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EXAM-FRIGHT KILLER 50 Advanced Topics Izabella Szilvas Proofread by Geoff HARDCASTLE. Cover art by Istvan MOHOS ISBN 963 460 938 4 © Szilvas Izabella 2005 Printed in Gécsej Nyomda Kft. Zalaegerszeg CONTENTS Acknowledgements Foreword Abortion Advertising ais Alcoholism Alternative Medicine at Banks and aking Capital Punishment Cloning & Genetic Engi ring Computers and the Internet Conscription Crime Disasters Divorce Drug Abuse & Drug Dependence Drugs in Sports E-Learning Education Employment Enersy ‘The European Union Euthanasia Extreme Sports Familial Issues Football Hooliganism 2 15 18 a 25 29 32 a 47 63 66 nm 14 7 87 98 104 115 120 122 4124 Genetically Modified Food Global Warming Globalisation Home Education Homelessness Mariage Modia Matters NGOs The Ozone Hole Paranormal Phenomena Poverty Rainforests Religion Smoking Space Exploration Sports and Exercise Stock Market Terrorism The Tourist Industry Trade Unions Unemployment Urbanisation Vivisection Wedding Welfare Sources of Information 427 434 134 140 144 146 450 159 162 164 170 474 47 181 4185 491 197 200 205 208 210 213 219 224 29 Exam-Fright Killer ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS My primary debt is to-all students of mine, whose industry, enthusiasm and thirst for knowledge have inspired me, for over two decades, to find additional information about hot issues and to serve the result in a digestible form. In fact, first-hand experience of co-operating with learners of English in Preparation for exams has driven me to set electronic pen to electronic paper and publish this book. Thanks to you all, “Manékéim”. I am very grateful to my former colleague, Peter Sabath, for his expert guidance. Reading through the first topics, he offered professional advice on the style and format of the book. The points that he made about vocabulary and organisation, during the early stages of drafting, have brought consistency to the final manuscript. Towe a great deal to Zoltén Basti, a best friend and great student, who made helpful suggestions about what topics to include and how to explore them. I would also like to thank him for his unfailing support throughout the preparation of this book, and for his close perusal: hopefully, only the bare minimum of printing errors has escaped his eyes. Very special thanks are due to Istvan Mohos for his invaluable contributions to the book. His wise counsel and his tactfully witty remarks have significantly improved all attributes of Exam-Fright Killer, from content to Proper use of punctuation marks. About the latter, however, I must make a confession. As regards commas, I am stubborn as a mule. So, if you spot a superfluous comma, or feel uncomfortable with the apparent lack of one, the fault lies with me, exclusively. Istvan must also take full credit for the stunning design of the front and back covers of the book. I am deeply indebted to Geoff Hardcastle, whose constructive comments on the text are reflected in the finished work. This book has benefited greatly from his valuable suggestions, and it would have been impossible without his generous and expert advice. Finally, my thanks also to my good friends Gizella Beke, Iiva Harkény and Katalin Bésze, and to my family; for all the support, encouragement and love that I have received from you over the years. Exam-Fright Killer FOREWORD WHAT IS THIS BOOK ABOUT? Exam-Fright Killer consists of fifty topics that advanced students of English are likely to encounter when taking language exams. In choosing the topics I have tried to select issues of general interest which may be set as discussion topics and as reading or writing tasks, both at the Hungarian advanced level national examination and at the international examinations popular with Hungarian candidates: ECL, ELC, Pitman, and Trinity. ‘When selecting what to include, I have also attempted to focus on issues that are not covered in detail in coursebooks commonly used in Hungary. I am fully aware that you may rightly feel dissatisfied with my present choices because scores of important topics, such as fashion, shopping, design, elections ‘or mobile phones, have been ignored. In the revised edition I will try to make up for this limited selection. ‘My aim with this book is to provide basic, general, background information on a range of subjects frequently discussed in the papers and on radio and television programmes. “Basic” is a key word here: rather than analysing issues in-depth, I strive to provide short-cut, “in a nutshell” discussions of matters of concern. “General” must also be underlined. Although I make frequent references to British and American institutions, laws, customs and habits, this book is not a cultural reader, but a rough outline of the general aspects of everyday issues. Another essential goal of this book is to help learners with the target vocabulary necessary to understand, speak or wi about these topics. I have paid particular attention to commonly cited arguments for and against issues that are surrounded by considerable controversy. Both sides of such cases are presented, summarising frequently expressed bodies of opinion, in table form. As this book is a kind of schoolbook for instruction and practice, containing a lot of essential advanced: vocabulary of the topics covered, it can be put to a variety of uses. The information can be utilised when students are asked to give a short talk, debate an issue, perform a reading comprehension task, or write an argumentative essay. The topics can contribute to a broadening of students’ general knowledge and to improving their command of English. Exam-Fright Killer HOW TO USE THIS BOOK? ‘% “Exam-Fright Killer” is designed to be user-friendly. > To help you see the organisation of a topic at a glance and to aid with learning and revising vocabulary, I have provided a variety of visual clues — a number of typeface styles and sizes. Three symbols are used to indicate the hierarchy of ideas, to help you get a quick overview, or to obtain information in more detail, = The symbol # introduces headings, topics or related issues, which are also emphasized by Jarger, underlined, italicised letters in bold type. = The symbol > indicates explanations and lists, printed in bold underlined font, elaborating on the points raised in the headings. = The symbol m is used to introduce further detail = Useful words and expressions are set in boldface italics. > This book is best read on an individual, self-study basis, You can choose to read it all to get the gist of the subject matter, or you can pick particular topics to learn. T would like to encourage you to mull over the information contained in this book: agree or disagree with the arguments and think of further imports; look for news stories and suitable websites to widen your understanding of the topic; compare this ‘material with your personal experience; augment topics that you read with interest, with relevant Hungarian detail WHO IS THIS BOOK FOR? Exam-Fright Killer was written for learners of “English as a foreign language”, for students who are preparing for language exams, and whose command of English is at levels from intermediate upwards. I do hope, however, that a wider range of people will find this book worth reading: advanced users who wish to read brief summaries of everyday topics. AUTHOR'S NOTE T hope that you enjoy reading this book and that you find it helpful. I look forward to hearing about what you think of the format and content of these fifty advanced topics. I welcome your remarks, suggestions and (moderate amounts of) criticism via electronic mail, at “examfright50@ yahoo.com”. Orders for purchasing Exam-Fright Killer can be placed at the same e-mail address. Izabella Szilvas Serreeeereeeeeeeeeee Exam-Fright Killer ABORTION Introduction # Abortion usually means induced abortion, which is intentionally brought on to Regutation on Abortion * terminate a pregnancy. Depending on the age of the foetus, it is performed using drugs or surgery. In case of spontaneous abortion (miscarriage), medical intervention is not the cause of ending the life of the foetus. Facts > Approximately 46 million abortions are performed worldwide each year. > An estimated 20 million abortions are performed under unsafe conditions in countries where abortion is restricted or prohibited. > Every year, illegal abortions account for an estimated 78,000 pregnancy-related deaths of the mother, due to infection, haemorthage, uterus injury and the toxic effects of agents taken to induce abortion. > Viability, the embryo’s ability to live outside the mother’s womb, is accepted at about 24 weeks’ gestation, Legal background > Abortion had not been considered illegal until the 19th century, but it was banned in several countries after Pope Pius IX declared that “ensoulment” occurred at conception. The methods used in illegal abortions were extremely dangerous; for example, knitting needles, or ingesting lead solutions. > n taxed or le abortion laws in the 20th century. Liberalised abortion regulations became widespread in the late 1960s. Legalisation was an answer to pressures of the feminist movement, to changes in women’s equality and rights, and to high death rates caused by illegal abortions. > Atpresent, three basic types of regulation exist in different parts of the world. ‘= Abortion is banned and illegal abortion is penalised. = The necessity of abortion is accepted in certain situations: a doctor must certify that the woman’s life or health is in jeopardy; pregnancies caused by rape or incest can be terminated; the husband’s consent is needed. = Abortion is performed at the woman’s request. Religious background > Inthe Roman Catholic Church abortion is absolutely unacceptable. > Other religions, such as the Church of England, the Church of Scotland, Judaism and Islam, permit abortion in extreme circumstances: it is usually acceptable if carrying the pregnancy to full term puts the mother’s life af risk. Exam-Fright Killer Reasons for Abortion Arguments For and Against Abortion * * * Frequent reasons for the termination of pregnancy > Caused by contraceptive failure, the pregnancy is unwanted. > The mother is too young or too old, or she wishes to establish herself in her job and pursue a career before having children. > Relationship or marriage problems (c.g. domestic violence or divorce) forces the mother to sacrifice the unborn baby. Single women lack the financial and emotional support necessary to bring up children born out of wedlock. Homeless people think twice before starting a family. _ ‘There is alarae family already. Pregnancy is the result of rape or incest. The baby is likely to be born with serious disability. ‘The parents want to prevent the child suffering from a hereditary disease. v vvyyy Abortion is a polarising ethical issue surrounded by political, social, scientific and ‘religious debates, which evoke heated arguments, passion and hatred. It has brought about legal battles and violent confrontations with hard-line anti-abortion groups, attacking abortion clinics, accosting and obstructing patients and health-care providers. On the other hand, “Women on Waves”, an Amsterdam-based volunteer ‘group sails an abortion clinic to countries with highly restrictive abortion laws. ‘Aboard the ship a medical team offers abortion pills, contraceptives and counselling to ‘women seeking help. The arguments of pro-choice supporters are based on the theory that the foetus has legal rights only after it becomes viable. They are concemed with human rights in general and women’s rights in particular, and emphasise the health risks of illegal abortions. Right-to-life supporters claim the existence of life from the moment of conception and regard the termination of pregnancy as a crime. PRO-Abortion Arguments Made by ANTi-Abortion Arguments Made by Pro-Choice Supporters Pro-Life Advocates Women have the right to exercise | m Where others’ rights are at stake, society control over their reproductive lives. | must restrict the individual's freedom of Governments cannot_restrict_personal | choice. What about “the woman's right freedom; they cannot control a woman's | to control her own body” for those body. female babies killed by abortion? The foetus is not a human being until it | m The foetus has legal rights because, as is “a living thing”: an embryo is only | human life begins at conception, an potential life. Thus, the foetus has no | embryo is a human being. Consequently, legal rights. Personhood at conception is | abortion is a crime, a form of murder. a religious belief, Pain can be perceived only after thirty weeks. Before that there are only reflex actions. = The baby is capable of feoling pain when itis killed, Parents should be able to decide whether or not to give birth to ill or ‘retarded infants. human also ‘ight to live. Birth control methods are not perfect. Contraception services are not available to teenagers and the poor. Legal abortion helps parents limit the size of the family. m= Abortion should not be a form of birth ontrol. Instead, contraception should be practised if necessary. Sex education and easily accessible family Planning services can decrease the ‘number of unwanted pregnancies. tis unfair to bring an unwanted child into the world. It is true that unwanted babies can be adopted, but adoption is a_slow_and painful process: many couples spend years on waiting lists. = Every child is wanted by someone. Adoption instead of abortion is more beneficial for all parties involved. A.ban on abor t back: alley_and_clothes hanger abortions, risking women’s lives and health. legal abortions are performed under insanitary conditions by quacks using = Abortion must be banned. If abortion were made illegal, millions of children would survive, because women generally hesitate to break the law. ‘Those who perform illegal abortions unsafe drugs or risky surgical | __ must be severely punished. procedures, yet charging huge fees. a child to be f= If one wants sexual intercourse, one ‘Punish the mother is child abuse, ‘should pay the price. ‘A lot of teenagers have unsafe sex irresponsibly. Still, a mistake should not_take away a_minor’s childhood, should not ruin her plans for life and should not trap her. = Abortion decisions are often made by minors, who are not mature enough to make the right choice. The _government__should __finance abortion. Depriving the poor of help is discrimination, which leads to trapping mothers in the poverty cycle. Itis less expensive for the government to subsidise abortion than pro welfare benefits for families who up unwanted children. = Taxpayers’ money should not be spent ‘on abortion. Besides being expensive, abortion is against the laws of nature, and flies in the face of religious beliefs. Exam-Fright Killer Introduction #* Hand in hand with sales Objectives of Advertising # ADVERTISING market research, planning, pricin and the distribution of goods, advertising is a decisive element of the marketing process. Sharply intensified global competition and continuous changes in consumer desires have increased the importance of marketing. Without 4 proper analysis of consumer trends, without professionally designing the route of products from factories to shops, without advertising goods and services heavily, companies ‘would be unable to do a roaring trade, necessary for their survival and profits. Important phases in the history of advertising > Theil rtising was recognised in ancient times: archaeologists found ‘painted signs on the walls of houses in Rome and Pompeii, offering property and popularising taverns. > Inthe Middle Ages, merchants paid town criers to shout the unique qualities of their ‘goods. The first trademarks were also born in this era > 19th century industrialisation and improvements in_printing techniques helped advertising gain more ground. Newspapers hired space brokers to sell ad space, ‘merchandising of packaged goods under brand names began, and the first mail- order houses appeared. > with the invention of the radio, television and the Intemet, and in_conjunction with explosive global economic advertising has become ‘omnipresent. Advertising and sales promotion have grown into a multi-billion dollar business worldwide. Most companies have big promotion budgets. They engage advertising agencies to plan, create and produce their advertising campaigns and to design their promotion services. The primary objective of advertising is to promote the sale of commodities or Services. To achieve this goal, advertising and promotion aim to: > establish or maintain brand name recognition establish familiarity with a brand and keep buyers loyal to It create a positive image of a company and associate its logo with reliability and value > inform prospective buyers about product availability > a product > induce people to purchase the advertised item, > > In general, advertising makes use of two closely connected human feelings - desires and fears. > Advertisers try to convince people that particular_products can enhance their lifestyles: they will enjoy more comfort, improved appearance, better health, more fulfilling jobs and higher social status. Techniques # and Channels of Advertising Advertising > also that solutions to one’s worries: people can alleviate poverty, fight sickness or avoid possible disasters if they buy commodities and services promoted in the media. Ads me which in_ com sin fic com campaians, fi is channels: advertising materials i exhibit igitalised in order to attract prospective buyers. Flyers are put in mailboxes or given to people in the street. > > Shops and consumer magazines advertise special offers. > Delivery trucks display institutional and product messages. > Large posters are painted on hoardings (billboards). > Handwritten notes, advertising second-hand goods, flats or babysitting, are pinned to walls, telephone boxes and bulletin boards. ‘Sandwich boards are carried by “sandwich men” walking around the streets. Products are advertised through direct mail or mail-order catalogues. > Advertisements are disseminated through miscellaneous media: window displays, calendars, wrapping paper, shopping bags, shipping cartons, telephone credit cards and take-away food cartons. > The Yellow Pages contains companies in alphabetical order, according to particular ‘types of business. > Adverts, small ads and classified ads fill many pages in newspapers and magazines, > Commercials are broadcast on the radio and television. infomercials are longer commercials disguised as entertainment programmes. The power of advertising on TV is enhanced by the latest_advances in technology. Instead of “spot” advertisements, digital product placement is becoming widely used. The computer makes real-time virtual advertising possible: images of a product can be produced behind a soccer player; brand names can be put on cups, matches, bottles and wherever the client desires, during both live and pre-recorded broadcast. Using a “Digital Time Machine”, programmes can be shortened to add extra seconds for commercials. Interactive television is able to track viewers’ watching habits, keep ‘extensive databases and target ads on individual viewers. > The Internet is becoming one of the most effective ways of promotion. Companies have their own dedicated web sites, use click throughs (links to the business’ web site), send mail shots, register with a search engine to have their business link appear near the top of the list, and place banners on related web sites and on sites With a lot of traffic. Internet promotion offers a lot of advantages to advertisers. It is ‘Sast and reaches a potentially global audience. Interactive ads make the contact, with customers flexible. Market research and targeting the audience are far more effective. Contrary to other media, messages can be edited and changed almost instantaneously. vy > Promotion employs a wide vs Juring techniques: sampling of goods, discount ‘coupons, special price-reduced packages, mail-in premium merchandise offers, contests, sweepstakes, and the frequent use of magic words such as “sale”, “bargain”, “buy two and get the third one free”, “trial offer at half price”, “buy now, pay later”. Exam-Fright Killer Arguments For and Against Advertising 10 % Proponents of advertising argue that advertising gives people greater freedom of choice and enables manufacturers to sell their products in larger quantities. In turn, mass sales allow companies to merchandise their goods at a lower cost than ‘were produced in small quantities. they Critics see advertising as an annoying, unnecessary, unreliable, even dishonest institution. They maintain that advertisements add to the cost of goods and services and harmfully influence the human psyche. Arguments AGAINST Advertising it creates a mass market and stimulates competition between companies. But for advertisements, goods and services would be more expensive, as fewer people would wish to purchase them. ‘Taking the number of the audience into account, Internet marketing is relatively cost effective. Arguments FOR Advertising = Advertising keeps prices down, because | = more expensive because of ‘costly advertising budgets, for which the eustomer is made to pay. Advertising does not create real competition. As many leading products are produced by the same multinational company, the competition between brands boosts the profits of the same corporation. 1 Ads contribute to job security, because they help companies sell their goods; hence firms can retain their staff. Advertising itself generates employment and provides a great career opportunity for the creative. ‘= Multinational companies destroy smaller firms, causing considerable job losses. Only the wealthiest companies can buy advertising time and push their goods by advertising them heavily. = Adverts create consumer awareness. ‘Ads, especially on the Internet, give customers the most up-to-date product information. That way they help consumers satisfy their needs. Making it easier to compare qualities and prices, they allow well-founded decisions on what goods or services to purchase. Without advertisements, the customers” freedom of choice would be a mere illusion. = Small and classified ads provide a useful ‘service for the public: they help people find a job, find a partner and buy or sell their property. Ads promote public welfare as well, by raising health awareness: sober driving and anti- smoking advertising campaigns help millions of people break their harmful habits. Thanks to ads, charities are able to multiply humanitarian aid. m Ads create unreal needs. They brainwash us, manipulate us and force us to buy unnecessary things so u with the Joneses”. Ads depict a sham world when they make us. associate products with the images of success, happiness, popularity and a posh lifestyle. Encouraging us to live beyond our means, advertisements can easily lead to dissatisfaction with our own living standards. Stimulating envy among the worse-off, praying on our base instincts vanity and greed, adverts ‘can make us turn to crime: mugging, shoplifting or bullying. = Internet marketing is the worst form of promotion. Information overload makes it nearly impossible to distinguish crap from quality. Customers do not enjoy a greater freedom of choice, because it not the customer but the search engine’s algorithm that ranks the sites. Advertising = Customers who are dissatisfied with particular ads or feel cheated out of their money have the opportunity to officially complain about adverts. developed countries advertising is tightly fequlated. Media conglomerates have their own self-imposed codes of ethics. Business commissions and advertising standards authorities establish sets of criteria that all advertisements have to meet. Under these regulations, companies that make false claims about a product, derogate the products: of competitors or show bad taste are forced to withdraw their advertisement, and have to bear financial liability as well. = Advertising is not about the truth or facts, but about enerating corporate profits. Ads earl Ail_of them “bend the truth and misrepresent the product. Many ads are misleading, hyping up goods and services. ‘They promote qualities a product does not have, while they hide its defects: why should one believe that unhealthy sugary cornflakes are nutritious? Advertisements are often sexist. Washing powder, for instance, is offered by smart males to females, exclusively. Products of good quality do Not need to be advertised. = Advertisements help finance the media, Commercial TV and radio industries depend on ads, and they can provide their services at reasonable prices, thanks to them. The newspaper industry derives considerable income from advertising, necessary to keep prices down. Online advertising makes hardjare, software and Internet access cheaper, available not only to the elite but also to the masses. = In the world of mega corporations advertisers control the media. They prefer programming that attracts the largest audiences. Serious and quality programmes are not sponsored; light and unchallenging content proliferates. ‘This mediocre programming is not worth watching, reading or listening to, even if {fees and prices are reasonable, thanks to advertisements, = Gathert on interests, likes ‘and dislikes is beneficial for businesses and customers alike: drawing on the information, companies can design, refine and tailor their products to ‘consumers’ real needs. = Market research and audience research graanisations spy on people. They get information about customers’ income, education, age, and about their recreational, viewing and surfing habits, which is a gross violation of privacy. = Commercials provide _ entertainment ‘They abound with memorable slogans and catchy jingles. Many of them catch the — imagination through their creativeness and double meaning. They show celebrities, have nice music, unusual sound effects and attractive artwork. Others are humorous, able to bring a little laughter into people’s lives. ‘= Advertising is a “royal pain in the neck”, Long commercial breaks, interrupting TV programmes, are extremely irritating. Not only are mailboxes, jammed with leaflets, a nuisance to ‘empty, but the junk paper could only have been produced by killing trees. A lot of Intemet sites have so many animated banners and pop-ups that they make surfing annoying. Internet spyware, masquerading under the guise of gathering data on buyers’ interests, seriously degrades home computer performance. Spam messages of electronic trash, meanwhile, clog the space in e-mail accounts, harbour computer viruses, and are a daunting waste of time. 1 ———————_—_—_—_— Exam-Fright Killer Introduction * HIV's * Behaviour ‘and HIV Tests 412 The origin and discovery of the disease > AIDS stands for Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome. It is caused by a retrovirus alled HIV (Human Imr fii irus) > HIV originated in rural areas of central Africa around 1930. AIDS was first identified in the USA in 1981, then in Africa shortly thereafter. The virus was first isolated in 1983, by Luc Montagnier. The of All > AIDS quickly spread_into_a worldwide epidemic. The WHO (World Health Organisation) and UNAIDS (Joint United Nations Programme on HIV/AIDS) estimate that 40 million people the world over were living with HIV infection or AIDS in 2003. By that time, 20 million people had died from the disease. > More than 95% of all HIV-infected people live in third-world countries. The highest rate of infection in 2003 was reported in sub-Saharan Africa, where approximately 26.6 million people were infected — one in five adults. Adults of working and parenting age are being wiped