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ac)cao
C|oco - _oa|ac
c.ac| _ mac+.+ao
c.ac| _ .m_a_1
c.ac| |c cc|a .+ao
l_ja.m ma._o +_+1
+o_+ +aco
.+ccc - o00 00o
LaLgo GuuLaLsq_me Lmjgeze
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gugga _zs
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Dr. A. gama _c+c
C|)a+aa |g1 ac)cao gc coca
|ajo++o_ a|+
.+c - o00 00o
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Dr. _g)a ma|a T.R.A. Cc_|aa
_gjco ac)cao cc)aaoa ac)cao Cajco cc)aaoa
)+ +co++o_ _o+o )+ +co++o_ _o+o
jj1 .+c - o00 0o jj1 .+c - o00 0o
joc P. )agC+acjc
gco coc| _+ca
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cco
TPeLs RVl : RrS AWdLL TPeLs RVl : RrS AWdLL TPeLs RVl : RrS AWdLL TPeLs RVl : RrS AWdLL TPeLs RVl : RrS AWdLL
TsdLp CVdLLm, RrS TsdLp CVdLLm, RrS TsdLp CVdLLm, RrS TsdLp CVdLLm, RrS TsdLp CVdLLm, RrS
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ja1 _|.|a_g .aao ++a|{o Era oI the Biology ca_jg
.+ao(_++Ca1 .aa .a_og||cao (Biotechnology .aa .+a{
C++|cao BioinIormatics .aa +o Biochip .aa +||a++o
Biomineralization .aa c_++a_o Bioremediation C|a caac+o
coCoa_+_1 |_++|a caac+oa+ c|| _.g1 _ooa _cao )a
+ao|_1 j1 ca_+c+ )c C|_1 +a.+ag .+aoc_1 .aao +ao
coa++ .|g1 gcoaa+ .oog _||a+ |)cao _cao {_{ c|++||||
.o| .|a_|+o Genetically ModiIied Food j1 .o |_++c_++a+oo
;)|+ca .o |ooa_++
ac)cao |g1 coa+ao c+co .oo|++a .aao C+a||a+o
.aa+o c||; |g1 .+ao+co| |a |o+ao|a+ ja1 jg+ .+ao|
.oc|+o | .|a oco +ao ca_+c+ _cca .+1c|||
.+ _o++g |)cao .aa Cc{aao go_aao _o++g .+o
.aao .aa Cc{a .|aaao |g1 .aa .a_og||cao C|a +ao
cao |a|a+o aa cao ac)cao |g1 coa+ao cao g
Ic+aa+ag |+1 ac)a+o __c++o |a+|aa+o |g1 cc)c+o _+a .aa
cc++o |o;+o cc|Ca .oo .+o .+ao|a+o (||c|
+ooooa|o +ao .aao Modern Biology Ca +a{a++g+Co
_oco.aoa1
.oc|ao (||c| cao _ooa|o .a_og|| .aao _aa+
_aoag c|ga .oc|
+)||a +co+ .+a+co .j|_ .+acg1 coo ||a+co cc)cg1
a ac)cao c c_++|a cooa+o |aCco|aao +++oa j1 +ao
ca_+c+ _cca +ao .aao _o1 )a +ao|+a c__c+o
(||c| ac)cao coa+ao C+a||a+co ;jg+ .+aoc{o a
.oog c .oc|ca |aoca++_ ;acc++ Cco1
.aao -ac)cao c _j goo c_c|a ++ _+aa+o |+_
o++|||| |{Caa1 c_|; |a|go (||c|ao ac)caco| |
_(j o coc|aa+1 .oca+1 c_{,ooaa+o
c.ca_ co|c _(c_1 |{|| _co++|||oog |aoc
|aoc+o Ca+_ a+co aaa .+ag+ .+ao1 C|ag |{|||(_oo
C+oc+co ||1 +aaj{_++a|o __||a|c,1 +c{o .+aoo Cco1
_jgo +c|+| |++{o .+a++|||oo |aacc go+co ca|o
|aoca+o |(++ Cco1
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iii
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C|oco - _oa1 _c - .aao ma+1 -I - ac)cao
caca 1 cooee aameem ogcq 12
oeoca_om - g0co a_ga gg 0co oeoca_om - ccoeoq
qaoc cmome _ac ceqom (caom __eeom a_ga
Ocg0caecc_om, c0aaecc_om a_ga ga0eaoOcaaom) -
eooom - camaom
caca 2 Oeo aamao oecq 8
Oec aame _qccec _cg - Oec 0oacca_ - q0a0om0aaq
a_ga _0om0aaq Oec (qao Oec) - gm ge0ea a_ga
cccae ge0ea (TEM & SEM) - q0a0om0aac a_ga
_0om0aaq Oecome ge _eacq - Oecooa - Oec eo (c_ac
Oaaee aagm _eacq) aagm _eacq - Oec ge (agcqom
gmao, eac0caoaecmaa, oeoom, e0ca0eaaom) - Oec
cgcq, ae__oc cgcq a_ga ge_c cgcq a_ga o__e
_aqgoa.
caca 8 qaoc q_ eaccao ogcq 8
0ome _eacqa aa_gga qe_, ec _ao__e _eacqa
aa_ggo_a - a_emome _eacqa oeoom - acaom, oeom
a_ga oeqome _eacq a_ga oeoom.
caca 4 acao ogcq 12
caacmaa aa__a a_ga 0ogca_ 0oacca_ - Oaecee caacma
0oacca_om - g0aa0eaaom o0a caacmaa - __ea_a ggq
qeea eccccc caacmaa - cco0co.
caca 5 qao oaao ogcq 18
Oec cecg oaoac Oeacome _cg (_qccec) -
q0ac0cacmaeqge ceqom - qao oaoaec me cg -
a__oqga, me Oeceoa cqc, eog_ coc, cmaoaa eo,
ammaqqc - acqoo _qc me ammaq ___c - a ocqqcc_qc
c__a 0oacca_om - 0oa __qqa - aoc 0cag _oee -
aoc0cag mqqeqc cagga oaeom - ecqgem g_q
iv
__oqe Oeac_e_ Ocacaaa _ce 0oacca_) ecqgem
aoqeqc cagga oaeom - oea mcca - oeaome
Oeacca_om - e_aeaaa Ocg a_ga gemcc _com - oea
mcc c__age_ __g_om - ccOcaa g_qq 0oacca_om -
oeOcagcome ccOcaa - ecge omaeq aa__a a_ga
aama ecge Qeccc_qqc ogacceoc cco_ce
omgqc.
caca ecOcge aamao ogcq 1u
__0aaoOcaaomc ec Ocgo _e_om - qeo
ecOcgoa (a_eoaae a_ga Oea_eoaae _e_om) - ge
qao ecOcgoa - caeec Ocgoa - aoq 0eaeo oeoom
-cec oggqc - oeq _emqqc - oeqae caoom - oeq
_emqqee oeoom - agaqga _geagqga.
caca 1 o_g o aamao ogcq 1u
aameo_a _o__e Qeca oaeom o_g, a, ae,
Oocca, gm a_ga aameom - a oaqqaoom o_m
Qcqqaoom a_ga _o__c oaecc_a qo _eaom - a_eo
omom caeca_ a_ga qo_ae caeca_ a oea ae e
0eqqc.
v
.ma_o.++1
I. mo_aa cc| 1-8.
1 _ .a|a; .a_|cao 1
2 cc)c+o 1
|a+|aa+o 28
|o c_|;ac)a+o _++a| |o;+o 1
1 __c++o 1
2 _o+a++o o
cc)Caac||+o o
.|C|ac||+o 71
o ccac)a+o g1Cac.|a1+o 7o
II. .+o .aao 8-10
1 .+o- .a (||c| o_ 8
2 .+o .+aoc+ 80
;C)aC+Caa| |g1 _C+Caa| .+o+o 02
o goCoa++ |g1 Io_ goCoa++ 00
o .+o +ca 10
o .+o +c 100
7 .+o go_g|;+o 118
8 .+o.a_|; 10
III. ac), c|mmao 11-.0o
1 Cca o |g1 _co 11
2 |_+ 1o
|oa+o ++o |g1 cc+o 17
IV. |)mao .0o-.o
1 |); .a|a;1 Ccg|a1 20o
2 .|o|o |a)1|a|ao c{+o 210
|a)1|a|a+_ _C)aC|aC+a1 (||c| 222
_c||||| |a)1|a1 227
o |co 20
vi
V. ac) ca_cao .?-.8o
1 .+o ca_cao o+a+ .+ao|o 27
1;C)a|C)acoa+{ |o;+o 28
1_ j .a|a;c|c| 21
1_ .o.o|;1 _||.|aa++,1 21
1o +|g{_1 j .ooaaj {_1 27
2 ja +|go 2o1
2 j)ac| C|a++ __cc+ C+a||a 2o2
2_ j)ac| C|a++c |a{+_1 +a)o+o 2o
2_ _cogco+oo _o |g1 {o .+ao_c 2oo
2o _cogco _a++c |a{+_1 +a)o+o 2o0
+| .||1 2o2
+|a+o |o+o 2o2
_ _ac|aa .|_ _o+a+1 go _o+a+1 2o
_ +|a+o .+aoao |a_ |g1
_c|a|(ao |1 cco+o 2oo
o _||.|aa++a C+a||a+o 272
. +c)|.|a_o+o _||.|aa++ 27o
. cj|)g coa++c |a1 270
VI. _cm.m_++ .aao .8? - .o
1 __+Caac.|a1+o _|.|_++1 287
1 .|o c_|.|_++1 287
1_ go.|_++1 20o
2 |ao|.|_++1 208
2|+)j+ C+a+c+ 208
2_ _)|c|+ +_go 00
cc_coo 1
VII. __co .aao .?-o
1 .aa+1 c __jco,1 27
2 jaca_ ac)a+o _c|jco ac)a+o|g1
cojo ac)a+o 8
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maacc _o+o o
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gQmsma
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II. .+o .aao 8-10
III. ac), c|mmao 11 -.0o
IV. |)mao .0o - .o
V. ac) ca_cao .? -.8o
VI. _cm.m_++ .aao .8? - .o
VII. __co .aao .? - o
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1
I. ug6s gmm
1. gmgGgsLsq Ggsgodm
ug6s gmm
_ac oaecc_a cc oeoaae aameomec0a cc 0og ca_om
oaecc_e_e. _o__e _eacq, ommacq, oa_ca, ae mcc
_e_ a_ga _o__ae Oeaeac _a cc ceqomc_eo
0ogc_e_e. _ac oaecc_a aameome ccqcccc qeea
oa ccec mcc qag. ecqga gg oeOo_cce cq
c_ac cqg _qc a_cg cea_ga 0a_ccc aameom
amme. _eac o_gm 1.1 ceae aameom ac_0a
oomoccc_mme. o_gm 15u,uuu _o_a, 25u,uuu _ga
qaoo_a, 41,uuu _gOogaqc caeo_a _cga. cc0og
aameomec0a oaecc_a 0ogca_oem aa ug6s gmm
(Biodiversity) ce0_aa. ooag cc0og 0ogca_oem
Ooaeqgqaga _qccecac cc aameo_a gqq qeeaoema
Ocagoae c ceqoema Ooaeqgccqeac eooemc cc
g_omaoc cmo _q_g. oameom _eeqeqa _e_aao
__aa _eeqg qaoo_a ocgo_a ccoeo g_omaoc
cmoccc_mme.
aameoem ea oec_qc, Ocam_qc a_ga oeoc_qgqc
_ao_gce Oqacaqeca aamaee cm wmauscq6m
(Taxonomy) cecc_a. q_g _e_cc_qgqc, geg 0eaqqc _a
Ocagmo_a oga. oLGqo ce_ q Oeacec _qe _qec
aGso mGmmo qeg oLs GenG (Systema Natural) ce_ gec
caec_qgeaa. aameomec0a oaecc_a eqOqacaqome
_qccecac _eooem g_aomaoc cmqg _e_aao oeo c_qgq0c
gmgGgsLsq Ggsgodm (Systematics) ceg oeagocaa.
mmauscqm gmpmmmsm
coOagoga _eeqg aameoema __a acag. _eac
oameoem gg g_cccc oegaae _e_ac g_omaoc cmqg
_aaqac _o_e_c c__ __og cmqae_g. Oeec gg g_
_ccg gg g_acqge ceq _g_oc amm _eeqg qecccc
2
aameo_ga Ocagga. ccgaa qeeaea (Diversity) __g
Ooam_qc oeocacqe _ca cmqa_g.
mmauscqm msg
_eg a_ga aeoaog g__ae_omc _mocaqga _og
oacqeq 0eaqoao_a aameoem qaoom a_ga ocgom ceg
cmqq_qea. c gg _ccg _q_ga 0a_ccc aamoem _oaom
e_a oec_qea. __a0oq agqgoqge qeq ceg _eocccc
ceeca oac ga agqgoa es c qaooema ocgoema
ea oec_g, oomoa Oeaqaa.
agqgoqge qeq ce _eocccc goGusGcLo (46u - 811
._) agqgo _aqgoa oaaq c aameoemc ccqaeccaa.
doLscqg _og aaeoa QGms.uoLo (81u-282 ._)
_qe_e_aao agqgoc ca_g _go _aqgoa _moaac
aameoem oeocc_qq _a_ Oeaqea. qaooema
ocgoema _o__e oqoa a_ga oacqge _qccecac
oeocc_qq _oaom _ae_ea. eqq Oqacag omm g nLs (Pliny
the Elder) (28 -1u .c) cecoa qe_eca goGLsdms senso
(Historia Naturalis) ce_ gec _qe _e_aao Oea_eo oeocac_ _e_ea
___oc c_qgeaa. gsmG (Johm Ray) ce_ _c a_eo ___a _qe
_e_aao cq gg aameqge oeoga ppm (Species) ce_ Oeacec
___oc c_qgeaa. ceea 18a g__aeec eaaq omce ac_
a_eo ___a aGso mGmmo (Carolus Linnaeus) cecoaqae
q_0caeqa g_ Ges Gumd mpmm agoaeaa. oa
wmauscqmm gmg ceg q_0cag __acc__aa. odo
oGmcGL (Species Plantarum 1158) ce_ _og gec 5uuu qao
__eoema oLs GenG (1158) ce_ gec 42uu ocg
__eoema oomqgmmaa.
mmauscqmg g_o udms (Taxonomy and Phylogeny)
aameoem ea oec_qc, Ocam_qc a_ga _o__eec0a
oaecc_a g_gea 0o_geaome _qccecac _eooem
oeoc_qgqc _ao_gce Oqacaqeca aamaee gg cm0o
wmauscqm cecc_a. _ooqe - caao0c oe0cac (Augustin -
Pyramusde Candolle) (1118-1841) ce_ ooo-cO_oq qaooac Qqea
oeoccacqac ce_ oaaqeqea _qe _qec caec_qgeaa.
__ea
oeocacqaee _qccec _cg __ea _ga. q_q 0qa__a a_ga
ecOcgoc ceqomc gqg oaeccc_ qo_gmmao0o ec
3
Ocgoa Oeag omaae eqgoem agoaga aamome cc0a
ppm ceg oeagocc__g. __ea, _q_ga 0acao amm
g_aqgc _cga. ooeocac_c cq _eaccc 0a0c Oecc Oecc
_o_ggm _ca g_aome ceeeo _gomqg Ooae0c
0ca_g. cq gg oeocacqga oaecc_a _ _a g_aomaoe.
1. aoea oog 0co
2. -ecoa oog cm
8. ogcq
4. ge_
5. g_aca
. 0cmea
1. __ea.
g_oudms (Phylogeny)
g_cccc gg g_aqge cmeaa ocag .muGsGgm cecc_a.
qe _qccecac _eaocccc oeoca_ cmeaa _qccecacae
oeocca_ cecc_a. _eac q cmeaa _qccecacae oeoca_
cc0caga eaqgacec. Oeec cmeaa oeoccac_g _qaaao
_eaa Oqacgaa cqa g_c0c_omc Qe_a ecOomom
Qcccccaac amme. 0aga cmeaaa cc0caga g0 0a0oac_c
caeqac cccga cec. aameome cmeaaq Oqacace
_qccecac _eaaaq oeoca_oem Oea_eo oeocca_om ceg
_e0_aa. aameoem _o__e cae qg qeeag __oag oeo
c_qgqc, _moe _qccecac oeo c_qgqc (g Oeq, qqa Oeq),
_ome Q_a a_ga Qecaaec aameqge cg _ao__e
_qccecac oeoc_qgqc _aeo Oea_eo _e_ oeoca_o_g
c_qg oac_om _ga. aaagmaae Oea_eo oeocacqeea (Non-
systematic classiIication) aamac ocgaom cae c_qg Ooame_ea.
gm aa mmaousc mp (Two Kingdom System of Classification)
o0aco ee0eao (1158) _eeqg aameoema e_
acoomaoc cmqgmmaa. _eo 1. gsw aa z. mg aa.
1. gsm aa
gc camaom (q0a0omaac_om), gm 0eaoeoq qaoom
a_ga gm 0eaeo qmaaq __eeom eo aaa _cga. q qao
ace _ac ceqomaoe.
4
1. qaoom emoem aecaeo. eco_ce qa eaa ___
acca aecaeo.
2. qaoom oag. g0 cqgc Qecaaeeo.
8. coc 0omc qaoom ooaqqec oacqga gm 0eaoeoac
_goaao o_c_e_e. ce0o _goaao CO
2
eo c_qg Ooae_ O
2
eo Ooma_e_e. 0omc q_g cgaae_aao
ce_g. _qaog O
2
g c_qg Ooae_ CO
2
eo Oomo_e_e.
4. qa0e qa aeeoq qaaa Oeag Ooamoqac eo q_eaa mcc_e_
aecaeo ce0_aa.
5. qaoom oac__ omace qa omageoem Ooaeceo.
6. o o aecca a_ga aq aecca ecaag.
1. qea (Starch) 0ecqc Ocagmao ammg.
8. qao Oecomc Oecooa ae_ Oecomc Ocma oag0oac (Vacuole)
ammg. qao Oecomc Oeec0a 0eaaom ecaag. _o__c
_eooc cqoom oaeccccaa.
u. oa_g, a a_ga _ome aqoae _ca ecOcgoa ecOcga.
caeca a_ga acc ecOcgo_a Ocagoao ecOc_caa.
z. mg aa
gc gg Oeccac _e q0ac0ca 0eaoeo_a ccOecomac _e
ocgom _ccg Oacca 0eaoaeo_a _cga. o__e
ceqomaoe.
1. ocgom g_cccc oqoa aecaeo. emom ecaag.
2. ca oc_ ca oga qeea aecaeo.
8. , coc _a g 0omg0a _mgee c_qg Ooae_
oaace-ec-_eoec Oomo_e_e.
4. ceeaa ccaeaaac gm 0eaeo qmog ecaag. c_ mcc
_e_ea Ooaeceo.
5. oaqeca oma Ooaeceo gg g_cccc _meoa oaeqa
_ecqce ocgome oma Qego_a.
6. o o aecca a_ga aq aecca eg Oqmoao
oaecc_a.
1. 0ecq aeoao em0oage oaecc_a.
5
8. Oeco_g ooa ecaag.
Oecomc _a
oag0oaco0m oaecc_a.
Oeec0a 0eaaom ae_
_eooc cqoom
oaecccag.
u. ocgomc caeecOcgoa
cq gg Oom oaeeaa
e a a g g c c g c e c .
agcqoemc qgccqqc
(Regeneration oI body parts) a_ga
caeca ecOcgoa
_aeo 0aaca_ _ecaaq
cma aameomc ac_0a
ec Ocga.
gm aa mmausc mp6m gmpusa
oe0eameac agoaocccc e_ aco oeocac_ _e_0a
ec oacqgga cec__ccccg. _eac c_oacqgc, cma 0aacac_
_ecaaq aameoemc c__a qooco_a oe_cqcqo_a 0qae_q,
0qae_ ooeoca_ 0cagaaeqaoa, ggcgoaaoa cec.
ooeocacqc oaecccc ge_ca_om ceogoe _ga.
1. c aameom qaoc ceqom a_ga ocgc ceqom _a
eec0a Oc__gqe. (c.oa.) @ms, ousga (Sponges).
_meaoc c __eomc ceeaa ammg. ce0o eo
qaooemc 0cac q_eaaq mcc _e_ea Ooaeceo. _eac
eocceom B a_ga B
12
_ao_e_ eo a_cqg Oeaa _qaaqqac
ocgoemc 0caeg eo _o_e_ Oomaeggc Ocge_e. c
_mea __eomc cooeoom ecaag. ce0o Q_a__eo. c_
mcc _e_eaOoaeceo. Oecgg Oom0a ecOcga Oemqqc
_e_ac o_c_e_e. c __eom _a _a aec Ocagcoem
o_ Oecggm0m0a ecOcga Oemqqc _e_ac o_c_e_e.
ceeaa aeca _mea __eoem gcqc eoqqac _eo
cooeooem g c_ mcc _e_ac o_c_e_e. e_a
gmac eoqqac _eo cooeooem e_a Ocge_e.
_meaoe oeqmmac. (eye spot) @oLsosQm (ocgomc
oaecc_a Q_) oaecc__g.
2. __eeom cecc_a cmeo 0eaq aameom oa qeq qeea
oaaqeo. eoo_gc ceeaa ecaag, ocgoemc 0cac
_ac aoea

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moa aoea
uLmi.i gmg as mmsuacg
mpmm mwss mmuLm
6
c_eaaq mcc_e_ Ooaeceo. _eac __eeom ooeocac_
_e_ac coeaeaae qaoo_ce 0eaqg oeoc_qqccc_mme.
8. camaom 0cae_ 0aaca_ _ecaaq aameom qaoc
ceqoema Ooaeqgccgcec. ocgc ceqoema
Ooaeqgccgcec. _g0cac om Gsa ceg _eocc_a
aameom _ca 0cae_ accqeq Ooaeqgqaga __eeoemc
0cac oegcqoem aecage_e.
4. eooom aagmmeoa _ccg aa__eooma cecg e_ma
ooaqqg_gma gg ogqqao0o ammg.
0a__a oaeomeac 25u _e_ oacaaa q ee0eame
oeocca_ (aameoemq qaoom ocgom ceg e_
cmomaoc cmqqc) oa Oea_eoaaeg.
gg aa mmausc mp
R.H. mGLas (R.H.Wittaker) (1u6u) ce_ _Oamo oeocacqac
Qqea _eeqg aameoema _o___ec0a oaecc_a
cmeaaq Oqacace _qccecac gg acoomao oeoc_qgeaa.
ooeoca_ oec _a ceqome _qccecac _eagmmg.
1. Oecee _eacq - q0a0om0aac _ccg _0om0aac
2. aegcc _e_ - q_eaaq mcc_e_ _ccg c_ mcc _e_.
8. acc _eacq - gg Oeccac _eg _ccg cc Oecomac _eg.
4. g_ac cmeaaa _ccg cmeaaq Oqacaq
gg aaaswm : Oaaea (Monera) q0acqoca (Protista) __eeom
(Fungi), qaoom (Plantal) a_ga ocgom (Animalia).
1. Gsms (qGsGadGmscam aa)
gc _eeqg q0a0om0aac_ aameo_a _cga c.oa.
mGas dsos, camaa, _q0ea eac_om (e camaom)
a_ga ee0ea camaom (cc coa ca) eo oec ceqoem
Ooae_mme.
1. eo o geeaeo. eo aeeaaae Q_maeo
Ooaeqgoag. eooeac cccc ge@gcqo_a ecaag.
2. eo q_eaaq _ccg c_ mcc _e_ aecaeo. c camaom
q_eaaq mcc_e_ aecaeo. eo ge Gesma usdma.
eo ma gm ___ee _ca gm 0eaeo Oeag oea mccc
Ocagem a_cqg Oeaa g_e aecaeo. c.oa. omud.
7
ccamaom GwQe Gesma usdma. eo c 0og
oeeomc o_cc_ _gegg ecga ___c _ca oea
mccc Ocagem a_cqg Oeae_e. n.as. mcGesGsmso,
mcGs GuLs.
8. mGesdm, ocGLsusLs a_ga soqdqm 0cae_
camaom Oomaecc ecgee Qec Qgqg
_a0aaeaaoao aa__a Oeae_e. Qo a6dm mcgm
Qm Qggg ceg _eocc__g.
4. c camaom gc_eeomaoa c c_aa
camaomaoa amme.
5. @s usdms (Archaebacteria) 0cae_ c Oaaeaom _mge
___ (anaerobic) Qec, 80
o
C 0cae_ o _go OoccQec, _go acq
Oe_ amm Qec _cqqeea oaaq ae 0cae_ c o _gqaae
o_gcq_ ega oae_e.
z. qGscqoa aa
gc gg Oeccac _e a oa _0om0aac_om_cga. eo
oec ceqoem Ooaeqgga.
1. eo Ocagoao _0om0aac_ Oec _eacec0a Ooaeqgga.
o__c ca oc_ ca o meaa (Cilia) _ccg oeeaeom
(Flagella) oaecc_a.
2. Ocgacacaeeo gm 0eaeo Oeaa q_eaaq goom. eea a_ga
occomc eo0a cqae a_cqgaamaomaoq goe_e.
_eeqg gg Oec qaoo_a .mucGLsoscLm (Phytoplanktons)
cea _eeqg gg Oec ocgo_a gosLm (Zooplanktons) cea
Ocagoao _eocc_e_e. -ecc0ca cmacceom
gm0eaeo qmoe. Oecooa ae_.
8. cmacceom Gasmg Qm@ (Predatory) oeoea eaaqeo. Oec
ooa ecaag. _caeoc 0caeg 0_a0ca 0eaa (Holozoic) mcc
_e_ea Ooaeceo.
4. c q0acqo_om gc_eeom, c c_aaom. eeaeo
eqcceo. @ms ce_ q0ac0caoa e_ oeoaae
mcc_e_ea Ooae_mmg. ma gm ecga 0omc
q_eaaq mcc_e_eaa ma gm ccaq 0omc c_
mcc_e_oema Ooae_mmg. q_g aoq mcLmp
(Myxotrophic) ceg Ocaa. ce0o _mea, qaoo_ga
8
ocgo_ga ec0a ammqac o_e_ qaoomaoa c
eaaomc ocgomaoa oeo c_qqcaa.
a. _gmea aa
gc 0aac_om, agaom cecc_a oamaeom, aagecom,
Qcgecom, c-c cgom (PuII balls) _eccq g_ __eeom (Bracket Iungi)
_aeo _cga. eo _0om0aac_ Oec _eacec Ooaeceo.
eo oa@a ceqoem aecaeo.
1. eo gg Oec _ccg cc Oecomac _e aamom.
2. o__c ceea Q_om ecaag. _eoaac eo c_
mcc_e_ea Ooae_mme. u4mms 0cae_ __eeom
gc_eeomaoa mGesouo 0cae_ eea __eeom, _q
_ooc Ocagcoem eaag oa_a acgeeomaoa amme.
8. o__e acca Oacea e 0cae_ cee__ e_-caomac
_eeo.
4. o__e Oec ooa macqm ce_ Ocagmac _eg.
4. gsm aa
cc Oecomac _e _eeqg Qcoaq qaoo_a a oaq
qaoo_a occ _cga. oc Ocma cmomae _coaom,
ce0aa-ecc_om, Ocm0ca-ecc_om ga0eaoOcaaom a_ga
__0aa oOcaaom qqao acoqeq eaaqeo eo 0
_ccc_mm ceqoem Ooae_mme.
1. Oecom Oecg0cameac _e aggaae Oecooe
Ooae_mme.
2. ccoeoaae mcc_e_ aecae. ceeaa ce_ Q_eac
Oc__gccqac Ocgacacaeeo q_eaaq mcc _e_ aecaeo.
_mqao c qaoom c_ mcc _e_ea Ooae_mme.
c_qgoaccao oog_cca (Cuscuta) gg gc_ee. GouGgo
a_ga qsGos _e@a qaoom _ga.
s. mg aa
gc cc Oecomac _e _0om0aac_ aameom _cga. eo
GcLsGeswma cega _eocc_e_e. eo 0
_ccc_mm ceqoem Ooae_mme.
9
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8
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.
ceq Oaaea q0aLqmca __eeem cmaeL0c e0aeaa
Oeoee
qeea
q0a0om0aacq _0om0aacq
_0om0aacq _0om0aacq
_0om0aacq
Oeo
eacq
Ocgacacaeeo
ggOecaam
Ocgacacaeeo
ggOecaam
ggOec a_ga
ccOecaamom
Ocgacaceeo
ccOecaamom
Ocgacaceeo
ccOecaamom
Oeoooa
Ocgacacaeeo
omcae_
co__cae_
co__ccec
ae_ ae_
cec
ae
mLcccm
gmeaaq, c_eaaq
_ccg 0ogeaaq
c_ mcc gmeaaq
c_eaaq gmeaaq
c_eaaq
ae
mLc_e_
a__oqc
a__oqc
_ccg
o_gqc
Ocgacacao
a__oqc
a__oqc
Ocgacacao
o_oqc
ega g_e
oga g_e
ammeo_ccg
___eo
oga g_e
ammeo_ccg
___eo
oga
g_e___eo
oga
g_e___eo
oga g_e
aecaeo
Lcoee1.1 gg aoe oeecaLqo amm gg aoeemec0a eaecc_a
0ogca_em
10
4. ocgomc c gc_eeomaoa oaecc_e_e. c.oa. qcecc
q_om a_ga agemc q_om.
gg aa mmauscqm Qmpa
1. aameomec0a oaecc_a cmeaaq Oqacacee ooeoca_
cgce_g.
2. cma _eaccee Ooae_mm q0a0om0aac_ Oec
_eaccegg ocae _eacec Ooae_mm _0om0aac_
Oec _eacce _qccecac q oeoca_ _eagmmg.
8. gg Oec aamaa _ccg cc Oec aamaa ce_ aceceacce
_qccecaga q oeoca_ _eagmmg.
4. ooeoca_ mcc _e_ _qccecaga _eagmmg. q_eaaq
mcc _e_aa _ccg c_ mcc _e_aa cecqe _qccecaga
_eagmmg.
gga mmauscqm gmpa
1. smGLsGsmso a_ga gGsGs _aeo qao acc
0eoccc_mme. _eo gg Oec aamom. _qcac o_e_
q0acqoca acc 0eaqggo 0oe_a.
2. ocg q0ac0ca0eaoeom ocg acoqgc 0eaocccocec.
8. ocg q0ac0ca 0eaoaeom q0acqoca acc gg Oec
qaoo_ce 0eaoccc_mme. _eo 0og oeoaae mcc
_e_ea Ooae_mme.
4. gg Oec _0om0aac aamaae ooc_om, q0acqoca acc
0eaocccocec.
mmaougggm a a
aameom, 0ogccc qeea aecaqaga _eo cc ceae
_e_o_g _ecg0q cmeaa oma _ecg ogmmqaga, cc
Oqagcqo_ec0a Qe_a ecOomom oaecc_oqaga
gccoccaae, emaae gg oeo cacqee agoao _qogcec.
aameome oeoca_ cc0caga aeq __oe omaeac
cgcee_g. qg oe_cqcqo_a, __a, om om oeoca_a
aa__a _ece_e. 1u1ua _e_ oac _cg __oac__aom,
q0a0om0aac_om ___ga, 0ogccc Oqacacccaq g cmoem
Ooae_mme ce oec_qea. 1uuua _e_ C. 0oao (C.Woese),
O.oaecca (O.Kandler) a_ga M.L. meo (M.L.Wheelis) ce_ _eg _cg
11
__oac__aom, 0a__a qga oe_cqcce _qccecac gg qga
oeo cacqee ___occ_qgea. qe _qccecac _eeqg
aameo_a _eg _a cmom (domains) _oc cmocccce.
1. @Gadms (_eeqg _0om0aac_oema ammcag.
2. usdma (_oe0o eg __acccc q0a0om0aac_oem
ammcag)
2. cma _eaccee Ooae_mm q0a0om0aac_ Oec
_eaccegg ocae _eacec Ooae_mm _0om0aac_
Oec _eacce _qccecac q oeoca_ _eagmmg.
8. gg Oec aamaa _ccg cc Oec aamaa ce_ aceceacce
_qccecaga q oeoca_ _eagmmg.
4. ooeoca_ mcc _e_ _qccecaga _eagmmg. q_eaaq
mcc _e_aa _ccg c_ mcc _e_aa cecqe _qccecaga
_eagmmg.
gga mmauscqm gmpa
1. smGLsGsmso a_ga gGsGs _aeo qao acc
0eoccc_mme. _eo gg Oec aamom. _qcac o_e_
q0acqoca acc 0eaqggo 0oe_a.
2. ocg q0ac0ca0eaoeom ocg acoqgc 0eaocccocec.
8. ocg q0ac0ca 0eaoaeom q0acqoca acc gg Oec
qaoo_ce 0eaoccc_mme. _eo 0og oeoaae mcc
_e_ea Ooae_mme.
4. gg Oec _0om0aac aamaae ooc_om, q0acqoca acc
0eaocccocec.
mmaougggm a a
aameom, 0ogccc qeea aecaqaga _eo cc ceae
_e_o_g _ecg0q cmeaa oma _ecg ogmmqaga, cc
Oqagcqo_ec0a Qe_a ecOomom oaecc_oqaga
gccoccaae, emaae gg oeo cacqee agoao _qogcec.
aameome oeoca_ cc0caga aeq __oe omaeac
cgcee_g. qg oe_cqcqo_a, __a, om om oeoca_a
aa__a _ece_e. 1u1ua _e_ oac _cg __oac__aom,
q0a0om0aac_om ___ga, 0ogccc Oqacacccaq g cmoem
Ooae_mme ce oec_qea. 1uuua _e_ g. Gwso (C.Woese),
12
O.asmcs (O.Kandler) a_ga M..wo (M.L.Wheelis) ce_ _eg
_cg __oac__aom, 0a__a qga oe_cqcce _qccecac
gg qga oeo cacqee ___occ_qgea. qe _qccecac _eeqg
aameo_a _eg _a cmom (domains) _oc cmocccce.
1. @Gadms (_eeqg _0om0aac_oema ammcag.
2. usdma (_oe0o eg __acccc q0a0om0aac_oem
ammcag)
8. @sms (_eeac _acamaom ce _eocccceo;
q0a0om0aac_oem ammcaeo. eo Ocgacaga _gq
o_eaaae Qecomc oaceo. q oeoca_ q_0cag
_eeqg aamac ocgaomaga _g Ooammccc_mmg.
ce0o oeoca_om Oqacag aa_ Ooae0cqae gga cecgc
gacec. ___ga Qe_omo qa gaaaeaae gg cc0caga
gqgOoamm qa gg oeoccacqac eaqgag cec ce_ac
eoaaoag.
gm Qod
gg agcOce
emaae eceaq 0qaOq_
1. oeocacqe _qccec _cg
_) 0cmea _) __ea ) g_aca o) caoae
2. eea a_ga occomc qg oaecc_a gg Oecqaoom
ooag _eocc_e_e.
_) _coaom _) cmaceom
) -ecc0cacmaceom o) Oqa_gq qaoom
8. oa0aco ee0eao ___occ_qga oeoca_
_) g_ccmeaa oeoca_ _) e_ acooeoca_
) gg aco oeoca_ o) a_eo oeoca_
0eaqLc cqeq Qcqe
1. mocaa 0o0 ----------------- cecoac c_qccccg.
2. _a0oq agqgoqge qeq ---------------- _oaa
8. __ea ce_ Oeacec _qe _qec ___oc c_qgaoa --------
4. o3o cmae0ca ce_ gec c_gaoa ----------------------
5. oeocacqac (Taxonomy) ce_ oaaqeqea _qe _qc ac0aaqqoa
------------ .
13
Ocagqge
Oqacgaa cqa g_cqom - gg aco oeoca_
oc0coa - __ea
o0aco ee0eao - oeocacqac
gae 0 - g_ccmeaa _aa
_goqe oe0cac - o3o cmae0ca
e_ agcOceem
1. ccgaa qeea ce_ac cee
2. oeocacqe _a 0aoom aaeo.
8. oeocacqac - oeag
4. __ea - oeag.
5. oeocac_ cq Qec _eacce cc0og _cgoem c_go.
6. g_c cmeaaa (Phylogeny) ce_ac cee
1. g_c cmeaa oeoca_ e cc0caga eaqgacec cecq_g
e_ oaeom go.
8. g_ac cmeaa oeoca_ ce_ac cee
u. Oea_eo oeoca_ ce_ac cee - c_qg oac_q qgo.
1u. _a camaom cece aaeo
11. C.0oao O.oaeccca a_ga M.C. meo _0aame qga oeocacqe
_eg _ac cmom aaeo
12. eq Oqacaq Oqagccac (Systematics) oeag.
gg agcOceem
1. qaoo_ga ocgo_ga ec0a oaecc_a 0ogca_om
aaeo
2. __eeo_g ce qeaae gg acoa (Kingdom) ggoccccqe
oaeom aag
8. _meaeo oeocc_qgqec amm aoem c_qg go.
cqg agcOceem
1. gg aco oeocac_ _e_ea omgo. _qe Qe_, ge_oemq
Oqagqg c_go.
2. e_ aco oeocac_ _e_ea omgo _qe Qe_, ge_oem
c_go.
14
z. mmoa
m@m
aagmmo__e ceqoema aa__eoome ceqoema
Oc_gmmqac eooom, e_ma aamac occao_g Ocma
qgao0o amme. ce0o eooo_g oeocacqaec qe
caqae ggoccc_mmg. oc0come gg aco oeocacqc
eooom ogqgc Ooammcccocec. o geea, cccae
ge0eaaeac ac_0a oaeqa, 0aea agoaga,
Oecggm oa_a occaa gc_eeom ceg q_0cag eooom
oeagocc_e_e.
mwoam Ggspp gpgg wsg
eooome o geea _moe oaeaao _eooemc c__a
__ aamac ocgao_g ec oacaao ccaa0c0a gqg.
_eac camaom _ccaq 0og ca 0aea aecaga
g__ecaqao gqga Oqma oqg. 1ua g__aeqc qeoaecae
cc oee ec 0aa (Oaaee) eoo (TMV), oeo gaao
_aqgoa oaaq qeoaecea o_eaaao qa 0eqa
aecaa 0cagqae eooom, _aaaamaome ooeqeq Ocmqa
ooaqg.
0a__ ecae ea__ee 0aaccaq ecac Oqmqqa0c _g
0aaoaaccccg cecqee Gms cecoa Qgcqg oacqeaa. 0a__
ecae ea__ee cama oqocq _ca oqocqe c_ga c
_eag Oqa_gqqeea oaaqqao gqqac, qOqa_gqqeeag
oaea camaom _cc cecqee gGwsGmso ce_ a
__oac ___a Oomcc_qgeaa. co ge@aa ocga GuLgd
(18u8) cecoa g0oa0eaoae oe_ cqcqoem magqcc_qgeaa.
_oa eoo _ca ea_ee Oqa_gqqeea oaaq aagmm
goa ("contagium vivum Iluidum") ceg _eqqaa. ceea g0o mmae
(Virion - oa ceg Ocagmcc) ceg _eoccccg. 0aea
aecaga gomom eooom cea _eoccccg. W.M. oLsm
(1u85) ce_ _Oamo aaa 0ogaac Qqea eoooem cqooqoc
qecc_qgeaa. ccqo oqoga _eo 0aa aecaga g_e
15
aecaeoaaa gqe. g0o mwsg ce_ qga __oac cm
_acaao _q0oaeag.
Gusgoumqa
eooom cccae ge0eaac ac_0a oaeocce.
qaoom a_ga ocgomc 0aea aecaga g_e ammeo. qq
ae_aac cccc Q_m _cqeq aecaeo. Q_m _ca
q.ce.. _ccg _a.ce. _ga. _eac eo eeca 0eag
Ooaeqgccgcec. eooom eaqae Oec _eacec
Ooaeqgccgcec. cq gg omaeq aa__qg_ga 0qeoaae
_eaceca eo Oc__goocec. eo Oecggm0m oa_a
occaa gc_eeom. gaqaa Oecggm ac_0a Ocgoaece_e.
gaqaa Oecgg Oom0a eo __eaaao Oeac__eo.
cLwmm 1.z mwoam qQs
eomeme eomeme
aaacceqem aa__ ceqem
1. gaqaa qaoOec _ccg ocg Oecgg Oom0a Ocgoaeca
Oece_m0m Ocgoaeca g_e ___eo
g_e aecaeo
2. 0aea agoaga g_e aecaeo cq gg omaeq aa___a ___eo
8. Q_m _ca, qqa a_ga q0ac0cacmaea ___eo.
Oagoem Ooaeqgqqc
4. gaaa__a _eca g_e cqocc_qq _qa
ammeo.
wqw
eooom o geeaq gomom, _o_e_ cccae
ge0eaac ac_0a oae_qa. eo 00ea cca ce_
_ceac _mocc_e_e. (100eacca = 1u
-u
cca _ccg 1 cca
= 1u
u
00eacca) Ocagoao eooome _m 2u 00eaccmegg
8uu 00ea cca oe amme. o geea _m, cama oqocqac
m_go Oecga qeea _a ooe_a eooome _cq
_aeom _ga. eooome _meo oe_ogc oa@a
_e_om cec__cc_e_e.
16
1. cccae ge0eaae _ca 0mecaaoc caaqg __qc.
2. omee aaae gemo_ce qa eooe _ca oqoc_qc.
Ooo0og _mmm gemo_ce qa eoom amme. o__c
omeeaaao eooom oqocccc_e_e. cq _m gemac
eooom m_go Oece_e, cgc Oecc _qaocec ceceq
oec_g eooome _meo __a _qa.
8. _cca Oeecm-c_ge _ca mcq agoagqc : a_e_ac
m cqoaqee mqqg_ga gomome _m a_ga oqoqg_ga
amm Oqacacee caec_qg gomome _meo oec _qa.
4. gc3cqe _ca _mqqc : oec ooom gc3c_oaoc
caec_qqcc_e_e.
1. oOc-ec0caoaoo (Staphylococcus) 1uuu n.m. occqeq aecag.
2. 0cm0aa-0cge _m 1u-1uu n.m. oe ammg.
Ocagoao eooom _eg _a oqoomc oaecc_e_e.
1. oeeg oqoa (Cubic symmetry) : cc 0oae_ecaeo _ccg 0oam
oqoa. c.oa. qGms mwoa, ne.g.m.
2. n_ wqw (helical symmetry) (c.oa.) qma6m Gsme mwo
(TMV), gm.q@mmes mwo.
8. ocae _ccg _eaqae oqoa. c.oa. cam0aa-0cg. cao
eoo
+c+_, cc1
.c cc,e
+_e cc1
e.._e
a.+e;
{_+e.. +.+.
,,1;
.c c.9;
ec.+_+e
+ce+.+ ,,1;
+++cc cc1
.+... .._
cc
+__.
..c. .+.+. ;
cc .ee.
__L
cc +e
.
ec.+_+e
oc :.s o;oaw o0g qa
BXA
17
mwoam moq
eooom e_ _a caooem Ooae_mme. 0ecL
cecc_a qq ae_ 2. _m _ca. 0occ cecc_og Oom0a
oaecc_a qq ae_aaga. qe ce am0m amm Q_m _cqeqc
cagoaccg _ga. g
0ec0eaaaem cecc_a
g0 aagmaae _a
_cgomac _eeo. c
eoooem o__ga
Oom0a gg ae_a
oaecc__g. c.oa.
c.g.. eo
ae_mm eomem
ceg _eocc_e_e.
eeaeo ae____eo
_ccg g_q eomem
ceg _eocc_e_e.
Q_m _cqgce
gcq oaecc_a 0occ
_m0aa 0ecL ce_eocc_e_e. Q_m _ca eaaqgc
ammg. eea aagmm Oecoemc 0cac _ccaac eooom q.ce.
eo Ooaeqgga _ccg _a.ce. eo Ooaeqgga. gg 0caga
eeca gg 0ec Oc__goag. eome Oqa_gqqeeag
Q_m _ca oaeaaga. gaqaa gccoccqqeeag _qe qq
ae_ oaeaa_g.
wdmsm
gaqaa Oeogg Oom0a Ocgea eca _qaaq,
Oqa_gqqeea oaaq, gg __eaaae eome_g mmaae
ceg Ocaa.
wsLa
qq ae_a__, oLc oqoaae gme _a.ce. 0o maa_
ceg eecc__g. maa_em, Lm c0ma eaaLqm
(Citrus exocortis) 0cae_ oee _aqgoa oaaq co qao
0aaeem aecage_e.
_+m+ ae ( ) 4)
0+o+c (q)_)
uc6 :.+ oa) quuocu usaa 68
18
ddmsma
eo 0aea aecae ooo qqqgemem. aeqe a_ga
eea ogeme aqga aq aecoqeqc cagga co
0aae_g eo eaeaae amme. c.ea. gaLm-OcoL -
0gec 0aa (Creutzfeldt - 1acob Discase), aa_eme _em
0eamag 0aa ceg Ocagoae eecc_a. 0caeoe
mca_caaa ce-c0oacg (BSE). go g_cccqqeg
ceeOoe_ao eo q.ce. oog _a.ce. 0cae_ cq
aqcOcagema Oeaeqgeaqgqae. mcaee qgea
cmaaeemo _aa Oeag 1uu8o 0aco cmeec Oc__aa.
mwoam wmaous
gg aco oeoccacqc eooom gg acoaao ogqcccocec
ce_aga eo qeqq gg oeocacqee _c_qga _mg qeqgoa
oaaqeo.
gaqamae _qccecac eooom oec aeg oeoomao
oeo c_qqcc_e_e.
1. gsw mwoa : _coa eoooema eo ammcaeo - RNA
_ccg DNA aecaeo.
2. mg mwoa : aeq eoooema eo ammcaeo. RNA
_ccg DAN aecaeo.
8. ggmeam mwoa (ea0oaeooom) : ome RNA
aecaeo.
4. usdmsmm mwoa (cam0aa-0cgom) eo ea0ea
0cgoema ammcaeo. DNA aecaeo.
1. gsw mwoa
eo qaooemq qa 0aea agoage_e. c qao eoo
0aaom ceogaag.
_. qeoaec, Oommm a_ga oae-cmome ccoee ec 0aa
(TMV a_ga CMV)
_. oaeae a Ooaqg 0aa
. agemae ec ogm 0aa
o. qoamae qmm __oc 0aa
oae-cmoa Oaa0ea eoo qo _eeqg qao eooo_a
_a.ce. eo Ooaeqgga.
19
z. mg mwoa
eo ocgoemq qa 0aea aecaga. o__e _m
_ca q.ce. _ccg _a.ce. _ga. aeq_g eooac aecaga.
c 0aaom em, _aea, Ocmaaea (q_0cag ___ga
goccc_occg), __aea, a_em oaaaec, O_acco,
O_ccaceccqo A,B,C,D,E,G, e-qgaeoa, macmem oaqa
(Polio), Ocae_g m (Mumps), Oo_aaoq0aa (Rabies), caco
(AIDS) a_ga eaao (SARS). __, aa_ 0cae_ oacecomga eooom
0aea aecaga. c.oa. oac eco_g oga 0oaaam 0aa (Foot and
mouth disease oI cattle) ggeo_g oga ce-Oo-Oc0caaaeccqo,
aao_g oga qoOcaca 0aa, Oo_ aaoq 0aa _aeo.
__eeo_g 0aa aecaga eooom ea0oa eooom
cecc_e_e. cccoaca (ea0ea camaom)oemq qa 0aa
aecaga eooom ea0ea-0cgem cecc_e_e.
4. usdGms.Guga
camaoemq qa 0aecaga eooom
cam0aa-0cgom _ccg -0cgom ceg Ocagoao
_eocc_e_e. eo qeccccec oqoa aecaeo. Q_m
_ca DNA _ga. c.oa. T
2
, T
4
, T
6
camaa 0cgom.
.Gugm wsgmae ngp
eo e_ oeoaae oaeo o_ea aecag.
0 L+ ua _0 ) a0 ma0 oa
ee c + o_g+
geLo LQ_ e
ee 0 oaOgc+
o_g+
q 0 ) a-0 Lg
Ooeec
@) c o LeL_ e
-0 Lgc .c.
qgmee_ e
LOaQp_ e
mgg
OmagOLaao q
-0 Lg
DNA
ec) o dc
OLg+ +
DNA
La+ ua Ooeec + e_
qcg 0 oap_ e mgg
-0 Lgc Ocm 0 agg
LL .S .GL@ oLq g@ oGoaO@ gg
20
1. mma_mm _ccg eccq o_
2. mmaa__ _ccg ec0eaOge o_
1 . wdm g mcq ngp
gc 0cgom Oecgg am0mc Ocgoaecoqac gaqaa cama
Oec Ooqqg __g. wdmsma Oom0a__cc_e_e.
mm_mm -0cge Ocgoa oec cqomc ecOcg_g.
1. gLqOeam_qo 2. m_gqo 8. -0cge caeem a_cqg
Oeaacc_qo 4. 0eaee 5. _ga ecqo . 0ea -0cgeme
Oom0a__a.
1 . gcqGas@g
cama Oecec -0cg qeg oac cggae _ca eeqec0a
gcqOoam_qc ce0_aa. -0cge gaqam gccoccqqeea q
Qeca0c0aq gaaaeoccc_ o__g. -0cgeac cmgc qao
_qaaq cama Oecec c Oea_eo _e_ac -0cge q.ce. eo
c_qg m _ca Oegqq _qa. g 0caeg g_q (qq ae_ ___)
_m _cqeq ac_a c_qg gaqaa Oecec Oegqgog DNA
acGeggg (TransIection) ceg _eocc__g.
z. m_g
Q_m _cqge m_gqc, m _ca aggee acOegqga
Qog gccao ecOcg_g. -0cge q.ce., _qe ammc__
eaagaa oaao cama Oecggm Oec_g. m_goggc c_g,
-0cge qecccgga oac cgga cama Oecgg Oom0a Ooga
_ 0cac oac _m_g.
a. .Gugm usaa apugQ GeLmoug
Qecac camaqqa, camaq.ce. a_ga _a.ce.
_ao__e a_cqg qecc__g. _q_g cgcao -0cge q.ce..,
_qe qecccggac amm qqa, oac cggac amm qqa _aeo
qeqqeaao cama Oecec a_cqg Oeaacc__g. cc 0oae
qecccggac q.ce. geocc__g. ggaao oac cggac amm
_eacqo_a 0eaoocc_e_e. g 0caeg -0cge cc caoom
Oqagoccc_c ceq 0aecaga eoo gomoemq
0qa_goccq_g Qse mLg ceg Ocaa.
21
4 . .Gugam GwGmpp
-0cgome Oom0a__a eaqaeaao cama Oec Ooqqg
_oqac _c__g. -0cgome Ocgoqge0cag cama Oec ooa
eoecg, occ oqoqeqc Ocge_g. ceq Ooq_g _ccg
eqg o__g. am0magg _gaaecq 0ea -0cgom
Oom0a__cc_e_e.
mGesGgm ngp
ooeoac, mmaa__-0cgom gaqam Oeco_ce ggoq
c__eo _c_qg Ooame_e. gaqaa Oecom _o0qa,
eqgo0qa ecaag. am0m geqce mmaa__ -0cge q.ce.
cama g0ea_ce ggeeg o__g. -0cge, g 0cae_
ggeeq Q_m _cqg_g q0a-0cgom ceg Ocaa.
gaqaa Oecee g0a0aa0eae gg cgg 0cac0o Oeaccc_ q
q0a-0cg _q_c0e0ac Ocgoaec_g. q_g mGesGgm ceg
Ocaa.
q0a-0cegq qe g0eac Ooaeqgga cama Oec
mGesGgm usdm ce_eocc__g.
q q0a-0cg, c qga ceqoem camaqg_g og_g.
q_g mGesGgm spp _ccg .Gugms pu spp ceg
Ocaa. q_g _q c_qgoac_ q.odms Guo ce_
camaqgeac aecaocc_a c ocOcagcom _ga. q
ocOcagcom aecaoq_g oaea gc amm 3cca q0a-0cg
(Prophage beta) _ga. q0a-0ceg eac, ecOcagm aecaga
qeeaa o__g.
gsw mwo GsLa
wsmg6m ae Gasgg GsL
oaeae aOoaqg eoo 0aea aecag_g. 0a__
qaoa oa oma ge_c 0ca_g. ecom ggocaoa _aqaoa
aage_e. qaoqge ac cggac cagocccc ecom gg occ
oqoc GsGec 0caeg oac _me_e. ceea 0eaeo (chlorosis),
a_ga ecom oge_ acgqc _aeo 0qaege_e. 0aa
qaocccc qaooem aceqaao 0ogce c_ c_qg gaec
0oe_a. _c0cagqae 0aa __qgmm qaoo_g coag.
22
qQgsag Ggsmg mwo GsLa (mgm)
ace cc0og caoomga _eeaac 0qae_mm eoo
0aao_g c_qgoac_om c0caca eoo (Ebola virus), c.g.o (HIV),
Ocg, hemorrhagic Iever, cooa ga (lassa Iever), m-cc cmmqqag ga
(RiIt Valley Fever), eaao (SARS), caco (Oc_cccc 0aa cgacq eg ge_
0aa) (Acquired Immuno DeIiciency Syndrome).
nLco
caco cag_oeac co qa ecqgc oe_cqocccc
eooac aecaga gg 0aa g. q eoo aeq 0aa cgacqeg
ge_ eoo (Human Immuno DeIiciency Virus (HIV) ce_eocc__g.
HIV, Oc0a eooom c_a gg oeo eoo cmeo eaaqeo.
aqa Oecom (helper cells) ce_eocc_a gg T
4
ea-0caeec_oem
oeooom qa aeq acee cgacq egea ge_e_e. HIV, T
4
ea0caeec_oem qa _ccqac _eo ceeeoac ge_g,
0aa cgacq egea ge_e_e. g ccoqaae Oqa_g go_a
qao o og_g. caco 0aa ac_0a gg _cOoace 0aa cec.
caceo eaqoaao eoqg gea cc oqaae Oqa_g 0aao0m caco
0aea gg _cOoace 0aaage_e.
GsLgpa
HIV aeac oaaec, acc cec ge_qc, qqq Qea _qoom
moa, 0aa cgacqeg ge_oac _c_a cgaqg (T.B.) 0cae_eo
_c_e_e. 0aga 0aaac cagoccccoaom gaq qecoe, _eg,
qqq oa_gc0cag, o_ec gac, Qea Oec q_g0aa (lymphomas)
t_
0Jc
_0s
0Jc
=mg _s.om.
oc :.s g 0gs oQsoq sQ op 0gs o;o ( , 018
23
_ao__ac _oggoa. c eaaomc eaa aq aecc_a
cagoccccaa. oaaga Oqaeecc cggaga Oaeqeccqom
0qae_caa. oc _goaao oaaga. c eaaomc ae0oamag,
cqeqac 0oamag _aeoa 0qae_caa.
GsL Ggspg wma
HIV _aaao cag_oeac co qa gg eooaga. g
_goaao gme 0eaeoac o_c_coaomec0a (homosexuals) _goaao
oaecc__g. cag_ 0aa aecaoaom, ccgce acg_
Ooamcoaom, oec aaqaom _0aaao_g q eome qagqgg
ammaga oaacqom _goa. q eoo ccgce acg_ Ooamoge
oaeaao0o _goa c_g.
caco ca eea oeoomaoe : qq aa_g, a_ga go, agcq
_ao_e_ 0aa oaacccomcgg qaeaaoc Ocga0cag, emaao
g oa Oeaacccaq mom, m_oom 0cae_o_e_ ac0aaqqc,
0caeq mea ac0aaccoaom cca aa_, aa_ _0q mea
ac0aaocc_qgog cec ccoeoomga caco c_g. caco
0aaeac qaocccc qaae ogogmm oa q 0aaeac
cagoccc_a. qaaccac Ooa_ccqe _c_a cagocccc
qaacgg 0eag 0aa ca.
goqmp
caceo gecc_qga o ecaag _eoaac 0aa oaac
oaccgqae cc 0aa q_cq _e_ _ga. oeae_ ___ _e, Oce
acg_eoq qoaqqc, _@e_oem ac0aaqqc _ao__ac
acg_oe _ca 0aa cqecq qoao _qa. 0caeq meac
caec_qgoaom ggac ggac g0 meac caec_qg _qeac caco
ogoeq qgq ocoa_oe _ca q_o _qa. qqqeq ama
_e_ac cm0eagqgc ceq qqa aa_gqc _ca qqa a_ga qq
eacqaae Ocagcoemq qaea Ocgoqe _ca coeqq q_o
_qa. 0a__ qaacgg geqgc coeq ogeo oecq0qa
_ccg oggqecq q_q0qa qoaocaa. _m0caeqqe
(Azidothymidin) 0cae_ aggom 0aaeac qaoccccoaome
oaaem gg c aaqom _gomo ac_0a caec_e_e. __eaaao
0aeaq oc_cc_qq acag.
mwoa@ qpg Gs
q_g0aa cecg oc_ocoaq g_o__ _e_ac Oecom
cgccecg omag ca ocqomao agoaogqae. ocqomc
24
amm Oecom acee cc cggo_ga oac__ gac ce_e.
ecqga _aaome _qoe cq eeae eoo (SV - 40) ce_a
q.e.. eoo-a Oc0a eooom cecc_a _a.ce.. eooo_a
q_g 0aeaq 0qa_goe_e ceg oe_ cqoccc_mmg. q_g
0aeaq 0qa_goga eooom q_g 0aea agoaga eooom
(Oncogenic Viruses) ceg _eocc_e_e. qqc q_g 0aa (leukemia),
cgaqc q_g 0aa) (Sarcoma) a_ga aaaqc q_g 0aa _ao__ga
eooo_gc cg ae_ ceg oe_cqoccc_mmg.
esso (SARS) nmpmgaaou qQmGgs_ GsL
Qm amse GsL gp6 (Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome)
(SARS) ce_eocc_a
0aa q_0cag Oqe g
_aa, oc _Oamoa a_ga
g0acca _a a_omc
gccqao __ooccc_mmg.
Oeag aco aomec0a
o_a 3gea _c_qg
gcc0qa_ oc_a, ea
0cae_ a_omc Ocagmaqa
gaao oa cagcec
aecammg.
GsLgpa
o_eaaae gqgce 0aa _acaa_g. qecoe, acc oe
a_ga acc Oemomaeea _a 0aag_o_a 0qaege_e.
0aaamom o_c_ gaga a_ga _ooc a_a _ecoa.
esso u mg
0ammoao_ce Ogoaaoq Oqacaq gqac g_ccao
Oqa_gqqeea oaaq _oq goa 0cae_o__e _ca eaao cmgc
c_g. eaao 0aea aecaga eoo Oqacag oqoqeq aa__
Ooae0c gccqac q_Ooeg q_cq agg (Vaccine) oe_cqccg
o aa oaaqqao ammg. eaao 0aa, 0oa0aea eooom cecc_a
ae_mm eooomac aeca_g. o__e g0eaa g_e_ eaac
_e _a.ce.. _ga. Q_m0aa0occ ogm oqoa aecag. ma
0oa0aea 0caeg q eoooem o__ q0cae_ com amme.
0o+0+e+
mda+e
uL1.z mg Oas0;sms mo;m
25
mmo goq _ga (Virus Vaccines)
gaqame 0aaq q_cq ___ecc caec_qg eoo 0aaoemq
q_cc0q eoo q_cq aggome 0aoaaga. eoo Oqa_g
0aaoemq q_o o _q, Oec ge_q o q_c_ a_ga q_cq
aggoemc caec_qgo0q _ga.
gmLs.Gusma (IFNs)
eo gaqamc agoaocc_a, eec0caeoee oeoea eaaq
qqomaga. eo, eooome Ocgoqeq qec Oeae_e.
aagmm ocg Oecom0ca _ccg _a eaecac go omacce
_ca 0qaega Oecom0ca eooome qagqc 0cae_ ge_qc
oaeaao eca-Ocaeom agoaocc_e_e. eoo qagqgg
aeq acec 0qaega _qc cgacqc Ocagm eo0a ceg
accc__g.
mwoam mggw
1. eooom aamac ocgao_g gg qgao0o amme. Oeec
eo aagmmo___ga aa__eoga ec0a amm ccec
0oacqc _eag e_ga amqqae ceqoem Ooae_mme.
2. o__e cmeaaae _eacq a_ga 0ooaaoc Ocgga qeea
_ao__e oaeaao eooom aamac ocgaome _a
_a ogoaaoc caec_e_e. g_ccao _cg aamac,
aqc Oca_aac a_ga agqgoa _a ge_omc eo Ocmga
_aaoaoc caec_qqcc_e_e.
8. gg oemooqa _oem gccgc eo Ocgacg
oe_e. aam ggaaOoace gccomc (Biological Control
Programes) eoOcmga ac0aaocc_e_e.
4. _o__e 0aa caga qeea oaeaao eooom
ooeaaqge_ac ammoao_gc Ocga ooecea
aecage_e. cam0aa -0cgom aeec amm ecgee
Qeccc_qga camaoemq qa _qg aeee omqeq
ge_e_e.
5. Oqa_eaecomc eooom a, a_ga oaeom qaamccc
caec_e_e.
26
gm Qod
emaae eceaq 0qaOq_
1. qeoaec Oaaee eoo oec oqoa aecaeo.
_. oeega (Cubical) _. ogm oqoa
. _eaqae ocae oqoa o. egoqoa
2. eome Oqa_gq qeeag g oaeaa_g.
_. qq ae_ _. Q_m _ca
. ae_ o. oac aaom
8. eaao 0aag q_cq agg oe_cqccgc amm aa
ceeOoe_ac.
_. eaao eoo Oqa_gcOcagcome oaaoc c_g.
_. g ae_mm eoo
. g Oqacag oqoqeq aa__ Ooaeqgga.
o. g ome _a. ce.. eo aecag.
0eaqLc cqeqc _aqg Oea
1. ------------------- _qe _qec eoooem cqocc_qgeaa.
2. eooome e_ _a cggc Ocagcom -----------a_ga
----------- _ga.
8. _eeqg ---------------eooo_a ome _a.ce.. eo
Ooae_mme.
4. q.ce.. eo aeca qao eoo ----------------------- _ga.
5. caceo aecaga eoo --------------------------- _ga.
Ocagqge.
eea0ea-0cgom - 0oa0aea eoo
ea0oa-0cgom - c.g.o.
eaao - cc coa ca
caco - camaa
-0cg - __eeom
e_ agcOceem
1. oaea g: eooom aamac ocgaome qga _ga.
2. oeag : eoo
8. eooome aaac ceqom ceo0a_a eqee c_go.
27
4. eooome aa__ ceqom ceo0a_a eqee c_go.
5. eooom ga aa__aeca ceqmmeo qe _aqgoa aag
6. eoooemc cqocc_qq _qa qe _aqgoa aag
1. eooome _eg _a oqoom aaeo
8. _cca Oeecm -c_ge _ca mcqoqac _e_ac eoooem
_mccge _qccec aag
u. ae_ce qa eooom ce_ac cee
1u. Q_m0aa 0occ - oeag
11. eooomac 0qa_gooqa qao 0aaom ] ocg 0aaom ]
aeq 0aaom aaeo
12. oaae ] oaaa_ ] cmaae - oeag
18. _0oaOge eooom ceceo aaeo
14. ecca-Ocaeom cecc_ceo aaeo
gg agcOceem
1. eooome _meo _mccq_g eoaamcc_a _e_om
aaeo
2. aam ggaa Ooaceom (Biological Control) ce_ac cee qgq
c_qgoac_o_ce omgo.
8. g_cq c_go : eooome _aqgoa
cqg agcOceem
1. -0cge eccq o_aeega ec0eaOge o_ea
0ogc_qgo.
2. caco ] eaao _a 0aaome oaea, 0aag_f_om a_ga
q_cq _e_om c__ gg oc_e oeo.
28
a. usadma
ge@aaome acoqeq _qe _qcao 1616a _e_ @mLmwsm
@wmgs ce_ __oac ___a qeg cma ge0eaae _ca
oec_qaa. c_g g cecoa c_ge0eaea oec_qge
_ca, camaom Oom acggq Oqma oqe. eo o _a
aamom _eqac eo ae pm gm6da _ccg gmmm
mga (inIusorial animalcules) ce_eocccce. camaoemc c__
omoao _aaq @6 usLoLs (1822-u5) 0aaom c__a Ogaa
Ooameoea Oomaccaa. gsusc Gese ce_ Ogaae ac_
ge@amac__a ocgo_g _c_a 0aao_g q
ge@amomqae oaea ce _ 0aao_ga ge@aao_gaae
Oqacacee Qgcqqaa. _qe _qec usdms ce_ Oeacecc
caec_qgaoa eca (182u). cecoaoaa. camaoemc c__
omoaoc cqga cmg usdmsg _ccg usdm6m
ceg Ocaa. camaom _eeqga qGsGadGmscq _eacqeca gg
Oec aamomaga. _qaog eooeac cccc Q_mama a__
Oecge@gcqo_a ecaag.
ws_L
camaom _0oaao ccca comga oaecc_a ccca
o_gcq_omga, _ooc Ocagcm _goaao amm comga eo
oaecc_a. oa_g, a, ae a_ga _eeqg qao, ocg accomga
oaecc_e_e. c camaom Ocagoao oOaeec (Commensals) _o
oae_e. oaaeec cecg e_ 0eag oa_a aamomc geg
caeeca, a_O_aeg cqoqc ca_a e_ oaecc_a) a.a. aeq
g gcec oa_a noGedms Gasm. c camaom c_aa
oaeo _e_ac o_c_e_e (c.oa. mGesdm) eo Oca
qaoomc amm 0oa _qoomc oaecc__g. cc camaom,
qaoomga ocgomga a_ga aeqao_ga 0aaoem
aecage_e.
m
camaom o geeaeo. eo eaemaao u.5 _qc 1 eaae
occ_a 8 _qc 5 eaae oeacae m_a aecae.
29
usdmam wqw pg modm qoumL6sm
wmaous
camaaoe oqo _eacec _qe aggaae Oecooa
Qaea_g. Ocagoao camaom Gaswqw (Coccus) Gas wqw
(Bacillus) a_ga Q_g wqw (Spirillum) aecaeo. c camaome
oqoom aaga qeea aecaeo. _qaog eo gegga 0a_ccc
oqoomc oaecc_a (Pleomorphic) c.oa. @sgGsusLs eo
dGmsss.d ceg _eocc_e_e. 0oamoqo camaom
_o__e Oeccgcce _qccecac cc oqooemc Ocge_e.
. qoGsasma (cec 0oama) Oecom g0 gg gc
cgccecg eqecao 0gaqaao oaecc_e_e.
@. oGLGoGLsasma (ee 0oama) o oeoac Oecom g0
gc cgccecg cc Oecom eeg ec ee oqoc
oaecc_a.
g. GLcsasma (aeg 0oama) Oecom e_ gc cgccecg
aeg aeg Oqagcqomao oaecc_a.
= oGL.muGsasma (Ooaqg 0oama) Oecom _eg gc
g_o__ gac cgccecg 0oamoqo Oecoem Ooaqg
Ooaqqao agoage_e.
a. essGm Oecom g_o__ gac _eg gc cgccecg gg
oeeg _eacec agoage_e.
0+aocc
ome+ 0+ao
@)ceL0+ao
oL :.s osamra oqa
oeLee
O+apg+ 0+ao
0+aecc
ome+
0+aecc
30
0oacoqo camaom qeqqeaao0oa cecaao0oa _ccg
ee 0cae0_a oaecc_a. Gasdmusdm q.odGm ce_ 0oac
oqo camaqgc Oecom gegOoaeg _goaeaac Ogoaao
ggc 0cac __occc_ oaecc_a. (cae0ec _eacq).
usdmsm asmou ame6mg m mp
_eeqg oeo ggg camaomga Ocgacacae 0oac oqo
camaomga gg c 0oam oqo camaomga oeeaeom
oaecc_e_e. oeeae _ea _e_aaeg ceeeo a_ga
_eacq _qccecac e_ Ocagc cmomao 0ogc__g.
1. mm moq oeaeom cama Oecee gg _eea0ca
_ccg _qe g _eea0ca _eag oaecc_a oqqge
_qccecac oecoag oeo c_qqcc__g.
) gpmp ame6mg wma gg _eeac g0 gg oeeae
ac_a oaecc_a.
@) g_ apmp ame6mg wma gg o_e_ _ccg gg Oqagccao
oeeaeom gg _eeac ac_a oaecc_a.
g) g_ mm ame6mg wma Oecee e_ _eeomga
oeeaeom oaecc_a.
z. npgame6mg moq ooeoac Oecec o__ga _qe
0a_cccc cocao oeeaeom oaecc_a.
a. ame6mgmppmw ooeo camaomc oeeae oaecc_og
cec.
g_e_ eeeaeg
g_ee eeeaeg
eeeaeg ___eo
uLm i.e Gusamsmm sme6mg mm
o_g eeeaeg
gg e_e_ eeeaeg
31
ame6mg6m uma
0og ee_oem oeeaeom oec_g _qee 0a
oae_e. q oeo ao _e_g GwQg gmL as (Chemotaxis)
ceg Ocaa. c oeo camaom gg g_cccc geeac eaqoaae
0ogcOcagcom _ccg. aec Ocagcome gecgg _c _qee
0a oaqec Gsmp GwQg gmL as (Positive Chemotaxis)
ce0_aa. 0ogc Ocagem oc_ (gea oemooqa) oc
Oecga Qo nQsmp GwQggmL as (Negative Chemotaxis) ceg
_eocc__g.
usdmsmm amgcL mp
gpessq mcL mp usdma
c camaom qo_gq 0qeoaae aeoeeq qa0aq
qaamqg Ooame_e. ce0o _eo q_eaaq mcc camaom ceg
_eocc_e_e. _o_gm c g gpessq mcL usdma (Photo
autotrophs) c.oa. omud. c 0og q_eaaq mcc camaom (Chemo
autotrophs) c.oa. mcGes Gsmso a_ga mcGsusLs.
g gpessq mcL usdma
ooeo camaom ma gmea _qaaao Ooae_ aeeo
a_cqg Oeae_e. _eac eo _0om0aacq gm eaaq aamoemc
0caeg a _c goemc cmg ___ecc Ocgogcec. ce0o
cama gm 0eaeoae 0cag _mge (O
2
) Oomaccc_ogcec.
e_cge _mccaee _qccecac Ocagqg eo oecoag
oeocc_qqcc_e_e.
maa ggpessq gma (Photolithotrophs)
ooeoac _eooc Ocagcom e_cge _mccaeao
Oeacc_e_e. coa oqo camaomc (c.oa. gGsGsdm)
e_cge ec-ec_ (H
2
S) e_cge _mccaeao Oeacc__g. gc
oaecc_a cooeoa usdGmsmdqm _ga.
mqa oqo camaomc (c.oa. g0a0acqaa) q0aa ec-0cc_
e_cge _mccaeao Oeacc__g. gc amm cooeoa
cam0aa g0ma0a-cc _ga.
32
aa g gpessq gma (Photo Onganolithotrophs) o__c _oo _com
_ccg _co_acom e_cge _mccaeao Oeacc_e_e (c.oa.
0a0camecmooa 0cae_ mqa oqoa__ camaom).
GwQ gpesq usdma
ooeo camaomc gm0eaeo Q_om ccaqqac eo
gm ___ecc caec_qg Ooamm _qogcec. _q_gc cgcao eo
_eoo a_ga _ooc Ocagcome _mge __a _ca ___ec ATP
oqoc Ocge_e. ooeoac Oc_cccc ___c
oaace-ec-_eoec _mge __a Oeag _ooc Ocagcoem
agoao caec_e_g. _mge __a _eca Ocagcome
_qccecac eo oecoag oeoc c_qqcc__g.
. maa GwQe essq gma (Chemolithotrophs)
gc _eooc Ocagcom _mge __a _ecg ___ec
Oomcc_qge_e. c.oa. oqo camaom (gGmsGuo)
2H
2
SO
2
-->2S2H
2
O ___c gaq camaom (.GusGsGuo)
e_cge camaom (mgqgGms Gsmso), a_ga ecgee
Qeccc_qga camaom (mcGesGsmso, mcGsusLs)
_aeo _ga.
@. aa GwQe essq gma (Chemo Organotrophs)
ooeoomc _oo c_c Ocagcom _mge __a _ecg
___ec Oomo__g. c.oa. q0qe camaa (Oaqq0eaoaoo)
0aga cGLs usdms, sGLsuso _aeoa _oo 0og
eaaq goo_g c_qg oac_omaga.
dp mcL mp usdma
eo qa0a ae qaamo acaqqac c_ mcc _e_ea
eaagmme. _eo acgeeomao0oa (c.oa. Guo eoqo),
gc_eeomao0oa (c.oa. qao gc_ee - esGgsGsmso cm ]
ocg gc_eeaao0oa (c.oa. Guo @gso) aeq
gc_eeaao0oa (c.oa. modGms asG) _ccg Oc0e g_acq
qao 0oaomc gccg 0cac c_aa oaeo _e_a0ca eeg
oae_e.
33
usdmsm asmou nwse mp
acLsm aspge nwsa (Obligate aerobes)
ooeo camaomc gg cccae _caao _mge Oeac
c__g. eo oa__cca comc omaogcec (_qaog _mge
ccaq comc) c ea0aoaoo camaom acLsm aspg
nwsasa oae_e (eo aaa oa occaaaao _mge
0qeocc__g).
aspps nwsa (Anerobes)
ooeo camaom omaoq_0oa omaeq aa__qg_0oa
_mge 0qeocc_ogcec. _eac Oagqqc oeeome _ca
eo ___ecc Ocge_e. c.oa. socdqm
GaoGms.d usdma : eo oaace-ec- _eeecc
caec_qg omga camaom _ga.
Qmsg aspps nwsa (Facultative Anaerobes)
ooeo camaom _mgee cccae _caao caec_qg
_mge __ _e_a0ca _ccg oa__ccaac ecOcga Oagqqc
oeeae _caao0oa ___ecc Oc_g omae_e. ooeo
Qecaaga oa__cca ooaec camaom oa_g ooaom cea
_eocc_e_e. n.Gasm 0cae_ Qecaaga oa__cca ooaom
c 0omc c oa_g ocq 0cae_ 0aa Oqa_ga comc q
o oeoao _g goqa _eeqg _mgeea ac0aaqgc
ceq oa__cca omaeq aa__qg_g aage_e. qeac _g
oa__cca Qec agoa_g. _g amm oa__cca ooae camaom
omaoq_ga 0aea aecaoa eo ooge_e.
nmGLsoGussa
eo 0oac oqo camaomc eaqoa__ Qecome 0cag
agoae_e. _gaccoeaao Ocgacaeeaaae 0aaoem
aecaga camaom Occceo a_ga _qo camaom qo)
ce 0cao0caaoem agoagogcec.
34
gmoGu_a
gmLsao dgg
(Binary Fision) oeoacae ecOcgo _e_ Oog cocao
camaomc oaecc__g. qe oaeaao camaom _g
oeoc Ocgoaece_e. qe oemoao0o cac qaao aagqc,
aec Ocagcom Ooc_c 0caqc _aeo Qoe_e.
us gmoGu_a
oac_ome agoaoa, oac_ome ee _ao_gce Qo_a
_e_aae cac ecOcgoa cecg camaomc ecaag. ce_a,
_eg Ooo0og oqomc camaomc geome ag0eaeo
Qo_g. _eoaaoe. (Transduction)
1. ee (Conjugation)
2. caeoce (Transduction)
8. acq aa__a (TransIormation)
1 . gmm : ooeoaae ge ag0eaeoac wg Oeccaeg
eccme _caao Gug Oecgce ee_g. ecco omag
ee gecq 0qa_go_g. F + (omaaeoae) ea aeca
o Oecee osoc cqccec_g. q.ce. oe gg e
ac_a ee gee oaao Ocga Oecggm ge_g. q
eg eeaae a_O_ag q.ce. eea Ocga Oec a_cqg
Oeag Ooam__g.
z. csmoLm : Transduction: ooeoac -0cge (Bacteriophage) qq
ae_ae _caao o q.ce. Ocga Oecgg c_qg
Oecccc__g.
a. gmq spp : o oeoac Ocga Oec, o Oecee q.ce..
oee accao0oa _ccg ogoccaaaao0oa _g Ooam_g.
camaome gg c eo0m g0cae_ acq aa__qg_e
aecaeo. eo o q.ce.. oee moac Oc_g
Ooame_e. _a eaecac acq aa__a ogoccaaaao
Oea_eo _e_ac geccc__g. _go acq Oe_ a_ga
gOeg OoccQecea aa_gqc _a Oea_eo _e_omc
acq aa__a gecccc_ Oecgg _acae cmao_om
35
oga Lama
(cmamuQL qag)
eLcm
e Cgaq
gmeg uagg
oga eg LqLLaqc
OLg eg LqLLaqc
eq Cgaq cmqc
oga Lama
(nmege_L qa
cmamuQ neLag)
OLg Lama
(nmege_L qa
cmamuQ neLag)
uLm i.io ussam gm
cmamuL eg
gqLLeLqc
OLg Lama
(cmamuQ _ggeo)
acOegqqcc_e_e. ggGusmg mgacLsmsa Gegag msm
osofam acGeggQ usadmsmm gmq sppgmg gmmggG
dm Gusp6mgag qoumLmsa mpg.
eeu
Gga
me_
uaggu
OLgu e_
zLLLago
eejg
Gga mmgo
o_as e_
zLLLago
36
usdmam Gus_sgs mggw
aeqee _e_ac oaoc camaom Ocga cg oe_e. c
camaom geacacce, c aeq_gc caeqgceo _ga.
m umag Gema.
1. usadmas gsma@ag amLsg GsLa
gaqaa 0aae Ocaa 0aa aecaga
qaoqge camaqge Ocaa
Ocaa
cgee co 0oeoa GeGgsGsmso cd
Oc cacma Oocq GeGgsGsmso gmGe
cgqg 0oae eccqmm GeGgsGsmso sGwGm
0cm g Oocq 0aa gGLsGsmso GesGmoGm
0oc Oae __oc nsmmms GacGLsGwss
z. usdmas mga@g amLsg GsLa
gaqaa 0aae Ocaa 0aa aecaga
oe camaqge Ocaa
Ocaa
__om _qao Guo @gso
aa_om qgOec0camo q_Ges GussLoo
Oeaa_ __om qgOec0camo qGsGes GcGLmo
8. camaaemao aeq_g _c_a o 0aaem
0aae Ocaa 0aa aecaga camaae Ocaa
oaca modGms asG
ec-caa_ esGsGms mL.d
c_cag0cao mGasusdm c@usgGso
37
usdmam mm umg Gema
1. a a
acgee camaomac oc Ocagcomc amm _ooc
Ocagcom eqocc_e_e.
z. gsw, mg neea mgaoug
qaoom, ocgom _ao__e _q accom acgee
camaomac eqocc_e_e. eqqg oaom a_ga acqoem
eo aeega, om aeccqgga Oomo_e_e. ce0o ooeo
camaom gmpma a a (a_eo 0qacq) cea
_eocc_e_e.
a. mw
1. Guo sGsoo a_ga Guo masLLo 0cae_
Gsmmswsg camaom _q qao, ocg
accomegga ocae qqoem _a0aaeaaoao aa__a
ceq _a0aaeaa acqomao aa_ge_e.
2. mcGsusLs a_ga mcGessmso 0cae_ ec0ccaga
camaom _a0aaeaa acqoem ecec_ a_ga
ec0ccao aa_ge_e.
8. ocGLsusLs, soqdqm a_ga e0eacaa (c_aa
camaa) 0cae_ mcgmm Qmougg usdma
omaecc ecgee _oo ecgeao aa_ge_e. g0cae_
camaome Oeacomac ae oma _gome_g. ecge
_ca c_c Ocagco_a ecgeao _me __a
_ece_e.
Gus_cam g ngp
oaace, _mge, ecge a_ga oqoa _a qeaome
o_ac camaom _a cg oe_e. ooa_ao Qecac
eo gg eaQecea aecage_e. a_eo o aao
camaom Oeaccc_ _ooc Ocagcoem _mge __a Oeag
oaaceec-_eoec Oomo_e_e. ecge _ca _oo
c_c Ocagcom _a0aaeaaoao _qec eqoccc_ ceq
ecec_ _aeaaoa ec0c_ _aeomaoa ec0ccaga
38
camaomac _mge __a Oeaac c_e_e. aaa qaoom q
_aeoemc caec_qg _ooc_c Ocagcoem a_cqg
Oeae_e. ecgee ga camao_a ecge _ca
c_c Ocagcoem _mge __a Oeae_e.
Ggspesm6 usdmam ug
1. us pg us GgsLsusm Gus_cam Ggspesm
caq _c camaa (c.oa. oGLGoGLsasao sqo)
caec amm 0c0cao eaoeea caq _caao aa_ge_e.
C
12
H
22
O
11
H
2
O -----------> 4C
3
H
6
O
3
___c
0ca0cao caq _ca
caecq qaao aa__ GGLsGuo uGadao cama_a
cacaec ocqaao aa__ GGLs Guo GLs.Gusuo ce_
0cq _c cama_a ac0aaocc_e_e.
z. qasq (mmas)
_mcq _c camaqge (cGLsusLs cmL) Oeacac
oeoa (_mcq _ca) a_cqg Oeaacc_e_g. ogaq
eeoaegg (molasses) Oc_cccc cqqgc _co_aec q camaa
Oago Oeag oeoe aecag_g.
a. @ags pg cGLsm
soqdqm cGLsd@cqa ce_ oa__cca ooae
camaqge Oagqqc Oeac _ca ogaq eeoaegg c_cecc
_co_ac, Oaqgc _co_ac a_ga _mc0cae _aeo
Oc_cc__g.
qma6m, Gg6m pg as.d ugouggg
c camaome Oagqqc Oeacomac 0qaec, qeoaec
a_ga oaccOoacec _aeo _o_ggmqqae aeqeqc
Ocge_e. g0o 0qaec, qeoaec a_ga oa-cae cqcc_qgqc
cecc_e_g.
ssamo ddgGggg
mamqmqaa 0cae_ c camaome Oeacomac aa qga
qaoomegg aaom cmqOq_occ_e_e. g0o OLq
cecc__g.
39
_ggwgQ usdmam ug
1. gm6s Gasa
geeaaOoaceom cc camaomeg0qc Oc_cc_e_e.
c.oa. camcame (Guo eoqo) caeme (Guo
usm) oOcc0caeae (oGLoGLsmeo mmmo).
z. mwcLma
aeq gcec oa_a noGedoms Gasm eocce K a_ga
eocce B _ao_e_ Ocgamoc a_cqg Oeae_g.
soqdqm ce_ camaaoe __eom cc eaoeea Oago
Oeag eocce B
2
eo a_cqg Oeae_e.
qo Gusp6m usdmam ug
acac a_ga _cg __oaec q g__aeqc aa Oc_gmm
__, geeaaomc, g_ccao, c.0oaec 0cae_ camaomc
0a_Ooaec _aaome oem0o _ga. aeq eoee gee
camaag aa__ oeo gaao, Ocgamoc, eoeee a_cqg
Oeaog gc gg g_cccqqgq Oo__ _ga.
a6d g6s Gasasa usdma
0camoco oeoea eaaq Guo gdgGgmo 0cae_
camaom, _om a_ga oeeqgc _ome q_oem Ooacc
caec_e_e. g 0cae_ camaomac a__ qaoo_0oa
ocgo_0oa cq gg cagcqa ccaqqac eo Ocgamoc _c_
caa 0aaoem oc_c c_qqc cae c_e_e.
nm Qod
gg agcOce
emaae eceaq 0qaOq_ea.
1. co oqo camaaoc oaecc_a ceea Q_
_) camac ceeaa _) cam0aaomqe
) -ec0oaeaee o) -ec0oa cmqme
2. aaga oqoqeq aeca Oec ooag _eocc__g.
_) oecmccom _) cm0aaaaa-c
) c_amom o) aa - Oocqo
40
0eaqLc cqeq Qcqe
1. 0aaome Ogaa Ooameoea Oomaccoa -------------- _ga.
2. -------------- camaome omag Co
2
_oaaa_g.
8. 0ogcOcagcome ee_omac o_a cama oa -----------
ceg _eocc__g.
4. cama gm 0eaeoae 0cag --------- Oomaccc_ogcec.
e_ agcOceem
1. oaeecom ce_ac cee
2. aa - camc qo ca m a om ce _ac ce e
8. aa - Ooc qo ca m a om ce _ac ce e
4. 0og q_ eaa q go om cec c _ c eo aa eo
5. ac q aa_ _a ce _ac ce e
6. camaomac qaoo_g]aeqao_g _c_a 0aaom ae
e Ocaaoem go.
1. ca m a o em a_ eo ae o om ce e _e 0_aa
8. camaomegg Oc_cc_a ge@aa Ooaceome Ocaaoem
c_ go.
g g agc Oce em
1. camaome ccoqaae oqoom aaeo c_qgoac_q qgo.
2. ca m a o me cc oeo aa e oee a e _eac q o em oo m.
8. Oqa_eaecomc camaaoe cee oom.
4. aeomqgc camaome cee omgo.
cq g agc Oce e m
1. ca m aa oc oaec c _a cac ec Oc g o _e_ a ee oo m.
2. camaaoe Ocagmaqa _aqgoqeq oom.
8. ca m a o me mc c _ e_ g_q g gg oc _ e oe o.
41
4. u mgoqg gsmam
am umqa
4.1 __eeem
ooaao __eeom qao acc 0eaoccc_mme. oc0come
ggco oeoccac_g __oag __eeom acoa a_ga qao acoa
(_coa, ce0aa-ecc_om, Ocm0ca-ecc_om a_ga
ga0eaoOcaaom) _aeo e_ qe acoomao 0o
oomoccc_mme. (__0aa oOcaaom ocao).
poqo umqa
__eeom ceeaa _ccaq _0om0aacq aameom. eo
occ Oo__oaao Qecacccccc oc Ocma aame
ccaaga. eo ccca comga oaecc_e_e. qaooemc
0cac o__e Oecomc ooa oaecc__g. _eac o__c
qaoome _ac cecao ogqcc_a ceeaa ecaag. __eeom
oa_c_a occocaeg. a amm comegg Qca oe o__e
oa_ca commg. eo gec occee Qaca comga, oea
mcccOcagcom Qaca oma qmomga oaecc_e_e. oamaeom
(mushrooms) 0aac_om a_ga ooc_om Oog eaqaeaao oaecc_a
__eeom. q aaa0oamqgc eo oga _a cgoaoa
Ocagmaqa gaaoa agqgo gaaoa aeq_g oa
caec_qcaga. __eeom o _aqgoa oaaqqqao
ogqcc_e_e. __eeoemc c__ __oac cm eaoacg
(__eeaac) cecc__g.
ge@aa oa Oeaqc a_ga _a eaecac ge@aaoem
omaqqc (culture) 0cae_ gccom camaoemc 0cac0o
__eeo_ga eoaamcc_oqac eaoacg ce_ ccm
ge@amaaee (Microbiology) gg cmoao0o ammg.
42
ggmeam gmoumqa
1. __eeae Oeco_g ooa ae_. eo macqm cecc_a
_cecc gg0oaeeae _cgoamc _e gg caeameac _eg.
2. eoomc ceeaa ecaag. ce0o eo c_ mcc _e_ea
aecaeo. eo acgeeaao0oa, gc_eeaao0oa _ccg
c_aao0oa amme.
8. geeccm 0aoq0oaea0oaqea __eeoemq qo _eeqg
__eeo_a oga g_e__eo.
4. 0ecqc Ocagm qea ecaag. ceOea a_ga em0oage
_ga.
5. o0caaome _ca ecOcgoa Oeae_e. ce_a caeec
Ocgo_a oaecc__g.
eacq
__eeae acceacq qe oqaaeg. qe acca gg Oec _ccg
cc Oecomac _eg. cc Oecomac __ee eg emqgc ceea
Oacea gc oqo e_-caom cecc_a eomac _eeo.
e_-caom _eeqga 0eag Oaaqqaao eaeaa ceg
_eocc__g. e_-caom aeeaaae Oecomaoc
cmocccocec. _o__c q0ac0cacmaea Oqacaaao0oa _ccg
_o0o Oecca (septum) cecc_a. ggg ooao_c0ea
oaecc__g. q ggg ooaom e_-caoem Oecom 0cae_
cggomaoc cm_g. ooa_ao e_-caomaeg ggg ooa
aecaeoaao0oa (septate) _ccg ggg ooa __0_a (aseptate)
oaecc_a. ggg ooa ___ e_-caomc cc Q_eaoom amme.
q_g 0eaeecq (coenocytic) ceg Ocaa. goOoag e_-ca ea
Oacea, aggaae Oec oomeac ccc_mmg. g ecg_ce
_oq +o jj o_.o
_oq +oco + o_.o
_oq +o
_sms
(!Oooscs)
LL. GaLqg.Lag@
gQcass_Lqv g.La
43
qa caeeaoe_omeac _e eocqe ce_ Ocagmeac _eeo.
o@oaeome (arthropods) Oom cgaq cqc (exoskeleton)
oaecc_a Ocag_a eocqe _ga. eec0cacmaeqgc _0om0aac_
Oecomc ooaao oaecc_a ge@gcqomae
eac0caoaecmaeom, 0oaceo agcqom, ce0cacmae oec,
e0ca0eaaom a_ga oag0oacom _aeo oaecc_e_e. _gaq
e_-caomc oag0oacom Ocmaeoaoa eec0cacmaea ooe
gcqa gg Oacea cccaaoa oaecc_e_e.
am mcL mp
__eeom c_ mcc _e_ea Ooaeceo. _qaog _eoo_g
oeaomegg Oc_cccc oaace 0qeocc__g. 0aga _0ea
_comeggc Oc_cccc ecg_a 0qeocc__g.
__eeome aegcc_e_ Ocagoao a__o _e_ cea
oomocc__g. Oeec eo qo_eca accqgg Oom0a
amm mccc Ocagem a__ c_qg Ooam_g. ocgomc q_g
aa_ao ae _qec acOoammccc_ ceq a__ecc__g. ce0o
__eeac ae Oemqqc Oecgg Oom0a amm Oagome
aqoaac Oomac ecOcg_g. __eeom qeg mccqeq
acgeeomao0oa, gc_eeomao0oa _ccg c_aaomao0oa
Ocge_e.
cgmma
_q __ac Ocagcomegg qom mccqeqc Ocga aamom
acgeeom cecc_e_e. acgeeom q oeac Ocagcome
g Oagoem og _o_e_ Oeme_e. ce0o ae Oemqqc
aamg Oom0a ecOcg_g. ooag ecOcga 0cag oea
qac Ocagcom __eeae accqqac a__eccc_ qe
aaaaocc_e_e.
acgee camao_a __eeo_a eqcceo cecc_e_e.
mccc Ocagcome ag o_aga, aco Oeaogga eo _a
cg oe_e. eo acg (humus) cecc_a Ocagem
aecage_e. acg cecc_og mccc Ocagcoem ammca
__a oeac Ocagcome ccc0a _ga. Oecg0caeo eqga
g_e Oc__ Oecg0co ce_ Oagea oga c __eeom
eqccgc _a cg oe_e. qao Oecee _a _oaao
44
Oecg0cao ammqac eo Oecg0cee occeoomac
eqoccc_ acoa_g.
gcmma
a_O_ag aamae am0m _ccg _qe 0ac oa_a gg aam0a
gc_ee cecc_a. gc_eeg ae a_ga gccca
_ao_e_ _mga aam gaqam cecc_e_g. Ocagoao gaqam
0oO_ag __eqeq eaaqqaga. gc_eeaeac q_g gea
oem_g. 0aea aecaga gc_eeom 0aa 0qa_gocceo
(pathogens) ce_eocc_e_e. c gc_eeom aagmm Oecomc
ac_0a oag omga. eo acLsm gcmma _ccg a6sessq
gma (obligate parasites) cecc_e_e.
0og c __eeom gaqaeq qaOoac_g. ceea _qe
c_aeo g acgeeaao oa_g. eo sg gcmma
(Iacultative parasites) _ccg go0eq aamom (necrotrophs)
ce_eocc_e_e. ooa_ao occaa gc_eeom _ccg aaga
gc_eeomao amme.
__eeom ocgoem oacqga qaooem0a _goa
qage_e. e_-caom ecqgemom _ccg 0mecaao
_cqm _ccg q_q0qac _ccg oaaome oaao
amgee_e. gaqamae Oeco_ec0a e_-caom eg
emqg, c 0omc Ocq0eo (pectinase) ce_ Oagea
oe_e. Oag gaqaa Oecome Oecooaome eaa __eo
Oemqg o__g. Oqacag Oecg0co ce_ Oagae Oeacac Oec
ooa eqoccc_ Oec _occ__g. Oec acOcagmom
__eeaeac 0qaao a__ecc_e_e. _ccg 0aga c Oagom
og _eo Oemocc_e_e.
occaa gc_eeom m_goq_ga a__ooq_ga c _cq
_eacqoem agoage_e. eo gsoGLsdmsa (Haustoria)
cecc_e_e. _ao0camaaom ceceo e_-caome aagccc
omaaaga. eo cq Oomcccec Ooaeceo. Oecee cmaoaa
eooee eqoaac Oececa _oaac Oecggm gee_e.
aaga gc_eeom _ao0camaaoem aecagogcec.
45
c6s wsgma
__eeom e_ _aaae c_aa oaeoac o_c_e_e.
(1)ecoeom (2) ea0oaeeaom.
mama
g _coao_ga __eeo_ga ec0a oaecc_a c_aa
oaeoaaga. Ocagoao gc oaecc_a _coa cee _coa _ccg
cccoa _coa _ga. __ee _o0oaeac_ _ccg
Ocq0aaeac_ ogcec eaaqeo. _coa gm0eaeoae _ca
oea a_cqg Oeag __eega og_g. __eeom a a_ga
qeaoem a__oogc aqe_e. 0aga __eeom e 0eqg
eoccgga aq_g. qe oaeaao c ecoeom c_ qaoom oa
acaq o oqq o_ec Qecaga oa _q_g.
mGasmesa
__eeo_ga c aaa qao 0oao_gec0a oaecc_a
c_aa oaeo0a ea0oaeeaom _ga. Ocgacacae Qc oaq
qaoom Qcqgc amm __eeo_ce qqeoa Oqacaec _c_qg
Ooame_e. 0omc __eeom gg ae_ 0cae_ _eaccec _c_qqcaa
(c0caqa-c ea0oaeea) _ccg 0ome goo_gm0m eo
m_go Oecccaa (ce0caqa-c ea0oaeea). c0caqa-c
oeo oa_omc oaecc_a 3, 0oae_ maecq qaoomc
oaecc_e_e. o__c oaecc_a __eeom Ocq0aa eac_c
cmeo eaaqeo. c__eeom aomegg oaa0cae_q0c_
a_ga eocceoemc Ocge_e. _q_gc cgcao aeee acc
oaecc_a qqoem _0ea _comao eqe_e. eo cmqao
qaoomeac a__ecc_e_e. 0aga __eeom cao0cc_ 0cae_
_aeoem cmqao a__ooq_oae mcccccec _gome_e.
ggmeam wmaus
ooaao __eeom qaoomao0o ogqccc_ oqe.
_coao_g eeaao gg ogccao ogqccc_ qa0c-eccca ce_
cmoe qao acc eo oeoc_qqcccce. ccmoe amm
qaoom qaco ce_ acceacec aecaeo, oaogcaa goom__
0oa, qe_, ec ceg qaco cecg cmqq_a _qaaq acca _ga.
nLmo Gwssg (Ainsworth 1973) ce_ __eeaac ocgac
46
agoaoccc_ GwooLs (Webster 1980)
cecoac cec__cccc __eeome
oeoca_ 0 Ooa_occc_mmg.
dd : GosmGascLs
eo oa _eaqaeaae
aamom. Oec ooa ___eo.
cmao0aaqaa cc Q_maoo_ce
qa q0ac0cacmaeqeq aeca
cmao0aaqaqqac _eeo. g g
Ocagcoem o_ aaa oaoe.
_caa_ aoqeq aecaeo.
_ccg cc _ca 0cae_ Oecomac
_e _0ca cmao0aaqaqqac
_eeo. (Pseudoplasmodium) e_0a
ooccaeeo. _qeac eo om
Gsa ce_eocc_e_e.
eo _eg ogcqoem aecaeo.
dd : @mGascLs
Oec ooaoemeca aeeaaae
__eeom eo. qe gg
geec cmom amme.
. soqGasmGascqms
o0caaoem aecaga. __eeom
eo. Ocgacacaeeo mc oaceo
qe _eg ogcqom amme.
goOoag ogccga gg oeoaae
o0caaom agoae_e.
z. meGasmGascqms
acca 0_c0ca -0co (g_e_
aaa) caeca o0caaom oga g_e__
cma0ea o0caaom. caeecOcgoa,
e_, cc Q_maooem aeca
0occa_aom eeg
_
_
e
e
e
m

