Art History

Volume I: Prehistoric1400
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Introduction to Boundless Chapter 1 Chapter 2 Chapter 3 Chapter 4 Chapter 5 Chapter 6 Chapter 7 Chapter 8 Chapter 9 Thinking and Talking about Art Prehistoric Art Art of the Ancient Near East Ancient Egyptian Art Aegean Civilizations Ancient Greece The Etruscans The Romans Late Antiquity

Art History
Volume I: Prehistoric1400
Chapter 10 Chapter 11 Chapter 12 Chapter 13 Chapter 14 Chapter 15 Chapter 16 Chapter 17 Chapter 18 Chapter 19 The Byzantines Islamic Art Art of South and Southeast Asia Before 1200 Deities and Places of Worship Chinese and Korean Art Before 1279 Japan Before 1333 Native American Art Before 1300 Africa Before 1800 Early Medieval Europe Romanesque Art

Art History
Volume I: Prehistoric1400
Chapter 20 Chapter 21 Gothic Art Europe from 1200-1400

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Chapter 1

Thinking and Talking About Art

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Section 1

What is Art?

What Does Art Do? How Does Art Look? What Does Art Mean? What Makes Art Beautiful? Who is an Artist?

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What Does Art Do?

A fundamental purpose inherent to most artistic disciplines is the underlying intention to appeal to, and connect with, human emotion.

consciously or unconsciously. Art may be considered an exploration of the human condition, or what it is to be human. The decorative arts add aesthetic and design values to everyday objects, such as a glass or a chair (Figure 1.1). The utilitarian nature of these objects is enhanced in order to appeal to one's aesthetic sense of beauty. Entire schools of thought exist based on the

KEY POINTS

concepts of design theory intended for the physical world. Art can function on a therapeutic level as well, an idea that is explored by the discipline of art therapy. While definitions and practices vary, art therapy can be generally understood as a form of therapy that uses art media as its primary mode of communication. It is a relatively young discipline, first begun around the mid-20th century.
Figure 1.1 Bauhaus Chair The decorative arts add aesthetic and design values to everyday objects.

Art can arouse aesthetic or moral feelings, and can be understood as a way of communicating these feelings. The decorative arts add aesthetic and design values to the objects we use every day, such as a glass or a chair. Art can function on a therapeutic level as well, as with art therapy. Since the introduction of conceptual art and postmodern theory, it has been proven that anything can, in fact, be termed art. It can be said that the fine arts represent an exploration of the human condition and the attempt at a deeper understanding of life.

A fundamental purpose of most art forms is the underlying intention to appeal to, and connect with, human emotion. Art can arouse aesthetic or moral feelings, and can be understood as a way of communicating these feelings. Artists express something so that their audience is aroused to some extent, and this may be done

Historically, the fine arts were meant to appeal to the human intellect, though currently there are no true boundaries. Typically, fine art movements have reacted to each other both intellectually and aesthetically throughout the ages. With the introduction of conceptual art and postmodern theory, practically anything can be termed art. In general terms, the fine arts represent an exploration of the human condition and the attempt at a deeper understanding of life.
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How Does Art Look?

There is no single set of visual values that dene what art looks like.
KEY POINTS

How best to define the term art is a subject of constant contention; many books and journal articles have been published arguing over even the basics of what we mean by the term art. The main recent sense of the word art is roughly as an abbreviation for creative art or fine art. Here we mean that skill is being used to express the artists creativity, to engage the audiences aesthetic sensibilities, or to draw the audience towards consideration of the finer things. Another methodology is the institutional approach to art. This approach states that art must be examined as a sociological category, that whatever art schools and museums, and artists get away with is considered art regardless of formal definitions. The proceduralist approach to art often suggests that it is the process by which a work of art is created or viewed that makes it art, not any inherent feature of an object or how well received it is by the institutions of the art world after its introduction to society at large.

KEY POINTS (cont.)

more to do with the actual function of the object than any clear definable difference. Art usually implies no function other than to convey or communicate an idea. Theories of Art Classification Many have argued that it is a mistake to even try to define art or beautythat they have no essence and so can have no definition. Often, it is said that art is a cluster of related concepts rather than a single concept. Examples of this approach include Morris Weitz and Berys Gaut. Institutional Approach to Art Another methodology is the institutional approach to art. This approach states that art must be examined as a sociological category, that whatever art schools and museums, and artists get away with is considered art regardless of formal definitions. Most people did not consider a store-bought urinal or a sculptural depiction of a Brillo Box to be art until Marcel Duchamp and Andy Warhol, respectively, placed them in the context of art (in an art gallery), which then provided the association of these objects with the values that define art.

Formalism is a concept in art theory in which an art works value is determined solely by its form, or how it is made, with no regard for context. Since conceptual art and postmodern theory came into prominence, it has been proven that anything can be termed art.

What is Art? How best to define the term art is a subject of constant contention; many books and journal articles have been published arguing over even the basics of what we mean by the term art. The main recent sense of the word art is roughly as an abbreviation for creative art or fine art. Here we mean that skill is being used to express the artists creativity, to engage the audiences aesthetic sensibilities, or to draw the audience towards consideration of the finer things. Often, if the skill is being used in a functional object, people will consider it a craft instead of arta suggestion that is highly disputed by many Contemporary Craft thinkers. Likewise, if the skill is being used in a commercial or industrial way it may be considered design instead of art. Conversely, these may be defended as art forms, perhaps called applied art. Some thinkers, for instance, have argued that the difference between fine art and applied art has

The Proceduralist Approach to Art The proceduralist approach to art often suggests that it is the process by which a work of art is created or viewed that makes it art, not any inherent feature of an object, or how well received it is by the institutions of the art world after its introduction to society at large. For example, if John Dewey intended a piece to be a poemit would be a poem whether other poets acknowledge it or not. Whereas if exactly the same set of words was written by a journalist who intended them as shorthand notes to help him write a longer article later, they would not be considered a poem. There is no single set of values that define what art looks like. Since conceptual art and postmodern theory came into prominence, it has been proven that anything can be termed art. Even preceding these contemporary theories, pre-Modernist and Modernist movements in Western art history did not necessarily share a defined set of aesthetic traits (Figure 1.2) shows a Baroque painting. It will not necessarily share much with a contemporary performance piece, but they are both considered art. Despite the seemingly indefinable nature of art, there have always existed certain formal guidelines for its aesthetic judgment and analysis. Formalism is a concept in art theory in which an art works artistic value is determined solely by its form, or how it is made. Formalism evaluates works on a purely visual level, considering

Figure 1.2 Example of a Baroque painting by Caravaggio Baroque painting by Caravaggio.

medium and compositional elements as opposed to any reference to realism, context, or content. Another way in which art has been evaluated over the ages is through the elements of art, such as the following: texture form space shape color

 value line Together with the principles of art, the elements of art help us to analyze and discuss works of art. The principles of art are the traditional rules that artists might use to organize sensorially pleasing works. The following principles are commonly discussed in relation to aesthetically pleasing art works: movement unity harmony variety balance contrast proportion pattern
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What Does Art Mean?

Art refers to anything that is made by someone who is considered to be an artist.
KEY POINTS

The definition of an artist has evolved over time and varies based on context. The most esteemed art forms during ancient times were music and poetry. The division between the fine arts and the applied arts came into existence during the 16th century. Artistic movements such as Dadaism, Pop Art, performance art, and postmodern theory have made the notion of defining art particularly difficult. Anything can in fact be art, and the term continues to evolve.

Introduction Art can refer to anything made by someone considered an artist, yet the definition of an artist has evolved over time and varies based on context. In Ancient Greece, the term for art was techne, though that word did not denote art in the modern sense and was instead applied to human activities, especially handicrafts and technical work. The most esteemed ancient art forms were music and poetry,

and those were regarded as divinely inspired. Eventually, the idea of art expanded in scope to include music, poetry, literature, visual art, performing art, and decorative art. In the 16th century, several European academies were founded to teach art. At the time, the idea of teaching art was novel. The division between fine arts and applied arts came into existence during this time, and still exists today. The fine arts are those with an intellectual, theoretical, or academic basis, and the applied arts are those which apply aesthetic value to functional, everyday objects. Today, there are also numerous subcategories for types of art and art movements. What is Art? Aesthetics is the branch of philosophy dealing with the nature of art, taste, and the creation and appreciation of beauty. How best to define art is still regularly debated. Many books and journal articles have argued over even the basics of what we mean by calling something art. Theodor Adorno claimed, in 1969: It is self-evident that nothing concerning art is self-evident. Artists, philosophers, anthropologists, psychologists, and programmers all use the notion of art in their respective fields, yet give it considerably different operational definitions. Furthermore, it is clear that even the basic meaning of the term art has changed several times over the

centuries, and is continuing to evolve during the 20th century as well. The recent sense of the word art is a rough abbreviation for creative art or fine art. This meaning describes when skill is used to express the artists creativity, engage the audiences aesthetic sensibilities, or draw the audience towards consideration of the finer things. Often, if the skill is being used in a functional object, people will consider it a craft instead of art, a suggestion which is disputed by many people who make crafts. Likewise, if the skill is being used in a commercial or industrial way, it may be considered design instead of art or may be defended as art or applied art. Some have argued that the difference between fine art and applied art has more to do with the function of the object than any other clear distinction. This definition of art usually implies no function other than to convey or communicate an idea.
Andy Warhol reconceptualized the meaning of art when he exhibited a Brillo Box in an art gallery. Warhol demonstrated that what is often considered art is simply that which is exhibited in art galleries. Figure 1.3 Andy Warhol

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Currently, the term art refers to anything that is made by someone who is an artist. However, artistic movements such as Dadaism, Pop Art, performance art, and postmodern theory have made the notion of defining art particularly difficult. Most people would not have considered the depiction of a Brillo Box or a store-bought urinal to be art until Andy Warhol (Figure 1.3) and Marcel Duchamp, respectively, placed those objects in the context of art (i.e., an art gallery), which then associated these objects with a way that art could be defined.
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What Makes Art Beautiful?

Beauty in terms of art refers to an interaction between line, color, texture, sound, shape, motion, and size that is pleasing to the senses.
KEY POINTS

Beauty in art can be difficult to put into words due to a seeming lack of accurate language. There is a basic human instinct, an internal appreciation, for harmony, balance, and rhythm; this can be defined as beauty. Aesthetics is the branch of philosophy that deals with the nature and appreciation of art, beauty, and taste; aesthetics is central to any exploration of art. For Immanuel Kant, the aesthetic experience of beauty is a judgment of a subjective, but common, human truth. For Arthur Schopenhauer, aesthetic contemplation of beauty is the freest and most pure and truthful that intellect can be, and is therefore beautiful. An aesthetic judgment cannot be an empirical judgment but must instead be processed on a more intuitive level.

What makes art beautiful is a complicated concept, since beauty is subjective and can change based on context. But, there is a basic human instinct, an internal appreciation, for harmony, balance, and

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rhythmthis can be defined as beauty. Beauty in terms of art usually refers to an interaction between line, color, texture, sound, shape, motion, and size that is pleasing to the senses. Aesthetics is the branch of philosophy that deals with the nature and appreciation of art, beauty, and taste; aesthetics is central to any exploration of art. The word aesthetic is derived from the Greek aisthetikos, meaning esthetic, sensitive, or sentient. In practice, aesthetic judgment refers to the sensory contemplation or appreciation of an object (not necessarily a work of art), while artistic judgment refers to the recognition, appreciation, or criticism of a work of art. Numerous philosophers have attempted to tackle the concept of beauty and art. For Immanuel Kant, the aesthetic experience of beauty is a judgment of a subjective, but common, human truth. He argued that all people should agree that a rose is beautiful if it indeed is. There are many common conceptions of beauty; for example, Michelangelos paintings in the Sistine Chapel are widely recognized as beautiful works of art (Figure 1.4). However, Kant believes beauty cannot be reduced to any more basic set of characteristics or features. For Arthur Schopenhauer, aesthetic contemplation of beauty is the freest and most pure that intellect can be. He believes that only in terms of aesthetics do we contemplate perfection of form without any kind of worldly agenda.

