 ). >f. also >hr&s.4iturg.
, /7/, /# 4. 1isenhofer, )iturgik , I (.9/*), .96# II (.9//), )6 ff.# 1. ,. 9o!ho%les, Greek )e:. (.67+), s.v.
of !ra&er ( / 8a%%. 059 # ?on. /56 # ?l. .5.) # ?dt. )5.* )# %f. / 8a%%. /5.+ # 05*9 5 Hi,
, q q q .
In the ;T it is found onl& at ,%. .*50 # . 2t. .5** # )56 # 4:. **5)) ( ).
The admonition q l q in . 2t.
)56 stands under the de%laration c q in v. 7 . The !oint is,
therefore, that >hristians should not merel& show fervent love to one another (there is also the
admonition5 l , in v. 7 ), but rather that
in view of the a!!roa%hing end the& should see to it that their love for one another endures
against selfDsee:ing. -nl& thus %an the& ho!e that their love will %over the sins whi%h rend the
%ommunit& ( v. 6 ). For this !ur!ose the& will need a will whi%h is !ure and whi%h is therefore
renewed, so that with the it seems ne%essar& also to refer to the i (s%.
)5 i ( . 2t.
.5** ).
The word seems to be most a!t in relation to !ra&er, for here the reTuired
%on%entration of will is !rodu%ed as it were b& a single a%tion (whereas is alwa&s
ta:ing different forms). Thus on the o%%asion of 2eterOs im!risonment we read of the
?erusalem %ommunit&5 q c q ( vl. q ) q
i (s%. H , ,%. .*50 ). In view of the
great danger of 2eter the un%easing !ra&er made for him b& the >hur%h is also fervent, sin%e
the >hur%h :nows what it is !ra&ing for. The tension denoted b& does not a!!l&,
therefore, to an a%tion or will whi%h is not %ertain of its goal.
,s a %om!. of we find in the teBtuall& dis!uted verse 4:. **5)) .
7ere refers onl& to the intensit& of the !ra&er of ?esus. This does not reall&
%orres!ond to the ;T sense of mentioned above, $ust as vv. )/f . are generall& less %lear
than v. )* . It is diffi%ult to re%on%ile an indefiniteness of goal with this intensit&. In <ethsemane
the %on%ern of the ?esus of the <os!els is not $ust with d&ing, as though this were itself a !roblem.
It is with the death related to sin and therefore with the sinners !unished b& it. 7en%e ?esus is not a
dire%t eBam!le for us in the hour of death, as seems to be suggested in some wa& in the dis!uted
verse.
.

@hen we %ome to the !ostDa!ostoli% fathers, it is noteworth& that the& no longer use
for >hristian a%tion. In . >l., 06, * we read5 { g
i
6 , { . The !resent
attitude of the >hristian is %om!ared with his definitive being in the future of ?esus >hrist, so that
the >hristian must be %onstantl& aware that he has not &et rea%hed the goal. Instead of a %ondition
of >hristian a%tion we thus have an attitude,
*
%f. . >l., 6*, *5 =ou must !lease <od g
lg i . 2ra&er itself is thus %hanged into an attitude (. >l.,
09, *# /), 7), so that later q naturall& be%omes a liturgi%al term.
/

! .
,ttested from the time of
2
hr&n. ,
.
this word, li:e , first means enduran%e"
(4'' ?dt. )59 # * 8a%%. .)5/6 # / 8a%%. 65). ), whi%h %omes to be thought of as an attitude, . >l.,
//, .5 i i ,
and /7, .5 6 , i, i
6 (s%. ). In this attitude the >hristian is li:e a
soldier who :nows his tas: and his !la%e (. >l., /7, *).
. >f. Fl. 4:. , ad loc.
* >f. 1. Fu%hs, Glaube und "at in den 3andata des (eras ( 3iss. 8arburg, .9/.), )0, 06.
2hr&n. 2hr&ni%hus, of Hith&nia, leBi%ogra!her and ,tti%ist, at the time of >ommodus. -nl& small fragments of
his great wor: in /7 volumes ( q ) have %ome down to us, ed. <. Autherford, .66..
. V. 2r.DHauer , s.v.
In the ;T it o%%urs onl& in ,%. *657 5 q iq
q , where it is ho!ed to attain the !romise b& !ersistent servi%e of
<od both night and da&.
*
In !la%e of this 2aul !oints to an event, namel&, the revelation of
the 4ord given him at his %onversion ( *65./ff .).
5 .
This is not attested !rior to * >. .+5.) .
.
>f.
2
s.D3emetr. , 0.
*
i in %ombination
with in 4 B. 21:13 # 4am. *56 .
In * >. .+5.)
/
the word is used negativel&. 2aulOs o!!onents arrogantl& magnif&
themselves a%%ording to their own standards. 2aul is not guilt& of eBaggeration even when he
ta:es his own a%hievement as the measure. For he has %ome where he should, i.e., to >orinth.
7is $ourne&s are a%ts b& whi%h he is to be measured if a standard is sought for the authenti%it&
of his words or e!istles (%f. . >. .05.+ ).
9
uchs

is not a %ommon word in literature. It %omes from 6 to %ause a
mis%arriage," to %ast the fruit of the bod&." In this sense it is found in 7dt. , III, /*# ,ristot.7ist.
,n. , (II, ), !, 060a, **# I', /, !. 6.+b, /0# 2lut. Terrestriane an ,Tuatilia ,nimalia , *+ (II,
97)d)# 3iod. 9. , III, 6), )# I(, *, / ( ). The verb is naturall& more
%ommon in the wor:s of the <ree: !h&si%ians ( 7i!!o%r. , 3ios%. , et%.).
.
In 2. >airo (ed. 1. ?.
<oods!eed m.9+*n), .0, .0 ()th %ent. ,.3. )
*
we get a glim!se into an individual traged&. He%ause
of blows she had re%eived a woman named Taesis had a mis%arriage ( q c T
m.. - n
/
).
)

is untimel& birth," mis%arriage," abortion" (sometimes indu%ed). The referen%e is
alwa&s to untimel& birth, whether the %hild lives or not, The de%isive feature is the abnormal time
of birth
0
and the unfinished form of the one thus born. The word is found in ,ristot.
<
en. ,n. , I(,
0, !. 77/b, .6 ( i 6 )

6
is used in
2
reisig:e 9ammelbu%h , /)0., 0 and .+.
The 4'' uses onl& / times. In ;u .*5.* it o%%urs for Yse] Wef . It here denotes a %had
whi%h had no life even in the womb and whi%h was thus stillDborn. The fa%t that it is used for Y^es
gives the sense of stillDbirth. It is used in the same sense in the other 4'' !assages, In
?ob /5.6 and 1%%l. 65/ it is a translation of \iXS] , whi%h means mis%arriage or untimel& birth. A2O
* In the vl. ,%. .*50 35 q c q q iq q i , we
have an indire%t intimation of what later be%ame the %ommon liturgi%alsense.
. V. 2r.DHauer , s.v.
2s.D3emetr. 2seudoD3emetrius. 3emetrius of 2haleron, !eri!ateti%, brought <ree: learning from ,thens to
,leBandria /+6v7 H.>. 7e is not the author of the wor: whi%h has been handed down in his name ( H
i , -n -ratori%al 1B!ression), but it !robabl& dates from %. .++ ,.3. , ed. 4. Aaderma%her, .9+..
* 1. ,. 9o!ho%les, <:. )e: . (.67+), s.v.
/ (. 4tEm. F. , ad loc.
Fu%hs 1rnst Fu%hs , Honn ((ol. .), @inEerhausen (@Grttemberg) ((ol. *I/), 8arburg ((ol. 7).
. For more detailed eBam!les, %f. Autherford 2hr&n. , !. *66 f.
* 2reisig:e @Jrt. , s.v. .
/ 9o 8oult.D8ill. , *++, s.v. .
) There is a similar %ase in 1B. *.5** 5 If men strive, and hurt a woman with %hild, so that her fruit de!art from
her." ,t the end of v. ** we should !robabl& read V`\aid SeZLef instead of V`\a\aiZ Lea .
0 >f. ,. Fonstantinides, Wrtbch. d. griech. Sprache , II (.9+*), 6+, s.v. . UU
6 6 .
<en. ,n. De Generatione #nialiu .
6 >f. also 2reisig:e, s.v. # and on 2hr&n. , !. *+6 4obe%:# !. *66 f.Autherford.
2hilo4eg. ,ll. , I, 76 . 7es&%h. , !. )99 9%hmidt.
2reisig:e 9ammelbu%h F. 2reisig:e, Saelbuch griechischer 8rkunden aus Lg'pten , .9.0 ff.
read in ` 0756 . In Is. .)5.9 the translations are all different. For MuX S]WeZ the 4'' has
, A l6, O and onl& 2 has . 6 is
found in the <:. Hible onl& at 2 ?ob *.5.+ 5 (4''5 6, A:
).
7

In the ;T o%%urs onl& on%e. 2aul in . >. .056 is stating that he is the last of
those who saw the Aisen 4ord. In this %onne%tion he %om!ares himself with an .
The meaning of the eB!ression is %ontested.
6
9in%e the !hrase 6
is dire%tl& related to the !re%eding words, in whi%h 2aul %alls himself c
, it might be %on$e%tured that denotes one who is born late. Hut this meaning is not
!ossible. alwa&s has the sense of a birth whi%h is too soon.
9
9tri%tl&, then,
and %ontradi%t one another. 7en%e we %an ta:e onl& in a
ver& general sense. 2aul is one who from the s!iritual !oint of view was not born at the right
time be%ause he had not been a dis%i!le during the lifetime of ?esus. 7is %alling to the
a!ostoli% offi%e, whi%h !resu!!osed having seen >hrist, %ould not ta:e !la%e in the normal,
orderl&, organi% seTuen%e. 8oreover, his %alling is for%ed as well as abnormal and
eBtraordinar&. 7e is torn from his !revious %ourse of life b& the !owerful intervention of the
eBalted >hrist and set in the :ingdom of >hrist. 7e is thus brought to see >hrist and to his
a!ostoli% %alling b& a ver& different route from that of the other a!ostles. The main em!hasis
is on the abnormalit& of the !ro%ess, whi%h too: !la%e when the Aisen 4ord had %eased to
manifest 7imself to the dis%i!les.
.+

9in%e also signifies unfitness for life, 7arna%: is !robabl& right in his %on$e%ture
..
that 2aul is ta:ing a term of abuse hurled at him b& his o!!onents to %all in Tuestion his a!ostoli%
offi%e, and using it to signif& that he is trul& unworth& of this be%ause, when the other dis%i!les
and a!ostles saw the 4ord, he was !erse%uting 7im in 7is earthl& %ommunit&. Fridri%hsen,
.*
too,
assumes that 2aul is ado!ting a word %oined and %ir%ulated b& his enemies. was a
%urrent term of abuse with a religious im!li%ation. In relation to the new birth 2aulOs adversaries
%alled him an .
./
7e was !rematurel& born in terms of the , an
in%om!lete, defi%ient, misguided >hristian, and therefore Tuite unable to be an a!ostle."
.)
2aul
a%%e!ted this $udgment, but a!!lied it to his !reD>hristian !eriod as a !erse%utor. It is not a feature
of his %onversion to >hristianit& or his a!ostolate.
.0
2rior to his %onversion he was an
, i.e,, a nonDhuman monster with no true life."
.6
This eB!lanation is %lever, but there are serious
ob$e%tions to it. In !arti%ular, it attributes to 2aulOs o!!onents an unli:el& %on%e!tion of
regeneration.
.7
It also %auses 2aul to a!!l& the term in a sense whi%h does not seem to agree with
7 In ,ram. \iX S] UU [\diZ Sa , [\d`ia SZ also [\d`\aPZQ , whi%h in the first instan%e means embr&o. In b. 9ota **a
Har. \iX S] is !ara!hrased ^`Prh ^\ ^\W [\P tN a %hild whose months (in the womb) are not fulfilled."
This is then a!!lied to some students. >f. 9tr.DH. , III, )7. and )96. In the 8ishnah, tra%t. Feritot, ., /I6 treats of
different forms of mis%arriage and of the a!!ro!riate sa%rifi%es.
6 , full histor& of the eBegesis of ma& be found in ,. Fridri%hsen, 2aulus abortivus" ( S'bolae
Philologicae %. #. Danielsson octogenario dicatae m.9/*n, 79 ff.).
9 >f. on this !t. 1. 9%hwartE, ;<< (.9+7), *76, n. ..
.+ 9o 3e @ette, Hengel, v. 7ofmann, 9tra%:DgJ%:ler, ?. @eiss, 4ietEmann# but not Ha%hmann, who introdu%es
unne%essar& %om!li%ations.
.. 9,H , .9**, 7*.
.* %p. cit ., 6+ ff.
./ >f. alread& Hengel5 3etaphora inde6 unde etia regeneratio dicitur .
.) %p. cit. , 6..
.0 %p. cit. , 79.
.6 >f. Fridri%hsen, 6+, where he defines more %losel&.
.7 I believe that his suggestion in the %losing se%tion ( op. cit. , 6) f.) that regeneration was regarded as a !ro%ess
in the earl& >hur%h is unfounded and even in%orre%t. -ne %an hardl& sa& that where this !ro%ess did not %ome to
a su%%essful issue under the m&sti%al !ower of the sa%rament of ba!tism, a devilish figure emerged." Thus,
though his eB!lanation is right in man& !arti%ulars, it brea:s down in its wider im!li%ations.
what 2aul reall& has in view. 4i:e Fridri%hsen, @indis%h
.6
refers to the !reD>hristian
attitude of 2aul. It is 2aulOs $udgment of himself in relation to his !ast."
,s Hengel !ointed out alread&,
.9
!arti%ular stress falls on the arti%le. 2aul is the onl& a!ostle
to have had a basi% revelation of >hrist in this wa&, outside the normal order of the a!ostoli% band.
This gives him !ain, &et is also a sour%e of $o& in view of the eBtraordinar& favour shown to him.
Ign. in A. 9 , * ado!ted the sa&ing of 2aul and a!!lied it to himself. 7e too: it to im!l&
unworthiness ( c l, ). In the
,
!%. 2t.
, .. 6 is used in the sense of to %ast"5 c q |l
i| 6 .
*+
In 1us.7ist. 1%%l. , (, I, )0 the >hur%h is figur. des%ribed
as a virgin mother who has brought forth both living and dead %hildren. Those born dead (
) are >hristians who did not %onfess their faith in times of !erse%ution.
*.
In Iren. , I, ), 7 ( 82< , 7, )6+) is defined as formless" (
i, 6 ). >f. also
7
i!!.
A
ef. , (I, /., * ( l
i 6 ).
**

S
chneider
3!, 3"$
*

To !our out," a. of fluids, also %ulti%all&, e.g., 7om.Il. , /, *90 f.5 l { # 1
B. 7:6 5 6 i q q (drin:Dofferings for =ahweh, %f.
2 B. 23:16 # ;u. *6 f. )# Is. 0756 5 i (drin:Dofferings for
false gods, %f. ?er. 75.6 # .95./ )# 9ir. 0+5.0 5 q
l i (the libation of wine, ?os.,nt. , /, */) )# 9u::a, ), 95 xZ ^ee `Sa
V`asef cf , %f. b. 9u::a, )6b#
.
;u. .95.7 # 1B. /+5.6 (rites of !urifi%ation)# 3id. , 7, /5 l
q q (ba!tism b& as!ersion). l () , li:e Vred xZ if PdQ
, means to shed blood," to :ill," to murder," I, .7/ f. @ith other ob$e%ts it %an means to
lavish," 1E. .65/6 # Tob. )5.7 5 i #
9ir. /+5.6 5 q # 2hilo,br. , .07 5
, to !our out," 7om.-d. ,
**, / f.5

, ?n. *5.0 # 2 B. 20:10 #

,%. .5.6 .
b. It is also used figur. of s!iritual gifts, both hel!ful and harmful, es!. those whi%h %ome
down lavishl& from above, from divine beings5 2lat.
1
!igr. , 6 (I, 66 3iehl )5 { i
.6 7. @indis%h, Paulus und 1hristus (.9/)), .)), n. .. @indis%h %on$e%tures that 2aul bases his use of the term
on ;u. .*5.* (%f. also ,. 9%hlatter, Paulus6 der Bore 0esu , .9/), )+.). 7e sees the following !arallel5 Saul
contra the counit' UU 3iria contra 3oses .
.9 Hengel, )/+5 articulus vi habet .
,!%. 2t. #pocal'pse of Peter .
*+ >f. also 8oult.D8ill. , *++.
*. 1. 9%hwartE, op. cit. , thin:s that the letter to the <alli% >hur%hes in 1us.7ist. 1%%l. , (, ., )0 gives us the
onl& %orre%t eB!lanation of . >. .056 .
7i!!. 7i!!ol&tus (%. .6+I*/0 ,.3. ), dis%i!le of Irenaeus. 7is main wor: # /efutation of all (eresies in .+
boo:s is dire%ted against <ree: !hiloso!h& as the mother of all heresies, ed. b& different s%holars in Die griech.
christi. Schriftsteller der ersten I 0ahrhunderte , .697 ff.
Aef. /efutatio %niu (aeresiu .
** >f. on this !t. 1. ,. 9o!ho%les, <:. 4eB. (.67+), s.v.
9%hneider ?ohannes 9%hneider , Herlin ((ol. .I*, 6), HerlinvHreslau ((ol. /), ((ol. )), Herlin ((ol. 0, 7).
C , () . Thes. 9te!h. , III, 6)) ff.# 2r.DHauer , /6)# 8oult.D8ill. , *++. For the 7ellenisti%
() along with , %f. Hl.D3ebr. y 7/.
. -n %ulti% libations of water, wine et%., %f. 1. 7uber, Das "rankopfer i 4ulte der Vlker (.9*9)# on the drin:
offering in the -T , %f. 1. FJnig, "heologie des #"
/, )
(.9*/), *6/# ?. HenEiger, (ebr=isehe #rch=ologie
/
(.9*7),
/6) et%.# on the libation of water in the ?ewish feast of taberna%les, %f. 3. Feu%htwang, 3as @assero!fer u. die
damit verbundenen geremonien ," 8<@? , 0) (.9.+), 0/0 ff., 7./ ff.# also 00 (.9..), )/ ff.5 9tr.DH. , II, )9.,
799 ff.# HenEinger, op. cit. , /9*# gn. on ?n. 75/7 # 9%hl. ?. , .99 ff. -n the drin: offering as an image of
mart&rdom in 2hil. *5.7 # * Tm. )56 , %f. -. 9%hmitE, Die %pferanschauung des sp=teren 0udentus u. d.
%pferaussagen des !" (.9.+), */. f. and the %omm.
1!igr. &pigraata .
i i , 7os. 05.+ 5 #
1E. 956 5 (%f. Is. )*5*0 )# 4am. *5) 5
(%f. )5.. )# 9ir. .65.. 5 # .65.. 5 {
# .59 (wisdom)# 2hil.,br. , 76 5
.
The following uses are of theologi%al im!ortan%e in the ;T .
.. The eB!ression l or is used of the violent sla&ing of -T and
;T mart&rs in 8t. */5/0 !ar. # A. /5.0 (UU Is. 0957 )# ,%. **5*+ # Aev. .656 . It is also referred
s!e%ifi%all& to the death of ?esus in the sa&ing at the 4ast 9u!!er in 8:. .)5*) # 8t. *65*6 #
4:. **5*+ 6* In the sa&ing regarding the %u! (8:.5 l
q c m8t.5
l n# 4:.5 q q
i , c ), 7is violent death
ta:es !la%e for the salvation of man and for the a%hievement of the new divine order ( ?er.
/.5/. ff. ). Hut the antit&!i%al relationshi! of the sa&ing to 1B. *)56 , the stor& of the solemn
sealing of the old b& blood at 9inai, does not of itself lead either to the thought of
!ro!itiation, whi%h is not !resent in the -T !assage, or to an& %orres!onden%e between the
shedding of the blood of ?esus and the %ulti% !ouring and s!rin:ling of blood in 1B. *)56 , 6
( li , I, .76f.).
*
The violent death foreseen b& ?esus is %ons%iousl& a%%e!ted
and thus be%omes an a%t of su!reme selfDsa%rifi%e su!erior to all other offerings ( I, .70 ).
*. The idea of out!ouring, of the streaming down from above of a !ower hitherto
withheld, is also used to des%ribe the im!artation of divine gifts or !owers in whi%h <od
im!arts 7imself. The es%hatologi%al !ro!he%& of ?l. /5. f. , a%%ording to whi%h <od will !our
out the mira%ulous !ower of 7is 9!irit li:e fru%tif&ing rain on Israel (%f. *5*/f .# Is. /*5.0 ), is
fulfilled on the earl& %ommunit& in the mira%le of 2ente%ost ( ,%. *5.6 ff. ). The eBalted ?esus
has fulfilled the will of the Father,
( v. // ). In -T !ro!he%&, however, the !i%ture of an out!ouring of the 9!irit is used not
merel& for e%stati% ins!iration, but also for inner renewal b& the 9!irit ( 1E. /95*9 # ge%h.
.*5.+ # %f. Is. ))5/ ff. # 1E. /65*6 f. ). 9imilarl&, the earl& >hur%h uses the same !i%ture both
for a fresh outbrea: of tongues ( ,%. .+5)0 I, 7** ff. ) and also for the re%e!tion of the
9!irit b& the >hristian in ba!tism ( Tt. /50 f. 5 i,
q i )# %f. Harn. , ., /5
i q q i # . >l., )6, 6# *, *. In indi%ation of
the elemental for%e of this brea:ing of all !revious barriers, Aom. 050 5 q
i q i
q , shows that in the death of >hrist ( v. 6ff .) there is demonstration of the
overflowing wealth of the love of <od for sinners giving %onstant assuran%e to >hristians b&
the 7ol& 9!irit.
/

* -n the basis of the %om!li%ated teBt of 4:. **5*+ , -. 7oltEmann has suggested that after the analog& of 1B.
*)56 , 6 a %u! was !oured out at the 4ast 9u!!er and one half was em!tied out on the ground li:e the blood at
9inai ( )eben 0esu m.9+.n, /6/# g;@ , / m.9+*n, /09# Das !" V berset-t und erkl=rt , I m.9*6n, 6) f., *+6,
/*.). Hut this has been refuted b& 1. ;estle, g;@ , / m.9+*n, *0*# 7 m.9+6n, *06, and also b& 7. ?. (olt-ann6
)ehrbuch der nt.lichen "heologie
*
, I (.9..), /66 n. ;o less satisfa%tor& is the suggestion of ,. 9!itta, Zur
Geschichte u. )iteratur d. 8rchristentus , I (.69/), *66 f., that the of 8:. .)5*) refers to the
!ouring out of the wineDblood into %u!s for drin:ing. The further suggestion of F. <. <oetE, Die heutige
#bendahlsfrage
*
(.9+7), .66 f., .)6 f.# Das #bendahl eine Diatheke 0esu VS (.9*+), *9 ff., that the
refers to a dedi%ation of the %u!, suffers from the fatal wea:ness of ignoring the basi%
eB!ression l (to :ill") whi%h o%%urs in all the 9&no!ti% a%%ounts.
/ >f. H. @eiss
9
, also Hengel, ad loc. # 8. ?. 4agrange, Saint Paul WpXtre au: /oains
*
(.9**), .+*. To refer A.
050 to the out!ouring of the 9!irit (as tentativel& !ro!osed b& 2r.DHauer , op. cit. 5 %f. ,. ?Gli%her in Schriften d.
!"
/
, II m.9.7n, *06) is hardl& ne%essar& in view of the wides!read use of the image in -T and ?ewish writings
( under b., supra ).
Beh
73
' "8$,
'
*
"8$ .
a. @illing," intentional," es!. in law, where intentional a%ts are to be !unished more
severel&.
.
b. (oluntar&," not under %om!ulsion," the o!!. of i, .
*
1thi%al and
!hiloso!hi%al thought %onsidered under what %onditions man a%ts b& free selfDdetermination (
). ,ristotle agrees with 2lato that the rational will %an !ro!ose onl& the good as its
goal. 7en%e the famous statement , 2lat.2rot. ,
/)0d. Hut in line with %ommon modes of thought ,ristotle distinguishes between intentional and
unintentional wrongdoing. Knintentional a%ts are those whi%h arise through eBternal %om!ulsion
or in whi%h the goal attained is different from that intended. In su%h %ases there is an element of
ignoran%e involved. 7en%e ,ristotle redu%es the degree of %ul!abilit& and differentiates these from
wi%:ed a%ts.
/
9toi% ethi%s, too, em!hasises that free obedien%e to the deit& is the essen%e of
moralit&. This free submission to the divine will embra%es suffering.
)
The 9toi% ideal is that the
wise man should willingl& a%%e!t his divinel& im!osed lot. In this wa& he demonstrates his
freedom from eBternal fate.
The 4'' uses 6 onl& twi%e. In 1B. *.5./ there is referen%e to unintentional assault (
6 , crdud [\_ ), and it also o%%urs in ?ob /65.9 . is also found twi%e, in
?ob .)5.7 and ) 8a%%. ..5.* (against oneOs own will and intention").
In the Talmudi% writings 6 is used for t^_uMZ Wed or `Yea uZ refsa in the sense of with m&
%onsent," and for SX^_[LeZ (under %om!ulsion") or `ha MZ Wed \uf (against m& will").
0

In the ;T 6 means (b.) willingl&" in . >. 95.6 f. , as o!!osed to ( v. .6 )
or ( v. .7 ). In A. 65*+ man sins b& his own resolve, whereas nature is sub$e%ted to
vanit& through no will of its own.
.
a. @illing," intentional." @hile 6 is normall& used of the !erson, is
mostl& used of the thing ( ).
.
Thus a%ts are done b& design or intention.
?os.,!. , ., / i , o!!. .
*
;ot %om!ulsor&," ?os.Hell. , *, *+9 5
i # Test. 4. 957# 3. )56, 9o also in !hiloso!hi%al usage ( 6 ).
/

C 6 . 7. 9%hmidt, S'non'ik der griech. Sprache , III (.679), 6.* f.
. 3emosth. , *., )/5 c 6 g,

,
i . 9ib. , *, 66 (2s.D2ho:&l), o!!. 6 .
* 2lato 9o!h. , *)+%5 q q , ?os.Hell. , 6, .+. and /99 . 7om.Il. , ),
)/5 6 i , voluntaril&, though grudgingl&."
/ ,ristot. 1th. 8., ., .*, !. ..66a, 6 ff.5 6 l6 {
i 6 { # I, ./, !. ..66a, .7 f.5 q
6 q # I, /), !. ..90b, 6 ff.# I, /), !. ..96a, ./ ff.# 1th. ;i%. , III. /, !.
....a, *9. >f. <. Faf:a, #ristoteles (.9**), .*) f., ./0 f.# on the distin%tion between intentional ( )
and deliberate ( ) a%tions, %f. ibid. , ./+ ff.# on the %on%e!t , %f. -. Fraus, Die
)ehre von )ob6 )ohn6 "adel und Strafe bei ,ristot. (.9+0), )9 ff.
) 1!i%t.3iss. , I(, /, 95 l i , 6 i . Fr. , 65
{ i # I, .*, */5 { i,
q , 2 q g 6 q . >f. I, .7, .).
0 For eBam!les %f. 9tr.DH. , III, )+..
. 7. 9%hmidt, 9&non. d. griech. Sprache , III (.679), 6.* f.
* ,nti!hon -rator (ed. ?. Thalheim m.9.)n), ., *65 q c i
,

i i . 0, 9*5 c q
i,

q 6. c , q
q , q .
In the 4'' it is used es!. for %ulti% a%ts whi%h are voluntar& as distin%t from the reTuired
sa%rifi%es, 4v. 756 # 2 t. 3:5 # 65*6 . The verb is the %ounter!art of the
7eb. LrS hit! in 2 t. 2:68 # /50 # . 8a%%. *5)* . The negative i is used in the
4'' of sins whi%h are not done deliberatel&" or with %ons%ious, evil intent"5 4v. )5* , ** , *7 #
;u. .05*0 # ?os. *+5/ , 9 , 7eb. cRdRdPZQ Lea ( o!!. csd Md r`dLeZ ;u. .05/+ , with %ons%ious, evil intent").
)
, s&non. is in 4v. 05.6 # **5.) # 1E. )+5/9 # )*I./ # ooh. 056 . >f. also 2hilo.
0

In the ;T it is used in sense a. of intentional and %ons%ious transgressions" whose guilt is
heightened b& !re%eding !ersonal eB!erien%e of saving truth, 7b. .+5*6 5
q i q i ( ). It is also used in sense b. (not under
%om!ulsion") in 2hlm. .)5 q
.
(
auck
) ( i , i )
-live oil" (often s!e%ified, 2. Tebt. , /90, 9 and .65 i # 1E.
*75*+ 5 i # 4v. *)5* 5 ), is found from the time of 7om. ,
also on ins%r., in the !a!. and in the 4''# in the wider sense it ma& be used for an& oil or fatt&
fluid5 7i!!o%r.
8
ul. , II, .9)5 (of the goose)# 2. ,mh. , *, 9/5 p (of
the radish) # 7i!!.
2
hilos. , (, *.5 { p (!etroleum). In later ,tti% it is
used for the !la%e where oil is sold5
2
oll.
-
nom. , I', )7# 8enand. Fr. , 696.
In the 4'' it is used for tsX PXQ , or, together with other !rodu%ts, for Mcf um`a . ,long with tsX PXQ
Y`a|f in 1B. *75*+ et%., we on%e have Mse_ cf tsX PXQ , the oil of m&rrh (4''5 ) in
1st. *5.* .
The ;T tea%hes us a good deal %on%erning the wides!read signifi%an%e and use of olive oil
in the an%ient world.
.. ,s a form of agrarian !rodu%e, %onstitutes a !art of the !rodu%tive %a!a%it& or
me%handise of a %ountr&5 Aev. 656 # 4:. .656 # Aev. .65./ . -n oil !rodu%tion %f. ins%r., at the time
of 7adrian ( >I< , I, /00, *)5 l i #
%f. line 6)# 3itt. 9&ll.
/
, 6/, 095 i q # >atal. >od. ,str. <rae%. , (III, /, !.
.*0, .*5 c g (in the month of 4ibra) i 6 ,
i # III, *6, 9. 2alestine in !arti%ular was ri%h in oil !rodu%tion5 3t. 656 5 q
i # 3t. 65.. 5 i { . 7os. *56 (
.+ )# ?os.,nt. , *, 09. f. -il is %ounted as a !ossession in 7om.-d. , *, //9 and also 4 B.
20:13 # * >h. /*5*6 # 3 B. 17:12 # ?os.Hell. . 0, 060 # 3id. , ./, 6# 7erm.m. , .., .0, and it is
ver& valuable5 2rv. *.5.7 . In 4&dus de -stentis, )*5 c i,
i c , it is re%ognised as one of the essentials of life, as also in 9ir. /95*6
5 q i l q 6, i {
l q l . It is even used for nourishment5 Thu%. , III, )9#
/ ,ristot. 1th. 8., I, .*, !. ..67b, /)5 { q # I, ./, !. ..66a,
/+# I, .7, !. ..69b, . 6 # 8. ,nt. , .+, 6, *.
) -. 9%hmitE, Die %pferanschauungen des sp=teren 0udentus (.9.+), *7 f.
0 2oster. >. , .+ f. 5 i # 3eus Imm. , .*6 #
(it. 8os. , I, *7/ 5 i,

.
7au%: Friedri%h 7au%: , 1rlangen ((ol. .I6).
8ul. De 3orbis 3ulieru .
2hilos. Philosophuena .
2oll. ?ulius 2olluB (2ol&deu%es), of ;au%ratis in 1g&!t (.76 ,.3. ), !rofessor of rhetori% in ,thens, ,tti%ist
leBi%ogra!her and grammarian, ed. I. He::er, .6)6# 1. Hethe, I, .9++.
-nom. %noasticu .
3t. .*5.7 # 3 B. 17:12 # 1E. .65./ # ,%t. Thom. , *9. Thus oil %omes to be used as a s&mbol
of wealth5 3t. /*5./ # //5*) # ?ob *956 7T . It is a trading %ommodit& in 3 B. 5:11 # 7os. .*5.
( * )# 1E. *75.7 # 2 t. 3:7 # ?os.Hell. , *, 09. # 9. 3t. y /00 on //5*) (.)6a).
There have been man& attem!ts to eB!lain Aev. 656 5 l q
qg . It %an hardl& be a !la& on the edi%t of 3omitian in 9* ,.3. (
9
uet. 3omitianus , 7),
nor a %ons%ious ado!tion of the astrologi%al notion that in the &ear of s%ales" %ro!s wither but
there will be !lent& of oil and wine, nor a referen%e to later ?ewish es%hatologi%al eB!e%tations,
nor an admonition to ta:e %are of oil and wine as sa%ramental elements.
.
8ore li:el& it is the
!ro!he%& of a !artial e%onomi% %risis and derives from a %on%rete eB!erien%e of the divine, whi%h
he lin:s with -T warnings. >orn, oil and wine !la& a distin%tive role in the es%hatologi%al
!romises and threats of the -T . Thus we read in ?l. *5.9 5 6
l , {# %f. v. *) ,
and 7os. *5*. f. 5 ig g qq, ,
, g g, q q
l , . -n the other hand, 3t.
*65/6 ff. s!ea:s of the %urse of <od whi%h will involve destru%tion of the %orn, oil and wine. (. )+
5 i i , ig,
q i . 8ention should also be made of 8i. 65.0 5
q g, i q ig , l q
i, . In the -T the referen%e seems to be to the
full %urse of <od, but in Aev. 656 , a%%ording to the meaning and !osition of the first four seals, the
referen%e is to a !artial $udgment (%f. 656b ). This is eB!ressed in the third seal b& sa&ing that %orn
is so dear that a full da&Os !a& is needed to bu& dail& bread, but there is no dearth of oil and wine.
In the militar&, !oliti%al and e%onomi% %rises and in the high mortalit& of his own age, the divine
finds intimations of the a!!roa%hing $udgment of <od. Hut so far there is no total destru%tion of
vital resour%es.
*. -il is also used for lam!s in 8t. *05/ # %f. 7dt. , II, 9)# ,risto!h.
;
u. , 06# 2lut.
2
eri%l. , .6 (I,
.6*%)# >i%.
,
tt. , 'III, *6# 3itt. 9&ll.
/
, .+)*, .+# 1B. *75*+ UU 4v. *)5* # ;u. )5.6 # Tg. ?. I 1B.
/05*6 . In
9
hab. , *, * we read of different wa&s of :indling lam!s with oil.
/. -il is %ommonl& used for various :inds of anointing ( i , I, **9 # i ).
In 4:. 75)6 5 iq q q c q q
, anointing with m&rrh is distinguished from anointing with olive. 7ere,
then, does not mean ointment as in 8:. .)5/ # ?n. .*5/ , where the distinguishing
is added. It means ointment of m&rrh, as in 8t. *657 ( 7eb. M^_s ,ram. [Md ^_s , [Md `s]
). here is the of 1st. *5.* , The $uBta!osition of and
brings out the %ontrast between the 2harisee who does not !a& the usual honours to
his guest, the 8essiah, and the sinner who !erforms this menial offi%e in generous res!onse to
the 8essiah.
In 7b. .59 the !assage 2s. )057 , whi%h the Aabbis inter!reted 8essiani%all&,
*
is referred
to the 9on. The Tuotation is substantiall& from the 4''5 q
i i , ,
.
In the original the 2s. s!ea:s of the anointing of the :ing for the marriage feast. ,%%ording to
the %hristologi%al inter!retation of 7b. the 9on is anointed as the 8essiani% Fing. In other words,
the 9on, having loved righteousness, is eBalted to <odhead in the sight of all men. 7e thus
9uet. >. 9uetonius TranTuillus, high Aoman offi%ial under 7adrian, historian and author of biogra!hies of the
em!erors from >aesar to 3omitian, ed. A. 3. Aobinson, .9*05 ?. A. AietEa, .9*6.
. @. Housset ,!:. (.9+6), ./0 f.# A. 7. >harles ,!%. (.9*+), .66 ff.# 4oh. ,!:. , 06 f.# F. Holl, #us der
%ffenbarung 0ohannis (.9.)), 6) ff.
;u. !ubes .
2eri%l. De Pericle .
,tt. #d #tticu .
9hab. Shabbat , 8ishnahD, ToseftaD, Talmud tra%tate Sabbath (9tra%:, &inl. , /7).
* V. 9tr.DH. , III, 679.
be%omes the . >f. ?ust.3ial. , 66, /5 , i
q (the oil of m&rrh) q
, q, i i,
, { l l
i
l ,
q . It is worth %onsidering whether the author of 7b. does not
ta:e stri%tl& the idea of the anointing of the :ing for marriage, relating it to su%h thoughts as o%%ur,
e.g., in Aev. .957 f. # *.59 f. , and thus %on%eiving of the eBaltation of the 9on as the marriage of
the 8essiah with the heavenl& %ommunit&. The term oil of $o&," whi%h re%urs in the 4'' at Is.
6.5/ as , arises naturall& from the use of oil on $o&ous and festive
o%%asions. ,nointing with oil was not merel& a means to strengthen the bod& and to enhan%e
!h&si%al wellDbeing but also to eB!ress festive $o&5 ,m. 656 # 2s. */50 # 2rv. *759 # ooh. 956 . In
sorrow, anointing was sus!ended5 * 9. .*5*+ # .)5* # 3a. .+5/ .
/
It is worth noting that the basi%
as%eti%ism of the 1ssenes ( ?os.Hell. , *, .*/ ) and of the !riests des%ribed in 2or!h&r.,bst. , I(, 6,
7 forbade anointing, or the use of oil, either in whole or in !art.
). -il was often used as a means to heal the most divers maladies. @ith 8:. 65./ and ?m.
05.) ( I, */+ ), we ma& also refer to 4:. .+5/) 5 6
l {
>om!arison ma& be made with 2lin.7ist. ;at. , '(, .I6. 7ere, in a treatise on oil trees, the
!rodu%tion of oil and :inds of oil, we read in '(, )5 %leo natura tepefacere corpus et contra
algores unire6 eide fervores capiris refrigerare # '(, 75 veteri $uo$ue oleo usus est ad
$uaeda genera orboru . >f. */, /) ff. (egetius, 3igestorum ,rtis 8ulomedi%inae 4ibri , II,
79, */ (4ommatEs%h)# >olumella, 3e Ae Austi%a , (I, /+, )# (II, 0, .6# >urtius, 7istoriarum
,leBandri 8agni , I', .+, .5 ?uippe scabies corpora invasit6 et contagiu orbi etia in alios
vulgafu est. %leu reedio fuit # 3io >. , 0/, *9, 05 c q, q
q qi . <al. 3e 9im!li%ium
8edi%amentorum Tem!eramentis II, .+ ff.5 l
6 (dr&) 6 . T.9hab. , .*, .*# $Her., /a, 95 , si%:
!erson ma& be rubbed on the sabbath with a miBture of oil and wine" ( Y`Yea SZ^e\[b UU
l ).
)

Schlier
)!3, ), )3, )&
)!3%
*

.. Though the ;T usage is sim!le and, straightforward, outside the ;T it is ver&
%om!li%ated. In 7om. still means to s%orn," to bring into %ontem!t."
.
4ater it
means a. to shame" b& eB!osure, o!!osition, et%.# b. to blame"# %. to eB!ose," to resist"#
then d. to inter!ret," to eB!ound"# and finall& e. to investigate."
*

In the 4''
/
and %ognates are used to translate different 7eb. stems. @hen
o%%asionall& used for cMd qd ReZ ( Is. 0+5* , v. . . ) or for cud [d SZ ( Is. /75/ ) along with
/ >f. also the Aabb. eBam!les in 9tr.DH. , I, )*6.
) >f. 9tr.DH. , II, .. f. and the !assages Tuoted in I, */+, n. * and /
C . 2a!e, 2ass. , >r.DFJ. , 2r.DHauer , s.v. | . gn. ?n., )**, n. )*# 9tr.DH. , I, 767I79+# 2. (olE,
0dische &schatologie (.9+/), *60.
. Il. , 9, 0.6# -d. , *., )*)# %f. also the use of and in 7omer (2a!e).
* 9everal eBam!les are given in 2a!e, 2ass. It is hard to fiB on a basi% meaning, %f. Hoisa%T, s.v. .
2erha!s the underl&ing sense is to go into, and to reveal, a sorr& matter whi%h brings others into %ontem!t." ,.
@alde and ?. 2o:orn&, Vergl. Wrterb. d. indoger. Sprachen , I (.9*7), )/6, ta:e it that the basi% sense is to
shame" and %om!are it with 4ettish words.
/ This !aragra!h is b& <. Hertram.
, and it means to rebu:e" or to shame." It has the same sense when used for Msf in
;u. 05.6 ff. in the fiBed formula . Indeed, when used for hf `Paw in ?ob *.5) #
*/5* (here onl& in the 4''), it must be understood similarl&. -n the other hand, when used for
qRS in * >h. *65*+ it means to !unish." In ?ob .056 %ondemn" or %onvi%t" is demanded b&
qPQ M hi. In 4v. 05*) ( 650 ), where VPQ [ means to atone," introdu%es the rather
different sense of to %onvi%t," while in 2rv. .65.7 MNh (to test," to eBamine") is eB%ellentl&
rendered b& , whi%h %an have this sense. In all other !assages in the 4'' where there
is a 7eb. original, it is used for the root hW` and derivatives, and the meaning and use of
and %ognates in the <:. Hible is largel& determined b& this 7eb. original. In distin%tion
from and M` , behind whi%h there is alwa&s the idea of !aternal %hastisement, it
denotes the dis%i!lining and edu%ating of man b& <od as a result of 7is $udi%ial a%tivit&. This
embra%es all as!e%ts of edu%ation from the %onvi%tion of the sinner to %hastisement and
!unishment, from the instru%tion of the righteous b& severe tests to his dire%tion b& tea%hing and
admonition.
)
@ith the general idea of dis%i!line and edu%ation, the word grou! be%omes ver&
%ommon in the hagiogra!ha. In the histori%al and !ro!heti% boo:s it is less %ommon, as also in the
;T , where it is more used in eBhortation.
*. The use of in the ;T is restri%ted. In the a%t. it is almost alwa&s used with the
a%%. of !erson, and in the !ass. it is used also of !ersons. It means to show someone his sin
and to summon him to re!entan%e." This ma& be a !rivate matter between two !eo!le, as in
8t. .65.0 # 1!h. 05.. . Hut it ma& also be a %ongregational affair under the leader, as in the
2astorals5 . Tm. 05*+ # * Tm. )5* # Tt. .59 , ./ # *5.0 .
0
It is also the wor: of the 7ol& 9!irit
in the world ( ?n. .656 ),
6
of the eBalted >hrist in the %ommunit& ( Aev. /5.9 ), and of the
4ord in $udgment at the parousia ( ?d. .0 ). ?esus sa&s that it %annot !ossibl& a!!l& to 7im
( ?n. 65)6 ). In relation to sinful !ersons or a%ts, is the eB!erien%e of the sinner
when fa%ed b& the !ro!het who demands re!entan%e ( 4:. /5.9 # . >. .)5*) ), b& %ons%ien%e
( ?n. 659 * al), b& the selfDrevelation of light ( ?n. /5*+ # 1!h. 05./ ), b& the divine instru%tion
( 7b. .*50 ), or b& the 4aw ( ?m. *59 ). To indi%ate the fault i is used ( 4:. /5.9 ), or, with
the !ass. , , ( ?m. *59 ). 1laboration after i is introdu%ed b& ( ?n
.659I.. ).
7
The word does not mean onl& to blame" or to re!rove," nor to %onvin%e" in
the sense of !roof, nor to reveal" or eB!ose,"
6
but to set right," namel&, to !oint awa&
from sin to re!entan%e." It im!lies edu%ative dis%i!line. The %orres!onding a%tion is
( * 2t. *5.6 , HalaamOs ass in relation to the !ro!het) and ( v.l. , * Tm.
/5.6 , 9%ri!ture in relation to the hearer). The noteworth& and im!ressive battle against sin
whi%h is !art of ;T >hristianit& is refle%ted in the ri%h use of and related words.
/. This battle against sin and the use of for it, as we have shown alread& ( )7/
), is based dire%tl& u!on the -T and ?udaism. >orre%tion of evildoers is demanded in the -T
lest hatred develo! ( 4v. .95.7 ). For the Aabbis rebu:e is an integral !art of brotherl& love.
Hoth to deliver and to re%eive it is a dut& on the one side and a high moral a%hievement on the
other.
.+
The battle against sin in others is !art of the ver& essen%e of ?ewish religion. The idea
of <od as -ne who edu%ates b& %orre%tion ( 7b. .*50 ) also goes ba%: dire%tl& to the -T
) >f. 9. 8owin%:el, 3ie (orstellungen des 9!lt$udentums vom heiligen <eist als FGrs!re%her und der
$ohanneis%he 2ata:let ," g;@ , /* (.9//), .+) ff.# <. Hertram, 3er Hegriff der 1rEiehung in der grie%his%hen
Hibel ," in .ago Dei , 9estschr. f. Gustav 4rger (.9/*), )6 f.
0 The | of *5.0 %annot be %onstrued differentl& from the of .5./ or the of .59 , even
though it is lin:ed with . This is a %areless %onstru%tion, sin%e is %orre%t onl& with . >f.
the a%%us. , of ob$e%t with .
6 It is hardl& a!!ro!riate to s!ea: of a $udi%ial offi%e of the 9!irit.
7 To ta:e %ausall& (gn.) is artifi%ial.
6 This meaning is suitable in ?n. /5*+ # 1!h. 05.. , ./ , where wor:s rather than !ersons are the sub$e%t of
. Hut here, too, the sense is not merel& to dis!la&," but to show to be evil," so that we do best to
:ee! to the rendering to %orre%t," es!e%iall& as deeds and doers are %losel& related.
.+ >f. 9tr.DH. , I, 767I79+# also 9%hl. 8t. , 00).
( 2rv. /5.* # ?ob 05.7 et%.).
..
It is also a traditional !art of the ?ewish %on%e!tion of the 4ast
?udgment that the divine ?udge should %onfront sinners with their wi%:edness ( ?d. .0 ).
.*

?ose!hus uses for both divine and human %orre%tion, but also for to %onvin%e,"
to ma:e :nown."
./
2hilo uses a good deal. The sub$e%t is usuall& %ons%ien%e
.)

or truth
.0
or the 4ogos,
.6
whose rebu:e is far more signifi%ant than that of men.
.7

In the <:. !hiloso!hers , , et%. are ver& im!ortant words.
.6

For 2lato as the %ontroverting of !ro!ositions is essentiall& the wor: of the
!hiloso!her.
.9
In ,ristotle is the negative %on%lusion whi%h his theor& of logi% and
rhetori% treats alongside the or demonstration.
*+
7e devoted a s!e%ial treatise to the
%orre%tion of so!histi%al .
*.
In geno is the title of two treatises.
**
The
!la&s an im!ortant role in 1!i%tetus. For him is to ta:e from someone his
, i.e., the basi% !rin%i!le of his life rather than a !hiloso!hi%al theor&.
*/
7e distinguishes
the or from the and .
*)

9o%rates is the t&!i%al .
*0
It is a dut&, but diffi%ult, to a%%e!t ( )
.
*6
, et%. are here te%hn. terms in the !hiloso!hi%al %ure of souls.
*7
The !arallel between 1!i%tetus and the ;T is instru%tive, be%ause the usage of 1!i%tetus has a
different slant from that of 2lato and ,ristotle. The undeniable similarit& between ?ewish and
earl& >hristian on the one side, and that of 1!i%tetus on the other, derives from the
em!hati%all& ethi%al a!!li%ation in both %ases.
)3, ), )&%
*

.. In @is. .56 shows the :indness of wisdom. Thus the boo: begins with a warning to those who do
not ta:e sin with suffi%ient seriousness (vv. .I0 ). >f. 1n. *ff.
.* ?d. .0 addu%es 1n. .59. >f. 9. Har. , 00, 6# 6/, /# ) 1sr. 75/7 # ..5/7ff .# .*5/.I// # 2s. 9ol. .75*0. >f. also
(olE, *60. (olE rightl& !oints out that this rebu:e %ondemns# it is no longer edu%ative. In ?n. .656 , too, the
%onvin%ing of the world !robabl& has the sense of %ondemnation, sin%e there is no Tuestion of the re!entan%e of
the world.
./ -f <od, Hell. , 7, //+ 5 , q i
i { 6 . -f man, ,nt. , 6, /*0 5 the widow g
i q , Hell. , 7, ))7 5 c i
q i . In the sense of to %onvin%e," to show"5 (it. , *00 5
# Hell. , 0, 0.0 5 q ; 0, 00. 5 q i i # 7, 7*+ 5
c q # ,!. , ., / 5 q i # ., ) 5 c
q l #
., /+/ 5 .
.) ?os. , )6 # 9!e%. 4eg. , III, 0) # I(, 6 , )+ .
.0 >onf. 4ing. .*6 # 2raem. 2oen. , ) .
.6 Aer. 3iv. 7er. , 90 # 3et. 2ot. Ins. , .)6 # 3eus Imm. , ./0 , .6* # Fug. , ..6 .
.7 ?os. , *6* # (irt. , *+6 .
.6 3emo%r. alread& uses of the eB!osure of the failings of others in Fr. , 6+ (II, 70, .6, 3iels ) and Fr.
, *** (II, .+0, .*, 3iels )# he also uses the term in his ethi%al fragments.
.9 9o!h. , *).d# 0*9a# <org. , 07+%# Theaet. , .7.d# 2haed. , *7/%.
*+ , ,n. 2ri. , II, *+, !. 66b, .., 6# 3e 9o!histi%is 1len%his , 9, !. .7+b, .# .+, !.
.7.a, *, ). | is a %on%lusion with the
refutation of the %onseTuen%e, ., !. .60a, *.
*. -n the relation between the two, %f.5 , q
i 3e 9o!histi%is 1len%his , 9, !. .7+a, *). ,ristot. %an s!ea: of
5 8eta!h. , III, ), !. .++6a, .0. Further material ma& easil& be found with the hel! of the indeB of 7.
HonitE (.67+).
** >f. geno Fr. , ). (I, .0, v. ,rnim )# 3iog. 4. , (II, ).
*/ 3iss. , III, 9, ./ (III, .), 9 instead of ), %f. II, ., /*# I(, 0, *..
*) II, *6, )# III, */, //.
*0 III, *., .9.
*6 II, .), *+# I, *6, .7, %f. III, //, 6.
*7 It is hardl& 1!i%t. who ma:es them this. There is a %orres!onding usage in the older and middle 9toa. @e
need onl& refer to >&ni%ism5 when the dog" of 3iogenes bites" his friends with a view to im!roving them, this
is . >f. also <. ,. <erhard, Phoini: von 4olophon (.9+9), /0.
has the senses a. !roof," means of !roof" with a view to %onvin%ing and refuting,
%onvin%ing," refutation"# and b. investigation," a%%ount."
.
The 4'' uses it for chd W]Ye_ )
hf `Wa^_c , hWf^_S ), refutation," %orre%tion." is rare and means !ersuasion," refutation."
*

( v.l. 5 ) in * Tm. /5.6 and in * 2t. *5.6 mean the rebu:ing of
the sinner,
/
, )7) .
In 7b. ..5. , in the wellD:nown %hara%terisation
)
of faith, means !roof" or
!ersuasion" rather than %orre%tion.
0
Hut it %annot be ta:en in the sense of sub$e%tive
!ersuasion, sin%e this does not %orres!ond to the usage.
6
To ta:e as a sub$.
gen. , so that the fa%ts substantiate themselves to faith in s!ite of their invisibilit&,
7
is
%ountered b& the fa%t that usuall& ta:es an
o
b$. gen.
6
Thus we must ta:e
as an ob$. gen.
9
The referen%e is to the !resen%e of an , not to the
one who a%hieves it. H& adding . to the inner
right of resting on the thing ho!ed for ( ) is established. To find the
%onvin%ing sub$e%t in faith, as most of the older eBegetes did,
.+
endangers the ne%essar&
!arallelism of and , and obs%ures the inner right of the .
If we are to name a %onvin%ing sub$e%t, it %an onl& be <od, , faith whi%h of itself %ontained
or offered !roof of things unseen would not be the faith of 7b., whi%h stands on the
revelation, @ord and !romise of <od and has nothing but what it re%eives. Thus faith is
%onfiden%e in what is ho!ed for, sin%e it is the divinel& given %onvi%tion of things unseen.
Bchsel
), )!, ), ), #!),
#)
), )!%
*

C | . 2a!e, 2ass. , s.v. | # ,. 9%hlatter, Der Glaube i !"
)
(.9*7), 0*) f.# Agg. 7b.
*,/
(.9**),
/)+ ff.# @nd. 7b. , 99.
. . 8an& eBam!les ma& be found in 2a!e.
* >f. 2a!e. is not found in ?ose!hus.
/ >f. ?os.,nt. , 6, *0* 5 q i i q
.
) -ne %an hardl& %all it definition, sin%e the author does not tr& to be eBhaustive but leaves mu%h for his readers
to fill in. >f. ,. 9eeberg 7b. (.9.*), .*+.
0 9o ,. 9%hlatter, Glaube , 0*) f.# 2r.DHauer , s.v. | , @indis%h, Aiggenba%h.
6 @indis%h and Aiggenb., who both eB!lain it in this wa&, allow that has an ob$. rather than a sub$.
sense ( Agg. 7b. , /)/).
7 9%hlatter, op. cit.
ob$. gen. ob$e%tive genitive.
6 >f. the eBam!les given b& Agg , /)*, n. 7+, namel&, 1!i%t. , III, .+, ..5
, q i # ?os.Hell. , ), //7 5 q
. >f. ,nt. , .7, ..+ 5 q # ,!. , *, .7 5
6 . 2a!e offers onl& one eBam!le of the sub$. gen. with ,
9o!h.-ed. >ol. , .*995 l 6 .
9 To see it in the believer, so that he !roves to others the realit& of unseen things, does not fit in with ..5. ,
though it might agree with the of .*5. . For in ..5. there is no referen%e to the signifi%an%e of the
believer to others.
.+ >f. the list in Agg. 7b. , /)*, n. 7+. >hr&s. , 82< , 6/, .0.5 { i q
i i , i, l q q
i q 6 # -e%umenius, 82< , ..9, )+.d5 c q i
. i c q i ;
i q . vg 5 est aute fides sperandaru substantia reru6 arguentu
non apparentiu .
C | . 4. 9%hmidt, Die &thik der alten Griechen , II (.66*), *9+I*9)# ;. <lue%:, 3as @ort Yhesed im
at.li%hen 9!ra%hgebrau%he ," Heih. g,@ , )7 (.9*7)# @. F. 4ofthouse, Y(en and Y(esed in the -T ," g,@ , ;F,
A. The ree% &sage.
In <:. is a , i.e., the emotion roused b& %onta%t with an affli%tion whi%h %omes
undeservedl& on someone else. There is in it an element of that this %an ha!!en. Thus we
have the definition in ,ristot.Ahet. , II, 6, !. ./60b, ./ f.5 c
q (naturall& not a!!arent" but a!!earing") q
i , .
.
To this eBtent
and %orres!ond, for is %on%erned with the welfare of others.
*
also
%orres!onds to as $ustifiable !ain at unmerited !ros!erit&.
/

In fa%e of the unfortunate this emotion is an whi%h in%ludes the elements of both awe
( l6 , I, .69 ) and mer%&, so that %an be used with both l
)
and
li
0
and !ar. () in the sense of mer%& or s&m!ath& is ver& %ommon.
6
It
is fitting in the noble.
7
The %ruel have a c q , li:e ,%hilles ( 7om.Il. , 9, )97) and
(
7
es.Theog. , 76) f.
T
avnato, n. . ). The mer%iful man is %alled
6
(
7om.-d. , 0, .9.5 the as or , ,risto!h. 2aB, )*0 et%.), the
unmer%iful , later (the adv. is found alread& in ,nti!hon -rator, ., *0) and
. is one who deserves !it&.
9
The deit& %an also be the sub$e%t of
.+ (.9//), *9I/0# 4. <ul:owits%h, D. &nt2icklung des Begriffes YhDsZd i #" (.9/)).
. >f. Ahet. , II, 6, !. ./66a, *7 ff.5 | is %on%erned with that in others whi%h we ourselves fear5 2oet. , 6, !.
.))9b, *) ff.# ./, !. .)0*b, /+ ff.# .), !. .)0/b, . ff.5 traged& must awa:en and . -n the
distin%tion between &outh and age in relation to , Ahet. , II, .*, !. ./69b, 6 ff.# II, ./, !. ./9+a, .9 ff.
* ,ristot.Ahet. , II, .+, !. ./67b, *. ff.# 1!i%harmus Fr. , /) ( 3iels , I, .*0, .*)# Timo%les Fr. , /. ( >,F , II,
)6)). In 9toi%ism, , li:e , q , et%., is grou!ed under luv!h ( v. ,rnim , III, 96, 9# 99, /6#
.++, 7 and .0# .+., *. et%.# 1!i%t.3iss. , III, **, ./).
/ ,ristot.Ahet. , II, 9, !. ./66b, 9 ff.
) 7om.Il. , *), ))5 A c 6, l l6 . The l as:s5
i ( 7om.Il. , *., 7) f.# %f. **, .*/ f.# -d. , /, 96# **, /.*)# ,nti!hon -rator, ., *65
%orres!onding to l . 9imilarl& li and l are lin:ed in 1ur.7e%. ,
*66 f.# %f. Tro. , 767 f.5 and iq . In 9o!h.-ed. >ol. the l (*/7) are
as:ed5 li

(*)*), l (*)7), (*)9). Thus the o!!. %an

be i ( ,ristot.Ahet. , II, 6, !. ./60b, *+ f.).
0 1.g., 9o!h.2hil. , /+6 f. ( and li )# 1ur.I!h. ,ul. , )9. ( !ar. )76 li )# <org.
Fr. , .. ( 3iels , II, *0., *+ f.)# 2lat.1uth&d. , *66d.
6 For , to be !itied," %f. 2lat.Aes!. , I, //6e# for the !lur. for instan%es in whi%h one is
s&m!atheti%, %f. ', 6+6%# , 3emosth. , *), .... In ,thens was a !la%e of
refuge whi%h later gave rise to the %ult of # @. ?udei%h, To!ogra!hie von ,then " ( (andb. d. #ltert.<
Wiss. , III, *, * m.9/.n), /06 f.# K. v. @ilamowitE, Der Glaube der (ellenen , I (.9/.), /*9. There was an
in 1!idauros, 3itt. 9&ll. , /, ..)9.
7 3emosth. , **, 075

(in the and ) , 6,

. 4. 9%hmidt, op. cit. , *9+# A. 7irEel, "heis6 Dike und Ver2andtes (.9+7), *7* f.
7es. 7esiodus, of ,s%ra in Hoetia (%. 7++ H.>. ), the oldest <ree: !oet to emerge as a tangible figure. In his
Pastoral 1alendar q he !ro%laims the !astoral ideal of life. 7is Theogon& is a s!e%ulative
wor: on the origin and des%ent of the gods, ed. ,. AEa%h, .9./.
Tavnato, n. . 7es.Theog. , 706 ff. on slee! and death. 9lee! is des%ribed as a friend of man, c (s%.
) c i, l q c

g 6 c . -!. , ..6 of men of the <olden ,ge5
g

q , .0* ff. of those of the HronEe ,ge5 c i

g q 6 Ai 6 c
(fearful) l ,

qi . >f. 9a!!ho Fr. ,

06# 9o!h. Fr. , 6)5 q , 6 , q .
i # Fr. , *705 Ai c q l ( T<F ). 1ur. Fr. , 6.6, .+ f.5 q
,

iq

qi ( T<F ). I!h. ,ul. ,

.*0. f.5 i

. q q # .).65
. ,risto!h.Aa. , ./9)5 as . -n the 7omeri% %on%e!tion of
death as the realm of what has been, and on the sublimation of sorrow unto death, %f. @. F. -tto, op. cit.
6 for !it& is first found in >allim. 7&mnus in 3elum, .0* ( !ar. )# 2. <en. , 0., *6# on
for alms, )66, n. ) .
9 1.g., 2lat.4eg. , (, 7/.d5 c ,
c c l , { >f. also l , 1ur.I!h. ,ul. , 966# I!h. Taur. , **7 f.# 7el. ,
9)) f.
() #
.+
thus <odOs is dis!la&ed in regeneration ( >or!. 7erm. , 'III, /# 6# .+) and
the regenerate is %alled ('III, 7).
It is t&!i%al that the emotion of !la&s a great !art in the administration of $usti%e. The
a%%used must see: to arouse the of the $udge# he tries (,nti!hon -rator, .,
*.). Thras&ma%hos s!o:e of ( 3iels , II, *6., .. f.) and taught l l
q ( Fr. 6, 3iels , *6., .9). For it is !ossible,
in the !ower of the , q ( <org. Fr. , .., 3iels , II, *0., *6# ibid. , *0*,
*5 ). 9o%rates s%orns to awa:en the of the $udges ( 2lat.,!. , /)%
and /0b). ,s 2lato :nows i ( 2haedr. , *7*a), so ,ristot. ( Ahet. , II, 6, !. ./60b,
.. ff.) dis%usses the whi%h is one of the that the orator must :now how to :indle.
..

7en%e %an be related to and %on$oined with 6 .
.*
Thus finds its o!!. in
to the degree that this ne%essaril& belongs to i and is thus a legitimate emotion in the
$udge, whereas ma:es him !artial.
./

This hel!s us to see wh& 9toi%ism regarded as a si%:ness of the soul#
.)
as ,
and even a form of , it is unworth& of the sage.
.0
In this res!e%t we must remember that in
<:. thought is an emotion rather than a moral relationshi! to others, so that in ?udi%ial
!ra%ti%e entails !artialit&. -bviousl& 9toi%ism does not in%ul%ate an unmer%iful attitude
towards others. -ur relationshi! towards them should be determined b& the demand for l6 ,
for i, and i .
.6
is onl& in
a!!earan%e ( v. ,rnim , III, .6/, 0 f.), and in an& %ase 1!i%t. and 8. ,nt. demand in
relation to the wi%:ed.
.7

B. The OT and "e9ish &sage.
.. In the 4''
.6
is normall& used for rX hX , and less freTuentl& (6 times) for V`sa hb Mf ,
.9
while o%%urs mostl& for tSfhd , though often for Vcf Md !i.
*+
In the -T rX hX denotes an
attitude of man or <od whi%h arises out of a mutual relationshi!. It is the attitude whi%h the one
eB!e%ts of the other in this relationshi!, and to whi%h he is !ledged in relation to him. Thus the
relationshi! of mutual rX hX arises between relatives and friends, hosts and guests, masters and
.+ For <odOs , 1ur.-r. , ///# <odOs , 8enand.1!it. , )9+# 4ib.-r. , 6), ..*5
q i .
.. >f. also 2s.D,ristot.Ahet. ,l. , /0, !. .)/9b, *0 ff.# 2hilodem. 2hilos. (olumina Ahetori%a, >ol. '''(, .6 f.
(I, 60, 9udhaus).
.* 3emosth. ( n. 7 ) -r. , *0, 6. and 6/5 , 6, i , the Tualities eB!e%ted in a
$udge# -r. *., .++# ,ristot.1th. ;i%. , ., !. ..+9b, /*# III, *, !. ....a, . f.# >hr&si!!us Fr. , 6). ( v. ,rnim , III,
.6/, / f.)# 8aB. T&r. , //, /a5 . UU .
./ A. 7irEel, op. cit. , ).6I).6# %f. also 2lat.4eg. , (, 7/.bDd on the relation between or and
. ,nti!hon -rator, ., *7 formulates the !rin%i!le5 i
q i i .
.) v. ,rnim , I, 0*, .. ff.# 96, 9 f.# III, .+., .+ et%.# 9en. 3e >lementia , II, 0, ) f.
.0 n. * , also 1!i%t. , II, .7, *6# III, *), )/# I(, ., )# 6, .# ,ndroni%us, 3e 2assionibus , !. .*, 6 ff.
(Freuttner). >f. also how with i et%. is numbered among the i of the
, v. ,rnim , III, .+/, 6# the is not , ibid. , III, .6/, /# 1!i%t. , II, *., / and 0.
.6 >f. 2lut.TranT. ,n. , 7 (II, !. )66d)5
6 ,
i .
.7 1!i%t. , I, .6, / and 9# *6, 9# 8. ,nt. , 7, *6. >f. the !ro%lamation of ;ero to the <:s. in 3itt. 9&ll.
/
, 6.), *.5
l | , l .
.6 -n , whi%h is %ustomar& in the 4'' instead of , v. Tha%:era&, .06.
.9 ,lso for subst. from the stem tSh # for tSh in ?u. *.5** 5 . -n th] .
*+ is also used for \sf hd ) 6 times), and for VhS ni and !i (0 times)# is mostl& used for t^eSehf
and for ncNd rdu . In the 4'' we often have , usuall& for rX hX LMf .
does not o%%ur# is found several times. li is the normal rendering of tSh and VhM !i
(.+ or .* times)# li of V`sa hb Mf .
sub$e%ts, or others in %ovenant relation.
*.
rX hX is not !rimaril& a dis!osition but a hel!ful a%t
**

%orres!onding to a relationshi! of trust, and faithfulness as the a!!ro!riate attitude.
*/
The
re%i!ro%it& of the rX hX obligation is the %ontent of a Y`Ma LeZ ) . 9. *+56 ). Thus the im!lied demand
is a legal one. Hoth rX hX and ied P ZQ sa are demanded,
*)
as rX hX is also %onne%ted with cNd rduZ .
*0

,s the rX hX of the ruler !rote%ts his dominion,
*6
so rX hX is what gives se%urit& to men in their
mutual dealings.
*7

9in%e on the other side rX hX denotes hel! or :indness as the gra%e of a su!erior, rX hX %an also
be %onne%ted with cud ^ePQ `Z ,
*6
V^_\PdQ ,
*9
cLd cb [f ,
/+
and es!. V`sa hb Mf .
/.
,s, then, the meaning
of rX hX flu%tuates between (%ovenant) faithfulness, obligation and love or gra%e, so the translation
usuall& has ,
/*
but o%%asionall& .
//

If in human relationshi!s the element of obligation ma& &ield before that of favour,
/)
so
on <odOs side rX hX !arti%ularl& %omes to denote gra%e. <odOs rX hX , too, rests on the Y`Ma LeZ b&
whi%h 7e has freel& bound 7imself to the !eo!le,
/0
so that the righteous %an a!!eal to <odOs
rX hX
/6
assuming that the& for their !art have :e!t their obligations.
/7
Those who have made
and :e!t the %ovenant are the V`ra`a hb ,
/6
and the& are %alled the righteous,
/9
the u!right,
)+

and those who fear <od.
).
The& %onfront the V`ua PdQ MZ ,
)*
and the !ro!het bewails the fa%t
*. V. <lue%:, op. cit.
** 7en%e the %ommon !lur. (e.g., Is. 6/57 # 2s. *056 # 695)9 # ;eh. ./5.) # 4'' alternating between and
), and the eB!ression rX hX cPdw ud . <n. *)5.* # )+5.) # * 9. /56 # 4''5 , also used for tSh
, n. .9 .
*/ 7en%e the %ommon %ombination5 YsX [z ^X rX hX .
*) 7os. .*57 # 8i. 656 # ?er. 95*/ # ge%h. 759 # 2s. .+.5. .
*0 ?er. 95*/ # 2s. /65.+ # )+5.. # .)/5.. # with NrXuX , 2s. 605.+ .
*6 Is. .650 # 2rv. *+5*6 .
*7 2s. .+95.* and .6 # 2rv. ..5.7 # .)5** # .95** # *.5*. .
*6 2s. ./50 # 6057 # or ncnd^ePQ Ye , 2s. )+5.+ # ..95). # qPfQ `] 2s. 695./ .
*9 ?er. .650 # 2s. 605.+ .
/+ ?er. *5* # /.5/ .
/. Is. 6/57 # ?er. .650 # 7os. *5*. # ge%h. 759 # 2s. *056 # )+5.. # 0.5. # 695.6 et%.
/* ,lso , e.g., <n. )75*9 # 2rv. /5/ # .656 (4''5 .05*7 )# n. *+ .
// <n. .95.9 # *+5./ # *.5*/ # *)5*7 # 2rv. *+5*6b (4''5 v. ** ).
/) 1st. *59 and .7 # 1Er. 959 ( 1 t. 8:77 )# 3a. .59 , where the 4'' alwa&s has (as in <n. )/5.) f
or V`sa hb Mf ), and 1Er. 75*6 ( 1 t. 8:26 ), where the 4'' has .
/0 . F. 65*/ # Is. 005/ # 2s. 695)9 (%f. v. *6 )# .+65)0 . <od shows rX hX and YsX [z <n. *)5*7 # /*5.. (here the
4'' has and )# 1B. /)56 # * 9. *56 # 8i. 75*+ # 2s. )+5.+ f. # 605.+ (here the 4'' has
and )# or rX hX and cSd^es[z 2s. 665.. # 695// # 965/ (here the 4'' has and
).
/6 2s. 65) # *056 f. # ..95.)9 # .)/5.* 5 In virtue of th& rX hX %ut off mine enemies"# ;eh. ./5** # * >h. 65)* .
/7 1B. *+56 # 3t. 75.* # . F. 65*/ # 7os. .+5.* # 2s. .+/5.. , .7 et%.
/6 2s. 0+50 # %f. )rX hX `P]Q SZ[f )PQ `[a , Is. 075. # 2rv. *+56 . The 4'' mostl& has for r`a hd .
/9 Is. 075. ( N`reauef cf ).
)+ 8i. 75* # 2rv. *57 f. ( MPdQ `d ).
). 2s. 6056 f.
)* 2s. /75*6 # 975.+ .
that Israel has forgotten faithfulness.
)/
Hut the righteous %an a!!eal to their V`rad hb #
))
<od
ta:es !leasure in su%h rX hX ,
)0
and the righteous %an also boast of <odOs rX hX .
)6

In religious usage <odOs rhX alwa&s means 7is faithful and mer%iful hel!, and this oneD
sided understanding is eB!ressed in the use of . @e must alwa&s remember, however,
that it is the rX hX whi%h <od has !romised, so that, although one %annot %laim it, one ma&
%ertainl& eB!e%t it. In other words, the thought of rX hX and the thought of the %ovenant belong
together. =et to the degree that man is unfaithful, the rX hX for whi%h he ho!es ta:es on the
%hara%ter of !ardoning gra%e.
)7
<od :ee!s to the %ovenant and !romises in s!ite of manOs
unfaithfulness, and from 7is rX hX there is finall& eB!e%ted definitive redem!tion from ever&
need. rX hX thus be%omes an es%hatologi%al term in salvation histor&.
)6
,nd it must be
em!hasised that rX hX !rimaril& denotes, not a dis!osition, but the a%t or demonstration of
assisting faithfulness.
In distin%tion from rX hX , V`sa hb Mf originall& denotes what we %all emotion, or the seat of a
feeling whi%h is felt !h&si%all&.
)9
V`sa hb Mf is never in the <ree: sense, and it has
nothing to do with or . It is an original sense of oneness with another,
es!e%iall& between !arents and %hildren or brothers and sisters.
0+
9in%e it is s!e%ifi%all&
evo:ed when the other is in trouble, it often amounts to !it&" or s&m!ath&,"
0.
though this
is not the !re%ise meaning.
0*
4ove" is a better rendering. It is t&!i%al that normall& V`sa hb Mf
and Vhf Md , too, denote the a%t or eB!ression of love rather than the emotion. -ne demonstrates
love ( ge%h. 759 5 cPw q , 4''5 ), or as:s for it ( 2s. 695.6 ), or finds mer%& with
someone ( `S]iZ \a . F. 650+ # 2s. .+65)6 et%.). <od gives love ( 3t. ./5.6 5 tYS # Is. )756 5 V^Pw ,
4'' in both %ases ). ,s V`sa hb Mf is often %ombined with V`rad hb ( n. /. ), so it
is with VhM and tSh to denote gra%ious a%tion rather than emotion.
0/
Thus VhM %an sim!l&
mean to bring hel! ( ge%h. .+56 ). The wrath whi%h is its o!!. is the wrath of $udgment.
0)

4i:e rX hX X V`sa hb Mf ma& also be the gra%e of the forgiveness
00
granted to Israel when it
re!ents.
06
Thus V`sa hb Mf be%omes an es%hatologi%al ho!e.
07

)/ 7os. 65) # ?er. *5* .
)) ;eh. ./5.) .
)0 7os. 656 .
)6 2s. )+5.+ # 095.+ , .6 # 6/5/ # 665.. # ./65. ff. # Is. 6/57 # ?u. *5*+ (4'' alwa&s ).
)7 For rX hX as the gra%e of remission, %f. 1B. /)56 f. # ;u. .)5.9 # ?er. /5.* f. # 4am. /5** f.
)6 For <odOs rX hX in salvation histor&, %f. Is. 0)5.+ # 6/57 # ?er. /.5/ # 8i. 75*+ (a!!eal to the !romise)# 2s. *056
(<od is to remember 7is V`rad hb and V`sa hb Mf #( .+65)0 . For es%hatologi%al rX hX , %f. Is. 0)56 # 005/ # 8i. 75*+
# 2s. 6057 # 9+5.) # ./+57 .
)9 <n. )/5/+ # . F. /5*6 # 2rv. .*5.+ # %f. ?. 2edersen, .srael (.9*6), /+9 and 0*0.
0+ ,m. .5.. # 7os. *5.9 # Is. 6/5.0 f. # similarl& VhM !i denotes this sense and the resultant %on%ern for others5
motherl& love in Is )95.0 # fatherl& love in ?er. /.5*+ # 2s. .+/5./ (%f. v. 6 )# es!. 7os. .56 f. # *5) , */ .
0. 1.g. . F. 650+ # 2s. .+65)6 # ;eh, .5.. # * >h. /+59 . For the verb Is. ./5.6 # ?er. 65*/ # *.57 # )*5.* et%.
0* In all the !assages in n. 0+ mer%&" or !it&" would be too restri%ted a rendering. It is true that the 4''
usuall& has () or li (li) , but it is worth noting that it has in 7osea
*5*/ .
0/ 1B. //5.9 # * F. ./5*/ # 2s. .+*5./ # %f. 2s. .+/56 # ..650 .
0) 3t. ./5.6 # ,m. .5.. # ge%h. .5.* # 2s. 7759 .
00 2s. 0.5. # 7956 # 3a. 959 (with )Y^_h\aeZ c ).
06 3t. /+5/ # Is. 0057 .
07 Is. .)5. # )95./ # 0)57 # ?er. .*5.0 # //5*6 # 1E. /95*0 # 8i. 75.9 # ge%h. .5.6 .
*. In the language of later ?udaism rX hX and V`sa hb Mf %an hardl& be distinguished an& more
than and li , whi%h are used inter%hangeabl&. Hoth terms ma& be used, of %ourse,
for human :indness and !it&.
06
In the Aabbis rX hX is a term for the a%t of love,
09
and there are
freTuent eBhortations to mer%&.
6+
Hut it is used es!. for the mer%& of <od as the
| | ( @is. 95. ). The sense of faithfulness" is often evident ( 9ir. )75** , 4''5
), 1lsewhere the sense of mer%&" tends to !redominate in o!!. to the wrath and $udgment
of <od.
6.
<od a%ts #
6*
7is a!!lies to Israel,
6/
to the ,
6)
to those who love 7im
60
and fear 7im.
66
7is is gra%ious a%tion.
67
7e reveals it.
66
It
is eB!e%ted,
69
ho!ed for,
7+
!ra&ed for.
7.
It is in :ee!ing that in the 4'' is used for
various terms whi%h denote the gra%e of <od.
7*
4i:e , it is an es%hatologi%al word.
and are shown to the i a%%. to @is. /59 # )5.0 , here lin:ed with
. The age of salvation is the age of ( * 8a%%. *57 # 75*9 ). Thus the vi%tor& of
the 8a%%abees %an be regarded as the q ( * 8a%%. 65*7 ), the q
i ( 2s. 9ol. .)56).
7/

2hilo often s!ea:s of the and of man. is
g g .
7)
The %ares for the : q
iq 6 .
70
2hilo sometimes lin:s with l
76
and sometimes
with i #
77
and he stresses the fa%t that the 4aw demands .
76
@ith
referen%e to the 4aw he s!ea:s in <:. fashion of the wa& in whi%h and 6 are
granted , while there is no for the .
79

06 9ir. *65) # * 8a%%. )5/7 # ) 8a%%. 95) # 1!. ,r. , *+6# ?os.Hell. , ., /0* , 06+ et%.
09 V`rh Y^\`sR , ,b. , ., * et%.# %f. 9tr.DH. , I(, 0/6, 0/6 f.
6+ -ften with referen%e to <odOs mer%&5 Test. geb. 0I6# 9tr.DH. , I, *+/# 9%hl. 8t. , ./6# 3ib. ?:. , ./6# @nd. ?:.
on *5./. The Aabbis regard mer%& as distin%tive of Israel, 9tr.DH. , ., *+) f.
6. 9ir. 056 # .65.. f. ( V`sa hb Mf , 4'' though on%e l in 056 )# @is. 656 # ..59 # .*5** # *
8a%%. 65.6 # 650 # 2s. 9ol. .65/ et%.
6* Tob. 65.6 # 9ir. 0+5** # 0.5/ # . 8a%%. ./5)6 # 2s. 9ol. *5)+.
6/ ?dt. ./5.) # 9ir. /*5*0 f. # 2s. 9ol. ..59.
6) 2s. 9ol. *5)+# ./5..# the rX hX `P]Q SZ[f ( n. /6 ) of 9ir. ))5.+ are in the 4''.
60 2s. 9ol. )5*9# 659# .+5).
66 2s. 9ol. *5/7# ./5..# .05.0.
67 ta:es !la%e ( i ) in 1 t. 8:75 # * 8a%%. *57 # <r. 1n. .56. <od !erforms it (
) in Tob. 75.. [ 65.7 # this eB!ression is often used of human :indhess5 9ir. *95. # )657 # Tob. .)57 #
Test. geb. 05. ( i ), / f, et%. -n divine and human :indness in the Aabbis, %f. 9tr.DH. , II, .6)#
9%hl. 4:. , .79 f.
66 / 8a%%. *5.9 # 65) , /9 ( i ).
69 9ir. *57 ( ).
7+ 9ir. *59 .
7. 2s. 9ol. 65// f.# 95.6.
7* ,!art from the instan%es Tuoted ( )79 ), %f. Is. )056 , where is used for qPfQ `X , and 6+5.+ , where it
is used for t^_uMd .
7/ >f. also 2s. 9ol. 65/)# .750.# .656 ( q !ar. q q ), .+# <r. 1n. .56# *75). >f. 7.
Hraun, Gerichtsgedanke u. /echtfertigungslehr e bei Pls. (.9/+), 9 and 06.
7) (irt. , .)) .
70 9a%r. ,>. , .*.. (<odOs) is also %ombined with in Fug. , .6* # %f. <odOs and
in ?os.,nt. , ), */9 .
76 ?os. , **7 , */+ # 9!e%. 4eg. , III, ) , ..6 et%. This reminds us of the inter%hangeabilit& of and
li in the 4'', though it is <:. in %on%e!tion.
77 9!e%. 4eg. , I(, 7* # %f. II, 96 (of <od in 9om. , I, .)7 ).
76 9!e%. 4eg. , I(, 7* # (irt. , .). et%. To re!udiate this demand is to !ut out of a%tion the (
n. 6 ), 1Bse%r. , .0).
79 9!e%. 4eg. , I(, 7* , 76 f. # %f. 3e%al. , 69 # 2oster. >. , 9 # ?os. , 7* et%.
<od is #
6+
of 7is the third is the , l q { li
.
6.
<odOs %ome down to us i #
6*
7is i 7e sends from heaven l q .
6/
,s the mer%iful <od,
7e is the .
6)
7ere, however, is understood in <:. fashion as an emotion. Its
ob$e%t is the frail ra%e of men,
60
and it ta:es !re%eden%e of i .
66
Thus 2hilo does not s!ea:
of the doing of mer%&, or of mer%& being ena%ted, though he %an sa& .
67
For
him has no es%hatologi%al signifi%an%e.
C. )9)! in the NT.
.. In the ;T
66
and
69
are often used for the divinel& reTuired attitude of
man to man. Indeed, in a few instan%es has the original -T sense of the :indness
whi%h we owe one another in mutual relationshi!s, 7os. 656 being alluded to in 8t. 95./ #
.*57 5 i . The word has the same meaning in the a%%usation
against the s%ribes and 2harisees in 8t. */5*/ 5 ,
q i q i . as i %orres!onds to ied PZQ sa and
i to YsX [z so does to rX hX .
9+
The of the 4'' ( n. ** and
67 ) is found in 4:. .+5/7 to des%ribe the a%t of the 9amaritan, and in %on%rete %ases it denotes
the showing of love and the a%t of mer%& ( n. 09 ). has the same sense in 8t. .65//
5 c q , 6 c q # where the
demand for mer%& is based on the divine mer%&, as in ?udaism.
9.
The onl& differen%e is that
<odOs mer%& is now thought of as !re%eding manOs. -n the other hand, ?m. *5./ gives us the
traditional ?ewish formulation5 q i q (
n. 67 ). i .
9*
@hen the >hristian tradition ado!ts su%h
!rin%i!les, the new feature is not the thought as su%h, but the :nowledge of <od in >hrist. If
in ?m. /5.7 the i is %hara%terised as q (with l,
6+ 9om. , I, 9/ .
6. Fug. , 90 # %f. 9a%r. ,>. , )* 5 q .
6* 9om. , I, .)7 # %f. Aer. 3iv. 7er. , ..* 5 q i q q l (the tent)
q l q .
6/ 9om. , I, ..*
6) Fug. , .6* # 2raem. 2oen. , /9 and ..7 # , 3eus Imm. , 7) # 9om. , II, .)9 .
60 n. 6* # 6/ # %f. also 4eg. ,ll. , I, )0 .
66 3eus Imm. , 7) ff. 5 { ,
i p {# 4eg. <a$. , /67 .
67 ?os. , *00 (%f. also ?os.,nt. , ), *69 )# l , 8ut. ;om. , .// # (it. 8os. , I, 66
f.
66 In the ;T we alwa&s have the neut. n. .6 # Hl.D3ebr. y 0., *# Aaderma%her
*
, 06 f.
69 Individual forms are modelled on verbs with - , Hl.D3ebr. y 9+# Aaderma%her
*
, 69.
9+ 8i. 656 # 7os. .*57 demand iPs and rh (4''5 i and ). In 2s. .+.5. the 2salmist eBtols
rh and iPs (4''5 and i ). @e read of <odOs rhX iPs and cNru in ?er. 95*/ (4''
*) 5 , i , and ). YsX [z ief PZQ sa and V`sa hb Mf ^Z rX hX are demanded in ge%h. 759
(4''5 i i and l )# and Ys[ and rh in 7os. )5. (4''5 and
). -n i for Ys[ i . In 4:. ..5)* we sim!l& have instead of
and i .
9. n. 09 # es!. 9hab. , .0. b5 7e who has mer%& on men, on him will mer%& be shown in heaven"# Test. geb.
05/5 , ig i ,
# 1!. ,r. , c g
i (here the ?ewish thought has a 9toi% slant).
9* >f. 8einertE Fath. Hr. , /.. This thought is also found in 8t. 057 5 l ,
, and materiall& in 8t. 75. 5 q i, q q i i
# %f. also . >l., ./, *, where the tradition of 8t. 75. and !ar. is used5 , q ,
(%f. also 2ol., *, /).
, ), the meaning of should not be restri%ted to mer%&, but %an
in%lude lovingD:indness" in general. The same is true of A. .*56 ( l
). ;evertheless, it is im!ossible to ma:e a !re%ise distin%tion, and elsewhere we find the sense
of !it&" or s&m!ath&," as in the of 3id. , 0, * and Harn. , *+, *,
whi%h is used to des%ribe those who are on the wa& of death.
9/
If in all these statements the
referen%e is to the :indness or mer%& to be shown in %ases of earthl& need, elsewhere we read
of the mer%& whi%h is %on%erned for the eternal welfare of others. This is !lain in ?ust.,!ol. ,
*0, /# 07, ., as also in ?d. ** (though here the teBt is unfortunatel& not too %ertain).
9)

*. <odOs is often thought of in the original -T sense of faithfulness," i.e., the
gra%ious faithfulness of <od, as in the %anti%les in 4:. . , whi%h are saturated with -T themes.
90
7ow the sense of gra%e %an !redominate is seen in 4:. .506 , where it is said of 1lisabeth5
q . 9imilarl& in 1!h. *5) <od is
des%ribed as , and in . 2t. .5/ 7e is eBtolled as
q .
96
7ere there is a !lain %onne%tion with the histor&
of salvation ( n. )6 ), as also in A. ..5/+I/* 5 { qi
q .
97
It is stri:ing that 2aul s!ea:s of
<odOs onl& in the !assages in A. 9 # .. # .0 whi%h are %on%erned with the histor& of
salvation ( # on <l. 65.6 infra ). <odOs is 7is es%hatologi%al a%t in
salvation histor& in >hrist, as dogmati%all& formulated in Tt. /50 5
q i . In this sense 2aul also s!ea:s in A. 95*/
of the , i l , where the $udi%ial wrath of <od is
the o!!. ( v. ** ). The same sense is ver& !lain in A. .056 f. 5
q q c i , l
i , c c . <odOs
(and ) also refers to es%hatologi%al salvation in A. 95.0I.6 , where 1B.
//5.9 is used in formulation. This es%hatologi%al awareness is eB!ressed in . 2t. *5.+ in the
referring of 7os. .56 , 9 to believing <entiles5 , c , l
q, c . In the same awareness Ignatius addresses the
%hur%hes as q
96
and
,
%t. ,ndr. , . %hara%terises <od as the q .
9/ >f. also 8art.2ol. , *, *5 in relation to the sufferings of those who are illDtreated.
7ere we have the <:. sense of s&m!atheti% feeling rather than the idea of mer%iful a%tion.
9) >f. the %omm. # it is fairl& %ertain that the %ommand a!!lies in relation to the , i.e.,
those endangered b& false tea%hers. @hat is not %ertain is the c 4q , whi%h refers to
those who are ho!elessl& lost (%f. what follows5 .). 3oes this mean that in relation to su%h the
s&m!ath& stirred in the believer should be !revented from eB!ressing itself through -r should we read
, , (@ohlenberg), or (@indis%h) instead of . >l., *, ) is also un%ertain5
l 6 . >an we
translate5 H& &our mer%iful dis!osition and inward !arti%i!ation" (Fno!f) -r is <odOs meant (
infra ), being an an%ient error (,. v. 7arna%:, &infhrung in die alte 4irchengeschichte m.9*9n,
.+0 f.)
90 4:. .50+ (on the basis of 102:17 ), 0) ( 7:3 ), 7* ( 8i. 75*+ ), 76 5
q (%f. the formulations in Test. geb. 05/ f. n. 9. , and es!. 75/ # 65* , 6 ).
96 This %orres!onds to -T eB!ressions li:e rX hX LMf in 1B. /)56 # ;u. .)5.6 # 2s. 6650 , .0 et%. (4''5
, whi%h is not found in the ;T ), and V`sa hb Mf V`Lea Mf in * 9. *)5.) # 2s. ..95.06 # ;eh. 95*7 # 3a.
95.6 et%. (the 4'' alternates).
97 7ere is obviousl& <odOs a%t in salvation histor&. It ma:es no differen%e to whether we
%onstrue q with { (that the& ma& :now mer%& through the mer%&
shown to &ou," gahn) or whether we ma:e it de!endent on qi (so these have now been disobedient in
fa%e of the mer%& shown to &ou, that the& also ma& re%eive mer%&," 4ietEmann).
96 In the introdu%tions to A., 2hld. , 9m. # the members are %alled q in 1!h. , .*, .# %f. the formulae in
Tr. , .*, / and 2hld. , !rooem <odOs is understood as the gra%e of salvation given through >hrist in
7erm.v. , /, 9, .# %f. also * >l., ., 7# /, .# ?ust.3ial. , )/, *# .+6, .# 3g., 9, *.
,%t. ,ndr. #cts of #ndre2 .
Aeferen%e ma& also be made to <odOs es%hatologi%al in relation to the future
$udgment, as in ?udaism. 9o 8t. 057 5 l ,
( n. 9* ). 9o, too, the desire in * Tm. .5.6 5
i ig g qq . 9o, too, the admonition in ?d. *. 5
g , i
q { >f. also . >l., *6, .5 { i
i,
.
99

8ention of <odOs does not alwa&s have eB!ress referen%e to the >hrist event. It
ma& sim!l& denote the gra%e of <od, with a stronger or wea:er suggestion that this gra%e has
%ome through >hrist. This is !lain in <l. 65.6 5 l ,
q . It is wea:er in various salutations
.++
whi%h, li:e that in <l. 65.6 ,
borrow from ?ewish greetings.
.+.
There is general referen%e to <odOs gra%e, with
reminis%en%es of ?ewish eB!ressions, in . >l., 9, .5 l
q
l (%f. 2s. 9ol. 05.7# 65// f.)# 06, .65 q
l q q q i i , %f. @is. ..59 #
.*5** # 2s. 9ol. .65.. ff.# .65/ ff. Finall&, there ma& be referen%e to <odOs goodness and
mer%& in relation to individual %ases of need or s!e%ifi% !ersons, as when the si%: %r& to ?esus5
.
.+*
2aul is aware that he is q i ( . >. 75*0 # %f. * >.
)5. 5 6 q # . Tm. .5./ , .6 ), though the gra%e to whi%h he a!!eals is
dire%tl& related to the event of salvation. The same is true of Ign. when, imitating 2auline
eB!ressions, he sees in mart&rdom the q of whi%h he will be worth& (A., 9, *#
2
hld. , 0, .). -n the other hand, %f. when it is said to the woman who is healed in 8:. 05.9 5
q (s%. ), or when 2aul sa&s of the healing of 1!a!hroditus in 2hil. *5*7 5
q , c , , or when the desire is
eB!ressed in * Tm. .5.6 5 O q (distin%t from
the es%hatologi%al of v. .6 ). 9o also 7ermes v. , ., /, *5

q i
i q l .
) .
, s&m!atheti%," mer%iful," is an old <:. word ( )76 ) found, e.g., in 9toi%
writings ( emleo, n. .0 ). It is fairl& freTuent in the 4'' ( emleo, n. *+ ), mostl& with
referen%e to <od ( 1B. **5*6 or *7 # /)56 # 85:14 # .+*56 et%.), but sometimes to men ( 2rv.
..5.7 # .956 or .. # *+56 ). In later ?udaism it is %ommonl& used of <od (e.g., * 8a%%. .5*) # ..59 #
2s. 9ol. 05*# 1!. ,r. , *+6# Test. ?ud. .95/#
I
ss. 65)#
g
eb. 957# 2hilo9om. , I, 9/ ),
.
. o%%asionall& of
men ( Test. 9. )5)# ,. )5/# ?os.,nt. , .+, ). ).
99 The mer%& ho!ed for in the %oming $udgment is also referred to in 7erm.v. , *, *, /# /, 9, 6# s. , ), * (
g i n. 66 )# * >l., .6.* (here the of ?esus)# ?ust.3ial. (6, ) on
the li!s of the ?ew)# .6, /# 96, / ( q )# .+6, / ({

.//, . ( ) .)., * ( ).
.++ , , l in the greetings in . Tm. .5* # * Tm. .5* # Tt. .5) * # * ?n. / # so also the
%on%luding greeting in Ign.9m. , .*, * (with q )# onl& and l in the and
introdu%tor& greeting in 2ol.# , l and in ?d. * # 8art.2ol. , !rooem.
.+. c and l %orres!ond to the e!istolar& greeting in 9. Har. 765* and the marriage greeting in Tob.
75.. [ . For <l. 65.6 , %f. the final greetings in 2s. 9ol. )5*9# 659# 759# 95*+# ..59# ./5.., and 9tr.DH. , III, 079.
.+* 8:. .+5)7 f. and !ar. # 8t. 95*7 # .75.0 # 4:. .75./ (to ,braham, 4:. .65*) ). The formula is also found in
Is. //5* ( q UU ^eSSe]hd ` )# >I< , I(, 60*6b ( l Z 2 )# to earthl&
lords, ?os.,nt. , 9, 6) ( {)# 1!i%t.3iss. , II, 7, .* ( {). >f. @. 4o%:ton, ?Th9t. , .6 (.9.0),
0)6I00+.
2hld. ad Philadelphenses .
Iss. "estaent of .ssachar .
geb. "estaent of Zebulon .
<od is not %alled in the ;T , though the word is thus used in . >l., 6+, . in a
!ra&er derived from ?ewish tradition# %f. also ?ust.3ial. , .+7, *. It is said of >hrist in 7b. *5.7
that 7e was made li:e us .
*
That man should be is !art
of the %ommand of <od in 3id. , /, 6# * >l. ), /, and ?esus !raises the in 8t. 057
( )6) ). This is s!e%iall& demanded of !resb&ters in 2ol., 6, ..
) .
for s&m!ath&" is late in <:. ( emleo, n. 6 ). The 4'' usuall& has the
word for )cNd rduZ )NrXuX .
.
It also uses it with referen%e to <odOs cNru as 7is relation to 7is
!eo!le or to the righteous. <od $udges b& cNru ( Is. .5*7 # 095.6 # 34:24 v.l. )# cNru is the
norm of 7is %ondu%t ( Is. *65.7 # 32:5 )# the man who :ee!s the 4aw ( 3t. 65*0 # *)5./ ), the
inno%ent man ( 23:4 ) and he who is o!!ressed ( 102:6 ) will re%eive cNru from 7im.
9in%e the $udgment in whi%h <odOs cNru is a%tive will be in favour of 7is !eo!le or of the
righteous, we %an understand the rendering , es!e%iall& when the %r& for cNru
ins!ires the !ra&er for deliveran%e ( 3a. 95.6 O ). In ?udaism cNru has not onl& the sense of
righteousness" as the %ondu%t %orres!onding to the norm of right, but also of benevolent
a%tivit&," as ma& be seen alread& in 3a. )5*) , and freTuentl& in Aabbini% usage.
*
<ree: s!ea:ing
?ews %an use in this sense.
/
but is more %ommon. ,s thus used, it is
similar to ( , n. 67 ), referring more to benevolent a%tivit&, and even
almsgiving,
)
than to the emotion of !it&. That (<odOs) is the same as (7is)
ma& be seen in 2s. 9ol. 95*+# .05.0, %f. with )5*9# ..5* et%.
In the ;T is found onl& in the sense of benevolent a%tivit&," and alwa&s
to the !oor (almsgiving")5 8t. 65*I) # 4:. ..5). # .*5// # ,%. /5* f. , .+ # 95/6 # .+5* , ) , /. #
*)5.7 . 9o also 3id. , ., 6# .0, )# * >l., .6, ).
0
The eB!ression ,
whi%h %orres!onds to the -T cNru cPw q , is %ommon, as in ?udaism ( 8t. 65.I) # ,%. 95/6 #
.+5* # *)5.7 )# so, too, is , whi%h %orres!onds to the Aabb. tYS
cNru ( 4:. ..5). # .*5// ).
6
That almsgiving is a !arti%ular eBer%ise of !iet& for the ?ews,
along with !ra&ing and fasting,
7
is !resu!!osed in 8t. 6 # ,%. .+5) , /. . Together with
!ra&er, it is also a >hristian eBer%ise in 3id. , .0, )# * >l., .6, )5
i i i q, c
. Aabb. [SshM as a divine name, %f. ,. 8armorstein, "he %ld /abbinic Doctrine of God , I (.9*7), .+. f.
* >hristian tradition underlies the invo%ation of >hrist as 6 i in the 4eiden magi%
!a!. ? , /90, %ol. (II, *6 ( 2reis. gaub. , 'III, *9+). For ?udaism 8i%hael is the mer%iful, @. 4ue:en, 3ichael
(.696), .)/, *.
. is also used in Is. /65.6 f or Ys[ (<odOs faithfulness") and <n. )75*9 # 2rv. /5/ # .)5** f or
rh (with Ys[ ) to denote human :indness."
* 9tr.DH. , I, /66I/66# II, .66 f.# 9%hl. 8t. , .99 f. -n ?ewish benevolen%e %f. 1B%ursus ** in 9tr.DH. , I(, 0/6I
006.
/ Tob. *5.) # .*59 # .)5.. # Har. 059 (alwa&s %ombined with )# %f. also * >. 959 f. -n the basis of
this understanding * 8t. 65. has q instead of q .
) It is diffi%ult to distinguish between general benevolen%e and almsgiving. -n the former, %f 9ir. /5.) (to the
father)# /5/+ # .*5/ ( 7eb. , where eBtant, cNru )# Tob. .5/ , .6 # *5.) )# for the latter, %f. 9ir. *956 # Tob. )57 ,
.6 . The word is not found in 2hilo or ?os. In <:. liter. we have one instan%e of (almsgiving) in
the a!o!hthegm of ,ristot. re%orded in 3iog. 4. , (, .75 , 6q
, , l, q .
0 In earlier >hristian liter. is used for the mer%& of <od onl& in ?ust.3ial. , /6, ), Tuoting 23:5
.
6 For both eB!ressions, %f. 9tr.DH. , II, .66.
7 HoussetD<ressm. , .76 ff.# %f., e.g., 9ir. 75.+ # Tob. .*56 f.
c q .
6
There is admonition to
in 4:. ..5). # .*5// ,
9
and in ,%. 95/6 Tabitha is lauded as
, i , li:e >ornelius, whose are
mentioned as a sign of his !iet& in ,%. .+5* .
.+
,s ?esus in 8t. 65*I) warns against the
misuse of almsgiving in the servi%e of vanit&, so 3id. , ., 6 warns against im!rudent
almsgiving# for this there are !arallels in ?ewish writings.
..

#!) .
, unmer%iful," is not surel& attested outside the ;T .
.
It does not o%%ur in the
4''. Ta:ing the !la%e of the ,tti% (and the later and
, )76 ), it is formed after the analog& of , whi%h is %ommon in the 4'' but
does not o%%ur in the ;T . It is found onl& in ?m. *5./ with referen%e to <odOs i on the q
( )6/ ). He%ause it is so un%ommon, it is re!la%ed b& i or i
in some 899.
#) .
, unmer%iful," is !referred in later liter.
.
It is fairl& %ommon in the 4'',
*

but in the ;T is found onl& with in the list of vi%es in A. .5/. .
B
ultann
)(, )(&, )(,
#)(
*

A. The Political Concept of *reedom in the ree% 3orld.
,%%. to 2s.D2lat.3ef. , ).0a to be free is to be at oneOs own dis!osal5
This is also the general sense in 2s.D2lat.3ef. , ).*d5 i qi i
i i

iq i
i . The !o!ular understanding is eB!ressed in the linguisti%all& untenable
.

6 * >l., .6, ) is based on Tob. .*56 f. 8ateriall&, almsgiving (under ) and !ra&er are also lin:ed in . 2t.
)57 f.
9 In both %ases the underl&ing tradition is !reserved in more original form in 8t. The q
of 4:. ..5). translates the general dire%tion of 8t. */5*6 5 (
i , an addition of 8t.), into a %on%rete demand. The meaning is not too. %lear (%f. the %omm. ).
1ither5 ,s %on%erns &our inward life, give alms," or5 -f what &ou have, give alms" (@ellhausen suggests that
4:. here rests on a misreading of the original ,ram. ). 4:. .*5// 5
ma:es the general and negative dire%tion of 8t. 65.9 5 q i ., both
%on%rete and !ositive.
.+ -n ,%. .+5) ( /. )5 l i l l
, %f. 9ir. /*56 f. # 9. 3t. , *77 on *)5./ # <r. Har. .* and 9tr.DH. , II, 696.
.. 9ir. .*5. # 9ib. , *, 79.
. 8oult.D8ill. Tuotes from 2. 4i!s. , I, /9, .* ( ||- ). This derives from the
late but well attested .
. , )76 , and ;lgeli, .6# 8. ?. 4agrange, &p[tre au: /oains
*
(.9**), /).
* 8ostl& for `Ma |dWZ[f (unmer%iful"), 2rv. 059 # ..5.7 # .*5.+ # .75.. # 9ir. ./5.* # /*5** # /75.. . For Y^e`eMa |ZWZ[f
, 2rv. *75) # for M|dWZ[f ?ob /+5*. ( v.l. ). For M^e| 5 i . ?ob .95./ . >f.
also @is. .*50 # .95. . The word is not found in 2hilo or ?os. , or in earl& >hristian literature.
Hultmann Audolf Hultmann , 8arburg ((ol. .I6, 9).
C . 4iddellD9%ott , s.v. # >r.DFJ. , )*) ff.# A. 7irEel, "heis6 Dike u. Ver2andtes (.9+7), *0/
ff.# F. ?ol, Der echte und der :enophontische Sokrates , II, * (.9+.), 06. ff.# ?. @eiss. Die christliche 9reiheit
nach d. Verkndigung des ,!. 2ls. (.9+*)# ,. HonhJffer, &piktet u. d. !" (.9..)# -. 9%hmitE, Der
9reiheitsgedanke bei &piktet u. d. 9reiheits-eugnis des Pls. (.9*/)# 8. 8Gller, Freiheit," g;@ , *0 (.9*6),
.77I*/6# F. 3eissner, 3as Idealbild des stois%hen @eisen " (UU Greifs2alder 8niversit=tsreden , *), .9/+)#
7. ?onas, #ugustin u. das paul. 9reiheitsproble (.9/+)# @. Hrandt, 9reiheit i !" (.9/*).
. -. 9%hrader, /ealle:ikon d. indogeran. #ltertuskunde , II
*
(.9*9), )06 ff. derives the word from Indogerm.
C leudho< , <r. C -- , then, as with , . This gives the basi% sense of
et&molog&5 ( 9uid. ). This underl&ing formal sense of
inde!enden%e of others !ersisted in the <ree: world.
.. It was !artl& fashioned b& %ontrast with the bondage of the slave. ,%%ording to the general
<:. %onvi%tion defined in ,ristot.2ol. , I, *, !. .*0)a, .) ( *6/ )5 { the slave is the
one who from the first (UU b& nature) does not belong to himself but to someone else. The formal
sense of freedom naturall& orientated itself to the !oliti%al institution of the be%ause in
the main this was hardl& %ontested until the time of the 9o!hists. 7ere again our witness is
,ristotle, not so mu%h be%ause he energeti%all& atta%:s the 9o!hist ,l%idamas
*
for his dis%ussion
of slaver& ( 2ol. , I, /, !. .*0/a, *+ ff.), but rather be%ause of the wa& in whi%h he tries to refute
him, namel&, with a sober referen%e to the and i of slaver& for some and of
i for others ( 2ol. I, .0, !. .*00a, I ff.# I, *., !. .*00b, 6 ff.). That the abolition of the
distin%tion between slaves and free men would involve serious %onseTuen%es for the %ommunit& is
the view not merel& of the more fier& author of
2
s.D'eno!h.
A
es!. ,th. (., .*) but also of 2lato (
Aes!. , (III, 06/b). The a%%e!tan%e of the institution of the and therefore of the
is a s&m!tom of the fa%t that the horiEon of <ree: life and thought was determined
b& !oliti%al realit&. In the first instan%e the <ree: :new and understood himself within the orders
of the state. Thus the Tuestion of freedom was de%isivel& determined b& the horiEon of !oliti%al
eB!erien%e. Hasi%all&, the Tuestion is not that of freedom in general. It is the theoreti%al and
!ra%ti%al Tuestion of the freedom of the !oliti%all& free within the !olit&, i.e., of the freedom of the
!olit& as an asso%iation of the free. In the <:. world i is !rimaril& a !oliti%al %on%e!t.
*. ,%%. to ,ristot.2ol. , I(, .+, !. .*96b, .7 ff., i is one of the essentials of a state.
@ith , i and , it is a of the , while q
is a . The !olit& %an be su%%in%tl& des%ribed as i
, 2ol. , III, ), !. .*79a, *.. >f. 2ol. , I, *, !. .**0b, *+5 q c q
. From another stand!oint 2lato sa&s that a state l
g i , 4eg. , III, 69/b. If it la%:s these three features, it is unli:el& to
stand, ibid. , 69/d. Instead of i, i, 69/%vd, one might also sa&
i, i, i , 69)b, or , i, , 697%vd. In
Thu%. , (I, 69, 6, too, the %onstitution is eBtolled whi%h guarantees the greatest !ower and
freedom. In the <:. understanding of the state freedom is an indis!ensable element. It is for this
reason that 2ind.
2
&th. , ., 6. f. !raises 7ieron5
i -
q iq
`Yi J -

In these lines the are mentioned along with i . This gives us the limit within
whi%h freedom is to be sought and given, namel&, the and therefore the essen%e of the
of the !olit&.
/
The !olit&, within the %onfines of whi%h freedom is :nown, is grounded in
and se%ured b& its , whi%h is sim!l& an embodiment of the vital, elemental %laim of the
i , the %itiEens. In it, as the !rin%i!le of the order of the !olit& ( ,ristot.2ol. , III, .., !.
.*67a, .65 q { , the %itiEens re%ognise and honour their own binding will to live.
7en%e, so long as eBer%ises its binding for%e on individuals, freedom %annot be freedom
from or in o!!osition to the law, but onl& under the law. T&!i%al is the !assage in 7dt. , (II, .+),
in whi%h 3emaratus eB!lains to the 2ersian :ing %on%erning the 4a%edaeomonians5
i l ,
i q l .
6g 6 c li, c q 6
, g q . >f. III, /6# (II, .+*.
belonging to a !eo!le," and therefore not sub$e%t."
* >f. ?. Faerst, Geschichte des (ellenisus , I
/
(.9*7), 6), n. ..
2s.D'eno!h. 2seudoD'eno!hon.
Aes!. ,th. /espublica #theniensiu , the !art& !oliti%al wor: of an ,thenian oligar%h (end of the 0th %entur&
H.>. ).
2&th. P'thia .
/ >f. Faerst, op cit. , .. ff.
For a similar view %f. also ,ristot.2ol. , III, .., !. .*67a, .6 ff.5 . >f. I(, ), !. .*9*a,
) ff. Freedom is to be subordinated to the noos of a !olit& be%ause the latter alone, as the law of
the %ommon will, %an guarantee freedom against the t&rann& of %a!ri%e. It is where the noos
rules that the inordinate %laims either of an individual, the , or of the mass, the
q , %an be %ontrolled and %urbed, and !oliti%al freedom %an thus be assured to the %itiEen in
virtue of the reason whi%h rules in the noos ( ,ristot.2ol. , III, .., !. .*67n, *6 ff.). -nl&
i %an maintain i . -n this %onne%tion %f. also 2lat.1!. , 6, /0)evf.
Knder the noos , however, freedom means alternation of government. If freedom in !oliti%al
life means selfDgovernment, and therefore negativel& in relation to others5 i
( 2lat.4eg. , (III, 6/*d# %f. Aes!. , (III, 076a), this is !ossible in the fellowshi! of the
!olit& onl& if those who are to rule as ( 2lat.
8
en. , 66d) will and
alternatel&. This is %lear in ,ristot.2ol. , (I, ., !. ./.7b, * ff. i has two basi%
im!li%ations5 .. , and *. q i .
The two are related in su%h a wa& that the first !ro%eeds from the se%ond. For it is from the
se%ond, whi%h is orientated to the life of the slave ( q q
), that there develo!s the striving q , c
, l c q, . >f. also ,ristot.2ol. , III, .., !. .*67a, .6 ff. That the
thought of freedom be%ame %on%retel& fiBed along these lines ma& be seen also in 1ur.9u!!l. , )+)
ff.5
{
,

.
q

i, q
, .
It is the however, whi%h %ause and enable the !eo!le to live in freedom and
therefore in alternating selfDgovernment. >f. )*9 ff.
c ,
c 6 l
i,

l
p

.
The %laim of demo%ra%& is that it %an best realise this :ind of freedom. Hut what, thin: &ou, does
it (demo%ra%&) define as the good Freedom, I said. For in a demo%rati%all& governed state &ou
will hear that this is the most beautiful thing, so that for a free man it is fitting onl& to dwell in
su%h a state," 2lat.Aes!. , (III, 06*b f. , state with a demo%rati% %onstitution is the best guarantee
of freedom be%ause fundamentall& and in a%tual !oliti%al life it allows to all full %itiEens the same
!oliti%al rights and thus !ro%ures that for the q of the !eo!le to the fullest !ossible
degree, %f. ,ristot.2ol. , I(, ), !. .*9.b, /+ ff.# 1th. ;i%. , (, .+, !. ../)b, .0. The !rin%i!le of
l or li kthe most beautiful of all names," 7dt. , III 6+kma:es i
!ossible in demo%ra%&, 2lat.Aes!. , (III, 007a# 2lut. 3e 3ione , /7 (I, 97) f.)5 i
q q l . Thus l %an be used almost as a s&non&m of i
, 2lat.Aes!. , (III, 06/b# ,ristot.2ol. , (I, ., !. ./.6a, 9 f.# I(, ), !. .*9.b, /) f.# I, *, !. .*00b,
*+# 7dt. , (I, .*/, where it is said of 7armodios and ,ristogeiton that the& won i for
,thens, while in 7dt. , (I, ./. it is said that the& won for it li . The !oint at issue in
li is !rimaril& eTualit& of voi%e, li , of honour and dignit&, li of !ower,
li , and es!e%iall& of !ubli% s!ee%h in offi%ial assemblies, li . 3emo%ra%& is
seen at wor:, and freedom is given vivid form, in the free s!ee%h of the %itiEen. This is the main
target of 2s.D'eno!h. ( Aes!. ,th. , ., *)5 i l (%f. ., /# /, ./)
q g iq (%f. l, 6 and 9
q ) q . >f. ., .*,
where we have the term li .
)
In 7dt. , (. 76 freedom is li as o!!osed to
t&rann&. >f. also li i in 3emosth.-r. , *., .*)# 2ol&b. , II, /6, 6# (II, .+,
8en. #d 3enoeceu .
) >f. on this !t. 1. Falin:a, Die pseudo:enophontische Ai i (.9./), 96, n. /# ./0, n. *.
.. To li there %orres!onds i , or rather li is i from the
stand!oint of eTualit&. i , too, is almost s&non. with i . In the %itiEenOs right
to sa& !ubli%l& what he thin:s there ta:es %on%rete form the free selfgovernment of <ree: %itiEens
under the %ommon noos . The demo%rati% state is %hara%terised Tuite sim!l& b& the fa%t that it is
full" of this i . In a demo%ra%& c q , i q
q i i, i g
, sa&s 2lat.Aes!. , (III, 007b. >f. 2ol&b. , I(, /., )5 i q
li i q i , l c
i (more im!ortant) q l # 4u%. 3e 2is%atore , .7# 4u%. >alumniae
non temere %redendum , */. Thus i be%omes the test of i . 8ateriall&, this is
what is said in 1ur.9u!!l. , )/6 ff.5

Ti

q
i li
For the term i , %f.
3
emo%r. Fr. , **6 ( 3iels , II, .+6, 7)5 l i
i, i c q . 3istin%tive of freedom is free
s!ee%h, the onl& ris: being whether one %orre%tl& $udges the kairos ." It %an thus be said5 c
q i . For free
%itiEens there is no greater misfortune than to be de!rived of the right of free s!ee%h" ( 3emosth.
Fr. , *. m Sauppe6 %ratores #ttici , *00, .)n). (
T
<F , ,des!ota Fr. , 00)).
The %on%e!t of freedom in ,tti% demo%ra%&, however, had within it elements whi%h
%ontributed to its degeneration. For if on the one side it fosters the life of the !olit& b& the
develo!ment of the !otentialities of the %itiEens ( 7dt. , (, 76# III, 6+# (II, .+/ f.# ,ristot.2ol. , (,
.+, !. ./.6b, *) f.), on the other it threatens the authorit& of the %ommon noos b& the !romoting
of the individual. The eB!lanation is as follows. @hen within the noos of the !olit& a man
follows the dee!er and more radi%al law of self, with the se%ret desire to attain the maBimum of
individual freedom, he %an eBer%ise this autonom& to a %ertain degree and for a %ertain !eriod, but
in the full flush of freedom he is %arried along b& the for%e of his realised desire. Thus the law of
the !olit& gives !la%e to that of the enhan%ed individual. The freedom established b& the noos
eventuall& %omes to be grounded in its own higher law and thus develo!s into what it is at root,
namel&, the freedom of its own noos . Freed now from the !rote%ting noos , it is understood
more and more in terms of the i . From the <:. stand!oint
des!otism, i i , %an overthrow the state, as the eBam!le of
2ersia showed, be%ause it does not allow the individual his natural libert&, 2lat.4eg. , III,
697%v696a. Hut %om!lete freedom, loosed from all authorit&" ( 2lat.4eg. , III, 696avb), %an also
damage the state, be%ause finall& it does the same thing. ,%%. to 2lato it arises ultimatel& from the
loss of l6 , and it is %hara%terised b& the fa%t that in all areas of life one will no longer
( 4eg. , III, 7++a). c q c q q
l i i, c i.
i l, q c i
q i q , q
i i i , ( 4eg. ,
III, 7+.avb). This freedom is followed at on%e b& that in whi%h one will not obe& authorit&, and
this again b& the freedom in whi%h one renoun%es obedien%e to !arents and their instru%tion. @e
are near the end when men are %on%erned not to be sub$e%t to the laws, and the end has %ome when
no one %ares about oaths or !romises or <od, but ea%h manifests and imitates again the old titani%
nature of the stories, rea%hing the !oint where it was, and thus leading a miserable life in
un%easing misfortune," 4eg. , III, 7+.bv%. ;aturall& the degeneration of freedom was not alwa&s
seen in all its ramifi%ations as in 2lato (%f. also Aes!. , (III. 06* f.). ;evertheless, it was widel&
re%ognised and de!lored. Its effe%ts were o!enl& dis!la&ed in !oliti%al de%line, es!. that of ,tti%
3emo%r. 3emo%ritus, of ,bdera, in the se%ond half of the 0th %entur& H.>. , the leading re!resentative of
atomism in an%ient !hiloso!h&, ed. 7. 3iels in Die 9ragente der Vorsokratiker , II, .9**.
T<F "ragicoru Graecoru 9ragenta , ed. ,. ;au%:, .669.
demo%ra%&. The eBaltation of i over the , the suiting of law to the immediate
needs of the !eo!le, the resultant %a!ri%ious swa& of the q , the rise of demagogues leading
and led b& the mob, were all s&m!toms of the general i whi%h led to the dissolving of
distin%tions between masters and slaves, men and women, old and &oung5 ,ristot.2ol. , I(, ), !.
.*9*a, ) ff.# 'eno!hon 7ist. <rae%. , I, 7, .*# 2s.D'eno!h.Aes!. ,th. , ., 6# 3emosth. , */, 67#
,es%hin. , /, .+/# ,risto!h.;u. , ./*0 ff., .)+9 ff. @hat >alli%les sa&s in the <orgias ()9*%)5
q i i, i g,
i , is a %ommon o!inion, and no less what Iso%. , 7, *+ blames as the result of
false instru%tion5 q q c i i, q c i
i, q c i li, q

i
i . >f. .*, ./.. This degenerate freedom is dangerous to the state and therefore to
the %itiEen from another angle, for it %an easil& revert to t&rann&, whi%h means the rule, not of
noos , but of the whim of an individual. 7ow eBtreme freedom %an turn into eBtreme slaver&
ma& be seen in 2lat.Aes!. , (III, 06/e ff. 7ere we %an Tuote onl& a few lines from 1!. 6 whi%h
indi%ate again the true <:. understanding of !oliti%al freedom ( 1!. 6, /0)e)5 The 9i%ilians
believed the& lived ha!!il& !rior to the rule of 3ion&sius and 7i!!arinos,
{ The& de!osed the ten generals, q
ig q g,

l g l
i . i i c
, c i c q i,
c q 6 F /00a5 O c 6 6 ,
c q . It is li:e a distant e%ho when 3io >. , 06, )/, .) writes5
, q i g iq i
c , 6 c
c
iq 6 iq q,
i i, .
/. 2oliti%al freedom is an urgent Tuestion in <ree%e from another stand!oint. For
%an mean, not onl& to liberate from a t&rant, as in 7dt. , (, 76, but also to liberate
from eBternal foes, as in ,es%h.2ers. , )+/# 2lat.
8
eneB. , */9d# 1!. 6, /00e# Thu%. , III, 0)#
'eno!hon 7ist. <rae%. , (, *, .*# ,es%hin. , /, ./*# 3itt. 9&ll.
/
, 6.), .* ff. et%. In other words,
i in%ludes the %on%e!t of the inde!enden%e of a state in its eBternal relations. In this
res!e%t the %on%e!t often has an em!hati% sense whi%h is grounded in its %onne%tion with internal
freedom. ,s we read in 7dt. , (II, ./0, when the 2ersian 7&darnes as:ed the 4a%edaemonians
wh& the& would not re%eive their territor& from the 2ersian :ing as his sub$e%ts, the& answered that
his advi%e %orres!onded to onl& one half of their eB!erien%e5 c l
i, i c , l l . l
q , q q ,
. It is the i of the <:. %itiEen who defends his !olit& and
himself along with it, and this against the threat of , who are to be ?udged Tuite
sim!l& as , 2lat.Aes!. , (, )69%# 1ur.I!h. ,ul. , .)++ f. ( *6*, n.
0
)# Iso%. , 0, .0)#
8eneB. 3ene:enus .
0
:;), ), ), ), )
*

,ll the words in this grou! serve either to des%ribe the status of a slave or an attitude
%orres!onding to that of a slave. is a slave," a female slave," to be
a slave," to stand in the relationshi! of a slave," i slaver&," a fellowD
slave," the ad$. -- enslaved" or !erforming the servi%e of a slave." The meaning
is so uneTuivo%al and selfD%ontained that it is su!erfluous to give eBam!les of the individual terms
or to tra%e the histor& of the grou!.
.
3istin%tion from s&non&mous words and grou!s (
, , , m 6. n) is made !ossible b&
the fa%t that the em!hasis here is alwa&s on serving as a slave."
*
7en%e we have a servi%e whi%h
is not a matter of %hoi%e for the one who renders it, whi%h he has to !erform whether he li:es or
not, be%ause he is sub$e%t as a slave to an alien will, to the will of his owner. l is
almost eBa%tl& s&non&mous, but in the stress is rather on the slaveOs de!enden%e on his
'eno!h.7ist. <rae%. , II, *, *+# III, ., *.. If the is atta%:ed b& eBternal enemies, it is also
threatened b& an inner foe, sin%e it lives onl& in the free %itiEens. Their free selfDgovernment under
their own homos is alwa&s at sta:e. It is thus no a%%ident that after the 2ersian @ar the term
i %an be used as a general eB!ression for the autonom& of a state in the interminable
interne%ine wars5 3io >. , 9, /., 7# )6, ./, 6# 3itt. 9&ll.
/
, )97, .+# /66, 0 et%. i thus
%omes to mean mu%h the same as i , e.g., in 3io >. , 0), *0. It also means mu%h the same
as i , and this is even more im!ortant in view of the earlier attestation, 'eno!h.7ist.
<rae%. , II, ), *+5 c q q q i i .
>f. the oath of the >hersonesians ( c. /++v*6+ H.>. )5 c i
i , 3itt. 9&ll.
/
, /6+, 0
ff. >f. ibid. , /)*, .0 ff.# 3io >. , )0, /., *5 c q
q q, c c q i q {
i, c i . Though there are material grounds for
the use of i for the eBisten%e of a state, it denotes a shift in meaning. ,nd indeed, after
the 2elo!onnesian @ar the term develo!ed into a !oliti%al %at%hword of the small <:. states,
whi%h in their battles were defending not merel& their own freedom but the %ommon freedom" of
the states atta%:ed b& them or b& their o!!onents. The 4a%edaemonians were the first to %laim that
the& were %ham!ions of i . The s!ee%h of the 8it&lenians in Thu%. , III, 9 ff. gives us a
good insight into the situation. The& had made %ommon %ause with ,thens towards the end of the
2ersian @ar, 6 t
Ai,

6 . The& thus entered the

field with the ,thenians as { { Hut now the ,thenians wished to
sub$ugate them as the& did their other allies. ,nd for the sa:e of their freedom and that of the
other allies the 4a%edaemonians were now to ma:e allian%e with them. >f. also Thu%. , II. 6, )# 7*,
.# I(, 60, .# 'eno!h.7ist. <rae%. , III, ., .6# (, *, .* et%. ;aturall& the ,thenians, too, %laimed to
be fighting for i , 2lat.8eneB. , *)*a# *)/a# I< , II, ., ,dd., 0*%, ).5 c q
i t , Thu%. , (I, 6/, * et%. 9imilarl& the Thebans fought for the
i of Hoeotia et%., Thu%. , III. 6*, 0. i be%omes a magi%al word in <:.
!oliti%s.
0
@ith this generalised sense there is %ommonl& lin:ed the word i , whi%h is
materiall& ver& %lose in the domesti% !oliti%al s!here. From the stand!oint of %ivil law the terms
overla! to the degree that the same legal !osition is indi%ated b& i from the stand!oint
of the sovereign !ower of the %itiEens and b& i from that of their right as a !eo!le."
6

Together the two terms des%ribe the full sovereignt& of the . In a%tual usage, of %ourse, the
words are not differentiated with an& great !re%ision, and ma& be used in a wa& whi%h ma:es it
diffi%ult to de%ide whether the& %om!lement or merel& re!eat one another, 'eno!h.7ist. <rae%. ,
III, ., *+ f.# 2ol&b. , I(, *7, 0# ''I, .9, 9# '', 7 et%.# I< , II, 0, 60b# 3itt. 9&ll.
/
, //+, *) f.5
c q
i i (/+6 H.>. )# /**, * ff.# /*/5 q
q q q6 i q
i i (/+6 H.>. )# 3io >. , 9, /., 6, !artl& alone, and !artl&
s&non. with i 5 'eno!h.7ist. <rae%. , (I, /, 7I9# 3itt. 9&ll.
/
, )+9, /0# 3io >. , )0, /0,
.. , good eBam!le of this whole use of i and i o%%urs in the s!ee%h of
;ero on the freedom of <ree%e in 3itt. 9&ll.
/
, 6.), .* ff. 7ow little im!ortan%e is atta%hed to the
distin%tion ma& be seen in Iso%. , who in ), ..0 s!ea:s of i alone and in ..7 of
i i (%f. 2ol&b. , I(, *7, 0). In 3itt. 9&ll.
/
, .)*, .9 ff. we have the teBt
of the treat& of >hios (/76v77 H.>. )5 c m n m i n m n
i i m n , q i
q . In his rendering of the same %onditions 3iodor. has onl& (
sc. )

('(, *6, )).

B. The Philosophical Concept of *reedom in 8ellenism :5toicism;.
lord, while l em!hasises the !osition of the slave in relation to the world outside and in
human so%iet&.
/
This shows us again how strong is the !assive element in , and in the
whole word grou! to whi%h it belongs.
0 >f. 8. 2ohlenE, #us Platos Werkstatt (.9./), *)* f.# *60 f.# 7. 9%hlfer, Staatsfor u. Politik (.9/*), .7/.
6 T. 8ommsen, Staatsrecht , III, . (.667), 606# K. @il%:en, 9H,, .9*9, *9*, n. *# ?. Faerst, op cit. , II
/
, 6+.
.. In 7ellenism, and !redominantl& in >&ni%D9toi% !hiloso!h&, the eBtolling of freedom not
onl& does not %ease but a%tuall& in%reases. The Tuestion of 9o%rates in 'eno!h.8em. , I(, 0, *5
Tell me, 1uth&demos, do &ou believe that freedom is a beautiful and glorious good for
individuals as well as the state" is answered not merel& b& 1uth&demos but b& the whole age
with an em!hati% affirmative. 'eno!hon himself often !raises freedom. It is eTual to all earthl&
treasures, 7ist. <rae%. , I(, ., /0 f.# it is worth d&ing for, ibid. , I(, ), 6# %f. ,n. , I, 7, /# III, *, ./.
Hut it is even more em!hati%all& !raised in the true >&ni% tradition. The >&ni% is the one who
stands out as , , , who fears no human lord, who
is sub$e%t onl& to <od, i (3iogenes >&ni%us 1!. , 7 mA. 7er%her,
1!istologra!hi <rae%i, */7n), who not onl& loves freedom but !refers it to all else ( 3iog. 4. , (I,
7.). 7e is a %onstant enem& and %riti% of the 8a%edonian rulers and 3ion&sus. 7e does not %ease
to blame t&rants and to bewail their miser& and %onstant fear, whi%h ma:es them slaves. 7e %ounts
them fortunate when the& lose their rule and %an live in 7ellas. 7e also atta%:s their
!arasites, !referring his ,tti% freedom to all the attra%tions of %ourt. 7e eBtols 7armodios and
,ristogeiton, and is !roud of living in the %it& whi%h 7ellas liberated from the 8edes {
,ntisthenes writes i i , and the >&ni% s!ea:s of these to all
men."
7
The 9toi% dis%i!les and heirs are no less instant to !raise i as
, 1!i%t.3iss. , I(, ., 0*, as , ibid. , I(, ., 0)# I, .*, .*,
whi%h %an be mentioned along with i , 1!i%tet 1n%h. , ., ). Freedom is q
q , 1!i%t.
<
nom. 9tob. , /.. The senten%e with whi%h 3io >hr&sostomos o!ens his
dis%ussion of i i , -r. , .), ., re!eats the general view5 l
c l , i q i
, q c i
. 7e does, of %ourse, go on to sa&5 c ,
l q , # and this shows us that, in %ontrast to the <:. view,
the %on%e!t of freedom has now be%ome !roblemati%al.
*. For the freedom whi%h is now the sub$e%t of thought and !ro!aganda is onl& se%ondaril&
and de%reasingl& the freedom of %itiEens or the state. It is sensed that there is a mu%h more radi%al
freedom, namel&, that of the individual set a!art and under the law of his own nature or of human
nature generall&. The !oliti%al %on%e!t turns into a !hiloso!hi%al. @ith 9o!hist enlightenment and
the de%a& of the <ree: state man is no longer either theoreti%all& or !ra%ti%all& under the selfD
evident noos of a %on%rete %ommunit&. 7e is dire%ted to his individual nature and to the general
%osmos as the guiding lines of his selfDunderstanding and as the horiEons of his eB!erien%e. The
Tuestion of freedom thus arises in the light of this natural inter!retation of eBisten%e. If the new
%on%e!t of freedom is attained in o!!osition to the !oliti%al,
6
this is sim!l& a !roof that the
%on%e!t lives on and that it is now involved in new !roblems. There is full awareness of the
%hange of use. The reinter!retation is naturall& understood to a large eBtent as a dis%over& of the
original meaning. It ma& be asserted5 { q i
,
6 q i , 3io >hr&s.-r. , .0, /*.
The basi% formal meaning remains the same. The <:. tradition of manOs selfDunderstanding is
not bro:en. 7ere, however, is a natural understanding of man in general. T&!i%al is 3iog. 4. , (II,
.*.5 (s%. ), c q c ,
i iq . >f. 2hilo
-
mn. 2rob. 4ib. , *. 5 c q c
, i iq . The meaning of freedom is more !o!ularl& eB!ressed
in 1!i%t.3iss. , I(, ., .5 t ,
, l , l
i, l i i . >f. ibid. , I, .*, 9# II, ., */# 2hilo-mn. 2rob.
4ib. , ). . 7ere, too, freedom is inde!endent selfDdetermination. To see: freedom is to see: and
!romote this. To enTuire into it is to enTuire into what ma:es man free and selfDdetermining, or, as
we read in 1!i%t.3iss. , I(, ., 6*, into what ma:es him 6 { . In
general terms this is selfD:nowledge, rational insight into oneOs own eBisten%e, :nowledge of life5
7 ?ol, op. cit. , 06* f.
<nom. 9tob. Gnoologiu Stobaei .
6 >f. 3io >hr&s.-r. , .) passi # 1!i%t.3iss. , I(, ., 6 ff.# 1!i%t.<nom. 9tob. , /6 f.# 2isidian ins%r., 7ermes, */
(.666), 0)* et%.
-mn. 2rob. 4ib. ?uod onis Probus )iber sit .
q , ibid. , I(, ., 6/. This :nowledge must %onsider in what s!heres we
ma& or ma& not eBer%ise free dominion. It sees from eB!erien%e that eBternal things, bod&,
!ossessions, famil& et%., are not at our dis!osalkthe is an ,
l , ibid. , I(, ., 66. -n the other hand, it sees that what is inward (
, 1!i%t.3iss. , II, ./, ..# 1n%h. , *9, 7), the soul,
9
is %om!letel& under our %ontrol, and
with the soul es!. q and i , ideas" and !rin%i!les." For the
former, %f. a good eBam!le in 1!i%t.3iss. , III, *), 67 ff.5 (s%. )
A q, . q;
i i . q .
, { { , i; q
6 , ,
i , q . i
i # >f. I, ., .*# 1n%h. , 6. For the latter, %f. 3iss. , I, .7, *. ff.5 ,
i 6 . Thus no one %an !revent &ou
agreeing with the truth. The same a!!lies in relation to im!ulse, desire and abnegation. ;or %an
&ou be for%ed in res!e%t of the fear of death. -nl& eBerts %om!ulsion in this %ase5
i i { g, l g {
6 q q q .
.+

To attain to freedom, however, :nowledge of what I %an %ontrol ( q ) and %annot
%ontrol ( , ) must be wor:ed out and maintained both theoreti%all&
and !ra%ti%all&. In !ursuit of this basi% insight one must free oneself in%reasingl& from false
in whi%h eBternal eBisten%e im!oses itself u!on me as m& realit& and see:s to su!!lant
true realit&, the i , whi%h I m&self am, 1!i%t.3iss. , II, .+, .# III, ., )+# I(, 0, .*.
q q q q
. . g
," c 6 , ," c
q i q l i, q " {
6 i l ." ; c Z q ,"
1!i%t.3iss. , I, .9, 6 f. >f. 1n%h. , I, 0, 0.
2urifi%ation from false , however, im!lies !ra%ti%al withdrawal from human life
around. For one thing, this means restri%tion of desires. 4ife is a feast. 9omething is handed to
one. i q i . q . q
q i q , i, . If it
satisfies, one is a worth& guest at the table of the gods. Hut if of &ourself &ou do not ta:e what is
!roffered { &ou are not merel& a worth& guest of the gods# &ou will also reign with them,"
1!i%t.1n%h. , .0# %f. 3iss. , I(, I, 67. Furthermore, withdrawal from the world means surrender to
the !ressure of eBisten%e, abandonment to %ir%umstan%es, %ommittal to <od. I have never been
thwarted in what I willed or for%ed in what I did not will. Hut how is this !ossible I have
sub$e%ted the %ourse of m& life to <od. 7e wills that I have fever# I also will it. 7e wills that I see:
something# I also will it, 7e wills that I desire something# I also will it. 7e wills that I attain
something# I also will it. 7e does not will# I do not will { @ho then %an hinder or for%e me
%ontrar& to m& resolve". 1!i%t.3iss. , I(, ., 69 f. >f. I, .*, 6 f.# II, .6, )*# .9, *9# */, )*# 1n%h. ,
0/, .# 8. ,nt. , 0, *7# 6, .6. The ardour of the !assage betra&s the resolution of the !hiloso!her to
attain sovereignt& over the %osmos in himself, in his inner life. The wa& of surrender to the %osmos
seems to bring about the o!!osite result. Hut in fa%t it is the means to autonom&. For it is onl& a
surrender of what I am not, while what I am remains inta%t. ,nd with the surrender of what I am, I
give u!, I let go, that whi%h o!!resses me, namel&, %ir%umstan%es. ,nd !re%isel& in so doing I set
m& inner self free. That surrender to <od is meant thus, i.e., that it alwa&s im!lies an attem!t to
se%ure the ego, ma& be seen in an in%onsisten%& in relation to genuine surrender to what the world
brings u!on us, for it is %ommanded that in fa%e of too great a !ressure of the burdens of eBisten%e
man should see: es%a!e in death. @e have the re%urrent image5 i
l; , i , .
q , q q , 1!i%t.3iss. , I, *0, .6.
..

9 >f. ?ol, op cit. , 07*.
.+ >f. 1!i%t.3iss. , II, .0, .# I(, ., .++ ff.# 1n%h. , 9# 2hilo3eus Imm. , )7 .
.. >f. 9%hmitE, op cit. , *6.
4iberation from the world is onl& !ossible, however, if there is in the third !la%e liberation
from that whi%h re!resents the world in us, from that whereb& it obviousl& ta:es !ossession of us,
namel&, from . In this we abandon ourselves to the im!ulsion of things. In its neutralisation
we withdraw from them. @e need not here re%ount the individual !assions,
.*
%f. in the
1n%hiridion of 1!i%t. anBiet& in .*, ., anger in *+, s&m!ath& in .6, astonishment in .9, * et%.# but
%f. also i in 'eno!h.
,
!. , .6# 8em. , I(, 0, / and 6# 2hiloAer. 3iv. 7er. , *67 ff. #
1!i%t.<nom. 9tob. , /6. @e ma& sim!l& affirm that the muffling of !assions b& re%olle%tion of the
transitoriness of things
./
finds the eventual liberation of man in the fulfilment of a definite role in
life. In %easeless striving, as we see in the monotonous and !lero!hori% diatribe of 1!i%tetus, man
must learn to des!ise the things whi%h he %annot %ontrol ( 1!i%t.1n%h. , .9, *), so that he ma& !la&
well the !art whi%h he has to !la&. Aemember that &ou are an a%tor in a role a!!ointed b& the
author, whether short or long. If 7e wants &ou to be a beggar, see that &ou !la& the role in a wa&
whi%h is true to life. =our tas: is to !la& well the !art assigned to &ou. It is the tas: of another to
sele%t this role," ibid , .7.
.)
To be able to !la& this !art well, however, man must free himself
from one in !arti%ular, namel&, the fear of death. This is the basi% of eBisten%e,
and it arises most for%efull& where man from the ver& first is %ons%ious of the isolation of
individual eBisten%e in the vastness of the %osmos. It dominates man in %on%ern for himself. and
%auses him to tr& to %ontrol what %annot be %ontrolled. H i g;
, q i ; i
i ; i , i i; q
,

c { c ; i q q
i , i,
6; i c c q ; c q g
g # c ( 1!i%t.3iss. , I(, I,
6* f.). To be%ome free is es!e%iall& to rid oneself of the fear of death. 1ver& effort is to be made in
this dire%tion5 (s%. ) ,
l , , 6, g
( 1!i%t.3iss. , III, *6, /9). In the fearless
distan%e of neutralised !assion, in whi%h there is voluntar& surrender to the inelu%table !ower of
the surrounding world, man ta:es himself in hand and thus finds freedom.
7e does not see, of %ourse, that this violent !ro%ess of withdrawal from the %osmos and retreat
into inwardness has its se%ret basis in, and brings to eB!ression, that whi%h is shunned as bondage,
namel&, the fear of death. The im!ossibilit& of this freedom im!resses itself u!on him most
!owerfull& in the !ra%ti%al form of its unattainabilit&. It is re%ognised that the demand for this
freedom %an never be full& satisfied. It is alwa&s an ideal even for those who in virtue of their
insight and eBertion ma& be %alled , the i, , ,
, , i or whatever else we %all them.
.0
=ou are
therefore { free H& the gods I ho!e to be, and desire it, but I %annot &et loo: the 4ord in the
fa%e, I still value the bod&, I give mu%h to :ee! it unharmed even though it is not unharmed,"
1!i%t.3iss. , I(, ., .0.. 9how me a man who is si%: but still ha!!&, who is in danger but still
ha!!&, who is d&ing but still ha!!&, who is !ros%ribed but still ha!!&, who is the vi%tim of
misfortune but still ha!!&# show me su%h a man. H& the gods, I desire to see a 9toi%. Hut &ou
%annot show me one who is !erfe%t# so show me one who strenuousl& eBerts himself to be so, who
strives thereafter. 3o me the favour# do not !rodu%e an an%ient as the marvel whi%h I have not so
far seen," 3iss. , II, .9, *) f. -nl& in isolated figures li:e 3iogenes or 9o%rates has there been
a%hieved the en%ouraging eBam!le of a trul& free man, the !ossibilit& of su%h freedom being
thereb& demonstrated, 3iss. , I(, ., ..) ff.# .*/ ff.# .0* ff. et%.
Hut what is the fruit of this freedom @herein is it en$o&ed In the !ea%e whi%h is given b&
attained assuran%e, and in unsha:able rest of soul5 q ,
, l, ; i , ,
g , , 1!i%t.3iss. , I(, ., 97 f.
c q, gq ,
.* >f. ?ol, op cit. , 6+6 ff.
,!. #pologia Socratis .
./ >f. 1!i%t.3iss. , III, *), 60 ff.
.) >f. further eBam!les in 9%hmitE, op cit. , *6.
.0 >f. the IndeB in 9%hen:l, s.v. or 4eisegang on 2hilo, s.v.
, l , i , 3iss. , III, ./, ./. ti and
i or or even are identi%al in substan%e. >f. 1!i%t.3iss. , I, ., **# *),
6# II, ., *.# .6, ).# .6, *6# III, .0, .*# I(, ., 6/ f.# 1n%h. , *9, 7 et%. The man who in the !ress of
the world %ons%iousl& and deliberatel& see:s flight in inwardness en$o&s the freedom therein
attained in the im!regnable im!assibilit& of isolated lordshi!. In so doing he onl& fulfils what he
is, a !art of <od," a son of <od," even <od" 7imself, 1!i%t.3iss. , I, .), 6 ff.# .9, 9# II, 6, ..
ff.# II, .7, // et%.
C. The Concept of *reedom in the NT.
.. In 9toi% tea%hing freedom is manOs %ontrol over mena%ing eBternal eBisten%e b& the
%ons%ious and deliberate %ontrol of his own soul. The ;T , however, realiseskgenerall&
s!ea:ingkthat even in the retreat into inwardness man is not free. For in the ;T it is evident
that freedom is not absent be%ause there is inadeTuate %ontrol of eBisten%e but be%ause there is
no %ontrol of it at all, and therefore no selfDdominion. It realises that eBisten%e is threatened b&
itself and not b& something outside# it realises that it is itself defi%ient, with all that it does.
7en%e to ta:e oneself in hand is sim!l& to gras! a defi%ient eBisten%e. 9elfD!reservation b&
retreat into inwardness is merel& a wa& of losing oneOs true self. In fa%e of lost eBisten%e there
is onl& one !ossibilit& of %oming to oneself, and this is b& surrender of oneOs own will to the
will and !ower of an eBternal for%e. 8an attains to selfD%ontrol b& letting himself be
%ontrolled.
8ore %on%retel& the ;T uses i for freedom from sin ( A. 65.6I*/ # ?n. 65/.I/6
), from the 4aw ( A. 75/ f. # 65* # <l. *5) # )5*.I/. # 05. , ./ ), and from death ( A. 65*. f. #
65*. ). Freedom is freedom from an eBisten%e whi%h in sin leads through the 4aw to death. ,s
we ma& see from A. 65*+ kand so far as !ossible we shall restri%t ourselves to the %onteBt of
the i !assages TuotedkeBisten%e in sin is one whi%h is sub$e%t to sin5 {
q i ( A. 65*+ , %f. ?n. 65/) ). The fulfilment of this relationshi! is the
lawlessness and indis%i!line whi%h lead to anar%h& ( A. 65.9b ). Hut lawlessness and
indis%i!line are surrender to the %raving ( i ) of the , to the
%on%u!is%ent hunger of selfD%entred earthl& and %arnal life. The& are the abandonment of man
to his intense will to maintain life. Freedom from sin is ne%essaril& freedom from manOs
!h&si%al desire for life, for himself.
This desire is unleashed b& the 4aw. In itself the 4aw is the hol&, righteous and good will
of <od ( A. 75.* ). It is a!!ointed for life ( A. 75.+ ), whi%h %onsists in living for others, in
love ( A. ./59 # <l. 05.) ). It is the %laim of <od made on all men and given written form in
Israel. In it manOs histor& is summoned to fulfilment of <odOs will. Hut in the eBisten%e of
man as it is dominated b& sin, b& the selfDwill of being, it be%omes a summons of autonomous
eBisten%e arbitraril& to live for itself. The 4aw brings out the sin of eBisten%e in eB!erien%e
( A. 757 , ./ # /5*+ m 05./ n). In eBisten%e dominated b& sin and devoted to selfDglor& ( A.
*5*. ), it is eB!erien%ed as the law of selfD!reservation, as a %all to selfDsee:ing5
( A. 750 ), sinful affe%tions being
mediated through the 4aw. It is the law of sin in m& members" ( A. 75*/ ), the %laim of <od
misused b& the selfDsee:ing love of life to !romote itself in m& !h&si%al realit&. It is an
o%%asion ( , A. 756 ) for the develo!ment of m& own !henomenon" ( A. 75./ ), not
merel& when there brea:s forth b& it the anar%hi% im!ulse referred to in A. 65.7 ff. , but also
when the nomisti% im!ulse is :indled thereb&. It is of this that the !assages s!ea: whi%h refer
eB!ressl& to freedom from the 4aw, es!e%iall& in <alatians. The freedom to whi%h >hrist has
made us free"
.6
( <l. 05. ), to whi%h &ou are %alled" ( <l. 05./ ), whi%h we have in >hrist
?esus" ( <l. *5) ), is %on%retel& the freedom from the ne%essit& of %ir%um%ision for
$ustifi%ation before <od. ,nd this freedomkas we learn from the unit& of the 4aw in <l. 05/
.6 -n the teBtual !roblems, whi%h do not affe%t our general understanding, %f. gn. <l. , ad loc. # on the linguisti%
ba%:ground of the formulation, %f. the debatable %on%lusions of 3eissmann 4-
)
, *7)I*6..
kis onl& an eBam!le of freedom from the 4aw in general as the wa& to <od. It is an a%ute
instan%e of freedom from the 4aw whi%h summons man to meritorious a%hievements in <odOs
e&es. The 4aw is in view when there is referen%e to freedom from that whi%h stirs man to be
his own master, not b& transgressing the 4aw, but b& fulfilling it a%%ording to his own
inter!retation. 7ere, one might sa&, we have the 4aw b& whi%h the selfDwill of eBisten%e (i.e.,
sin) asserts itself in the form of fashioning oneself a%%ording to oneOs inter!retation of the
demands of <od. In what seems to be honest fulfilment of the will of <od, man still follows
his own needs and se%retl& does his own will ( A. * .+5/ # 2hil. /59 ). Freedom from the 4aw
thus means s!e%ifi%all& freedom from the moralism whi%h awa:ens hidden selfDsee:ing. It
means freedom from the se%ret %laim whi%h man ma:es on himself in the form of legal
demand. It means freedom from the meeting of this %laim in the form of legal a%hievement. It
means freedom from selfDlordshi! before <od in the guise of serious and obedient
res!onsibilit& towards 7im.
, further feature of eBisten%e in sin under the 4aw is brought out at a !oint whi%h
embra%es all human eBisten%e. To be in sin is to be in de%e!tion, i.e., in falsehood. It is true
that this matter is tou%hed on onl& indire%tl& in the %onteBt of ?n. 65/* , but it is no less %learl&
!er%eived in ?n. than it is in 2aul ( , I, *)0 # ). The severing of
eBisten%e from <od means regarding oneself as <od, and this im!lies %on%ealment of and
blindness to oneOs own true realit& in whi%h <od see:s to de%lare 7imself ( A. *5.6 ff. ).
There is %onstant selfDde%e!tion. The truth that life %omes from <od is su!!ressed. Falsehood
is !ursued in the !ersistent attem!t at selfDrule. ,nd this attem!t is itself %on%ealed from
oneself and others in various wa&s. Freedom from sin and from the 4aw thus in%ludes
essentiall& freedom from the selfDde%e!tion of autonomous eBisten%e b& the dis%losure of
truth.
The selfDsee:ing eBisten%e whi%h goes astra& in sin leads finall& to death. The wa:ening
of sin in the 4aw, i.e., of sinful eBisten%e b& the summons of the 4aw, means that eBisten%e
falls vi%tim to death ( A. 759I.. ). For the awa:ening of sinful eBisten%e in the %laim of the
4aw im!lies the surrender of oneOs being to an eBisten%e whi%h is referred to itself and not to
<od and to life, having se!arated itself from <od and therefore from life. 9in %arries death
within it. 3eath is !resent as that wherein it lives" and therefore as that wherein its life" is
:nown ( A. 05*. ). 3eath is its !ower. 4iving b& death ( A. 65*/ ),
.7
in se!aration from <od,
it !romotes its life b& death ( . >. .0506 # A. 05.* ). In death sin a%hieves its being in a ver&
real sense. This ma& be seen in the i , whi%h is set under the sin whi%h rules man (the
, A. 65*. ). 1ven in nature, whi%h is subordinated to the histori%al eBisten%e of man,
the realit& of se!aration from <od ma& be seen in the !ro%ess of %orru!tion. The absen%e of
<od in the life of %reation is manirested with !ain and sighing in the !ower of its %orru!tion.
8ore !arti%ularl&, however, the trium!h of death in sin ma& be seen in the fa%t that sin
%ontinuall& and in the long run definitivel& a%tualises it in the eBisten%e of man. 8an, who
fulfils sin eBistentiall&, abideth not in the house for ever" ( ?n. 65/0 ). H& !ursuing the
se!aration of his eBisten%e from life alread& a%%e!ted b& him, he moves to eternal %orru!tion.
In the ver& !ro%ess of his life he brings about death. This is to be seen in the %ourse of his life.
For his wor:s, whi%h are the fruits in whi%h his eBisten%e issues, have death as their goal and
end. The of what man does is death ( A. 65*. ) in the twofold sense that he brings
death on himself and also brings it to others in his wor:s. In wor:s sin %auses man to gras! his
life in relation to the 4aw and it therefore enables the fatal !ower of autonomous life to
%onsume himself and others. @ith res!e%t to this eBisten%e whi%h in sin be%omes inde!endent
through the 4aw and whi%h is thus im!elled towards death, freedom means freedom from self
and therefore from an eBisten%e given u! to death. It is freedom from the law of life whi%h
delivers u! fallen eBisten%e of itself to ruin, i.e., from the law of sin and death" ( A. 65* ).
.7 -ne might almost sa& that death is the a%%ount a%%ruing to sin ( 6 q i
).
*. 7ow is freedom attained in eBisten%e as thus understood ,%%ording to the %onteBt, the
!rimar& answer is through the a%t of ?esus >hrist." To freedom >hrist has made us free"
( <l. 05. ). ,s ma& be seen from the !arallel !assages in <l. /5./ and )5) , the referen%e is to
the event of the life of >hrist offered u! in substitutionar& death for others in obedien%e to the
will of <od. -ur freedom, then, is not an eBistential return to the basis of individual eBisten%e,
the soul. It is the event of a histori%al life radi%all& sa%rifi%ed for others. The 9on ma:es us
free ( ?n. 65/6 ), the 9on who a%hieves 7is eBaltation in the surrender of 7is own %laim to life.
The se%ond answer to the Tuestion how freedom is attained in eBisten%e is through the
%all whi%h %omes to man in the <os!el." For &ou are %alled to freedom" ( <l. 05./ ). The two
answers are not unrelated. The se%ond is lin:ed with the first as follows. In the %all of the
<os!el men are %alled to the a%t of ?esus >hrist as the basis of a new life of freedom. @e ma&
thus sa& that in the %all of the <os!el there is a real !resen%e of the event of the !erson of
>hrist in those who are %alled. 9omething of this relationshi! ma& be seen in the i
!assages. It is said in A. 65* that the law of the living and lifeDgiving 9!irit in ?esus >hrist (
{ q q ) has made &ou free from
the law of sin and death." @e then read in v. / 5 For what the law %ould not do be%ause of the
wea:ness of %arnal (fallen) eBisten%e, <od has done through the sending of his own 9on in
sinful flesh, to %ondemn sin in the flesh." 7en%e the a%t of <od fulfilled in ?esus >hrist must
be the basis of the a%tivit& of the lifeDgiving 9!irit who ma:es us free, and therefore the basis
of our freedom in and under the a%tivit& of the 9!irit. The %laim of the lifeDgiving 9!irit in
?esus >hrist is thus none other than the %laim made on us b& the a%t of <od fulfilled in ?esus
>hrist. That this is so ma& be seen from v. ) . 7ere we have the goal of the a%t fulfilled in
?esus >hrist5 That what the 4aw advan%es as a $ust demand ma& be fulfilled in us who lead
our lives a%%ording to the measure of the 9!irit and not of the flesh." In the %laim of the 9!irit
the a%t of <od fulfilled in ?esus >hrist fulfils in us what the 4aw has in view to the degree that
we do not &ield to the %laim of our own lives but follow the 9!irit in whom we stand and who
is the 9!irit of <od or of >hrist ( A. 659 ). ,s the 9!irit a!!lies the a%t of <od in ?esus >hrist,
who has over%ome us, there is fulfilled in us that whi%h the 4aw as the will of <od demands
of us for life. In other words, there has ta:en !la%e the %on%rete histor& of the loving a%t of
?esus >hrist whi%h bears and whi%h therefore %overs and remits the sin of others. The love of
<od as ena%ted on%e for all in the death and resurre%tion of ?esus >hrist raises u!on us in the
9!irit the %laim that we should obedientl& re%ognise it as what it is, namel&, the a%t of divine
life a%%om!lished for us and eternall& sustaining us. If we o!en our lives to this in%ursion of
the 9!irit of the a%t of <od in ?esus >hrist, there ta:es !la%e in them the grounding of our
lives in the realised love of ?esus >hrist. H& the 9!irit and !ower of the life of ?esus >hrist
radi%all& offered u! in love, there is brought into being in our lives an eBisten%e whi%h is
unselfish and selfDforgetting be%ause it is d&nami%all& hidden in love and %an no longer be
selfDsee:ing or selfDwilled. In the 9!irit of the freedom of ?esus >hrist, there arises our
freedom.
The in%ursion of the 9!irit of the liberating event of the histor& of ?esus >hrist ta:es !la%e
in the %all of the <os!el. This %all was issued alread& to Israel in the form of the !romise. It
%reated the ?erusalem whi%h is above, the true Israel, to whi%h, as to those who are free, the
%alled of >hrist now belong also ( <l. )5*.I/. ). ,%%ording to ?n. 65/. this %all is given in
>hristOs own @ord. ,s the @ord in whi%h ?esus 7imself s!ea:s ( ?n. 65.) ), it mediates the
truth whi%h is ?esus 7imself in 7is eBaltation through suffering ( ?n. .)56 ). This truth ma:es
free b& %overing man in its u!holding love. ,s the 9!irit of truth the %all %ontinuall& ma:es
the truth :nown ( ?n. .65./ ). This ta:es !la%e %on%retel& in the a!ostoli% <os!el through the
a%tivit& of those who dis!ense the lifeDgiving ministr& of the 9!irit ( * >. /56 ) and therefore
the ministr& of the 7imself, who is thus the freedom whi%h fashions eBisten%e into
everDin%reasing glor& under the im!ulsion of the 9!irit of the ( * >. /5.7 f. ).
The in%ursion of the 9!irit in the event of the <os!el, however, ta:es !la%e materiall& and
in time, from the stand!oint of >hristian eBisten%e, in ba!tism. The liberated are the ba!tised.
This ma& be seen in A. 65.7 f. , whi%h is set in the %onteBt of the ba!tismal dis%ussion of 65.ff
. Hondage under sin is !ast through { i l
q , i.e., through the fulfilled a%t of obedien%e to a formulated do%trine
.6
to
whi%h one is %ommitted. 4iberation from the !ower of sin thus ta:es !la%e in an a%t of
obedien%e to the ba!tismal tea%hing whi%h has mastered us. The { is then
ta:en u! in a se%ond statement5 c q i
6 g g . The $uBta!osition shows us that we are dealing with one
and the same thing. The !assive formulation c { 6
shows us that within the total event there is a fulfilment in whi%h man !arti%i!ates onl&
!assivel&, and that this is the de%isive a%t, as ma& be seen from its %ombination with the
%ru%ial 6 . It is b& no means diffi%ult to su!!ose that q
indi%ates the fulfilment of ba!tism, whi%h a%%om!lishes release from sin in an a%t of
obedien%e to the formulated <os!el. The sa%ramental fulfilment of ba!tism on those who are
lin:ed with the >hur%h b& the ba!tismal s&mbol mediates !rimaril& the freedom whi%h is
given us in the a%t of ?esus >hrist. -n the basis of the a%t of ba!tism in whi%h the 9!irit of the
love of ?esus >hrist is made ours, the %laim of this liberating love is made on man. ,nd in
view of the in%ursion of the love of <od, whi%h ta:es !la%e also in the eB!ositor& form of
tea%hing, man must %ontinuall& de%ide for this love whi%h !resses in u!on him.
/. Hut how is the freedom of the 9!irit of ?esus >hrist seiEed b& us as it is brought to us in
the <os!el and a!!ro!riated to us in ba!tism 7ow does this freedom %ome to realisation in
us The de%isive answer is in love. It is not in isolation but in life with others that the
>hristian attains to freedom. In faith in the a%t of <od whi%h, de%lared in the <os!el and
a!!ro!riated to us in ba!tism, sets the life of ?esus >hrist at our dis!osal, man finds his
freedom as servi%e rendered to <odOs righteousness. Ta:en out of himself b& this a%t of
master&, in faith the man who is summoned thereto b& the 9!irit in word and sa%rament
ma:es the transition from isolation to the !ra%ti%al &ielding of his life to the divinel&
demanded righteousness of love of his neighbour, A. 65.6 ff. Freedom, manOs surrender to the
will of <od, his divinel& a%%om!lished transfer from se!aration to righteousness, is
a!!rehended and de%lared in righteous wor: orientated to holiness, A. 65** . This wor: %an
ta:e varied forms, <l. 05** . 3oing all :inds of good, >hristians silen%e the ignorant li!s of
fools and show their freedom, amongst other things in obedien%e to the !owers that be, . 2t.
*5./ ff. The sons of the heavenl& :ingdom, who are free, a%%e!t %ivil ordinan%es for loveOs
sa:e ( c q i ) and !a& the usual taBes, even though the&
do not reall& a!!l& to them as freemen. This is how the& eBer%ise their freedom, 8t. .75*) ff.
In his a!ostoli% wor: 2aul as alwa&s addresses himself to the
s!e%ifi% natural and histori%al situation of men. Thus, renoun%ing his own religious
obligations,
.9
he is read& to sa%rifi%e his own assuran%e of life, being enabled to do this in the
state of freedom attained for him b& ?esus >hrist, . >. 95.9 . ,gain, on the basis of the same
freedom he renoun%es his right as an a!ostle to have %ertain basi% needs met and es!e%iall& to
earn his :ee! through the !rea%hing of the <os!el. It is true, of %ourse, that the a!ostoli%
i is at issue in this argument rather than i . The Tuestion5 l
# in . >. 95. , whereb& 2aul !la%es himself among the of . >. 6 ,
sim!l& introdu%es a dis%ussion in whi%h the %on%e!t of i is no longer a!!li%able.
8ateriall&, however, the line of thin:ing here is an illustration of the wa& in whi%h >hristian
.6 The meaning of q is mu%h debated in the %omm. @e ta:e it to be given in a
, a fiBed form. >f. 1. ;orden, (.9*/), *7+ f., who understands it to be a formular& of
faith.
.9 This is the onl& !ossible meaning of here. @e misunderstand not onl& this !assage but all 2aulOs
tea%hing if we tr& to derive from . >. 95.9 ff. an ada!tation of the a!ostoli% :er&gma to the religious insights of
the heathen. 7ow %ould the one who anathematised the ?udaising heres& in <l. .59 allow the revealed <os!el to
be %hanged b& !agan !hiloso!h& To him this would not be freedom# it would be bondage to men and to the
realit& whi%h %onditions them. For it would be an attem!t to eB!ound the will of <od a%%ording to the %laims of
elemental for%es.
freedom is realised in servi%e whi%h renoun%es !ersonal %laims and is %on%erned onl& for the
salvation of others ( q iq , .
>. 95.* ). The >orinthian <nosti%s do not have this genuine freedom whi%h voluntaril& see:s
the edifi%ation of others ( . >. 65. ff. ). To be sure, the& are liberated from b& their
:nowledge of <od, in whi%h the& are :nown b& <od. Hut the& ma:e this freedom another
%laim in virtue of whi%h the& tr& to assert themselves among the wea:. The& bemoan the fa%t
that their freedom must be sub$e%t to the %riti%ism of the %ons%ien%es of others, . >. .+5*9 f.
The& want to treat as their own the freedom given them with their :nowledge of <od. 7en%e
the freedom granted to them, in whi%h all %ares and %laims are silen%ed b& the love of the
Father of ?esus >hrist, is not gras!ed b& them in a freedom in whi%h the& eB!ress the
liberation from %are and %laim a!!ro!riated to them b& the intervention of ?esus >hrist
through word and sa%rament. The& show that their freedom is a semblan%e b& their la%: of
love. The eBer%ise of freedom in selfDgiving to others !resu!!oses surrender of the !assions
and demands in whi%h man ensnares himself ( <l. 05*) ). 7ow radi%al this surrender is ma& be
seen from the %ommand of the a!ostle in . >. 75*+ ff. 7ere the slave is summoned to %are so
little about his status that in given %ir%umstan%es he would !refer to remain a slave than to be
free. The basis of the summons is .. the fa%t that both slaves and freemen have the same
standing before the 4ord and are therefore both bound and free, and *. the danger that in
striving after freedom there will be entanglement in %laims u!on men (even if these are onl&
wishful), and therefore unselfish readiness for others will be im!ossible. It is for this readiness
that the sa%rifi%e of ?esus >hrist has freed us.
*+

This surrender of desires in whi%h there is freedom for others is not a selfDrestri%ting and
therefore a selfDasserting ataraBia. This is evident alread& from both the basis and the
fulfilment of >hristian freedom. In this %onteBt, however, it is made even %learer b& the fa%t
that this freedom whi%h %ru%ifies desire and does wor:s of love shows itself to be freedom
from the 4aw. This is to be understood in the light of our !revious deliberations on the
%onne%tion between sin and the 4aw. The 4aw !rovo:es us to autonom& against others. The
%all of the 4aw must be silen%ed where the %all of the <os!el tells us that we are under the
rule of <od. In a life whi%h :nows that it is !rovided for in ?esus >hrist the 4aw is no longer
needed to assure a life whi%h is un!rovided for, and therefore its %laim is no longer heard and
then either violated or met. -n the %ontrar&, the 4aw is freel& fulfilled in its true sense as the
will of <od. Therefore the wor:s whi%h the 4aw is not against, be%ause it is fulfilled in them (
<l. 05*/ ), are not m& own fruits# the& are the fruits of the 9!irit. For the 9!irit has assigned to
me a life in whi%h m& own life is ta:en awa&, so that I no longer tr& to !rovide for it b& wor:s
done in relation to the 4aw, but in m& wor:s fulfil it as a life for whi%h !rovision has alread&
been made. The 4aw does not disa!!ear with its %laim, for it is the hol& will of <od. @ith its
%laim, however, it %omes to me as a 4aw whi%h has alread& been fulfilled b& ?esus >hrist for
me. It is the law of >hrist" ( <l. 65* ). Its %laim is that of the a%%om!lished love of >hrist. It
is thus the !erfe%t law of libert&" ( ?m. .5*0 # %f. *5.* ). It is the 4aw of <od whi%h is a%tive
in the s!here of freedom and whi%h %onstantl& mediates freedom. 7en%e its fulfilment brings
blessedness with it. @e ma& thus sa& that the !roof of freedom from the 4aw is fulfilment of
the law of libert&.
Freedom from sin and the 4aw %ulminates in freedom from death. 7ere, too, we shall
%onsult the i !assages in answer to our Tuestion as to the %on%rete fulfilment of
this freedom. @or:s done in freedom aim intrinsi%all& at q l6 ( A. 65** ). ,s
earthl&, human wor:s the& !rodu%e in themselves that whi%h underlies and %reates them,
namel&, the eternit& dis%losed in the event of the love of ?esus >hrist. ,s the& are !erformed,
the& thus give :nowledge of eternal life. The eBisten%e whi%h b& the wor: of the 9!irit
*+ There is another eB!osition of . >. 75*. whi%h sees a %on%ession in *.b . This is hinted at in <, whi%h !uts
i before . It overloo:s, however, both the general tenor of the !assage and also the radi%al nature of
the q . The es%hatolagi%al %laim of the %ross and resurre%tion of ?esus >hrist :ills even so%ial desires and
%auses us to forget our status ( *7* ).
through word and sa%rament is liberated from selfDsee:ing in faith, eB!resses this freedom in
wor:s whi%h ma:e !ossible for oneOs neighbour the life whi%h one en$o&s oneself, namel&,
the life whi%h is assured b& the love of <od in >hrist. The man who is no longer fallen, but
who rests on the will of <od in >hrist, brings in the future of <od in his wor:s and ma:es it
available to his neighbour in the believing wor: of love. It is true that this freedom from death
is ena%ted onl& within an eBisten%e whi%h is still given u! to death. 1Bisten%e is still fallen of
itself. It :nows freedom from death onl& in the resurre%tion of ?esus >hrist, in whi%h the will
of <od a%%om!lished this freedom. This freedom, as it is a%%om!lished in the resurre%tion of
?esus >hrist from the dead, has ta:en !la%e for it in the word of the <os!el, and has been
made !resent to it b& the a%tion of the sa%rament, as that on the basis of whi%h there %an be
life in selfDforgetful d&ing. 1ven in its wor:s eBisten%e has it onl& as that in relation to whi%h
it %an be. Freedom from death is thus dis%losed to it, even in its a%tion, as the future ena%ted in
?esus >hrist. In this ruined eBisten%e it will thus be :nown onl& as a sign of itself. The wor:s
of freedom will manifest eternit& as that whi%h is still to %ome to us in ?esus >hrist, Hut in this
wa& the& do manifest it. Thus those who have the 9!irit wor:ing freedom within them sigh
eB!e%tantl& that the& ma& be%ome the %hildren of <od, whi%h will ta:e !la%e onl& when the&
are released from the %arnal eBisten%e whi%h in its bondage see:s to !la& the lord. 9imilarl&
the %reation ruined b& man %ries out with longing that it ma& be delivered from the de%e!tive
instin%t of life and the bondage of death. This liberation will ta:e !la%e with the manifestation
of the glor& of the %hildren of <od revealed in ?esus >hrist.
Schlier
) .
<)
1

-ur !arti%ular %on%ern is with the figur. use in ?n. In ?n. 65)) ?esus sa&s5
, q q g , and in
.*5/* 5 6 q q, .
The basi% meaning is to tug" or draw" (with material ob$. 5 ?n. .65.+ # *.56 , .. ). In the
%ase of !ersons (%f. also / 8a%%. )57 # ,%. .65.9 # *.5/+ # ?m. *56 ) it ma& mean to %om!el"5 2.
Tebt. , 0, .79 (*nd. %ent. H.>. )5 i c # 2. 8as!. , 6, 6
(6th %ent. ,.3. )5 l # ibid. , 69, ./5 l i . It ma&
also mean to draw" to a !la%e b& magi%5 , Theo%r. , *, .7. It is used of a magnet,
meta!h. in 1ubulos Fr. , 77 ( >,F , II, .9*)5 q i c
(drawing the hungr& as b& a magnet to the >&!rian loaves). 3emons feel themselves
drawn to the animal life to whi%h the& are given u!5 i {
i ( 2or!h&r. 3e 2hiloso!hia
eB ora%ulis haurienda librorum reliTuiae med. <. @olff, .606n, !. .0+, / f.). 2lato has i
c ( Aes!. , (, )06d)# of the inner influen%ing of the will, 2haedr. , */6a5 i
q . 8ore %om!arable with the ?ohannine usage is that of
2or!h&r.8ar%. , .65 q q q q c . >f.
also >or!. 7erm. , ', 65 the beaut& of the good q q
. @hat is in its own wa& a great %om!rehensive view of nature and s!irit is given us in
the statement %on%erning the demiurge manifesting himself in the sun5 { l
c,
i ( >or!. 7erm. , '(I, 0). The word is distin%tivel& <nosti% in su%h
%onteBts.
In modern 9emiti% %ulture we should note the %on%e!t of the a\dRb (as distin%t from
a\nRn ). The a\dRb (from \adaba , to draw") is one who is drawn to <od b& an irresistible
and su!ernatural for%e, whereas the a\nRn is a !erson indwelt b& demons. The former is hol&,
ele%ted b& <od and filled with 7is gra%e# the latter is the dwellingD!la%e of a devil or one of his
fellows. ;otwithstanding, the words are !o!ularl& used as s&non&ms. @hen a man is suddenl&,
. Fut. (,tt. c )# aor. .
su!ernaturall& and irresistibl& %alled to <od, he often loses the balan%e of thought ( -T !ar. 5 . 9.
.+50 # .95.9 ff. # * F. 95.. # ?er. *95*6 # 7os. 957 # %f. also 8:. /5*. ).
*
, )0+ .
In the -T c is used of !owerful im!ulse. The obs%ure of >ant. .5) is
somehow meant to eB!ress love. The word is used of mother love in ) 8a%%. .)5./ # .05.. .
@e find a benefi%ent drawing" of <od in . 38:3 5 l li . The
original refers more to !atien%e. The 4'' is thin:ing, not so mu%h of drawing out in
deliveran%e ( . 45:13 # 2 B. 22:17 ), but of drawing to oneself in love. This usage is
distin%tivel& develo!ed b& ?n., !erha!s with some influen%e of <nosti%ism. For%e or magi%
ma& be dis%ounted, but not the su!ernatural element. If we ta:e the a!!arentl& %ontradi%tor&
statements together, the %hoi%e of gra%e and the universalit& of gra%e are both of a gravit& and
signifi%an%e to sha:e the %ons%ien%e.
/

In !aganism man draws" the gods (8enander Fr. , *)0 m >,F , III, 7+ f.n5 l c
l ).
It is debatable whether a benefi%ent
)
or a violent drawing" is meant in the agra!hon in 2.
-B&. , I(, 60), .+ and .)5 |i| l c q |l q i| .
%epke
=)), >)) >))&, >))
>)), >))
*

A. =)) in the ree% 3orld.
.. From about 7++ H.>.
.
was used as a designation for the <ree: tribes, %ities and
states bound b& %ommon %ustom, literature, %ulture religion, language and nationhood.
*
The term
develo!ed and hardened in o!!osition to . The selfDawareness indu%ed b& %onta%ts
with nonD<ree:s led to a :ind of absolutising of <ree: language, ra%e and %ulture. The
!henomenon differed, however, from the analogous %ase of Israel, the %hosen !eo!le, in relation to
go'i , b& reason of the fa%t that there was no ver& !rominent religious basis ( I, 00+ f. #
).
/
The finest !ossession of the <ree:s was not a %ult, not even that of the geus of
-l&m!us, nor the transmission of the e!i!han& of a god, nor a sa%red boo:, but its i as
re!resented in the g&mnasium, the theatre, !hiloso!h& and art.
)
It is t&!i%al that Iso%. , ), 0+ (as
it seems) restri%ts the name to those <ree:s who share in <ree: (UU ,tti%) %ulture.
0

* T. >anaan, D=onenglaube i )ande der Bibel (.9*9), )6.
/ 2. 8. ?. 4agrange, &vang. selon St. 0ean
*
(.9*0), on 65))5 ;e murmureE !as, ne raisonneE !as, %omme si
vous jtieE seuls $uges de mort enseignement# vos fa%ultjs naturelles nO& suffiraient !as5 il & faut le se%ours de
3ieu, sans leTuel !ersonne ne !ourrait venir moi5 %Oest de lui TuOii sOagit, !reneE & garde ."
) ,%%. to the editors. 3eissmann 4- , /6/ ff., however, %om!ares it to ?m. *56 ( 8t. .+5.7 # 8:. ./59 ). >f. also
1. @hite, ?Th9t. , .6 (.9.0), *)6 ff.
C . ?. Faerst, Geschichte des (ellenisus
*
, I (.9.7), II (.9*6)# ?. ?Gthner, (ellenen u. Barbaren
(.9*/)# A. 4aTueur, 7ellenismus" in Schriften d. hessischen (ochschulen (.9*0)# 7ellenismus" in A<<
*
, II,
.76. ff. (with bibl. )# K. @il%:en, 7ellenen u. Harbaren," ;. ?b%h. Fl. ,lt. , .7 (.9+6), )07I)7.# @endland
7ell. Fult. # ,. Hauer, Vo Griechentu -u 1hristentu (.9.+)# 1. v. 3obs%hGtE, 7ellenism" in 3,> , I, 0)7
ff. @. ;estle, Griech. /eligiosit=t , III (.9/)), 0ff.
. -n the m&thi%al !rogenitor , %f. Aos%her, I, *+*9 f.# a >hristian referen%e is to be found in
,ristid.,!ol. , 6, ..
* ?Gthner, ) ff. ,%%. to K. @il%:en, op. cit. , )6/ the general %on%e!t of , H , arose onl&
in the 6th %ent. with the %olonising movement.
/ There was !erha!s a religious element in the eB%lusion of barbarians from the 1leusinian m&steries ( I,
0)7 ), as also from the great games (to the degree that had also a religious %hara%ter). The ?ewish
%ounter!art is the eB%lusion of all from the tem!le and feasts ( n. )) # I, *66 f. ).
) @. ?aeger, (uanisus u. 0ugendbildung (.9*.)# #ntike u. (uanisus (.9*0)# Paideia6 die 9orung des
griech. 3enschen , I (.9//).
0 t i q i l,
q q q q q q
. I am following the eB!osition of ?Gthner (/)f.), though this is %ontested (%f. ?Gthner,
n. 9*).
,n analog& would be the restri%tion of the title ?ews or Israelites to !ious observers of the 4aw, to
the eB%lusion of MX [d cd Vqf and of a!ostate ?ews who had be%omes <ree:s." -n the other hand,
there was also a tenden%& to eBtend the term to barbarians who embra%ed the <ree: language and
%ulture.
6

*. The !ro%ess of 7ellenising nonD<ree:s began before the establishment of the 8a%edonian
<ree: em!ire. It was greatl& a%%elerated b& this im!ortant event.
7
The first result of the
%onTuests of 2hili! and ,leBander was the in%or!oration of 8a%edonia and its hinterland into the
s!here of 7elleni% %ulture. There followed the su!erfi%ial 7ellenisation of the :ingdoms of ,sia
and 1g&!t, es!e%iall& of the eBisting %ities and of the newl& established %olonial %ities, whi%h were
under the su!ervision of 8a%edonian <ree%e and the !o!ulations of whi%h were !artl& 7ellenised
with the ado!tion of the <ree: language and %ustoms. Through miBed marriages there ver&
Tui%:l& arose a semiD<ree: world.
6
The develo!ment too: different forms in the different
territories. In the :ingdom of the 2tolemies the term <ree:" was reserved for the ruling %aste
whi%h maintained its traditional language, %ulture and religion in the new land.
9
In ,sia,
however, there was a wider a%%e!tan%e of the %ulture of the b& native nonD7ellenes.
7ere the number of new %ities was greater,
.+
and these be%ame %entres for the 7ellenisation of
the surrounding distri%ts. There was an in%reasing integration of those born 7ellenes with 7ellenes
of barbarian origin who had a%%e!ted ,
..
i.e., the <ree: language, %ulture and
religion.
.*

,lmost as im!ortant as the 7ellenisation of the 1ast is the s!read of <ree: %ulture and
language to the @est. This began in 9outh Ital& and 9i%il& and moved es!. to Aome and >entral
Ital&. It was naturall& Tuite inde!endent of the %onTuests of ,leBander, and !robabl& began before
his da&.
./
In the 1ast the movement !ersisted even when the Aomans !ut an end to the <ree:
:ingdoms and made the territories !rovin%es of the Aoman 1m!ire. Thus the ?ew 2hilo in 4eg.
<a$. , .)7 ( I, 0)9 ) boasts of ,ugustus that he added to 7ellas man& t , 7ellenising
barbarian %ountries in man& im!ortant res!e%ts.
.)
;evertheless, the %hange led to a revival of
6 1Bam!les are Iso%. , op. cit. ()# 2lat.8eneB. , *)0d5 c , q c
, ,ristot. a%%. to Flear%hos in ?os.,!. , ., .6+ of a 7ellenised ?ew5 t q g
q , g g . >f. 1ratosthenes in 9trabo, I, ), 9# also 2lut.,leB. Fort. (irt. , I, 6
(II, /*9%), where we have a !i%ture of the true 7ellene who sets aside %onditions of eBternal nationalit& and
%ivilisation and finds the essential mar:s in outloo: and ethos. From the sa&ing of Iso%. Tuoted in n. 0 we %an
also dedu%e that %ulture is more im!ortant than ra%e. There is a ?ewish >hristian !ar. in A. *5*6I*9 , where 2aul
formulates the %on%e!t of a true ?ew# %f. 2s.D>lem. 7om. , .., .65 , is one who, whether <ree: or
?ew, does not :ee! the Torah." The ra%ial as!e%ts are immaterial# the !ra%ti%al attitude to the Torah is the
%riterion for both terms.
7 2. >orssen in g;@ , 9 (.9+6), 6)# 4aTueur, Der (ellenisus , .6 f.# 1. 8e&er, Blte u. !iedergang des
(ellenisus in #sien (.9*0), 7 ff. There is an absolutising of the signifi%an%e of ,leBander in this !ro%ess es!. in
2lut.,leB. Fort. (irt.
6 1. 8e&er, op. cit. , .. f.
9 Thus from about /++ in 1g&!t are %itiEens of autonomous %ommunities and %ertain not ver&
numerous grou!s of settlers," the %onditions being <ree: eBtra%tion and edu%ation (?Gthner, 6/)# @. 9%hubart,
&infhrung in die Pap'ruskunde (.9.6), /.. f.# 8itteisD@il%:en , I, ., .* ff.# instan%es are found in 8oult.D8ill.
, *+)# 2reisig:e @Jrt. , III, 69. >f. also the letter of the em!eror >laudius to the ,leBandrians, 4ond. 2a!. , .9.*,
in 7. I. Hell, 0e2s and 1hristians in &g'pt (.9*)), . ff.
.+ 1. 8e&er, op. cit. , *. ff.# T. 8ommsen, /. Geschichte , ( (.660), *90 ff.
.. For the word , whi%h is not found in the ;T , %f. 9trabo, 'I(, *, *65 l l
l l , i.e., a%%. to the %onteBt, <ree: language and %ivilisation.
alwa&s signifies what is trul& <:. in s!ee%h, %ulture and religion. -ur term 7ellenism," whi%h denotes a
develo!ment of the %lassi%all& <ree: through the admiBture of oriental influen%es, should not be read into the
<ree: word. >f. 4aTueur, 7ellenismus" passi . -nl& the sense of general <ree: in %ontrast to the ,tti% diale%t
is attested. 2. -B&. , (II, .+.*, Fr. .7. >f. 4iddellD9%ott , s.v. # 1. ,. 9o!ho%les, Greek )e:icon (.67+), s.v. , who
addu%es two senses5 the %orre%t use of the <ree: language, and !aganism. The verb i , whi%h again
does not o%%ur in the ;T , means ( intrans. ) to s!ea: <ree:" (i) , and then, sin%e language and
%ulture are so %losel& related, to thin: and to live in <:. fashion," i.e., in language, dis!osition or %ustom to a%t
li:e a <ree:." 2ass. , s.v. # 4iddellD9%ott , s.v. # ,. 3ebrunner in Burs. 0ahresbericht , */6 (.9/*), /, .*..
.* That the religion of the was a%%e!ted with the 7ellenisation of the 1ast is em!hasised in
2lut.,leB. Fort. (irt. , I, 0 (II, /*6d).
./ ?Gthner, 6+ ff.
eastern %ultures, and thus hel!ed forward, though it did not %ause, the downfall of 7ellenism in
,sia.
/. This is the !la%e to %onsider the fate of the ?ewish !eo!le in the 7ellenisti% age. The ?ews
were naturall& %aught u! in the !ro%ess of 7ellenisation !ushed b& all the 9eleu%id rulers, es!.
,ntio%hus I( 1!i!hanes. 8an& ?ews both at home and of the diaspora learned <ree:# man&
be%ame in the full sense. 1ver&where there were ?ewish %ommunities whi%h used
<ree: even in worshi! and whi%h read the Torah in <ree: translation. The attem!t of ,ntio%hus
1!i!hanes to bring about a radi%al %onversion of the ?ewish !eo!le to ( n. .. )
was frustrated b& the lo&alt& with whi%h most ?ews %lung to their religion and nationalit&. Thus a
gulf was o!ened between and .
.0
The warding off of the <ree:
danger b& ?ews faithful to the 4aw did not mean, of %ourse, that the <ree: world was full&
banished from ?ewish territor&.
.6
The tin& state was surrounded b& 7ellenised %ities. <ree:
%ulture and language !ressed in %onstantl& from without. The last of the 7asmoneans, and then
7erod and his sons, !osed as 7ellenisti% rulers,
.7
and the in%or!oration of ?udea into the strongl&
7ellenised Aoman 1m!ire strengthened the 7ellenising !ro%ess. 8an& ?ews learned <ree:, whi%h
in some degree be%ame a se%ond %ommer%ial language in 2alestine.
.6
Thus even in his own land
the ?ew was brought into %onta%t with , whether in ?erusalem, in the halfD7ellenised
%ities of <alilee, or on the roads whi%h %rossed the land.
The ?ews of the <ree: diaspora were even more strongl& affe%ted. This is !arti%ularl& well
attested b& the ri%h 7ellenisti% ?ewish literature, whether in the form of translations (4'' et%.) or
of original writings, both of whi%h served both the needs of ?ews who %ould not s!ea: an& other
language but <ree:, and also the ends of !ro!aganda among the <ree:s. For if the ?ews be%ame
<ree:s, man& <ree:s be%ame ?ews. ,nd ?udaism finall& maintained itself as su%h even in the
7ellenisti% world.
.9
Thus the 7ellenisti% age saw a final develo!ment whi%h was a %om!lete
!erversion from the <:. stand!oint. The term %ame to be eTuated with the idolater or
heathen.
*+
The !resu!!osition was a shift of a%%ent. The distinguishing mar: of the is
no longer i im!arted b& !hiloso!h&, but i , i.e., li ( /79 ).
The Tuestion arises whether this usage first develo!ed amongst 7ellenisti% ?ews and whether it
o%%urs in the earliest >hristian writings, i.e., the ;T ( H. and >. ).
In fa%e of the <ree: world 7ellenisti% ?udaism ma:es a distin%tion. It re$e%ts the m&tholog&,
%ultus and immoralit& of the 7ellenes, but e%le%ti%all& a!!ro!riates their language, !hiloso!h& and
eBternal %ulture. This !ro%ess is refle%ted in the Talmud,
*.
es!. in the man& loan words also
found in the 8ishnah,
**
in the use of <ree: legends and m&ths,
*/
in the re%ognition of the <ree:
translation of the Hible, and in the !ermission to learn <ree:, to read 7omer and to assimilate
<ree: wisdom. 1ven stronger in the Talmud, however, is the %ounterDmovement whi%h begins to
eBert a !arti%ular effe%t at the beginning of the *nd %entur& ,.3. and whi%h %r&stallises in the
freTuentl& violated !rohibition of learning <ree:. 7ere national and !oliti%al instin%ts %ombine
with the %onvi%tion that the fostering of <:. %ulture, whi%h %annot be se!arated from <:. idolatr&
and ungodliness, is in%om!atible with the servi%e of the Torah.
*)

B. =)) among the "e9s.
.) -n the rare i , %f. 3io >hr&s. , /7, *6, and 4iddellD9%ott , s.v. , where it is rendered to
hellenise, %ivilise thoroughl&."
.0 HoussetD<ressm. , . ff.# F. Huhl, 7ellenisten," A1/ , (II, 6*/ ff.# 8oore , I, )6 ff.# 9%hl. <es%h. Isr. , 9 ff.#
<. Fittel, Die /el.gesch. u. d. 8rchrtt. (.9/*), )* ff.
.6 9%hGrer , II, . ff., 07 ff.# ? Gd4eB# II (.9*6), .0/. ff.
.7 ,ristobulus is des%ribed b& ?ose!h. ( ,nt. , ./, /.6 ) as a . 7erod felt %loser to the <:s. than the
?ews ( ?os.,nt. , .9, /*9 ).
.6 9%hGrer , II, 6) ff.# <. 3alman, 0esus<0eschua (.9**), . ff.# Fittel 2robleme, /) ff.# gn. 1inl., I, *) ff. The
selfDtestimon& of ?ose!h. is signifi%ant ( ,nt. , *+, *6* ff. ).
.9 9%hGrer , III, *) ff., )*+ f.
*+ For eBam!les v. ?Gthner, .)6, though not all these are valid, sin%e often means <ree:# also
t 0.. ff.
*. 9tr.DH. , I(, )+0 ff.
** For bibl. v. 9%hGrer , II, 07 ff.
*/ 9tr.DH. , loc. cit. # Fittel 2robleme, .). ff.
*) , t&!i%al %ombination, though evo:ed b& s!e%ial %ir%umstan%es, is to be found in Har. Ho , 6*b5 >ursed is
the man who rears swine, and %ursed is the man who tea%hes his son <ree: wisdom."
The 4'' sometimes uses for V`Sa^d`Z ) t^d`d UU Ionians), e.g., 3a. 65*. # .+5*+ # ..5*
# on%e at Is. 95.* f or V`Yea PZQ \aieZ ( qi as inhabitants of the
islands and lands of the @est), and freTuentl& in 8a%%. The 4'' also has t at Is. 665.9 #
1E. *75./ and . 8a%%, .5. # 659 . -f derived words, es!. in the
a
!o%r. , we have the ad$.
t (?er., and * and ) 8a%%.) and ti ( * 8a%%. 656 ,), also the subst.
t ( * 8a%%. )5./ ). -n the other hand, t and i do not o%%ur.
The meaning of is the %ustomar& 7ellenes," es!. those of the %olonial territories
in%luding 2alestine, i.e., the 7ellenes in 9&ria and 1g&!t.
*0

For the ?ews, however, this <ree: s!here is a religious rather than a !oliti%al matter. @e owe
it to the 9eleu%id attem!ts at 7ellenisation, and the ?ewish resistan%e, that alread& in ?ewish <ree:
of the !eriod <ree:" has the a%%om!an&ing sense of antiD?ewish" or hostile to the ?ews," and
that it thus a!!roBimates to the term <entile." If this is not so in I 8a%%., it is %ertainl& true in *
8a%%., and therefore !erha!s in relation to ?ason of >&rene. Thus in * 8a%%. )5.+ we read of the
7ellenisti% highD!riest ?ason5 t q
. In the first instan%e the referen%e is to the introdu%tion of <:. %ustoms (the
g&mnasium et%.), whi%h also im!lies the sus!ension of %onfli%ting ?ewish %ustoms reTuired b& the
4aw ( )5.. ). In )5./ the eB!ression is used5 q t
, i.e., the a%hievement of 7ellenism and transition to an alien eBisten%e, with
%onseTuent a!ostas& from the servi%e of the Torah.
*6
7ere, then, does not mean a
fusion of the 7elleni% and the ?udai% in the modern sense of 7ellenism (i.e., with a ?udaising or
-rientalising of the 7elleni%). It means an abandonment of ?udaism and a!ostas& to 7ellenism,
i.e., to what was then 7elleni%. This obviousl& embra%es the <ree: %ultus, or <ree: idolatr&
a%%ording to ?ewish and bibli%al tea%hing. ,%%ording to 65.I.. the observan%e of the 9abbath and
%ir%um%ision are denied to the ?ews# the tem!le is dedi%ated to -l&m!ian geus# a 3ion&sus
festival is introdu%ed# and the neighbouring <:. %ities ( ti ) are ordered to
for%e the ?ews to sa%rifi%e, c q i t
( 659 ). It is still true that t does not mean !aganism in general, but
<ree: %ulture, %ustom and religion.
This fa%t is not obs%ured b& the use of for nonD?ewish !eo!les or <entiles
*7
ka
term whi%h is still found in * 8a%%. ( 65) # .)5.)f .) and whi%h is %ommon in . 8a%%., where the
referen%e is sim!l& to the <entiles ( ) and not to the or . In
7ellenisti% ?udaism 7ellenism was found to be the most dangerous form of !aganism, but as &et
there is no sim!le eTuation of and <entiles. 7ellenism is the histori%all& :nown
magnitude of the <ree: world with its language, %ustoms and deities.
This is %onfirmed b& ?ose!hus when in ,nt. , .*, *)+ f. he s!ea:s of a!ostate ?ews having
tq i , i.e., <ree: (and not !agan) %ivilisation, and even wanting to a!!ear
un%lothed li:e # %f. .0, /*9, where t means the veneration of
images and s%ul!ture (i.e., the <:. gods). The usage is !arti%ularl& %lear in ?os.,!. , for here he
s!ea:s of in distin%tion from Al or (e.g., ., .) and *6# *, .). >f.
also (it. , )+ 5 q i q p . In this res!e%t 2hilo, too, is a
<ree: man of letters. 7e usuall& s!ea:s of in distin%tion from or
a!o%r. ,!o%r&!ha.
*0 ,leBander earlier ruled q t ( . 8a%%. .5. ). 7e, 6 , was the first
who i ( 65* ). The words obviousl& refer onl& to 1uro!ean <ree%e and its
inhabitants# %f. 659 , where the referen%e is to <ree: 8a%edonians intriguing in ,sia 8inor. -n the other hand,
the ./7th &ear of the i t in .5.+ refers to the era of the 9eleu%ids in 7ellenised 9&ria, and the
i t in . 8a%%. 65.6 , whi%h enslaves Israel and from whi%h the Aomans are to liberate
it, is the :ingdom of the 7ellenised 9eleu%ids. t in ) 8a%%. .65*+ is the
9eleu%id 1!i!hanes. In * 8a%%. )5/6 the are the <ree: inhabitants of ,ntio%h who with the ?ews
%ondemn the murder of -nias (%f. / 8a%%. /56 , where l q t are the <ree:
inhabitants of ,leBandria). Thus for the ?ews of the 8a%%abean !eriod the 7ellenes are the ruling %aste in the
9eleu%id state into whi%h the& were for a time in%or!orated.
*6 @. <rimm in his eBegeti%al handboo: to the -T a!o%r&!ha, * (.607), 6/. >f. also in )5.0 the antithesis
between and t .
*7 9tri%tl&, li:e V`a^_Re , other nations whi%h do not !ra%tise %ir%um%ision or live after the 4aw, and whi%h are thus
un%lean.
t (usuall& with referen%e to the languages) or . 1lsewhere he refers to <:.
!hiloso!hers, !oets et%.
*6
There is no tra%e of the sense of <entiles. Indeed, he hardl& uses the
word in this sense.
*9
The same a!!lies to the author of 1!. ,r. when he sa&s of the <ree:
s%ul!tors and !oets that the& sought to be t l 6 (<entiles would be
Tuite misleading here)# %f. also .*., where he sa&s of the 7* %hosen to translate the Torah that the&
had not onl& gained %om!eten%e in but also had not negle%ted q
t q (the stud& of 7elleni% literature).
/+

There %an thus be no suggestion that, in fa%e of the threat of !aganism in the form of <:.
%ulture and religion, <:. s!ea:ing ?ews had alread& begun to use the words ,
t, in the sense of heathen" or heathenism,"
/.
es!e%iall& as the <:s.
were not the onl& !eo!le of nonD?ewish des%ent, language and religion with whom the& had
dealings.
C. =)) in the NT.
In the ;T t for <ree%e in the narrower geogra!hi%al sense is used onl& in ,%. *+5* ,
in ?n., ,%., A., <l., . >. and >ol. (not 8t., 8:., 4:.), the fem. form ti onl& in
8:. 75*6 and ,%. .75.* , the ad$. t onl& in Aev. 95.. 5 g tg s%.
6g (UU i in antithesis to ti ) and 4:. */5/6 [ 3 * et%. (addition)5
p ,
/*
the adv. i (from
i ) in ?n. .95*+ and ,%. *.5/7 , and finall& the new word t in ,%. 65. #
95*9 (and ..5*+ H m n * et%.) for the <ree: s!ea:ing ?ew (though 0.* ). ;either i
nor o%%urs in the ;T .
.. The onl& ;T authors who reall& in%lude the in their narrative or theolog&
are 4u:e (,%.) and 2aul. 1lsewhere there are onl& o%%asional referen%es.
-f the 9&no!tists, onl& 8:. sa&s of the woman who %ame to ?esus on behalf of her
daughter that she was a ti , with the addition 2i ( 75*6 ).
//

The eB!ression is ambiguous. It ma& denote the nonD?ewish, <ree: language and %ivilisation
of the lo%alit& and of the woman herself. -r is ma& be a religious term for a <entile, whether a
<ree: or a 7ellenised 9&roD!hoeni%ian ( gentilis vg ).
/)
In an& %ase, the nonD?ewish des%ent of
the woman is em!hasised ( 8:. 75*7 f. ). 9in%e 8:. does not use the term again, it is hard to
de%ide the Tuestion. @e ma& sim!l& sa& that the sense of <entile is suggested, and if so, this is the
oldest eBam!le of this s!e%ifi% use. ;evertheless, the ethnogra!hi%al inter!retation is more li:el&.
/0

1lsewhere in the 9&no!ti% <os!els it is never em!hasised that 7ellenes %ame to ?esus, or
that a nonD?ew with whom 7e had dealings was a 7ellene, e.g., the %enturion of >a!ernaum
( 8t. 650 # 4:. 75* ), or the %enturion at the %ross ( 8:. .05/9 ). 7en%e it is hard to de%ide
whether in the sa&ing in 8t. 65.+ # 4:. 759 5 c { we should add in
*6 For eBam!les v. 7. 4eisegang, IndeB 6 f.
*9 .bid. , **+. is also rare in ?ose!h. 9%hl. Theol. d. ?udt. , */7 %ites ,nt. , .., .9) # ./, .96 .
/+ >f. /6 and the Tuotation from 1!. ,r. , .*. in 2hilo(it. 8os. , II, /* 5 p
ti, g iq q tq i i .
/. gn. A. , 7/. gn. rightl& sa&s that this is never so in the 4'' nor in . 8a%%." Hut in s!ite of gn. the same
should be said of * 8a%%. and ?os. too.
/* >f. 2reisig:e @Jrt. , III, *7+# 3itt. -r. , 06, 7)5 l Ali t .
// 8t. has the ar%hai% i in .05** # %f. Test. ?ud. .)56.
/) @bg. 8:. # ?Gthner, 9+, .)/.
/0 ?Gthner, op. cit. (%f. also @ettstein) %om!ares 4u%. 3eorum >on%ilium, )5
q 6, c , 2i
. 9u%h a h&brid might well be %alled 2i .
thought as in this 7ellene, or this 2 , or this , or this ."
/6
The
usual word for <entile in translation of the sa&ings of ?esus is , , not .
@ith the ti of 8:. we should grou! the
. who wished to see ?esus in ?n. .*5*+ ff.
7alfD!rosel&tes of <ree: language,
/7
or , <ree:s or
7ellenised -rientals b& birth who had atta%hed themselves to the s&nagogue in their own lands,
were des%ribed in this wa& rather than as <entiles# the addition g
g definitel& eB%ludes the sense of <entiles. ;ot the %onversion of the <entiles, but that of
the <ree:s, and its !resu!!osition, the d&ing of the 9on of 8an, are illustrated in this s%ene. It is in
:ee!ing that in ?n. 75/0 the ?ews misunderstand ?esus to the effe%t that 7e !ro!oses to go l
q t and to . These eB!ressions are
to be ta:en geogra!hi%all&, not religiousl&. The t does not mean
t or q t , but ?ews dis!ersed among the <ree:s.
/6
as In fa%t, however, the
referen%e is !robabl& to the lo%alities, sin%e there is a suggestion that 7e will tea%h the 7ellenes
themselves and not 7ellenised, <ree:Ds!ea:ing ?ews of the dis!ersion.
/9

@ith his two referen%es ?ohn is telling us that the idea of offering tea%hing to the <entiles
twi%e o%%urred in the life of ?esus, though it was never realised. The instru%tion of the <ree:s
was to %ome onl& in the age of the 2ara%lete. In ?n. it was never en$oined on the dis%i!les
during this !eriod (as distin%t from !rea%hing to the 9amaritans, )5/0ff .).
)+

*. ,%ts first tells us of the ta:ing u! of the mission to the 7ellenes and of their %oming
into the >hristian %ommunit&. H& , though with no !arti%ular em!hasis, it means a.
<ree:s or 7ellenised inhabitants of 9&ria and ,sia 8inor, and b. inhabitants of 7ellas and
8a%edonia.
,non&mous ?ewish >hristians from >&!rus and >&rene, and therefore ba!tised ?ews of
<ree: language and %ivilisation, were the first, in ,ntio%h ( ..5*+ ), to s!ea:
,
).
i.e., to nonD?ewish, <ree:Ds!ea:ing inhabitants of this former %a!ital of the
9eleu%id :ingdom
)*
and the %ontem!orar& %a!ital of the Aoman !rovin%e of 9&ria, whose
!o!ulation in its u!!er strata %onsisted of des%endants of true <ree:s and 8a%edonians, and
es!e%iall& of 7ellenisti% 9&rians.
,fter this beginning of !rea%hing to the 7ellenes the author of ,%. often tells us that 2aul
(and Harnabas) s!o:e to and , or that and
believed, as in I%onium in ,%. .)5. ( 6 i t
q )# in Thessaloni%a in .75) , where c (s%. i )
t q be%ame adherents# in Herea ( .75.* ), where
a!art from the ?ews () ti
/6 For the latter !ossibilit& %f. 4:. 750 and the re%entl& dis%overed ins%r. from 9tobi with 4ietEmannOs
observations in g;@ , /* (.9//), 9/ f.
/7 9tr.DH. , II, 0)6# gn. ?. , ad loc. # Hau. ?. , ad loc. ta:es a different view. >f. the in
Thessal., ,%. .75) .
/6 9tr.DH. , II, )9+# gn. ?. , ad loc. >f. . 2t. .5. # 2aral. ?erem. , .6. dias!orav, .+*, es!. n. .* .
/9 In the art. ( .+. f. ) a %hoi%e is offered between the two !ossibilities, but the eB!ression and
tea%h the 7ellenes" seems to show what is meant# %f. 9%hl. ?. , ad loc.
)+ -n the other hand we have the highl& singular and !ossibl& s!urious statement in ?os.,nt. , .6, 6/ 5
c i, c t . This would have it that ?esus
won man& ?ews and 7ellenes. It goes be&ond what is stated in ?n., though it ma& be based on 9&no!ti% a%%ounts
of !eo!le %oming to ?esus from nonD?ewish distri%ts (%f. 8:. /56 and !ar. ). >f. A. 1isler,
( /eligions2issenschaftliche Bibliothek , 9), I (.9/+), 6) f.# II, /06.
). -nl& ,3C have this5 H1 * and the original of [ (with its im!ossible ) have
t . This reading either attests the inter%hangeabilit& of and t
( 0.* ), or it is based on 65. , where the distin%tion is from the t rather than the ( ..5.9 ).
>f. gn. ,g. , /67.
)* -n ,ntio%h in 9&ria %f. 2r.DHauer , ..6, and, in addition to the bibl. there given, F. Hauer, #ntiochia in der
=ltesten 4irchengeschichte (.9.9)# 4. 8. 1nfre&, #ntioche (.9/+).
i be%ame believers, i.e., women and men of the <ree: nation who
attended the s&nagogue# in >orinth ( .65) ), where 2aul { i
# in 1!hesus ( .95.+ ), where all who lived in ,sia, i
, heard the @ord, %f. .95.7 # %f. also *+5*. , where in the a%%ount of his
missionar& wor: in 1!hesus 2aul em!hasises that he testified re!entan%e and faith
i . The here are the nonD?ewish element in the
!o!ulations of the %ities of ,sia 8inor, of the !rovin%e of ,sia, and of the <ree: towns
>orinth and Thessaloni%a, es!. those who attend the s&nagogue (%f. .)5. # .65) # .75) ). From
,ntio%h to >orinth, from 9&ria to ,%haia, 2aul %onstantl& meets the same miBture of ?ews
and 7ellenes. The miBture !rodu%es miBed marriages. In 4&stra 2aul meets Timoth&, the
l i q, c ( .65. # %f. / ). obviousl&
denotes nationalit&.
)/
The result of this su%%essful missionar& a%tivit& means that in the
<ree:Ds!ea:ing world the %ommunities of the ba!tised are %om!osed of a few ?ews and a
greater number of 7ellenes ( .)5. # .65) # *+5*. ), and that on his $ourne&s 2aul too: with him
ba!tised, but not %ir%um%ised, 7ellenes as %om!anions. It is this fa%t whi%h underlies the
%alumnious ?ewish a%%usation that he brought into the tem!le ( *.5*6 ).
3oes 4u:e thin: of this as eTuivalent to ?ews and <entiles, so that
means <entile This view finds su!!ort in the use of immediatel& after the
formula, e.g., in .)5* , where the in%ited b& unbelieving ?ews are nonDs&nagogue fellows of
the mentioned in .)5. (%f. .)50 , where there is a resultant q
i against the a!ostles), and also in .656 , where 2aul de%lares that he will now go
onl& l . The thus seem to be <entiles of <ree: des%ent and language, and
in this %ase the father of Timoth& would be a <entile ( .65. ) and 2aul would in fa%t have brought
<entiles into the tem!le ( *.5*6 ).
=et though this eTuation finds su!!ort, it is never full& made in ,%. In the first !la%e, the
are often, as in ?n. .*5*+ ff. , ( .)5. # .75) ), i.e., nonD?ews
who have alread& loosed their ties with the go'i . 9e%ondl&, the a%%usation in *.5*6 refers to the
familiar tem!le ins%ri!tion q l .
))
The are
thus <ree:Ds!ea:ing . @e ma& add that a%%. to >ol. )5.. , .) the author of ,%. was
himself a b& birth. 7en%e for him the term meant a man of <ree: des%ent, %ivilisation and
s!ee%h rather than a <entile.
/. In addition to ,%. uses ti in 65. and 95*9 .
)0
This is also a
variant of at ..5*+ in H * 1 et%., as also in the original of [ (in !la%e of the
im!ossible ).
)6
The word seems to be new# it is not found either in <ree: or
7ellenisti% ?ewish literature. The meaning is dis!uted. The dominant view is that the
ti of ,%. 65. ( 6) ) are ?ewish >hristians of <ree: language (and !ossibl&
%ulture) as distin%t from the t , i.e., believing ?ews of ,ramai% language and
!urel& ?ewish %ulture, the former being ?ews of the t who had
moved to ?erusalem and the latter native born ?ews of ?erusalem. The first %ommunit& thus
%onsisted of two grou!s of ?ewish >hristians distinguished b& s!ee%h and %ulture. It is
!ossible that the ti also too: a less rigid view of the 4aw, no longer living stri%tl&
a%%ording to ?ewish rites.
)7

t derives from i , as does from i and the
late and rare from l . If i means to s!ea: <ree:," but
)/ >f. 1u!olemos in 1us.2rae!. 1v. , I', /), .5 2s.D9uron. 1!. ad 9alomon5 T
i .
)) 3itt. -r. , 096# 3eissmann 4- , 6* f.# I, *66 . ?ose!h. has q for in ,nt. , .0, ).7 ,
in Hell. , 0, .9) , and 2hilo in 4eg. <a$. , *.* .
)0 gn. ,g. , **6 ff.# 1inl. , I, ). f., 0. f.
)6 The same variant o%%urs in Test. 9al. 656 (8%>own K;T, 9)5 c p ti Hq {,
c t t (variant5 c ).
)7 @. Hauer in 9estg. f. #. 0licher (.9*7), /* f.# <. 2. @etter, ,A@ , *. (.9**), ).+ ff.
also to live as a <ree:" (%f. i , to s!ea: ,tti%" and to have the ,tti% outloo:," or
l to live as a ?ew"), then t in%ludes not onl& the <ree: language but
also a <ree: or nonD?ewish mode of life. This ma& well fit the 7ellenists in ?erusalem. -f %ourse,
the ti with whom 2aul dis!uted in 95*9 , and who tried to destro& him, were fanati%al
orthodoB ?ews of the dis!ersion. >f. as a !arallel the dis!ute between the 7ellenist 9te!hen and
the A , the , the A , and the ?ews of >ili%ia and ,sia
(!ossibl& in%luding the un%onverted 9aul), who might all be des%ribed as unbelieving
t ( 659 ). In this sense 2aul was a t , as also the Ai
who brought about his arrest in *.5*7 .
, se%ond view is that the ti are <ree:s.
)6
The oldest eBam!le addu%ed is
t for in ,%. ..5*+ ( o!!. i in ..5.9 ). , few later writers
%alled !agan <ree:s ti in %ontrast to i , e.g., ?ulian in 9oEomenos
7istoria 1%%lesiasti%a, (, .6# 9oEomenos himself in III, .7# (II, .0# 2hilostorgius 82< , 60, 0/7
H, 0). ,.
)9
7ere ti is obviousl& a s&non. of # it %orres!onds to
i as used of <ree:s in the sense of to s!ea: <ree:," to live as a <ree:," to be a
<ree:," and it means >hristians of <ree: des%ent."
In favour of this inter!retation in ,%. 65. the following !oints ma& be made.
0+
a. There is no
%om!elling reason wh& ti should denote <ree:Ds!ea:ing ?ews on the one side,
t 7ebrewDs!ea:ing ?ews on the other.
0.
t are in the first instan%e ?ews of !ure
ra%e. Thus 1usebius %alls 2hilo a t in 7ist. 1%%l. , II, ),
0*
and the <ree:Ds!ea:ing
Tr&!ho ti in I(, .6, 6. It ma& also be as:ed wh& a
mere differen%e in language should have %aused misunderstanding and disturban%e in %are for the
widows, b. ,%. often refers to <ree:Ds!ea:ing ?ews (,Tuila in .65* # ,!ollos in .65*) et%.), but
never uses the term t for them. %. The <ree: names of the 9even in ,%. 650 f avour,
though the& do not !rove, the assum!tion that these were men of <ree: des%ent. The mention of a
!rosel&te (;i%olas of ,ntio%h) shows that believers of <ree: des%ent might at least be in%luded
among the ti .
-n the other hand, the %on%lusion that the ?erusalem %ommunit& %onsisted of both ?ewish and
<entile >hristians is out of :ee!ing with the stor& of >ornelius ( ,%. .+ f. , es!. ..5.7f .). It might
be argued with >adbur&, however, that alread& a%%ording to ,%. * the a!ostoli% message of
re!entan%e had been addressed to both ?ews and <entiles, so that we ma& !resu!!ose a miBed
%ommunit& (%f, *56ff ., /9 ), ,nother ob$e%tion is that ,%. 95*9 does not ma:e sense on this
inter!retation, for surel& 2aul was not dis!uting with <entiles in ?erusalem.
0/
It must be
remembered, however, that in ..5*+ t is the more diffi%ult and the better attested
reading, and here it must mean <ree:s or <entiles, so that 95*9 ma& be regarded as an
anti%i!ation. , final stumbling blo%: is 65. , and here >adbur& has not found an& %onvin%ing
answer. It ma& be !ointed out, however, that the usual inter!retation is not so se%ure and selfD
evident as it seems to be in the older eBegeti%al tradition. It is not im!ossible that ti is
an earl& >hristian !art& name for >hristians who did not live a%%ording to the 4aw.
0)

