Leadership Styles

Elmer A. F. Conde
Content:
• definition of leadership
• core concepts in leadership
• dimensions in leadership
• core elements of leadership
• types of leaders
• styles of leadership
• theories and models in nursing leadership
Definitions of Leadership
• The privilege to have the responsibility to
direct the actions of others at varying
levels of authority and with accountability
to both successful and failed endeavors
(Roberts, 1989)
• The process of influencing the activities of
an organized group in its effort to ward
goal setting and goal achievement
(Stogdill, 1974).
Definitions of Leadership
• A process by which one inspires others to
work together for the achievement of a
common mission and goal, a social
transaction (Merton, 1969).
• A vital ingredient which transforms a mere
crowd into a functional and useful
organization. It can be taught and that is a
transferable skill (Adair, 1983).
Definitions of Leadership
• A means of persuasion
and example by which
an individual induces a
group to take action in
accord with a purpose
common to everyone
(Gardner, 1993).
Leadership is therefore:
• Who leaders are: values, motives, personal
traits
• What leaders know:: knowledge, skills and
abilities
• What leaders do: behavior, habits, styles,
and competencies
Nursing Leadership

• The process where the nurse influences

one or more persons to achieve specific
goals in the provision of nursing care of
one or more patients. It is also a
multidimensional process.
Core Concepts of
Leadership
• L : lead, love, learn
• E : enthusiastic, energetic
• A : assertive, achiever
• D : dedicated, desirous
• E : effective, efficient
• R : responsible, respectful
Dimensions in Leadership

• LEADER

• SITUATION

• FOLLOWER
Leader
• Initiator or innovator to followers to direct
them to a situation that faces them.
• Seeks to address a situation to make it
better to everyone involved.
• “The only test of leadership is that if
somebody follows” – Robert Greenleaf
 Situation

• The medium where

the directing takes
place. It also
includes the space
or locale to which
related activities
are tested and
implemented.
Follower
• Hock (1999) identifies the characteristics
of a follower to include the following
attributes: active, responsible,
autonomous in their behavior, critical in
their thinking without being insubordinate
or disrespectful.
• Kellerman underscores types of followers
as any of the following: alienated, sheep,
yes people, survivors, and effective
followers.
Elements of Leadership
• Vision
• Influence
• Power
• Authority
• Responsibility
• Accountability
 VISION
• Provides direction to the influence process
• Can have one or more visions of the future
to assist them to move a group
successfully toward the goal
• To make the vision work, the three critical
elements must be involved: the leader of
the organization, the members or staff and
the situation in which they are to function
or the community
Effectiveness of Vision:
• Appears as a simple, yet vibrant, image in
the mind of the leader
• Describe a future state, credible and
preferable to the present state
• Act as a bridge between the current state
and a future optimum state
• Appear desirable enough to energize
followers
• Succeed in speaking to followers at an
emotional or spiritual level
 POWER
• The ability to efficiently and effectively
exercise authority and control through
personal, organizational and social
strength. It is the ability to impose the will
of one person or group to bring about
certain behaviors in other groups or
persons.
• According to French and Raven (1959),
sources of power can be: legitimate,
reward, coercive, expert, information and
referent.
 AUTHORITY
• Authority represents the right to expect or
secure compliance and is backed by
legitimacy.
• Forms of authority could either be: line
authority, staff authority, and team
authority.
 Line Authority
• It is a direct supervisory authority from
superior to subordinate. It flows in a direct
chain of command from the top to the
company’s bottom.
• Under this type of authority the
chain of command is strictly followed.
There is unity of command within the
chain that cannot be broken otherwise
there will be chaos in the organization. The
line authority also knows the
extent or span of control over her
subordinates.
 Staff Authority
• It is an authority that is based on expertise
and which usually involves advising line
managers.
• They coordinate and provide technical
assistance or advice to all advisors such as
accounting, human resources, information
technology, research, advertising, public
relations and legal services.
 Team Authority
• It is granted to committees or work teams
involved in an organization’s daily
operations.
• They are empowered to plan and organize
their work and to perform that work with a
minimum supervision.
 RESPONSIBILITY
• It is the obligation to perform the assigned
task.
• When given a responsibility for a job, he
must also be given the degree of authority
necessary to carry out the task.
 ACCOUNTABILITY
• It is answering for the result of one’s
actions or omissions.
• It is a form of reckoning, where one
accepts the consequences of their
decisions, good or bad.
• It is the final act in the establishment of
one’s credibility.
• Accountability results in rewards for the
good performance, as well as discipline for
poor performance.
 Behaviors of a Leader