Beauty in art can be difficult to put into words due to a seeming lack of accurate language. An aesthetic judgment cannot be an empirical judgment but must instead be processed on a more intuitive level. Art is often intended to appeal to and connect with human emotion.
Figure 1.4 Painting by Michelangelo from the Sistine Chapel A painting by Michelangelo from the Sistine Chapel

It can arouse aesthetic or moral feelings and can be understood as a way of communicating these feelings. Artists express something so that their audience is stimulated in some way; this may be done consciously or unconsciously. Art may be considered an exploration of the human conditionwhat it means to be human.
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Who is an Artist?
An artist is a person who is involved in the wide range of activities that are related to creating art.

In ancient Greece and Rome there was no word for artist. The Greek word techne is the closest that exists to art and means mastery of any art or craft. From the Latin tecnicus derives the English words technique, technology, and technical. From these words we can denote the ancient standard of equating art with manual labor or craft. The nine muses of ancient Greece each oversaw a different field of human creation. The creation of poetry and music was considered to be divinely inspired and therefore was held in very high esteem. However, there was no muse identified with the painting and sculpture; ancient Greek culture held these art forms in low social regard, considering work of this sort to be more along the lines of manual labor. During the Middle Ages, the word artista referred to something resembling craftsman, or student of the arts. The first division into major and minor arts dates back to the 1400s with the work of Leon Battista Alberti, which focused on the importance of the intellectual skills of the artist rather than the manual skills of a craftsman. The European academies of the 16th century formally solidified the gap between the fine and the applied arts, which exists in varying degrees to this day. Generally speaking, the applied arts apply design and aesthetics to objects of everyday use, while the fine arts serve as intellectual stimulation.

KEY POINTS

In ancient Greece and Rome there was no word for artist, but there were nine muses who oversaw a different field of human creation related to music and poetry, with no muse for visual arts. During the Middle Ages, the word artista referred to something resembling craftsman." The first division into major and minor arts dates back to the 1400s with the work of Leon Battist Alberti. The European Academies of the 16th century formally solidified the gap between the fine and the applied arts which exists in varying degrees to this day. The idea of defining art today is far more difficult than it has ever been.

An artist is a person who is involved in the wide range of activities that are related to creating art. The word has transformed through time and context, but the modern understanding of the term generally refers to a person who is involved solely in the visual arts, as opposed to a musician or an actor.

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Currently, the term artist typically refers to anyone who is engaged in any activity that is deemed to be an art. However, the questions of what is art and who is an artist are not easily answered. The idea of defining art today is far more

Figure 1.5 Andy Warhol's Campbells Soup Cans at the MOMA Andy Warhol's work has raised questions about what is art.

difficult than it has ever been. After the exhibition during the Pop Art movement of Andy Warhols Brillo Boxes and Campbells Soup Cans, the questions of what is art? and who is an artist? entered a more conceptual realm (Figure 1.5). Anything can in fact be art, and the term remains constantly evolving.
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Section 2

Form

Line Light and Value Color Texture and Pattern Shape and Volume Space Time and Motion Chance, Improvisation, and Spontaneity Inclusion of All Five Senses
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Line
Line is dened as a mark that connects the space between two points, taking any form along the way.
KEY POINTS

The line is an essential element of art. A line is defined as a mark that connects the space between two points, taking any form along the way. A line is used most often to define shape in twodimensional works and is the most ancient form of mark making, as well as the most universal. There are many different types of lines, all characterized by their lengths being greater than their width, as well as by the paths that they take. Depending on how they are used, lines help to determine the motion, direction, and energy of a work of art. The quality of a line refers to the character that is presented by a line in order to animate a surface to varying degrees. Actual lines are lines that are physically present, existing as solid connections between one or more points. Implied line refers to the path that the viewers eye takes as it follows shapes, colors and forms along any given path. Implied lines give works of art a sense of motion, and keep the viewer engaged in a composition. Many implied lines are seen in Jaques-Louis Davids Oath of the Horatii, connecting the figures and action of the piece by leading the eye of the viewer through the unfolding drama (Figure 1.6). Straight or classic lines provide stability and structure to a composition and can be vertical, horizontal, or diagonal on the surface of the work. Expressive lines refer to curved marks that increase the sense of dynamism of a work of art. These types of line

Actual lines are lines that are physically present, existing as solid connections between one or more points. Implied line refers to the path that the viewers eye takes as it follows shapes, colors, and forms along any given path. Straight or classic lines provide stability and structure to a composition and can be vertical, horizontal, or diagonal on a work's surface. Expressive lines refer to curved marks that increase the sense of dynamism of a work of art. The outline or contour lines create a border or path around the edge of a shape, thereby outlining and defining it. Cross contour lines delineate differences in the features of a surface. Hatch lines are a series of short lines repeated in intervals, typically in a single direction, and are used to add shading and texture to surfaces. Cross-hatch lines provide additional texture and tone to the image surface and can be oriented in any direction.

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Figure 1.6 "Oath of the Horatii" by Jaques-iLous David Many implied lines connect the gures and action of the piece by leading the eye of the viewer through the unfolding drama.

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often follow an undetermined path of sinuous curves. The outline or contour lines create a border or path around the edge of a shape, thereby outlining and defining it. Cross contour lines delineate differences in the features of a surface. They can give the illusion of three dimensions and a sense of form or shading. Hatch lines are a series of short lines repeated in intervals, typically in a single direction, and are used to add shading and texture to surfaces. Cross-hatch lines provide additional texture and tone to the image surface and can be oriented in any direction. Layers of cross-hatching can add rich texture and volume to image surfaces. Numerous examples of both hatch and cross-hatch lines appear in the work of Albrecht Durer.

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Light and Value

Value refers to the use of light and dark in art.
KEY POINTS

Figure 1.7 Value Scale

In painting, which uses subtractive color, value changes are achieved by adding black or white to a color. Value in art is also sometimes referred to as tint in terms of light hues, and shade in terms of dark hues. Values near the lighter end of the spectrum are termed highkeyed while those on the darker end or low-keyed. In two-dimensional art works, the use of value can help to give a shape the illusion of mass or volume. Chiaroscuro was a common technique in Baroque painting and refers to clear tonal contrasts exemplified by very highkeyed whites, placed directly against very low-keyed darks.

The value scale represents di!erent degrees of light used in artwork.

lighter end of the spectrum are termed high-keyed, while those on the darker end are low-keyed. In two-dimensional art works, the use of value can help to give a shape the illusion of mass or volume. It will also give the entire composition a sense of lighting. High contrast refers to the placing of lighter areas directly against much darker ones, so their difference is showcased, creating a dramatic effect. High contrast also refers to the presence of more blacks than white or grey. Lowcontrast images result from placing mid-range values together so there is not much visible difference between them, creating a more subtle mood. In Baroque painting, the technique of chiaroscuro was used to produce highly dramatic effects in art. Chiaroscuro, which means literally light-dark in Italian, refers to clear tonal contrasts exemplified by very high-keyed whites, placed directly against very low-keyed darks. Candle-lit scenes were common in Baroque

In art, light is manipulated in several ways. The use of light and dark in art refers to its value, which is also sometimes referred to as tint (light hues) and shade (dark hues). In painting, which uses subtractive color, value changes are achieved by adding black or white to a color. Artists may also employ shading, which refers to a more subtle manipulation of value. The value scale is used to show the standard variations in tones (Figure 1.7). Values near the

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Figure 1.8 "The Denial of St. Peter" by Carvagio Carvagio's "The Denial of St. Peter" is an excellent example of how light can be manipulated in artwork.

Color
Color is a fundamental artistic element which refers to the use of hue in art and design.
KEY POINTS

Color theory first appeared in the 17th century, when Isaac Newton discovered that white light could be passed through a prism and divided into the full spectrum of colors. The spectrum of colors contained in white light is, in order, red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo and violet.

painting as they effectively produced this dramatic type of effect. Caravaggio used a high contrast palette in such works as The Denial of St. Peter to create his expressive chiaroscuro scene (Figure 1.8).
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Color theory divides color into the primary colors of red, yellow and blue, which cannot be mixed from other pigments, and the secondary colors of green, orange and violet, which result from different combinations of the primary colors. Primary and secondary colors are combined in various mixtures to create tertiary colors. Complementary colors represent the most aesthetically pleasing combinations of the various colors and are found opposite each other on the color wheel.

Color is a fundamental artistic element which refers to the use of hue in art and design. It is the most complex of the elements because of the wide array of combinations inherent to it. Color theory first appeared in the 17th century when Isaac Newton

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discovered that white light could be passed through a prism and divided into the full spectrum of colors. The spectrum of colors contained in white light is, in order, red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo and violet. Color theory subdivides color into the primary colors of red, yellow and blue, which cannot be mixed from other pigments, and the secondary colors of green, orange and violet, which result from different combinations of the primary colors. Primary and secondary colors are combined in various mixtures to create tertiary colors. Color theory is centered around the color wheel, a diagram that shows the relationship of the various colors to each other (Figure 1.9). Color value refers to the relative lightness or darkness of a color. In addition, tint and shade are important aspects of color theory and result from variations in value. Tone refers to the gradation or subtle changes of a color on a lighter or darker scale. Saturation refers to the intensity of a color; for example, the primaries are the most intense of the colors. Additive color theory is used when different colored lights are projected onto each other. Television screens, for example, use additive color theory. They are made up of RGB colors; that is, the primary colors of red, blue and green. Subtractive color theory, or process color, works as the reverse of additive color theory.

Figure 1.9 ! Color Wheel The color wheel is a diagram that shows the relationship of the various colors to each other.

Common applications of subtractive theory are used in printing and photography. In subtractive color theory the primary colors are cyan, magenta, yellow, and black. Another important concept in color theory is that of complementary colors, which are found directly opposite each other on the color wheel. Complementary colors (purple and yellow, green and red, orange and blue) represent the most aesthetically pleasing combinations of the various colors.
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Texture and Pattern

Texture refers to the tactile quality of the surface of the art object while pattern refers to a type of theme, or recurring visual event.
KEY POINTS

types of texture: visual and actual. Visual texture refers to an implied sense of texture that the artist creates through the use of various artistic elements such as line, shading and color. Actual texture refers to the physical rendering or the real surface qualities we can notice by touching an object, as is the case with threedimensional art. It is possible for an artwork to contain numerous visual textures, yet still remain smooth to the touch. Take for example Realist or Illusionist works, which rely on the heavy use of paint and varnish, yet maintain an utterly smooth surface. In Jan Van Eycks painting
Figure 1.10 "The Virgin of Chancellor Rolin" by Jan Van Eyck "The Virgin of Chancellor Rolin" has a great deal of texture in the clothing and robes, but the actual surface of the work is very smooth.

Visual texture refers to an implied sense of texture that the artist creates through the use of various artistic elements such as line, shading and color. Actual texture refers to the physical rendering or the real surface qualities we can notice by touching an object. Visible brushstrokes and excess use of paint will create a texture that will add to the expressiveness of a painting, and draw attention to specific areas within it. A recurring pattern is known as a motif. It is possible for an artwork to contain numerous visual textures but still remain smooth to the touch.

Texture Texture in art stimulates the senses of sight and touch and refers to the tactile quality of the surface of the art. It is based on the perceived texture of the canvas or surface, which includes the application of the paint. In the context of artwork, there are two

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Figure 1.11 "Starry Night" by Vincent Van Gogh "Starry Night" contains a great deal of actual texture through the thick application of paint.

Pattern Pattern refers to a type of theme, or recurring visual event, in an artwork. Patterns often make use of symmetry in addition to the repetition of elements in a predictable manner. Visual patterns are everywhere in both art and nature. A recurring pattern is known as a motif. Common visual patterns include simple decorations such as stripes and polka dots, but can also be more complex such as the elaborate patterns we see exemplified in Rococo design.
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The Virgin of Chancellor Rolin we can notice a great deal of texture in the clothing and robes especially, while the surface of the work remains very smooth (Figure 1.10). Paintings often use actual texture as well, which we can notice through the application of paint. Visible brushstrokes and excessive use of paint will create a texture that adds to the expressiveness of a painting, and draw attention to specific areas within it. The artist Vincent Van Gogh is known to have used a great deal of actual texture in his paintings, which we can see in the thick application of paint in Starry Night (Figure 1.11).