). -nl& in ) 1!istles does 2aul s!ea: of and their relations to the <os!el,
namel&, in . >., <l., A. and >ol., and alwa&s in %onne%tion with the , and on%e or
twi%e with the . 7is use of is thus determined b& the two formulae
and ( I, 00. f. ).
00
For 2aul the
are thus one great half of the ra%e to whom the <os!el is to be ta:en.
)6 7. ?. >adbur&, The 7ellenists" in "he Beginnings of 1hristianit' , 2art I, (ol. ( (.9//), 09I7). >f. also (ol.
I( (.9//), 6).
)9 9o!ho%les, 4eBi%on, s.v. # >adbur&, op. cit. , 09. 9o!ho%les uses the !assages addu%ed in favour of the se%ond
sense, defender of !aganism," heathen," to su!!ort the inter!retation a ?ew whose native language was the
<ree:" ( ,%. 65. et%.). >hr&s. 7om. ,%t., .) ( 82< , 6+, ../).
0+ >adbur&, 6* ff.
0. @nd. * F. , /0.# 3ib. Th. u. 2hil.
*
, 67 f.
0* >adbur&, 6* ff. >f. also @, Hauer, /echtgl=ubigkeit u. 4et-erei i =ltesten 1hristentu (.9/)), 00 f.
0/ >adbur&, 7+.
0) @etter, op. cit.
00 ,fter 2aul, the neBt >hristian author to use the formula is ?ust.,!ol. , 0, )# 7, /# )6,
/# then Tat. , ., .# *9, .# *., /# /+, ..
a. Hoth formulae have a national sense. =et the addition 6q (to iq ) shows
that 2aul is %ons%ious of the !re%eden%e of the ?ew on the basis of salvation histor&. It is
worth noting that the formula orientated to salvation histor& !redominates.
06
For 2aul
is thus the nonD?ewish !art of the ra%e. The formula is determined b& the outloo:
of the ?ew, es!e%iall& of the ,natolian ?ew of the dis!ersion, of the missionar& from ?udaism
who %rosses the borders of the ?ewish ghetto into the %ultural s!here of the . The
!resu!!osition of the formula is the unified %ulture of the 8editerranean lands as essentiall&
influen%ed b& the <ree: tongue and <ree: %ivilisation, and the a%%om!an&ing fa%t that 2aul as
a missionar& to the <entiles does not embra%e the whole of the heathen world but %onfines
himself to the in ,sia 8inor, 8a%edonia, Ill&ria, and an%ient 7ellas. 7e is not
%on%erned about the Al or .
07
,s he uses it, however, the formula
eB!resses the universal relevan%e of the <os!el, es!e%iall& the
2auline <os!el. are that !art of the ra%e whi%h is distinguished from the ?ews b&
language, des%ent and %ulture. The& are thus the essentiall& 7ellenisti% inhabitants of the
Aoman 1m!ire (a!art from the ?ews).
Their distin%tive %hara%teristi% a%%. to 2aul is wisdom ( i ).
06
This is not a $udgment
of the student of %ulture# it is the tragi% eB!erien%e of the missionar&. This wisdom !ossessed or
desired b& the is the obsta%le to their believing re%e!tion of the %on%rete <os!el. The
main substan%e of the <os!el, , is i to these see:ers after
wisdom, be%ause the wisdom of the 7ellenes belongs to different %ategories from those of the
wisdom whi%h <od has %on%ealed in 7is <os!el, . >. .5.6 ff. # A. .5.) .
The are %hara%terised ver& differentl& in A. .5.6 ff. 7ere we have a histor& of
the fall of the ra%e as a whole. =et, although the term does not o%%ur, the referen%e
from .5.6f . is s!e%ifi%all& to the ,
09
as ma& be seen es!e%iall& from the slogan
l in .5** .
6+
Their wisdom is evaluated both
!ositivel& and negativel&. 2ositivel&, the& have reall& :nown <od from %reation ( .5*. ),
together with 7is moral and $udi%ial order ( .5/* ). ;egativel&, the& have fallen into idolatr&
in s!ite of this :nowledge ( .5*.ff .), %ons%iousl& and $o&full& violating the divine order ( .5/*
). -verta:en b& the fearful !enalt& of <od, the have be%ome a !eo!le dominated
b& sins of unnatural lust and all %on%eivable wi%:edness and %rime.
,s the !eo!le of fallen wisdom the are under $udgment and are thus in%luded
in the message of salvation. The statements in whi%h 2aul formulates this normall& use the
formula iq ( A. .5.6 # *59 # /59 ), whi%h assures to the
?ews a tem!oral !re%eden%e in virtue of their relationshi! to salvation histor& from their origin
(%f. ,%. ./5)6 ), and whi%h !uts the se%ond in a%%ordan%e with the a%tual !rogress
of the mission. The de%laration of $udgment ta:es the %ommon form of threats of $udgment
against both the and the ?ew who do evil and !romises of q
l to those who do good ( A. *57I.+ ). ,s eB!lained in *5.*I.6 , the referen%e is to the
written in the heart of the . Thus 2aul re%ognises another t&!e of , i.e.,
the <ree: who has the 4aw, i.e., the , in his heart and who fulfils it in
06 is obviousl& a general formula in A. *59 5 q 6 {
i . ,n analogous formula is H , as found in
the great ins%ri!t. of ,ntio%hos of >ommagene ( 3itt. -r. , /6/, /+)# %f. also Al in 2reisig:e
@Jrt. , III, 69.
07 -n the other hand %f. ,ristid.,!ol. , *, ., where the !ol&theists, distinguished from the monotheisti%
i, l i , i
Ali , %f. .*, .# ./, ..
06 9%hl. Th. d. ,!. , *96 ff.
09 -nl& in .5*/ is one in%lined to thin: also of the Al , though 2aul ma& have seen %ulti%
re!resentations of animals on <:. soil.
6+ >f. ,ristid.,!ol. , 6, *# l l
i # also ./, 7.
his life, namel&, the true dis%i!le of the 2 , as we might sa&, who reall& lives a%%ording to
the tea%hings of his s%hool. This assessment of the is refle%ted again in the
admonition in . >. .+5/* 5 i i g
iq . 7ere the formula is eB!anded to in%lude a tertiu genus , the
i .
6.
@ith the ?ews and the i , however, the
7ellenes also have a !ower of moral $udgment to whi%h the >orinthian %ommunit& should
have regard. The idea that >hristians must ta:e into a%%ount the moral $udgment of men
generall& is found elsewhere in the a!ostle#
6*
here, however, nonD?ews and nonD>hristians
are s!e%ifi%all& %alled . The 7ellenes, too, have an organ of moral %ons%iousness.
The& $udge >hristians a%%ordingl&, and are offended if the& do not meet the test. In the
en$o&ment of this organ the& are full& eTual with the .
The distin%tion ( ) whi%h originall& se!arated ?ews and <ree:s, and whi%h is
ultimatel& eB!ressed in the , is full& resolved in the revelation to both !eo!les of the
<od who as the lavishes 7is gra%e on all who %all u!on 7im ( A. .+5.* ).
Thus the a!ostle de%lares the %ru%ified >hrist as the !ower of <od and the wisdom of <od to
both ?ews and <ree:s if the& are i ( . >. .5*) ). It is thus demanded that the
as i should abandon the $udgment i ( 0./ ) and therefore their
native i .
The resolution of the distin%tion im!lies the fusion of ?ews and <ree:s into a new unit&,
the %ommunit& of <od. ,%%ording to . >. .*5./ all of us, ,
are ba!tised b& the 9!irit into one bod& and given to drin: of one s!irit. The sa%rament of the
re%e!tion of the 9!irit ma:es 7ellenes and ?ews eTual, transforming both into members of the
bod& of >hrist and bearers of the 9!irit. ,%%ording to <l. /5*7 f. ba!tism, whi%h effe%ts the
!utting on of >hrist, means that there is no more or , but that both are
absorbed in the unit& of the new being whi%h is given us in >hrist ?esus. Indeed, 2aul is bold
to sa& that b& ba!tism the is in%or!orated into the seed of ,braham ( <l. /5*9 ), b&
whi%h he means a fellowshi! of !romise and inheritan%e whi%h is o!en even to the
onl& b& faith
6/

9imilarl&, we read in >ol. /59 ff. that in the s!here of the (UU
) !ut on in ba!tism the (the onl& time the& are in this
order) no longer eBist. Heing as a belongs to the %hara%ter of the
whi%h is !ut off in ba!tism, i.e., whi%h has vanished or lost its realit&.
2aul is the onl& a!ostle to be thus interested in the , in their wisdom, their
:nowledge of <od, the law written on their hearts, their life a%%ording to this le: naturalis , &et
also their idolatr&, their wi%:edness, their standing under wrath and $udgment, their abandonment
to <odOs !enal a%tion, and &et again the revelation of <odOs salvation to them, and their %alling
into the bod& of >hrist in whi%h their distin%tive 7ellenism is dissolved. This interest of 2aul is
due to the fa%t that he was s!e%ifi%all& the a!ostle to the . This is also em!hasised b&
him5 i , li ( A. .5.)
), i.e., in virtue of his a!ostoli% %alling to the <entile mission ( <l. .5.6 ). 7e is the a!ostle of the
7ellenes (and barbarians), their ( . Tm. *57 ).
6)
7e thus has the tremendous tas:
of a%%om!lishing the deliveran%e intended for the 7ellenes b& the !rea%hing of the <os!el, the
, and therefore the wor: whi%h some ?ews mista:enl& thought that
?esus was !ro!osing to do ( ?n. 75/0 # 0+9 ). Through him, then, innumerable
be%ame believers, and he fought hard that the &o:e of ?udaism should not be laid on them but that
the& should have the !la%e a!!ro!riate to them a%%ording to his <os!el ( <l. *50 ). , %on%rete
eBam!le is his %om!anion and hel!er Titus, who even in ?erusalem, the %itadel of ?ewish
>hristians who demanded %ir%um%ision, was not for%ed to be %ir%um%ised, thus demonstrating his
6. >f. ,. 7arna%:, 3ission und #usbreitung des 1hristentus , I
)
(.9*)), *6* ff.# ?Gthner, 9. f.
6* . Th. )5.* # >ol. )50 .
6/ >f. as an analog& from the s!here of the the %urious ?ewish assertion of the %ommon des%ent of ?ews
and 9!artans ( A ), . 8a%%. .*50 ff. , .9 ff.
6) 7. @indis%h, Paulus u. 1hristus (.9/)), .)/ ff.
tea%hing that through ba!tism, through the 9!irit and in >hrist the %eases to be a
, so that he %an no longer %ause offen%e to the ?ewish >hristian, be%ause through ba!tism the ?ew,
too, has %eased to be a ?ew.
b. For 2aul the 7ellenes are also <entiles. This does not mean, however, that the words
are eTuivalent. The sense of <entiles is %ertainl& not !resent in the formula
(%f. 2aulOs own %ommentar&, ), A. .5.) . 1ven the
other formula, , understands the !rimaril& as men who
are distinguished from others b& the <ree: language and %ulture. This is !arti%ularl& %lear in
>ol. /5.. , where and 2 are used as well as .
;ational as well as so%ial distin%tions are abolished in >hrist ( I, 00* ). The lists in <l. /5*6
f. and . >. .*5./ are to be evaluated in the same wa&. The !eo!le of the 7ellenes is to be
fused with the !eo!le of the ?ews, the 9%&thians and the barbarians, into a new fellowshi! b&
ba!tism. ,gain, in <l. *5/ the >hristian Titus %annot He designated a <entile b& the
6 , even though is s&non&mous with i # what is meant is an
un%ir%um%ised nonD?ew of 7elleni% nationalit&. ,gain, in . >. .5** , *0 the are
%on%rete <ree:s with their national %ulture %entred on wisdom, not <entiles. In this !assage
the ?ews themselves are not %hara%terised as the %hosen !eo!le but as a foolish nation whi%h
demands of the !rea%hers of the <os!el. It is in this sense that we are !erha!s to ta:e
the formula in A. *59 f. and . >. .+5/* .
For 2aul there is, of %ourse, a %lose %onne%tion between and . This %an
be seen from his %ommon use of the !arallel , and also from his substitution
of for in some !assages in whi%h he deals with the . The two
!henomena interse%t. It might be %on%luded that is for him a national %on%e!t li:e
. Hut there is an evident distin%tion. , theologi%al idea is !resent in ,
namel&, the mass of !eo!les not !reviousl& drawn into salvation histor& ( /7+ ). The onl&
Tuestion is whether this theologoumenon has %oloured the term . ,%%ording to A.
/5*9 <od is a 9aviour for both ?ews and or and i . 9in%e the
statement sums u! the whole dis%ussion from .5.6ff ., we obviousl& have the eTuation
UU i UU . 9imilarl&, the inward !ossessed b& the
a!!lies s!e%ifi%all& to the ( A. *5.) ff. ). It is from them es!e%iall& that 2aul
must have dedu%ed the !ossession of a b& the . The statement does, of %ourse,
abolish the ?ewish %on%e!t of the . The de%isive defi%ien%& whi%h ma:es the nonD?ew a
<entile is de%lared to be abolished. The same is true of A. *5*0I*9 , where i and
are distinguished, but where finall&, in a great transvaluation of values, the
%ir%um%ised is de%lared to be un%ir%um%ised (a <entile) if he is a transgressor, and the
un%ir%um%ised is de%lared to be %ir%um%ised (a ?ew") if he :ee!s the 4aw. The %learest
!assage relating the two !henomena of the and is . >. .5**I*) , where we
read , then i c { ,
60
and finall&
i (s%. ). 7ere is either full&
s&non&mous with , or the are the %hief re!resentatives of the .
9imilarl&, in the im!ortant dis%ussion in A. 9I.. the statement that there is no q
i in A. .+5.* is later followed b& the antithesis of
( ..57 , *0ff .) and ( ..5./ , *0 ).
There %an thus be no doubt that 2aul in%ludes the among the and often
uses the words inter%hangeabl&. ;evertheless, the& are not Tuite identi%al. This is !roved b&
the use of as a national term when the !arallel word does not o%%ur. It is also
!roved b& the fa%t that is more %ommon and is alwa&s used in the s!e%ifi% %onteBt of
dire%t or indire%t theologi%al dis!utation with the ?ews."
The sense of <entile" %annot be !roved, then, either from 7ellenisti% ?udaism or the ;T .
Indeed, we might sa& that this develo!ment %ould ta:e !la%e onl& within an assured
60 In * we have the variant .
>hristianit& on <ree: soil, sin%e it !resu!!oses the abolition in !rin%i!le of all national
distin%tions (in terms of <l. /5*6 # >ol. /5.. ff. )ksomething whi%h we do not &et find in
?udaism. ;evertheless, 7ellenisti% ?udaism %ame ver& near to the eTuation of the <ree: and
the <entile world, and the !resu!!ositions of this eTuation are all !resent in 2aul.
W
indisch
))!
*

From q (s%. ), this means to la& to a%%ount," and is thus a soD%alled
h&!ostasis" li:e from i .
.
It is a te%hni%al %ommer%ial term for to %harge"
in >I< , I, .7/*a, /7#
>
I4 , III, !. 6/6# H<K , I, )+, /. f.# I(, .+*6, * et%.# 2. 4ond. , II, /09, ) (
i )# 2. 9trassburg (ed. F. 2reisig:e m.9+6 ff.n), /*, .+.
*

In the ;T it o%%urs twi%e. It is used in the %ommer%ial sense in 2hlm. .6 .
/
,n& loss
suffered through the runawa& -nesimus is to be %harged to the a!ostle.
In A. 05./ the of manOs sin b& <od is to be regarded as given with the
revelation of the 4aw. ,dam was %onfronted b& <odOs 4aw, and from the da&s of 8oses men
have the divine 4aw. Thus in ,dam, and from the da&s of 8oses, sin arises in relation to the
divine %ommand ( ) and is revolt against <odOs will. The 4aw, however, !la%es
under the %urse of death those who brea: it ( <l. /5.+ ). In the da&s between ,dam and 8oses
the ra%e had no 4aw. @hen men sinned, the& did so q { 6 q
A ( A. 05.) # %f. )5.0 ), i.e., in terms of the total situation %reated b& the
fall of ,dam and not in %ons%ious enmit& against <od or rebellion against a given 4aw (
I, /+9 f. ). The death whi%h the& died was thus a %om!rehensive destin& !osited
in ,dam, not a !unishment. To be sure, <od !unished sin in this !eriod ( A. *5.* ff. ), but not
with death. In A. 05.* ff. , however, death is the !unishment of sin. Thus, when we read in
05./ 5 i c q , it is evident that the
of i is lin:ed with the 4aw, and that the of i
results in death. @here there is a revelation of <odOs will in the 4aw, sin is estimated
differentl&. It is not merel& !arti%i!ation in the total situation of man# it is transgression of the
divinel& de%lared will. Thus sin has ver& different %onseTuen%es. It is eB%lusion from the
fellowshi! of will and life, from the %reation of <od. In this sense death is no mere destin&# as
in the %ase of ,dam and of violators of the 4aw of Israel ( <l. /5.+ # A. /5.9 ), it is a !enalt&.
2aul thus des%ribes as the attitude of <od to the sinful state of man under the
%laim of the revelation of the 4aw. @hat is meant is that the sin of man as re$e%tion of the
revealed will of <od is ta:en into a%%ount" or %harged," so that man is eB%luded from the
divine fellowshi! of will and %reation.
)
2aul denies this in relation to the time between ,dam
and 8oses, but it is the more de%isivel& affirmed of the time after 8oses.
0

Preisker
@indis%h 7ans @indis%h , Fiel ((ol. .), 7alle ((ol. *I/).
C . >f. 8oult.D8ill. , *+)# 3eissmann 4- ,# 66.
. >f. 3ebr. <rie%h. @ortb. y .)9.
>I4 1orpus .nscriptionu )atinaru , .66* ff.
* 2reisig:e @Jrt. , I, )7.# 3eissm. 4- , 66# ,. @i:enhauser, Zu Wrterb. des !" ," Hg , 6 (.9.+), *7*.
/ Forms li:e in 2hlm. .6 are to be eB!lained b& the %onfusion of the t&!es of infle%tion - and -
, %f. Hl.D3ebr. y 9+.
) >f. 9i%:b. A.
/
(.9*/), ad loc. 5 2l. believes that these !reD8osai% sins { are not regarded as offen%es worth&
of death li:e the sins of ,dam." >f. also H. @eiss Fomm., ad loc. ,. 9%haefer, Die Bcher des !" , III (.69.),
ad loc. , does not regard death as the %onseTuen%e of ,damOs sin, and therefore he hardl& does $usti%e to the
!assage.
0 The idea of re%:oning goes ba%: to ideas whi%h %ame into ?udaism from the 2arsees, who believed that man
would be $udged a%%. to eBa%t re%ords in the heavenl& boo:s, %f. ,. v. <all, Bi (.9*6), 66#
HoussetD<ressmann , *06 f.# 9tr.DH. , I(, .+)..
), ), #?, )
), )%
*

A. The ree% Concept of 8ope.
.. H

i i , we read in 2lat.2hileb. ,
/9e, in an anal&sis in whi%h he shows how human eBisten%e is determined not merel& b& the
whi%h a%%e!ts the !resent but also b& the of the !ast and the eB!e%tation of the
future,
.
and indeed in su%h a wa& that, li:e re%olle%tion of the !ast, eB!e%tation of the future (
i and /9d) is not an ob$e%tive assessment but a sub$e%tive
eB!e%tation in fear and ho!e, whose %ontent arises from what man %onsiders to be his own
!ossibilities. 8anOs own being thus determines what he ho!es and how he ho!es."
*
7e whose
ho!es are is a . 1B!e%tations and ho!es are manOs own !ro$e%tions of his
future.
It is of the nature of man to have i ,
/
i.e., good or bad eB!e%tations of the future (
i UU i )
)
@hat we mean b& ho!e is %alled i ,
0
though later
i is often used for ho!e in our sense,
6
and this brings out the original et&mologi%al
signifi%an%e of - on%e again.
7

C i . 9tob. , I(, 997I.++7 i, p i . Th. Hirt, &lpides (.66.)# 4.
9%hmidt, Die &thik der alten Griechen , II (.66*), 69I7)# ?. de <uibert, /echerches de Science /eligieuse , )
(.9./), 060I096# ,. 2ott, Das (offen i !" (.9.0)# F. @ehrli, AAO BIO2A2 (.9/.), 6ff.# ,. 4es:& in
Gnoon , 9 (.9//), .7/ff. -n >.5 9tr.DH. , III, *.7 ff. ?ew. 1n%. , (I, )09 f.# 8oore , II, *67 ff.# HoussetD<ressm.
, IndeB under 7offnung"# <. Fittel, Die /eligionsgeschichte u. d. 8rchristentu (.9/*), ./+ff.# 1. 9tauffer,
2aulus und ,:iba, 3er erlJsende u. d. tragis%he ,usgang des ?udentums ," Saat auf (offnung , 69 (.9/*),
../ff.# @. @i%hmann, Die )eidenstheologie (.9/+).
. There is a similar %orres!onden%e between i and in ,rist.8eta!h. , 'I, 7, !. .+7*b, .6# Ahet. , II,
6, !. ./66a, * f. and /+# 3e 8emoria , ., !. ))9b, .+ ff.5 ,

,
q ) ,

. *7f.5 c , c
i, c ).
* 7. <. <adamer, Platos dialektische &thik (.9/.), ./6# and es!. his inter!retation of 2hileb. , /0aI).b, !. .*6I
./9. In illustration, v. the eBam!les in n. 6 # also n. ./ on the %onne%tion between i and # %f.
also 3emosth.-r. , .6, 97# Iso%. , ., /95 l i i l c ,

i i .
/ 9tob. , (, .++., ./ f.5 O i , i i l
, # 1ur.Tro. , 6/* f.5 @here there is life there is ho!e"# 2lat.2hileb. , /9e ( supra )#
Theo%r. , ), )*5 i , c # %f. Hirt, op. cit. , 6 ff.
) This is shown b& the eBam!les in n. .# %f. 2lat.2hileb. , /6a ff.# i %an mean fearful eB!e%tation, e.g.,
1ur.I!h. ,ul. , 766. -ften i means to believe," to su!!ose," e.g., 2ind. Fr. , 6.# 1m!ed. Fr. , .. (I,
**7, *., 3iels )# 7era%l. Fr. , *7 (I, 6/, 0 f., 3iels )5 6
c . ,risto!h.,v. , 906. Hp i is often used in the same sense as
6 ( I, 69., n. 7 ), %f. 9o!h.,nt. , //+ f.# i 6 q
i q . A means uneB!e%ted," e.g., 1ur.I!h. Taur. ,
.)90# 7el. , ).* ( iq g )# it means the same as in 7el. , 606.
0 2lat.4eg. , I, 6))%5 the have the : i, c c q
i, c q i. ti is thus %hara%terised b& attributes li:e
( 2ind.Isthm. , 6, .0# 2lat.4eg. , I(, 7.6a# ,ristot. De Virtutibus et Vitiis , 6, !. .*0.b, /) f.# n. 6 #
,el. ,rist.-r. 9a%r. , )6, *6), ( 2lut. 3e Hruto , )+ mI, .++*%n n. .6 # 9tob. , I, )+/, *. n. *. ),
( 2ind. Fr. , *.)# 2lat.Aes!. , I, //.a), l (Fritias Fr. , 6 mII, /.0, .., 3iels n), ( H8I ,
69) in @endland 7ell. Fult. , ).+# often in 2hilo)# and on the other hand as ( 2lat.Aes!. , I, //+e). The
ad$. is %ommon ( 2lat.,!. , ).d# 2haed. , 6)a)# to be is %hara%teristi% of &outh, ,ristot.Ahet. ,
II, .*, !. ./69a, .9 ff. The %hief %hara%ter in ,risto!h.,v. is i , <ood 7o!e.
6 Thus in 2s.D2lat.3ef. , ).6a i is defined as i . This usage %orres!onds to the
freTuent later distin%tion of i and Hirt, 6 (and 97, n. .7), )6 f. 4ater i ( i ) is
o%%asionall& used with i ( ), v. 2reisig:e @Jrt.
7 - is formed b& adding ! to the root vel ( 4at. vel<le ), %f. the 4at. volup FvoluptasG and the <r. - in
(desired"), , , , %f. ,. @aldeD?. 2o:orn&, Vergleichendes Wrt.
d. indoger. Sprachen , I (.9/+), *90.
7ow the fa%t that man ho!es is understood at a given time is most signifi%ant for the <ree:
understanding of eBisten%e. The twofold value of i is eB!ressed b& 9o!h.,nt. , 6.0 f.5
q c

6.
That man either does or %an ho!e is a %omfort for him in a diffi%ult !resent, %f. 7om.-d. , .6,
.+. and .9, 6)5 i l . 7o!e is golden," 9o!h.-ed. T&r. , .06, and the
is defeated in whi%h there is no i i ( ,es%h.,g. , 99)# %f. *6*5
i ).
2ind. Fr. , *.)5 l i
(a%%om!an&)
i, 6
.
6

2ind.
I
sthm. , 6, .05 q

,%%. to Thu%. , (, .+/ i is a q . It %an %omfort the individual in
distress5 i q q i
i (hel!) ( 3emo%r. Fr. , *67 mII, .*+, 0 f., 3iels n). Thus the old fable
.+
tells us that
geus gave man a vessel full of all good things but that man, filled with %uriosit&, lifted the lid, so
that all the good things es%a!ed to the gods and when the lid was !ut ba%: onl& i was
tra!!ed, manOs !resent %omfort. The same motif is found in ,es%h.2rom. , *)6 ff. 2rometheus
boasts5 q , and to the Tuestion
6 q # he answers5 i
. The %horus then sa&s5 6 .
Hut ho!e is easil& de%eived
..
and is dangerous. -nl& a god does not err in his eB!e%tations,
.*
and menOs i are un%ertai.
./
8an should have regard, not to , but to
6 2lato Tuotes this verse in Aes!. , I, //.a with the observation5 c c
q {, while the wi%:ed lives q i # %f. 4eg. , I(, 7.6a of the
good5 i i . ,ristot. De Virtutibus et Vitiis , 6, !.
.*0.b, // f.5 c g g , i, , i .
1ur.7el. , .+/.5 iq

i i . >f. on the other hand 3emo%r. Fr. , **. (II, .+0, .+

f., 3iels )5 q i . 9imilarl& a%%. to 7es.-!. , )96 ff. i sedu%es the
indolent into !oor !ro$e%ts.
Isthm. .sthia .
9 >f. 9o!h.Tra%h. , .*0 f.# 1ur.7er%. Fur. , .+0 f.
.+ The original !oint of the fable is !reserved in Habrius, 06 (2. Friedllnder, (erakles m.9+7n, /9 ff.)# it is
wor:ed over in 7es.-!. , 9) ff., and the meaning is dis!uted (7. TGr%:, Pandora u. &va m.9/.n, .6 ff.). The
same thought o%%urs in Theogn. , ../0 f.5 6 q ,

, though he :nows that ho!e %uts both wa&s (6/7 f.)5

i 6 . From a later !eriod
%f. 8aB. T&r. , *9, 6 bv%5 i l l c q l
i . In 7era%l. Fr. , .6 (I, 6., .6 f., 3iels ) i seems to be thought of as the
su!rarational !ower of : q , ,
. ,%%. to 7. Frln:el (in TGr%:, 6), as against 3iels , he who does not eB!e%t what %annot be
eB!e%ted (i.e., what trans%ends all eB!e%tation) will not ma:e the unattainable attainable." -n the signifi%an%e of
i as the im!elling for%e in the whi%h !rodu%es !ros!erit&, %f. Hirt, op. cit.
.. , 2lat.Tim. , 69d. ti (the ) de%eives in 1ur.I!h. ,ul. , /9*# I!h. Taur. , ).) ff.#
9u!!l., )79 ff.
.* 2ind.2&th. , *, )95 (goal) .
./ 2ind. , -l&m!. , .*, 0 f.5 c

6 (vain)
i i (>f. .*, .I./ and 2&th. , .+, 09I6)# .*, *6I/*). 2&th. , /, .9I*/5
q l . c 6
, l 6 i (loo:) , 6
i . ;em. , .., )*I)65 the is guided b& , but our members are
bound i # this has its sour%e in or desire (%f. 2&th. , .+, 6+# ;em. , /, /+# 9o!h.,nt. , 6.6
0.9 , on 2lat.9&m!. , .9/d infra ). ,round the souls of mortals hang i , Isthm. , *, )/.
9olon Fr. , ., /0 f. ( 3iehl )5 c (namel&, i ) (sna!)
i . These i are then de!i%ted# then in 6/ff.5 c
6 # he should gras! what is .
.)
To i whi%h waits on the un%ertain
is o!!osed l6 ( 2ind.
-
l&m!. , 7, ))). In ( 2ind.;em. , .., )6)
man ta:es %ontrol of the future as he $udges and a%ts on the basis of the !resent. In Thu%. , II, 6*
there is a %ontrast between i, q q q l and 6
, q q , and in II, )* between i and . It is
a mista:e for man to go to and i for his i , (, .+/.
.0
,%%.
to 3emo%r. the i of fools %annot be fulfilled, but those of the edu%ated and %ultured are
better than the ri%hes of the un%ultured ( Fr. , 06 mII, 70, .. f., 3iels n# .60 mII, 99, 6 f., 3iels n# *9*
mII, .*+, *+ f., 3iels n)# for the ho!e of the wise, whi%h is no longer i in the original sense, is
not based on but on the whi%h %an be s%ientifi%all& investigated.
.6
7ere is a t&!i%al
eB!ression of the distin%tive <ree: tenden%& to insure against the future b& a %ons%ious integration
into the order of the %osmos.
*. 2lato, of %ourse, need not renoun%e the whi%h wor:s in i ( n. ./ ), for as he
sees it this is the im!ulse to the beautiful and the good. 7e %an thus sa& of it in 9&m!. , .9/d5
q i l l , l
i i . For 2lato himself these l i eBtend
be&ond the !resent life. For if %on%eals from man a i q , so that,
, we are attra%ted b& the dubious glor& of earthl& life ( 1ur.7i!!. , .69 ff.), the
!hiloso!her is in fa%e of death ( 2lat.,!. , ).%# 2haed. , 6)a). For him there is q
i of attaining to the !la%e c q q i q
iq ( 2haed. , 67b), and he does not fear death (67%I66b),
q . 8an& have indeed died willingl&, sustained b& the i of seeing their
loved ones again in 7ades (66a), . The 8&steries whi%h !romise initiates a life of
bliss after death
.7
%ontinuall& gain in signifi%an%e ( , i ). -n the basis of
this faith 2or!h&r.8ar%. , *) numbers i with i, and as the four
whi%h %onstitute a genuine life#
.6
the i must
naturall& be renoun%ed ( ibid. , *9).
.9

/. 7uman earthl& ho!es obviousl& have a !la%e in 7ellenism as well as ho!es of the be&ond.
*+
,s in the , *6 ( 9tob. , I, /9/, .9 ff.), the gift of geus to men %onsists in the fa%t
qc .

i . i
, l, g . , ho!e is seldom fulfilled
a%%. to ,es%h.,g. , 0+05 p i 6 . >f. 9o!h. Fr. ., *+05 c
6 . 9o!h.,i. , )77 f.5 i , i
i (q also, e.g., in 7es.-!. , )96# 8. ,nt. , /, .)# ,nth. 2al. , (II, /76# though %f.
in 1!i%. Fr. , 66 mKsenern, also 2lut.9uav. (iv. 1!i%. , 6 mII, .+9+dn5 q i ).
,nti!hon Fr. , /6 (II, /+/, * f., 3iels )5 i

i l (irremediable) . -n the %onne%tion between ho!es and
dreams, %f. Hirt, )0 ff.
.) 2ind.2&th. , /, *+# **# 6+# .+, 6/# Isthm. , 6, ./.
-l&m!. %l'pia .
.0 >f. ,ristot. De 3eoria , ., !. ))9b, .+ ff. n. . .
.6 ,

, c . q
iq q i , Fr. , .76 (II, 96, .* ff., 3iels ). -n the other hand, %f. 7era%l. n. .+ ).
.7 Iso%. , ), *6# 6, /)# ,el. ,rist. , **, .+5 q q qi i
{ >i%. De )egibus , II, .), /65 ne$ue solu cu laetitia vivendi ratione accepius sed etia
cu spe eliore oriendi . >f. >. ,. 4obe%:, #glaophaus (.6*9), 69 ff.# 1. Aohde, Ps'che
.+
, I (.9*0), *9+.
.6 I, 0., n. .)7 for bibl. The determination of life b& the is des%ribed b& 2or!h&r. as
follows5 i q ,
q , q
, c i q q i . >f. also 2lut.
Hrut., )+ (I, .++*%)5 i .
.9 >f. also ?ul.1!. , 69, !. .*), ./# ./9, * f. ( q l q q i
).
*+ >f. Hirt, / f. for the role of i in eroti% literature, and Hirt, passi for its role in %omed& and the
7ellenisti% and 4atin literature influen%ed b& it# a good eBam!le is 4u%. 3e 8er%ede >ondu%tis . >f. also ,nth.
2al. , (I, //+, . f. (to ,es%ula!ius)5 c , l c i
. 2. -B&. , (II, .+7+, .+ f.
that he dire%ts wars and gives , i and l ,
*.
so ,ugustus is lauded in the 2riene
ins%r. as the who !uts an end to war, fulfils old ho!es and :indles new ones.
**
9toi%ism
bad no interest in the !henomenon of ho!e. In 1!i%t. i (i) is used in the older sense
of to eB!e%t."
*/
7e :nows5 i
i ( Fr. /.). 7e em!hasises5 i, i
i ( Fr. /+). 7e admonishes, not l , but i
(III, *6, ..). 9imilarl& 8. ,nt. admonishes5 i i
(/, .)).
*)
The statement of 1!i%urus is t&!i%al5

q q,
, i ( 3iog. 4. , ', .*7). , %&ni%al
s%e!ti%ism is %onfessed in ,nth. 2al. , I', .7*, .5 i c { I
as: %on%erning neither ho!e nor fortune."
*0
7ere it is ever&where regarded as selfDevident that
ho!e is sim!l& manOs !ro$e%tion of the future.
B. The OT <ie9 of 8ope.
.. ;ormall& the 4'' uses i (i)
*6
for hf Led and the derived subst. #
*7
though
(i) is more %ommon for the %lass hL (never ). ti
is also used twi%e for c^dNd , whi%h is usuall& rendered - (also - and - ) .
c^dNZ Yea is most %ommonl& translated i (in 2rv. and ?ob, also 1E. /75.. ), though c^N is
rendered ( Is. 65.7 # //5* ), , i, , and c^NY
and . i o%%urs *+ times for cd hd and 7 for cX hZ sf , though we
also find for ch ) 9 times) and , , for chs . @e
find i .+ times for the !i of \hf `d and 0 times for the hi!h# though here again
is used. Y\XhX ^_Ye is twi%e translated i , never , though other terms are used.
Finall&, i is used twi%e for MLf Pdw ( twi%e), and i is used on%e for MLX P]w
( i on%e), on%e for \X We X and on%e for vl. Led sf ( ge%h. 950 ,o). @e ma& also add some
eB%e!tional %ases, e.g., i for PQ Mf red ( Is. ..5.+ ), \\fRed ( 21: ), NPfQ hd ( 0:14 ), tqf PdQ
) * >h. ./5.6 ), NNf PdQ ( Is. *956 ), hf MZ ( 3a. /5*6 or 90), PQ iX SX [PdQ Sd ( . 51:14 ), et%.# i
for Y^e|hd ( Is. *65.6 ), rX hX ) * >h. /05*6 ), `La uZ ( Is. *)5.6 # *65) f. ), PQ iXSX [Pdw Sd ( 3t. *)5.0 ),
for cqd ^d|Z ( Is. *65.9 ).
*. There is here something %hara%teristi%. In the -T there is no neutral %on%e!t of
eB!e%tation. ,n eB!e%tation is either good or bad and therefore it is either ho!e or fear. 7o!e
*. 9tob. , I, )+/, *., the !ra&er5 i .
** 3itt. -r. , II, )06 (in @endland, op. cit. , )+9 f.). >f. also the 7ali%arnass. ins%r. in H8I , 69) n. 0 # 3itt.
9&ll.
/
, 797, 0 f. I, 7+ # 3itt. -r. , 0)*, .* ( i q i )# 669, 75 i in the
em!eror (<alba)# 2. -B&. , (II, .+*., 0 ff.5 c q l
A . In the Tomi ins%r. !ublished in the ,r%h.De!igr. 8itteil., .) (.69.), **I*6
(line / f.)5 q g ig iq . 8easures are ta:en (line /) f.), c
q q l i i .
*/ I, *+, ./# II, *+, /7# */, )6# 1n%h. , )+.
*) >f. also i in 9, *9 ( q q H i )# .+, /6# i in ., .7 ( q
i { )# 0, 6.
*0 i and are often lin:ed, Hirt, op. cit. , .0 (and .++, n. 07)# )7# 9. (and .*0, n. *./). Spes et
fortuna6 valete , we read on an e!ita!h. >armina 4atina 1!igra!hi%a (ed. Hue%heler), )+9, 6.
*6 -n the as!iration of i (i) , v. Tha%:era& , .*) f.
*7 i is used )7 times for hf Led and on%e for hf LeX ()# i is used 7 times for hf Led , also 9 times for
hd LZ sa , .) for hf LeX and on%e for t^_hed L ea .
itself is thus differentiated linguisti%all& from fear of the future.
*6
7o!e as eB!e%tation of
good is %losel& lin:ed with trust, and eB!e%tation is also &earning, in whi%h the element of
!atient waiting or fleeing for refuge is em!hasised.
7o!e is thus ho!e of the good, and so long as there is life there is ho!e ( ooh. 95) ). Hut
this ho!e is not a %onsoling dream of the imagination whi%h %auses us to forget our !resent
troubles, nor are we warned of its un%ertaint&, as in the <ree: world. The life of the righteous
is grounded in ho!e. To have ho!e, to have a future, is a sign that things are well with us.
*9

This ho!e is naturall& dire%ted to <od.
/+
It is naturall& referred to most freTuentl& when man
is in trouble and ho!es that <od will deliver and hel! him. This ho!e is thus trust, so that we
ma& have c^N and hL together ( 24:1 ff. ), or c^N ma& be used where elsewhere we
have hL in the same sense.
/.
This ho!eful trust is alwa&s demanded,
/*
however, even in
times of blessing.
//
,nd when we remember that the 2salms be%ame the !ra&erDboo: of the
%ongregation, we %an see that the demand is absolute. The righteous are alwa&s referred to
what <od will do, so that ho!e is not dire%ted to an&thing s!e%ifi%, nor does it !ro$e%t its own
view of the future, but it %onsists rather in general %onfiden%e in <odOs !rote%tion and hel!.
/)

It ma& thus be said that <od is the ho!e or %onfiden%e of the righteous.
/0
This ma:es Tuite
im!ossible the <ree: %ontrasting of i with what is , with l , or
with as the foresight whi%h wor:s with %ontrollable fa%tors. 1ven the !resent
whi%h man thin:s he %an %ontrol is un%ertain and in%al%ulable. The differen%e between ho!e
and trust fades. Trust and %ertaint& are alwa&s a ho!e that the !resent state will so !ersist that
the fa%tors on whi%h one %ounts will not %hange. Hut where this is not ho!e in <od su%h
%onfiden%e is irres!onsible se%urit& whi%h <od will suddenl& overthrow and %hange into fear
and anBiet&.
/6
;o man should trust in his ri%hes ( 51:7 # ?ob /.5*) ), his righteousness
( 1E. //5./ ), men ( ?er. .750 ), or his religious inheritan%e, whether the tem!le ( ?er. 75) ),
Hethel ( ?er. )65./ ) or idols ( 7ab. *5.6 ). The deliberations and %al%ulations of men are but
wind ( 3:11 )# <od brings them to nought ( 32:10 , Is. .95/ et%.). , manOs heart
*6 It is worth noting that the 4'' has at Is. *65.9 , where cqd ^d|Z means fear" or dread."
*9 2rv. */5.6 # *)5.) # *65.* # ?ob ..5.6 . If ho!e goes, all is lost ( 4am. /5.6 # ?ob 65.. # 756 et%.)# and ho!e
goes with death ( Is. /65.6 # 1E. /75.. # ?ob .75.0 ).
/+ 7e who trusts in <od will be hel!ed ( 27:7 ) and will not be %onfounded l , I, .69 ( 24:2
f. # /+56 , .) # 6656 # ..65..6 # Is. )95*/ ). The fathers trusted in 7im and were not %onfounded ( 21:4 ). The
righteous trusts in <odOs MX hX ( 12:5 # /*5.6 , ** # 0.56 ), cqd ^ePQ `Z ( <n. )95.6 # 77:22 ), cqd ^ePQ YeZ (
118:21 , .*/ et%.)# he waits u!on <od ( 24:20 ) and 7is $udgment ( Is. *656 )# <od is his %onfiden%e (
:18 # 6)50 # 7+50 # 9+59 et%.). 9alvation is to those who trust in <od ( ?er. .757 # 3:4 # 9+5. ff. ). The
righteous should trust in <od and wait for 7im ( 4:5 # *65.) # /65/ et%.# 2rv. *+5** ( .* )# **5.9 et%.)# he
%onfesses5 I trust (or trusted) in <od" ( Is. .*5* # 24:2 # *757 # /+56 , .) # 9+5* ).
/. c^N Is. 65.7 # *059 # *656 # 26:14 # /659 # 6656 et%.# hL Is. /+5.0 # 12:5 # *.5) f. et%. 9o also ch (
5:11 # .657 ) where elsewhere we have c^N ( Is. )+5/. # 36: # 6656 # 4am. /5*0 )# chs ( Is. *65.0 #
13:5 # 6+5) et%.), where elsewhere we have hLs ( 3:4 # 6)50 ). In 70:5 we have both c^NY and
hLs followed b& chs in v. 7. In the rendering of hL in ?er. .757 , and of ch in 56:1 ,
and i are used alternatel&# %f. i and for c^N in Is. *059 .
/* ?er. .757 # 3:4 # 0.56 # 9+5* # ...57 et%.
// Is. .*5* .
/) This %omes out !arti%ularl& strongl& when it is said that <od gives ho!e rather than hel! ( ?er. *95.. # /.5.7 #
7os. *5.7 ), as also when the time of salvation is des%ribed as a time of %onfiden%e ( Is. /*5.6 # 1E. *65*6 # /)5*7
f. ). It is also eB!ressed in the fa%t that in de%larations of ho!e what is ho!ed for is less freTuentl& mentioned than
the basis of ho!e (<od, 7is faithfulness, 7is name et%.), so that the 4'' uses su%h im!ossible or rare
eB!ressions as i (i) i with dat. or a%%. , l, . <ood <:. is i with dat. , to rel&
on" ( Thu%. , III, 97, *5 g g )5 i l also o%%urs in Thu%. , III, .), ..
/0 ?er. .757 # 60:4 # 7+50 .
/6 ,m. 65. # Is. /*59I.. # ge!h. *5.0 # 2rv. .)5.6 # %areless" is used in a neutral sense in ?u. .657 , .+ , *7 # ?er.
.*50 # ?ob )+5*/ of Hehemoth.
deviseth his wa&5 but the 4ord dire%teth his ste!s" ( 2rv. .659 ). The nation and its %al%ulating
!oliti%ians will be %onfounded if the& build on %al%ulable for%es and treaties with other
%ountries.
/7
9u%h %onfiden%e thin:s it %an %ount on %ontrollable fa%tors, but ho!e is to be
dire%ted to 7im who %annot be %ontrolled. This trustful ho!e in <od is freed from anBiet& ( Is.
75) # .*5* # 45:2 # 2rv. *65. ). Hut it must be a%%om!anied b& fear of <od ( Is. /*5.. #
32:18 # /95/ et%.# 2rv. .)5.6 , *6 # */5.6 ). For this reason it must be a Tuiet waiting for <od.
/6
The o!!osite is de!i%ted in ?ob, who will not wait ( ?ob 65.. # ./5.0 # %f. * F. 65// ).
If <odOs eB!e%ted hel! delivers from !resent distress,
/9
it is more s!e%ifi%all& thought of
as the es%hatologi%al hel! whi%h !uts an end to all distress.
)+
The attitude of eB!e%tant and
%onfident ho!e in%reasingl& eB!resses the realisation that ever&thing in the earthl& !resent is
!rovisional, and it thus be%omes in%reasingl& ho!e in the es%hatologi%al future.
Bultann
C. 8ope in 2abbinic "#daism.
.. The 9emiti% world offers no %lose !arallel to the word i ."
).
This statement
des%ribes the situation in 2alestinian ?udaism. There is in fa%t no word %orres!onding to i in
either form or %ontent. c^dNZ Yea had as good as disa!!eared,
)*
and the same is true of others words
translated i or i in the 4'' ( 0*. f. ). This is the more sur!rising sin%e the
Aabbini% world was %ertainl& not unfamiliar with the %on%e!t of ho!e. Indeed, it dire%ted its
thoughts ver& mu%h to the future, as ma& be seen from the eBisten%e of the Haru%h ,!o%. and )
1sr., whi%h both belong with tolerable %ertaint& to s%ribal %ir%les in 2alestine. 8ore !arti%ularl&
the 8essiani% ho!e was an eBtraordinaril& strong %on%ern of 2alestinian ?udaism and its leaders in
the .st and *nd %enturies of our era. If in s!ite of this !reo%%u!ation with the future there was
nevertheless no word or word grou! to eB!ress it, there must have been ver& good reasons. These
reasons %an onl& be found, however, in the !arti%ular form of the eB!e%tation of the future in later
Aabbini% ?udaism. Thus the observation that there is no word or word grou! %orres!onding to
i, i ne%essaril& demands an anal&sis of the %ontent and goal of this eB!e%tation in
order to %larif& the !e%uliar linguisti% situation.
*. 8essiani% 1B!e%tation.
a. 8essiani% eB!e%tation of the future has both a !ositive and a negative side. The !ositive
relates to the fulfilment of ?ewish ho!es, the negative to the eB!e%tation of the $udgment whi%h at
the %ommen%ement of the 8essiani% age will smite the ungodl& who as the enemies of <od are
alwa&s the enemies of 7is !eo!le and who in %onfli%t against the ?ews will draw down on
themselves the wrath and vengean%e of <od. The two as!e%ts are %losel& lin:ed, so that we %annot
%onsider them in isolation. In this %onneBion it ma:es no odds in what order the individual events
of the 8essiani% age were eB!e%ted, to what degree the %ir%le of ideas was develo!ed, or how it
was wor:ed out, es!e%iall& with the hel! of s%ri!tural eBegesis.
)/
@e %an also ignore the
%om!rehensive %om!leB of signs indi%ating the beginning of the 8essiani% era.
))
The essential
!oint is sim!l& the fa%t that 8essiani% eB!e%tation was not an individual %on%ern but a %on%ern of
the whole !eo!le and %ongregation. The individual shared it as a member of the %ommunit&. For
the !romises were given to Israel as a totalit& rather than to Israel as an aggregate of individuals.
The !eo!le as su%h re%eived the !romise that the future belongs to <od. For this reason, nonD?ews
/7 7os. .+5./ # Is. /.5. # * F. .65*) # Is. /656 , 9 # ?er. *5/7 # 1E. *95.6 .
/6 Is. /+5.0 # 36:5-7 , where N] PZQ c f or \\]^_hYZ ca and Vsf red are lin:ed with hf Led .
/9 12:5 # /*5.7 , *. # ..656. , .*/ .
)+ Is. *059 # *656 # /+5.0 # 0.50 # ?er. *95.. # /.5.6 f. # 8i. 757 # 45:1 .
). 9%hl. 8t. , )+*.
)* -ne of the eB%e!tions is to be found in 9. Har. 7656, where V\d^_qY^fNZ Yea is !robabl& the 7eb. original
(@i%hmann, /9, n. *+).
)/ >f. the Aabb. material in 9tr.DH. , I(, 607 ff.
)) .bid. , 977 ff.
%an !arti%i!ate in the !romised blessings onl& if b& %ir%um%ision
)0
the& be%ome full& authorised
and full& %ommitted members
)6
of the !eo!le and %ongregation.
)7
8ere faith in IsraelOs <od is
not enough for this.
)6
There must also be fulfilment of the statutes of the 4aw, among whi%h
%ir%um%ision is both formall& the first and materiall& the !resu!!osition of all other observan%e.
)9

The 4aw is de%isive in the relationshi! of the !eo!le to <od. In it ?udaism has the one %lear
and !erfe%t revelation of the will of <od. The wor: of the Aabbis is sim!l& to unfold it in all its
details and to wor: out all its finer !oints in order to ma:e !ossible its %on%rete fulfilment to the
letter. For <od has shown 7is will to the !eo!le in the 4aw in order that it ma& be done, not in
order that it ma& be made into a !hiloso!hi%al s&stem.
0+
9in%e <odOs will does not %hange,
be%ause it is 7is will, and sin%e it is alwa&s a saving will, in the eB!e%tation of lo&al ?udaism the
%oming aeon will have this in %ommon with the !resent aeonkthat the 4aw will stand over both
as the eB!ression of the divine will. The differen%e between the two aeons is sim!l& that the 4aw
is now entrusted onl& to the ?ews, whereas in the %oming aeon it will be :e!t b& the <entiles too.
This is a thought whi%h gained wide a%%e!tan%e es!e%iall& in 7ellenisti% ?udaism and whi%h even
determined its missionar& wor:.
0.
Hut we find it also in 2alestinian ?udaism, as ma& be seen in
the eB!e%tation that the 8essiah would tea%h the nations the Torah and %ause them to serve it.
0*
It
is obvious, of %ourse, that the 8essiah, who %an eB!ound the Torah li:e none other and leave no
doubt as to the meaning of !assages whi%h are now obs%urel& or even in%orre%tl& inter!reted,
0/

will 7imself :ee! the Torah in all its !arts,
0)
$ust as <od studies the 4aw and observes its
!rovisions.
00
In this fusion of fulfilment of the 4aw and 8essiani% eB!e%tation it is also obvious
that the Aabbis should ma:e the %ommen%ement of the 8essiani% age de!endent on the !erfe%t
fulfilment of the 4aw b& Israel. ,%%ording to a sa&ing of A. 9himOon b. ?o%hai ( c. .0+ ,.3. ), the
redem!tion of Israel will %ome when Israelites have reall& :e!t the 9abbath for two 9abbaths (
b.9hab. , ..6b).
b. This leads us to a se%ond essential element in 8essiani% eB!e%tation. Its fulfilment is in
<odOs hand, but 7e has made it de!endent on the relationshi! of 7is !eo!le to 7im and 7is will.
Thus the bringing in of the 8essiani% !eriod and the 8essiani% redem!tion is not <odOs wor:
alone. 8an has a share, and to a normative eBtent in so far as it de!ends on his a%hievements when
>hrist %omes and ushers in 7is :ingdom. The %oming of the 8essiah ma& thus be arrested or
)0 For %ir%um%ision as the basis of the 8essiani% redem!tion, ibid. , )+, and as the basis of the deliveran%e of
Israel from <ehinnom, III, *6)# I(, .+6) ff.
)6 The ( ) often referred to in the ;T a%%e!t onl& some obligations
(9abbath, meats) and re%eive no !rivileges, as shown b& their relationshi! to the tem!le and sa%rifi%es, in whi%h
their !osition is li:e that of the <entiles, ibid. , II, 0)6 ff.
)7 The Aabbis seem to have been interested in the onl& to the degree that this state held
out !romise of regular %onversion to ?udaism# %f. ?uv. , .), 96 ff., and the attitude of the (2harisai%, 9tr.DH. , I,
9*6) mer%hant 1leaEar to :ing IEates of ,diabene5 ?os.,nt. , *+, .7 # /) ff. ( es!. )/ ff. ).
)6 >f. on this !t. what 1leaEar sa&s to IEates ( ?os.,nt. , *+, )) f. )5 6
(the 8osai% ) .
i i ;

l , lg i
q , .
)9 >f. 9tr.DH. , I(, */. If the are seldom mentioned in Aabb. literature ( ibid. , II, 7.6,
7.9), this ma& be be%ause the develo!ment of !ious observan%e of the 4aw after the destru%tion of the tem!le
and %ultus led to an in%reasing re$e%tion of the !artial adheren%e %hara%teristi% of this grou!. The lo&al ?ew
demands full %ommitment to the 4aw and if this is la%:ing s!ea:s of even though there is a distin%t
in%lination towards ?udaism and eviden%e of it ( n. )6 ).
0+ The rule that stud& of the 4aw ta:es !re%eden%e of fulfilment was formulated onl& in %onne%tion with the
7adrian !erse%ution and the diffi%ulties of observan%e %reated b& the hostile legislation of the government. For
details %f. 9tr.DH. , III, 60 ff.# @. Ha%her, Die #gada der "annaiten , I (.66)), /+/.
0. 9tr.DH. , III, 96 ff.
0* >f. es!. Tg. Is. 0/5.. , where the man& ( i ) whom the 8essiah %auses to serve the 4aw %an onl& be
nonD?ewish !eo!les. The !assages in 9tr.DH. , I(, 9.6 also assume an a%tive tea%hing ministr& of the 8essiah to
all men. If there is a distin%tion between 7ellen. and Aabb. ?udaism, it is sim!l& that the Aabbis, %ons%ious of the
ele%tion of Israel, essentiall& restri%ted their wor: to the %hosen !eo!le and tried to !re!are for the time of
%onsummation in this s!here.
0/ 9tr.DH. , I(, .. ?esus ta:es u! this idea of the new Torah of the 8essiah" in 7is eB!osition of the 4aw in the
9ermon on the 8ount ( ibid. , I(, . ff.).
0) .bid. , III, 07+ f.
00 >f. ibid. , I(, .*// f., IndeB under <ott."
dela&ed.
06
This means that the 8essiani% eB!e%tation of the Aabbis is %ursed b& the un%ertaint&
whi%h affli%ts future eB!e%tation in an& religion of wor:s. Though it is %ertain that the fulfilment
will %ome one da&, there is an o!!ressive sense of being more or less seriousl& guilt& of
!ost!oning it. ;or is there an& wa& of measuring how near or far we are from the goal. -nl& <od
%an de%ide this, and 7is assessment is wra!!ed in im!enetrable dar:ness. The onl& sure !oint is
that 7e is stri%tl& $ust, and will freel& give 7is !eo!le nothing. Thus, for all the enthusiasti%
de!i%tions of the %oming -ne there is a %ertain note of weariness and es!e%iall& of un%ertaint& in
Aabbini% eB!e%tations of the end. This is eB!ressed both in the theor& of the %on%ealment of the
8essiah, a%%ording to whi%h 7e is alread& !resent and sim!l& waits to manifest 7imself,
07
and in
the attem!ts to %al%ulate the time of 7is a!!earing.
06
1ither wa&, an effort is made to dis!el the
un%ertaint& !rodu%ed b& lin:ing the %oming of the 8essiah to legal fulfilment. The tension
between this fulfilment and the sure and %ertain !lan of <od is relaBed. =et both wa&s are wrong
to the degree that the human ratio %omes to the forefront.
There is no more astonishing witness to the %orre%tness of this statement than ,Tiba, who
hailed Har >o%hba as the 8essiah and thus led himself, most of his !u!ils and finall& his !eo!le to
destru%tion.
09
@e have a full a%%ount of his end at the hands of Aoman eBe%utioners ( b. Her.,
6.b). 7e died %onfessing the one <od of Israel ( 3t. 65) ). 7e thus saw no dis%ord between the
%onfession of <od and the a%:nowledgment of Har >o%hba. In the latter he saw rather the
%onsummation of a life dedi%ated to the servi%e of <od. It ma& be assumed that Har >o%hba was
still alive when ,Tiba died.
6+
It is thus the more im!ressive that in the hour of death his %on%ern
was onl& with his !ersonal relationshi! to <od and not with the fate of the movement for whi%h he
was d&ing. The teBt shows no sign of va%illation. =et his last words almost sound li:e a selfD
vindi%ation. The s!ea:er was d&ing for <od in the servi%e of 7is 4aw, not of the 8essiah. -n%e
again we see the un%ertaint& of the 8essiani% eB!e%tation of the Aabbis, this time welling u! as it
were from the subD%ons%ious. It emerges with the same %larit& in the fa%t that there is no Aabbini%
sa&ing whi%h re$e%ts the regal %laim of Har >o%hba as !resum!tuous and erroneous even after he
met his terrible end and dragged down 2alestinian ?udaism with him.
6.
If this fa%t %ontains an
element of selfDa%%usation, it shows how sha:& was the ground of 8essiani% eB!e%tation even for
those who were eB!e%ted to be and who were a%%e!ted as eB!erts in the matter.
%. The attitude dis!la&ed in this whole s!here is, however, ver& different from what is meant
b& ho!e, Tuite a!art from the <ree: word i . There is here %al%ulation, and therefore a
%al%ulated attem!t to guarantee the eB!e%tation. The divine sovereignt& is thus abrogated in the
s!here of 8essiani% ho!e, even if onl& in theor&. It is in :ee!ing that the ;T des%ribes the !ious
%ir%les loo:ing with &earning to the future at the time of ?esus as ( 8:. .05)/
et%., , 06 ) and not as i . 7ere is eB!ressed real %ertaint& lin:ed
with a sense of right. If manOs %laim does not stand in the forefront, the em!hasis is less on the
goodness of <od from whi%h the future salvation %omes, and whi%h %an be gras!ed onl& in faith,
than on the eBisting !romises whi%h bind <od to 7is !eo!le and to the fulfilment of its
eB!e%tation. The !oint here is the time rather than the manner. This hel!s us to see wh& in terms of
the stru%ture of the 8essiani% eB!e%tation of the Aabbis it was inevitable that ?esus and 7is %all
for faith should be re$e%ted. To this eBtent the resurre%tion of ?esus means for the ?ews the
destru%tion of their eB!e%tation and their liberation for a ho!e whi%h is real ho!e be%ause in ever&
res!e%t it is referred to <od alone and not to man.
d. It is grounded in the distin%tiveness of 8essiani% eB!e%tation, and in the fa%t that finall& it
is no true ho!e, that in ?udaism we in%reasingl& find the a%%om!an&ing %on%e!t of V`aPdQ Y^eW\Zsf ,
and this as a !arti%ular magnitude whi%h finds its !e%uliar %hara%teristi%s in its relationshi!
s!e%ifi%all& to the individual and in its a%tualisation. The theoreti%al se!aration between the
!re!arator& :ingdom of the 8essiah and the final reign of <od whi%h is alread& !resent in germ
and whi%h ta:es effe%t in the relationshi! of the individual to <od ( I, 07/ ), as it is assumed in
Aabb. a!o%al&!ti%
6*
and e%hoed in . >. .05*/ , has its final basis in the desire to over%ome the
06 .bid. , I, 099 ff.
07 .bid. , III, /.0.
06 .bid. , I(, 966 ff.
09 >f. ,. 9%hlatter, Die "age "ra5ans und (adrians (.697), 0+ ff.
6+ ,. 9%hlatter, op. cit. , 0*.
6. .bid. , 0* f.
6* >f. ,. 9%hweitEer, Die 3'stik d. #post. Pls. (.9/+), 60 ff.
ho!elessness of the individual as a member of his !eo!le b& ma:ing him in !erson the bearer of
his ho!e. The em!hasis ne%essaril& falls on !ersonal a%hievement. Hut this sim!l& shifts rather
than solves the !roblem. 9in%e the whole life of the righteous in the !resent is determined b&
%onsideration of the future, there arises the Tuestion of the !ersonal assuran%e of salvation. The
sour%es show that the Aabbis %ould not attain this either.
/. The 2roblem of ,ssuran%e of 9alvation.
a. ,long with the !eo!leOs eB!e%tation of the 8essiah is the eB!e%tation of the individual. It
%on%erns his !ersonal share in the %oming world as this will he de%ided b& <od
6/
when 7e
se!arates the righteous from the wi%:ed, assigning the wi%:ed to <ehinnom
6)
and the righteous
to the $o&s of the es%hatologi%al <arden of 1den.
60
The de%ision is made in a forensi% a%t. -n the
basis of the 4aw and legal attainment <od de%lares who %an be a%%e!ted as righteous and who
%annot be a%%e!ted.
66
Thus the thought of attainment determines the life of the righteous in this
aeon and determines his eternal destin& in the neBt.
Hut this introdu%es into the individual ho!e of the Aabbis the same un%ertaint& whi%h has
emerged as the most distin%tive mar: of its 8essiani% eB!e%tation. It belongs to a religion of
wor:s that its adherents %annot have assuran%e. The& %annot :now whether the& have made the
grade, sin%e the& do not :now the rule to whi%h the& are sub$e%t.
67
This is stri:ingl& a!!arent in
?udaism as !erha!s the %lassi%al religion of wor:s. ,longside the assuran%e that <od will give the
righteous all %on%eivable $o&s is the un%ertaint& whether oneOs own attainment is enough to
Tualif& for the blessings of salvation with the righteous,
66
whether the righteous demands of <od
will finall& be met. This la%: of !ersonal assuran%e of salvation
69
%ast dee! shadows on the last
moments of more than one great ?ewish tea%her. Aabban ?o%hanan ben ga::ai, the %ontem!orar&
of the a!ostles,
7+
we!t when his !u!ils %ames to his deathDbed to re%eive a final blessing from
their d&ing master. @hen as:ed wh& he we!t, he answered5 There are two wa&s before me, the
one to the <arden of 1den, the other to <ehinnom, and I do not :now on whi%h the&
7.
lead mek
how %an I hel! wee!ing" ( b. Her., *6b). This is said b& the ver& man whom his dis%i!les
des%ribed as the lam! of Israel" and the strong hammer." It was the same with A. ?o%hanan (ban
;a!!a%ha, who died c. *9+ ,.3. ), the 2alestinian ,moraean from whose s%hool %ame the
?erusalem Talmud. @hen he died, he as:ed to be buried neither in white
7*
%lothes nor bla%:, but
in neutral shades, so that he would not be ashamed if he were given a !la%e among the righteous or
among sinners ( V`qa PdQMZ (
7/
($ Fil. , /*b, 6 ff.).
7)
In both %ases there is the same final
un%ertaint&, >onfiden%e based on wor:s %annot be assuran%e, and fear trium!hs over faith."
70

This fa%t is not altered b& the %onfiden%e of some Aabbis in their last hours.
76
The basi% mood of
the Aabbis in fa%e of $udgment was !essimisti%,
77
and it finds %lassi%al eB!ression in the stead&
develo!ment of %asuistr&. There is !erha!s no more stri:ing !roof of this thesis than in the fa%t
that the s%hools of 7illel and 9hammai dis!uted for more than two &ears whether it were better for
man not to have been %reated or whether it is good for him to have been %reated, and that the&
finall& agreed that it were better for him not to have been %reated ( b.1rub , ./b, Har). ;o other
view is reall& !ossible under the law."
That there is no universal ho!e
76
!ossible under nomism is nowhere more %learl& stated than
b& the ?ohannine ?esus in ?n. 05)0 5 q, l
6/ 9tr.DH. , I(, ..++ ff.
6) 9tr.DH. , I(, ..+6 f.
60 .bid. , ..+7 f.
66 >f. $ ,g , *a, .) ff. ( 9tr.DH. , I(, .*+/).
67 b.oid. , )+a, Har. ( 9tr.DH. , II, )*7).
66 7en%e the advi%e of 7illel5 3o not trust in th&self to th& d&ing da&" ( ,b. , *, )).
69 It is %hara%teristi% of all Aabb. ?udaism (%f. the !assages in 9tr.DH. , III, *.6 ff.).
7+ ,. 9%hlatter, 0ochanan Ben Zakkai6 der Zeitgenosse der #postel (.699).
7. The !lur. is a %autious wa& of referring to <od, li:e the 6 in 4:. 65/6 (%f. 3alman @? , I, .6/ f.).
7* In the Aabb. , as in the ;T , the robes of the righteous are white.
7/ The statement !resu!!oses that man will %ome again" as he goes"ka %ommon view.
7) >f. <n. r. , 96, 0 on )75*9 # also .++, . on )95// .
70 ,. 9%hlatter, op. cit. , 7/ on the death of ?o%hanan.
76 >f. the a%%ounts in <n. r. , .++, . on )95// and !ar.
77 >f. the fa%t that ,Tiba often Tuoted the 2rea%her# v. ?ew. 1n%. , I, /+0.
qi . 7ere the foll& of ho!e in the s!here of legal religion is de%lared. 7e who entrusts his
eternal future to man will alwa&s be a%%used b& <od. If an& one thin:s he %an $ustif& himself b&
the 4aw, no less a figure than 8oses himself will %ondemn him, be%ause he has not understood
that for 8oses <od alone %an bring man to his goal and give him the honour whi%h :ee!s him
from !erishing ( ?n. 05)) ).
b. Ae%ognising the situation, the Aabbis too: different ste!s to tr& to over%ome their
un%ertaint& of salvation. Thus ,Tiba haEarded the statement that one %an be %ertain of <odOs
goodD!leasure in !ra&er.
79
, related view
6+
was that one ma& draw %on%lusions as to the eternal
destin& of a man from the manner of his death.
6.
The main attem!t to over%ome the un%ertaint&,
however, was the soD%alled theolog& of suffering."
6*
This
6/
tries to inter!ret the suffering of the
righteous as a dis%i!line whi%h gives them the o!!ortunit& !artiall& or even totall& to !a& the
!enalt& in this life for the guilt whi%h would otherwise have to be !aid for after death.
6)
To the
forefront is a desire to redu%e the number of offen%es and thus to give in%reasing !re!onderan%e to
merits, so that the $ust <od will finall& have no o!tion but to $ustif& and to grant a%%ess to the
<arden of 1den, as 7e naturall& desires.
60
It is worth noting that this view was most full& stated
and wor:ed out b& ,Tiba and his s%hool.
66
,%%ording to tradition,
67
he was %heerful at the
deathDbed of his suffering tea%her 1lieEer ben 7&rTanos, eB!laining that he was re$oi%ing at these
sufferings be%ause he saw in them the guarantee that <od would be gra%ious to his tea%her. 7is
own attitude at his mart&rdom !ossibl& has its root here, es!e%iall& the inter!retation of it as an
eB!ression of selfDvindi%ation before <od ( 0*6 ). Hut this attem!t of the Aabbis to over%ome
their la%: of ho!e faded into the ba%:ground relativel& Tui%:l&. Its last re!resentative was Aabba
bar bar >hama, a Hab&lonian ,moraean of the beginning of the )th %entur&.
66
The theor& failed
to maintain itself be%ause it %ould eB!lain the sufferings of the righteous but not their $o&s.
69
It
thus foundered on its own anthro!o%entri%it&. This shows us the basis of the la%: of assuran%e
amongst the Aabbis, namel&, that the& %ould not brea: free from themselves. 7o!e arises when
man learns to see that he >an do nothing for his own salvation, but that <od %an do ever&thing and
that the aim of <od is to lead man to salvation, not b& the wa& of attainment, but b& a gift sola
gratia .
/engstorf
'. The 8ope of 8ellenistic "#daism.
.. 7ellenisti% ?udaism also realists that ho!e belongs to life ( 9ir. .)5* ) and that it is
eBtinguished onl& b& death ( 2s. 9ol. .75*). The si%: man ho!es for healing ( * 8a%%. 95** 5
q i ). -ne has ho!es for others ( 9ir. ./56 ). Those who are se!arated ho!e (or no
longer ho!e) to see one another again ( Tob. .+57 # vl. ) et%. -f %ourse,
i q i ( 9ir. /.5. , a free rendering of the 7eb. ). The ho!e
of the ungodl& is ( @is. /5.. # %f. 05.) # .65*9 ) or ( * 8a%%. 75/) ). @hen the&
76 In %onne%tion with this fa%t it is interesting that ,Tiba used the designation of <od as \[] Md PZw `a c^]NZ sa in ?er.
.75./ (the ho!e of Israel") in the sense of the !lungeDbath of Israel" (?oma, 6, 9)5 ,nd it is said5 c^]_NZ sa
\[] Md PZw `a is =ahweh. @hat is meant b& the c^XNZ sa It washes the un%lean. 9o the 7ol& -ne, blessed be 7e,
washes Israel." The true sense of the formula would have fitted in ver& well with the %onteBt.
79 T. Her., /, /.
6+ ,TibaOs statement is %losel& related to that of the famous man of !ra&er, >honi, who re%ognised that his
!ra&er was affirmed when it %ame freel& ( b. Her., /)b, Har. ).
6. >f. the list in b.Fet. , .+/b, also the !assages in @i%hmann, /, n. ).
6* 2. (olE first %oined this eB!ression in 0dische &schatologie von Daniel bis #kiba (.9+/), .00.
6/ There are eBam!les outside the Aabbis, though it was most %ommon amongst them (@i%hmann, 0.).
6) This is not to be %onfused with the idea of retribution in this world, whi%h is never found within the theolog&
of suffering (@i%hmann, ..).
60 Hehind this view is the %onvi%tion of <odOs absolute $usti%e ( 0*7 ). In suffering the righteous is given the
%han%e to atone for un%onfessed faults lest he should be re$e%ted on their a%%ount. 9in%e <od alone de%ides who
will !arti%i!ate in this atoning suffering, the do%trine has a distin%t !redestinarian %hara%ter.
66 @i%hmann, 06 ff.
67 b.9anh. , .+.a# %f. @i%hmann, 6* f.
66 @i%hmann, 76.
69 .bid. , 77 f.
die, the& have no i ( @is. /5.6 ). The i of idolaters are ( @is. ./5.+ #
%f. .056 , .+ ), and it is vain to ho!e in militar& strength ( ?dt. 957 ). The i of the righteous is
fiBed on <od their .
9+
The& have i ( 1!. ,r. , *6.), and so the& need not
fear ( 9ir. /.5.6 # . 8a%%. *56. f. ). For fear of <od is %ombined with their ho!e ( 9ir. /.5.) f. #
2s. 9ol. 656# and of the 8essiah, 2s. 9ol. .75))). <od is the
( Test. ?ud. *65.). ti has the %hara%ter of trust ( 9ir. )95.+ # ?dt. ./5.9 #
* 8a%%. .057 5 6 i ). The ho!e of the might& is in <od ( 2s. 9ol.
.75/6), but 7e is es!. the refuge ( 2s. 9ol. 05./# .05*# .65/ et%.). If
what is ho!ed for is usuall& <odOs !rote%tion and hel! in general,
9.
it %an also be 7is assistan%e
in a !arti%ular need ( * 8a%%. .057 # ?dt. 65*+ # 1!. ,r. , .65 i # ?os.,nt. , .*, /++ 5
i q i ).
9*
7o!e %an arise even in the hour of
death ( * 8a%%. 95*+ ). This ho!e is denied to the ungodl& ( @is. /5.6 # %f. .05.+ ), but the i
of the righteous is i ( @is. /5) ). It eBtends to the resurre%tion ( * 8a%%.
75.. , .) , *+ ). It is the i ( ) 8a%%. ..57 ). There is also
es%hatologi%al ho!e of the restoration of Israel ( * 8a%%. *5.6 # Test. H. .+5..) or of the time of
salvation, as attested in Aabb. and es!. a!o%. literature.
9/

*. In 2hilo we see the influen%e of <:. !s&%holog&. For him i is essentiall& i
( 4eg. ,ll. , II, )/ ),
9)
though he normall& follows the later <:. usage and em!lo&s i for the
i ( ,br. , .) ), so that there is a %lose lin: between i and ( 3et.
2ot. Ins. , .)+ ) and he li:es to thin: of i (whi%h is the antithesis of in ,br. , .) #
8ut. ;om. , .6/ ) as a !reliminar& $o&.
90
,s in the <:. world, i for him %orres!onds to
.
96
,lso <:. is his estimation of i as a %onsolation in distress ( ?os. , *+ and .)) ),
for here ho!e has to do with manOs own !ro$e%tion of the future. @ithout su%h ho!e life is not
worth living ( 2raem. 2oen. , 7* ).
;evertheless, when 2hilo deals more s!e%ifi%all& with ho!e he goes be&ond the !ro$e%tion of
human and earthl& wishes. The ob$e%t of i is the !erfe%tion of man ( Aer. 3iv. 7er. , /.. 5
6 ), and in this sense i belongs to the essen%e of the
, to the q ( 3et. 2ot. Ins. , ./6 f. ). @ho does not ig is
no true man, as shown from the eBam!le of 1nos ( t6 UU ), who a%%. to <n. )5*6
was the first to ho!e in <od.
97
1nos is the c ,

( ,br. , )7 ). ti should be fiBed on <od, while
i refers to the ( 2oster. >. , *6 ). =et 2hilo %an also s!ea: in the more general -T
sense of the ho!e whi%h is dire%ted to <od as the ( 4eg. <a$. , .96 ) who gives against
and be&ond ho!e,
96
to <odOs ( 9!e%. 4eg. , I, /.+ # II, .96 ), or to the q
of 7is ( Fug. , 99 ). In this res!e%t it is es!. ho!e of forgiveness ( Fug. , 99 # 9!e%. 4eg. , II,
.96 ). This i is %losel& related to i ( 4eg. ,ll. , III, .6) ). The i of the wi%:ed
9+ 9ir. /.5.) f. # 2s. 9ol. .75/# %f. 05.6# 65/7# 95.9# .05.# 9us. 6+ # Test. ,. 757 (f.).
9. 7ere, too, it %an be said that <od is i ( n. /0 )# %ontrar& to the 7eb. teBt in 13:6 # *.50 # %f. also
2s. 9ol. 05./# .05*.
9* ?ose!h. generall& follows <:. usage. Thus i ma& in%lude eB!e%tation of evil5 ,nt. , *, *.. # 6, *.0 (
i )# .., *)7 ( i ). 1B!e%tation of what is desired is i in ,nt. , .7, . (
i )# Hell. , 6, *6) ( q )# /6/ ( ). @e often find the <:. eB!ression p i()
, ,nt. , 7, .79 # .96 et%. (also i , ,nt. , .6, /** ). t i o%%urs in ,nt. , .6, /69 # Hell.
, 7, .60 # //. et%.# i in Hell. , 7, )./ # ,nt. , 6, *6+ . @hile in ,nt. , 6, *6* # .*, /++ we have the
-T eB!ression5 i , in Hell. , *, /9. # 6, 99 we have ()
i .
9/ HoussetD<ressmann , *+* ff.# 2ott, op. cit. , .+ff. ,%%. to 1th. 1n. )+59 there is an angel set over the
!eniten%e and ho!e of those who inherit eternal life."
9) ti UU to eB!e%t" in 4eg. ,ll. , III, 67 # >her. , 70 # 3et. 2ot. Ins. , .6+ # Fug. , .6) et%.
90 4eg. ,ll. , III, 66 f. # 8ut. ;om. , .6.I.60 # 1Bse%r. , .6+. Thus we not infreTuentl& find and
i , v. 4eisegang, IndeB (.9*6).
96 4eg. ,ll. , II, )* f. , where the third term is ( 0.6 )# 8igr. ,br. , .0) , where the third term is
.
97 3et. 2ot. Ins. , ./6 f. # ,br. , 7I.) # 2raem. 2oen. , ..I.) .
96 4eg. ,ll. , III, 60 # 9a%r. ,>. , 76 # 9om. , I, 7. # 3e%al. , .6 # 9!e%. 4eg. , II, *.9 # %f. also 7. @indis%h, Die
9rigkeit Philos (.9+9), 0/ ff.
are naturall& (
1
Bse%r. , .)*# .)9# %f. 2raem. 2oen. , .* ).
99
1s%hatologi%al ho!e !la&s
no !art in 2hilo, but 8oses has i ( (irt. , 67 ).
). The )arl$ Christian Concept of 8ope.
.. The ;T %on%e!t of ho!e is essentiall& determined b& the -T .
.++
-nl& where it is a matter
of se%ular ho!e do we see the element of eB!e%tation %hara%teristi% of the <:. world, and alwa&s
in su%h a wa& that it is eB!e%tation of something wel%ome, with no differentiation between
and i .
Thus i means eB!e%tation with the nuan%e of %ounting u!on in 4:. 65/) # . >. 95.+ #
* >. 650 # . Tm. /5.) # ,%. .65.9 # 7erm.v. , /, .., /. There is a stronger a%%ent on ho!ing" in 4:.
*/56 # ,%. *)5*6 # *75*+ , and even more %learl& in 4:. *)5*. # A. .05*) # . >. .657 # 2hil. *5.9 ,
*/ # 2hlm. ** # * ?n. .* # / ?n. .) # Ign.1!h. , ., *# .+, .# A., ., .# Harn. , .7, .. @here, however,
su%h eB!e%tation relates to !ersons, we have the trust t&!i%al of the -T , e.g., * >. .5./ # 05.. #
./56 and es!. .57 # *5.0 . This ma& be seen from the inter%hange with i , whi%h in
.5.0 ta:es u! the i of v. ./ and in 65** # .+5* ta:es the !la%e of i (%f. .57 # .+5.0 ).
In . >. ./57 ho!e, li:e love, is obviousl& dire%ted to men, though for 2aul this attitude rests on the
%orres!onding relationshi! to <od, as shown b& the natural transition from the one to the other in
v. ./ . 9in%e the i %omes between and , it
is evident that the three verbs des%ribe a single attitude.
*. If ho!e is fiBed on <od, it embra%es at on%e the three elements of eB!e%tation of the
future, trust, and the !atien%e of waiting. ,n& one of these as!e%ts ma& be em!hasised. The
definition of i as in 7b. ..5. is Tuite in :ee!ing with the
-T interrelating of and i ( 77:22 ) and the usage of the 4'', whi%h
has
.+.
as well as i ( 0** ) for c^dNZ Yea ( 1E. .950 # ?u. .5.* )and Y\XhX ^_Ye (
38:7 ). The %ertaint& of trust in a divinel& given future is underlined,
.+*
and the added

.+/
em!hasises further the !aradoBi%al %hara%ter
of this ho!ing trust to the degree that it %annot %ount on %ontrollable fa%tors.
.+)
This as!e%t is
also stressed b& 2aul in his definition in A. 65*) f. 5 c
i , i i # If in a%%ordan%e with the %onteBt there is
here an initial a!!eal to formal logi%, namel&, that ho!e is the onl& !ossible attitude to the
future if the ob$e%t is not &et !resent, the !ositive meaning for 2aul is that i %annot relate
to be%ause these are ( * >. )5.6 )# ever&thing visible belongs to
the s!here of the on whi%h no ho!e %an be founded. 2aul then em!hasises the
element of !atient waiting in i (on . >. ./57 0/+ ) when he %ontinues5 l c
1Bse%r. De &:secrationibus .
99 i o%%urs elsewhere, e.g., 1!igr. <rae%. , )97, 05 i of !arents whose
daughter has died.
.++ >f. the grammars for grammati%al !ts. ti is used as in the 4'', so that the basis is denoted b& i
with the dat. or a%%. , or b& or l , n. /) # on%e with the dat. alone, 8t. .*5*. . That i %an signif&
not merel& the a%t or attitude but also rhetori%all& what is ho!ed for ( A. 65*) # >ol. .50 # Tt. *5./ # 7b. 65.6 # in
the 4'' * 8a%%. 75.) ), is in a%%ord with <:. usage ( ,es%h.>hoe!h. , 776# n. *+ , and for the inter%hange
between i and , 2lut.9uav. (iv. 1!i%. , 6 mII, .+9+dn n. ./ ). The %on%e!t of ho!e is not
thereb& modified.
.+. For \h` ) 0** ) we have q in 8i. 057 ( 6 ), this being also used for ch ) 0** ) in ?u.
95.0 .
.+* >f. in what follows es!. v. .+ 5 q i { # v. .. q
# v. .9 5 {# v. */5 {# v. *75 q
.
.+/ This is mostl& used in the 4'' for Yhf Wf^_Ye (!roof).
.+) >f. again from what follows v. 7 5 # v. 6 5 q {# v. .9
5 g i # v. *05 { q { # v. *75 {
.
i, l q . This trait in ho!e also gives us
the !aradoB of A. )5.6 5 p i i i # where we %an no
longer %ount on %ontrollable fa%tors, we have to trust in the divine future. The term i
has the element of sure %onfiden%e in . >. .05.9 # * >. .5.+ # /5.* # 2hil. .5*+ # 7b. /56 # . 2t.
.5*. 6 q i i l l ,
.+0
while the main stress is
on !atient enduran%e in A. 05) f. # .05) # . Th. .5/ (q q q i) # 056 (
i i , %f. 77:22 )# 7b. 65.. # .+5*/ . The onl& !oint is that we %an never
isolate a single element.
.+6

If there is no differen%e from the -T in this as!e%t of the stru%ture of the %on%e!t, the
differen%e is to be found in the situation of him who ho!es, as ma& be seen %learl& in * >.
/5.I.6 . The i of whi%h 2aul boasts in v. ) and the i of whi%h he boasts in
v. .* %learl& in%lude ho!eful %onfiden%e in the >orinthians ( .5./ , .0 ), but in a mu%h more
basi% sense the& are the a!ostoli% %onfiden%e and assuran%e whi%h he has as a of
the q # the& are eTuivalent to the i ( v. .7 ) whi%h is freedom
from the 4aw and death, so that i ( v. .* # 75) ) and ( .5.* # 75) # .+56
ff. # ..5.6ff .) are grounded in it.
.+7
Thus >hristian ho!e rests on the divine a%t of salvation
a%%om!lished in >hrist, and, sin%e this is es%hatologi%al, ho!e itself is an es%hatologi%al
blessing, i.e., now is the time when we ma& have %onfiden%e.
.+6
The waiting whi%h is !art of
i is effe%ted b& the 9!irit as the gift of the last time,
.+9
and it rests on i in the a%t
of salvation ( <l. 050 ), $ust as being in i in A. 65*) f. is immediatel& after des%ribed as
being borne along b& the ( v. *6f .).
@ith i, i thus %onstitutes >hristian eBisten%e. 7en%e the !ra&er of A. .05./ #
hen%e also the %hara%terising of >hristians as g i i in A. .*5.* # hen%e the
%hara%terising of the heathen as q i in . Th. )5./ ,
..+
whi%h obviousl&
does not mean that the& do not imagine a future after death, but that the& %an have no wellD
founded trust in it. Inasmu%h as i wor:s in ( <l. 056 ), i, and
i %onstitute the being of the >hristian as 2aul des%ribes it in . Th. .5/ , or as he
%hara%terises it in . >. ./5./ in antithesis to a <nosti% formula.
...
In the light of the -T
%on%e!t of ho!e it ma& also be understood wh& 2aul %an sa& that i endures even though
we attain to ( v. .*f .), for ho!e is not %on%erned with the realisation of a human
dream of the future but with the %onfiden%e whi%h, dire%ted awa& from the world to <od,
waits !atientl& for <odOs gift, and when it is re%eived does not rest in !ossession but in the
assuran%e that <od will maintain what 7e has given. 1ven in the %onsummation >hristian
eBisten%e, in a%%ordan%e with the %on%e!t of <od, is in%on%eivable without i . 2rior to
the %onsummation the element of !erseveran%e and !atient waiting %an be em!hasised, as in
A. 05* , ) f. # 65*+ , *) f. # . >. .05.9 # <l. 050 # . Th. *5.9 , though this is misunderstood if in
the g i 6 ( A. 65*) ) we do not give for%e to the 6 , and if
i and do not result.
.+0 In this !assage we ma& ta:e q i and (q) i as %oordinated sub$. of l . In this
%ase both i and i des%ribe the -T %on%e!t of believing ho!e. Hut we ma& also ta:e i as a
!redi%ate5 9o that &our faith is also ho!e in <od." In this %ase it is em!hasised that %onfident waiting for the
divine future is !art of faith.
.+6 i (i) is also used for trust in . >l., .., .5.*, 7 (with )# * >l., .7, 7# Harn. , 6, /#
7erm.m. , .*, 0, *# 6, )# ?ust.3ial. , /0, *. >f. ?n. 05)0 5 q, l qi in whom &our
assuran%e is grounded ( 0*6 )# %f. also Harn. , .6, . f.
.+7 >f. es!. ..5.75 g g q ( 0** ), and on the %on%e!t
A. 05* 5 6 i q , and 7b /56 5 q
i In the 4'' we have , i and for# Y\XhX ^_Ye ( 2rv. ..57 ).
.+6 n. /) . @hen 2aul Tuotes Is. ..5.+ in A. .05.* , for him the !romise is alread& fulfilled.
.+9 9o also Harn. , .., ...
..+ 9o also 1!h. *5.* , with the %hara%teristi% addition that the heathen are # * >l., ., 7.
... n. .6 .
/. Turning from 2aul, we find that i is almost %om!letel& la%:ing in ?n. (on ?n. 05)0
n. .+6 ). ,s ho!e dire%ted to the future %onsummation it o%%urs onl& at . ?n. /5/ . Hut
what is denoted b& i %an be in%luded in i , and this is true of ?n. ( i ).
The fa%t that i is not found in Aev. %an %ause astonishment onl& if we fail to see that it is
here in%luded in the %on%e!t of .
1lsewhere, es!. where the ?ewish em!hasis is strong, the element of waiting for the
es%hatologi%al future is !rominent# a!art from >ol. .50 # . Tm. )5.+ # Tt. *5./ # /57 , %f. . 2t.
.5/ , ./ # 7b. 65.6 f. # 75.9 ,
..*
and in ,%., with s!e%ifi% referen%e to the resurre%tion, */56 #
*)5.0 # *656 f. # *65*+ and *5*6 , whi%h relates 15: to the resurre%tion of >hrist.
../
The
!aradoB that >hristian i is itself an es%hatologi%al blessing be%ause it sees that -T ho!e
is fulfilled in the mission of ?esus a!!ears most %learl& in 8t. .*5*. , whi%h refers Is. )*5) to
?esus (%f. A. .05.* ), and in . 2t. .5/ 5 ( ) q l i
l .
..)
Hut it ma& also be seen
rather less shar!l& when >hrist is des%ribed as our i ,
..0
when there is referen%e to the
i given to us,
..6
and when i , either in %onne%tion with other %on%e!ts
..7
or alone,
..6
is !resented as the %hara%teristi% feature of >hristianit&. These eB!ressions often have a
formal %hara%ter, as ma& be seen es!. at Harn. , ., ) and 6 ( n. ..7 ) in the fa%t that
i is no longer the basis of i , as in 2aul, but rests u!on it.
=et there are still no !i%tures of the future (eB%e!t in Aev.), and we ma& thus see that the
%hara%ter of trust in <odOs a%t as a %onstitutive element of ho!eful eB!e%tation remains inta%t,
as is sometimes ver& !lain in the formulation.
..9
,gain, the as!e%t of !atient waiting is
sometimes stressed.
.*+
That i is not isolated in >hristian eBisten%e, but wor:s itself out
in a new attitude to the world, emerges onl& infreTuentl& in these formal des%ri!tions, though
it is o%%asionall& em!hasised.
.*.

#) .
..* >f. Harn. , 6, 0# ?ust.3ial. , )), )# ,thenag. , //, .# 9ib. , *, 0/5 6 , l6
i .
../ The referen%e is also to the resurre%tion in . >l., *7, f.
..) Ign.8g. , 9, .5 l i # Harn. , .6, 65 i
i .
..0 >ol. .5*7 # . Tm. .5. # Ign.1!h. , *., *# 8g. , .., .# Tr. !rooem.# *, *# 2hld. , .., *# n. /0 and 9. # ho!e
in ?esus ( i or l ), Harn. , 6, /# .., ..# ?ust.3ial. , .6, )# )7, * et%.# in 7is %ross, Harn. , .., 6# %f. ?ust.3ial. ,
96, .# ..+, / in 7is , Harn. , .6, 6 (. >l., 09, /5 in <odOs , ?ewish).
..6 * Th. *5.6 # %f. . >l., 07, *.
..7 >ol. .5) f. ( q i { q , q { q i )#
Tt. .5. f. ( { i i i q
i q li )# 7b. .+5**I*) # Ign.8g. , 7, . ( i g )# 2hld. ,
.., *# . >l., 06, * (an oath5 g { q i q )# Harn. , ), 6# .., 6#
?ust.3ial. , ..+, /# es!. variations on the triad of . >or. ./5./ # Harn. , ., )5 i
i q . .565 i i q i,
q i q, i q ,
i . 2ol., /, *f.5 { l
l q i q q, q
i, q {
..6 >ol. .5*/ # 1!h. .5.6 # )5) # es!. . 2t. /5.0 ({ q i )# . >l., 0., .
(i q i ) # Ign.1!h. , ., * (c
i) # 2hld. , 0, * ( iq q q i) . -n the %on%e!t q i , Thu%. ,
II, )/, 6# 4&s. , *, 9.
..9 . 2t. .5/ # Tt. .5* # *5./ f. # /50I7 . The lin: between i and i ma& be seen in the formulation in
Harn. , ), 65 q (s%. q ) q g l q i
q i q i .
.*+ >ol. .5*/ # 7b. 65.6 f. # .+5*/ # Ign.2hld. , 0, *# 2ol., 6, .# * >l., .., 0.
.*. . ?n. /5/ 5 q i i {# 1!h., )5.I) # . Tm. 050
(though %f. 65.7 )# Tt. *5..I.) # . 2t. .5./ 5 Ign.8g. , 9, .# Harn. , .., ..# ,thenag. , //, .. 7erm. sa&s
re!eatedl& that ho!e is lost through sin, v. , ., ., 9# m. , 0, ., 7# s. , 6, 9, )# 9, .), /# 9, *6, *. Hut there is the new
ho!e of re!entan%e, s. , 6, *, )# 6, 6, 0# 6, 7, *# 6, .+, *.
i is first found onl& in later <:. literature, in whi%h it is used in the same sense as
the earlier 6 and .
.
The meaning is not to believe or ho!e that
something will ha!!en. It thus %orres!onds ver& largel& to the 4at. desperare (and also, as it
seems, to desperare facio )#
*
it ta:es the a%%. and is also found in the !ass. ,mong man& !ossible
%onstru%tions,
/
its use with si%:ness or healing is !art. %ommon# someone who is given u! is
i or .
)

In the 4'' it o%%urs in the general sense of to give u! ho!e" in 9ir. **5*. # *75*. (both times
in relation to threatened friendshi!), and also in * 8a%%. 95.6 in relation to si%:ness. It is worth
noting that in Is. *95.9 Vrd[d `S]^_`LZ [X is rendered l 6 # %f. the
invo%ation of <od in ?dt. 95.. 5 l , l ,
, ,
.
0

In the ;T o%%urs in 1!h. )5.9 as a vl. (3 *07 lat s&
!
) with
to %hara%terise the heathen# it is in the absol. as in Is. *95.9 and ?dt. 95.. . ,s
in ?dt. 95.. <od is des%ribed in . >l., 09, / as . In 7erm.v. ,
/, .*, * an old man who has lost all ho!e is des%ribed as 6 . The word is
not found in the ,!ologists.
There is a singular use in 4:. 65/0 5 i c i . For in line with
v. /) ( i p i ) , the onl& !ossible meaning is5 4end
without the eB!e%tation of re%eiving again," or, if it is a matter of interest, without eB!e%ting
an& return."
6

i is thus used li:e et%. (though this use is attested onl& from the time of
>hr&s. ),
7
or else there is abbreviation (i UU i) , as also in
the (g 5 nihil inde sperantes . The normal use would give us not des!airing" ( nihil desperantes )
in the sense of ho!ing for a heavenl& return."
6
This is as little ia :ee!ing with the %onteBt as the
sense given b& vl. i ( [ s&
s
et%.)5 not des!airing of an&," or trans. not
bringing an& to des!air." 9in%e it is linguisti%all& !ossible to a%%e!t the first sense, there is no need
of the %on$e%ture i , whi%h would give the same sense.
) .
i , to ho!e before or first," is attested onl& b& 2osidi!!. (/rd. %ent. H.>. ) in
,
then.
, I', *+ (/77%) outside >hristian literature.
. First attested in 7&!erides, 0, /0 (!. 66, ?ensen) (q q i) . >f. 4. <JtEeler, De
Pol'bi &locutione ( 3iss. 1rlangen, .667), */# 2. 4inde, Breslauer philol. #bh. , I', / (.9+6), /. f.
* 9o obviousl& in ,nth. 2al. , 'I, ..), 6 and also in !atristi% liter. , v. Thes. 9te!h. , s.v.
/ 2ol&b. , */, ./, * has the oB&moron i . ,ndroni%us 3e 2assionibus , !. .), .)
(Freuttner) defines i as i . ;ero sa&s in 3itt. 9&ll.
/
, 6.),
.+ f.5 c q q 0*. .
) 1.g., 3itt. 9&ll.
/
, ..7/, 7 and ..5 6 . >f. -. @einrei%h, #ntike
(eilungs2under (.9+9), .90 f.# F. Ferjn&i, Die Griech.<orient. /oanliteratur (.9*7), *7, n. ...
6 is used in the same sense# though not found in the ;T , this o%%urs in the 4'' and 7erm. ( v.
2r.DHauer ).
0 In ?ose!h. i is often used in the normal sense of to give u! ho!e," v. 9%hl. 4:. , *)9 (on 4:.
65/0 ). 2hilo ( a%%. to 4eisegangOs IndeB) never uses i # he has 6 , often with
i as ob$. (4eisegang). In the 4'' this o%%urs onl& at 3t. //59 (for qrf`d [\_ )# ?dt. 95.. # * 8a%%. 95** .
6 In this sense it would find a !ar. in the mu%h Tuoted Aabb. sa&ing5 7e who does not lend on interest, him <od
will re%:on as having :e!t all the %ommandments" ( 9tr.DH. , II, .09).
7 gn. 4:. , ad loc.
6 gn. 4:. , ad loc.
,then. Hellone an 2a%e %lariores fuerint ,thenienses .
,%%. to 1!h, .5.* we are ele%ted b& the will of <od l l q l
, .
.
If the we" indi%ates ?ewish
>hristians as a s!e%ial grou!, the meaning is before the <entiles" or !rior to the %oming of
>hrist," whi%h would suggest that >hrist is the fulfilment of -T ho!e and would thus be ver&
suitable ( 0/. f. ). -n the other hand, if the we" are all >hristians, the - refers to the
!resent in relation to the es%hatologi%al %onsummation, though this is less li:el&. The word is
not found in the !ostDa!ost. fathers or the ,!ologists.
Bultann

a. To enter," to go into," 1ur.
1
l. , 090 ( )# 1ur.7era%l. , 676 ( )#
,es%h.2ers. , ))9 (q) # with the gen.5 9o!h.-ed. T&r. , 6*0 (i) # with l and a%%.
5 3emosth. , //, 6 (l ) # )), .6# ?os.,nt. , *, *60 . It is mostl& used of militar&
invasion in the 4''5 . 8a%%. .*5*0 # ./5*+ # .)5/. # .05)+ . In ?os. .95)9 , 0. it is used of
for%eful o%%u!ation (the idea of for%e being introdu%ed b& the 4'', sin%e the 8as. \hf Sd and N\fhd
refer to division of the o%%u!ied %ountr&). In the !a!. it often means to enter into an inheritan%e."
.
-f gods it means to %ome to a hol& !la%e when invo:ed," 9o!h.-ed. >ol. , 679 (
6 ) # 1ur.
A
hes. , **0 f. ( ) or
to indwell as daemon",
*
3ion. 7al. , I, 77 ( iq i ). b. In the
language of the m&st.
/
( 3itt. -r. , II, 0/+, ./)
)
it is used inversel& to signif& the a%tion of those
who have $ust re%eived the m&steries. The teBts on the ora%le of ,!ollos of >laros
0
%ombine
with or . -bviousl&
signifies the further a%t in the san%tuar& whi%h follows , i.e.,
the entering of the inner san%tuar&. Thus is a te%hni%al term for the true m&ster&.
The meaning of 6 is that at initiation he entered into what he had
seen." The referen%e ma& be to s&mbols used at , as suggested b& 8. 3ibelius. -r it
ma& be to visions, i.e., that the initiate first sees the hol& !la%es in a vision and then reall& enters
them. @hatever the eB!lanation, our %on%ern is undoubtedl& with the %ontinuation of the a%t of
initiation in a %ulti% %hamber, and is the se%ond and de%isive a%t whi%h %arries with
it the to whi%h the teBts refer. %. To a!!roa%h something with a view to
eBamining it." In this sense it denotes intense %on%ern with or enTuir& into something, as in *
8a%%. *5/+ 5 c i
, q li g #
2hilo2lant. , 6+ 5 l
.
In the ;T the word o%%urs onl& at >ol. *5.6 in a !assage whi%h is mu%h %ontested
eBegeti%all&. The senses %hiefl& favoured are b. and %. ,gainst inter!retation in terms of the
8&steries there are two main arguments. First, the ins%ri!tions never use alone,
but alwa&s lin: it with another term ( or ), so
that is the se%ond, final and %onsummating a%t. 9e%ondl&, ta:es
!la%e in a san%tuar&. ;either of these %onditions seems to be met in >ol. *5.6 ,
6
so that we
. -n the %onstru%tion with , e$l!iv n. .++ .
1l. &lectra .
. 2reisig:e @Jrt. , I, )7. f., where we often find with l and the a%%.
Ahes. /hesus .
* 1. Fraen:el, Griech. Denoinativa (.9+6), *0+.
/ 3ib. <efbr. , ad loc. # 3ie Isisweihe bei ,!uleius," 9,7 , 6 (.9.7), ), /+ ff.# @, 8. Aamsa&, #thenaeu ,
.9./, I, .+6 f.# >lemen, /)+# 8. 8aas, 3ie anti:. 8&sterien u. ihre HeEiehungen Eum ,!ostel 2ls. " Th4g , /6
(.9./), .*0# 7au!t <efbr. , ad loc. # 4oh. Fol. , ad loc. # 8einertE <efbr. , ad loc.
) 3ib. refers also to ,!ul.8et. , 'I, */.
0 T. 8a%rid& in -estr. ?hft. , .0 (.9.*), /6 ff.# %f. 3ib., op. cit. , /. ff.
6 >f. also 4oh. Fol. , ad loc. The strongl& %ulti% %onne%tion of the word ma:es it im!ossible to refer it to the
ethi%al life (%f. 8einertE, ad loc. ), and thus to translate5 who orders his life a%%ording to what he has
%an ado!t this eB!lanation onl& if there is no other. 8oreover the <nosti%D?ewish !hiloso!h&
of the >olossian hereti%s seems to demand the sense %. @hat the& tr& to a%hieve b& wa& of
e%stas& and as%eti%ism is for 2aul o!!osed to adheren%e to the eB%lusiveness of >hrist the
7ead in whom all wisdom and :nowledge are given. To :ee! to 7im and thus to !arti%i!ate in
divine growth ( *5.9 ), there is no need of s&n%retisti% methods of !rodu%ing visions and
therefore :nowledge. If we go the wa& of the false tea%hers we shall alwa&s have to wait for
su%h moments of e%stati% vision, and we shall then have to enter () b& !ainful
investigation into what has been seen in e%stas&. 2aul does not den& the visions# he regards
them as a false !ath be%ause as he sees it all the treasures of wisdom and :nowledge are given
him in >hrist alone ( *5/ ).
The un%ertaint& of eB!osition has led to all :inds of unhel!ful %on$e%tures.
7

Preisker
! .
i .

is found from the time of 7i!!o%rates in %lass. <:. , and also in the koine and the
4''.
.
,%%. to the latter <od blows" 7is living breath into" man
*
or u!on" him b& 7is
pneua . The breath of <od awa:ens life in all %reation,
/
and when it blows over the !la%e of the
dead the dead bones rise u! to new life. Thus <od will im!art 7is 9!irit into Israel that it ma&
%ome to life again ( 1E. /750 , .) ).
)

The ;T has onl& in ?n. *+5** #
0
it means to breathe u!on or over," though
here it is used of ?esus rather than <od. ?esus ta:es the !la%e of <od5
6
l
l . 6 , 6
. l6
7
q i,
q, { The >hristian %ontinues the
wor: of <od in a new form. 7e who is sent b& <od now sends the dis%i!les into the world
eTui!!ed with the 9!irit, who is released b& the wor: of >hrist and who will %om!lete what
has been begun.
6
The 9!irit is %onve&ed as a breath, as in 2s. .+) .
9
The bearers of the
9!irit, however, re%eive from >hrist
.+
the !ower of loosing and binding5 q
i, q, . 7ere,
su!!osedl& seen."
7 1.g., l6q or (4ightfoot) or (7ort) . The soD%alled koine tradition has
q 6 , and thus introdu%es a %harge whi%h 2aul is not bringing in this %onteBt ( supra ).
. 2r.DHauer , s.v.
* <n. *57 # @is. .05.. ( ) # (it. ,d. , ./# ) 1sr. /50 . >f. ,. 3ieteri%h,
#bra:as (.69.), .90, 0 f.5 6 l . The raising
of the dead in 3 B. 17:21 is fashioned on the Tui%:ening of ,dam. The 8as. tells us that 1li$ah stret%hed
himself three times and three times %alled u!on <od for the %hild. The 4'' has i (%f. 4 B.
4:34 ). Hut the %alling u!on <od eB%ludes magi%al %on%e!tions# filled with the s!irit, the !ro!het breathes in the
breath of life in the name of <od as 7is re!resentative.
/ @here <od %auses 7is breath to go forth, life s!rings u!# where 7e withholds it, life !erishes ( 2s. .+) , *9 f. ).
>f. also the idea of <odOs breath of wrath and death ( ?ob /75.+ # 1E. *.5/. # **5*+ f. # %f. ?ob )5*. 4'' and .
>l., /9, 65 ).
) 1E. /759 5 l . >f. also 9. Har. */50b.
0 8. ?. 4agrange, &vangile selon St. 0ean (.9*0), 0.6# Hau. $.
/
, ad loc.
6 >f. ?n. *+5*6 and 6 /0) .
7 ;ot ina!!ro!riatel&, 3 adds an , %f. s&.
6 ?n. 75/9 # .65.) f.
9 >f. the double sense of pneua in the 4'' and ?n. / .
.+ Aev. .5.6 # 8:. *50 ff.
then, three !ro%esses whi%h are se!arate in the other 1vangelists, the giving of the :e&s, the
missionar& %ommand and the out!ouring of the 9!irit, are %ombined in a single a%t of %reation
whi%h denotes the beginning of a new realit& of life.
..

Stauffer

A. 9ith the Impersonal 'ati(e.

.. The use of with the im!ersonal dat. is of theologi%al signifi%an%e in the Hible as
denoting es!e%iall& su!raterrestrial lo%alities, !arti%ularl& (
.
(or ) is !e%uliar to 8t. ( .+5/*f .# .*50+ #
.65.7 # .65.+ , .9 , %f. 05.6 , )0 # 65. , m 9 n# 75.. # .65.) # 8:. ..5*6 m *0 n and 4:. ..5* vl.
under 8atthean influen%e)# { (-) ( 1!h. 659 # >ol. )5. )#
.

( 8t. **5/+ # 8:. .*5*0 )# ( 4:. .057 )# l ( 4:. .95/6 )# ( 8t.
05.* and !ar. )# ( 8t. 65*+ # 8:. .+5*. and !ar. )# i ( 2hil. /5*+ )#
( 1!h. /5.0 ) () or () , ()
( ) as the o!!. of () q q ( >ol. .5.6 , *+ # 1!h. .5.+ vl. # 7b. 95*/ #
8t. 65.+ # *65.6 )# ( 4:. .+5*+ )# ( . 2t. .5) ) ()
. In all these %ombinations and eB!ressions heaven is thought of as <odOs dwelling!la%e (%f. the
use with i and l6 in * >. 05. )# but the referen%e is to the visible heaven
in 8:. ./5*0 5 l l , and ,%. *5.9 5
. The two ideas are ver& %lose to one another in Aev. In .*5. , / # .05. . and !robabl&
)5. (%f. .95.. ) we are to thin: of the visible heaven.
*
In .95.) 5
, the angeli% hosts are in heaven, though behind this ma& well be the thought of the stars
in heaven, even if the author is no longer aware of the fa%t. -n the other hand, heaven is
o%%asionall& thought of as a vault through the o!enings of whi%h one ma& with su!ernatural aid
either loo: or enter into <odOs heaven. 7en%e it is of the latter that we are to thin: in )5* # 05/ # 65.
# ..5.0 , .9 # .*57 , 6 , .+ # .)5.7 # .050 # .95. . The stand!oint of the divine %hanges. It is t&!i%al
of the outloo: of 2aul that eB!ressions of this :ind are less freTuent. There are rather more in the
2rison 1!istles. The terms heaven" and earth" do not o%%ur at all in the 2astorals. >f.
qg ( I, .)6 ff. ), ( A , I, 6 ), 4:. .65*/ #
iq , 4:. */5)/ . -n the s!atial %on%e!tions underl&ing su%h eB!ressions l , )*+ .
is also used *. to denote an a%%om!an&ing state in the sense of with"5
pq ( . >. )5*. )# g g ( 8t, *05/. )# g iq , with his
:ingdom" ( 8t. .65*6 # on 4:. */5)* l , )/) )# of the a%%om!an&ing hosts ( 4:. .)5/. )#
() ( . ?n. 056 # 7b. 95*0 ).
/. It also denotes ground or basis5 in virtue of," g iq ( 8t. 657 )#
q q ( ,%. 75*9 )# ( A. *5*/ # 05/ # <t. 65./f.)# q , on
a%%ount of" ( ?n. .65/+ # ,%. *)5.6 )# , be%ause" ( 7b. *5.6 )# also therefore" ( 7b. 65.7 ).
). It ma& also denote means, with" or b&," 3t. **5.+ # 4v. 65/* # 8t. 05./ and !ar. # 8:. ..5*6
and !ar. # 4:. **5)9 5 ig, i , ,%. 75/0 ( vl. )# <l. /5.9 # es!.
(of >hrist) with verbs li:e , A. 059 # i , 7b. 95** # , Aev.
.50 # , Aev. 059 # also . >. ..5*0 # 1!h. *5./ . There is a transition from lo%al to
instrumental use in Aev. 75.) # it is !urel& s!atial, however, in A. /5*0 (with ).
9ense *. is unusual though not im!ossible in <:. ( ig, -, to
!rovide with wea!ons," is found in the !a!. ,
/
though an a%%om!an&ing for%e is %lassi%all& !ut in
the sim!le dat. ). The same is true of sense ). ( , 7om.Il. , 7, )*9#
.. >f. . >. .05)0 # . ?n. )5./ 5 Aev. ..5.. .
. In ?n. /5./ the words ( * !l lat s&) are not an addition but are genuine (gn. Hau. as
against Tillm. ?. ). The meaning is not to be restri%ted to the !reeBisten%e (gn.) or the !ostDeBisten%e, but
%om!rehends the whole eternal being of the 4ogos in heaven (Hau.), %f. .5.6 .
* Hss. ,!:. , ad loc.
/ Hl.D3ebr. y .90, ., a refers to 8oulton, .0 f.# Fuhring, )/ f.# Aossberg, *6.
, 2. 2ar. #, *6, ./, %f. *7, .)5 # *6595 q ).
The %lassi%al gen. !ret. %orres!onds to some eBtent
)
to %ombinations li:e . There
are hardl& an& instan%es of sense /. 7eb. influen%e ( LeZ ) is !lain in all three senses. 1ven i
is a 9emitism ( r`fLeZ ) >f. . -n i, q, i ,
0)* .
B. 9ith the Personal 'ati(e.
8ore im!ortant and more diffi%ult is the use with the !ersonal dat. @e will begin with the
sim!ler %ases and move on to the more %om!li%ated. The s!atial sense is alwa&s the startingD
!oint, but we have to as: how far there is an intermingling of other senses, es!. the
instrumental.
0

.. with !ersons in general.
a. @ith a name in Tuotations, denotes either the boo: named after an -T %hara%ter (
q O , 8:. .5* # A. 95*0 ), or a !assage whi%h refers to a %hara%ter ( iq , A.
..5* ).
6
b. with the !lur. or %olle%tive sing. it means among," A. .5.* , ./ # ,
<l. .5.6 # also for the gen. !art. in . >. .05.* # ?m. 05./ et%.# iq , ,%. 05/) .
There are %lass, models for this use. %. It is also used to denote the %lose %onne%tion of a
!ossession, an attribute or an event with the !erson %on%erned ( 8:. 950+ # A. 95.7 # * >. )5.* ). In
eB!ressions whi%h denote :nowledge or ma:ing :nown, it is used of the one who ma:es :nown
(with , . >. )56 # , , i , 2hil. .5/+ # )59 # with
i , A. 95.7 # %f. also * >. )5.+ f. ), but also of the one who :nows (
, A. .5.9 # %f. * >. )5/ ). In the latter %ase it re!la%es the sim!le dat. Thus in <l. .5.6 5
l i , the translations in me" and b& me," and
s!e%ulations on the inwardness of the 3amas%us eB!erien%e,
7
have no !hilologi%al basis.
The !o!ular usage of the a!o%r. ,%ts is instru%tive. >f. ,%t. Thom. , *+5
6
lq
q g (in the sense of to"
or with," not in")#
9
1!. ,bgari, .5 , q
. >f.
,
%t. Thaddaei, *.
d. In terms of a !rimitive but !ersistent !s&%holog&, s!iritual !ro%esses, Tualities and
!ossessions in !arti%ular are lo%ated within man5 , i,
6, l, i, , ,
. 8t. /59 and !ar. # 8:. *56 # 05/+ # 650. # 8t. 95/ , *. # 4:. .*5.7 # ?n. 656. # ..5/6 #
,%. .+5.7 # .75.6 # A. 65*/ # %f. i , 8:. *56 , 6 and !ar. #
, * >. 05.. # , ,%. ./5.0 .
This is !arti%ularl& true of ever&thing belonging to the religious and ethi%al s!here5 fellowshi!
with <od with its effe%ts and rea%tions5 i q 6q , ?n. *5*0 # sin, A. 756 , .7 , .6 , *+
# the wor: of 9atan, 1!h. *5* , heathen blindness, * >. )5) # 1!h. )5.6 # the fulfilling of the 4aw,
) >f. the on a tablet from 7adrumetum ( 3eissmann H. , *0 ff.# /6 f.), line .*.
0 For %onstru%tions in whi%h the verb is %entral, i , , , ,
, i .
6 For Aabb. eBam!les, 9tr.DH. , III, *66. 4oh. 2hil. (%f. 4'rios 0esus m.9*6n, .* f.) tries to eB!lain 2hil. *50b
along these lines, but intermingles sense %. In this verse the first surel& %omes under 0/9, .. b , and the
se%ond under 0)., /. b . >f. 3ib. <efbr.
7 >f. ,. 3eissmann, Paulus
*
(.9*0), .+0. -. FietEig, Die Bekehrung des Paulus (.9/*), *+7 (the 1!istles
em!hasise the inwardhess of eB!erien%e") is not to be ta:en in this wa&. @. <. FGmmel, /er @ u. d.
Bekehrung des Pls. (.9*9), .)0 rightl& %omments5 { a revelation of >hrist b& <od whi%h was ordained for
2aul { neither for nor against a vision."
6 8. A. ?ames, "e:ts and Studies , (, . (.697), /*, .7 f.
9 4$ungvi:, op. cit. ( 60, Hibl. n. ), /*, where ?amesO %on$e%ture, g , is rightl& re$e%ted.
,%t. #cta , a!o%r&!hal ,%ts of the ,!ostles, %onsisting in !art of writings whi%h go ba%: to the !ostDa!ostoli%
!eriod and tr& to invest highl& hereti%al traditions with a!ostoli% san%tion, ed. A. ,. 4i!sius and 8. Honnet, .69.
ff.
A. 65) # the effe%t of !rea%hing, . >. .56 # >ol. /5.6 # the word, ?n. 05/6 # 65/7 # .057 # the wor: of
<od, 2hil. .56 # *5./ # >ol. .5*9 # i (figurative), 8t. 65*/ and !ar. (%f. ?n.
..5.+ # .*5/0 )# 8:. 65.) and !ar. # q (figur.), ?n. )5.) # anointing, . ?n.
*5*7 # life, ?n. 650/ 5 . ?n. /5.0 # , ?n. .05.. # i * Tm. .50 # i , . ?n. 05.+ #
i , . 2t. /5.0 # , . Tm. )5.) . 9o also of 9atan, ,
?n. 65)) # of <od and >hrist, q , ?n. 05*6 # es!. in 1!h. and >ol., all the
treasures of wisdom, >ol. *5/ # the whole fulness of <odhead, .5.9 # hidden in <od" as a
te%hni%al term for the first and last times, 1!h. /59 # >ol. /5/ .
e. 9ometimes the s!atial use !asses over into the instrumental5 <n. 956 # 17:30 # A.
957 # 7b. ..5.6 5 i . 8:. /5** and !ar. 5 {
i , %f. 8t. 9 # /) # .*5*7 and !ar. #
i , ,%. .75/. # of the san%tif&ing of the heathen !artner in a miBed marriage b& the
>hristian !artner, . >. 75.) ( , I, ..* ). , borderline %ase is found in ,%. .75*6 5
.
The Tuotation is from 2s. D1!imenides.
.+
The man& !ar. ,
..
es!. 9toi%, suggest !artl& a lo%al
sense ( 3io >hr&s.-r. , .*, *65

i q

, q # 2hiloFug. , .+* 5 q
(the righteous in <od), and !artl& an instrumental ( 2s. ,ristot.8und. , 7, !. )+.a,
./5 Zq i { l l

). The
instrumental use of with !ersons in the ;T is largel& influen%ed b& LeZ , though it is not
im!ossible in <:. >f. 3io >. , 6., ./ (the words of ;ero to his mother)5 6
c .
*. with .
a. The thought of the 9!irit in man is lo%al. 4i:e evil s!irits ( 8t. .*5)/ ff. and !ar. # ,%. .95.6
), the 9!irit of <od dwells in man ( ;u. *75.6 # 1E. /65*7 # ?n. .)5.7 # A. 659 # . >. /5.6 # 65.9 #
?m. )50 # %f. A. 050 5 q i q
i ).
.*

b. The %onverse that man is in the 9!irit ( , 8t. **5)/ # Aev. *.5.+ #
l , A. 659 # , Aev. .5.+ # , . >. .*5/
# , 1!h. 65.6 ) is also based on a s!atial sense. It is debatable
whether the 9!irit is alwa&s thought of as a fluid.
./
>ertainl& the eB!ression
in ,%. .*5.. (%f. 'en.,n. , I, 0, .7)kas o!!. to i , )09 , %f. )0+k
%annot be inter!reted along these lines. The of q (
8:. 05* ) a!!roBimates to the idea of a state (%f. ,. * 0/6 ). This is %onfirmed b& su%h
%ombinations as p l ( 8:. 05*0 and !ar. ), (g) (
), iq (l), ( 4:. )5.) , /* , /6 # ,%.
**5.7 ). 9in%e the %on%e!tion of the 9!irit is itself im!re%ise, the 9!irit ma& easil& be
identified with the state !rodu%ed b& 7im. The idea is also lo%al, but not fluid, when the two
basi% orientations of eBisten%e, i and , are o!!osed to one another
( A. 656 f. ). 7ere there is little tra%e of the fluid and e%stati% element. The 9!irit is the
%onstantl& a%tive !rin%i!le of ethi%al life. The transition from the e%stati% to the !neumati% is
im!ortant not merel& for the ethi%al %onseTuen%es (%f. also A. 95. # .05.6 #
.+ 8. 3. <ibson, The >ommentaries of IshoOdad of 8erv., I(", (orse Seiticae , ' (.9./). 'II f.
.. ,. -e!:e, Die 3issionspredigt des #p. Pls. (.9*+), with bibl.
.* -n for l , Hl.D3ebr. , *, .# y *+0 f., *.6# F. Frumba%her, 9tudfen Eu den 4egenden des hl. Theodosius
." Sit-ungsberichte der 4nigl. Ba'r. #kadeie der Wissenschaften6 phil.<hist. 4l. , (.69*), /6) f. l )// .
./ >f. on this !t. 7. 4eisegang, op. cit. The <:s. %ertainl& sa& l , and from this %onstru%t the subst,
(e.g., 2lat.Tim. , 7.e). Hut it is doubtful whether the is alwa&s to be ta:en in a fluid sense.
2o!ular oriental belief %on%eives of demons less m&sti%all& and more !ersonall&, T. >anaan, D=onenglaube i
)ande der Bibel (.9*9). The earl& >hristian eB!erien%e of the 9!irit falls into neither %ategor&. >f. F. HG%hsel,
op. cit.
, <l. 65. # * >. 656 with 6 .), but also for de%larations on the
!ro%lamation of the <os!el ( . Th. .50 , again with material substantives# . 2t. .5.* ) and
!ra&er ( 1!h. 65.6 # ?d. *+ ). In what seems to be a most %om!rehensive wa& the demand of
?n. )5*/ f. ( iq ) em!hasises the %orres!onden%e
between the absolutel& boundless and trul& !ersonal being of <od and the worshi! whi%h we
are to render 7im.
.)

There is a tenden%& towards the instrumental use in A. .)5.7 5 l
iq # 65.0 5 # . >. 65.. 5 6
# .*59 5 (or ) ( v. 6 5 , , %f. v. ..
), and %f. .*5./ . @hile the nuan%e in 1!h. *5.6 ( ) is more lo%al in view of the
!re%eding , /50 and )5/+ are !redominantl& instrumental.
/. , iq and Aelated Formulae.
These formulae are not found !rior to 2aul and are rare outside the 2auline %or!us. The&
are largel& !e%uliar to 2aul, and he is !erha!s their author. 1ven a!art from minor
distin%tions, the& %an be used in man& different wa&s.
a. In general the& denote membershi! of >hrist and the >hur%h, abs. in 2hil. .5./ # /59 # )57 #
with subst. and ad$. 5 , * >. .*5* # , 2hil. .5. # i , 2hil. .5.) # >ol. .5*
# i , . Th. )5.6 # with an instru%tive o!!osite5 {
iq , 2hlm. .6 # in subst. form5 , A. 65. # with verbs5 l , A.
.65.. # i is to be su!!lied in * >. 05.7 # is more natural in . >. .5/+ ( b.)5 Hut of
him &ou have &our (true) being in >hrist ?esus" (%f. q , v. *6 )# i , A. .657 .
b. The& ma& also %hara%terise an a%tivit& or state as >hristian, q , * >. *5.* #
, A. 95. # , 1!h. )5.7 # , A. .)5.) # <l. 05*+ #
2hil. *5*) # * Th. /5) # (q) , A. .05.7 # . >. .05/. # , A.
.65* # 2hil. *5*9 # i , 2hil. /5. # )5) , .+ # , 2hil. ) 5l# . Th. /56 # , A.
.65.* # , A. .65** # . >. .65.9 # , . >. )5.0 # q , . >. 75/9 #
q , . >. .05.6 # Aev. .)5./ # , * >. *5.7 # .*5.9 # , 1!h. 65. ( vl.
)# , 1!h. 65.+ # , 1!h. 65*+ # 2hlm. 6 # ,
2hil. .5*6 # , 2hil. )5* # . Th. )5. # * Th. /5.* # ,
>ol. *56 # i , >ol. )5.7 # i , . Th. 05.* . ,lso with
subst. 5 i , . >. )5.7 # , A. .65/ , 9 # , 1!h. 65*. # , 1!h. )5.
# , 2hlm. */# (believing), 1!h. .5. # i ( ) , >ol. .5)
# . Tm. .5.) # /5./ # * Tm. .5./ # /5.0 # , . 2t. /5.6 . %. The& %an also be value
$udgments %ir%ums%ribing the s!here of referen%e, , A. .65.+ # , A. .65./ #
, . >. /5. # , . >. )5.+ # , A. .656 #
. >. )5.7 # >ol. .5*6 # , q i , . >. 95. , * #
, . >. .0506 # l i <l. 056 # q,
, >ol. /5.6 , *+ . d. The& sometimes denote the ob$e%tive basis of fellowshi! with
<od, with , * Tm. *5. # i , * Tm. *5.+ # , A. /5*) # %f. 65* # 1!h.
.57 # >ol. .5.) # q l6 , A. 65*/ # * Tm. .5. # A. 65/9 #
1!h. *57 # () , * >. .5.9 f. # , 1!h. )5*. # ,
. Th. 05.6 # q , 2hil. /5.) # . 2t. 05.+ # i , <l. /5.) # i , 1!h. /56 #
<l. *5.7 # ,%. ./5/9 # , . >. .5* # q , . >. .05** #
q , . >. .5) # i , . >. .50 # i , * >. 05*. #
i, l , <l. *5) # ?n. .65// # , * >. *5.) # >ol. *5.0 #
, 1!h. .5*+ # , * >. /5.) # i , 1!h. *5.+ # , * >.
05.9 # , 1!h. .56 # )5/* # , 1!h. .5.. , ./ # *56 , ./ # l ,
2hil. )5./ # i , 1!h. /5.* # l , 1!h. 056 # >ol. *5.+ f. e.
>om!rehensivel& it denotes the gathering of the man& into one, c , A. .*50 # l
, <l. /5*6 # 1!h. *5*. f. # i() , <l. .5** # . Th. .5. # *5.) # of %reation, >ol. .5.6
f. # of the summing u! of the whole %osmos, 1!h. .5.+ # also with referen%e ba%: to eternal
ele%tion, 1!h. .5) , 9 # /5.. (in this sense it is !e%uliar to 1!h.).
.) HG%hsel, op. cit. , 0+. ff.
This ri%h usage %annot be eB!lained as a 7ebraism based on the 4'' eTuation of and
LeZ .
.0
;or is it to be wholl& eB!lained in terms of a m&sti%all& lo%al %on%e!tion of dwelling
in a pneua element %om!arable to the air" (i.e., the eBalted >hrist).
.6
,
.7
,t root is the view
of >hrist as a universal !ersonalit&.
.6
This is to be %onstrued %osmi%all& and es%hatologi%all&
rather than m&sti%all& in the %urrent 7ellenisti% sense. >f. . >. .05** , )0I)9 # A. 05.*I*. .
The first and the se%ond ,dam ( I, .). f. ) are !rogenitors initiating two ra%es of men.
1a%h im!lies a whole world, an order of life or death ( )/7 ). 1a%h in%ludes his adherents
in and under himself. The ;T view is distinguished from oriental s!e%ulations about the first
man, even in their ?ewish form, b& the two fa%ts, first, that it never eTuates the first ,dam and
the Aedeemer, but sees them as two o!!osite !oles, and se%ondl&, that it thin:s of the ,uthor
of the se%ond %reation as histori%all& !resent, so that this new %reation has alread& been
inaugurated. H& ba!tism ( I, 0)+ ) believers are removed from the s!here of the first ,dam,
whi%h is that of sin and death, into the s!here of the se%ond ,dam, whi%h is that of
righteousness and life ( /*+ ). This underl&ing s!atial %on%e!t gives us the %lue to
the true signifi%an%e of the formula and its !arallels. =et here, too, there
is both a lo%al and an instrumental element, the former es!. in aD%., the latter in d. and e. -ne
of the main diffi%ulties arises in this res!e%t. (g) i , A. 75.6 # 65/ # * >. .+5/ # <l.
*5*+ , in the !arti%ular sense of and as a %ounterformula to ( A. 656 f.
), denotes a state (UU ). @hen used of !ersons, q in A. *5.* # /5.9 (UU
, A. 65.) # <l. )5) f. , *. # 05.6 ) suggests a state so strongl& that the o!!osite is
( . >. 95*+ f. # A. *5.* ). The same is true of . It is no further removed
from i than ( * >. ./50 # <l. *5*+ ), but it is more ob$e%tive,
q ( <l. /5.. # 05) ) is instrumental (UU , <l. *5.6 ).
9o, too, is the %ounterformula ( <l. *5.7 , UU , i
, v. .6 ). =et there are still glim!ses of a s!atial %on%e!tion ( <l. /5*7 ). The distin%tion is not
so shar! in <ree:.
). >hrist in Helievers. The related but less freTuent !hrase >hrist in believers" is also
essentiall& 2auline. ,s ,dam lives in natural men, so the Inaugurator of the new aeon, >hrist,
lives in believers ( A. 65.+ # <l. *5*+ # >ol. .5*7 ).
.9
Hut this means that >hrist must be
formed in them ( <l. )5.9 ). This involves travail ( 6 ). The sufferings of believers
are >hristOs sufferings, for in terms of 7is bod&, the %ommunit&, >hrist is not &et full& %lear
of this aeon of sin and death ( * >. .50 # )5.+ # >ol. .5*) ). In ever& stress, however, the life of
>hrist is manifested in our mortal bodies, although it is %on%ealed until at the parousia ,
whether b& transformation or resurre%tion, it bursts through the outer shell and shines forth in
glor&. ,!!rehensible for the moment onl& in im!erfe%t form, it is nowkthough not onl& for
this reason ( . >. ./5./ )kmediated through faith ( <l. *5*+ # * >. )5.6 # 057 # * >. ./50 # A. )
). It is thus an elementar& misunderstanding to o!!ose faith and the life of >hrist in 2aul, or
even to se!arate them as though the& were unrelated ( 1!h. /5.7 ).
0. The of Fellowshi! in ?ohn. 1B%lusivel& in ?ohnOs <os!el and . ?n. (some .0 .*
times) we have a distin%tive of religious fellowshi!. ,s a !redi%ate there is often added
l ( ?n. .+5/6 # .)5.+a , .. , *+ # .75*. , */ , *6 # . ?n. *50b # 05*+ ), or more %ommonl&
( ?n. 6506 # .)5.+b # .05) , 0 , 6 , 7 # . ?n. *56 , *) , *6 # /56 , *) # )5.* , ./ , .0 , .6 ).
-ften the re%i!ro%it& of the relationshi! is em!hasised ( ?n. 6506 # .+5/6 # .)5.+ , .. , *+ #
.05) , 0 # .75*. , */ , *6 # . ?n. /5*) # )5./ , .0 , .6 ). In distin%tion from 2aul the Father
.0 ,s rightl& !ointed out b& 3eissmann.
.6 3eissmann, op. cit. , 96.
.7 ?. @eiss and Houmlhlig fail to see an& s!e%ifi%all& m&sti%al elements in 2aul and demand a shar!er
distin%tion. Hrun em!hasises the fa%t that 2auline !iet& is not %ulti%. 7. 1. @eber thin:s that a !la%e must be
found for the histori%al >hrist ( , 67 ), and finds the !oint of unit& in the %ons%ious realit& of faith.
.6 8urmelstein, *6. ff.5 The sum of all souls," ania generalis # ,. 9%hweitEer s!ea:s of the m&sti%al bod& of
>hrist. The latter is %loser to 2auline usage, but the two %annot be se!arated.
.9 3eissmann, op. cit. , 9* suggests a !arallel in the eB!ression man in the air" and the air in man," but this is
no real analog& be%ause it does not have the 2auline referen%e to %osmi% histor&.
(though not the 9!irit) is brought into the relationshi!, whether with ?esus ( ?n. .+5/6 # .)5.+ ,
.. ) or with men ( . ?n. )5.* f. , .0 , .6 ). @e thus have a triangle, of whi%h the dis%i!les form
the third side ( ?n. .)5*+ # .75*. , */ , *6 # %f. . ?n. *5*) ). The formulae are neither e%stati%
nor es%hatologi%al. ,%%ording to ?n. 6506 # .)5*/ # .05. ff. we might %all them m&sti%al in the
broader sense. Hut there is referen%e alwa&s to a !ersonal and ethi%al fellowshi! of will (
i , . ?n. .5/ , 6 , 7 # and analogous %onstru%tions with and ,
?n. .05.+ # . ?n. *5.) # /5.7 ).
This t&!e of eB!ression has nothing to do with l . There are no real !arallels
in 7ellenisti% m&sti%ism or <nosti%ism. >f. -. 9ol. 05.05 The 4ord is with me and I with him."
8urmelstein translates .75./5
*+
I transform them into m&self."
%epke
! q , 6/ .
, , *0) .
& , *66 .
, /.9 .
!, !, !, .
)! .
(!, ( .

The onl& signifi%ant form in the ;T is the intr. med. with !erf. a%t. This is mostl& used a. in a
!urel& tem!oral sense, to enter," with the entr& of summer,
Theo!hr. 7istoria 2lantarum, I', 6, *# at the beginning of the &ear, 3 B.
12:24 # , ?os.,nt. .)5/6 # , 1 t. 5:46 (
)7 )# . 8a%%. 65*) # * 8a%%. )5)/ # / 8a%%. /5*) . In the !erf. it means to have entered," and
therefore to be !resent," ?os.,nt. , .0, 7 5 The sabbati%al &ear , Hell. , 6, .+9 #
the ..th &ear of 7iram, ,nt. , 6, 6* . The !art., often used as ad$. , means !resent,"
4i , ,es%hin.
-
r. , *, 06# q ||
, ?os.,nt. , /, *) # ,nt. , ., 0 # the de%ree of ,ugustus5
q , ,nt. , .6, .6* #
*+, *67 # (it. , 6. # . 8a%%. .*5)) # * 8a%%. 659 # .*5/ # / 8a%%. .5.6 # 1 t. :6 5
, %f. with 1Er. .+59 and 2 t. 10: .
q i ,
2
. 2etr. , II, .9, *, 0 (/rd %ent. H.>. )# l i ,
Suppleentu &pigraphicu Graecu , ed. ?.1. 7ondius et%., II (.9*)), ;o. 06+, *7 and *65 q
(q) 2. A&l. , 77, /9# , ibid. , 66, 6# both ibid. , 66,
.), .0# , ibid. , .)., 6 f. 9ubst. 5 6 (s%. ), among
grammarians a te%hni%al term for the !resent,
3
ion. Thr. , 6/6, **# neut.5 , the
!resent," 2ol&b. , *, *6, /# o!!. 5 , ?os.,nt. , 7, /9. # ./, )*6 # .), 06 . b. 4ess
freTuentl& it is used in a hostile sense5 to intervene," of the veto of the !eo!leOs tribunes, 2ol&b. ,
6, .6, )# 2lut.
T
ib. <ra%%h. , .+ (I, 6*6e), et%.# of hostile nations
, ?os.,nt. , .., .7+ . =et there is no instan%e of the sense to mena%e," at
least with the !erf.
.
9ense a. fits in better with 7dt. , I, 6/ ( { 6
), Iso%. , 0, * ( ), and es!. Harn. , .7, * (
6 q ).
*+ %p. cit. , *66.
-r. %ratio in "iarchu .
2. 2etr. "he 9linders Petrie Pap'ri , ed. ?. 2. 8ahaff& and ?. <. 9m&l&, .69. ff.
3ion. Thr. 3ion&sius ThraB, <ree: grammarian and rhetori%ian in Ahodes (.7+I9+ H.>. ), ed. <. Khlig, .66/.
Tib. <ra%%h. De "iberio et Gaio Gracchis .
. 2r.DHauer , and to some eBtent 4iddellD9%ott , s.v. i , should be %orre%ted along the lines of >r.DFJ. ,
s.v.
@e have sense a. in * Th. *5* 5 q q i ,
*
A.
65/6 # . >. /5** 5 k # <l. .5) 5 l6 6 (UU
l6 ) and with referen%e to the ;T time of salvation in 7b. 959 5
6 . In . >. 75*6 5 q , the sense of to threaten"
or to im!end," whi%h is not attested elsewhere, is both linguisti%all& and materiall&
im!robable. 2aul is %onvin%ed that we alread& stand in the sufferings of the new aeon ( A.
65** ).
/
The onl& !ossible instan%e of sense b. is * Tm. /5. 5
i (diffi%ult da&s will brea: u!on us"), and even here sense a. fits well enough5
diffi%ult da&s shall %ome."
%epke
.
!
i .
& .
.
.
3 .
!)), )
!))%
*

, to %ommand," to %ommission," !redominantl& med., seldom a%tive5
2ind.-l&m!. , 7, )+5 , of the %ommand of the i `Yi . 7ere then (
, 0)0 ) it is used of the deit&, though mostl& it refers to the %ommission of a :ing or
ruler, e.g., 7dt. , I, )7 and 0/, of >roesus to the 4&dians# I, .*/, of ,st&ages# 'eno!h.>&ro!. , (,
0, /, of >&rus# 2lat.Aes!. , III, /9/e, of ,gamemnon. Hut also 7dt. , I, 6+, %f. (, 7/5
, of %ommissions through heralds or emissaries, %f. 2ol&b. , '(III, *, .5
, %ommissioned re!resentatives, or 2lat.2rot. , /*0d for what is demanded from
the tea%her. The word is found some )++ times in the 4''. It is used some /0+ times for c^u !i
and !u (o%%asionall& for Ms[ , Mu[ hi, MLr et%.). It is regularl& used for the %ommand of the
:ing, <n. .*5*+ , 2 B. 18:5 , or of 8oses, 4v. 950 , but es!. the divine ordering5 <n. *5.6 . In
the !a!. is to give a %ommission," ,n ,leBandrian 1roti% Fragment (ed. H.
<renfell, .696), /+ (*nd %ent. H.>. ), and it thus %omes to be used te%hni%all& of the !ower of legal
re!resentation5 2. 4i!s. , /6, 0 and 6 ()th %ent. ,.3. ) , 0)6 .
In the ;T the following senses are to be distinguished.
.. To give a %ommission or dire%tion" in general, and not s!e%ifi%all& in the religious sense5
8t. .759 # 8:. ..56 AH24 lat s&
! h
# 8:. ./5/) # 7b. ..5** .
* 9in%e there is no Tuestion of a s!iritualising error, the !resent !erf. has a fut. signifi%an%e5 in !ro%ess of
%oming" ( Hl.D3ebr. , y /*/, /# 3ob. Th. , ad loc. ).
/ Aightl& H%hm., 9i%:. F., ad loc. , also 4iddellD9%ott , ?. @eiss, 4tEm. F. , ad loc. , and 2. Tis%hleder,
"heologie u. Glaube , .* (.9*+), **0 ff., are %orre%t in giving an es%hatologi%al inter!retation, but wrong
linguisti%all&. 2ol&b. , ., 7., ), i , is no !roof to the %ontrar&. There is an eBa%t linguisti%, though not
material, !ar. in 8ithr.D4iturg. , ), 9 UU 2reis. gaub. , I(, 0+/5 q
i i a%%ording to the !resent distress, whi%h affli%ts me sorel&." >f. .), 0 f. UU 2reis.
gaub. , I(, 6675 6 q q 6 . -n the other hand, we
find sense b. in 2reis. gaub. , I(, 69*5 c g , when the& stand
there threatening on both sides in ordered ran:s."
C . 4. @enger, Die Stellvertretung i /echte der Pap'ri (.9+6)# 8itteisD@il%:en , II, *6.#
2reisig:e Fa%hwJrter , s.v. 5 8oult.D8ill. , s.v.
*. The of <od is found mostl& in 4'' Tuotations5 8t. )56 # 4:. )5.+ (
0:11 )# 7b. 95*+ 5 l q q i , of
the ordaining of the %ovenant, though here the 4'' has ( YML , 1B. *)56 ). 7en%e
also 8t. .05) 8 [ C> * 5 i , of the 0th %ommandment,
whi%h is seen in antithesis to . In ,%. ./5)7 it is used of the missionar&
%ommand a%%. to Is. )956 . -n ?n. .)5/. , of the of the Father in relation to the
9on, , 00/ .
/. @e find the of 8oses in 8t. .957 # 8:. .+5/ (the bill of divor%e)# ?n.
650 (stoning on the o%%asion of adulter&).
). in the basi% religious sense, of the !ro%lamation of ?esus to the
dis%i!les, is found in the 9&no!tists onl& at 8t. *65*+ 5
. 7ere the %ontent of all that ?esus has said to the dis%i!les is
des%ribed as , with no singling out of the %ommandment of love as in ?n. In their
missionar& wor: the dis%i!les are to tea%h what ?esus has %ommanded (%f. the formula5
). Hut sin%e it is the !resent >hrist who %harges the %ommunit& to do
this, and sin%e it is the ba!tised who are to render this obedien%e, it is hardl& !ossible to thin:
of this of what is %ommanded in legalisti% isolation from >hrist 7imself in 7is
effe%tive rule among 7is believing !eo!le. In this %onteBt the word sim!l&
eB!resses the un%onditional obligation to obedien%e whi%h, grounded %hristologi%all&, is the
obedien%e of faith. -n the other hand, in ,%. .5* refers to
the %ommands of ?esus to the a!ostles !rior to 7is as%ension. -n the of ?esus
in ?n. .05.) , .7 as a %om!rehensive eB!ression for the %ommandment of love, ,
00/ f.
)%
*

A. ) o#tside the NT.
.. in the <eneral Ksage of the <ree: and 7ellenisti% @orld.
, often in the !lur. , means order," %ommission," %ommand." ;either in traged&
nor in ,tti% !rose is it %ommon. The usual sense is a. the %ommand of a :ing, offi%ial or general.
7dt. , I, **5 of the :ing to a herald# III, .)75 of 3arius to a general# 'eno!h.>&ro!. , II, ), /+5
q # 3iod. 9. , ), *5 of the %ommand of the :ing ( !lur. )# 4u%. 2ro 4a!su inter
9alutandum , ./5 of orders in the letter of the em!eror (with ). 9o, too, in the
4''5 * >h. *95*0 # /05.+ , .6 # . 42:16 , .6 # 3a. /5.* # . 8a%%. *5/. ,# !lur. 5 * 8a%%. /5./
# )5*0 # ) 8a%%. )56 . This is also the main usage in ?ose!h. (6/ times), e.g., ,nt. , 6, /60 # .., **9
. It is %ommonl& used in the !a!. of orders of the :ing5 2. Tebt. , I, 6, .+ (*nd %ent. H.>. ),
%on%erning the tem!le. It refers to im!erial orders in 2. <iess. , 7, ** (*nd %ent. ,.3. )5
i # ibid. , 6*, .. (*nd %ent. ,.3. )5 i
q . @orth noting be%ause of the addition of i to is the ins%r, of
9:a!to!are (Hulgaria)5 3itt. 9&ll.
/
, 666, 0. (*/6 ,.3. ). For %ommands to an offi%ial, %f. 2. <iess.
, 6*, .. (*nd %ent. ,.3. ). >f. the in 8:. ./5/) # 8t. .759 # ,%. .5* . In the same
sense, for is not an eB!ressl& religious term, there is earl& referen%e to the divine
%ommand5 ,es%h.2rom. , .*5 q . ?ose!h. uses with other words for s!e%ifi%
ordinan%es of <od in the histor& of Israel, sometimes through men of <od. For the most !art,
however, these are not the ordinan%es of the Torah5 ,nt. , *, *7) # 6, .+. # .+, *6 # ), ./ infra ).
The term has also the sense b. of !edagogi% instru%tion"5 2ind. Fr. , .67 (ed. Hoe%:h m.6.. f.n5
i , whi%h the >entaur gave to ,%hilles (the title of a !oem). >f. also
2lat.
>
harm. , .07%5 dire%tions in relation to in%antations. It is used again %. of various other forms
C . 2reisig:e Fa%hwJrter , s.v. 4. 8itteis, /. Privatrecht , I (.9+6), */+, n. 69. 8itteisD@il%:en , II,
.,*6. and *69. -n ?ose!h. , 9%hl. Theol. d. ?udt. , 6*f. -n 2hiloOs %on%e!tion of the 4aw, ?. 7einemann, Philons
gr. u. 5d. Bildung (.9/*), ))0 ff.# v. ,rnim , III, 0.9I0*/. -n 2aul, @. <. Fuumlmmel, /. @ u. die Bekehrung
des Pls. (.9*9), 00f.# A. Hultmann, A. 7 u. d. ,nthro!ologie des 2ls. " in .ago Dei6 f. G. 4riger (.9/*), 0/I
6*# <. Fuhlmann, "heologia naturalis bei Philon u. bei Pls. (.9/+), 9*I.+9.
>harm. 1harides .
of %ommission"5 9o!h.
,
i. , 067, the last %ommission of ,$aB. 4u%. 2ro Imaginibus , .65 the
%ommission of a woman in relation to the !oet. In the ;T it is used of an ever&da& %ommand in
,%. .75.0 # >ol. )5.+ # 7b. ..5** () . This sense remains in modern <:. d. In the
!a!. the term also has the sense of authorisation," e.g., at law (%f. ), 2. 4i!s. , /6,
/ et%. ()th %ent. ,.3. )# %f. //, >ol., II, / ()th %ent. ,.3. )# it is also used for instru%tion"5 2. 4ille
./, 00 (to the oil mer%hants)# and for the mandate" to instal an offi%ial5 ;ew >lassi%al Fragments
(ed. H. <renfell and ,. 7unt, .697), /7, 6 (*nd %ent. H.>. ), of installation as the su!ervisor of a
village. . Tm. 65.) is !robabl& to be ta:en in this wa&, 000 .
*. The 9!e%ifi%all& Aeligious Aeferen%e to the i of the Torah in the 4'' and
7ellenisti% ?udaism.
The term i (more rarel& ) first re%eives its solemn religious %hara%ter
(though %f. ,es%h. supra ) in the 4'', where it is used 0+ times for c^duZ sa ) */ times i ,
*7 ), .6 times in the 2s. for V`ra^eNe iea , and o%%asionall& for cN ed h , MLd red , Nh_ , cMd ^_Ye . In
.. !assages c^duZ sa is translated differentl&, 0 times b& or , on%e
ea%h b& , , , and / times without an eTuivalent. It means the
individual reTuirements of the -T 4aw, and is often used with , 2 t. 7:11
# 6 , 1B. .05*6 # 3t. )5.+ # .+5./ # *75.+ # 4 B. 17:13 et%., %f. Test. 4. .)5)# ?ud.
./5. . In the ;T , %f. 4:. .56 (of ga%harias and 1lisabeth). >f. also Harn. , ), ... @ith i
, 4 B. 23:3 # i , . >h. *657 . The freTuent use of at the same time ( 3t.
/+56 # ?u. /5) # 1 B. 13:13 H) shows that refers to what is %ommanded b& <od. >f.
5 Test. 4. .)5*, sing. 5 Test. ?ud. .)56# .65/ f.#
,
ss. 8os. .*5.+5 andata dei
# ) 1sr. 75*.ff .# Ign.9m. , 6, .. i , Test. 4. .)56# Test. Iss. )56 et%. i , Test. ,.
05). , favourite eB!ression is )Msf PdQ ( 5 3t. 65. , * , 6 , .. # *65.6 #
3 B. 8:58 # Test. 3. 05.# Test. H. .+5/ f.# Harn. , ), ... , Test. ,. *56#
Harn. , 6, . ( sing. ). That the referen%e is to s!e%ifi% demands of the Torah is shown b& the
%on$un%tion of and i ( cMd ^_Ye and Y^_uZ sa ) in 1B. .65.6 # *)5.* # ?os. **50 # 9ir.
/05*) # )050 # 3a. /5/+ 4''# %f. Test. H. .+5/ f.# Test. 3. 05..
?ewish writers influen%ed b& the !revailing literar& taste of 7ellenism are less affe%ted b& the
usage of the 4''. Thus ?ose!h. seldom uses i , !referring , or
, , . -nl& 9 times (%f. under .. supra ) does he use it of <odOs
%ommand, twi%e generall& in ,nt. , 7, /)* # 6, //7 # of the %ommand in 2aradise in ., )/ # of the
!res%ri!tions of the 8osai% 4aw 0 times, e.g., 7, //6 # 6, 9) and .*+ . 9imilarl& 2hilo, eB%e!t in
2raem. 2oen. , * , follows the distin%tive 4'' usage onl& 0 times, and alwa&s in Tuoted !assages
whi%h refer to the i (-) , 9!e%. 4eg. , I, /++ # Aer. 3iv. 7er. , 6 # 2raem. 2oen. , 79 and
.+. # 9om. , II, .70 .
/. The 9toi% Trun%ation of the >on%e!t in 2hilo.
The stri:ing restri%tion of the use of in 2hilo is undoubtedl& due to the fa%t that the
word a!!ears to him to be too offi%ial and histori%al, and not suffi%ientl& s!e%ulative. This is in
:ee!ing with the noteworth& fa%t that the idea of the %ovenant is not found in his wor:s. 4i:e
?ose!h. , he !refers , , (%f. , or ,
i, , , words whi%h allow of an inner inter!retation and !hiloso!hi%al
establishment of the meaning and value of law) ( 9!e%. 4eg. , I, *99 ). 7e is less %on%erned with
the realisti% %ontent and more with the ethi%al substan%e of laws, their agreement with natural law,
their refle%tion of %osmi% law. This eB!lains his aversion to , whi%h derives from 9toi%
ethi%s. For 9toi%ism did not %on%eive of in the sense of %ustomar& legalit& or elementar&
moral law, but as in the sense of su!reme moral !rin%i!les. It thus lin:ed
with a !rimitive form of moralit&. The voluntar& a%t is higher than the %ommanded5 4eg. ,ll. , III,
.)) . In 4eg. ,ll. , III, 9+I90 2hilo %ommented on the %ommand in 2aradise and the eB!ression
i . The %ommand was not given to the heavenl& man, but to the earthl& and
,i. #ia: .
,ss. 8os. #ssuptio 3osis . ?ewish a!o%al&!se of the time of the death of 7erod the <reat (9%hGrer, III, *9)
ff.), ed. A. >harles, .697.
%orru!tible ,dam. The former is the or who !ossesses virtue from his own
:nowledge and who !ra%tises it without %ommand. -nl& the needs the
(%ommand). The !rohibition () is for the . The or
i %on%erns the , . 2hilo tolerates the %ommandment be%ause the
immature and unedu%ated need admonition. 7is !hiloso!h& thus introdu%es a tension into the
%on%e!tion of the 4aw as .
B. The 5$noptic 3itness endorses the elementar$ ) and
emphasises its central &nit$.
In the 9&no!tists the use of the term is affe%ted b& the debate with 2harisaism.
,%%. to 9&nagogue tea%hing there are in the Torah 6./ Y^_uZ sa , /60 cPXw qb Yf [\_ Y^_uZ sa , i.e.,
!rohibitions, and *)6 cP]w qb Y^_uZ s a , i.e., !ositive %ommands.
.
?udaism is thus %onfronted b& a
!lethora of %ommands whi%h ma:e it diffi%ult to a!!rehend the unit& of the divine will. This
situation is illuminated b& the !ointed Tuestion of the &oung man in 8t. .95.6 5 i whi%h"
It is also attested b& the Tuestion as to the q 6 in 8:. .*5*6 or i
in 8t. **5/6 . In s!ite of its atomisti% ethi%s,
/
bro:en u! into individual demands and individual
a%ts, the 9&nagogue shows definite signs of tr&ing to attain to a unitar& %on%e!tion of the
%ommandments b& tra%ing them ba%: to basi% !rin%i!les.
)
=et this does not affe%t the !ra%ti%al
!osition in relation to the man& i , and there are man& warnings against overloo:ing an&
detailed !oints b& reason of su%h an a!!roa%h.
0
,s %on%erns fulfilment, the %laim of the elder
brother in 4:. .05*9 5 I never transgressed thine ," finel& re!rodu%es the feeling of the
2harisees that the& were reall& fulfilling the %ommandments. ?udaism o!timisti%all& re%:ons with
the !ossibilit& of doing this. 1ven in the <os!el, it is allowed that there ma& be relative fulfilment.
In the 9&no!tists (%f. 4:. */506 on the 9abbath %ommandment as well as the !assages alread&
%ited), is used not onl& of the 3e%alogue but of other 8osai% !rovisions5 8:. .+50 (of
the bill of divor%ement, %f. 8t. .957 with i ). 8t. .05) 5 [ > * 5
i , is followed b& the fifth %ommandment and another 8osai% %ommand5 1B.
*.5.7 . >f. ?n. 650 , where the stoning of the adulteress is des%ribed as a 8osai% %ommand. >f.
also Harn. , 7, / of the law of fasting ( 4v. */5*9 ) and Harn. , 9, 0 of the law of %ir%um%ision.
In this matter of the %ontent of the witness of ?esus in relation to religion, we
should first note 7is un%onditional a%%e!tan%e of the demands of the 3e%alogue. 7e tells the
ri%h man ( 8:. .+5.7 ff. # 8t. .95*+ i # 4:. .65.6 ) that to enter into life
( 8t. .95.7 ) he must :ee! the %ommandments, whi%h are obviousl& a wellD:nown norm.
6

The %ommandments %on%erned are those of the se%ond table, am!lified in 8t. b& the !ositive
%ommand to love oneOs neighbour whi%h in 4v. .95.6 indi%ates even to the ver& sim!lest what
is the elementar& will of <od. It is true that what follows in the stor& ( l
l , 8t. .95*+ f. ) shows that onl& b& attending to the !ersonal %ourse of a%tion !res%ribed
b& this general law %an $usti%e be done to the . For the dire%tion to sell all and to give
to the !oor is a hint as to the s!e%ifi% individual form of fulfilling the %ommandment of love.
@e ma& also refer to 8t. 05.9 . 7ere even the smallest %ommandments are endorsed.
The& must be :e!t and taught. -neOs !la%e in the :ingdom of heaven is de!endent on their
fulfilment. 9in%e the Aabbis s!ea: of light and heav& or less and more im!ortant
. 9tr.DH. , I, 6.) ff.# 9++# I(, ), 7, 9.
/ >f. @eber, *77I/.*# 9tr.DH. , I(, /I.9# )9+I0++# .+).I.+)*, ;o. / g.
) >f. 9tr.DH. , I, 9+7, II, 67 f., III, 0)/. 8oore , II, 67 f. In !ro!he%& (%f. 8i. 656 ) we alread& find the !ossible
a%hievements of men redu%ed to %ertain rudimentar& %ommandments (in this %ase three). In ooh. .*5./ we %an
see the same !ro%ess at wor: in the @isdom literature. 7ere, too, is a %om!endium whi%h gathers u! the man&
detailed !rovisions (v. Aad).
0 >f. es!. 9. 3t. , .*, *6 y 79 (9.a), 9tr.DH. , I, 9+/d5 , light %ommandment should be as highl& estimated b&
thee as a heav&." In result, all %ommandments are eTuall& im!ortant. ) 8a%%. 05*+ 5
l .
6 8:. .+5.9 and 4:. .65*+ 5 Thou :nowest the %ommandments."
%ommandments rather than of smallest and greatest,
7
the referen%e here is to the Ten
>ommandments as those whi%h o%%u!& least s!a%e in the s%roll of 9%ri!ture.
6
-n%e again
?esus endorses the two tables as an elementar& basis. If we %om!are this with the antitheses
whi%h follow in 8t. 05*. ff. , we shall see that the onl& righteousness whi%h %ounts is one
whi%h does not sin: below the 3e%alogue but whi%h trans%ends this nationall& a%%e!ted 4aw
in fulfilment of the authoritative 8essiani% demands of ?esus.
9

In 8t. 05.9 there is no suggestion of ran: in the true sense.
.+
,%%ording to the ?ewish view, a
man who bro:e one of the Ten >ommandments (e.g., an adulterer) would not be
g iq in the sense of ran:. 7e would not be in the :ingdom at all. The !oint is that a
Aabbini% form of eB!ression is ado!ted to em!hasise how seriousl& oneOs future destin& de!ends
on oneOs de%ision in relation to even the smallest %ommands. It ma& be as:ed, however, whether
the referen%e to the smallest %ommands is not to be lin:ed with the !re%eding sa&ing about the
l and i ( v. .6 ), so that we are to thin: of the least im!ortant !arts of 9%ri!ture, of the
least signifi%ant reTuirements of the Torah. The answer is that 8t. 05.6 , whi%h %omes from o (%f.
4:. .65.7 ) and thus demands !arti%ular attention, does not have for 8t. the Aabbini% sense
..
that
the whole Torah will maintain its literal validit& in this aeon. For in this %ase 8t. would be
%ontradi%ting the antitheses whi%h follow. In the %onteBt we have here a sa&ing whi%h em!hasises
in ?ewish terms the inviolable authorit& of 9%ri!ture. It is intentionall& !ut at the head of this
!assage in order that the trans%ending of the 3e%alogue b& ?esus should not be %onstrued as its
dissolution.
9imilarl&, in the great a%%usation against the 2harisees that the& falsel& use the
6
.*
to overthrow the %ommandment of <od, the basi%
antithesis is brought out in terms of the 3e%alogue. ?esus is not reall& o!!osing the idea of
tradition as su%h, in this %ase >otban. 7e atta%:s the 7ala%ha be%ause %asuistr& has be%ome an
o!!onent of the will of <od. Knder %over of inter!retation hatred and irreligion violate the
of veneration of !arents, and the elementar& divine %ommand is overturned.
./
,t a
!eriod when one %ould no longer see the wood for the trees be%ause of the detailed rulings,
this tea%hing %ame with liberating for%e. =et ?esus does not la& %laim to s!e%ifi% religious
originalit&. 7is !ro!heti% witness to the truth brings to light again the true basis and meaning
of the divine will.
1ven when ?esus eB!ounds in nuce the main theme of the divine and thus
sim!lifies the %on%e!t,
.)
giving to it in this %on%entrated form a dominant !la%e
whi%h it never had in the 9&nagogue, 7e onl& brings the more %learl& to light that whi%h is
alread& !resent and :nown. @hen tested b& the Tuestion whi%h is the %hief %ommandment
( 8t. **5/6 ), 7e unites the first, i.e., the love of <od whi%h %laims all oneOs !owers and gifts,
with the se%ond, i.e., love of oneOs neighbour. 7ere love of oneOs neighbour is both
organi%all& rooted in love of <od and also seen as an o!!ortunit& to !ra%tise love of <od, and
7 >f. 9tr.DH. , I, 9+. ff., *)9# <. 3alman, 0esus<0eschua (.9**), 6+# I. ,brahams, Studies in Pharisais and the
Gospels , I (.9.7), .6 ff.# ,. 1. ?. Aawlinsoa, St. 3ark (.9*0), .7+ f.
6 9o alread& ?. ,. Hengel, Gnoon (.7)*), ad loc. # F. 3ibelius, g;@ , .. (.9.+), .66 ff.# 9%hl. 8t. , ad loc. ,
.07I.6+.
9 >f. 9%hl. 8t. , ad loc.
.+ >f. the Aabb. do%trine5 9tr.DH. , I(, .+.6 ff., es!. ../6I..)*# I, *)9 f., 77)# 3alman @? , I, 9/# 0esus<
0eschua (.9*9), 6..
.. 9tr.DH. , I, *))# 8oore , I, *69 f.# II, 9.
.* -n ( .7* ), %f. <l. .5.) # >ol. *56 # 9tr.DH. , I,6.9 ff. -b$e%tivel&, it is alwa&s in the 9&no!t.
, 8:. 75/ , 0 # 8t. .05* # %f. .056 . This !hrase is used even b& o!!onents.
2olemi%all&, the formula is 6 , 8:. 756 , or , 8:. 759 , ./ # 8t. .05/ . Tt.
.5.) s!ea:s of 6 (7ala%ha) and (7aggada), %f. Test. ,. 750, where we
have and 6 .
./ There are man& different forms of the a%%usation5 to abandon," 8:. 759 # to invalidate," 8:. 75./ # 8t. .056
# to transgress," 8t. .05/ .
.) In 8:. 75./ # 8t. .056 , we have for . 7en%e this eTuation o%%urs in the 9&no!t.
as well as ?n. ( 00) ).
therefore as an a%t of obedien%e and gratitude ( 4:. .+5*7 ff. ). To the Tuestion whi%h is the
most im!ortant %ommandment, ?esus thus answers5 There are two ( 8:. .*5/. ) whi%h
%onstitute an inner unit&, and 8t. adds that on these two hang all the 4aw and the !ro!hets
( 8t. **5)+ ). If resear%h into the sour%es of this stor& dis%loses two traditions, the one
!reserved in 8:. and the other in the s!e%ial 4u%an sour%e, there is refle%ted in this ver&
dualit& the %onvi%tion of the %ommunit& that in an& %ase we are dealing with something whi%h
is in the Torah, so that ?esus 7imself %an sa& it a%%ording to the one form and the s%ribe
a%%ording to the other. The !oint is that the s%ribe has to affirm an answer ta:en from the
Torah. It is to be noted, however, that the definition is from the Torah itself and not from a
gloss. ;evertheless, the first !art is lin:ed with the dail& 9%hema with its %onfession of l
, and the se%ond re!rodu%es the %ommon Aabbini% %om!endium of the se%ond table in
terms of 4v. .95.6 . If the ?ew is to find a !ers!e%tive from whi%h to ta:e the 4aw to heart,
?esus %an onl& wel%ome this Tuestion. 7e does not believe, however, that 7is answer is a new
%reative a%t. it is sim!l& a unitar& and %entral %on%e!tion of the ta:en dire%tl& from
the 4aw.
This ma& be seen most %learl& in 4:. .+5*7 , where the s%ribe himself answers. 4:. also brings
out most strongl& the organi% stru%ture of the twofold %ommand whi%h is reall& one. In 8:. .*5/*
f. , however, the gives immediate %onsent, Tuoting . 9. .05** , where obedien%e is
!referred to sa%rifi%e, to show that this twofold love ta:es !re%eden%e of the %ultus. This answer
ma:es it !lain that he is not far from the :ingdom of <od ( v. /) ). The :ingdom thus means that
we reall& ta:e the unit& of <od seriousl& in love of <od and our neighbour. The %onteBt of 3t. 65)
f. is !arti%ularl& em!hati% in 8:., where the endorsement b& the s%ribe in v. /* introdu%es more
eB!li%it %itations from 3euteronomi% sa&ings.
;evertheless, we %annot but regard this !resentation of the twofold %ommand as distin%tive
of ?esus."
.0
In its ver& em!hasis we ma& dis%ern a %ons%ious %orre%tion of the 2harisai%
%on%e!tion of the dogma of the unit& of <od, for elsewhere the %riti%isms of ?esus ma:e it !lain
that this dogma is bound u! with a false isolation of the servi%e of <od and a de!re%iation of love
of oneOs neighbour. -n the other hand, it is surel& a%%idental that we do not o%%asionall& find
similar %ombinations of the two %ommandments among the Aabb. It is freTuentl& found in the
Test. 'II , and is almost a fiBed formula in Iss. 05*# H. //, and es!. in a dis%ussion of the -T
!assages whi%h is strongl& reminis%ent of the 9&no!t. formulation, Iss. 756 9
.
# 3. 05/. In
addition, we have the eB!ress !ar. in 2hilo9!e%. 4eg. , II, 6/ 5

l
,
l i 6
i . 1lsewhere there are no instan%es of the %ombination. Hut
we do have the %ommandments individuall&. For an em!hasis on the 9%hema, %f. es!. the stor& of
the mart&rdom of A. ,Tiba, Her., 6.b.
.6
For the underlining of 4v. .95.6 , %f. ,Tiba in 9. 4v. on
.95.6 (@eiss, 69b)5 This is a great, general (%om!rehensive) !rin%i!le in the Torah,"
.7
%f. 9hab.
, /.a, 7illel5 @hat &ou would not have done to &ou, do not to another, this is the whole Torah,
and the rest is eB!osition." -n the divine li:eness as an even greater general !rin%i!le" than 4v.
.95.6 , %f. Hen ,EEai ( c. ..+ ,.3. ).
.6

C. The )(al#ation of ) in Terms of the 8istor$ of 2e(elation
in Pa#l and 8ebre9s4
.. 2aul gives his own inter!retation of in A. 7 . For all the reminis%en%es of the
stor& of the fall, the referen%e here is not to the !rohibition in 2aradise.
.9

.0 9%hl. 8t. , ad loc.
.6 >f. 9tr.DH. , I, 9+0 ff.
.7 9tr.DH. , I, /07 f., 9+7. For eB!ositions, %f. I, /6/ f.
.6 ibid. , /06.
.9 This is the view of Theodore and Theodoret, ,. ?Gli%her in Schriften des !" # 4tEm., ad loc. # ,. 8e&er,
/=tsel d. 0k . (.9/+), *97# ,. 8. 7. 4agrange, /oains
/
(.9/.), /99. Hut >hr&sostom alread& ta:es a different
view, %f. @. <. FGmmel, 00 f., with bibl. -n the ,dami% %ommands in the 9&nagogue, 9tr.DH. , III, /7, ). f. In )
This is shown a. b& the eTuation throughout the !assage of and . The
relationshi! is that the be%omes a%ute through the . This is a %on%rete form of the
8osai% Torah. The main %at%hword5 , is not found in <n. / , but in the
3e%alogue. The %hara%ter of the is des%ribed in terms of the tenth %ommandment be%ause
this brings out the most inward form of sin. The de%isive drama is inward, not outward. The same
relationshi! between and the 8osai% 4aw is shown b. b& the wider %onteBt. The !roblem
of the whole !assage is that of the 4aw and sin. 2aul has shown that these are related, and that
>hrist brings liberation from the 4aw. 7e has now to show that this re!udiation of the 4aw does
not im!l& antinomianism, that the 4aw itself is not at fault, that it is not itself sin. 7e ends his
eB!osition with a re$e%tion of sin and an affirmation of the 4aw ( infra ). That is here
the %on%rete 8osai% 4aw is also shown %. b& the histori%al !resentation given us in A. 0 .
*+
This
is indis!ensable as a :e& to A. 7 . @e are told that in the !eriod from ,dam to 8oses sin is !resent
before the 4aw is given. It is im!uted, however, onl& through the 4aw ( infra ). For through the
4aw, as we read in A. /5*+ , there is i i (%f. A. 757 ). For 2aul, however, the
4aw is lin:ed with 8oses. @e see from A. 05./ f. ( )/7 ) that it is onl& b& transgressing the
4aw that man %omes to full !arti%i!ation in the sin of ,dam. It is this ver& fa%t that there is a
!arallel between transgression of the %ommand in 2aradise and transgression of the 8osai%
%ommand, whi%h eB!lains wh& as!e%ts of the stor& of the fall %an be used in A. 7 to illustrate our
en%ounter with the of the 4aw.
*.
,%%ording to A. 0 the onl& !ossible wa& of eB!laining
these %onne%tions is b& seeing that it is !re%isel& the 8osai% 4aw whi%h %onstitutes the full
analog& to the transgression of ,dam. H& the fa%t that the of the Torah stam!s the ra%e as
a host of real sinners there is re!eated the same !ro%ess as in 2aradise.
This !ro%ess, whi%h is !resented in terms of universal histor& in A. 0 , is de!i%ted in terms
of individual histor& in A. 7 ( /06 ). @e are not to ta:e it autobiogra!hi%all&# it is
something whi%h %ontinuall& ta:es !la%e afresh in the life of man. The main em!hasis is on
the fa%t that it is a%tive sin whi%h gras!s the o!!ortunit& afforded b& the (%f. the
of v. .. ).
**
9in %omes to life through the %ommandment ( v. 9f .), and b& the wa& of
de%e!tion it brings about in man the %onseTuen%e of death, whi%h is here understood
es%hatologi%all&.
The %ertainl& ma:es !ossible the fullest influen%e and develo!ment of the !ower
of sin ( )97 ). For the %ommandment gives a %ons%iousness of the !ower of sin in our
desires, and thus gives us a :nowledge of sin. In following it, we are !lunged into death,
*/
for
now with o!en e&es we offend against the :nown truth of <od.
*)
Thus true guilt arises out of
the alread& eBistent i . =et the !ro%ess des%ribed in this wa& gives us the insight ( v.
.+ 5 ) that refle%tion on this event must result in a %learD%ut distin%tion between sin
and the 4aw. <uilt alone is in the same %ategor& as i . It %an thus be %on%luded in v.
.* that the 4aw as a whole, and the as the individual %ommandment, is hol&, $ust
and good. The %ommand as a $ust reTuirement of <od retains its goodness and ma$est&. It
does not itself %onstitute the de%e!tive and wi%:ed adversar&. 1vil is %hara%teristi% onl& of
i . There is, however, an overriding divine teleolog& ( , v. ./ ). Through the
(the good), this see:s to ma:e sin sinful. H& means of the %ommand, the divine
8a%%. *5*/ the given at %reation is the rational :nowledge whi%h leads to virtue, %f. ..50 . >f. ?.
7einemann, 3ie 4ehre vom unges%hriebenen <esetE im $Gdis%hen 9%hrifttum ," in 7br. Kn. >oll. , I( (.9*7),
.)9I.7..
*+ >f. <. 9%hren:, 3ie <es%hi%htsans%hauung d. 2ls. ", 0bch. d. "heol. Schule Bethel , / (.9/*), 6+, n. ../#
3er AJmerbrief als 8issionsdo:ument " in #us "heol. u. Gesch. d. reforierten 4irche6 9estgabe f. &. 9. 4.
3ller (.9//), 00 f.
*. <n. *5.6 , %f. /5/ 5 If thou eatest, thou must die." -n %f. <n. /5./ (and * >. ..5/ ). -n sin as a
!ersonal !ower, %f. the figure of the ser!ent.
** , great deal de!ends on the a%t. understanding of q in v. 6 , .. . >f. FGmmel, )).
*/ The 6 c of A. 759 %annot mean life in the full religious sense (FGmmel,
0*), for a%%ording to A. 0 the dominion of sin is alread& !resent before the be%omes a%ute. It is relative
life in %om!arison with the death des%ribed in v. .+f .
*) This is not merel& !s&%hologi%al awareness, though we %an see from the i g in A. 757
that the :nowledge in%ludes su%h awareness.
overruling brings sin out of its obs%urit& into the light. The unmas:ing of sin is a ne%essar&
!relude to the redem!tion of the $ustified. 2aul %an bring the and i into this
%lose asso%iation onl& be%ause he no longer eB!e%ts salvation from the () . If
he had not found the %om!leted solution in $ustif&ing faith, his eB!osition would have been
fatal for all his ethi%al %are in anal&sis. It would have led inelu%tabl& to antinomianism.
*0

For 2aul, then, the is both the %on%rete 8osai% 4aw and the %hara%teristi% mar:
of the 4aw, i.e., its %hara%ter as %ommand. This is in no sense re!rehensible. It is a true
eB!ression of <odOs hol& reTuirement of righteousness. The !oint of the eB!osition, however,
is the negative one that the as mere is inadeTuate and im!otent to attain the
goal of salvation. If this element of inadeTua%& is not over%ome b& the fa%t that what is
%ommanded is the un%onditional will of <od, it is also not over%ome b& the fa%t that <od uses
what is insuffi%ient of itself to attain a !re!arator& goal.
The matter is again viewed in the light of the histor& of revelation in 1!h. *5.) f. >hrist
has be%ome !ea%e between ?ews and <entiles b& brea:ing down the hostile barrier, namel&,
. The new thing here as %om!ared with A. 7 is
that the is the fiBed statute or ordinan%e. Thus the i as individual
reTuirements of the Torah are transitor&. ;or %an the ( */. ) bring an& relief. It
sim!l& brings the a%%usation to light ( >ol. *5.) ).
*. If the transitor& nature of the is thus !itilessl& revealed in 2aulinism, the
is still reTuired in relation to the >hristian life. In . >. 75.9 ,
*6
of
%ourse, this denotes the !ermanent element when the distin%tion between %ir%um%ision and
un%ir%um%ision has been removed. If we %om!are this with the material !arallels in <. 056 #
65.0 , we ma& fill out from 2aul himself the %ontent of this , namel&, the fulfilment
in the new being of the s!irit, on the basis of faith, of the law of love ( <l. 056 ), whi%h is not
grounded in nature but is given as a new %reation through >hrist ( <l. 65.0 ).
*7
This is wholl&
in line with the meaning of the q a%%ording to the ?ohannine view ( 00/ )
,ll else that 2aul sa&s %on%erning is in full agreement with the 9&no!ti% evaluation
of the %on%e!t ( 0)7 ). In A. ./59 , where he states that all the %ommandments of the
se%ond tablek kare summed u! in the law of love,
means ever&thing in the 4aw whi%h relates to oneOs neighbour. 2aul im!resses this u!on the
>hristian %ommunit&. The law of love still has something de%isive to sa& to it. The same holds
good of 1!h. 65* , where the %ommunit& is referred to the fifth %ommandment5 q
q 6 iq . This %an hardl& mean that it is the first %ommandment
with a !romise (%f. 1B. *+50 f. ), nor that it is the first of the se%ond table with a !romise, but
that it has a s!e%ial signifi%an%e b& reason of the !romise anneBed.
*6

In . >. .)5/7 H [ , .7 it is des%ribed as an q i that women should :ee!
silen%e in %hur%h gatherings. Hut the original is surel& i i 3<4att.
*9
7en%e
is alwa&s used of -T %ommandments in the 2auline %or!us, eB%e!t in . Tm. 65.) (
000 ).
*0 -n HultmannOs thesis ( /. @ u. d. #nthropologie des Pls. , 06) that in A. 7 is not a movement of the
will in the s!here of sub$e%tivit&, . 7ere we ma& refer to his view that this does not relate to
the fulfilling of the i , 07. Hut vv.# .9 and *. (%f. .6b ) give us the %lear statements that aims at
the as o!!. to the , at . ,s we %annot se!arate the latter from , so
we %annot se!arate and . thus relates to the to the degree that this is given with a
view to life ( v. .+ ). -n the latter !t. %f. 4:. .+5*6 # 9tr.DH. , III, .*9.
*6 ?oh. @. . F. , ad loc. %on$e%tures that the ,!o%r. 8os., whi%h a%%. to 1uthalius (,. 4. ga%agni, 1ollectanea
onuentoru veteru , I m.696n, 06.) is refle%ted in <l. 65.0 , emerges even more %learl& in . >. 75.9 . Hut
1uthalius had in view the formula q i , whi%h is %ommonl& attested as a ?ewish eB!ression, %f. 9tr.D
H. , II, )*. f.# III, 0.9# 4tEm., ad loc.
*7 The fa%t that has here no art. (%f. A. 756I./ # 1!h. *5.0 ) means that the referen%e is to :ee!ing the
will of <od rather than ordinan%es.
*6 >f. 1!. ,r. , **6, where the same %ommandment is %alled i .
*9 %f. 4tEm., ad loc.
/. In 7b. is used onl& of the Torah. In 750 , .6 , .6 it refers to the !riestl& law
and in 95.9 to the institution of the %ovenant.
/+
It should be noted, however, that the
%ommandment is alwa&s lin:ed with the more %om!rehensive term , %f. ()
, 750 , .6 # 95.9 .
/.
7ere again the is the individual ordinan%e and the
is the sum of the i . 7b. alwa&s refers to the authoritative basis of the
be%ause it deals with the radi%al Tuestion of the %ultus and !riesthood. The fundamental
%onvi%tion is that the revelation in >hrist has shown the old to be a i
( 75.6 ) whi%h is eBternal and transitor&. The earlier %ommandment has been authoritativel&
annulled ( 75.6 ) be%ause of its wea:ness and uselessness, for it has not led to an& fulfilment.
Its validit& as a %ode has been overthrown as im!erfe%t and outdated.
'. The Christian !essage as ) in the Conflict against
nosticism and Libertinism :the "ohannine 3ritings and = Peter;.
In ?n. (a!art from ?n. ..507 5 , of the %ommand of the rulers)
has the following senses.
.. In ?n. .+5.6 the FatherOs to the 9on is that in virtue of the i with
whi%h 7e is invested the 9on should freel& give 7is life to ta:e it again. In ?n. .*5)9 ,
however, the relates to the establishment of the @ord b& ?esus. It the aim of 7is
wor:, the mediation of eternal life, is em!hasised in .*50+ , and the final goal, that the love of
the Father and the 9on should be made :nown to the %osmos, in .)5/. (here ),
this ma:es it all the %learer that what is meant is the tas: %onne%ted with the sending of the
9on, not as an im!osed and im!erative dut&, but as an ordination and authorisation whi%h
derives from the love of the Father and is voluntaril& a%%e!ted b& the 9on. >f. also the !lural
in .05.+ ( infra ).
*. The new of ?esus to 7is dis%i!les is the %ommand of love. It is given its
dee!est basis in ?n. ./5/) . The new fa%tor is not the law of love as su%h, nor a new degree of
love, but its new %hristologi%al foundation. The& are to love one another as those who are
loved b& ?esus. The& are to a%tualise the basi% love of ?esus. Thus the loving selfDgiving of
?esus is the root and !ower of the new . The same basis (without ) is to be
seen in .05.* , %f. .05.7 ( ). 7ere alwa&s means %ommandment. The
im!erative remains. Hut the absolute determination of b& >hrist, its rootage in the
love of ?esus, %auses it to trans%end all nomisti% moralism and all m&sti%ism, whi%h is
eB%luded b& the demand for a definitive de%ision for the 9on.
/. Fee!ing the i
/*
of ?esus is a mar: of love for 7im. The eB!ression in ?n.
.)5.0 , *. refers to the a%tion of the dis%i!les a%%ording to the will of ?esus5 4ove for ?esus is
the motivating !ower, v. *. . as the inner !ossession of the %ommandments and
are both regarded as signs of love for 7im. The love of the Father and the revelation
of the 9on find a res!onse in the inner life of dis%i!les (%f. .05.) 5 ). If the !lur.
i is not avoided, this does not im!l& an& surrender to legalism.
//
The motivation
!revents this, as does also the fa%t that the !lur. is sim!l& a develo!ment of ?ohnOs favourite
%on%e!t of unit&, the leading ba%: intentionall& to the
(%f. ?n. .)5.0 , *. with .)5*/f .# .05.+ with .05*+ # for . ?n. infra ). The i
, alwa&s summed u! in the one %ommand of love, do not im!l& a ?ewish multi!li%it& of
ordinan%es, but the radiating of the one out into the manifoldness of the obedient
/+ >f. in relation to the ordaining of the %ovenant, 7b. 95*+ ( 8as. YMf Wed ).
/. This %onsistent use is !resent in 75.6 in s!ite of H. @eiss ( Brief an d. (eb. m.697n) and Agg , who here
translate norm"5 F. 3elitEs%h, 1o. -u Brief an d. (ebr. (.607).
/* (%f. 8t. *65*+ )5 ?n. .05.+ # .)5.0 # . ?n. /5** , *) # 05/ . 5 ?n.
.)5*. # . ?n. *5/ f. # (%f. Test. ,. *56)# . ?n. 05* .
, * ?n. 6 . 5 ?n. 650. f. , 00 # .)5*/ # .05*+ # .756 # . ?n. *50 . ?n.
.)5*) . -n Aev. n. /7 .
// >f., as o!!. to Hau., 9%hl. ?. , ad loc.
life. 9in%e the basis is also the basi% Tualit& in observan%e of the %ommandments, there need
be no further elaboration. In this whole matter ?ohannine m&sti%ism" !roves to be most
unm&sti%al. It is not e%stas&, nor meditation, but fulfilment of the %ommandments as the one
%ommandment grounded in ?esus.
In the light of ?n. .05.+ it might be as:ed whether the translation tas:" or %ommission" is
not better under *. and /. as well as .. In this wellD:nown %ombination what is said in the sing. of
the 9on is then eB!ressed in the !lur. and eTuated with the :ee!ing of the %ommandments b& the
dis%i!les. -n the other hand %annot mean to fulfil a %ommission." The
inner !arallel with the mission of the 9on shows rather how radi%all& the attitude of faith, whi%h
underlies the term , eB%ludes all thought of the 4aw. If the :ee!ing of the
%ommandments b& the dis%i!les and the fulfilment b& the 9on of the tas:s whi%h the Father has
given both im!l& the same abiding in the same love, it is again asserted that the legal reTuirement
of the 4aw has &ielded to the !ersonal fellowshi! of a relationshi! of love. The goal of the fulfilled
$o& of salvation in .05.. also serves to mar: off this :ee!ing of the i from an& legal
understanding. It is thus a!!arent that the nomisti% view of is Tuite im!ossible in ?n.
). The distin%tive features of the use of in the 1!istles of ?n. are as follows. a.
There is never an& dis%ussion of the i without referen%e to the (in the
reverse order in . ?n. )5*. ff. ). This arrangement, whi%h is an established %hara%teristi%,
ma:es it %lear that the law of love, the q , is the true %ontent of the
i . >om!arison with the <os!el suggests refle%tion on the relation between
and i as it is there !resented. The eB!osition is %ertainl& influen%ed b& the shar!er
%onfli%t with <nosti%ism ( 000 ). b. This %onfli%t also leads to a stronger em!hasis on
:ee!ing the %ommandments of <od5 . ?n. *5/ (%f. v. 0 )# /5** # 05/ # * ?n.
) (of the Father). The <nosti% movement ne%essitates a stress on the elementar&. If it boasts of
its m&sti%al union with <od ( . ?n. *56 5 ), the true understanding of love for <od
must be em!hasised in o!!osition to it. This stress on the elementar& is most !ronoun%ed in .
?n. )5*+ f. , where the %ommandment of love is the divine %ommandment and it is argued
along the lines of 8t. **5/7 ff. that love for <od %annot be se!arated from love for oneOs
brother. It is not that there is no %onne%tion of the of love with >hrist,
/)
but it is
stri:ing that the !rofound %hristologi%al basis of loving as 7e loved, whi%h is so !rominent in
the <os!el ( ?n. ./5/) # .05.* ), is not stated here. %. The des%ri!tions of the as old"
and new" ( . ?n. *57 f. # * ?n. 0 )
/0
sound li:e a meditation on ?n. ./5/) and are !resumabl&
dire%ted against the <nosti% love of novelt&. The meaning of old"
/6
is from the beginning
of the >hristian life" (the old" being the word whi%h has been heard, . ?n. *57 ). It
is be&ond dis!ute that the new" is the %ommand of love ( . ?n. *59 ff. ). Hut the
%hristologi%al foundation whi%h distinguishes ?n. ./5/) is again missing. d. ,nother
distin%tive view is the definition of not merel& as the %ommand of love but also as
the union of faith in >hrist and love ( . ?n. /5*/ ). ,lso new is the addition5 7is
%ommandments are not grievous" ( . ?n. 05/ , I, 007 ). The first !oint is again
dire%ted against the <nosti%s, who are defi%ient in both res!e%ts. The %hara%ter of
faith is in s!e%ifi% o!!osition to those who den& that >hrist has %ome in the flesh (%f. * ?n. 7 ).
The !roblem !osed b& the -T 4aw is no longer a live issue in the 1!istles of ?n. The
relationshi! of faith and 4aw is not dis%ussed. ;or are %ulti% or sa%ramental Tuestions. The
term does not o%%ur (%f. ?n. .5.7 et%.). The basi% Tuestion of 2aul how we are to :ee!
the 4aw is now irrelevant, for the is bound u! from the ver& first with faith in >hrist.
The %onfli%t here is with antinomian <nosti%ism. It is be%ause this negle%ts the sim!lest and
/) >f. . ?n. *56 5 True in him." The fa%t that ?esus gave the ( . ?n. /5*/ ), and the lin:s with faith in
>hrist ( . ?n. /5*/ # )59 # 05. ), with assuran%e of salvation and the $o& of !ra&er ( . ?n. /5.9 ff. , %f. the vi%tor& of
faith over the in 05) ), with the gift of the 9!irit ( . ?n. /5*) ) and with the birth from <od ( . ?n. 05. ),
ma:e it %lear that the %ommand of love a!!lies wholl& and eB%lusivel& to the new life.
/0 The teBt in v. 6 is, of %ourse, %orru!t.
/6 -n old" and new" %f. Aabb. !ar. , @nd. Fath. Hr. , ad loc.
most basi% dut& of >hristians (%f. . ?n. *56 ) that there is su%h em!hasis on the :ee!ing of the
%ommandments. There %an be no true gnosis without ( . ?n. *5/ f. ). @hat is selfD
evidentl& valid for 2aul as the good and hol& and righteous will of <od is here summed u! in
the rule , i.e., the doing of <odOs will in its most elementar& forms as
the %ontent of >hristianit&. Hut here, too, there are no i a!art from the
lin:ed with ?esus. 7ere, too, there is the movement from i to (%f. . ?n. *5)
with 0 ), though the formula is !redominant in the 1!. as distin%t
from in the <os!el. It is !erha!s easier to see a nomisti% view (%f. the
of Harn. , *, 6) in an utteran%e li:e . ?n. /5*/ , but in the 1!istles as in the
<os!el this would be a misunderstanding.
In Aev.
/7
the %ommands of <od, es!. in !assages dire%ted against idolatr&, are again lin:ed
with referen%es to faith in ?esus or witness to 7im, so that on%e more we see the ?ohannine
!e%uliarit& of never s!ea:ing of the i without mentioning ?esus. >f. .*5.7 # .)5.* # **5.)
* +)6 gig s& Tert >&!r T&%on.
In * 2eter the !olemi% against a destru%tive 4ibertinism ma:es it understandable that >hristian
tea%hing should twi%e be des%ribed as . ,%%. to *5*. the hereti%s turn awa& q
i i q . ,%%. to /5* this is des%ribed as that
i q . It is mediated through the a!ostles. In distin%tion from ?n., there seems
to be here more of a movement towards the nova le: of the !ostDa!ost. fathers.
This is hardl& true of . Tm. 65.) . The whi%h Tm. is to :ee! inviolate until the
a!!earing of the 4'rios is the %harge %ommitted to him ( 0)6 ).
/6

In the !ostDa!ost. fathers there is a mounting em!hasis on in the older legal sense.
9ub$e%tion to the %ommandments of <od is des%ribed as the %ontent of the >hristian life, Harn. , ),
..# Ign.
T
r. , ./, *# 9m. , 6, .# 7erm.v. , /, 0, / (%f. the %ommandments of the angel of re!entan%e
in 7erm.v. , 0, 0# s. , .+, /, ), and the andata of the whole se%ond se%tion), It is also stated of
>hrist 7imself that 7e fulfilled the %ommandment of <od ( Harn. , 6, .5 i q
), but not in the ?ohannine sense. The >hristian !la&s an im!ortant role,
though again not in the !neumati%, unitar& sense of the ?ohannine writings ( Ign.
A
. !rooem5
q ). ?esus is the 4egislator for >hristians
/9
( Ign.1!h. , 9, *# 2ol., *, *# . >l., ./, /,
of a sa&ing in the 9ermon on the 8ount, together with # * >l., /, )# 6, 7# ), 0,
q man a!o%r. sa&ing of ?esusn# 6,)# .7, /, with its 9toi% !hrase
i ). For the >hristian 4aw, %f. * >l., .7, .5 l
. For >hrist as the 4egislator of the nova le: , %f. also ?ust.3ial. , .*, *
f.# ..6, *5 , of >hrist. Test. of the )+ 8art&rs of
9ebaste (;. Honwets%h, Studien -. Gesch d. "heol. u. 4irche , I m.697n), 77, .) f.# 76, .) f.5 l
.
Schrenk
.
) 0)0 ff.
3 .
'3 l 6 .
A. )noch in "#daism.
/7 -n in Aev., %f. /56 , .+ # **57 , 9 () . -n %f. Aev.
.*5.7 # .)5.* .
/6 ,s rightl& !er%eived b& >alvin ( andatu ), F. Fno:e, Prakt.<"heol. 4o. -. d. PastP (.667 ff.), ad loc. #
3ib., ad loc. The ad$s. go with . It is ta:en to mean nova le: b& ?. T. He%:, 2r.DHauer , 8einertE
(>hristian tea%hing").
Tr. "roades .
A. ad /oanos .
/9 -n i in . >. .)5/7 H 00/ .
In ?udaism the name 1no%h %om!rehends a whole grou! of ideas whi%h are often ver&
different from one another. Thus the title Hoo: of 1no%h" usuall& refers neither to a boo: b&
1no%h nor to a boo: about him, but to the :ind of material found in the wor:. This material is
naturall& lin:ed with the ideas gathered u! in the name 1no%h. It is rather as though we might use
the title Hoo: of 3arwin" for an& !resentations of the theor& of evolution.
There are no sour%es available to eB!lain the origin and histori%al develo!ment of these ideas.
It is obvious that the& %ould not !ossibl& be built u! and elaborated merel& on the brief re%ord in
<n. 05*.I*) . This re%ord sim!l& !rovided the o%%asion for lin:ing these ideas with the !erson of
1no%h. Indeed, the re%ord itself gives eviden%e of the fa%t that for the !riestl& author the name
alead& stood at the %entre of definite s!e%ulations. @e ma& assume that at the time of writing
various traditions in ?udaism were alread& united with the name 1no%h. @e %an onl& guess at the
%hara%ter and %ontent of these traditions. The following features are signifi%ant5 that 1no%h was
the seventh after ,dam# that he wal:ed with <od# that he lived /60 &ears# and that <od too: him.
The wal: with <od denotes familiarit&, or the !ossession of divine se%rets. 7is !osition as seventh
is obviousl& designed# it is not something whi%h is noted and inter!reted later. This !osition gives
him s!e%ial !rominen%e along with ,dam (the first), 1nos (the third) and ;oah (the tenth, and the
first of the new ra%e). There ma& be hints here of the m&th of the original man. 1no%h has a
s!e%ifi% relationshi! to the original man, li:e ,dam (who is !erha!s this man), ;oah and 1nos
(the man). 8a& it be that we %an s!ea: of re!resentatives of the original man, or bearers of his
!ower, in the various ages of humanit& >ertainl&, 1no%h is not merel& the !ossessor of divine
se%rets# he is also the !arti%ular bearer and guardian of these se%rets in his generation. The &ears of
his life (/60) ma& finall& denote (in the tradition !reserved in 2) the intera%tion of these se%rets
with those of astronom&.
.

The re%ord in <n. 05*.I*) is the oldest :nown fragment of ?ewish tradition lin:ed with the
name 1no%h. It is also the onl& su%h fragment in the -T >anon. This is be%ause the 1no%h
traditions had be%ome sus!e%t to orthodoB ?udaism at the time of the fiBing of the ?ewish >anon
(at ?amnia c. 9+ ,.3. ). The& were thus %arefull& eB%luded from the sa%red 9%ri!tures. The& were
rightl& felt to be not trul& ?ewish. -n the other hand, we have %lear tra%es of these traditions in
nonD%anoni%al writings. It is im!ortant that these writings whi%h later be%ame nonD%anoni%al were
still re%:oned among the sa%red writings in the earl& da&s of >hristianit&.
In 9ir. ))5.6 1no%h is mentioned as the first of the great fathers of the !rimitive !eriod, and it
is said of him (in the 7eb. original)5 1no%h (was found righteous and) wal:ed with =ahweh and
was ta:en, as a mira%le of (divine) :nowledge for all generations." This statement obviousl&
alludes to <n. 0 , but it does not derive eB%lusivel& from this !assage. It goes ba%: to inde!endent
and am!lified traditions. In 9ir. )95.) ff. the roll of the $ust is as follows5 1no%h, ?ose!h, 9eth,
9hem, 1nos and ,dam," and it is said of 1no%h5 Few were %reated in the earth li:e 1no%h, for he
was ta:en u! suddenl& (or5 into heaven)." In v. .6 it is said of ,dam5 The fame of ,dam
sur!asses all who lived on the earth." @e ma& !erha!s see behind this statement a basi%
%on%e!tion a%%ording to whi%h 1no%h !la&ed a role in the m&th of the first man. In the <:.
translation of 9ir. )95.) the original wal:ed with =ahweh" is rendered {
, as in <n. 05*) 4''.
*
The !assage is also Tuoted in this form in 2hilo8ut. ;om. , /) and
,br. , .7 . >f. @is. )5.+ f.
/

The Hoo: of ?ubilees must now be mentioned, even though it is later, at least as !art of 1th.
1n. , whi%h we shall have to %onsider neBt. ?ubilees gives us information on %ontem!orar& 1no%h
traditions in )5.7I*0# 75/6# .+5.7# .95*)I*7# *.5.+. a. 1no%h is the re%i!ient of divine se%rets and
the guardian of these se%rets who !asses them on to future generations. 7e is su!!osed to have
re%eived them in a vision. The& in%lude the %orre%t re%:oning of time
)
and a!o%al&!ti%
. >f. 7. <un:el, <n. (.9.7), ad loc.
* 4'' <n. 05*) 5 t6 i,
. 9ir. ))5.6 5 t6 iq , i (or
i ) . 9ir. )95.) ( .6 )5 i q q, l t6,
q q .
/ @is. )5.. is not dis!osed to em!hasise too strongl& 1no%hOs elevation. 7is ra!ture too: !la%e merel& in order
that wi%:edness should not alter his dis!osition or subtlet& %orru!t his soul." ,%%. to 2hilo,br. , .7 his ra!ture
was awa& from a former evil life. 9imilarl&, ha had been a wi%:ed man in Aabbini% tradition ( 8idr. <n., ad
loc. ).
) In a%%. with the s!e%ial %on%ern of ?ub., and deriving from the astronomi%al tradition from whi%h it borrows.
:nowledge of all that has been and will be { until the da& of $udgment" ()5.9). The& were
written down and !reserved b& him in boo:s, b. 7e is the loft& e%stati% who dwells in the land of
1den. %. 7e is a divinel& a!!ointed author and witness for and against men and against the fallen
angels, d. In the traditions on whi%h ?ubilees de!ends he is also the heavenl& highD!riest who
offers burnt offerings
0
in the san%tuar&.
6
In the sour%es :nown to us this tradition is onl&
eB!ressed later in !ostD>hristian ?ewish m&sti%ism, It also !enetrated into later Aabbini% writings
(8idr. ;u. .*5.0 # %f. * 4eg. 8art.,
7
9hiOur Foma,
6
et%.), e. 1no%hOs eBaltation is lin:ed with his
outstanding righteousness (.+5.7). In this res!e%t he is mentioned along with ,dam, 9eth, 1nos,
;oah, et%., as in 9ir. ,longside the other fun%tions of 1no%h, this Tualit& seems to be a ?ewish
addition ta:en u! into the idea of the bearer of the s!iritual divine !oten%& of the first man !resent
in ever& age.
The 1no%h traditions found in ?ubilees almost all re%ur in 1th. 1n. ;evertheless, we %annot
sa& with %ertaint& that ?ub. ta:es them eB%lusivel& from this wor:. The onl& %ertain !oint is that it
rests on the same traditional material and that it in%or!orates !art of the 1th. 1n. as we now :now
it. -ne %hara%teristi% of the 1th. 1n. is its hesitation to la& too mu%h stress on 1no%hOs elevation.
The author or reda%tor of this wor: attributes his !ossession of se%rets mainl& to visions. 7e %ould
not entirel& su!!ress the idea of elevation, but he gave it onl& a minor !la%e. Thus in 1th. 1n. 7.
1no%hOs final as%ension is lin:ed with his nomination as the son of man. Hut this eBaltation is
de!i%ted with stri:ing restraint. ;or does the %ha!ter fit in with the true tea%hing of the !resent
1th. 1n. In this the heavenl& figure of the son of man or the first man is not 1no%h# it is eTuated
with the 8essiah. 1no%h is onl& the visionar& who is granted to see this son of man ()6). 7en%e
one might see in 1th. 1n. an attem!t on the !art of orthodoB ?udaism to %orre%t and to ?udaiEe the
1no%h traditions. This might eB!lain wh& 1th. 1n. %ould for a !eriod be re%:oned among the
sa%red writings.
The %ontent of the se%rets revealed to 1no%h in a vision in%ludes a. angelolog&, and es!. the
fall of the angels (the wat%hers") and their divine !unishment# b. the different s!heres and
lo%alities of heaven and the underworld# %. astronom&# d. the last time, with suitable eBhortations.
These different themes are obviousl& %ommon to the %ir%les whi%h !ut 1no%h at the %entre of their
s!e%ulations on the first man and the son of man. The& were usuall& re!resented b& su%h %ir%les as
the :nowledge of 1no%h" or the se%rets of 1no%h." 7en%e the title Hoo: of 1no%h," whi%h was
little more than a %at%hword, as alread& mentioned.
In a%%ordan%e with their ?ewish origin, these 1no%h traditions must have %ir%ulated in ?ewish
%ir%les whi%h, although sus!e%ted and o!!osed b& orthodoB ?udaism at the time of our sour%es,
were not without %onsiderable influen%e. @e ma& be %ertain that the underl&ing m&thi%al
%on%e!tions did not reall& originate in ?udaism. @e %annot tra%: down the ideas and traditions to
their ultimate sour%es sin%e we have no materials to wor: with. The most that we %an sa& is that in
the sour%es available, as alread& noted at various !oints, we ma& see tra%es of the original
%on%e!tions, or of %on%e!tions %loser to the original material.
The !enetration of these traditions, %ultivated and !ro!agated in heterodoB %ir%les, into
normative and orthodoB ?udaism, is not finall& restri%ted to the %orre%tion underta:en b& the
%om!iler of 1th. 1n. ,s alread& noted, ?ub. ma:es the eBaltation a main !art of the tradition. It is
true that Test. 'II , ) 1sr., 9. Har. and ,ss. 8os. are wholl& de!endent on 1th. 1n. Hut the %ase is
different with 9lav. 1n. The author of this wor: :nows 1th. 1n. , but he also finds a !la%e for
inde!endent traditions. For him the se%rets are not !rimaril& revelations through visions during the
earthl& life of 1no%h# the revelations im!arted to and %ommuni%ated b& him are in%or!orated into
the stor& of his ra!ture and final eBaltation. The eBaltation is his institution as the se%ond highest
ar%hangel, as a heavenl& figure alongside the throne of <od ( 9lav. 1n. **5)I.+). The eBalted
1no%h is an angel of the divine !resen%e or %ountenan%e (%f.
7
eb. 1n. .+5/ f.# )6%). The destin& of
1no%h a%%. to 9lav. 1n. reminds us mainl& of the as%ension of >hrist as de!i%ted, e.g., b& 2aul in
2hil. * . 9lav. 1n. also attests the eBisten%e of a whole range of 1no%h literature.
9

0 -nl& on%e in ?ub.
6 -riginall& the heavenl& san%tuar&.
7 The teBt ma& be found in ,. ?elline:, Bet ha 3idrasch , (I (.677), **.
6 For the teBt %f. Sefer /a-iel (ed. @ars%hau, .9./, fol. /.avb). >f. 7eb. 1n. , .0 H.
7eb. 1n. 7ebrew 1no%h, ed. 7. -deberg, .9*6.
9 9lav. 1n. */56# //56 f.# )75*# )656# 0)# 665*.
The fiBing of the >anon meant that all heterodoB 1no%h traditions, and the boo:s %ontaining
them whi%h had !reviousl& been regarded as sa%red, were eB%luded from the s!here of orthodoB
?udaism. Hut this eB%lusion did not ta:e !la%e all at on%e or %om!letel&. In the *nd %entur&
individual Aabbis, some Tuite !rominent, engaged in s!e%ulations %onne%ted with the 1no%h
tradition,
.+
,nd in 7eb. 1n. we meet a reda%tor who, trained in Aabbini% s%hools, attem!ts to
integrate Tuite radi%al 1no%h s!e%ulations into Aabbini% thought, and to se%ure their a%%e!tan%e.
..