out, leaving millions of children orphaned. It is feared that HIV will rage through China and India, the world’s two ‘most populous countries, and will also devastate Russia. > AIDS is the most devastating disease humankind has ever faced. It is the fourth leading cause of death worldwide. It affects men, women and children in every country, on every continent. It is a fatal, deadly, lethal epidemic — the plague of the 20th century. HIV’s behaviour has been thoroughly studied, and various diagnostic tests have been developed to detect its presence. > HIV copies its genetic material into the genetic material of human cells. It infects key cells (CD4 cells), which co-ordinate the immune system’s fight against infection. It commandeers the cell to produce a new HIV virus. The newly formed virus leaves the cell and destroys it in the process. As a result, the virus weakens and damages the immune system, which becomes unable to protect the body, as itIases its capacity to fight diseases that would not normally create a problem. > A variety of tests, such as ELISA, Western Blot, and CD4 cell counts, have been developed to diagnose the stages of HIV infection and to screen blood and blood products. HIV infection is detected by an HIV antibody test done on blood, saliva ‘or urine, Antibodies are proteins created by the immune system to destroy HIV. It takes antibodies 5 to 12 weeks to develop after infection. Ways of Trans mission Stages “IV Infection ‘Troatment Ant-HIV Drugs %* HIV is present in the blood, sexual fluids and breast milk, It can be passed on if these fluids get into another person's body: > through unprotected sexual intercourse with an infected person > through contact with infected blood: sharing contaminated needles or body piercing ‘equipment, transfusion, blood getting into a cut or sore on the body > from an HIV-positive woman during the course of pregnancy, birth, or breast feeding (mother to child transmission). HIV cannot be transmitted through: > saliva: although saliva contains the virus, the level is too low to be infectious > casual contact: hugging, kissing, sharing dishes or bathroom facilities, a handshake, 4 cough, a sneeze or an insect bite, because the virus dies quickly if exposed to the environment. IDS a course of iliness > st 1(2 to 4 weeks): such as fever, fatigue, headache and sore joints. HIV reproduces rapidly in the blood. > ‘Stage 2 (10 years or more): a prolonged asymptomatic phase. The infected might remain unaware that they carry HIV. The virus progressively destroys the immune system. > ‘Stage 3 (some months to several years): early symptomatic phase, with extensive weight loss, fatigue, fever and diarrhoea. > Stage 4 (several months to years): late symptomatic phase, characterised by the ‘appearance of any of 26 opportunistic infections (diseases which take the opportunity to attack a weak immune system), and rare cancers. They are the AIDS-defining complications in the stage of full-blown AIDS; for instance, pneumonia, tuberculosis, shingles, herpes, meningit i neurological disorders. A clinical illness develops, which finally kills the infected, The main thrust of treating AIDS > Antiretroviral drugs block the virus’ ability to replicate. A combination of three ‘drugs called triple therapy or AIDS cocktail is used, because HIV mutates and some versions become resistant to particular drugs. These medications have a wide range of side effects such as nausea, vomiting, fatigue, insomnia, muscle pain, ‘damage to the liver and inflammation of the pancreas. Triple therapy is expensive and difficult to follow: patients have to take up to twenty tablets a day on a specific schedule. The infected in the developing world cannot afford this therapy. > Medications are prescribed to fight the. infections and rare cancers. > Psychological treatment and counselling help people live with a fatal disease, cope with its emotional toll and overcome the social stigma attached to AIDS. 413 Exam-Fright Killer * Prevention Perspectives 14 The effectiveness of drugs and treatment > Drugs may extend the life expectancy of patients, lower death rates among HIV- positive people, fight off the onset of AIDS, reduce the risk of developing an ing illness and improve the quality of life of infected people, but no 3S to completely eradicate HIV from the ere is no no cure for All Precautions to take > Individuals can avoid HIV infection if they: = abstain from sex with HIV positive partners practise safe sex, especially by using a condom = stick to one faithful partner i = are intravenous drug users, but do not share needles = avoid getting blood transfusion in countries where the blood supply is not sereened for AIDS. > Governments, NGOs (non-governmental organisations) and charities issue strict ‘health-care guidelines and run safe-sex campaigns, public education programmes ‘and needle-exchange programmes, to reduce HIV transmission and to teach safe behaviours. As AIDS is a worldwide epidemic, it must be tackled on a global scale, Means and efforts to combat the disease must be co-ordinated in the following fields: > Developing new drugs which prevent HIV entering the cells and fortify the immune system in order to stimulate the production of CD4 cells. > Regulating pharmaceutical companies to sacrifice some of their profits in order to ‘make their products affordable, because lack of access to drugs can be catastrophic to the inflicted. > Providing humanitarian aid to developing nations, where poverty, huge debts to the West, struggling economies and a general lack of good quality, well-supplied health care make fighting off the disease impossible. > Effective public education is necessary to raise public awareness and teach people how to protect themselves. The infected must be helped to fight the social stigma ‘and discrimination which they have to face: they often suffer physical abuse and lose their jobs; children are thrown out of school; medical staff refuses to perform medical procedures. The infected are discriminated against, because serious misinformation pervades public perception about the transmission of the disease. Many people still mistakenly believe that AIDS is a corollary of homosexual behaviour. ALCOHOLISM Introduction % The Babylonians, ancient Greeks and Romans consumed alcoholic beverages with Levels of Alcohol Consumption pleasure. In the Middle Ages, alcoholic brews were a safe alternative to water, which was often contaminated with cholera bacteria. In the 19th century, the “Temperance Movement” began to portray drink as evil. From 1919-1933, the prohibition in the US gave birth to the “speakeasy”, and bootlegging profits helped the Mafia to get a foothold in legitimate American business. Historically, drunkards were considered irresponsible and immoral people of Weak character. Drinking was regarded as a matter of personal decision, so the individual was held responsible for this harmful habit. In the mid-20th century, however, it was realised that alcohol dependence is a type of drug dependence. lism is such a widespread disease that it constit a maj ic health Broblem. Alcoholism affects a broad cross-section of society, from business executives to farm workers, from housewives to church members. The number of women and young people drinking in excess and having drink problems is on the tise. According to the WHO (World Health Organisation), nearly 62 million people ‘the world over suffer from alcohol dependence. Alcohol-use disorders account for 3.5% of the total cases of diseases worldwide, Research suggests that moderate consumption of wine and beer might have some health benefits. The 38s of the drink, the amount of alcohol it The seriousness of the drink problem depends on the amount of alcohol ingested and the frequency of consumption. Researchers distinguish between the following levels: > Abstinence from alcohol means never touching a drop. Teetotallers are always sober; never have a nightcap, or one for the road. > Social drinking is a moderate way of alcohol consumption. Social drinkers only drink with other people. For them, alcohol is an accompaniment to social situations: celebrations, parties or business dinners. They sometimes get tipsy and ‘mellow, but they usually avoid having one oo many. They do not have foo much booze so as not to wake up with a hangover the next day. > Heavy drinking has serious long-term health impacts. Binge-drinking, favoured mostly by the young, is especially dangerous. Young people get together with friends to a booze-up and get intoxicated in the course of one drinking session. ‘They get absolutely plastered, bladdered, legless, or blind drunk, having knocked back a skinful. After polishing off whole bottles of wine, they get as drunk as a skunk, > Problem (harmful) drinking is a serious threat to health. Heavy drinkers cannot refrain from alcohol, even though it causes harm to their families and to society, as well. With alcohol becoming the focus of life, their behaviour might become agreeable and antisocial. Some are closet alcoholics (secret drinkers). Although many of them deny their drink problem, it becomes difficult to control their use of alcohol. Heavy drinkers find it increasingly hard to be on the wagon. 415 Exan-Fright Killer Harmful Effects, Long-term Toll of Heavy Drinking Causes of Drinking 16 * > Alco! ner iction) is the full-blown disease. Alcoholics cannot control drinking. They have an overwhelming desire to drink so as.to avoid withdrawal symptoms such as feeling sick, trembling, sweating, and a craving for alcohol. Some get drunk routinely; others drink small amounts regularly, and are able to hide the problem. Many of them, who develop a greater tolerance to alcohol, can hold their drink. Alcoholism is a maj lal, e lic and public health problem. > Alcoholism has long-term medical complications. Alcohol depresses the functions of the central nervous system. Alcoholics have an increased risk of developing diseases: hepatitis, cirrhosis, stomach and pancreas disorders, sexual difficulties, high blood pressure, mouth and liver cancers, obesity, stroke, memory loss, neurological and mental health problems. Drinking women have an increased risk of infertility and miscarriage. Drinking mothers often give birth to babies with foetal alcohol syndrome (a combin: of mental and physical defects). > Intoxicated people are prone to accidents: drowning, death in fire or drink-and-drive accidents. > Alcoholism may cause relationship problems with partners, children, friends and colleagues, because drunkards are usually aggressive and antisocial. Alcohol often triggers domestic violence: wife and child battering, abuse and rape. > Alcoholics often run into financial difficulty, because they spend more money on ‘quenching their thirst for alcohol than they can afford. Also, as their productivity at work declines, they are the first to be fired and the last to be employed again. > Risk-taking and impulsive behaviour induced by alcohol encourage people to have unsafe sex, ing in unwanted pregnancy or sexuall diseases (HIV infection). > Alcoholism is closely related to crime: property crime to get money for the booze, vandalism, football hooliganism, and assault or murder committed under the influence of alcohol. > A high percentage of suicide cases are triggered by alcohol. > Treating the chronic and acute effects of alcohol misuse is a heavy financial burden on health services. Genetic, psychological and social factors all play a part in one’s descent into alcoholism. > Alcoholism runs in families, probably as a result of genetic factors and environmental influences such as peet pressure, parental behaviour, social acceptance of drinking and the availability of alcoholic beverages. > Many people hit the bottle to escape their problems and drown their sorrows. They ‘want to forget about painful or embarrassing situations, or wish to cope with unresolved conflicts, many of which were brought about by drinking. > A great number of drinkers need alcohol to relieve stress, anxiety or depression. > Those who suffer from low self-esteem use alcohol to bolster their self-confidence and lose their inhibitions. How to Quit Drinking * * Alcoholism ined individual efforts to s m fruittul in less serio cases. Those who wish to give up drinking are advised to: > muster uy h willpower to stop > cut back on social activities which involve drinking (e.g. parties, pub or club) > have alcohol-free days and buy small rewards for themselves > drink low alcohol beers and eat when drinking. > avoid rounds, drink more slowly and work out a reasonable drinking limit > resist pressure from people encouraging them to drink, and have excuses lined up > try again if they relapse. Heavy drinkers often have to seek institutional help. > Individual or group therapy sessions, led by nurses, doctors or counsellors, provide counselling and advice. Cognitive-behaviour therapy helps addicts change their ‘mindset and behaviour, through discussion. > Aversion or deterrent therapy involves taking drugs which cause unpleasant side effects when alcohol is consumed. > Detoxification treatment is a course of medicine (benzodiazepines) to help patients cope with withdrawal symptoms. In some cases Delirium tremens (the DT's) occurs, which is a severe withdrawal reaction characterised by tremors (the shakes), delirium (agitation, confusion, hallucinations), and convulsions. After a successful detox some people relapse and go back to drinking heavily. > Al or rehabilitati yammes are aimed at maintaining abstinence from alcoholic drinks. Expert counselling, the support of the family and self-help groups, such as Alcoholics Anonymous, help drinkers stay off alcohol or keep within the safe limits, and adapt to a new way of life. Banning drinking does not solve alcohol-related problems, because it usually creates ‘black market for alcoholic beverages and forces people to hide their drink problem. Imposing harsher punishment for alcohol-related disorder and crime, increasing the price of alcoholic beverages and imposing a total ban on alcohol advertising may reduce the number of people suffering from alcoholism. Prevention and early intervention may prove effective in the long run. Public health campaigns launched to promote responsible drinking and to improve public understanding of the disease may help people resist the temptation of alcohol. 417 Exam-Fright Ki ALTERNATIVE MEDICINE Introduction #* Alternative Medicine, also known as Unconventional Medicine, Complementary or Main Types #* Holistic Medicine 18 Alternative Medicine (CAM) and Holistic Medicine, includes a wide range of ‘approaches, therapies and health products which are not part of conventional western medicine. CAM is characterised by its holistic approach to iliness: it tries to treat the whole ‘Person. Besides physical symptoms, patients’ mental, emotional and spiritual well- being, their lifestyle, environment and diet are also considered before practitioners prescribe an appropriate course of treatment. In other words, holistic medicine aims to cure the disease as well as to promote general well-being, placing strong emphasis on the prevention of health problems at the same time. CAM is used for the treatment of a very wide range of ailments, for pain mana, it and for improving quality of life, alongside mainstream medicine. In cancer clinics, for example, acupressure helps. reduce nausea caused by chemotherapy. Acupuncture and osteopathy are often applied in pain clinics as well Not long ago, most alternative medical practices were considered useless and found bizarre by both the medical establishment and the public, Recently, however, several practices have been found to be effective, have gained popularity and have become part of mainstream medicine. Proponents of alternative medicine argue that holistic medicine is safer and more natural than conventional treatment. Its efficacy has been shown through practice. Opponents claim that unconventional practices are unproven, since the number of ‘scientific studies done so far is insufficient to examine their effectiveness, or to discover their adverse side effects. Comprehensive alternative medical systems include both theory and practice. > Ayurveda (the “science of life”) originated in India. It uses diet, exercise and meditation to achieve the harmony of body, mind and spirit. > Traditional Chinese medicine aims to achieve a balance of energy in the body, ‘because ailments are thought to be caused by energy disturbances. It applies herbal medicine, massage, exercise, nutritional therapies, acupuncture, and an energy therapy called Qi Gong. > Homeopathy, an ancient Greek practice, was revived by Samuel Hahnemann in the 19th century. It is based on the principle “like cures like” or “like with like”. It supposes that a substance which causes symptoms in a healthy person can cure the same symptoms in someone who is sick. Using plant, animal or mineral materials, homeopaths treat ailments with very diluted doses of the substance that is responsible for a disease. Homeopathy has been shown beneficial for hay fever, asthma, colds, high blood pressure, insomnia and depression. Alternative Medicine > Naturopathic medicine is based on the theory that the body is able to heal itself as long as it gets clean air and water, right food and exercise. Originating with the ancient Greek physician Hippocrates, this idea was further developed by Father Kneipp and Vincent Preissnitz in the 19th century. It postulates that toxins, additives and pollutants accumulated in the body ‘weaken the immune system, which, in turn, loses its vital power of healing. Naturopathy uses hydrotherapy, diet, detoxification, acupuncture, herbal medicine, massage, osteopathy and other techniques to restore the body’s balance. Its efficacy has been proved in the treatment of auto-immune conditions, sinus problems, digestive disorders, headaches and fatigue. 4% Popular CAM therapies > Acupuncture, which has been practised in China for over 3,000 years and in Europe since the 17th century, is one of the most widely used forms of holistic medicine. It seeks to balance the flow of energy and regulate the function of inner organs by ‘fingertip pressure, ot by inserting fine needles into selected points from over 300 ‘acupoints on the body. Acupuncture treats ailments such as asthma, headaches and digestive problems. It is known to be effective in relieving pain, helping give up addictions and promoting general health. There are over 100 conditions recognised in which acupuncture works. > Biologically Based Treatments rely on things found in nature. Their aim is to stimulate the body’s own healing power by supplying it with the necessary level of vitamins and minerals. = A very widespread biologically based treatment is herbal medicine, the most ancient form of medicine in the world. A great majority of people still rely on it, and a quarter of our prescription drugs are derived from plants. Its remedies, which come in the form of teas, capsules, ointments, powders, lozenges and tinctures, are made from the stems, leaves, flowers, roots, bark, berries, fruits and seeds of a plant or a combination of plants. Some systems also use mineral and animal products. The effectiveness of herbal remedies has been demonstrated for a variety of conditions: colds, anxiety, insomnia and nausea, among others. > Manual Healing or Manipulative and Body-based Methods cover a range of techniques which cure medical problems by moving or realigning body parts, improving joint mobility, stretching and relaxing muscles and improving circulation. They are based on the theory that the imbalance of the body’s structure affects the function of internal organs. = Practitioners of chiropractic care adjust the spinal cord = Massage therapy manipulates the body's soft tissues. = Practitioners of reflexology touch or rub particular areas of the feet. = Osteopaths move and press the muscles and bones. Osteopathy has proved effective in the treatment of back pain, neck stiffness, knee problems, digestive disorders and headaches. 19 Exam-Fright Killer Risks Associated With Holistic Medicine > Mind-body Control focuses on the mind's role in treating medical conditions, as the mind is thought to be able to heal the body by affecting its functions. ‘= Hypnosis helps deal with pain, anxiety or addictions. = Psychotherapy, meditation and yoga are used for relaxation. = Art, dance and music therapy, faith healing and biofeedback are also widespread mind-body techniques. > Energy therapies attempt to restore health by affecting the flow of energy in the body. = In the case of healing touch, practitioners direct energy by placing their hands on or near the patient's body, to correct disturbances. = Reiki involves the channelling of universal energy to malfunctioning parts of the body. It is often used in the treatment of stress-related conditions. = Spiritual healers channel “Divine energy” within the patient. = Bioelectromagnetics uses pulsed energy or magnetic fields to facilitate the healing process of the body and mind. It is used for bone repair, nerve stimulation, wound healing and immune system stimulation. = Qi Gong and yoga exercises aim to promote physiological and mental changes. ‘These exercises can increase circulation or reduce heart rate and blood pressure. They effectively treat ailments such as back pain, digestive disorders and weight imbalance. * lt ive there are safe. Havit ic usually ‘gentler than comparable conventional treatments, However, one must always ‘approach holistic therapies with caution. > Acupuncture is safe if practised by a qualified practitioner; if the needles are sterile and inserted correctly so as not to cause damage to internal organs or tissues. > “Natural” does not equal “good”. Herbal remedies do not face extensive scientific tests before they are marketed. AS a result, both their herb quality and effective dosage can vary. Often, other plant substances, even drugs like steroids are mixed with the medicine. Herbs may be contaminated with pesticides and heavy metals. At high dosage they may have serious side effects. Certain remedies may cause high blood pressure, liver damage or allergic reactions (e.g. Ephedra had been available for years before it proved to have been fatal to some people with heart problems). > Choosing a reliable licensed practitioner is of great importance. Inexperienced or untrained practitioners can cause more harm than good. > One of the risks is delaying or stopping proven traditional treatment in favour of holistic medicine. There are diseases, such as cancer, diabetes or chronic conditions, whose treatment preclude holistic alternatives. Patients receiving both alternative and conventional therapy must always inform their doctor so that drug interactions can be avoided. ART Introduction The first known forms of art are cave paintings dating back 32,000 years. Ancient as it is, art is difficult cause it has dif it meanir ling on itis it by the artis historian, t or wublic. The definition of art is also shaped by time, undergoing changes in different eras. > In Western cultures art traditionally meant skills and techniques of high quality. ‘There was no sharp distinction drawn between arts and crafts (e.g. between painting and pottery) until the Renaissance. Artists worked in guilds, which set standaris of quality. > During the Renaissance, visual arts rose in status above that of crafts, because artists were viewed as creative geniuses, > The higher status of visual arts was firmly entrenched in the 17th century. Art academies, referring to their ware as “fine arts", set ground rules for producing them. Academic principles governing composition and technique were soon challenged by Romantic artists, Impressionists and 20th century abstract arts, among others. > Numerous trends and new art in the 21st centuries the: of fine arts. Some artists are inspired by crafis, some tum to unconventional materials, Everyday objects, newspapers, plastic bottles and other rubbish may be transformed into modem sculptures. Others work in land art, combining architecture, landscaping and sculpture. Classification 3 Distinctive features of contemporary art of Art > Artis a form of self-expression, the cons values and world view of the artist. > Works of art, judged by academic or intellectual standards, appeal to both emotions, and intellect and can be appreciated for their own sake, without regard to their utility. > Artists are often on a lifelong quest of “raising the bar”, reaching higher and higher Strata of artistic excellence. They are free to experiment with styles, materials and techniques to find the best ones for conveying their message and subject matter. %* Generally accepted definitions of art > In the narrowest sense, artis limited to the fine arts: painting and sculpture. > Ina broader sense, art refers to the two-dimensional and three-dimensional visual atts, including drawing, painting, sculpture, architecture, photography, film, and decorative arts, > In the broadest sense, art encompasses literature, music, dance, drama and any other form of creative activity (e.g. digital art). In other words, the art universe is a vast domain of literary arts, media arts, performing arts and visual arts. > Further distinctions can be made between professional art, fine arts, amateur art, ‘commercial art, folk art, and decorative arts or crafts. is conveyance of ideas, emotions, moral 21 Exam-Fright Killer Purposes * and Importance of Art Digital * Fine Art Commercial = * Although its purpose differs from era to era, art is of utmost importance in all cultures. > of great value to arc! who try to reconstruct the life of the human race in prehistoric times. During those bygone days, art was used for rituals ensuring a successful hunt or guaranteeing female fertility. > In the form of pictographs and hieroglyphs, art is the predecessor of writing and the alphabet. > During the Middle Ages, the primary purpose of art was to communicate religious beliefs, teach people about Christianity and honour the Almighty. Monumental cathedrals and churches, decorated with wonderful carvings, relief sculptures, sculptures, paintings, frescoes, tapestries, stained glass and jewellery, are imbued with a sense of mystery and the power of God. > Portraits, landscapes, still lifes recorded people and their surroundings in a medium. il, tempera or watercolour, before the invention of photography. > Art attests to the power, wealth and prestic and institutions in all ages. ‘Magnificent castles and palaces, impressive government buildings, priceless art collections speak to the monetary and social status of their owners. For the prosperous, collecting artworks by well-known or would-be artists is both investment and art patronage. > As art lends expression to important customs, values and principles of a society, it can truly mirror historical periods. > Works of art delight with their beauty, enchant with their enigmatic message and provoke with their bold innovation. In short, art's purpose is to trigger emotional or intellectual responses from the audience, to provide food for thought, to lift body and mind. > Chariots of the human spirit, prominent works of art are national treasures, and at the ‘same time they constitute an inherent part of the world’s cultural heritage. Digital fine art, in which computer or digital technology is incorporated into the artistic process, is a new form of art, born of the revolution in information technology. The term “digital art” covers widely disparate disciplines, ranging from photography and painting to sculpture and motion picture. As digital technology allows a combination of techniques, mixing conventional art forms