Академический Документы
Профессиональный Документы
Культура Документы
............................................................................................................3
1
.........................................................................4
1.1 ........4
1.2 ...............8
1.3
...............................................................................................12
2 -
..............................15
2.1 .................15
2.2
...........................................................................................18
3 -
23
.1. ............23
3.2 ......25
3.3 .................................................27
3.4 .29
4 .............................................35
4.1
......................................................................................................................35
4.2
........................................................................................................39
5
..............................43
5.1 ............43
5.2 ...........45
5.3 ...................................................................49
5.4 ..........................................53
6 -
................................56
6.1 - ........................56
6.2 - ........61
7
.......................................................................66
7.1 .........66
7.2 ..........................................68
8 -
.....76
8.1
........................................................76
8.2
.................................................................................80
8.3 -
....................................................84
9
, , .....................................87
9.1 ......................................................87
9.2 ....................................................93
9.3 ................................................96
10
....................................102
10.1 ....................................102
10.2 ...................................104
10.3 ................................108
11
.....................................................................111
11.1 ........................................111
11.2
.....................................................................................................113
11.3 .........................................................................115
12
.....................................................................119
12.1 ....119
12.2
..............................................................................................121
12.3
...............................................................................125
13
.....................................................................132
13.1 .......132
13.2
..............................................................137
13.3
..............................................................142
14
........145
14.1 .....................145
14.2 : .......................148
14.3
...................................................................................................154
14.4 ...............................158
Chapter 14 INTERNATIONAL ENTREPRENEURSHIP IN THE
CONDITIONS OF TRADE LIBERALIZATION AND INTEGRATION...163
14.1 Russian trade specialization on the global market.............................163
14.2 WTO and Russia: the basic access questions.....................................165
14.3 Russian accession into WTO and development of the Russian
agriculture...................................................................................................170
...................................................................................................178
................................................................................................179
.........................................................................184
............................................................................................186
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86
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89
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. 435443
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(firm offer)
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90
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(free offer) .
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.
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91
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92
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93
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, . : GAFTA 80
.
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94
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( ,
inspected approved)
, , ;
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, . . ,
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, , , ,
,
100 %
);
, 95
.
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:
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96
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97
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98
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99
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(letter of credit)
-
.
:
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;
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;
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I
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, .
- (collection of payment).
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;
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;
, .
100
, ,
2 : (, , ) (, ,
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.
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. ^^^^^^^^^^^^^
(open account)
,
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.
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.
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(check)
.
. .
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.
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;
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1
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(penalty)
.
(liquidated damages),
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| .
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.
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102
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5.4
:
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103
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104
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105
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.
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106
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.
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107
6 -
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.
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108
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109
1
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.
, , ,
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50 % .
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-.
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.
(merchant) , ; Handler ;
handled .
-
(stockholders). (operator),
(dealer),
(principal);
,
.
,
.
-,
, , ,
, ,
, .
-
111
. . ,
(distributor), (Vertragshandler),
(Eigenhandler),
(concessinaire),
(concession commerciale) (concession de vente).
, ,
(grantee). -,
, (grantor),
(manufacturer),
(supplier), (exporter).
-.
,
,
.
. ,
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).
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.
. 112
, ,
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;
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,
, 113
.
1
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114
,
. ,
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, ,
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.
,
.
,
. ,
(agent, principal);
( ) (Vertreter,
Handelsvertreter, Unternemer);
() (representant, commentant en mandat).
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, , ,
.
.
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.
,
115
, . - 1
, (,
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.
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.
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, .
,
.
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( 10 %)
,
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.
.
, .
, ( ),
116
. ,
. , .
(indent). .
.
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.
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.
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117
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.
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.
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.
.
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.
118
.
,
.
(. (brokerage), .
(courtage), . (Provision)),
0,25 % 3 %.
, ,
.
: ,
.
-
- . ,
.
6.2
- ,
(,
). -
,
, , ,
.
