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Structure
7.1 7.2 7.3 7.4 7.5 7.6 7.7 7.8 7.9 Introduction
Objectives
Lightweight Concrete Heavy Concrete Mass Concrete Pre-cast Concrete High Early Strength Concrete Vacuum Concrete Pre-stressed Concrete Ultra-light-weight Concrete
7.10 Colcrete 7.11 Ready Mix Concrete 7.12 Gunite 7.13 Ferro-cement 7.14 Roller Compacted Concrete 7.15 Fibre Reinforced Concrete 7.16 Hot Weather Concreting 7.17 Cold Weather Concreting 7.18 Underwater Concreting 7.19 Quality Control of Concrete 7.20 Summary 7.21 Answers to SAQs
7.1 INTRODUCTION
In the previous unit, you have studied different concreting operations, concreting formwork, types of joints in concrete. In this unit, you will study special types of concrete and concreting methods under extreme environmental conditions.
Objectives
After studying this unit, you should be able to
classify the types of special concrete, appreciate the importance and purposes of special concretes, discuss the problems encountered in hot and cold weather concreting, describe the precautions to be taken in hot and cold weather concreting, and discuss the methods of underwater concreting. 131
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The lightweight concrete has generally a lower thermal expansion than ordinary concrete. The lightweight concrete increases the progress of construction work.
Following are the limitations of lightweight concrete : (a) The depth of carbonation, i.e. the depth within which corrosion can occur under suitable conditions, is nearly twice than that of normal concrete. Hence, special care will have to be taken to provide sufficient cover to the reinforcement of the lightweight structures to take protection against corrosion. The lightweight concrete has less strength as compared to the ordinary concrete. The lightweight concrete produces a harsh mix, therefore it is of low workability. Mixed design procedures are not well established for the lightweight concrete.
Production The various methods of producing lightweight concrete depend on : (a) (b) The formation of air voids in the concrete by omitting fine aggregates called as No-fine concrete. The formation of air voids in a cement paste by the addition of some substance which causes a foam called as Aerated or Cellular or Gas or Foamed concrete. The presence of air voids in the aggregate called as Lightweight aggregate concrete.
(c) Types
Following are the types of lightweight concrete: (a) Lightweight aggregate concrete (b) (c) No-fines concrete Air-entrained concrete
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(g) (i)
(h)
Natural lightweight aggregates are not found in many places. They are also not of uniform quality. Therefore, they are not used widely in making lightweight concrete. Pumice is the only natural lightweight aggregate which is used widely.
Lightweight aggregate concrete is made by the use of lightweight aggregates. Different lightweight aggregates have different densities. Strength of lightweight concrete depends on the density of concrete. Less porous aggregate which is heavier in weight produces stronger concrete particularly with higher cement content. The grading of aggregate, the water-cement ratio and the degree of compaction also affect the strength of concrete. Lightweight aggregate concrete exhibits higher moisture movement than the normal concrete. Concrete while wetting swells more and while drying shrinks more. The coefficient of thermal expansion of concrete made with lightweight aggregate is generally much lower than ordinary concrete.
It is obtained by mixing finely divided aluminium powder in cement matrix. A chemical reaction takes place with hydroxide or alkali or calcium. It liberates hydrogen which forms the bubbles. Hydrogen peroxide can also be used which generates oxygen. Foamed Concrete It is produced by adding foaming agent to the mix. It introduces and stabilizes air bubbles during mixing at high speed. Air entrained concrete may not contain the aggregate. Powdered zinc can also be used in this concrete. Depending upon density, strength and thermal conductivity also vary. Mixes have densities between 480 kg/m3 to 1120 kg/m3. Cellular concrete has a high thermal shrinkage and moisture movement. These can be minimized by high pressure steam curing. It also increases the compressive strength of concrete. Cellular concrete offers
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better fire resistance than ordinary concrete. It has good resistance to frost. Cellular concrete is mostly suited for partitions for heat insulation purposes due to its low thermal conductivity and for fire proofing.
SAQ 1
(a) Fill in the blanks. (i) The weight of lightweight concrete is _______________ that of dense concrete. (ii) The cement requirements of lightweight are ____________ than that of gravel concrete. (iii) Air-entrained concrete is also called _______________. (iv) Concrete for atomic reactors must of _______________. State True or False. (i) (ii) The lightweight concrete aggregates have high values of absorption. Bond strengths of lightweight as well as dense concrete are same.