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Shape and Volume

Shape refers to area in two-dimensional space that is dened by edges; volume is three-dimensional, exhibiting height, width, and depth.
KEY POINTS

Positive space refers to the space of the defined shape, or figure. Typically, the positive space is the subject of an artwork. Negative space refers to the space that exists around and between one or more shapes. Positive and negative space can become difficult to distinguish from each other in certain more abstract works. A plane refers to any surface area within space. In twodimensional art, the picture plane is the flat surface that the

Positive space refers to the space of the defined shape, or figure. Negative space refers to the space that exists around and between one or more shapes. A plane in art refers to any surface area within space. Form is a concept that is related to shape, and can be created by combining two or more shapes, resulting in a threedimensional shape. Art makes use of both actual and implied volume. Shape, volume, and space, whether actual or implied, are the basis of the perception of reality.
Figure 1.12 "Flowers in a Jug" by Hans Memling Three-dimensional gures may be depicted on the at picture plane through the use of the artistic elements to imply depth and volume.

Shape refers to an area in two-dimensional space that is defined by edges. Shapes are by definition always flat in nature and can be geometricsuch as a circle, square, or pyramidor organic, such as a leaf or a chair. Shapes can be created by placing two different textures, or shape-groups, next to each other, thereby creating an enclosed area, such as a painting of an object floating in water.

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image is created upon, such as paper, canvas or wood. Threedimensional figures may be depicted on the flat picture plane through the use of the artistic elements to imply depth and volume, as seen in the painting Flowers in a Jug by Hans Memling (Figure 1.12). Form is a concept that is related to shape. Combining two or more shapes can create a three-dimensional shape. Form is always considered three-dimensional as it exhibits volume, or height, width, and depth. Art makes use of both actual and implied volume. While three-dimensional forms, such as sculpture, have volume inherently, volume can also be simulated, or implied, in a twodimensional work such as a painting. Shape, volume, and space, whether actual or implied, are the basis of the perception of reality.
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Space
Space in art can be dened as the area that exists between two identiable points in a work of art.
KEY POINTS

The organization of space is referred to as composition and is an essential component to any work of art. The space of an artwork includes the background, foreground, and middle ground, as well as the distance between, around, and within things. There are two types of space: positive space and negative space. Linear perspective has commonly been used since 15th century Europe to define space in art and refers to an implied geometric pictorial view. After spending hundreds of years developing linear perspective, Western artistic notions about the accurate depiction of space went through a radical shift at the beginning of the 20th century. The innovation of Cubism and subsequent movements represented an important change in the use of space within Western art, one whose impact is still being felt.

Space in art refers to the empty area surrounding real or implied objects. Space can also be defined as the area that exists between

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Figure 1.13 "The Last Supper" by Leonardo da Vinci

horizon line and vanishing points allows the artist to depict the realistic perspective of receding distance in representational works of art. One-point perspective occurs when receding lines converge at a single point on the horizon line. A good example of one-point perspective can be seen in the painting, The Last Supper, by Leonard Da Vinci (Figure 1.13). Two-point perspective occurs when the vertical edge of a cube faces the viewer while each of its two sides are depicted receding into the distance. Three-point perspective is used to project a birds eye view by employing vanishing points both above and below the horizon line at the same time. The perspective system is a highly used convention in Western art. Visually, it is an illusionist phenomenon, well suited to realism and the depiction of reality as it appears. After spending hundreds of years developing linear perspective, Western artistic notions about the accurate depiction of space went through a radical shift at the beginning of the 20th century. The Cubist works of Picasso and Georges Braque are credited with reinventing the pictorial space within Western art. Cubist art is characterized by its tendency to flatten the picture plane, and its use of abstract shapes and irregular forms suggesting multiple points of view within a single image (Figure 1.14). The innovation of Cubism and subsequent

"The Last Supper" is an example of one-point perspective.

two identifiable points in a work of art. The organization of space is referred to as composition and is an essential component to any work of art. The space of an artwork includes the background, foreground and middle ground, as well as the distance between, around, and within things. There are two types of space, positive space and negative space. Positive space is defined as the subject of an artwork, while "negative space" is defined as the space around the subject. Linear perspective, commonly used since 15th century Europe to define space in art, refers to an implied geometric pictorial view. With its use, we are able to create the illusion of three-dimensional space on flat surfaces, such as the picture plane. The use of a

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movements represented an important change in the use of space within Western art, one whose impact is still being felt.
Figure 1.14 "Les Desmoiselles d'Avignon" by Pablo Picasso "Les Desmoiselles d'Avignon" is an instance of cubist art, which has a"tendency to atten the picture plane, and its use of abstract shapes and irregular forms suggesting multiple points of view within a single image

Time and Motion

Motion is one of the tools by which artists organize their artistic elements, and it can be achieved in static and time-based art forms.
KEY POINTS

Techniques such as scale and proportion are used to create the feeling of motion or the passing of time in static a visual piece. The placement of a repeated element in different area within an artwork is another way to imply motion and the passing of time. Visual experiments in time and motion were first produced in the mid-19th century and the photographer Eadweard Muybridge is well-known for his sequential shots. The time-based mediums of film, video, kinetic sculpture and performance art show time and motion by their very definitions.

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Motion or movement is considered to be one of the principles of art: that is, one of the tools by which artists organize their artistic elements. This can be achieved both in static art forms, and, more easily, in time-based art forms. Motion can show a direct action or it

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can show the intended path for the viewers eye to follow through a piece. Techniques such as scale and proportion are used to create the feeling of motion or the passing of time in static visual artwork. For example, on a flat picture plane, an image that is smaller and lighter colored than the rest will appear to be in the background. Another technique for implying motion and/or time is the placement of a repeated element in different area within an artwork.

Figure 1.15 "Nude Descending a Staircase" by Marcel Duchamp

motion of his subjects. Another important work in terms of motion and time is Marcel Duchamps Nude Descending a Staircase (Figure 1.15). Known as a Futurist work, this painting also has Cubist influences and exemplifies an absolute feeling of movement from the upper left to lower right corner of the piece. While static art forms have the ability to imply or suggest time and motion, the time-based mediums of film, video, kinetic sculpture, and performance art demonstrate time and motion by their very definitions. Film is many static images that are quickly passed through a lens. Video is essentially the same process, but instead it is digitally-based and has fewer frames per second. Performance art takes place in real-time, and makes use of real people and objects, much like theatre. Kinetic art is art that moves or depends on movement, for its effect. All of these mediums inherently use time and motion to express their narratives and imagery.
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This work represents Duchamp's conception of motion and time.

Visual experiments in time and motion were first produced in the mid-19th century. The photographer Eadweard Muybridge is wellknown for his sequential shots of humans and animals walking, running, and jumping; which he displayed together to illustrate the

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Chance, Improvisation, and Spontaneity

Chance, improvisation and spontaneity are elements that can be used to create art, or they can be the very purpose of the artwork itself.
KEY POINTS

itself. Collaborative work, public art, performance art, and interactive art all make great use of these elements. Dadaism was an art movement popular in Europe in the early 20th century. It was started by artists and poets in Zurich, Switzerland with strong anti-war and left leaning sentiments. The movement rejected logic and reason, and instead prized irrationality, nonsense and intuition. Marcel Duchamp was a dominant member of the Dadaist movement, known for exhibiting ready-mades, which were objects that were purchased or found and then declared art (Figure 1.16). Dadaists used what was readily available to create what was termed an assemblage, using items such as photographs, trash, stickers, bus passes, and notes. The work of the Dadaists involved chance, improvisation and spontaneity to create art. They are known for using automatic writing or stream of consciousness writing, which often took nonsensical forms, but presented potentially surprising juxtapositions and unconscious creativity. The Surrealist movement, which developed out of Dadaism primarily as a political movement, featured an element of surprise, unexpected juxtaposition and the tapping of the unconscious mind. Andre Breton, the leader of Surrealism, wrote the Surrealist manifesto, defining it as follows:

The work of the Dadaists involved chance, improvisation and spontaneity to create art. Dadaists are known for their automatic writing or stream of consciousness writing, which often took nonsensical forms, but presented potentially surprising juxtapositions and unconscious creativity. Surrealist works, much like Dadaist works, feature an element of surprise, unexpected juxtaposition and tapping of the unconscious mind. Surrealists are known for having invented exquisite corpse drawing. The Fluxus movement was known for its happenings, which are performance events or situations that were meant to be considered art.

Chance, improvisation and spontaneity are elements that can be used to create art, or they can be the very purpose of the artwork

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Surrealism, n. Pure psychic automatism, by which one proposes to express, either verbally, in writing, or by any other manner, the real functioning of thought. Dictation of thought in the absence of all control exercised by reason, outside of all aesthetic and moral preoccupation. Like Dadaism before it, the Surrealist movement stated the unimportance of reason and planning and instead relied heavily on chance and surprise in order to harness the creativity of the unconscious mind. Surrealists are known for having invented exquisite corpse drawing: a method by which words and images are collaboratively assembled one after another. Many Surrealist techniques, including exquisite corpse drawing, allowed for the playful creation of art through value assigned to spontaneous production. The Fluxus movement of the 1960s was highly influenced by Dadaism. Fluxus was an international network of artists that skillfully blended together many different disciplines, and whose work was characterized by the us of an extreme DIY aesthetic and heavily intermedia artworks. In addition, Fluxus was known for its happenings which were multi-disciplinary performance events or situations that could take place anywhere and were meant to be considered art. Audience participation was essential in a happening, and therefore relied on a great deal of surprise and improvisation.

Key elements of happenings were often planned, but artists left room for improvisation, which eliminated the boundary between the artwork and the viewer and thus made the audience an important part of the art.

Figure 1.16 Marcel Duchamp's "Urinal" Marcel Duchamp's "Urinal" is an instance of a "readymade,""which were objects that were purchased or found and then declared art.

Dadaism, Surrealism and the Fluxus movement set the stage for subsequent artists to make use of the elements of chance, improvisation and spontaneity. Mediums such as of new media, computer based and interactive art have grown immensely in contemporary times due to the influence of these earlier movements.
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Inclusion of All Five Senses

The inclusion of the ve human senses in a single work takes place most often in installation and performance art.
KEY POINTS

while somewhat less common for art to address the sense of smell and taste. The German word Gesamtkunstwerk, meaning total work of art, refers to a genre of artwork that attempts to address all five human senses. The concept was brought to prominence by the German

In contemporary art, it is quite common for work to cater to the senses of sight, touch and hearing, while somewhat less common for art to address the sense of smell and taste. Gesamtkunstwerk, or, total work of art, is a German word that refers to an artwork that attempts to address all five human senses. Installation art is a genre of three-dimensional artwork that is designed to transform the viewers perception of a space. Virtual reality is a term that refers to computer-simulated environments.

Figure 1.17 "Embankment" by Rachel Whiteread Whiteread's installation, "Embarkment," is a type of art designed to transform the viewer's perception of space.