,
(
),
, , . - , , 119
- , ,
.
,
.
- :
;
;
;
;
.
.
:
1. (merchant houses, merchants, trading
merchants)
,
,
,
.
- .
,
. 2. (export merchants, export firms)
, ,
.
,
,
.
:
- ,
120
(
, -
50 % ).
,
.
(, , , . .).
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,
.
.
,
.
(quay exporter);
.
,
,
.
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.
, ;
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-, :
121
, . - : ,
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-,
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,
.
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, .
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.
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.
. ,
.
,
,
.
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. 122
, ,
.
.
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.
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.
.
1. (export commission
houses) :
-
.
, , ,
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;
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.
.
,
.
, ,
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.
;
124
,
,
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. 2.
(import commission houses)
.
. ,
,
,
.
,
.
. .
.
,
.
.
:
1. - (resident agent) ,
. 125
,
.
2. (export agent, manufacturers export agent)
,
.
,
, ,
.
.
, ,
.
3. (sales agent) , .
.
, ,
.
,
.
-
,
.
4. (buying agent)
, . , .
5. (firms representative) ,
126
,
.
.
, (
).
.
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.
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.
,
.
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.
.
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), 127
. . ,
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.
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.
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.
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?
128
7
7.1
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.
.
,
,
,
.
,
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,
.
, ,
,
, . .
.
,
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.
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,
129
, ,
() -
(, - .).
,
,
. , ,
. 1970-
, , \
, , .
.
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,
,
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,
,
. - \
,
, --
.
:
, .
,
, ,
130
, ;
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.
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;
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;
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131
.
, . ,
,
. ,
.
,
,
.
.
,
.
, , . ,
.
7.2
: 1.
.
,
.
.
,
.
( -),
,
,
.
132
2. . ,
.
,
.
, , ,
,
.
,
.
, .
3. , . ,
, , ,
. .
() , ,
( )
, . 70 %
.
IBM
, 35 .
(, , - ) 1950- .
,
, , .
. .
-
.
4. . ,
, , ,
.
, ,
133
, , , . , .
- .
.
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,
,
.
5.
9 %.
,
.
/ --
, ,
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-,
.
, .
:
;
;
;
: ;
.
134
(
) .
, , .
:
, ;
;
,
;
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,
, .
:
;
;
;
.
,
,
(
).
6. .
, ,
, ()
. 8 %
135
. XVIII .
-
. :
, ;
;
, ;
;
.
7. ()
, ()
, . ,
, () .
,
,
.
-
, .
.
-
:
(product exchange agreements)
,
,
:
:
(barter transactions)
.
136
, ,
.
-
.
,
-
.
. .
1970- .
, ,
;
(direct compensation transactions) ,
,
,
.
,
.
:
, ,
,
.
.
, 137
.
.
, - ,
,
;
( global agreements,
global countertrade agreements).
,
,
,
.
,
, , .
.
,
.
, ,
, ,
, ,
.
:
;
,
;
(framework agreements) , , 138
.
,
,
- ,
.
( )
,
.
.
- (product exchange agreements
based on letter of intent)
,
(3 5 )
.
-, , ,
. -
-
.
,
,
.
, , . ,
. - 139
.
,
,
.
,
. , ,
;
(commercial
compensation, compensation transaction) ,
(delivery)
(counter delivery)
, -
.
,
.
,
(clearing claims).
.
, -
,
.
-,
,
,
, -
.
140
-;
(short-term
commercial compensation transactions):
(partial compensation)
,
;
(full compensation)
,
;
(triangular
compensation)
.
,
, ,
, .
,
.
,
.
,
,
.
,
,
,
(disagio).
;
141
(counter-purchase contracts, transactions based on
counterpurchase
agreements).
(counterpurchase) ,
.
,
, ,
, . , : , ,
,
; ,
,
(
) ,
;
,
, ;
(parallel deal)
:
, .
,
( )
, ,
;
(gentlemen agreement,
offset) 142
, ,
.
