TheTwentiethCenturyinWorldHistory Summary.The20thcenturyhasprovidedoneoftherelativelyrarebreaksinworldhistory. Previoussimilarperiods,suchasinthe5thor15thcenturies,havemetthecriteriathatoccurin the20thcentury.Firstisabasicgeographicalrebalancingamongmajorcivilizations.Inthe20th centurytheshiftisarelativedeclineoftheWestduetotwogreatworldwarsandthe developmentofothersocieties.Westernpopulationdeclinedwhilegrowthsoaredinother regions.By1980justaboutallofthegreatWesterncolonialempireshaddisappeared;sohad Westernweaponsdominance.InworldtradeandmanufacturetheWesthadbeenjoinedby importantrivals.A2ndcriteriainvolvesincreasingtheintensityandextentofcontactamong civilizations.Innovationsinallaspectsoftechnologyandculturenowspreadfasterthanever before.Thereisnosingleworldculturebutgreatsimilaritiesareshared.The3rdcriteriaisthe presenceofnewandroughlyparallelpatternsamongmajorcivilizations. TheRepositioningoftheWest.The20thcenturyshiftinbalanceamongcivilizationshasmeanta relativedeclinefortheWest.EventheentryoftheUnitedStatesintoWesternrankshasnot changedthispattern.

n.Westerndeclineisindicatedinpopulationdeclineasapercentageofworld totals,theendofcolonialempiresandmonopolyoveradvancedweaponssystems,andtheloss ofitspositionaspreeminentworldtrader.Bythe1990snosinglecivilizationhadreplaced Westernpreeminence. InternationalContacts.Althoughgreatdiversityofinterestsremainedamongnations, internationalcontactsincreasedascivilizationsrebalanced.Technologymadeisolationalmost impossible.Eventhoughmanyinfluencespassfromonenationtoanother,nosingleworld culturehasemerged. InternationalChallengesinPoliticsandCulture.Thereweremanypoliticalchangesbecauseof imitationoftheWestorofeffortstocounteritsdominance.Mostsocietieschangedtheirformsof government,whilegovernmentshaveexpandedintomanynewroles.Changesinbeliefsystems occurredassecularsystemsgainedadherents.Rigidsocialinequalitiesdeclined,butdidnot disappear. Usingthe20thCenturyasaNewPeriodinWorldHistory.Thenewperiodofthe20thcentury hasatleasttwophases.Between1914and1945twomajorwarsandagreatdepressionbrought forwardanewinternationalorder.Since1945therehavebeenmanyadjustmentssuchas decolonizationtotheworkingoutofanewworldorder. Chapter34 ACenturyofCrisis,19141989 ChapterSummary.Theinternationalframeworkof20thcenturydevelopmentwasformedby twoworldwars,economicdepressionandtheresolutionofthecoldwar.Allsocietieswere

influencedasglobalrelationshipsintensified.Internationalorganizationsformedtooffera differentpathtoresolvingglobalcrises.Massivepopulationgrowthtripledglobalnumbersand producednewmigrationstreams.Americanpopularculturegainedworldwideattention. ConfidenceandInternationalismontheEveofWorldWarsI.Before1914Westernersregarded themselvesasmembersofacivilizationmakingconstantadvancesfavorabletohumanityand, throughimperialism,bringingthisenlightenmenttootherworldareas.Firststepswere underwayincreatinginternationalorganizations.In1851anInternationalStatisticalCongress beganstandardizationefforts.TheRedCrosswasestablishedin1854bytheGenevaConvention. TheTelegraphicUnion(1865)andthePostalUnion(1875)broughttheworldclosertogether.The habitofthinkinginternationallyinfluencedallfields.Thestepsrepresentedanimportanttrend inworldhistory,buttherewereweaknesses.TheywerebasedonWesterndominanceandmade primarilyforEuropeans.Risingnationalismandpoliticalaffairslimitedinternationalist thinking.Effortsmadetolimitarmamentsatthecloseofthe19thcenturyhadlittlesuccess, althoughtheWorldCourtwasestablishedatTheHague. WorldWarI.Thewardemonstratedmany20thcenturytrends.Nationalisthostilitiesweakened