0
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47
ee0oao0cae agoagoqeac ecOcg_g. qe oaeaao0o
ee0oaeac_om gmmo ggmea (conjugation Iungi) cea
_eocc_e_e. Oecooa eocqe a_ga eoc0caee ce_a
Ocagmeac _eeo. gc e_ ogcqom amme. eaqaeaao ogcq
Oacqoamaeom ce_eocc_a mGesuo a_ga @as ccmeo
eaaqeo. mGesuo _oec 0cae0_ oaecc_a eagee _ga.
_eac _oe oacqga cocao _goaao oaecc__g.
g.@oGasmGascqms
ggg ooao_ce qa e_-caoem aecaeo. acca
0_c0ca-0co (g_e_ aaa) oeo qe gg ogcqom amme.
qgeec cmoe ooc_om, c_cq oamaeom, ceeoamae,
maocq oamaeom, eec__eeom, a_ga aeeqa
0aaOcom _aeo amme. caeca ecOcgoa _aqaa (oidia),
maea0cao0caaom a_ga Ooaeqaa (conidia) 0cae_ oga g_e__
o0caaom _ca ecOcg_g. oacca_aome ee
(ooc_om) oacca_aome 0eaeo (Oceeaa) a_ga acc
Oecome ee (0aaaOecca) _ao__e _ca caeec Ocgoa
ecOcg_g. _o0oaeac_o_0o amqqae cecao
c__eeomc @oGasoGussa agoae_e. q _o0oa o0caaom
S_s
a0.s;o
a0.s;so
;s._a
acz .: 4o as1srazIcQs
;0s.a
a0.ssa
48
_mem cecc_a ec 0cae_ _eaccc oaecc_e_e. 0acgaca_
_ecaaq ce qa _o0oaeac_omc _oooom qeqg
oaecc_e_e. _eac 0aaca_ _ecq _o0oaeac_omc Qe_a
_oooom Oqagcqomao 0eag @oGasasso cecc_a oegcecq
0qa_goe_e. oegcqom _eg oeocc_a.
1. mo0cagaa eo ageec oqoa, _qaeo. c.oa. _0aa
2. Ocmgaa eo g_eo oqoa (c.oa.) Q@GsoGuss
8. _c0cagaa eo eea oqoa (c.oa.) Gumoos
=. GuqGmsm4ca
eo _eg ogcqoem aecaeo. e_-caom ggg ooe
aecaeo. acca g Q_maooem aecaeo
(di karyophase) g oa cmeaa omaaecq aaa __eeoem
ammca ogccaga. qe ecOcgo e_-caome geac
0qa_goocc_a gecaqqoqo Guqm ce_ _eac0c
c__eeo_g Ocq0aaeac_om ce_ Ocaa o oaeaaa_g.
_mOssoo
0oc_ O_jjm (0ooo)
_msm
0oeom
0se
0seO.Oo
segoqso 0oc_O_jjm
omOc_m
0od_m
oOo_m
oc :.: @o0aso4ca@ agoqa@
_mOs mOo
o;.oom
49
goOoag Ocqa_a _qe
geac aeg Ocq0aa
o0caaoem Ooae_mmg.
ooeoc __eeom oc
Ocma ecOcgo _eacqom
_ccg GuqGmsassoqa
cecc_a oegcqoemq
0qa_goe_e. Oog
eaqaeaao aa oaeqa
oamaeom, aagecom,
c-ccgom (PuII balls)
_eccqg_c __eeom
_aeo Ocq0aa
eac_o_g c
c_qgoac_om _ga. eo
g oeoaae eaeaoem
aecae. _qc Qec a_ga
ecaa Qec eaeaom.
_qc Qec eaeaom _aqaa, Ooaeqaa a_ga c0eao0caaom
0cae_ o0caaome _ca Ocgoaece_e. Oqmoae cac agcqom
ecaag e_ Ocq0aa o0caaom _ccg _qc Qec eaeaqge
e_ e_-ca Oeco_ec0a ee ecOcga. 0aaca_
_ecq Ocq0aaea c_om Ocq0aaoaacqom cecc_a
oegcqoemq 0qa_goe_e. oegcqom o_agegg
oc Ocmag oe _moc 0ogc_e_e.
a. q@cLGsm4ca
o__e _eg ogcqom amme. eo __ea ___ __eeom
(Fungi ImperIecti) ce_eocc__g. c__eeome caeca
ecOcgo Qec0a (ImperIect _ccg anamorphic) __acc__g.
cac ecOcgo Qec (PerIect) _ccg (teleomorphic) Qec goe
__acccocec _ccg ecOcgogcec.
ggmeam Gus_sgs mggw
aeq_gc cc oeoaga __eeom eea cae_e. eo
agqgoa, ooeaaa a_ga Oqac _a ge_omc o _aaae cg
oe_e. o__ac gea aecaga oemo_a amme.
o+ eama
( ) Toad Stool
_eLLq_
__eo
uem
OLqCaamCLaa
OLqa
OLqCaaeaaLc OoLQ_ Cqagg
uLm i.io GuqGmsmm4cQs@m
mppm smgoqs@m
50
ggmeam um@ umqa
Gumm GscGLcL ce_ __eeaegg Gumm ceg
agg cmcce acec 0eaq GosmLs .oG cecoac
1u28a _e_ oe_cqoccccg. 1u4u egg g aaOcga oaqqg
agqao cc0og cama 0aao_ga caecccg. aaa cgac
Ocagcoem (antibiotics) aecaga a_cqgaamaomao __eeo_g
aamac __oaec gg qga _qoeq _c_qgag.
0aac_omegga 0aga cc _aaae aaa cgac Ocagcom a_cqg
Oeaacc_e_e.
ooc_om, oamaeom, c-ccom a_ga 0aacom 0cae_ __eeom
aeoao acOoammq qgqeo. eo qqom a_ga eocceom
Qacaeo. _oamome __eomae .muoGuso, .@sGwmo
_aeo aeeq qgqeo. wsGwdGms wsGw,
ws.mLoGuss _a aee qa oamaeom oc Ocma _moc
oeo gaao a_cqg Oeaacc_e_e.
eaaaq Oqa_eaeca Oacqq Oqa_eaeca ooc_oem
(esGsm4ca) Oogoao eaagmme. ooc_om eaoe
oeeec _co_acaoa, oaace - ec - _eocaoa Oago
Oeae_e. _co_ac eaaaq Oqa_eaecomga CO
2
Oacqq
Oqa_eaecomga caec_qqcc_e_e.
aaa0og acac (biochemical genetics) ceg 0qae_ ceea _cg
aamac (molecular biology) ceg ooaoaao aa_aq_g Q@GsoGuss
ses ce_ __eeac _acocccc _aa0a _qccecaaa_g
c__ee, acaaeegg o cocao caec_qqcc_a c0a0ea
-ccaeoa ococ_ oa _aqgoa oaaqqao _g
Ooammccccg. Oeec acac _aag c__ee oa
Ocagqqaaeqao gqg. Q@GsoGuss, @ousgoo _a
__eeom e_ma acac _aag caecc_ oge_e.
__eeom ccaoccac _cq c __ea Oc_ag ce_
usocedm _g ooeqg_gmag. acgeec __eeom _q
Oecg0cao Qaca qaoc Ocagcoem eqqg oaaceaoa a__
oeaomaoa aa__ _o_e_ cgg Oc__0qa _q
Qecaeccqg0o ggcc __cqe_e. ooa_ao __eeom
a_eoac oaecc_a oaace a_ga eea qeaome o_ea
QecQgqge_e.
51
ggmeam m mma
__eeom ag gq Oqaqeo agoage_e. eo
cegg 0qac Ocagcom oe omag _o_e_ meage_e.
LSD (d- ecOeag _ca eccgc_ea_) caoac cecc_a.
maoOeco ca_maa __eeaegg Oc_cc__g. g gg oq
co_oeeo ge__g. ce0o c__ee co_oeo aecaga __ee
ceg _eocc_e_e. g q_oac geeaa_a em_ao_g
Ocaaaae ggoq aea 0ceac 0caeg aagmaae gg aeaeoa
co_oeoema aecag_g.
ccoqaae qao 0aao_gc __ee oaeaao amme. 1845a
_e_ _aacag acqc -eccca-0qaa e-Ococeo ce_ __ee
agemg caeq qaa ageme __oc 0aea
_c_qgag. qe oaeaao _acqc _q _eqc 1 ceae
caom ccqeaac oaq _qea. 1.5 ceae aom 0og a_o_g
c_ea oaeaao gq Ocaaqea. Oeec _acqe _a ae
agem g _ga. _g_qc gsw Gs6m ce_ qg __oac
cm _acaaeg. gc __eeomac ac_e_ camaa a_ga
eooomac qaoo_g aecaga ccoqaae 0aaom g_qg
_aa 0a_Oommccccg.
cLmmm 1:a _gme GsLa
qaoeme o __ee 0aaem. 0aecaga __eeem
1. cgqgae oacc (wilt oI Cotton) -c_0emaa _mm0caa
2. ocecae eccqmm 0aa Oea0eam0caa OcaOea0eLca
(Tikka disease oI ground nut)
8. ogace ocq __oc 0aa OeaeL0caqeea -co0eLca
(Red rot oI sugarcane)
aeqaeme o __ee 0aaem 0aecaga __eeem
1. agemcq_ (eaa) cccOca0aa-ecLcae
2. agemc q_ (eaa) qe0ea-ecLcae
8. 0oeqqaao 0eeqca _oceem
52
gm Qod
gg agcOce
emaae eceaq 0qaOq_
1. __eeoemc c__ cqga cm
_. - ecoacg _. qao 0aaac
. _e_cac_ ac o. eaoacg
2. __eeome Oecooa o__ac _eg.
_. eocqe _. Oocg0cao
. Ocqe . Occq0ca emoae
0eaqLc cqeqc _aqg Oeae.
1. __eeae 0ecq aec Ocagcom a_ga .................. _ga.
2. _ao0camaaom .............. gc_ee __eeomac
agoaocc_ogcec.
e_ agcOceem
1. 0eaeecq eaeaa ce_ac cee
2. ggg ooa aeca e_caom ce_ac cee
8. occaa gc_eeomegg Qec aaga gc_eeoem
0ogc_qgo.
4. _ao0camaaom ce_ac cee
5. ea0oaeeaom ce_ac cee
6. __eeomac qoao_g aecaga 0aaom eqe Ocaaoem
c_go.
1. aeeqa __eeom Ocaaoem g_cc_o.
8. __eeom ccaoccac _cq c __ea Oc_ag ce_
caocome _e_ omgo.
u. co_oeeo aecaga __ee ce _eocc_og cg e
gg agcOceem
1. __eeac oaecc_a c__ oaeo _e_aee omgo.
2. geec cmom _o0oaea0oacqea ] Ocq0aa ea0oacqea
] ee0oaea0oacqea o__e _cqc ceqoem go.
cqg agcOceem
1. __eeomc oaecc_a aegcc_e_ea oom.
2. __eeome Ocagmaqa _aqgoa g_qg gg oc_e oeo.
53
4.z @asaa
Gusgo um q a
_c oa om q_ ea _ q mc c _ e_ ea aec a eo. c eeaa ae_.
eo _mgee Ooma_a oeoaae gm 0eaeo qma aamom.
gm m ec 0qae _, oma g Oo_ _ o aa o Qec Oc_ gm me.
_coaoemc c_ _ a __ o ac ge _ _o ea o g _c c g
-ec ea og ceg _e oc c _ _ g.
_c oa o me ac cq gc 0oa , qe _ ec a_ ga ae ea aa e
goom ceg 0og ca _ oa ecc _ o gc ec. g 0cae _ ac cq eq qaco
ceg _e0_aa. eo oaogcaa gooema Oc__gccgcec.
qao ac oq eq eaa q q _c oaome ec Oc go agc qom om a_
_ Oecomac cccqgccgcec.
om m ca
Ocga cae ea aa e _c oa om mc oa c eo, e e mc _c c g occ
mc oa c eo. o c _c oa o 0m Qcq gc oa c eo. o _mqao c
e om _g Ooc c Oo a m_ g o m ga, c _c oaom ce cca q aec
omga, ce egocomga oaecc_a.
qe e ee aa o mc q ga _c c g qeq g mc ga ge e a
_coaom -ecL 0ca cma caeem (Phytoplanktons) cec c _a.
occom, m o me _ a_ _ oe gc cg g o mc _q ac gc q oa_a
_coa om Oc g (Benthic) cec c _ e _ e. c _c oa om aaa
qaoo_ ce c _ aa o ma o a oa e_ e. _c oa o me c
__eo_a __eeo_a 0eag oaecc_a qaoc cm eoeeem
(lichens) cec c _ e _ e. gg c _c oa om a_ _ _c oa om _c c g
eeaq qao ome g Oqa_ gq qa o aa o oa e _ e. eo
cc c - ecL _ em (Epiphytes) ce g _e oc c _ e _ e. c _c oa om
eq0qa-ecL_em (lithophytes) _c c g cae_ oa _o ea em _ga.
54
gso mo q
_eaccga oq oq g ga _c oa o me qac o om o a
0ogc_e_e. cm a , ge e a gg Oec aa m ome g g oc Ocma
G Gsoqo (Macrocystis) ce _ occ ca (Seaweed) oe _c oa o me
qacoom oqgaaec c_e_e. _coaomc c g_e_ Oeccac _e
eo. c c c ea eo (colony) 0qa_ g o e _ e. c e o mac (Iilamentous)
_e eo. gg Oec _c oa om s m GLs Gsmso 0cac o ga g_e
am m qao 0oa _c c g gGs G s 0ca c o ga g_e_ 0_a oaec c _a.
Leeu _ceaem
meLCaeea
maeuCLaCuaam oacoam
eL _ceaem
L_L _ceaem
CuCammqm
eaeam
oL :.:e @masa gsm wm
Ogoqa
eaLm
55
Ocgacae ea aa e eo eomac _e ac cq eq aecaeo (c.oa.)
omu Gs ma s. e om emq ga oaec c c caa. ooe _c oa om
qe e ee aa o q 0qa _c c g gc qoa c eooma o 0 oa oaec c _a. e
ae _q Oec ca e g upg go us a (hold Iast)aa_ _a _ec g megq ec
aq_ g. c _c oa om oc Ocm a ac cq eq aec a e. (c.oa.)
asGso us (Caulerpa) es as o (Sargassum) s Gm d ms (Laminaria)
.d@ao (Fucus). GGsoc qo ce _ _coa oc 0oa, qe _ , ec
0cae_ _eacqo_a amme.
_coaome cooeoom ccoeoaae oqooem aecaeo.
c_q g oac ca o sm GLs Gs ms e e oq o _a , omu Gs ma
s m mcce oqo_a eeeaao ceqg oqo_a aecae.
Ge moq Qpam m
q_0cag ea0eacamaom ceg _eocc_a cc coa
caoemq qo _eeqgc cao_a (algae) _0om0aacq Oec _eacec
aecaeo. Oecooa Oecg0cao a_ga Ocqeeac _eeo.
gccoccaao oeagocccc Q_maoa eooeac cccc Oec
ge@gcqo_a ae_.
_coaomc _eg oeoaae gm0eaeo Q_om
oaecc_e_e. _eo 1. uemem (Chlorophylls)
2. oa0acqeaa_om (carotenoids) 8. ceqqom (biliproteins). ceeaa a
_eeqg ogcq _coaomga oaecc_a. _eac ceeaa b, c, d a_ga
e _aeo c _coa ogcqomc ac_0a oaecc_a a_em, __o
a_ga ocq Q_ Q_om o0acqeaa_om cecc_e_e. gQ
aGscqma@, esGgs.da@ _cga. mc oeaqa ce
qqomae .muGas ndgQdm (ocq) a_ga .muGasemmm (ca)
Q_om Ocagoao 0a0ca-ec ogccga ea0ea-ec (q_0cag
ea0ea camaom) ogccga _e_0a oaecc_e_e. Q_om
ma gmae ocq a_ga c gm _ecoem oaqg gm0eaeog
aqoqme_e. _coaome Q_ome _ea _o__e oeocacqc
gg _a cecao ogqcc_e_g.
_coaome Q_a, _o__c cq Q_ _goaao oaecc_e_0qa
_qe _qccecac _eae_g. q_g eae_ao 0a0ca-ec (ocq
_coa) ogccc-ec0oa cmqgme ce_ ocq Q_ Q_ _goaao
oaecc_oqac eo ocq Q_aao amme. Q_om, cooeoomc
amm eoomc _eaqgmme.
56
@asam amgcL mp Geoqo Gus_ca@
_coaom q_eaaq mcc_e_ea Ooaeceo. _coaome
cc0og ogcqomga oaa0cae_c0c_ 0ecqc Ocagcom,
ccoqaae ocaaeao 0eqg eooccc_mme. c_qg oaccao
g0ma0a-ec ogccc 0ecqc Ocagm oLsse _ga. 0a0ca-ec
ogccc -q0mamqae ocaa -0c0aa-ec ogccc GGmdmm
ocaaoa _m0ea-ec ogccc ussms@ 0ecqc Ocagcomao
amme. oaa0cae_c0cecq qo -0c0aa -ec ogcq _coaom
aaeccaeca 0eqg eoe_e. 0e0qa-ec a_ga
0cc0cm0aa-ec _coaom Ooa_cq, ceOea a_ga ecc_oem
0eqg eoe_e. _coaome oeocacqc 0ecq Ocagco_a gg
_a cecao ogqcc_e_e.
ame6mgam m
Ocgacaeeaaae _coa ogcqomc oeeaeom _ccg
eaaom _o__e oga g__g oaeaae_e. goeoaae
oeeaeom oaecc_e_e. 1. escmL (acronematic) oeo 2. qme
(pantonematic) oeo. eacecoeo ggoae 0a_ccec aecae. qeec
oeo aame 0cae_ Oaeq geommoem eaa _c
Ooaeqgga. oeeaeome ceeeo, _eo Oecgce
eeocccqgga oqa, _eacq _a ceqom goOoag ogcq
_coao_ga aa_aq qeeaaaeg. ce0o cceqom _coaome
oeocacqc cae c_qqcc_e_e.
_coaome oga g__eca
Oecom e_ oeeaeoem
aecaeo. e_ oee eo_a
ea m_a 0qa___a Ooaeqgqac
_o_e_ gGesasmc (isokont) ceg
_e0_aa. GgcqGsasmc
oeoac e_ oeeaeo_a
mqgc _ccg oqoqgc
0ogc_e_e. cc coa cao_a
(ea0eacamaom) ocq _coao_a oeeaeoemc
Oc__gccgcec. goOoag oeeaeae eaaqgga e_
gegco_a _qee o__ gecg agem oqo cec
gegco_a amme. g u+2 oeo _eacq cecc_a. gegcom
qoc
oaLeL
uLm i.i1 sme6mgsm mmss
57
_eeqga gg ae_ _ccg eooeac ccc_mme. _eeqg
_0oam0aac_ Oecomga u+2 _eacq oeeaeo0m oaecc_a.
gmoGu_a
_coaomc _eg oeoaae ec Ocgo _e_om oaecc_e_e.
1. aco ecOcgea 2. caeoa ecOcgea. 8 . cao ec
Ocgea
aLgmo Gu_a gecaqc _e_ _ccg 0o__c emom
0qaegqc _e_ac acc ecOcgoa ecOcg_g.
uss gmoGu_a ccoeoaae o0caaome _ca
ecOcge_g o0caaom, cma0eao0caaom a_ga eo0ec_om
_aeo coeoaae caeca o0caaom _ga. o0caaom Oec
oo__eo. oeeaeo_ce qaeo, oga qeea aecaeo (c.oa.)
smGLsGsmso. cma0eao0caaom Oacea ooe aecaeo.
oga qeea ___eo. (c.oa.) gGsGs. eo0ec_om qqqq
oogce qaeo. oga g_e ___eo. (c.oa.) dgGgs.Guss.
us gmoGu_a
cac ecOcgoqgc e_ 0oc_om eee_e. eea
0oc_om g0 qacmegg 0qae_eac _eq 0_a0aaqae cega
Ooo0o_ae qacmegg 0qae_eac _eq O_cq0aqae oeo
cega _e0_aa. eea 0oc_om gGesGaca _ccg
GgcqGsGaca _ga.
gGesGa
gc q_ _eacq, Oeacqeea _a eqga gqq g0 aagmaae
g 0oc_om eee_e. (c.oa.) omuGsmas a_ga smGLs
Gsmsm c __eom.
GgcqGsGa
ooeoac 0ogca_ aeca e_ 0oc_om eee_e. g
goeocc_a) 1) mmGes Ga (anisogamy) 2) mGa (Oogamy)
1. mmGesGa oeoac eea 0oc_om Ooo0o_ae 0qa__a
aecae. _eac Oeac qeeaac gqqeo (e_ 0oc_o_a oga
g_e aecaeo _ccg e_ 0oc_o_a oga g_e ___eo).
58
2. mGa oeoac eea 0oc_om 0qa__qgga Oeac
qeeaaga 0ogc_e_e. ooeo eeoc _e0oc_
@gGsnwsLa cega Oce 0oc_ mL cega
_eocc_e_e. Oce 0oc_ Ocagoao _e0ocecocc
Ocmaqaoa oga g_e_ga oaecc_a. _q0aooaa_oem
agoaga _e ecOcgo agcqom @gdqm (antheridium) cega
_ecqeq ae_ ce@a Oec mGasmm cega _eocc_e_e.
_q0aooaa_a _ec_a eeg agoaga Oec meGasc _ga.
ee0oac a0aao cgcc_gc ce 0qaao _emqgc qga qaceoq
0qa_go_g.
@asam wmaus
F.E..ddce gmg @asam moq pg gmoGu_a
(Structure and Reproduction oI Algae) ce_a gec _coaoem 11 ogcqomao,
oa@a ceqome _qccecac oeoc_qgmmaa. 1. Q_ome
0eaeo 2. 0ecqc Ocagcom 8. oeeaeome _ea 4. qaco
_eacq 5. ecOcgoa.
@asam 11 wgoqaswm
1. g0ma0a-ec, 2. 0e0qa-ec, 8. e0ea-ec,
4. 0cc0cm0aa-ce, 5. mc0ca-ec, 6. ec0ea-ec,
1. g0ma0a0aaeaqe, 8. _m0ea-ec, u. -0c0aa--ec
1u. 0a0ca-ec, 11. 0ea-ec.
@asam Gus_sgs mggw
ecqga oeOo_cce cq ace cag a_cqgqg_e (oaaceQec
Qgqqcc_qc) oceeg0q aeca_g. ocec oaqa g0 qao
eaae _coao0m o_cqgq g__g _qaa. _coaom _qc
Qec a_cqgaamaomao _a co oqg cc a Qec ae
eeome _acaao amme.
@asa amwsao ummug
aeqe mc_ ocgom a_ga eom _ao___g _a
aeoao _coaom _eae_e. Guss.musoe __eom gccae,
cag a_ga oe-0caaeaa a_omc acOoammcc_e_e.
ws, sGmdms, esaso a_ga g0maOcca _a _coao_a
cca_omc aeoao aeecc_e_e. aLus cecc_a
59
sGmdms, .d@ao a_ga @oGas.d _a _coaom mc_
ocgo_ga oaceco_ga aeoao _mocc_e_e.
mwesmggmp6 @asmm ug
@GLsdms, msdms, soLs a_ga Gss _a
cccoa caom om aecc ecgee Qeccc_qg aeomqeq
_gome_e. eaoga gccaega Ocgacacae occcaom
caao_g aaaoc caec_e_e.
Ggsgmp6 @asmm ug
. ass - ass
camaom a_ga __eeoem _aeaecac omaga 0cag
_oaa - _oaa omaqmaaoc caec__g. c aggcOcagcom, a_ga
_g eaqec Ocagmom qaamccga g ac0aaocc__g. _oaa,
_oaa Ggqm a_ga soGdms _a ocq _coaomegg
qaamocc__g.
@. @gm (Algenic Acid)
_cge _ca cecc_a aa (colloid) c_cq _coaomegg
Oc_cc__g. _cge, goa, _g eaqec Ocagcom a_ga
c_ceeomc Qecc c_qqcc_a Ocagmao ac0aaocc__g.
g. Gmsqm
_0aaqe Gao ceg _eocc_a c_cq _coaomegg
Oc_cc__g. g_ccao g ca0emaaoe __eomegg
Oc_cc__g.
=. mLGmcLmc (Diatomite)
ec0acca ceg _eocc_a (e0ea-ec) _coaome
eoa Qaca Oec ooaomc cae_ 0caeg cqa Ocag0m
ec0acceac_ ceg _eocc__g. q Oecom _ga0cag
_eo oc0caomga mome _qccggaga cqg cc oaca
cqoomao oaecc_e_e. ccq oomegg Oc_cc_a
ec0acceac_ aec _go eoa Qacaqao ammg.
ec0acceac_ gaac qaocccaaq Ocagcoem aecagogga,
a__oa g_e Qacaqaoa ammg.
60
cLwmm 1.4 @as wgoqam poq umqa
wgoq Qpa ame6mg Geoq am
g0ma0a-ec ceaa - a,b e_ gqq ocaa
(coa caom) o0ace oeeaeom
ea0qa-cc
ea0qa-ec ceaa - a,b O_cq0aoaec Ooa_cq,
o0ace oeo geg eacec e_0oae
ea0qa-cc a_O_aeg qeec
e0ea-ec ceaa- a,b e_ _ccg ceOea
(ecaacca, qo o0acqeaa _go oeeaeom e_0oae
Q_ _coaom) _om ea ma ccaqeo
0cc0cm ceaa - a,c _mqao oaecc_a e_0oae
0aa-ec 0o0acqe Ooa_cqom
mc0ca-ec ceaa - a,c O_cq0aoaec ocaa
0o0acqe geg qeec
ea0qa-cc a_O_aeg eacec
ec0ea-ec ceaa- a,c e_ cooac_ ocaa,
(ec0ea-cmagc 0o0acq oeeaeom gqq ceOea
0cc_om) eaa_om oqoa__eo
Ooo0og
geeomc amme
g0ma0a ceaa - a,b g0eaoaec oeo ceOea
0aaeaqe 0o0acqe
ea0qa-cc
_m0ea-ec ceaa - a,b geg, e_ Ooa_cq,
(_meaa_om) _ccg _eg caaeacae
0a_q_a Oegoc
- ccc oeeae
-0c0aa-ec ceaa - a e_ gqqeo ca0eme,
(c_cq _coaom ea0qa-cc _ccaq cooac_ Ooa_cq
oeeaeom
0a0ca-ec ceaa - a oga g_e__g ocaa
(ocq _coaom) ec0oaeaee
ec0oa cmqme
0ea-ec ceaa - oga g_e__g ea0ea -ec
0o0acqe ocaa
ec0oaeaee
ec0oacmqme
61
0aga eo _mga qeea oaaq eaaec Ocagcoem cagoaccae
_e_ac __gogc cae c_e_e. eceeac_ a_cqg Oeaogga
eo ac0aaoc c_qqcc_e_e.
z. mmGmoummgQ @asaam ug
oe Oomc caeome 0cag CO
2
a_ga aceegg Oomaaga
oc Ocagcoem Oom0a__a gGsGs mudmsLGLses ce_
_coa ac0aaocc_qqcc__g. q _coa o 0oo aaoc Ocg, gm
0eaeoae _ca CO
2
eoc caec_qg _mgee Oomo__g.
0aga aeq oc Ocagcoem eqqg _gegg oga ecgee
qq 0eaeo Oeaa cae c_qg Ooam_g.
gpmpe Geqg (SCP)
gGsGs a_ga omu_ms 0cae_ gg Oec _coaom qqa
Oe_g oaecc_oqac eo qq aeoaoc caec_e_e. 0aga
g0maOccaoc eocceom _goa amme. _0ea _co_a
qq eqg Oe_ga oaecc_oqac g0maOccaa oecgeeaa
g_e_ Oec qq 0eaeoac Ocmga cae c_qqcc_e_e.
gGsGm ce_ geeaa Ooace (antibiotic) g0maOccaoegg
c_occ__g.
a aa
g0maOcca 0cae_ _coaom ocOcma o a Qaca _a__
Oqacqomc omaocc_e_e. q _coaom gm0eaeoae _ca
ggaae _mgee Ooma_e_e. oa_g ooae camaom
0cae_ ge@aaom q _mgee caec_qg ooaqg aaa
oae_e. eo oc Ocagmc _cmm omac Ocagcoem
eqqg _eq gaeac c_qge_e.
@asam m umg mma
c eaaomc _coaom o@a (Blooms) cecc_a _caq
_eacecq 0qa_goe_e. g_ccao Ooccc cggomc _go
mcceqg amm comc eo _goa 0qaege_e. cc 0omc
oc Ocagcoem mc Ooae_ 0eaqqc, aom ooeaa
Qcomegg o0qaq _g, m 0cae_ a Qecoem 0eaqc 0cae_
aeqaome coqeoomeac q c_aom 0qaege_e. qe
oemoao gOeg _qc Qec a_cqgaamaomae _coaome
62
oma cc acg _gome_g. _go _moc 0qaegoqac _eo
aeecc_oq_g _ecao0o aqe_e. _q qe accoem oa_g
ooae camaom eqqgc Ocgge_e. oa_g ooae camaome
Ocgoqgeac a Qecac _mgee _m ge__g. qe
oaeaao a Qecomc amm eom, ocgom a_ga qaoom _a
_eeqga _e_e.
gm Qod
gg agcOce
emaae eceaq 0qaOq_.
1. -ecoacg cecc_og oeco_e_c c__ag.
_. qaoom _. eoo
. _coaom o. caqmaom
0eaqLc ceem Qcqe
1. --------------- cecc_og _coaomc oaecc_a ocq Q_
Q_aaga.
2. --------------- cecc_og _coaomc oaecc_a c Q_
Q_aaga.
8. --------------- _coao_g oga Oecom ecaag.
Ocagqge
Ocma _mecaeo - _a__ me _qccggac gcq
oaecc_ceo
cc-ecc_ - ca0emaa
Ocg - oec0aeoa
eq0qa-ecc_ - a__ qaoome g oaceo
e oqoa - cae_omc gcq oaceo
e_ agcOceem
1. _coa accqeq oeag.
2. ecoeom cecc_eo aaeo
8. _coaomc oaecc_a _eg oeoaae Q_om aaeo
4. eacec oeeaega qeec oeeaega amm 0ogca_ aag
5. ecmeaa_om ce_ac cee
63
6. g0eaoaec oeo oeeaeea O_cq0aoaec oeo
oeeaeaeega 0ogc_qgo
1. g0ea0o ] O_cq0a0o ] _ee0ea0o ] m0o - oeag
8. _oaa - _oaa cecc_og aag
u. ecaacceac_ ce_ac cee
1u. ecaacceacqe e_ caeoem g_cc_o
11. oeOomc caeqgc ac0aaocc_a _coaom aaeo
12. qe Oec qqa (SCP) ce_ac cee
18. o oqgc _coaom cooag caec_e_e
14. _coaome c_aom (Bloom) ce_ac cee _g cooag moemc
cag_g
15. __eeom a_ga caqmaoemc 0cac _coaom 0aaoem
aecagogcec. qe oaea aag
gg agcOceem
1. _qa-c0oe (Eutrophication) ce_ac cee _qe _aqgoa aag
2. g_cq c_go: _coaome aegcca a_ga 0ecq aec
Ocagcom.
8. _coaomc oaecc_a Q_oemc c__ c_go.
cqg agcOceem
1. _coaome Ocagmaqa _aqgoa g_qg c_go
2. _coaome ecOcgoa c__ gg oc_e oeo
$"
"! deGa:euLQsw
sA)1 Lso _m++_ o1. s:.+1 .++
(s1o.+,z++, __j_1 _A)1 Lso _m++_
o1. _1+1`,+ aAoz++ sj_1 2gA .,
_)z++ (Iossal records) a+o. _o o s+ 420 Lso
_m++_ o.+j o 11. o s)z++ s
osA 1oo. osAs_g s os+_ _1
1.g os++_ j.` _:j++ )1 sm 1.
__1. 2__: _s+ (Cuticle) 1.o s :, .g+:, 1sz+o:
2.j_++s` _os sm, so)s _g 1.sg a_.
deGa.euLQswm Apuqu ueqsw
L+ soo, 11. o ssj s)z++
o1:o.`++ __1. sj ssj_ j +so:,+o
L+s 2sj.+1s+ 2+m,_:. _os _oo1 +):.os )1,
so ._+1s1 +m:.oo. s+o+s +jo
_o++ _oo1 +)jo 1 s_1, ss_s +++j
(ss_s +++o oss1, :,11 og, s s s)z+1
o)1:o.`++. so1s _os s) aso o magmm
(Amphibians) soo++:.oo.
:.o a_:,+o+ 2+m+ _os _+++o+
+`,g1 11. oos so+ ss1. _m _o:2._++ a_:,
_,1 so_1 2.m _o:2._++ a_:, _+1+w1 so_1
o++:.oo. o)1:o.`+o s+o+ +jA 2so
s j1 +m:.g. s+o, +) (Liverworts) j_1 2+1,
o)1:o.`++ (Hornworts) o)1:o.`+ z_1.
$#
deGa.euLQswm gmuueqsw
1. _os s sj s)z++ __1.
2. wo 1sj2_:o. 2.j_++s`g1 _os m,s_g
1o_1 2s _o1.o o)s++ s1 sj
ao:.`+o.
3. _1 +w a:,++1 o)s++ a`.` _ s) asj
a_s:.oo. so1s o)s+o _oo .m
ao_1s __1. amoo 1s+o _oo .m
a_+ __1. (1g1 amoo 1s++, m, _os+o:
1.s ss_s +++o: 2.j_+_1,. so1s s
o)1:o.`+o m++ j_1 _os++ ss_s
s)z+o m++ j_1 _os++_ :.+ +_:.
`g. s) as1 ss soo++:.g.
4. _os++_ amoo ss_s ++++ og.
5. _m _o:2._++ a_:,++ _,1 so,1 2.m _o:2._++
a_:,++ _+1+w1 so,1 o++:.oo.
6. .g_:,++ .s 2s+ _oos. _os s` 2s+ _o
_ .g+:, aoo s,os.
7. .so: 2._++1 a1+s so+os sos.
8. s+o+s +jA 1+L`1:o.` s1 s1.1):o.`
s1 2s+ s_1.
9. 1+L`1:o.` s z oo aog. wsosog.
10.s1.1):o.` s L+s g, gm1m+A `1
+mssg. 1+L`1:o.` sos sg ssg.
oggg eapp
oojg s sj s)z++, j_1 s 11. o
sL1o 1.o s _+++o: 1.o1 o)1:o.`++
$$
(by Gemmae)
N
N
N
N
N
2N
2N
2N
N
N
N
s+ jjo 2s:.jgoo. _sjo s+o+ +jA
gpep e (haploid) 1+L`1:o.` s1 gLeL e (diploid)
s1.1):o.` s1 s_1. _o s+o+ +j +1
so).++ 2+++:.`+g.
jo s 1+L`1:o.` s so_ o++:.g.
2ow _g .so:2._++1 s1 1+L`+o a_s+_g.
1+L`++ eeLLaAm ._:o s1 1o_s _os jo
oos. 1+I`++ _omg _)`o os1+`o
1j_s+oo. os1+` _)`o s1.1):o.` s+
sg. .ss _o:2._++1 2sg s1.+oj 1j_s:.o
__ s1.1):o.` s so:.g. s1.++ a_s++jj_
o, 1ss sg _o ._:, +s jo os Im1
.1 I.zs s jjo +`1 o)1:o.`,o
2.gso s+o+s +j
as _o:2._++1
(2_1++o s,
N
s)1
_+1sw1
s1. oj
_,1
m1
_1)+s++
+_,_
1
+
L
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1

:
o
.
`

o
s

_o ._:,
s1.++
s
1
.

1
)

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o
.
`

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s

os1+`
s1.1)1+w1
$%
_1,g. jo s1.++ 1+L`1:o.` so
a_s+_oo.
_)m s+ _ s L+,1 z+,1, s+o+
+jA 2._1._o _+)Ljg1 a+g. _ s z s
so:.g. oojg mezGaa.eLLscgu
GsuLGLa.eLL ejgg asa geeu veLag. ugg
gooagg gaozasco mGLaGza.eLL ejggGa asagas
vccg.
s+o+ +j so).j s:1.g1 z so 1,
.A so) 1sm1. 11s 2+++:.`+ so).1 _
o1:o.`,o s+o+ +jo s+_g. 1+I`+o
a_s++jo 1.g o`ss ._:1. +g.
1+I`+o a_s++jo 1.g ssz_+o 1ss ._:,
+sg 1.os o1:o.`+ o`ss ._:1.
+g so.o 1 +soj 2++ 1sm1. s1.+o
a_s++jj_ o1. 1ss o2._g.
mesuaQ
o)1:o.`++ o_ + s_:,++: ++:.`+o.
deGa.euLQsw
1. 2_:.`,+1+ 2. _12s1)`1 3. sos
(+) s,s, (2+1, s,s, (s++,
s.+. +s s.+. _12s)s s.+. :_1o
1. mguq GguuaLqsGs (Hepaticae)
_os o)1:o.`+ L+,1 ozos. s+o s
L+ soo o:o. aoo. +)1 o ._+ `1
$&
s.os .1s_. _s ss o:o. aoos. ,1)`1
os og s1.1):o.` s L+,1 soog. __
+s1 s.os. 1.oz+ s1.1):o.` .1, s`, 1+:
so_ j ,g. (s.+., !+oq.. ssj, .1, s`
_os og s.+. +s.
.1 I.Is s +) s,s o)1:o.`++ .1 I.za 2+1, o)1:o.`-_1)s
mguq @gGgaGoGaLGL (Anthocerotae)
1+L`1:o.` 1s_. ) ss __1. o)s++
_ 2ss _oos. o++ jos. ,1)`1 os og.
s1.1):o.` .1 j_1 1+:os aoos. s` og
s.+. _s)
3. mguq emem (Musci)
+) o)1:o.`+o+ +`,g1 _os 1s_. o
o:o. aoos. jo m 1.o o:
1o_oo. _os 11. og, 1+L`1:o.`, m
j_1 _os 1.o o:,+o+ 2+m+g. m _)ssss
aog. o)s++ .s 2s+ _oos, ojos. ,1)`1
Fig : 1.19. Some liverworts
Riccia
Thallus
Marchantia
Branch
(Female)
Thallus
Rhizoids
Fig: 1.20. Hornwort-Anthoceros
Columella
Sporophyte
Involucre
Thallus
+s
ss
1+oq
o
(2.m,
ss
o)s++
+g2s
s1.1):o.`
_osg++
ss
$'
os a+g. s1.1):o.` .1, s` j_1 1+:os aog.
s.+. :._om. .1 1.21. :_om..
Gua_waga gsggm
1. o)1:o.`++ o)Ao Ig g, m++ 1.o_
a+ _os m :o.j +oo.
2. s1.+o1 (Sphagnum) + , o) a_ 1sLjg osjg+
2++1 o aog. s+ j_++o1, 2s`:.`
s): ._+o1 +)+ osj_++ _ s)1 (s1.+o1,
1`++)++_ 2.g1 .o.g.
3. +o: 1.o_ 1` (Peat) so:.sg sos :.j
s2._+: .o.g. s1.+o1 1.o s s++ .s
_A)++m++o _m++ _j:.`, 2gA .,+
: o, 1`+ _g.
Fig : 1.21. Moss - Funaria
Branch
(Female)
Rhizoids
Calyptra
Seta
Capsule
.1 I.zI s - :_1o
o)s++
o (2.m,
s`
1+s:`)
1+:
%
4. os: )1sz+ s++ ssz_++_ ams+:
.o.oo.
gm egudQ
_ `2.m
sm.o s.j !2}.
1. o)1:o.`+o 1+I`+o a_s++jj_ o,
o2._sg.
(, 1ss (_, o`ss
(_, +_,_ (+, o`ss
+,` j )`+.
1. oojg o)1:o.`+g1 .................... z s __1.
2. o)1:o.`++ z+so s sj s)z+ ................... z
s __1.
)m} `2.m++
1. +)m1 s_+. s) aso s sso so_
o)1:o.`++ o++:.oo.
2. o)1:o.`so o_ + s_:,++ os :
3. 1` so:.sg g :
4. s+ s1.+o1 sss_ a.1+:.og :
.jg `2.m++
1. s s __g ss g+_ s)z++ _1 1.g
j.+ s, )z++ _jg s+_+.
71
A.A. Ct1Cta .tt+m
ccmoc Oceom, mcaaoom a_ga gge oacom (horsetails)
cecc_a qaoom _cga. occeaaae Ocm0ca-ecc_,
_g_O_ecg ceae _e_o_g _eq gmae oacqgegg
c_occcc Oqacgaa cqaa (Fossil) _ga. goe __q oeac
oaogcaa gooem aeca oq Oqaeeaaae qaoa
Ocm0ca-ecc_om _ga. oaogcaa qaoa cecc_ceo oaogcaa
gooem aecaeo. _qaog ocqg goomae eeca a_ga
-q0maaqeq aecaeo. c 0omc _eeqg oaogcaa
qaoo_a qGms.mucLs ce_ g0 cmoc eoocc_e_e. g
ce0aa-ecc_om a_ga _coaomc oaecc_a cma ocqg
goom 0cac _ccag oaogcaa goome _aqgoqeq g_ccq_0o
_ga. q0aa-eccca cmoc Ocm0ca-ecco_a 0aga 0aaca_
_ecq oOcaOac0ca-ecc_o_a (oeq amm qaoom) e_
accmomaga.
oaogcaa goom o0ca0a-ecc_ qec_e_ac oaecc_a
goomaga. o0ca0a-ecc_ qec_e_ ce0aa-ecc_omc oa
ggag. oac0ca-ecc_q qec_e_ea eaag oaog. oaogcaa
goom 0oc0ca-ecc_omc _eaaaac o0ca0a-ecc_omc
ammqacqae oaogcaa qaoomc o0ca0a-ecc_q qec_e_
gaqao ammg. aaa _ga qaoo_ce gcc_a0cag
Ocm0ca-ecc_ome oaogcaa goom c 0aaca_ _ecaaq
ceqoem Ooaeqge_e. Ocm0ca-ecc_ome eecqgc
q_om ac_0a amme. gaaom ecaag. -c0maaqgc eccec
Oecom ac_0a amme. eccec gaaom ecaag. oaogcaa
goom e_ _a ceoem 0a_Ooame_e. _qcaoqao _eo
ocqga goomao Oeaccc_ ea aec Ocagcoema qao
accqg_g ocqge_e. qeac Ocma ocae acceacqq
0qaeg_g. ecaoqao ocqga goomc ge_ae eeca, eee
ce_ qqcqce qa Oecoem aecaqac eo _goccqaae
agga ogeoa Oc_gmme. ce0o eo qaoome Ocma
acecq qage_e.
72
GLdGLs.mucLsmm poqo umqa
Ocm0ca-ecc_om oaogcaa goo_ce qa _oaqqaoa
_ga. eo oeqom ___eo. qe0aa -ecccac cmq
qaoomc (oaogcaa gooem aecaqqaoom) eo oa
cmaeo. Ocm0ca-ecc_om Oqaeea oac_qc acOoga
oaeccccq qaoom.
eg oogcec
c g c e c c e o a o
Oceom amme.
o_gce gcc_a0cag
Oce _ccaq eea
O c m 0 c a - e c c _ o m
c e e e o a g a
coega ge_oao0o
amme. eo o _a
Oeqomao0o amme.
occee gq, gmaq
Qcae gmm cggomc
eo omae_e.
GLdGLs.mucam gmoumqa
1. qe oaeo o_ac Oqmoae O_cq0aaaa-c qec_e_
aa__a oaecc__g.
2. qao acca _ccg o0ca0a-ecc_ ga qec_e_ _ga.
8. o0ca0a-eccqc aeeaaae 0oa, qe_ ecom _aeo
ae_.
4. oaogcaa goom _qaog eeca a_ga q0maaa oaecc_a.
eecqgc gaaom ecaag. _eac c_om ae_.
-q0maaqgc eccecgaao_a gee Oeco_a ecaag.
5. caeca ecOcgoa o0caaom _ca ecOcga.
6. Ocgacacae Ocm0ca-ecc_om 0_a0aao0cao oeo _qaog
g0 gg oeoaae o0caaoem agoagceo. c __eom
O_cq0ao0cao _qaog e_ oeoaae o0caaoem
agoagceo _eoaaoe. 1. Ocma Oaoao0caa. 2. _a
ea0ao0caa.
e0e+.0o++
eo
q
ee+a_eo
oc :.zz pm goa@cw qm
Oc0cs.ooc - OesgOms
73
1. o0caoqgc o0caa qaa Oecom ge_c cgcqgc c_g o0caaoem
agoage_e.
8. o0caooem aeca ecom o0ca0a-ccom _ccg o0cao
ec cecc_e_e.
u. o0caaom _emqg 0oc0ca-eccecq 0qa_goe_e.
0oc0ca-ecc_ g_e_aaa, cc Oecomac _eg. coeaaaeg,
q_eaaqecag.
1u. 0oc0ca-ecc_ cc Oecomac _e caggcqoemq
0qa_goga. _e caggcq _qmqaa cega Oce caggcq
_a0oaeaa cega _eocc__g.
11. caggcqoem o__ga acc_ Oecomac _e ae_ ae_.
12. _q0aooaa_om cc oeeaeo_ce qaeo. ogeceo.
18. _a0oaeaqge am0m oggqc Qo_g.
14. caggcqom g_ccq_ga _e 0oc oggqgoao
_a0oaeaqeq Oee_eca a _oaaa_g.
15. og__ ee0oac ogoao oma_g.
_a eco_ce qa Ocm0ca-ecc_o_g c_qgoac_om
meGscL, mGasGusqm, GesgGms ges6cLo, =gcL
_aeo.
dm
joo
ecm
ooo
o;o0cdm
_a+0s
o;Osm
o;Osm
Osa0s
Oojc Oos
soOoc
om _doo
om
soOoc
om _doo
om
oc :.za Oo;ma
74
Oceom oa _ccae ggoeo aaaoeoc Ocm0ca-ecc_om
_ga. eo Ocma ecoem aecaeo. eo acOoga co
oaecc_e_e. oa_om aecom, oaOomc cggomc eo o
Oecqce omae_e. eaqaeaao aa oaeqa Oceo_g
c_qgoac_om G.oGsGouo g.uGmsso @omLs,
oGLdo, qmsmL, ss4ms, Gess, esmmms _aeo _ga.
GgcqGsoGusd
c Ocm0ca-ecc_omc oac0ca-ecc_q qec_e_ _eqa
o0ca 0a -ecc_q
qec_e_ea eaaq
o0ca ggm0m0a
c a g o a c c a o
g_g. g 0cae_
qaoomc e_
oeoaae o0caaom
aecaoc_e_e.
_ q _ g
O_cq0ao0cao
oeo ceg Ocaa.
ce a 0 a -ec c _
0cae_eoom g0 gg
oeoaae o0caaoem
ac_0a aecagoqac _q_g GgsGsoGuso oeo ceg Ocaa.
O_cq0ao0cao qaoomc e_ oeoaae o0caaom
agoae_e. 1. Ocma GasoGussa 2. _a mGsoGussa
Oaoao0caaom Oceoac0ca-ecc (q0aqaco)gq 0qa_go_g.
g Oce caggccae _a0oaeaqeq qag_g. ea0ao0caa
_e oac0ca-eccec (q0aqaco) 0qa_go_g. g _e
caggccae _qmqaqeqq qag_g. _gmaqqgc agoaga
oOcaaom (_q0aooaa_om) Oce q0aqeceo 0a oae_e.
_e q0aqaco Oce q0aqaco e_a _eoome
o0caao_gm0m0a eooccc_me. o_a ea0ao0caaom
_go ceeeoac a_cqg Oeaaccc_ oa__e _ca Oc_0_aa
o0ca0a-eccqegg c_g. _e q0aqacoce qa
ea0ao0caom _q_c0e c_qg Oecccc__g. O_cq0ao0cam
oeq amm qaoome cmeaaqgc _a cg o_g.
em+0)ao0La)+ @ee
em+0)ao0La)+
Om+ao0La)+ @ee
Om+ao0La)+
Om+ao0Laa+m
@ee _eQ
_eq0)a_aeo
de_ agca+_gg
OLeq0)a_aeo
eLpe_ agca+_gg
LL.z+ OgLqG;aoGLamv LL
e
m
+
0
)
a
o
0
L
a
a
+
m
75
GLdGLs.mucam Gus_sgs mggw
1. Oceom _o__e _oae Ocma eco_oao _gq qaoaao
omaocc__g.
2. qeaacOcmo ce_ Oceae e0eaa a_ga ecoaacegg
q_Ooace agg (vermiIuge drug) Oc_cc__g.
8. aaaeaa (a Oce) ce_ Oceae o0ca0aoaac c
_goaomac aeecc__g.
gm Qod
gg agcOce
0eaqLc cqeqc _aqgOea
1. oeqq qaoome cmeaaa -----------e 0qa__qgce Oqacaq
aecag.
2. Ocm0ca-ecc_om, ga0eaoOcaaom a_ga
__0aaoOcaaomc ga eqgaegg --------------g
aa_ag.
e_ agcOceem
1. q0aa-ecc_om ce_ac cee
2. oaea go. Ocm0ca-ecc_ome oaogcaa goom, _ga
qaoome oaogcaa goo_ce gcc_a 0cag oa ce
qag _ga.
8. oaogcaa goome ceom aaeo
4. oeqq qaoomc oeqomac _cc qa __com aaeo
5. Ocm0ca-ecc_ome e_ Ocagmaqa _aqgoqeq c_go.
gg agcOceem
1. Ocm0ca-ecc_ome _cqc ceqom aaeo
2. O_cq0ao0cam ce_ac cee _qe _aqgoa aag
76
4.s mmgggsma (gGmsoGusa)
gGmsoGusa
o Oo__oaao Qcec oa_a 0aaca_ _ecq qaoom
oeqq qaoom (Spermatophytes) _ga. (oOcaaa - oeq) Qcoa
qaoom cga Ooamm0oeqa o _aaae aa _o__e
0oc0ca-ecc_ eqgaee cagoaccgqae. c_qgoaccao
Oceomc 0oc0ca-ecc_ eqg o eq q0aqaco _ga.
q0aqacmc _a0oaeaqgc amm Oce oacec 0a q qa
_e oac_om (oOcaaom) agoae_e. eo g Oecoq_g
e0a ac amme. _eac oeqq qaoomc oac0ca-ecc_
eqg oa ggoccccmmg. cagoaccaeg. oeqq qaoom _eg
_a aa__oem (development) 0qa_goqgmme.
1. O_cq0ao0camae 0qa__a
2. oeqom agoaoa
8. ga qeeaa__ _e 0oc_om 0qaegqc
oGusGcGLs.mucam wmaus wppm umqa@
dd oGusGcGLs.mucLs (mmg gswa)
Gusgo umqa
gaCeamOcaa
OueamCcae oo __CaamOcaa
oea
mo_
_qaoc
mo_ g___oc
LL.zS @GaoOLss g@
@gGvaoOLss gcJQg
77
O_cq0ao0cao oeoea eaaqeo. ea0ao0caa cecg
aoqqgem g_ga. Oaoao0caa cecg ogcecea g_ga.
ogcec __eaaao ec _cccc_mmg. og__ c oeq
cecc__g. o0ca0a-ecc_ ga qec_e_ 0oc0ca-ecc_
oa ggag. caeec Ocgoqg_g a 0qeocc_ogcec. Oeec
_e 0oc_om gogcec. 0oa, qe_ a_ga ecomc oaogcaa
goom oaecc_a. gc e_ ogcqom amme. 1. gGmsoGusG
z. @gGmsoGusG.
gGmsoGusa
gGmsoGusam poqo umqa
oOcaOac0ca-eccca cmoe ce qa ogc0c
ga0eaoOcaaom _ga. o__e mmga Qpgmw _qaog
__0aaoOcaaomc ammeo 0cac eo oeq0qaeeac
_ccccocec. ga0eao ceg Oeacgg g_q ce_ Ocag_a
oOaa0aao ce_ Oeacgg oeqom ce_ Ocag_a ae_. g
Oeec ga0eaoOcaaomc com g_q Qecac amme. _eo
cecaeac _ccccqgccgc. _q_gc cgcao g_q Oaoao0cao
ecom ce_eocc_a eecom g com 0mecaao
eeoccc_mme. qea0c0a eo g_qeo cega
oggqggc ceea eo _ccccaq g_q oeqoem
aecage_e cega __acc_e_g.
ga0eaoOcaaom 0ea0eaa (225 ceae _e_o_g _eq)
oacqg0c0a o _goaao oaecccce. _eac q_0cag oaecc_a
qaoomc ga0eaoOcaaom o Oea_caaeeo0a _ga. ccqqc 1u
0cmeo_a uuu __eo_a Oocc a_ga gma c0qeomc
comme. _eoomc Ocgacacaeeo coea Q_a aa_aq,
maecoem aeca 0oae-Ocaom. ga geeoecqgc
_aacacc0qeqgc maec oa_omc eo oaecc_e_e.
ece, -ca, oqgo, GeLss, gooo a_ga GeGasLms Gggsmcqas
(ccqqcc 1uu cca aaaae Occ aa) _aeo c
0oae-Ocaom _ga.
78
cLwmm 1.s wgoqa gGmsoGusG pg
@gGmsoGusGa@g gmLGm a Gwpgma
wgoq gGmsoGusG wgoq
(meaa, Gasm.Gusa @gGmsoGusG
pg gGasa) (gg gswa)
1. eecqgc gaaom ecaag. eecqgc gaaom amme.
q_om ac_0a amme. -q0maaqgc gee Oecom
(c0ceo qo) -q0maaqgc amme.
gee Oecom ecaag.
2. aqom oaecc_a acaoem agoaga.
o__c o0caoo_a gc o0caoo_a
o0caao_a agoaga o0caao_a agoaga.
8. oeqom g_qeo. oeqom c ecgm
_qaog oeqom cecgm _cccc_mme.
_ccccocec
4. cec ccaqqac oggqggc ce cec
oe ecaag oeaao aag_g.
gGmsoGusam gmoumqa
1. ga0eaoOcaaom cccae_ oaqa aom. Oog _mqao qqa
Oeqom amme.
2. ga0eaoOcaaome oaeo o_ac GgscqGsssd eqg
aa__a oaecc__g.
8. eo Ocm0ca-ecc_o_ga __0aaoOcaao_ga
eccccceoao amme. _qaog Ocm0ca-ecc_oem oacqga
0aaca_ _ecqeoaaoa __0aao -Ocaaoem oacqga ce
qaeoaaoa amme.
4. qao acca o0ca0a-ecc_ _ga. (cecaaa) eg
omaaecq 0oa, qe_ a_ga eco_ce qa aa _ga.
5. o0ca0a-ecc_ e_ oeo omaae ecoem aecaeo.
ea0ao 0caaoem agoaga ea0ao0cao ec Oaoa
o0caaoem agoaga Oaoao0cao ec.
6. o0caaom Ogoaao _eaq aqom _ccg oOcaecco
(strobilus)c oaecc_e_e.
79
1. o0caaom _emqg oac0ca-ecc_oemq 0qa_g oe_e.
0oc0ca-ecc_om o ggaeo, oe@gq Oqmaaqeo,
o0ca0a-eccec eaaqeo.
8. com g_qeo.
u. aoq 0eaeo oa__e _c0a Qo_g (_e0aa -ccco)
1u. oggqc g0 gg eeeo ac_a aecag. omga ogg Oce
0oc0ca-ecc_ aegcca _m_g. ce0caoOcaa (Oce
0oc0ca-ecc_) oggqgg _ecaoq 0qaega g_e_aaq go
_ga.
11. oeqom g_qeo oeq0qaeeac _ccccqgccgcec.
12. eceqgc gaaom ecaag (c0cco ocao)
gGmsoGusam wmaus
0eacaOcae ga0eaoOcaaoem e_ ogcqomaoc
cmqgmmaa
1. ogcq eeo0ca -eccca
2. ogcq 0oae-Oc0a-eccca
eoo0ca-eccca ogccc amm qaoom cma emoaq
qeqeea, _caq q_eccggeaa, Oaeq aoceceaa
cma o0cao ecoema aecaeo. 0oae-Oc0a-eccca
ogccc amm qaoom eg emqq qeeca Oaeq
+o
omo
+
m+6e
oc :.zs g0wso2osa
80
q_eccgg, _caq aocec a_ga ocae o0cao ecoema
aecaeo.
gGmsoGusam Gus_sgs mggw
1. 0oae-Oca qaoome aocecom oaq a_cqgac
caec_e_e. (c.oa.) mumo eo oc_aaec ce, ca
a_ga dmc Oqa_eaec _ao__c caec_e_e. (c.oa.)
Oeco _oaqgo
2. eceo qaoqge Oeegg caceece Oc_cc__g.
Ocaec a_ga caeomc g oeccaeaoc caec__g.
agqgoqgga g oe, _o 0oamag 0cae_ 0aao_g
agqa_g.
8. mumo gssqmsmsoe oeqom aeeq qoeo
4. n.dcsoegg Oc_cc_a c-ccee ce_ _cocaa_
_oqgaa a_ga ooae 0oamag 0aao_g agqa_g.
5. 0oae-Oca aomegg Oc_cc_a aqgm (saw dust)
e0eaeaa a_ga cmaoq qaamccc caec__g.
6. eceegg Oc_cc_a Gsm ce_ Oe aoeoq q_ccgga
(water prooIing), eecqc cggoem (joints) __ogga
caec__g.
1. _0omaa gg _gq qaoaaga.
81
om0a+o
o0o++oo
oo0a+.ooc_
Ce1LCLa-eLL_
n
n
n
n
n
n
n
_+o0o+eam
__gdqam
ecm
m_g
opggo
0oo
oo0o+c
2n
2n
OL0Ls.muc (0gs0sm0usm)

a
0

a
n n n
_aCeaea
Ce1LCLa-eLL_
(Ca_aom)
___dqa
L
mCLaCa-eLL_
m_g
e_g_c
eeCeaL
Ceaam
mCLae
mCLaaem
2n
2n
2n
2n
o
a
0
a
+