The inclusion of the five human senses in a single work takes place most often in installation and performance art. In addition, works that strive to include all senses at once generally make use of some form of interactivity. Historically, this attention to all senses was reserved to ritual and ceremony. In contemporary art, it is quite common for work to cater to the senses of sight, touch and hearing,

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opera composer Richard Wagner in 1849. Wagner staged an opera that sought to unite the art forms, which he felt had become overly disparate. Wagners operas paid great attention to every detail in order to achieve a state of total artistic immersion. Gesamkunstwerk is now an accepted English term relating to aesthetics but has evolved from Wagners definition to mean the inclusion of the five senses in art. Installation art is a genre of three-dimensional artwork that is designed to transform the viewers perception of a space. Embankment, by Rachel Whiteread, exemplifies this type of transformation (Figure 1.17). The term generally pertains to an interior space, while Land Art typically refers to an outdoor space, though there is some overlap between these terms. The Fluxus movement of the 1960s is key to the development of installation and performance art as mediums. Happenings are multi-disciplinary performance events or situations that are meant to be considered art. Interactivity in the form of audience participation is essential to a happening and therefore involves all of the senses of the participants. The happenings popularized by the Fluxus movement revolutionized the practice of performance art. Virtual reality is a term that refers to computer-simulated environments. Currently, most virtual reality environments are visual experiences, but some simulations include additional sensory

information. Immersive virtual reality has developed in recent years with the improvement of technology. Artists have been exploring the possibilities of simulated and virtual realities with the expansion of the discipline of cyberarts. What constitutes cyberart continues to be up for debate, however. Environments such as the virtual world of Second Life are generally accepted, but whether or not video games should be considered art remains undecided.
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Section 3

Composition

Balance Rhythm Proportion and Scale Emphasis Unity and Variety

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Balance
Balance is the placement of elements in a work of art in relation to each other through organization, positioning, and relative weights.
KEY POINTS

how things should appear, the overall balance of a given composition contributes to outside judgments of the work. Hence, a harmonious compositional balance involves arranging elements so that no one part of a work overpowers or seems heavier than any other part. The three most common principles of compositional balance are symmetrical, asymmetrical, and radial (Figure 1.18). In art, symmetry generally conveys an imprecise sense of harmonious or aesthetically pleasing proportionality and balance, such that it reflects beauty or
The three common types of balance: symmetric, asymmetric, and radial. Figure 1.18 Compositional Balance

A harmonious compositional balance involves arranging elements so that no one part of a work overpowers or seems heavier than any other part. The three most common principles of compositional balance are symmetrical, asymmetrical, and radial. When balanced, a composition appears stable and visually right. Just as symmetry relates to aesthetic preference and reflects an intuitive sense for how things should appear, the overall balance of a given composition contributes to outside judgments of the work.

perfection. Symmetrical balance balance is the most stable, in a visual sense. When both sides of an artwork on either side of the horizontal or vertical axis of the picture plane are exactly (or nearly exactly the same), the work is said to exhibit this type of balance (Figure 1.19). The opposite of symmetry is asymmetry. Asymmetry is defined as the absence of, or a violation of, the principles of symmetry. Examples of asymmetry appear commonly in architecture. Although pre-modern architectural styles tended to place an emphasis on symmetry (except where extreme site

Compositional balance refers to the placement of various elements in a work of art in relation to each other through their organization and positioning. The elements may include the size, shape, color, and arrangement of objects or shapes. When balanced, a composition appears stable and visually right. Just as symmetry relates to aesthetic preference and reflects an intuitive sense for

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conditions or historical developments lead away from this classical ideal), modernist and postmodern architects frequently used asymmetry as a design element. For instance, while most bridges employ a symmetrical form due to intrinsic simplicities of design, analysis, fabrication, and economical use of materials, a number of modern bridges have deliberately departed from this, either in
Figure 1.19 Vitruvian Man

Figure 1.20 Oakland Bay Bridge

response to site-specific considerations or to create a dramatic design statement (Figure 1.20). Radial balance refers to circular elements in compositions. In classical geometry, a radius of a circle or sphere is any line segment from its center to its perimeter. By extension, the radius of a circle or sphere is the length of any such segment, which is half the diameter. The radius may be
Eastern span replacement of the San FranciscoOakland Bay Bridge reects asymmetrical architectural design.

between any two points of the figure. The inradius of a geometric figure is usually the radius of the largest circle or sphere contained in it. The inner radius of a ring, tube or other hollow object is the radius of its cavity. The name radial or radius comes from Latin radius, meaning ray but also the spoke of a circular chariot wheel.
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Leonardo da Vinci's Vitruvian Man (ca. 1487) is often used as a representation of symmetry in the human body and, by extension, the natural universe.

more than half the diameter, which is usually defined as the maximum distance

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Rhythm
In art composition, pattern and rhythm (also known as repetition) are dened as showing consistency with colors or lines.
KEY POINTS

and pattern. This list may vary according to the art educator, but encompasses the generally accepted principles. Rhythm is the subject elaborated at length here.
Figure 1.21 Birth of Venus

Rhythm may be generally defined as a movement marked by the regulated succession of strong and weak elements, or of opposite or different conditions. Rhythm may also refer to visual presentation, as timed movement through space, and a common language of pattern unites rhythm with geometry. For instance, placing a red spiral at the bottom left and top right, for example, will cause the eye to move from one spiral, to the other, and everything in between. It is indicating movement in the piece by the repetition of elements and therefore can make artwork seem active.

In Botticelli's famous Birth of Venus, the repetition of color and the placement of certain gures (such as the owers), suggest movement, action, and control the movement of the eye over the painting.

The principles of visual art are the rules, tools, and guidelines that artists use to organize the elements of art in a piece of work. When the principals and elements are successfully combined they aid in creating an aesthetically pleasing or interesting work of art. Some principles of art that have been identified are movement, unity, harmony, variety, balance, rhythm, emphasis, contrast, proportion,

Rhythm (from Greek rhythmos, any regular recurring motion, symmetry) may be generally defined as a movement marked by the regulated succession of strong and weak elements, or of opposite or different conditions. This general meaning of regular recurrence or pattern in time may be applied to a wide variety of cyclical natural phenomena having a periodicity or frequency of

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anything from microseconds to millions of years. In the performance arts, rhythm is the timing of events on a human scale, of musical sounds and silences, of the steps of a dance, or the meter of spoken language and poetry. Rhythm may also refer to visual presentation, as timed movement through space, and a common language of pattern unites rhythm with geometry. Specifically in art composition, pattern and rhythm (also known as repetition) is showing consistency with colors or lines. For instance, placing a red spiral at the bottom left and top right, for example, will cause the eye to move from one spiral, to the other, and everything in between. It is indicating movement in the piece by the repetition of elements and therefore can make artwork seem active (Figure 1.21).
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Proportion and Scale

Proportion is a measurement of the size and quantity of elements within a composition.
KEY POINTS

Hierarchical proportion is a technique used in art, mostly in sculpture and painting, in which the artist uses unnatural proportion or scale to depict the relative importance of the figures in the artwork. Mathematically, proportion is the relation between elements and a whole. In architecture, the whole is not just a building but the set and setting of the site. Among the various ancient artistic traditions, the harmonic proportions, human proportions, cosmic orientations, various aspects of sacred geometry, and small whole-number ratios were all applied as part of the practice of architectural design.

Proportion is a measurement of the size and quantity of elements within a composition. Hierarchical proportion is a technique used in art, mostly in sculpture and painting, in which the artist uses unnatural proportion or scale to depict the relative importance of the figures in the artwork. In ancient Egyptian art, for example, gods and important political figures appear much larger than

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Figure 1.22 Narmer

and setting of the site. The things that make a building and its site well shaped include everything from the orientation of the site and the buildings on it, to the features of the grounds on which it is situated. Light, shade, wind, elevation, and choice of materials all relate to a standard of architectural proportion. Architecture has often used proportional systems to generate or constrain the forms considered suitable for inclusion in a building. In almost every building tradition, there is a system of mathematical relations which governs the relationships between aspects of the design. These systems of proportion are often quite simple: whole number ratios or incommensurable ratios (such as the golden ratio) were determined using geometrical methods. Generally, the goal of a proportional system is to produce a sense of coherence and harmony among the elements of a building. Among the various ancient artistic traditions, the harmonic proportions, human proportions, cosmic orientations, various aspects of sacred geometry, and small whole-number ratios were all applied as part of the practice of architectural design. For instance, the Greek classical architectural orders are all proportioned rather than dimensioned or measured modules, because the earliest modules were not based on body parts and their spans (fingers, palms, hands, and feet) but rather on column diameters and the widths of arcades and fenestrations (Figure 1.23). Typically, one

Narmer, a Predynastic ruler, accompanied by men carrying the standards of various local gods. This piece demonstrates the ancient Egyptians' use of proportion, with Narmer appearing larger than the other gures depicted.

common people (Figure 1.22). Beginning with the Renaissance, artists recognized the connection between proportion and the illusion of three-dimensional space, and images of the human body in exaggerated proportion were used to depict the reality an artist interpreted. Mathematically, proportion is the relation between elements and a whole. In architecture, the whole is not just a building but the set

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Figure 1.23 Classical Roman Columns Orders of Architecture in the Greek Columns

set of column diameter modules used for casework and architectural moldings by the Egyptians and Romans is based on the proportions of the palm and the finger, while another less delicate moduleused for door and window trim, tile work, and roofing in Mesopotamia and Greecewas based on the proportions of the hand and the thumb. Dating back to the Pythagoreans, there was an idea that proportions should be related to standards, and that the more general and formulaic the standards, the better. This conceptthat there should be beauty and elegance evidenced by a skillful composition of well understood elementsunderlies mathematics, art, and architecture. The classical standards are a series of paired opposites designed to expand the dimensional constraints of harmony and proportion.
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Emphasis
Elements of composition are a commonly used group of aspects to create emphasis in a work of art.

Texture is the quality of a surface, often corresponding to its tactile character, or what may be sensed by touch. Texture may be used, for example, in portraying fabrics. It can be explicitly rendered, or implied with other artistic elements such as lines, shading, and variation of color.

KEY POINTS

Form is the external appearance of a clearly defined area. Form may be created by the forming of two or more shapes or as three-dimensional shapes (cube, pyramid, sphere, cylinder, etc.). It may be enhanced by tone, texture and color and is considered three-dimensional showing height, width and depth. Space is the area provided for a particular purpose. Space includes the background, foreground and middle ground and refers to the distances or areas around, between or within things. There are two types of space: positive and negative space. Positive space refers to the space of a shape representing the subject matter, while negative space refers to the space around and between the subject matter. Shape pertains to the use of areas in two dimensional space

For example, objects placed at a distances from the viewers eye are rendered with less details, clarity, and intensity than the closer ones. There are many techniques that artists use to create this emphasis: including line, color, shape, texture, form, and value. Although artists use these techniques to create emphasis in a composition, there also needs to be a compositional balance in order to create an aesthetically pleasing piece. There are numerous approaches or compositional techniques to achieving a sense of unity within an artwork, depending on the goals of the artist. Conventional composition can be achieved by utilizing a number of techniques: including the rule of space, the rule of odds, and the rule of thirds.

Elements of composition are a commonly used group of aspects to create emphasis in a work of art. For example, objects placed at a distances from the viewer's eye are rendered with less details, clarity, and intensity than the closer ones. There are many techniques that artists use to create this emphasis:

that can be defined by edges, setting one flat specific space apart from another. Shapes can be geometric (square, circle, hexagon) or organic (such as the shape of a puddle or blob). Color pertains to the use of hue in artwork and design. Color is the quality of an object or substance with respect to the one

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reflected by it, and usually determined visually by measurement of hue, saturation and brightness of the reflected light. Value, or tone, refers to the use of light and dark, shade and highlight, in an artwork. Some people also refer the lightness and darkness in an artwork as tints (light) and shades (dark). Value is thus directly related to contrast and is the relative degree of lightness in the graphic work of art or painting. Line is defined as a mark that spans a distance between two points (or the path of a moving point), taking any form along the way. As an art element, line pertains to the use of various marks, outlines and implied lines in artwork and design, most often used to define shape in two-dimensional work. Implied line is the path that the viewer's eye takes as it follows shapes, colors, and form along a path, but may not be continuous or physically connected. Line is an element of art that is simplest, most ancient, and most universal means for creating visual arts. Although artists use these techniques to create emphasis in a composition, there also needs to be a compositional balance in order to create an aesthetically pleasing piece. There are numerous approaches or compositional techniques to achieving a sense of unity within an artwork, depending on the goals of the artist.

Figure 1.24 Rule of Thirds Rule of thirds: Note how the horizon falls close to the bottom grid line, and how the dark areas are in the left third, the overexposed in the right third.