B. )noch Traditions in )arl$ Christianit$.
9in%e wor:s li:e 1th. 1n. , ?ub. et%. were among the sa%red writings in the earl& da&s of
>hristianit&, it need hardl& sur!rise us that there are o%%asional referen%es to them in the ;T .
The ;T %ontains no inde!endent 1no%h traditions, although it is !robable that among the
sa%red writings a%%e!ted in earl& >hristianit& there were some Hoo:s of 1no%h" not :nown
to us ( 006 ).
1no%h is mentioned three times in the ;T , at 4:. /5/7 # 7b. ..50 and ?d. .) . 4:. /5/7 is
based on <n. 05*. ff. 7eb. ..50 re!eats ideas often found in 1th. 1n. as well as in ?ub. .+5.7.
.*
?d. .) is a literal Tuotation from 1th. 1n. 6+56. It is also !ossible that there are man&
allusions to 1th. 1n. in the ;T , or that reminis%en%es of it have affe%ted the modes of
eB!ression of ;T authors. It is fairl& %ertain that 1th. 1n. is Tuoted more than on%e in ?d. )I.0
( ?d. ) 5 1th. 1n. )65.+# ?d. 6 5 .*5) # .+5)I6 , ..f .# ?d. .) 5 6+56# ?d. .)f. 5 .59). >harles has
!ointed to a great number of !assages whi%h he regards as de!endent on 1th. 1n. >lose
eBamination shows, however, that there are no eBa%t Tuotations a!art from those mentioned.
./
It is in%ontestable that Aev. ma:es use of the same eB!ressions and develo!s the same ideas
as those found in 1th. 1n. and similar wor:s. 7ow far it is dire%tl& influen%ed b& them,
however, %annot be stated with %ertaint&. From what we :now of the formation of ?ewish
tradition, the fa%t that we find similar eB!ressions or formulae in two different boo:s does not
!rove that one is Tuoting the other. ,s %on%erns the 1!istles of 2aul, a!o%r&!hal and
a!o%al&!ti% wor:s are Tuoted as sa%red writings, and we ma& thus %on%lude that there are
o%%asional allusions to the Hoo:s of 1no%h, or that the& have had some influen%e. In relation
to angelolog& and %osmolog& there is !robabl& a similarit& between the ideas of 1th. 1n. and
those of >ol. and 1!h. The author of ?n. :nows the beliefs not onl& of orthodoB ?udaism but
also of ?ewish a!o%al&!ti% and m&sti%al %ir%les. 7e %ons%iousl& o!!oses both. Hut he seems to
dete%t tra%es of truth in the latter rather than the former. 7e is most severe in his re$e%tion of
Aabbinism. ?n. /5./ is !rimaril& dire%ted against su%h ideas as that of the as%ension of 1no%h
and his eBaltation as son of man, i.e., against 1no%h traditions as the& are assimilated into
orthodoB ?udaism, e.g., in 1th. 1n. ,%%ording to ?n. onl& the !reDeBistent %an be the eBalted. It
is not im!ossible that this was the original %on%e!tion in the heterodoB ?ewish %ir%les to whi%h
we have referred. @e %an gather this with some degree of !robabilit& from tra%es !resent in
7eb. 1n.
.)
* 2t., whi%h is admittedl& de!endent on ?d., seems not to a%%e!t the traditions
used b& ?d. This does not mean, however, that at the time of * 2t. there had been a general
movement against 1th. 1n. and similar writings in the >hur%h. For %onfident use is made of
1th. 1n. in >hristian writings later than * 2t.
.0

.+ 7eb. 1n. , ed. 7. -deberg (.9*6), Introdu%tion, /9, 6) ff.
.. .bid. , /9.
.* ?ub. .+5.7 ( FautEs%h )5 { he ( ;oah ), who in his life on earth eB%elled in righteousness, in whi%h he was
!erfe%t, all the %hildren of earth a!art from 1no%h. For 1no%h was raised u! to be a witness to the generations of
the world."
./ . 1no%h, ed. >harles (.9.*), Introd. y .9. (erbal e%hoes" of 1th. 1n. are found (e.g., ?. 8offatt, .ntrod. to
the )it. of the !"
/
m.9*7n, *0) in 7b. )5./ ( 1th. 1n. 950# %f. ..50)# 8t. .95*6 ( 1th. 1n. 6*50)# *65*) ( 1th. 1n.
/65*)# 4:. .659 ( 1th. 1n. 6/5.+)# ?n. 05** ( 1th. 1n. 695*7)# . Th. 05/ ( 1th. 1n. 6*5))# . 2t. /5.9 f. ( 1th. 1n.
.+5) f., .* f.)# Aev. passi .
.) 7eb. 1n. , Introd., 6/.
.0 1.g., Iren. , Tert. (%f. . 1n. , ed. >harles, Introd. y .6).
@e meet the 1no%h traditions in eBtraD%anoni%al earl& >hristian literature. . >l., 9, *f.5 1no%h,
a righteous man ta:en u! be%ause of his righteousness, is among the righteous !atriar%hs. In ,ss%.
Is. 956 ff. there is an interesting %orre%tion of the 1no%h traditions. 1no%h is ta:en u! and eBalted,
but onl& virtuall&. The a%tualit& will not ta:e !la%e until >hrist shall have %ome (a !ro!heti% fut. ).
This means that there is no eBaltation inde!endent of >hrist, as also assumed in ?n. /5./ . Hut
1no%h (li:e those who are with him") is destined to bear a %rown of righteousness and to sit on a
throne (%f. 7eb. 1n. .+5.# .*5/). >f. also 0 1sr. .5/9. ?ustin 8art. is !erha!s de!endent on 1th. 1n.
in ,!ol. , *, 0. In Harn. , .6, 0 there is a Tuotation from 1th. 1n. 69506 ff. The referen%e in Harn. ,
), / is to a Hoo: of 1no%h un:nown to us.
.6

%
deberg
!)) I, 69
I, .*6 ff.
! I, .9)
)(! I, *.0
!)) I, )+6
I, /6) f.
, I, /66 ff.
I, )70 f.
//6
!3 .
, , ,
%
*

, it is free" (with the dat. ), denotes a. that an a%tion is !ossible in the sense that
there are no hindran%es or that the o!!ortunit& for it o%%urs, i.e., to have the !ossibilit&," to be
able." 'en.,n. , (II, ., *.5 , 6 E, . 1!i%t.3iss. ,
III, *), 65 ravens and %rows, l , not that the& have the
!ower, but that the& have unlimited o!!ortunit& (i.e., not ). 9imilarl&, 1!i%t. often uses
to denote something whi%h we %annot !revent another from doing be%ause it is in his
!ower" to do it5 3iss. , I, ., *.5 i i i i
# It o%%urs in this sense in 4'' onl& at ) 8a%%. .5.* 5
i q , and not at all in the ;T , though %f. 8art.2ol. , .*, *5 c ,
q l (s%. to throw 2ol&%ar! to the lions"), q 6
.
b. It also means that an a%tion is not !revented b& a higher norm or %ourt, that it ma& be done
or is not forbidden." 1!i%t.3iss. , I, *6, 65 iq q
q (has the moral right"). 9o ,%. *5*9 5 l
i . In law es!. it denotes something whi%h the law reTuires or forbids, 2lat.
>
rito , 0.d5
4aws i Ai q {
. Thus often in the !a!. it means to have the right,
authorit&, or !ermission to do or not to do something." -%%asionall& it is used also of religious and
%ulti% %ommandments, 7dt. , I, .6/5 ,
q . ,lso in the magi% !a!. 5 2reis. gaub. , I(, **00 f.5 ,
. Hut in this sense it is relativel& rare ( infra ). In the 4'' 2
t. 4:14 (UU xZ `Ma [b [\d , not seeml&")# 1st. )5* # . 8a%%. .)5)) # in the ;T ?n. .65/. # ,%.
.6 q, , t6 . The !assage to whi%h
allusion is made is not found in an& 1no%h lit. :nown to us.
-deberg 7ugo -deberg , 4und ((ol. *I/).
C . 9%hl. 8t. on 956 # **5.6 # Theol. d. ?udt. , .//.
>rito
**5*0 # * >. .*5) #
.
also ,%. .65*. #
*
nonD$uridi%all& 8t. *+5.0 # ,%. *.5/7 . It is used es!. to
denote the !rohibitions of the ?ewish 4aw in the later 4'' writings5 / 8a%%. .5.. (add
)# ) 8a%%. 05.6 # .75.7 # and in the ;T in all other !assages5 8:. *5*) and !ar. , *6 and !ar. # .+5*
and !ar. # .*5.) and !ar. # 8t. .*5.+ , .* # *756 #
/
4:. .)5/ # ?n. 05.+ # . >. 65.* # .+5*/ (on both
the last !assages i >. 0 ).
%. In 1!i%t. it often means that there are no !s&%hi% or ethi%al obsta%les to an a%tion5 to have
the (inner) !ower to do it"5 3iss. , II, .6, /75 , g,
i . It is not used in the ;T or the 4'' in this sense, though %f. 2hilo-mn. 2rob. 4ib. ,
09 .
In the ;T relates most %ommonl& to the 4aw and will of <od. For the <ree:
what does not %orres!ond, or %orres!onds, to the will of the gods is usuall& () ,
, , as most 899 have at Tob. *5./ (as distin%t from [ 5
i ). 2lat.Tim. , /+a5 c q iq
q , 2s.D4u%.9&r. 3ea , 0/ and 00 , of ritual
ordinan%es. 1ven geus stands under this theis , 8aB. T&r. , /6, 75
q . These eB!ressions measure a%tions b& an abstra%t
norm, whereas in the ;T () !resu!!oses a will whi%h ma:es %on%rete demands.
The term is used in relation to the ?ewish 4aw and the eB!osition of the 2harisees, and the use
of this legal formula is t&!i%al of ?ewish legalism. The ;T itself does not as: l ,
but admonishes us to test i iq ( 1!h. 05.+ ). There is a <:.
formulation at ,%. .+5*6 5 i {
q , %f. . 2t. )5/ 5 li .
?ose!h. , too, uses of legal definitions5 ,nt. , 6, )+) # ./, *0*, /7/ # .0, *+/, ).9 #
*+, *66 ( c { , i c
q , c 6 )# Hell. , 6, )*6 . -n the other hand, in 2hilo we
have the <:. and , su!erior to the 4aw in dignit&5 -mn. 2rob. 4ib. , /5 c
i i q,
c l , %f. also, e.g., -!.
8und. , .7 ( ) and .)) ( ).
The use of for what is %ommanded or forbidden b& the 4aw %orres!onds to the
Aabb. Y^ePQ MZ 5 I, the 4ord. have ordained it, and thou hast no leave ( Y^PM x\ t`[^ ) to
Tuestion," b. ?oma, 67b. >ertain in$un%tions are eB!ressed in the 8ishnah b& the
i
m!erf. and
!rohibitions b& [\_ , 9hab. , ., *5 -ne should not ( LP` [\ ) sit before the barber near the time
of the evening sa%rifi%e until one has !ra&ed"# but elsewhere Y^ePQ MZ is %ommon. There is a
linguisti% !arallel in ?os.,nt. , .6, 9+ 5 q i ( subst.
with i instead of i or mUU \Z Y^ePQ MZ n as elsewhere).
. 8ost eB!ositors ta:e to mean forbidden" in sense b., though the& are unde%ided whether to relate
6q to or to q (for the former, H%hm. F. , ad loc. # for the latter @nd. * F. , ad loc. and
AeitEenstein 7ell. 8&st. , /69). The& also refer the p to the m&steries, for whi%h there are no
eBa%t !arallels. ,s against this, I !refer to give to sense a. whi%h it is not !ossible for a man to utter." @e
are to thin: of the !raise of angels whi%h in its su!raterrestrial glor& sur!asses ever& !ossibilit& of human
eB!ression. This denotes the glor& of the 2aradise into whi%h 2aul was %aught u!. This view is %onfirmed b& the
fa%t that the statement 6q q finds literal !arallels in man& relativel& old Aabb.
eB!ressions in whi%h it is said with referen%e to the wonderful wa& in whi%h <od s!ea:s5 MPi[ `[P [s
tW Ms[\ Vr[\ what is not !ossible for man thus to s!ea:," 8. 1B. , *+, 6# %f. 9. ;u. , )* on 65*6 # F. <.
Fuhn, 9ifre Eu ;u. (.9//), ./6, n. 7. (Fuhn).
* >f. @dt. ,g. , ad loc.
/ ,%%. to Fl. 8t. , ad loc. the highD!riests are thin:ing of the !rohibition in 3t. */5.6 .
im!erf. im!erfe%t.
%
*

A. Ordinar$ ree% &sage.
.. From about the time of 1ur. ,
.
i , derived from , denotes abilit& to
!erform an a%tion" to the eBtent that there are no hindran%es in the wa&, as distin%t from
in the sense of intrinsi% abilit&
*
(%f. a.). There seems to be earl& attestation for it in this
sense5 ,nti!hon -rator (ed. Thalheim), ., 65 l c i q
l { q l

q {# it does not o%%ur, however, in

the 4'' or ;T .
*. i is also the !ossibilit& granted b& a higher norm or %ourt, and therefore the right
to do something or the right over something," with the inf. and gen.,
/
also abs., the right being,
a%%. to %onteBt, authorit&," !ermission," freedom" (UU b.). It is used es!. a. of the
!ossibilit& of a%tion given authoritativel& b& the :ing, government or laws of a state and
%onferring authorit&, !ermission or freedom on %or!orations or in man& instan%es, es!. in legal
matters, on individuals. Translations eB!ress different sides of the one term whi%h in itself denotes
onl& the !ossibilit& of a%tion.
)
It is then used b. of an& right (!ermission, freedom et%.) in the
various relationshi!s similar to and guaranteed b& national institutions, e.g., the rights of !arents in
relation to %hildren,
0
of masters in relation to slaves,
6
of owners in relation to !ro!ert&,
7
and of
individuals in res!e%t of !ersonal libert&.
6

/. The authorit& mentioned under *. is illusor& unless ba%:ed b& real !ower. Hehind legal
authorit& stands the !ower of the state to give it validit&, and the rights mentioned under *. b. are
su!!orted b& the law and b& the !ower of the state. Thus it is not alwa&s !ossible to se!arate
between authorit& and !ower, between i and . -%%asionall& i as
authorit& is set in antithesis to real !ower or for%e. 2erha!s the basi% sense of !ossibilit& of
a%tion" is too strongl& !resent here, though %f. 2. -B&. , (III, ..*+, .7 f.5 q q
i (/rd %ent. ,.3. ). The i of the :ing, government or deit& is !ower.
9

C i . -n ,. and H.5 A. 7irEel, "heis6 Dike und Ver2andtes (.9+7), .*9, .. Hau. ?. on .5.*. -n >.5
>omment. and Theol., es!. 9%hl. 8t. on *.5*/ # *65.6 # 7%:. 8:. on .5** # 4tEm. . F. on 65.*# ?oh. @. . F. on
65.*# @. <rundmann, Der Begriff d. 4raft in d. nt.lichen Gedanken2elt (.9/*)# ?. 9tarr in "he (arvard "heol.
/evie2 , */ (.9/+), /+*I/+0# 7. @indis%h in Studies in &arl' 1hristianit'6 presented to 9. 1. Porter and B. W.
Bacon , ed. 9. ?. >ase (.9*6), **0I**7# AeitEenstein 7ell. 8&st. , /6/I/60# 2oim. , )6, n. /# Ir. 1rl. , ./., n. /#
1. ;orden, #gnostos "heos (.9./), ..., n. .. -n >. 65 4oh. Fol. on .5.6# *5.0# -. 1verling, Die paul.
#ngelologie u. D=onologie (.666)# 8. 3ibelius, Die Geister2elt i Glauben des Pls. (.9+9)# <. FurEe, Der
&ngels< u. "eufelsglaube d. #p. Pls. (.9.0)# @. <rundmann, supra # 7. 9%hlier, 8l%hte u. <ewalten im ;T ,"
ThHl , 9 (.9/+), *69I*97# F. 2rat in /echerches de Science /eligieuse , / (.9.*), *+.I**9# 1. de 4os Aios in
Verbu Doini , 9 (.9*9), *69I*97. -n >. 75 >omm. # 1verling, 3ibelius, FurEe, op. cit. # 2. 1wald, ;:g, ..
(.9.+), 0+7I0./# A. 2erdelwitE, Th9tFr , 66 (.9./), 6..I6./# <. Fittel, /abbinica (.9*+), .7I/.# ,. ?ir:u in
;:g, /* (.9*.), 7.+f.# 2. Tis%hleder, Wesen u. Stellung d. 9rau (.9*/), .06I.6/# F. Hornhluser in ;:g, ).
(.9/+), )70I)66# ?. 8eEEa%asa in Verbu Doini , .. (.9/.), /9I)*# @. Foerster in g;@ , /+ (.9/.), .60 f.#
<. 3elling, Pls.+ Stellung -. 9rau u. &he (.9/.), 96I.+0# F. AJs%h, "heologie u. Glaube , *) (.9/*), /6.I/6/#
8. <insburger in /evue de /eligion et de Philosophie /eligieuse , .* (.9/*), *)6# AeitEenstein 2oim. , */+ n.
. K. v. @ilamowitED8oellendorff, 1uri!ides 7era:les, II (.669), on v. //7.
* <rundmann, / f.
/ 9ometimes, although it is not genuinel& %lass. , with !re!. @ith n. 6 # with i , 1!i%t.3iss. , I, 9, .05
l q i .
) 2s.D2lat.3ef. , ).0b5 i q # 2lat.9&m!. , .6*e5 i
g { (the !ossibilit&). 2. -B&. , II, */7, %ol. (I, .7 (.66 ,.3. )5 i
(right). 2. ,mh. , 9*, */ ff. (.6*v/ ,.3. )5 i ,
lg, i (authorit&, freedom, right).
0 2. -B&. , II, */7, %ol. # (III, !. .6*, /f.5 i g
iq i .
6 2. -B&. , (III, ..*+, .7 f. of one who illegall& ta:es a female slave5 q q i (/rd
%ent. ,.3. ).
7 3itt. 9&ll.
/
, .*/), )5 i q { i i .
6 2s.D2lat.3ef. , ).*d5 i qi i i i

iq i i . 3emo%r. Fr. , *)0 (II, .+9, .6 3iels )5
6 l q c li i (selfDdetermination).
9 3io >hr&s.-r. , ., )65 of the :ing who transgresses the %ommand of geus5 c 6 q q
i . 2oll.-nom. , (III, 665 g c i (the
;evertheless, the distin%tion remains, , et%. denote eBternal !ower, whereas
i is the !ower dis!la&ed in the fa%t that a %ommand is obe&ed, i.e., the !ower to
!ronoun%e it. In this res!e%t, we ma& refer to the usage of 1!i%t. in his %ontrast between eBternal
things over whi%h others have %ontrol ( i and the inner dis!osition whi%h we
ourselves %ontrol5 1n%h. , .), *5 i q
q q i l q q .
.+
In relation
to the 9toi% himself it %an also denote moral !ower ( 06. ), 3iss. , III, **, 9)5
{ { q i
i , and 3iog. 4. , (II, .*.5 -nl& the wise man is free l q
i i i (geno). -nl& o%%asionall& does i a!!roBimate
more %losel& to and denote, e.g., the !ower of a !assion.
..

). The term i %an also be used in antithesis to law in the sense of selfDasserted
freedom ( i , !oeti% freedom),
.*
or %a!ri%e. ,t this !oint it is a !arallel to
.
./
It is often used in this wa& in ?os.,nt. , *+, .6+ 5 q
i # ,nt. , .+, .+/ 5 i
q . Hut this does not alter the fa%t that i is mostl& used in the %onteBt of legal
order. This is shown b& its freTuent o%%urren%e with , e.g., 3iog. -enoandensis Fr. ,
07 (ed. @illiams .9+7), where we have the two together in mu%h the same wa& as in 1!i%t. n. ( .+
),
.)
and 3itt. 9&ll.
/
, .*/), ) f.5 i q i
i E { 6 l q l q
i {
0. 3erived meanings are a. authoritative !osition," or offi%e of state,"
.0
and more
%on%retel& b. offi%eDbearers" or rulers,"
.6
often in the !lur. , and later %. laudator& address to
offi%eDbearers."
.7
The government as su%h never seems to be denoted b& this term. @e need
hardl& %onsider the final senses of d. %rowd"
.6
and e. !om!."
.9

B. The "e9ish and NT &sage.
.. The usage of ?ose!h. is !ar. to the <:. @ith the gen. or inf. it means !ermission" ( ,nt. ,
*+, .9/ 5 i
), authorit&" ( (it. , 7* 5 q i
J ), right" given or !rote%ted b&
the law ( ,nt. , ), *)7 5 q { i i
i i ) and a%tual !ower of dis!osal" ( (it.
, /)6 5 { l g i iq ).
i is also used of <odOs !ower ( ,nt. , 0, .+9 5 q i
q i ), as also of the !ower of the :ing (it. , ( ..* 5
q i ), and it is on%e used of the real
!ower of the :ing in distin%tion from his outward !osition ( ,nt. , .), /+* 5 c
ar%hontes). 9eBtus 2&thagoreus 9ententiae , /.+5 6q i i (not
or ).
.+ The %ombination of and i , whi%h denotes the element of law or right in i , is often
found5 1!i%t.3iss. , II, *, *6# I(, ., 09.f.# .*, 6.
.. 2lut. 3io, .. (I, 96*d)5 q iq g .
.* 4iddellD9%ott , s.v.
./ 2reis. gaub. , I(, ..9* f.5 q i
.
.) q i q , q q { i 6
, q i #
.0 ,ristot.1th. ;i%. , I, /, !. .+90b, *.5 i . 3ion. 7al.,nt. Aom. , (III, 77,
.5 q q i ( $uaestoria potestas ).
.6 2s.D2lat.,l%. , I, ./0 avb5 { i
q c # 2. -B&. , II, *6., .05 i g (p)
i i (00 ,.3. ).
.7 2. Flor. , 66, .9 f.5 q q q i (.st %ent. ,.3. ), shows the transition# for later %f.
2. -B&. , I', ..+/, / (/6+ ,.3. ).
.6 2. Tebt. , )+9, 6 f. (0th %ent. ,.3. )5 i (!lent& of them").
.9 For an eBam!le, v. 4iddellD9%ott
l q i `Y, c q i
). It is on%e used for the !ossibilit& of influen%e ( (it. , 6+ 5 i ). The
authorities are %alled i ( !lur. ) in Hell. , *, /0+ , and the sing. seems to be used on%e for
the government as su%h ( 066 ).
2hilo, too, follows ordinar& <:. usage.
*+
7e uses the word !arti%ularl& for absolute !ower,
whether of the :ing ( q i , 4eg. <a$. , *6 # 0) # .9+ ), of the governor ( -!.
8und. , .7 ), of the !eo!le ( q i , ?os. , 67 ), or of <od, to whose absolute
i he often refers. It is im!ortant that 2hilo lin:s <odOs absolute !ower with 7is %reative
a%tivit&5 >her. , *7 5 c
l 6 i,
c , iq c . >ontrasted with
7is lovingD:indness, this !ower is that of !unishment5 4eg. ,ll. , I, 90 5 q c i
i l { { , l c i
, i, l c ,
i i i . The soul should
%ontem!late both the loving:indness and the !ower5 9a%r. ,>. , 6+ 5 { { (s%. q
) q i i .
*. In the 4'' i first means right, authorit&, !ermission or freedom in the legal or
!oliti%al sense, and it is then used for the right or !ermission given b& <od ( Tob. 75.+ [ 5 The
angel sa&s5 6 i q q q ), or for
the !ermission granted or withheld b& the ?ewish 4aw ( Tob. *5./ [ 5 i
q c ). In later writings, es!. 3a. and 8a%%., it then
denotes the !ower of the :ing or of <od, the !ower whi%h de%ides in other authoritarian
relationshi!s of ever&da& life, or the authorities5 . 8a%%. .+5/6 5 {
g iq { q i ( [ (5 dat. )

q
.
@here there is a 7eb. original it is c\dPdQ sZ sX (also rendered , i, ,
li ) or a derivative of the stem \PQ ( es!. in 3a., though also in 9ir. 95./ # ooh. 656 ),
for whi%h again there are other translations. In 4 B. 20:13 # Is. /95* o
mg
# 113:2 # 9ir.
*)5.. 5 . 8a%%. 65.. it borrows from the 7eb. c\dPdQ sZ sX the sense of :ingdom" or s!here of
!ower." This usage re%urs in the ;T ( 060 ), ,%t. Thom. , .+ ( c { q q q
, q i ), and
<nosti% !ra&ers ( -rig.>els. , (I, /.), but it is limited to the 9emiti% world and is !robabl&
influen%ed b& the range of meaning of the Aabb. eTuivalent ( 066 ).
H& using i for the ,ram. \PQ when the referen%e is to <odOs !ower, the 4''
introdu%ed a term whi%h was ada!ted far better than su%h eB!ressions of !h&si%al !ower as
l, , , to eB!ress the unrestri%ted sovereignt& of <od as the -ne who
has the sa&, whose @ord is !ower5 3a. )5.) 5 c
i q q,
g , %f. . 3:100 # )5*6 , /7% # 05) # 9ir. .+5) . That
i %omes rather late in the 4'' in this sense (or an& other) is lin:ed with the fa%t that
older writings use the figurative eB!ression to be in the hands of someone" for this %on%e!t,
and that the 4'' translates this literall&5 2 B. 24:14 # . >h. *95.* # * >h. *+56 # ?ob .+57
et%. ( i ).
*+ ti is used for rights over slaves, 9!e%. 4eg. , III, ./7 # legal authorit&, !ermission, 9!e%. 4eg. , II, *) 5
8oses q i q i # right, 9!e%.
4eg. , III, 7+ 5 the sedu%er of a maiden q i #
offi%e, 4eg. <a$. , 7. 5 l i l
.
9!e%ial note should be ta:en of 135:8 f. 5 q l i q q ,
where i UU , and * 8a%%. /5*) 5
i i i , where it is $ust !ossible that
i means an angeli% !ower.
*.

/. Formall& the usage of the ;T is %losest to that of the 4''. In the ;T i denotes
the !ower of <od in nature and the s!iritual world ( >. * ), the !ower whi%h 9atan
eBer%ises and im!arts ( >. / ), and es!e%iall& the !ower or freedom whi%h is given to ?esus,
and b& 7im to 7is dis%i!les ( >. ) , 0 ), and whi%h in%ludes, e.g., the right to su!!ort
( 07+ ). 9imilarl& in !oliti%al relationshi!s5 4:. .95.7 5 i
# 8:. ./5/) 5 q i # of the authorit& of
the 9anhedrin5 ,%. 95.) # *65.+ , .* # of 2ilate5 4:. *+5*+ # ?n. .95.+ # and of freedom of selfD
determination, ,%. 05) # . >. 75/7 . -f the !ower of :ings, Aev. .75.* , ./ . It is also used,
often in the !lur. , for the authorities, 4:. .*5.. # A. ./5. # Tt. /5. . 7ere the sing. tends to
assume the more general sense of government," borrowing from the Aabb. Y^ePQ MZ , A. ./5*
f. # 8t. 659 and !ar. ( infra ). ,s in the 4'', it %an also mean a s!here of dominion, e.g.,
the state ( 4:. */57 ), the domain of s!irits ( 1!h. *5* # >ol. .5./ 067 ). , new use of the
term is for s!iritual !owers, . >. .05*) # 1!h. .5*. # /5.+ # 65.* # >ol. .5.6 # *5.+ , .0 # . 2t.
/5** ( >. 6 ).
). It undoubtedl& %ontributed to the range of meaning of the term in the ;T that there eBisted
in Y^eP Q MZ a Aabb. !ar. whi%h eBerted an unmista:eable influen%e on the <:. word. ,t all essential
!oints Y^ePQ MZ is %oDeBtensive with i , but it goes be&ond it in the ver& matters in whi%h the
;T does so. ,s a legal term, it has the general sense
**
of !ower of dis!osal, but in detail it means
the right of !ossession to something,
*/
or the authorit& or %ommission,
*)
the right,
*0
or the
freedom, to do something.
*6
In the sing. it then denotes government as su%h (not an individual
government),
*7
and in this sense it is used for the absolute monar%hi%al !ower of <od.
*6
In this
res!e%t its influen%e is refle%ted in the ;T in the use of i for government, for whi%h there
are no !ar. in ordinar& <:. , though it is worth noting that there is an instan%e in ?os.,nt. , .0, *90
5 i i (s%. 7erod)
, q c i l i . Y^ePQ MZ also means
the s!here over whi%h one dis!oses, and then sim!l& s!here or :ingdom.
*9
If almost all the ;T
!assages where i o%%urs %an be %onstrued with the hel! of Y^ePQ MZ , derivatives from the
stems \PQ s and \PQ ma& also he ta:en into %onsideration.
*. also n. 6/ .
** >f. Fassovs:&, s.v.
*/ ^Y^PQ ML tS`[P Y^qsc 89 , ., *. n. *0 .
*) oid. , ), 95 ^h^\P\ Y^PM tYSP `s .
*0 cY^PML V`[Lc^ c`PM^` 5 heirs and des%endants at law (the wife), Fet. , 9, 0. , divor%ed woman5
csuq Y^PM\ Y[u` , ;ed. , .+, /# the married ^Y^PM\ SWY (with referen%e to the husband), ;ed. ,
.+, ).
*6 ,b. , /, .05 cS^YS Y^PQ Mc . >f. the Aabb. distin%tion between what is %ommanded and what is voluntar&,
e.g., 9hebu., /, 65 Y^PMc Yq^LP c^us Yq^LP , >f. 9%hl. 8t. on 956 .
*7 In this sense also vo%alised Y^ePQ Md , 3alman @Jrt.
*
, s.v.
*6 In $ 9anh. , */d there is a %ontrast between c\qs \P Y^PM and ts \P Y^PM , 9%hl. ?m., .6/, ..
>f. the shar! re$e%tion of the idea that two Y^_`^ePQ MZ might have %reated the world ( n. 6/ ). <n. r. , ., .+ on
.5. ;o %reature %an sa& that two O!owersO have %reated the world."
*9 It often !la&s a role in legal definitions, whether we have r`ha `edcf Y^ePQ MZ Lea or V`Lea Mf cd Y^ePQ MZ Lea e.g., ,g ,
), ...
0. ,s regards %onstru%tion, the gen. is %lassi%al. It is still the ordinar& use in ;T times. Thus
1!i%t. has i with the dat. onl& on%e, and the gen. .9 times. The 4'' has the gen. .) times, and
!re!os. 0 ( Tob. .5*. [ # 9ir. /+5*6 , i with the a%%. # 3a. /597 , with the gen.# / 8a%%. 75*. ,
# ) 8a%%. )50 , i ). ?ose!h. seems to use onl& the gen., 2hilo the gen. on%e and on%e also
with the gen. In the ;T 2aul has the gen. ( . >. 95.* # A. 95*. ). There is a different !oint in
the use of in . >. 95.6 . In . >. 75/7 we have i . 8:. ( 657 ) and 8t. ( .+5. ) use onl& the
gen. 4:. .+5.9 has the gen. and i , 95. i with the a%%. and .95.7 . ?n. has the gen at
.75* , and with the gen. at .95.. . Aev. does not use the gen.# it has i with the gen. at
*5*6 # ..56 # .)5.6 # *+56 , and i with the a%%. at 656 # ./57 # .659 # **5.) , this being a
9emitism. -n the whole Tuestion, %f.
A
aderma%her
*
, .*9 ff.
C. The NT Concept .
The s!e%ifi% role !la&ed b& i in the ;T world of thought rests on three
foundations. First, unli:e eB!ressions for indwelling, ob$e%tive, !h&si%al or s!iritual !ower
( , l , ), it denotes the !ower whi%h de%ides, so that it is
!arti%ularl& well ada!ted to eB!ress the invisible !ower of <od whose @ord is %reative
!ower. The i of ?esus and the a!ostles is of the same %hara%ter. 9e%ondl&, this !ower
of de%ision is a%tive in a legall& ordered whole, es!e%iall& in the state and in all the
authoritarian relationshi!s su!!orted b& it. ,ll these relationshi!s are the refle%tion of the
lordshi! of <od in a fallen world where nothing ta:es !la%e a!art from 7is i or
authorit&. The& are based u!on this lordshi!. Thus the word i %an refer to the fa%t
that <odOs will is done in heaven. It %an also denote the fa%t that 7is will !revails in the
s!here of nature as an ordered totalit& ( ). Indeed, i is given to ,nti%hrist for
his final a%tivit&, so that nothing ta:es !la%e a!art from the i or will of <od.
1s!e%iall& in the %ommunit& the word is indis!ensable to eB!ress the fa%t that we %annot ta:e
an&thing, but that it has to be given to us. Thus i des%ribes the !osition of ?esus as
the 7ead of the >hur%h to whom all !ower is given and who gives it to 7is dis%i!les. This
i whi%h is o!erative in ordered relationshi!s, this authorit& to a%t, %annot be
se!arated from its %ontinuous eBer%ise, and therefore thirdl& i %an denote the
freedom whi%h is given to the %ommunit&.
.. In the first instan%e, then, i signifies the absolute !ossibilit& of a%tion whi%h is
!ro!er to <od, who %annot be as:ed %on%erning the relationshi! of !ower and legalit& in this
i , sin%e 7e is the sour%e of both. Thus the word i arises in two !assages
whi%h s!ea: dire%tl& of <odOs in%ontrovertible freedom to a%t5 4:. .*50 5
i l q ,
/+
and ,%.
.57 5 q q g
liq iq . >f. also ?d. *0 5 q q q {
i l l
l (s%. i ), where i o%%u!ies an im!ortant !la%e alongside .
This i is that of the >reator. This is eB!ressed b& 2aul in the meta!hor of A. 95*. 5
i q
c l q , c l i #
/.
@hile 2hilo tra%es ba%: %reation to the
of <od, and dominion over what is %reated to the i , for 2aul the !ro%ess
of %reation itself is an eBer%ise of the absolute !ower of <od and its su!reme eB!ression, sin%e
what is %reated owes its being to the >reator and thus bears witness in its ver& eBisten%e to the
i of the >reator.
Aaderma%her 4. Aaderma%her, !eutestaentliche Graatik
.
, .9..#
*
.9*0.
/+ 8t. .+5*6 has5 {
/. belongs to i , sin%e it is su!erfluous with . @ith the -T Mu] ^_` there is not
usuall& an& eB!lanator& gen., though %f. ?er. .95. .
*. The i and !ower of <od are variousl& dis!la&ed in the s!here of nature. The
freTuent use of the term in this %onteBt shows that nature is regarded as an ordered totalit&.
Aev. .)5.6 s!ea:s of an angel i . It is, however,
!arti%ularl& in the es%hatologi%al inter!retation of world histor& in Aev. that we read of the
i whi%h <od has given to the for%es of destru%tion in nature and histor&5 Aev. 656 5
i q q # 95/ 5 i {
i i l i q q # 95.+ 5
q i q 6 # 95.9 5 q
i
. In these !assages i means more than !ower or abilit&. It im!lies that even
the !ower of the s%or!ion to hurt is lent to it b& <od. <od has final i over the
!lagues, Aev. .659 5 q
i . ,ngels have an i with whi%h the& are
invested b& <od, Aev. .65. 5 l i
, i , q q i q
.
/*

/. ,lso en%om!assed b& the will of <od is the i whi%h is 9atanOs s!here of
dominion. ;either in ,%. *65.6 5 ,
l q i nor in >ol. .5./ 5
q q i l q
i l q , %an we se!arate between !ower" and
s!here of !ower," while in 1!h. *5* i is the :ingdom of the air. If
there is in these eB!ressions a refle%tion of the Aabb. %ustom of using a !assive to avoid
mentioning <od, it is also materiall& ne%essar& to sa& onl& that !ower is given" to 9atan. For
the final m&ster& is not the !ower of evil itself. It is the fa%t that the !ower of evil, whi%h is
radi%all& hostile to <od, ma& be eBer%ised as su%h and &et en%om!assed b& the divine
overruling. Thus we read in 4:. )56 5 .
//
,nd though it is said of ,nti%hrist that the
dragon has given him his !ower ( ), his !osition ( ), and therefore
i (sa&," almost influen%e"), Aev. ./5* (%f. ./5) 5
, q i iq ), nevertheless the further
statements in v. 0 and v. 7 5 { i q (he was
given authorit& to a%t") { i q
, im!l& that the time when ,nti%hrist is given a free hand with
the removal of the is de%ided b& <od, so that even the rule of ,nti%hrist does not
ta:e !la%e a!art from the will of <od.
/)
The same %onfiden%e is found in the words of ?esus
in 4:. **50/ 5 q 6 q i ,
/0
and it is for
this reason that there is here no selfD%ontradi%tion. @e find i in the same %onne%tion
in 8:. .65.) (@ teBt)5 q i
and Aev. ./5.* 5 ( l i {) q i 6 i
6 .
). The word i is im!ortant in understanding the !erson and wor: of >hrist. It
denotes 7is divinel& given !ower and authorit& to a%t. If 7e is the 9on, this authorit& is not a
restri%ted %ommission. It is 7is own rule in free agreement with the Father. i is well
ada!ted to denote this freedom too, as in ?n. .+5.6 5 i ,
/* 7ere it might seem that the most obvious meaning is a%tual !ower, but i signifies the !osition of the
angel and thus !re!ares the wa& for the mention of in what follows.
// H. @eiss, Die vier &vang. (.9++) and gn. 8t. , ad loc. translate s!here of !ower," while <rundmann, 0+
!refers !ower" in view of the . The diffi%ult& of the remains in both %ases.
/) -n this whole !t. %f. @. Foerster, Th9tFr , .+) (.9/*), *79 ff. -n the !assive %onstru%tion, v. <rundmann,
0/, *..
/0 i here means that dar:ness is given freedom to wor:. gn. 4:. , ad loc. wrongl& lin:s it with the time
and !la%e (<ethsemane at night).
i , where freedom is im!lied as well as !ower.
/6

?esus s!ea:s of the !ower with whi%h 7e is invested in 8t. *65.6 5
i q . This means that ?esus is eBalted to be and
in the i .
/7
In Aev. .*5. ff. the divine sees this in a vision, and
he hears the heavenl& voi%e in v. .+ 5 q i q q
i q i ,
q { ,s the first !art of %ha!ter .* s!ea:s of the overthrow
of 9atan with the fulfilment of the wor: of ?esus on earth, so the h&mn !ro%laims that <od has
the !ower and 7is ,nointed the authorit& to a%t. ,%%ording to the ;T the or
i of ?esus is universal, but it a!!lies !arti%ularl& to men, ?n. .75* 5 6
i , %f 8t. ..5*7 and ?n. .5.* . It also in%ludes the !la%e of
?esus in the %oming $udgment, ?n. 05*7 5 i i ,
l 6 i .
/6

The histori%al ?esus %laims the same i (%f. 8t. ..5*7 with *65.6 ), but within the
limits of 7is earthl& %alling and %ommission. The a%%ounts refer to 7is authorit& to forgive
sins ( 8:. *5.+ and !ar. ). The s%ribes as: %on%erning the !ower to forgive ( ),
though this %annot be se!arated from the right. In 7is answer ?esus uses i , whi%h
%om!rises both right and !ower.
/9
There is also referen%e to the i to eB!el demons
( 8:. /5.0 # 657 and !ar. # 4:. .+5.9 ), and it is assumed that ?esus has this. In this res!e%t the
use of i for the !ower whi%h de%ides, and for authorit& based on a %ommissioning
for%e, agrees with the a%tual mode of eBor%ism b& a word of %ommand. Finall&, the word
i is used b& the 1vangelists ( 8t. 75*9 ) and the ?ewish !eo!le to des%ribe the
im!ression made b& ?esus, and es!e%iall& b& 7is tea%hing. The 9anhedrin as:s ( 8:. ..5*6 )5
iq iq ; q i q i ,
g # H& what right does 7e %leanse the tem!le,
)+
b& a right deriving from 7is
own authorit& (e.g., as a !ro!het), or b& one grounded in the %ommission given 7im b&
another Is the answer of ?esus rather along the lines of 8:. *5.+ ,gain, the !eo!le often
refers to the i of ?esus, es!e%iall& in the formulation in 8t. 956 5 l {
i 6 . >f. also
8:. .5** and !ar. 5 g g q
i , l . 8:. .5*7 5
6 i ;
q q i ,
.
).
4: )5/6 5 iq
. This is to be understood in the light of the
%urrent feeling that there were no longer an& !ro!hets. Aabbini% eB!osition was sim!l&
eB!osition and not !ro!he%&, i.e., it did not s!ea: with dire%t authorit&, with i .
)*

ti (UU Y^ePQ MZ ) !reDsu!!oses a divine %ommission and authorisation whi%h is also
!ower, and the s!e%ial feature in this i is that it is inse!arable from the !ro%lamation
that the :ingdom of <od is near. @ith the !resen%e of the Hearer of this authorit&, of this
!ower to heal and to forgive sins, the :ingdom is also !resent. 7en%e the formula of
AeitEenstein5
)/
, %ombination of su!ernatural :nowledge with su!ernatural !ower," is
hardl& adeTuate to %onve& all that is meant b& the teBt.
/6 >f. gn. ?. , ad loc. # <rundmann, 6..
/7 ,%. *5/6 .
/6 >f. * >. 05.+ .
/9 The a%%ent is on q , as !reviousl& on the !resent i # hen%e i is not the right to
!ro%laim the forgiveness of sins, whi%h %onstantl& ta:es !la%e q , but the right and !ower to effe%t it.
)+ 9o 7%:. 8:. , ad loc. Hut the Tuestion ma& refer to the entr& ( 9%hl. 8t. , ad loc. ) or to the whole a%tivit& of
?esus (<rundmann, 7/).
). -n the %onstru%tion in 8:. .5*7 , v. Fl. 8:. and 7%:. 8:. , ad loc.
)* >f. . 8a%%. )5)6 5 i { q iq, q
q .
0. In the varied use of i for the authorit& im!arted to the %ommunit& the
outstanding %hara%teristi% is that the >hur%h owes its eBisten%e and nature to >hrist. It needs
enablement" even to enter the :ingdom of <od5 i
( ?n. .5.* ). The same thought is figurativel& eB!ressed in Aev. **5.) 5
l , q i
q q , and negativel& in 7b. ./5.+ 5
i l g g . The %on%e!t is also
indis!ensable in relation to a!ostoli% a%tion, with the em!hasis on !ower. * >. .+56 5
q i q, q
l lq l i , l # *
>. ./5.+ 5 q i
g , ,%. 65.9 5 q i
g . >f. also Aev. ..56 . This !ower
%annot be used arbitraril&# in its a!!li%ation the a!ostle is bound to his 4ord5 l l
, %f. also Aev. *5*6I*6 . -n the other hand, i !resu!!oses res!onsible use, as ?esus
assumes in the !arable in 8:. ./5/) 5 q li
q i, q ,
and as 2aul demonstrates in his refusal of su!!ort. In this %onne%tion i denotes the
right, e.g., to be su!!orted b& the %ommunit&, . >. 95)I6 , .* , .6 # * Th. /59 .
8ore !arti%ularl& i means the freedom given to the %ommunit&. This is the
sub$e%t of 2aulOs Tuarrel with the >orinthians# %f. . >. 65.* 5 ,

. ,

6
. . >. 659 5 c q i
. . >. .+5*/ 5 ,

l .
The i whi%h was a >orinthian slogan ma& be inter!reted either <nosti%all& as !ower
))
or as freedom in res!e%t of law.
)0
1ither wa& the basis is 2aulOs own tea%hing on freedom from
the 4aw ( 0+. ), and the slogan itself ma& well be 2auline. It reminds us of the sa&ing in A.
.)5.) 5 l iq c l , whi%h
!erha!s derives from 8:. 75.0 , and whi%h 2aul develo!s in rather a different wa& in his atta%: on
as%eti%ism in . Tm. )5) 5 i . These statements are not general truths#
the& are valid onl& for faith. In the first instan%e the& are addressed to ?ewish >hristians. The&
dissolve the Aabb. distin%tion between c^duZ sa and Y^ePQ MZ
)6
and in their %on%rete a!!li%ation the&
show what freedom from the 4aw means. 8an& ?ewish >hristians in 2aulOs %ongregations,
however, were still bound in their %ons%ien%es to the 4aw of their !eo!le. This was not be%ause
the& o!!osed 2aulOs tea%hing in !rin%i!le. It was rather be%ause man& things %onne%ted with !agan
%ults raised for them the Tuestion whether freedom would not bring them into the s!here of the
un%lean and even involve them indire%tl& in a %ertain !arti%i!ation in !aganism for whi%h the&
%ould not assume res!onsibilit&. This eB!lains the s%ru!les regarding meats and drin:s in Aome
and >orinth. -n the other hand, the de%laration of freedom from the 4aw !erha!s led others to
vivid and startling demonstrations of this freedom. It is along these lines that 9%hlatter understands
. >. 05. ff. The in%lination to treat seBual Tuestions in the same wa& as meats might well be lin:ed
)/ 2oim. , )6, /# %f. 7%:. 8:. , ad loc. and <rundmann. 06. @indis%h ( Hibl. ), **0I**7, has !ointed out that
this is the i of a !ro!het, %f. Paulus u. 1hristus (.9/)), .0. ff.# also 3odd in 3'steriu 1hristi (.9/.),
7/# 7. ?. 7oltEmann, !t.liche "heologie , I
*
(.9..), *96. ?. Flausner, 0esus von !a-areth
*
(.9/)), /6+ f. finds
the eB!ression i diffi%ult to understand," and mentions a thesis of 7. 2. >ha$es that
i rests on a %onfusian of the two stems \PQ s , to s!ea: in !arables," and \PQ s , to rule."
)) ?oh. @. . F. on 65.*5 i in 1!i%t. is moral !ower ( 06. # 06/ )# %f. the !i%ture of the <nosti% 2aul
in AeitEenstein 7ell. 8&st. , Hrigabe '(I.
)0 ,. 9%hlatter, Die korinthische "heologie (.9.)), passi # also Paulus6 der Bore 0esu (.9/)), /6 f., and %omm.
, ad loc. ,%%. to @. 4Gtgert, 9reiheitspredigt und Sch2argeister (.9+6), ..9 ff. freedom is grounded in
gnosis .
)6 n. *6 .
with the ?ewish origin of those %on%erned. @hile radi%all& u!holding the i of >hristians,
the , 2aul o!!oses to these tenden%ies two !rin%i!les, the !rin%i!le of what
is fitting, of the , and the !rin%i!le of what is edif&ing. The first has the man himself
in view, and it !oints to the fa%t that there is no freedom without danger, for there alwa&s lur:s the
!eril of a new bondage, an q . The se%ond %onsiders the neighbour and as:s what
is hel!ful to him.
This enables us to see the differen%e from other t&!es of autonom&. The i of whi%h
2oimandres s!ea:s in a !rominent !assage5 l,
, 6 q i ,
)7
the
o!!osite of the , is the freedom of the inner man from fate and from the
influen%es of the !lanets.
)6
The i of 1!i%tetus is the same a!art from the dualisti% and
%osmologi%al ba%:ground. >ommon to both is the idea that this autonom& is grounded in the
Heing of man and is thus intrinsi%. In 2aul man as a totalit& is ta:en u! b& >hrist into the s!here of
the i , and he is thus liberated from all !owers, not b& nature, but in faith, whi%h
does not disregard the !ower given to 9atan and his for%es in this world, but whi%h :nows that it is
not abandoned to them.
,mong >hristian <nosti%s the term i (UU potestas ) !la&s a relativel& minor role. Hut
the thing itself is there, and it is a develo!ment of the movement alread& !resent in >orinth. @e
%an see %learl& the rea%tion against ?ewish (and e%%lesiasti%al) legalism in the a%%usation of
Irenaeus that the <nosti%s are alwa&s the first at !agan feasts.
)9

,nother divergen%e from ;T i is found in the a!o%r&!hal ,%ts, with !arallels in the
magi% !a!. , in whi%h the word itself is infreTuent.
0+
In the ;T i is sought from <od in
faith and 7e gives it freel& in >hrist. Hut here it is wrested from higher !owers b& means of
magi%. ,gain, in the ;T it is devoted to the servi%e of <od. Hut here it is used for oneOs own ends.
These nonD>hristian ideas of i sim!l& re!resent so man& human Tuestions in antiTue
form, namel&, the Tuestions of freedom from destin&, of freedom for a%tion, of real !ower and of
authorit& to a%t# and it is to these Tuestions that the ;T see:s to give an answer.
6. , s!e%ial use of i in the ;T is for su!ernatural !owers, usuall& together with
i , , .
The eB!ressions i and i are not found in 7ellenism or !agan <nosti%ism in
this sense. 1ven where the& might have been used,
0.
the& do not o%%ur. -n the other hand the&
are found in the ,s%. Is. .5) # *5* et%.#
0*
Test. 4. /56, with , in an a%%ount of the seven
heavens whi%h is obviousl& not a unit&# also in 9lav. 1n. (the longer re%ension) *+, whi%h lo%ates
them in the seventh heaven with ar%hangels, !owers, !rin%i!alities ( i ), dominions (
), %herubim and sera!him et%.# 1th. 1n. 6.5.+5 all angels of !ower, all angels of
dominions"# Treasur& (ed. >. HeEold, .66/), ., /5 ,ngels and ar%hangels, thrones, !rin%es,
dominions, lords, %herubs and sera!hs. , whi%h reminds us of the !lur. , are
mentioned as belonging to the fifth heaven in ,!%. 9o!honias.
0/
The %learest and most eB!li%it
!assage is in Test. 9ol. , *+5.) ff., where the demons as su%h, who %annot attain to the heavenl&
regions, are se!arated from the i, i and whi%h belong there.
The >hristian <nosti%s and the a!o%r. ,%ts also s!ea: of i and i . In 9imon
8agus the& are %reators.
0)
In Hasilides, who often s!ea:s of i and less freTuentl& of
)7 >or!. 7erm. , I, /*.
)6 >f. >or!. 7erm. , I, .0. This !ower and freedom is based on , on :nowledge, as rightl& !ointed out
b& AeitEenstein ( 2oim. , )6, /) and also 1. ;orden, #gnostos "heos (.9./), *9/, n. ..
)9 Iren. , I, 6, / UU 1!i!h.7aer. , /., *., *. -n the revolutionar& %hara%ter of <nosti%ism as revealed in this
%ounterDmovement, %f. 7. ?onas, Gnosis u. sp=tantiker Geist , I (.9/)), *// ff.
0+ It is %ommon in Test. 9ol. (ed. 8%>own, .9**), %f. 8%>ownOs IndeB (.9**).
0. >f. >or!. 7erm. , I, 9# .* ff.# *0, where there is referen%e to the i and its , and to the
i .
0* ,t an& rate there might be an original i behind the word whi%h ,. 3illmann renders potestas
( e:ercitus ).
0/ >l. ,l.9trom. , (, .., 77, *.
0) Iren. , I, */, * f.5 &nnoia V generate angelos et potestates6 a $uibus et undu hunc factu di:it V
&nnoia V detenta ab iis6 $uae ab ea eissae essent potestates et angeli V descendisse eu (s%. Sione )
{ assiilatu virtutibus et potestatibus et angelis (from the hand& edition of @. (Jl:er, ?uellen -ur
i ( potestates ), these and others are names for %osmi% magnitudes, and indeed for for%es
whi%h are hostile to the <os!el and the <nosti%s.
00
In (alentinus, too, we have both terms,
06
as
also in the 8ar%osites,
07
where the referen%e is !robabl& to !lanetar& s!heres under the
3emiurge.
06
The a!o%r. ,%ts dis!la& mu%h the same usage,
09
though here there is a distin%tive
lin:ing of demons with the !owers,
6+
and at one !oint the %onne%tion of the i with the
,
6.
whi%h sets them in immediate !roBimit& to demons. -n the other hand, in two !assages
we ma& !erha!s dis%ern a sense of the abstra%t signifi%an%e of i .
6*

It is obvious that the idea of !owers" develo!ed on ?ewish soil, and that here, too, it finds
a !arallel in Y^ePQ MZ
6/
as ma& be seen in >ol.
6)
4inguisti%all& i is abstra%t, li:e the
related and . @e also learn from the !arallels that i (li:e
i ) are to be distinguished from i , whose region does not eBtend be&ond the
, and that the& are %osmi% !owers.
It is not !ossible to distinguish between i and i , and to assign to them the
different fun%tions of two grou!s of !owers, sin%e neither the ;T nor !arallels give an&
Geschichte der christl. Gnosis m.9/*n, *).
00 Iren. , I, *), 65 $ui haec didicerit V invisibile et incoprehensibile eu angelis et potestatibus universis
fieri ((Jl:er, )0). 7i!!.Aef. , (II, *0, 05 q l q
q i ( op. cit. , 0*).
06 1!i!h.7aer. , /., 0, *5 { i i ,
i g q ( op. cit. , 6+).
07 Iren. , I, *., 05 alii sunt6 $ui ortuos rediunt V ut incoprehensibiles et invisibiles principibus et
potestatibus fiant V et praecipiunt eis venientibus ad potestates haec dicere { l
i, c ( op. cit. , .)+).
06 In the 2istis 9o!hia there are in the lower heavens i, i and ar%hangels. There is also a
!ersonal for%e with the name 2ara!leB, a :ind of angel of !unishment. Hut no general %on%lusions %an be drawn
from this late !rodu%tion.
09 V. the indeB of 4i!sius and Honnet.
6+ ,%t. ?n. , 965 i c iq i, ,
i, i, , i, i, , 2 q
q pi .
6. ,%t. 2hil. , .)) (4i!sius and Honnet, II, *, !. 60, )# 66, . ff.)5 c
q i l6 i q i, q
.
6* .bid. , ./* (II, *, !. 6/,7)5 c i i ( 06) ).
6/ In Aabb. literature there is in a series of !assages a !olemi% against the assum!tion of two or more Y^_`^ePQ MZ .
The error %ombatted is that of the 8inim. Its more eBa%t form %annot be fiBed with %ertaint&, ,%%ording to $
8eg. , ), .+ the sa&ing5 8a& he bless thee with good," refers to (belief in) two !owers ( `YP V`L^ ^WML`
Y`^PM ). 9in%e the underl&ing idea is that onl& good %omes from <od and evil from another !ower, we are
obviousl& to thin: of a dualisti% and !ossibl& a <nosti% tea%hing. 9imilarl&, the battle against the do%trine that
two !owers ( Y^`^PM ) made the world ( <n. r. , ., .+ on .5.# %f. T. 9anh. , 6, 7# b.9anh. , /6a5 <od had no
!artner m ^P n in the wor: of %reation, as the 8inim sa&) might well be dire%ted against <nosti%
Ds!e%ulations. Hut the stor& of how 1lisha b. ,bu$a (,%her) erred, namel&, b& seeing 8etatron
seated alongside <od ( b.>hag. , .0a# 7eb. 1n. .65/), reminds us rather of the %onfli%t with >hristianit&. ;one of
this has an&thing to do with the i of 2aul, whi%h are subordinate and ver& numerous beings,
9!e%ulation on su%h beings is !erha!s !resu!!osed in <n. r. , 6, 6 on .5*6 , where the 8inim tr& to derive the
eBisten%e of more than one <od from the !lur. V`ca \d_[z and ^ePw qb Sf though it is not !re%isel& stated that the
referen%e here is to more than two. In <n. r. , ., 0 on .5. , however, it is !lainl& denied that 8i%hael %reated the
south of heaven, <abriel the north and <od the %entre# and in 9anh. , ), 0# b.9anh. , /6a it is said that man was
%reated single in order that the 8inim should not sa& that there are man& !owers in heaven ( Y^`^PM cLMc
V`sPL ). It ma& be noted at this !oint that when the 4'' translates <n. .5.6 5 i {
q l ( Y\XPXQ sZ sX \Z ) q q it is !erha!s thin:ing of !owers li:e
the i of the ;T .
6) >f. F. 2rat, *+.I**9.
indi%ations in this dire%tion. The& are different eB!ressions for mu%h the same thing. It might well
be that the and stand in the immediate !resen%e of <od and are thus to be
distinguished from the i and i , whi%h are lin:ed with earthl& things,
60
but as to
this there %an be no %ertaint&. ,gain, it is hardl& !ossible to regard the i and i as
grou!s of angels in some %onteBts and grou!s of demons in others.
66
Though %ertain !assages
seem to !oint in different dire%tions, %f. . >. .05*) 5 g q
i , and 1!h. /5.+ 5 g
i i q i q i i
, the& refer to the same !owers. The twofold as!e%t is the main !roblem, ,%%ording to
?ewish belief the heavens are the home of different !owers whi%h rule nature, and of that whi%h
the& %ontrol, the stars no less than snow and hail.
67
This view is fundamentall& different from the
<:. %on%e!tion of . Hut 2aul has %ombined with this ?ewish foundation the 7ellenisti%
idea of a neBus of destin& embra%ing the whole .
This leads to a %on%e!tion of several %osmi% !owers with whose government human life is
%onne%ted in man& wa&s, and whi%h mediate between <od and man. ,s !owers of the %reated
world, the& share its twofold %hara%ter. -n the one side the& re!resent the %arnal side of fallen
%reation with the !owers whi%h sedu%e and enslave man. -n the other, the& belong to the
%reation whi%h is %reated and l ( >ol. .5.0 f. ). This twofold as!e%t
is the distin%tive feature of the relevant ;T statements. ;either ?udaism nor the <ree: world
re%ognises this tension, and <nosti%ism !resses on to a dualism whi%h se!arates the %reated
world from <od altogether. The de%isive !oint for 2aul is that in no regard, whether as fate, or
nature, or intermediate beings, or servants of <od, %an these !owers either se!arate the
>hristian from >hrist or lead him to 7im.
66

7. The meaning of . >. ..5.+ 5 i q q i
q q , is mu%h %ontested. Hut two !oints ma:e the
meaning %lear.
,s %on%erns the %onteBt first of all, there is no shift until v. ./ , and therefore v. .+ forms !art
of the dis%ussion of veiling from the one main stand!oint, namel&, that of the relation of woman to
man. That this is still true in v. .+ is made evident b& the of v. .. , whi%h introdu%es a
%on%luding limitation of the de%lared subordination of woman to man. Thus v. .+ , as ma& be seen
alread& from the with whi%h it o!ens,
69
!resents no other stand!oint than that of the
!re%eding and the two following verses. 9e%ondl&, regard should be had to the %hoi%e of the verb
i , for in 2aul this does not im!l& eBternal %om!ulsion but obligation (eB%e!t in . >. 05. ,
and !erha!s 75/6 ). It is thus ver& !robable that in this verse 2aul is referring to the moral dut& of a
woman and not to an& :ind of im!osed %onstraint. Hut the various eB!ositions whi%h refer to the
%on%u!is%en%e of angels,
7+
or to regard for the leaders of the %ommunit&,
7.
are in%om!atible
with these two !oints. The onl& alternative is that the veil is a sign of womanOs subordination to
man, i.e., that man is the q q . For this there are Aabbini% !arallels whi%h
60 >f. the distin%tion between the angels of nature and the q`NM Y^LMq V^MsLP Y^W\s `MP in 7eb.
1n. .)5..
66 9o <. FurEe, passi and !. .06# also 1. de 4os Aios in Verbu Doini , 9 (.9*9), *69I*97.
67 1.g., 1th. 1n. , .7 f. and b.>hag. , .*b.
66 4oh. Fol. , ..9 suggests that the !owers and for%es signif& in a m&thi%al view no other than the natural
determination of the world whi%h also engulfs man." >f. <. @ohlenberg, ;:. g. , */ (.9.*), *).. -n this whole
!t. %f. also 7. ?onas ( n. )9 ), passi 5 es!. !. 995 In <nosti%ism the demon !owers are both !ersonal and
s!atial %on%e!ts. This eB!lains wh& <nosti%ism %ould also use i in the sense of a s!here of !ower,
06) # also !. .9/ 5 The %osmi% !owers ( i ) and the !owers whi%h wor: in man ( i ) have the
same unit& as that of being and a%tion# %f. the o%%asional eTuation of the i with demons mentioned
under n. 6+ and 6. .
69 >f. 3ibelius and FurEe.
7+ 1verling suggests the !ower eBer%ised b& woman through the veil to restrain demons, %f. 3ibelius, and ,.
?eremias, Bab'lonisches i !" (.9+0), ..) f.# also Der Schleier von Suer bis heute (.9/.), /6 f. >f. 1. Fehrle,
Die kultische 4euschheit i #ltertu UU A(( , 6 (.9.+), /6, n. ).
7. 9o Hornhluser, op. cit.
treat the veil as a sign of the married woman.
7*
In this %ase, refers to the
angels as guardian angels or wat%hers over the natural order.
7/
The term i is used
materiall& for the veil. The onl& Tuestion is wh& it is here used in this wa&. ,s su%h it does not
mean a sign of dominion.
7)
2ossibl& 2aul is using this bold image to drive home his !oint,
namel&, that the veil signifies the dominion to whi%h woman is sub$e%t. If we do not a%%e!t this
view, there remains onl& the suggestion of <. Fittel
70
that i rests on an ,ram. c`S^\P
whi%h is on%e used in the sense of veil, and that the underl&ing stem \P , meaning to %on%eal"
(still to be dis%losed) has been lin:ed with the ver& similar \P , to rule," to !rodu%e i
either as a mistranslation or as !o!ular et&molog&. In favour of this %on$e%ture there %an be no
den&ing the !ossibilit& of one s!ee%h influen%ing another in this wa&# the range of meaning of
i in the ;T is eviden%e enough, -n the other hand, it must be remembered that it is no
more than a %on$e%ture.
.
@ith inf. and gen. (4'' also !re!. )5 to have and to eBer%ise i " in its various
senses. 7en%e a. to have the !ossibilit&,"
.
b. to have the right,"
*
ond %. to have the !ower."
/

It is not found in ?ose!h. In the 4'' (a%t and med.) it o%%urs at 2 t. 7:24 5
(b.). It is !arti%ularl& %ommon in ooh. with
referen%e to the !ower of rulers and its misuse (e.g., 6595
6q ) and limitation (95.75
c q ) (%.).
In the ;T it is found at . >. 75) 5 q q li 6
i c q li 6
q . 2aul is not sa&ing here that ea%h !artner has a right to the bod& of the other,
but that ea%h foregoes the right freel& to dis!ose of his own bod& (%.). 7e is thus en$oining
those who are married not to rule over one another but mutuall& to serve one another even in
marital Tuestions. The one gives rights to the other. ,gainst the ba%:ground of an%ient
%on%e!tions it is im!ortant to see with what %are 2aul assigns the right to res!e%t and the dut&
to serve eTuall& to both !artners. In 4:. **5*0 5 l
(%.), there is allusion to ooh. In . >. 65.* 5 ,

6 , 2aul %onstru%ts a !ass. along the lines of
and with the sense that I will allow nothing to win !ower over me." This is a
general statement designed to show that there is no freedom without danger, but 2aul ma&
also have been thin:ing more s!e%ifi%all& of the fa%t that i ma:es into a q
and thus brings under her !ower."
)

%
*

7* 9tr.DH. , III, )*/I))+# ,. 9%hlatter, 3ie :orinthis%he Theologie " in HFTh , .6, * (.9.)), */ f., 0) ff.#
Paulus6 der Bore 0esu (.9/)), /+9# ?ir:u, op. cit. The !oint of the !ar. from b.9habb. , .06b addu%ed b& Foerster,
op. cit. , is that the %overing of the head (b& the man) denotes sub$e%tion to <od, whereas the o!!osite im!lies
rebellion and the rule of evil im!ulse. ,%%. to ,%t. Thom. , 06 are shameless women.
7/ ?. 8eEEa%asa and F. AJs%h suggests that the angels veil themselves before <od and are thus an eBam!le to
women.
7) ,s suggested b& Tis%hleder, .06 f., following some of the fathers.
70 %p. cit. <insburger, op. cit. advan%es the same thesis in a!!arent inde!enden%e of FittelOs wor:.
. 2hilodem. 2hilos. , (olumina Ahetor., I, %ol. III, .* ff. (ed. 9udhaus, I, 6)5 c
q (on the teBt, %f. the 9u!!l.).
* >I< , III, )06)5 q .
/ 3ion. 7al.,nt. Aom. , I', )), 65 { q i q i {
{ i .
) H%hm. F. , ad loc.
C i . 9%hl. 8t. on *+5*0 .
In
?
ul.
<
al. , .++%5 i ti q
,
.
this
word means, not the misuse of !ower, but its !ossession and eBer%ise," It is not found elsewhere
in se%ular <:. , nor in the 4'', ?ose!h. or 2hilo.
In the ;T it o%%urs onl& at 8:. .+5)* and !ar. 5 l
l
. 7ere its !rimar& sense is that the& eBer%ise !ower over
them." There is no earthl& government without the use of for%e. Hut if the referen%e in l
is not merel& to the authorities, it is li:el& that the word im!lies the tenden%&
towards %om!ulsion or o!!ression whi%h is immanent in all earthl& !ower, and not merel& in
!oliti%al. The word also seems to be used in this sense in ,%t. Thom.
*

9oerster
! q .
, )09 f.
)! .
, i .
, 06* ff.

*

l , those who are without, who stand outside," * 8a%%. .5.6 # also l , 7dt. ,
I', 0. Figur. foreigners," Thu%. , (, .), /# ?os.,nt. , .0, /.) 5 q q , %f. /.65
, those who are banished," Thu%. , I(, 66, *# 9ir. 2rolog.5 l , the
lait&" (in distin%tion from the s%ribes). In Aabb. lit. we sometimes find V`Sa^_u`ha cf for those who
are without," i.e., for those %ondemned as hereti%s," who do not a%%e!t the halaka of the
s%ribes,"
.
so
8
eg. , ), 6 (%f. b.9anh. , .++, Har.). 9anh. , .+, .5 V`Sa^_u`ha cf V`Ma id eZ cf outside
boo:s whi%h are not re%ognised b& the 9&nagogue."
*
in the attrib. instead of an ad$. means
outside, eBternal," 2lat.2haedr. , *)6a5 l # H<K , I(, ...), 05
# 2. -B&. , (I, 9+/, *+5 # ,%. *65.. 5 i c l
(alien, i.e., nonD?ewish %ities")# 7erm.v. , *, ), /. For 2hilo
/
the thought is
%hara%teristi% that there is nothing outside the ( 2lant. , 0 , 6 et%.). -nl& of <od is the
antinom& true5 c q
( 2oster. >. , .) ). 2hilo s!ea:s of the liberation of the from all earthl& hindran%es
in his eB!osition of <n. .050 5 l 6 ( 4eg. ,ll. , III, ). ).
?ul. ?ulian the ,!ostate (/6.I/6/ ,.3. ), who attem!ted b& a fusion of !ol&theism and ;eoD2latonism to restore
de%a&ing !aganism, %rationes , ed. F.>. 7ertlein, .670 ff.# &pistulae , ed. ?. HideEDF. >umont, .9**.
<al. 1ontra Galilaeos .
. 1d. >. I. ;eumann (.66+), .76.
* ,%t. Thom. , )0 (ed. 4i!siusDHonnet), II, *, !. .6*, a!!. on line *)5 c c
q . .bid. , 965 pi q i i,
6 q g q .
C . 2ass. , I, 99/# 4iddellD9%ott , 6++# 2r.DHauer , )// f.# 8oult.D8ill. , **6.
. 2. Hillerbe%:, ;athanael, // (.9.7), .*9. >f. ?. AabbinowitE, 8ishnah 8egillah (.9/.), ./+# 1. Haneth,
8is%hna$ot, II (.9*7), )0), n. 0/ (referring to the 1ssenes).
8eg. 3egilla , 8ishnahD, ToseftaD, Talmud tra%tate &sther Scroll (reading for the feast of 2urim) (9tra%:, &inl. ,
)/).
* >f. 9tr.DH. , II, 7# III, /6*# 1lieser ben ?ehuda, "hesaurus totius (ebraitatis , III (.9.*), .0/6 f. 9omething of
the same in seen in the e%%lesiasti%al language of 9&ria, %f. /eli$uiae 0uris &cclesiastici #nti$uissiae , ed. ,. 2.
de 4agarde (.606), 6+, )# 3ittheilungen , I (.66)), **6.
/ ,%%ording to Hertram.
8:. )5.. 5 l , the broad mass of the !eo!le not amongst the dis%i!les of ?esus"# .
>. 05.* f. # . Th. )5.* # >ol. )50 # nonD>hristians," es!. !agans." 9o, too, l at .
Tm. /57 or l at * >l., ./. .. -n the anthro!ologi%al term
in * >. )5.6 5 the outward man," or man as a %orru!tible earthl& being" ( o!!.
),
)
, I, /60 .
Beh
!)), )), ),
!))
*

!)), ) .
A. !)), ) 9ith the ree%s.
a.
.
and i are originall& s&non. with other words %onstru%ted with
- ,
*
and therefore the first sense is to indi%ate" or to de%lare" ( 7om.-d. , ), 700), or
de%laration," re!ort." This must be the startingD!oint for our dis%ussion of the histor& of the
term. It is from this that the ensuing variations develo!. 3io >. , 06, *9, /5 q g
q i # Thu%. , (, )9, i are
!ublished. in 2lat.4eg. , III, 7+*d means to de%lare war on someone."
b. If it is !ubli%l& de%lared b& the state that something must be done, this ta:es on the %hara%ter of
an order ( Thu%. , (, )7). In Thu%. , (II, .7 to order mobilisation."
9imilarl& q i in 2ol&b. , I', /6, * means a%%ording to order." %.
i be%omes a te%hni%al term at law for the de%laration of a %om!laint or a%%usation,"
deliver& of a $udgment." ,es%hin. ., 6) (%f. 6.)5 q q qi i
. ,gainst orators who have lost the right of !ubli% s!ee%h through some fault an
a%%usation is stated for i before the Thesmothetes. >f. 3emosth.-r. , **, *9.
/

,nother eBam!le of legal use is found in 2reisig:e 9ammelbu%h , ))/), .65
q i m n ,
without !revious intimation of the %harge." d. then %omes to be used in the
sense of to ma:e :nown something about oneself," to de%lare an a%hievement," to show oneOs
master& in something," to !rofess a sub$e%t." 2lat.2rot. , /.9a5 #
'eno!h.8em. , I, *, 75 q q , to s!e%ialise in edu%ation in virtue#
i , 3iog. 4.
!
rooem , .*# , 4u%.
(
it. ,u%t. , 7# , 3emosth.-r. , /0, )..
)
In this res!e%t we might also Tuote 1!i%t.3iss. , I, ), /5 l

q q q
i i q { and 1!i%t.3iss. , I(, 6, 6. Hut here there is alread& a
transition to the neBt meaning. e. ,n im!ortant sense of is to offer to do
something," to !romise,"
0
to vow." To ma:e !romises" is the meaning of i
) There is here no eBa%t eTuation between and (or and ), * >l., .*, ), .
C . In regard to , this art. uses materials !re!ared b& 9%hniewind, while the
!reliminar& wor: on i and , also on , was done b& <erhard
Friedri%h. Hibl. 5 2a!e , 2ass. , 4iddellD9%ott # 2reisig:e @Jrt. , Fa%hwJrter # 8oult.D8ill. # 1. ,. 9o!ho%les,
Greek )e:icon (.67+)# 7. v. 7erwerden, )e:icon Graecu
*
(.9.+)# 2r.DHauer # >r.DFJ. 2. (olE, Die 5dische
&schatologie von Daniel his #kiba (.9+/), IndeB# 9tr.DH. , III, *+7I*+9.
. Hoth a%t. and med. are found, thought the med. is more %ommon later. In the ;T the med. alone o%%urs, though
the !ass. is used# %f. 2r.DHauer , s.v. # FGhnerDHlassD<erth , I, .*+# * 8a%%. )5*7 # <l. /5.9 # . >l., /0, ). The fine
distin%tion of Thomas 8agister addu%ed b& 2a!e is, li:e man& statements of an%ient grammarians, an artifi%ial
one whi%h is not su!!orted b& a%tual usage.
* 7en%e we often have the readings -, - or l- for - . >f. 1. giebarth,
#us de gr. Schul2esen
*
(.9.)), .. and 4&%. , .)# 9tob. , ., /67, .0# 1E. 75*6 # . ?n. .50 # /5.. , I, 09 .
/ >f. 2aul&D@. , ( (.9+0), *7+7, s.v.
!rooem prooeiu .
(it. ,u%t. Vitaru #uctio .
) , 2lut. ouomodo Tuis suos in (irtute sentiat 2rofe%tus, . (II, 70%).
0 There is a transition from d. to e. in 1!i%t.3iss. , I, .+, *5 { i
q l , c { q qiq iq
i . The statement of 2a!e (%f. also >r.DFJ. .) that in %ontrast to
it denotes an unsoli%ited !romise to be res!onsible for something is ver& true of
( what follows), though the relationshi! to is fluid. In H>7 , .. (.667), *9
in 2ol&b. , I, 7*, 6, and to a%%e!t the offer" is the sense of i
in 3emosth.-r. , *., .). >f. ,es%h.>hoe!h. , *./5 .
2romises are easil& made under stress ( 2ol&b. , I, 66, .*). Hut one must guard against the
q ( ,es%hin. , *, /)). In virtue of q i
( 2lut.
,
dulat. , */ mII, 6)bn) great %aution is needed in relation to !romises, 2lut.,dulat.
, ** (II, 6*e)5 q i q
. 2romises are often unfulfilled, 2ol&b. , '(III, *., .5 iq i and q
i ( ibid. , '(III, *6, .).
6
In res!e%t of !romises there is often
tension between word and deed ( ). 7e who has been given a !romise would li:e to see
it fulfilled.
7
In 2ol&b. , III, ..., .+ we read5

q
i. 6
i . In general !romises are %om!arativel& worthless, for the& are so seldom :e!t.
Thus %omes to be used for a man who is alwa&s !romising but never !erforms.
6

f. i and are often used for !romising mone&5
m n m n m i n m n.
9
thus %omes to
have the meaning5 I !romise or designate mone&.
.+
This ma& be in the sense of a liturg&," i.e.,
a !ubli% servi%e.
..
The sur!rising thing is that throughout the 7ellenisti% 1ast the word does not
merel& signif& a !romise to !a& mone& but is also used as a te%hn. term for a voluntar& !a&ment or
donation or subs%ri!tion.
.*
The gifts offered to the em!eror on his a%%ession are %alled
.
./
In a list of %andidates for a state liturg& in the &ear ..9v.*+ the
i is set out b& villages ( 2. <iess. , I, 09, %ol. I(, .* f.). In this %ase
is the subs%riber.
.)
2riests see:ing an offi%e !romise gifts !rior to their
a%%ession in order to su!!ort their %andidature, and in ins%ri!tions this is eB!ressed b&
i , or verball& .
.0
,%%. to Ins%r. 2riene , .*/, 0 ff. an&one
entering on an offi%e !romises a gift in writing5 i c m n m g
n iq . @e thus read5 i c q
i m n c i q i. i
ma& also be, e.g., a %ontribution to an asso%iation for the worshi! of de%eased an%estors. The
assembl& resolves to re%eive the beTuest in the words5 i
.
.6
9in%e i were freTuentl& offered to tem!les, %ults and deities,
.7

the term is lifted out of the s!here of the se%ular. It alread& re%eives at this !oint a sa%ral
signifi%an%e.
.6
g. 3uring the earl& 7ellenisti% !eriod (/)+ H.>. to )+ H.>. ) it a%Tuired a
f., ;o. )*, 0 f. means the same as , %f. the note of the editors >. 7. 3iehl and <.
>ousin, !. /6.
,dulat. De #dulatore et #ico .
6 For another side of the matter, %f. the i of 7b. )5. . ,ristot.1th. ;i%. , I', ., !.
..6)a, *65 c . >f. also 2ol&b. , I,
67, .5 { q l i , i {
7 >f. ,es%hin. , ., .695

q l
.
6 2lut.,em. , 6 (I, *06e)5 c 6 c
.
9 9. @it:ows:i, &pistulae Privatae
*
(.9..), 06, /*.
.+ <3I , I(, 69+, ;o. /6, .+5 . >f. ibid. , I(, Ahodes, IndeB (ed. -. 7offmann).
.. 2. -B&. , (I, 9+), / et%. in !a!. # %f. <3I , /6*)a, 6 (>os), a subs%ri!tion list# ibid. , 0**6, %ol. I, *. (9i%il&),
%ontributions to a 6 (!robabl& some :ind of fund). 3itt. 9&ll.
/
, 077, .+ q i an
edu%ational foundation. -n i , %f. in this %onteBt 2. <iess. , I, on ;o. 09, !. ./ ff.
.* 2. <iess. , I, on ;o. 09, !. .6.
./ )oc. cit. # @. @eber, 8ntersuchungen -. Geschichte d. 4aisers (adrianus (.9+7), 69 f.# 3itt. 9&ll.
/
, 6/*, 6 f.
.) In the !lur. <3I , /6*)a, .. (>os).
.0 7erwerden# H>7 , 0 (.66.), .60 ff., .69 ff., and .. (.667), .*I/6# /7/I/9..
.6 I< , 'II, /, //+, .*6 f. >f. 1. giebarth, Griechisches Vereins2esen (.696), 7. I<, 'II, /, /*9, 6 refers to a
%ulti% fellowshi! in honour of ,nthister whi%h re%eives an endowment and invests it.
.7 >f. <3I , /..9% (a ver& old >orinthian %la& tablet)5 i to the god from whom hel! is eB!e%ted#
/7**, ., a list of subs%ri!tions l Ai # )*6*, .f. (Ahodes, /rd. %ent. H.>. )5
c || # 0/)*, *f. (1uboea %. .++ H.>. )5 l q l
q A . 3itt. 9&ll.
/
, ...6, 65 to a %ulti% so%iet& et%.
distin%tivel& sa%ral use in ,sia 8inor.
.9
i is a term for the !ro%lamation of a festival.
This might be o%%asioned b& an a%%ession, the e!i!han& of a god, or an ora%le.
*+
4egations
de%lare the festival of a saviour god."
*.
The& bring the invitation to the and i
of another %it&. @e have a !arti%ularl& good eBam!le in the %ase of ,rtemis 4eu:o!hr&gene of
8agnesia5 The ~e!i!han&O of ,rtemis will be %elebrated.
**

In all these eBam!les there is referen%e to manOs !romises to a god, but never to
i . In an an%ient tablet the i of the god are naivel& eB!e%ted. There
is onl& one :nown eBam!le of the !romise of a god5 i

(in the 3eli% 9ara!is ,retalog&").
*/
The eB!ression %an
hardl& have been %ommon. 8aterial !arallels to sa%ral ma& be found
alread& in 7ellenism in the use of - . In the ;T , too, the %on%e!t of de%laration
finds its %entre in the thought of the <ood ;ews.
B. ) and !))( in the "e9ish 3orld.
.. This word has no !reliminar& histor& in the -T .
*)
This is the more stri:ing be%ause on
the basis of 2aulOs tea%hing we tend to %onsider the -T from the stand!oint of !romise. Hut
where our Hible uses !romise in the -T , various words are used in the 8as. and 4''. These
suggest the @ord of <od" but do not refer s!e%ifi%all& to the divine !ledge or !romise. For
2aul, on the other hand, i is a %om!lement of . 9eeing the -T
from the stand!oint of , he develo!s in the light of the goal the idea of a
single divine histor&, though this is never brought under the %on%e!t of eB!e%tant
in the -T itself.
4uther uses to !romise" for the 8as. MLr , and the 4'' , as at <n. .65.9 . @ith
l , too, MLr is rendered !romise," e.g., 3t. .5*. . In ?l. /50 ( *5/* ) the 8as. has Ms[ , the
4'' l and 4uther !romise." In ?er. .65.+ the 4'' again has for Ms[ . in the 2s.
the 4uther Hible often has !romise" where the 8as. has c^u and the 4'' , e.g.,
.//5/ ( ./*5/ ), and even where there is no %orres!onding word in the 8as. or 4'', e.g., .+65) .
4inguisti%all& both ?udaism and the ;T follow 7ellenisti% usage. Thus we find a. (%f. d.)5
i , . Tm. )56 #
*0
, @is. *5./ 5
, . Tm. 65*. # , . Tm. *5.+ # ,
2hilo(irt. , 0) # i and l Ign.1!h. , .), *5 to
.6 >f. also at the vow of a in 2. 4ond. , I, *., .. f. (.6* H.>. )5
l . -n the term , v. * . >f. AeitEenstein 7ell.
8&st. , IndeB. In relation to the im!erial %ult, 3io >. , 09, *+, . (de!osition of ar%hontes)5
( ) li ( ) . 9tob. , ., /67,
.0# %f. @indis%h * F. . on .5*+ and <. 7einri%i, Die (eres<3'stik u. das !" (.9.6), .+*5 The i in
sa%red boo:s is %om!arable with the wa& in whi%h the ;T %onstantl& s!ea:s of the revelations of <od." Hut %f.
@. 9%ott, >or!. 7erm. , !. )6+, .+ n. * .
.9 2. Hoes%h, O , 8ntersuchungen -ur &pangelie gr. 9este ( 3iss. gGri%h, .9+6). is originall&
the s!e%tator," then the offi%ial visitor," then the one who !ro%laims a feast."
*+ .bid. , .7 f., %f. /9. 3itt. 9&ll.
/
, ..06, 0 ff.
*. l q { q i , 3itt. 9&ll.
/
, 06., 9 f., or l
i , ibid. , 6+), ). >f. Hoes%h, *9 and 6*. 9&non. 5 i, , %f. * >.
05*+ and @nd. * F. , ad loc.
** Hoes%h, .. f., ./9. 3itt. 9&ll.
/
, 009, ./# 006, 7. ,el. ,rist. , )0, /. vl. @e naturall& find i in the
ins%r., and this reminds us of the s&non, use in the ;T .
*/ The title given b& -. @einrei%h, !eue .. 8rkunden -ur Sarapis</eligion (.9.9). /.# 3itt. 9&ll.
/
, 66/, *0 ff.#
;T s&non. i , .
*) -n the few o%%asions when i and are used in the 4'' the& have no bearing on
the understanding of the words. 9ometimes the& rest on a misunderstanding of the 7eb.
*0 >f. 3ib. 2ast. , ad loc.
!rofess"# b. (%f. e.)5 to ma:e a se%ular !romise," 2rv. ./5.* #
*6
1st. )57 ( 8as. Ms[ )5 9ir.
*+5*/ # es!. of mone&5 . 8a%%. ..5*6 # * 8a%%. )56 # 8:. .)5.. et%.
*. The idea of the !romise of <od was develo!ed in ?udaism !rior to 2aul.
In / 8a%%. *5.+ <od !romises to hear !ra&ers. In 2s. 9ol. .*565 i
i .
T
est. ?os. *+5 { l
i , where i is more than the word of !romise, sin%e it
also denotes the !romised benefit. ?ose!h. , too, s!ea:s of the i in ,nt. , *, *.9
.
*7

1ven before 2aul, ,braham, !romise and 4aw are interrelated5 9. Har. 075*5 For at that time
(the da&s of ,braham) the 4aw was :nown without being written, and the wor:s of the
%ommandments were fulfilled { and the !romise of future life was !lanted." .bid. , 095*5 ,t that
time the light of the eternal 4aw lightened all who sat in dar:ness, to de%lare to believers the
!romise of their reward." i , * 8a%%. *5.7 . The attainment of the !romises is made
de!endent on the :ee!ing of the 4aw.
*6
This entails un%ertaint& as to the fulfilment of the
i . <od :ee!s to what 7e sa&s. Hut am I among those who will inherit the !romises if
I do not :ee! the 4aw
*9

The same thought o%%urs in the Aabbis. The ver& word used for the divine !romises, i.e.,
chd d LeZ cf
/+
im!lies that the& are %ertain and reliable. This is !lainl& stated5
9
hebu. , /0b5 A.D
1lieEer ( c. 9+) said to him5 7ow %an 7e have !romised and not fulfilled A. ?ehoshua ( c. 9+)
answered him5 @hat 7e has !romised, 7e has done." -r 2esi:t. r. , )* (.76a)5 @hat 7e has
!romised me, 7e has at on%e !erformed." Ae%i!ients of !romises are ?a%ob,
/.
,braham,
/*
9arah,
//
3avid,
/)
the ?ewish !eo!le.
/0
;evertheless, there is an element of dubiet& among the Aabbis
too. <n. r. , 76 ()9a)5 A. ?udan ( c. /0+) has said5 7ereb& we :now that there is for the righteous
no assuran%e (no absolutel& sure rest in the !romises of <od) in this world." ,re the !romises
valid for me This is the Tuestion for the ?ew. It is here that the un%ertaint& of ?udaism a!!ears (
0*7 ). Her., )a5 In the name of A. ?ose ( c. .0+) it is taught5 3avid said5 4ord of the world, I
ma& %onfidentl& hold fast to Thee { that Thou wilt reward the righteous in the future# but I do not
:now whether m& !ortion will be among them or not."
That the !romises of <od have ta:en on a distin%tivel& es%hatologi%al %hara%ter ma& be seen
from the a!o%al&!ses and from Aabbini% writings. ) 1sr. )5*7 5
/6
the saeculu %annot sustain
$uae in teporibus ( ) iustis reproissa sunt #
/7
) 1sr. 05)+ 5 fine caritatis ,
/6
$ue
populo eo proisi # ) 1sr. 756+ 5 the $udgment () !romised b& me"#
/9
) 1sr. 75..9 5
proissu nobis iortale tepus ( l6 p). 9. Har. .)5./5
)+
to re%eive the world whi%h thou
*6 The 8as. is shorter.
Test. ?os. "estaent of 0oseph .
*7 9%hl. Theol. d. ?udt. (.9/*), 66. ?os.,nt. , /, 77 uses i of the !romises of 8oses and 0, /+7 of the
!romises of the 2hilistines to 3elilah. >f. 2r.DHauer , s.v.
*6 9. Har. )6565 If &ou do this, there will %ome to &ou the !romises whi%h I have alread& given &ou."
*9 ) 1sr. 75..9 5 $uid eni nobis prodest6 si proissu est nobis iortale tepus6 nos veto ortalia opera
egius .
/+ >f. 9tr.DH. , III, *+7.
9hebu. Shebuot , 8ishnahD, ToseftaD, Talmud tra%tate %aths (9tra%:, &inl. , 0*).
/. 9%hl. 4:. , )09 and 9tr.DH. , III, *+7 f.5 VWX`La [b LN_ qb `f\Z `Yea hZ f LZ ca PXQ chd d LZ cf \`La PZQ Lea , , %f. . ?n. *5*0 5
i .
/* <n. r. , ). on .*5.7 (*0a)# ;u. r. , * on *5/* (./7%).
// 2esi:t. r. , )* (.76a).
/) H. Her., )a.
/0 8idr. 1st. )5.0 (96a). @e read of <odOs !romises to !rosel&tes in 1B. r. , .9 on .*5)/ (6.b)5 ,Tilas, the
!rosel&te ( c. ..+), as:ed our tea%hers (A. 1lieEer and A. ?ehoshua c. 9+) and said to them5 @hat does it mean
when it is written5 7e who loves the stranger to give him food and %lothing, 3t. .+5.6 ,re these all the
!romises given to the !rosel&te, that he should give him food and %lothing"
/6 ,t <r. 1n. *057 ?. Fleming translates l to !romise"# so, too, <. Heer in FautEs%h ,!:. u. 2seude!igr.
/7 The doubts eB!ressed in (iolet, II, .6 do not %on%ern our word.
/6 The onl& doubts relate to caritas ((iolet, II, /6).
/9 4at. creatura 5 i instead of i . Hut the whole senten%e is doubtful ((iolet, II, 6/).
)+ Following the teBt a%%. to (iolet. It agrees substantiall& with that of A&ssel.
hast !romised to them"# 9. Har. *.5*05 3o not !ost!one what Thou hast !romised"# 9. Har. 0.5/5
The immortal world () 1st. 75..9) whi%h is then
).
!romised to them" ( o!!. 5 the& have now
satisfied m& 4aw," %f. * 8a%%. *5.6 ). The %onstant sub$e%t of the !romise is the future world."
The same is true in the Aabbis.
)*
The !ass. !art. hd LZ s from hf `a LZ ha , to !romise," is often used
to denote %onfiden%e that one will be a son (or daughter) of the world to %ome."
)/
The verbu
finitu activu is often used with the subst. ( chd d LZ cf hf `a LZ ca ,
))
i
, n. /. )# thus there is a .st %entur& debate on the !ro!osition5 @hat <od
has !romised, 7e has :e!t"#
)0
%f. q in A. )5*. #
the verb is also used (more %ommonl& than the subst.) of the ,brahami% !romise.
)6

C. !)) in the NT.
.. @hen <od is %alled in 7b. .+5*/ # ..5.. , this is !erha!s
reminis%ent of the distin%tive substantival use#
)7
in this %ase it would refer to 7im as the
<iver ( 076 ). -n the other hand, there is no analog& for the whi%h o%%urs in both
teBts, and a verbal %onstru%tion is Tuite !ossible ( .+5*/ 5 q i
q i q, ms%. q i n# ..5.. 5
2 { { q ms%.
q n). In %ontent there are Aabbini% !arallels. The referen%e in .+5*/ is to
es%hatologi%al ho!e and in ..5.. to the !romise to ,braham. The same is true in .*5*6 5
c 5 =et on%e more I will sha:e { earth and heaven"# and on the
other side 65./ 5 A { 6 .
*. -f the es%haton. There is a ?ewish ring about ?m. .5.* 5 q q,
i (note that mention of <od is avoided) .
is a ?ewish and not an eB%lusivel& >hristian formula# %f. also *50 5
q i
)6
q i . The eB!ression ,
whi%h is given a ?ewish ring b& the addition of l6 , o%%urs also in . ?n. *5*0 5
q i q i q, q q q l6 and
Tt. .5* 5 i q li q i q (7ellenisti%)
)9

li . Is it an a%%ident that in all these !assages we have eternal life"
rather than the ?ewish future world" It %an hardl& be a 7ellenism, sin%e l6 is %ommon in
7ellenism and q (l6) is also %ommon in ?ewish writings.
/. -f the ,brahami% !romise. ,%. 750 5 i {
i l q (the land)
.
). 2aul lin:s the !romise to ,braham with the !romise of life in A. ) and <l. / . The
statement %onfirmed to ,braham in A. )5*. 5
q kto bring life from the dead, A. )5.0 , .7 kwas fulfilled in >hrist and to
>hristians ( A. )5*) , *0 ). In <l. /5.9 >hrist is , and what is
). The then" refers, not to the time of the !romise, but to the attainment.
)* The following se%tion is based on material in 9tr.DH. , III, *+7I*+9.
)/ H. Her., )b, 9tr.DH. , III, *+6 f.5 1leaEar b. . ,bina ( c. /)+)# Fet. , ...a, ,bbahu ( c. /++)# A. ?irme$a b. ,bba
( c. *0+), Tradition of ?o%hanan b. ;a!!a%ha ( 9tra%:, 1inl. , ./7). @ithout dates, b. 8eg. , *6b and the five
eBam!les not in !rint, 9tr.DH. , III, *+9. 1s%hatologi%al, too, is the anon&mous !roverb in b. 1rub , )/b, 9tr.DH. ,
III, *+6. The later dating hardl& seems ne%essar&. The ;T and a!o%. %onfirm the earl& origin of the idea, and this
is even %learer in the subst.
)) Four eBam!les are given in 9tr.DH. , III, *+6.
)0 The debate is between 1lieEer and ?ehoshua c. 9+ ( 9tra%:, 1inl. , .*/), 9tr.DH. , III, *+6.
)6 2esi:t. r. , )* (.76a)5 (anon&m.).
)7 2r.DHauer s.v.
)6 i [ , is %ertainl& wrong (from 7b. 65.7 ).
)9 >f. @nd. . ?., ad loc.
!romised is i ( <l. /5.6 , .9 ), i.e., %itiEenshi! of the ()5 *6,
*6).
'. ) in the NT.
.. i in 4u:e. 1B%e!t in ,%. */5*. , where the ?ews in their attem!t to :ill 2aul
on the wa& to the %oun%il wait for the !romise of the %hiliar%hs, the referen%e is alwa&s to the
i . This usage is so fiBed that %an be left out and i alone
mentioned, for it alwa&s im!lies the !romise of <od. H& wa& of ?udaism i has
be%ome a s!e%ifi% term for the word of divine revelation in salvation histor&. It is a word
whi%h eB!resses not merel& the !romise but also the fulfilment of what is !romised.
0+

,braham is a re%i!ient of the !romise in ,%. 75.7 5 6 c q q
i q A,
Alq . The i given to the fathers is a 8essiani% !romise,
l q q iq q
i q , ,%. *656 f. The fulfilment has %ome in ?esus >hrist.
i the has %ome of the seed of 3avid, ,%. ./5*/ .
q i ,
q , ,%. ./5/*f.
0.
The
8essiah is the Hearer and the 3istributor of the 9!irit. The is alread& !romised in
the -T ( ,%. *5.6 ff. ). The dis%i!les have learned of this !romise from ?esus 7imself ( ,%.
.5) ). ,t 2ente%ost ?esus re%eives the 9!irit from the Father and sends 7im to earth ( 4:.
*)5)9 # ,%. *5// ). q i .
q i l ( ,%. *5/6 f. ).
>hristians live in the time of fulfilment. The word of !romise be%omes a%tualit&. There is
attainment of the remission of sins and the 7ol& 9!irit.
0*

*. i in 2aul.
a. 4aw and !romise. 2aul as:s %on%erning the relationshi! between and
i , between human a%tion and divine gra%e ( A. ) ), between the demanding will of
<od and 7is will to give ( <l. / ). 4i:e the Aabbis, 2aul is sure that <od :ee!s 7is !romises.
7e %an eBe%ute what 7e has !romised ( A. )5*. ). 7e has the !ower even to raise the dead and
to %reate out of nothing ( A. )5.7 ). ;ot to believe that 7is !romises will be fulfilled is to do
des!ite to 7is , to doubt 7is vera%it& ( A. .056 ), and to sus!e%t 7is faithfulness and
omni!oten%e ( A. )5*+ ). If the !romises are to be a%tualised, the& must be loosed from all the
human a%tion to whi%h ?udaism had related the fulfilment, and made de!endent on <od alone.
i, , l l ( I, 6.+ ) i q
i ( A. )5.6 ). The !romise !resu!!oses the gra%ious will
of the <iver. Hut if <odOs !romise is tied to the 4aw, it is invalidated b& the wrath of <od
whi%h !unishes all who violate the 4aw.
0/
q i
A q {, i ( A. )5./ ).
The words of the a!ostle are even shar!er in <l. / . The 4aw and the !romise are mutuall&
eB%lusive. The !romise is no longer !romise if it has an&thing to do with the 4aw. l
q i, i c A l i
( <l. /5.6 ). If one tries to attain the i b& fulfilment of
the 4aw, one forfeits the !romised inheritan%e# for <od showed 7imself gra%ious to ,braham
l i . The !romise is a testamentar& dis!osition whi%h is not altered b& the later
4aw ( 079 ). The 4aw %annot %om!ete with the !romises sin%e it does not have the !ower
of the q ( <l. /5*. ). It serves the !reliminar& !ur!ose of leading sinful man
0+ >f. >r.DFJ. , s.v. 5 i assumes su%h a !rominent !la%e in the divine e%onom& that the benefits as
well as the members are %hara%terised b& it."
0. -n the lin:ing of i with , %f. A. .5. f. # 1!h. /56 # though %f. 7b. )5. f.
0* >f. gn. ,g. , ad loc.
0/ >f. H. @eiss, )ehrbuch der bibl. "heol. des !"
7
(.9+/). *69 ff.# Brief an die /er (.699), ad loc.
from wor:s to faith5 q i i g
( <l. /5** ). There is no %ontradi%tion in * >. 75. 5
0)

i, i, i
. The referen%e here is not to %onditions on whi%h the fulfilment
of the i de!ends#
00
the !assage deals with the involved !roblem of the indi%ative
and im!erative, as in A. 6 # 2hil. *5.* # . >. 659 ff. 5 3o not be forni%ators# &ou are san%tified#
&ou have the !romises# !urif& &ourselves." The greatness of the divine !romises and the
%ertaint& of the divine !ledge are to sha!e the life of >hristians.
06
The fulfilment of the
i is not determined b& the %ondu%t of the re%i!ients# the i determine
this %ondu%t.
07

b. The re%i!ients of the !romise are ,braham and his seed ( A. )5./ )5
i A ( A. )5.6 ). Thus the
?ews in ;T salvation histor& have re%eived the various !romises of 8essiani% salvation ( A.
95) ), while the <entiles are ( n. /0 and !. ./+ ) q
i ( 1!h. *5.* ).
06
9in%e the 8essiah was to %ome of Israel, ?esus had to be%ome
a ?ew c i , l i
( A. .056 ). In the first instan%e the !romises a!!l& to the ?ews. It is from them that salvation
is to go out to the nations. Hut the sons of ,braham in%lude those who believe li:e him and
not merel& !h&si%al des%endants. 7en%e the <entiles are { q
i i ( 1!h. /56 ). @hat was on%e
!romised to Israel is now made available to the <entiles. The <os!el mediates to them the
benefits of salvation. In <l. /5.6 ff. 2aul uses in a different sense from that of
A. ) ( supra ). 7e does not now refer it to !h&si%al des%endants, nor even to those
i . -n the basis of the singular he relates it to the one seed of ,braham, namel&,
>hrist. 7e is the true 7eir of the !romise, of the universal inheritan%e, and 7e determines the
fellowDheirs. 7e who has !ut on >hrist ( <l. /5*7 ), who is in >hrist ?esus ( /5*6 ), who
belongs to >hrist, is the seed of ,braham, i ( /5*9 ).
%. The %ontent of the !romises, of the !romised benefit,
09
whether it be i
( A. )5./ # <l. /5.6 , *9 ), or ( <l. /5*. # A. )5.7 ), or ( <l. /5*. ), or
( <l. /5.) # 1!h. .5./ ), or li ( <l. )5** ff. and A. 956 ), is alwa&s
8essiani% salvation.
6+
7en%e it is !ossible to s!ea: both of i in the !lural and
also of i .
6.
The !romises have been fulfilled in >hrist ( A. .056 , I,
6+* and 077 f. ). 7e is the =ea of the !romises of <od, the fulfilment of salvation in
!erson. H& the fa%t that 7e has %ome to earth <od has owned 7is !romises# for the& are all
fulfilled in 7im ( * >. .5*+ ). 7e has averted the %urse of 4aw, q i ( vl.
i ) q i ( <l. /5.) ). In the gift of the
ever& >hristian has the fulfilment of the !romise. This is ( A. 65*/ )
and 6 ( * >. .5** # 050 ) of the final fulfilment {
i q i iq, 6
q i q ( 1!h. .5./ f. ). The 9!irit, !romised in the -T and then again
0) -n the 2auline authorshi! of the !assage, %f. ,. 9%hlatter, Paulus6 der Bote 0esu 1hristi (.9/)), ad loc.
00 4tEm. F. , ad loc. 5 These !romises of <od stated in v. .7bI.6 are lin:ed with the %onditions laid down in v.
.6I.7a # if the latter are fulfilled, the former will be a!!ro!riated to &ou." -r @nd. * F. , ad loc. 5 The !romises
of <od demand serious effort on the !art of the righteous for their fulfilment."
06 >f. ,. 9%hlatter, op. cit. on * F. .5*+ .
07 There is, of %ourse, another understanding of i in 1!h. 65* (%ommandment with !romise"), and
in the 2ast. 079 .
06 7ere, as in <l. /5.6 , i is %losel& lin:ed to in meaning.
09 There %an be no %lear%ut distin%tion between the word of !romise and the !romised benefits as attem!ted in
some di%tionaries. Hoth are %ontained in the term i ( 076 ).
6+ A. 95) # .056 # * >. .5*+ # 75. .
6. >f. A. 95) # .056 # * >. .5*+ # 75. with 1!h. *5.* # /56 , and <l. /5.6 with /5.7ff .
through >hrist, is a mar: of %om!leted realisation. 7e is the seal of the initiated fulfilment and
a !ledge of the %onsummation whi%h is still awaited.
6*

/. i in 7ebrews. The author of 7b. is guided b& a different interest when he
s!ea:s of the !romises. The differen%es are to be eB!lained b& the situation of the readers and
the %on%ern of the author, who %om!ares the -T and ;T revelation and see:s to en%ourage
wavering >hristians to !erseveran%e.
i were re%eived b& ,braham ( 7b. 65.* ff. # 756 ), Isaa% and ?a%ob ( ..59 )#
9arah ( ..5.. ), the !atriar%hs and !ro!hets ( ..5// ), and the ?ewish !eo!le ( )5.ff .). These
were assured of the land of >anaan ( ..59 ), of ( )5. ), of a !osterit& ( 65.) #
..5.. ), and of l6 i ( 95.0 ). The& saw the fulfilment of individual
!romises,
6/
though not of the !romise in the absolute.
6)
,ll the !romises of <od %onverge
on the great 8essiani% salvation whose final %onsummation has still to %ome. ,braham dwelt
in the land !romised to him. Hut he :new the in%om!leteness of the fulfilment. Thus he did
not settle down there !ermanentl&. 7e lived as a stranger on earth. 7e awaited the final
fulfilment of the %it& of <od whi%h he saw %ontained in the !romise given to him ( 7b. ..57 f.
). The fathers of faith { , q i,
l ,
ii l q q . From afar the& see the fulfilment of the
!romise and as !ilgrims the& hail their home %it& ( 7b. ..5./ ).
60

The new ( .*7 ), established b& >hrist, i i
( 7b. 656 ). In what these !romises %onsist, we are not told. ouoted in 7b.
656 ff. are the !romises of <od in ?er. /. 5 the 4aw written u!on the heart, !erfe%t :nowledge
of <od and fellowshi! with 7im, and the full remission of sins. These are not new !romises.
The& are !romises whose fulfilment is not ham!ered b& an& further transgressions. The main
defi%ien%& in the old %ovenant was that it %ould not a%%om!lish forgiveness. 7en%e the new
!romises are better. For here is the %om!lete fulfilment sought but never attained in the old
order.
66
q i i,
l g 6g g q
i l q li i ( 7b. 95.0 ). The
death of >hrist brings about the fulfilment. It gives to those who are %alled the !romised
eternal inheritan%e whi%h the eB!e%tant believer will re%eive at the parousia whi%h is still to
%ome. The final %onsummation is still ahead ( 7b. .+5/6 ). It will ta:e !la%e soon ( 7b. .+5*0 ,
/7 ), for we are alread& living in the ( 7b. .5* ), in the ( 7b. 95*6 ).
>hristians are in the tension between what is alread& and what is not &et ( 7b. 650 ). The& are
beginning to tire and therefore to doubt the %onsummation. 2ossession of the divine word of
!romise does not guarantee re%e!tion of the !romised benefit. Israel is a terrible eBam!le of
the !ossibilit& of shutting oneself off from the !romise through unbelief.
i l l q
g
( 7b. )5. f. ).
67

6* ?. T. He%:, &rkl=rung des Briefes Pauli an die &ph. (.69.), ad loc.
6/ 7b. 65.* 5 i # 65.0 5 q i (%f. ..5// 5 )
.
6) 7b. ..5./ 5 i (%f. ..5/9 5 q i ) i .
60 -ne %an hardl& refer the !lur. i to individual earthl& !romises and the sing. to the !romise of
salvation. The sing. and !lur. are used in mu%h the same wa&, %f. n. 6/ and 6), the !lur. in 7b. 756 with 656 , and
Agg. 7b. on 65.0 .
66 >f. H. @eiss, )ehrbuch der bibl. "heol. des !"
7
(.9+/), )79.
67 >f. @nd. 7b. and Agg. 7b. , ad loc. 5 ?ews have re%eived an as well as >hristians. For ?ews the
i now fulfilled in >hrist are the <os!el, and the ;T <os!el is sim!l& a !ro%lamation of the old
!romises. The two words mean the same thing. There is no substan%e in the usual distin%tion whi%h refers
i to salvation still to %ome and to salvation alread& %ome. >f. n. 0+.
<odOs will to a%%om!lish 7is !romises is unalterable. @ith the absolute reliabilit& of an
oath 7e has guaranteed the fulfilment of the !romise. This should strengthen the faith and
!atien%e of >hristians as it on%e en%ouraged ,braham, es!e%iall& as the fulfilment of the
!romise has alread& begun for them ( 7b. 65.* ff. ).
66
q i
i q i ( 7b. .+5/6 ).
69

). i in * 2eter. The situation in 7b. has now deteriorated. The fathers have
now fallen aslee! and nothing has ha!!ened. The dela& in the !romised parousia
7+
has thus
raised u! s%offers5 q i q i # ( * 2t. /5) ). The
answer is5 q i, 6
q, l , q
l q ( * 2t. /59 ). The !ro!heti% word of 9%ri!ture is
reliable ( * 2t. .5.9 ff. ). ( .)
) .
has the meanings of i , though it is not so %ommon or so varied. It
has the general sense of de%laration," and is then used for order,"
.
!rofession" ( 077 ),
*

!romise" ( 077 ).
/
2hilo !refers it to i . 9o (irt. , 6) 5
( 077 ). 7e often uses it in this sense of offi%e," !rofession," tas:."
In the ;T it o%%urs onl& twi%e in * 2t. It means the same as i ( supra ). * 2t.
/5./ 5 c q q
.
)
In o!!osition to hereti%s and des!isers ( * 2t. /5) ), the greatness and
value of the !romise are em!hasised5 { i q
6 ( * 2t. .5) ). The %ontent of the !romise is given in * 2t. .5)b , .. # /5) , ./ .
!)) .
is naturall& rare, sin%e there is alread& a in . It
means
.
a. to announ%e beforehand." 3io >. , /6, ./, 0 a%t.# also a%t. 3io >. , )+, /*, /5 !ubli%l&
to ma:e :nown the !lundering beforehand"# b. to eBert oneself beforehand (earlier) about an
offi%e," , 3io >. , /9, /., .# %. to !romise beforehand," med. 3io >. , )*, /*,
/5 # !ass. 3io >. , )6, )+, *. Ins%r. 2riene , ../, 7.5
, in the !ass. of benefits for the !eo!le.
In the ;T it is found onl& twi%e. In * >. 950 ( !ass. ) it means to announ%e in advan%e"5 q
i . It means the i whi%h &ou have announ%ed
in advan%e, not whi%h I have !romised to &ou in advan%e. A. .5* (med.)5 to !romise
66 The note in @nd. 7b. on 65.0 5 The re%e!tion of the !romise was the reward for his i ," is
hardl& a!!ro!riate. ,. 9eeberg, Der Brief an die (b. (.9.*), has %orre%tl& inter!reted the verse in its %onteBt.
There is no Tuestion of a %ondition for the fulfilment of the !romise. It is rather shown that ,brahamOs !atien%e
had its basis in the !romise whi%h <od has sworn b& 7imself out of regard for men." -n l i
076 # I, 6+/ .
69 It is obvious that there is in 7b. no tension between the !romise and the righteousness of wor:s. ;evertheless,
we are not to ta:e as an a%hievement whi%h %an %laim from <od the fulfilment of the !romise, but
as an attitude %orres!onding to the . >f. Agg. 7b. , ad loc.
7+ >f. 8:. ./5/+ and !ar. # 8t. .+5*/ .
. 4eontius 8ona%hus, 82< , 96, 69/a# %f 1. ,. 9o!ho%les, Greek )e:. (.67+), s.v.
* q , 8. ,nt. . /, *.
/ >f. also 4iddellD9%ott, s.v. 5 2lat.1uth&d. , *7)a5 c
and ,ristot.Ahet. , II, *), !. .)+*a, *05 i l
H , c
. ,lso 3emosth.-r. , .9, .765 and .
) Is. 605.7 # 665** , and often in a!o%. V. @nd. Fath. Hr. , ad loc.
. >f. 2ass. and 8oult.D8ill. , s.v.
beforehand"5 , i
i .
S
chnie2ind v
9
riedrich
I, ./0 f.
@
*

, !raise," a!!roval," a!!lause," is a %hara%teristi% goal in antiTuit&,
.
whether on
the !art of <ree:s in the %lassi%al !eriod or of later !hiloso!hi%al ethi%s. It is used with l and
the a%%. , i and the dat. , and the a%%. , i, , and the gen. It is
a!!ortioned b& gods and men5 6
2lat.4eg. , II, 66/a. In 9o!h.,nt. , 6.7 it means a!!roval" of the whole life on des%ent into the
underworld. In 9o!h.,nt. , 669 i is used of the a!!raisal of
:ing >reon. 9o!h.,i. , 0*7 uses it of ,$aBO agreement with the words of his beloved. In 9o!h.-ed.
>ol. , .).. the referen%e is to re%ognition b& the !ubli%, as also in 2lat.4eg. , (III, 6).e (
g i ), 2lat.2olit. , *67a, 4eg. , (I, 76*e,
4
a. , .6.b et%. 1!i%t.3iss. , I, .6, **# II,
./, ) ( )# II, .6, 6# III, */, 7 ( i )# I(, 7, *9 et%.
In 2lat.4eg. , 9.7% means the evaluation of goods." , %ommon anton&m is
(de!re%iation"), 2lat.2olit. , *67a, 4eg. , (I, 76*%. ma& be used for the !raise both of
the individual and of the whole %it& ( 9o!h.-ed. >ol. , 7*+ of ,thens5 6 i
). 9toi% moralism is %on%erned to free the individual from the $udgment
of men, whether it be or ( 1!i%t.3iss. , II, ., /) ff.# III, */, .9# 8. ,nt. , ), *+),
but in so doing it sim!l& !roves how great value the an%ient world laid on either b&
individuals or b& the !ubli%.
For the righteous of the old %ovenant, <od and the %ongregation are the onl& norms. Thus in
the 4'' is the re%ognition or !raise whi%h the righteous is given b& the %ommunit&, 9ir.
/95.+ # ))56 , .0 . Hut it is naturall& the divine a!!roval whi%h reall& %ounts. Those from whom
this is withheld are $udged, li:e ?ehoram in * >h. *.5*+ ( 8as. credsZ hX ) and the ma:ers of images
in @is. .05.9 . In 2hilo, as in the -T , is a!!roval b& <od ( Aer. 3iv. 7er. , 9+ and .*9
# 4eg. ,ll. , III, 77 # ,br. , *6* ) or b& the great !ro!het 8oses ( (it. 8os. , I, .0) # ,br. , *70 )# it
ma& also signif& !ubli% re%ognition or a!!lause in the <ree: sense ( 2oster. >. , 7. # 7* # .). 5
# ,br. , .66 ), though in 2hilo, too, !ubli% a!!lause is not the de%isive
thing for ,braham ( ,br. , .9+ ).
FreTuentl& in the 4'' ma& be used for the %ommunit&Os attitude of !raise and
worshi! in relation to <od, as in h&mns. Thus in 34:27 the %ongregation eBtols the greatness
of =ahweh ( 8as. c\edca YeZ ), and in 21:3 , *0 ( 8as. c\edca YeZ ) it magnifies 7is great a%ts of
assistan%e. The throne of <od is thought of as surrounded b& and ( . >h.
.65*7 , 8as. Mrdcd ). -nl& in the more 9toi% ) 8a%%. is related to insight as the su!reme
virtue ( .5* ).
.. The use of in the ;T is similar to that of the 4''. The onl& value of
is when it does not re!resent a general human $udgment or !o!ular evaluation but
when it is the a!!roval of man b& <od ( A. *5*9 # . >. )50 ). @e do not have here the ?ewish
thought of as a s!e%ial reward, but rather the idea that at the last $udgment the
9%hniewind ?ulius 9%hniewind , FJnigsberg ((ol. .), Fiel ((ol. *), 7alle ((ol. /).
Friedri%h <erhard Friedri%h , TGbingen ((ol. *), <rossD7e&de:rug (1ast 2russia) ((ol. /I)), Fiel ((ol. 0, 6I9),
1rlangen ((ol. 6I7)
C . >f. ,. Fridri%hsen, 3er wahre ?ude und sein 4ob " in S'bolae #rctoae , I, ed. 9o%ietas
2hilologi%a >hristianensis (.9**), /9I)9# 1. 7ofmann, ?ua /atione H2, YO2, AI2, A2 {
adhibita sint S ( 3iss. <Jttingen, .9**), 06ff., 6/ff.
. In relation to the <ree:s 7egel s!ea:s of the restless urge of individuals to dis!la& themselves, to show what
the& %an ma:e of themselves, and then to en$o& their standing with their fellows" ( a%%. to Fridri%hsen, op. cit. ,
)7# %f. F. 4eese, Die Geschichtsphilosophie (egels m.9**n, .90 f.).
4a. )aches .
%ondu%t of believers, in %ontrast to that of the wi%:ed, will be a!!roved and vindi%ated b&
<od as the -ne who is not limited in 7is $udgments as we are, but who sear%hes the human
heart in all its de!th and hiddenness (%f. also 8t. *05*. , /) ff. ). thus signifies the
a%%e!tan%e or a!!roval of the righteous b& <od alone in the last $udgment. It is the
definitivel& saving senten%e of <od in the last time, at the revelation of ?esus >hrist ( . 2t. .57
).
*

*. For this reason >hristians are not %on%erned about the %oveted re%ognition of men in
this life. The onl& human a!!roval whi%h %ounts is the a!!roval of those who hold the divine
%ommission. Thus ma& be a%%orded onl& b& a. the >hristian %ommunit& as the
bod&, i.e., the visible manifestation, of the eBalted and otherwise invisible 4ord. In the
deli%ate and diffi%ult matter of the %olle%tion at >orinth onl& a brother who has been a!!roved
in the %ommunities ma& assist ( * >. 65.6 ). @ith the %ommunit&, the other divinel&
%ommissioned bod& whi%h ma& award is the government ( A. ./5/ # . 2t. *5.) ).
This ma& fittingl& a!!ortion as the servant of <od ( A. ./5) ), as an order
/
a!!ointed
b& <od in 7is final will and !ur!ose, for the 4ordOs sa:e" ( . 2t. *5./ ). Thus it is one of the
fun%tions of those who bear the divine %ommission to !ronoun%e # and onl& su%h
has an& value. is thus an eBer%ise of the !rerogative of those who are
divinel& %ommissioned,
)
of the %ommunit& and the authorities.
-nl& on%e in the ;T is used in the %lassi%al sense, namel&, in 2hil. )56 . 7ere it
im!lies general human re%ognition. It is a %on%e!t of %ivi% life, li:e the other terms in this whole
!assage.
/. ,lso !arallel to 4'' usage is the use of in the ;T h&mn. The beginning of
1!h. ( .5/ff .) has a h&mni% %hara%ter and !erha!s uses an old %ulti% song.
0
9imilarl&, the
inter%ession of the a!ostle in 2hil. ta:es h&mni% form. 7en%e in 2hil. .5.. and 1!h. .56
denotes the !raise and worshi! of the %ommunit& in its %onfession. In both %ases we
have the %ombination of and alread& found in . >h. .65*7 . The
%ommunit& does not have to wait for the time of fulfilment to %onfess <odOs and
( 2hil. .5.. ). It %an do this alread& be%ause it has alread& eB!erien%ed salvation
( 1!h. .56 ).
6
Thus is the %ommunit&Os attitude of !raise on the basis of the
salvation whi%h <od has alread& given to it.
Preisker
I, .60 f.
3 I, .69 ff.
)(! I, *.0
I, ***
I, /0+
&( .
I, )0.
/*+ f.
!3 | .
, ' .
)) I, 0*6 f.
I, 677 f.
* >f. , 4:. .656 . In the 4'' o%%urs onl& ) times# l is more %ommon (A. 7elbing,
Die 4asuss'nta: der Verba bei den Septuaginta m.9*6n, .0I.7).
/ 7. 2reis:er, Geist und )eben (.9//), 6+I66.
) 7en%e is also used b& the a!ostle in A. .05.. # . >. ..5* , .7 , ** .
0 ?. 4ohme&er, Das Proiu des &ph. # ThHl , 0 (.9*6), .*+ ff.
6 In these two !assages, too, it ma& be seen that 2aul is thin:ing in es%hatologi%al terms. In 1!h. he does so in
the light of the %ommunit& established on earth.
', I, 669 ff.

*

means in the first instan%e that whi%h is the general %on%e!tion of life," and
therefore what is fitting, right, or eTuitable" UU ae$uus , %f. 7om.Il. , */, *)6. Thus the neut.
is often used for as is fitting," ibid. , .9, .)7 et%. It is used for the wor:s of the gods,
ibid. , .9, *.. >f. ,risto!h.;u. , .)/65 q , to agree to what is right."
It thus ta:es on in 2lat.4eg. , I, 60+b the further sense of what is servi%eable"# 4eg. , (, 7).d (
), the man of eB!erien%e and of an eTuable tem!erament," 4eg. ,
'II, 097a, the seasoned" man, Thu%. , (III, 9/, *# 'eno!h.7ist. <rae%. , I, ., /+, the reasonable"
man who sta&s within the limits of what is moderate and orderl&. 2lut.
o
uaest. >onv. , I, ., 0 (II,
6.)e)5 c { i , so little ada!ted to so%iet& {"#
2lut.
9
uav. (iv. 1!i%. , ./ (II, .+96a)5 c q q . 9o also 2. 8as!.
, III, *90, !. ., *.5 q q in the sense of orderl&" !eo!le#
%f. also the sense of servi%eable" in 2. Tebt. , II, )6). 7en%e the %ombination
i , 2. 8as!. , II, .0., */6. @e thus read in 2lat.,!. ,**a5
i . 8oderation at law then %omes to mean, along with (to
&ield"), mildness" in the sense of not insisting on the letter of the law in a given %ase, ,ristot.1th.
;i%. , (, .), !. ../7a, /. ff.# Thu%. , I(, .9, *# 2lat.4eg. , (I, 707e (moderation in relation to what
is $ust or what is ordered). @e thus have the eB!ression ( Iso%. ,
.0, )) in the sense of to be moderate or gentle." 9o also 1!i%t.3iss. , III, *+, ..# */, ). 1!i%t. Fr. ,
0, .+ brings into o!!. with (what is violent). In 9o!h.-ed. >ol. ..*7
eB!resses moderation or :indness towards men and is a !arallel to towards
the gods. It o%%urs with in 2lut. 3e 2&rrho , */ (I, /69%).
In the 4'' this grou! of words is found onl& in the later literature a!art from 1 B. 12:22
# 4 B. 6:3 # 85:5 . It is mostl& used for <odOs dis!osition as a Auler, i.e., for the :indness"
or goodness" whi%h 7e %an dis!la& as Fing, 85:5 #
.
1 B. 12:22 #
*
@is. .*5.6 # Har.
*5*7 # 3a. /5)* # )5*) # * 8a%%. *5** # .+5) . It %an thus be used also of earthl& :ings ( 1st. /5./ #
65./ # * 8a%%. 95*7 # / 8a%%. /5.0 # 756 , and of men who are %lose to <od and who should thus
be hol& as 7e is, namel&, the !ro!het 1lisha ( 4 B. 6:3 ), or the righteous as the son of <od (
@is. *5.9 ). <od in 7is heavenl& greatness as Auler, the :ing who should be 7is earthl&
refle%tion, all who have <odOs gift and %ommission, have this dis!osition of mildness $ust be%ause
the& eBer%ise sovereign swa&.
?ose!h. uses of the :ing in ,nt. , .+, 6/ (?oa%haE
6 )# .05.) (the treatment of 7&r%anus b& the 2arthian :ing is
, of !arti%ular :indness")# .0, .6* (7&r%anus is q )# %f.
.0, .77. In ,nt. , 6, 9* 9amuel is des%ribed as and , !rote%ting the !eo!le
from the wrath of <od. In ,!. , *, *9 the great lawgiver is re!resented as a man of i
who demands i even in relation to aliens ( ,!. , *, *+9 ). Thus ?ose!h. uses i
of the :ing, the lawgiver and the !ro!het. 2hilo, too, uses of 8oses In (irt. , 6. , .*0 ,
.)+ , .)6 # %f. 9!e%. 4eg. , I(, */ # 4eg. <a$. , ..9 ( iq
). -r he uses it for the mildness of the ruler, 9om. , II, *90 , or for the goodness of <od,
9!e%. 4eg. , I, 97 . 7en%e he often has %ombinations li:e i and , 1Bse%r. ,
.66# and q , 9!e%. 4eg. , II, 9/ # (irt. , ./) # i and ,
-!. 8und. , .+/ # i and i , 9!e%. 4eg. , II, ..+ # and
C i . >f. ,. v. 7arna%:, 9anftmut, 7uld und 3emut ," in 9estgabe f. 0. 4aftan (.9*+), ../ff. The
et&m. is diffi%ult. >f. 4. 8e&er, (andbuch der gr. &tologie , II (.9+.), */ (here !ut with ,
, et%.).
ouaest. >onv. ?uaestiones 1onvivales .
9uav. (iv. 1!i%. !on posse suaviter vivi secundu &picuru .
. 8as. h\ UU 2s. 6650 .
* 8as. \`[^c . The term refle%ts a moral ideal alien to the -T , and therefore there is no fiBed 7eb.
basis (thus \[` hi!h is used ver& differentl& in ?u. .956 ).
, Fla%%. , 6. # 4eg. <a$. , /0* # and q , (irt. , 6. , .*0 #
and , 9!e%. 4eg. , I, 97 .
In 2s.D2lat.3ef. , ).*b ( i i ) and
,ristot.1th. ;i%. , (, .), !. ../7a, /. ff., i is thus the mitigation of stri%t legal %laims
out of regard for s!e%ial %ir%umstan%es in individual %ases." In o!!osition to stri%tness in law,
Iso%. , .6, /) s!ea:s of i i # %f. ), 6/. Thus i is
%lemen%&" or lenien%&." 2lat.4eg. , (, 7/0a# 1!. , (II, /*0b. It is often used with ,
2lut.2eri%l. , /9 (I, .7/%)# 3e >aesare , 07 (I, 7/)d)# with l , Thu%. , III, )+, *# )6, .. In the
!a!. it eB!resses a moderate dis!osition or %onsiderate lenien%&,
2
a!. <re%i e 4atini , I, 66, .+# 2.
4ond. , II, */., .+# 2. 8as!. , II, .0., .66 et%. In the broadest sense it %an also mean a tem!erate
mode of life" as distin%t from i , 4&s. , .6, ...
In * >. .+5. i refers to the mee:ness of >hrist as a model for
2aul and the %ommunit&. >hrist is an eBam!le as the Aevealer of divine and ro&al ma$est&. ,s
the heavenl& Fing ( 2hil. *50 ff. ) 7e is gentle as onl& one who has full !ower %an be.
i is thus a %om!lement of heavenl& ma$est&. The wea: are alwa&s anBiousl& tr&ing
to defend their !ower and dignit&. 7e who has heavenl& authorit& %an dis!la& saving,
forgiving and redeeming %lemen%& even to 7is !ersonal enemies. Hut 2aul and the
%ommunit& have also a heavenl& %alling ( 2hil. /5*+ ). The& are thus asso%iated with the
divine . For this reason the&, too, must dis!la& i .
/
1ven in the most diffi%ult
situations the i must determine the relations of 2aul and the
%ommunit&. 8embers of the %ommunit& must be lo&al to the a!ostle in fa%e of all hostile
%alumniators ( * >. .+56 ). Trusting in the atonement, the& must humbl& see: i , so
that he, too, ma& eBer%ise his a!ostoli% authorit& ( * >. .+56 ) sim!l& in the sense of the
as i . Thus in i there is given to 2aul and the %ommunit& a sign
of their su!raterrestrial !ossession.
This is even %learer in the use of in 2hil. )50 . He%ause the is at hand,
and the final !romised to >hristians will soon be a manifest realit&, the& %an be
towards all men in s!ite of ever& !erse%ution. Faith in their hidden, heavenl&
!lenitude of light and !ower and life !rodu%es a saving gentleness. It is the earthl& %ounter!art
of the heavenl& glor&. 7en%e it is not wea:ness or sentimentalit&. It is the earthl& outwor:ing
of an es%hatologi%al !ossession (%f. 2hil. *5.0I.6 ). ,s the governor, FeliB, ought to manifest
a %lemen%& %orres!onding to his high offi%e ( ,%. *)5) ), so >hristians %an be in
virtue of their heavenl& %alling given to them b& <od.
In ?m. /5.7 wisdom as a heavenl& %reature is given the attributes of rule,
)
and therefore
here, too, the earl& >hristian sense of an eB!ression of ro&al or heavenl& ma$est& is a!!osite.
In . Tm. /5/ o%%urs in an ada!ted 7ellenisti% %atalogue of duties. =et the referen%e
is to the bisho! of the %ommunit& who is endowed with authorit& and who a%ts as the
re!resentative of the %ommunit& with es%hatologi%al assuran%e and in virtue of es%hatologi%al
!ossession. 7en%e is again to be ta:en in its s!e%ifi% earl& >hristian sense.
-n the other hand, in . 2t. *5.6 the word is used of masters in their dealings with slaves.
There is thus a shift from the 4'' use, and the distin%tivel& >hristian a%%ent is la%:ing, sin%e the
referen%e is not merel& to >hristian masters. There is even less of the s!e%ifi% >hristian em!hasis,
or of that of the 4'', in Tt. /5* . The literar& %hara%ter of the list, and the s%hematism of the
%on%e!ts borrowed from 7ellenism, suggest that here, as often enough later,
0
bears the
2a!. <re%i e 4atini Pap'ri Greci e )atini , 2ubbli%aEioni della 9o%iet Italiana, .9.. ff.
/ >f. (. @eber, 1r:llrung von * >. .+5.I6" in Hg , . (.9+/), 66# @nd. * F. , ad loc.
) ,t an& rate q c i is a %hristologi%al !hrase, and the attributes mentioned all refer to >hrist as
de!i%ted in the <os!els, so that there seems to be good ground for the above inter!retation.
0 >f. . >l., /+, 6# 06, .# 06, *# 6*, *# *., 7# ./, .# Ign.1!h. , .+, /. In the bibli%al sense5 . >l., *9, .# Ign.2hld. , .,
. f.# 3g., 7, /# 7erm.m. , .*, ), *.
general sense of mee:" %ustomar& from ,tti% times. is often %ombined with ,
6
,
7
i ,
6
et%.
Preisker
! .
(!, (, ( .
)! .
I, )0.
) .
), ) .
! .
!, i .

*

In the ;T it o%%urs onl& in the 4ordOs 2ra&er in 8t. 65.. 5 q
i q

q , 4:. ..5/ 5 q
i q

q . In >hristian writings it is found onl& in

%onne%tion with the 4ordOs 2ra&er, %ommen%ing with 3id. , 6, *. 1lsewhere it is found onl& in
one !a!&rus (a list of eB!enses)
.
among eB!enses for %hi%:D!eas, straw et%., and for material
( )
*
and !ersonal
/
ends an eB!enditure of .v* obol for {, whi%h should
!robabl& be %om!leted to give i .
)
There are no other eBam!les. 4inguisti%all& it
is diffi%ult to fiB the meaning with an& !re%ision.
.. The 4inguisti% 3erivation.
-rigen said that he did not :now the term either in a%ademi% or !o!ular s!ee%h. The older
translations var& widel&,
0
as do also the fathers.
6
The first linguisti% suggestion is a derivation
6 * >. .+5. # Tt. /5* # . >l., *., 7# /+, 6# 3g., 7, / ( 069 ).
7 * >. .+5. # . >l., /+, 6# 06, .# 06, *# 6*, *.
6 / 8a%%. /5.0 # * 8a%%. 95*7 # ,thenag.9u!!l. , .* ( 069 ).
C . Hibl. in 2r.DHauer , s.v. and 9&mbolae -sloenses , * (.9*)), /.f. and 9 (.9/+), 6*. @here a
definite meaning is offered, the authorOs name is given with the !la%e where this ma& be found.
. 2reisig:e 9ammelbu%h , I, 0**). ,. 3ebrunner was the first to draw attention to this eBam!le in Th4g , 0+
(.9*0), ..9, but it was inde!endentl& noted also b& 8. 3ibelius, ThHl , ) (.9*0), *67 and 7.?. >adbur&, ?H4 ,
)0 (.9*0), *.0.
* .bid. , line /7a.
/ .bid. , line 06a.
) 9ergius 8alea in ?erusalem, .77/, retranslated three ,rmenian %odi%es into <ree: at * 8a%%. .56 5
q i iq . The ,rmenian original is not :nown. The
referen%e is to the showbread. M`sa Yed cf hX \X is used for this at ;u. )57 # 9&
s%
used [S`s[ (%orres!onding to
M`sa Yed ) for the of the 4ordOs 2ra&er. 2erha!s this is the basis of the translation of 9ergius 8alea.
For fuller information, %f. 1. ;estle ( n. 00 ), *0.# ?. 7aussleiter ( n. 6 ), ))+# 2. @. 9%hmiedel, 2r8, .6
(.9.)), /6+I/6*# .9 (.9.0), */ f.# ThA , .9 (.9.6), 9 f.# gn. 8t.
)
, (.9**), *76, n. 6/.
0 1v. 7ebr. a%%. to ?er.5 ahar ( Mhd sd )# 7ieros.5 [MY^qr UU abundant"# 9&
s%
[S`s[ # 9&r2 tSNS^r UU
what we need"# 9a.5 veniente # >o!.5 crastinu # It.5 cotFtGidianu # (g 8t.5 supersubstantiale . The most
an%ient <eorgi% 7adishi 89 dis%overed in .9+) has a word %onstru%ted with ara in whi%h Mhd sd !erha!s
o%%urs, 9. Fau%hts%his%hwili, 2hilol. @o%hens%hr. , 0+ (.9/+), ..66I..66. -n the transl. %f. es!. >.
Tis%hendorf, ;T
6
on 8t. 65.. # ,. 8e&er, 0esu 3uttersprache (.696), .+6# 1. ;estle ( n. 00 )# gn. 8t. , ad
loc. # 3alman @? , I, /**# F. 7au%: ( n. *) ).
6 -n !atristi% eBegesis, %f. es!. F. 7. >hase, "he )ord+s Pra'er in the &arl' 1hurch (.69.), )*I0/# -. 3ibelius,
Das Vaterunser (.9+/), 6. f.# <. 4oes%h:e, Die Vaterunsererkl=rung des "heophilus v. #ntiochien (.9+6)# ?.
7aussleiter ( n. 6 ), )/9# ?. 2. Ho%:, Die Brotbitte des Vaterunsers (.9..)# <. @alter, 8ntersuchungen -.
Geschichte der gr. Vaterunsere:egese (.9.))# gn. 8t. , ad loc.
from . The !arti%i!ial stem gives one !ossible %lue, + + be%oming
on the analog& of ( 6 )v * et%.
7
This would give the
meaning future,"
6
regular,"
9
se%ond in goodness,"
.+
%oming to us dail&,"
..
or as is
a!!ro!riate to us."
.*
4inguisti%all&, however, this derivation is not so free from ob$e%tions as that
from the eB!ression q , s%. q , against whi%h there is no linguisti% ob$e%tion.
./
q
means the da& whi%h follows, the neBt da&,
.)
the da& whi%h is before us.
.0
7en%e the
meaning is that toDda& alread&, or a%%. to 4:. dail&, we should !ra& for bread for the neBt da&. This
inter!retation fits both 8t. and 4:., and it does not render an&thing su!erfluous in either. It is also
su!!orted b& the
1
v. 7ebr. , whi%h a%%. to ?erome has ahar , toDmorrow." Thus the rendering
for the following da&" is now the most widel& a%%e!ted.
.6
Few %ommentators, however, refer it
7 The onl& linguisti% ob$e%tions to this derivation have been stated b& 4. 8e&er, ;<< , .666, *)75 that
%onstru%tions in from !arti%i!ial forms in -- are rare in <:. and %ease in the later !eriod (%f.
8e&er, Zeitschr. f. vergleich. Sprachforschung , 7 m.606n, )*)), and b& >r.DFJ. , )+65 that there are no other
instan%es of %om!osites in - from l . ;either of these is de%isive.
6 >f. , the future." 9o also 7. <rotius. ?. 7aussleiter, A1/ , '', )/9 f.5 for the %oming time" UU so
long as we live on this earth"# ,. 9eeberg, (aterunser u. ,bendmahl " ( !t.liche Studien f. G. (einrici , .9.)),
.+6I..)# Die vierte Bitte d. Vaterunsers (.9.)), where !. .+ f. he sees a referen%e to the future bread of the
!erson of >hrist, relating the !hrase to ba!tism and the 4ordOs 9u!!er, between whi%h the 4ordOs 2ra&er is set.
<. Fuhn, Sch2ei-erische "heol. Zeitschr. , /6 (.9.9), .9.I.965 our bread %oming for the da& UU [r`Yq
[s^`\ UU g qq, g qq having been erroneousl& se!arated from , whi%h
derives from + l . @hatever the merits of the understanding, it is !re%arious to %ount on errors. The
inter!retation future" is o!!osed b& >r.DFJ. , )+6 on the ground that the of 8t. %annot mean the
future in general but onl& toDmorrow, %f. also gn. 8t.
)
(.9**), *79, n. 6).
9 3. (Jlter, 2r8, .6 (.9.)), *7)I*765 the !ortion of bread whi%h is ne%essar& dail& and whi%h returns
regularl&." The basis of this understanding is found in the older 9&r. and 4at. versions, whose regular" or
dail&" goes ba%: to the 7eb. r`sa Yed 5 , from , means that whi%h re%urs in regular
seTuen%e." (Jlter also a!!eals to 9ergius 8alea. , dis%ussion followed between (Jlter and 2. @. 9%hmiedel,
2r8, .6 (.9.)), /06I/6)# .9 (.9.0). *+I*/, */I*6. ;either the a!!eal to 9ergius 8alea nor the <:. derivation
is %onvin%ing. The 7eb. r`sa Yed hardl& bears the meanings suggested, and it would be better to go ba%: to the
,ram. [Md `raYeZ , whi%h %an denote something whi%h ha!!ens dail& and whi%h is thus regular," 3alman @? , I,
/*7.
.+ 7. Fothe, !eue 0ahrbcher f. Philologie u. P=dagogik , .)* (.69+), 066 f.5 UU se$ui ,
UU panis secundarius UU barle& bread, the 2alestinian eTuivalent of the <erman bla%: bread. Hut below
this is still bran bread, and >. >ron, ibid. , .)) (.69.), *97 f. as:s Fothe whether !eo!le who eat the latter are
li:el& to as: for the former.
.. F. 7olEinger, 2hilol. @o%hens%hr. , 0. (.9/.), 6*6I6/+, 607I66/5 %al%ulated to %ome," i.e.,
this da&, whi%h ma& be su!!lied from the q !resent in . >f. the ob$e%tion of ,. 3ebrunner, ibid.
, .*77 f. and the re!l& of 7olEinger, ibid. , 0* (.9/*), /6/ f.
.* 1. His%hoff, 0esus und die /abbinen (.9+0), 77 f. 6 , he who en%ounters one b& the wa&," and
, nourishment as it %omes to us," ^eSW]MZ ud hX \X . ,. 2allis, !otes on St. 3k. and St. 3t.
(.9/*), 66 f.5 UU , whi%h falls to our share," sin%e in the intr. the words are often
s&non. >f. also Frets%hmer and (annutelli in n. 7* .
./ 4inguisti% ob$e%tions have been raised b& Holliger ( n. *) ), *795 that there is no eBam!le of an ad$. from a
fem. !art., and 7olEinger ( n. .. ), 6*75 that there are la%:ing in the two de%isive things whi%h
give q q its meaning, namel&, the arti%le and q , sin%e alone sim!l& means to
%ome." Hut these are not ver& %ogent ob$e%tions. >f. in ?n. ..5/9 f rom q q , 2.
@. 9%hmiedel, Sch2ei-. "heol. Zeitschr. , /. (.9.)), )*.
.) ,%. 75*6 ( + q )# .65.. # *+5.0 # *.5.6 # */5.. ( + ). It is %ommon in ?ose!h. ( 9%hl. 8t. , *..).
.0 'en.,n. , I, 7, ., where q c is said at midnight. In 2lat.>rito , ))a, q q
is said when it was . ?os.,nt. , .+, .69 f. 5 { { g

g {
q . The !ossibilit& of su%h an understanding is not ruled out b& 2oll.-nom. , I, 605

l q
q (,. 3ebrunner, ThHl , 6 m.9*9n, *./).
1v. 7ebr. Gospel of the (ebre2s .
.6 This view is strongl& defended b& 2. @. 9%hmiedel, Sch2ei-. "heol. Zeitschr. , /+ (.9./), *+)I**+# /.
(.9.)), )*I69# 2hilol. @o%hens%hr. , )6 (.9*6), .0/+I.0/6. >f. also 2a!e, s.v. # 7. ?. 7oltEmann, Die
S'noptiker (.9+.), 6/# ,. 7arna%:, 9,H , .9+), *+6# &rforschtes und &rlebtes (.9*/), *) f.# ,. 2lummer, St.
to the %oming aeon.
.7
@ith the same derivation from q , the word ma& also refer, of
%ourse, to the da& whi%h is alread& brea:ing." In this %ase, we should have a morning !ra&er in
whi%h bread is reTuested for the da& now dawning. It might also be !ointed out that in the an%ient
world the da& began the evening before, so that even later in the da& it might well refer to the new
da&" whi%h was shortl& to begin.
.6

The other derivations start with the !re!. i and a form of the verb l . The& all suffer
from the ob$e%tion that the is not elided. To over%ome this it is no longer ne%essar& to !lead the
defi%ient linguisti% sense of the author who is su!!osed to have %oined the word, !ossibl& a ?ewish
>hristian.
.9
;or does one need to refer to as a !arallel %onstru%tion whi%h often
served the same end.
*+
For re%ent koine resear%h has revealed a growing tenden%& in the koine to
:ee! the %onstituent !arts of %om!osite words.
*.
The onl& trouble is that in this %ase it would
!rodu%e the ver& o!!osite of the result intended, %ausing %onfusion rather than %larit& in relation to
)uke
)
(.9+6), *90 f.# gahn Fan. , 7.+, n. .# 1inl. , II, /.9# 8t.
)
(.9**), *6+ f. ( means for the da&
whi%h follows"# 8t. is a not ver& good rendering of the ,ram. whi%h should give l q )# Ho%:
( n. 6 ), .)I** (also referred to the 1u%harist)# ,. 3eissmann, !t. liche Studien f. G. (einrici (.9.)), ..0I
..9# 9estschr. f. /. Seeberg , I (.9*9), *99I/+6 (where a distin%tion is made between the usual" meaning,
something a!!ointed for the following da&," and the o%%asional," the bread whi%h is a!!ointed for toDmorrow
as a reward")# ?. 7ensler, Das Vaterunser (.9.)), 9I./# ?. @eiss in Die Schriften des !"
/
(.9.7), on 8t. 65.. #
,. T. Aobertson, # Graar of the Greek ;T
/
(.9.9), .09# 8oult.D8ill. , s.v. # ,. 9teinmann, Die Bergpredigt
(.9*6), .+) f.# Fl. 8t. on 65..# 9%hl. 8t. , *..I*./# F. Hornhluser, Die Bergpredigt
*
(.9*7), .07 f. (here, as in
9%hl., it is stressed that the Aabbis a!!arentl& referred to !ra&er for the morrowOs bread, but this is not ver&
%ertain)# ?. 7. 8oulton and @. F. 7oward, # Graar of !" Greek , II (.9*9), /./# <erla%h, Deutsches
Pfarrerblatt , /) (.9/+), 6)7I6)6# T. InnitEer, 4o. -u &v. d. hl. 3t.
)
(.9/*), .*9 f.# 7. <reeven, Gebet und
&schatologie (.9/.), 67I9+# F. 9tiebitE, 2hilol. @o%hens%hr. , )7 (.9*7), 669I69* ( in the !a!. first
means diaria or !ortion for the following da&," but then there is a strong suggestion of meagre Tuantit& and
!oor Tualit&). >f. F. 9tiebitE in )ist' 9ilologick, , /0 (.9*6), 7.I6)# *+6I*.9# 06 (.9/.), ..0I.**, *0)I*6.# ,.
His%hoff ( n. 07 ), who derives from q , but thin:s there is an error in translation# ,.
3ebrunner, Glotta , ) (.9./), *)9, who a%%e!ts the derivation from q as !ossible, %f. ibid. , ./ (.9*)),
.7+. 1. <aar, Bi t B ((ienna, .9/.), .00 suggests l q q ,
following T. InnitEer, supra , and also <. Froening in G'nasiu , ** (.9+)), .60I.665 rea%hing to the %oming
da&." ?. F. genner, Zeitschr. f. kath. "heol. , .7 (.69/), .7/ f., sees in the reTuest for bread onl' for the neBt da&
an eB!ression of modest&, following 7ilgenfeldOs reading of 2s. 9ol. 05.05 q 6
i , eBtends onl' to friends and onl' till the morrow."
.7 A. 1isler, g;@ , *) (.9*0), .9+I.9*# ?. 9%housboe, /evue de l+(istoire des /eligions , )6 (96) (.9*7), *//I
*/7# ,. 9%hweitEer, Die 3'stik d. #p. Pls. (.9/+), *//I*/0# ?. ?eremias, 0esus als Weltvollender (.9/+), 0*.
This view is o!!osed b& <reeven, op. cit. , 66 f.# 7. 7uber, Die Bergpredigt (.9/*), .*/I.*0 and others.
.6 In favour of the dawning da&, %f. @arthD4J%:le, Th9tFr , 07 (.66)), 769I777# >. >ron, !0bch. f. Philol. u.
P=dagogik , .)+ (.669), .+9I../# .)) (.69.), *66I*99# ,. Fa!!eler, Sch2ei-. "heol. Zeitschr. , /. (.9.)),
.)7I.065 a morning and evening %ulti% !ra&er# the dis%ussion between 9%hmiedel and Fa!!eler in Sch2ei-.
"heol. Zeitschr. , /. (.9.)), .9* f.# /* (.9.0), ..6I.**# ./.I.//# F. ;lgelsba%h, Der Schlssel -. Verst=ndnis
d. Bergpredigt (.9.6), )+I)) (the word has %re!t into the 4ordOs 2ra&er b& error from a morning !ra&er)# 8. ?.
4agrange, &vangile solon St. 3atthieu
*
(.9*/), .*9 f.# &vang. selon St. )uc
*
(.9*.), /*/# 4iddellD9%ott , s.v. for
!referen%e# >. <. 8ontefiore, "he S'noptic Gospels , II
*
(.9*7), .+. f. ( in an evening !ra&er means
for the %oming da& and in a morning !ra&er for the da& $ust beginning)# 7uber, op. cit. # 3aus%h 9&n!t. on 8t.
65.. . >f. also Fridri%hsen ( n. 0* ). 8ateriall& A. @immerer, Glotta , .* (.9*/), 66I6*, b& an anal&sis of
, rea%hes the sense of the %urrent da&" from the da& $ust dawning." ,n o!!osite view is ta:en b& ,.
3ebrunner, Glotta , ./ (.9*)), .67I.7..
.9 ,s suggested b& 7Jnni%:e ( n. *) ), .77# Holliger ( n. *) ), *6/# 3ebrunner ( n. *+ ), who
abandoned this view be%ause of the eBam!le in the !a!. , Th4g , 0+ m.9*0n, ..9. 3eissmann, Studien f. G.
(einrici ( n. .6 ), ..6 f., had alread& seen in the word an instan%e of !o!ular %onstru%tion.
*+ 8e&er n. *9 # ,. Fam!hausen, Das Gebet d. (errn (.666), 66# 3ebrunner, Glotta , ) (.9./), *0.#
Sch2ei-. "heol. Zeitschr. , /. (.9.)), /65 !rovides a word ver& similar in sound to . ,
material %ontrast to is assumed b& 8Gns%her n. *9 # Holliger ( n. *) ), *6. f.5
means what is be&ond the need" and what satisfies it"# but this is rightl& re$e%ted b& 9%hmiedel
( n. ./ ), 0+ f., sin%e i does not have the sense of need" in . H. @eiss ( n. */ ), ./0
n., and 9i%:enberger ( n. *) ) agree with Holliger. AJns%h ( n. *) ) thin:s that and
are almost s&non. (referring to ?erome), but that the former was avoided be%ause it also meant
abundant."
*. 3ebrunner, Glotta , ) (.9./), *0.. The histor& of the hiatus Tuestion is interesting. ,t first eBam!les of the
nonDavoidan%e of the hiatus were given, li:e , , where we have to re%:on, of %ourse, with
fa%tors in linguisti% histor&. Then with the rise of koine resear%h it was realised that the koine was less !re%ise in
the %om!osition of the term.
**
3erivation from holds out no greater !romise, sin%e the
verb was familiar in the elided form.
*/
, soD%alled h&!ostatisation has been suggested, i.e., a
%onstru%tion %om!arable to the form . ,n older eB!lanation is that is
formed from q i in the sense of belonging to eBisten%e or to life."
*)
Hut i is
not used !o!ularl& in the sense of eBisten%e."
*0
The related %onstru%tions ,
, , , do not dis!la& this meaning. , newer
derivation from q , s%. q , for the !resent da&,"
*6
has found mu%h
a%%e!tan%e, but against it there is still the fa%t that q is not attested without q .
*7

4ess !robable are the assum!tions that is %onstru%ted in %ontrast to and
means not eB%eeding our need" as o!!osed to eB%eeding our need,"
*6
or that it means what is
Hi ," i.e., what is for a !ur!ose," or what is above."
*9
, %ombination of both derivations, i.e.,
from l and from l , is the view that a word originall& derived from l was later
this matter. Thus 3ebrunner %ould !oint to the !a!. word , 2. -B&. , (I, 9*), or to with
in 2ol&b. , III, 00, ., or to i and in Ign.A. , !rooem ( n. *) ), .69#
in the same !assage one might also !oint to as a sign of freedom in this regard. Those who do not
thin: the hiatus Tuestion a de%isive argument against derivation from i + l will be found in n. */ to n.
*6. 9!e%ial attention ma& be drawn to the $udgment of !hilologists. HrugmannvThumb. 4iddellD9%ott , 7olEinger,
3ebrunner, Aogge and 8oultonv7oward ( n. .. # .6 # .6 # *6 # /. ) are not swa&ed b& the hiatus. ,
different view is ta:en b& Aobertson ( n. .6 )# @immerer ( n. .6 ) and <. Audberg, S'bolae %sloenses ,
* (.9*)), )*.
** This has been advan%ed b& 9%hmiedel ( Sch2ei-. "heol. Zeitschr. , /+ m.9./n, *.)# /. m.9.)n, )9# ThHl , 6
m.9*9n, *06), @immerer and ;lgelsba%h ( n. .6 ), and also 7olEinger ( n. .. ), as an argument against
derivation from l . The ob$e%tion still has for%e.
*/ 9o 7Jnni%:e ( n. *) ). The assum!tion of a new %onstru%tion from i and a form of l lightens the
diffi%ult& of the hiatus a%%. to 3ebrunner ( n. *6 ). H. @eiss, Das 3t.<&v.
9
(.9.+), ./0 f. derives
from , to belong to."
*) 9o alread& -rigen. The main !ro!onent is >r.DFJ. , s.v. >f. also 7. AJns%h, gwTh , *7 (.66)), /60I/9/# 1.
,. 9o!ho%les, Greek )e:icon of the /oan and B'-antine Periods (.666), s.v. # ,. Holliger, Sch2ei-. "heol.
Zeitschr. , /+ (.9./), *76I*60, with a re!l& b& 9%hmiedel, ibid. , /. (.9.)), )*I69# 3alman @? , I, /*.I//)# T.
InnitEer, 4o. -. &vang. d. hl. )k.
/
(.9**), *06# ?. 9i%:enberger, 8nser ausreichendes Brot gib uns heute
(.9*/)# F. 7au%:, g;@ , // (.9/)), .99I*+*# !robabl& also <. 7Jnni%:e, ;:. g. , .7 (.9+6), .76I.76. ,.
3ebrunner, Glotta , ./ (.9*)), .7+ thin:s this a !ossible derivation, though he himself does not ado!t it.
*0 1Bam!les are given in >r.DFJ. , s.v. and H. @eiss ( n. */ ). @immerer regards these as %onvin%ing ( n.
.6 ). 8e&er ( n. *9 ), >ron ( n. .6 ), 9%hmiedel, Aobertson, 9%hlatter ( n. .6 ) a%%e!t i in the
sense of eBisten%e" as a !hiloso!hi%al term, but not a !o!ular. 8oult.D8ill. , s.v. and i.
i in the !a!. means abilit&," and it is used abstra%tl& onl& in the magi% !a!. . The whole matter is ver&
un%ertain a%%. to ,. 3ebrunner, Der 4irchenfreund ( n. *6 ).
*6 This has been advan%ed b& ,. 3ebrunner, Glotta , ) (.9./), *)9I*0/, and defended b& him against
9%hmiedel ( Sch2ei-. "heol. Zeitschr. , /. m.9.)n, /6I).), @immerer ( n. .6 ), 7olEinger ( n. .. ) and
Honna%orsi ( .ndoger. 9orschungen , 0* m.9/)n, .7*, n. .). >f. also 3ebrunner, Der 4irchenfreund , 09 (.9*0),
*)6I*)6# ThHl , 6 (.9*9), *.* f., with 9%hmiedelOs re$oinder, ibid. , *06 f. and 3ebrunnerOs re!l&, ibid. , *09 f..
Further o!!osition to 3ebrunner ma& be seen in <. Audberg, S'bolae %sloenses , * (.9*)), )*# / (.9*0), 76 f.,
and <erla%h ( n. .6 ). H q is found in 9o!h. , a similar eB!ression in the !a!. , and a related use
of the !art. 6 in ,%. ./5. # .)5./ 3. The form of the %onstru%tion is su!!orted b& , et%.
There are instan%es of the omission of q at least with q , if not with q . @ith in%reasing
definiteness 3ebrunner then shows that the new %onstru%tion (-, -) q instead of
q %an be eB!lained onl& in terms of the related . 7e is su!!orted b& F. HrugmannD,.
Thumb, Griech. Gra.
)
(.9./), 670# 4iddellD9%ott for !referen%e, and to some eBtent 8oultonv7oward ( n.
.6 ). >f. also ,. FlotE, 2hilol. @o%hens%hr. , )0 (.9*0), 66# ?. >o!!ens, &pheerides "heologicae )ovanienses ,
7 (.9/+), *97 f. >f. 2. Frets%hmer, Glotta , .7 (.9*9), *.0.
*7 9o 9%hmiedel ( n. 09 ), *..# 3eissmann, Studien f. G. (einrici ( n. .6 )# 9%hmid ( n. )6 ), *6#
8oult.D8ill. , s.v. # Audberg ( n. *. )# for further %onsiderations, %f. the dis%ussion between 3ebrunner and
7olEinger ( n. .. ).
*6 n. *+ .
*9 4. 8e&er, Zeitschr. f. vgl. Sprachforschung , 7 (.606), ).+I)/+5 what is i UU for something, i.e., for life"#
;ber d. B. Bitte d. Vaterunsers (.666)# ;<< , .666, *)0I*095 what is i UU above" (abandoning the earlier
view), %ontested in .69. b& >ron ( n. .6 ). >f. H. @eiss ( n. */ )5 whi%h is for us." Fam!hausen ( n.
*+ ), 7*I.+*, ado!ted 8e&erOs first view, and he again was followed b& F. @. 8Gns%her, !eue 0ahrbcher f.
Philol. u. P=dagogik , .)* (.69+), ..*I..0.
thought to be %onne%ted with i .
/+
1ven the bio!s&%hologi%al wa& of Aogge,
/.
though
fundamentall& %orre%t, does not lead to an in%ontestable result, sin%e the series of %onstru%tions in
whi%h is to be !la%ed is not be&ond Tuestion.
*. The 8eaning of .
a. The review of linguisti% !ossibilities has shown that there %an be no linguisti% ob$e%tions to
its derivation from and es!. from q . It is worth noting that even 3ebrunner,
who ta:es another %ourse, regards this as !ossible.
/*
There is strong su!!ort for it in 1v. 7eb.
whi%h a%%. to ?erome has ahar . For man& this is the de%isive reason for translating
for the morrow."
//
The %onvin%ing element is not the antiTuit& of 1v. 7eb., but that it is in
,ram. , so that even if it is retranslated from the <:. ,
/)
whi%h is not established, it will naturall&
give the 4ordOs 2ra&er in the form %ommon to ,ramai% s!ea:ing ?ewish >hristian %ir%les in
2alestine, and this form will be as near the ipsissia verba doini as we %an get.
/0
-n the other
hand, the 1v. 7eb. is not un%ontested, nor is its nature wholl& %lear.
/6
The !arts of it :nown to us
do not eB%lude the influen%e of alien ideas. -n the !resent state of our :nowledge of this <os!el
we %annot rule out the !ossibilit& that the bread for the morrow of 1v. 7eb. indi%ates a s!iritual
understanding of the reTuest. This was %ommon in the earl& >hur%h and led to the %om!lete
su!!ression of the reTuest for bread, e.g., in the <ree: teBt of the ,%t. Thom.
/7
This does not
mean that we should set aside the testimon& of 1v. 7eb. @hat it does mean is that the remar: of
?erome on the teBt of the !etition in 1v. 7eb. does not lead to the original teBt with su%h %ertaint&
that all further dis%ussion must %ease.
/6

This dis%ussion ta:es various turns. ,n im!ortant !art is !la&ed b& the Tuestion whether this
inter!retation is %om!atible with what ?esus sa&s about anBiet&, es!. in 8t. 65/) 5
l q . It is not merel& a Tuestion of whether !ra&er for things of the
morrow is anBiet&.
/9
9%hmiedel and others have rightl& argued that !ra&er is the best antidote to
anBiet&.
)+
The !roblem is whether I %an see: tomorrowOs bread for toDda&.
).
@hat I !ra& for in
advan%e for the time when I need it, I should not !ra& to have given me, or to re%eive, in advan%e."
)*
This leads to further !roblems. Thus it is sur!rising to find referen%e to two times in so short a
senten%e.
)/
,gain, on this view the whole !etition seems neither natural nor modest"
))
kan
im!ression given even when no dis%re!an%& is seen with 8t. 65/) .
)0
This ob$e%tion would not be
/+ Fa!!eler ( n. .6 )# Aogge ( n. /. ).
/. >. Aogge, 2hilol. @o%hens%hr. , )7 (.9*7), ..*9I..//5 is grou!ed linguisti%all& with
, , et%., in whi%h the i denotes meeting a need." The eBam!le of the last
word soon led to its use with i on the basis of q and with the sense of meeting the need of the
da&." This view is %ountered b& 2. @. 9%hmiedel, ibid. , )6 (.9*6), .0/+I.0/6.
/* n. .6 .
// 9o Ho%:, 9%hmiedel, 7ensler, gahn, 9teinmann, InnitEer 8t., <reeven ( n. .6 )# es!. 9%hmiedel ( n. ./
), 0* ff. 1ven ,. 9eeberg ( Die B. Bitte m n. 6 n, )) agrees that the 1v. 7eb. strongl& su!!orts the sense of for
toDmorrow," though he himself, with 7aussleiter ( n. 6 ), ta:es mahar to mean future."
/) 9o (Jlter ( n. 9 ), Holliger ( n. *) ), 3ebrunner ( n. *6 ).
/0 This is %onstantl& em!hasised b& 9%hmiedel ( n. .6 ), as also b& gahn ( n. .6 ).
/6 @. Hauer, A<<
*
, II, .67/# I(, )7/# 8. ?. 4agrange, /ev. Bib. , /. (.9**), /*6. <. Fuhn ( Sch2ei-. "heol.
Zeitschr. , /. m.9.)n, /0) also re$e%ts the a!!eal to 1v. 7eb. >f. 1. v. 3obs%hGtE, "he (arvard "heological
/evie2 , 7 (.9.)), /./ f., and ?. @ellhausen, &inleitung in die drei ersten &vangelien
*
(.9..), ..6 f.
/7 >a!. .)).
/6 In an& %ase, the histor& of ?ewish >hristianit& is fairl& obs%ure.
/9 9o 9%hweitEer ( n. .7 ), *// f.
)+ 9%hmiedel, Prot. 3onatshefte , .6 (.9.)), /6)5 2ra&er is the best antidote to this anBiet&." >f. also
3eissmann, InnitEer 8t., 8ontefiore and 9%hmiedel ( n. .6 and n. .6 ).
). 9o @arth and 4J%:le ( n. .6 ), 77)# AJns%h ( n. *) ), /66# ?. F. 1dwards ( n. 07 )# (Jlter, 2r8, .9
(.9.0), ** f.# @. >. ,llen ( n. 7* ), 09# Holligor ( n. *) )# ;lgelsba%h ( n. .6 )# 9i%:enberger ( n.
*) )# @immerer ( n. .6 )# >r.DFJ. ( n. )* ).
)* >r.DFJ. , )+7.
)/ His%hoff ( n. 07 ), *69.
)) (Jlter ( n. 9 ), *70# similarl& @immerer ( n. .6 ), 69.
)0 7Jnni%:e ( n. *) ) ta:es the view that our bread for the morrow is %om!atible with 8t. 65/) , but he sa&s
on !. .775 The !etition hardl& seems natural if we %onstrue it5 ~<ive us dail& our bread for the morrow.O ,nd it
%ertainl& seems in this %ase to eB!ress anBiet& that we do not :now what we shall be eating toDmorrow." The
%onvin%ing if it were a matter of !ra&ing for the bare minimum of food for the morrow.
)6
In this
%ase, the reTuest for bread for the morrow would be a reTuest to be :e!t from having to beg,
)7
a
reTuest whi%h sets the dis%i!le in the normal %ourse of life and wor:,
)6
a reTuest for honest food
and shelter."
)9
Hut this assum!tion is unfounded. For wages in 2alestine were not given to da&D
wor:ers the night before.
0+
9u%h wor:ers were given the usual meals during the wor:ing da&.
0.

;or %ould the dis%i!les !ra& in this wa& an& more than dail& wor:ers. For the& were sent out
without bread or mone& ( 8:. 656 # mone& a%%ording to 8t. and 4:.) be%ause the labourer is
worth& of his hire and the& were to eat what was set before them in the house ( 4:. .+57 ).
0*

Furthermore, the !etition is not %on%erned whether, when or how the means of livelihood are
attained# the& are sim!l& sought and re%eived at the hands of <od. ,nd it is of the ver& nature of
faith, from whi%h the reTuest s!rings, that it eB!e%ts <odOs hel! and %ounts on it for the ver& time
when it is needed, and not before.
0/
The same attitude of faith ma& be seen in the stor& of the
manna in 1B. .6 . ;or is it false allegorising to addu%e this,
0)
for the unit& of the -T and the ;T
%omes out strongl& at this ver& !oint. Thus in the sense of for the morrow" is hardl&
%on%eivable in the %on%rete situation in whi%h the 4ordOs 2ra&er is given, and it leads in fa%t to an
attitude ver& different from the attitude of faith found in the -T and the ;T .
b. Inter!retations whi%h remain in the %onteBt of time, but !oint in a ver& different dire%tion,
are the es%hatologi%al and the s!iritual. The former ma:es of the fourth !etition a re!etition of the
se%ond. The latter is so %losel& lin:ed b& ,. 9eeberg with ba!tism and the 4ordOs 9u!!er that it
loses all !robabilit&, and the su!!orting eB!osition of the fathers and an%ient versions
00
is of
more histori%al than linguisti% value. The main ob$e%tion to both inter!retations is that bread for
the morrow" would be an unusual image Tuite out of :ee!ing with the sim!le di%tion of the 4ordOs
2ra&er. The argument that the three last !etitions are lin:ed b& i and that the& thus %onstitute a
unit& is no more %onvin%ing than the %laim that all the others are %on%erned with the :ingdom of
<od, and that therefore this must a!!l& to the fourth !etition too. For the four !etitions are united
in the fa%t that the& embra%e our needs.
06

Tuestion raised b& 8e&er, Fam!hausen, 7Jnni%:e, 7aussleiter, @ellhausen, (Jlter, 9eeberg ( n. 6 # 9 # *) #
*9 # /6 ) and others, namel&, wh& | | l q is not used for for the morrow" as in
8t. 65/) , is not de%isive, but it has a %ertain weight. This is shown b& the man& attem!ts at eB!lanation found in
,. His%hoff, 9%hmiedel, 3eissmann, 8oult.D8ill. , Fridri%hsen ( n. .6 # 07 # 7* ).
)6 3eissmann, Studien ( n. .6 ), ..7 f., refers to the !roverbial sa&ing5 Those who have no bread in the
house overnight," as an eB!ression of the dee!est !overt&. @. 9%hmid, Glotta , 6 (.9.0), *6 f., tries to find an
an%ient eTuivalent in 3io >hr&s. , but this is %ontested b& @immerer ( n. .6 ), 7/ f.
)7 gn. 8t.
)
(.9**), *6*5 The !etition is to the effe%t that at the right time, i.e., toDda&, <od will give us the food
whi%h we shall need toDmorrow. 1ven the !oorest beggar { ma& !ra& thus# though in his %ase the !etition will
ta:e on the sense that the heavenl& Father should deliver him from this sorr& situation of
{" 9%hl. ?:. , .69 f.5 @e !ra& to <od for the bread ne%essar& for the %oming da&# if we do not have
the , we are for%ed to as: men too."
)6 9%hl. 8t. , *.. f.5 The fa%t that the dis%i!le should as: his food from <od in the %onfiden%e that he will
re%eive it does not mean that he is lifted out of the natural order and that his life is grounded on a re%urrent
mira%le."
)9 9%hl. 8t. , *.*# gn. 8t.
)
, *6.5 The dail& wor:er, who re%eives his wages in the evening, wor:s toDda& in
order that he ma& eat toDmorrow"# so, too, 8e&er ( n. *9 ), 9teinmann and Hornhluser ( n. .6 ). @.
>rJnert, Gnoon , ) (.9*6), 69, n. . and 076, addu%es some eBam!les from antiTuit& to su!!ort the view of
9tiebitE that %orres!onds to diaria ( n. .6 ). -n the other hand, 2. @ahrmann, Glotta , .7 (.9*9),
*.0 raises the Tuestion5 @h& must food be measured out beforehand for the following da&"
0+ 3alman @? , I, /*05 There is no indi%ation in ?ewish literature that the da&Os !ortion was given out the da&
before."
0. .bid. , /*).
0* This view is also found in ;Jgelsba%h ( n. .6 ) and ,. Fridri%hsen, S'bolae %sloenses , * (.9*)), /.I)*.
0/ It is worth noting that 9%hmiedel ( n. ./ ), 66 f. %an over%ome the diffi%ult& !osed b& onl& b&
%onstruing <ive us toDda&" as <ive us in some wa& the %ertaint& that we shall re%eive what we are as:ing for
at the right time."
0) 9o 9%hmiedel, Sch2ei-. "heol. Zeitschr. , /+ (.9./), *.7# /. (.9.)), 6/ f.. The stor& of the manna is rightl&
re%alled b& Holliger ( n. *) ) and >r.DFJ. , )+65 This is as it were the basis of the !etition in salvation
histor&." 9imilarl& 1isler ( n. .7 ) and 9i%:enberger ( n. *) ) refer to 1B. .6 .
00 1. ;estle, g;@ , . (.9++), *0+I*0*, though he does not de%ide for an& one meaning, thin:s it stri:ing that
regular" has found su%h wide a%%e!tan%e# in this res!e%t 9%hmiedel ( n. )+ ) !oints to ?n. 65*7 .
%. It is also im!ossible to sustain the theories that the referen%e is to panis secundarius , or to
what is i , or to the o!!osite of , i.e., suffi%ient" rather than su!erDabounding."
07

d. The truth seems to be that is not an indi%ation of time but of measure. whi%h is
not suffi%ientl& %learl& eB!ressed in the suffiB, of whi%h ,ram. ma:es a ri%h use, or in q .
The fa%t that, although there is no ob$e%tion to the derivation from q , !hilologists have
sought other derivations, is $ust as stri:ing as is the further fa%t that this sear%h all tends in the one
dire%tion, namel&, that defines the amount of bread.
This ma& ha!!en in two wa&s. -n the one hand, ma& mean for toDda&." In this
%ase, ?esus is tea%hing us in !ra&er to dire%t our attention to this da& and its needs, and dail& to as:
and to re%eive our sustenan%e from <odOs hand. 4inguisti%all& ma& then be eB!lained
again in two wa&s5 from q in the sense of the dawning da&," or from q
, s%. q . If we ta:e the first %ourse, we must regard the !ra&er as a morning !ra&er.
06
For,
although the ?ewish 9abbath began in the evening, this mode of re%:oning a!!lied onl& in %ulti%
things,
09
and there would be no sense in !ra&ing for this da&Os bread" in the afternoon, shortl&
before the %ommen%ement of the new da&." , !ossible 7eb. eTuivalent is r^_`ec hX \X , %f. 2rv.
*75. , where UU Mhd sd ^_` is distinguished from q UU ^_` .
6+
@e ma& well
as: with 9%hlatter, however, whether the 4ordOs 2ra&er is to be tied in this wa& to a !arti%ular
time.
6.
There is also another diffi%ult&. The addition

q ( ^`\WL ) or
( ^`M [s^` ) serves the !ur!ose of :ee!ing our attention fiBed on the one %urrent da&.
In the short and sim!le formulation of the 4ordOs 2ra&er, the addition of a further definition
serving the same !ur!ose surel& seems to be tautologi%al.
6*
If we a%%e!t this ob$e%tion, we are
for%ed to give u! all tem!oral understanding of the word .
6/
The eBam!le in the !a!.
( 09+ f. ) !oints in the same dire%tion. For if we assume that no more than - is to be added to
06 ,s against 9eeberg ( n. 6 ) and 9%hweitEer ( n. .7 ). The $ustifi%ation of !ra&ing for something
material is %ontested b& 8e&er ( n. *9 ). Though >ron ( n. .6 ), *9., *96 re$e%ts this inter!retation, he
sees su!!ort for it in its %loser agreement with the whole attitude of the !ra&er. It %annot be su!!orted b&
8ar%ionOs version of 4:. ..5/ ( instead of q ), whi%h is undoubtedl& an alteration of the
original.
07 n. *+ . @e need hardl& mention the view on%e !ro!ounded and later abandoned b& <. Fuhn, Sch2ei-.
"heol. Zeitschr. , /. (.9.)), //I/6# ( n. 6 ), that is a translation of cL\c [Ssh\ # our
%urrent bread," sin%e cW\c in the Aabb. writings denotes movement rather than what is %ustomar& ( xMr ).
,gain, we have onl& a brilliant %on$e%ture in the theor& of ,. His%hoff ( g;@ , 7 m.9+6n, *66I*7.) that a
defe%tive Mha sZ gave rise to UU Mhd sd and that the real meaning is the bread whi%h we have
earned." The same is true of the suggestion of F. 7. >hase ( n. 6 ), su!!orted b& 1. <oltE, Das Gebet in der
=ltesten 1hristenheit (.9+.), )9, that li:e and

q rests on the single

[s^`r , ,gain, the attem!t of I. F. 1dwards, gwTh , *9 (.666), /7.I/76 to go ba%: to the Targumi% eB!ression
[sh\ r`q (bread whi%h endures) does not lead us an& further.
06 The idea of a morning !ra&er is a%%e!ted b& >ron, ;lgelsba%h ( n. .6 ), and 2. 2iebig, Das Vaterunser
(.9*7), 79I6/, though the latter %onstrues as what we need." 8ontefiore and Fa!!eler suggest a
morning and evening !ra&er ( n. .6 ), and >ron agrees in res!e%t of later use ( n. .6 ).
09 In ordinar& things the ?ew re%:ons from the morning, 3alman @? , I, //*# #rbeit u. Sitte in Pal=stina , I
(.9*6), 096 f.. Thus 9%hmiedelOs argument against the sense of the dawning" da& ( Sch2ei-. "heol. Zeitschr. ,
/+ m.9./n, *+7) loses its !oint. The fa%t that the <:. da& began in the evening (@immerer m n. .6 n, 70) did
not affe%t 2alestine.
6+ 4agrange 8t. ( n. .6 ).
6. 9%hl. 8t. , *.*.
6* ,s against ,. 3ebrunner, Sch2ei-. "heol. Zeitschr. , /. (.9.)), ).# Glotta , ./ (.9*)), .7+ f. >f. 3eissmann,
Stud. f. G. (einrici ( n. .6 ), ..0 f. 3oubt is also thrown on Fridri%hsenOs h&!othesis ( n. .6 ) that an
original dis%i!lesO !ra&er for bread for the !resent da& has be%ome a famil& !ra&er for bread for the %oming da&,
whi%h the famil& usuall& :ee!s in the house. 1ven re%entl& in %ountr& distri%ts in 2alestine bread was freshl&
ba:ed ever& morning a%%. to <. ?entEs%h, !eueste !achrichten aus de 3orgenlande , 76 (.9/)), .6.
6/ -!!onents of a tem!oral understanding are 8Gns%her ( n. *9 ), ../ (on a%%ount of the !leonasm), Fothe (
n. .+ ), 066 (1ver& tem!oral eB!lanation %ontains a !leonasm"), and Fam!hausen ( n. *+ ), 9. f.
- , and that there is nothing else between this and the sum of .v* obol,
6)
the sense of a
dail& ration ( diaria ), whether we thin: of q (q) or q , is hardl&
!robable in view of the smallness of the amount.
60
8ore li:el& is the mention of something
ne%essar& or something additional.
66

e. This leads us to the se%ond wa& in whi%h the word ma& define the amount of bread. This
rests mainl&, though not eB%lusivel&, on the inter!retation q i , whi%h gives us the
sense of ne%essar&." @e are reminded of the stor& of the manna, the !oint of whi%h is that those
who gathered too mu%h had no su!erfluit&, and those who gathered too little had no la%:.
67
@e
are also reminded of the sa&ing in 2rv. /+56 whi%h is often addu%ed in this %onne%tion5 PQ [M]
`Nea h hX \X `Sai`Ma Z cf `\a^YeX Yea [\f MPXQ q^d . 7ere the Nh_ denotes the amount a!!ro!riate to the
individual.
66
,t *)5/. the 4'' has for `Nea h hX \X . tSMh or
tS`WMu would %orres!ond in ,ram.
69
@hat the 4ord has in view is not the s!a%e of a da& but
what is needed b& 7im and the host of dis%i!les asso%iated with 7im. There are man& Aabb.
!arallels for this understanding.
7+
If it is true, it eB!resses %onfiden%e that <od will give us as we
have need. t is not su!erfluous in this %ase, and it fits both the 8atthean and 4u:an
versions. This view %an also be harmonised easil& with the instan%e in the !a!. , and the %hoi%e of
so unusual a word is eB!lained b& the diffi%ult& of finding a real <:. eTuivalent for the 7eb. and
,ram. %on%e!tka diffi%ult& whi%h is a!!arent in the 4'' rendering of 2rv. /+56 as well.
,s things stand, we %annot sa& with !re%ision what is the eBa%t derivation of ,
what was its original sense, or what o%%asional" meanings it might have.
7.
Hut in view of
the foregoing dis%ussion there %an be little doubt that its for%e is adeTuatel& brought out in the
rendering5 The bread whi%h we need, give us toDda& (da& b& da&)."
7*

, 7/

9oerster
!, !, ,
, #))
6) F. gorell, Biblica , 6 (.9*0), /*. f. suggests i . Knfortunatel& the !a!. is not available,
so that no fuller investigation of the original is !ossible, %f. 3eissmann in /. Seeberg<9estschrift ( n. .6 ),
/+/.
60 @hile 3ebrunner first suggested small %hange" ( n. . ), he later settled with 9tiebitE and 3eissmann (
n. .6 ) for diaria , 9tiebitE in the s!e%ifi% sense of the bare ne%essit&, the minimum Tuantit& and Tualit&. In view
of the smallness of the sum 7olEinger suggests ( n. .. ) eBtras or eB!enses.
66 7olEinger ( n. 60 ).
67 1B. .65.6 .
66 For eBam!les, %f. ?. 7errmann, 3er at.li%he Krgrund des (aterunsers " in 9estschr. f. %. Procksch (.9/)),
67 f.
69 3alman @? , I, /*7# 0esus<0eschua (.9**), .*).
7+ 3alman @? , I. /*7, /*9 ff.# 9tr.DH. on 8t. 65.. # F. Hornhluser, Der Geisteskapf d. Gegen2art , 6) (.9*6),
*).I*)) and 7au%: ( n. *) ) also give Aabbini% material.
7. For this distin%tion, %f. 3eissmann ( n. .6 ).
7* 8an& s%holars !reserve this %aution in res!e%t of the linguisti% derivation and &et %ome with remar:able
unanimit& to the same material eB!lanation. FlotE ( n. *6 ), who follows 3ebrunner, and @ahrmann ( n.
)9 ) state that not all the linguisti% diffi%ulties have been over%ome. ,. Fridri%hsen, who too: a definite !osition
in .9*) ( n. 6* ), %ame to the final %on%lusion in .9/+ ( S'bolae %sloenses , 9 m.9/+n, 6*I66)5 The most
that we %an sa& is that in we !robabl& have a !o!ular term for a small or modest Tuantit& (a
~rationO). The linguisti% ba%:ground and the semasiologi%al develo!ment are an o!en Tuestion." >f. also <.
Hona%%orsi, Prii Saggi di 9ilologia neotestaentaria , I (.9//), 6.I6/, 0//I0/9. -ur inter!retation agrees
with that of ,. 8e&er ( n. 0 ) (UU [SdY Z f `sa rZ [sd hZ \f )# @. >. ,llen, I>>, (ol. *0, 8t. * m.9*0n, 09# 1. v.
3obs%hGtE ( n. /6 ). ;ot ver& different are the views of 2. Frets%hmer in Glotta , ** (.9/)), *6+
(ne%essar&" mn from , what %omes u!on one"), and 2. (annutelli in #thenaeu (.9.6), *+) ff.
(Tuoted b& Hona%%orsi, 0//) (from l , suffi%ient," 1!i%t.3iss. , II, *., 9 m3ebrunnern).
7/ -nl& when it was too late to use them was the authorOs attention dire%ted to 2. ?oGon in /echerches de
Science religieuse , .7 (.9*7), *.+I**9 (%f. Hg , .6 m.9*9n, /60) and 1. >. 1. -wen in ?Th9t. , /0 (.9/)), /76
ff.
!, !
The two words form one !aradigm. The ,tti% is a !resent stem from whi%h onl& the
!resent and im!erf. were formed, and other forms onl& in the koine . In %lassi%al <:. these were
derived from the root - . The !resent is ver& rare in ,tti%, though found in
Ioni% from the time of 7omer.
.

is an iterative and intensive %onstru%tion from the root - , and is thus well
ada!ted as a !res. Thus, e.g., denotes %ontinuing or %areful s%rutin&, whereas
refers to the single a%t. The same is true of and .
*

A. !, ! o#tside the NT.
.. In se%ular <:. is used in the following senses.
a. To loo: u!on, to %onsider, to have regard to, something or someone." 9o!h.,i. , 06)5 6
, i 6 # 7dt. , II, .+95
q # 'eno!h.>&ro!. , (I, /, *.5
# (II, ., 65 c q . In the same
sense means to ins!e%t," 'en.,n. , II, /, *5 . In -e%. ,
), 6 it is used of the a%tivit& of the :ing5 c q
, c . In 2lat.Aes!. , (I,
0+6b a state is in good order when an informed su!ervisor wat%hes over it# 1!i%t.3iss. , III, **, 975
( ) { 6 g . It is used in mu%h the same sense of
the >&ni%5 6 g . In !a!. letters it is often used at the end in an
eB!ression whi%h signifies5 7ave a %are for &ourself," 8itteisD@il%:en , I. *, .+ (*nd. %ent. H.>. )5
c , 2. -B&. , II, *9), /. (lst %ent. ,.3. )5
|| i | | # 2. <iess. , I, .*, 75 q q
. If the intensive sense as %om!ared with
is alread& a!!arent in this usage, it %omes out Tuite %learl& when the word has a
religious signifi%an%e. ,s an a%tivit& of deities, means gra%iousl& to loo: down
u!on {"
/
to %are for {," to wat%h over {" It is used of Ha%%hus in 9o!h.,nt. , ../65
O # of 2oseidon in 1ur.I!h. Taur. , .).)5 I
# of 2allas ,thene in ,risto!h.
1
T. , ..7/5 6 q , q ,
in bodil& form the goddess wat%hes over thee"# ibid. , ..665
, she manifestl& !rote%ts the fleet." In a%%. with the iterative %hara%ter of
we do not have here a single a%tion but the eB!ression of an attitude or dis!osition
!ro!er to the gods. The !rote%tive blessing of a deit& rules or wat%hes over men or things, b. To
refle%t on something, to eBamine it, to submit it to investigation." is used when the
a%tion is demanded as something absolutel& ne%essar&5 Iso%. , ., ).5
g , g 6g # 'eno!h.8em. , I(, *, *)5
i # 1!i%t.3iss. , I, .., /65 c
{ . -n the other hand, is used in %ases
of a single, s!e%ifi% eBamination. Thus 2lato !refers it in dialogue, e.g., 2haed. , 67b5 q
i, # 2rot. , /)6d5 9o%rates wants to tal: with 2rotagoras
be%ause he is %onvin%ed that he will best enTuire into ( ) virtue as into other
Tuestions whi%h o%%u!& a worth& man. 'eno!h.8em. , I, 6, )5 6 i
g i # I(, *, *05 , . In this
sense the term is ver& %ommon in the !a!. , e.g., 2. 7amb. , *0, *5
{ H<K , III, .++), 6 (/rd %ent. H.>. )5
. 9!e%ifi%all& it %an mean to loo:
u! a do%ument"5 2reisig:e 9ammelbu%h , 0*/*, /* (lst %ent. ,.3. )5 q
g g # 2. -B&. , III, 0//, *+ (*ndv/rd %ent. ,.3. )5
. FGhnerDHlassD<erth, II, 0/7# @. (eit%h, Greek Verbs .rregular and Defective (-Bford, .67.), s.v.
# Hl.D3ebr.
6
y .+., s.v. .
* I owe this to ,. 3ebrunner, who has also taught me to understand and in the
light of this grammati%al fa%t.
/ 9uid. , s.v. eTuates with .
1T. &$uites .
i q .
)
%.
To visit"5 2. 4ille , I, 6, 0 (/rd %ent. H.>. )5 T l
q . In this sense it is es!. used of si%: visiting, whether on the !art
of ministering friends5 2lut. 3e Tuenda 9anitate 2rae%e!ta , .0 (II, .*9%)5 i
# 'eno!h.8em. , III, .., .+5
i , or more offi%iall& of the do%tor5 4u%. 2hilo!seudes
seu In%redulus , *05 Ai # 7erodian
7
ist. , I(, *,
)5 li l i g ig q
6 .
*. The 4'' gives to the %ommon word a whole series of new meanings.
Following u! the o%%asional suggestion given when used of the loo:ing down of the gods, it too:
on a !rofound religious sense. In general it was used for the 7eb. rNf ied and too: on its man&
different meanings. It was also used sometimes for MNf Led ,
0
and in isolated %ases for "

m
OT "B and thf Led . ,long the lines of the last sense of in se%ular <:. , the term
is used in the 4'', too, for a. to visit." ?u. .05. 5 26 q
# 9ir. 75/0 5 q .
6
,lso similar to similar usage is
sense b. to loo: on," 26:4 , where we have with # 4 B. :34
. , more distin%tive meaning is %. to investigate," to sear%h," 1 t. 2:16 ( *. )5 {
g i (for similar usage in the !a!.
6++ )# *5*. ( *6 )# 65*+ ( *. )# 65** ( */ )# 2 t. 4:15 , .9 # 05.7 # 65. # 75.) # 16:3 # as a
translation of MNf Led , 4v. ./5/6 # of "

. >h. *65/. . From this there develo!ed the dee!er sense

d. to be %on%erned about something," to %are for something." In this sense the 4'' uses it of the
she!herd and his shee!, ?er. */5* # ge%h. ..5.6 #
7
1E. /)5.. , .* #
6
* >h. *)56 , with the sense of
to :ee! to {"# 9ir. 75** 5 If thou hast %attle, he on guard." 9o also 9ir. )95.0 ( .6 ). In * >h.
/)5.* is used of the wor: of i and means to ta:e oversight" ( 7eb. huf Sd
).
9
Aelated to %. is e. to find out about something," 1 B. 17:18 (,)#
.+
;u. .)5/) #
..
?dt.
757 5 q .
.*
In mu%h the same wa&
is used for qrf`d in 1st. *5.. . The word is often used in the 4'' for f. to muster,"
1B. /+5.* # in this sense it o%%urs )/ times in ;u. .I) . It is variousl& translated b& 4uther to
number" or to order" (,.(. to ta:e the sum," to number"), and in one %ase he sim!l& renders of
l together" for the sum total. >f. also ;u. *6 passi # ?os. 65.+ # ?u. *+
passi # *. # 1 B. 11:8 # ./5.0 # .)5.7 # .05) # 2 B. 18:1 # *)5* , ) # 3 B. 21 ( *+
)5.0, *6, *7# 4 B. 3:6 # 9ir. .75/* . >onne%ted with this usage is the thought of dete%ting who
are absent, and this gives us the sense g. to miss," !ass. to be missed," to be absent" 1 B.
20:6 5 i , if th& father miss me at the
muster." >f. also 1 B. 20:1 , *0 , *7 # 2 B. 2:30 # 4 B. 10:1 # ?er. /5.6 # ?u. *.5/ #
2 B. 2:30 5 for ni!hal of rNf ied .
) For further eBam!les from the !a!. %f. 8oult.D8ill. , *)/ f.# 2reisig:e @Jrt.
7ist. (istoriae .
0 In ;u. .650 , however, the translator has obviousl& %onfused MNX Le_ (morning") with a verbal form of MNf Led .
,gain, there is no 7eb. eTuivalent for in ;eh. .*5)* , and it obviousl& rests on a
misunderstanding of the teBt.
6 In ?u. *5.. is used for Vhf Sd , the !iel of whi%h has the stronger sense of to %omfort."
7 In [ C
vid
we have for g .
6 -nl& ,.
9 In 2rv. .95*+ ( */ ) there is an obvious misunderstanding of the 7eb. original, the %onfusion of qMd and qf re]
altering the whole sense.
.+ 4uther has besachen , to visit."
.. -nl& H
ab
.
.* >f. also ?dt. 05*+ ( *) ), where means to !er%eive, to realise that {"
The term has a religious %ontent in the 4'' onl& when <od is the
9ub$e%t of the a%tion. -n one o%%asion is used in a sense similar to the se%ular
idea of the gra%ious %are of the gods for a territor& under their !rote%tion. In 3t. ..5.* >anaan
is des%ribed as a land q , u!on whi%h <od loo:s
down in gra%e," u!on whi%h 7is e&es rest from the beginning of the &ear to the end, and
whi%h is therefore ver& fruitful. is here used for PQ Mf red , It denotes an un%hanging
attitude on <odOs !art. The word a%tualises this attitude. It is mostl& used
where we have the rendering to visit." It %ombines the various senses of to visit, to loo:
u!on, to investigate, to ins!e%t, to test, to be %on%erned about, to %are for," in des%ri!tion of
the a%t in whi%h the 4ord in a s!e%ial in%ursion into the %ourse of life of individuals or of a
!eo!le, mostl& Israel, ma:es :nown to them 7is will either in $udgment or in gra%e. It is
worth noting that this sense does not o%%ur in se%ular <ree: but onl& in the %onteBt of the -T
histor& of salvation, from whi%h it !asses into the ;T . This visitation ta:es !la%e when <od
draws near to 7is !eo!le in its sin and distress, and shows 7imself to be the 4ord of histor&.
It ma& entail the $udgment eBe%uted b& 7im. Hut it ma& also %onsist in an a%t of mer%&. The
!oint is that 7e manifestl& enters histor&. The word to visit" ma& signif& a visitation of both
$udgment and gra%e in the same senten%e. Thus we read in ge%h. .+5/ 5 8ine anger is :indled
against the she!herds, and I will !unish (visit) the goats# for the 4ord of hosts is gra%ious to
(will visit) his flo%: the house of ?udah."
./

%an thus mean h. to !unish," to sit in $udgment"5 1B. /*5/) 5 g

qq # ?ob /05.0 5 q ;
58:5 5 # 9ir. *5.) ( .7 )# 7os. )5.) # ?er. 059 ,
*9 # . : , *0 # ?er. ..5** # ./5*. # a%%. to . 36(2):32 the $udgment will be on
individuals# /7 ( /+ )5*+# )/ ( /6 )5/.# 0. ( )) )5*95 6 l
# 4am. )5** # <od will eBe%ute the !unishment with a rod5 88:32 5 q
i , or with famine and sword5 . 34:6 ( *756 )5 iq #
0. ( )) )5./5 piq . Hut the visitation ma& be one of blessing, and this
gives us sense i. gra%iousl& to a%%e!t a man or a !eo!le." <n. *.5. 5 The 4ord visited 9arah as
he had said { and 9arah %on%eived." This does not im!l& onl& that <od gave an uneB!e%ted
blessing to a single woman, but also that 7e ena%ted !art of the histor& of salvation. <n. 0+5*) , *0
5 g c ( rN_ iZ `a rN_ ied ) # 1B. )5/. # ./5.9 # ?u. .56 # 1
B. 2:21 # ?dt. )5.0 # 65// 5 q i , sa&s
?udith. 2s. 65) (in !arallelism)5 g { g (4uther5 that
thou a%%e!test him"). 64: 5 q q , where <od a%%om!lishes the visitation in
7is %reative a%tion in nature, but here, too, with a view to man# 7:14 # .+05) # 9ir. )65.) ( .7
)# ge!h. *57 # ?er. .05.0 # . 36(2):10 # /9 ( /* )5).#
.)
1E. *+5)+ .
.0

$. Finall& is used in the sense of to a!!oint, to %ommission, to instal
someone"5 ;u. )5*7 , /* # 2 t. 1:2 in relation to building the tem!le# ;eh. 75. 5
l i . ,n im!ortant !assage is ;u. *75.6 5
{ q q , 4et <od the 4ord {
set a man over the %ongregation { that the %ongregation of the 4ord be not as shee! whi%h
have no she!herd." This sa&ing ma& well have !la&ed a !art in the installation of leaders in
the earl& >hristian >hur%h, and !ossibl& in the sele%tion of the title 6i for the
leaders of the %ongregation. >f. also ,%. 65/ .
./ , different grammati%al %onstru%tion is used for gra%ious visitation as %om!ared with $udi%ial. In the former
%ase, the !erson visited b& <od is in the a%%. , while in the latter the thing whi%h %auses the visitation is in the
a%%. and for the !erson we usuall& have i with the a%%. >f. >r.DFJ. , 999 f.
.) 7ere is a free rendering of Pw ^ePw .
.0 For PQ Mf red . ,.(.5 There will I a%%e!t them."
-utside the <:. Hible has no religious signifi%an%e. 2hilo and ?ose!hus use it
onl& in the se%ular sense. For 2hilo it alwa&s means to investigate," as for 2lato, and he often !uts
it at the head of the various trains of thought ( , 6 ) in his
a%ademi% writings, e.g., -!. 8und. , 9* , .+. # 4eg. ,ll. , III, */6 5 >her. , *. # >ongr. , ** # Fug. ,
.66 et%. 7e uses in the sense of to %ontem!late," e.g., %elestial !henomena, 8ut.
;om. , 67 # 1br. , ./6 # to !er%eive," 9!e%. 4eg. , I, .9 # to test," 3e%al. , 96 . In ?ose!h.
is also used of si%: visitation, ,nt. , 9, .79 . -nl& in eB!osition of bibli%al
visitations does 2hilo use the word in a dee!er sense.
.6

The Aabbis added nothing to the develo!ment of the thought of divine visitation. -n the other
hand, visitation, es!. of the si%:, is im!ortant in Aabb. ethi%s. It is one of the wor:s of love whi%h
it is the religious dut& of ever& ?ew to !erform. The visitation of the si%:, the sheltering of
strangers, the hel!ing of the newl& married !oor, the %omforting of the sorrowing and attendan%e
at funerals are all %ulti% duties a%%. to one Aabbini% o!inion ( 9hab. , .*7a). >lothing the na:ed,
visiting the si%:, %omforting the sorrowing and bur&ing the dead are mentioned in 9ota, .)a. Hut
visitation of the si%: %omes first5 He not negligent to visit the si%:, for b& su%h %ondu%t thou wilt
rea! love," we read alread& in 9ir. 75/0 (/9). A. ,Tiba is more severe5 If an& will not visit the
si%:, it is as though he shed blood,"
;
ed. , )+a. @hoso visits a si%: man, lifts a siBtieth !art of his
burden," ;ed. , /9b. The !oint of this visitation is not merel& to show s&m!ath& or to %onve&
wishes for re%over&, but above all to !ra& for the si%: man.
B. ! > ! in the NT.
.. ?esus undoubtedl& :new of the high estimation of the visiting of the si%: in Aabbini%
ethi%s. 7e is ada!ting formulae su%h as we find in 9ota, .)a when he sa&s that at the 4ast
?udgment the 9on of 8an will give the :ingdom to those to whom 7e %an sa&5 I was { si%:,
and &e visited me5 I was in !rison, and &e %ame unto me" ( 8t. *05/0 f. , )* f. ). ?esus is
obviousl& thin:ing of the ?ewish wor:s of love, but 7e !la%es the men of all nations ( v. /* )
under the same %ommand and $udges them a%%ording to the measure of their fulfilment. =et in
two res!e%ts 7e ta:es a dee!er view. It is not a Tuestion of isolated a%ts, but of a fundamental
attitude. 8an has to realise that he does not eBist of and for himself, but of and for the other.
This is to be eB!ressed in his a%tions. Hut <od is !resent in this eBisten%e with and for others.
?esus ma:es this %lear when 7e sa&s that what is done or not done to the least of 7is brethren
is done or not done to 7im. ?ames ado!ts both the best tradition in ?ewish ethi%s and the
demand of ?esus for !ra%ti%al love to our neighbours when he sa&s in .5*7 5 2ure religion
before <od and the Father is this, To visit the fatherless and widows in their affli%tion."
.7

*. 1ven when means to see: out someone" in the ;T , it never im!lies
merel& to visit" them in the usual sense, or for selfish ends, but alwa&s to be %on%erned"
about them, with a sense of res!onsibilit& for others. Thus 9te!hen shows in ,%. 75*/ how
there arose in the heart of 8oses, learned in all the wisdom of the 1g&!tians, a desire to go to
his brothers, his fellowD%ountr&men. 7e see:s them out be%ause he belongs to them and
shares res!onsibilit& for their destin&. The sa&ing of 2aul to Harnabas in ,%. .05/6 is both
verball& and materiall& similar5 4et us go again and visit our brethren in ever& %it& { and
.6 >f. his eB!osition of the visitation of 9arah b& <od in >her. , )0 . 2hilo understands the wives of the
!atriar%hs allegori%all& as virtues. Hut, as !ointed out b& <. Hertram, he maintains the virgin birth of men of
<od, and a!!eals in !roof to <n. *.5. 5 <od %auses 9arah to %on%eive b& loo:ing u!on her in her loneliness. 7e
uses instead of the 4'' . There is, of %ourse, no Tuestion of divine sonshi! in the
stri%t sense in s!ite of the in 4eg. ,ll. , III, *.9 . For 2hilo %ontinues5
q i , i .
>f. also 4:. .5)6 ( 1 B. 1:11 )5 () q i q .
>f. on this !t. >lemen, .*.# 7. v. Haer, Der heilige Geist in den )ukasschr . (.9*6), .*+ f.# ?. 7einemann, 3ie
4ehre vom heiligen <eiste im ?udentum und in den 1vangelien ," 8<@? , 66 (.9**), *7) ff. -n what follows,
%f. the eB%ursus in 9tr.DH. , I(, 009 ff.
;ed. !edari , 8ishnahD, ToseftaD, Talmud tra%tate Vo2 (9tra%:, &inl. , )6).
.7 >f. also 7erm.m. , 6, .+# s. , ., 6.
see how the& do." The visit whi%h the& !lan to the %hur%hes founded b& them has the
%hara%ter of a visitation eBe%uted in virtue of their a!ostoli% offi%e and %ommission.
In the same %onne%tion we should mention the two !assages in the ;T in whi%h we have
the !resent stem . In 7b. .*5.) f. we read5 l 6
{ q . , literal
translation is seeing to it that {" The sense is thus rather li:e that of in the
4'' when used to des%ribe the wor: of the good she!herd. It is worth noting that
here eB!resses an attitude whi%h dis!la&s the res!onsibilit& of the %ommunit&
for the eternal salvation of all its members, and that what later be%ame the s!e%ifi% tas: of the
one, of the leader, is thus re!resented as a matter for the whole %ongregation. The
%ongregation as a whole is understood to have as su%h an essential e!is%o!al ministr& and
offi%e.
,t . 2t. 05* , ,F42 al !ler, vg , s&r2, %o!t. , arm, eth, inter!ose before the
%omma in the senten%e5 i , q
i { The verse %omes in a %onteBt whi%h in%ludes the admonition to the elders to
%are for the flo%: of <od entrusted to them, not of %onstraint but willingl& and $o&full&, not for
filth& lu%re but out of love, not as lords over the %ommunit& but as eBam!les to the flo%:. The
inter!osition is obviousl& to be eB!lained in terms of *5*0 ( 6.0 ), where we read5 q
6,
i . 7ere the terms q and i are brought into
%lose inter%onne%tion, and this is re!eated in 899 , et%. at 05* . The offi%ial wor: of !resb&ters,
who are obviousl& the same as the i of %ommunities in the <:. world (
6.0 f. ), is thus to follow the !attern of the q i ?esus >hrist, %onsisting
in i and , in feeding the %ommunit& and in res!onsible %are for it, in
wat%hing over its eternal welfare. The %om!arison of this res!onsibilit& of the elders in the
individual %hur%h with the wor: of ?esus >hrist in relation to the universal >hur%h %onve&s to us
the dignit& of the offi%e as it was understood b& earl& >hristianit&. 4uther sa&s %on%erning this
!assage5 To be an episcopus or bisho! is to give good heed, to be honest, to wat%h diligentl&."
.6

/. If in the sense eB!lained denotes offi%ial a%tivit&,
.9
a%%ording to the 4''
%an also mean to loo: out someone," to a!!oint him to an offi%e." >f. ;u.
*75.6 # ;eh. 75. ( 6+* f. ). ,%. 65/ has the term in this sense when the Twelve en$oin the
%ommunit&5 { q i
. The !ro%ess des%ribed is of de%isive signifi%an%e in the histor& of >hristian
organisation, sin%e here for the first time we have an a!!ointment, not through a %all of the
in%arnate or risen 4ord, nor through the selfDattestation of the %harismati% 9!irit in a >hristian,
but b& the ele%tion of the members of the %ongregation. 1ven when the %ir%le of the Twelve
was %om!leted after the elimination of ?udas the final de%ision had still been left with the
divine lot. It is assumed, of %ourse, that in the ele%tion of the 9even the %ommunit& will
%onsider onl& men i .
). The %on%e!t of <odOs visitation, and es!e%iall& of 7is gra%ious visitation of men and
nations, !assed over from the 7eb. Hible and the 4'' into the ;T . Thus 7b. *56 Tuotes 2s.
65) 4''5 -r the son of man, that thou visitest him" The author eB!ounds this sa&ing
%hristologi%all&. 7e does not refer it to <odOs blessing of man as a lowl& !art of %reation,
whi%h is the original sense# he relates it to the 9on of 8an, ?esus >hrist.
,gain, in 4:. 75.6 we have the insight, im!ressivel& attested in the 4'', that <od in 7is
gra%ious intervention in earthl& life shows 7imself to be the 4ord. @hen the &oung man at
;ain has been raised b& ?esus, astonishment falls on the !eo!le,
.6 Von den 4on-iliis und 4itchen . @,, 0+, 07), *+ f.
.9 In the !ostDa!ost. fathers %an sim!l& mean to be a bisho!." Thus in Ign.A. , 9, . we read that
?esus alone will be her bisho! (i.e., of the 9&rian %hur%h)" when her earthl& bisho! is ta:en from her. Ign. greets
2ol&%ar! as the bisho! who has <od and ?esus >hrist as bisho! over him," Ign. 2ol., !rooem. is
the a%tivit& of the i in 7erm.v. , /, 0, ..
q q
.
9ome 899 add l to . Their intention is to ma:e it even more %lear
that this is a visitation of blessing and not of $udgment.
3e!enden%e on the -T is also %lear in the two !assages in the song of ga%harias in whi%h
the word o%%urs5 4:. .566 5 ,
i # 4:. .576 5
q, l q q .
In both %ases the term indi%ates that <od has drawn near to 7is !eo!le and has dealt with it,
or will deal with it, in gra%e.
*+
The new feature is that, in asso%iation with ,
i and q , has now be%ome a 8essiani%
%on%e!t. In the se%ond sa&ing is related dire%tl& to the %oming of >hrist (
I, /0* ).
If the gra%ious visitation of <od a!!lied first to the %hosen !eo!le, the ;T shows how it
eBtends to the <entiles also. ?ames sa&s in ,%. .05.) 5 26 6
. @ith
the refusal of Israel, <od %reates for 7imself a new !eo!le out of the <entile world. @e ma&
follow a literal translation5 7ow <od loo:ed to {," but behind it there stands the whole
%ontent of the word in salvation histor&, and therefore the ,. (. %ould rightl&
ado!t the rendering visit" (%f. 4uther5 heisuchen ).
.
.. The word first %ame into %ommon use, and re%eived its distin%tive sense, in the
4''.
.
In se%ular <:. . it is found onl& on%e in 4u%. 3ialogi 3eorum , *+, 6, where it means
visit." The urge to find a subst, for the substantive %onstru%tions of rNf ied obviousl& led to the
more eBtended use of the term in the 4''. Its meaning is %losel& lin:ed with that of
.
*

