Running Head: ALGAL ENERGY

Algal Energy: A Review of Literature Robert Zenteno University of Texas at El Paso October 8, 2013

ALGAL ENERGY Abstract

This Literature review will analyze Algae Biofuels an alternative source of energy that can be easily and reliably manufactured. However, algae biodiesel production and manufacturing is a highly complex, scientific issue. Thus, this review will focus on presenting the essential details behind algae farming and biology, algae biodiesel production, and the consequences or benefits that may result from a large-scale algae energy production through the use of statistics and research conducted by experts in the field, as well as a survey conducted specifically for this report. The Survey on Public Perception Regarding Alternative Energy, or SPPRAE, was posted online and all 11 participants remained anonymous. This survey aimed to quantify the level of awareness and support concerning air pollution and the development of clean renewable energy, as well as the willingness to utilize public resources (i.e. tax revenue) for developing clean energy. It yielded results supporting the use of resources for clean energy development including a majority supporting an increase in monetary investments and, although the results are highly limited, it also showed an overwhelming concern about the current rising levels of air pollution.

ALGAL ENERGY Algal Energy: A Review of Literature

In todays world it has become increasingly difficult to find a service or product that isnt at some point in its manufacturing process directly dependent on fossil fuel-derived energy. In fact, even green sources of energy such as electricity, wind and even solar power are directly tied to natural gas or petroleum. This dependence on non-renewable fossil fuels poses a severe threat to the sustainability, livelihood, and the long-term security and survival of the human race. In fact, questions regarding the sustainability of the human race are enticing scientists from around the world to develop an alternate source of renewable energy that can be safely, reliably, and cleanly manufactured. Currently, algae appear to be the most promising candidate. Biofuels can be manufactured from everyday crops such as corn, palm, soy, paper waste, and even animal fat, but Algae is the clear standout. Nevertheless, algae biodiesel production and manufacturing is a complex issue that requires in-depth analysis and a full understanding of algae production before the shift away from fossil-fuels can ever be seriously considered. The following questions will guide this analysis in order to obtain a better more comprehensive perspective about the legitimacy of the widely hyped algal energy: 1. What are algae biofuels, and how are they made? 2. Are there potential environmental impacts of mass-producing algae for biodiesel? 3. Is there anything to be gained or lost by cities and states that invest their resources into development and mass-production of algae biodiesels? 4. What is the future of algae energy?

ALGAL ENERGY Understanding the answers to these questions is important because it will provide an adequate understanding behind algal energy and will enable consumers and developers

alike to determine if the industry is worth the investment and support of the general public. What are algae biofuels, and how are they made? In order to formulate a cohesive and educated opinion in regards to algae biodiesel one must first understand the biological properties common to the various algal species. The term, Alga or algae refers to a broad range of plant-like organisms. Ranging from the common slippery, green mold-like plant that is commonly seen growing on rocks near streams and trees, to much larger organisms such as the floating leafy seaweed present in ponds, lakes, and floating around in open seas (Newman, 2008). Furthermore, rather than having a determined taxonomic representation, the word algae is an umbrella term with a broad definition that covers a wide array of plant-like organisms. The simplest method to distinguish algae is by those obvious features that are unique to other plants such as roots, stems, and leaves. Moreover, algae can grow in almost any environment. Gualtieri and Barsanti (2006) assert that algae can live in underwater in aquatic as well as subareal. Its versatility in adaptation also allow algae to thrive in fresh waters as well as salt water; to be planktonic that is, suspended on water bodies that receive adequate amounts of sunlight; or benthic attached to the floor or living between sediments. Additionally, algae are photoautotrophs who can rely on their natural photosynthetic apparatus entirely to fulfill its metabolic necessities (Gualtieri & Barsanti, 2006, p. 7). In other words, all they need is water, sunlight, and carbon dioxide. Nonetheless, Tracey Schelmetic argues that what makes algae compelling is its biochemical composition - half of which is lipid oil - because it can be