(b)
(iii) Cellular concrete has a high thermal shrinkage and moisture movement. (iv) In heavy density concrete, the aggregates of higher specific gravity are used. (c) (d) (e) (f) What do you mean by lightweight concrete? What are the properties of lightweight concrete? Why lightweight concrete is preferable than dense concrete? What are the advantages of lightweight concrete? 135
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Write notes on gas concrete and foamed concrete. What do you understand by heavy density concrete? Where heavy density concrete is used?
Advantages Following are the advantages of pre-cast concrete : (a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) (g) (h) As production takes place in a factory, quality control is excellent. As mass production takes place, it is economical. The labour required in the manufacturing process of the pre-cast units can easily be trained. The pre-cast products may be given the desired shape and finish with accuracy. The pre-cast structures can be dismantled, when required and they can be suitably used elsewhere. The work can be completed in a short time, when pre-cast units are adopted. When pre-cast structures are to be installed, the amount of scaffolding and formwork is considerably reduced. The moulds used for preparing the pre-cast units are of steel with exact dimensions in all directions. These moulds are more durable and they can be used several times.
Disadvantages Following are the disadvantages of pre-cast concrete : (a) (b) (c) (d) It requires good roads for transporting their products to distant sites without delay and damage. It becomes difficult to produce satisfactory connections between the pre-cast members. It requires special and heavy equipment to handle their products at site as well as at factory. Pre-cast concrete requires standardized designs and massive repetitive type of construction to achieve economy.
SAQ 2
(a) (b) What are the advantages of pre-cast concrete? What are the disadvantages of pre-cast concrete? 137
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(c) (d)
What do you understand by pre-cast concrete? Write a short note on high early strength concrete.
Advantages (a) (b) (c) (d) Pre-stressing eliminates the cracks under all stages of loading. The entire cross-section becomes effective. There is considerable reduction in dead weight of superstructure. Due to this, cost of foundation also considerably reduces. It is possible to take full advantage of high compressive strength of concrete and high tensile strength of steel used. Because of higher strength, pre-stressed concrete can be safely used for structures having longer spans and which are subjected to heavy loads, impact and vibrations. In the pre-stressed concrete structures, deflection of beams is considerably reduced. Pre-stressed concrete requires only 1/3 of the concrete required for reinforced concrete but of superior quality. The amount of steel required is about only 1/4 of steel in reinforced cement concrete. Thus, there is always a considerable saving in material cost in the case of pre-stressed concrete. There is considerable saving in cost of shuttering and centering in large structures, because pre-stressed concrete members are manufactured in factories. Higher grades of concrete and steel are required. Skilled labours are required. Pre-stressed concrete is generally limited to members which have long spans and carry heavy loads. Special pre-stressing equipment are required. Handling and transportation of heavy pre-stressed member is difficult. Cost of the materials is higher due to the higher grade. More labours are required.
(e) (f)
(g)
SAQ 3
(a) (b) (c) (d) Write short note on vacuum concrete? What do you understand by pre-stressed concrete? What are the advantages of pre-stressed concrete? What are the limitations of pre-stressed concrete?
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non-load bearing panels, hollow and solid blocks, and in highway construction as a part of sub-base where frost could endanger the stability of the sub-grade. This concrete has high thermal insulation efficiency. The expanded bead products may be treated with bromine solutions for improving the fire resistance and self-extinguishing characteristics. The expanded beads have density about 12 kg/m3 to 25 kg/m3. The commonly used size of expanded beads is about 1 mm to 3 mm. The beads deteriorate producing a characteristic yellowing when exposed to sunlight. The expanded-polystyrene concrete mixes can be designed to have compressive strengths up to 15 MPa to 20 MPa. The expanded-polystyrene beads become electro-statically charged during processing which makes them difficult to wet during mixing. Proneness to segregation can be overcome by using a bonding agent controlling the fluidity of the paste. Thermal insulation and compressive strength properties of expanded-polystyrene concrete increase with its density. The setting and hardening rates can be controlled by selecting the suitable cement and using water-reducing admixtures. Conventional methods can be used for casting and placing the expanded-polystyrene concrete. The elastic and shrinkage deformations are considerably greater than for normal-weight concrete. The conventional workability tests, i.e. slump test, Vee-Bee test, flow table test and compacting factor test are unsuitable in case of expanded polystyrene concrete.
