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ISSUED - 1989 REVISED - 1995 REVISED - 1999 REVISED 2001 REVISED 2006 2006 TAPPI The information and data contained in this document were prepared by a technical committee of the Association. The committee and the Association assume no liability or responsibility in connection with the use of such information or data, including but not limited to any liability under patent, copyright, or trade secret laws. The user is responsible for determining that this document is the most recent edition published.

Guidelines for inspection and nondestructive examination of paper machine dryers

Scope and outline This Technical Information Paper (TIP) provides guidelines for inspecting cylindrical pressure vessels used as rotating, steam-heated dryers in paper machines. Unheated cylinders of similar construction like vacuum dryers may also be covered by these guidelines. However, large diameter Yankee dryers used on tissue machines, are not covered. The guidelines are limited to inspection of the dryers themselves: they do not pertain to over-pressure protection devices, external steam and condensate piping systems, bearings and drive components, or doctoring devices associated with the dryers. Nevertheless, inspectors should not ignore evidence or conditions with these components that could pose a safety threat or compromise the runnability and reliability of the dryers and dryer sections. Safety precautions Personnel safety and industrial hygiene should be ensured by complying with mill procedures for entering confined spaces and with all applicable mill safety and lockout procedures. Ventilation, scaffolding, heat protection practices and use of personal protection equipment should comply with jurisdictional requirements for worker safety. Content The document describes inspections to be performed while a dryer is in any of the following operational modes: 1. Running (i.e. in normal operation) 2. Idle and hot, (i.e. temporarily stationary), and 3. Out-of-operation (i.e. shut down and available for detailed internal and external inspection. These guidelines discuss the following issues: Inspection planning. Inspection frequencies. What inspections should be done in each operational mode? Qualifications for inspection personnel and NDT technicians. Documentation of findings. These guidelines are not intended to

This TIP does not discuss the interpretation of inspection data. supersede local jurisdictional and regulatory requirements.

TIP Category: Automatically Periodically Reviewed (Five-year review) TAPPI

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Important background information A dryer pressure vessel is made up of three components: two heads each with a journal and a shell or cylinder (see Figure 1). The heads consist of three different elements: the journal, the cover or dished head, and the flange where the dished head is bolted to the shell. These three elements of the head typically are made in one piece. However, some designs have the journals bolted into the head. The heads on the drive and tending sides always differ. The cylindrical shell is a simple structure with a reversed flange at each end to which the head is bolted.

Fig. 1: Dryer Cross Section

The most common material of construction for the shell and heads is gray cast iron. (Bolted-in journals may be carbon steel.) Gray cast iron is an inherently brittle material. Paradoxically, its metallurgical structure makes it less sensitive to stress riser like cracks and linear flaws than other brittle materials. Like other brittle materials, gray iron can fail without deformation or warning of overstress. This makes the presence of cracks and other linear flaws a significant cause for concern. The inspection practices and recommendations in these guidelines also apply to dryers made of materials other than gray cast iron, such as ductile iron and carbon steel. Failures continue to occur globally, and in North America at least eight-dryers have failed catastrophically since 1989 (see Appendix A). Most failures over the decades have resulted from: Internal shell thinning, mostly due to wear by loose hardware tumbling in the dryer, Fatigue cracking in or around the journal, Fatigue cracking elsewhere in the heads.

Failures may also result from thermal shock, over-pressurization and over-speed. Washing a hot dryer or heating the dryer unevenly during warm-up (e.g. if the dryers are not rotated when the steam is first supplied), increases the probability of damage or failure from thermal shock. This TIP describes inspection methods that, when used consistently and proficiently, will find and identify conditions that might compromise a dryers integrity. The most important of these conditions are: 1. 2. 3. Thinning of the shell due to localized internal wear. Cracking of the head, either in the area around the journal, around access openings or around the head flange. Cracking or failure of the bolts holding the heads on the shell.

Internal wear occurs when loose internal components tumble for a while in the dryer and a circumferential groove is milled in the shell. Internal grooving can be surprisingly rapid making it very important to prevent it and also to ensure it does not escape detection. Wear-related internal thinning can also occur in a more localized manner, e.g. around siphons, balance weights and loose condensate bars.