Europeasnationalismandrevolutionoccurredinotherregions. TheOnsetofWorldWarI.Europewasdividedintotworivalalliancesystemsbefore1914. Althoughmostoftheworldsavailableterritoryhadbeenclaimed,nationsoftenusedmilitary anddiplomaticmeasurestodefusesocialtensionsathome.TheBalkansbecameadangerous troublespotwhererivalsmallnationscontestedandwherethegreatpowershadinterests.The assassinationofanAustrianarchdukebyaSerbiannationalistin1914providedthecausefor war.AustriaHungary,supportedbyGermany,movedtoattackSerbia.Russiarespondedby mobilizingitsmilitary,causingGermanytodeclarewaronRussiaanditsally,France.When GermanyinvadedBelgiumtostrikeFrance,Britainenteredthewar. PatternsofWarinEurope.Thewarwasfoughtontwomajorfronts.InthewesttheGermans foughttheFrenchandBritishinFrance;intheeastGermanyandAustriaHungaryfoughtthe Russians.A3rdfrontopenedwhentheItaliansjoinedtheBritishandFrench.Ontheseasthe principalcontestwasbetweentheBritishnavyandGermansubmarines.Onthewesternfront moderntechnologycreatedadevastatingstalematethatkeptthemilitaryconfinedtotrenches. IneasternEuropethefightingoccurredinwesternRussiaandintheBalkanswherethesmall statesjoinedintogainlocaladvantage.Thewarresultedinunprecedentedgovernmentgrowth. Theexecutivebranchofgovernmentincreasedpowerattheexpenseofparliaments,and governmentsmanipulatedpublicopinionandsuppresseddissent. TheWarOutsideEurope.ThepresenceoftheWestinallworldregionsinevitablyspreadthe conflict.TheBritishDominionsquicklygavesupporttoBritainandtheirtroopsfoughtonmany fronts.TheUnitedStatesatfirstremainedneutralandsoldgoodstobothsidesandmadeloans togovernments.ForthefirsttimeinitshistorytheUnitedStatesmovedfrombeingadebtortoa creditornation.AmericanleadershipremainedproBritishandwhenGermansubmarinesstruck atAmericanvesselspublicopinionturnedinterventionist.TheUnitedStatesenteredthewarin 1917.ItsmenandmaterialshelpedtoturnthebalanceagainsttheGermans.TheUnitedStates alsointroducedanewcurrentofidealismthatinfluencedthewarsresults.

CombatantsinAfrica,Asia,andtheMiddleEast.HostilitiesoccurredinAfricaastheAllies movedtoseizetheGermancolonies.FranceusedAfricantroopsontheEuropeanfront;Britain sentIndianforcestoseveralwartheaters.TheincreasedawarenessgainedofEuropeanrealities helpedtostimulatenationalisticresponsesamongtheAfricanandAsianparticipants.InEast AsiaJapanjoinedtheAlliestoshareinseizingGermanholdings.AustraliaandNewZealand occupiedGermanSamoa.ChinaalsodeclaredwaronGermany.Thewarwasveryimportantin theMiddleEast.TheOttomanEmpirealliedwithGermany,andtheBritishinreturnsponsored Arabnationalmovementsopposingtheregime.TheypromisedintheBalfourDeclarationof 1917tosupportJewishsettlementinPalestine.TheOttomanEmpirefellapartbecauseofthe war. TheWarsEnd.InMarch1917warpressuresontheweakenedRussianstatecausedarevolution thatendedthetsaristgovernment.WhenLeninandtheCommunistscametopowertheyended thewarin1918throughtheTreatyofBrestLitovsk.TheheavyfightingontheWesternfront continuedwithoutissueuntilalastGermanoffensivein1918failed.AstheAlliesbegana counteroffensivetheGermangeneralsinstalledaciviliangovernmentthatsuedforpeacein1918. ThePeaceandtheAftermath.TheTreatyofVersaillesleftitssignersunsatisfied.TheFrench regainedlostprovinces,butdidnotgainsecurityfromGermany.Italyfeltthatitdidnotgain enoughterritory,whileJapanwasignoredduringthenegotiations.WoodrowWilsonofthe