7.10 COLCRETE
Colcrete is grouted and is generally suitable for underwater. It is made by introducing colgrout into the voids of pre-placed coarse aggregates by injection method. The surface area of coarse aggregate in 1 m3 of concrete amounts to about 68800 m2 in the conventional concrete of 1 : 2 : 4 mix. Practically, it is difficult to wet and activate the above area. Properties (a) (b) (c) (d) The separation of smaller particles of cement is achieved efficiently. It makes it nearly immiscible in water. It prevent aggregation of sand and reduces bleeding to a minimum. Its fluidity permits it to be pumped to considerable distances to the point of placement. Every particle of cement in the mix is completely wetted. The cement is thoroughly mixed with other constituents.
Materials for Colcrete The materials for colcrete are : (a) (b) (c) (d) (e) Water Water should have the same properties as the mixing water for conventional concrete. 140 Water, Cement, Sand, Coarse aggregate Admixtures.
Cement All cements as per IS specifications are suitable for colcrete work. Sand The grading of sand should be continuous without gap. It should not have excess of larger, medium or smaller particles as these have predominant effect on the strength of colcrete. The percentage of oversize should be less than 5%. The fineness modulus of sand should not vary more than plus or minus 0.10. Coarse Aggregate The size of coarse aggregate should not be less than 40 mm and more than 5 % by weight of the particles smaller than this specified size. The coarse aggregate acceptable for concrete may be used for colcrete. Admixtures Admixtures like surkhi, flyash, pumice, pozzolanas can be incorporated in the mix to substitute cement. On ignition, flyash should not show 8 % loss. Properties Following are the properties of colcrete : (a) (b) Colcrete has higher strength. The compressive strength of cube increases with the increase in mixing time. It becomes unworkable after a total mixing time of 90 seconds. The strength decreases by about 20% when dirty aggregates are used. The use of very coarse sand is not beneficial in colgrout works although compressive strength increases with fineness modulus. When fineness modulus of sand is between 1.9 to 2.2, bleeding is minimum. It increases both ways with increase or decrease of fineness modulus. The compressive strength of colcrete reduces by the use of elongated and flat aggregates. Sand-cement ratio increases with the increase in water-cement ratio. It is more true in case of fine sand than coarse sand.
(c) (d)
(e)
(f) (g)
SAQ 4
(a) (b) (c) (d) (e) Write short note on ultra-light-weight concrete. Fill in the blanks : Colcrete means _________________. What do you mean by colcrete? Describe the properties of colcrete. State true or false : 141
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7.12 GUNITE
Gunite is referred as air blown mortar and concrete, gunned concrete, spraycrete, sprayed concrete, shotcrete, pneumatically applied mortar or concrete. It is a mortar or concrete conveyed through a hose and pneumatically projected at high velocity onto a surface. The jet force impacting on the surface compacts the material. Generally a dry mixture is used. The material is capable of supporting itself without sloughing or sagging even for vertical as well as overhead applications. Gunite is best adopted from the quality and cost point to thin lightly reinforced sections. Gunite is also advantageous to shoot certain heavy structural members in new construction and to bond columns, girders or walls to existing construction. Gunite should not be used for spirally reinforced columns or pilings. Uses Gunite is used in the following works. (a) (b) (c) (d) (e) Refractory linings in furnace walls, stacks and boilers. Coatings over masonry, concrete, rock and steel. Encasement of structural steel for reinforcing and fireproofing. Repairs of deteriorated concrete in structures like dams, tunnels, reservoir linings, water front structures, etc. New structures like roofs, walls, tunnels, sewers, shafts, pre-stressed tanks, reservoir linings, swimming pools, canal linings.