o
o
a
0
a
+

sS c0cs.c_
OL0LaeLcQ(O_c0)ao0La)o)
o0La0)a-eLcQ
em+0)a
o0La)+
em+0)a
o0Laa+m
+aac0La-eLcQ
Om+a
o0Laa+m
Om+ao0La)+
1n
1n
0
+
eo0+ac
+gg_e
eL
_a+0+aca __a
dg
1n
1n
n
n
n
n
(2n)
(2n)
(2n)
(2n)
(2n)
(2n)
(2n)
(2n)
g0mso0os
_m +
_
+0sc
0om +
a+0)s o0os) e
a+0)s o0os)
a+0)so0oss
_s0+e
o0os0)soc
_e_
01c0csoc
_e_
__0)s0+sos mc
___e
a+0)so0oss
_m
01c0csoc
__b _s+i0s
0om
01c0csoc
0aso0oss
_s0+e
0aso0oss
a0s+o
a0s+o
0as o0os) e
0as o0os)
o0os0)soc
2n
2n
n
n
n
n
n
uL 1.z1 uwma gswam wsgma ngpmm mg uL
(1)
(2a)
(2b)
(8)
82
gm Qod
gg agcOce
0eaqLc cqeqc _aqg Oeae.
1. o Oo__oaao Qc ec oa_a 0aaca_ _ecq qaoom
......... _ga.
2. _eeqg oeqq qaoo_a ........... oeoea eaaqeo.
8. 0oc0ca-ecc_ eqgae o _gocce ggoa ..... c
oaecc__g.
4. oeqq qaoomc Oaoao0caoqg_g gccao oaecc_a _eacq
....... _ga.
5. oeqq qaoomc ea0ao 0caoqg_g gccao oaecc_a
_eacq ....... _ga.
e_ agcOceem
1. oeqq qaoome cmeaaqgc oaecccc _eg _a
aa__om aaeo
2. O_cq0ao0cam ce_ac cee
8. oaea g : oeq _eg qec_e_oem Ooae_mm gg
ocae _eaccaga.
4. ga0eaoOcaaome oeqoem e g_qeoom ceg g0_aa
5. ga0eaoOcaaome e_ _a ogcqom aaeo
gg agcOceem
1. oeqom agoaqee _@com aaeo
2. __0aaoOcaa a_ga ga0eaoOcaao_g ec0amm
0ogca_oem omeecc_qg.
8. ga0eaoOcaaome _cqc ceqoemq Oqagqg c_go.
4. ga0eaoOcaaome Ocagmaqa _aqgoom aaeo
83
II. Ge a6dm
1. Ge - a6dm qoumL g
aameome _eacq a_ga Oeacome _qccec _coaoq
goog Oeccaga. g qeqg oaqag. ge0eaac ac_0a
oaeoccg. _eeqg aameo_a Oecomac _eeo. aa caao
qa ccoeoaae aameome 0ogccc qeeaom, agoeacqom
ag ccec aecaeaga, _qccecac _eo _eeqgga
Ocagoae gg qeea ae_. _g ceeOoe_ac _eeqg aaao_a
g0 oqaae _cgomac _eeo, _eeqg aaao_a
Oecceacce _qccecac g0 oqaae _eacq aecae.
c_qgoaccao _eeqg aameo_a g0 oqaae aq e0oq
g_oema (genetic code) g0 oqaae qq a_cqg Oeacca_oema
eoaa_e_e.
aameom cc agcqoem Ooaeceo. goOoag agcqa
goomac _eeo. goom Oecomac _eeo, Oecom _cgomac
_eeo. _eeqg aameomga Oecqae _qccec Oeac _cg
_ga. aamac cecg __ogaao Oecee Oeacca_oemc c__0a
ammg. ga a_ga Oe0ooco (Loewy and Siekevitz) ce_ ___aom,
ocg Oecec cmaoaa eooeaga qao Oecec Oec ooa a_ga
cmaoaa eooeaga ccc_ aaaome gg _coaoq goo0q Oec
ceg Oecec oeag_aaom. ooa_ao aame _qccec _coaoq
goog Oec _ga.
Gemo uppm amdqoqam g_ n_asm wsg
Oececc c__a cq gg _aaa, ge0ea e_ _qaag
_qe _qcao, _ecae oaegoe_a (Anton Van Leewenhoek)
(1682 - 1128) qa0e oqoeaqq qeg cma ge0eaae _ca
camaa, q0ac0ca0eaoeom, oOcaOacc0eaoeom, qq
occ@om _ao__ee _aaqaa 1665-c acac _ (Robert
Hooke) eaq qeoae Oacea ocoem _aaq 0cag _gc
oaecccc 0qe _ 0cae_ o_a _eacec Ge ce_ Ocamc_
_eqqaa.
84
1888 a _e_ Ogaae acec 0eaq qaooac Qqea
aaqg0aao cce (Matthios Schleiden), qaoom _eeqga qao
Oecomeac _eeo ceg oec_g _eaa. 188ua _e_
ccee ace cqqqoa, ac_gQqea (anatomist) g0aaca oae
(Theodore Schwann) ocgomc _aa Oeag ocgo_a
Oecomac _eeo ceg oec_g _eaa. _c0caga Oecee
aeeaaae qeea c__a __ 0omog_aao0o gqg. 1858 a
_e_ Oec Ooameo g0cac-c oa0ea (RudolI Virchow) cecoac
e_a c_qccccg.
susc oGm (Robert Brown) cecoa 1881a _eqc _a_
(orchid) 0oa Oecomc Q_maeo oec_qaa. g o _aaae
gg oe_cqccaga. qsmg (Purkinje) 184u a _e_ Oecome am0m
oaecc_a ooccae Ocagco_g qGscGLsdse ce_
Ocamccaa. gcqaa g__aeqc Oec _aaac cc qgeaaae
geea gccom eoaamcccce. cccae ge0ea 1u82-a
_eqc oe_cqoccccce Oec a_ga Oecee
ge@gcqoemc c__aq qoocom ag 0aga 0aga
sOOsm
oc z.: _0am0uscq gs; Osww o;oc
OcOooom
oomOm 0cmOmcc
oscOcoos Omcdsm
o+zsmsm
osyOoe
_oom +o
oomm so
_sm soj
_sOom
_sm
yO;Omco
omOooom
omcOcsecdo
oeOcoos ooo
oeOcoosooo
(0s;0s;ooog)
om sy
0se+o
85
ecoccccg. _eacec _qccecaao Ooae_ Oecom
qGsGadGmscq (Prokaryotic) @GadGmscq (Eukaryotic) ceg e_
oeoomao oeocc_qqcc_e_e.
_moga oqoqgga _0om0aacq Oecom oa
0 ogc _e_ e.
o_a Oecom
c a m a a o c
oaecc__g (u.2
_qc 5u eaoae
oe) ocOcma
Oec moao
(Cycas) qoaqge
c _ga. qao
Oecee oqo_a
g_c ccq q g q
oeoac oa
0 ogc _e_ e.
_eo 0oama, cc
0oaea, _cec
oqoa, Oeoooa,
agem m_cec
ceg cc oeoaae
oqoa Ooaeceo
_ga.
Gem gmg gmm (dynamic nature)
gg _gaq aamac amm Oec Qecaae gg _eaccao
ogqcc__g. Oqacag q.ce..oaeg gg _a.ce.. (m-RNA) oaoc
cq c_occ__g. (transcription) g gg g_cccc qqq Oqagcqoem
OaaOcaaqg (translation) agoag_g. q qqom, Oeacca_ome
0cag eqoccc_ qga qqom 0qa_goocc_e_e. ce0o
ooeaccaeg Oqacaq gg eaQecac ammg. Oecom omaoga
cec oggoga cec. _qe ceo_a aagogcec. q
Qecaae gg _eacec ogqgc Ooam_a 0cag Oecee o
_aaae ag qeeaea (dynamic aspects) a_g occag.
a+0)sae
ac0cssmbm
cm0csSas+ oe
(oocosm_,
0)s0acm
j_+aot_
0set_c
os+0ose
0cs0msSaso
e0+s0+s
j_+a0seo
cm0csSas+ oe
(0+s)0+s)cosm_,
ocz.z _0am0uscq duOswwo;oc
86
Oecee q ag qeeaea _qe oaaem oa@a0cag
__acaa. gg Oec cgcceca 0cag _ccg e_ Oecom eea
0ca0qa (og a_ga _eca) qga Oec agoa_g. q e_
Qoo_0a Oec cqqqec ge__g. gc Oec oma, qga
qqom a_cqg _qc, q.ce.. cqqqc e_a Oec cgccecg
e_ 0ea Oecoem agoagqc _aeo _eeqga ammcga.
gg Oec omag cgccecac 0ca_qa cecg _q acee o
_aaae gaaaea _ga. goOoag omaq aame_a cea Oecoem
qgcce_e _ccg qga 0qeog _c qga Oecoem
aecage_e. q_g gg _q c_qgoac_ ac_ca_ae
oemoao ogoae qeeom agoaqc _ccg 0q_a oaaom _c_a
0cag qga Oecom agoaqc _ga. _eac q_g0aa ce_
_gcaoaae Ooa_eaaae 0aac ac_a cqq 0qeoa
ccaa0c0a Oecom cgccecg qga Oecoem aecage_e.
cq_g 0aeac c__ 0aga __oq_oao0o __oac ocgaom Oec
oma a_ga Oec cgcec oc_cc_qga oaeoem goaao
_aag og_aaom.
Ge ngp
Ocagoao Oec o_ gg gccccccc oac __aaeqgc
ecOcg_g. _0o _0om0aacq Oeco_a. gg am_gm0m0a
amm oqoaqgecq Oeacc_oeqc 0cac Oqacaaae cc Qecoem
aeca gg Ge ngpac o_c_e_e. q Oec o_ac a_cqg
Qecac (S-phase).q.ce.. ccccae_g. eaccaq Qecac (M-
phase) q.ce.. oe ocom 0ea Oeco_g caqmocc__g.
Ocgacacae qao, ocg Oecom cqcceca 1u _qc 2u ae
0a c_qg Ooame_e. c Oecom Oagoaoa cqccece_e.
87
cLwmm z.1
qao Oec, ocg Oeco_g ec0a amm 0ogca_om
gsw Ge mg Ge
1. Oecg0cameac _e Oec ooa ecaag.
aggaae Oecooa ae_. cmaoaa eoqae Oecec
Oomcq_a gmmg.
2. qao Oecom Oec ocg Oecee oqoa
ooec Oc__gccqeac gccoccaaeg cec.
Oqmoae, gccoccaae oqoa aa_ Ooae0c gga.
oqoqeqc Ocge_e.
Oecee oqoa Qqaaeg
8. cmaoq_om amme. cmaoq_om ecaag
_aaaeg cooeoa
(chloroplst) _ga
4. oag 0oacom ceeeoac oag0oacom ecaag.
ge_qeo. Ocma _ccg o ge_oaoa
_mocaeeo _aeoaaoa oaecc_a.
5. 0aaca_ _ecaaqq _eeqg ocg Oecomga
qaoomc ac_0a Oeec0a0eaaom amme.
Oeec0a0eaaomamme.
6. qq0aa0eaaom eec0cacmaeqgc g_oao
(0oacg agcqom) oaecc_e_e. go__ qc_
eec0cacmaeqgc cocao 0cae0_a gga eea 0cae0_a
g_e_ eooeac _e amme. gegOoaeg Oqacaqeca
0cOaccaq qc_oem gcom (Tubules) 0cae_ cggoem
aecaeo. aecaeo.
1. _0om0aacq qao _eeqg Oecomga amme.
Oecomc ac_0a
ec0ea0eaaom amme.
8. ocg Oecec oacqga ocg Oecom _aeo.
qao Oecom Ocmaeo
u. 0ecq Ocagmao em0oage 0ecq Ocagmao
qea ammg. ammg.
1u. eec0cacmae cgcce 0cag eec0cacmae cgcce 0cag
Oecee eaaqgc Oec Oecee omacegg eaaqeq
qc_ agoa_g. 0a gg cmma 0qaeg_g.
88
Oecee ag qeeag a_gOaag ocae c_qgoac_
Oecom Gwgus mLg (diIIerentiation) _qaog Oecom gg g_cccc
Oeaec Oeaoq_oao c aa__oem _ecqec0a 0ogca_ _ecqc
ce0_aa. Oecee Oeagg __oag _qe ago_a aa__a
_ec_g. oqoa Oeaee cgcecq (Iorm Iollows Iunction) ce_
aamac 0oaccacqee Qgce_g.
Oecome oc_ccaqccaq oma a_ga cgcq gg gcaae Oec
ocq (tumor) eaq 0qa_go_g. gccccccc Oecee ea
(Programmed Cell Death (PCD) ce_ Qo Oec oma a_ga
cgccecqec gg eaQeceaq 0qa_goccgc _a cg
oe_g. g qoa Oecee ea 0qeoa__ Oecoem gogga
cg oe_g.
qao Oecom cc oeoomc ocg Oecomegg 0ogc_e_e.
gm Qod
gg agcOce
emaae eceaq 0qaOq_
1. Oqacag q.ce.. oaeg gg _a.ce..oao aa__cc_og ooag
_eocc__g.
_. OaaOcaacq_. qq 0eaeo
. DNA cqqqc o. cq c_qqc
2. gg g_cccc _ccae ceea Oeaoq_oao oqoqgc aa__a
Ocgqc ooag _eocc__g.
_. 0ogca_ _ecqc _. oma
. Oec cgcq o. Oec c
e_ agcOceem
1. Oec o_ - oeag
2. Oec 0ogca_ _ecqc ce_ac cee
8. oqoa Oeaee cgcecq omgo.
4. PCD ce_ac cee
cqg agcOceem
1. qao Oecgga ocg Oecgga ec0a amm 0ogca_oem
_ccoeec c_qgo.
89
z. Ge Gasma
_cce a_ga oae (Schleiden and Schwann) goga 0eag
188u-a _e_ Oec Ooameo aee Oomaccea. Oec Ooameoae
_a _aeaaog: _eeqg aameo_a Oecomac _eeo.
Oecomqae aameome _eacq a_ga Oeacome _qccec
_coaoq goe_e.
Ge Gasma Ggsmpm mg
Oec Ooameoae cqccqaae omaea _aa0qaaaeac
__oac Oeacca_om (methodology) cooag age_e cecg
omga. __oac _aaom oec Qecoem Ooae_mme.
1. a_g 0aoc 2. _ooem Oomacc (hypothesis) 8. Ooameo
agoagqc 4. Ooameoac aa__a Oeaqc (0qeocc_aaae) ece
(1804 -1881) ce_ Ogaaeac_ qaooac Qqeac a_g 0aoc
0a_Ooammccccg. oa cc oeoaae qao aamoem _aag _eo
_eeqga Oecomac _eeo ceceq oec_qaa. 1888 a _eqc
Oecom qae _eeqg qaoq goo_ga _qccec _eaccaoq
goe_e ceg aggaao _eaa.
oae c_a Ogaae ac_ ocac Qqea ccoeoaae
ocgoem _aag ocg Oeco_g Oecooa ecaag. _eo gg
eooeac ccc_mmg. ceceq oec_qaa. Oecooa ocao a__
_eeqg _eaccga qao Oeco_a ocg Oeco_a gqgmme
ceceqa oec_g _eaa. qao Oecom ocg Oecom e_0a
Q_maeo Ooae_mme. Q_maeo o__ga Oqmoae gg
Ocag_a ammg. eooeac ccc_ Q_maeo Ooae_mm gg
_eac0c Oec ce Oecec oa oeagqqaa. qao acco_a ocg
acco_a Oecom a_ga _o__e Ocagcomac _eeo ce_
ogqgeee Oomaccaa.
ece a_ga oae gogaao 0eag oaee ogqeq
ocqaa Oeag Oec Ooameoaee Oomaccea. _qe _a
_aeomaeeo.
1. _eeqg aaao_a Oecom cecc_a o geea _cgomac
_eeo. qeqg oa qa o _a _eacq Oec0c _ga.
90
2. goOoag Oecga Q_maeo Ooae_mm q0ac0cacmaeqqac
_eeo, eooeac ccc_ Oec oogc0ea _ccg Oec ooa
__0_a oaecc_a.
8. _eeqg Oeco_a _eaccga oma eq aa__ Oeacomga
_qccecac gqqeo.
4. aameqge Oaaqq oemom _qee agoa amm Oecome
c_ Oeacom a_ga _o__e Oaaqq Oeacc_g_0e _ga.
Ge Gasma6m mQ mga
1. eooom aamac ocgao_g gg qgao0o gqe. _eo
Oec Ooameog gg og ocoaga. Oecee _ac cggaae
q0ac0cacmaea _eoo_g cec.
2. caqmaao_ga ea0eacaqmao_ga (cc coa caom)
g_oae occeaq Q_mao ecaag.
8. c q0ac0ca0eaoeom Oecceacec Ooaeqgoocec.
4. 0eaeecqc e_caoem Ooae_mm c __eeom cmccaq
gcaae q0ac0cacmaeqeq Ooae_mme, o__c cc
Q_maoom q_oaecc_e_e. c.oa. mGesouo
5. qq occ_omga eccec gaa Oecomga Q_mao
ecaag.
_goaeaac amm Oecom 0og gg Oeac Qecac gga0cag
gg Oec 0oO_ag Qecac gocaa _g omaaecg Ooae0ca
og Ooaec0a, cgccecg Ooae0ca _ccg _0qa
oaeccccaa. g 0cae_ Oececc c__a Oqacag oq
oe_cqcqomeac Oecee Ooameoac aa__oem _c_qq
0oeqa _oaaaa_g. aa__o_ce qa Oec Ooameo Oecog
_ccg Oec 0oacca_ (cell doctinine) ce_ _qogg aaaqqccccg.
Ge mQ g Ge Gascus
Oec 0oaccacqe _a _aeomaoe:
1. _eeqg aamo_a Oecomac _eeo
2. _oe0o amm Oecomegg qga Oecom 0qaege_e.
8. _eeqg aagmmeoome _eacq a_ga Oeacome _qccec
_coaoq Qoog Oec _ga.
4. Oec acac qoocoem Ooae_mmg. eo Oec cgcce 0cag
gg Oeceegg a_O_ag Oecgg ocqqcc__g.
91
5. 0ogq qeeaaga omaeq aa__ Oeacomga _eeqg Oeco_a
gqqeo.
6. Oecee _eaceca Oeacoema oc_cc_qgog DNA _ga.
1. c eaaomc c _q Oec o_a Oeacg_e ammeoaao
gga. (c.oa.) qaoomc eec gaaom, c_om
ocgomc _com 0cae_ Oecom (hormy cells).
gm Qod
emaae eceaq 0qaOq_
1. Oec Ooameog og ocg
(_) __ee (_) ce0aa-ecc_
() oeqq qaoa (o) Ocm0ca-ecc_
0eaqLc ceemc _aqg Oeae
1. -----------a -------------a Oec Ooameoea Oomaccea.
2. Oecom aaaome ----------- a_ga ---------- _cgomaq goe_e
8. aa__a Oeaacccc Oec Ooameo --------- ceg _eocc__g.
e_ agcOceem
1. __oac _aaae _a Qecom aaeo
2. cce a_ga oae agoaa Oec Ooameoae _a
_aeom aaeo
8. Oec Ooameoae e_ og ocgom aaeo
gg agcOceem
1. Oec 0oaccacqe _a _aeoem c_go
cqg agcOceem
1. Oec Ooameo 0qae_a oqqeq oom
92
a. qGsGadGmsc pg @GadGmsc Ge
(gsw Gea)
q qo 0oamqgc oaecc_a _eeqg aamo_a _eoome
Oecome _eacce _qccecac e_ Ocma cmomao oeo
c_qqccc_mme. qGsGadGmsca a_ga @GasdGmsca
q0a0om0aac_ Oecom Oqmoae Q_maeo Ooaeqgccgcec.
o cmeaaae ammeacec Ooaeceo. _0om0aac_ Oecom
eooeac cccc Q_maeo Ooaeceo. o__e am_eacqa
q0a0om0aacq Oecoem oca ocaeeo. caqmaaom a_ga
ea0eacaqmaaom q0a0om0aac_om _ga. __eeom, qaoom
a_ga ocgom _0om0aac_om _ga.
qGsGadGmsca
Ocagoao q0a0om0aac_ Oecomc cmaoaa eooeac
oeagocccc eec0ca0eaec (cytosol) ammca g0 gg _e_
ac_0a ammg. caqmaa Oecomc Oqmoao oeagocccc acog
ecaag ce_a aqc Ocagmae q.ce.. Oecee eaaqgc
ggmmg. _eeqg q0a0om0aac_ Oecomga acac qoocom
___gaao _ccg Ocgacaeeaaao eaaqgc _eagmm occ oqo,
qeqq, q.ce. _c_c _eagmmg. ccggea gmdmmc
Q@mo _ccg Q@msL ceg _e0_aa. g qo Oecee
qq a_cqg eaaomao ogqcc_a e0ca0eaao_a Oecec q.ce.
ccaq cggomc oaecc__g. c caqmaome Oec eo
Oecee acq_a 3GesGesa cecc_a c coem
aecage_e. eo q.ce. a_cqgaga qq a_cqgaga
c0o_e_e. ooa_ao caqma Oecomc ___gaao ammeacq
cec ceg _ acag.
caqma Oecomc, Oec eooe Oomcq_a _eq gcqa Oec ooa
gega ammg. g Occq0ca emoae, ge0oaeaoe_om a_ga
93
qqqgeac _e c_cOcagcom _ao__ac _eeo. ooa
Oecgg oqoqeqa cagoaceca qg_g.
noGedms Gasm 0cae_ caqmaomc Oacea Oec oogg
Oomcq__a _eaqeaao gg eo oaecc__g. g Oec
oomeega Ocmcmao ecOomaac cmoccc_mmg. ooeo
caqmaaom aa eaaqeq _cgcec. ce0o eo s Gacqo oeo
ce oeoc_qqcc_e_e. 0og c caqmaom (c.oa Guoo
usfaes) qqccae Oec ooec Oc_g, Oom eo __g oaecc__g.
eo aa eaaqeq _cqac eo s usocqo oeo ce
__acc__g.
caqmaa e_ Oqmoae eoomac ccc_mmg. e_
eoo_ga ec0a Ocmcmao ecOom ammg. Oomcq_ __g
aggaao ammg. g Oecgg cagoacec _m_g. g Oecooa
ceg __acc__g. qe 0og _eacq ocaeg. cae eaoe_om,
ecc_om a_ga qq _cgomeac _eeo. 0came ce_
caeOccec_ _a ooema (channels) aecag_g. qe o0a
oe Ocagcom oo Oecc_qa. cmaoaa eo ec0cac qqqqac
_eg. o__mm mcoqg_g g ccecq qecaao ammg. _a
_cgom, _aeom _ao__e acOecgqeca
Oom0agqeca q cmaoaa eo oc_cc_qg_g. ooae
eeac cg Ocga Oagom a_ga gm0eaeoac o_c_a
Oagom _aeo q0a0om0aac_ome cmaoaa eooc
_eagmme.
caqma g0a0aa0eaa cecc_og eaaqgc Q_maaa_ cggac
_eagmm occ oqo, g_q, goaao, ogec q.ce. _c g
_ga. g cccae ge0eaac oa@a 0cag, q0ac0cacmaeqge
Oomma cggaao ammg. ccccccac 1 .cca m0o amm
c.0oaecae q.ce. _oaggq 0qeoaae _eeqg acac
qoocoema ammc ammg cecg gq oaqqg Oeagaaga.
ccqqcc ecaaqgegg _oaaa oeaae Ooo0og
qqo_oae e0oqg_f_om gc _cmme.
a_O_aeg qeqg _eaaocec. Oecom Oqmoae cc
cggomaoc cmocccocec. _eac Oecec cc acOcagcom
geea _eacqce amme. eo cc oqaae Oecec oomme.
94
eaaqgc amm g0a0aa0eaa _ccg q.ce. _cg occ
oqoaeg. gg cqgc cmaoaa eoce eeg oaecc__g.
ooeecq q.ce.. cqqqee 0cag g g0a0aa0eaao_a
cma aqe_g ceg accc__g.
q gg g0a0aa0eaa qo c caqmaom _a, occ oqoae,
g0a0aa0eaa _ccaq q.ce. eoc Oc_gmme. q_g dsofc ceg
Ocaa. g caqmaome ge@aa Ooace cgacqq g__g
oaeaa_g. cmao_om aqcOca_aaega caec_e_e. gc
cmao_om qecc_qqccc_ e_a am0m geocc_e_e.
cmao_omc geom (DNA ge_om) 0eaoccc_ ceq _eo
e_a aqc Oca_aac gccoemc caec_qg caqmaomc
Oegqqcc_e_e.
q.ce. eo o__ q0ac0ca cmaeqge ogeaaae cggac
gcqaaa _qc _ccqaaa oeacae e0ca0eaa gomom
oaecc_e_e. eoc qqa a_ga _a.ce. oeac _eeo.
qq a_cqg eaaomao Oeacc_e_e. e0ca0eaaom cc
geg 0eag usmGusGesa _ccg usGesa ce_ Oqagcqomao
oaecc_e_e. goOoag e0ca0eaga gg Ocma cgg a_ga gg
_a cgg oaecc_a. q_mm Oec cgg a. cc oqaae _a.ce.-om
OsOsm
0se+o
sosog
ooom
oscOcoosm
ooo;OoOsm
o;OoOsm
_sa
uc6 z.a q0)s0a0mscq Oe gmmouq (usms)
95
ooag oomm _eacce oqa gg __eqgegg a_O_ag
__eqg_g 0oc__g. g0 __eqgc cc oma Qecomga
ooeacq aagc__g.
ea0ea camaa Oecomc oa cq gm0eaeo eoom
amme. eo eqcoaa_omac _eeo. Oecee eaac cggac
Q_m0aacmaea ammg. g eom 0cae_g _ccg aeom 0cae_
_eacq aecag. _ccg e_ _eacq0a 0eag oaecc_a.
Oecec 0og cc ae 0cae_ acOcagco_a amme. Oecooa
aggaae cc __gomac _eeo. Oecoogg Oom0a aa 0cae_
ae_a ae_. ea0ea camaomc _mgee Oomo_a
gmoee, gm0o__ qooea, ecge Qeccc_qgqc,
O_cq0aoc, eoec_om a_ga _aa0aa0oaeaom 0cae_
Oecom 0ogca_ _ecqc _a ceqo_a amme.
@GadGmsca
_0om0aac_om _eeqgq qao ocg aco aameoem
ammcag. gc gg Oec __eeom (c.oa. oo_) a_ga
q0ac0ca0eaoeom _eeqga _cga. q0a0om0aac_ Oecoemc
0cac0o _0om0aac_ Oeco_a cmaoaa eooeac
ccc_mmg. _eac q0a0om0aac_ Oecoemc 0cace_
_0om0aac_ Oecom eooeac cccc ge@gcqoem
Ooaeceo.
goOoag Oec ge@gcqa Oecee omaaga omaeq
aa__qgga gg _ac cee oe_g. goOoag Oec
ge@gcqa g_cccc Oagq Oqagcqoem Ooae_ 0qeoaae
0og oeeomc o_c_e_e.
_0om0aac_ Oecomc oaecc_a oc Ocma ge@gcq
Q_mao _ga. Oecee Ocgacacae q.ce.. Q_mamc ammg.
_0om0aacq Oecomc q.ce.. oaeg 1 _qc 5u oeacae m,
g0a0aa0eaaom ce_ _eacqomc caqmoccc_mmg. gg
aamae _eeqg Oecomga g0a0aa0eaaome ceeeoa
_ma eaaao oaecc_a. _eac Ooo0og aameomc eo
96
0ogc_a. gg aamae g0a0aa0eaaomc oaecc_a Oaaqq q.ce..
eoa (aqq qoocom) _qe gGms ce_e0_aa. Q_mao qo
_0o _0om0aac_ Oecomga 0og cc ge@gcqo_a
oaecc_e_e.
mcGLsasmcdma : o__c Oecee ___c omaeq aa__om
Qoe_e. OeaOeaccae a_ga o_o_ccae nmGLsdse mm :
eo oeccceecomeac _e gc qqo_a ecc_o_a
agoaocc_e_e. Gus @eoGesa: g Ooa_cq _co_a
_0ea _co_a eqocc_e_e. uaamaa : gm0eaeo
ecOcga eaaomaoq go_a eo qao Oecom, a_ga c gg
Oec aamomc ac_0a oaecc_a. qao Oecomga c gg Oec
_0om0aac_omga oaecc_a oag0oacomc mccc Ocagcom
_ca goa Qac oaecc__g. c oc Ocagco_a gc
0eomoccc_ eq Qoom ecOcge_e. _0om0aac_
Oecome mecGLsGes, qq eomac _e gg _eacec
Ooae_mmg. q_g mecGLsdse ngqa (cytoskeleton) ceg
Ocaa. eec0ca0eac cecg eec0cacmaeqge oea cggaaga. g
Oec ge@gcqo_g ec0a oaecc__g. qao Oecgg
Oecg0cao a_ga 0og cc caeaaomeac _e aggaae Ge ams
ammg. g Oecgg aggeaa ogq qeeaeaa _m_g.
udemsm qGsGadGmscaa
camaom, e camaom (_q0ea eac_om) a_ga
ea0ea camaom.
udemsm @GadGmsca
__eeom, qaoom a_ga ocgom.
97
_ccoee 2.2. q0a0om0aac_ a_ga _0om0aac_o_g ec0a amm 0ogca_om:
umq qGsGadGmsca @GadGmsca
o .|_1|aoacc I++ +acc +o .|_1|aoacc .|a .+o+o 10
o0 gc|| .|acc 100+o1 II-gc|| .|acc
.|ag| .|_1|aoacc go_a+o _ +o go_a+o |o .|a
|o;+o .+ooao _cc oog +||c| .a+o cg1 +ccao
.c|acc j_+oaaa +ccao __|||| j_+oacc .c|acc
__|||(_||{oco
.+o c|||acc |Caacc +c|aag c|||acc |g1 |Caacc
|_|; _)o|a+| coo _c oog cc+aa .+o |_|; jc|.|g1
.|a| _1;o (budding) _c
+ao||1
|ao _| .|_1|aoacc+oo +c|aag Cj+|acc+oo .o
.|_++1 +oco |);| .|a_o |a1 _ +_goo _o .|o
c_ ||1 c_a+ .+ooo __jg _)o+_1 +||a_ .o
.|g1 .+o_+_ jc|.|_+g
coa++ _)|c||a c+C+a|(o_jg |o |Caacc _o1 c|a_1
._ca++1 .+o+o Cagc{oco {+ c+C+a|(o_jg _)|c||a_1
Ccg|a1 .oca++ +c|aag .o|a+g |o .+o .a+o
.oca {+ Ccg|a|c||
.|goo
+c+ac_ +oco coa |a+|aa cc+ 0+2 cc+ +c+ac_ +ao||+g
cc+ +c+ac_ .o _g _
gooc_aao _g
.+o +ca .||(C|a +co++a ac)a+oo .+o_Coacao _
I_+C+a.||c|o _cc .+o +c_1 __c+ao c+|(ao
.+o_Coac +c|aag _ .+o +c_1 .oog
go coC|acoa+ cco C+aog .g|;+o coC|acoa+ cco C+aog
.g|;+o c||C|a+ao(aa+o |+a+a+o .g|;+o c||C|a+ao(aa+o
ca+_Ccao+o C|a +ccao __| |+a+o+a+o ca+_Ccao+o
||| go_g|;+o +c|aag C|a +ccao __||||
go_g|;+o .oo
c)C|a c)C|aC+a1+o +acc 70S cc+ c)C|aC+a1+o .|acc 80_ cc+
C+a1+o S c|g cc|.|a+ o_ _g
o|)a.+(_g (ultra centriIuge)
C|ag .|||1 c)C|aC+aI
c_|( co __1
(c |);| .|a_|+o (c +||c|j |);| .|a_|+o j_ +||c|j
_C)aC|aC+a1+oo +ao|||ag _C)aC|aC+a1+oo +ao||1
98
gm Qod
gg agcOce
emaae eceaq 0qaOq_
1. c.0oaec camaqgc oaecc_a g0a0aa0eaa _ccaq q.ce..
ooag _eocc__g.
_. 0ea0eaaom _. Q_maaa_
. emcaec Q_mao o. cmaoc
0eaqLc ceem Qcqe.
1. Oacea Oec oogg Oom0a gg eooeec Oc_gmm
camaom Ocagoao aa .................... oeo camaom.
2. cmao_om, camaaoe ............ g oaeaammg.
8. cmao_om ................. c Ocmga caec__g.
4. cc Oqagcqomao oaecc_a e0ca0eaam................ceg
_eocc_e_e.
e_ agcOceem
1. emcaec Q_mao ce_ac cee
2. cmao_ome caeom aaeo
8. q0a0om0aac_ Oecec _0om0aac_ Oeceeega
0ogc_qgo.
gg agcOceem
1. q0a0om0aac_ Oecee ccae ge0ea _eacec oom.
cqg agcOceem
2. q0a0om0aac_ Oeco_ga _0om0aac_ Oeco_ga ec0a
amm 0ogca_oem _ccoeecc_qgo.
99
4. g gmGmsa pg
fmm@ gmGmsa
Oec _eacq c__a __eaaae __ ccoeoaae
ge0eaome _qcceca0c0a _eagmmg. cce a_ga
oae, oq Oqaeeaaae gm ge0eaeac caec_qg,Oeco0m
aame _qccec _cg ceceq omea. _eg _qc eg oe gm
ge0eaom, aamac _aaac oc Ocma ceo oe_e.
ee@ ge0eaome. oma oaeaao Oecee o geea
agcqoem c 0ogc_qg __a g_e _gomqgmmg. 0aga
qao, ocg goome _eacq g_qq qga qooco_a ag qe
oaeaao ecoc Oc__g. ge0eaac ecga cacome
qeeaaaeg gmae qeea, ac0aaocc_qqcccc ee@
ge0eaae qeea a_ga Oec _ccg go qaamocccc oqa
_ao__e _qccecac _eagmmg.
g gmGmsa6m
eaqaeaao aa ac0aaga c_ ge0eaac cc Oceoom
amme. eo aagmc Ocagme cacqeq cc acg Ocgga. goOoag
qe Oceoa coom acg Ocgoa Oea_0qa _o_e_c Ocgeac
Oaaqq acg Ocgga ecga. c_qgoaccao Ocagmgg Oceo
gg acg Ocgo_a (Ocagoag 1uu x Oceo caec_qqcc__g),
oeegg Oceo cqg acg Ocgoa aecag ce_ac ggaao oe
_ccg geac o_a caca _aa acoaga (1uu

1u).
oe@gc qccc_a gmeac caec_qg gm ge0eaac
Oc_ qa 0ogc_qga g_e u.2 mm (2uu nm) _qaog coom acg
cacqeqc Ocgeaga q ge0eaea ac0aaqg 0.2mm-ga
ge_q ecOomce qa Ocagcoemc cmqg __a _qaag
cec0q qe Ocagm _ga.
gm ge0eaac ac0aaocc_qqcc_a aagmc Ocagcom
Ocagoao Qec Qgqqccc_ (Iixed), Oaceaaq gecaoccc_
100
(Sectioned) c_g eaaa gcccc__g. (stained). Ocagoao gm
ge0eaac caec_a aagmc Ocagcom _co_ac, _ccg
-caaaacqe__ _ca oeeec Qec Qgqqcc_e_e. Oeec
eo qqoema Q_m _coema eqe_e. ceq eo
ca-ce _ccg cmaoqc qeqoccc_ (embedding) maGsGLs
ce_ ogoeac caec_qg gg c ea0a cca qqcqmm Oacea
ge_omao occ_e_e. ceq qgq eaaoemc caec_qg eo
oee0a__c c_e_e.
m_m fmm@ - gmGmsa (TEM)
ee@ - ge0eaa gm ge0eaae _qcceca0c0a
_eagmmg. oqgaaea ceeOoe_ac ee@ - ge0eaac e
oaq Oceoom
caec_qqcc_e_e.
0aga gc
g m o g a o _ g c
cgcao ee@
ogaom _g 0ooqgc
Oegqqcc_e_e.
ee@om oa__c
amm _@omeac
o a q g
Oo a mmc c _oq a c
e e @ o g a o m
_ a c g a
cqgegg gg
ge oeac
Oo__cqgc Oecga
oeoac gaa
_eaoccc_mmg.
m_goc ee@ ge0eaac ee@ o_e_om aagmc
Ocagm _caao Oegqqcc__g. coceac _e cgae qca
(cathode) eeaqqac caocc_a 0cag ee@om Oomaae_e.
gg ee@ oga gg (condensor lens) ogaoem goqg Ocagme
g o Oea_g. ceq g Ocagmgg Ocee oaao Oeeg
cacqeq geac _ccg gmcccqgc o Oea_g.
1m m_ _m0ms+i
0osc0csi)sS +
_c
0o_c
1m m_
__
1m s_
0emo
c e+c)sm
__s)
qa 6m
__s)
oc z. gm0ms pg 9w@
gm0ms 2sro g
m0cm+s
0emo
0os_a _ 0emo
0os_
qa +__
qa _m0ms+i
a_ m
( _g S o,
mm_
0em o
101
0ogc_qga g_e D gmo_e_ae _ec mqeq l-c Ocagqg
ammg. ce0o ee@ ge0eaae _go cce 0ogc_qga g_e
oeg _aoaao u.uu5mm _ccg gm ge0eaae 0ogc_qga
g_ee oacca _cqaaa acg _goa. ag oeee 0ogc_qga
g_ee oacqga e_ ceae acg _goa. _eac aeeaac
qe 0ogc_qga g_e 0.1 n.m. _ga. _qaog gm ge0eaea
oacqga ecaaa acg _go 0ogc_qga g_ee aecag.
um (oGam) fmm@ gmGmsa (SEM)
m_goc ee@ ge0ea (TEM) ea oacqga ge_oae
0ogc_qga g_ee Ooae_mmg. ge0eaaac gg
aagmcOcagme ccqc cggome _ccmaaeoem oaecaa. gc
ee@om Oceoome _ca gg qmmac goocc_e_e. gc
Ocagme mcao Oomcc_a ogaom ccoqaae ogaoemq
0qa_goe_e. (ecaa Qec ee@om) eoom qgq gg
_eacceac geg 0eaoccc_
Ocmqaoccc_ ceq caca
Oqaecoacc Occqac
o_aag _eagmmg.
ee@ ge0eaao
eeaamcc_a eea
gLcemaoe
1. Ocagem gmgcc
_e_ac oaa eoqg (Ireeze
drying) o geea
ocoemc Ocgqc.
eaqaeaae _e_ac
Ocagcoem oaa eoga
0cag _gc ogoom
_cc oaacqe_. _eac
q gmgcc _e_ac
_eo qoaocc_e_e.
2. cao-0cacoq _ca
a_ga _aec acqoemc
caec_qg cgaae_
eaaoemeo (negative
eo0occ+
cooc+e
go+o
m+gd 0o+o
ooe+go+
o++ogm
om
oec0+o
0oeo
uL z.s nmsc;sm g0ss
102
staining) aecagqc. q oqe a0caoom a_ga acqoemc
caec_qgoqe _ca cacqgc 0qeoaae 0ogcacec (contrast)
aecao _q_g. qeac Ocagme am _eacec omoao __a
_q_g.
gm Qod
gg agcOce
0eaqLc cqeq Qcqe.
1. D ae agcq ...................c 0ogc_qga g_e _gomga.
2. ge0ea Ocee 0ogc_qga g_ee .......... ceg
g_0_aa.
8. o0oe ee@ ge0eaac oqe a0caooem caec_qg
0qeoaae ............. g aeca Ocagcome am _eacec
omoao __a _q_g.
4. c_ ge0eaac ......... Oceooemc caec_qg caca
Ocmqaocc__g.
e_ agcOceem
1. oeag : ge0eaae 0ogc_qga g_e
cqg agcOceem
1. gm ge0eaae _eacq a_ga _qe aga oqqeq oom.
2. m_goc ee@ ge0eaae _eacq a_ga _qe 0oec
Oeaa oqqeq oom.
8. o0oe ee@ ge0ea cq _qccecac _eagmmg
ceceq oom.
103
s. Ge ams
_eeqgq qaoom, camaom a_ga __eeom _aeo
cmaoaa eoo_g Oom0a aggaae, cagoaccae Oec ooec
Oc_gmme. Oec ooa qao Oecoem ocg Oecomegga
cmqq_a aq_g. oaogcaa gooem aeca qaoomc
ecOcgoqgce Oqacaqeca gg c Oeco0m Oec oo__eo. a__
_eeqg Oeco_ga Oec ooa ae_. Oec ooe _qe _qec _D
cecoa 1865 a _e_ oaa Oecomc oec_qaa. _qec Oecooa
cecg q0ac0cacmaeqqac oocccc gg aa__ Ocagm ceg
acccccg. _eac q_0cag Oec ooa omaeq aa__o_ce
ag_g. oma Oea_g. omga oacoccqgcaog
q0ac0cacmaeqeq Ooae_mmg ceg Oqmaogmmg.
Geamdm a_msaa
eaccame 0ca-0co Qecac -ca0aacmaocc_om
(phragmoplast) _oeg 3ccaa 0caeg oqoa Ocge_e. Oecee eaac
cggac Oec qc_, 0ea q0ac0cacmaeo_g ec0a _e _qc
cmoeeq 0qa_go_g.
Oec qc_ 0qaega cggomc -ca0aacmaoc_ome eom
ae_g Oec qcec o__ ac_a Oqec_e_e. Oecqc_ __eaaaoq
0qae_ace -ca0aacmaoc_om __eaaao ae_go_e_e.
q eaaqgc Oec qcqe g q_qgga 0ea q0ac0cacmaeqgeac
Oacea 0cOaccaom aecae_e. Oecqc_ cqccqaao aa__a
_ecg eaaqqc_ (middle lamella) ce_ Oec ecOomc Ocagem
agoage_g.
Geamdm moq
eaqaeaao gg qao Oec oec _eg caooem
Ooae_mmg.(1) mmggc (2) gmm ams (8) gmLs Qme nws.
GmQggmm
Ooo0og aame acgomc Oecoome 0ogqqeea
0ogc__g. camaomc Oecooa Ocq0caemoaeeac _eg.
104
__eeac g macqm ce_ Ocagmac _eg. Ocgacacae qao Oec
ooaom GegGsoms _eeo. Oecg0cao qo O_Oecg0cao,
Ocqe, eee, _cqe, ocme a_ga eoa _aeoa
Oecoome g cqg oaeccccaa.
mmggc
g e_ _gog0o amm Oeco_g ec0a amm Oaec
0cae_ __oaga. eec0cacmae cgcce (cytokinesis) 0cag _qe
_qec 0qaega __g eaa __oaga g g0eaqacc (isotropic)
cecee aecag. g oacaa a_ga Oaeaa Oc0cc_omac
_eg. g qo qqo_a oaecc_a.
gmme ams
eaa __gg acq_aao 0qa_goocc_a _qc __o Oecooa
_qeea ooaga. g Oaceag, c _eca qeea aecag. g
_ee0eaqac cecee aecag (anisotropic) g _oe0o amm
ooacOcagco_g ec0a qg ooa Ocagcom cqoqac oma_g.
qqeoa oma ecOegoc (intussusception) cecc__g. caeeo
Oecom a_ga _g goom _aeo _qeea ooe ac_0a
Oc_gmme. Ogc 0cae_ qmc Ocagmc qeqg oaecc_a
Oecg0cao ge eom (microIibrils), _qeea oomc o Oqaaoao
_eag oeccceeec agoag_g. gm__q qeea Ooaecg
(optically active) oome oqoa a_ga qqa_gq qocq q ge eom
cc0og geeac _eagmme. ge eom qeqg oaecc_a
qmcOcagm a, O_ Oecg0cao, Ocqe a_ga em0oa
qqomac _eg. Ocqe, qmcOcagmc Qcqc Ocagmao ammg.
Oca Oecg0cao qmcOcag_ce ge eoemc cee_g.
em 0oaqqom ge eome _eaeo gaaae_g.
gmLs Qmeams
Oec _ga _ecqce qqaeae ecaa Qecooa
_qeea oogg am0m agoaocc__g. g ge_qccea _eg
__goem aecag. g omee aaao S1, S2 a_ga S3 _ga. g
qga ooac Ocagcom _oe0o amm Oec ooacOcagcom g
cqoqeac qqaee _gome_g. q_g 0ac ccaqc (apposition or
accretion) ceg Ocaa. eaa __g (s2) _go qqcecc Oc_gmmg. c
Oecomc _egga 0a_ccc __gom oaeccccaa. ecaa Qec
ooa agoaqc _eeqg Oecomga g0 aagmaao _eaogcec. qe
105
oaeaao caeeoaa, 0oaceeoaa, omeeoaa, aaom a_ga
q_om ceg cc
Oecom 0ogca_
_ece_e.
ecaa Qec
oome ge eom
ccggomc cc
__gomao o
Ogoaao _eag
Ocqe a_ga O_
Oecg0cameac _e
qmc Ocagmc
qeqgmmg. eee,
ocme, qagc Ocagcom,
Oa_g, caeeom,
Oeom, oa oacaa oaac0ec_ a_ga oacaa _o0cc_ 0cae_
oea acqom, eoa 0cae_eoa ecaa Qec oomc cqg
oaecc_a. ecaa Qecooa Oogoao _eg0eaqacc cecee
Ooae_memg. cc __goemq Oqmoao oae _qa.
ecaa Qecoome
geea _eacq c__a
_aa oa goaao
0a_Ooammccc_mmg. aa,
oaqa 0cae_
Oqa_eaecomc ecaa
Qec ooggmm
_aqgoa, q
_aaea 0aga
ge__g. Oecooa o
geea eomac _eeo.
eo o_e_omaoc
ceegmme. ecaa
Qecoomc oaecc_a cc
__gom (layering) q ge
eome _caqg 0ogcaccac _c__g. ecaa Qecoomc
gegOoaeg ec0a m_go Oecga e_ _eacqom amme.
1
. momaggq
z. oo gq
:. e mqm gq
4. moooeeo
gq
6. coa goo
6. moom goo
uL z.o Oeaoaw asou
umomamsm gqoqaw
2 3 4 5 6
a +
_m a eos
)m cs j eeos
S a soas +o
uL z.z mg Oeam 3g Oenosamm
nc;sm gm0ms moq
S

_e +
S

)m cs +
S
!
_m _s +
106
geg GegGsoms @m gm gmga a_O_aeg Oqacag amm
gmgm gmLGwa (microcapillary spaces) q ecOomomc
eee, _cqe, ocme, O_ Oecg0cao a_ga 0og c omac
Ocagcom c eaaomc c qeaccqoo_a Qacmme.
goOoa g
O e cg0 ca o
_ c g a
eeocccc
g_0oao cqo
_ c g o m a c
(residues) _e
m
e eo m a c
_eeo. q
e e
_ c g o m
o _ e _ o m a o
_eagmme.
g o O o a g
o _ e _ a
e a O e c 0 c
( m i c e l l a e )
cecc__g.
a0oe (Nageli)
cecoa eaOec0c _eacec c__ _qe _qec ogqg Oqmoqqoa
_oaa. -c0 eoe (Frey - Wyssling) a_ga _0cqaca (Muhlethaler)
ce_ ___aom e 0cae_ Oecg0cao _cgom o_e_omao
_eagmmg ceg _eaaom. Oqaco e (elementary Iibril)
ce_eocc_a goOoag o_e_a ccqqcc 86 Oecg0cao
_cgoem aecag. qOqaco e Ocgacaga cqoaao ammg.
dsoGsGLo GcLs
Oecec o__ga Oecooa __eaaao _qagccgcec
_oa0o gga gemom amme. _qgemome o0a Oacea
eec0cacmae eom m_go Oece_e. eo Oecome am0m
amm Ocagcoem eee_e. ooeo_g
dsoGsGLoGcLs ceg Ocaa. eo gg Oqacaaae
)mcs je 0+eeos
+_cm + 0+e
+
_ma eos
)mcs je eos
ta+
0oa+
)m 0+e_0eso
e
0+e_0eso
_e++_
0_sc+
oc z. Osomw gmmoooo da oc
_m
_mam
__
_mam
__
107
q0ac0cacmae acmaoc (symplast)g 0qa_goe_e. gc
cmaoaa eooeac cccc gga oacoaa ammg. _gc
GLoGsc@o@ ce_eocc_a emqq _ccg cma gaa
ammg. gaa ce0cacmae oeccceeee caaga. cmao0aa
Oco0acca oaao cc Ocagcom Oecggm0ma Oom0aa
Oec_g. gecec (stimuli) ocqgogga cmao0aaOco0acca cg
oe_g ceg accc__g.
ga (Pits)
gom cecc_og Oecoomc ecaa Qecooa cqacccaq
cggomaga. _gog0o amm Oecome gom gegOoaeg
cgacgao amme. goOoag gga gg g mp (pit chamber) a_ga
geeo (pit membrane) amme. geooc eaa __ga _qeea
ooga amme. geooc cc geea gemom ammqac o__e
o0a Ocagcom cmgc m_go Oecc _qa. gom e_
oeocc_a 1. nm ga (simple
pits) 2. mmpp ga (bodered pits)
g mpa g0 _m _oca
aecaeo. ecaa Qecooa
ecaag. oe__ qa
gomc ecaa Qecooa
gea _0q _qagga _gc
amm Oeco_ec0a
Ocagcoem ocqgogc gom
aqe_e. goOoag gga
_g0o amm Oecee oomc
eeaao gg g oaecc_a.
q_g gmmag (complementary pit)
ceg Ocaa. eo e_a Oeac a_ga _eaccc g Ggsq ea
agoage_e.
Ge amdm uma
1. Oecgg gg g_cccc oqoqeq _m_g.
2. Oecgg am0m amm q0ac0cacmaeqeq cagoa_g.
8. Oecgg ogeo _m_g.
4. ce0ca _oaaamo oaeaao _go a Oecgg am0m Oeeg
_qeac Oec Ooqqg o_oeq q__g.
cma
_qeu +oa
_gem
_eg
uLm z.e gsm mmoq
oo
La Qec +oa
cma
Cgaqem
oemm
Cgaqem
108
5. eeca gaaom, c_om a_ga eccecgaaome Oec ooaom
Ocagcoem _go gqgg ocqgogc gee qme_e.
6. cc eaaomc Oec ooa qaoa (oIIense) oaoa (deIence)
caec__g.
gm Qod
gg agcOce
emaae eceaq 0qaOq_
1. _oe0o amm ooacOcagcome ec0a qga ooac Ocagcom
cqqc ooag _eocc__g.
_. 0ac ccaqc _. ec Oegoc
. cccaqc o. cqqc
0eaqLc cqeqc _aqg Oea
1. cama Oec ooa .................. c _eg
2. qao Oecee ooa .................. c _eg
8. __eeae Oec ooa ................ c _eg
4. _oe0o amm ooac Ocagcome g qga ooacOcagcom cqqc
........... cecc__g
e_ agcOce
1. Oec oome _eg _a caooem g
2. eaa __g cecg aag
8. ec Oegoc oma cecg aag
4. eaOec0c cecc_og aag
5. ecaa Qec oomc oaecc_a gegOoaeg ec0a
m_go Oecga g _eacqom aaeo
6. geo cecg aag
1. oe__ g ce_ac cee
8. acmaoc_ - oeo.
u. Oco0aac_c_c cecg aag
gg agcOce
1. cmao0aaOco0acca cecg aag oom
2. gom ce_ac cee _qe oeooem oom.
8. Oecoome ceoem oom.
cqg agcOce
1. Oec oome geea _eacec oom.
109
o. Ge eo
q0a0om0aac_ a_ga _0om0aac_ Oecom _eeqga gg
Oacea, _a qeeamm cmaoaa eooeac ccc_mme. g gg
0qa ocqg eooaga. Oeec g_cccc c Ocagcoem ac_0a
Oecgg am0ma Oom0a0aa __cqa. g qo _eeqg
_0om0aacq Oecomga Oec ge@gcqom a_ga
oag0oacoem o__ga eoom oaecc_e_e. eo Oaaqqaao
eec0cacmae eoq Oqagcq cecc__g. cmaoaa eo a_ga
Oecggm0m oaecc_a _eeqg eoo_a 0eaqg
aagmmeoome eoom (biological membranes) cecc_e_e.
Ge eomm gm moq
Oec eo 15
o
A qqa_ecag. ee_ ge0eaac eo 8
__goem Ooaecmmeoao oac _me_e.
1. Oom0a amm ee_ _ca __g oaaa 2u
o
A qqae ammg.
2. acq_a amm ee@ _ca __g oaaa 2u
o
A qqae ammg.
8. _0o amm Oomma __g - oaaa 85
o
A qqae ammg.
Oom __ga acq_ __ga qq _cgomac _eeo. _
__g e_ __goem aeca cao-0caec eooe _cg
_cgomac _eg. g 0cae_ _o_g _eacqg _cg eo
cm+mu+ eo
Q_emam eo (Oom)
Q_emam eo (no)
m0L
0uLem eLOom
euL0L+e+La eo (no)
euL0L+e+La eo (Oom)
eo eLOom
Oo+ _em0e+u g_e_ eo
eo eLOom
eo _o
_ __eg
oc z. :o emmw ggoaa
ce0m+cm+mue _e
eeL0L+0e+oe _e
ooaee eo (Oom)
m0L+0+uc eLOom
ooaee eo (no)
eqoe+a_ gu
eqoe+a_ eo
c0L+cm+e
oeoa eo
110
(unit membrane) ceg Ocaa _eeqg eoo_ga g _qccecaao
ammg.
.q@6c Gsmea sQd (Iluid mosic model)
cmaoaa eooe _cg _eacec omgoq_g ce cc aagmom
_e eooccc_mme. oa a_ga QOoacee (Singer and Nicholson
1972) cecoaomac omocccc -q_acOaaee aagm _eeoaga
_g Ooammccccg. q aagmccq Oec eo goOaaqq (Quasi Iluid)
_eacec aecag. _eeqg eoo_a _ccccc _e_oem
gmme. goOoag eoo_ga gg mecGLsGesa co_a gg
naGosdsofa co_a amme. eoom _eeqga ecc_ a_ga
qqomac _eeo. q aagmc cq goOoag eoa
cao-0caecc_om a_ga qqomac _e gcmaae _eacq
aecaeo.
LLu. z. Oeoeome .LgL Ouaees uagm (Fluid-mosaic model)
cme
gcoeo
cme
zLeL
_sq
vczgu
e_Gza.GLams
oao Lqg
e_Gza.mcs
geoLLqg
cm vLzgasc
OocL
zgasc
oda
ecc_ _cgom Oqacaaae cec __eo
agoage_e. ecc_ cec __gome ccce g qq
111
_cgom GmGm a qgasa (extrinsic proteins) aG a
qgasa (intrimsic proteins) oaecc_e_e. am0m amm qqom
ecc_ cec __eo __eaaao _ccg cggaao m_go
Oecgceo. ecc_ cec __g e_ cao0caecc_ __gmac
_eeo. eo _a-ccag (amphipathic) _cgom cecc_e_e.
_qaog gg a ogacc (hydrophilic) cggeaa gg a Oogga
(hydrophobic) cggeaa aecae. cao0caecc_ome _eacq eq
q_ga gg __oao (water resistant barier) ammg. qe oaeaao
ecc_omc oea qa Ocagcom ac_0a am0m Oecc_qa. mc
oeaqa Ocagcom am0m Oecc _qaag. q cao-0caecc_
cec __g _eeqg aaa eoo_ga _qccec _eaccao ammg.
g qo o__c qqom, em0oaqqom, Ooacocac,
oaa_om a_ga em0oaecc_om _aeoa amme. goOoag
eoo_ga gg g_cccc ceomc ammqac goOoag eoa g_cccc
eoc qqome Oqagcq ceomc o_c_e_e.
qga
qqom e_ oqaae _eacqomc amme.
1. naoqdm a g GmGm a qga
_eo ecc_ cec __gome e_ coomga
Oomcq_aao _eagmme. o_e_ cmgc a_cac _e_omc o
_qa.
z. gmqdma g aG a qga
cqqom ecc_ __eo __eaaao0oa _ccg cggaao0oa
m_go Oecga. goaae ceecqomeac eo ceeoccc_
amme. o_e_ o0oe_aaeac __ eooeea eqo 0oe_a
q qqom cc oq oqoomc amme. cc ceomc o_c_e_e.
dsos eomm uma
_eeqg Oecomga cmaoaa eo cc _a ceomc
o_c__g. aecOcagcoem Oecgg am0ma, omaeq
aa__omac agoae oc Ocagcoem Oecgg Oom0aa __cc
0qeoa__ Ocagcom Oecggm geoeqq q__g. ogoaao
_eac Oeco_g ec0aa Oeco_g am0ma Ocagcoem
ocqgogc _a cg oe_e. eec0ca0eaec _aeome
_meoa (pH~7.2) _oaacq __qqqeqa Qeccc_qg_g.
cmaoaa eoom c g_cccc ocqg qqoem Ooaecmme. eo
gg c _a _cgom ac_0a ocqga. eeaeooem ocqqag.
112
cc qqoem _aeoem Oecgg am0ma Oom0aa Oe_
(concentration gradient) ge_oae cqgegg _goaae cqgg
__ccq 0qeoaae ___ec ATPae ac cgcq _ca Ocg_g. e
oeamm _a ATP _cgom a_ga _0ea _com
eec0ca0eaec cmgc co _qa. _eac _eo cmaoaa eooeeq
qaeq Oom0a Oecc0oa gea0o _qaag. 0a0c _cccc
_eeqg eoo_ga amqqae Ocagoae ceoemq qo 0og c
ceo_a eoo_g ae_. cmaoaa eoce ceeoccc_m
Oagom oeeoem mgoe_e. ooeeom eaqaeaao gmm
ec Oagom ccaac ecOc_ _qaag. cc oeoaae
_0om0aacq Oecome cmaoaa eoom cc moccaa (receptor)
qqoem Ooae_mme. eo _aa0aaeom, oma oaeom
a_ga aq aea ocqgom 0cae_ c g_cccc ec
_cgo_ce (signaling molecules) eeg cc oqaae Oec
oeeomc o_c_e_e.
goOoag Oececc 0cac0o goOoag Oec ge@gcqa eooe
_coac ccc_ _qe accae Oeaccac_g 0qeoaae
qqoemc Oc_g oaecc__g.
eomm aLgg um
eooe ocqga g_ee Ooae_ _qee oecoag
_e0_aa.
1 . aLgggQpm amLmmw : qe oaaoc Ocagcom cmgc
ocqqcc_e_e.
z. aLggQpm ppmm : qe oaaoc Ocagcom cmgc ocqqccc
_qogcec.
a. GgsaLggQpm amLmmm : qe oaao gg c Ocagcom ac_0a
Oecc_qa eea Ocagcom Oecc _qaag. gg eooe ocqga
ceq oeco__e _qccecac _eagmmg.
1. cmaoaa eooc amm gemome _m
2. Ocagm _cgome _m
8. Ocagm _cgomc amm e oea
_eeqg aameome eoo_a 0qa ocqg g_e aecaeo.
qe ocqg g_e oaeaao g_0oao, _0ea _com a_ga
ecc_om 0cae_ e_aeaaaq _cgom Oecggm cmgc
gee_e. omaeq aa__ome 0cag agoae eccOcagcom
Oecggm0m0a ge_e. 0qeoa__ oc Ocagcom Oecgg
113
Oom0a Oecge_e. ogo _e Oecggm0m gg Qecaae
eaQec Qco Oec eo aq_g.
Oec eooe o0a Ocagcom _a 0q_a gg _e_ac
ocqqcc__g.
1. @pp Ggmmmpp aLgg z. @pp Ggmm aLgg
@pp Ggmmmpp aLgg
gmpdm Gema
Ocagcom eooe o0a a_e_ac _e_ac ocqqcc_a0cag
_q_g cqoqaae ___ga 0qeoagccgcec. ocqgc qqo_a
gc cg Ooamogcec. Oecggm Ocagcom 0 _ccc_mm
a_cac Qoom _ga ocqqcc_e_e. 1. um z. eo_ um
um
_cgom Oe_ _goaae cqgegg Oe_ ge_oae
cqgg eaaaoc cqec0a coc ce0_aa. Qo
_cgome ao oee oaeaao Qo_g. coee mqa 0
_ccc_mmeog 0a oqqgc ammg.
1. Ocagcome Oe_
2. mcoqge OoccQec
8. ca oae ccq
coee mqa 0 _ccc_mmeog cga oqqgc ammg.
1. Ocagm _cgome _m
2. Ocagm _cgome _cg cec
8. _cgom co 0oeqa ga
a6s eoam (bio-membranes) mGm Lag um
_a oa _cgom a_ga eea a Oogga _cgom
cao-0caecc_ cec __g oaao 0mecaao c_g. ooag
cqc _g aa e_q0aoaacec oea mqqeqc Ocagqg ammg.
_cgome coc Oe_ _goaae cqgegg Oe_ ge_oae
cqgg (along the concentration gradient) Qo_g. ___c
0qeocc_ogcec. Oecoocc_ogcec. Qo aecac
0 _gqgg (down hill transport) gccao _cc__g. eoomc
o0a cqc oec e_ oomc ecOcg_g.
1. Ooa_ccc oea qa Ocagcom cmqao ecc_ cec __c
oeg eooe oaaoc c_g.
114
2. mc oea qa Ocagco_a _aeo_a eooc amm _a
gemome oaaoc ce_e.
fm ama@Lm qm Gus_cam um
mc oeaqa Ocagco_a, K

, Cl
-
, HCO
3
P- 0cae_ _aeo_a
eooc amm gemome _ca ce_e. cqc coqgc _0q e
oeaoem aeca _aeom _goaao amm0qa _qc coqgegg
aa_g _aeom _goaao amm coqg_g c_g. e_
coo_ga ec0a oaecc_a eoeaome 0ogcacec fmam
Gmgus (electric gradient) ceg _e0_aa.
eooeac oaecc_a am0m amm qqom eooe mcao Oecga
qq oomao Oeacc_e_e. oa _cgome ccOcaa
__qq 0ogcacqe o (pressure gradient) c_g.
eo_um
g gg _ccae coc Qoaaga. gc a _ccg oeccae
_cgom _qe Oe_ _goaae cqgegg _qe Oe_ ge_oae
cqgg 0qa ocqg eooe o0a c_g.
eo_ umm ug
1. 0oaqgoom e aeeegg a_e_ac a__oe_e.
2. gg Oeceegg a_O_ag Oecgg e ocqgogc eog_ coc
_a cg oe_g.
8. eog_ coc oe_cc_qqa _cc oaeaammg.
ooe_cc_qqa ecqgemom _ca g_oa oaeaamme.
(eog_ coecc c__ 0aga __a caca V.4 g oaeo).
@m GusscLs m aLgg (Uniporter catalyzed TranspoIrt)
_0o Oecome (qaoa a_ga ocg) cmaoaa eoom cc
_e0caaccaoem Ooae_mme. eo _0ea _com,
Q_m0aaee_om, eaoe a_ga _a _cgom _ca _goaae
cqgegg _ca ge_oae cqgg Oecc ooge_e.
Oagoemc 0cac q _e0caaccaom Oocc ao (thermodynamic)
0oacca_o_0o_c oeeoem gmqcc_qge_e. q ocqqc _e_
c eaaomc cmqaocccc ocqqc (Iacilitated transport) _ccg
cmqaocccc coc (Iacilitated diIIusion) cega _eocc__g.
115
_e0caacca ocqqc oec oqomc ___c 0qeoa__ coc
_e_aeega 0ogc__g. 1. gc ocqqee mqa cgaccaacecoc
oa _goa. 2. ocqqc oa gccoccaaeg. 8. cao0caecc_
cec __gome o __eaaao ocqqc Qoaac g_cccc ocqgc
qqome oaao Qo_g.
@pp Ggmm aLgg
q_g ___c 0qeocc__g. gc _cgom _ccg _aeom
Oe_ 0ogcacq_g
cgao ocqqcc_e_e.
_qaog Oe_ ge_oae
cqgegg Oe_
_goaae cqgg
_cgom _ccg
_aeom oae_e. g
aecac 0a0c gqgg
(up hill movement) gccao
ogqcc__g.
coee oeeea cgaqg Oecc ___c 0qeocc__g. q
___c _mge __ cao-0cc 0eacq _ca ecga ATP aeg0qa
_ccg _aeome Oe_ 0ogcacqeg0qa Oc_cc__g.
_cgom _ccg _aeom 0qa ocqg eooe oaao Oe_
ge_q cqgegg Oe_ _goaae cqgg ___ee aqoce
ocqqcc_oeq0a ___c 0qeomm ocqqc ceg oeagocaa.
___c 0qeomm ocqqc cmaoaa eoomc amm ocqgc qqom
(carrier proteins) aqoce ecOcg_g. cmaoaa eoomc
_ge Oe
ueoeg
g _agqc
ueoeg
0ucgqc
ge_ Oe
oL 2.12 ___c0qeo nom eLgqc- oeoL
___c
0qeoa__
eLgqc(ooc)
___c
0qeoom
eLgqc
_oo 0o
0seoo
0oooyg
soo
;cocsy
ocmz.1! _jjeO_ooosc__oesc_go q;__go ozy
0seoo
scoyg
Osd -
;omOococ
- +ccom
omooe
mjjm
q;_m
sc_g
X1l og
0ogm_jje
116
GusfGmoa _ccg qsmGsaGaoa cecc_a cc ocqg qqom
amme. goOoag g_cccc oeOcag_ga g_cccc ocqgc qqa
ae_. g e_ ceecqc cggoemc Oc_gmmg. geg c_qg
Oecc 0oeqa Ocag_oaeg. (transportant) a_O_aeg ATP
_cgoaeg. ocqg qqa c_qg Oecc 0oeqa Ocagem
cmaoaa eooe Oomcq_qgc cee_g. ocqgc qqa c_qq
Oecc 0oeqa Ocagm - ccea (carrier - transportant complex)
aeca_g. ATP _cg qqqge a_O_ag ceecqc cggac
ceeg ac cgoccc_ ___ec Oomo__g. ooa__c q
cceaoc _eacq aa__qeq (conIirmational change) _c_qg_g.
qeac Ocagmeg eooe a_O_ag coqgg c_qg Oecccc__g.
ocqgc qqa agcq _qe cea Qecg ggac __qq _ce_
c_qg Oecc qaaa_g.
_aeom 0qa ocqg eooe oaao ocqqc c_oeq e_
oeeom oc_cc_qqe_e. 1. eooe e oea ___c 2. _ae Oe_
0ogca_. _ae Oe_ 0ogca_ ATP ___cac Oegqqcc_a _ae
cacceac (ion pump) 0qa_goocc__g.
nmGLs mecLsoo pg naGosmecLsoo
Ocagcom _go _moc eooe oaao Oecgg am0m (ce0ca
eeccamo) _ccg Oecgg Oom0a (c0oaeeccamo) ___c
oeece ocqqcc_q0c ce0caeeccamo _ccg
c0oaeeccamo cecc__g. ce0caeeccamo 0cag cmaoaa
eo gg aqcec _ccg cea 0qa_goccqe _ca gg Oom
_ccg oag0oaec agoag_g. g e_ oeocc_a.
1. .GuGasmecLsoo (Ge m_gg)
gc Ocagcom gcgcqgc acOoammcc_e_e. gc o_cc_a
Oecom -0c0oaeec_om cecc_e_e . (c.oa.) qq Oomem
_@om - acOoammcc_a 0cag -0c0oaeecq oag0oac
0qaeg_g.
z. .muGmsmecLsoo (Ge _gg)
gc Ocagcom go gcqgc _gqcc_e_e. _gga 0cag
ee_ _a Oomom 0qaege_e. _caa_
q0ac0ca0eaoaom, c go Oecom (go cmaa__qgc o_cc_a
Oecom) c eaaomc c qao Oecomga ec0eaeeccamo
ecOcga. c0oaeeccamo Qoac ce0caeeccamo
Qog 0a aa_ao ecOcg_g. ae oag0oacomc amm
Oemocccaq ae qom qe _ca Oecgg Oom0a
qmmcc__g.
117
gm Qod
gg agcOce
emaae eceaq 0qaOq_.
1. ___c 0qeomm ocqqc ooag ecOcg_g.
_. Oe_ _goaae cqgegg Oe_ ge_oae cqgg
_. e oea _goaae cqgegg ge_oae cqgg
. __qqa _goaae cqgegg ge_oae cqgg
o. Oe_ ge_q cqgegg Oe_ _goaae cqgg
2. -0c0oaeoccamog 0og Ocaa
_. Oec o_gqc _. Oec ea
. Oec _ggqc o. Oec _
0eaqLc cqeq Qcq
1. _eeqg aamac eoo_a ------------------
2. ___c 0qeoa__ ocqqec _cgom Oe_ ----------
cqgegg Oe_ -------------- cqgg c_qqOecccc__g.
e_ agcOceem
1. oeag: aamac eo
2. _a-ccg eoom ce_ac cee
8. coqme qqom ce_ac cee
4. ecme qqom ce_ac cee
5. oeag: 0qa ocqg eo
6. oeag : ___c 0qeomm ] ___c 0qeoa__ ocqqc
1. oeag : coc ] eog coc
8. eooe ocqg g_eec cagga e_ oaeoem c_go
u. qaoomc eog_ coee cg aag
1u. cmqaocccc ocqqc ce_ac cee
11. _e0caac ocqqgga coggaae 0ogcacec c_go
12. oeag: -0c0oaeeccamo ] ec0eaeeccamo ]
c0oaeeccamo.
gg agcOceem
1. cmaoaa eooe ceeom omeec c_qgo
2. oeag: coc. coee mqqeq oc_cc_qga oaeom aaeo
8. _e0caacca ocqeqec oom
4. ___c 0qeomm ocqqecea oom
cqg agcOceem
1. Oec eooe -cgac Oaa0ea aagmea oom.
118
1. Ge gm@goqa
Oecee ammeacq a_ga omaeq aa__ oom Q_mao
_eeqg qaoom, ocgom a_ga gg Oec _0om0aac_om (c.o
ooc_) _eeqgga g0 aagmaao amme. _eeqg _0om0aac_
Oeco_a eooeac cccc a_ga ge@gcqom _ao_e_
eec0ca0eaec Ooae_mme. goOoag ge@gccga _qe
am0ma _qe eoomga amm g_cccc qqom
_ge@gcce gccoccaae ceoemq gaaaee_e.
gg qao Oec oec ge@gcqom a_ga caooemc
Oc_gmmg.
1. mcGLsasmcdma
eo e_ eoomac ccc_mme. am0m amm eo _go
aqcqo_ce oaecc__g. omeooga eaaqgc amm
qmcOcagmga amm Oagom, ecc_om a_ga eaoeae gg
_mge __ Qecoem mgoqg ATP ea agoage_e.
z. uaamaa
eo gm0eaeo eaaomaga. eo qao Oecomc ac_0a
amme. eoa Oom, a_ga am eooemc Oc_gmme.
eqcoaa_omac _e ocae eo _eaceca am0m Oc_gmme.
gm ___ec oaqg ATP ea agoaga Q_o_a Oago_a
oaecc_e_e.
a. Q@amo
eq o__ga Oomcq_ eo, acq_ eo _aeo
oaecc__g. eo cc gemo_ce qaeo. acogo_ga
eec0ca0eae_ga ec0a Ocagcom qgemome oaao
Oegqqcc_e_e. acogoe Oomcq_ eo OeaOeaccae
ce0cacmae oecce Oqacaaao ammg. g cmaoaa eooee
ceomc gqgg_g. Q_mamc q.ce.. maae _eacqomae
g0a0aa0eaaomc _eagmmg.
119
4. nmGLsdse mm
eo gegOoaeg Oqacaqeca eooeac _e oeccceec
_ga. e_ oeoaae ce0cacmae oecom __accc_mme.
1. OeaOeaccaeg 2. ooccaeg
GesGesousm nmGLsdse mm
q oeo ce0cacmae oecac _qe ccce g e0ca0eaaom
oaecc_e_e. Oecee qq a_cqgg ce0cacmae oec
oaeaammg. e0ca0eaaomcqae _0ea _com 0eaoccc_
qqom agoae_e. ce0cacmae oeceoome
aqcqomec0a oaecc_a ecOomoem ooGLsGm (Cisternae) ceg
_e0_aa.
mgmgousm nmGLsdse mm
ooeoac e0ca0eaaom oaecc_og cec
s. Gasma agoq (qaqGmsGesa)
eo _oe_ _a__ eea 0cae_eo. o__e _eeom
ogeqgga. e0ca0eaaomc aecae qqom 0o
aocc_e_e. ggaao cqqom Oom0age_e.
eaaomc 0oaceo agcqomegg _a g 0cae_ oga
Oomom (secretory vesicles) 0qaege_e. eo Oec eooee 0a
oag qqoem eooc gee_e. _ccg Oecgg Oom0a
qmmo_e_e.
o. msagGmsa
qao Oecomc oag0ocom 1u% Oecec Qccagga.
oag0oacom mcccOcagcom a_ga oqqeea Qe_q oc
Ocagcom _a eeca 0eqg eoga. oag0oacomc
__qqa _gomqqac Oecee _m _gomga. qe oaeaao Oec
acqa, __qqa e_a _goaaeac Oec _a 0m_a.
1. mGusGesa
qq occ@om a_ga _gaq og Oecom ocao
_eeqg q0a0om0aac_ a_ga _0om0aac_ Oecomc
e0ca0eaaom oaecc_a. _0om0aacq Oecomc eo
eec0cacmaeqgc qeq0qa _ccg OeaOeaccae ce0cacmae
120
oecome Oomcccqomc ee0qa oaeccccaa.
e0ca0eaaomqae qq a_cqg eaaomaga.
Q@amo
_0om0aac_ Oecomc oaecc_a ocOcma ge@gcq
Q_mao _ga. g e_ eooeac ccc_mmg. goOoag
eoa cc qqoem aeca cao0caecc_ cec __eac
_eeo. ameo
Q_maeo o__
ccecea oeagga
oqaao ammg. _0o
Oecomc Q_mame
Oomeo Oea
Oeaccae ce0cacmae
oecce Oqacaaao
ammg. Oomeoo_ga
aceoo_ga ec0a
amm ecOom
O e a O e a c c a e
ce0cacmae oecae
ecOomccggce
(lumen) Oqacaaao ammg.
Q_mame e_ eoo_a Q_maooemc cggomc
eee_e. oocc oqoqgemom c g_cccc qqomac
_eeo. eo Q_mam_ga eec0ca0eagga ec0a
Ocagcoem __agga oomao Oeacc_e_e.
omga _ccg 0ogca_ _eca Oecomc acog, omaeq
aa__omc o_cc_ _a.ce.. _ccg q.ce..eo a_cqg Oeag
Ooaeqgga. _a.ce.. gemome oaao eec0cacmaeqg_g
__ccccc_ _0o qq a_cqgac c0o_ga. gaOo_ga
Oecomc Q_mao Oeac g_e_g oaecc_a. o ge_q _m0o
q.ce.. _ccg _a.ce.. a_cqg Oeaacc_a.
Q_mao cgccecaaq Qecac gga0cag g0a0aa0eaaom
cocao oaecc_a. _eo gm ge0eaaeac cmqg __a
_qaaqcq amme. gGsGsGesa caacmaqge a_cac _qccec
_ga. geom caacmaqge 0og _qccec _ga. geom
Q_oam
eo (Ooo)
Q_oam
eo (am)
Q_oam
gem
CaCuLqe
oeo
Q_oCaaom
uLm z.i4 Q@swmom moq
121
g0a0aa0eaaomc momeeac _eagmme. Q_mame am
agccae Q_m0aaceo gm ge0eaaeac eg Oqmoao
oaecaa. Ocgacacae e0ca0eaa _a.ce.. Q_m0aacmc qae
a_cqg __g. __eaaae _ccg cag __eaaae e0ca0eaaome
cggom Q_mao gemome oaao eec0ca0eagg Oece_e.
Q_mame Q_m0aaco _ccaq cgg Q_m0aacmaea
ce_eocc__g. g q.ce.. Oe_g oaecc_a. aca_mm
aceooe am0m, caeom (lamins) ce_ aacqqom gg
Oqacaaae e_ cmaae oeccceeec agoa acogo_g
ggoqoqeq qg_g. q.ce..eoc cee_g. Oeccgcq
_acga0cag q oeccceec ae__g.
Q@amom uma
1. 0qeoaae Oagome a_cqgea oc_cc_qgoqe _ca Oecee
_eeqg omaeq aa__oema oc_cc_qg_g.
2. Oc_0_aaomcgg 0ea qec_e_g aqc ceqom
ocqqcc_oeq Q_mao oc_cc_qg_g.
8. Oec cgcec oc_cc_qgoga Q_mao qae
mcGLsasmcdmma
eac0caoaecmaa Gem @pp
mm cega _eocc__g.
Oeec Oecee ___ec 0eqg
Ooma_og eac0caoaecmaa
_ga. Oomaccccc ___c .q.c.
(_q0eae qecao-0cc)
agoaoqgc caec__g. oa_gmm
ooaeqgc o_c_a _eeqg Oecomga eac0caoaecmaeomqaa
cqae qc agoao eaaomaga.
Ocgacacae _0om0aacq Oecomc Qe_a
eac0caoaemaeom aecae. eec0cacmae Oaaqq Ooammmoc 25
eqmqa eac0ca oaeqmaeom _eagmmg. q ocae
ge@gcq ocOcma _m aecag. _moc qee oc Ocmaeo
Q_mao, oag0oacom a_ga cooeoom ac_aqae. Ocagoao
eo m gc oqoa aecaeo. c eaaomc eo gom, e,
0oac, occa _ccg gc oqoqgc amme.
n
oc z.:s Oew @pp
ommawsa omc0csasmqma
ADP+PI
CO

O
ATP
122
eac0caoaecmaeoem o__ga Oom0a gg eo, am0m gg
eo,e_ga ec0a oecOom _aeo amme. Oomeo
cagecc_ a_ga cag
qqqqac _eg. am
eooe ocqga g_e
Oom eoeo oc
ge_. aceo 2u
eqmqa ecccaga 8u
eqmqa qqqqaga
_eeo. aceooe
q_cccq mo0c
c e c c _ a
ceeeoa__ am0aa comac cc acg _gomoccc_mmg.
mo0c qmcOcagme am0m cq Ooaeqgga.
mo0c eooe am ccq cee__ oaaqeca gomomac
_cccc_mme. eo F1 gaa, GgsLaa Qm gaa _ccg gee
_cgom cega _eocc_e_e. eo qmcOcagmc cq
Ooaeqgga. goOoag F1 go_a 8 caooem aecaeo. qecccgg,
oaaqccgg a_ga _qccgg F1 gomom amm mo0ceooc qae ooae
ee _eagmmg. cccae ocqg _eacec (Electron Transport
System) agoaga Oago_a c_ Oago_a q ooae eeac
ammg. oa_gmm ooaeqgc ETSc amm Oago_a c_ Oago_a
cccae _comao Oeacc_e_e. (_mge __ cao-0cc
0eacq).
gm0eaeo qmaaq Oecomc, ATP a_cqgg, Ooa_cq
_co_a g_0oaoa qae _qaaao amme. g_0oao _cg
__eaaao _mge __a Oeaaccc_ (O2 oaoa H
2
O _oa
eqoccccac _q_ce 0eag 86 ATP _cgom a_cqg
Oeaacc_e_e. _0om0aacq Oecomc g_0oao _mge
__qge _qc Qec eec0ca 0eaec ecOcg_g. gg g_0oao
_cgg e_ ATP _cgom qae _c0cag agoae_e.
_mge __qgce qa cao0cc_ 0eacq ammcc gg Qecom
eac0caoaecmaaoe qmcOcagm a_ga mo0coc amm
Oagome _ca ecOcge_e. gg g_0oao _cgg
ccqqcc 84 ATP _cgom agoae_e. eac0ca oaecmaaoc
_mge __qqac aecae ___c 0og cc ac0aaoqgga cae
DNA
F1 gem
eo (Ooo)
oL z.:e wmcGLsasmmrsm gmmwmoq
dmCL
eo (am)
gem
CuLdm
123
c_qqcc_oqac (c_qgoaccao Oocc a_cqgaga, _aeome
ocqgqega) qe agcq aagcccaa. Oeec ATP a_cqgg
eqoc ge_q _m ___0c ec_g. 0q0cac Ooa_cq _c
_mge __qgga Oaaqq ATP _cg a_cqga
eac0caoaecmaaoc qae Qoe_e. qe oaeaao
eac0caoaecmaeom Oecee ___c eaaomao ogqcc_e_e.
mcGLsasmqdmma - usQ amsm gm@goq (Semi autonomous
organelles)
eac0caoaeqmaeom qeeeqqa0e Ocg Ooam_a cag
oaaae ge@gcqom. _oe0o amm eac0caoaeqmaeom
cgccecg qga eac0caoaeqmaeom 0qaege_e.
eac0caoaeqmaeom Oecggm0m oa_a gc_ee
q0a0om0aac_om cega Oecgce o gc_eeom c_aa
a_eo Qecacqmme ceg oggcoao_a ae_.
eac0caoaeqma qmcOcagmc occoqoaae DNA _cga, 70S
oeo e0ca0eaao_a, RNA a_ga eac0caoaeqma geom
Oeacc_oq_oae Oago_a amme.
dsoqa
cmaoq_om ocOcma eec0cacmae ge@gcqom. eo
cec eooeac cccceo _eeqg qao Oecomga a_ga
c gm0eaeo qma q0acqo_omga oaecc_e_e.
q0a0om0aac_omga ocg Oecomga ecaag. cmaoq_om
_eg oeocc_a. _eoaaoe : g0ma0acmao_om,
g0a0aacmao_om a_ga e_0oacmao_om.
g0a0aacmao_om coeaQ_a _ccaq eea Q_ cmaoq_om.
eo acaome qom, oeome 0qac 0cae_ qao caoomc
oaecc_e_e.
e_0oacmaoc_om Q_a__ cmaoq_om. eo
oaa0cae_q0c_, Ooa_cq, ceOea Ocagcom a_ga qqom
_ao__e 0eccc cg Ooame_e. oaa0cae_q0cec 0ega
cmaoq_om _ea0cacmao_om ceg _eocc_e_e. Ooa_cq
a_ga ceOea Ocagcoem 0ega cmaoq_om ec0aa
cmao_om cecc_e_e. qqqeq 0ega cmaoq_om
q0acq0ma cmao_om cecc_e_e.
124
uaama
_qqa 1u m mm mm.m pg o.s g 2 m mm mm.m. qqa_a aeca eo
oqoa a_ga _moc Oecgg Oec 0ogc_e_e. g_ccao
_coaomc _goa 0ogc_e_e. eac0caoaecmaeoemc
0cac0o cooeoo_a Oom, a_ga ac eooemc Oc_gmme.
g qo cooeoome am0m geg Ooaeg eeoccc_mm
oogeaae eooeac cccc ec 0cae_ _eacqom amme. eo
eqcoaa_om cecc_e_e. 2u _qc 5u oeacae eqcoaa_om
ge_e 0ac ge_ao __occc_ sms ce_ _eacec
agoage_e. eo oGLGss ce_ qmcOcagmc Ocagg amme.
Q_a__ aaae o0aaaoc DNA, RNA e0ca0eaaom a_ga cc
Oagom oaecc_e_e. cooeoomc q.ce.. occ oqoaaeg.
e0ca0eaaom 1uS oeoea eaaqeo. aaa qaoomc amm
cooeoome qmc Ocagm qeqeq 0ecqc Ocagmao
Ooae_mme. cooeo ae_ae aceooga eqcoaa_om
eeg oaeccccaa.
goOoag cooeoqgga 4u _qc 1uu oe eaom amme.
Ooo0og aeaome eqcoaa_ eooem eooeac _e gaa
0cae_ oGLGss GGsaa ceee_e. eqcoaa_ eoomc
gm0eaeo Q_om _eagmme.
eqcoaa_ eoomc ceea Q_o_a eea Q_o_a
Oago_a oaecc_e_e. eo gmea oaqg gm0eaeo qmg
ogoo+a_
ncoep
0mooep
o0c+0+m+
+em
oc z. :1 oaaaggw gmomoq
125
ATP ea agoage_e. ooag agoae ATP ae gg cggea
o0ca0aaaomc _eagmm Oagom, CO
2
eo 8 oaace
eccOcagmao aa__ caec_qg Ooame_e. q ecc
Ocagmom eec0ca0eagg c_qg Oeccccc_ eaoeaao aa__a
_ece_e.
eac0caoaecmaaoc cooag ATP agoae_e0oa _0q
oqqgc cooeomga agoae_e. 0aga cc oqomc
cooeoo_a eac0caoaecmaeo_a gqg amme. e_0a
Oecggm gg cqgegg a_O_ag cqgg oae_e. e_0a
DNA eo Ooaeqge_e. _qq ge@gcqgma qqoem
qaaa Oeag Ooame_e. cqqom _qq ge@gcqome
e0ca0eaaomc a_cqg Oeaacc_e_e. gcc_a q
ge@gcqome Ocgacaeeaaae qqom Qmao DNA oe
e0oq g_f_omeac (code) gaaaeoccc_ eec0ca0eaec a_cqg
_e_e. cqqom ceq ge@gcqoem Oeeg _ece_e.
mGusGesa
_e0oam gom
_eacecc Oc_gmm o
_a ge@gcqo0m
e0ca0eaaom. o_e_ o__,
eo ecaag. eo e0ca
Q_m0aa qqoem
Ooae_mme. eo qq
a_cqg eaaomao
Oeacc_e_e.
e0ca0eaaom _go ceeeoac oaecc_e_e. goOoag
e0ca0ea_a 15u-25uA occa aecag. e_ _a cggoem
aecag. Ocma cgg _e0oam oqoaaeg _a cgg _cec
oqoc ammg. _a
cgg Ocma cggae 0ac
Oqacc 0cac
eegmmg. q
e_ cggo_a
e e c 0 c a c m a e q g c
qeqg oaecc_e_e.
"5 Lgg
$5 Lgg
!5 Lgg
#5 Lgg
CaCeCaaL
eCLaCoa
_CeCaaL
eCLaCoa
uLm z.ia mGuaGeam
40S Lg
60S Lg
uLm z.ie us m;GusGesm
gg RNA
1
2
6
D
emLCLaeaea
CmLoo
neg
goCL
(cLL cc} ,)
(cLL cc}
,) ooaeee
ne_
+e
0oOuco+
0uLem
Q_emam
Q_em0a+om
Q_emam ne_
Q_emam
gem
g0 +0uL
mOL+0e
e0o+0e+eo
c0L+cm+e oeo
` .m++
_)`os ssso _o ao a+g. s1s _+so j .s1.`
a+ ao s1 so ,:,+o 1s:,1 ss+`)o +jg1 +g.
s,g. :2._ o)1.1s1++ :2._ 2): +j
a+o. s` s,s DNA 1 a+g. soo++ o2._oo.
_)`os ssso _o ao a+g. _ s1s+o+ o
2_ 1.o s11) ._o1 2._g. _j 1s
ss,+ _o )o,1 a+o. _js+ j:.g.
s11)s s` s,s DNA ,1
o)1.1s1+1 a+o.
_)`os ssso _o ao a+g. 2s _)`,:.g+_ ,:.o
go++ a+o. _+1ss1 _+so ._:,o. so1s
_1)`,g1 aoos. _o:2._++jj_1 _g _)1 _g.
_1)11s1+ a+ DNA
.)1.jg+_ +)mg.
ssso :.` o. 1.o ss:.o sm1ssos s:
ss1o o:o. aoo. aj.j o_1. 2s) 2s):.o
sm1ssos o)1.1s1++ aj.j
2s ,)z+o ss21o s++
+jgg.
1
2
7
m+og0m+ooo
o0o+0o+moo
0oda ogg
ga ogg
om+om+ oep
gm
gm
co_
coc _og
omo0+
ngoo
oma
_og
om+om+
oep
0oo om+
om+o0m+
0co0mcc+
0o+ooo ng
0o+ooo
0moooo
qoq0a+0o+m
ss21o so:.1 `oo, +)js +.g.
ssso :.` o. 1.o
o:,+ _oos.
s+_1s++ 11os` +,: 2._`++ a+. .s
so:.1 1) sss :.`+g. 2._`+o 1sLjg os+g.
2sso aog. 2sso _s`,+
.m,++_ +)m+g.
2. j_1 ._+o 2+mg. _os ,) aj.j
,)1 j_1 RNA s _og. oz+_1.
o)1.1s1++ .+z+m+z++ `1
o`1+m`o+ a+g.
RNAs .s1s1++ so:.1
o)1.1s1++ 2_:o. am+_1.
_)m s: +_++ _)m 1, +jg sss+s
,) +_++_ _o1 2_+++ 2s.` 2sg+_1 o
os++:.`+o. g+_1 _o1 2._`+o
.jjj_ a,g.
jos ssso :.` s` s)z+o o _+s1s`
gmg_:,. +j _o o2._g.
2_L2sg1ss j_1 2.+,o sgos1 .g+:o.1
_o :2._ 2sg1ss +oo.
gm _o++ og+o. s
2s+ _)m1 osj ,:,1
+m:.g.
128
qq a_cqgae 0cag ac_0a eeg __ e0ca0eaaoem
agoage_e. qq a_cqgae 0cag _0o e0ca0eaaom
omeeaao mRNA eece eeg g_cccc caeOccec_ome
cc ocoem c_e_e. g 0cae_ e0ca0eaa Oqagcqoem
usGesa ce _e0_aa.
e0ca0eaaom eec0cacmaeqgga c ge@gcqomga
oaecc_e_e. _qe _qccecac eo eec0cacmae
e0ca0eaaom _ccg ge@gcq e0ca0eaaom cecc_e_e.
ge@gcq e0ca0eaaom cmaoq_omga
eac0caoaecmaeomga oaecc_e_e. eec0cacmae
e0ca0eaaom eec0cacmaeq qmcOcagmc qeq0qa _ccg
ce0cacmae oecomc ee0qa amme. ooag eegmm
e0ca0eaaom _o__e qqoem ce0cacmae oecomc amm
oOca0eo_g aa_ge_e. ceea _eoom Oecgg am0ma
Oom0aa amm caoo_g Ooae_ Oecccc_e_e.
oqoa _ccg mcq mqqge _qccecac e0ca0eaaom
e_ oeocc_qqcc_e_e. 1uS a_ga 8uS oeo 70S oeo
e0ca0eaaom _eeqg q0a0om0aacq Oecomga 8uS oeo
_0om0aacq Oecomga amme. 'S' cecg omcOca _cg g
cq _mce gom Oeeqm-c_ge 0cag mcq __g cecqaga.
_0om0aacq Oecomc e0ca0eaaome a_cqg Q_m0aacmc
ecOcga. e0ca0eaa qqom eec0cacmaeqgc a_cqg
Oeaaccc_ Q_m0aaceo Oeeg _ece_e. _0o rRNAce
eeg e0ca0eaa caooem agoage_e. ccaoom,
Q_mao gemome oaao eec0cacmaeqgg Oecge_e.
q0a0om0aacq Oecomc e0ca0eaa RNAa qqo_a
eec0cacmaeqg0c0a a_cqgaae_e. ooa_ao e0ca0eaaom
Oecee qq Oqa_eaecomao Oeacc_e_e.
qe agcd_
emaae eceaq 0qaOq_
1. ce0cacmae oec eoome aqcqom ec0a oaecc_a
ecOom.
_. eqcoaa_om_. moca0e
. 0ea0eaaom o. Ocmcmao ecOom
129
2. eo Q_a__ cmaoq_om
_. g0a0aacmao_om _. g0ma0acmao_om
. ec0aacmao_omo. e_0oacmaoc_om
8. cooeoqge am0m oaecc_a ge0_aOceg Oqacaqeca
eooeac cccc ec _eacqom
_. aea _. o0ca0aaa . eqcoaa_om o. moca0e
0eaqLc cqeqc _aqg Oeae
1. DNA, maae .................. omc oaecc__g
2. Oecec ce0cacmae oec ......... g oaeaa_g.
8. ............. qq a_cqg eaaomaga.
4. ............. ceceo caacma ceqome a_cac _qccec _ga.
Ocagqge
1. Oecee ___c eaaa g0a0aa0eaaom
2. qq a_cqg eaaa geom
8. Oecee _eeqg omaeq eac0caoaecmaa
aa__oem oc_cc_qg_g
4. caacma ceqome e0ca0eaaom
a_cac _qccec
5. caacma ceqome Q_mao
0og _qccec
e_ agcOceem
1. Q_mame ceom aag
2. oaea g : eac0caoaecmaeom cag q_eaaq aecaeo.
8. cmaoq_ome _eg oeoom aaeo.
4. cooeoa, eac0caoaecmaa o__e Ocagoae ceqoem
go.
5. cae0eaa cecc_og aag
6. q0a0om0aacq Oecoem _0om0aacq Oecomegga
0ogc_qg.
gg agcOceem
1. qao Oecee cca oeg caooem g_.
2. cooeoqge geeeacec oom.
130
a. Ge ugoq
Ge agp
aa _oe0o _eeac _a cacomc oomqqcq Oeco_
oaqqg oeea gg g_cccc gccoccaae oac Qaeaccq
ecOcg_g. _0o _0om0aac_ Oeco_a am_gm0m0a amm
gg oqoaqge cq Oeacc_oeqc 0cac, Oqacaaae ccQecoem
aeca Oec o_ac
o _ c _ e _ e .
o_ac a_cqg
Qecac (S Phase)
q.ce.. cqccae_g.
eaccaq Qecac
(MPhase) q.ce. oe
ocom 0ea
O e c o _ g c
ca qmocc__g.
Ocgacacae qao
ocg Oecom
cqcceca 1u _qc 2u
ae 0a c_qg
Ooame_e. c Oecom
O a g o a o a
cqccece_e.
Ocagoao gg
ccOec aam _qe oaeo o_ea gg Oec Qecac (ee0oac)
_ac_g. q gg Oecga a_ga _qeega 0qaega Oeco_a
0eag aame omaeaa agoaoqeqa gaaaee_e. g Oec
cgcce _caao0o eaqgaaa_g. Oec cgcq gg ocae Qo.
gc Oec Ocagcom 0ea Oeco_g eaaaoc caqmocc_e_e.
aameomc Oeccgcq _eg oeocc_a.
1. eaccamo 2. eaccamo 8. a0aamo
M
G