• Passive or non – assertive

• Aggressive

• Assertive
 Passive
• A leader that feels self-pity and is lacking
self-worth, acts apologetically, is easily
dominated by others and speaks
hesitantly.
• Has self-denial issues, inhibited, puts her
self down as a norm.
• This behavior is borne from low self-
esteem and confidence.
• This leader most of the times allows others
to choose and does not achieve desired
goals.
 Aggressive
• Talks loudly on every subject
• Often depreciates other’s remarks and
shown insensitivity to the feelings of
others
• Disregards other people’s rights and the
aggressive behavior is characterized by
propensity to point finger and says “you”
frequently
• Enhance themselves at the expense of
others
• Dictate the actions of others and achieve
goals by hurting others
 Assertive
• Midway between passive and aggressive
• Express opinions and beliefs without
infringing on or belittling the rights of
others, refuse to be dominated or
manipulated
• They strive to enhance self and others,
quite expressive
• They naturally feel good about their self,
they choose for their self and achieve
desired goals
Styles of Leadership
• Autocratic

• Bureaucratic

• Democratic

• Laissez-faire
 Autocratic
• Nurse leader-manager retains as much
power and decision – making authority as
much as possible.
• Does not consult other nurses or co –
employees, nor they are allowed to give
any input in decision making.
• Nurses are expected to obey orders
without receiving explanations.
 Autocratic
• Under this leadership, the nurses are
motivated by rewards and punishments
• Leaders rely on threats and punishments
to influence others and they do not trust
their employees.
• Best suited type of leadership in an
emergency care set-up.
 Bureaucratic
• Nurse leader-manager manages “by the
book”, everything is done according to
procedure or policy.
• If it is not covered by the book, the nurse
leader-manager refers to the next level
above her.
• The nurse leader is more than a rule
enforcer rather than a leader.
 Bureaucratic
• This task is effective in situations such as:
Routine tasks are performed
Certain standards or procedures are to be
understood
Employees are working with dangerous or delicate
equipments that require definite set of procedures
to operate
Safety or security training is being conducted
Employees are performing tasks that require
handling of cash
 Democratic
• Also called participative leadership, it
encourages the nurse employees to be a
part of the decision making.
• Nurses are well-informed about everything
that affects their work.
• They share in the decision making and
problem solving responsibilities.
• The nurses are considered as rational who
can perform assigned tasks efficiently and
affectively according to the set of
standards set by the profession.
 Democratic
• This style of leadership requires the leader
to be a coach who has the final say, but
gathers information from staff members
before making a decision.
• Can produce high quality and high
quantity work for long periods of time.
Many employees like the trust they
receive and respond with cooperation,
team spirit and high morale
 Characteristics of a
Democratic Leader
• Develops plan to help employees evaluate
their own performance
• Allows employees to establish goals
• Encourage the employees to grow on the
job and be promoted
• Recognizes and encourages achievement
• Shares the problem solving and decision-
making to the staff
• Encourages team building and
participation
 Laissez-Faire
• Also known as “hands-off ” leadership
• There is little or no direction from the
leader and the nursing staff has as much
freedom as possible.
• All authority or power is given to the
employees and they must determine
goals, make decisions and resolve
problems on their own.
 Laissez-Faire
• Effective style of leadership when:
• Employees are highly skilled, experienced
and educated
• Employees have pride in their work and the
drive to do it successfully on their own
• Outside experts such as staff specialists and
consultants are being used
• Employees are trustworthy and experienced
Nursing Leadership Theories