and manipulating light, motion and sound, it offers an artistic challenge to experiment with new forms of self-expression. The objective of commercial art is to make money._Its goal is to produce many ‘artworks cheaply and to sell them fast, so profitability takes precedence over excellence. However, some works rise to the level_of professional _arts. ‘Commercial art forms range from business card designs, posters and advertisements to portraits and video films. Commercial art forms have created a fast-growing, independent industry, in which advertising, broadcasting, picture and sound recording, performing arts, visual arts and publishing compete. The industry often provides a means of marketing works of professional and amateur arts: records, books or posters of paintings. a || Decorative art Amateur Art Folk Art Art %* Works of decorative art are set apart from works of most other art forms by their usefulness, as their purpose is to enhance, furnish or embellish spaces, or to make people look more attractive. Many areas of crafts, amateur art and commercial art fall within the scope of decorative art: textile design, furniture design, metalwork, glasswork, ceramics, and fashion design (e.g. clothing, jewellery and accessories). Outstanding works, characterised by individuality and technical mastery, have high artistic merit and quality. Amateur art is a discipline whose works are created primarily for pleasure, by non-professionals, Amateur _art_plays_a_significant_role_in_life, enriching individuals and communities alike. > Through artistic activities individuals can actualise their creative potential. It gives great personal satisfaction, pride and pleasure to be able to create a work of art, even if the end product is imperfect: the process of making things is as enjoyable as beholding the result is. > One's participation in artistic activities fosters a love of the fine arts. > Amateur art shows, exhibitions, art courses and workshops, performances by amateur art groups are wonderful recreation and a means of gaining knowledge, developing skills, expressing ourselves and spending our free time creatively. > Art education and artistic activities are fundamental to the development of young people. Engagement in art bolsters young people’s self-confidence and emotional ‘maturity, ignites their imagination and leads to self-discovery. > Because amateur art contributes to_a better quality of life, both the central ‘government and the local authorities should promote artistic activities. They should make arts accessible to everyone, in order to: = encourage personal development and social interaction = increase the constructive use of leisure time = broaden the citizens? cultural and educational backgrounds = build the community spirit = bring about a deeper understanding of the community’s culture. Folk art, embedded in local or regional traditions, is also known _as popular, naive, peasant or vernacular art. It mirrors a common ethnic and cultural heritage, the basic beliefs, ideas, customs and values that a particular community shares. its purpose is to beautify objects used in a household or a community every day. > The term is applied to hand-made and decorated household objects, ranging from clothing, furniture, utensils and toys to shop signs, pottery, and props used in festivals and entertainment. Styles of architecture, sculpture, painting, embroidery, ‘weaving and other textile arts, dance and music are also at home in the framework of folk art. > Anonymous artisans of the world of folk art: = build chairs, chests and other pieces of furniture = cast bijou jewellery and silverware = decorate ordinary wooden objects with carvings 23 Exam-Fright Killer = throw earthenware vessels on a potter's wheel, glaze them, then fire them in a kiln = weave or embroider fablecloths and tapestry and make laces for dresses build omate belfries, wayside crosses and create paintings decorate their homes with wall hangings made of straw or other natural materials. > The importance of keeping folk art traditions alive is not lost either on governmental ‘of non-governmental organisations, which actively partake in their preservation, revival and popularisation. For instance, the European Folk Culture Organisation (EFCO) seeks to enrich national identity and promote mutual understanding among the nations of the European Union, by means of supporting, teaching and disseminating folk art traditions. Art + Sponsors of artists and art institutions come from many different walks of life. Sponsorship : > Wealthy families and individuals, aristocrats and magnates have always played the tole of sponsors and supported artists by commissioning work from them. At art auctions people of means spend enormous amounts of money on famous works of «art for their private collections. > Corporate funding of art is a more recent phenomenon. Multinational companies, major banks and accounting firms realise that sponsoring the arts offers mutual benefits, even if the profits do not contribute directly to the bottom line. By financing exhibitions and concerts, by underwriting educational programmes for residents, by investing in shows, operas and live music, corporations create a favourable image, generate public awareness and promote their products or ‘services. They can wine and dine important clients in style in an art gallery, where the elegance of the surroundings is more conducive to striking a deal. They may even commission artists to paint portraits of the company VIPs (Very Important Persons). > Despite being subsidised by the commercial sector, art and art institutions would not survive without public support. That means you. Governments of democratic countries adopt the arm’s-length principle: the government does not control the arts and does not use them for its own political purposes, either. States may support the arts indirectly, through non-political channels. = Donations to art institutions and organisations are tax deductible, which encourages private donors and businesses to become benefactors. = Financial support of individual artists and commissioning individual works of art are under the jurisdiction of arts councils, where decisions about grants are made by professional arti = Direct government funding is provided for national flagship institutions such as state art galleries and museums. = Arts education and Community Arts Training at state schools are financed by both the central government and the local authorities. = Local governments develop comprehensive arts programmes, including projects for strengthening the arts infrastructure, in order to make it convenient for everyone to create, display, perform and observe art. Local authorities often entice artists to move to or stay in the locality, by giving them preferential treatment and by funding positions of “Artist-in-Residence”. Banks and Banking BANKS AND BANKING ‘Types of ® The Central Bank: Banks serves as the government's banker and advises the government collects government income and manages government debt acts as lender to provide the necessary liquidity decides and implements monetary policy acts as the banker of the banking system and has control over it supervises other banks’ operations and is a lender of last resor 1e mon 2m, sets national interest rates and is: . ‘The central bank of the UK is the Bank of England, called “The Old Lady of Threadneedle Street”; the central bank of the US is the Federal Reserve Bank, called “Fed. > In the US banknotes and coins are issued by the Department of the Treasury. %* Commercial banks > Commercial banks are also called clearing banks or high-street banks. > The most important English commercial banks are the “big four”: National Westminster, Barclays, Lloyds TSB, and HSBC (formerly known as Midland). > In the US there are over 14,000 different commercial banks. vvvyvvyvy * Building societie > Building societies give mortgages to help people buy a house. They also offer a range of savings accounts. > In the US they are called Savings and Loan Associations (S&Ls or thrifts), ®* Merchant banks > Merchant banks provide services only to businesses, on a large scale. 4 The City (also known as the “Square Mile”) ~ the business and financial centre in London, with the headquarters of most banks, the Stock Exchange, insurance companies and stockbrokers ~ is renowned for its atmosphere of stability and personal trust, Wall Street, in New York, USA, has the same status. * Many people dislike banks, claiming that they: demand high charges on overdraft, but offer poor interest rates for savers have too short and inconvenient business hours often lose customers’ money as a result of bad investments have a history of scandals concerning “insider trading’: financial “inside information” is used for bankers’ personal profit. vvvy Exam-Fright Killer Banks and People Services Provided by Commercial Banks * Banks are not for people on the breadline: the have-nots, who are down-at-heel, down on their luck, or poverty-stricken. %* A typical banking customer is the average man, who scrimps and saves, budgets carefully, is sometimes in the red, or up to his ears in debt. 4 Banks are a godsend for the prosperous: the wealthy, who are made of money, who have money to burn, for whom money is no object, and who spend it like water. Holders get a cheque book with numbered, blank cheques with which to disburse money from their account. They are sent regular monthly statements with information about the balance of the account. instead of paying in cash for goods or for your expenses. You fill out a blank cheque in your cheque book, specifying the ‘name of the recipient, the amount to be paid, and by affixing ‘your signature. that someone wrote to you, by taking it to your bank and having the bank transfer the stated amount from the issuer’s account (possibly at a different bank) to yours. If you are depositing, the money stays in your bank account. When you cash a cheque, you receive actual money. by writing a cheque for more than the balance remaining in your bank account, your bank charges you a penalty, and will not pay any money to the intended recipient of your cheque. The recipient's bank then charges the intended recipient's account with an additional penalty, for trying to cash a bad cheque. = You can open a deposit or a savings account in order to save money. The bank pays you interest on the deposited principal. With a standing ‘oder, direct debit ‘or banker's order you give instructions to your bank to pay your bills directly. ‘your salary goes directly into your bank account, to withdraw money from your account. if you can secure the loan by putting up (offering) other assets of equal or greater worth as collateral. Banks and Banking = Youcan get, it mortgage if you ‘Want to buy a house. ‘A mortgage is a special type of loan for which the house itself is the collateral. Mortgages are apt to be a great financial burden. You often get mortgaged up to the hilt, because you usually borrow 90-95% of the total price and pay it back in fixed monthly payments for 15 to 30 years, until the mortgage is redeemed. Of course, you have to pay interest on the loan. If payments are not kept up, the house will be repossessed by the bank. You may get a mortgage interest relief: you, pay less income tax if you can prove that you were not able to use part of your earned income, because you were paying it out as interest ‘on your mortgage loan. = Credit_cards (c.g. Visa, MasterCard) make everyday transactions safer and more convenient. You can use them to pay for goods and services instead of cash or cheques. When you pay, the card is swiped, and the printed bill has to be Signed. For security reasons, the PIN is now quite commonly used with credit cards. Purchases can be made by mail, over the telephone, or on the Internet. People with good credit ‘ratings get a gold card, providing a higher credit limit. = If you have a debit card (e.g. Delta or Switch), the whole amount is directly deducted from your bank account. = In the case of a charge card (¢.g. American Express), you must repay to the bank the whole amount purchased with the card (plus the service fee), each month. In contrast, on an ordinary credit card the outstanding charges that are not repaid to the bank at the end of the month are automatically converted into a loan, which you will have to repay eventually, with interest. = When you buy things with an affinity card, a fraction of the purchase price goes to a charity. = Traveller's cheques are useful when taking extended trips far from home, where people do not know your credit record (you cannot write cheques), and you do not want to carry a lot of cash because cash can be stolen ot lost. Traveller’s cheques are in effect “personalised cash”: you pay for them in advance at your bank, which guarantees the face amounts against loss or theft. You have to sign each cheque at the bank when you buy it, and you sign each cheque again when you spend it. A separate paper, containing the unique serial number of each cheque, can be used to report and to claim an immediate cash refund for lost or stolen cheques. = Foreign currency | can be bought in local banks, at the prevailing exchange rates, if you are planning to take a trip abroad. : = Other services offered by banks to individual customers are various insurance policies and stock market securities, reflecting the reality that customer accounts typically comprise but a small fraction of the total financial business interests of a bank. 27 EE Exan-Fright Killer Identity 4 As businesses rush to provide services over the Internet, vast amounts ‘Theft change hands every day electronically, with a few clicks of a mouse. Payment for goods sold online is rendered by credit card serial numbers sent from the buyer to the seller, over the Net. Banks offer online banking, allowing customer access to personal accounts over the Web, requiring only a PIN (Personal Identification Number) and a password from the customer, as identification. Theft of credit card numbers, PINs, passwords and other personal information is ahigh-tech crime known as identity theft, allowing the thief to make purchases with the victim’ s credit card, or to access his bank account, by posing to be the victim. The information that travels over the Internet is analogous to a radio broadcast, in that with relatively ur ated ent can eaves traffic. To stymie electronic sniffers (snooping devices) from capturing sen: 2 information, respectable commercial sites switch to “secure HTML” (hypertext markup language) before accepting PIN or credit card numbers: the leading URL tag (uniform resource locator tag) of the site changes from “http:” to “https:” (secure), and the user’s browser starts communicating with the site, using encrypted (scrambled) data, nt ate online transactions are not the only resource of the thief. » Thieves may ‘or stolen credit cards. > Thieves h discarded household rubbish for account statements. » Unscrupulous store clerks may sell lists of credit card numbers to thieves, copied from legitimate store receipts (both online and offline). > Someone behind you in line at an ATM (automatic teller machine) may watch you enter your PIN, and £04 harem’ > Several elaborate E-mail scams work by sending “spam” to a large number of recipients, poxing asa major bank and inviting the adresse to “click onthe URL below to access important information about your bank account” ~ but the URL takes the user to the thief’s site, which records the user’s authentication. Gommon-sense defensive measures > Report lost or stolen credit cards to your bank immediately. You are not responsible for charges incurred following your notification. > Shred or otherwise destroy bank account and credit card statements, before putting them into the household garbage. > When about town, take duplicate copies of printed card charges with you — do not leave them in the store > Stand in front of the ATM so others behind you cannot see the PIN you enter. > NEVER aive your credit card numbers or bank PINs to anyone over the phone, unless you are calling a well-known retailer number expressly to order goods by mail. > NEVER send your credit card numbers or bank PINs over the Internet, unless you are the one who initiates the transaction. 28 Introduction Tronds and Regulation Capital Punishment CAPITAL PUNISHMENT %* Definition > Capital punishment (death penal) is the ll infliction of death as punishment, the legal killing of a person for a crime. * History > Capital punishment had been a widely accepted practice before the mid-18th century. ‘Approximately 200 different crimes were regarded as capital offences. Major felonies ranged from shoplifting to murder, from mail theft to witcheraft. > Methods of execution were relics of the dark ages: crucifixion, stoning, drowning, burning at the stake, breaking in the wheel, impaling, beheading, quartering, and gibbeting (displaying executed corpses). > The movement to abolish the death penalty began during the Age of Enlightenment. Great thinkers, such as Voltaire, Diderot, Hume and Thomas Paine, campaigned against executions, #* Present methods > Capital punishment is accomplished by lethal gas or injection, electrocution, hanging, and shooting (firing squad). %* Trends I puni it is practised the types of capital crimes are reduced and fewer criminals are executed. > ‘As countries become more democratic, they tend to abolish capital punishment, demonstrating that the state does not have unlimited power over the life of an individual. The death penalty is replaced with life sentence, imprisonment for life, usually without the possibility of parole. > Backward nations, dictatorships and totalitarian governments continue to condone capital punishment. %® Regulation (Figures are based on Amnesty International Statistics, 2003) 76 nations abolished capital punishment altogether. 16 countries retained it only for exceptional circumstances such as wartime crises. About 90 countries retained it, but mete it out only for the most violent crimes. 20 countries, where capital punishment is lawful, are abolitionists in practice (i ‘no executions are carried out). > 83 countries continue to inflict capital punishment. > European Union member states have all ratified Protocol 6 of the European Convention on Human Rights, which commits a government to the permanent abolition of capital punishment. vvvy ‘The Debate Over the Death Penalty 30 #* Toll of human lives > 1,526 people were executed in 31 countries in 2002. > 3,248 people were sentenced to death in 67 countries. > 81% of all known executions took place in China, iran and the US. > A majority of US states practise death penalty. On average, 75 executions occur across the nation each year. ‘on which nations of the world are split. The death penalty, the most controversial penal practice, is a hotly contested issue 4 For supporters, capital punishment is an issue of criminal justice poliey and proper ‘punishment. 4% For critics, capital punishment is a moral, human rights issue, Arguments FOR the Death Penalty Arguments AGAINST Capital Punishment . ynents have the right to kill people ‘who commit terrible crimes. Those who take a life give up the right to their own. m= The state has no more right to take a life than_does_an_ individual. Thus, state execution is also murder, and the death penalty is a violation of one of the fundamental human rights, the individual’s right to life. ‘= Capital punishment is the most complete retribution. The punishment should fit the crime ~ an eye for an eye, a tooth for tooth. = Christianity preaches forgiveness rather ‘than revenge. ‘= Statistics cannot prove the effectiveness of _the death penalty with certainty, because it is virally impossible to prove the effect of something that is not happening (ie, fewer murders take place, thanks to doing away with murderers). The threat of execution is the best deterrent. ‘= Statistics show that_the_presence_or ‘absence of capital punishment does not Visibly influence the rate of homicide. 11 cannot be supported by sufficient evidence that the death penalty is an effective deterrent, because when a country outlaws capital punishment, there is no increase in crime. Serial Killers, multiple rapists, drug barons and psychopaths will never be deterred. = The death penalty provides the public with a feeling of security, as it removes the worst criminals from society. An executed murderer is not set free: he or she will never kill again. = The death penalty needed for sake_of public security, because life imprisonment has the same ends: it isolates criminals from society. Capital Punishment = The i of ‘wrona person is balanced by the benefits of deterring murderers. legal representation, prosecutorial misconduct, false testimony or racial prejudice. If anyone is killed by mistake, there is no possible way of compensating them for the miscarriage of justice. Since 1973, 99 people in the US have been released from death row after they were proved innocent. = The methods used today to_perform ‘executions are less brutal than they used fo be. Lethal injection or electrocution kills instantaneously. = Capital punishment is_a violation of a ‘basic human right — the right not to be tortured, of not to be subjected to cruel, inhumane and degrading _punishment. ‘The death penalty is a brutal act, and the method applied does not lessen its brutality. Botched executions, during which prisoners die in agony because death is not instantaneous, are a common occurrence. Keeping prisoners (on death row is also a form of torture. = Life_imprisonment, which costs much more tal punishment, is a waste of taxpayers’ money. = The legal costs of death row inmates’ ‘appeals against their death penalty are as, expensive as long-term imprisonment is. 3 Exam-Fright Killer Definition Present * Uses in Farming, Industry and Medicine Future * Medical Break- throughs Ee r CLONING and GENETIC ENGINEERING Genetic engineering, a revolutionary new technology, was born during the last decades of the 20th century. > At the core of the technology is gene splicing: producing new or modified configurations of recombinant deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), by joining DNA segments of two organisms. > If introduced into another organism, the recoriibinant, self-healing DNA material permanently changes the genetic makeup of the host organism. Cloning is the creation of a genetic duplicate of an existing organism. > breeding plants that grow faster, have higher yields, or are more resistant to disease > breeding animals that produce more meat and milk, or reproduce faster > cleaning up contamination caused by oil and industrial chemicals, or decomposing garbage > producing the hormone insulin artificially, in large quantities > producing sheep milk with proteins that cure haemophilia > producing vaccines against diseases such as hepatitis, influenza and herpes simplex. Cloning will revolutionise medicine. > The technique can be used for curing diseases: for producing vaccines against AIDS or cancer; for curing heart disease by repairing damaged heart muscle; for treating Parkinson disease by replacing brain cells; for curing diabetes by restoring the pancreas. > Compatible bone and tissue material, which is not rejected by the recipient, can be produced for transplants in plastic and cosmetic surgery. Entire organs can be Produced for liver, kidney, lung or heart transplant surgery. > Gene therapy will allow for the treatment of inherited disorders by replacing malfunctioning genes with healthy ones. > The technique can be used for cloning animals and plants to serve as biological factories in producing life-saving medications. > Itmay become possible to clone animals susceptible fo human diseases in order 10 test medicines and treatment plan: Animal Cloning Cloning Humans The Debate Over Cloning Humans Cloning and Genetic Engineering %* Animal experiments were the first to draw worldwide public and media attention to cloning, > The first cloned animal, Dolly the sheep, was born in 1996. Since then, cows, goats, mice, pigs, cats, rabbits, a mule, a horse and a dog have been cloned from cells of adult animals, > Early attempts at cloning animals were fraught with problems. Very few cloned embryos survived. The clones suffered illnesses, and many had faulty immune ‘systems. Most of them aged rapidly and died earlier. > In the future, cloning might be used to save endangered animals and resurrect extinct species. %* Cloning human genetic material deploys the following strategy: > The nucleus is removed from the DNA donor’s cell and from a woman's egg cell. ‘The nucleus of the donor's cell is then placed in the egg, and they fuse together. ‘An embryo will begin to develop as the modified egg cell splits in two; then starts multiplying. > In research cloning, multiplying egg cells are used as generic stem cells, which can be induced to grow cell types of any organ. > In luctive cloning, the embryo is implanted in the uterus of a surrogate mother, who gives birth to a clone possessing the genetic DNA makeup of the donor. %* There are only technical obstacles to cloning humans. The potential of the technology has provoked a fiery debate and outcries for legal action to requlate reproductive cloning. > ‘Several Intemational governing bodies (e.g. UNESCO, the Council of Europe, the European Parliament and the G8) have taken a strong stand against human reproductive cloning. > Over 34 countries have already banned reproductive cloning. > Many feel that a global ban should be enacted to prevent the coming of an era of consumer eugenics, ad-hoc selection of inherited traits. %® The nub of the arqument is that although cloning humans has great potential for breventive, diagnostic and therapeutic medicine, abuse of the technique will undermine the foundations of society. Exam-Fright Killer 34 Arc imans Arguments AGAINST Cloning Humans Cloning is not immoral. Mother Nature | m Cloning is immoral. The manipulation of does it on her own: strawberries clone themselves by producing runners. The development of techniques which can save lives or prevent suffering must not be either banned or delayed. In a free society it is unacceptable to restrict medical research. human cells is contrary to the laws of nature and religion. Cloning goes st God's will. Scientists should not play God. People have no right to determine the genetic makeup of a child. Infertile couples who do not wish to adopt babies because they would like to have their own flesh and blood offspring can have their own genetically related ‘= Infertile couples have other options such as adoption, or in vitro fertilisation. children, through cloning. : ‘The personality or individuality of clones | = Knowing that you are a clone can damage is_not in danger, because clones are similar to identical twins. Like twins, they can grow up to be different, shaped by social and environmental influences. Clones should be accepted as one more element of human diversity. your psychological development. Clones have no sense of individuality or autonomy, and their personality and relationships suffer. Cloning techniques _will_be_perfected, ‘suitable for trying out on humans. The more advanced the techniques are, the fewer risk factors will need to be taken into account. Children bor in the traditional’ way also tisk deficiencies ‘= Cloning is not safe. It puts both clones and surrogate mothers at a grave risk, due to organ deformities and serious immunological, developmental and genetic deficiencies that are likely to occur. In all probability, clones are and defects. doomed to have serious defects. Itis only a matter of time before cloning | m Cloni inequality. “Designer becomes cheap enough to be affordable for_the average Joe. When in vitro people “from all walks of _ life. Discrimin elonin« be restricted by laws and lessened through education. babies” will only be available to the rich. Only the wealthy will be able to buy their offspring the best possible ‘genetic characteristics. People of colour and those with disabilities may suffer discrimination. Society will be divided into clones and non-clones. Cloning may be abused and used to breed a superior race. i Id_be avoided. Cloning should be practised within the legal framework of strict guidelines and severe punishments, regulating all aspects of human cloning. . lise genes will become consumers’ choice, and children will be assembled from genes listed in a catalogue. People will be regarded as objects that can be designed and mass-produced. Cloning will generate a market for women’s eggs, leading to further exploitation of women. introduc: ‘The Web Computers and the Internet COMPUTERS and THE INTERNET mn -%* The computer with the Internet (Net, Web), a form of Information and * Communications Technology (ICT), has completely transformed our lives at home, at work, and on the move. > An ICT is a system which is comprised of hardware, software, communications fhnology and. le who use them. ICT makes technology more beneficial ‘and available to people, thanks to its enhanced efficiency and power. > ICT includes anything with builtin computing power, such as mobile phones, CD- players, DVD-players, alarm systems, fax machines, digital cameras, digital television, and robotics systems which control machines. > There is a growing trend towards the integration of devices. Mobile phones with Internet access and digital cameras have already come onto the market. We can expect multi-purpose, all-in-the box technologies to appear in the near future: pocket-sized devices with built-in speech and handwriting recognition will function as phones, computers, cameras, personal stereos, TVs and e-mailers. > Inthis chapter the general aspects and effects of the most influential ICT system, the computer_and the Internet are outlined. Specific uses are mentioned in other sections, including, among others, Education, Banking, and Employment. The Internet is_a_network of interconnected computer networks serving as a fransport_medium for electronic _information. It enables computers _to communicate directly, using cable, satellite or fibre-optic _ transmission technologies, which allow users to exchange information on a global scale. > The tt was born in the US in the early 1960s, out of a_defence-oriented evelopment. Back then, its:name was ARPAner, after the US Advanced Research Project Agency, which funded the project. It linked government computer networks together, with the objective of protecting information in case of disaster or war. During the 1970s, universities and other civilian institutions began joining the network. It was first called the Internet in the early 1980s, when its commercialisation also began. > The most popular part of the Intemet is the World Wide Web (Web, WWW), which allows for the display of still images, video, audio and text, in any combination. The Web also includes chat rooms, message boards, list servers, Usenet newsgroups, Telnet, and File Transfer Protocols. > The Internet continues to grow at an unprecedented speed. Thousands of new pages appear on the Web every day, and the number of users also increases dynamically. Goveraments of industrial nations finance a great variety of projects to spread computer literacy and make the Intemet accessible for large sections of the public. The UN World Summit on the Information Society, held in Geneva (2003), set the goal of connecting 50% of the world’s population by 2015. 