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(f) Properties
Following are the properties of gunite : (a) (b) (c) (d) (e) Gunite is stronger than conventional concrete. Gunite requires low water-cement ratio which is lower than for most concrete mixes. Gunite is structurally adequate and durable material. It is capable of excellent bond with masonry, concrete and steel. The drying shrinkage of gunite is somewhat higher than for most low slump conventional concrete and generally falls within the range of 0.06 to 0.10 %. Low slump conventional concrete is placed in heavier sections using larger aggregates and leaner mixes. It will tend to give more shrinkage cracking and, therefore, may require a closer joint spacing.
SAQ 5
(a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) What do you understand by RMC? What are the advantages of RMC? What are the disadvantages of RMC? What is gunite? Where gunite is used? State the properties of gunite.
7.13 FERRO-CEMENT
Ferro-cement is a relatively new material consisting of wire meshes and cement mortar. It consists of closely spaced wire meshes which are impregnated with rich cement mortar mix. The ferro-cement members are usually of 20 mm to 30 mm thickness with 2 mm to 3 mm external covers to the reinforcement. The reinforcement or wire mesh is usually of 0.5 mm to 1 mm in diameter at 5 mm to 10 mm spacing and cement mortar is of cement sand of 1 : 2 or 1 : 3 with water-cement ratio 0.4 to 0.5. The steel quantities vary between 300 to 500 kg per m3 of mortar. The basic idea behind this material is that concrete can undergo large stains without cracks in the neighborhood of the reinforcement throughout the mass of the concrete. Advantages (a) (b) (c) (d) (e) It has lesser dead weight due to small thickness. It is simple in construction. It has high tensile strength. It has non-corrosive nature. It is easy to repair. 143
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(f)
It is suitable for special structures like shells, hanging roofs, silos, water tanks and pipelines. Skilled labours are required. Strict quality control is required. Proper pre-fabrication techniques are required.
SAQ 6
(a) (b) (c) (d) Explain what is mean by ferro-cement. State the advantages and limitations of ferro-cement. Write short note on roller compacted concrete. Write short note on fibre reinforced concrete.
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relative humidity and high wind velocity are the climatic factors affecting concrete in hot weather.
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Water-reducing or set-retarding admixtures may be used in hot weather concreting. Temperature Control of Concrete Ingredients Controlling the temperature of the ingredients of concrete results in lowering the temperature of concrete. The ingredients may be protected from direct sunrays by using sheds. Water can be sprinkled on to the aggregate before using them in concrete. The temperature of water is easier to control than that of other ingredients of concrete. The mixing water has the greatest effect on lowering the temperature of concrete, because the specific heat of water is nearly five times that of common aggregate. The pre-cooling of aggregates can be achieved at the mixing stage by adding calculated quantities of broken ice pieces as a part of mixing water, provided the ice is completely melted by the time mixing is completed. Production and Delivery The period between mixing and delivery should be kept to an absolute minimum by coordinating the delivery of concrete with its rate of placement. The temperature of aggregates, water and cement should be maintained at the lowest practical levels so that the temperature of concrete is below 40C at the time of placement. A suitable metal clad thermometer should be used to measure the temperature of concrete at the time of leaving the batching plant. Placement and Curing of Concrete The sub-grade, formwork and reinforcement should be sprinkled with cool water just before the placement of concrete. The area around the work should be kept wet to the extent possible to cool the surrounding air and increase its humidity. Speed of placement and finishing helps minimize problems in hot weather concreting. After compaction the concrete should be protected to prevent the evaporation of moisture by means of wet gunny bags. After the concrete has attained a degree of hardening sufficient to withstand surface damage, moist-curing should start. Continuous curing is important because the volume changes due to alternate wetting and drying promote the development of surface cracking. On the hardened concrete, the curing shall not be much cool than the concrete because of the possibilities of thermal stresses and resultant cracking. High velocity winds cause higher rate of evaporation and hence windbreakers should be provided as far as possible. Concreting can be done during night shifts as far as possible.