• Trait Theories
• Behavioral Theories
• Situational or Contingency
Theories
• Contemporary Leadership
Theories
• Quantum Leadership
Trait Theories
“Great Man” Theory
• Assumes that the
capacity for
leadership is
inherent, that great
leaders are born, not
made.
• Often portray great
leaders as heroic,
mythic, and destined
to rise to leadership
when needed.
 Trait Theory
• Assumes that people
inherit extraordinary
qualities and traits that
make them suited for
leadership.
• They have special traits
that make them leaders:
tireless ambition, zest for
life, great orator skills,
irresistible looks and
extremely persuasive
 Trait Theory
• Stogdill (1974) found that leaders tend to
be higher than non-leaders on:
intelligence, dominance, self-confidence,
activity level and knowledge on the task.
• Reeves (2001) noted that leaders possess
these traits: emotional stability and
composure, admitting error, good
interpersonal skills, intellectual breadth
Trait Theory
• Gardner (1993) also said that
decisiveness,
trustworthiness, self
confidence, capacity to
motivate people, skills in
dealing with people, task
competence among others
make up traits
Behavioral Theories
 Kurt Lewin (1890-1947)
• A famous psychologist, he postulated that
the worker’s behavior is influenced by
interactions between the personality, the
structure of the primary work group and
the socio-technical climate of the
workplace.
• Her categorized leadership styles into:
authoritarianism, democratic, laissez-faire.
 Kurt Lewin (1890-1947)
• Also developed the “Field Theory of
Human Behavior”. He believed that people
act the way they do depending on self-
perceptions and their environments. To
understand a leader’s behavior or that of
the follower, one must look at the totality
of the individual’s experience.
• This individual carries perceptions that are
valid and must be taken into account.
 Chris Argyris (1932- __)
• An organizational psychologist who
developed the concepts of: “Ladder of
Inference” and “Double Loop of Learning”
 Ladder of Inference
• It is based on the idea that the individuals
interpret data to make meaning and make
sense of it.
• With the available data, one then selects
to process, interpret, and finally draw up
conclusions.
• The conclusions that are drawn are not
objective but subjective. At each step,
there is bias in the process depending on
the person’s experience.
Ladder of Inference
 Ladder of Inference
• It reminds nurse-managers that, when
communicating, one needs to
communicate not just subjective
conclusions, but also the reasoning
process and assumptions that underline
the conclusions.
• Otherwise, the real sources of
disagreement will not be known which is
usually lie in one’s assumptions rather
than conclusions.
 Double Loop Learning
• A learning process of detecting and
correcting errors.
• The focus of the theory is on solving
problems that are complex and ill-
structured and which change as problem-
solving advances.
 Double Loop Learning
• This concept has an impact in nursing
profession.
• It would mean questioning the age-old
ways of doing things that never works
anyway but are continued for various
reasons.
 Rensis Likert (1903-1981)
• Best known for the two theories: Linking
Pin Model & Four Management Systems
• The model hopes to achieve regularity of
practice which would reinforce the
organizational structure laid down by the
organization. The competence and
synergy of all the efforts of the workers
would lead to the achievement of common
purposes and goals.
 Rensis Likert (1903-1981)
• Likert gave special attention to the impact
of leaders’ behaviors on workers
motivation and the performance of groups.
This leads to the identification of the four
main styles of leadership which he called
“Four Systems Approach”.
 The Linking Pin & 4
Management Systems Theories
Four Management Systems