Conventional composition can be achieved by utilizing a number of techniques: The rule of thirds is a guideline followed by some visual artists. The objective is to stop the subject(s) and areas of interest (such as the horizon) from bisecting the image, by placing them near one of the lines that would divide the image into three equal columns and rows, ideally near the intersection of those lines (Figure 1.24). The rule of odds states that by framing the object of interest with an even number of surrounding objects, it becomes more comforting to the eye, thus creates a feeling of ease and pleasure. It is based on the assumption that humans tend to find visual images that reflect their own preferences/wishes in life more pleasing and attractive. The rule of odds suggests

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that an odd number of subjects in an image is more interesting than an even number. An even number of subjects produces symmetries in the image, which can appear less natural for a naturalistic, informal composition. The rule of space applies to artwork picturing object(s) to which the artist wants to apply the illusion of movement, or which is supposed to create a contextual bubble in the viewer's mind. This can be achieved, for instance, by leaving white space in the direction the eyes of a portrayed person are looking, or, when picturing a runner, adding white space in front of him rather than behind him to indicate movement.
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Unity and Variety

Color Harmony or Color Theory is considered a foundational composition principle of harmony that outlines the application of color in art.
KEY POINTS

Harmony is achieved in composition by using similar elements throughout the work: giving an uncomplicated look to a piece of artwork or sculpture. Variety, on the other hand, is the quality or state of having different forms or types, notable use of contrast, emphasis, difference in size and color. In the visual arts, color theory is a body of practical guidance to color mixing and the visual impacts of specific color combination. There are also definitions (or categories) of colors based on the color wheel: primary color, secondary color and tertiary color. Color theorists have devised principles for color combination with the aim being to predict or specify positive aesthetic response or color harmony. Color wheel models have often been used as a basis for color combination principles or guidelines and for defining relationships between colors.

Unity, or harmony, is achieved in an art composition by using similar elements throughout the work: giving an uncomplicated

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look to a piece of artwork or sculpture. Variety, on the other hand, is the quality or state of having different forms or types, notable use of contrast, emphasis, difference in size and color. Color Harmony or Color Theory is considered a foundational composition principle of harmony that outlines the application of color in art. In the visual arts, color theory is a body of practical guidance to color mixing and the visual impacts of specific color combination. There are also definitions (or categories) of colors based on the color wheel: primary color, secondary color and tertiary color. Many color theorists have devised principles or guidelines for color combination with the aim being to predict or specify positive aesthetic response or color harmony. Color wheel models have often been used as a basis for color combination principles or guidelines and for defining relationships between colors. However, these are diverse models: for example, some theorists and artists believe juxtapositions of complementary color will produce strong contrast, a sense of visual tension as well as color harmony, while others believe juxtapositions of analogous colors will elicit positive aesthetic response. Color combination guidelines suggest that colors next to each other on the color wheel model (analogous colors) tend to produce a single-hued or monochromatic color experience and some theorists also refer to these as simple harmonies.

Color theory was originally formulated in terms of three primary or primitive colorsred, yellow and blue (RYB)because these colors were believed capable of mixing all other colors (Figure 1.25). This color mixing behavior, as well as other ideas and personal color observations were

Figure 1.25 RYB Color Model

Primary, secondary, and tertiary colors of the RYB color model.

summarized in two founding documents in color theory: the Theory of Colours (1810) by the German poet and government minister Johann Wolfgang von Goethe, and The Law of Simultaneous Color Contrast (1839) by the French industrial chemist Michel Eugne Chevreul (Figure 1.26). According to traditional color theory (based on subtractive primary colors and the RYB color model), yellow mixed with violet, orange mixed with blue, or red mixed with green produces an equivalent gray and compose the painter's complementary colors. These contrasts form the basis of Chevreuls law of color contrast: colors that appear together will be altered as if mixed with the complementary color of the other color. The distinction between warm and cool colors has been important since at least the late 18th century. The contrast, as traced by

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etymologies in the Oxford English Dictionary, seems related to the observed contrast in landscape light, between the warm colors associated with daylight or sunset and the cool colors associated with a gray or overcast day. Warm colors are the hues from red through yellow, browns and tans included. Cool colors, on the other hand, are the hues from blue green through blue violet, with most grays included. Color theory has described perceptual and psychological effects to this contrast. Warm colors are said to advance or appear more active in a painting, while cool colors tend to recede; used in interior design or fashion, warm colors are said to arouse or stimulate the viewer, while cool colors calm and relax. Any color that lacks strong chromatic content is unsaturated, achromatic, or near neutral. Pure achromatic colors include black, white and all grays; near neutrals include browns, tans, pastels and darker colors. Near neutrals can be of any hue or lightness. Neutrals are obtained by mixing pure colors with white, black or grey, or by mixing two complementary colors. In color theory, neutral colors are colors easily modified by adjacent more saturated colors and they appear to take on the hue complementary to the saturated color. Next to a bright red couch, a gray wall will appear distinctly greenish. Black and white have long been known to combine well with almost any other colors; black increases the apparent saturation or brightness of colors paired with it, and white shows off all hues to equal effect.

Figure 1.26 Chevreul's RYB Color Wheel

Chevreul's 1855 chromatic diagram based on the RYB color model, showing complementary colors and other relationships.

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Section 4

Space

Two Dimensional Space Linear Perspective and Three Dimensional Space Other Means of Representing Space Distortions of Space and Foreshortening

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Two Dimensional Space

Two dimensional, or bi-dimensional, space is a geometric model of the planar projection of the physical universe in which we live.
KEY POINTS

In art composition, drawing is a form of visual art that makes use of any number of drawing instruments to mark a twodimensional medium (meaning that the object does not have depth). Common instruments include erasers, markers, styluses, and various metals. A small amount of these materials are released onto the two dimensional medium, leaving a

Figure 1.27 Mathematical Depiction of Bi-Dimensional Space

In physical terms, dimension refers to the constituent structure of all space and its position in time. In art composition, drawing is a form of visual art that makes use of any number of drawing instruments to mark a twodimensional medium. Almost any dimensional form can be represented by some combination of the cube, sphere, cylinder, and cone. Once these basic shapes have been assembled into a likeness, then the drawing can be refined into a more accurate and polished form.

Bi-dimensional Cartesian coordinate system.

visible mark. The most common support for drawing is paper, although other materials, such as cardboard, plastic, leather, canvas, and board, may be used. The medium has been a popular and fundamental means of public expression throughout human history. It is one of the simplest and most efficient means of communicating visual ideas. The relatively easy availability of basic drawing instruments makes drawing more universal than most other media. Measuring the dimensions of a subject while blocking in the drawing is an important step in producing a realistic rendition of a subject. Tools such as a compass can be used to measure the angles of different sides. These angles can be reproduced on the drawing

Two dimensional, or bi-dimensional, space is a geometric model of the planar projection of the physical universe in which we live. The two dimensions are commonly called length and width. Both directions lie in the same plane (Figure 1.27). In physics, our bidimensional space is viewed as a planar representation of the space in which we move.

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surface and then rechecked to make sure they are accurate. Another form of measurement is to compare the relative sizes of different parts of the subject with each other. A finger placed at a point along the drawing implement can be used to compare that dimension with other parts of the image. A ruler can be used both as a straightedge and a device to compute proportions.When attempting to draw a
Figure 1.28 Drawing Human Figures Madame Palmyre with Her Dog, 1897. Henri de ToulouseLautrec

complicated shape such as a human figure, it is helpful at first to represent the form with a set of primitive shapes. Almost any dimensional form can be represented by some combination of the cube, sphere, cylinder, and cone. Once these basic shapes have been assembled into a likeness, then the drawing can be refined into a more accurate and polished form (Figure 1. 28). The lines of the primitive shapes are removed and replaced by the final likeness. A more refined art of figure drawing relies upon the artist possessing a deep understanding of anatomy and the human proportions. A trained artist is familiar with the skeleton structure, joint location, muscle placement, tendon movement, and how the different parts work together during movement. This allows the artist to render more natural poses that do not appear artificially stiff. The artist is also familiar with how the proportions vary depending on the age of the subject, particularly when drawing a portrait.
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Linear Perspective and Three Dimensional Space

In art composition, perspective is an approximate representation, on a at surface, of an image as it is seen by the eye.
KEY POINTS

the resulting image to appear identical to the original scene, a viewer of the perspective must view the image from the exact vantage point used in the calculations relative to the image. Linear perspective always works by representing the light that passes from a scene through an imaginary rectangle (the painting), to the viewers eye. All perspective drawings assume the viewer is a certain distance away from the drawing. Perspective features a horizon line directly opposite the viewers eye, which represents objects infinitely far away. Any perspective representation of a scene that includes parallel lines has one or more vanishing points in a perspective drawing. One-point perspective is the use of one vanishing point. Any objects that are made up of lines either directly parallel with the viewer's line of sight or directly perpendicular can be represented with onepoint perspective. Two-point perspective can be used to draw the same objects as one-point perspective, rotatedsuch as looking at the corner of a house, or looking at two forked roads shrink into the distance. One point represents one set of parallel lines, and the other point represents the other. Looking at a house from the corner, one wall would recede towards one vanishing point, the other wall would recede towards the opposite vanishing point. Three-point perspective is used for buildings depicted from above or below. In addition to the two vanishing points from before, one for each wall, there is now a third one for how those walls recede

Perspective images are calculated assuming a particular vanishing point. In order for the resulting image to appear identical to the original scene, a viewer of the perspective must view the image from the exact vantage point used in the calculations relative to the image. Perspective features a horizon line directly opposite the viewers eye, which represents objects infinitely far away. Any perspective representation of a scene that includes parallel lines has one or more vanishing points in a perspective drawing. Foreshortening is the visual effect or optical illusion that causes an object or distance to appear shorter than it actually is because it is angled toward the viewer.

In art composition, perspective is an approximate representation on a flat surface of an image as it is seen by the eye. Perspective images are calculated assuming a particular vanishing point. In order for

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Figure 1.29 Perspective in Renaissance Fresco Painting Pietro Perugino's usage of perspective in this fresco at the Sistine Chapel (148182) helped bring the Renaissance to Rome.

Foreshortening is the visual effect or optical illusion that causes an object or distance to appear shorter than it actually is because it is angled toward the viewer. Although foreshortening is an important element in art where visual perspective is being depicted, foreshortening occurs in other types of two-dimensional representations of three-dimensional scenes. Foreshortening was popular in Renaissance paintings (Figure 1.29). The earliest art paintings and drawings typically sized objects and characters hierarchically according to their spiritual or thematic importance, not their distance from the viewer. The most important figures are often shown as the highest in a composition, also from hieratic motives, leading to the vertical perspective common in the art of Ancient Egypt, where a group of nearer figures are shown below the larger figure or figures. Systematic attempts to evolve a system of perspective are usually considered to have begun around the 5th century BC in the art of Ancient Greece. By the later periods of antiquity, artists, especially those in less popular traditions, were well aware that distant objects could be shown smaller than those close at hand for increased illusionism, but whether this convention was actually used in a work depended on many factors. Some of the paintings found in the ruins of Pompeii show a remarkable realism and perspective for their time.

into the ground. This third vanishing point will be below the ground. Four-point perspective is the curvilinear variant of two-point perspective. The resulting elongated frame can be used both horizontally and vertically. Like all other foreshortened variants of perspective, four-point perspective starts off with a horizon line, followed by four equally spaced vanishing points to delineate four vertical lines. Because vanishing points exist only when parallel lines are present in the scene, a perspective with no vanishing points (zero-point) occurs if the viewer is observing a nonrectilinear scene. The most common example of a nonlinear scene is a natural scene (e.g., a mountain range) which frequently does not contain any parallel lines. A perspective without vanishing points can still create a sense of depth.

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Figure 1.30 Foreshortening Melozzo's usage of upward foreshortening in his frescoes at Loreto.

scene, rather than a combination of several (Figure 1.30). Perspective remained, for a while, the domain of Florence. Gradually, and partly through the movement of academies of the arts, the Italian techniques became part of the training of artists across Europe, and later other parts of the world.
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The art of the Migration Period had no tradition of attempting compositions of large numbers of figures, and Early Medieval art was slow and inconsistent in relearning the convention from classical models, though the process can be seen underway in Carolingian art. European Medieval artists were aware of the general principle of varying the relative size of elements according to distance, and use and sophistication of attempts to convey distance increased steadily during the period, but without a basis in a systematic theory. By the Renaissance, however, nearly every artist in Italy used geometrical perspective in their paintings. Not only was this use perspective a way of showing depth, it was also a new method of composing a painting. Paintings began to show a single, unified

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Other Means of Representing Space

Another important way of discussing or representing space in composition includes movement and the eye of the viewer.
KEY POINTS

successfully combined with the elements of art they aid in creating an aesthetically very pleasing or interesting work of art. Some common principles of art are movement, unity, harmony, variety, balance, rhythm, emphasis, and proportion. This list may vary, according to the art educator, but encompasses the generally accepted principles. However, another important way of discussing or representing space in composition includes movement and the eye of the viewer.