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External wear typically involves relatively minor grooving, scoring, and wear-related thinning, and is most likely to occur on doctored dryers. Cracks in dryer heads usually are fatigue cracks, although this cracking mechanism is not easy to confirm by fractography because the fracture surfaces in gray cast iron are notoriously difficult to read. Fatigue cracks most likely form where stress concentrating flaws, geometries, or features coincide with the highest service-induced, cyclic stresses. They may arise in the journal, in the head, or in the flange (external or internal). Cracks should ideally be found when they are short or shallow enough to be removed without reducing the dryer integrity. Due to the internal pressurization, fatigue cracks in dryer heads are far more likely to initiate and be detected in the external surface; they can initiate on the internal surface of a head. Cracking may occur in the bolts or studs fastening the heads to the shell: high strength, carbon steel bolts exposed to steam condensate may experience carbonate/bicarbonate-related, stress corrosion cracking. This type of cracking can affect several bolts, resulting in steam leakage, cracking of the head, or possibly even separation of the head-to-shell joint. Steam leaks are therefore both an important symptom and a potential cause of cracked bolts and flanges. Inspection planning Four key tasks in planning dryer inspections are: A. Define which specific dryers to inspect. The results from inspecting all the dryers, from both the tending and drive sides, in both running and idle modes, are crucial in defining which dryers should be slated for more detailed inspection when the dryers are out-ofoperation. Steam leaks, indications of improper drainage, or unusual sounds from inside a dryer are the most obvious reasons to designate a specific dryer for internal, out-ofservice inspection at the next opportunity. Other conditions that warrant designating a dryer for such inspection are bearing problems, missing head bolts, unusual temperatures during operation, or if the dryer has been subjected to thermal shock or other physical abuse. Review past inspection or condition information. Ensure inspection personnel are qualified for the required task.

B. C.

Walk-down inspections when the dryers are in the running or idle modes should be carried out by mill employees who are trained to inspect for the critical symptoms and conditions listed above. Detailed inspections for internal thinning, vessel cracks and cracked bolts (when the dryers are in the out-ofservice mode) should be done by properly trained and experienced inspectors. Mill personnel may be qualified for these inspections, including the necessary nondestructive testing (NDT). However, most paper mills contract with inspection service companies to do out-of-service dryer inspections. Appropriately qualified technicians (See Appendix D) should always do NDT. Written NDT procedures should be used. Wherever practical, a component standard with known existing flaws (e.g. a dryer head with cracks in it) should be used to verify the effectiveness of the NDT procedure and the proficiency of the NDT technician BEFORE ANY NDT IS DONE ON THE DRYERS. D. Inspection frequencies Running and idle modes The recommended frequency for formally recorded walk-down visual inspections in both run and idle modes is once per month. (Routine walk-downs of the dryer sections should be done daily or weekly.) The time between the formally recorded inspections should not exceed four months. Out-of-service mode General industry practice is to fully inspect an opened and cooled dryer at least once every five years. The interval between out-of-service inspections of any dryer should be adjusted for appropriate condition-based Document and assess the new inspection findings. (See Appendices B and C)

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circumstances. Dryers with known cracks or other questionable conditions may warrant more frequent inspections. The five-year interval between inspections may also be extended provided the new inspection interval is based on detailed integrity evaluation and risk assessment and routine walk-down inspections are continued. Considerations in establishing the inspection frequency for a specific dryer should include: The condition of the dryers structural elements; Its repair and maintenance history, especially problems with bearings or internal components; Operating conditions, (especially if original (design) rotational speed or pressure have changed); Presence of internal components other than siphons; Dryer age and design (ASME design vs. non-ASME design).

State, local or jurisdictional requirements for dryer inspection intervals should be followed. Inspection practices Running mode A qualified inspector doing a formally documented inspection of all the dryers in running mode should use adequate illumination in a systematic, walk-down inspection, looking for the following: a. b. c. d. e. Steam or condensate leakage from any dryer. Rocking or swaying of the dryer frame. Loose or cracked structural supports. Unusual vibrations, noise or motion. (NOTE: Since most of these conditions are undesirable, they should be brought to the immediate attention of the maintenance department.) Unusual dryer temperatures indicate improper steam supply or condensate drainage. This is typically checked with an infrared (IR) sensor or imager.