1. Exploitative – Authoritative
2. Benevolent – Authoritative
3. Consultative
4. Participative
 Blake and Mounton
Managerial Grid Model
• Conceptualized
by Dr. Robert R.
Blake (1918-
2004) and Dr.
Jane S. Mounton (
-1987)
• It attempts to
conceptualize
management in
terms of relations
and leadership
style.
 Managerial Grid Model
• Consists of two behavioral dimensions:
concern for task or production and
concern for people
• Concern for task or production: leader
cares little about people and operates in
fear of something going wrong. The focus
of the leader is on achieving results and
productivity.
• Concern for people: leader cares a little
about productivity and operates wholly
from a desire to be loved and approved of.
 Managerial Grid Model
• Leaders lay somewhere along the
continuum of concern for productivity to
concern for people
• There is no ‘one best way’ of leadership
• Different styles are needed for different
situations.
• Identified the 5 different leadership
according to the varying emphasis on each
of the two dimensions: impoverished style,
country club style, produce or perish style,
middle of the road style and team style.
 Situational or Contingency
Theories
• Are theories that believe in different types
of leadership for different situations
• It is also called contingent theories
because the leadership style would be
dependent on the situation that a leader is
faced at the moment
• Proponents: Paul Hersey, Kenneth
Blanchard, Fred Fiedler, Victor Harold
Vroom and Yetton, Robert House
 Paul Hersey and
Kenneth Blanchard
• Leaders should adapt their style to
follower development style based on how
ready and willing the follower is to perform
required tasks. Their readiness depends on
their competence and motivation.
 Paul Hersey and
Kenneth Blanchard