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efficiently converted into useful biofuels that can be used as a replacement for conventional liquid fuels (as cited in Schelmetic, 2013). Cultivating algae, however, is not as simple as it is to meet its environmental requirements. The cultivation of algae, depending on the method used for growing the algae, can be, in the words of Barsanti & Gualtieri, expensive, difficult prone to crash, unpredictable, and can produce inconsistent quality of algae (Barsanti & Gualtieri, 2006, p. 237). Ideal cultivation conditions vary by species. For this reason, biodiesel labs have experimented with a large variety of techniques in order to find the most energy and resource-efficient method. The two most popular methods amongst the experts, although there are plenty others, are the open-pond, and closed bioreactor methods. Newman explains the immediate shortcomings of the open-pond method as follows: For one, open pond growing is extremely risky the water has to be an exact temperature. Carbon dioxide has to be pumped into the ponds. Bad weather can stunt algae growth, and there is a high risk of contamination from strains of bacteria or other outside organisms. (Newman, 2008) These problems can easily be solved through the use of the aforementioned second method of production closed bioreactors. Thus, closed bioreactors will take priority in this analysis. Closed bioreactors are large cylindrical structures that permit farmers to manipulate the growing conditions and to accomplish maximum algae and lipid oil production. These tank-like structures allow farmers to cultivate algal cultures year-round due to their independence and isolation from outside weather. Moreover, they protect algae from outside contamination; allow algae to be grown at any time of the year, and can

ALGAL ENERGY yield daily harvests (Schelmetic, 2013). However, in contrast to the open-pond systems, closed bioreactors pose a greater economic challenge and are more energy intensive.

Additionally, the increased productivity that results from manipulating growing conditions to achieve optimum levels inevitably increases the demand for CO2; the Linde Group estimates that a commercial-scaled algae farm would require approximately 10,000 tons of carbon dioxide per day. Meeting the large demand for CO2 in some cases, may pose a hurdle for algae farms, while in others it may promote an additional incentive that may entice collaboration between the algae industry, the wastewater industry, and fossil-fuel powered energy plants to be discussed further on. Various methods also exist for manufacturing the algae into biofuels. After the algae are harvested it first be put through several lipid-extraction procedures. One method, the Oil Press as Newman calls it, is the simple, and more common method, in essence it functions in the same way that an olive press operates crushing the algae to release the oil (Newman, 20008). A more efficient method allows farmers to obtain maximum oil yields, called the supercritical fluids method, it can extract up to 100%, of the oil from algae substantially more productive than the 75% rate shown by the oil press (Newman, 2008). The mechanics of the supercritical fluids method are as follows: Carbon dioxide acts as the supercritical fluid when a substance is pressurized and heated to change its composition into a liquid as well as a gas. At this point, the carbon dioxide is mixed with the algae. When theyre combined, the carbon dioxide turns the algae completely into oil (Newman, 2008). Nevertheless, in spite of such high productivity rates, Newman adds, the additional equipment and work make this method a less popular option (Newman, 2008). Once the

ALGAL ENERGY oil is extracted the refineries are in charge of manufacturing the desired biodiesel through a process called transesterification. What would be the environmental impact of mass-producing algae for biodiesel? Manufacturing algae biodiesel for mainstream commercial use comes with inherently demanding requirements, and devastating limitations, however, the potential benefits can arguably equal, or even surpass said obstacles. The most significant benefit would be achieving a sustainable source of energy, which could promote the safety and wellbeing of future generations. It is obvious that the relationship between humans and energy has become a type commensalism-symbiosis, one without which the worlds

current population of over 6 billion people would not be sustainable. Thus, finding a way to remove the metaphorical noose created by the human dependence on oil can be an effective way to aid in the long-term survival of our species. An estimate by the Department of Energy reports that if 5.5% of U.S. land area were dedicated to growing algae using the methods presently available, the country could replace as much as 17 percent of the oil that it currently imports for transportation purposes with algae oil (Pienkos, 2008, p. 10). This decrease in imports presents a significant benefit to a society suffering a massive, growing federal debt - less imports means less domestic capital will be sent overseas, thus more money remains within the community. Moreover, the large consumption of CO2 has the potential to massively reduce carbon dioxide emissions, otherwise known as the harmful greenhouse gases, from the atmosphere on a large global scale. Algae have very specific photosynthetic consequences on the planet. Studies claim that algae produce more than 70% of the worlds oxygen, and