.
,
;
(switch transactions)
,
. ,
.
,
;
(advance purchase),
(-compensation),
(linked anticipatory
purchase) ,
.
.
1980- .
, ,
,
, ,
, ,
(compensation credit) .
-,
,
.
,
,
143
.
,
. , ,
,
, .
,
.
. ,
,
,
.
,
.
;
(compensation agreements of the buy-back
type, industrial compensation)
,
:
(large-scale &
long-term compensation agreements of the product buy-back
type) ,
,
, , , 144
,
. ,
,
(
),
,
.
:
,
;
,
.
,
-
,
; (production
sharing)
.
. 20 % 40 %.
, ,
.
.
,
- , 145
.
.
,
,
.
,
, ,
,
.
,
, ,
, :
.
.
,
,
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. ,
,
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,
;
.
,
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,
. ,
,
. .
.
1.
?
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?
146
147
8.1
- . , , - , . , -
, .
, ,
.
- - , - I
- (),
( )
, -,
.
- ,
.
. , , 148
, ( ).
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.
, -
.
:
, , , , . ,
. . , ,
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, -
. -.
- , , , , , . - :
- ;
;
149
- \
;
.
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). - !
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. , j
,
.
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( ) -1
.
:
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;
;
;
;
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;
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;
.
:
1.
- . 150
- ,
. , ,
.
- ,
.
-
. - , ,
. - ,
- .
- ,
.
2. .
.
.
,
, .
35 %. 1980- .
,
- ,
151
,
. ,
, , , , . ,
-
,
. ,
, .
- . ,
.
- .
3. . , , : -
, ,
, .
-
,
.
,
,
.
, , 152
.
, , , .
. ,
,
.
, , .
, .
,
.
.
4.
.
,
.
,
.
,
, .
,
.
20 % . 60 %
.
80 %, 50 %.
153
,
- .
5.
. (-1
. ), ,
- ,
.
-
. - .
. , .
,
- .
.
. ,
,
,
,
.
.
,
,
, , 154
.
6. .
,
.
,
- ,
- .
,
,
- .
,
- .
,
, -
,
.
, . -
, .
. .
, .
7. . , ,
.
,
. , 155
,
.
,
, .
,
.
,
.
,
.
.
10 %
,
,
.
.
,
,
.
8.2
, ,
,
(. .
,
, ,
156
).
,
.
,
.
, . .
, ,
.
.
,
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,
.
, () () , ,
.
, . , ,
.
:
.
;
,
157
;
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,
, ;
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.
,
,
.
, .
:
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2)
,
, ;
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:
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3) ;
4) ,
.
158
:
.
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;
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;
;
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.
:
. ,
.
. ,
.
( , , , ).
. :
() ,
,
;
,
.
.
159
;
.
, .
,
.
. :
,
:
()
. , , , . 210% ( 3
5%);
,
( 20 % 30 %
; 10 %
). ;
,
,
:
- ]
;
160
.
,
;
;
.
;
15 % . 5 % 20 %
;
,
.
.
, . :
,
,
,
.
.
. :
;
; , ,
,
, ,
; , , .
161
- . . , .
, , .
510 .
:
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;
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;
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,
,
,
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. , .
.
-,
. , , ,
.
,
-.
162
- .
- :
1) ,
, , ;
2) ;
3) ;
4) , ;
5) ,
, ;
6) .
- :
1) ;
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3) ;
4) ,
;
5) ;
6) ;
7) .
- ,
, . .
, ,
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,
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.
;
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.
( ) ,
163
, ,
. .
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.
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.
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,
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,
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.
, .
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.
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. .
,
,
, .
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(
),
, .
-,
,
164
-. -
, ,
, -,
. ,
-
: - -.
- 5 %
, , - 20 %.
, -,
, .
8.3 -
- ,
.