• Identified four
leadership style
(S1 to S4) that
match the
development
levels (D1 to D4)
of the followers.
 Leadership Styles
• S1: Directing/Telling Leaders
Leader defines the roles and tasks of the
follower and supervises them closely.
Decisions are made by the leader and
announced, so communication is largely
one-way.
 Leadership Styles
• S2: Coaching/Selling Leaders
The leader still defines roles and tasks,
but seeks ideas and suggestions from
the followers.
Decisions remain the leader’s
prerogative but communication is much
more two-way.
 Leadership Styles
• S3: Supporting/Participating Leaders
The leader passes day-to-day decisions
such as task allocation and processes to
the follower.
The leader facilitates and takes part in
decisions but control is with the follower.
 Leadership Styles
• S4: Delegating Leaders
Leaders are still involved in decision and
problem-solving but control is with the
follower.
The follower decides when and how the
leader will be involved.
 Fred Fiedler
• Developed the Contingency Model
• Fiedler believed that the leader’s personal
characteristics are stable and therefore, so
is the leadership styles.
• He believed that there is no single
approach that could provide an adequate
solution for the various management
problems.
 Contingency Model Theory
• It is a leadership theory that moved from
research of traits and personal
characteristics of leaders to leadership
styles and behaviors.
• The model focused on the personality and
relationship between the leader and group
members, programming of group’s
assignment and positional power of the
leader.
• The model exemplifies task oriented
leadership style. The leader has a great
influence or power over group members.
 Contingency Model Theory
• 3 distinct aspects of the theory: leader –
member relation, task structure, position
power.
• Leader – member relation: refers to how
well the manager and workers get along.
• Task structure: refers to how the nature of
the job to be done is highly structured or
fairly unstructured or somehow in between
• Position power: refers to how much
legitimate authority the leader-manager
possesses.
 Vroom and Yetton
Participative Model
• Selection of leadership styles will
determine decision making.
• Effective ness of decision making is
affected by: importance of the decision
quality and acceptance, amount of
relevant information possessed by the
leader and the subordinates, the likelihood
that subordinates will accept an autocratic
decision or cooperate in trying to make
good decision if allowed to participate,
amount of disagreement among
subordinates with respect to their
preferred alternatives.
 Participative Model
• Provides set of rules or norms that
determine how participatory a leader
should be when making decisions.
• After weighing up various contingencies, a
leader can choose to:
Decide on their own, and if necessary
sell their decision.
Consult some staff members
individually, gathering some information
ideas and then make decisions for
themselves
 Participative Model
Consult the staff as a group,
gathering their suggestions but still
making the decision themselves
Facilitate a meeting where they
define the problem and set the limits
which a decision needs to be made,
and then uses a consensus approach
to make a decision.
 Participative Model
– Delegate the decision-making process
either to the team or individual
responsible for enacting the decision.
 Path-Goal Theory
• Developed by Robert House, a leader
adopts a certain leadership style
such as: directive leadership,
supportive leadership, participative
leadership and
achievement-oriented leadership.
 Transactional Leadership
• The leader motivates the followers by
appealing to their own self-interest
• Its principles are to by means of the
exchange process. It is a contract for
mutual benefit that has contingent
rewards.
• The leadership style may encourage the
leader-manager to adapt to their style and
behavior to meet the perceived
expectations of the followers.
 Transactional Leadership
• The four types of behavior
that comprises this style of
leadership include:
contingent rewards,
management by exception,
active management by exception
and laissez-faire
leadership.
 Transformational
Leadership
• Most effective and beneficial leadership
behavior to achieve long-term success and
improved performance.
• A person with this type of leadership style
is a true leader who inspires her team
constantly with a shared vision of the
future.
• Leaders are highly visible and spend a lot
of time communicating.
• They do not necessarily lead from the
front as they tend to delegate
responsibility among their team.
 Characteristics of
Transformational Leadership
• Promotes employee
development
• Attends to needs and motives of
the followers
• Inspires through optimism,
influences changes in perception
• Provides intellectual stimulation
and encourages follower
creativity.
 Characteristics of
Transformational Leadership
• Uses role modeling
• Is focused on process,
cooperation and networking
• Provides sense of direction
and encourages self-
management
 Servant Leadership
• Developed by Robert Greenleaf (1904-
1990)
• It emphasizes the leader’s role as the
steward of the resources such as human,
financial, and otherwise provided by the
organization.
• It encourages the leaders to serve others
while staying focused on achieving results
in line with the organization’s values and
integrity.
10 Characteristics
of Servant-Leaders
• Listening
• Empathy
• Healing
• Awareness
• Persuasion
• Conceptualization
• Foresight
• Stewardship
• Commitment to growth of
people
• Building community
 Emotional Intelligence
in Nursing Leadership
• Developed by Daniel Goleman
 Emotional Intelligence
in Nursing Leadership
• It is defined as a person’s self-awareness,
self-confidence, self-control, commitment
and integrity, the ability to communicate,
influence, initiate change and accept
change (Goleman, 1998).
• Goleman developed a four quadrant model
of EQ. These quadrants are self-
awareness, social awareness, self
management and relationship
management.
 Self-awareness
• Is the ability to recognize one’s own
feelings as it happens, to accurately
perform self-assessment and have self-
confidence. It is the keystone of emotional
intelligence.
 Emotional self-awareness: reading one’s own
emotions and recognizing their impact
 Accurate self-assessment: knowing one’s
strengths and limits
 Self-confidence: a sound sense of one’s self-
worth and capabilities.
 Self management
• It is the ability to keep
disruptive emotions and
impulses in check,
maintain standards of
honesty and integrity,
take responsibility for
one’s performance,
handle change, and be
comfortable with novel
ideas and approaches.
 Self management
• Emotional control: keeping disruptive
emotions and impulses under control
• Transparency: displaying honesty and
integrity
• Adaptability: flexibility on adapting to
changing situations or overcoming obstacles
• Achievement: the drive to improve
performance to meet inner standards of
excellence
• Initiative: readiness to act and seize
opportunities
• Optimism: seeing the upside of the events
 Social Awareness
• Empathy: sensing other’s emotions,
understanding their perspective, and
taking active interest in their concerns
• Organizational awareness: reading the
currents, decision networks, and politics at
the organizational level
• Service: recognizing and meeting the
needs of the followers, clients, or
customers.
 Relationship Management
• Inspirational leadership:
guiding and motivating
with a compelling vision
• Influence: wielding a wide
range of tactics for
persuasion
• Developing others:
bolstering others’ abilities
through feedback and
guidance
 Relationship Management
• Change catalyst: initiating, managing, and
leading in a new direction
• Conflict management: resolving
disagreement
• Building bonds: cultivating and maintaining
a web of relationships
• Teamwork & collaboration: cooperation and
team building
 Quantum Leadership