ALGAL ENERGY although oxygen may not be in scarce supply, it is the large quantities of co2 that gets

converted into said oxygen that is meaningful (Opfer, 2012). The photosynthetic properties of algae require large amounts of CO2 for it to thrive. Consequently, algae farms can be systematically placed nearby existing fossil-fuel powered energy plants that release carbon dioxide gases in large, consistent quantities. By feeding those emissions from the energy plants, into a developed algae farm, algae will reduce world-wide pollution levels. Additionally, in Pienkos words, algae can potentially reshape the food vs. fuel debate (Pienkos, 2012, p. 11). Additionally, alga is a very efficient, resourceful organism with a long history of human consumption and human use. Micro and macro algae have served as food, fodder, remedies, and fertilizers (Barsanti & Gualtieri, 2006, p. 251). Experts (Barsanti & Gualtieri, 2006, p. 251) claim Natives of places such as Mexico, Africa, China, Japan, Korea and Indonesia have used algae as a source of food since as early as 500 B.C. Similarly, in the east and west coast of the U.S. and Canada various companies have now begun to grown macro algae intended specifically for human consumption. This can potentially enable algae to overcome the food vs. fuel obstacle that most biofuel-producing crops encounter. Thompson describes the food vs. fuel debate as follows: If people believe that liquid transportation fuels derived from plant-based feedstock will take food out of the mouths of hungry people, there is an ethically powerful argument against the entire package of technologies dedicated to improving the biological efficiency of converting plant matter into combustible fuels, as well as to research on agricultural and energy policies intended to increase utilization of biofuels (Thompson, 2012).

ALGAL ENERGY The debate is legitimate concern. However as previously stated algae is by far the most productive biodiesel-yielding crop, exponentially outperforming even the second most productive biofuel-yielding crop. The disparity in oil-yield between crops can be observed in figure 1:

Figure 1: Jonathan Trent (TEDGlobal, 2012) studied the difference in productivity between biodiesel-producing crops, algae were found to be exponentially more productive than even palm oil, the distant second.

Adding to the food vs. fuel debate is another concern discussed separately by Schelmetic, which she calls peak phosphorus (Schelmetic, 2013). The cultivation of most plants, staple crops and algae alike, require large amounts of phosphorous, but the world is currently on the brink of a peak of availability of Earths finite phosphate resources (Schelmetic, 2013). However, in spite of these two typical typical because these obstacles

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are shared universally by biofuel-producing crops biofuel drawbacks, algae may be able to bypass, and in some way counteract those issues. If thats the reality, there is a lot to be gained world-wide. What could be gained or lost by cities and states that invest their resources into development and mass-production of algae biodiesels? In the SPPRAE, 81% of participants agreed that using public resources and tax revenue for finding clean energy is an efficient type of government expenditure. Although these results are highly limited, they still showed an overwhelming support for the development of alternative energy. This makes the fact that Algae have the ability to grow in what Pienkos calls marginal lands that is, lands that are not suitable for agriculture and can also use water sources unsuitable for conventional crops a significant incentive for energy developers a very attractive incentive for government development contracts (Pienkos, 2012, pg. 10). In one example, Branam discusses the findings of Dr. Stephen Mayfield who presents the large amounts of unusable agricultural lands that have been salted out of production (Branam, 2013). These types of non-arable lands present opportunities for large-scale algae farms that can potentially produce a variety of algaederived goods such as food, fertilizer, and biodiesel without taking away from agricultural lands. There are several other beneficial qualities that prove beneficial in maximizing resource efficiency. For one, algae can be grown in desert ponds by using saline water from aquifers that would otherwise be unusable in farming conventional crops. Moreover, Pienkos reports that the total biomass extracted from indirect land usage could provide up to 180M tons of protein per year. This product could be used as animal feed, pet food, for

ALGAL ENERGY aquacultures, and even for human consumption. Therefore the clever manipulation of