, , ,
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321
C h a p t e r 14 INTERNATIONAL
ENTREPRENEURSHIP IN THE CONDITIONS OF
TRADE LIBERALIZATION AND INTEGRATION
14.1 Russian trade specialization on the global market
For the definition of the modern place of Russia on the global
market and historical features of its trade specialization it is necessary
to consider:
the potential opportunities;
their real use.
Russia has the significant advantages in comparison with the majority
of other countries, traditionally considered as high developed. The
significant size of the territory, the number of historical and national
features have predetermined the character of its foreign economic
relations. These relations were developed under the greater influence of
the internal, than external factors. These circumstances are necessary for
the estimation of the foreign trade relations of the country on the basis
of the preliminary analysis of these factors, and actual level of Russian
economic development.
Russia occupies the first place in the world on the coal reserves and
iron ore and the second place on the oil reserves, precious metals
and diamonds. Russia has the significant area of woods (22 % of the
global forests) and agricultural land. There are the world largest
reserves of natural gas.
The Russian prosperity with natural resources has predetermined the
raw structure of its export not only in the Soviet period, but also much
earlier, in the period of the development of capitalism in Russia.
Nowadays, despite of the general tendencies of growth of trade by the
processed goods, various services, scientific and high-technology
goods, Russia keeps this feature of the export specialization.
The emphasis on the creation of the open economy in the
combination with the system of macroeconomic regulation has caused
the long and hard character of the crisis stage in 1990s and creation the
conditions for stabilization. The foreign trade
322
The situation on the international markets was still favorable for the
Russian exporters. The export volume increasing has resulted in
strengthening of the national currency and growth of the internal
demand, that has caused the appropriate growth of the import volumes.
Russian export during 1998 2002 developed under the primary
orientation on the development of the foreign trade relations with the
EU countries and USA.
The growth of export volumes to the Western Countries was caused
by a number of reasons:
1) the consequences of the financial crisis of 1998. This crisis has
caused the devaluation of the national currency and the relative
increase of competitiveness of the external markets in comparison
with internal market;
2) the decrease of production costs that increased the competitiveness
of the Russian products on the global market. But in 2000-2002
the devaluation effect was exhausted;
3) oil prices growth.
Russia doesn't use the great potential of the trade relations with CIS
countries. It was the region of the traditional political and economic
influence of the USSR, but today we can see that Russia is loosing its
traditional power in this region.
In structure of Russian import during 1998-2002 we can also see the
tendency of prevalence of the Western Countries in comparison with
the CIS countries.
The devaluation effect after financial crisis in 1998 had the return
influence on the character of Russian import in comparison with export:
1) significant reduction of import volumes has created the favourable
conditions for the development of national manufacture to
substitute the lack of the expensive foreign products on the domestic
market;
2) the crisis has also caused the reorientation of import on cheaper
goods from the CIS countries;
3) The overcoming of the negative consequences for the importers
in the next years has caused the significant growth of import
volumes, basically because of the hi-tech products and new
advanced equipment;
4) import from the CIS countries decreased up to the level of 1998;
326
the rates of the industry development, will be the factors that are not
connected directly to the probable WTO obligations first of all, the
internal economic factors. It is possible to assume, that the probable
changes in the conditions of the market access for the foreign goods
will not significantly effect on the conditions of competition of the
domestic and foreign goods on the Russian market and will not result
in the essential negative consequences for the Russian economy.
The given conclusions are fair for all considered basic scripts of the
individual obligations acceptance: the establishment of the import tariffs
at the binding level according to the tariff offers during the transitive
period, freezing of the tariffs at the current level with the subsequent
reduction according to the tariff offers during the transitive period, the
variant with the probable changes of practice of VAT and customs taxes
collection.
All these scripts were compared to the base variant, which provides
the preservation of the current rates of the customs tariffs:
1) the first script initial. The economic development is carried
out proceeding from the current tariff, budget and tax policy. The
script corresponds to the preservation of the existing situation in
case of non-accession or accession at the preservation of the
current rates of the import customs tariffs;
2) the second script. The economic development was predicted in
view of the Russian offers on binding of the customs tariff rates.