• Developed by O’Grady and

Malloch (2003) described it as
a new leadership style for the
new age.
• They postulated mostly
leaders are neither prepared
or equipped to change
outmoded models because
the foundations of their
leadership concepts are based
in the past
 Quantum Leadership

• In quantum leadership,
control is not he issue but
rather change dominates
the climate.
• The quantum leader
recognizes continual
movement and change
occur in reality and
creativity and innovation
are the core of good work
performance.
 Benefits of Applying Quantum
Leadership in Healthcare

• Recognize how healthcare

changes have affected all of
them
• Properly explain each
change, actively engage in
conflict resolution and
exchange of ideas
• Work together to resolve
the difficulties that emerge
as their systems intersect.
 As Quantum Leaders,
Nurse-Managers:
• Offer creative and
innovative solutions
• Seek to discover
educational
opportunities instead
of relying on past
methods of
accommodating new
nurses in the
workforce
 As Quantum Leaders,
Nurse-Managers:

• Provide
mentoring
opportunities and
expert
preceptorships,
quantum leaders
can effectively
help all involved
to provide better
care for patients
 References
Adair, J. (1983). Effective Leadership. Gower: Aldershot

Argyris, C. (1957). Personality and Organizations: The

Conflict Between System and Individual. New York:
Harper Collins

French, J. & Raven B. H. (1959). “The bases of Social

Power”. In D. Cartwright, Studies of Social Power.
Michigan: Institute for Social Research.

Gardner, J. (1989). On Leadership. New York: Free Press.

 References
Hersey, P & Blanchard, K. (2008). Management of
Organizational Behavior: Leading Human
Resources (9th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ:
Pearson Education

Kipnis, D & Schmidt, S. (1982). Profiles of

Organizational Strategies. California: University
Associates.

Lewin, K.L. (1939). Field Theory in Social Science;

Selected Theoretical Papers. New York: Harper
& Row.
 References
Likert, R. (1932). “ A Technique for the
Measurement of Attitudes”, Archives of
Psychology 140: pp. 1 – 55.

Merton, R. K. (December 1969). “The Social

Nature of Leadership,” American Journal of
Nursing.

Miner, J. (2005). Organizational Behavior:

Essential Theories of Motivation and
Leadership.” Armonk: M. E. Sharpe
 References
Porter-O’Grady, T & Malloch, K. (2003). Quantum
Leaders: A textbook of New Leadership. USA:
Jones and Bartlett Publishers

Reeves, V. (2001). Traits of Effective Respected,

and Liked Leader.

Roberts, W. (1989). Leadership Secrets of Attila

the Hun. New York: Grand Central Publishing.
 References
Stogdill, R. (1974). Handbook of Leadership. New
York: Free Press.

Tan C. & Beltran E. (2009). Leadership &

Management in Nursing: A Transformative and
Reflective Patient Care Text (1st ed.) Manila:
Educational Publishing House.
Thank You
for
Your Time
• Alienated: independent and critical
yet passive in their behavior
resulting in psychological and
emotional distance with their
leaders. They are potentially
disruptive and a threat to the
organization.
• Sheep: These are dependent and
uncritical. They simply do as they are
told by their leaders.
• Yes People: dependent or uncritical but
very active in their behavior. They
uncritically reinforce the thinking and
ideas of their leaders with enthusiasm,
never questioning or challenging the
leader’s ideas or proposals. These types of
followers are dangerous to the leader
because they are most likely to give false
positive reaction and give no warning to
potential pitfalls to the leadership.
Survivors: They are the
least disruptive and lowest-risk
followers. They test the water or
sample the wind most if not all the
time. Their motto is “BETTER SAFE
THAN SORRY.”
Effective followers: share
four essential qualities: self-
management, commitment,
competence and focus,
courage.
Influence
• The ability to obtain followers
• In the art of influencing people,
communication is important. Poor
communication leads poor influence or
none at all.
• For Kipnis and Schmidt (1982), influence
can be any of the following: assertiveness,
ingratiation, rationality blocking, coalition,
sanction, exchange, upward appeal.
 Assertiveness