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algae and its biological perks can allow areas of poor land and scarce resources to produce algae in areas that would otherwise be inadequate to sustain conventional crops while achieving two distinct goals. First, areas poor in resources can achieve greater resource efficiency. By investing their time and money into the development of algae biofuels, state and local organizations can effectively bypass the food vs. fuel debate as it pertains to biofuel-producing crops while simultaneously improving productivity of the local land and water resources available (Pienkos, 2012, p. 11). Cities can use over-farmed, arid, or empty lands; and can give efficient use to all water sources available - clean, unclean, and saline alike (Branam, 2013). Second, algae farming across the world can greatly contribute to improving air quality. If algae farmers manipulate algaes demand of CO2, and use it to photosynthesize the captured gases emitted from local power plants, they can achieve an air filtration system that will also be a near-endless supply of CO2. By feeding it to the farms for the algae to convert into oxygen, it can also be used to fuel the production of algae that will yield both energy and food (Thompson, 2012). This could be especially useful in Texas, where the economy relies heavily on natural gas and fossil-fuels and results in earning Texas its place amongst the heaviest pollutants in the world (Losco & Baker, 2013, p. 771). Similarly, algae can be used to decontaminate waters containing phosphorous, therefore allowing algae farmers to grow algae without tapping into the global phosphate reserves necessary for conventional agriculture (Schelmetic, 2013). Environmental incentives, such as the ones demonstrated by the mass production of algae fuels, have the potential to benefit even those economies that are largely oil-driven,

ALGAL ENERGY

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such as that of Texas. Although it is unrealistic to expect Texas economy to make the shift from crude oil to pond scum, there are many ways in which the state government could improve the overall environmental and economic health of the state by implementing algae farms in the many refineries across the state. This might be an attractive idea if the results of the SPRAEE which show an overwhelming 90% of participants claiming at least substantial concern for global air pollution are applicable to the general population. Currently, Texas ranks number 1 in greenhouse gas emissions, but if every single coal-fired energy plant in the state incorporated an algae farm to reduce its carbon emission, the total quality of Texas air would drastically improve (Losco & Baker, 2013, p. 771). The Linde group points out that algae have a negative CO2 footprint, and therefore green crude has the potential to cut CO2 emissions by as much as 80 percent (Linde, 2013). This can prove crucial in avoiding some of the looming threats posed by climate change. According to a 2006 study by Environmental Defense Fund, a possible climate induced catastrophe in the long-term for Texas potentially could occur as follows: As weather conditions change, the plant and animal life that inhabit the different regions of Texas will shiftOver 600 miles of low-lying coastal lands will be inundated by rising sea levels. Some crops, such as cotton, will fare well, but others, such as corn, will fare badly. In general, however, longer droughts and surface-area evaporation will tax the water supply. (Losco & Baker, 2013, p. 771) Thus, by utilizing the photosynthetic properties of algae in large-scale waste-CO2-fed farms, local governments and organizations can greatly contribute to the efforts to reduce global pollution and slow down climate change; improve the quality of local air; and promote more efficient waste-water and land usage. Most importantly, it can supplement current

ALGAL ENERGY sources of energy, provide much needed food sources, and could begin to build the infrastructure for a system of sustainable energy. What is the future of algae energy? Fossil fuel and natural gas companies largely control todays energy market

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(TEDGlobal, 2012). For this reason, producing biodiesel from algae on a large scale would require large economic investment, innovative thinking, and widespread consumer cooperation support. Even if public transportation offered biodiesel-powered options, \ the cost of the production of algae would still render it more expensive than conventional fuelpowered transportation though the disparity in costs is not as wide as it was 30 years ago (Branam, 2013). Nevertheless, the SPPRAE asked participants if they would be open to higher prices if it means environmentally clean products and yielded a promising 72% response in favor of cleaner products. Although this is a non-representative sample, the results showed overwhelming support. In contrast, Pienkos analyzed a different angle of the economics associated with creating a large-scale algae farm. The estimated number of Jobs that could be created nation-wide if all available US lands a total of 166,000 square miles are converted into algae farms is a minimum of 37,498 jobs if each worker tends 144 acres of farmland (Pienkos, 2012, p. 11). Such a job-creating entity could provide a much-needed boost in todays job market, or lack thereof. Unfortunately, agriculture and water are not the only products that are in direct competition with algal energy. President Jimmy Carter was the first to launch a program dedicated at researching and developing algae fuels (Newman, 2008). However, the oil industry petroleum holds an overwhelming control on the energy market that makes it increasingly difficult for new energy developers enter the market without widespread