S
G
S
G

M - emcLac+ ee
G -

L_oLeLaa_ ee
@eLee
LL z.zc @Gs mGv aq Oogg
131
mcLsoo
g o cmeaaae cgcq _e_ gc Q_mao ammcc Oec
Ocagcom, Oecee eaaqge 0qae_ am0a omga. cmoe
oaeaao e_ ea caoomaoc cm_g. g 0cae_ cgcq eaqaeaao
q0a0om0aac_omc ecOcg_g.
mcLscqa Ge agp
gc DNA cqqqc ecOcg_g. _eqq Oqacag
Q_mame cgcqa (0om0aaeoemo) _eqq Oqacag
eec0cacmaeqge cgcqa (eec0caeoemo) ecOcg_g W.
dGf cecoa 1882 c _qe _qec eaccamo Oec cgcec
oomqqaa. _0q _eqc ocsousas cecoga qaoomc
eaccamo Qo_a oqqeq oomqqaa.
qaoomc qe_ a_ga 0oa geomc eaccamo Oec cgcq
o Oeac g__ce ecOcg_g. 0aaca_ _ecq ocgomc
eaccamo Oec cgcq acee _eeqgc cggomga cocao
ecOcg_g. eaccacq Oec o_ gg ec ec Qeceaa
(Interphase) (g G1, S, G2 Qecomao aecag). gga M Qeceaa
(eaccacq Qec - gc q0a Qec Oacc Qec, _ea Qec a_ga
eLQec
_L _eaQec gg _eaQec
uLm z.zi mmcLso s Ggsmp Geugoq
CcaQec
_L
qCaQec
gg
qCaQec
OuLLa Qec
132
0caQec _aeo amme), eec0caeoemeoeaa aecag.
ecQec a_ga M Qec _ao__e ecOcga 0a cc oqaae
Oecomc 0ogc__g.
gmLQm
e_ __qq_qq Oec cgcqo_ec0a ec0a amm 0a
ecQec cecc__g. ecQecac qga Q_m _com,
qqom _ao_e_ a_cqg Oeaa Oec _aqqa Oeag Ooam__g.
g0a0aa0eaaom g0a0acqe oeccceecao aag_g. ecQec
oec _eg gee Qecoem Ooae_mmg.
1. G1 g gmLGm - 1 Qm
Oec cgcc_g c_g aceqaaoq Oqacga Qec g. Oec _moc
Ocmqa_g. ccoqaae omaeq aa__o_gq 0qeoaae qgc
qqom a_ga RNAom a_cqg Oeaac_e_e. cgcq _ecaaq
Oecom G1 Qecea qaeq Oecogcec. 0ogca_ _eca Oecom
Gu Qecac amme.
ii). S - _ccg a_cqg Qec
Qecac DNA cqccae_g goOoag g0a0aa0ea_a
c0cag e_ e0oaq g0a0acq_oem Ooae_mmg.
iii) G2 _ccg ecOom - 2 Qec
oga eo_gq 0qeoaae qqom Qecac
a_cqgaae_e.
mcLsoo
eaccamo oec aeg gee Qecoem aecag.
1. q0a Qec 2. Oacca Qec 8._ea Qec 4. 0ca Qec
1. qGs Qm
g0a0acqe oeccceec ogo _ace_g. goOoag
g0a0aa0ea_a qeqg gg gc 0cac oac _me_e. goOoag
g0a0aa0ea_a c0cag e_ g0a0acq_oem aecae. _eo
gegOoaeg _gog0o amme. _eooem Oeec0aaa ge_aoc
cee_g. Q_mao Oagoao ae_a _ac_g. Q_mao
ae_a ae_a _ac_g.
133
z. GcLs Qm
Q_mao ae_ a_ga Q_m0aaco ae_a _acccg Oacca
Qecae _acqeq g_ga. g0a0aa0eaaom e_a og
qqaea_g. ggaao g0a0aa0eaaom c_ ge0eaac
Oqmoao Oqme_e. g0a0aa0eaaom Oecee eaac cggac
_eae_e. Oeec0aaaom Oecee eaac cggac og _eag
Oacca Qec qc_ _ccg eaaq qcec 0qa_goe_e.
gg g0a0aa0eae e_ g0a0acq_omc geg gg
ggoqeqa a_O_aeg a_O_ag ggoqeqa 0a ammg. cga cga
ggoqgegg oga oceqc eom Oeec0aagce eeg
oaecc_e_e. ooeom ec-cgce qa _0ea _com
Qaca qqomac _eeo.
Oacca Qecae cecggac Oeec0aaaom cgccece_e.
g0a0acq_om q_0cag oco _aqqaamme.
a. ms Qm
Oeec0aame cgcq _eaQecae _acqeq g__g.
oceqc eom ogo _ace_e. qeac e_ g0a0aa0eaa
Oqagcqo_a cga cga ggoo_g _occ_e_e. ooag
_occ_a 0cag "V" _ccg "J" _ccg "I" oqoqeq _ece_e.
Oeec0aaa ggoqeq 0a _e Oeceoac g0a0aa0eaaome
qaom Oagoao oae_e. Oeec0aaaom Ooo0og cqgc
gccgqae g0a0aa0eaaome Ooo0og oqoqg_g oaeaaga.
Gs Qm
_eaQec ggac g0a0aa0eaaom cga cga ggoqeq _ecg
m _ace_e. _eo Oaceaqao aa_ oe@gc qccccaaga
0cae_e. Q_mao ae_ a_ga Q_m0aaco agcq 0qaege_e.
ooag goOoag ggoqgga gg 0ea Oec ce e_ 0ea Oecom
0qaege_e.
mecGLsmamoo
eec0cacmae cgcq eec0caeoemo cecc__g. g
Q_mao cgcecq Oqacag ecOcg_g. 0oaceo agcqomac
agoaocccc Oomom geg 0eag -ca0aacmaoc ce_
134
Oecqcec 0qa_goe_e. ooac Ocagem Ooae_mm q
Oomom geg 0eag Oec eo a_ga Oec ooaoemq
0qa_goe_e. ooa_ao eaccamo ggac g0 aagmaae
e_ 0ea Oecom 0qaege_e.
mcLsoom amggm
1. eaccamme oemoao gegOoaeg gqggga e_ 0ea
Oecom 0qaege_e. eo qaa Oececa gqgge_e.
2. eaccamo Oec cgcce oaeaao 0ea Oecom acac
g_geaoem _moga cecga Oc_gmme.
8. aameome Oqaca eaccamo _c0a eaqgaaa_g.
4. 0aaca_ _ecaaq aameomc caeca ecOcgoa
eaccamo _c0a ecOcg_g.
0em 1
0ccoe 1
ooe 1
0eoe 1
0eo0cco
oss0sco oso o0mco
q__yO;OmOsmso
OgOs_e
ocosoem
__s0s se__e
q0)oe 1
135
5. aaa qaoomc gc_c 0ca_qc a_ga go omacq 0cae_ acc
ecOcgo_e_o_a eaccamme oemoao0o Qoe_e.
6. Oecom Ocgoaecg _qe oaeaao omaa agq 0qa___a
cc Oec aamomc eaccamo _c0a Qo_g.
1. _q Oecoemc qgccccq_ga 0eqa _ecq Oecoem
aaaccccq_ga oaaoem __gogga eaccamo aq_g.
8. goOoag __eqgga g0a0aa0eaaome ceeeo Qecaao
go eaccamo aq_g.
Gmsoo
qaoa, a_ga ocgomc amm ecOcgo Oecomoc
a0aamo ecOcg_g. qe oemoao ceceaa
g0a0aa0eaaome ceeeo g_e_ aaaao ge_occ__g.
uCaamm11
CaQeo 11
OuLLaQeo 11
aQeo 11
CoaQeo 11
Lag oee
CaCuaCeaeLe
+qaOecem
(qyey ua)
cca 2.22 a0aam - ge_o cgcq
136
a0aamo cgcq gmp ugoq cega _eocc__g. Oeec
g0a0aa0eaaome ceeeo cagaao ge_occ__g. g
ecOcgo Oecomc 0oc_ome agoaoqge 0cag ac_0a
ecOcg_g. a0aamo e_ __eaaae cgcqoem aecag.
qe oemoao gg cecaaOec aeg g_e_ aaOecoem
aecag_g. q q e_ cgcqo_a _e_0a a0aamo I
_ccg GgcqGsmLoda (heterotypic) cgcq, a0aamo II _ccg
GgsGsmLoda (homotypic) cgcq cecc__g. _qc cgccc
g0a0aa0eaaome ceeeo cagaao ge_occ_oqac g ge_c
cgcq cea ecaog cgcq eaccamo _ccg oc 0qae_c cgcq
cecc__g.
caeecOcgoa Oeaa _eeqg aameomga g0a0aa0eaa
ceeeo qec _e_ qec _e_aao aa_aac _0q ceeeoac
ammg. caeecOcgoqge 0cag _e Oce e_ 0oc_o_a
(goOoaega g_e_ aa g0a0aa0eaaoem aecaeo - n) eeg
ee0oacec aecage_e. 0ocecc 0cac g acg
g0a0aa0eaaoem (nn 2n) Ocg_g. ee0oac q e_ Oqagcq
g0a0aa0eaaomc gg Oqagcq _e Oc_0_amcgga a_O_ag
Oqagcq Oce Oc_0_amcgga Oc_cc__g. aaagmaao
cecaa Oecom e_ Oqagcq g0a0aa0eaaoem
aecaqaage_e. eo gqq g0a0aa0eaaom (homologous
chromosomes) ce_eoc - c_e_e. gg qaoqge oaeo o_ac
oec cq Qecac 0oe_aaeaga a0aamo ecOcg_g.
1. o0caaom agoaoqge 0cag _qaog aoqc ecac aoqq gm
aecaga 0caga comc Oaoao0caom aecagc0caga.
2. oac_ome agoaoqge 0cag
8. ee0oac _emga 0cag
eaccammc ammg 0cac a0aamo Oec cgccga aeg Qecom
amme. q0aQec, Oacca Qec, _e Qec a_ga 0ca Qec.
goOoag Qecae Ocaea Oqacag I _ccg II ceg _qq
cgcc_0o_c __acc__g.
Gmsoo I
g aeg Qecoem aecag.
1. q0a Qec I 2. Oacca Qec I
8. _ea Qec I 4. 0ca Qec I
137
qGsQm I
g a0aamo I e _qc Qecaaga. g a0aamo cgcq
Qecom0c0a oa ec Qec. g gg gee Qecoem aecag.
_eoaaoe.1. Occ0cace 2. eo0oace 8. cae 4. qc0cace
5. ecaaeoemo
1. GoGLscm
Occ0cace ce_ oaaqeqg Oacea gc ceg Ocagm.
g0a0aa0eaaom cmq e_, Oaceaeoao aage_e. goOoag
g0a0aa0ea_a e_ g0a0acqoem aecag.
z. meGascqm
gqq g0a0aa0eaaom _o__e __ mqg_ga geg Ooaeg
_goaeaac oq _aae_e. q_g Ggsq Gesg _ccg msoo ceg
Ocaa. q g0a0aa0eaa 0gaqo_g gcmLa (bivalents) ceg Ocaa.
0gaq 0eaq gqq g0a0aa0eaaome _gog0o _eaa e0oaqm _ccaq
g0a0acq_om (non-sister chromatids) amsosaa ce_ c qmmomc
eeg oaecc_e_e.
a. usam
g0a0aa0eaaom 0aga og qqqg gcecaae_e. eo
c0cag oq Oqmoao oaecc_e_e. gqq g0a0aa0eaa 0gaqome
e0oaqm g0a0acq_om c0cag Oqmoaoq Oqme_e. goOoag
ceca c0cag aeg g0a0acq_oem Ooaeqgccqac eo
GLc ce _eocc_e_e. oaaoaa cggomc gqq
g0a0aa0eaaome _gog0o amm g0aaacq_omec0a g cggom
cmaa__a _ece_e. Qog ggaGa agg (crossing over)ceg
Ocaa.
4. qoGscm
gqq g0a0aa0eaaom 0aga ogo _ace_e. oaaoaa
qmmoemq qo a__ cggomc eo oco _ace_e. qe
oaeaao o__e cecq qeea eg qccc__g. qea0c0a
Qec qc0macqe ce_eocc__g.
138
s. mLmsmamoo
g0a0aa0eaaom Oqacag ogge_e. oaaoaaom __ogaao
ocgoqac 0gaq 0eaq g0a0aa0eaaom cme_e. oocgqc
Oeec0aaaomegq Oqac g0a0aa0eaaome ge0a
Oecoqac qee gm mLg (terminalisation) ce0_aa.
Q_m0aacma Q_maaa ae_a ae_a _ace_e. ogaom
0qae_ _ace_e.
GcLs Qm - I
oga _eacq Oqmoao Oqm_g. cecom eaaqgc og
_eae_e. cga cga ggoomegg 0qaega oga eom gqq
g0a0aa0eaaome Oeec0aaao_ce eee_e.
ms Qm - I
goOoag cecaga amm e_ g0a0aa0eaaom (g
g0a0acq_o_a Oeec0aagce gcqagga Qeca0c0a)
cmg Oecee cga cga ggoo_g Oece_e. gqq g0a0aa0eaa
0gaqaegg g0 gg g0a0aa0eaa ac_a cga cga ggooem
_ec_g. qe oemoao goOoag ggoqgga cag ceeeo
aeca g0a0aa0eaaom (g_e_aa Qec) oqece_e. _qc
Qecae _acqgegq g0a0aaaomegqa eo aag ccceo.
goOoag g0a0aa0eaga gg g0a0acq_ Oqacoqgegq _0q
g0a0acqeca a_O_aeg qeg gg cggaeea, gg0o
ocqqeeac a_O_ag gqq g0a0aa0eaegg Oc__ gg
cggaeea Ooaec occcaoa ammg.
Gs Qm - I
g a0aamo I e gg Qecaaga. g cga cga ggoomga
g0a0aa0eaaom ggeeg g_e_aa Q_maeoq
0qa_goe_e. Q_m0aacoa 0qaeg_g. ogeacq ae__g.
a0aamo - I gc c_g eec0cacmaec cgcq ecOcgogcec.
a0aamo II _q ecOomgc c_0oa _ccg aceqaao0o
Oqaca_g. g ggoomga amm gg eaa Q_maoomc DNA
cqcq ecOcgog cec.
139
Gmsoo II
ecaog a0aamo cgcq ccca oqomga eaccamo
cgcec gqggga.
qGsQm II
eaccamo cgccc Qoog 0cac0o Q_m0aaco, Q_mao
ae_ ae_e_e. oga eom g ggoomga 0qaege_e.
GcLs Qm II
g0a0aa0eaaom Oecee eaac cggac og _eae_e. eo
Oeec0aaa cggac oga eo_ce gcq Ooame_e.
ms Qm II
oga eom oggogeac goOoag g0a0aa0eae
g0a0acq_o_a ge_egg geg oc cga cga ggooem 0a
oae_e.
Gs Qm II
g0a0aa0eaaom e_ Oaceaqao aage_e. goOoag
ggoqgga _mao _m0aaco _aeo e_a 0qaege_e.
qeeq Oqacag eec0cacmaec cgcq ecOcg_g. qe oemoao
aeg g_e_aa 0ea Oecom agoae_e. qgce a0aamo Oec
cgcq _qoece_g.
Gmsoo ugodm amggm
1. qao __eomga ocg __eomga a0aamo aqoce
g0a0aa0eaaome ceeeo Qec Qgqqcc_e_g. a0aamo
oemoao goOoag cecaa Oeceegga aeg g_e_ aa
Oecom 0qaege_e. cac ecOcgoqgc 0oc_om
agoaoqge 0cag g _aqgoa _ec_g.
2. gg0o ocqqee oemoao geome ag0eaeo ecOcg_g.
8. geome ag0eaeo acac 0ogca_o_g oaeaa_g.
4. o0ogca_om cmeaaqg_g oog_g.
140
gm Qod
gg agcOce
emaae eceaq 0qaOq_
1. q Qecac DNA cqccaqc ecOcg_g.
_) G1 Qec _) S. Qec ) G2 Qec o) ec Qec
2. eec0ca eoemo cecg _age cgcq _ga.
_) eec0cacmaea _) Q_mao
) cooeoa o) Oeeqm0aao
8. ge _ecqc Qecac ecOcg_g.
_) cae _) ee0oace
) Occc0cae o) ecaaeoemo
e_ agcOce
1. oeag: gg0o ocqqc
2. Occ_ ce_ac cee
8. cecom cecc_og aag
gg agcOceem
1. Oec o_ea oom
2. g_cq c_go : eaccamo ] a0aamme _aqgoa
cqg agcOceem
1. eaccamee oom. _qe _aqgoqeq g_qga c_go.
2. a0aamo I ] a0aamo II qe cc0og Qecoem g_qg c_go.
141
III. gsm qp modm
1. Gms, gm pg gm
aameome cc0og agcqome _eacq, _m a_ga oqoa
c__ __a aqa __oaee gg cm0o q_ _eaccac _ga. goOoag
aame_a gg g_cccc gccoccaae _eacec Ooae_mme.
q_q 0qa__qeqq c__a _aa ag cc0og aameoem
_ecaama oaea _o_e_ 0ogc_qg __aa ag Ocmga
aqoaammg. qaoome q_ _eaccacaeg acac,
caacOcgoa, aqc Oca_aac, 0qaccoecaac, caaccagoacq
a_ga 0og cc ge_omga Ocmga caem_g.
_ag gsma g @gGmsoGusam qp modm
eaqaeaao aa 0qaccomga eaec gomga oa@a
qaoom _ga qaoom _ccg __0aaoOcaaom cecc_a
ocOcma cmeo eaaqeo. (__0a-Occq, oOcaa - oeq). gc
com Occq 0cae_ cecgm _cccc_mme. _qea0c0a eo
cOcaec Oc__e.
__g q+o
uo O_eg
OoL_g0q+__
uo+
ueqg
q+o
_co qg
g_eo
qco qg
goe
ueqg q+o
ueqL eo
gc_
gcq_
g_eo
ee
oeq
+_g Oe
q_
_e 0o+
0o+g
Oq+gLq
L+ Qeo
0o+
oc a. : @@0usoOos gs;gQw osau a (a,
ueq ec
ueqg
go
ee
eo
q_g
Oq+gLq
142
oeqo_a oeac _cccc_ amme. __0aaoOcaaomc
_ge_a 2,2u,uuu ga 0a_ccc __eom amme. eo
_eaccga oa_cqgga oa 0ogc_e_e. ooa_ao o _go
ceeeomm c_ga qaoom q_ _eaccac a_ga am
_eaccac _ao__e _qccecac ea oaecc_e_e,
oomocc_e_e a_ga oeo c_qqcc_e_e.
Ocagoao cccac _ga qaoo_a gg agemaae _a
_ee Ooae_mme. g qeg oaecc_a Gwsg Ggsgoq cega
qeg 0ac oaecc_a gmg Ggsgoq cega __acc__g. 0oaq
Oqagccc caqae 0oga cc cooac_ 0oao_a amme. qe_q
Oqagccc qe_, cooac_ emom a_ga ecom _ae geg
0eag qaoqge acc agcqoem aecage_e. eo
ecOcgoqgc cg Ooamogcec. gg g_cccc cgoa oqce
_ga qaoom _om, oeom a_ga oeqoem agoage_e.
eo qaoqge ecOcgo agcqom cecc_e_e.
Gmsg Ggsgoq
0oaq Oqagcq ceeaa _ccaq qeg 0 omga qao
agccaga. g cc cooac_ 0oaoem aecag_g. eo
o@oema o@oecc cggoema Oc__gccgcec.
Gmdm Gusgoumqa
1. 0oaom 0ac qo acc_a cga gmacc_a aecaeo.
2. 0oaom Ocagoao coea ___eo. Oeec eo ceea
Q_oemc Oc__gccgcec. _qeac gm0eaeoa
qmogcec.
8. 0oaomc o@o_a o@oecc cggo_a cec. ecom,
Oaac_om _aeoa ecaag.
4. cooac_ 0oaom _oq0qae_om (endogenous) _qaog _eo
cqae 0ome am0m amm gooae Ocmeemegg
0qaege_e.
Gmdm am ugQa
0omc geaegg 0ac 0a aeg _a caoom
__acc_e_e.
143
1. Gmsq
0ome geea _qc
cagoaga gg Oqacc 0cae_
_eacq 0oa _q. qe _a
ce 0oa geeac cagoaccg
_ga.
z. @ag Qao ugQ g Oeo
ugoqo ugQ
g 0ome omga gec
cgg. 0oa _qg e_g qmm
_eagmmg. ccggac
amm Oecom Oqacag
cgccecg qga Oecoem
agoa Ooae0c amme.
a. Ge co ugQ
_g goc cggg e_g 0a_q_qgc oaecc_og ccgg. gc
Oecom _moc _gome_e. ccgg qaoqge m omaac
aqe_e.
4. Ge Gmguso ugQ (Ge Qseo ugQ)
Oec cc cggg e_g 0a0c oaecc_a cgg Oec 0ogca_
cgg. ccggac Oecom cc oqaae Oecomao 0ogca_ _ece_e.
eo q_q0qac, q_e a_ga oaogcaa o_e_om 0cae_ gooemq
0qa_goe_e. ccggac cc 0oaq goo_a amme. eo
aeeegg a a_ga oeaoem a__e oaeaamme.
Gmsg Ggsgodm mmaa
e_ oeoaae 0oaq Oqagcqom amme.
1. _e 0oaq Oqagcq
2. 0o__c 0oaq Oqagcq
@mGmsg Ggsgoq
g ogoe _em0omegg 0qaege_g.
uL a.z 0omm smo uggaw
_g+ ogg
0oo jcogg
_ogg go ogg
0m+ _q
144
@m GmsgGgsgoq
g ogoe _em
0omegg agoa_g.
_em0oa, _qeea 0oa
_ccg _e 0oao
oma_g. g ecaa
Qec 0oaom cecc_a
cooac_ 0oaoem
agoag_g. eo
emqg _e_aa Qec
0oaoem agoage_e.
eo 0aga emqg
Oacea em 0oaoem
a g o a g e _ e .
_e0oga _qe em
0oao_a 0eag _e
0oaq Oqagcec
a g o a g e _ e .
_e0oaq Oqagcq
O c g a c a e e a a a e
goqgecq qaoome _a cecaoq go_g.
GmppL Gmsg Ggsgoq
_em0oa qo qaoqge 0oO_qc cggaegga omga 0oa
0o__c 0oa cecc_e_g. g qeqe _qaeg0qa, o@c
cggaeg0qa _ccg o@oecc cggaeg0qa 0qae_caa. 0o__c
0oaom _qe cceoemc qmoq_Ooe o__e _eaccga cc
aagca_om oaecc_e_e.
@mGmdm spgg
1. Gefoq Gmsa
c qaoomc _qeea 0oaeg ae 0eqg eoccqeac
cgqg eeqcc_gce oaecc_e_e. eo 0oa gom _ccg
g0oaom cecc_e_e. _o__e oqoqge _qccecac eo
_eg oeoomao __acc_e_e.
_mCca O_aoq
eoeCca_ O_aoq
uLm a.a 0msgOgagu3m mmss
145
. q mqm : gc
0oa g aq
o q o q e q c
Oc_gmmg. _qaog
eo 0ac cggac
_ o c a a o a
_qccggea 0a
g g a
o a ec c _e_ e.
(c.oa) 0oc.
@. aQsmqm : gc
_ccgg cgqga
0ac, geccggom
gga amme.
(c.oa.) _mm
g. uu mqm: gc 0oag cac oqoqeqc Oc_gmmg. 0ac
cggac o _oega ge gqOeg oac 0cac e_ gga
ammg. (c.oa.) 3cgc
z. amsag g ea m Gmsa
egcq Qcomc
oa_a _oeaa 0cae_
qaoomc aeec a
Qac oaecc_oqac
g oa_0_acca oa
ge_. qqeoa
qaoomc acq Qe_q
ggm qeqggga
eaqae 0oaomegg
Oegqqae 0oaom mac
omae_e. eoom
QGcGLs.Gussa ceg
_e o c c _ e_ e.
eoomc Qe_a ooaeq
gemom (Q0ac0ca0qa_om) amme. eo oac cmaa__qg_g
Ocmga aq_g.
+ oqo - CeL
ega oqo - _mma
LL oqo - dLgL
oL a.4 GeLoq Gsa
QuL0L+.0o++eo
gemeo
uLm a.s nossm 0osa (mmms)
146
GmppL Gmsam spg_aa
1. Gefoq Gmsa
c qaoomc 0o__c 0oaom aeeo 0eqg eoqg cgqg
eeqc c_gce
oaecc_e_e. eo
oec oqoomc
oaeccccaa.
. gg Gmsa : o___g
g_ccccOqag oqoa
ecaag (c.oa.)
eaoe omm
@. Gasgg Gmsa : gc
0 o a g o m
O o a q g O o a q q a o
qeqe _qccggac
o a ec c _ e _ e .
(c.oa.) @ousao,
Lsms
g. qea Gmsa : q
oeoac 0oaome
geac _qo0cac cgqg ammg. (c.oa.) aaoa _ a_ga
a_em.
z. g @gsgQpasa
sgus mLg Gmsa
. m Gmsa : o0oaom
qeqe _qc c
o @ o m e g g
0qaeg_g. eo eaaoao
aeec 0a omag
qaoqgg _qaqeqq
qg_g. (c.oa.) 0eama,
ogaq, a_ga qae.
@. gm Gmsa : _c aqge
emo_g o0oaom
ga Ccae -
eaeeo ce ga
Oea_g Ccae - caeaa
oL a.eGeLoq Gsa - GppL Gsa
_om;m
uc6 a.z m0aa pg6 @m0aa
s mq
147
_qaqeqq qge_e.
gc cooac_ emom
_ea 0a Oegqqao
omae_e. _g _qao
eoq qqaea,
geoemc 0cac
qage_e.
a. Gmg am
uma@aasa Gmsa
sgus mLg
. Ggspg Gmsa :
_a_omc oaecc_a
0o__c 0oaomae eo
c c c - e c c _ o m c
o a e c c _ e _ e .
ccc-ecc_om ceceo 0og aome emomc omaceo. q
Oqa_gq qaoom oa__c _eeqa_a c _ccae _oaa
0 o a o e m
Ooaeqge_e. q
_oaa 0oaom _ccae
c_o0cae_ OocOae ce_
gooem aecag.
qqaoo_g ae@ce
0mecaaoq Oqacaq
ccaqqac OocOae
oa__gmm occeeea
a__ 0eqg eoqg
Ooam_g.
@. geGesama g 0ecq Gmsa : c qaoomc 0o__c 0oaom
ceeaao aa_ gm0eaeoac o_c_e_e. eo geGesama
Gmsa _ccg Geoq Gwsa cecc_e_e. (c.oa.)
mLGmsoGuss. gc aeoacome 0cag qeqe
o@ccggaegg gcom 0cac 0oaom mac Oqa
Ooaeqge_e. eo ma gmac CO
2
eo 0ee_e.
g. gcmm Gmsa g gsoGLsdmsaa : o0oaom ceeaa
_ccaq gc_eeq qaoomc oaecc_e_e. gc_eeq
0oL+
ueem
_e+a 0o+eo
uLm a.s Ogsgg0osa
eLCeamCLaa
gmoCoaee
Coaem
ec
_qa
uLm a.e geGessms Gmss
148
qaoom qa0a qa aeeo qaaa Oeaa
_qaag. _eo gaqaaq qaoomeg0q
aeeoc Ocge_e. qqaoome
o@omegg 0o__c 0oaom
0qaege_e. eo gaqaa qaoome
am0m geg Oeeg _o__e ocqg
goomc gee_e. ocqg
goomegg qagq 0qeoaae
aeeo eo Oc_g Ooam_e_e.
(c.oa.) ao4@cLs
gmg Ggsgoq
ogoe _emggqg qecao
oma_g. qe_ qaoqge eaa _eaga.
qe_ _q_ce qa eco_ce 0eag
qe_q Oqagcec aecag_g.
gmqm amo umqa
1. qaoqge _a _e qeg 0ac
Oqma cao0a qecaga.
2. g 0a gmeaaqa cga qoeaaqa aecag.
8. eoq Oqmoae o@oema o@ ecccggoema
Oc_gmme.
4. qe geac ge Oaac_ ammg.
5. qe_ acaoema oeoemaa qage_e.
6. qeqe cooac_ emom qpgGgsmpa _qaog eo qeqe
q_q0q amm goomegg (q_e) 0qaege_e.
Gscaa: Oaac_om cecc_ceo om 0oeqa ma qe_
_ga. o__c eaa _o oa ggmmg. gc o@oecc cggom
oa Ogoaao amme. ma ecom Oaac_omc Ogoaaoa
_qa amme. aOaac_om omga 0cag o@oecccggom
ccccc_, ecom ome_e. Oaaccaeg qe_ _ccg emae
geac oaeccqe _g gmGsc _ccg aeGsc
ce_eocc__g. Oaaccaeg ecae 0oaeqgc oaeccccac
_g 0oae Oaac_ ce_eocc__g. c eaaomc Oaac_om
oo_cc+
uL a.1o gcm 0oaw
149
_eaqaeaae comc
0qaege_e. ooeo Oaac_om
GmppL Gsca cecc_e_e.
(c.oa.) dmGms .d. gc
Oaac_om ecomc
0qaege_e. ce0o eo
nod.do Oaac_om
ce_eocc_e_e.
gmqm uma : gmqm am uma
1. emoema, ecoema
qagqc
2. ea qeaoema
0omegg ecga aec
Ocagcoem ecaegg 0ogga ocqge_e. qeqe
ecaa Qecc ceom
1. Gefgg : (c.oa.) agem
z. usm ms_ gmm : (c.oa.) _
a. aL gmoGu_aa : (c.oa.) agem
4 . geGesma : (c.oa.) gumms
gmqm sgus
_0o qaoomc 0a__a accae ceoemq qo qe_ c
_qc ceoema __g_g. o__c eo c aagca_oem
Ooae_mme. _qc ceomaog.
1. ae 0ecq, 2. cccae_ oaqeea, 8. acc ecOcgoa,
4. gm0eaeo
qeqe aagca_ oa@a _eg oeooem eaaqeo.
1. qe0ac aagca_om, 2. qegcqa aagca_om, 8. qe
aagca_om
1. gmG sgusa
c qaoomc qe_ c _cqc ceoemc qmoq_oao cc
oqomc aagca_ _ecgmme. _eoaaoe, 1. c_g oacom,
2. _com, 8. -cc0ca0m_, 4. ma0ca_, 5. qccc (Bulbil).
-cc0ca0m_ a_ga ma0ca_oemc c__ omoao oae0caa.
ce0a+.cco
Ou+L_eeo
oc s.:: noJ.Jo Omsca
150
.dGsG : eo
o@om, o@oecc
cggo_ce qa
ceeaae, qcecaae,
agem oqo qe_om
qqaoom o_m Qcc
c0qeomc omaoqac
aoc 0cae _ca a
_oaaqecq q_o
ecom _comao
aa_mme. ce0o
qe_ qcecaao ec
0cac aa_ gm0eaeo
qme_e. (c.oa.)
gumms. o__c
-cc0ca0m_ cecc_e_ ec 0cae_ qe_ qcecaao eeqc
c_gce aa_ ea aeeoa 0eqg eoe_e.
sGLs : eo coeaaae, agem oqo _ccg qcecaae,
oaqeca oma aeca emom _ga. @ousaoc ammg 0cac
g0 gg o@oecc cggea aecag. o__c Oaac_om, Oegcom
a_ga acaom oaecc_ogegg g qe_ ce aa __acaa.
z. gm gcqm gmqm sgusa
ooeo aagca_ Oacea, eq qe_eca g Oeqomc
oaecc_e_g. g 0cae_ qaoomc qeqe gg cgg qeg
0aga q_mm cgg qeg _a amme. qqaoom _o__e
o@omc 0o__c 0oaoema emoema Oc_gmme. acc
ecOcgoqge _ca eo cmgc Ocgoa Oeaa. qe gcqa
qeqe aagca_om _a oeooem eaaqeo.
1. g_ qe_ 2. qe g_ qe_ (sucker) 8. o0cacae 4. _-cOec.
aa g_ qe_ a_ga qe g_ qe_ c__ omoao oae0caa.
1. g gm (Runner)
g ec Oacea o@oecc cggoem Ooae_mmg. qe
emom aeee g ccge_e. eo o@ome _qccggaegg
0o__c 0oaoem aecage_e. qaaqqaoqgegg g_ qe_
ccca geeomga oma_g. qaaq qaoqgegg cmqce 0ea
oL a.:z .3mGsG mpg sGLs
_mLaem
maCLa_
_m
OegcCLaey
eo
eLLaggemo
-cCoaCm_
151
Oeqa 0q 0cac c_g. g
0cac Oog o0a _q ca
__oga g0 Oeqaeega
0qae_a ccq qaoomac
_ccc__g. (c.oa.) go so
(Doob grass) @aoso
z. gma4g ggm (Sucker)
g aagccc
g_qaecaga. g
qeg0a0c ammq qe_c
cggae qe
0oaeOaacqegg 0qaega
cooac_ g_ qe_ _ga. q
g_ qe_ _g ga _oqac eaaoao omag ceq 0ac 0a
omga. g o@oema o@oecccggoema aecag.
o@omc Oegc ecom a_ga 0oaeOaac_oem 0a_q_qgga
_qccccc 0oaoema 0qa_goe_e. (c.oa.) esQ (e eagaa)
a. gma 4gsgus
c qaoom cccae_ oaca oa_a coeaa__ qeq
qe_oem agoage_e. eo aeeo 0eqg eoqg cc
_e_ oaca oa qooeacqoem Ooae_mme. eaqoaae
Qecac qe qqe_om qe0ac qe_oem agoage_e.
eaqoa__ ec q qe0ac qe_om aqe_e. oac occqgc
qeqqe_ Oeac_g oma ocoqgc ammg.
qe qe_om 0oaomegg oec oqomc
aagc_e_e.
_. o@oema o@oecc cggoema Oc__gqqc
_. o@omegg Oegc eco_a 0o__c 0oao_a agoaqc.
. 0oaeOaac_ a_ga geOaac_ _ao_e_c Oc__gqqc.
smg mmamsm gma4g gma
1. accQcqqe_(e0eaa) 2. g 8. ga (Bulb) 4. oqa (Corm)
. cL Qg gm (Rhizome) : eo qqqq ecaccaae qeq
qe_om _ga. eo aec Ocagcoem 0eqg eoccqac cgqg
uL a.1a g g pg gm;4g g g
_oo+co
g_ge_
ooo+
(go g_ge_)
oo+_gmm
152
oaecc_e_e. eo o@oema o@oecc cggoema
Ooae_mme. o@omc c_cq Q_ Oegc ecom oaeccc_e_e.
eo 0oaeOaac_oemc cagoae_e. o@om _qe _qccccc
0o__c 0oaoem agoage_e. eaqoaae Qecomc ge
Oaac_a 0oaeOaac_a omag qe0ac qe_oemq 0qa_goga.
eaqoa__ ec q qe0ac qe_om aqgo_a. (c.oa.) _,
a_em.
cL Qggmqm @a : eo cccae_oaca oa acc Qcq
qe_om Ocmga aqe_e. o_c0cae_ eaqoa__ eegg
qaoqeq cagoaqg Ooamm eo gee qme_e. eo aec
Ocagcoem cagoaccao 0eqg eoccqac eo ocgome
0aaeegg qcce_e. acc Qcq qe_ome Oaac_omeg0q
qe0ac qe_om 0qaegoqac eo acc ec Ocgoqgga
aqoaao amme.
@. gg : _ccae qe emome cgqq geccggo0m gom
_ga. _go qqaeaa gccgga Oacea o@oecc cggoemc
Oc__gccgga 0o__c 0oaom ccaggqqega gom accQcq
qeqegq 0ogc_e_e. o__e o@omc cc Oegc
eco_ce qa 0oae Oaac_om amme. _g gg _q
c_qgoac_ a_m _ga. gc oaecc_a _a cmmo_g
agemae ama ceg Ocaa. gc Oaac_om amme. goem
aeec ccac _o__c 0eqg eooccc_mm aeeo ac0aaqg
qe Oaac_om omag emoemq 0qa_goe_e. o__c c
emom qeg0ac omag coeaaao aa_ Oegqqao omae_e.
nemga
e Lg
uLm a.i4 m;Gesm mpgm gg
_
Oogc ec
e@
OuaLQ
OuaLQ
153
0og c emom ecaccaao qeg omag _o__e geac
aeeo 0eqg eoqg gomao aage_e.
gm
ecom qeqe Oacea coeaaae, qcecaae cooac_
ommom _ga. eo qe_ome o@ccggac eeoccc_mme.
geGesama qma _a agcq ecom _ga. gg qaoqge
_eeqgc coeaaae eco_a Oaaqqaao gmg6ma ceg
_eocc_e_e.
gm6m usaa
ecae _eg _a caoom : 1. ecaqccgg, 2. ecoaaq,
8. eccccq
gmmqougQ : qe_ _ccg emce eeoccc_mm ecae
cgg ecaqc cgg cecc_a. c qaoomc cgqq ecaqc cgg
oaecc__g. q_g mgoq _ccg cceoeo ceg Ocaa (c.oa.)
.GuGuo g_acqg qao cqecom. gg oqgec qaoomc
ecaqc cgg _oeg, qcecaao aa_ 0eama a_ga oaeac
oaecc_og 0cac cag qeqe o@ccggea o__ oaecc__g.
q_g ampGusmp gmmqo ugQ ceg Ocaa.
ge
m
oooo+m
ooaq 0ogo
ooaqogg
uL a.1s gmmmm smousaaw, umomm
pg amgo0usmg gmmmqo ugg
oma
m
omc0c+da+
m+og oo
no_0o+e_
ooaq ogg
oogg+o
154
Ocgacacae goqgecq qaoomc ec _qccgg e_
cooac_ ommoem aecag. eo gmmqe GeQa cecc_e_e.
ooecoem ecaq Oegcom ammeo (stipulate) ce0_aa. eo
ccaq ecoem ecaq Oegcom ___eo (exstipulate) ce0_aa.
Oaacqc amm eceac cagoacc0q ecaq Oegee _a
ceaaga.
gmaasq : ecoaaq eccccec qe_ _ccg emce
ee_g. oaaqmm ecea asqLm qm (Petiolate) gm cega
oaaq ccaq ecea oaac__eo (Sessile) cega _e0_aa.
gmouoq : q_g ecqqam (Lamina) cega Ocaa. aeq qaamccc
o_c_a ecae o _a coeac cggaaga g. ecq qame
eaaqgc eaa aqa _gegg cc cooac_ aqo_a _gegg
_a aqo_a Oecge_e.
um
ecqqam _ccg ecccccc aqom _eaggga.
oqqg_g acea ceg Ocaa. g e_ _a oeocc_a.
_eoaaoe oecacea a_ga ee acea.
1. mm um : oec acea Ocagoao ccca
goqgecq qaoomga oaecc__g. gc eaaqgc gg
Oqmoae eaa aqa _gegg 0qaega cc _a aqo_a amme.
eo _eeqga 0eag ecccccc gg oeccceeec
_c_qge_e.
_. pg mqm
m m o d m m
um
g c
eaaqgc g0 gg
aq ac_a
ammg. _gegg
cc em aqom
0qae_ gg oecc
c e e e c
a g o a g _ g .
( c.oa.) aa.
_cqc
coo_acou
aoecqc
coo_acou (mm)
uLma.i mmgmummmmmss
aoe
cqc coo
_acou (m)
155
z. gmm um
o o e o
aceaoc _eeqg
a q o _ a
g e g O o a e g
e e a a o
O e c g e _ e .
Ocgacacae gg
oqgecq qaoom
ee aceaeoc
Oc_gmme. g e_
oeocc_a.
. g_ mm qmLm
gmm um : (_g oqo ee acea) ooeoac eaaqgc
gg Oqmoae aq ammg. _gegg cc aqom geg Ooaeg
eeaao Oece_e. (c.oa.) msmg
@. u mm qmLm gmm um (ma mqm gmm um)
ooeoac cc aqom oaace geaegg maqe_e. eo
gegOoaeg eeaao Oeeg geac geg 0eae_e. qcec
eo geac goe_e. ce0o g go, ee acea cega
cee (Borassus) ac aeaa aqom omaec 0a omoqe
oaeaao g om, ee acea cega _eocc_e_e.
gm m : qe_ _ccg emomc ecom _eaggga oq0a
gm m cecc_a. ecom Ogoaao _eaoeqq q_qg
gm0eaeog 0qeoaae ma gm _goa ecomc cc Oeao0q
ec _eaoe 0aoaaga. aeg _a ec _ea oeoom
1. aa_g ecaea 2. cga ec _ea 8. _oec _ea 4. occ
ec _ea
1. spg gm m : ooeoac ecom o@ccggomc aa_ aa_
_eaggga. gg o@oc gg ec ac_0a oaec c_a (c.oa.)
Gcqa
z. nQs gm m : goOoag o@ oga e_ ecom amme.
eo geg Ooaeg cga cgao amme. eo e_ oeoc c_a.
. gG Gusa mgmm : __qq_qgmm o@omc, 0gaq, 0gaqaao
amm ecom g0 gc _eagmme. _qaog gg o@oc amm
+g_cc
@ee_)Lem
me+ cc
@ee
_)Lem(_d)
LLa.1 gm g;L ass
me+ cc
@ee
_)Lem(d)
156
e_ cgacga
ecom 0 amm
o@oc amm
eco_g 0a 0a0c
amme. (c.oa.) GasLms
@. ggag gag :
ooeoac gg 0gaq
ecom _q_g 0a0c
ammg _q_g 0
amm 0gaq
eco_g Oegqqao
gga. (c.oa.) n_ag.
a. mm m :
goOoag o@oga
_eg ecom
oaecc_a. (c.oa.)
4. mcL gm m :
ooeoac goOoag
o@oga _egg
0a_ccc ecom
occaao oaecc_a.
(c.oa.) smLs
gm gm pg cqm
gm gm : cqqam _ccg eccccq __eaaao gqac _g qe
ec cecc_a. g cmo_c0ea _ccg cmom __0_a oaecc_a.
(c.oa.) aa.
cqm : gc eccccq cc accom 0cae_ _a ecomaoc
cmccqgga. _a ecom ppma cecc_e_e.
__ecom Ocagoae gg eaa _c _eagmme. o__e
0oaeqgc 0oaeOaac_ ecaag.
g_ mmamsm cqma : 1. _g oqo cqecom 2. _eo oqo
cqecom
g0 0o+ec
_euqeo - Oe+aa+)
ggeg
ugeg - cgeg
_oeo - _m
oLL _eu - _ou+L+
oc s.:a gomo mmw oaa
u+_g - o+oa+cg a+
157
pg mqma cqma
_g oqo cqecac __ecom sao cecc_a gg eaa
_c _eagmme. __ecom ceeaom ceg _eocc_e_e.
_g oqo cqecom oec 0q_a gg oeoea eaaqeoaao
gga. 1. g_e_ _g cqec (unipinnately compound leaI) 2. cec
_g cqec (bipinnately compound leaI) 8. _aacg _g cqec
(tripinnately compound leaI) 4. ceacg _g cqec (decompound leaI)
cLmmm a.1 gm gm, cqmag gmLGm a Gmgusa
gmgm cqm
1. qe ecae 0oaeqgc 0oae cqecae 0oaeqgc
Oaac_ oaecc__g 0oaeOaac_ oaecc_a
_eac __ecome
0oaeqgc 0oaeOaac_
ecaag.
2. qeaecae _qccggac __ecome _qccggac
ecaq Oegcom amme. ecaq Oegcom
ecaag
8. qe ecomc cmom cqecom _aao
oaeccccaa. _eac eo cmoccc_ __ecomao
ecoem __ecomaoc amme.
cmga _mg _a cec
ggeg g Lqec
(LamLcCeL)
ggeg g Lqec
(LamLcCeL)
LeL g
Lqec
_uLa g
Lqec
uLm a.ie ummsmsm pg cqm
158
1. gpmpe pga cqm : ceeaom gc 0mecaao amc
eeoccc_mme. geac gg __ec ac_0a oaeccccac
_q_g gusddmGmc gm (imparipinnate) cega (c.oa. 0oaq) geac
g __ecomc _qaaae _q_g camce0ec ec (c.oa. qm)
cega Ocaa.
z. gcmLe pga cqm : ooeo cqecac _qeea ao
emqg ecaa Qec aeo aecage_g. gc __ecom
eeoccc_mme. (c.oa.) Gams.
a. Lge pga cqm : ooeoac ecaa Qec ao
emqg _e_aa Qec aeo aecag_g. __ecom _e_aa
Qec amc eeoccc_mme. (c.oa.) _ma (Moringa)
4. umLge pga cqm : cqec _eg qceoga 0acao
emqggqac _eq ceacg _g cqec ce0_aa. (c.oa.)
Gasgg (Coriander)
ma mqma cqm
_eeqg __eco_a ecoaace geac g0 qmmac
eeocccqgqac _eq _eo oqo cqec ce0_aa.
eeoccc_mm __ecome ceeeoae _qccecac
cqecom cc oeocc_e_e.
1. g0 gg __ec aeca _eo cqec (uniIoliate) (c.oa.
cgee)
2. g __ecoem aeca _eo cqecom (biIoliate)
(c.oa.) Gessmms mL.ds (Zornia diphylla)
o mqmm- omm
oo mqmm - ooe+e
q+mo
g g _goo noca
ooo cqoo - 0mo0o+
uL a.zo ma oqo cqmmmm omaaw
159
8. _eg __ecoem aeca _eo cqecom (triIoliate) (c.oa)
@aoso
4. gg __ecoem aeca _eo cqecom (quadriIoliate)
(c.oa.) ssms
5. cc __ecoem aeca _eo cqecom (multiIoliate) (c.oa.)
gm gm (Bombax)
gm6m spggaa
ecae _ac ceom gm0eaeoa aoc0caga _ga.
cc qaoomc _qc ceoem Oeaoq_oao ecom aa_ggoemc
Oc_gmme. eo ecae aa_ggom ce_eocc_e_e.
ecae c aa_ggomaoe:
1. eccc_g oacom (leaI
tendrils) (c.oa.) ucLsm (Wild
pea).
2. ec Ooaom (leaI
hooks) (c.oa.) daGmsmms
(Bignonia)
8. ec _com (LeaI spines)
(c.oa.) gmg (Zizyphus)
4. ecq Oqac
ecoaaq (phyllode) (c.oa.)
Gams (Acacia)
5. g_eo (pitcher) (coa.)
GoGugo (Nepenthes)
6. ec (bladder) (c.oa.)
@cdgGdms (Utricularia)
1. gmoupgaada :
o__c qe_ o
Oaeqeo. ce0o eo
_qaqeqc c__ Ooamm
_cq c_g agcqoemc Oc_gmme. c_goac cecc_og o eq,
ogm oac 0cae_eag c__ _ aqa gg _eacq _ga. ecqc
cccaeac (caqeqo) __eaaae ec0a c_g oacaao aagca_
eLqL
LLLae
ecaqo
Oogcem
meucam
Lgg ec
(ecaqo Oogc)
Lgg
ec (ec)
cCeaeaa
Oeaem
uLm a.zi gmoupgs smds
mpgm gms Gssss
160
_ecgmmg. omsao ecaq Oegcom c_g oacomao
aagca_ _ecgmme.
z. gmaGasaa : gc ecom Ooaomao aagca_ _ecg c__
_ qaoo_g aqe_e. daGmsmms aoGacq-ac (Bignonia
unguiscati) cqecae _eg gg ecom oemg, aggaao
_eeae oa 0cae_ Ooaomao aagca_ _ecgmme.
a. gm ca : ooeoac ecom __eaaao0oa _ccg gg
cgg0aa o aeaaae _comao aa_mme. ooeo aagcacqeac
ao 0caoaeg ge_occ__g. oac ecome 0aaega
qoaocc__g. qaoqge cqc cgga _comao aagca_
_ecacaa. (c.oa.) ceq.
4. gmg Ggs gmaasq (.dGs) :
_0oaaoc ecoaaq _ccg ame
0q_a gg cgg qcecaao _g0cac aa_ gg
eceac 0cac coea Q_qgce oac
_m_g. q qcecaae _g oqo
ecoaaq _ccg am_g gmg Ggs
gmaasq (-cc0ca_) ceg Ocaa. _g oqo
cqecomac _e eaqae ecom qaoa
meaaao gga 0cag 0qaeg_g. ceea ac0e agag
o_e_e. c_g -cc0ca_ ecae _eeqg ceoema
0a_Ooam__g. -cc0caqe
_g 0cae_ cgg ma gmg
Oegqqao gccqac 0mecaao
ma gm _qe g oag. _qeac
aoc 0caga
oc_cc_qqcc__g. ccqqcc
_e_g _og0ea _0oaa
__eom - cc0ca_
_eacec Oc_gmme.
s. gmm : g_eoq qaoqgc
(Occqo) ecaaeg g_eo
oqoqgc aagca_ _ecgmmg.
ecoaaqc cgg Oacea c_g
oac 0cac aa_ g_eoea
Oegqqaoq qa Q__g. cc_g oacae _qccgg _oeg
Lm
ecaqo
Oogc
uLm a.zz gmcs
_Ceaa
-ccCcaQ
g_ec
qQ
uLm a.za .dGsQ
(gmgGgs gmsssmq)
161
ec0cac aa_ ammg.
g _ e o a e
oaaccggea gg _q
0cae_ _eacq
___g. g_eoae
ce _oemc
cqccga _o_e_
Oemccga qae.
eccccq g_eoaao
aa_ _qe omaq
_ o a e
o e e o _ c _ a
omeeac _eaq 0qe
o c c o _ c _ a
oaecc__g. q0qe
occom _oem
ooag oae_e.
g_eoae accggaga
goqgee oga occom
amme. omace ccggac
0a cq Ooaeqgga
a0aao_a amme. g
0cae_ _eacceac
g_eogm qgq _om
qcc Oeccaq oeea
q_occ_e_e. g_eoac
amm goqgc _
c_om Oagomeac
Oe m o c c c_o_e_ e.
ooa_ao qqaoom
qo_gq 0qeoaae
ecge eqeqc Ocge_e.
o. mu (Bladder) : _cmg0cmaa
qaoqge oa cmccc ecom c ec 0cae_ _eacqomao
aage_e. ooeacqom mc oa_a qqaoom qo aqa
_eacqomaoa _oemc cqoa caec_e_e.
OLLqm
gq
Qeoa
oaaLg
uLm a.z4 _em gsm;m
_cdg0od a+
__gg+mm
om
oo
ge gg o o
0o +e_ om
++oo
oo
uL a.zs dmsL gso;
162
gm Qod
gg agcOce
emaae eceaq 0qaOq_
1. cgg Oeqac oaecc_a ec _ea
_. aa_g _. ggg agg
. g0c0cac _eaq cga ecom o. _oec
0eaqLc ceemc _aqg Oeae
1. c0oaeaa ao0ocqac ........................... aggaae, _eeae
oom 0cae_ Ooaomao aa_gg _ece_e.
2. ................... c 0oagom g_cccc cq gg oqo_a e_
oaecc_e_e.
Ocagqge
1. _geo Q_0ac0ca-0caaom
2. cgee _aacg _g cqec
8. _0oaa ec
4. cmg0cmaa -cc0ca_
5. cqgo g_e_ __ec aeca _eo
cqec
6. _oeaa c_goac
e_ agcOceem
1. q_q 0qae_om ] _oq0qae_om ceceo aaeo
2. _ga qaoome e_ acggcqom ] ecOcgo agcqom
Ocaaoem c_go.
8. 0oa ]qe_ o__e _cq ceqom 0q_a eqee c_go.
4. oeag : 0o__c 0oaom ] 0oa_q ] _gqgo cgg ] cc eoeo
Oaac_]
5. c-cccco Oaac_ ce_ac cee
6. acc Qcqqeqe __com aaeo
1. Q0ac0ca -0caaom ceceo aaeo
gg agcOceem
1. 0ome _a caooem oom
2. e_ oeoaae 0oaq Oqagcqoemq qgq c_qg oac_ce
oom
8. 0ome ceom aaeo
4. -cc0ca_ ] -cc0ca0m_ oom
5. g_eoq qaoqeq oom
6. qe ecaegg c_ ecea 0ogc_qgoac_.
cqg agcOceem
1. _e0oa ] 0o__c 0oaom ] qe_ ] ec aa_ggoem oom
2. cc oeoaae acea ] ec _eaeo oom.
163
z. ged
_ga qaoome ecOcgo agcqom acaom _ga. qaoa
_g oac qe acc omagc c_g acaoem aecag_g.
acaom qeqqeaao0oa, Ooaqgomao0oa aecaocc_e_e.
(c.oa) Oeacgqg (mgdoao Gsesmemmoo)
ged
Ooaqqao cc acaom Ocagoae gg _e g 0qa_gooccccac
_q_g ged ceg Ocaa. Ocagoae _o ged gm _ccg ged ea
cecc_a. cee__ qe acaom a_em _e g
eeocccqgga. qe qe_ aeca qaoomc a_emqe_
0mecaao qe qeqc gg aeca_g. qqeoa qe_ oGao
cecc_a. gsmac o0oc gg qe aceq 0qa_goga. Gmasm
0cae_ qaoomc a_emea 0qa_goga.
qaoqgc a_emom gga cqeqc Ocagqg _eg oeoomao
cmoccc_mme. (1) ge a_em (2) eaaqqe_ a_em (8)
0oaeem a_em. asom 0cae_ qaoomc qe_g ecac
a_em oaecc__g. g gmLged cecc__g. Ocagoao a_emomc
amm acaome _eacq, _eo _eaggga oqa, a_emq qeqe
_eacq _ao__e _qccecac a_emoem cc oeoomaoc
cmocaa. Ocagoao aeg Ocga oeoom amme.
a_em
O0aao ee0aao occq
_cq
164
o_e_ 0aga oecoag oeocc_qqcaa.
ee0aao a_em
qe eea
qe
ec0oaa
c_
ec0oaa
gg caq
emqqc
cc caq
emqqc
O_eoaa_
eea
ooaacaaa_
eea
_cq oeo
a_em
eeaaqgaa e_c0qaqaa eaegaa
occq oeo a_em
gaeo
0oacqcaoca
occq
o0cqo
O0aao a_em
eaaqqe_
ecg
eaaqqe_
gcecaaeg
eaaqqe_
acaomc
_qog
eaaqqe_
qcecaaeg
1. qe Oa
2. c_ Oa
8. oga a_em
4. c_ oga
5. acc oga
6. c_ acc oga
1. oamac
1. _aOcc
2. c_ _aOcc
1. a_em ]
oacc_ca
2. c_ a_em
165
GGso ged
ooeo a_emac a_emqqe_ oac__ oma aecag.
cee__ acaom q g gm 0aa omeeac _eaggga.
a_emq qe_ acmc Oeeg _qogcec. a_emac _qccggac
_gaq acao_a gec cggac ma acao_a oaecc_a. acaom
acga omee Oomcq_qgc g_g mm Gsa ammg. a_emq qe_
emqggqqc, _qc, ge_ggqqc, acaom oaaqecaeoaao0oa,
oaaq ___eoaao0oa gqqc _ao__e _qccecac Oa oeo
a_emom cc oeocc_a.
mm ea mq_gg
gc eaa _o oa e_ oaecc__g. acaom oaaq
aecaeo _ccg oaaq ___eoaao gocaa. g cc oeoom
oaecc_e_e.
gm G
g oa cmeaaae a_em oeoaaga. qe eaa _o oac__
oma aecag. qe g oaaqeca cc acaom _q _qc ge 0aa
omeeac _eagmme. gg _oq Oegee 0oaeqgc gg aca
_eagmmg. (c.oa) gGscLGdms Gcqes, Gms moGases.
c G g usma
ooeo a_emac a_em _o emqgmmg. goOoag emaga
acaom qe Oa 0cac ge 0aa omeeac _eagmme. (c.oa)
sg.Gus
aQs ged (Spike)
ooeo a_em Oa 0caeg ec qe_ aecag. _eac acaom
oaac__eo. eo _q _qc ge 0aa omeeac oaecc_a (c.oa)
asgo (ago) muous sa (mg)
c aQs ged
a_emqqe_ emqqg. goOoag ema gaQs cecc_a.
goOoag g ogmga c acao0m oaecc_a. a_emae _qc coqgc
g@ ceg _eocc_a g _oq Oegcom oaecc_a. goOoag
acga Gs ce_ _oq Oegeca Gums ce_ _oaaq Oegeca
aecag. (c.oa) Oc (gmes ecmLms).
166
S l : ,^a 0;scL0mrs
. , ] a ;sggm
| . a @;
l I . l a
| + _ : ' / a |
: ,| - :' | , ] J
m \ | . a 0as0asm
m \ : ,^a sgA.Oo;s
L aQs
gc a_emqqe_ qqqg eeqcc_g aecag. qe g cee__
oaac__ acaom _q _qc ge 0aa omeeac _eag gga.
a_em __oga (spathe) acc cecc_a Ocma _oqOegcac _q
cagoaocccqgga. a_emqeqe ccggac Oce acao_a,
_q_g 0ac oma__ acao_a, _e acao_a amme. a_emqqeqe
geac acaom oaecc_ogcec. (c.oa) @ (Arum), 0eao0eaa
(Colocasia)
c L aQs
eeqcc_g o a_emqqe_ emqg oaecc_a. _qe g
oaac__ acaom _eaggga o0cq cecc_a qqqq ccg 0cae_
_oq Oegc a_em __oeqa _q cagoaga (c.oa) GasaGaso
(Cocos).
ccv 6;Jw - qGzaLLGomaa
aL 6;Jw - ua.OLza
a_n wam -
_sszajgm
wLa a_n -
@zu
aL wLa a_n -
GsasGsam
LLu .z OzGuam oes uemsc
167
mm ea gcmLmsmg (Main axis shortened)
a_em qe_ ge_a oma Ooae_ gcecaaoccc_mmg .
asdo
q a_emae eaa _o Oa 0caeg e_ omaogcec.
_oaaqom Ooo0og m_ecaeo. _gaq acaom ec
oaaqoema, ma acaom gcecaae oaaqoema Ooaeqgga.
qeac ac aom _eeqga g0 accqgc _eaggga (c.oa.)
4edmms
f ) I . l ! | : _ m J \
| ) a 4s 3mrs
mmggm sa qwg (Main axis ending in flowers)
Gu
ooeo a_emac eaaqqe_ qeq0qa _ccg emq0qa
oaeccccaa. _eac a_emq qeqe Oegqqae oma gOe qec
Oeaaccc_, geac Ooaqqae _oq Oegcom 0qaege_e. eo
mcLo_mqe GeQa (Involucre oI bracts) cecc_a. o__e 0oaeomc
gg, g0 m_mm oaaqeca acaom _q _qc ge 0aa
omeeac 0qaege_e. q acaom _eeqga g0 accqgc
_eaggga (c.oa) m ous (Oooaaa).
c Gu
_aOcc a_emae eaaqqe_ emqg, goOoag emae
geaga gg _aOcc a_em oaeccccac _g c Gu
cecc_a. goOoag ema aQs ce _eocc_a. oga goOoae_e
_eeac occ g _mqe GeQa (Involucel oI bracts) amme. o__e
0oaeomc acaom 0qaege_e. goOoag g _aOcga Guc
ceg _eocc_a (c.oa) Lsaao aGscLs (oac).
avmwL - eo meaa
LLu .z eua _s qLeLaaeg
168
mmggm gcmLmsmg (Main axis flattenned)
g eaaqqe_ qcecaaoccc_ cc oqooemc Ocga. _qe g
gacaom _eaggga.
ged (g) asod
a_emae eaaqqe_ qcecaa _ggsa Oeacc__g. _qe
g gsa eaaa 0aa omeeac _eagmme. a_emea o__
mcL _mqe GeQa oaecc_e_e. eo coea Q_a Ooae_ ma
acaoema oeeaa cagoae_e.
a_emac amm gacaom oaac__eo eo aQs gs, gce
gs ce goeocc_a. a_emac oaecc_a gacaome
_qccecac a_em, 0_a0aa0oao oeo, O_cq0a0oao oeo ce
goeocc_a.
GgsGsGao mma
gc oaecc_a gacaom _eeqga g0 oeoea 0eaqeo.
eo oga gacaomao0oa (c.oa smms) _ccg qc_ gacaomao0oa
(c.oa GmsGmsmms) gocaa.
GgcqGsGao mma
gc oaecc_a gacaom goeooem 0eaqeo. qc_
gacaom a_emae eaaqgga, oga gacaom a_emqqeqe
omacegg cq Ooae_ gga. (c.oa) qmLso, gmsgo
(maoag).
c ged
asoas so ce_a qaoqgc a_emqqe_ emqg goOoag
emaga gg a_em oaecc__g.
meGso mma ged
eaaqqe_ oaqmm omaecag. eaaqqe_, geac gg
ace aecaa ce _qe oma Qeg o__g. cooacqc g
_oaaq Oegcom 0qaege_e. o__egg 0aga g
eaaqqe_om 0qae_ _o__e geac acaom 0qaege_e.
ooag acaom gm g q Gsam omeeac amme. ge acaom
169
_gaqeo. acaom mmgQ_g mq Gsa summ (CentriIugal)
Ocagoao q a_emac amm acaom ceeqa _moc gga.
ee0aao oeo a_emac cc oeoom amme
1. gmme
qaoqge gea0ca, ec 0oaeqg0ca g0 gg aca oaecc_a.
acaoaacc ga eecq oaecc_a q_g _e_0a gm gm me (c.oa.
_12.-s1 s:.
_12.-++s +1)`
o s+ s+ ,sg
_s
_j1
_osg++
o s+ `o++:.`g
.1 .z 2)1s so+ _s++
170
mgdoao) cega Gasm gm me (c.oa uousms esm.Gu) cega
Ocaa.
z. gm mLaGam (Simple dichasium)
g _eg acaom _ca Ooaqqaga. eaaqqe_ gg acmc
_qoeca. qe g coomc _qcq_qgc g _oaaq Oegcom
0qaega. o__e 0oaeomc acaom 0qaege_e. ooag
aecaa _eg _om Ooaec Ooaqgc eaac_ _gaqg. (c.oa)
gsofm.
a. c mLaGam
a_emac eaa _o gg acmc _qoeca. qe _oaaq
Oegcomc gg cooacqc g acaom 0qaega. q acaome
cooac_ _Oegcomc gg e_a acaom 0qaega. qeac
eaae (Symmetrical) _e_ac _eaq _Ooaqgom 0qaega (c.oa.)
Gs GLmcsm.
_.+ oj s+-
_s1`):1
_.+ oj
2_s++-_Is
w o+1+q1-_oLo1
s` o+1+q1 - 1)2o)o
.s.+ oj os1-1
.1. .zs os1s so+ _s++
171
4. g_ usga mgg
a_emqqe_ gg
acmc _q_g. ceea
qe cooac_ _Oegc
e_ _oem
aecaoaac gg coa
ac_0a _om
aecaocc_og g_
usga mgg cecc_a.
gc g oeoom ae_
(_) O_eoaa_ eea
a_ga (_) ooaacaaa_
eea.
GgaasL me
a _ e m a e
eaaqqe_ geac
ace aecaa ce
omaac Qeg o_a. gegg 0qaega __qq_qq cooac_
emom, g0 coaao ogm oqoc _eagmme. (c.oa) g3ms
GucLmo.
oassdmsL me
a_emae eaaqqe_
geac ace aecaa ce
omaac Qeg o_a. ceea
gegg 0qaega __qq_qq
cooac_ emom oca, caao
aa_ aa_ 0qaega. (c.oa)
_e0aaLaccaa.
s. u usga mgg (Polychasial
cyme)
eaaqqe_ gg acmc
_qoeca gegg 0qaega
cooac_ emom 0aga 0aga
cc _e_ emqg Ooae0c
gga. (c.oa) dm
2s`,ss-s++s
s++