Movement shows actions, or alternatively, the path the viewers eye follows throughout an artwork and is caused by using elements under the rules of the principles in picture to give the feeling of motion and to guide the viewers eyes throughout the artwork. The viewer therefore, contributes another aspect to art composition, as the artist has the ability to control the viewers eye and often composes the space in the composition with the viewer in mind. The position of the viewer therefore can strongly influence the aesthetics of an image, even if the subject is entirely imaginary and viewed within the minds eye. Not only does it influence the elements within the picture, but it also influences the viewer's interpretation of the subject.

Movement shows actions, or alternatively, the path the viewers eye follows throughout an artwork and is caused by using elements under the rules of the principles in picture to give the feeling of motion and to guide the viewers eyes throughout the artwork. The viewer therefore, contributes another aspect to art composition, as the artist has the ability to control the viewers eye and often composes the space in the composition with the viewer in mind. If correctly applying the principles of art composition, artists can control what the viewers see and how they see it, like a path leading across the page to the item the artist wants the viewers attention focused on. Techniques such as scale and proportion can be used to create an effect of movement in a visual artwork. For instance, an element that is further into the background is smaller in scale and lighter in value. The same element repeated in different places

The principles of visual art are the rules, tools, and guidelines that artists use to organize the elements of art in an artwork. When

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Figure 1.31 Photo: Jonquil Flowers 1 The blurred background focuses the viewer's eye on the owers.

photographed from above, it is diminished in stature. A photograph taken at the subject's level would treat it as visual equal, and one taken from below could result in an impression of dominance. Therefore, the photographer chooses the viewer's positioning with each shot. Likewise, a subject can be rendered more dramatic when it fills the frame, which also eliminate distractions from the background and focuses the viewers eye on the subject (Figure 1.31). In

Figure 1.32 Photo: Jonquil Flowers 2 At a smaller aperture, the background competes for the viewers attention.

photography, for example, altering the position of the camera can change the image so that the subject has fewer or more distractions with which to compete (Figure 1.32). This may be achieved by getting closer, moving laterally, tilting, panning, or moving the camera vertically.
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within the same image can also demonstrate the passing of time or movement. The position of the viewer therefore can strongly influence the aesthetics of an image, even if the subject is entirely imaginary and viewed within the minds eye. Not only does it influence the elements within the picture, but it also influences the viewers interpretation of the subject. For example, if a subject is

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Distortions of Space and Foreshortening

A distortion is the alteration of the original shape of an object, image, sound, waveform or other form of information or representation.
KEY POINTS

and often many methods are employed to minimize it in practice. Hence, although distortion can be irregular or follow many patterns, the most commonly encountered distortions in composition, especially in photography, are radially symmetric, or approximately so, arising from the symmetry of a photographic lens. Perspective projection distortion is the inevitable misrepresentation of three-dimensional space when drawn or projected onto a twodimensional surface. It is impossible to accurately depict 3D reality on a 2D plane. However, there are several constructs available which allow for seemingly accurate representation. The most common of these is perspective projection. Perspective projection can be used to mirror how the eye sees by the use of one or more vanishing points. The physiological basis of visual foreshortening was undefined until the year 1000 when the Arabian mathematician and philosopher, Alhazen, in his Perspectiva, first explained that light projects conically into the eye. A method for presenting foreshortened geometry systematically onto a plane surface was unknown for another 300 years. The artist Giotto may have been the first to recognize that the image beheld by the eye is distorted: to the eye, parallel lines appear to intersect, (like the distant edges of a path or road) whereas in undistorted nature, they do not. In

Perspective projection distortion is the inevitable misrepresentation of three-dimensional space when drawn or projected onto a two-dimensional surface. It is impossible to accurately depict 3D reality on a 2D plane. However, there are several constructs available which allow for seemingly accurate representation. Perspective projection can be used to mirror how the eye sees by the use of one or more vanishing points. Although distortion can be irregular or follow many patterns, the most commonly encountered distortions in composition, especially in photography, are radially symmetric, or approximately so, arising from the symmetry of a photographic lens.

A distortion is the alteration of the original shape (or other characteristic) of an object, image, sound, waveform or other form of information or representation. Distortion is usually unwanted,

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Figure 1.33 Giotto's Lamentation (The Mourning of Christ) Giotto is one of the most notable preRenaissance artists to recognize distortion on two dimensional planes.

artificial perspective projection and by natural perspective projection is called perspective distortion. In photography, the projection mechanism is light reflected from an object. To execute a drawing using perspective projection projectors emanate from all points of an object and intersect at a station point. These projectors intersect with an imaginary plane of projection and an image is created on the plane by the points of intersection. The resulting image on the projection plane reproduces the image of the object as it is beheld from the station point. Radial distortion can usually be classified as one of two main types. Barrel distortion occurs when image magnification decreases with distance from the optical axis. The apparent effect is that of an image which has been mapped around a sphere (or barrel). Fisheye lenses, which take hemispherical views, utilize this type of distortion as a way to map an infinitely wide object plane into a finite image area. On the other hand, in pincushion distortion, the image magnification increases with the distance from the optical axis. The visible effect is that lines that do not go through the centre of the image are bowed inwards, towards the centre of the image, like a pincushion. A certain amount of pincushion distortion is often found with visual optical instruments, (i.e. binoculars), where it serves to eliminate the globe effect.

many of Giottos paintings, perspective is employed to achieve various distortion effects (Figure 1.33). Artificial perspective projection was Leonardo da Vincis term for what today is called classical perspective projection, and natural perspective projection was also da Vincis name for projection that produces the large image beheld by the human eye, which is impossible to replicate on a plane surface. Both types of projection involve a distortion: parallel lines never intersect in nature, but they almost always intersect in perspective projections. The difference between the images of the same object produced by

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Figure 1.34 Foreshortening Melozzo's usage of upward foreshortening in his frescoes at Loreto.

that anamorphic lenses do to fit widescreen images onto standardwidth film. Foreshortening is the visual effect or optical illusion that causes an object or distance to appear shorter than it actually is because it is angled toward the viewer. Although foreshortening is an important element in art where visual perspective is being depicted, foreshortening occurs in other types of two-dimensional representations of three-dimensional scenes. Some other types where foreshortening can occur include oblique parallel projection drawings.This technique was often used in Renaissance paintings (Figure 1.30).
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A mixture of both distortion types, sometimes referred to as mustache distortion or complex distortion, is less common but not rare. It starts out as barrel distortion close to the image center and gradually turns into pincushion distortion towards the image periphery, making horizontal lines in the top half of the frame look like a handlebar mustache. Cylindrical perspective is a form of distortion caused by fisheye and panoramic lenses which reproduce straight horizontal lines above and below the lens axis level as curved while reproducing straight horizontal lines on lens axis level as straight. This is also a common feature of wide-angle anamorphic lenses of less than 40mm focal length in cinematography. Essentially it is just barrel distortion but only in the horizontal plane. It is an artifact of the squeezing process

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Section 5

Content

Representational, Abstract, and Nonrepresentational Art Meaning in Nonrepresentational Art Meaning and Culture Iconography

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Representational, Abstract, and Nonrepresentational Art

Abstract art exists on a continuum, from somewhat realistic representational work to fully nonrepresentational work.
KEY POINTS

Figure 1.35 Ein Meerhafen, by Johann Anton Eismann,!! seventeenth century This gurative or representational work from the seventeenth century depicts easily recognizable objectsships, people and buildings.

Representational art or figurative art, references objects, or events in the real world. Romanticism, Impressionism, and Expressionism contributed to the emergence of abstract art in the nineteenth century. Even representational work is abstracted to some degree; entirely realistic art is elusive.

form of modern art that retains strong references to the real world (Figure 1.35). Artistic independence was advanced during the nineteenth century, resulting in the emergence of abstract art. Three movements which contributed heavily to the development of these styles were Romanticism, Impressionism, and Expressionism. Abstraction indicates a departure from reality in depiction of imagery in art. Abstraction exists along a continuum; abstract art can formally refer to compositions that are derived (or abstracted) from a figurative or other natural source. It also can refer to nonrepresentational art and non-objective art that has no derivation from figures or objects.

Painting and sculpture can be divided into the categories of figurative (or representational) and abstract (which includes nonrepresentational art). Figurative art describes artwork particularly paintings and sculptureswhich are clearly derived from real object sources, and therefore are by definition representational. Since the arrival of abstract art in the early twentieth century, the term figurative has been used to refer to any

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Even art that aims for verisimilitude of the highest degree can be said to be abstract, at least theoretically, since perfect representation is likely to be exceedingly elusive. Artwork which takes liberties, altering for instance color and form in ways that are conspicuous, can be said to be partially abstract (Figure 1.36). Nonrepresentational art refers to total abstraction, bearing no trace of any reference to anything recognizable. In geometric abstraction, for instance, one is unlikely to find references to naturalistic entities. Figurative art and total abstraction are almost mutually exclusive. But figurative and representational (or realistic) art often contains partial abstraction.
Figure 1.36 Le Premier Disque, by Robert Delaunay, 1913 Delaunay's work is a primary example of early abstract art.

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Meaning in Nonrepresentational Art

Meaning is understood in nonrepresentational art as a pure expression by the artist of emotion or subjective experience.
KEY POINTS

By the end of the 19th century many artists felt a need to create a new kind of art which would encompass the fundamental changes taking place in technology, science, and philosophy. The sources from which individual artists drew their theoretical arguments were diverse and reflected the social and intellectual preoccupations in all areas of Western culture at that time. The expressionists of the early 20th century aimed to present the world solely from a subjective perspective, distorting it radically for emotional effect in order to evoke moods or ideas. Expressionist artists sought to express meaning or emotional experience rather than physical reality. Expressionism developed in reaction to the dehumanizing effect of industrialization and the growth of cities. These artists forcefully rejected the dominant artistic ideology of the time: realism. Expressionism refers to an artistic style in which the artist seeks to depict not objective reality but rather the subjective emotions and responses that objects and events arouse within a person. Wassily Kandinsky, a Russian painter, printmaker, and art theorist, is one of the most famous 20th-century artists is generally considered the first important painter of modern abstract art (Figure 1.37). As an early modernist, in search of new modes of visual expression and spiritual expression, he theorized (as did contemporary occultists and theosophists) that pure visual

Nonrepresentational work refers to art that does not attempt to represent or reference reality. In the late 19th century, artists began to move toward increasing abstraction as a means of communicating subjective experience more personally and creatively. Artists such as Kandinsky and Mondrian viewed art as an expression of spirituality.

Nonrepresentational art refers to compositions which do not rely on visual references in the world. Abstract art, nonfigurative art, nonobjective art, and nonrepresentational art are related terms, indicating a departure from reality in depiction of imagery in art. Meaning in nonrepresentational art is often understood as the personal expression of subjective experience, communicated by the artist to the viewer.

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Figure 1.37 Composition VII, by Wassily Kandinsky, 1913

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Kandinsky is recognized as the father of modern abstract art in the 20th century.

abstraction had corollary vibrations with sound and music. They posited that pure abstraction could express pure spirituality. Piet Mondrians art was also related to his spiritual and philosophical studies. In 1908 he became interested in the theosophical movement launched by Helena Petrovna Blavatsky in the late 19th century. Blavatsky believed that it was possible to attain a knowledge of nature more profound than that provided by empirical means, and much of Mondrians work for the rest of his life was inspired by his search for that spiritual knowledge.

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Meaning and Culture

The arts are a distinct subdivision of culture, and construction of meaning in the arts is a culturallyspecic process.
KEY POINTS

cultivation of individuals through the agency of external forms which have been objectified in the course of history (Figure 1.38). In the 20th century, culture emerged as a central concept in anthropology, encompassing the range of human phenomena that cannot be attributed to genetic inheritance. Specifically, the term culture in American anthropology had two meanings: (1) the evolved human capacity to classify and represent experiences with symbols, and to act imaginatively and creatively; and (2) the distinct ways that people living in different parts of the world classified and represented their experiences, and acted creatively. Distinctions are currently made between the physical artifacts created by a society, its so-called material culture, and everything else intangibles such as language, customs, etc. that are the main referent of the term culture. The arts are a vast subdivision of culture, composed of many endeavors (or artforms) united by their employment of the human creative impulse. The creative arts (art as discipline) are a collection of disciplines that produce artworks (art as objects) that are
Figure 1.38 Georg Simmel, 1858-1918 German Sociologist Georg Simmel was a pioneer in studies of culture and society

In the 19th century, culture came to be understood in terms of both individual refinement and lofty national goals. In the 20th century anthropology emerged and produced studies of diverse cultures, redefining culture to mean traits that are not established due to genetics. The arts are an important aspect of every culture and are made for a wide range of distinctive purposes. Ascertaining meaning of an art object is dependent on shared cultural knowledge.