UnitedStateshopedtosettlenationalistissuesandcreateaLeagueofNationstoensurepeace, buthewasnotsupportedbyAmericanpublicopinion.China,weakenedbyinternaldivisions, lostterritorytoJapan.ThemultiethnicAustroHungarianEmpirecollapsedbeforenationalist risingsthatledtotheformationofCzechoslovakia,Hungary,andanenlargedYugoslavia. GermanylostlandstoFranceandtothenewPolishstate.Itscolonialempirewasdividedamong thevictors.Germanyhadtopaylargereparationstotheallies.CommunistRussiawasnotatthe conference;itlostterritorytoPolandandtheBalticstates.Thetreatysetthestageforavery insecurefuture. TheWarsDevastationsandDislocations.ThewarweakenedEuropebothinternallyand externally.Over10millionpeopledied;FranceandSerbialostoveronetenthoftheir population.Thedeadyoungmenweretheworkersandleadersofthefuture;theirloss hamperedthebirthrate.Therealsowasmassivedestructioninindustryandagriculture. Governmentborrowingtofinancethewarleftmassivedebtsandcausedinflation.Outside Europethecolonialworldsurvived,butthereweremanyindigenousleadersbeginningtotalk aboutindependence.ChangeswereveryapparentintheMiddleEast.AlthoughaTurkish republicsucceededtheOttomanEmpire,mostofitsterritoriesweredividedintoLeagueof Nationsmandates.TheBritishtookPalestineandIraq;theFrenchgainedSyriaandLebanon. Neworrenewedkingdoms,suchasSaudiArabiaandIran,appearedinthepolitically fragmentedMiddleEast.Therewereinternationaleconomicreverberationsafterthepeace settlement.TheUnitedStatesandJapantookoverEuropeanexportmarkets;Britainnever recovereditsformerposition.ThewarledtothenewLeagueofNations,but,despiteuseful informationandsocialwork,ithadminimalinfluenceininternationalaffairs. TheGreatDepression.Internationaleconomicdepressiondominatedthe1930s.Problemsinthe industrialeconomyofEuropeandtheUnitedStates,andlongtermweaknesseselsewhere, causedglobalwidecollapse.Newgovernmentalpoliciesemergedtomeetthecrisis.Sodid extremistpoliticalgroups.

 CausesofEconomicInstability.TheimpactofWorldWarIinfluencedEuropeaneconomiesinto theearly1920s.SeriousinflationinGermanywasonlyresolvedthroughmassivecurrency devaluationin1923.Ageneralrecessionoccurredin1920and1921,althoughproductionlevels roseagainby1923.Britainhadaveryslowrecoverybecauseofcompetitionwithinitsexport markets.Thereweremanygeneralstructuralproblems.Westernfarmersfacedchronic overproduction;pricesfellandcontinuingflightfromthelandfollowed.Overproduction similarlyharmedthedependentareasoftheworldeconomyandlessenedtheirabilitytoimport Westernmanufacturedgoods.Governmentslackedknowledgeofeconomicsandprovidedlittle leadershipduringthe1920s.Nationalistselfishnesspredominatedandprotectionismfurther reducedmarketopportunities. CollapseandCrisis.ThedepressionbeganinOctober1929whentheNewYorkstockmarket crashed.Stockvaluesfellandbanksfailed.AmericanscalledbacktheirEuropeanloansand causedbankfailures.Investmentcapitaldisappeared.Industrialproductionfell,causing unemploymentandlowerwages.Bothbluecollarandmiddleclassworkerssufferedasthe depressiongrewworsefrom1929to1933. WorldwideImpact.Afeweconomiesescapedincorporationinthedepression.TheSoviet Union,isolatedbyitsCommunistdirectedeconomy,wentaboutthebusinessofcreatingrapid industrialdevelopmentwithoutoutsidecapital.Inmostothernationsthedepressionworsened existinghardtimes.Westernmarketswereunabletoabsorbimports,causingunemploymentin economiesproducingfoodsandrawmaterials.Japansdependenceonexportscausedsimilar problems.LatinAmericangovernmentsrespondedtothecrisisbygreaterinvolvementin planninganddirection;theJapaneseincreasedtheirsuspicionsoftheWestandthoughtabout