9ometimes the subst. is used merel& for em!hasis. Thus at <n. 0+5*) UU 1B. ./5.9 we have
g c along the lines of the 7eb. rN_ LeZ `a rN_ ied V`ca \_[^]
VWXYZ [X . >f. also <n. 0+5*0 and 1B. /5.6 . never bears the meaning a. visit" whi%h it
has in 4u%. and whi%h is %ommon to . -n the other hand, it is often used for b.
loo:," glan%e," %ontem!lation"5 9ir. .65.6 5 7eaven and earth sha:e under the divine glan%e.
This rendering is su!!orted b& the fa%t that is a !ar. of in the following
verse. The word has a similar sense in ?ob 05*/ vl. ,. 8ore %ommon is the meaning %. %are,"
!rote%tion." ?ob .+5.* 5 Th& !rote%tion hath !reserved m& s!irit." >f. also ?ob *95) # 2rv. *95./
# / 8a%%. 05)* . It is <od who grants man 7is gra%ious %are and !rote%tion, @is. *5*+ . 8an is
dire%ted to it. Hut <od is free in res!e%t of it. 7e ma& withdraw it. 7en%e ?obOs bitter %om!laint at
65.) 5 q c i .
/
@hile in the sense of visitation
*+ ,t 4:. .576 [
C
H4 %o!t et%. have , [
%
,>3 and man& others . 9%hl. 4:. , .6.
tries to eB!lain the material distin%tion between the two readings. The fut. suggests that >hristOs saving wor: will
ta:e !la%e onl& when 7e has grown to manhood, whereas eB!resses the fa%t that >hristOs entr&
into the world is seen as 7is own a%t whereb& the 1ternal -ne who lives in <od ma:es 7imself the 9ervant of
the divine mer%&. It is !robable, however, that there is no intended material distin%tion, but that the fut. is the
older reading within the !ro!he%& of vv. 76I79 , while the aorist arose b& assimilation to the es%hatologi%al st&le
of vv. 66I70 . >f. Fl. 4:. , ad loc.
. 4inguisti%all& the word belongs to a %ommon koine t&!e as a noen actionis , li:e l in relation to
l , or to . >f. Hl.D3ebr.
6
, y .+9, 7# 2. Tebt. , I, 0, .69 (..6 H.>. ) has
i in the sense of ins!e%tion," revision," review."
* 9ometimes the 7eb. original is obs%ure, e.g., 1E. 75** # ?ob /)59 # 1 t. 6:5 . -n ?ob /)59 %f. F.
Haumglrtel, Der (iobdialog (.9//), **.
/ Hehind this transl. of ?ob 65.) there is obviousl& a different teBt from the %ontested 8as. >f. F. @utE,
"ranskriptionen (.9//), /)*. F. Haumgaumlrtel, op cit. , re%onstru%ts it from the 4'' as follows5 P t^uM^
denotes more %ommonl& the one gra%ious or $udi%ial intervention of <od in human affairs, in these
!assages it also eB!resses the gra%e of the divine !reservation of %reation. 4i:e ,
%an also have the sense d. enTuir&," investigation," eBamination." ?ob /.5.) 5
@hen <od %ondu%ts an eBamination, what shall I answer him" @is. /5./ s!ea:s of a testing of
souls, as does also ?ob 75.6 , where the !arallel is i . @e ma& also refer to the te%hni%al
sense e. muster"5 1B. /+5.* # ;u. .5*. # 75* # .)5*9 # *65.6 ( ** ), )7 ( )/ ). -n the other hand,
there is no eTuivalent for the verb f. to miss," !ass. to be missing."
g. The true theologi%al sense of is as the translation of credN ieZ , visitation."
,gain, this ta:es a twofold form. In the !ro!hets the visitation is usuall& one of $udgment and
!unishment. This as!e%t %ame to !redominate so strongl& that 7es&%h. in his leBi%on (0th
%ent. ,.3. ) gives onl& i as an eTuivalent. In a mu%h wea:er sense the term is used
for s%ourging" in the sense of $udi%ial dis%i!line in 4v. .95*+ . For the most !art, however,
is not eBe%uted b& men. It is a destin& whi%h %omes on earthl& %reatures with
more than human for%e. The %ommon fate of men, i.e., the death to whi%h all are sub$e%t, is
des%ribed as in ;u. .65*9 . Hut the 4ord who fulfils the visitation is <od. 3t.
*65*0 5 q i .
)

?udgment will fall on the images of the heathen, @is. .)5.. . The %hildren of the adulteress
stand under a %urse whi%h will visit them, 9ir. */5*) . ,%%ording to the %on%e!tions of the
!ro!hets, there %an be no doubt that $udgment will %ome on nations whi%h are not obedient to <od.
7en%e in the language of their es%hatolog& the time at whi%h this visitation will %ome looms with
terrif&ing !ower. The& s!ea: of the q ( ?er. 65.0 # .+5.0 ) when the ridi%ulous
idols of human worshi! will be shattered, or of the q q q ( Is. .+5/ ), the V^_`
credN ieZ , whi%h is a refle%tion of the terrible da& of the 4ord, if there is not an even %loser
%onne%tion between the two %on%e!ts. 9ir. .65*+ s!ea:s of a 6 q , ?er. ..5*/ of a
&ear of visitation, when the 4ord will bring the hosts of evil on the men of ,nathoth.
0
<od will
visit the whole %ir%le of the earth and its :ings before establishing 7is rule on 8ount gion, Is.
*)5** . This visitation will be a%%om!anied b& thunder and earthTua:e, Is. *956 . Thus the thought
of a!!roa%hing ta:es on a!o%al&!ti% %olours.
h. @hile in man& instan%es the da& of $udgment is sim!l& eTuated with that of
%ondemnation and !unishment, it is also !ossible for the to in%lude !ardon and
remission. Hefore that $udgment %omes, tr& th&self, that thou ma&est attain remission in the
da& of visitation," 9ir. .65*+ . 7en%e divine visitation ma& %arr& with it a wonderful
eB!erien%e of gra%e.
This is so in <n. 0+5*) f. ( 6+6 ). ,%%ording to the !ro!he%& of ?ose!h <od will be
gra%ious to 7is !eo!le Israel and lead it out of 1g&!t into the !romised land. ,%%. to Is. */5.6 <od
will loo: gra%iousl& on T&re and hel! it to !rofitable trade. In @is. /57 it is evident that the
q %an be a time of gra%ious visitation when the righteous will shine as gold in
the refiner&. In @is. )5.0 is lin:ed with and and will be the !ortion of
the righteous.
6
3reams %an be sent b& <od l , 9ir. /. ( /) )56.
i. ;o less notable from the stand!oint of the histor& of the term are the two !assages
where it has the sense of offi%e."
`SL|q` , and translates5 @h& has the favour of the ,lmight& abandoned me"
) 9o vl. H
C
,.
0 8ost 899, of %ourse, have instead of q .
6 From @is. )5.0 the !hrase q i (or ) !assed into the vl. of
>odi%es , and [ at @is. /59 .
The first is ;u. )5.6 , where we read of the q q q whi%h is
%ommitted to 1leaEar, the son of ,aron. 7ere we %an see %learl& how the 7eb. credN ieZ and the <:.
lead from the literal sense of oversight to that of offi%ial res!onsibilit&. 8ore doubtful
is the sense of credN ieZ in the Psalus .scharioticus 108:8 , where the %ursing of the adversar&
ta:es the following form in the 4''5 q q c . credN ieZ ma&
denote either !ossessions or offi%e (after the model of ;u. /5/* and )5.6 ), The 4'' assumes the
latter sense, though we are not told what the offi%e was. The verse is given the same meaning in
,%. .5*+ .
*. a. The ;T too: over the 4'' es%hatologi%al %on%e!ts q q and
q q . ?esus 7imself refers to the former at 4:. .95)) , and relates it to 7is
own %oming to ?erusalem. The da& of 7is entr& inaugurates on 8t. gion the da& of gra%ious
visitation for the %it&. The !eo!le re%eives 7im with re$oi%ing. Hut ?esus wee!s when 7e sees
the %it&, %r&ing out that it has not :nown the da& of its visitation. The result is not merel& the
forfeiture of salvation but histori%al destru%tion. Thus the visitation be%omes a $udgment.
-n%e again we %an see the great !ower of the q to sha!e histor&. The
da& of visitation" is a !hrase used in . 2t. *5.* on the basis of Is. .+5/ . The author is warning
>hristians to live good lives among the heathen. These now %alumniate >hristians as evilD
doers be%ause of their %ondu%t. Hut if the& %ome to see the truth through their good wor:s,
the& will glorif& <od in the da& of visitation. This da& ma& be understood as that on whi%h
<od gives these %alumniators at their %onversion a true insight into >hristian moralit&. If this
is so, the is a !ersonal eB!erien%e of gra%e in whi%h >hrist be%omes 4ord over a
man.
7
Hut the da& of visitation ma& also be understood es%hatologi%all& as the great da& of
$udgment when ever&thing will be made manifest and the heathen will have %ause to !raise
<od for >hristians.
6

-n the basis of . 2t. *5.* , or more dire%tl& of the 4'', 899 ,2 and some minus%. and
versions add q to . 2t. 056 5 6 q
, 6g . -n this reading, the visitation denotes the a%t b& whi%h
<od %hanges the time of humiliation and suffering into one of eBaltation and $o&.
b. The ;T uses in the sense of offi%e" as well as visitation." ,%%ording to
,%. .5.6 ff. 2eter saw in the fate of ?udas the fulfilment of -T !ro!he%&. 7e grounded the
need to %hoose a substitute on 108:8 5 7is offi%e let another ta:e" ( 6+7 ). 7ere, then,
the a!ostoli% offi%e is des%ribed as . @hen we :now that in . Tm. /5. the
>hristian offi%e of bisho! ( 6.7 ) is also %alled , we are tem!ted to see
%onne%tions and with their hel! to eB!lain the develo!ment of >hristian titles. It should be
noted, however, that the term is used for the a!ostoli% offi%e in ,%. .5.6 ff. onl& be%ause the
sele%tion of a re!la%ement was seen to be a fulfilment of the !ro!he%& in 108:8 . @e
%annot dedu%e from this an& %loser relationshi! between the a!ostolate and the e!is%o!ate. -n
the %ontrar&, earl& >hristianit& had a %lear sense of the distin%tion between the two. The term
in . Tm. /5. does not derive from ,%. .5*+ or its -T original. It is newl& %oined
on the basis of the title i whi%h had meantime established itself in the earl&
>hur%h. This is the more easil& !ossible, of %ourse, be%ause is alread& used for
offi%e" in the language of the 4''.
9

.
A. in non?biblical ree%.
*

7 9o 7. <un:el in Die Schriften des !" ,
/
III (.9.7), ad loc. 5 The author of the e!istle ho!es for a da& of
visitation when <od o!ens the e&es of the heathen and gives faith in the truth." >f. also F. 7au%: in Das !"
Deutsch , ad loc.
6 @nd. Fath. Hr. , ad loc. , regards this view as !ossible and refers to ) 1sr. 756+ff .
9 then established itself as a term for the offi%e of bisho!. >f. alread& . >l, )), . and ).
The word i is best rendered overseer" or wat%h." From this original sense there
develo!s a twofold use whi%h onl& reunites In a stronger form on >hristian soil. In <:.
i is first used a. with a tree understanding of the onloo:er" as wat%her," !rote%tor,"
!atron." 7is a%tivit& then ta:es the form of the different senses of , and es!.
, in a gra%ious loo:ing down u!on the one !rote%ted and in %are for him. Therewith
the word i %omes to be used b. as a title to denote various offi%es. The offi%ial
a%tivities thus des%ribed var&, and are usuall& not too im!ortant. In this sense, the word has no
religious signifi%an%e, but is used almost eB%lusivel& for ver& se%ular a!!ointments with te%hni%al
and finan%ial res!onsibilities. -n the other hand, behind the sense of wat%her" or !rote%tor" is a
religious %on%e!tion eB!ressed in the fa%t that it is usuall& gods who bear this designation.
.. <ods as i .
@here the <ree: dete%ted a su!erhuman for%e, he assumed a god. The <:. gods are
!ersonified for%es,
.
!arti%i!ant in the original for%e whi%h rules over all. The& are thus related to
those !arts of the %reaturel& world whi%h are nearest to them and whi%h stand under their
!rote%tion, whether individuals a%%e!ted b& them, %lasses, %ities, !eo!les, !la%es, s!rings, groves
et%. The deit& wat%hes over men or things %ommitted to its !rote%tion. It %ares for them and even
fights for them against other gods or !owers. The s!heres of so%ial life re%eive their san%tit& and
their binding seriousness from the fa%t that deities rule over them. In this Tualit& and a%tivit& of a
!atron the god %an be %alled i . For this word eB!resses the heart of the relationshi!,
namel&, that the god gives !arti%ular attention to the ob$e%t of his !atronage. 7e rules as wat%her
over the orders whi%h stand under his !rote%tion.
Thus in 7om.Il. , **, *0) f. the gods are %alled wat%hers over treaties san%tif&ing their
inviolabilit&5 i . The same %ombination of
two %on%e!ts whi%h later !la&ed so great a role in the >hristian >hur%h is found also in
7erodian7ist. , (II, .+, /, where geus is %alled i
. In 2ind.-l&m!. , .), 0 the >harites, the goddesses of -r%homenos, are eBtolled
as !rote%tors of the 8in&ans, the inhabitants of the %it&. ,es%h.9e!t. %. Theb. , *7. f. des%ribes the
gods as !rote%tors of the mar:et as well as !atrons of the %it& or %ountr&5 6
{ That the gods are not
merel& guardians but also avengers who !unish wrong ma& be seen from the !ra&er of 1le%tra in
,es%h.>hoe!h. , .*) ff., whether we read 6 l with
@ilamowitED8oellendorff or 6

(or ) with
,hrens. 1le%tra trusts that the gods will ta:e u! the %ause of the murdered father and be gra%ious
to the avenger. ;emesis, the messenger of 3i:e, is a!!ointed i to ta:e note of the
offen%es of %hildren against their !arents5 2lat.4eg. , I(, 7.7d. 9imilarl&, on an ins%r. of the *nd
%ent. ,.3. the violator of graves is threatened with the Furies as i , but the wish is
C i . >r.DFJ. , .+++ f.# 8oult.D8ill. , *)) f.# 2reisig:e @Jrt. , I, 07*# III, ..), )++# F. >. Haur, Der
8rtsprung des &piskopats (.6/6)# ?. H. 4ightfoot, The >hristian 8inistr&" in >omm. on 2hil.
7
(.66/)# T. gahn,
.gnatius von #ntiochen (.67/), *90 ff.# 1. 7at%h, Die Geseltschaftsverfassung der christlichen 4irchen i
#lterta (.66/), .7ff.# 79ff.# **9 ff.# ,. 7arna%:, )ehre der -2lf #postel (.66)), .)+ff.# 1. 4oening, Die
Geeindeoerfassang des 8rchristentus (.666), )7ff.# ..0ff.# F. 4oofs, 3ie ur%hristli%he <emeindeverfassung
," Th9tFr , 6/ (.69+), 6.9 ff.# A. 9ohm, 4irchenrecht , I (.69*), 6.f.# .07ff.# ?. Aville, )es %rigines de
l+]piscopat (.69))# 8i%hiels, )+%rigine de l+]piscopat (.9++)# 9. v. 3uninDHor:ows:i 9?, Die neueren
9orschtgen ber die #n=nge des &piskopats (.9++)# >. @eiEsl%:er, Das #postolische Zeitalter
/
(.9+*), 6./
ff.# 7au!t <efbr. (.9+*) on 2hil. .5. # 7. Hruders 9?, Die Verfassung der 4irche (.9+)), .+0ff.# /6+ ff.# A.
Fno!f, Das nachapostolische Zeitalter (.9+0), .)7ff.# ,. 7arna%: A1/ , *+ (.9+6), 0+6 ff.# &ntstehung u.
&nt2ickelung der 4irchenverfassung (.9.+), )+ff.# 6+ff.# 2. Hatiffol, 8rkirche und 4atholi-isus (.9.+), .+.ff.#
-. 9%heel, gum ur%hristli%hen Fit%henD und (erfassungs!roblem ," Th9tFr , 60 (.9.*). )+/ ff.# 7. 4ietEmann,
gur alt%hristli%hen (erfassungsges%hi%hte ," gwTh , 00 (.9.)), 97ff.# 8. dO7erbign&, "heologia de &cclesia ,
II (.9*.), *6/ ff.# F. 8Gller, Heitrlge Eur <es%hi%hte der (erfassung der alten Fir%he " in ,,H (.9**), ;o. /#
3ib. <efbr. on 2hil. .5. # 1. ?a%Tuier, )es #ctes des #pTtres (.9*6), 6.* ff.# 4oh. 2hil. on .5. # F. 8Gller, A<<

*
, III (.9*9), 966 ff.# ;. 7olEmeister, 9i Tuis 1!is%o!atum desiderat, bonum -!us desiderat ," Biblica , .*
(.9/.), ).ff.# 8einertE 2ast. (.9/.), )7ff.# Hu%hberger, 4eBThF, II (.9/.), s.v. Bischof P ?. ?eremias in Des !"
Deutsch , III (.9/)), on . Tm. /5. ff. # 7. @. He&er, 3as His%hofsamt im ;T " in Deutsche "heologie , .
(.9/)), *+. ff.
. -. <ru!!e, Griechische 3'thologie u. /eligionsgeschichte , II (.9+6), .+09# K. v. @ilamowitED8oellendorff,
Der Glaube der (ellenen , I (.9/.), .6 f.
eB!ressed in relation to the wellDdis!osed5 i c Hi , I< , 'II, 9,
..79, /+ ff. (*nd %ent. ,.3. ). >f. also I< , 'II, 9, 900, .+ ff. The %an also assume the
role of i , 2. 2ar. , 6/, %ol. I', )7 ff. (*nd %ent. H.>. ). Ha%%hus is %alled i
i in 9o!h.,nt. , ..)6. 2allas ,thene holds out her hands over the %it&
as i , 3emosth.-r. , )*. (ed. ?. He::er, .60)). >allima%hus in
7
&mn. , III, /9 %alls
,rtemis i .
*
The latter term is %on$oined with
in III, *09. ,rtemis is also %alled i in 2lut.
o
uaest. <rae%. , )7 (II,
/+*%). ,%%. to ,nth. 2al. , I', ** !regnant women stand under her !rote%tion.
In a ver& %om!rehensive wa& 2lut. in 3e >amillo , 0 (I, ./. f.) %alls geus and the gods
wat%hers over all evil and good deeds, so that
T
hes. 9te!h. thought the term %ould best be
eB!lained b& referen%e to 7es.
-
!. , *675 l6 .
In fa%t, in the des%ri!tion of a deit& as i we %an see the an%ient idea of the e&e of <od
s%rutinising the a%ts of men even to the hidden details. In 9eBt. 1m!.8ath. , I', 0) we have the
%orres!onding tradition a%%ording to whi%h an%ient legislators thought of the deit& as a wat%her (
i ) over the good wor:s and sins of men, so that none %an do ill to his neighbour
se%retl& but must alwa&s fear the !unishment of the gods. >f. also 2lut. 3e Fato , 9 (II, 07/a).
There is in >ornut. a %onsistent outwor:ing of the %on%e!tion that ea%h god has his own
s!here of oversight, !rote%tion and retribution. 7ere geus and 2allas ,thene are the !atrons of
%ities,
T
heol. <rae%. (ed. >. 4ang, .66.), *+ (!. /6, ., 4ang), while 2an (*7, !. 0+, ..), 2oseidon
(**, !. )), *), ,!ollo (/*, !. 66, )), 3ion&sus (/+, !. 07, .7), and 7ermes (.6, !. *0, /) are
!rote%tive lords over different s!heres, and 1rato (.), !. .6, .6) is the !rote%tress of the !ower of
diale%ti%al debate.
*. 8en as -verseers, @at%hers, 9%outs.
@ith the same basi% meaning as it has when used of the gods, i %an also be
a!!lied to the a%tivit& of men. Hut here the sense is not so definite, and %an be wor:ed out in man&
different %onne%tions. 2rote%tive %are, however, is still the heart of the a%tivit& whi%h men !ursue
as i , so that Thes. 9te!h. , s.v. %an give the general definition5 $ui rei alicui curandae
praefectus est .
-n the border between the human and the divine stands the fabulous %reature ,rgos, who is
a!!ointed a wat%her a%%. to 7es. Fr. , .66 (AEa%h), and who loo:s around in all dire%tions with his
four e&es. @at%hers guard a %or!se in 9o!h.,nt. , *.7. , dragon is the wat%her over 3ir%e,
1ur.
2
hoen. , 9/*. 2lato demands that the should be i who see to it that
there are no transgressions, 4eg. , (I, 76*d. 7e des%ribes righteousness itself as a wat%her, 4eg. ,
I', 67*e. 9olon a%%. to 2lut. 3e 9olone , .9 (I, 66d) a!!ointed an assembl& as i
.
i is also used in the sense of an overseer" over goods as the wor: of a shi!Os
%a!tain or mer%hant in 7om.-d. , 6, .6/. @omen should be overseers over &oung married
%ou!les, 2lat.4eg. , (I, 76)a. >f. also (II, 790d. 8ar:et overseers have to rule as i
, as those who are %alled to $udge what is fair dealing and what
is im!ro!er, (III, 6)9a. 2hidias is an overseer over the 2eri%lean buildings, 2lut.2eri%l. , ./ (I,
.09e) ( 6./ ).
The i rules as master of the house, ,es%h.1um. , 7)+.
7e%tor fell as !rote%tor of Tro&, 7om.Il. , *) 7*9 f.
Finall&, i %an mean a s%out" or s!&," 7om.Il. , .+, /6# /)*# 9o!h.-ed. >ol. ,
..*.
/. The >&ni% as and i .
7&mn. ('ni .
* >f. on this !t. 1. 9!anhemii in 1alliachi h'nos observationes (.697), .06.
ouaest. <rae%. ?uaestiones Graecae .
Thes. 9te!h. 7. 9te!hanus, "hesaurus Graecae )inguae , .6/. ff.
-!. %pera et Dies .
Theol. <rae%. "heologia Graeca .
2hoen. Phoenissae .
The terms and i are used in a s!e%ial sense in >&ni% !hiloso!h&.
/
If
we are to understand them %orre%tl&, we must %onsider how the forms derived from D
relate to the linguisti%all& %onne%ted but materiall& different . This is the main
word for the >&ni% in 1!i%t. 1!i%t. does not thin: of himself as a !hiloso!her in the sense of Tuiet
refle%tion on the riddles of the universe, but rather in the sense of having a divine mi sion in the
world as a !ro!het and !rea%her of re!entan%e who intervenes in the lives of his fellows and is
thus !assionatel& involved in this life. This mission finds linguisti% eB!ression in the designations
q , 1!i%t.3iss. , III, **, 69, or
, ibid. , **, /6. 7e is the messenger of the gods to the eBtent that he is
%ons%ious of being sent b& them.
)
7e is their herald and !ro%laimer be%ause he de%lares the
divine $udgment on men. ,nd between these two designations he is also the
. This has two senses, both of whi%h rest on the literal meaning s!&." In the first !la%e, the
>&ni% investigates what is friendl& to man and what is hostile," III, **, *). 7e thus strives for
!er%e!tion of the truth as the basis of moral and rational %ondu%t. @hen he has a%%uratel&
dis%erned this, he must return and de%lare what is true," III, **, *0. 9e%ondl&, it is the tas: of the
>&ni% !rea%her to test men, whether their lives %onform to the truth whi%h has been !er%eived.
For this testing a%tivit& of the >&ni% the word is o%%asionall& used instead of
, III, **, 7*# 77# 97. It %onsists in the fa%t that the wandering !rea%her so far
as he is able %onsiders and tests all men, what the& do, how the& %ondu%t their lives, what the& are
%on%erned about, where the& fail in the fulfilment of their dut&. In this manner he goes to all# in
this manner he %ares for all." In the same sense we are told in 3io >hr&s.-r. , 9, . that 3iogenes
went to the Isthmian games, not to %om!ete,

6
q . ,%%. to 4u%. 3ialogi 8ortuorum , .+, *, 7ermes sa&s to 8eni!!us5
(in the ferr&Dboat of >haron) { q i
, g . The signifi%ant !oint is, however, that neither 1!i%t.
nor others in his da& used the term i to des%ribe this a%tivit&. The word
is alwa&s em!lo&ed. The reason ma& well be that i generall& denoted the wat%her over
an eBisting and wellDdefined s!here. -nl& in the /rd %ent. ,.3. , and on the basis of later ideas is
i on%e used in the same wa& as 1!i%t. uses (
I
, )+9, n. .9 ). The
>&ni% 8enedemus, a%%. to the a%%ount in 3iog. 4. , (I, .+*, disguised himself as a Fur& and
announ%ed that he was an investigator of menOs sins ( i ) who had been sent from
7ades and who had to return to the gods of 7ades with a re!ort on what he had seen. Hut this is an
isolated %ase.
0
This use of i and had no histori%al influen%e.
). i as a 3esignation of -ffi%e.
In an%ient <ree%e the word i was used in man& different wa&s to des%ribe those
who held various offi%ial !ositions in res!e%t of their offi%e and wor:.
a. In ,thens in the )th and 0th %ent. i is a title for state offi%ials. @e :now this
es!e%iall& from ,risto!hanes, who in ,v., .+** f. tells of the arrival of an i in the bird
:ingdom >loud >u%:oo 4and. That he is alluding to real histori%al models is !roved b& glosses on
his !oetr& and b& ins%ri!tions on whi%h the offi%e a!!ears as de!i%ted b& ,risto!hanes. ,%%. to
7ar!o%ration, s.v.
6
the i were su!ervisors sent b& the ,thenians to the %ities of
sub$e%t members of the ,tti% 4eague. The& were %hosen b& lot from ,thenian %andidates and then
sent to their res!e%tive %ities, where the& were in some sense governors, though there is
un%ertaint& as to the eBa%t s%o!e of their offi%e.
7
Their main %on%ern was for !ubli% order and for
/ >f. 1. ;orden, 0bch. f. Phil. Suppleentband , 'I' (.69/), /76 with man& eBam!les# @endland 7ell. Fult.
*
,
6*# and es!. I, )+9 ff.
) 1!i%t.3iss. , III, **, *5 # III, **, */# III, ., /7.
I, )+9, n. .9 <n. /.5) # ).56 , .) et%.
0 @e must :ee! to the sober distin%tion between and i as drawn b& 1. ;orden, /76
( n. / ) and more full& b& Aengstorf ( I, )+9 ). The a%tivit& of the as is to all
men. >f. F. 3eissner, g9Th , 7 (.9*9v/+), 76/.
6 (arpocrationis )e:icon in dece %ratores #tticos , ed. @. 3indorf (.60/). >f. also 9uid. , s.v. # ,ne%d. <rae%.
, I, *0)5 .
7 <. Husolt, Griechische Geschichte bis -ur Schlacht bei 1haironeia (.660v.9+)), III, ., **0 and 09+. K. v.
@ilamowitED8oellendorff, Philologische 8ntersuchungen , I (.66+), .6 and 70 f.
the avoidan%e of fri%tion with ,thens. It is li:el& that the& also had some $udi%ial !owers.
6
The&
were maintained b& the %it& in whi%h the& offi%iated. That the& were not loved ma& be gathered
from the %ari%ature in ,risto!hanes. ,n instan%e of their wor: ma& be seen on ins%ri!tions from
1r&thrae, I< , I, .+ and ...
9
In )60 H.>. a new %onstitution was being set u! there,
.+
and
offi%ials from ,thens, the phrurarch as the militar& %ommander and the i as %ivil
offi%ials, !la&ed a !art in the arrangements, a!!ointing the first assembl& of the new order, for
whi%h the retiring assembl& and the phrurarch were later res!onsible. This does not mean,
however, that the i were sent onl& for a short time. @e :now that the& were !ermanent
offi%ials in 8&tilene5
..
3itt. 9&ll.
/
, 76 ()*7v6 H.>. ).
b. @e also read of su%h state offi%ials elsewhere. Thus ,!!ian.Aom. 7ist. , 8ithridateios , )6
tells us that 8ithridates a!!ointed 2hilo!oimen i ti . ,%%ording to ,rrian
7ist. Indi%a, .*, 0 there were also i in different !arts of India, their res!onsibilities
being those of a se%ret !oli%e. The !a!. tell us that there were i in 1g&!t too. Thus in 2.
2etr. , III, ;o. /6a, .7 (/rd %ent. H.>. ) we read5 i 6
l q g . 7ere the
i seem to have dis%harged, or su!ervised, $udi%ial fun%tions. There is also referen%e to
i in 2. Freiburg, 6, .. (?. 2arts%h, 3itt. aus der 9reiburger Pap'russalung , * m
9
,7
, .9.6, ,bh. .+n, .90v6 ,.3. ). >f. also 2. -B&. , II, */7, >ol. I(, .+ (.66 ,.3. ). In one instan%e
the offi%er in %harge of the 1!hesian mint is %alled i on a %oin from the time of
>laudius, with the addition that he is o%%u!&ing the !ost for the fourth time# elsewhere he is
des%ribed as or .
.*

%. 8ore %ommonl& the i are lo%al offi%ials or the offi%ers of so%ieties. Theologi%al
resear%h has shown more interest in this usage, sin%e it is felt that here we have the basis of the
>hristian use, es!e%iall& when the res!onsibilities %on%erned are related to the %ultus. In this %ase,
however, while the term is undoubtedl& used, and it relates to a wor: of su!ervision or %ontrol,
there is no stri%t definition of what is involved and the term is never used with !re%ision.
The $urist >harisius ( c. /)+ ,.3. ) lists among muni%i!al offi%ials the episcopi6 $ui praesunt
pani et ceteris venalibus rebus6 $uae civitatu populis ad cotidianu victu usui sunt .
./
In
other words, the& su!ervise the !oor relief of the %it&. In 8egalo!olis ( I< , (, *, lstv*nd %ent. ,.3.
) there is referen%e to an i q ,
though here we %annot be sure whether an offi%ial is meant or an a!ostle of moralit& after the
manner of the >&ni%s. From Ahodes (*nd %ent. H.>. ) we have two different lists of offi%ials
similar to those on whi%h o%%urs as an offi%ial designation ( 9. f. ). -n one of these
there is referen%e to the (!resident), i ( praetor , an honorar& title),
i (treasurer), (se%retar&), i , a , a
, , a 6 ( I< , 'II, ., )9, )*
ff. UU 3itt. 9&ll.
/
, 6.9# 0+, /) ff.). The referen%e is obviousl& to %ivi% offi%ials, though it is not
%lear how the duties of the !r&tanes, !raetors, treasurers, se%retaries and overseers are to be
differentiated. -n the one list there are five i and on the other three. It is worth noting
that and i are never mentioned in the same %onteBt.
-n the sour%es thus far addu%ed there is no sign of an& religious %onne%tion. In I< , 'II, .,
7/., however, we obviousl& have a list of the offi%ials of a so%iet& for the maintenan%e of the
san%tuar& of ,!ollo at Ahodes. This refers to three (!residents), a
6 >. 3arembergD1. 9aglio, Dictionnaire des #nti$uit,s Grec$ues et /oaines (.677I.9.9), II, 696 f.# 2.
<uiraud, )a 1ondition des #lli,s pendant la prei*re 1onf,d,ration #th,nienneE #nnales de la 9acult, des
)ettres de Bordeau: , ( (.66/), .9).
9 That we are right to read on ins%r. I< , I, .+, where the word
is defe%tive, is !roved b& I< , I, .., where we again have i and
together. >f. also <<, , .60 (.9+/), 77*.
.+ <. Husolt, Griechische Staatskunde
/
(.9*6), ./00.
.. .bid. , n. ).
9,7 Sit-ungsberichte der (eidelberger #kadeie der Wissenschaften ( phil<hist. 4lasse ), .9.+ ff.
.* F. ImhoofDHlumer, 4leinasiatische 3n-en , I (.9+.), 09# ?. Friedllnder, Zeitschr. f. !uisatik , 6 (.679),
.0# 7. 4ietEmann, gwTh , 00 (.9.)), .+0.
./ Digesta .ustiniani #ugusti , 0+, ), .6, 7 (ed. T. 8ommsen, II m.67+n. 9.))5 also @. 4iebenam,
St=dtever2altung i r. 4aiserreiche (.9++), /7+.
l (se%retar& of the :ee!ers of the tem!le), an i ,
.)
siB li
(ins!e%tors of the sa%rifi%es), a i and a l . 8ost of
them have no dire%t %ulti% res!onsibilities. Indeed, this %an be said onl& of the li , who
must wat%h over the sa%rifi%es. -n the other hand, the& fulfil the tem!oral tas:s whi%h underlie the
%ulti% a%tivit& of a so%iet&. This is made Tuite %lear b& the ins%r. I< , 'II, /, /*9 (*nd %ent. H.>. ).
, %ulti% so%iet& to honour ,nthister on the island of Thera resolves to a%%e!t a benefa%tion and
instru%ts the two episcopi 3ion and 8elehi!!us to invest the mone&. These are obviousl& in
%harge of finan%ial transa%tions. 9ubordinate %ulti% obligations are dis%harged b& the i
on another ins%r. of the Aoman !eriod found in 3olistovo in Hulgaria.
.0
7ere we read5 q
iq c Oi l l { there then follow ten names { A
(:ee!er of the house), O ( acellarius , in %harge of the
sa%rifi%ial meat), t i, i (dealer, !robabl& in
idols). It is evident that the i is not one of the !riests, but one of those who have !urel&
eBternal duties in the %ulti% so%iet&. The same is true when the so%iet& of the ,leBi%hites in
8&%onos instru%ts its i , who seems to have been a :ind of se%retar&, to !ro%laim a
festival whi%h it has resolved to %elebrate.
.6
In sum, we ma& sa& with 1. giebarth5
.7
-ne of the
distin%tive features of the terminolog& of <ree: so%ieties is that there is no definition of the
designations used. The i , li:e the i , are sim!l& offi%ers who eBer%ise
su!ervision and %ontrol."
In 2lut. De !ua , 9 (I, 66b) we read that the Aoman !ontifeB was l
i . -bviousl& this does not denote an offi%e, !arti%ularl& of a %ulti% nature. It sim!l&
des%ribes his tas: in relation to the (estal (irgins. 1ven in !agan times the word piscopus was
borrowed in 4atin, being used sometimes to des%ribe su!ervisor& offi%ials of state.
.6

d. Finall&, there is a usage of i for an offi%ial whi%h is !arti%ularl& attested in
9&ria. ,n ins%r. in >anata (*0/ ,.3. ) runs as follows5
.9
c i i,
A 2i B Oi Hi
, i l i q 6
i . The last named has given an endowment to his %ommunit&. @ith the mone& the
village is ere%ting a !ubli% building (the stone ma& still be seen in the ruins of a mosTue), whi%h in
!roof of lo&alt& is to be dedi%ated to the two ruling em!erors. The other three mentioned %onstitute
a building %ommission.
*+
Their duties a!!ear more %learl& on an ins%r. in 3erOat.
*.
There a
distin%tion is drawn between the !art !la&ed b& the Aoman legates who initiate the building (
iq 2i {), an im!erial eTuerr& who !erha!s ta:es the %hair (
i {) in the so%iet& whi%h underta:es the building, the ar%hite%t (erus who is reall& in
%harge of the %onstru%tion ( ) and three others who
su!ervise the building ( g Ali B {).
**
From this it ma& be seen that the
does not involve an& %onstru%tional res!onsibilit& but merel& su!ervision of the %ourse
of the wor: in the interests of the builders, and !ossibl& %ontrol of the mone& allo%ated to the tas:.
It is along these lines that we are to eB!lain the a%tivit& of all the other i who are
mentioned in the same %onne%tion on 9&rian building ins%r.5 @addington ( n. .9 ), .9.., .969,
.99+ () i , who obviousl& %ontrol the tem!le funds), **96, */+6 (referring to the
building of an aTuedu%t and a tem!le of ,thene, the being eBer%ised, not b& s!e%ifi%
.) 3eissmann ;H , 07 em!hasises that there is onl& one. 4iterall& we have i (though the last s&llable
%ould !erha!s be amended) Ti

li c A . 3eissmann favours
the reading i , but this is not essential. >f. 7. 4ietEmann, gwTh , 00 (.9.)), .+*. 3eissmann adds5 I
refrain from an& %on$e%tures as to the fun%tions of this i . The mere fa%t that the word is used in a
te%hni%al sa%ral sense in !reD>hristian times is signifi%ant enough of itself."
.0 #rch=ologisch<epigraphische 3itteilungen aus >sterreich , '(III (.690), .+6.
.6 1. giebarth in /heinisches 3useu ;F, 00 (.9++), 0+6 ff. (*nd %ent. H.>. ).
.7 Das griechische Vereins2esen (.696), ./.. >f. also F. 2oland, Geschichte des griechischen Vereins2esens
(.9+9), //7 ff.# on i , ibid. , /77.
.6 >f. >I4 , (, *, 79.) and 767+. >f. 8ommsen, !. 9.6b.
.9 @. 7. @addington, .nscriptions Grec$ues et )atines de la S'rie (.67+), *).* f.
*+ 7. 4ietEmann, gwTh , 00 (.9.)), .+*.
*. 3itt. -r. , II, 6.).
** There is also referen%e to iq B . @hether this a%tivit& relates dire%tl& to the
building and the building %ommission is o!en to Tuestion.
individuals, but b& the magistrate of a !arti%ular Tuarter of the %it&)# also */+9, */.+, *).*e# %f.
also 9&ria, Publications of the Princeton 8niv. #rchaeological &:peditions to S'ria in .9+)v.9+0
and .9+9, 3ivolumen, III, 9e%tion ,, /7, **+ (better %om!leted
than ), *** (with the form i ), 9e%t. H, .++/, ..67, ..99.
;aturall&, the >hristian bisho!s often mentioned on building ins%r. after the )th %ent. are not to be
%onfused with these overseers.
*/
3itt. -r. , II, 6.. tells us that a %ertain was
i ( also 6.+ ).
B. in "#daism.
.. <od as i .
The 4'' uses i in the same twofold wa& as se%ular <ree:. -n the one hand it
denotes <od, and on the other it has the general sense of su!ervisors in different fields. If in
!ol&theisti% belief ea%h deit& a%ts as i over %ertain men and things, the one <od
does this far more %om!rehensivel&. 7e is the absolute i who sees all things.
Thus at ?ob *+5*9 the 4'' renders the 7eb. \[] b& i . ,s su%h <od is ?udge of the
ungodl&. The term is here brought into relation to . 2hilo has the same line of thought. 7e
%alls <od i in 8ut. ;om. , /9 , *.6 . The %ombination
i , alread& used b& 7omer, is also found in 2hilo at 4eg. ,ll. , III, )/ . In this %a!a%it&
<od is the -ne from whom no wi%:edness %an be hidden. i is the
-mnis%ient, 9om. , I, 9. . Thus on 2hiloOs view 8oses finel& introdu%es <od in the first %ha!ter of
the Hible as the Father of all and the >ontem!lator of all that has %ome into being." This
$udgment rests on the statement that <od saw ever&thing that he had made, and, behold, it was
ver& good," 8igr. ,br. , ./0 . In ?ewish thought this !rofound understanding of <od as the -ne
who sees all things !rodu%ed the term i , whi%h o%%urs more than on%e in the
9ib&llines5 ., .0*5 l q i #
*)
*, .775
i # 0, /0*5 i .
In !arti%ular, <od sees into the human heart. In this res!e%t the 4'' lin:s and
i at @is. .56 5 (of the ungodl&) q
i i q q 6 . >f. ,%. .5*) ,
where <od is %alled 6 . <od sees what is %on%ealed in the soul of man, sa&s
2hilo8igr. ,br. , ..0 . <od alone !er%eives the of man, 8igr. ,br. , 6. .
*. 8en as i .
There is no %losel& defined offi%e bearing the title i in the 4''. Hut the term
overseer" is freel& used in man& different wa&s.
,ntio%hus a!!oints i as governors over Israel, . 8a%%. .50. . ,bimele%h a!!oints
an offi%er" in ?u. 95*6 . Is. 6+5.7 mentions i !arallel to , though in
misunderstanding of the original. -ffi%ers" are %alled i q at ;u.
/.5.) # 4 B. 11:15 . There is a good %ounter!art to, and %ommentar& on the 9&rian building
ins%r. in 4 B. 12:11 ( .* )# * >h. /)5.* , .7 . 7ere we are told how the mone& was raised for
ne%essar& re!airs of the tem!le, and how it was !la%ed in the hands of the episcopi as su!ervisors
who !aid it out to the various wor:men and labourers. , more strongl& %ulti% use o%%urs in the
great list in ;eh. ..59 , .) , ** where it refers to the overseers" of the men of Hen$amin and of
the !riests and 4evites. In 4 B. 11:18 it is used for overseers" in the tem!le. In ;u. )5.6 we
have referen%e to an offi%e dire%tl& related to the %ultus, though not itself !riestl& in the stri%t
sense, when 1leaEar is made overseer" of the oil for light, the sweet in%ense, the dail& meat
offering, the anointing oil, the whole taberna%le, and ever&thing in the hol& vessels within it.
9&mma%hus has i at <n. ).5/) , where the 4'' has .
*/ 1.g., Publications of the Princeton 8niv. &:peditions , III, H, .++/, ..67, ..99 et%.
*) >f. ?. <eff%:en, who is sure the !assage is of ?ewish origin and who !la%es it at the beginning of the /rd %ent.
,.3. 5 TK , ''III (;F, (III), . (.9+*), )6 f, 0*.
In 2hiloAer. 3iv. 7er. , 8oses is des%ribed as i in the sense of the one who
:nows souls." In 9om. , II, .66 1leaEar and Ithamar are %alled i , as in
1B. *65. .
The term is also found in ?ose!h. , who uses it with in the sense of a guardian of
morals and law," ,nt. , .+, ), . . >f. .*, 0, )5 a !oli%e offi%ial.
C. in the NT.
,lthough the word had su%h a ri%h ba%:ground, and was to en$o& an even ri%her
develo!ment on >hristian soil, it o%%urs onl& five times in the ;T .
.. In . 2t. *5*0 >hrist 7imself is %alled i: q
6, i
. ,t a first glan%e it would seem that i here merel& strengthens
, and thus denotes one who :ee!s wat%h over the flo%:. In general, the terms
i and were %losel& lin:ed in des%ribing the wor: of the she!herd#
a!art from this !assage %f. ,%. *+5*6 # . 2t. 05* # !erha!s also ;u. *75.6 # 6+. . -n the
other hand, there is a further meaning for those familiar with the ri%hness of the term. >hrist is
7e who has the fullest :nowledge of souls. 7e :nows ever& inner se%ret, as is said of <od in
@is. .56 and the !assages Tuoted from 2hilo ( 6.) ). 7e is also the -ne who gives 7imself
most selfDsa%rifi%ingl& to %are for the souls of the faithful (%f. in 7b. .*5.0 ). It
is for this reason that and i are so %losel& related. The !hrase she!herd
and bisho! of &our souls" %arries within it all that is said b& <ree: s!ea:ing <entiles and ?ews
about <od as i . ,s suggested b& the %onteBt, whi%h !oints us to the dee!est
m&steries of salvation histor&, i is thus a title of ma$est& as%ribed to ?esus in 7is
wor: in relation to the %ommunit&.
The ,.(., ada!ting the alien term, brings out the im!li%ations of the !assage for >hristian
histor& with its suggestion of the ministerial titles !astor" and bisho!" (%f. 4utherOs de
(irten und Bischof euerer Seelen "). The influen%e of the terminolog& is in fa%t to be seen alread&
in . 2eter, for in 05*ff . the elders are eBhorted to feed the flo%: of >hrist, and this led a %o!&ist to
en$oin u!on the elders ( 6+) ).
*. In the other !assages men are %alled i as leaders of the >hur%h. This raises
two im!ortant Tuestions in the histor& of >hur%h government5 a. @ho is %alled i
and b. From what !eriod does i %ease to be a des%ri!tion of the free a%tion of
members of the %ommunit& and be%ome the designation of bearers of a s!e%ifi% offi%e to
whi%h the& and the& alone are %alled
a. In answer to the first Tuestion we ma& note that the wandering, %harismati% !rea%hers of
the <os!el, the a!ostles, !ro!hets and tea%hers, are never %alled i . This title arises
onl& where there are settled lo%al %ongregations in whi%h regular a%ts are !erformed. For these
fiBed leaders of %ongregational life the designations or i (
) Tui%:l& established themselves. In the first instan%ekwe ma& !ost!one for the
moment our %onsideration of later develo!mentkthe two words and
i did not im!l& an& distin%tion, let alone antithesis. This ma& be seen from 2aulOs
s!ee%h to the 1!hesian elders ( ,%. *+5*6 ). 9in%e 4u:e was himself !resent and re%orded it in
his a%%ount of the $ourne&, and sin%e its thoroughl& 2auline %hara%ter emerges on %lose
eBamination, we ma& a%%e!t this as ver& earl& testimon&.
*0

In 4u:eOs introdu%tion the 1!hesian leaders are %alled . Hut 2aul sa&s to
them5 Ta:e heed therefore unto &ourselves, and to all the flo%:, over whi%h the 7ol& <host hath
made &ou overseers (bisho!s), to feed the %hur%h of <od, whi%h he hath !ur%hased with his own
*0 If this s!ee%h %an be understood merel& as a vaticiniu e: eventu , then no man has ever ta:en leave of %lose
friends with a full heart on underta:ing a !erilous $ourne& and with thoughts of the !ossibilit& of his death (%f. v.
** ).
blood." It is signifi%ant .. that all the without eB%e!tion are %alled i .
The& are elders in status (not in virtue of their age but in virtue of their !osition and a%%reditation),
and the& are bisho!s in res!onsibilit&. It is also signifi%ant *. that this res!onsibilit& is des%ribed in
terms of i , as in . 2t. *5*0 and 05*ff ., though i is !referred to . It
is signifi%ant again /. that there are several i in the one %ongregation, none of whi%h
ta:es !re%eden%e. It is to be noted ). that their %alling to be bisho!s %omes from the 7ol& 9!irit.
This does not eB%lude either ele%tion (%f. ,%. .5*. ff. # 65/ ff. ) or a!!ointment b& an a!ostle,
!ossibl& 2aul himself ( ,%. .)5*/ ). The de%isive !oint, however, is the wor: of the 7ol& 9!irit on
whi%h the sending and authorit& of their e!is%o!ate rest. Finall&, it is im!ortant 0. that a%%ording to
the %onteBt their tas: %onsists in a wat%hful and soli%itous (both ideas are %ontained in
) dire%tion of the %ongregation on the basis of the redeeming wor: of >hrist to
whi%h alone the %ommunit& owes its eBisten%e.
b. In re!l& to the se%ond basi% Tuestion in the histor& of the e!is%o!ate, namel&, when the
des%ri!tion of free a%tivit& be%ame a designation of offi%e, it ma& be said that there was from
the ver& first a ne%essar& im!ulse in this dire%tion. To be sure, 2aul in ,%. *+5*6 is sim!l&
de!i%ting the wor: and tas: of res!onsible men in the %ongregation. Hut he is alread&
dire%ting his words to a definite %ir%le whose members ma& be %alled or
i in distin%tion from others. ,nd these men :now that the& are %alled. The offi%e is
alread& !resent in substan%e. It has not &et been given a !ermanent name. Hut this will soon
%ome.
@hen 2aul in 2hil., .5. sends greetings i
4i , in the final !hrase he has in view
individual members of the %ongregation who are uneTuivo%all& %hara%terised b& the designation (
69 ). -therwise the addition has no meaning.
*6
It is im!ossible to argue that he is sim!l&
referring here to an a%tivit&, e.g., the sending of gifts to 2aul, )5.+ff ., and not to an offi%e.
*7
If
2aul were intending merel& to greet those who had %olle%ted and sent the loveDoffering, he would
have said so, and not used two words %ommonl& em!lo&ed b& the <ree:s as titles. ,s the words
stand, the& refer to those whose res!onsibilit& is that of and , though we
%annot dedu%e the eBa%t nature of these tas:s from this !assage.
*6

%. The 2astorals %arr& the develo!ment a stage further. In . Tm. /5. is a
distin%t offi%e whi%h one ma& see:. To attain it, %ertain Tualifi%ations must be met. It is to be
noted that the !assage sim!l& outlines the Tualifi%ations and not the duties. The author has
%lear rules b& whi%h the %ongregation must be guided in its sele%tion. The sobriet& with whi%h
the reTuirements are stated, some of them being assumed as selfDevident, and the fa%t that in
regard to endowment for the e!is%o!al offi%e there is no further referen%e to the 7ol& 9!irit
but sim!l& to essential human Tualifi%ations, show how strongl& the develo!ment is alread&
affe%ted b& ever&da& needs.
There is still a re%ognition of the greatness of the e!is%o!al offi%e. @ith !astoral wisdom .
Tm. lists the reTuirements to be sought in those who bear it.
*9
First %omes moral reliabilit&. ;o
!arti%ular as%eti% attainment is demanded. The leader of a >hristian %ommunit& is also eB!osed to
ver& human tem!tations. Hut he must lead an honourable and eBem!lar& life, avoiding eB%ess.
This is what is meant when it is said that he must not be intem!erate or Tuarrelsome or avari%ious.
9e%ondl&, he must give !roof in his own home of his abilit& to dire%t the life of the %ongregation.
*6 To read as a single word is not grammati%all& !ossible.
*7 F. 4oofs, Th9tFr , 6/ (.69+), 6*6 f., distinguishes shar!l& between the name of an offi%e and the des%ri!tion
of an offi%e, and he sees onl& the latter at the !eriod of 2hili!!ians. I %annot a%%e!t this shar! distin%tion.
>ertainl& no one was addressed as 4ord Hisho!" in 2hili!!i c. 6+ ,.3. Hut an uneTuivo%al des%ri!tion of offi%e
b& means of an a%%e!ted term elsewhere used to denote offi%e inevitabl& be%omes a designation of the offi%e.
*6 -n the !t. that we %annot eTuate the i and , as attem!ted b& 7au!t <efbr. , ad loc. ,
69 f. >f. also what is said there on the %on$e%ture of 4oh. 2hil. that the addition (p)
is to be eB!lained b& the fa%t that these leaders of the %ommunit& had been in !rison, as also on the
im!ossibilit& of des%ribing their offi%ial a%tivit& in the light of 2hil. .5. .
*9 >f. ?. ?eremias in ;T 3euts%h , III (.9/)), .).
In this res!e%t, Aoman >atholi% %eliba%& stands in dire%t %ontradi%tion to the Hible. The Hible
assumes monogamous marriage for the bisho!, and !la%es high value on the blessing of a wellD
%ondu%ted, hos!itable manse or vi%arage in whi%h %hildren are brought u! to be obedient and
honourable. ,bilit& in domesti% rule is a test of abilit& to guide the %ongregation. Thirdl&, the
bisho! should be a s:illed tea%her and therefore an able !rea%her. Fourthl&, he must be a mature
>hristian so that he will not su%%umb to the tem!tation to !ride through whi%h the servants of <od
so easil& fall vi%tim to the devil. ;or do the Tualifi%ations relate onl& to the inner life of the
%ommunit&. For fifthl&, the bisho! for his wor:Os sa:e must be blameless a%%ording to the
standards of the nonD>hristian world, and therefore as far as !ossible !rote%ted against s%andal.
There is a !arallel !assage in Tt. .50I9 . Titus had the tas: of a!!ointing eiders in the
%ities of >rete as 2aul had done in ,sia 8inor a%%ording to ,%. .)5*/ . This was the wa& to
ensure the %ontinued life of the %hur%hes on%e the missionaries had gone.
The Tualifi%ations of !resb&ters here are li:e those of the bisho!s in . Tm. /5*ff . In fa%t, there
is an alternation of terms in Tt. .57 , where we suddenl& have i instead of
. This is another !roof that the two terms originall& referred to the same thing,
namel&, the guidan%e and re!resentation of the %ongregation and the wor: of !rea%hing and
%ondu%ting worshi! when there was no a!ostle, !ro!het or tea%her !resent. 2erha!s an earl&
distin%tion is to be seen in . Tin. 05.7 , where some !resb&ters are singled out and de%lared worth&
of double honour be%ause the& have !roved to be good and have
shown s!e%ial Eeal in the !rea%hing of the word and in tea%hing. The& are thus lin:s in the %hain of
develo!ment whi%h !rodu%ed the !rima%& of the e!is%o!ate.
If . Tm. /5* and Tt. .57 s!ea: of the bisho! in the sing. and with the art. , the referen%e is to
the bisho! as a t&!e and not to the number of bisho!s in a given !la%e. There is no referen%e to
monar%hi%al e!is%o!ate. -n the %ontrar&, the eviden%e of the ;T is %learl& to the effe%t that
originall& several i too: %harge of the %ommunities in brotherl& %omit&. It is also !lain
that the !oint of the offi%e was servi%e, and servi%e alone. , sober and dis%i!lined outloo: was
reTuired. The bisho!, too, re%eived brotherl& admonition. 7is !ower and authorit& %ame onl& from
the 7ol& <host.
The Tuestion has been raised whether the in Aev. ( .5*+ # *f .)
are not bisho!s of the %hur%hes, but this is hardl& li:el& ( I, 66 ).
'. The Origin and Original *orm of the )piscopate.
,s in the matter of the dia%onate, whi%h is %losel& lin:ed with the e!is%o!ate ( 9+ ), we
must begin here, too, with a distin%tion between the origin of the e!is%o!al offi%e and that of
the designation i , whi%h finall& trium!hed over su%h other ;T terms as
, q, , .
;one of the offi%es denoted b& i in the <ree: s!ea:ing world has so mu%h in
%ommon with the >hristian offi%e of bisho! as to enable us to affirm the !ossibilit& of a histori%al
%onne%tion. The various national and muni%i!al offi%ials, the su!ervisors of !rovisions and
%oinage, the building %ommissaries and business managers of %ulti% unions who were %alled
i , %annot !ossibl& have been models for the leaders of >hristian %ongregations. ;or
are we hel!ed further b& what we :now of the order in the so%ieties of the 7ellenisti% 8&steries.
The wandering >&ni% !rea%hers !erha!s %onstitute an instru%tive !arallel to the a!ostles, but not to
bisho!s. 2erha!s we are to turn rather to ?ewish models. F. <. <oetE has strongl& advo%ated the
view that the and of the s&nagogue are the models for the
i and .
/+
From the %lose %onne%tion between these two >hristian offi%es
from the ver& earliest !eriod, it is obvious that the model is to be found onl& in a %orres!onding
twofold offi%e. ,s there are similarities between s&nagogue and earl& >hristian worshi!, so there
are in fa%t man& material !arallels between ?ewish and >hristian %ulti% offi%es. The leader of the
s&nagogue %ondu%ts divine servi%e, su!ervises eBternal order and loo:s after the building#
/+ F. <. <oetE, Petrus als Grander und %berhaupt der 4irche und Schauer 'on Gesichten (.9*7), )9 ff.
whether there was onl& one ruler of the s&nagogue or man& is not %lear from the sour%es."
/.

@ith the there were also . -n the other hand, im!ortant
differen%es are to be noted. The %hief of these is that so far as our information goes the leader of
the s&nagogue had hardl& an&thing to do with the guidan%e of the %ongregation as a fellowshi! of
faith and love.
This is far more true of the leaders of the %ommunit& of the new %ovenant in 3amas%us, in
whi%h ?. ?eremias finds the model for >hristian bisho!s.
/*
This 2harisai% so%iet& was divided into
%am!s at the head of whi%h was alwa&s a cShs\ MNLs (
3
amas%. , ./, 7# !erha!s also 9, ..# .6
f.# **# ./, 6), as there was also a Y^Shsc \W\ MP[ MNLs over the %am!s as a whole (.), 6f.). It
is un%ertain whether the V`LM\ MP[ MNLs of .0, 6 refers to the latter or to the %am! leaders. It
is also un%ertain whether the !riest %harged with in .), 6 is to be eTuated with
the MNLs . This designation is the !art. !iel of MNL , to investigate," to have regard to." The
MNLs has %harge of admissions and eB!ulsions. 7e is a tea%her and !rea%her. 7e should deal
:indl& with the %ommunit& as a father with his %hildren," he should !ardon their wa&wardness,
and li:e a she!herd with the shee!kthe familiar imagekhe should loose the %hains whi%h bind
them.
//
7e has $udi%ial res!onsibilities and authorit& in man& eBternal things. 7e %onvenes and
dire%ts the assemblies of the %ommunit& and re%eives and distributes the offerings. ;ow in the
4'' the 7eb. MNL is sometimes rendered ( 6+. ), for whi%h rNi is the
normal 7eb. eTuivalent. 7en%e we might well translate MNLs b& i .
/)
?eremias
%laims that the !osition and offi%ial duties of the MNLs tall& at all !oints with those of the bisho!
in the 9&rian Didascalia . 7e thus dedu%es that the offi%e of leader of the 2harisai% %ommunit&
a%%ording to what we :now of the MNLs from the 3amas%us do%umentkand as it was eBer%ised
elsewhere among the 2hariseeskwas a model for the >hristian e!is%o!ate." There %an be no
doubt that ?eremias has drawn attention to a notable !arallel to the bisho!. ,t the same time,
%ertain Tuestions remain o!en. ?eremias himself realises that the small %ommunit& in 3amas%us
%ould not be a dire%t model for the >hristian >hur%h. ,nd the MNLs bears stronger monar%hi%al
features than the older form of the >hristian e!is%o!ate. 7e is %loser to the /rd %entur& than to
what we :now of the earlier i . ,nother wea:ness is the la%: of an& %onne%tion with
the . In an& %ase, we :now too little
/0
of the 2harisai% leaders in 3amas%us to %ome
to an& solid %on%lusions either wa&. There is here no eas& solution to the !roblem.
;or do we need an& su%h solution. Familiar forms of s&nagogue and 2harisai% order were
no doubt before the e&es of the first >hristians. Hut their %ommunit&, based on the great
%ommission to !rea%h the <os!el and to live a%%ording to it in the most inward of all
so%ieties, was something new and distin%tive, so that for the fulfilment of its mission new
offi%es had to be %reated, or to develo! out of the matter itself.
The im!ulse to %reate fiBed offi%es la& in the nature of the matter. ?esus had %alled and
sent out the Twelve to !rea%h in 7is name. The& were to hel! 7im, and above all to be the
bearers of 7is message after 7is death. The risen 4ord revealed to them, and to others whom
7e %alled in 7is resurre%tion a!!earan%es, their mission. This a!ostolate was lin:ed to dire%t
%ommissioning b& >hrist. 7en%e it was not transferable. The !ro!hets and tea%hers, who li:e
the a!ostles had re%eived from the 9!irit the gifts and authorit& to establish and build u!
/. ?. 1lbogen, Der 5dische Gottesdienst in seiner geschichtlichen &nt2icklung
*
(.9*)), )6/# 9tr.DH. , I(, ., .)0
ff.
/* ?. ?eremias, 0erusale -ur Zeit 0esu , II, . (.9*9), ./+ff. <oetE defended his thesis against ?eremias in g;@ ,
/+ (.9/.), 69 ff. ?eremias then !ursued his resear%hes and rea%hed essentiall& the same stand!oint as that of the
!resent arti%le. The author is grateful to him for friendl& advi%e.
3amas%. Daascus Docuent , a 7ebrew wor: dis%overed in .9.+, !artl& admonitor& and !artl& legal
(7ala%ha) in %ontent, !ossibl& originating in 7asmonean or Aoman times, ed. 9. 9%he%hter, .9.+.
// 3amas%. , ./, 7 ff. (9%he%hter, .9.+). There is a new edition b& 4. Aost in Fl. TeBte (ed. 7. 4ietEmann), ;o.
.67 (.9//). For a transl. %f. @. 9taer:, HFTh , *7, / (.9**), *67 f.
/) 9taer:5 ephoros .
/0 >f. ?eremias, op. cit. , .*., n. ).
%ommunities through the !ower of the divinel& given word, also died off. The& had fulfilled
their mission in a wandering ministr&. Hut where %hur%hes had been formed, there had to be
men who %ould %onstitute the fo%al !oints when no a!ostle, !ro!het or tea%her was !resent.
These men had to assume res!onsibilit& for the dire%tion and order without whi%h there %an be
no %ommon life. For these , too, a was ne%essar& ( . >. .*5*6 ).
@hat originall& seemed to be an eBternal %on%ern soon showed itself to be a highl&
res!onsible ministr& of !astoral dire%tion in the outer and inner %onfli%ts of the %ongregation.
The tas: of %ondu%ting worshi! and !rea%hing was also added. This was the %ontent of the
offi%e as we see it when it is re%orded of 2aul and Harnabas ( ,%. .)5*/ ) that alread& on their
first missionar& $ourne& the& a!!ointed elders, when the a!ostle refers to in
Thessaloni%a ( . Th. 05.* ) and Aome ( Aom. .*56 ), and when he assumes in <l. 656I.+ that
there are in the <alatian %hur%hes tea%hers of the <os!el who ma& %laim to be su!!orted for
their wor:.
/6
These leaders of the %ongregations are %alled i and in
2hili!!i ( 2hil. .5. ). Their offi%e remained when the s!e%ial ministr& of the a!ostles, !ro!hets
and tea%hers had %eased. 8ore and more the& be%ame the ba%:bone of %ongregational life.
The title derives from the matter itself in the same wa& as the offi%e. For ?ewish >hristians
was an obvious term. Hut <ree: >hristianit& introdu%ed i and
, as at 1!hesus and 2hili!!i. These were sim!le, widel& :nown titles, &et not
!re%isel& defined and therefore in their ver& breadth of meaning %a!able of a new and s!e%ifi%
use. It is worth noting that the >hristians %hose modest words whi%h did not of themselves
raise an& s!iritual %laims. The i and were far behind the a!ostles and
!ro!hets. ;evertheless, the terms were not without %ontent. The was san%tified b&
what ?esus had said about ministering as the heart of dis%i!leshi! ( 60 ). Into the term
i was interwoven the whole ri%h histor& whi%h from the time of 7omer had
a!!lied it to divine being and a%tion until ?esus 7imself had %ome as i . There
thus %ombined in the terms a la%: of assum!tion in eBternal form and a dee! inward
signifi%an%e, as in the s&mbol of the fish or the sa%rament of the 4ordOs 9u!!er.
It is true that in the %ourse of two thousand &ears the la%: of assum!tion has been
transformed into the su!reme %laim whi%h a man %an raise in virtue of his offi%e, namel&, the
%laim to !ublish e: cathedra infallible truth in matters of faith and morals. In the !resent
%onteBt we %annot even outline the histor& of this develo!ment. It began with the distin%tion,
first a!!arent in . Tm. 05.7 , between the and the rest of the
, and with the %laim of the former to double honour and reward. In . >l., )*I
)) there is still an eTuation of the i (and ) with the .
;evertheless, >lement hel!s forward the develo!ment in two wa&s.
First, he advan%es the do%trine that the bisho!s and dea%ons were instituted b& the a!ostles,
thus giving the hierar%hi%al ladder <odk>hristka!ostleskbisho!skdea%ons. 9e%ondl&, he
!rovides s%ri!tural !roof for the two latter offi%es in his own version of Is. 6+5.7 5
g i ,
whi%h diverges from both the 8as. and the 4''5 6
lg g .
The Didache gives us a better insight into the a%tual state of affairs. The %ongregational
leaders %ame into their own when the missionar& %harismati%s either moved on or died. Then
i and had to %ontinue their wor:. This is the !oint des%ribed in 3id. ,
.0, ., where we read5 The& (i.e., bisho!s and dea%ons), too, render to &ou the ministr& of
!ro!hets and tea%hers. @herefore do not des!ise them. For the& are &our leaders with the
!ro!hets and tea%hers." The latter had no su%%essors. Thus the im!ortan%e of the ele%ted
offi%es %onstantl& in%reases. ,mong them that of bisho! begins to ta:e !re%eden%e of
!resb&ters and dea%ons. In 9&ria and ,sia 8inor at the beginning of the *nd %entur& the
%ollege of bisho!s whi%h had originall& led the %hur%hes had disa!!eared, being re!la%ed b&
/6 ;T 3euts%h , II (.9//), )76 f.
the monar%hi%al bisho!. This is a !ro%ess whi%h we %annot here des%ribe in detail. @e %an
onl& redu%e it to the formula that the fa%t of leadershi! trium!hed in virtue of its inherent
for%e. Ignatius, himself a true leader, bears testimon& to this in all his e!istles. In the
e%%lesiasti%al s!here, however, this organised leadershi! entails the great danger of advan%ing
a %laim to be not merel& a $oint eB!ression of the will of the so%iet& but to !ossess full
authorit& to de%ide what is eternal truth and what is not. ;o human !ower %an %ontrol the
truth. 1ven the e!is%o!ate %an onl& serve it.
#)) "$
*
.
The word () i o%%urs onl& at . 2t. )5.0 .
It is a sim!le %om!osite li:e - ( ) , whi%h %omes immediatel&
before it.
.
The koine :ee!s the hiatus for the sa:e of et&mologi%al %larit&.
*
8ost of the 899,
however, have the shorter form, and onl& F42 al !ler i .
/
9imilar
%onstru%tions with - are found elsewhere in <:. means one who
has something else in mind#
)
one who meddles in other matters whi%h do
not %on%ern him#
0
and one who eats alien bread.
6
There are other eBam!les,
es!. in the tem!oral s!here. means to !ut in a strange or alien !la%e,
7
or to
live a%%ording to foreign %ustoms#
6
to !ursue matters whi%h do not %on%ern
one#
9
to env& the goods of others#
.+
to have another,
i.e., a hostile mind.
..
() i is a %onstru%tion li:e these, eB%e!t that we have
the noun i instead of the !res. !art. of . @henever is used,
it alwa&s denotes an a%tivit& whi%h is foreign to the doer, or whi%h is not his %on%ern. It is in this
light that we are to understand i .
9in%e the word is not found in <:. eB%e!t in the ;T ,
.*
we %an dedu%e its meaning onl&
from the %onteBt of . 2t., and this does not &ield us a wholl& unambiguous answer. The author
is admonishing his readers to bear %heerfull& the sufferings whi%h the& must undergo be%ause
of their faith. 7e !resu!!oses that members of the >hristian %ommunit& are !erse%uted at law
for the fa%t that the& are >hristians. There is no shame in this. Hut the& must be sure that it is
onl& their >hristianit& and not something else whi%h is the o%%asion of their %lash with the
law. ,ll misuse of the %on%e!t of mart&rdom is eB%luded. @ithin this train of thought we
read5 q q q q
i l c , q l . 4i:e the other three
terms in the list i must obviousl& denote someone who is guilt& of
%ondu%t whi%h $ustl& involves him in shame and !unishment.
C ()i . >r.DFJ. , .++. f.# 2r.DHauer , 6*# Hengel, ad loc. , Fn. 2t. , ad loc. # @nd. 2t. , ad
loc. # ,. 7ilgenfeld, gwTh , .6 (.67/)# (ist.<krit. &inl. in d. !" (.670), 6/+. 1. geller, 9,H (.69/), I, .*9ff. UU
4leine Schriften , II (.9.+), ).ff.# ,. 7ausrath, 0esus und d. nt.lichen Schriftsteller , II (.9+9), *.6, *.9# gahn
1inl. , II, /9f.# ,. His%hoff, g;@ , 7 (.9+6), *7. ff.# 9 (.9+6), .7.# 2. 9%hmidt, gwTh , 0+ (.9+6), *6# F. 1rbes.
g;@ , .9 (.9.9), /9ff.# *+ (.9*.), *)9# F. Hornhluser, 3onatsschrift f. Pastoraltheologie , .6 (.9**), .+..
. Hl.D3ebr.
6
y ..9, ..
* .bid. , y .*).
/ , /. i # )+ i i .
) ,ne%d. <rae%. , I, /60 from the %omedian >ratinos.
0 .bid. , I, 6..
6 9o!h. Fr. , /+9 in ,then. , I(, .6)a.
7 2lat.Theaet. , .90a.
6 3io >. , 0*, /6.
9 2ol&b#, (, )., 6.
.+ 7om.-d. , .6, .6.
.. 3iod. 9. , .7, ), 0.
.* 3ion&s. ,reo!. 1!. , 6# 82< , /, .+69% is influen%ed b& the ;T . It reads5 g iq
i c g q i , and
obviousl& refers to a bisho! intruding into an alien s!here of offi%e.
It is an o!en Tuestion whether the q before i %an be ta:en to signif&
a differentiation from the other three, and therefore, as an eBtension of the gradatio ad inus
evident in them, translated b& or merel& as."
./
@hat is not o!en to Tuestion is that the >hristian
is in no %ase to be an i .
If we %ombine this with !arallel %onstru%tions, the following inter!retations are !ossible.
a. -ne who has his e&e on othersO !ossessions." In this %ase i
would bear the same relation to as the tenth %ommandment to the eighth.
.)

There is a material !arallel on a !a!. from Fa&&um in the *nd %ent. ,.3. , H<K , II, 0/., %ol.
II, **5 l i .
.0
>f. also 7erm.s. , ., ..5 c
i c .
b. The unfaithful guardian of goods %ommitted to him." In the above eBam!les of words
with we found that the& freTuentl& eB!ress an a%tion whi%h is the o!!osite of
what ought to be. Thus the is one who has in his mind something
different from what he ought to have. In !o!ular et&molog&, therefore, the
i might well be the false guardian who either does not :ee!, or even
misa!!ro!riates, that whi%h is %ommitted to him.
.6

%. The one who meddles in things whi%h do not %on%ern him," the bus&bod&."
.7
The
,.(. ta:es it in this sense (bus&bod& in other menOs matters")# %f. 4uther5 -ne who
interferes in the wor: of another."
1. geller has tried to eB!lain this in relation to the wor: of the >&ni%s, who be%ause of their
a%tivit& as ( I, )+9 ) were often a%%used of aliena negotia curare 5
7
orat.
9
at. , II,
/, .9# 1!i%t.3iss. , III, **, 97. Hengel, too, sees in the alienaru reru inspector a man who
interferes in !ubli% or !rivate, religious or se%ular matters whi%h do not %on%ern him. 9u%h a man
ma& easil& get himself into trouble, though he is hardl& li:el& to in%ur $udi%ial !unishment.
d. 7e is more li:el& to be !unished at law if, instead of a mere meddler, he be%omes a
%alumniator" and informer."
;erva atta%:ed informers,
.6
and Tra$an ordered severe !enalties against them.
.9
Thus this
sense would do $usti%e to the %onteBt. -n the other hand, it is straining matters too far to render
i as novaru reru cupidus and therefore to find in it a guarded eB!ression
for revolutionar& or traitor.
*+

./ >f. Fn. 2t. and @bg. 2t. , ad loc.
.) >f. the q g in the list of %ommandments in 8:. .+5.9 .
.0 3eissmann ;H , 0., n. 0 !oints out that the lin:ing of and i %orres!onds
to that of and i .
.6 F. 1rbes, g;@ , .9 (.9.9), /9ff. and *+ (.9*.), *)9 translates defaulters." 7e refers to the false she!herds
des%ribed as in ?n. .+5. ff. and also to (ergil.Hu%. 1%l. , III, 0 f.5 (ic alienus ovis custos bis ulget
in horaE et sucus pecori et lac subducitur agnis . Though from a ver& unli:el& startingD!oint, mu%h the same
!ra%ti%al result is rea%hed b& F. Hornhluser, op. cit. , .6 (.9**), .+. ff. -n the ground of the hi!hil of rNf ied to
%ommit for safeD:ee!ing," he gives to i the sense of trustee" and to i that of a
trustee of someone elseOs !ro!ert&." Thus . 2t. )5.0 means5 4et no one suffer as a trustee," i.e., selfDevidentl&,
a%%ording to Hornhluser, as an unfaithful trustee."
.7 Thus in 2lat.2haedr. , */+a means to %on%ern oneself with alien and un!rofitable
things" instead of selfD:nowledge. >f. also 'eno!h.8em. , III, 7, 9.
7orat. o. 7oratius Fla%%us, of (enusia (60I6 H.>. ), with (ergil the best :nown and most im!ortant
re!resentative of the great ,ugustan era in Aoman !oetr&.
9at. Satirae .
.6 3io >. , 66, ..
.9 2lin. (the =ounger) 2aneg&ri%us, /) f.
*+ 9o es!. ,. His%hoff, g;@ , 9 (.9+6), .7.. 9imilarl&, it is hardl& $ustifiable to regard i here as the
title of a >hristian offi%e and thus to understand i as a bisho! who dis%harges his offi%e in
a novel and im!ro!er wa&.
B
e'er
& q .
.

*

In the sense of the master," this o%%urs in the ;T onl& in the vo%ative. It is !e%uliar to the
third <os!el ( 4:. 050 # 65*) , )0 # 95// , )9 # .75./ ) as a translation of the 7eb. ,ram. `Lea Mf .
1B%e!t in the last instan%e, it is used onl& b& the dis%i!les. The trans%ri!tion pi used b&
the other 1vangelists is avoided b& the 7ellenist 4u:e. 7e also uses and ,
but does not seem to feel that the& are true eTuivalents. In 8:. )5/6 and !ar. we have the three
terms , and in the 9&no!ti%s. ,lso instru%tive are 8:. 950 and
!ar. , /6 and !ar. (8:. pi or , 8t. and 4:. ). In some
%ases ( 8:. ..5/ and !ar. # 4:. 056 # 8t. 75*. and !ar. ) , Msd or `Ma sd , [SdMf sd ma& be the
original of , but this %an hardl& be true of . ;or is cMX ^_s
.
a li:el&
original.
In se%ular <:. there is a ri%h and varied usage. means one who wat%hes over
herds in 9o!h.,i. , *7# the driver of an ele!hant in 2ol&b. , I, )+, ..# an 1g&!tian tas: master in
1B. .5.. # 05.) #
*
2hilo2oster. >. , 0) # an ins!e%tor of !ubli% wor:s in ,es%hin. -rationes , /, .)
et%.# 3 B. 5:16 # one of the leaders of an athleti% so%iet& in H8I , I(, ., 79), 7# the leader of a
tem!le, I< , I, /*, .6 f.# 2. 2ar. , *6, **# 2rinED?oa%himD-stra:a (ed. F. 2reisig:e and @.
9!iegelberg, Schriften der Wissenschaftlichen Gesellschaft in Strassburg , .9 m.9.)n), 6+ ff.# %f.
;o. *, 6# .6, 0# a musi% tea%her or the leader of a musi%al %om!etition in
,
2F , 6 (.9*7), 7/# the
!resident of the ,thenian %ollege of pr'tanes in ,ristot. Aes!ubli%a ,theniensium , )), . (ed.
Hlass, Thalheim, -!!ermann m.9*6n)# a high offi%ial in 4 B. 25:1 # 2. A&l. , II, 66, *# .*0, .#
.0*, *# a magistrate or the governor of a %it& in >I< , III, ).)9, ) (,mastris)# I< , 'II, /, /*+, 7
(Thera, /rd %ent. H.>. )# H<K , III, .++6, 6#
/
even a !rote%tive deit& in 9o!h.-ed. >ol. , 669. The
nearest to 4u%an usage is in I< , 'II, ., )/, ** (Ahodes)5 i # Ins%r.
2riene ..*, 7/ ff. (.st %ent. H.>. )5 { c i
i , l c
, l c q 6
. The title was hardl& ever used of heads of !hiloso!hi%al s%hools.
)
@e have no
:nowledge whether or not it was a %ommon form of address.
%epke
!, .
.
.
)! .
He&er 7ermann @olfgang He&er , <reifswald ((ol. .I*), 4ei!Eig ((ol. /).
C . 2reisig:e Fa%hwJrter , 69f.# @. 4iebenam, St=dtever2altung i rischen 4aiserreiche (.9++),
*90# ?. Aouffia%, /echerches sur les 1aract*res du Grec dans le !" d+apr*s les .nscriptions de Pri*ne (.9..),
06f. (with bibl. )# @. Foerster, (err ist 0esus (.9*)), *+9 ff.
. F. 3elitEs%h in his 7eb. transl. of the ;T .
* In the 4'' (.* times) and 2 (/ times) is used for 6 different 7eb. words. -bviousl& the 4'' has
onl& ver& general ideas of the offi%es %on%erned.
,2F #rchiv fr Pap'rusforschung , .9+. ff.
/ The %ombination of epistates and strategos is distin%tivel& 2arthian5 H>7 , 07 (.9//), *0 ff., es!. *6 ff.# AJm.
8itt. )9 (.9/)), .97, n. /.
) Though %f. Iambl. (it. 2&th. , *., 99 (ed. ,. ;au%: m.66)n)5

q c 6
6, c 6 (to de%ide the
matter and form of the le%tures").
,
*

.
%orres!onds to the twofold sense of ,
.
to a%%ord honour" on the one
side, blame" or !unishment" on the other. In the latter sense the word %omes to mean to
blame," to re!rove," both in %lass. and 7ellenisti% <:.
*
It ta:es on a s!e%ial em!hasis in the
4'' in terms of the -T thought of the @ord of <od whi%h evo:es the wor:s of <od, whether
%reative or destru%tive. Thus the %reative @ord of <od (%f. Is. 005.+ f. ) whi%h brings forth life (
[ML ) is %ontrasted with the re!roving @ord whi%h %alls down destru%tion ( MqR ).
/

be%omes a te%hni%al term for the !owerful divine word of rebu:e and threat.
<odOs rebu:e sha:es heaven ( ?ob *65.. ) and moves the earth and the sea ( 2 B. 22:16 #
17:15 # .+/57 ). 7e threatens the Aed 9ea and it dries u! to let the !eo!le of <od !ass over (
105: # %f. Is. 0+5* 2 ). 7is @ord of %ommand whi!s u! the storm so that men %r& to heaven in
their distress# 7is @ord of rebu:e stills it again so that the waves subside and the %ries of distress
%ease ( 106:2 [
a%
). In
9
&r. Haru%h there is still a fine sense of this twofold %hara%ter of the
@ord of <od5 @ith threat and re!roof thou %ommandest the flames { and summonest what is
not into being b& a @ord" ( 9. Har. )656). ,%%. to ge%h. /5* the threatening @ord of <od :ee!s
even 9atan within bounds5 i, ,
i . The ,!o%. of 1Era (whi%h was, of %ourse, under >hristian influen%e) gives %osmi% and
es%hatologi%al stature to this soundl& ?ewish motif (%f. 9. Har. *.5*/) when it des%ribes how <od
will one da& hurl ba%: ,nti%hrist with a dreadful @ord of rebu:e ( ).
)
Hut for
the most !art <odOs re!roof is dire%ted against men, against the high and might& until horse and
rider are bemused ( 75:6 # ..65*. ), against the enemies of <od and 7is !eo!le whose raging is
li:e that of the sea ( Is. .75./ A # :5 # 795.6 ), but also against the a!ostate !eo!le itself, so
that it wastes and !erishes.
0
The last $udgment itself will be one of rebu:e, for then the divine
rebu:e will fall li:e a %onsuming fire ( Is. 665.0 A2O ).
It is onl& with restri%tion that is used of human threats and re!roofs. Thus when
?a%ob rebu:es ?ose!h be%ause of his !resum!tuous dreams ( <n. /75.+ ), we soon see that the
rebu:e is not $ustified. / 8a%%. *5*) (et%.) tells us how dreadfull& 2tolem& must eB!iate (
i ) his insolent threats ( ). -nl& in iron& is it said in Is. /+5.7 ( A2O ) that
.+++ will flee at the threat of one. The servants of HoaE in Auth *5.6 are tem!ted to re!rove the
foreign gleaner, but their master forbids it. 9imilarl& ,:iba warns his dis%i!les in Fet. , 6/a5 ,
sim!le woman falls at the feet of a renowned tea%her of the Torah. 7is dis%i!les wish to drive her
awa&. Hut he sa&s5 4eave her alone# all that we have we owe to her. It was his own wife."
6
,gain
and again human threatening and re!roof is shown to be !resum!tuous and overhast&.
is not for man, but for <od.
7
Thus Haru%h !ra&s to <od5 3o thou threaten the angel of death" (
9. Har. *.5*/). 7en%e 9eth sa&s to the demoni% ser!ent after the manner of ge%h. /5* 5
6
The
4ord <od rebu:e thee."
9
,mong the Aabbis a %ommon ad$uration is the indire%t5 8a& <od
rebu:e 9atan."
.+
-nl& to sele%ted individuals is authorit& given to utter an effe%tive word of
threat a%%ording to ?ewish tradition. 9u%h authorit& is given to ,braham in the earl& !eriod (?ub.
..5.9), to men li:e 1no%h and 1li$ah
..
in the last da&s, and finall& to the 8essiah of the lineage
C . <. ,. Harton, The Kse of in 8:. 65/+ # /5.* ," ?H4 , ). (.9**), *//I*/6.
. , to evaluate and to measure out !unishment," to estimate highl&," to honour."
* V. 2ass. , 2reisig:e @Jrt. , s.v.
/ >f. the %reative and destru%tive %hara%ter of the breath or 9!irit of <od, e$mfusavw 0/6, n. / .
9&r. 9&ria%.
) ,!%. 1sdrae (>. Tis%hendorf, #pocal. #pcr'ph. m.666n, !. *9).
0 3t. *65*+ A # 8al. *5/ A # Is. 0.5*+ O # though %f. Is. 0)59 A2O .
6 >f. ;ed. , 0+a and 9tr.DH. , I, 6+6.
7 9atan arrogates to himself divine rights in order to disru!t the divine !lan when a%%. to <n. r. , 06 on **57 he
rebu:es" ,braham, arguing that he should s!are Isaa%. V. 9tr.DH. , I, 7)7.
6 >f. also 67:30 ( i ).
9 (it. ,d. , /9, with refer. to the da& of $udgment.
.+ b.oid. , 6.b# v. 9tr.DH. , I, .)+.
.. ,!%. 1lias /) f., threatening s!ee%hes of Tabitha, 1no%h and 1li$ah against ,nti%hrist, v. <. 9teindorff, TK ,
;F, II, /a (.699).
of 3avid. 7e will drive out the demon whom 3avid on%e tamed when he !la&ed the har! for 9aul
and sang his song of eBor%ism.
.*
9eth ad$ures the ser!ent in the name of <od, and 3avid the
demon in the name of the %oming 8essiah.
If men have an& right of among themselves, it %an onl& be in terms of $udi%ial,
!aternal or fraternal %orre%tion. Thus the @isdom literature warns us to ma:e good !roof of a
matter before senten%e is !assed ( 9ir. ..57 ). -n the other hand, we should ta:e to heart the
re!roofs of the wise ( ooh. 756 # 2rv. .75.+ AO ). The 3amas%us do%ument regulates the forms of
brotherl& %orre%tion even to the minutest details ( 3amas%. , 7, *# 9, * ff.). ,nd the 9&nagogue laid
the greatest value on the !reservation and %odifi%ation of re!roofs.
./

The ;T maintains the same tradition b& .. forbidding rebu:e eB%e!t as brotherl&
%orre%tion, and *. treating effe%tive threatening and re!roof as the !rerogative of <od and 7is
>hrist alone.
.. i is used for rebu:e in 8:. .+5./ and !ar. , when the dis%i!les drive the
mothers awa& with severe words. Hut their a%tion is overhast&, for ?esus de%lares li:e ,:iba
( 6*) )5 k q ( .+5.) ). It is also used for threatening in 8:. .+5)6 ,
when the %rowd ta:es u! a hostile attitude to the blind man who %ries to ?esus for hel!. Hut
the blind man %ontinues to %r&, and ?esus hears him. ,gain the is !resum!tuous
and unfounded. It is used for !ersonal s%olding in 8:. 65/* , where 2eter ta:es ?esus aside
and with heated words tries to turn 7im from 7is !ath as 9atan tried to do with ,braham (
n. 7 )# %f. 8t. .65** 5 6 , q . Hut ?esus resists
him with 7is own 5
.)
is the !rerogative of the 4ord.
-nl& on%e is a s!ontaneous on the li!s of men allowed to !ass un%hallenged.
This is the rebu:e of the one d&ing thief b& the other in 4:. */5)+ 5 c
. Hut in this %ase the rebu:e is not from a su!erior !osition, but from the
stand!oint of !eniten%e. 7en%e huilitas s!ea:s rather than superbia ( 4:. */5). ).
9imilarl&, the earl& >hur%h re%ognises onl& one situation when a formal is in
:ee!ing for man. This is the brotherl& %orre%tion of a fallen brother5 H
g , i , g,
( 4:. .75/ ). Ae!roof should be a%%om!anied b& the awareness of %ommon guilt before
<od and therefore b& a s!irit of un%onditional forgiveness. The further develo!ment of
%ongregational !ra%ti%e ma& be seen %learl& in the in$un%tion in * Tm. )5* (with the !arallel
8t. .65.0 )5 , i, , g iq
g . In the first instan%e, however, this %ongregational dis%i!line is a dut& and
!rerogative of the leaders of the %hur%h.
*. is a !rerogative of lordshi!. 2rimaril&, therefore, it belongs to <od. @hen
the devil strives with the ar%hangel 8i%hael in ?d. 9 , it is said of the latter5
i i, l . 7ere we
have the favourite indire%t formula from ge%h. /5* .
.0
,long the same lines, is a
!rerogative of ?esus in the <os!els. It is a right whi%h de%lares 7is !osition as the 4ord.
?esus is the who rebu:es 2eter or the selfDsee:ing 9ons of Thunder ( 8:.
65// # 4:. 9500 ). This is 7is right. Hut 7e is also so trul& the 4ord that 7e reserves the right
to 7imself. @hen the 2harisees a!!eal to 7im5 , i
, this draws from 7im a %lear re!roof ( 4:. .95/9 f. # %f. 8:. *5*/ ff. ).
.* 2s. D2hilo, ,nt. Hibl. , 6+, in 8. A. ?ames, #pocr'pha #necdota6 "e:ts and Studies , *, / (.69/),
.60. >f. in 8t. .65.0 # * Tm. )5* .
./ >f. 9tr.DH. , I, 767 ff.
.) This ni%et& is lost in 8t. .65*/ .
.0 The s%ene is ta:en from an a!o%r&!hal writing and does not a!!ear, or is re!hrased, in the !ar. * 2t. *5.. .
,%%. to earl& tradition the referen%e is to the #ssuptio 3osis . >f. ?. Felten, Die Briefe des Petrus und 0udas
(.9*9), *60.
t is a warning to :ee! silen%e on the li!s of ?esus when 7e is a%:nowledged b&
7is dis%i!les to be the 8essiah5 i
( 8:. 65/+ ).
The %onstru%tion is toned down in 4:. 95*. , and in 8t. .65*+ the i is
re!la%ed b& the hierati% eB!ression i ( [ > *
!l
), so that the living dire%tness
is lost. This ma:es it the more dramati%all& %lear that 8ar:Os is the original and the more realisti%
a%%ount, in s!ite of the brilliant but untenable theor& of @rede that the %ommand to :ee! silen%e is
a fi%tion of the earl& >hur%h.
.6
It originates rather in the basi% %onvi%tion of ?esus that there is a
time for de%ision whi%h is not to be hastened (%f. 4:. ./5./ f. ). Thus the manifestation of what 7e
is %an %ome onl& a ste! at a time, and will be %om!leted onl& with the .
The same %ommand in the same sense is addressed b& ?esus, when 7e heals, to the
demons whi%h re%ognise 7im and %all out 7is true name5 i ,
q .
.7
?esus is not merel& the re!roving and
%ommanding 4ord in the %ir%le of dis%i!les# 7e is also 4ord over the demons and bends them
to 7is will. 7e is the 9tronger who !enetrates into the house of the strong man and drives out
demons with the finger of <od.
.6
, threatening word of !ower is addressed to them with 7is
lordl& . 8ar: gra!hi%all& de!i%ts the wa& in whi%h ?esus, !ro%laimed b& <od as
the 9on, ta:es u! the struggle against the demon5 i
q , 6 ,
. The demoni% s!irit rears u!5 q
( 8:. 95*0 f. ).
.9
Hut the @ord trium!hs. It is not a magi%al in%antation su%h as we have in
the a%%ounts of marvels. It is the !owerful @ord of the 9on ( n. ) # 6 , /)6 ).
,%%ording to 4:. )5/9 7e uses the same might& wea!on against other si%:nesses and !ersonal
o!!onents5 q i , q
.
;or is it onl& the demons, !ursuing their unnatural wor: in men, who re%oil before 7is
threatening @ord. ?esus also :nows and tames the !owers whi%h rage in the elemental for%es
of nature. i q l g g 6,
i ( 6*) ). The elements have found their 8aster5 ,
( 8:. )5/9 ). This man is more !owerful than the for%es of
nature. Ti , q
# ( 8:. )5). ). >hrist is the -ne who %ommands nature as its 4ord and Fing.
*+
Thus
the un%onditional lordshi! of ?esus is !owerfull& revealed in this .
*.


In %lass. <:. and the 4'' !unishment."
.
It o%%urs in the ;T onl& at * >. *56 as a te%hni%al
term in %ongregational dis%i!line for the %ensure of the %hur%h5 q i q
, 6*0 .
Stauffer
, , .
.
.6 @. @rede, Das 3essiasgeheinis in den &v. (.9+.), // ff.
.7 8:. /5.* # Harton, op. cit. sees a !ar. in 2. -B&. , ', .*90, 0. 7ere again 4:. tones down and 8t. st&lists ( 4:.
)5). # 8t. .*5.6 ff. ).
.6 The word of %ommand and the word of eBor%ism are %ombined in in 8:. .5*0 ( 4:. )5/0 )5
i 6 .
.9 4:. and es!. 8t. give a far less gra!hi% rendering ( 4:. 95)* f. # 8t. .75.6 ).
*+ >f. <n. .5*6 # 8:. .5./ # ..5*/ .
*. >f. also * Th. *56 # Aev. .95.. ff. and n. / , .. .
. 2reisig:e @Jrt. also ntes 3itt. -r. , 669, II, )/# 2. 4ond. , I, 77, 0/# 2. 8as!. , ), .*. In the 4'' %f. 9ir. ..57 (
as a !enal measure)# @is. .*5*6 ( i as a warning !unishment whi%h !re%edes the i
)# /5.+ 5 l { { c i (of <od).
! l .
.
, , 3), <,
,
*

A. The Bac%gro#nd in 2eligio#s 8istor$.
.. The !redominant !osition of the number seven, es!. in 9emiti% %ulture and the Hible, but
also among the <ermans, the <ree:s,
.
the 1g&!tians et%.,
*
is almost %ertainl& due, not to the
eBisten%e of seven !lanets, but to observation of the four !hases of the moon in sevenDda& !eriods,
unless, of %ourse, there is no rational eB!lanation.
,gainst its derivation from observation of the !lanets is its almost universal %hara%ter, the fa%t
that seven was highl& valued in <ree%e long before 2&thagoras fiBed the number of !lanets at
seven (in de!enden%e, as it seems, on ,siati% astronom& and astrolog&),
/
and the further fa%t that
in some !la%es the number is im!ortant even though the number of !lanets was not established so
far as we :now.
)
1ven in Hab&lon, where interest in the seven !lanets seems to have begun, the
number seven !la&ed a role in m&th and the %ultus !rior to stud& of the seven !lanets# indeed, it
seems li:el& that the Hab&lonians too: over seven as a sa%red number from the 9umerians.
0
-n
the other hand, the !hases of the moon %ould be observed ever&where and were the !rimitive basis
of the re%:oning and division of time.
6
The Hab&lonian %reation e!i%, li:e the %reation stor& of
the -T , ma:es it %lear than the moon !la&ed a %onsiderable !art in the measuring of time,
7
so
that almost of itself seven emerged as a number of great signifi%an%e in the %osmos and its order.
,dded lustre was given to it when the !resen%e of seven !lanets was later established.
6
Thus its
religious use was made !ossible and !re!ared#
9
and in the same light we %an understand the
esteem a%%orded to it both within and, as we must add, outside the %ir%le of 9emiti% %ulture,
in%luding Israel and its religion.
*. If we as: further %on%erning the %osmi% signifi%an%e of seven a%%ording to its %on%rete
sense in the -T world of thought, a basi% !oint is the eTuation (II UU kissatu fulness," totalit&,"
whi%h is found among the Hab&lonians.
.+
,s has been shown b& ?. 7ehn,
..
the same eTuation is
true of the 7ebrew qLf PXQ , so that we have here a %ommon 9emiti% !henomenon. The true
foundation of the eTuation is the aboveDmentioned observation that time runs in !eriods of seven
da&s. This leads to the lin:ing of seven with a %om!leted !eriod, and from here it is onl& a ste! to
the eTuation of the abstra%t number seven with the %on%e!t of what is total or %om!lete. 9even
C . @. 7. Aos%her, 3ie enneadis%hen und hebdomadis%hen Fristen und @o%hen der lltesten <rie%hen ,"
,9< , *., ) (.9+/)# 3ie 9iebenDund ;eunEahl in Fultus und 8&thus der <rie%hen ," ibid. , *), . (.9+))# 3ie
7ebdomadenlehren der grie%h. 2hiloso!hen und rEte ," ibid. , *), 6 (.9+6)# A1/ , .6 (.9+6), /.+ ff.# *) (.9./),
0./ (1. v. 3obs%hGtE)# ?. 7ehn, 9iebenEahl und 9abbat bei den Hab&loniern und im ,T ," )eip-iger
seitistische Studien , II, 0 (.9+7)# F. Holl, #us der %ffenbarung 0ohannis , 2TIIA , . (.9.)), *.ff. and
IndeB, s.v. 9iebenEahl# ?. 7. <raf, Die Zahl Sieben (.9.7)# ?. 7ehn, gur Hedeutung der 9iebenEahl " in
9estschrift fr 4. 3arti ( Beihefte -. g,@ , ). m.9*0n), .*6ff.# >omm. on Aev.# A<<
*
, ( (.9/.), *+66.
. The !art !la&ed b& the number among the Aomans seems to be due to <:. influen%e# %f. 1. @Jlfflin, #rchiv f.
lat. )e:ikographie u. Graatik , 9 (.696), /)/ ff.# but also Aos%her, 9iebenD und ;eunEahl ," 7*.
* >f. the materials in Aos%her, Fristen," *6 ff.
/ >f. Aos%her, Fristen," ). ff.# 9iebenD und ;eunEahl ," 70, n. .60.
) >f. Aos%her, Fristen," /) f. with n. ..7.
0 7ehn, 9iebenEahl und 9abbat ," )0 ff.
6 >f. es!. Aos%her, Fristen," *9 f. and 7ehn, op. cit. , 07 ff.
7 >f. the referen%es in 7ehn, op. cit. , 09 ff.
6 That the !lanets have a regulative influen%e on ea%h da& of the wee: is a view whi%h is first found for %ertain
onl& in 7ellenisti% 1g&!t in the .st %entur& H.>. It is still an o!en Tuestion whether there are %onne%tions with
Hab&lon and its astrolog&. 1. 9%hGrer thin:s it !ossible that belief in the !lanets first too: distin%tive sha!e onl&
in 7ellenism ( g;@ , 6 m.9+0n, .6 ff.). If this is true, a definite !lanet %ultus was first develo!ed in 1g&!t (%f.
7ehn, op. cit. , 0. f.).
9 For the <:s. %f. Aos%her, op. cit. , passi and es!. 7., where he argues the de!enden%e of the <:. hebdomadal
festivals on the %&%le of the moon and inde!enden%e of Hab&lon and es!. of a Hab&lonian !lanet %ultus.
.+ >f. 7ehn, op. cit. , ) f., 0* ff., and Hedeutung der 9iebenEahl ," ./+.
.. >f. es!. Hedeutung der 9iebenEahl ," .0. ff.
re!resents a %om!lete whole and is thus the given magnitude b& whi%h to give short and !regnant
eB!ression to su%h a totalit&.
.*
The number seven thus bears the %hara%ter of totalit&, i.e., of the
totalit& desired and ordained b& <od.
;aturall&, the original %larit& of this %hara%ter was not alwa&s maintained. 2re%isel& where the
sa%ral element !redominated, there was a tenden%& to use seven ver& widel& as a round number.
,mong the Hab&lonians as well as in Israel, seven %ame to !la& a dominant !art in ritual,
es!e%iall& in eB!iations and %leansings, but also in !ra&ers and the %eremonial of sa%rifi%e.
./

@hen we find a hand with seven fingers in Hab&lonian art, this %an onl& signif& the !erfe%t !ower
and might !ro!er to deit& alone.
.)
-n Israelite soil, we thin: es!e%iall& in this %onne%tion of the
9abbath as the seventh da& devoted to <od,
.0
but also of the whole sa%red &ear of Israel and
?udaism with its hebdomadal feasts, the aim in both %ases being to order the relationshi! to <od in
its totalit&, and in su%h a wa& that as a totalit& it is orientated to <od. @e ma& also mention the
sabbati%al &ear ( 1B. */5.+ f. # 4v. *05. ff. # 3t. .05. ff. # /.5.+ ff. ), noting that onl& at a later
!eriod did it ta:e on so%ial as!e%ts.
These eBam!les are enough to bring out the nature of seven in the -T , the more so as the&
ma& easil& be du!li%ated. It should be noted, of %ourse, that in the earl& da&s of Israelite literature
the %on%e!tion was not %om!lete, es!e%iall& as %on%erns the hebdomadal %&%le of 7ebrew
festivals. This does not alter the fa%t, however, that it is !art of the %ultural heritage of the an%ient
9emiti% world, whi%h %ertainl& in%ludes the s!e%ial signifi%an%e atta%hed to the number seven.
/. 2hilo stands a!art from -T and ?ewish usage to the degree that he develo!s a definite
m&sti%ism of numbers
.6
in whi%h seven naturall& !la&s an im!ortant !art
.7
(%f. es!. -!. 8und. ,
9+ ff. ). -bvious here is belief in the influen%e of the seven !lanets on the %osmos and its
inhabitants ( -!. 8und. , ../ ).
.6
@e also find in him re!eatedl& the view that seven determines
the rh&thm of human life, and that even the bod& is sub$e%t to its law,
.9
sin%e human life goes in
sevenD&ear %&%les ( -!. 8und. , .+/ ff. ). ,t this !oint 2hilo is de!endent on <ree: tradition, at
the beginning of whi%h stands 9olonOs do%trine of ten wee:s of &ears in the life of man# he himself
%ites 9olon as an authorit& ( -!. 8und. , .+) ). 2hilo also seems to :now the tea%hing of 2s.D
7i!!o%rates %on%erning the seven ages of life ( -!. 8und. , .+0 ). In relation to 9olon this is a
sim!lifi%ation rather than a new %on%e!tion, sin%e it starts with the idea of wee:s of &ears in
human life.
*+

2arti%ular interest atta%hes at this !oint to 2hiloOs relation to his ?ewish %ontem!oraries. In its
se%ond form the idea of the ages of life is found also in Aabb. ?udaism, but onl& in the later
8idrashim, whose de!enden%e on 7ellenisti% tradition is eas& to !rove in this res!e%t.
*.
The
same is true of the %onvi%tion that a seven month %hild ma& live, but not an eight month. This is
found in both 2hilo and the Aabbis. In 2hilo it is stated as a fa%t, with no dire%t s!e%ulative im!a%t,
within his dis%ussion of the nature and signifi%an%e of the number seven. Hut it has a more
s!e%ulative bearing in Aabbini% tradition. Thus, in a %onversation with <:. enTuirers, A. ,bbahu (
c. /++ ,.3. ) sa&s %on%erning this su!!osed fa%t5
**
From &our own li!s I will answer &ou5 [`|
[W^[ [`[ [i[ ." @hat he means is that the letters whi%h serve to indi%ate the numbers
and 6 shows how it stands with seven month and eight month babies, for !oints to
.* >f. 7ehn, 9iebenEahl und 9abbat ," 6*.
./ >f. the referen%es assembled in 7ehn, op. cit. , /) ff.
.) 3. ;ielsen, Die altarabische 3ondreligion und die osaische ;berlieferung (.9+)), .00# 7ehn, 9iebenEahl
und 9abbat ," .7.
.0 -n the relation of the ?ewish 9abbath to the Hab&l. sabbattu , whi%h is not &et full& %lear, %f. the short
dis%ussion b& -. 1issfeldt, A<<
*
, II, 00/ f.
.6 >f. F. 9taehle, Die Zahlen'stik bei Philon von #le:andreia ( 3iss. TGbingen, .9/.).
.7 V. the referen%es in 9taehle, /) ff.
.6 .bid. , ). f.
.9 .bid. , )) ff.
*+ @. 7. Aos%her, Die hippokratische Schrift von der Sieben-ahl in ihrer vierfachen ;berlieferung UU Studien
-ur Geschichte und 4ultur des #ltertus , (I, /I) (.9./), 9 f., %f. ./6.
*. >f. also <. ,. Fohut, ?ew. 1n%., I (.9+.), *// ff.
** , !art of ?ewish marriage law rests on this, e.g., the !rovision that a widowed or divor%ed woman must wait
three months before remarr&ing in order that there should be no doubt whether %hildren are of the first or se%ond
marriage (%f. ?eb., ), .+ et%.).
q and to l or l ($?eb., 0d, 0 ff.kthe teBt is %orru!t# <n. r. .) on *57 et%.).
*/
It ma&
be said that b& the ver& a!!earan%e of the <:. words the thought eB!ressed, whi%h in no sense
!roves the truth of the dis!uted statement, is given a nonD?ewish flavour. This is su!!orted b& the
fa%t that it is %om!arativel& late and belongs to a time when ?udaism was engaged in livel&
a!ologeti% intera%tion with the nonD?ewish world around. 7ere again, then, the s!e%ulation lin:ed
with seven is se%ondar&. This %onfirms the fa%t that 2hilo and older 2alestinian ?udaism reall& go
different wa&s in this res!e%t.
B. The NT &sage.
.. The influen%e of the -T ma& be seen in A. ..5) , where 2aul Tuotes . F. .95.6 .
*)
In
<odOs word to 1li$ah that 7e had :e!t 7,+++ faithful to 7imself in the time of a!ostas&, 2aul
finds a testimon& to <odOs saving will for 7is !eo!le in ever& age as this is manifested in his
own da& in the eBisten%e of at least a small >hristian Israel ( ..50 ). @e %annot be sure from
the %onteBt whether 2aul %onne%ted with the -T number the thought of the totalit& of the true
Israel whi%h is %ertainl& !resent in . F. .95.6 .
A. ..5) is the onl& !assage in 2aul, and with 7b. ..5/+ in all the ;T 1!istles, where the
number seven o%%urs. This is !erha!s an indi%ation that the s!e%ial meaning of the number was
!resent to the authors, and that the& therefore avoided it where its understanding was diffi%ult or
%on%ealed. There is also in the avoidan%e, however, an element of o!!osition to %ontem!orar&
s!e%ulation. This was unne%essar& be%ause the >hristian message was esssentiall& different from
<nosti%ism.
-ther -T !assages to whi%h referen%e is made are those whi%h s!ea: of the seven da&s of the
siege of ?eri%ho ( 7b. ..5/+ # %f. ?os. 65. ff. ) and of the seven ra%es whi%h inhabited >anaan !rior
to the %onTuest ( ,%. ./5.9 # %f. 3t. 75. ). Hut these are sim!l& mentioned as histori%al fa%ts with
no attem!t at s!e%ulation.
*. 9even da&s" is a term for wee: in ,%. *+56 # *.5) , *7 # *65.) # and the seventh da&"
(9abbath) is mentioned in 7b. )5) .
/. 9even is a round number with no hidden sense in the a%%ount of the feeding of the four
thousand with seven loaves and two fishes# the number of loaves is the same as that of the
bas:ets of fragments ( 8t. .05/* ff. # 8:. 65. ff. # %f. 8t. .65.+ # 8:. 65*+ ).
The %onteBt suggests no reason wh& a dee!er sense should be sought for the number here, for,
although 8t. seems to li:e seven as a !rin%i!le in the arrangement of his material,
*0
8:. has the
same figure. There are no analogous in%idents either in the Aabb. or the 7ellenisti% s!here, so that
no eB!lanation is !ossible in terms of either usage.
*6
9even is sometimes used for an indefinite
magnitude, %f.
T
est. ;. 65 ,nd again after seven da&s (months ) I saw our father ?a%ob {" with
Test. ;. 7eb. ) 5 Hut no long !eriod !assed before another vision was granted to me. @e all
stood with our father ?a%ob on the shore of the great sea {"
). In some !assages in the <os!els older ideas of the signifi%an%e of the number are lin:ed
with its use. a. The 9addu%ees refer to seven brothers who ea%h married the same wife, siB in
fulfilment of the a!!ro!riate law ( 8t. **5*/ ff. # %f. 3t. *050 ff. ). The im!li%ation is that the&
have in view an infinite series.
*/ 1? , I (.9*6), ..6 trans%ribes q k ; q k .
*) 2aul is using the original here# the 4'' has the se%ond !erson. The %hange from the original future to
is easil& eB!lained b& the fa%t that 2aul has before him the fulfilled !romise.
*0 >f. the seven beatitudes in 8t. 05/ ff. and the seven !arables in 8t. ./ # %f. Hultmann Trad. , /6*. -n seven
as a st&listi% motif, 6// .
*6 In Hab&lonian teBts (7ehn, 9iebenEahl und 9abbat ," /6 f.) there are o%%asional referen%es to seven loaves,
e.g., in %on$urations. Hut this has no hearing on the !resent Tuestion.
Test. ;. "estaent of !apthali .
>f. the sa&ing of ,Tiba (
d
. c. ./0) to his friends at the grave of his (onl&) son 9imon5 I am
%omforted, even though I had buried seven sons (and not $ust one)" (9ema%hot, 6# b.
8
o , *.b).
*7

@e might also mention as a !arallel the seven mart&red brothers in ) 8a%%., who embod& the
whole !eo!le, their mother being addressed in .05*9 as (%f. also .75*ff ., es!. 6
).
If this %on%e!tion of seven is %orre%t, it is selfDevident
*6
that the Tuestion of the 9addu%ees
does not relate to a real situation. It is a h&!otheti%al %ase artifi%iall& invented to bring into ridi%ule
the 2hariseesO ho!e of the resurre%tion and their %asuisti%al methods, and also to embarrass ?esus.
The answer of ?esus shatters this as!e%t of the Tuestion too b& !ointing to <od as the -ne before
whom all human re%:oning %omes to an end be%ause 7e is the >reator and the ,lmight&.
b. In 8t. .*5)0 # 4:. ..5*6 , it is said of the ba%:slider that with the eBor%ised s!irit seven
worse s!irits return into him. It is also said of 8ar& 8agdalene that were
driven out of her ( 4:. 65* # %f. 8:. .659 ). In both %ases the o%%urren%e of the number seven
!oints to the fa%t that there %ould be no worse state of %orru!tion5 i
6 i i 6 ( 8t. .*5)0 # 4:. ..5*6 ).
There is a %ertain !arallel in * F. )5/0 , @hen 1lisha la& on the son of the 9hunammite to %all
him ba%: to life, the bo& sneeEed seven times. This !roves that he is reall& alive again (%f. )5/6 ).
The sevenfold sneeEe indi%ates that life has full& returned as it was before.
%. 2arti%ularl& im!ortant are the !assages whi%h s!ea: of sinning seven times and
forgiving seven times ( 8t. .65*. f. # 4:. .75) ). In 8t. 2eter is as:ing whether there is not a
limit on the dut& to forgive if another %ontinuall& offends, whether we should not sto! at
seven times, and he re%eives the answer5 c , c
. In 4:. we do not have 2eterOs Tuestion# ?esus sim!l& sa&s that
sevenfold offen%e must be met b& sevenfold forgiveness if there is . 4a&ing aside
%riti%al Tuestions %on%erning the interrelation of the two !assages,
*9
we need have no doubts
as to the meaning of the sa&ing. ,%%ording to the will of ?esus there is no limit to forgiveness
/+
whether the measure of readiness therefor %orres!onds to the measure of in%urred guilt
(4:.) or whether it trans%ends it (8t.), sin%e both amount in fa%t to the same thing.
,lread& in an%ient Hab&lon seven is lin:ed with %onfession of sin and with readiness to
eB!iate and to forgive ( 6*6 ). In one !enitential !salm
/.
the !enitent even %alls his sins
sevent& times seven in order to show how immeasurabl& great the& are (%f.
, 8t. .65** ). In another !enitential !salm
/*
there is a %orres!onding sevenfold reTuest for
forgiveness, with an eB!ress desire for sevenfold, i.e., !erfe%t forgiveness. In the s!here of Israel
and ?udah the great 3a& of ,tonement sees a sevenfold s!rin:ling of the blood of the sin offering
h& the highD!riest in atonement for the sins of the whole !eo!le ( 4v. .65.0 ff. # %f. ?oma, 0, )),
and this is !re%eded b& a sevenfold s!rin:ling with the blood of a s!e%ial sin offering in atonement
for himself and his famil& ( 4v. .65.. ff. # ?oma, 0, /). 7ere, too, the referen%e is in both instan%es
to the !erfe%t removal of sin and the attainment of full remission. Finall&, we ma& refer to 2 B.
12:6 . The original follows the !rovisions of the 4aw ( 1B. *.5/7 ) and s!ea:s of fourfold
satisfa%tion for the stolen shee!, while in the 4'' we read5 q i
i . This strangel& moving translation is %lear on%e we see that it is intended to
d. died.
8o 3oed $atan , 8ishnahD, ToseftaD, Talmud tra%tate, .ntervening 9estivals (9tra%:, &inl. , ))).
*7 -n the transmission of the sa&ings of ,Tiba, %f. @. Ha%her, Die #gada der "annaiten , I (.66)), /+0, n. /.
*6 ,n im!ortant !oint, though it is %ontested, is that the 4evirate law was no longer :e!t at the time of ?esus (%f.
F. 7. Aengstorf, 0ebaot m.9*9n, /+ ff.).
*9 4:. .75) seems to be older than 8t. .65*. f. (%f. Hultmann Trad. , .0.)# but it ma& be that we have two
different sa&ings of ?esus in the two <os!els.
/+ This is the view of the Aabbis. It is true that there are no dire%t referen%es, but we %an learn the Aabbini% view
of the human dut& of forgiveness Tuite adeTuatel& from !assages whi%h tell us that even the divine forgiveness is
restri%ted (T. ?oma, 0, ./ m 9%hl. 8t. , 009n# b?oma, 66b Har. m 9tr.DH. , I, 796n).
/. 7ehn, 9iebenEahl und 9abbat ," /) f.
/* .bid. , /0.
denote full satisfa%tion of guilt. This idea is !resent in the V`aYed qZ Lef MZ [f of the original. Hut here it
%an be a!!re%iated onl& in relation to the !rovision of the 4aw, while it is more dire%tl& indi%ated
in the 4'' b& mention of the number seven.
//

9!e%ial referen%e should be made to the of 8t. .65** .
In <n. )5*) the sevenfold avenging of >ain (%f. also )5.0 )
/)
is sur!assed b& that of 4ame%h
cqd LZ PaQ ^Z V`qa LZ PaQ ka formula whi%h is rendered in the 4'' (so also
Test. H. 7). 2erha!s this translation is the immediate linguisti% !attern for 8t. .65** . -n the other
hand, we do not :now how the translator understood the formula, and the same is true of the
sa&ing of ?esus. It ma& be that ?esus used cqd LZ PaQ ^Z V`qa LZ PaQ or a %orres!onding ,ram. eB!ression
su%h as cqd LZ PaQ ^Z t`qa LZ PfQ ( Tg. -. <n. )5*) ).
/0
-n the other hand, it ma:es no material differen%e
whether 7e is thin:ing of )9+ times or 77, sin%e the figure means that there must be no limits to
forgiveness.
d. Finall&, it should be noted that the genealogies of ?esus in 8t. and 4:. ( 8t. .5. ff. # 4:.
/5*/ ff. ) are basi%all& %onstru%ted a%%ording to the !rin%i!le of seven. In this s%hema, whi%h
seems to have been ta:en over, there is eB!ressed in 8t. and 4:., for all the differen%es in detail,
the same thought that ?esus is shown to be the eB!e%ted 8essiah b& 7is !la%e in the lineage of
3avid as the last in the ninth (8t.) or eleventh (4:.) grou! of seven.
/6
The thesis is %ertainl&
worth %onsidering in the light of %ertain distin%tive as!e%ts of ?ewish tradition.
0. 2arti%ularl& dominated b& the number seven is the Aevelation of ?ohn. There are seven
%hur%hes in ,sia and seven ( .5)ff .). 9even %andlesti%:s ( .5./ff .) and seven stars (
.5.6ff .) are lin:ed with the a!!earan%e of l 6 . There are seven
s!irits before the throne of <od ( .5) # )50 ) and seven seals ( 05.ff .). The 4amb has seven
horns and seven e&es ( 056 ). 9even trum!ets are in the hands of seven angels ( 65*ff .). There
are seven thunders ( .+5/f .). The has seven heads and on them seven %rowns
( .*5/ # %f. ./5. # .75/ff .)# and there are seven !lagues ( .05.ff .). This !rominen%e of seven is
no a%%ident, es!e%iall& as there are other instan%es of it in a!o%al&!ti%.
/7
-n the other hand,
the attem!t to ma:e seven the formal !rin%i!le of Aevelation
/6
%annot be %arried through
%onsistentl&. @e are thus advised to dwell onl& on the material signifi%an%e of seven in
Aevelation. 7ere, too, it is %ertainl& the number of !erfe%tion, and essentiall& in the sense that
it %arries within it the !erfe%tion of the divine wor:."
/9
In this sense it !ervades the whole
boo:.
)+
=et it is also used to des%ribe the full develo!ment of the for%es hostile to <od, es!.
the beast with seven heads ( .*5/ et%.). It is worth remembering that this des%ri!tion is
designed to bring out the fa%t that these hostile for%es are antiD>hristian, $ust as we read
elsewhere that ,nti%hrist imitates the divine manner (%f. * Th. *5) # * >. ..5.) ). @e are
%ertainl& to !ut the referen%e in the %onteBt of the whole boo: (%f. also what follows).
// ,s a !ar. %f. the sevenfold ( septe ordines ) $o& whi%h the righteous ma& eB!e%t after death a%%. to ) 1sr.
7566ff ., and the sevenfold torment whi%h will %ome u!on the ungodl& ( 7579ff .).
/) 2erha!s a !roverbial sa&ing, %f. 7. 7olEinger in FautEs%h, ad loc.
/0 Thus 3elitEs%h has qLf PXQ ^d V`qa LZ PaQ rqf (s%. V`sa qd ieZ ) in his 7eb. ;T .
/6 >f. on this whole Tuestion F. Hornhluser, Die Geburts< und 4indheitsgesehichte 0esu (.9/+), .) ff.
/7 >f. the referen%es in 4oh. ,!:. , .6. f.
/6 9o 4oh. ,!:. , %f. es!. .6* ff.# and before him Holl, 09. There %an be no dis!uting that seven is sometimes a
!rin%i!le of %om!osition in earl& >hristianit&. @e need onl& thin: of the seven !arables of 8t. ./ ( n. *0 ) or
the seven !etitions of the 4ordOs 2ra&er, whi%h are not without models ( 6*6 ) and whi%h also eBerted their
own influen%e, e.g., on the form of the first sura of the Foran (%f. 7. @in:ler, Fatiha und (aterunser ,"
Zeitschrift f. Seitistik , 6 (m.9*6n, */6 ff.).
/9 ,. 9%hlatter, &rl=uterungen -u !" , on Aev. .5) f.
)+ >f. / .v* as an indi%ation of time ( ..59ff .# %f. .*5.) 5 q , from
3a. 75*0 # )* months5 ..5* # ./50 # .*6+ da&s5 ..5/ # .*56 ). -n the signifi%an%e of / .v*, v. Fittel, /abbinica
(.9*+), /. ff.
9o far as %on%erns the individual referen%es to seven, these are naturall& influen%ed b& the
different motifs suggested to the author b& a!o%al&!ti% tradition and the histori%al situation. Thus
Hab&lonian m&th s!ea:s of a dragon with seven heads,
).
and when b.oid. , *9b tells of a demon
in the form of a dragon with seven heads this shows us that the notion !ersisted through the
%enturies,
)*
In .759 the author himself eB!lains that the seven heads are , thus
!ointing his %ontem!oraries unmista:eabl& to Aome with its seven hills. 7e also introdu%es the
thought of seven :ings, whi%h his readers must have understood but whi%h will alwa&s be
something of a riddle for us even if we ado!t the most obvious suggestion that he has in view
seven em!erors.
)/
@hen he s!e%ifies seven %hur%hes, he is no doubt referring to the whole of
,siati% >hristianit& a%%ording to the usage of the boo:, but it is also worth %onsidering that the
seven %ities were the !rovin%ial %entres of the im!erial %ult.
))
The seven stars, a!art from the
inter!retation in .5*+,
)0
%ontain a %ons%ious or un%ons%ious referen%e to the lin:ing of the seven
!lanets with 8ithras, as we :now from man& de!i%tions of the god,
)6
or even to their lin:ing
with the images of the em!erors on %oins,
)7
whi%h might have been a se%ondar& %onsideration.
From the fa%t that the& are (
8
ithr. 4iturg. , .+, .0 f.), we
%an see that the& are a s&mbol of world dominion. In the %onteBt of Aev., however, the& sim!l&
mean that ?esus is the un%onditional 4ord of the seven %hur%hes. The seven thunders ( .+5/f .) are
best seen in the light of 28:3- , where there are seven referen%es to the q i and
its effe%ts. @e do not mean, of %ourse, that the author sim!l& borrowed the thunders and that the&
had no !art in his own visionar& eB!erien%e.
)6
The seven ( )50 ) are based
on the sevenDbran%hed %andelabra of the tem!le, though not restri%ted to its s&mbolism as a
!ledge of the divine !resen%e" ( 9. 4v. , *), /# 9tr.DH. , III, 7.7). The seven seals ( 05.ff .) relate
to the Aoman %ustom of sealing a will with seven seals.
)9
-n the seven horns ( 056 ) as a s&mbol
of full !ower, , and on the seven e&es %f. ge%h. )5.+ (the seven e&es" of <od).
The number seven does also influen%e the form of Aevelation to a ver& large eBtent,
0+
but
not merel& in the sense of an a!o%al&!ti% number, as 1. 4ohme&er su!!oses. In this res!e%t
Aev. ma& be %om!ared with 8t. ( n. *0 ), and both are grounded in the an%ient religious
use of seven to eB!ress the divine !lenitude and totalit&ka use whi%h is !arti%ularl&
%hara%teristi% of the 9emites. The number also a!!ears as a formal religious !rin%i!le outside
the ?ewish and ;T s!here (%f. the seven images in (ergilOs )th 1%logue), but most of the
referen%es are from within ?udaism. It thus seems li:el& that, while the author of Aev. did not
ado!t a s!e%ifi% a!o%al&!ti% form, he sim!l& too: over the use of seven from the ?udaism of
his da& and %ombined it with his em!lo&ment of seven as a !rin%i!le of arrangement in
religious %onteBts.
0.

>f. the series of seven related !roverbs whi%h &et form a %onne%ted whole in 9. ;u. y. )+ on
65*) # y )* on 65*6 (four series of seven ea%h)# y 6) on .+5/0 (two of seven)# 8. 1B. , .0, 7 (two
of seven) et%. 9imilarl&, the great 8essiani% !salm in the 2s. 9ol. (.7) %ontains onl& sevenDlined
stro!hes, of whi%h there are seven in the first !art and five in the se%ond.
6. In ,%. 65* ff. seven men, i , are %harged with
( 6) ) b& the >hur%h. 7ere the %hoi%e of seven is lin:ed with the
). 4oh. ,!:. , 97 on .*5/# , *6. ff.
)* There is no need to see a referen%e to astral %on%e!tions (Holl, .+. f.).
)/ >f. the %omm. , ad loc. # re$e%tion of an& attem!t at %ontem!orar& eB!lanation in favour of m&thologi%al, su%h
as we see in 4oh. ,!:. , ad loc. , sim!l& adds to the obs%urit&.
)) 4oh. ,!:. , .).
)0 There are seven angels around the throne a%%. to ?ewish tradition ( 9tr.DH. , III, 6+0 f.).
)6 >f. F. ?. 3Jlger, #ntike u. 1hristentu , / (.9//), 6) f.
)7 4oh. ,!:. , .6.
8ithr. 4iturg. ,. 3ieteri%h, &ine 3ithrasliturgie
/
, .9*/.
)6 7ad. ,!:. , ..0, ad loc.
)9 >f. @. 9attler, g;@ , *. (.9**), 0. ff.
0+ >f. the detailed referen%es in 4oh. ,!:. , .6. ff.
0. The !assages whi%h follow I owe to F. <. Fuhn. >f. also FuhnOs Sifre -u !ueri ( /abbinische "e:te , *nd
9er., (ol. * m.9// f.n), ./., n. *7# and on the stru%ture of 2s. 9ol. .7 3ie s&ris%he bersetEung der 2salmen 9al
." in H@,;T , ), .7 (.9/0).
fa%t that there were usuall& seven leaders in a ?ewish %ommunit&.
0*
That this %ustom was
followed
0/
shows us how little the Twelve ( /*0 ) were thought to be a ruling and guiding
%ollege. If it had been otherwise, we might have eB!e%ted twelve as their
%olleagues or subordinates. Hut this did not ha!!en. 9even men thus be%ame the first offi%ials
of the >hur%h with res!onsibilit& for material affairs.
7. ,%%ording to 4:. .+5. ff. ?esus did not merel& send out the Twelve, but also on a later
o%%asion another ,
0)
thus giving to them, too, a share in 7is wor: ( I, )*7
). The %hoi%e of these sevent& as a!ostles indi%ates the universalism of ?esus and 7is goal. ,t
least we %an sa& that it was signifi%ant to 4u:e in this regard, so that from his own distin%tive
sour%e he brought the a%%ount into his gos!el even at the ris: of a %ertain %onfli%t with the
tradition %on%erning the mission of the Twelve.
, !ossible model for the sevent& dis%i!les is to be found in the sevent& elders who were
a!!ointed b& 8oses ( ;u. ..5.6 ) and who also !rovided the model for the %onstitution of the
great 9anhedrin with its 7. members ( 9anh. , ., 6# b.9anh. , .6b). @e find the number elsewhere,
and alwa&s on the same basis. Thus ?ose!hus as %ommanderDinD%hief in <alilee a!!ointed sevent&
elders to rule the territor& ( Hell. , *, 07+ f. ). 9imilarl&, when the gealots too: %ontrol in
?erusalem the& set u! a %ourt with sevent& members ( Hell. , ), //0 and /). ). ,gain, the ?ewish
%ommunit& in ,leBandria had sevent& eiders ($9u::a, 00a, 7* ff.),
00
as had also the %olon& of
Hab&lonian ?ews in Hatanaea a%%. to ?ose!h. ( Hell. , *, )6* # (it. , 06 ). The ob$e%tion to this
basis is that in all these instan%es we have %olleges with te%hni%al administrative duties, and this
hardl& leads us in the dire%tion of dis%i!leshi! and a!ostleshi! as instituted b& ?esus.
The alternative is to thin: of the sevent& nations of the world, whi%h was a %ommon
%on%e!tion in later ?udaism (a!art from <n. .+ %f. alread& 3t. /*56 with 1B. .50 # also 1th. 1n.
69509 f.# Tg. ?. I on <n. ..57 f. ).
06
9in%e the Aabbis were firml& %onvin%ed that the Torah had
been offered to all nations before Israel be%ame the one !eo!le of the 4aw, there was a wides!read
view that it was given to the human ra%e in sevent& languages (9ota, 7, 0# T. 9ota, 6, 6 et%.). The
%oDo!eration of angels in the giving of the 4aw ( I, 6/ ) im!lies a%%ording to 2esi:t. r. , *.
07

that the angel !rin%es, of whi%h ea%h nation has one, re%eived the Torah first for their res!e%tive
!eo!les and then !assed it on to them.
@hen, therefore, ?esus sends out sevent& messengers with 7is @ord and in 7is !ower,
against the ba%:ground of the ideas of the time this raises the s&mboli%al %laim to hearing and
obedien%e not merel& on the !art of Israel but of all humanit&, the mission of the Twelve
having been restri%ted eB!ressl& to Israel (%f. 8t. .+50 ). @e thus have a reversal of what too:
!la%e at the giving of the 4aw. There <od offered the Torah to all !eo!les and onl& Israel
a%%e!ted it. ;ow Israel re$e%ts the new revelation of the divine will whi%h is first made to it as
the !eo!le of the divine will, and so it is ta:en to the whole of the nonD?ewish world (%f. 8t.
*.5)/ ).
6. -n the answer of ?esus to 2eter in 8t. .65** 5 c , 6/.
f.
/engstorf
, , , , ,
, !, !, A,
A, A!
0* >f. 9tr.DH. , II, 6)..
0/ @e are to thin: of leaders of the 7ellenisti% se%tion of the %ongregation and not of a %ollege serving the whole
>hur%h (%f. 8e&er, 8rsprung , III, .00, n. 0).
0) 9ome teBts have (H3 !% lat s&
s%
), but this is !robabl& an assimilation to the fa%t that
the 4'' has sevent&Dtwo nations rather than sevent& in the table in <n. .+ .
00 In b9u::a, 0.b Har. the tradition is not so %lear.
06 For other !assages %f. 9tr.DH. , II, /6+# III, )6 f.
07 .bid. , III, 00).
, %
*

A. eneral &sage.
.. The <ree: Ksage.
, whi%h derives from the same IndoD<ermani% stem
.
and has the same meaning as
the 1nglish wor:" (<erman Werk ), and the verbal derivative , were both in
%ommon use from the time of 7omer and 7esiod, and man& %on%e!ts %ame to be asso%iated with
them, though none s!e%ifi%all&. The& both denote a%tion or a%tive Eeal in %ontrast to idleness (
i m i n), or useful a%tivit& in %ontrast to useless bus&Dness ( , *
Th. /5.. # %f. i , ,>. .95.9# . Tm. 05./ # also the %harge against 9o%rates, 2lat.,!. ,
.9b), or an& :ind of a%tive wor:. The words ma& be used of agri%ulture and agri%ultural e%onom&,
but also of the !ursuit of various trades, of all :inds of o%%u!ations, of %ommer%ial underta:ings,
of trade, shi!!ing and fishing ( Aev. .65.7 ), of the %hase, and of art, s%ul!ture and !oetr&. The&
ma& also be a!!lied to wor:ing in various materials (metal, wood, stone, %la&), or the fashioning
or ere%tion of various ob$e%ts su%h as vessels or buildings, or all :inds of te%hni%al or %ultural
wor:s, in%luding the winning of natural !rodu%ts, For these varied !ossibilities there are several
eBam!les in the <:. Hible. The terms also denote wor: in the so%ial or ethi%al sense either as a
burden laid on man or as a ne%essar& means of life and su!!ort. The& are a!!lied no less to the
domesti% tas:s of woman than to the !ubli% wor: of men. The& refer to wor:s of !ea%e and
servi%es in the !ubli% welfare, but also to heroi% a%ts of war. ,s the& are thus used in the s!here of
moral a%tion, various ad$e%tives are as%ribed to them to denote their worth ( ,
, , , , i #
*
, q m
Iso%. , ./, 6n, also q m 'eno!h.>&ro!. , I, 0, 6n). The %ultural signifi%an%e of wor:,
whi%h is also the divinel& willed !lan for human life, is es!e%iall& em!hasised in 7es.-!. , /+7 ff.5

i i i
.

c , c . The life of 7era%les

as one of laborious a%tion in the servi%e of humanit& is an eBem!lar& fulfilment of human destin&
as de!i%ted in !o!ular >&ni% !hiloso!h&, whi%h regards it as an ideal.
/
The 7ellenisti% !eriod
thus a!!ro!riates at root the ethos of wor: whi%h dominates the Works and Da's of 7esiod.
7onest wor: is the basis and meaning of life. ;aturall&, then, a man is $udged b& his wor:s, his
a%hievements, his deeds, his total %ondu%t. , similar formula 6 is
often found, e.g., in 'eno!hon. There is a %om!arable estimation of man b& his wor:s in the
8&ster& %ults on the basis of natural moralit&. Thus in the ins%ri!tion on an altar of the ,ttisD
>&bele %ult, found in Aome in .9.9, we read5 , , q, i
{ .
)
-utside the Hible there is no s!e%ifi%all& religious
use of and , though is often used of the rule and wor:s
of the gods ( 7om.Il. , .6, .*+# .9, **). -n the other hand, is a !hiloso!hi%al term, es!. in
2latoni% and ,ristotelian !hiloso!h&.
0
In 2lato the term is lin:ed with ( <org. , 0.7%).
There is a firm relation between and ( Aes!. , I, /0*d). The word %omes
from the s!here of %ivilisation, not of organi% nature. For man the q is %entral (
Aes!. , ., /0/aDe). ,ristotle develo!ed the %on%e!t s&stemati%all&. It is found at the beginning of
the ;i%. 1thi%s (I, ., !. .+9)a, / ff.). are b& nature of more value and more worth see:ing
than . The of ever& %reature, e.g., the e&e or the ra%eDhorse, %onsists in
C . 2reisig:e @Jrt. , 096 f.# 8oult.D8ill. , *0/# 2r.DHauer , )76 ff.# 7. 8Gller, und
,"" Zeitschrift f. lutherische "heologie u. 4irche , /7 (.677), )06 ff. -n the !roblem of the
righteousness of wor:s .9* , Hibl. # %f. also 1. 4ohme&er, <esetEeswer:e," g;@ , *6 (.9*9), .77 ff.# (on
Haum und Fru%ht ," g9Th , 9 (.9/.), /77 ff.# (. Fir%hner, Der +)ohn+ in der alten Philosophie6 i
bPrgerlichen /echt6 besonders i !" (.9+6)# 1. 7au%:, Die Stellung des 8rchristentus -n #rbeit und Geld
(.9*.)# 1. Troelts%h, Die So-iallehren der christlichen 4itchen und Gruppen (.9*/), )0ff.# 66f.
. ,. @alde and ?. 2o:orn&, Vergleichendes Wrterbuch der indogeranischen Sprachen , I (.9*7), *9+ f.
* This human evaluation is at issue when, e.g., 2hilo s!ea:s of ( 9a%r. ,>. 76 ) or ?ose!h. of
( ,nt. , 9, .6* ) whi%h are worth& of .G
/ ?. Froll, Gott und (lle (.9/*), ).+ f. The average view of 7ellenisti% !hiloso!h& is also found in 1!i%t.
( 3iss. , II, ) and 0# III, *6). The de%isive words in 1!i%t. are res!onsibilit& and selfDesteem.
) 8. ?. 4agrange, Aev. Hibl. , /6 (.9*7), 06. ff.
0 ,%%ording to 7. Flein:ne%ht. >f. also F. Fir%hnerD>. 8i%haelis, Wrterbuch der philosophischen
Grundbegriffe
0
(.9+7), s.v. &nergie # 7. HonitE, .nde: #ristoteticus , s.v. .
fulfilling !ro!erl& its s!e%ifi% , i.e., seeing or running. ,ristotle thus %onsistentl& a!!lies
the %on%e!t of the organi% ( p) to the whole of nature ( ,n. , II, ., !. ).*a, . ff.). For him
or is the form of things, the fulfilment of the dis!osition inherent in matter.
The state of fulfilment im!lies true and effe%tive a%tivit&.
The !assive use of is also wides!read. In this sense it means what is wrought, the
result of wor: or the !rodu%t of the !ro%ess of wor: (e.g., a wor: of s%ul!ture or ar%hite%ture or
literature or art, also defensive or offensive wor:s# in the -T it is sometimes found for `\aLeZ ;u.
)5.6 or | 9ir. 95.7 , and also for the fruit of the soil, e.g., ?er, .)5) ), or for the reward of wor:
either as wages or as gain. Finall&, the thought of a%hievement sometimes retreats into the
ba%:ground and we sim!l& have the wea: sense of a matter" or thing.
*. The 4inguisti% Ksage of the <ree: Hible.
In the <:. translation of the -T the breadth of meaning is a!!arent at on%e in the great number
of different 7eb. terms whi%h ma& be rendered or . Thus the verb is often
used for su%h a%tivities as !lowing" ( Is. *65*) ), weaving" ( Is. .959 , .+ ), smelting" ( 1B.
*75.9 ) or hewing wood" ( * >h. *5.+ ). , !arti%ular form of wor: is indi%ated when the term
is used for words li:e c\dLZ a ( 1B. . and 0 ), sf ( 1B. .5.. ) or [Pdew sf ( ;u. )5*7 H), whi%h
denote obligator& or even for%ed labour. The same is true when it is used for YH

the regular
ministr& of sa%rifi%e or of wat%hing" ( * >h. */5.6 # vl. ), qf `Ra`Z and NX q] ( ?ob .+5/ #
/95..b # 9ir. 75*0 ), laborious wor:," diffi%ult business or enter!rise." and
a!!ear most %ommonl& for cPdw qd , \qf ied , rLf qd , cWd[\dsZ or their derivatives. These
words denote an a%tion," wor:" or a%hievement," and more or less %over the various senses of
the <:. term. ,!art from , i , whi%h are never used for cWd[\dsZ , the onl&
s&non&ms o%%asionall& found for in the -T are , , .
6

-therwise the <:. uses other terms for the 7eb. roots mentioned onl& to bring out a !arti%ular
sense, whi%h ma& on o%%asion be im!ortant for a theologi%al understanding of in the -T .
Thus renderings li:e i, i, , , obviousl& dis!la& the
same so%ial and ethi%al understanding of the grou! of %on%e!ts to whi%h we are referred alread&
b& the 7eb. originals. -n the other hand, words li:e , , i,
i reveal a s!e%ifi% %ulti% use whi%h goes be&ond the ordinar& sense of the word grou!.
In asso%iation with i in 33:17 # in 2rv. *)5)) # and in Is. 075.*
there is an adverse $udgment, while i, , , !resu!!ose
different %on%e!tions of the one at wor:. ,ll this is !ossible with . The !arti%ular sense
ma& be determined b& the a%%om!an&ing terms, as b& the various 7eb. originals. 2arti%ularl&
im!ortant are the individual %ases where the terms are used for 7eb. originals from the ethi%al and
religious s!here. Thus in the <:. translation man& words whi%h denote %ondu%t in general are
brought under the %on%e!t of wor:, e.g., xZ MX reX in ?ob /)5*. 5
6 /65*/ 5 i (<odOs) # 2rv. .650 (
7 )5 # 9ir. .+56 5
UU c^[R xMr # ..5*. 5 UU q)M `WMr(Ld hMf [_ ?ob ./5*7 5
(%f. //5.. )# x\cYc in 9ir. /5.7 5 .
B. The 'i(ine 3or% and Action.
.. The divine wor: of %reation.
The verb is relativel& infreTuent in the 4'' with the sub$e%t <od. Thus in
43:1 we have , { l q, l
q with referen%e to the !ast, and in 30:1 2 (4''5 )# 7/5.* #
?ob //5*9 with referen%e to 7is wor:s among men. There is also a referen%e to 7is histori%al
!resen%e and wor: in the 8as. and 4'' of 7ab. .50 , though 2 seems to have in view <odOs wor:
in the es%hatologi%al !eriod. @e are to understand Is. *65*. 2O: q i
6 is found onl& on%e for \qi at 10:3 2 .
, in the same wa&. In the ;T the of <od is eB!ressl& em!hasised in ?n. 05.7 .
;aturall& the ?ewish %on%e!tion of <od is de%isivel& influen%ed b& the idea of the divine a%tivit&.
This is seen first in the -T in the %reation of the world. Thus in <n. *5* , / we have
three times for cLd [\dsZ . @hat is meant is the %reative wor: from whi%h <od rests. The -T uses
innumerable times for the wor: of %reation ( 8as. usuall& cPXw qb sf ), even where the 7eb.
has other eB!ressions. The !lasti% formulation i ma& be assumed in 9. Har.
.)5.7.
7
In ) 1sr. 65/6 , )/ 5 Th& word %reated the wor:," Th& word went forth and the wor:
was done," stress is laid on the %reation of the world and the individual wor:s b& the @ord. There
are other !la%es where the 4'', when it s!ea:s of %reation, does not thin: of the %reative a%tivit&
or labour of <od but rather of nature and man as wor:s of <od whi%h as su%h stand to 7im in a
!arti%ular relationshi! of de!enden%e, obedien%e and obligation. H& this means, whi%h sometimes
involves no more than the use of for words li:e cLd [\dsZ ( <n. * ) and qf `Ra`Z ( ?ob .+5/ ),
the 4'', in :ee!ing with the s!irit of 7ellenisti% ?udaism, avoids anthro!o!athi% ideas of <od. In
so doing, it runs the ris: of a deisti% %on%e!tion, whi%h seems to have influen%ed, e.g., 9ir. .65*7 .
;evertheless, there was little danger of su%h a %on%e!tion ta:ing root on the soil of the bihli%al
belief in <od.
-bviousl& the Hible regards all %reation in all its !arts as the wor: of <od. =et when there
is mention of the wor:s of <od, the referen%e is usuall& to a s!e%ifi% grou! of wor:s. Thus the
!owerful !henomena of nature in heaven and on earth glorif& the honour and might of <od.
The earth and its %reatures, whi%h are sub$e%t to man, and man himself both in his dignit& as
the image of <od and also in his lowliness as a !oor instrument of his 8a:er, all bear witness
to the !roviden%e of <od and 7is gra%ious and mer%iful overruling of 7is %reatures. In the
2salms and the @isdom literature the thought of the wor:s of %reation is highl& !arti%ularised.
@e are often told that the in%om!rehensibl& high wor:s of <od are a testimon& to 7is
greatness. Thus we read in 8:3 5 ,
{ ,%%ording to 18:1 the wor:s themselves !ro%laim that the& are %reated b& <od.
6

@ith this !oeti% eB!ression of belief in the >reator we sometimes have !roof of <od on the
ground of %reation.
9
Thus in 9. Har. 0)5.6 the a%%usation is brought against the wi%:ed5 7is
wor:s have not taught &ou, nor has the eB%ellen%e of his eternal %reation %onvin%ed &ou."
@is. ./5. ff. %hides man for his inabilit& to see the >reator in %ontem!lation of 7is wor:s.
9imilarl& we read in 2hilo5
.+
i . In 2s.
9+5.6 the 8as. refers to the rule of <od in human life as manifest to believers5 \[X c[X Md `]
xd \Xq id xd `rXLd qb . ( 2: ). Hut the 4'' (
695.6 ) s!ea:s of believers as the %reatures of <od u!on whom 7e loo:s down in blessing5
. 9imilarl&, <odOs !it& is %laimed for
7is wor:s in 137:8 # .))59 . In 14:15 there is a !etition for !rote%tion5 c
q .
..
The 8as. reads5 Thou wilt long for the wor:
of thine hands"kwhi%h 7ellenisti% ?ews found to be out of :ee!ing with their more refined
%on%e!t of <od. <od shows longsuffering even to sinners be%ause the& are 7is wor:s ( ) 1sr.
75./) ). 7e naturall& has full %ontrol over the death and life (resurre%tion) of 7is %reatures ( )
7 In the Haru%h ,!%. and ) 1sr. we follow H. (iolet.
6 2: , 4''5 i c .
9 In ?ewish and >hristian tradition the radian%e of the sun, whi%h daEEles man even though it is onl& that of a
%reature, is often %ontrasted with the do:a of <od or of >hrist, %f. Harn. , 0, .+, and 7. @indis%h in (andbuch -.
!" , 9u!!l. (.9*+), ad loc. , with further referen%es. -n the !raise of <od b& %reation %f. also 101:26 #
.+*5** # .+/5./ , *) ( !ar. i ), /. # ./65.) # .))5.+ # 3a. /507 4'' O # 9ir. /95.) # Tob. /5.. .
.+ 4eg. ,ll. III, 99 .
.. ,t 9ir. )75** the <:. translation im!orts the idea. The meaning of the 7eb. is that <od will not allow an& of
7is words to fall (unfruitfull&) to the ground. The <:. translates V`Ma Ld reZ (both words %an mean matter"),
and thus gives us5 c { q g .
1sr. 65./ # %f. 657 ). In 10:3 , as in .)5.0 , it is !resu!!osed that man holds a s!e%ial
!osition as one of <odOs %reatures. <od will not destro& what 7e has so laboriousl& made,
.*

is the sense of the 8as. Hut the of the 4'' stresses the %lose %onne%tion
between >reator and %reature %on%erning whi%h we read in 8:6 5
.
./
In Is. the eB!ression is used of the
des%endants of ?a%ob in *95*/ 8as. and 2 , though here the referen%e is not so mu%h to the
%reative wor: of <od as to 7is histori%al a%tion in raising u! the seed of ?a%ob in order to
fulfil 7is !romises to them. The 4'' does not ma:e the %hildren of ?a%ob the wor: of <od#
the& are those who see the wor:s of <od. In Is. 6+5*. , too, the referen%e is to the histori%al or
es%hatologi%al rule of =ahweh. -n the other hand, Is. 6)56 5
q , a!!eals again to the !it& of the >reator for 7is %reatures. ,t Is. )05.. the
4'' sees a referen%e to men as the %reatures of <od, while the 8as. has in view the a%ts of
<od.
KniTue is -. 9ol. 65.9 f. 7ere man in his new being as redeemed is a wor: of truth, whi%h has
the same role as the wisdom of <od in 2rv. 65** , i.e., that of mediating %reation (in the 8as.
wisdom itself is the first wor: of <od# %f. also @is. 65) , 0 , 6 # 959 # 9ir. .59 ). In -. 9ol. 65.9 f.
truth sa&s5 I have !leasure in them and am not ashamed of them# for the& are m& wor: and the
!ower of m& thoughts. @ho, then, will rise u! against m& wor: and who will not be sub$e%t to
them"
.)
7ere the thought of the %reation of man is a!!lied to the new %reation of believers in
redem!tion, and it thus be%omes an emotional formula"
.0
of saving faith whi%h is in :ee!ing
with the religious outloo: of the -des and whi%h is found also in referen%es made in them to the
wor:s of <od. >f. ..59 # .*5) , 7 # .657 , .+ , ./ .
The wonderful nature of <odOs wor:s is em!hasised in 2rv. *+5.0 ( .* )5
i . In 9ir. ..5)b the referen%e is not to the
wonderful wor:s b& whi%h <od %an !unish !ride, but to the wor:s whi%h are %on%ealed from those
who loo: onl& on the eBternal. In the %onteBt attention is drawn to the %ontrast between the
modest& of the bee and its usefulness. It is along the same lines that we are to understand 9ir.
)/5/* and .65*. 4''5 i , although the
following verse brings out the %onne%tion between the %reative wor:s of <od and 7is !resent
a%tivit& in revelation and $udgment. The 4'' is here de!endent on the 7eb., whi%h s!ea:s of the
hidden sinful or righteous %ondu%t of man. The 4'' has made the anthro!ologi%al statement of
the 7eb. into a theologi%al. Aeferen%es to <odOs wor:s as >reator ma& also be seen in 9ir. .65*6 ,
*7 . >f. also 9ir. .756 , 9 # /6 ( // )5.0# /95.6, //# )*5.0, .6, **# )/5*, *0, *6. In 9ir. .75.9 [ C,
have in the sense of %reatures of <od whose doings as su%h are manifest to <od,
while H (there is no 7eb.) has and thus introdu%es the wor:s of men dire%tl&. In
.65) it is an o!en Tuestion whether the referen%e is to the wor:s of <od in %reation or to 7is
glorious a%ts in the %ourse of universal histor&. If v. ) !oints more to the former, the %ontinuation
with in v. 0 at least indi%ates the inner %onne%tion between the two. The 4'' in general
thin:s more of <odOs wor:s than 7is a%tivit&. ,gain in 2rv. *.56 it ma:es a theologi%al statement
out of an anthro!ologi%al5 () . 7ere <od is
sub$e%t, while in the 8as. the referen%e is to right %ondu%t on the !art of man. ,t ?ob /75.0 the
4'' im!orts the thought of %reation inde!endentl& in the form of a %onfession5
. ,t ooh. 65.7 stress is laid on the fa%t that <odOs wor:s are
unfathomable to man# 2 has and the 4''
.6
i # %f. Har. *59 # 1 t. 4:36 .
The less ?ewish !iet& is determined b& the !eo!le and the more b& the ideas of a universal
religion, so mu%h the more the %ontem!lation of <odOs wor:s %omes into the forefront as the
eB!ression of a universalisti% belief in the >reator. Faith is no longer dire%ted eB%lusivel& to the
<od who has %hosen 7is !eo!le and whose sons are the %hildren of Israel# it loo:s rather to the
<od who has made the world and whose handiwor: is man, ea%h one of us individuall&.
.* >f. 1. 9teuernagel in FautEs%h, ad loc.
./ >f. 9. bar. .)5.6# ) 1sr. 650) # also @is. .)50 # 9. bar. *)5).
.) <. 3iettri%h, Die %den Saloos (.9..), ad loc.
.0 ,n eB!ression %oined b& ,. @arburg. >f. ?. Froll ( n. / ), op. cit. , 0*6 ff.
.6 Knless we have here a translation after the manner of ,Tuila.
*. <odOs a%tivit& in the world.
a. In general even 7ellenisti% ?udaism does not regard <odOs %reative a%tivit& as a %om!leted
wor: of the !ast. @e %an see this, e.g., from the es%hatologi%al inter!retation of the siB da&s of
wor: ( Harn. , .0, /). Faith loo:s rather to <odOs rule in histor&, to his wonderful wor: of
$udgment and redem!tion in the !resent and the future. ,t this !oint, however, 7ellenisti% and
Aabbini% ?udaism see a diffi%ult&, raising the Tuestion how the omni%ausalit& of <od %an be
re%on%iled with 7is 9abbath rest. In this state of un%ertaint& ma& be seen the influen%e of
7ellenism, in whi%h the antithesis between the <odhead at wor: in the world and eBalted above it
was of great im!ortan%e in the develo!ment of the !hiloso!hi%al %on%e!t of <od. The view5 Deu
nihil habere ipsu negotii ( >i%.
-
ff. , III, *6, .+*) is %onfronted b& the o!!osite5 ?ui deos esse
concedunt6 iis fatendu est6 eos ali$uid agere ( >i%.
;
at. 3eor. , II, /+, 76). The >or!. 7erm. , (I,
. ff. s!ea:s of the q , of the %onstant %ausalit& of the <odhead, and it
maintains5 ('I, 0). 9imilarl& we read in 8aB. T&r. , .0, 65 c
Z q . In the light of this we %an understand 2hilo, who in 4eg. ,ll. I, / notes
%on%erning <n. *5* 5 . In <n. r. , .. on <n. *5/ we
have a statement of A. 7oshaO$a (handed down b& A. 2inehas) on the Tuestion of <odOs 9abbath
rest whi%h is signifi%ant both for its re$e%tion of 3eism and its resolution of the !roblem5 If thou
sa&est also that on this da& <od rested from all his wor:, he %ertainl& rested from his wor: on the
world, but he did not rest from his wor: on the ungodl& and his wor: on the righteous, but he still
wor:s with both."
.7

In all these statements it is assumed that <od is a%tive b& nature. The same is true of ?n.
05.7 5 c (%ontinuall&) . That <od is a living, a%tive,
%reative <od is a basi% %on%e!tion inde!endent of s!e%ifi% views of this a%tivit&. The
!e%uliarit& of the bibli%al tradition is to ma:e ver& %on%rete individual statements whi%h
reveal <odOs a%tivit& in the here and now of the histori%al situation of the !eo!le or the
righteous individual. It is the histor& of the ele%t !eo!le whi%h is attested as the wor: of <od,
and individual events whi%h are !ro%laimed as the a%ts of <od5 1B. /)5.+ # 3t. /5*) ( vl. )#
..5/ ( vl. ), 7 # ?os. *)5/. # ?u. *57 , .+ . In these !assages the a%ts of <od are seen !artl& in
militar& su%%esses whi%h made !ossible the %onTuest of >anaan and !artl& in the wonderful
events in the wilderness. 7ere sometimes has the sense of mira%les,
.6
The su!reme
events are naturall& the redem!tion out of 1g&!t with its a%%om!an&ing might& a%ts and the
%rossing of the Aed 9ea5 65 , / , 0 # 765.* . The m&thologising emotional motif
.9
of the
%onfli%t against the !owers of %haos is used in the de!i%tion of these events. ;evertheless, the
a%t of <od is thought of not merel& as something wonderful, astonishing and uniTue, but also
as the divine a%tion whi%h a%%om!anies and determines the histor& of Israel, whi%h is visible
to and re%ognisable b& individual believers, and whi%h %auses them to give than:s to <od. It
is to be noted that the saving histor& of <odOs a%ts belongs to the !ast# a generation arises
whi%h :nows nothing of it ( ?u. *5.+ ). The %on%e!t of <odOs a%t seems to be limited to the
eBtraordinar&. It is the redem!tive wor: whi%h establishes IsraelOs faith in =ahweh. It is the
beginning of Israel as the !eo!le of <od. It is the mira%le of the %ommen%ement to whi%h one
loo:s ba%:. Faith is not alwa&s strong enough to see the !resent also in the light of the a%tivit&
of =ahweh.
b. This faith in the !resent a%tivit& of <od, in 7is a%ts as the dire%t eB!erien%e of the
individual !resent, is !ro%laimed b& the !ro!hets. Hut the less !er%e!tive mass of the !eo!le
does not see the intervention of <od in $udgment and redem!tion. For the !ro!hets
themselves the events of histor& are the a%ts of <od whi%h <od fashions with 7is own hands5
-ff. De %fficiis .
;at. 3eor. De !atura Deoru .
.7 9tr.DH. , II, )6.# >lemen, ad loc. , *7*# <. 7einri%i, Die (eres'stik und das !" (.9.6), )6# Hau. ?. , ad
loc. # gn. ?. , ad loc. , *9*.
.6 ,t 3t. ..5/ H has # %f. 9ir. )65.) 5 with referring to the mira%les of 1li$ah.
.9 ?. Froll ( n. / ). op. cit. , )66.
Is. 05.* (%f. the 8as. ), .9 # **5.. # *65*. # *95*/ . For the re%al%itrant !eo!le these im!l&
$udgment. Thus we read in Is. *65*. 5 , i
. c i q i ( vl. 5 i )
i . In this verse 2O even have5 { q i
, i (%$5 i ) q i . 7ere, then, i , i.e., the
fa%t of sin in the world (e.g., resistan%e to the !ro!heti% message), and the $udgment whi%h
ne%essaril& follows, are %on%eived of as the opus alienu Dei . Hut the opus alienu is
sim!l& the reverse side of the opus propriu , of the vivificare , of the wor: of salvation. This
ma& be seen, e.g., in ,%. ./5). (on the basis of 7ab. .50 )5 6
q , q q . The !ro%lamation
of salvation determines the threat of $udgment. -n the other hand, the use of the -T sa&ing in
,%ts !resu!!oses a %hange in the %on%e!tion of <odOs wor:. For, while the referen%e in 7ab.
is to <odOs a%ts in the histor& of the nations (%f. also /5* ), here the !oint at issue is the
$udgment whi%h is the reverse side of the universalisti% divine wor: of mission and salvation.
It %orres!onds to the develo!ment of ?ewish and earl& >hristian religion under the !ressure of
!oliti%al histor& that ;T !ro%lamation, too, should find <odOs might& histori%al wor: less in
the life of the nations than in the u!building of the %ommunit&. The more signifi%ant, then, is
Aev. .05/ 5 { {
q 6 . In the ;T , too,
the divine a%tivit& is not to be thought of as merel& soteriologi%al. The believer also finds it in
ever&da& events. The understanding of life as a wor: of <od is the result and %ontent of faith
in the living <od who, e.g., in the 2salms, is !ro%laimed as the <od who restores life to the
mortall& si%: and vindi%ates the righteous against their enemies. @ith this %on%e!t of the
it is onl& natural that the underl&ing !oint at issue should not be eB!ressed
merel& in %ertain words. It is also !resent wherever there is referen%e to <odOs dealings with
man, e.g., in the Hoo: of Tobit. The !rivate life of man %an even ta:e on t&!i%al or immediate
signifi%an%e in saving histor&, as ma& be seen in the marriage of the !ro!het 7osea or the
stor& of ?onah. @hat is done to me b& m& wife, %hildren, friends or enemies, the good or evil
done me b& men, <od 7imself does. 7e a%ts towards me as men a%t. ;o one has seen this
with greater !er%e!tion of faith than 2aul,
*+
who understands his own life in terms of
salvation histor& (%f. es!. >ol. .5*) , also * >. .*57 ff. ) and who a%%ording to the familiar
traditional inter!retation of * Th. *56 , 7 ( and ) integrates
the histori%al data of this world into his total es%hatologi%al understanding.
It is es!e%iall& in 3t. Is. and ?er. that <odOs a%tivit& is seen essentiall& in the %ourse of the
histor& of Israel and the nations. This ma& be seen in Is. ).5) , where the 4'' has
, but A2O . The most farDrea%hing verse in this %onne%tion, however,
is Is. )05.. 8as. 7ere >&rus, the 2ersian :ing, is !ro%laimed as =ahwehOs she!herd and
anointed. The >reator <od is the 4ord of histor& who deals with the nations a%%ording to 7is
will. @orld histor& is the wor: of 7is hands.
*.

There is also referen%e to <odOs wor: in . 28(51):10 # *7 ( 0+ )5*0 and /. ( )6 )5.+. In
the last of these !assages is used in the sense of tas:, and indeed in /.5.+ of the tas: set b&
<od ( 8as. cWd[\dsZ ). In Is. 665.9 [ introdu%es on its own a referen%e to <odOs a%ts, though the
%onteBt suggests not so mu%h <odOs rule in histor& as 7is saving wor: for Israel as this affe%ts the
nations. The use of in Is. 6)5) 4'' suggests a similar missionar& sense5 { c l
q l q
. , vl. is as follows5
i . This gives us an inde!endent statement, and the thought of
is also introdu%ed. 3ifferent words are used in the 8as. 5 3t. /*5) V`sa Yed # 3a. )5/)
*+ >f. 7. @indis%h, Paulus und 1hristus (.9/)), es!. *0* ff.
*. 7ere, too, the 4'' refers to men as the %reatures of <od, des%ribed as and
also as l .
^_PQ NZ ( O : )# 2s. ...57 YsX [z # %f. also 3a. /5*7 # Tob. /5* . That these are a%ts of the
true <od, and true divine a%ts, is the meaning of this formula in missionar& !ro!aganda, whi%h is
dire%ted against idols and false gods from the stand!oint of true faith. @e are to understand in the
same wa&, at least in the 4'', the numerous !assages whi%h des%ribe the wor:s of <od as
, , , i, et%.
**
( 32:4 #
2rv. .659 # .65.+ vl. 4'' mnot the 8as. and AO n# *.56 # ?ob /65*) # Tob. .*5** ). There are also
man& statements in the 2salms and elsewhere whi%h refer to the de%laration of the wor:s of <od
b& the righteous. 1ven where the 7eb. thin:s onl& of the !raising of <od within the %ongregation,
the 4'' has in view the missionar& tas: of the righteous5 Tob. .*56 , 7 . -ther statements on
<odOs a%tivit&, e.g., in the @isdom literature, are to be understood as the attestation and
!ro%lamation of the !ower of <od whi%h ne%essaril& ta:e on a missionar& sense wherever ?udaism
meets the surrounding world. This is !arti%ularl& true of 4'' ?udaism in the 7ellenisti% Aoman
!eriod. The attestation of <odOs a%tivit& alwa&s ta:es !la%e with full referen%e to the !resent. It is
7is righteous and gra%ious wor: to be manifested in $udgment on the ungodl&, in the destru%tion
of the heathen and in mer%& on the righteous and their redem!tion from sin and affli%tion5 27:5
# )056 # 6/59 # 9.5) , 0 # 9)59 # .+65** , *) # ..75.7 # .))5) ff. , .) , .7 et%. -ften the referen%e to
<odOs a%tivit& in histor&, es!. in !ra&er, is sim!l& an eB!ression of the eB!e%tation that <odOs
!ower and will are read& to deliver and redeem the righteous and to overthrow the ungodl& 1st.
(./56) > .# / 8a%%. *56 # 42:1 # 6056 # .+05./ # ..+5* ff. # ./65.) # .)*50 .
%. It is onl& in the ;T , however, that along with the referen%e to the wonderful wor:s of
<od we have a %lear awareness of 7is saving wor: and a%tivit& on the basis of the divine will
to redeem whi%h is %onsistentl& attested in all the individual wor:s. If the %on%e!t of the
%orres!onds to a %om!rehensive view of the wor: of salvation, it is not
sur!rising that it is for the most !art la%:ing in the 9&no!ti% tradition. -nl& in 8t. ..5* do we
read that ?ohn the Ha!tist in !rison hears of the a%ts of ?esus (so 3 et%. in a%%ordan%e with the
situation). The Ha!tist %annot evaluate them as a%ts of >hrist (as in most of the 899 from the
stand!oint of the >hristian readers and !ossibl& the author), and therefore he %annot regard
them as the wor: of salvation.
-n the other hand, the %on%e!t of <odOs saving a%ts through >hrist is %ommon in ?ohnOs
<os!el5 05*+ , /6 # 75/ , *. # 95/ , ) # .+5*0 , /* , /7 , /6 # .)5.+ , .. , .* # .05*) . These
statements relate to individual wor:s done b& ?esus. ,s mira%les, the& bear witness to ?esus
and to the salvation whi%h 7e brings5 05/6 5
# of. .+5*0 # .)5.. # .05*) . Hut it is not merel& the thought of mira%les, or of the do:a
trans!arent in them, whi%h determines these !assages, for in ?n. the thought of is
inse!arabl& lin:ed therewith ( .+5/* ). In this %hristologi%al %onteBt, therefore, we are brought
u! against the !roblem of wor:s in the ;T , and we %an at on%e state that are a
demonstration of <odOs wor:ing in ?esus and therefore in believers. The& are testimon& to the
divine wor: in man. It is in :ee!ing with the %hristologi%al outloo: of ?n. that mira%les %an be
des%ribed dire%tl& as <odOs wor:s, !artl& in the sense of <odOs wor:ing in ?esus and !artl& in
the sense of the a%tivit& whi%h 7e laid u!on ?esus. The thought of the unit& of the wor: of
salvation is alwa&s there in the ba%:ground# thus 95/ 5 g
, refers to <odOs saving a%tivit& as a whole, this being manifested in individual mira%les
b& wa& of eBam!le. In man& instan%es, then, the sing. is used in ?n. in this sense, as at )5/) 5
6
# .75) 5 6 q q, 6
. There is an even more %om!rehensive use in ?n. 65*9 , where,
to the Tuestion5 i 6 # the answer is
given5 , { ,%tive !arti%i!ation in
the wor: of salvation does not %onsist, therefore, in an a%tion, but in divinel& given faith. The
gen. is a gen. auctoris . The wor:s of <od !erformed through >hrist
** There are several deviations in the 8as.
and those !erformed through believers %annot be se!arated from one another. The& are the
one wor: of <od.
This is no less %lear in 2aul. The in A. .)5*+ is the l of the
%ommunit&. ,n agri%ultural image is used as well as an ar%hite%tural ( 6 , . >. /59 ).
This a%tivit& of <od is through the 9!irit. It is a!!arent in the missionar& wor: of the a!ostle,
. >. 95. 5 iq . The founding of the >hristian >hur%h
%orres!onds to the %reation of the world. In both %ases we have a wor: of <od through the
@ord or 9!irit. The a!ostle is not alone in doing the wor: of <od. 7is hel!ers also do this
wor:, . >. .65.+ # 2hil. *5/+ . 1ven the most se%ular a%tion in the interest of the >hristian
wor: of mission ma& be regarded as i , and it is thus understandable that in the
a%tive eB!ression of faith 2aul %an see both wor: for the 4ord and the wor: of the 4ord. Thus
his admonition in . >. .0506 runs as follows5 i, i,
q i (%f. Aev. *5*6 5 {
), and in 1!h. )5.* the dia%onate is des%ribed as a wor: in this sense. That we are
alwa&s to thin: of <odOs wor:ing is most evident in 2hil. .56 5
() . The usage in ,%. is similar# %f. 05/6 and es!. ./5* 5 i
{ l # .)5*6 5 g l # also
.05/6 . means the wor: of salvation in the widest sense in ,%. .05.6 ,3 et%.5
l iq . * #
. For >hristians life has meaning to the degree that in it the divine wor: goes forward
( , 2hil. .5** ). 7ere again there is in 2aul no thought of individual
a%hievement and its results.
*/

C. 8#man Labo#r and the 3or% of !an.
.. 7uman labour as a %urse.
In so far as bibli%al theolog& lin:s wor: with the stor& of the fall, it regards it as a %urse in
its ne%essit& for the maintenan%e of life. This view was almost %om!letel& dominant in
7ellenisti% ?udaism.
Thus <n. /5.7 in the <:. is q q . 7ere 4'' 2O
ma:e the 8as. xd MX ^eLqb Lef ( A c ) a form of MLq , as also in <n. 65*. .
*)
Thus the
negative attitude of 7ellen. ?udaism to wor: de%isivel& affe%ts the teBt. It is o!en to doubt whether
in the 4'' refers to the laborious toil of man (so 2 : g iq ), or to the
sinful wor:s of man (so O 5 g mi.e., transgression of the !rohibitionn and 4''
<n. 65*. 5 6 ). There %an be no doubt howeverkas ma& be seen
from the %onteBt of vv. .7I.9 kthat from now on all human labour stands under the %urse, and
therefore ta:es on the as!e%t of toil and %onstraint. H& introdu%ing the term the 4'' and 2
eB!ressed a thought of their own age whi%h is materiall& !resent in the 7eb. but whi%h is now
transferred to the term , thus la&ing u!on it the divine %urse. It is thus that we are to
understand <n. 05*9 5 q q (
t^_Lued qa ) q q q q . Is.
605** 4'' is to be ta:en in the same sense. 7ere the 8as. s!ea:s of the fruit of earthl& toil, but
the 4'' has5 6 . >f. also and
in 8:10 ( 8as. t^X[d ^d \sd qd ). To this %on%e!tion belongs the eB!e%tation in 9. Har. 7)5.
that in the es%hatologi%al age wor: will be done without human eBertion. That ?udaism of the 7ell.
!eriod %ould never s!ea: of without dis!aragement ma& be seen, e.g., in 9ir. /+5// ( //5*0
)5 p i q, i
*/ The 4'' distinguishes between the divine wor: and !ro!heti% a%tion in the stor& of 1li$ah in 3 B. 18:36
5 c (<od) i . =et in 7ellen. <:. %an also mean through thee." 8as.
xd `MX Ld rZLea .
*) ,nd often in !assages of lesser im!ort. The %onfusion of r and M might well have ta:en !la%e in earlier
%o!ies of the 7eb. teBt. It is also !ossible in <:. ( A ). >f. also F. @utE, "ranskriptionen (.9//), .9* ff.
lg # %f. /+5/6 ( //5/+ )5 l 6 . , similar
!assage is 2rv. *95// ( /.5.0 ), where the 4'' !resu!!oses that wor: will be the tas: of female
slaves, whereas O and 2 rightl& translate the 7eb. Nc_ or . In 1B. and
elsewhere the idea of for%ed labour is sim!l& rendered labour" in the translation.
*0
This ma:es it
!erfe%tl& !lain that the 7ell. ?ew had a %om!lete aversion for wor:, whi%h he %ould not but regard
as an im!osition, a %urse, a matter for slaves. @or:, i.e., the need to earn oneOs livelihood b& toil (
Test. Iss. 0), is a !unishment for sin.
*. 8anOs wor: as sin and vanit&.
For the 7ellenisti% ?ew, however, the %urse of <n. /5.7
*6
has even dee!er im!li%ations.
1ver&thing %alled in the life of man is sin. @hen the a%tions of man are measured b&
the final %riterion, the& are shown to be sin.
Thus the <:. Hible often uses in ala parte when the referen%e is to human wor:.
The same is true of the verb, whi%h is freTuentl& lin:ed with an ob$e%t of negative moral %hara%ter
in su%h a wa& as to be%ome almost a single %on%e!t5 i, i, , ,
i . In the 2salter !arti%ularl& we meet with the eB!ression t^X[d `\]qb ie_
*7
q i . In the ;T this influen%es 8t. 75*/ # 4:. ./5*7 . The
wi%:edness of all human a%tion is stated as a !rin%i!le in man& formulations. , 7ell. ?ewish teBt
to this effe%t is 1 t. 4:37 5 ( 6) . In man& %ases
7eb. terms li:e cqd Md , ?er. )) ( 0. )59 , (H [ 5 # A : q # 2: ), cLd q] ^_Ye , 2rv.
./5.9 # Y^eS|ZYef , 1E. */5)/ are sim!l& rendered , @hen hNd \X (tea%hing") in ?ob ..5) and
cud q] (%ounsel") in ?ob *.5.6 are translated , this sim!l& eB!resses the general thought
that all manOs a%tion is wi%:ed and %orru!t5 ?ob ..5) 5 q , l
i , and *.5.6 5 c .
?ob ..5) is %losel& related to )5.7 . 7ere, too, it is the 4'' whi%h introdu%es the thought of
. The 8as. runs5 MLX RedMcf Z `a ^ecP]w q_ s] [a NreduZ `a cef ^_\[z s] PQ ^_S[z cf , but the 4'' translates5
q i i q
# The 4'' thus !oses the Tuestion of the righteousness of wor:s, and gives a
negative answer. ,gain in ?ob **5/ # //59 , is an addition to or
whi%h is t&!i%al of the reserved attitude of the 4'' to the righteousness of wor:s.
-n ?ob *.5.6 %f. the inde!endent 4'' statements in ..5.. 5 l
and *)5.) 5 c l . >f. also ?ob
/659 # /)5*0 . ,t Is. 075.* the 4'' translates cPXw qb sf , thus %orre%tl& rendering as a
formulation the ironi% words of the 8as. in ?er. /. ( )6 )5/+ is obviousl& based on a
misreading of cMd LZ qX as crdL_ qb . The material %onne%tion with the sin of !ride is maintained,
however, as also in ?l. *5*+ 5 . In man& instan%es, of %ourse, the
7eb. cPXw qb sf or s&non&ms are alread& to be understood in ala parte , e.g., <n. .65*. 2 # *+59
# 1B. */5*) # 3 B. 16:7 5 4 B. 22:17 # 1 t. 8:83 (%f. 2 t. :13 )# Is. /5.. ,
*) 5 *95.0 # ).5*9 omg5 0956 4'' O # 6057# 665.6# ?er. 75./ # *056 # 1E. .65/+ # ,m. 657 # 8i.
65.6 # 7ag. *5.) , .7 # ;a. *5.) # %f. also the 2salms and hagiogra!ha. Throughout the -T and on
into the ;T 6 is also an established term for idols5 3t. )5*6 # 4 B.
1:18 # Is. *56 # ?er. .5.6 # 113:12 # @is. ./5.+ 5 Aev. 95*+ # * >l., ., 6 et%. , wides!read
%onvi%tion of later ?udaism is thus eB!ressed in ) 1sr. 75..9 5 @hat doth it !rofit us that we are
!romised the immortal world when we have done mortal wor:s" >f. also ) 1sr. .56 # 9. Har.
)65/6# 0)5*a.
*0 For detailed !roofs 6/6 . 7ell. ?udaism does also show res!e%t for faithful dail& wor:# %f. the eBam!les in
3eissmann 4- , *60 f. , .
*6 1s!. O supra # %f. 65*. 4''.
*7 -n the religious bearing of the 7eb. %on%e!t on %ertain !ra%ti%es, es!. magi%, %f. 9. 8owin%:el, Psalen<
studien , I (.9*.), es!. >ha!ter ..
This negative assessment of human a%tion, whi%h in the <ree: -T is undoubtedl&
influen%ed b& 7ellenisti% s%e!ti%ism and !essimism, first ta:es on a radi%all& theologi%al
%hara%ter in the ;T . 7ere often denotes human wor: in the sense of vanit& and
sinfulness5 A. ./5.* 5 , %f. 1!h. 05.. # <l. 05.9 5 q
# ?n. /5.9 # 757 # . ?n. /5.* # * ?n. .. # * Tm. )5.6 # >ol. .5*. # Harn. , ), .+5
# . ?n. /56 , %f. ?n. 65). 5 # ?d. .0 5 i # *
2t. *56 # Harn. , ), .5 # 7b. 65. # 95.) 5 . In man& %ases the term
is given a negative %onnotation b& a s!e%ifi% %onteBt, as in 8t. */5/ # 4:. ..5)6 # ?n. 65). # Tt.
.5.6 . The de%isive Tuestion of the righteousness of wor:s is not %ons%iousl& raised in these
!assages.
/. The righteousness of wor:s in later ?udaism.
The fa%t that is used dis!aragingl& in 2auline theolog& for an untenable
righteousness of wor:s %annot reall& be eB!lained b& the unfavourable view of human a%tions
found in 7ellenisti% ?udaism. For the 2auline verdi%t refers even to whi%h were
generall& a%%e!table in the sense of ?ewish !iet&. @e thin:, for eBam!le, of the %ommon use
of for %ulti% !ra%ti%es. Thus the <ree: translation of the -T often has , for the
7eb. cMd L_ qb and cWd[\dsZ , both of whi%h were used for the dire%t or indire%t servi%e of the
tem!le, of sa%rifi%e, of wat%hing, or even of %onstru%ting the tem!le or taberna%le. It also
em!lo&s in the same sense. The ?ewish limitation of the negative a!!raisal of
human a%tion also eBtends to %ertain a%ts outside the %ultus if the& are understood to be
%ommanded b& <od. The fulfilling of the 4aw is naturall& a hol& wor: for the ?ews. H& this
man %an raise himself u! and establish his righteousness.
It is thus that we are to understand the NrXuX \q] ie_ UU of
14:2 , or the i of ge!h. *5/ , or other -T !assages whi%h assume a
righteousness of wor:s on whi%h saving faith ma& rest5 2s. 75) f. # .75/ ff. # .65*+ ff. , *0 . >f. also
3a. )5*) # ;eh. ./5.) ) )`rfd hb , /. # there is a t&!i%al inter!retation in 9. Har. 6/5/5 Then
7eEe:iah trusted in his wor:s { and the ,lmight& heard him." This selfDrighteousness so
!rominent in the memoirs of ;ehemiah is o!!osed b& the -T revelation itself (%f. Is. 065* f. # 6)50
). ;evertheless, the righteousness of %asuisti%all& ordered %ulti% and legal a%tion is the de%isive
%ontent of later ?ewish !iet&. That the reTuirement of wor:s is not found onl& in Aabb. ?udaism
ma& be seen from the 4'' with its orientation to a righteousness of wor:s as this finds eB!ression
in man& different !assages where the idea of wor:s o%%urs, e.g., ?os. )5*) 5
q q ( `sa `edcf \Wed VWX`c] \_[z c^d_c`ZY[X VYX [Md `Z tqf sf \Z ). It
is true that in some !assages there is to be seen a dee!er %on%e!t of moralit& whi%h seems to
%ontradi%t the legal %asuistr& and to !resu!!ose a total moral attitude5 9ir. *)5** 5 of l
(i is s!ea:ing) # 9ir. *759 ( .+ )5
# 2rv. .+5.6 5 i
q # Is. /*5.7 5 q l . Hut these isolated
im!ulseskand further eBam!les %ould be givenkare not able to over%ome the %asuistr&
ne%essaril& entailed b& a righteousness of wor:s. -n the %ontrar&, this %asuistr& %onstantl&
eB!ands its dominion and is even able to !enetrate into earl& >hristianit&. The natural man alwa&s
loo:s to his own a%hievement even in the moral life. 7e tries to define as !re%isel& as !ossible the
s!here of virtues and vi%es (%f. the tables found even in the ;T ).
*6
7e is alwa&s in%lined to s!lit
the total moral attitude into individual wor:s. * >l, ), / is t&!i%al5 6 , i,
, , q
c c ,

l, ,
, i q . In its %on%ern
for the righteousness of wor:s ?udaism often a!!eals to eBam!les in 9%ri!ture. 4egends
%on%erning the !atriar%hs ,dam, 1no%h, ,braham et%. afford instan%es of the wor:s demanded b&
*6 For material, %f. 4tEm. A. on .5/..
<od.
*9
Thus we find in ?n. 65/9 the formula5 A .
/+
The assum!tion is
that the !atriar%hs :new the 4aw even though it was not written down, and that the& full&
!erformed the wor:s of the %ommandments. The wor:s of the %ommandments )Y^_uZ sa `P]w qb sf ( ,
often sim!l& %alled V`Paw qb sf b& the Aabbis, %orres!ond to what 2aul %alls the .
/.

Their fulfilment is fulfilment of the will of <od, and the es%hatologi%al eB!e%tation is that arduous
stud& of the Torah will no longer have to !re%ede :nowledge and fulfilment of the 4aw, but that
<od 7imself will write the
/*
on the flesh& tables of the heart ( ?er. /.5// ). 2aul
a!!lied this thought to the <entiles and their natural :nowledge of <od ( A. *5.0 ). In ?udaism the
wor:s of the 4aw are the wor:s reTuired b& <od. The ?ews as: %on%erning these in ?n. 65*6 ,
obviousl& in the light of their own understanding that there are man& su%h wor:s. In %ontrast to
these wor:s of <od or wor:s of the 4aw are the wor:s whi%h originate in human selfDwill.
,%%ording to the belief of 7ell. ?udaism man is free to %hoose these5 2s. 9ol. 9575
q g iq q q q q
i () q . >f. also Test. ;. *5 ,s is his (manOs) !ower, so is also
his wor:# as is his understanding, so is also his wor:# and as is his !re%e!t, so is also his a%tion {
either a law of the 4ord or a law of Heliar." Hetween these two !ossibilities, or wa&s, man has to
de%ide. 7is own wor:s are i , wor:s of Heliar, in %ontrast to the wor:s of the 4aw or wor:s
of <od. Thus in Har. *59 his own evil thoughts are o!!osed to the wor:s of the 4aw reTuired b&
<od. 9. Har. )65/6 f. sa&s the same with the threat of $udgment5 He%ause in all these times the&
went astra&, ea%h in his own wor:s, and did not regard the law of the ,lmight&, therefore fire
%onsumes their thoughts {" as human wor:s are evil, as the wor:s of <od good. The
former !ro%eed from manOs will, the latter from the 4aw of <od.
1ven in ?ewish !iet& it is re%ognised, of %ourse, that fulfilment of the wor:s of the 4aw is
not !ossible for sinners. It is the !rivilege of the righteous, among whom are numbered
es!e%iall& the !ious of !ast da&s and an o%%asional indefinite grou! of !neumati%s and
<nosti%s su%h as we find in the -des of 9olomon. This %leavage between a s!e%ial %lass of
saints and the ordinar& mass of the !ious is found es!e%iall& in 9. Har.
Thus we read in *5*5 =our wor:s (i.e., those of ?eremiah and his followers) are li:e a strong
!illar for the %it& and &our !ra&ers li:e a solid wall," The differen%e between saints and average
believers is !arti%ularl& %lear in .)5.*ff .5 For the righteous ma& loo: forward to the end, and go
out of this life without fear# for with thee the& have a store of wor:s laid u! in the treasuries {
Hut woe to usp" >f. also 695)# 0.57. In 605*, as in *5*, we read of a substitutionar& inter%ession of
the righteous, !ro!hets and saints () on behalf of the !eo!le5 ,nd these hel!ed us when we
sinned, and made inter%ession for us with him who made us, be%ause the& trusted in their wor:s#
and the ,lmight& heard their !ra&er and !ardoned us." This refers, of %ourse, onl& to the !ast. ,
similar view is found in ) 1sr. ,%%. to this wor: the !ious assemble a treasure of good wor:s ( 8t.
65*+ # 4:. .*5// # . Tm. 65.9 ) on the ground of whi%h salvation will be granted to them5 7577#
65//# 957, 6 (wor:s or faith)# ./5*/ (wor:s and faith). Hut here, too, the referen%e is onl& to a
sele%t grou!, -f the mass it is said in 65/65 Hut th& goodness, - 4ord, will be shown if thou hast
!it& on those who have no treasure of wor:s." It is true that in 9. Har. and ) 1sr. wor:s are not
merel& fulfilment of the 4aw but V`La ^_ V`Paw qb sf , i.e., , whi%h are %ertainl&
demanded in 9%ri!ture but do not have the stri%t %hara%ter of %ommandments. The referen%e, then,
is to meritorious wor:s, and es!. the soD%alled wor:s of love )s`rad cb Y^e\`sa ReZ( , i.e., almsgiving,
!ea%ema:ing, the raising of sons to stud& the 4aw et%.
//
These wor:s are thought of as a
following of <od. ,%%. to 9ota, .)a, A. 9imlai sa&s5 The Torah %ontains wor:s of love at its
beginning and at its end. ,t its beginning, as it is written5 =ahwehD1lohim made %oats for ,dam
and for 1ve his wife, <n. /5*. # and at its end, as it is written5 7e buried (8oses) in the valle&, 3t.
/)56 ."
*9 <. Hertram in <. AosenD<. Hertram, 0uden u. Phni-ier (.9*9), 06 ff.
/+ 9tr.DH. , II, 0*) enumerates them, and shows the formula to be Aabbini%.
/. 9tr.DH. , III, .6+ ff.# I(, 009 ff.
/* .bid. , III, 69 ff.
// 9tr.DH. , I(, 009 ff. The wor:s of love in the s!e%ial sense are almsgiving, visiting the si%: and bur&ing the
dead# loc. cit.
). The righteousness of wor:s and the thought of reward.
In later ?udaism the develo!ed do%trine of the righteousness of wor:s merged with the
thought of reward whi%h in itself is natural to man.
/)
, !lain %onvi%tion of all bibli%al !iet& is
that <od re%om!enses man a%%ording to his wor:s. =et in the Hible the de%isive !oint is not
the anthro!o%entri% thought of reward but the theologi%al %on%e!t of <odOs !ower and $usti%e.
<od :nows all the a%ts of men5 32:15 5 # 9ir. .05.9 5
6 6 # 9ir. /95.9 5
6 . This gives the assuran%e5 ( . 38
m/.n5.6 ) and5 iq 6 ( 9ir. ..5*7 ).
The thought of re%om!ense is based on the fa%t that <od re%om!enses to ea%h a%%ording to his
wor:s.
/0
-n the other hand, it seems to destro& the thought of <od if one must affirm5 There
be $ust men, unto whom it ha!!eneth a%%ording to the wor: of the wi%:ed# again, there be
wi%:ed men, to whom it ha!!eneth a%%ording to the wor: of the righteous" ( ooh. 65.) ).
/6

In !ra%ti%e, however, the !roblem of theodi%& obviousl& &ields to the moralisti% thought of
reward. H& a!!eal to the hereafter it was ho!ed to res%ue the idea of retribution from the
eudaemonisti% !ers!e%tive of mere utilit&. ,%%. to A. ?onathan ( c. **+) death %ame also on the
righteous in order that the ungodl& should not ma:e a false show of re!entan%e, and in order that
the ungodl& should not sa&5 The righteous remain alive onl& be%ause the& hea! u! fulfilments of
the law and good wor:s, therefore let us hea! u! fulfilments of the law and good wor:s# and so
their a%tion is not found to be su%h as too: !la%e for its own sa:e (but su%h as too: !la%e for
selfish motives),"
/7
<n. r. , 9 on .5/. . The a%t of $udgment naturall& !rodu%es reward or
!unishment5
/6
For him who hea!s u! fulfilments of the law and good wor:s, <an 1den is there#
but for him who does not hea! u! fulfilments of the law and good wor:s, <ehinnom is there" (A.
g Oira , c. /++), <n. r. , 9 on .5/. . ,%%ording to a sa&ing of ,Tiba ( ,b. , /, .0), the
!re!onderan%e of good or evil wor:s will de%ide.
/9
Finall&, the an%ient idea is !resent that good
wor:s are advo%ates for us in the $udgment, whether the& follow us in death ( Aev. .)5./ ) or
whether the& !re%ede us.
)+

0. The wor: of man as a divinel& given tas:.
The %on%e!t of reward and !unishment !resu!!oses that the bibli%al revelation views the
of man as !erformed b& divine %ommission. Thus we read in the stor& of 1den in <n.
*5.0 5
iq, . This %orres!onds to the ce rdLZ qd \Z of the 8as.
and to the negative statement in *50 , whi%h !resu!!oses that man is given the %harge5
q q 5 csd rd[b cd Y[X rL_ qb \f . 7ow the land is tilled, <od tea%hes man
a%%ording to Is. *65*/I*9 .
).

This brings us into the s!here of what have been %alled invention sagas,
)*
whi%h tra%e ba%:
all manOs wor: of %ivilisation to <od as Instru%tor. This a!!lies also to the inventions re%orded in
<n. )5*+ ff.
)/
2hilo H&blius inter!reted these sagas euhemeristi%all&, and !artl& on this ground
/) 3eissmann 4- , *67 has rightl& !ointed out that the thought of reward in !o!ular !iet& is not to be measured
b& the %ategories of a !hiloso!hi%al ethi%.
/0 ?er. *05.) AO # 4am. /56) # 61:12 # 2rv. *)5.* # 9ir, /* ( /0 )5*)# ( Is. /5.+ #) 8t. .65*7 # ) 1sr. 75/) .
/6 >f. F. Hudde in FautEs%h.
/7 That the 4aw should be fulfilled and good wor:s done for the sa:e of <od is %learl& eB!ressed also in the
Aabbin. sa&ing Tuoted in 9tr.DH. on Tt. *5.) .
/6 9tr.DH. , I(. ...
/9 .bid. , III, 76# also III, 0*9 on ?n. 95) .
)+ .bid. , III, 600, 6.7.
). 9o the 8as. The 4'' understands the q q figurativel&.
)* This des%ri!tion fits onl& the later euhemeristi% inter!retation in the 7ellenisti% !eriod.
)/ @. Haudissin, 4'rios , III (.9*9), ))6 ff.
7ellenisti% ?udaism maintained the %ultural !riorit& of the -T tradition. Thus, for eBam!le. 8oses
is the inventor of the 2hoeni%ian al!habet a%%. to the ?ewish historian 1u!olemus.
))
Hehind these
rationalising and histori%ising reinter!retations, however, stands the fa%t that in 7ellenisti%
?udaism at least human wor: is tra%ed ba%: fundamentall& to a divine %ommission. If <n. *5.0 in ?
hardl& gives us a basis for wor: in the -T revelation, and if the $o& in wor: in <n. . does not
reall& mean a %onse%ration of labour in 2 (%f. also 2s. 656I6 # 9ir. .75. ff. ), &et 7ellenisti%
?udaism tra%ed ba%: its own !ositive attitude to the -T revelation. This ma& be seen also in the
%onne%tion of the thought of manOs divinel& willed selfDeB!ression in wor: with the m&sti%al
%on%e!t of redem!tion as this emerges, e.g., in the -des of 9olomon. 7ere the !lanting of man in
2aradise, understood as redem!tion, restores him to his true a%tivit& a%%ording to %reation5
Hehold, all are thine eB%ellent labourers who do good wor:s {" -. 9ol. ..5.7).
)0
This !lanting
in 2aradise is obviousl& not a reward for good wor:s alread& done# it is the !resu!!osition of good
wor:s. These are $ust as natural to redeemed man as the& were to divinel& %reated man !rior to the
fall. It need o%%asion no sur!rise that the image of <odOs wor:man should lead us from the
thought of tilling the garden to the moral s!here.
In the same wa&, later ?udaism in s!ite of ever&thing !reserves an ethos of wor: whi%h finds
eB!ression in man& Aabbini% utteran%es. Thus we read in b. Her., /*b Har.5 For four things man
needs %onstan%&, and these are5 the Torah, good wor:s, !ra&er and oneOs earthl& avo%ation." That
this earthl& avo%ation stands under <odOs blessing ma& be seen es!. in the re%urrent formula of
3t.5 ( ) .
)6
The high estimation of manual wor: among the Aabbis is wellD:nown.
)7
Thus we read in Her.,
6a5 A. >hi$$a ( c. *6+) has said5 <reater is he who en$o&s of his labour (i.e., su!!orts himself b&
it), than he who fears <od. For lop it is written of him who fears <od5 Hlessed is the man who
fears =ahweh, 2s. ..*5. # and lop it is written of the man who en$o&s of his labour5 For thou shalt
eat the labour of thine hands5 ha!!& shalt thou be, and it shall be well with thee, 2s. .*65* # ha!!&
shalt thou be in this world, and it shall be well with thee in the neBt. Hut ~it shall be well with theeO
is not written of him who fears <od." ,%%. to ,b. , *, *, Aabban <amaliel (III, c. **+), the son of
the !atriar%h ?ehuda (I), said5 Heautiful is the stud& of the Torah in %on$un%tion with a worldl&
o%%u!ation (su%h as manual wor: or trade)# for %on%ern for both %auses one to forget sin (so as not
to serve it). Hut all stud& of the Torah with whi%h one does not %ombine gainful a%tivit& finall&
%eases and brings sin with it." =et there are also %riti%al voi%es arguing that the two are
in%om!atible. T&!i%al is 9ir. /65*) ( *0 )k /95.. 5 -f s%ribes as distin%t from those of !ra%ti%al
o%%u!ation."
)6
7ere the introdu%tion runs5 i iq q
. There then follows a su!er%ilious
des%ri!tion of the wor: of the farmer5 i {
# Hut the de!i%tion of various trades
whi%h follows breathes a different s!irit. In v. /. it is re%ognised5 c q
i , and a%%ording to v. /) their wor: serves to maintain %reation5
i l q iq . 7en%e it is
not sur!rising that in v. *) a vl. inter!olates before , a!!roval thus being
given to the Aabbini% %ombination of stud& of the Torah and !ra%ti%al wor:.
The %riterion of and a!!lies also in the ;T . The !ra%ti%al
reTuirement is soberl& addressed to >hristians5 li i , . Th.
)5.. # * Th. /5.+I.* # 1!h. )5*6 . These !assages stand under the same ethi%oreligious sign as
the de%larations of the a!ostle 2aul %on%erning his own labour in selfDsu!!ort. This wor: is
sa%red to the degree that at least indire%tl& it serves the >hristian %ommunit& as the
in res!e%t of its good re!ute in the world. There %an indeed be no final distin%tion
between wor: in tem!oral avo%ation and dire%t wor: in the servi%e of the %ommunit&. ,ll
in the >hristian %ommunit& (and not merel& in the organiEed >hur%h) is finall& <odOs
)) <. AosenD<. Hertram, op. cit. , .6 f., .*6 f.
)0 ,. 7arna%:D?. Flemming, &in 5disch<christliches Psalbuch (.9.+), ad loc.
)6 3t. *57 # .)5*9 # .05.+ # .65.0 # ?ob .5.+ # 8:17 # Test. ?ud. * (both in the field and in the house)# %f. also
* >h. /.5*. 5 q { 6 # /*5/+ # 1 t. 1:21 et%.
)7 9tr.DH. , II, .+, 7)0# III, //6, 6+), 6)., where other eBam!les are given.
)6 This is the heading given b& (. A&ssel in FautEs%h.
wor: through men. @ith this insight of faith the !roblem of wor: is solved in the ;T . For
2aul and for all believers all wor: is the fruit of faith. This faith is i l
( <l. 056 ). Thus q i, q and
q q i are grou!ed together in the ;T ( . Th. .5/ ), and the same terms
are again %losel& lin:ed with i in * Th. .5.. . >f. q
in A. *57 . , unitar& %hara%ter is thus given to >hristian a%tion evo:ed b& <od and
!ro%eeding from faith. For this reason this a%tion %an and must be for 2aul the standard b&
whi%h man is $udged ( A. *56 ). ;or is this selfDevident basis of $udgment ever %hallenged in
the ;T . This as!e%t of is shar!l& em!hasised in ?ohnOs <os!el. It embra%es the whole
%ondu%t of a man in so far as he falls under the antithesis of good and evil { with no
distin%tion between more or less good or evil a%tions" { and in%luding the hidden motions
of the will, whether in relation to <od, to the world or to other men."
)9
1ven if no logi%al
agreement is !ossible in relation to the res!onsibilit& of man, it is still re%ognised that
{ l ( ?n. /5*. ) a!!lies to him that does truth. In ,%.
*65*+ , too, the reTuired wor:s or fruits !oint to the res!onsibilit& of man in his a%tion. =et
this a%tion has no value in itself, but onl& as a res!onse to the revelation of re!entan%e.
0+

It is thus onl& that one %an s!ea: of the wor:s of men. This human
manner of s!ea:ing %an easil& lead, of %ourse, to nomisti% ideas. @e sometimes see the influen%e
of these on the fringe of the ;T itself, and es!. in the !ostDa!ostoli% fathers. >f. Ign.1!h. , ., .#
9m. , .., *# A. , *, .# 2ol., 6, * (though Ign. has a good gras! of the matter5 2ol., 6, .5
q liq q # 7,/5 )# %f. also Harn. , ., 65 {
i # .9, .# * >l, 6, 9# .., 6# .*, )# .6, /# .7, ). The view found
in these !assages %orres!onds to the view of good wor:s %ommon in later ?udaism. In . >l, //, .
false dedu%tions from the 2auline do%trine of $ustifi%ation b& faith are re!udiated5
q i # { { . The
basis of good wor:s is %ons%iousl& theologi%al5 (*)
. >f. also //, 75
l i c
. This leads to //, 65 c q l q
6 . 7ermas is the first Aoman >atholi% in the s!here of
good wor:s, though his views %orres!ond to the !o!ular human mode of understanding. >f.
7erm.s. , 6, .., ..
6. @ord and a%t, faith and wor:s.
The tension between word and a%t is naturall& eB!ressed ever&where in the <:. tongue. Thus
in 7omer and stand in antithesis. In ,tti% it is usuall& . The relation
between the two is a basi% Tuestion in the !hiloso!h& of 2lato and ,ristotle. H

q q,

q , is the selfevidentl& re%ognised reTuirement of state laws.

0.