• One sends
direct messages
to others and is
able to stand up
for her own
rights without
violating the
rights of others.
 Ingratiation

An individual
makes another
feel important or
good before
making a request.
The person acts
humbly or is
friendly before
making a request.
 Rationality

Involves convincing
someone of the
merits of a detailed
plan, which is
supported by
information,
reasoning or logic
 Blocking
• A hostile form of influence
where an individual
achieves the goal of
influencing another
person either with the
threat of or the actual act
of cutting off from
communication or
interaction the other
intended to be influenced.
 Coalition

Collective form of
influence where a
person gets several
co-workers to “back
her up” when making
a request.
 Sanction

It is hinged on the
promise of
punishment in the
case of non-
cooperation and
reward in case of
acquiescence or
cooperation.
 Exchange

It involves offering
a favor or a
personal sacrifice
as an incentive for
the performance of
a request.
Upward Appeal

Obtaining
support from
the higher-up
to push
someone into
action.
Legitimate Power
Bestowed upon a
leader by a given
position in the
hierarchy of an
organization. This
is the most
important and
obvious kind of
power.
Reward Power
Derived from the
manager’s ability
to give rewards
to her
subordinates for
compliance to
her orders or
requests.
 Coercive Power
• Based on the leader’s ability to punish
subordinates for non-compliance with his
directives. It might refer to the ability to
withhold rewards or even create an
untenable working situation for such
subordinates.
• The most obvious but the least effective
form of power as its builds resentment and
resistance within the targets of coercive
power.
 Expert Power
• Derived from special abilities or skills
unique to the leader. It is the ability
to influence others through the
possession of knowledge or skills that
are useful to them.
• This power is highly specific and
limited only to the particular area in
which the expert is trained and
qualified.
 Referent Power

• Based on relationships and

connections. It is more known as
“networking”.
• It also means the power or
ability of individuals to attract
others and build loyalty.
Chain of Command
is an unbroken line of
reporting relationships
that extends through the
entire organization. It
helps the employees
know to whom they are
accountable and to
whom to go to with a
problem.
 Unity of Command
• States that each
person in an
organization should
take orders from and
reports to only one
person. This helps
prevent conflicting
demands being
placed on employees
by more than one
superior.
 Span of Control
Refers to the number of
employees that should
be placed under the
direction of one leader-
manager. Generally a
wide span of control is
possible with better-
trained, more
experienced, and
committed employees.
 Exploitative - Authoritative
• Least effective performance
• Managers show little confidence in staff
associates and ignore their ideas
• Staff associate do not feel free to discuss
their jobs with the manager
• Responsibility for the organization’s goal is
at the top; goals are established through
orders
 Benevolent – Authoritative
• The manager is condescending to staff
associates
• Staff associates ideas are sometimes
sought after but they do not feel very free
to discuss their jobs with the manager
• Top management and middle
management are responsible for setting
goals
• Decisions are made at the top with some
delegation
• Staff associates are occasionally consulted
for problem solving
 Consultative
• The manager has substantial confidence in
staff associates
• Their ideas are usually sought and they
feel free to discuss their work with the
manager
• Responsibility for setting goals is fairly
general.
• Managers are quite familiar with the
problem faced by their staff associates.
 Participative
• Associated with the most effective
performance
• Managers have complete confidence in
their staff associates
• Ideas are always sought
• Managers are very well informed about the
problems faced by their staff associate
and decision making is well integrated
throughout the organization with full
involvement of staff associates.
 Impoverished Style
• Description: leaders have low concern for
both people and production. This style is
used to avoid getting into trouble.
• Characteristics: main concern is not to be
held responsible for any mistakes which
results in less innovative decisions. This
leader is indifferent, non-committal,
resigned and apathetic. Leaders just do
enough to keep their job.
 Impoverished Style