The overriding purpose of inspecting dryers when they are in operation is to detect early signs of problems or distress that could cause or portend dryer failure, and thereby identify which dryers to designate for detailed followup inspection. The inspector should record all observations on a formal inspection report. Idle mode The purposes of inspecting dryers when they are in idle mode are similar to those for running mode inspections: to detect early signs of problems or distress that could cause dryer failure, and to identify the dryers that should be included in the group for detailed follow-up inspection. Similarly again, an inspection report should be prepared by the inspector to record the findings and the date of the inspection. When the dryers are idle and closed such as during brief machine stoppages (typically for felt, roll or wire changes or for housekeeping) the designated, qualified inspector should do a formally documented, systematic, walk-down inspection. Using good illumination, the inspection should be done from both the tending and drive sides of the dryer sections, looking for the following: Signs of steam leaks, such as stains and deposits; Missing or broken bolts; External wear or damage; Excessive lube oil leakage or other signs or bearing distress; Improper drainage of condensate. IR sensing equipment facilitates finding this.) Iron-oxide deposits at the head flange to shell joint

Out-of-service (open) mode A thorough dryer inspection in this mode should start with a well-illuminated, detailed visual inspection of both the interior and exterior of the dryer. The inspection should also include magnetic particle testing (MT) of the

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dryer heads and an appropriate amount of ultrasonic flaw detection testing (UT) on the dryer bolts. Ultrasonic testing of the shell thickness may be necessary, depending on the results of the visual inspection. 1. Internal visual inspection Physically entering the dryer for internal inspection with good illumination is the preferred method. Cast iron dryers typically have a tightly adherent red-gray internal surface oxide deposit that does not need to be removed for the inspection to proceed. Thorough visual examination of 100% of the internal surface is essential. The inspector should look for: Problems with the siphon assembly. Grooves in the shell. Erosion under the siphon shoe. Loose condensate bars. Loose weights. Casting flaws, such as shuts, porosity, inclusions, etc. These are most likely to be in the head stiffeners or other angular parts of the heads. Cracks in the heads and at the shells reversed flange areas.

Low angle or parallel illumination of the surface increases the effectiveness of the inspection. Results of this inspection should determine which other NDT inspection methods are required and where. Significantly thinned areas should be characterized in detail by UT. Cracks and linear indications should be fully defined by MT. If visual inspection of the inside of the dryer reveals no grooves, cracks or other conditions which could compromise the dryers integrity, the internal inspection can be concluded.
NOTE 1: Problems in the siphon assembly, loose condensate bars, or loose weights always should be attended to before the dryer is returned to service.

Dryers equipped with hand-holes Remote visual inspection through the handhole usually can detect loose siphon parts or weights, excessive corrosion, grooving, and other problems. This type of inspection is acceptable when it is impossible to enter the dryer. A video borescope or video camera and lighting may be used to more closely inspect suspicious features and to record the findings in a remote internal inspection. Dryers that cannot be physically entered may require more extensive UT on the shell to effectively characterize the shell cross section thickness profile. This type of testing need be repeated only if there are indications of new or additional internal thinning in the dryer since the last inspection. 2. External visual inspection External inspection should look for the following: Wear on the shell from the doctor blade. Casting flaws in the heads. Cracks at the journal and elsewhere in the heads Broken bolts. Stains, deposits and discoloration from steam leaks. Problems with the bearings.

Complementary NDT may be required to more accurately characterize any suspicious features. 3. Magnetic particle testing (MT) of the heads Heads should have magnetic particle testing (MT) 100% of the external surface of the dryer heads. At a minimum, critical areas of the heads stress-risers, man- (hand-) hole openings, adjacent to the flange and around the journal transition should be examined for cracks by MT. The area of coverage should extend as far onto the