7.16.3 Admixtures
Admixtures are the substances, other than the cement, water and aggregate, which are used to incorporate or modify certain properties of concrete for certain particular jobs and are added to the batch immediately before or during the mixing of ingredients of concrete. Concrete is used for different purposes under different conditions. Therefore, Ordinary Concrete may not serve the required qualities. In such cases, admixtures are used to modify the properties of Ordinary Concrete so as to make it suitable for any conditions. Admixtures are classified as follows : Accelerators Accelerators are the materials which increase the rate of development of strength of concrete and may be used where early strength of concrete is required. Calcium chloride reduces the time of initial and final setting. With
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2% of CaCl2 in cement, the setting time is reduced one-third of the normal time. 2% mixture results in 170% more strength after one day and 30% more strength after seven days. After 28 days increase in strength is 10%. Beyond 4% it has been found to be harmful. Retarders Retarders are the substances which are used to retard the setting of cement thereby increasing the setting time of cement. When pumping of concrete is required for long distances, retarders are used so that concrete does not get stiffened during pumping process. Calcium lingo sulfonate is one compound, which is extensively being used for these purposes. Water-repelling Agents These are the materials which when mixed with concrete, repel the water from concrete and to make the concrete more waterproof. These agents are used when the concreting is going on in a very wet condition, to avoid the entry of water into the concrete. Workability Agents The workability of concrete increases by using workability agents. Workability agents give smoothness and reduce the bleeding of concrete. These materials are useful in cases when the aggregate is deficient in fines and to achieve workability requirement even with low water content ratio. Commonly used workability agents are fly ash, bentonite clay, finely divided clay, talc, hydrates lime, etc. Gas Forming Agents A gas forming agent is a chemical admixture such as aluminium powder which produces minute bubbles of hydrogen gas throughout the matrix. These agents are used to make concrete lightweight, to stop bleeding in concrete, to make it more dense, etc. These are used in very small quantities. Air-entraining Agents This admixture is used for inducing minute air bubbles uniformly throughout the concrete mass. These are used to increase the workability of concrete and also to increase resistance to freezing and thawing. These agents also reduces the bleeding of concrete. These agents entrap more air during the preparation of concrete and that air acts as a sort of ball bearing between the ingredients of concrete. Natural Cement Materials Some materials have got cementing properties naturally and when these materials are used with cement, then these have been found to give cement of more strength. They increase the workability and decrease bleeding, segregation and heat of hydration. Natural cement materials are hydraulic lime, fly ash, surkhi, etc. As more water is required with natural cement materials, the shrinkage may increase.
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of concrete strength, the concrete in the plastic stage can be damaged if it is exposed to low temperatures which cause ice lenses to form and expansion to occur within the pore structure and subsequent damage may occur due to alternate freezing and thawing when the concrete has hardened.
the rapid hardening Portland cement or accelerating admixtures used with proper precautions can help in getting the required strength in short period. Air-entraining agents are generally used in cold weather. Air-entrainment increases the resistance of hardened concrete to freezing and thawing and normally, at the same time, improves the workability of fresh concrete. The calcium chloride used as accelerating admixture may cause corrosion of reinforcing steel. In any case, calcium chloride should not be used in pre-stressed concrete construction. The important factor for cold-weather concreting is the attainment of suitable temperature for fresh concrete. Temperature Control of Ingredients The temperature at the time of setting of concrete can be raised by heating the ingredients of the concrete mix. Heating of mixing water is easy. The temperature of the water should not exceed 65C as the flash set of cement will occur when the hot water and cement come in contact in the mixers. Therefore, the heated water should come in direct contact with the aggregate and the sand first. The aggregates may be heated by passing steam through pipes embedded in aggregate storage bins. Another precaution taken along with the heating of ingredients is to construct a temporary shelter around the construction site. The air inside is heated by electric or steam heating or central heating with circulating water. The temperature of ingredients should be so decided that the resulting concrete sets at a temperature of 10C to 20C. Use of Insulating Formwork The heat generated during hydration of cement can be gainfully conserved by having insulating formwork covers capable of maintaining concrete temperature above the desirable limit up to the first 3 days even though the ambient temperatures are lower. Timber, clean straw, blankets, tarpaulins, plastic sheeting, etc. can be used as a formwork covers. Timber formwork may be sufficient for moderately cold weather. The efficiency of the covers depends upon the thermal conductivity of the medium as well as ambient temperature conditions. Placement and Curing The surface on which the concrete is to be placed should be sufficient warm. All ice, snow and frost should be completely removed before placing of the concrete. Water curing is not to be used during the periods of freezing or in near freezing conditions. Removal of Formwork Formworks are a sort of protection against cold water to the concrete. It is advantageous not to remove formworks until the end of a minimum period of protection. As the rate of gain of strength is slow during the cold weather, the formwork and props have to be kept in place for a longer time than the normal concreting.