In 2s. D2&thagoras, >armen ,ureum, ./, the inter%onne%tion of the two is !resu!!osed5 l
q q .
0*
For 2hilo, too, their relationshi! is a logi%al and
ethi%al !ostulate, so that %ontradi%tion between them ne%essaril& rests on so!histr& ( 2oster. >. , 66
# %f. 67 and 66).
0/
In the 7ermeti% tra%tates we sometimes find the distin%tive, em!hati% %laim to
be in !ossession of the a%tive word5 q c 6
( >or!. 7erm. , '(I, *).
In the bibli%al tradition the harmon& of word and wor: is regarded as selfDevident so far as
revelation is %on%erned. The 4'' formulates the %on%e!t, e.g., at ?l. *5.. 5 l
)9 gn. ?. on /5.9 and gn. A. on *56 .
0+ 1. 4ohme&er, Das 8rchristentu , I (.9//), .+0 ff. >f. also 1!h. *5.+ # c .
0. 2lat.>rito , 0*d# %f. )6d ff. >f. also 7era%l. Fr. , .# )6# 3emosth.-r. 6, 7/.
0* 3ib. 2ast. on . Tm. 65.. .
0/ >f. also 8ut. ;om. , *)/ 5 # though %f. 9om. , II, /+* 5 c
i i , c .
( ^_MLd rZ cP]w q_ V^euqd `Wea UU 2 l l
). It is also !resent in 32:4 5 q i
i (UU 8as. ). The !resu!!osed, demanded or stated unit& of human
%ondu%t is often enough !resent in the %orres!onding formulae
0)
(%f. , 4:.
*/50. #
00
,%. 05/6 # * >. .+5.. # . ?n. /5.6 ). It is here, however, that there arises the !roblem
whi%h ta:es on su%h farrea%hing material signifi%an%e in the ;T .
,lread& in Aabbini% tradition there is awareness of a tension between tea%hing and life whi%h
%an never be %om!letel& over%ome, and this be%omes the o%%asion for a re!roa%h against the
s%ribes in 8t. */5/ . The Aabb. %onvi%tion is that he who has learned the Torah and &et a%ts
%ontrar& to it blas!hemes <od.
06
>hristianit&, however, demands a !rea%hing of a%tion5 Ign.1!h. ,
.+, .5 q (%f. Tr. , /, *# . 2t. /5. ), and %ontradi%tion
between word and a%t is a denial of >hrist5 * >l., ./, /5 {
q p {# Tt. .5.6 5 l,
c . >f. * >l., .7, 75 q
. 7erm.s. , 9, *., *5 p , c
.
9u%h %ontradi%tion is obviousl& assumed in ?m. .5*0 5 q q
q c , and *5.7 5 q i, q g ,

. ,gainst the ?ewish stress on wor:s, to whi%h there %orres!onds an

intelle%tualisti% misunderstanding of faith (faith is monotheism), the author maintains that the
two belong together in the relative human sense indi%ated.
07
7ebrews goes be&ond this
relative mode of %on%e!tion with its designation of wor:s as (%f. ) 1sr. 75..9 ).
@hat are meant here are wor:s whi%h lead to death. These are not $ust mortal sins# the& are all
wor:s whi%h do not lead to life, i.e., all whi%h are not of <od, whi%h are not the wor:s of
<od. The %ontrast with i l in 65. and with in 95.)
demands a radi%al understanding of from the stand!oint of faith. ,ll wor:s
whi%h do not !ro%eed from faith are dead, for the& lead to death. 1ver&thing whi%h does not
ta:e !la%e in the servi%e of the living <od is dead.
This gives us the 2auline understanding of the %ontrast between faith and wor:s. The
whi%h are at issue for 2aul have be%ome a means of selfDrighteousness for the
?ews. 7en%e the& are no longer an eB!ression of the absolute reTuirement of <odkthe 4aw is
this for 2aul in <l. 05/ kbut the& s!ring from manOs arrogant striving after selfDrighteousness.
In o!!osition to them we %an onl& !oint to the a%t of <od whi%h %reates faith in us. ,ll
thought of wor:s retreats behind this, and %an emerge again onl& within the %ommunit& in
relation to the wor:ing of the 9!irit of <od in the a!ostle and in believers, sin%e it is <od who
wor:s all in all ( . >. .*56 ). It thus %omes about that the word , alread& sus!e%t in the
-T , a%Tuires in 2aul a %om!letel& negative sense whenever it is a matter of human
a%hievement. For the wor: of man %annot stand before the eB%lusive o!eration of gra%e.
06
If
nevertheless there is referen%e to good wor:s in the message of the whole of the ;T , and this
not merel& after a human manner of s!ea:ing, it is in virtue of a return to the legitimate use of
the term in revelation. It is true of fallen humanit& that its wor:s are evil. Hut the time of
0) For the Aabbis, too, learning is a !resu!!osition of a%tion. 7en%e the %ursing of those without the 4aw. >f.
9tr.DH. on ?n. 75)9 , es!. II, )96, 0.6.
00 >f. >l. ,l.9trom. , II, 6, .*7, 9 f.5 c q, c
6 .
06 9tr.DH. , I, 9.+, */9# II, *7/, with further eBam!les.
07 9o 7. 2reis:er, ThHl , ) (.9*0), .6 f.
06 A. /5*+ , *7 # )5* , 6 # 95.* , /* # ..56 # <l. *I/ . The 2auline understanding of the absolute o!eration of <od
is also found in * Tm. .59 # Tt. /50 # also 2ol., ., / (%f. 2aul 1!h. *56 , 9 ) and . >l., /*, / and ). ?udaism and
Aabbinism %an naturall& give to faith onl& a relative im!ortan%e alongside wor:s. >f. the material in 9tr.DH. , III,
.66I*+.. ,nd even so faith is regarded as a human a%hievement. The fa%t of <odOs omni%ausalit&, whi%h is
naturall& !resent in the -T revelation but wea:ened in ?udaism, is first !ro%laimed again in its !urit& in the
<os!el as the message of salvation.
salvation restores the situation as it was b& %reation. ,ll manOs wor: is <odOs wor: through
man. Thus the , the misunderstood and de!re%iated legal wor:s of the old
%ovenant, are %onfronted b& the of the new %ovenant, or rather b& the one
wor: of faith a%tive in love ( <l. 056 # ?n. 65*9 ).
The natural man %annot of himself !er%eive this divine wor: of salvation. The resurre%tion
of ?esus is an in%on%eivable event whi%h is !er%e!tible onl& to dis%i!les, to believers. The
same is true of all the mira%les of the -T and the ;T . The unbeliever understands them either
sim!l& in terms of earthl& goals, as with the ?ews and the feeding of the five thousand ( ?n.
65*6b ), or as the wor: of demons, as did the s%ribes the eB!ulsion of devils ( 8:. /5** ), or as
a tem!ting of <od, li:e ,haE when he was told to as: for a sign ( Is. 75.* ). -nl& the believer
finds the true borderline in this res!e%t in >hrist ( 8t. )57 ). -nl& to him is the wor: of <od
manifest. For him the ambiguit& is removed whi%h %lings, humanl& s!ea:ing, to ever&
, whether in 7is overruling of histor& as >reator or in 7is a%tivit& in salvation histor&
as 3eliverer, so that one and the same event or word, a%%ording to the will of <od, %an
!rodu%e faith in those who are %alled and unbelief and obdura%& in those who are re$e%ted. For
believing >hristians the whi%h meet them in life are never $ust the wor: of man#
the& are the wor: of <od through human hands. 1ver&thing whi%h, a%%ording to a $udgment
!urified b& 7ol& 9%ri!ture, serves the !romotion of life, is regarded as , as
. 8an ma& abuse the wor:s of the >reator, but earthl& goods, famil&, state,
nation, 4aw ( A. 75.* , ./ ) are still the good wor: of <od as tutors to bring us to >hrist.
!, !, !, %
*

The subst. i, is found in the sense of a%tivit&" or energ&" from the !reD
9o%rati% !eriod. It denotes a%tivit& as distin%t from . The verb is used in the
same wa&. It derives from (whi%h itself derives from q ), and denotes
intr. to be at wor:," to a%t or start to a%t," and trans. to set at wor:," to effe%t."
means what is effe%ted," the a%t" or a%tion." (from the time of ,ristotle) means
a%tive."
In 7ellenism,
.
as in 2hilo,
*
the word grou! is used of %osmi% or !h&si%al for%es
/
at wor: in
man or the world around. In the -T and ;T , and in the ;T the verb , are
used almost eB%lusivel& for the wor: of divine or demoni% !owers, so that we almost have a
te%hni%al use. In the -T o%%urs onl& in @is. and * and / 8a%%. There is thus no 7eb.
original. In @is. 75.7 the referen%e is to the i . The !art. is used in the
same sense in . >l., 6+, .5 q
i . In @is. ./5) the term is used of %osmi% !owers. If in this
!assage the and of %osmi% !henomena awa:en numinous terror, these
!henomena are obviousl& regarded as ( 1!h. 65.* ), and it is onl& a ste! to the
view that the themselves are %osmi% beings. The& are mentioned as su%h in a list in
,%t. ?n. , 96 whi%h in%ludes them with i, i, (%f. 1!h. .5*. # /5.+ et%.),
i ,
)
, 2 . In @is. .65** we have . -therwise
the referen%e is alwa&s to the , @is. 75*6 # / 8a%%. 05*6 # i , * 8a%%.
/5*9 # , / 8a%%. 05.* # q i , / 8a%%. )5*. . This denotes either 7is
a%tivit& as >reator and 9ustainer of the world in general ( @is. 75*6 ) or 7is a%tive dire%t
intervention in the %ourse of events through mira%les, as in the !assages addu%ed from * and /
8a%%. In a %on%ealed form we meet the same view in ,%t. Thom. , 0., where the mira%le of
!unishment at the 4ordOs 9u!!er is attributed to <od5 i .
C . 8oult.D8ill. , *.)# Hl.D3ebr.
6
y .)6, .# y /.6, .# gn. <l. on *56 5 @bg. Th. on I, *5./ and II,
*57.
. In the !a!. it often denotes magi%al !ower with no obvious distin%tion from , e.g., 2reis. gaub. , I(,
.6+, .7.6. >f. ?. AJhr, 3er o::ulte Fraftbegriff im ,ltertum ," Philol. Suppl. , .7, . (.9*)), .0I.9# ,. 3.
;o%:, <ree: 8agi%al 2a!&ri," 0ournal of &g'pt. #rchaeol. , .0 (.9*9), *.9I*/0. The !hiloso!hi%al usage (e.g.,
,ristotle 6/6 ) is of little relevan%e to the ;T .
* There are several eBam!les in ?. 4eisegang, .ndices (.9*6), *0+ f.
/ >f. >or!. 7erm. , '(I, )5 (qi ) # ./5 i i .
) >f. the !assage Tuoted from >or!. 7erm. , '(I, ./.
, !ious outloo: whi%h sees <od in the ever&da& gives rise to the sa&ing in 1!. ,r. , *66, whi%h
attributes the ultimate su%%ess of human orator& to <od5 c iq
6 . , similar attitude underlies the !ious eB!ression in Harn. , .9, 65 i
g, l6 c i . The
verb also o%%urs on%e in the 4'' at * 8a%%. .)5)+ as a vl. for the sim!le form
and with the same sense. The ad$. o%%urs at 1E. )65. with q in translation of
cPXw qb s f , and it gives the sense of a wor:Dda&. The verb is often used in the -T with no
!arti%ular em!hasis, as in ;u. 65*) as vl. for , or in 1 t. 2:16 ( *+ ) in a <:.
addition %on%erning the rebuilding of the tem!le, or in 2rv. *.56 f or \qi and *95/+ (/.5.*) with
the dat. ethicus for \sR . The verb is to be ta:en in the intensive in @is. .05.. with its referen%e
to the q , i.e., the living and a%tive soul whi%h <od breathes into man, and in
@is. .65.7 with its referen%e to fire. In Is. ).5) the verb is used for \qi and with denotes
the o!eration of <od.
In the ;T this theologi%al or demonologi%al usage is !redominant. -nl& in 2hil. *5./ does
the a%tive refer to human a%tivit&. In 1!h. *5* the verb is used of the q
i . The med. is similarl& used in * Th. *57 5
q q i , and in *59 we read of the
2 , who on the a!!earing of the man of sin will be seen at wor: in all :inds of
de%e!tive mira%les. Hut finall& even his a%tivit& is to be tra%ed ba%: to <od ( v. .. )5 <od
gives to the l&ing satani% mira%les of ,nti%hrist the !ower to lead astra&."
0
,
6
In other teBts
the a%t# of the verb is used of <od and divine !owers, e.g., of the o!eration of the 9!irit in .
>. .*56 , .. . The referen%e is either to in general ( .*56 ) or to a s!e%ifi% grou! of
divine !owers, ( .*5.+ # %f. 8:. 65.)
7
UU 8t. .)5* 5
). In <l. *56 the a!ostoli% offi%e of 2eter and 2aul is the !ur!ose and goal of the
divine o!eration. In <l. /50 the referen%e is to the mira%ulous demonstrations of !ower with
whi%h <od gives for%e to missionar& !rea%hing# %f. 1!h. /57 # >ol. .5*9 . The diffi%ult
eB!ression { in . >. .659 also refers to the divinel& effe%ted !ossibilities of
missionar& wor:. In 7b. )5.* { is to be understood of the effe%tive @ord
of <od in the sense of the bibli%al revelation.
6
2hlm. 6 uses the same ad$. of the !ower of the
%ommunit& of faith to %reate :nowledge. 7ere, too, <od is the -ne who is ultimatel& at wor:.
7e is the -ne who wor:s all things. 2hil. *5./ 5
c q i #
9
1!h. .5.. # 2hil. /5*. . Hut es!e%iall& 7e effe%ts the
q , 1!h. .5.9 , *+ # >ol. *5.* # %f. also 8:. 65.) # 8t. .)5*
(where the refers to the su!!osed resurre%tion of ?ohn the Ha!tist).
.+

In the ;T the med. is found onl& in 2aul and ?m. 05.6 , and it is alwa&s in
the intr.
..
It is not used of <od. In . Th. *5./ is the sub$e%t of the relative %lause
, and therefore materiall& this teBt is to be
grou!ed with 7b. )5.* . ,%%ording to * >. .56 the %omfort whi%h 2aul has for the
%ongregation wor:s itself out g , in the !atient
bearing of sufferings. In <l. 056 it is faith whi%h is a%tive in love.
.*
The s&nergisti%
misunderstanding of this verse was alread& re$e%ted b& 4uther5 opera fieri dicit e: fide per
0 3ob. Th. , ad loc.
6 >f. Harn. , *, . and ,%t. ?oh. , 70 ( ).
7 ,ngeli% !owers" (), %f. @bg. 8:. , ad loc.
6 >f. Harn. , ., 7, where is used of the fulfilment of the !romises and !ro!he%ies of the !ro!hets and
of the 4ord.
9 -n the signifi%an%e of the !re!ositional !hrase, %f. 7au!t and 1w. <efbr. , ad loc.
.+ Theo!h&la%tus, 82< , .*/, 0./, in Fl. 8:. , ad loc.
.. >f. Hl.D3ebr.
6
y .)6, .# y /.6, ..
.* 6)9 .
caritate6 non iustificari hoine per caritate ,
>
omm. , ad loc. (.0/0). In 1!h. /5*+ the
referen%e is to the divine !ower wor:ing in the a!ostle, and in ?m. 05.6 to the effe%tiveness of
!ra&er. -nl& on%e %an the term be related to >hrist. ,%%ording to 1!h. )5.6 it is
7e who grants the !ower of growth to ea%h member of the . In other
!assages hostile !owers are the logi%al sub$e%t of , e.g., !assions in A. 750 #
death in * >. )5.* # q i in * Th. *57 . Hehind these %on%e!ts
2aul and his readers see demoni% !owers. In the ;T , then, the word grou! is used of
irrational o!erations, whether divine or demoni%.
A!, A!, A%
*

This word grou! is found from the time of 7omer, 2indar and the tragi% dramatists.
i %an indi%ate an individual benefit or favour, or general benevolen%e. In the
7ellenisti% !eriod it is ver& %ommon in ins%r. and the !a!. in the sense of a title !ubli%l& %onferred
and generall& a%:nowledged. There are instan%es of this from the 0th %entur& H.>. to the *nd %ent.
,.3.
.
In the Aoman !eriod the title euergetes is usuall& %ombined with others.
*
The manifold
use of benefa%tor and benefit is lin:ed with the %ivilised outloo: of 7ellenism. <ods and heroes,
:ings and statesmen, !hiloso!hers, inventors and !h&si%ians are hailed as benefa%tors be%ause of
their %ontributions to the develo!ment of the ra%e.
/
,s in invention sagas, the differen%e between
gods and men is here dissolved in an euhemeristi% sense. If the formal use of the title in !ubli% life
derives to a large eBtent from its !hiloso!hi%al signifi%an%e, the ,ugustan renaissan%e ma:es it
one of the basi% religioD!oliti%al %on%e!ts of the <olden ,ge of the Aoman 1m!ire.
)
The
em!erors are divine saviours and benefa%tors of humanit&,
0
for the& establish the pa: roana
and with it the !resu!!osition of all human %ulture.
In the -T we are often told that <od is benefi%ent to 7is !eo!le, but the <:. translations
generall& avoid the word grou!. -nl& in 2 do we find for L` at 1 B. 2:32 and
50:18 and for L^ cPq at 118:65 . If the word grou! is also introdu%ed for c\d`\aqb at
77:11 (4''), for MsR
6
at 56:2 (4''), for \sR at 12:6 # ..)57 (4'') and 141:7 #
2rv. ..5.7 # Is. 6/57 ( 2 ), and for \^sR at 102:2 ( 2 ), this estimation of benefits is reall&
introdu%ed b& the translators. 1B%e!t in 2rv. ..57 the benefa%tor is alwa&s <od. It is onl& of <odOs
benefits that the -T revelation %an !ro!erl& s!ea:.
7
1ven in @is. and * 8a%%. this referen%e to
<od is dire%tl& or indire%tl& maintained.
6
In the other 7ellenisti% boo:s men are benefa%tors,
usuall& !rin%es.
9
&uergetes is never used of <od, and it normall& has the distin%tive <:. sense.
>f. the additions to 1st. 65.* 1 /, ./ (.65/, ./)5 q q
# * 8a%%. )5* 5 q / 8a%%. /5.9 # 65*) .
>omm. %ommentar&.
C . 2r.DHauer , )96 f.# 8oult.D8ill. , *6+ f.# 2reisig:e @Jrt. , 6.+ f.# 3eissmann 4- , *.) ff.#
@endland 7ell. Fult. , IndeB, s.v. # A. Fno!f on . >l., .9, * in (andb. -. !" (.9*+)# 1. 9:ard,
gwei religiJsD!olitis%he Hegriffe 5 &uergetes<1oncordia " ( ;ors:e (ides:a!s ,:ademi i -slo, ,vhandlinger ,
.9/*).
. ?. hler in 2aul&D@. , (I (.9+9), s.v. &uergetes .
* For eBam!les, v. 3. 8agie, De /oanoru iuris publici sacri$ue vocabulis sollenibus in Graecu
serone conversis (.9+0), 67 f.
/ 9o es!. 7era%les, who in 1ur.7era%l. , .*0* is %alled i . >f. also
3iod. 9. , III, 06, 0# III, 07, *# III, 6+, / and 0. >f. ?. Froll, Gott and (lle (.9/*), es!. /99 ff.# also 9o%rates in
2lat.,!. , /6d.
) >f. 9:ard, op. cit. , 6I66, where there is a dis%ussion of the earlier histor& of the %on%e!t in the <ree: s!here.
0 >f. 8agie, op. cit. , 67 f.
6 2ossibl& through %onfusion with \sR , %f. F. @utE, Die Psalen (.9*0), ad loc.
7 The %on%e!t of <odOs benefits im!lies, of %ourse, an anthro!o%entri% develo!ment of the bibli%al understanding
of <od su%h as we find in 7ell. ?udaism and the 4''. The o%%urren%e of the word grou! in the Hible indi%ates
the introdu%tion of su%h ideas.
6 @is. /50 # 75** # ..50 , ./ # .65* , .. , *) # * 8a%%. 05*+ # 65./ # .+5/6 .
9 >f. additions to 1st. 65.* 1 * (.65*)# * 8a%%. 95*6 # ) 8a%%. 656 , .7 .
1ven more strongl& 7ellenisti% is the usage of 2hilo. 7e %an a!!l& the title eTuall& to <od or the
em!eror. <ratitude for benefits re%eived is the essen%e of this sapiens pietas .
.+

In the ;T the word grou! o%%urs onl& ) times. In ,%. )59 the mira%ulous healing of the
si%: is regarded as a benefit dis!la&ed b& <od through the a!ostles. In ,%. .+5/6 the a%tivit&
of the 9aviour 7imself is des%ribed from the anthro!o%entri% 7ellenisti% stand!oint of benefit.
The same stand!oint is seen in . Tm. 65* . >hristian slaves should not des!ise their >hristian
masters be%ause the& are now brothers. The& should serve them the more diligentl& be%ause
these masters now have the honourable title of believers loved b& <od. That the& are now
%on%erned for the welfare of their slaves is an outwor:ing of the divine love whi%h the& have
eB!erien%ed, and should not be abused.
..
In %ontrast to this !ositive use is the re$e%tion of the
title of euergetes in 4:. **5*0 . This is to be ta:en in the sense of 8t. */57 ff. 5 He not %alled
Aabbi, master, or do%tor, for these titles belong to -ne alone. -nl& >hrist %an reall& be %alled
euergetes ( ,%. .+5/6 ). ,ll human benefits ma& be tra%ed ba%: to 7im, or to <od.
.*
@e find
the same view in . >l., where the !hiloso!hi%al and religious %on%e!t of the divine benefit has
a s!e%ial sense.
./
In the ;T the !ro!er !osition of men as mediators of the divine benefits is
that of servants ( 8t. */5.. # 4:. **5*6 ). ,nd what <od does through >hrist a%%ording to the
;T revelation does not in the first instan%e stand under the human stand!oint of i ,
whi%h seems to !romise fulfilment of what man might desire, but under the theologi%al
stand!oint of the l i ( A. .5.6 ).
Bertra
,
*

- is the older form of the stem.
.
The first literar& use of - is in the 4''.
*

, nonDliterar& use of - is still found in ../ H.>. ( 2. Tebt. , I, /6, .9), while -
first a!!ears in 2. -B&. , II, *9), .+ in !a!. (** ,.3. ), though found on ins%r. in the *nd Tuarter of
the .st %ent. H.>. , I< , 'II, 0, 60/, *.. In the ;T the 899 mostl& have - , though it
%annot be said for %ertain what %riteria led to the sele%tion.
/
;or are there an& obvious reasons for
the usage in the 4''. Thus in 63:6 , where the root o%%urs three times, [ has on%e and
twi%e. Ksuall& is !redominantl& or eB%lusivel& attested. -nl& twi%e does [ %learl& have
instead of the more general . The most that we %an sa&, then, is that and are not to be
%learl& differentiated even in the same 899 and the same verses.
The general meaning of is to sear%h after," both literall& and figur. It is first used
a. of animals in the sense of to sniff out" with the nose, %f. 7om.-d. , .9, )/6,
1
m!ed. Fr. , .+.
.+ -!. 8und. , .69 # 4eg. ,ll. , II, 06 # 4eg. <a$. , *+ and .)9 # (it. 8os. , II, .96 5 c q
c i .
.. , different view is ta:en in @bg. 2ast. on . Tm. 65* . -n the histor& of the inter!retation of this dis!uted
!assage, %f. H. @eiss, &rkl. der Past.
7
(.9+*), ad loc.
.* There is a %onfusion of %on%e!ts in ,%t. ?oh. , *75 If alongside this <od we ma& %all those men gods who are
our benefa%tors {"
./ >f. .9, *# *+, ..# *., .# */, .5 # /6, /# 09, /.
C . , I, /07 # 2r.DHauer , s.v. (on the %orre%t reading %f. 1. ;a%hmanson in
&ranos , .. m.9..n, */9).
. @e do not a%hieve the oldest sense if we lin: it with the Tuestion of in 7omer (on whether to !ut after
or , v. Hoisa%T, s.v. ).
* Then also in 2hilo and ?ose!h. ( 8a&ser , I, ../), though the reading ma& be arbitraril& determined b& the
various %o!&ists.
/ [ alwa&s has eB%e!t in Aev. *5*/ , and H eB%e!t in A. 65*7 # Aev. *5*/ . >f. the readings in @. Housset,
"e:tkritische Studien -. !" ( TK , .., ) m.69)n), .+). >f. also @. Housset on Aev. *5*/ . ,gainst HoussetOs thesis
that is ,leBandrian, v. A. 7elbing, Graatik der )QQ (.9+7), 7. Tha%:era& I, 79 thin:s that there is at least
a !ossible lin: with 1g&!t.
1m!ed. 1m!edo%les, of ,%ragas in 9i%il& (%. )90I)/0 H.>. ), a !hiloso!her who with his do%trine of the elements
is to be !la%ed among the !h&si%ists and m&sti%s of the 0th %entur& H.>. , ed. 7. 3iels in Die 9ragente der
(I, *6+, .9, 3iels ). It is then used b. of men in the sense of to sear%h" ( es!. of houses or
!ossessions, e.g., ,ristot.-e%. , II, !. ./0.b, *7), so also 2. -B&. , II, *9), .+5 l
q , and therefore sometimes s&non. with in the sense of investigating a
robber& ( 2lat.4eg. , 'II, 90)b). It then %omes to mean %. to investigate a matter," es!. in the
legal sense, though also in the more general sense of enTuir& (e.g.,
7
om. 7&mn. 8er%. , .76). >f.
the ;T %onteBt of the o%%urren%e of , I, /07 . d. This gives us the further
sense of to test" or full& to eBamine" a statement, more !arti%ularl& from the a%ademi%
stand!oint. 9o!h. Fr. , 6+ ( T<F , !. .)7)5 q . In
religious usage it means to see:," 2indar Fr. , 6.5

q i , be%ause of his limitations man %annot dis%over the will of <od,
though he sear%hes diligentl&5 i { ( 9o!h.-ed. T&r. , 7*0).
>f. 2hiloFug. , .60 5 It is im!ossible to !enetrate to the innermost being of <od ( )# in
the relative sense5 { { q , 4eg. ,ll. , III,
6) . In the sense of , 8igr. ,br. , .60 (%f. ./6)#
,
gri%. , 7* # 9om. , I, 0) .
1s!. in 2lato ( s&non. with , ) and 2hilo it is used of a%ademi%, s%ientifi%,
!hilologi%al ( 2hilo>her. , .+0 ) and !hiloso!hi%al investigations. In 2hilo it is sometimes used of
a%ute enTuir& into the linguisti% and other ba%:ground, e.g., 3eus Imm. , .67 . Thus we often have
in 2hilo the summons , , . The verb often ta:es
li () as ob$e%t (%f. 2lat.4eg. , (II, 6*.a). 2hilo also uses it for the stud& of 9%ri!ture (of the
-T , 3et. 2ot. Ins. , ./ ), !erha!s as a te%hni%al term for the wor: of the s%ribes ( >her. , .) , %f.
3et. 2ot. Ins. , 07 m%f. .).n5

q ).
In the 4'' we find both and
)
(on the !ure form supra ) in the
various senses b.Id., e.g., to investigate," to sear%h," or to see: out" (the , . 8a%%. /50
# %f. 95*6 ), to find out b& Tuestioning" ( ?dt. 65/) ), even to dis%over" or to invent" ( 63:6 ),
to test" (oneOs %ondu%t !re!arator& to re!entan%e, 4am. /5)+ ). ,lso im!ortant from the religious
stand!oint is the sense of to a!!ro!riate b& sear%h the revelation of <od in 7is %ommandments"
0
( 118:2 5 , %f. v. .*9# v. /) vl. 5 # v. 695
, %f. v. ..0). <od sear%hes" the heart of man in 2rv. *+5*7 , but the Tuestion
# (i.e., 7is !lan for 7is !eo!le) is intended in the negative in ?dt.
65.) .
In the ;T has the %ommon sense of thorough investigation," though onl& in
the broader sense of d.
.. It is used of sear%hing the 9%ri!tures (onl& in ?n.), as in the 4'' (and sometimes
!erha!s in 2hilo, though with a !redominant s%holasti% and a%ademi% sense), in the sense of
see:ing the divine revelation" in 7ol& 9%ri!ture (the -T ), whi%h is the a%tual lo%us of the
living divine revelation ( , ?n. 05/9 ).
6
In ?n. 750* on the li!s of leaders of
the ?ewish religion it is used of Aabbini% stud&, whi%h believes itself to be in !ossession of
revelation, but whi%h fails to !er%eive true revelation be%ause of its bondage to the letter.
*. It %an also mean to loo: into," being thus used in . 2t. .5.. (%f. v. .+ 5 @
) of the a%tivit& of the %lassi%al !ro!hets of Israel. To them is obviousl&
attributed the fun%tion of later ?ewish a!o%al&!tists,
7
i.e., that of diligent sear%h for the
moment of the a!!earan%e of the 8essiah, or at least for the %onditions b& whi%h this moment
will be ver& largel& determined.
/. In the ;T , too, it is em!hasised that <od in 7is innermost realit& is ina%%essible to
man# but while the nonDbibli%al world relates this to <odOs essen%e the ;T relates it to 7is
Vorsokratiker , I, .9**.
7om. 7&mn. 8er%. ad 3ercuriu .
,gri%. De #gricultura .
) The following eBam!les %over both.
0 That the referen%e here is not to mere theoreti%al stud& of the Torah is shown es!. b& the eB!ression
in v. * .
6 is indi%. , v. 9%hl. ?. , gn. ?. , ad loc.
7 ,nd not merel& of those, or the manner of those, whose writings have %ome down to us.
a%tion ( I, 0.7 ). 3ee!er understanding of this is first made !ossible for the >hristian b& the
7ol& 9!irit ( . >. *5.+ ).
6
The !robing insight of <od into the heart of man is manifested on
the one hand in the willing re%e!tion of the !ra&ers of the 9!irit b& the gra%ious <od ( A. 65*7
) and on the other in !re!arator& testing b& the <od of $udgment ( Aev. *5*/ ).
Delling
, &,
, , &%
*

The ad$. (usuall& in the ;T ) and the subst. q refer to
abandonment," whether of a !erson ( , 9o!h.-ed. >ol. , .7.7#
i , 1ur.9u!!l. , 770# %f. <l. )5*7 5 q , the abandoned wife"), or a %ause ( q
, 7dt. , I', 6/), or a lo%alit&. The latter does not have to be a desert. It
is a !la%e without inhabitants," em!t&," e.g., an abandoned %it&" or a thinl& !o!ulated distri%t"
( 7dt. , I(, .7 f.# (I, */# (III, 605 6 i q #
2. 4ille, I, *6, / m/rd %ent. H.>. n, %f. 8t. */5/6 vl. # 4:. ./5/0 # ,%. .5*+ ). It %an naturall& mean
waste" in the stri%t sense, e.g., an un!rofitable waste of stone or sand" (e.g., 7dt. , III, .+*5
i q ), and it %an thus be used for a lonel&"
heath (e.g., 4:. .05) , where the she!herd leaves the 99 shee! g q ).
The ;T !uts - to varied use.
.. It %an signif& a lonel& !la%e" where there are no men, where the demonia% wanders ( 4:.
65*9 ) and where there are man& dangers to the bod& ( * >. ..5*6 # 7b. ..5/6 # %f. 4:. .+5/+ ) and
also to the soul.
.
It is also a refuge for the !erse%uted ( . F. .95/f .)
*
or for rebels ( ,%. *.5/6 ),
though other motifs are !resent in the latter %ase ( / .).
*. For ?esus the !la%e without inhabitants" is one where nothing se!arates 7im from <od
and whi%h 7e therefore see:s when 7e wants to es%a!e the %rowds ( 8t. .)5./ # 8:. .5)0 #
4:. )5)* # %f. ?n. ..50) ) or when 7e tries to find a !la%e of Tuiet for 7is dis%i!les ( 8:. 65/.
ff. ), but to whi%h the masses often follow 7im ( 8t. .05// # 8:. 65) ). @hat 7e !rimaril&
see:s therek%f. the of 8t. 656 kis the stillness of !ra&er ( 8:. .5/0 # 4:. 05.6 ).
This is surel& the !oint of 7is fort& da&s in the wilderness whi%h the tradition !la%es after 7is
ba!tism and whi%h it lin:s with 7is tem!tation. In 8:. .5.* f. and !ar. the beginning (
, 8t. )5* ) and the end ( l , 8:. .5./ ) of the
stor& show that 7e has in view a !eriod alone with <od (under the im!ulsion of the ,
8:. .5.* ) whi%h the tem!ter tries to disturb.
There are no serious reasons for ma:ing the %ommon %onne%tion of the fort& da&s with the
fort& &ears of Israel in the wilderness ( 3t. 65* ).
/
Fort& &ears are not fort& da&s and nights, and
re%olle%tion of the fort& &ears is not !rimaril& lin:ed with 3t. 65* (the tem!tation and testing of
Israel)
)
but with IsraelOs disobedien%e on the one side and the time of divine salvation on the
other. 8ore a!!osite are the fort&Dda& fast of 8oses in 1B. /)5*6 # 3t. 959 , .6 (though the details
are different) and the fort&Dda& fast of 1li$ah, !re%eded b& angeli% ministr&, in . F. .950 , 6 ,
though here the %onteBt is ver& different from that of the <os!el stor&, sin%e the wilderness is a
6 -n , %f. also ?dt. 65.) 5 i 6 , supra .
C . ,. 9%hlatter, Das #" u. d. 5oh. #pk. (.9**), 77f.# 9%hl. 8t. , 0)f.# gn. ,g. , 7)6 f.# 9tr.DH. , II,
*6) f., *96, III, 6.*.
. ,%%. to traditional ?ewish belief demons are !arti%ularl& found in lonel& !la%es and ruins ( ./ )# %f. 9tr.DH. ,
I(, 0.6# Fl. 8:. , also 8t. .*5)/ 5 l (%f. b. 9u::a, 0*b with an eB!osition of ?l. *5*+ ).
* >f. !e2 1lassical 9ragents and other Greek and )atin Pap'ri (ed. <renfell and 7unt m.697n), 6), ) (0thv6th
%ent. ,.3. )5 l l i
.
/ >f. 3. 9trauss, )eben 0esu. I (.6/0), )**.
) In 7b. /56 the referen%e is to the to whi%h <od is eB!osed b& 7is !eo!le, and not vice versa .
!la%e of refuge for 1li$ah in his flight from the Tueen ( . F. .95/ f. ), and this as!e%t does not
o%%ur in the stor& of the tem!tation.
/. 2arti%ular signifi%an%e atta%hes to the wilderness wandering" of Israel in the two
senses alread& indi%ated. -n the one hand, it is mar:ed b& the disobedien%e ( 7b. /56 f. # ,%.
75). ff. # %f. 77:17 , )+ ) whi%h %aused a whole generation to !erish ( . >. .+50 # 7b.
/5.7 ), this ha!!ening and being written i q ( . >. .+5.. ).
-n the other hand, it is a time of gra%e when <od did s!e%ial signs and wonders for 7is
!eo!le ( ,%. 75/6 # ./5.6 # %f. ?n. /5.) , the ser!ent# ?n. 65/. , )9 , the manna) and s!o:e to it
in a s!e%ial wa& ( ,%. 75/6 , )) ). 7ere again the re%olle%tion serves the !resent age either b&
dire%t des%ri!tion of <odOs gra%ious a%tion or b& its %om!arison with the far greater !resen%e
of <od in the >hrist event (%f. es!. ?n. /5.) f. # 65/. ff. , )9 ).
1m!hasis on the saving as!e%t of the wilderness !eriod %reates in ?udaism a tenden%& to
as%ribe to it ever&thing great and glorious. The %hara%teristi%s of the last time, e.g., that the
Israelites see <od, that the angel of death has no !ower et%.,
0
are %arried ba%: into it, and its
s!e%ial features are also lin:ed with the 8essiani% age, e.g., the blessing of the manna.
6

There thus arises the belief that the last and de%isive age of salvation will begin in the
, and that here the 8essiah will a!!ear. This belief led revolutionar& 8essiani%
movements to ma:e for the ( ,%. *.5/6 ). It also eB!lains 8t. *)5*6 5 , and
the flight or ra!ture of the woman into the in Aev. .*56 , .) . The %ommunit& of
>hrist is to remain hidden in the wilderness until >hrist %omes again and ends the assault of
9atan.
,%%ording to 2alestinian eB!e%tation as seen not merel& in Aabbini% theor& but in man&
in%idents re%ounted b& ?ose!hus, flight into the immediatel& before the last event has a
solid !la%e in the es%hatologi%al s%hema. In Aabbini% statements %onsiderable influen%e was
eBerted b& various -T !assages as well as the analog& of 9inai, e.g., 7os. *5.) 5 Therefore,
behold, I will allure her, and bring her into the wilderness"# .*59 5 I { will &et ma:e thee to
dwell in tents, as in the da&s of the solemn feast"# ?ob /+5) 5 @ho %ut u! mallows b& the bushes,
and $uni!er roots for their meat." Tan%h. LNq 7 b5 (The 8essiah) drives them forth, and brings
them into the wilderness, and %auses them to eat saltwort and $uni!er." 4eTa%h tob ;u. *)5.7 (II,
.*9b)5 (The fight with <og and 8agog) { but Israel flees and is delivered. Then Israel goes into
the wilderness to feed on saltwort and $uni!er roots for )0 da&s, and the %louds of glor& surround
it." It was dis!uted whether the wilderness was that to the south east (?udah) or to the east (9ihon
and -g, or Trans$ordan).
7
In ?ose!h. it is es!. the different bran%hes of the gealot movement
whi%h es!ouse these ho!es, li:e the 1g&!tian of ,%. *.5/6 who assembled his hosts in the
i and led them against ?erusalem ( Hell. , *, *6. ). In the same %onteBt there is mention of
the ( Hell. , *, *09 ) who led the !eo!le l q i,
i i . 9imilarl& in Hell. , 7, )/6 the weaver
?onathas led his followers in >&rene l q , i
. Hut the most dramati% s%ene is at the end of the siege of ?erusalem on the
bridge between the u!!er %it& and the tem!le ( Hell. , 6, /0. ). The tem!le has alread& been
destro&ed in flames, and the ?ews ma:e a final reTuest that with their wives and %hildren the&
might be allowed to go l q , there to awaitkalthough the& do not sa& itkthe final
a%t of divine deliveran%e.
). There are !erha!s man& reasons wh& ?ohn the Ha!tist arose and did his wor: in the
desert. Hannus, who was li:e him in man& wa&s, also lived in the i ( ?os.(it. , .. ).
,long with other signs at his %oming, it is surel& signifi%ant that he gathers the !eo!le to him
in the wilderness and de%lares to them ( / .) the glor& of <od and the %oming of >hrist."
6

In an& %ase, the >hristian tradition saw !arti%ular signifi%an%e in this manner of his a!!earing,
0 9tr.DH. , I(, 9/9 f.
6 .bid. , 90).
7 2esi:t. , )9b# 9tr.DH. , II, *60.
6 9%hl. 8t. , 00.
for on this groundkwith an eBisting modifi%ation of the meaning of the 7eb.
9
kit !er%eived
in him the g q of Is. )+5/ .
.+

0. That a %it& or %ountr& is or q
..
(devastated") is the natural result
of the destru%tive atta%: of enemies ( 8t. .*5*0 5 , ). It ma& also be,
as in man& !ro!heti% sa&ings of the -T ( Is. 65.. # 4am. 05.6 # 1E. 656 et%.), the %onseTuen%e of
the divine wrath ( 8t. */5/6 vl. and !ar. # Aev. .75.6 ). >onversel&, a%%ording to the -T , it %an
sometimes be a !romise of divine gra%e, for the desert is to be%ome a field ( Is. /*5.0 f. ) or a
fruitful and watered land ( Is. /05. ff. # ).5.6 f. et%.) , **7 .
%
*

8t. *)5.0 # 8:. ./5.) # 4:. *.5*+ (on the basis of 3a. 95*7 m 6 n# ..5/. #
.*5.. # 65./ m i q 6 n# %f. . 8a%%. .50) )5 B q
6 . The nature of the san%tuar& is to be used b& those who %ome to worshi! <od
there. The ( I, 6++ ) does not destro& it# it ma:es it desolate b& %ausing !ious
worshi!!ers to avoid it be%ause of the abomination, and b& thus de!riving it of an& meaning or
!ur!ose.
4ittel
(
*

.. i %omes from , to wor: as a da&Dlabourer," to %ondu%t oneself as
su%h," to wor: for dail& hire,"
.
and this again %omes from , a da&Dlabourer."
*

i thus means the wor:," then the manner, attitude or dis!osition of the da&labourer."
There are no eBam!les to !rove this, but it must be assumed be%ause it %orres!onds to the sense of
and eB!lains the use of i when it o%%urs. It is be%ause the term is so rare that we
%annot demonstrate its sense.
*. ,ristot.2ol. , (, /, !. ./+/a, ./ ff.5

l
i, 6 Hiq ( l
i , g ), l i.
here are those who !ro%ure offi%e b& illegal mani!ulation, and therefore i
is their attitude, i.e., not so mu%h abitus as a%tion, but the !ersonal manner %onne%ted with it (%f.
the !arallel i ).
/
The ad$. is used in the same sense in the %ivi% oath of the Itanians5
)

{ c i || |||| || || (
q , ,tti%) || , I will not on an& !reteBt bring a %harge of
failure to :ee! %ivi% law against an& %itiEen for !ersonal reasons." , the %ru%ial !oint
of the oath, defines su%h %harges as unob$e%tive and selfDsee:ing. >f. also 2ol&b. , ', **595 l c
q i q q
l . 7ere, too,
denotes an attem!t to influen%e others in oneOs own interests. 2hilo uses
i in the same wa& in 4eg. <a$. , 66 5 qi c
i q . 7e thus demands that leaders should be nonD%ontentious and
9 7eb. The voi%e of one who %ries5 2re!are the wa& of =ahweh in the desert"# 4''5 q g
q q i . -n Tg. 2ro!h. , whi%h is doubtful, %f. F. 3elitEs%h, 0esa5a
)

(.699), ).+# gn. 8t. , .*6, n, /+. Aabb. Tuotations whi%h in%lude Is. )+5/ ma& be found in 9tr.DH. , I, 96# II, .0).
.+ 8t. /5/ UU 4:. /5) , in the stor& of the Ha!tist# 8:. .5/ , !rior to it# ?n. .5*/ , a sa&ing of the Ha!tist himself.
.. , of %ourse, has the !rimar& meaning of to ma:e desolate" rather than to destro&."
C . For bibl. I, 6++, n. 9 .
C i . H. @eiss, &rkl. des /.
9
(.699), .+9, n. *# gn. A. , ../, n. *.# 4tEm. A.
/
on *56# >r.DFJ. , ))/# 8.
4agrange, &pXtre au: /oain
*
(.9**), )6.
. 7eliodor.,eth. , I, 05 l # Tob. *5.. 5 q
i .
* FreTuentl& attested from the time of 7omer# %f. gn. A. , ../, n. *.. as a fem. is mostl& used for a
s!inner or wor:er in wool ( ) %f. the wrong inter!retation of <regor& under /.
/ i is again used with i in 2ol. , (, *, !. ./+*b, ).
) 3itt. 9&ll.
/
, 0*6, n. 6 (/rd %ent. H.>. ).
without !ersonal ambition. 9&mma%hus in his translation of 1E. */50 , .* has , in
v. 9 , (4''5 i ), and in v. .. i (4''5 i ), of
the harlot who offers herself to a man or who enti%es him. i is thus the attitude of selfD
see:ers, harlots et%., i.e., those who, demeaning themselves and their %ause, are bus& and a%tive in
their own interests, see:ing their own gain or advantage. That the honest should have lent
his name to this %ontem!tible %ondu%t is a !arallel instan%e to the develo!ment of su%h terms as
, originall& a wor:er b& or with fire,
0
or proletarius , the &ounger son who has no
inheritan%e and must earn his own living. The aristo%rati% s%orn of the man of !ro!ert& and %ulture
for the dail& wageDearner is res!onsible for this %hange in the meaning of i and
. It regards the as sus!e%t from the ver& first in view of his %on%ern for gain
and his readiness to do things onl& for !rofit.
6

/. 4ater nonD<ree:s who %ame on the word as translators and eB!ositors of the ;T often failed
to understand it. It is worth noting that <regor& of ;&ssa
7
inter!rets i as q
(wool) , and maintains that 2aul, who often !ermits himself the libert& of
innovations, de!arts from the %ustomar& usage and uses the term for q q
i . ?erome
6
eTuates i with i and ri:a .
9
>hr&sostom, too, has
i for i .
.+
The (ulgate translates A. *56 5 e: contentione , 2eshitto those who
are %ontentious." 4ietEmann thin:s it li:el& that 2aul derives i from , and he
translates it strife," %ontention."
..

). , first !oint to note is that an o!!robious e!ithet of this :ind has no fiBed meaning but
is a %om!leB term in ever&da& usage.
.*
1ven at an earl& stage different !eo!le gave the word
different senses in the absen%e of an& %ontrol of the meaning b& derivation. For man& it
!robabl& had no more than the general sense of baseness, selfDinterest, ambition, %ontention
et%. Hut in A. *56 %ontention or strife is rather too s!e%ialised,
./
and we do best to see a
referen%e to the des!i%able nature of those who do not strive after glor&, honour and
immortalit& b& !erseveran%e in good wor:s ( v. 7 ), but who thin: onl& of immediate gain.
This meaning is eTuall& a!!li%able in * >. .*5*+ # <l. 05*+ # 2hil. .5.7 # *5/ # ?m. /5.) , .6 #
Ign.2hld. , 6, *5 c , c i ,
i . It is better than strife or %ontention in 2hil. *5/ .
.)
For this reason, it is best
to understand i as base selfDsee:ing," or sim!l& as baseness", the nature of those
who %annot lift their gaEe to higher things.
Bchsel
, , ,
, ,
*

0 >f. 2a!e, 2ass. , s.v. , i .
6 The 4'' does not have i . It is of no signifi%an%e that the word does not o%%ur in the 7ell. !eriod
eB%e!t in earl& >hristianit&, sin%e 2ol&bius and 2hilo have %om!osites of the verb.
7 82< , )), ./*)%.
6 -n <l. 05*+ ( 824 , *6, ).6).
9 TheodoretOs those who eBert themselves in wi%:edness" ( 82< , 6*, 69) is not an eB!lanation of c
i but of A. *56 as a whole ( c i c g iq,
c g iq ).
.+ 82< , 6+, )*0. 7es&%h. , s.v. suggests l for q, for
q and i for , and derives it from UU q . 9uid. , s.v. 5 q
i ( A. *56 ), c q i .
.. Hefore 4ietEmann ?. <. Aei%he, Versuch einer ausfhrlichen &rkl=rung des Briefes Pauli an die /er
(.6//), /). 4tEm. on A. *56 # also 3ib. ?:. on /5.)# 4oh. 2hil. on *5/.
.* >f. the %om!leB %hara%ter of or !roletarian," whi%h %an in%lude boorishness, insolen%e and
!h&si%al and moral un%leanness, and %annot be rendered b& an& other single word.
./ @ith whom are l i striving
.) The admonitions of 2hil. *5/ , ) are against selfDsee:ing and vanit&.
C . -n ,5 2r.DHauer , )6*, /+* f.# 2oll.-nom. , (, .0)# 2ass. , I, ..7)# 2a!e , I, .+/* f.# <.
7einri%i, A1/ , (II, 7.9# 4iddellD9%ott , 69+, )*0# 8oult.D8ill. , *0), .6+# 2reisig:e @Jrt. , I, 09f., /76# 1. v.
A. Ling#istic.
The basi% word means a. to inter!ret," to eB!ound," to eB!lain"5 9o!h.-ed. >ol. , /965
i g { # 2lat.Aes!. , (, )0/%5 i

, # 2hil&llius, .. ( >,F , I, 760)5

i

, , H<K , I, .)+,
.6 ff.5 c
# 4:. *)5*7 3# Ign.2hld. , 6, .5
g (!ro!ounds ?udaism on the basis of the eB!osition of 9%ri!ture")#
.
%f.
i , eB!osition," eB!lanation"5 2lat.Aes!. , (II, 0*)b5 i { g
g l # Theaet. , *+9a5 { q q q
i # 9ir. )75.7 5 i
i (mobs%uren inter!retations5 7eb. cqd `\asZ
*
) #
2hil.3et. 2ot. Ins. , 66 5 q
{ q { i , i ,
{# . >. .*5.+ # .)5*6 # 2a!ias ( 1us.7ist. 1%%l. , III, /9, /)5
i (eB!ositions" s%. ora%les of the 4ord")# or ,
eB!ositor," inter!reter"5 2lat.4eg. , ', 9+7d5 { # 2olit. *9+%5
{ 6 # ?os.,nt. , *, 7* 5 (?ose!h)
q # . >. .)5*6 vl. #
,
ristid.,!ol. , .+, /5 tq { # %f. ?ust.,!ol. , *., *5 tq {,
(%f. 2lat.
>
rat. , )+7e). It also means
b. to indi%ate," to eB!ress oneOs thoughts in words," to eB!ress"5 Thu%. , II, 6+, 05 i
# 2lat.4eg. , 'II, 966b5 q l
l # 7ermogenes 3e 8ethodo <ravitatis , /+ (
A
het. <rae%. , II, )0.)5
l6 p g , 3ion. 7al. 3e
Thu%&didis >hara%tere a% reliTuis eius 2ro!rietatibus , )*5
i # %f. i , eB!ression"5 3iogenes of ,!ollonia, . (I, )*/,
*. f., 3iels )5 q c i q # ,ristot.2art. ,n. , III, .7, !. 66+a, /05
g 6g i # 2hilo3et. 2ot. Ins. , 79 5
i # >her. , .+0 5 pq { q i
. , further meaning is %. to transfer from a foreign language into a familiar," to
translate"5 'en.,n. , (, ), )5 E, q c Ti # 2lat.9&m!. ,
*+*e5 ( ) p
6 # 2 t. 4:7 5 q 2
q ( 7eb. VRedMZ Y sZ )# ?ob )*5.7b # ?n. .5)* # %f. /6 vl. # 957# 7b. 75* # 2. A&l. , 6*,
/+5 P # %f. i , translation"5 9&r. 2rolog., line .* (9wete)5
q i # 1!. ,r. , /5 q i i
(%f. ..)# 2hilo2lant. , /6 5 t k c # ?os.,nt. , .*, 67 5 q
i # H<K , ., /*6, >ol. I, .5 i # %f. >ol. II, .0# 2.
3obs%hGtE, Vo #uslegen des ;T
*
(.9*7), es!. .6, n. //# F. Torm, (ereneutik des ;T (.9/+), .. -n H5 Fl.
4:. , */7# 9%hl. 4:. , )00# >. F. <. 7einri%i, Das erste Sendschreiben des #p. Paulus an die 4orinthier (.66+),
/66 ff.# Der erste Brief an die 4orinthier (.696), /7* ff.# H%hm. . F.
/
, /6. ff., ).6, )*/# 4tEm. F. , 66f., 7)#
?oh. @. . F. , /*7, /)+# 9i%:b. F. on I, .*5.+ and I, .)5*/# 7. 4eisegang, Der heilige Geist , I, . (.9.9), .*6ff.,
.0*ff.# 1. Fas%her, H (.9*7), 66ff., .0*ff., .60# T. 7o!fner, 8anti:" in 2aul&D@. , 'I(, . (.9*6),
.*6. ff.
. >f. T. gahn, .gnatius von #ntiochien (.67/), /66 ff.# ?. H. 4ightfoot, "he #postolic 9athers , II, *, . (.660),
*6/# @. Hauer in 7. 4ietEmann, (andbuch -u ;T , 9u!!l. (.9*/), *06.
* >f. 2rv. .56 , where A and O also render cqd `\asZ as i , whereas the 4'' has
and 2 . The onl& other o%%urren%e of cqd `\asZ in the -T is at 7ab. *56 , where the 4'' has
and 2 . ,t Is. )/5*7 in A and 2 for `\as] has the sense of s!ea:er."
,ristid. ,ristides, the first >hristian ,!ologist, who addressed his defen%e of >hristianit& to ,ntoninus 2ius %.
.)+ ,.3. , ed. 1. <oods!eed, in Die =ltesten #pologeten , .9.).
>rat. 1rat'lus .
Ahet. <rae%. /hetores Graeci , ed. 4. 9!engel, .60/ ff.
-B&. , I', .*+., .*5

i P; and ,
inter!reter," translator"5 'en.,n. , I, *, .75 Hi
t # <n. )*5*/ 5 q ( 7eb. `\as] )
q # re%ords from the ro&al ban: at Thebes, 9, . (
,
,H , .666, #nh.6 phil.<hist.
#bhandlungen , I, .6)5 A6 T , 2a!ias ( 1us.7ist.
1%%l. , III, /9, .0)5 q H .
/

in !ostD%lassi%al <:. is also used in the senses a. to eB!ound or eB!lain"5
2hilodem. 2hilos. , (olumina Ahetori%a , I, 6) (ed. 9udhaus, .69* ff.)5
pq i
6 l
# 2hilo-!. 8und. , /. 5 { { i l6
q # 4:. *)5*7 # . >. .*5/+ # .)50 , ./ , *7 # %f.
i , eB!osition," inter!retation"5 . >. .*5.+ vl. (%f. Iambl.8&st. , (, 05
)# , eB!ositor,"
inter!reter," onl& in . >. .)5*6 and 1ustath. Thessal.>omm. in Il. , I, !. 69, 75 l
i # and b. to translate"5 2ol&b. , III, **, /5 (s%. )

q q , * 8a%%. .5/6 #
1!. ,r. , .05 q i {, q q
(%f. /+6, /.+)# 2hilo(it. 8os. , II, /. 5
# in the ;T ,%. 95/6 .
B. !aterial.
.. In the -T we sometimes have the thought that the ordinar& man %an ma:e nothing of
dreams even though the& %ome from =ahweh. In <n. )+56 # ).5.6 # 3a. *5*7 f. , /+ the view is
advan%ed that the inter!retation must also %ome from =ahweh in so far as the re%i!ient does
not !ossess a !ro!heti% charisa .
*. -n the <:. view one of the gifts !ro!er to man along with !er%e!tion and reason is the
%reative gift of i, l q i
(
'eno!h.8em. , I(, /, .*). To a s!e%ial degree, as 2lato sa&s in Ion, it is !ro!er to the !oet, to
whom it is given (Ion, 0/)b) to %reate his !oems, whi%h are not the wor:
of man but %ome from the gods, ibid. , 0/)e5 6
c 6 # 0/)d5 i l l
, l q ,

, c q . The !oet is sim!l& an inter!reter of deit&
(0/)e5 l c c

q q l ,
c # 0/0a5 i iq iq q
l ). @hat the !oet brings forth b& divine !ower, the
rha!sodist !asses on and inter!rets (0/+%5 pq
q i i # 0/0a5 the rha!sodists are thus
q ).
)
Aelated to the !oet is the divinel& ins!ired seer who, lifted above , s!ea:s b&
,,H #bhandlungen der 4gl. Preussischen #kadeie der Wissenschaften -u Berlin FPhil.<hist. 4lasseG , .6+) ff.
/ This %an hardl& be translator" in the stri%t sense (so es!. ,. 4in:, 3ie 3olmets%her des 2etrus ," Th9tFr , 69
m.696n, )+7 ff., and more re%entl& 8e&er Krs!rung , I, .07 ff.) but in a looser sense (%f. gn. Fan. , I, 676 ff.#
1inl. , II, *.. ff. et%.) as the middleman" who transmits the %ontent of the !rea%hing of the a!ostle. >f. the
!osition of ,aron as the one who %onve&s the thought of 8oseska !osition eB!lained b& 2hilo8igr. ,br. , 6. as

on the basis of 1B. )5.6 5 7e will s!ea: for thee." >f. also the view of ?ose!h.
that he translates" his ,ntiTuities from the 7ol& 9%ri!tures," i.e., that he ta:es his materials from this sour%e
( ?os.,!. , I, 0) 5 q { i { l ). >f. ad loc. ?.
<. 8Gller, Des 9lavius 0osephus Schrift gegen den #pion (.677), .+9 f.
) -n i in musi%, %f. 2lut. 3e 8usi%a , e.g., /* (II, ..)*d)5 q i
# /6 (II, ..))d)5 c, l q, q , q
, q q i # ibid. (II, ..))e)5 q i q, l
l i , i
higher ins!iration (Ion, 0/)%5 # %f. Tim. , 7.e# 2haedr. , *))a ff.). The (e.g., the
2&thia) %an be in su%h a state of ra!ture as to stammer out obs%ure and unintelligible words and to
be in%a!able of assessing what he sees and sa&s# to do this is the business of a 6 who
stands at his side, Tim. , 7*a5 c q
i,

6 q , of the
!ro!het ( ibid. 5 q i
) who %an give the i or of the
!ronoun%ements and visions of the seer (%f. 2oll.-nom. , (III, .*)5

l l .
.
/. The ins!iration m&sti%ism of 2lato rea!!ears in 2hilo in s!e%ulations on the !ro!hets as the
inter!reters of <od. 8oses, the most !erfe%t of the !ro!hets, <od filled with the s!irit of <od and
made the q ( 3e%al. , .70 # %f. 8ut. ;om. , .*0 f. ).
0

,!art from the revelation of the Ten >ommandments, whi%h
too: !la%e mira%ulousl& through <od 7imself ( 9!e%. 4eg. , III, 7 # %f. 2raem. 2oen. , * # (it. 8os.
, II, *./ ), the words of <od are revealed through 8oses ( (it. 8os. , II, .66 # 2oster. >. , . )
6

l ( (it. 8os. , II, .9. ). -ther !ro!hets are mediators of revelation in the
same wa&, e.g., Halaam ( (it. 8os. , I, *77 5 6
i ) and even the <:. messenger of the gods, 7ermes ( 4eg. <a$. , 99 5
i, tq 6,
).
7
The same is true of the inter!reters of dreams ( ?os. , 90 ). The !ro!heti%
offi%e of inter!retation ( 8igr. ,br. , 6) 5
q g mins!irationn iq 6 ) rests on divine
ins!iration in the stri%test sense, %f. 2raem. 2oen. , 00 5
# 9!e%. 4eg. , I, 60 5 the !ro!hets are
{ i
g # Aer. 3iv. 7er. , *09 5 c c ,
c q

, %f. 9!e%. 4eg. , I(, )9 # (it. 8os. , I, *66 .
6
2hilo also follows 2lato in that he %an set
alongside the enra!tured mediator of revelation a sober inter!reter who %an %learl& gras! and
%onve& that whi%h is given b& the 9!irit. 7e turns to ,aron and 8oses in 1B. )5.6 # 75. for an
eBam!le. <od showed to 8oses in his %onfli%t with the 1g&!tian so!hists all the thoughts
ministering to i , and gave them !erfe%tl& q A6 i,
"" { ( 3et. 2ot. Ins. , /9 #
%f. 8igr. ,br. , 6. m n. / n5 It is most em!hati%all& stressed ( 1B. )5.6 ) that ~he will s!ea: for
thee,O l , and that ~he will be th& mouth,O 6
, 6)). The
relationshi! of ,aron to 8oses is an allegor& of that of ( ) to #
the word is a brother of the !ower of thought, q
iq , q q
( 3et. 2ot. Ins. , )+ ). The word is the best inter!reter ( ibid. , .*9),
i ( ibid. , .//), i 6 ( 8igr. ,br. , 6. ). Knder the
influen%e of the 2latoni% do%trine of ideas, 2hilo develo!s further his thoughts %on%erning the
name of <od (UU ), b& whi%h alone one ma& swear (not b& <od 7imself), as 7is
( 4eg. ,ll. , III, *+7 ), or %on%erning human s!ee%h as a not altogether reliable
inter!reter of the thoughts of the ( 8igr. ,br. , 7* and 76 )
9
or even of things ( 9!e%. 4eg. ,
, et%.
0 ?ose!h. , too, %alls 8oses the of <od ( ,nt. , /, 67 ). >f. 9%hl. Theol. d. ?udt. , 07 ff.
6 >f. 4. >ohnD?. 7einemann, Schriften der 5disch<hellenistischen )iteratur , ) (.9*/), ), n. *.
7 In !agan 7ellenism we have the same tea%hing, e.g., in the !rea%hing of the ;aassenes a%%. to 7i!!.Aef. , (, 7,
*95 tq .
, or in 2or!h&r& a%%. to 1us.2rae!. 1v. , III, .., )*5
tq .
6 -n the distin%tion between and in (it. 8os. , II, .67 ff. , %f. 4. Treitel, Gesate
"heologie und Philosophie Philos v. #le:andria (.9*/), /* f.# Fas%her, op. cit. , .06 f.
I(, 6+ , %f. 8igr. ,br. , .* 5 c q i, 6 c
l ).
.+

). The i to whi%h 2aul refers along with in the
list of i in . >. .*5.+ (%f. /+ ) %an hardl& be translation of the language of the
e%stati% in view of the nature of s!ea:ing with tongues ( I, 7** # 7*6 ). It is rather the
%onversion of what is unintelligible into what is intelligible and therefore an eB!lanation of
the s!iritual movement whi%h fills the e%stati%. The ( . >. .)5*6 ) does not
%orres!ond to the translator ( tsd ReZMZ ^eYsZ ) who in the %ourse of s&nagogue worshi! !ut the
9%ri!ture readings into ,ramai% and also %ommuni%ated out loud to the %ongregation the
softl& s!o:en sermons,
..
but rather to the inter!reter of divine ora%les in 2lato and 2hilo (
66) ). =et, while the referen%e in 2lato and 2hilo was to the eB!osition of distin%t ora%les or
revelations, here it is a matter of inter!reting in the interests of general edifi%ation ( . >. .)50 ,
*6 ff. ) e%stati%s who are s!ea:ing to <od ( v. * , *6 ). The gift of i %an be given to
the one who s!ea:s with tongues ( v. ./ ), but also to another >hristian ( v. *7 ). If this
charisa is not !resent in a %ongregation, then there should be no s!ea:ing with tongues ( v.
*6 ), whi%h b& itself is of religious value onl& for the isolated e%stati% and does not serve an&
useful !ur!ose for the %hur%h as a whole ( v. * , ) ). It is hardl& !ossible to gather from . >.
.* and .) an& more !re%ise understanding of the 9!iritDgiven arts of !ro$e%ting oneself into
the tran%eDli:e state of him who s!ea:s with tongues and of ma:ing a%%essible and fruitful to
the whole %ongregation that whi%h he s!ea:s e%stati%all& ( v. * ). The !rin%i!le enun%iated b&
2aul, namel&, that there must be no s!ea:ing with tongues without dis%i!lined i
( .)5*6ff .), means in fa%t the %ontrolling of the wild torrent of s!iritual outbursts in the
%hannel of the %lear and dis%i!lined but no less genuine and !rofound o!eration of the 9!irit
through the @ord.
0. 4:. *)5*7 !resents the risen ?esus to those who wal:ed to 1mmaus as the eB!ounder of
the -T !ro!he%ies of 7is !assion and eBaltation (%f. v. *0f .)5

. The 8essiani% understanding of the -T whi%h is here
indi%ated onl& in brief (but %f. 4:. **5/7 # ,%. 65/* f. # 8:. .)5*7 , 6* et%.) is thus established
b& ?esus and develo!ed b& earl& >hristianit&. It rests on an eB!osition of 9%ri!ture whi%h is
new in %ontent, though not in method.
.*
In the light of their fulfilment, -T sa&ings are
%laimed to be !ro!he%ies of >hrist ( I, 706 ), and therefore a radi%all& new meaning is seen
in the -T on the basis of the ;T revelation.
Beh
3, ), #?, ?, ,?, ?, ?, ?,
?, ?, ?, !3
3 .
A. The eneral &se of 3 .
9 >f. 9ir. .750 ( >od. *)6, 7+)5 # less %lear is 2lut. 3e
2la%itis 2hiloso!horum , *+ (II, 9+6 f.), where seems to !resu!!ose
(or ) as a %onne%ting !hrase in what !re%edes.
.+ -n the 9toi% view of the sage as q in Aer. 3iv. 7er. , *./ ,
%f. 4. >ohnD?. 7einemann, op. cit. , 0 (.9*9), *7., n. ..
.. >f. 9tr.DH. , III, )60 ff.# I(, .6. ff., .60 ff.# I, 079.
.* >f. ?. 7lnel, Der Schriftbegriff 0esu (.9.9), .97 ff. et%.# -. 8i%hel, Paulus und seine Bibel (.9*9), .66# ,.
Freiherr v. KngernD9ternberg, Der traditionelle at.liche Schriftbe2eis de 1hristo { (.9./), *70 ff., es!. *67# 7.
9%hlier, @eissagung und 1rfGllung ," A<<
*
, (, .6./ f.# and in a few !oints F. @eidel, 9tudien Gber den
1influss des @eissagungsbeweises auf die evangelis%he <es%hi%hte ," Th9tFr , 6/ (.9.+), 66 ff., 96 f., and F. F.
Feigel, 3er 1influss des @eissagungsbeweises und andere 8otive auf die 4eidensges%hi%hte (.9.+), *7 et%.
2arallel to in 4:. *)5*7 is in v. /* (%f. ,%. .75/ )# %f. the Aabb.
hYf ied , I, 70*, n. 9.
.. The stem of the word - stands in su!!letive" %onne%tion with -, - (and
l ). In %lass. <:. the word has the senses of to %ome" and to go." It is used both of !ersons
and of inanimate ob$e%ts. 9!e%ial relationshi!s or nuan%es are given b& !re!ositions or the %onteBt,
e.g., to %ome to or towards," to go awa&," to return," to sail" (of shi!s). The word is used of
the o%%urren%e of natural events or fateful ha!!enings, or of the rise of states of mind. In the !a!.
.
it is also used for re%ei!t of letters, for transferring, e.g., !ro!ert& b& inheritan%e or !ur%hase, for
ma:ing an agreement or for underta:ing other enter!rises. In A. 7eberde&D,. @ilhelm, /eisen in
4ilikien (.696) .0), Ins%r. ;o. *6+, ) f. a !atriot %on%erned about and a%Tuainted with affairs of
state is %alled i .
*. -f !arti%ular signifi%an%e is the %ulti% use of the word.
*
In an%ient forms of !ra&er the
%oming of the deit& is besought in the t&!i%al formula or . The address to the god
then follows in the vo%ative# either his name is mentioned, or his nature and a%tivit& are de!i%ted
in a list of subst. and ad$. In an& %ase, he is des%ribed !re%isel& in his divine manifestation. H& the
invo%ation the god is brought down in order to fulfil what are usuall& the ver& egotisti%
desires of man. The formula or c is !arti%ularl& %ommon in the !ra&ers of the
magi% !a!. ( 2reis. gaub. , I, *.), *96# III, 0., //6 f.# I(, *7)6, *766, *666# (, *)9# (III, * ff., .)
f.# es!. stri:ing is II, 6/ f.5 c

,
>ome down Tui%:l& from heaven to earth to s!ea: with me." ,long with we have ,
, and . (er& t&!i%al is I(, .+*/ f., .+/., .+)., .+)05 , i ,
# also l { l , (, /*, /0. In
some !assages assuran%e is given that invo%ation of the deit& b& magi%al formulae will be
su%%essful5 l , 'II, .09# l , I(, .+)75 %f. 'III, .*,
or lg , 'II, 06) f.)
/

In this %onne%tion we are es!. reminded of the -r!hi% h&mns, whi%h often end with a !etition
for the %oming of the god or gods in Tuestion. The !ra&ers introdu%ed b& (or ,
, ) are normall& of .I/ lines in whi%h the subst. whi%h de!i%t the nature of the
god are ranged alongside one another in the vo%at.
)
In the 7omeri% h&mns
0
the formula is
rare#
>
er. , /6+5 H # ,d 7estiam, ) f.5

l, c
, . >f. 7om.Il. , */, 77+5 , ,
i c i . Im!ressive and t&!i%al is 2lat.4eg. , I(, 7.*b5
6 c { q . 7ellen. influen%e ma&
be seen in two !ra&ers in ?ose!h. whi%h have the same introdu%tor& formula5 ,nt. , ), )6 5 ,
, # *+, 9+5 c
. The %ulti% use is also attested in I< , 'I(, 966# the god gives a man the dire%tion
| | l q q, l||
{ V. also
2reisig:e 9ammelbu%h , ..)*5 6 ( 6 is here used li:e q , of
%oming to worshi! the deit&). For the %oming or manifestation of the deit&, 1ur. Fr. , /0/ ( T<F )5
, 6 , g q i .
H
>7 , /+ (.9+6), .)., the statement of 1ros5
| | || || .
6
In the same %onne%tion we should
mention
A
eitEenstein 2oim. , /)*, .9 f.5 q q and q q
.
/. In the 9e!tuagint it is used for /0 7eb. words (mostl& for [^_Le ). Its meaning is
!redominantl& lo%al, but it also o%%urs in %ulti% statements, either generall& for %oming to divine
servi%e or with , , for %oming to the house of <od, to the
. >f. 2reisig:e @Jrt. , s.v.
* -n the whole se%tion, >. ,usfeld, 3e <rae%orum !re%ationibus Tuaestiones ," 0bch. f. klassische Philol. 6
Suppl.<Bd. , *6 (.9+/), 0+0 ff.# F. giegler, De precationu apud Graecos foris $uaestiones selectae (.9+0).
/ >f. AeitEenstein 2oim. , .0 ff., *+ f., *7.
) The formula is found in almost ever& h&mn. The teBts edited b& ,bel &ield man& eBam!les.
0 These h&mns usuall& %lose with , whi%h is in some sense a formal !ar. to the %on%luding lines of
the -r!hi% h&mns.
>er. ad 1erere .
H>7 Bulletin de 1orrespondance (ell,ni$ue , .677 ff.
6 For a similar %ombination of and , %f. ?os.,nt. , 9, )9 # .+, 6* .
AeitEenstein 2oim. A. AeitEenstein, Poiandres , .9+).
san%tuar& or to ?erusalem. It is used of !ra&er whi%h %omes to <od in * >h. /+5*7 # %f. 101:1 #
..65). , 77 , !ra&er for the %oming of the divine mer%&. The word is also used with referen%e to
the %oming of <od, of 7is @ord, of 7is angels and !ro!hets to men. It is used es!. of the %oming
of the 8essiah ( 3a. 75./ 5 l l
6 q |O | ).
7
The 8essiah is
i 117:26 . It is also used of the %oming of 9atan ( ?ob *5. ). ,nother use is for the
%oming and going of ages ( * >h. *.5.9 ) or generations ( ooh. .5) )# q is the
%oming generation in 21:31 et%. , ver& %ommon use in the 2salms and !ro!hets is for the
%oming of es%hatologi%all& de%isive da&s (the da&s of salvation and $udgment). , universalisti%
es%hatologi%al statement o%%urs in 78:1 5 ;ations will %ome to the inheritan%e of <od. In Is.
/*5.0 there is a !romise of salvation whi%h is related to the %oming of the 9!irit. In the 2salms,
?ob and elsewhere it is strongl& em!hasised that evil, misfortune, suffering, tribulation and death
%ome over men. Hut so, too, does good (%f. Har. )5/6 5 q m$o&n q
). =et the statements that evil and bad things %ome on men !redominate.
In ?os. 5 l q , Hell. , ., 7/ # 6, /++ (%f. ?n. )5)0 )# ,

l # ,nt. , .*, /90 (%f. 4:. .*5)9 )#

q i , ,nt. , .7, 66 (%f. 8t. 65.+ # 4:. ..5* )#
, ,nt. , /, /.6 (%f. 4:. *5)) ).
Test. 'II 5 to %ome," to %ome with hostile intent," to a!!ear" ( ?ud. **5* )# ,. 75/, of the
es%hatologi%al %oming of <od.
). In the ;T , as elsewhere in <:. literature, the term has the basi% sense of %oming" and
going." It is used indifferentl& of !ersons and things. The %oming often has the sense of
a!!earing, of %oming forward !ubli%l&, of %oming on the s%ene. It is often used of de%isive events,
of ha!!enings, of natural !henomena, also of %onditions et%. (e.g., , ).
i is used in a hostile sense in 4:. .)5/. (to go against someone in battle").
Hoth meanings o%%ur, then, in both a literal and a figurative sense.
The following !re!ositional %ombinations should be noted5 l ,
6
8:.
05*6 (in the sense of getting %onstantl& worse)# l , ,%. .95*7 (to %ome
into disre!ute)#
9
l , 4:. .05.7 (to %ome to oneself, to a sensible frame of
mind).
.+
-n%e in the ;T we have the %ommon <:. !hrase in the sense of moving
on to a new sub$e%t. 2aul writes in * >. .*5. 5 c l i
i (I will now go on to s!ea: of visions and revelations of the 4ord").
..

B. The 5pecific &se of 3 in the NT.
.. The 9&no!tists.
a. The %oming of ?esus to men. The statements %hara%terised b& in the
figurative sense lead us to the ver& heart of the earl& >hristian message of salvation. The&
s!ea: of ?esus the 8essiah, of the nature of 7is a!!earing, of the !osition of men in relation
to 7im and of the de%ision to !ro%laim 7im. The word belongs to the %ir%le of ideas
%onne%ted with the divine e!i!han& ( ).
-f !arti%ular signifi%an%e for the 8essiani% tas: of ?esus are the sa&ings in whi%h 7e
s!ea:s of 7is %oming in the first !erson. The& o!en either with the negative q or
the !ositive q . The& %an be grou!ed under the title of q sa&ings.
.*
In them we
see ?esusO %ertaint& of mission. 9ome of the sa&ings were !erha!s given their final form b&
the %ommunit&, but we should not be so s%e!ti%al as to sa& that the& have no %onne%tion with
7 >f. ,s%. Is. ..5. , where the referen%e is to the %oming of the heavenl& 9on of 8an to earth. >f. also 1us.7ist.
1%%l. , I(, 6, *5 q q 6 . -n this whole Tuestion, v.
HoussetD<ressm. , *6) ff.
6 V. also @it:ows:i ;o. /6, line .. f.5 i l . There are similar
formulations in 2. 4ond. , I, )*, .75 l # and 2. Flor. , II, *.*, /5 l
i q .
9 There is no instan%e of in nonD>hristian usage ( v. 2r.DHauer , s.v. ).
.+ 9o also in 3iod. 9. , 'III, 90, *# 1!i%t.3iss. , III, ., .0. >f. 2reisig:e 9ammelbu%h , 076/, /0.
.. >f. on this whole se%tion 2r.DHauer , s.v. , where detailed eBam!les are given.
.* 9o 7. @indis%h, Paulus und 1hristus (.9/)), .06.
?esus and to %all them se%ondar& %onstru%tions at a later stage."
./
The& derive from the
8essiani% selfDawareness of ?esus and are to be eB!lained thereb&. In these sa&ings ?esus
gives su%%in%t formulations of 7is tas:. 7e has %ome to !ro%laim the :ingdom of <od ( 8:.
.5/6 and !ar. )# to %all sinners to re!entan%e ( 8:. *5.7 # 4:. 05/* )# to establish a new order
of life ( 8t. 05.7 )# to :indle a fire on earth ( 4:. .*5)9 )# to wor: in su%h a wa& that b& 7is
message men are divided into two grou!s ( 8t. .+5/) ff. # 4:. .*50. ff. ).
,t 4:. **5*7 3 has5 6 q q (instead of li )
i

. There are two q sa&ings in the a!o%r. tradition. In

the <os!. of the 1g&!t. (%ited in >l. ,l.9trom. , III, 9, 6/, *) we have5 q
q i ,
.)
and in the <os!. of the 7ebrews5 q i (
v.
1
!i!h.
7
aer. , ''', .6, !. .)+b).
.0

@e should also grou! the sa&ings with the q sa&ings, I, )+) .
,long with the statements of ?esus %on%erning 7is mission we are to %onsider the 9on of
8an sa&ings introdu%ed b& the formula5 q l 6 .
.6
,s the
8essiah, ?esus realises that 7e is sent to see: and to save that whi%h is lost ( 4:. .95.+ # 4:.
9506 * al lat s&
%
#
.7
8t. .65.. * 3 !m lat s&
%
). 7is offi%e is to minister and to give 7is life a
ransom for man& ( 8:. .+5)0 # 8t. *+5*6 ). The manner in whi%h 7e fulfils 7is lifeOs wor: is
des%ribed b& ?esus in 8t. ..5.6 f. # 4:. 75// f. as one of o!enness to the good things of this
world as distin%t from the as%eti%ism of the Ha!tist.
In the same %onteBt we should finall& refer to the sa&ings of the demons who :now who
7e is and who in dire%t address to ?esus define the !ur!ose of 7is %oming as their own
destru%tion ( 8:. .5*) # 4:. )5/) # %f. 8t. 65*9 ).
b. The %oming of men to ?esus. In 8:. and 4:. we often have des%ri!tions of the %oming
of great %rowds of men to ?esus. Hut the outward %oming does not mean mu%h. >oming to
?esus must in%lude a %ulti% a%tion. must be followed b& the
whi%h befits the 8essiani% dignit& of ?esus. This and i is
eB!ressl& mentioned of %ertain individuals who %ome into %lose %onta%t with ?esus (%f. 8t.
65* # 95.6 # .)5// # .05*0 # 8:. 05// ). There is also an eBam!le of this reverent %ulti% a%tion
in the infan%& stor& in 8t., where the wise men from the east %onfess5 q
q ( 8t. *5* ).
1ven the %oming whi%h ta:es %ulti% form does not meet the final demands of ?esus. The
de%isive reTuirement is dis%i!leshi!, or i .
.6
This i
im!lies full surrender to ?esus. It !resu!!oses a sim!le but $o&ful and willing %oming to ?esus
./ 9o Hultmann Trad. , .60 ff. -n the whole Tuestion v. ,. v. 7arna%:, I%h bin ge:ommen ," gThF , **
(.9.*), . ff. >f. also 4. v. 9&bel, 3ie I%hD@orte ?esu bei den 9&no!ti:ern ," Th9tFr , .++ (.9*7v*6), /6* f.# @.
@rede, Das 3essiasgeheinis (.9+.), ***, n. *.
.) 9o ,. Aes%h, ,gra!ha," TK , (, ) (.669), /7/, who !oints out that the sa&ing in 8t. 05.7 is %orru!ted to
%onve& en%ratisti% error.
1!i!h. 1!i!hanius, of 1leuthero!olis in 2alestine, bisho! of >onstantia in >&!rus (*96I)+/ ,.3. ), o!!onent of
6+ >hristian, ?ewish and <nosti% heresies in his ri%h and %om!rehensive wor: H
l , ed. F. 7oll, .9**.
7aer. (aereses .
.0 Aes%h, loc. cit. The of 8t. 05.7 is used to give the strongest !ossible eB!ression to the
vegetarian antithesis to the blood& sa%rifi%es of ?udaism.
.6 >f. on this !t. @. Housset, 4'rios 1hristos
*
(.9*.), 6. Housset %laims that the formula q l
6 ma:es the im!ression of a hierati% st&lisation.
.7 >f. on this !t. @. @rede, loc. cit. @rede as:s %on%erning 4:, 9506 5 3o we have here retros!e%tive glan%es
at the life of ?esus"
.6 The %oming of men to ?esus whi%h issues in dis%i!leshi! finds a !ar. in the Aabbini% world, where the !u!il
%omes ( [^_Le ) to a rabbi when he be%omes his !u!il and where he also %omes ( 9. ;u. , ..6 on .65.6 ) to serve
the s%ribes (%f. F, <. Fuhn, Sifre -u !u . m.9// ff.n, /97, n. ..0 and ..6). ,%%ording to Fuhn, the %oming to a
rabbi or to the rabbis, i.e., entr& into the tea%herD!u!il relationshi!, ne%essaril& entails i ( r\c
`Mh[ I, *./ ) and !ersonal servi%e to the rabbis.
whi%h rests on a %lear resolve of the will ( i , 8t. .65*) #
8:. 65/) ). It embra%es hearing the words of ?esus, fulfilling them, and den&ing oneself ( 4:.
65)7 # 95*/ # .)5*7 ). In the !arable of the great su!!er the summons goes out to all who are
invited to the marriage feast of the 8essiah5 , q c ( 4:. .)5.7 ). Hut
this summons is not heeded b& all. The invitation is refused b& some in the form5
( 4:. .)5*+ ). In the !arable of the ro&al marriage in 8t. ** the sad
eB!erien%e whi%h ?esus %ontinuall& meets with is eB!ressed in the words5 q
( v. / ). The de%isive moment in a human life, however, is for a man to find his wa&
home to <od, his Father, out of the situation of lostness ( 4:. .05*+ , /+ ).
@hen ?esus laid high estimation on the fa%t that %hildren %ame to 7im, 7e showed 7imself to
be the 7erald and 3is!enser of salvation to them too ( 8t. .95.) and !ar. ).
%. The es%hatologi%al %oming of the :ingdom of <od. In the !ra&er whi%h the 8aster
taught them, the dis%i!les of ?esus !ra& for the %oming of the :ingdom of <od ( 8t. 65.+ # 4:.
..5* ).
.9
-n the entr& of ?esus into ?erusalem, the !raise of the !eo!le a%%ording to 8:.
( ..5.+ ) is for the %oming 8essiah and the %oming :ingdom, whi%h the& understand as a
restoration of the :ingdom of 3avid along the lines of an%ient ?ewish tradition. @hen <odOs
:ingdom %omes, it %omes ( 8:. 95. ). The future i is identi%al with
the %oming aeon in whi%h eternal life will be given to those who leave ever&thing in this life
and follow ?esus ( 8:. .+5/+ # 4:. .65/+ ). i , l6 (UU
[Led cf V\ d ^ ) and q l6 are two different eB!ressions for the one a%tualit& of
salvation. The s!e%ial 4u%an tradition raises the Tuestion ( .75*+f .) of the time of the %oming
of <odOs :ingdom.
*+
In 4:. **5.6 there is referen%e to the future %oming of the :ingdom of
<od. ?esus s!ea:s of the 2as%hal feast in the %oming :ingdom. 4:. */5)* [ ,> al rests on the
%ertaint& that the %oming of the :ingdom of <od is lin:ed with the parousia of >hrist. The
:ingdom of <od is the :ingdom of the 8essiah. ?esus %omes in and with 7is :ingdom ( 8t.
.65*6 # 4:. */5)* [ ,> al).
d. The es%hatologi%al %oming of the 8essiah In the 8essiani% dogma of ?udaism the
8essiah is the %oming -ne ( )
*.
who with 7is %oming inaugurates the time
of salvation.
**
In the 9&n. <os!els we find man& eB!ressions of the !o!ular belief that the
%oming of the 8essiah must be !re%eded b& the return of 1li$ah ( 8t. ..5.) # .75.+ , .* #
*75)9 # %f. 8:. 95.* f. # also 8:. .05/0 ). The doubts of the Ha!tist %on%erning ?esus are
stated in the Tuestion5 # ( 8t. ..5/ # 4:. 75.9 , *+ ). The %rowd whi%h
hails ?esus as the 8essiah on 7is entr& into ?erusalem eBtols 7im in the words of 117:25
f. 5 i ( 8t. *.59 and !ar. #
*/
4:. .95/6 5
i ).
In referen%es to the %oming of ?esus in 7is 8essiani% glor& the earl& >hristian tradition
borrows from ,!o%al&!ti%. ?esus is the !romised 8essiah who at the end of the da&s will
.9 In Aabb. literature the referen%e is not to the %oming ( [^_Le ) but to the manifestation of the V`asf PdQ Y^eL\Zsf
( I, 07. ).
*+ >f. on this !t. 7. ?. ,lien, The ,!o%al&!ti% 3is%ourse in 9t. 4u:e .7," 1B!. 9th 9eries, I( (.9*0), 09 ff.
*. -n the Aabb. view of the %oming of the 8essiah. v. 9tr.DH. , I(, 67* ff. The Aabbis see two !ossible forms of
%oming, in glor& and in humilit&.
** -n different %on%e!tions of the %oming 8essiani% age of salvation in the ,!%r. and 2seude!igr. on the one
side and the Aabb. on the other, %f. ibid. , 799 ff. (1B%urs. *95 This world, the da&s of the 8essiah and the future
world"). -n the Aabb. view the da&s of the 8essiah !re%ede the %onsummation in a %om!letel& new aeon (6.6
ff.). In the Aabb. [Led cf V\d^_qcd the future world," is either the final aeon be&ond the da&s of the 8essiah or
the heavenl& world of souls to whi%h the righteous go at the moment of death (966 ff.). [^L\ M`Yqc is .. the
es%hatologi%al +%la ha<ba # *. the da&s of the 8essiah# /. the world of souls (the hereafter) (6// ff.).
*/ >f. on 8t. *.59 , 9tr.DH. , I, 60+. ,%%. to 9tr.DH. the Aabbis refer the sa&ing either to 3avid ( b.2es. , ..9a) or
to the final redem!tion ( 8idr. 2s. ..6, y **, *))a).
%ome in great !ower and glor& ( 8t. .65*7 # *05/. and !ar. ) on the %louds of heaven ( 8t.
*)5/+ # *656) and !ar. ). To the Tuestion when the parousia of >hrist will ta:e !la%e the
answer is given that no fiBed time %an be laid down ( 8t. *)5)* ff. and !ar. ). The onl& sure
thing is that 7e will %ome suddenl& ( 8:. ./5/6 ). The %oming of >hrist in 7is se%ond
parousia will be !re%eded b& the %oming of false !ro!hets raising 8essiani% %laims in the
name of the 8essiah ( 8t. *)50 and !ar. ).
e. The es%hatologi%al %oming of <od to $udgment. There is referen%e to <odOs %oming to
$udgment in the !arables of ?esus.
*)
In the !arable of the wi%:ed husbandmen <od is the lord
of the vine&ard who %omes to eBer%ise terrible retribution on the husbandmen for their
maltreatment of his servants and his son ( 8t. *.5)+ and !ar. ). In the !arable of the figDtree
7e is the owner who loo:s for fruit, and, when he does not find it at his %oming into the
vine&ard, orders the destru%tion of the figDtree ( 4:. ./56 f. ). In the !arable of the talents 7e is
the master who %omes to re%:on with his servants ( 8t. *05.9 # 4:. .95./ ff. ).
f. The %oming of da&s of de%ision. In this %onne%tion we are to thin: of a whole series of
sa&ings introdu%ed b& the stereot&!ed formula q
*0
and found for the
most !art in 4:. ( .75** # *.56 # */5*9 # %f. also 8t. 95.0 ).
8ore than a mere indi%ation of time is found in the sa&ing in the 4u%an a%%ount ( **57 )5
q c q q . This is a da& or feast in whi%h something de%isive will
ha!!en for ?esus and the dis%i!les. 8:. .)5). brings this out even more %learl&5 q q 6 ,
i.e., the hour when the !assion of ?esus begins.
4:. *5*7 im!lies a divinel& a!!ointed hour (9imeonOs %oming into the tem!le under the
im!ulsion of the 9!irit).
*. The ?ohannine @ritings.
In ?ohnOs <os!el the theologi%al %ontent of sa&ings is even more !ronoun%ed
than in the 9&no!ti%s. The signifi%an%e of ?esus and the nature of 7is mission are brought out
in sa&ings %on%erning 7is %oming. The s!e%ial %hara%ter of ?n. means that the lo%al use of
is far less !rominent than in the 9&no!ti%s, and the figurative far more %ommon.
The ?ohannine %on%e!tion of >hrist gives to sa&ings about %oming a ver& different form and
sha!e.
a. The %oming of ?esus in ?ohnOs <os!el. The selfDattestations of ?esus are more numerous
than in the 9&no!ti% tradition. In :ee!ing with the distin%tive view of >hrist, the& also bear a
different %hara%ter from those found in the 9&no!tists. In the IDsa&ings ( /)9 ), es!e%iall&
in statements negated, the& almost alwa&s have a !olemi%al ring. In them the 1vangelist
o!!oses to false views of ?esus the true view whi%h is attested b& ?esus 7imself and whi%h is
therefore authoritative. The ?ohannine formula for the selfDwitness of ?esus is 6 q or
6 .
In %onfli%t with the ?ews who will not re%ognise 7is 8essiani% dignit& be%ause 7is
earthl& origin is not in a%%ord with their 8essiani% dogma, the ?ohannine >hrist maintains5
( 75*6 # 65)* ). The basis of 7is 8essiani% %laim is the
%ertaint&5 l q ( 65.) ). 7is %oming rests on 7is divine
mission ( 65)* ). 7ere is the foundation of 7is %laim ( I, ))) f. ). 7e does not %ome in 7is
own name, but in the name of the Father ( 05)/ ). 9in%e 7e is light and life b& nature, the
!ur!ose of 7is %oming is a%%ordingl& to bring light and life into the dar: and dead world
( .+5.+ # .*5)6 ). The %oming of the ?ohannine >hrist has a single goal, namel&, the
deliveran%e of the %osmos from the destru%tion of alienation from <od ( .*5)7 ). 7e has not
%ome to %ondemn the world ( .*5)7 ). =et, though 7e 7imself does not $udge the world, 7is
%oming and eBisten%e im!l& $udgment. This hel!s us to understand the !aradoBi%al sa&ing in
*) -n <odOs %oming for the last $udgment in Aabb. lit. v. 9tr.DH. , I(, ..99 ff.
*0 In 4:. */5*9 we have q , but 3 reads q . This is !robabl& an
assimilation to the form found in the other sa&ings.
95/9 5 l i 6 l q . 8en are divided b& 7im. 7ow
this %risis" is a%%om!lished is !lainl& stated in /5.9 . 4ight has %ome into the world, but men
love dar:ness more than light. In .65/7 ?esus defines 7is tas: as follows5 7e has %ome into
the world to bear witness to the truth. 7is offi%e is to reveal <odOs nature. The Aevealer alone
gives true :nowledge of <od.
The 8essiani% %laim of ?esus is dire%ted against the thesis that 7is earthl& origin is :nown
whereas the ?ewish do%trine of the 8essiah in%ludes the belief5 c
, 6 ( 75*7 ). Hut it is also dire%ted against the thesis
that the 8essiah %omes onl& in the future and that 7e then brings full revelation, even in
res!e%t of the right %ultus ( )5*0 ). The !oint at issue between ?esus and 7is o!!onents is not
8essiani% theolog& as su%h# it is sim!l& whether ?esus is the 8essiah. ?ohnOs <os!el is
designed to demonstrate the %ontention of ?esus that the 8essiah of <od has %ome in 7im.
The 8essiani% %laim of ?esus is su!!orted b& the witness of the Ha!tist, of whom it is
eB!ressl& stated5 q l i g ( .57 ).
This statement also shows us the !la%e of the Ha!tist in salvation histor&. From the stand!oint
of the Ha!tist ?esus is i ( .5.0 , *7 # %f. v. /+ ), but still
in the full sense of this traditional 8essiani% title. The %oming of the Ha!tist is
onl& to !re!are the wa& for the 8essiah ( .5/. ). The ba!tism of ?ohn as an es%hatologi%al
event is inter!reted b& him as a referen%e to the manifestation of the 8essiah. In ?ohnOs
<os!el a de%isive role atta%hes to the Ha!tist onl& as the forerunner of ?esus. -n all others
who %ame before 7im ( q ) there is !assed the severe and diffi%ult
senten%e that the& were thieves and murderers ( .+56 ).
b. The %oming of men to ?esus in ?ohnOs <os!el. In ?ohn, as in the 9&no!tists, there are
general sa&ings about the %oming of men to ?esus. There are, of %ourse, man& different
gradations ( , /5*6 # , 650 # i , .+5). # the inhabitants of the
%it& of 9&%har, )5/+ , )+ # ;i%odemus, /5* ).
?esus 7imself turns with a gra%ious invitation to all who %ome to 7im see:ing salvation. 7e
reveals 7imself to men as the sour%e of eternal life ( 75/7 ). The man who follows u! the
invitation of ?esus is one who %omes to 7im in a s!e%ial sense ( 65/0 ). This %oming is the same as
inner readiness to be%ome 7is dis%i!le ( .5)7 ). It bears the %hara%ter of de%ision. The summons to
%ome to ?esus %an also be issued b& those who are alread& dis%i!les. The %all of the witness whi%h
the& bear is5 .
*6
It %an be individual, as in the %ase of ;athanael ( .5)6 ).
The result is des%ribed in the eTuall& terse but ver& distin%tive words5 q (
.5/9 ). 7e who %omes to ?esus is not re$e%ted ( 65/7 ). -n the %ontrar&, he re%eives the gift of
>hrist, namel&, everlasting life ( 65/0 ).
For the %oming of men to >hrist, however, the final authorit& is not the will of man but
<od. ,%%ording to ?ohn, the answer to the Tuestion who %ome to ?esus is those who are
taught b& <od ( 65)0 ). If we then as: how the& %ome, the answer is that none %an %ome
unless the Father draw him. >oming to ?esus is a %oming effe%ted b& <od. The a!!arentl&
free de%ision of man is a de%ision ordained b& <od. Hehind the ?ohannine statements stands
the thought of divine ele%tion (%f. 6560 ).
Those who thus %ome to ?esus believe in 7im. ,s believers, the& are alread& delivered
from $udgment ( 05*) ). The& %ome to a full %onfession of >hrist whi%h in ..5*7 is formulated
as follows5 i l l
. The man who %omes to ?esus is the man who is born of the 9!irit or born
again, and whose origin is thus m&sterious ( /56 ).
The o!!osite of %oming to ?esus is refusal to do so. This is based on a firm resolve to %ontinue
in sin ( /5.9f .). , %lear re%ognition of this situation underlies the sa&ing of ?esus to the ?ews5
( 05)+ ). The result is eB%lusion from eternal life.
*6 >f. on this !t. 9tr.DH. , II, /7..
%. The %oming of the risen 4ord in ?ohnOs <os!el. The ?ohannine a%%ounts of the
resurre%tion a!!earan%es are introdu%ed b& the words and q . The author of the
Fourth <os!el re%ords a threefold m&sterious %oming of the risen 4ord to the dis%i!les5 .. to
the dis%i!les a!art from Thomas ( *+5.9 )# *. to the dis%i!les in%luding Thomas, whose doubts
are dissi!ated b& the !neumati% realit& of the risen 4ord ( *+5*6 )# and /. to the dis%i!les at the
sea of Tiberias, when the sa%red meal was san%tified b& 7is !resen%e ( *.5./ ).
d. The %oming again of >hrist in ?ohnOs <os!el. ?ohn %an s!ea: of >hristOs %oming again
wholl& along the lines of earl& >hristian tradition. The ?ohannine form of the earl& >hristian
witness is the selfDwitness of ?esus5 ( .)5/ ). In *.5**f . the referen%e is to
the %oming of ?esus in the sense of the es%hatologi%al return of >hrist. Hut between the first
and se%ond %omings of ?esus lies the %oming of the 2ara%lete ( ). In the
form of the 9!irit there is a %ontinual %oming of >hrist. This is the soD%alled realised
es%hatolog& of ?ohn.
*7
,s ?esus was sent b& <od and %ame to earth, so the 2ara%lete is sent
b& the eBalted >hrist and %omes to 7is %ommunit&. The %oming of the 2ara%lete im!lies an
unbro:en %ontinuit& of the %oming of ?esus. The onl& !oint is that the form of %oming has
%hanged, the !ersonal %oming being re!la%ed b& a !neumati%. Three times ?esus raised the
!oint that men %annot of themselves %ome to 7im, twi%e to the ?ews ( 75/) , /6 # 65*.f .) and
on%e to the dis%i!les ( ./5// ).
*6
This inabilit& ma:es the sending of the 9!iritD2ara%lete an
absolute ne%essit& for the dis%i!les.
e. The %oming of the hour in ?ohnOs <os!el. In this <os!el an im!ortant !art is !la&ed b&
sa&ings %on%erning a s!e%ifi% !oint in time whose %oming is of de%isive signifi%an%e. The& are
introdu%ed b& the fiBed ?ohannine formula5 6 . In )5*. 6 is the future
time of salvation. It is distin%tive of the basi% outloo: of ?ohnOs <os!el, however, that ?esus
does not destro& es%hatologi%al %ertaint&# b& adding the words to
6 ( v. */ ) 7e eB!resses the fa%t that the 8essiani% time of salvation has alread& dawned.
The situation is the same in 05*0 , where the sa&ing %on%erning the hour of the resurre%tion is
retained in its es%hatologi%al sense, but where the addition of reinter!rets the
statement along the lines of realised es%hatolog&, namel&, that the resurre%tion is alread&
!resent when men in faith have !assed from death to life.
The most signifi%ant statements in this regard refer to the hour of the !assion and death of
?esus, whi%h for ?ohn %oin%ides with the hour of glorifi%ation. The 6 is <odOs a!!ointed
hour before whose %oming no one %an ta:e an& de%isive ste!s against ?esus. Fundamentall&, it
is not the hour of earthl& human histor&, but the hour of divine salvation histor&. In ?ohnOs
<os!el there are two statements of this :ind. The first maintains that the hour of ?esus has not
&et %ome ( 75/+ # 65*+ )# the se%ond maintains that it has %ome ( .*5*/ # ./5. # .75. ).
In the 2arting 3is%ourses there is also referen%e to an hour of the dis%i!les. ?esus is s!ea:ing
of the time of mart&rdom whi%h will bring for them !erse%ution and death ( .65* , ) ). This !eriod
begins alread& with the hour of 7is own arrest ( .65/* ).
f. The 1!istles of ?ohn. These s!ea: of the %oming of >hrist and also of the %oming of
,nti%hrist. The latter %oming is a sign of the last hour ( . ?n. *5.6 # %f. )5/ ). In relation to the
former, the whole em!hasis lies on the fa%t that ?esus >hrist has %ome in the flesh. The basi%
%onfession in the %onfli%t with 3o%etism is5 6 ( .
?n. )5* # * ?n. 7 ). In . ?n. 056 it is stressed that ?esus >hrist has %ome l
ka statement whi%h ma& well refer to the sa%raments of ba!tism and the 4ordOs
9u!!er instituted b& ?esus.
*9

*7 >f. A. Hultmann, 3ie 1s%hatologie des ?oh.D1v. ," g. d. g. , 6 (.9*6), ) ff. ,lso F. Fundsin, 3ie
@ieder:unft ?esu in den ,bs%hiedsreden des ?oh. 1v. ," g;@ , // (.9/)), *.+ ff.
*6 3oes this threefold referen%e to the !erfe%ting and glorif&ing of ?esus in ?n. ta:e the !la%e of the threefold
intimation of 7is !assion in the 9&n. This is Tuite !ossible in the light of ?ohnOs %on%e!tion of the !assion.
*9 V. F. HG%hsel, Die 0ohannesbriefe (.9//), 6. f. >f. also ?. 9%hneider, Die Passions'stik des Paulus (.9*9),
.*+.
g. Aevelation. In des%ribing the nature of <od, and es!e%iall& 7is eternit&, Aev. uses the
!hrase5 q ( .5) , 6 # )56 # %f. also ..5.7 ).
The author eB!e%ts the s!eed& return of >hrist. The eBalted 4ord sa&s to the %hur%hes5
i ( *50 # , *5.6 # **5*+ ).
/+
The >hur%h of >hrist lives in &earning
eB!e%tation of 7is %oming again ( **5.7 , *+ ). The !ra&er for the %oming of >hrist is
strengthened b& the words5 , ( **5*+ ).
/.
,s regards the manner
of the %oming, the divine follows earl& >hristian tradition. >hrist %omes as a thief ( .65.0 )
and with the %louds ( .57 ).
For the rest, the sa&ings des%ribe the es%hatologi%al situation, namel&, the
%oming of $udgment on the one hand ( 65.7 # ..5.6 # .)57 , .0 # .65.+ ) and on the other the
%oming of the 8essiani% age of $o& in all the glor& of its %onsummation ( .957 ), this being
!re%eded b& the 8essiani% tribulation ( /5.+ # %f. 75.) ).
/. 2aul.
In the 2auline 1!istles statements %on%erning the es%hatologi%al %oming of >hrist are far
more numerous than those %on%erning his first %oming, whi%h are found onl& at . Tm. .5.0
and 1!h. *5.7 .
The es%hatologi%al statements %on%erning >hristOs %oming are wholl& within the
framewor: of earl& >hristian tradition. 2aul lives in eB!e%tation of the imminent %oming
again of >hrist ( . >. )50 ). 3istin%tive is the ,ramai% !etition ( . >. .65** ).
The 2auline a%%ount of the 4ordOs 9u!!er %ontains a referen%e to >hristOs return ( . >.
..5*6 ). The death of >hrist is to be !ro%laimed g .
/*
>hrist will %ome
suddenl& li:e a thief in the night ( I Th. 05* ). Hut 7e will %ome in all 7is 8essiani% glor& ( *
Th. .5.+ ). The time of salvation is the time whi%h brings in what is !erfe%t and does awa&
what is in !art ( . >. ./5.+ ). The wrath of <od will fall on unbelievers ( >ol. /56 # 1!h. 056 ).
The a!!earing of >hrist will be !re%eded b& a!ostas& and the manifestation of the man of sin (
* Th. *5/ ).
2aul also uses to denote the o%%urren%e of signifi%ant events in salvation histor&.
7e refers to a time in his own life when the 4aw too: on validit& for him ( c q
q , A. 759 00. ). The de%isive !oint in salvation histor& is the %oming of faith, i.e., of
the time whi%h is a time of faith, %hara%terised b& i rather than b& (<4. /5*/). This
time has %om!letel& set aside the dominion of the 4aw ( <l. /5*0 # %f. also /5.9 5 g
# )5) 5 c q ).
,lso %hara%teristi% of 2aul are statements in whi%h he shows how he %ame to the %hur%hes. 7e
did so with the full blessing of the <os!el of >hrist ( A. .05*9 ), with $o& ( A. .05/* ), not with
loft& words or wisdom but in demonstration of the 9!irit and !ower of <od ( . >. *5. ). 7is
%oming alwa&s had one goal5 l ( * >. *5.* ). In 2hil. .5.*
2aul %onfesses that his im!risonment has hel!ed to further the message of salvation ( l
q i ). 2aul desires to %ome to his %hur%hes with love and
mee:ness ( . >. )5*. ). -n his %oming he ho!es to find them in a right frame of mind whi%h is
worth& of the <os!el ( * >. .*5*. ). 7e is troubled if he has to %ome with sorrow ( * >. *5. , / ) or
even to !unish ( pq , . >. )5*. ). 7e is not !re!ared to suffer humiliations at his %oming (
* >. .*5*. ). @e %an see that these des%ri!tions of his give us intimate glim!ses into
the soul of 2aul.
). The -ther ;T @ritings.
/+ For the %onstru%tion %f. the %lass. !ar. q Z in ,es%h.2rom. ,
/7) (%f. 8oult.D8ill. , III, *00, s.v. ).
/. There is a radi%al differen%e between this !etition and the formulae %ommon in an%ient !ra&ers ( (),
, 666 ), whi%h are su!!osed to for%e the deit&. The earl& >hristian !ra&er is full of humilit& and
ho!eful eB!e%tation. ;or it is the individual who s!ea:s ( ), but the %ommunit&.
/* >f. the grammati%al !ar. in 2. Tebt. , II, ).6, .6I*+5 i q q i c . >f. also
4'' Is. /*5.0 .
In the other ;T writings the es%hatologi%al use is !redominant. In ,%. there is referen%e to
the %oming of the great da& of $udgment ( *5*+ ), to the %oming again of >hrist ( .5.. ), and to
the %oming of the a%%om!an&ing time of salvation ( /5*+ ). Ta:ing u! the 8essiani%
!ro!he%ies of the -T , 7b. 656 and .+5/7 refer to the %oming time of salvation. ,%. .956
shows that the age of salvation has alread& dawned# the 7ol& 9!irit %omes on the believers in
1!hesus b& the la&ing on of the hands of 2aul. * 2t. /5/ s!ea:s of the ungodl& mo%:ers who
will %ome in the last da&s.
)%
1

>oming." This is rare outside the Hible. It o%%urs in 3ion. 7al.,nt. Aom. , III, 09. It is the
normal abstra%t of , whi%h is %ommon in Ioni% and 7ellenisti% <:. as well as in the
;T . The 4'' has on%e ( l i

q , after
this short digression we must return to the stor&," * 8a%%. 65.7 ).
The word o%%urs onl& on%e in the ;T . ,%. 750* s!ea:s of the i
whi%h was !ro%laimed b& the !ro!hets. 7ere has the same sense as a!!earing" and
i is in ?udaism the title of the 8essiani% ?udge of the world ( .66 f. ). 7en%e we
are to ta:e the sa&ing as a statement %on%erning the parousia of the 8essiah, ?esus, who will
$udge the world.
3 has in 4:. *.57 and 4:. */5)* . That is the same as i is
shown b& the !ar. to 4:. *.57 3 ( q ) in 8t. *)5/ 5 q
q i . In the 4u%an !assages in 3 we undoubtedl& have a later emendation to ma:e
the teBt smoother.
4i:e ,%. 750* , 2ol., 6, /5 i q , and . >l., .7, .5 q
, refer to the first %oming of >hrist. -n the other hand, in ,%t. Thom. , *6 is
the se%ond %oming. The term is used for both %omings in Iren. , I, .+, ..
#!3%
1

i
*
is often used in the 9&n. for dis%i!leshi!. The shar!est antithesis
is an eB!ression li:e i in ?d. 7 , whi%h denotes
li%entious living. The seriousness of de%ision for the :ingdom of <od is eB!ressed in 8:. 9 #
)/ # 8t. 05/+ . If in relation to the :ingdom of <od we do not ma:e a radi%al brea: with
ever&thing that hinders entr& into it, we shall go to hell ( l ). ,t the
end of the a!o%al&!ti% vision of ?ohn the word is used of the end of the first and fallen
%reation ( *.5) 5 q .
!3
In A. 05.* ( )/7 ), in a dis%ussion of the origin of sin and death, 2aul maintains that
death has eBtended to all men.
.
In 7b. )5.) we have a statement whi%h is most im!ortant for
the theolog& of 7b., namel&, that >hrist our 7ighD2riest has !assed through heaven into the
heavenl& san%tuar&.
. 66+, n. . .
. means to go awa& from." 4ater, however, attention is diverted from the startingD!oint ( )
to the goal to be rea%hed b& , and it thus a%Tuires the sense of to %ome to" (UU ).
9o 7. Ksener, )egenden der hl. Pelagia (.679), )9. >f. also 7, /5 g g iq ,
we %ame into the great %hur%h" (also .+,/# .*, .0 et%.). >f. H<K , III, 6.), /+ (/rd %ent. ,.3. ). The word is
o%%asionall& used in this sense in the ;T (%f. 8t. )5*) # ?n. )5)7 ).
* i , to go after someone," in the 4'' at ?ob *.5// . The 7b. `M] hb [f xZ \fcd , es!. in 3t.,
means to go behind a god in a !ro%ession," figur. to serve a god."
. >f. 1E. 05.7 (4'')5 l .
,!3 .
To go or %ome into." It is often used for to enter" (e.g., of a %horus, 2lat.Aes!. , I', 06+b).
In the %ommer%ial world it is used of the movement of mone& and goods. In legal ,tti% it denotes
going to %ourt. It %an then mean to ta:e u! an offi%e." Figur., %ourage, hunger or desire %an
%ome into" or u!on" men.
In the !a!. ,
.
a!art from the %ommer%ial use, it %an mean to ma:e demands on someone" (H.
2. <renfell, #n #le:andrian &rotic 9ragent m.696n, *7, >ol. III, *)# in relation to time it is used
for the %oming" time ( 2. -B&. , II, *)/, ).# I', ..67, 0# ', .*76, .7).
>ulti%all&, it is found in an%ient !ra&ers for invo%ation of the deit&5 , 2reis. gaub. ,
I(, .++., .++6, .+.0, .+.9, .+*/, .+/., .+)., .+)0# l , (,
/*. For the %ertaint& grounded in magi%, %f. l , 'II, .09# l
c , 'III, 7+)# lg , 'III, 06) f. ( , 666 ).
*
It
is also used of men5 l l , 3itt. 9&ll.
/
, 96*, /. >f. also 2. Tor. , I, 6, .9.
In the 9e!tuagint it is used for .9 7eb. words. The seBual use is %ommon as well as the lo%al5
l ,
/
( 7eb. [^_Le ).
)
Hut the most signifi%ant use is
the %ulti% and sa%ral. a. <od %omes to men (e.g., <n. *+5/ # 3t. )5/) )# <odOs glor& %omes into the
tem!le ( 1E. )/5) )# the divine 9!irit of life %omes into the dead in 1E.Os vision ( /75.+ ). b. 8en
go into the san%tuar&, l being !arti%ularl& used of the %ulti% ministr& of the highD
!riest and !riests. In su%h eB!ressions it ma& be used in the abs. (e.g., 1B. *)5/ , .6 # * >h. *95.6 ).
The reTuirement for entr& into the !la%e dedi%ated to <od is %ulti% !urit& and holiness. In
117:20 and Is. *65* righteousness is demanded for entr& through the gates of the hol& %it&. %.
8en bring their !ra&ers to <od with the words5 l 6 q
( 87:2 )# l 6 ( 765.. )# %f. 118:170 5
l i 6 . d. 2arti%ularl& im!ortant in relation to the
!rea%hing of ?esus, whi%h s!ea:s of entr& into the :ingdom of <od, is the similar eB!ression
%on%erning the entr& of the !eo!le of Israel into the !romised land ( l l q q
, 1B., 4v., ;u., 3t.), often together with ( l , e.g.,
3t. 65.6 ). The same %on%e!tion underlies the !hrase l l q ,
into the rest of <od," in 4:11 . The o!!osite is found in statements %on%erning the o!!onents
of <od and 7is !eo!le5 l (H5 ) l , Tob. )5.+ ( .. )# l
6 q q, 62: .
In the ;T the word is alwa&s used in the lo%al sense.
.. The %ulti% use is fairl& %ommon5 l l l ( ,%. /56 et%.)# l
( 4:. .59 # Aev. .056 )# l l ( 8t. .*5) # 4:. 65) )# l
q ( 8:. .5*. # /5. # 4:. )5.6 # ,%. ./5.) * 3!l# .)5.)# l
( 8:. ..5.. ). It is used of a solemn a%t of divine gra%e in 4:. .5*6 5 l6
(8ar&).
*. The most signifi%ant statements theologi%all& are when the word is used with l .
,mong these we turn first to the sa&ings %on%erning entr& into the :ingdom of <od ( I, 06.
ff. ) in the 9&no!tists. These are to be ran:ed with the !ro!heti% and a!o%al&!ti% sa&ings of
the <os!els, and are of great seriousness. 1ntr& into <odOs :ingdom is lin:ed with %ertain
%onditions, namel&, to be %onverted and be%ome as little %hildren ( 8:. .+5.0 and !ar. ), to
:ee! the %ommandments ( 8t. .95.7 ), to do the will of <od ( 8t. 75*. ). There is reTuired a
basi% religious attitude ( ) whi%h %an be attained onl& b& a radi%all& new
beginning ( 8t. 05*+ ). This un%onditional orientation to the %oming :ingdom demands
sa%rifi%e, namel&, a %lean brea: with ever&thing that would hinder or !re$udi%e the newl&
. For details %f. 2reisig:e @Jrt. , s.v.
* -n %f. also AeitEenstein 2oim. , *7.
/ This use of l is refle%ted in the use of in 2reis. gaub. , '''(I, ../5 c g
(until seBual union is a%hieved).
) The word is used in the same sense in ,rab. ( da ala ), in 9&r. ( Kal ) and in ,ram. ( \\q ).
established eBisten%e of man before <od (%f. the sa&ings about offen%es in 8t. .656 f. ). To
this new basi% attitude belongs %onstant readiness for the moment when the :ingdom of <od
will %ome in all its glor& and !ower ( 8t. *05.+ ). There also belongs steadfast !iet& and
faithfulness ( 8t. *05*. ff. ). Those who do not fulfil these reTuirements must be !re!ared to
be re$e%ted at the de%isive moment ( 8t. **5.* ). The tas: of ?esus and 7is dis%i!les is to
summon men to this :ingdom and to win them for it. 7en%e the demand that men should enter
in at the strait gate ( 8t. 75./ ) and that the dis%i!les should eBer%ise salutar& %onstraint on
men b& !ro%laiming their message ( 4:. *)5*/ 5 l ). ?esus :nows that
for man& the things and values of this world are a hindran%e to entr& into the :ingdom of <od.
In !arti%ular wealth ( 8:. .+5*/ and !ar. # 8:. .+5*) , trust in ri%hes) is a serious obsta%le.
The hard sa&ing is a!!li%able to man& that the& will want to enter in but will not be able ( 4:.
./5*) ). ,mong those to whom a%%ess is barred b& their own guilt are to be numbered not
onl& the ri%h, the indolent and the halfDhearted, but es!e%iall& the 2harisees and s%ribes. ?esus
brings against them the serious %harge that b& their religious !ra%ti%e the& also !revent others
from entering the :ingdom who desire to do so ( 4:. ..50* ).
1Tuivalent eB!ressions to l l q i are l l q
and l l q .
6

?ohnOs <os!el em!hasises not merel& the religious and ethi%al reTuirements but also the
sa%ramental !resu!!osition. ;one %an enter the :ingdom of <od without regeneration b&
water and the 9!irit ( /50 ). Faith and the sa%rament ensure a%%ess into the :ingdom. This also
means, however, that a%%ess is bound u! with the mediatorshi! of >hrist ( q ,
?n. .+5* # l , .+59 ). -nl& those who enter in this wa& %an have a !art in salvation. It
will be seen that ?ohn is more e%%lesiasti%al" in his thin:ing than the 9&no!tists.
,%%ording to the witness of ,%ts ( .)5** ) earl& >hristian !ro%lamation shared the view of
?ewish a!o%al&!ti% that the final tribulation would !re%ede entr& into the :ingdom of <od.
/. <eneral religious usage. In the 9&n. it is used a. of the a%tions of ?esus5 the earthl& ?esus
%omes to sinners ( 4:. .957 ), the risen ?esus to the dis%i!les (e.g., the two of 1mmaus, 4:. *)5*9 )
to hold fellowshi! with them. ,%%ording to 4:. the as%ension to <od after the %om!letion of the
wor: of salvation is an entr& into 7is glor& ( 4:. *)5*6 ). It is also used b. of the a%tivit& of satani%
and demoni% for%es5 9atan enters into ?udas ( 4:. **5/ # %f. ?n. ./5*7 ). 3emons ta:e !ossession of
men. In %ontrast the 8essiani% a%tion of ?esus is to drive out demons and to order them5
lg l ( 8:. 95*0 ). It is used %. of the a%tions of the dis%i!les, who should be on
the wat%h and should therefore !ra& that the& do not enter into tem!tation ( 8:. .)5/6 vl. and !ar.
). For !ra&er, the& are told5 l ( 8t. 656 ).
2aul uses l onl& ) times. Twi%e he uses it of the %oming of unbelievers or nonD
members into >hristian gatherings ( . >. .)5*/ f. # %f. also ?m. *5* 5 l q ). In
A. 05.* ( )/7 ), dis%ussing the origin of sin and death in the world, 2aul tea%hes that sin %ame
through man, and had death as its %onseTuen%e. In his es%hatologi%al %onsideration of the destin&
6 -n these sa&ings in the a!ostoli% and !ostDa!ostoli% !eriod, v. 7. @indis%h, g;@ , *7 (.9*6), .7.. In !ostD
a!ostoli% literature variants of the 9&n. sa&ings are most %ommon in 7erm. ( s. , 9, .*,0I6# 9, .), . f.# 9, .0,*#
9,*+, * f.)# %f. also . >l., )6, *I)# * >l., 6,9. ,lso worth noting in relation to the >hur%hOs formulation is 2s.D
>lem. 7om. , ./, *.5 , l q i q l .
,n a!o%r&!hal sa&ing of the 4ord in ,%t. 2hil. , .)+ (/)) runs as follows5 q
l l , q l l q i .
@indis%h (.7*ff.) finds ?ewish !ar. a. in the later ?ewish a!o%al&!ses (e.g., ) 1sr. 75.) ), and b. in the Talmud,
where the %orres!onding eB!ressions are [Led cf V\d^_q\Z [^_Le , L N\h , \ cW| , \hS , PQ M` . In res!e%t
of the origin of sa&ings about entr& into the :ingdom of <od @indis%h (.77 f.) !oints .. to the eBhortations of
3t., a t&!e being !er%eived in the entr& (4''5 l ) of the Israelites into >anaan ( 3t. )5. # 65.6 # .65*+
the %ombination of l and )5 and *. to the tem!le liturgies ( 14 and */ # ..7 ) and
the related regulations %on%erning admission to the %ulti% %ommunit&, the %entral %on%e!t being that of
(as in 8t.). Finall& @indis%h draws attention to * 7ellenisti% !arallels to the entr& sa&ings (.69
ff.), namel&, the table of >ebes and 4u%.7ermot.
of Israel ( A. ..5*0 ) 2aul is %ertain that the fulness of the <entiles will first %ome in and that then
all Israel will be saved.
7b. uses l a. of the entr& of the earthl& highD!riest into the 7ol& of 7olies ( 95*0
) and of the entr& of the heavenl& 7ighD2riest into the heavenl& san%tuar& ( 65.9 # 95.* , *) # 65*+ ,
as a Forerunner for us). It also uses it b. of the %oming of >hrist into the world to ma:e the allD
suffi%ient sa%rifi%e of 7is life ( .+50 ). It finall& uses it es%hatologi%all& %. of the entr& of
>hristians into eternal rest ( /5.. , .6 # )5.ff .). 7ere 4:11 is a!!lied t&!ologi%all& to the
>hristian situation.
Aev. uses the term !redominantl& in es%hatologi%al statements and %onteBts. -nl& those whose
names are written in the Hoo: of 4ife %an enter into the hol& %it& of the eternal world# ever&thing
un%lean and %ommon will be eB%luded from the %it& of <od ( *.5*7 # %f. **5.) ). There is almost a
m&sti%al ring about the sa&ing of the eBalted >hrist ( /5*+ ) to those who o!en the door for 7im to
enter5 l .
In * ?n. 7 * // !m it is said of hereti%s5 lq l . ?m. 05) is a
word of %omfort in so%ial distress5 the %ries of the e%onomi%all& o!!ressed go u! to <od.
!3 .
To go out," with of the gen. or !la%e# also abs., used also of inanimate things, e.g., words
whi%h go out" of a man, Theaet. , .6.b# si%:nesses whi%h leave" a man ( 7i!!o%r. , e.g.,
8
orb. ,
*, ./)# time whi%h !asses." It also has the figur, sense of to issue"5 either to %ome to fulfilment"
( , 7es.-!. , *.6), or to issue from" (a number issues forth,
'eno!h.7ist. <rae%. , (I, ., 0). In the !a!.
.
we also have the senses to %ome u!" ( H<K , I, 9/,
/+5 c q q , the de%ision on m& reTuest has not &et %ome u!, and in
the legal world to leave," of a %ourt offi%er leaving the %ourt to %arr& out an order.
*
,n unusual
sense is to stand out" in 2. Tebt. , II, *6/, 95 q { . The
word is also used sometimes for to de!art life," to die," as in 4ib.-r. , *+, /. (
i )# ?os.,nt. , ., **/ ( q ). In 2hilo the term is used to des%ribe the
m&sti%al and e%stati% !ro%ess. To %ome to <od, the soul must go out of itself ( 4eg. ,ll. , III, )7 #
%f. III, ))5 q q ).
In the 9e!tuagint it is used for .6 7eb. words. ,!art from the lo%al signifi%an%e, it is used
figur, a. of fruit %oming forth" out of the earth, and b. of what man !rodu%es," whether the fruit
of the bod& or of the li!s. It is used es!. of the o!erations whi%h !ro%eed" from <od5 , Is.
0.5) # , 0.50 # , ;u. .65)6 # , <n. *)50+ ,.# , Is. *65*9 #
7is @ord Is. 005.. et%.# 7is righteousness Is. )05*/ . In 9ir. *)5/ wisdom sa&s5 6
i q . It %an also mean to go out" in the sense of to end," to
vanish" (e.g., the breath of man in @is. .65.) # of. 145:4 ). The word is !arti%ularl& signifi%ant
in its %ulti% and sa%ral use, es!. when it eB!resses the divine e!i!han& ( )5 Is. )*5./
5 # ge%h. .)5/ 5 . >f.
also ge%h. 050 5 q # v. also .)56 5
# and freTuentl& i . It is used for to %ome to !ra&er"
in ?dt. .*56 5 . It is also used in the seBual s!here in Test. 'II , %f.
l ( A. /5.) ).
The main sense in the ;T is lo%al. It serves es!e%iall& to denote resurre%tion ( ?n. ..5/. 5
q # v. )) 5 q 6 # %f. 8t. *750/ ).
@ith the inf. it means to go forth" to do something a%%ording to a !rearranged !lan (e.g., to
!rea%h the <os!el, 8:. 65.* # .65*+ # or to !ra&, 4:, 65.* ). >onversel&, it %an also be said that
something %omes forth" from man (e.g., q m */. n i , 4:. *
5l). Aumours go out" from men ( , 8t. 95*6 # , 8:. .5*6 # 4:. )5.) # , 4:.
75.7 # %f. ?n. *.5*/ ). 3ifferent :inds of utteran%es (blessing and %ursing) !ro%eed from the li!s of
men ( ?m. /5.+ ). 1vil thoughts %ome out of the heart ( 8t. .05.9 ). Hut these negative statements
8orb. De 3orbis .
. For details v. 2reisig:e @Jrt. , s.v.
* >f. 2reisig:e Fa%hwJrter, 79.
are balan%ed b& !ositive de%larations %on%erning the @ord of <od and faith. <odOs @ord goes out
from authorised a!ostles ( . >. .)5/6 ), and news of the faith of a %ommunit& (the Thessalonian)
goes out to all !la%es ( . Th. .56 ).
In a !arti%ularl& distin%tive and %on%rete sense the word %an mean to derive from the vital
for%e of a man," Thus the ?ews are q A ( 7b. 750 ). The
word %an also be used more generall& for to go out from a fellowshi!"# to leave" it as a s!iritual
home (of the hereti%s in . ?n. *5.9 ). @ithout s!e%ifi%all& mentioning the !oint of origin it is used
of false !ro!hets in . ?n. )5. and of various de%eivers in * ?n. 7 . It means going out on missionar&
wor: in / ?n, 7 . In Aev. it refers to the rise of m&sterious and sinister figures ( 65* , ) ), or to
angels going forth to inaugurate a!o%al&!ti% events ( .)5.0ff .# .056 ), or to 9atan and his wor: of
destru%tion ( *+56 ).
In the 9&n. is the %hara%teristi% word for the going forth" of demons from
those !ossessed b& them ( 8:. .5*6 and !ar. # %f. also ,%. 657 # .65.6 ). ?esusO %ommand to
demons is5 ( 8:. .5*0 et%.).
/

Hut the im!er. %an also be a reTuest to ?esus. 2eter, overwhelmed b& the ma$est& of
?esus, sa&s5 ( 4:. 056 ). In 8:. .5/6 ?esus sa&s that it is 7is tas: to !rea%h the
<os!el of the :ingdom of <od, and 7e adds5 . In ?esus there is unheard of (
*99 ). @hen 7e heals, 7e !er%eives that virtue is gone out of 7im ( 8:. 05/+ and !ar. ).
In ?n. the 8essiani% selfDwitness of ?esus %an ta:e the form5 q
( ?n. 65)* # .65*7 f. # .756 # %f. ./5/ ). The aim of this selfDwitness is a%hieved when the
dis%i!les re!l& to it with the %onfession5 q ( ?n.
.65/+ ). ?esus %onfirms this %onfession in the highD!riestl& !ra&er5
q ( .756 ). In the s!iritual sense ?esus is the door through whi%h the
dis%i!les go in and out and find !asture ( ?n. .+59 ).
)

There is a !atheti% ring about the sa&ing in ?n. ./5/+ f. , whi%h tells us that ?udas went out,
and not merel& in the lo%al sense, but also in the sense that he bro:e off fellowshi! with ?esus. The
same dee!er meaning is %ontained in the statement that ?esus went out of ?erusalem to the !la%e of
%ru%ifiBion ( ?n. .95.7 ). This is more than a to!ogra!hi%al note. It mar:s a %ru%ial moment not
onl& for ?esus but also for the ?ewish !eo!le and es!. for ?erusalem. In 7b. the same event, so
im!ortant in the histor& of salvation, is shown to have also eBem!lar& signifi%an%e for >hristians.
The demand 6 q q ( 7b. ./5./ ) is meant in
the sense of identifi%ation with the suffering >hrist.
In 7b. ..56 ,brahamOs de!arture from his home is regarded as an a%t of faith. -n the other
hand, the 2auline view is that >hristians should not leave the world ( . >. 05.+ ).
0
The world is
their %on%rete s!here of o!eration.
4ight is shed on the es%hatologi%al situation b& 8t. ./5)9 , where it is said of the angels that
the& will go forth and se!arate the wi%:ed from the righteous.
!3 .
a. To %ome to," to draw near" (with a%%. of !la%e). It ma& be used abs., es!. of the %oming
forward of the s!ea:er. It is also used of the %oming of a time. Figur. %ertain events (slee!,
si%:ness) %ome on men. i and means it %omes u!on me" (with nom. of ob$e%t
or inf. )# %f. also >or!. 7erm. , 'I, .b5 q l . b. To
%ome with hostile intent," to atta%:," also to a%%use"# figur. to ta:e u! something," to
underta:e."
In the !a!.
.
it has the senses a. to a!!roa%h"# b. to !ro%eed with for%e against someone" (
2. 4i!s. , )+, %ol. II, *# 6 , the aggressor")# %. to enter illegall&"# d. to be due" (of
/ >f. 2reis. gaub. , I(, .*)/ f.5 { . -n the %onstru%tion
with , %f. 2. -B&. , III, )7*, .# 0*6, 7.
) >f. (e.g., on ?n. .95/) ) ?. 9%hneider, Passions'stik des Paulus (.9*9), .*+. >f. on as used of
blood Aev. .)5*+ . -n ?n. .95/) %f. 9%hl. ?. , /0/. gn. ?. , 666, sees here onl& a referen%e to the realit& of the
death of ?esus.
0 for to die" is alread& a eu!hemism among the ?ews, [sd \Zqd tsa \|f[b , Tg.
ooh. .56 # %f. 3alman @? , I, .).# %f. also . F. *5* . @ith . >. 05.+ %f. also * >l., 0, .# 6,/.
a%hievements)# e. to %ontest the validit& of a re!ort"# f. to o!!ress someone with demands," to
ma:e %laims on someone" ( H<K , I, .09, 9 | | q , to !ress
for arrears in taBes").
In the 4'' it is used for *) 7eb. words. It refers mostl& to things, events, or %onditions whi%h
%ome on men, in%luding natural events. It is used es!. of the obs%ure and o!!ressive evils whi%h
%ome on men. 4ess freTuentl& it refers to events or %onditions whi%h bring salvation, e.g., in Is.
/*5.0 vl. of the 9!irit %oming down on men from above. In relation to the es%hatologi%al future we
have ( Is. ).5** ), ( Is.
).5*/ ), ( Is. )*5*/ et%.), g qq g g ( ?er. *95) ). In the
Test. 'II it is normall& used to denote hostile atta%: ( ?ud. 65/# 95*# Iss. )50# 056# geb. *56).
1s%hatologi%all& i is the glor& of the %oming 4ord (4. 65..). In
?os.,nt. , 6, /+0 it is used tem!orall&5 q q , the %oming da&."
@ith two eB%e!tions ( 1!h. *57 and ?m. 05. ) the word is used in the ;T onl& in the 4u%an
writings. Figurativel& it means to %ome on someone# thus a stronger %omes on the wea:er in
4:. ..5** .
*
This hel!s us to understand the religious and theologi%al use. The 7ol& 9!irit,
re!resented as the !ower of <od, %omes on men who are blessed b& <od. Twi%e there is
referen%e to the !romise of the 7ol& 9!irit %oming on %hosen !ersons, in 4:. .5/0 to 8ar&,
and in ,%. .56 to the dis%i!les on the as%ension of ?esus. The other !assages in 4:. ( 4:. *.5*6
, /0 # ,%. 65*) # ./5)+ ) refer to future destru%tion, and es!. to the %atastro!he of %oming
$udgment. The same is true of ?m. 05. . In 1!h. *57 we have the es%hatologi%al eB!ression
l l # it refers to the indes%ribable generosit& of the gra%e of <od
whi%h will be shown to the >hur%h in >hrist ?esus in the ages to %ome.
-utside the ;T the es%hatologi%al use is !arti%ularl& %ommon in 7erm. ( l6
, v. , ), /, 0# of the %oming terrible events of the last time, v. , /, 9, 0# ), ., .# s. ,
7, )# 9, 0, 0).
!3 .
a. To go b&," often in the sense of to miss"# also to flow !ast," to !ass b&" (of time),
.

e.g., Iso%. , ), .675 l 6, i .
Then more generall& to !ass awa&" in the sense of to %ome to an end," to !erish" (e.g.,
Theo%r.Id&ll. , *7, .+5 q ). b. To outstri!," to
overta:e," to sur!ass someone in s!eed, also to eB%el in %unning" and therefore to de%eive." %.
To !ass over," to disregard," also to miss," to remain unnoti%ed" (e.g., 3emosth.-r. *., ..+5
q l , I almost forgot to sa& this"# %f. also Theogn. ,
).95 ). ,lso to go be&ond something," to transgress
a %ommand (or law)"5 ( 4&s. , 6, 0* m!. 69, .*, Thalheim
*
, .9./n#
7es.Theog. , 6./# 3ion. 7al.,nt. Aom. , I, 06# 3emosth.-r. , /7, /7). d. To %ome to," to arrive
at," and s!e%ifi%all& to %ome forward as a s!ea:er" (e.g., 6 c ,
Thu%. II, 09 et%. and the rhetori%ians), to attain to !ower," to enter into an inheritan%e." In the
!a!.
*
it means a. to !ass b&," to $ourne& through," to %ome together," of shi!s to sail !ast" (
2. <iess. , I, 0), ..). It also means to arrive," 2. <en. , I, 7*, )5 ||
i, || # b. of time, to !ass" (e.g., 2. 8agd. ,
*0, /5 || # also 2. Fa&. , *+, 65
). %. q , to ta:e u! rule" ( 2. Fa&. , *+, ., .*)# to fight
a %ause" ( 2. -B&. , I, /6, ..5 ||q , I fought m& %ase before the
strategos "). In a s!e%ial sense, 2reisig:e 9ammelbu%h , ))69, .# /# 6 to be guilt& of brea:ing a
. V. 2reisig:e @Jrt. , s.v. In the !a!. we also have the subst. ( 2. -B&. , I, 69, .0# 'II, .06*, **# 2.
Fa&. , *6, .)) and ( 2. -B&. , (III, ..*+, .+).
* >f. ad loc. 3aus%h 9&n!t. , )/+ f.
. In grammar 6 is the !ast.
* For eBam!les v. 2reisig:e @Jrt. , s.v.
treat&"# H<K , I, /6., >ol. III, to %ir%umvent" ( i , the o!!onent
see:s to %ir%umvent the matter).
It is used in the 9e!tuagint for .7 words. The sense is often lo%al. Tem!orall&, it denotes
!assing ( @is. *5) , of the life of man)# 9ir. )*5.9 5 , what is !ast." The
immortalit& of the divine %ommandment is %ontrasted with human mortalit&5 148:6 5
# 3a. 65.* O: H
. In relation to 8t. 05.6 # *)5/0 we ma& thin: not onl& of 148:6 but also
of the addition to 1st. F. *5 , c q
. is !arti%ularl& im!ortant in the sense of to transgress." This is mainl&
transgression of the divine statutes5 q () ( 3t. .75* ),
() ( Is. *)50 )# also ( * >h. 65.0 ). , similar
meaning is to deviate" (e.g., . 8a%%. *5** 5 q i , to deviate from our
religion"). Theologi%all&, the term is most im!ortant in relation to theo!hanies ( <n. /*5/. m /* n5
q l # 1B. //5.9 5 6 g
g , v. ** 5 qi

g q # 2 B. 23:4 5
q # 3 B. 1:11 5 l ).
is also a te%hni%al term for the a!!earan%e of divine figures ( 3a. .*5. 4'', where the a!!earan%e
of 8i%hael is introdu%ed b& the words5 q 6 i q
).
In the ;T the brief observation in 4:. .65/7 that ?esus of ;aEareth !asses b&" might well
be a mere to!ogra!hi%al note with no dee!er signifi%an%e.
/
-n the other hand, there might be
more to it. It %ould denote an e!i!han& stor&, and in this %ase we should have to understand it
as a sign of e!i!han& whi%h reveals the 8essiani% !ower and ma$est& of ?esus in what seems
to be an in%idental moment.
)

The word also serves to dis%lose human guilt. ?esus lashes as %ul!able both the inward
attitude whi%h in unre!entant %om!la%en%& maintains that it has left" no %ommandment
unfulfilled" ( 4:. .05*9 ) and also the religious !ra%ti%e whi%h %on%entrates on unim!ortant
as!e%ts of the 4aw but overloo:s" the essential things, the $udgment and the love of <od
( 4:. ..5)* ).
In some !assages the word ta:es on the more a%ute sense of !assing b& in the sense of
!assing awa&, or %oming to an end, or !erishing. Thus in . 2t. )5/ it is used of a !arti%ular
time in the life of >hristians, the time before %onversion, whi%h is now definitivel& over (
6 ). The word is used generall& to denote the mortalit& of all %reated
things (%f. ?m. .5.+ ). -ften it has in this sense an es%hatologi%al note. 7eaven and earth will
!ass awa& ( 8t. 05.6 # *)5/0 # 8:. ./5/. # 4:. .65.7 # *.5// ). 1ven the 4aw, whi%h
maintains its validit& to the end of this age, will fall vi%tim to mortalit& at the %on%lusion of
this age and will therefore lose its validit& ( 8t. 05.6 ). -nl& the words of ?esus are not
sub$e%t to mortalit& ( 8t. *)5/0 and !ar. ).
0
, testimon& to earl& >hristian eB!e%tation of the
end is the sa&ing whi%h s!ea:s of the %oming of es%hatologi%al events in this generation,
namel&, that living in the da&s of ?esus ( 8:. ./5/+ and !ar. ).
2aul uses the term onl& at * >. 05.7 . It %omes in the statement of $ubilant >hristian
%ertaint&5 q, l .
!3 .
/ 9o F. 4. 9%hmidt I, .*9 , s.v. .
) 9o 1. 4ohme&er, 1n 7i$ @ilde 7en (oorbi$gaan " in !ieu2 "heologisch "i5dschrift , */ (.9/)), *+6I**).
>f. also 7. @indis%h on 8:. 65)6 , ibid. 9 (.9*+), *96I/+6# <. ,. v. d. Hergh, 3e <eesteli$: <eladen
>hristus ," ibid. , .0 (.9*6), **.I**9.
0 @hat ?esus sa&s of 7is @ord the Aabbis maintain of the Torah, namel&, that it will last for ever. >f. 9tr.DH. , I,
*)) ff., 96.. , noteworth& sa&ing in !ostDbibli%al literature is . >l., *7, 05 c q g
.
is of great signifi%an%e in 2aul.
.
In A. 05*+ he sa&s of the 4aw that it
does not !la& a %hief role in the !lan of <od
*
but has entered in alongside." 9in%e its effe%t
is unfortunatel& to in%rease sin, it %an have no de%isive signifi%an%e in the divine !lan.
/
In <l.
*5) 2aul %alls the ?udaiEers i , and he de%lares that the& have
dishonestl& sli!!ed into the %hur%hes founded b& him to s!& out the ground and to turn the
%hur%hes against him.
!3 .
. Tm. 05./ is a warning against the danger of idle &ounger widows going about from
house to house and %reating trouble in the %ongregation. In 7b. ..5/7 (to
wander about") refers to the suffering of >hristian heroes of faith.
.

!3%
1

To %ome to," to go to," to a!!roa%h," also in a hostile sense. Figur. q i
1ur.-r. , 609 et%. To a!!l& oneself to something" ( 3iod. 9. , I, 905 # 2luto
>
ato
8inor. , .* mI, 76)%n5 iq # 1!i%t.3iss. , I(, .., *)5 iq # 2hilo8igr. ,br. 5
g # v. also 2hilo,gri%. , .*/ 5 , to turn to someone"). -f
in%ome, to %ome in"# seBuall&, to go in" to a woman ( 'eno!h.9&m. , I(, /6)# generall&, to
have dealings with someone" ( 3emosth.-r. , *), .76# %f. **, 69).
In the !a!.
*
it means to be %on%erned about someone," to ta:e u! a matter," es!. to go to
wor:," to go to mar:et," to ta:e u! an enter!rise," to a%t as bu&er or bidder," to a!!ear before
a $udge," to ta:e u! an inheritan%e," to !ro%eed against someone," to a%%rue to," of a field in
the s!here of agri%ulture, to be assigned" to another %lass ( 2. Tebt. , I, 67, 9/). In a !a!. letter (a
%ommendator& letter, .6 ,.3. , H. 7. -lsson, Pap'rnsbriefe aus der frhesten /er-eit m.9*0n,
6/, ;o. .6) we have in the sense of to as:."
/
It also means to a!!ear" in 2.
-B&. , I, )+, ). , s!e%ial sense is to a!!ear before a tribunal" in 2. -B&. , (III, ...9, 6.
There are man& instan%es of the %ulti% use in the sense of to %ome before the deit&"5 3io >. ,
06, 9, *5 6 # 2or!h&r.,bst. , II, )75 # 2.
<iess. , *+, *)5 i g . 2hilo, too, :nows the
word in the %ulti% sense5 ( 3eus Imm. , 6 # 9a%r. ,>. , .* ).
In the 9e!tuagint it is used for .* 7eb. words. Its use is !redominantl& lo%al. 4i:e
l, i , is also used in the seBual sense ( 1B. .95.0 et%.).
7ostile intent is denoted in ) 8a%%. )56 . There is a %ommon %ulti% use for to %ome before <od,"
to %ome to sa%rifi%e" or to worshi!." In ;u. .65) no one unTualified is to draw near in the %ulti%
sense. In ?er. 75.6 it means to %ome before <od in inter%ession. In 9ir. )5.0 it means res!e%tfull&
to a!!roa%h wisdom, whi%h in 9ir. *)5.9 ( *6 ) %ries5 . It is dangerous to
draw near to sin (9ir, *.5* ). In 0:10 the !romise is given5 c
. To a!!ear in %ourt" is the sense in 3t. *05. . Figur. it is also used for to be o%%u!ied in a
matter," 9ir. )5.0 ( .6 )# 65.9 , *6 ( *7 ).
It is %ommon in ?ose!h. ( ,nt. , 7, .6) # 6, *./ # /*. # /9+ # .*, .9 ), alwa&s with the sense of
to %ome to" or to %ome before" ( 6, /9+ # .*, .9 5 ).
In the ;T it is mostl& used b& 8t. among the 9&no!tists. In the ?ohannine writings it
o%%urs onl& on%e in the <os!el ( ?n. .*5*. ). It is not found in 2aul eB%e!t at . Tm. 65/ (in the
sense of to devote oneself to").
)

. In 2hilo-!. 8und. , .0+ and ,br. , 96 it has the wea:er sense of to %ree! in" (of anBieties).
* 9o also 4tEm. A. , ad loc.
/ 4tEm.5 It a%ted merel& as a subsidiar& fa%tor."
. >f. @nd. 7b. , ad loc.
. >f. also .
>ato 8inor. De 1atone 3inore .
* For details %f. 2reisig:e @Jrt. , s.v.
/ in the sense of to as:" is a 4atinism.
In 8t. the statements in whi%h is used give us a vivid !i%ture of the men
surrounding ?esus. The %ir%le of !owers, men, grou!s and %lasses whi%h %ame to ?esus with
differing %on%erns is brought out with astonishing %larit&. -n the one side are the su!raterrestrial
for%es, angels ( 8t. )5.. ) and the tem!ter ( )5/ ). -n the other side are men5 a. those who believe
and are lo&al, e.g., 7is dis%i!les ( 8t. 05. # 65*0 et%.# also 8:. 65/0 # 4:. 65*) ), and after the
resurre%tion the women on their en%ounter with the risen 4ord ( 8t. *659 ), and above all 2eter
with his s!e%ial Tuestion ( 8t. .65*. )# b. the %rowd whi%h see:s 7is hel! ( 8t. .05/+ ), the si%: (a
le!er in 8t. 65* # the blind in 95*6 # *.5.) # the woman with an issue of blood in 95*+ , %f. 4:. 65))
5 # relatives of the si%: in 650 # .75.) )# %. men with inner %on%erns
su%h as the ri%h &oung ruler in .95.6 , the ambitious mother of the sons of gebedee in *+5*+ , the
woman of Hethan& who anointed 7im in *657 , the dis%i!les of ?ohn in 95.) # d. a s!e%ial grou! of
o!!onents, e.g., the s%ribes, 2harisees, 9addu%ees, highD!riests and elders, 65.9 # %f. .05. # .65. #
.95/ et%.# ?udas with his trea%her&, *65)9 , %f. 8:. .)5)0 # those sent b& the 9anhedrin to arrest
7im, *650+ # the false witnesses at the hearing before the highD!riest, *656+ # the soldiers at the
%ross, 4:. */5/6 .
The word is seldom used of ?esus %oming to men or to 7is dis%i!les. @here
it is, it is usuall& the first ste! in 7is 8essiani% a%tion, e.g., in the healing of the si%: in 8:. .5/. ,
the raising of the dead in 4:. 75.) , the eB!ulsion of demons in 4:. 95)* and the giving of the
great %ommission in 8t. *65.6 .
In ,%. denotes %ertain events of great im!ortan%e in the earl& >hristian
mission. H& delivering the >hristian message to >ornelius 2eter brea:s through the ?ewish
!rohibition5 q q ( ,%. .+5*6 ). The %ommand of the 9!irit5
, im!els 2hili! in his missionar& servi%e ( 65*9 ). Im!ortant events in the life of 2aul,
e.g., his !reD>hristian !eriod in 95. # his im!risonment in *)5*/ * 6.) !m, and his signifi%ant
meeting with ,Tuila and 2ris%illa in .65* , stand under the sign of .
In 7b. and . 2t. the word is used in a !urel& %ulti% sense. The offering of sa%rifi%es is b&
( 7b. .+5. ). >hristians have drawn near to <od through faith ( 7b. ..56 ),
through >hrist ( 75*0 ). The& have %ome to 8ount 9ion ( .*5.6 , ** ). Hut the& are also
admonished to %ome to the throne of gra%e ( )5.6 ) or to >hrist the 7ighD2riest ( .+5** ). In .
2t. *5/ the >hristian de%ision of faith is %alled a .
!3%
*

In ,%. .05/6 l means to $ourne& with someone" on a
%ommon missionar& enter!rise.
.
. >. ..5.7 ff. is theologi%all& im!ortant. 7ere the word is a
te%hni%al term for the %oming together of the >hristian %ongregation, es!e%iall& to administer
the 4ordOs 9u!!er. 2aul atta%:s s%andals in >hristian gatherings, e.g., divisions, the la%: of
order and dis%i!line at the 4ordOs 9u!!er. In . >. .)5*/ , *6 2aul ta:es u! again the Tuestion
of >hristian gatherings and in his dire%tions on s!iritual gifts s!ea:s of the tas:, !osition and
legitima%& of s!ea:ing with tongues.
*

Schneider
) [
C
has . >f. on this !t. >. v. Tis%hendorf, !" Graece
6
, II (.67*) 66+5 at$ue sic oli /. Bentle'
coniecit . >f. 3ib. 2ast. , ad loc. (0*)5 The reading is based on .5) ."
C Hl.D3ebr.
6
y *+*.
. >f. Tob. 05.+ ( [ ,( *. # in Tob. .*5. 6 is the %om!anion on a $ourne&. In 2rv. 05*+ and @is. 75*
is an eB!ression for seBual inter%ourse. In the !a!. the word is ver& %ommon ( es!. in marriage
%ontra%ts) for to marr&" (mostl& in the form )# v. the eBam!les in 2reisig:e
@Jrt. , s.v. . In . >. 7 , 0 * !m lat s& relates to seBual inter%ourse
in marriage. In 8t. .5.6 the !hrase q (8ar& and ?ose!h) has in view the
establishment of the marriage relationshi!.
* Ign. s!ea:s of the !ro!er manner of >hristian assembl& in his 1!h. , *+, *. For him the de%isive !oint is
i .
, , ' ( l , I, .9. #
, )+ # ).
%
*

,s in se%ular <:. , in the ;T first means to as:," to enTuire," to see:
information." >f. 4:. **566 5 c , q q . ?esus sa&s to the
ri%h &oung ruler5 i ( 8t. .95.7 ). ?esus 7imself as:s 7is
dis%i!les %on%erning the number of loaves available ( 8:. 650 ) and %on%erning menOs views
of 7im ( 8t. .65./ ). To the %unning Tuestion of 7is o!!onents %on%erning 7is i
( 069 ) 7e re!lies with the %rushing %ounterDTuestionk 6
c kas to the i of ?ohn the Ha!tist. ,s though the& were read& to be %onvin%ed b&
the words of ?esus 7imself and were not see:ing wa&s and means to destro& 7im, the& see:
an eB!lanation# but 7is %ounterDTuestion
.
for%es them to give an evasive answer and thus to
admit that 7is %laim is no more li:el& to %onvin%e them than that of the Ha!tist had done ( 8t.
*.5*) # 4:. *+5/ ). The dis%i!les as: ?esus the meaning of 7is !arables ( 8:. )5.+ ). The& also
as: 7im when the :ingdom of <od will be set u! ( ,%. .56 # %f. also 4:. 95)0 ). In all these
!assages, however, might be used as well# the 9&n. !arallels and the teBtual
variants show that the sim!le and %om!ound forms are used in mu%h the same wa&.
There is a signifi%ant theologi%al usage in ?ohn, in whom almost half of the o%%urren%es
are found. In the 2arting 3is%ourses the Tuestion of as:ing ta:es on !arti%ular im!ortan%e in
the relations between ?esus and 7is dis%i!les. ,%%ording to ?n. .65*/ !art of the future
salvation is that the dis%i!les will not need to as: 7im an&thing further.
*
In a theolog& in
whi%h :nowledge and !er%e!tion are so %entral, as:ing %an onl& im!l& im!erfe%tion. The onl&
wa& to over%ome this is b& ultimate fellowshi! with >hrist at the dee!est level. Thus ?n. .65/+
is not said to glorif& ?esus as the -ne who :nows the hearts and who therefore :nows the
Tuestions of 7is !eo!le even before the& are uttered (in s!ite of ?n. *5*0 ).
/
It refers to the
insight into the meaning of 7is wa& of suffering whi%h is newl& given to the dis%i!les in a
dee!ened fellowshi! of :nowledge and understanding with their 4ord whi%h does not need to
as: an& more Tuestions. @e have here another instan%e of the !resent of salvation standing
immediatel& alongside the future, as so often in ?n. (%f. .65*/a ). ,s:ing is, of %ourse, the wa&
to attain to full fellowshi! with the 9on and the Father. The ne%essit& of this wa& is
em!hasised ( ?n. .650 ). Hut it is to lead to a goal be&ond itself. In the light of all this, it is
!erha!s no a%%ident that is almost never used of the dis%i!les in ?n. outside the
2arting 3is%ourses (the eB%e!tion is ?n. 95* ), whereas it is freTuentl& used of the !robing,
doubting, %ontentious Tuestions of the ?ewish o!!onents.
The 4'' :nows generall& onl& as to as:" ( infra ). It often denotes ora%ular
Tuestions !ut to <od, as freTuentl& attested for se%ular <:. on ins%ri!tions ( Ins%r. 8agn. , .7, .*
f.5 | l | {, 3itt. 9&ll.
/
, III, ..6/, ..605 an
ora%ular tablet of 3odona). >f. also ?os.,nt. , 6, /*6 5
q . Hut it is also used for
ordinar& as:ing in ,nt. , 6, *96 5 , i i , { >f. also
2hilo 660, Hibl., e$rwtavw .
C . >r.DFJ. , )0*# 2r.DHauer , )60 f.# A. 7elbing, Die 4asuss'nta: d. Verba bei d. )QQ (.9*6), )+f.#
Hl.D3ebr.
6
y /9*, .%5 Hau. ?n. on .65*/ . 3ef. 5 2hiloAer. 3iv. 7er. , .6 # 3et. 2ot. Ins. , 07 f.
. >f. also the %ounterDTuestion in Aabb. literature, 9tr.DH. , I, 66. f.
* ,gainst the sense of to reTuest" we ma& refer not merel& to what !re%edes but also to the fa%t that in what
follows, es!. in v. *)a , there is not the slightest referen%e to v. */a , whereas to as:" fits v. *0 and v. *9f . ver&
well. The o!!osite view is ta:en b& H. @eiss (8e&er 4o.
6
m.66+n), ad loc. # Das 0ohannesevangeliu
(.9.*), *96.
/ 9o gn. ?n., ad loc.
*. To reTuest," to demand," of an& :ind of reTuest. -utside the <os!els this is the
!redominant meaning, the onl& eB%e!tion being ,%. .56 . It %an denote both the reTuest of the
dis%i!les to ?esus ( 8t. .05*/ # 4:. )5/6 ) and that of the ?ews to 2ilate ( ?n. .95/. ). 4:. uses
it es!e%iall& for invitation to a meal ( 4:. 75/6 # ..5/7 # %f. also ,%. .+5)6 5 q6
# %f. also ,%. .65*+ ). 4i:e ( )+ ), whi%h is in man& res!e%ts
!arallel, %an also have the wea:ened sense of !lease" ( 4:. .)5.6 f. ). In
distin%tion from l ( I, .9. ff. ), whi%h often suggests a %laim or !assion (
), denotes a genuine reTuest whi%h is humble or %ourteous.
?ohn uses the term es!e%iall& for reTuests made to <od and therefore with the sense of to
!ra&."
)
Hut in this res!e%t we should note a distin%tive nuan%e, for the word is used almost
eB%lusivel& of the !ra&er of ?esus, the one eB%e!tion being . ?n. 05.6 . ?esus alone has su%h
inward fellowshi! with the Father that the word %an be used both for the dis%i!lesO reTuests to
7im (e.g., ?n. )5/. ) and for 7is own !etitionar& or inter%essor& !ra&er to the Father (so also
?n. .65*6 in s!ite of */a and /+ , 660 ).
0

It is arguable whether the use of for to !ra&" is a 9emitism.
6
It is true that the
4'' %onsistentl& distinguishes between to as:" and to !ra&" b& using for the one
and l for the other in its translation of \[f PdQ .
7
=et this does not !revent 9emiti% influen%es
in the !eriod after the rise of the 4''. Indeed, the 4'' itself moves towards the sense of to
reTuest" where the 7eb. original is V^_\PdQ \Z \[f PdQ . For the distin%tive feature of the term is that it
hovers between to as:" and to reTuest," as <ree:s, too, ma& see from the %onteBt (e.g., 2 B.
8:10 ). In . 44:17 might mean to reTuest." >f. also 4:. .)5/* #
6
Test. ?ud. 957#
1 B. 30:21 ,H. There are several instan%es
9
of this use in se%ular <:. in the !reD>hristian
!eriod, and not merel& in 1g&!t ( 3itt. 9&ll.
/
, 7+0, 06# 7)., 0). The transition from to as:" to to
reTuest" is !arti%ularl& eas& in the %ulti% s!here, sin%e a Tuestion !ut to the deit& is almost awa&s
bound u! with sa%rifi%e whi%h is su!!osed to %arr& with it a gra%ious answer. The !riest often
reads the answer in the sa%rifi%ial animal. ?os.,nt. , 0, )* 5 6 q6
# 7, .6) 5 q6 q li . The rhetori%ian 7ermogenes (b. c. .6+
,.3. in Tarsus) :nows in the sense of to reTuest," but re$e%ts it as linguisti%all& false,
3e 8ethodo <ravitatis , / (ed. 7. Aabe m.9./n, ).0 f.).
.+

>
onstr. . The ob$e%t of the Tuestion or reTuest %an be in the a%%. , 8t. *.5*)
and !ar. 5 c # 8:. )5.+ 5 # ?n. .65*/ 5 # 4:. .)5/* 5
l . In verbal form, the ob$. is eB!ressed in sense .. b& an indire%t Tuestion in ?n. 95.0 5
# ?n. .65*. 5 i (though there usuall& follows a dire%t
Tuestion), and in sense *. b& the infin. ( a%%. %. infin. with l ) or senten%es with or 5
?n. )5)+ 5 q6 p # * Th. *5. f. 5 c { l
q q # 4:. 75/6 5 g # %f. 4:. ..5/7 .
denotes the dire%tion in whi%h the Tuestion or reTuest (or inter%ession) lies.
%
*

To as:," to Tuestion," to enTuire," to !ut a Tuestion." This is a favourite word of 8:.,
not usuall& followed b& the other 9&no!tists.
.
In the first instan%e it means the same as
, with whi%h it is freTuentl& inter%hanged in the 9&n. !arallels and the 899.
) -n !ra&er in the ;T and s&non&ms, .
0 I, .9* .
6 >f. >r.DFJ. , )0*# 3eissmann H. , )0# ;H , */ f.# 4- , ./), .)7 f., .6+. There is the rather remoter !ossibilit&
of a 4atinism, sin%e rogare %an mean both to as:" and to reTuest" m3ebrunnern.
7 >f. 3eissmann H. , )0.
6 >f. Fl. 4:. , ad loc.
9 2r.DHauer , s.v. ;o. *.
.+ >f. 1. ,. 9o!ho%les, Greek )e:icon of the /oan and B'-antine Periods (.9.)), s.v.
>onstr. %onstru%tion.
C . >r.DFJ. , )0/# 2r.DHauer , ))* f.# 8oult.D8ill. , */..
. >f. 8:. 750 , .7 # 65*9 # 95*6 # .+ , * , .7 # .*5*6 # ./5/ # .)56+ f. , .05) , with %orres!onding !ar.
9ometimes it seems to suggest a more !ressing Tuestion ( ?n. .657 ). It is used for $udi%ial
eBamination ( 8:. .)56+ f. et%.), as also for investigation or %ounterDTuestion ( 8:. .05)) #
,%. */5/) ).
*
, s!e%ial use is for the reTuest for a de%ision in a dis!uted issue.
/
Thus
is the standing eB!ression for the !robing and %unning Tuestions of the
2harisees and 9addu%ees ( 8:. .+5* # .*5.6 and !ar. # .*5*6 and !ar. # .*5/) and !ar. # 4:.
.75*+ # *+5*. ). ?esus, too, gives 7is o!!onents Tuestions to eBamine and to de%ide ( 4:. 659 #
8t. **5). # 8:. ..5*9 , !ar. ). This sense of the term ma:es it !ossible that the
de%ision was not sought in the form of a Tuestion but b& a statement whi%h eB!ounded the
!oint at issue ( 8:. 95.. , *6 , though %f. the !ar. ). In fa%e of this usage it ma& be as:ed
whether the of 4:. *5)6 denotes, not
so mu%h the Tuestioning %uriosit& of the bo&, but rather 7is su%%essful dis!uting. (. )7 would
fit in well with the latter view. If it is %orre%t, ?esus alread& %ommen%es in 7is bo&hood the
%onfli%t in whi%h 7is o!!onents will finall& have to surrender5
( 4:. *+5)+ ). In 8t. .65. seems to have the
meaning to reTuest." It is to be noted, however, that this is not a true reTuest. It is a demand
rather along the lines of the %unning Tuestions of the 2harisees ( ).
2aul uses the term, though not ver& freTuentl&. @ives are to as: their husbands at home,
i.e., to be taught b& them, if the& want to :now an&thing ( . >. .)5/0 ). The other 2auline
!assage5 q c q ( A. .+5*+ ), a Tuotation from
Is. ( 605. ), brings out a new as!e%t of , sin%e the failure of the !ro!hets or
!riests to as: of <od is here a general indi%ation of an un%onverted life. In 2aul the original
meaning of \[f PdQ is wea:ened, and we have to translate5 @ho do not as: after me" (%f. .
37:14 5 l i , q ).
The %onstr. is li:e .., the infin. being used onl& at 8t. .65. . The word is found in
se%ular <:. from the time of 7dt.
)
In <:. re%ords it be%omes a te%hni%al di!lomati% term from
the last third of the *nd %ent. ,.3. 5 is to a%%e!t the terms of a
treat&," to ratif&."
0
The 4'' uses the term in the normal wa&, es!. for Tuestions !ut to <od (
666 ) or 7is !ro!hets. >f. Ins%r. 8agn. , .7, *6 and /6# 3itt. 9&ll.
/
, III, ..6+. ?os.,nt. , 9, /) 5
6 q , though also generall& 6 q 6
, Hell. , ., 0)+ # c 6 , ,nt. , .*, 99 #
%f. 8:. ..5*9 .
'%
*

From the time of 7dt. this has been used for Tuestion." From the *nd %entur& it too: on the
same di!lomati% sense as .
.
In the <:. -T it is found onl&
*
at 3a. O )5.),
where it seems fairl& obviousl& to be tr&ing to give to the ,ram. [sed \Z[] PZQ (matter," affair")
/

the sense of $udgment" or de%ision."
)
It is not found in ?os. , though %f. ,nt. , /, /* (9%hlatter).
7erm.m. , .., * has the word in the sense of Tuestion."
* >f. <n. /65*. 4''.
/ >f. on this !t. the 1!i%urean senten%e ( Wiener Studien , .+ m.666n, .97, 7.)5 i
6 i g q i
, i q g # m2etersonn.
) 4iddellD9%ott , 6.6.
0 For details %f. 2reisig:e @Jrt. , 0/7 f.# 2aul&D@. , *nd 9eries, III, * (.9*9), s.v. stipulatio # >or!us ?uris
>ivilis, ed. 2. FrGger, T. 8ommsen et%., II
9
(.9.0), .+0 ( >od. ?ustinianus, II, .*, *7, *)# III
)
(.9.*), )69
( ;ovellae , 97 !rooem ).
C 6 . >r.DFJ. , )0) f.# 2r.DHauer , ))/# 8oult.D8ill. , */. f.# @nd. 2t. , 1B%. on . 2t. /5*. # Fn. 2t. ,
on . 2t. /5*. # @bg. 2t. on . 2t. /5*. .
. F. 2reisig:e, Griech. 8rkunden des Lg'pt. 3us. -u 1airo ( Schriften d. Wiss. Ges. in Strassburg , 6 m.9..n)
;o. ., .6.
* In 9ir. /65/ 6 o%%urs in >od. [ as a variant for 6 and in the same sense.
/ <es.DHuhl , s.v.
) For later eBam!les of this sense, %f. 8oult.D8ill. , s.v. and >r.DFJ. , s.v.
The usage outside the ;T throws little light on the one !la%e in the ;T where
6 o%%urs, namel&, . 2t. /5*. 5 { ( I, 0)0 ),
p q 6 l . ,t a first
glan%e it seems li:el& that in the antitheses used to define ba!tism, and p on
the one side %orres!ond to 6 and q on the other. 9in%e, however, the
!utting awa& of filth and the establishment of good !oint in the same dire%tion, the true
distin%tion surel& lies in and . It is thus best to :ee! the !arallelism
and in a%%ordan%e with the ob$. gen. q to ma:e de!endent
on p and the whole on . The !oint of the genitives is then to indi%ate the
ver& different s!heres in whi%h the two !ro%esses o!erate. To determine the sense of
6 we do best to turn to its use in the 4'', where it ver& %ommonl& has the sense
of an ora%ular Tuestion addressed to <od (%f. l ).
0
It is true that the sense of to
!ra&" is not found in the 4'',
6
but a movement in this dire%tion is materiall& natural and is
also fostered b& the double sense of . In 8t. .65. is alread& well on
the wa& to the sense of to reTuest." 7en%e we ma& translate . 2t. /5*. 5 ;ot the !utting
awa& of outward filth, but !ra&er to <od for a good %ons%ien%e."
7

In view of v. *. we should eB!e%t the to be followed b& a %leansing in the s!iritual
sense. Thus the reTuest for a good %ons%ien%e ( i ) is to be %onstrued as a !ra&er
for the remission of sins. @e %annot be sure that there is here an& thought of a s!e%ifi% liturgi%al
!ra&er.
6
Aemission of sins is %losel& related to ba!tism from the ver& outset ( 8:. .5) and !ar. #
,%. *5/6 ). 2erha!s the author avoided an eB!ression li:e the %leansing of the heart from sins" in
order to avoid a magi%al %on%e!tion of the o!eration of ba!tism and in order to stress the fa%t that
the new !urit& is a gift of <odOs gra%e. There is !lent& of s%o!e for the te%hni%al asso%iations of
6 ( supra ) within this line of thought.
9
The ba!tised enter into a %ovenant with
<od on the basis of the fa%t that <od ratifies" the forgiveness of their sins. The figure brea:s
down, of %ourse, be%ause we do not have here two eTual %ovenantD!artners. It has also to be
%onsidered that if the term im!lies a Tuestion addressed to <od, or a sti!ulation on whi%h
assuran%e is reTuested, <od is the -ne who is as:ed, and this modifi%ation of the %on%e!t lin:s u!
with the thought of !ra&erful Tuestioning whi%h is !rominent in the 4''. , %om!arison suggests
itself with the 2auline %on%e!t of , whi%h elu%idates ver& mu%h the same situation
b& means of another legal meta!hor.
G
reeven
(
*
( 6 )
A. ( o#tside the NT.
.. To eat and drin:," a sto%: eB!ression of antiTuit& for the basi% fun%tions of natural human
selfD!reservation, 7om.-d. , *, /+0# *., 69# <n. *)50) # ?u. .95) # ge%h. 756 et%.# the distress of
having no bread to eat, 3t. *956 ( 0 )# H<K , III, 9)9, 6 ff.5 , {
q| { | { | { | . The righteous, and es!. s%ribes, do
not need to %on%ern themselves about eating and drin:ing, 8. 1B. , .6, ).
.
It is a rule of life that
0 The 4'' often has or %. gen. in su%h %ases. 2erha!s l is used in . 2t. /5*. be%ause of the shift of
meaning in the dire%tion of !ra&er."
6 ,s o!!osed to Fn. 2t. , ad loc. , who not ver& %ogentl& addu%es 136:3 [ (%orr) ,AT.
7 9o Fn. 2t. and @nd. 2t. , ad loc. # ?. Felten, Die 7 Briefe des hl. Petrus u. d. 0udasbrief (.9*9), ..* f. (rede
Fath. Hr. , ad loc. 5 Gelbnis (vow").
6 9o, e.g., @nd. 2t. , ad loc. # %f. also Fn. 2t. , ad loc.
9 >f. also >r.DFJ. , )00.
<reeven 7einri%h <reeven , <reifswald ((ol. .I*), <reifswaldv7eidelberg ((ol. /), Hethel ((ol. 0), Fiel ((ol.
6), Ho%hum ((ol. 7).
C i . Hl.D3ebr.
6
y .+.# 2r.DHauer , )66 ff.# 4iddellD9%ott , 696# 8oult.D8ill. , *06# 2reisig:e @Jrt. , I, 6+*
f.# ?. 7aussleiter, ti, 6 , #rchiv f. lat. )e:ikographie , 9 (.696), /++ ff.# 3. 9%hen:el, Bibel<
)e:ikon , I( (.67*), 66ff.# 7@, I, 9)+ ff.# A1/ , 'II, 76ff.# 3>< , I, 0+).
. 9tr.DH. , I, )*., )/0.
the si%: need to eat, $Her. 9d.
*
@or: gives a right to eat and indolen%e forfeits it, 7om.-d. , .9,
*7 f.5 , q i ,
l6 # 7es.-!. , /..5

c , i c # ibid. ,
/96# 'eno!h.8em. , II, ., *6# <n. /5.9 # 2rv. *95)0 ( /.5*7 )# 9ir. /+5*6 f.
/
To give the hungr&
to eat is a wor: of benevolen%e in Is. 0657 # 1E. .657 # Tob. )5.6 ( .7 )# 9lav. 1n. 95 To give bread
to the hungr&." i (a semitism) to ta:e nourishment," to have a meal," 7eb. \Wf[d
VhX \X , <n. /75*0 # 1B. *5*+ # ?er. ).5. # 0*5// et%. ( I, )77 ), ,ram. [sd hZ \f \Wf[b , e.g., b. Her.,
)*b5 @e will go and have a meal there and there."
)
For eating and drin:ing as a mar: of thisD
worldl& en$o&ment, of !assing satisfa%tion, of li%en%e and !leasureDsee:ing, %f. the <ilgamesh
e!i%, ,n%ient Hab&lonian Ae%ension, Fr. >, II, 6 ff.5
0
Fill th& bod&, en$o& th&self da& and night#
8a:e a feast b& da&, lea! and dan%e both da& and night." >f. also the burial ins%r. of 9ardana!alos
( 9uid. , s.v. 2 )5 , c
# 1!igr. <rae%. , /)), /5 q # 3
B. 4:20 ,# Is. **5./ # ooh. 65.0 # Tob. 75.+ # 9ir. ..5.9 # @is. *56 f. 5
{, { # 2hilo4eg.
,ll. , II, *9 5 lg , i
i i , i
# 3et. 2ot. Ins. , ../ 5 i c q i i,
q 6 q #
<n. r. , on ..5* 5 1ver&where where thou findest eating and drin:ing, 9atan brought a%%usation"#
6
b.
T
aan. , ..a5 , man should not sa&, ~I will go and eat and drin: in m& house, and !ea%e be on
thee, m& soul.O "
7
To eat with someone, to hold tableDfellowshi!, denotes %lose asso%iation, e.g.,
1 B. :1 # $2ea, *.b5 7e was a%%ustomed to eat with him ever& da&."
6

*. There are %ulti% and ritual regulations %on%erning eating, es!. in the -T and the ?ewish
world. The& a!!l&, e.g., to the !ortion of the !riests at sa%rifi%es, 4v. *5/ # 05./ # 659 ff. , 759 , *9
ff. # .+5.* f. , et%. to %lean and un%lean meats, 4v. .. # 3t. .)5/ ff. # to the eating of flesh sa%rifi%ed
to idols, ,g , *, /# T. >hul. , *, *+# to washing the hands before eating, Her., 6, * ff.# >hag. , *, 0
f.#
1
d. , /, *#
?
ad. , ., . ff.# *, /# to table fellowshi! whi%h ma:es un%lean, b.9anh. , .+)a# b. Her.,
)/b et%.#
9
%f. 3a. .56 , .* # * 8a%%. 05*7 . Aefraining from eating and drin:ing as a form of
as%eti%ism,
.+
or fasting (
b
rwma, I, 6)/, n. 6 # , I, 670 # ), has a
!la%e in -T and ?ewish religion, e.g., 1B. /)5*6 # 3t. 959 # ge%h. 750 f. # ?on. /57 # 1st. )5.6 # 3a.
.+5/ # ) 1sr. .+5) # 9. Har. *+50# *.5.# >hul. , 6, .5 7onour to all who eat no flesh"# b.HH , 6+b# $
,g , )+a#
..
though %f. 8andaism, 4idE. <inEa , .6, */ f.5 Fast the great fast whi%h is not a fast
from worldl& eating and drin:ing#" )0+, .+ff.5 8en and women who fast a fast of iniTuit& {
who are hungr& for bread and do not eat, who thirst for water and do not drin:." Aeligious
vegetarianism, whi%h is wides!read in religions of all ages, is in the da&s of the ;T rarer in
?udaism (%f. ?os.(it. , .. # ) 1sr. 95*)ff .# .*50. # Test. A. .5.+# Test. ?ud. .05))
.*
than in the <:.
* .bid. , II, .+.
/ For further ?ewish materials, %f. 3ib. Th. , )7# 9tr.DH. , III, 6). f.# %f. /79 ff.
) >f. 9tr.DH. , I, 7+)# II, 6 f.# 3alman @? , I, 9*.
0 ,-T , .9).
6 9tr.DH. , I, .)/.
Taan. "aanit , 8ishnahD, ToseftaD, Talmud tra%tate 9asts (9tra%:, &inl. , )/).
7 .bid. , II, .9+. >f. also @ettstein on . >. .05/* # 1. 8aass, %rpheus (.690), *+9 ff.# Fl. 4:. , ./0 f.# 9%hl. 4:. ,
/.7.
6 >f. 9%hl. 4:. , *60# 9%hl. 8t. , /+6.
1d. &du5ot , 8ishnahD, ToseftaD, Talmud tra%tate Witnesses (later tea%hers on older authorities) (9tra%:, &inl. ,
0/).
?ad. 0ada5i , 8ishnahD, ToseftaD, Talmud tra%tate (ands (un%leanness and washing of the hands) (9tra%:,
&inl. , 6)).
9 >f. ?. HenEinger, (ebr=ische #rch=ologie
/
(.9*7), /90 ff.# A1/ , '(I, 06) ff., ''I(, /6* ff.# HoussetD
<ressm. , .*7# ? Gd4eB#, ( (.9/+), 0/9 ff.# 9tr.DH. , I, 690 ff., )96 f., III, /77, )*+ f., I(, /76 ff.
.+ >f. 7. 9trathmann, Geschichte der frhchristlichen #skese , I (.9.)), passi .
brwma, I, 6)/, n. 6 >f. also 1n. .+65/, 0, .0.
.. 9tr.DH. , II, 767, %f. III, /+7 f.# 9%hl. 8t. , /7/# 9%hl. 4:. , )96# 7. 9trathmann, op. cit. , /) ff., 6) ff. et%. -n
fasting in <:. religion and !hiloso!h&, ibid. , *.0 ff., *6* ff., /+0 ff.# %f. I, 6)/, n. 6 .
.* -n vegetarianism among the 1ssenes %f. 7. 9trathmann, op. cit. , 67# HoussetD<ressm. , )60.
world, where it is found in -r!hi% religion, in ;eoD2&thagoreanism, in ;eoD2latonism and in the
-riental 8&steries,
./
e.g., 3iog. 4. , (III, /6 on the ;eoD2&thagoreans5 ii
i # 2hilo
(
it. >ont. , /7 on the Thera!eutae5
{ q, , l i 6q,
c q
i, i, i, l i
,

, q
i , 6 q q, i , 6 q q, q
i q 6 # from the Isis
m&steries, ,!ul.8et. , 'I, */5 dece continuis illis diebus cibarias voluptates cohercere ne$ue
ullu anial esse et invinius esse , %f. *.# *6# /+. From an%ient 1g&!tian religion (lament for a
:ing), 3iod. 9. , I, 7*, *5 q

q q
, i i .
/. 1ating and drin:ing are often lin:ed with the vision of <od, e.g., in the -T at 1B. *)5.. #
<n. /50 f. # 2s. /)59 #
.)
%f. also b. Her., .7a5 In the future world there will be neither eating nor
drin:ing { The righteous will rather sit with %rowns on their heads and feed on the radian%e of
the <odhead, for it is written ~The& saw <od and ate and dran:O ( 1B. *)5.. )." The eating or
drin:ing of deit&, or of divine essen%e, whi%h !la&s a role in the religion of man& !eo!les,
.0
is
found in ;T times in the %ulti% meals of the 8&ster& religions.
.6
The m&steries of 3ion&sos
gagreus5
9
%hol. on >l. ,l.
2
rot. (I, !. /.6, 0, 9tlhlin)5 6 q l
q, ,
, %f. for the Thra%ian 3ion&sos %ult 2lut.ouaest. Aom. , ..* (II, *9.a)5 l

i , 2aus. , I,
/., 6.
.7
For the 1leusinian m&steries, >l. ,l.2rot. , II, *., *5 ti
i , , i,
l l i , %f. also ,rnobius ,dversus
;ationes , (, *6 (ed. ,. Aeiffers%heid, .670 in >914 , I(). The 2hr&gian m&steries, the
q in >l. ,l.2rot. , II, .0, / ( v. Firm. 8at.1rr. 2rof. Ael. , .6)5

, !erha!s also the ,ber%ius ins%ri!t., line .* ff. (7. 7e!ding, #ttis m.9+/n, 60)5 i
{ q l q ,
q i l
. The initiate tells of his re%e!tion into the Isis
m&steries in ,!ul.8et. , 'I, *)5 e:hinc festissiu celebravi natale sacroru et suaves epulae
et faceta convivia. dies etia tertius pari caerioniaru ritu celebratus et 5entaculu religiosu
et teletae legitia consuatio . The 8ithra m&steries, ?ust.,!ol. , I, 66, )5
i ,
%f.
T
ert.
2
raes%r. 7aer. , )+, )5 (8ithra) celebrat et panis oblatione , also the ar%haeologi%al sour%e
./ >f. 7. 9trathmann, op. cit. , *.0 ff.# *)/ ff.# *0) ff.# *6/ ff.# /+0 ff.# /// ff.# gn. A. and 4tEm. A. on .)5.ff.
(it. >ont. De Vita 1onteplativa .
.) ?. ?eremias, Der Gottesberg (.9.9), .6 f.# ,. ?eremias, Das #" i )ichte des alten %rients
)
(.9/+), 6 f., ).6.
.0 >f. ,. 1. >rawle&, ,rt. 1ating the <od" in 1A1 , ( (.9.*), ./6 ff.# @. 7eitmGller, "aufe und #bendahl
bei Paulus (.9+/), )+ ff.# 1. Aeuters:iJld, Die &ntstehung der Speisesakraente (.9.*)# >hant de la 9aussa&e, I,
07, 6), .6+, **/# II, 07., 6.7, 6*+, 6//# A<<
*
, III, .60) ff.# <. van der 4eeuw, Ph=noenologie der /eligion
(.9//), //9 f., /). ff.
.6 >f. 8ithr. 4iturg. , .++ ff., *./ ff.# -. <ru!!e, Griechische 3'thologie (.9+6), .6.6 ff., 7/* ff.# @.
7eitmGller, op. cit. , ). ff.# >lemen, .6) ff.# F. >umont, Die orientalischen /eligionen i rischen (eidentu
/
(.9/.), 06, 6+, 6/ f., **+, n. )/# Die 3'sterien des 3ithra
/
(.9*/), .*), .)6 f.# 7aas, .0 (.9/+), 4ei!oldt, Fig.
.6 f., */, )6# 7. <ressmann, Die orientalischen /eligionen i hellenistisch<rischen Zeitalter (.9/+), .+0 ff.,
.*+ ff., .0)# F. (Jl:er, 3'steriu u. #gape (.9*7), *.* ff.
9%hol. Scholion (D a ).
2rot. Protrepticus .
.7 -n this !t. v. 1. Aohde, Ps'che
)
, II (.9+7), .) ff.5 -. <ru!!e, op. cit. , 7/* ff.
Tert. o. 9e!timius Tertullianus Florens, of >arthage (.6+I**+ ,.3. ), ed. ,. Aeiffers%heid and <. @issowa.
.69+ ff.
2raes%r. 7aer. De Praescriptione (aereticoru .
material.
.6
The 9abaEius m&steries, a fres%o in the !raet. %ata%omb.
.9
-n the meaning of the
a%tion, %f.
,
el. ,rist. In 9ara!in (I, 9/ f. 3indorf)5 i q q
q q i,
i and 9ervius
<rammati%us >ommentarius in (ergili
,
en. , I, 79 (!. )), Thilo)5 K"u das epulis accubere
divu+ hoc est6 tu e deu facisP duplici eni ratione divinos honores ereur6 dearu
coniugio et convivio deoru .
). 1ating and drin:ing in fellowshi! with <od belongs also to the ?ewish eB!e%tation of the
es%hatologi%al banTuet of <od#
*+
for eBam!les /0 # also 4:. .)5.0 #
*.
1B. r. , *0 on
.65) 5 The& will re%line at table and eat in <an 1den."
**
The food of the blessed is manna, 9.
Har. *9565 ,t that time su!!lies of manna will again fall from above# and the& will eat thereof in
those &ears be%ause the& have lived through the end of the ages"# 9ib. Fr. , /, )6 ff. (!. */*, ed. ?.
<eff%:en m.9+*n)5 l c q {
# or the fruit of the tree of life,
1th. 1n. *0505 Its fruit will be life to the ele%t, and it will be !lanted for food in the san%tuar& in
the house of <od, the Fing of eternit&"# ) 1sr. 650* # (it. ,d. , *65 4ord, give me to eat of the
tree of life { ,t the time of the resurre%tion { the fruit of the tree of life will be given to thee that
thou ma&est be immortal in eternit&"# Test. 4. .65..5 6 i
q q # but also the flesh of the !rimeval monsters Hehemoth and 4eviathan, 1th.
1n. 6+5*)# ) 1sr. 650* # 9. Har. *95).
*/

0. Figur. it means a. to en$o&," ?ob *.5*0 5 6 c , to !arta:e of
wisdom," 2rv. 950 ( I, 6)/ f. )# 9ir. *)5*. 5 l i l
i . To eat as a s!iritual fun%tion, 2hilo4eg. ,ll. , I, 97 (on <n.
*5.6 )5 q 6 q q

6
q q c q q
(for a further allegori%al inter!retation of the <n. !assage, %f. 96ff.).
,llegorising is also found in ooh. r. on *5*)5 @herever there is mention of eating and drin:ing in
this s%roll (ooh.), the 9%ri!ture s!ea:s of the stud& of the Torah and good wor:s."
*)

b. In the -T \Wf[d (usuall& i in the 4'') is used of the %onsuming of the sword (
* 9. *5*6 ), of fire ( ;u. .65/0 # *65.+ # 2s. *.59 ), of heat ( <n. /.5)+ ), of hunger and si%:ness (
1E. 75.0 # ?ob .65./ ), of the divine wrath ( ,mos 056 # %f. Is. /+5*7 5 q q
# *65.. 5 q i
i # %f. also in <:. literature 7om.Il. , */, .6*5
i # ,es%h. Fr. , *0/ ( T<F , 6.)5 i i .
%. In the !ro!heti% warnings of the -T , and also in the laments of the righteous, we have su%h
t&!i%al meanings
*0
as to destro&" (of the destru%tion of the righteous b& the ungodl&), .
37:16 ,H ( [ 5 i )# 13:4 UU 0*5) # *65* 5 # 2rv.
*)5/7 ( /+5.) )5 et%., to eat u!on, or at the %ost of," 7os. )56 5 i
# .+5./ 5 q (the 8as. has the sense of to bear the %onseTuen%es of")#
..56 5 i (here again the 8as. has a different sense, i.e., the sword
shall %onsume, supra )# to bear the %onseTuen%es of," 2rv. .5/. 5 q
# Is. /5.+ 5 et%.
B. ( in the NT.
.6 >umont, op. cit. , .)6 f. and 7aas, op. cit.
.9 >umont, op. cit. , 2late I, ) (on !. 6+).
,el. ,rist. ,elius ,ristides, of ,drianutherai in 8&sia (.*9I.69 ,.3. ), %elebrated rhetori%ian and %redulous
votar& of ,es%ula!ius, one of the best :nown re!resentatives of later 7ellenisti% !iet& in literature (%f. his !rose
h&mns to different deities), ed. @. 3indorf, .6*9# ed. H. Feil, .696.
,en. #eneis .
*+ ,s in the 9abaEius %ult, >umont, loc. cit.
*. >f. 9%hl. 4:. , //0 f.
** 9tr.DH. , I(, ..)6.
*/ For Aabb. !ar. , v. 9tr.DH. , I(, ..06 ff.# HoussetD<ressm. , *60.
*) 9tr.DH. , II, )60.
*0 The %on%luding lines of this !aragra!h are b& <. Hertram.
.. 1ating is a ne%essar& means of sustaining life ( ), 8t. 65*0 and !ar. -ne of the
most !ressing %on%erns of man is thus to have something to eat, %f. also 8:. 65/6 ff. and !ar.
-ne of the troubles of ?esus and the dis%i!les in their bus& ministr& is that the& do not have
time to eat, 8:. /5*+ # 65/. (on in 8:. /5*+ et%. 669 and I, )77 ). 1ating
and drin:ing" ( i ) is a formal eB!ression for meeting the most vital needs, for
satisf&ing hunger and thirst (on this established %ombination **6 ), 8t. 65/. and !ar. #
*05/0ff .# . >. ..5** . It has the same meaning as to ta:e a meal" in 4:. .756 # . >. ..5*. f.
That someone raised from the dead is reall& alive is shown b& the fa%t that he eats, 8:. 05)/
and !ar. # 4:. *)5). ff.
*6
In a%%ordan%e with the %ommon rule that the wor:er is worth his
meat, that he should re%eive sustenan%e as his wages ( 8t. .+5.+ and !ar. # * Th. /5.* # 3id. ,
.*, /), that the vine&ard should su!!ort those who wor: in it and the flo%: those who :ee! it
( . >. 957 ), the wandering missionaries of earl& >hristianit& %an %laim su!!ort from the
!la%es where the& labour, 8t. .+56 ff. and !ar. # . >. 95) 5 i .
>onversel&, >hristians who devote themselves to indolent enthusiasm are brought under the
!rin%i!le of selfDsu!!ort ( 669 ), whi%h 2aul elevates to an ethi%al im!erative in * Th.
/5.+ 5 , c . To give the hungr& to eat is one
of the most elementar& duties of love for whose fulfilment the ?udge will loo: at the last
$udgment, 8t. *05/) ff. The selfDevident dut& of slaves to !re!are a meal for their masters on
return from their dail& wor: before the& themselves %an thin: of eating or drin:ing
*7
is a
similitude of the nonDselfsee:ing servi%e whi%h the dis%i!le must render to <od, 4:. .757 ff.
1ating, drin:ing et%. are a mar: of festive $o&, 4:. .05*/ , but also of a sensual life whi%h is
wasted on earthl& en$o&ment and whi%h is thus doomed to !erish, 4:. .*5.9 # .75*7 f. and !ar.
# 8t. *)5)9 and !ar. # . >. .05/* ( Is. **5./ )# ?esus 7imself, as -ne who eats and drin:s, a
gluttonous man and a winebibber, seems to the ?ews to be far too worldl& for a man of <od
( 8t. ..5.9 and !ar. ). To eat with someone ( i , i et%.) (to
drin:) is an indi%ation of %lose a%Tuaintan%e and fellowshi! ( 8:. .)5.6 # ,%. .+5). #
Ign.9m. , /, /# though %f. 4:. ./5*6 ). The forbidding of i eB!resses re!udiation
of fellowshi!, . >. 05.. .
*. In relation to religion, the natural fun%tion of eating is mostl& used in the ;T , a!art
from the referen%es to the eating of manna in ?n. 65/. , )9 , 06 # . >. .+5/ , in %onne%tion with
the histori%al rootage of ?esus and of earl& >hristianit& in ?udaism, whi%h enfor%es the -T
%ustoms and ritual ordinan%es regarding eating with %asuisti%al severit&. ,t this !oint, though
the <os!el does not set aside the histori%al authorit& of the -T , it trans%ends the 4aw. 2aul,
see:ing s%ri!tural su!!ort for ;T %on%e!ts, a!!eals to the histori%al !re%edent of the !riests
!arta:ing of the sa%rifi%es in . >. 95./ , %f. .+5.6 . ?esus Tuotes 3avid who ate the showbread
in defian%e of the sa%red !rivileges of the !riests, and 7e sees here a model for the
transgression of the 9abbath b& the %om!anions of the 8essiah, the dis%i!les, 8:. *5*6 and
!ar. 7e manifests a similar freedom in relation to the ritual %leansings of the ?ews, whi%h
amongst other things do not allow eating with unwashed hands, 8:. 75. ff. # 8t. .05. f. , *+ .
2eter ta:es a different line in ,%. .+5.) 5
. Hut ?esus, in s!ite of the %riti%isms of the rabbis, is not afraid to hold tableD
fellowshi! whi%h %arries with it the ris: of defilement ( 8:. *5.6 and !ar. # 4:. .05* ). In the
%ourse of the <entile mission earl& >hristianit&, too, learns to over%ome ?ewish !re$udi%e, ,%.
..5/ # <l. *5.* . In the diffi%ult 7b. ./5.+ 5
i l g g , it is at least %lear that the
!riests of the -T order of atonement have lost their an%ient right to !arta:e of the sa%rifi%es in
the ;T order# !robabl& all :inds of sa%rifi%ial meals are de%lared to be in%om!atible with the
;T order.
*6
@e find abstinen%e from eating and drin:ing, or fasting ( ), as a ritual
*6 Ign.Tr. , 9, .5 eating and drin:ing are a sign of the full humanit& of ?esus.
*7 >f. on this !t. 9tr.DH. , II, */0# I(, 7./.
*6 >f. Agg. 7b. *, /, *7/, )). f.# @nd. 7b. , ..6 f.
?ewish %ustom on the o%%asion of vows ( ,%. */5.* , %f. v. .)
*9
I, 676 ), as an as%eti%
!ra%ti%e whi%h %hara%terises ?ohn the Ha!tist ( 8t. ..5.6 and !ar. # %f. 8:. .56 and !ar. # 4:.
.5.0 ),
/+
and as an eB!ression of 2aulOs !eniten%e and sorrow after the 3amas%us eB!erien%e,
,%. 959 . is used for to eat the 2as%hal lamb (or the !assover)"
/.
in
8:. .)5.* , .) and !ar. # 4:. **5.0 # ?n. .65*6 .
The eating of idolDmeats ( l , /76 f. ) be%ame a !roblem of earl&
>hristian %ondu%t in >orinth ( . >. 65.+ ) Tuite inde!endentl& of the regulations of -T 4aw
and ?ewish tradition (as distin%t from Aev. *5.) , *+ # . >. .+57 ).
/*
In the %onfli%t between
the <nosti%s in the %ongregation who thought themselves above an& doubts as to !arti%i!ation
in sa%rifi%es, and the wea:" who, as in their heathen !ast, regarded this eating as a %ulti% a%t
and therefore found it diffi%ult to eat with a good %ons%ien%e, 2aul de%ides in . >. 65. , 7 ff.
that fellowshi! with <od does not de!end on eating or not eating, but that to assert <nosti%
freedom to the violation of the dut& of love and the wounding of the %ons%ien%e (
i ) of other brethren is sin ( v. ..f .), so that it is better to renoun%e oneOs own
freedom of a%tion rather than to hurt oneOs brethren ( v. ./ # i ). The same
basi% thought re%urs in the dis%ussion in . >. .+5*/ ff. There should be no s%ru!les %on%erning
the en$o&ment of meat bought in the mar:et or set on the table in a !rivate house, for it is all
the gift of <od# nevertheless, regard for the %ons%ien%e of others and the reTuired se!aration
from the !agan %ultus ma& well be reasons for >hristians not eating flesh whi%h the& learn is
idolDmeat. In the %onfli%t between the wea: and the strong in A. .)5.0 , whi%h %entres
!rimaril& on en$o&ment of or abstinen%e from flesh and wine ( l ),
//
the de%isive
!oint in the $udgment of the a!ostle, who !ersonall& is on the side of the strong ( .)5.) , .9 ff.
# .05.ff .), is regard for the wea:er brethren and the readiness to forego for the sa:e of love,
!ea%e and mutual edifi%ation ( .)5.0 , .9 # .05* ). The >hristian ma& %hoose either freedom or
as%eti%ism. In <odOs sight the one is as good as the other ( .)5*ff .). Hut the res!onsibilit& of
one brother for another demands5 q q
( v. ./ ). Therefore it is better to eat no flesh and drin: no wine if it %auses
others to stumble. This is the true wa& to eBer%ise a maturer faith ( v. *+ff .). The tenden%&
towards vegetarianism and abstinen%e on religious grounds, whi%h arises for the first time in
>hristian histor& in A. .) , %orres!onds to a wides!read as%eti% dis!osition in later antiTuit&
( 69+ ), though there is a ?ewish im!ulse among the wea: in Aome, sin%e the c
l whi%h 2aul advan%es against them in v. .) , and the c
whi%h is the slogan of the strong in v. *+ , show that the debate finall& %on%erns
what is %lean or un%lean ( 69+ # 69/ )# %f. the observan%e of wee:l& da&s of fasting ( v. 0 5
q ) on the ?ewish !attern. The stand!oint of the a!ostle in the >orinthian and Aoman
dis!utes ( I, 6)/ ) leads be&ond both a %asuisti%al legalism on the one side and an
individualisti% libertinism on the other to the freedom of the >hristian who is united to his
*9 >f. Fr. from 1v. 7ebr. ( 7ier. 3e (iris Illustribus , *)5 iuraverat V 0acobus se non coesuru pane V6
donec videret eu resurgente a dorientibus .
/+ >f. Fl. 8:. , 6# 7%:. 8:. , .*.
/. ,s in 2 t. 6:21 # * >h. /+5.6 . >f. 1. 9%hGrer, ber (.66/)# <. 3alman, 0esus<
0eschua (.9**), 6+ ff.# 9tr.DH. , II, 6/7 ff.# 9%hl. 8t. , 7/9# Hau. ?.
/
, *.), as against gn. 1inl. , II
/
(.9+7), 0*/,
0/) ff.# gn. ?.
0, 6
, 6/*.
/* >f. a!art from the %omm. 1. v. 3obs%hGtE, Die urchristlichen Geeinden (.9+*), *6 ff.# @. 4Gtgert,
Freiheits!redigt und 9%hwarmgeister in Forinth ," HFTh , .*, / (.9+6), ..9 ff.# ,. 9%hlatter, 3ie :orinthis%he
Theologie ," HFTh , .6, * (.9.)), .0 f., )0 ff.# 8. Aauer, 3ie 9%hwa%hen in Forinth und Aom ," H9t. , *., *v/
(.9*/), 0 ff.# 7. v. 9oden, Sakraent und &thik bei Paulus6 3arburger "heologische Studien , I (.9/.), * ff.
// >f. 1. Aiggenba%h, Die Starken und Sch2achen in der rischen Geeinde ," Th9tFr , 66 (.69/), 6)9 ff.#
1. v. 3obs%hGtE, op. cit. , 9* ff., *7) ff.# @. 4Gtgert, 3er AJmerbrief als historis%hes 2roblem ," HFTh , .7, *
(.9./), 9+ ff.# 8. Aauer, op. cit. , 9) ff. and the %omm. The 4ordOs brother, ?ames, !ra%tised abstinen%e a%%. to
7egesi!!. in 1us.7ist. 1%%l. , II, */, 05 l i c , as did
2eter a%%. to 2s.D>lem. 7om. , .*, 65 q q i i # %f. .0,
7.
brethren in <od ( . >. .+5/. f. )5 i i ,
l { i .
/. In >orinth assembling to eat has the %hara%ter of divine servi%e ( . >. ..5// ). The
referen%e is to the administration of the 4ordOs 9u!!er ( , ), v. *+ 5
( /) ) (%f. q , 3id. , 9,
0). In fa%e of the disorders whi%h ma:e a true %ommunion im!ossible be%ause the wealth&
who %ome first eat the su!!er the& have brought with them without waiting for the !oor and
sharing with them ( v. *+ff ., //f .), 2aul la&s serious em!hasis on the %ulti% %hara%ter of the
4ordOs 9u!!er, showing that this is Tuite in%om!atible with !rofane and selfish eating ( v. ** ,
/) ). The eating of the bread and drin:ing of the wine in a%%ordan%e with the tradition of the
4ast 9u!!er ( v. *) , %f. 8:. .)5** and !ar. ) are a sa%red a%tion whi%h demands restraint on
the !art of all !arti%i!ants ( v. *6ff .# I, /6+ ). ,%%ording to . >. .+5/ there is an -T t&!e in
the eating of the manna in the wilderness ( I, 6)/ ).
/)
?ohn, too, draws the same !arallel,
though as he sees it eternal life is mediated, not through !arta:ing of the manna ( 65)9 , 06 ),
but onl& b& eating the true bread from heaven ( I, )77 ), whi%h is ?esus and whi%h ?esus
gives ( v. 0+f .). -n the ?ohannine demand for the a%tualit& of sa%ramental eating in the
!aradoBi%al form of or 6 q ( v. 0/ff .), %f. the dis%ussion of
the 4ordOs 9u!!er in the ;T ( , ).
). To the image of the 8essiani% meal of the last time ( /) ) there %orres!onds the
es%hatologi%al %on%e!tion of eating and drin:ing at the table of the heavenl& Fing.
/0
In 4:.
.)5.0 this is eB!ressed b& a 2harisee along the lines of ?ewish eB!e%tation ( 69. ). In 4:.
**5/+ ( .+0 ) it is newl& a!!lied b& ?esus 7imself in !ros!e%t of 7is future rule and the
!art of the dis%i!les in it. ?esus also eB!e%ts to eat the fulfilled !assover in the :ingdom of
<od in 4:. **5.6 ( , ).
/6
To eat of the tree of life in Aev. *57 is to
!arti%i!ate in the life of the last time of salvation, in the divine gift of eternal life ( 69. ).
-n the es%hatologi%al feast at whi%h the birds will eat the flesh of the hosts of ,nti%hrist
( Aev. .95.7 f. ), /) .
0. In Aev. .+59 (%f. 1E. *56I/5/ # ?er. .05.6 8as. ), the divine in his vision is to eat a roll
of a boo:. This is a dramati% re!resentation of the !ro%ess of ins!iration b& whi%h he is
inwardl& filled with the revelation im!arted to him, with the divine @ord of !ro!he%& whi%h
he is to !ro%laim (%f. ?er. .59 # Is. 657 f. ).
6. To eat," to en$o&" in the figur. sense. This ma& be used a. of the eating of s!iritual
food in ?n. )5/* , where ?esus, when as:ed b& the dis%i!les to eat of the !rovisions whi%h the&
have bought ( v. /. # %f. v. 6 ), re!lies5 6 q ,
%f. v. /) I, 6)) .
/7

It is also used b. of %onsuming" b& destru%tive natural for%es whose o!eration refle%ts the
divine $udgment, e.g., fire in 7b. .+5*7 # %f. Aev. ..50 # and rust (whi%h is %om!ared with fire in
its effe%ts) in ?m. 05/ .
Beh
,
%
*

/) For as an ins%r. on an earl& >hristian %ommunion vessel, v. 2reisig:e 9ammelbu%h , 0977.
/0 ?. ?eremias, ?esus als @eltvollender ," HFTh , //, ) (.9/+), 7) ff.
/6 -n the analogous drin:ing of the fruit of the vine in v. .6 # 8:. .)5*0 # 8t. *65*9 , i .
/7 V. the %omm. es!. >harles (.9*+) and 7ad., ad loc. # >. 9%hneider, Die &rlebnisechtheit der #pokal'pse des
0ohannes (.9/+), 79.
C . -n ?m. .5*/ , 3ib., .+9# 7%:., 6.# ?. H. 8a&or, "he &pistle ot St. 0aes (.9./), 7.. For further
lit. , # es!. ?. Hehm in /. Seeberg 9estschr. , I (.9*9), /*6I//0.
The image in ?m. .5*/ needs no !rofound
.
inter!retation. It sim!l& des%ribes the natural
!ro%ess to whi%h the fleeting nature of a refle%tion seen in a mirror gives rise. This is a
similitude of the man who is a hearer onl& and not a doer. -n . >. ./5.* , I,
.76 .
%
*


.
means mirror," figur. in ,es%h.,g. , 6/9, of the magi% mirror in 2aus. , (II,
*., .*# ,rtemid.-neiro%r. , II, 7. It does not o%%ur in the ;T . i means a. a%t. to
show in a mirror," to refle%t"5
2
s.D2lut. , 3e 2la%itis 2hiloso!horum , 0 (II, 69) f.)5
i (q l) , !ass. to be refle%ted"5 2. -B&. , 'III, .6+9, .9# b.
med., to see oneself in a mirror," 3iog. 4. , III, *6, /95 the drun:ard should i
et%.# %. to see something in a mirror," 2hil.4eg. ,ll. , III, .+. 5 c i
q q q l q .
In the ;T it o%%urs onl& at * >. /5.6 5 q c q
6q q i . 9ense %. gives an inter!retation
agreeable to the %onteBt ( n.
)
), namel&, that with un%overed head, without being blinded
li:e the Israelites, we see the of the 4ord visible as in a . It is to be noted
that the image is not based on re%olle%tion of an ordinar& mirror in whi%h one sees what is
!h&si%all& before the mirror, but on the idea of a mira%ulous mirror in whi%h what is invisible
is made visible to !ro!hets and !neumati%s ( , I, .76 on . >. ./5.* ). It is onl&
along these lines that we %an understand the !assage from 2hilo mentioned under %.
*
The
2auline teBt thus means that b& the we are those who see. The thought is the same as
in . >. ./5.* . The two statements together show the twofold nature of the 2auline
whi%h is ( I, )60 f. ), namel&, fulfilment alread& !resent ( * >. /5.6 ) and
fulfilment about to %ome ( . >. ./5.* ). Hoth as!e%ts are %ontained in the figure of the mirror.
8oreover, in the %onteBt this loo:ing into the divine has the wonderful result
that those who loo: are %hanged into the li:eness of what the& see ( ),
i.e., the& themselves a%Tuire a share in the ( *0. ).
/

This understanding is along the lines of most of the earl& translations, it vg speculantes ,
8ar%ion ( Tert.
8
ar%. , (, ..) conteplantes , 2el. conteplaur , s& 2 tan$ua in speculo
videus , bo in speculo videus . >f. also >alvin,
)
in speculo conspicientes , 7ofmann, 8e&er,
7einri%i, and most s%holars sin%e AeitEenstein (a!art from >orssen). The <:. fathers sometimes
tr& to %onstrue in terms of to refle%t," but there are no eBam!les of this usage of the med., and
. ,s o!!osed to A. AeitEenstein, (istoria 3onachoru (.9.6), *)6 f., who in this !assage too (
i ) assumes, even if in less vivid form, the view of the as the magi%al mirror of the
soul. For a %riti%ism of this inter!retation, %f. 3ib., loc. cit.
C i . -n * >. /5.6 5 8e&er
0
, 9.f.# H%hm.
)
, .70f.# 7einr. 9ends%hr., II, .69 ff.# @nd., .*7f. A.
AeitEenstein, (istoria 3onachoru (.9.6), *)/I*0.# 2. >orssen, g;@ , .9 (.9*+), *I.+# ,. 1. Hroo:e,
?Th9t. , *) (.9**), 96# ?. Hehm in /. Seeberg 9estschr. , I (.9*9), /.6I/**, /*6I//6.
. -n the relation between and , %f. Hl.D3ebr.
6
y /+, /.
2s.D2lut. 2seudoD2lutar%hus.
) 9o >alvin, ad loc. , who weighs the two earl& inter!retations and de%ides a%%ording to the praesenti loco
elius $uadrare .
* >f. es!. the arguments of AeitEenstein, whi%h might fit * >. /5.6 but not the of ?m. .5*/ . >f. also
the same image in a rather different form in @is. 75*6 (of wisdom) and . >l., /6, * (of >hrist as the mirror of
<od). AeitEenstein la&s great stress on the Tuotation from 2or!h&r. ,d 8ar%ellam , ./, but %f. the !enetrating
teBtual and material %riti%ism of >orssen, /f. and also @. Housset, 4'rios 1hristos
*
(.9*.), .+9, n. .. ,s the&
see it, the meaning of this Tuotation is that human virtue is the refle%tion of <od ( g
6 mnot n). Hut this ma:es %r&stal %lear the radi%al distin%tion between the !hiloso!hi%al
and the bibli%al view.
/ -. 9ol. ./5.5 -ur mirror is the 4ord," is no true !ar. , sin%e here man sees himself in <odOs mirror ( v. *5 9ee
how &our %ountenan%e loo:s").
8ar%. #dversus 3arcione .
su%h eBegesis arises less from the living tongue than from attem!ts at eB!osition.
0

T
hdrt. , ad loc.
( 82< , 6*, /97)5 q i q i { i (%f. also
>hr&s. ). 9o also 1rasmus, 4uther (as the mirror ta:es a !i%ture, so our heart ta:es the :nowledge
of >hrist") and also Hengel ( doinus V splendore faciei suae in corda nostra tan$ua in
specula inittens ).
4ittel
3
.. The general use of the term for something whi%h is last either materiall& ( 8t. 05*6 # 4:.
.*509 ) or in s!a%e ( ,%. .56 # ./5)7 5 c q q ) or time ( 8t. .*5)0 # *+56 ff.
# *756) # 8:. .*56 , ** # 4:. ..5*6 # ?n. 75/7 # * 2t. *5*+ # Aev. *5.9 ), be%omes theologi%all&
signifi%ant, at least indire%tl&, in . >. .056 , in the
.
of the final resurre%tion
a!!earan%e to 2aul. The asso%iation of littleness with the last ( 696 ) gives to this 2auline
eB!erien%e its %hara%ter as ( )60 f. ). ,t the same time, suggests the
%losing of a series, so that from the time of this there %an be no similar or
eTuivalent events.
*. The es%hatologi%al use ( ) derives from the sense of what is last in time. The
formal multi!li%it& of resultant eB!ressions is to be eB!lained !artl& b& the 4'' rendering of
the -T V`sa `edcf Y`Ma hb [f LeZ and !artl& b& the influen%e of the !ro!heti% da& of =ahweh" (
q ). In %ontent, its use refle%ts the fluidit& of earl& >hristian es%hatolog&.
The end began with the %oming of ?esus, 7b. .5* # . 2t. .5*+ 5
q . Hut the earl& >hristian writings also see their own !resent as the last time,
demonstrated on the one hand b& the out!ouring of the 9!irit ( ,%. *5.7 5
q ) and on the other b& evil times, b& s%offers, b& the %oming of
,nti%hrist et%. ( * Tm. /5. # ?m. 05/ 5 q # * 2t. /5/ 5
q # ?d. .6 5 ( vl. q q )# . ?n. *5.6
5 6 ). ,t the same time, there is also eB!e%tation of the %oming last da& whi%h
brings with it the last !lagues ( Aev. .05. # *.59 ), the over%oming of the
( . >. .05*6 ) and, !ro%laimed b& the ( . >. .050* ), the resurre%tion of
the dead, $udgment and salvation ( ?n. 65/9 f. , )) , 0) # ..5*) # .*5)6 5 g g
qq # . 2t. .50 5 q ).
In the 9e!tuagint the es%hatologi%al V`sa `edcf Y`Ma hb [f LeZ is usuall& rendered (
) , <n. )95. # 8i. )5. or q , ;u. *)5.) , o%%asionall& also
q , Is. *5* . -n the other hand g qq is avoided for V^_`\Z
t^_Mhb [f Is. /+56 5 l q , 2rv. *95)) ( /.5*6 )5 q
. In the Targums
*
we either have [`edsf ^_` ^_LeZ at the end of the da&s," Tg. -. , <n.
)95. # Tg. -. , ;u. *)5.) # Tg. ?. I , <n. )95. # Tg. 8i. )5. , [`edsf ^_` LNf qb ^_LeZ or at the end of the
%ourse of the da&s," i.e., at the final end of the da&s. Tg. ?. I , ;u. *)5.) . In Aabb. lit. we mostl&
have N] end" ( <n. r. , 96 on )95. 5 -T Tuotation5 V`sa `eZcf h`Ma hb [f LeZ , Aabbini% eB!osition N] ).
Aarel&, although alread& in the Tannait. 8idrash, t^_Mhb [f cd V^_`ecf 9. 3t. , /07 on /)5* (da& on
whi%h the dead live")#
/
1B. r. , 0* on /95/* (da& of the rewarding of the righteous, based on 2rv.
0 7ow un%ommon the use is with i too, ma& be seen from the editorial alteration of the 2or!h&r.
Tuotation to whi%h >orssen draws attention, /f.
Thdrt. Theodoretus, author in ))6v9 ,.3. of a >hur%h histor& in 0 boo:s and one of those who thus %ontinued the
wor: of 1usebius, ed. 4. 2armentier, .9...
. ,dv. as in 8:. .*56 , ** . The adv. %ombination in 8:. 05*/ 5 to lie on the !oint
of death," is used elsewhere, but is %ondemned b& the ,tti%ists# %f. 2r.DHauer , )69.
* 9tr.DH. , III, 606, 67..
/ ,. 9%hlatter, Die Sprache und (eiat des vierten &vangelisten (.9+*), 76# 9%hl. ?. , .70.
/.5*0 )# %f. Tg. ?. I , 3t. /)5* . In ,!o%al&!ti% writings we often have last times," ) 1sdr. 65/) #
9. Har. 656# Test. ;. 65. et%., and sometimes also last da&s" ( !lur. ), ) 1sr. .+509 # Test. 3. 05)
et%.
-n . >. .05)0 ff. 5 A I, .)* # on Aev. .5.7 # *56 # **5./ 5 6
l I, . ff.
/. Figur., it means the last in ran:, usuall& to denote what is mean and !oor, as the o!!. of
. 7en%e . >. )59 5 q
. >orres!onding to a , 8:. 95/0 5 l,
(%f. 8:. .+5)) and !ar. )# 8:. .+5/. # 4:. ./5/+ # 8t. .95/+ #
*+5.6 5 . It is used of the last !la%e as
the least honourable in 4:. .)59 f.
4inguisti%all& %f. 3io >. , )*, 0, 05 H {
Ali , as one of the meanest of 1g&!tians." ?os.(it. , 9 5
q 6 . 8ateriall& %f. b.HH , .+b5 I saw (in ra!turekin the
hereafter) an inverted world in whi%h the to! are bottom and the bottom to!."
4ittel

*

1

.. l in . >. 05.* means those who are within the %ommunit&, i.e., >hristians as
distin%t from the surrounding !agans ( l 076 ). This is an eB!ression whi%h re%eives
its !e%uliar %ontent from the distin%tion. It refle%ts 2aulOs awareness of the i as a
new and %losed fellowshi! se!arated from the rest of men (%f. . >. .+5/* ).
*. The anthro!ologi%al term
*
in A. 75** , alternating with 6
( v. .7f ., *+ ) ( /09 ) and ( v. */ , *0 ), also related to i ,
i ( *5.0 ) and ( .59 ), denotes the s!iritual side of man, or man
himself in so far as he en$o&s selfDawareness, as he thin:s and wills and feels. ,s su%h, as the
sub$e%t of the !ower of moral $udgment, he is a%%essible to the divine revelation, %an be
%onditioned b& it and is o!en to its %laim ( q
) # &et the %ontradi%tor& !ra%ti%al %ondu%t whi%h is determined b& sin brings
out the !light of man in the dualism of his eBisten%e. The term bears an even stronger
religious %ontent in * >. )5.6 . 7ere 2aul, !roved to be an a!ostle b& suffering, distinguishes
in himself the ( I, /60 ), the earthl& being in his %reaturel& mortalit& (%f.
v. .+ff .), and the , the man determined b& <od, the >hrist %oming into
being in >hristians"
/
( <l. *5*+ # )5.9 ), who is a q i ( * >. 05.7 ) and who
eB!erien%es dail& renewal in virtue of the divine gift of the 6 ( *
>. 050 # I, )70 ). In the !etition in 1!h. /5.6 5 {
q l , the term is
also to be understood of man as the ob$e%t of <odOs wor:ing or of the !la%e in man at whi%h
the !ower of the 9!irit meets and determines him. ,s used b& 2aul, the word alwa&s %arries
with it a suggestion, li:e the !arallel q i in . 2t. /5) ,
C . 2ass. , I, ..96, %f. 6.) f.# 4iddellD9%ott , 7++, %f. )96# 2r.DHauer , )69# 8oult.D8ill. , *06.
. In ;T <:. , as in the koine generall&, we have instead of the ,tti% , %f. Hl.D3ebr.
6
y /+, /.
* I, /60 # %f. >r.DFJ. , .)7 f.# @. <. FGmmel, /er @ und die Bekehrung des Paulus (.9*9), 6* f., ./) ff.#
A. Hultmann, AJmer 7 und die ,nthro!ologie des 2aulus ," in .ago Dei (.9/*), 0/ ff.# 1. Flsemann, )eib u.
)eib 1hristi (.9//), .**, .)7 f. and the %omm. on A. 75** # * >. )5.6 # 1!h. /5.6 . in the anthro!ologi%al
sense is also found in the inter!retation whi%h * >l., .*, ) gives to an agra!hon from 1g&!t (1g.D1v.)5 q
q " ," "" "" . >f. Ign.A. , /, *5 {
, !ower of soul and bod&."
/ 4tEm., ad loc.
of something whi%h is %on%ealed, and whi%h wor:s in %on%ealment, in the innermost !art of
man.
8ateriall& what 2aul %alls the inner man %orres!onds to the L\] ( i ) of the -T , and
there are formal !arallels in the sa&ings of ?esus in 8:. 75*. 5 q i
6 l l and 4:. ..5/9 5
q i , %f. 8t. */5*6 . >f. also b. ?oma, 7*b5 Aaba said5 , s%ribe
whose inner man does not %orres!ond to the outer is no s%ribe."
)
Hut the eB!ression
and the antitheses k are of nonDbibli%al
origin. The& derive from a terminolog& of 7ellenisti% m&sti%ism and <nosti%ism disseminated b&
2latoni% !hiloso!h& ( I, /60 ).
0
;evertheless, even though 2aul ado!ts the language, he uses it
to eB!ress his >hristian anthro!olog& with its soteriologi%al and es%hatologi%al orientation.
Beh

From the time of 7omer this has been used for one who is asso%iated with another," the
s!e%ifi% sense being determined b& the %onteBt. Thus it ma& be a. a %om!anion," e.g., 2hilo9om. ,
II, *)0 5 i , often in a figur. sense, e.g., 2lut. >onvivalium
3is!utationum , I, ) (II, 6**b)5 { { {# or b. a fellowDsoldier,"
7om.Il. , ., /)0 (%f. 1!i%t.3iss. , I, .., /.), but also ?os.Hell. , /, /6* (address of ?ose!hus to the
?ewish soldiers tra!!ed with him in the %ave of ?ota!ata)# ,nt. , .*, /+* (address of ?udas
8a%%abaeus to his arm& before the battle)# %. a member of the same !art&," 4&s. , .*, )/# d. a
member of the same religious so%iet&," 3itt. -r. , II, 07/, . f.5 i
2 { e. a !u!il" in the sense of the adherent of s!e%ifi% tea%hings or of a
!arti%ular !hiloso!her, ,ristot.8eta!h. , I, ), !. 960b, )5 A
# 'eno!h.8em. , II, 6, .5 an of 9o%rates#
.
f. a friend" in the
good sense, 2hilo4eg. ,ll. , II, .+ 5 i l i i ,
%f. III, .6*, but also in the bad boon %om!anion," / 8a%%. *5*0 5 with # g.
a %olleague," ?os.,nt. , .., .+. 5 A { q
i (here it almost means a subordinate offi%ial).
It is not %ommon in the 9e!tuagint, being mostl& used for qf M] et%., though also for ML] hd 5

*
) )WZ\XseX hf cqX M] , 3 B. 4:5 (UU f.)# {
i )Wd`MX L] hb `M] LZ qX \qf ( , >ant. .57 (UU g.)# q
6 ({ qMf YZ Yea \[f ) 2rv. **5*) (UU a.). The word is more %ommon in
the other <:. translations of the -T , es!. for i in the 4'', e.g., 1 B. 15:28 A2 for
i in the 4'' ( 8as. qf M] #( *+5). A for i 4'' and O ( 8as. qf M] )#
?ob )*57 2 for i 4'' O ( 8as. qf M] #( /.5/* O for 4'' and A ( MRe]
).
/
From this review we ma& !erha!s %ome to the %autious %on%lusion that it was onl& graduall&
that won its !la%e in the <:. Hible.
In later ?udaism (for ML] hd ) is %ommonl& used for one !art of the s%ribal bod&. It
refers to those who were Tualified to be religious tea%hers and $udges, but who had not &et
re%eived ordination, so that a%:nowledgment of their !ronoun%ements de!ended on re%ognition of
their !ersons b& the !arties to whi%h the& belonged, not on the assured validit& of their !osition.
)

) >f. 9tr.DH. , I, )60.
0 For further material %f. >. F. <. 7einri%i, Das -2eite Sendschreiben des #postels Paulus an die 4orinthier
(.667), *// f.# ,. HonhJffer, 1!i:tet u. das ;T ," A(( , .+ (.9..), ..0 ff. and @nd. * F. on )5.6.
. @hen Iren. , (, //, ) %alls 2a!ias c , H c , we have a
usage similar to that in ,ristot. and 'eno!h. , and also found in 1!i%tet. ( 3iss. , II, .0, )# II, **, *9# III, *6, /).
i.e., united b& %ommon asso%iation with one and the same tea%her.
* >f. 1!i%t.3iss. , I(, ., 975 the of the em!eror.
/ The three different renderings also refle%t the histor& of the eBegesis of MRe] # .
) >f. b.9anh. , 0a# 9tr.DH. , I, )97.
9in%e ordination %ould usuall& be re%eived onl& at the age of )+,
0
the number of those who were
Tualified s%ribes but who %ould be %ounted onl& !ersonall& and not offi%iall& as rabbis
6
was not
small# indeed, in times of !erse%ution ordination was sometimes im!ossible and therefore man&
never attained to offi%ial re%ognition. These men who are Tualified but who do not belong to the
offi%ial ran: of tea%hers are often %alled [`edMf LZ hf v in the ?erus. Talmud.
7
The word was
also used more widel& for those who in a !arti%ular wa& sought to live a%%ording to the 4aw, and
es!. its reTuirements of ritual %leanness.
6
In the form of religious so%ieties there thus arose in
mar:ed distin%tion from laBer %ir%les, the +# ha+are , a :ind of order of tertiaries. @e ma&
rightl& as: whether 7ellenisti% influen%es are not dis%ernible in this res!e%t. In the teBts, ML] hd is
!rimaril& used, of %ourse, in the general se%ular sense of %olleague or asso%iate, female as well as
male,
9
but for our !ur!oses this is less im!ortant than the s!e%ial usage to whi%h we have
referred.
.+

.. 8atthew is the onl& ;T writer to use . 7e does so three times, and alwa&s in
the form of an address5 . It o%%urs on the li!s of the owner of the vine&ard when he
answers the s!o:esman for the wor:ers who grumbled at the wage given to those who started
later ( *+5./ ), on the li!s of the :ing addressing the man without a weddingDgarment
( **5.* ), and on the li!s of ?esus when ?udas %ame to betra& 7im ( *650+ ). Though we
should not read too mu%h into the term, we ma& sa& that in all three %ases it is more than a
mere form. It alwa&s denotes a mutuall& binding relation between the s!ea:er and the hearer
whi%h the latter has disregarded and s%orned. There is a relation of this :ind between the
owner of the vine&ard and the wor:er hired a%%ording to right and %ustom.
..
, similar
relation eBists between the :ing and his guest and between ?esus and 7is dis%i!le. In all three
%ases the hearer is guilt& of regarding the mutual obligation egotisti%all&, as though it
%ommitted onl& the other !art&. This is brought out in the final referen%e to the generosit& of
the master in *+5./ . It is also im!li%it in **5.* , sin%e the guest had no %laim to !arti%i!ate in
the wedding but owed his !resen%e solel& to the generosit& of the :ing ( v. 6ff .). In the final
%ase the !osition is obvious.
.*

If we %an see from the of the two !arables that the generosit& is on the side of the
s!ea:er, then, unli:el& though it ma& seem, the term shows us that the s!ea:er is <od, or that
<ods a%tion is refle%ted in his a%tion. This generosit& is in no sense negated b& the eB%lusion of
the guest in the se%ond !arable. The eB%lusion is sim!l& a ne%essar& result of its abuse.
>om!arable Aabb. !arallels ( b.9hab. , .0*b# .0/a Har.) suggest that the guest either s%orned or
defiled the !roffered garment and therefore in%urred the legitimate wrath of his host. There is no
su!!ort for a praedestinatio ad alu in this !arable.
*. ,lmost more im!ortant than the o%%urren%es of in the ;T are the
im!li%ations of the fa%t that it is not found in man& !assages where one might have eB!e%ted
it. Thus the dis%i!les of ?esus are never %alled 7is . Indeed, the longer the& are
0 b. 9ota, **b# %f. also ?. ?eremias, g;@ , *0 (.9*6), /...
6 7ere, !erha!s, is the root of the des%ri!tion of those who are not &et ordained as VWdhd r`sa \ZYef . The term
denotes those who are between the VWdhd , the ordained, and the r`sa \ZYef , those still under instru%tion. >f. 9tr.D
H. , I, )96.
7 >f. 9tr.DH. , I, )96.
6 >f., e.g., 3em., *, / and the material in 9tr.DH. , II, 0++I0.9.
9 For eBam!les %f. 4ev& @Jrt. , II, 6 f.
.+ This is %ertainl& !resent in the formula ML] hd ^Z r`sa \ZYef , e.g., $ 9heT. , )7b, /+5 hLd `Na qb `Lea Mf rZ c^dcd ML] cd ^Z
r`sa \ZYef `[|efqf ^LeX . 7ere and in similar %ases ML] hd with M`sa \ZYef im!lies the !resen%e of ultimate trust and
fellowshi! between the a%%redited !u!il and his tea%her, whi%h was naturall& of the greatest im!ortan%e both for
himself and his offi%e.
.. >f. *+5* , ./f . and on this 9tr.DH. , I, 6/+ f.
.* -n the .
%onne%ted with 7im, the more %learl& the& realise their distin%tion from 7im. The re%ognition
that 7e s!o:e and a%ted with authorit& !revents the :ind of develo!ment to a similar stature
whi%h is natural in the %ase of Aabbini% !u!ils and their tea%hers. The onl& meaningful wa& in
whi%h the& %an des%ribe their relationshi! to 7im is b& selfDdes%ri!tion as the of
?esus >hrist. -n the other hand, >hristians in their relationshi! to one another regarded and
des%ribed themselves, not as , but as i . The use of this term shows that
the& re%eived and a%%e!ted their fellowshi! as something given, as something whi%h was
inde!endent of their own desire or volition, and as something whi%h bound them all the %loser
for this reason. Though we ma& !erha!s see here the influen%e of ?ewish usage ( I, .)0 ),
the fa%t remains that this designation indi%ates the divine invasion of the world of human
egoism, and that it thus eB!resses something whi%h %ould never eB!ress. @e %an
thus understand wh& from the ver& first members of >hristian orders des%ribed themselves as
i ( fratres ) and not as . In so doing, the& also gave outward re%ognition to
their %ommon relatedness to the one 4ord.
/engstorf
&) I, 7*6
)! .6/
! .
<
*

In the ;T c is used in mu%h the same wa& as ( I, *6) ).
.
It is stri:ing,
however, that it does not o%%ur in the genuine 8:., is found in ?n. onl& at .95/7 , and is not used
in >ol., . and * Th., Tt., 2hlm., . and * 2t., . and * and / ?n. or Aev. ;or has it !assed into
modern <:.
,s an indefinite number, c denotes the new member of a series distin%t from those
whi%h !re%eded and either %arr&ing the series forward, e.g., 4:. .)5.6 ff. 5 {
c { c # . >. .*56 f. 5 c { q c { q { q c {
q c { q { q c , or %on%luding it, ,%. .05/0 5 H c B
Aiq { . It often
%om!rises other men or %on%e!ts of the same :ind, e.g., and others" in ,%. .75/) 5 c c
{ i, l { { c
, or the others" in )5/) 5 i . It
should be noted, however, that c ma& also be used to introdu%e another :ind,
*
e.g., 4:.
*/5/* 5 q c c . ,s a definite number it is used
when two s!e%ifi% things or grou!s are %om!ared or %ontrasted, e.g., ,%. */56 5 c
2i c c 4i . In ,%. *+5.0 # *75/ it is used for the
neBt" da&. ,s a distinguishing ad$. or adv. it denotes something whi%h is not identi%al with what
has been referred to !reviousl&. This ma& involve a more or less !ronoun%ed Tualitative
distin%tion, in whi%h %ase the term a%Tuires theologi%al signifi%an%e.
8t. ..5/ 5 l , q c # the Tualities whi%h ?ewish
eB!e%tation attributed to the 8essiah might better fit another than ?esus.
8:. .65.* 5 ?esus 6 q g , i.e., not in the transfigured %or!orealit&
of the risen 4ord as one might naturall& su!!ose, nor in the form of a gardener in whi%h 7e had
a!!eared to 8ar& 8agdalene, but in the form of a traveller.
,t the transfiguration of ?esus in 4:. 95*9 , l 6
c . 7is fa%e was %hanged b& the glor& in whi%h it a!!eared.
C c . Hl.D3ebr.
6
y /+6# Aaderma%her
*
, 77.
. 7en%e in man& !assages, e.g., 8t. .+5*/ # 4:. 656 ff. # ..5*6 , man& 899 have c where others have
.
* 9o alread& in %lass. <:. , e.g., Thu%. , I(, 67, *5 Hq c i .
,%. *5) 5 The dis%i!les q 6 ( I, 7*6 ). This
de%isive statement in the mira%le of 2ente%ost %an be eB!ounded in two wa&s. It ma& eB!ress
the fa%t that the dis%i!les s!o:e in tongues, as eB!li%itl& des%ribed in .+5)6 # .956 and . >.
.*5.+ , /+ # .)5. ff. ,gainst this is the formal ob$e%tion that it leaves untranslated,
sin%e the !hrase 6 , as the other !assages show, is Tuite adeTuate in itself
to denote !lainl& the !ro%ess of s!ea:ing in tongues.
/
There is also the material ob$e%tion that
a%%ording to . >. .)5* ff. the distin%tive feature of tongues is unintelligibilit&, and therefore
the ver& o!!osite of what %onstitutes the mira%le of 2ente%ost. 7en%e, if we a%%e!t this
inter!retation, we must find the true mira%le of 2ente%ost in the fa%t that the hearers were
given the gift of hearing and understanding these tongues in their own languages without an&
inter!retation.
)
This view finds some su!!ort in ,%. *56 and *5.. 5
6 , but it is not ver& %onvin%ing. The other !ossibilit& is to ta:e it that
6 means s!ea:ing in various languages whi%h were different from the
mother tongue of the s!ea:ers and whi%h were !reviousl& un:nown to them. This view alone
does full $usti%e to the later q l c g liq q
and to the enumeration of the various tongues. -n the other hand, it does not eB!lain
the %ontem!tuous statement in v. ./ , whi%h would seem to be a!!ro!riate onl& to s!ea:ing in
unintelligible tongues. This leads man& s%holars to the view that in its !resent form ,%. *
unites two different a%%ounts of whi%h one narrates the %ommen%ement of s!ea:ing with
tongues in the earl& >hur%h and the other a mira%le of s!ea:ing in foreign languages. If this is
true, the eB!ression 6 is the lin: used b& the author to $oin the
two %on%e!ts.
,%. .757 5 i ,
c l . The %harge is brought against 2aul and his
%om!anions in Thessaloni%a that the& were !rea%hing a rival :ing who would %ontest the sole
authorit& of the Aoman em!eror.
A. 75*/ 5 c c i . This other law" (
/00 ) is distinguished from the 4aw of <od whi%h is hol&, $ust and good" ( v. .* ) and from
the law of reason" whi%h %onsents to it. The other law is the instrument, effe%tive in the flesh
of the individual man, of the law of sin" whi%h is a !ower ruling over man and whi%h binds
him with the hel! of this c .
In . >. .05)+ it is em!hasised that the of heavenl& bodies is essentiall& different from
that of earthl&.
In 1!h. /50 the of the time of salvation is %ontrasted with , with all
!revious generations.
The of 2hil. /5.0 %an be ta:en in different wa&s. It %an be eB!ounded in
terms of the verses whi%h immediatel& !re%ede ( .*I.) ). In this %ase those who thin: otherwise
are those who have not &et attained to the dee! insight that one %an never be, but %an onl& be in
!ro%ess of be%oming, a !erfe%t >hristian. -n the other hand, it ma& be referred more generall& to
views divergent from those of 2aul, e.g., on the !rior Tuestion of the religious value of ?udaism, or
to an& im!erfe%t ideas whi%h %an be %orre%ted onl& b& divine revelation.
In 7b. 75.. ff. ?esus is the other !riest who is %om!ared with and it is shown in
detail wherein the differen%e %onsists whi%h both trans%ends and fulfils.
This idea of otherness, whi%h o%%urs in so man& forms, is %entral to the ;T as the stor& of
the fulfilment of the !romise of <od. The new whi%h has %ome in ?esus >hrist is something
Tuite different from what !re%eded to the degree that it eB%ludes ever&thing else as a wa& of
/ . >. .)5*. is no argument against this. The eB!ression. 6 in this verse is a
Tuotation from the <:. -T ( Is. *65.. ), though it agrees with A rather than the 4''. In its original sense this
%ertainl& refers to men of foreign tongues ( I, 7*6 f. ) rather than to s!ea:ing with tongues, but eB%e!t in this
amended Tuotation 2aul alwa&s s!ea:s of 6 .
) 9o finall& F. Hornhluser, Studien -ur #postelgeschichte (.9/)), ** ff.
salvation. There is no other <od but one, . >. 65) .
0
,nd there is no other name under heaven
given among men whereb& the& ma& be saved but the name of ?esus >hrist, ,%. )5.* . This is
wh& the message of the <os!el demands de%ision.
<l. .56 5 { i { l c ,
is to be ta:en in the same wa&. The eB!ression5 =ou have fallen awa& to
another <os!el," whi%h is hardl& a slogan of his o!!onents but whi%h 2aul lets sli! in his
agitation, is revo:ed at on%e b& the a!ostle. There is no other <os!el# there is onl& the one
<os!el of $ustifi%ation b& >hrist in faith. Thus the tea%hing of the ?udaiEers is not another
<os!el, let alone a better. It is no <os!el at all. >f. also * >. ..5) .
9imilarl& ( .6/ ) means to tea%h something false," wrongl& to
!ro%laim as the <os!el," and means to hold a wrong view," Ign.9m. , 6, * (
i is error" in Ign.8g. , 6, .).
,s a !rin%i!al word c is used in the sense of i for ones
neighbour." The other is the Thou as distin%t from the I ( ). @e find this use
alread& in 3emosth.-r. , /), .*5 c q q . In A. *5. 5
i c, i . The law of >hrist" %an be stated
in the formula5 i ( . >. .+5*) ).
>om!lete renun%iation of selfDlove and %om!lete selfDgiving to others is the fulfilment of the
4aw, A. ./56 . In this res!e%t the neighbour" is not a %olle%tive %on%e!t, but the man who in a
%on%rete situation is brought a%ross m& !ath b& <od. The >hristian must have %ontinual
regard to the %ons%ien%e and edifi%ation of this neighbour, . >. .+5*9 # .)5.7 .
Be'er
<, , ,
The %lear meaning of this word grou! is !re!aration both in the a%tive sense of ma:ing
read&" and in the !assive of readiness," abilit&" or resolution."
.