Culture refers to the arts, customs, and habits that characterize a particular society or nation. In the 19th century, the term developed to refer first to the betterment or refinement of the individual, especially through education, and then to the fulfillment of national aspirations or ideals. In the mid-19th century, some scientists used the term culture to refer to a universal human capacity. For the German sociologist Georg Simmel, culture referred to the

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compelled by a personal drive (art as activity) and convey a message, mood, or symbolism for the viewer to interpret (art as experience). Art is something that stimulates an individual's thoughts, emotions, beliefs, or ideas through the senses. Artworks can be explicitly made for this purpose or interpreted on the basis of images or objects. Although the application of scientific knowledge to derive a new scientific theory involves skill and results in the creation of something new, this represents science only and is not categorized as art. The purpose of works of art may be to communicate ideas, such as in politically, spiritually, or philosophically motivated art; to create a sense of beauty (see aesthetics); to explore the nature of perception; for pleasure; or to generate strong emotions. The purpose may also be seemingly nonexistent. The meaning of art is often culturally specific, shared among the members of a given society and dependent upon cultural context.
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Iconography
Iconography is the scholarly study of the content of images, including identication, description, and interpretation.
KEY POINTS

Academic studies of iconography in painting emerged in the 19th century in France and Germany. Iconographical scholarship became particularly prominent in art history after 1940. In the 20th century, studies of iconography have become of interest to a broad public beyond the scholarly community.

Iconography is the branch of art history which studies the identification, description, and interpretation of the content of images: the subjects depicted, the particular compositions and details, and other elements that are distinct from artistic style. Early Western writers who took special note of the content of images include Giorgio Vasari, whose Ragionamenti, interpreting the paintings in the Palazzo Vecchio in Florence, reassuringly demonstrates that such works were difficult to understand even for well-informed contemporaries; Gian Pietro Bellori, a 17th century biographer of artists of his own time; and Gotthold Ephraim

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Lessing, who 1796 study of the classical figure Amor with an inverted torch was an early attempt to use a study of a type of image to explain the culture it originated in, rather than the other way round. Iconography as an academic art historical discipline developed in the nineteenth century in the works of scholars such as Adolphe Napoleon Didron (18061867), Anton Heinrich Springer (1825 1891), and mile Mle (18621954). Christian religious art was the main focus of study in this period, in which French scholars were especially prominent. They looked back to earlier attempts to classify and organize subjects encyclopedically, as guides to understanding works of art, both religious and profane, in a more scientific manner than the popular aesthetic approach of the time. These early contributions paved the way for encyclopedias, manuals, and other publications useful in identifying the content of art. In early twentieth-century Germany, Aby Warburg (18661929) and his followers Fritz Saxl (18901948) and Erwin Panofsky (18921968) elaborated the practice of identification and classification of motifs in images to using iconography as a means of understanding meaning. Panofsky codified an influential approach to iconography in his 1939 Studies in Iconology, where he defined it as the branch of the

Figure 1.39 Arnolni Portrait, by Jan van Eyck, 1434

The iconography in this work has been the subject of much debate, historically.

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history of art which concerns itself with the subject matter or meaning of works of art, as opposed to form, although the distinction he and other scholars drew between particular definitions of iconography (put simply, the identification of visual content) and iconology (the analysis of the meaning of that content), has not been generally accepted, though it is still used by some writers. In the United States, where Panofsky immigrated in 1931, students such as Frederick Hartt, and Meyer Schapiro continued under his influence in the discipline. In an influential article of 1942, Introduction to an Iconography of Medieval Architecture, Richard Krautheimer, a specialist on early medieval churches and another German migr, extended iconographical analysis to architectural forms. The period from 1940 can be seen as one where iconography was especially prominent in art history. Whereas most icongraphical scholarship remains highly dense and specialized, some analyses began to attract a much wider audience, for example Panofskys theory (now generally out of favor with specialists) that the writing on the rear wall in the Arnolfini Portrait by Jan van Eyck turned the painting into the record of a marriage contract (Figure 1.39). Holbeins The Ambassadors has been the subject of books for a general market with new theories as to its iconography, and the best-sellers of Dan Brown include theories,

disowned by most art historians, on the iconography of works by Leonardo da Vinci.

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Section 6

Historical Context

Context of Creation Intended Context of Reception

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Context of Creation
The creation of art is inuenced by its historical context, i.e. the political, socioeconomic, and cultural setting of its age.
KEY POINTS

historical context, i.e. the political, social, cultural, and economic settings in which it is found. It often conveys political, religious, and philosophical themes and judgments that arise as much from the artist's environment as they do from his or her creative impulse. Art history is the academic study of objects of art in their historical development and stylistic contexts, i.e. genre, design, form, and style. A work of art from a particular historical period can be treated as a primary source, namely an original source of information that was created at the time under study and provides information about that time. Art historians study the contextual forces that shaped artists and their oeuvres, including their teachers and the influences of preceding styles, their patrons and their demands, their audiences, and their general socioeconomic, political, and cultural climate. These factors produce and influence different artistic styles and iconography, which are characteristic of their age and geographical location with reference to visual appearance, technique, form. In many ways, the historical backbone of art history is a celebratory chronology of beautiful creations of art commissioned by religious or civic institutions or wealthy individuals. Patronage of the arts has been used throughout history to endorse the ambitions and agenda of these institutions and individuals, and has been particularly important in the creation of religious art. For example, the Roman

Art history is the academic study of objects of art in their historical development and stylistic contexts, i.e. genre, design, form, and style. Art conveys political, religious, and philosophical themes and judgments that arise as much from the artist's environment as they do from his or her creative impulse. Some of the contextual forces that shape artists and their work are their teachers and the influences of preceding styles, their patrons and their demands, their audiences, and their general socioeconomic, political, and cultural climate. Patronage of the arts has been used throughout history to endorse the ambitions and agenda of these institutions and individuals, and has been particularly important in the creation of religious art.

Art, defined as the creation of aesthetic objects, environments, and experiences using skill and imagination, has existed almost as long as humankind itself. Art serves as a vehicle for the expression and communication of ideas and emotions and is deeply rooted in its

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Figure 1.40 The Creation of Adam by Michelangelo, Sistine Chapel ceiling

Intended Context of Reception

Arts intended context of reception depends on the artist's socioeconomic and cultural circumstances, patrons, and intended audience.
KEY POINTS

Michelangelo painted the ceiling of the Sistine Chapel in the Vatican City under the patronage of Pope Julius II between 1508 and 1512.

Catholic Church was an enthusiastic sponsor of the arts that resulted in a tremendous outpouring of architecture, painting, sculpture, and decorative crafts in medieval and Renaissance Europe (Figure 1.40).
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Art arises from a combination of non-motivated factors driven by the intrinsic human impulse towards harmony and creativity, and also motivated factors, which consciously aim to communicate specific messages to other individuals. Art may be used to evoke particular emotions or moods, for social inquiry and political change, for questioning and criticizing society, or as a means of propaganda or commercial advertisement for influencing popular conceptions. Religious art uses religious inspiration and themes in order to illustrate the principles of the religion and to provide spiritual instruction to audiences. Patronage of the arts was typically used as a means of expressing and endorsing political, social, and cultural agendas and of displaying personal prestige. Works of art commissioned by wealthy patrons usually reflect their desires and aims.

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Figure 1.41 Sandro Botticelli, Madonna with Child, ca. 1477 An example of religious art, commissioned by the Catholic Church during the Renaissance.

the artwork's historical context, which consists of a multitude of different factors, including the social, political, economic and cultural settings of the period, the artist's patrons, and the artist's intended audience.

Figure 1.42 Liberty Leading the People by Eugne Delacroix, 1830

Arts intended context of reception depends on the artist's socioeconomic and cultural circumstances, patrons, and intended audience. Art across a range of different media is created for many different reasons and has served many different functions throughout human history. Some of these purposes are intrinsic to the human instinct for harmony and balance, and also the human desire to experience mysterious things and express the human imagination. Art can transcend the concept of utility or external purpose. These ideas are called the non-motivated purposes of art. However, art also comes from intentional, conscious actions that aim towards specific external goals, and those qualify as the motivated purposes of art. Motivated purposes usually arise from
This painting reects contemporary events, commemorating the July Revolution of 1830, which toppled Charles X of France. A woman personifying Liberty leads the people forward over the bodies of the fallen, holding the ag of the French Revolution in one hand and brandishing a musket with the other.

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Primarily, art is a form of communication, and like most forms of communication, has intents and goals directed toward other people. It may be used for entertainment, seeking to evoke particular emotions or moods in viewers, or for social inquiry and political change, by portraying aspects of society in complimentary or critical ways (Figure 1.41). Similarly, art may also be used as a form of propaganda by subtly influencing popular conceptions, or for commercial purposes, by making specific products more attractive to potential consumers. Religious or sacred art uses religious inspiration and motifs in order to illustrate the principles of a religion in a tangible form, and is often intended to provide spiritual instruction and connect with believers (Figure 1.42). Through the course of history, much of art has traditionally been patronized by wealthy and powerful individuals, including rulers and aristocrats, as well as various civic and religious institutions. Patronage of the arts was typically used as a means of expressing and endorsing political, social, and cultural agendas and of displaying personal prestige. Works of art commissioned by wealthy patrons usually reflect their desires and aims.
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Chapter 2

Prehistoric Art

https://www.boundless.com/art-history/prehistoric-art/

Section 1

The Stone Age

Art of the Stone Age

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Art of the Stone Age

Stone Age art tells the story of the origins of human creativity through small portable objects, cave paintings, and early sculpture and architecture.
KEY POINTS

The Stone Age has been divided in three distinct periods: Paleolithic Period or Old Stone Age (30,000 BC10,000 BC) Mesolithic Period or Middle Stone Age (10,000 BC8,000 BC) Neolithic Period or New Stone Age (8,000 BC3,000 BC) The Art of the Stone Age: Paleolithic The very earliest human artifacts showing evidence of workmanship with an artistic purpose are the subject of some debate, but it is clear that such workmanship existed by 40,000 years ago. By 20,000 BC human settlements of hunters and gatherers were present all over the world, except for in Antarctica. The earliest settlements occurred in Africa, where rock paintings and engravings represented the oldest form of art found in this continent. Depictions of highly stylized human figures and richly colored animals were used for magical purposes in order to ensure a successful hunt. The Art of the Stone Age: Paleolithic and Mesolithic From the Paleolithic through the Mesolithic, cave paintings and portable art such as figurines, statuettes, and beads predominated, with decorative figured workings also seen on some utilitarian objects. Venus figurinean umbrella term for a number of prehistoric female statuettes portrayed with similar physical

The art of the Stone Age represents the first accomplishments in human creativity, preceding the invention of writing. The Stone Age is named after the main technological tool developed at that time. Art of this period reflects the daily activities of the human settlements, such as hunting. Art of this period shows and responds to the evolution of early communities, from nomad hunters and gatherers to sedentary agrarian societies in need of permanent shelters.

The Stone Age The Stone Age is the first of the three-age system of archaeology, which divides human technological prehistory into three periods: the Stone Age, Bronze Age, and Iron Age. The Stone Age lasted roughly 3.4 million years, from 30,000 BC to about 3,000 BC, and ended with the advent of metalworking.

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Figure 2.1 Cave paintings in Lascaux, France Lascaux Caves, Prehistoric Paintings.