• Results:
disorganization,
dissatisfaction,
disharmony among
people due to lack
of effective
leadership
 Country Club Style
• Description: Leader has high concern for
people and a low concern for production.
• Leaders use this style pay much attention
to the security and comfort of the
employees, in the hope that this would
increase performance.
 Country Club Style
• Characteristics: Leader is attentive to his
people’s needs and has developed
satisfying relationships and work culture
but at the expense of achieving results.
• The leader is defined as agreeable, eager
to help, non-confrontational, comforting
and uncontroversial.
 Country Club Style

• Results: Work
atmosphere is
usually friendly
but not
necessarily
productive.
 Produce or Perish Style
• Description: Has high concern for
production and a low concern for people,
leaders using this style of leadership find
employees needs unimportant. They
provide their employees with money and
expect performance back. Managers using
this style also pressure their employees
through rules and punishments to achieve
the company goals.
 Produce or Perish Style
• Characteristics: The leader concentrates
almost exclusively on achieving results.
People are viewed as commodity to be
used to get the job done. Communication
is de-emphasized and conflict is resolved
by suppressing it. Leadership is
controlling, demanding and over-powering.
 Produce or Perish Style
• Results: This style is based on
Theory X (McGregor) and is
commonly applied by
companies on the edge of real
or perceived failure. This is
used in case of crisis
management. Though high
output is achieved in a short
time, it becomes costly as
there is high labor turn-out.
 Middle-of-the-Road Style:
• Description: Leaders use this style to
balance between company goals and
workers’ needs. By giving some concern to
both people and production, leaders hope
to achieve acceptable performance.
• Characteristics: This leader is compromiser
who wants to maintain the status quo and
avoid any problems. The leader is aware of
and wants to focus on productivity but not
at the expense of the morale of the team.
Middle-of-the-Road Style

• Results: Leader
compromises in
which neither
production and
people’s needs are
met.
 Team Style
• Description: Leaders who use this style
rely heavily on making employees feel as
a constructive part of the organization
• Characteristics: Leader pays high concern
both to people and production. Leaders
encourage teamwork and commitment
among employees. The leader may be
characterized as open-minded, flexible
and one who inspires involvement.
 Team Style
• Results: Leader achieves high work
performance through leading his people to
become dedicated to the organizational
goals. There is a high degree of
participation and teamwork. Leader
satisfies the basic need of people to be
involved and committed to their work.
 Directive Leadership
Specific advice is given
to the group and ground
rules and structure are
established. Such
advises include clarifying
expectations, specifying
or assigning certain
tasks to be followed.
Supportive Leadership

Good relations are

promoted with the
group and
sensitivity to
subordinates’
needs is shown.
Participative Leadership

Decision making
is based on
consultation with
the group and
information is
shared with the
group.
Achievement-oriented
Leadership

Challenging goals
are set and high
performance is
encouraged while
confidence is
shown in the
group’s ability.
Contingent Reward
• To influence
behavior, the leader
clarifies the work
needed to be
accomplished. The
leader uses rewards
or incentives to
achieve results
when expectations
are met.
Management by Exception
• To influence behavior,
the leader uses
correction or
punishment as a
response to
unacceptable
performance or
deviation from the
standards. It seeks to
minimize the
opportunity for
exceptions by enforcing
defensive management
processes.
Active Management by Exceptions

• To influence
behavior, the
leader actively
monitors the work
performed and
uses corrective
methods to ensure
the work is
completed to meet
accepted
standards.
Laissez-Faire Leadership
• The leader is
indifferent and has a
hands-off approach
toward the workers
and their
performance.
• The leader-manager
ignores the needs of
others, does not
respond to the
problems or does not
monitor performance.