s+
+s:, +-Ls
+2s`
ss-_1
.1. .a +s:, so+ _s
_
1j1
o_.o1,1-:o.++s
oso s
osj1 -
_:1.A
2.m s _ms
_j1j1 +2s`
.1 .I :, so+ _s++
_sAo
+2s`
172
aoq mma ged
ooeo a_emomc a_emqqe_ O0aao _e_aga, Oqacag
ee0aao _e_aga emqgmmg. gc cc oeoom amme.
1. Qseo (Thyrsus)
a_emae eaa _c cc qe ec0oa eeaom O0aao
_e_ac _eagmme. goOoag Ooaqgga _gaq ge acga, ma
cooac_ acao_a oaecc_e_e (c.oa) @ (gm).
z. GmscqsoLs (Verticillaster)
e_ cga ec 0oaeomc gg g ec0oa eea oeo
a_emom 0qaega. ceea eo gg caq ooaacaaa_ eeaomao
omag, Oqacag emqqc oaeaao qeec o__ oaecc_a (c.oa.)
@aaso oGus (gaec).
a. aoq L aQs (Mixed spadix)
oaeac (fes) cc ee0aao a_emom qqqq a_emoaacc _q
_qc ge 0aa omeeac _eagmme. goOoag ee0aao
a_ema oGug ce_ _oq Oegcac _cccc_mmg.
poq mma geda
eo O0aao oeoa0ca _ccg ee0aao oeoa0ca 0eao
_qaaqeo. ce0o _cq oeo a_emom cecc_a. gc cc oeoom
ae_.
1. memsgQm
g @.Gussdms ce_a 0cmeqgc oaecc_a a_em oa ge_
qe aca 0cac oaecc_a. _oq Oegcom eeg gg 0oacec
_ccg ee oqo _eaccee agoaga. gc amm goq
_qqmqge g cc ge_a gg cac acaom oaecc_a. _qqmqge
_oc g0 gg Oceaca ec oaace g _eaggga. g
_oqom ___g. coa ac_0a Oc__gga. eq o__ cc
_eacaom gg caq ooaacaaa_ eeaomao gg Ooaqgomc
oaecc_a. _eacaomc gg aoqqqam ac_0a oaecc_a. eo
Oacea _oq Oegcome 0oaeomc 0qaega. a_emae aac
_oae 0qe occom amme. (c.oa.) @.Gussdms memsgGgs.Guss.
z. mgumGgsqm
gc _qqma eeqcc_gce eea 0cac gg oaecc_a.
_qe 0ac _eeac @oqGms ce_ g gem oaecc_a. g
173
Oegcomac cagoaoccc_mmg. _qqmqggm _eg oeoaae
acaom amme. _eacaom eeqge 0a_q_qgga, Oceacaom
_qcq_qgga oaecc_a. caee acaom (_Qecaae acaom) eo
eq_ga ec0a oaecc_a (c.oa.) .muaao GuasGmoo
(_caa).
a. msmQm
gc _qqma eeqcc_gce occ qc_ 0cac oaecc_a. qe
_0o Oceacao_a _eq o__ _eacao_a oaecc_a. (c.oa.)
Lssomms.
gm Qod
emaae ecea 0qaOq_e
1) oec cecg gg oeoaae
_. O0aao a_em _. ee0aao a_em
. occq oeo a_em o. _cq oeo a_em
2) Lssomms q_g c_qgoaccao omga
_. Oa _ caem . o0cqo o. eaegaa
8) oga gacaom Ooaec 0_a0aa0oao a_em
_. GmsGmsmms _. qmLso .smms o. gmsgo
4) fes q_g c_qg oaccao ammg.
_. o0cqo _.occq o0cqo
. c_ o0cqo o. 0a0c ammeo ga cec.
(5) gg cac acaom gc amme.
_. eeaaqgaa _. gaeo . Ooacqccaoca o. eea
e_ agcOceem
(1) oeagoa: oga gaca ] e_ce0qaqaa ] oamac ]
eogoa] _aOcccc.
gg agcOceem
1) occq oeo a_emoem c_qg oac_o_ce omgo.
2) a_emea c__ g_cq oeo.
8) ee0aao a_emoem oeocc_qg, ceo0a_a eqee
omgo.
4) _cq oeo a_emoem oomo.
cqg agcOceem
1) O0aao oeo a_emome oeoccacqee oeo.
2) cc0og O0aao oeo a_emoemc c__ gg oc_e c_go.
8) cc0og ee0aao oeo a_emoem omgo.
174
a. sa, ama pg mmga
dm moq, mmaa@
aaa qaoomc cac ecOcgoqeq 0a_Ooam_a _m
ggoaecq qe_q Oqagg0a aca cecc_a. eo emoemc
0cac, _a ec 0cae_ oqoeeOaaqq _mq GeQm
0oaeqgegg 0qaege_e. aca _e geccgg acme ccca
agcqoema qaoqag. (qmcL, mcL, aggs
mcL, ga mcL). g _qqma ce _eocc_a. (gso () GLso).
_qqma Ogoaao _eaq o@oema, ec ge_q
o@oecccggoema Ooaecg. _q q mq g_ g 0 oaec c _a em
ae o@ o ecc cg g _aasq cec c _a. _o q Oegc Ocag oa o _
oaac_g 0 oaecc_a. c eaaa _a ec0cae_ _eacqom
oaace ec ac oaec c _a. eo _aasq GeQa cec c _a.
s spg_ mLg gm
aca ce c g ec Oc g oq g_ oa o ga aag ca _ _ec q _c c g aa_
g g Ooae c qe _q Oqag g ce c g, ga c ea aa e _ _a ga.
__aeg, oc q oac o mc Oog oa o aa_ _ a ec g _0 o
q _q 0qa_ _ _a oa ma o mac _ g Ooam mc cc _m mg. 0q ogqgee
mmmo, _o g dGsGes.dms GuscLsmas (1151) ce _a gec aL
a_spp ce g_c cc_mmaa. asous a.o a_ g a qasmGLs ce c
oaom aca qom, aa_gg _ecq eaqae ecomaga ce_a
Ooameoaee 0aga ommmea.
acme qma ecOoameo aaeg _0eo aagqco_g
acccc 0cagga, ega qaooac ocgaomac
oecccqocc_e_g.
acaeg ga aa_gg Ooaec qe_ cecg gg oeae_gcccc
omoaaga. qe _ca aca qom ooaae ceaae
gm0eaeogc cgc ecOcgo ceaee Oeaoq_oao aagca_
_ecqeo cecg Oqmoae_g.
175
s g_ a_spm gm nmugm maa
1. acme Oaac_om qeqe, Oaac_oemc 0caeg gea0ca _ccg
ec 0oaeqg0ca _eaggga.
2. c qaoomc, aca Oaac_, acc Oaac_om _ccg qccccao
aa_ ammg (c.oa) Gao, @mmm _qeae.
8. c qaoomc _qqma Oqacag omag, eco0ma_ qa
qe_ Oqagcec0aa, _ccg a_O_ag _eo0aa aecag_g.
(c.oa) Gsgs .
4. o_m, qce qomc gg _ce qo_a, _ce
qomc gg aoqq qamo_a, cc ecQec
0ogca_o0ma_ 0qae_aeo.
Caga - jLgg __qm jLgg __qm OeaL
saL;acmo
jLgg
__qm
_cm
_cm
_cm
Oom ueq
eua ueq
nm ueq
LL a.az ggggs ag@ OsamL
gmQ oLg QgJgg
qcm
qcm
nua_a ucaLaeaem - .Jv a
__qm
ueq_ qam
ce
eeCea-CLaa
_LCa-CLaa
s. mamsmcsoo mamsmsm _qqma e_, maae o@oecc
cggoem aca agcqomec0a 0qa__oe_g.
6. 0agaoe qce qom eaqae ecoemc 0cac ammg.
1. qgGmdmsm, aoqqqamom cq ec 0caega, eecom
cqe_, c_q ce 0ogca_ __g aca ecom 0caeg
0qaege_e.
176
8. _qqma, _oaaq a_ga qe_ _ao__e ammeacq _0eo
g_geaoem Ooae_mmg. aca agcqom a_ga eaqae
ecomc oaecc_a oaogcaa go _eacq _qccecac g0
oqaao _eagmme.
s mmL
acaom Ocgacaga ec 0oaeqgc _ccg qe_ a_ga
_qe emome geac oaecc_a. _q_0o__oag acmee _e_0a
gmaGasm s _ccg gm s ce _e0_aa.
acaom qe acaomao gqaga, a_emac oaeccq_a,
Ocagoao gg gcecaae oaacee Ooae_ gga. qee
saasq ce _e0_aa. c eaaomc acmc oaaq oaecc_og
cec. aca, oaacee Ooae_ gqac _qee asqmLm s cega,
oaaq cec ce_ac _qee asupp sa cega g_cc_0_aa.
dm agoqa
Ocagoao aca ceoga agcqoem Ooaeqgga
1. _oq Oegco_a, _oaaq O egco_a
2. _qqma
8. _occom
_. qceocca
_. _ceocca
. aoqqam occa
o. co occa
dm am usaa@, gmm usaa@
acme aeg caoo_m, aoqqqam occ_a, co occ_a
e_aeaaaq caoomaga. Oee_ac, _eo 0mecaao ecOcgo
Oeaec o_c__g. acmegg oea, oeqo_a 0qaegoq_g
_e0eaqomao _eaa Qoomae aoq 0eaeoa, oggqga
eoae_ ecOc_ acag oog Qoomc, qceocc_a,
_ceocc_a, 0mecaaoc cg Ooamogcec. ce0o o_e_
gmmo usaa ceg _ee0_aa.
_mqe GeQa@, _aasqe GeQa@
_mqe GeQa, ecaee gqq _cq agcqomaga. o__e
0oaeqgc ggqae acaom 0qaege_e. cq ecae
0oaeqgc gg aca 0qaeg_0qa, _q ec _aacme _oq
177
Oegcaga. ccca acao_0a _oq Oegec Ooae_ gccgcec.
_oq Oegc ammqa, cecaa ceceqc Ocagqg, _mqe GeQgmLm
sa , _mqe GeQpp sa ce0_aa. _oq O egc gcce _eo,
aca Oaaccao gga 0cag _qee _q cagoaga ceaee
0a_Ooame_e. c acaomc acgga,_oq Oeggga ec0a,
acaoaace g _a, Oacea _oq Oegeee gqq agcqom
oaecc_a. o_e_ _oaaq Oegcom ce0_aa. _oaaq Oegcom
geg _ccg e_ gocaa. _oaaq Oegcom ammqa, cecaa
ceceqc Ocagqg acaom, _aasqe GeQgmLmmm, _aasqe GeQppmm
ce0_aa.
_gg
_qqma, o@, o@oeccggoem Ooaec o gga aca _o.
_qe 0ac aca ecom _eagmme.
_gggQm Gmgus
c qaoomc o@oecccgg e_, Oqmoao oaecc__g.
q o@oec c qce occqg_ga, _ce occqg_ga ec0a
oaeccccac. _q_g @Ggs.Guss ce_ Ocaa. g
0om0aacc0cac oaecc__g.
_ce occqg_ga, aoqqqam occqg_ga ec0a o@oec
c oaeccqe _q_g @mcGs.Guss ceg Ocaa. (c.o) uso.qGss
(g_aca - cam-q0ma0).
o@oec c, aoqqqam occqg_ga, co occqg_ga
ec0a oaeccccac _q_g maGms.Guss ceg Ocaa. g aousdo
(occam0c) oaecc__g. _ec0a-0caa a_ga eo0ea-0caa
e_a oaeccccac _eo mamsmcGs.Guss _ccg
@mcGsmaGms.Guss cecc_a (c.oa) mamsmcsoo. _qqma,
_eceaq qaeq e_ oaeccqe _q_g assGus.Guss ceg Ocaa.
c.oa. GasdmsmLs .o@mg.
_gggQ _mgga mQ_ag mp
mgGusmamo sa (ga Gs)
_qqma, e_g e0ca _ccg go0qa gqac, coa _qe
0ac oaecc_a. geac coqgeea, _q_g ao, qce, _ce,
a_ga aoqqqam occoemc Oc__ 0acacc _eceaeca
acaom mgGusmamo acaom cecc_e_e. (c.oa) aac0o ,
_0ea0e _qeae.
178
ce Cuc uca
ueq_ qam
ueq_
qam
ueq_ qam
_cm
_cm
_cm
geL
geL
geL
qcm
qcm
qcm
__qm
__qm
__qm
oc s.ss _mgga omgggg op
ce uca
ce_ uca
ndmamo (ga 4g s)
_qqma 0oacec oqoa Ooae_, _ec oo0a_ eeg
oaecc_a. qe oemoao acme a__ caoom _ecg 0a0c
_eag gga q _eacc_g ndmam ceg Ocaa. ooeo aca
cceoeo aca cega, _ec acc _ec cea _eocc_a
(c.oa) _oc0, goacc0c, gc0a _qeae.
Gudmamo (gaggg s)
ooeo coqgc, _ec qcecaae, acgaae _qqmqge
eaaqgc _eag gga 0cag, acme a__ caoom _ecae
omacc _eag gga. ooeo _eacqg Gudmamo cega,
qqeoa aca Ocmeoeo aca cea _eocc_a. (c.o) -0c0c,
0a0om _qeae. ooeo _ec, cag acc _ec cecc_a.
_mgga
Ocgacacae gg oqgec qaoomc qce occ_a, _ce
occ_a 0ogcaqe_ _eaggcce _eo _oqom cecc_a gg
oqgec qaoomc ooqom _a oeea Ooae_ gcce,
_eo _ce q gqqeo (c.oa) gGsdGmses gusus. c g oqgec
179
qaoomga, ggg ggg _mgga oaecc_e_e. (c.oa)
cae0oa0e.
_oqom, acme am agcqoem _q cagoaga ceaee
Oea_g. _a oee Ooae_ gcce, aoq 0eaeooao
_oem ooa_g.
qmcL
qce occa, acme Oom __oaga. qce qomac _eg.
qceom Ocagoao cee Q_qgce gga ; c 0omc
oeeqgce oaeccccac, _eo gggmm cecc_a. (c.oa)
osdmmsuGeds. GemLs .usmGLsGesm gg qce Ocmqao,
a_em _ccg Oomem Q_qgce ec oqoqgc oaecc_a.
qceoccqge _qeea ce cagoaqqc. g acme am
agcqoem acQec aoq gg, ae, ma Oomea, acaqc,
0cae_ o__c gg Oaac_ cgoqgc cagoa_g. cee Q_qgce
gga 0cag gm0eaeo ceeaa, _ce gqqeoaao gga
0cag, aoq 0eaeooao _oem ooga ceea 0a_Ooam_g.
qceocca, g_oaeg _ccg g_o__g. qce qom
_eeqga qeqggcce _g gmmmso qmcL cecc__g.
qom eeggcce gmmg qmcL cecc__g.
qmcLgQm spg_aa
c 0omc qce occa oaecc_ogcec _ccg Oegcomao
aa_ gga (c.oa) ma oag.
c 0omc Ooaqqae a0aaomao aa_ gga. q_g usouo
a0aaom ceg Ocaa. (c.oa) GmsGmsmms.
q mcLgQm @cas
Ocagoao aca acaq ceq qceom agago_a. _eac c
0omc Qecqg Q_ga.
_qe _coacqeqc Ocagqg ceogoeoao oomocaa.
1. GgsLaagQ aQ_umm
c oeo acaomc, aca acga _e0c qceom agag o_e_e.
(c.oa) uoGums, GaGmsms _qeae.
z. Qsgdm aQ_umm
qce qom _ acaq ace agago_a. (c-oa) Gus
180
a. Qm Gupsmmm
qceocca agaac, _ga _ecq oe0aa_ _eaggga (c.oa)
aggd
4. am qmg
Qecqq qceocca, oece qa_a 0eag omaggga. (c-oa) .
mueso.
mcL
_ceocca, acme ecaog gee occaaga. _ce
qomac _eg. _ce qom cc oeeo_ce ggoaeg.
_ce qom qeqggcce _q_g gmgg mcL cega, 0eag
gqac gmmg mcL ceg Ocaa aoq 0eaeooao
_oem ooaoga, _a am agcqoem cagoaccga qe
_qeea ceaaga.
1. asqmLm ggga
_ce qom gga _qccggeaa, ecqqam gqq _oe_
acc cggeaa Oc__ oaaqeca qom (c-oa) gg-Oc0 qom
z. md 6dmg GasmLmm
_ce qome omaqomc a0aaoemc 0cae_
c_o_ecaeo (c-oa) Lmsmgo.
a. dppmm
_ce qom m oacqc cc eaaae cggomaoc cmg gga.
4. msgmLmmm
_ce qom ec oac 0cac _eaq agcqoem Oc__gcce
_q_g oagecaeo ceg O caa. (c-oa) GLdmm Ggo.
s. mu Gusmpmm
_ce gee _qccgg omoecg ec 0cae_ _eacec
_c_qga (c-oa) @mqmm
mcLgQm a_m moqa
. g_asm, gmmms a
1. gmm mqm
oaaqeca aeg qeqq qom cgOgao geoeac 0cac
_eaggga. (c-oa) o_g, _mm _qeae.
181
z. GadGmsdGmo
oaaqeca gg _ce qom, _qoaac_g Oegqqao accoem
omqq Qecac oaecc_a. (c-oa) 0om0aa-cc0c0a.
a. GsGemo
_ce occqge oaac__ gg _ce qomc acc omqq
Qecac gga. (c-oa) oe0aga.
@. g_app gmmmsg a
1. usodGmsGmmo
_ce occqge gg _ce qomc 0a_cggac _eaq g_e_
_ce Ocmag. g Gasqm g Gmao cecc_a. gco
qom paa g @G cea, q_a _eaq g ammca
qom ac_a eeg, ccg 0cae_ _eaccac uLg cecc_a.
(c-oa) cccae (g_aca -0c0cm)
geo oqo CeamCaaccCcam CaCoam LaLcmCaaCeam
gc oqo
ue oqo
qec oqo oe oqo
qLQ oqo
qa oqo
nqLae
oqo
OLaCoaCeL
LL a.a+ a LLgga s s
a oqo
182
z. @saGLmo
acme qceocca, _ceocca, _cq qeeaaaeg. ag occce
qa 0cOccca cecc_a. gg _ce q a__ qomc gg,
oqoqgc 0ogcc_, aoqa, c _qae _eq _eag gga.
(c-oa) GguGmdms.
g. ggasm gmmg a
1. gg mqm
_cegc __ mqg_ga agec gaa 0cac oaecc_a. (c-oa)
ma oagae gc gacaom.
z. mmqm : _ce gc _qac age_a, 0ac 0a _oega,
aeoqoc oaecc_a (c-oa) gaasdcLs Gaos.
a. qm mqm: _ce occa, qec oqoaaeg. (c-oa) maqeq.
4. eaa mqm : o gcecaae _ce gee _eeac accom
ecaccaao omg eoa 0cae_ _eacqce oaecc_a (c-oa)
Gessm.
s. gcmqm : ec gc 0cae_ _ce gee geac accom
ecaccaao omg qc_ 0cae_ _eacqce oaecc_a. (c-oa)
mmas.
o. gs mqm : _ce gc _oc cgqga, g _eeomga gga
qa oqoc _eagmme. (c-oa) dmGmsd asom.
=. g_app gmmg a
1. =_gLsm mqm : _ce gc geac cmg, g aq_oem
Oc_gmmg. (c-oa) @ (gm)
z. GusGesGmc : _ceocca ogq_ _eacq aecag.
aq_o_ec0a amm gc oaa _qa Qecac ammg. (aa)
@mqmm.
a. smqm : _ce gaae _qccgg _a gaa 0caca, 0accgg
qcecaao ag oqoqgc _eag gga. (c-oa) _oc0ae
oga g acaom.
gggm
acme Oaac_c cgoqgc, qce qo_a, _ce qo_a
_eag gga _e_g qea ceg Ocaa.
183
gggmmm mmaa dmm_sg
1. Ggs gggm
qce, _ce qome omaqom gee_ geg q_oaac Oqac_
Ooaeqgga. (c-oa) mgdoaoom qce qom
z. Q_g gggm
ooeoac, qce _ccg _ce qome gg omaq,
_qee __qgmm qe omaecq q_o Ooaeqgga a_O_ag
omaq, _q_o_qq qac q_occc_ gga.
ccca qomga gg omaq q_occc_a, a_O_ag omaq q_o
Ooae_a oaecc_a. q_a _ccg q_occ_a omaqom g0
geeac, ca gg ocaaoa, _ccg oca gg caaoa
oaecc_a. (c-oa) mgdoaom _ceocca
a. ag gggm
ooeaccc, gg qe g omaqo_a am _eaga _ccg
a_O_ag qe g omaqo_a Oom _eaga, a__eo am Oom
_eaq omaqoema Oc_g gga.
gc _g q_ __g q _ea g q_ __g q
_ea ce g oeoom amme.
Oq+_ qgeu ggg qgeu _agq_
qgeu
gq_
qgeu
gogac
oL u.u qgeuo oeeeo
184
. gpg g_ ag gggm (Gmaod gggm)
ooeoac acme 0ac coqgc _eagmm _ce q, co
oacqc _eaq g _ce qome gg omaceeq q_o
Ooaeqgga cooac_ _ce qome a_O_ag omaq acme
ccoqgc _eagmm _ce qoemq q_o Ooae_
oaecc_a. gc _ce qome q_ gee _g _oaao
oaecc_oqac qee ooag _e0_aa. g Oomccm
qea cega _eocc__g. (c-oa) -0c0cm g_acqge
_ceom.
@. g g_ gggm
ooeo qea oacc0em g_ac acaome _ceomc
oaecc__g. g _g q_ qeag cgmecaaeg. gc
acme 0ac cggac _eaq _ce q ammao _eag g co
_ce qome gg omacac q_occc_ oaecc_a co _ce
qome a_O_ag omaq acme ccggac _eaq g _ce
qomac q_occc_ oaecc_a. gc q_ gee 0ac 0a
_eaggccqac ooeo qea g q_ qea cecc__g.
4. gmm gmm
ooea __g q _eaoe aagca_ gc g qom
___ga am _eaga, 0og g qom ___ga Oom _eaga,
gqaog qe gg omaq Oom0a _eaga, ag omaq am
_eaga oaecc_a (c-oa) Ooaaaa.
agggs mcL
g acme _e_aog __oaga. g acme _e caoaao
ogqcc__g. g aoqq qamoem (ea0ao0camecom)
Ooae_mmg. goOoag aoqqqa_a Oaeq oaacee Ooaecg.
g aga ad ce0_aa. qe _eeac agomu (ea0ao0cao
0oao) ammg. aoqcec Ocgacaga g accoem aecag.
aoqcecae g accoem eega gog gmmoqgQa ceg
Ocaa. goOoag acggmmaoa g_ ag mpa
(ea0ao0caoa) amme. aoqc ecgm amaae agg gaa
(ea0ao0caaom) amme.
c ag
c qaoomc aoq qamome aoqc ecom oma_g
oaecc_a. _eo c agg gs cecc_a. (c-oa) Gams.
185
1. agg gsam dmmoq
1. g_ apmp agg gsa
gg acme _eeqg aoqq qamome oaco_a eeg gg
o_e_aao oaecc_a. aoq ecom qeqqeo (c-oa) mgdoao,
qqsm _qeae.
g s gp
g s gp
Los gp
gmv o
aL;o
LL a.ao s ;g g g asJmc
z. g_ apmp agg gsa
gg acme _eeqg aoq qamome oaco_a eeg g
o_e_aao oaecc_a. aoq ecom qeqqeo (c-oa)
mcGLsdms.
a. uapmp agg gsa
aoqq qamome oacom aaa eeg e_g 0a_ccc
o_e_omao _eaggga (c-oa) co.
4. gmmo
gg acme, aoq qamome, aoq ecom aaa gg gc 0cac
c qeec o__ oaecc_a. aoq oacom qeqqeo (c-oa)
_occ0m.
s. msmco
aoq eco_a, aoq oaco_a, _qe moac eeg
oaecc_a. (c-oa) goacc0c.
186
o. usmmco
aoq qamom cee__eo qeqqeo (c-oa) mmmgo
z. agg gsam gcqmm
1. gcqmmm
aoq qamome oacom _ce
qomc gcq oaecc_a.
ce0o, eo _ce qomc
gg 0qae_aeo 0cac
oaecc_a. (c-oa) Gessm,
@ _qeae.
z. _mgg gcqmmm (nd.do)
aoq qamom _oqo_ce
eeg oaecc_a. g q
eeqeo cecc_a (c-oa)
oGusqo (cg _ce).
a. mamsmco
aoq qamom coqgce
eea 0cag _qe __ mqg_0oa _ccg aoqa ac_0aa
eea (c-oa) GaGscGsdo.
agg gsam
1. mLqmo : gg acme aeg aoq qamomc e_
maaoa, e_ gcecaaoa oaecc_a. (c-oa) @.
z. GLcsqmo: gg acme _g aoqamomc Oomac amm
e_ gcecaaoa aaaaoa gga. (aa) o_g.
4. agg gsm mmL
1. aGsamg: _ce occ gec oc aoq qam _aeo.
2. Gm Gsamg : _ce occ gec oc aoq qam maaeg
Oom0a cq Ooaeqgga.
s. ag mp6m nmmama
1. =mp agomu
g _e_oem Ooaec aoqa aeg ea0ao 0caa_aa
_ccg aoqcecoem Ooaeqgga.
z. gmp agomu
g0 gg _e_eca aoqa, e_ ea0ao 0caa_aa
_ccg aoqc ecoem Ooaeqgga.
ocqemo 0cc+qemo
uc6 a.az a)ggg gsa [6
187
o. ag ag d6 gcq6_gg : (Fixation of anther)
i) qodmmoq
aoqoac, aoqge
_ q c q _ q g c
eeggga (c-oa)
dsaas.
ii) _ dmmoq
aoqoac aoqqge
_q_qc geoe
eeggga (c.oa)
Gmsdms.
iii) ggo dmmoq
aoq oac aoqqge
ceq_a eeggga
(c.oa) Lm.
iv) GmsemL: (Versatile)
aoqa, Oacea aoq oacae geac 0ceao gcq
oaecc_oqac g qe0a _eeqa_a. (c.oa) qc
ga mcL
acme o acq_aao, eaaqgc _eagmm acmecom Ocagoao
coa cecc_a. g acme Oce caoaaga. co occqge _cg
eecom _ga. ceoga oec Oea_om coq0qa_ Oqacaqecaeo.
i. g_ gme ga
cea g0 g eecea Ooaecg. (c.oa) 0c0c.
ii. g_ gme ga
_ec g eecoem Ooaecg. (c.oa) gc0a
iii. mg gm ga
_ec _eg eecoem Ooaecg. (c.oa) ece0a
iv. smg gm ge
_ec aeg eecoem Ooaecg. (c.oa) 3ms
v. u gm ga
coa cc eecoem Ooaecg. (c.oa) uousms.
z. gmam gmm
1. gmmms gma
coqge e_ _ccg _q_g 0a_ccc eecom eeaaac
gga (c.oa) usmsQms.
_L
ceeLq
__L
ceeLq
_ggL
ceeLq
Oo+eeLc
oL a.as magg magg a36m
gcq6ggm
188
z. gmmg gma
coqge e_ _ccg _q_g 0a_ccc eecom eeg
oaecc_a. (c.oa) mgdoao.
a. gpmu mpam nmmama
_ec _e_ome ceeeoaeec Ocagqg, o_ecaee ge,
oe_, _oe_ _ec cecaa.
g gc mp
_0aaoOcaa qaoomc c, _ecgm oaecc_a. c
gc_q go, coema, _eceaa ee_g.
g_ecac c gc_q go _eaggga oqqg_g c gc__e_
ceg Ocaa. c gc_ _e_ae _a oeoomaoe:
1. eag gcmp
e_ _ccg e_g 0a_ccc eeq eecoem
Ooaec coqgc ooeo c gc__e_ oaecc_a. coa cqqee
eecoem Ooaec0qa,
_qqee _e_oem
Ooaecqao _ec ammg.
eecae ooaom aaa
_ecae eaa _oc
cggac eeg
oaecc_a. q eaa _oc
cggac c _e_ac
_eagmm c
gc_qgo0oa_ com gcq
Ooae_mme. (c.oa)
mgdoao
z. mq g gcmp
g g_e_ eec
Ooaec ge_ aeca
_ecac oecc__g. gc
eecome g omaqo_a eea cqgc com
_eaggga. (c.oa) 0c0c g_ac acaom.
a. ams g gcmp
g cc eeq eecoemeca ge_ _ecgm oaecc_a.
gc eecom _qe omaqomc eegmme. g eecom
_o+
189
eggcqgc, com, c gc_q gooac eeocc_a (c-oa)
Oommm.
4. qg gcmp
g g eeq, eecoem Ooaec g_e_ _e_ _ecac
oaecc_a. gc c gc_qgo, _ecae _qccggac, _qqmqgc
0qaao omag, g_e_ ec Ooae_ gga. (c.oa) _occ0m
g_aca
s. gose ams g gcmp
g cc co ecom eeg, cc _e_oemc Oc__ _ecac
oaecc__g. _ec _e_ome, q_cq oome am ccq __oga,
com c gc_q gooe _ca gcq oaecc_e_e. (c.oa) g_aca
Qa-c0a.
dm - Ges maa
acme caooem ce oga oec Oea_om _ca oomocaa.
1. s aga
1. _mmsmg
gg aca _qe ccca aeg __goema Oc__gccg
(qceocca, _ceocca, aoqqam occa, co occa
oaecc_qc) __eaaae aca cecc_a.
z. _mmppmm
acme geg _ccg cc __gom ccaq acaom __eaa__eo
cecc_a
. g_mp GasmLmm
c acaom g_e_ Ooma_g ac_0a Ooaeqgga. _o_e_
gge_ Ooaec acaom ce0_aa.
@. g_ amp GasmLmm
acme g Ooma_gom Ocagoao qceocca, _ceocca ce
0ogca_ Ooae_ oaecc_a. ooag g Oom __goem
Ooaec acaom g me_ Ooaeceo ce _ee0_aa.
g. ampmpp sa
cc qaoome acaomc qceocca, _ceocca e_0a
oaecc_ogcec. _qqeoa acaom ae_a__ acaom ce
_eocc_e_e.
190
z. us gmm u4
1. g_ us sa
acme _a caoomae aoq qam occa, co occa
eec0a Ooaec acaom g cac acaomaga.
z. g_ us sa
acme _a caoom eqc gee_ ac_0a Ooae_mm
acaom gg cac acaomaga. eo g oeocc_a
. @m sa: aoqq qamoem ac_0a Ooaeceo.
@. Gum sa: co occqeq ac_0a Ooaeceo.
gdg gsma
_e acao_a, Oce acao_a g0 qaoqgc oaeccqe
_qqeoa qaoom gmccq qaoom cecc_e_e. (c.oa) Oqeee,
aoa0eama _qeae.
=dg gsma
_eacao_a, Oce acao_a, qeqqe qaoomc oaeccqe
_eo omccq qaoomc cecc_a. (c.oa) cee, cccam, acOcm
_qeae.
usGao gsma
c qaoomc, _e acaom, Oceacaom, g cac acaom ce
_o eo aca om oaec c _ e _ e. _o_ e_ ca e 0o ao qao om
ce0_aa (c.oa) aaaa, _gm _qeae
a. dm ees
aca _e g _eagmm acme agcqomae qceocca
_ceocca, aoq qam occa, coocca _ao__e oqoa a__a
_eaoee acme eaa ce0_aa. aca gcq amm cqg_g aca _o
ceg Ocaa. aca __g _eeaagmm acme cgg GpugQ cega,
_q_g cg0 _eaq cgg acme 4gougQ cega ogqcc_e_e.
acme eae _qccecaa Ooae_, _eg oeoomac cmocaa.
1. @eee_mLm s
acac caoom aaa, _moga, _eaoga, g0 ao oaeccqe,
_qqeoa aca,_ eageca aca ce _eocc__g. aacme
eaaqge oaao cq m 0cac Oocqeaga g ea cggomaoc
cma. (c.oa) mgdoao, Gessm _qeae.
191
z. g_uaae ee_mLm sa
g co eageca acmc aca caoome _ma, _eaa g0
ao oaecc_ogcec. ooeo acmee g_cccc gg 0cac
ac_0a g ea cggomaoc cmo _qa (c.oa) mue.
a. eepp sa
cqc 0caga, g ea cggomaoc cmo acaq aca ea__ aca
cecc_a. (c.oa) ocoae.
4. s agoqa mQ_ag mg
1. mcL m mp
aca _ee o__ acaome caoom g_cccc occ __gomao
_eaggga. (c.oa) dsaas, Gessm a_ga cc.
z. a_ moq mp
acme caoom occ __gome _eaaaac o_ _e_aga,
_eaggga (c.oa) aGmsms.
a. usQmcL m mp (a_ mcL m mp)
acme c caoom occ _ea _e_aga c o_ _ea
_e_aga _eaggga (c.oa) Gsgs, mmgo a_ga cc.
s. s usaam nmmama
acme goOoag occ_a, gqq ceeeoac _eaq
_gcqoemc Oc__gcce _q_g ggg a s ceg Ocaa. c
eaaomc acme goOoag occ_a OooOog ceeeoac
_gcqoemc Oc__gcce _q_g GmgucL a s ceg Ocaa. gqq
_o acaoem ceoga oeoomoc cmocaa.
1. =a s
acme caoom e_ _ccg eqe acc oecc_a.
z. ma s
acme caoom _eg _ccg _e_e acoao oaecc_a.
a. smaa s
acme caoom aeg _ccg aee acoao oaecc_a.
4. gga s
acme caoom gg _ccg gge acoao oaecc_a.
g oqgec qao acaom Ocagoao, aeoo _ccg gqo
acaomao oaecc_a. _eac gg oqgec qao acaom _oo _ccg
_e_e acgmao oaecc_a.
192
ama
oe cecg og_g omaaaecq _ec ce omocaa. oe
a_ga oeqom acaomc gg agoae_e. g aoq 0eaeo a_ga
oggqc ce_a e_ Qooem _qq c_g qae acaomc
oeo_a oeqo_a agoae_e. og__ c_g _ec oeaao
omaaec_g. _ec ooa oeooao omag_g. g
Gudasso cecc_a _ecac amm com oeqomao omag_g.
coema, _eq cam_oeqa c__ oomga 0qaccoecc
cmg Gusssg ceg Ocaa.
oggqc c_a Oeac, _ec oeaao omagoeq ge_a
Oeacaga. _eac cc0og eaaomc _ec og_aa0c0a oeaao
omaaeca. ccq og_aa0c0a oe agoaga Qo
ussgQGmsassod ce _eocc_a. ooeo oeom ussgQGmsassoda
ama _ga. ooeo oeomc oeqom goag. (c.oa) oae,
gacee, _eea a_ga Ooaaaa a_ga cc.
oeom aeeaoe a_ga Ocaaoe ce e_ oeoomaoc
cmocc_e_e.
1. ammaam
ooeo oe acme _ecaegg omg_g. g c _ccaq
cggce Oqacaq ___g. g ammaam cecc_a. (c.oa) qoam,
oqqmoaa, cccae, aaoaa, oae a_ga cc.
z. GusLaam
ooeooe _ec a_ga _q0ea_ Oqacaqeca acme gee
caoomegg 0qaeg_g. g GusLaam cecc_a (c.oa) _ccm.
gc aee qa cgg acme _qqmaaga.
am6m moq
oe, oeq a_ga oeq0qac (Ocmoaac) ce e_ _a
caooem Ooae_mmg. oeq0qaee _eacq a_ga qqae
aagc_e_e. oeq0qac _eg __goem Ooae_mmg. Oom
__g ndasso cega, _ __g fGesasso cega a_ga
amm_g nmGLsasso cea _eocc_a. eccae eag Qe_q
aeeqa cgg 0eaoaac _ga. q _eg __go_a aca
oeomc cmgc 0ogc_qq acag.
Ocagoao, oeom _eg cmomao oeocc_qqcc_a _o__e
Ocaaom ceogaag qeoe, gmoe a_ga c_oeom.
193
gmaam
gg qe acmc amm gg _ecaegg gg oe agoagaaeac
_g gmaam cecc_a, _ec ge_ coaao0oa _ccg eeq cc
eec coaao0oa gocaa. oeq0qaee qeeaeac Ocagqg
qeoe e_ oeoaao cmocc__g.
qeoe e_ oeoaao cmocc__g.
1. eeqoe
2. acaoe
gm emgaam
OLad
Ooo
C_ac
Ooo
C_ac
OooC_ac
__C_ac
__C_ac
me_
me_
cqL_ ge
OoogC_ac
me_
ee
_g_m
uLm a.4o gm emgssm
amC_ac
amC_ac
OLLCLa
CLa
LgL O_mOLdqa
oeom c_ga 0cag, q oeome oeq0qac (Ocmoaac)
__ogaao0oa _ccg oeq0qaee gg cgg0aa eeqcc_gce a_ga
eag Qe_g oaecc_a. eaqaeaao oeq0qac _eg
__goemOoaecg. Oom __g Oomq0qac ndassocea
eaa __g _0qac 3Gesasso cea amm_g ac0qac
nmGLsasso cea _ga. _eac Ocagoao eeqoeom _eeqga
Ooqaa oeomaga.
eeqoeoem GuaGac pg cgoGumo ce e_ oeoomaoc
cmocaa. 0c0oc oeom ceceo eeqcc_gmmeo. gc oeqoem
qo cooq oqeaae cgga oaecc_ogcec. Gusd _qc oeo
oeg c_qgoaccaga. cgc ecaa oeoac 0ega.
194
1. Gusd
g cc oeqom Ooaec oeaaga. gc oeae Oomq0qac
(ccoaac) Oaceaqaoa, _q0qac a_ga ac0qac 0ogcac_ga
oaecc_a. eoom eag Qe_q cggea agoage_e. gc
oeqom _ oaecc_e_e. oeae Oomq0qac a_ga oeqom
ammcc _eeqg cgga aeeq qgqeo. (c.oa) qoam
z. cgo
eaqaeaao g gg oeq Ooaec oe _ga. q oeomc
oeq0qac (Ocmoaac) 0ogcacecg Oomcq_aao amm 0qac 0cae_
cgg ccoaac cega eeqcc_gmm a_ga eag Qe_q _ccgg
0eaoaac cega. oc 0cae_ oqeaae amm_g ce0caoaac cega
_eocc__g. oeac amm g_e_ oeqea g ce0caoaac
oaecc_a. oeac aeeqqgq cgg eeqcc_g gq 0eaoaac
_ga (c.oa.) aa|oe. 0qoaac 0eaoaac c_a _ __g aaom
0cae_g. gc aeeqa cgg ce0caoOcaa (ogge go)
_ga.
a. GgoGudqm
ooeo 0c0oc oeom eeq cc eec coqge 0acacc
_ecaegg 0qaege_e. qe oeq0qac _eg __gomao
0ogc_qqcc__g. Oomcq_a ceOea occmm 0qac ccoaac
cea aaomac _e eaa __g 0eaoaac a_ga amm_g Oacea
eo 0cae_ ce0caoaac _ga. ce o__e oe _e_om cee__
q_cq _e_omao cmocc_e_e. _o Ocac_ _e_ac 0qae_a
oeqom eag Qe_q goomac (oemom) _cccc_mme. Ocac_
gooegg omga Oom com aeeq qgqeo _ga.
g co (gc0c-g_aca) oeome _cq ceqomaga.
4. GuoGus
g Ocma eeqcc_gmm oe, eo acc _ecae eeq
_oec coqge ge_ac gg ooa c gc_ _e_ac
0qaege_e. oeae acq_a eeqcc_gce cc oeqoema
Ooaeqgga. (c.oa) Oommm, _caaca, oeoaa a_ga cc.
s. Gus
g eeqcc_gmm Ocaaoe _ccg 0caoaac _ga. g acc
_ecae eeq cc eec coqgegg 0qaege_e. gc
_qqma _ecce eeg 0qaeg_g. g eeqcc_gmmqao aa_
aeea oeea g oaecc_a. aeea oeae acq_a oeqom
195
oaecc_a. oeae aeeq qgq cgg eeqcc_g o _qqma _ga.
(c.oa) _ccm, 0cmoaa a_ga cc.
gm as ama
q oeom acaq oe ae_oem Oc__gga. eq _eg
__gomao 0ogc_qq acag. q cma aca oeoem 0aga _eg
oeoomao cmocaa.
_. Ooqoe
_. cmoe a_ga
. Ooqaaoe
. as Gmq ama
1. G (g_qp Gmqam)
aca Ooqoeom 0acacc _ecae
gg eec coqgegg agoae_e.
oeae g omaqome eecqom
Ooqqg e_ cggomae_e. (c-oa)
cccae.
z. usa
q oeo aca Ooq oe 0acacc
_ecae gmec coqgegg
0qaege_e. eoomc oeae gg
omaq eecq ac_a Ooqe_e.
(c.oa) cgg.
a. agms
0acacc _ecae eeq g eec coqgegg ooeo
aca Ooqoeom 0qaege_e. g ge_ Ooaecg. _eac Ocaa
q_cq ooa oaecc_oqac oe_ Ooaecg 0caeg 0qa__amga.
oeome e_ omaqome eecqo_a _q _qc ge oe
Ooqe_e. _eaga _go ceeeoacae oeqom Ocaa q_cq
oogce eeg oaecc_a. g Go ce_eocc_a. (c.oa) o_g.
4. asog
0acacc (_ccg) acc _ecae eeq _ecaegg.
q aca Ooqoeom 0qa_goocc_e_e. e_ (_ccg) _q_g
0a_ccc omeeomc amm eecqom cc0og oomc Ooqe_e.
1. Oecqcc - (c.oa) doGLsGsms
2. cagecc - (c.oa) cgqg a_ga Ooeec
Oe+ Lae+m
+e+_ca
+aoe
LL 1.+1.aeaOc+ +c+m
196
@. as dam
(b) ee0aoaacc aca oeom
1) GsGmL
oeom g
q_ Ooqoeoem
0cae_eo. _eac
o e a c
oeqo_ec0a
g o o m
o a e c c _ a .
o e o m e
O o q g a
e e c q o m
g g g o a c q c
_ e a g
Ooqe_e. c_g
oe _gga 0cag
O o q o a q
_e_omao, gg oeq Ooaecqao cm_g. (c.oa) qm a_ga Gaoms
dos
z) dGsasso
oe o_e Ooaec acc _ecae eeq g eec
coqgegg 0qaege_e. g g oeq Ooaec oe _ga. ec
m oac Ooqqg e_ Ooqaa Oamoaacoem ae_
ce@e_e. _eo oag 0cae_ assGus.Gus_Lm eeg
oaecc_e_e. (c.oa) Ooaqgace.
a. Gas
g g _ccg cc co ecom eeg 0qae_a 0acacc
_ecaegg 0qaega oe _ga. g aecg eecome
ceeeog _c cc _e_omao (_ccg) oaooomao cm_g. (c.oa)
_aeg.
g. as Gmqmsa ama
1) a4m
g gg eec coqgegg 0qaega gg oeq Ooaec Ooqaa
goe _ga. qe oe ae_ oqeaaeqaga g 0qac 0cae_g. q
uLm a.4z as 3wsms
OoaOmeL
CmaeaaL
Ouee++L
OmoeaaL
e++0o+.0o++
Ooma
197
oeooa oeq ae_ce eeaaac oaecc_a. (c.oa) 3sdo,
Gcqo.
_
CemaaLm LOocca OeaLeLee
LL :.4:. nca Ooqaaee
ouaa
z. Gadmsoo
g _a gg oeq Ooaec Ooqaa oe _ga. g gg eec
coqge _ecaegg 0qaeg_g. qe oe ae_, oeq ae_ce
eeg oaecc_a. oeqe_ea oeq __eaaao _qg
Ooaeqgga. (c.oa) Oc, 0eama.
a. oGes
acc _ecae eeq g eec coqgegg oeom
0qaege_e. _ecce eeq goom 0cae_ Qecqq
qceocca 0ccco cecc_a. g g0 gg oeqea Oc__gga. oe
ae_a, oeq ae_a qeqg oaecc_a. (c.oa) qmLsao, maoag.
4. GascmLaam
g g _ccg cc eec co _ecaegg 0qaega, Ocma
gg oeq Ooaec Ooqaaoeaaga. oe ooa _gga 0cag oqeaae
oc _ccg ocec 0caeg aag_g. (c.oa) _gm.
s. ess
g _g Ooaec gg oeq, aca Ooqaa oeaaga. eeq g
eec coqge _ecaegg 0qaege_e. gc oeq0qacaeg
_gomao Oom0a e_ Oaceaqao _oeg omagmmg. (c.oa)
goGLg, es.
Q am
gm oe, gg qe acme eeaaq cc eec coqge 0acacc
_ceaegg 0qaege_e. gc goOoag eeca qe
oeomao agoae_e. ce0o usmsQmsm oaecc_a Q am,
198
gmae cc g oeoem Ooaeqgga. gg
qaccqgc gg acme eecom _eeqga
eeg g0 oeaao aage_e.
ca am :
c_oe cecg gg a_emae acaom
_eeqga ge_ao 0eag agoaog _ga.
a_emae _eeqg acao_a eeg gg
Ocma oeea qge_e. ce0o c_oeom
Ocaaoeom _ga.
ccaoc oaecc_a c_oe oeo Gesso
cecc_a. gc a_em oaaq a_ga Oce
a_emac oaecc_a acaome _eeqg
caoo_a geg 0eag c_oeea
0qa_goe_e. a_emae _o a_ga acme
ccca caoo_a eeqcc_gmmeo.
oeae eaaccggac, gecaqqoqo
qqqq, oeqcc_gmm eaa _o oaecc__g.
g a_em _eaga. oeae aeeqa cgg
_oqom _ga. g eeqcc_g oga, eag
Qe_ga oaecc_a. oe ae_ ec 0caeg
oaecc_a. cec gg oeq Oc_g oaecc_a.
oqeaae 0qaee g oaecc_a _com
eecae co _qom _ga. aeeqa
cca oemo_g ec0a oaecc_a cee__, ec, Ooeeaaae,
qcecaae, agcqom og_aq acc_ acaomaga.
GesGso
q c_oe oec0oc a_emac gg 0qaege_e (c.oa)
msmo ecmLmo (_eeaa ca) .
_eea cq qaoom, _goaao _qe co_oao
camccc_e_e. qe qe_ gcecaaeg a_ga ecom 0caeg
oaecc_a. a_ga qe geac oec0oc a_em 0qaeg_g.
oggqgg c_g a_em _o a_ga acaom _q_ce _oq Oegcom
_eeqga ge_ao 0eag omgacq gecccc_ eeqcc_gmm
c_oeaae _eea caao aa__a _ec_g. oeae 0a_q_qgc
cc 0oae oqo_eca cgg acaoem g__g. _oq Oegee
_eeom Oom0a cq Ooaeqgga. eaqaeaao acaom acc_q
qeea aecaeo. oeqom _mqao0o oaecc_e_e. a_em _o
Ooaqqae qe ecoem agoag_g. g oeae 0ac agca
Lamaacgaa
LL a.++ g;s
0o++o - oo+
u c6 a.+ s cam
199
0caeg oaecc_a. oeae ge qeccggaee Oocq c Oeaqac
Qcqgc _g qaeao0o qeee Qec Qgqg Ooae_ qga qaoqeq
agoaga.
mmga
mmg6m moq
oeqom _moc ggaae 0ogca_ Ooaeceo. o_a
oeqom _a_omga (gg ac e_ ceae oeqom).
Ocmag Oqeeeaga oaecc_a. __eoem eoae _o__e
_cqq qeeace qa oeqom aqe_e.
g_mgQm, g_ mgQm mmga
oeqomc amm oqgecome _qccecac
__0aaoOcaaoem e_ oeoomaoc cmocaa.
1. ogoc gg oqgec ac_a Ooaec gg oqgec qaoom (c.oa)
aoa0eama, Oc, 0oagea, a_ga Oooaaa.
2. ogoc goqgecoemc Oc__ goqgecq qaoom (c.oa)
cccae, Ooaeec ocec, _oe a_ga _aeg
oeom
qeoe gmoe c_oe
(qe acme gg
_ecac
gg
0qae_aeo)
(qe acme
ee aa
eecomegg
0qae_aeo)
(a_emae
_eeqg
acaomegg
agoaeeo)
eeqoe acaoe
(Ocmoaac, eeq
a_ga aaoem
aecag)
(Ocmoaac
acaqg)
1. Ocam
2. cgc
8. O_oOcmqaa
4. Occ0ca
5. 0caa
Ooqoe
cmoe
Ooqaaoe
(qaeao Ooqqg
oeqoem
Oom0a_gceo)
(Ooqqg, gg
oeqeca
_e_oem
agoaga)
(Ooqqg
oeoem
Oom0a__ag)
1. Oca
2. caem
8. egoa
4. oacc
1. OcaOae ca
2. m0aaoaac
8. Oaa
1. _e
2. 0om0aaco
8. cOecca
4. Ooacecoe
5. eaaa
cmoe
200
GasmmLa aLm mmg6m moq
goqgec oeqae _eacqg Ooaeec ocec gg
c_qgoac_.
Ooaeec ocec, c_cq Q_qgce gg _ee aeaaaoa,
ag_e_ occaaoa gga. oeqom g_qp Gmqamac oaecc_a
g e_ _ccg _eg oeqoem Ooaecg. oeqom .dmgo
ce_a oaace _ca oe ae_ac gcq oaecc_a.
mogg gom
_om0m+
_omggg
mggoo
_om0m+
uc6 a.+ ggpoo og ouq
0moo_
Oasmcacoo og Oag0gspp6
oe ae_ac gg o_ccc _gag oeqac, -cegcoac
aecae q_cq mg cecc_a q_g e_g 0, _a oeqqgem
ammg. oeq _emga 0cag qe _ca a a__ecc__g. m_a
oeqea __qga 0cag, mmgggm oaao a Oom0a oga.
Oocqaae oeq ae_aac oeq _cccc_ gga. oeq ae_ e_
__gomac _eg, Oome_ GLoLs c_cq Q_qgc_a, am_e_
GLam Ooeeaaae Oacea eo 0caega ammg. qe ce
cagoaqqc. g oeqoem o_c, acQec ao_eca _, _go
Oocca _ao__c gg cagoa_g.
0aga camaa, __ee, _ome qagqcomc gga
oeqoemc cagoa_g.
oeq ae_ea ace, e_, Ocma eeqcc_gmm
oqgecom oaecc_e_e. goqgecom, eaa _e g
q_omga, cooacqc eeoccc_mmg. oqgecoem oc eaa
_o g cga _eeomga e_ ammg. qe ge m Gms
_ccg _qc 0oa cecc_a. ag_ee _g 0cae_g. g mag_gg
201
cecc_a. omga qaoqge ge Oaaccae g ceq qe_ caoqeq
0qa_go_g. oqgecoem cmga 0cag qae _em ggqg Oqma.
_em 0ogga oqgec o@o_ga ec0a amm cggg mgQma
4gggm ceg Ocaa. oqgec o@o_ga, _em ggqg_ga
ec0a ammg mgQm Ggm cecc_a. oqgeco_ce qa
eaa _o a_ cecc_a.
aaseGesgQm mmgmmoq
aoa0eama, ggoqgec oeqg c_qgoaccaga.
aoa0eama _a, gg oeq aeca 0om0aacmo ce_a oe
oeoea eaaqg. gc oeq ae_a, oeq0qaga eeg
oaecc_a. aoa0eama Oomcq_qgc a_em Q_qgc_a,
_ge_a _0oae oqce oaecc_a. qaeaqge, _a, m
ageecaae Oqmo__ Ooeeaaae cggac og oaecc_a.
oeqae mOoc_q 0qa__qge _eacq ceogaag
1. mmgmp
qaeaqeq o__, Oacea __cae oeq ae_ oaecc_a. q
__g oeq ae_ a_ga oe ae_aac _eg.
z. nmGLsoGus
aoa0eam ammeaccc qaeaqeq ccgeaa ce_a __g g
eaa__ cggomao cme_g. oeqae Ocgacggea _eaccg
Coamega
__oeq
qaea_g j.Oo.Cqa
_ga _Q
cCLamCLaa
mLOLcc
_em_g neg
e
_emCoa
_emCoa neg
OLmeaaL
LL a.+1 saeGoa gav ggc
202
ce0caoOcaa _ga. g a_em _ccg Oomem Q_qgce, ae
0ega gooa, aac Ocagem _goa 0e_g. qe Oom
__g qqqqacae gsm __oaga. ce0caoOcae, aeaaae
ag _eeac Oqmo__ og oaecc_a.
a. a_
qaeaome ogoe 0ac ooea 0caeg oaecc_a oqgecg
ogcGL ceg Ocaa. gc ogoe _o cgocOc_gmmg. _o
_em ggqg ce_a 0ac caoqeqa, _em0oa ce_ cggeaa
aecag. _em0oa a_ga _emggqg ae_ce oaecc_a.
_emggqeq o__ amm ae_g _eeggqge_ cega _em
0oe o__ amm ae_g m Gms amp cea oocc_a. oeq
_emga 0cag, aq oqoae _em ggqg ae_ac 0ac gemce
oaao, _qc ae qaamga ec Oomog_g.
mmg6m mmaa
a__m Qaaa pp mmga
qqqq, eeqcc_gmm oqgecom, ocec, cccae, _oeac
oaecc__g. gc omga ogo_g 0qeoaae aecOcagcom
0eqg eooccc_mmg. qqeoa oeqo_g ogge
goom__eo ceg Ocaa.
a__m Qaaa amLmmm
Oacea eoc0cae_ oqgecom _aeg, aoa0eama a_ga
c_ qaea oeqomc oaecc_a. ooeo oeqomc ae, ogge
goomc 0eqg eoocc_a oqgecom a__oa agccao
Oeacc_a ogge gooc amm aeeo, oqgecom a__ omga
ogo_g Ooa__g. qqeoa oeqom oggego aecaeo
cecc_a.
gm Qod
gg agcOce
emaae eceaq 0qaOq_e
1. __0aaoOcaaomc oaecc_a Oqmoae g_cccqqo _eacq
(_) aca (_) oeq () oe (o) ec
2. gcac acmc oaecc_a __ome ceeeo
(_) geg(_) _eg () e_ (o) aeg
203
8. __eaaae aca Oc_gmm __gome ceeeo
(_) geg(_) _eg () e_ (o) aeg
4. _oo acaom gc oaecc__g.
(_) goqgec (_) o_mQcqqaoom
() ggoqgec (o) ga0eaoOcaa
5. _gaq ce agga qceoccqgc, qceom agga Qec
(_) Oaac_ oma 0ca0q () Oaac_ cgoqgc
(_) oggqggc ce(o) 0a__a _eeqga
6. g _e_oem Ooaec aoqcec
(_) omcc (_) oe_ () go_e_ (o) goeo
1. eeq eecoem Ooaec coa
(_) eeaa coa (_) cc eec coa
() eeq coa (o) gc cga cec
8. Oommmac oaecc_a c gc__e_
(_) _q (_) ooa () _o (o) omaq
u. oeqom cccaoqgc gg aeca_g
(_) _ec (_) eecom () com (o) ce_
1u. oeqom__ gacee
(_) qe aca oe (_) c_oe
() gmoe (o) caaqg0eaoaac oe
11. Ocamac ae@a cgg
(_) Oom ae_ (_) am ae_
() eaa ae_ (o) 0a0c _a _eeqga
12. 0qoaa coe oeoea eaaqg
(_) cgc (_) ee0oaeo
() c0c (o) gmoe
18. ccaoc oaecc_a oe oeo
(_) c_oe (_) ee0oaeo
() 0ea0ao (o) gmoe
204
0eaqLc ceem Qcqe.
1. ----------------- ecaee gqq _cq agcqomaga o__e
0oaeqgc ggqae acaom 0qaege_e.
2. _qqmqge 0og Ocaa ------------------
8. aoq qam occa, co occa eec0a Ooaec acaom
------------------
4. acme _eeqg caoome ceeeo, g0 ao oaeccqe
_aaca ------------------- cecc_a.
5. ea0ao0caoome ag Ocaa ------------------
6. oggqgg ce _ec ------------------ _o aaga.
1. gq_ Ooqoe ----------------------- g_acq qaoomc
oaecc_a.
8. ccaoe ae@a cgg -----------------------
1. Ocagqge
co 0ac aca - aac0oac _ceom
ggg - 0acacc _ec
_emao - _ce gcqa aoqqqamom
_ce gcqaeo - aoq ecom eega
aoq oacom qeqga
_qc gc__e_ - _occ0m
II. 0omaacmo - oe ae_
og_a _ec - Oc
_ec ooa - aeeaoe
og__ _ec - gmoe
eeaa eec coa - og_aoe
e_ agcOceem
1. gmccq qaoom ce_ac cee
2. qea - oeag
8. gcac acaom ce_ac cee
4. g co eageca acaom ce_ac cee
5. oe_ aoqcecea ge_ aoqcecac gg 0ogc_qg.
205
6. gg o_e_ aoqq qamom ce_ac cee
1. eeaa eee _ecea eeq eec _ecac gg
0ogc_qg.
8. oe - oeag
u. oeome _oeoom aaeo
1u. qeoe - oeag .
11. aca Ooq oeom ce_ac cee
12. oe agoaoq_g 0qeoaae g Qoom aaeo
18. gm oe - oeag
14. gq_ Ooqoe ce_ac cee
15. eeqcc_gmm oeom cooeoac aca oeac gg
0ogc__g
gg agcOceem
1. co 0ac aca, co aca o_e_ aqaeqgce omgo.
2. qce occqge oeooem omgo.
8. acme eae cooag oec_oaa cc0og oeoaae eae
ogoaao oom.
4. gm oeea qgq c_qgoac_ce oomo
5. c_oeeaq qgq c_qgoac_ce oomo.
6. goqgec, ggoqgec, oeqo_g ec0a amm _a
0ogca_oem caoom g_occcc cco_ce qgo.
cqg agcOceem
1. c gc_ _e_ ceeac cee _qe cc oeooem aqaeqgce
oom.
2. qeaoe cc oeooem aqaeqgce omgo.
8. acme e_aeaaaq caooem oomo.
4. eeqoeoem aqaeqgce oomo.
5. aca Ooqoeoem qgq aqaeqgce oomo.
6. aoa 0eam qaea oeq _eacec ccqgce oomo. g cooag
Ooaeecocec oeqac gg 0ogc_e_g
206
IV. dm
1. qg GgsLsq Gmgus
geqom _ccg aq Ooa_gom Oc_0_aaoem Ocgama,
Oc_0_aaoemc Oc__oaoem _qma gqg amme. gqaga g0
Oc_0_ame eqgom qagm0ma Oc_0_aao_c_a cc _momc
0ogc_e_e. _oaomca amm c _ccacqomeac _oaom g0
g_acqeq 0eaqoaom ceceq qmg Ooammcaa. gg __eqgc
amm g_geao_ga 0ogca_o_ga oaeaae Oeac_e_oemc
c__ _aa __oac dm (Genetics) cecc_a. Oc_0_aaomcgg
ceqom eqgo_g aa__cc_a Oeac_e_om _cmm gg oeo
aama __oacaga. dm (Genetics) ce_ Oeac Ogeo ce_
0o Oeacec gg c_occccg. q_g omaqc _ccg
agoaqc ceg Ocagm.
acac ce_ __oac, caacmaa a_ga 0ogca_oem
0ogc_qg, caacmaqgc 0qaega g_geaoema, 0o_geaoema
qmg Ooae_ _o__e 0qa_goaa, a_ga agoaoqeq __g Ooamm
aq_g.
qg GgsLsq _ccg usudm cecg gg eqgaegg __qq
eqgg ceqom, g_geaom a_ga 0o_geaom ocqqcc_oeq
g_ga. gg g_acqgc amm oamoom (cmemom) Oc_0_ae
gqggcceq omg_g.
0ogca_ cecg, gg __eqgc amm qe aaao_ec0aa
g0 Oc_0_ame eqgaegec0aa (ace c_0qaa) amm
0o_geaoem g_ga. g0 Oc_0_ame cmemomao gqaga e
0ogc_e_aaom ceceq omg_g. oaomc g_gea gocaa
_eac ge_ac aaccaaom.
q g_geao_a, 0o_geao_a q_Oeacao Qo qaeo
_cc.ogoaao Oeaeeac, acac cecg caacmaa a_ga
0ogca_oem __g Ooamog _ga.
usudm (Heredity)
gg eqgaegg __qq eqgg ceqom ocqcc_og
caacmaa cecc_a. ceecoaca _qc 0cc0caeaao_a
207
_ommaao_a qao eoema,
oceoema 0aac_qgoeq Oeag
oqaga, ceqom gg eqgaegg a__
eqgg cooag ocqqcc_e_e cecg
_c0cag Oqmaocec.
usudm upp @uas a_ggaa
Oaecgg _e, ceqom __qq
qec_e_g ocqqcc_oeq omo cc
ogqgom _e eooccc_mme.
1) = @m Gascus (Moist Vapour Theory)
muggsGaso ce_ 0o qqgo_ae
q 0oaccacec _e eoqqaa. oa, gg
oceqgeacee cc0og agcqom
_oqgomoem ae_ce@e_e. cega
cc agcqom ge_ao eeg gg qga
aameqeq agoage_e ceg aceaa.
z) GgoGus_ Gascus
eq _e eoqq doLscq ce_ ___me ogqgccq _e,
Oce goga oeq aecage_e, eo ocoga 0cag,
gaeaa__ Oce og ogeo aecaga aq Ocagmaoa, _e
og ogo_g oqoqeqa aaaQeceaa Ooa_ccqaoa ammg.
a) m@_msaaa Gascusa
@mLm msm mmgsa _qe _qec og Oecoem oe_
_aaqaa. amssLs ce_ ___a 161u _a _eqc, Oeaee ogqgccq
og _ccg _eca ce_a e Oecomc __ aamea _ggoc
oaecc__g. q_g 0_aaegco ceg Ocaa. agoaoa cecg q
_ggoa _moc Ocmqao0q _ga. q 0oaccacqee aacceg
(1618), Oce0cao (16u4) a_ga go (18uu) _a ___aom
_qmqqaaom.
4) ga gmm Gascus
soGusqmo ce_ cO_o aamac ___a q 0oaccacqc,
goOoag Oc_0_ame acec g gomom 0qa_goocc_a. eo
e_a gegccc_ oq 0qae_coem agoage_e.
(s) usm Ggmoo
q 0oaccacec _e eoqq _mocacqc (._.884 - 822)
cecome ogqgccq oce acee ccca cggomga Ggf@a