35 Exam-Fright Killer Positive and Negative Aspects of the ‘Computer Age 36 POSITIVE Sides of the Computer Age NEGATIVE Aspects of the Computer Age + Data management ‘Thanks to its incredible speed and capacity, the computer is an ideal tool for handling virtually limitless _amot li - Data management becomes much faster and cheaper, because computers can process and transport information rapidly. Databases, which take up less space than paper records do, can be searched and edited with ease. Therefore, the computer is a great blessing to govemment offices, libraries, hospitals, shops, banks, research institutes, and to any other business or stitution where vast amounts of personal, government, business or scientific data have to be collected, stored and retrieved, about customers, patients, tax-payers, staff, stock levels, planets, weather conditions or crimes. * Popular venues confidential information _and preventing cyber-crime_are through Jegislation, or at an institutional level, ‘or at a personal level. %* With venues through legislation: > Data Protection Acts lay down rules about how data can be stored and used. > Copyright Acts give legal protection against file and software theft. > Computer Misuse Acts make it an offence to access, alter or use information held on computer systems, without permission. Consequently, hacking, planting viruses, and software piracy are illegal and punishable. > National Security Acts make it a crime to disrupt computer systems and networks. Security services are allowed to trace Internet traffic, and the police have set up special units to combat Internet crime. %* The safety of information is a cause for grave concern. The spread of computers, all networked systems, has made the information stored on computers vulnerable to crime and malpractice. Network safety, the security of financial and private information, has become one of the major problems to be dealt with. * Misuse of communications systems takes several forms: > Hackers get’ access to computers anywhere in the world and cause havoc through stealing, changing or deleting information. They get hold of passwords with the help of Trojan horses or spyware software. Collecting personal data, without people’s knowledge and permission, of customers, clients, patients and staff, including names, addresses, financial information, medical and criminal records, employment history and user preferences, is a gross violation of privacy. Statistical information and name lists can be sold to commercial market research. Personal data files can be used for blackmail, Credit card serial numbers can be used for outright theft. E-mail messages can be intercepted, endangering the confidentiality of communications. > Stolen information is often used for criminal purposes, Hackers can Purchase goods on the Internet, with stolen credit card numbers. Hackers or company insiders can use the computer in financial. fraud, to manipulate bank accounts or to make counterfeit money. Market, scientific or military information can be gained and sold to ‘competitors, by unauthorised parties. Computers and the Intemet %* With venues at an institutional level: > k providers, e1 id all offices using computers have ICT seourity policies, which ensure that the systems are safe. They include sophisticated security measures protecting credit cards, bank accounts and social security numbers from unauthorised access. Data is encoded using encryption techniques. Passwords, access level restrictions and firewalls prevent intruders from accessing protected software or data. > Internet businesses and companies can turn re pirates i ‘customers by charging modest fees for their services (e.g. for sharing music, film and literature files). This way, royalties can be paid to ‘musicians, artists and authors. % With venues at a personal level: > users ¢: their data by filters against e-mail spam, > Data nsf o easily, without authors’ permission, infringing copyright laws. Novels, music, films, textbooks and articles stored in computer files are copied, distributed and sold illegally. > Besides being a nuisance, viruses and worms destroy files. They can cripple networks, even create worldwide chaos. ‘The damage already caused by computer viruses is upwards of a billion dollars. To protect against viruses is also an extremely costly and never-ending battle, because the protection always lags one step behind the hacker who introduces a new virus. > can e_ Internet to attack computer systems which control electric power grids, Pipelines, water systems, nuclear Power stations or chemical refineries. ‘The failures of these systems can lead to fatalities and cause great harm to the economy is checking software, personal and the population alike. Firewalls, avoiding software of doubtful origins, and using write- protected disks. %* The Internet, the library of the future,| * The tremendous amount _of is_an_infinite_ source useful information available on the Internet information about every _ subject Mmatter_imaginable, which can be accessed at any time, from any place, > There are millions of web_sites providing a tremendously rich and diverse collection of government, business, educational and private information. Thousands of libraries are connected to the Internet, and the number of online newspapers, Journals and — magazines is constantly growing. Special interest ‘newsgroups are excellent places to get information or advice in a given field. List servers or mailing lists are also of great help in keeping up to date with developments in a specific area. poses major problems, in itself. > As the Internet is not monitored, there_is_no_telling whether the information available on a particular website is accurate, authentic, ‘current or not. > There is Information overload on the “superhighway”. Surfers are presented with too much, seemingly related chaff, which makes it difficult to find exactly what one really wants. > Computer tit ‘and_information ction skills are needed to use search tools effectively. 37 Exam-Fright Kilter 38 > Multimedia tools — sound, pictures and video clips — make the information more interesting and more easily digestible. ‘The capability of publishing in an interactive way enhances the effectiveness of information. > Navigation programmes, directories and search engines help users find relevant information about particular issues. %* ICT, which has become __an Indispensable part of business Ife, is of great value to the economy. > ICT_has_changed communications dramatically. E-mail (electronic mail), an extremely low-cost and speedy form of communication, replaces traditional “snail mail”. Video conferencing allows people to have meetings, without travelling long distances. Producing all kinds of documents is made easier by word processing and desktop publishing (DTP) facilities. Electronic Data Interchange (EDI) enables businesses to send orders and invoices automatically. > The Intemet is a fabulous marketing ool for products and ideas alike, because advertisements and product information published on the Web are available to a global audience of users. > ICT is beneficial to_emplovees. It requires a well-trained and knowledgeable workforce being at home in the world of high technology. It creates thousands of new jobs (e.g. programmers, systems analysts and computer technicians). It has given birth to new forms of employment, such as telecommuting or teleworking (working away from the office, using a computer), which is advantageous to many people, from working parents of small children to the disabled. The changes brought about by ICT may prove mutually disadvantageous for businesses and employees. * > In case of frequent or prolonged system failures, businesses may go ban) vital services _m gollapse. > & ym is an annoying form of ‘abusing the power of the Web. Millions of unwanted advertisements are sent daily to promote products and services. Not only do pop-up advertisements spoil the enjoyment of “surfing”, spamming spreads viruses as well. > As a result of being replaced by computers, a lot of people have been made redundant in the workplace. > Computers _are_responsible_for_a number of ailments and diseases. Working with computers precipitates professional diseases such as repetitive strain injury (tendon injury), eye fatigue, neck strain and backache. > ICT contributes substantially to_a schism between the haves and the have-nots le _and countries, alike). The digital divide is a majot concern of the new Computer Age. ‘The gap between the information haves and the information have-nots is widening between the top and bottom strata of societies and between nations, as well. About 5.5 billion people are still “offfine”. Those without access to the Internet or without IT skills have difficulty finding jobs. Computers and the Internet > ICT contributes to the economic development _of poorer countries, helping them shake off poverty, by providing access to information, and by establishing modem industries which require a high-technology environment and an educated, skilled workforce. > The Information Age further exacerbates the woes of developing countries, erecting new barriers between ‘them and the industrial world. Developing countries. struggle to provide the basics for their citizens: food, education and health care, They are unable to make sizeable investments in ICT programmes for the —_general populace. %* ICT has transformed everyday life. > Many people do their shopping or banking via the Internet. Students get homework help at the click of a button; online courses make lifelong leaming a reality. Keeping diaries, storing recipes and editing holiday Photos are all made simple and fun. Entertainment seekers can watch films, listen to music, visit virtual museums, read online newspapers, play computer games or chess with people across the globe, take simulated tides at theme parks, watch television, talk to people in chat rooms, join international communities, send e-mail messages, aint pictures, compose music, or create their own websites. * Computers are becoming more and more of a dominant feature of our > Users may develop Internet Addiction Disorder (IAD). They neglect their health, jobs and responsibilities, and give up their ordinary recreational and social activities. Addicts often risk the loss of family and social relationships, or the loss of career opportunities because of excessive Intemet use. Similarly to alcohol, drugs or pathological gambling, the Internet becomes a means of escape from reality, a means of relieving helplessness, guilt, anxiety or depression. Chat groups, news ‘groups and e-mail have proved the Intemet’s most addictive features, because they provide opportunity for an individual to socialise in the disguise of a virtual personality. Exam-Fright Killer The Debate * {0 peal! with the growth of the Internet, calls for its requlation are intensifying. Pundits claim that the wide variety of misuse makes it necessary to control the Internet. Their strongest argument in favour of imposing restrictions on the Web raat Control centres on pornography and hate sites. ny _Internet_users and civil liberties groups are sed to censorship. Opponents claim that legislative control abridges freedom of expression and diametrically opposes the aim of the Internet, which is meant to be a free source of information. Arguments FOR Internet Control Arguments AGAINST Internet Control As anybody is free to post material on the Web, the copious amounts _of unwanted information and junk endanger |. the _Internet's efficiency. It is getting more and more difficult to find relevant information, using even the most advanced search facilities. The lack of a worldwide regulatory body is the Web's greatest strength, fostering creativity and innovation. The unprecedented diversity _of beliefs, thoughts and information sources is the unique property that makes the Internet invaluable. ‘The Internet is a vast repository of smut. In chat rooms, where chatters are often subject to verbal abuse, people deceive others by pretending to have different identities. Pornography is a widespread and dangerous form of misuse. Minors ought to be protected from corruption by harmful material offered on racist = Only _a_small_proportion_of the Web ‘contains indecent_material, and most surfers do not use the Web for pomography. Offensive and indecent ‘material is available in other forms of ‘media as well (e.g. in paper form or on video). It is the responsibility of Parents, teachers and librarians to and hard-core pornographic sites. control and guide children’s use of the Internet and to teach them the values necessary to become responsible Internet users. Taking _active_punitive_steps against | m It is unfair to limit the freedom of all users those _who_use the Web for criminal purposes is a must. Copyright laws must not be allowed to fall by the wayside. Only strict control can protect authors’ rights and prevent software theft. Likewise, it is vital to prevent terrorists using the Internet in their campaigns. Global Internet security must be maintained at all costs, _ because governments are responsible _for tecting people against fraud and other forms of misuse. If nothing is done to control the Web, it will become chaotic and risky to use. Public confidence in using the Internet for important transactions or for the exchange of sensitive information willbe undermined. just to keep children away from adult ‘material. Censorship limits the free flow of information and cripples global communications. = Keeping _Interet_content_in_check_is extremely expensive. Due to the rapid growth of Internet sites and pages, control is technically impossible to enforce. Even the best filtering technology fails or proves unsuitable, because it cannot block all the able sites, yet it blocks a lot of = Wise enforcement of existing laws gives enough power to the government and the “Internet Police” to fight Intemet misuse and erime. ‘The Tasks of the Armed Forces Services of the Military Weapons Conscription CONSCRIPTION %* The military in democratic countries accomplishes various offensive_and defensive tasks. >t national sove and defends the nation against foreign or domestic enemies. >it in ial_ military manoeuvres as an ally in NATO (North Atlantic Treaty Organisation), to support international order. > Ittakes part in missions under the aegis of the United Nations. > Itprovides emergency aid for civilians in case of disasters, playing an important role in disaster management. %* In countries burdened with poverty and social problems the armed forces are often used to crush civil unrest. The military mé row. wernment, ‘Seize power in a military coup and become the ruling junta. %* =A country’s armed usually consist of three or four services: the Army, the Royal Navy, and the Royal Air Force in the UK; the Army, the Navy, the Air Force, and Marine Corps in the US. Army officers train at military academies: Sandhurst in the UK; West Point in the US. > The amy, the military and force, is usually the largest force. Its organisation is based on a division system of regiments, battalions, companies, corps, divisions, platoons and squads. The army is supported by specialist corps such as intelligence, artillery and mechanised infantry. > The navy, whose most important branch is the fleet, is the maritime military force of a nation. Besides surface combatant ships, it operates nuclear submarines, missile forces, planes used on aircraft carriers, and shipyards for the maintenance of the fleet. > The air fores is divided into commands or flying units, which are responsible for strike (attack and defence), logistics (support and maintenance), and personnel (election and training). * An army's striking power depends on its size and the efficiency of its weapons. ® A brief his of > Mesopotamian standing armies fought in wars with spears and bows around 3200 BC. Later, chariots were also used. > The Roman legions were armed with shields, a short sword and a javelin. a Exam-Fright Killer 42 > Alexander the Great used archers, catapults and siege engines. > Mongol conqueror Genghis Khan's mounted warriors used mis fire_and explosives in their surprise attacks. > In the Middle Ages, the chivalrous mounted knight in armour was the ideal fighting force. Light infantry adopted the crossbow. > Gunpowder was developed in the 14th century. Cannons and firearms were used alongside with traditional pikes and bayonets. Flintlock muskets also became widespread. > Dynamite joined gunpowder in the 19th century arsenal. Due to newly built railways ‘and communicating by telegraph, armies could be dispatched faster and controlled more precisely. - Weapons and warfare developed at an unprecedented pace in the 20th century. Technical advances and the mass production of weapons and ammunition brought about quantitative and qualitative changes in weaponry and warfare. > ‘The aeroplane makes aitborne operations possible. > Motorised vehicles, armoured tanks and submarines enhance the army’s mobility and striking power. > Infantry and artillery weapons constantly improve their velocity, range and ‘accuracy, as a result of improvements in explosives technology: repeating guns, breech-loading artillery, machine guns, rockets, landmines, plastic explosives, short-range and long-range ballistic missiles launched from ground, ship, air or ‘submarine, laser-guided bombs and other air-to-ground guided missiles with target- sensing capability are used in modern warfare. > Clockwork accuracy of missile guidance and navigational systems makes attacks on key targets possible, reducing unintended damage to surrounding areas. > Biochemical technology produces lethal warfare agents: poisonous gases (mustard gas) and deadly chemicals (Agent Orange) are used to kill enemy forces and civilians. Non-lethal weapons are also developed to incapacitate the enemy, without annihilating it. > Aircraft carriers speed up the transport and supply of troops over long distances. > Radio, radar and satelite communications allow for a more complex and rapid deployment of forces. Nuclear delivery and nuclear weapons systems, the deadliest tools of mass destruction, have altered the nature of warfare forever. > A nuclear war causes mutual destruction, regardless of whether a nation strikes, wants to prevent a strike, of wishes to remain neutral. The SALT (Strategic Arms Limitation) agreement in the 1960s and START (Strategic Arms Reduction Talks) ‘Treaties signed in the 1980s and 1990s created a balance of nuclear powers. This balance, however, is precarious, because many countries in Asia and the Middle East are developing their own nuclear weaponry. Conscription Recruitment #* A lot of nations (e.g. US, Frat Australie in, Belgium, and Canada) run professional services ing on volunteers. They usually reserve the possibility of conscription in wartime. Young men must register with the army when they are 18, in case of a future military emergency. Other nations maintain conscription forces and require able-bodied male citizens to do man military service called “national service”, “s tive service” or “the draft’. > Mandatory military service dates from early times. = Military service was compulsory in the ancient Greek city states and in ancient ‘Rome, where service was regarded as a privilege. = Inthe 17th century, Swedish King Gustavus Adolphus required all men to serve in the army. ‘= Conscription in its modem form was born during the French revolution, when universal military service was regarded as a republican duty. Most troops of the Napoleonic army were also conscripted, with soldiers serving four years. = 19th century Prussia had a system of conscription without exemption. =. The two World Wars were fought with conscripted armed forces. = During wartime, conscription is likely to be reintroduced; men and women may expect to be called up to join the armed forces. > 3 dura depends on the degree tion: ‘degree-holders serve a shorter period. Women are also drafted in several countries (eg. Israel, the People’s Republic of China and Eritrea). > The sel raftees is made by a I sm in s¢ untries. In Mexico, for instance, balls are drawn. If the ball is black, the draftee has to join the army; if the ball is white, he becomes a reservist. > Conscripts are often used for work on public projects and services. > Ex-soldiers are compelled to undergo reservist training cycles in many places (e.g, Cyprus and Singapore). Conscientious objectors > Conscientious objectors refuse to do military service for cither religious reasons (€.g. Quakers, Jehovah's Witnesses, the Society of Friends and the Mennonite Church), or for moral reasons and personal views. > Historically, conscientious objectors were imprisoned, forced into the army or sent to labour camps. In armed conflict areas they are severely punished even today. > which inise_conscientious objection _as_part_of freedom ee ‘one of the. uae rights, objectors have a special legal status: they are granted full exemption, they serve in non-combatant roles in the army, or they do civilian service, which is usually community work in hospitals, government offices, libraries and schools. Exam-Fright Killer Arguments For and Against ‘Compulsory Military Service %® Draft dodgers > Acgreat many of the draftees have been and are trying to avoid military service. Some centuries back, the wealthy hired someone else to serve for their sons, or paid ‘commutation and bought theit way out of military service. > Today, draft evaders employ a variety of crafty methods to escape conscription: they utilise the family’s political connections, pretend to be conscientious objectors, use educational exemptions called college deferments, get a medical exemption proving that they are physically or mentally unfit for service, or flee to another country. : * Trends > Duration of compu! ice is reduced. > Professional_armies are streamlined. Instead of unskilled “cannon-fodders”, highly-skilled military personnel operate complex, increasingly remote-controlled ‘weapons systems. > Women enjoy increased opportunities in volunteer forces, where squaddies have more chances to rise through the ranks. Higher ranks, however, are still held by ‘men from the upper strata of society. ® In deme ic countries enrolment into the armed forces. intense national debate, exacerbated when conscripts are sent to wage war abroad. +* Supporters of conscription argue that defending the country is the responsibility of ‘each citizen, Military training is necessary to prepare for this patriotic duty. They also claim that military service enriches young people with vital social experience, broadening their understanding of democracy. +* Opponents of mandatory service claim that conscription is a violation of human Tights. They also point out that — considering the complexity of modern warfare waged with high-technology weaponry — only a professional military can effectively protect the nation’s interests. Conscription Arguments FOR Conscription jents AGAINST. iption ‘= Ademocratic society does have the right {to demand military service of its citizens. It is a comfortable stance but a profoundly mistaken idea to think that citizenship only involves rights without any responsibilities. The duty of defending the nation is not a matter of choice but a fundamental obligation. A citizen cannot look to others to perform his own public duty. Everyone has to contribute their fair share to defend the democratic system whose benefits they enjoy. The state may use its coercive power to ensure that everyone performs their duty and punish those who try to dodge the draft. Enrolment should be ‘made fairer: the range of exemptions should be narrowed. = Conscription is an abuse No government is entitled to force citizens to train to use arms, fight in armed conflicts, kill others, or get killed. Compulsory military service is inconsistent with democratic values. The government has to