gainingsecuremarketsinAsia.IntheWestthedepressionledtowelfareprogramsandto radicalsocialandpoliticalexperiments.Theglobalqualityofthedepressionmadeitimpossible foranypurelynationalpolicytorestoreprosperityandcontributedtothesecondinternational worldwar.. WorldWarII.Thehostilitiesleadingtotheoutbreakofwarin1939startedearlierinthedecade. JapanandGermanybeganmilitaryactionsthatweremetwithpassiveresponsesfromother powerfulstatesexacerbatednationalisticandideologicaltensionsthatincludedWesternfearsof theSovietUnion. NewAuthoritarianRegimes.Thedepressioncontributedtotheriseofultranationalistgroups. InJapanonesuchgroupkilledtheprimeministerin1932andcausedtheinaugurationofa militaryregime.ThemilitaryalreadyhadmovedintoManchuriain1931tocounterChinese effortstoreunifytheirnation.TheJapaneseproclaimedManchuriaanindependentstate.When theLeagueofNationscondemnedthestep,JapanwithdrewfromtheLeague.InGermanythe depressionfollowedadegeneratingpoliticalsituationandcreatedpoliticalchaos.TheNational Socialist(Nazi)PartyofAdolfHitleradvocatedanauthoritarianstateandanaggressiveforeign policy.WithconservativesupportHitlerlegallytookpowerin1933andquicklybuilta totalitarianstate.TheNazisdeliberatelycreatedawarmachine.Italyhadbeenfollowinga similarpath.BenitoMussoliniformedafasciststateduringthe1920s;withHitlerinpowerhe reactedmoreforcefullytoattainnationalistictriumphs.

TheStepstowardWar.HitlerbegantheprocessendinginwarasGermanysuspended reparationpaymentsandin1935beganrearming.In1936GermanyoccupiedtheRhineland. BritainandFrancedidnothingtocountertheviolationsoftheVersaillestreaty.Mussoliniin 1935attackedanddefeatedEthiopiawithoutsignificantreactionfromtheinternational community.In1936civilwarbeganinSpainbetweenauthoritarianandrepublicanandleftist groups.GermanyandItalysupportedtheSpanishrightandRussiatheleft.Theprincipal democraciesremainedinert.Therepublicansweredefeatedby1939.In1938Hitlerunited AustriatoGermanyandlatermarchedintopartofCzechoslovakia.BritainandFranceat MunichacceptedGermanysmoveinreturnforpromisesofpeace.Hitlerwentaheadtotakethe restofCzechoslovakiain1939andsignedanalliancewiththeSovietUnion.WhenHitler invadedPolandin1939,RussiamovedintoPolandandtheBalticstates.BritainandFrance declaredwaragainstGermany.WarbeganinChinawithaJapaneseinvasionin1937.In1940 Germany,Italy,andJapanconcludedanalliance.WhenthewarbegantheEuropeanpowers desiringtopreservethestatusquowereunpreparedforconflict.TheUnitedStateswishedto remainneutral. TheCourseoftheWar:JapansAdvanceandRetreat.StalemateagainstChinaturnedthe JapanesetootherpartsofAsia;theymovedintoIndochina,Malaya,andBurma.TheUnited StateswithheldmaterialsnecessaryfortheJapanesewareffortandwhenallnegationsbroke downJapanattackedPearlHarborinlate1941.ThePhilippineswereseizedin1942.Bytheend of1942theUnitedStatesgainedtheinitiativeandwentontorecoverlostpossessionsandin1944 tobeginmassiveairattacksonJapan. GermanyOverreaches.By1940GermanforceshaddefeatedPoland,Denmark,Norway, Holland,Belgium,andFrance.GermanyaidedItalytoseizeYugoslaviaandGreece,andboth nationspressedagainstBritishandFrenchterritoriesinNorthAfrica.Britainheldonandwon thebattleforcontrolofitsairspace.Theconqueredlandswereforcedtosupplyresourcesforthe Germanwarmachine.By1941thebalanceofthewarbegantoturn.HitlerstretchedGerman resourcesbyinvadingRussia.Inlate1941theUnitedStatesjoinedtheallianceagainstGermany. TheAmericansandBritishin1942pushedtheGermansandItaliansbackinNorthAfricawhile RussiaatStalingradbroketheGermanadvanceandbegantheirownsuccessfuloffensive.Italy