.1. 4.z o
a_s+++ 2++o+.,
1_o_ss o:,
208
_ccg usmgma ce_a g accom 0qa_gooccc_, eo
qqqge oaao e agcqoem _eca. g g 0og
Oc_0_aaome caegeom, ec_ ocg qga aameqeq
agoaga. q ogqg cc g__ae_o_g _g Ooammq qoqao
gg, esso Lssmm (18uu - 1882) 0cae_oaomaga _qmoccccg.
gmLpa agg Gascuscag nQsm esmga
Oaecgg _eqa oac ogqgome cq gg qe aamea g
Oc_0_aaome ceqome oceoaaga. g0o ec_ ocqqc
0oacca_ _ga. qecq gg ogcq a_ga Oomem oceqgg
ec0a oco ecOcga 0cag, oce Q_a eaaccao go
0oe_a. gg _e_ ec_ ocq ceqom e_a cmaaqqac 0aga
oco Oeaa 0cag eaacc Q_ aameo0m 0qaega. _eac _e_ac
oaoc, ogcq a_ga Oomem Q_ Oc_0_aaome geqom
ogccao0oa, Oomemaao0oa, ooeq_ga eccccc Q_aao0oa
gocaa. _0q 0cac oaome geqo_a ogccao0oa,
Oomemaao0oa gocaa.
_qaeqaa ceq Oomccacqc (atavism) amm caacmac caoaeg
ec_ ocqqc caacmaqgg cgao ammg. _qaeqaa ceq
Oomccacqc, 0cgeqom _eqa qec_e_ac oaecccc
_eac Oc_0_aaomc ccaq c ceqoem Oc__gga. gg cac
aameomc _e e a_ga Oce e ceqom ec_
occcgcec.
usudmsgm qoumL gmqa
aGso mGmmo ce_ ooce ac_ ___ga, GasdcLs a_ga
asscqms ce_ Ogaae ac_ ___ao_a, qaoomc Oea_eoaao
_ac aoq 0eaeoea ecOc_ Oeag, occqamoem
aecaeaaom. aq oc_qqcccc ceqom ec_ occcgcec
cecq_g 0oacmcca eaegoem oeaa ogeca _qom,
Oaecee _qoem gqggqaga oac emaao Ocagm c_qq
_qaocec.
ec_ ocqqc 0oaccacec, gom qeea 0oaccacqeac,
aa___ Oeaq0q Oaecee ocOcma comcq _ga. Oaecc qeg
oe_cqcqoem 1865 - _a _e_ Oomaccaa. _eac _eo _c0cag
_g Ooammcccocec ce0o __acccaqeoaao cc ogcom
oqe. 1uuu - _a _e_ gsQm qomo, Ggsm6m ass asGmo
a_ga @oqdmsmm Gssa _a ___aom qeqqeaao Oaecee
oe_cqcqoem ag oe_cqcq Oeag, me acaec _acqg
eoqqaaom.
209
usudmsgm amsm umqasmm
1) goOoag cec_ga g Qecom amme.
2) gg Qec a_O_aee_ oc Ocagoao Oomcc_qqcc__g.
8) 0q_a gg Qeca cc ogco_g Oomcccaa0c gocaa.
4) ae_occcc ceq _cc cqo Qecac e_a 0qae_caa.
5) ceqom _ccg qeeaom qeaae gom qeeaeca
Ocagcomac Oomcc_qqcc_oqac ec_ occc0qa,
aa__aeco0qa oaecc_ogcec.
gm Qod
emaae ecea 0qaOq_e
(1) o oa 0oaccacqee _e eoqqoa
(_) _mocacqc (_) ecqqaoo
() Oce0cao (o) caaoe
(2) ec_ ocqqc 0oaccacec og gom qeea 0oacca_
aa___ Oeaqg.
(_) 0oacmcca (_) oaacqea
() Oaecc (o) caaoe
(8) Oc_0_amca oaecccaq _eqa qec _e_ac oaecccc ceq
0cgeqaca oaecc_og.
(_) 0_aaegco (_) caeOgemo
() _qaeqaa ceq Oomcca_ (o) ec_ ocqqc
e_ agcOceem
(1) oeago - caacmaaaqc ] 0ogca_ ] 0_aaegco ] caaqq0ea
Ogemo ] caegeo
gg agcOceem
(1) 0ogca_ome _aqgoqeq omgo.
(2) caacmaaaqee _ac ogqgom aaeo
(8) caacmaaaqee _qccec acqom aaeo
cqg agcOceem
(1) cc0og oqaae 0ogca_oemc c__ oc_e c_go.
210
z. GmLm usudmsgm mQa
m@m
as Ggsgsm GmL ce_ _oqma g_o0a, ceqom
Oc_0_amcgg eqgo_g ocqqcc_a gccqeq _qe _qec
omeaa. _oa asma cecc_a gaaG ceqoem __qq
qec_e_g c_qg Oece_e ce_ ogqeq Ooaeqgqaa q
ogqg eg oe Ocaggoqaga, meoac acagg oa
_e0eaqaao gqqaga, oa dmm gmg ce _eocc__aa.
GmLm msgama msg
oa 0ga_ae Oaecc, 1822 _a _e_, GgLemLss.o ce_
mmc amm mm ce_ aaqgc gg e ooeaa g_acqgc
c_qaa. aaa Qecc cmmc cqcec _qqg oc_, cgOeccaa oagc
211
ce ce_ mmc amm _oogea g_o acqgc g_oaao geqaa.
gg a_cac, oeqa a_ga a_eo __oaec ca_ Oc_
oOaeea ccoec ooqgg Oee_aa. g .usmo aas (qao
oaoac ___a) a_ga poqmm Lsos (cacca oemeo
oe_cqqq a_cac ___a) _a ___aome cagccac oa
ocoac 0eaqeeoem Oeaogc _aoa Ooaecaa.
1854 - _a _eqc Oaecc acqgg ggac cagmaaaoa aaa
Qec cmm _maaoa ceaa__eaa. ga 0qgc, 0qaccc
cccae Oeqac (mue ecmLm) qo o oca_g _cqeca
_ogeca 0eaqeeoem Oeaa
_acqqaa. q 0eaqeeea acqgq
0qaccqgc 1856 _qc 1865 oe
gecg ogcom Oeaqaa.
Oaecee oe_ cqcqo_a
_ogeca ogo_a caeee
a_eo oca_g eoqge _e_
coqeo g_0ccqc
Oomaccccce. q _a
oc_e, gsm ammm Gesgmma
ceg qeccccccccg. _eac
oec oaeo_oao _c0cag
_ogeca oe_cqcqom __oac
___aomac _omoccc0oa,
caaccccc0oa cec.
(1) cqgmeo __acccaq ge_ao gqg.
(2) _ogeca 0oacca_ _q oacqeq oc oa _e0e_aqao
gqg.
(8) caaoee __eome 0qa__ 0oaccacqc _ccc _eca_oem
Ooae_ ogogccao _aag Ooaeqgqaaom.
(4) Oaecc qe_eca _qomc qa0a __ aceo _ecaaqqac,
oegqg 0ceocec.
ceea 1uuu - _a _e_, Ogaaeae ass asGmo, _acge
gGas qwo, _oqmaaoe Gssa _a _eg ___aom
Oaecee ogoem qeqqeaao e_a oe_cqcq Oaecee
qgcqeeq g_ee acgg Oomea c_ oacqeaaom. _ogeca
Ocgeaaae oe_cqcqg _ecaamaao, _oogoem GmLm
mQa a_ga Oaeceea ceg Ocamccea.
+)j +
.1 4. o.s1 s`os1
so +2s`j 1j1
s+1
212
GmLm Gesgmma
O a e c c ,
0qaccccccae Oeqac
(mue ecmLm) ggg
occq 0eaqeeoem
Oeaqaa.
g 0ogccc ceq
Qecoem Ooaec
cccae qaooem occq
Oeaqaa. gg 0eaqeeac
gg cece gQecoem
_aaqaa. qeac
0qae_a occqamom
ge0_aOcaeg occq
Oeaacccce. cc
occqomc ecocccc
Oeagoem Ocagoao
Ooae_ _qom ooeaao
cgqaaacccce.
GmLm Gmppaasm
asma
_ g a c a ,
gaoqmeea a_ga
oeqqgc Ooaeqgq
acca _aeo
Oaecee Oo__g
_a oaeomao
amme.
Gus_m Ggs
0eaqeec Ocagmao
_oa cccaeq qaoqeq
0qaOq_o oaeaao
gqg, qq qaoa
oa@a ceqoem
Oc__gq0q _ga.
1. g a_eoaao0o qe occqecag. ce0o ga e aamoem
omaqqc _ccg Ocgoa Oeaog cmg.
z_: .m,
z_ .m,
_`ojm
2`ojm
.sos+ +w
a: +w
_s+ +w
+_++z+o
2s+o
so ao
s1.
so ao
m gw
s
.sos
sjos
+_z
so
_s+
sjos
a_mo
so
.1 4.4 2m 12j 1s_.`
.m, os++
213
2. gae_ qaoaao gccqac gga oaeo o_ Ooaecg.
ce0o cc qec_e_oem c__ cmgc _aacaa.
8. cccae qaoqeq _ac aoq 0eaeo Oeaog cmg.
4. _aao oeagocccc aagccc ceqom amme.
5. gcac acaom oaecc_e_e.
_o0o, Oaecee 0eaqeeg cccaeqqaoa gg aoq
qaoaao goqg.
Gemmp
1. ga e Oc_0_aaomc (cqqee qec_e_o_g qe occq
Oeaqga g0 oqaae oq 0qae_coem agoaga qe aamom)
ocoac 0eaqeeoem Oeaqaa.
2. _ 0gaq 0ogcccc ceq Qecoem _aaqaa. gg 0qgg
gg 0gaq ceqoem c_qg Ooaecaa.
8. _oa qe 0eaqeeoem ecaog a_ga _e_aog qec_e_
oe Oqacaqaa.
4. _oa 0eaqeeome gceaaae qmmaac cg0ocqee 0ceeaa.
aoq GeL Ggsgcu
0qaccccccae qe aoq 0eaeo Oeaa qaqaqcac
ooeqgc Ooamm 0oeqaeo:
i. qeaoq 0eaeoea q_o Oc_0_ae @mLsaa Oeaqc.
ii. qeq qaoqgc gg aoqoem c_qg qaa qaoqge g
go, c _qea ecaac _c 0oe_a.
iii. ooag aecaga oeqea qeqqeaao g_accccc
cacqcomc 0eomo 0oe_a.
iv. udsppa am (qaa a_ga qeq qaooem aa_gog) _ca
Oc_0_aaome caeeac caacmaaaqc cagocc_ogcec
ceceq oacqeaa. _qaog ecocOc__ 0ea eqgae oqa
aa_aac gqg.
Oc_0_aao caec_a qaoom Oc_0_aa eqg ce _eoccc_
P ce_ g_fccac g_occcce. o__egg oco Oeaoqe _ca
0qaega 0eaom, _qcaa -eceac eqg (First Filial generation) ceg
_eoccc_ F
1
ceg g_occcce. o_e_ qe aoq 0eaeo
214
Oeaa oc_ _qeac 0qaega 0eaom ecaa -eceac eqg
(Second Iilial generation) _eoccc_, F
2
ceg g_ccccccce.
gg 0gaq 0ogcccc ceqome caacmaqgc eacqcccc occq
g_ umq aoq cea, e_ 0gaq 0ogcccc
ceqomecaacmaqgc eacqcccc occq g_umq aoq cea
_eoccccg.
cLmmm 4.1 GmL GgsGggg GmgoucL umqQma
m.nm umq ggoumq ggoumq
. oeqae oqoa ageec ogag
2. oeqaecae Q_a a_em cee
8. oeqe_ae Q_a eaacc c_cq Oomem
4. oeae oqoa accag ogoom aecag
5. oeae Q_a cee a_em
6. acaom _eaoca ec0oaea qe_ ge
1. Oeqae aaa Ocec gcec
g_ umq aoq
(gg 0gaq 0ogccc ceqo_g 0qaccccccaeac 0eaqee)
P TT X tt
Ocec gcec
0oc_om T t
F
1
Tt (ggceq occqam)
Ocec (qe occq)
0oc_om T t
F
2
T t
T TT Tt
t Tt tt
TT - 1 occc__ Ocec (gqq oaeom Ooaecg)
Tt - 2 occq__ Ocec (0ogccc oaeom Ooaecg)
tt - 1 gcec
Ocec : gcec = 8:1
215
g_ umq aodpg GmLm maa
GupGpss egQ
occc__ _ccg ga e (pure breeding) Ocecq qaoa gee_a,
_0q 0cae_ gcecqqaoa gee_a Oaecc Oc_0_aa eqgaao
0qaOq_qqaa. (0_a0aaeeoo)
F
1
egQ
Oc_0_aaoem occcea Oeag, _ooag ecqq oeqoem
Ooae_ F
1
eqgea c_cceaa. qqaoom _eeqga Ocec qeea
aecaeo. g_ umq aoq6da (monohybrids) ce _eocccce.
F
2
egQ
F
1
eqgae gg ceq occqamoem qe aoq 0eaeo
Oeaaoc_, Ocec a_ga gcecq qaooem 8:1 ce_ oqqgc
Oc__aa. Oaecc Oc__ Ocec a_ga gcec qaoome
aeeaaae ceeeo 181 Ocec a_ga 211 gcec _ga. 8:1 ce_
oqa eqgome q_q0qa__qge _qccecac gccqac q_g
qpgGgspp mg (Phenotypic ratio) ceg Ocaa.
F
3
egQ
F
2
eqgoem qe aoq 0eaeo Oeaaoc_, F
3
eqgoem
Oc__aa. gc _oa oecg.
1. F
2
eqgac 0qae_a gcecqqaoom _eeqga _o___gm
cqqee qec_e_o_g _ac aoq 0eaeo cqaga, qe
aoq 0eaeo cqaga ga occc__ aameomao0o
Oeacccce.
2. F
2
eqgac 0qae_a Ocecq qaoomc _e_c gg cg
occc__ Ocec qeea Ooaeqgqe. q_mm _e_c gcg
Ocec qaoom, Ocec a_ga gcecq qaooem, 8:1 ce_
oqqgc 0qa_goqqe. _qaog F
2
eqgac _eg oqaae
qaoom oaecccce.
(i) occc__ Ocec (0_a0aaeeoo) - 25%
(gqq oaeoem aeca)
(ii) occq__ Ocec (0_cq0aeeoo) - 5u%
(g0og oaeoem aeca)
(iii) occc__ gcec (0_a0aaeeoo) - 25%
_o0o Ooaeqgga oaeome _qccecac, gg ceq occce
oqa 1:2:1 _ga. g gmsaa mg (genotypic ratio) cecc_a.
216
GmLm Gus_ugggg maa
Oaecee oacqgc aao ] ge_c cgcce c0oa,
g0a0aa0eaaome _eac0ca __acccocec. _o0o ceqome
caacmaa aq _cgom (heriditary units) _ccg oaeom (Iactors)
cecc_a gomom oaao Qo_g ce_ _qg oqaa.
gg ceq occce _qoem c _oome _ca omeaa.
(i) Ocec, gcec _a ceqom, 0ogccc gg 0gaq oaeomac
Qaeaoc c_e_e (c0cag _eo geom cecc_e_e)
Ocecq qaoqgc gg 0gaq Qsm6ousma (determiners) amme.
(ggccece _qc c_qeq Ooae_ eo "T'' ce
g_occ_e_e) gcecqqaoqgc gcecc ceqoae
Qaeaccaeom amme. (eo t ce g_occ_e_e) q
Qaeaccaeom 0gaqaao oaecc_a, aoupp GcmL (TT)
a_ga gcmL (tt) Oc_0_aa qaoomc ammg 0cac g0 oeoea
0eaqeoaao gqac GgsGsmeao cecc_a. gg ceq
occqamac (Tt) ammg 0cac Ooo0og oeoea 0eaqeoaao
gqac GgcqGsmeao cecc_a.
(ii) gg 0gaq 0ogccc ceqo_g oaeaao amm g oaeom
a _ccg Gsss.qa cecc_a. 0gaqac amm
e_ oaeom g Oc_0_amcgg Oc_cc_e_e.
(iii) gg cece g 0og Qeco_oae oaeom, ogogqeeac
geg 0ega 0cag, gg ceq Oomcc__g (Ocec) a_O_aee_
ae__g (gcec) Oomcc_a ceq ggumq (dominant) cea,
ae_occ_a ceq ggumq (recessive) cea _eocc__g.
(iv) oaeom cc0caga ga qeea aecae. 0oc_om agoaga
0cag qe _cgomao amm oaeom, qeqg cmg, g aagccc
ceq Qeco_oae oaeomc geg ac_a gg 0oc_g
ecgaag _eaa. _qaog Ocec (T) a_ga gcec (t)
qeeagma oaeom qe _eacqomao amme. gg 0ocqc T
_ ccg t ac_0a ammg. F
1
occqamom qe aoq 0eaeo Oeaa
0cag, oog _eacqom cmg ceq, eaace_ eeg Ocec
a_ga gcecq qaooem agoage_e.
g_ umq aoq (Dihybrid Cross) (g 0gaq 0ogccc ceqoem
ammca occq)
g0 eaaqgc gg 0gaq ceqome qeqg cmqeca, ocqg
qeca Oaecc 0eaqee _ca _aaqaa. g g_ umq aoq (Dihybrid
Cross) _ccg g_ asm aoq (Two-Iactor Cross) ceccccg.
217
oeqe_ae agem a_ga oga qeeaeaa, oeqome a_em
a_ga cee Q_qeqa c_qg Ooaecaa.
agem oeqe_a a_em oeqoema Ooaec qaoqeq
oga oeqe_a cee oeqoema Ooaec qaoq0qa_ occq
Oeaqac, F
1
eqgac agem oeqe_a a_em oeqoema
Ooaec qaoom 0qae_e. o_e_ qe aoq 0eaeo _ca
ecOcgoa Oeaqac, F
2
eqgac aeg oqaae qaoom oec
oqqgc 0qae_e. o__c e_ Oc_0_aa oeoea (Parental types)
0eaqeo e_ qga occq oeoom (New combinations).
eoaaoe
a_em agem u - Oc_0_aa oeo
a_em ogag 8 - qga occq oeoom
cee agem 8 - qga occq oeoom
cee ogag 1 - Oc_0_aa oeo
_o0o gceq occcc F
2
qec_e_ae eqgom u:8:8:1 ce_
oqqgc 0qae_e. q_g g_umqaaoq mg (Dihybrid ratio) ceg
Ocaa.
F
2
qec_e_ac, 4 ceqoem ge0_aOcaeg eaace_ cmg
Oomogoqac, gg 0gaq 0ogccc ceq Qecom, a_O_ag 0gaqce
eaace_ Oeaca_ge_e ce_aa. _qaog oeqae Q_a oeqe_ae
qeeag eaace_ Oeaca_ga. 0oc_om agoaocc_a 0cag, F
1
gceq occqamac oaecc_a agem _ccg oga
ceqo_oae geom, oeqae a_em a_ga cee Q_qg_oae
geo_ce eaace_ qeqg ggge_e. qe oemoao aeg
oqaae 0oc_om 0qaege_e. o__c e_ cea eeom
e_ qga eeom _qaog RY, Ry, rY a_ga ry. q acoeo
0oc_om g_cc__ eeqc _ca cgeag oeoaae eqgoem u:8:8:1
ce_ oqqgc agoae. Oaecgg ecqq qe aamome
emaae ceeeo ogaag
(_) 815 a_em ageec oeqom (_) 1u8 cee oga oeqom
() 1u1 a_em oga oeqom (o) 82 cee oga oeqom.
Oaecc, oeqae agemqqeeaea R cega ogaqqeeaea r
cega, a_em Q_qeq Y cega cee Q_qeq y cega g_qqaa. ce0o
RRyy x rryy ce_ oae ee aeca Oc_0_aao_ec0a
gceqoccq Oeaaccccg eq oecoag g_qg oacccaa.
218
a_em ageec cee ogag
P RRyy X rryy
0oc_om Ry ry
F1 RrYy (g ceq occqam)
a_em ageec (qe occq)
0oc_om Ry Ry rY ry
RY Ry rY ry
RY RRYY RRYy RrYY RrYy
a_em a_em a_em a_em
ageec ageec ageec ageec
Ry RRYy RRyy RrYy Rryy
a_em cee a_em cee
ageec ageec ageec ageec
rY RrYY RrYy rrYY rrYy
a_em a_em a_em a_em
ageec ageec ogag ogag
ry RrYy Rryy rrYy rryy
a_em cee a_em cee
ageec ageec ogag ogag
GmLm mQa
gg ceqoccq a_ga gceqoccq 0eaqeeome
_qccecac Oaecc _eg _aaae ogoem _e eoqqaa. _eo
c0cag Oaecee caacmaaaqee ogom ce _eocc_e_e.
(i) ggqqeea a_ga g_gqqeeaae og (Law oI Dominance and
Recessiveness)
(ii) qeqg cmqc _ccg 0oc_ome occc__ qeeaae og (Law
oI Segregation or Law oI Purity oI Gametes)
(iii) eaace_ gggqc og (Law oI Independent Assortment)
(i) ggggmm6m mQ
ggqqeea a_ga g_gqqeeaae og goqaog
219
geg _ccg _q_g _goaae 0gaq 0ogccc ceqoem Ooaec
0_a0aaeeoo qe aamom occq Oeaaccccac, F
1
occqamac
oaecc_a ceq ggcceq cea, oaecccaq ceq g_gc ceq
cea _eocc_a.
(ii) gmggo ddgm mQ g Ga3cam aouppg gmm6m mQ
qeqgc cmqee og goqaog, 0ogccc gg 0gaq oaeom,
geom _ccg _cc0ca aaa-qom, occqamac eeqg Ooae_
occ_a 0cag _ccee g _oo_a occcecaaac ge_ao
gg,0oc_ome agoaoqge 0cag, qeqgc cmg Oeeg g0
gg _oa ac_a gg 0oc_gm Oece_e.
_acqgc, q og Oaeccac _e eoocccc ogqqao
gqaga, c0cag Oeceac _aomac agg Oeaaccc_mmg.
gg qeea gqaga, ccaoccaga qeqgq cmqc cecg ccca
Qecomga Ocagga.
(iii) essdmp ggggm mQ
eaace_ gggqee og goqaog, g0 eaaqgc e_
_ccg _q_g 0a_ccc 0ogccc 0gaq ceqom caacmaaaga 0cag,
o_e_ oc_cc_qga geom _ccg oaeom, gg 0gaq a_O_ag
0gaqce eaace_ ggge_e.
g ceq occce _qccecac Oaecc q ogea Ooa_qqaa.
g F
2
eqgac Oaaqqa cgeag qe aamom 0qaega. eo u:8:8:1
ce_ oqqgc gga. o__c e_ Oc_0_aa oeoo_a, e_
qga eeo_a agoaocc_a.
dm aoq Gesgmm aoq (Back Cross and Test Cross)
Oaecee caacmaaaqc Qoac F
2
eqgom, F
1
eqgome
qe occq (selIing) _ca 0qaege_e. _eac F
1
eqg 0q_a gg
occc__ Oc_0_aa oeoce occq Oeaaccccac _q_g dpaoq ceg
Ocaa. F
1
occqam occc__ gg ceqeca Oc_0_agce occq
Oeaaccccac, 0qaega eqgom _eeqga gg ceq aecaeoaao
gga.
F
1
occqam, occc__ g_g ceqeca Oc_0_agce occq
Oeaaccccac, ggc ceq a_ga g_g ceq 0qa__om
eaoqqgc 0qaega. q_g Gesgmma aoq ceg Ocaa.
220
g_ umq dpaoq (Monohybrid Back cross)
F1 Tt X TT (c_occq)
0oc_om T t T
F2 T t
T TT Tt (_eeqga Ocecqqaoom)
g_ umq Gesgmmaaoq (Monohybrid test cross)
F1 Tt X tt
0oc_om T t t
F2 T t
t TT tt
Ocec : gcec = 1:1
g_ umq Gesgmma aoq (Dihybrid Testcross)
g ceq 0eaqee occcc aeg oeoaae q_q 0qa__o_a
oeceqc 0cac ea oqomc 0qae_e_e. qeqg cmqc
cggcceq __g Ooamma occqam 0_a0aaeeoo qeeaaqa
O_cq0a eeoo qeeaaqa ceceq __g Ooamma 0eaqee occq
aq_g.
F1 RrYy x rryy
0oc_ RY Ry rY ry xy
F2 RY Ry rY ry
ry RrYy Rryy rrYy rryy
a_em cee a_em cee
ageec ageec ogag ogag
RrYy : Rryy : rrYy : rryy
a_em : cee : a_em : cee
ageec ageec ogag ogag
1 : 1 : 1 : 1
221
gm Qod
gg agcOce
emaae ecea 0qaOq_e
(1) Oaecc c_q aaa g
(_) O_a Oeecaa-c (_) eae
() ce (o) _oqmaa
(2) cac qeea caacmaaaqec cagoag ceceq agg Oeaog
(_) c_occq (_) 0eaqee occq
() cmaa__ oco (o) gg ceq occq
(8) oeqe_ae Q_qg_oao g_g ceq
(_) cee (_) eaacc () a_em (o) Oomem
0eaqLc ceem Qcqe
(1) Oaecee 0ogccc 0gaq ceq Qecom
ceg _eocccce.
(2) g ceq occq oqa _ga.
Ocagqge
(1) Oeqae aaa -- ogag
(2) acme _eaoca -- ogoom Ooaecg
(8) oeae Q_a -- qe_ ge
(4) oeqae oqoa -- gcec
(5) oeae oqoa -- a_em
e_ agcOceem
(1) Oaecee oe_cqcec e_a oe_cqqq _eg ___aom
aaoa
(2) Oaecee Oo__oae oaeoem omgo.
(8) gg ceq occcee omgo.
cqg agcOceem
(1) Oaecee gceqoccq c__ oc_e c_go.
(2) Oaecee ogoemc c__ c_go.
222
a. usudmsggag gGsGsGes
qoumL
Oaecee oaeom, _o__e emaae qeeaea0aa,
_eacec0aa __aaq GgsgmGem ce_ ___ac 1uuu- _a _e_
gma ceg _eocccce.
gm Gascus
ecLm cecoa ge 0oaccacec ___occ_qgeaa. Gssam,
ddcgo a_ga fs _0aame _a _ca _g 0aga
omoaoccccg.
ge 0oaccacqe _a gomaoe
(i). Oecee Qmaogm amm geom gg aameqge a_ca
a_ga Oeaea ceqoem Oc_0_amcgg eqgo_g ocqq
oaeaao amme.
(ii). geom g0a0aa0eae g _eagmme.
(iii). geome Oaaqq ceeeo, g0a0aa0eaaome ceeeoea
oc cc acg _goaaqcac, gg g0aaa0eac cc geom amme.
aeqec, Oaaqqa _qqa 4u,uuu geom amme.
(iv). g0a0aa0eac geom, Qm6L (Locus) cecc_a gg g_cccc
_eaocqgc oaecc_a.
(v). geom g0a0aa0eae g aeaaecac amm aeoemc0cac
m omeeac _eagmme.
(vi). gg g_g ge__g 0a_ccc Oeacc_a Qecom _ccg
_eacqom amme. q Oeacc_a Qecom a cecc_a.
(vii). _cccom ggqqeea _ccg g_gq qeea aecaeo. c
eaaomc gmm gg gmm (Codominance) _ccg _mGupsg
ggggmm oaeccccaa.
(viii). a_cac a_ga 0ogaac oaeomac gecccc_ geom
caacmaaaga ga aa__om (Mutations) _ecacaa.
223
(ix) e_g aa__qqac gg ge e_ aagccc Qeco_g cgcao
eq_g 0a_ccc Qecoem Oc__gocaa. o___g uc
a (Multiple Alleles) ceg Ocaa.
(x). cqccaqc ce_ Qoae _ca geom cqccece_e.
(xi). geom, Oagom ce_a qqoem aecaga. g geome
Oeaec Oomcc_qga.
(xii). DNA eae gg cgg geao ammg. gg caeOccec_ ee
_ccg gg Oag qaamo 0oeqa Oeagea Ooae_mmg.
Oeagaaeg q eGag (Genetic code) ceg _eocc_a.
Qm0aaec_ome Oqacaomeeaao _cmmg gg _0ea
_cqeq g_ga _eg Qm0aaec_om Ooaec Oqaca
omee GasLsm ceg _eocc_a.
gmm ag moq
gg ge cecg DNA oac _eg _ga. Oceea cecoa ogqgccq
gee Ooae (Recon), ccae (Muton), ocae (Cistron) a_ga
gccae (Operon) ceccc _cgomao cmocaa.
Gaasm
ggOoga aa___a ag eea ecOcga gee o_a cgg
Ooae _ga. g gg Qm0aaec_ 0gaq _mg o_aqaoa
gocaa.
fcLsm
ga aa__a _ecaqa gee o_a _coaga. g gg 0gaq
Qm0aaec_ _mg o _aqaoa gocaa.
ocsm
gg caeOccecec agoaga Oeac _coaga.
gousm
_cc0cca, _eacq ge a_ga 0og geoem Oqaca omeeac
Ooae_mm geome Oqagcq g0 _coao Oeacc_e_e.
naesma (Exons) pg gmcsma (Introns)
Ocagoao q0a0om0aac_omc, geom Oqacaaae DNA
Oqagcqomao 0a0oacqc ecqq_cce_ oaecc_e_e. _eac,
_0om0aac_omc DNA eac amm geom, _aqq_mm
g_f_omae naosmam o___g ecqq_cqomao _aqqa__
224
g_f_omae gmcsmam Ooae_mme. g0o gmLggoqpp
geom (Interrupted genes) _ccg GgsLsempp gma (discontinuous genes)
0oaccacq_g _qccecaao gqg. qqeoa geom ggo RNA - eo
agoaga0cag _qec gg gQm n_ggouqmm (Primary Transcript)
agoaga. ceea gc gg ecaeom geqoccc_ Oeacc_a
ggo RNA agoaga q_g qd6mm (Splicing) ceg Ocaa.
usudmgQm gGsGsGes qoumL
caacmaqgoae g0a0aa0eaa _qccecea qeqqe0a ecce
a_ga Oca0om _a ___aom 1uu2 _a _e_ _eeoqqaaom.
W.S.ecce a_ga gaca Oca0om g00a0aa0eaao_ga geo_ga
ec0a amm eeaae 0caeo Oomcc_qga ceeeea
cgaOoae_ gaqg eoqqaaom.
goga geom g0a0aa0eaaomc amme ce _q
Oeagmmaaom. _cccomao amm geom, O_cq0aeeoo
aameqgc, eaace_ qeqg ggge_e. q_g oaea eo
oaecc_a g0a0aa0eaaom e Oecome agoaoqge0cag eaace_
qeqg ggge_e. ecce a_ga Oca0omae q _qa, 0aga cc
_aome _ca cc acacamaom a_ga Oeceacamaomac
emcaaoccccg.
q _qeo _gOoamm, aa g0a0aa0eaaome
g_g_e_ea Oaecee _oqge Oomeqgc qmg Ooamm
0oe_a.
(i). gGsGsGesam gmggmm: goOoag aame_a Qecaae
g0a0aa0eaa ceeeoea Ooaecg. eOecome
(0oc_om) Qmamc gpmpm (haploid) ceeeoaga (n)
ee0oacqe Qmamc gacg _ccg gcmLm (Diploid)
ceeeoaga (2n) g0a0aa0eaaom oaecc_e_e.
(ii). mso (gmp ugoq): e Oecom agoaoqge0cag
ecOcga aao Qoac 0gaqomao amm cecaa
g0a0aa0eaa _eacqom 0gaqge_e.
(iii). goOoag 0gaqac amm g0a0aa0eaao_a 0oc_gm
Oecga0cag a__ 0gaqo_g eaace_ ggge_e. g
oaeome gggqec omga Oaecee eaace_ gggqc
ogea gqgg_g.
(iv). g_e_aa 0oc_ome eeoe0cag, g Oc_0_aaome
gqgee g0a0aa0eaaom ge_ao Ooae_ occc_ cecaa
ee0oac agoa_g. q_g __oag, eqgomc qaao a_ga
qeqo ceqom ge_ao oce_e ceg Oaecc _eaa.
225
(v). oae _qqaga, _qaaoccaga g0a0aa0eaaom _o__e
_eacq a_ga qeqqeeaea gg qe aamae oaoeac
aa_aac cagoae_e. gg g_cccc qec_e_ac c ceqom
Oomcccocec ce_aga _eo Oqaecg 0caogcec ceceq
Oaecc Qgcqg oacqeaa.
q _aeomc gg, Oaecee oaeo_ga
g0a0aaeaao_ga ec0a eeaaeqqeea oaecc__g cega,
Oaecee caacmaaaqc ogomc aao Qoae 0cag
g0a0aa0eaaome g_g_e_g gg aggaae _qccec ammg
cega Oqmoqac usudmsgm gGsGsGes Gascus
_eeooccccg.
usudmsgm gGsGsGesa Gascuscqm qaGasa
1. caacmaaaqee aeeaaae a_ca _cgom ceceo,
Oaeccac oaeom ceg _eocccc geo0m _ga.
2. g0a0aa0eaaomc geom 0a 0oacqc omeeaao _eagmme.
8. goOoag aame_a Qecaae g0a0aa0eaa ceeeoea
Ooaecg. eo g Oqaggoamo _ccg cecaa (2n)
ceeeoac gga. e_ gqq g0a0aa0eaaom gg0gaq
gqgee g0a0aa0eaaoem agoaga.
4. gc gg Oqagcq _e Oc_0_amcgga (qeq o) a_O_aeg
Oce Oc_0_amcgga (qaa o) ecoc Ocg_g.
5. qaa o a_ga qeqo g0a0aa0eaaom ee0oac agoaqee
0cag _e_0a _ecOeccaga, og Oeccaga oacc_e_e.
_eac og Qmao ac_0a eacqccc_mmqac,
g0a0aa0eaaom Qmaogm amme cecg aggaa_g.
6. g0a0aa0eaao_a _qcac geo_a Oaecee qeqgccmqc
ogae cqa, eaace_ gggqc ogae cqa, 0oc_
agoaoqge 0cag, qeqg cmg eaace_ ggge_e.
usudmsgm gmpdm pg GmQm qoumL
gmpdm qoumL (Physical Basis): 1866- _a _e_ oa 0ga_ae
Oaecc cecoa e _cgom _ccg oaeom cecc_a gomom
caacmaaaqec occcc_qge_ ce_ ogqeq _eeoqqaa. eo acc
Oecomga, eOecomga oaecc_e_e. q gomoem
aeeaac caao _qaaoccaga _o__e aqcceqome
caacmaaaqee _e_ea omeaa. 0oc_om qae q oaeoem
226
__qq qec_e_g c_qg Oece_e. ce0o 0oc_om
caacmaaaqee a_ca _qccecaao amme.
GmQm qoumL (Chemical Basis): c0cag geom caacmaaaqec
oc_cc_qge_e cega, geom DNA oe oeagocccc
cggomao ammqac, gom qeea oaaqeo cega Oqmq0q. gg
qec_e_aegg a_O_ag qec_e_g ceqoem c_qgOoae_
geom caee_e. eo DNA a_ga qqqqacaeeo. ce0o DNA
cgg caacmaaaqee 0oga _qccecaao ammg.
gm Qod
gg agcOce
1. gg _0ea _cqeq g_ga gee o _a _cg.
_) ocae _) ccae ) Ooae o) 0oacae
2. gg caeOccec_ qaamga gee Oeacc_a _ce Ocaa
_) 0oacae _) ocae ) ccae o) Ooae
8. ge g0a0aa0eac oaecc_a gg g_cccc _eaoca
_) 0caoo _) Q_m0aaec ) Q_m0aaec_ o) _ccc
4. caacmaaaqee g0a0aa Ooameoea _e eoqqoaom
_) ece (a) -oae _) ecce (a) Oca0om
) oa (a) Qocee o) aaaoe (a) cmcgo
e_ agcOceem
1. oeago : coae ] ecae ] qm ee ] 0oacae
gg agcOceem
1. gee _cg _eacec oomo.
2. caacmaaaqee g0a0aa 0eaa Ooameoae _q0oamom
aaeo
cqg agcOceem
1. ge 0oaccacqe _a goem ccqae_o.
2. Oaecee oaeo_ga g0a0aa0eaao_gm ec0a amm
eeaae qeeaea oacq, caacmaaaqee g0a0aa0eaa
0oaccacec omgo.
227
4. gmLoucL usudm
(__eaa__ggqqeea)
Oaecee 0eaqeeome _ca occc__ g Oc_0_aa
oeoomegg e_ _cccom Ooae_occ_a 0cag, geg
a_O_ae_e 0ac __eaaao ggqqeea Ooae_ occqamac
Oomcc__g, cecg agg Oeaaccccg. _eac cc aameomc
__eaaae ggqqeea cec cecga occqam g Oc_0_aaome
ceqo_g eccccc cecee Oc_gmmg cecga cc
_aaaamaome _aoegg Oqma oqg. Oeec,
_cc0caaaa-c 0gaqac amm g _ccco_a cag
Oomccacec0a oac_e_e.
_o0o _mmpp ggggmm (Incomplete dominance) _ccg usQ
ggggmm (Partial dominance) _ccg gmLoucL usudm (Indemediate
Interitance) _ccg aoq usudm (Blending inheritance) ce_ Qoac,
F
1
occqam, Oc_0_aaoem gqggccgcec. q_g _q c_qgoac_
_gaqae cecc_a fsdo gus qaoa, asmo cecoac
1uu6-_a _e_ _aaccccqaga. 0q 0cae_ Qec @mqsmm
Ggo ce_ qaoqgc oaecc__g.
fsdo gusoc g 0ogoqaae acme Q_om
oaecc_e_e. ocq a_ga Oomem. e_ oeoo_a
occc__eo. gg occc__ ocq aca Ooaec qaoqeq gg occc__
Oomem aca Ooaec qaoq0qa_ occq Oeaqac, F
1
occqamom
_eeqga ma ocq (Pink) Q_a Ooae_, Oc_0_aa qeeag
eccccc qeea Ooaeqgqe. Oeec ocq Q_ acaqqeea0aa,
Oomem Q_acaqqeea0aa __eaaao ggq qeea
Oc__gccgcec. F
1
occqamom qe aoq 0eaeo Oeaacc_a
0cag, F
2
eqgac, ocq, m_ocq a_ga OomemQ_ acaoem
aeca qaoom _e_0a 1:2:1 ce_ oqqgc 0qae_e. g q_q0qa__
oqaaoa. g geao oq_a 1:2:1 _oa. gc _e_0a 1 occc__
ocq, 2 occqeca m_ocq a_ga 1 occc__ Oomem ce_
qaoom agoaocc_e_e. ocq a_ga Oomem Qc acaoem
228
aeca F
1
qaoom qe aoq 0eaeoae 0cag ga eomao
Oeacc_e_e. e_a eo 1:2:1 ce_ q_q0qa__ oqqeq
Ooa_ccqac, 0oc_ome occc__ qeea og Qgcocc__g.
Oc_0_aa qaoom e_a ge__Ooaeg _eaaae ggq qeea
Oc__goaqqac, ocq acaom Ooaec qaoa r
1
r
1
cega Oomem
acaom Ooaec qaoa r
2
r
2
cega g_occ_e_e. ce0o occqam
r
1
r
2
ceg g_cc__g.
Ooa_occc q c_qgoacqc, q_q0qa__om
occqecaeoaao gqaga, geaoom occcecogcec. geom
qeqq gomomao Oeaccc_ F
1
eqgac occqecaeoaao
Oqmqaga, F
2
eqgac cmg Oece_e.
__eaOc_aq ggqqeea cecg occq caacmaa cea
_eocc_oq_g oaea, Oc_0_aaome ceqom occq_gomegg
aagccc eccccc ceq 0qaego0q _ga. _eac ceqom ac_0a
occq_g amme. _cecom _cc. aceo qaoqgc r
1
r
1
qaoa
ocq acaoema, r
2
r
2
qaoa Oomem acaoema, eo eea
0cag 0qaega occqam, r
1
r
2
ma ocq acaoema agoaga.
qeac g occqc caacmaa ceccccg.
ocq Oomem
P r
1
r
1
X r
2
r
2
0oc_om r
1
r
2
F
1
r
1
r
2
(qe occq)
ma ocq
0oc_om r
1
r
2
F
2
r
1
r
2
r
1
r
1
r
1
r
1
r
2
r
2
r
1
r
2
r
2
r
2
ocq : ma ocq : Oomem
1 : 2 : 1
r
1
r
1
: r
1
r
2
: r
2
r
2
229
gm Qod
gg agcOce
emaae ecea 0qaOq_e
1. __eacOc_aq ggqqeea ccqa _eocc__g
_. eccccc caacmaa _. occq caacmaa
. cgg ggqqeea o. 0a0c _cccc _eeqga
2. eccccc caacmaa ce_a Qo oaecc_a qaoa
_. cqeqo _. _ecqeea
. goaccca o. 0eama
8. __eaOc_aq ggqqeeaae q_q0qa__ oqa
_. 1:2:1 _. 8:1 . u:8:8:1 o. 1:1
e_ agcOceem
1. oeago : __eacOc_aq ggqqeea
gg agcOceem
1. eccccc caacmaa occq caacmaa ce _eoc c_oq_g
oaea cee
cqg agcOceem
1. _gaqae qaoqgc amm eccccc caacmaqeq omgo.
230
s. mpgg
oa 0ga_ae Oaecee _ac _aom, gg ceq g0 gg
oae _ccg Qaeaccaeac Qaeaocc_e_g ceg
c_qgoacqe. _qaog gg 0gaq geom gg ceec cage_e
ceceq oac_oqao amme. ceea oq acacamaome _aom, gg
ceq _oaaao g0 0gaq geome Oeacac ac_accaac, cc
geome Oeacaga gocaa ce_ 0aaeeeg o oacqe. q
usudm ga _ccg asma c0cag gma ceg
_eocc_e_e.
gmm gmLeGem
ecOeac qmg gg ceec cagga geom, Ooo0og
g0a0aa0eaaomc _eaggqac, gegOoaeg ec a_oaac
eaace_ ggga qeeaea oac_a. gg 0gaq geom a_O_ag 0gaq
geome oemeo, q_q0qa__ aagca_oem _c_qg g_o0oa,
qecao aa__0oa Oeaa Qec gmam gmLeGem ceg
_eocc_a.
mmaa
ge ecOeac goeocc_a
1. a g g@ag gmLeGem
g gg ge 0gaqae _ccco_gm Qo_a ecOeacaga.
__Oc_aq gg qeea, (incomplete dominance), ee ggqqeea (co
dominance) a_ga cc c_ _cccom (multiple alleles) _a Qoomc
oaecc_a
z. sg g gmmL gmLeGem
ooeo ecOeac, g0 g0a0aa0eaa _ccg 0og
g0a0aa0eaaomc oaecc_a Ooo0og geo_ec0a Qog,
eaqae q_q0qa_e_ aa_g_g. Qcqa ge ecOeac,
__eaaaga ge ecOeac, QoOaqq oaeom a_ga qec
Oeaa oaeom _aeo geec ecOeaco_g
c_qgoac_omaga.
231
mpgg
gg ceec, _cccom _ccaq e_ 0gaq geom cage_e.
g0a0aa0eae ga _eaocqgc (Locus) amm gee a_O_ag
_eaocqgc amm ge _cgog] ae_ccg ae_qqc _ccg
nodoLsoo (Epistasis) cecc_a. cccocamo cecg G Qpug ceg
Ocagmc_a. ae_occ_a ge mgoGusoLsqa cea ae_ga ge
nodoLsqa _ccg g_ga ge cea _eocc_a.
cccocamo oec oeooem Ooae_mmg.
1. g_g geac _c_og "a" ce_ g_g ge gg ge "A" ae
Oeaec ae_ga
2. gg geac _c_og "A" ce_ gg ge, "B" ce_ gg gee
Oeaec ae_ga _ccg cccocamo eq qo ae_qqc cecg
ccca _ccc _ccaq ge ecOeacoem _c_qga g 0gaq
geo_ga Ocagga. qeac ae_qqc ce_ Qo cc
aagccc g ceqoccq oqoem _c_qga _eo ogaag
1. QoOaqq cec g_g ge ae_qqc (u:1)
2. gg ge ae_qqc (12:8:1)
8. g_g ge ae_qqc (u:8:4)
4. gg g_g ge ae_qqc (18:8)
5. QoOaqq cec gg ge ae_qqc (15:1)
QaGsgg gcmL gg gm mpgg
ooeo caacmaa, Qcq ge ecOeac cea _eocc_a.
Gucem a_ga ummc _a ___aom gmgo gLGcLo (ecq
cccae) qaoqgc oecaaom. acme Q_qge caacmaa _a
Oeaaccccg.
g ga e Oomem acgeca ecq cccaeq qaooem
oco Oeaa 0cag, F
1
occqamom _eeqga mqa acaom
Ooaeqgqe. F
1
occqamoem qe aoq 0eaeog acc_qga
0cag F
2
eqgac mqa a_ga Oomem Q_ acaom Ooaec qaoom
_e_0a u :1 ce_ oqqgc 0qae_e.
maa
g C a_ga P ce_a e_ gg geom ecOeac qmg
mqa Q_qeq aecaga. o__c qaog gg ge g_g Qecac
gqac, Q_a aecaogcec. ce0o, e_ geo_a g_g
Qecac Q_a aecaoeq qec Oeaoqac g QaGsgg gcmL gg
gm mpgg ce _eocc_a.
232
dm Qp amLsmgpasm a6s GmQm maa
C-ce_ gg ge, g0a0aage cecc_a Q_ _e0eaq
agoaoeq oc_cc_qga. P-ce_ gg ge, g0a0aagee
_0qaeeaee ce_ Q_aao aa_ge_ Oag aecaqec
oc_cc_qg_g. _0qaeeaee, mqa Q_a aecao Ocagccao
ammg.
C ce_ ge ccaq 0cag g0a0aage agoaoc c_ogcec. P
ce_ ge ccaq 0cag g0a0aage _0qaeeaee _o
aa__cc_ogcec. _o0o e_ geo_a gg Qecac gccg
mqa Q_ acaom agoao 0qeoaae Qecaaga.
Oomem acaom Oomem acaom
P CCpp X ccPP
0oc_om Cp cP
CcPp (qe occq)
F
1
mqa acaom
CcPp X CcPp
0oc_om CP Cp cP cp
F
2
CP Cp cP cp
CP CCPP CCPp CcPP CcPp
mqa mqa mqa mqa
Cp CCPp CCpp CcPp Ccpp
mqa Oomem mqa Oomem
cP CcPP CcPp ccPP ccPp
mqa mqa Oomem Oomem
cp CcPp Ccpp ccPp ccpp
mqa Oomem Oomem Oomem
mqa : Oomem
u : 1
233
gg gm mpgg 1z : a : 1
ooeo ecOeaec, eec cecoa Oommm (goaccca
Occ0ca) Oeqac oecaaaqaa.
goaccca Occ0caoc Ocagoao Oomem, a_em, cee ce_
_eg Q_ oeom amme. W ce_ gg ge Oomem Q_oeom
0qae_ oaeaao ammg. Y ce_ gg ge a_em Q_ oeoem
agoaga. e_ geo_a g_g Qecac gqac cee Q_
oeom 0qaege_e. gg ge Y ae oemeo W ce_ gg ge
ae__g. W ce_ gg ge ae__g. W ce_ gg ge ae_ga
geao gccqac, q_g gg gm mpgg ceg Ocaa.
Oomem cee
P WWYY X wwyy
0oc_om WY wy
WwYy (qe occq)
F
1
Oomem
WwYy X WwYy
0oc_om WY Wy wY wy
F
2
WY Wy wY wy
WY WWYY WWYy WwYY WwYy
Oomem Oomem Oomem Oomem
Wy WWYy WWyy WwYy Wwyy
Oomem Oomem Oomem Oomem
wY WwYY WwYy wwYY wwYy
Oomem Oomem a_em a_em
wy WwYy Wwyy wwYy wwyy
Oomem Oomem a_em cee
Oomem : a_em : cee
12 : 8 : 1
234
ga e Oomemoeom Ooaec qaoa, cec g_g ge
Ooaec cee oeom aeca qaoq0qa_ oco Oeaa 0cag,
eqgac 0qae_a occqamom _eeqga Oomem oeecaeo F
1
occqam qe aoq 0eaeog acc_qga 0cag Oomem, a_em
a_ga cee oeeca qaoom _e_0a 12:8:1 ce_ oqqgc
0qae_e.
gg gm mpgg e : a : 4
Gessa (0eama) qaoqgc gg ge (P) mqa Q_qg_g oaeaao
ammg. g c_cq Q_qge (q) g gg cecao ammg.
P a_ga Q _a e_ gg geo_a occc__ Qeca0ca
occq__ Qeca0ca ge_ao Ooae_ occ_a 0cag, mqa Q_a ocq
Q_aao aaga.
mqa c_cq
P PPqq X ppQQ
0oc_om Pq pQ
PpQq (qe occq)
F
1
ocq
PpQq X PpQq
0oc_om PQ Pq pQ pq
F
2
PQ Pq pQ pq
PQ PPQQ PPQq PpQQ PpQq
ocq ocq ocq ocq
Pq PPQq PPqq PqQq Ppqq
ocq mqa ocq mqa
pQ PpQQ PpQq ppQQ ppQq
ocq ocq c_cq c_cq
pq PpQq Ppqq ppQq ppqq
ocq mqa c_cq c_cq
ocq : mqa : c_cq
u : 8 : 4
235
mqa Q_a (PPqq) a_ga c_cq Q_a (ppQQ) Ooaec qaoome
ocoac F
1
occqamom ocq Q__ecaeoaao oaecc_e_e. F
1
occqamoem qe qe occq Oeaa 0cag _eg oq q_q0qa__o_a
u : 8 : 4 ce_ oqqgc 0qaega
(u ocq 8 mqa 4 c_cq) _o0o q c_qgoacqc ''p'' ge a__ Q_
geo_g ae_ga oaeaao ammg.
Oeaaoa qaoa pp _o gqac a__ geaoom gqaga, c_cq
Q_a Ooae_mmg. Q_ geome Oomcca_ pp gqac
ae_occ__g.
g_g ge ae_qqgoae geom o_ Oeaa oaeom cega
_eocc_e_e. Oeec P ge Q_a aecaqec Qaeaga, a__
gee _cccomae Q a_ga q Q_qge qeeaea Qaeaga.
P_Q_ ceg geom gqac g_ac ocq Q_a 0qaega
p qq ce_ geaoa gqac, g_e Q_a mqaoao gga. _0q
0cac pp geaoa gqac g_e Q_a c_ccao gga.
Lcoee 4.1 ae_qqo a_ga ggqqeeag ec0a amm
qgaaeem
ae_qqo ggq qeea
(i) ooeo ge ec Oeaec gg 0gaq geom ac_0a
g 0gaq _cccom _ccaq c0o_cqac ec
geom c0o_ga. Oeac cec.
(ii) gg 0gaq geom a_O_ag gg 0gaq geomc gg _ccc a_O_ag
0gaq geome Oeaec ae_ga _ccee Oeaec ] oemeo ae_ga.
(iii) ae_ga ge, gg a_ga g_g g_g _ccee oemeo gg _ccc
_cccome oemeo ae_ocaa ae_ga.
(iv) F
2
qec_e_ac 0qaega F
2
qec_e_ac q_q0qa__ oeoome
q_q0qa__ oeoome ceeeo ge_ogcec.
ceeeo ge__g.
236
gm Qod:
gg agcOce
emaae ecea 0qaOq_e
1. gmgo gGLsGcLo acme Q_qge caacmaqeq
_aaqoaom.
(_) 0aaaoe (a) cmcgo (_) 0ccee (a) ceec
() ecce (a) Oca0om (o) ece (a) oae
2. gaasdcLs GuoGusm oeae Q_qge caacmaqgc 0qaega
oqa
(_) 18:8 (_) 12:8:1 () u:1 (o) u:8:4
8. 15:1 ce_ oqa gc 0qaeg_g
(_) ecq cccae (_) gaasdcLs GuoGus
() Oc (o) Gessa
e_ agcOceem
1. oeago: gee ecOeac]ae_qqc]Qoa gqq oaeom
gg agcOceem
(1) Qoa gqq g_g ge ae_qqec omgo.
(2) Gessa qaoqgc g_ e Q_qge caacmaqeq oomo.
(8) Ocec amm Qoa gqq oae aag
(4) Ocee ecQ_ caacmaqgc amm gg g_g ge ae_qqec
omgo.
(5) gaasdcLs GuoGusm oeae Q_qge caacmaqeq omgo.
(6) ggq qeeaeaa ae_qqeca 0ogc_qgo.
cqg agcOceem
(1) oa cqqq cc0og ge ecOeacoemc c__ gg oc_e oeo.
237
V. gsm msgmm
1. Ge msgmm asa Gemug
aameom Oecom cecc_a _eacq a_ga Oeac _cgomac
_eeo. goOoag Oecga cc aaa _cgoema
ge@gcqoema Ooaecg. ge@gcqom eooac ccc_
g_ccae ceomc o_c_e_ _eacqomaga.
qeaae _eaccao Qeg Oeaeac ceoem Oeaa g_e
Oc__gccqac, qao Oecec oaoac _cg ce _eocaa.
Oecooa cecg qao Oecec amm aa__ Oomcq_
oeagga __oaga. _g qao Oecgg oga, oqo_a
_m_g. a geoq_ga _g amOm_oc c_oq_ga 0oeqa
caeqea aeca Ooa_ga.
Oecooe __qg Oecccca _ccg cmaoaa ccca
oaecc__g. g _eocqg eooaoa, 0qa Oegqg eooaoa
Oeaccc_ aaacq a__oqc a_ga eog_ cqc _ca e
amOm_o aqa.
aame Ocmgo _qccecaao ogqcc_a q0ac0camaeqgc
Oecee cc0og oaoac ceomc c0o_ga cggomae
eec0cacmaea, Qmao a_ga Oec ge@gcqom _cga.
q0ac0cacmaea cecg gg aaaaga. q0ac0cacmaea uu%
cc_e oeccaeaa ac _eag.
qao Oecomc amm Oqmoae oag0oac Oec ea__ee
Ooaecg. Oecee eog_ coec oc_c c_qga _eaccao
Oeacc__g.
Oec ge@gcqomc oa _aa oaaqg cooeoa _ga.
g qao Oecomc ac_a oaecc_a agcq _ga. gm0eaeo
cecc_a _aaae ceac o_c_e_g. _ac amm aeo_g
gm0eaeo Qo _caao ammg.
238
nwsgg
ooaqqec c0o_ga Oec ge@gcq eac0caoaeqmaa
_ga. aec Ocagcoem _moea _eca Oeag CO
2
, a a_ga
___ec ATP oqoc Oom0a_g_g.
qge Gesama
qqoem aecagqga, _o_e_ ocqgqc _a ceo_a
e0ca0eaaom a_ga ce0cacmae oecae _ca ecOcge_e.
agg
Oec oqqc ce_ Qo, Oecec amm oaceo acca ce_
ge@gcce _ca ecOcg_g. g qao Oecomc qqGmsGes
cea _eocc__g.
a_e_ac qao Oec cc0og ge@gcqomc oaoac
ceoem ggeeqg gg cea__ oaoac _coao go_g.
s.1. qGscGLsdsegQm umqa
qaoOecee aagmm cggaao amm q0ac0cacmaea aeg
caooem Ooaecg. (1) eec0cacmaea (2) oag0oacom (8) cc
aagmm am_gcqom a_ga (4) Qmao.
ma Oecomc, cc _a oag0oacom eec0cacmaeqgc
oo oaecc_a. _eac _gaq Oecec gg Ocma oag0oac
Oecee eaaqgc oaecc_a. qee o__ eec0cacmaea gg
Oacea Oomcq_ __oao oaecc_a.
qGscGLsdsegQm gmpdm umqa
q0ac0cacmaeqge a_cac ceqoem omo cc0og
0oacca_om _e eooccc_mme.
(1) @mGmsss gm Gascus
qc ce_ ___a 1882 _e_ 0oaccacqee _e eoqqaa.
qe cq q0ac0cacmaea ge_ _ccg _co0aacaa _eacq
Ooaec, cag gm m_ga qeeaeca ooccae _egc goc
Ocagmaga.
239
(z) gmga Gascus
Gg cecoa ogqgccq q0ac0cacmaea _ge_a e
_eacq aecag.
(a) gagmm Gascus
cGm cecoa ogqgccq q0ac0cacmaea gg gcccc cc
gomoem Ooaecqaga.
(4) mmodmm gmm Gascus
0oaccacqee gcoGm ce_ ___a _e eoqqaa. qe cq
q0ac0cacmaea oeccceec _eacqecag.
(s) gggmm Gascus.
mem ds (18u4) cecoa, q0ac0cacmaeqeq, gg cc Qec
Ooaec aqOqagccao oggeaa.
0oaccacqc ammg 0cac q0ac0cacmaea aome
ceqoem Oc__gccqac g _g Ooammcccc ge_ao ammg.
gmma
(1) ggGgsgoq
q0ac0cacmaea , oeacOcagcom oeg amm a Ooaec
Qeceaa, qqQeceaa Ooa_cq Qeceaa Ooaec cc Qec
aeca aq Oqagccaga.
(z) es @g pg Gg @g
q0ac0cacmaea Ocgacaga eac ce_a _e go Qecac
ammg. c eaaomc e_g oqeaa Ogc ce_a _e gc Qecea
_eca.
Ogc _qc
eac Ogc
eac _qc
(a) dGmmm me
q0ac0cacmae gomom eaa__ 0aaqcomac gg oq ggg agg
qeeaeca g_cc__ (random) _eeoem Ooaeqgga. ooq
_eeom dGmmm mea cecc_a.
240
(4) qmLs mm
gmcacaaeg aqgc amm gomomac q_qocc_a Qo
qmLs mm cecc_a. g q0ac0cacmaeqgga oaecc__g.
(s) gmmqacg
aqgomom eaqae oqqamac oqocccc_ogcec. ge
oqocqom _ccg gegem oqocqom _ca oqoccc c_e_e.
(o) fmmspp gmqa
aqgomom _eeqga gqq e oeaea Ooaeqgga
(1) Qg g acqmsg
aqgomom qom e oeaea ga 0cag _eo ge_aoq
ge_ _moc _gome_e. qeac qeea gmg cqg
o_e_e. _qaog q0ac0cacmaea _qe aaaqq Qecea
e_g.
cceqom q0ac0cacmaeqeq gg aagmm Ocagm ceceq
oac_e_e. ce0o g a6dm gmq @gs ceg Oeacccc__g.
qGscGLsdsegQm GmQo umqa
q0ac0cacmaeqgc uu% a ammg. _g _a _ao _eaa.
acaOcagmc cc oma a__a oeacOcagcom amme. qqom a_ga
c_ ecge Ooaec Ocagcom oma Ocagcomc _cga.
Ooa_cqom a_ga ceOeaom 0cae_ goom _qm amme.
Oaeaa, Ocaccaaa, 0eaqaa, oacaa gaq 0cae_ oeaome
g0mae_om, ec-0cc_om a_ga -cao0ccom Ooaec
oaa0cae_c0c_o_a oaecc_e_e.
aameo_g 0oeqa _eeqg 0oggoema
Oc__gccqac q0ac0cacmaea a6dm gmpdm pg GmQm
_qccecaao ogqcc__g
241
1.@ dm GgsLsqmLm
aameo_g oaoaqaaao caec_a o _aaae Ocagm
ao ammg. aame a_ca a_ga 0oga _qccecaao amm
q0ac0cacmaeqgc uu% a ammg. _o0o a q0ac0cacmaea ce_a
aqge ceo mcoaao go_g. mc c _ccae ceqom
oaecc_e_e. ce0o aame cc0og ceome _eacc_g __
mcoaao a Oog cmgc Oeacc__g. q0ac0cacmaeqgc a
oaecc_oqac Qecac gg Ocagcoem amOm_qqc,
amOm_occcc Ocagcom Oeco_ec0aa Oecgg am0ma
ocqgqc, _aaae 0og oemoem ecQeg cqgqc,
agcqome oqoa a_ga _eaccee _aaac oaqg _o_e_ cc
_e_ac Oeaccc Oeaqc _a cc eeaoem e Ooae_mm
oaeqgeac q0ac0cacmaea Ocg_g. _o0o e oOeag
q0ac0cacmaeqeq ocqaao Oeaa cq oaeaao gqaga _g
ggac _cec 0mcOeaa cecg Oqmoa_g.
qaooemc Ocagqqoeac gm0eaeooao a amOm_cq
cecg gg o _aaae Oeacaga. _o0o qao Oecee me
Oqacaqecea qe _cq oaag Oecee ae Oeaca__qgg
_qccec ec_e_aao go_g.
ga aagm qao Oec, Oec ooa, eaaqgc a Ooaec Oec ea__ac
Qaca gg Ocma oag0oac, a_ga eec0cacmaea Ooaecg. gg
qao Oec a Ocaag acc_qqcc_a 0cag cc0og oaeom
Oeaccc _acqg ggac eo s assg Qpm ce_ Oec ea__e
cecee Qaeae_e. a ammaaq g_e cecg Oeco_g
am0ma Oom0aa me Ocaaea oc_cc_qge_g.
1.g aGoq gLoGumse
dm aGoq
0oaome _ca a amOm_cq ecOcg_g. 0oaome a
amOm_cq cgg 0oa geac gg 2u - 2uu . oe ammg. q_g
Gmsggm ugQ ceg Ocaa. a amOm_cce _qccec _cgom
0oaqgoomaga.
0oaqgo cecg Oecooa a_ga cmaoaa cccqqac ccc_
q0ac0cacmaea Ooaec g_e_ Oeccac _e gaa 0cae_
242
ommaaga. 0oaqgoae eec0caccmaeqgc Oeceag Ooaec Ocma
eaa oag0oac oaecc__g.
qaoomc a amOm_cq asgg, ug, ewg uw
_a _eg Qoome ggoeaq Oeacac Qo_g.
Gmd s Geg usmg
aegomo_g ec0a g_e_ Oeccac _e 0oagoom gem
Oomgm cq Ooaeqgga. gem Oomomc (Porespaces) a a_ga
oeaom oeg ae oeecao oaecc_e_e. q a
0oaqgoae Oecooa g ammaccac oaoccc_ _qee
eeaOeaa. 0omc amm aageca Oecom 0a_Ooae_ a
amOm_o g gg a Oec oaao Oeacc_a. 0oaqgo oaao a
e0eaOcao cggea _ecg _gg q_e Oecom oaao _oq
0qaec q0ac0caeeca _eeg cgmc _eaq Oecoem
_ece_g. ceea Ocmeemc amm caaeeoaa Oecom oaao
q0ac 0caeecqeq _ece_g.
me caeq
cooac_ geeac
gccqac q_g dm
uaamsc aLggg
ceg Ocaa. eecqeq
_ecq ace aeg
0ac 0aa geeac
qe_ Oqagcc_ga
_ g g
e c o _ g a
ocqqcc__g. q_g
esGppp ceg Ocaa.
awsgg
aa__ Ocagcomae 0oag, qea, ocec, _aeo e0aa c_
oeccaeoem0aa amOm_qg Ooae_ acqe_ Qo awsgg
cecc_a. qqeoa Ocagcom awsousma (imbibant) ceg
_eocc_a.
ammaqqcac, ammacca_ga oecca_ga ec0a awsoq
mme (imbibitional Iorce) aeca_g. qao Oecomc Oecooa ammaccaeao
Oeaccc_, e ammaccqac, cqc, a_ga eog_ coc _ca a
amOm_occ_oq_g gg caeq _eaocc__g.
meg+m
e)0oaOLaao +p0_ae OLeo+m
q0)ac0Laeoe
oc c.: 0m [s Osg osog
cgOoe
qgm
0ca
gd
243
cc0og oaoac Oeacomc ammaqqc _a cg o_g.
c_qgoaccao _emga oeqom e ammaqg Ooae_
acqe_e. qeac oeqe_ cm_g _em 0oga, _em ggqga
Oom oge_e.
ug
gc, go, oacOcagcom Oe_ _goa amm cqgc gg
Oe_ ge_oae cqg_g ocqqcc_a Qo cqc cecc_a.
eaQec _c_a oe cqc ecOcga. oaeeeqgo qcqeaq
g_qac _e___oga gaea coeqa, Ocaccaaa
Ocaaao0ec cqoa a Ooaec 3omc 0cacccccac _qe Q_a
coeqa coqgg c_qg oac_omao Oeacccaa. cqee
0cag cqc _eca gomom o _acga. ooag oga gomom
gg cccee cga Ooam_a 0cag _q cccaeg cqc _eca
gomoem q_e_g. q q_cceac _c_a __qga ug _gg
ceg _eocc_a.
Ocagoao cqc cecg aaa cqc __qqa aeca cggac
gg ge_oao cqc __qqa aeca cggea 0a ecOcga.
gg ga oeccaec _gocce cqc __qqa oaecc_e_g.
oeOcagm 0eaocc_a 0cag cqc __qqa ge__g. ga
oeccaee cqc __qqqg_ga, _qe oeeec amm cqc
__qqqg_ga, ec0a amm 0ogca_ ug _ggggmp (DPD)
cecc_a. _eea oacqgc cqc __qqc c__age_g cgcao
s assg Qpm ce_ Oea___e _ca a cqc omocc__g.
eo_ um
eog_ coc cecg goomc oaecc_a gg _ccae cqc
Qoaaga. g 0og Oe_eca oeecom gg 0qa ocqg eooe
_ca cmoccccac, oeccae _c gom Oe_ ge_oao amm
oeeec gg, Oe_ _goaao amm oeegg, 0qa ocqg eooe
o0a ocqqcc_e_e. q_g eo_ um ceg Ocaa. Qo
0qa ocqg eo oaao ecOcgoqac cqec gg
0ogc__g. eog_ coec me Oe_ _goa amm cqgc gg
a _cgom, me Oe_ ge_oao amm cqg_g ocqqcc_og
cega oeagocaa. eq0a me qe ___c _ccg ammaaq g_e
_goaao amm cqgegg ge_oae cqg_g 0qa ocqg eo
oaao a ocqqcc_og cea Oeacccaa.
244
mgousLsma, mgoGusLsma pg gGesLsma amea
a oeec A Ooaec Oqagcq aaa Oe_ Ooaecqaoa B ce_
a oeec ge_oae oeOcagm Oe_ Ooaecqaoa gg gg 0qa
ocqg eooe _ca cmoccccac, oeec A oeec Bg mgousLsma
cea, oeec B oeec A g mgoGusLsma cea _eocc_a.
Qecac a _ccg oeccae _cgom Qo ceeeoac
e_c0cacae B oeeec gg A oeegg eog_ coc _ca
ocqqcc_a. e_ oeeco_ec0a eaQec _c_a oe g
Qo_a. qe ce oeccae _cgom ogogcec. Qecac
goeeco_a gGesLsma cecc_a.
eo_umm Gesgmm Qgdgg
eog_ coec cma _o0aao0oac cecc_a gc qec 0eaqee
_ca Qgcocaa.
a_magg @oGsoGaso
q 0eaqee aagmm _eaccc eog_ coec Qgco
caec_qqcc__g.
amqq agem e
gg cgg qcecaaoccc_
_qccaoaao Oeacc_a.
ageme 0a_q_a
goccc_ _gc eaoe
oeec c_qg
Ooammcc__g. oeeee
acca gg geQaac
g_occ__g. q agem
g oq Q_0a__cccc
ga a Ooaec 3omc eoocc__g.
asmumm : _g 0qg_g c_g agem c amm eaoe oeec
oq Q_a _ecg _qe acc_a aag_g.
q : agemc amm eaoe oeeggm, 3omegq ga a
Oecgoqac acca aag_g. g agem e goom 0qa
ocqg eoomao Oeaccc_ eog_ coc ecOc_ aqe_e cecg
q 0eaqee _ca Oqmoa_g.
mem
gg uLL
_LuLL
dea
eaeeeeec
a_emga
oc .z aog _o0so0aso
]a
)
*
245
dsoGsmo (a6sea_aa)
gg qaoOec e_cca cae oeeec eoocc_a 0cag,
Oecec gg a Oom0a q_ mcoaao amm oeeec _eca.
qeac Oecoome oe_cq ge_g a Oqacag Oom0agoqac
q0ac0cacmaea ogo _ac_g. ceea oga q0ac0cacmaea
agem oqoa aecaqao aaga. qqeoa Oec aaaa ogoa _ecq
Oec ceg _eocc__g. Qog a6sea_aa
(Plasmolysis)ceg Ocaa.
aaaaogoqge _acQecac q0ac0cacmaea Oecooe
oc_ oco _ac_g.
__ogaao aaaaogoa _ecq Oecec a _ccg gg
e_c0cacae oeeec eoqqac a Oece_m Oeeg Oec e_a
eaqae Qecea _ec_g. q_g a6sea_aa QmQdg _ccg
dsoGsmoo ceg Ocaa.
dsosoGsmom aggm
1. Oecee aaaa Qecea __a aqa.
2. e_, Ogce, mgoaaom _ao_e_ cqcc_qqa,
mgoaaomc acc_qc _ca camaa Ooacccc_e_e. q_g
aaaa ogoa oaeaao ammg.
Qmam
Qmam
Qmam
Qmam
Ooc
+oa
Ooc
+oa
eoLCLa
cmao
oaqa Ooc
_L cmamCuaecm
oc s.s Oe o0g Jwso0msoo Qoa
eoLCLacmao
246
8. Oecoome oome ocg g_eea, cmaoaa cccqgc 0qa
ocqgqg_ee Qgco caec__g.
@oscqa _gg (eog_ coc __qqa) (OP)
eog_ coc _ca gg oeeec gg oeccae
Oom0agoeq q_ccq_g 0qeocc_a __qqa @oscqa _gg
cecc_a. _qaog eog_ coc ecOcgoeq q_ga __qqa
_oaacq __qqa cecc_a.
mmpoq _gg (TP)
qao Oec mc eoocc_a 0cag _g acq_g _eac Ooqqg
o_og cec Oec ea__c amm cgaae_ eog_ coc ammaaq
g_eac, a
Oecggm Oeeg,
cmaoaa cccqeq
Oecoome g
_ q g _ g .
qeac Oec ooa
g _c_a
_ _ q q q g _ g
oe_cq __qqa
ceg Ocaa.
_ q a o g
cecaoaamo _ca Oecee am a qga 0cag, Oecoome g
_c_a Qec aaa eaaq __qqa oe_cq __qqa cecc_a.
ams _gg : Oec oome g _c_a oe_cq __qqqg_g cgao Oec
ooaeg eaaae _eac cga geeac gg __qqqeq _c_qg_g.
q_g ams _gg ceg Ocaa. Qecac Oec oe_ccao ammg.
ooa __qq_a, oe_cq __qq_a eaaaga 0cag, Oecggm a
Oecog Qeg o__g. Qecac Oecee a ammaaq g_e (y)
Qecae a ammaaq g__g eaaa_g.
cqc eog_ coc
gc, go a_ga oa
_cgom Oe_ _goa
amm cggaegg Oe_
ge_q cggg
ocqqcc_qc
0qa ocqg eo
0qeoc_ogcec
oeccae _cgom
Oe_ _goa amm
cqgegg, Oe_
ge_q cggg
ocqqcc_qc
0qa ocqg eo
oaao
ecOcg_g.
1.
2.
cca 5.1 cgga eog_ cqgga ec0a
amm 0ogca_em
247
ug _ggo uppsagmp : (DPD) g upsoq _gg ] apgag
_gg
ca gomom _c_qga __qqa cqc __qqa cecc_a. oe
Ocagm 0eaocc_a 0cag gg oeccaee cqc _qqa ge__g.
gg ga oeccaee cqc __qqqg_ga _qe oeeee cqc
__qqqg_ga ec0a amm oqgaae0a ug _ggouppsagmp
cecc__g. g Oeea (1u15) ce_ ___ac uppsoq _gg ceg
_eoccccg. _eeaac q_g s assg g_e ceg Oea_g
caec_qqcc__g. g cgaae_ agcqecag.
1.= aLggQp@ s assg Qp@
aLggQpm
Oeco_gm a Oecgoga, Oom0agoga cmaoaa eooe
ocqgg_e ce_a cecac Qo_g. cmaoaa eo oeccaeom, a
a_ga 0qa Oeaacccc c _cgoema _aeoema ac_a
Oecc __agccqac 0qa ocqg eooao ogqcc__g.
s assg Qpm
qao Oec cecg cc Qec _eaccao gccqac, g me
Ocaa eaac__ ___c (qe ___c) ce_ qeqg_ _coac
g_occ__g. aeg aaa qe ___c amm cggaegg ge_oae
qe ___c amm cggg oga. Oeacc_a gg _eacce amm Oaaqq
___c gm @pp cecg a_ca a_ga 0oga oeeom ecOcga
geeea Qaeaga Oocc aooaee _coaga. Oeacc_a
Oqagcce Oaaqq ___c gmmspp _ccg essupp @pp ce
_eocc__g.
qe ___ee _qccecac a ammaaq g_ee oeagccqaeac
_qee ga mc amm qe ___gga 0og gg _eaccc amm qe
___gga ec0a amm 0ogcacaga ce Oeacccaa. c_qg
oaccao qao Oecec amm e0aa _ccg gg oeeec amm
e0aa Oeacccaa. y (ee) ce_ 0o c_qqac a ammaaq g_e
g_occ__g. usso ce_ _coac _mocc__g.
248
cLmmm s.z : ug _gga gmpag s assg Qp@ag
gmLGm a Gmgusa
ug _gga gmp (DPD) s assg Qpm
1. DPD _acqgc c__acq y
w
ce _eocc__g
__qqa ce _eoccccg DPDce eaaae 0og
ammaaq g_e cgaae_
g_f_ Ooaecg
2. _caao-camc _mocc_a caaomc _mocc_a
8. DPD cecg oeegga ga a ammaaq g_e cecg
oecca_ga ec0a amm ga mc amm a
cqc __qq 0ogcacaga _cgo_ga,
oeegga ec0a
amm qe ___ee
0ogcacaga.
4. DPD OP - TP g y
w
= y
m
+ y
s
+ y
p.
g
OP = eog_ coc __qqa y
m
aaaa ecfc_
TP oe_cq __qqa ammaaq g_e
y
S
oeOcagm
ammaaq g_e
y
P
__qqa
ammaaq g_a
5. a ge_q DPD aegg a _go a ammaaq
aaa DPD g oga g_eegg ge_q a
ammaaq g__g oga
s assg Qpmm ga
Oecooa, oag0oac a_ga eec0cacmaea Ooaec g_ sQd
qao Oec ga a Ooaec mcoqgc eooccccac, cc oaeom _qe
a ammaaq g_ee Qaeaga. eo a ammaaq g_ee gom
ceg _eocc_a. eoaaoe
i) aaaa ecfc_ ammaaq g_e
ii) oeOcagm ammaaq g_e
iii) __qqa ammaaq g_e
249
a6s gmL6c assg Qpm
0acm ce_ Oeac cccc e oaqg eoga Ocagcomae
Oecooa, q0ac0cacmaoc, ae gomom _ao_e_ g_ga.
0acm ammaaq g_e cecg ecfc_c Ocagm gccqac
aeca_g. cgaae_ agc3_ Ooae_ y
m
ce_ g_fccac
g_occ__g.
amGus_ assg Qpm
_oaacq ammaaq g_e cea _eocc__g. g
oeOcagme _meo g_ga y
s
ce_ g_fccac g_occ__g.
ga me y
s
agcq eaa _o ammg. ce0o y
s
agcq cgaae_ ce
Ooaecg.
_gg assg Qpm
Oecooa, Oecee ammcoc Ocagcome g gg __qqqeq
_c_qg_g. g ams _gg cecc_a. q_g eaaae _eac cgae
Qec aaa eaaq __qqa oag0oacac _c_qqcc__g.
q_g mmpoq _gg ceg Ocaa. __qqa ammaaq g_e cecg ams
_gg _ccg oe_cq __qqqge ce agcec Oc__gga. y
p
ce_
g_fccac g_occ_a.
ce0o a ammaaq g_e
y y
m
y
s
y
p
a ammaaq g_e 0a0c Oeaee _eg oaeome ammaaq
g_ee cLsg.
ooag gg qao Oec a amOm_cq a_ga ccOcaaae g
qe oc_ccacqee ammaqqc, cqc a_ga eog_ coc _a
Qoome _ca _c_qg gg eog_ coc Oqagccao
Oeacc__g.
gmQod
gg agcOce
emaae eceaq 0qaOq_e
1. oa q0ac0cacmaeqeq ccQec aaao oggeaa
_. _cc0ae _. O_a
. ocee oca o. qce
250
2. Oecggm a Oecgoga Oom0agoga qeac
oc_cc_qqcc_g
_. a ammaaq g_e _. cecaoaamo
. ceaoaamo o. cmao0aaecmo
8. Ocagcom aaa Oe_mm cggaegg ge_q Oe_mm cggg
ocqqcc_og goaga.
_. ammaqqc _. eog_ coc
. cqc o. cmao0aaecmo
4. mgoaa 0ca_oq_g caec_a Qo
_. ammaqqc _. cecaoaamo
. cmao0aaecmo o. 0a0c Oeaee ga cec
e_ agcOceem
oeago. qecac oem ] cOmeae _ee ] ammaqqc ]
cqc ] c __qq ge_ ] eog_coc ]
e_cca cae ] e_c0cacae ] g0eacae ]
cmao0aaeco ] oe_cq ] eog_coc __qqa ]
ooa __qqa ] a ammaaq g_e ] ocqgqg_e.
gg agcOceem
1. Oec e oaoac _coao _eocc__g
2. q0ac0cacmaeqge a_ca ceqoem omgo.
8. q0ac0cacmaeqge qeeaoem omgo.
4. a ammaaq g_ee goem omgo.
5. aaaa ogoqeq om _qe _aqgoqeq go.
6. DPDa_ga a ammaaq g_ee 0ogc_qgo.
cqg agcOceem
1. eog_ coec ga 0eaqee _ca omgo.
2. q0ac0cacmaeqge a_ca _eacq a_ga qeeaoem omgo.
251
z. s aLggg
0oaqgoomac a__ecc_a a eeca oaao 0ac0a
ocqqcc__g. 4uu _q aaa aeca aomc a 0ac 0a
ocqqcc_og gg caaq, eg oe ggcgoaao gaocccaq
ocao ammg. ea0___qge Oeac _e_ Oqmoao cec ce_aga,
Qo eeca oaao ecOcg_g cecg Qgcoccc_mmg.
qqqq qe_eca qaoqgc oema 0eaqee _ca Oomcq_
-q0maaa __g _cq_cc_qqcc__g. gqaga ea0___a
eecqge oaao Oqacag ecOcg_g.
gg ma cacea _ccg qoam qaoqeq 0o0a_ c_qg o0aae
oeec Ooaec 3omc eoo 0oe_a. _g 0qg_ga c_g ocq
Q_ 0oa_om qeqc 0ac 0a gog Oqm_g. qeqe ggg
Ooc_ c_qgc caaqqac eeca ac_a Q_0a__gccg Oqm_g.
qeac, ea0___a eeca oaao Qo_g cecg Qgcocc__g.
esGpppgQm Gemmp
ea0___qge Oeac_e_ea omo, cc0og oacomc
ccoqaae 0cacca_om _eeooccc_mme. 1) aama 0oacca_om
2) 0oa _qq 0oacca_ 8) aoc 0cae _oee.
a6dm Gascusa
0oacca_om _ac oacqgc Oeacccccceo ce0o oca_g
_aqgoa oaaqeo.
ascGoo cecoa m0c - cac 0oaccacqeea _eeoqqaa qe cq
eeca caeeoaa a_ga eeca ogaome aama Oeacomac ea0___a
ecOcg_g.
Gg..Guso cecoa aaaqgqcq (Pulsation)0oaccacqee _e eoqqaa.
qecq amm_oao amm q_e Oecom og omoqac _c_a
aaaqgqccac a 0ac 0a og_g.
252
z. smo Gusam g_mme Gascus
g cqee _oee 0oacca_ cea _eocc__g.
qee _e eoqqoaom qaom a_ga Ggs (18u4) _a ___aom
_oaaom. q 0oacca_ Gmms, ascqo a_ga ssa _0aaac
_qmoccccg. q 0oacca_ cc _a _aeoem _qccecaao
Ooae_mmg.
cqmm pg gcqmm
a _cgo_g ec0a amm oacqoee 85u _c0aaocaaom
oe gocaa. q oeeg cqmm ceg Ocaa.
e ocqga q_om a_ga Ooecom eee a_ga
Oecg0cao Ooaeqgccqac a ogaqa qeea Ooae_mme. q_g
gcqmm ceg Ocaa. eeca Ooecom gem aeca _qooe
Oc__gccqac 0omegg qe_ oe gaa 0cae_ _eaccee
agoaga. qeac a Oecgoq_g gg Oqacaaae caeq
_eaoccc_, gcqee a_ga cqee qeeaomac a eeca
oomegg cmaaac 0ac g_g.
smo Gusam g_mme
ecom oaao ecOcga aoc 0cag eeca ea__c cga
__qqa _ccg gg _oeeaee aeca _g 0ogg
ocqqcc__g. g smo Gusam g_mme ce _eocc_a. me
_e omee
0 a c 0 a
o a o q _ g
Ocagccao ammg.
n Q s o q a @
gpasm maa
om aecc
_ _ q q
aagca_omac me
_e omeeac
(water column) oa_g
gom qgg
occaa. 0ae
O o e c o _ g
ec0a amm
e c c c e e c
caeqom oaao me Oqaca cagoaocc__g ce qaom
gemeLa
eo
j+oL0o+eg
eLOog
em
j+
j+
o+qe
oL s.s smoGos g_mwewr g3a Gesgwm
o+qe
253
omeaa. eeca Ooeco_g ec0a amm ggg ooaom me
gccqeq qec Oeaacaa. _eac ao 0cae _oeeaac _c_a
a__o oee _ccg cga __qqaaeg ecooac _c_a qecea
eaamoc 0cagaaeqao ammg.
cqmm g_mmea GascuscmL mag Gesgmm
gg ma aoc 0cag ecOcga emaee a Qaca
oeeaq gaac Ocagqq 0oe_a. gaae _qccgg caqea
Ooaec caqgqgc eooccc0oe_a. emac cc 0cag
ecOcgoqac _oee _cc_ oeeaq gaac caqeqge acca
aag_g.
aoc 0cag ecOcga emg cgcao gg acaq caee
eooccccaga 0q _q oaecc__g.
ce0o egoe ao0cae _oee 0oacca_ ea0__qeq
omga _q 0oaccacao ogqccccaga, g __ogaao _g
Ooammcccocec.
z.@ smoGusamm usQag asma
aoc 0cag ce_ Qo cc oaeomac cagocc__g
o_e_ acq_ oaeom a_ga Oomcq_ oaeom ce g Ocga
cmomao cmocaa.
Gmoqpa asma
aoc 0caeo cagga o_gcq_ Qecq qeeaomae occqa,
oa_g, omaecc __qqa, OoccQec, gm a_ga a _aoeo
Oomcq_ oaeomaga.
=oug
occqa cecg omaecc aoae _meo g_ccqaga.
occqa _goaaeac _oaaqc ge_oao ammg. _o0o,
aoc0cae 0oo_a ge_oao ammg.
aspg
oa_g cecg aga oa_g aecca _ga. oa_g _goaaeac
aoc 0cae 0ooa _gomga. _eac _go gee 0ooa aeca
oa_g ecqgemea _c Oeaoqac aoc0cag ge__g.
254
mmL _gg
ge_q omaecc __qqa aoc0cag 0ooqeq _gomga.
aoaaeg aoc0cag Qo_a ccqomc gg, 0ooaao, ge_q
__qqqgc amm om aeccqggm Oec_g.
GmouQm
Oec ecOomomc amm a, aaa OoccQecac 0ooaao
_oaaoqac, aoc0cae 0oo_a _gom_g.
g
gmac ecqgemom g_ggccqac, aoc0cae 0ooa
_goaao ammg. gmc ge_oao ammg.
s
aeee a ge_oao gqac aoc 0cag 0ooa ge__g.
a__oqc 0ooqeq oc aoc0cag 0ooa _goaaeac, ecq
gemom _q Ooam_a. Oecome oe_cqq qeea ge_g qaoa
oaq o__g. qaoa e_a oe_cqq qeea _ecg cea
Qecgq ggaceac _q_g GgsLaa Qm msL ceg Ocaa. _eac
oacc mmm 3 gmm ppgsa gqac _q_g Qg msL ceg
Ocaa.
acqpa asma
qaoqggm amm accae oaeomae ec _eacq, 0oa -
qe_ oqa a_ga qaoqge oag _aeo acq_ oaeom
cecc_a.
gm moq
o_ec Qcq qaoomc amm _eacq qeooeaomae ge_q
cccm, _go _cqm Ooaec oqeaae, 0qac 0cae_ ccq, gm
a_@g, cmmqgc _q ecqgemom, Oa_g _o,
ecqgemome ge_oae QoOoe, a0aa a_ga ogomga
goome oma _ao__ac aoc 0cae 0ooa ge_occ__g.
goumms, ousao _a qaoomc ecom _comao aa_gg
_ecgmme. qeac qe_ qcecaaoccc_, coeaQ_a Ooae_
ecae Oqaec Oeaoqac g gmg Ggs gm _ccg sGLs
cecc_a.
255
Gms - gm mg
0oaomac a a__ecc_og, ecomac, a Oomaaog _a
Oeaco_ga, aoc0ca_ga ec0a 0q Oqacaq ammg. _o0o
0oa-qe_ oqa _gomqqac, aoc0cag 0oo_a _gomga.
gsmam mmg
_emga oeqomc aoc 0cag 0ooa ge_oao ammg. oag
_goaaga 0cag aoc0cag 0ooa _gomga. _ga Qecac
_gocceaao ammg. _eac _gea a Qecac (Senescence)
ge_g o__g.
qaom 0oaqOqagcce oaao a a__oe_e. gc 2%
ac_0a qaoqge omaeq aa__ Oeaco_gq 0qeocc__g.
q_mm a qaoqge q_ agcqomc gg smoGusag ce_
Qoae _ca occ__g.
qaoqge q_ agcqomc gg a _oaao occ_a Qo
aoc 0cag ceg _eocc_a.
smo Gusam mmaa
aoc 0cag _eg oeocc_a. _eo aaoe
1. _cqm aoc0cag
2. ccecqgem aoc 0cag
8. ecqgem aoc 0cag
1. @cqa smoGusag
_cqm ao 0cag cecg, q_q0qac q_c_eao amm,
cqe ce_ Ocaac _e, cqm ce_ _eacce oaao
ecOcga. o_a _m ao0cag ac_0a q oac
ecOcg_g.
z. ucmLggm smo Gusag
ccecac amm, qmaoao _eaq Qcqa Oecom Ooaec cgg
ucmLggm cecc_a. oge_q _m a ac_0a q oac
occ__g.
a. gmggm smo Gusag
qe_om a_ga ecome 0ac oaecc_a o_a gemom
ecqgemom cecc_a. qaoomac occ_a Ocga _m a
(u5%) ecqgemomac Qo_g.
256
gmggm6m moq
ecqgem cecg qaoqge q_ caoome q_q0qaec
oaecc_a _a gemaaga qe oaao oa cmaa___a Qaoc
0caga ecOcga.
goOoag ecqgema e_ _oe oeq oqo oacq
Oecomac ccc_mmg. oacq Oec cecg aa_gg _ecq q_q0qac
Oeccaga. gc Oqmoae Q_mao, eec0cacmaea a_ga
oeoom oaecc_a. oacq Oecee ooa 0ogccc qqcq Ooaecg.
ecqgemea 0a amm gq ooa cgg oa qqqqg.
Oomcq_aao amm goq ooa cgg oa Oaceaqaoa _c_a
g_e Ooae_a oaecc_a. oacq Oecoem o__ 0ogccc
ceeeoac gee Oecom oaecc_e_e.
z.g gmggm g pg Qpggm
Gemmp
ecqgemom __qc, g_qqc _a Qoom, oacq Oecome
oe_cq __qq aagca_omac ecOcga. Ocagoao ecqgemom
coec g_ggga oc _qagga.
oacq Oeco_gm a qgg Oom0agoqac oe_cq __qq
aa__om Qoe_e. coec gee Oecomc amm a oacq Oecomc
qgoqac oacq Oecom oe_ccae_e. qeac Oacea Oomcq_
goo
[eam
eaoq
Oeoe
acq_
_q__
+ca
Ocoq_
Ouoea
+ca
goe Oeoe
g___ oo_goo
_qa oo_goo
uc6 s. googgo ouq
257
ooaom acc, acq_ qqqq ooaoem 0aga ga Oeae_e. qeac
ecqgem g_e_g.
oc oacq Oecomc amm a Oom0agoqac oacq Oecom
oe_cq __qq ge_oeac og o_e_e. qeac gq acq_
ooaom 0aoqac ecqgem _q Ooam_g.
oacq Oeco_gm a qgg, Oom0aga Oeac _e_ea omo
cc 0oacca_om amme. _o_gm _aaaeeo _oe :
1) ooaqe qe - eaoe ecaa__ 0oacca_
2) ae Oeaco K

ocqgqc 0oacca_
8) ooaaqge pH 0oacca_
4) Ococqe q0accae - Ocaccaaa cac 0oacca_.
1) ge - esaam gmLsppa Gascus
oms (1u64) - e ogqgccq coec uso.usdGo ce_ Oag
qeqeq (Starch) eaoeaao aa_g_g. qeac _oaacq g_e
_gomqg oacq Oecggm a qg_g. oc cga oee
ecOcgoqac qea agoaocc__g. qeac ecqgem
_qOoam_g.
-cao-cam0co (coec)
qea eaoe
(ocaao) oc
(ecqgem g__g) (ecqgem ___g)
4) qGscLsm - GuscLsm uo Gascus
1u14-_a _eqc Gmc ce_ ___a, ooaaq a_ga ooa_
0oaccacqc amm _aeoem Oqagqg ecqgem aoqgg gg
aa__aeaocccc 0oaccacqee _e eoqqaa. g qGscLsm -
GuscLsm uo 0oacca_ ce _eocc__g.
0oaccacqe cq gmac pH _aeom oacq Oecggm
ocqqcc_e_e. Qoac amm cc0og cq Qecome omee
ogaag:
1) gmae cagccac, aae _cqge eq _cc_ q0accaeom
aecae_e. eo eec0cacmaeqgc gg oacq Oecome
cooeo_gm gee_e.
258
2) q0accaeome Oom0a__qeq o_Oeaa K

_aeom, o__mm
gee Oecomc gg oacq Oecggm gee_e.
8) K

_aeom, aa0cc _aeo_ce oeeqmg Ocaccaaa
aa0cc agoaocc__g.
4) Ocaccaaa aa0cc, oacq Oecome _oaacq g_ee
_gomccqac, oacq Oeco_gm a geg ecqgem g__g.
5) oc Ocaccaaa aa0cc eqg K

_aeom oacq Oecomc

gg Oom0age_e. qeac oacq Oecom e g,
ecqgem _q Ooam_g.
sa a_ga .ddco (1u16) _a ___aom q 0oaccacec
_qmqg ecqgem g_ccq_g gg gccqeq ogqg Ooa_qqaaom
gm

qea (ocaao)

aae _c agoaoa

0

_oa aa0cc _aeaaoa eqqc

_aeom Oom0a__a, K _aeom acqgqc

Ocaccaaa aa0cc agoaqc

oacq Oecome _oaacq g_e _gomqqc

oacq Oeco_gm a qgqc

oacq Oecome oe_cq _gomqqc

ecqgem g_qqc
259
oacq Oecomc amm caeccaq CO
2
- oe aqoaac aae _ca
agoaeeqa co_Oca_gc K

_aeome Oe_ _gomcceqa

Ococ _qac_aoaao Qgcqgmmaa. ce0o q 0oacca_
Ocgamoc _g Ooamm qaqao ammg.
z. =. gmggm gmaagmg usQag asma
ecqgem aoqeq cagga oaeom cc amme. _eo gm,
Oocca, Ocaccaaa g0mae_, _oo _ca, omacoa (CO
2
)oe
Oe_, a a_ga _cm _ca _aeo _ga.
g
gmac,ocaao eaoeaao aa__ccc_ aae _ca
agoaocc_oqac ec gem __qc a_ga g_qqc Ocgam
cag_g. q_ mqa gmaga cee gmaga ecqgemom
g_ccgcec _eac Q_aaecae ca a_ga ocq Q_c cggomc
ecqgemom g_e_e.
Gmou
Oocc_a gma 0q Oqacaq Ooaeqgccqac, Oocca
_gomga 0cag ecgemom g_g ge_oae OoccQecac _q
Ooame_e. o _goaae OoccQecaga ecqgemom _q
Ooame_e.
GuscLsm gGsm
Ocaccaaa g0mae_ 0eoa _ecoqac ecqgem g_g
Ooam_g.
aa f
_oo _c _m _gomqqac ecqgemom g_g
Ooame_e.
assum mL @amoqm (CO
2
) Gep
ecqgem aoa CO
2
oe Oe_oac cagocc__g. ge_oae
CO
2
Oe_oc ecqge_om g_g Ooame_e. CO
2
Oe_ _goaaga
0cag ecqgemom _c _ace_e. Oecomc amm CO
2
Oe_
omaecc CO
2
Oe_eo oc _goaaga 0cag ecqgemom
__ogaao _q Ooame_e.
260
ecae Oeceec Oomomc amm CO
2
oe Oe_0o
ecqgem aoqeq cag_g. g qo omaecc CO
2
Oe_
oaeaao gccg cec.
s
aeg oacq Oecome oe_ccee oc_cc_qg_g. oacq
Oecom e g oggoqac ecgem _q Ooam_g.
_0q0cac, ecOc_g oacq Oecom oe_cca ecqgem g__g.
a c__age_ amm eaaomga ecqgemom _q Ooame_e.
ooa f
qaoom a c__age_ea egga 0cag _cm _ca (ABA)
_cm _ca 0eoa _ec_g. Qecac ecqgemea _c
Oea_g.
gm Qod
gg agcOce
emaae eceaq 0qaOq_e
1. coec ecqgem Qoea __coe_e
_. ceaoaamc _. cecaoaamo
. oe_cq ge_qc o. me cq
2. qe-eaoe ecaa__ 0oaccacec Ooa_qqoa
_. ooa_ _. ooaaq . Ococ o. a
8. ooaaq 0oaccacec _eeoqqaa
_. Oeaco K

ocqqc 0oacca_
_. pH 0oacca_
. qe-eaoe ecaa__ 0oacca_
o. q0accae Ocaccaaa cac 0oacca_
4. m0c cac 0oaccacec _eeoqqaa
_. oacOcoo _. 0g.. 0cao
. 0g.. 0cao o. qee
5. 0g.. 0cao eq _e eoqqaa
_. m0c cac 0oacca_ _. 0oa c_qq 0oacca_
. aaaqgqcq o. gcqee - cqee
0oacca_
261
6. 0oa __qqa ce_ Oeaceee ___occ_qgaoa
_. oca _. oce 0_co
. qee o. 0g.. 0cao
1. eee a_ga Oecg0cao e ogaqe_e
_. cqee _. gcqee
. 0oa __qqa o. 0a0c ammg cga cec
8. aoc0cae _oee 0oaccacec _qmqqoaom
_. Oeea _. oaco
. maa o. 0a0c amm _eeqga
e_ agcOceem
1. oeago. ecqgem ] aoc0cag ] qe-eaoe caa__a
2. oeago. 0oa __qqa ]aoc0cag _oee ] cqee ]
aama 0oacca_om
gg agcOceem
1. ecqgem __qc a_ga g_qqee Oeac_e_ea omgo.
2. q0accae - Ocaccaaa cac 0oaccacec omgo.
8. gg 0eaqeeea Qgo 0oa __qqqeq Qgco.
4. cqee - gccee 0oaccacec omo gg 0eaqeeea
Qgo.
5. 0oa __qq 0oaccac_g amm cgacqoem omgo.
6. aoc0cag 0ooqeq cagga ecae acq_cceqom aaeo
cqg agcOceem
1. ecqgemae aoqeq omga cc0og 0oacca_om
oomo.
2. ecqge_ aoqeq cagga cc0og oaeoem omgo.
8. cqee - gcqee 0oaccacqe goem oomqg, _q_g
Oqmoocccc cgacqoema, _q_oao omooema qgo.
4. aoc0caeo cagga oaeoem omgo.
5. ea0___qeq omga cc0og 0oacca_oem oomo.
262
a. am mcL
qaoomc oea mcca ce_ Qo ceec oacqg0c0a eg
__q Qoaaga. acoa_ (16uu) _qe_qec, qaoom ae e
oc ae ocq mc eg omae_e ceceq ooeqqaa. ceea
oeao_g qao omaeq aa__qgc g_ccae ce ammg cecg
Qgcoccccg.
_oac acaqqcccc qaoc Ocagem 4uu-6uu
o
C Ooccqgc
cmqqac, _oo Ocagcom qao eaaccao _oa. q eaacec _a
Oeaqgc _gc _moea _ecq oaace, e_cge, _mge,
ecge a_ga ec-ca qo 4u oeaom gccg Oqmqg. eo
_eeqga qao mccqg_g 0qeocc_ogcec. _eac _a
Oeaaccc_ _aaae oeaom ac_a oe_ c_occcce.
qaoqgg eo 0qeocc_a _meoc Ocagqg Ocg _coom cega
ge _coom cega cmoccc_mme.
cc0og oeaome ceom Ocagoao _eo qao omaeq
aa__qgc __ga ceoc Ocagqg _eaa.
e_aeaaa oeao_g oec ceqom go 0oe_a.
(1) qaoome eaqae omaa ecOcgo_a g_cccc
oeaoem eaag go 0oe_a.
(2) e_aeaaa oeaa cecg qaoqge g 0q cagcec _c_qq
0oe_a.
(8) e_aeaaa oeaom e_ _eaaaq Qec oaeccc 0oe_a.
o___g cgcao 0og oeaom o_ Oeaa Qec go cag.
(4) c oeaom o ge_q _moc 0qeocc_oqac _o__e
e_aeaaaea e0qoqg_g amag _o ammg. c.oa. eoae.
a. amam uma
(1) oeac Ocagcom qaoqge cc0og caoome gomao _eaa.
c_qgoaccao Oec oome _ __c oaecc_a
oacaa,qqomc amm ecge a_ga ec-ca, Qm
_comc amm -cao-co 0cae_eo.
(2) oea Ocagcom qao Oecee _oaacq __qqqeq cagga.
263
(8) aeec gg amOm_occcc oeaom Oec ea__e pH g
cagga.
(4) Fe, Cu, Mn, Zn 0cae_ oeaom cc0og Oagaac Qo_a
oeeo_g momao Oeacc_a.
(5) Ca, Mg, Mn, Na, K 0cae_ oeao0ma _o__e acqo0ma c_
oeaome o oemoem _Qeccc_qge_e.
(6) As, Cu, Hg 0cae_ oeaom qaoqge g_cccc c Qecomc
o oemoem _c_qga.
(1) K
+
a_ga Ca
++
0cae_ _aeom Oec cccqge g cqg _qe
ocqg g_ee aa_ge_e.
mgcGsGusmao (Hydroponics)
e_c0a0caeo ce_
Oeac, qaooem a a_ga ae
ocq mcoqgc omacceq
g_ga. q_g mmsg
Gmsmm,Gesgmma ggsL
mmesm, Ggscq mmesm _ccg
gesmm mmesm 0cae_ cc
Ocaaom amme.
oaqqo gaao
e_c0a0cae omacqom,
Ocgacaga cee, ae, Oae_,
ocec _ccg a0caoqqac _e
_a__ Oqacqomc mcc
mcoa Qcc Oeaacc_e_e.
q Oqacqce oeegaa
(Pump) a_ga mcc mcoqeq ac
Oegqg _qee ae _e_ac o__ Oeag emaao oa_0_accqeq
_c_qq geeq Oqacqo_a Ocagqqccc_mme.
qaoqge omaga 0aacacq_ga cOqq oeaom
e_aeaaaqeoao amme ceceq __g Ooamm e_c0a0caeo
o _a cg oga. oaqqo gaao e_c0a0caeo acaOeqom
a_ga 0qaccoec caaoem a_cqg Oeaa caec_qqcc__g.
a_e_ac _coa Oeqomae maq0aaec, oac-qaoe,
0agaom, a_ga oac,_mm, agemg, qoam a_ga
ceqe 0cae_ oaa oeooem a_cqg Oeaacaa.
e+_g
q+ogeq q+ag
_eLLo+
g+_cogdee+
mLLe eeec
oL s.1 wgcGs Gosmm
264
mgcGsGusmaom mma
(1) ooeoac ogaca mcc Qecea _mo _qa.
(2) _c-oa eaQecea cmgc QecQgqqcaa.
(8) aeee mgqc, aeee aa_gqc, oem c_qqc _a
Oeacom, 0qeoacec.
(4) mcc oeeec emaae oa_0_accqeq _c_qq _qa.
(5) qaoo_g a caaoa 0oecea ecc_qqcaa.
(6) a_qc 0qeocc_ogcec.
mgcGsGusmaom ma
(1) aeeeoc a_cqg _m oaqecaqao ammg.
(2) 0qeoaae acoeoem oqoeao Oqac gccqg_e go
0oe_a.
(8) 0aa _cccac Ooamocec _ccg caqgqgc amm _eeqg
qaoo_a cagocc_e_e.
a.@. gmpmmmsg Gu_ aa@
gmaa@
qao eaacec 4u oeaom oaeccccaga eo _eeqga qao
mccqg_g e_aeaaaqeoao gccgcec. gg c _coom
ac_0a qao omaga 0aacac_ga _aaao amme. o_gg
gmpmmmsg ama ceg Ocaa. e_aeaaaq oeaoem
Ocg_coom _ccg _a _coom cega ge _coom _ccg
g _coom cega, qaoo_g _eo 0qeocc_a _moee
Ocagqg e_ oeoomao cmocaa.
m aa g Gu_aa
eo qaoo_g Ocga _m 0qeocc_e_e. qaoqge
goem _eae_e. ooeo _a oeaoem Ocg _coom
cega _eocaa. oaace, _mge, ecge, caoco,
Ocaccaaa, oacaa, aemaa a_ga ecca _aeo Ocg _coom
_ga. oeaom ocae _oo _cgome _co gomao
amme. o__c c Oagq Oqagcqome Oeaccac_g aqe_e.
Ocagoao ae _ccg omaecca Ocg _coome _caao ammg.
oaace omaecca omacoa (CO
2
) oegg ec_g. a a_ga
om aecc _mgeegg _mge ec_g. ecge
265
omaeccqge aqc Ocagmao gqaga aeee _ecg
c_am _ccg c_am ___ ecge Qecccacqeac oea
ec0c_omao aa__cc__g. cae_om agaqee 0cag caoco
a_ga ecca agoa_g. e_cgee _ca ao ammg.
gm aa g gaa
gaq, 0caae, aaeoeo, qaa, gqq aoa, a_ga aaecqea
qaoo_g oge_q _m0o 0qeocc_e_e. _eac qaoqge
oma a_ga agoaoqg_g e_aeaaaqeoao amme.
a.g am Gus_cam Gemm ug pg
gmpuscqms pu mma
(1) assum, mgcgm pg @aogm
eo aeeaac oeac Ocagcom cec. _eac eo
qaoomc amm (oma) Ocagcome gomao gccqac cccqaec
0eaoccc_mme. eo oaa0cae_c0c_om, qqom, Ooa_cqom
_ao__e cggomao amme. ce0o qaoome Ocag omaeq aa__
Qoomc cg Ooame_e.
uppsagmp
q qeaome c__age_ o _mqao ammg. a a_ga oa
cmaa__qge _ca q qeaom ae _e_ac oocc_oqac
Ocgacaga c__age_ _c_ogcec. o__e ge_caccac
qaoome eaqae oma a_ga agoaoa cagocc__g.
z. mcgm
qqom, Qm _com, eocceom a_ga ceeaa
ammcc omac Ocagcomc ecge oaecc__g. cc0og
_aa0aaeom, gee Oagom a_ga ATPae _ao ecge ammg.
uppsagmp6ms pu mma
(1) ge_a oma
(2) ceea 0eaeo (Chlorosis)
(8) acaom agoaqc ge_occ_e_g
(4) _ccm, 3 _a qaoomc _go Q_a aeca oeome _m
ge_o_qc
(5) qqc Ocagcom ge_qc
(6) Q_0a__ _eaccc aagca_ 0qaegqc.
266
a. uso.uo
cmaoaa ccca, Qm _ca, Qm0aaec_om, cc gee
Oagom a_ga oma _c gomc oaecc__g. ___c omaeq
aa__qgc _a cg o_g. _0aaaae 0oa omaeaa,
com oeoeqa, mgoga
uppsagmp6ms pu pgpa
(1) _gaq ecome cq
(2) oma gegqc
(8) cao-cc0co Oagac Oeacca_ _gomqqc
(4) 0eaaa3ec oaa0cae_c0c_om 0eoa _ecqc.
4. GuscLsm
_gq goomc, Oec 0ogca_ cggomc Occcaaa
0qeocc__g. _gaq ecomc 0eoa _ec_g. _eaccc _a
cg oo ocec ce_aga ecqgem aoqgc _a cg
o_g. cc Oagome maaoa, qqa a_ga oaa0cae_c0c
omaeq aa__qgc _a cg o_g.
uppsagmpms pu mma
(1) ec geom 0a oeme_e.
(2) _ec gm oee_eca (Mottled) ceea 0eaeo _c_qc
(8) ec geomga, ec omaqomga ceea 0eaeo _c_qc
(4) o@oecc cggom gcecaa oma gegqc
s. e.us
eqae, ec0aacqe 0cae_ eocceome _ao ec-ca ammg.
gee Oag-A (Coenzyme-A)ae _ao gccqac ooaqqec _a
cg o_g. cc Oagomc ec-eccec Oqaggea aeca, cc
ec-ca Ooaec _0ea _comae oe, oece a_ga
qg0aaee _ao__c oaecc__g.
uppsagmpms pu pgpa
(1) qq 0eaeo qec Oeaacc__g.
(2) ma ecomc _qec ceea 0eaeo _c__g.
(8) ecaecq gooc oc0aaa caOacca ge_g aea
_gom_g.
267
o. amm
ceea _c _e _a _ao aeaa ammg. aeaa
ccaoqe ceeaa agoao _qaag. oaa0cae_c0c omaeq
aa__qgga, e0ca0eae gee _cgom eeogga _a cg
oga. DNA a_ga RNA agoaoqgg aqa cc Oagome
maao Oeacc__g. cccao-cme ocqgaao Oeaccc_ PEP
-caocam0co a_ga RUBP oaacam0co 0cae_ Oagoem
mgoga.
uppsagmpms pu pgpa
(1) acec cea 0eaeo _c_a.
(2) ceea 0eaeoea __qg _0qaeeaee Q_ae cq _c_a.
(8) ___a Qecac _q (Necrotic) qmmom 0qaega.
1. asm
oacaa cecg oacaa Oc0cc ce_ Qecac Oec oome _a
_ao Oecee eca_c (Middle Lamella) oaecc__g. cmaoaa
cccqge agoaoqgc _a cg oga. ae__o Oec cgccae
eaccaq cgccc cg Oc_g, -cao0ca ecc0co, _qeec eo0eo
_a Oagome maao ammg.
uppsagmpms pu mma
(1) oaa0cae_c0c omaeq aa__qeq cagga
(2) eac0caoaecmaaoe ceeeo ge_oqac ooagqqc _goaao
cagocc__g.
(8) _gq goom cagocc_oqac ec geo_a 0oa geo_a
_g o_e_e.
(4) Oecooa oqeaaoa, Oago qaqaoa aag_g.
gaa (Micronutrients)
a. g_q
Ocagoao aeec gaq c__age_ oaecc_ogcec. ccoq
-c0m0oa qqome _aoa ccoqaae Oagomae 0occ0co,
Ocam0co a_ga eec0cag0aaome cggaaoa ammg. qeac
gm0eaeoae cccae ocqg eeac _a cg o_g.
uppsagmpms pu mma
(1) acec ceea 0eaeo _c_oqac ecom a_em a_ga
Oomem Q__ecaqao aag_g.
268
(2) oa_g ooaeqeqa _0qa_ Oqacaqeca Qooema cag_g.
(8) oeaom gaq c__age_ea gccaao ae qaeoaao
amme.
e. Gussm
eco_ga, oeqo_ga 0caae 0qeocc__g. Ca

_aeome amOm_cq a_ga caecacq_ga, aoqqgom

_emqqgga, Oec 0ogca_ _ecqgga,oaa0cae_c0c
ocqgqgga 0caae 0qeocc_a. 0aga g ecge, _aa0aaeom
a_ga Ooa_cqome omaeq aa__qgc c0o_ga.
uppsagmpms pu mma
1) 3c gcqc c_cq gqa __oc 0aea _c_qga.
2) _ccme am goom qeoaao aaga.
8) ecom oge_ Oagga qeeaea _eca
4) ecom a_ga oeom _gga _e0e0a agag o_a.
1o. sama
aaoeo eco_ga oeqo_ga 0qeoc__g.
oaacam0coom, _m0coom, e_c0ag0ec a_ga eo0eo
Oagome maao ammg.
uppsagmpms pu mma
1) gco qaoqgc eaacc qmm 0aea _c_qga
2) 0oa Oqagcq ge_a oma aecag
8) acec ceea 0eaeo _c_a.
11. gsf
_eeqg qao caoo_ga 0qeocc_a -3ea0coom a_ga
ec0a0eo _a Oagome _ao qaa coa_g_g.
cmao0caeeaee _ao gccqac gm cao-cmoeqgc _a cg
oe_g. oaa0cae_c0c - ecge eaQecea QecQgqg_g.
uppsagmpms pu mma
1. qe_ome ceco _cq (Die Back) co qaoqgc _c_a.
2. ceagaa (Exanthema) ce_ 0aaac ccecccggac 0oagom
agoaocc_e_e.
8. ggaccOcgqc (Reclamation disease) ce_ 0aa qgqao Oc_cccc
aeec omga qaoomc oeq agoaqec cagga.
269
1z. gggsa
qdoGLs.Gum gcGLo ce_ Oagea mgoccqac, gmGLs
cqa f agoaoqgc c0o__g. qq 0eaeoac c0o__g.
0og cc Oagomae assusma mmgcGo, @ags mgcGsgGmo,
GgaGesmaGmo _ao_e_ mgoga.
uppsagmpms pu mma
1. agaa_a omaea _c_qga
2. ecom o _qao, Ogoaao _eag __ec 0aa _c_a.
8. acec ceea0eaeoa, ge_a omaa _c_a.
1a. soqm
ecge omaeq aa__qgc _a cg o_g. _ooaac
_c agoaoqeq cagga. ecge omaeq aa__qgc c0o_ga
Oagoem mgoga.
uppsagmpms pu mma
1. _ecgm qmmoema, ec omacc oacec _c_qg co
qaoqgc a_em qmm 0aea _c_qga.
2. oaecmomc eccccq gg escmL ms GsL _c_a.
cLmmm s.a am amam Gemm ug uppsagmpms pu
pgpa@
w.nm am Gemm ug uppsgmpms pu
mma
1. oaace qaoome Ocagoae eaqae omaea
2. e_cge omaeq aa__a agoaqeca cagga
8. _mge
4. ecge qqom, Qm _com ceea 0eaeo, ge_a
geeOagom, ATP o_e_ oma, acaome oma
_eaga gegqc
5. -cao-co cmaoaaccca, geeOagom oma ge_, caocc0co
Qm0aaec_oem _eaga Oeacca_ _gomqqc
6. Ocaccaaa _gqgo cggomga, ecq _ecgm oee ceea
gem aoqgga 0qeoc_a 0eaeo, o@oecc
cggom gcecaaqc
1. ecca eqae, ec0aacqe, gee qq 0eaeo qec Oeaac
Oag -, oe, oece -cc_ ma ecomc
o_e_ _eaga ceea 0eaeo _c_qc
8. Oaeaa ceeaqge _aoa, PEP, RuBP acec ceea 0eaeo,
oaacam0co Oagae _0qaeeaee Q_cq
maaoa ammg
270
u. oacaa Oecooa, cmaoaa cccqge oaa0cae_c0c omaeq
g, eaccamc aqa aa__a_gqgoom cagcq
1u. gaq -c0m0oa qqa, 0occ0co, oeaomc gccaae
Ocaem0co a_ga aea acec ceea
eec0cag0aa Oagome _aga 0eaeo, oa_g ooaea
cagocc_qc
11. 0caae Ca
2
amOm_cq a_ga cae 3cgcqc ccq gqa
-cac_ga aoqqgom _emq __oc 0aa, _ccme
-qgga, oaa0cae_c0c am goom qeoaaqc
ocqgqgga 0qeo acaom (a) oeom _gga
_ee0a agaqc
12. aaoeo oeqom, eco_g 0qeo gcmc eaacc qmm 0aa
_m0co, oaacam0co, 0oa Oqagcce ge_a
eo0eo Oagoem mgoga oma
18. qaa -cea0co, ec0a0eo a_ga co qe_ome ceco
cmao0caeeaee Oagoem _cq ceagaa - ccecac
mgoga 0oag agoaoa ggacc
Ocgqc - oeq agoaqec
q_qqc _a 0aaom
14. gqqaoa qmc0ca0ce eqc0co, oaacae Ogoaao _eaq ecom
_ee_c0o , _co_ac e_c - __ec 0aa, qe_ome
-0ag0eo Oagoem mgoga ge_a oma
15. aaecea ecgee omaeq aa__qgga cmc a_em qmm0aa,
_ooaac _c agoaoqgga oaecmomc eacecoac
cg o_g 0aa- ecom ggocaqc
gm Qod
emaae ecea 0qaOq_e
1. e_c0a 0caeme agOcaa
(_) aeecca 0omaeea (_) Oqacq ooeaaa
() eaae 0qacc0oec (o) 0a0c Oeaee _eeqga
2. q oeaa ceaqge _ao ammg
(_) aaoeo (_) Oaeaa
() Ocaccaaa (o) gqqaoa
0eaqLc cqeq Qcqe
1. ge_ccacac ceagaa ce_ 0aa _c__g
2. oaeccmomc ce_ 0aa aaeceqge ge_cacac
_c__g.
8. ecca Ooaec _0ea _com a_ga
_ga.
271
Ocagqge
0caae - eqae
ecca - Qcaqggq 0aa
qaa - ecqgem aoa
Ocaccaaa - oaa0cae_c0c ccOcaa
e_ agcOceem
(1) oeagoa - e_c0a0caeo
gg agcOceem
1. e_c0a0caeme eea, geaoem oomo
2. e_c0a0caeme Oqac gccqeq ccqgce omgo
8. oeaome _aqgoqg_oae _aeom aaeo
4. 0q_a _eg Ocg _coome _aqgoqeqa, ge_caccac
_c_a oemoema omgo
cqg agcOceem
1. Ocg_coom a_ga ge _coome _aqgoqeqa,
ge_cacac _c_a oemoema c__ gg oc_e oeo
272
a.= gLoGumse6m Gascusa
qaoom aeec gg oeaoem a__oe_e. o_e_ c_
acc agcqo_g ocqge_e. aegomo_ga 0oaqgoo_ga
ec0a amm gemomc amm aeoeec oaao oeaom
a__ecc_e_e. aeoeec, oea acqoem oeq Qecac
Ooae_mmg. oea acqome ccOcaaoae ag_e_ea
omo cc 0oacca_om _e eooccc_mme. o_e_ e_
qeccqomc eoocaa. (i) aaacc__ a__oqc (ii) aaacq a__oqc
o_e_ 0aga cc cmomao cmocaa.
ccOcaaae
0oacca_om
aaacc__ a__oqc aaacq a__oqc
Oaaqq
gcca
_ae
cmaa__a
caeee
eaQec
ocqg 0oacca_ eec0cag0aa
caq 0oacca_
Oqacaq
_ae
cmaa__a
oaacae
_c
cmaa__a
qq-Ocqge
0oacca_
0oac0come
0oacca_
a6soupp apgag
ATP-ae ___ee aqo ccaac cqee _ca oea _aeom
0oao_gm Oecga Qo aaacc__ a__oqc cecc_a. ooeo
a__oqc Qo OoccQec a_ga omaeq aa__ q_ccaeomac
cagocc_ogcec. qaoqgo Oe_ ge_mm mcoqgc gg
Oe_ _goaae mcoqg_g aa__eac _ae amOm_cq 0ooaa_g.
aaacc__ a__oqc _ca oea acqome amOm_cec omo cc
0oacca_om _eeooccc_mme.
() Gsgg gcLaGascus (Mass Flow Theory) gGs (1u56) a_ga ss
(1u56) ce_a ___aom q 0oaccacqee _eeoqgmmaaom.
0oaccacqecq, aoc0cae _oeeaac, 0oaqOqagccc
a__ecc_a me Oaaqq gccq0qa_ _aeo_a a__ecc_e_e.
273
_eac 0oacca_ Oe_ emg cga geeac acqome 0eoqeq
omoq qog_g.
(@) mm udsppa Gascus (Ion-Exchange theory) oeaom _aeomao
a__ecc_e_e. qao Oecec amm 0a _aeo_a, cga
_aeo_a, Ge mmaaouc q_ mcoqgc amm 0a a_ga cga
_aeo_ce cmaa__a Oeaacc_e_e.
q ag_e_ea e_ 0oacca_omac omocaa.
(i) GgsLsq udsppa Gascus (Contact - Exchange theory) Ggmm a_ga
gmsoqc (1u8u) ce_a ___aom qee _e eoqqaaom.
0oaccacqecq aegomomegg 0oao_ga, 0oaomc gg
aegomo_ga _aeom oeecao aa_aac, cmaa__a _ece_e.
q _aeom 0oaOec ccce 0qa, omaegomome 0qa Qec
eea__cac gcqOoae_ goc ceeg o_e_e. eo gg
_a Ooammmgm meca_e_e. q_g mes Gas
(Oscillation volume) ceg Ocaa. g0 oqaae e oea Ooaec g
_aeome meca_a Ooammm 0a_Oeeg ooggqac (Overlap)
o__ec0a cmaa__a Qo_g. q_g Oqacaq cmaa__a ceg Ocaa.
(ii) assusma f udsppa Gascus (Carbonic Acid Exchange Theory)
0oaccacqecq aeoeecaeg mcoaao Oeacc_oqac,
_aec cmaa__qgc _a cgo_g. ooaeqge 0cag Oomaaga
CO
2
, gce eeg oaacae _caao aag_g. g H

(e_cge
_ae)- aaoa HCO
3
-
(ecoaac0ec _ae)- aaoa eq_g. omae
gome g gcqOoaec gg 0ae _ae aeoeeec amm H

Coa
eou
gem
eou
gem
LL. O_aLaLduayyCeaLLa_
meoa_
Oeammm
h

274
_aece cmaa__a _ecg _q 0a _ae 0oao_gm, H

_aegc cgcao ge_g.