protect individual liberty rather than curb it, It is a violation of human rights to oblige people to do military service if it is against their religious or moral convictions. The draft and any system of exemptions make draftees cheat to avoid enrolment. Deferments are abused. Lottery systems employed to choose conscripts are unjust: dumb luck decides the fate of draftees and determines the course of their lives. = National service widens young people’s ‘Social experience. It teaches the youth that citizenship is not free of duties. ‘They learn discipline and become more ‘The army provides valuable training in both basic and specialised skills. The skills that people learn in the military are later used for the good of the economy and society. = The benefits of having served in the Ilitary are vastly overrated. Basic skills, such as first aid and wilderness sutvival, ‘can be learnt at school. Active duty of conscripts is usually too short to master complex specialised skills. Most conscripts enter civilian service, because the military is unable to absorb all people of conscription age. Thus, conscription does not equip the youth with ample military experience. = Even in peacetime, conscription is necessary for maintaining a sufficiently strong army. Size and strength of services should not depend on the number of volunteers willing to sign on. Mobilisation in wartime is quicker and more effective if people have military experience. In case of military conflicts, voluntary enlistment may not provide sufficient manpower to protect critical infrastructure (power plants, chemical factories, power grids), or to ensure the safety of airports, hospitals and government offices. = Developed nations are unlikely to suffer @ conventional military assault. Non- conventional _warfare cannot _be fought with insufficiently trained draftees. High military technology requires specially trained operators. Only smaller, more mobile professional forces have the chance of successful defence. When ‘mobilising for war, training, re-training and specialist training of conscripts may take longer than the length of the conflict itself. Exam-Fright Killer Compulsory service improves the quality of the military. Draftees are better- educated than regulars. Conscripts do not follow orders blindly, and their questioning attitude makes commanders conform to the norms of civilised society. ‘= Conscription reduces the efficiency of the illtary. Draftee selection is inequitable; rejection of unsuitable draftees is capricious. Volunteers, by contrast, have to meet high recruiting standards, are intensively trained in state-of-the-art technology and serve long enough to become proficient at their jobs. Recruits, are more reliable, committed, disciplined and trainable. Conscripts have” lower morale: malingerers and malcontents undermine unit cohesion. Volunteering tums a truh dul ‘a_job:_a_professional_mili fesembles a_mercenary force. Recruits are only motivated by signing bonuses, pay and benefits including free food, housing, medical care and college ion benefits. These financial incentives are attractive mostly to minorities and people from lower classes. Well-qualificd specialists are difficult to recruit and retain. The ratio of college graduates in the officer corps is low. A conscripted force is cheaper. = Good prospects and opportunities to rise in social status do not turn recruits into ‘mercenaries. In addition to reasonable earings, young people are also motivated by patriotism, a desire for adventure, and a wish to have a challenging occupation. Conscription is similar_to_slavery. The state obtains draftees’ involuntary work, without paying the right price for it. National service is rather expensive. Bureaucracy needed to manage consc and its enforcement, as well as training large numbers of new draftees annually increases the state’s defence budget. A ilitary_may_become_a threat to democracy even in democratic without first-hand experience outsiders” who can hardly make responsible decisions regarding the armed forces. A professional military does not reflect the economic and social stratification of the population. On the other hand, compulsory service contributes to strengthening democracy. A drafted force is the mirror of society, capable of cutting across social and economic divisions. People from various classes and backgrounds experience social integration, which deepens their democratic principles. m= In democracies the military shares_and protects societal interests and values. In our high-technology nuclear age, we need devoted professionals who can defend the country. Professional forces do not threaten; to the contrary, they serve society. They are subject to democratic civilian leadership and control: the commander-in-chief is usually the president or the monarch; the military is led by a civilian called the minister or secretary of defence; the defence budget is approved by democratically elected members of parliament. The high quality Performance of a volunteer military builds public trust and confidence in the armed forces. Crime CRIME Introduction #* Crime, a of deviance, is a il act that Is punished by the because it violates the laws of a community. Omission or failure to act may also result in a criminal act: a policeman on duty commits a crime if he or she does not try to defend a woman attacked by a mugger. Legal systems > England, Canada and the US have “common law” systems. Cases are decided by referring to precedents — previous judicial decisions and principles ~ and similar Judgements are made. Most Western European countries have “civil law” systems. Cases are decided by referring to statutes — laws passed by Parliament, compiled in codes. > Civil law has another meaning, as well. Regulating private relationships, it deals with disagreements between individuals over their rights, duties and obligations, such as business contracts, divorce and personal injuries. Criminal law, on the other hand, concerns acts which are harmful to society as a whole. Subject areas dealing with crime > Criminal law defines crimes, fixes punishments for them and regulates law enforcement: investigation, prosecution, the constitution of courts, the conduct of tials, the organisation of the police and the system of penal institutions. > Criminology is a social science which develops principles for crime control and crime prevention, through analysing the causes of crime, the characteristics of criminals, the problems of convicting offenders and the rehabilitation of convicts. > Griminal psychology, concerned with the characteristics of criminal behaviour, deals with offender profiling. Its methods are also used in the correction and rehabilitation of convicts, Grime statists > Crime statistics are used to assess the effects of criminal law and the success of law enforcement, to reveal trends, to identify problem areas, to analyse the causes of crime, to allocate resources and to inform the public. > Many experts have doubts about the accuracy of crime statistics, claiming that they under-represent the true extent of crime, as several factors distort them: = Only the crimes known to the police are recorded. = Petty crime and domestic violence are often not reported, as their victims find the incidents too trivial, see them as private matters, or they distrust the police. = Customers and employees are often unaware that they are victims of corporate crime, = Some policemen are more likely to act against certain groups such as working class or minority suspects. 47 Exam-Fright Killer ‘Types of %* What is considered a criminal act depends on societal values in different eras. As Crime ‘opposed to approximately thirty crimes defined in the 17th century, now there are hundreds of offences specified. While some felonies, such as witchcraft or fornication, have disappeared, several new crimes have been born; for example, spreading computer viruses, and joyriding. * The most widespread classification of crimes is based on the direction of the criminal act: whom it hurts; what it damages. > Crimes against the person are violent acts resulting in the death, bodily injury or seizure of the victim. They include murder, voluntary and involuntary manslaughter, assault, battery, mayhem, rape, mugging, bullying and kidnapping. > Crimes against real_and personal property are committed to take the victim's possessions and assets, or defraud the rightful owners of their property. A common form of property crimes is larceny (petty or aggravated): shoplifting, embezzlement, robbery, and forgery of checks, stock certificates, bonds, contracts and wills. > Crimes against the habitation include cases when the wrongdoer enters a building or non-building so as to commit a felony there; for instance, arson, burglary, ram- raiding and carjacking. Causing criminal damage by vandalism also falls into this, category. > Grimes against sexual morality encompass rape, sodomy, incest and bigamy. The ‘most common crimes involving sex are prostitution and pimping (managing the activities of prostitutes). > Grimes against the government include treason, perjury and bribing public officials. > Crimes against humanity were defined in the 1945 Charter of the International Military Tribunal for the trial of major war criminals at Nuremberg. They include war crimes, such as murder, extermination, enslavement and deportation, committed against civilian populations, and all types of persecution on political, racial or religious grounds. % Another frequently made distinction of crimes takes the seriousness of the k wrongful act into account, distinguishing degrees. | > Obviously criminal common law crimes, such as murder, rape and burglary, are | known as grand felonies. > Forgery and bribery, which are less severe statutory crimes (i. violations of regulatory statutes), are referred to as misdemeanours. > Petty offences, such as shoplifting, parking in the wrong place and trespassing, are called minor infractions or infringements. i 48 Suveni Delinquency Crime further t of criminal typology is selves, Crimes are lled by the particular group of, wt sual unit them. > White-collar erime, ranging from embezzlement, racketeering, insurance fraud and income-tax evasion to the misuse of public funds and the abuse of political and legal powers, is most commonly committed by middle-class or upper-class people who misuse the opportunities provided by their occupation. > Corporate crime is distinguished by Marxist sociologists. Crime is a response to the nature of capitalist society. For the sake of profit, corporations harm individuals and risk public health by neglecting safety equipment, using unhealthy food additives, testing medicine inadequately, causing industrial disasters, fixing prices, overcharging customers, laundering money and promoting their goods with misleading advertisements. Prominent figures of politics and law enforcement may become corrupted parties in the business crime syndicate, by passing laws favouring groups, hindering legal procedures or turning a blind eye to malpractices. > Increasing rates of juvenile delinquency and domestic violence are most worrying trends in modem-day societies. Juvenile delinquency is the umbrella term for crimes and offences committed by stron iid a people before they reach the age of majority (age of > imones! and crimes committed by young people are property destruction in the form of vandalism and graffiti, theft, pick-pocketing, shoplifting, bullying, mugging, drug abuse, football hooliganism and joyriding. Statistics show that the number of delinquent acts is on the rise, while young offenders are becoming more aggressive and violent: assault, murder and burglary are increasingly frequent criminal acts. > Different theories seek to explain the causes of juvenile crime. = Lack of adequate parental supervision, child abuse and neglect, peer pressure, Srastration or failure at school may all lead to breaking the law, = Poverty, the breakdown of traditional family patterns, shifting values, and alienation are also defined as primary causes of delinquency. = Drugs and alcohol often trigger criminal behaviour. ‘= Some offenders may compensate for boredom by the thrill of breaking the law. = Sub-cultural approaches point out that certain groups may reject the prevailing cultural norms, as a result of status frustration. They develop a distinct set of values in which crime becomes a part of their normal socialisation pattern. Delinquency is a means of hitting back at society: criminals provide role models, ~an alternative means of gaining status. > ‘systems acknowledgs that children and young people under the age of sixteen are_not_sufficiently mature to_be_criminall sible. Therefore, special Procedures are applied to deal with juvenile crime. Domestic Violence ExanvFright Killer = Young offenders are tried by a youth court. The aim of the punishment imposed is correction and rehabilitation rather than retribution. Major felonies, however, are in the jurisdiction of criminal courts, which can impose pri sentences. 1 For less serious offences the following sentences are usually passed: attendance centre orders (delinquents take part in constructive activities); supervision or probation orders (juveniles are under the supervision of a social services or government official); community service orders (compulsory, unpaid ‘community work); institutionalisation (residential treatment in a young offender's institution where delinquents get psychological counselling and vocational training). * Domestic violence has come into the limelight relatively recently, because victims of abuse have been unwilling to come forward. > Until the end of the 18th century, wife-beating was allowed for “lawful correction”. According to a Lancashire saying, “Our women are like dogs — the more you beat them, the more they love you". As male dominance of women is still widely accepted as a symptom of masculinity, and because girls are socialised to be submissive and compliant, and still further, because the family is seen as part of the private sphere, many cases remain unreported, leaving the seriousness of the problem unknown. Official police attitudes are not always supportive either: many officers tend to identify with male assailers. > involve physi mental 3: slapping, punching, kicking, stabbing, life threatening attacks and verbal abuse. Sexual harassment and rape are also frequent. > Possessiveness, jealousy, unemployment, financial hardship, emotional frustration, and heated arguments about money, domestic duties and children’s upbringing are all triggers for violence. Excessive consumption of alcohol is a Ieading contributor. People who experience violence in their childhood are more likely to become abusers or victims themselves. > Domestic violence is usually associated with the maltreatment of women, but harm, is often inflicted on male pariners or parents, particularly when they are elderly. > The cruellest form of domestic violence is child abuse. A lot of children suffer Physical, emotional or mental harm, They are sexually abused, beaten or neglected: they do not get adequate food, clothing, medical care, education and love. > If domestic violence cases are taken to court, abusers may be forbidden from coming in contact with the victim, or they may be barred from the family home. Victims can get temporary accommodation in refuges. Children may be monitored by child protection agencies, or they may be placed in the care of local authorities, Causes of Crime Crime * Crime. woluted a anon that it cannot be explained by a sin theory. Stil, certain genetic, psychological, social, cultural, economic and political Factors can be singled out as principal contributors to crime. > In centuries past, criminals were regarded as perverse people possessed by evil spirits. > Until the 20th century, explanations of criminal behaviour focussed on biological ‘and physiological traits. For instance, an imbalance of bodily humours, such as blood, mucus and bile, was held responsible for aggressive behaviour. Franz Joseph Gall claimed that criminals had a typical skull structure. Cesare Lombroso established relationships between inherited facial features and criminality: according to his theory, murderers were thought to have large heads with sloping foreheads. > nt di ents of the genetic en: I assert that there is an extra male ‘sex chromosome (XYY), which may be responsible for deviant behaviour. > Psychological and psychiatric theories come to the conclusion that many criminals are psychotic, neurotic, emotionally disturbed or mentally deficient. Instincts, drives and innate impulses may bring about aggressive behaviour as well. > Environmental and social experts who attribute crime to: = the influence of poverty: deprivation and hopelessness lead to crime as a means of escape = the corrupting effect of urbanisation: unemployment, poor housing, the breakdown of traditional community norms and a growing disrespect for authority, especially in inner cities, may all develop anti-social dispositions, encouraging crime = troubled family life: poor patenting, alcoholic or drug-addicted parents and domestic violence can make children prone to embark on a criminal career = sub-cultural influence: criminal behaviour is leamt as a norm, of is the result of failure to achieve individual goals in society = the welfare state, which has weakened work ethic through creating a dependency culture = economic crises, wars and a sense of insecurity, which may make people prone to criminality = the mass media, which magnifies problems out of all proportion; violent films on television, which desensitise people to crime and make them accept blood and brutality. > Sociologists developing the labelling theory hold the social 1d the influence of fuling_norms_responsible for deviance and criminality. They regard deviants as passive victims. . 1 Negative stereotypic labels are attached to groups of people who veer from the standard (¢.g. working class and ethnic minorities). These labels influence the behaviour and identity of people belonging to the stigmatised groups; force ‘them to accept their “abnormality”, often turning them into deviants. = Institutions ~ getting into lower streams at school, job rejection at workplaces, Police surveillance ~ reinforce the process of social and political exclusion. 51 cam-Fright Kill * forces. most im it law enforcement sles, res ible for preventing and detecting crime and maintaining public order. The main activities of the police usually include the following tasks: > Crime prevention: policemen on the beat patrol an area to deter any criminal activity and reassure the public. Officers visit schools to stop young people from getting involved in crime. Experts advise property owners on security. Community policing and liaising closely with the public are the cornerstones of reducing crime. > Crime investigation and ator: various squads ~ crime, drugs, fraud — co-operate in arresting the offénder and preparing the case for court. ‘The most complicated task of the police force is the fight against organised crime: drug trafficking, people smuggling, counterfeiting goods and software, prostitution, money laundering and terrorism. > Traffic control: the police, together with traffic wardens, attend accidents, escort unusual vehicles, maintain safety on the roads and enforce traffic restrictions. > Keeping public order: riot police are responsible for crowd management and for stopping violent demonstrations. > Disaster management: the police co-operate with emergency services in disaster response and recovery. Police powers are sometimes misused: policemen are charged with dishonesty, {facial prejudice and excessive use of force. Cases when policeman beat up suspects ‘or fabricate evidence receive widespread media coverage and decrease public confidence in the police force. Fe Jaw ent lent agencies > Scotland Yard, London’s Metropolitan Police, re-organised by Sir Robert Peel in 1829, became a model for the police force in many countries. It maintains a Criminal Record Office, a fingerprint division, forensic laboratories and a detective-training school. Scotland Yard’s most famous department is the Criminal Investigation Department (CID), which includes several squads: = Special Branch deals with political crimes, national security and terrorism, and protects government ministers, diplomats and public figures at risk = The Flying Squad investigates armed robbery and other kinds of serious crime. = The Fraud Squad examines financial crimes. The Vice Squad deals with crimes involving sex or drugs. > The Federal Bureau of investigation (FBI), located in Washington DC, was founded in 1908. It is the federal investigative agency in the US, which deals with crimes that violate national laws. FBI agents operate from field offices, satellite offices (resident agencies) at home, and from “legats” established abroad. To aid criminal identification and crime detection, the FBI maintains a large collection of fingerprints, the FBI Laboratory, and The National Crime Information Center. Its National Academy trains police instructors. True to its motto “Fidelity, Bravery, and integrity”, the FBI has a threefold mission: Crime & todefend the US against terrorism, foreign intelligence threats and cyber-based attacks = to protect civil rights and to enforce the criminal laws of the US, by combating corruption, white-collar crime and violent crime = tosupport its partners at federal, state, county and intemational levels. > The International Criminal Police Or was founded in Vienna in 1923, with the aim to foster co-operation between police authorities around the world, in order to optimise international effort to combat crime. It acts as a liaison centre and a clearing house for international criminal records: member countries can use its global police communications system, criminal databases and analytical services. It co-ordinates joint operational activities and makes its expertise available to its members. > in Police Office (Europol) is the criminal intelligence agency of the European Union (EU). Established in 1995, located in the Hague, Europol aims to ‘enhance co-operation between the police forces of the EU member states, through national units and liaison officers. Among its objectives are combating terrorism ‘and international crime such as counterfeiting of the euro, money-laundering, and trafficking in vehicles, drugs, human beings and radioactive substances. In order to meet these objectives, Europol obtains and analyses information, records it in a computerised system and assists investigations in the member states. %* Well-known intelligence agencies > MIS (Military Intelligence, section 5), based’ in London, is the UK's security intelligence agency. Being responsible for protecting the country against threats to national security, its objective is to combat espionage, to frustrate terrorism and to protect sensitive government information. It also aims to co-operate with aw enforcement agencies in reducing serious crime. > CIA (Central Intelligence Agency) was created in 1947, to ensure the national security of the US. It co-ordinates the US intelligence activities, gathers and evaluates information affecting national security, conducts counter-intelligence activities and wages war on international organised crime. Information is collected through translating foreign media articles and broadcasts, through analysing pictures taken by imagery satellites, and through recruiting foreigners to provide information about their own country. The US President receives a daily report of analysed information known as the President’s Daily Brief. %* The criminal procedure involves all the steps taken to determine the guilt or innocence of people suspected of violating the criminal law: apprehension, investigation, charge, prosecution, conviction and punishment. %* Legal systems in devel countries the rights of citizens against unlawful prosecution by their own government. If safequards are breached, the lice evidence may be rejected by the court. Exam-Fright Killer Detection Court Procedure in England ‘Search warrants are needed to search premises for evidence. ‘The arrest powers of the police are circumscribed. The time spent in custody is limited. Everyone is considered innocent until proven quilty. Everyone has the right toa fair trial and to a solicitor to advise them. ‘The accused has the right not to give evidence. ‘The defendant can be prosecuted only once for the same crime. vyvvvyy Law ies detect crimes, arrest the perpetral vi convincing evic thelr quilt. > lice keep sus fixed or ion: tap their phones and bug their rooms to monitor their conversations, They use undercover operations and employ informants to obtain information. » A good number of methods and procedures, incorporating the latest technol advances, are used to identify, analyse and interpret evidence. «= Trace clues, such as dust, paint, glass, hairs and fibres from clothes, are analysed, and firearms are examined. = Serologic investigations identify bloodstains and tissues, for DNA. = Toxicology examines tissues, urine, blood, food and drink, for poison. = Mineralogical investigations study soil, plaster, brick and glass, for locality. = Through metallurgical investigations fragments of objects can be identified. © Graphology and document investigations focus on examining writing, printing, types of paper and ink. = Important databases are consulted: criminal records, fingerprints and intelligence files, containing information about the skills, specialities and associates of criminals. > If there is enough evidence, the suspect is apprehended. Arrested people must be cautioned on the dangers of making a statement or remaining silent. They are interrogated and taken into custody until a formal charge is made. The police get the case ready, providing evidence of the suspect's guilt. Then, the accused is brought to court. A lower court decides whether the case is in their jurisdiction or not. In England Magistrates’ Courts deal with minor civil cases such as divorce, breach of contract and bankruptey. These cases are heard by magistrates called Justices of the Peace (Ps). %* Aarand crime is passed to a higher court. > Until the day of the trial the suspect may be released on bail, or may be on remand: in prison, awaiting trial. * Crime > Crown Courts try serious cases by a judge and a jury. Jurors are selected at random, from lists of adults. Lawyers representing prosecution or defence have the right to challenge jurors, to object to them for not being impartial. The trial is controlled by a judge. Barristers of both sides - lawyers who trained at Inns of Court and have been “called to the Bar” ~ put their cases, question and cross-examine witnesses. After the jury hears all testimonies and the evidence (presented by both the prosecution and the defence), it retires to the jury room to consider its verdict. When it reaches a verdict, the foreman returns the verdict: guilty or not guilty. If the defendant is found innocent, he or she is acquitted. If the defendant is found Builty, the judge pronounces sentence. > After conviction a defendant may appeal against the verdict and the sentence to a ‘higher court: to the Court of Appeal, or to the highest forum, the House of Lords, where the Lord Chancellor and the Law Lords make a final decision. As a result of the appeal, the conviction may be quashed (the jury's verdict is overruled), the sentence may be reduced, ot the appeal may be turned down. Criminal law establishes ranges of punishment for various crimes. Penology, a branch of criminology, is concerned with the methods of punishment. The goals of