It was assumed that in all cases the opportunities of the tariff
increase will be completely used within the framework of the
binded levels. Also it was assumed the gradual reduction of the
tariff rates during the transitive periods on the appropriate positions
of the customs tariff;
3) the third script similar to the second, but without the
assumption of the probable increase of the tariffs up to the
binded levels, i.e. the change of the tariffs was assumed only
in the way of downturn.
As a whole the forecasted changes of the trade regime will not cause
the more essential changes of the tariff system, than were observed in
last 67 years. It is obvious, that under the condition of the
preservation in the Russian economy the tendency to the economic
stabilization and further adaptation of the enterprises to the conditions
of the open market economy, the consequences of such changes of
tariff system will not be sensitive for the Russian economy.
335
The place and role of any country in global market depend on many
factors. Basic of them are:
1) level and dynamics of national economic development;
2) openness degree of the national economy;
1) character of its participation in the international economic
relations;
2) progressiveness and development of foreign economic relations;
3) flexibility of the national economy (its possibility to adapt to
the conditions of the international market and simultaneously to
influence on these conditions in the desirable way);
4) presence of the necessary legislative conditions for the foreign
investments;
3) presence of the international (transnational) corporations.
The basis of the integration process develops at a micro-level as
mutually advantageous cooperation of the concrete companies, banks,
financial and industrial groups, their joint investment projects, creation
of the transnational enterprises.
The historical and economic analysis shows, that Russia (USSR)
went through five stages in its interaction with global economy. These
stages have the following economic features:
Stage 1. 1917-1945. Political and economic isolation. The economic
and political situation in Europe at that time was characterized by the
several tendencies:
1. The activization of the national movements in the Slavic
countries started after the First World War.
2. USA, Great Britain and France had strengthened their positions,
they have accepted the basic rules of the Agreement on
Collective Safety.
3. Revolution in Russia (1917), Civil War (1917-1920), creation of
the Soviet Union (1921). The Russian contacts with other foreign
countries are minimal. Russia is in isolation.
4. The economic cooperation and development of the foreign trade
relations in not the priority for the Soviet government.
5. The power of Soviets is absolute. The Soviets try to create the
country of a new type. The country is closed, the
collectivization and industrialization plus the military and
345
with the open economy. But the Russian export consists of energy
resources and raw material. Due to the orientation on the external
market these branches (oil, gas and metals) remained competitive,
while other branches, especially machinery production, decreased in 2
3 times.
The status of the high-developed country in the modern integrated
world is impossible without the structural changes in the Russian business.
The national economy should be based on the powerful integrated
corporate structures, first of all financial and industrial structures, capable
to compete on internal and global markets with the leading transnational
corporations.
Within the framework of the complex integrate strategy of TNC the
capital flows (direct investments) and trade come together. There are
diverse connections in production sphere: between the headquarter
company and its foreign branches, between different branches of the
corporation, between various TNCs and their branches or any other
companies. The international trade becomes the reflection, the
consequence and the stimulus of these connections.
Such new scheme has a number of differences from the former
scheme of international trade. According the former scheme, the
production was focused within the national economy, and then the '
products went abroad to the external markets, where they competed with
the products from other countries.
Nowadays this situation changed, there is the competition of the j
TNCs on the global market.
Europe was always one of the major priorities for Russian
integration. It is caused by a great number of reasons: historical,
political, economic. Europe was always the main source of the foreign
investments to Russia, Russia always used the newest science and
engineering achievements from Europe. For this reason in the Russia
external policy in 1990s the role of European direction has essentially
increased.
European Union today is one of the three main industrial, financial
and trade centers of the world. It is especially important for the
European part of Russia, where basic part of the population and
manufacture are concentrated.
EU is the basic trade partner of Russia. Its share in Russian trade
turnover is 35 %. Up to 60 % of all foreign investments come to Russia
from the EU. Though the share of Russia in the EU foreign
348
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