(g) Lsmmm eQm (Donnan Equilibrium)
F.G. Lsmmm cecome 0oaccacqecq Qecaae _ccg co
_qaaq _aeom o _a cg oe_e. q _aeom, Oecee
accq_qgc gg Oecgg Oom0a cogcec. ooag gg
g_cccc ceeeoac amm Qecaae cga _aeom Ooaec Oec
acq oeeec
eooccccac, ea _m
cgae oea Ooaec
_aeom Oecggm
oge_e. qeac
_ccc _qc e
oeaea o_Oeaa _0q
_m 0ae oea
Ooaec _aeom
Oecggm qgoqac,
Oecee 0ae
_aeome Oe_ q_ mcoqeqoc _goaa_g. q_g caeee
eaQec ceg Ocaa.
0q0cac Qecaae 0ae _aeom gqac q_ mcoqgc amm
cgae _aeom Oecggm 0eoa _ece_e.
a6soq apgag : (Active absorption)
Oe_ emg cga geeac, omaeq aa__ ___ee aqo0aa_
ecOcga _aeome a__oqc Qo aaacq a__oqc cecc_a.
qaoome oag0oaco_gm Oe_ emg cga geeac _aeom
0eoaecoeq aaacc__ a__oqc 0oacca_ome _ca omo
acag. oeaome aaacq a__oqec omo cc 0oacca_om
amme.
() aLgQ Gascus (Carrier concept)
Oecec _aeo_g g_cqeaaq Ooaec ocqgom _ccg __
Oecceo oaecc_e_e. ocqgaaeg Oomcq_ mcoqgc gg
_aeea c_qg Ooae_, ocqg - _ae c_q Oqaggea
aecaga. g 18u
o
aao o_ _ecg, ccca oaao oag
H O

Coa
emu
gem
oc s.s asosm m omspp 0ascos
CO

+HCO
!

275
cccqge acq_qgc _aeea Oom0a_g_g, ceea a_O_ag
_aeea c_qg o
ggaq_g. ocqgaaeg
gg qqaao0oa,
Oagaao0oa gocaa.
Qog omaeq
aa__ ___c
0qeocc__g. q
0oaccacec ogmao
_aeomac _c_a.
sppm udspp (Isotopic
exchange), Gepppm
mm (Saturation eIIect),
a_ga ocqgome g_cqeaaq 0cae_ Qoom _qme_e. ocqg
0oaccacec omo g Ooameoom amme.
(i) qq Ocqge ocqgaao Oeacc_og (Protein - Lecithin as carrier)
(ii) 0oac0come 0oacca_
(i) qg GgQm aLgQmsa Gemuwg
Gummc a_ga ssam ogqgccq, ocqgaaeg -caocacecc
ace Oqacaqeca qqaao gocaa (c.oa.) Ocqge. g 0a a_ga
cgae _aeoem ocqg Ocqge - _ae c_qOqaggea
agoaga. g cccqge acq_a oag, _aeea Oom0a__,
a_cgqge _ca Ocqg0eo ce_ Oagaac, -caocacqq
_caaoa, 0oace (Choline) _oa cgccec_g. ceea 0oace
coc0o aqoaaga, omaeq aa__ ___caga Ocqge e_a
agoaocc__g.
(@) mecGLsgGs uq Gascus g nacsm aLgQa Gascus :
(Cytochrome Pump theory)
H. mqassg (1u54) ce_ ___a q 0oaccacec _eeoqqaa.
qecq, ooaqqee eccOcagmome 0q _moeqqac
aecaga ___ee aqoaac, eec0cag0aa _eacq _ca cgae
_aeom cccom oaao ocqqcc_e_e. q 0oaccacqe _a
ogqgomaoe:
(i) cga _aeom ac_a Oeaco (actively) ocqqc _eca _qa.
(ii) cga _aeoem a__oa ocqgomao eec0cag0aa Oeacc_a.
K

Cl

Cl

LamLaLqq _uc
Ocg
Ceam
_qCcm
LL 6.u_ qq-Ocg eL_gaae OoacLQog
Ceam _eLc
Ceam
O
c

g
C
e
m
276
(iii). _mge emoac Oomccccc _moe_a, accccc
ge_qqga ecOcga.
(iv). _ae 0eoqqac _c_a e em oaao 0a _aeome ocqgqc
ecOcga.
(v). 0qa Oeaacccc _ae a__oqec omo acag.
(vi). oa____ ooaea aeca qaoomc g oaecc_ogcec.
_o0o 0oacca_ cga _ae a__oqcac _c_a ooaqqec
omgoqac g nQs mm amsgg _ccg aoq amsgg ceg
_eocc__g.
a.a amGus_am gLoGumse
aaa qaoomc aeoaeg gm0eaeog oeagocccc
caae ecomc ac_0a qaamocc__g. gg oeq
Qecac aeoaeg qaoqge cc0og caoo_g ccOcaa
_ec_g. qaamocccc aec Ocagm ecomc gg
qaoome cc0og caoo_g 0qeo0o_c, ccOcaa _eca
Qog ammm gLoGumse ceg Ocaa. 0qeog _goaao amm
aecOcagcom oeaaq Qecac cc0og 0ecq agcqomc
0eqg eooccc_, oeq Qecac _ccg oeecao ccOcaa
_ecoqac Qo amGus_am gLoGumse cea
_eocc__g.
Fe

Fe

Fe
!
Fe
!
Fe
!
Fe

no0m
ooc0c+g0+m om
oL s.:: wecGLsgGs oq
0mo0a
qe_LCagCm
meem
H

H
14O

12H O

277
gLoGumse mL Qme
aeoe ccOcaa G Gsam, 4g Gsa _ccg cooac_
geeac Qo_a.
4gGsam gLoGumse
ooeo ccOcaa ecomegg 0a qe_, 0oaom,
a_ga 0ecq agcqo_g ecOcg_g.
GGsam gLoGumse
qao oaoe c Qecomae oeq _emqqc, ae@oqac amm
0ecq agcqomc gg qga qaoom 0qaegqc, Oaac_om,
acaom, oeom 0qaegqc _a Qoomc aec Ocagcom 0ac
0aa ccOcaa _ece_e.
uaamsc gLoGumse
qe_ a_ga 0oaome c caoomc, ae, Oa_ccm ogaom
(Medullary rays) oaao cooac_ ccOcaa _ec_g.
4gGsam gLoGumsemm maa mmm Gesgmm (Ringing Experiment)
gg qaoqeq c_qg _gc cq, eeca qo a__ gooem gg
g_cccc cggac ac_a gg
oema oqoc _o__ oc
0oe_a. q cgg
agocccc caa-ce Oa_oac
_ecoccc_ o__g. _
_ccg cc_ aco_gc c_g
oemaccggg 0ac amm
q_q0qac a_ga q_e oa
cgqgo_e_e. q cgqq
cggc gg 0o__c 0oaom
0qaege_e. Oeec,
ecaegg ccOcaa
_ecq aecOcagcom
oemaccgg oaao Oecc _qaaac 0ac cgga0c0a 0eocccce.
gLoGumse6m gmg mp
ccOcaaae ag_e_ea omo ce oga 0oacca_om _e
eooccc_mme.
ec
em
L_q Lg
Cog_L Coa
eoc
3ea
oc s.:z owm0esgom
278
mem Gsgg gcLa Gascus (Munch's Mass Flow)
ggg amomc amm qq gccqeqc0cac -q0maaa oaao
aec Ocagcome gcca ammg cecg c ___aome ogqg. qe
_qccecac me
cecoa 1u8u - c
gg 0oaccacqee
_e eoqqaa.
q e c q
-q0maaqgc amm
aecOcagcom
Oaaqq gccqeq
oac_a. ecaecqgo Oecomc agoaocc_a eaoeom, Oecee
eog_ coc __qqqeq _gomga. qeac, 0ome eeca Oecom
a__a aeg ecaecqgo Oeco_gm qg_g. qogqge
_qccecac qae Oaaqq gcc0oacca_ _e eooccc_mmg.
-q0maaa oaao, Ggspgmsmsa (source) amm ecaecq goga
GgLsa (Sink) _o amm 0qeocc_a co_ga ec0a oe_cq
__qq em oaecc__g. q oe_cq __qq emoaeg, 0ac q_qgc
gg mc oeq oeOcagmoem Oaaqqaao qeqe
-q0maaqg_gm Oegqg _gg ggaao 0oao_g __cqa.
qee gg a_ca _eacce _ca omocaa. 0a 0oaeqgc
g_eeomga oemq oeeaq gaae, oemq _eeomc 0qa
Oegqg eoom occcc_e_e. eo x, a_ga y cecc_a
_o0aaccaomao Oeacc_e_e.
x - ce_ _o0aaccmc Oe___ eaoe oeega, y-ac Oem
ge_q eaoe oeega c_qg Ooammcc_a. o_e_ a Ooaec
g 0og oceomc eoqg, q oceoem gg gaaac eeo
0oe_a.
eog_ coc Qooqac, x, y ceg e_ _o0aa- ccaomga
a qg_g. _eac x-ac qga me _m _goaao ammg. ce0o
oe_cq __qqqge oaeaao x-c gg a y-gm Oecoqac
oeOcagmo_a Oaaqqaao Oece_e. g _ee 0oaccac_g
omoaao _ea_g.
0oacca_, gg geeac ac_a oeOcagmome gccqeq
omgoqac, g gg _a cgaccao ammg.
0ogp__
o+ooo
oooo
0ogpgo__g
o+ooo
oooo
uLm s.ia Osgg gcLs 0ascus
j+
X
Y
279
me Gascuscqm amggm
-q0maaqgc aecOcagmome __a (Pholem loading) a_ga
Oom0a__a (Phloem unloading) ce_ Ooameog _e 0oacca_
_qccecaao ammg. ecaecqgooegg aec Ocagcom
-q0maaqg_m oaog, aecOcagmome __qgg oaeaao
ammg. -q0maaqgegg aec Ocagcom 0qeomm co_g
ocqqcc_og Oom0a__qgg oaeaao ammg. eq0a 0qa_goaa
0qc a__e_ (source-sink relationship) cea _ecca.
a. m mcgmm msemg spp
(Nitrogen Metabolism)
ecge ce_ aqoa omaeccqgc 18% oaecc__g.
aameome accomc oaecc_a _a oeaa ecge _ga.
Qm _com, eec0cag0aaom, ceaa, eocceom,
_cocaa_om a_ga qqome _ao ecge ammg.
ecge 0qaao caec_ogcec. _g ecge Qeccca_
(Nitrogen Iixation) ce_ Qoae _ca, ec0c, ecec a_ga
_a0aaeaaoao aa__cc__g. cc oqaae camaa a_ga
cccoacaom ecge Qeccacqc cg Ooame_e. aeec
amm _a0aaeaa a_ga _maa qaoomac 0qaao
a__ecc_e_e.
mcgm agp (Nitrogen Cycle)
qaoom 0qaao caec_qq _qaaq oea ecgee
0qa_goaa omaeccaao ammg. omaecc ecge aeec
_a0aaeaa, ecec, ec0c a_ga oma ecgeao aa__cc__g.
oma _eacqome _cq a_ga __oc Qoaac, _0ea
_com, cmeom a_ga cmqeom _a0aaeaaoao
aa__cc_e_e. o__c c cggom oa ecgeao aa__ccc_
omaeccqgg ggcc __cccc_e_e.
ecgee cc0og cceacqom ecaa__a _ecg
omaecc ecge _meo aa_aac eoqggga Qo mcgm
agp cecc_a.
q o_ac gg Qecom _cga.
(i) _a0aaeaaoaqc (AmmoniIication)
(ii) ec0ccaqc (NitriIication)
280
(iii) ec0c qeaaaagqc (Nitrate Assimilation)
(iv) ecge Oom0a__a (DenitriIication)
(v) ecge Qeccca_ (Nitrogen Fixation)
(i) Gsmmsmsg
Qoac oma ecge,aeec amm ge@amome
aqoaac _a0aaeaa _aeomao aa__cc__g. aeec oma
ecgee 0qa_goaaao gga oce oom a_ga _q,
__ Ooaeqgga qao oce acc ceom 0cae_o_e_
cc0og oqaao _a0aaeaaoaga eagee camaomae uso
Gsoo, uso masdo, c ae __eeom a_ga
_q0eaeac_om 0cae_eo - eqe_e.
(ii) mcGcLsg
8u-85C OoccQec Ooaec OogOogccae o aeec, pH
Qecaao gga 0cag, _a0aaeaaoaeg, ecec (NO
2
-
) _o aa_
o
_
c
C

a
C
e
a
C
u
a
e
am
o
_
c
C

a
c
a
e
c
a

0
!
_aca ugga moa
q_ae

_
o
q
u
g
g
a

_
e
o

C
u
a
e
a
a
c
a
e

a
c
a
e

m
a
a

C
u
a
e
a
a
c
a
_
o

!
o
_
c
C

c
c
a
e

a

c
a
e

m
a
a
o
_
c
C

c
c
a
_
o
cemeLe c_Lge 78+]
meee { O_tueety dceoe
_0a+ca+
o
_
c

g
e
[
o
o
c
a
_
o
c
_
u
m
u
g
g
a
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c
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m

o
o
a
_

c
a
e

m
a
a
u
g
g
a

o
c
+
a
c
a

o
_
c

g
e
O
c

C
a
g
_
a
o
_
c

g
o
e
O
c

C
a
g
g
a
c
a
e

m
a
a
u
e
m
e
o
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c
C
c
_e
o_ cCc _ecauae_o
cca .14 o_ cge +g g

C
u
a
e
a
a

_
e
c
a
u
a
e

_
o
281
c_g ec0c (NO
3
-
) __g. q_g ec0ccaqc ceg Ocaa.
ec0a0ea0aaeao ce_ camaa _a0aaeaaeo ecec _oa
ec0acaca ce_ camaa ececec ec0ccaoa aa_g_g.
mcGsGesGsmso mcGsusaLs
_a0aaeaa ------------------------>NO
2
--------> NO
8
ecec ec0c
(iii) mcGc gmmsagg
aeec amm ec0c, ec0c _aeomao (NO
3-
) qaoome
0oa Oqagcce _ca a__ecc__g. _eac eq qaoomac
0qaao caec_qq_qaag. _qec ec0c, ec0c mc0co
(Nitrate reductase) ce_ Oagaac ececca_g (NO
2-
) ceea NO
2-
,
ecec mc0co (Nitrite reductase) ce_ Oagaac _a0aaeaaoa_g.
q_g 0qeoaae cc_ cccaeoem ge_occcc NAD a_g
-Occame _me_e. ooag ec0c oa_g ooaea amm
ge@amomac _a0aaeaaoao aa__ccc_ ceea Oec qqo_gm
0eaocc_a Qog mcGc gmmmsagg ceg Ocaa.
NO
3
-
NO
2
-
NH
3
2e
-
6e
-
ec0c
ec0c
mc0co
ecec
ecec
mc0co
_a0aaeaa
NAD(P) H
Fd(red.)
(iv) mcgm GmGmpp
ec0cec, ececcao aa__ _eq _a0aaeaaoao aa__
ceea _gegg ecge oa a_ga eco _ee_ agoaga
Qo mcgm GmGmpp cecc_a. a_e_ac oa ecge
omaeccqgm Oom0a__cc_oqac, ecge o_ __g
Ocg_g. gGLsGsmso mcd.daamo uso eoqo,
mgGmsuso mcd.daamo 0cae_ camaa Qoac
c0o_e_e.
(v) mcgm Qmous
oea ececge, oma ecge oeoaao aa__ccc_ qaoome
caecac_g aoqqao agoaga Qo mcgm Qmous
cecc_a ecge Qeccca_ _aaao e_ oeocc_a.
282
(i) aam _ccaq (Non-Biological) _ccg Ocmgo (Physical) Qeccca_
a_ga
(ii) aama ecge Qeccca_ (Biological Nitrogen Iixation).
ecge Qeccca_
aaa _ccaq (_)
Ocmgo
aama
Oqac
_e_acae
a_eoaae
c_am _e_
_ccaq
c_am
_e_acae
Oca
qaoom
Oca _ccaq
qaoom
a6d sg g GuQa mcgm Qmous
gc eaae _e_ac Oqa_ge_ac ecOcga ecge
Qeccca_a, a_eoaao eec Ooc_qcac 0qaega eea
Oomccaccac ecOcga ecge
Qeccca_a _cga.
a6dm mcgm Qmous
aameomac ecOcga ecge
Qecccacq_g aama mcgm Qmous
ceg Ocaa. cmeaa Qoae 0cag
ecge Qecccacq_g Q.ogmom (NiI
genes) cecc_a ge Oqagccee Oc__
camaa a_ga cccoa caom gc
_cga. eo oec oeeae _ca
ecgee Qeccc_qge_e.
N
2
NH
3
6e
-
ec0ag0eo
_a0aaeaa
Fd(red) NADPH
2
_aa a
a s
;.ca a
ecz .: ssacc 1ai
283
q aameom qeqg oaceoaao gqac c_am _ccaq
_e_ac ecgee Qeccc_qgceo cega, c_amomao
gqac, c_am _e_ac ecgee Qecc_qgceo cega
_eocc_a.
c6dmp sg mcgm Qmous
g aeec qeqg oa_a aameomaa camaa,
cccoacaom Qoqga ecge Qecccacaga.
camaaoc, oa_g ooaea Ooaec _0eac0cacaca, oa____
ooaea Ooaec socdqm, gGsGsdm, gGsGm 0cae_eo
_cga.
cccoacaomc ggaasaao, dGdms, mdms, LsoGusgdao,
soLsa 0cae_eo _cga.
oameom _eeqga, Mo-Fe (aaecea - gaq) Ooaec
qqaae mcGsgGmo ce_ Oagea Ooae_mme. q Oag
ececgee, ATPae ___c a_ga -Occamee Ooae_,
cqccqaao ge_qqc _eca Oeag _a0aaeaaoao aa_g_g.
c6dmp mcgm Qmous
Oca qaoom a_ga Oca _ccaq qaoo0ma_ c_aa
oaeo cqga geeamomac ooq Qeccca_ ecOcg_g.
X
C
H
D
m e g s
o ; O s o
O o _ g
q j m 0 s e
0 _ j g o g
g _ + +
a c z S. o 1 o_q agor gz _a g
s c q j q j m 0 s e
o y o o o c _ e
284
c_amom ce _eocc_a. g aameomec0a oaecc_a
coc eea oemoga a_ _e_g c6s wsgma mp
(Symbiosis) ceg Ocaa.
G sg gsma mcgm Qmous
mo ce_ aaa qao 0oao_ce .usmms ce_ _q0eaeac
c_aa oaeo a__e_ea _c_qg_g. soLsa 0cae_
cccoacaom meaaom co 0oao_gm _ccg @Ggssom
qacogm c_aa oaeo cqge_e.
cLmmm s.4 : am mcgm Qmous a6dm moqa
I. gmgg ms_ (c6s msgama pp) gm@6da
usadms
oa__c oaceo GescGLsusaLs __eom
oa____ Qecac
oaceo gm0eaeo soqdqm __eom
g_e__eo
oa____
Qecac oaceo GsGLsomud __eom
gm0eaeo g__ecaeo
memGms usdms soLs, mdms __eom
a_ga c_
II. c6d moqa
gaqam ge@amom oaecc_a ca
1. @gGmsoGusa
Oca qaoom mGesdm __eom 0oa _qoom
Oca _ccaq qaoom
mo, Gaammms _q0eaea c_om, 0oa _qoom
meaGascdms GoGms ec _qoom
__eom
2. gGmsoGusa ea oe_ c_aa
c eeocom Ooammcccaq oaeo
cccoa caom _qaqgce
cgoaoocec
8. Guma - Gess mdms ecc Ocagom
4. msogss Qa
pp gsma
ecOoeom __eeom a_ga
cccoa caom
285
G gsma mcgm Qmous
ooaao _aag __acccc c_am_e_ ecge Qeccca_
Oca qaoomc ecOcg_g. mGesdm cecc_a aeoa
camaa, Oca qaoome (g_aca Ocg0ea0eeo 0eaqeo)
0oaoem Oqa__ 0oa _qooem agoaga.
eo ecge Qecccacqc c0o_e_e. aeec oa_a
camaa 0oaqgo oaao Ggspg gmg (InIection thread) agoa
Ooae_ 0ome q_e Oeco_gm gee_e. camaa q_e
Oecec _ecqce _Oecom 0ooaao cgcceca aqccc_ Gms
qeaam (root nodules) agoage_e. q 0oa _qoomc og
oa_a camaa o_eaaae Oecooa e_ oaecc_oqac usasLa
(Bacteroids) ce _eocc_e_e.
eo 0oa Oecomc gg aeeo c_qg Ooae_,
Oc-_0aag0mace ce_ Ooma ocq Q_ea oe_e.
Oc-_0aag0mace cecg _0aag0macee 0cae_ gg _mge
ocqgaaga.
caaa_om oqoc amm e0eacaom, ec0ag0eo ce_
ecgee Qeccc_qga g_e Ooaec Oageac Oc__gccqac,
gaqaa qaoqg_g eea oemoe_e.
oa____ Qecac ac_0a Oeacccqa ec0ag0eo
Oagea Oc-_0aag0mace cagoa_g.
gm Qod
emaae ecea 0qaOq_e
1. oea acqome aaacc__ a__oqec omga 0oacca_ g
(_) _ae cmaa__a (_) ocqg 0oacca_
() eec0cag0aa caq 0oacca_
(o) 0a0c ammg ga cec
2. Oqacaq cmaa__ 0oaccacec _e eoqqoa
(_) Ogee (a) goaoqc (_) _c0aa (a) aaa
() Oceec (a) maa (o) omo (a) oacqo
0eaqLc cqeq Qcqe
1. c_am ecge Qeccacqc c0o_ga camaa
_ga.
2. a_ga ec0ccaga camaaoaga.
286
Ocagqge
cacco 0aaoo - ooc
0ca0aaeao gg0eaea - _a0aaeaaoaqc
Oceec a_ga maa - ecge Oom0a__a
0a0cacagca - ocqg 0oacca_
0oac0coa - qq - Ocqge 0oacca_
e_ agcOceem
1. oeago : oecOcagmome ccOcaa ] _a0aaeaaoaqc ]
ecge Oom0a__a ] caeee eaQec.
gg agcOceem
1. _ee Oaaqq gcc 0oaccacec omgo.
2. oeaome aaacq ocqgqec oomo.
8. _ae cmaa__qge _ca _ae ocqgqec omgo.
4. oea acq ocqgqee eec0cag0aa caq 0oaccacec
omgo.
5. oeOcagmome 0aa ccOcaaea omga oema
0eaqee c__ c_go.
cqg agcOceem
1. oea acqome a__oqec omga 0oacca_oem c__ gg
oc_e oeo.
2. ecge o_ea oomo.
8. aama ecge Qecccacec omgo.
287
o. gmoGu_aa a6dm
1. @gGmsoGusam gmoGu_aa
1.. aL mo Gu_aa
Ocagoao __0aaoOcaaome Ocgoa, cac ecOcgoqgc
agoaga oeqome _ca ecOcg_g. g qo acc Ocgo_a
gc oaecc__g.
aL m Gu_aa
ooeoea eaaq qaoom oeq qo c_ ac_caoom _ca
ecOcgoqeq 0a_Ooame_e. o__c oeqo_g cgcao acc
Oaac_om (cgom) oeqomao caec_e_e.
Ocgacaga Qecq qaoomc acco ecOcgoa ceoga
_e_omc ecOcg_g. Oaac_o_qc, gecaqc, Ogaaa ga
Qec Oaac_om a_ga o0caa 0cae_eoom _ca ecOcg_g.
acc ecOcgoa 0aga goeoaao cmocc__g.
_. a_eo acc ecOcgoa (qeo Ocgoa)
_. Oea_eo acc ecOcgoa (qeo Ocgoa)
. gmpma mp6 gmgm Gu_aa
Gmsam gmg m Gu_aa
c qaoomc aa__a _ecq g 0oaoem qe0 c
Oeaa 0cag g 0oaomc oaecc_a Oaac_om _emqg, qga
eceaa, qeeca 0qa_goe_e. eo g ge_ cecc_a.
q g ge_om qeg0ac oaecc_a. o__e _qac 0o__c
0oaom oaecc_a. goOoag g ge_a gg qga qaoqeq
0qa_goga. (c.oa) eaoe ommg, magg, ms, Lsms,
pg GmsoGuss.
288
LsGusgms oGos, usoqo, Ooaaaa, ssms __eom,
_c3aa OcOc a_ga cc __eomc 0o__c Oaac_om eaqae
0oaomc gg 0qae_ qga qaoqeq 0qa_goe_e.
gma aL m Gu_aa
cc qaoomc qe_ccgg aa_gg _ecg cc0og ceoem
Oeae_e. ooag aa_gg _ecq qe_om _eg0ogccc
ceoem Oeae_e. (_) Qecqg oaqc (_) qe oOcgoa
a_ga () aeeo 0eqqc 0cae_eo.
acc Ocgoqg_g aqo qma aa_gg _ecq qe_om
ceoga _eg cmomao oeocc_qqcc_e_e.
_. qeg
_. qeOaacqa
. qe0ac
gm4g gmam Gu_aa
q qaoom coea Q_a__ cccae_ oa qe qe_omc
gg 0qaege_e. eo 0qeoaae ae Ocagcoem 0eoa,
acco Ocgoqg_g, eaqoa__ Qecac q_oaqg cccae_ oa
aq_g. eoomc gg qga qe0ac qe_q Oqagg eaqoaae
Qecac oeoao om _acga. eaqoa__ Qecac qe0ac
qe_q Oqagg _go_a. _eac qe qe_om _aaac a_o
Qeca0c0a oaecc_a. eaqoaae Qec oga 0cag _eoom qga
qe0ac qe_q Oqaggea agoage_e.
uGmg mmaoucL gm4g gma asmoumpm. mmmsmm.
1. acc Qcqqe_
2. gom
8. ga
4. oqa
gfg
q qe_ gcecaaeg a_ga qc_oqoaaeg. cooq aec
Ocagema Oc__goag. qe_ccggea o__ cee__ _caqgaao
ge_e 0ac ge_ao _eaq ecomac _ccg ecaqc cggomac
289
_ccccqgga. eo Ocgacaga Oegc ecom cecc_a. q
Oaaqq _eacqa 0eag gqeq agoage_g. gcecaae a_ga
ge_occcc qe_ cee__ 0o__c 0oaoem _qe _qccggac
Oc__gga.
) Ggmppp gfg
q oeoac eeqcc_gmm Oegcom __ogaae ge_occcc
qe_q Oqaggea o__ oaecc_a. g _oe0o qeec o__
oaecc_a occ __e g a_O_ag __oao oaecc_a
Oomcq_aao c o_ec Oegc ecom 0qae_ Oacea eo 0cae_
__oac _ccccqgga. g qe ce _eocc_a. eeqcc_gmm
Oegcom cecg qe ecome _qccggaaga. (c.oa.) Oooaaa.
@) GeQa gfg
0o ecom _aeo, a_ga Oegcom 0cae_eo, a_ga Oegc
ecome omaq ac_a ge_e g ge_ao oaecc_a. eoomc
Oomcq_ qe oaecccag. Oegcomac _e ga _ce, _e_
0cae_eoomc oaecc_a.
0a_oec e_ oeoomc 0oaeOaac_ Oqacaaao 0qae_
eeqcc_gmm Oegc eoome 0oaeqgc 0qaega ecom qga
gao omae_e. _ccg Oc_0_aa gqgegg cmqg qga
qaoaao omae_e. eoom ae 0eoa a_ga qeo
Ocgoa eeca Oeae_e.
ag
g _go _m ge_occcc acc Qcq qecaga. g gcecaae,
qqqq, Qecaae a_ga eeqcc_gmm Oegqg geeac omga qe
qecaga. g _go _ccg ge_q _m occ oqoqgc0ea _ccg
ceaaa 0aegg ao qcecaao0oa oaecc_a. g
_mogoaae aecOcagcom 0eoccc_ g_cccqqo _m
omaea Ocge_e. eo geg _ccg _q_g 0a_ccc
Oaac_oem Oegc ecome 0oaeqgc Oc_gmme. q
Oaac_omc c qeg 0ac omag _oem agoage_e. qe
_qcq_qgc 0o__c 0oaom 0qae_ ae@gm Oece_e. aec
Ocagcom _qcq_c cggac 0eocc_e_e. q oeoac qga
oqa 0qaege_e. (c.oa.) 0oa0ca0oaa, _aaa0cacaco _qeae.
290
qeOaaLqa aa_gg ecq qe_
q oeo aa_ggom cc g qaoomc oaecc__g. eoom
Oaeq Oaeeaaae eq qe_oem Ooae_mme. ooeo
qaoome qeqe gg cgg qeoqac oaecc_a. _eoaac a__
cggom qe0ac oaecc_a emome o@oamc 0o__c 0oaoem
Oc__gga q oeoq qaoom _ccao _eaq emome
ge_om _caao oeoao
Ocgoaece_e (cqc
_ece_e) qeOaacqa
aa_gg _ecq qe_omc
ceoga oeoom
oaecc_e_e.
1. oGLsm
z. @o.Gec
(gcmLmsm g_ gm)
oGLsm
qe qeqc gg
0qaege_e. ecaccaao Oom0a omae_e. o@oema
a_ga o@oecc cggoema Ooae_mme. gg qeecc 0cac
oaeccccaga eoom aeee 0a_ccc_g e_g 0
0qa_goocc_e_e. (c-oa) ocs.Gud, msoGdms a_ga cc.
@.oGec (gcmLmsm g_ gm)
eo ggoa _ecq gg qe_ _ga. _qcQec qe_q
Oqaggae _qcq_ eoome 0oaeqgegg ecaccaao 0qaega
ug a - Ocaeaaa
mCeoce
q
Ocaeaa_ge .Oc.C_a
eo_o cgg o
Oego oo
uaaCcacaom
Cea e__a
Ceae
Ouac_
q_
_c_
ug a
ao_
Ocggc Cca
LL o. g
LL o.z s g
Ocggc Cca
c;sOus
+gfee
o0Laeac
0ca
uL . 0Lssm
291
gcecaae emomc gg 0qaege_e. eoom gg qeecc
0cac _ccaac 0a_q_aao geac Ooaqqae ecoema, _qcq_aao
Ooaqqao 0omeea 0qa_gooe_e. eo Oc_0_aa qaoqgegg
aecc_a 0cag goOoag qeema, qga qeq qaoqeq
0qa_goga. (c-oa) doqms a_ga gaGassmms.
gma aL gmoGu_aa
Ocagoao a_eoac
eoom acc o
ecOcgoqgc o_ccag.
_eaga dmGmsd
ecom _ca ecOcgoa
Oeaa g_cccqqo g_ee
O c _ g m m g .
dmGmsdgQm __
ecae omaqome
cmmqgc oaecc_a.
Oaac_omc gg 0eaq
qaoom 0qaege_e.
q 0eaq qaoom qeaao cmg og qga qaoomao
omae_e.
4. g gfga mGm aL gmoGu_aa
eo 0oam oqoaae, cc Oecomac _e eeqcc_gmm Oaac_om
_ga. eo qe ecome 0oaeqgc, 0oae Oaac_o_g cgcao
0qaege_e. eo agag qeac o_a 0cag _emqg qga
L_+ eceaq
_-LOoL
CoaLeL
LL o.+ @.c OoL
gs as v a
3m0ma.3m
m_Oo
uLm .s gw@Oeqs@Lm qm gm
292
qaoomao omae_e.
(c.oa.) LmsoGasdms,
@aoso, _eea ca
a_ga cc.
s. ggs m aL
gmoGu_aa
eo a oaq
qaoomc eeqcc_gce
oaecc_a _cqq qeea
oaaq Oaac_omaga. q
Oaac_om _ca qga
qaoom 0qaege_e.
(c.oa.) GuscLGsgcLsm,
cdgGdms, a_ga cc.
gmpma gmg m Gu_aagQm GgscLaam amggm
ooeaaa Oea0oaa a_ga 0qaccoec ocgaom caaoem
Ocgoa, oeo gaao 0qaccq qaooem agoaoa 0a0c
g_cccc cc0og a_eo qe o ecOcgo _e_oem
caec_qge_ea.
qeo Ocgoqge _qeea __ca aaOqec 0qa
Oeaacccc qaoqge ogaca ceqoem qeo Ocgoqge _ca
agoaocaa. agemg Ocgoaecqc _qe __ eo0aa
_ccg _qe ge_ome _caao Ocgoaeca Oeaqc ag eg
Oqmq Qoaaga. _, a_ga oae acc Qcqqeqe gg cggae
_c_a 0oa0c0oaa a_ga g0aoo, oqqge g ge_ome
_c_a, Oooaaa a_ga _e_ _qe gqge _c_a, eaoe
ommg _qe 0oagom _c_a Ocgoa _ece_e.
Gempma mp6 gmgm gmoGu_aa
0a0c oomoccc_mm a_eo _e_ac qeo
ecOcgoaccag cc Oea_eo _e_ qeo ecOcgo_a
Oeaacc_e_e. Oea_eo _e_ qeo ecOcgoqge oeoom
ceogaag.
crso0asrs
_sso
g1
ee_LLygmm
Coa
g
1
__
ocs.s g9a
eo
293
aL gma
qao accqge qaog
gg cggaae qe_, 0oa
_ccg ec _ao_e_
qeo ecOcgoqg_g
caec_qgog acc
ge_om cecc_a. qe_
ge_om o Ocgacaga
qeo Ocgoa Oeaa
0 a o q g _ o a o
c a e c _ q q c c _ _ g .
goOoag __eqge qao
acc ge_oem 0qa
Oeaa 0cag 0qeoaae
ma, a_ga qao ge_ome
ggom, Oc_0_aa
qaoqge oag aoq oaca,
0cae_ oaeoem ooeqgc
Ooamm 0oe_a.
qe_ ge_om _ca Ocgoa _eca c qaoom ogaq,
Gsgs, GusGammG, _geo, mgdoao Ggodms _qeae.
gc Gusg
eaqaeaao, Ocgacaga, a_e_ac qaoomc acc
ecOcgoa ecOcg_g. a_e_ac e_ qao emom
ge_ao eeoccc_ g0 qaoaao omaocc__g. oaogcaa
0oacaa amm, o Oga e_, g oqgec
qaoo_ec0a gc_qc ecOcg_g. 0oao_ce qa qaga
cggaao gga qaoa oLsa _ccg _qqge_ cega, _q_ce
eeocc_a 0oO_ag emq qaoa meGmsm _ccg 0a_ge_
cea _eocc_a.
aL m Gu_aagQm mma
acc o Ocgoqgc cc eeaom ae_. _gc co_e_
oae0caa.
1. ge_q _m oeq _emga g__a aaaoa_a qeeaa
Ooaec qaoom _ccg ec oaca oeq a_oqgc amm
e_
OuaL_
OuaL_ oma_g ga
_ao a_oa_c
CoyLCoa
oc s.1 ac gma
eg
egmeLL
Lg
294
qaooem Ocgacaga acc ecOcgoqge _c0a
Ocgoaeca Oeaa _qa. Oee_ac q _e_om _ca oa
oeoaoa, cmqaoa, a_ga ge_q Oecoga a_cqg Oeaa
_qa.
2. ae a_ga o_g c aa__qge oaeaao, oeqom _emoaq
qga Qcqgc, a_e_ae aqoce qaooem ___occ_qq
_qa.
8. o_a _m oeqoem a_cqg Oeaa qaoom (c.oa)
emGmsLsm Lsqsm, GusLs qpa _ccg go qpa 0cae_eo
Ocgacaga acco ecOcgoqge _caao0oa a_cqg Oeaa
_qa.
4. oeqoem agoao acaq qaoomc acc ecOcgoa
ac_0a qao Ocgoqg_g amm g0 o _e_aaga. (c.oa.) oae,
oeqacca gacee, __o, 0aga, aceeo a_ga cc qaoom.
5. Ocagmaqa eeaoao, a_Ocagm eaaq acc g eaaq
qecccc qaooem gc_qc _ca eeqg cc qaae
ceqoem aeca qaooem agoao _qa.
6. qaoome cc ceqom _eeqga _ccq0a qoeoqg
Ooammcc__g a_ga cooq aa___a, aagca_a ccaac
_ccq0a Ocgo aec_g.
1. acc o ecOcgoqge _a eea aaOqec,
agoaocc_a qaoom _eeqga Oc_0_aec 0caeg g0
acac qeea Ooae_mme. oeqom _ca 0qaega qaoomc
g Oc_0_ame ceqo_a ocggccqac, Qec eaqgacec.
gm Qod
gg agcOce
1. e_cooomc acc Ocgoa cqe _ca ecOcg_g
_. qe_ _. Oaac_ . e0eaa o. ec
2. cqqaoqgc ecom _ca acc ecOcgoa ecOcg_g.
_. _eae _. 0oco . agem o. ce0aa-ccca
0eaqLc ceem Qcqe.
1. gc_qec qaga cggaao gga qaoccgg.............
295
2. ---------- _ca _a agemg ge_ qga qaoqeq ae_
ce_a.
e_ agcOceem
1. gc_qc ce_ac cee
2. g gom ce_ac cee
8. o0caca_ga, eogga amm 0ogca_ aag
4. gg oqgec qaoomc gc_qc e Oeaa _qaag
gg agcOceem
1. acc o ecOcgoqge _aqgoqeq oom
2. acco ecOcgoa ce_ac cee
cqg agcOceem
1. acc ecOcgoqeqc c__ ogoaao gg oc_e oeo.
2. a_eo o acc ecOcgoqge cc0og oeoeom omgo.
1.@ gmGu_aa
geOcgoa cecg ooeaaa - 0qaccoec a_ga oeqge_
0cae_o__c ca_mm qaooem oeoao qeo Ocgoa Oeaa
_e_aaga. ga qao Oeccaeg __qqaoqeqa agoaga g_e
cecqqg. qee eao occea ce0_aa. ooaae _e_omc
ecOcgoa Oeaa _qaaq qaooem qOqac gccqge _ca
cmgc Ocgoaec Oeaacaa.
gmGu_aagQm Gemmp
q _e_ac qao _e0eaqae _a cggom oma mcc
mcoqgc omaocc__g. q _e0eaq qe_ ge _ccg
a_emae _gq gooao gocaa. qao _e0eaqae goom Oec
Ocgoaeca oacqgc oaco goeo 0qa_goe_e. _go _m
oaco goeo a_cqg Oeaq c_g _e, eec0caeoee 0cae_
oma _aa0aaeom Ooae_mm qgoma mcoqgc oaco go gee
oma mcoqgc cmqg omaocc__g.
0qeoaae _m oaco go agoae c_g e_a qaoqeq
agoaga mcc mcoqg_g aa__cc__g. _0o oaco gooegg
296
0oga, qe_q Oqagga
0 q a e g a a g
geccc__g. emaae
0oa a_ga qe_q
Oqagg agoae c_g
goOoag qao oega
e_a Qecqggo
coea ccqgc amm
Oqacqg aa__cc__g.
c eaaa oaco
gooem qeea
aecaqao aa__caa.
o_e_ oma mccqgc
eoga 0cag g0 qeea
aeca _caqgaae Oec
Oqagcq omag qga qao oegoem 0qa_goga.
1. nmmpp gm GgsgQ amga
q Oeac_e_eac cec__ ogacqqo qaoqge cee__
ocom qe_ geea caec_qg agoaocc__g. _mqae
occcea _ccg _eaqae qeea aeca acc_q qaoom _ccg
g0 gg qe cac qeea aeca ogacqqo qaoom Ocgoaeca
Oeag Oc_cc__g. q Oeac_e_ _ca oma mcoqgc
omaocccc qe_ geaee cooq g_cccqqo aagqgg
acc_qqaac oaco gooegg cee__ Oaac_oem
0qa_goocaa. q Oaac_om qe_q Oqaggaao omaocc__g.
eqq Oqacag 0oaom 0qae_ Oeaa _aa0aaeoem caec_qg
0oaom 0qaegaag geccc__g. c_g qe_ Oqagg aeec c
Oeaaccc_ qga qaoaao agoa_g. q Oqac g@oqge _a
eea ceeOoec _go _m g0 ae qaoom ogca __oga
o_a cqgc agoaocc__g. q_g c_qgoaccao ge
Ocgoa _ca oeo gaao agem, oae, GuGasmms, eaag
(mesQ) 0cae_eo agoaocc__g.
z. aLa_ a_msaa
acc Oecoem eea _eeccaec omaqg g_e_ Oec
Oqaocomao Oc_cc__g. _g 0qg_gcce, oma mcoqge
mccqgeec Ocagqg Oecom _gocce ceeeoac
0qae_ace, mcoa Qeccc_qqcc__g. goOoag Oecga
0ogcaeca Oqac ogoao aag_g. g 0oam a_ga qa
c_+ ococae
g_aca
acoe_ee
xccxcea
cca. _eOc_eea
eaom
297
oqoo_ce cac ecOcgoqge _ca 0qaega ogoee 0cae0_
oma Qecea _ec_g. acc Oecomc gg q ogom
0qaegoqac eoom acc ogom ceg _eocc_e_e.
_aoeoae acc ogoem ge_q _m oma mcc mcoa
Ooaec 0eaqee gaac agoao _qa. q goOoag acc
ogo_a eaqae _e 0oe Ooaec __ qaoaao agoae_g.
oac, cm a_ga .us.us 0cae_ qaoom a_e_ac
Oo__oaao agoaoccc_mmg.
gmGu_aa gsma uGmg asma@aasa ummuggoupg.
mma 4Gg mmdaaoucm.
1. c qaoomc oeq agoaoa, _mqao gocaa, _ccg
agoao _qaaac 0caocaa. _g 0cae_ Qecomc, geOcgoa
ga cmqae Oqac g@oa _ga. eq caec_qg _go
ceeeoacae, g0 aagmaae qaooem agoaocaa.
2. c qaoomc accae caeec Ocgoa ecOcga. _eac
Oog c occqamo0m ogacqqo ceqoem Ooaeqgga.
geOcgoqge _ca agoaocc_a qaoom g0 aagmaae
_eacqecaeo; 0aga _0o ogacqqo ceqoem
Ooaeceo.
8. c eaaomc ogacqqo geaoa Ooaec qaoom co_oao
0qeocc_a. ceOea, cee 0cae_ qaoomc g0 ae
qaoom geOcgoa _ca 0qa_goocc_e_e.
4. g Qecaae Ocgo _e_aaga. qe _ca 0qaega ccca
qaoo_a ga aa__a _ecaaac cagoaocccqgga.
5. 1u86 oe 6ug 0a_ccc oe __eom geOcgoa _e_ea
caec_qg occcea Oeaaccc_mmg.
gm Qod
e_ agcOceem
1. eao occeaea oeag.
2. ge Ocgoa ce_ac cee
cqg agcOceem
1. geOcgoqeqc c__ gg oc_e oeo.
298
z. usmoGu_aa
z -. age Gesama
aoqqamegg c_qae ccqg aoq gomom aa__cc_a
Qog aoq0eaeo ceg Ocaa. oeq qaoome, cae
Ocgoqgc aoq 0eaeo gg _aaae Qo _ga. oeq
agoaoq_ga, __eoem Qec Qgqqa aoq 0eaeo gg _e
Qcqee _ga. ga0eaoOcaa qaoomc 0q aoq 0eaeoa,
__0aaoOcaaomc ae__o aoq 0eaeoa ecOcg_g.
e_ oeoaae aoq 0eaeoom amme.
qe aoq 0eaeo a_ga _ac aoq 0eaeo
I. gm age Gesama
g0 qaoqgc amm gg acggm0m oaecc_a aoqqqamc
gg _qe c_qae ccqg aoq gomom ocqqccccaa _ccg
g0 qaoqgc amm g 0og acao_ec0a Qocaa. qe
_qccecac qe aoq 0eaeo goeocc_a. _c0ca0o a_ga
eocq0ea 0o.
) @cGLsGaf : (0oqgc Auto = qe, gamos = 0eaeo)
ooeo aoq 0eaeoac gg acme aoqqamomc amm
aoq gomom _0q acmc amm c_qg aa__cc_e_e. g
_eg oomc ecOcga.
i) oGLsGaf (0oqgc Cleios - _qag, gamos - 0eaeo)
qe aoq 0eaeo __ogaao ecOcgoq_g c qaoomc
acaom acao0q cec. Qecg mo0ca0o ceg Ocaa. (c.oa.)
asfms GumaGmoo, @aeso, msGmss 0cae_eo. ooeo acaom
_a gcac qeea Ooaec Oqmo__, Q_a__ a_ga 0qe
ooaqeoaao amme.
ii) GgsGsGaf
c qaoomc amm gcac acaomc aoqqamo_a, c_qa
g0 eaaqgc _ga _ece_e. eo oma, oemqc, aqcqgqc
299
_a aa__omac _gog0o og _eag, qe aoq 0eaeoea
aggc_qge_e. Qecg 0_a0aa0o ceg Ocaa. (c.oa.)
fsdo (_gaqae) Gagsgo (oeoa) agemg, maoag
0cae_eo.
iii) Gsc age Gesama
Oaac_om acaoq_g _eeac aoq qamo_a c_qa _ga
_ecg qe aoq 0eaeoea agg Oeaa. (c.oa) 0oagea, Oc,
cccae 0cae_eo.
@) GacqGmsGaf : (0oqgc Geiton _gc, gamos 0eaeo)
ooeo aoq 0eaeoac gg acmc gg aoq gomom, _0q
qaoqgc amm a_O_ag acme c_qg aa__cc_e_e. g
Ocgacaga 0aaeao qaoomc oaecc__g. (gg cac qeea,
_e a_ga Oce acaom g0 qaoqgc oaecc_e_e).
gmag Gesama6m mma
1. aoq 0eaeooae oaacqom _goa.
2. gg qao eqge gaqeeaea oaoa, occceqeq qoaoa,
qe aoq 0eaeo aqa.
8. _mg _goaae aoq gomoem agoao 0oeqa _oaa
cec.
4. Ocma _oae ooaaae acaoem0aa, aea a_ga 0qe Ooaec
qeeaea0aa aoq 0eaeo _maoem oaoq
0qeoc_ogcec.
gmag Gesama6m ma
1. goOoag qec_e_gc ceeac 0qaega eqgom Oqacaaao
ccmea _ece_e.
2. qga __eom a_ga oeoom agoaga oaacq ge_a.
II. m age Gesama (Xenogamy, Allogamy )
aoq gomom gg qaoqge gg acmegg a_O_ag qaoqgc
amm gg acme c_qg aa__cc_a Qo _ac aoq 0eaeo
cecc_a. q_g 0ea0o (0oqgc xenos = _ac,
gamos = 0eaeo _ccg _c0ca0o (0oqgc Allos = 0og, gamos -
0eaeo) cea Ocaa oocc_a.
300
m ag Gesamaag ag am s umqasmm
i. GgsGasGaf
gcac acaomao gqaga e_aeaaaq agcqomae aoq
qamo_a c_qa acmc _eaggga oqa qe aoq 0eaeoea
ecOc_aac q_ga. (c.oa.) mgdoao __eom gGsdGmses gusus
0cae_eo.
mgdoao aoq qamo_g 0a_q_aao c_q cq
Ooaeqgga. gGsdGmses gususm c_q aoq qamomegg
cgageeac oc oaecc_a.
ii. mLGasGaf
acme aoq gomom, a_ga c_q Ooo0og oacomc _ga
_ecg qe aoq 0eaeoea q_ga. g g oeocc_a.
. gam Qs
coa aoq qamo_g _ee0 _ga _ec_g.
(c.oa.) oaq, doGLsGsms 0cae_eo.
aoq 0eaeo
qe aoq
0eaeo
_ac aoq
0eaeo
_c0ca0o
(g0 acmc)
0ocq0ea0o
(g0 qaoqge
0ogccc
acao_ec0a
aa__ oaeom
1. _e0aa-cce (oa_g)
2. e_c0a-cce (a)
aaa oaeom
1. ce0ca0aa-cce
(_om)
2. _aeq0qa-cce
(c_eoom
8. ac0a-cce
(Oomoacom)
4. ac0oa-cce
(qeqom)
5. a0oa-cce
(cgaqom)
301
@. ag m Qs
aoq qamom coqg_g _eeac _gag aoq gomoem
agae_e. (c.oa.) 0eama.
iii. gm gomsm
c qaoomc _ga _ecq aoq gomom Ocge_ Qecac
amm c_qae g o_a 0cag qe aoq 0eaeo ecOc_ag. q_g
gm gomsm ceg Ocaa. qqeoa Qecac _ac aoq 0eaeo
cec0q gg gaoao ammg.
iv. @m
c qaoome aoq gomom oma__eoaao amme. qqeoa
qaoom _ac aoq 0eaeoaac ac_0a oeqoem agoao _qa.
v. =ds gmm
gg cac acaoem aeca omccq qaoomc, g 0og qaoomc
amm _e a_ga Oce acao_ec0a _ac aoq 0eaeo
ecOcg_g. (c.oa.) cccam, c gaasdco.
vi. GmgucL ga m
c qaoomc aoq qamome m_a c qeqe m_a
0ogc_oqac qe aoq 0eaeo ecOc_ oaacq cec. (c.oa.)
dds, m 0cae_eo.
ag Gesamaaasm asma
aoq 0eaeo oa_g, a, _om 0cae_ cc0og oaeomac
ecOcg_g. aoq 0eaeooae oaeome _qccecac aoq
0eaeo ceogaag:
1. _e0aa-cce (oa_g)
2. e_c0a-cce (a)
8. cec0aa-cce (_om)
4. _ae0qa-cce (c_eoom)
5. ac0a-cce (Oomoacom)
6. a0oa-cce (cgaqom)
1. mGs.d (0oqgc anemos = oa_g, philein = ogaqqc)
302
aoq gomoem aoq qamomc gg c_qg oa_g
aa_goqac ecOcga aoq 0eaeo Qoaaga. oa_g aoq
0eaeo ecOcga acaom _e0aa-ccco cecc_a.
_e0aa-ccco acaom ceoga qooeaomac qeqqeea Oc_g
gga.
1. acaom _aeo, Q_a ccaqeo, oe@g qccccaqeo, aea
___eo a_ga agoem occgcec.
2. qce occ_a, _ce occ_a _moc ge_g oaecc_a _ccg
ccaac gga. Ocagoao aoq gomom oa__c ca qeea
Ooaecg.
8. acaom gg cac acaomao gga 0cag Oce acaoem oc _e
acaom _goaao oaecc_a. gcac acaomc aoqq qamom
_go ceeeoac oaecc_a.
4. aoq gmom _aeo, 0ceaeeo, acaqeo go 0cae_eo
a_ga c eaaa _gom Oc__gga (ea0oc). ce0o eoom
ec gqg_g co _q_g. eo 18uu . ga oe oa__e
_ca ce_e.
5. oa__e _ca aoq 0eaeoga acaom aoq gmoem _go
_moc a_cqg Oeae_e. (c.oa) Gamsdoom gg aca 5,uu,uuu
aoq gmoem agoage_g.
6. acaom e_ao oa_gc_acq oaecc__g. c qaoomc acaom
qe eco_g 0ac qga ec 0qaegoq_g _eq
agoaocc_a.
1. oa__e _ca aoq 0eaeoga acaome c _qom Ocmqaoa,
e_ao Oqma cqaaoa, gooem Ooae_a _g 0cae0_a
_ccg emq0qa oa__c ca aoq gmoem cqga
qeeace oaecc_a.
8. sqas 0cae_ c qaoomc aoqa gOe Ooqqg
aoqgmom oa__c mecc__g. (Gun-powder mechanism)
Ocagoao oa__e _ca aoq 0eaeoga acao_g q_om,
ogaq, _c, Oqeee, cee, 0cmee aa, Gamsdo (0c) a_ga
0eama 0cae_eo c_qgoac_omao amme.
2. s ag Gesama (0oqgc Hydro = a, Philein = ogaqqc)
303
c aoa qaoomc me _ca aoq0eaeo ecOcge_g.
g e_ oeocc_a. a _q aoq 0eaeo (hypohydrophily) a_ga
a0ac aoq 0eaeo (epihydrophily).
(i) s q ag Gesama
a ccqg _qac Qo_a aeeaaae a aoq 0eaeo cecc_a.
mc Ooae_ Oecccc_a aoq gomoem aeca mc _e_
qaoomc g ecOcge_g. (c.oa) goqsds, GecGLs.d
0cae_eo.
() GecGLs.d GLomse
GecGLs.d GLomse ce_ a _a eea qaoqgc _eaca
8u-45 aoq qamoem Ooaecg. _gaq aoq qamom _qccoqgc
aecg accec _ecg, aq _oe_e. Oom0a__cccc aoq
gomom _emqg mc _ge_e. _ga0cag Oce acme c
_q0aa_ Oqacaq Ooae_ aoq 0eaeoea Qoqge_e.
(@) gos sdms
gos sdmsm aoq gomom 25uu . oe e_ m 0caeg
ceee __g oaecc__g. eOaaqq mq cecaaea (SpeciIic gravity)
Ooae_ gccqac a ccqg 0 qe_e. c_qea
_ecqce _eq o__ oemqg Ooae_ _eme_e.
a. _eas ag Gesama
oom, cccaa _om, gmoom, oe_om, _g _om 0cae_eo
aoq 0eaeog aqa _aaae _omaga. c_om
0q_oao0oa, aec Ocagmae aoq gomo_oao0oa _ccg
ae_ocqgoao0oa acaoem aqOece_e. acaoem a_a
_omc _aaaeeo oomaga. eo acaomc gg 0qe a_ga
aoqqeq Ocge_e. eo aoqqeq 0eomo ag mua _ccg
ag mLama Ooae_ gga. _omac aoq 0eaeo _eca
acaome _a ceqomaoe
1. acaom Ocmaqao0oa _ccg _aqao0oa gqac a_emomao
Oqagocccqgga.
2. oeeg acaom Ocgacaga coaeaae oeea Ooae_a
g_ccae Q_a Ooae_a oaecc_a.
304
8. eaqaeaao acaom 0qee0aa _ccg aeecc_a
aoqqeq0aa Ooae_ gga.
4. eo ge_oae ceeeoac aoq gomoem agoaga.
5. aoq qamo_a, c_qo_a, acq_aao oemggga.
6. Ocagoao c_q emom_g qcecaao0oa, aqcqc0ea
oaecc_a.
acme _eacqga, aoq 0eaeo Oeaa _o_ga ec0a
amm ec Oeacoem omoao _aa0cag __0aaoOcaa
qaoom aoq 0eaeooao gg g_cccc oeoaae _oem ac
amme ceg Oqm_g. c _qeeaaae c_qg oac_omaoe.
. esmmsm age Gesama
eacoaa ce_ 0cmea, g_aca 0cc0ac0ceo 0eaqg (qgea
g_aca). gc ogq_ aeca eeq _ce occa oaecc__g.
aq oga _g, _q_ gg 0ecaao Oeaccc_, 0agq_, aca
agcqoem cagoaga gg _qea 0caeg Oeacc__g. acaom
aoq _e _ga aecaeo. goOoag acmga e_ _ce gcqa
aoq qamom _gg co _eaccc (Anteriolateral) amme. goOoag
aoqqa_a gcecaae aoq oaceaa, ec oemq
eecceea Ooaecg. aoqqam e_ caoom Ooaecg. gg
cag oma__g. a_O_ag cag om_ecag. oog cggom eecce
caeac cmoccc_mme. c a__ eecq e_ eaa__
ooem Ooaecg. 0ac oa e_ oemg oaecc__g. g
esmms
gc_q
gc
_q
oc s.:o _eaws ma;gge 0eoa
n
omuae
uoq
eL
oc
ucLj
uoqL L
ucLj
uoqL
L
uoqL L

!
"
305
omaae aoq qame acec Ooaecg. oa gcecaaoa, oma__
aoq qame aceca Ooaecg. e_ oma__ acco_a, eeg
gg oma__ qc_ 0cae_ go aeca_g. g aoq gee
oaacggac _eag aqoga _ae caeqea gm ae__g.
0a0c amm omaae accom _ce occqge 0agqcqeac
cagoaocc_e_e. gg ma ace gg o aq oga0cag, 0q_oao
acggm Oecc _a_ga. _c0cag _g oma__ qc_ 0cae_ cggea
qm_oqac omaae aoqqqam accom _ae _gc c_e_e.
qeac aoq gomom _ae _gc cqge_e. aoq gomoem
Ooaec q _, _gaq ace aq Oecga0cag (ogq_ c_q
Oom0a cq Ooaeqgga). _qe _gg, c_qce Oqacaq
Ooam_a0cag, aoq 0eaeo ecOcg_g. eacoaaoe gcac
acaom aoqqam _e_ga aecaeo. _qcac, aoq gm Ooaec
_ _gaq coa Ooaec _gaq acaoem aq Oecga0cag
ac_0a _ac aoq 0eaeo ecOcg_g.
4. upmmas age Gesama (Ornithophily)
(GagQ Ornis upmm, Philein = m_qg)
_aeq0qa-cce cecg c_eoomac ecOcga aoq 0eaeo
_ga. ccca c_eoo_a aoq 0eaeoac o_c_ogcec. c
Ocagoae c_eo aoq 0eaeoaamaomaoe. ma c_eo, _aa
c_eo, oaoa, qcqc, m, eaea 0cae_eo _ga. q c_eoom cc
oeoaae acaoem Ooaec usuao (ocq coa c_o), ndgQmms
(comaa) asoLsm (cacqc c), GuaGasmms, Gao 0cae_o_e_
aq Oec_g. g_gga 0a_ccc _ogm0eaa qao __eom
c_eoomac aoq 0eaeo _ece_e. _aa c_eo acaome g
c_g Ooae0c 0qee a__ Ooae_ aoq 0eaeog aqa.
q c_eo _qe acc cecac _qqa cagea gg aemg 0qeao
c_qg Ooam_g. 0qe _aaao eaoeom Ooae_, c_eog gg
gqgga caeaao ammg.
c_eoomac aoq 0eaeo _eca acaom ceoga
qooeaoem Oc__gga.
1. acaom Ocgacaga _moc Ocmaeo. eo gaa oqo _ccg
qec oqo _ceom Ooaeceo.
306
2. acaom coaeaae
oeea Ooae_
gga. (ocq,
a_em, __o a_ga
ca). eo
c_eooem Oog
gqgc gg
oae_e.
8. acaom Ocgamoc
aqq 0qee
aecaga. eo
Ocgacaga aea__eo.
s. Gmms age Gesama
Oomoacom _ca ecOcga aoq 0eaeo _e_aaga.
Oomoacom oc c_ga cagcqomaga. eo 0ooaao oag 8u
.. oe gqg_g aoq gomoem ocqga. eo aq Oecga
acaom aq Q_a Ooae_ _go aea aecaeo. Oomoacomac
aoq 0eaeo _eca acaom, _go _moc aoqq gomoem
agoa, c_eoomac aoq 0eaeo _eca. acaoem oc _go
0qee agoaga. Oomoacomac aoq 0eaeo _eca
qaoomaoe magms umGmcLs (Saurage tree) LmGesmms (Baobab
tree), usgmms GasGmcs, mGgsGeuo (Kadam tree) 0cae_eo.
LmGesmmsm 15uu-2uuu aoqq qamom amme.
o. ngq age Gesama
c 0omc, cgaqom c aomae aa, c, Ggm Gdaa
Gams 0cae_o__c ae _ccg ae_oca Ocge_e. q
cgaqom qaooem qaga oaeomc gg cagoacc0qa_ aoq
0eaeoga aqe_e.
qaog ggoeo oceqqac ecOcga aoq 0eaeo
-cce cecc_a.
m age Gesama6m mma
1. _ac aoq 0eaeoaeac aq, ag eea, qga oeoom
agoaoqga (0ogca_om) _c__g.
OLGs av a os
LL o. Lpa s a s ;g e Gos s
_aua c_oc
307
2. occqam mmaqqac _ac aoq 0eaeoae 0cag 0qaega
eqgom _0aaaaoa, oeea aecaeoaoa gga.
8. cc caaoeoom (o_g, ea-c acaom, maoag, cooa,
goacco) 0cae_eo _om gga Qecac _ac aoq
0eaeo ecOc_ __agoccccac _go aoec Ooa_e_e.
4. _ac aoq 0eaeoac _c_a 0ogca_om 0aa cgaga g_e
Ooaec qaooem _c_qga.
5. qe acc_ qeea aeca qaoomc (_qaog aoqq qamom _0q
acme c_qac _emccgcec) _ac aoq 0eaeo
oeqoem agoaga.
m age Gesama6m ma
1. _ac aoq 0eaeoac oea oaecc_ogcec. aoq
0eaeog 0qeoa__ qooeaoem Ocgogga, acoeoem
_c_qgogga, ae a_ga ___coem qaoom
meqe_e.
2. _ac aoq 0eaeo ecOcgog Qeaa ccaq geg.
Oee_ac oaacq ce_ oae _cmmg.
8. gc c 0qeoa__ ceqom 0egoga 0qeoaae _a ceqom
qqga _cga.
gm Qod
I. emaae eceaq 0qaOq_qg c_ge.
1. eg oma _ecq 0qe occo_a, aea o acao_a q_g
qooeaomaga.
_. -cce _ cec0aa-cce
. _e0aa-cce o. e_c0a-ccca
2. q aoq 0eaeo gc ecOcg_g.
_. oaeo0maa _. Oec0caccca
. e_cmcca o. 0a__a _eeqga
308
II. 0eaqLc ceem Qcqe.
1. a0oacce cecg c _ga qaoo_ga, ec0a
amm eea qga ec Oeacaga.
2. qe oaeoac acaq gcac aca ceg _eocc_a.
8. Oomoacomac ecOcga aoq 0eaeog ceg
Ocaa.
II. e_ agcOceem
1. e_c0a-cce ce_ac cee
2. aoq 0eaeoae ccoeooem c_go.
8. _omac aoq 0eaeo _eca acaome qeeaoem c_go.
4. g qaoome Ocaaoem c_go.
_. oa__e _ca aoq 0eaeo
_. me _ca aoq 0eaeo
. _omac aoq 0eaeo
gg agcOceem
1. oa_g aoq 0eaeo _eca acme ceqoem c_go.
2. 0o0cac0aco aoq 0eaeoc c__ gg g g_cq c_go.
8. _ aoq 0eaeo ce_ac cee _aac aoq 0eaeo
_eca acaome qeeaoem oomo.
cqg agcOceem
1. __0aaoOcaa qaoomc oaecc_a ccoqaae aoq
0eaeooemc c__ c_g.
309
z-@. gcmL a_gg
_e a_ga Oce 0oc_ome ee oggqc cecc_a.
Qoea _qe_qec oqousas cecoa (1884) GsGmscGsus
oe_cqqqaa.
meGusGmsGaf (ggsLm gmmg)
oeq qaoomc aoq gc oaao _e 0oc_om _eca
aeca Oce 0oc0caeccq_g Ooae_ occ_oqac meGusGmsGaf
_ccg ggsLm gmmg ceg Ocaa.
agga gmg mmpa
aoq gc, ggm geog cgem oaao0oa (GusGsGaf
coa. _ce) _ccg c_q oaao0oa (GesGesGaf _ccg c _qo
geqc coa. 0oooeea) _ccg cae_ oaao0oa (3GesGaf coa.
goaccca) geg e_ _e 0oc_om _ccg ogoem
ogceca_m Oom0a_g_g. aoq gc _Oecceo gemqg
Ooae_ ggaao ogcecae ooggm m_g_g. gg eagc
a_ga gg _ec Oeco_ec0aa _ccg g
eaco_gec0a0aa Oec_g. ceea geg _ccg e_
eagco_a eqge_e. ogcecae am0m aoq gc Ooqqg
e_ _e 0oc_om _ec acoeo_g _gc qeqg
occc_e_e.
ggm

_eq0cacc
ggo
Q_maoom
_ec
Oec
eagc
cgem
aoq gc
uL o.14 ag gg g@
aoq
gc
_eq0cac
c
ge_
gq m
cq
gamp

310
mGaf g ammmsm a_gg
e_ _e 0o0ac_omc geg _ec Q_maoce eeg
gaa meGascmL agoaga q 0o0ac_ome eeqc Qo
ammmsm a_gg _ccg mGaf cecc__g. q_g a_msag
a_gg cega Ocaa oocc__g.
mmmg (Triple fusion)
ecaog _e0oc 0aga oag eaa Oecec amm e_
g_e_aa ggo Q_eao _ccg cecaa ecaa Qec
Q_eaoo_ce eeg _aaa _qcQec ogge Q_eaeo
agoag_g. q _eg Q_maoome eeeo ammca q
Qo mmmg cecc__g. q_g aL a_gg ce_ Ocaga
og_g. eaa Oec c0cag g Qm a__m Ge ce
_eocc__g.