wasinvadedbytheBritishandAmericansandGermanysufferedheavybombing.In1944the AlliesinvadedFranceandgraduallysurgedintowesternGermanyastheRussiansmovedinto easternregions.GermanysurrenderedinMay1945.AfewmonthslaterJapansurrenderedafter AmericanuseofatomicbombsonHiroshimaandNagasaki. HumanCosts.Thewarcausedamassive,worldwide,lossoflife.Nazigaschambersresultedin 6milliondeaths.Theairforcesofbothsidesattackedciviliancenters.andcausedmassivelosses. Over78,000peoplediedfromtheatomicbombingofHiroshima.Thewarinallsectorscostthe livesofatleast35millionpeople,20millionofthemintheSovietUnion. InDepth:TotalWar.Duringthe20thcenturytotalwar,themarshalingofvastresourcesand emotionalcommitments,emerged.Itwastheresultoftheimpactofindustrializationonmilitary effort.Thechangehadbeenunderwaysincemassconscriptionwasintroducedduringthewars oftheeraoftheFrenchrevolution.Industrialtechnologywasfirstappliedonalargescale duringtheAmericanCivilWar.Anewstyleofwarfareappeared.WorldWarIfully demonstratedthenatureoftotalwar.Governmentstookcontrolofmanyaspectsoftheir societies.Thedistinctionbetweenmilitaryandciviliansblurredasbombingraidshitdensely

populatedregions.Theconsequencesofthenewwarfarewereimportant.Workers,including women,securedconcessions.Technologicalresearchproducedusefulpeacefulbenefits.Total warfareproducedembitteredveterans,madepostwardiplomacydifficult,andresultedin societaltensions.. TheSettlementofWorldWarII.Thevictorsinthewarattemptedtomakeapeaceavoidingthe mistakesmadeafterWorldWarI.TheUnitedNationswasestablishedtoallowforpeaceful settlementofdisputes.ThegreatpowersUnitedStates,SovietUnion,Britain,France,China controlleddecisionsintheSecurityCouncil.Discussionsaboutthepostwarfuturebeganamong theUnitedStates,Britain,andRussiain1942.ThethreemetatTeheranin1943wheretheWest agreedtoaninvasionofFranceandleftRussiafreetomoveintoeasternEurope.Thethreemet againatYaltain1945.TheSovietUnionagreedtojoinagainstJapaninreturnforterritorialgains inChinaandJapan.AgreementoverEuropesfuturewasdifficult.AdisarmedGermany, purgedofNaziinfluence,wasdividedintofouroccupiedzones.EasternEurope,although promisesweremadeforademocraticfuture,wasleftunderSovietdomination.Thefinal postwarconferencewasatPotsdamin1945.BythentheSovietsoccupiedeasternEuropeand easternGermany.TheyannexedeasternPolandwhilethePolesgainedcompensationby receivingpartofeasternGermany.GermanyandAustriaweredividedandoccupied.InEast AsiaJapanwasoccupiedbytheUnitedStatesandstrippedofitswartimegains.Koreawas freed,butwasdividedintoUnitedStatesandSovietoccupationzones.Asiancoloniesreturned totheirformerrulers.Chinaregainedmostofitsterritorybutcivilstrifecontinuedbetweenthe Communistsandnationalist.Inotherregionscolonialholdingswerereconfirmed.InEurope RussiasfrontierswerepushedwestwardtoregainitsWorldWarIlosses.Mostnationsexisting in1918wererestored,althoughtheBalticstatesonceagainbecameRussianprovinces.Allstates exceptGreeceandYugoslaviafellunderSovietdomination.Westernnationswerefree,but underAmericaninfluence. TheColdWarandDecolonization,19451989.RivalriesbeganinEurope.TheSovietscreatedan easternblockbyinstallingcommunistgovernmentsintheiroccupiedterritories.TheUnited StatesrespondedbysupportingregimesunderSovietpressure;in1947itproclaimedthe MarshallPlantorebuildWesternEurope.GermanyemergedasthefocalpointoftheColdWar. TheAlliescooperatedtobeginrebuildingaunifiedWestGermanyin1946.TheSovietsretaliated byblockadingBerlinin1947;anAmericanmassiveairliftkeptthecitysupplied.Thecrisisended