The grou! ta:es on religious signifi%an%e onl& in bibli%al <:. ,
*
i.e., in the 4'', where it is
mainl& used for t^eWe whose various senses
/
it assimilates (and sometimes for cPdw qd , [Md Led and a
series of other verbs),
)
and in the ;T .
.. The terms are used for the divine %reation and !reservation, a. in nature and histor&.
The& refle%t the !ulsating, living Tualit& of the bibli%al %on%e!t of <od. The divine
relates to heaven and earth5 qi c , 2rv. /5.9 # 65*7 #
l g iq , . 28:15 #
g l , 64:6 . It relates to s!e%ifi% natural !ro%esses5 { g
g , 146:8 # i c qi q p , ?ob /65*0 .
0
It relates
to individual men5 l { qi , 118:73 # g ,
qi 3 B. 2:24 , to their needs5 qi q q ,
q i , 64: , and to their destin&5 qi
i , <n. *)5.) , )) , with referen%e to the bride Aebe:ah, ordained for Isaa%.
0 c is added to i in * F4 al !l s&r.
. For detailed distin%tions and eBam!les v. 2ass. , s.v.
* >f. es!. ,el. ,rist.-r. , 6, **5 9ara!is c c q .
is worth noting in %onne%tion with the sa%rifi%ial %ultus5 l , 7om.Il. , .+, 07.#
, -d., ./, .6), %f. in the 4'' * >h. /05.* ( ), .6 ( i
i ).
/ 8eanings of t^eLe are to arise," to %reate," to found," to set u!," to !re!are," to establish" (mainl& ni!hal
and hi!hil).
) >f. 7at%hDAed!ath, s.v.
0 7ere in translation of R\fied .
It refers to <ods eternal being and nature5 c ,
102:1 # c , 2:2 # i
i , 88:14 # q
, 88:2 .
6
It relates finall& to the !eo!le of Israel %on%erning whose histor&
it is written5 qi q c l ( 2
B. 7:24 # %f. 88:4 # 9ir. )95.* ), and whi%h in its histor& %onstantl& eB!erien%es the
divine !rote%tion, e.g., in its guidan%e through the wilderness ( 77:1 f. ), in the %onTuest5
{ l q q, q qi 1B. */5*+ (%f. 1B. .05.7 # 1E. *+56 ), or in the histor&
of the :ings, where it is said of 9aul5 qi q i c
l
7
( 1 B. 13:13 ) and of 3avid5 { qi
l ( 2 B. 5:12 # %f. . >h. .)5* ).
It relates finall& to the $udgment whi%h terminates the histor&5 qi q
i , ge!h. .57 . The !oint is that the word and its derivatives are
regarded b& the 4'' translators as suitable for eB!ressing <ods whole %reative a%tion in
ever& age and at ever& moment in nature and histor&. ,ll worldDo%%urren%e is the s!here of
<ods %reative wor:.
b. These eB!ressions are also used for what <od !re!ares and a%%om!lishes
soteriologi%all&, mainl& in terms of salvation and !erdition. <od a%%om!lishes salvation5
q i 6
, qi ( . >. *59 ). The
in%on%eivable salvation whi%h <od has !re!ared for those who love 7im is at the %entre of the
;T ker'ga . -n the one side it is full& !resent and on the other full& future, as ?esus >hrist,
who is the %ontent of this salvation, is !resent as the ob$e%t of faith, and future as the ob$e%t of
ho!e. It is full& !resent, for 9imeon, holding the infant ?esus in his hands, %onfesses5 l
l i , qi
( 4:. *5/+ f. ). ,gain, the fa%t that salvation is !resent is im!lied in the !arables
of ?esus, e.g., when 7e sa&s that the wedding feast or the great banTuetkboth are s&mboli%al
images of the 8essiani% !eriodkis !re!ared ( 8t. **5) , 6 # 4:. .)5.7 ). @hat now ta:es
!la%e is invitation to the feast. -n the other hand, it is full& future. ,t the last $udgment the
9on of 8an will sa& to 7is own5 q q
i q ( 8t. *05/) ). The ?ohannine >hrist sa&s5 {

, , l
6 q , ?n. .)5* f. The death and resurre%tion of >hrist !re!are eternal
salvation for 7is !eo!le.
6
2eter writes to his %ongregation %on%erning the i
i q q , . 2t. .50 . To <ods !re!aration in
relation to salvation belongs the fa%t that those who love <od are !re!ared for it b& 7im (
, i l , A. 95*/ ). There also belongs the fa%t
that what the& a%hieve in this life is !reviousl& !re!ared b& <od ( ,
l i , , 1!h. *5.+ ). Hut <od
also !re!ares destru%tion. ,t the last $udgment the 9on of 8an sa&s5
l l6 q q
, 8t. *05). .
Aev. 95.0 refers to the %on%lusion of the last time whi%h !re%edes the last $udgment and whi%h
is now in !ro%ess of fulfilment5 l q l q 6 q
q , i i 6 . The
salvation and !erdition !re!ared from the foundation of the worldkan eB!ression whi%h brings
6 In the two last Tuotations the sense is not so mu%h !re!aration in the a%t. sense as being !re!ared or
established. The statements are grounded in <ods eternal nature whi%h %om!rises both eternal rest and eternal
%reating.
7 7ere, too, has the sense of establishing.
6 >f. the verbal !ar. in Aev. .*56 5 { c (s%. q ) q .
out the inelu%table %ertaint& and eternit& of salvation and !erditionk%orres!ond, li:e the !re!ared
good wor:s of 1!h. *5.+ , to Aabbini% s!e%ulations on things whi%h were read& from the
beginning of the world5 Ten things were %reated in the twilight on the night before the 9abbath5
the mouth of the earth, the o!ening of the well, the mouth of the ass, the rainbow, the manna, the
rod, the shamir, the 9%ri!ture, the means of writing and the tables. 8an& sa&5 ,lso the demons, the
grave of 8oses and the ram of our father ,braham" ( ,b. , 6, 0).
9
In another list we have the
Torah, re!entan%e, <an 1den, <ehinnom, the throne of glor&, the heavenl& san%tuar& and the
name of the 8essiah" ( 2esi:t. , 0)a).
.+

*. To <ods %reation and !re!aration %orres!ond a human !re!aration and !re!aredness in
relation to <od. ,t the beginning of the ;T histor& stands ?ohn the Ha!tist with the !ro!heti%
tas:5 q i , 8t. /5/ and !ar. , or, as 4u:e !uts it,
iq , 4:. .5.7 . The 9&no!tists see in the wor: of the
Ha!tist a fulfilment of the divine reTuirement de%lared b& 3t. Is. ( Is. )+5/ ).
,longside the !ro!heti% tas: is the ethi%al and religious tas: given to individuals to
!re!are for fellowshi! with <od.
The 2salmist !ra&s5 i q i , , i q i , 56:7
(%f. 107:1 ). The !re!aration of the heart is a s!e%ifi% ethi%al tas: in the @isdom literature5 l
i , 9ir, *5.7 (%f. 9ir. .65*/ # *5. # 2rv.
*/5.* )# i q i i , 111:7 . 2hilo uses the
terms to denote resolution in an intelle%tual or gnosti% %onne%tion (e.g., ,gri%. , .6 # 3et. 2ot. Ins.
, .+ # 9om. , I, 76 # 8igr. ,br. , .) ). The !ro!het ,mos summons the !eo!le of Israel5
( ,m. )5.* ). ,%%ording to the 4'' 8i%ah
re%:ons among what is and what <od reTuires5 c l
i ( 8i. 656 ). From Israel as from 8oses there is demanded readiness to re%eive the
revelation of <od. This readiness has a %eremonial and %ulti% %hara%ter with tabooDli:e features (
1B. .95..I.0 # /)5* # %f. ;u. .65.6 ).
In the ;T readiness is demanded in three res!e%ts5 readiness for good wor:s5 {
i , Tt. /5. # %f. * Tm. *5*. # readiness to bear witness to the
<os!el5 { c i l
q i , . 2t. /5.0 # { iq
i q l , 1!h. 65.0 # and readiness for the return of the 4ord. The
last reTuirement ?esus !ut to 7is dis%i!les with !arti%ular urgen%&5
i c, g 6q l 6 , 8t.
*)5)) # 4:. .*5)+ . It is illustrated in the !arable of the Ten (irgins. In virtue of it the life of
>hristians be%omes a life of %ons%ious and vigilant eB!e%tation of a goal whi%h brings
salvation and of o!enness to the !ossibilities of a%tion determined b& this goal. Tiffs readiness
gives the >hristian life a distin%tive d&nami% %hara%ter.
Grundann
A), A!),
), A)
A)
*
.
A. A/B C in the OT.
9 For details, %f. F. 8artiD<. Heer, ^#b T (.9*7), .*7 ff.
.+ >f. 9tr.DH. , I, 97) f., 96. f.
C
i (;.H. For im!ortant reasons 9%hniewind, who had underta:en this arti%le,
%ould not have it read& in time. @ith his %onsent it was thus ta:en over b& his !u!il, <erhard
Friedri%h, li:e some !arts of the art. D. Friedri%h was able to use in 89 the
un!rinted !ortions of 9%hniewinds boo: &uangelion , but in %on%e!tion and %onstru%tion the
art. is his own wor:.)
MPfew Lea in the -T has the general sense of !ro%laiming good news" ( . F. .5)* ), e.g., the birth
of a son ( ?er. *+5.0 ). In view of . 9. )5.7 , where the MP]ew Lf sZ !ro%laims the defeat of Israel, the
loss of the ar: and the death of the sons of 1li, and of . F. .5)* and Is. 0*57 , where the news is
%hara%terised as good onl& b& the addition of L^_ ,
.
it has been %on$e%tured
*
that the basi%
sense is sim!l& to deliver a message, and that the %ontent of the cMd Pw LeZ is shown to be glad or sad
onl& b& the ad$. cLd ^_ or cqd Md . This is not so. In all 9emiti% languages, in ,%%adian, 1thio!i% and
,rabi%, the sense of $o&" is %ontained in the stem.
/
The realisti% %on%e!tion of the word" in
9emiti% languages is shown b& the fa%t that the& have a s!e%ial stem for de%laring something good,
whereas 4atin and modern languages do not,
)
and <:. ta:es a middle %ourse b& %onstru%ting the
%om!osite , i .
0
The addition L^_ in the -T is sim!l& a
strengthening of something alread& !resent in the stem. MPL is often used in the sense of
bringing news of vi%tor&" or de%laring a vi%tor&." , messenger %omes from the !la%e of battle
and de%lares vi%tor& over enemies or the death of the o!!onent.
6
This messenger regards himself
as a bearer of good tidings ( * 9. )5.+ ), and he is regarded b& others as su%h ( * 9. .65*6 ). H&
eBtension, ever& messenger from a battlefield %ame to be %alled MP]ew Lf sZ , even though in some
%ases he might bear evil tidings.
Transition from a se%ular to a religious use ma& be seen in . 9. /.59 . The 2hilistines have
trium!hed, 9aul has fallen. The signs of vi%tor&, the head of the enem& and his wea!ons, are
dis!la&ed in the land. The glad message is !ro%laimed to idols and !eo!le. This de%laration has a
solemn %hara%ter. It is a %ulti% a%t. 2s. 665.. is to be ta:en in the same wa&. ;ews of Israels
vi%tor& over its enemies has %ome. =ahweh 7imself orders a song of vi%tor&# it does not have to
be !ublished to 7im as to the idols in . 9. /.59 kand LMd [Ld ud Y^_MPZew Lf seZ cf ,
7
there is a great
In general5 >r.DFJ. 2r.DHauer # 4iddellD9%ott , s.v. # 9%hn. 1uang. # 2. gondervan, 7et
@oord ~1vangeliumO," "heol. "i5dschrift , )6 (.9.)), .67I*./# 8. Hurrows, The -rigin of
the Term ~<os!elO," ?H4 , )) (.9*0), *.I//# <. <illet, &vangeliu6 Studien -ur urchr.
3issionssprache , 3iss. 7eidelberg (.9*), not in !rint)# 1. 8olland, Das Paulinische
&uangelion6 #vhandlger utgitt av Det !orske Videnskaps #kadei i %slo6 7 (ist.<9ilos.
4lasse (.9/)), ;o. /. -n 3.5 9tr.DH. , III, )I..# 3alman @? , I, 6)I66# 9%hl. 8t. , ..0, .**,
/6.# 9%hl. 4:. , .09# ,. 9%hlatter, !t.liche "heologie , I (.9+9), 06/. -n 1.5 3ob. Th. , 66# Fl.
8:. , )# 7%:. 8:. , .*# gahn. 1inl., .69f., **0, **6, *)+ f.# ?. @ellhausen, &inleitung in die
drei ersten &v .
*
(.9..), 96I.+)# .)7I.0/# ?. @eiss, Das =lteste &v. (.9+/), *)ff.# ,.
9eeberg, Das &v. 1hristi (.9+0)# 9%hl. <es%h. d. >hr. , 0/, ./0 ff., .69# ,. 7arna%:,
&ntstehung und &nt2ickelung der 4irchenverfassung u. des 4irchenrechts in den 7 ersten
0hdt. (.9.+), .99I*/9# 8. @erner, 3er 1influss !aul. Theologie im 8:. ," Heih. g;@ , .
(.9*/), 96I.+6# -. 8oe, Paulus u. d. ev. Geschichte (.9.*)# 2. Feine, 0esus 1hristus u.
Paulus (.9+*), .6f.# ?. @eiss, Das 8rchristentu (.9.7), 0/7# >. 7olsten, Die drei
ursprnglichen6 noch ungeschriebenen &v. (.66/)# >. F. ;Jsgen, Geschichte der nt.lichen
%ffenbarung , II (.69/), /++ f.# ?. 8Gller, Das persnliche 1hristentu der paul.
Geeinden , I (.696)# ,. Fridri%hsen, T hos 2aulus," !orsk. "eologisk.
"idsskrift , ./ (.9.*), .0/I.7+, *+9I*06# ?. 9%hniewind, Die Begriffe Wort u. &vangeliu
bei Pls. (.9.+), 6)I..7# ,. -e!:e, Die 3issionspredigt des #p. Pls. (.9*+), 0+ff.# -.
9%hmitE, Die 1hristusgeeinschaft des Pls. i )ichte seines Genetivgebrauchs (.9*)), )0I
66# @. FJrster, (err ist 0esus (.9*)), .))# 4. Haudimant, )_&vangile de Saint Paul (.9*0).
. >f. also * 9. .65*7 5 cd ^_ crd^_Pw LeZ .
* 2. de 4agarde, 3ittheilungen , I (.66)), *.6I*.6# %f. 3alman @? , I, 6) f.# 9tr.DH. , III, 0.
/ 9%hn. 1uang. , /+.
) >i%.,tt. , II, .*, .# II, /, I# 'III, )+, . has the foreign word .
0 9%hn. 1uang. , /..
6 . 9. /.59 UU . >h. .+59 # * 9. .5*+ # .65.9 , *+ , /. .
7 7. <un:el, Die Psalen (.9*6), does not thin: that there is a great %om!an& of women !ro%laiming the good
news" ma:es sense in the %onteBt. 7e thus %hanges [d ud h^_MPZew sb to [d ud h[ MPdw Led s , of flesh the great host."
%om!an& of women !ro%laiming the good news." In the =ahweh %ult the women !ro%laim the
vi%tor& in a song given b& <od 7imself. MPw L is again used as a religious term in 2s. )+5.+ . The
man delivered out of his distress de%lares =ahwehs NrXuX in the great %ongregation. 4i:e a herald
of <od, he eBtols in a loud voi%e 7is great and wonderful a%ts.
6
=ahweh has !ut a new song on
his li!s ( v. ) ).
8ost signifi%ant for an understanding of the ;T %on%e!t euangelion is 3t. Is. and the
literature influen%ed b& it. 2s. )+5.+ and 665.. s!ea: onl& o the isolated a%ts of =ahweh
whi%h are to be de%lared. 3t. Is. , however, eB!e%ts the great vi%tor& of =ahweh, 7is
a%%ession, 7is :ingl& rule, the dawn of the new age. In this %onne%tion the rP]ew Lf sZ is of the
greatest im!ortan%e.
7e is the herald who !re%edes the !eo!le on its return from Hab&lon to 9ion. ,ll
?erusalem stands on the towers and walls eB!e%ting the train of returning eBiles. Then the& see
the messenger, the MP]ew Lf sZ , on the to! of the hill L^_ MP]ew Lf sZ V^_\PdQ qf `sa PZQ sf xZ `acd \_[z xZ \fsd {
cqd ^ePQ `Z qf `sa PZQ sf 5 2ea%e and salvation, =ahweh is Fing," he %ries to them ( Is. 0*57 ).
9
7e
!ro%laims the vi%tor& of =ahweh over the whole world. =ahweh is now returning to 9ion to
rule. The messenger !ublishes it, and the new age begins. 7e does not de%lare that the rule of
<od will soon %ommen%e# he !ro%laims it, he !ublishes it, and it %omes into effe%t. 9alvation
%omes with the word of !ro%lamation. H& the fa%t that he de%lares the restoration of Israel, the
new %reation of the world, the inauguration of the es%hatologi%al age, he brings them to !ass.
For the word is not $ust breath and sound# it is effe%tive !ower.
.+
=ahweh !uts 7is words on
li!s of 7is messengers. 7e it is who s!ea:s through them. @ith 7is @ord 7e %reates the
world, 7e sha!es histor&, 7e rules the world.
..
The wat%hers on the walls hear the word and
re!eat it with re$oi%ing. It rings through the %it& and messengers %arr& it through the land5
=ahweh is Fing"# Hehold, &our <od."
.*
, new era begins also for the nations. For
Hut this %on$e%ture is unne%essar&. -n the other hand, -. 2ro%:s%h, ,14Fg, 06 (.9*0), 7). and 7. 9%hmidt,
Gott und das )eid i #" (.9*6), /0, )7, read `Ma PZew sb instead of `Ma Pdw Le s at ?ob .95*6 . 2ro%:s%h translates5
,nd when m& e&es are o!ened, I see him as m& messenger of good news"# and 9%hmidt5 ,fter m& anguish,
when the oliveDtree was smitten, he, <od, will be m& messenger of good news." There are several eBam!les of
!la&ing on the word MPw L in the Aabbis (%f. A. 1isler, g;@ , *) m.9*0n, .66 f. and 9tr.DH. , III, 6d), e.g., ;u. r. ,
.) on 75)6 5 8u%h stud& is a weariness of the bod& ( MPdw Led hqRa `Z , ooh. .*5.* ). If &ou eBert &ourself ( hqR` )
to stud& the words of s%holars, <od will !ro%laim good news to &oukthis is the meaning of MPdw Led in ooh. .*5.*
. V. 9%hn. 1uang. , 06, n. ..
6 >f. <un:el, ad loc.
9 ;a. .5.0 is li:e Is. 0*57 , but it does not have the de%isive =ahweh is Fing." Instead we read5 Fee! th&
feasts, - ?udah." ,%%. to 1. 9ellin, Das Z2lf<Propheten<Buch (.9**), ad loc. , this is not a re!udiation of Is.,
though it is !ossibl& a misunderstanding.
.+ -n the signifi%an%e of the word" %f. 2. 7einis%h, 3as @ort im ,T und im alten -rient ," in Biblische
Zeitfragen , ', 7, 6 (.9**) and -. <rether, ;ame und @ort <ottes im ,T ," Heih. g,@ , 6) (.9/)). -n 3t. Is.
5 9. 8owin%:el, Der 4necht 0ah2=s (.9*.), ./ ff.# 9%hn. 1uang. , ). f.
.. >f. Is. 0.5.6 . In Is. ).5*7 2. (olE ( 0esa5a , II m.9/*n, ad loc. ) %uts out one that bringeth good tidings to
9ion" as out of harmon& with the %onteBt. The teBt is %orru!t. 1. 9ellin in ;:g, ). (.9/+), .)9 !ro!oses `rsd [b
for ^^_PQ [r a # 8& words to 9ion, Hehold, behold, there the& are, and I gave to ?erusalem one that bringeth good
tidings." ,%%. to F. 1lliger, 3eutero$esa$a und sein (erhlltnis Eu Trito$esa$a ," H@,;T , 6/ (.9//), **9, n. *,
this %on$e%ture gives a firm !la%e in the teBt" to the hearer of good news. @hether we a%%e!t this %on$e%ture or
not, there %an be no doubt that the whole song deals with the effe%tive @ord of =ahweh. @hen this %omes to
?erusalem, the bringer of good tidings is !resent.
.* Is. 0*57 # ).5*7 # )+59 obviousl& belong together. It is !lain that the same situation is des%ribed in 0*57 and
)+59 . >f. 9%hn. 1uang. , /7, n. 05 the mountains, the wat%hmen who re!eat the %all UU those who !ublish good
tidings# =ahweh is Fing UU Hehold, &our <od. -n )+59 5 ^^_`eua hrPwe sb , i.e., whether the status constructus is to
=ahweh is a <od of the <entiles as well as Israel.
./
In 2s. 965* ff. , whi%h belongs to the
same world of thought as 3t. Is. ,
.)
we read5 ^_Yqd ^ePQ `Z V^_`\ZV^_`esa ^eMPZew Lef , 2ro%laim from da&
to da& his salvation, de%lare his glor& among the heathen, his wonderful a%ts among all
nations { sa& among the heathen, The 4ord is :ing." The great es%hatologi%al hour has %ome.
The message of =ahwehs a%ts of !ower now goes out to the whole world. 3ail& the glad
tidings are to ring out among the heathen. Indeed, a%%ording to Is. 6+56 the heathen
themselves %ome to 9ion and !ro%laim the !raises of the 4ord.
.0

In 3t. Is. the subst. !arti%i!le, whi%h is alread& found in a se%ular sense in * 9. )5.+ and in
a %ulti% in 2s. 665.. , is a distin%tivel& religious term. The MP]ew Lf sZ is the messenger of <od
who !ro%laims the ro&al dominion of <od and who with his effe%tive word ushers in the
es%hatologi%al !eriod. The verb, too, shares in the religious signifi%an%e of the subst. !art. @e
%an see this in Is. 0*57 and 6.5. . In 0*57 the first MP]ew Lf sZ is a subst. !art., but the se%ond is to
be ta:en verball& li:e qf `sa PZQ sf . In 6.5. the !ro!het is one who brings good tidings5 MPXew Lf \Z
`Sahf \dPZQ V`^aSdqb . The !art. does not o%%ur here, but the view is the same as in 0*57 .
.6
The
!ro!het is sent to !ro%laim the good news to the !oor, and the effe%t of the !ro%lamation is
their liberation.
The %lose %onne%tion between this whole %ir%le of thought and the ;T is evident. The
es%hatologi%al eB!e%tation, the !ro%lamation of the i (we :ee! the <:.
here for the sa:e of %larit&), the introdu%tion of the <entiles into salvation histor&, the
re$e%tion of the ordinar& religion of %ult and 4aw ( 2s. )+ ), the lin: with the terms
( 2s. )+59 ), i ( Is. 0*57 # 2s. 905. ), and l ( Is. 0*57 )kall !oint
us to the ;T .
.7

B. A) 9ith the ree%s.
The verb is attested from the time of ,risto!hanes,
.6
and derives from .
.9
=et
we do not have ,
*+
li:e from , but i . It
is either
*.
one of the sound words" in -i whose histor& we %annot tra%e,
**
in whi%h %ase
it means to s!ea: as an ," or it is one of the verbs in -i whi%h denote a state,
*/
so that the sense is to a%t li:e an ."
*)
1ither wa& our %on%ern is with the
.
be ta:en as an a!!ositional or a stri%t gen. and hrfPewsb%olle%tivel& (the host of those who !ublish good tidings),
%f. 9%hn. 1uang. , /0 f. It ma:es no material differen%e.
./ ,ttention has often been drawn to the %on$un%tion and inter%onne%tion of universal and national ho!es in 3t.
Is. >f. <. 7Jls%her, Profeten (.9.)), /*6I//+. -n universalism %f. Is. )+50 # )05*/I*0 # )95. , 6 # 0.5) .
.) A. Fittel, Die Psalen
/
(.9**), ad loc. # 9%hn. 1uang. , 0/, n. *.
.0 The %onstru%tion in 6+56 is not ver& %lear. @ho is the sub$e%t of ^eMP]ew`b >f. 2. (olE, 0esa5a , II (.9/*), ad
loc. ,%%. to Hudde in FautEs%h, it is the %amels whi%h !ro%laim the wonderful a%ts of <od b& their %oming.
8ore a!t is the suggestion that it is all nations and not merel& the :ings (F. 8arti, 0esa5a m.9++n).
.6 9%hn. 1uang. , )) f.
.7 The suggestion of Hurrows, **, that it is hardl& too mu%h to sa& that in 3t. Is. i is a
8essiani% eB!ression, is not Tuite a%%urate. @e ma& rightl& sa& that the earl& >hristians regarded it as su%h.
.6 1T. , 6)/.
.9 F. 9!e%ht in 9%hn. 1uang. , .*0.
*+ 2hot.4eB. , s.v. has and also from (as an ad$. in ,es%h.,g. ,
6/6). @e find in 1ur.7er%. Fur. , ../6 and 3emosth.-r. , .6, *67. -n the other hand, we are to
read rather than in 2lat.Aes!. , I(, )/*d and Theaet. , .))b. In 4u%. 2hilo!seudes,
/. >. ?a%obitE notes the reading for . >f. 2hr&n.1%l. , //0 and 9%hn. 1uang.
, .*6, n. /.
*. F. 9!e%ht in 9%hn. 1uang. , .*0.
** 3ebr. <r. @ortb. y *6+.
*/ .bid. , y *66 f.
*) 9%hn. 1uang. , .*0, n. *.
The normal use is in the med., though the a%t.
*0
and !ass.
*6
also o%%ur.
*7
It is %onstrued
both with the dat.
*6
and the a%%.
*9
of !erson. The %ontent of the message %an be introdu%ed b&
i .
/+
9ometimes a !re!osition is also used to denote the re%i!ient of the message.
/.

,s in the -T ( 7+7 ), so among the <:s. the term is used for the !ro%lamation of news of
vi%tor&.
/*
The
//
%omes from the field of battle b& shi! ( 2lut.
2
om!. , 66 mI, 60)bn),
b& horse ( 7eliodor.,eth. , ', .), or as q , as a swift runner,
/)
and !ro%laims to
the anBiousl& awaiting %it& the vi%tor& of the arm&, and the death or %a!ture of the enem& ( 2aus. ,
I(, .9, 0). -ften the news is sent in a letter.
/0
i ma& also be used of !oliti%al or
!rivate %ommuni%ations whi%h bring $o&. 8arius is told b& two horsemen that he has been ele%ted
%onsul for the fifth time.
/6
-thers are gladdened b& the birth of a son,
/7
b& news of an
a!!roa%hing wedding,
/6
or of the death of someone,
/9
or b& other %ommuni%ations.
)+
In su%h
%ases i has a more general sense and is more or less s&non. with .
).

-ften the news does not %orres!ond to the fa%ts ( 2lut.2om!. , 66 mI, 60)bn). In time of war
es!. false stories of vi%tor& are %ir%ulated to boost the morale of tired soldiers.
)*
;ews %omes to
be treated with sus!i%ion and the term loses its value, so that it %an be %ons%iousl& used in an
ironi%al inversion.
)/
;ero wanted his mother :illed and she was able to save herself and thus to
send him the good news of her deliveran%e.
))
,gain, the orator 4&%urgus (6, .6) sa&s of the
%riminal and fugitive that he should de%lare the q i i , i.e., the s!oliation of
the %it&, 6 g i i .
*0 3io >. , 6., ./, ) 89 # 2ol&aen.9trat. (, 7 89 # 2. ,mh. , *, .6# 2. <iess. , I, *7, 6 UU 8itteisD@il%:en , I, *,
.7, 0# . 9. /.59 # * 9. .65.9 f. # Aev. .+57 # .)56 # ,%. .65.7 in 3C.
*6 #er. 0ourn. of #rchaeol. , *nd 9eries, .6 (.9.)), /*/, .)# * 9. .65/. # 8t. ..50 # 4:. 75** # .65.6 # <l. .5.. #
7b. )5* , 6 # . 2t. .5*0 # )56 .
*7 >f. Hl.D3ebr.
6
y 69, ).
*6 ,risto!h.1T. , 6)/# 3emosth.-r. , .6, /*/# 7eliodor.,eth. , ', . et%. In the ;T , 4:. .5.9 # *5.+ # )5.6 , )/ #
,%. 65/0 # A. .5.0 vl. # . >. .05. , * # * >. ..57 # <l. .56 vl. # )5./ # 1!h. *5.7 # /56 vl. # . Th. /56 .
*9 ?os.,nt. , .6, **6 # ,l%i!hr.1!. , II, 9, * 89 # 7eliodor.,eth. , II, .+# 4:. /5.6 # ,%. 65*0 , )+ # ./5/* # .)5.0
vl. , *. # .65.+ # <l. .59 # . 2t. .5.* .
/+ ?os.,nt. , .0, *+9 # ,%. 65.* # %f. A. .5/ i { 3eissmann 4- , /.)5 m i n
. -n i i v. 9%hn. 1uang. , .+., n. ).
/. , 8enand.<eorg. , 6/# {, Aev. .)56 ( * onl& a%%. )# { <l. .5.6 # A. .5.0 3C# 1!h.
/56 * 3<.
/* >f. 9%hn. 1uang. , ./+, n. *.
// The subst. , and ad$. are not ver& %ommon# %f. 9%hn. 1uang. , .*), n. *.
2om!. De Popeio .
/) 4u%. 2ro 4a!su inter 9alutandum , /. 7ere we have the wea:er , but the %on%e!tion of the news
of vi%tor& is the same as in the i i whi%h follows. i , %ries the
messenger of 8arathon, 2hili!!ides, l6 g iq i
.
/0 7eliodor.,eth. , ', . f. ,%%. to 4u%. 2ro 4a!su inter 9alutandum, the ,thenian >leon
q i q q 2 was the first to !ut
the word i at the beginning of the letter.
/6 2lut.8ar. , ** (I, ).6b)5 gq
. 4u%. T&ranni%ida , 95 q i i (the t&rant is
overthrown and demo%ra%& restored).
/7 Theo!hr.>har. , .7, 75 , l .
/6 4ongus, III, //, .5 i # %f. 8enand.<eorg. , 6/.
/9 7eliodor.,eth. , II, .+5 c ii q .
)+ ,risto!h.1T. , 6)*5 The sausage mer%hant bursts into the %oun%il meeting5 6 ,
i , an%hovies have never been so %hea!.
). ,l%i!hr.1!. , II, 9, *.
)* 2ol&aen.9trat. , (, 75 The left wing of the arm& is beaten. Hut the leader
2i, q 6 {
l 2 q .
)/ 9%hn. 1uang. , .+* f., .77 f.
)) 3io >. , 6., ./, )5 ,gri!!ina a%ts as if things had %ome about . ;ero is so in%ensed at the news
that he :ills the messenger as though he had %ome to assassinate him.
@e often find i and , i %ombined with i .
)0

(i%tor& over enemies is the salvation of the %it&. In 4u%. 2hilo!seudes , /. a magi%ian tells of the
freeing of the house from a ghost.
)6
In
4
&%. , 6, .6 i i and
i are almost s&non. In the ;T is often lin:ed with
i ,
)7
but the idea of i, does not o%%ur. There is no su%h thing as %han%e
or fortune in the ;T . Faith in <od forbids it. The %ombination is all the more signifi%ant for the
<:s. ( 3emosth.-r. , .6, /*/). 7eliodor.,eth. , ', . f. is !arti%ularl& im!ortant. 7&das!es
%ommuni%ates to the q iq of g&mnoso!hists his vi%tor& over the 2ersians. 7e
owes the su%%ess to . 7e now fears the env& of the gods5 q
l . 7e tries to !rote%t himself against this b& the !ro!heti% !ower of the
g&mnoso!hists. To the goddess T&%he he o!!oses the of the
g&mnoso!hists and their i . 7is news of vi%tor& is news of the fulfilment of their
!ro!he%&.
)6
The word i has here a religious signifi%an%e.
)9

The %an be a sa%ral messenger, one who de%lares an ora%le.
0+
This gives us the
sense of to !romise." This usage is found onl& in the 7ellenisti% !eriod, and mostl& in writings
under ;eoD2&thagorean influen%e.
0.
In 4u%. I%aromeni!!us , /) the destru%tion of the
!hiloso!hers is de%lared to them on the %ommission of geus. The is almost a threat
( 7.. ). The resolve of the %oun%il of the gods is not eBe%uted at on%e be%ause it is a festive
season. The referen%e of i is thus to the future. This is also true in 4u%.
2hilo!seudes , /.. The magi%ian !romises that the house will be free of evil s!irits in the future.
0*

In 9oranus, 3e 8uliebribus ,ffe%tionibus , *. the midwife should en%ourage the !regnant
woman5 { q i . In 4ongus, III, //, .
i is almost s&non. with , III, /*, /.
In all these !assages there is no Tuestion of !ro%laiming something !resent, but of referring to
something future.
The !assages whi%h use in %onne%tion with a deserve
!arti%ular attention. 2hilostr.(it. ,!. , I, *6 refers to the a!!earing of ,!ollonius.
0/
,!ollonius is
of divine nature ((II, /6). 7e is honoured b& !rostration (I, .9). 7e brings i to men b&
his mira%les ((II, *.). 7e is given the honour of a theo!han&, i.e., his !resen%e is sought with the
solemnit& of a divine e!i!han& (I(, /.).
0)
7e refuses !rostration as a greeting before the image
of the :ing in Hab&lon. The arrival of this divine man is Tui%:l& and $o&ousl& !ro%laimed in the
ro&al !ala%e5 . Thales ( Iambl.(it. 2&th. , *, .*) instru%ts the &oung
2&thagoras and then sends him to the 1g&!tian !riests5 i {
6 c 6 .
9urve&ing the <ree: use of i , we find man& !oints of %onta%t with the
;T . 4iberation from enemies and deliveran%e from the demoni% !owers whi%h frighten men
are o%%asions for i . Hut the lin: with , i shows the
differen%e from the ;T . The also treats of divine men. Hut this is no !arallel to
the ;T . In the ;T ?esus 7imself is the .
00
7e 7imself is the %ontent of
7is message. 1lsewhere this is true onl& in the im!erial %ult. -n i in this
)0 >f. 9%hn. 1uang. , .)0I.0..
)6 For the i of ,gri!!ina, %f. 3io >. , 6., ./, )# n. )) .
4&%. )'cion .
)7 >f. 7arna%:, 4irchenverfassung , *.) n. ..
)6 >f. the relationshi! between and in the ;T . 06*, n. 0. and 060, n.
67 .
)9 -n the eB!osition of the !assage, %f. 9%hn. 1uang. , .)9 and %. I'.
0+ For eBam!les and dis%ussion, ibid. , .60I.96.
0. .bid. , %. I'.
0* ( ) i (without fear) q c q
li l .
0/ 9o @endland 7ell. Fult. , *06, n. *. Though does not o%%ur, the substan%e is the same.
0) >f. ?. 7em!el, 8ntersuchungen -ur ;berlieferung von #pollonius von "'ana (.9*+), 6/ ff.# 7. @indis%h,
2aulus und >hristus ," K;T , *) (.9/)), 09 ff., 7+ ff.
00 9%hn. 1uang. , %. I'.
%ult .
06
In the sense of to !romise" or to reveal," i
follows a different usage from that of the Hible. The @ord %eases to be a%tive, %reative and
effe%tive. It reveals, instru%ts and intimates the future.
07
The a%tualit& of !ronoun%ement"
06

is thus lost.
C. 5ept#agint4 Philo4 "oseph#s.
.. The 9e!tuagint usuall& has i
09
or i
6+
for MPL . ,t 1
B. 4:17 it has for the messenger with bad news from the battlefield, and at Is.
).5*7 and . >h. .65*/ . The MP]ew Lf sZ %orres!onds to the <:.
. The 4'' never uses for one who brings good news, but alwa&s
. ,mong the <:s. there is no instan%e of the !art. being used as a subst.
in the 4'' is to be regarded as a literal translation of MP]ew Lf sZ .
6.
,t the
de%isive !oints where MP]ew Lf sZ o%%urs ( Is. )+59 # ).5*7 # 0*57 # 67:11 ) the 4'' alters the teBt.
In Is. )+59 and 67:11 it %hanges the feminine into a mas%uline. This denotes a wea:ening
rather than a strengthening of the %on%e!tion. The %on%e!t is generalised. ,t Is. 0*56 f. the 4''
gives a %om!letel& different sense5 6 ,
q l, . The referen%e here is
to <od. 7e is %om!ared with the time of the &ear and with one who brings good tidings.
6*
This
ma:es it !lain that the 4'' does not understand what 3t. Is. meant b& the messenger. The
effi%a%& of the @ord is minimised and the idea of the dawn of the divine rule is lost. In Is. 0*57
xZ `acd \_[z xZ \fsd is %hanged into . The inauguration of the dominion of
<od does not %ome with the a%t of !ro%lamation.
6/

@e ma& also refer to ?er. *65.+ ( 0.5.+ ), where the 8as. Mie is rendered i
in A , while the 4'' has . ?l. *5/* ( /50 ) is more im!ortant.
6)
The teBt of the
8as. is %orru!t. The 4'' re!la%es V`ra`MPw b& : q
l ( [ 5
) . 2erha!s we ma& see here the old %on%e!tion of the one who
brings good news.
In the 4'' the %ombination of i with i is more %ommon than in
the 8as. ( 7.+ )# ?l. *5/* 5 , and Is. 6+56 5 . Is. 6+56 deserves
!arti%ular note in this regard, for this is the onl& !assage where c\edca YeZ is rendered .
1lsewhere the eTuivalents are ( 1B. .05.. ), ( Is. )*5.* ), ( 2s. ** m *.
n5/) and ( 2s. .+6 m .+0 n5)7). 2erha!s the influen%e of i is res!onsible
for the translation .
In general we ma& %on%lude that the 4'' does not lead us mu%h further forward in
understanding i .
*. 2hilo belongs to the world of <:. thought. 7e has the verb 9 times (
i ). Three times he uses it of good news generall& when telling -T stories.
60
2oeti%all& he %auses the 2leiades to announ%e a good harvest in -!. 8und. , ..0 and the earl&
06 i is also found in this %ult a%%. to the #erican 0ourn. of #rch. , * 9eries, .6 (.9.)), /*/,
.).
07 A. Hultmann, 3er Hegriff des @ortes <ottes im ;T " in Glauben und Verstehen (.9//), *70.
06 F. 1bner, Das Wort u. die geistigen /ealit=ten (.9*.), .6 ff.
09 * 9. .5.+ # )5.+ # .65*6 # .65/. # . F. .5)* # . >h. .+59 # 3: # 675.. # 905* # ;a. .5.0 # Is. )+59 # 0*57 #
6+56 # 6.5. # ?er. *+5.0 .
6+ . 9. /.59 # * 9. .65.9 f.
6. 9%hn. 1uang. , ./6.
6* .bid. , 66.
6/ .bid. , 7/ f.
6) .bid. , 0., n. / and 67, where a %o!&istOs error is seen, though in -. 2ro%:s%h, 3ie :leinen !ro!hetis%hen
9%hriften na%h dem 1Bil ," in &rl=uterungen -u #" , 6 (.9.6), 60, .**, n. *, the 4'' is regarded as the
original.
60 ?os. , *)0 5 ?ose!h will i to his father q q # ?os. , *0+ 5
i , that ?ose!h has found his brethren. (irt. , ). 5 8idianite women sedu%e the
almond tree a good %ro! of nuts in (it. 8os. , II, .66 . In these two !assages, as in 1Bse%r. , .6.
with referen%e to i and 9om. , II, *6. with referen%e to <od in an allegor& on 1B. .)5/+ , the
verb has the sense of to !romise," whi%h is not found in the -T . 7ow far 2hilo is from the -T
ma& be seen from 4eg. <a$. 7ere (99) the em!eror is %om!ared with 7ermes who is the
i. (swift of foot) { l {
q q i { (the
heraldOs staff) i (of re%on%iliation).
l
{ c i i (shoes) # 7e does
not bring an& messages of !ea%e or $o&, but onl& misfortune. @e also find the terminolog& of the
em!eror %ult ( ) in 4eg. <a$. , */. . Hefore the enthronement of <aius the
ambassadors sa&5 q q
q . Intentionall& in this wor:, whi%h deals with the embass& of the ?ews of
,leBandria to the em!eror on the o%%asion of honouring the em!eror, 2hilo uses a term %ustomar&
in the sa%ral terminolog& of the im!erial %ult.
66

/. ?ose!hus dis!la&s the same <:. usage as 2hilo. 7e em!lo&s i for news of
vi%tories
67
and for !oliti%al %ommuni%ations.
66
7e often has the word in bibli%al narratives
69

even where it is not found in the 4''.
7+
This does not indi%ate an& !referen%e for the -T MPw L ,
it im!lies rather a wea:ening and se%ularisation. That ?ose!h. does not thin: in -T terms ma& be
seen from the fa%t that he uses the word for to !romise." ,nt. , 0, *) 5 ?oshua q
q i . It might seem that here ?oshua is a messenger of <od
!ro%laiming the fall of ?eri%ho with a word of !ower.
7.
The referen%e, however, is not to the
effe%tive word eBer%ising its for%e in virtue of its !ronoun%ement. ?oshua is sim!l& revealing to
the !eo!le that ?eri%ho will fall. This is even %learer in ,nt. , 0, *77 in the stor& of the birth of a
son to 8anoah and his wife from ?u. ./ . 7ere i is s&non. with and
.
7*
-ther indi%ations of a <:. ba%:ground are the lin:ing of i with the
9toi% %on%e!t of and with ( 7.. f. ),
7/
and the distrust shown towards
messengers ( ).
7)

;either in 2hilo nor ?ose!hus do we find the same %on%e!tion of the one who brings glad
tidings as in 3t. Is.
70
This is not sur!rising. The& have no understanding of histor&. The& do
not :now salvation histor&. The& have no true es%hatolog&. In !la%e of the great histor& of
<od the& !ut the eB!erien%es of individuals whi%h are not bound to an& age and whi%h ma& be
&oung soldiers of Israel5 i .
66 9%hn. 1uang. , 60I9).
67 ,nt. , 7, *)0 , *0+ . i i is !ure <:. ,nt. , 0, *) 5 the fall of ?eri%ho# Hell. , /, 0+/ 5 the
ta:ing of Tari%haea.
66 ,nt. , .6, **6 5 the news of the death of Tiberius# Hell. , ., 6+7 5 the return of ,nti!ater, and ,nt. , .0, *+9 of
7erod, to 2alestine.
69 ,nt. , 0, *) , the %a!ture of ?eri%ho. ,nt. , 0, *77 5 the announ%ing to 8anoah and his wife b& an angel of the
birth of a son. ,nt. , 7, 06 5 9aul is told that the asses are found. ,nt. , 7, *)0I*0+ 5 the version of the mission of
,himaaE from * 9. .6 . In this stor& the 4'' uses the verb 0 times and the subst. forms ( ) )
times, but ?ose!h. has the verb onl& twi%e and elsewhere the neutral or %ombinations of the word
grou! D with and . ,nt. , .., 60 5 the return of the ?ews from Hab&lon.
7+ ,nt. , 0, *), *77 # 7, 06 # .., 60 .
7. -n the meaning of the word in ?ose!h. v. also 9%hlatter, @ie s!ra%h ?ose!hus von <ott ," HFTh , .), .
(.9.+), 66# 9%hl. 8t. , IndeB.
7* >f. also ,nt. , 7, *)0 f.
7/ ,nt. , 7, *)0 5 q i i i . >f.
also 0, *77 .
7) ,nt. , .6, **6 f. 5 { q . ,s ,gri!!a here does not reall& believe his slave,
so 8anoah does not believe the message of the angel in ,nt. , 0, *77 .
70 ;ot even in the !ro%lamation of the return from Hab&lon in ,nt. , .., 60 . ,nt. , .., 6) f. 5 6
Z { q q i
q g i { i .
%onstantl& re!eated.
76
The result for the ;T is Tuite negative. =et the enTuir& is not
su!erfluous, sin%e it hel!s us to see how ?ewish writers thin: and s!ea: under the influen%e of
7ellenism.
77
The ;T maintained its inde!enden%e of 7ellenism.
'. Palestinian "#daism.
MPL usuall& means to !ro%laim good news," though it ma& sometimes be used for sad news.
In Tg. ?. I on <n. ).5*6 f. ,
76
in the inter!retation of the dream, tMPLs is used both of the good
%ows and ears and also of the bad ones. In the one %ase it is a good message and in the other a bad.
8ostl&, however, MPL denotes the !ro%lamation of good news, and there is no need to add L^ .
7
9
In man& %ases the news refers to events &et to ta:e !la%e,
6+
so that we ma& render to !romise."
6.
@e %an thus understand wh& MP^Ls in $Her., 9d, *05 @hen the li!s of man (in !ra&er)
eBe%ute the movement (of themselves), then the good news is brought that his !ra&er is heard," is
the eTuivalent of hL^s (he ma& be assured")
6*
in the !ar. 4v. r. , .6 on .)50 ( 06+ ). MPL
is a religious term.
6/
<od,
6)
the 7ol& 9!irit through 9%ri!ture,
60
the heavenl& voi%e,
66
angels
67
!ro%laim to men a $o&ful message whose %ontent is the forgiveness of sins and the hearing of
!ra&er
66
or a share in the life of the world to %ome.
69

It is of great signifi%an%e that in 2alestinian ?udaism we still find the same %on%e!tion of
the one who brings good tidings as in 3t. Is. The MPLs %omes, and the 8essiani% age dawns.
7e !ro%laims the redem!tion of Israel and brings !ea%e and salvation into the world.
The tradition %on%erning the messenger is not uniform. 2s. 9ol. ..5*5
q q q q g
g .
9+
Tan%h. MLrsL ;u. *5* 5 @hen one %omes bringing glad tidings, it will
first be told to ?udah"# ;a. *5. 5 -n the mountains the feet of one who brings good tidings, who
76 9%hl. Theol. d. ?udt. , *09# 7. @indis%h, Die 9rigkeit Philos (.9+9), 99, .+6.
77 9%hn. 1uang. , ....
76 9tr.DH. , III, 6b.
79 For eBam!les, ibid. , 6%.
6+ Tg. ?. I on <n. *.57 ( 9tr.DH. , III, 6%)5 7ow worth& of %reden%e was the messenger who brought to ,braham
the (good) news ( MPfew Lb [Md PZew Lf sZ ) and said5 9arah will one da& give su%: to %hildren." -r 9. 3t. , /+7 on
/*5) ( 9tr.DH. , III, 6d)5 Thou hast brought me a good message )cLd ^_ cMd ^_Pw LZ `SaYef MZ Pfew Lea ( , toDmorrow m&
!ortion shall be with those in the world to %ome."
6. For eBam!les, v. 3alman @? , I, 6) f. and 9tr.DH. , III, 7 f. $ 9heT. , )7%, 6* ( 9tr.DH. , III, 7 f.)5 @hoso :ee!s
to the land of Israel (i.e., %ontinues to dwell there), and s!ea:s the sa%red language, and en$o&s its fruits in !urit&,
and re%ites the s%hema morning and evening, to him the good news will be brought ( MPdew ^eLsZ [c] `Z ) that he is a
son of the world to %ome." The !ar. in $ 9hab. /%, */ has 7e ma& be assured ( ^_\ hd LZ ^es ) that he belongs to
the life of the world to %ome." >f. also 9tr.DH. , III, *+6 ff.
6* 9tr.DH. , III, 7 f.
6/ ;ot eB%lusivel&, b.2es. , /b ( 9tr.DH. , III, 6%)5 Ironi%all&, 7as the %orn turned out well 7e answered them,
The barle& has turned out well. Then he was told5 <o and bring the (good) news ( MPL ) to the horses and
asses."
6) Tan%h. h^sP 6) b ( 9tr.DH. , III, 7e)# 1B. r. , )6 on /)5. ( 9tr.DH. , III, 7 and 6).
60 9ota, 9, 6# b. 9ota, ..a in 9tr.DH. , II, ./6# 3alman @? , I, 60.
66 $ Fet. , /0a, *6 ( 9tr.DH. , III, 7 f.).
67 9tr.DH. , III, 7 f. ( Tg. Auth .56)# II, 96i ( b.H8 , 66b)5 8i%hael is to bring the good news ( Y[ MPL\
cMP ) to 9arah.
66 .bid. , III, 6 ( 1B. r. , )6 on /)5. )5 The good news be brought thee ( MP^LscY[ ) that I have forgiven
thee th& sins." >f. also $Her., 9d, *0 ( supra ).
69 .bid. , III, 7 for eBam!les.
!ublishes !ea%e."
9.
Hoth !assages refer to the MPLs . 7is name is not given. It does not greatl&
matter who he is. 7is !ro%lamation is what %ounts. The de%isive thing is that he !ublishes !ea%e,
for !ea%e %omes with the a%t of !ro%lamation. In 8idr. 2s. on .)75.
9*
there is a whole host of
messengers5 Isaiah said5 7ow beautiful on the mountains are the feet of the MPLs . @hen the
7ol& -ne, blessed be 7e, will be Fing, the& will all be messengers bearing good news, as it is
said, 7e who de%lares good things %auses !ea%e to be heard { The 7ol& -ne, blessed be 7e, is
Fing# it is fitting to !raise 7im. @h& He%ause the& are for the dominion ( Y^W\s ) of the 7ol&
-ne, blessed be 7e. In that hour the& all re$oi%e and eBult and !raise, for the& see that 7e is Fing.
7en%e it is written5 7e who sa&s to 9ion, Th& <od is Fing. ,nd what follows The voi%es of th&
wat%hmen, the& lift u! their voi%e and re$oi%e together, Is. 0*56 ." The& all be%ome messengers
!ublishing glad tidings. The message of the Y^W\s is %arried further b& the wat%hmen. In man&
%ases 1li$ah is the eB!e%ted messenger, as in 2esi:t. r. , /0 (.6.a)5
9/
Three da&s before 8essiah
%omes, %omes 1li$ah and stands on the mountains of Israel and wee!s and mourns over them and
sa&s5 9ee, - land of Israel, how long will &ou stand in barrenness and dr&ness and desolation
,nd his voi%e will be heard from one end of the world to the other. Then he will sa& to them,
2ea%e has %ome into the world, for it is written, Hehold on the mountains the feet of those who
bring glad tidings, who !ublish !ea%e, ;a. *5. . @hen the ungodl& hear this, the& will all re$oi%e
and sa& to one another, 2ea%e has %ome to us. -n the se%ond da& he will %ome and stand on the
mountains of Israel and sa&, <ood has %ome into the world, for it is said5 @ho !ublisheth good
things, Is. 0*57 . -n the third da& he will %ome and sa&, 9alvation has %ome into the world, for it is
said, @ho !ro%laimeth salvation, Is. 0*57 . @hen he will then see the ungodl&, as the& themselves
sa&, he will sa&, Th& <od has be%ome Fing for 9ion. This will tea%h thee that salvation has %ome
for 9ion and its %hildren but not for the ungodl&. In that hour <od will %ause 7is glor& and
lordshi! ( ^Y^W\s ) to a!!ear to all who %ome into the world, and 7e will redeem Israel." The one
who brings glad tidings %an also be the 8essiah himself. A. ?ose the <alilean ( c. ..+ ,.3. ) said5
<reat is !ea%e, for when the :ing, 8essiah, will reveal himself ( c\RS ) to Israel, he will begin
onl& with !ea%e, for it is written, 7ow beautiful on the mountains are the feet of him who bringeth
glad tidings ( MPLs `\RM ), who !ublisheth !ea%e ( Is. 0*57 )."
9)

The -T eB!e%tation of the MPLs was still alive in the time of ?esus. The eBam!les given
bra%:et the !eriod of earl& >hristianit&, 2s. 9ol. in the .st %ent. H.>. and A. ?ose c. ..+ ,.3.
90

The !assages from the !ro!hets whi%h give us this view of the one who brings good news, Is.
9+ i and as in 4:. )5)/ f. # 65. # ,%. 65. # 8:. .5.) # 8t. )5*/ # 95/0 # 8:. ./5.+
UU 8t. *)5.) # 8:. .)59 UU 8t. *65./ # 8:. .65.0 # <l. *5* # >ol. .5*/ # . Th. *59 # * Tm. .5.. # >ant. r. *5.*5
The voi%e of the turtleDdove is heard in our land. @ho is that It is the voi%e of the anointed :ing who !ro%laims
and de%lares ( Ms^[^ |`MLsc )5 7ow beautiful on the mountains are the feet of him who !ro%laims good
news, Is. 0*57 ." |MW UU . 9%hl. 8t. , ..0 on )5.7 # 9%hlatter Theologie, I, 06/# 9%hn. 1uang. ,
'III.
9. >f. 9%hn. 1uang. , 'III n., using <. FittelOs translation. >f. 9%hl. 8t. , /6. on ..50 # 9%hlatter Theologie, I,
06/. 9%hn. 1uang. also refers to 1:a r. on .5*., whi%h in the %ourse of es%hatologi%al words of %omfort Tuotes Is.
0*57 , but does not mention the name of the messenger.
9* For the teBt %f. 9%hn. 1uang. , 'III.
9/ 9tr.DH. , III, 9, where further instan%es are given.
9) The %on%luding %ha!ter of 3ere:h 1reE guta (in 9tr.DH. , III, 9%). 9tr.DH. and 9%hn. 1uang. give other
eBam!les. V. also 9%hl. Theologie, I, 06/# 9%hl. 8t. , ..0 on )5.7 and .** on )5*/ .
90 >f. the eBa%t dating of the Aabbini% tradition in 9%hn. 1uang. , 'III.
)+59 ,
96
).5*7 ,
97
0*57 ,
96
6.5. ,
99
and ;a. *5. ,
.++
%onstantl& re%ur in Aabbini% writings.
The !arallel with the ;T is obvious. The one who brings glad tidings %omes. 7e ma& be
8essiah. Hut he does not have to be. 7e ma& be anon&mous. 9ometimes it is 8essiah,
sometimes 1li$ah, sometimes we are not told who it is. 7e a!!ears and !rea%hes, and all who
hear and re%eive his message be%ome V`MPLs .
.+.
The c^c` x\s of the -T has be%ome
V`sP Y^W\s ( I, 07. ). 9alvation has drawn near ( q^P` cLMN ",(
.+*
the time of <odOs
dominion ( V`sP Y^W\s ) has %ome"
.+/
!ro%laims the messenger. ;or is the message onl&
for Israel# it is also for the <entiles (as regards the -T 7+9 ). It is alwa&s addressed to
Israel. Israel will be restored. 3eliveran%e and redem!tion will %ome for it. =et there is
alwa&s a %onne%tion with the <entiles tookIsrael first and then the <entiles. The&, too,
!arti%i!ate in the 8essiani% salvation. The& %ome to 9ion and see the glor& of =ahweh. The
V`sP Y^W\s a!!lies to them too. For =ahweh is not merel& the <od of Israel# 7e is the 4ord
of the world.
.+)
This will he !ro%laimed to the dead as well as the living. 1ven those who
have fallen aslee! will re%eive the message. ,ll men from ,dam on hear the voi%e of the one
who brings glad tidingskthe news that salvation has %ome,
.+0
that the new age, the age of
$o&, has %ommen%ed.
). A) in the NT.
The var&ing o%%urren%e of i and in the different writings of
the ;T is worth noting. i o%%urs onl& on%e in 8t. at ..50 # .+ times in 4:. (or ..
a%%. to .5*6 in 060 it)# .0 times in ,%. (or .6 a%%. to .65.7 in 3C)# in 2l. *. times (or ** a%%. to A.
.+5.0 in * 3< lat s& Ir)# twi%e in 7b.# three times in . 2t.# and i twi%e in Aev. The
verb is not found at all in 8:., ?ohnOs <os!el and 1!., ?m., * 2t. or ?d. It is !arti%ularl& stri:ing
that neither verb nor subst. is found in the ?ohannine writings. There must be some reason for this.
96 Tan%h. Y^r\^Y .6 and ./0 ( 9%hl. 8t. , .** on )5*/).
97 2esi:t. , *6e5 I bring &ou the first, this is the 8essiah of whom it is written ( Is. ).5*7 )5 7e is the first at
9ion, lo, there the& arep and for ?erusalem I give the one who brings glad tidings," %f. 9%hn. 1uang. , 'III and
9%hl. Theologie, I, 06/.
96 Is. 0*57 is %onstantl& Tuoted.
99 2esi:t. r. , /6 (.6*a) ( 9tr.DH. , III, 9%)5 =e o!!ressed s`^Sq( , ) the time of &our redem!tion has %ome."
.++ 2esi:t. r. , /0 (.6.a) and Tan%h. MLrsL on ;u. *5* supra .
.+. A. .+5.0 # 1!h. 65.0 # 9%hn. 1uang. , 7+ f. and 'III H.
.+* 2irTe 8ashia%h (Heth haD8idrash, /, 7/, .7) in 9tr.DH. , III, .+%.
.+/ 2esi:t. r. , 0.a in 9tr.DH. , III, 9b.
.+) This is !arti%ularl& !lain in 2esi:t. r. , /6 (.6*a) ( 9tr.DH. , III, 9%). To be sure, this has MPL , rather than
q`sPc . Hut both 9%hn. 1uang. and 9tr.DH. re%:on this among the DMPLs !assages, and in %ontent it belongs
to them5 7e will !ro%laim to them, the Israelites, and sa& to them5 =e o!!ressed, the time of &our redem!tion
has %ome. ,nd if &ou will not believe, then behold m& light streaming over &ou, for it is written, ,rise, shine {
Is. 6+5. . -n &ou alone it shines, not on the nations of the earth, for it is written, Hehold, dar:ness %overs the
earth, and thi%: dar:ness the !eo!le, but =ahweh will shine over &ou and 7is glor& will be manifested u!on &ou.
Is. 6+5* . In that hour <od will %ause the light of the :ing, the 8essiah, and of Israel to shine, and all !eo!les of
the world are in dar:ness# and the& will all go to the light of the 8essiah and Israel, for it is said, ,nd the
<entiles (<o$im) will go to th& light, and :ings to the brightness of th& rising, Is. 6+5/ ."
.+0 2irTe 8ashia%h (Heth haD8idrash, /, 7/, .7) in 9tr.DH. , III, .+%5 In that hour he will draw near and bring
good news ( MPLs^ ) to those who slee! in the twofold grave, and will sa& to them5 ,braham, Isaa% and ?a%ob,
arise, &ou have sle!t enough. ,nd the& will answer him and sa&5 @ho is it who has ta:en off the dust (of the
grave) from us ,nd he will sa& to them5 I am the 8essiah of =ahweh, salvation has drawn near, the hour has
%ome. ,nd the& will answer him, If this is trul& so, then go and bring the good news to the first man, that he ma&
arise first { Then the first man will arise at on%e, and his whole generation, and ,braham, Isaa% and ?a%ob, and
all the righteous, and all the !atriar%hs and all generations from one end of the earth to the other, and the& will
raise the voi%e of $o& and singing, for it is said, 7ow beautiful on the mountains are the feet of him that bringeth
glad tidings, Is. 0*57 ."
.+6
The omission of i is !robabl& in :ee!ing with the whole %hara%ter of ?ohnOs
<os!el. The dramati%, d&nami% !ro%lamation of the time of salvation as this ta:es !la%e b&
i does not fit the realised es%hatolog& of the <os!el.
.+7
In i
the 8essiani% se%ret is :e!t ( 7.6 ). ?ohnOs <os!el refle%ts the %alm of fulfilment. In this
%onne%tion we ma& also mention the !olemi% against ?ohn the Ha!tist ( 7.9 ), whi%h seems to
ma:e it advisable to avoid using i on the li!s of ?esus.
.. ?esus.
?esus is the -ne who brings the good news of the eB!e%ted last time. To the Tuestion of
the Ha!tist 7e re!lies in 8t. ..50 (UU 4:. 75** )5
.+6
i i
, i ,
i i .
.+9
The whole senten%e finds its %limaB in
the i . The message a%tualises the new time and ma:es !ossible
the signs of 8essiani% fulfilment. The @ord brings in the divine rule. This is no longer
understood in some 899. Thus O s&
%
rate the resurre%tion of the dead higher than the
!ro%lamation of the <os!el and therefore the& %hange the order.
..+
The answer whi%h ?esus
gives to the Ha!tist is that the longed for time is now dawning, that the es%hatologi%al good
news eB!e%ted from the da&s of 3t. Is. is now being !ro%laimed, and that the @ord has !ower
and brings into effe%t what is s!o:en. @ord and mira%le, the !ro%lamation of the glad tidings
and the resurre%tion of the dead ( 7.7 # 7*+ ), are signs of the 8essiani% age.
i is also found on the li!s of ?esus in 4:. )5.6 , )/ and .65.6 . ,%%ording to
4:. )5.6 ?esus in 7is sermon at ;aEareth a!!lied Is. 6.5. to 7imself. 4:. .65.6 5 q
i i ( 7.9 ), ma& not be authenti% in this form, sin%e
it is hard to !ut it ba%: into ,ram. ,
...
the !ass. of rPL meaning to re%eive news" rather
than to be !ro%laimed." -n the other hand, if 4:. is res!onsible, he shows an a%%urate
!er%e!tion. The tas: of ?esus was to !ro%laim the i . This was 7is
mission, 7is sa%red dut& ( 4:. )5)/ # %f. . >. .5.7 # 95.6 ff. 7.9 ). The !resen%e of the
:ingdom of <od means $o&.
9&non&mous with i is ( 4:. )5)/ f. %om!ared with 8:.
.5/6 # 4:. 6 5l# v. 4:. *+5. 5 and i ). The !hrase
q i ( 4:. 65. ) gives us a %om!rehensive
!i%ture of the whole a%tivit& of ?esus. 7is whole life was !ro%lamation of the <os!el. 7en%e
7is birth is an , 4:. *5.+ ( 7*. ). 1!h. *5.7 5 6 i
l l . The %oming of ?esus to earth,
7is life and death, were the great message of !ea%e, the great !ro%lamation of !ea%e. 7is
manifestation, not merel& 7is !rea%hing but 7is whole wor:, is des%ribed in terms of
.+6 7arna%:, 4irchenverfassung und <recht , *.., n. .# also I, 09 .
.+7 <. 9tlhlin, gum 2roblem der $oh. 1s%hatologie ," g;@ , // (.9/)), **0 ff.
.+6 -n the genuineness of this verse v. Hultmann Trad. , **, ..0, .6/.
.+9 8t. ..50 is a Tuotation from Is. /050 and 6.5. with the additions the le!ers are %leansed" and the dead are
raised." There are similar Tuotations in ,!%. 1lias //5. ff. ( TK , ;F, *, * m.699n, 69)# 4idE. ?oh. , 76 (II, *)/)#
4idE. <inEa r., I, *+. (!. /+)# II, ., ./6 (!. )6)# 9lav. ?os.Hell. , ., /6) ff. Hut the de%isive word
i does not o%%ur. Thus 9lav. ?os.Hell. , ., /6) ff. has instead5 ,mong the anointed it was
determined to ma:e the ri%h !oor," in addition to ma:ing the lame to wal: and the blind to see# 4idE. <inEa r., I,
*+. (!. /+) has5 7e %onverts the ?ews," and ibid. , II, ., ./6 (!. )6)5 7e wins believers among the ?ews,"
whi%h might !erha!s %orres!ond to i . >f. A. AeitEenstein, 3as mandlis%he Hu%h des 7errn
der <rJsse und die 1vDberlieferung " ( 9,7 , .9.9, .*), 6.# 7. 9%haeder, in A. AeitEenstein and 7. 9%haeder,
Studien -u antiken S'nkretisus (.9*6), ///. 8t. ..50 %an hardl& be de!endent on the 8andaean writings. A.
AeitEenstein, Das iranische &rlsungs'steriu (.9*.), ..., n. .# g;@ , *6 (.9*7), 0., 00 f.# ,. ,llgeier,
"heologische /evue , *+ (.9*.), .6.# 7. <ressmann, gF< , ;F, / (.9**), .66# 8. <oguel, ?ean Ha!tiste (.9*6),
.*0 f.# 7. 4ietEmann, 9,H , .9/+, 096 ff.# Hultmann Trad. , **, n. *# 7. 9%hlier, ThA , ;F, 0 (.9//), 9 ff., 69.
..+ 9%hn. 1uang. , 'II ,.
... 3alman @? , I, 6).
i . The %onteBt shows this. In v. .6 the referen%e is to 7is death. In v. .) 7e
is !ea%e, and 7is manifestation is the !ro%lamation of !ea%e. 7e ma:es !ea%e between <od
and man and between man and man ( ).0 f. ). -n ,%. .+5/6 7*. . 9in%e in . 2t. /5.9 it
is said of ?esus5 g , we must
refer the i of . 2t. )56 to ?esus. 1ven to the dead the good news is
brought ( 7.7, n. .+0 ) that the& might be saved and live.
*. ?ohn the Ha!tist.
-f the a%tivit& of ?ohn the Ha!tist it is said in 4:. /5.6 5 c c
i . 7e, 1li$ah ( 7.6 ) ( 4:. .5.7 # 8t. ..5.) #
.75.* ), is the evangelist. 7e !ro%laims the imminen%e of the :ingdom of <od. Is he the
forerunner of the 8essiah or is he more In 4:. .65.6 he is the boundar& between the old and
the new. 7e still belongs to the 4aw and the !ro!hets ( I, 6.* ) even though he is more
than a !ro!het a%%ording to 8t. ..59 5 l q .
q i i . These sa&ings %ombat an overestimation
of the Ha!tist whi%h regards him as the -ne who has %ome. 7is birth is announ%ed b& the
angel ( 4:. .5.9 i ) li:e that of ?esus. This is an intimation of the 8essiani%
salvation. ,%%ording to 4:. .5.0I.7 # 66I79 he !re!ares the wa&, not for the 8essiah, but for
<od. 7e is the one who brings glad tidings and therefore the longed for es%hatologi%al
salvation. 7is message, then, is good news. 1ven as a !re%ursor of the 8essiah he is an
evangelist. 7is stor& is the beginning of the <os!el ( 8:. .5. # ,%. .+5/6 f. ).
..*

/. The host of witnesses, dis%i!les, a!ostles, evangelists.
A. .+5.0 5 c q ;
l . 7ere Is. 0*57 is not referred to
the 8essiah but to the messengers of the <os!el. The !lur. is attested neither in the 4'' nor
the 8as. Hoth ,%. .+5/6 and 1!h. *5.7 Tuote Is. 0*57 in the sing. 2aul is following the
tradition of 2alestinian ?udaism ( 7.6 ) that the wat%hers on the walls in 3t. Is. , the
witnesses of =ahwehOs %oming, be%ome evangelists.
../
,lread& during the lifetime of ?esus
the Twelve go through the land ( 4:. 95.I6 ),
!ro%laiming the :ingdom of <od and wor:ing signs li:e ?esus 7imself. The missionar&
a%tivit& of the a!ostles begins after 2ente%ost. ,%. 05)* 5 q l
l
. ,s a result of !erse%ution in ?erusalem the <os!el is ta:en further afield. 2hili!
es!e%iall&, one of the ~dea%ons,O !rea%hes the @ord ( ,%. 65.* , /0 , )+ ).
The message is first ta:en to the ?ews, but then also to the <ree:s ( ,%. ..5*+ ). 2aul
be%omes the evangelist to the <entiles ( ,%. .)57 , .0 , *. # .65.+ # .75.6 # A. .05*+ # . >.
.05. , * # * >. .+5.6 # ..57 # <l. .56 , .. # )5./ ). 7e is %alled to bring the <os!el to the
<entiles ( <l. .5.6 ). This is his ( 1!h. /56 ). 7e %an use i to
des%ribe his whole a%tivit& as an a!ostle ( . >. .5.7 ). 4i:e the !ro!hets ( ?er. . # *+59 # ,m.
/56 # 1E. /5.7 ff. ), he stands under a divine %onstraint, so that he must !rea%h.
..)
This is his
mission ( 7.6 ). . >. 95.6 5 i i
q i. i is a missionar& term. ,%. .)5.0 5
i
, i q q { Hut the message is also addressed
to >hristians ( A. .5.0 , %f. .. #
..0
. >. 95.*I.6 # <l. )5./ # * Tm. )50 , %f. * ). The same
..* 1. 4ohme&er, Das 8rchristentu , I5 0ohannes der "=ufer (.9/*), /, 0, .., .0, *+, */ f., )6, 69. 4:. .5.0 is
hardl& an allusion to Is. 6.5. .
../ 9%hn. 1uang. , 7+ f.
..) 9%hniewind, Wort und &vgl. bei Pls. , 7+.
..0 .bid. , 7.. To avoid this eB!osition, gn. A. , ad loc. !refers the reading attested in the @estern
teBt (3C g vg ).
<os!el is !ro%laimed in both missionar& and %ongregational !rea%hing. 2aul ma:es no
distin%tion. <od 7imself s!ea:s in !rea%hing, and 7e does not s!ea: to >hristians or to
heathen, but to man as su%h, revealing 7imself to him in gra%e and $udgment through the
@ord ( ).
The !rea%her !ro%laims ( <l. .5.6 ), namel&, ( ,%. 65/0 # .75.6 ),
( ,%. 05)* ), ( ,%. ..5*+ ),
( ,%. 65.* ), i
( 1!h. /56 ). Aather more s!e%ifi%all&, one ma& also sa& and ( . 2t. .5..
ff. ), ( ,%. .75.6 ), or i ( ,%. 65.* ). >hrist is the
i in !erson, the i ( I, 069 ). 9%ri!ture treats of 7im ( . 2t. .5.. ff.
), and therefore the !rea%hing of the <os!el has the -T as its %ontent ( ,%. 65/0 ). q
q i ,
q ( ,%.
./5/* f. 06* ). i is also lin:ed with ( ,%. 65) ),
i ( ,%. .05/0 ), pq ( . 2t. .5*0 ), i ( <l. .5*/ ), ( . >. .05. #
* >. ..57 # <l. .5.. ). i is also %losel& related to ( ,%. 65) f.
), ( ,%. 05)* # .05/0 ), ( ,%. 65*0 # ..5.9 , *+ ),
( ,%. 65*0 ), ( ,%. .)5*. ), ( . 2t.
.5.* ), ( ,%. .65.7 , %f. >od. 3).
i is not $ust s!ea:ing and !rea%hing# it is !ro%lamation with full
authorit& and !ower. 9igns and wonders a%%om!an& the evangeli%al message. The& belong
together, for the @ord is !owerful and effe%tive. The !ro%lamation of the age of gra%e, of the
rule of <od, %reates a health& state in ever& res!e%t. Hodil& disorders are healed and manOs
relation to <od is set right ( 8t. )5*/ # 95/0 # ..50 # 4:. 956 # ,%. 65)I6 # .+5/6 ff. # .)56I.6 #
.65.7 ff. # A. .05.6I*+ # * >. .*5.* # <l. /50 ).
..6
?o& reigns where this @ord is !ro%laimed
( ,%. 656 ). It brings i ( . >. .05. f. ). It is the i (
,%. .65.7 3C). It effe%ts regeneration ( . 2t. .5*/I*0 ). It is not a word of man, but the living,
eternal @ord of <od. The 7ol& 9!irit, who was sought for the da& of salvation, attests
7imself now in the time of fulfilment when the glad tidings are !ro%laimed ( . 2t. .5.* ).
7en%e i is to offer salvation. It is the !owerful !ro%lamation of the good
news, the im!artation of i . This would be missed if i were to
ta:e !la%e in human fashion iq ( . >. .5.7 ).
..7

In . Th. /56 and 7b. )5* , 6 there is some variation from the !assages thus far dis%ussed.
In . Th. /56 ,
..6
while we do not have a se%ular use, the faith and love of the Thessalonians
are the sub$e%t of !ro%lamation rather than >hrist. 2aul is bringing good news from the field
where he has been wor:ing as a missionar&. In 7b. )5* , 6 i is used of -T
as well as ;T !ro%lamation. The of the ?ews is to be found in the !romises (
060, n. 67 ).
). <od.
In two ;T !assages <od is the -ne who !ro%laims the good news. In ,%. .+5/6 <od
%auses l to be !ro%laimed through >hrist. The @ord of the !ro%lamation of !ea%e is
pq . It is the stor& of ?esus, of 7is life, death and resurre%tion. This stor&
is <odOs good news of !ea%e and $o& ( 7.6 ), first to the ?ews, then to all men, for >hrist is
. In Aev. .+57 <od has revealed 7is !lan of salvation to 7is servants the
..6 9%hniewind, 3k.6 !" Deutsch , I (.9//), 06.
..7 9%hniewind, Wort u. &ugl. bei Pls. , 69.
..6 Aather sur!risingl&, the (ulgate has annuntiare here instead of evangeli-are . Hut we should not stress this,
sin%e it follows the same rule in ,%. .+5/6 # ..5*+ # ./5/* # .)5.0 # .75.6 . >f. 7b. )5* nuntiare # )56 annuntiare #
A. .05*+ # . >. 95.6 evangeliu praedicare # but * >. ..57 evangeliu evangeli-are . >f. @. 8atE:ow, De
Vocabulis $uibusda .talae et Vulgatae 1hristianis ( 3iss. , .9//), *6 ff.
!ro!hets of the -T and the ;T . It is good news be%ause it !ro%laims the %oming of the
8essiah, of the i , after the overthrow of the dominion of ,nti%hrist.
0. ,ngels.
<abriel !ro%laims to ga%harias ( 4:. .5.9 ) the birth of ?ohn the Ha!tist ( 7.9 ). ,n
angel tells the she!herds of the birth of the ( 4:. *5.+ 7.6 ).
..9
In both %ases the
message is an evangel be%ause the desired last time, the %oming of 8essiani% salvation, is
!ro%laimed. rules in the time of salvation ( 4:. .5.) I, *+ ). -n Aev. .)56
.
A!)%
*

A. A!) o#tside the NT.
.. cMd Pw LeZ in the -T.
The subst. is far less %ommon than the verb. It is found onl& 6 times in the -T and has the two
senses of .. good news" ( * 9. .65*+ , *0 , *7 # * F. 759 ) and *. the reward for good news" ( *
9. )5.+ # .65** ).
.
This twofold meaning of cMd Pw LeZ hel!s us to see the effe%tive !ower of the
word ( 7+6 ).
*
The s!o:en word is eTuated with its %ontent.
/
Had news brings sorrow, and
good news %auses $o&, for the word %arries !ower and effe%ts what it !ro%laims. 7en%e the bearer
of bad news is guilt& of the misfortune whi%h he announ%es. 7e is !unished for his message and
sometimes he is even !ut to death ( * 9. .5.0 f. ). In * 9. )5.+ someone brings 3avid news of the
death of 9aul. 7e thin:s he is bringing good news, but 3avid has him !ut to death. This was the
cMd Pw Le Z , his reward for the good news whi%h he told. It is be%ause the messenger is the bearer of
the good fortune or misfortune whi%h he narrates that ?oab tries to :ee! ba%: ,himaaE from
running, for his cMd Pw LeZ %ontains news of the death of the :ingOs son ( * 9. .65*+ ). ,himaaE runs,
but he avoids telling the :ing of the death of ,bsalom5 I saw a great tumult, but I :new not what
it was." The bearer of good news is rewarded for his message, for he is the %ause of $o& through
his de%laration. <ood fortune is %ontained in good news, and therefore he deserves a reward.
In the -T cMd Pw LeZ is used onl& in a se%ular sense. There is no religious use of the subst.
whatever.
*. among the <ree:s.
a. is an ad$. used as subst. 4i:e i ( 7.+ ), it derives from
.
)
It means that whi%h is !ro!er to an . This gives a
twofold sense. For those to whom an %omes, what is !ro!er to him is good news# but
for the himself, what is !ro!er is his reward. In the oldest :nown eBam!le in
7om.-d. , .), .0* f., .66 f. means reward for good news." The sense of good
news" is attested onl& from the time of >i%.,tt. , II, /, .. =et both meanings are eTuall& sound.
Thus , :nown from the time of ,risto!h.1T. , 606, !lainl& !resu!!oses
in the sense of good news, for it means to %elebrate good news b& sa%rifi%es."
0

is a te%hni%al term for news of vi%tor&." The messenger a!!ears, raises his
right hand in greeting and %alls out with a loud voi%e5 { .
6
H& his a!!earan%e
..9 -n the relation of this !assage to the 4'' v. <. 1rdmann, Die Vorgeschichte des )k.< u. 3t. &v. (.9/*), .7
f.
C . For bibl. 7+7 n.
. <es.DHuhl would bring * 9. .65** under .. A. Fittel in FautEs%h, also @. ;owa: (.9+*), F. Hudde (.9+*), @.
>as!ari (.9*6) in the %omm. , ad loc. , all favour *. (i.e., the messengerOs reward").
* -n what follows %f. 9%hn. 1uang. , /. f.
/ MLM %an mean thing," histor&," event," as well as word."
) F. 9!e%ht in 9%hn. 1uang. , ..6.
0 9%hn. 1uang. , .*+# ,es%hin. , /, .6+5 l li i i , eB%ludes an& !ossibilit& of
translating to offer to the gods the reward for good news"# in this %onteBt it %an onl& mean
a sa%rifi%e for good news.
6 2lut.3emetr. , .7 (I, 696%).
it is :nown alread& that he brings good news.
7
7is fa%e shines,
6
his s!ear is de%:ed with laurel,
9
his head is %rowned,
.+
he swings a bran%h of !alms, $o& fills the %it&, are offered,
the tem!les are garlanded,
..
an agon is held,
.*
%rowns are !ut on for the sa%rifi%es
./
and the
one to whom the message is owed is honoured with a wreath.
.)
2oliti%al and !rivate re!orts %an
also be .
.0
For them, too, sa%rifi%ial feasts are held.
.6
Hut is %losel&
lin:ed with the thought of vi%tor& in battle. This ma& be seen from the misunderstanding of whi%h
we read in 2hilostr.(it. ,!. , (, 6. ;ero had been su%%essful in the games and he ordered
to be offered. Hut some %ities believed that he had been vi%torious in war and had
ta:en some -l&m!ians %a!tive. or is something so familiar that it
%an be used for %om!arison or illustration.
.7
There is a %ari%ature in ,risto!hanes.
.6

<ood fortune is %ontained in the words. ,risto!h.2l. , 6)6 ff.5
. ; . i
. For this reason the message is rewarded.
.9
It is intrinsi%all&
valuable. It does not merel& de%lare salvation# it effe%ts it. He%ause of the im!ortan%e of the
message, the messenger eBerts himself to be first.
*+
If another arrives before him, his reward is
less.
*.
, slow messenger %an be !unished for his dilatoriness,
**
for he de!rives the re%i!ients of
their good fortune. 9o far as !ossible bad news is su!!ressed.
*/
<ood news is a gift of the gods.
This is wh& it is %elebrated with sa%rifi%ial feasts.
*)

It is to be noted that where is used as a religious term we do not find
.
*0
This is sur!rising, but it is no a%%ident. 1ither through misinformation or
for !s&%hologi%al or !oliti%al reasons re!orts were often %ir%ulated and festivities held when there
was reall& no %ause. Indeed, the truth might sometimes be the ver& o!!osite of that for whi%h the
festivities were %elebrated.
*6
7en%e s%e!ti%ism arose, and rewards %ame to be !aid onl& when the
7 7eliodor.,eth. , ', /5 q i q .
6 2hilostr.(it. 9o!h. , II, 0, /.
9 2lut.2om!. , ). (I, 6)+).
.+ 2lut.3emetr. , .. (I, 69/ f.)# 'eno!h.7ist. <rae%. , I, 6, /7.
.. 7eliodor.,eth. ., ', /5 q i c
{ i q ,

q i {
.
.* 3itt. -r. , I, 6, *+ f.
./ 2lut.,!o!hth. ,ntio%hus 7ieraB (II, .6)a)# 2lut.,ges. , .7 (I, 6+0%).
.) 2lut. 3emosthenes, ** (I, 600e).
.0 >i%.,tt. , II, /, . , Valerius absolutus est # 7eliodor.,eth. , I, .), the death of the wi%:ed
ste!mother# >i%.,tt. , 'III, )+, ., the good news that >aesar will $oin the true friends of the fatherland. For
further instan%es v. 9%hn. 1uang. , .0*.
.6 2lut.,!o!hth. ,ntio%hus 7ieraB (II, .6)a)5 6
. 3iod. 9. , .0, 7), *5 3ion&sius offers than:Dofferings to the gods on the news of his trium!h in
the games as a !oet. 8enand.2eri%. , )./ ff.
.7 2hilostr.(it. 9o!h. , II, 0, /5 The orator s!rings u! 6q
l .
.6 ,risto!h.1T. , 606 g for the news that an%hovies have be%ome
%hea!er. In ,risto!h.2l. , 76) the messenger is given for his good news a %ord of %ra%:nels wound round his
head.
.9 ,risto!h.2l. , 76). The reward naturall& differs. ,risto!h.1T. , 6)7# 2hilostr.(it. 9o!h. , I, .6, ., a %rown. The
4a%edaemonians give to the messenger ( 2lut.,ges. , // mI, 6.) f.n) who announ%es the vi%tor& of 8antinea onl&
a !ie%e of meat from the %ommon table. 9ometimes we hear of dissatisfa%tion with the reward. 2lut. ,rtaBerBes,
.) (I, .+.6b)5 qi i . For further instan%es, v. 9%hn. 1uang.
, .)+, n. ..
*+ ,risto!h.1T. , 6)* f.# 2lut.,ges. , // (I, 6.) f.).
*. 2lut. ,rtaBerBes, .) (I, .+.6b)5 i i
{
** 2lut.3emetr. , .7 (I, 696%).
*/ 7eliodor.,eth. , I, .).
*) 2lut.2ho%. , */ (I, 70*b)# 3iod. 9. , .0, 7), *# 2lut.,!o!hth. ,ntio%hus 7ieraB (II, .6)a).
*0 >f. 9%hn. 1uang. , .66I.6/.
*6 2lut.3emetr. , .. (I, 69/ f.). (auntingl& 9trato%les strides through the %it& %rowned and !ro%laims vi%tor&.
. 2lut.,ges. , .7 (I, 6+0%)5 c q 6
news was verified.
*7
,s a result of sorr& eB!erien%es, it was found ne%essar& to ma:e a new
distin%tion between news and event. Thus in 3itt. -r. , I, ), )* we find both and
. -fferings are made both for the news and for the deliveran%e. @e %an
understand, therefore, that the misused and sus!e%t eB!ression was avoided
when it was a matter of religious messages %on%erning the %orre%tness and fa%tualit& of whi%h
there was no doubt, and wh& eB!ressions li:e i i
i ( 7eliodor.,eth. , ', *), i c q i
i ( ibid. , ', 6) and || ( 2.
<iess. , I, *7, 6 ff.) were used instead ( n.
/
7 ). In religious usage the message is again so
highl& valued that it is eTuated with the a%tualit&. -n the o%%asion of these messages sa%rifi%e is
offered not merel& for the message ( ) but for the event !ro%laimed.
is thus estimated as a fa%t in the ora%les and the im!erial %ult.
4i:e i ( 7.. ), %an be an ora%ular sa&ing. In 2lut.
9ertorius, .. (I, 07/d) it is said of a hind, a gift of ,rtemis, that it reveals man& hidden things.
@hen messengers de%lare a vi%tor&, these are de%lared, q c
i q
. Than:offerings are made to the gods for su!!osed ora%les. ,!ollonius (
2hilostr.(it. ,!. , (III, *6 f.) sees in s!irit the murder of 3omitian, and des%ribes how the 4ogos
disseminates itself and %auses great $o&. The 1!hesians do not believe. The& ought to offer
sa%rifi%e, sin%e ,!ollonius believes he is the !ro%laimer of the , but he orders them
to !ost!one the sa%rifi%e until the pq has ta:en !la%e. q
l i q i . is the
ratifi%ation of the !romise. The good news of the seer has !roved to be true.
-n the relations of to i
*6
and
*9
7.. .
b. in the im!erial %ult. This is the most im!ortant usage for our !ur!ose. ;ote
must be ta:en of what is said %on%erning the ( 7.* ), and i
. The em!eror unites all these in his own !erson. This is what gives its signifi%an%e
and !ower. The ruler is divine b& nature.
/+
7is !ower eBtends to men, to animals, to the earth and
to the sea. ;ature belongs to him# wind and waves are sub$e%t to him.
/.
7e wor:s mira%les and
heals men.
/*
7e is the saviour of the world who also redeems individuals from their diffi%ulties (
). is lin:ed u! with his !erson# he is himself .
//
7e has a!!eared on
earth as a deit& in human form. 7e is the !rote%tive god of the state. 7is a!!earan%e is the %ause of
i i g, i
q, g iq 6
. Iso%.,reo!. , .+5 c q ,
whereu!on misfortune after misfortune stri:es us. For further eBam!les v. 9%hn. 1uang. , .79.
*7 This la%: of %onfiden%e in the message is to be seen alread& in the oldest instan%e of (reward")
in 7om.-d. , .), .0* f.
/7 #erican 0ournal of #rchaeolog' , * 9eries, .6 (.9.)), /*/5
2 i q
|| i , qi
2 c i , q q q
i q q q || l l, q
() q , ||i ()
l c
q i , i ,
q i q q 6 ()
q q q i {
*6 >f. also 2lut.,!o!hth. ,ntio%hus 7ieraB (II, .6)a)5 6
.
*9 2s.D4u%. ,sin. , *6# 8enand.2eri%. , ).) ff. >f. 9%hn. 1uang. , .)0I.0*.
/+ -. @einrei%h, ,nti:es <ottmens%hentum ," !. 0bch. Wiss. u. 0ugendbildung , * (.9*6), 6//I60..
/. 2lut. 3e Fortuna Aomanorum, 6 (II, /.9% d)5 , i g g
li , , i q i
. q T , , ,
g q c g, c , c
, q c .
/* -. @einrei%h, ,nti:e 7eilungswunder ," A(( , 6 (.9+9), 60I70.
good fortune to the whole :ingdom. 1Btraordinar& signs a%%om!an& the %ourse of his life. The&
!ro%laim the birth of the ruler of the world. , %omet a!!ears at his a%%ession, and at his death
signs in heaven de%lare his assum!tion into the ran:s of the gods.
/)
He%ause the em!eror is more
than a %ommon man, his ordinan%es are glad messages and his %ommands are sa%red writings.
@hat he sa&s is a divine a%t and im!lies good and salvation for men. 7e !ro%laims
through his a!!earan%e, and these treat of him ( 7./ ). The first evangeliu is the
news of his birth5 q c l | q |
.
/0
The birthda& of the god was for the world the beginning of the $o&ful messages
whi%h have gone forth be%ause of him."
/6
-ther follow, e.g., the news of his %oming
of age
/7
and es!. his a%%ession5 |6|| | |i|
i i q {
/6
?o& and
re$oi%ing %ome with the news. 7umanit&, sighing under a heaven burden of guilt, wistfull& longs
for !ea%e. 3oom is feared be%ause the gods have withdrawn from earth.
/9
Then suddenl& there
rings out the news that the is born, that he has mounted the throne, that a new era dawns
for the whole world. This is %elebrated with offerings and &earl& festivals. ,ll
%herished ho!es are eB%eeded. The world has ta:en on a new a!!earan%e.
The im!erial %ult and the Hible share the view that a%%ession to the throne, whi%h
introdu%es a new era and brings !ea%e to the world, is a gos!el for men. @e %an eB!lain this
onl& b& su!!osing a %ommon sour%e. This is generall& oriental.
)+
To the man& messages,
however, the ;T o!!oses the one <os!el, to the man& a%%essions the one !ro%lamation of the
i . The ;T s!ea:s the language of its da&. It is a !o!ular and realisti%
!ro%lamation. It :nows human waiting for and ho!e of the , and it re!lies with
the , but with an evangel of whi%h some might be ashamed, sin%e it is a
( 8t. ..50 f. # A. .5.6 # . >. .5.7 , */ # * Tm. .56 # 8:. 65/0 ). The <os!el
means for men i , but i through and $udgment ( 7*6 f. ,
7/* ). For man& this <os!el ma& be ironi%al when the& hear it (%f. ,%. .75/* ). Hut it is real
$o&# for !eniten%e brings $o&, and $udgment gra%e and salvation. >aesar and >hrist, the
em!eror on the throne and the des!ised rabbi on the %ross, %onfront one another. Hoth are
evangel to men. The& have mu%h in %ommon. Hut the& belong to different worlds.
).

/. 9e!tuagint, ?ose!hus.
// n. /. . In 2. <iess. , I, /, / ff. and are as%ribed to the em!eror. The son establishes his
might on the and of the father. In 3itt. -r. , I, **9, 6* the of the :ing is mentioned along
with other gods. ,ntio%hus of >ommagene regards himself as in 3itt. -r. , I, /6/, 6+ ff. >f. -. 2u%hstein
in /eisen in 4leinasien und !ords'rien (.69+) b& F. 7umann and -. 2u%hstein, //6 ff.
/) 1. ;orden in Die Geburt des 4indes (.9*)), .07 ff.# <. 7erEogD7auser, Faiser:ult ," 2aul&D@. , 9u!!l. I(
(.9*)), 6.9# in 2. <iess. , I, / the em!eror is borne aloft on a %hariot with white horses.
/0 Ins%r. 2riene , .+0, )+ has been mu%h Tuoted and dis%ussed5 3eissmann 4- , /./# @endland 7ell. Fult. ,
).+# 3itt. -r. , II, )06, )+# T. 8ommsen and K. v. @ilamowitED8Jllendorff, 3ie 1infGhrung des asianis%hen
Falenders " in ,th. 8itt. , *) (.699), *70I*9/# 7. 4ietEmann, Th9tFr , 6* (.9+9), .6.# 2. @endland, g;@ , 0
(.9+)), //0 ff.# @. 9oltau, Die Geburtsgeschichte 0esu 1hr. (.9+*), /)# 7. 4ietEmann, Der Weltheiland (.9+9),
.)# 1. ;orden, Die Geburt des 4indes (.9*)), .07# 1. 2etersen, Die 2underbare Geburt6
/eligionsgeschichtliche Volksbcher , I, .7 (.9+9), */, ). f.# ,. v. 7arna%:, ,ls die geit erfGllet war ," /eden
und #ufs=t-e
*
(.9+6), /+.I/+6# ,. Hauer, Vo Griechentu -u 1hristentu (.9.+), 69 f.# 1. 4ohme&er,
1hristuskult und 4aiserkult (.9.9), *7# gondervan, .66 ff.# <illet, /0# 8olland, *)# 9%hn. 1uang. , 67.
/6 For an eB!osition, %f. 9%hn. 1uang. , 6/, n. /# 67, n. 7. @ith 1. ;orden, Geburt des 4indes , .07 (%f. ;orden
in 3eissmann 4- , ))7) we ma& refer to ora%ular sa&ings. Hut this would not fit the other instan%es
of in the im!erial %ult.
/6 ,%%. to 3eissmann 4- , /.), where other instan%es are given. >f. also 8olland, *0, 9%hn. 1uang. , 69 f.
/9 >f. @endland 7ell. Fult. , .)* ff.5 3ie 9timmung der augustis%hen geit ." >f. also Ins%r. 2riene ,
7ali%arnassus, de%ree from ,ssos (@endland, ).+).
)+ 4ohme&er, *)# also gondervan, *+/ f.
). 8elito tried to lin: together the im!erial and >hristian %ults in his a!olog& to the em!eror ( 1us.7ist. 1%%l. ,
I(, *6, 7 f.)5 ,%%ording to this bisho! the world has had two saviours, who a!!eared together, ,ugustus and
>hrist," 7arna%:, op. cit. , /+0 f.
a. In the 9e!t. does not o%%ur in the sing. In the !lur. it is found onl& at * 9.
)5.+ and means the reward for good news." cMd Pw LeZ in the sense of good news" in * 9. .65*+ , **
, *0 , *7 # * F. 759 , is rendered q i .
)*
1lsewhere the fem. subst. is ver& rare, being
found onl& in ?ewish and >hristian writers.
)/
In the 9e!t., then, there is a distin%tion between q
i (good news") and (the reward for good news"). This distin%tion is
not found in an& other wor:.
The ;T use of does not derive from the 4''. There is no religious use of
either or i in the 4''. The !lur. is not found in
the ;T , nor do we have the sense of reward for good news in the ;T . The !rior histor& of
the ;T %on%e!t is not to be sought in the 4''.
b. The subst. is not found in 2hiloOs vo%abular&. In ?ose!hus, however, we find q
( ,nt. , .6, **9 ), ( Hell. , *, )*+ ) and ( Hell. , ), 606 ) in the
sense of glad tidings. 4i:e the verb i ( 7.) ), the subst. reveals
the %onne%tion between ?ose!h. and the 7ellen. world. @hen he refers to a
( Hell. , *, )*+ ), this reminds us of the ironi%al usage noted among the <:s. ( 7.. ), but not
eB%lusive to them, sin%e it is found among the Aabbis too ( 7.0 ). 8ore im!ortant are the
instan%es whi%h bring us into the %onteBt of the im!erial %ult. In Hell. , ), 6.6 (es!asian tells the
!ro%urator of 1g&!t that he has ta:en over the government.

i
l q q q , c 6
|c| i c . The %ontent of the glad message,
whi%h is solemnl& %elebrated, is the elevation of (es!asian to the im!erial throne. In Hell. , ), 606
(es!asian re%eives the of his !ro%lamation as role ruler5 l c q
A q q P6 q
q li l .
). Aabbini% ?udaism.
?udaism !roved a great hel! in fiBing the develo!ment of i , but it does not
seem to lead us mu%h further with regard to the subst. The Aabbis %ertainl& :now the word cMPL
, and the %orres!onding MPL ) 7.) ). The& use it for good news" even without the addition
cL^ ,
))
though o%%asionall& it ma& be used for sad news," as in <n. r. , 6. on /056 5 @hile
?a%ob was still mourning for 3eborah, he re%eived the sad news [YM^PL that his mother had
died."
)0
The term is also used in the religious sense. There are no new features, however, as
%om!ared with the -T .
)6

)* In * 9. .65** cMd ^_Pw LeZ means reward for good news" ( n. . ). 7. H. 9wete and ,. Aahlfs (.9/0) have
i instead of in their editions of the 4''. Hut 9%hn. 1uang. , 6) reads # for
the meaning of the verse and the 7eb. demand the translation reward for a message." 9%hniewindOs emendation
is not reall& ne%essar&, sin%e the 4'' !ara!hrase i l 6i %orres!onds to the sense of
reward."
)/ 9%hn. 1uang. , 60.
)) b.Fet. , .6b ( 4ev& @Jrt. , s.v. ) %alls the vessel of wine brought to the bride on her weddingDda& a cMd ^_Pw LeZ
that she is a virgin.
)0 9tr.DH. , III, 0b.
)6 <n. r. , 0+ on .95. ( 9%hl. 8t. , .** on )5*/ ), where 8i%hael de%lares a message5 ^YM^PL Ms[ # ;u. r. ,
.) on 75)6 ( 9tr.DH. , III, 6d), where <od 7imself is the !ro%laimer of glad tidings5 Y^M^PL xMPLs
Y^L^ .
@e %ertainl& find no e%hoes of the use of cMPL for the es%hatologi%al good news. This is
no a%%ident. , new message is not eB!e%ted with the dawn of <odOs :ingdom. @hat will be
!ro%laimed has been :nown from the time of 3t. Is. The longing is that it should be
!ro%laimed. 7en%e the messenger and the a%t of !ro%lamation are more im!ortant than the
cMPL . The new feature is not the message, but the es%hatologi%al a%t. The message brings
the new thing, the V`sP Y^W\s . He%ause all the em!hasis is on the a%tion, on the
!ro%lamation, on the utteran%e of the @ord whi%h ushers in the new age, cM^PL is less
!rominent than MPLs or MPL .
)7

The interrelations of verb and subst. ( cMPL MPL n. )6 ) show that the ;T
%omes from the ?ewish and not the <ree: world. If the origin of i is !lain, the
same sour%e is naturall& to be sought for . The use of in the ;T
shows that this is %orre%t ( 7*9 ). The subst. does not merel& denote a s!e%ifi% %ontent# it also
eB!resses the a%t of !ro%lamation. The verb MPL is %arried over into , and this
!oints us !lainl& to 2alestine rather than <ree%e. In <:. it is most unusual that
should be used for an a%tion.
This seems to be %ontradi%ted b& the fa%t that a!!ears to be a loanDword
introdu%ed into ?udaism to des%ribe the ;T <os!el. In 9heb., ..6a
)6
we have the mali%ious
%onversion of gos!el ( t^`\RS^[ ) into t^_`\edRea t^X[d , gloss of destru%tion, or t^_`\edRea t^_qb , gloss of sins5
A. 8eir (%. .0+) %alled it (the boo: of the 8inim, i.e., of ?ewish >hristians, and therefore the
<os!els) ,venD<illa$on, gloss or writing of destru%tion, and A. ?o%hanan ( d. *79) %alled it ,vonD
<illa$on, gloss or writing of sins." From this !assage we ma& %on%lude that the ?ewish >hristians
had ado!ted the <:. , sin%e there is no real eTuivalent in ,ram. The !un is !ossible
onl& in res!e%t of the <:. -n the other hand, the !assage does not !rove what has been dedu%ed
from it.
)9
2alestinian ?udaism was bilingual.
0+
,ram. might be s!o:en, but <:. was understood.
It was :nown that cM^PL would be in <:. The Aabbini% !ro!ensit& for !uns
enabled them to seiEe on the <:. word for cM^PL and to bring it into disre!ute, thus ma:ing the
hated hereti%s ridi%ulous. @e are not $ustified in seeing in `Sa^_`\ZRea alone a mutilation of
evangeliu .
0.

B. A!) in the NT.
@hile 8:. avoids the verb %om!letel& ( 7.7 ), he favours the subst., using it 6 times
(in%luding 8:. .5.
0*
and the nonD8ar:an ending .65.0 ) as %om!ared with ) times in 8t. and
none at all in 4:. 4:. seems to be fond of i , but does not have the subst. This
has been freTuentl& noted but never eB!lained. @e %annot sa& that 4:. re$e%ts the noun, sin%e it
o%%urs in ,%. twi%e. ,ll that we %an sa& is that he !refers the verb.
0/
In this res!e%t 4:. is more
lo&al to the original tradition. ,s noted at other !oints,
0)
he :ee!s more stri%tl& than the others to
the ,ram., whi%h would surel& have MPL more freTuentl& than cMd ^_Pw LeZ . The subst. is also found
)7 9%hn. 1uang. , 'I(.
)6 9tr.DH. , III, ... t^_`\edRea originall& means a %lean role of !ar%hment or a s!a%e for notes.
)9 9o @ellhausen, &inleitung (.9+0), .+9# less %learl& in the *nd ed., 96.
0+ Fittel 2robleme, /6 ff.
0. 9%hGrer , II
)
, ))0, where further lit. ma& be found. For a different view, %f. 9tr.DH. , III, ..# 9%hn. 1uang. ,
'I(. 8. Friedllnder, Der vorchristliche Gnosti-isus (.696), 6., %alls the eTuation of <il$onim with
evangeliu a witti%ism.
0* q i is !erha!s a later addition. Tatian and 1vangeliarium 7ierosol&mitanum begin at
v. * 5 ,s it is written." >f. 2. Feine, &inleitung in das !"
0
(.9/+), 0+. For re%ent literature on this !oint, %f.
8olland, /).
0/ Hurrows, *9.
0) Fittel 2robleme, 0* ff. -n this whole Tuestion, %f. 9%hn. 1uang. , 'I(.
6+ times in 2l. (in%luding ) times in 1!h. and ) times in the 2ast.),
00
and on%e ea%h in . 2t. and
Aev.
.. The 9&no!tists.
If we set aside the use in the title in 8:. .5. and the general sa&ing %on%erning the
tea%hing of ?esus in 8:. .5.) , 8:. uses %onsistentl& in sa&ings of ?esus. ,
%om!arison of 8:. .5.0 with the !arallel 8t. )5.7 and 4:. )5.0 , of 8:. 65/0 with 8t. .65*0 #
.+5/9 # 4:. 95*) # of 8:. .+5*9 with 8t. .95*9 # 4:. .65*9k8:. .65.0 ma& be left out of
a%%ountkshows that was not !resent in these !assages in the original 8:., i.e.,
in the earliest stratum of the tradition. This leaves onl& 8:. ./5.+ UU 8t. *)5.) and 8:. .)59
UU 8t. *65./ . ,re these genuine sa&ings of ?esus 8:. ./5.+ 5 l
q , seems to be in%om!atible with 8:. 75*7 UU
8t. .05*) , *6 and 8t. .+50 , where ?esus dis%laims an& !rea%hing to nonD?ews either b&
7imself or 7is dis%i!les ( 7*9 ). This leads us to sus!e%t that 8:. ./5.+ was later
inter!olated into the es%hatologi%al dis%ourse as a result of su%%essful <entile missions.
06

There are similar doubts in relation to 8:. .)59 . The %om!osition of the stor& in 8:. .)5/I9
does not seem to be uniform. (v. 6 and 9 loo: li:e additions.
07
It is thus doubtful whether the
sa&ings are original and whether ?esus ever s!o:e of . This %annot be de%ided,
however, b& sour%e %riti%ism. The <os!els are not a stenogra!hi% re!rodu%tion of the
!rea%hing of ?esus. ;or are the& an offi%ial re%ord of 7is a%tivit& as a tea%her. In their original
form the& are oral tradition. @e have to as:, therefore, whether ?esus %ould have used the
term <os!el. Is it true to the matter itself ;ow there %an be no doubt that materiall& the
!ro%lamation of ?esus was good news and that 7e was -ne who !ro%laimed good news (
7.6 ). To the eBtent that fulfilment of the eB!e%tation im!lies something new, the !rea%hing of
the i brings something new, and transition from the verb to the noun
results. If the 8essiani% se%ret is :e!t with i , it is also :e!t with
q i , sin%e ?ewish eB!e%tation of the V`sP Y^W\s %an be
abstra%ted from the !erson of the 8essiah ( I, 07) ).
06
The form q
i , however, is not found in the earliest tradition in sa&ings of ?esus. In 8:. .5.0
the <os!el of the nearness of the :ingdom %ould be !ro%laimed b& an un:nown messenger
( 7.6 ). Hut as formulated the verse undoubtedl& derives from 8:. In 8:. ./5.+ it is
un%ertain whether the referen%e is to the <os!el whi%h treats of >hrist or to the <os!el whi%h
?esus !ro%laimed. -n the other hand, in 8:. .)59 the death and !assion of ?esus are
undoubtedl& the %ontent of the <os!el.
09
The last sa&ing gives the im!ression of originalit&,
sin%e it is not eas& to see wh& there should be re%olle%tion of this un:nown woman unless
there were something true in the sa&ing. Aemembran%e of the risen 4ord %ould not erase the
thought of this woman, so that the stri:ing !hrase l
q has !ersisted.
The Tuestion whether or not ?esus used the word is finall& a Tuestion of 7is
8essiani% %ons%iousness. If 7e realised that 7e was the 9on of <od who must die and rise
00 @e do not %ount A. .05*9 be%ause i is too !oorl& attested.
06 Hultmann Trad. , .*9.
07 Hultmann Trad. , *6/, 6).
06 @erner, 99 f.
09 7arna%:, 4irchenverfassung , *+/, begins his eB!osition at 8:. .5.0 and in the light of it eB!ounds all the
!assages, in%luding 8:. .)59 , in terms of the <os!el of the :ingdom. Knless the variant of 8:.
.5.) is %ounted, q i does not a%tuall& o%%ur in 8:. Hut a%%. to 7arna%:, *+7 8t.
has a right understanding of 8:., and %orre%tl& defines the %ontent of the of 8:. .5.) , .0 # 95/0
and ./5.+ b& the addition q i in 8t. )5.7 , */ and *)5.) . q i
%orres!onds to the i q i of 4:. )5)/ # 65. and .65.6 , and therefore to the earlier
develo!ment of the term in the -T and the Aabbini% writings ( 7+9 ). It is wrong to suggest that i is
added to to ma:e the nonD?ewish more !robable on the li!s of ?esus. gondervan,
*+0 f.
again, then 7e also realised that 7e was 7imself the %ontent of the message of 7is dis%i!les.
In this %ase 7is <os!el is not a new tea%hing# 7e brings 7imself. @hat is given with 7is
!erson %onstitutes the %ontent of the <os!el. 7en%e im!lies for the dis%i!les
the dis%losure of the 8essiani% se%ret. If both verb and noun are used b& ?esus, the verb will
be the more %ommon, and 4:. is thus more faithful to the sour%es.
6+
8:. with his more
%ommon use of im!lies a dire%t %ontinuation of the !ro%lamation of ?esus. It is
the !rea%hing of the %ommunit& along the lines of ?esus.
If this is re%ognised, the Tuestion whether we have an authenti% sa&ing of ?esus or a
%onstru%t of the %ommunit& is of se%ondar& im!ortan%e. There is also no need to de%ide
between q i and , and the Tuestion
whether we have a sub$e%tive or ob$e%tive genitive in 8:. .5. 5 q i
, loses its signifi%an%e. ?esus brings in the i . It is a%tualised in
7is @ord. 7en%e the message whi%h 7e !ro%laims refers also to 7im. In 8:. .5.) ?esus is
the 7erald ( ) of the <os!el whi%h <od de%lares to the world5
. Its %ontent is the fulfilment of the time and the imminen%e of the i
( 7.7 ). This message demands faith. It is different from <ree: and ?ewish
eB!e%tation. It is %ontrar& to a!!earan%es. ,s -ne who !ro%laims glad tidings, 7e %ries5
, for re!entan%e is $o& and gives $o&.
6.
In 8:. 65/0 and .+5*9
does not refer to the missionar& a%tivit&.
6*
The <os!el is eTuated with >hrist, with 7is
( 8t. .95*9 ), and with the i ( 4:. .65*9 ).
6/
The eTuivo%al
attitude of the -T and of ?udaism to the <entilesktheir eB%lusion from the 8essiani%
:ingdom and &et their !arti%i!ation in salvationkis resolved b& ?esus. 7e 7imself limits
7imself to Israel, and during 7is lifetime 7e does not allow 7is dis%i!les to %arr& the
message be&ond the borders of their own land. Hut in the 8essiani% age all the nations %ome (
8t. 65.. # 4:. ./5*9 ). 7ow %an the& %ome if the& are not told It is when ?esus is eBalted
from lowliness b& 7is resurre%tion, when 7e be%omes the , that the age of salvation
begins for the whole world. The !ro%lamation of the <os!el is an es%hatologi%al event. 8:.
./5.+ 5 l q , is given in
8t. *)5.) the form5 q i g
g lg l . does
not mean the <os!el written in 8t.#
6)
it means that this <os!el of the :ingdom whi%h is now
!rea%hed to Israel will be de%lared to the whole world. 9imilarl&, the of 8t. *65./ is
to be understood in terms of the situation. The <os!el is the salvation of those who believe,
8:. .65.0 .
*. 2aul.
a. 8ost of the ;T !assages are in 2aul ( 7*7 ). 7ow firm a magnitude
the %on%e!t is for him ma& be seen from the fa%t that in almost half of the !assages he s!ea:s
of in the absolute.
60
7e does not need an& noun or ad$. to define it. The
readers :now what it is. 7en%e eB!lanation is unne%essar&. ;evertheless, for us
is not a %onsistent and %learl& definable term whi%h we %an eB!ress in a brief formula. It is in
:ee!ing with the derivation of the word from -T and Aabbini% usage ( 7*6 ) that the
6+ 9%hn. 1uang. , 'I(.
6. 9%hn. 1uang. , )# 9%hl. <es%h. d. >hr. , 0/, ./7, .69.
6* ?. @eiss, 8rchristentu6 HI@ .
6/ ,%%. to 7arna%:, op. cit. , *+) the <os!el is the message of the :ingdom whi%h >hrist !ro%laimed but %annot
be the message about >hrist 7imself sin%e otherwise c c i would be
tautologi%al. This was felt b& 899 3 *6 it s&
s
at 8:. 65/0 , as ma& be seen from the fa%t that the& leave out
and sim!l& read c i .
6) Fl. 8t. , ad loc. # 3ibelius, Die 9orgeschichte des &v.
*
(.9//), *6), n. ..
60 -n a stri%t %ount, in%luding * Tm. .56 , we have */ instan%es of this in 2l.5 A. .5.6 # .+5.6 # ..5*6 # . >. )5.0 #
95.) (twi%e)# 95.6 (twi%e)# 95*/ # * >. 65.6 # <l. *50 # *5.) # 2hil. .50 , 7 , .* , .6 , *7 # *5** # )5/ , .0 # I Th. *5) #
* Tm. .56 # 2hlm. ./ .
substantive is a noen actionis . It des%ribes the a%t of !ro%lamation5 * >. 65.6 , !raise at the
!rea%hing of the <os!el# 2hil. )5.0 5 the beginning of a%tivit& as an evangelist# * >. *5.* 5
2aul %omes to Troas to !rea%h the <os!el# 2hil. )5/ , a referen%e to those who hel! the a!ostle
in the wor: of evangelisation. @e %an see the dire%t !resen%e of two different senses
alongside one another in . >. 95.) , where i q means to live b& the
!rea%hing of the <os!el" but %an onl& refer to the %ontent
of the <os!el. >f. also . >. 95.6b , where 2aul ma:es no use of the i
iq , of his rights as an evangelist, and . >. 95.6a 5
, where he does not merel& offer the %ontent of the <os!el without %harge, but
the salvation itself is free. The twofold sense of the term is !arti%ularl& %lear in A. .5. 5
H { l , he is se!arated to !ro%laim the
<os!el of >hrist." The relative %lause whi%h is immediatel& a!!ended5 i
i , does not refer to the a%tivit& of
!ro%lamation, but to the <os!el itself, i.e., to its %ontent.
b. That a s!e%ifi% %ontent is to be de%lared with is %lear from the fa%t that it
is %ombined with different verbs of s!ea:ing and hearing.
66
The <os!el is !ro%laimed5
i , . >. .05. # * >. ..57 # <l. .5.. #
# . >. 95.) # # <l. *5* # >ol. .5*/ # . Th. *59 # %f.
* Tm. .5.. # , . Th. *5* # i , . >.
.05. , %f. 1!h. 65.9 # , <l. .5.* , %f. * Tm. .5.. #
i , to !resent the <os!el for dis%ussion, <l. *5* . The <os!el
as thus !ro%laimed is heard5 , >ol. .5*/ #
q q i i , >ol. .50 # %f. also
, . >. .05. # <l. .5.* , and * >. ..5) .
That in 2aul we never have i as the %ontent, as in 8t. or 4:.,
67
is
!urel& a%%idental, sin%e he :nows the %on%e!t and ver& seldom defines an& s!e%ifi% %ontent.
Two !assages seem to give a brief summar& of the evangeli%al message, namel&, A. .5. ff.
and . >. .05. ff. @e ma& also add A. *5.6 # .65*0 and * Tm. *56 (on . Tm. .5.. 7// ). The
most eB!li%it of these is A. .5/I) 5
66
the !reDeBistent l be%omes man, is as su%h the
eB!e%ted 8essiah of the house of 3avid, is raised from the dead and is eBalted to be the
. In . >. .05. the <os!el formerl& !rea%hed is summed u! in terms of the death,
burial, resurre%tion and resurre%tion a!!earan%es of the risen 4ord. ;either !assage is meant
to be a full statement of what 2aul understood b& the <os!el. @e %an see this from the fa%t
that the death of ?esus is not mentioned in A. .5. ff. nor the in%arnation in . >. .05. ff. For
2aul the heart of the good news is the stor& of ?esus and 7is suffering, death and resurre%tion.
1ver&thing %onne%ted with this ma& be !rea%hing of the <os!el. It has the right to be so in
virtue of its %onne%tion with >hrist. In 1!h. 65.0 the s!ea:s of !ea%e, and this
message of !ea%e brings !ea%e ( 7.6 ). ,%%ording to A. *5.6 $udgment, too, is !art of the
%ontent of the <os!el. The !rea%hing of the es%hatologi%al da& of $udgment is a message of
salvation sin%e >hrist, the 9aviour of the world, is the ?udge. The !ro%lamation of $udgment
and the message of $o& belong together li:e re!entan%e and $o& ( 7*6 f. ). 8ore generall&
the %ontent of the of A. .65*0 is that <od %an strengthen &ou in
&our life of faith as I !ro%laim it to &ou nonD?ews in m& universal !rea%hing of salvation,
whi%h is the revelation of the divine %ounsel to save and whi%h %on%urs with the !ro%lamation
of ?esus. This !ro%lamation is the strengthening of the %ommunit&. The <os!el im!lies no
brea: with the -T # it is the fulfilment of the !romise. In A. .5. ff. , . >. .05. ff. and A. .65*0
ff. 2aul a!!eals to the -T . In it the fa%t of the !rea%hing of the <os!el is !romised,
69
but so,
too, is the message itself5 . >. .05/ f. 5 c
66 8olland, .. f., ). f.
67 7arna%:, 4irchenverfassung , *.* f.
66 8olland, 67 ff.
69 gn. A. on .5..
q { g qq g ig
. 2aul relates the stor& of the !assion to the -T . For him the -T belongs to the
<os!el, for it bears witness to >hrist. 7en%e the -T also serves to s!read abroad the <os!el
among the <entiles and to bring them to faith ( A. .65*0 f. ). The <os!el is no new tea%hing.
@hat is new is what is and will be effe%ted through the message. If we were to sum u! the
%ontent of the <os!el in a single word, it would be ?esus the >hrist.
This does not mean that in A. .05.9 # . >. 95.* # * >. *5.* #
95./ # .+5.) # <l. .57 # 2hil. .5*7 # . Th. /5* # A. .5.6 vl. # A. .05*9 vl. # . >. 95.6 vl. ,
i q I in * Th. .56 and l in A. .59
are an ob$. gen. The !roblem whether we have a sub$. gen.
7+
or an ob$. gen.
7.
is not so
im!ortant as it used to be. ;o de%ision is !ossible on !urel& formal, grammati%al grounds.
7*

8ateriall& >hrist is for 2aul both the ob$e%t
7/
and the author
7)
of the !ro%lamation, and 7e is the
author both in 7is earthl& manifestation ( A. .65*0 )
70
and in 7is eBaltation ( A. .05.6 # * >. 05*+
# * >. ./5/ ).
76
The distin%tions whi%h we usuall& ma:e are of no signifi%an%e to 2aul. >hrist is
both the sub$e%t and ob$e%t of !rea%hing, and the In%arnate and the 1Balted are one. It is thus
unne%essar& to fiB the t&!e of gen. in . 8ateriall&, it in%ludes both,
sometimes with a stronger em!hasis on the one and sometimes on the other.
77

%. The <os!el does not merel& hear witness to a histori%al event, for what it re%ounts,
namel&, resurre%tion and eBaltation, is be&ond the s%o!e of histori%al $udgment and trans%ends
histor&. ;or does it %onsist onl& of narratives and sa&ings %on%erning ?esus whi%h ever&
>hristian must :now, and it %ertainl& does not %onsist in a dogmati% formula alien to the
world. -n the %ontrar&, it is related to human realit& and !roves itself to be living !ower. . >.
.05/ 5 c q . This for our sins"
ma:es the !rea%hing of the death of ?esus into a message of $udgment and $o&.
76
The
!ro%lamation in A. .5) does not !resent the resurre%tion as an
in%idental or isolated event but as the beginning of the general resurre%tion. The <os!el does
not merel& bear witness to salvation histor&# it is itself salvation histor&. It brea:s into the life
of man, refashions it and %reates %ommunities. It %annot be generall& !er%eived ( * >. )5/ )# in
it there ta:es !la%e a divine revelation. Through the <os!el <od %alls men to salvation. The
!rea%her is the mouth!ie%e of <od ( * Th. *5.) ). 9in%e the <os!el is <odOs address,
( . Th. *5* , 9 ), to men, it demands de%ision and im!oses obedien%e ( A.
.+5.6 # * >. 95./ ). The attitude to the <os!el will be the basis of de%ision at the last $udgment
( * Th. .56 # %f. . 2t. )5.7 ). The <os!el is not an em!t& word# it is effe%tive !ower whi%h
brings to !ass what it sa&s be%ause <od is its author ( A. .5. # .05.6 # * >. ..57 # . Th. *5* , 6 ,
9 # %f. . 2t. )5.7 # . Th. .50 vl. )5 q
( . Th. .50 ). It is ever&where at wor:5 q
( >ol. .50 ). H& the !rea%hing of the <os!el the
<entiles %ome to share in the !romise. The <os!el unites ?ews and <entiles, mediating
7+ 9o gahn 1inl. , II, .69 f.# T. gahn, Ski--en aus de )eben der #lten 4itche
*
(.696)5 Die #nbetung 0esu , *99,
/66, n. )+# 7arna%:, op. cit. , *.0 ff.# Fridri%hsen, **9 ff.# ,. 9eeberg, )0 ff.# 8oe, 06 ff.# 9%hniewind, Wort u.
&v. , .+7 ff.# 8olland, .++.
7. 9o @ellhausen, &inleitung , 99 f.# 3ob. Th. , 66# ?. @eiss, Das aullteste &v. , *6# 8Gller, 9.# FJrster, .))#
Feine, 0esus 1hristus u. Pls. , .6# <illet, 69 and most %omm.
7* The <:. genit. are not too !re%ise. The& %annot be too easil& for%ed into the s&stemDatisations of
grammarians. The sense has to be determined from the %onteBt. >f. FGhnerHlassD<erth, II, /// f.
7/ This is also evident in 7arna%:, */0 f.# gahn, .69# 9%hniewind, op. cit. , .+9, n. .# %f. also ,. v. 7arna%:,
3as do!!elte 1v. im ;T " in #us Wissenschaft und )eben , II (.9..), *.0 ff.
7) 9o also 1. v. 3obs%hiitE, <ibt es ein do!!eltes 1v. im ;T " Th9tFr , 60 (.9.*), /09, /6) f.
70 gahn 1inl. , II, .69 f.
76 9%hniewind, op. cit. , .+9.
77 >r.DFJ. 9%hmitE, op. cit. # @. 8undle, Der Glaubensbegriff des Pls. (.9/*), .).
76 8olland, 6/ ff., does not regard the do%trine of $ustifi%ation as the %ontent of the <os!el but as its theologi%al
%onseTuen%e. 2aul :nows no su%h distin%tion between the <os!el and its eBtension" (6*). For him the effe%t of
the <os!el is !art of its substan%e, %f. -. 8i%hel, Th4g , 6+ (.9/0), .). f.
salvation to both ( 1!h. /56 ). He%ause in%ludes the dis semination, %ontent and
!ower of the message, in q iq
( . >. 95.* ) the !hrase q iq does not mean onl& hindran%e to
!ro%lamation. 2aul is thin:ing rather that there should be no hindran%e to its o!eration. 7e
renoun%es his right for the sa:e of the <os!el, i.e., that others ma& be saved. ,gain, A. .05.9 5
6 Iq q I
does not mean that 2aul has %on%luded his missionar& wor:,
but that the <os!el is fulfilled when it has ta:en full effe%t. In the !rea%hing of 2aul >hrist has
shown 7imself effe%tive in word and sign and mira%le ( v. .6 ). 7en%e the <os!el has been
brought to fulfilment from ?erusalem to Ill&ri%um and >hrist is named in the %ommunities ( v.
*+ ).
The <os!el brings i ( 1!h. .5./ # %f. . >. .05* 5 l ).
79
It
is l i ( A. .5.6 ). In its !ro%lamation there is revealed the
. The $udgment eBer%ised on men in the <os!el brings deliveran%e
and $ustifies the sinner. 7en%e is the divine a%t of revelation.
6+
?udgment
and gra%e are %ombined. ?udgment is $o&, for it destro&s sin. In A. .5.6 f. faith is the %ondition
of the effi%a%& of the <os!el and &et the <os!el also effe%ts faith. 9o in 2hil. .5*7 f aith arises
through the <os!el and is again dire%ted to it. Faith is !resent with the <os!el. The message
demands and %reates i . It %ontains and im!arts l ( 1!h. 65.0 ). It effe%ts
regeneration and gives new life ( . >. )5.0 # %f. . 2t. .5*/ # ?m. .5.6 ). H& death and
resurre%tion >hrist has over%ome death and brought life. The life alread& !resent in
%on%ealment be%omes a%tualit& through !ro%lamation. The <os!el gives effe%t to the a%t of
>hrist in the world. It gives life to men ( * Tm. .5.+ ). The <os!el mediates the !resen%e of
something future ( >ol. .50 ). It is an es%hatologi%al event, bringing the fulfilment of i .
The ho!e, , is alread& im!arted to >hristians
through the message %on%erning it (%f. >ol. .5*/ ). does not merel& denote the
!ower of o!eration. 9in%e the @ord effe%ts what it !ro%laims, is also an
eB!ression for the salvation itself. Thus in . Th.
*56 means to im!art the blessing of salvation. 9imilarl&, when 2aul s!ea:s of the i
of the 2hili!!ians l , he is not thin:ing merel& of their !ersonal a%tivit&
in s!reading the <os!el, nor of their finan%ial su!!ort, but of their fellowshi! in the <os!el
itself. From the first da& the <os!el has brought forth fruit and <od has shown 7imself
might&, so that the& have be%ome !arta:ers of salvation. For q i in . >.
)5*+
6.
we might $ust as well have , %f. . >. *5) and
. In * >. )5) i q
means that the glor& of >hrist shines forth in the <os!el of 2aul. The <os!el is the
manifestation of divine glor& in histor&. It is the form in whi%h the
a!!ears on earth. It is the !resen%e of >hrist. 7en%e 2aul %an sa&, not merel& i
in . Th. *5.* and i i in >ol. .5.+ , but also i
i in 2hil. .5*7 . ,s 2aul is im!risoned for
>hristOs sa:e as I in 2hlm. 9 ( )/ ), so he bears %hains for the
<os!elOs sa:e in 2hlm. ./ . The <os!el and its %ontent are one. The <os!el be%omes a
!ersonal magnitude. * >. .+5.) 5 iq
. The sele%tion of a s!here of missionar& wor: is not a%%ording to the whim of
the !rea%her. It is for%ed on 2aul in the <os!el in %onne%tion with the !ower in whose servi%e
he stands ( >ol. .5*/ ). 2aul %alls himself i in . >. 95*/ ,
namel&, a fellow of the <os!el. The <os!el goes through the world (%f. * Th. /5. # * Tm.
*59 ). It wins men for itself. Hut its fellowDwor:ers %annot be sure that the& will attain to what
the& !romote and de%lare5 c
79 >f. 7arna%:, 4irchenverfassung , *.), n. . on and i .
6+ 9%hniewind, Wort und &vangeliu , 6/.
6. 7arna%:, op. cit. , *./, n. ..
. In A. .05.6 the <os!el is a %ulti% foundation where 2aul renders !riestl&
servi%e that the <entiles ma& be an a%%e!table sa%rifi%e. In A. ..5*6 , however, it is an order
of salvation %ontrasted with the . The two, i.e., and , are
united in the i 6 , A. ..5// . In 1!h.
65.9 the <os!el is a whi%h is de%lared.
d. In the 2auline e!istles we often find the formula q , * >. )5/ # . Th.
.50 # * Th. *5.) # , A. *5.6 # .65*0 # * Tm. *56 . @ith these we ma& list
eB!ressions li:e , . >. .05. #
, <l. .5.. 5
, <l. *5* # %f. also <l. .56 5 i p .
2aul does not !rea%h a s!e%ial <os!el %om!ared with the other a!ostles. For him there is onl&
one <os!el ( <l. .56 ), the <os!el of >hrist, and he shares this with the original a!ostles (
7/) ). If he %alls the <os!el his own, it is be%ause he as an a!ostle is entrusted with its
de%laration. It is !ut in his trust li:e a %ostl& !ossession ( . Th. *5) # . Tm. .5.. # <l. *57 ). 7e
is %alled q of the <os!el in * Tm. .5.+ . 7is
%alling as an a!ostle is a %ommission to ta:e the message to the <entiles ( <l. .5.6 ). 7is
vo%ation ( ) is to !rea%h the <os!el ( A. .5. # %f. . >. .5.7 # 95.6 ). 7e served <od
even as a 2harisee. In his new life he serves 7im as an evangelist of 7is 9on ( A. .59 ). ,s an
a!ostle he is thus a !artner of the <os!el ( . >. 95*/ ), a !riest ( A. .05.6 ),
q q q i q
q ( 1!h. /57 # %f. >ol. .5*/ ). The a!ostolate and the <os!el are most
%losel& related ( * >. .+5.) ). 9uffering with 2aul is suffering with the <os!el ( * Tm. .56 ).
Hut if the a!ostle is in bonds, the <os!el is not bound ( * Tm. *56 ff. ). It goes forth and wor:s
and !rodu%es fruit. 2aulOs im!risonment is a defen%e and %onfirmation of the <os!el ( 2hil.
.5.6 ). For this reason he %an s!ea: of his im!risonment as a ( 2hil. .57 ). @hat
ha!!ens to him %annot be %onsidered a!art from his tas: as a !rea%her of the <os!el. @hen he
s!ea:s of himself in 2hil. .5.* , he writes of the q i . @hat has
befallen him has served to advan%e the <os!el. The !ersonal ministr& of Timoth& is for 2aul
servi%e of the <os!el ( 2hil. *5** ). Instead of sa&ing5 4i:e a %hild the father, so has he
served me," he sa&s5 4i:e a %hild the father, so has he served the <os!elkwhi%h gives life
( . >. )5.0 )kwith me."
e. ,%%ording to . Tm. .5.. the <os!el %ontains tea%hing on the right use of the 4aw# it
reveals the of <od ( 7/* ). The 4aw has no validit& for >hristians, but it has validit&
for nonD>hristians on a%%ount of sins. In A. and <l. there is no dire%t %onne%tion or antithesis
between 4aw and <os!el. The antithesis is there, for A. .5.6 ff. im!lies a devaluation of the
4aw, whi%h is for the ?ews a l i bringing life and health ( *97 ).
;evertheless, the Tuestion of 4aw and <os!el is never raised. The dis%ussion is rather
between i and . The o!!onents of 2aul in <alatia %alled their !rea%hing
too. The&, too, !ro%laimed to the <entiles the !resen%e of the 8essiani% age
brought in b& the %oming of ?esus. Hut for them ?esus was the eB!e%ted ?ewish 8essiah and
>hristianit& was a fulfilment of ?udaism. The <entiles had to be %ir%um%ised and be%ome
?ews if the& were to share in salvation. The& must %ome to 9ion, as was written in the -T .
7en%e their <os!el be%ame a !ro%lamation of 4aw. and were for them
l i . @hen 2aul %arries ba%: the %onfli%t between 4aw and <os!el
into the -T b& o!!osing 4aw and !romise, he meets his o!!onents on their own ground. 7e
shows that the antithesis is alread& !resent in the -T and that in a%%ordan%e with <odOs will
4aw and !romise have different !arts to !la& in salvation histor&. The <os!el does not entail
an& new assessment of men b& <od, as though $ustifi%ation were !reviousl& b& the 4aw and
now b& the <os!el. The antithesis is grounded in the divine !lan of salvation. 2erha!s there
was on%e a Tuestion of !romise or 4aw. Hut now that salvation histor& has rea%hed its goal in
>hrist, the su!eriorit& of the <os!el over 4aw is evident. Hetween 2aul and the a!ostles there
are no differen%es. The& !ro%laim the same <os!el. @hat is revealed to 2aul ( <l. .5.. )
agrees with the <os!el delivered b& the a!ostles ( . >. .05. ). He%ause it is revealed, it has the
same origin as the <os!el of the a!ostles.
6*
The risen 4ord is the auctor evangelii . 7e o!ens
the e&es of men to understanding of the -T and to 8essiani% events ( 4:. *)5.9 ff. , )0 ).
9in%e 2aul through the a!!earan%e of the risen 4ord re%eived the tas: of ta:ing the <os!el to
the <entiles, it was with him that the !roblem of 4aw and <os!el arose in a form un:nown to
the first %ommunit&. The original >hristians :e!t the as !art of their wa& of life. Hut
the& did not attribute to it an& soteriologi%al signifi%an%e. This made them inwardl& free from
the 4aw. In the se%tion on the <os!el in . >. 95*+ 2aul %an sa&5
q , . For the sa:e of the
<os!el he is !re!ared to !la%e himself under the 4aw. For he :nows that >hrist alone is
salvation. 7e strives after a similar unit& in <l. * . The q i and
q q of v. 7 are not two distin%t <os!els. The one un%hanging
and unabbreviated belongs to both ?ews and <entiles. In both
%ases it is the same <os!el in whi%h <od shows 7imself to be at wor:. @e %an no longer
:now for %ertain what was the c of the false tea%hers of >orinth ( * >.
..5) # %f. )5/ ). For the 4ibertines the <os!el of 2aul was dar: and hidden. The& !ro%laimed a
radiant <os!el of enlightenment. @ith fine words the& sought to ma:e u! what the& la%:ed in
divine !ower. If the <os!el trans%ends the 4aw, this does not mean li%ense. ,s the divine
address, the <os!el demands obedien%e when !rea%hed to nonD>hristians ( 7.9 , 7/. ) and
it also reTuires obedien%e of >hristians.
6/
The <os!el is not $ust missionar& !ro%lamation5
>ol. .50 5 # . >. .05. 5 iq . It does
not merel& found the %ommunit&# it also edifies it. In 2hil. .5*7 it is the %riterion of %ondu%t.
>onfession of the <os!el is sub$e%tion to it ( * >. 95./ ). @e are obedient to the <os!el and
meet its demands when we are a%tive in the ministr& of love. This a%tive love is the obedien%e
of the %onfession of the <os!el. It is not a merit but the and of <od ( * >.
95.) , .0 ).
/. Aevelation.
Aev. .)56 f. is in man& res!e%ts stri:ing.
6)
,n angel is the !ro%laimer of the <os!el, the
<os!el is l6 , and there is no definite arti%le. 9in%e the %ontent of the <os!el seems to
be $udgment, it is sometimes argued that this is not but a
ver& different one, one of man& whi%h in %ontrast to the man& is eternal. The fa%t that an
angel !ro%laims it is in :ee!ing with the situation. It is the last time and there is no time to
lose. 7en%e an angel is %harged to ta:e the message q q
q a%%ording to the sa&ing of
?esus that before the end the <os!el must be !ro%laimed to the whole world ( 7*9 ). The
!rea%hing of the <os!el is a sign of the end. The word l6 eB!resses the unit&,
immutabilit& and !ermanent validit& of the divine de%ree ( 7/+ , 7/) ). The %ontent of the
<os!el is not reall& $udgment, though this would not be out of !la%e ( A. *5.6 ), but the
demand for fear of the 4ord (%f. 8:. .5.) f. ) and worshi! of the >reator ( ,%. .)5.0 # . Th.
.50 , 9 ).
6* 8undle, 0/# %f. also F. 9ieffert (.699), on <l. .5.* .
6/ The i of . ?n. .50 is also . In . ?n. /5.. (%f. with . ?n. *57 ) it is the whose
fulfilment is given with >hrist.
6) It is !erverse to see in Aev. .)56 the starting !oint for an understanding of the <os!el in terms of religious
histor&, as does gondervan, *++ f. 9imilarl&, when 3ieteri%h ( 8ithr. 4iturg. , )9) %hara%terises as
the revelation of an angeli% message and therefore dedu%es the idea of angeli% %ontem!lation, he misses the
essential !oint in both the ;T and indeed the <:. view of evangeliu . ,gain, it is Tuite im!ossible to agree with
-. <ru!!e, Griech. 3'thologie (.9+6), ./*/f., in eB!laining in terms of 7ermes, the &uangelos .
7ermes is ver& seldom %alled , and evangeliu in the ;T is not the good news of the redem!tion
of souls." >f. 9%hn. 1uang. , *+., *)+ f.
C. The Transition of the 3ord A!) to 'esignation of a
Boo% in the )arl$ Ch#rch.
DE

In the ;T is oral !rea%hing. ;either e!istles nor gos!els are %alled
. The se!aration of the evangel from a%tual utteran%e ma& be seen alread& in 2aul.
For his e!istles are at times a re!etition of missionar& !rea%hing and in . >. .05. he even sa&s that
he will share with the >orinthians in his letter the <os!el whi%h he has !ro%laimed to them. The
basi% meaning is that is the !rea%hed word. Iren. , III, . ( 82< , 7, 6)0a)5
A c H i
iq . 9in%e the !rea%hing bears witness to >hrist and 7is words and a%ts, and
sin%e these %onstitute the essen%e of the <os!el, the writings whi%h %ontain the life and words of
?esus %ome to be given the name gos!el." The earl& >hristian missionaries !ursue both a verbal
and a written mission. The written and the s!o:en word %om!lement one another. 1us.7ist. 1%%l. ,
III, /7, *5 The evangelists q i
q i i
. In most %ases there is no great differen%e between the written and the s!o:en <os!el for those
who re%eive it, sin%e the written <os!el is read out to them. The reader
.
66
still has a greater breadth of meaning in Ignatius. 7e is %ertainl&
a%Tuainted with boo:s whi%h %ontain the substan%e of the <os!el. Hut is for him a
more living %on%e!t used, e.g., for the %entre and goal of salvation histor& and for the realisation of
the !romise ( 2hld. , 9, *). The !rea%hing of the <os!el is the !resen%e of the in%arnate 5
6 iq I ( ibid. , 0, .). From the alternation of l
and l i it ma& be seen that for him the <os!el
is eTuivalent to >hrist. In the 3id. is a fiBed and definite magnitude of tradition to
whi%h a!!eal ma& be made (.0, /# )). It %ontains the 4ordOs 2ra&er (6, /) and dire%tions
%on%erning the %ondu%t of a!ostles and !ro!hets (.., /). The fathers often use the term not merel&
for the ;T <os!els but for the whole of the ;T as distin%t from the -T Iren. , II, *7, * ( 82< , 7,
6+/b)5 universae Scripturae et Prophetiae et &vangelia . ,ll 9%ri!ture ma& be divided into the
2ro!hets and <os!els, i.e., the -T and the ;T The e!istles of the ;T are also %ounted as <os!els.
67
It is doubtful, however, whether there is referen%e to the 2auline %or!us in . >l., )75
q q i H . i
g i #
66
the author !robabl& has in view the beginning
of 2aulOs missionar& wor: (%f. 2hil. )5.0 ). The !lur. naturall& does not signif&
different messages, as in the im!erial %ult. The a!ostles who !rea%hed the <os!el and then
transmitted it in writing ones pariter et singuli eoru habentes &vangeliu Dei , Iren. , III, . (
82< , 7, 6))b). In the different <os!els the one <os!el of <od is de%lared. q
, i c , Iren. , III, .., 6 ( 82<
, 7, 660b). The sing. and !lur. alternate with no distin%tion of sense (%f. es!. Iren. , III, .., 6f. m
82< , 7, 660 ff.n). %an denote both the %olle%tion of <os!els ( 1us.7ist. 1%%l. ,
(, *), 6) and ea%h individual <os!el ( Iren. , I(, *+, 6 m 82< , 7, .+/7an). To ma:e it %lear whi%h
<os!el is meant there is added the name, secundu 3atthaeu ( Iren. , III, .., 7 m 82< , 7,
66)n). -ne %an also sa& i (e.g., >l. ,l.9trom. , I, *., ./6, .) even when
Tuoting a sa&ing whi%h in found in onl& one <os!el, $ust as we refer to the infan%& stories in the
<os!els when we are reall& thin:ing of 4:. <os!el has be%ome a term for the evangeli%al
writings. The true !ro%lamation of the glad tidings, however, is through the word of the !rea%her.
69

60 >f. 7arna%:, op. cit. , *** ff.# gahn Fan. , I, .0+ ff., )7. ff., 6)+ ff. <. 7einri%i, Beitr=ge -ur Geschichte und
&rkl=rung des !" , I (.69))5 3as Kr%hristentum in der Fir%henges%hi%hte des 1useb. ," )7 ff.
66 Die allgeeine 4irchenordnung , I, .9 (ed. T. 9%hermann in Studien -ur Geschichte und 4ultur des
#ltertus6 Suppl. (ol. , III, . m.9.)n).
67 For further instan%es %f. gahn Fan. , I, .+., n. *.
66 @. 7art:e, Die Salung u. d. =ltesten #nsgaben der Paulusbriefe (.9.7), 00.
69 4uther, @,, ', ., ., 6*0 f. ;ow what is the star It is nothing other than the new light, !rea%hing and
<os!el orall& and !ubli%l& !ro%laimed { for in the ;T the !rea%hing should be !ubli%l& de%lared with the living
voi%e { For this reason >hrist 7imself did not write down 7is tea%hing as 8oses did, but !rea%hed it b& word
of mouth, and ordered it to be !rea%hed b& word of mouth, giving no %ommand to write it down. Furthermore,
the a!ostles wrote ver& little { and before the& wrote the& had first !rea%hed to the !eo!le and %onverted them
A)%
*

1B%e!t in e%%lesiasti%al literature this is a rare word. In a nonD>hristian sense it is attested onl&
on a !oorl& !reserved ins%r, from Ahodes, I< , 'II, .,670, 6, where it means one who !ro%laims
ora%ular sa&ings."
.

It o%%urs onl& / times in the ;T 5 at ,%. *.56 of 2hili! (%f. 65)f ., .* , /0 , )+ )# at 1!h.
)5.. of evangelists along with a!ostles, !ro!hets, !astors and tea%hers# and at * Tm. )50 of
Timoth& (%f. . Th. /5* # 2hil. *5** ). The number of evangelists must have been greater than
one might su!!ose from the number of o%%urren%es in the ;T ( 2hil. )5/ # * >. 65.6 # >ol.
.57 # )5.* ). The ;T evangelist is not one who de%lares ora%les as among the <ree:s. 7e is the
rP]ew Lf sZ , the one who !ro%laims the glad tidings, the ( A. .+5.0 7.9 ).
originall& denotes a fun%tion rather than an offi%e, and there %an have been
little differen%e between an a!ostle and an evangelist, all the a!ostles being evangelists (
7// ). -n the other hand, not all evangelists were a!ostles, for dire%t %alling b& the risen 4ord
was an essential as!e%t of the a!ostolate. In all three ;T !assages the evangelists are
subordinate to the a!ostles. 2hili! is a su!ervisor of alms ( ,%. 6 ), not an a!ostle. In his
missionar& wor: in 9amaria he !rea%hes and ba!tises, but the ba!tised re%eive the 9!irit onl&
through the !ra&er of the a!ostles 2eter and ?ohn ( ,%. 65.) f. ). In 1!h. )5.. the evangelists
are mentioned onl& after the a!ostles. Timoth& is %alled a
iq in Th. /5*, but he is a !u!il of the a!ostles rather than an a!ostle
( 7// ). The evangelists %ontinue the wor: of the a!ostles. The& are not $ust missionaries,
for, as is %ongregational as well as missionar& !rea%hing ( 7/) ), so the
leader of the %ommunit& %an also be %alled ( * Tm. )50 ). 7is tas: is
( *Tm. )5* ).
In the earl& >hur%h the evangelists were regarded as su%%essors of the a!ostles. 1us.7ist. 1%%l.
, (, .+, *5 q l i , q
lg i
. The& la& i q i and the
a!!ointed b& them %ontinue the wor: in the res!e%tive %ongregations, 1us.7ist. 1%%l. , III, /7, * f.
In a%%ordan%e with the develo!ment of ( 7/0 ), has also the
sense of author of a <os!el," 7i!!. 3e ,nti%hristo , 06# Tertullian ,dversus 2raBean , *., */.
The two senses are found alongside one another.
)%
*

This is not found in %lass. <:. It o%%urs in 2hilo-!. 8und. , /) # 8ut. ;om. , .06 # ,br. , .0/
. It is also found in 9%hol. 9o!h.Tra%h. , //0 (2.;. 2a!ageorgius m.666n, *99 f.)# 2hotius, 82< ,
with their !h&si%al voi%e, whi%h was their true a!ostoli% and ;T wor:." @,, 'II, *095 The <os!el sim!l&
means the !rea%hing and de%laration of the gra%e and mer%& of <od merited and won for us b& the 4ord >hrist
through 7is death. It is not reall& that whi%h stands in boo:s and is %om!rised in letters# it is rather an oral
!rea%hing and living word# it is a voi%e whi%h rings out through the whole world and whi%h is !ubli%l& u!lifted
so that it %an be heard ever&where," %f. F. 7oll, Gesaelte #ufs=t-e , I
6
(.9/*), 06*.
C . >r.DFJ. 9%hn. 1uang. , .69I.9)# 7. ,%helis, 9!uren des Kr%hristentums auf den grie%h.
Inseln " g;@ , . (.9++), 67I.++# ,. 3ieteri%h, , g;@ , . (.9++), //6I//6# ?. ,. Aobinson,
1H , II (.9+.), .)/+# ?. 8assie, Dict. of the Bible , I (.696), 790 ff.# @. 2atri%:, 3>< , I (.9*/), 0)9# A. 9ohm,
4irchenrecht , I (.9*/), )*f.# ,. 7arna%:, TK , II, . and * (.66)), Die )ehre der -2lf #postel , )+,
Prolegoena , ...ff.# Die 3ission u. #usbreitung des 1hr.
)
, I (.9*)), //), n. 6, /)6, n. *, /0+, /0*, /09# gahn
1inl.
/
, I, /6.# T. gahn, Ski--en aus de )eben der #lten 4irche
*
(.696), 3issionsethoden i Zeitalter der
#postel , 67, /)), n. )*# -. gJ%:ler, Biblische und kirchenhistorische Studien . II (.69/), 6/ff.# F. 7aase, #postel
u. &vangelist in den orientalischen 8berlieferungen6 !t.liche #bhandlungen , I' (.9**).
. -n the teBt and eB!osition of the ins%r., %f. 9%hn. 1uang. , .69 ff.# a%%. to ,%helis has a
>hristian sense even here, but 3ieteri%h ( op. cit. ) rightl& raises ob$e%tions.
C i . 9%hn. 1uang. , 6*, ./0, n. ).
.+., .+..b# ?ohannes >lima%us, 82< , 66, 67+%# 8ar%us 1ugeni%us, Imagines * (ed. Fa&ser
2hilostr. 3e <&mnasti%a m.6)+n, .).).
In <l. /56 the i ( A. )5./ ff. and <l. /5.0 ff. ) that in ,braham all nations
will be blessed is a - . @hen the blessing %ame to the nations in >hrist, the
seed of ,braham ( <l. /5.6 ), the !romise was fulfilled. The !ro!he%& of 9%ri!ture that <od
would $ustif& the <entiles b& faith be%ame a realit& and the - be%ame the
5 A. .5. ff. # . >. .05. ff. 5 >hrist# A. .5.6 f. 5 $ustifi%ation# A. .65*0 ff. # 1!h.
/56 # <l. .5.6 # *57 5 the <entiles.
9riedrich
A!, A I, )06
A!, A
A!%
*

A. A! o#tside the NT.
develo!ed from the im!ersonal i ,
.
whi%h is not attested but
whi%h is to be derived from an ideal belonging to .
*
This does not eB%lude
the fa%t that in man& %onstru%tions there is assimilation to , 2ol&b. , *+, 0, .+#
2hilodem. 2hilos. (olumina Ahetori%a 9u!!lementum , !. 0) (ed. 9. 9udhaus m.690n).
is a !o!ular 7ellen. word ado!ted b& the 4'' and other ?ewish <:. writings. Hut it is older than
the 4''. It is found in !a!. from the /rd %ent. H.>. and on ins%r. from the *nd. It also o%%urs in
2ol&b. , 3iod. 9. , 3ion. 7al. , 2hilodem. 2hilos. , The man& different attem!ts at 4atin translation
show the diffi%ulties %aused b& the term.
In the 4'' we ver& o%%asionall& have the abs. as in 76:7 and 9ir. )05.9 . In man& %ases
we have with and the dat. , es!. of !erson, &et also of ob$e%t, though more often
without . The a%%. of ob$. is also %ommon, less freTuentl& of !erson. The a%%. with
is translation <:. influen%ed b& the 7eb. It is not found in 2ol&b. -%%asionall& is used
with i of !ers. and ob$. , and ver& rarel& with l or i . The %onstru%tion with the inf.
or a%%. and inf. is %ommon. The !ass. and med. are %om!arativel& limited. In the 4'' it is used
for cqM Tal with LeZ or a%%. , or for LeZ i] hd or hf \]ud hi!hil. 9&non. for ih and cuM (mu%h more
freTuentl&) is , and for ih and cL[ ( I, 6/+ ). cuM is also rendered
or ( 0+ ), the latter mostl& in a %ulti% sense (%f. Is. )*5. # 1E. *+5)+ f.
# 7os. 65./ ).
a. The usual meaning of is to ta:e !leasure or delight in," to be glad in." -f
<odOs gra%ious !leasure in 7is !eo!le as 7is !ossession we have in 43:3 #
.)95) # Is. 6*5) H and 2O . Aighteous individuals are in%luded in this favour5 2 B. 22:20 .
>f. also 17:1 . @ith the a%%. of !erson5 Is. /65.7 2 . 8entioned as the basis and %ondition of
this good !leasure are the fear of <od, the right wa& and good wor:s 146:11 # 36:23 2 #
3t. //5.. A . -n the other hand, =ahweh ta:es no delight in evil or in a faithless !eo!le5 8al.
*5.7 # . 14:10 [ ,. Test. ?os. )56 (!ar ). It is often used of the gra%ious a%%e!tan%e of
sa%rifi%e, with a s!e%ial em!hasis on the !ro!heti% demand for righteousness rather than sa%rifi%e5
4v. 75.6 .# 50:16 ff. # . 14:12 # 9ir. /.5*/ ( /)5*/ )# !ass. 5 4v. .957 2 # 8al. *5./ 2
. The result of missing <odOs good !leasure %an give to the sense of having no
good fortune in Is. 0)5.7 ,. @e often find this LZ cud Md in the Aabb. writings, e.g.,
>
ant. r. , on .50.
C . 4it. 5 Hl.D3ebr.
6
y ..9, .# .)6, *# .96# *+6, *# /9*, /# ,nE 9ubsidia , /06# >r.DFJ. , 8oult.D8ill. ,
2r.DHauer , s.v. # gn. 8t.
)
.)7, n. 66# ))+, n. )0. -n the fuller form or , whi%h is a
%ommon alternative in the ;T even in the same 899, %f. @iner (9%hmiedel), y .*, 0b# Hl.D3ebr.
6
y 67, .#
FGhnerDHlassD<erth , II, .., //. in the 4''5 A. 7elbing, Die 4asuss'nta: der Verba bei den
Septuaginta (.9*6), *6*I*60, whi%h also deals with the %onstru%tion in 2ol&b. et%. and the ins%r.
. ?. 7. 8oultonD@. F. 7oward, # Graar of !" Greek , II (.9*9), y .+9.
* Hl.D3ebr.
6
y ..9, ..
>ant. r. 1anticu rabba , 8idrash on 9ong of 9olomon (9tra%:, &inl. , *./).
The term is also used for human favour, e.g., in 1 B. 18:22 O of the favour of the :ing and in
?er. *5/6 C[ of IsraelOs delight in 1g&!t. @ith the dat. alone, 3iod. 9. , '(II, )7, *# with the a%%.
of !erson, <n. //5.+ . 2ass. , . >h. *95*/ . To have !leasure in something, 48:13 2 # Is. ./5.7
,# ?ob .)56 . -ften with the dat. of ob$e%t in 2ol&b. 5 ), **, 7# 6, .*, 6. -f $o& in the san%tuar&, .
>h. *95/ # 101:14 # in the 9abbath, 4v. *65/) # in the wor:s of truth, 1 t. 4:3 . In a bad
sense, . 8a%%. .5)/ 5 in the religion of ,ntio%hus. The %onstru%tion varies, alternating between
dat. of ob$. and with the dat. or a%%. of ob$.
b. To de%ide for" in the sense of to sele%t." . 8a%%. .+5)7 [ A in the %hoi%e between
,leBander and 3emetrius5 Aq . 151:5 of the brethren not
a!!ointed to ro&al dignit&5 . Thus the thought of ele%tion
is often lin:ed with . @hat is ele%ted is often added in the inf. , . 8a%%. .)5). # 2ol&b.
, 7, ), 0. The %hoi%e ma& relate to a material ob$. 67:16 # * 8a%%. .)5/0 . with the
infin. and q denotes %hoi%e between two !ossibilities5 9ir. *05.6 ( */ )# 2ol&b. , *., */, 65
q to !refer something." The sense of to ele%t" is also found in Is. )*5. O , whi%h
underlies the ba!tismal e!i!han& of the ;T , where, however, we have with the dat. The
with l of !erson in 8t. .*5.6 # * 2t. .5.7 seems to be without !ar. , though in Test
?os .75/ we have l with the a%%. of ob$. Aelated to this in the sense of ele%tive
resolve is (%ommonl& for MhL )5 ;u. .650 , 7 # 3t. .*50 , .) # 1 B. 16:8 #
32:11 , and also li ( I, .6) , for MhL but also for ih ), whi%h %an mean to
ado!t"5 . >h. *656 # *95. # 7ag. *5*/ # 8al. /5.7 . 9imilarl& with %an mean to
re$e%t," 7ob. *5) ( 7). ). In the Tg. on Is. )/5.+ MhL is given the sense to ele%t"5 ce `Le]
`Ya `u] MZ YZ [a reZ .
/
>f. the 9&rian transl. of 9ir. /75*6 5 q (
7eb. Mhd LZ Yea [\_ or Mh] Led Yea ), whi%h runs5 [`qMYs \`\NL 5 the soul has delight in little." In 9ir.
95.* and /75*6 we again have with and the dat. of ob$. 7ere, too, the underl&ing
MhL denotes the element of sele%tivit&.
%. @hat has been said shows that im!lies volition, though with an emotional
element. 7en%e we ma& often render to want or desire something"5 9ir. .05.7 . >f. to grant
somebod& ( a%%. ) something (gen.)"5 2. 4ond. , ., /, 6 (*nd. %ent. H.>. )5 a %olle%tion for the
mummies. In the %ase of with the inf. the basi% thought is to will," to be willing to do
something." This is used !rimaril& of a human resolve5 ?u. .75.. # .95.+ , *0 # *+5./ # %f. .
8a%%. 65*/ # to be read& to do something"5 2ol&b. , ., 76, 6# .6, 0*, )# to have a good will for
something"5H. 2. <renfell, #n #le:andrian &rotic 9ragent (.696), I, %ol. ., .7 (*nd. %ent. H.>. ).
It ma& also be used of the divine will, 3:13 . 7ere the usage follows cuM with \Z and the inf.
d. The so%ial as!e%t %omes out more strongl& in the %ommon sense of to agree," to find
a%%e!table," to %onsent," to a%Tuies%e."
)
7ere the abs. is mu%h favoured. <n. *)5*6 , )6 # .
8a%%. ..5*9 # negat. ?u. ..5.7 . -f <od5 9ir. )05.9 . >f. also 2ol&b. , ), /., *# .), *, .. and 3iod.
9. , 'I, )7, *. It o%%urs ver& often in the !a!. , 2. Tebt. , II, /6*, / (/+ H.>. to .st %ent. ,.3. )
, with %onsent"# 2. -B&. , III, )96, 6 (*nd. %ent. ,.3. )# as subs%ri!tion
to a do%ument, 2. A&l. , II, .*+, *) (*nd %ent. ,.3. )# 3itt. 9&ll.
/
, 66/, 09 ( c. .)+ H.>. )# 2. 4ond.
, III, ..66, .0 (.6 ,.3. )# H<K , I, /++ (*nd %ent. ,.3. ). 7en%e it often has the sense of to agree,"
to %onsent to"5 Tob. 05.7 ,H# 2ol&b. , .6, 0*, 0. It is often used in 2ol&b. for %onsent to a treat&.
For to %on%ede," to %om!l&," %f. 9ir. .65/. ,. @hat is agreed to is in the dat. 5 2ol&b. , /, 6, 7#
3iod. 9. , I(, */, *. In de%larations in the !a!. 5 5 2. -B&. , I, 9), .0 (6/ ,.3. )# 2.
Tebt. , II, /.7, // (*nd %ent. ,.3. ). @ith a%%. and inf. , Test. ?os. 95.. The so%ial as!e%t is even
!lainer in , . 8a%%. .507 # 3iod. 9. , I(, *), .# 2ol&b. , 7, ., /# 2. 4i!s. , 6, ) (/rd
%ent. ,.3. ). In the ;T %f. ,%. 65. # **5*+ . For a!!lauding an unrighteous a%t, whi%h is even worse
than the a%t itself, %f. A. .5/* .
0

e. -utside the Hible we often find for to be satisfied or ha!!&"5 2ol&b. , ., 6/, 6#
in the negative, *, )9, *# or to be %ontent," 2ol&b. , *9, .*, 6. 8ed. to be satisfied with," often in
2ol&b. and 3iod. 9. i , 2hilodem. 2hilos. (olumina Ahetori%a , II, 0* (ed. 9. 9udhaus,
/ >f. 3alman @? , I, **7.
) >f. the def. in ,ne%d. <rae%. , I, *6+, *.5 q .
0 For further information on , 2r.DHauer , s.v.
9u!!lementurn m.690n, !. ))). 2ol&b. is fond of the abs. with !art. for to do
something gladl&," to find $o& in something," .0, /6, 6# /6, .*, 6. @e also have
, to satisf&"5 /6, /, *. @hen 2hilodemus 2hiloso!hus, the !u!il of geno, 3e 3eis , .,
./ f.# .*, .9 (ed. 7. 3ies, ,,H , .9.0, 7) defines the goal of 1!i%urean !hiloso!h& as ,
he means the satisfa%tion whi%h is rationall& indu%ed. Thus q , the life with
whi%h one is satisfied ( !ass. ), is an ethi%al term5 2hilodem. 2hilos. 3e 8orte , /+, )* (ed. 3.
Hassi, 2a!iri 1r%olanesi, I m.9.)n, !. 0/).
B. A! in the NT.
In the ;T we find the abs. onl& on%e at A. .05*7 . It is !re%eded in v. *6 b& the
%onstru%tion with the a%%. and inf. 9&nta%ti%all& we have the following grou!s5 ..
with the dat. of !erson, or or , and the o!!. with dat. of
!erson# *. with the a%%. or dat. of ob$e%t, the latter with or without # /.
with the inf. or a%%. and inf. , and sometimes with .
.. with the dat. of !erson is found in the ba!tismal de%laration in 8t. /5.7 5
, and at the transfiguration in 8t. .750 (assimilated to /5.7 ). 8:. .5.. and
4:. /5** in the ,leBandrian teBt have (4:. ). @hat is meant
is <odOs de%ree of ele%tion, namel&, the ele%tion of the 9on, whi%h in%ludes 7is mission and
7is a!!ointment to the :ingl& offi%e of 8essiah.
6
,s l ?esus is the
Ae%i!ient of this ele%tive good!leasure.
7
,nd 7e re%eives this sa&ing as a seal of 7is
obedien%e in identifi%ation with the sinful world as eB!ressed in 7is ba!tism.
@e find the same %on%e!tion in the <os!el of the 1bionites in 1!i!h.7aer. , /+, ./, 7. Instead
8t. .*5.6 , in a free Tuotation of Is. )*5. , in
b
>
*
1<F4 et%. has5 , l
q .
6
7ere, as in Is. )*5. , there is a !re%eding and !arallel indi%ation of
ele%tion5
9
l g . @e have a similar l , referred to
the l at ba!tism, in * 2t. .5.7 . In this l we ma& sim!l& see the
%onne%tion,
.+
or we ma& translate on whom I have set m& goodD!leasure."
..
The !arallel Test.
?os. .75/ ( a%%. of ob$. ) ( 7/9 ) !erha!s su!!orts the idea of the dire%tion whi%h the ele%tion
has ta:en. The thought of ele%tion, most %learl& eB!ressed in the li and
is also found, again !ar. with Is. )*5. , in the l of 4:. 95/0 [ H s&r
s
arm lat aeth mem!h sah
.*
and in the of ?n. .5/) C[ s&r
s%
, 2. -B&. ,
II, *+6, fol. ., re%to 7.
./

-f all the terms for ele%tion ( li, , ),
brings out most strongl& the emotional side of the love of 7im who ele%ts. The
6 Is. )*5.I) is also referred to the 8essiah b& the Tg. 5 8ine ele%t, in whom m& roetara is wellD!leased," 9tr.DH.
, I, 6/+.
7 The with l has the sense of onl& son, %f. 8:. 957 with .*50f . -n this whole Tuestion %f. >. 7.
Turner, ?Th9t. , *7 (.9*6), ../I.*9. 8t. /5.7 s&r
s%
has m& son and m& beloved." The original of 4:. /5** the it
?ustin >lem ,mbst T&%on ,ug, whi%h has been overborne b& 8:. .5.. and !ar. , is 6
.
6 [ H ..0, *)). 1useb. has both and l . >C 4at 3.
9 Is. )*5. 4'' H5 O q , q ( LZ cqM ). The
( 07 ), whi%h is ver& %ommon (for cqM ) in %ulti% %onne%tions, is herea!!lied to man. Hut
in omg we have q .
.+ @bg. 2t. , ad loc.
.. @nd. 2t. , ad loc.
.* -n the fa%t that s&r 2 2
hiloB
is here se%ondar& %f. ,. 8erB, Die &vangeliendes 3k. u. )k. (.9+0),
*66# gn. 4:. , ad loc.
./ ,leBand. teBt5 l . >f. on the , whi%h is to be !referred with Hlass gn., 8erB,
7arna%:, the electus filius in a b.
Tuestion whether the ele%tion of ?esus as 9on %omes onl& at ba!tism or is alread& !resent
before is not answered b& the term in s!ite of the aor. . ;evertheless, the
eB!ression beloved or onl& 9on" indi%ates the uniTueness of the relationshi! of Father and
9on. In view of the total !resentation in 8t. and 4:. we %an hardl& read into the ba!tism an
ado!tionist dedu%tion from Is. )*5. .
This use of in the sense of ele%tion is sometimes hardened b& the sense of
to the degree that this %an onl& im!l& re$e%tion ( 7/9 ). @e see this in . >.
.+50 . It is also !resent in 7b. .+5/6 , where in terms of 7ab. *5) ( 7/9 ) the
a!!lies to %owardl& surrender as o!!osed to the i of the $ust.
.)

*. The se%ond grou! has with ob$e%t, and is said of <od. It is found onl& in
the 4'' Tuotation in 7b. .+56 , 6 .
.0
>f. . >l., .6, .6. >f. also 50:16 and /956 , where
and are s&non&ms as in 7b. .+56 , 6 . 1lsewhere the ob$e%t ta:es the
dative or , i.e., twi%e in 2aul with referen%e to manOs delight in something, * Th. *5.* 5
g iq (%f. the %orres!onding in * 2t. *5.0 , of
in 7b. .59 ), and * >. .*5.+ , where the i im!lies that
the warring as!e%ts of the a!ostoli% life %an be a sour%e of gratifi%ation be%ause ever&thing
ta:es !la%e c .
/. @hen is used with the inf. or a%%. and inf. there is a %lear hint of %hoi%e,
resolve or de%ree. The of * >. 056 eB!resses what is !referred as
better." In . Th. /5. the referen%e is to a human de%ision, ,mbst. rightl& translating optiu
du:ius and Theodore of 8o!suestia ( ad loc. , 7. H. 9wete m.66*n) coplacuius . In A.
.05*6 f. there is again referen%e to free de%ision. . Th. *56 refers to a lasting willingness or
readiness ( im!f. ). In 4:. .*5/* the referen%e is to the divine %ounsel of gra%e whi%h is free
and inde!endent of an& human influen%e and whi%h has as its goal the a%%om!lishment of
salvation, the revelation of gra%e and the deliveran%e of the %ommunit& in the i .
7ere, too, we should note the o!!osite in human hostilit&. There is a sovereign ring about
in <l. .5.0 , the a!ostle being set in a de!enden%e on <od whi%h ma:es him
inde!endent of men. 9imilarl& in . >. .5*. the stands in antithesis to the human
aberration of %osmi% wisdom. In >ol. .5.9 it is ne%essar& to ta:e as the sub$e%t.
.6
7ere,
too, there is an a%%. with inf. The !oint is that <od has resolved that the whole
should dwell in >hrist and that the whole through 7im (>hrist) should be re%on%iled to
7imself (<od). The eB!ression re!udiates the %osmi% faith of 7ellenisti% astrolog&. It
maintains that in !la%e of faith in the !owers of the universe we should set >hrist alone as the
sum of the divine revelation.
3oes im!l& an eternal de%ree of !reDtem!oral resolution or an intervention of
<od in the %ourse of tem!oral affairs In <l. .5.0 it is eB!li%itl& lin:ed with the intervening
, and the i and !re%ede in time. 7ere, then, is
not em!hasised as an eternal basis. It is the divine resolve whi%h is %ontem!orar& with the
histori%al revelation. 9imilarl& in . >. .5*. the whi%h is orientated to the foll& of
!rea%hing for the salvation of those who believe is inter!osed onl& when it is dis!la&ed that
.) -n the reading (assimilation to what !re%edes), %f. Agg. 7b. , ad loc.
.0 -n the %orres!onden%e between the Tuotation in 7b. .+ and the 2a!. Fr. 4 of the 2salms, %f. Agg. 7b.
*,/
,
/++.
.6 @ith >hr&s. , ?. H. 4ightfoot
/
(.9+)), ,. FlJ!!er (.66*), 7au!t <efbr. , ad loc. The refers to the
9on. The view that the 9on is also the sub$. of (Tertullian, ?. >. F. 7ofmann m.67+n ad loc. ) ma:es
the whole !assage ver& diffi%ult both materiall& and formall&. It is best to ma:e alone the sub$. ,gainst
the view of 1wald <efbr., ad loc. that the %onstr. with a%%. and inf. is rare, %f. not onl& 7/6 , 7). , but es!.
67:16 . The view that is the sub$. (7. v. 9oden
*
m.69*n, H. @eiss, Das !" , II
*
m.9+*n, T.
F. ,bbott in I>> m.9**n, 1w. 3ib. <efbr. , ad loc. , 2r.DHauer , s.v. ) runs %ounter to the ver& !ersonal
>hristolog& of >ol., in whi%h the neutral definitions (%f. *5*f.) are sim!l& statements about >hrist and elu%idate
what 7e is and what <od does through 7im. There is also the diffi%ult& that would then
have to be the sub$. of as well. The l (>hrist) and l (<od) are given their
full for%e onl& if here, too, <od is the sub$.
the b& its wisdom does not :now <od in 7is divine wisdom. @hile the Tuestion is
generall& $ustified, however, it does not arise in res!e%t of 4:. .*5/* and >ol. .5.9 . 7ere the
referen%e is to <odOs su!raDtem!oral de%ree, though the %onteBt does not fiB it at an&
!arti%ular !oint.

A%
*

i is not a %lassi%al word. It is almost %om!letel& restri%ted to ?ewish and >hristian
literature, and o%%urs for the first time in the <ree: Hible.
It is not even found in the 7ellenisti% koine . -rigen found it onl& in the 4'', and regarded it
as its %reation.
.
It arose out of the need for a term %orres!onding to t^ur It is not found at all in
?
ose!h. or 2hilo.
*
The i derived from (renowned," glorious") !erha!s
hel!ed to fiB its s!e%ifi% meaning (
3
io >. , 0/, /, /). In modern
<
:. both i and i
are used as !ro!er names with the sense of Heloved," @ellD!leasing." The %onstru%tion
@ before the heading of an arti%le indi%ates that all the ;ew Testament !assages are mentioned in it.
C i . 3ef. 5 9uidas a%%. to Thdrt. on 2s. 05./ ( 82< , 6+, 9+. ,)5 . Theodore of
8o!suestia, II, *9) ( 82< , 66, 97/)5 i c q i i
,
. 9imilarl& 1t&m. 8. , s.v. q i
. 4it. 5 9ui%. Thes. , s.v. # >r.DFJ. , 8oult.D8ill. , 2r.DHauer , s.v. >. F. ,. FritEs%he, Pauli ad
/o. &pistola , II (.6/9), /69I/7*# 4tEm. A. on .+5.# T. gahn, ,ltes und ;eues Eum (erstlndnis des 2hil. ,"
Zeitschr. f. kirchl. Wiss. u. kirchl. )eben , 6 (.660), *66 f. (on 2hil. *5./. # 1w. <efbr. on 2hil. *5./ # 1. 9%hlder,
3er <edan:eninhalt v. 2hil. *5.* f. ," in Greifs2alder Studien f. (. 1reer (.690), *)0 ff.# ,. 3eissmann, 2ls.

*
(.9*0), .67, n. .. For a different view, %f. 1. 9%hwartE, <<, , .7/ (.9..), 609. A. 4ie%htenhan, Die gttliche
Vorherbestiung bei Pls. u. in d. Posidonianischen Philosophie (.9**), /9. 3alman @? , I, .7/, **7# 9tr.DH. ,
I, )76 ff.# II, ..6. -n ?esus 9ir.5 A. 9mend, Die Weisheit des 0es. Sir. hbr. und deutsch (.9+6)# Griech.<s'r.<hbr.
.nde: -ur Weisheit des 0es. 9ir. (.9+7)# ;. 2eters, Das Buch 0es. Sir. (.9./). -n 4:. *5.) 5 The %omm. of ,.
2lummer (.9++)# gn.# Fl.# 8. ?. 4agrange (.9*.)# 9%hl., ad loc. F. 7. ,. 9%rivener, # Plain .ntroduction to the
1riticis of the !" , II (.69)), /))I/)7# H. F. @est%ottDF. ?. ,. 7urt, "he !" , II, ,!!endiB on 4:. *5.) # ,.
Thenn, 4o%us 4:. *56I.6 ab -rigene <rae%e 1B!lanatus ," gwTh , /) (.69.), )6/I)67# ,. Aes%h, 3as
Findheitsevgl. na%h 4:. u. 8t. ," TK , ', 0 (.697), .*7# F. Field, %tiu !orvicense , III
*
(.699), )6f.# ,.
7ilgenfeld, 3ie <eburtsD und Findheitsges%hi%hte ?esu 4:. .50I*50* ," gwTh , )) (.9+.), **0 f.# ,. 8erB, Die
&vangelien d. 3k. u. )k. (.9+0), .96I*+*# ,. 2ott, Der "e:t d. !" (.9+6), 66f.# F. 9!itta, "heol. #bhdlgen6
9estgabe f. (. 0. (olt-ann (.9+*), 6/ff.# 3ie %hronolog. ;otiEen u. die 7&mnen in 4:. . und *," g;@ , 7
(.9+6), /+) ff.# <. ,i%her, gum <loria ( 4:. *5.) )," Hg , 0 (.9+7), /6.I/9.# ?. 9i%:enberger, gu 4:. *5.) ,"
Hg , 0 (.9+7), )+* f.# F. gorell, 9!ra%hli%he Aandnoten E. ;T ," Hg , 9 (.9..), .6.I.6/# ,. 8er:, 3er
1ngelgesang 4:. *5.) bei den 9&rern ," Zeitschr. f. kathol. "heologie , )9 (.9*0), 6*0I6*6# ,. v. 7arna%:,
#ber den 9!ru%h ~1hre sei <ott in der 7JheO und das @ort ~1udo:iaO ," 9,H , .9.0, 60)I670 (also in
7arna%:Os Studien -. Gesch. d. !" u. d. #lten 4irche , I5 Zur nt.lichen "e:tkritik m.9/.n, .0/I.79)# ?. 7. Ao!es,
<ood @ill toward 8en," (arvard "heol. /evie2 , .+ (.9.7), 0*I06# ,. 8e&er, Gnoon , .+ (.9/)), 69f. 1.
7irs%h, )uthers deutsche Bibel (.9*6), .+/I.+0# ?. ?eremias, i ( 4:. *5.) )". g;@ , *6
(.9*9). ./I*+# <. v. Aad, ;o%heinmal 4:. *5.) ," g;@ , *9 (.9/+), ...I..0# 8.
3ibelius, ?ungfrauensohn und Fri!!en:ind ," 9,7 , .9/.v*, ). ,bh., 60f.# F. 7er:lotE, gu 4:. *5.) ,"
Zeitschr. f. kathol. "heol. , 06 (.9/)), ../f.# ?. @obbe, 3as <loria in 4:. *5.) ," Hg , ** (.9/)), ..6ff.# 1.
HJ:len, 1udo:ia in 4:. *5.) ," Deutsches Pfarrerblatt , /6 (.9/*), /+9 f.5 1. A. 9mothers, t 6
i , in /echerches de Science /eligieuses , *., . (.9/)), 66I9/.
. -rig. on 1!h. .50 (?. ,. >ramer, 1atenae , (I m.6))n, .+7). 4i:e Theodore of 8o!suestia ( supra ) he regards
the word as made u! from . ?erome ( 824 , *6, ))9) %o!ied him. 7e, too, regarded it as a
%onstru%t of the 4'', rebus novis nova verba fingentes , and translated i placitu6 beneplacitu .
?ose!h. Flavius ?ose!hus, ?ewish author (%. /7I97 ,.3. ) in 2alestine and later Aome, author in <ree: of the
?ewish @ar and ?ewish ,r%haeolog&, whi%h treat of the !eriod from %reation to ;ero, ed. H. ;iese, .667 ff.
* The 2harisee ?ose!h. does strongl& em!hasise both human and divine volition, %f. ,. 9%hlatter, Wie sprach
0osephus von Gott (.9.+), *6 f.# 9%hl. Theol. d. ?udt. , ). Hut for the latter he uses , i,

, , , though onl& in ,nt. In Hell. there is less em!hasis on the divine

will. The onl& !ossible !assage in 2hilo is the reading of >od. , at 9om. , II, )+ , and here i is
undoubtedl& the %orre%t reading.
3io >. 3io >assius >o%%eianus, of ;i%ea in Hith&nia (%. .00I*/0 ,.3. ), a high Aoman offi%ial, the author of a
histor& of Aome in 6+ boo:s from ,eneas to his own time, ed. 2. Hoissevain, .69) ff.
<:. <ree:.
from is less in :ee!ing with %lassi%al sensitivit&.
2
ol&b.
3
ion. 7al. and
3
iod. 9. have it instead of i . For the most !art the latter is restri%ted to the ?ewish s!here.
means a. %onsent or agreement," 3iod. 9. , '(, 6, )#
3
itt. 9&ll.
/
, 660, .+6 (*nd
%ent. H.>. )#
-
rig.
2
rin%. , III, ., ). It is used of a!!lause" in 2ol&b. , .6, *+, )# 3ion. 7al. , III, ./.
It also means human goodD!leasure," 2ol&b. , *7, .+, ). It is used of the ro&al will in
3
itt. -r. , I,
//0, .** (*nd %ent. H.>. ) and of the divine goodD!leasure in . >l., )+, /. i does not o%%ur
in the !ostDa!ost. fathers or the ,!ologists, but rea!!ears in the e%%lesiasti%al writings of the )th
and 0th %enturies ( 70+ f. ).
A. F,GA in the OT.
@e must turn first to the
-
T t^uM . It o%%urs 06 times. .. It is used !redominantl& for the
!leasure, gra%e or will of <od. In onl& .6 (as o!!osed to some )+) %ases is it used to des%ribe
a human emotion or a%tion.
It o%%urs a. for a sa%rifi%e whi%h is !leasing to <od"5 4v. .950 # **5.9 ff. # Is. 0657 # ?er. 65*+
# 2s. .95.) . In the sense of what is wellD!leasing, as a %on%rete eB!ression, %f. 8al. *5./ . This use
o%%urs in 2rv. as ^_S^_uMZ ..5. , *+ # .*5** # .056 , eB%e!t that here the referen%e is to u!rightness,
faithfulness, !ra&er. Though there is no !re%ise referen%e, 2rv. .+5/* and ..5*7 also s!ea: of <od.
8ore generall& b. t^uM im!lies the divine gra%e and favour," 2s. 05.* # /+50 , 7 # 0.5.6 # .+65) #
Is. 6+5.+ # 2rv. 65/0 # .*5* # .65** . This gra%e %an also be thought of as blessing" or benefit"5
3t. //5*/ ,
s
&non. YWefMZ Lea . In 2s. .)05.6 , too, the referen%e is to the divine benefits. @orth noting
in view of 4:. *5.) is the o%%urren%e of t^_uMd as a de!endent nom. in 2s. 695./ # Is. )956 5 Yq]
t^_uMd # Is. 0650 5 t^_uMd V^_` # Is. 6.5* 5 t^_uMd YSfPZQ . It is used %. for the divine will" in 2s. )+56 and
.+/5*. .
*. In the .6 !assages in whi%h man is the sub$e%t the referen%e is to an emotion, dis!osition or
attitude. It ma& be a. %a!ri%e," arrogan%e" or !artialit&," being used !redominantl& in a bad
sense for des!oti% !ower" in 3a.# %f. <n. )956 # 1st. .56 # 950 # ;eh. 95*) , /7 # 3a. 65) # ..5/ , .6
, /6 . Hut it ma& also have b. a good sense as the favour of a :ing," 2rv. .)5/0 # .65.0 # .95.* .
>on%retel&, it is that whi%h is !leasing to the :ing (anal. to .. a. supra ). 2rv. .65./ . It ma& also be
used for re%i!ro%al favour," e.g., %ordial agreement among the u!right in 2rv. .)59 . %. It denotes
the dire%tion of the will of the righteous towards <od in 2s. .)05.9 (the desire of those who fear
7im) and in * >h. .05.0 (the see:ing of 7im with all oneOs will).
B. F,-GA0 and A in "es#s 5irach.
2ol&b. 2ol&bius, of 8egalo!olis, in ,r%adia (%. *.+I.*+ H.>. ), hostage of Aome in .67, general and statesman,
and the greatest historian of 7ellenism. In )+ boo:s he de!i%ts in essentials the rise of Aoman world dominion in
the !eriod **.I.66 H.>. , ed. T. HGttnerD@obst, .9+0.
3ion. 7al. 3ion&sius of 7ali%arnassus, from /+ H.>. a tea%her of rhetori% in Aome, ,tti%ist and historian, author
of an old Aoman histor&, ed. >. ?a%ob&, .660.
3iod. 9. 3iodorus 9i%ulus, of ,g&rion in 9i%il&, in the da&s of ,ugustus, author of a !o!ular histor& of the world
in )+ boo:s in his (istorical )ibrar' , ed. F. (ogel, .666.
3itt. 9&ll. @. 3ittenberger, S'lloge .nscriptionu Graecaru
*
, .696 ff.#
/
, .9.0 ff.
-rig. -rigen, of ,leBandria (.60I*0) ,.3. ), !u!il of >lement of ,leBandria, and most learned and fruitful
re!resentative of an%ient >hristian s%holarshi! and %ulture, ed. b& different s%holars in Die griech6 christl.
Schriftsteller der ersten I 0ahrhunderte , .699 ff.
2rin%. De Principiis .
3itt. -r. @. 3ittenberger, %rientis Graecae .nscriptiones , .9+* ff.
-T -ld Testament.
s&non. s&non&m.
It is in ?esus 9ira%h that the word is most full& develo!ed. It is found here */ times if we
add to the t^uM !assages of the
7
eb. the o%%urren%es of i where there is no
%orres!onding 7ebrew teBt.
.. The 7eb. !assages whi%h are not rendered i in <:. 9ir. show a similar usage to
that of the -T . The word bears the sense of a. <odOs gra%e or favour"5 )5.* # /65** # 0+5** ,
more generall& b. of <odOs will"5 )650 , and finall& %. of the %a!ri%e, !referen%e or selfDo!inion
of man"5 65.) # /0 ( /* )5...
*. , se%ond grou! is formed b& !assages whi%h either translate t^uM b& i or whi%h
onl& eBist in <:. and use i . In <:. 9ir. the !redominant sense is a. the divine goodD
!leasure"5 .5*7 (no 7eb. )#
/
..5.7 ( t^uM #( .05.0 ) t^uM ).
)
-n /. ( /) )5** (no 7eb. ) %f. the
t^uM\ of 4v. There is also a %ulti% referen%e in /* ( /0 )505 i i (no 7eb. ). /*5*+ ,
where the 7eb. should read u Md `M] ^eMsZ Yef , the %om!laints of the o!!ressed. >f. /05.) ( /*5.6 ).
b. In <:. 9ir., in a stri:ing develo!ment of the 7eb. , we also have the sense b. of the divine
ordination or resolve"5
0
/65./ ( //5.) ) (no 7eb. ). This !assage, based on ?er. .656 , was
de%isive in A. 9 .
6
7ere, too, the <:. teBt !oints to the divine %hoi%e as the determinative %ounsel,
%f. the
!
ar. q i . ,nother referen%e to the divine will and ordination is to be found
in /95.6 ( */ )5 q i ( 7eb. h`\u` ^S^uM ^YhY ).
;ote should be ta:en of the !ar. in whi%h the will rea%hes its goal. The divine
ordination is also meant in ).5) ( 6 ), %f. the !re%eding i . In )*5.0 [
%a
( 7eb. ^S^uM \q^i^
^Nh\ ) the referen%e is to %reation, whi%h eBists a%%ording to 7is ordination and goodD!leasure. In
the %orru!t )/5*6 ,
7
the <:. reading !oints us to the divine will rea%hing its goal. -n this sense
%f.
1
th. 1n. )95)#
T
est. 9ol. 3, (III, ) (8%>own m.9**n, 97C).
Hut <:. 9ir. also uses i with man as sub$. %. as human will" in .65/. 5 @hen &ou
do the will of &our soul, &ou grant what desire wills" (no 7eb. ), %f. 95.* ( .7 ),
6
and d. as
satisfa%tion"5 *95*/ 5 i (no 7eb. )5 He satisfied." >f.
2
hilodem. 2hilos. 3e 2ietate
, *0 (ed. T. <om!erE, (erkulanische Studien , II m.666n, .)0, 0).
C. A in the 5ept#agint and 8eHapla.
In distin%tion from this am!ler use in 9ir., the 4'' has little to offer. 7ere, too, i is
used for t^uM , though the latter is more often translated , , l
(*) times) and , , , (.* times). In %ontrast, i is
found onl& 6 times, and o%%asionall& we have 6, , ,
, , l, l, , i . If we do not %ount
2
s. 9ol. and
7eb. 7ebrew.
/ ;o 7eb. means that the 7eb. teBt is not eBtant.
) i q i , following 2eters instead of 9mendOs i 5 To eBer%ise faithfulness
is a matter of goodD!leasure." This ma:es it unne%essar& to assume a h&!erbaton (7arna%:, op. cit. , 66), 667 UU
.60, .66)5 9how the fidelit& of a good will."
0 ,s against 7arna%:, 667 (UU .66).
6 (g rightl& has5 ones viae eius secundu dispositione eius . The original teBt a%%. to >od. 7+ (%f. 9&r. ) is5
q i . The %o!&istOs for gives us l
.
!ar. !arallel.
7 >f. ,. 9%hlatter, Das neu gefundene hbr. Stck des Sir . (.697), and 2eters, ad loc.
1th. 1n. 1thio!ian 1no%h, ed. ,. 3illmann, .60.# A. >harles, .9+6.
Test. 9ol. "estaent of Soloon .
6 It is also worth %onsidering whether the translator does not have in view the sense of satisfa%tion.
2hilodem. 2hilos. 2hilodemus 2hiloso!hus, of <adara (%. ..+I*6 H.>. ), !o!ular !hiloso!her of 1!i%urean
tenden%ies. There is no %om!lete edition. For individual writings, v. 4iddellD9%ott, '''.
2s. 9ol. 2salms of 9olomon, 2harisai% %olle%tion of the .st %entur& H.>. , %onsisting of .6 songs, ed. -. <ebhardt,
.690.
9ir., i o%%urs in the 4'' onl& .+ times, 6 times for t^uM and in >ant. 65/ ( ) ) for the
hi!hil of cuM .
It denotes a. the divine gra%e or favour," or the %onseTuent blessing" in 5:12 # 0+5.6 #
665.7 # .+05) . In 144:6 also it is not what is desired
9
but the favour of <od whi%h is the
blessing ( 7)/ ). In 2s. 9ol. 65/9, too, i is divine gra%e (
o
!!. i ). It also signifies
b. the divine goodD!leasure"5 . >h. .65.+ # 18:14 # 665./ # 2s. 9ol. /5), whi%h does not treat
of manOs good will
.+
but of the goodD!leasure of the 4ord.
..
It is used of man in 140:4 4''
O , where i means evil will.
.*
9!e%ial note should be ta:en of >ant. 65/ ( ) ) where the
!ro!er name ThirEa is rendered i in 4'' A .
./
2s. 9ol. .65.* refers to the satisfa%tion of
the soul. It has been rightl& observed that the word is mostl& used !oeti%all& in the 4''.
.)