punishment are manifold. > Since the oldest times punishment has served retribution, deterrence, restraint and Incapacitation so as to protect society from law-breakers, > Modern legal systems find two other aspects important. The goal of rehabilitation or ‘correction is to help offenders get rid of their criminal tendencies and re-integrate into society, through psychological guidance, training and career-development Programmes. The objective of restoration is to repair the harm caused by the criminal act and reconcile the community. of, is of the crime so that punishment the.offence committed. will > Besides the severity of the crime, the offender's past record is also taken into consideration. > The defendant's dearee of involvement — whether he or she is a principal in the ‘first degree, a principal in the second degree, or an accessory ~ influences the punishment as well. > Criminal liability is relieved in cases of insanity, of acts committed under coercion ‘or duress, and in the case of legal minors. Common punishments: > unconditional discharge: the offender can go free without punishment > conditional discharge: the defendant is set free, but in case of re-offending the first crime will also be taken into account Exam-Fright Killer Prisons > fines or fixed penalties to be paid for minor offences l > community service done in hospitals, old people’ homes and other community institutions | > probation: if the offender is placed on probation, he or she has to meet with a ‘social worker or probation officer at regular intervals money damages are paid to compensate for the harm caused | forfeiture of property disqualification from holding public office | Joss of professional licence ‘Suspended prison sentence on a conditional discharge imprisonment, which is life sentence in the most serous cases | capital punishment, I vvvvvyy Prisons, serving the confinement of convicted people, were established in the | 17th century, > Before that, felons had been transported to penal colonies. Early prisons were filthy places, where sexes were not separated and the convicted often suffered corporal punishment, > Today, most _prisons try to provide humane conditions and ald the inmates’ ‘rehabilitation. Still, the conditions in some prisons sometimes lead to riots: many institutions are overcrowded; “‘slopping out” — a bucket is the lavatory — is still | used; visiting access is restricted. Prisos ding on their dangerousness, serve their sentences in different | institutions categorised according to the degree of their security: minimum, low, medium and high. People on remand are held in remand centres. ‘Short sentences may be served in the local prison. Open prisons are for those who do not require special security, ‘The convicted serving longer sentences are sent to a training prison. Violent prisoners are kept in solitary confinement. vvvyvy The full prison sentence is often not served. As a reward for good behaviour, Prisoners may be given remission (released earlier), or they may be released on parole. In exceptional circumstances the convict may be given a free pardon. Statistics prove that prisons are not truly successful in meeting the requirement ‘of rehabilitation, Ex-prisoners more frequently re-offend than the convicted who were not incarcerated. Prisons are often described as “universities of crime”. Crime Prevention Crime Prevent is sibility of governments, local communities and individuals alike, > The stale prevents crime through enacting laws, financing and operating law enforcement agencies, and regulating the criminal procedure. “Zero tolerance policy” may be adopted to reduce crime: offenders are arrested and prosecuted; however minor a crime they may have committed. > Local communities participate in “Neighbourhood Watch” schemes and report any suspicious activity happening near their homes. > Busit shops, banks, s employ security guards and have closed-circuit television installed to deter crime and tackle disorder. > Property owners make their homes burglar-proof by fitting burglar alarms, and by being careful enough not to leave windows open. 57 Introduction #* Frequent Natural Disasters DISASTERS Disasters are usually unpredictable, sudden events which pose a threat to people and the environment, causing massive destruction and human suffering. Disasters are caused either by nature or by human activities. > Man-made disasters include wars, nuclear incidents and accidents with hazardous materials. . > Natural disasters — earthquakes, typhoons and tsunamis — are mostly the results of geological or climatic phenomena, > The th n the of disasters is not clear-cut, because several natural hazards are triggered by human intervention: deforestation, for example, intensifies floods and landslides; air pollution affects climate, leading to changes in temperature, and in the frequency and intensity of hurricanes, Developing countries and megalopolises are the most vulnerable to hazards, due to lack of dis mané ant facilities in the former; owing to population density and heavy dependence on utilities in the latter. Earthquakes > are caused by movements of tectonic plates which make up the Earth's ‘crust. Plate movement releases seismic waves, causing the earth to shake. > The seismically most active regions are the San Andreas fault in California, the “Ring of Fire” (a region encircling the Pacific Ocean), and a zone stretching from the Mediterranean and Caspian seas to the Himalayas and the Bay of Bengal. > The intensity of quakes is measured either on the Richter or on the Mercalli scales. Foreshocks, shocks and aftershocks are measured with magnetic seismographs. Quakes with a magnitude of 6-7 on the Richter scale are considered serious, 7-8 disastrous, over 8 — catastrophic. > Quakes often trigger landslides, avalanches, flash floods, tsunamis and fires. Volcanic eruptions > Eruptions occur when the pressure exerted by gases and magma in the earth's crust becomes strong enough. Explosive eruptions, when built-up gases force their way outward, cause mass destruction. Pyroclastic flows, with rocks, gas and dust ejected at speeds of up to 320 krn/h, at temperatures of up to 550° C, can be deadly, as evidenced in Pompeii in AD 79. There are more than 500 active volcanoes in the world, over half of which are part of the “Ring of Fire”. > Many active volcanoes become dormant for certain periods. Their eruption is usually extremely violent after a longer period of dormancy. > Eruptions often cause tsunamis, flash floods, earthquakes and rock falls. > Volcanoes not only harm, but also benefit people: they boost tourism and provide Fertile land for crops, forests, orchards and vineyards, Disasters %* Tropical cyclones > Tropical cyclones originate in tropical waters over the Atlantic Ocean and the Pacific. They centre on areas of low pressure and are characterised by strong winds. > Hurricanes and tyshoons are the most common natural hazards. High velocity winds rotate around the centre or eye of the storm. They are accompanied by torrential rains, which frequently cause flooding and mud slides. > Tomadoes are violent windstorms with a twisting, funnel-shaped cloud travelling at speeds of up to 480 knv/h. Twisters are formed when cool air overrides a layer of warm air, which is forced to rise rapidly. The most devastating tornadoes are bom in the US. High wind velocity and wind-blown debris cause severe damage — tornadoes destroy everything in their path. * Tsunamis > ‘Tsunamis are seismic sea waves gencfated by undersea earthquakes, landslides or volcanic eruptions, which push the water upwards, sideways or downwards. Most tsunamis are triggered along the “Ring of Fire”. > Travelling at up to 800 km/h and becoming towering walls of water, over 15 m high, tsunamis destroy entire coastal settlements. * Flood > Flooding is caused by prolonged heavy rainfall, rapid spring thaw or dam failures. Flash floods, rising very quickly, are especially dangerous, as they move at fast speeds and catch people off guard. Flood water can exert such great pressure that weaker dykes and defence systems cannot withstand it. Urbanisation and deforestation increase the severity of flooding. > The opposite of flooding is low flow, usually in the wake of a prolonged drought. It limits water use and irrigation, curtailing farm productivity. * EINifo > El Niifo (“the Child”), which occurs in the Pacific Ocean every three to seven years, significantly affects the world’s climate. Serious climatic disturbances are caused by the reversal of warmer and colder waters of the western and eastern Pacific, accompanied by a reversal of air pressure and trade winds. As a result, the normally drier coastal South America experiences heavy rainfalls and flooding, whereas southeastern Asia, India, Indonesia, Northern Australia and Southem Africa are hit by droughts. > The economic impact is felt most seriously in Peru and Ecuador. The proliferation Of algae, at the lowest rung of the food chain, is tied to warmer water temperatures; if algae cannot grow, large populations of fish simply starve. Long droughts cause crop failures, famine and fires. % Landslides > Landslides occur when weathered material (regolith), triggered by heavy rains, melting snow or earthquakes, starts moving downslope. Mud flows, earth flows, rock falls and avalanches devastate everything in their path, burying entire settlements. Man-made Disasters * Natural fires > Natural fires, such as forest fires and bushfires, are sometimes caused by lightning or spontaneous combustion, but more often by human error and negligence. Low humidity and drought increase the combustibility of forests. Forest fires are frequent among others in Spain, France and Australia. > A forest fire is extremely difficult to extinguish, because, fanned by winds, it spreads quickly over parched vegetation. Firefighters often fight the blaze in the raging inferno for weeks until they can get it under control. > Fires cause considerable environmental damage by killing plants and animals, and by devastating their natural habitats. Wildfires threaten human life and habitat as well, because they often burn out of control and spread over towns. Drought > Drought is simply a term for abnormally dry weather over an extended period of time. Catastrophic droughts in recent memory have been wreaking havoc in many African countries. > Drought destroys the vegetation and crops in the affected area, and causes critical water shortage and severe famine. Locusts > Voracious locust swarms — which can be as large as several hundred square Kilometres, with each kilometre containing 40 million to 80 million insects — can ‘cause total crop failure. Locusts devour all vegetation within minutes. Famine {follows locusts, especially in poverty-stricken Africa, where the majority of people are subsistence farmers. Human beings are responsible for a wide range of disasters from pollution and forest fires to nuclear accidents and wars. A single representative sample is discussed below. Accidents involving hazardous materials (HazMats). > HazMats (explosives, flammable and combustible substances, toxic and radioactive materials) are key ingredients in manufacturing processes. In the event of an accident or misuse, large quantities of such materials are released into the environment, creating life-threatening emergencies. Accidents may happen when ‘HazMats are manufactured, transported and used, or when hazardous industrial waste is disposed of. HazMats contaminate water supplies, rivers and oceans, and pollute both air and soil. Their danger is increased by the fact that they often trigger fires and explosions. > HazMats often claim hundreds of lives, as breathing, swallowing, or even touching. them may prove dangerous or fatal. Being odourless, tasteless or invisible, many of them are difficult to detect. eee eee General Impact of Disasters Disaster Management * Disasters > Notorious disasters, occurring with alarming regularity, are oil tanker accidents. ‘When tanker ships are damaged, thousands of barrels of oil may spill into the surrounding water. Spilled oil spreads quickly, and it is difficult to degrade by either chemical or biological means. Oil pollution is extremely damaging to ‘marine life: fish, seabirds, marine mammals, reptiles and corals. Oil spills can wipe out entire marine ecosystems and may render shores unsuited to wildlife for decades. Washing up on the coastline and the beaches, oil slicks may cripple a region's economy by endangering fishing and stalling tourism. Disasters destroy both lives and property. They wreak havoc, cause massive damage and lead to tragic loss of life. Property damage > Buildings crumble; bridges and dams collapse; trees are uprooted. > Entire settlements are levelled in a quake, or are buried under lava or mudflows. > Homes get under water; huge areas are flooded; crops are damaged. > Cars and roofs become airborne; houses are ripped to shreds, or are swept away. > Roads and railway lines are destroyed; gas and water pipelines get broken. > Blectricity is eut offs water supplies fail; telecommunication services get disrupted. > Property damage may total millions of dollars. > Disasters can cause billions of dollars’ worth of damage. Casualties > Earthquakes are often associated with casualties (fatalities): people are knocked off their feet, and are buried under debris and rubble. Falling and flying objects claim lives: debris turns into lethal missiles. Ash-falls, toxic gases and smoke cause deaths: they suffocate people. Hundreds of people perish, drowning in a flood, or burning to death in a fire. Ina chemical accident the death toll may mount to several hundred thousand. People lose their lives, falling victim to infections and epidemics, which spread rapidly, owing to sewage problems, lack of sanitation or clean water. People who are made homeless or those evacuated may starve to death, or die from exposure to the elements. vuvvy v Disaster_management (mitigation, aredr response, recovery and fehabilitation) is vital to lessen the damage potential of hazards and to reduce the vulnerability of the stricken population. Disaster prevention and mitigation > Governments take effective measures to decrease the incidence of certain disasters. For instance, floods are controlled by building dams, levees, reservoirs and flood ‘ways to control water flow. Flood damage can be curtailed by regulating land use, engineering flood plains and limiting construction in the affected area. Similarly, strong building codes and compulsory design features ensure the typhoon or quake resistance of buildings, bridges and other structures. 61 [ > Hazard forecasting (e.g. satellite monitoring of weather and wind conditions, and [ issuing warnings) can minimise the impact of predictable disasters. > Preparing people is a key element of mitigating the impact of disasters. In hazard- [ prone areas citizens are trained to suitably respond to disasters. Detailed instructions and “Family Disaster Plans” help save lives and protect property. a In places where earthquakes are frequent, a Home Earthquake Plan teaches to [ avoid hazards around the home, by putting heavy or breakable items in a safe place, or by fastening them to walls. People are advised to locate, ahead of time, safe places to hide: under heavy furniture inside, or away from buildings in the open. Iti essential tc have a Disaster Supplies Kit on hand, containing emergency water and food, ‘nedicines, a first aid kit, the most important personal documents, items of personal hygiene, a change of clothing and footwear, cash and credit cards, in order to be ready to evacuate at a moment's notice. = The Emergency Communication Plan helps members of the family reunite after the disaster. a Emergency drills are conducted io practise proper evacuation procedures. Exan-Fright Killer -m + Disaster response > When disaster strikes, highly organised and co-ordinated emergency services, utility services and voluntary agencies assisted by troops are needed to deliver aid, control relief efforts, influence the amount of damage and prevent the spread of disease. > Typical dis ‘measures = A state of disaster is declared by the government. Food is distributed and property is protected with assistance. Efforts are made to ensure that vital services are restored and maintained. Residents are evacuated from threatened areas. Special rescue teams with dogs search for survivors under the rubble. Shelter, food, water supplies, essential medical care and basic sanitation are provided. = Organized efforts are made to search for missing persons, helping families reunite. = Charities raise money to provide financial aid. ‘ary and police %* Disaster recovery > International disaster relief efforts are co-ordinated by UNDRO (United Nations Disaster Relief Office). Financial and material aid — tents, blankets, medicine and food — are provided by governments and charities. International humanitarian agencies, such as the Intemational Red Cross and Red Crescent, and Médecins ‘Sans Frontiéres, render help to people stricken by disaster. > Helping residents return to normality, the cleanup operation and rebuilding of community are both costly and time-consuming. Handling long-term consequences of disasters and finding solutions to famine, homelessness, unemployment or the problem of refugees are major socio-economic, political and cultural issues. | Divorce DIVORCE Introduction #* Divorce is a legal process which terminates a marriage. Reasons for Divorce, ® The status of divorce within a society varies depending on legislation, influenced by prevailing religious doctrines. > Hinduism and Roman Catholicism do not allow valid marriages to be dissolved by legal means; remarriage is not permitted either. > Protestants view marriage as a civil contract, thus it can be dissolved. > Divorce is recognised among Buddhists and Muslims, on various grounds. In socialist and communist countries divorce is easy to obtain. v * Historically, in Western societies it was difficult to get a divorce because of the fault-based view. > The plaintiff had to show valid cause: adultery, desertion, habitual drunkenness, impotence or cruel treatment. The complicated legal process gave rise to a practice of migratory divorces: couples travelled to a foreign country where it was easier to get adivorce decree. % In the 1970s, several countries witnessed a divorce reform movement, which led toa liberalisation of divorce laws. As a result, now: > couples can divorce even if neither is at fault > divorce is granted if the marriage is irretrievably broken > divorce by consent is allowed. * Trends > Divorce has become less of a stigma, due to changing social attitudes. > There has been a considerable Increase in the number of divorces. > Many fear that easy divorce will undermine the nuclear family and culminate in society's moral decline. %* The high divorce rate is lly attributed to changes of social and nal nature: Society tolerates and accepts divorce more readily. Women enjoy greater financial and emotional independence. ‘Women are dissatisfied with traditional expectations of their role in marriage. Increasingly, people believe in the emotional values of marriage and in the benefits of a happy partnership, apparently missing from the current situation — i.e, the grass is always greener on the other side of the fence. > Couples getting married too young often regret their thoughtless, hasty decision years later. vvvy 63 Exam-Fright Killer Legal Procedure to Divorce 64 % Frequent grounds for divorce > Problem behaviour: physical or verbal abuse (c.g. spouse and child battering and humiliation), financial problems, drinking ot other addictions. > Unfaithful behaviour: adultery period of time. > Emotional issues: emotional and sexual incompatibility, communication problems, lack of conflict resolution skills, basic unhappiness and failed expectations. Feeling unfulfilled, uninterested or neglected, spouses drift apart. > The marriage is doomed to failure from the very start — ending it corrects a mistake. fidelity), desertion, or separation for a longer %* Steps of the legal procedure leading to divorce: > Application for divorce: The divorce petition is handed in by the Petitioner and is sent to the Respondent. > Mediation (formerly “conciliation”): Assisted by a trained mediator, the couple negotiate with each other about the custody of children, financial support, and the division of family assets, home and business; and all issues are written down in an Agreement. > Court hearing: If an agreement cannot be reached, a court hearing is held, during which each side states their case. The judge decides upon the disputed issues. One spouse, usually the wife, is granted alimony or maintenance payments. Custody of children is awarded to one of the spouses, or joint-custody arrangements called “Residence” are worked out. Stipulations are set forth regarding visiting or contact rights and support of children. Financial agreement is worked out, concerning the division of family assets and monthly maintenance payments for the children, payable by the absent parent. > In Britain first the court pronounces the decree nisi. Six weeks after it has been granted, the applicant can apply for a decree absolute, which officially ends the marriage. Alternatives %* Besides divorce, couples can resolve their marriage in three other ways. » Marriage annulment: The marriage can be annulled if it has not been consummated; if the spouse was already married to someone else; if one of the spouses was under 16 when they got married; if the applicant married a close relative. > Reconciliation: The marriage can be saved if the relationship has not broken down irretrievably. The couple bury the hatchet and make a fresh start. > Split and livir : Tax implications might make this solution ‘advantageous for many couples. mT em ee oo os mm Pm Ss see ee ee m™ r Coping with Divorce Fathers! Fight Equal Rights Divorce %* Divorce is an overwhelming and painful process for all parties involved. > Itis difficult to come to terms with the breakdown of a relationship. Hostile feelings rather than goodwill, tolerance or co-operation will likely persist between the spouses. After divorce the former spouses must cope with the stress of losing the family’s sense of unity, and with the formidable task of re-structuring their lives. > Couples can attenuate the upheaval of heated encounters by focussing on practical arrangements, by getting advice, or by using mediation. Extended family and friends can be sought out for support. Counselling or therapy may help manage ‘anger, depression or destructive feelings. > Itis important to respect and understand the other person’s feelings and difficulties. Partners contemplating divorce should realise that they will still have to get along with one another in the future, in their role as parents. %* Divorce is especially hard on children, who_must come to grips with a wide range of negative impacts, including: > Emotional difficulties: children feel confused, anxious, bewildered, sad, angry and lonely. They have to cope with their sense of divided loyalties. They often fear that they had done something to cause the break-up of their parents. > Social difficulties: children frequently become withdrawn, aggressive, destructive and isolated, in the wake of a divorce. > Educational difficulties: poor concentration and a decrease in children’s academic performance are common symptoms. > Health problems: emotional stress often triggers physical illness. 4% Parents should not involve children in their own battle of the sexes; they should not use them as trump cards against one another. Children need reassurance and encouragement. They must not be robbed of their love of the other parent. * Thousands of divorced and separated fathers all over Europe claim that, in custody and visitation cases, the legal system discriminates against men. The| lobby for new legislation quaranteeing equal rights. > Although the law ought to be gender neutral, and although civil codes in several countries now recognise a child’s right to have two parents, the-mother still gets custody in the overwhelming majority of cases. Custody rules bar fathers from enough visits to develop meaningful relationships with their children. Ex-wives often blatantly flout visitation agreements. > Fathers have formed activist groups that fight for legal and social change. “Families ‘Need Fathers” offers support and counselling. More radical groups, such as “SOS Papa” or “Papa Separati, organise marches and protests. “Fathers 4 Justice” is ‘one of the best-known organisations, whose activists, dressed up in superhero costumes, perform shocking stunts: they have climbed onto the top of the London Eye Ferris wheel, and have thrown purple flour bombs at British Prime Minister Tony Blair in the House of Commons. > Fathers urge legal reform which would guarantee the rights of co-parenting, altering residency and joint physical custody, in order to regain fuller participation in the upbringing of their children. Exam-Fright Killer Definition Types Drugs DRUG ABUSE and DRUG DEPENDENCE %* Drug abuse means misusing legal drugs (e.g. tranquillisers), or using illegal drugs. * Casual drug abuse may escalate into habitual drug abuse, which often develops into sical and, ical dependence (habituation) on druc > In this case the body needs a drug to avoid withdrawal symptoms and function normally. Addicts use more and more of particular drug, or use more and more powerful drugs. This is not a voluntary process. Addicts are powerless to reduce or stop their drug intake. * Frequently taken drugs > Stimulants: amphetamines (speed, uppers), cocaine (ice, snow), crack (smokable form of cocaine) and ecstasy (methylenedioxymethamphetamine) increase alertness and physical activity, elevate mood and decrease fatigue. > Depressants Sedative-hypnotics: barbiturates (barbs, downers) and tranquillisers calm down users by slowing down their central nervous system. > Analgesics-Opioids: opium, morphine, heroin (junk, smack) and methadone help users relax by relieving pain and anxiety. > Hallucinogens: phencyclidine (angel dust or rocket fuel, PCP), magic mushrooms, LSD (acid) and MDA (methylenedioxyamphetamine) cause visual and auditory hallucinations, distort vision and perception. > Cannabis: marijuana (dope, grass, pot, weed, herb, resin) and hashish produce typical symptoms such as a relaxed state, slowing of time, a sense of heightened hearing, smell, taste and touch, cheerfulness, talkativeness, light-headedness, paranoia and short-term memory loss. > Inhalants: give, solvents, aerosols and nitrates (poppers) cause slight stimulation. Higher doses render users unconscious, +* Genetics, family background and social environment all play a part in developing drug dependence. The main motivation behind drug abuse is that addicts want to change the way they feel. Drugs offer an alternative world where one is strong, powerful and beloved ~ what might be missing from the user's everyday life. +* Frequent reasons for using and abusing drugs: > enjoyment: feeling “cool” instead of being bored > curiosity: secking out new experiences ose) a | = mr ‘Common Symptoms Risks Drug Abuse > stimulation: effortlessly obtaining increased physical or mental energy > defence mechanism: easing the trauma and pain of unsatisfactory relationships and family life; relieving the stress of day-to-day living; forgetting about problems or failure; killing pain, shame or disappointment > natural rebellion, defiance of authority: drugs are a means of silent rebellion against adults, parents, school, or society in general > insecurity: satisfying a strong desire for affection, identity