SAQ 7
(a) (b) (c) What do you understand by hot weather concreting? State the problems encountered in hot weather concreting. What are the precautions required to be taken during hot weather concreting? 149
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What do you understand by cold weather concreting? State the problems encountered in cold weather concreting. What are the precautions required to be taken during cold weather concreting?
platform above water level. The air and water must be excluded from the tremie by keeping the pipe full of concrete all the time during concrete. The capacity of the hopper should be at least equal to that of tremie pipe. A plug formed of paper is first inserted into the top of the pipe in charging the tremie. As the hopper is filled, the pressure of fresh concrete forces the plug down the pipe, and the water in the tremie is displaced by concrete. For concreting the tremie pipe is lowered into position and the discharge end is kept as deeply submerged beneath the surface of freshly placed concrete as the head of concrete in tremie permits. The pipe is raised slightly as concreting proceeds and the concrete flows outward. Care should be taken to maintain continuity of concreting without breaking the seal provided by the concrete cover over the discharge end. The tremie should never be moved laterally through freshly placed concrete. The tremie should be lifted vertically above the surface of concrete and shifted to its new position. When large quantities of concrete are to be placed continuously, place the concrete simultaneously and uniformly through a battery of tremies, rather than shift a single tremie from point to point. The segregation and non-uniform stiffening can be minimized by maintaining the surface of concrete in the forms as level as possible and by providing a continuous and rapid flow of concrete. The spacing of tremies recommended between 3.5 m and 5 m and that the end tremies should be about 2.5 m from the formwork.
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buckets are provided with a special base which limits the agitation of the concrete during discharge and also while the empty bucket is hoisted away from the fresh concrete. The disadvantage of this method is the difficulty in keeping the top surface of the placed concrete reasonably level.
special high-speed mixer. No admixtures are used in this process. The high speed mixing produces a very fluid grout, which is immiscible with water. The maximum size of sand used is 5 mm and the sand should be well graded. Rich cement mortar is used for underwater construction and grouting of pre-stressing cables in post-tensioned bonded construction. The mix ratio ranges from 1 : 1.5 to 1 : 4 with a water-cement ratio of about 0.45. The pre-packed aggregates can be grouted by the following methods : (a) (b) The mould can be filled with grout and the coarse aggregate can be deposited in the grout. The grout can be poured on the top surface of aggregate and allowed to penetrate to the bottom. The method is particularly useful for grouting thin sections. Pumping the grout into aggregate mass from bottom at carefully designed positions through a network of pipes. The formwork should be constructed at the top of the coarse aggregate in this method.
(c)
The grout pressure will be about 0.2 to 0.3 MPa. The quantity of grout should be estimated from the void contents of the coarse aggregates. The pre-packed concrete has lower drying shrinkage and higher durability, especially freezing and thawing resistance compared to ordinary concrete for the same proportions. The rate of development of strength is comparatively slow for the first two months and the eventual strengths are about the same as for normal concrete. This method is very much useful for underwater construction and repair work of mass concrete structures, such as dams, spillways, etc.
SAQ 8 8 SAQ
(a) (b) (c) Enlist methods of underwater concreting. Explain with sketch bucket placing method of underwater concreting. Write short notes on Placing in bags and Pre-packed concrete.
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Placing of concrete, Curing of concrete, Formwork, Finishing of concrete, and Joining or repairs of concrete members.
There are three stages of Quality Control in concrete making, which are as follows :
Second Stage Tests (a) (b) (c) (d) Water-cement ratio Slump test Compressive strength test Tensile strength test
SAQ 9
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State the importance of quality control of concrete. State and explain the stages of quality control of concrete. Enlist the tests to check quality of concrete. State guidelines for quality control of concrete. State the functions of quality control system.
7.20 SUMMARY
In this unit, you have studied special types of concrete and concreting methods under extreme environmental conditions. Concrete is a widely used material containing a binder and a mineral filler. The proportioning of ingredients of concrete plays very important role in strength of concrete. In the next unit, you will study objectives and methods of mix design, yield of concrete and cement factor.
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