There are no !arti%ular nuan%es in the later translators. There is sim!l& a fuller use. In the
sense of <odOs gra%e, favour or goodD!leasure A uses it .* times, 2 6 times and O 0 times more
than the 4''. A uses it ) times, 2 * and O / for ro&al favour and 2 uses it on%e for %ordial
agreement among men.
'. 2abbinic )Hamples of A .
The Aabbis use t^_uMd mainl& for the divine goodD!leasure." 9%h. 1. (b), .7, benedi%tion.
.0

8ore generall& it %an also refer to the will of <od," as in
1
B. r. , )6 on /)5. ,
.6
%f. the %ommon
formula ^_S^_uMZ cPdw qd or V^_Nsd \PXQ ^_S^_uMZ cPdw qd
.7
to do the will of <od5
8
idr. ooh. , 0, .. et%.
2arti%ularl& %ommon is the eB!ression favour before <od." This is not to be eB!lained in terms of
a fear of anthro!omor!hism.
.6
It is a %ourtl& mode of address ta:en over b& later ?udaism from
the %ourtl& language of the ;ear 1ast This x`Si\ et%. in
F
et. , .+)a# Her., /*b#
T
aan. , /, 6
.9

%orres!onds therefore, to the idea of the glor& of the divine throne. It is often used in !ra&er5 `c`
x`Si\s t^uM , 8a& it be !leasing to Thee, ma& it be Th& will"5 Her., .9a,
H
ar. .6b# .7a#
*+

9
.
;u. , 69 on ..59 #
T
an%h. `Mh[ ) , 09 . 8ore rarel& we have the sim!le t^uM `c` 5 Her., *6b (
A
.
?o%hanan at his death).
*.
The Targums have for t^uM5 [Yd ^eqM ,
s
t. abs. [^dqb Mf 5 Tg. -. on <n.
9 4iddellD9%ott , 2r.DHauer , s.v. There is a !ar. in the dedi%ation to 2ria!us of 4am!sa%us, <I<, 'I(, .+*C5
i i , though the authenti%it& is in doubt.
o!!. o!!ositum .
.+ gahn, 7arna%:.
.. >f. A. Fittel in FautEs%h, #pokr. u. Pseudepigr. und die rabb. 9orel ( 7)0 ).
.* >f. 7arna%:, 666 (UU .67). Hut farDrea%hing dedu%tions should not be drawn from 140:4 . The 8as.
VcX `Y] ^ _qMd LeZ adversus ala eoru , is erroneousl& read as Vc`S^uML
./ Though %f. 2 , whi%h has , wellD!leasing," a%%e!table"# %f. also 67:31 2 . -n this !t.,
3iog. 4. , II, 67. For the adv. , (ita 2hilonidis 1!i%urei in 2. 7er%ulanensis, .+)) (@. >rJnert,
9,H , .9++, 90+, Fr. .9, line )).
.) 7arna%:, 660 (UU .66)# 666 (UU .69).
.0 9tr.DH. , II, ..6.
1B. r. &:odus rabba ( Sheot rabba ), 8idrash on 1Bodus (9tra%:, &inl. , *+6).
.6 >f. ,. 9%hlatter, Wie sprach 0osephus von Gott (.9.+), *7.
.7 9tr.DH. , I, )67, 60/, %f. *.9, **+, 66).
8idr. ooh. 8idrash on 1%%lesiastes (9tra%:, &inl. , *./).
.6 .bid. , I, 760.
Fet. 4etubbot , 8ishnahD, ToseftaD, Talmud tra%tate /ules for 3arriage (9tra%:, &inl. , )6).
Taan. "aanit , 8ishnahD, ToseftaD, Talmud tra%tate 9asts (9tra%:, &inl. , )/).
.9 .bid. , II, .9+.
Har. Baraita (in Tuotations from the Talmud), &:tra<3ishnaic "radition of "annaites (9tra%:, &inl. , *).
*+ .bid. , I, )00 !, %f. I, 6+7, 766.
9. ;u. Sifre !ueri , Tannaiti% 8idrash on ;umbers (9tra%:, &inl. , *+.), ed. 7. <. 7orovitE, .9.7.
Tan%h. "anchua , %olle%tion of homilies named after A. Tan%huma (9tra%:, &inl. , *+) f.). The edition b& 9.
Huber in .660 has im!ortant teBtual variations from other editions.
A. /abbi .
*. .bid. , I, 06.. 0*7 .
st. abs. status absolutus .
*65.7 #
**
;u. .)56 # Tg. on ?u. ./ 5
*/
. This it is the will before =ahweh" %orres!onds eBa%tl& to
the of 8t. .65.) or the i
of 8t. ..5*6 .
*/

,s %on%erns i in 4:. *5.) it is worth noting that the Aabbis ma:e
%onsiderable use of tLe] or `S]LeZ with a following abstra%t, e.g., c`ed\aqb `S]LeZ sons of ma$est& (those
honoured in the hereafter)#
b
. 9u::a, )0b# b.
9
anh. , 97b.
*)
There is an anal. use in 9ir. ))5*/ H#
))5.+ 5 Mh `PS[ , P`[ 5 , . The a%tual eB!ression in 4:. *5.) is used
onl& in a figur. sense when an atoning offering is %alled c[d ud MZ cf MLef , the son of goodD!leasure, in
bA7, 0b. =et as in the -T ( 7)/ ) we often find the gen. t^uM together with a noun, e.g.,
Tan%h. `Mh[ ) , 09 5 t^_uMd YSfPZQ , under the influen%e of Is. 6.5* # Taan. , /, 65 `Yea \Z[f PdQ xZ Wd [\_
t^_uMd `s] PZQ Ra [\ed[f not this have I desired, but the rain of goodD!leasure, i.e., fruitful rain whi%h
<od sends in 7is favour# not destru%tive torrents." >f. 8. 1B. on .05.) 5 t^_uMd ^_Le t`[] PXQ qf Wef .
7uman goodD!leasure is eB!ressed in !hrases li:e t^uML , ( o!!. S^[L ) for free" as
distin%t from for%ed," %f. T. ;asir., ), )# b.Fet. , 9a# Tan%h. [PS .9 and /0. -n A. .+5. 5 q
i q q i , %f. `Lea \a t^_uMZ Lea ,
1
:a r. Introd. ,!art from the suffiB LZ , \Z and xZ
are !arti%ularl& %ommon. t^uM\ o!!. t^uM\ [\P means intentionalvunintentional"5
8
a:sh. , (I,
6 or willingl&vunwillingl&," ibid. , I, .. For t^uMW ,
a
%%. to oneOs goodD!leasure," %f. 1:a r. ,
Introd.
*0

). A in the NT.
.. i in 2aul.
In the
;
T the referen%e to human will is even less !rominent as %om!ared with the sense of
<odOs goodD!leasure or will. It o%%urs onl& twi%e. Thus in A. .+5. it is used of the will of the
heart whi%h be%omes !etition to <od.
*6
In 2hil. .5.0 we %an hardl& translate of good
intention or sin%ere !ur!ose," sin%e this, as the o!!osite of insin%erit&, la&s the em!hasis on
ethi%al validit&, whi%h owes more to the im!lied antithesis to than to
the normal use of i . ,long with the !re%eding %ontrast we should rather bring out the
element of in%lination %ontained in i . -ur rendering should thus be5 of a good mind
in the sense of good will."
*7
There %an be no distinguishing between i orientated to
2aul and i orientated to the <os!el. The a!ostle is identified with his %harismati%
mission. i thus means good will in res!e%t of the and its a!ostoli%
dissemination.
*6

** 3alman @? #, I, .7/.
*/ >f. 3alman @? , I, .7/, 9%hl. 8t. on ..5*6 .
b. Hab&lonian Talmud when before tra%tates from the 8ishnah.
9anh. Sanhedri 8ishnahD, ToseftaD, Talmud tra%tate %n the court of 5ustice and its procedure (9tra%:, &inl. ,
0. f.).
*) There are man& !ar. in 9tr.DH. , I, )76 ff.
1:a r. &ka rabbati , 8idrash on 4amentations (9tra%:, &inl. , *.*).
8a:sh. 3akshirin , 8ishnahD, ToseftaD, Talmud tra%tate What ?ualifies (on be%oming un%lean) (9tra%:, &inl. ,
6/).
a%%. a%%usative.
*0 -n the 9&r. translation of i 7)6, n. )+ .
;T ;ew Testament.
*6 The usual rendering heartOs desire" is dose, but hardl& means to desire," and in res!e%t of
i we %an addu%e onl& 9ir. .65/. . 7arna%:, op. cit. , 669 (UU .7+), suggests loving will."
*7 >f. v. .6f .5 .
*6 <ood and sin%ere !ur!ose," 2r.DHauer , s.v. , 4oh. Findl& dis!osition in the sense of good will," >r.DFJ. ,
s.v. , for 2aul (1w., 7au!t), for the %ause of the <os!el (3ib.), or for both (,. FlJ!!er m.69/n). <odOs goodD
!leasure" (9%hl. 1rl., %f. Aabb. m rabb. 7)0 n) is hardl& li:el& in view of the antitheses in v. .0 and in the light of
v. .6 .
,ll the other !assages !robabl& refer to the divine goodD!leasure and %ounsel, though
there is dis!ute %on%erning * Th. .5.. and 2hil. *5./ . 2aulOs reTuest for the Thessalonians is5
6g q q 6g i
i .
If we relate this to human good will or human orientation to the good the
ma& be either an ob$e%tive genitive,
*9
that <od should fulfil ever& desire for the good and the
wor: of faith, or a sub$e%tive genitive,
/+
that whi%h !leases the in%lination for the good. Hut
the
A
abb. use of t^_uMd , where often there is no eB!ress referen%e to <od, ma:es it li:el& (%f.
the t^ _uMd \qf of Is. 6+57 in the -T ) that 2aul is sim!l& s!ea:ing of <odOs goodD!leasure in a
%on%ise formula. This is in :ee!ing with the liturgi%al flavour of * Th. . . This i is
orientated to the wellDdoing of >hristians.
/.
2aul !ra&s that this will of <od should be
realised. The meaning of 2hil. *5./
/*
is that the o!eration of <od, whi%h evo:es the will and
wor: of believers, ta:es !la%e in the interests of the divine %ounsel, i.e., fulfils the ordination
therein foreseen.
//
In 1!h. .50 , 9 , .. we have the s&non&ms i, (will),
(!ur!ose) and (%ounsel). To give a fuller %hara%terisation of what is said
1
!h. often uses %umulative, s&non&mous genitives (%f. .5.9 # *5.) , .0 # /57 ). It is thus that the
divine will is des%ribed as i in
v
. 0 . The term %annot be se!arated from the
( I, 6/0 ) whi%h in the i ( .50 , .. ), i ( .59 ) and
( .5.. ) is des%ribed as a !reDtem!oral !ur!ose. Hut the aim of this %umulative des%ri!tion
demands that i should be seen as eB!ressing a s!e%ial side of this !reDtem!oral
resolve of the divine will. @hat is brought out is not merel& the i . It is more
than the determinate will and %ounsel as su%h. It is the %ontent of this %ounsel as the free
goodD!leasure
/)
whi%h, grounded in <od alone and influen%ed b& none else, is 7is gra%ious
resolution to save. In .59 also the q i ma:es the
into 7is free goodD!leasure. In the general s:et%h of the goals of
*9 The 4at. favours the ob$. gen. 5 voluntas bonitatis ( de vg (igilius Fulgentius )# 9&r. will for the good. ?. H.
4ightfoot
/
(.67/), <. 8illigan (.9+6), 3ibelius, 7arna%: and others em!hasise the fa%t that we have wor: (
) along with will ( i ).
/+ For the sub$. gen. %f. 9ir. .65/. ( i i ) and 95.* . From the %onteBt it ma& be argued that
, too, is the fruit of faith. Theodor. (9wete, II m.66*n, )7)5 et ipleat one placitu bonitatis . 2r.DHauer ,
s.v. i 5 good will of u!rightness," but i does not mean good" will in this sense ( 7)) f. # %f.
70+ ). 9%hl. 1rl.5 resolve of goodness."
Aabb. Aabbis,
/. ,%%. to 1uth&mios, -i:umenios, ,mbst., Theod. of 8o!suestia, gwingli, >alvin, HeEa, Hengel,
refers to the good will and %ounsel of <od. Hut 3ob. Th. , -e!:e ( ;T 3euts%h ), ad loc. ,
together with Theo!h&la%t., <rotius, rightl& refer i to <od and to man, ,
I, 18 .
/* For in the sense of in the interests of" %f. * >. .*56 , .9 # A. .50 # .056 . Hl.D3ebr.
6
y */., *, with ?. >.
F. 7ofmann (.67.), relates the c i to the following senten%e. Hut its !osition at the end of the
senten%e Tuoted em!hasises the .
// H& using alacritas for i (9wete, I m.66+n, **0), Theodore of 8o!suestia refers the i to
the will of man. s& 2 , (i%torinus , lat, vg have in view the good will brought about b& <od5 pro bona voluntate .
1rasmus is un%ertain. gahn, 1wald and 2r.DHauer follow the 4at. For gahnOs argument that otherwise the
referen%e to <od should be stated (> adds ), %f. * Th. .5.. ( supra ) and the omission of in A.
*5.6 # 65) # .*5.9 # 4:. *5.) . In 2hil. *5./ f urther mention of manOs will after and would
be tautologi%al. 7ere, as in 4:. *5.) , the 4at. betra&s unfamiliarit& with the 2alestinian use of the formula. Thus
>hr&s. ( ), Theodoret ( ), the Aeformers
and the ma$orit& of modern %ommentators favour a referen%e to <od. The argument from Aabbini% modes of
s!ea:ing is more im!ortant than the a!!eal to the c of 1g&!tian ins%r. of the im!erial
!eriod5 ,. 3eissmann, 2ls.
*
(.9*0), .67, n. .. The suggestion of 4oh. 2hil. , ad loc. (mart&rdom) is artifi%ial.
1!h. &pistula ad &phesios .
v. verse.
/) -n 1!h. .50 %f. Theodor., >hr&s. , Thdrt. # >ramer >at. , (I, .+6, .... 4uther in his 4e%tures on Aomans of
.0.0v.0.6 (Fi%:er, I, 60, .6I*.) has the fine statement5 $uia sic voluit ac placuit ab eterno6 et voluntatis eius
nulla est le: nullu$ue debitu onino. Voluntas libera6 $ue nulli sub5acet et%. .bid , I, ./65.9I**5 (oc verbu
NplacuitO vel NprobaveruntO proprie significat bene6 spontanee6 hilariter placuit .
salvation in vv. )I.* the element of free and mer%iful gra%e stands at the %entre. In all the
des%ri!tions of the divine will ( ), the strongest eB!ression is found in i .
*. i in the 9&no!tists.
a. The !ra&er of ?esus (from o) in 8t. ..5*6 # 4:. .+5*.
/0
des%ribes as the sovereign
divine de%ree
/6
(%f. 9ir. 7)) ) the fa%t that <od has hidden the :nowledge of the 9on from
the wise and revealed it to babes. ?esus rests in this basi% will of the Father. This is the
%on%lusion and limit of 7is thin:ing as it !asses into adoration.
b. The >hristmas sa&ing. In relation to *5.) teBtual %larifi%ation is essential before there
%an be an& attem!t at eB!osition.
The song of the angels is !reserved in two forms. The first is a disti%h5
i
q l 6 i.
37

In res!e%t of the gen. i the older <:. tradition agrees with the
4
at. , whi%h manifests
a %lose unit& as regards the words5 et in terra pa: hoinibus bonae voluntatis . The teBtus
,fri%anus !resu!!oses i . It is relativel& un%ertain whether
I
ren. and -rig. read
i or i . Hut their eB!ositions ma:e it %lear that the& did not thin: of manOs good
will, li:e the 4at. , but of the divine will to save.
/6
The se%ond form is that of a tristi%h5
i
q l
6 i.
3

This is the * teBt whi%h is also found in older 2alestinian attestations (+/6 <r. [
%
,
1
useb. ) and
a!art from minor variations in all the
9
&r.
)+
,lthough both readings %an be tra%ed ba%: into the
/0 -n %f. x`Si\ with the Aabbis, 7)0 . 7ere, too, there is thought of a %oun%il before the
throne, 7)0 # %f. gn., 9%hl., ad loc. -n 8t. .65.) # 4:. .*56 # 6 5 4:. .*56 # .05.+ # Aev.
.65.9 .
/6 >f. >ramer >at. , I, 665 .
/7 Found in [ C,HC3 it vg got# not in >. There is va%illation %on%erning the before 6 . It o%%urs
in [ CHC ,.3. sa (of his desire"), got ( in anna godis vil5ins ), -rig. >omm. on ?n. .5.* and >els. , I, 6+, gd
vg
!art
, but not in ab%ef ff
*
lTr aur vg
!art
Ir
lat
-r
lat
, the 4at. fathers 7ilarius, with a distin%tive order -!tatus and
2ris%illian, ,mbr. , ,ug. , -rosius et%. It is not !resent in the old 9&r. or 2s.D,thanasius (8ontfau%on m.7+7n, II,
0/). Thus the is doubtful, though this does not affe%t the sense.
4at. 4atin, latin.
Iren. Irenaeus, of ,sia 8inor, bisho! of 4&ons, mart&red *+* ,.3. during the !erse%ution under 9everus, ed. in
82<, 7, .66*.
/6 Iren. has5 in terra pa: hoinibus bonae voluntatis , at III, .+, ), but this ma& have been added b& the transl. ,
sin%e in the !ara!hrase he s!ea:s of <od as the -ne $ui suo plasati6 hoe est6 hoinibus6 sua benignitate
salutis de caelo isit . 7e thus eTuates i with benignitas salutis . In -rig. 7om., ./ on 4:. *56I.6
(Thenn 7)* n. # gwTh , /) m.69.n, )6/ ff., es!. )60 f.) we have 6 i three times, as
also in >omm. on ?n. .5.* and >els. , I, 6+, though in the eB!osition (Thenn, )66) a h&!erbaton is assumed and
the gen. i is related to l . It is not %ertain whether we have here a true reading or an
inter!retative !ara!hrase whi%h involves %om!arison with 8t. .+5/) .
/9 9o .7 un%ials es!. of the F I t&!e, -rig
!art
, the <:. fathers from <regor& Thaumaturgus and 1useb. to
>hr&s. , Theodot. of ,n%&ra, 2ro%lus, the >onst. ,!. and 2salteries whi%h add the gloria , arm aeth, all the s&r,
also s&
2al
. The onl& variations here are in res!e%t of the i in the /rd line and the before 6 . In
,!hraat, too, 4:. *5.) is a tristi%h.
1useb. 1usebius of >aesarea (*6+I/)+ ,.3. ), e%%lesiasti%al historian, ed. b& different s%holars in Die Griech.
christl. Schriftsteller der ersten I 0ahrhunderte , .9+* ff.
9&r. 9&ria%.
)+ There are various renderings of i in the s&. .. s& 9 has [PS[ `SL\ [Y^qM[ goodD!leasure,"
whi%h is found in the Tg. but not elsewhere in 9&r ( ,ram. Y^eqMZ ). It is not used b& s&
s
at 8t. ..5*6 or 4:.
*nd %ent. and the se%ond is %ertainl& !reD9&rian, our de%ision must be in favour of the first, sin%e
the 9&r. alone %annot outweigh the older 1g&!tian tradition and the whole of the 4at. The
advantage of the version with the gen., whi%h we must a%%e!t as the older,
).
is that it maintains a
%onsistent !arallelism5
)*
i The first verse has to do with heaven, the se%ond with earth. The
se%ond reading %ould develo! from the first as the understanding of 9emiti% forms was lost. These
offended the <:. sense of language. The !ra%ti%al %oDordination of lines * and / without i is
nonD9emiti%. This i ,
)/
whi%h is indis!ensable for three lines, %annot have been lost. @h&,
then, was it not added The onl& reason is that it was not in the original. The reading i
%ould arise from the use of and reminis%en%e of . Hut the trium!h of the tristi%h
!robabl& owes most to liturgi%al use. The nominative was suitable for re%itation. These
%onsiderations demand investigation of a 7ebrew original,
e
s!. as there are in the ;T no 7ebrai%
!assages li:e those of 4:. . and * eB%e!t in Aev. That 4u:e deliberatel& ado!ted a 7eb. st&le
(7arna%:) is no adeTuate eB!lanation. ?eremias ta:es the view that the 4u%an birth narrative had
alread& been given 7eb. literar& form b& the !rimitive ,ramai% s!ea:ing %ommunit&, the Ha!tist
grou!s being interested in the %ontent of 4:. . . This would give us an original 7ob. resting on
oral
,
ram. tradition. Hut here, too, something from the 7ebrewD?ewish s!here might well have
!assed into the >hristian.
))
i is in an& %ase a 9emiti% %onstru%tion. It
reminds us of the various %ombinations of , , l, and their !lurals
with abstra%t nouns whi%h are so %ommon in the -T , 4'' and ;T . >f. 9ir. ))5.+ 5
)Mh `PS[( , righteous men#
s
ing. ))5*/ H (*7)# 40: 5 q
l # in the ;T 8t. 65.* # ./5/6 5 l q i # 1!h. *5/ 5 q .
.+5*. , and is never used b& s&
!
for i . *. @orth noting is the rendering [L [ML 5 spes or opinio
bona . This ma& have %ome alread& with Tat. 9o s&
!
,!hraat
s&r
Tat
arab
, %f. also spes in 1!hr. In 1!hr.
arm
we are
to understand spes bonoru . This most %ommon s& rendering is sim!l& a me%hani%all& literal transl. , for to
[ML %orres!onds not onl& spes6 fiducia6 iaginatio , but also opinio6 cogitatio UU , i and
the verb ML %orres!onds to () , as is shown es!. b& ,!hraat. To [ML ( spes6 opinio ,
) there is sim!l& added [L as a transl. of - . To be sure, this main s&r reading is related to the
4at. bonae voluntatis . =et spes denotes the dire%tion of manOs view to <od. The nom. instead of the gen. (in all
s&) ma:es im!ossible the misunderstanding of i as a human Tualit&. It is evident that we have here a
2alestinian rea%tion against the legal %on%e!tion of i among the @esterns. /. s&
h !al
have [S`Lu UU
, will," %hoi%e," goodD!leasure." It %orres!onds in 9ir
s&
(A. 9mend, IndeB, s.v. i ) to the <:.
i , *5.6 # ..5.7 # .65/. # /*50 # /95.6 . For the eTuation of the 7eb. t^uM and [S`Lu 5 %f. 9ir. )5.* #
..5.7 # /65** # /95.6 # )*5.0 . In 2s. 9ol. i o%%urs / times in the <:. teBt, and [S`Lu ) times in the
9&r. [S`Lu is i ( 7eb. original t^uM ) at /5) # 65// # .65.* , and [S`Lu is at 756 . >f. F. <.
Fuhn, Die s'r. ;berset-ung der PsSal UU H@,;T , I(, .7 (.9/0). In s&
h
[S`Lu is as often used for
as for i . In s&
s !al !
it is elsewhere used for i %onsistentl& in the sense of will," %f. 8t. ..5*6 #
4:. .+5*. .
). 9o in almost all more re%ent teBtual %riti%ism sin%e 4a%hmann. For i %f. 8%;eile, 9%rivener, Field,
>r.DFJ. , Ao!es. It is usuall& argued that it is more diffi%ult and therefore earlier. Hut teBtual histor& shows that
i has usuall& been found more diffi%ult.
)* This is disturbed b& 7arna%:Os reading5 i q . v l 6
. Two h&!erbata in so short a sa&ing are intolerable, and the se%ond, l i a%%. to
-rigenOs eB!osition, is unthin:able if there is a 9emiti% basis. The q at the end of a line is disru!tive,
and the two unrelated senten%es are both nonD9emiti% and diffi%ult even in <:. Ao!es ob$e%ts to the first version
that it gives us an irregular disti%h. In <:. this is a real diffi%ult& but it loses its %ogen%& if we su!!ose an original
7eb. stru%ture.
)/ -nl& s&
s ! h
Tat
arab
have i (inter!osed out of st&listi% ne%essit&), but not s&
!al
.
es!. es!e%iall&.
,ram. ,ramai%.
)) 9!itta %on$e%tures an influen%e of 8a%%ab. !salms. In 4:. .95/6 , whi%h is also in two !arts, we !erha!s have
an ada!tation of the same a%%lamation, as we should %all it rather than h&mn. It ma:es no differen%e to the
Tuestion of origin whether we regard it as the verse of a h&mn or as liturgi%al a%%lamation (1. 2eterson, l
m.9*6n, /.6).
sing. singular.
8an of goodD!leasure" is not found elsewhere, but %f. t^uM as a de!endent nom. 7)/ and its
figur. use in the Aabbis 7)0 . Aelated, too, is 3a. .+5.. , .9 5 Y^_Mshb PQ `[a , though beloved
man" (<odOs favourite) hardl& gives us the serious sense of t^uM , as used of the divine de%ree.
)0

The root here is t^_uMd `P]Q SZ[f .
)6

The meaning of the sa&ing.
)7
The 8essiani% a%%lamation of the angelsO song is not a wish
( ) but !ro%lamation of the divine event ( i ). <od is glorified in heaven with the
sending of >hrist. This event wor:s itself out on earth in l UU V^_\PdQ , salvation (
).* f. ). This salvation ta:es !la%e for men of goodD!leasure. Thus the heavenl& %orres!onds
to the earthl&. It is not as though the i stood in antithesis to an as &et
in%om!lete revelation on earth.
)6
,%%ording to 4:. *59 the en%ir%les the she!herds too.
This is the sign of the new event, that ( *)7 f. ) in heaven is united with l on
earth.
)9
It is rightl& !er%eived that es%hatolog& in the sense of the great turningD!oint of the
worlds determines the !raise, and that the dawn of selfD%onsummating redem!tion is
!ro%laimed. In the h&mns of Aev. .*5.+ # ..5.0 # .95. , 6 the final attainment of this goal is
%elebrated.
0+

Hut who are these i ( I, /6) ) The understanding of the 4atin
%hur%h, namel&, men who are of good will, im!lies legalism if a good will is regarded as
de%isive for salvation. 7en%e this rendering has often been ta:en to mean
0.
that the a%t of
salvation is onl& for those who o!en themselves to it and willingl& a%%e!t the gra%e of <od,
There are man& instan%es of the use of for to agree," to %onsent" ( 7/9 ) and
of in the sense of agreement" or assent" ( 7)/ ). -n the other hand,
i never bears this meaning in 9ir., the 4'' or the Aabbis. For this reason, we %an
hardl& eB!e%t it here. -nl& later, in
>
l. ,l.
9
trom. , I(, .0, 97, /, do we find this sense when we
are told that the a!ostoli% de%ree was !ublished g iq i
. ,nother !ossibilit& is that it refers to those who give !leasure to <od. ;ow in the -T t^uM is
often as%ribed to <od as a res!onse to human %ondu%t, whether in the form of sa%rifi%e, !ra&er
or u!rightness. Hut in these instan%es the a%%om!an&ing senses of favour," gra%e" and the
divine will and %ounsel" !revent eB%lusive %on%entration on the idea of man awa:ening the
divine !leasure. 1ven the a%%e!tan%e of a sa%rifi%e is an a%t of divine gra%e. ,nd in the <os!el
the idea that what man does %an bring about the fulfilment of divine gra%e is %om!letel&
re$e%ted. 1ven from the !urel& linguisti% stand!oint the 4at. translation is in%orre%t. ,s used
of men ( -T , 9ir.), i does not mean good" will, but volition. Hut this would give an
even more serious %ontradi%tion to the thought of gra%e. The eviden%e in relation to i
)0 <. v. Aad5 3a. .+5.. , .9 f orms a model for i , or better a !arallel for the usage.
)6
8erB ( 7)*, n. ), *+. !ro!oses the following version of the disti%h5
^eLd [d MX u PdQ \^_s \Z[f SZP]Q ` Md u^_S5 xed L^_M \][\_ca `s Lef seZ M^_sa `s
>f. ?eremias, though he has `P]Q SZ[f LeZ . >f. also 9%hl. 4:. , ad loc. F. 3elitEs%h, too, translates
the first version ^_Su_ MZ `P]Q SZ[f LeZ . -n <ressmannOs %on$e%ture (Fl. 4:. on *5.) ), whi%h starts
with the ,ram. and follows s&
s
, %f. ?eremias, .0.
)7 >f. the most im!ortant dis%ussion in ?eremias, .9 f.
)6 gn. 4:., ad loc.
)9 >f. ?eremias, *+ for the %orres!onden%e of heaven and earth as a basi% %on%e!t in the an%ient oriental view of
the world, %f. 8t. 659 f. 5 in heaven and on earth."
0+ )oc. cit.
0. gn. 4:., ad loc.
>l. ,l. T. Flavius >lemens ,leBandrinus, of ,thens, but doing his main wor: in ,leBandria (.0+I*.0 ,.3. ), a
leading re!resentative of >hristian %ulture, ed. -. 9tlhlin, .9+0 ff.
9trom. Stroata .
!oints so overwhelmingl& to the sense of the sovereign will of <od that in a !assage li:e this,
whi%h s!ea:s of the a%%om!lishment of salvation, there %an be no !la%e for refle%tion on the
will of man. @e have thus to understand b& i the unfathomabl& gra%ious and
sovereign goodD!leasure of <od in the sense of 7is de%ree as a de%ree of free gra%e and
favour.
Hut who are the The whole ra%e, Israel, or those s!e%ifi%all& !redestinated
@e %annot !ossibl& eB!ound the teBt in su%h a wa& as to involve %ontradi%tion between 4:.
*5.+ and *5.) .
0*
7en%e the statement is neither !arti%ularisti% nor is it universalisti% in
deta%hment from salvation histor&. It refers es%hatologi%all& to the ele%t and redeemed !eo!le
of <od.
Thus i in the angelsO song refers to <odOs gra%ious %ounsel addressed in free and
in%om!rehensible favour to the !eo!le of 7is ele%t.
i !la&s an im!ortant role in <nosti%ism.
0/
In terms of >ol. .5.9 the (alentinians %all
the Soter i or 5
0)
Iren. , I, .*, )# >l. ,l.
1
B%. Theod. , /.,.# ibid. , */, *,
7en%e -rig. >omm. in ?n., !. )60, 6 f. (2reus%hen m.9+/n) has the distin%tive statement that the
!reDeBistent divine i %reated the world as i . >f.
2
s.D>lem. 7om. , ./, *. (!.
.66, 0). The word is more %ommon in the e%%lesiasti%al literature of the )th and 0th %enturies. It is
%onstantl& eB!lained, for diffi%ult& was found with its meaning. Though a few 2auline !assages
demand another sense, it is usuall& referred to <od, the 4ogos , or the 9!irit# not to the will of
man. 2arti%ularl& %ommon are !ara!hrases in terms of the divine :
, , i , q iq
or q, q i or sim!l& i,
i, i , the last even in 2auline !assages wi%h demand referen%e to the will
of man. The definitions are stri:ingl& varied and give dear eviden%e of %ontinuing un%ertaint&, for
i is alwa&s a foreign term to the <:s. The word !la&s some !art in the >hristologi%al
%onfli%ts with regard to the will of <od, the 4ogos or the 9!irit5 ,!ollonius of 4aodi%aea 3e
Trinitate ,
T
K , (II, / (.69*). !. /6., /0#
1
!i!h. ,n%oratus, /*, 9# 9), *#
7
aer. , */, /, 0# */, 0, .#
*7, 7, *# /+, /., ). >f. the ,ntio%henes, es!. Theod. of 8o!suestia (
3
ef. 7)*, n. ).
S
chrenk
A, A!, A! 60)
B
A), A)(, A)%
*

0* @ettstein, ad loc. sees a %ontradi%tion between the ele%t and in v. .+ . 7ilgenfeld, who
understands i universalisti%all&, suggests a 2auline reda%tor, sin%e elsewhere 4:. . f.
s!ea:s onl& of Israel. 8erB, .97, *+. f. assumes that the universalisti% %on%e!t has altered an originall&
!arti%ularisti% teBt and that the final a%t is to be found in s&
s !
Tat
arab
, whi%h have the whole world" for at
4:. *5.+ . ?eremias, .9 and 3ibelius, 4rippenkind , 66 have set aside this Tuestion.
0/ >f. for what follows 7arna%:, 6+9 (UU .7.ff.). 7e rightl& sa&s (67* UU .7)) that there is no histor& of the
meaning or develo!ment of i in the stri%t sense.
0) i and are also inter%hangeable in 67:30 2 and >ant. 65/ 2 , as distin%t from 4''
and A .
1B%. Theod. &:cerpta e: "heodoto .
2s.D>lem. 7om. Pseudocleentine (oilies , a narrative des%ribing and defending the do%trine of the a!ostle
2eter, ed. 2. ,. de 4agarde, .660.
TK "e:te und 8ntersuchungen -ur Geschichte der altchristlichen )iteratur , .66/ f.
1!i!h. 1!i!hanius, of 1leuthero!olis in 2alestine, bisho! of >onstantia in >&!rus (*96I)+/ ,.3. ), o!!onent of
6+ >hristian, ?ewish and <nosti% heresies in his ri%h and %om!rehensive wor: H
l , ed. F. 7oll, .9**.
7aer. (aereses .
3ef. 3efinition, definition.
9%hren: <ottlob 9%hren: , gGri%h ((ol. .I/, )I0).
C . Tren%h , *0f., .+0ff.# @. ;aumann, 8ntersuchungen -u apokr'phen 0ereiasbrief ( Beih.
-. Z#W , *0 m .9./n, /6f.)# F. Ferjn&i, B'-ant.<!eugriech. 0ahrbcher . 6 (.9*9v/+), /+6 ff.# 1. ?a%Tuier, )es
#ctes des #pTtres (.9*6), 60+# ?. >. ,. van 7erten, Oi J . Bi5drage tot de kennis
A. The non?Christian &sage4
a. The word grou! , , (not attested in
7
om. and
7
es. )
denotes in <:. the attitude of %aution" or %ir%ums!e%tion" in man& different nuan%es. It ma&
mean %areful regard for the (Hias, .7 mII, *.7, 6,
3
iels n# 2s.D,gathon m
3
iehl , I, 76n#
1
ur.
-
r. , 699), or anBious fear," vigilan%e," !rovision against" (
,
risto!h.
,
v. , /77#
,
ristot.
2
ol. ,
II, 6, !. .*69a, .)# (, .., !. ./.0a, .75 !ersonified in 1ur.
2
hoen. , 76*), or %on%ern in the interest
of" ( ,risto!h.
,
%h. , 900#
2
lat.
4
eg. , III, 69.b# 'I, 9*7%), or %ons%ientiousness" ( 2lat.
2
olit. , /..a
b#
3
emosth.
-
r. , *., 6. and 6.). In the last sense is ver& %lose to l6 ( ,ristot.
3e (irtutibus et (itiis , ), !. .*0+b, .*), and ta:es on almost a religious sense, sin%e it
is a matter of s%ru!ulous regard for what is right, as seen b& the %ombination of and
( 3emosth.-r. , *., 6.). Hut the word grou! %an also be used for religious awe" (
2lat.4eg. , I', 679e# ,risto!h.
4
&s. , .*77# %f. 1ur.
7
i!!. , .++). This sense be%omes more
!ronoun%ed in 7ellenism, so that
2
lut. %an use q (or ) for the
4at. religio (3e ;uma, ** mI, 70a bn#
.
3e >amillo, *. mI, ./9dn#
,
em. , / mI, *06%n). This %an also
be used for the religious s%ru!ulosit& of the 2latonists ( 2lut.
9
er. ;um. 2un. , ) mI, 0)9en), and
3iod. 9. , 'III, .*, 7 uses it of the religious %ondition of ;i:ias, whom he also %alls
i . In this sense we have alone in
@
il%:en 2tol. , )*, **, and in modern
<:. has be%ome the term for !iet&.
=et there is also a develo!ment of the sense of %aution" or restraint" into fear" or anBiet&"
(e.g., with in 2ol&b. , ., .6, 7# /, ..., .# i , set in anBiet&,"
3iod. 9. , '(I, **, *), from whi%h it is eB!ressl& distinguished, e.g., in 3emosth.-r. , .9, *+6#
,ristot.
1
th. ;i%. , I(, !. ..*.b, *) ff. ,%%. to 8oeris (7ar!o%ration et 8oeris, ed. I. He::er
m.6//n, !. .96,*f.) has the sense of in ,tti% and in
7ellenisti%. The 9toi%s, of %ourse, see: to distinguish as from
as . The& %all , of whi%h onl& the sage is %a!able, one of
der religieuse terinologie in her Grieksch , with a summar& in 1nglish ( 3iss. Ktre%ht, .9/)).
7om. 7omer, of >hios (), the %lassi%al <ree: e!i% !oet, around whose name were grou!ed the older e!i%s of
the Ionians in the 9th and 6th %enturies H.>. , ed. <. 8onro and T. @. ,llen, .9+6 ff.
7es. 7esiodus, of ,s%ra in Hoetia (%. 7++ H.>. ), the oldest <ree: !oet to emerge as a tangible figure. In his
Pastoral 1alendar q he !ro%laims the !astoral ideal of life. 7is Theogon& is a s!e%ulative
wor: on the origin and des%ent of the gods, ed. ,. AEa%h, .9./.
3iels 7. 3iels, Die 9ragente der Vorsokratiker
)
, .9**.
3iehl 1. 3iehl, #nthologia )'rica Graeca , .9*0.
1ur. 1uri!ides, of 9alamis nr. ,thens ()6+I)+6 H.>. ), tragi% dramatist and !hiloso!her of the stage, ed. <.
8urra&, .9+. ff.
-r. %restes .
,risto!h. ,risto!hanes, of ,thens (%. ))6I/60 H.>. ), the main re!resentative of the older ,tti% %omed&, who
rea%hed his height during the 2elo!onnesian @ar, ed. (. >oulon and 7. van 3aele, .9*/ ff.
,v. #ves .
,ristot. ,ristotle, of 9tageiros (%. /6)I/** H.>. ), with his tea%her 2lato the greatest of the <ree: !hiloso!hers
and the founder of the !eri!ateti% s%hool, Tuoted in ea%h %ase from the %om!rehensive edition of the ,%ademia
Aegia Horussi%a , .6/. ff.
2ol. Politica .
2hoen. Phoenissae .
,%h. #charnenses .
2lat. 2lato, of ,thens ()*6v7I/)6v7 H.>. ), ed. ?. Hurnet, .9+0.
4eg. )eges .
2olit. Politicus .
3emosth. 3emosthenes, of ,thens (/6)I/** H.>. ), ed. F. Hlass, .9+/ ff.
-r. %ratiFonesG .
4&s. )'sistrata .
7i!!. (ippol'tus .
2lut. Plutus .
. 7ere is eTuated with and %ontrasted with i .
,em. De #eilio , ouomodo ,dulator ab ,mi%ointernoseatur .
9er. ;um. 2un. De iis $ui sero a nuine puniuntur .
@il%:en 2tol. K. @il%:en, 8rkunden der Ptole=er-eit , .9** ff.
1th. ;i%. &thica !icoachea .
the three along with and , and within it the& !er%eive
l6 (as ) and i (as
),
v
. ,rnim , III, .+0, .6 ff. and %f. IndeB.
1
!i%t. et
3
iss. , II, . defends the 9toi%
!aradoB that true and %onstitute a unit&.
b. In the 9e!tuagint the verb is found most, though rarel& in the older sense of
to be on guard" ( 9ir. .65*7 # **5** m *7 n# *650 #
1
!. ?er. )). It usuall& means to fear," being used
for various 7eb. words, e.g., with a%%. 3t. *5) ( Msf PdQ ni!h)# 9ir. ).5/ ( 0 ) ( Mcf ied )# @is. .*5.. # *
8a%%. 65.6 ( !ar. q )# 95*9 . @ith 1 B. 18:15 ( M^eRe .( *9 ) [M] `d ). ,bsol.
Is. 075.. ( R[f red )# 9ir. /. ( /) )5.6 ( !ar. ). @ith
i
nf. 1B. /56 ( [M] `d #( 1 t. 4:28 .
@ith q . 8a%%. /5/+ # .*5)+ . It is hard to differentiate from and is often used
together with it ( 3t. *5) # Is. 075.. # ?er. 05** # 8al. /5.6 # 9ir. 75*9 m /. n# /. m /) n5.6f.) or with
( 3a. )5* , where O has instead of ). It o%%urs as a
v
l.
with at Is. 0.5.* # ?ob /5*0 .
,bove all (often with ) means the fear of <od," being used in this sense
for [M] `d ( 1B. /56 ) and the inter$e%tion cf ( ge!h. .57 # ge%h. *5./ m .7 n# 7ab. *5*+ ), but also for
cd hd ( 2rv. *)5*6 m /+50 n# ;a. .57 # ge!h. /5.* et%.)# %f. also 9ir. 75*9 ( /. ) ( Mhf ied #( .65*7 #
*/5.6 ) *6 ). ,t 2rv. *56 M`a hd is rendered () and at ) 8a%%. )5./
i means one who is filled with religious s%ru!les." at * 8a%%.
65.. means to have religious awe."
The (found onl& / times) is one who :ee!s %areful wat%h (against be%oming
un%lean)" in 4v. .05/. and the !ious" in 8i. 75* ( M`a hd )# 9ir. ..5.7 (in both %ases vl.
).
(used onl& / times) means %on%ern" or anBiet&" at ?os. **5*) # @is. .756 and
religious awe" at 2rv. *65.) .
%. The word grou! does not o%%ur in the 2s. 9ol. , the
T
est. 'II or
1
!. ,r.
In ?os.
,
nt. , .., */9 , is used for the nervousness" of 1sther before the :ing, and
in ,nt. , 6, *09 means the fear of <od.
2hilo uses essentiall& in the older <:. sense for fearful" (
(
it. 8os. , I, 6/ ),
wat%hful," %autious" (
4
eg. <a$. , .6* , es!.
9
om. , II, 6+ , o!!. ).
is to be on guard" ( 4eg. <a$. , .09 ), to fear" (
?
os. , *)0 #
2
raem. 2oen. , 69 ), and in the sense
of religious awe,
A
er. 3iv. 7er. , ** . seems to be used alwa&s in the sense of to
fear," abs.
,
br. , *+6 #
9
!e%. 4eg. , I(, 6 et%.# with the a%%.
F
la%%. , .)0 # (it. 8os. , I, *.0 et%.#
v. ,rnim ?. v. ,rnim, Stoicoru veteru 9ragenta , .9*. f.
1!i%t. 1!i%tetus, 2hr&gian slave of 7iera!olis in the da&s of ;ero (0+I./+ ,.3. ), freed at the im!erial !ala%e,
9toi% of the &ounger s%hool and !rea%her of ethi%s tinged with religion. From his le%tures his !u!il ,rrian
%olle%ted 6 boo:s of diatribes whi%h have been !reserved, ed. 7. 9%hen:l
*
, .9.6.
3iss. 3issertation.
1!. ?er. &pistle of 0ereiah , ?ewish a!o%r&!hal writing, in 4'' atta%hed to the Hoo: of Haru%h as the siBth
%ha!ter (/rdI*nd %entur& H.>. ), !robabl& originating in the Hab&lonian diaspora .
inf. infinitive.
vl. varia lectio .
Test. 'II Testaments of the Twelve 2atriar%hs, ?ewish wor:, slightl& revised in a >hristian sense, dating from the
*nd or .st %entur& ,.3. and %onsisting of addresses of the twelve sons of ?a%ob to their des%endants, ed. A. 7.
>harles, .9+6.
1!. ,r. &pistle of #risteas , a!o%r&!hal ?ewish a%%ount of the origin of the 4'' (*nd or .st %entur& H.>. ), ed. 2.
@endland, .9++.
,nt. #nti$uitates .
(it. 8os. De Vita 3osis .
4eg. <a$. )egatio ad Ga5u .
9om. De Soniis .
?os. De 0osepho .
2raem. 2oen. De Praeiis et Poenis .
Aer. 3iv. 7er. ?uis /eru Divinaru (eres sit .
,br. De #brahao .
9!e%. 4eg. De Specialibus )egibus .
Fla%%. .n 9laccu .
mostl& with a material
o
b$. , but with !arents as ob$. in 9!e%. 4eg. , II, / and */) (differentiated
from or l ) and the highD!riests in III, ./* . <od is the ob$. , though
does not here have the s!e%ifi% sense of religious awe, in
<
ig. , )7 , where it is
differentiated from l . @ith i ?os. , *00 #
(
irt. , 67 . Followed b&
F
ug. , ./. #
(it. 8os. , I, */6 et%. o%%urs in the sense of religious awe in Aer. 3iv. 7er. , *9 #
8
ut. ;om. , ./) # 9!e%. 4eg. , II, 0) . is found in the sense of nervousness" or
!ruden%e" in
3
et. 2ot. Ins. , )0 (%f. 1ur.2hoen. , 76*# ,risto!h.,v. ,/77)#
4
eg. ,ll. , III, ../ # (irt.
, *) # it !robabl& has a religious sense in
-
!. 8und. , .06 # 9!e%. 4eg. , III, */ , and %ertainl& in
Aer. 3iv. 7er. , ** and *9 # 9om. , II, 6* and .). (%f. 4eg. <a$. , */6 , a res!e%tful attitude before
the em!eror). -n the other hand means fear of <od rather than awe or reveren%e in
>
her. , *9 # 9!e%. 4eg. , I, *7+ and //+ . It means reveren%e before <od in 8ut. ;om. , *+. and
before the em!eror in 4eg. <a$. , *0* , and in both %ases it is lin:ed with l6 . The 9toi%
!aradoB ( supra ) %on%erning the interrelationshi! of and is ada!ted b&
2hilo in Aer. 3iv. 7er. , ** and *9 to des%ribe a trul& !ious attitude before <od.
B. )arl$ Christian &sage.
The word grou! is rare in earl& >hristian literature. ,t 4:. *5*0 is used with
i ( .69 ) to des%ribe 9imeon. ,t ,%. *50 the ?ews of the dis!ersion dwelling at
?erusalem are %alled , and the who bur& 9te!hen at
65* are again ?ews. ,nanias is %alled an q q at ,%. **5.* .
alwa&s means !ious" or devout" as in the 4'' ( 70* ), and it is no a%%ident
that the !iet& thus %hara%terised is that whi%h %onsists in s%ru!ulous observan%e of the 4aw, as
ma& be seen in ,%. **5.* ( 70. ). The vg uses tioratus at 4:. *5*0 # ,%. 65* , religiosus at
,%. *50 and vir secundu lege at **5.* . In
8
art.
2
ol. , *, . we have the sense of reverent fear
of <od, and in
?
ust.
3
ial. , 79, * the term is used for sho%:ed feelings at blas!hemous utteran%e.
The vl. at ,%. */5.+ has the sense of to fear," the true reading being
. This sense is !erha!s !resent also at 7b. ..57 5 ()
(
v
g etuens ), though it ma& sim!l& im!l& reverent awe. To
fear" is %ertainl& the meaning in . >l., )), 0# ?ust.3ial. , 7, . and .*/, / (where <odOs
is the ob$. ).
o%%urs at 7b. 057 # .*5*6 . In the se%ond !assage ({ l q
i i , m vl. l n),
in %on$un%tion with has the sense of anBiet&," so that the %ombination
%orres!onds to the of 2hil. *5.* . The %o!&ist, however,
obviousl& understood it in the sense of !ious reveren%e" ( 70. f. ), sin%e he amended the
to l # the vg translates cu etu et reverentia . 8u%h dis!uted is 7b. 057 5
(?esus) { li
{ l q i, i
ob$. ob$e%t.
<ig. De Gigantibus .
(irt. De Virtutibus .
Fug. De 9uga et .nventione .
8ut. ;om. De 3utatione !oinu .
3et. 2ot. Ins. ?uod Deterius Potiori insidiari soleat .
4eg. ,ll. )egu #llegoriae .
-!. 8und. De %pificio 3undi .
>her. De 1herubi .
8art. 3art'riu .
2ol. Pol'carpi .
?ust. ?ustin 8art&r, eBe%uted %. .60 ,.3. , author of an a!olog& against the atta%:s on >hristians, and also of a
dis%ussion with ?udaism in the Dialogue 2ith "r'pho , ed. 1. <oods!eed in Die =ltesten #pologeten , .9.)# ed.
<. FrGer, .9.0.
3ial. Dialogus cu "r'phone 0udaeo .
vg (ulgate.
l, q . If we understand b& the fear
of <od or !iet&, then must have the sense of b& reason of,"
*
and the meaning is that 7e
was heard be%ause of 7is !iet&. This eB!lanation seems to be eB%luded, however, b& the fa%t
that the hearing %ould then %onsist onl& in 7is deliveran%e from death. -n the other hand, if
we give to the sense of fear" or anBiet&," then the meaning is that 7e was heard
out of 7is anBiet&, so that 7e was liberated from anBiet& (if not from death). Hut this is not
satisfa%tor& in the %onteBt# in !arti%ular it does not do $usti%e to the i l . Full
$usti%e is done to this onl& if we assume that the teBt is %orru!t and that there ought to be an
before li whi%h was understandabl& %ut out on religious grounds.
/

o%%urs again at 2ol., 6, /5 (s%.
) i . 7ere it might well mean reveren%e" before <od.
@h& is the word grou! so rare in the religious sense in earl& >hristian literature ,nd
wh&, when a word was needed for the %on%e!t of religion, was not sele%ted
instead of i ( ,%. *650 , vg religio ), seeing seemed to have been
mar:ed out for this role b& its 7ellenisti% usage -ne reason is !erha!s that does
not in%lude %ulti% !iet& as does i . Hut a!art from this the main reason is that the
de%isive element in is the negative as!e%t of nervous %aution, as ma& be seen from
the %onne%tion between and i ( 70. ). It is thus natural that
?ews should be %alled when their !iet& %onsists in wat%hful vigilan%e against
transgressing the 4aw. It is also natural that should %ome to be used for the hoo
religiosus in the 1astern >hur%h and in monasti%ism. 7ere and
be%ome s!iritual titles, and q q a form of address.
)
It is also natural that in
modern <ree%e, where religion %onsists essentiall& in i, should be
the %ommon word for !iet&.
B
ultann
A)!, A)&, A), )!
*

A)!, A) .
-f few words in the ;T is it so !lain as of and i that the& do not ta:e
their meaning from se%ular <ree: but from the fa%t that the& are the renderings of 7ebrew
words whi%h a%Tuired their religious signifi%an%e in the -T and other ?ewish writings.
A. A)! and A) in ree% Literat#re.
4iterall& means (both in form and %ontent) to s!ea: well." either in the sense of
to s!ea: finel&" or to s!ea: well of someone." The first meaning o%%urs with the noun. Thus
* For in this sense %f. 2s. DHauer, ./7 on , (, ..
/ 9o ,. v. 7arna%:, 9,H , .9*9, 6* ff.# Hl.D3ebr.
6
y *.. ta:es q i in the sense of of his
!iet&," but lin:s it with rather than li , and then %ontinues5 q
. This is, however, ver& artifi%ial, and in !arti%ular it does not give full weight to i l .
For other suggestions v. @nd. 7b.
) F. Ferjn&i, op. cit. , /..# ,. gehetmair, De appellationibus honorificis in pap'ris obviis ( 3iss. 8arburg,
.9..), 0*f.# -. 7orni%:el, &hren< und /angpr=dikate in den Pap'rusurkunden ( 3iss. <iessen, .9/+), ./ f.
Hultmann Audolf Hultmann , 8arburg ((ol. .I6, 9).
C . >r.DFJ. , 66) ff.# A1/ , '(III, .)6ff.# A<<
*
, (, /66 ff.# 8. 1bert, /ealle:ikon der
Vorgeschichte , III (.9*0), /9.# 'II (.9*6), 0ff.# H. 4andsberger, 3as gute @ort " in B. 3eissner<9estschrift6
.. `` 3itteilungen der #ltorientalischen Gesellschaft , I( (.9*9), *9) ff.# ?. 2edersen, .srael IvII (3anish .9*+#
1ng. .9*6)# 9. 8owin%:el, Psalenstudien , (5 9egen und Flu%h in Israels Fult und 2salmdi%htung " (UU
Videnskapsselskapets Skrifter , II5 7ist.DFilos. Flasse, .9*/, ;o. /)# ?. 7em!el, 3ie israelitis%hen
,ns%hauungen von 9egen und Flu%h im 4i%hte altorientalis%her 2arallelen ," g38< , ;F ) (.9*0), *+ff.# ?.
1lbogen, Der 5d. Gottesdienst in seiner geschichtlichen &nt2ieklung
*
(.9*)), )f.# 1. ;orden, #gnostos "heos
(.9./), .)9ff.
2lat.
A
es!. , III, )++d lin:s i , i.e., fine or noble s!ee%h," with i (good
nature"), (gra%e of manner") and i (!ro!ortion") to eB!ress a
genuinel& moral dis!osition. In
4
u%. 4eBi!hanes, . the fine s!ea:er sa&s5 {,
i { , l q q i
, c 6 . This !assage shows alread& that there
%an also be something unwel%ome about fine s!ea:ing. The se%ond meaning, to !raise," to
eBtol," to eulogise," is more %ommon along with the %orres!onding nouns, though it is almost
never found in !rose5
,
es%h.
,
g. ,06+5 #
9
o!h.
-
ed.
>ol. , 7*+5 i # ,risto!h.
1
T. , 0605 q
q # ibid. , 0965

l ,
1
%%l. , )0)5 c
#
I
so%. , 6, .+05 q
, q #
2
ind.
;
em. , ), 05 i
# 1ur.
7
er%. Fur. , /065 q l i . -n the
!
a!. it also
%omes to means advo%a%&"5
2
. -B&. , I, 60, ) (/rdv)th %ent. ,.3. )5 l c i
. The o!!. is , (
2
s.D
2lat.
8
in. ,/*+e) or ( 2ol&b. , ., .), )). -n one single o%%asion we have the of a
man b& gods5 1ur.
9
u!!l. , 9*05 q l {
, the gods honour a man and grant him benefits. Hut man also eBtols the
god, e.g., 2an5
>
I< , III, !. ..9+,
;
o. )7+0b, * or Isis, )7+0%, *. The %on%e!t of blessing" !la&s a
sur!risingl& meagre role in the %lassi%al world. There is no s!e%ifi% terminolog& for it. The %ontent
of what the gods lavish on men is denoted b& the word , whi%h im!lies good fortune and
all that is ne%essar& to wellDbeing5 7om.
-
d. , 6, .66 f.5 Z

O 6, qc , g, q . @e ma&
also thin: of ,es%h.
1
um. , 997 ff.5 i 6, q ,
i i, q. H

. The gods are menOs hel!ers and defenders even though the& also %hide and !unish them.
Hut there are no s!e%ifi% a%ts of blessing. @hen the eB!ression i o%%urs on an
ins%r. of the /rd %ent. H.>. ( 3itt. -r. , I, 7), .), the referen%e is to a ?ew5 O
. >f. also 3itt. -r. , I, 7/, ..
Aes!. /espublica .
4u%. 4u%ianus, of 9amosata in 9&ria (.*+I.6+ ,.3. ), bestD:nown, though renegade, re!resentative of the 9e%ond
9o!histi% 9%hool, rhetori%ian and livel& satirist of his e!o%h, ed. >. ?a%obitE, .6/6# @. 3indorf, .606.
,es%h. ,es%h&lus, of 1leusis near ,thens (0*0I)06 H.>. ), the first of the three great ,tti% dramatists, ed. K. v.
@ilamowitE, .9.0# Fragments, ed. ,. ;au%: in Tragi%orum <rae%orum Fragmenta , .669.
,g. #gaenon .
9o!h. 9o!ho%les, of ,thens ()96I)+6 H.>. ), the real !oet of the ,thens of 2eri%les, ed. ,. >. 2earson, .9*).
-ed. >ol. %edipus 1oloneus .
1T. &$uites .
1%%l. &cclesia-usae .
Iso%. Iso%rates, of ,thens ()/6I//6 H.>. ), originall& a barrister and writer of !oliti%al !am!hlets, later in
%onne%tion with the 9o!hists an outstanding re!resentative of general %ulture in the )th %entur&, ed. F. Hlass,
.9./ ff.
2ind.
2indar, of >&nos%e!halae, near Thebes (0.6I))6 H.>. ), the most im!orrant author of <ree:
odes, and !rea%her of the ideal of nobilit& still held at the beginning of the 0th %entur&. 7is
most im!ortant surviving !oems are the &pinicia , in !raise of vi%tors in the national games,
ed. -. 9%hroeder, .9/+
;em. !eea .
7er%. Fur. (ercules 9urens .
!a!. 2a!&rus, shortened to 2. when s!e%ifi% editions are Tuoted.
2. -B&. "he %:'rh'nchus Pap'ri , ed. H. <renfell and ,. 7unt, .696 ff.
2s.D2lat. 2seudoD2lato.
8in. 3inos .
9u!!l. Supplices .
>I< 1orpus .nscriptionu Graecaru , .6*6 ff.
;o. number.
-d. %d'sse' .
1um. &uenides .
B. Blessing in the OT.
The %on%e!t of blessing ado!ted in the ;T is most im!ortant in the oriental world and ta:es on
a !arti%ular signifi%an%e in ?udaism. This ma& be seen from the fa%t that the word
o%%urs more than )++ times in the 4''.
Hlessing, li:e %ursing, is an ob$e%t of belief in !rimitive religion.
.
It is one of the oldest
religious %on%e!tions that there are beings and for%es from whi%h good and life and !ower
derive, as well as those from whi%h evil %omes. The transfer is made b& a%tions (gestures or
%onta%ts), and es!e%iall& b& words, whi%h ma& im!l& either blessing or %ursing. ,%%ording to
!rimitive belief something material %omes with the blessing. -n%e set in motion, as when a
father blesses his %hild, the o!eration is irresistible unless thwarted b& eTuall& strong
o!!osing for%es. 8en and things whi%h are blessed are as it were endowed with this !ower
and %an transmit it, affe%ting ever&thing with whi%h the& %ome in %onta%t. @hat has been said
a!!lies to the fullest !ossible degree when the blessing %omes dire%tl& from the deit&. In this
%ase it is a su!ernatural furtheran%e of manOs a%tion and %ourse whi%h !ro%eeds from the
deit&."
*

8an& elements deriving from this religious ba%:ground ma& still be found in the terms
xZ M] Le] and cWdMd LeZ whi%h the Israelites use for blessing and whi%h are translated and
i in the 4''.
/
The 7eb. cWdMd LeZ does not merel& signif& ~blessingO or ~a blessing,O
but also ~being blessedO or ~being filled with blessing,O as well as the %on%rete blessings whi%h
ensue, e.g., good fortune, !ower, et%."
)

.. 8an %arries within him a !ower to bless whi%h he %an transmit, usuall& to his heirs. The
%ontent of the blessing is originall& the master& whi%h the father gives to the son before his
death. 7e %an give this onl& on%e, and the a%tion is irrevo%able.
This belief hel!s us to understand the stor& of ?a%obOs de%e!tion of Isaa% in <n. *75. ff. ?a%ob
himself blesses ?ose!h in <n. )65.0 # )95*0 f. , and also his two sons, !utting his right hand on the
head of the &ounger and thus allotting to him the more !owerful blessing. There is thus a regular
transmission of the blessing as an inheritan%e. <n. )95*6 5 The blessings granted to th& father
eB%elled the blessing of the everlasting hills, the s!lendour of the eternal mountains. 8a& the&
now %ome on the head of ?ose!h. " The s!e%ifi% %ontent of the blessing are a long and su%%essful
life and numerous %hildren, best summed u! in the word V^_\PdQ .
0
The sa&ing in 9ir. /5.. is a
moralisti% e%ho of this belief5 The blessing of the father builds the %hildrenOs houses."
*. Hut even when ?a%ob blesses his son ?ose!h, he does so in the form of !ra&er to <od5
8a& he bless thee with the blessings of heaven above," <n. )95*0 . The -ne who !ossesses
and dis!enses all blessings is <od the 4ord. This is the sa%red :nowledge underl&ing all -T
. >f. /ealle:ikon der Vorgeschichte , III, /9.# 'II, 0 ff. -n what follows %f. es!. 2edersen, ./0 ff. The %on%e!t
of blessing was alread& well develo!ed in the Hab&lonian world, as H. 4andsberger, op. cit. has shown. It is
worth nothing that here alread& ma& be !er%eived a develo!ment a%%ording to whi%h the blessing %omes not
merel& b& gesture and a%t but de%isivel& b& word (/./ f.), and that the term karabu denotes the blessing given b&
the deit& as well as manOs adoration (*9) f.).
* A. Fittel, A1/ , '(III, .)6# 8owin%:el, Psalenstudien , ( (.9*)), 0 ff.
/ -n a few o%%asions is also used for other 7eb. words, e.g., Mrfcb , 3a. 05*/ # \\fcd , Is. /65.6 #
6)5.. ( .+ )# crd`d , Is. .*5. # /65.9 # [M] `d , Is. *05/ # MYf `d , 3t. /+59 # rL] Wed , Is. *05/ # )/5*+ # tRfSd , Is. /65*+ #
tSfMd , ?ob *95./ # cud Md , 2 B. 24:23 # 48:13 # ..65.+6 # hLf PZQ , 3a. 05) ,
) 8owin%:el, 0.
0 7em!el, 0.. In an%ient 9&rian sour%es, too, long and effe%tive life and man& %hildren are the %ontent of
blessing, e.g., ins%r. of ,ssuruballit, I, %la& tablet in the Hrit. 8useum, 96, 9)7, in 1. 1beling, H. 8eissner, 1. F.
@eidner, Die .nschriften der altass'rischen 4nige (.9*6), ).. >f. for the 7th and 6th %ent. 8. ?astrow, Die
/eligion Bab'loniens und #ss'riens , I (.9+0), ).6. 7ere the blessing derives its true %hara%ter from the ana .
statements %on%erning blessing. <od, however, is !ersonal will and not im!ersonal for%e.
7en%e even the sa&ings in whi%h there are e%hoes of !rimitive religion a%Tuire a new
signifi%an%e.
There is no longer an& %onne%tion between blessing and a ana . Hlessing does not wor: in
the form of a magi%al !ower overflowing man. It is not a !s&%hi%al !ower whi%h ma:es its
!ossessor a lu%:& fellow" and endows him with s!e%ial abilit&.
6
The blessing of =ahweh is the
gra%ious divine gift whi%h 7e dis!enses in sovereign freedom, granting 7is favour to individuals
or to a !eo!le and %ausing the wor: of their hands to su%%eed ( 3t. *65.* # 659I.7 ).Thus there are
several !assages in whi%h <od 7imself im!arts the blessing5 <n. .5** , *6 # *5/ # 05* # 95. # .)59 #
*)5.9 5 A # /950 5 i
i # 44:2 # 6656 # .*656 # 2rv. .+56 and man& others. <od %an also %hange a
%urse into a blessing, 3t. */50 ( 6 )# ;eh. ./5* .
<odOs blessing rules over %reation. ,s soon as <od had %reated living %reatures whi%h did
not %ome forth out of the earth li:e the !lants and beasts of the earth, 7e blessed them5 He
fruitful, and multi!l&" ( <n. .5** ). Fishes and birds need this blessing, but es!e%iall& man.
The first thing <od does in relation to man is to bless him ( <n. .5*6 ). The gifts given to him
are fruitfulness and dominion. The !romise of numerous !rogen& is the %ontent of man& blessings,
e.g., <n. .*5* # ./5.6 et%.# also Auth )5.. f. # 2 B. 7:11-16 # Tob. .+5.. f. <od also sustains
7is wor: b& %ausing showers of blessing to fall ( 1E. /)5*6 ). Fruitfulness of field and %attle, and
multi!li%ation of !ossessions, are !romised, %f. 3t. *65.I./ .
7
-rdinan%es li:e the 9abbath are
blessed as well as man ( <n. *5/ # 1B. *+5.. ). >attle and shee!, %orn and wine, bas:et and store
all stand under the blessing of =ahweh.
This blessing %omes !arti%ularl& on man as one who is a%tive in histor&. ,dam, ;oah, the
!atriar%hs and 8oses are all blessed b& <od. The sim!lest and fullest eB!ression of this is to
be found in the !romise of <od in <n. *65/ 5 I will be with thee,"
6
or <n. .757 f. 5 I will be
a <od unto thee, and to th& seed after thee." This blessing !ronoun%ed over ,braham and all
that he has is the !romise of <od fulfilled in ?esus >hrist. Hetween ,braham and >hrist it
rests on the !eo!le of Israel.
In the dramati% events on mounts 1bal and <eriEim ( 3t. *759 ff. ) the !eo!le is shown that its
whole histor& stands under the o!eration of blessing and %ursing ( 3t. ..5*6 ff. # /+5. ff. , .0 ff. #
%f. also 4v. *65/ ff. ). <od has left the %hoi%e between the two to the !eo!le.
9
It is a %hoi%e
between the wrath of <od and the gra%e of <od, between life and death, faith and unbelief,
6 A. Fittel (A1, '(III, .)6 ff.), ?. 2edersen ( .srael IvII, ./0 ff.) and 9. 8owin%:el ( Psalenstudien , (, 0 ff.)
have !erformed the servi%e of bringing to light the religioDhistori%al roots of Israelite ideas of blessing and
%ursing. In relation to their wor: the onl& tas:, finel& eBe%uted b& ?. 7em!el ( g38< , ;F, ) m.9*0n, 90 ff.#
A<<
*
, (, /9. ff.), is to em!hasise the fa%t that, although there are in the -T tra%es of !rimitive ideas whi%h
betra& their origin in !rimitive magi% in s!ite of ever& sublimation," nevertheless the -T trans%ends these reli%s
and has learned and tea%hes us a %om!letel& new understanding of the blessing of the ,lmight& in both form and
%ontent. 8owin%:elOs theor& that the %on%e!t of blessing develo!s from an original union of the soul with deit&
%on%eived in !urel& m&sti%al terms" ((, 7 f.) to the more rational %on%e!tion that =ahweh is the <iver of
blessing, suffers from the defe%ts .. that the essential develo!ment ta:es !la%e !rior to the -T , and *. that it is
not Tuite a%%uratel& stated. It ma& be Tuestioned whether <od was ever thought of in Israel as the great !rimitive
for%e with whom one ma& have m&sti%al union of soul. ,nd the %on%e!tion of blessing ado!ted in Israel was not
a%hieved b& wa& of rationalisation but sim!l& b& wa& of a serious a%%e!tan%e of the insight that =ahweh is the
4ord.
7 is lin:ed with in <n. .*5* , with in **5.7 , with in *65/ ,
with 6, i, i in 27: , and with li in 66:1 .
6 9o also <n. /95*I0 5 <od the 4ord was with ?ose!h. If the blessing whi%h for ?ose!hOs sa:e %ame on 2oti!har
and his house was reall& automati% a%%ording to the !rimitive %on%e!tion, i.e., if it was transferred magi%all&
from the lu%:& fellow" ?ose!h to the 1g&!tians (8owin%:el, (, 6), it is signifi%ant that this view of the matter
was su!!ressed in the written a%%ount. @hat wor:s in ?ose!h a%%ording to the re%ord is not an inde!endent for%e.
The favour, the gra%ious will, of him that dwelt in the bush" %ame u!on the head of ?ose!h, as is later said of
his tribe in 3t. //5.6 , and this goodD!leasure was eBtended to those with whom he %ame in %onta%t.
9 7em!el, **, n. /.
obedien%e and disobedien%e. It is in relation to the First >ommandment that the de%ision is made.
For the transgressor it be%omes a %urse# for him who fears and loves <od alone it is a most might&
%onfirmation of the !romise on%e given to ,braham ( 3t. /+5.6 ).
There is also the !ossibilit&, of %ourse, that there will be a division between blessing and
%ursing within the !eo!le. -riginall& blessing is for Israel and %ursing for all its enemies. Hut
it is in%reasingl& realised that the blessings are onl& for those who :ee! <odOs
%ommandments, for the righteous. @ith the develo!ment of a righteousness of wor:s there
even arises a %laim to blessing5 23:4 5 7e that hath %lean hands, and a !ure heart# who
hath not lifted u! his soul unto vanit&, nor sworn de%eitfull&. 7e shall re%eive the blessing
from the 4ord, and a righteous reward from the <od of his salvation."
.+
Hehind this there
stands, however, the great de%ision of ?er. .750 , 7 5 >ursed be the man that trusteth in man,
and ma:eth flesh his arm { Hlessed is the man that trusteth in the 4ord, and whose ho!e the
4ord is."
/. It is natural that the %onstant reminder of <odOs !romised blessing should ta:e %ulti%
forms. Indeed, it ma& be that the %ultus is the sour%e of Israelite %on%e!tions of blessing. In it
the Israelite as:s for life (%f. ,mos 05) ff. ), and this life is granted to him through the divine
ora%le, through the word of the !riest (%f. . 9. .5.7 ). 7e is %onvin%ed that the substan%e of the
!ower of blessing must be as it were filled u! b& %ertain sa%ral a%tions. The de%isive !oint is
the desire of the !eo!le for %onstant awareness of blessing. 7en%e %ertain s!e%iall& %alled men
must !ro%laim blessing in the divine name and b& the divine %ommission, or as: =ahweh for
blessing in %ulti% !ra&er.
1Bam!les are the blessing !ronoun%ed b& 8el%hiEede: over ,braham in <n. .)5.9 , the great
!arting blessing of the twelve tribes b& 8oses in 3t. //5. ff. and the blessings of ?oshua in .)5./ #
**56 , 7 , of the highD!riest 1li in . 9. *5*+ and of others. In !arti%ular, it is a right of the :ing to
dis!ense blessing in solemn %ulti% form. @hen the ar: is brought to ?erusalem and sa%rifi%e has
been offered, 3avid blesses the !eo!le in the name of the 4ord of hosts ( * 9. 65.6 ). @hen the
tem!le is %onse%rated 9olomon blesses the standing %ongregation at the beginning and the end ( .
F. 65.) , 00 ). 2arti%ular signifi%an%e has been atta%hed to the fa%t that 9amuel in . 9. 95./ blesses
a sa%rifi%e, sin%e the original ana %on%e!tion of blessing ma& be dete%ted in this sa%ramental a%t.
Hut the referen%e is onl& an isolated one in the -T .
-nl& graduall& does it be%ome a !rerogative of the !riest to bless. The basis is to be found
in ;u. 65**I*7 , where the ,aroni% blessing is fiBed as a formula of !riestl& blessing.
,aron blesses in 4v. 95** f. The 4evites, with other !riestl& duties, then assume that of
blessing, 3t. .+56 # *.50 # . >h. */5./ . From this time onwards blessing !la&s an in%reasing role
in the %ultus. 2ra&er for blessing re%eives the festal !ro%ession before the gates of the tem!le or in
the tem!le %ourt# in the festal songs blessing is used as a greeting and there is also !etition for
blessing answered in the solemn tones of the !riests# the whole %ontent of the feast is finall&
summed u! in the ma$esti% blessing of the !riest from the altar, and then in the song of
than:sgiving the blessing is given ba%: in the form of !raise of =ahweh eBtolling the might and
glor& of the <odhead."
..
The !ra&er of 2s. /56 is %onstantl& e%hoed5 Th& blessing be u!on th&
!eo!le."
). Aeferen%e to the %ulti% !raise of =ahweh introdu%es us to a s!e%ial use of xZ M] Le] and
whi%h !la&s an im!ortant !art in both the -T and the ;T . ;ot onl& do we have
the blessing of men b& <od, or b& the !riests in <odOs name# we also have the blessing of
<od b& men.
.+ 4''5 i i q
.
.. 8owin%:el, (, ./+. 8owin%:el has well brought out the !art !la&ed b& blessing and %ursing in the %ulti%
!salms. -n the inner relationshi! between the blessing of the !riest and the h&mn of the %ongregation, as finel&
eB!ressed in 9ir. 0+5** , %f. ?. 7em!el, Die alt6 hebr=ische )iteratur (.9/+), /* f., 7+.
1.g., <n. *)5)6 # 3t. 65.+ # ?u. 05* , 9 # Tob. .*56 5
# 15:7 # //5. # 675*6 # 3a. /507 ff. (/* times). 8ost %ommon is the
formula or ( 76) ). 7ow this ma& be is eB!lained b&
religioDhistori%al investigation from the same fa%ts as those hitherto addu%ed in relation to the
origins of blessing. The deit& has the !ower to bless and this !ower %an be lessened b& %urses or
strengthened b& blessings.
,gain there are hardl& an& tra%es of this !rimitive %on%e!tion in the -T . Hut
is an established !art of religious life. The !raising of the name of =ahweh is the most
distin%tive eB!ression of the !ra%ti%e of religion b& the %ongregation."
.*
The Israelite who
:nows that his whole life is in the hands of the >reator %annot find an& better eB!ression for
his faith and gratitude and ho!e than b& giving <od the glor&.
This is the !re%ise sense of xZ M] Le] and in this %onne%tion. The !raise of <od ta:es
the form of !ra&er, whether !ubli% or domesti%. ,long with the formula (
76) ) the %ontent of this !ra&er is a de%laration of <odOs wor:s to 7is glor& ( Tob. .*56 ) whi%h
%an be a!!lied a%%ording to the individual o%%asion for whi%h one wishes to glorif& <od.
0. The verb xZ M] Le] %an often be used for blessing in a more general sense. -riginall& an&
greeting between men was a blessing. Thus xZ M] Le] %an mean to greet," e.g., . 9. ./5.+ , where 9aul
goes out to meet 9amuel in order to salute him. 9imilarl& cWdMd LeZ and i %an be used for the
gift with whi%h one greets someone higher in ran:, <n. //5.. # . 9. *05*7 et%.
6. Finall&, xZ M] Le] is often used eu!hemisti%all& where we should reall& have \\e]Na , to %urse."
This use is %onne%ted with the an%ient fear of %ursing and its evil effe%ts even when inadvertentl&
!ronoun%ed. >are is ta:en never to use the name of <od and the word for %ursing together, >f. .
F. *.5.+ , ./ # 2s. .+5/ # ?ob .5.. # *50 , 9 as distin%t from the true sense in .5*. . The whole
!rologue of ?ob is built on this twofold sense.
7. @e must as: in %on%lusion whether the rendering of xZ M] Le] b& in the 4''
does not in some sense give a new turn to the %on%e!t. -ur answer %an onl& be that alread& in
the histor& of the 7ebrew term there ta:es !la%e the de%isive develo!ment from !rimitive
dealings with m&sterious !owers to the eB!ression of manOs s!iritual relationshi! to <od
whose gra%ious dis!osition he %onstantl& eB!erien%es from %reation onwards, giving the
res!onse of !raise and than:sgiving. The %lear <ree: word , whi%h means to
!raise" in se%ular <ree: ( 70) ), sim!l& sets the seal on this develo!ment, eB%luding
%om!letel& an& magi%al or m&sti%al understanding.
C. Blessing in "#daism at the Time of "es#s.
.. The word is %ommon in the wor:s of 2hilo, mostl& in eB!ositions of the bibli%al
!assages in whi%h it o%%urs. In a s!e%ial !assage in 2raem. 2oen. whi%h is now !artiall& lost he
treats s!e%ifi%all& of the %ontent of blessing in %onne%tion with the %losing %ha!ter of 3t. 7ere
there is a %onsistent develo!ment of the thought of reward for those who are faithful to the 4aw.
To them all material good fortune is !romised. 1lsewhere in 2hilo the %on%e!t is strongl&
rationalised.
8
igr. ,br. , 7+ %alls blessing the third gift" of <od along with ho!e of a vita
conteplativa and growth to the multi!li%it& and greatness of the beautiful." It assures the
%ontinuan%e of the other two. 2hilo also indulges in word !la& when he divides into its
%onstituent !arts in ,br. 8igr. , 7+ , or when he relates (to bless") and
(rational") and eB!lains the blessing of the 9abbath5 li

q l q (an
intentional ambiguit&5 rational" and blessed")
c , 4eg. ,ll. , I, .6 . The is
now given a strongl& rational basis5 -f all the right a%tions whi%h we ma& !rodu%e, the best and
.* H. 3uhm, Das Buch (iob (.697), .*. The role of doBolog& in !enal law is !ointed out b& F. 7orst, g,@ , )7
(.9*9), 0+ ff. in relation to ?os. 75.9 and other !assages.
8igr. ,br. De 3igratione #brahai .
most !erfe%t !rodu%t is the h&mn to the Father of all things,"
2
lant. , ./0 # It is fitting that the man
who has <od as his !ortion should !raise and magnif& 7im,"
9
obr. , 06 . 2hilo enTuires as to the
true ethos behind this a%tion, and he %on%ludes that uns!o:en thoughts rather than words are the
true norm, 8igr. ,br. , ..7 . ?ose!h. s!ea:s %onstantl& of , ,nt. , ), /.6 #
7, /6+ f. # 6, ... and ..9 # 9, .0 # .., 6+ , but he does not add to our understanding. 7e, too,
de!i%ts the !arting blessing of 8oses in ,nt. , ), /+* , and he s!ea:s of the %ommandments to
whi%h the lawDgiver anneBed blessings in
H
ell. , 0, )+. .
*. 8ore signifi%ant is the develo!ment of the term cWdMd LeZ among the Aabbis. Hlessing is
now im!arted a%%ording to s!e%ifi% rules whi%h were basi%all& wor:ed out well before the
time of ?esus.
a. The ,aroni% blessing is firml& established in the tem!le %ultus.
,t the dail& morning servi%e, between the in%ense offering and the burnt offering, five !riests
engaged in the san%tuar& %ome on to the ste!s before the tem!le and with u!lifted hands
!ronoun%e the blessing ( ;u. 65** ff. ) over the !eo!le, the name of =ahweh, though onl& in the
tem!le at ?erusalem, being o!enl& used rather than a substitute.
./

b. -nl& a !riest ma& !ronoun%e the ,aroni% blessing in the s&nagogue.
The %ongregation answers ,men. If no !riest is !resent, a member of the %ongregation ma&
utter the blessing in the form of a !etition.
.)

%. ,ll forms of !ra&er whi%h begin with !raise of <od ( xZ ^eMLed UU ) are %alled
cWdMd LeZ .
These are dealt with in the 8ishnah, Tosefta and Talmud tra%tates Hera:oth.
.0
Thus the
Sch one &sre , the %hief !ra&er of ?udaism, whi%h ever& member of the !eo!le must re%ite
three times a da&, %onsists of .6 or .9 benedi%tions.
.6
1a%h of these %ontains the formula
Hlessed be Thou, - 4ord" with a different reason.
d. The ?ew ma:es abundant use of as%ri!tions of !raise ( Berachot ) in other %onteBts.
Thus the& o%%ur at man& !oints in worshi!. 1ight blessings are !ronoun%ed on the da& of
atonement5 on the Torah, the servi%e of the tem!le, the forgiveness of sins, the tem!le, Israel,
?erusalem, the !riests and other !ra&ers.
.7
, beracha is also !res%ribed before and after the great
!ra&ers, at the stud& of the Torah et%.
In !arti%ular the ?ew uses a blessing at meals. It is a stringent rule that he should eat
nothing before a blessing is !ronoun%ed.
.6
It is forbidden to man to en$o& an&thing
belonging to this world without a blessing# he who en$o&s an&thing of this world without a
blessing %ommits a violation."
.9

Hehind this rule is the loft& view that this whole world belongs to <od. -nl& he who ta:es
with than:sgiving trul& re%eives from <od# he who does not robs <od. The sa&ings5 The earth is
2lant. De Plantatione .
9obr. De Sobrietate .
Hell. Bellu 0udaicu .
./ 9%hGrer , II
)
, /00, 0/0, n. ./).
.) .bid. , 0/0 f.# HoussetD<ressm. , .70.
.0 ,%%. to 1lbogen, ) ff. the fa%t that the basi% form of ?ewish !ra&er is %alled cWML ma& be tra%ed ba%: to *
>h. *+5*6 . 7e first finds the te%hni%al sense in ;eh. 950 .
.6 9%hGrer , II
)
, 0/9 ff.
.7 ?oma, 7, ...
.6 Tos. Her., ), .# $Her., .+a.
.9 b. Her., /0a.
the 4ordOs, and the fulness thereof" ( 2s. *)5. ), and5 The earth hath he given to the %hildren of
men" ( 2s. ..05.6 ), are not a %ontradi%tion. The one a!!lies !rior to blessing and the other after.
*+
9%ri!tural !roof was found b& the Aabbis in 4v. .95*) and 3t. 65.+ . ,ll benedi%tions begin with
the words5 Hlessed ( xZ ^eMLed , ) be Thou, =ahweh our <od, Fing of the world." The
%ontinuation varies. Hefore bread it runs5 who hast %aused bread to %ome forth out of the earth,"
and before wine5 who hast %reated the fruit of the vine." If a mart eats alone, he sa&s the blessing
to himself. In %ommon meals the main !art is o!ened with a blessing usuall& !ronoun%ed b& the
head of the house with a !ie%e of bread in his hand. The others %onfirm it with an ,men. ,fter this
the head of the house brea:s the bread and distributes to those who sit at table with him. 7e
himself eats first.
*.
There is no Tuestion of blessing the food and transforming it into something
different. 7e rather !raises the >reator who %ontrols the fruits of the earth.
**
,t the %on%lusion of
the meal there is a %ommon than:sgiving or !raise for the food. Ksuall& the head of the house as:s
the %hief guest to !ronoun%e this. ,fter sa&ing 4et us !ronoun%e the blessing," this guest ta:es
the %u! of blessing ( q i ) and with his e&es on it !ronoun%es a
blessing whi%h %onsists of four benedi%tions.
*)
Thus the whole meal be%omes i for those
who than:full& re%eive it as a gift from <od.
*0

e. The table blessings naturall& !la& an im!ortant !art in the !assover meal.
The !reliminaries are o!ened with festival blessings and blessings of the %u!. The main meal
is introdu%ed b& !ra&er over the unleavened bread and the a%%om!an&ing brea:ing of bread.
*6

The %u! of wine handed round after the eating of the 2as%hal lamb, the third in the whole order, is
the %u! of blessing over whi%h than:sgiving is !ronoun%ed.
*7

'. A)! and A) in the NT.
.. The ;T ta:es over mu%h of the -T %on%e!t of blessing. 7b. 75. tells us that
8el%hisede% blessed ,braham ( <n. .)5.9 f. ) and it dedu%es from this ( 756f .) his great
dignit&, sin%e it is in%ontrovertible that the greater blesses the less. 7b. ..5*+ f. tells us that
Isaa% blessed ?a%ob ( <n. *75*6 f. ) and ?a%ob the sons of ?ose!h ( <n. )65.0 f. ), and that the&
did so in faith. The ;T author %annot but thin: that the transmission of the blessing from the
an%estor to the des%endant too: !la%e in unsha:able %onfiden%e in the great !romise of <od to
,braham. The one who blesses %onfidentl& gives those blessed b& him into <odOs !rote%tion.
1sau is re$e%ted even though he see:s a blessing be%ause he had wi%:edl& des!ised his right
as firstborn ( 7b. .*5.7 ).
*+ .bid. , /0ab.
*. 9tr.DH. , I(, 6.6 ff.
** <. 3alman, 0esus<0eschua (.9**), .*/.
*) 9tr.DH. , I(, 6*7 ff.
*0 It is in this light that we are to understand the ins%r. on the golden glass in the (ati%an 4ibrar& ( g;@ , /.
m.9/*n, )6 ff., 07)5 I2 IP () C AAB YAIA () , and on the margin5 i
2O HATO . (>f. <. 4oes%h%:e, gwTh , 0) m.9.*n, *+*# 7. @. He&er and 7. 4ietEmann, Die 5d.
4atakobe der Villa "orlonia in /o m.9/+n, */). The ins%r. is en%ir%led b& a Torah ar: (or tem!le ) below
whi%h are a sevenbran%hed %andelabra and %ulti% vessels. ,nother golden glass (A. <arru%%i, Storia della arte
cristiana m.66+n, (I,)9+,/) bears the mutilated ins%r. { 1. B.B#S 1V3 &V)%G.# 1%3P { Finall& the word
i is found on an ins%r. of the 8onteverde %ata%omb above a Torah ar: between two lam!s (;. 8Gller
and ;. ,. Hees, Die .nschriften der 5d. 4atakobe a 3onteverde -u /o m.9.9n, ;o. .7/). These ins%r.
would be of the highest interest" for the histor& of the term i (F. 7. Aengstorf, g;@ , /. m.9/*n, 06, n.
/) if onl& we %ould inter!ret them with %ertaint&. Hut this is not so. In the last two, though this is unli:el&, we
might have a !ro!er name as on the ins%r. ;. 8GllerD;. ,. Hees, ;o. ..9. The first is obviousl& a demand to
re%eive the blessing in a meal eaten after benedi%tion. If the ar: of the Torah has a !art to !la&, it is in the sense
that onl& he who :ee!s the 4aw will !arta:e of the blessing. (,nother eB!lanation is given b& Aengstorf, op. cit.
>f. also ?. ?eremias, Die #bendahls2orte 0esu m.9/0n, 06, where the i is ta:en to be a
summons on the handing round of the bread of blessing and the %u! of blessing. >&ril of ?erusalem and others
later use i to denote the %onse%rated wine or %u!. >f. <. 4os%h%:e, op. cit. )
*6 That this was the seTuen%e at the !assover has been shown b& ?. ?eremias, g;@ , // (.9/)), *+/ f.
*7 9tr.DH. , I(, 0) ff.# <. 3alman, op. cit. , .** ff.# ?. ?eremias, Die #bendahls2orte 0esu (.9/0), )+.
*. The ;T also re%ognises manOs dut& to bless <od. ga%harias is a true Israelite who,
when he %an s!ea: again, at on%e !raises the <od whose overruling he has so evidentl&
!er%eived ( 4:. .56) ). @hen 9imeon ta:es the %hild ?esus into his arms, he %an onl& !raise
<od for the gra%e whi%h has been given him to see the 9aviour ( 4:. *5*6 ). 7e himself has
entered the :ingdom of blessing whi%h flows from >hrist. Thus the old man %an also bless the
!arents of the %hild ( *5/) ).
/. 8ar& is alread& within this %ir%le. If ever& wife in Israel %ould see the hand of <od in
the blessing of her bod&, the mother of the 8essiah is es!e%iall& blessed among women" a%%.
to 4:. .5*6 , )* 5 , , (the an%ient %ontent of
the blessing remains the same), i .
-n 4:. .5)* %f. ?dt. ./5.6 # .05.* # 3t. *65/ f. # ?u. 05*) .
8ost blessed of all, however, is the 8essiah 7imself. The !eo!le wel%omes 7im with
$ubilant %ries on 7is entr& into 9ion in 8:. ..59 f. # 8t. *.59 # 4:. .95/6 # ?n. .*5./ (the onl&
in ?ohn)5 i,
q i q i . There is here a twofold sense. 7e
who %omes and 7is :ingdom are blessed b& <od to whom the& belong. Hut the& are also
greeted b& the !eo!le whi%h sub$e%ts itself to them.
The form of the greeting derives from 117:26 , whi%h is related to the 8essiani%
redem!tion5
8
idr. 2s. ..6 y ** (*))a). ?esus referred the same 2salm to the da& of 7is parousia in
8t. */5/9 # 4:. ./5/0 .
). @hen the 8essiah a!!ears in earthl& form, 7e goes about among 7is !eo!le as a man
of !iet&. 7e ado!ts its %ustoms, and es!e%iall& its religious !ra%ti%es. @hen 7e sits at table,
e.g., when 7e feeds the ),+++ or 0,+++, 7e a%ts li:e a normal ?ewish host or head of the
house. 7e follows faithfull& the a%%e!ted form ( 76+ ). 7e ta:es the bread in 7is hands,
!ronoun%es the blessing, brea:s the bread and distributes it ( 8:. 65). and !ar. # 657 and
!ar. ).
The onl& new feature is that in the !ra&er 7e does not loo: downwards as !res%ribed,
*6
but
loo:s u! to heaven. 2erha!s the !oint of this is that these are not ordinar& meals but mira%les, and
that 7e is see:ing the hel! of <od. Hut it is also !ossible that in virtue of 7is sense of mission and
the inner freedom whi%h this gives 7e is infusing into the rigid formulae of dealings with <od
something of what made 7is own relationshi! to the Father so vital. 2erha!s 7e also rendered the
benedi%tions ( 76+ ) in a freer form a!!roBimating, e.g., to the 4ordOs 2ra&er.
*9
7e must
%ertainl& have fused something of 7is own into the sim!le, ever&da& !ro%ess of blessing and
brea:ing bread, sin%e otherwise the two on the wa& to 1mmaus would not have re%ognised 7im b&
this a%tion ( 4:. *)5/+ ). If is sometimes used for (and the two
together at 8:. 656 , 7 ), this does not denote an& distin%tion of sense. , too, is used
for xZ M] Le] . -n the other hand, it is a <:. misunderstanding of the ,ram. original that man& 899
/+

add an a%%. ob$e%t ( or ) at 8:. 657 . If this suggests the idea that ?esus blessed the
bread and thus made !ossible its mira%ulous in%rease, we have a rela!se into a %on%e!tion long
sin%e left behind in Israel. 9imilarl& at 4:. 95.6 onl& a few 899 have the abs. and the ma$orit&
add , a few .
/.

8idr. 2s. 8idrash on 2salms (9tra%:, &inl. , *.0).
*6 9tr.DH. , II, *)6.
*9 <. 3alman, op. cit. , .*) suggests a formula li:e5 Hlessed be Thou, our Father in 7eaven, who dost give us
toDda& our ne%essar& bread."
/+ after [ H>4 et%.# before , 8;@
d
it (a!art from T) vg s&
utr
go arm#
before , ,FF et%.# without ob$. 1<7 al !l# 3 T. whi%h have instead of
.
/. @ithout ob$. [ s&
s.%.h
arm aeth# ,H> al % e f vg s&
!
# 3 a b al 8ar% 1!i!h.
,t the 4ordOs 9u!!er ( 76. ), too, ?esus ta:es the unleavened bread, !ronoun%es the
blessing, brea:s it and hands it round ( 8:. .)5** # 8t. *65*6 ), as 7e does also with the %u!
of blessing.
/*
7ere 7e adds the words of inter!retation.
//
That the %u! of blessing was still
maintained in the earl& >hristian >hur%h ma& be seen from . >. .+5.6 . 2aul here uses the
%ommon ?ewish eB!ression q i .
The onl& new element is the addition . This serves to distinguish the %u! of
whi%h 2aul s!ea:s from ever& other %u! { The than:sgiving a!!lies to the %u! be%ause through it
the %ongregation is blessed." H& it, it !arti%i!ates in the blood of >hrist."
/)

0. ?esus also blessed !eo!le dire%tl&, li:e the %hildren in 8:. .+5.6
/0
or the dis%i!les at
the as%ension ( 4:. *)50+ ff. ), who re!l& b& !raising <od. Thus 2eter %an sum u! the whole
of >hristOs wor: in the statement that <od has sent 7im to bless. 2aul, too, %an $ourne& to the
Aomans in the fulness of the blessing brought b& >hrist ( A. .05*9 ). The blessings are one
long blessing. The great division in the revealed will of <od of whi%h there is eviden%e in the
-T ( 707 ) will %ome to fulfilment at the last da& when the 4ord will se!arate the blessed
of the Father from the %ursed ( 8t. *05/) ). @hile the %urse brings eternal death, the blessed
will en$o& life and entr& into the :ingdom of <od.
The& will :now the fulness of the blessing on%e given to ,braham ( <l. /56f ., .) # 7b. 65.) ),
eB%e!t that this is now understood wholl& as i ( 1!h. .5/ ).
6. , new law a!!lies to those who are blessed. >f. 7b. 657 f. >alled to inherit the earth ( .
2t. /59 ), the& are not to re!a& evil with evil. The natural man finds it $ust as eas& to %urse as
to bless ( ?m. /59 f. ). The righteous of the -T had a natural fear of %ursing li:e the <ree:s.
The& were also aware that the& ought not to %urse ( ).
/6
This is finel& eB!ressed
in ?ob /.5/+ . Hut it is rather another matter when ?esus gives to 7is dis%i!les the %ommand
whi%h %om!letel& over%omes %ursing5 Hless them whi%h %urse &ou" ( 4:. 65*6 # 8t. 05)) ).
/7
This %ommand made a dee! im!ression on !rimitive >hristianit& ( A. .*5.) # . >. )5.* ).
7. He%ause it s!rings from su%h un%onditional love, i %an also be used, as in the -T (
709 ), for the gift whi%h 2aul see:s as a %olle%tion for ?erusalem ( * >. 950 f. ).
6. In . >. .)5.6 is used in the sense of a %ulti% a%tion to eB!ress e%stati% !raise of
<od. ,s distin%t from the %urse , the %onfession , ins!ired
b& the 7ol& 9!irit, is the true >hristian i ( . >. .*5/ ).
9. It is tem!ting to inter!ret in the light of se%ular <:. usage ( 70) ) the i
and i with whi%h false tea%hers sedu%ed the hearts of the Aomans ( A. .65.6 ). -n the
other hand, there is !erha!s a 2alestinian elementkthe flattering ring of !romise through whi%h
the& %arr& %onvi%tion.
/6

.+. The author of Aevelation realises that the eternal world of the last time in%ludes the
!raising and glorif&ing of 7im who sits on the throne and of the 4amb ( Aev. 05.* , ./ #
75.* ).
A)&
is a fiBed term in rendering xZ ^eMLed . It is used with as xZ ^eMLed
is with xZ Md ^_LsZ . In the 4'' we still have in 3 B. 10: and
/* 8: and 8t have of the bread and of the %u!, 4:. of both.
// For a summar& of re%ent resear%h %f. ?. ?eremias, Die #bendahls2orte 0esu , es!. !. )..
/) ,. 9%hlatter, Paulus der Bate 0esu (.9/)), *90 f.
/0 8ost 899 (a!art from ,31 al) have here the rare .
/6 >f. ?. 7em!el, .+) ff.
/7 8t. 05)) onl& in some 899.
/6 9o >r.DFJ. , ad loc. and ,. 9%hlatter, Gottes Gerechtigkeit (.9/0), )+. f.
i in ?ob .5*. , but in the ;T has an
eB%lusivel& indi%ative signifi%ation.
.

The word arose out of the 7eb. notion that <od needs blessing, later modified to the insight
that faith in <od means giving 7im the glor& ( 706 ).
*

.. In the -T men, too, are %alled i , <n. .*5* # *65*9 # )/5*6 ,
and more often with the dat. , 3t. *656 # ?u. .75* # At. *5*+ # Tob. ./5.* # ?udt. ./5.6
. 8ore %ommon, however, is the formula , <n. 95*6 # .)5*+ #
1 B. 25:32 # 2 B. 18:28 # 3 B. 1:48 # 65.0 # * >h. *5.. # 1 t. 8:25 5
, Tob. /5.. # 650 # 10:13 # 675.9 # ge%h. ..50 . In
8el%hiEede:Os blessing in <n. .)5.9 f. we have the two together5
A iq,
q q.
,
i .
In the 7eb. xZ ^eMLed is used in both formulae.
*. The formula of !ra&er is found in ?ewish writings outside the -T . In the 7ermeti% writings
(
A
eitEenstein 2oim. , //6) we have l , and in 1th. 1n. 775. we find 7e
who is eternall& !raised" along with the 8ost 7igh." >f. also 7eb.
T
est. ;. ) and 95 ?ub. **5*7.
/

In 2alm&ra <od is %alled 7e whose name is to be !raised to eternit&."
)
2hilo ma:es a material
distin%tion between and in 8igr. ,br. , .+6 f. The one is the
$udgment of the %rowd, the other !resu!!oses real worth. In the Aabbini% writings xZ ^eMLed Pw ^_rNed cf
[^ec is one of the %ommonest %ombinations.
0

/. In the ;T is never used of men. Its use is eB%lusivel& doBologi%al, 4:.
.566 # A. .5*0 # 950 # * >. .5/ # ..5/. 5 () l l #
1!h. .5/ # . 2t. .5/ . 2robabl& a liturgi%al formula arose at a ver& earl& stage similar to that of
the s&nagogue ( 76+ ).
6
@e best bring out its religious signifi%an%e along the lines of
4uther that <od is !raised in 7imself but that we !ra& here that 7e ma& be !raised among us.
In 8:. .)56. >hrist is %alled l kan e%ho of the ?ewish %on%ern
to !ara!hrase the name of <od.
The formula is found in the <:. 4iturg& of >hr&sostom.
7
It entered
the Aoman 8ass as the Benedictus
6
and is still found in 4utherOs 9orula 3issae of .0*/,
9

though not in the Geran 3ass of .0*6.
)! .
. Hl.D3ebr.
6
y .*6, 0.
* >f. ?. 7em!el, 9+ f., where it is !ointed out that even alien !eo!les are summoned to !raise =ahweh ( 2s. 66
m 67 n50# %f. 1B. .65.+ # . F. 05*. ).
AeitEenstein 2oim. A. AeitEenstein, Poiandres , .9+).
Test. ;. "estaent of !apthali .
/ >f. HoussetD<ressm. , /./, n. /.
) 8. de (ogGj, S'rie 1entrale , I (.666), Ins%r. 7) (... ,.3. ) et%.
0 >f. <. 3alman @?, I, .6/ f.
6 @. Housset, 0esus der (err (.9.6), /6.
7 F. 1. Hrightman, )iturgies &astern and Western (.696), /0/.
6 In the re%itation of 117:26 and in the a%tive form of the <loria5 benedicius te .
9 @.,., 'II, *.*, *7.
This %om!ound term is first found in <n. .*5/
.
and .65.6 where it is designed to stress
the fa%t that the blessing of ,braham embra%es all ra%es and !eo!les5
. The word is found again in the Tuotation in <l. /56 . Aather more
freel& ,%. /5*0 f ollows the same model and <n. **5.6 5 i
l q q .
*

B
e'er
A!, B,
A;3, A3
.. In the ;T this word o%%urs onl& at 8t. .95.* and ,%. 65*7 ff. The 4'' has but
not i .
-utside the ;T
.
( , ), is used not onl& of men but of %astrated
animals
*
and of fruits and !lants whi%h have no :ernel or seed.
/
In 9o!h.
F
r. , 7*. (
T
<F , /+.)
is used of slee!less, wa:eful or even wat%hful e&es." The verb
)
is often
found in both a%t.
0
and
!
ass.
6
and meta!hor, with the ob$. q ,
2
hilostr.
(
it. ,!. , (I, )* or with
the ob$. , -ribasius, >olle%tionum 8edi%arum AeliTuiae , (III, *, 6 (ed. ?. Aaeder
m.9*6n in >or!us 8edi%orum <rae%orum , (I, ., .).
*. To the <:s. the %astration of living %reatures is fundamentall& alien. It is first found in the
-rient. There eunu%hs are the servants and overseers of women and later the %onfidants of nobles
and !rin%es, often rising to high !ositions of state. It is through oriental influen%e that eunu%hs
a!!ear in the <:. world. This influen%e is !arti%ularl& %lear in the %ults of ,sia 8inor, es!. in the
%ult of >&bele, then of ,ttis and the 1!hesian ,rtemis. 7ere de!riving of manhood !la&s a role as
a %ulti% a%t, and eunu%h !riests o%%u!& a !rominent !la%e. It is rare outside ,sia 8inor. >astrated
!riests are %alled or . The term l is found in
(
ett. (al. , 66,
/). -f the various theories
7
as to the origin and meaning of selfDemas%ulation and a !riesthood of
eunu%hs the most !robable is that whi%h su!!oses that is is based on the desire to be li:e the
godhead !h&si%all& as well as s!irituall&. The %ru%ial !oint is transformation into the mode of
being of deit&. 7en%e a realisti% striving after 'stica unio must he regarded as the essential root
of %ulti% selfD%astration. 7e who has be%ome similar to the deit& is ta:en from the world. H& the
new relationshi! to the godhead he has be%ome a new being. It is thus natural that the life of the
emas%ulated should be dedi%ated to the deit&. Their own a%t of heroi% greatness, of a !ower whi%h
over%omes themselves and destro&s their !revious being, ma:es them i . The& a%Tuire the
. 7ere onl& >od 3
sil
1.
* 9o [ ,
*
312# ># ,CH min.
He&er 7ermann @olfgang He&er , <reifswald ((ol. .I*), 4ei!Eig ((ol. /).
. V. the individual instan%es in 4iddellD9%ott , 7*) s.v. . In the !a!. 2. 4ond. , I(, .))7, .7. (6th
%ent.)# also H<K , III, 7*0, .) and *9 (7th %ent.). >f. 2reisig:e @Jrt. , s.v.
* >f. 2. 8as!. , II, .)., Fol. (II, Ae%to line ) (6th %ent.)# 2hilostr.7eroi%. , I, /. The verbal ad$.
( ) , <eo!oni%a (7. He%:h, .690), '(II, 6, *.
/ ,mong the 2&thag. is the name for (salad), ,then. , II, 6+ (!. 69e). >f. also ibid. , 'I(, 66
(!. 60* a).
Fr. 9ragenta F<uG .
T<F "ragicoru Graecoru 9ragenta , ed. ,. ;au%:, .669.
) V. 4iddellD9%ott , 7*), s.v. i .
0 4u%. >ronosolon, .*.
!ass. !assive.
6 <al. 3e 9emine, I, .0 (I(, !. 70+, FGhn)5 3io >. , 66, *.
2hilostr. Flavius 2hilostratus, of 4emnos, re!resentative of the 9e%ond 9o!histi% 9%hool, author as %ommissioned
b& the em!ress ?ulia 3omna (d. *.7), wife of 9e!timius 9everus, of a life, %ontaining man& marvellous
ha!!enings, of the ;eoD2latoni% !hiloso!her and thaumaturge, ,!ollonius of T&ana. 7is (eroicus is written in
the same strain, ed. >. 4. Fa&ser, .67+.
(it. ,!. Vita #pollonii .
(ett. (al. (ettius (alens, later <ree: astrologist (*nd %entur& ,.3. ), ed. @. Froll, .9+6.
7 V. the eB!ress treatment of this Tuestion b& 4. 7. <ra& in 1A1 , (, 079, s.v. 1unu%h."
%hara%ter of san%tit&, have %ertain fun%tions to !erform at %ulti% festivals and en$o& !ubli% honour
and re%ognition.
6
i and i are regarded as eTuivalent in
,
thenag.
9
u!!l. , //.
9

/. In the -T the %astration of both men and animals is forbidden# it %ontradi%ts the divine
will in %reation, There were thus no eunu%hs in Israel itself. The ro&al %ourts were an
eB%e!tion. 9tri%t legal for%es o!!osed the !ra%ti%e. The& re$e%ted it as a s&m!tom of
disintegration in%om!atible with the eB%lusiveness of the %hosen !eo!le of =ahweh. The&
were ultimatel& %on%erned to ward off alien internationalising tenden%ies. >lear eviden%e is to
be found in 3t. (e.g., 3t. .75.6 ff. ). In 3t. */5*I9 it is laid down that no eunu%h is to be
re%eived into the %ongregation of =ahweh. It is hard to de%ide how far the re$e%tion of the
!ra%ti%e is for theologi%al reasons, i.e., be%ause the divinel& %reated and natural state of seBual
!oten%& is destro&ed, and how far it is due to a desire to maintain a natural, health& !atriar%hal
%ulti% order. Hoth im!ulses were !robabl& o!erative.
There is a different em!hasis in the !ro!hets. In the third !art of Isaiah a universalist
tenden%& !resent in earlier !ro!he%& finds %hallenging eB!ression in the statement that
eunu%hs will be allowed to enter the %ongregation ( Is. 065/I0 ). There is, of %ourse, no
Tuestion of a new %ulti% norm. , !arti%ularl& diffi%ult %ase is sele%ted to show the boundless
nature of the lovingD:indness of =ahweh.
The stri%tl& legal view determined the !ra%ti%e at least from the time of 1Era.
The eunu%h is %alled `Ma d in the -T . This word also has another meaning in the -T . In * F.
*05.9 `Ma d the is a man with a militar& %ommission. ?ensen
.+
and gimmern
..
thin: that the
origin of `Ma d is to be found in an ,ss&rian aa rbai6 aa rZai , stri%tl& the %a!tain at the head. `Ma d
thus denotes militar& ran: as well as a eunu%h. The `Ma d does not have to be a eunu%h. In <n.
/95. 2oti!har is %alled a `Ma d of 2haraoh. ,%%. to <un:el
.*
`Ma d in <n. /95. is to be regarded
as an addition of the reda%tor.
The 9e!tuagint
./
translates `Ma d /. times as , 7 times in 3a. as
( `Ma d LMf ) and twi%e as . `Ma d LMf . in ?er. /95./ is ta:en to be a
!ro!er name ( Pi ) b& O ( . 46:13 ). ,t . 45:7 UU ?er. /657 all the
t
ransl.
eB%e!t the 4'' have q for `Ma d Pw `[a . ,t . 41:1 UU ?er. /)5.9 the 4''
has for `Ma d .
.)
This emendation leads us to sus!e%t that the 4'' abides b& the
regulation of 3t. whi%h eB%ludes those who are mutilated from the %ultus.
.0
The of
the 4'' is often used, li:e and `Ma d elsewhere, for high militar& and !oliti%al
offi%ials# it does not have to im!l& emas%ulation.
.6
Thus in . 52:25 the is an
. In 2 t. 11:11 ( ;eh. .5.. )
is a vl. for l . In 1st. .5*. the word is used where one ought to have a !ro!er name. In
1st. and 3a. it alwa&s denotes offi%ers of the household of the :ing or Tueen.
6 H>7 , )) (.9*+), 6), ;o. .6 (Ins%r. from 4agina)5 l q # H<K , III, 7*0,
*95 l |6| T . >f. ,. 3. ;o%:, 1unu%hs in ,n%ient Aeligion,"
,A@ , */ (.9*0), *0I//.
,thenag. ,thenagoras, of ,thens, >hristian ,!ologist, who %ame over from 2latonism and wrote a defen%e of
>hristianit& to the 1m!eror 8ar%us ,urelius in .77, ed. 1. <oods!eed in Die =ltesten #pologeten , .9.).
9u!!l. Supplicatio .
9 -n this whole se%tion %f. also 1. Fehrle, Die kultische 4euschheit i #ltertu (.9.+), es!. .+) ff.
.+ Zeitschr. f. #ss'riologie , 7 (.69*), .7), n. ..
.. g38< , 0/ (.699), ..6, n. *.
.* 4o. -. Gn. (.9+.), /79.
./ In the se%tion on the 4'' I am mu%h indebted to <. Hertram.
transl. transitive.
.) A and 5 .
.0 >f. 9. 8owin%:el, Zu Deuteronoiu , */, *I9, #cta %rientalia , I (.9*/), 6* ff.
.6 >f. also 9ir. *+5) (though not 9ir. /+5*+ ).
,t the time of ?esus strong 7ellenisti% influen%es gave strength to the more liberal view
alongside the legal and traditional. ?ose!h. tells us in Hell. , ., )66 that the three %hamberlains of
7erod were eunu%hs# and ?ose!h. himself had a as the tea%her and mentor of
his bo& ( ,nt. , 6, )9* ).
). Aabbini% ?udaism thin:s basi%all& in terms of %reation. The Aabbis tea%h unanimousl& that
it is the dut& of ever& Israelite to have %hildren. 7e who does not sins against a divine %ommand (
<n. .5*6 5 ^eLMZ ^e ^eMieZ ). In 9. 4v. on **5*)
.7
the 4v. !assage, whi%h in this first instan%e forbids
onl& the offering of %astrated animals, is ta:en to be a general !rohibition of %astration. For Aabb.
?udaism the %astration of men or animals is thus transgression of an eB!ress %ommand of <od.
In ?eb., 6, )I6 there is a distin%tion between the Vrd[d `Ma Z , the one emas%ulated b& men,
.6

and the csed hf `Ma Z , the one emas%ulated b& nature.
.9
In ;idda, 0, 9 a twent&D&ear old &outh to
whom nature has denied all seBual !oten%& is %alled a `Ma d .
*+

For the Aabbis marriage was an un%onditional dut&. There is onl& one :nown instan%e of a
%elibate Aabbi. In
T
.
?
eb. , 6, ) we are told that Hen O,EEai remained unmarried. 7e $ustified his
attitude in the words5 8& soul %leaves to the Torah# there is no time for marriage# ma& the world
be maintained b& others." 7e was shar!l& blamed b& other Aabbis.
*.
In b. 9ota., )b it is assumed
that he was divor%ed, and a%%. to b.Fet. , 6/a he had relations with the daughter of ,:iba. The
!oint of these statements is obviousl& to ta:e from his unmarried state something of the blame
whi%h atta%hed to it a%%. to the Aabbini% view. The same Hen O,EEai did, of %ourse, !ro%laim the
dut& of marr&ing as a %ommand, thus a%%e!ting theoreti%all& the uniform line of
A
abb. tea%hing. In
T. ?eb. , 6, ) he sa&s5 7e who does not see to the %ontinuation and !ro!agation of the ra%e (as
%ommanded in <n. .5*6 ), ma& he be a%%ounted b& 9%ri!ture as if he diminished the (divine)
image."
In this %onne%tion we ma& again refer to 9. ;u. y 99 and y .+/ (on ;u. .*5. , 6 ).
**
8iriam
and ,aron %om!lain that 8oses has had no inter%ourse with his wife gi!!orah and that he has thus
violated a dut&. Hut <od $ustifies the %ondu%t of 8oses on the ground that 7e has reTuired
%ontinen%e from him for the sa:e of his mission. Thus <od %an in %ertain s!e%ial instan%es and at
!arti%ular times dis!ense from the %ommand of <n. .5*6 whi%h is otherwise binding on men.
;ormall& the divine will in %reation, whi%h see:s the !er!etuation and in%rease of the ra%e, is to be
fulfilled.
?. ?eremias
*/
%on%ludes from the unanimous tea%hing of the Aabbis that 2aul, who at his
%onversion was an ordained s%holar," must have been a widower rather than a ba%helor. It is
o!en to Tuestion whether this thesis %an be brought into harmon& with . >. 7 , where 2aul
des%ribes %eliba%& as a ( I, 60* ). The !ersonal %onfession of 2aul in . >. 757 is
best understood if we assume that he had never married.
*)
Hut there is not suffi%ient eviden%e
on whi%h to base a firm de%ision.
0. ?esus 7imself trans%ends the Aabbini% view. In 8t. .95.* he differentiates three
%ategories of 5 .. those who are so from birth# *. those who are mutilated# and /.
those who have emas%ulated themselves . The onl& !roblem is whether the third
grou! have made themselves literall& or figurativel&. ;ow one ma& hardl& assume
.7 >f. 9tr.DH. , I, 6+7.
.6 This is one who after birth loses the !ower to re!rodu%e through human a%tion. (. F. 7. Aengstorf, 0ebaot
(.9*9), .+6. >f. 8t. .95.* 5 6 .
.9 This is one who la%:s the !ower to re!rodu%e b& nature. V. Aengstorf, op. cit. , .+7 and %f. 8t. .95.* 5
i .
*+ >f. 1. 8un:, !icht5uden i 5dischen /eligionsrecht (.9/*), 9..
T. Tosefta (9tra%:, &inl. , 7) ff.), ed. <. FittelD7. Aengstorf, .9// ff.
?eb. 0ebaot , 8ishnahD, ToseftaD, Talmud tra%tate 3arriage of those related b' 3arriage (9tra%:, &inl. , )0).
*. >f. 9tr.DH. , I, 6+7.
Aabb. Aabbini%.
** I owe this referen%e to F. <. Fuhn.
*/ ?. ?eremias, @ar 2aulus @itwer" g;@ , *0 (.9*6), /.+ ff.# also under the same title g;@ , *6 (.9*9), /*.
ff.
*) >f. on this !t. 1. Fas%her, gur @itwers%haft des 2aulus und der ,uslegung von . >. 7 ," g;@ , *6 (.9*9),
6* ff.# 7. @indis%h, Paulus und 1hristus (.9/)), .*9.
that ?esus had an& %onta%t with %ir%les eB!osed to 7ellenisti% influen%es. 7en%e 7e %annot
have had in view literal !h&si%al %astration. 7e would have a horror of this li:e all true ?ews.
7e is thin:ing rather of those who for the sa:e of the :ingdom of <od voluntaril& renoun%e
the seBual life and marriage. These men %on%entrate their energies on a goal whi%h lies
be&ond the tas:s !osed b& natural fa%tors. The same idea is !resent as with the
l , but the !ra%ti%e is Tuite different. The goal to be attained is the establishment of the
:ingdom of <od on earth. In this sa&ing ?esus is thin:ing !rimaril& of 7imself, and !erha!s of
the Ha!tist. The !ronoun%ement ma:es it !lain that the earl& >hur%h %ould renoun%e natural
goods as well as en$o& them.
*0
The order of %reation is affirmed b& the <os!el, but it %an also
be denied for the sa:e of the :ingdom, whose new order trans%ends the old order of %reation.
6. In ,%. 65*7 ff. we read of the eunu%h of oueen >anda%e who %omes to faith and is
ba!tised. 7ere the !ro!heti% sa&ing in Is. 065/ , ) f inds its true and %om!lete fulfilment. The
eunu%h is no longer shut out from the :ingdom of <od and the >hristian %ommunit&.
*6

7. 8t. .95.* had a strong influen%e on the earl& >hur%h.
*7
>l. ,l. ( 9trom. , III, 7, 09) ta:es
i figurativel&, s!ea:ing of a i i .
*6

-rigen too: the sa&ing Tuite literall& and emas%ulated himself, though later he re!ented of his a%t.
*9
The sa&ing is often given a literal sense in earl& eBegesis.
/+

In the matter of admitting those mutilated to the ministr&, the earl& >hur%h followed ?ewish
tradition. It a%%e!ted the !rin%i!le that onl& those without !h&si%al blemish should serve at the
altar. ,n& who were %astrated through no fault of their own might be admitted, but those who
emas%ulated themselves were eB%luded.
/.
>anons *.I*) of
>
onst. ,!. ((III, )7, *.I*)) give
%lear dire%tions in this matter. The& run as follows5
l c i 66 q g
q , q, , (s%. i ).
q q
q i .
.
i i
q q
S
chneider
A& 06
A! .
5
*0 >f. 9%hl. 8t. , 07).
*6 This im!ortant offi%ial of oueen >anda%e is not a !rosel&te ( ) in the s!e%ifi% sense of one
who is %ir%um%ised and has underta:en to observe the whole 8osai% 4aw. It %an hardl& be argued from Is. 065/
ff. that he is a real !rosel&te. For here we have a !ro!heti% vision and demand whi%h %an hardl& be fulfilled at
this !oint in ?udaism. 7e obviousl& belongs to the grou! of adherents of the faith of the <od of Israel whom 4:.
in ,%. %alls or . (>f. on this !t. 7. @. He&er, !" Deutsch , (, /7# gn.
,g. , /./.) It is remar:able, however, that he has a %o!& of Isaiah, sin%e nonD?ews had diffi%ult& in !ro%uring
su%h boo:s.
*7 >f. the dis%ussion b& @. Hauer in 8atth. .95.* und die alten >hristen " in !t.liche Studien G. (einrici
dargebracht m.9.)n, */0 ff.
*6 V. also 9trom. , III, .0, 99, )5 l c i i .
*9 >f. 1us.7ist. 1%%l. , (I, 6. 7e had %hanged his mind %on%erning the eBegesis of 8t. .95.* .
/+ For eBam!les %f. @. Hauer, loc. cit.
/. For details %f. 4. 7. <ra&, op. cit. ( 1A1 , (, 06/).
>onst. ,!. 1onstitutiones #postoloru , a %olle%tion of earl& >hristian writings (/rdI)th %entur& ,.3. ), ed. F. '.
Fun:, .9+0 ff.
9%hneider ?ohannes 9%hneider , Herlin ((ol. .I*, 6), HerlinvHreslau ((ol. /), ((ol. )), Herlin ((ol. 0, 7).
i , to find." a. To find after sear%h," ,es%h.
2
rom. , 09#
9
e!t. %. Theb. , .9. (
q i )# 1!i%t.3iss. , I, *), .0# III, 6, ) et%.# 2. -B&. , (III, ..0/, .6# <n. /.5/0 #
1 B. 10:21 et%. b. To find a%%identall&," to %ome a%ross something," 7om.
I
l. , ., )96# -d. ,
*), )6*#
H
<K , II, /6+, .6#
2
. <en. , 0), /.# <n. )5.)f .# .65*6f .# 1 B. 10:2 et%.# med.5
, drew evil u!on himself," 7om.-d. , *., /+)# ,es%h.2rom. , *67 (
)# !ass. to be stru%: b&," to find oneself." 1ur.
7
e%. , *7) ( )#
9o!h.
2
hil. , )0*# 1!i%t.3iss. , III, 6, *# III, 056 et%.# 3t. *+5.. # 4 B. 14:14 et%. %. -f goods to
fet%h (mone&)"5
'
eno!h.
7
ist. <rae%. , III, ), *)#
,
es%hin. , ., 96# at au%tions to get"5 F. 2reisig:e,
Berichtigungsliste der Griech. Pap'rusurkunden aus Lg'pten , I (.9**), 66 on H<K , III, 99*,
>
ol.
, *, )# 2. -B&. , I, 9), ./ ( q g q )# d. to !ro%ure," to obtain," often in the med.
to get for oneself"5 2ind.
2
&th. , *, 6) ( )# ., )6 ( )# /, ... ( )#
T
hu%. , I, /.,
* ( 6i )# <n. .65/ # 1B. //5./ # ;u. ..5.. ( )# <n. .95.9 # ?u. 65.7 ( )# 2rv.
*.5*. ( )# ?er. 65.6 ( )# 9ir. ..5.9 ( ). e. Figur. of s!iritual or
intelle%tual dis%over&, !er%e!tion, insight, understanding, on the basis of deliberations,
investigations or demonstration"5 7om.-d. , .*, /9*# ,es%h.2rom. , 09 (
)# 9o!h.-ed. >ol. , ..66#
7
dt. , I, 0# 2. -B&. , (I, 9.6, %ol. .., 0# I, ./., .) (
)# 1!i%t.3iss. , I, .6, .0# II, .., ./# III, .7, / et%.# @is.
/50 # 3a. .5*+ . In the 4'' it is used ver& %ommonl& of finding <od5 Is. 0056 # 605. # . 36:13
# 2rv. 65.7 # @is. ./56 # i 5 ?ob *65.* # /*5./ # @is. 65./ # 2rv. .)56 # ( i ) 2
B. 7:27 # 5 Is. )65.7 . 2ass. often in the sense of moral and religious $udgment whi%h is
first made b& men ( 3a. .5.9 ) but behind whi%h <od ma& stand ( Is. 0/59 # 16:3 # 3a. 65** ).
>f. also <n. ))5.6 # ;eh. 956 , where <od is the sub$e%t of i %on%erning the result of a
religious and moral test. 2hiloFug. , )/ # 4eg. ,ll. , )7 ( l c )#
, 4eg. ,ll. , III, 77 f.
2
ass. in the sense of to show oneself," to a!!ear," to !rove
oneself," to be found as"5 ?os.Hell. , /, ..) # 3itt. 9&ll.
/
, 7/6, 0.# 97*, 60# ..+9, 7/# 2. -B&. ,
I(, 7)/, *0.
4inguisti%all&, the ;T uses i in all the above senses a!art from %. The term ma&
sometimes a!!l& to ordinar& earthl& and !ossibl& %ontingent fa%ts, but its referen%e is
!redominantl& to the sur!rising dis%over& and m&sterious understanding of human eBisten%e
and histori%al o%%urren%e in their hidden relationshi!s as seen from the stand!oint of and with
an ultimate view to the :ingdom of <od. There is thus referen%e to a numinous fa%t in 8t.
.5.6
.
(e.)# .*5)) (b.)# 4:. .5/+ (d.)# 95/6 (b.)# *)5* (b.)# *)5/ (a.)# *)5*/f . (a.)# ,%. 05.+ (b.)#
65)+ (b.)# A. 75.+ (e.)# 75*. (e.)# <l. *5.7 (e.)# 2hil. *57 (e.)# Aev. 956 (a.). It o%%urs in relation
to mira%les5 8t. .75*7 (b.)# 8:. 75/+ (b.)# 4:. 65/0 (b.)# ?n. *.56 (a.)# ,%. 05** f. (b.), faith5
2rom. Proetheus Vinctus .
9e!t. %. Theb. Septe contra "hebas .
Il. .liad .
H<K Lg'ptische 8rkunden aus den 4gl. 3useen -u Berlin , .690 ff.
2. <en. )es Pap'rus de Gen*ve , ed. ?. ;i%ole, .696 ff.
7e%. (ecuba .
2hil. 2hilo, of ,leBandria (%. *+ H.>. I0+ ,.3. ), ed. 4. >ohn and 2. @endland.
'eno!h. 'eno!hon, of ,thens (%. )/+I/0) H.>. ), !u!il of 9o%rates, author of various histori%al, !hiloso!hi%al
and s%holarl& wor:s, ed. 1. >. 8ar%hant, .9++ ff.
7ist. <rae%. (istoria Graeca .
,es%hin. ,es%hines, ,thenian orator and !oliti%ian (%. /9+I/.) H.>. ), who gained fame b& o!!osing
3emosthenes. The letters as%ribed to him are not authenti%, ed. F. Hlass, .696.
>ol. %olumn.
2&th. P'thia .
Thu%. Thu%&dides, of ,thens (%. )6+I/96 H.>. ), the %lassi% historian of the <ree:s, who as a %ontem!orar&
wrote a histor& of the 2elo!onnesian @ar, ed. >. 7ude, .696 ff.
7dt. 7erodotus, of 7ali%arnassus (%. )6)I)*0 H.>. ), the first real <ree: historian, des%ribed as earl& as >i%ero as
the father of histor&. 7is wor: deals with the %onfli%ts between the <ree:s and the barbarians from earliest times
to the 2ersian @ars, ed. 7. Fallenberg, .9*6 ff.
2ass. F. 2assow, Wrterbuch der griechischen Sprache
0
, .6). ff., %om!letel& revised b& @. >rJnert, .9./ ff.
. 7ere in obvious de!enden%e on ?ewish usage, e.g., ?eb., ), . et%. (UU V to establish").
8t. 65.+ (b.)# 4:. .656 (a.), su!ernatural gifts5 8t. 757 f. UU 4:. ..59 f. (a.)# 8t. 75.) (e.)#
.+5/9 (d.)# ..5*9 (d.), the uneB!e%ted gift of the :ingdom of <od5 8t. ./5)) (b.), )6 (b.), or
en%ounter with ?esus 7imself5 8:. .5/7 (a.)# 4:. *5.* (a.)# ?n. .5). (b.), )0 (b.)# 65*0 (a.)#
75/)f . (a.). It ma& refer to eB!erien%e of <od5 4:. )5.7 (b.)# ,%. .75*7 (e.)# A. .+5*+ (e.), or to
an& gift of salvation5 ?n. .+59 (a.)5 # ,%. 75)6 (d.)5 # A. )5. (d.)#
*
* >. 05/ (e.)#
* Tm. .5.6 (d.)5 # 7b. )5.6 (d.)5 # 95.* (d.)5 , or to being
mira%ulousl& %alled and saved b& <od5 8t. .65./ (a.)# *+56 (b.)# **59f . (a.)# *)5)6 (b.)# 4:.
.050 f. (a.), 6f . (a.), *) (b.), /* (b.). Hut as it suggests endowment, so it also suggests
res!onsibilit&5 4:. ./56 f. (a.)# .75.6 (b.)# ,%. 05/9 (e.)# . >. .05.0 (e.)# . 2t. .57 (e.)# Aev. *5*
(e.)# /5* (e.)# 05) (e)# .)50 (b.), and the whole seriousness of $udgment5 8t. *)5)6 UU 4:.
.*5)/ (b.)# * 2t. /5.) (e.)# Aev. .*56 (b.)# .65*+ (b.)# .65.) (b.), *.f . (b.), *) (b.)# *+5.0 (b.).
P
reisker
A!, A!, A
B
(also in ,%. *.5/9 5 ) is a %om!ound of q (
), li:e of l , of , 6 of .
.
It
means a. something whi%h gives good signs," and therefore favourable," e.g.,

, 9o!h.
,
nt. , .+*.# #
1ur.
I
!h. ,ul. , *0*. >f. also 80:3 , though vg has insignis#
*
the full moon is a favourable time.
,lso 2rv. 75*+ O and # A has # the 4'' ta:es a different line. b. something
whi%h gives %lear sign" (o!!. - , without %lear signs" or not dearl&"), and therefore
%lear," evident," !lain," e.g., {
, 2lut.
o
uaest. >onv. , (III, *, * (II, 7.9b)# q {
, ibid. , (III, /, . (II, 7*+d)# { , 3itt. -r. , II,
660, .*# of a !lainl& re%ognisable fault,
2
. 2etr. , I, .9, .)#
2
. Flor. , 0., ..# 3a. *5.9 5 {
g g .
In the ;T it o%%urs onl& at . >. .)56 f. 5 q
i l ; q 6,
q , ; l
. In fa%e of the esoteri% and e%stati% forms of >orinthian worshi! 2aul
demands %larit& and !lainness in !ro%lamation (UU b.), sin%e it is in the divine servi%e of the
%ongregation that de%isions are made regarding the de%lared $udgment and salvation within
the situation of human %onfli%t between life and death.
G
rundann
B)3 i .
A3
*

* -n in this !assage %f. 4tEm. A. , ad loc.
2reis:er 7erbert 2reis:er , Hreslau ((ol. .I/), ((ol. )), ?ena ((ol. 0I6).
. >f. 3ebr. <rie%h. @ortb. y .)/.
,nt. #ntigone .
I!h. ,ul. .phigenia "aurica .
* 2robabl& we have here a mistranslation of the 7eb. c] WeX (full moon").
ouaest. >onv. ?uaestiones 1onvivales .
2. 2etr. "he 9linders Petrie Pap'ri , ed. ?. 2. 8ahaff& and ?. <. 9m&l&, .69. ff.
2. Flor. Pap'ri 9lorentini , I, ed. <. (itelli, .9+6# II, ed. 3. >om!aretti, .9+6 ff.
<rundmann @alter <rundmann , -berli%htenau (9aBon&) ((ol. .), 3resden ((ol. *), ?ena ((ol. /I), 7), ?ena
and 1isena%h ((ol. 6I9).
C . 2r.DHauer , 0.+# %f. also s.v. # 4iddellD9%ott , 7/)# 8oult.D8ill. , *66 (%f. -
)# 3eissmann 4- , *77# 2reisig:e Fa%hwJrter , 96.
.. 7onest," orderl&," be%oming." The word is found in this sense onl& in eBhortator&
!assages in the 2auline 1!istles. 2resu!!osing and re%ognising the :nowledge of ethi%al
norms among the heathen ( A. * ), the a!ostle does not hesitate to use for blameless %ondu%t
an eB!ression whi%h is generall& %urrent in the world around him ( infra ). It is true that in
basis and !ower the new life of the >hristian differs radi%all& from nonD>hristian moralit&.
;evertheless, as %on%erns there is agreement with nonD>hristians who might
%riti%ise >hristian %ondu%t.
.
This is how we are to understand 2aulOs statement in . Th. )5.* 5
. It is not as though it were a mere matter of a!!earan%e, for the element of
a!!earan%e
*
has disa!!eared from the word %om!letel&.
/
The !oint is that those without are
%a!able of $ustifiable %riti%ism of the of >hristians. ,nd to give offen%e to
those who are to be won might be fatal. In A. ./5./ with , as
elsewhere (%f. . >. 75/0 # .)5)+ ), must refer to honest %ondu%t# the !re%eding image hardl&
$ustifies the restri%ted sense of suitabl& %lad."
)
The distin%tive feature of the term in this
%onteBt is that it %ontains within itself both of these !ossible senses and thus forms an almost
im!er%e!tible transition from the image to the realit&. denotes the eBternal as!e%t
of the >hristian life. This is of de%isive signifi%an%e ( . Th. )5.* # %f. 8t. 05.6 ). Hut from this
!oint there is onl& a slight shift to another sense, from $udgment on %ondu%t to the designation
of things whi%h have little to do with the ethi%al and whi%h are more %on%erned with the
aestheti%. This was an eas& transition for those who thought in <ree: terms. @e find it in 2aul
at . >. .*5*/ f. , where he distinguishes between and .
There is here no distin%tion of moral value either in the image or the realit&. The distin%tion is
!urel& aestheti%.
9e%ular <:. uses from the time of 1ur. It has the literal meaning5 ~-f good
eBternal a!!earan%eO ( q ), and it is then a!!lied to the whole eBternal and internal
%ondu%t and attitude. The word is often found in ins%r, of the *nd and .st %entur& with referen%e to
the good administration of !ubli% offi%ials, usuall& along with 5
I
ns%r. 8agn. , .+., .)f.5
c q i q i
(the end of the *nd %ent. H.>. ).
I
ns%r. 2riene , 00, ./ f.5
c q i q (at the ver& earliest .*6v7 H.>. ).
0

1!i%t. uses the word for what is seeml& ( 3iss. , I(, .,.6/# I(, .*, 6). The 4'' has
onl& on%e at 2rv. ..5*0 f or right %ondu%t (%f. also ) 8a%%. 65* , where is used
eB!ressl& of the righteous5 g q g .
mHertramn). It does not o%%ur at all in the !ostDa!ostoli% fathers.
*. ;oble," honourable," eB%ellent," !rominent." In 8:. .05)/ ?ose!h of ,rimathea is
%alled . 8t. *7507 rather narrows the sense b& using ,
while in 4:. */50+ f. it seems to be given the sense of moral Tualit&5 q
i q g g g .
This is remar:able, sin%e 4:. himself uses the word in another sense ( ,%. ./50+ # .75.* ). It is
surel& a misunderstanding, sin%e ever& reader would give it the sense of honourable" when
used with ( infra ). This is undoubtedl& the sense in ,%. ./50+ , where it is
used of !rosel&tes who are stirred u! against 2aul and Harnabas. The same is true of ,%.
.75.* , where the referen%e is to the ba%:ground of newl& won >hristians and
%an hardl& denote an&thing other than the higher %ir%les of so%iet&.
. >f. on this !t. ,. ?un%:er, Die &thik des #p. Pls. , I (.9+)), .66.
* 9till found in 1ur. # 4iddellD9%ott , s.v.
/ ,n o!!. view is ta:en in 7einr. Sendschr. , I on 75/0.
) 9o gn. A. , ad loc.
Ins%r. 8agn. .nscriptions of 3agnesia on the 3eander , ed. -. Fern, .9++.
Ins%r. 2riene Priene .nscriptions , ed. F. 7iller v. <lrtringen, .9+6.
0 Ai%h %om!arative material ma& be found in 2r.DHauer , s.v. and - .
This eBternal and later almost titular use is !redominant in the !a!. (though %f. Ins%r. 8agn. ,
.6), /). It embra%es all the mar:s of !rominent !osition. Aabel
6
thin:s that it is used es!. of
wealth& landowners. Hut from the same !eriod (the end of the *nd %ent. ,.3. ) %f. the eviden%e of
2
hr&n. (ed. Autherford, >>>I', !. ).7)5 c l
i 6 l

. It thus seems that the term ma& be used of an& !rominent !erson.
7

G
reeven
A, A
*

.. i , a word used from a ver& earl& !eriod in <:. ,
.
means to gladden," to
%heer," and in the med. or !ass. to be glad," to re$oi%e." The
s
ubst. means
$o&." In distin%tion from ( I, .9 ) it denotes the mood of $o&. That $o&
involves an inner !ro%ess is eB!ressed in the fa%t that the sub$e%t is often or ,
or or q . The ob$e%ts of $o& ma& be things or events whi%h affe%t outward
!h&si%al wellDbeing, and es!. situations whi%h give rise to a mood of %ommon %heerfulness.
Thus and i are from an earl& !eriod used of the $o& of feasts and
festivals. Hut the fa%ts and !ro%esses of the intelle%tual or s!iritual life are also ob$e%ts of
( 2lat.
8
eneB. , */7a5 l ). Indeed, i is later used
s!e%ifi%all& for this :ind of $o&. Thus 2lato ma:es the distin%tion in
2
rot. , //7%5
i c
g g iq q c i q q
6 ,
*
though this is not in :ee!ing with normal usage.
/
These
distin%tions were ado!ted and develo!ed b& 9toi%ism. This defines as an l
, whi%h for its !art is an l i ,
)
an , while
q is an q
0
or a .
6
is not, of %ourse, an
,
7
but an q #
6
it is no i .
9
It
is also not !ossessed b& ever& or i li:e .
.+
In %ontent it is defined as
6 ,<< , ;F, .6 (.9.7), ;o. /, !. ./.
2hr&n. 2hr&ni%hus, of Hith&nia, leBi%ogra!her and ,tti%ist, at the time of >ommodus. -nl& small fragments of
his great wor: in /7 volumes ( q ) have %ome down to us, ed. <. Autherford, .66..
7 >f. also H<K , (II, .7./, %omm.
<reeven 7einri%h <reeven , <reifswald ((ol. .I*), <reifswaldv7eidelberg ((ol. /), Hethel ((ol. 0), Fiel ((ol.
6), Ho%hum ((ol. 7).
C i . For bibl. .
. i to as i to , i to i et%. to as
to , to et%.
subst. substantive.
8eneB. 3ene:enus .
2rot. Protagoras .
* >f. also the distin%tion between the q of the and the of the
( 2lat.Tim. , 6+b).
/ >f., e.g., 9o!h.,i. , *6+ with *7/# ,risto!h.,%h. , ) f.
) v. ,rnim , III, .+0. /0 ff.
0 v. ,rnim , III, .+0, .7 f.5 90, *.# 96, /+.
6 .bid. , I, 0., /* ff.# III, 9*, .. ff. et%.
7 .bid. , III, */, *) ff. i is re%:oned among the 6 , III, ./6, *+ f.#
belongs onl& to the ( o!!. ), III, *0, *6 and /6, while the i are both
and . It belongs to the found , not , be&ond whi%h
are the i , as c , III, *6, *6.
6 .bid. , III, .9, *9 f.
9 III, *7, .).
.+ III, *0, * f.
6 ,
..
as qq .
.*
The %on%rete
fulfilment of i is finel& de!i%ted in %ertain !assages in
8
. ,nt.
./

*. The 9e!tuagint %onsistentl& uses i in the 2salms for hsf Pdw , often !ar. to or
%ombined with # in
3
t. Is. it is mostl& used for tSfMd , normall& rendered
in the 2s., while , freTuentl& lin:ed with i in 3t.
Is. , is there used for \`Re , for whi%h it is also used in the 2s. Hut i %an also be the
rendering of hsf Pdw , \`Rea and Pw `Pa w in 3t. Is.
.)
i is also used for the verbs
mentioned, es!. hsf Pdw , in other !arts of the -T , as also for some others. In the 2s.
is %onsistentl& the rendering of chd sZ Paw # in 3t. Is. it# o%%urs for chd sZ Paw and also for Pw ^_Pw sd , ^^_Pw Pdw
(or Pw ^ePw ( cSedMa (or tSfMd )# elsewhere it is almost alwa&s used for chd sZ Paw .
The alternation in translation and the %ombination with other verbs shows that
i () does not have a s!e%ifi% meaning shar!l& differentiated
from other eB!ressions for $o& su%h as , i et%. It ma& denote both the
individual mood of $o& at <odOs !rote%tion and hel! in time of need ( es!. in the 2s.) and also
the $ubilation eB!ressed in %ulti% gatherings (also in the 2s.). 9in%e the $o& of the last time is
often de!i%ted as the $o& of %ulti% %elebration, i () , li:e
( I, *+ ), be%omes an es%hatologi%al term, as alread& in 905..# 965.,
where heaven and earth share this $o&, and es!. in the !i%tures of the future in 3t. Is. This
q ma& even be as%ribed to <od ( Is. 605.9 ).
.0
;aturall& i and
are also used of se%ular $o&, but there is a %ontrast to this in 18:8 , where the
6 i are des%ribed as i i .
/. ?udaism uses i and to denote %ulti%
.6
and es%hatologi%al
.7

$o&. 9in%e obedien%e to the 4aw ta:es on more and more a %ulti% %hara%ter, even the
i %an be des%ribed as .
.6
In se%ular usage the !rimar& sense is festive $o&.
.9

.. III, .+0, /7.
.* III, .+6, .+.
8. ,nt. 8ar%us ,urelius ,ntoninus, em!eror and !hiloso!her (.6.I.6+ ,.3. ), influen%ed b& 1!i%tetus and one
of the &ounger 9toi%s. 7is 3editations ( l ) in .* boo:s are the last signifi%ant !rodu%t of
9toi%ism, ed. 7. 9%hen:l, .9./).
./ 8. ,nt. , (I, )6# (II, ./# es!. (III, *65 6 6. c
6 , l ,
, 6 q q
# (III, )/5 i c , c q, q
6 ,
6 q i .
3t. Is. 3euteroDIsaiah.
.) For the stem Pw ^Pw , i is also used of <od in 3t. *656/ # Is. 6*50 .
.0 The %ase is rather different when q is used of <od (for Pw ^ePw ) in 3t. *656/ # /+59 , for it here
signifies to have !leasure in doing something, with a more se%ular sense. -n the other hand, we find that $o& is a
feature of the heavenl& s!here in the de!i%tion of wisdom as the !la&ful %om!anion of <od at %reation in 2rv.
65/+ f. The 4'' here has i for the 7eb. Nhf Pdw .
.6 i for %ulti% $o&, 1 t. 7:14 # 950) # , . 8a%%. )506 , 09 # * 8a%%. .+56 # /
8a%%. 75.6 .
.7 i for es%hatologi%al $o&, Tob. ./5.) # Test. 4. .650 (sub$. the )# .65./ (sub$. the
)# Test. geb. .+5*# Test. 3. 05.*# , Test. 9. 657# 2s. 9ol. .+57# .)56# .75)+.
.6 9ir. .5.. f. # %f. the later name $o& of the 4aw" for the */rd Tishri, when the &earl& %&%le of 2entateu%h
readings ended, 9tr.DH. , I(, .0).
.9 as festive $o&, ?dt. .*5./ , .7 # @is. *59 # / 8a%%. 05.7 , /6 et%.# in 1!. ,r. , *+*, *7), *9) we
%an see the influen%e of <:. s&m!osium lit. Hut the ?ewish use is not ver& different. In ?udaism $o& also denotes
festive $o& at so%ial fun%tions and es!. weddings, 9tr.DH. , I, 97* f. -n in ?ose!h. , v. 9%hl. 4:. ,
6+/# i is not found in ?ose!h. , though he has the a%tive, 9%hl. 4:. , /.9.
The words !la& a !arti%ular role in 2hilo.
*+
7e ado!ts both the s!e%ial sense of festive $o& on the
one side
*.
and the 9toi% view of on the other. The o!!. of i is to be
found in ,
**
but es!. in q
*/
and .
*)
2hilo li:es to %ontrast genuine and
false festive $o&,
*0
and he inter!rets the fasting reTuired in the 4aw as
.
*6
is q .
*7
The
does not trul& %elebrate,
*6
for q { q q
i .
*9
,t a banTuet of the soul be%omes merr& in dan%ing and song with the
i .
/+
9ee:ing after <od brings .
/.
<od %auses $o&s to stream forth from
heaven.
/*
The 4ogos gives it.
//
The as <odOs has eternal .
/)
?o&
%hara%terises the s!here of <od. Thus i is full of
.
/0
9tri%tl&, onl& <od has real $o&, i .
/6
In 7is
relationshi! to men 7is ( o!!. ) is the su!reme blessing, for 7e re$oi%es ( 3t.
/+59 f. ) in those who b& reason of their virtues are worth& of 7is gifts.
/7

). In the ;T i and do not !la& an& great !art. Theologi%all&
the& are overshadowed b& the far more signifi%ant . @e shall have to treat of this
se!aratel& and must therefore %onfine ourselves to i ().
i is often used for !urel& se%ular $o&, and sometimes for the $o& of the festive
meal. In 4:. .*5.9 # .65.9 to eat, drin: and be merr& is the most to whi%h the worldling who
forgets <od %an as!ire, ho!ing to se%ure it b& his !ossessions.
/6
-n the other hand, the $ollit&
of the feast ma& be the eB!ression of a dee!er $o&, whether it is the $ubilation of the
inhabitants of earth at the death of the two witnesses in Aev. ..5.+ , the $o& of the father at the
son who is found in 4:. .05*/ f. , /* , or so%ial $ollit& in the %om!an& of friends in 4:. .05*9 .
This %an also be gratefull& understood as the gift of <od b& whi%h even the
heathen ma& dis%ern 7is !rovidential rule, ,%. .)5.7 . The se%ular sense, not of festive $o&,
but of $o& in mutual fellowshi!, ma& also be seen in the i of * >. *5* 5 l
6 , i i l q ;
i as a des%ri!tion of %ulti% $o& is a !resu!!osition in the a%%ount of the
%ondu%t of Israel around the golden %alf at ,%. 75). 5 i
.
*+ -n $o& in 2hilo %f. 7. @indis%h, Die 9rigkeit Philos (.9+9), 06I6+.
*. 9!e%. 4eg. , I, .9. 5 q # %f. 8igr. ,br. , 9* 5 q q q
.
** 8ut. ;om. , .66 # (it. 8os. , I, *)7 .
*/ 9a%r. ,>. , // .
*) 9om. , II, *++ # 9!e%. 4eg. , II, )9 , *.) # is eB!lained in terms of , 9om. , II, .7) .
*0 9!e%. 4eg. , I, .9.I.9/ # II, .9/I.99 # 9om. , II, .67 ff. # 2lant. , .6. ff. # 1br. , ) .
*6 9!e%. 4eg. , II, .9) # %f. 8igr. ,br. , *+) .
*7 9!e%. 4eg. , I, .9. # 9om. , II, *)6 f. 5 the of the re%eives it.
*6 9!e%. 4eg. , II, )9 .
*9 9a%r. ,>. ... # %f. ,br. , *+7 5 q c (q) { i
( ./ )# 4eg. ,ll. , I, 7* 5 %heers the # 8ut. ;om. , .66 5 the as!e%t of
the gives $o& to the .
/+ 9a%r. ,>. // 5 is the result of q and q q , 1br. , 6 (%f. 3eus Imm. , 96 and
.0) ), of the i , Fug. , .76 .
/. 9!e%. 4eg. , I, /6 # Fug. , .). # %f. >ongr. , .6* ( q c q q i
), .67 .
/* Aer. 3iv. 7er. , 76 # %f. 3eus Imm. , 6. # 4eg. ,ll. , III, 6. .
// 9om. , II, *)9 .
/) .bid. , *)6.
/0 Aer. 3iv. 7er. , /.0 .
/6 >her. , 66 . It ma& also be !ointed out that in 2. -B&. , 'I, ./6+, .9 f., /. f. Isis is invo:ed as .
/7 9om. , II, .70I.79 .
/6 -n 4:. .*5.9 %f. Aabb. !ar. for the usage in 9%hl. 4:. , /.7# 9tr.DH. , II, .9+. The religiohistori%al !ar. to the
moralit& of , i, i in Fl. 4:., ad loc. differ from 4:. .*5.9 to the degree that in them there is
admonition to en$o& life in fa%e of im!ending death, as in ooh. 65.0 f. # 957 f. >f. also the burial e!igram in
1!igr. <rae%. , 6*., ), that the dead man .
In Aev. .*5.* and .65*+ there are e%hoes of the -T demand for $ubilation at <odOs
es%hatologi%al a%ts of $udgment, and as in 905..# 3t. /*5)/ # Is. ))5*/ # )95./ the heavens
are also summoned to q . If the divine is here loo:ing into the future, 2aul sees
this es%hatologi%al q , to whi%h the are also %alled a%%ording to 3t. /*5)/
, alread& fulfilled in the !resent with the bringing of the message of <odOs saving a%t in >hrist
to the nations, A. .05.+ . 7e also finds the addressed to unfruitful ?erusalem in
Is. 0)5. f ulfilled in the >hristian %ommunit&, <l. )5*7 . In some sense %onne%ted with this
insight is the inter!retation of 15 in ,%. *5*6 , *6 , for in in 15: , .. the $o& is that of
the righteous in <odOs !rote%tion, in ,%. it is referred to the risen >hrist.
The >hristian
l
it. influen%ed b& the ;T naturall& uses i in the se%ular sense.
/9

>ultt% $o& is found in
H
arn. , .0, 95 q q q l
, and there is a noteworth& use in 3g., .*, 95 i
i , where the word !rea%hed at divine servi%e is itself the sub$. of $o&. 8ore
%ommon is the a!!li%ation found alread& in the -T and ?udaism ( 77/ , 77) ), namel&, that
%ulti% $o& is $o& in <odOs %ommandments and in do%trine.
)+
There are several referen%es to future
es%hatologi%al $o& in -T Tuotations, es!. in ?ustin.
).
That this $o& is alread& !resent is eB!ressed
in the address in Harn. , 7, .. That this is a foretaste of $o& is stated b& ?ust.
when in
,
!. , )*, ) he s!ea:s of the awa:ened b& !rea%hing5 6
q i .
)*

Bultann
A3!, A3, A3 .
lit. 4iterature.
/9 Harn. , .+, ..# 7erm.s. , 9, .., 6 (of festive $o&, but meta!hori%all&).
Harn. &pistle of Barnabas .
)+ Harn. , ., 6# ), .. ( 6 ) # .+, .. ( in the 6 of the 4ord is
an )# *., 9# among the three i in ., 6 ( e$l!iv, n. ..7 ) the third is
as follows5 i (love whi%h is
united with or %hara%terised b&," not love in merr& and $o&ful wor:s")5 7erm.m. , .*, /, )# s. , 0, 7, .# 9, ... 6.
). For ?ust. %f. 3ial. , 6+, .# ./+, . and )# %f. * >l., .9, ) (the righteous on%e 6
l l )# 7erm.v. , /, ), * (the $o& of angels when the building of the tower is %om!leted)
s. , 9, .6, ) (the $o& of the 9on of <od at the establishment of the >hur%h).
,!. 1ontra #pione .
)* >f. the !rovisional nature of the $o& mentioned in )+ at Harn. , ., 6 ( l
).
B3, A3, 3, 3
*
(
l , , , , , ,
)
B3, A3 .
A. The &sage of B3, A3 .
In nonDbibli%al <:. the sim!le , is the most %om!rehensive term for
invo%ation of the deit&. In the earliest !eriod the sense of to vow" is !resent as well as the more
%ommon to as:," to !ra&."
.
In the 4'' this word is almost alwa&s used for MMS and often for
M|S , but here, and even more so in the ;T statisti%s show a severe loss to ,
, whi%h be%omes the main word for !ra&er. There are onl& a few reli%s of the sim!le
form in the ;T .
in the 4'' is normall& used in sense .. (though %f. ?ob **5*7 # *
8a%%. 95./ ), but in the ;T it o%%urs onl& at * >. ./57 . i in the 4'' mostl& has
sense *. ( 9ir. /659 is an eB%e!tion), but the use in ,%. *65*9 is different. @hat is !ra&ed for is in
the a%%. with inf. in ,%. *65*9 # *75*9 # / ?n. * , in the nom. with inf. in A. 95/ , and eB!ressed b& a
%lause in ?m. 05.6 . There is a sim!le trans, in * >. ./59 .
.. To !ra&," to as:," to besee%h," !ra&er," !etitionar& !ra&er," or general invo%ation
of <od." The noun as well as the verb is used in this sense as in ?m. 05.0f. 5
*
q q q
i 6 believing !ra&er will save the si%:" ( v. .0 ). This
C . -n ,.5 >r.DFJ. , )07 f.# 8oult.D8ill. , *66# Tren%h, ..0ff.# A. 7elbing, Die 4asuss'nta: der
Verba bet den Septuaginta (.9*6), **). 3ef. 5 2lat.1uth&!hr. , .)%# 2hilo3eus Imm. , 67 # ,gri%. , 99 # 9om. , I,
*0* # -rig. et 1us. in 2salmos ''I in I. H. 2itra, #nalecta Sacra , III (.66/), )*+. -n H.5 F. 7eiler, Das Gebet
0

(.9*/)# A<<
*
, II, 669 ff.# 1. Aohde# Die /eligion der Griechen6 4leine Schriften , II (.9+.), /.) ff.# K. v.
@ilamowitED8oellendorff, Der Glaube der (ellenen (.9/.v*), es!. I, /+ff., *6) ff., /+.# II, 0./ ff.# ?.
Hur%:hardt, Griechische 4ulturgesch. , II (.9/+), .ff.# /eligion u. 4ultus P 1. Hi%:el, Platonisches Gebetsleben6
#rchiv f. Gesch. der Philosophie , ''I (.9+6), 0/0 ff.# <. @issowa, /eligion u. 4ultus d. /er
*
(.9.*), /69,
/96 ff., )*/ ff.# ?. Froll, Die )ehren des (eres "risegistos (.9.)), /*6 f. -n the form of <:. !ra&ers, %f. 1.
;orden, #gnostos "heos (.9./), .)/ff.# F. giegler, De Precationu apud Graecos 9oris ( 3iss. Hreslau,
.9+0). -n >.5 Theel, 3as <ebet im ,T im 4i%hte des ;euen betra%htet ," in "heologische Studien u. Ski--en
aus %stpreussen (.669)# 1. >aldesaigues, )a Pri,re dans la /eligion de 0,hovah6 ses #nt,c,dents6 son (istoire
(Thse 8ontauban, .699)# ?. FJberle, 3ie 8otive des <laubens an die <ebetserhJrung im ,T," 9estschr. d.
8nivers. &rlangen -u cd. Geburtstag des Prin-</egenten )uitpold (.9+.)# 8. Fegel, Das Gebet i #" (.9+6)#
?. 3Jller, 3as <ebet in religionsges%h. Heleu%htung ," in "heol. Studion der >sterreichischen )eo<Gesellschaft
, *. (.9.))# ,. <reiff, Das Gebet i #" UU #t.liche #bhandlungen , (, / (.9.0)# ?. 7em!el, Gebet u.
9rigkeit i #" (.9**)# ,. 9%heuer!flug, Das Gebet i #" (un!ubl. 3iss. , 7eidelberg, .9*/)# 7. 9%hmidt,
Das Gebet des #ngeklagten i #" (.9*6)# ,. @endel, Das freie )aiengebet i vore:ilischen .srael UU &:
%riente )u: , (v(II (.9/.)# F. 3elitEs%h, 7@
*
, I (.69/), )6) ff.# F. Huhl, A1/ , (I, /9/ f.# T. F. >he&ne, s.v.
2ra&er," 1H , III (.9+*), /6*/ ff.# 1. A. Hernard, s.v. 2ra&er," 73H, I( (.9+*), *6ff.# 7. 4es}tre, s.v. 2rire"
in F. (igourouB, Dictionnaire de la Bible , ( (.9.*), 66/ ff.# 7. 9%hmidt, A<<
*
, II, 670I679# ,. 7orodetE:&,
s.v. <ebet," 1? , (II (.9/.), .*.ff.# TeBtDboo:s of -T theolog& and ar%haeolog&# >omm. on the 2s. b& F.
3elitEs%h, A. Fittel, @. 9taer: and 7. <un:el, and <un:elOs Introdu%tion to the 2s. (%om!leted b& ?. Hegri%h,
.9//). -n 3.5 @. 9taer:, #lt5dische liturgische Gebete , Fl. T. , 06
*
(.9/+)# ?. 1lbogen, Der 5dische
Gottesdienst
*
(.9*))# 1. 9%hwaab, 7istoris%he 1infGhrung in das ,%htEehngebet ," HFTh , .7 (.9./), *)6 ff.#
9tr.DH. , I(, .69 ff., *+6 ff.# 9%hGrer , II, )97 ff.# 3alman @? , I, *6/ ff.# HoussetD<ressm. , .7.ff.# /06 ff. -n 1.5
1. <oltE, Das Gebet in der =ltesten 1hristenheit (.9+.)# ?.?eremias, 3as <ebetsleben ?esu ," g;@ , *0 (.9*6),
.*/ff.# 1. -r!hal, Das Paulusgebet (.9//)# 2. >hrist. Die )ehre vo Gebet (.666)# ,. Flawe:, Das Gebet -u
0esus (.9*.)# ?. 7orst, Prosk'nein (.9/*)# 7. <reeven, Gebet u. &schatologie i !" (.9/.)# -. 3ibelius, Das
Vaterunser (.9+/), I ff.# >r.DFJ. , )06 f.# Tren%h, ..0ff.# 2r.DHauer , ..)) f.
. 9o alread& in 7om. , v. 2r.DHauer , 4iddellD9%ott , s.v. The last meaning seems to go ba%: to the IndoD<erm.,
4at. voveo (,. 1rnoutD,. 8eillet, Dictionnaire &t'ologi$ue de la )angue )atine m.9/*n, .+9*). The basi%
meaning a%%. to Hoisa%T, s.v. is ,lever solennelleent la voi: ," and a%%. to 2rellwitE, 1t&m. @Jrt. , s.v. and
@aldeD2o:orn&, I, ..+ to vow" (so also 3ebrunner). >f. also 4iddellD9%ott , s.v.
* 2 al emend ?m. 05.0 to and ,H 7/ emend ?m. 05.6 to under the influen%e of the
more %ommon %om!ound found also in v. ./f . and v. .7f .
eB%ludes an& magi%al o!eration of the oil with whi%h the si%: is to be anointed b& the elders
( I, */. ). It is o!en to Tuestion whether the !etition in the following verse is also for
forgiveness of sins.
/
In * >. ./57 2aul eB!ressl& mentions <od, to whom he !ra&s that the
>orinthians ma& do no evil.
)
@e should understand v. 9 also of inter%essor& !ra&er rather
than as a mere wish (%f.
7
erm.
s
. , 0, *, .+# 0, /, 7). In ,%. *65*9 2aul added an immediate
to the i whi%h for the <ree: would be no more than a %ourteous and
res!e%tful wish.
0
The %onversion of Fing ,gri!!a and the other hearers is for him a sub$e%t
of earnest !ra&er# onl& <od %an a%%om!lish it.
6

, , in the sense of to !ra&," !ra&er" are rare in the 4'', e.g., 3t. 95*6 # 4
B. 20:2 # 3a. 65.. , ./ et%. ?os.,nt. , ., *)0 (1lieEer !ra&s <od that Aebe:ah might be among
the damsels who %ome)# .), ** and *) # ., *7+ ff. , of the blessing of Isaa%, a similar %hange of
meaning from as:ing to what is !ra&ed for as in 1 B. 2:8 . >f. also ?os.Hell. , 7, .00 . 2hilo,
too, uses the word in the sense of !ra&er. It is noteworth& that he ta:es 3t. */5*. 5 g
, q ig (as he renders it), Tuite !lainl& in the sense of
!etition and than:sgiving,
9
a%r. ,>. , 0/ f.
7
>f. also 4eg. ,ll. , III, .+) # 770, bibl. , 3ef.
From se%ular lit. ,
6
the ins%r. and !a!. , attention ma& be drawn to the ,ntio%hus ins%r. of
>ommagene (lst %ent. H.>. , 3itt. -r. , I, /6/), whi%h uses and for inter%ession,
lines **7 and *//.
*. To vow," to dedi%ate," vow." It is not alwa&s !ossible to distinguish this sense
shar!l& from ..
9
It a!!ears twi%e in the ;T at ,%. .65.6 # *.5*/ ,
.+
the noun alone being
used. 9in%e the referen%e is to ?ews,
..
and to the shaving of the hair of the head, it must refer
to the ;aEirite vow. Two different details in *.5*/ff . ma:e this %on%lusion unavoidable (%f.
9
tr.DH. , II, 6+ ff., 7)7 ff., 700 ff.).
.*

The %onstru%tion q at *.5*/ is influen%ed b& the 4'' ( ;u. 657
# /+57 # 8al. .5.) ) and also b& the view that in his long hair the ;aEirite bears on his head a
sa%rifi%ial gift dedi%ated to <od ( ;u. 659 , .9 et%.). The !arti%ularl& %ommon eB!ressions
and show us how strong was the im!ulse to transfer
to the dedi%ated gift itself, e.g., 4v. **5*/ # */5/6 . 9o also on ins%r., 3itt. 9&ll.
/
, ..)*
(lv*nd %ent. ,.3. ), 3itt. -r. , II, 7.6 (/rd %ent. ,.3. ), 8ilet., I, 7 (.9*), ;o. /+) (late) ( q
or ). -ften means as the gift of dedi%ation, as the sa%rifi%e at a
vow" (%f. 4'' 4v. 756 # 3itt. -r. , II, 600, 7 m*) H.>. n# ,nnales du 9ervi%e des ,ntiTuitjs de
lOg&!te , *+ m.9*+n, */6 f., Theadel!hia, *nd %ent. H.>. ).
./
8ostl& and (late) c
q signif& in virtue of a vow" (
2
reisig:e 9ammelbu%h , I(, 7*67 m*/ H.>. n# 3itt. -r. , I,
/ >f. 3ib. ?:. , */0 f.# @nd. ?:. , //# 7%:. ?:. , */0 f.# 9%hl. ?:. , *6/ f.
) , different view is ta:en in 4tEm. F. , .6. f.
7erm. Pastor (erae .
s. siilitudines .
0 >f. Hl.D3ebr.
6
y /60, .. 2hilo2oster. >. , 6* .
6 Hengel, ad loc.
9a%r. ,>. De Sacrificiis #belis et 1aini .
7 Though %f. the emendations of 7. 4eisegang in 4. >ohn, Die Werke Philos von #le:andria in deutscher ;bers.
, III (.9.9), */6, n. /.
6 For further eBam!les %f. 4iddellD9%ott , 2reisig:e @Jrt. , s.v.
9 >f. @. 8. Aamsa&, 1B!. T. , .+ (.696v99), ./.
.+ is used for vow" in the !ostDa!ost. fathers onl& in allusion to the -T (. >l., )., *# 0*, /) and
is never used for to vow."
.. The order in ,%. .65.6 , in %om!arison with .75/) ( 4:. *)5. ,3s&), !oints to #k'las as the sub$. of
. 3 ( ) and d ( oratione ) are !oor attem!ts to emend what is not !ro!erl&
understood.
9tr.DH. 7. 4. 9tra%: and 2. Hillerbe%:, 4oentar -u !" aus "alud und 3idrasch , .9** ff.
.* For a different view %f. <. 7oenni%:e, Die #postelgeschichte (.9./), 96 and 1. ?a%Tuier, )es #ctes des
#pTtres (.9*6), 006 f. 9tri%tl& l re!resents a !lu!erfe%t.
./ >f. Publications of the Princeton 8niv. #rchaeol. &:peditions to S'ria in AedBfdH and Aede , III , (.9*.),
*0+.
2reisig:e 9ammelbu%h F. 2reisig:e, Saelbuch griechischer 8rkunden aus Lg'pten , .9.0 ff.
).6, / m). ,.3. n#
I
< , 'II, ., 9+* and 9.. f.# Publications of the Princeton 8niv. #rchaeol.
&:peditions to S'ria in AedBfAedH and Aede , III H (.9**) 9*0, late. ;aEirite, ?os.,nt. , ), 7* #
Hell. , *, /./ # 2hilo9!e%. 4eg. , I, *)7 ff. - for to vow" or vow" is rare in 2hilo.
/. The original %ulti% %onne%tion be%ame wea:er with time, so that %an ta:e on
the sense of to wish" or to as:" (as alread& in 2indar).
.)
;aturall& the borderDline is fluid.
The s!e%ial mention of <od in ,%. *65*9 # * >. ./57 ( 776 ) is !erha!s an indi%ation that a
full& se%ular understanding is !ossible and natural. ,n%ient e!istolar& st&le, as seen in / ?n.
* 5 i i , shows how indeterminate
the term has be%ome. ,long with the eB!ress mention of a deit& (
2
. 4ond. , I, )* m.66 H.>. n#
.0
2reisig:e 9ammelbu%h , I, 07)7, !agan) we ma& have alone, so that there is no
need to assume a religious %onne%tion even though this is !ossible ( H<K , (I, ./+. mlv*nd
%ent. H.>. n# 2reisig:e 9ammelbu%h , III, 6*60 mlst %ent. ,.3. n).
.6
The normal eB!ression
whi%h desires above all !ersonal welfare5 { ( H<K , I, /6 mlst %ent.
,.3. n# 2. -B&. , II, *9* m
c
. *0 ,.3. n)
.7
is here altered,
.6
sin%e the >hristian alread& has the
%hief thing, namel&, divine health of soul ( , i ). 2aul uses for
his wish to trade the best thing that he has, his new life , for the bringing of his
fellowD%ountr&men to salvation ( A. 95/ ). This wish is restri%ted b& the fa%t that the gra%e of
<od %annot be eB%hanged. 2aul is sim!l& using a strong eB!ression to show how mu%h he
suffers from the disobedien%e of his own !eo!le. @e read of those who were shi!wre%:ed in
,%. *75*9 5 q , but we are not told that longing for da&light was
eB!ressed in !ra&ers or vows.
is used for to wish" in the 4'' onl& at ?er. **5*7 , being the trans. of ( PQ iX SXY[X
( [P]ew Sa li:e i at . 51:14 . It is %ommon, however, in the !ostDa!ost. fathers. The noun
is used for wish"
.9
neither in the 4'', the ;T , nor the !osta!ost, fathers. Hut
v
. ?os.Hell.
, 0, *00 #
(
it. , *9* . Hoth noun and verb are %ommon in 2hilo in this sense, e.g.,
3
eus Imm. , .6) #
Fug. , .0) . in the sense of to boast" (from the time of 7omer) is not found at all in
bibli%al <:.
B. Pra$er in the ree% 3orld.
.. <ree: !ra&er is determined b& the !arti%ular !osition of this !eo!le in religious histor&
generall&.
*+
It is true that man& <:. gods bear in their names or attributes the signs of origination
in nature, in wood or hill, in the weather or the %&%le of the &ear. =et belief in <od nowhere
remained on the level of animism or feti%hism. The <:s. ever&where saw in their gods the for%es
of destin& whose s!here of o!eration was limited neither materiall& nor to!ogra!hi%all&. In
:ee!ing with this is their worshi!, whi%h fundamentall& has no !la%e for images.
*.
In terms of
!ra&er, this means that magi%al ora%les and !etitions and in%antations are se%ondar&, the !rimar&
feature being a t&!e of !ra&er whi%h s!rings from a more inde!endent and !rofound !iet&. In this
I< .nscriptiones Graecae , ed. Preussische #kadeie d. Wissenschaften -u Berlin , .67/ ff,
.) >f. 2ass. , s.v.
2. 4ond. Greek Pap'ri in the British 3useu , ed. F. <. Fen&on and others, .69/ ff.
.0 9. @it:ows:i, &pistulae Privatae Graecae (.9.. ), ;o. /0.
.6 -n this whole !t. %f. @endland 7ell. Fult. , ).).
%. circa .
.7 , %olle%tion of basi% material ma& be found in F. giemann, De &pistularu Graeceru 9orulis Solenibus
?uaestiones Selectae ( 3iss. 7alle, .9..), /.7 ff. { seems also to o%%ur in H<K , III, 660 (*nd
%ent. ,.3. ), though the teBt is in%om!lete.
.6 >f. i in 2l.
.9 2ound from the time of 2lat. , 4iddellD9%ott , s.v.
v. vide .
(it. Vita .
3eus Imm. ?uod Deus sit .utabilis .
*+ >f. 7eiler, op. cit. , .9..
*. >f. on this whole !t. @ilamowitE, I, .0 ff.
!ra&er man draws near with his reTuests to the for%e whi%h %an determine his whole destin&. ,lso
in :ee!ing with the %om!rehensive !ower of the deit& is the fa%t that for the <:. there is no s!here
of life whi%h should not be a%%om!anied in all its manifestations b& sa%rifi%es and !ra&ers to the
gods.
a. For the earl& !eriod we are de!endent on dedu%tions from the belief in <od in res!e%t of
!ra&ers. The first !ra&ers are found in 7omer. Though !ra&ers are often st&listi% devi%es in
7omer, the& give us a vivid !i%ture of the signifi%an%e, im!ulses and themes of !ra&er.
**

The heroes of 7omer are full& %ons%ious of their de!enden%e on the gods, and the& naturall&
as%ribe to them human emotions and im!ulses of will. The& thus a!!roa%h them as the& would
!owerful !rin%es. 2ra&er usuall& arises out of a %on%rete need and is related to the attainment of
s!e%ifi% and !al!able goals. Thus sa%rifi%e and !ra&er are offered for !reservation in an
a!!roa%hing battle.
*/
,%hilles inter%edes with !ra&ers and offerings for his friend 2atro%lus,
as:ing geus that he ma& %onTuer and return safel&.
*)
,lmost alwa&s there is reTuested some
gra%ious overruling whi%h will bring deliveran%e from a !arti%ular emergen%& or fulfil a s!e%ifi%
need.
*0
In the main the a%tion of the gods is related onl& to the fortunes of war, to the determining
of the issues of life and death. -nl& rarel& is there !ra&er for the o!eration of the deit& on menOs
hearts.
*6
, uniTue %limaB in 7omer is when 7e%tor !ra&s to the gods that his &oung son ma&
en$o& the might and renown of a hero.
*7

The distin%tive nature of the blessings sought shows us that the !ower of the gods over human
destin& is not understood in terms of a fatalisti% belief in !roviden%e whi%h restri%ts the s!here of
!ra&er to the inward man. There are rather !oints in life where man himself %an no longer eBer%ise
an& influen%e. It is here that the gods rule in the first instan%e. ,nd sin%e the gods ma& be swa&ed,
man ma& see: his salvation with !ra&er and sa%rifi%e. ,s all life is in%reasingl& brought under the
thought of fate, the more resolutel& does l bring !ressure on the -l&m!ians with their
delight in sa%rifi%e. The 7omeri% heroes %onfidentl& see: to win the friendshi! of the gods. 2ra&er
is usuall& a%%om!anied b& an offering. This offering ma& be regarded as %onstituting an
obligation. Thus ,gamemnon reminds geus eB!ressl& of his offerings and !oints to the !oor
return.
*6
geus himself ma& o%%asionall& admit the obligation.
*9
Hut this %annot give an&
me%hani%al assuran%e of being heard. -n the %ontrar&, ,$aB fears that the !ra&er of his friends for
vi%tor& ma& %ause his enemies to !ra& also and to do so more su%%essfull&. Thus it is betterkat
least in the first instan%ekto !ra& softl&.
/+
If he at on%e amends this, for we reall& fear no one,"
it is more defian%e of the gods than assuran%e of their hel!. ,s sa%rifi%es are offered to win the
favour of the gods, so !romises are sometimes used to swa& them, offerings being vowed in %ase
of a favourable answer.
/.
This arrangement is ultimatel& lin:ed with the fa%t that the deities are
not swa&ed, or hardl& ever swa&ed, b& moral %onsiderations. -d&sseus has reason to fear that the
!ra&ers of 4eiodes, the unfaithful s!e%tator at sa%rifi%e, are !artl& res!onsible for his long ?ourne&.
/*
;aivel& human is also the notion that ,thene finds !leasure in her !referen%es.
//
There is
some movement towards a more moral view in the thought that those who !ra& should satisf&
%ertain demands. ,long with the !urel& %ulti% reTuirement that he who !ra&s and sa%rifi%es should
** 2arti%ularl& valuable for our !resent stud& and for the materials %olle%ted, are the two wor:s b& >. F.
;lgelsba%h, (oerische "heologie
*
(.66.), es!. *.. ff. on !ra&er# and Die naehhoerische "heologie d.
griech. Volksglaubens (.607), *.. f.
*/ 1.g., Il. , *, )++ ff.
*) Il. , .6, *// ff.
*0 >f. ;lgelsba%h, (oerische "heologie , *./.
*6 -d. , 7, //. ff. In Il. .6, 0.) ff., as we see from v. 0*9, <lau%os seems to have !ra&ed that his %ourage might
be strengthened.
*7 Il. , 6, )76 ff.
*6 Il. , 6, */6 ff.
*9 Il. , ), )6 ff.
/+ Il. , 7, .9) ff.
/. 1.g., Il. , 6,/+6 ff.# -d. , .7,0+ f. 7en%e the threefold meaning of , as:," wish," vow."
/* -d. , **, /*. ff.
// Il. , .7, 066.
have %lean hands
/)
we also find the demand that he should not be guilt& of blood
/0
and that no
disobedien%e against the gods should dwell in him.
/6

The basi% as!e%ts of <:. !ra&er as the& are alread& found in 7omer !ersist into the !eriod
whi%h follows. K!right, with head ere%t and hands outstret%hed,
/7
the <ree: %alls u!on his gods,
the %onstant %om!anions of his whole life, whom he a!!roa%hes not so mu%h with fear and
trembling as with a %ertain intima%&. The relationshi! of the <ree:s to <od as eB!ressed in
!ra&er seems to be one of friendshi!. The 7ellenes were masters of friendshi!# the dominant
%hara%teristi% of their so%ial relationshi!s is refle%ted in their dealings with the godhead."
/6

b. The three great tragi% dramatists give us a ri%h !i%ture of the !ra&er of the <:s. in the
%lassi%al !eriod. 7ere, too, it must be noted that !ra&er is often a !oeti% instrument, a wel%ome
form of selfDde!i%tion, =et at least in ,es%h&lus, where it is almost the onl& form of !ersonal
eB!ression, it bears ever&where the freshness of originalit&. -nl& in 1uri!ides does it be%ome a
mere artisti% medium, so that religious s%e!ti%ism is eB!ressed in it.
/9
For the rest, as in 7omer,
even the artifi%ial !ra&er still refle%ts in some sense what was !ossible and %ustomar& for the !oet
and his age in this res!e%t. Thus invo%ation of the dead,
)+
whi%h is not &et found in 7omer, %an
hardl& be an artisti% invention of the !oet %ontradi%tor& to %urrent religions !ra%ti%e.
In traged& there are some differen%es from the !ra&ers of 7omeri% figures, es!. as regards
%ontent. It is still true that in ever& situation men %an turn to the gods for hel!. Hut there is now a
greater %on%ern for s!iritual and moral blessings. Thus 1le%tra !ra&s that she ma& be more
virtuous than her mother.
).
The %horus of women in the 8edea of 1uri!ides des%ribes
as the finest gift of the gods and !ra&s for !rote%tion from the tormenting !assion
of $ealous&.
)*
The !ra&er of the 3anaids for hos!itable ,rgos mentions not merel& !ea%e and
!ros!erit& but also honest& and the fear of <od among the divine gifts whi%h are the sub$e%t of
!ra&er.
)/
There %an still be !ra&er for revenge,
))
but it is alwa&s for $ust and metired retribution.
The wrongdoer has no ho!e of being heard.
)0
-n the other hand, the !ious a!!eal to the faithful
fulfilment of %ulti% obligations.
)6
The words of 7i!!ol&tus breathe intima%& with the gods5
i,
c ,

.
47

There is also trust and %onfiden%e in the words of %omfort and admonition addressed b& the
8&%enaean women to the sorrowing 1le%tra5 9ighs and tears do not hel!, but onl& !ra&er to the
gods.
)6
There is a !enetrating and &et highl& %hara%teristi% testimon& to <:. !ra&er at the end of
the 9u!!liants. The traged& ends with un%ertaint& and anBiet& %on%erning the out%ome of the
eB!e%ted war with the sons of ,eg&!tus. In the alternating song of the %horus the ins%rutabilit& of
the will of the gods is balan%ed against the summons5 .k i
; c .
)9
In this %onfident selfDrestraint <:.
!ra&er finds its most inwardl& %onsistent %hara%teristi%. 1ven in dealings between man and deit&
the final %ulmination is i .
0+

/) Il. , 6, *66 f.# .6, */+.
/0 -d. , .), )+6.
/6 Il. , ., *.6.
/7 @ith invo%ation of the dead we find new gestures su%h as stam!ing and beating on the ground, ,es%h.2ers. ,
66/# 1ur.Tro. , ./+0 f.
/6 7eiler, op. cit. , *++.
/9 >f# on !ra&er in the tragi% dramatists @. 9%hadewaldt, 8onolog u. 9elbstges!rl%h ," ;. 2h. K. , * (.9*6),
/6, 0* f., 96 ff., .+. ff.# n. 6) .
)+ 1.g., ,es%h.>hoe!h. , .*9 ff.
). .bid. , .)+ f.
)* 1ur.8ed. , 6/0 ff.
)/ ,es%h.9u!!l. , 6*0 ff.
)) 1.g., ,es%h.>hoe!h. , /+6 ff., /9) ff.# 9o!h.2hil. , .+)+ ff.
)0 ,es%h.,g. , /96.
)6 ,es%h.>hoe!h. , *00 ff.# 9o!h.1l. , ./76 ff.# 1ur.1l. , .99 f.
)7 1ur.7i!!. , 60 f.
)6 1ur.1l. , .9/ ff.
)9 ,es%h.9u!!l. , .+09 ff.
0+ >f. 2lat.2haedr. , *79%.
%. Further testimon& to !ra&er is found in l&ri% !oetr& and !hiloso!h&.
0.
7ere, too, we find at
first the same indifferent %on$un%tion of navel& eudaemonisti% and ethi%all& !urer %on%erns. The
!ra&er of 9olon to the 8uses
0*
sees in fortune and !ros!erit&, in the trust of friends and the fear
of enemies, in rightl& a%Tuired wealth, the gifts whi%h ma& be sought from the gra%e of the gods#
but there is also !ra&er for !rote%tion against the worst of human failings, namel&, . In
'eno!hon, too, a good name is an ob$e%t of !ra&er as well as the usual gifts of fortune.
0/
It is
assumed b& the !ious <:. that nothing should be attem!ted without !ra&er to the gods.
0)
-n the
other hand, in !hiloso!hi%al !ra&er there is an evident effort to set aside an eudaemonisti%
a!!roa%h to !ra&er.
00
It is true that in %onseTuen%e !ra&er loses its vitalit& and s!ontaneit&. It
be%omes insi!id and finall& leads to selfDeBaltation.
06
;evertheless, in the first instan%e this
develo!ment of moral de!th and inwardness leads to the su!reme %ulmination of <:. !ra&er as it
is rea%hed in 2lato5 6 i H g i, i i
c , li i.
c i c q
q 6 .
07
,%%ording to 'eno!hon, 9o%rates too is familiar
with !ra&er for the remission of guilt and %ommends it to the 6 .
06
2indar as:s geus for
u!rightness of life.
09
Hut !ra&er be%omes more general as well as more inward. There is mu%h
advi%e to !ra& sim!l& for the good.
6+
@ith this is, lin:ed the %onsideration that fulfilment of this
desire ne%essaril& im!lies the nonDfulfilment of other, foolish wishes,
6.
2&thagoras des%ribes it as
the tas: of the wise to !ra& for good on behalf of fools who do not re%ognise it.
6*
Hut b& this time
we have long sin%e moved out of vital !ra&er into the %older s!here of !hiloso!hi%al meditation
%on%erning !ra&er. This brings us into the s!here of s%e!ti%ism, !resent %ontinuall& from the time
of 'eno!hanes. 9ometimes s%e!ti%ism is eB!ressed in the !ra&ers of 1uri!ides. Thus -d&sseus in
>
&%. !ra&s to geus for deliveran%e. If this is not granted, geus is im!otent and not the god he is
thought to be.
6/
9imilarl&, %ertain !ra&ers in the Ion betra& both in tone and %ontent an attitude
whi%h ma:es true !ra&er im!ossible.
6)

*. In the 7ellenisti% !eriod !ra&er is affe%ted both b& the heritage of <:. !hiloso!h& with its
%riti%ism and ideal of !ra&er and also b& the !enetration into the <:. world of the oriental m&ster&
religions whose %ultus gives !arti%ular features to !ra&er. 2hiloso!h& %ontinues on the %ourse
ado!ted,
60
and is !o!ularised in the new 9toa and related s%hools. To an even greater degree than
in the %lassi%al !eriod one ma& sa& that the image !resented b& literature is also true of !o!ular
religion.
a. The first great religious and !hiloso!hi%al stream in 7ellenism is the !o!ular !hiloso!hi%al
enlightenment as this ma& be %learl& seen in the 9toi%D>&ni% diatribe. 7ere the an%ient belief in the
gods is a thing of the !ast, and a !ra%ti%al monotheism has been attained whi%h is strengthened
rather than obs%ured b& the %ontinuing eBisten%e of man& lo%al %ults, sin%e the one su!reme <od is
ever&where worshi!!ed in the man& deities. 2ra&er is %ertainl& offered to various gods, but these
re!resent <od and are in no wa& differentiated.
66
The !ra&er of !hiloso!hers is addressed to this
one deit&. The nature of the thought of <od la&s its im!ress u!on !ra&er. 9in%e the %on%e!tion of
0. There is a good review of the estimation of !ra&er in <:. !hiloso!h& b& 7. 9%hmidt in his Veteres Philosophi
$uoodo iudicaverint de Precibus , A(( I( (.9+7), . ff. @e ma& also refer to this wor: for the 7ellenisti%
literature q .
0* 3iehl , I, .7 ff.
0/ 'eno!h.-e%. , .., 6.
0) Theogn. 3iehl , I, .*0, lines .7. f.# 2lat.Tim. , *7%# 'eno!h.-e%. , 6, ..
00 -n other reasons for this develo!ment %f. Hi%:el, op. cit. , 0/6 ff.
06 >f. 7eiler, op. cit. , *+* ff.
07 2lat.2haedr. , *79b %, %f. Hi%:el, op. cit. , 0/6 ff.
06 'eno!h.8em. , II, *, .).
09 ;em. , 6, /0.
6+ 'eno!h.8em. , I. /. *# 2s.D2lat.,l%. , II, .)6%# 3iod. 9. , ', 9. 6.
6. 2s.D2lat.,l%. , II, .)/a.
6* 3iod. 9. , ', 9, 7.
>&%. 1'clops .
6/ 1ur.>&%. , /0/ ff.
6) 1.g., 1ur.Ion , /6) ff.# )/6 ff.# 9+7 ff.# %f. 9%hadewaldt, .+*, ..6 ff., ./+ ff.
60 n. 0. .
66 9en.Hen. , (, *0, ). -mni!resen%e and omnis%ien%e are as%ribed to the gods.
<od is basi%all& im!ersonal,
67
we do not find in !ra&er those features whi%h !resu!!ose a
!ersonal being to whom it is offered. ,bove all, there %an be no true !etition in 9toi% !ra&er. It is
true that reTuests for health of soul, for liberation from desires, for divine gifts whi%h have
nothing to do with %arnal and earthl& lusts,"
66
have the a!!earan%e of !etitions. Hut the& are not
reall& sub$e%ts of !ra&er# the& sim!l& refle%t the ideal whi%h man should see:. 7e is to be%ome
one whose reTuest is onl& for blessings of this :ind. That this is not true !etition ma& be seen from
a statement of 9ene%a5 It is foolish to !ra& for a right dis!osition when one %an attain it of oneself.
@hat need is there to lift u! oneOs hand to heaven or to a!!roa%h the statues of the gods <od is
near thee, with thee, in thee."
69
9u%h statements ?ustif& us in wondering whether !ra&er is
seriousl& meant.
7+
;ot onl& is there no serious !ra&er# there is also no %ertaint& of being heard.
7.

The %ommon reTuest for !h&si%al health is re!udiated,
7*
sin%e we should not as: the gods for
things whi%h the& do not give.
7/
2ra&er is thus atta%:ed at the root. Its onl& remaining %ontent is
an eB!ression of resolution in fa%e of destin&. @e should not be misled, therefore, b& wellD:nown
verse of >leanthes warml& and freTuentl& %ommended b& 1!i%tetus5
7)

, 6 Z, q H,

l .
This geus is in fa%t no more than fate, and the infleBibilit& ( , i ) of the wise
not onl& se!arates him b& a great gulf from his fellows but also ma:es it im!ossible for him to
invo:e <od.
70
4ifted into the i%& regions of !hiloso!hi%al s!e%ulation, !ra&er withers and dies. ,t
a later !eriod there is some rea%tion against this. 8ar%us ,urelius in his 8editations sa&s5
76

" , 6 i Z, q q Ai i."
q q . To be sure the sim!li%it& and
freedom of this !ra&er %onsist more in the avoidan%e of a word& e!i%lesis or the absen%e of
re%olle%tions of !ast sa%rifi%es or the !romises of new ones. In an& %ase he is not eB!ressing a
%onfident !etition for rain at a time of drought. The true as!e%t of his !ra&er ma& be seen from
another !assage
77
in whi%h he re$e%ts this t&!e of %on%rete !etition and eBtols !ra&er for inner
develo!ment as the onl& :ind a!!ro!riate to the wise. >ertainl& we %annot see an& evident signs of
a warm %onfiden%e in <od.
b. The se%ond great religious trend in 7ellenism is the !iet& of the 8&steries. Though sha!ed
b& %ulti% forms and rituals, this rests on a basis of individual religious life. The redem!tion sought
in the 8&steries !resu!!oses individual religion. The %ulti% fellowshi! is a grou! of see:ers or
initiates gathered from ever& %lass and nation and united onl& b& the %onse%rating rites. It is here
that !ra&er ta:es on its full signifi%an%e. In the great !ra&ers of the Isis dedi%ation of ,!uleius.
76

in the !ra&er of the 7ermes m&ster&,
79
in the stuttering and stammering of the 2aris magi% !a!&ri,
the individual ever&where eB!erien%es with awe the !roBimit& of the deit& whose !ossession he
has be%ome b& the sa%red rites of dedi%ation, whose hands %ontrol his destin& and from whom he
eB!e%ts salvation. =et !ra&er is onl& a !enultimate thing for the initiate. The ultimate %limaB of
religious eB!erien%e is rea%hed in the vision of <od, in adoratio de pro:uo ,
6+
in i
.
6.
For this m&sti%al vision !ra&er is sim!l& s%affolding. It forms as it were the bridge
from the limited !ossibilities of human will and wor: to the s!here of undisturbed, e%stati% and
67 >f. the regular alternation of di and natura in 9en. , e.g., Hen. , I(, ).
66 1!i%t.<nom. 9tob. 3. , *# /# ) (!. )79, 9%hen:l)# 9en. 1!. , .+, ).
69 9en. 1!. , )., .. The im!ossibilit& of getting an&thing through !ra&er is !lainl& stated in 3e ;aturalibus
ouaestionibus , II, /0 ff.
7+ >f. Hi%:el, op. cit. , 0)9.
7. 9en. 1!. , .+, )5 audacter deu togaE nihil illu de alieno rogaturus es , !resu!!oses that the friend to whom
these words are addressed is ma:ing right reTuests.
7* 1!i%t.<nom. 9tob. 3. , * (!. )79, 9%hen:l).
7/ 1!i%t. Fr. , .7# %f. 3iss. , II, 7, .* ff.
7) 1!i%t.3iss. , II, */, )*# III, **, 90# I(, ., ./. et%.
70 The wise even stands over <od, 9en. 1!. , 7/, .).
76 8. ,nt. , (, 7.
77 8. ,nt. , I', )+# %f. 'II, ..
76 ,!ul.8et. , 'I, * and *0.
79 AeitEenstein 2oim. , //6.
6+ ,!ul.8et. , 'I, */.
6. 8ithr. 4iturg. , .), *6.
blessed divine vision where silen%e is the highest form of worshi!.
6*
where words are heard
whi%h man %annot utter.
6/
It is thus natural that the %ontent of !ra&er should be se%ondar& and
that the whole straining should be towards this visionar& eB!erien%e. 2reDeminen%e is given to
eloTuent h&mns of adoring worshi! adorned with ever& rhetori%al devi%e.
6)
Then %ome songs of
than:sgiving for the :nowledge granted in visions
60
or more generall& for the gra%ious rule of the
deit&.
66
2ra&ers for mundane things are rare and the& are of minor signifi%an%e.
67
Inter%ession
for others is usuall& %on%erned with their .
66
@e never have a %on%rete need whi%h gives
rise to a %r& for hel!, whether in the form of an eBternal diffi%ult& or a troubled %ons%ien%e. ,t
most it is general human frailt& and finitude whi%h the one who !ra&s see:s to es%a!e in !eriods of
e%stas& and finall& for ever. Hut these things are natural fa%ts rather than moral. 7ow far removed
the !iet& of the 8&steries is from >hristian !ra&er ma& be seen with es!e%ial %larit& in 2aul. 7e
:nows m&sti%al e%stas& ( * >. .*5. ff. ), but in !ra&er he wins through to the assuran%e that
i do not reall& %ount, that the gra%e of <od must suffi%e, and that <odOs !ower is
su!remel& o!erative in wea:ness ( * >. .*57 ff. ).
69

%. , rather different !i%ture is !resented where 7ellenisti% !iet& meets and unites with
?udaism as in 2hilo and the @isdom of 9olomon. 9o far as !ra&er is %on%erned, the ?ewish
elements are b& far the more !owerful. To 2hilo, who even advan%es new arguments to establish
the !rovisions of the 4aw %on%erning vows,
9+
it is selfDevident that the righteous, the ,
should turn to <od in !ra&er.
9.
-nl& of a man who !ra&s %an it be said that he lives.
9*
@hat
%onstitutes the greatness of a !eo!le is that <od is near to it and answers its !ra&ers.
9/
The
su!reme tas: of the highD!riest is to %ome before <od with !ra&er and inter%ession for his !eo!le,
for all humanit& and indeed for the whole of %reation.
9)
-ne who trul& !ra&s has for <od the
value of a whole !eo!le.
90
-ne should a!!roa%h <od in !ra&er with !urit& and !eniten%e,
96

!re!ared to ma:e %onfession.
97
-ne should do so voluntaril&. If we !ra& onl& when driven b&
ne%essit&, we have as little !ros!e%t of being heard as the unrighteous. 1nfor%ed !ra&er is
worthless.
96
2enitent !ra&er for mer%&
99
is sure of being heard, for <od loves to forgive rather
than to !unish,
.++
and goes far be&ond our as:ing,
.+.
-n the other hand 7e answers onl& to the
degree that it is !rofitable for us.
.+*
2hilo is most %learl& the 7ellenist in relation to the sub$e%ts
of !ra&er. -nl& ver& rarel& are these eBternal blessings. 2ra&er for wealth is re$e%ted,
.+/
-ne
should !ra& for a dis!la& of <odOs love rather than 7is might,
.+)
The blessings whi%h 2hilo
regards as su!remel& worth& of !ra&er to <od are in%rease in virtue, !ea%e, deliveran%e from anger
6* AeitEenstein 2oim. , //6 ( g )# 8ithr. 4iturg. , 6, *. f.# 6, .*# .+, .6 ( )# Froll, //0
f. 8&sti%ism usuall& finds !ra&er eB!ressed in words inadeTuate# 7eiler, *66 ff.
6/ ,!ul.8et. , 'I, */# 8ithr. 4iturg. , .+, 6 ff.# ?ul.-r. , 0, .7*d.
6) ,!ul.8et. , 'I, * and *0. AeitEenstein 2oim. , //6# 8ithr. 4iturg. , *, .+ ff.# 6, .6ff.# .+, /. ff.# .., *7 ff.5
2reis. gaub. , 'III, 76* ff.# %f. AeitEenstein 2oim. , .0 ff.
60 AeitEenstein 2oim. , //7 f. y *9 and /*# >or!. 7erm. , 'III, .6 ff.
66 ,!ul.8et. , 'I, *0.
67 ,!ul.8et. , 'I, *. This !ra&er is !reDm&sti%al" and is thus to be addu%ed with %aution. 8ithr. 4iturg. , .), /
ff. is not reall& a reTuest. @here there is !etition for earthl& blessings, there is retreat from the higher !lane and
gross eudaemonism Tui%:l& develo!s# v. 2reis. gaub. , 'III, 6+* ff.
66 AeitEenstein 2oim. , //6.
69 >f. <reeven, .6* ff.
9+ 9!e%. 4eg. , I, *)7 ff.
9. -nl& on one o%%asion rio we find the idea that an ar%hangel (the oldest )ogos UU 8oses) inter%edes for men
before <od, Aer. 3iv. 7er. , *+0 , %f. Tob. .*5.0 .
9* Fug. , 06 .
9/ 2raem. 2oen. , 6) .
9) 9!e%. 4eg. , I, 97 # %f. I, .66# II, .67.
90 This is the eBegesis of 3t. *65.7 f. in 2hilo(irt. , .60 .
96 3eus Imm. , 6 # (irt. , 79 .
97 Fug. , 6+ # 3et. 2ot. Ins. , 90 .
96 9a%r. ,>. , 7. # (it. 8os. , II, .+7 .
99 (it. 8os. , II, .)7 # 9!e%. 4eg. , II, .96 # 9om. , II, *99 .
.++ 2raem. 2oen. , .66 # 4eg. ,ll. , III, *./ ff.
.+. 8ut. ;om. , *0/ .
.+* 9!e%. 4eg. , I, )/ .
.+/ .bid. , *).
.+) 2lant. , 9+ # 9om. , I, .6/ . In both %ases <n. *65*. is the basis.
and other !assions, the !ro!er orientation of life, and wisdom (%f. @is. 757 and 9olomonOs great
!ra&er for wisdom in
%
. 9).
.+0
It is !ra&er whi%h gives the soul true freedom,
.+6
8an should thus
turn to <od without dela&# 7e will not s!urn him.
.+7
,bove all one should not forget to give
than:s for the gifts whi%h <od gives.
.+6
1ven the most !overt&Dstri%:en who have nothing more
to eB!e%t of life have re%eived from <od so man& and glorious gifts that the& should not %ease to
give than:s.
.+9
In sum, it ma& be seen that the -T %on%e!t of <od is strong enough in 2hilo to
:ee! !ra&er in the ethi%al s!here and to !revent it from eva!orating into !hiloso!hi%al s!e%ulation.
-n the other hand, there is in the sub$e%ts of his !etitionar& !ra&er a tenden%& whi%h, %onsistentl&
followed, would ne%essaril& lead to the sa&ing of 9ene%a that it is foolish to !ra& for things whi%h
one %an attain of oneself ( 76* ).
,s %om!ared with literature, ins%r, ma:e onl& a se%ondar& %ontribution to our :nowledge of
<:. !ra&er. @orth noting are the !ubli% !ra&ers ordered in a %oun%il resolution from 8agnesia
(*nd %ent. H.>. ),
..+
namel&, that on a festival dedi%ated to ,rtemis 4eu%o!hr&ene all the
inhabitants are to %ome to the goddess in !ra&er with a!!ro!riate sa%rifi%es and to besee%h health
and fortune for the !resent and future generations. There are also man& and varied a%%ounts of
healing and than:sgivings at the shrines of ,es%ula!ius.
...
In >os in the *nd %ent. H.>. () a
s%hool offi%er brings dedi%ator& offerings to geus and ,thene for the i and i of
those entrusted to him.
..*
@e ma& finall& refer to !ra&erDli:e h&mns and aretalogies whi%h in I or
heDst&le eBtol the dignit& and a%ts of the deit&.
../
The %ursing tablets and magi% !a!&ri lead us to
the lower de!ths of religion as with their formulae and to some eBtent with a%%om!an&ing a%tions
the& !ur!ort to utilise the !owers of deit& for the various !ur!oses of eBor%ism. medi%ine and
eroti%ism.
..)