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support. In fact in 1996 the Aquatic Species Program run by the Natural Renewable Energy Laboratory originally set in motion by President Carter in 1978 was discontinued because it was considered too costly in the face of low conventional-fuel costs at the time to produce algae on a scale large enough to put a dent in the national petroleum consumption. It wasnt until 2008 that crude oil prices were high enough to entice the Department of Energy into reviving the algae fuel program. Opfer emphasized: The tables have turned to such an extent that a recent study by the DOEs Pacific Northwest National Laboratory indicates that if 5.5 percent of the U.S. land area were dedicated to algae growing, the country could use current production methods to replace as much as 17 percent of the oil that it currently imports for transportation purposes with algae oil (Pienkos, 2012). This may seem like a miniscule amount, but the demand for energy in todays world is so vast, that it is unrealistic to expect one source to entirely satisfy the worlds thirst for liquid energy. Conclusion In conclusion, there are a vast range of potential benefits associated with algae biodiesel production in large scales. Some setbacks are present, but the ever increasing availability of technological innovations, combined with the climbing oil prices and the growing demand for energy, is gradually making large scale algae production a more realistic option. The problem arises in making alternative energy development and investment projects fit into the nations capitalist culture. Currently algae are an untapped potential energy source. Its success or failure rests solely on the amount of personal sacrifice the average consumer is willing to make. Higher prices for clean energy are

ALGAL ENERGY inevitable; although in the long-run it may produce environmentally and economically friendlier results than the current strangle hold petroleum oil has on the sustainability of the human race. Therefore the success, or failure, of algal energy or any clean form of energy development rests on the power of consumer preference.

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ALGAL ENERGY References The Linde Group. (2013). Algae for Biofuel Production. Retrieved from http://www.the-

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lindegroup.com/en/clean_technology/clean_technology_portfolio/co2_applications /algae_to_biofuel/index.html Barsanti, L. & Gualtieri, P. (2006). Algae Anatomy, Biochemistry, and Biotechnology. Boca Raton, FL: Taylor & Francis Group Branam, I. (2013, March 20). Are Algae Biofuels a Realistic Alternative to Petroleum? Scientific American. Retrieved from http://blogs.scientificamerican.com/guestblog/2013/03/20/are-algae-biofuels-a-realistic-alternative-to-petroleum/ Newman, S. (2008, June 18). How Algae Biodiesel Works. Retrieved from http://science.howstuffworks.com/environmental/green-science/algaebiodiesel.htm Opfer, C. (2012 August, 20). Is Algae Biofuel a Viable Alternative to Oil? Howstuffworks. Retrieved from http://www.howstuffworks.com/fuel-efficiency/biofuels/algaebiofuel-alternative-oil.htm Pienkos, P.T. (2012). Algal Biofuels Can Make a Difference. National Renewable Energy Laboratory. Schelmetic, T. (2013, February 19). Biofuel from Algae Part One: The Pros and Cons of Pond Scum. Thomasnet News. Retrieved from http://news.thomasnet.com/green_clean/ 2013/02/19/biofuel-from-algae-part-one-the-pros-and-cons-of-pond-scum/ Schelmetic, T. (2013, February 26). Biofuel from Algae Part Two: The Way Forward. Thomasnet News. Retrieved from http://news.thomasnet.com/green_clean/ 2013/02/26/biofuel-from-algae-part-two-the-way-forward/

ALGAL ENERGY TEDGlobal 2012. (September 2012). Jonathan Trent: Energy from Floating Algae Ponds [video file] Retrieved from http://www.ted.com/talks/jonathan_trent_ energy_from_floating_algae_pods.html. Thomson, P.B. (2012). The Agricultural Ethics of Biofuels: The Food vs. Fuel Debate. Agriculture 2, 339-358

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