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journal area as possible, paying special attention to any accessible steps at changes in journal radius. Guidelines for performing MT are in Appendix E. MT inspection of gray cast iron dryer heads sometimes provides indications associated with the casting process, like shrinkage, cold shuts, improperly fused mold positioning chaplets, etc. Casting flaws might be superficial blemishes or deep discontinuities. These inherent flaws may or may not be detrimental to the safe operation of the dryer. The poor mechanical properties of cast iron always make it advisable to remove cracks by grinding-and-blending (replacing a sharp feature with a rounded feature), rather than leave cracks in the heads. All investigative grinding should be documented in the inspection report. The first step in evaluating the structural significance of an indication should be to determine its size. Flaws determined to be acceptable at any point in time should be periodically monitored to detect any growth. Indications can be monitored by marking their length with punch marks or with photographs of visually enhanced MT indications (or PT indications). Cracks that are growing require more frequent examination or replacement of the head. MT of the internal surfaces of heads or of the shell is not routinely done but encouraged when access permits particularly by the discovery of cracks or other indications found during the internal visual inspection or by indications identified externally by non-destructive examination. 4. Head bolt examination Bolts should be ultrasonically tested to determine if their shanks are cracked. This may not always occur at the threads. Guidelines for this type of examination are in Appendix F. An important part of any bolt inspection procedure is to qualify the procedure and the technician with a known standard, preferably a cracked or notched bolt from a dryer. It is not necessary to examine all the bolts to determine if there is a bolt-cracking problem. It is common practice to examine 20% of the bolts in each head, expanding the examination to more bolts if any of these initial bolts is cracked. The nature of the reflectors providing the crack indications should be investigated to ensure that the bolts are cracked and do not have manufacturing flaws which often do not compromise the bolt integrity.
NOTE 2: Broken bolts can be removed by the drill-and-tap method, by a specialized weld build-up method, or with specialized flamecutting equipment.

5. Ultrasonic (UT) thickness measurement UT thickness readings should be taken to investigate noteworthy conditions found by visual inspection. EXTERNAL UT THICKNESS SCANS SHOULD NOT BE SUBSTITUTED FOR INTERNAL VISUAL INSPECTION. Measuring the thickness of cast iron dryer components involves special techniques and more information is provided in APPENDIX G. Straight beam ultrasonic thickness testing can provide acceptably accurate thickness measurements generally within 10%. For greater accuracy, special calipers with accuracy of 0.12mm (0.005 in.) have been constructed to fit through the access hole in the dryer head to measure the thickness of the shell. The small area measured by the caliper can then be used to calibrate the ultrasonic instrumentation. Where shell thickness line scans (B-scans) are done, it is common practice to do two, diametrically opposed scans along the full length of the shell. The scans should provide a cross-section profile presentation of the shell thickness. These scans are a convenient way to determine the cross section thickness profile for detailed integrity evaluations and other purposes.
NOTE 3: Internal counter weights are usually positioned where the shell is thinnest from manufacture.

6. Acoustic emission examination (AE) Flaws and cracks can be found by using acoustic emission (AE) examination. AE is a practical and convenient way to survey a dryer for flaws and cracks by attaching sensors to detect the micro-seismic activity emitted by the flaws and cracks in response to stress or load stimulation. Flaws and cracks large enough to be sufficiently stimulated by the prescribed level of stress mechanical or thermal will emit acoustic energy. Pressurizing a dryer for AE testing is not likely to detect shell thinning (unless it is very severe), a cracked journal or cracked bolts. These conditions should be inspected for in the ways described elsewhere in this document.