in1948withtwoGermanysdividedbyafortifiedborder.TheColdWardivisionsledtotwo militaryalliances:NATOwasformedin1949underAmericanleadership;theSovietsresponded bytheWarsawPact.BythentheSovietshadnuclearweaponsandfromthenonRussiaandthe UnitedStatesengagedinamajorarmsrace.WithEuropestabilizedColdWartensionsturnedto theglobalarena.WhenNorthKoreainvadedSouthKoreain1949theUnitedNations,under Americanleadership,foughtback.ElsewheretheColdWarrivalsalliedandsupportedfriendly regimesinallcontinents.NuclearconfrontationalmostoccurredoveraSovietefforttoinstall missilesinCuba.WaroccurredwhentheUnitedStatesunsuccessfullyintervenedagainst communistforcesinVietnam.TheColdWaralsowasanideologicalstruggle.withmanyother nationspressuredintoselectingoneoftherivalviewsofthefuture.ColdWarintensitydeclined afterthe1950s.Bythe1970sarmslimitationagreementsweresigned.MostEuropeancoloniesin AfricaandAsiagainedindependence.SomeestablishedcloserelationswithdifferentColdWar rivals;others,likeIndia,werenonaligned.Newinternationalconnectionsemergedasglobal economicinteractionsincreased.TheColdWarclosedinthe1980sastheeconomically

weakeningSovietUnionwasunabletomatchAmericanmilitaryspending.In1989theSoviet UnionhadtorecognizetheindependenceofitsEuropeansatellites.Thecommunistsystemin Europethencollapsed,andtheSovietUniondissolvedin1991. PeriodIII:The1990sandBeyond.Severalnewinternationalandmilitaryfeaturesappearedin theinitialstagesofthenewera.ThemilitarypoweroftheUnitedStateswasunrivaled.regional conflictsrequirednewattention.TheUnitedNationandtheUnitedStatesattempted,with varyingresults,tocontainthem.Regionalidentitiesheightened.InEastAsia,theIslamicworld, andIndia.Newemphasiswasplacedonregional,supranational,tradeblockstheEuropean Union,theNorthAmericanfreetradeagreement,andlooserarrangementsinotherareas.Most majorsocietiesmovedtowardsmorecommoncommercialpolicies.Staterunenterpriseswere replacedbyincreasedprivatecompetitionandfreermarketforces.Amovetodemocratic politicalprocesses,beginninginthelate1970s,continued.Nosingleframeworkemergedinan internationalerawheresuperpowerrivalryhaddisappeared. Conclusion:ALegacyofUncertainty.WorldWarIIandthecontinuingrivalryfollowing weakenedWesternEurope.Newsuperpowersemerged,andAmericanculturalinfluences surged.AsianandAfricanpeopleswereabletotakeadvantagesofthechangestoendcolonial domination.Therebalancingofworldpowerandtheincreaseinimportanceoftheglobal economywerethemainresultsofthepostwarera. KEYTERMS internationalization:theideathatpeoplesshoulduniteacrossnationalboundaries;gained popularityduringthe19thcentury;ledtotheestablishmentoforganizationslikethe InternationalRedCross. WorldCourt:permanentarbitrationcourtestablishedatTheHaguein1899;failedtoresolve problemsofinternationalconflict. westernfront:warlinebetweenBelgiumandSwitzerlandduringWorldWarI;featuredtrench warfareandmassivecasualtiesamongcombatants. Italianfront:warlinebetweenItalyandAustriaHungary;alsoproducedtrenchwarfare. easternfront:warzonefromtheBaltictotheBalkanswhereGermans,AustroHungarians, Russians,andBalkannationsfought. submarinewarfare:amajorpartoftheGermannavaleffortagainstthealliesduringWorldWarI; whenemployedagainsttheUnitedStatesitprecipitatedAmericanparticipationinthewar. BalfourDeclaration(1917):BritishpromiseofsupportfortheestablishmentofJewishsettlement inPalestine. BrestLitovskTreaty(1918):RussiaandGermanyagreement;RussiawithdrewfromtheWorld WarIandlostterritorytoGermanyinreturnforpeace.