and respect; generating a fleeting sense of self-confidence > escape: drugs are a means of sidestepping problems > peer pressure, alienation: fitting in with peers; enjoying the company of other drug, users so as to experience a sense of belonging > modelling: copying the coping skills demonstrated by addict idols and adults > ignorance: lack of information about harmful effects of drugs ‘availability: drugs are easy to obtain. v Common indicators of drug abuse v preoccupation: irritability, being desperate to get the “next hit” shanges in behaviour: oss of interest in family matters, work or school financial problems: borrowing money and neglecting to repay it; stealing from family, friends or employers vy physical deterioration: a decline in normal standards of personal hygiene, grooming and physical condition secretiveness: denial of drug use new associations: new friendships, usually formed with drug abusers. vy Drugs damage physical, mental and spiritual health, by: > risks to personal safety: danger of death or injury by overdose, accident or aggression > damage to health: damage to the heart and brain, liver failure, mental problems, contracting infections (hepatitis, HIV) through intravenous drug use > legal consequences: risk of warnings, fines and imprisonment; criminal record for drug abuse; committing crimes to get money for drugs; risk of arrest or imprisonment for growing cannabis, drug trafficking or possessing a controlled drug. > destructive behaviour: drug abuse harms the self, friends and family, causes financial problems, triggers violent and aggressive behaviour, leads to isolation and results:in a loss of motivation, control, job or home. 67 Exam-Fright Killer Treatment Trends Combating Drug Abuse + Cutting down voluntarily often ends in total failure, as drug abuse is beyond the { addict's control. Help is available in different forms. > Psychotherapy helps addicts learn life skills enabling them to cope with their i problems, to deal with uneasy feelings, and to feel good naturally, without doing drugs. [ > Detoxification programmes with hospitalisation aim at the gradual withdrawal of drugs, using drug substitutes; for instance, methadone is administered to replace heroin. [ > In therapeutic communities addicts support one another and provide assistance in taking personal responsibility for their drug problem. According to EMCDDA’s (European Monitoring Centre for and Dru Addiction) annual report 2004: : > Cannabis remains the most commonly used drug — one in every five adults has tried it in the EU. The use of amphetamines and ecstasy is on the increase among young. |, adults. Cocaine, heroin and injected drug use is also widespread. > Itis an alarming fact that a great majority of teenagers try drugs before they leave school. Drugs are too easy to obtain from pushers on the street, in discos, nightclubs and schools. > Bach year around 7,000-9,000 overdoses are reported in the EU. Most victims are ‘young people in their 20s or 30s. > The main types of crime committed by drug users are property crime, drug dealing and breach of drug legislation. The onus is on both governments and individuals to tackle the drug problem and | ‘Teduce the number of drug abusers. Frequent measures include: > developing co-ordinated national and international anti-drug strategies and action { plans > further investing in drug prevention programmes in school curricula; providing first aid training and risk education, such as D.A.RE, (Drug Abuse Resistance Education); offering peer and on-the-spot counselling in discos, clubs and at music events i > offering free syringe exchange to prevent the spread of infectious diseases (Hepatitis B, C and HIV) > improving the treatment of drug users and helping addicts to come off drugs > offering addicts alternatives to prison sentence (e.g. compulsory treatment of drug vusers) > eliminatin fuction (especially in South America) and taking more [ ‘effective steps against criminal organisations which control the drug trade ‘ > stifling the availability of drugs by more effective drug intervention and drug seizures at borders > improving the surveillance of drug runners and drug traffickers reducing the sale of drugs by strengthening the police force, and by imprisoning drug barons and drug pushers. v The Debate #* Over Soft Drugs fany individuals and interest marijuana, to be legalised, poi call for less harmful “soft” ‘out that national or international efforts to such as control their use have proved futile. They usually draw on the “Dutch mode?”. In the Netherlands the law makes a distinction between hard and soft drugs. Marijuana is available in coffee shops, under strictly regulated circumstances, * of the decriminalisation of “soft drugs” argue that their availability worsens the drug problem and leads to further, more serious health, social and criminal complications. Points FOR the Decriminalisation of Points AGAINST the Legalisation of Marijuana ‘Marijuana = Responsible adults have the right to| = The government has the right to restrict decide whether or not to smoke freedom _of choice _if_one’s freedom marijuana. Freedom of choice cannot be | causes harm to society. All drugs are democratic governments as | dangerous. Possession, use and long as a given activity does not hurt| cultivation of marijuana must remain anyone else. banned. = Ma a tone to) m Marijuana is_a “gateway” drug, which cocaine or heroin. Most users never | often leads to abusing harder_drugs. move on to hard drugs. Legalisation can | Most hard drug addicts start with isolate marijuana from the hard drug | cannabis. Those who try soft drugs subculture, by separating hard and soft | without serious complications are more drug markets. easily lured into experimenting with heroin or cocaine. ‘= Responsible use_of marijuana _is_less | m Marijuana is bad for human mental and harmful_than_smoking_or_alcoholism. Although its excessive use can cause negative effects, such as psychological problems or retarded social skills, impact is not permanent. An overdose of cannabis hardly ever causes death, whereas millions of alcohol-related deaths are recorded in the world every year. Cannabis can heighten creative thinking and is a perfect antidote to stress. It is used in mainstream medicine to case the side effects of chemotherapy or relieve the suffering of patients with multiple sclerosis. physical health. It impairs short term memory, concentration and reflexes. Cannabis use seriously affects mental capacities and often gives rise to lethargy, depression and schizophrenia, If abused excessively, marijuana is a Killer. Permissive legislation would increase the number of citizens with impaired cognitive skills. If marijuana were legal, it would negatively affect the learning capacity and job performance of generations. Exam-Fright Killer = Marijuana users are forced to incriminate themselves in order to get supplies of cannabis. Prohibition does ‘ot reduce the demand; rather it creates a black market. Criminalisation is only advantageous to drug dealers. If cannabis were legally available at licensed premises; if it could be legally grown at home, drug pushing would decline. The Dutch example proves that legalisation does not increase the number ofusers. = Softer approaches to cannabis policing Would increase the number of dealers on the streets. If marijuana were available legally, market forces would encourage young people to use it, and marijuana would become an even more booming business, Without harsh laws, many more people would smoke cannabis and would become regular users. = Taxpayers’ money is wasted on the persecution, prosecution and incarceration of marijuana users. Legalisation would free_an_immense amount of police resources. Legal purchase of cannabis would also generate a considerable amount of income, through taxation. = Only strist_taws and effective law nt_can impact _of ‘drug abuse and save taxpayers’ money, * in the long run. Users spend billions of dollars on drugs, which fattens the bank accounts of drug barons. The amount of ‘money spent on the treatment of drug- related diseases and social problems is horrendous. = Prohibition is not an effective solution, Legal penalties only deal with the symptoms of drug use, but they do not root out the underlying causes. A more sensible drug policy, open discussion, accurate information, education and regulation are far better options than prohibition is. "Drug education and the strengthening of moral and religious values are of the ‘utmost importance. At the same time, @ ru ‘be maintained = Ss ee CR Oe mm = = = mT TT TTT es es es Introduction * Drugs in Sports DRUGS IN SPORTS Jn the literal sense of the word and in an ideal world, sport implies ethically fair competition for victory. Unfortunately, the stakes are too high to enjoy taking part in competitions for participation’s own sake. Winning at all costs has become the governing principle in professional sports. Sportsmen and sportswomen are under immense pressure to win the gold medal, by their own expectations, the substantial financial rewards associated with their performance, and the emotional blackmail by the public, which ‘expects athletes representing their country to become world champions. One way of making it to the top is by gaining unfair advantage through drug misuse. Athletes are aware that the use of performance-enhancing drugs and methods is contrary to the spirit of fair competition; that it is harmful to their health; that it spoils the public image of sport; that it can devastate their careers. Yer, the illegal use of drugs and controlled substances has become a major sore point in professional sports. Abrief history of doping > The word “doping” prot n lic drink used by Zulu warriors to enhance their military prowess. Although in Europe the term first meant drugging racehorses, the practice of enhancing performance by artificial means is as old as competitive sport itself. Even Greek athletes used stimulating potions to fortify themselves. > The International Amateur Athletic Federation, followed by other federations, was the first to ban stimulating substances in 1928. Yet, their restrictions proved ineffective, as testing athletes was not required. > Doping tests were introduced in 1966, in cycling and football championships. The International Olympic Committee (IOC) set up its first list of prohibited substances in 1967, and the first drug tests were performed at the Mexico Olympic Games in 1968. After that, most International Sports Federations introduced drug testing. Anti-doping work was complicated in the 1970s and 1980s by state- sponsored and condoned doping, practised, for instance, in China and the former German Democratic Republic. > One of the most famous dopi was the 1 Funner Ben Johnson's, who was stripped of his gold medal after testing positive for stanozolol at the Olympic Games in Seoul, 1988. > The need for international c tion against doping bore fruit in 1999, when the World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA), an independent non-governmental organisation ‘was established to stamp out out-of-competition and on-site doping. WADA’s aim is to foster a doping free sports culture in two ways: it educates athletes, coaches and administrators about the dangers of drugs, and it sanctions those who cheat, by banning them from participation or stripping them of their medals. m1 et ier l Prohibited = # use prohibited substances v: sport to, sh sport has its own [ Substances ——_ anti-doping rules. There are over 4,000 substances banned by the IOC, but their Jist is revised on a reqular basis, following the development of newer and newer drugs. The most frequently abused prohibited substances are the following: > Anabolic Steroids allow athletes to recover faster from training, and to build soft tissue and muscle bulk. > Diuretics help the body to lose fluids by increasing the amount of water in the urine. They are frequently used by boxers, weight lifters and jockeys to meet their contest weight. > Stimulants, such as caffeine, cocaine and ephédrines, raise the heart rate, stimulate ‘the nervous system, improve reaction times and decden tiredness. > Peptide Hormones and Mimetics cause natural hormones occurring in the body to be produced at an increased rate. > Betadblockers slow down the heart and breathing rates, which is advantageous to archers, divers and shooters, > Painkillers or Narcotic Analgesics, such as paracetamol, heroin and morphine, mask ain, allowing athletes in endurance sports to train and perform when injured. > Blood doping - removal and re-infusion of the athlete’s blood ~ is a banned Practice. It increases the level of oxygen-carrying haemoglobin, which is of tremendous benefit in long distance races. Erythropoitein (EPO), another troublesome performance enhancer, also stimulates the production of red blood cells, > Gene Doping is the technique of the forthcoming years. mm mM The * Every now and then drug testing stirs up controversy over the infallibility of Reliability testing methods. of Drug Testing > Urine samples may become contaminated before testing, or incorrect storing may alter their chemical components. > Some cold and cough remedies (e.g. ephedrine) include banned stimulants and may show up as over the legal limit for analgesics. Also, herbal remedies and vitamin supplements are sometimes contaminated with banned substances. Athletes are often unaware of the contents of over-the-counter medicine. > Substances that naturally occur in the body present problems as well. Certain medical conditions lead to abnormally high levels of naturally occurring peptide hormones. Fruit, vegetables, red meat and nutritional supplements may contain nandrolone, an anabolic steroid, which pumps up muscle bulk. It can be present the body at a higher level than the limit set by IOC, which produces a false positive test, Stress can also raise the natural level of banned substances (c.g. testosterone). i > Controversy surrounds @ new generation of fitness supplements taken as a alternative to anabolic steroids. They include amino acids, which help build ‘muscle, reduce fatigue, increase strength and muscle growth, boost the immune system and trigger the production of adrenaline. > At the Paralympics athletes must be allowed to take medically required drugs to maintain their own health. a 4 | i | | | | | Harmful Effects of Drugs Drugs in Sports %* Harmful side effects of performance enhancing drugs put athletes’ health and lives at risk, > Masking pain or injury can make an injury worse, and even cause permanent damage. > Women taking testosterone are prone to become masculine and infertile, > Human growth hormone often causes chronic high blood pressure and diabetes. > Nandrolone may be a cause of lowered fertility, raised blood pressure, headaches, impulsive jon and Instability. > Anabolic steroids frequently damage the liver. > Blood doping increases the risk of inte ‘or going into metabolic caused by overloading the circulatory system, 73 Exam-Fright Killer Introduction 74 E-LEARNING E-learning, utilising information Communications Technol and most advanced form of distance learning. > It is also referred to as e-tutoring, online mentoring, ILS (Integrated Learning System), CAL (Computer Assisted Learning), WBL (Web-Based Learning), TBT (Technology-Based Training), WBT (Web-Based Training) and CBT (Computer- Based Training). ans up new possibilities in education. > The importance of e-learning is_wic nised the - International “organisations, governments and private enterprises are unanimous in encouraging and funding the incorporation of computers into every level of education, from primary to higher education, vocational to further education, and post-graduate studies to staff training. > The widespread support for e-learning is explained by its flexibility and versatility. As ICT resources can be accessed from anywhere, at any time, they provide the most adaptable scope for lifelong learning. > Onli le sharing of educational opportunities, bona Ica nase csrotes guar ‘between educational institutions and between training systems. > Besides aiding personal development and promoting digital literacy, efeaming fosters intercultural dialogue and strengthens social cohesion. Most_industrial_nations_have_launched_ yammes_to_make_e-learnin: accessible to learners, teachers and educational institutions. The main objective of these programmes is to create interconnected nationwide computer learning networks, linked to the Internet, in schools, colleges, universities, libraries and research institutions. For instance, the European Union's ¢-learning programme for 2004-2006 encompasses: > developing school _networking and school twinning projects at_primary_and ‘secondary levels, in order to promote language learning, and to strengthen the image of a European multilingual and multicultural society > creating virtual campuses in order to improve the integration of higher education, and to facilitate the implementation of a European Credit Transfer System > fostering partnerships between the public and private sectors > developing online learning material > promoting teacher training. Bonefits of Elearning * * E-Leaming The constantly growing demand for online learning has created a sizeable market where hundreds of services provide courses and educational material to learners, ina whole range of subjects. One of the biggest online providers is the British Open University, which offers more than 25 degrees, wholly online, to over 20,000 postgraduates worldwide. E-learning offers considerable advantages over primary and secon schools’ traditional class-oriented education. > Thanks to multimedia facilities, the display of online content is more interesting and motivating than printed textbooks. The dynamic and interactive environment enhances the learning process. > The Internet makes “drilling down” easy, for further detail and research. > Students can practise at their own pace and get instant feedback, which creates a relaxed atmosphere, sustains interest and helps retention. > Exeaming promotes digital literacy and develops key skills of independent study: the ability to extract, collect and analyse information. > Online facilities promote intercultural dialogue between learners and encourage co- ‘operation between educational institutions. Online learriing helps adults gain qualifications and earn advai legrees. > Exlearning widens access to college and university courses for those who find it difficult to study alongside others. Students can combine study with a full-time job, ithout taking a long career break. Online learning is a viable option for those ‘who are unable to attend traditional courses because of geographical remoteness, family circumstances or individual disability. > Exeaming is_flextlearning. Learners enjoy independence in managing and completing tasks and writing assignments. Progressing at their own pace, students are free to complete an online degree over a shorter or longer time span. > Students get feedback through a “marking and comment service”. E-mail, fax and telephone contact with instructors provides learners with tutorial or counselling support. > Online facilities are mutually beneficial to learners and institutions. Colleges and universities can extend their curricula without employing specialists in particular fields: through video conferencing students can be taught by leading experts at distant firms or universities. > Quality online course FS seek to overcome the one crucial limitation of e- learning: lack of face-to-face interaction with tutors and peers. E-learning is often combined with video conferencing, residential workshops, weekend conferences and summer schools. > E-leaming is cost effective. It reduces costs associated with travel, accommodation, books and other forms of learning material. 7 Exam-Fright Killer %* ICT facilitates teaching and eases the burden on busy teachers. ichers n large classes of individual attention, because the ‘material can be personalised and tailored to suit different learning needs. > Computer programmes greatly reduce administrative burdens such as registering attendance, creating timetables and student records, sending or receiving assignments, and maintaining contact with parents. > Computer Aided Assessment makes marking (grading) fast and easy. > Course material can be updated easily. - > The internet helps teachers keep up with the latest developments in their fields. +* Exlearning’s benefits far outweigh its negative attributes. The present limitations of online education can be overcome through technological improvements and adequate financing. > Individuals and institutions can only reap the benefits of e-learning if they invest in the necessary technology. > Educators and students must acquire adequate computer skills. > Computers are no substitute for the personal inspiration students qet from a real teacher. Machines cannot imitate human interaction, facial expressions, gestures, postures and eye contact. > Immediate feedback is limited to simple answers and pre-programmed comments. feb connection is subject d ‘and gaps in service. > The ‘many an online course is bi tion. = = Se i The Importance of Education Western Objectives Education Education EDUCATION %* Reasons why governments throughout the world must make education a national riority: > The right to education is one of the basic human rights. > Economic growth and development are closely related to the quality of educa > Educational institutions exist to develop human potential and equip people with the Knowledge and skills they need to support themselves. > Besides providing an important venue for socialisation, schools are a fountainhead cof cultural norms and values. > About a sixth of the world’s population, mostly in developing countries, is still illiterate, > Functional_iliterac in i schooling, is a serious problem in developed countries. %* Inthe 21st century, education's principles and goals are intimately linked with the challenges of globalisation and the revolution in information technologies. Key elements of educational policies in industrial countries are: > ing educational systems > widening the range of learning opportunities for all sections of the public > improving job training and retraining facilities to enhance people’s competitiveness in the job market > teaching digital literacy as a basic skill, equal to reading and writing in importance. * Member countries of the European Union (EU) have independent educational policies, but are quided by common initiatives. > Decisions of the Lisbon European Council 2000 aim for sustainable growth and greater social and cultural cohesion. The Union's vision is to become the most competitive and dynamic knowledge-based economy in the world, The prerequisite to achieving this ambitious goal is a highly-skilled, well-educated workforce. > Decisions of the Barcelona European Couneil 2002 focus on improving the quality of education, emphasising that Europe’s education systems should become a “world quality reference” by 2010. > The dual objective envisioned by the two Councils is to be achieved by: = increasing the efficiency of educational and training systems shifting the focus of education towards scientific and technical fields = reducing the number of underachieving pupils and increasing the total number of graduates ‘= encouraging people to study two European Union languages 7 Exam-Fright Killer Ownership ‘Schools Pre-school Education 78 = improving the facilities of educational institutions, devoting spé access to Information and Communications Technologies (ICT) = facilitating the use of ICT in the framework of the eLearning Programme = furthering lifelong learning among the population of working age encouraging co-operation, partnership and exchange schemes between schools and universities = establishing a European education and training area, open to the wider world creating a wide range of opportunities to learn abroad = improving the quality of teacher training; funding innovative teaching and learning projects = facilitating mobility by establishing a European Credit Transfer System, which allows degrees, qualifications and skills to be easily recognised in every member country. attention to * State schools a > The state maintains _a network of schools at primary and secondary levels. guaranteeing a place for all children of compulsory school age. State-run schools must provide free education. The official school leaving date is typically one of the last days of the academic year in which a child will become 16. Children cannot officially leave school until that date; neither can they take full-time employment until after the official leaving date. > Primary schools (US grade schools or elementary schools, typically for grades 1 to 10) are usually co-educational day-schools for children who live within the “catchment area” of the institution. > Atthe secondary (US high schoo!) level, comprehensive schools accept pupils of all abilities, from all backgrounds. Most grammar schools are selective, admitting ‘only pupils of the highest academic ability Independent schools > Private schools are funded by fees paid by parents, or they are maintained by charitable trust funds. In the United Kingdom they are called “prep(aratory) schools” at primary, anid “public schools” at secondary level. Most churches also run their own schools, emphasising religion in the curriculum, > The independent sector includes a wide variety of day schools and boarding schools, co-educational and single-sex schools alike. They have their own admission policies, usually based on academic ability > Many private schools are known for their high academic standards and discipline. ‘Apart from a solid academic foundation, they also provide their pupils with the right social background for getting top jobs later in life. Early education, acquired in nurseries, playgroups and kindergartens, promotes children’s physical, emotional, social _and intellectual development. It also prepares children for primary school. The curriculum usually includes storytelling, nursery rhymes, lessons in reading and counting, creative activities using paint and crayon, and easy physical exercise. Children learn through structured play. Primary Education Secondary Education Further Education Higher Education. * * Education The goal of education is to reach minimum standards of literacy and numeracy, through developing the “three A's”: the core skills of reading, writing and simple arithmetic. Literature, maths, history, geography, science, technology, Physical education, music, art and a foreign language. are also included in the curriculum. Secondary education, the “next rung of the school-ladder’, continues beyond the legal school-leaving age. > education is designed to achieve two main goals. One of the aiths is to teach pupils the skills and knowledge necessary for getting a job if they choose to start work after leaving school. The other goal is to prepare those wanting to study at the next higher level, for entry into college and university. To accomplish these objectives, comprehensive schools provide both academic and vocational education, whereas grammar schools follow an academic programme of study. Further education means any study towards a professional qualification. In narrower sense, however, it refers to vocational training, which provides learners with the skills and knowledge needed in jobs such as construction, engineering, hairdressing and nursing. > Colleges of further education and technical colleges offer a wide choice of full-time ‘and part-time courses, covering both practical instruction and theory. ractical inst ‘and theory. = Link courses introduce students to a variety of college courses. = Bridging courses bring students up to academic levels needed for higher education. = Sandwich courses are for students who have a job, but can get a day release from work every week, to attend college. # Vocational training courses prepare students for a particular job and usually involve several months’ interim placements with companies. « There is a trend towards offering courses in service skills (tourism, customer care, business administration), and towards courses in information technology. > After completing two-year or three-year courses, students obtain qualifications in the form of diplomas or certificates, Higher education refers to_und and postgraduate degree courses at colleges and universities, which train students in an.academic discipline and prepare ‘them for the world of work in professions such as law, medicine, dentistry or architecture, The minimum requirements for being accepted as a student at an institute of higher leaming depend on the prestige of the university, the social status of the profession and the competition for admission, Aspiring students must pass the university's entrance exams in some countries; in others, universities choose based on final grades earned at secondary school. 