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Emission sources can be located with multiple sensors by triangulation. The intensity of the emissions from a flaw typically indicates the flaws structural significance in relations to the applied stress. AE involves specialized equipment and procedures. Proper calibration and validation of the testing procedure on a known, flawed standard are essential measures for successful AE. Review and use of inspection results Mill engineering and maintenance personnel should carefully review the inspection results to determine what repairs are needed before the dryers are returned to service. Comparing results from current inspection activities with those from previous inspections can help determine if processes are underway, e.g. thinning, crack growth, etc., that can compromise the reliability of the dryers. The latest inspection results should be the basis for planning the scope and timing of future inspections. Updated inspection reports for each dryer should be kept in the Dryer Inspections (or similar) file. Keywords Bearings, Cracks, Defects, Dryers, Inspection, Non-destructive tests, Shafts, Shells, Siphons, Steam Additional information Effective date of issue: Jan 24, 2006. Working Group Members: Roland OBrien-Bills, Chairman AIS Accident Inspection Specialists, Inc. David Parrish FM Global Tom Sprader (Retired) TSP Consulting Engineers, Inc. Steve Fusco Rist Frost Associates Dwight Hyche Marsh, Inc. Franco Miele FM Global References Codes and standards 1. American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME Boiler & Pressure Vessel Code: Section V, Nondestructive Examination; and Section III (Div. 1), Pressure Vessels. (Address: ASME, 22 Law Drive, P. O. Box 2900, Fairfield, NJ 07007-2900, Phone 800-843-2763). National Board Inspection Code (NBIC). (Address: NBIC, 1055 Crupper Avenue, Columbus, OH 43229, Phone 614-888-8320). American Society for Nondestructive Testing, (ASNT) SNT-TC-1A, Personnel Qualification and Certification in Nondestructive Testing. (Address: ASNT, 1711 Arlingate Lane, P. O. Box 28518, Columbus, OH 43228. Phone 614-274-6003).

2. 3.

OSHA Standards: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 29CFR 1910.38 Emergency Action and Evacuation 29CFR 1910.132 Personal Protective Equipment (PPE) 29CFR 1910.146 Confined Space and Vessel Entry 29CFR 1910.147 Control of Hazardous Energy (LO/TO) 29CFR 1910.261 Pulp, Paper, and Paperboard Mills

Helpful articles 1. 2. 3. 4. TAPPI Engineering Conference Proceedings (listed by conference year) 1990:- Paper No. 25-4, Determination of Tensile Strength in Old Paper Machine Dryers; Paper No. 25-5, Round Robin Evaluation of Gray Cast Iron Thickness Test Methods. 1992:- Paper No. 23-3, Maintenance and Repair of Paper Machine Dryers;

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5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15.

Paper No. 23-4, Examining Cast Iron Dryers and Determining Tensile Strength. 1994:- Paper No. 8-2, Case Histories of Interface Corrosion Failure (Acoustic Emission) 1995:- Paper No. 17-2, Catastrophic Failure of Cast Iron Dryer Roll Caused by Severe Erosion Resulting from Spoiler Bar Failures; Paper No. 17-3, Inspection of Surface Defects in Paper Machine Dryer Cans. 1997:- Paper No. 27-1, Paper Machine Dryer Inspection Part I Metallurgy of Cast Iron and Inspection of Heads and Journals; Paper No. 27-2, Paper Machine Dryer Inspection Part II Shells, Paper No. 27-4, Failures of Paper Machine Fasteners Product Code: 0101R250. Fuentes, Karen T. Destructive Testing of Non-Code Paper Machine Dryer Rolls, Tappi Journal, pp. 88-90, TAPPI (1985). TAPPI Water Removal Committee TIS 0404-35, Application of dryer bars, 1986. Loss Prevention Data Sheets 12-25 Paper Machine Dryer Rolls, July 1986. Factory Mutual Engineering Corporation, 1151 Boston-Providence Turnpike, Norwood, MA 02062. TAPPI Press, Guidelines for the Safe Operation of Steam Heated Paper Machine Dryers. Product Code: 0101R250

Appendix A. Catastrophic Dryer Failures Since 1989 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. Mead Corp., Kingsport, TN, 1989 Union-Camp Corp., Savannah, GA, 1994 Georgia-Pacific Corp., Monticello, MS, 1995 Crown Vantage, St. Francis, LA, 1996 Jefferson-Smurfit Corp., Middletown, OH, 1997 Name Not Released, Canada, 1998 Name Not Released, Washington, 1999 Name Not Released, Canada, 2002 Knowlton Bros., Watertown, NY, 2002

Appendix B. Dryer Inspection File Setup The permanent file should include original design documentation, materials specifications, records of previous repairs and alterations, and inspection reports. 1. Original design documents should include: a. Assembly Vessel drawing b. ASME Form U-1 and U1A, Manufacturers Data Report(s) for Pressure Vessels and any other pertinent drawings. c. A rubbing or facsimile of the ASME name plate showing the vessel manufacturer. d. If available, stress analysis reports and minimum wall thickness calculations of heads, shell, with inertia hoop stress due to rotational effect, etc. Repair and alteration reports. Inspection reports: a) A complete and comprehensive file of information from the previous inspection and the individual condition history of the dryers in each machine should be maintained. b) Previous inspection reports should be made available to the inspector and any incident of steam leakage, drum flooding, loose internal components or distressed bearing should be noted. c) Historical maintenance records. Paper Machine Dryer Sections Drawing: If available the dryer sections rebuild drawing(s) which identify locations of the dryers and assembly vessel drawings and or patterns.