TreatyofVersailles:endedWorldWarI;punishedGermanywithlossofterritoryandpayment ofreparations;didnotsatisfyanyofthesignatories. LeagueofNations:internationalorganizationofnationscreatedafterWorldWarI;designedto preserveworldpeace;UnitedStatesneveramember. socialisminonecountry:StalinsconceptofRussiancommunismbasedsolelyuponinternal Sovietdevelopment;theresultingisolationhelpedtheSovietUniontoavoidsomeofthe consequencesoftheGreatdepression. NationalSocialist(Nazi)Party:ledbyHitlerinGermany;gainedsupportduringeconomicchaos afterWorldWarIandtheGreatDepression;advocatedanauthoritarianstateandanaggressive foreignpolicy;gainedpowerin1933. AdolfHitler:NazileaderofGermanyfrom1933to1945;ledGermanyintoWorldWarII. BenitoMussolini:Italianleaderwhocreatedafascistgovernmentduringthe1920s;stressedan aggressiveforeignpolicyandnationalistglories. anschluss:unionbetweenGermanyandAustriaunderHitlerin1938. MunichConference:meetingcausedbyGermanoccupationofpartofCzechoslovakiain1938; WesternleadersagreedtotheactionafterGermanypromisedfuturepeace. appeasement:namegiventothepolicyofBritishleaderNevilleChamberlainbecauseofhis acceptanceattheMunichConferenceofGermanaggression. TripartitePact:1940alliancebetweenJapan,Germany,andItaly. Munichconference:1938meetingbetweenGerman,French,andBritishleaders;allowed CzechoslovakiatobedismemberedbyGermanyinreturnforpromisesoffuturepeace. TripartitePact(1940):treatybetweenGermany,Japan,andItaly PearlHarbor:AmericannavalbaseinHawaiiattackedbyJapaninDec.1941;causedAmerican entryintoWorldWarII. blitzkrieg:Germantermmeaninglighteningwarfare;involvedrapidmovementoftroopsand tanks. Vichy:collaborationistFrenchgovernmentestablishedatVichyin1940followingdefeatby Germany. WinstonChurchill:BritishprimeministerduringWorldWarII;exemplifiedBritish determinationtoresistGermany. siegeofStalingrad:1942turningpointduringGermanysinvasionofRussia;Russians successfullydefendedthecityandthenwentontheoffensive.

 HiroshimaandNagasaki:twoJapanesecitiesonwhichtheUnitedStatesdroppedatomicbombs in1945;causedJapanesesurrender. Holocaust:GermanysattemptedexterminationofEuropeanJews;resultedinsixmilliondeaths. TeheranConference(1943):meetingbetweentheleadersoftheUnitedStates,Britain,andthe SovietUnion;decidedtoopenanewfrontagainstGermanyinFrance;gavetheRussiansafree handineasternEurope. YaltaConference(1945):agreeduponSovietentryintowaragainstJapan,organizationofthe Unitednations;lefteasternEuropetotheSovietUnion. PotsdamConference(1945):meetingbetweentheleadersoftheUnitedStates,Britain,andthe SovietUnionin1945;thealliesacceptedSovietcontrolofeasternEurope;GermanyandAustria weredividedamongthevictors. ColdWar:strugglefrom1945to1989betweenthecommunistanddemocraticworlds;ended withthecollapseofRussia. easternblock:theeasternEuropeancountriesofPoland,Bulgaria,Romania,Hungary,and EasternGermanydominatedbytheSovietUnionduringtheColdWar. ironcurtain:termcoinedbyChurchillforthedivisionbetweentheWesternandSovietspheres. MarshallPlan:UnitedStatesprogrambegunin1947tohelpWesternEuropeannationsrecover fromthedevastationofWorldWarII. NATO:NorthAtlanticTreatyOrganization;formedin1949tocounterthethreatofSovietUnion; includedwesternEuropeandemocracies,Canada,andtheUnitedStates. WarsawPact:theSovietresponsetoNATO;madeupofSovietsandtheirEuropeansatellites. KoreanWar:warfollowingthe1949invasionofSouthKoreabyNorthKorea;communistpowers supportedtheformer,theWesternpowersthelatter. Vietnamesewar:alongstrugglebeginningwiththeVietnameseefforttoexpeltheFrench;the UnitedStatesunsuccessfullyintervenedtopreventcommunistvictory. nonalignment:newlyindependentformercolonialnationswhoproclaimedneutralityduringthe ColdWar.