!
oqg_o
_eqCLaLcOecem
g_oQ_oamem( )
ue__ gc
agL
_CeL_em( )
_CeL_em
La Qeo
Q_oam (z
La Qeo
Q_oam (z
__c_CeL_
OLCeL_
ee_c(eCe1)
e__g Oeaq_
_eq CLaLcOecem
e_g_aa Q_oam(8 )
eeCeaL (z )
cgemg_o
LLo.S g;LLs@gLGa@QossaLQg.Ga.Gga.
La _
CeL (
OLCeL(
OLCeL( )
311
gg _e0oc _ecqgce eeoga a_O_ag _e0oc ggo
Q_eaoo_ce eeogaae Oaaqq oggqc Qo gcmL
a_gg ceg _eocc__g. gc e0o a_ga _oee
e_a _cga. __0aaoOcaa qaoome qeqqeeaaao
ammg, cec oggqc Qo. eo omaae oeqom agoao
0qeocc__g. qee _qec msm ce_ ___a (18u8) ddcLGdms
a_ga m qaoomc oe_cqqqaa.
gcmL a_ggm amggm
cec oggqc Qo _eeqg __0aaoOcaa qaoomc
Ocagoao oaecc__g. omaae oeqom agoao e_m g
ecOc_ 0oe_a. cec oggqee _aqgoom ceogaag:
1. __0aaoOcaaomc ogcecae (Oce 0oc0caecc) oma
cc_ Q_eao Ooaecg _ccg _ Oecom Ooaec Qecac
Qeg o__g. ecaog _e 0oc, ggo Q_maoo0ma_
_ccg ecaa Qec Q_maoce eeog, _qe Oecomc
ge_e omaea Oqac Oeag mccqgo _ccg ogge go
agoao mgqec Ooa__g.
2. ogge gooe agoaoa _ec Oecee oggqgg ce og
agoaeeq agg Oeaq ceq ecOcgoeq cec oggqc
aggc_qg_g. qaog gg oaeqg_g oggqc qog0aaaeac
ogge go agoaoag. _o0o Qoac, __0aaoOcaa
qaoomc ___c me _ogcec.
8. ogge ce_ mccq goo_gma ceqoem _m_g.
a_gggag dm Qa_ sppa
oggqgg ce qceom, _ceom, aoqqamom, c qe_om
a_ga c_q acag agaqg o_e_e. qceom ac_a agaac
gocaa. (coa. qoam, oqgmoaa) _ccg omaa _ecacaa (coa.
mueso). ee0oac _eg cc eaccaq cggoem _ecg ccOec
ogoee agoag_g. _qc Qec ogge Q_mao eaccaq
cgccee _ecg ae Qe_q gooae oggee agoag_g.
_eq0cacc Oeco_g _ccae ce cgccaqqac oggqgg
c_g _g o_e_e. com oeqomao _ga _ecg, coem
Ooaec _ec _moc Ocmaqa oeaao aage_g.
312
a_gggag m a a_gggag dm
usaa a sgug
1. _ec oe
2. _ec ooa oe ae_
8. c oeq
4. coaaq oeqoaaq
5. e_ca e_ca
6. Q_Oecco OcmoOcaa
1. Oom ge_ Ococa
8. mm ge_ Ocae
u. c gem oeq gem
1u. og__ _eca og
11. eagc_om _e_e
12. og__ ecaa Qec
Q_mao og ge
18. _eq0cacc Oecom _e_e
gm Qod
gg agcOce
emaae eceaq 0qaOq_qg c_ge.
1. gg aagm goqgec qaoqge ogcec oggqee0cag
_. 8 Oecom Ooae_ gga.
_. 6 Oecom Ooae_ gga.
. 1 Oecom Ooae_ gga.
o. 5 Oecom Ooae_ gga.
2. _e a_ga _ec Q_maoome ee
_. e0o . cec oggqc _. eeqc o. _oee
0eaqLc ceem Qcqe.
1. oae cecoa cec oggqec _qec c oe_cqqqaa.
2. __0aaoOcaaome Oce 0oc0caecc cea
_eoc__g.
e_ agcOceem
1. _oeeqc ce_ac cee Qoac oema Ocagm aag
2. cec oggqc ce_ac cee
cqg agcOceem
1. __0aaoOcaa qaoomc ogge a_ga og agoaga
_e_aee oomo.
oeqe_
313
a. mmg mgg
8-. eqae caeem
oeq cecg og _ccg o_a agoc qao accqeq Ooaec
_gaq caga. cc0og qaoome oeqom _moga oqoqgga
0ogc_e_e. _eac oeqae Ocagoae _eacq, ago oqoeacq
_qqa g0 aagm gga.
mmg6m usaa
goOoag oeqa, oeq ae_ cecc_a Oomae_ Ooae_
gga. g ee ae_omc gg agoa_g. Oomae_ GLoLs
cea am_e_ GLam cecc_a. oeqac g0 gg ae_ gqac
_q_g Ococa ceg Ocaa. Ococa oqeaaoa, 0qac 0cae_qaoa
gga. _eac Ocae Oacea eo 0cae_g. c 0oemomc
Ococa, Oca0ea_ eeggga. oeqae Oomccccc oeq
oaa0ca_ eeggq o_ _ccg _ecaama oaecc__g. q_g
mg ceg Ocaa. cgemea ocqoac_a gg _a gem
oaecc__g. g mmggm cecc_a. c oeqom, oeq ae_om
agoaga _ac cggeaa (gq) a_ga oeq oo0a_
eegmm coaaceea (Raphe) Ooae_mme.
oeqe_gm0m _em0oa, _emggqg a_ga oqgecom ce
0ogca_ _ecq, og oaecc__g. _em0oa, c _ecg
_qcQec 0oea _em ggqg aee_g 0ac amm qe_c
cggeaa agoaga.
oeqaec _ccg oqgecome ceeeo gg oqgec
qaoomc gega goqgec qaoomc e_a gga. c
0oemomc oqgecom 0ecq ae Ocagcoem 0eqg eoga,
(c-oa.) ocec, cccae, caqaa, _gm cgcq 0cae_eo. _ccg ma
a__c gm 0eaeo agcqomao Oeacc_a. _em 0ogga
oqgecom eeg gga cggga ec0a amm og _o
314
mgQm 4g gm cecc_a. _0q0cac _em ggqg_ga oqgecom
eeg gga cggg ec0a amm og _o cgg mgQm G
gm cecc_a.
goqgec oeqg c_qgoac_ _oe, eeea, qm 0cae_eo
(cca 8.46).
ggoqgec oeqg c_qgoac_ Oc, 0eama 0cae_eo (cca
8.41).
gm Qod
gg agcOce
emaae eceaq 0qaOq_qg c_ge.
1. ea0a-ecc gc oaecc__g.
_)_ec _) oeqom
) c o) _ec a_ga c
2. oeqac amm ea0a-ecc qe geo_g aq_g.
_) a _) _e 0oc
) aoq gc o) 0a0c _ao__c cga cec.
8. gg oqgec oeqae g_e_ oeqaec goaga.
_) _em ggqg_) oqgec 0ac qe_
) ocOcccaa o) 0oae0aaeea
0eaqLc ceem Qcqe.
1. _oee _e0oc_ga ga ec0a ecOcga.
2. oeqae Oome_ ceg _eocc_a.
e_ agcOceem
1. Ocae ce_ac cee
2. oqgec ce_ac cee
gg agcOceem
1. goqgec oeqea ggoqgec oeqac gg 0ogc_qgo.
315
a-@. mmg mggm mmaa
oeqac amm oma ocoa Ooaec og, aaacq_g oma
_ecg, qeqg oa_a g_e Ooaec a_g _ccg gqaoqeq
agoaga Qo oeq _emqqc cecc_a.
mmg mggm Qag
Ocgacacae oeqom omaoco Qec _qq ceq, a a_ga
_ge Oc__ac _eme_e. oeq _emqqee _aaae cqom
0 omoccc_mme.
1. awsgg
acaq oeqom e am c_qg Ooam_qc _ccg ammaqqc
oeq _emqqee _qc cqaaga. oaeec oeqom eoocc_a
0cag ea0a-ecc oaao e am c_qg Ooame_e. Oec gom
a o__ oaecc_oqac, ammaqqc, oeqea acc Oea_g. _go
oeece ammaqqc ecOcga. qeac oeqae_ Ooqqg
_em0oa Oomog_g. oeqom acc oaeaao gg ammaqqc
oee cecOcga oeeea aecaga. a Ooaec qcqac
0eomocccc acaq oeqom e ammaqg Ooae_ acqoqac,
Ooqcqg_g.
z. amsgg
ammaqqcac og Oecom aaacq _ecoqac omaeq aa__
Oeacom Oqacag ecOcg_g. o__e ooaqqc, _acqgc
oa____ ooaeaao ammg. c cma cceaoeom, ooae qmc
Ocagcomao Oeacc_oq_g Oecomc oaecc_e_e. oa____
ooaea gg _oec _ecqce og Oecomc eac0caoaecmaa
0ogca_ _ece_e. oeq ae_gm _ge gea _acccqac
c0cag ooaqqc oa_g ooaeaao aag_g. 0ecq Ocagcom
caec_qqc_e_e.
a. a6soqpp a_ Gea
_aa0aaeom agoaoqeqa 0ecq Ocagcome
Oemaaeqeqa mgoe_e. oeqae qeeaea Ocagqg,
316
aec Ocagmome _caaeg, _aaao oggee0aa (_aeg,
qaeac caaom a_ga cc ggoqgec qaoom) _ccg
oqgecom0ca (cc goqgec qaoomae cccae, ocec a_ga
_oe 0cae_eo) 0eqg eooccccaa. _go _m qqom Ooaec
Oecom a_cgga, Oagoem agoa oe_e. q Oagom
0eqg eoga aec Ocagcoem Oeme_e. eo eaoeom,
_0ea _com, a_ga c_ oea Ocagcomao aa__cc_e_e.
eo ogo_g ccOcaa _ca Oee_ece_e.
4. a_mm mse
oea aec Ocagemc Oc__ ace ogoc amm Oecom
cgccecg Ocmqae_e. ogoc amm _em0oa cgg _qec
Ocmqae_e. g oeq ae_ oaao omag Oom0a og, aee_m
0a Oeeg _qcQec 0oae_g. _em ggqga, ceea oeqg
Oom0a og aeee 0ac amm qecao oma_g.
mmg mggm mmaa
g goeocc_a. qe0ac _emqqc a_ga qe _emqqc.
gmG mgg
ooq _emqqec oqgecom oqgec 0ac qeqe 0ooaae
caac aee_g 0ac Ooae_ occ_e_e. qe0ac _emqqc
cecg ccoqaae goqgec qao oeqomae _oe, _aeg,
maoag, _ee a_ga Oommm 0cae_o__c oaecc__g. ooq
_emqqee0cag oqgec qe_ 0ooaao omag oemg
oaecc__g. g oeqea aee_g 0ac Ooae_ og_g.
aee_g 0ac oqce oqgec qe_ 0a_g. oeq ae_
oeg agag o__g. oqgecom coea Q_a Ooae_
oaecc__g. cOca_g oqgec 0ac qe_ omag _emggqg
coa ecoem agoag_g. ggaao oqgecom agag
o_e_e.
gm4g mgg
ooq oeq _emqqec oqgecom, oqgec qeqe 0ooaae
omaaac aee_g _qa0c0a q o_e_e. g ccoqaae
goqgec qao oeqomga, ggoqgec qao oeqomga
oaecc__g. ooq oeq _emqqec oqgec 0ac qe_
c_g oem_g. g _em ggqeq aee_g 0ac Ooae_
og_g. oqgecom aee_g _qa0c0a q o_e_e. gg
317
oqgec oeqomae 0eama 0cae_o__c _emggqge ae_aae
0oaeaacecc aeec gg 0ao omag aee_g 0a0c og
cee gaa 0cae_ _eaccee agoaga 0oaeaacecggm amm
_emggqg c _ecg 0oaeaacecgc0e0a Oom0a og_g.
_emggqg 0aga oma _ecg 0oaeaacecec qg Ooae_
Oomog_g. _em0ome ae_aae 0oae0aaeea _em0ogce
0a oma_g. _g 0qg_gc c_g _em0ome omaaac
0oae0aaeea Ooq_g. _em0oa _qcQec 0oa ceea ece0oa
Oqagccao aag_g.
poq mma mmg mgg
mmusd g am6GGm mmg mgg
g _cqoeo oeq _emqqcaga. oeq _emqqee0cag oeq
qaa qaoqgca mccqeqc Oc_g qaa qaoq0qa_ gcq Ooae_
_eCuc_emg_c
me_
me_
_e _emg_c
LLo.o gggass
Coa
Coa
Coa
_em_gg
_em_gg
mggeo
g__
mggeo
Cuc__
mggeo
g__
mggeo
Cucg__
_em_gg
_em_gg
318
gga. oocam Ocagoao
egcqQcq qaoomc
oaecc__g. egcq
Qcqqaoom Ocgacaga
oc_oe gomc amm aoa
egcq Qcomc oaecc_a
eccccc aaa aeca
aomaga. (c-oa)
mGesGuss, GesmGms,
mmms egcqQcq
qaoome oeqom,
egcqQc oaocqgc acq
_goaao ammqaga,
_mge ge_oao
ammqaga _emccgcec.
oeqac amm ogoaeg,
qaa qaoq0qa_ gcq
amm0ca0q Oqacag oma _ec_g. qaoqge _em0oa Oogoao
c _ecg oeg Oom0a cq Ooae_ gga. _em0ome
_qccgg qqqg cgqg oaecc_a. ggac _aq 0cae_ a_g _go
oea qaoaac _gome_ oeqgeac qaa qaoqgegg cmg
egcq Qcqgc _em ggqg 0a_q_qgc ggaag _go__g.
_em0oa aceqaao qga 0oaoem agoa, a__ee qga qaoaao
Qec Qgqg_g.
mmg mgggaasm asma
oeq _emqqc ce_a Qog cc oaeom 0qeoc c_e_e.
acoaeom, q_oaeom ce eo e_ oeocc_a.
qpaasma
1. s
oeqom Ocgacaga oa a o__aeo. Oecom 6-15% oe a
Ooaeceo. ce0o o ge_oae oaoac Oeacca_ aecaeo.
aeg oaoem ocqq, Oe___ q0ac0ca cmaeqg_g 0qeoaae
aaqeqa, 0ecq ae Ocagme a_ cgqqeca _o__e
ocqgqeca, ecOc_ aqo0qa_ ogOecoem _moc oma
_ecaa __ag_g.
a;1sr.1ar;r
acz o.1 arm
ee
O_aaa _agg
u_ea_agg
a
Ccega_agg
ue
319
z. @agm
omaeq aa__ Qoo_oae ___ec Oom0a_ga, oa_g ooae
Qog _ge e_aeaaaqg. _o0o c qaooem qo (coa.
Oc, mLus 0cae_eo) oeqome _emqqgg cc oa_0_acc_a
_g_a 0qeocc__g.
a. GmouQm
oeqom _emccq_g gg oeagocccc Oocc Qec aagca_
0qeocc__g. Ocagoao oeqom 5
o
Caegg 4u
o
C oe amm
OoccQec aagcacqc _eme_e. ce_aga oeq _emqqgoae
aoq OoccQec, Ocgacacae __eo_g 25
o
C _qc 8u
o
Cg
ecac ammg.
4. g
Ocgacacae oeqom _emqqgg gm _a oaeaao
gccgcec ce_aga c oeqom gmea gccaao ae qaeo.
qqeoa oeqome _emqqc, gm gccqac _ccg ccaeaaa0ca
cagcq _c__g.
acasma
1. a_mm Qse
c qaoome oeqom agaocc_a0cag, _ga _ecaaq
ogoem Ooae_ gga. qqeoa oeqom og _ga _ecq
c_0o _eme_e.
z. amggag dm
c qaoome qgqao agaq oeqom, ogoe omagq
0qeoaae _aa0aaeoem Oc__gccgcec. qqeoa oeqom,
og_ga _ecq cee0 _eme_e.
a. mm
gg g_cccc oacqg_g ac_0a oeqom omeac0ea _ccg
aaag__c0ea oaecc_e_e. oeqome aaag_e c acom
(coa. @aoso) _qc gg gg ogcom oe (c-oa. qmGusm)
gocaa. _gocce aaaqg_e _qaog _aa ogcom (qaae )
oeqomc cgoa ammg. oeqom aaaqg_e oacqg_gm ac_0a
_eme_e.
4. ms mLaa
cc qaoome oeqom agaqqee 0cag omaoco Qecac
amme. oeqome omaocoa, ocqg g_e__ qeea, oeq
ae_ome oqeqqeea oma q_ccaeom oaecc_qc _a
320
oaeomac _cccaa. qqeoa oeqom a_eoaao omaocoa
qeccccac ac_0a _eme_e.
gm Qod
gg agcOce
emaae eceaq 0qaOq_qg c_ge.
1. _cqeo oeqome qe _emqqc gc oaecc__g.
_) 0eama _) _aeg
) ocec o) _oe
2. oocam qe _ccaccaga.
_) ecQecq qaoom _) acaQcq qaoom
) o_mQcq qaoom o) aoaq qaoom
8. oeq _emqqec mgoccg.
_) cee gm _) ocq gm
) c gm o) _oocq gm
0eaqLc ceem Qcqe.
1. oea_m oeq _emga Qo ceg _eocc_a.
2. goqgec oeqagmm acq_aae Oacea Oomemaae eo
0cae_ ae_ cecc_a.
8. _cqeo oeqom aec Ocagcoem c
0ee_e.
e_ agcOceem
1. coaaq ce_ac cee
2. oqgec qe_ ce_ac cee
8. oqgec 0acqeec - oeag.
gg agcOceem
1. qe0ac _emqqgga, qe _emqqgga ec0a amm
0ogca_om aaeo
cqg agcOceem
1. qe0ac oeq _emqqec oomo.
2. qe oeq _emqqec oomo.
321
a-g. aQsg, oumLg
qaoqgegg ecom, acaom a_ga oeom agga Qo
agaqc cecc_a. qaoqgegg q caoom aecc_a Qo
cmqaeqcc. g o _aaae Qoaaga. qaoqgegg q
caoom occ_a 0cag a a_ga eqgom Oomaaoeq q_oa,
a_ga camaa, __ee o0caaoema a__0aa goema
qoaccq_oao oaogcaa _eacec _qo__g. aga cgg
_cqqeea oaaq Oecom Ooaec ga __oaga. g goOoag
agcce _qcq_qgc q agcqom agaoq_g _e qao
agccegg cmocc_oq_oao _ee0 0qaege_e. q __e
Oecom _g ocme, eee 0cae_ Ocagcom cqoqac oqeaaeqao
ge_
ooo
o+m
0mmooo
ng+go ogg
ng+go
_e
ng+go ogg
uLm e.is agsgm ugmms ascm gmmsasmq
_g0g+o
322
aage_e. _eoaac ec _ccg ca o_a 0qgc oaogcaa
_eacq _ccc__g.
gm aQ_ Gem gcu
g ec oaace _qccggac ecOcg_g. ecoaace
acq_aao Oacea oogeca Oecoem Ooaec ga __g ggoao
oaecc_a. q cggg om ugQ _ccg om ag ceg
Ocaa. q agaoeca __c amm Oecom ge_egg geg
cma qeeaecaeo. Oeec Ocq0eo a_ga Oecg0co
Oagome Oeacca_om _gomccqe oemoao _ __ga, _qc
Qec Oecg0cao ooga cmocc_e_e. q Qecac oaogcaa
o_e_ae aqoaac ac_0a ecoaaq qe_ce eeg
oaecc__g. _eac o oeoao0o, ec qe_eca cecaeaga
a_ga oa___eca __qqqqaga qeqegg cm_g. aecccc
oaogcaa o_e_ oeoao0o ce _ccg ec0caeo aqoaac
_ecocc__g.
oa fgQm (ABA) aqoaac ec agaqc
oc_cc_qqcc__g. eo cooeoqgc agoaocc_a oma
oc_cc_qgom _ga. g Ocagoao cc Qooem qecOea_g.
a_ga _ce __g agoaqga a_ga oqeaaqga q_eca
oc_ccacqc ce_e.
aQsgm amggm (Importance of Abscission)
1. g qaoqge _g0cae cggoema a_ga oag _gaq
(qmaoecq) cggoema g_g.
2. oeq coem ag Oeaoge _ca _eo cqc _ecoq_g
aqo qme_e. a_ga qaoa _qe oaeo o_ea 0a_Ooamm
aq_g.
8. Qecq qaoomc acc agcqom agaoqaga Ogaaa
0cae_eo _ccg g Oeqom agaoqe _ca qe o
Ocgoqg_g aqo qme_e.
oumLg (Senescence)
ma qaoom omaoqeac _gea _ecg _e_aae Qecomc
_gaq qaoaao aage_e. oma Qecome ggac _eo _g
o_e_e. g _ccecqc cecc_a. _ccecqc cecg ecOcgo
323
_gaga a_ga qaoqge _ccg qao agcce _cc_ga
ecac amm oacqeq g_ccccaa.
_ccecqee 0cag gg __eaaae _oa _ccg _
ecOcgoqac, __qqao0aa _ccg qao caoo0ma _o__e
_eacq a_ga cecee g o_e_e. qao _geaaecqec
c__ cqccg .mucGLs GgsmLsg cecc_a.
oumLgm mmaa
GmsGusc (1u61) _ccecqec aeg oeoom ae_ ce
__oqqaa. _eo ceogaag,
1. __qao_a _ccecqc
2. qe_q Oqagg _ccecqc
8. cqccqaao _ccecqc
4. g0 0qgc _ccecqc
1. _gsm oumLg
eo 0aa0eaoaac qaoomc oec_accc_mmg. eo qe
oaamc g0 gg _e_ acaoema oeoema agoage_e.
qqaoom gae_ _ccg gg cgo qaoom (c.oa Oc, 0oagea),
__ _o)_m
_oooc_e
_e__0__g
_oooc_e
ooos
_oooc_e
g0)0_)_ge
_oooc_e
uLm o,ie oumLgm mmss
324
oae_ qaoom (c.oa, 0oao, O_ece) _ccg cccae_ qaoom
(c.oa. c _com) q qaoom oeqom _gaqce aqg
mmpm.
z. gmg GgsgQ oumLg
qe qe_omae acc Qcqqe_, ga, oqa _ao_e_
Ooaec cccae_q qaoomc qqeoa _ccecqc oaecc_a.
qeg 0ac oaecc_a qe_ccgg goOoag ogc_a _oema
a_ga oeoema 0qa_goqg aqg o_e_e. _eac qe cgg
(qe_ a_ga 0oa) Qecqg Qeg qga qe_q Oqaggea Oomcq_aao
agcqa __qq ogca 0qaego_g. (c.oa) oae, sqGmso,
_ a_ga cc.
a. uqouqmsa oumLg
g cc cccae_ qaoomc oec_accc_mmg. gc cqae
qeqe ge a_ga ecom Oqacag omaaecoqac qga
Oaac_oema, ecoema 0qa_goga _gaq eco_a, co
agcqomae emo_a _gea _ecq oecac aqgo_a.
cqccqaao _ccecqc, coea aa_a qaoomc Oqmoao oaecaa.
(c.oa) @aaoLo, mumo a_ga cc.
4. gG GgQ oumLg
g qOocc ecga aomc oaecc__g. a_ga od
0cae_ q qaoom ecga oacqgc ccca ecoema agaqg
o_e_e. oeq oacqgc qga ecoem 0qa_goqg Ooame_e.
ecga oacqgc ecom agaoqac g m ce
_eocc_e_e. ooeoac ecom _ccg, qao agcqom
_ccecoeq eg0aeo ceg _eocc_a.
oumLgm aLpGemm
_ccecqc Qo _cceca agcqomc cc0og
acceaccac a_ga ac_ Oeaeac aa__oem ammcag _ga.
c _a aa__om ceogaag
1. Oec qeg ago _moc ge_qc
2. eo q gee Oec _eacqom cagocc_qc
8. gm 0eaeo cagoccc_ Oecec ocaa _m ge_qc
4. _0qaeaee Q_a agoaqeca 0eqqeca Oqacag
cooeoom _occ_e_e.
325
5. qq a_cqg ge_g qqa eqqqc qec Oeaacc__g.
6. _0ea _com _cceca ecomegg ggac Oc_ccc_
omga cggo_g ocqqcc__g.
1. RNA _m ge_e_g.
8. g0a0acqe Ocagcomc ceq aa___a, DNA eqoecqga
Qoe_e.
oumLgm amggm
a6d6mm uq oumLg pg gpodm mma
1. oaqae a_ga g_e__ agcqo_g cgcao meaaae g__mm
ecom, Oaac_om, acaom a_ga oeom 0cae_o_e_
0qa_goccqe _ca qaoom qom g_ee Qecaao eoqg
Ooamm _qa.
2. Oec eqoe 0cag _0ea _com, _ea_om,
Q_m0aaec_om, cma eaoeom a_ga oeaom 0cae_eo
0qaege_e. eo _cceca agcqomc gg _qeea
emg ggac Oc_cc_e_e. ceq qga agcqom
0qaegoq_ga, omaga caec_qqc c_e_e.
8. qe_q Oqagg _ccecqc cecg eaqoa__ oacomc qaoom
ae@gm qeqg go aqoqaga.
4. eg0aeo _ccg g0 0qgc ec o_qc cecg ecga
oacqgc gmaoacqg_g _ecao Qo_g. g aoc 0caeo
ge__g. g gmaoacqgc Qecqggo o _aaaeqaga.
ae gmac ae_ggga 0cag 0oaom e a__e _qogcec.
5. agaq ecom a_ga emome gcecom, acgom a_ga
qeaom aeec e_a agoao aqe_e.
gm Qod
emaae eceaq 0qaOq_qg c_ge.
gg agcOceem
1. _ccecqee 0cag 0 ammo__c cg _gomga
_. qqa _. ceeaa
. gm0eaeo o. ooaqqc
326
2. ceq caec_qgoqe _ca _ccecqec ec agaeo
qaaqcc_qq _qa.
_. _me _. gcee
. ee0caeoee o. cqgee
8. 0oaecoacqgc cc aome ecom a_em Q_aao aagoq_ga,
agaoq_ga aqaea
_. __q qao_a _ccecqc
_. cqccqaao _ccecqc
. qe_q Oqagg _ccecqc
o. g0 0qgc _ccecqc
0eaqLc ceem Qcqe.
1. eec0caeoeeac qao agcqom _ccecqc ---------- cecc_a.
2. --------------- ge_oac ec aga _acaa_g.
e_ agcOceem
1. qaoomc _ccecqec oeag.
2. _ccecqee aeg oeoom aaeo
8. qao oaeoac _ccecqee _aqgoa aag
4. agaqc ce_ac cee
gg agcOceem
1. _ccecqee cc oeooem oomo.
cqg agcOceem
1. ec agaqee 0cag ecOcga ammeaccac, aaa 0ogaac
aa__oem oomo.
327
VII. ggQm a6dm
1. a6dma@ mppm ggQm
aameo_a, _eo oa_a Qeca gegOoaeg Oga
Oqacaqecaeo; gee_ geg eaaggcceo. Qecaac cecg ga
aamea a_ga _eo oa_a o_gc _ao___ec0a amm
a_oemc c__ __oqaga. ggQm6m ce_a cqa _qe _qcao
GLcLs cecoac (1885) ___oa Oeaaccccg. (Oikos m_ _ccg
oaca logos - __og) GgaGa ce_a ocac ___a a6dma
a_ga _qee eaagmm o_g c _ao_gec0a _c_a
a_oem _aaq0c Qecaac cecc_a. ce _eaa.
o_gc cecg aameom oaqa o_gcq_qgee
g_ga. aameome oaoaec 0qaao0oa _ccg
ae__oaao0oa cagga o_g ee cq gg Qeca _ccg
_eacqa oae cecc_a. Qecac gm, Oocca, occqa, ae,
oa_g, aeee qeea, qaoom, ocgom ce ccoeocccc
oaeom amme.
aameome qo _eaom _eo o_g gce eeq oa
oa gee qme_e.
ggQm asma
aeqe ammcc _eeqg aameo_a Ocagm, a_ga ___c
Ooaec Qecae qaog oqaae aa__ _c oae_e. cc0og
Qec oaeoem oec _eg Oqagcqomao cmocaa. 1. oac
Qec oaeom 2. ae oaeom 8. aaa oaeom _qec amm
e_a Ocagm a_ga ___c Ooaec aa__ gomaga.
1. as Qm asma
eo aameome oa_g Oomgma Qec0aa_
Oqacaqecaeo c.oa gm, Oca, OoccQec, omaecc occqa,
oa_g 0cae_eo.
328
II. m asma
ae0ea_ Oqacaqeca oaeom gc _cga c.oa. aeee
_eacq oma Ocagcom, aeee a, ae oa_g, ae aameom
0cae_eo.
1. asQma asma
i . g
gm cecg Oeaeac _aqgoa oaaq oaeaaga. g
aameome _eacq, oma a_ga Oeaccacec cagga.
ccca aameo_ga ma gm ___c, _caao ammg.
coqaoom aeeo qaaamga gm 0eaeo Qog, gm
e_aeaaaqqao ammg. acc amm a__ aameom q aeeo
ac oae_e. gm 0eaeo Q_ome agoaoa, acme Q_qg_oae
Q_om (ocq, a_ga Oqaec ocq gmea oaga ecc0cag0aa
Q_om) a_ga aq agoao Qooem oc_cc_qga.
cc Oagome mgocq, a_ga oc_cca_ eo _eeqga
gmaac oc_cc_qqcc_a Qoom _ga. qaoome acaomc gm
oacqgoa gg _a oaeaaga.
ii.Gmou Qm
Ocgacacae aameom o gga Oocc Qec aa__omc
ac_0a aaa oae_e. (5 - 85C) _eac c g_ccccqo
ogocgom oaecc_e_e. c camaa, ee0eacamaa (c
coacaom) oeqom, o0caaom a_ga ae_ cccc qGscGLsasaao
eo _eeqga Ooa m_gomc _ccg o ge_q OoccQecac
oaecc_e_e. cc aameom, Oocc Qec gooem qoao
ccoqaae Oeaeac a_ga oaeo _e_ qooeaoem _c_qg
Ooame_e.
_ae cc0og cggomc OoccQec gggm a_ga mdma
o___g __oag aagc__g. qao oma omaecc occqa,
aq0qoom , oa_g mo a_ga ceccq o__ac OoccQec
cagocc__g. omoocqg_g __oag Oocc Qec aagc_oqac
cc0og qaooac cggom oec_accc_mme. _0q 0caeg
gqgaqgeac _c_a OoccQec aagca_ome _qccecac cc
qaooac cggom oaecc_e_e.
329
iii. s
a oaeoae e_aeaaaq 0qeoaaga. a ccaac ccca
aaga Qecqggo _qaag. Oecee q0ac0cacmaea 8u - uu% a
Ooaecg. me 0qeo aameqg_g aamea aagc_a aameome
coc me 0qeog __oag, e 0ega gammag __oaga
oaecc__g. o_ec cggomc oa_a qaoom mp Qggsma
cecc_a. a am c_cec _gomoa, ao 0caeo ge_oa, am
c_occcc e 0eoa, cc0og qooeaoem _c_qg
Ooame_e.
a oaocomc amm qaoom s msggsma cecc_a. eo
eeoaa (oa_g Ooaec caeeoaa) Ooae_ mc qoem qa
Ooame_e. me _a, acce _m, Oqm, a_ga a mo, _aeo
mc qaoome oma a_ga coec Qaeaga.
iv. aspg
oa_g mo oaeecea Qaeacc0qa_ aameoema g_ccao
qaooema cag_g. aoq 0eaeoga oe, oeq cogga
oa_g aq_g. oa_g ao 0cae 0ooqeq _gomccqac
qaoome acaqc a_ga oacc _cccaa. o_oa_g qaooem
0o0a_ eaacc0qa_, cc caaom geceaa oaeaao ammg. gg
geeac moa oa_g _goaao amm cggomc g0 co em aeca
Ooaq aa 0cae_ aom (Ilag trees) 0qaege_e. Qecaae o_oa_g,
aoc 0caeac _go _m e o Oeaoqac qaoome
aaqeq oc_cc_qg_g. qqeoa cggomc amm qaoom,
oeeaaae ca 0oa Oqagceca, oeeaaae _eac oemg
Ooa_ga qe_oema Oc_gmme.
II. m asma
i . m
ae cecg _ae agaq acg Ooaec, qao aaaoema, 0og
cc aameoema _o__e _q ceo0ma_ qaga 0ac_oaga.
qaoo_g ae, a, qea acqom, a_ga qagqec _m_g.
aeee ceqomae _eacq, 0qa__a OoccQec aagca_, a
Ooamg_e, oa_0_acca, oeaom 0cae_eo gg g_cccc cggae
qao, oce oeooem Qaeaga.
330
omaae eg gec aeeaeg qaaccae_ac gg agaqcac
ecoc Oc__ oea Ocagcom, oma Ocagcom, a a_ga oa_g
Ooae_mmg.
z. am Gus_ca
ae gomome _m, aeee Ocmgo a_geo_g
oaeaao ammg. aeec oaecc_a gomom, cc0og _mom
aecaeo. qe _qccecac ae ae_caoae ae (oecc ae
a_ga omae ge_oao Ooaec aec), ceec ae (Oacea aec,
oecc ae@a om ae@a _goaao Ooaecg). oecc ae
(oecc ae _goaaoa aega omae@a ge_oao Ooaecg)
a_ga omae (_go eqmqa omae Ooaecg) ce ccoeoomao
cmoccc_mmg.
ae_caoae ae, gem aecag _o0o oa_0_acca og.
_eac a Ooam g_e ge_oao Ooae_ aqaae 0ogqeea aecag.
omaeom _goaae a Ooam g__ce mcc acqom oeo. _eac
o ge_q oa_0_acca aecaeo. ceec aeom qao omag
o|a aoqeo. Oeec o__c aoq _m gemqqeeaa
oa_0_acc_a, 0qeoaae _m mcc acqo_a cc a Ooam g__a
Ooaeceo.
iii. ado Gus_ca
acg cecc_a omac Ocagcom ccca ae oeoo_ga
_aaaeeo. Oeec g aaqqeeaa, oa_0_accqeqa
_gomga. aeee agga qeeaea 0aac_qg ae@g
0qeoaae oea acqoema, oma moc Ocagcoema qg_g.
iv. mmm s
qao Oeaeaec aeee a _g _aqgoa oaaqg. g
cc0og Qecomc oaecc__g. _qaog qooacq a, gegem oacq
a, occee a, a_ga cee a. ae aeee gg _a _caao
ammg. qooacq oeeaac 0a caa a, qm=soq s cecc_a.
g qaoo_g caec_ogcec. _eaga, g gg Ocma aeee
aq0qoaao _eag gaa, egom oaao Oom0a__cc__g.
_qm ae a ae go_g ec0a amm ecOomomc
gegem oeccceec oqoc _occc_ Ooam_g. qaoo_g
caeccqa q_g gmgm =soq s ceg Ocaa. c a _c gom
ae gomoem o__ Oacea cccaao oaecc_a. g =oume s
(ammaqqc a) cecc_a. eq qaoom am c_qg Ooamogcec.
331
0og Ocagco0ma_ ceeg amm a, dmm s _ccg uqa s
(MgSO
4
.7H
2
O) cecc_a. g qaoo_g ecccgcec.
aeec amm Oaaqq a Qc Ooamg_e cecc_a. Qc
Ooamg_ee oc _goaao a 0eaoccccac _g a qgaca _ccg
0qa Qecea _c_qga. qeac aeee oa_g Oom _c_oqac
qao oma qecc__g. ge_oae a Ooamg_e Ooaec ae oeoom
omaae qao ccoem _c_qq _qaag. qqeoa aeec oa_a
qaoome Qec oacc Qecac gga.
iv.mmm aspg
g 0oa omaga, ge@aao_ga e_aeaaaqg. ge_q
oa_0_acca amm _ccg a qgaca ae _go CO
2
eoa ge_oao O
2
eoa Ooae_ gga.
vi. pH (mgcgm mm Gep)
Ocgacacae aameom aoq pH aagca_omc oae_e.
aeee pH a_ga me pH aameome coec Ocgamoc
cag_g. c qaoo_ga a oa ocgo_ga _cq qeea
Ooaec Qec 0qeocc__g. a__o___g _ Qecaae _ccg
oaqqeea Ooaec Qec 0qeocc__g.
vii. ama
aameome eaqae omag cc oeaom e_aeaaaqg.
oeaome ecoqa qeea a_ga Oe_, ge@aaom qaoom
a_ga ocgome coec oc_cc_qga. 0q_a ge_e ge_ca_
_ccg ccaea _eaqae omaea _c_qga. _goccqaae
oeaome _mca gg oemoga . ecge ge_ca_ amm
aeec omga qaoom, eq Ocgoq_g c _ccae qooeaoem
Ooae_mme. c_qgoaccao Oca qaoom 0oa _qoomc
ecgee Qeccc_qga camaa Ooae_mme, a_ga _ e
qaoom, _oemc cqqg _o__e accomc gg ecgee
a__ Ooamoq_g c acaaoem Ooae_mme oacaa,
Oaeaa, a_ga caoco _ao__e acqom aoa
aameo_g o _aaaeeo. ae a_ga me acqq qeea
aameome coec Ocmga cag_g.
332
iii. a6s asm
aameo_g ec0a amm ec Oeaco0ma_ Oqacaq
Ooaecg. g aa__ go0ma_ gc_ Oaaqq aeccqeq
_eaga.
a_eo Qecac aameom 0qaao0oa, ae__oaao0oa
gee_ geg cagqg Ooae_ oae_e. e_aeaaa Qoomae
oma, mcca, ecOcgoa 0cae_eo g0 __eqgc amm qe
aaao_ec0aa, Ooo0og __eo_ec0a ecOcga
ec Oeacoem Ocmga ac amme. aoq 0eaeo, oe a_ga
oeq coc, 0aaec, gc_ee oaeo _e_ a_ga c_am
oaeo _e_ 0cae_eo qqeoa ec Oeaco_g Ocagoae
c_qg oac_omaga.
a6dma@ag gmLGm a apmpa
cc Qec __oacaa c_am oaeo _e_ea g_o
mumsoo ce_ Oecec Ocagoae _aqqqgc caec_qq
ogaq_aaom. q_g ge_ao oaqc ce_ _aqqa __g.
gL (1u11) ce_ ___a Ocagoae _aqqqgc acaamo ce_
Oeacec caec_qg _eeqg c_aa oaeo _e_oem gOcga
cmomaoc cmqqaa. _eoaaoe
1. Gs m gmLe Gema
ooeo ec Oeaec e ccom gegOoaeg
aqoaaoa _ccg gg o aqo Oeaoqaoa oaecc_e_e.
_o__e eea aeoaoa, ae_ocqg_oaoa,
omaqmqg_oaoa gocaa. o__c ace ae@a Qec, ace
gqgeqqc a_ga coc cmaa__Qec 0cae_eo _cga.
z. nQs m gmLe Gema
ooeo ec Oeaec gg e cca, a_O_ag e ccqge
_oqgea aqoaac oa_g. qeac aeoao 0cacqa,
_caaoaae oc Ocagm Oom0a___a Qocaa. o__c
i. 0cacqa_qc, ii. Ooaeg ge_qc, iii. gc_ee oaoeo _e_
a_ga iv. aaa cgacq 0caee_eo _cga.
333
Gs m gmLe Gema
I.uou udsppQm
g e_ __eo_a cae _ece_e. e_ e
cco_a gg oqaae Oeaeac _ccg oaoac cmaa__qg_gm
gee_e. c Ocagoae c_qgoac_om ceogaag .
i . c6d mcgm QmougQa
coc cmaa__ ecOeagg g eg __acccc
c_qgoaccaga g mGesdm ce_ camaa, Oca qao
gaqamomc 0oa _qoem _c_qg c_amaao oa_g. camaa
aaa qaoqgc gg aeeo c_qg Ooae_, _q_gc cgcao oa
ecgee Qeccc_qg qaoqg_g ecgaag Oeae_e.
ii. Gmd _gmea (Mycorrhiza)
__eega aaa qao 0ogga ec0a amm c_am oaeo
_e_ 0om __ee cecc_a g.
i . qp mcLgmm aecaeoaao gocaa. _qaog g __ee
e_-caom 0oa goo_g a_eoaae cgeomao Oeaccc_
aeec gg a a_ga mccc Ocagmoem a__
Ooame_e. c.oa mum a_ga ga qaoom _ccg
ii. a mcL gmm aecaqao gocaa. _qaog 0oa gog
acq_aao __ee oaeccccaa. c.oa. @sa a_ga ndaGa
g_acq qaoom.
iii. maama
coc cmaa__ Qecg c_qg oac_omao omga o__c
Oga Qqaae occaaaae Oqacaq oaecc__g. o__e
acca __eeaac _e ecfc_c Ocagm Ooae_ _gc ca Oecom
__g amme. Ocgacaga _o0oaeaco a_ga Ocq0aa eaco
__ee oeoo_a a_ga cccoa ca __eo_a, oaecc_e_e.
caom gm0eaeo ceeaa __eeom ecOcgo ceeaa
Ooae_ Oeacc_e_e. __eeom oeaom a_ga occee eco
Oeag, caom aeeo qaam_g. eo eqc 0q_a geg
qeqg a_eoac oa _qaag. ecoeom Ocgamoc Oo_g
cae_om g oa_g.
334
z. aLm am@ Qm
g 0og __eo_g ec0a amm Oqacacee ac_a ace
ae@a Qec cecaa. gc geg cae _ecg a_O_aee_ cagccg
cec. c Ocagoae c_qgoac_omaoe.
1. Gu_ Gasqa
o Oocc aecc oaeecac amm _caq oa_omc Ocg
Ooaqom Ocagoao oaecc_e_e. eo oa_a aom g cq oq
0q mcc a_ _e_eaa Ooaeqgccgcec. qaae g c__
_ caec_qqcc_a acaaqge _qccecac Ocg Ooaqoem _m
OcgOoaqom, c_g oac Ocg Ooaq, _gg Ooaqom a_ga eaa
Ooaqom cecc_a. Ocagoae OcgOoaqom __eomaoe usmms,
muao a_ga mLGmsoGuss.
ii. Ggspgg gsma
Oqa_gq qaoom ceceo c_ qaoom g q oaoe c_
qaooem _eo qaaao ac_a caec_qge_e. goao0oa
aeoao0oa _cc. eo aeec me_aqqac OcgOoaqac
gg 0ogc_e_e. Oqa_gqqaoom aome 0qa, qqa
Oeqom _ccg Ocma a _g Oeqom 0qa omcaa. qe_ome 0ac
_ccg ecome 0ac omge_e. Oocc aecc ae oa_omc
Oqa_g qaoom Ocagoao oaecc_e_e. cc @saa, omms,
a_ga aGLsdms 0cae_eo eg __acccc Oqa_g qaoomaga.
iii. mg Ggsppa
c qaoom ocgome ccq 0ac oae_e. c.oa coa caom
oqae ec cmma aeca 0aaom g omge_e. _0q 0cac
GuaGqms (ma0ca 0ca0) eea oa _eaome _ggome 0ac
omg_g.
nQs m gmLe Gema
geg _ccg g __eom 0q_a gg oeoac _qe
oaeoac gg _eca a_ _e_om gc _cga c ___aom
(maa 1u54) ooeo a_ _e_oem, _eca_om _ccg ceoea
_ccg cgacq ce _eo ogaceaaom. qqeoa cgaaa ec
Oeacoem _eg Ocga cmomao cmocaa.
335
amq dmggg, a6s nQsoq a_ga Guscq6L eo ceogaag
oomoccc_mme.
i. amq dmggg (Exploitation)
gc gg __ea, a_O_ae_c gg 0qaao0oa
ae__oaao0oa qagqc, ae_oca _ccg aeoao cae _ecg
cagcec _c_qg_g. ce0o oeq ceqqc cecg
ae_ocqgoao0oa, aeoao0oa Qocaa.
1. ampmL
gc_ee c_eoom ce _eocc_a gaga cocc_eo ce_
oeoea eaaq c_eoa qaeao _ oc_a g_e__eo Oce c_eoom
c_ c_eoome (Ocgacaga _o_e_ oc _moc _aeo) _omc
_cec o_e_e.
z. am
aeoao amm cc0og a_ _e_om o__c 0q_a gg
oeoea 0eaqeoaao gocaa.
() gcmm msgama mp
gc_ee aamea cecg a_O_ag aameqge acee g
_ccg am0m oag _qqa Qqaao _qe goomc gg
aeeo Ocg_g.
c oaogcaa qaoom gc_eeomao amme. aogLsmm
__eom (Oaaqq qe_ gc_eeom) c_ qaoom g omag
aeoao _o_e_ ac amme. ma qe_, gaqam qeec o__
oma_g. gc gg 0o__c 0oaom 0qae_ gaqamae qe_gm
Oegqqccc_ _qe ocqg goo0ma_ Oqacaq Ooame_e. ooeo
_ccae 0oaom @oGLsdms cecc_a.
qqeoa a_ _e_ae a__ c_qgoac_omaoe guGa a_ga
nuGuao, (gc0o) 0cae_ Oaaqq 0oa goom, c_ aaa qaoome
0oaomc oaecc_ceo. s.dms, mmcqo qaoqge 0oaomc
oaecc_a. Ocaae0q g_ac qaoome (moa @u a_ga
Ocaaqo __eom) qe_ cgg gc_eeomao amme. eo
gaqaa qaoqge emomc 0oge_ oae_e.esmL @u
0cae_ c_ qaoom cgg 0oa gc_eeomao amme. o__e
0oaom Ocgacacae qaoo0ma_ gcq amme. Ocgacacae
gc_eeom ge@amomao amme. o__c __eeom, camaa,
ea0oa cmaoaaom, mocmaaom a_ga eooom, qaoom
a_ga ocgomc gc_eeomao oae_e.
336
(@) mm am@ gsma
Gougo, LssGLsmms, cGss, @cdgGdms, mLGmsmms 0cae_
cc qaoom _oema _a ocgoema aeoao
acOoame_e. eo _ ae@a qaoom cea
_eocc_e_e. _ccae _e_ac ce aaaoem oaqg cqqg
Oemo cc qooeaoemc Oc_gmme. o__e ecom _ccg ec
ommom _oem Oemccq_oao qq _ Oagoem aecaga. me
ae@a ommacq qqaoome mccqg_oao _ccc _eac0c
_ga. Oeec qqaoom coa ecoem Ooae_ gm 0eaeoac
o_c_e_e.
ii. a6s nQsoq (Antibiosis)
gg aameqge omaeq aa__ caeqom _ca agoaocc_a c
Ocagcom _ccg c Qecq qeeaom a_O_ag aameqeq
__ogaao0oa _ccg cggaao0oa qec Oeaa0oa _ccg _o0oa
Oeaog aaa cgacq cecc_a. gc cq aame_a cae _ecog
cec. cOcagmom _ccg Qecom a__ aameqg_g gg
oemocceoaao0oa, cgaeqao0oa amme. aaa cgacq Qo
ge@amome acoqgc o Ocagoaeqao ammg. ge@aaoem
cgaga eaae Ocagcome agoaoa eg __acccc0q _ga.
eo a6s nQs Gus_ca cecc_a.
camaa, _q0eaeaco a_ga __eeom cc oqaae
ge@aa cga Ocagmoem agoage_e. eo a_eoac cocao
oaecc_e_e. cga Ocagmom c caomc oaecc_e_e.
c_qgoaccao gGsGs masdo omacqomc, Qems do_ ce_
caaccqeq qec Oeaa Ocagm 0eoa _ec_g. gmomc, maGs
ocqo ce_ ca coa ca acaom e_camc _e ce_ oc
Ocagem aeca, eo_a, oac eco_a _o oaeaao ammg.
fg ams gcu mmmo_a, aaa cgaccc _cga. o__c
g_ccao 0aaga ge@aao_ga ec0a amm ec Oeacom
_cga. eo geg _ccg e_ aameo_ga gg
oemocceo.
III. Guscq6g
0qeog ge_oao amm _ccOcagem cc qe aamom Oc_
_a_ga 0cag, _o___ec0a 0cacq _c__g. _ccg
0qeoaae _m amm _cc Ocagem qe aamom Oc_ _a_ga
0cag gegOoaeg gea oemoe_e. 0cacqoae
_ccOcagcoem e_ oeoomaoc cmocaa.
337
i.. oagoomc cqcc_qqccaq _ac Ocagcomae gm, oea mccc
Ocagcom, a 0cae_eo. a_ga cgoomc oma aec
Ocagmom, a 0cae_eo.
i. oma, _ oc_qc, Ooaeg geeomc gg ae_g oaqc
_ao___oae ca.
0cacqa_qc o__c 0q_a gg oeoaao gocaa.
i. __eo_gm0m - gg eccqgc amm gg __eqge
_oqgeao_g ec0a Qo_a.
ii. __eo_g ec0a - gg e ccqgc amm g 0og
__eo_ec0a Qo_a. ooag 0cacqa_qc g0 mcc
Qecac amm cc _oqgegec0a Qo_a.
gm Qod
gg agcOce
0eaqLc ceem Qcqe
1. gm qaoo_g -------------- Oeaa 0qeoc__g.
2. ae qaoo_g a a_ga ------------- Ooa__g.
e_ agcOceem
1. aeee a c__ g g_cq c_go.
2. c_aa oaeo ce_ac cee
8. 0om __eeom ce_ac cee
4. ecoeom ce_ac cee
5. 0cacqa_qc ce_ac cee
gg agcOceem
1. ae oaeom aameomc _c_qga cc0og oemoem
oomo.
2. gm a_ga Oocc Qec cooag qaooem cage_g
338
z. s msggsma, gmLQmg gsma
pg mp Qggsma
aameo_gq 0qeoaaeo_e_ _mga oaocomc _eo
oae_e. aameom _eo oa_a Qecg Ocaggceoaao
go 0oe_a. gg g_cccc aamea, _ccg gg e ccqg_g
eea _mga ceq qo _ea cecc_a. qo _eaeo
oeagccqaeac gg aameqg_g gg g_cccc Qec _ccg
oaocqgc oag, ecOcgoa Oeaa aqa, gg g_cccc
oacqgc agoaa _eacq a_ga Oeac ceqomaga. aameom
s, Q, aspg _a _eg _aaae oaocomc oa_a
qooeaoemc Oc_gmme.
me 0qeoae _qccecac mssf (1uuu) qaooem _eg
Qec Oqagcqomao cmqqaa. _eo aaoe.
1. a oaq qaoom
2. o_m Qcq qaoom
8. ec Qcq qaoom
s msgggsma
a oaqqaoom _go a amm cggom (gma, gcec, m, _g
a_ga egcq Qca) _ccg oaeec oae_e.
a oaocomc amm aameom _qaog occ (aoq s msgmL)
mom a_ga gmom (Ggm s msgmL) a_ga geco_a, _go_a
(g s msgmL) cc0og oqaae Ocmgo oaeoem cga Ooame_e.
eo _ge a_ga gm ecoc Ocgqc, __qqaagca_om,
ccOcaaoae cgacq, acq Oe_, 0cae_eoaaga. Qo_a
Qecg qaea aa__ _eaqg Ooamm aqqaoom cc0og
oqaae qooeaoem Ooae_mme.
smsg gsmam mmaous
gga oa_gga ec0a amm Oqacaqg _c a
oaqqaooem aeg oeoomaoc cmocaa.
339
1. qeqg qga a oaqqaoom
2. 0oge_a qga a oaqqaoom
8. a _a aoaqqaoom (qga a_ga 0oge_a)
4. g oaoomae aoaqqaoom
1. gmgg fgag smsgggsma
qqaoom a ccce g qeqg qe_e. _eac aeec
0oge_ gccgcec. qqaoom a a_ga oa_gce Oqacaq
Ooae_mme. (c.oa) gaassmms, doqms, a.dms a_ga Gms.
z. Gmgmpm fgag s msgggsma
gasmms doqms
ogg
oooo+m
o0c+o+e
ooc0m+
oL 1.: gmgg Lgg ssgg gsa
_.0oc
ooc0m+
0m+oo
[0us
@ee++aq
+gfee
_ma@ee
e)0oa
ssms
a_+_
@ee
@ee++aq
e)0oa
0ca
0ca
oc z.z 0gwju mg [s sgg gs;u a
340
q a oaqaoom aeec 0oge_, gqaga _o__e
eco_a, acae_ qe_o_a, a ccce g qe_e. (c.oa)
maGLsdms dgms, Q.usms, Qdm, ssms 0cae_eo.
a. s gm smsggsma (fgoumm)
a ccc_oqac omga qaoom om aeccq0qa_
Oqacac__eo. eo qeqg qga a _a a oa qaoom
cecc_a. (c.oa) GecGLs - .d a_ga @cdgGdms.
s gm s msgggsma (Gmgmpmmm)
qqaoom __oga mc _, aeec 0oge_ amme. (c.oa)
mgcds, msoGdms GusLGsgLsm.
_cmComaa
mo _ga
ooe
_e_
gLmoa GLaLGa@La
LL 1.a sgv saagg gaa;s
a _ga
oocccae
Cca
oCeaa
_ga oo
ega
341
4. g_ msgmasm s msgggsma
qqaoom _a__ mc oae_e. o__e 0oao_a qeqe
c cggo_a eco_a mc _ amme. _eac c acae_
qe_om aaccqgg 0ac caag omae_e.
qqaoom a oaeoga, Qc oaeoga qo _eaoem
Oc_gmme. o__e oa_gce Oqacaqeca cggom ecQec
qeeaoema, a _a cggom aeeaaae a oa qeeaoema
Oc__gga (c.oa) Gms.ds GgcqGs.ds, mLus esgcGLdms,
mmmgo 0cae_eo.
qp modm ga ma
1. 0oaq Oqagcq ge_a oma aecag.
2. qga a oa qaoome 0oaomc oma _ecaaq 0oaq
goo_a, 0oaqOqacc ___ 0oa geoema, 0oa geoem
oaaomc gg cagoao 0oa ecoema Ooae_ gga
(c.oa) gaassmms
s@c0cmus
;wmwo
mea
_e) 0 meee
_ga
@ee
_ga
coLmo
@ee+m
_e)0me@ee
mea
o0Laeac
uLc 1,4 g_magmswam smagg gams
0ca
342
8. mgcds, msoGdms, nGsqms 0cae_ 0oge_a a
oaqqaoom mccqeq ac_cccc gg Ocge_e. cc
qaoom _qm oeaoem aeec gg am c_ccq_g
0oaoem ac ammg. GescGLsu, esmmms, Gess,
@cdgGdms 0cae_ qaoomc 0oaom __0o oaecc_ogcec.
4. goms Gumo qaoqgc e_ oqaae 0oaom 0qaega. o__c
c eaqae 0oaom, a__eo qaoqeq qo Oeaa cga qofacq
qeea Ooaec, qga oc_c_o 0cae_ 0oaomaga.
5. qeqg qga a oa qaoome qecaeg a ccce g qga
qqqq gcecc cggaaga (c.oa) gaassmms.
6. Q.mums a_ga Qdm qaoomc qe_ accQcqqe_omao
ammg. acc Qcqqe_om cc ogcom aaa oag goOoag
ogc_a ecoem aecaga.
1. qga ecoem aeca 0oge_a qaoomc ecom
__eaaaoa, Ocmaqaoa, qcecaaoa gga (Q.mums,
maGLsdms gms) o__e 0a_ccq Oa_g _o aecag. q _o
ecoem a_ca a_ga ag oaaomc gg cagoacc0qa_
ecgemom ac _ecccaqoag q__g.
8. gaassmms, qsus 0cae_ qga qaoomc, qaooem qo
Oeaa ecoaaqom cgqg, oc_c_o 0cae_ qeea Ooaecg.
u. GmsdsGgcqGsds, egGLdms, mmmgo, emmms
Gess 0cae_ qaoomc oggo ecom oaecc_e_e. mc
_a, cm__ ecom amee o ge_oao cgacc0qa_, mc
oeq oaaceeec _eoqee am c_e_e. oa_0_accaae
ecom aagm ecQecq qeeaoem Ooae_ gga. g coa
ecaao Oeacc_a.
1u. aoq 0eaeoa (c.oa) msoGdms oeq a_ga oe coga,
meac Qoe_e.
amod ga ma
1. 0oaq Oqagcqa, qe_ Oqagcqa c Ocagoae ceqoemc
Oc_gmme. _eoaaoe. _cqom oa Oaceag _ccg
oaecc_ogcec.
2. q_q0qac Ocgacaga gg __oac _e Oacea oogeca
Oecoem Ooaecg. q_g cagoaga ce cec.
8. eg oma _ecq q_e oaecc__g. gc cc oa__e_om
amme. g qqqgga, 0ooaae oa cmaa__qgga aqa.
343
4. ogomga goom Ocagoao oaecc_ogcec.
5. oaogcaa gooc eeca Ooocom ge_oao amme. a _a
qaoomc q_om ac_0a oaecc_e_e.
6. g oaoomao amm qaoomc eeca a_ga q0maaa eg
oma _ecg gga (c.oa) Gmsds GgcqGsds _ccg
oaogcaa o_e_om eaaqgc g_ gga. (c.oa) gooms.
1. qe_o_a, eco_a o Oaceaeoao gqac ecome
q_q0qac Oecom cooeom Ooae_ gm0eaeo gooao
Oeacc_a (c.oa) mgcds.
8. a _a qaoomc ecq gemom __0o oaecc_ogcec.
_eac qga ecomc ecq gemom 0a_cccc ac_0a
oaecc_e_e.
u. a _a ecomc oa__e_om ooaqqc a_ga c_ oaoema
oqeqa Ooae_ gga.
_g0g+o
_e
oc0mo
no_e
og0g+o
og
0+c0c+ ooom
0mcc+ ooom
.0m+am
oL 1.s Q.3rs Gm g. G.Ggs.
344
qgp0_ae
p0_ae
+aggeg
OLeo+m
eoe _g
-q0oaa
LL 1.6 e_ceea _ec_.Oc.0_a
+p0_ae
1u. a _ce (Q.mums) a_ga 0og c qaoomc _ccae ceqg
oqo @oqGsom ce_a eee Ooaec Oecom
agoaga. eo qaoo_g ogome_e.
11. aq qaoom ge_oae oc_c qmmeaa (compensation paint) Oec
ea__c ge_oae _oaacq Oe_eoa Ooae_ oaecc_a.
12. _m0cg Oeco_a, _m0cg gaao_a _m0ceg og,
gg _qac amm qaooem __oaac cagoae_e.
mp Qggsma
acaq oaocomc _ccg o_ec Qecomc oa_a
qaoom o_m Qcq qaoom cecc_a. 0qeoaae _moc a
Oc__aq cggom o_ec oaocom cecc_a eo _eg
oeocc_a.
1. gmQm mpc GasmL msgmLa
g aeee a Ooam g_e ge_oaoa, o_ec oaeeca
oaecc__g. (c.oa) usmmm, usmpouoq 0cae_eo.
z. GemQm mpc GasmL msgmLa
g _go _m a gqaga, qaoomac cmgc am c_qg
Ooamm _qogcec.
345
a. gmQm pg GemQm mpc GasmL msgmLa n.as
meeda
Lsummms (1u5u) o_m Qcq qaooem eaqae oma oacqge
0cag me _a e_ Oc cca oe ge_e_ omaqmqgc oa_a
qaoom ce oeagqqaa.
mpmL msgmLa 4gaas@ umqam Gasmq_ag
1. omaecca a_ga aeee aaaq OoccQec.
2. a a_ga oeaome c__age_
8. aeee _qgc a oaecc_qc
4. _go gmq goa
q_ _eacq, Oeaeac a_ga oaeo o_ oqoeacce
_qccecac o_m Qcq qaooem _eg cmomao cmocaa.
1. mpc6_g godag gsma
gmm mpcmm gmsoumm cea _eocc_a. Ocgacaga acaq
cggomc oaecc__g. o gga oacqgc _qaog _g _qc cc_
oao_gm qom oaeo o_ea _qqg Ooae_ o_cac
gg qccga. gae_ qaoom eo. (c.oa) Gessm esGgsassu,
@sasm Gaasms, Gams GLss 0cae_eo.
z. mpcmm gs Gas@ mp Qggsma (emgoupgmLmmm)
q_ Qec ac_0a acaqec cga Ooame_e. o__e
eeqcc_g o, a Ooaec agcqom (qe_om, ecom, 0oaom) a
0ecq agcqomao Oeaccc_ gga ae oacqgc Ocgam mee
0eqg eoga (c.oa) Gao, Gs, @.Gussdms, goumms, ousao.
emgoupg faa mp Qggsma
c qaoomc, qe_om eeqcc_g Ooae_ eeqcc_geca
mp Qg gsma ce _eocc_a eo goumms a_ga
@.Gussdms qaoomaga.
goumms qm
acaq comc oaecc_a _coem Ooaec oac_c qqa
Oeqaaga. qcecaaocccc, coea Q_a Ooaec qe_q Oqagcqom
dGsGa cecc_a. eo qqqg eeqcc_g Ooae_
gm0eaeoc ceea Oeaa. cc0ca0m_om Ocgam _0cg
Ooae_ gccqac ec oacqgg e 0eqg eoe_e.
346
Gs r o r mz s r 1 gr s r a z (ogc 4 6gg godgz )
uoa
uoa
_
ee
oo)sao
(pcorg gs 2asg)
0ars
(pcor aps)
__
__
yeo
eoaq
Oegc_m
+Lqeo
ea
maCLa_
_LOegceo
oc z.z ppggs;ua
347
goumms qm 0cae_ qaoomc qe_om ecom __g,
qcecaa gm0eaeo Oeae_e.
a. mpcmm nQsag gsma (emgoupppp u u_m gsma)
o_cea cgaga qaoom aeeaaae o_m Qcq qaoom
ce_eocc_a. eo cc q__eacq, ammeacq, a_ga Oeaeac
ceqoem Oc__gccqac Ogoqaae acaq Qecea qaga
g_ee Oc_gmme. o__e acq_ a_ga Oomcq_ Qec,
acaqqcac cagocc_e_e. (c.oa) aGscGsdo dGses, Gams
QGsqas, uo g-gus, ausdo ds, aamms, dm, eaas _qeae.
qpmmod gamma
1. eg oma _ecq 0oaq Oqagcqa, 0oa Oqacco_a 0oa
goo_a oaecc_e_e. (c.oa) aGscGsdo.
2. ousa ammeqc 0cac Ooaqg 0oaom oaecc_e_e.
8. qe_om gcecaaoa, ocec qeea aecaeoaoa, oqeaae
oaaq gq qqqq ccec aecaeoaao gga. qe_
aee_oqac (c.oa) eaas oaeccccaa. goummsm _comac
_ccccc cc0ca0c_ ammg.
4. qqqq Oa_g _o _ccg eoa _o Ooaec qe_
ggmcLgQg _caq a0aa ommom Ooaec qe_
aGscsdg oaecc__g.
5. qe_ @ao ammg 0cac _mmao0oa, ousao ammg 0cac
ma0ca_ (ecq Oqac qe_) _o0oa aa_gg _ecg
gocaa.
6. ecom oa ge_ Oegc 0cac _ccg c 0oemomc
_comao0oa aa_gg _ecg _g oacqg_g ac_0a
oaecc_e_e. _ccg Gaammms, ousao oao _ao__c
ammg 0cac Oegcomao0oa aa_gg _ecg gocaa.
1. eccccq o ggocao _ccg mumo ammg 0cac m 0cae_
_eacq Ooae_ gocaa _ccg Gamsm ammg 0caeg
cc __ecomao cmcccqgga _ccg Gsm ammg 0caeg
eeqcc_g oqao gga.
8. @.Gussdms a_ga gguo g-g-us 0cae_ qaoomc ecaq
Oegcom _comao aa_gg _ecgmme.
u. 0o0cac0aco 0cae_ o_m Qc qao ecom ga qeqe ga
ao 0caeo ge_o a0aa ommom oaecc_e_e.
348
amod gamma
1. 0oaq goo_a, 0oa Oqacco_a goummsm eg oma
_ecgmme.
2. ousao ammg 0cac 0oaom eeqcc_g Ooae_ e 0eqg
eoe_e.
8. eeqcc_g o o_m Qc qaoomc qe_om a 0ega
cggeac Oc__gga (Oacea oogeca caeeoaa Oecom).
4. eeqcc____ o_m Qc qaoome qe_om oq qqqg
_cqema eg oma _ecq qqqq Oecooa aeca
q_q0qaeca o4mmas Oecomacae _qq0qaeca Ooaecg
(c.oa) Gaammms.
5. qe_omc gomc __ga ecq gemo_a, eg oma
_ecq oaogcaa a_ga ogomga goo_a oaecc_e_e.
6. ecomc eg oma _ecq _cqm, Gsm
ammeqc0cac eeqcc_geca eco_a, dmgQ
ammeqc0cac cc __g q_q0qaega mum ammg 0cac cc
__g Ooaec o4mmas Oecomac _e _qq0qaeca,
ogacc ammg 0cac cgqq Oecoema Ooaecg. ec
ecqgo eg 0ogca_ _ecg eg oma _ecq oaogcaa
gooema, ogomga gooema Ooaecg.
_cqe
Cuoq__C_ao
caeCec caeoeua
ego_ ao_
oeoa
-qCoaaa
ecgc_+ caeoeua
ug__ oo_goo
aCaua
g q__C_ao
LL 1.a mvgo6.Oa.Gga.
349
Gemm gamma
1. qqaoome ecqgemom oc g_ggga. coec _q
gga q _eaqae qeea qqaoome omaeq aa__
Oeaco0ma_ Oqacaqecag.
2. o_m Qcq qaoomc Oec ea__c amm 0ogc Ocagcom, ooa
agoaga Ocagcomao aa__cc_e_e. c.oa. Oecg0cao a_ga
ocme.
8. occ0co, Oca0co 0cae_ Oagom ecQecq qaooem
oc o_mQc qaoomc Oeac oeoaao amme.
4. ec oac o_cac aaa oa_a g_e o_m Qcq qaoo_g
oqeaae q0ac0cacmaeqge Oocca a_ga acaqec cgaga
qeeaaac ec_g.
5. o_m Qcq qaoom Ocgacaga aaa _oaacq __qqa Ooae_
gccqac Oec oa__e oe_cqq qeea _gom_g.
gmLQmg gsma
ecQecq qaoom Ocagoao Qcq qaoomaga eo _go
o_c0aa _ccg _go 0a ccaq Qecac omga, qqaoom
m0ca, a qgaca aee0ca _ccg acaq com0ca
omaogcec. _qaog ec Qecq qaoom eaqoaae oacQec a_ga
ae oeoom Ooaec comc oa_a. oa_om, qcOomom a_ga caa
Oeaacccc oacom 0cae_eo ooeoea 0ega. cmeaaae
ecQecq qaoq Oqagcq qc oeooema, g Oeqoema
Ooaecg.omaae Oqagcqom g Oeqoema, qqa Oeqoema
Ooaeceo o omaae Oqagcqom aoem Ooaeqgga (Oocc
aeccome aeoa_om).
ecQecq qaooem e_ _aaae eq Oqagcqomaoc
cmocaa.
1. qc oeooema, g Oeqoema Ooaec eq Oqagcq
2. ocecq qeea aeca qaooem Ooaec eq Oqagcq
gmLQm msgmL gsmam gamma
aoq _m o_a, eaqae _m g_eaa Ooaec
oaocomc oa_a qaoom gmLQmg gmsa cecc_a (c.oa)
Ocgacacae caaq qaoom. ecQec qaoomc ceoga
q__eacq qeeao_a Oeaeac qeeao_a amme.
1. eg oma _ecq 0oaq Oqagcq ammg. 0oaom Ocagoao
emqg, 0oaqOqaccoema 0oa gooema Ooaeceo.
2. qe_om Ocgacaga aee_g0ac gga qeqg emqq
gcaae qe_om oaecc_a.
350
8. ecom Ocgacaga Ocmaeo, _ocaaeeo oeeaao
qqcq__eo. 0aaom a_ga Oa_gc_o ___eo.
4. ecqgemom ecome g ccqomga oaecc_a.
5. ec ecqgo cae0ec a_ga oc_c_o caeeoaa ce 0ogca_
_ecg Oec ec Oomom Ooae_ gga.
6. aee_g 0ac amm caoom _caqgaae _cqm Oc_g
gga.
1. ogomga goo_a, oaogcaa goo_a, eaqae oma
_ecg eg 0ogca_ _ecggga.
gm Qod
gg agcOce
emaae eceaq 0qaOq_qea
1. oa Oacea cmccc ecom Ocagoao cqqaoomc
amme.
_. a _a qaoom _. g oaoomae qaoom
. qeqg qga qaoom o. 0oge_a qga qaoom
2. 0oa Oqacco_g cgcao 0oacecom cqqaoqgc
oaecc_e_e.
_. _cmg0cmaa _. goaaeaa
. e_cmcca o. ea0ea-ccca
0eaqLc ceem Qcqe
1. mc oa_a qaoom ---------- ce _eocc_e_e.
2. acaq comc oa_a qaoom ----- ceg _eocc_e_e.
e_ agcOceem
1. a oaqqaoom ce_ac cee
2. qaoome _eg Qecq Oqagcqom aaeo
8. o_m Qcqqaoom - oeagoa.
gg agcOceem
1. cc0og oeoaae aoaqqaooem c_qgoac_o_ce
ccqae_o.
2. o_ec qaoome oeoccacq_oae _qccecaee omgo.
cqg agcOceem
1. qgq c_qgoac_o_ce o_ec Qcq qaoome
qooeaoemc ccqae_o.
351
a. gmpma ma
a_eo omoem eaag aeqee oaeo _ea_g aeq
eqge oma cc0og oqaae a_eo omoem eaagmmg. ae,
a, Qcom, e ___c, oa_g, _@ ___c eoom 0qa omag
o _aaao caec_e_e. q omoem _qccecaao Ooae0c
aeqee Qecaae oaeo _ea_g. gaa aco _moc oc
Ocma Qcom omqeqa _e_aa cqgc aaoeoa, aeoaa cqgc
gaecaOoae_mmg.
__ge_a a_eo omoem oacqg_oaoc cae c_qgoqac
acoa __oga gg o_g c Ogoq _cc_mmg. gaaa
_q_g ogococc.
ae, gccca, aec aeq_g _qccec 0qeoaao ammg.
coac aeqe, qe oaeoq 0qeoo_g ge_oae a_eo
omoem0a caec_qg Ooaecae.
gmpma ma
omom cecg ag 0qeooem _aqg Oeaoq_oao 0eqg
eoocc_a Qecaae ___caga. a_eo omom cecg ae oma,
aoma, om aecca _ao__e _eacqomaga o__c ___c
oa_g, a, ae, qagomom, qao oma a_ga ocgoma _aeo
_cga. aeq omom _eeqga q omoem eaaaao Ooae_
_ea_g.
a_eo omom e_qaaqg_g e_qaaa 0ogc_a.
gmpma mam mmaa
a_eo omoem _qe 0ogaac oceo, cmgc eco qa
qeea, q_ cga _e_ea _ao__e _qccecac cc
oeoomaoc cmocaa.
_. a_eo omoem _qe 0ogaac oceoae _qccecac _eg
oeoomaoc cmocaa.
1. am ma c.oa oa_g, qeea a_ga qag Ocagcom
352
2. ad ma c.oa. qaoom, ocgom, gea aamea a_ga
Oqacgaa cmOcagm
8. am, ad, aoq ma c.oa. ae
_. a_eo omoem, _qe cmgc ecq qa qeea, gg
_ao__e _qccecac e_ oeoomaoc cmocaa.
1. mppsg g gmpmsg ma
ge_aaq omom aeqe caec_qga 0cag ge_ogcec (c.oa)
oa_g omae, aec, _ec ___c _qeae. oa__aeg, om
aeccqgc o__aq _moc oaeccq_a aao c_qec
oc_cc_qqocecOaec oa__e qeea eqoccc_o_a.
z. gmp ma
aeqe oomoem caec_qgoqe _ca eo ge_g
Ooae0c 0caga. eo qgcco qaeo a_ga qgcco _qaaqeo
ce g oeocc_a.
. qgodaa qm ma
ae@a, _gc om qa aameo_a _a qgcco qa
omomaga g ag o_ _ca ecOcgoa aa___ Oeaqc
_ao__ac ga g_cccc oacqg_gm e_a qgcco qaeo.
@. qgodaa qmsg ma
qqeoa omom ag o_, aa___ Oeaqc qeea ___eo.
_eoaac qgcco _qaaqeo _ga. (c.oa) Oqacgaa cm Ocagmae
Qcom, Occ0aeaa, a_eo oa a_ga oeaom o__c
g_cccqqog. Qcqqq a, oe Oecoa a_ga oe ocgom
_aeoom qgcco qa omom. eooem emaao
caec_qqaoqc qgcco _qaaq omomao aa_o_a.
@pp gm
@ppm : Qecaaeecq aeqe ___c g_g _e_ae
gg _oaao oaecc__ae. aeqee _e_ac 0qeooem _aqg
Oeaa ___c o _oaaaeg. eoomc _aaaeeoom, o_g
qeqoqo cmOcagmae Qcom Occ0aeaa a_ga a_eo oa _ga.
eooemq qo ma gm ___c, a eeg, oa__a__c, _ec, qo
Oocca a_ga _@ ___c _aeo 0q ___ee _comaga.
@ppm mm
__oacomc aeqee eaem ___ee 0qeo oaaa 2uuu - 4uuu
0ca o0cam 0omaeea _e0e__ oacomc oc_ ocgome qee
353
___c caec_qqcccce. acom Oecc Oecc ___ee 0qeo
_gomqqg. cqOqaecqaa g__aeqc Oqac 0aeea oaeaao,
Oqacgaa cmOcagcom caec_qqcccce. ce0o gg aema
___ee 0qeo oaaa 1u,uuu .o0cam ce _gomqqg.
q_eaaa 0omaeea, Oqacge_, 0cagoqg, Oqaec Oqacaq,
a@o cagoacq _ao___g ___c 0qeocc__g. q ___c
0qeoom acq_g a_ 0ogc__g.
gmpg m_ Ggsg6s ma
eg aco ___c omom Ogoqaae Qecac ammg. ace
_goccqaae aom, qeqoqa cmOcagmae, Qcom Occ0aeaa
a_ga a_eooa _ao_e_ caec_qge_ea ce0o oomom
goOoag a_a ge_g Ooae0c og_g qe oemoao
oomoem gg c g__ae_om ac_a caec_qq _qa ce0o
oomo_g cgcao aa_g cmOcagm omoem oe_cqo
0oeqmmg.
@ppm
ma ___c, a e ___c, qoOocc ___c, oa_g ___c, _ec
___c, ocOcagcomc gg Oc_cc_a ___c, eae ___c a_ga
_@ ___c _aeo aa_g cmOcagm egaaga. _o_e_
qgccoqa _ccg _e_ eaa ___c ce _e0_aa.
1. gdm @pp
ma ___c ge_aaq 0aga aaoccaq ___c _ga. ma gm
eaqeom agoaoccc_ ma ogaoem Ooae_, a Ooccaecqc,
ae eeaqqc, m_omc omOomqqc a_ga c agoem
agqc _ao___g 0qeocc_a ma gm _goec eaqeom cc
0qae_mme.
z. @ @pp
q ___c 0eaa-285 _@eo eeccqe _ca
Oc_cc__g. o__c _go _moc ___c agoaocc__g. gg
0eaa-285 agoaga ___caeg cgeeg Oacm ce Qcom
___c a_ga cgeaeg 3ccaa Occ0ac ___gg eaaaeg. ag
acqc _@ ___c Qecaa qaa_a (cacaa), a0aa (aqgc0qea),
0oacca (agoqae), occaoa (qa_) _a comc
_eagmmg.
354
a. aspg @pp
cc g__ae_omao c comc qaeaoem _eoa a
e_oa oa__a__ec caec_qge_ea. q ___c 0cagaae
_m| _e_ __oga, _eeqg comga ecccgcec ce0o
oa__a__c gg c comc c acom ac_0a caec_qq _qa.
4. esm ndms
Ocagoao ag acqe aacq_cggomc oacecome eaeom
cm Ocagmao caec_e_e. _qe oemoao ag oac Oomo_g
0cagaae _moc oma aa ecccgcec. q_0cag oacecome
eaea a6s msmsa (Bio-gas) caec_qqc c__g. ooa a__a
ccaac, ge_q __qqqgce a_cqg Oeaacc__g. 0aga
ooa eeaccq_ga, 0c__a caec__g. q_eca c_a ea
aaao caec__g.
s. ao Gus_a_g @pp
mc_ oc Ocagcomae 0ccca, cmaoq a_ga q
Ocagcomegg eeaa a_cqg Oeaacc__g.
o. aL ma_g @pp
occ _ecomegg eeaa qaamocc__g.
1. qmGmou @pp
c comc Oocca gq qeea Oocc m_gomao qoae
0a_ccc_g og_g. eo e 0c_ga, eeaa qaamoa
caec__g.
a. s-fm @pp
aaaae cqgegg o_a me ao ___eegg eeaa
qaamocc__g.ag acqc _0o _gomc eea__c Qecaom
_eaoccc_mme.
@pp Gefoq
q_eaa ___ee Qecaee 0aac_qq qe aeqe _qc eao0qe
a_om oe ga _e_aae, _a_ c_o 0oeqmmg. cc _e_ac
___ec caec_qgoqaga, 0eqqeq ge_ccqaga gg g_cccc
_m ___ec 0eo _qa. q_g ceoga o _e_oem
caec_qqcaa.
1. Oqac gcc oma oaeaao, ma ___ec oaoeomc
caec_qgqc.
355
2. cae qqqo, qeoa__, ca _ccg om __cqoem caec_qgqc.
8. qeq oqo cmOcagem ge_oao caec_qgqc.
4. a cmOcagcoem gccc_ caec_qgoqac aom, Oeqom
_eeqeqa cagoaocaa. omag oga a_omc eo
oeccqoc_e_e.
5. qao a_ga ocg oom ca_mm ooeaa aaaoa, aaa
oaoaoa caec__g.
6. 0aaccc ag oqoeacq _ca cm Ocagm oeqeq
oeccqocaa.
1. oa_g a_ga _ec ___ec 0aac_qq qga o _e_oem
agoagqc.
mm ma
oeom _a a_eo omomaga _eo oe ocgomc _a
oaocaaga. ooeaaom qee Ocagmaqa omaga, Oca_g
0ca_ga caec_qge_ea. cc qao aeeo_g
ae_ocaaoa, me aeeo_g ae ecga caaoa
_ea_g cc oe aaaome aeo_ga, ecOcgoqg_ga oa_om
caec_e_e. qeeq qo oeom Ocagmaqa _aqgoqgga
c0o__g. oacec _qccecaao Ooae_ aecoa aom gqee
Oqac, 0qe omaqqc, _c caa, ecom _ecqc 0cae_ g
Oqacoem Oeae_ea. aq Oqa_ eaecac es aa _a cg
oe_g. g a, acccecom qaamga Oqa_eaecomc
_cc Ocagmao _ea_g.
oeomc oaecc_a cee qaoom ae a_cqgc
c0o_cgce ae eeac _qcaa a_cqgaamao _ea_g.
o__e aeom, oeom, Ooacec oeom, oeqom, ag occom
ocecomc 0eqg eoocc__g. ce0o oa_om ___c 0qomao
Oeacc__g. eo maeca gg gmea qg aaa 0og
Ocagcomao 0e_g.
oa_om CO
2
acqg O
2
g Ooma_oqe _ca omaeccqeq
eaQecac eoqg_a ceea Oeae_e. g ocgome
oaoagg e_aeaaaeqaga. ce0o qaoom a_ga aoem
_ccg a_eo oaoe oqeq cagga. gg oa _mmm oa_om
aeg ce oaacae _c oaeo acqg cc_ ce _gee o_g
q_Qecac ag o_ Oeag Ooma__g.
356
oa_om Oocccc_a 0cag, ocecomc 0eocc_a ___c
oc c__g. a_ga Ocgacacae eqgom occ__g. oa_om
_oe oemoao, ge_q oaca ac_a ooeaaa Oeaa qa oma__
ae 0qaeg_g. _eoaac _qec cam_a caaom q_mm eqgoem
a__ o_oqac Qca cae__qao__g. oa_oem _qqc ae
_mcc_g oaeaa_g.
oa_om ge_oqac ceea ae Ocaog cagocc__g. _qeac
o _aaae a_eo omaae aea eco qa oaacq
ge__g. a_eo oa_omc a 0oaom ae@ce ceeg
oaecc__g. oa_ome uu% aea acgom0ca _ccg qao
goom0ca QecQgqqcc__g. ce0o oa_om e a__oa
_eacqomao a o_ac o _a aaa ceea Oea_g.
gaaoc, oa_om _occcc cggac gg 6u,uuu ceae ce
0ac ae _e_0qaga aeac c_qg Oecccc_oqao
agcccccc_mmg.
q_0cag oa_ome _ a_g am _gomqg og_g. aeqe
oa_oem Ooc_oqac Ocga eeaom q_oaeoaaeeo. _eac
o__ac _ca_a ocOcma cec cee0 ae _qa.
ea asa
0qa ooeaa oe oa_ome _oac _c_a oemoem
aeag, e_o oa_om ___occ_qgqec camo Oeagmmg. e_o
oa_om gcceq oeocg cagoacc_g gg _qc aqo ce
oeagocaa. K.M. Qmsd (qecoa, oeocg _aa Qecaa,
0caQe) cecome ogqgccq e_o oa_om cecg gg 0oacca_ gg
gcca a_ga Oeac_e_ ceqgccaao gg ao_g, g_ccao
aacq_ ao_g Qec, Ocagmaqaa a_ga e_o cagoacec cc
Ooaec Qgoeome o_cac_ce gcca _a Qecaegg
_goec Oeaa Qec oe _mcceo _a 0aoaao
Ooae_mmg.
ea asa QcLgQm ea
1 _q cggac qga oa_oem omaqg cagoaqqc.
2. e_qaa Qcom a_ga _eao qmo Qcomc aacq_ ao_g
caec_a aoem omaqqc.
8. Oqagcq _e_ac, qaooem _qc
4. ooeaa oa_oem (ooeaa caao_ce aoem omaqqc) oem
Qcome omaqomga, omaec gcqa cggomga omaqqc.
357
5. aeqaome oa_comc, Qcome ccecomc aoem
omaqqc.
6. oomga, Oqa_eaec cggomga __oao aoem
omaocaa.
1. aom _ccg qqa Oeqoem omaccqe _ca ae _mcec
q_ocaa.
8. eaec gomga oacoaa a_ga gcqcaeq gomga, m
omeeac aoem omaocaa.
asam usgasgg
oa_oem cagoao ceoga qooeacq o_e_oem oeccqo
0oe_a.
1. qaog gg oaeqg_oao aoem oa_omc gg _o__a
cqgc qga aoegoem _qc. coom oeoao _q0aa
_q_0o_c aa _a Qo _ca aoem c 0oe_a.
2. ooeaaqg_g caeccaq Qcomga, eaecome gomga
___oeomga, oemaac_qgcc a_ga _oaoem o__ga
aoem omaqqc. a acqc aoem _oq_oao goOoag
ogc_a _ccao Oeacc_a Qo mmGasgem cecc_a. qee
aomec0a ccccc_qq 0oe_a.
8. aocec a_ga cmOcagm ocecoem caec_qga 0cag
ooem ge_ccqe _ca oeqeq oeccqo 0oe_a.
4. aocecoem cmOcagmao caec_qgoeq qoaqg _q_gc
cgcao eeaccq_g aaa oa, a_eo oa 0cae_ ___c
omoem caec_qqc.
5. g ocqgegg oa_oem cagoaqqc 0oe_a. oa_omc _c_a g
ocqeq me g cgacq ogooem caec_qg gea _eeo
0oe_a.
6. oa_omc amm ao_g __ee a_ga ge@amomeac
_c_a 0aaoem q_ccq_g, qeo_cq gaea Oeaqc, oa_g
m0c Oqmqqc a_ga aamac _e_ oc_cc_qgqec eoaam
0oe_a.
1. oac ecom oa_omc 0aaoeq q_qqc.
8. oa_oem Qaoo me _e_oem oeccqqqc. eoomc a
caaoqc, a_qc, camaa a_ga 0oa __eeoem
358
acOegqgqc 0aa a_ga ge@amom qagqec Qaoqqc,
oemoem oc_c_qgqc, aaaq occce aoema a_ga go
omacq Oqac gcca 0cae_ _e_oem oa_oem Qaoo 0eaqg
Ooam_qc.
u. 0aac_qqcccc Ooc_qc a_ga 0qaOq_qg Ooc_qc
_e_oem caec_qgqc. 0aaccc Ooc_qec oaqae _q
aom, Ocagmaqa _aqgoa ___ aom, cagocccc
aom, 0a__ aom 0cae_o_e_ o 0oe_a. _gaq
aoema a_ga Og aoema Ooc_og 0qaOq_qg
Ooc_qc _e_ea eaaqg.
s usgasgg
sm @gsa
Qcqqq a cecg _oqac _eagmm cae_omc oaecc_a
goaom, omecom a_ga aec gomo_g eccccc
oaeacomc ec_g. ooag _oqac amm qqeoa
Qcqqq a Qacmm cqoom Qcqqq aqqaom cecc_a.
_oqac gg g_cccc _a oe amm Qcccgg Qcqqq ac
Qcccccqgga. ooag 0qagga Qcqqq me 0acacca
Qcqqq a acca cecc__g. cqg_gq qgqoag q Qcqqq a
acca ggc ccaomegg g_goeoae ccaom oe
0ogc_a. Qcqqq aqqaomegg c_occ_a qeea goOoag
_e_a Ocaa cgoaeae _ca o_occcc__g.
mgdm amggm
_ac ecocag ecOcga a o_ac aea _a cg
o_g. aea qae _eeqg a omo_ga _qeeaaae
_qaaaga. _gom, mom, gmom a_ga Qcqqq a _a
_eeqg_ga _caqaa aea. q_oacqgc ag aq0qeoo_g
0a__a a omoem0a Ocmga eaagg0_aa. ooa_ae
Qecac aeme _aqgoa Ocmga aecccaac g_g.
aea 0eomcq cecg aeme _aqgoqeq aeag, _g Ocaa
comc _qee meaoaac __eaaao caec_qgOoam_qc
_ga.
gmms gcous, uppsagmpaasm asma
1. oomc Ocg oga aom Oqaeoae 0qeoea _aqg
Oeaoq_oao aomom _goccqaao ac0aaocc_qqccc_
oge_e.
359
2. oomc _gomqg oga ocqcom, qaa,Oaec eaecom
_ao__ac g_q Oomc cggom ge_g a_eoaao aea
m_goc q_occ__g.
8. cgoae Ocaaqgc 0caga oacomc Qecea 0aaeaaoqac
qeea qc_cca_ _gomga.
4. ge_q aeam amm _e_omc Qcqqq a ac0aaoa
_gomga.
5. _go _m Qcqqq a c_occ_a oacomc Qcqqq a acca
Oogoao ge_oqac egom o_e_o_a.
6. ae0 _eeqg aomo_ga _qaaaga.
Qcqqq a omqeqc cagoao Qcqqq aqqaomc aee
0eo 0oe_a. aea 0eomcq ge0_ qeea c__age_
_eeqg_ga gaoaga.
mgs Geadoq
mgs Geadodm mmaa
ae Ocaa 0cag 0qaao _qee 0eomccga, _gm
Oegqgoga aea 0eomcq _ga.
aee g oomc 0eomocaa.
1. 0qaao Ocma Oqacqomc 0eaqg eoqg 0qeog
ac0aaocaa.
2. cqg0aaoaae aea 0eomcq _e_ome _ca _gm Oegqg
Qcqqq aomqeq _gomocaa.
aee 0eomga _m cecg ogcqge eaem aem,
0eomocc_a cqge _m a_ga _gm Oegqq qa _m
_ao_e_ Ocagqqqaga.
Oeeee ome eaem aeam - 12uu .. (1.2 )
2,4uu e._q (228 e.) cccmmm - 228 g 12 = 261 o. (_)
mc_aeeac Ocaa ae - 2,61,uuu e.
_gm Oegqqqa ae
me _m - 1,6u,uuu e ] ogcqg_g
aa aea 0eomcceac _ca 1,6u,uuu ecca e ggac _gm
Oegqgoqe _ca qeeaq qc_ccacec qoaocaa.
360
mgm dmm_ mpa Geadaas.
1. ocqc Oaacec aaqac Ocaa aea.
2. ocqcoem o__mm g_qOomc cggomc Ocaa aea
8. m_, ocqcomc eg _ccg gaa eg gcce, Oaacec
aaqac o_a aee o__e _ca cma _e_omc 0qaao
0eomocaa.
4. g_qOomc cggomc o_a aee cqg_g qgq aea
0eomcq _e_om _ca 0eomocaa.
GscmL sq, Qpg Gmo ugQa g_g mgme Geadgg
1. g_qOom egom _ca 0eomqqc
2. gaa egom _ca 0eomqqc
Geadag mpa
1. oa gom _e_
2. gemmm o a gom _e_
8. o ac c_eoom _e_
4. gccc eg (ge_q occa ] ge_q _a) _e_
5. gccc eg (Ocma occa ] _go _a) _e_.
uLm z,s scqLsw_gg mmgg Gesmoq
mg_m g
mg
mmgg
ggaL
361
m pg gqme6 m_ mgs Geadgg
1. mc_ eae 0ac o_a aee, aea Ooae_ oga oqgaa
_ca Ooaeag aec oqccaec Oegqq 0oe_a.
2. gqee mcao gqac eae 0ac caege (Polythene) 0acomcq
_eaqg, _qe 0ac o_a aee 0eomocaa.
8. aec oqccae _ca oqgomocccc qeee, qeeaq
Oqacqac 0eqg ac0aaocc_qqcaa
QpgGm mg mgs Geadgg
Oaacec aaqac o_a aee gaaom _ca g_q Oom
eg _ccg qeacc a0qoq Oqacqac oc 0oe_a.
1. oqocq Oqacq ] g ce ogaag _eaqc 0oe_a.
2. aecq Oeoc _ccg ao_oem oaaa 1_q _moc _qac
0cac 0oe_a.
8. _qe g __g aeec Qcc 0oe_a.
4. 0qeoccccac Oaec cceoaac _c0oe_a.
ggsL mg mgm Geadgg
1. Oaacecaaqac o_a aee gaaom _ca oqoc_a ggm
Oegqg ceea gaa e__c oc 0oe_a.
2. ccqgc ammcq oqoc_a Oqacqg _eaoccc 0oe_a.
8. _goccqaao Oqacqac 0q o_a aeeq o a g
_eaqg _gc oc0oe_a.
4. ac0aaoqgc ccaq gaa e_e_a caec_qg
a_e_ae _ca aee 0eomocaa.
5. gaa e__c ae a m_ga _m 0ooa g_q
Oome_e_ oc ge_oao gga.
asa ga mag mp
mcec o__mm Oomccggomc qo ecOom oc_ _eao
0oe_a.
goem ega _ccg Oeoooa _ccg occ oqoc _eaocaa.
goem aecq Oeo_om, aoc, aec Ooae_ Qcccaa.
362
ae_caoae Qcccggg __ _e_aaga.
oaaa 8uu eg _q ccc_g gg g 0qeocc_a.
gmLm qm as ga mp
0a__a oa gae _oc gg gaa e_e_ _eao
0oe_a.
gaa eg 15u-8uu .. occ_a 1u-15 _q __a
ammqac go 0oe_a.
aecq Oeo_om _ccg ao_om Ooae_ Qccccc
0oe_a.
a_e_ omae caoae Qcccggg __qaga.
oaaa 8uu e._q ccc_g gg g 0qeocc_a.
aso umamp
g moccqgc _eaocc_a o a gaaga.

ma - 8 - 15
_oca - 1- 8
_a - 8 4.5 (cqge 0qeo0o_c).
q oa gea aecq Oeo_om, ao_om aec
Ooae_ Qccccc 0oe_a. g ae_caoae cqg_g __
_e_aaga.
gm od
gg agcOce
emaae ecea 0qaOq_qg c_ge.
1. oa_oem _ccqac o 0m_og cg
_) ae Oca _) Qcem
) ae _mcq o) _qoq qac
2. ae _mcec q_ccg
_) oa_g oec _) ccecgcccc aeq Oeac
) ocgome emaae _ee o) cc qao 0caaeo.
8. ga aa q_omc eaqaeaao ac0aaga ___c oma
_) eeaa _) mae
) Qcom o) o_g a_ga ocg eaea.
363
4. cg qgcco _qaaqg
_) a _) Qcom
) oa_ o) oeaaa
e_ agcOceem
1. cagoaqqc ce_ac cee
2. oa_om o_gc q_ec cooag cagoa_g
8. omom ce_ac cee
4. ee_a ace _a ___c _qaom aaeo
gg agcOceem
1. oeoem cagoao oa 0a_Ooam_a coqeoom aaeo
2. oeome Ocagmaqa _oaqgoom aaeo
8. a_eo omom ce_ac cee _qe cc0og oeooemc c__
c_go
4. a_eo omoem cagoaqqee _a 0aoom aaeo
5. _e_ eaa ___c omoemc c__ g_cq oeo.
6. o a cmma _eaga _e_ea omgo
cqg agcOceem
1. aea 0eomga _e_oem oom
364
maacc _o+o
1. Cryptogamic Botany (Vol.2) - Gilbert Smith
2. Microbiology - Michael J. Pelczar Jr.,
Chan E.C.S. and Noel R.Krieg
3. Text Book oI Microbiology - Anantha Narayanan R.
4. Cell Biology - Agarwal V.K.
5. The Morphology oI
Pteriodophytes - Sporne K.R.
6. A Text Book oI Fungi,
Bacteria and Viruses - Dubey H.C.
7. Introduction to plant Viruses - Mandahar C.L.
8. Cell and Molecular Biology - De Robertis E.D.P. and
De Robertis Jr.E.M.F.
9. Biological Science (Vol.1&2) - Green N.P.O., Stout G.W. and
Taylor D.J.
10. Symbiosis in Cell Evolution - Lynn Margulis
11. Genetics - Verma P.S. and Agarwal V.K.
12. Principles oI Genetics - Sinnot, Dunn and Dobzhansky
13. Genetics - Strickberger M.W.
14. Plant Physiology - Bidwell R.G.S.
15. Plant Physiology - Salibury F.B. and Ross C.W.
16. Fundamentals oI Plant
Physiology - Jain V.K.
17. Plant Ecology - Shukla R.S. and Chandel P.S.
18. Embryology oI Angiosperms - Bhojwani S.S. and Bhatnagar S.P.