Greeven
C. Pra$er in the OT.
.. -T Ksage.
If we %onsult the leBi%on of <eseniusDHuhl we find that for to !ra&" the onl& 7eb. word
is the not ver& %ommon MYq ( ,ram. [\u ). Aeferen%e might also be made to \\i , but in
fa%t the -T ver& seldom uses a verb for !ra&er. -n the other hand, several words belong to
the s!here of !ra&er, and these must all be ta:en into a%%ount if we are to !resent all the -T
material.
a. 2ro!er verbs. For MYq
,
rab. attests the sense of to sa%rifi%e." It is tem!ting to draw from
this %on%lusions as to the original meaning of the 7eb. Hut 7eb. usage is against it. It is true that
in 1E. 65.. the subst, st. %. MYf qb is rendered smo:e of sa%rifi%e" in older versions, but MYq never
suggests to sa%rifi%e" and is never %onne%ted with sa%rifi%es. MYq in the Tal and hi!hil means to
!ra& (to <od)," to as: (<od)," usuall& in the sense of !etition.
..0
In the ni!hal it means to let
oneself be as:ed (b& someone)." The other !ro!er verb for to !ra&" is \\i hith!ael. The
%on$e%ture of @ellhausen
..6
that the original meaning is to ma:e rents, in%isions," has found
%. %ha!ter.
.+0 >ongr. , 7 # -mn. 2rob. 4ib. , 6) # 9!e%. 4eg. , II, .7 # ,br. , 6 # 4eg. ,ll. , III, .+) # (it. >ont. , *7 and 69 .
.+6 Aer. 3iv. 7er. , .*) # .66 # *7/ .
.+7 9a%r. ,>. , 7+ .
.+6 9!e%. 4eg. , I, **) # 8ut. ;om. , **+ ff.
.+9 8ut. ;om. , *** f.
..+ 3itt. 9&ll.
/
, 690, )/ ff.
... >f. the eBam!les in 7. Flein:ne%ht, H , /eligise "e:te d. Griechentus (.9*9), 6) ff.
..* <3I , ;o. /6)6# %f. also /)6+.
../ >f. Flein:ne%ht, op. cit. , 66 ff.# also @. 2ee:, Der .sish'nus v. #ndros und vervandte "e:te (.9/+).
..) >olle%ted in 2reis. gaub. # %f. also T. 9%hermann, Sp=tgriech. Zauber< und Volksgebete ( 3iss. 8Gn%hen,
.9.9).
,rab. ,rabi%.
..0 9o <n. *05*. # 1B. 65*6 # .+5.6 # ?u. ./56 Tal# 1B. 65) , 0 , *) , *0 # 95*6 # .+5.7 hi!hil.
..6 .sraelitische u. 5dische Geschichte
0
(.9+)), .+7# /este arabischen (eidentus
*
(.697), .*6.
mu%h su!!ort. Hut -T usage !rovides no material in favour of this histori%oDreligious derivation
of the !resent meaning, and other %on$e%tures based on \\i !iel, to de%ide," to $udge,"
..7
seem
to be better grounded. The fairl& eBtensive -T eviden%e (over 6+ o%%urren%es) gives the word the
uniform sense of to !ra&," and often to as: for someone" (*0 times). @ith \\i is lin:ed the
%ommon c\edia YeZ , !ra&er." c\iY denotes both %ulti% and nonD%ulti% !ra&er, both sung and s!o:en
!ra&er. Thus it is often a !ar. for M`PaQ in the 2salter#
..6
2s. .7 , 66 , 9+ , .+* and .)* are %alled
c\iY in the titles, and at the end of 2s. 7* ( 7*5*+ ) the whole %olle%tion thus far is %alled Y^_\eia YeZ
M^aMed .
b. ,long with the !ro!er verbs note should be ta:en of several other words.
-f verbs signif&ing to wish" \[PQ is often used for to as: something from <od," though
relativel& infreTuentl& in %om!arison with its total use.
..9
It %an sometimes denote sinful as:ing (
2s. 765.6 ).
,ll !ra&er see:s to awa:en <odOs favour and thus to turn 7is goodness, gra%e and mer%& to
the !etitioner. 7en%e tSc hith!ael. to !resent oneself a%%e!tabl& before someone,"
.*+
%an mean
to as: <od in !ra&er for favour, gra%e and mer%&."
.*.
The derived nouns V`Sa^eShb Yef and cSedha YeZ
denote !arti%ularl& urgent !ra&er, loud
.**
or tearful su!!li%ation" ( ?er. /5*. ). 7en%e the
eB!ression m& su!!li%ation %asts itself before <od." or to %ast oneOs su!!li%ation before <od" (
\iS hi!hil, 3a. 95.6 ). That !ra&er is meant to invo:e <odOs friendshi!,
.*/
es!. against those who
have angered 7im, gives us anthro!omor!hi%all&
.*)
the eB!ression c^c` `Si c\edha . ,%%. to the
,rab. !ar. the original sense is !robabl& to stro:e the fa%e of <od," whi%h 8arti
.*0
and others
derive from the elsewhere attested to stro:e the image of <od,"
.*6
a !ossible though b& no
means ne%essar& derivation,
.*7
In the -T the eB!ression means to indu%e <odOs favour," or to
see: to indu%e <odOs favour," namel&, through !ra&er.
.*6
as also through sa%rifi%e ( . 9. ./5.* #
8al. .59 ), fasting ( ge%h. 75* ), the %ultus in general ( ge%h. 65*. , ** ) and a%%e!table %ondu%t (
2s. ..9506 # 3a. 95./ ).
The various words for s!ea:ing %an also be used, of %ourse, for !ra&er. The !etitioner uses
m& words" or the words of m& mouth" for m& !ra&er."
.*9
In the 2s. es!. , though also
elsewhere, !ra&er is des%ribed as %alling ( [MN ), and o!en !ra&er seems to have been so mu%h the
rule that the silent !ra&er of 7annah in . 9. . was obviousl& strange to 1li the !riest. In so far as
<od is %alled u!on b& name in !ra&er, we often have the eB!ression c^c` VP]Q LZ [MN , whi%h in
!assages li:e <n. .*56 # ./5) et%. %an sim!l& mean to engage in worshi!" (at a %ulti% %entre).
./+

2arti%. in the 2s., though elsewhere too, more fervent !etition is often eB!ressed b& the use of
%r&ing, not in the sense that it is a%%om!anied b& %r&ing, but that the !ra&er itself is %r&ing. Thus
we have q^PQ !iel, to %r& for hel! in !ra&er" (e.g., 2s. /.5** # 665./ ), and the subst. cqd ^ZPfQ (e.g.,
2s. /95.* as a !ar. to c\edia YeZ ), also Nq|
./.
and Nqu (e.g., 1B. .)5.+ # .75) ) to %r&."
..7 1.g., 1. FJnig in his Wterbuch .
..6 2s. 0)5* # 005. # 6.5. # 6)56 # 6656 # .+*5. # .)/5. .
..9 3t. .65.6 # . F. /50 , .+ , .. # Is. 75.. , .* # ge%h. .+5. # 2s. *56 # *.5) # *75) # .+05)+ # 2rv. /+57 # . >h. )5.+
.
.*+ 1. FJnig.
.*. 3t. /5*/ # . F. 65// , )7 , 09 # 95/ # 2s. /+56 # .)*5. # ?ob 650 # 95.0 .
.** 2s. *65* , 6 # /.5** # ..65. # ./+5* # .)+56 .
.*/ `Si\ \iS ?er. /657 # /75*+ # /65*6 # )*5* , 9 # 3a. 95*+ .
.*) 3illmann
/
(.697) on 1B. /*5.. .
.*0 F. 8arti, Geschichte d. israelitischen /eligion
0
(.9+7), )., with a referen%e to ?. @ellhausen, Ski--en u.
Vorarbeiten , III (.667), .+0.
.*6 This is naturall& addu%ed as eviden%e of earlier images of =ahweh.
.*7 For other !ossibilities %f. 1. FJnig and <es.DHuhl , s.v.
.*6 1B. /*5.. # . F. ./56 # * F. ./5) # * >h. //5.* .
.*9 9o, e.g., with MsX [] , whi%h eB%e!t in ?os. *)5*7 is used onl& !oeti%all& ( 2s. 05. # .95.) # 0)5* ).
./+ >f. also <n. )5*6 .
./. 1.g., ?u. /59 , .0 # 656 , 7 # . 9. 759 # 2s. **50 .
The one who !ra&s often !oints to the sighing or groaning whi%h !re%edes or a%%om!anies his
!ra&er,
./*
and !ra&er itself is often %alled sighing" or groaning." The words used are hS[
ni!hal to sigh" (e.g., 1B. *5*/ # 4am. .5*. ) and the subst. chd Sd[b sighing"#
.//
csc , to sigh,"
to groan" ( 2s. 005.7 # 775/ )# subst. R`Racd sighing" ( 2s. 05* # /95/ , !ar m& words")# cRd[d PZQ
roaring" ( 2s. **5. the words of m& roaring," 2s. /*5/ ). This !ra&er finall& be%omes wee!ing."
Thus in 2s. 656 we have wee!ing ( `La LeZ ) as a !ar. to ( v. 9 ) cSedha YeZ and c\edia YeZ # 2s. /95.* tears" (
cqd sZ re a ) as a !ar. to c\edia YeZ and cqd ^ZPfQ # %f. also \M to wee!" in ?ob .65*+ # 2s. ..95*6 . ,t its
su!reme !oint of fervour, !ra&er is to !our out oneOs soul ( . 9. .5.0 # 2s. )*50 ) or heart ( 2s.
6*56 # 4am. *5.9 ) or grief ( 2s. .)*5* # .+*5. ) before <od" ( xZ iPQ ).
%. 1Btremel& %ommon are !ra&ers of !raise and than:sgiving. ,mong the verbs for to
!raise," to eBtol," to glorif&," we ma& first mention \\c .
./)
2iel5 men should magnif&" or
!raise" (almost alwa&s) either <od or 7is name ( 2s. ../5. # ?l. *5*6 ) or word ( 2s. 065) ). It is to
this grou! that there belongs the liturgi%al formula 7allelu$ah in 2s. .+)5/0 and elsewhere. The
!art. !ual des%ribes <od as worth& of !raise."
./0
It is again a matter of grateful !raise when the
righteous boasts" (hith!ael) in <od
./6
or 7is name.
./7
To \\c belongs c\edca YeZ , the !raise" or
!raiseworthiness" of <od, when%e the
!
lur. the !raiseworth&" a%ts of <od# the rather different
!lur. (with a
m
as%. ending) in the title of the 2salter eB!resses the fine belief that all 2salms
ultimatel& minister to the !raise of <od. cM` hi!hil means to %onfess," to %onfess with !raise,"
to !raise," o%%asionall& of men but mostl& of <od
./6
or 7is name.
./9
In this %onne%tion we
should also mention cMd ^_Ye for !raise"
.)+
or a %horus of those who !raise," ;eh. .*5/. , /6 , )+
. hLPQ !iel, hith!ael means to !raise," i.e., <od
.).
or 7is wor:s ( 2s. .)05) ) or name ( 2s.
.+65)7 ). In . >h. .65) ML| hi!hil is used with \\c !iel and cM` hi!hil to denote the %alling of
the families of 4evi to this ministr&, the most famous being the sons of ,sa!h# %f. M`Wea|Zcf \Z in the
titles of 2s. /6 and 7+ . In Is. 6/57 and 2s. 7.5.6 the meaning is to name or mention with !raise
the divine a%ts of gra%e or salvation." <od has ordained for 7is wor:s this remembran%e with
!raise ( subst. MLX |] ), 2s. ...5) # the re%olle%tion of 7is goodness should be !ro%laimed with !raise
( qLS hi!hil), 2s. .)057 . qM` hi!hil
.)*
and MRS hi!hil ( 2s. 95.. # 7.5.7 # 9*5* ) are also used for
this !ubli% !raising of the a%ts, the might& a%ts, the mira%les, the faithfulness and lovingD:indness
of <od. \MR !iel means to magnif& <odOs name,"
.)/
and V^M !olel to eBalt <od"
.))
or 7is
name" ( 2s. /)5/ ). To !erform oneOs vows to <od," V\PQ !iel used figur. with MrXSX , means to
give <od the grateful !raise whi%h is 7is due" ( 2s. 6.56 and also 2s. ..65.) , .6 # **5*0 # ?n. *5.+
). In the -T , too, the sense of to !raise <od" is lin:ed with the eB!ression to bless <od," xZ ML
!iel, whether be%ause to bless <od or 7is name" im!lies !ra&er or be%ause it %onstitutes the
%ontent of the !ra&er of !raise and than:sgiving. Thus to bless <odOs name" is a !ar. of to sing
to <od" ( 2s. 965* ), to !raise 7im" ( 2s. .++5) ), and to bless <od" is a !ar. of to lift u! oneOs
hands in 7is name" ( 2s. 6/5) ), to %ause 7is !raise to be heard" ( 2s. 6656 ) or to have 7is
./* 9o 2s. 656 # /.5.+ # /659 # .+*50 # 4am. .5** .
.// 2s. 656 # /.5.+ # /659 # .+*50 # 4am. .5** .
./) For different views as to the original meaning v. <es.DHuhl and FJnig.
./0 * 9. **5) # 2s. .65/ et%.# . >h. .65*0 .
./6 2s. /)5/ # Is. ).5.6 # )05*0 .
./7 2s. .+05/ .
!lur. !lural.
mas%. mas%uline.
./6 1.g., 2s. 75.7 # /+5.* # 2s. 650 # 705. # .+756 .
./9 1.g., 2s. 0)57 # .+65)7 .
.)+ 2s. *657 # )* et%.
.). 2s. 6/5/ # ..75. # .)75.* .
.)* Is. .*5) # 2s. 695. # .+05. # .)05.* .
.)/ 2s. /)5) # 695/+ .
.)) 1B. .05* # 2s. /+5. # 9950 , 9 # .+75/* # ..65*6 # .)05. .
!raise in oneOs mouth" ( 2s. /)5. ). >f. also . >h. *95*+ and 2salms li:e .+/ (vv. .I* , ** ) and
.+) (vv. . and /0 ).
,mong the verbs for !raise we ma& also note two whi%h denote religious refle%tion and
meditation but whi%h ma& also be used for to s!ea: or to de%lare with !raise," the %onteBt ma:ing
it !lain that what is in view is not silent !raise, as one might eB!e%t, but that whi%h is eB!ressed.
These verbs are cRc , to hum," to murmur," to meditate," and h`Pw to refle%t." Hoth are used
!oeti%all& for to tal:," the former in 2s. /05*6 # 7.5*) and the latter in 2s. .+05* # .)050 # ?u. 05.+
. h`P w %an also be used of the !ra&er of %om!laint, e.g., ?ob 75.. and also 2s. 005* # 775/ .
There are several eB!ressions for to re$oi%e," to eBult," to ma:e merr&," not merel& in the
form of mere inter$e%tions but in em!hati% !raises and songs of !raise, as ma& often be seen from
the !ar. Thus we have \`R ,
.)0
|\q ,
.)6
\q ,
.)7
\cu (to roar" and then to re$oi%e"),
.)6

q^M hi!hil (to %r& aloud," then to eBult"),
.)9
tSM , !iel (to %r&," then to re$oi%e"),
.0+
hui ,
originall& to be bright," then to be %heerful or merr&," to ma:e merr&," either as a !ar. of tSM
or with cSedMa as an inner ob$.
.0.
hsPw , to be $o&ful," is also used with tSM ( ge%h. *5.) ), |\q ,
.
0*
or \`R
.0/
of ?o& whi%h is eB!ressed# %f. also ;eh. .*5)/ .
d. To the verbs of !raise we must also add those of musi% and singing, for the !raises of <od
are often said to be sung to the a%%om!animent of instruments, while we ver& seldom hear
.0)
that
2salms of %om!laint or !etition are sung and a%%om!anied.
M`P to sing," almost alwa&s has the %hara%ter of $o& or !raise or than:sgiving, as also the
related subst. M`PaQ song" (in%luding the 4ordOs song or the song of 9ion, 2s. ./75/ , ) ), whi%h
a!!ears in the title of man& 2salms, though this does not $ustif& us in %lassif&ing these as a
!arti%ular genre. Thus 8iriam in 1B. .05. , *. sings the song of the Aed 9ea, a song of !raise, and
3eborah and Hara: in ?u. 05. sing a song of vi%tor& in whi%h there is a summons to !raise
=ahweh. For the most !art there is em!hasis on the element of !raise and than:sgiving in these
songs.
.00
, musi%al a%%om!animent is %learl& envisaged in the 2salms.
.06
The 4eviti%al tem!le
singers, who are mentioned along with the :ee!ers of the doors in 1Er., ;eh. and >h., !la& on
different instruments.
.07
,long with M`PQ , cSq means to sing," !erha!s as an inde!endent verb,
!erha!s deriving from cSq to answer," and having the sense of to stri:e u!," to lead,"
.06
to
lead anti!honal singing."
.09

For the !la&ing" of instruments in a%%om!animent of songs of !raise and than:sgiving we
have Ms| !iel. This verb, %ommon in the 2s. but rare elsewhere, is mostl& lin:ed with Ms| , whi%h
in 4v. *05/ , ) # Is. 056 is used of the !runing of vines and thns means to !lu%: off," to !lu%:,"
signif&ing in musi% the !lu%:ing of strings. -n the other hand, attention has been drawn to
%orres!onding words in modern 7eb. , as also in ,ram. and ,%%adian, whi%h have the sense of to
sing." =et -T usage favours the former view, for Mse] |a has !rimaril& the sense of to !la&" (on an
instrument) and not to sing."
.6+
In !arallelism with various words for to !raise or to re$oi%e or to
.)0 2s. 95.) # .)57 # 695.6 et%.
.)6 1.g., 2s. *657 # 665) # ge!h. /5.) .
.)7 . 9. *5. # 2s. 05.. # 95* # 665/ .
.)6 Is. .*56 # *)5.) # 0)5. # ?er. /.57 .
.)9 Is. ))5*/ # ge!h. /5.) # ge%h. 959 # ?ob /657 # 2s. )75. et%.
.0+ Is. *65.9 # /05* # 0*56 , 9 # ?er. /.5.* # 2s. 05.. et%.
.0. Is. 0*59 # 2s. 965) # Is. .)57 # ))5*/ # )95./ # 0)5. # 005.* .
.0* * 9. .5*+ # ?er. 0+5.. # ge!h. /5.) .
.0/ ?l. *5*. # 2s. .)57 .
.0) 2s. 75. # * >h. /05*0 .
.00 1.g., ?er. *+5./ # Is. )*5.+ # ?ob //5*7 and ver& often in the 2s., e.g., 2s. ./56 # *756 # 0757 # 605./ et%.
.06 infra on Ms| .
.07 ;eh. .*5*6 , *9 , )* # %f. . >h. .05.6 , .9 # * >h. 05.* , ./ # */5./ .
.06 1B. .05*. # 2s. ..95.7* .
.09 For the %ulti% singing of 2salms anti!honall& %f. 1Er. /5.. and !robabl& 2s. .)757 and 1B. .05*. .
.6+ 1.g., 2s. 7.5** , */ # *.5./ # *756 .
sing, Mse] |a is mostl& used with cM` hi!hil and M`PQ , both found some .+ times in the 2salms.
@here used alone, it ma& have the wider sense of to !la& and to sing."
.6.
The subst. , too, has
the !rimar& sense of !la&ing" (on an instrument),
.6*
though !ossibl& it has the wider sense of
!la&ing and singing in 2s. ..65.) . From what has been said, it would seem that the term in the
title of man& 2salms indi%ates a song a%%om!anied b& stringed instruments, unless it sim!l& means
!la&ing on strings" and is a !urel& musi%al term.
.6/
In the !resent %onteBt we need not go into
the Tuestion of the musi%al terms qsPQ hi!hil,
.6)
tRS Tal and !iel (to !la& on strings"), huS (to
ma:e liturgi%al musi%") and huSs\ , found in the titles of 00 2salms and in 7ab. /5.9 , or \LPw
hi!hil (to ma:e musi%") in * >h. /+5*. .
e. The word c^hYPc . -f the verbs of !ra&er we have still to mention in %on%lusion one of
the most im!ortant. This should be treated se!aratel& be%ause in the first instan%e it seems to relate
onl& to the eBternal attitude of !ra&er, and &et it ver& signifi%antl& %hara%terises the inner
dis!osition of the !ra&er of Israel. @e refer to chPQ hith!ael. The meaning is res!e%tfull& to bow
down oneself," but the ri%h usage goes far be&ond the gesture of reveren%e, eB!ressive though this
ma& be. In itself c^hYPc does not denote the attitude of !ra&er, but the gesture of res!e%tful
greeting shown to those whom one would or should honour as masters and therefore es!e%iall&,
though not eB%lusivel&, to rulers.
.60
The meaning of the gesture is obvious. The <:.
%orres!onds to the 7eb. c^hYPc . -ne bows down before <od es!. when
a!!roa%hing 7im in the san%tuar&, so that c^hYPc %omes to denote the !erforman%e of %ulti%
a%tions at a hol& !la%e. Thus ,braham, when about to offer u! Isaa% at the !la%e a!!ointed b&
<od.
.66
tells his &oung men that he will bow down himself,"
.67
<n. **50 . Hut there is no need
of the san%tuar& to do obeisan%e followed b& !ra&er. Thus in <n. *)5*6 , )6 the servant of
,braham !rostrates himself before =ahweh in !ra&er and than:sgiving in the land of 7aran,
though there is no !ro!er verb for to !ra&." @e %an see how naturall& obeisan%e !re%edes %ulti%
a%ts from the !assages where c^hYPc %omes either before
.66
or after
.69
MLq . Hut no %ulti% a%t
need follow !rostration. It is in itself a signifi%ant and %on%rete eB!ression for the inner attitude of
worshi! even where there is no referen%e to formulated !ra&er.
.7+
7ow c^hYPc ta:es on the
sense of worshi!!ing <od even when used alone to eB!ress this ma& be seen in !assages li:e 4v.
*65. # ?u. *5.* , .7 , .9 # * F. 05.6 # Is. *5*+ # ?er. 75* # 1E. )65* , / , 9 et%. It is onl& relativel&
infreTuentl&
.7.
that !ra&er is said to follow obeisan%e. Thus we have !ra&er of !raise and
than:sgiving in <n. *)5*6 , )6 # !ra&er for forgiveness in 1B. /)56 # the grateful song of 7annah in
. 9. .5*6 # the magnif&ing of <od in 2s. *95* # !raise of the name of =ahweh in 2s. 665) # ./65. ,
* # and magnif&ing of <od in 2s. 9950 . It seems that there %an be no !ra&er wtihout !rostration. 9o
far as %on%erns the a%t at great festivals, there are man& instru%tive eBam!les, e.g., . >h. *95*+ # *
>h. 75/ # *+5.6 # *95*7I/+ # ;eh. 656 # 95/ . If, as we have seen, there are %om!arativel& few
!la%es where there is a !ro!er verb for to !ra&," this is !artl& be%ause, when !ra&er is intended,
the reader :nows this from the use of c^hYPc , whi%h has itself a%Tuired the ne%essar& %ontent.
That c^hYPc did not signif& merel& the eBternal gesture of bowing down oneself, but ver&
Tui%:l& %ame to be used for the inward religious attitude, ma& be seen from the man& !assages
.6. 1.g., 2s. )756 # 6.56 # 665* , ) .
.6* ,m. 05*/ # Is. 0.5/ # 2s. 6.5* # 9650 .
.6/ @e %annot !ursue this Tuestion here.
.6) @e have vo%al musi% in ;eh. .*5)* , instrumental in . >h. .05.6 , .9 , *6 # .650 , )* , and the two together
in * >h. 05./ .
.60 1.g., <n. */57 , .* # *75*9 # //5/ , 6 , 7 # /757 , 9 , .+ # )*56 # )/5*6 , *6 # )956 et%.
.66 There is no referen%e to an& a%%om!an&ing !ra&er in <n. **57 ff.
.67 This is t&!i%al even though it might be ob$e%ted that in this !arti%ular situation he would not have s!o:en of
sa%rifi%e, for the details of the narrative ma:e it %lear that those with him must have :nown that the& had %ome to
sa%rifi%e.
.66 1.g., 1B. *+50 # */5*) et%.
.69 1.g., 3t. 65.9 # ..5.6 # .75/ et%.
.7+ 1.g., 1B. )5/. # .*5*7 # *)5. # //5.+ # ;u. **5/. et%.
.7. In %om!arison with the ver& %ommon use of c^hYPc in general.
where we have MMN before c^hYPc . For MMN , too, denotes bowing down oneself with oneOs
fa%e tou%hing the earth.
.7*
,gain, \iS is sometimes used for to !rostrate oneself" before
.7/

c^hYPc . ;ote should also be ta:en of the fa%t that rR (to bow down to idols") in the ,ram.
!ortions of 3a.
.7)
o%%urs as a IoanDword in 3t. Is. ,
.70
where it is used along with c^hYPc .
.76

It is %lear from Is. ))5.7 and )656 , however, that it is not a full s&non. of c^hYPc , whi%h has a
mu%h ri%her meaning.
.77
If we review all the !assages in whi%h c^hYPc %%%urs it seems li:el&
that the referen%e is usuall& to the worshi! or !ra&er !re%eded and a%%om!anied b& obeisan%e, so
that to worshi!" or to !ra&" is often a materiall& suitable rendering. Thus 1. FJnig suggests the
two senses, .. to bow down oneself," and *. meton&mi%all& in%luding what follows, to
worshi!."
.76
Fneeling is mentioned as a similar attitude of !ra&er, xZ ML Tal,
.79
qMW (with
`aLef MZ Lea or `aLef MZ Lea \qf .(
.6+
There is also referen%e to standing for !ra&er in . 9. .5*6 # . F. 65** #
?er. .65*+ .
.6.
In man& %ases the hands are stret%hed out to <od
.6*
or to heaven
.6/
in !ra&er,
also abs.,
.6)
7eb. Pw Mi Tal or !iel. It is natural that the hands should be lifted u! ( [Pw S .(
.60

9in%e em!hasis is laid on the fa%t that the !alms are outstret%hed, the gesture gives us a !osition in
whi%h gifts ma& be re%eived from the deit&.
This %on%ludes our surve& of the 7eb. words
.66
belonging to the s!here of !ra&er. The review
!resents a ri%h and varied !i%ture. For our !resent !ur!ose we have restri%ted ourselves to the
stri%ter domain of !ra&er. @e have not %onsidered vows, sa%rifi%es, fasts, blessings or %ursings,
in%antations or magi%. If there are %loser or more distant %onne%tions with these religious forms or
!henomena, the& all of them %ontain basi% elements whi%h differentiate them from !ra&er.
*. The 8ain Features of -T 2ra&er.
To write a histor& of !ra&er in Israel would be to write a histor& of the religion of Israel in
general. If the one is a diffi%ult tas: whi%h %an onl& be fulfilled in !art in the light of the sour%e
material found in the -T , this is naturall& even more true of the other. , su!reme tem!tation to
be avoided is that of tr&ing to dis%ern an evolutionar& s%heme. @e %annot ho!e to !ress ba%: to
the origins of Israelitish !ra&er for the sim!le reason that we %annot !ress ha%: to the origins of
the religion of Israel or of the tribes of whi%h this !eo!le was %om!osed. 1ven the older written
sour%es whi%h we thin: we have in the -T !resent us with a life and t&!e of !ra&er whi%h are b&
no means !rimitive. -ne need onl& thin: of <n. *) . It is true that the later material, es!. from the
time of ?eremiah, is mu%h ri%her. It is also selfDevident that !ra&er develo!ed in Israel with the
unfolding of the religion of revelation. @e might sa& a good deal more than is now !ossible
%on%erning the earlier !reeBili% !eriod if onl& we %ould sa& for %ertain whi%h 2salms belonged to
the earlier %enturies.
.7* 1B. /)56 # . 9. *)59 # *65.) # . F. .5/. .
.7/ ?os. 05.) # ?ob .5*+ .
.7) 3a. *5)6 # / passi .
.70 Is. ))5.0 , .7 , .9 # )656 .
.76 1B%e!t in Is. ))5.9 .
.77 >f. es!. Is. )656 5 The& fall down )rR( , &ea, the& worshi! ( c^hYPc )."
.76 Wrterbuch , s.v.
.79 1.g., 2s. 9056 # * >h. 65./ .
.6+ . F. 650) # 1Er. 950 et%.
.6. ,%%. to the Talmud the attitude of the slave before his master.
.6* 1B. 95*9 , // # . F. 65** # 2s. ))5*+ # 6/5) et%.
.6/ . F. 650) # * >h. 65.* .
.6) Is. .5.0 # ?er. )5/. # 2s. .)/56 .
.60 1.g., 2s. *65* # 4ain. *5.9# /5)..
.66 From the religious language of Israel one might also refer, e.g., to the eB!ression to see: (the fa%e of) <od"
in * 9. *.5. # 7os. 05.0 # 2s. *)56 # *756 # .+05) # 3t. )5*9 # * 9. .*5.6 # ?er. *95./ # 7os. 056 # ge!h. *5/ # 2s.
)+5.6 5 6956 # .+05/ # 1Er. 65** # * >h. *+5) # 2s. 6/5.6 (the name of <od). -nl& in 2s. *756 and * >h. *+5) , also
* 9. .*5.6 , is it Tuite %lear that this see:ing im!lies !ra&er, though this is !robabl& the underl&ing thought in
other !assages.
a. 2ra&er and faith in =ahweh. -ur !rimar& tas: is to !ortra& the most essential features of
-T !ra&er as the& derive from the religion of Israel and are illustrated in the available
materials. The religion of Israel demanded eB%lusive worshi! of =ahweh, and therefore all
!ra&er in Israel was ne%essaril& addressed to the one <od. It is obvious that this was of
de%isive im!ortan%e. The one <od is the <od of Israel who established the %ovenant of 9inai,
made Israel 7is !eo!le and established this relationshi! on the obedien%e of the !eo!le to 7is
will. In this relationshi! Israel is %ons%ious of the might and wisdom, the goodness and
faithfulness of =ahweh, but also of 7is moral holiness and righteousness and therefore of a
reTuirement whi%h, so far as we %an see, is moral from the ver& first. -n the basis of these
!resu!!ositions the !iet& of the individual Israelite is alwa&s embedded in his awareness of
belonging to the %ovenant !eo!le. The individual with his individual faith shares in the faith
of the religious and national fellowshi!. ,s a member of this fellowshi! he has a !ersonal
share in the relationshi! with <od granted to his !eo!le. In the -T , therefore, we %onstantl&
see that the individual is !ra&ing as a member of the !eo!le of =ahweh. The life of !ra&er,
li:e the whole life of faith, is determined not so mu%h b& the relationshi! man to <od and
<od to man" as b& the relationshi! Israelite to =ahweh and =ahweh to Israelite," whi%h for
its !art is !osited b& the relationshi! Israel to =ahweh and =ahweh to Israel" ( 0*) ). It is
the final relationshi! whi%h gives the Israelite the %onfiden%e whi%h is the ultimate
!resu!!osition of all !ra&er but whi%h %an here have a strength that would not be !ossible
a!art from this startingD!oint. In other words, the !ra&er of the Israelite is dire%ted, not to a
<od of whom one does not finall& :now what to eB!e%t, but to the <od who has made
7imself the <od of Israel and who has made Israel 7is !eo!le. In !ra&er the Israelite :nows
that the <od to whom he !ra&s dis!la&s a basi% goodness and faithfulness towards 7is !eo!le.
This is also of fundamental signifi%an%e for the form of -T !ra&er. It means that in the
religious %ons%iousness of the one who !ra&s an im!ortant !art is !la&ed b& the histor& of his
!eo!le as the histor& of the %onstant and %ontinuing a%tion of the gra%ious and mer%iful and
hol& and righteous <od towards Israel. It also means, as ma& be finel& seen in the 2salms, that
the eB!erien%es of his fellowD%ountr&men in !ra&er are of great im!ortan%e for him and that
his eB!erien%es are no less im!ortant for all others who !ra& in Israel. ;or is <odOs a%tion
towards 7is !eo!le to %ease in the !resent. ;ourished b& the divinel& given words of the
!ro!hets, faith is also eB!e%tation and ho!e of awaited future salvation for Israel. The %oming
of this salvation is thus a theme of !ra&er and longing in the 2salms, whether in relation to the
whole %ommunit& of <od or to the destin& of the individual.
Faith in <od, however, means more for him who !ra&s than that =ahweh is the <od of
Israel. This faith rea%hes its true dimensions onl& as faith that this =ahwehkand this brings
us ba%: to our startingD!ointkis not $ust the <od of Israel but also the one true <od who is
the >reator and 9ustainer of the whole world. @e need not go into the Tuestion when and how
this stri%tl& monotheisti% belief established itself in fulness and !urit&. 9o far as we %an see, it
is %ertainl& !resent in germ from the ver& outset, and it is full& develo!ed in the !ro!hets (at
least after 1li$ah). This as!e%t of faith in <od is naturall& of great signifi%an%e for the !ra&ing
Israelite. -f !arti%ular im!ortan%e is the fa%t that it does not %rowd out the other as!e%t. The
>reator and 4ord of the world is still the <od of Israel, and the <od of Israel is the >reator
and 4ord of the world.
@e should not fail to see, of %ourse, that the !ra&ing Israelite is mu%h %on%erned about the
hearing of !ra&er, that he earnestl& see:s to be heard, that b& %om!laint and %onfession of
%onfiden%e, b& a!!eal to the eB!erien%es of 7is !eo!le and of individuals, b& remembran%e of
the goodness and faithfulness and righteousness of <od, b& referen%e to his own
righteousness, he tries to su!!ort his !etition, that he ma& sometimes doubt the goodness and
faithfulness and even the righteousness of <od, that he does not seem to be too sure of <od.
This is lin:ed among other things with the fa%t that for the !ious Israelite <od is almost
alwa&s a living and vital !erson who does not merel& have Tualities" but who is ver& mu%h
alive in love or in wrath, so that for all the distan%e between them the one who !ra&s %onfronts
7im !erson to !erson as -ne who :nows all that one thin:s, who sees all that one does, who
hears when one %alls u!on 7im but who is still the sovereign 4ord. That this 4ord is not a
theologi%al %onstru%t but a wholl& !ersonal realit& is what ma:es !ra&er in Israel so vital. Hut
it is also what ma:es it a matter whi%h is sus!ended alwa&s on the !ersonal de%ision of the
divine 4ord.
b. @hat %an the Israelite as: of =ahweh, the <od of Israel who is the >reator and
9ustainer of the whole world The answer is ever&thing. For as he ma& loo: to =ahweh for
ever& good gift, so he ma& also loo: to the >reator. ,nd he ma& also than: 7im for ever&
benefit. In both %ases !h&si%al and material blessings seem to be more !rominent than
s!iritual. 1ven the 2salmist !ra&s more for deliveran%e from evils than for the forgiveness of
sins. Indeed, the latter !etition is %om!arativel& rare in the 2salter, though it o%%urs in !ra&ers
of astonishing !rofundit&.
.67
First !la%e is ta:en b& the things of the bod&, of ordinar& life.
=et it must be remembered that the 2salmist does not en$o& the light of the >hristian belief in
eternit&, a!art from a few earl& glimmers, and that his ho!e of the future is not &et ho!e of the
hereafter. It ma& also be said on the other side that in the -T generall& manOs eBisten%e is
seen as a unit&, so that !h&si%al and s!iritual needs are %losel& related for the !ra&ing Israelite.
8oreover, there are !ra&ers in the 2salter in whi%h ordinar& benefits give !la%e to the
su!reme good of $o& in <od and the bliss of fellowshi! with 7im.
.66
,n im!ortant %on%ern in
-T !ra&er is the !resen%e of enemies. It is a !arti%ular offen%e to the >hristian reader that the
!ra&ing 2salmist does not !ra& for his enemies but against them. -ften, though not alwa&s,
the offen%e is diminished b& the fa%t that the !ious Israelite sees in his own enemies the
enemies of =ahweh. 2ra&er in the 2salms is mu%h affe%ted b& the %lassifi%ation of men into
two antitheti%al grou!s, the righteous" on the one side and the ungodl&" on the other.
.69

7ere, too, the faith of the individual is embedded in his %ons%iousness of the %ommunit&, in
his awareness of belonging to the !eo!le of the %ovenant. ;or should it be overloo:ed that the
human rea%tion against threats and illDtreatment has an influen%e. This ma& be seen, e.g., in
2s. 0)50 , 7 # 0656 ff. and es!e%iall& in the terrible im!re%ations of 2s. .+9 . Hut it is also true
of 2salms in whi%h the referen%e is not to enemies of the !ious individual within his own
!eo!le but to the eBternal enemies of Israel, the <entiles.
.9+
In these %ases, too, we must be
%areful not to %all good what is bad. -n the other hand, we must not allow a 2harisai% attitude
to !revent us at least from understanding that, in 2s. .)9 , e.g., we have the %r& for
vengean%e against the nations of a !eo!le whi%h was o!!ressed and downtrodden for
%enturies,"
.9.
and that the dreadful desire for revenge in 2s. ./7 f ollows the eB!ression of
!assionate longing and unsha:able lo&alt& whi%h lin: the eBiles with 9ion. >ertainl& there is
no Tuestion of the !ersonal revenge of individuals. It should also give us food for thought that
in 2s. .7 v. ./f . is followed at on%e b& v. .0 , where fervent longing for <od brea:s through
the limit of traditional belief.
%. 2ra&er and the %ultus. In a %ulti% religion, religious thought and feeling are %losel&
related to the san%tuaries. This is also true of the !ra&er of the Israelites, whi%h Isaiah, e.g.,
mentions along with sa%rifi%es, feasts and solemn da&s ( Is. .5.0 ). It is obvious that there is
%alling on the name of =ahweh at the altars, as Israel in its tradition narrates alread& of
,braham in <n. .*56 et%. For at the san%tuaries one ma& ho!e to draw near to <od and to
rea%h 7im in !ra&er. Thus in the time before the :ings 7annah uses the o%%asion of the annual
!ilgrimage to 9hiloh with her husband 1l:anah to bring her !ersonal !roblem to <od in
urgent !ra&er ( . 9. . ). In !arti%ular the tem!le at ?erusalem is in%reasingl& realised to be the
!la%e where =ahweh has %hosen to %ause 7is name to dwell ( 3t. .*5.. et%.), so that it finall&
be%omes the !la%e whi%h
T
r. Is. %an %all a house of !ra&er for all !eo!les" ( 0657 ). In the
.67 2s. /* # 0. # .+/ # ./+ .
.66 2s. )57 # .65.. # .75.0 # */ # *75) # /659 # 6/5. ff. # 7/5*0 f. # ./. .
.69 2s. .75./ ff. # *6 # /75/* ff. # 695*/I*9 # 9)5*/ .
.9+ 2s. 795.+ , .* # .*950I6 # ./757I9 # .)9 .
.9. A. Fittel, Die Psalen
0v6
(.9*9), )/6.
Tr. Is. TritoDIsaiah.
verse from Isaiah Tuoted earlier ( .5.0 ) the tem!le is the !la%e where man& !ra&ers are
offered. The tem!le at ?erusalem is the !la%e to whi%h hands are stret%hed out in !ra&er
.9*
as
the& are stret%hed out to heaven.
.9/
In both %ases the meaning is that the& are stret%hed out to
<od, for the ideas that =ahweh dwells in heaven and also on earth in the tem!le of 9ion do
not rule out one another but eBist together. If one is in the tem!le %ourt, !ra&er is uttered
towards the tem!le itself#
.9)
if one is outside ?erusalem, one fa%es towards the hol& %it& in
!ra&er.
.90
The stronger the religious $o& in dwelling in the tem!le, the more inward the need
to !ra& there. =et neither in earlier nor later !eriods is !ra&er tied to the san%tuar& in Israel.
The faithful servant of ,braham !ra&s to the <od of his master ,braham in the land of 7aran
.96
at the well of the %it& of ;ahor. ,braham himself
.97
!ra&s to =ahweh in the land of the
2hilistines ( <n. *.5/* ), as does also 9amson.
.96
1li$ah !ra&s in 2hoeni%ia in the house of the
widow of gare!hath.
.99
-ne %an also !ra& at home, as did Isaa%
*++
or Fing 7eEe:iah
*+.
or
1Era.
*+*
,t a later !eriod an undisturbed u!!er room was often used ( Tob. /5.* # ?dt. 650 )#
thus 3aniel ( 3a. 65.. ) in eBile o!ened the window of his u!!er room and !ra&ed three times
a da& towards ?erusalem. There is !erha!s eviden%e in 2s. 005.7 of the three times of !ra&er,
namel&, morning, noon and evening, but we do not find an& other mention in the -T . 2s. ) is
an evening !ra&er and 2s. 0 a morning !ra&er.
*+/
The !ra&ers %olle%ted in the 2salter show
how little !ra&er in Israel is tied to the san%tuar& or to the %ulti% a%tions !erformed there.
>onsidering the orientation of the 2salter, the number of 2salms with no !arti%ular relation to
the tem!le or its worshi! is ver& remar:able.
In this regard we should %onsider the Tuestion of the relationshi! between !ra&er and
sa%rifi%e. In a sa%rifi%ial religion li:e that of Israel it is naturall& %ustomar& to show oneOs
reveren%e for the deit&, not b& mere words, but b& bringing gifts and offerings.
*+)
Hut this %an
be%ome !urel& eBternal observan%e. 9ometimes !ra&er is stated to be of more value than
sa%rifi%e. Thus 2s. 0+ advan%es some highl& individual arguments against the sa%rifi%ial %ult
and raises the demand that one should rather offer the sa%rifi%es of than:ful !raise and %all
u!on <od in time of need5
*+0
@hoso offereth !raise glorifieth me" ( 2s. 0+5*/ ). 9imilarl& in
2s. 69 the 2salmist sa&s5 I will !raise the name of <od with a song, and will magnif& him
with than:sgiving. This also shall !lease the 4ord better than an oB or bullo%: that hath horns
and hoofs."
*+6
The same is true of !etitionar& !ra&er.
*+7
Though there is no a%tual antithesis,
2s. .+75** and *756 s!ea: of s!iritual sa%rifi%es of than:sgiving and !raise whi%h do not
%onsist in a%tual offerings but in songs, and along the same lines 2s. .).5* substitutes !ra&er
for sa%rifi%e. Hut how are sa%rifi%e and !ra&er related @e have seen alread& that ,braham
set u! altars where he %alled on the name of <od ( <n. .*56 et%.). @e also have forms of
!ra&er for the offering of firstfruits ( 3t. *650 ff. ) and the !a&ing of the third &ear tithes ( 3t.
*65./ ff. ), though there is no mention of !ra&er at all in the 4eviti%us ritual, and in 3t. it is
never mentioned with sa%rifi%e.
*+6
In the an%ient a%%ount in * 9. 6 of the solemn bringing u!
.9* 2s. *65* # ./)5* .
.9/ 1B. 95*9 # .75.. # . F. 65** , 0) # Is. .5.0 # 1Er. 950 # 4am. *5.9 .
.9) 2s. 057 # *65* # ./)5* .
.90 . F. 65/6 # * >h. 65/) # 3a. 65.. .
.96 <n. *)5.* ff. , *6 ff. ?.
.97 <n. *+5.7 1.
.96 ?u. .65*6 .
.99 . F. .75*+ .
*++ <n. *05*. .
*+. * F. *+5* .
*+* 1Er. 950 ff.
*+/ For histori%al material on these two times of !ra&er, v. 7eiler, IndeB.
*+) >. v. -relli, A1/ , 'I(, /66.
*+0 2s. 0+5.) , .0 .
*+6 2s. 695/+ , /. .
*+7 2s. )+56 ff. # 0.5.6 ff.
*+6 1.g., 3t. .*50 ff.
of the ar: b& 3avid there is also no mention of !ra&er along with the sa%rifi%es.
*+9
In !ra&ers
in the 2salter we often read of the vowing of sa%rifi%es. @e are also told that songs of
than:sgiving were sung when these sa%rifi%es were offered.
*.+
The& might well have
!re%eded the sa%rifi%e as a general rule,
*..
though !ossibl& the& were sung b& !arti%i!ants in
the feast whi%h a%%om!anied the sa%rifi%e ( 2s. **5*0 f. ). In 2s. 66 we have a song of
than:sgiving de%laring and !re%eding a sa%rifi%e of than:sgiving.
*.*
@e are also told in ;eh.
.* that songs of $ubilation sung b& the whole %ongregation a%%om!anied the sa%rifi%es offered
on the dedi%ation of the wall.
*./
>f. also * >h. *95*7I/+ # /+5*. f. Hut we also have eBam!les
of anBious !ra&er on the o%%asion of sa%rifi%e. Thus 2s. 0) !resu!!oses that the one who
!ra&s is %on%erned about the !re!aration of his sa%rifi%e.
*.)
In general, it is obvious that the
%onne%tion between sa%rifi%e and !ra&er is %om!arativel& rare in the 2salter. The !ra&ers
%olle%ted in the 2salter derive for the most !art from a !iet& in whi%h the !ra&er or song of
than:sgiving has ta:en the !la%e of sa%rifi%e.
*.0

9in%e fasting
*.6
in the -T is !redominantl& a !erforman%e b& whi%h man ho!es to ensure
that his !ra&er is heard b& <od, it is obvious that there should be a lin: between them. Thus
?er. .)5.* !resu!!oses the %onne%tion between fasting and su!!li%ation. @hen ;ehemiah
hears of the sorr& state of affairs in ?erusalem, he fasts and !ra&s ( ;eh. .5) ). 1Era orders the
returning eBiles to fast and !ra& that the& might have a su%%essful $ourne& ( 1Er. 65*/ ). ,t an
hour of %risis ?oel summons the %ongregation to %ommon !ra&er and fasting# !enitent
%onversion is to be eB!ressed in fasting, wee!ing and lamentation.
*.7
@e learn s!e%ifi%all&
from ;eh. 95. ff. that the !enitent !ra&er lin:ed with fasting %ontains a %onfession of sin.
*.6

That !ra&er is often lin:ed with a vow we have mentioned above in relation to the vowing
of sa%rifi%es. It ma& be !ointed out, however, that in the 2salter the righteous often vow a
song of !raise rather than a material offering. There are also eBam!les of a mother ma:ing
vows in !ra&er for a son.
*.9
7annah, the mother of 9amuel, vows that in than:sgiving she
will dedi%ate to <od the son for whom she is !ra&ing. It is not alwa&s said that the vow is
a%%om!anied b& !ra&er.
**+
but the %lose %onne%tion between them ma& be seen from !assages
li:e 2s. 6.50 5 Thou hearest m& vows, thou fulfillest the desire of those who fear th&
name," and ?ob **5*7 5 Thou shalt ma:e th& !ra&er unto him, and he shall hear thee, and
thou shalt !a& th& vows."
d. Finall& a word should be said about !ra&er and magi%. @e %annot go into the wider
Tuestion how far there is magi% in the religion of =ahweh or how far magi%al %ustoms and
beliefs ma& be found among the Israelites as those who !rofess this religion. Hut there are one
or two !assages whi%h are so relevant to this theme and whi%h offer su%h illuminating insights
on the distin%tiveness of =ahwism that we should not overloo: them. In 1B. .75.. , a%%ording
to v. 9 , the referen%e is to the magi%al !ower of the divine rod. Hut for this !ur!ose 8oses did
not need to hold u! both hands, and in v. .* it is eB!ressl& said that 7ut and ,aron held u!
both arms so that he %ould :ee! them u! until sunset. The meaning of the gesture obviousl&
has nothing to do with the magi% rod. ,lread& in the Targum it is related to !ra&er. 8ore
*+9 The >hroni%ler mentions a !salm of than:sgiving in . >h. .6 , but li:e the !ro%essional singing in * 9. 6 it is
not organi%all& related to the sa%rifi%e.
*.+ 2s. **5*0 # 0)56 # 6.56 # ..65.7 f. # ?on. *5.+ .
*.. 2s. ..65.7 f. # ?on. *5.+ .
*.* 7. <un:elD?. Hegri%h, &inleitung in die Psalen (.9//), *7/.
*./ .bid. , /.0.
*.) .bid. , .77.
*.0 .bid. , *77 ff.
*.6 >f. F. Huhl, A1/ , (, 766I77+.
*.7 ?l. .5.) # *5.* , .0 , .7 .
*.6 >f. also . 9. 756 # the onl& !la%e in the 4aw where fasting is !res%ribed is in the ritual of the great 3a& of
,tonement in 4v. .65*9 , /. # */5*7 ff. # ;u. *957 , and this is the great da& of %onfession of sin.
*.9 . 9. .5.. # 2rv. /.5* .
**+ ;ot, e.g., in <n. *65*+ ff. # /.5./ # ?u. ..5/+ ff. # * 9. .056 # ;ah. * 5l# 2s. 665./ , .) .
re%ent eB!ositors
**.
do not agree, but 7. 7olEinger ma:es the a%ute observation
***
that the
original idea that 8oses stret%hed out his mira%ulous rod against the foes has been %hanged
into the thought of holding on in !ra&er." ,gain, in the wellD:nown sa&ing b& whi%h ?oshua
arrests the sun and moon in their %ourses in ?os. .+5.* , ./ the sun and moon are addressed
rather than =ahweh, so that we seem to have an in%antation rather than !etition. Hut the
!resent teBt su!!lies the introdu%tor& words5 Then s!a:e ?oshua to the 4ord." ,gain, the
a%tion of 1lisha at the raising of the son of the 9hunammite in * F. )5/) , li:e that of 1li$ah at
the raising of the son of the widow of gare!hath ( . F. .75*. ), is in itself a magi%al a%tion.
Hut in our !resent teBts both a%tions are now !re%eded ( * F. )5// # . F. .75*+ ) b& !ra&er to
=ahweh, so that the a%tions are divested of their magi%al %hara%ter. The verb McR , whi%h is
used in relation to the a%tion in * F. )5/) , /0 , is also found in . F. .65)* to des%ribe an
attitude whi%h ma& well have been one of magi% rather than of !ra&er, sin%e we are not
a%tuall& told that 1li$ah !ra&ed for rain in v. )+ff . Hut the author of ?ames ta:es it that !ra&er
is im!lied ( ?m. 05.6 ). -bviousl& in =ahweh religion there is a for%e at wor: to %rowd out the
magi% whi%h had !enetrated from !rimitive religion, and to re!la%e it b& !ra&er.
/. Aeview of 2ra&er in the -T.
a. 2ra&er in the 7istor& Hoo:s. If we %onsider the narrative se%tions of the 2entateu%h (or
7eBateu%h), we see that here, as in the later histori%al wor:s, the author was not %on%erned to
adorn his a%%ounts with !ra&ers, and that there are not too man& eB!ress referen%es to the
various %hara%ters !ra&ing. Thus there is no referen%e to !ra&er at all in the ?ose!h stories, nor
is there !ra&er in su%h %hara%teristi% <enesis !assages as <n. *. # ** # *6 # /*5*0I// . -n the
other hand, it is undoubtedl& true that !ra&er is often assumed without being mentioned, as,
e.g., in <n. /+56 , .7 , ** . Fine eBam!les of !ra&er usuall& attributed to ?. are to be found in
the !ra&ers of the faithful and unselfish servant of ,braham in <n. *) , !erha!s the finest
narrative %ha!ter in the whole of the -T .
**/
Heautiful, too, is the !ra&er of the returning
?a%ob in <n. /*5.+I./ , also attributed to ?.
**)
8oses is alwa&s !resented as a great man of
!ra&er and es!e%iall& a great inter%essor, whether in the reTuested !ra&er for 2haraoh
**0
or in
reTuested or unreTuested inter%ession for Israel. In this %onne%tion !arti%ular em!hasis is laid
on his inter%essions in 1B. /*5..I.) , /. f. # /)56I9 # ;u. .)5./I.9 ,
**6
in whi%h he
inter%edes for his !eo!le even to the !oint of re!resentative selfDoffering.
**7
4i:e the similar
inter%ession of ?oshua, these are as%ribed to the later !ortions of ?. There are older !ra&ers for
?udah and 4evi in the soD%alled blessing of 8oses in 3t. // (vv. 7I.. ).
In the heroi% stories of ?udges there are few !ra&ers (<ideon in 65/6I)+ # 8anoah in
./56 # 9amson in .05.6 and .65*6 ). The short !ra&ers of the !owerful 9amson are for%eful
and fervent, though in .65*6 he !ra&s for the destru%tion of his enemies, the enemies of his
!eo!le and of =ahweh.
,t the beginning of 9amuel is the !ious 7annah ( . 9. .5.+ ff. ) who !ours out her heart
before <od in Tuiet inaudible !ra&er. @e ma& sus!e%t that a later reda%tor has added as her
!ra&er the !salm in . 9. *5.I.+ . If this does not belong to the %on%rete situation of 7annah,
but s!ea:s more generall& of the trium!h of the righteous and overthrow of the ungodl&,
loo:ing forward to a (8essiani%) :ing, this is t&!i%al of the wa& in whi%h a !salm of this :ind
%an be used as the !ra&er of individuals, as also of the fa%t that the !ersonal !iet& of
individuals in !ra&er is nourished b& the !ubli% !iet& of the nation as a whole. In the 3avid
stories we find in the later strata an eB!li%it !ra&er of 3avid whi%h breathes the !ro!heti% or
**. >f. 3illmann
/
(.697), Haents%h (.9+/), ad loc. # <ressmann, 3ose und seine Zeit (.9./), .06.
*** In FautEs%h
)
, ad loc.
**/ <n. *)5.*I.) , %f. )*ff .# vv. *6I*7 , %f. )6 .
**) The !oint, of %ourse, is not so mu%h the grateful %onfession at the beginning as the !etition whi%h follows.
**0 1B. 65*0 , *6 # 95*9 , // # .+56 .
**6 >f. 3t. 95*6I*9 .
**7 >f. also 3avidOs !ra&er in * 9. *)5.7 .
3euteronomi% s!irit and whi%h is one of the finest !ra&ers in the -T ( * 9. 75.6I*9 ). -n the
o%%asion of the %eremonial bringing u! of the ar: in * 9. 6 there is no mention of !ra&er along
with the sa%rifi%es offered b& 3avid and the blessing given b& him,
**6
but we read of the
singing
**9
and !la&ing
*/+
of a song of !raise b& the festive %rowd during the !re%eding
!ro%ession led b& 3avid.
In the stor& of 9olomon in Fings there is the trul& ro&al !ra&er of 9olomon at <ibeon ( .
F. /56I9 ) and also 9olomonOs !ra&er of dedi%ation in . F. 65*/I0/ , whi%h seems to be
greatl& eB!anded and whi%h is attributed to a 3euteronomist.
In the 1li$ah stories
*/.
the !owerful !ro!het with his !ra&er ( . F. .65/6 , /7 ), whi%h
finel& !resents the s!iritual religion of =ahweh in o!!osition to sensual nature religion, gains
a great vi%tor& over the in%ensed host of HaalOs !ro!hets, whose god is no less %ontem!tible to
1li$ah than their mode of !ra&ing (vv. *6I*6 ).
In the de!i%tion of the histor& of the :ings of ?udah in >hroni%les, the >hroni%ler
%onstantl& manifests his %on%ern to introdu%e %ulti% songs of !raise. Thus in his des%ri!tion of
the bringing u! of the ar: ( . >h. .6 ) 3avid a!!oints 4evites to minister at the ar: and their
%ulti% and liturgi%al %ommission is denoted b& M`Wea|Zcf , Y^_r^_cX \\e]cf ( v. ) ).
*/*
7e also
mentions s!e%ifi%all& that 3avid in the first instan%e entrusted ,sa!h and his brethren with the
singing of the 2raise =ahweh."
*//
,s the song of !raise then used, he gives us a !salm
%om!osed of 2s. .+05.I.0 # 965.bI.// # .+65. , )7I)6a . The !eo!le gives the final res!onse
*/)
,men" and 7allelu$ah" ( . >h. .656I/6 ).
*/0
These a%%ounts give us valuable
information %on%erning !ra%ti%es at the time of the author. In other !assages, too, we learn
more about habits of !ra&er from the >hroni%ler than from the older histor& boo:s. In Fings
the onl& instan%e of a ruler !ra&ing after 9olomon is that of 7eEe:iah,
*/6
but in >hroni%les we
read also of the !ra&ers of the righteous :ings ,sa
*/7
and ?ehosha!hat
*/6
and even of the
ungodl& 8anasseh after his humiliation.
*/9
3avid on one o%%asion !raises <od in the
!resen%e of the whole %ongregation ( kahal ) in a beautiful !rose !ra&er, and he then summons
the %ongregation to a final %horal res!onse and to prosk'nesis .
*)+
;ehemiah is also a man of
serious and fervent !ra&er both in and outside his own memoirs.
*).
-n a da& of !eniten%e the
whole %ongregation sings a song of !raise %on%luding with su!!li%ation ( ;eh. 9 ). In the
a%%ount of 1EraOs dissolution of miBed marriages a great im!ression is made ( 1Er. .+5. ff. )
b& his !ubli% !ra&er of !eniten%e ( 956I.0 ).
b. @hen we turn to the @isdom literature, we find that in ?ob !ra&er, and es!e%iall&
!ra&er for forgiveness and deliveran%e in humble selfDabasement, is so im!ortant that all three
friends
*)*
re%ommend su%h !ra&er to ?ob as the onl& wa& out of his distress.
*)/
It is natural
that ?ob himself, the man of !erfe%t !iet&, should also be faithful in !ra&er.
*))
In his bitter
affli%tion and %om!laint, however, we sometimes find some ver& %riti%al utteran%es in his
**6 >f. what is said above about !ra&er and sa%rifi%e, 79) f.
**9 This !resu!!oses v. *. , %f. v. .0 .
*/+ The 2salm, said to be 3avidi% in * 9. ** ( 2s. .6 ), is thought b&, e.g., A. Fittel
0I6
.9*9, to belong at the ver&
earliest to the time of ?eremiah or 3t., eB%e!t for the an%ient se%tion vv. 6I.6, whi%h might well be 3avidi%.
*/. >f. what was said about !ra&er and magi% in relation to . F. .75*+ , *. # .65). ff. , 790 .
*/* 766 f.
*// `\ ^ er^_c # this is obviousl& intended in v. 7 .
*/) >f. 2s. .+65)6b .
*/0 >f. also * >h. 05./ # 75/ # *+5*. , also */5./ and es!. *95*7I/+ , and 1Er. /5.+ ff. # ;eh. 656 # 950 .
*/6 * F. .95.0I.9 # *+5*I/ .
*/7 * >h. .)5.+ .
*/6 * >h. *+56I.* .
*/9 * >h. //5.*I./ # %f. v. .6 , .9 .
*)+ . >h. *95.+I.9 , *+ .
*). ;eh. .5) , 0I.. # *5) # /5/6I/7 # 05.9 # 65.) # 656 # ./5.) , ** , /. .
*)* 1li!haE in 056 # Hildad in 650 # go!har in ..5./ff .
*)/ >f. also **5*7 .
*)) >f. .*5) # .65.7 , *+ , *. .
!ra&ers.
*)0
@hen his s!ee%hes in dis%ussion with the friends be%ome !ra&erDli:e addresses to
<od
*)6
we get ver& unusual !ra&ers mar:ed b& the same boldness as the s!ee%hes. Hut when
<od 7imself addresses him, there is a return to the !ra&er of humble selfDabasement ( )*5*I
6 ). In 2roverbs there is a fine sa&ing %on%erning the blessing of !enitential !ra&er
a%%om!anied b& %onfession of sins ( *65./ ). In general <od hears the !ra&er of the righteous
( .05*9 ). This is of greater value than the sa%rifi%e of the ungodl&, whi%h is an offen%e to 7im
( .056 ). The 2rea%her has man& remar:able sa&ings from the stand!oint of -T !iet&, and
among these is an admonition against wordiness in !ra&er whi%h almost ado!ts a %riti%al
!osition in relation to !ra&er generall& ( ooh. 05) ).
%. 2ra&er in the !ro!hets. In the !ro!heti% writings we find %om!arativel& mu%h less
material than might have been eB!e%ted. This is !arti%ularl& true of the 6th %entur& !ro!hets.
Isaiah in .5.0 lists !ra&er among man& other %ulti% a%tions whi%h wear& <od be%ause of the
sins of the !eo!le, and he %oins the sa&ing Tuoted b& ?esus in 8t. .056 f. %on%erning the sinful
!ra&ing with the li!s of those whose heart is far from <od and whose fear of 7im is taught b&
human !re%e!t ( *95./ ). It is evident that these sa&ings are not dire%ted against !ra&er as
su%h. The& refle%t the distin%tive %hara%ter of the !ro!heti% demand. ,mos, too, has to sa&
that <od has no time for the noise of the %ulti% songs of those who show nothing of the
righteousness whi%h 7e demands.
*)7
Hut we are also told how ,mos brings himself to !ra&
to <od in the vision for the forgiveness of his !eo!le, and how <od hears this !ra&er ( 75.I
6 ). 8i%ah tells the un$ust rulers who o!!ress and eB!loit the !eo!le that in the time of
$udgment the& will %r& to <od in vain ( /5) ). 7osea summons the !eo!le to %onversion with
!enitent !ra&er for forgiveness ( .)5*I) ). If we have few eBam!les of the !ra&ers of the
!ro!hets themselves in their writings, this is undoubtedl& lin:ed with the fa%t that their
religious life is develo!ed within their awareness of !ro!heti% %alling. In s!ea:ing to <od the&
are in a different !osition from most !eo!le inasmu%h as <od 7imself s!ea:s to them and
through them. Hut it is also %onne%ted with the individual nature of the !ro!heti% !ersonalit&
of ?eremiah that his !ersonal life of !ra&er %onstantl& brea:s into his !ro!heti% utteran%e. @e
thus have his sa%rifi%ial inter%essions for his !eo!le
*)6
and the !ainful eB!erien%e of being
forbidden b& <od to !ra& an& more for a !eo!le so sun: in sin.
*)9
There are also the man&
!ra&ers against his enemies with whi%h he storms =ahweh, the righteous ?udge,
*0+
and whi%h
be%ome more noble !etitions for the $udgment of <od.
*0.
From ?eremiah, too, we have the
magnifi%ent sa&ing5 ,nd &e shall see: me, and find me, when &e shall sear%h for me with all
&our heart" ( *95./f .). ,longside this ma& be !la%ed the summons of 3t. Is. in 0056 , the
!romise of Tr. Is. in 0659 and the even ri%her !romise in 605*) . Hut this leads us to the !ostD
eBili% !ro!heti% writings. 8ore than on%e we have the !romise that all !eo!les will %all on the
name of =ahweh.
*0*
?oel summons the !eo!le to a da& of fasting and re!entan%e on whi%h it
will !ra& <od to turn aside the %atastro!hi% destru%tion whi%h has overta:en it ( .5.)I*+ ).
The !riests are to wee! and to !ra& for mer%& between the !or%h and the altar ( *5.7 ). ?onah,
too, %alls the !eo!le of ;ineveh to the !enitential !ra&er whi%h will bring deliveran%e ( /56 ).
The !salm uttered b& ?onah when saved from imminent death ( *5/ff .) shows
*0/
how !salms
%an be used as !ra&ers.
*0)
7is dis%ouraged !ra&er for death in )5*I/ , re!eated in )56 , is not
in :ee!ing with the general s!irit of 7ebrew !ra&er, and indeed the little boo: generall& has
several features unusual in =ahwism.
*)0 95.6 # .957 .
*)6 757I*. # .+5*I** # ./5*+I.)5** # .75* ff. # /+5*+I*/ .
*)7 This is what is meant in ,m. 05*/ , *) # %f. 65.+ .
*)6 ?er. .+5*/I*0 # .)57I9 # .)5.9I** .
*)9 ?er. 75.6 # ..5.) # .)5.. f.
*0+ ?er. ..5*+ # .*5.I/ # .05.0I.6 .
*0. ?er. .75.*I.6 # .65.9I*/ # *+57I./ .
*0* ge!h. /59 # ge%h. .)5.6 , .7 # %f. also ge%h. .+5. # Is. .95** .
*0/ >f. . 9. * .
*0) 796 on . 9. * .
d. The 2salter is the treasureDhouse of -T !ra&ers of im!erishable worth. The l&ri% !oetr&
*00
of Israel assembled here is for the most !art !oeti% !ra&er, and the %olle%tion is so
%om!rehensive and signifi%ant that all the other !rose or !oeti% !ra&ers of the -T !ale in
%om!arison with it. 2resentation of this material
*06
!resu!!oses wide formal and material
investigation# its religious and theologi%al evaluation is far more diffi%ult that %an be
measured b& the ordinar& reader who finds in the 2salter nourishment for the soul. The
language of the religious l&ri% of Israel is alwa&s im!ressive, and sometimes of un!aralleled
!ower, in the sim!li%it& of its senten%e %onstru%tion and the wealth of its !lasti% images. Hut
the !oetr& is not wholl& eB!ressed in words# with its sim!li%it& of %onstru%tion, its
undevelo!ed tenses and its s!aring use of !arti%les it leaves mu%h to the reader if it is to be
!ro!erl& understood. ,bove all, understanding of the %ontent is lin:ed with insight into the
distin%tive nature and histor& of the forms of this l&ri%al !oetr&.
*07

<eneral %onsiderations ma:e it li:el& that it, too, had its origin in worshi! and that it was
first lin:ed with %ulti% a%tivit&. 8ore detailed observations %onfirm this assum!tion, so that in
individual songs we must be !re!ared to tr& to dete%t mar:s of their %ulti% use. If the& had a
setting in %ulti% life, to establish this is most im!ortant for a true understanding, sin%e it sheds
light both on the stru%ture and on individual eB!ressions. This is lin:ed, of %ourse, with the
different literar& genres, in the distin%tion of whi%h other formal and material !oints must be
ta:en into a%%ount. In bibli%al religion, the %ommunit&, whi%h is both a %ulti% and a national
%ommunit&, is of basi% im!ortan%e in the sha!ing of religious life and faith. This fa%t ma& be
eB!e%ted to refle%t itself in the l&ri% !oetr& of the 2salms, the more so as this has its origin in
the %ultus. =et the !ra&ers of the %ommunit& are far less numerous than those of the
individual. This ma& be eB!lained not onl& b& the fa%t that the individual %ould alwa&s
a%%om!an& his %ulti% a%tions with !ra&ers but also b& the unusuall& strong develo!ment of
!ersonal !iet& attested in the 2salms. In this res!e%t it is worth noting that at ever& !oint the
faith of the individual is shown to be embedded in the %olle%tive awareness of belonging to
the %ongregation of =ahweh. @e are not mista:en, then, if we thin: we %an see how this
greatl& strengthened the !ersonal life of faith. This ma& be noted in some of the greatest
!ra&ers in the 2salter.
9ome of these !ra&ers, whether individual or %ongregational, ma& be fairl& easil& !ut in
their %ulti% setting. The ma$orit&, however, give little indi%ation of their s!e%ifi% %ulti% use.
@e thus have a !iet& whi%h at root is no longer %losel& bound u! with %ulti% observan%e. =et
here, too, it is signifi%ant how often, even in the most inward and s!iritual !ra&ers, we %an see
eviden%e of the ultimate origin of the !iet& in !ubli% worshi!. @e ma& thus sa&, e.g., that the
love of the !ious heart for the sa%red dwellingD!la%es of the 8ost 7igh in 9ion b& no means
limits the attainment of trul& s!iritual !iet& as modern western man might su!!ose. In this
%onne%tion it should be remembered that !ossibl& onl& a minorit& of the !ra&ers %olle%ted in
the 2salter are !reDeBili%. 8ost of them %ome after the writing !ro!hets, whose !owerful
message is rarel& re!eated in all its !urit&, but who have obviousl& had a ri%h fru%tif&ing
influen%e on the !iet& here eB!ressed. It is the nature of religious !oetr& to !reserve what is
old. For the most !art, however, the !ra&ers of the 2salter eB!ress the religion of the eBili%
and !ostDeBili% !eriod. This eB!lains %ertain essential features. There is a !redominan%e of
%om!laint, grief and earnest su!!li%ation on the !art of men who are o!!ressed, who see:
hel!, deliveran%e, %onsolation and strengthening and who find themkthis is !erfe%tl& !laink
in the ver& fa%t that the& ma& !ra&. From %om!laint there arises ho!e, indeed, %ertaint&, whi%h
is faith in the sense of 7b. ..5. . ,lmost alwa&s the one who !ra&s finds his wa&, both in
than:sgiving and also in !etition, to the !raise of <od %om!rehensivel& denoted b& the later
*00 Though not all the !oetr& in the 2salter is l&ri%, most of it is.
*06 In relation to what follows, %f. all that has been said alread& %on%erning the !ra&ers of the 2salms.
*07 >f. es!. the resear%hes of <un:el5 7. <un:el (D?. Hegri%h), &inleitung in die PsalenE Die Gattungen der
religisen )'rik .sraels (.9//), where there is referen%e to the earlier im!ortant wor: done b& <un:el# and 7.
<un:el, Die Psalen (.9*6). >f. also @. 9taer:, Die Schriften des #" , III, .
*
(.9*+)# A. Fittel, Die Psalen
0,6

(.9*9)# -. 1issfeldt, &inleitung in das #" (.9/)), ..)I./7.
title, V`\ e aca YeZ . There is alwa&s !ra&er and %onfiden%e that <od will finall& and definitivel&
glorif& 7imself before the whole world, not merel& in 7is !eo!le, but in the individual also.
8an& 2salms have more or less the %hara%ter of s!iritual songs. It is worth noting in this
regard that their st&le is not merel& that of general edifi%ation. -n Hible readers of ever& age
the& have made the im!ression of individual eB!erien%e. In fa%t, the& are !robabl& not Tuite
so individual as the& seem. @e have to remember that these are !oems and therefore
develo!ed literar& forms whi%h the individual uses and whi%h are mar:ed b& s!e%ifi% t&!es of
%onstru%tion and eB!ression. In man& res!e%ts what we find in the 2salms is %onfirmed and
illuminated b& %orres!onding forms of Hab&lonian !oetr&, with whi%h the !oetr& of Israel
!robabl& has some %onne%tions. The eB!ositor who is %on%erned to bring out the distin%tive
and individual features of !arti%ular 2salms must investigate all these forms. 7e will find
mu%h that is not individual, mu%h that is indeed %onventional and almost stereot&!ed. This is
!arti%ularl& true of the imager&, whi%h in man& %ases does not give us a %lear !i%ture of the
real situation of the author of the !ra&er.
=et eB!erien%e in ever& age %onfirms the fa%t that there is in the !ra&ers of the 2salter a
su!reme religious for%e whi%h %an onl& derive from the <od of the 2salmist who is the Father
of ?esus >hrist. , remar:able eB!erien%e in missionar& wor: is that the <entile world learns
to !ra& from the 2salter. ;o boo: of 9%ri!ture has be%ome the universal !ossession of
>hristian %ongregations in this wa&. @ith terrible realism the &oung %onvert from !aganism
a!!ro!riates the !ra&ers and %ries of the fathers, seeing himself !erse%uted with them, ho!ing
for the :ingdom of <od in terms of these songs, !rostrating himself in the !enitential 2salms
and giving than:s in the songs of !raise, magnif&ing the greatness of <od and finding a new
relation to %reation5 ~4ord, how great and manifold are th& wor:s.O It is im!ressive to see how
natives of the <old >oast, taught b& the 2salms, !our out their needs freel& before <od, as:
7im for dire%tion and light, give than:s that the& are heard, and set themselves in the divine
salvation histor& whi%h through the 2salms goes out into the world and rea%hes them too."
*06

(
errann
'. Pra$er in the 5$nagog#e.
The Hab&lonian eBile and the related se!aration from the tem!le, whi%h made the sa%rifi%ial
%ultus im!ossible, brought !ra&er into the ver& %entre of ?ewish !iet&. 4ater, !erha!s, a strong
a%%ent was !la%ed on tea%hing, on the :nowledge and fulfilment of the 4aw.
*09
=et !ra&er
remained the san%tuar& in whi%h the !ious ?ew %ame before his <od with !etition and
than:sgiving, with %onfession and !raise. It is true that the for%ed surrender of the sa%rifi%ial %ult
during the eBile gave to !ra&er a s!e%ifi% orientation. -nl& regular !ra&er %ould ta:e the !la%e of
regular worshi!. It was thus inevitable that forms of !ra&er should arise. This !osed the danger of
ma:ing !ra&er su!erfi%ial and o!ened u! the wa& whi%h would finall& lead to the do%trine of the
meritoriousness of !ra&er before <od.
*6+
These distortions, however, were neither ne%essar& nor
universal. The distin%tive elements in the histor& of ?ewish !ra&er saw to it that among the ?ews
the gestures, times and formulas of !ra&er were far less highl& estimated b& ?ews than b& the other
!eo!les and religions of antiTuit&. 7ow vigorous a life !ulsated through the rigid forms is
stri:ingl& illustrated in the stor& of the eBe%ution of ,Tiba ( c. ./0). 7is !u!ils tr& to !revent him
from :ee!ing the hour and re%iting the schga even in death. Hut he answers5 8& whole life long
I have been %on%erned about the verse, ~@ith all th& soulO ( 3t. 650 )# I said, @hen shall I be able
to fulfil it ,nd now that this is !ossible, shall I not fulfil it"
*6.

*06 F. 7artenstein, 3as ,T in der usseren 8ission ," in 3ission und Pfarrat , *7 (.9/)), 6+.
7errmann ?ohannes 7errmann , 8Gnster ((ol. .I/).
*09 HoussetD<ressm. , .*6# Fittel 2robleme , 9, n. ..
*6+ 9tr.DH. , I(, *+/ ff., 6*9e.
*6. b. Her., 6.b# %f. Fittel 2robleme, 9/, n. /.
Aegular !ra&er, two or three times a da&, is attested fairl& earl&.
*6*
It is !resu!!osed in ,%.
/5. # .+59 , and indire%tl& in 8t. 650 .
*6/
?ose!hus (b. /7v/6 ,.3. ) in ,nt. , ), *.* refers to the
than:sgiving whi%h goes u! to <od twi%e a da& and he a!!eals to 8oses, so that the habit must
have been %ommon in the first >hristian %entur&.
*6)
The %ontent shows that the referen%e %an onl&
be to the sch a , !robabl& in its !resent form.
*60
The sch a is a %onfession of faith in form,
but is usuall& regarded as a !ra&er.
*66
It %onsists of three !assages from the Torah ( 3t. 65)I9 #
..5./I*. # ;u. .05/7I). ), and it is IsraelOs %onfession of the one <od who has not abandoned
7is !eo!le sin%e the eBodus, who rewards its obedien%e with ri%h gifts and whose %ommandments
the ?ew must alwa&s :ee! in mind. The sch a is one of the oldest elements in s&nagogue
worshi!
*67
and within the setting of various !ra&ers it is also re%ited morning and evening.
*66
It
is highl& !robabl& that ?esus grew u! with this dail& %onfession.
*69

9tri%tl&, the %hief !ra&er of the ?ews, %alled c\edia YeZ , the !ra&er," for short, is the sch one<
&sre .
*7+
The reda%tion of .6 benedi%tions of whi%h it %onsists goes ba%: to the time of <amaliel
II ( c. .++).
*7.
Hut onl& the .*th benedi%tion against a!ostates is added at this time. The rest of
the !ra&er (a!art from the .)th, whi%h refers to the rebuilding of ?erusalem)
*7*
is a good deal
older.
*7/
This !ra&er begins with threefold !raise (benedi%tions .I/). Then follow the !etitions
!ro!er, whi%h embra%e all the %on%rete individual %on%erns on the heart of the !ious ?ew. 2ra&er is
made to <od for :nowledge, for a !enitent heart, for the liberation and regathering of the ?ewish
!eo!le, for the restoration of theo%ra%&, (the re$e%tion of a!ostates,) the re%e!tion of !rosel&tes,
(the rebuilding of ?erusalem and the tem!le,) the hearing of !ra&er, the a%%e!tan%e of sa%rifi%e
(later, the renewal of sa%rifi%ial worshi!) (benedi%tions )I.6). Finall&, there follows a
than:sgiving for the rule of <odOs love and a %on%luding !ra&er for !ea%e (.7 and .6). It is worth
noting that the whole !ra&er ta:es the @eDform (%f. the 4ordOs 2ra&er). Israel is still %ons%ious of
being a %ommunit& in relation to its <od. 9in%e the three first and three last benedi%tions were the
sub$e%t of debate between the s%hools of 7illel and 9hammai, we ma& see in them the oldest !arts
of the !ra&er and find their origins in the !reD>hristian !eriod.
*7)
,s regards the times of !ra&er,
%ustom varied between the use of the .6 benedi%tions two or three times a da&.
*70
The habit of
using a shorter form instead is earl&, sin%e it led to %ontroversies between s%holars c. 9+ ,.3.
*76
It
is onl& from a later !eriod that we have eBam!les of shorter forms.
*77
=et there must have been
several !rior to the final reda%tion of the Sch one<&sre , and it is with them that we should
!robabl& %om!are the 4ordOs 2ra&er.
2ra&ers at table !robabl& go ba%: to the !reD>hristian !eriod also. The 8ishnah
*76
re%ords
a%ute %ontroversies %on%erning these between the s%hools of 7illel and 9hammai, and these
!resu!!ose detailed %onstru%tion. The %ustom of than:ing and !raising
*79
the >reator before
eating does not im!l& in ?esus an& %laim to be advan%ing a new form of !iet&. @e %annot sa&
whether the first >hristians brought in an& fiBed forms of gra%e at meals.
*6+

*6* 3a. 65.+ f. , ./ # %f. also 2s. 005.7 and ?os.,nt. , ), *.* . There are further referen%es in 9tr.DH. , II, 696# on
the gestures %f. also .
*6/ Those %ensured allow themselves to be sur!rised on the street at the times of !ra&er.
*6) 9tr.DH. , I(, .9.# Fittel 2robleme , 9.
*60 >f. 9%hGrer , II, 0/6, n. .0+# 1lbogen, *0.
*66 9tr.DH. , I(, .69, though note that one re%ites" rather than !ra&s" the schga .
*67 .bid. , .0/.
*66 Her., ., . and *.
*69 >f. ?eremias, .*7.
*7+ The teBt is in 3alman @? , I. (.696), *99 ff.# 9taer:, .. ff. >f. 9tr.DH. , I(, *.. ff. @e need not go into the
Tuestion of the two re%ensions, the 2alestinian and the Hab&lonian.
*7. >f. 9%hwaab, op. cit. , *. ff.
*7* , different view is ta:en in 9%hwaab, 67 f.
*7/ 9tr.DH. , I, )+6 f.# I(, *.6# 9%hwaab, op. cit. , 70, .66.
*7) 9tr.DH. , I, )+6 f.# 9%hwaab, op. cit. , 00 ff.
*70 >f. 9tr.DH. , II, 696 ff.
*76 Her., ), /# 9tr.DH. , I(, *.9, **..
*77 9taer:, *+.
*76 Her., 6, .I6a.
*79 , 8:. 65). # 8t. .)5.9 , %f. xZ Mf Le] Her., 7, /.
*6+ 9tr.DH. , I(, 6*6.
It is onl& with reservations that we !resu!!ose other fiBed forms of ?ewish !ra&er in the
earliest >hristian !eriod. @e ma& !erha!s date the ?addish , whi%h has some slight relations to
the 4ordOs 2ra&er,
*6.
and also the #binu alkenu in the first %entur& ,.3.
*6*
In %ontent, the latter
adds nothing to the Sch one<&sre . The age of the 3usaph !ra&ers and the (abdala is
un%ertain.
*6/

,long with this wealth of liturgi%al !ra&er whi%h %overs the whole da& of the !ious ?ew, there
is !lent& of s%o!e for inde!endent eBtem!ore !ra&er. 1ven at the time of the reda%tion of the
Sch one<&sre it was debated where individual !etitions should be in%luded# that there should
be su%h was ta:en for granted.
*6)
The two who go u! to the tem!le to !ra&, and who !ra& so
differentl& ( 4:. .65.+ ff. ), re!resent an ever&da& situation. @hen ?esus a%%edes to the reTuest of
7is dis%i!les for guidan%e in true !ra&er ( 4:. ..5. ), this does not mean that 7e is re$e%ting the set
forms of ?udaism. Indeed, the stri%t regulation of !ra&er seems to have hel!ed to stimulate and
nourish a Eeal in !ra&er whi%h needs !ossibilities of individual eB!ression alongside the reTuired
!ra&ers.
The dangers of set !ra&er %ertainl& led to misunderstandings, and the tension between the
!ra&ing individual and the ob$e%tive forms sometimes found eB!ression in %urious !s&%hologi%al
and %asuisti%al dis%ussions.
*60
The rigid !res%ri!tions regarding the !h&la%teries and tassels
o!ened the wa& to magi%al %on%e!tions.
*66
There is rational %riti%ism when it is %alled foolish to
!ra& that a !regnant woman ma& have a bo& or to !ra& that it ma& not be in oneOs own house if
%ries are heard on returning home.
*67
Hut it should be stated that these are onl& low !oints
between the heights. ?esus !ra&ed at meals li:e the ?ews. There is hardl& a %lause in the 4ordOs
2ra&er whi%h either does not or %ould not stand in ?ewish !ra&ers. If ?esus %ensures ?ewish !ra&er,
it is onl& when 7e finds in it im!ure motives ( 8t. 650 ), or when 7e sees it to be a !ious mas: for
moral de!ravit& ( 8:. .*5)+ ), or when 7e dete%ts in it an im!enitent heart ( 4:. .65.+ ff. ). -n
the one o%%asion when ?esus atta%:s mu%h s!ea:ing," 7e is not referring to the ?ews but to the
<entiles ( 8t. 657 ).
*66
If the first dis%i!les of ?esus had not been ?ews, nourished in the ri%h
!ra&er life of their !eo!le and !ermeated b& the signifi%an%e and !ower of %onstant !ra&er, it is
doubtful whether the tradition of effe%tual, allDembra%ing, eBem!lar& !ra&er whi%h we ma& in
essentials as%ribe to the 4ord would ever have %ome down to us.
). Pra$er in the NT.
.. Aeview, 2resu!!ositions and >ontent.
The !ra&er of !rimitive >hristianit& finds its startingD!oint and %entre in the !ra&er of
?esus. In !ra&er the believer eB!erien%ed the !owers of the new world whose imminen%e ?esus
!ro%laimed, the new and %hildli:e hiddenness in <od b& whi%h ?esus lived and whi%h 7e
granted. The 4ord 7imself drew these !owers from %ontinuous and unwear&ing inter%ourse
with the Father in heaven. This re%olle%tion of the first >hristians is indissolubl& %onne%ted
with what are undoubtedl& the most authenti% !arts of the tradition, namel&, with the human
agon& in the <arden of <ethsemane and with the %r& of dereli%tion on the %ross# both these
show us ?esus as a man of !ra&er. There is mu%h eviden%e, es!e%iall& in 4:., that 7e li:ed to
be alone to !ra&, and although the third 1vangelist often goes his own wa& in this res!e%t
there are no grounds for sus!e%ting !urel& literar& %onsiderations.
*69
?esus maintains the
?ewish %ustom of gra%e at meals ( 6+* # , )# 7is healings and
eBor%isms are often a%%om!anied b& a !ra&er, a glan%e towards heaven, or a sigh.
*9+
In !ra&er
*6. This is strongl& em!hasised b& 1lbogen, 9/, who argues that the first three !etitions { are in full
agreement," but %f. <reeven, 6* f. V. also 2. Fiebig, 0esu Bergpredigt (.9*)), .+6, ;o. /+*.
*6* 9tr.DH. , I, )+6# Fiebig, op. cit. , .+6, ;o. /+*# 9taer:, *6.
*6/ 1lbogen, )6 f., ..6, .**# 9tr.DH. , I(, .9*%, */6# 9taer:, *. and *6.
*6) 9tr.DH. , I(, *//.
*60 .bid. , */+e, */. f.
*66 .bid. , *0+ ff., *77 ff.# %f. also *70 and *9* !.
*67 Her., 9, /.
*66 Hut a%%. to 9%hl. 8t. , ad loc. %ensure of the ?ews is in%luded.
*69 <reeven, .* f., ** f.
*9+ (. d. <oltE, 6 f.# 7orst, .77.
7e finds assuran%e that <od a%:nowledges 7imself and 7is message ( 8t. ..5*0 and !ar. ).
7e !ra&s for the lo&alt& and resolution of 7is dis%i!les ( 4:. **5/. f. ), and even in 7is agon&
and dereli%tion 7e is %alling on <od for hel! and deliveran%e. For the fourth 1vangelist the
unit& of will between the Father and the 9on, and the deit& of ?esus, are so !al!able that the
!ra&er of ?esus before the raising of 4aEarus ( ..5).f .), whi%h !resu!!oses a twofold will,
namel&, that of 7im who !ra&s and that of 7im who grants, has for him the signifi%an%e of
%onvin%ing those around of the divine mission of the 9on. Hut the highD!riestl& !ra&er shows
that there is no dogmati% rigidit& in the %on%e!tion of >hrist. The !ra&er of ?esus is so mu%h
an attitude that the individual a%ts are se%ondar&# &et the >hrist who is in su%h %onstant tou%h
with <od %an also turn to the Father in !etition and inter%ession and inter%ede for 7is own.
The uniTueness of the relationshi! of ?esus to 7is Father is %onfirmed b& the fa%t that the
!ra&er of ?esus is never mentioned along with or !ut on the same level as that of the dis%i!les.
The onl& eB%e!tion is in the %onversation with the 9amaritan woman ( )5** ) when s!ea:ing
of the worshi! of the ?ews and 9amaritans !rior to the de%laration of 7is own dignit&.
The distin%tive feature of earl& >hristian !ra&er is the %ertaint& of being heard. This
derives dire%tl& from faith in the fatherl& love of <od, and it is %ontinuall& strengthened b&
the referen%es of ?esus to this loving will whi%h infinitel& sur!asses all earthl& goodwill or
readiness to hel!. In !rimitive >hristianit& there is no room for the Tuestion what one should
or should not !ra& for. ?esus sa&s eB!ressl&5 l,
, ( 8:. ..5*) ).
*9.
The evident !resu!!osition
is the unsha:able %onfiden%e of faith. In the heart of a man who is full of %onfiden%e and faith
in <od there is nothing that he %annot bring to the Father in !ra&er. 1ven the most trivial
things are worth& of !ra&er, sin%e ever&thing is of im!ortan%e in this human life whi%h
belongs wholl& to <od. @e ma& also assume that the earl& >hur%h had eB!erien%e of being
heard be&ond its as:ing or %om!rehension (%f. 2aul in * >. .*57 ff. ). If there are no eB!ress
instan%es it is be%ause we do not have the !resu!!osition of unavailing !ra&er, namel&, doubt,
feeble faith or distrust.
*9*
It should not be overloo:ed, of %ourse, that <od is still the 7ol&
-ne whose $udgment will shortl& brea: over this aeon and destro& all that is not of <od.
It is the un%onditional %ertaint& of being heard whi%h ma:es it !lain that the address to
<od in the 4ordOs 2ra&er has for the dis%i!les a %om!letel& new %ontent as %om!ared with the
addressing of <od as Father %ustomar& among the ?ews, so that li:e ?esus the& %an use the
familiar form of the name ( ) whi%h the ?ews %arefull& avoided.
*9/
The first !art of the
!ra&er is grou!ed around the reTuest5 Th& :ingdom %ome." The first three !etitions in 8t.,
li:e the reTuest for the 9!irit in 4:., are to be understood as the refle%tion in !ra&er of the
earl& >hristian eB!e%tation of the end with its eB!erien%e in the !resent and ho!e of the future.
This future of salvation is so %lose to life that along with it one ma& freel& as: for things
ne%essar& to life ( ). The >hristian needs not onl& remission of sins but also
deliveran%e from tem!tation. This eB%ludes all !erfe%tionism. The new filial relationshi! to
<od is not a se%ure !ossession. It is under threat and must be %onstantl& attained, or rather
given, afresh. This is wh& ?esus so freTuentl& summons 7is dis%i!les to turn to <od in
%onfident !ra&er. The Tuestion whether ?esus meant the 4ordOs 2ra&er to be a formula has
often been given eBaggerated signifi%an%e. -n the one side, to restri%t freedom in !ra&er is not
in :ee!ing with ?esusO estimate of it. ;evertheless, the teBts of the 4ordOs 2ra&er !reserved in
8t. and 4:. obviousl& la& some %laim to be normative. That this %laim is $ustified is
su!!orted b& the %onsideration that sooner or later ?esusO %riti%isms of the eB%esses of ?ewish
!ra%ti%es ( 8t. 65. ff. ) must have led the dis%i!les to as: what should be their own attitude in
!ra&er, so that the situation in 4:. ..5. is not merel& %on%eivable but histori%all& eBtremel&
li:el&, eB%e!t, !erha!s, for the !resen%e of ?ohnOs dis%i!les in the ba%:ground. 8oreover,
*9. , that the& are alread& given &ou therewith."
*9* There is !erha!s a hint of these in 8:. ..5*) # %f. 8t. 656 . Fl. 8:. , .//.
*9/ >f. the 4ordOs 2ra&er5 3alman @? , I, .0+ ff., *96 ff.# <. Fittel, Die /eligionsgeschichte und das
8rchristentu (.9/*), 9*I90# . ,ttem!ts at a re%onstru%tion of the original form ma& be found in
7arna%: 9,H , .9+), .90 ff.# <reeven, 7* ff. In what is said above we ta:e the latter as a basis.
there is in ?esus no !olemi% against the use of formal !ra&er. There seems to be a%%e!tan%e of
the need to guide those who !ra&. This is surel& the !ur!ose of the 4ordOs 2ra&er, whi%h
summarises in short senten%es all that %an and should %ome from the heart of a >hristian in
!ra&er before <od.
It is a !resu!!osition of all !ra&er that man should re%ognise the divine reTuirement,
abandoning, e.g., all thought of vengean%e if he himself see:s forgiveness. 9elfDsee:ing
desires se!arate from <od. @hen eB!ressed in !ra&er, the& %annot eB!e%t to be heard ( ?m.
)5* ff. ). The >hristian should be sober in !ra&er. That is, he should ta:e seriousl& the fa%t that
the da&s of this aeon are numbered and %leave to 7im who gives true life ( . 2t. )57 , %f. 2ol.,
7, *). 2ra&er %an be hindered b& not giving honour to fellowDheirs of life, namel&, wives ( .
2t. /57 ). ,n&thing im!ortant to the believer ma& be the ob$e%t of !etition. 1Bternal things %an
be im!ortant and %an find a !la%e in !ra&er, as ma& be seen from the reTuest that the parousia
should not be in winter ( 8:. ./5.6 and !ar. ) or 2aulOs desire that he should some da& be able
to visit Aome ( A. .5.+ ). ,s ?esus inter%edes for 7is own before <od, and %ontinues to do so
after 7is eBaltation a%%ording to the fourth 1vangelist (%f. 7b. 75*0 ), so inter%ession has a
!la%e in earl& >hristian !ra&er. Inter%ession ma& be sometimes for eudaemonisti%" blessings.
Thus !ra&er is made for the re%over& of the si%: ( ?m. 05.) ff. ) or the liberation of !risoners
( ,%. .*50 ). The e!istles of the ;T ma:e it obvious how the bond of brotherl& love is vital
and strong in !ra&er. To %rown the %onTuest of self ?esus even demands that we should !ra&
for our enemies, and a%%ording to 4:. 7e sets an eBam!le on the %ross. The 9toi% in !ra&er
attains %larit& %on%erning his own nature# nothing whi%h %omes from without %an affe%t him.
The m&sti% withdraws from all things# his soul eB!erien%es the delights of m&sti%al vision.
Hut when the >hristian %omes before <od in !ra&er, he brings with him that whi%h grieves
him most, namel&, un$ust suffering, and before the fa%e of <od it is transfigured into
inter%ession for his !erse%utors. Finall&, earl& >hristian !ra&er in%ludes the !ra&er of
than:sgiving. To be sure, there do not seem to be instan%es in the earliest sour%es. The 4ordOs
2ra&er %ontains onl& !etitions. Hut gra%e at meals is than:sgiving. Those who witness
mira%les give <od the glor&. The stor& of the ten le!ers tea%hes than:sgiving %learl& enough
( 4:. .75.. ff. ). 2aul in almost all his e!istles follows the an%ient e!istolar& %ustom of a
than:sgiving to the gods after the o!ening salutation,
*9)
thus showing the %hur%hes how
grateful he must be to <od for all that has been done among them. @hen in A. 7 he de!i%ts
the fruitless effort and striving of the unredeemed, and finall& utters the des!airing %r&5 -
wret%hed man that I amp who shall deliver me from the bod& of this death" there
immediatel& follows in answer a solemn than:sgiving in %onfession of redem!tion through
?esus >hrist.
In the world of 2auline thin:ing !ra&er ta:es on a s!e%ial signifi%an%e to the degree that it
is effe%ted b& the 9!irit and %an thus attest to our s!irits through the address that we
are the %hildren of <od ( A. 65.0 # %f. <l. )56 ). 2aul also eB!erien%es the su!ra!ersonal !ower
given b& !ra&er when the 9!irit inter%edes with wordless sighing for those who %annot !ra& as
the& ought. It is an o!en Tuestion whether the referen%e is to glossolalia.
*90
>ertainl& 2aul
sees in !ra&er an intimation and assuran%e of %oming glor&.
There was no s!e%ifi% gesture of !ra&er. 9ometimes it might be :neeling as in the %ase of
?esus in <ethsemane or 2aul on the shore at Troas ( ,%. *.50 ). 9ometimes it might be
standing ( 8:. ..5*0 ), %f. the 2harisee and !ubli%an in the tem!le. ,%%ording to the earliest
sour%es %ommon !ra&er seems to have been the order of the da& ( . >. .)5./ ff. ). The sa&ing
about the %loset is not dire%ted against %ommon !ra&er but against showing off in !ra&er. The
%ommon meals of the dis%i!les, who %an hardl& have given u! at on%e the form of %ommunal
life, demanded !ubli% !ra&er. Indeed, a%%ording to the sa&ing in 8t. .65.9 a s!e%ial !ower of
inter%ession was !romised to the !ra&ing %ommunit&, whi%h is what is meant b& the two or
three," %f. v. *+ .
*9) @endland 7ell. Fult. , )./ f.
*90 >f. <reeven, .0/ f.
4i:e the !ra&er of ?esus, that of the earl& >hur%h was first dire%ted to <od. Hut faith in the
eBalted 4ord, together with re%olle%tion of 7is uniTue intima%& with <od, made !ossible
!ra&er to ?esus also.
*96
The a!!li%ation of the of the 4'' to the eBalted ?esus
made the !ro%ess almost irresistible. =et it is hard to dete%t when and in what %ir%umstan%es it
first a!!eared in detail. -n the one side is the obsta%le of the un%hanged monotheisti% belief in
<od, and on the other the im!ulse of the fa%t that the new >hristian state and therewith the
new !ossibilit& of !ra&er was inse!arabl& lin:ed with the !erson of 7im who was :nown as
the living and effe%tive 7ead of the %ommunit&. There are man& intervening stages and
transitions from %alling on ?esus in !ra&er to <od to dire%t !ra&er to ?esus for inter%ession
with <od. 7istori%al a!!rehension of this movement will alwa&s be to some degree
im!ossible. =et it is im!ortant that, a!art from the isolated eB%e!tions in Aev. ( 056 , .) ),
and are never used with referen%e to !ra&er to the eBalted
4ord.
*. The @ords Ksed.
In a%%ordan%e with the various a%ts and eB!erien%es whi%h %onstitute the total life of
!ra&er, !ra&er itself is des%ribed b& several terms ta:en from the dealings between man and
man. In detail there are %ertain fairl& %lear%ut differentiations. l , to want something,"
is never used of the !ra&er of ?esus ( I, .9* ) but is %onstantl& used when ?esus summons
7is followers to glad and fervent as:ing. is used for a !etition to <od onl& in ?ohn,
who em!hasises the fa%t that inner fellowshi! between <od and 7is !eo!le is a%hieved
through the -ne whom 7e sent. 7ere, too, it is used onl& on%e of men ( . ?n. 05.6 ) and
elsewhere eB%lusivel& of the !ra&er of ?esus. 4i:e , seems to !osit a
diminished distan%e between the one who s!ea:s and the -ne addressed. The demon in 8:.
05.+ shares a su!ernatural eBisten%e with the 9on of <od. 2aul %alls on his 4ord, b& whom he
:nows that sin%e 3amas%us he has been %alled to !rea%h and %onstantl& guided, to restore to
him his full !owers ( * >. .*56 ). ?esus %ould summon .* legions of angels from 7is Father
( 8t. *650/ ). The word for gra%e at meals ( in the abs.) follows ?ewish usage.
needs no eB!lanation. H& using in A. 65.0 # <l. )56 2aul eB!resses
the fervour of !ra&er, but also the fa%t that !ra&er %an be uttered b& men in the !ower of the
9!irit.
*97
, often used in %ombination with , serves to em!hasise the
element of %onfession in >hristian !ra&er ( ,%. 95.) # **5.6 # . >. .5* ). Hut sin%e vital !ra&er
alwa&s in%ludes !etition (%f. the 4ordOs 2ra&er), these terms are all far less %ommon than
, . %an also be used in the ;T in a se%ular sense, but the noun is
eB%lusivel& religious and has mu%h the same meaning as the 1nglish !ra&er." @hen
is used for to !ra&," there is almost alwa&s a !etition (the eB%e!tion is ,%. .+5* ), but this
s!e%ifi% sense is not so evident in the %ase of (e.g., 4:. 05// # 2hil. )56 ).
,long with all these ordinar& terms a!!lied to !ra&er, there is another word grou! whi%h
from the ver& first belongs eB%lusivel& to the religious s!here and whi%h thus gives us the
main words for !ra&er in the ;T . To this we must now turn.
3, 3 .
>
onstr. , 8t. 656 # . >. ..5./ . The ob$e%t of !ra&er is ver& o%%asionall&
in the a%%. (e.g., 4:. .65.. # A. 65*6 ), but mostl& in verbal form with , , inf.
(sim!le or in the gen., ?m. 05.7 )#
.
often with , i 5 inter%ession." In most %ases
is not more %losel& defined. @e have the stronger g
in ?m. 05.7 . The gen. with usuall& refers to the one !ra&ing, but on%e to the -ne
addressed ( 4:. 65.* # %f. A. .05/+ ).
*96 -n the worshi! of ?esus %f. v. d. <oltE, 90 ff.# 7orst, .66 ff.# and the bibl. in ,. Flawe:, Das Gebet -u 0esus
(.9.9), * ff.
*97 >f. 7. 9%hlier, /eligionsgeschichtliche 8ntersuchungen -u den .gnatiusbriefen (.9*9), .)).
>onstr. %onstru%tion.
. Hl.D3ebr.
6
y )++, 7.
.. To !ra&," to !ra& to," to as:," !ra&er," !etitionar& !ra&er." @e best understand
the term b& differentiating it from the s&non&mous , . The distin%tion is that
almost alwa&s means real as:ing whereas is !referred if the fa%t
of !ra&er is to be denoted with no narrower indi%ation of its %ontent (%f. the solitar& !ra&er of
?esus). 8ore rarel&, %an also signif& !etition (?esus in <ethsemane# >ol. .5/
# * Th. .5.. ). From the ver& first means %alling on <od, whereas it is not
alwa&s %lear to whom the reTuest is dire%ted when is used. To distinguish the nouns
is more diffi%ult.
*
Hoth %an mean !ra&er or !etitionar& !ra&er as a regular habit5 ,%. 65) 5 g
g { (%f. ,%. *5)* )# 1!h. 65.6 5 g
# >ol. )5* 5 g g (
is used in this sense onl& in 2aul). Hut both %an also be used for a single and %om!lete a%t of
!ra&er, 4:. **5)0 5 q q # 2hil. .5) 5 g {
q . This is also shown b& the %ommon use of the !lural, A. .5.+ 5
4:. 05// 5 l { .
Thus the distin%tion between and is not to be sought in the !ersisten%e or
inwardness or similar features of the !ra&er, but solel& in the %ontent. ,nd in s!ite of the
inter%hangeabilit&
/
there are tra%es of a %ons%ious distin%tion in this res!e%t. Thus
l q i is used in 4:. .5./ f or the %on%rete reTuest, im!lied though
not eB!ressl& stated, whi%h ga%harias ma:es for a son, while the !ious %onversation of the
%enturion >ornelius is des%ribed as follows5 l q q l
6 ( ,%. .+5/. ). In the nonD2auline
se%tions of the ;T alwa&s means a single, %on%rete a%t, never !ra&er as a
!henomenon of the religious life# Hut when we read in . Tm. *5. (%f. ?er. ..5.) 4'')5
. , , i c
6 {, it is evident that the author is thin:ing of the whole range of !ra&er rather
than of the distin%tion of individual as!e%ts,
)
and he !resents it as a ministr& of inter%ession,
though stri%tl& i does not seem to fit this %on%e!tion. 7en%e it is onl& with great
reserve that we ma& distinguish and sa& that denotes !ra&er %om!rehensivel&
while %an also have the s!e%ifi% sense of !etitionar& !ra&er and thus %omes to have a
!arti%ular nuan%e.
is found here and there in se%ular lit. from the time of ,es%h. ,
0
and with
the same twofold sense as , to !ra&" and to !erform a vow." 2reisig:e 9ammelbu%h ,
III, 67./, .+ f. (*07 H.>. )5 |c| |, || | ,
{, and therefore %learl& a vow (%om!leted a%%. to 1dgar). 1Bam!les on ins%r. o%%ur
onl& later, ibid. , I, /7)+. ,lread& in the 4'' , whi%h is almost alwa&s used for
\\e]ie Y Z ca , o%%urring 69 times and onl& 6, begins to re!la%e the !rofanel& more %ommon
(%f. 3a. 4'' 65.. with 3a. O 65.+). The sense to vow" found in se%ular <:. dro!s
awa& %om!letel& in the 4'', being restri%ted to , . This is !erha!s wh& the ;T
definitel& !refers - .
6
The !ostDa!ost. fathers easil& !refer to the
mu%h wea:er ( 776 ) when s!ea:ing of !ra&er. ?os. uses onl& in
the stor& of 3aniel
7
( ,nt. , .+, *0* and *06 ). 2hilo uses it for to !ra&," though onl& in 9om. ,
II, ./9 # 9!e%. 4eg. , I, *) ).
* ). . >f. Tren%h , ..0 ff., where there are referen%es to older definitions. >f. also 7au!t <efbr. on 1!h.
65.6 # 2hil. )56 # 4oh. 2hil. , .7+.
/ 6+6 .
) >f. 3ib. 2ast. , ad loc.
0 4iddellD9%ott , .0...
6 >f. @. 8. Aamsa&, 1B!. T. , .+ (.696v99), ./5 @as felt to be too mu%h %onne%ted with the idea of a
vow and a gift !romised to <od"
7 For an eBhaustive dis%ussion of the usage in ?os. %f. ,. 9%hlatter, @ie s!ra%h ?os. von <ott " HFTh , .)
(.9.+), 7/ ff.
*. ,long with an individual a%t of !ra&er or !ra&er as an eB!ression of !iet&,
%an also be a !la%e of !ra&er,"
6
es!e%iall& the ?ewish s&nagogue.
9
,%%ording to ,%. .65./
ff. there was a s&nagogue at 2hili!!i whi%h 2aul visited with his %om!anions to !rea%h the
<os!el there to the ?ews. It stood b& a river, and the >hristian missionaries eB!e%ted to find it
there. This is understandable, sin%e it has been noted that s&nagogues were often built b&
water, !resumabl& to ma:e the !res%ribed washings easier ( ?os.,nt. , .), *06 #
.+

2
. Tebt. , I,
66, .7# *9).
..

is rare in se%ular <:. , and was thought to o%%ur onl& in ?ewish teBts or teBts
under ?ewish influen%e.
.*
In its 3ori% form, however, it has now been found on an ins%r. in the
tem!le of ,es%ula!ius in 1!idaurus ( I< , I(, ., editio inor , .+6, line *7, )th %ent. H.>. )5
(UU q q) . ?ewish influen%e is unli:el&. The use
with indi%ates a %on%rete sense, i.e., a !la%e of !ra&er." 2hilo uses the word onl& in this
sense. In ?os. it %an also mean !ra&er," e.g., Hell. , 0, /66 # ,!. , II, .+ (a Tuotation). The
%anoni%al boo:s of the 4'', li:e the !ostDa!ostoli% fathers, use onl& for !ra&er
(almost alwa&s for c\edia YeZ )# though %f. / 8a%%. 75*+ .
Greeven
A
*

In se%ular <:. this alwa&s bears the literal sense (from 6 , sweetDsmelling" m7omer,
e.g., -d. , 0, 6)n) of sweet smell," the s%ent" of a !erson or thing whi%h is found to be !leasant
(often in the !lur. )5 ,ristot.
A
het. , I, .., !. ./7+a, *)# 'eno!h.
9
&m. , *, /. -f !lants and fruits,
,ristot. H i , 6*, !. 6/6b, .7# ../, !. 6).a, ./# 2lut.
o
uaest. ;at. ,
*/ (II, 9.7 f.)# ouaest. >onv. , III, ., . (II, 6)0 f.)# (, 6, . (II, 66/%)# of wine, 2lut.ouaest. >onv. ,
(, /, . (II, 676%)# of a healing ointment,
,
el. ,rist. , )9, **# of the atmos!here (e.g., in the
dwellingD!la%e of the deit&), 2lut.
F
a%. 4un. , *6 (II, 9). f.)# in the !la%e of the ora%le, 2lut.
3
ef.
-ra%. , 0+ (II, )/7%)# in the land of 4ethe, 2lut.9er. ;um. 2un. , *7 (II, 060 f.), and finall& for
manOs breath in s!ea:ing, 2lut.3ef. -ra%. , *. (II, )*.b)#
,
leB. , ), * (I, 666b%). i is also
used in relation to %ulti% in%ense, 3iod. 9. , I, 6), 6# %f.
-
stra:a , I, y 0/.
In the 9e!tuagint it is usuall& found in the !hrase i for hf h_ `Sea)cf ( hf `M] (of the
!ro!hets onl& 1Ee:iel uses the eB!ression). ,s in <n. 65*. the referen%e is mostl& to the sweet
6 -n the %hange of meaning %f. harbour" or !la%e of assembl&." 2. <laue, Die
Vorlesung hl.Schriften i Gottesdienste (.9+7), 0, %on$e%tures that is a sim!ler t&!e of
, %f. also gn. ,g. , 07. f. and for a different view 9. garb, 3e Iudaeorum g in ,%t.
.65./, .6," #ngelicu , 0 (.9*6), 9. ff., .+0 ff.
9 2r. ,g. on .65./# 9%hGrer , II, )99 f., 0.7 ff.# 3eissmann ;H , )9 f.# ?a%Tuier, op. cit. , )67 f.
.+ 7ere, however, the meaning is dis!uted (9%hlatter5 2erha!s to hold !ra&ers rather than to build a
s&nagogue").
2. Tebt. "he "ebtunis Pap'ri , ed. H. <renfell, ,. 7unt and others, .9*+ ff.
.. Ignoran%e of this fa%t has !rodu%ed all :inds of alterations of the teBt of ,%. .65./ .
.* >r.DFJ. , )09# eBam!les in 9%hGrer , II, )99, n. ). The mu%h mutilated ins%r. of -lbia on the Hla%: 9ea ( >I< ,
II, *+79), whi%h is addu%ed in 9%hGrer , II, 0.7, n. 09, &ields no %ertain results and ma& well be under ?ewish
influen%e.
C i . ,!art from the %omm. on * >. *5.) f. %f. 1. 4ohme&er, (om gJttli%hen @ohlgeru%h ," 9,7 , .+
(.9.9), 9# 1. ;estle, g;@ , ) (.9+/), *7*# 7 (.9+6), 90f.# 7. (orwahl, ,A@ , /. (.9/)), )++ f.# AeitEenstein Ir.
1rl. , /)# 7ell. 8&st. , 6*# /9/ ff.# ,. 7arna%:, gF< , * (.676), *9. ff.
Ahet. /hetorica .
9&m. S'posion .
ouaest. ;at. ?uaestiones !aturales .
,el. ,rist. ,elius ,ristides, of ,drianutherai in 8&sia (.*9I.69 ,.3. ), %elebrated rhetori%ian and %redulous
votar& of ,es%ula!ius, one of the best :nown re!resentatives of later 7ellenisti% !iet& in literature (%f. his !rose
h&mns to different deities), ed. @. 3indorf, .6*9# ed. H. Feil, .696.
Fa%. 4un. De 9acie in %rbe )unae .
3ef. -ra%. De Defectu %raculoru .
,leB. De #le:andro .
-stra:a K. @il%:en, Griechische %straka , .9.*.
smell of the burnt offering, %f. es!. 4v. and ;u. .0 # *6 # *9 where the thought is of the
a%%e!tabilit& of the sa%rifi%e to <od. @hile the Aabbis %hanged hf h_ `Sea)cf ( hf `M] to hf ^eM Yhf ^eS ,
goodD!leasure" (e.g., 9. ;u. y .+7 on .057# y ..6 on .65.7# y .)/ on *656),
.
the 4'' too: no
offen%e at the anthro!omor!hism of the -T eB!ression. Its rendering of hh`S)c( h`M has the
stem - twi%e, as distin%t from the 7eb. original.
*
It also shows that no attention was !aid in
the translation to a dogmati%all& signifi%ant understanding of hh`S (i.e., satisf&ing," in the sense
of a!!easing" the wrath of <od).
/
The literal sense merges into a figurative,
)
e.g., in 9ir. *)5.0
, where !ersonified wisdom sa&s of itself5 (%innamon)
(s!i%ed shrub) , q
i .
0

2hilo, along with the literal (e.g., 4eg. ,ll. , I, )* # -!. 8und. , .60 ), has a similar figur. use5
{ 6 i
i, i , q
q , 9om. I, .76 #
the influen%e for good whi%h the wise eBert on their environment is %om!ared to the invisible &et
irresistible outflowing of a sweet s%ent.
.. In the ;T there are two or three !assages in whi%h the sense of i is both
linguisti%all& ( q i ) and materiall& %onne%ted with the sa%rifi%ial %onteBt well
:nown from the -T . In 1!h. 05* the sa%rifi%e of >hrist and in 2hil. )5.6 the loving gift of the
%ongregation to 2aul are des%ribed as q i , in both %ases with the material
though not the grammati%al ob$e%t . In 2hil. the !arallel eB!ressions i
and reinfor%e a sense %orres!onding to -T usage, the sweet savour
being that whi%h indu%es the goodD!leasure of <od. @hat is dire%tl& !er%e!tible in the -T
s&stem is here a!!lied in a %lose material !arallel to that whi%h is no longer within the limits
of the !res%ribed ritual.
6

*. The meaning is not Tuite so %lear in * >. *5.) f. ,%%ording to what !re%edes, 2aul
begins b& magnif&ing the a!ostoli% offi%e5 i . The freTuentl&
7

asserted %onne%tion between the a!ostoli% de%laration i and the
sweet savours whi%h a%%om!anied the an%ient trium!hal !ro%ession
6
has the disadvantage
that it ma:es the eB!ression !urel& meta!hori%al and dis!enses with an& %on%rete or material
sense. Furthermore, it does not adeTuatel& eB!lain the !lainl& stated !ower of the i to
salvation or !erdition. For the same reasons the idea that the i refers to an anointing of
the a!ostle (%f. * >. .5*. )
9
is not of itself adeTuate.
.+

. I owe this referen%e to F. <. Fuhn.
* 2erha!s to be eB!lained sim!l& b& the similarit& of sound.
/ -. 2ro%:s%h, Die Genesia
*,/
(.9*)), 69 on <n 65*.
) -n religioDhistori%al inter%onne%tions %f. 4ohme&er, op. cit.6 passi .
0 7ere we have a figurative intermingling of the old idea that 2aradise (UU the garden) is full of fragran%e with
the asso%iation of sweet fragran%e with the selfDde%laration of the <odhead. -n both ideas %f. 4ohme&er, op. cit.6
passi .
6 >f. on this !t. ,thenag.9u!!l. , ./, .5 q
c i (fat of sa%rifi%e) c q i,
q i i, q . The re$e%tion of the whole %ir%le of religious
ideas lin:ed with i leads to the assertion that <od 7imself is !erfe%t i i mI owe this
referen%e to <. Hertramn.
7 >f. ad loc. 2. @. 9%hmiedel (.69.)# 7einr. 9ends%hr., II and * F.# @nd. * F. # @. Housset in 9%hr. ;T , II#
also 9%hl. F., )90 f.
6 For eBam!les, %f. 4tEm. F. , ad loc.
9 For later eBam!les %f. @nd. * F. ad loc. # also 4ohme&er, op. cit. , // f.
.+ The suggestion in 7einr. 9ends%hr., II and * F., ad loc. that the tertiu coparationis is to be found in the
!ervasive and irresistible %hara%ter of the s%ent (%f. also H%hm. F. , ad loc. ) is tem!ting, but there is no real
su!!ort for it, not even in 2lat.Aes!. , I', 06)b.
,%%ording to the two !assages dis%ussed under .. an inter!retation whi%h %onne%ts the
image with the thought of sa%rifi%e is in :ee!ing with 2auline usage. The !e%uliar eB!ression
in whi%h the a!ostle %alls himself i (in distin%tion from .)b) is also eB!lained if we
ta:e it
..
that 2aul is a!!l&ing the thought of sa%rifi%e to himself and therefore, as in A. .05.6 ,
des%ribing himself and his a!ostoli% %alling in terms of a living sa%rifi%e offered to <od. -n
this inter!retation, of %ourse, we lose the inner %onne%tion of the image with that of the q
q 6 whi%h !re%edes, and no eB!lanation is advan%ed of the element of de%ision
so !lainl& asserted of the savour in v. .0b .
;evertheless, if in terms of the whole %onteBt we see in the !ersonal statement a material
!arallel to v. .) , so that here, as in v. .0b , the i has the <os!el !ro%laimed b& 2aul as
its material ba%:ground,
.*
we are given the %lear !i%ture, found in ?udaism also
./
under the
same image of savour," of the !ower for death or destru%tion of the @ord !ro%laimed b&
divine %ommission. In this !assage the word i is %learl& determined in %ontent b& the
a!!ositive or eB!li%ative gen.
.)
.
If the ob$. basi%all& rules out the nonD?ewish idea that i might be a dire%t
term for the a!!roa%h or manifestation of <od,
.0
it is still true that in the religious s!ee%h and
thin:ing not merel& of the world outside the -T but also of the >hristian religion
.6
the sweet
smell is one of the %onstant !er%e!tible mar:s of the invasion of the terrestrial world b& the
su!raterrestrial.
S
tupff
I, /6/
3(&, 3( . .
-f the related word grou!s , , , , denotes the inner
dis!osition from whi%h hostilit& arises, i.e., hatred," means hostilit&" as su%h,
irres!e%tive of the underl&ing dis!osition or of its manifestation or otherwise in visible form, and
means war" as the eB!ression of hostilit& between states and governments. In the %ase
of the onl& other form is the verb , while &ields the %ommon
a
d$. v subst.
and the less %ommon verbs i, and i , and the
ad$. v subst. and the verb .
The 7ebrew usage is mu%h the same. For and we have [S]Pdw and c[d SZPaw ,
though the !art. [S]Pw %an also be used as a subst. (4'' ). The verb L`f[d is rare a!art from
the !art. L`]^_[ , but L`]^_[ , used as a subst. , denotes both the !ersonal and the national enem& and
.. 9%hl. F., )90 f.
.* is also the earl& eB!osition as found in >ram. >at. on * >. *5.) m<.
Hertramn.
./ A. ?ehoshua b 4evi (/rd %ent. ,.3. ) sa&s (?oma, 7*b)5 ^\ Y`PqS cW| [\ V``h V ^\ Y`PqS cW|
cPQ s VPw MPQ [ cM^Yc Y[|^ [\r [``hr [s c\ ts^[r 5[LM Ms[r ^S``c^ .cY`s V. (5
3t. )5)) ) [Y^sr [s c\ ts^[ It is said5 ,nd this is the law whi%h 8oses laid down# if he has made
himself worth&, it is for him a miBture of life, and if not it is for him a miBture of death. This is what the Aaba
said5 For him who rightl& devotes himself to it, it is a miBture of life# for him who does not rightl& devote
himself to it, it is a miBture of death." 4ohme&er, op. cit. , //, n. . uses balsam" for the same word V in Taan.
, 7a.
.) , fragran%e wafted or filled b& >hrist5 2. @. 9%hmiedel (.69.), 7einr. 9ends%hr., II and * F., H%hm. F. , ad
loc.
.0 For eBam!les of this use of the image outside the -T %f. 4ohme&er, ) ff. n. 6 .
.6 Thus, e.g., the terms !erfume," :nowledge" and life" are normative in earl& inter!retation %f the stor& of
the anointing in 8:. .)5/ ff. , %f. >l. ,l. 2aed. , II, 6, 6. and as earl& as Ign.1!h. , .7, . m<. Hertramn. >f. es!.
the signifi%an%e of the sweet s%ent in the death of mart&rska new form of the old idea of sa%rifi%e (7arna%:, op.
cit. , !assim).
9tum!ff ,lbre%ht 9tum!ff , TGbingen ((ol. *I/).
ad$. ad$e%tive.
thus embra%es both and . cLd `[] %orres!onds to . For we
have Vhf \ZSa , and for the subst. csd hd \Zsa . In :ee!ing with 7eb. and the !redominant usage of the
4'' the ;T does not have or a verb of the stem D.
3(&%
*

A. 3(& o#tside the NT.
In se%ular <:. 7om. has onl& the !ass. hated." The a%t. first o%%urs in 7es. and 2ind. 5
.
the
hater," the enem&," the o!!onent." In general the a%tive sense !redominates, as does also the
referen%e to !ersonal enmit&, &et the !ass. and the a!!li%ation to national foes are still found at the
time of the ;T @ith some restri%tion for his own !ur!oses, 2lut. defines (
9
u!erst. , .. mII,
.7+dven)5 q i, i
, and also5 c . In his
wor: H 6 (II, 66 ff.) 2lut. refers onl& to !ersonal enmit&. =et
im!ersonal hostilit& %annot alwa&s be se!arated from it, e.g., 2lut.
,
!o!hth. , 2om!eius, / (II,
*+/d)5 (the guilt&) c l c i i, c
i. is used for the enem& in war, e.g.,
2lut.
,
!o!hth. 4a%. ,
4
&%urg. , *) (II, **6d)5 i .
In the 4'' is almost alwa&s used for L`]^_[ , though sometimes for Muf n MM] u_ n.
*

>onversel&, L`]^_[ is almost alwa&s rendered , though with other derivatives of D we
also have i 6 times and on%e ea%h ( 1st. 95.6 ), i ( Is. 6656
), ( Is. 665.) ). It is stri:ing how often is avoided. In the %anoni%al boo:s it
is found onl& at 1st. 95.6 f or L`][_ , . >h. .65.+ ( q for Y^_shd \Zsa PQ `[a ), and, with
. 2 t. 8:31 for L`]^_[ . =et it is %ommon in the a!o%r&!hal writings, e.g., 9ir. )65/ f
or cs d hd \Zsa mn. is found ./ times in . 8a%%. and / ()) times. In * 8a%%. we
have on%e, .6 times# in / 8a%%. 6 times and twi%e# in )
8a%%. / times and 9. In other a!o%r&!hal boo:s we alwa&s have u!
to 9ir. )65/ . 2robabl& there lies behind this shift an alteration in the 7eb. , whi%h in later writings
ado!ts csd hd \Zsa PQ `[a and other eB!ressions instead of L`]^_[ .
@hile the 7eb. L`]^_[ denotes both !ersonal and national enemies, has more of
the sense of !ersonal hostilit&. The word is used in the 4'' for a. enemies in war among the
<entiles, e.g., 1 B. 2:8 # ;a. /5.. , ./ , and !ersonal enemies in dail& life, 1B. */5) #
;u. /05*/ # b. the nations, i.e., the <entiles, around Israel who are o!!onents of Israel or its
:ing# %. the enemies of the righteous# d. the enemies of <od. The root of the usage is to be
found in the fa%t that the relation between Israel and the <entiles is not a !urel& !oliti%al
relation whi%h ma& %hange from friendshi! to war and vice versa , so that the <entiles are
onl& in times of war and i in da&s of !ea%e# the relation is one of %onstant
o!!osition whi%h %an eB!ress itself onl& in wars and other forms of enmit&. Thus the enem&
of Israel is the enem& of <od, 1B. */5** . 3efeat of Israel brings dishonour to <od, ?os. 756 .
3avidOs adulter& gives %ause for the enemies of the 4ord
/
to blas!heme, 2 B. 12:14 .
<odOs attitude to Israel is refle%ted in vi%tor& or defeat, ?u. *5.) , .6 et%. In Is. .5*) we have
C . ,. Hertholet, Biblische "heologie des #" , II5 Die 5d. /eligion von der Zeit &sras bis -u Zeitalter
1hristi (.9..), .66, *.7# H. @eiss, )ehrbuch der bibl. "heol. des ;T (.9+/), /+7 f.# 7. @einel, Biblische
"heologie des ;T
)
(.9*6), **6# >r.DFJ. , )09 f.
. For eBam!les v. 4iddellD9%ott , s.v.
9u!erst. De Superstitione .
,!o!hth. #pophthegata /egu et .peratoru .
,!o!hth. 4a%. #pophthegata )aconica .
4&%urg. )'cion .
* It is also used for cLd `[] , LM[ (twi%e), `^_Re ( 105:41 , onl& in some 899), M|d , Ys , Mud , Ysu hi.
the transition from an enmit& whi%h is !artl& religious and !artl& national to one whi%h is
!urel& religious, the referen%e being to <odOs enemies within Israel. This trend is develo!ed
further in the !iet& of the 2salter, where the o!!osition is between the righteous and the
ungodl&, 6:10 f. # 0)5/ f. ( q i
), and the ungodl& is the enem& of <od, 36:20 . 4iberation from enemies
and their destru%tion are thus an eB!ression of ho!e5 . 5: # Is. 6*56 # ;u. *)5.6 #
10:1 f. # ./.5.6 . If the 4'' desired a single term for the 7eb. L`]^_[ , the one ada!ted for
the !ur!ose was , sin%e it denotes hostilit& as su%h.
In the Aabbis the stem L`[ is far less %ommon than [SPw . The old religious and national
o!!osition is naturall& still !resent,
9
. 3t. , .7. on .65.+ UU $ 9anh. , *6b5 7e who marries a
9&rian begets an enem& of <od" ( V^Ns\ L`^[ )
)
@hen something unfavourable has to be said
about Israel, re%ourse is had to the eu!hemism \[MP` `[S^P , e.g., b.
9
hab. , //. 1lsewhere
hatred" is de%lared against idolaters and the M[c `sq ,
0
and Test. 'II !ro!hesies %on%erning
the i who will o!!ress and lead awa& the disobedient !eo!le.
6
7ighl& relevant are the
eB!ositions of 1B. */5) , where Aabbis refer the eB!ression L`][_ to idolaters (national o!!osition
on the religious side), to a!ostate !rosel&tes, to renegade Israelites and finall& to the Israelites
themselves, 8. 1B. on */5) .
7
The last inter!retation is also found in b.
2
es. , ../b on the ground
that if one sees something shameful in an Israelite one must hate" him ( a%%. to 2rv. 65./ ). This
brings us to enmities within the !eo!le. 7atred, or more eBa%tl& un$ustifiable hatred, is forbidden.
It %orru!ts the !eo!le, leads to the destru%tion of 7erodOs tem!le, and !rodu%es idolatr&,
li%entiousness and bloodshed.
6
=et the ver& eB!ression un$ustifiable hatred" ( VSh Y[SP )
shows that there is another :ind, as ma& be seen in
,
b A;at , .6,
9
where we read of legitimate
hatred of 1!i%ureans, of sedu%ers and of traitors (on the basis of 2s. ./95*. ), i.e., of enemies in
the -T religious sense. @e are not, therefore, sur!rised to find su%h %ontradi%tor& statements as
that in 3ere:h 1reE (A. 1lieEer, 9+ ,.3. )5 7e who hates his brother is to be re%:oned among
those who shed blood," and b?oma, **65 , rabbini% s%holar who does not bear hatred is no
rabbini% s%holar."
.+
L`[ and [SP are a!!lied to the relationshi! between Israel and <od, e.g.,
b.9hab. , ..6a5
..
The boo:s of the 8inim bring Y^MhY^ cL`[^ c[SN between Israel and their
Father in heaven. -ften, as in this !assage, it is a single individual or grou! whi%h disturbs the
relationshi! between the whole !eo!le and <od.
.*

?ose!h. gives eviden%e of Aabbini% influen%e when he o!!oses and in
(it. , .*6 . Hut when in ,nt. , 9, *6* he sa&s that ?eroboam l 6
i q i i (%f. ,nt. , ),
.9+ # 6, .06 ), he sets aside the Aabbini% formulation of enmit& between <od and Israel with its
suggestion of disturban%e of the %ovenant relationshi!, and he substitutes for it the notion %urrent
among the <:s. The <:s. often s!o:e of men being the enemies of <od, both in the a%t. and the
!ass. Thus 2lut.9u!erst. , .. (II, .7+d) sa&s of the su!erstitious5 c
/ The referen%e, of %ourse, is not sim!l& to the ,mmonites with whom 3avid was then at war but to the <entiles
as standing enemies of Israel and of <od.
9. 3t. Sifre Deuteronoiu , Tannaiti% 8idrash on 3euteronom& (9tra%:, &inl. , *++ f.).
) 9%hl. Theol. d. ?udt. , )+, n. *.
9hab. Shabbat , 8ishnahD, ToseftaD, Talmud tra%tate Sabbath (9tra%:, &inl. , /7).
0 9tr.DH. , I, /09 ff., /66 f.
6 Test. 4. ./56# ?ud. */5/# Iss. 65*# geb. 956# ;. )5*# ,. 75*.
7 9tr.DH. , I, /66 f.
2es. Pesachi , 8ishnahD, ToseftaD, Talmud tra%tate "he Passover (9tra%:, &inl. , /9).
6 ,b. , *, ..# 9. 3t. , .66 f. on .95.. # ,b A;at , .*# b.9hab. , /*bv//a ( 9tr.DH. , I, /6) f.), b. ?oma, 9a.
,b A;at ,bot of Aabbi ;athankan eBtra%anoni%al Aabbini% tra%tate (9tra%:, &inl. , 7*).
9 9tr.DH. , I, /60.
.+ Hoth !assages are Tuoted in 9tr.DH. , I, /60.
.. A. Ismael, *nd generation of the Tannaites.
.* Though %f. 2esi:t. y .*05 @hen Israel said, This is th& god, - Israel ( 1B. /*5) ), the& be%ame the enemies of
<od ( cLNc\ V`[S^P ^PqS ).
, he is the enem& of the gods"# and the %ommon
is a shar! re!roa%h with its sense of hated b& the gods"5 1!i%t.3iss. , III, **, 9.5 @hen an&one
as:s 3iogenes whether he believes in the gods, he re%eives the answer5 { c
i # >f. also 2lut.
>
omm. ;ot. , .*, 0 (II, .+6)e)5
i . -f i we also read in 2lut. , ibid. , .) (II, .+60e) that
it is . There is a similar eB!ression in 2hilo8ut. ;om. , /+ 5
i , but 2hilo uses s!e%ifi%all& to denote the in%om!atibilit& of
virtue and vi%e, Fug. , .) 5 i iq
i iq .
In the 2seude!igra!ha often means the devil.
./
The Aabbis too: the enem& of 2rv.
*05*. f. to be evil im!ulse."
.)

B. 3(& in the NT.
In the ;T is used for !ersonal enemies in the various relationshi!s of ever&da&
life ( A. .*5*+ , a Tuotation# <l. )5.6 ). 8ore im!ortant is the use whi%h follows the -T and
the 4''. Thus %an be used for the foes of Israel. In the song of ga%harias in 4:.
.57. , 7) it is eB!e%ted that the time of salvation will bring deliveran%e from enemies who
now !revent us from serving <od without fear." The same sense is found in a different
%onne%tion, namel&, in the !ro!he%& of the destru%tion of ?erusalem, in 4:. .95)/ . Aev.
s!ea:s of the enemies of the ;T witnesses to <od in ..50 , .* , and is used in the
same wa& in the sa&ing %on%erning famil& division in the da&s of final de%ision ( 8t. .+5/6 ).
.0
is !arti%ularl& used, however, for what is hostile to <od and 7is >hrist, as in 4:.
.95*7 5 q
# 2hil. /5.6 5 #
,%. ./5.+ 5 c . In this %onne%tion we should also mention the
man& !assages whi%h Tuote 2s. ..+5. , e.g., 8:. .*5/6 !ar. # ,%. *5/) f. # . >. .05*0 # 7b.
.5./ # .+5./ . 2aul in . >. .05*0 (adding ), *6 refers the !assage eB!li%itl& to all the
!owers hostile to <od, in%luding death.
It is with this referen%e to enemies of <od and 7is !eo!le that is used in 8t.
05)/ f. !ar. 5 q i
. 6 c ,
c . The enem& here is obviousl& !arallel to
the !erse%utor, and is set in antithesis to the i , the fellowD%ountr&man and
fellowDbeliever. 8oreover, there are man& %ommands to hate national enemies in the -T ,
e.g., the %ommand to eBterminate the >anaanites,
.6
as well as !assages li:e 2s. /.56a
7
T #
./95*.f .5 `\a ^e`cd V`La `Z[_ \Z V`Ya [S]PZw c[d SZPaw Y`\aWZYef . It is the wides!read view of Aabbini%
?udaism that the enem&, i.e., the ungodl&, the 1!i%urean or whoever else it might be, is to be
hated, and this is in :ee!ing with -T tea%hing. 2ossibl& we find the same view refle%ted in *
Th. /5.0 5 q q, . 7ere the
is not a !ersonal enem& but the enem& of the %ommunit& as distin%t from the
>omm. ;ot. De 1ounibus !otitiis .
./ Test. 3. 65/ f.# ,!%. 8os. *# 7# *0# *6# (it. ,d. , .7# <r. Har. ./5*. (. A&ssel in FautEs%h ,!:r. u.
2seude!igr. , ad loc. refers 9ir. *05.0 5 q (for P[_ M !oison") c q ,
c , to the fall, %f. 9ir. *05*) . In this %ase we should have a *nd
%entur& instan%e of for the devil. Hut this inter!retation is o!en to Tuestion.
.) For eBam!les %f. 9tr.DH. , III, /+*.
.0 ouoted from 8i. 756 # %f. 9ota, 9, .0.
.6 9%hl. 8t. , ad loc. # %f. @. >. ,llen, 9t. 8t. in I>>
/
(.9**), ad loc. @e %annot follow gn. 8t. , who argues
that in this whole se%tion of the 9ermon on the 8ount ?esus is %ontending against the trun%ation of the -T
%ommand b& the maBims of the fathers. >f. 2. Fiebig, Th9tFr , 9. (.9.6), /+I6).
7T 7ebrew TeBt.
. 2aulOs order to avoid the disobedient might otherwise be wrongl& ta:en to mean
that he is to be regarded as an enem&.
is also used to des%ribe the relationshi! of the natural man to <od. A. 05.+ 5
# >ol. .5*. 5
g iq {
# A. ..5*6 5 c l , c
q q # ?m. )5) g i
l , i . -n %loser ins!e%tion, however,
we find that the usage varies. In A. .. is !ass. This is shown not merel& b& the !ass.
i but also b& the l . The ?ews are not hinderers of the s!read of the
<os!el"
.7
for the sa:e of the <entiles. In the whole !assage 2aul is %onsidering the of
the re$e%tion of Israel. 7e has in view the attitude of <od rather than man.
.6
=et this !assage
does not de%ide the others. In these is a%t. For 2aulOs intention in A. 0 is to show the
greatness of the divine gra%e of forgiveness manifested towards those who in their %ondu%t are
the enemies of <od. , similar result is established b& the g iq (in their mind") of
>ol. .5*. , and we obviousl& have an a%t. in ?m. )5) , sin%e the antitheti%al i
%learl& means love of the world rather than the friendshi! shown b& the world.
is finall& used for the devil in the !arable of the wheat and the tares in 8e.
./5*)ff. and in 4:. .+5.9 5 q i { q
.
.9
There are !arallels for this usage in the 2seude!igra!ha, 6./ . The devil
is the enem& in the absolute sense. 7e is the enem& both of men and also of <od and 7is
:ingdom.
3(%
*

7atred," hostilit&," as an inner dis!osition, as ob$e%tive o!!osition and as a%tual %onfli%t
between nations, grou!s and individuals. Thu%. , II, 66, *5 c Ai
q # 7dt. , 0, 6.5 Alq {
q Ai # Thu%. , III, .+, )5
q c # ,risto!h. 2aB, .//5 q
.
It is not %ommon in the 4''. In the %anoni%al boo:s it is mostl& used for hatred and enmit&
between individuals, in the a!o%r&!hal boo:s for hatred and enmit& between nations. . 8a%%. ./56
5 q # of the dis!osition, )
8a%%. *5./ 5 # of <odOs enmit& against the
sinful !eo!le, Is. 6/5.+ 5 l . The !ass. means embroilment in
enmit&, 2rv. *05.+ 5 q c q ,

q .
In the Aabbis Y^`MLc Y[SP is hatred of men,
,
b. , *, ..# one who hates is one who for three
da&s does not s!ea: with someone cL`[L , 9anh. , /, 0. For enmit& between <od and man
.
In the ;T (in the !lur. instan%es of ) as enmit& between men is one of the
wor:s of the flesh along with , q, i ( <l. 05*+ )# %f. also 7erod and 2ilate in
4:. */5.* . In !arti%ular %f. 1!h. *5.) 5 , q
, and v. .6 5 i q .
.
The 4aw means enmit& for
.7 9o gn. A. , ad loc. In >r.DFJ. , too, is here ta:en in the a%t., but a different view is to be found in ,.
9%hlatter, Gottes Gerechtigkeit (.9/0), /*6.
.6 Though the i of the ?ews is not overloo:ed.
.9 This usage is vigorousl& ta:en u! in the a!o%r&!hal a%ts, %f. the IndeB to the ed. of 4i!sius and Honnet.
C . For bibl. .
,b. Pirge #bot , 8ishnahD, ToseftaD, Talmudtra%tate Sa'ings of the 9athers (9tra%:, &inl. , 0)).
. l , ).0 .
man, i.e., enmit& between men and enmit& against <od (not <odOs enmit& against us as in <l.
/5.+ , but ours against <od as in A. 657 ). >f. A. 657 5 q
l , is enmit& against <od." ?m. )5) 5 q i
, is hatred of <od."
9
oerster
3
*

2oisonous ser!ent" (adder or vi!er). i l , 9o!h.
T
ra%h. , 77.. Its !oisonous and
dreadful %hara%ter is !resu!!osed, e.g., 7dt. , III, .+9# 3emosth.-r. , *0, 0* and 96 ( ), and
is often em!hasised b& the addition of ( 7es.
T
heog. , *99# ,es%h.
>
hoe!h. , *)9#
9o!h.Tra%h. , .+99).
In the ;T it o%%urs onl& at ,%. *65/ 5 { q q 5 it fastened
on his hand,"
.
and in addresses to the 2harisees, 8t. /57 4:. !ar. # 8t. .*5/) # */5// . It does
not o%%ur in the 4'', though we find it for cqX iZ [XX in A Is. 0950 , and the related is used
for ^YX ieX in 9ir. /95/+ . 9in%e the %urrent is avoided and is %onstant in its use,
the !oison of the sna:e is an essential element in the meta!hor. It is of the nature of the
ser!ent
*
to be evil and destru%tive, hen%e the Tuestions5
# ( 8t. .*5/) )# q i q # ( 8t.
*/5// ), or i {# ( 8t. /57 !ar. 4:. /57 ).
In view of the !lur. we are not to thin: of the ser!ent of 2aradise, though of the man& ideas
asso%iated with the !oisonous sna:e there ma& be some influen%e of the fa%t that it is re!ulsive
/

and that it is to be radi%all& o!!osed and destro&ed.
)
-n the other hand, there is little suggestion
of the %ontrast between the outer smoothness and the inner malignit& of the ser!ent,
0
nor of its
%leverness and %unning,
6
nor is an& !arti%ular !art !la&ed b& the general !ro!ensit& of sna:es to
%on%eal themselves.
9oerster
3, #!3, #!3, !3, 3,
!3, !3, 3, !3, 3C,
!3
1
, , , q, c .
Foerster @erner Foerster , 8Gnster ((ol. .I/, 0I7).
C . The %omm. # 1. ;estle, g;@ , .) (.9./), *67 f.
Tra%h. "rachiniae .
Theog. "heogonia .
>hoe!h. 1hoephori .
. -n v. 2r.DHauer , s.v.
* em!hasises the fa%t that this manner is !art of their nature# it is in their blood as in that of their
fathers. >f. 9%hl. 8t. and gn. 8t. on /57 .
/ 9%hl. 8t. on /57 .
) 7en%e the Tuestion how the& %an es%a!e the $udgment of hell.
0 7. ?. 7oltEmann, Die S'noptiker
/
(.9+.) on 8t. /57 .
6 9tr.DH. , I, 07)5 >ant. r. on *5.)5 %unning as ser!ents ( V`PhSW UU ). This inter!retation is a %ommon
one.
. ,!art from the %om!ounds treated there are man& others in the ;T , but these are of less im!ortan%e
theologi%all&. There are %om!ounds with almost ever& !re!osition (%f. the similar series with ). In
the ;T there is usuall& a develo!ment of one of the !ossible meanings, e.g., (also ), to
dire%t oneOs attention to"# , to !ut forward" (further develo!ed to to !re!are")# , in a
sense whi%h is rare elsewhere, to %ontain," of a vessel and its %ontents, also %osmi%all&, though in 4:. 059 we
have ( . 2t. *56 , and ,%. 65/* , the te%hni%al term for a Tuotation)# (onl& A.
/59 ), to have before," i.e., to have shown or to :now beforehand," a remar:able med.# , to
o!!ress," also to torment," though lit. in ,%. 7507 to hold to(gether)," and %f. ,% .650 , to be filled or !ressed
3 " 3C$%
*

A. 3 in 5ec#lar &sage.
, glan%e at the di%tionaries shows the astonishing range of meaning !ossessed b& the
<ree: word .
*
This wealth is for the most !art refle%ted in the ;T .
The oldest de!i%tion of it we owe to ,ristotle. For him having" was one of his .+ %ategories,
and he thus eBamined the word thoroughl& in
8
eta!h. , I(, */, !. .+*/a, 6 ff., and listed the
various meanings. 7e did not arrange the material logi%all&, but sim!l& gave a list. The same is
true of the !arallel des%ri!tion in
>
at. , .0, !. .0b, .7 ff.
/
The man& meanings follow two main
dire%tions, the first s!atial and the se%ond legal, denoting !ossession. In the first %ase, we have the
sense to have in, on, around, with or over one," and in the se%ond to own," to en$o&," to have
at oneOs dis!osal."
)
This leads to mu%h the same results as the 1nglish to have" and to
!ossess." 1ven s!e%ial instan%es su%h as with the inf. or the med. %an be
understood along these lines, though the
i
ntr. use of the a%t. must be treated se!aratel&. For the
most !art the word undoubtedl& o%%urs with a %on%rete ob$e%t.
-ur !resent %on%ern must be with the theologi%all& signifi%ant uses of the term. In this
%onne%tion, as in <ree: !hiloso!h&, c is !redominantl& used with abstra%t terms. Thus
one has, i.e., one bears and dis!oses of Tualities, s!iritual gifts and !owers of the higher
world. ,bove all, one has fellowshi! with !ersons.
0

, fine eBam!le here is the lament of the solitar& geus at the moment of the worldOs
destru%tion ( 1!i%t.3iss. , III, ./, ))5 6, q q A
A q q l q q q . >f. also
the two !hrases from !rivate letters5
6
l q ,
2
. <iess. , I,
69, 9 (*nd %ent. ,.3. ) and5 2. 4ond. , III, .*)), 0
()th %ent. ,.3. ).
9!iritual !owers and Tualities !oint be&ond themselves and raise the Tuestion of manOs
relationshi! to <od ( . >. )57 ). 8oreover, !ersonal fellowshi! ma& be had not merel& with
other men but also with gods and demons, and for >hristians with >hrist and even <od. This
!oint will be treated in detail in relation to the ;T usage.
b&"# , distress," anguish"# , to have !ower" and to sur!ass," hen%e ,
!ower" and su!eriorit&." It is remar:able how often we get the sense of to hold fast to the word," 2hil. *5.6 #
. Tm. )5.6 ( )# * 2t. .5.9 ( )# 6*6 on Tt. .59 ( ) and 6*9 on
.
C . The following art. is based on the authorOs dissertation Gott haben. &ine religionsund
begriffsgeschichtliche 8ntersuehung -u A 0n. 7E7I und 7 0n. e , where the instan%es are given in full and there is
more eBtended dis%ussion of detailed !oints.
* ,n old IndoD<erm. word with the sense to hold fast," aor. to la& hold of," to get in oneOs !ower." In <:. it
alread& has also the meaning to have." The <erman Sieg is a related word m3ebrunnern.
8eta!h. 3etaph'sica .
>at. 1ategoriae .
/ 8entioned here are to have a Tualit& or moderation," s!atiall& to have around, on or in one," to own," and
to have" for seBual inter%ourse.
) The ver& word to !ossess" (%f. the <erman besit-en ) suggests that the two meanings have a %ommon root.
2ossession of a !ie%e of land im!lies session on it. The !ossessed has something alien in himself and is the
!ossession of this other !ower instead of being his own lord.
intr. intransitive.
0 In the eB!ressions and , im!lies more than a legal relationshi!, but for
the most !art it is used, not for !ersonal fellowshi!, but as a te%hni%al term for seBual inter%ourse# even outside
marriage one ma& have" a woman or a man ( ,ristot.>at. , .0, !. .0b, *6I/+ UU # %f. es!. 1B. *5. ,
F)# 0 times in the 4'', in the ;T 8t. .)5) # **5*6 UU 8:. 65.6 # .*5*/ UU 4:. *+5*6 , // # ?n. )5.7 f. # . >. 05. #
75* , *9 # <l. )5*7 (a Tuotation).
6 >f. 2reisig:e @Jrt. , s.v. .
2. <iess. Griechische Pap'ri -u Giessen , ed. -. 1ger, 1. Fornemann and 2.8. 8e&er, .9.+ ff.
B. 3 in the 5ept#agint.
7ebrew, li:e other 9emiti% languages, has no word for to have." -ther words and
eB!ressions are available to denote !ossession and tem!oral %onne%tion,
7
but there is no
eTuivalent for the <:. . This is evident in the 4''. ,s %om!ared with nonDbibli%al
literature, or even with the ;T , is %om!arativel& rare in the 4''. In sum, it o%%urs onl&
about 0++ times. In these instan%es it is inde!endentl& suggested b& feeling for the <:. language
and is not %onsistentl& used for an& !arti%ular 7eb. word. Indeed, in most %ases there either is no
original or the 7eb. has no eB!ression of whi%h is the translation.
7
at%hDAed!. find 7eb.
eTuivalents in onl& .6) instan%es, and the& need no less than 76 sigla to dis%uss these. This brief
statisti%al observation shows de%isivel& that the translators do not follow an& fiBed rule in their use
of .
The senses in whi%h is em!lo&ed %over the whole range of meanings found in
%lassi%al and hellenisti% <:. 8an& uses of the term and its %ombinations whi%h are %ommon
in the ;T are also !rominent in the 4'', e.g., i, , i, i
. 2arti%ularl& %ommon is the !ossession of gifts of the 9!irit, of virtues, of s!iritual
infusions. Hut is also used Tuite often of fellowshi! with !ersons, and in the later
se%tions of fellowshi! with <od ( >. ) ).
Aather sur!rising, though of little im!ortan%e to us, is the number of !assages where we have
the med. (66 times, twi%e in 3a. O ), usuall& in the sense of to atta%h oneself"
(s!atiall& or tem!orall&), to %ling to," or in the sense of l .
6
In 77 instan%es it is a !art.,
mostl& for various 7eb. !re!ositions. It should also be noted that sometimes is used
without ob$. in the sense of to have !ossessions," not to be without means." The %ommon
se%ular eB!ression that a %ondition has" a man, i.e., %ontrols or has a hold on him, is ver& rare,
and is found mainl& in ?ob. It is im!ossible to !oint with %ertaint& to essential deviations from ;T
usage.
C. 3 in the NT.
.. @e ma& begin with some statisti%al and %om!arative data on the o%%urren%e of the term in
the ;T It is %ommon in the ;T , but is not evenl& distributed. Thus it is not found at all in the first
two %ha!ters of 4:., this being in :ee!ing with the 9emiti% %olouring of the infan%& stories. If it
does not o%%ur in 4u:eOs 9ermon on the 8ount, this is hardl& sur!rising, sin%e it does not figure in
the 8atthean !ar.
9
-f the 9&no!tists onl& 8:. has more than average use. 7e uses it freTuentl&,
whereas 4:. avoids it.
.+
In su%h %ases 8t. usuall& follows 8:., though 8:. has it in man&
!assages whi%h are fuller than 8t. It is mu%h less %ommon in the e!istles, being more suited to
narrative st&le. The ?ohannine writings use it most. It is ver& %ommon in Aev. and . ?n. has the
highest !er%entage of an& boo:. In Aev. it is often used in a rather bald and stereot&!ed wa& to
des%ribe what is seen. The things seen all have" something. The& do not bear" things, nor are
the& furnished" or adorned" with them# the& have them. ,!art from this, we might almost s!ea:
of a distin%tive ?ohannine having," es!. in relation to the First 1!istle. It is in :ee!ing with the
theolog&, with the understanding of the <os!el, whi%h we find in ?ohn or the ?ohannine s%hool
that the >hristian state is understood as a having," a !ossession of salvation. This !oint demands
se!arate treatment.
From the other !assages we %an onl& single out in grou!s the various !oints of im!ortan%e. It
is be&ond our !ur!ose to enumerate all the !ossible meanings and o%%urren%es. ,lmost ever&
meaning found in <:. is found in the ;T too, and there are no meanings that %annot be attested
elsewhere. -nl& the statisti%s are, of %ourse, !e%uliar to the ;T .
7 1s!. mine is," whi%h is also found in <:.
7at%hDAed!. 1. 7at%h and 7. Aed!ath, # 1oncordance to the Septuagint , .697 ff.
6 >f. 7elbing, 4asuss'nta: , .*9 f. and are almost li:e two different words for the <:s.
m3ebrunnern.
9 The eB%e!tion is 8t. 05)6 , %f. 4:. 65/* .
.+ 1.g., *5.9 UU 4:. 05/) # /5. UU 4:. 656 # 05/ UU 4:. 65*7 .
*. 9!iritual 2ossession.
9o far as %on%erns religion and the s!irit, the <:. world s!ea:s mainl& of the !ossession of
and . The !ossession of soul ( ) lin:s man with other living %reatures,
..
but the !ossession of s!irit differentiates him from all others. q has the basi% sense
of to have life within oneself," to be alive"# m n or means !rimaril& to
have understanding," to !ossess the !ower of thought," to be rational" (e.g., Iso%. I, /66 ).
Hut this usage be%omes less !rominent with the develo!ment of the !hiloso!hi%al %on%e!t of s!irit
.*
a%%ording to whi%h a single world s!irit !ervades the whole and the understanding of the
individual is sim!l& a !art or emanation or manifestation of this one s!irit. Instead of being said to
have or , man is now said to have a !art ( ) in them. , distin%tion is
also made between the universal s!irit and the individual#
./
man has the latter, he has a !art in the
former. In this %ase some thin:ers %all the universal s!irit and use of the individual
s!irit, e.g.,
7
era%l. , ,ristot. ,
.)
the 9toi%s,
.0
2hilo,
.6
and, under the influen%e of ?ohnOs <os!el (
), >hristian theologians, in%luding the great ,leBandrians.
.7
-thers, however, ado!t a
reverse !ro%edure, and among these ma& be mentioned
,
naBag. ,
.6
2lat. ,
.9
1!i%t. ,
*+
2lut. ,
*.

the 7ermeti%s,
**
;eoD2latonism, and es!. 2lotinus.
*/
In the last two there is with the
!arti%i!ation a !ure having" whi%h is here understood in terms of a m&sti%al fellowshi!, so that
the !roblem of the relationshi! of the universal and the Individual s!irit is distin%tivel& solved. In
2
lot. there is thus a !ossession not merel& of the but also in wholl& m&sti%al fashion of the
one original s!irit variousl& %alled c, , , , or . For him as a
te%hni%al term for the unio 'stica is almost an eTuivalent of l .
@hen we turn to the ;T , we find both similarit& and differen%e. q is used
on%e ( Aev. 659 ) of sea %reatures, and is found in its original sense of to have
understanding" in Aev. ./5.6 (%f. the !ar. eB!ression in .759 )# %f. in 8:. .*5/) .
1arl& >hristianit& regards man as a tri%hotom&.
*)
7e %onsists of bod&, soul and s!irit.
9ometimes, however, is used for s!irit and this gives rise to misunderstanding. ;ot all
men have , but onl& individuals endowed with the 9!irit in the old %ovenant
*0
and
>hristians who re%eive the as a first instalment of eternal salvation. Though the terms
differ, the thought is the same as we find in the 7ermeti%s. In the 7ermeti%s all men have ,
.. For fuller details on and its later eBtension %f. 1. Aohde, Ps'che
9, .+
(.9*0).
.* -n what follows %f. 8. 7einEe, Die )ehre vo )ogos (.67*)# ,. ,all, Der )ogos , I (.696), II (.699).
./ , 3or. in 7era%l. Fr. , * (I, 77, .* ff. 3iels )# also 9eBt. 1m!.8ath. , (II, .*7# ./.#
,ristot. , e.g., ,n. , II, /, !. ).)b, */# and the 9toi%s. The %ounter!art is ; or
, in 2hilo and >hristian writers, is also %ommon, 1!i%t.3iss. , III, 6, 6# 2lot. # also
without the art.
7era%l. 7era%litus, 9toi% !hiloso!her, !erha!s of the age of ,ugustus, author of Ai , ed.
9o%. 2hil. Honn, .9.+.
.) Followed (1th. 8., I, ., !. ..6*a, */ ff.) b& 2lato, who :nows both5 %f. also 2ol. , (II, ./, !. .//*b, / ff.# we
often have the o!!. , but n. .9 .
.0 >leanthes in 2lut. 3e 9ollertia ,nimalium , .. (II, 967e)# ,r. 3id. 1!itome in 1us.2rae!. 1v. , '(, .0, 0
( 82< , *., ./))ab)# 1!i%t.3iss. , I, /, /# 9en. 1!. , 76, 9# note the 9toi% do%trine of the i .
.6 >f. 4. >ohn, gur 4ehre vom 4ogos bei 2hilo " in 0udaica6 9estschrift -u (. 1ohens @d. Geburtstage (.9.*),
/+/ ff. ;ote es!. the !assages where we have or .
.7 ?ust.,!ol. , )6, . ff.# 0/, 0 f.# >l. ,l.2aed. , III, 7, /9, )# -rig. 7om. in ?er. I', ., !. 6/ f. et%.
,naBag. ,naBagoras of FlaEomenae (0++I)*6 H.>. ), mediator of Ioni% !hiloso!h& to ,thens, where he belongs
to the %ir%le of 2eri%les, ed. 7. 3iels, in Die 9ragente der Vorsokratiker , I
)
, .9**.
.6 Fr. , .* (I, )+), 6 ff. 3iels ).
.9 @ith and we also have , et%., but n. .) .
*+ 3iss. , I, .6, .0# II, **, *7.
*. Is. et -s. , . (II, /0.d).
** >or!. 7erm. , 'II, 6 and 7 et%., with numerous !ar. eB!ressions ( I, 0. ).
*/ 1nn. , I, ., 6# III, 6, 6# (, ., .*# (, *, *# (I, 7, *+ et%.
2lot. 2lotinus, of 4&%o!olis in 1g&!t (*+)I*7+ ,.3. ), the last great thin:er of antiTuit& who brought ;eoD
2latonism to s&stemati% %om!letion, ed. A. (ol:mann, .66/ ff.
*) 3ob. Th. on . Th. 05*/ # %f. also 7b. )5.* .
*0 |, | , <n. ).5/6 # ;u. *75.6 # 3a. O )50# )56,# %f. Test. 9. ).
but onl& some have fellowshi! with # in the ;T all men have , but onl& >hristians
have , or, more stri%tl&, have a share in the one 9!irit of <od and of >hrist. This
!ossession of the 9!irit b& >hristians is sometimes understood in e%stati% terms as in the -T The
9!irit of <od at %ertain times %omes down on the righteous and ins!ires them. =et there is another
view advan%ed b& 2aul and wor:ed out b& ?ohn whereb& the 9!irit %omes on%e and for all into the
>hristian, renews him and %onstantl& indwells and rules him. This gives a different relationshi! to
the .
@hen we remember how ver& %ommon is the word and the thought of
!ossessing the 9!irit, it is astonishing how seldom we find the !hrase . This
is lin:ed with the fa%t that the individual does not re%eive his own as he has his own
, but has a share in the one divine 9!irit, so that we naturall& find the term in
7b. ( 6/. f. ). In A. 659 the stands among formulae whi%h have
a ring of m&sti%al enthusiasm ( {, {), but in the %onteBt there is
a strong ethi%al note. The o!!. is q , and for 9!irit" of >hrist we
might almost substitute mind" of >hrist.
*6
In v. .. the 9!irit is a !ledge of the redem!tion of
the bod& and therefore an es%hatologi%al advan%e (%f. A. 65*/ 5 q q
, also * >. .5** # 050 ).
*7
The situation is mu%h the same in . >.
65.9 . The image of the tem!le is used m&sti%all& b& 2hilo, but here it is obvious from the
ethi%al %onteBt that the !ossession of the 9!irit is not intended m&sti%all&. 7aving the s!irit of
faith in * >. )5./ has nothing whatever to do with m&sti%ism# the %on%ern is again with
es%hatologi%al eB!e%tation. The slightl& ironi%al I thin: also that I have the 9!irit of <od" in
. >. 75)+ raises no s!e%ial !roblem in this %onteBt. 7e who has the 9!irit :nows what is
<odOs will and what is in !la%e before 7im.
The statement is usuall& ta:en to be a vindi%ation against other o!inions. Hut in the light of .
>. 75.+ , .* , *0 it is evident that 2aul is again setting himself alongside >hrist as a bearer of the
9!irit . It is not that he is tr&ing to maintain a different view from that of >hrist.
*6

7e is rather arguing that, if he has no sa&ing of the 4ord in su!!ort of his advi%e in v. )+a , his
own view %arries weight as that of one who has the 9!irit.
-utside 2aul we also find in ?d. .9 . There is here an e%ho of the <nosti%
distin%tion between the !s&%hi%s and the !neumati%s, though 2aul, too, distinguishes between
the !s&%hi% and the !neumati%. 2ossibl& the author is arguing against <nosti% o!!onents and
turning their own slogan against them.
To the !assages we should also add . >. *5.6 5 Hut we have the of
>hrist." The statement %on%ludes a se%tion in whi%h the referen%e is %onsistentl& to ,
and therefore one might have eB!e%ted . Hut 2aul is influen%ed b& the !re%eding
Tuotation from Is. and therefore, eTuating and >hrist, he writes . ,s elsewhere,
and as is often true of , here means mind" or dis!osition." There is no
suggestion of the %on%e!t of the <:s. and of later 7ermeti% m&sti%ism.
*9

is found onl& o%%asionall& in the ;T in a varied use whi%h is Tuite
different from that of se%ular authors. 4ogos in the ;T alwa&s means word" (basi%all& at
least), and never ratio . 1ven the 4ogos %on%e!t in the 2rologue to ?ohn must be understood
along these lines. In ,%. .95/6 means to have something to bring forward"
(the 7eb. MLd red often means a %ause or matter). In ,%. *+5*) it %an hardl& be the %orre%t
reading. In >ol. *5*/ it means to have the %all of something," to stand at the %all of
*6 . >. 65.7 5 7e that is $oined unto the 4ord is one s!irit with him," sounds m&sti%al, but the %onteBt is one of
!ra%ti%al ethi%s.
*7 To s!ea: of es%hatologi%al m&sti%ism" (,. 9%hweitEer, Die 3'stik des #p. Paulus m.9/+n) is Tuite
misleading. -nl& in terminolog& and not in %ontent is 2aul m&sti%al. >f. 7. 1. @eber, &schatologie u. 3'stik
(.9/+).
*6 In this sense it would be intolerable !resum!tion.
*9 ,s against AeitEenstein 7ell. 8&st. , //6.
something." In * 2t. .5.9 all the em!hasis is on 5 to hold the !ro!heti% word
the more firml&" ( I, 6+* ). , s!e%ial sense is to be found in ?n. 05/6 5 ,nd &e have not his
word abiding in &ou5
/+
for whom he hath sent, him &e believe not." If the sa&ing is a
develo!ment of that whi%h immediatel& !re%edes ( q 6
), then it bears the sense of the 2rologue5 ?esus is not sim!l& s!ea:ing <odOs
@ord (%f. 6566 )# 7e is <odOs @ord. 7en%e we have not onl& to hear and re%eive 7is word (in
the sense of the !arable of the sower or of . Th. *5./ )# we have to believe 7is !erson as the
!ersonal revelation of <od. To have <odOs 4ogos is to !ossess a !art of 7im in 7is 9on. This
does not mean, of %ourse, that we %an find at this !oint relationshi!s with the
of <ree: !hiloso!h&.
/. 3emoni% 2ossession.
@ith the idea of s!iritual !ossession alread& dis%ussed, there is also in <:. religion and
!hiloso!h& another trend whi%h see:s to eB!lain the m&ster& of man b& !ostulating a daemon
a%tive within him, i.e., a !ersonal, su!erhuman being. This is a develo!ment of the thought of
!ossession.
/.
-ur !resent %on%ern is with the linguisti% as!e%t. There is in this res!e%t an
im!ortant distin%tion. If the daemon is for good, it is the man who !ossesses it,
/*
whereas he is
!assive in relation to evil s!irits and the& !ossess him.
//
This demoni% !ossession !la&s a great
role in the magi% !a!. In !art on the basis of the !rimitive view that one ma& have the deit& and its
blessings b& means of fetishes,
/)
these teBts suggests means and !ra%ti%es whereb& good and
hel!ful daemons ma& be se%ured.
/0
The final !oint is usuall& to have the name or names, i.e., to
:now how to for%e and %on$ure the being.
/6
In man& <nosti% trends we %an still see tra%es of this
view and the a%%om!an&ing !ra%ti%es.
/7

This demoni% !ossession finds its %ounter!art in the ;T . ,s in !aganism, it rests here on
a !ol&demonisti% view of the world whi%h is !arti%ularl& evident in the 9&no!ti% <os!els. It is
used sensu bono in Aev. /5. 5 >hrist has the seven s!irits of <od (%f. .5) # )50 # 056 ). These
seven s!irits are thought of as autonomous beings (Aev. also mentions the one ), and
the& are to be eTuated with the seven angels whi%h stand before <od ( Aev. 6 ff. and .0ff .),
$ust as 2hilo eTuates the and the . In 056 the& are %alled messengers who are
sent out. @hat does it mean that >hrist has" them It obviousl& means that 7e has authorit&
over them, that 7e %an %ommand them, $ust as 7e rules the sword ( *5.* ) and has the !ower
of the :e&s ( /57 ). In all other %ases
/6
demoni% !ossession is used sensu alo . does
not mean to have in oneOs !ower" or to !ossess."
/9
It eB!resses a s!atial relationshi! and
means to bear in oneself." @hen 8t. ..5.6 , !ar. 4:. 75// and in the !lur. 4:. 65*7 s!ea: of
having a demon, has %om!letel& lost the good sense it has in 9o%rates and means
/+ 7ere, as in . ?n /5.0 , Tualifies . The em!hasis is on indwelling rather than on remaining (%f.
, a !la%e to sta& in"). @e ma& legitimatel& thin: of >ol. /5.6 5 4et the word of >hrist dwell in &ou
ri%hl&," where is often ta:en in the sense of among &ou," i.e., that it ma& be !ro%laimed and living and
!regnant among &ou.
/. 7. Ksener, Gtternaen (.696), *9) ff. s!ea:s of gods of the moment." 7om. attributes eBtraordinar& deeds
to the tem!orar& indwelling of a god, Il. , 0, .60# 9, )9# -d. , .0, 0/+# though he does not use . @ith
referen%e to the daemon of life we find both5 2lat.Aes!. , ', 6.7e, 6*+d ( / )# though in 2olit. , *7)b it is the
daemon whi%h has !ossession ( ). 2lot. s!ea:s of !ossession b& the daemon, 1nn. , I, *, 6# II, /,
./# III, ), / et%. 7e also s!ea:s of the daemon redeeming us, III, ), / (note the title of 1nn. , III, )).
/* 3io >hr&s.-r. , 69, )5 . >f. es!. the et&molog& of i 5 2lat.Tim. , 9+%# Iambl.2rotr. , 0#
>l. ,l.9trom. , II, **, ./., )# also ,ristot.1th. 1ud. , I( ( ), .), !. .*)7a, *0 ff.
// Theo%r.Id&ll. , ), )+. T<F , Fr. .7 and 9*. >f. also , 2reis. gaub. , (, .*6.
/) V. the statement on the %uneiform s%ri!t in ,-T , !. *67, line *.# here we are to thin: of wearing an amulet.
7aving is also used for !ossession of an image in ,!%. ,br. *56# 1!. ?er. , 7*.
/0 2reis. gaub. , I, 66 and .9+# I(, .9)6 ff. @ith we also have verbs of re%eiving and ta:ing5 ibid. , I, 0)#
I(, *)/6 and *999# (, ).9 f.# 'III, /)0 f. The numen is even sometimes denoted b& .
/6 2reis. gaub. , I(, *.6 f.# 'III, 79+ et%. >f. AeitEenstein 2oim. , .7, n. 6# 8ithr. 4iturg. , ..*.
/7 V Iren. , I, ./, / on the <nosti% 8ar%os.
/6 2ossession of the 7ol& 9!irit as treated under *. is not in%luded here.
/9 If we loo: for s&non. eB!ressions for the ;T idea of !ossession (e.g., ), we shall find !hrases
whi%h bring out the !assivit& of man (e.g., 4:. 95/9 ).
an evil and ungodl& s!irit. In the light of bibli%al monotheism ever& as!e%t of !agan religion
is de!re%iated. In ?n. has the wea:er sense of to be out of oneOs mind"5
?n. 75*+ # 65)6 f. , 0* . It is a !arallel of i in .+5*+ . There is no longer an& idea of
!ossession here# ?n. does not re%ord a single eBor%ism. In this %onne%tion one might also refer
to the man& devilish s!irits or s!irits of si%:ness trium!hantl& o!!osed b& ?esus and the
a!ostles, 8:. /5** , /+ # 05.0 # 75*0 # 95.7 # 4:. )5// # ./5.. # ,%. 657 # .65.6 # .95./ . In a
broader sense we might also mention at this !oint the !ossession of various ills and affli%tions
to the eBtent that this is regarded as demoni% !ossession. Aeferen%e should be made es!e%iall&
to 8:. /5** 5 B . ?esus so far towers above others b& 7is eBtraordinar&
wor:s that 7e %an be regarded as !ossessed onl& b& the !rin%e of demons. The %on%e!t of
demoni% is here eBtended. =et HeelEebul is still no more than the %hief demon. 7e is
not the o!!onent of <od or the 8essiah. -f real signifi%an%e would be a !hrase li:e
or i . . >. *5.* !oints in this dire%tion5 q c
.
). To have <od.
,s we have seen, both s!iritual !ossession and demon !ossession !oint be&ond
themselves. The two lines %onverge in the thought of having" <od. This !hrase is rare in the
;T , but it is distin%tivel& >hristian, even though it naturall& has a !reD>hristian histor&.
In the <:. world it is unusual to des%ribe fellowshi! with the great gods in terms of having."
)+
8ore %ommon are the ideas of being the !ossession of the gods ( ) or of
!arti%i!ation in them ( ). (arious other eB!ressions of an enthusiasti% t&!e are also
found. In the >hristian age onl& 1!i%t. %alls for noti%e. 7e uses as a fiBed
formula, 3iss. , II, 6, .7. 7e thin:s that we have" <od in the things of nature, for <od is en%losed
in all things. >f. also I, 9, 7# I, ./, /# I(, ., .)0 ( 6*/ ). It should be noted, however, that not
merel& in ?ewish and >hristian, but also in %lassi%al teBts, is often used to lin: the names or
designations of the gods with !redi%ative nouns or ad$e%tives.
).
The most %ommon eB!ressions
are5 To have the deit& as a %ovenantD!artner" andkthese are !arti%ularl& noteworth&kto have
the deit& gra%ious,
)*
or ungra%ious or wrathful."
)/
It will be seen where the %entre of interest
lies. Aeferen%e has alread& been made to the !antheisti%all& m&sti%al !ossession of the original
whole. 2lot. never uses for this, and therefore we never find in him .
8ore relevant is ?ewish literature. In the -T there is a relationshi! of !ossession between
<od and the !eo!le (th&," &our" <od# the first %ommandment). <od is IsraelOs !ossession in
32:12 # .)/5.0 et%.# ?er. .+5.6 (!ossibl& ?dt. 95.* # 9ir. */5.* ). <od is also the inheritan%e
of the 4evites who have no land, 3t. .+59 # .65* ( c\dhb Sf , 4'' q )# ;u. .65*+ ( N\Xh]
c\dhb Sf^ Z , 4'' i )# 1E. ))5*6 ( c\dhb Sf , 4'' i , and
c|edh [b , 4'' ), and, with a more general referen%e, 9ir. )05** . Hoth
eB!ressions are a!!lied to righteous individuals at a later !eriod, and we find numerous
eB!ressions of this :ind in the 2salter. Thus <od is m&" <od, heritage, ro%:, refuge,
%onsolation, light, salvation, hel!er and deliverer, $o& and delight. This thought is !arti%ularl&
!rominent in 15 and 7*5*0f., where 4uther has the insur!assable 2enn ich nut dich habe
for beside thee" ( xd seZ qa ).
)+ In 2lut.Is. et -s. , *0 (II, /6+e) is not the deit& but the divine nature or mode of being (UU
). In ,ristot.8eta!h. , 'I, 7, !. .+7*b, */ is an ad$. (UU divine).
). ,s one ma& have a friend ( 4:. ..50 ), !artner ( 2hlm. .7 ), father and instru%tor ( . >. )5.0 # 7b. .*59 ) or
bride ( ?n. /5*9 ), so one ma& have <od as Father, >reator, 4eader, Friend, 2rote%tor and @itness (as elsewhere
, or , or a daemon, or man& gods# with to have" we also have to attain" and to use").
)* or q , es!. in ins%r., but also in the wor:s of 2lat. , 4u%. , 2hilo, ?ose!hus.
)/ q or , es!. in burial %urses.
If we ta:e a further ste!, we find in ?ewish writings %om!osed in <:.
))
the !hrase we see:,
i.e., to have <od."
In the addition of the 9e!tuagint at 1st. )5.7 (>. .) m.)5/n ), 1sther !ra&s ,
q, l g g q g l
q , %f. also later in the same !ra&er, though without . * 8a%%. 65/6 5
, and ..5.+ 5 . ;ote should be ta:en
of the terms hel!er" and %ovenant !artner" alread& mentioned. / 8a%%. 75.6 5 c l
. ,lso Test. 'II , e.g.,
T
est. 3. 05
q l , and
T
est. Iss. 75

. ?ose!h.
des%ribes 3aniel as (UU the deit&) in ,nt. , .+, *0+ , while in ,nt. , 6, **7
is not used of a man but of ever& !la%e (and therefore in the sense of 1!i%t. 6** ).
In relation to the 4evite !assages 2hilo %onstru%ts the formula q , whi%h
he uses distin%tl& on 0 o%%asions (also twi%e with to attain") and of whi%h there are freTuent
e%hoes.
There are onl& a few !assages in the ;T .
@hen the ?ews in ?n. 65). sa& of themselves that the& have onl& one (s!iritual) father, namel&,
<od (formall& %f. .95.0 ), the em!hasis is on having a father, and does not therefore
eB!ress a relationshi! to <od. In A. .5*6 the %onstru%tion is 6
)0
rather than
. This is a develo!ment of the of v. *. and is to be
%om!ared with 6 in v. /* ( I, 7+7 ). The& saw little value in reall& :nowing <od,
in attaining to 7im with their :nowledge. >ol. )5. goes somewhat further with its :nowing that
&e also have a 8aster in heaven," but here, too, there is little stress on , the !oint being to
re%ognise that there is su%h a 8aster. >f. the !assage in whi%h 1!i%t. des%ribes his !u!ils as l
i i (
3iss. , I(, ., .)0 6** ).
is used to eB!ress a distin%t relation to <od onl& in . ?n. *5*/ and * ?n. 9 . These
two verses are almost identi%al and are %ertainl& related. Hoth ma:e the having of <od as
Father de!endent on %onfession of >hrist as the 9on of <od and the 8essiah in the flesh.
7aving the Father in%ludes having the 9on. There is referen%e to having the 9on in . ?n. 05.*
also. 7ere the has a highl& individual sense. -ne ma& believe in <od, s!ea: of 7im
and thin: one :nows 7im, &et still not have 7im, i.e., not rea%h 7im in !ra&er, not share 7is
blessings, 7is forgiveness and eternal gra%e, not en$o& living !ersonal fellowshi! with 7im.
)6

-nl& the >hristian %an understand and a%%e!t the fa%t that this fellowshi! with <od ma& be
had onl& b& wa& of fellowshi! with >hrist. @hat it means to have the 9on, however, ma& be
seen from man& !arallels ( , i , |-| ,
i ), and es!e%iall& from the eB!ressions in . ?n. *5. and the
similar in 7b. )5.) f. # 65. # .+5*. (the highD!riest of 7b. is !rimaril& an
inter%essor). Fellowshi! with the eBalted 4ord
)7
is what gives 2aul his !ower and what is
refle%ted in all his utteran%es. It is not b& %han%e, however, that we find to have <od" onl& in
in. This is !art of what we %all ?ohannine having." ,nother !oint whi%h %alls for noti%e is
that these sa&ings of ?n. are in !olemi%al se%tions. It is at least !robable that the author ta:es
)) Though %f. also q || , 7ab. .5.) # * >h. .65.6 ,
a
H and , 3t.
/+5*+ .
Test. 3. "estaent of Dan .
Test. Iss. "estaent of .ssachar .
)0 The %omm. addu%e !ar. %onstru%tions.
)6 Thus @. FleB in Z2l Bisarcks %auses the warrior Frederi%: the <reat to %om!lain to his theologi%al
brother5 @olff in 7alle and other humbugs taught me five !roofs for the eBisten%e of <odkis it m& fault that I
have no <od"
)7 >f. 8. 3ibelius, <laube u. 8&sti: bei 2aulus " ( !. 0bch. Wiss. u. 0ugenclbildung , 7 m.9/.n, 66/ ff.), 696.
8t. *65.. UU 8:. .)57 UU ?n. .*56 (also 8:. *5.9 ) re$e%t the idea that the dis%i!les have ?esus %onstantl&5 8e
&e have not alwa&s." Hut the referen%e here is to %on%rete, s!atial !resen%e (

). -ne %annot anoint

the eBalted 4ord, but one ma& have 7im with one in a different wa& ( 8t. *65*+ ). @e need not be disturbed b&
this sa&ing of 9&n. origin within the ?ohannine writings.
the formula from the li!s of his <nosti% o!!onents and uses it against them. The& s!ea: a
good deal of having, but in his view wrongl&.
9imilarl& * >l., *, / (on the basis of Is. 0)5. ) %ontrasts >hristians, su!!osedl& abandoned b&
<od, with those who thin: the& have <od ( ).
)6
,nd 2lot. in
o!!osition to the <nosti%s (
1
nn. , II, 9, 9) s!ea:s of those who :now the& do not have but
maintain the& do, who !ersuade themselves the& have when the& do not, who even !retend the&
are the onl& ones who have when the& are the onl& ones who do not. @e hardl& have an& original
teBts from the earl& da&s of <nosti%ism, but from the eBtra%ts in the fathers we %an see that
was in %ommon use among them to eB!ress meta!h&si%al fellowshi!. It is in :ee!ing with this that
the having of <od and >hrist (in a wholl& m&sti%al sense, as !roved b& !ar. eB!ressions) is
!arti%ularl& %ommon in >l. ,l. and -rig. , and es!. in the
a
!o%r. ,%ts. It later be%omes an integral
!art of the language of >hristian m&sti%ism, though it is %ertainl& not meant in a m&sti%al sense in
the ;T .
0. 7aving 7o!e.
4ight is %ast on the basi% tem!er of earl& >hristianit& when we %onsider how big a !la%e is
o%%u!ied b& the having of ho!e in ;T statements about salvation. The thoughts of the first
>hristians are dire%ted alwa&s to the end and to eternit&. @e %an see this from some of the
!hrases used.
First there is the %ommon i , to have ho!e," ,%. *)5.0 # A. .05) # * >. /5.* #
1!h. *5.* # . Th. )5./ # . ?n. /5/ .
)9
>hristians have a solid ho!e, while the heathen are without
ho!e. It is a ho!e grounded in >hristOs redeeming a%t. This a%t ma:es !ossible a new %onfiden%e
before <od. >hristians have a good %ons%ien%e ( q (et%.) i ), 7b. .+5* #
. 2t. /5.6 # and from a more human angle, ,%. *)5.6 # . Tm. .5.9 # 7b. ./5.6 . The& have
boldness ( i ), 1!h. /5.* # 7b. .+5.9 # . ?n. *5*6 # )5.7 (%f. 2hlm. 6 # . ?n. /5*.
5 05.) ). The& have %omfort ( ), i.e., the& are %omforted, 7b. 65.6 , while the
ri%h have had their %onsolation ( 4:. 65*) ). For >hristians have their ,dvo%ate or
>omforter ( 6*) ). Through 7im the& have redem!tion ( ), >ol. .5.)
!ar. 1!h. .57 , and therefore the& have a%%ess to <od ( q ), 1!h. *5.6 # /5.* (
A. 05* ).
In relation to all these statements it ma& be said that 2aul (on ?n. 6 .) regards the
>hristian state as the great blessing of salvation and that he does not lo%ate it onl& in the
future. The !resent !ossession of >hristians (e.g., the !ossession of the , A. 65*/ #
* >. .5** # 050 # 1!h. .5./ ) is a foretaste of eternal salvation.
0+

If the !ossession of the >hristian is !rimaril& ho!e and %onfiden%e, one ma& alread& s!ea:
of having the eternal blessing of salvation. This eB!resses the absolute assuran%e of ho!e. In
this %onne%tion we ma& also mention , to have a reward," 8t. 05)6 # 65. #
7b. .+5/0 5 i (again invested with an es%hatologi%al meaning b& 2l. in . >.
95.7 ). To have a treasure ( ) in heaven," 8t. .95*. !ar. i
(inheritan%e) , 1!h. 050 . i , 7b. .+5/) .
This !ossession is alread& en$o&ed b& the >hristian and lasts into eternal life.
)6 To have <od or >hrist" is also found in the !ostDa!ost, fathers, . >l., )6, 6# * >l., .6, .# Ign.8g. , .*, .# A. ,
6, /# 7erm.m. , .*, ), /. >f. also to attain <od or >hrist" ( , ) in Ign.1!h. , .+, .#
.*, *# 8g. , ., *# .)# Tr. , .*, * f.# ./, /# 9m. , 9, *# .., .# A. , ., *# *, .# ), .# 0, /# 6, /# 2ol., *, /# 7, .. This is for
Ign. an eB!ression of the heavenl& fellowshi! with <od and >hrist whi%h is attained in death, and es!.
mart&rdom. It is thus an es%hatologi%al and mart&rologi%al %on%e!t.
1nn. &nneads .
a!o%r. ,!o%r&!ha.
)9 * >. .+5.0 refers to human things. It is not immediatel& %lear what ho!e is in the %onteBt of A. .05) . That it is
effe%ted b& is also stated in 05) . The ultimate %onteBt is that onl& those who have ho!e will bring the
reTuired sa%rifi%e.
0+ ,. 9%hweitEer finel& !resents this irru!tion of the future aeon into the life of the >hristian, though
unfortunatel& he uses 2auline m&sti%ism" as his leading %on%e!t. , better formulation is to be found in 7. 1.
@eber, op. cit. >f. also 8. 3ibelius, op. cit. , 666, 696.
Hut the %hief eB!ression in this regard is |q| q |l6| ( also
), to have eternal life," 8t. .95.6 # ?n. /5.0 , .6 , /6 # 05*) , /9 , )+ # 65)+ ,
)7 , 0/ , 0) # .+5.+ # *+5/. # . ?n. /5.0 # 05.* , ./ , In A. 65** 2aul des%ribes this as the fruit"
of the life whi%h >hrist has freed from sin.
1ternal life is not immortalit&. This is !ossessed b& <od alone, . Tm. 65.6 . It is the
over%oming of death b& resurre%tion. =et the term has another meaning in ?n. For ?n. eternal life is
alread& !resent and ma& be dis%erned on this side of the grave. It has alread& dawned, as though
he were alread& in heaven, %f. ?n. 05*) # 650/ ( )# . ?n. /5.0 # 05.* . There is a negative
%ounter!art in Aev. /5. 5 Thou hast a name that thou livest, and art dead." <od has this eternal or
divine life in 7imself. The 9on has it from 7im, and 7is own re%eive it through 7im ( ?n. 05*6 ).
In this %onne%tion we ma& also refer to . Tm. )56 5 <odliness has !romise of the life that now is,
and of that whi%h is to %ome."
@e ma& finall& mention * >. 05. 5 If our earthl& house of this taberna%le were dissolved,
we have ( ) a building of <od."
This !resent again eB!resses the absolute %ertaint& of ho!e. The dwelling is alread& read&.
8ateriall& this is a develo!ment of the ho!e of the resurre%tion inasmu%h as those who bear the
s!irit ( v. 0 ) are at on%e invested with the heavenl& bod& at death, and do not have to slee! until
the resurre%tion. It %an hardl& be otherwise if eternal life is alread& !resent and dis%ernible in their
!resent life.
6. ?ohannine 7aving.
@e have alread& said of ?n. that he divests the %on%e!t of eternal life of its es%hatologi%al
%hara%ter and uses it to eB!ress the ri%hness of the >hristian life.
0.
This is %hara%teristi% of his
whole a!!roa%h. For him >hristianit& is not so mu%h life in ho!e# it is full !ossession of
salvation, a having." 7e ta:es the various eB!ressions used in religion for salvation and
%laims them for >hristianit&. ,nd where other a!ostles eB!e%t these blessings in eternit& or
%onstantl& see: them afresh for their %ongregations, he alwa&s s!ea:s %ons%iousl& of a
having"5 q l ( 05)* ),
0*
q l ( .65// ),
0/
q
( .75./ )#
0)
( 65.* # .*5/0 , /6 )#
00
%f. 6*0 for q q .
It is along the same lines that
I
gn. ho!es to attain <od. Hut ?ohn sa&s that >hristians alread&
have 7im ( 6*/ ). 9imilarl&, he s!ea:s of having fellowshi! with <od ( . ?n. .56 ),
whereas 2aul sim!l& sa&s that we are %alled to fellowshi! with >hrist ( . >. .59 ), and that
<od is faithful and will thus fulfil this %alling.
The various blessings of salvation are also seen from another angle in ?n. In several
!assages the& are distin%tivel& related to >hrist. 9ometimes >hrist is an eTuivalent of the
s!e%ifi% term, and sometimes 7e is the 8ediator of the blessing. Thus one has <odOs @ord
( 05/6 ), <odOs love, !ea%e, $o&, light and life, fellowshi! with <od, and even <od 7imself, in
>hrist. This is ?ohannine having."
7. >hristianit& as 7aving.
0. >f. the i !assages ( 6*) ).
0* is also used in ?n. ./5/0 # .05./ # . >. ./5.I/ # * >. *5) # 2hil. *5* # 2hlm. 0 # . 2t. )56 # . ?n.
)5.6 , but in these !assages it means to have love to show," to %herish love," in ?n. to en$o& <odOs love."
0/ This is also used in ,%. 95/. of human !ea%e. ?n. means a higher !ea%e (%f. ?n. .)5*7 ), !ea%e of soul. The
899 leave it an o!en Tuestion whether we should read or in A. 05. . The more diffi%ult
reading is usuall& to be !referred in su%h %ases, and this would be . Hut what would the %on$un%tive
mean @e should have to assume a s!e%ial meaning for l in this %ase. It seems more li:el& that
%ame in Tuite earl& as an a%%idental error. The !arallels in vv. 9I.+ ( in both %ases,
l UU ) definitel& su!!ort the indi%.
0) is also used of s!e%ifi% re$oi%ing on various a%%ounts, * >. .5.0 (H)# 2hlm. 7 # / ?n. ) # ?n. m&
$o&."
00 This is not found elsewhere. In 65.* it has the sense of finding the wa& to life. In .*5/0f ., as in v. 6 ,
means to have in s!atial !roBimit&, to have a%%essible." The %onne%tion with the !erson of >hrist is !arti%ularl&
%lear at this !oint.
Ign. Ignatius.
If we %onsider the ;T as a whole, it is evident that >hristianit& is a religion of having as
distin%t from other religions of see:ing and eB!e%ting. 1ven the wealth of -T !iet& is far
sur!assed in this regard. The ?ews have their 4aw, on whi%h the& insist ( ?n. .957 ). The& thus
have a!!arent
06
:nowledge of the truth ( A. *5*+ ). In this !ossession the& are su!erior to the
<entiles ( A. *5.) 5 q # %f. also /5* 5 .). The&
have a Eeal of <od ( A. .+5* ).
07
Hut >hristians have a better righteousness, i.e., that of faith (
2hil. /59 ). 7aving faith
06
and fellowshi! with >hrist, the& have a share in the a%%om!lished
redem!tion ( 6*0 ), in the resurre%tion of >hrist ( 6*0 ). The& also have the 7ol& 9!irit (
6.9 ) and other gifts of gra%e ( . >. 757 # .)5*6 ), !ea%e, $o&, sure ho!e and %onfiden%e
towards <od ( 6*) ). Furthermore, the& have fellowshi! with <od ( 6*/ ) and true
gnosis ( . >. 65. , .+ k%f. the o!!osite in .05/) ).
09
@e %an understand how 2aul ma&
formulate the !regnant sa&ing that the !oor in truth %an ma:e man& ri%h,
6+
and those who
have nothing &et !ossess all things" ( * >. 65.+ ).
This sense of wealth is ever&where !resent in earl& >hristianit& (%f. ?m. *50 et%.
). 2arti%ularl& stri:ing is the !arentheti%al note in Aev *59 . The sa&ing in 2aul is formall& based
on 2rv. ./57 , but what a differen%ep For there the !oor !retends to be ri%h in order to be able to
!la& an im!ortant role or to a%Tuire renown. 7ere, however, there is assumed a transvaluation of
all values. ,ll human !ossession !ales before the wealth we have in <od. This does not mean, of
%ourse, that it !ales before the unio 'stica .
6.
In the words of >l. ,l.
2
aed. , III, 6, /6, /5 7e
!ossesses man& things, &ea, all things, who has the eternal good, who has <od. For it is written
that to him who as:eth it is given, to him who :no%:eth it is o!ened. If <od refuses nothing, then
all things belong to the righteous" (%f. . Tm. 65.7 # %f. also v. 7 ).
=et >hristian having is not a merit on whi%h one ma& build# it is all a gift ( . >. )57 ).
1ven faith and love and the !ower of san%tifi%ation are %ontinuall& sought and granted anew
b& <od.
as a merit, meaning to have something to show," is found in Aev *56 , and also *5*0
and /5.. . @hat is it that these two %hur%hes are to have and to hold The merits mentioned in
*5.9 and /5.+ . These and similar a%:nowledgments in the other letters are to be understood in the
light of the militant mood of the boo:, and are balan%ed b& even stronger %ensures and warnings.
The thought of individual !ossession, of a su!reme dis!osition whi%h man has to show, is
often seen in the 9&no!ti% sa&ing5 7e that hath, to him shall be given" ( 8t. ./5.* UU 8:. )5*0
UU 4:. 65.6 # 8t. *05*9 UU 4:. .95*6 )# but this is a mista:en inter!retation. The sa&ing is
eB!ressing !roverbiall& a fa%t of dail& eB!erien%e. If it is a !roverb, it ma& have been used on
several o%%asions in different %onteBts and with different a!!li%ations. In 8t. ./5.* onl& the few
have thus far understood 7im or had an ear for 7im ( v. 9 ). -nl& the& will be led into dee!er
understanding b& the !arables.
6*
Things will remain obs%ure to the rest. There is, however, no
sense of a Tualit& or dis!osition. In 8:. )5*0 !ar. 4:. 65.6 the @ord is uttered to be transmitted (
v. *.ff .). If the dis%i!les have understood it in su%h a wa& that the& s!read it abroad, the& have
trul& re%eived it and will do so more and more. -therwise what the& have heard loses its value,
06 is also found in * Tm. /50 in the sense of to have the a!!earan%e of something," to
!ossess something onl& in a!!earan%e."
07 There is a rather different q in ?m. /5.) .
06 i , ) 8a%%. .65** # 8t. .75*+ !ar. 4:. .756 # 8t. *.5*. !ar. 8:. ..5** # ,%. .)59 # A. .)5** # .
>. ./5* # . Tm. .5.9 (%f. also /59 )# 2hlm. 0 # ?m. *5. , .) , .6 . The last verse hardl& ma:es sense in its !resent
form in s!ite of various h&!otheses. @e are almost for%ed to assume some teBtual %orru!tion. It is evident that
?m. has in view someone who is insisting on the ne%essit& of %orre%t belief.
09 is found in the 4'' onl& at @is. *5./ , where it is s%ornfull& used of the righteous b&
their o!!onents.
6+ >f. ,%. /56 5 9u%h as I have give I thee." 2eter is !oor, &et he %an ma:e others ri%h through his strength of
faith.
6. 9o 9ebastian Fran%:, Parado:a6 "raktat , 9. (ed. 7. giegler, .9+9).
2aed. Paedagogus .
6* In the two 8t. !assages has mu%h the same sense as ( ?n. .+5.+ ).
and be%omes onl& an a!!arent !ossession (4:.).
6/
This is !erha!s the original sense in the
dis%ourse on !arables, at the end of the !arable of the 9ower ( es!. v. *+ )# but 8t. unfortunatel&
mis!la%ed it. The use of the sa&ing in the !arable of the talents (or !ounds) fits this inter!retation,
8t. *05*9 !ar. 4:. .95*6 . ,ll are given the same gift, but not all !ut it to su%h good use. The
@ord does not bring forth fruit in all.
#!3 "?$%
*

In
s
e%. <:. this often o%%urs in the a%t. in the sense of to hold against." In the med. it means to
do this in oneOs own interest, i.e., !rote%tivel&, and then to %leave to." It is alwa&s used in the
med. in the 4'', usuall& with the gen. and in the above senses, also to ta:e u!," to %on%ern
oneself with," and most freTuentl& to hold fast."
The ;T use is li:e that of the 4'' -nl& the med. is used, though with more %on%ern for
the interest of others than oneOs own, . Th. 05.) . @hen used of the relation of the servant to
the master ( 8t. 65*) !ar. 4:. .65./ ), it eB!resses the mutual trust and interde!enden%e
refle%ted in man& !arables (it o%%urs along with ). @ith a material ob$. in Tt. .59 it
means to be %on%erned"
.
to :ee! !rea%hing faithful to the re%eived do%trine,
*
i.e., to hold
fast."
#!3
*
.
>lass. a. to hold off," to :ee! off," b. to have re%eived (what is owed)," %. to be distant"#
med. to :ee! awa& or to abstain from." In the 4'' a. is not found at all, b. twi%e, and %. and the
med. freTuentl&.
;T usage is li:e that of the 4''. a. does not o%%ur, b. o%%urs five times, %. siB and the
med. siB. 2hlm. .0 5 to re%eive ba%:," is a s!e%ial use of b., whi%h is normall& used for
re%ei!ts ( 2hil. )5.6 ). In the es%hatologi%al %onteBt of the 9ermon on the 8ount ( 8t. 65* , 0 ,
.6 # 4:. 65*) ), the idea of having full& re%eived is theologi%all& im!ortant. The dis%i!les of
?esus await a heavenl& !ossession ( , 6*0 ) with whi%h earthl& !ossession %annot
%om!are ( , 6*7 ). , verse a!art is 8:. .)5). . For this there are no !arallels and we
have to de%ide as best we %an. The @estern gloss is no hel!, nor is the vg sufficit
(for what suffi%es). 2erha!s the meaning is5 It is not in !la%e."
!3, 3%
*

>lass. to hold fast to something" (an emotion, a state et%.), , held fast," guilt&,"
sub$e%t to" (with
d
at. of the law whi%h is against one, of the offen%e or of the merited !unishment,
sometimes the gen. of offen%e, or abs.). It is es!. %ommon in burial %urses,
.
also with the dat. of
the avenging deit&, 4'', to !ursue" (b& elli!se m et%.n or a meaning of inde!endent
origin), med. to strive after," to be entangled#" , guilt&," often abs. or with gen. of
guilt.
6/ -n this :ind of !ossession 6*) , also 7erm.m. , .., .*.
C ,!art from the di%t., %f. the %atena in @. 4o%:, I>>, /6 (.9*)) on Tt. .59 .>f. also 7elbing,
4asuss'nta: , ./+.
se%. <:. se%ular <ree:.
. >f. . Tm. 05.7 5 # * Tm. )5* 5 .
* is often found in the 2ast. , but with no fiBed sense.
C . 7elbing, 4asussgnta: , .79# 3eissmann 4- , 66ff.
C . Hl.D3ebr.
6
y /+6.
dat. dative.
. 3itt. 9&ll.
/
, IndeBes, s.v. .
;T li:e the 4'', a%t. to !ursue, !ress u!on," 8:. 65.9 # 4:. ..50/ . 2ass. to let oneself
be entangled," to sub$e%t oneself" ( <l. 05. ), to be sub$e%t" ( * Th. .5) vl. ). , a.
sub$e%t" ( 7b. *5.0 )# b. legall& sub$e%t," guilt&," with gen. of guilt ( 8:. /5*9 )#
*
gen. of
the law or value against whi%h one has transgressed ( . >. ..5*7 # ?m. *5.+ , su!!l&
)# and gen. of the deserved !unishment ( 8t. *6566 !ar. 8:. .)56) ). The use of
the gen. of guilt and !unishment finds a %ounter!art in the Aabb. L`edhf (or L``hYs j) whi%h is,
however, most %ommon in the sense of engaged or %ommitted to something."
/
7ighl&
singular is 8t. 05*. f. 7ere we have the dat. of the lo%al %ourt of $udgment, the thought being
that a higher %ourt %an !ass a severer senten%e. In the third %lause the eB!ression is %hanged
and the a%tual !la%e of !unishment is mentioned (su!!l& q ). For the first
offen%e one %omes before the lo%al %ourt, for the se%ond before the su!reme %ourt, and for the
third into hell.
)

!3 .
This is a more em!hati% form of . It means .. to hold fast," to hold ba%:#" *.
(s!atiall&) to o%%u!&#" /. ($uridi%all&) to o%%u!&," to hold in !ossession." It is also used in
various wa&s intr. , e.g., as a te%hni%al nauti%al term for to ma:e for," to steer towards," to land
at."
-f the man& s!e%ial meanings the following have religious signifi%an%e, a. %an
mean to be !ossessed or ins!ired," also , !ossession," ins!iration," e%stas&,"
and , !ossessed," ins!ired," enra!tured." This usage derives from the
Thra%ian worshi! of 3ion&sus
.
with its e%stati% %hara%ter. In the
%
lass. !eriod it graduall& %omes
to be used of other deities, es!. those related to 3ion&sus li:e the 2hr&gian 9abaEios. In relation to
,!ollo and the 8uses it is figurativel& used for artisti% ins!iration or e%stas&, and in this sense it is
an im!ortant term in 2lato, !arti%ularl& in the dialogue Ion. ,long with other e%stati% terms li:e
i or , the word eB!resses the !assivit& of man in relation to daemoni% or
divine !ossession ( / . and ) .), Knderl&ing the figure is !erha!s the thought of the
s!atial entr& of the numen into man and manOs being in the !ower of the other ( 6.7, n. ) ). b.
, ver& different use is that of and for the !risoner of <od" and
im!risonment in <odOs servi%e," e.g., in the worshi! of 9era!is.
*
The referen%e is to %ommunal
as%eti% life in the tem!le !re%in%ts, a distant !arallel to the monasti% life.
In the 4'' o%%urs 0+ times in all !ortions, and it is alwa&s trans. The !redominant
meaning is .. to hold fast." It is worth noting that in a few instan%es it is used of states whi%h
!ossess man. In this %onne%tion we find single o%%urren%es of and for
!ossession b& evil s!irits.
In the ;T , too, sense .. (to hold fast") is redominant.
/
It is used a. of one man holding
another, 4:. )5)* # 2hlm. ./ .
It is also used b. of holding fast s!iritual values, instru%tion re%eived or a %ourse or attitude
begun (in the good sense)5 4:. 65.0 # . >. ..5* # .05* (if to this da& &ou have :e!t (in
* >f. 2hilo(it. 8os. , II, *+/ 5 i . 7ere 2hilo gives a better rendering of the 7eb.
^ _[Z hX [P d w Sd than the 4'' with its i ( 4v. *)5.0 ). 1lsewhere 2hilo has the dat. of guilt or
!unishment, or a !art. %onstru%tion denoting the guilt.
/ I owe this referen%e to F. -. Fuhn.
) -n this sa&ing %f. the %orem., also ,. Fridri%hsen, 1Begetis%hes Eum ;T" in Sgbolae %sloenses , ./ (.9/)),
/6 f.
. >f. 1. Aohde, Ps'che
9, .+
(.9*0), II, .., n. ., .)I*., ).).
%lass. %lassi%al.
* >f. @. -tto, Priester und "epel i hellenistischen Lg'pten (.9+0 ff.), ..9I.*0# AeitEenstein 7ell. 8&st.
.

(.9.+), 6+#
/
(.9*7), .97I*.0# 2aul&D@. , ' (.9.9), s.v. 4atochos # A<<
*
, I(, .// f.# @. Housset, 3as
8Jn%htum der s:etis%hen @Gste ," gF< , ;F, 0 (.9*/), *+ ff.# @il%:en 2tol. , I (.9*/), 0* ff., *9/ f.# F. v.
@oess, Das #s'l2esen Lg'ptens in der Ptole=er-eit (.9*/), ../ ff., */7 ff.# %f. also for additional bibl. 1.
9%hlesinger, Die griechische #s'lie (.9//), III f. >f. also I, 0/* for an eBam!le from the !a!.
/ 7ere, too, we find the intr. nauti%al use of ( ,%. *75)+ ).
memor&) and still :ee! (in &our hearts) the word whi%h I on%e de%lared to &ou as good
news")# . Th. 05*. # 7b. /56 , .) # .+5*/ .
8aintaining the blessings of salvation re%eived is here again, as in the sim!le form, regarded
as a !arti%ularl& im!ortant >hristian virtue. @e %an understand this in the light of the earl&
>hristian situation. The >hristian state is one of blissful !ossession and &et also of a long struggle
for survival and re%ognition in a world whi%h views things so ver& differentl&. -nl& b& this
holding fast %an !resent !ossession be%ome eternal and heavenl& !ossession. In the last resort this
is true of the >hur%h in ever& age.
It is also used in a bad sense %. of holding illegall&," holding in !rison" (with ) in A.
.5.6 # 756 .
Aather along the same lines it means d. to !revent an evil !erson or !ower from brea:ing
out" (as one im!risons %riminals to !rote%t so%iet& against them), * Th. *56 , 7 .
This m&sterious a!o%al&!ti% !assage with its referen%e first to a neutral and then to a
mas%uline restraint whi%h holds ba%: the last great outbrea: of ungodl& for%es has been mu%h
dis%ussed.
)
In s!ite of ;. F. Freese
0
we must regard the two as identi%al. ( v. 6 ) refers
to the man of sin ( v. / ). 8ore re%entl& it has been seen that the %on%e!ts have a m&thologi%al
ba%:ground.
6
This ma& eB!lain the %ombination of the neuter and mas%. The m&sterious ungodl&
for%e whi%h will be let loose $ust before the end, the m&ster& of iniTuit& ( v. 7 ), ta:es %on%rete
sha!e in an ( v. / ), and therefore the (who does not have to be a
histori%al magnitude and might be an angel) is a %on%rete manifestation of the !rin%i!le of restraint
( ). , more eBa%t inter!retation is hardl& !ossible. The favourite referen%e to the
pa: roana hardl& fits the !ersonal . 8a& it be that the ( v. 6 ) suggests
allusion to events or a !erson who %ame into view onl& after 2aulOs sta& in Thessaloni%a ( v. 0 )
7

*. The sense of to o%%u!& a !la%e" is found onl& at 4:. .)59 .
/. To !ossess" is the sense in . >. 75/+ .
6
In * >. 65.+ ( , 6*6 ) we have the
thought that the wealth& is as free as the !oor and the !oor as ri%h as the lord of the whole
world. The !ass. is used for !ossession b& si%:ness (with something of all the various senses)
in ?n. 05) .
!3, 3, !3, !3 .
alwa&s means to have a share in" and the ob$. is alwa&s in the gen. ( gen.
partitivus , 3ebrunner). The eB!ression sometimes merges with the eTuivalent or
et%. to !rodu%e or . means
!arti%i!ation," !arti%i!ant," and to share with." does
not o%%ur in se%ular writings.
Two !oints are of theologi%al signifi%an%e, a. 2lat.
.
des%ribes the relation of the individual
thing to the idea as or .
*
,ristot. eTuates this 2latoni% %on%e!tion with the
i of the 2&thagoreans.
/
7ere is the root of a usage whi%h is !resent in all <:. !hiloso!h&,
the relation of the individual s!irit and the universal of the lower and the higher, being %alled a
!arti%i!ation ( , 6.6 ). ,t the end of this develo!ment stands 2lotinus with his
%om!rehensive s!iritual hierar%h& in whi%h the lower !arti%i!ates in the higher ( or
) >f. the eB%ursus in @. Hornemann in the 8e&er >omm.
0, 6
(.69)).
0 und ," Th9tFr , 9/ (.9*+v*.), 7/I77.
6 1.g., the des%ri!tion of 7orus as in 2. 4eid. @. ( AeitEenstein 2oim. , *7). There are
man& instan%es in 3ib. Th. ad loc.
7 >f. . Th. /5) 5 q { (s%. now).
6 , not to ma:e no use of," but even with earthl& !ossessions to be free for <od as though there
were none" (9%hlatter, &rl=uterungen #, ad loc. 5 read& for an& sa%rifi%e and alert for ever& nod b& whi%h the
4ord %alls them aside"). 7ere we %an again see the sense of holding fast, restraining# %f. the !ar. q
6 , not read& to !a& to the uttermost."
. >f. 1. 7offmann, 8etheBis u. 8etaB& bei 2laton " in Sokrates6 !9 , 7 (.9.9), 0ahresberichte des
Philologischen Vereins -u Berlin , )6.
* Hoth forms o%%ur in a%%ordan%e with the sim!le c and other %om!osites in D .
/ 8eta!h. , I, 6, !. 967b, .+ ff.
) and the higher embra%es the lower ( or ). Thus
is the term used to eB!ress the %onne%tion with the su!raterrestrial world, b. ,long the
same lines, the relation of man to the gods is also defined as !arti%i!ation# this is
eB!ressed in the s!iritual life ( 'eno!h.
8
em. , I(, /, .)# ,ristot.
2
art. ,n. , II, .+, !. 606a, . ff.), in
the %a!a%it& for religious ins!iration ( 2lat.
2
haedr. , *0/a) and :nowledge ( 2lat.2rot. , /**a). Hut
it %an also be used for fellowshi! with <od after death (
1
!igr. <rae%. , 60), 0). 9ometimes this
%ommunion is eBtended to the whole %osmos (
8
aB. T&r. , .., ..b)# 2lot. , e.g., 1nn. , II, 9, .6#
I
ambl.
8
&st. , III, 9). -rig. sometimes s!ea:s of >hristians having a !art in >hrist and <od (%f.
Ign.1!h. , ), *# 2ol., 6, .# Iren. , I(, *+, 0 m
8
2< , 7, .+/0 f.n). , !e%uliarit& of -rig. is that he
!ostulates a grou! of intermediaries who !arti%i!ate in <od in a s!e%ial sense so that the& %an even
be %alled i . 7e lin:s this thought with 44:7 ( infra ).
The word is not %ommon in the 4'' and o%%urs mostl& in the later se%tions. @orth noting is
its freTuent use in an ethi%al sense for to !arti%i!ate in a good or evil deed." is found
onl& in 121:3 , where it is abstractu pro concreto for l . is mostl&
used as a subst. for friend," %om!anion" (%f. in
2
hlm. .7), he who holds fellowshi!
with someone." In 2rv. *95.+ it means !arti%i!ant in, guilt& of the blood of another" (%f. 7erm.
m
.
, ). ., 9, of sin").
There is nothing unusual in the ;T use of . The !assages in whi%h it o%%urs
%an all bear the basi% meaning of to share"5 . >. 95.+ 5 to !arta:e of the fruits# .+5.7 5 the
one bread is shared among man&# v. *. 5 to sit at a table and eat various things and thus to
have fellowshi! with the demons behind idolatrous sa%rifi%es# %f. on 7os. )5.7 5
# v. /+ 5 2l. en$o&s his share with than:sgiving. In 7b. *5.) 7e who %omes from
the divine world shares flesh with men (note that it is here full& s&non. with )#
05./ 5 %hildren feed on mil: and therefore all have one nourishment, sharing in the same stage
of develo!ment# 75./ 5 >hrist is a member of the ra%e of Israel, and, belonging to it, 7e has a
!art therein. In . >. 95.* one might have eB!e%ted , for others have !ower over the
%ommunit& and ma& legitimatel& %laim to be su!!orted b& it. Hut 2l. is alread& dominated b&
the thought that the& do not have i alone# the& must share it with him# hen%e he uses
.
@e never find or in the ;T . =et there is a hint of it in the
of ?n. ./56 .
)
7ere the referen%e is to !arti%i!ation in >hrist, and this
fits in well with ?ohnOs <os!el. 7e who is so !roud that he will not let ?esus do him servi%e %annot
stand in the !ersonal fellowshi! with 7im based u!on the %ross and remission. If ba!tism is
t&!ified in the footwashing, the sa&ing is to be understood against the ba%:ground of earl&
>hristian thought. H& ba!tism one is in%or!orated into the bod& of >hrist, into the %ommunit&.
is also used for this fellowshi! with >hrist. ?n. .)5/+ 5
, might bear the same sense of having no fellowshi! with 8e, though the %onteBt suggests having
no !ower over 8e. ?esus is sa&ing farewell ( v. *6f .). 7e is about to ta:e the final !ath ( v. /. ).
8em. 3eorabilia Socratis .
2art. ,n. De Partibus #nialiu .
2haedr. Phaedrus .
1!igr. <rae%. &pigraata Graeca e: lapidibus conlecta , ed. <. Faibel, .676.
8aB. T&r. 8aBimus of T&re, in Aome at the time of >ommodus (.6+I.9* ,.3. ), 9o!hist and wandering
!hiloso!hi%al orator, an e%le%ti% 2latonist with >&ni%al and 9toi% tenden%ies, author of !hiloso!hi%al essa&s in
the st&le of diatribes ( ), ed. 7. 7obein, .9.+.
Iambl. Iambli%hus, of >hal%is in 9&ria, at the time of >onstantine the <reat, founder of the 9&rian s%hool of ;eoD
2latonism, and re!uted author of a wor: on the 1g&!tian m&steries, ed. 7. 2istelli, .69)# De 3'steriis , ed. <.
2arthe&, .607.
8&st. De 3'steriis .
82< Patrologia6 Series Graeca , ed. ?.2. 8igne, .6)) ff.
2hlm. 2hilemon.
m. andata .
) also o%%urs in Aev. *+56 5 To have a !art in the first resurre%tion."
7is dis%i!les are not to thin:, however, that the !rin%e of the world has !ower over 7im ( v. /+ ).
7e dies sim!l& in obedien%e to the Father ( v. /. ).
is used in * >. 65.) not so mu%h in the sense of !arti%i!ation as in that of
fellowshi! (%f. in the -T ). It is thus a s&non&m of i , though
elsewhere there is a distin%tion of meaning, sin%e it is %ommon !arti%i!ation in a third whi%h
establishes mutual fellowshi! ( i ).
is used in 4:. 057 in the 4'' sense of a !artner or %olleague ( subst. ). It is
found elsewhere onl& in 7b., but this is not sur!rising, sin%e it is a sele%t and almost
!hiloso!hi%al term.
0
1B%e!t in 7b. .*56
6
one might almost dete%t %onta%t with 2latoni%
modes of eB!ression b& wa& of 2hilo. Thus in 7b. .59 the Tuotation from 44:7 is related to
>hrist and the referen%e is to 7is , and if in 7b. /5.) >hristians are %alled
( I, 6+. ), we have an e%ho of !arti%i!ation in <od whi%h later >hristianit&
brings out more !lainl& ( 6/+ ). =et what a differen%ep The good whi%h >hristians share is
in 7b. heavenl& %alling ( /5. ) and therefore es%hatologi%al. Thus fellowshi! with >hrist is
%onsummated onl& after faithful !erseveran%e ( /5.) , , 6*9 ). It is now onl& at
its %ommen%ement. It is a !arta:ing of the 9!irit of >hrist ( 65) ), the !reliminar&
es%hatologi%al gift a%%ording to the earl& >hristian view. This !arti%i!ation in >hrist is
brought into the !eriod between the aeons. The !arta:ers of >hrist are stri%tl& the angels
( .59 ), but the divine and angeli% world invades this aeon and summons individuals to
!arti%i!ation.
(
anse
0 is if an&thing even more sele%t and it is thus in !la%e in 1!h. In 1!h. /56 the D is
em!hasised# the <entiles share with the ?ews the !romise, i.e., the salvation whi%h is alread& given here and
whi%h will be %onsummated hereafter (%f. . >l., /), 7). In 1!h. 057 the referen%e is to %ommon guilt (as in 2rv.
*95.+ supra ).
6 The same %ombination is found in 9ir. 0.5*6 . It is a !ar. to the q two
verses later.
7anse 7ermann 7anse , Fuhlhausen (1lbe) ((ol. *), Hismar%: (,ltmar:) ((ol. /I)).