79 f ji \ Exam-Fright Killer Lifelong Learning * Students take courses to accrue credits towards a degree. University courses are structured in modules, distributed across a number of semesters. For each completed semester of a course of study students earn a set number of points or credits, which accumulate towards a degree. Students can transfer credits from one institution to another. > Undergraduate students are awarded a bachelor's degree after two or three years of university studies: BA (Bachelor of Arts), BSc (Bachelor of Science), BM. (Bachelor of Music). > Postgraduate courses lead to a master’s degree after studying for a further one or two years: MA (Master of Arts), MSc (Master of Science), MM (Master of Music). > Still further studies (advanced original research, written and oral examinations) are required to obtain a doctorate in a particular field: PhD (Doctor of Philosophy) + Higher education is expensive, Students have to pay fees and cover their living costs. Financial support and aid packages, including grants, scholarships and loans, are available to them. They have to repay loans out of future earnings. Students are often sponsored by companies on condition that once they complete their degree, they will take a job with the company for a specified period. Many students take part-time jobs during the term and work full time during holidays. 4 As secondary education is becoming the standard in developed countries, there is a growing demand for the expansion of higher education. > Stretching the time spent in school is a Band-Aid solution to economic recession. A longer phase of education slows down the growth of youth unemployment; higher ‘qualifications increase young people’s chances of finding a job. Rising demands for skilled labour in the labour market also serve as a call to arms for bringing higher education to the masses. Going to college is becoming the norm. > Experts, however, war that the expansion of higher education is not without its own booby-traps. Colleges and universities, obsessed with budget concerns, do not respond effectively to the needs of the job market. They accept too many students — a practice which may lower the standards of education, resulting in the proliferation of “diploma factories”. At the same time, the number of qualified unemployed job seekers will escalate. > Of course, such trends are unlikely to affect the high academic quality and reputation of eminently prestigious universities such as the Ivy League Universities in the US (Harvard, Yale, Columbia, Princeton, Brown, Comell, Dartmouth, and the University of Pennsylvania), or Oxbridge (Oxford and Cambridge) in the UK. A degree awarded here will always be a passport to a successful career. % As we begin the 21st century, “lifelong learning” is a buzzword in policy making circles of education. Global markets, technological and industrial changes have made ‘adaptability a survival skill. Polishing existing knowledge and learning new skills are essential to the mobility and competitiveness of individuals in the job market. A well- educated workforce is vital to the success and prosperity of the economy. Increasing ‘one’s general knowledge and developing expertise in new areas contribute to personal development. Lifelong learning strengthens social: cohesion and promotes active citizenship, aiding the democratic development of communities. So, the proverbial “old dog” must make an effort to learn “new tricks”, Education Making lif ming a reality for e is ‘of the public and private sectors alike. People of all ages must be allowed open access to flexible forms of Zearning. Such access entails a sizeable investment in modernising education, Giving equal opportunities to disabled people, minorities, immigrants and the rural community demands special attention. %* Lifelong learning or continuing education is applicable to alll types and levels of adult education, ranging from correspondence courses and evening classes to (elevised study programmes and e-learning. For a great number of adults, learning ‘means acquiring literacy. Others undertake vocational training for jobs, or academic study for a degree. Many more people attend courses in their leisure time, for the sake of it: for the satisfaction that one derives from gaining new knowledge or mastering a new skill. National = What to teach is stone of education. Curriculum > The c of education is constantly changing in parallel with changes in knowledge, accumulated in different societies over time. ‘The selection of Knowledge to be acquired also mirrors economic demand and prevalent social norms and values. = In prehistoric times, the young of our ancestors had to learn how to hunt, fish, make fire and protect themselves. = Until the 19th century, the basis of western education was Plato's Seven Liberal Arts, including the ¢rivium of grammar, rhetoric and dialectic, and the quadrivium of arithmetic, astronomy, geometry and music. = In the 19th century, primary education concentrated on the three R’s, religion, and history, while secondary schooling focussed on classical Greek and Latin languages, literature and mathematics. = In the 20th century, study programmes became more practical, incorporating modern languages and technical-vocational subjects. = In the 2st century, even the scope of basic skills is changing: besides reading, writing and arithmetic, digital literacy is indispensable for hunting down a halfway decent job. % The standards and content of education are set in curricula: systematically organised official programmes of study. > Regions and in_many countries have their own curricula with broad recommendations to schools, which enjoy considerable autonomy. Other counties have a National Curriculum, which is mandatory in state-funded schools educating pupils of compulsory school age. > The National Curriculum outlines the kt e and skills pupils should acquire articular age, corresponding to their level of maturity. It prescribes subjects for each grade of education, defining their attainment targets and content, regulating even the number of weekly hours spent on teaching them. The list of subjects encompasses compulsory core and foundation knowledge, and selectives (ic. optional courses of study). Assessment of pupils’ achievement and performance is also standardised through various nationwide test formats. 81 Exam-Fright Killer Questions About Educational Assessment + Anneed for a National Curriculum > Proponents argue that a common curriculum is required to equip children with the ‘core knowledge and skills essential for an adult citizen. Without a national curriculum, a country's educational standards are too lax. Students graduating from poorly funded or improperly run schools are doomed to become part of disadvantaged underclass. Coherent standards facilitate a mobility of pupils within the school system. > Opponents are convinced that a national curriculum curtails the freedom of schools. Pupils of diverse personal aspirations, from a wide range of socio- cultural backgrounds can fulfil future career goals only through a wide choice of local curricula. * Hic sum > The hidden curriculum is the moral com it defin iscipline of a school, the behaviour of its teachers, the methods they employ, the careers towards which they steer pupils, all transmit values, norms and beliefs. The hidden curriculum is not mandated by the government and, for most students, it remains hidden until well after the entrance exams. Short of looking for another school, pupils have no recourse but to accept, or silently rebel against the prevailing moral code. + Educational assessment measures the progress of students and schools towards achieving the academic standards set forth by the curriculum. % Assessment is an invaluable feedback tool in all systems of education because, in the short term, itis the only means of measuring leamers’ achievement ard evaluating the outcomes of learning and teaching. +» Assessment takes several forms. > Teachers give oral and written tests and mark students’ progress, based on continuous assessment of their coursework. i > Selective schools have their own entrance exams for choosing pupils. > In countries where educational institutions work under a national curriculum, standard assessment tasks are conducted to check leamers’ performance at different ages. > Compulsory years of education are completed by standardised schooMleaving exams, which often function as entry to higher education. > Universities regularly test students, crowning the process with a series of exams, the finals. + A natural extension of the EU's educational initiatives is the globalisation of the ‘system of evaluation. The European Union has decided to introduce identifying benchmarks: concrete reference levels of average performance in education and training. Education The IMPORTANCE of National Tests DOUBTS about National Tests Measurable standards of attainment are Indispensable _for_evaluating academic standing objectively. Exam questions are set by experts who have specialist knowledge of the key requirements in each subject. Thanks to external ‘examinations (conducted outside of the auspices of the school), selection for entry into higher education is fairer and more effective. m= Standardised tests are imperfect, invalid and unreliable, They are usually nothing more than easy-to-correct, multiple- choice tests. These paper-and-pencil academic tests are ill-suited to ‘measuring intelligent understanding or competence, essential in higher education. Unified tests, such as GCSE (General Certificate of Secondary Education) or A Level (Advanced Level) in the UK; SAT (Scholastic Aptitude Test) in the US, encourage leaming and _motivate students. High-stake tests make pupils work hard so as to produce the best possible results. = Tests do not assist leaming, as they centre on recall of knowledge instead of identifying individual learning needs and problems, or measuring creativity and problem-solving skills. Tests whose outcome carries significant consequences for pupils cause stress and adversely impact mind and body. tional_testin wides_a_basis_for comparing the performance of schools. Good, average or bad results are an incentive for schools to further improve the quality of teaching. Public “league tables” enable “customers” - parents and children - to choose the right school. = Public “I les”_of _school performance negatively affect the schoo! system. “Teaching-to-the-test” replaces imparting academic knowledge and developing practical skills, seriously lowering the overall level of education. It is unfair to base comparisons on exam results exclusively. National tests only strengthen the state control of schools. They also widen the gap between schools, allowing the cream-of- the-crop institutions to entice cream-of- the-crop students. 83 Changing Methods in Education cam-Fright Killer + Changes in educational methods and techniques have not kept pace with rapid ‘changes in education's scientific foundations. The one exception may be the field of pedagogy: new insights into children’s psychology have been absorbed into pedagogy, giving birth to humanistic, learner-centred approaches. Modern methods are in sharp contrast with traditional authority-based learning, which governed education for centuries. TRADITIONAL Methods OPERATIVE Methods = The teacher, specimen of a superior ‘caste whose authority cannot be questioned, is the centre of education. Pupils are raw material to be shaped; knowledge is to be hammered into their heads. i child ‘centred: they draw on pupils” individual needs, interests and potential. The teacher plays the role of a mediator or facilitator, helping pupils find answers and make use of learnt information, = Encyclopaedism is the_ultimate_goal, Memorisation of facts and recalling them parrot fashion, without criticism, are the officially required intellectual achievements. Rote learning earns top marks, while the pupil’s opinion is irrelevant. Learning is incoherent and unpleasant, resulting in fragmented knowledge. New methods. focus _on_teaching connections, relationships, on developing creative solving. Pupils are encouraged to ask questions and form independent judgements. Active criticism replaces passive acceptance. Feelings are important. Learning is fun and is more effective because it is based on the pupil's interest, creativity and initiative. = The teacher addresses the whole class. The arrangement of furniture — long rows of desks facing the “master” — exemplifies the relationship and suggests to “sit and listen” to the teacher's lecture. Pupils _work_in_palrs_and_in_smaller groups. They are required to take an active part in solving tasks — lots of project work and cross-curricular activities. Variable layout of furniture ‘emphasises flexibility. Sharing ideas is easier when sitting around a table, facing ‘one another. = Conformity, knowing one’s _place_and deference _to authority are_rewarded: misconduct is severely punished. Before the abolishment of corporal punishment, teachers employed physical bullying as proper disciplinary measure: punching, knuckling, tweaking, _clouting, slapping, slippering, _ hair-pulling, twisting, rulering, smacking and caning were commonplace. Even today, unacceptable conduct is repaid by bad ‘marks or verbal abuse. Teachers can give pupils the “Lines” {write out the same sentence fifty times at least), or put them “on report” (they must give a card to the teacher at the end of every lesson). Life skills, such as independent thinking, ability to co-operate and_work_for_a common goal, responsi for tolerance towards others, are some of the traits that new systems instil and thrive on. Teachers try to solve conflicts by non-physical means; for instance, through discussion. In serious cases of disruptive behaviour the pupil can be excluded or suspended (not allowed to attend school for a certain period of time), or expelled (sent away from the school), in Education Women’s Education * Education Inequalities # Although the system of education should give everyone the same opportunity, for Inany students, equality will never become a reality. Reasons for inequalities . > Intelligence (often attributed to genetic factors) influences educational performance. > The economic status of the family determines the length and quality of children’s ‘education. Pupils who live in poverty have limited access to good schools. They get less parental support ~ either material or spiritual ~ towards education. > ‘Social class often foreshadows children’s future career and the educational path Jeading to it. College and university degrees are more likely to be attained by children of white-collar workers (intellectuals and people in professions that do not involve manual labour) than by children of people working in blue-collar jobs (factory workers), or pink-collar jobs (stereotypically female jobs). > Minorities are often underachievers because of language barriers, their different cultural background, and their refusal to integrate into the dominant culture. > Schools focus on academically successful pupils, paying less attention to the rest. > Teachers’ behaviour may discourage pupils from learning particular subjects, or from education as a whole. > Gender stereotypes and biases still shape the educational destiny of girls and boys. Education for women was limited in scope until the 20th century. > Women were seen as men’s economic dependants, best suited to making perfect wives and mothers. Girls were educated at home or in small private schools, with the aim of socialising them into the role of homemaker. > The skills women were required and allowed to lear were restricted to the “private ‘sphere”. Girls from lower classes of society learnt cooking, sewing and other skills necessary for running a household. Middle-class and upper-class girls learnt decorative art, music, neédlework, dancing and poetry in order to attract the Proper husband. Ladylike manners and behaviour were also essential parts of their curriculum, > Except for training women to be teachers, higher education was not available to Women for a long time. Educational opportunities for women in western societies greatly improved in the 20th century, as a result of democratisation and women’s fight for equality. ‘Nowadays, women have access to all levels of education, but traditional views of women’s inferiority, prevailing for centuries, still affect their educational choices and chances of advancement. > Girls are underrepresented in_science_and technology, traditionally seen as masculine subjects. Female students are clustered in the arts and humanities, which are thought to be more compatible with the female mind, soul and personality. Exam-Fright Killer ‘Teachers a5 86 > As many women leave school without marketable qualifications, they have to resign themselves to poorly paid, labour-intensive jobs, > Doing the lion’s share of childcare and housework, women have fewer opportuni to learn new skills or brush up on existing ones. > According to UNICEF (United Nations International Children’s Fund), girls and ‘women comprise two thirds of the world's illiterate population. Compared to education (which is_as old as Methuselah), “teaching _as_a profession” is a toddler. In the ancient societies of India, China and Egypt, priests or prophets instructed people. The word “pedagogue” means “slave” in Greek, indicating ‘that feacher-slaves educated children in ancient Greece and the Roman Empire. In the Middle Ages, teaching was the privilege of the Churck. Formal training of teachers began quite late, in the 17th century. The success of education, to a great extent, rests on teachers’ erudition and Tabour. In the educational triangle of parent/pupil/teacher, they are in close daily contact with pupils and in frequent communication with parents. Little wonder that they are held responsible, arc often even made scapegoats for any mishap or serious problem that arises during the process of teaching and learning. One could equally ‘blame the child or the parent, in most cases. Teachers realise that having to bear the brunt of responsibility is a professional hazard that simply comes with the territory. Obstacles to high-quality teaching > Student populations are increasingly diverse: class, gender, ethnicity and socio- cultural background all influence the effectiveness of education. > lity teaching time is. de maintaining order: classrooms are overcrowded; pupils today are less disciplined. > Violence, bullying, drug and alcohol abuse spread among pupils, much to the detriment of efficient teaching environments. > Poor school finances and lack of necessary technological background binder progress. > Teachers are overburdened with bureaucracy and red tape. > Teacher training is not always of the highest quality. > Teaching is one of the lowest-paid professions, offering disproportionately small rewards for performance, Teachers with the highest qualifications can find more lucrative jobs in the world of business. Introduction Recent ‘Trends inthe Labour Market Employment EMPLOYMENT %* Working people are employed in one of the four main sectors of the economy. > People employed in the primary sector extract raw materials and produce food, Industries of the primary sector comprise mining for oil, coal, iron and gold, quarrying, agriculture and fisheries, hunting and forestry. > Workers in the secondary sector refine, process and manufacture raw materials. The secondary sector includes industries such as cotton, steel and paper mills, house building, road construction, food processing, manufacturing clothes, furniture, machinery and electrical products, ship building, car assembly, and utilities which provide gas, water and electricity. > The tertiary sector is engaged in distributing and selling manufactured roviding services to people. It covers a broad range of economic activities: retailing clothes, food, newspapers and equipment, catering, the hotel business and tourism, sport and leisure services, financial services and insurance, transporting goods and people, medicine, law, teaching, cleaning, media production and the civil service. > Quaternary industries,.such as biotechnology or quantum mechanics, deal with esearch and development. The distinction between types of employment rests on the nature of the work, on terms of the contract of employment, and on corporate hierarchy, > Interms of hours spent, em: work full-time or part-time. In terms of the len ‘of employment, workers have permanent positions, temporary jobs or seasonal work, One can also choose to be self-employed: entrepreneurs run their own business; ‘Freelancers usually work for many different companies. Employees work either ‘Slexitime, or have a nine-to-five job with fixed working hours. > Blue-collar workers perform skilled, semi-skilled or unskilled manual work. White- workers hold jobs in offices, accounting and banks. Pink-collar workers arc usually women holding poorly paid clerical jobs. Professionals work in ‘occupations which require the highest levels of education and specialisation > People whose ambition is to work their way up the corporate ladder have to climb several rungs, from junior positions, through supervisory and middle posts, up to higher managerial, administrative or professional levels. The structure of employment in advanced economies has considerably changed during the past decades. > Employment in the primary and secondary sectors has declined. Traditional ‘manufacturing industries have lost their importance in the wake of the expansion of 87 Exam-Fright Killer high-technology industries. Old industries have been replaced by “sunrise industries”, which produce electronic equipment. > Higher i hand demand imulated the growth of tertia industries, which account for about two thirds of the total economy in developed countries. > In general, full-time employment in heavy industries has declined, whereas a lot of t-time jobs har created for’ ‘the servi or. The pattern of employment is changing. > The number of freelance workers, telecommuters, part-time workers and temporarily ‘employed people is on the rise. This trend is encouraged by businesses themselves, which are eager to reduce the costs of employment through contracting out jobs formerly done by full-time employees. »balisation of national ies me rbilit access to a wider range of jobs for the workforce. “Footloose factories”, located in business parks or industrial estates, create new employment opportunities. At the same time, the internationalisation of economic activities sparks off fierce competition for work, and the spread of multinational businesses causes considerable job Losses, as well. New technologies have radically transformed the nature of jobs. > ti ymunications Technology (ICT) has affected the overwhelmin majority of jobs: check-out personnel working at tills no longer punch Keys, but just scan the barcode; designers use computer programmes rather than draw by hand; lecturers create PowerPoint presentations instead of writing in chalk on a blackboard. > ICT has created new industries. Electronics, robotics and telecommunications offer new employment prospects such as jobs for systems analysts, robot maintenance, computer design, programming, data entry, web design, database management and cellular telecommunications. > ICT, however, has also contributed to job cuts: car assembly lines are fully automated; the office needs fewer workers; typesetting in the newspaper industry is replaced by Desktop Publishing Changes in the labour market have accelerated, resulting in an increased sense ‘of insecurity: the traditional idea of a “job for life” is being replaced by the modern notion of a “Job for a while”. Workers seeking employment must become highly adaptable. Flexibility, retraining and lifelong learning are prerequisites of continuous employment. Phases of the business cycle also have significant impact on employment. > Daring periods of prosperity, there is a rise in employment and wages, thanks to investment, growing production and strong purchasing power. Tele- commuting * Employment > The phase of liquidation is characterised by production. cutbacks, a drop in consumption and an increase in unemployment. > When depression hits the economy, production, sales and investment are at their lowest levels. A sharp fall in demand leads to large-scale unemployment. > During a recovery phase, the economy starts growing again, providing more favourable conditions for businesses and consumers alike. Different techniques are employed to smooth out the fluctuations in economy. > Monetary policies try to counteract inflation by controlling the money supply and the interest rates. > Through fiscal policy, taxation is regulated. > Income policy serves to hold wages and prices commensurate with growth of productivity. > Job-creating investments are encouraged by government subsidies. > The hardest-hit sections of society are assisted by means of social security, unemployment and pension schemes. Workit home ~ using ICT to contact the central office of the business - is a fapidly developing form of employment. it is common among freelancers’ such as authors, journalists, accountants and computer programmers. Besides being suitable for disabled people, telecommuting offers advantages to anyone who needs to work Alexitime, to be able to fulfil other duties such as childcare or nursing elderly relatives. Teleworking brings several benefits to employees and employers alike. > Workers can save time and travel expenses, as they do not need to commute. Flexible working hours allow them to schedule and do their tasks at the most appropriate time. > Businesses can cut their overhead costs, because they do not have to pay for heating, lighting or cleaning. Neither do they have to maintain office facilities such as canteens or toilets. The drawbacks to telecommuting, however, should not be underestimated. > If the equipment is not provided by the business, it is expensive to set up a home office and make the necessary health and safety arrangements. > Due to lack of social interaction, teleworkers often feel isolated, demotivated and alienated from the company. > Teamwork suffers. Both job-related and equipment-related technical problems are difficult to solve. It is also hard to train and supervise employees.

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