2. 3.

Appendix C. Dryer Layout Drawing As a reference tool the inspection report drawing should use a grid system to locate inspection and examination findings. Drawings needs to be detailed enough to depict the internal and external findings separately. Figures 2 and 3 provide visual representation of a layout by peeling the dryer open in two dimensions. Figures 2 and

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3 also suggest where the circumferential and longitudinal zero reference points should start viewed facing the tending side. By using a zero reference the shell, heads, and head bolts use the same system. The circumferential zero reference point is at the centerline of the man-way or hand-hole opening on the tending side head. Industry practice is to divide the dryer into an evenly spaced grid map running clockwise as viewed from the tending side, around the shell with four major grids lines along the length of shell at 0, 90, 180, and 270. These major grid lines are used as reference for UT thickness line scans when thickness profiling is done. The system depicted in Figures 2 and 3 is a suggested format, and contractors may have other useful formats.

Fig. 2: Internal Dryer Layout

Fig. 3: External Dryer Layout

Appendix D. Qualifications of NDT Inspection Personnel NDE inspection personnel should be trained and certified in each inspection method used to inspect the dryers in accordance with the recognized governing jurisdiction or with either: SNT-TC-1A of the ASNT (American Society for Non-destructive Testing). Address: ASNT, 1711 Arlingate Lane, P. O. Box 28518, Columbus, OH 43228; or Standard 48.9712 of the CGSB Canadian General Standards Board) Address: CGSB, Place du Portage, 11 Laurier Street, Hull, P. Q., Canada KIA 1G6. (Internet: www.pwgsc.gc.ca)

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1. 2.

3.

Before starting work, the inspection contractor shall make both technician certification records and written inspection procedures available to the mill representative. Personnel certified to (ASNT) Level I may perform the NDT examinations. A certified Level II or Level III inspector should supervise the testing and Level II or Level III inspectors must (be present to) interpret the examination results. Only a certified Level III person is authorized to write NDT procedures. Advanced ultrasonic techniques such as the UT thickness scanning (B-scans) should be done by technicians specifically trained and qualified in the techniques and who demonstrate their proficiency BEFORE the testing is done.

APPENDIX E. Magnetic Particle Testing (MT) of Heads Equipment and technique The magnetizing equipment should be an AC or DC yoke, although prods and coils can also be used. (Care must be taken to avoid arc-strikes with prods.) A written test procedure should be used. The test involves inducing the specified magnetic field strength in a progressive, overlapping pattern over the area to be tested, and making sure to detect cracks or flaws in all orientations. On some dryers limited space between the heads and the dryer frame make it difficult to position a yoke so as to achieve full contact with the head surface. This may result in inadequate magnetization and an invalid test. When access for magnetization is difficult, the strength of the magnetic field should be determined with a Field Strength Indicator, such as a pie gauge or similar device. Some turning of the dryers is typically necessary to properly access 100% of every dryer head. MT can be done with dry powder or wet fluorescent powder media. The higher sensitivity of the wet fluorescent medium may produce excessive background on rougher surfaces, and dry powder with a suitable color contrast to the shell surface is usually sufficiently sensitive. Surface preparation The surface should be dry and free of grease, dirt, loose paint and other surface contamination. Solvent or foam degreasing, power wire brushing, high pressure water blasting and soda blasting have all been used for external cleaning of dryer heads. MT on internal dryer surfaces will be more sensitive if the typical oxide scale is removed by light sanding or heavy power wire brushing. The dark color and easy darkenability) of the internal surface is more conducive to using light-colored or fluorescent powders, although color contrast-enhanced dry powder techniques (applying a thin coat of white paint or PT developer first) also work. MT can be successfully done on painted heads provided the paint is less than 0.30 mm (0.012 in) thick and is tightly bonded. The effectiveness of MT on painted heads should be verified. Applying a similar paint layer on a cracked head makes a good calibration standard. APPENDIX F. Head Bolt or Stud Inspection Equipment and technique Head fasteners should be ultrasonically tested to see if their shanks are cracked. This involves standard straight-beam flaw detection techniques in which the UT transducer is manipulated on the exposed head of the bolt or stud. The transducer head should not travel beyond the diameter of the shank or false indications may arise from the underside of the bolt head. Socket-like templates may be used to restrict transducer positioning in the area of interest. The ultrasonic test instrument should display the actual reflected signal, showing its amplitude and time-offlight parameters. (Simple, digital numeric instruments are not acceptable.) Single or dual element transducers can be used.
NOTE 4: To compensate for the sound losses associated with a rough or irregular scanned surface, the NDT technician should have the gain on the UT instrument adjusted so the back-wall signal on the actual bolts is similar in height (amplitude) to the back-well signal obtained on the calibration standard.

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Bolts or studs with rounded hidden ends are more difficult to examine because a clear back-wall reflection requires excessively high gain settings. The calibration standards for such fasteners should have the ends flattened. Calibration The testing setup and procedure should be sensitive enough to detect small flaws in a calibration standard made from a bolt or stud similar to those in the dryer. Notches perpendicular to the bolt axis and with a depth approximately 12% of the bolt shank diameter should be put at the head-to-shank corner and at the first thread(s). The amplitude of the reflected signal from these slots should peak between 50 and 100% of full screen height on the instrument display. Figure 4 shows how to notch bolt for calibration standards.

Fig. 4: Bolt Notched for Calibration Standards

Surface preparation The head of the bolt or stud must be flat and clean. Thin, tightly bonded protective coatings usually do not need to be removed. Light grinding may be needed to smooth down any raised letters or numbers on the head where the scanning will be done. However, fastener identification markings should not be obliterated if ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code material traceability is to be maintained. APPENDIX G. UT thickness measurement The thickness of cast iron can be determined with acceptable accuracy by specialized ultrasonic thickness measurement, using the straight beam technique. High accuracy requires use of a multi-transducer device, sometimes referred to as the wedge, to automatically compensate for local variations in the sound velocity common in gray cast iron. Instrumentation with an A-scan display of the reflected ultrasonic signal (i.e. a CRT or similar monitor) provides more reliable results than a digital UT thickness meter, in part because this allows the technician to determine whether the signal is reflected from the back wall or from an internal reflector. The couplant should be water-soluble and approved by the mill. Surface preparation should remove all dirt, grease, loose deposits and scale. Light power wire brushing or abrasive wiping with non-metal abrasive pads usually provides acceptable cleanliness without marring the dryer surface. UT thickness measurements can be made on dryers with external coatings or shrink sleeves if these surface layers are tightly bonded. Calibration should be done on standards that are acoustically similar to the dryer material, i.e. on gray cast iron. Areas of known thickness (calipered) on the actual dryer or spare dryer shells or heads should be used wherever possible. The instrument should be calibrated for each dryer element (the shell or head) and checked often enough to be maintained. The thickness line scan data should be displayed in B-scan format, i.e. as a cross-section thickness profile incorporating the many A-scan (point) readings. Upon the detection of a flaw or suspected thin area, a thorough investigation by an internal inspection will be needed to determine if further evaluation is required.

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Two, full-length scans of the shell should be sufficient in most cases to reliably detect circumferential wear grooving. More than two, diametrically-opposed, full-length line scans are rarely warranted, but additional line scans may be useful on dryers that cannot be entered or if detailed internal inspection is impractical. When a dryer has balance weights then a full-length scan should be done on the same side as the weight, for this will be the thinnest as cast section of the shell. Under no circumstances should external UT thickness scans be substituted for internal inspection. External line scans alone are unlikely to find localized thinning of the shell. Localized thinning revealed by internal visual inspection should be evaluated with UT thickness measurements. Accurate documentation of the measurements is imperative. The thickness data should be interpreted in conjunction with all other inspection findings. Some of the REFERENCES provide more details on UT thickness measuring methods and pitfalls. g