The Art of the Stone Age: Neolithic The Neolithic saw the transformation of nomad human settlements into agrarian societies in need of permanent shelter. From this period there is evidence of early pottery, as well as sculpture, architecture, and the construction of megaliths. Early rock art also first appeared in the Neolithic. The End of the Stone Age The advent of metalworking in the Bronze Age brought additional

attributeswere very popular at the time. These figurines were carved from soft stone (such as steatite, calcite, or limestone), bone or ivory, or formed of clay and fired. The latter are among the oldest ceramics known. Also in this period, personal accessories and adornments were made from shell and bone. All the examples mentioned above fall under the category of portable art: small for easy transport. Archeological discoveries across a broad swath of Europe (especially Southern France, like those at Lascaux (Figure 2.1), Northern Spain, and Swabia, in Germany) include over two hundred caves with spectacular paintings, drawings, and sculptures that are among the earliest undisputed examples of representational image-making. Paintings and engravings along the caves walls and ceilings fall under the category of parietal art.

media available for use in making art, an increase in stylistic diversity, and the creation of objects that did not have any obvious function other than art. It also saw the development in some areas of artisans, a class of people specializing in the production of art, as well as in early writing systems. By the Iron Age, civilizations with writing had arisen from Ancient Egypt to Ancient China.
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Section 2

The Paleolithic Period

Paleolithic Architecture: Shelter or Art? Paleolithic ArtifactsArt? Cave Paintings Cave Sculptures Venus Figurines African Art Art in Western Europe

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Paleolithic Architecture: Shelter or Art?

The oldest examples of Paleolithic dwellings are shelters in caves, followed by houses of wood, straw, and rock.

Paleolithic Societies A typical Paleolithic society followed a hunter-gatherer economy. Humans hunted wild animals for meat and gathered food, firewood, and materials for their tools, clothes, or shelters. The adoption of both technologiesclothing and sheltercannot be dated exactly, but they were key to humanity's progress. As the Paleolithic era progressed, dwellings became more sophisticated and more elaborate, and more house-like. At the end of the Paleolithic era, humans began to produce works of art such as cave paintings, rock art, and jewelry and began to engage in religious behavior such as burial and rituals. Dwellings and Shelters Early men chose locations that could be defended against predators and rivals and that were shielded from inclement weather. Many such locations could be found near rivers, lakes, and streams, perhaps with low hilltops nearby that could serve as refuges. Since water can erode and change landscapes quite drastically, many of these campsites have been destroyed. Our understanding of Paleolithic dwellings is therefore limited. As early as 380,000 BC, humans were constructing temporary wood huts (Figure 2.2). Other types of houses existed; these were more frequently campsites in caves or in the open air with little in the way

KEY POINTS

Early men chose locations that could be defended against predators and rivals and that were shielded from inclement weather. Weather, water, and time have destroyed the majority of campsites; our understanding of Paleolithic dwellings is therefore limited. Caves are the most famous example of Paleolithic shelters.

The Paleolithic Age, or Old Stone Age, spanned from around 30,000 BC until 10,000 BC and produced the first accomplishments in human creativity. Due to a lack of written records from this time period, nearly all of our knowledge of Paleolithic human culture and way of life comes from archaeologic and ethnographic comparisons to modern hunter-gatherer cultures.

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Figure 2.2 Temporary Wood Hut

at the time. Most hominids probably never entered a cave, much less lived in one. Nonetheless, the remains of hominid settlements show interesting patterns. In one cave, a tribe of Homo neanderthalensis kept a hearth fire burning for a thousand years, leaving behind an accumulation of coals and ash. In another cave, post holes in the dirt floor reveal that the residents built some sort of shelter or enclosure with a roof to protect themselves from water dripping on them from the cave ceiling. They often used the rear portions of the cave as middens, depositing their garbage there. In the Upper Paleolithic (the latest part of the Paleolithic), caves ceased to act as houses. Instead, they likely became places for early people to gather for ritual and religious purposes. Tents and Huts Modern archaeologists know of few types of shelter used by ancient peoples other than caves. Some examples do exist, but they are quite rare. In Siberia, a group of Russian scientists uncovered a house or tent with a frame constructed of mammoth bones. The great tusks supported the roof, while the skulls and thigh bones formed the walls of the tent. Several families could live inside, where three small hearths, little more than rings of stones, kept people warm during the winter. Around 50,000 years ago, a group of Paleolithic Homo sapiens camped on a lake shore in southern France. At Terra Amata, these hunter-gatherers built a long and

An artist's rendering of a temporary wood house, based on evidence found at Terra Amata (in Nice, France) and dated to the Lower Paleolithic

of formal structure. The oldest examples are shelters within caves, followed by houses of wood, straw, and rock; a few examples exist of houses built out of bones. Caves Caves are the most famous example of Paleolithic shelters, though the number of caves used by Paleolithic people is drastically small relative to the number of hominids thought to have lived on Earth

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narrow house. The foundation was a ring of stones, with a flat threshold stone for a door at either end. Vertical posts down the middle of the house supported roofs and walls of sticks and twigs, probably covered over with a layer of straw. A hearth outside served as the kitchen, while a smaller hearth inside kept people warm. Both dwellings could be easily abandoned by their residents. This is why they are not considered true houses, which was a development of the Neolithic period rather than the Paleolithic period.
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Paleolithic ArtifactsArt?
Unlike artifacts from the Upper Paleolithic, artifacts from the Lower and Middle periods remain disputed as objects of artistic expression.
KEY POINTS

Artifacts dating from the Lower and Middle Paleolithic remain disputed as objects of artistic expression. There is some evidence that a preference for aesthetic emerged in the Middle Paleolithic due to the symmetry inherent to discovered artifacts. The Venus of Tan-Tan is an alleged artifact found in Morocco that is believed by some archaeologists to be the earliest representation of the human form. The Venus of Berekhat Ram is believed by some to be a representation of a female human figure dating from the early Middle Paleolithic, however, the claim is highly contested. A carved elephant bone from Bilzingsleben has been interpreted as an early example of art making.

The Paleolithic or Old Stone Age originated around 30,000 BCE lasting until 10,000 BCE and is separated into three periods: the

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Lower Paleolithic (the earliest subdivision), Middle Paleolithic, and Upper Paleolithic. The earliest undisputed art originated in the Upper Paleolithic. However, there is some evidence that a preference for aesthetic emerged in the Middle Paleolithic due to the symmetry inherent in discovered artifacts and evidence of attention to detail in such things as tool shape, which has led some archaeologists to interpret these artifacts as early examples of artistic expression. There has been much dispute among scholars over the terming of early prehistoric artifacts as art. Generally speaking, artifacts dating from the Lower and Middle Paleolithic remain disputed as objects of artistic expression, while the Upper Paleolithic provides the first conclusive examples of art making. Disputed Art(ifacts): Early Venuses The Venus of Tan-Tan is an alleged artifact found in Morocco that is believed by some to be the earliest representation of the human form (Figure 2.3). The Venus, a 2.3 inch long piece of quartzite rock dated between 300,000 and
Figure 2.3 Drawing of the Venus of Berekhat Ram The Venus of Berekhat Ram is"believed by some to be a representation of a female human gure, dating from the early Middle Paleolithic.

500,000 years ago during the Middle Paleolithic, was discovered in 1999 in a river terrace deposit on the north bank of the Draa River, just south of the Moroccan village of Tan-Tan. There is controversy among archaeologists as to its nature and origin. Some archaeologists believe it was created by a combination of geological forces as well as tool based carving. Visible smudge stains have been interpreted by some as remnants of red ochre pigments. For others, the rocks shape is simply the result of natural weathering and erosion, and any human shape is a mere coincidence. The Venus of Berekhat Ram is a contemporary of the Venus of TanTan, found at Berekhat Ram on the Golan Heights in 1981 (Figure 2.4). Some believe it to be a representation of a female human figure, dating from the early Middle Paleolithic, however, the claim is highly contested. The object is a red tufic pebble, about 1.4 inches long, which has at least three grooves, possibly incised with a sharpedged stone tool. The grooves have been interpreted as marking the neck and arms of the figure by some, while others believe these to be purely naturally-occurring lines. Mask of la Roche-Cotard Also known as the Mousterian Protofigurine, the Mask of la RocheCotard is an artifact from the Paleolithic period that was discovered in the entrance of the La Roche-Cotard cave, situated on the banks of the Loire River in France. Constructed using flint and bone, the

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Figure 2.4 Engraved ochre from the Blombos Cave

gougers. One bone fragment, an elephant tibia, has two groups of incised parallel lines which some have interpreted as an early example of art making. The regular spacing of the incisions, their subequal lengths, and V-like cross-sections suggest that they were created at the same time, with a single stone, however no conclusive agreement has been made. Blombos Cave Discoveries of engraved stones in the Blombos Caves of South Africa has led some archaeologists to believe that
Figure 2.5 Drawing of the Venus of Berekhat Ram The Venus of Berekhat Ram is"believed by some to be a representation of a female human gure, dating from the early Middle Paleolithic.

Discoveries of engraved stones in the Blombos Caves of South Africa has led some archaeologists to believe that early Homo Sapiens were capable of abstraction and the production of symbolic art

early Homo Sapiens were capable of abstraction and the production of symbolic art (Figure 2.5). Made from ochre, the stones are engraved with abstract patterns, and while

stone is believed to represent the upper part of a face, while the bone has been interpreted as eyes. While some archaeologists question whether this artifact does indeed represent a rendered face, it has been occasionally regarded as an example of Paleolithic figurative artistic expression. Bilzingsleben Bilzingsleben is a site of early Paleolithic human remains discovered in Thuringia, Germany. The area was also the site of discovery of many stone and bone tools such as hoes, scrapers, points, and

they are simpler than prehistoric cave paintings found in Europe, some scholars believe these engraved stones represent the earliest known artworks, dating from c. 75,000 years ago. Although, much like the other pieces, this belief remains contested.

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Source: https://www.boundless.com/art-history/prehistoric-art/thepaleolithic-period/paleolithic-artifacts-art/ CC-BY-SA Boundless is an openly licensed educational resource

Cave Paintings
Cave paintings demonstrate early humans capacity to give meaning to their surroundings and communicate with others.

KEY POINTS

Cave paintings can be grouped into three main categories: animals, human figures, and abstract signs. Animals depicted include familiar herbivoresthese predominate cave artand predatory animals. The most spectacular examples of cave paintings are in southern France and northern Spain. Interpretations vary from prehistoric star charts, accounts of past hunts or mystical rituals for future ones, and shamanism.

The Paleolithic, or Old Stone Age, ranges from 30,000 BC to 10,000 BC and produced the first accomplishments in human creativity, preceding the invention of writing. Archeological discoveries across a broad swath of Europe (especially southern France and northern Spain) include over two hundred caves with spectacular paintings, drawings, and sculpture that are among the earliest undisputed examples of representational image-making. Paintings and

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Figure 2.6 Cave paintings in Lascaux, France The most famous section of the cave is The Great Hall of the Bulls, where bulls, equines, and stags are depicted.

The pigments used appear to be red and yellow ochre, manganese or carbon for black, and china clay for white. Some of the color may have been mixed with fat. The paint was applied by finger, chewed sticks, or fur for brushes. Sometimes the silhouette of the animal was incised in the rock first, and in some caves many of the images are only engraved in this fashion, taking them out of a strict definition of cave painting. Main Examples of Cave Paintings: France

engravings along the caves walls and ceilings fall under the category of parietal art. Themes and Materials The most common themes in cave paintings are large wild animals, such as bison, horses, aurochs, and deer. Tracings of human hands and hand stencils were also very popular, as well as abstract patterns, called finger flutings. The species found most often were suitable for hunting by humans, but were not necessarily the typical prey found in associated bone deposits. For example, the painters of Lascaux, France left mainly reindeer bones, but this species does not appear at all in the cave paintings; equine species are the most common. Drawings of humans were rare and are usually schematic as opposed to the detailed and naturalistic images of animals.

Lascaux (circa 15,000 BC), in the southwestern France, is an interconnected series of caves with one of the most impressive examples of artistic creations by Paleolithic humans (Figure 2.6). Discovered in 1940, the cave contains nearly two thousand figures, which can be grouped into three main categoriesanimals, human figures, and abstract signs. Over nine hundred images depict animals from the surrounding areas, such as horses, stags, aurochs, bison, lions, bears, and birdsspecies that would have been hunted and eaten, and those identified as predators. The paintings contain no images of the surrounding landscape or the vegetation of the time. The Chauvet-Pont-d'Arc Cave (circa 30,000 BC) in the Ardche department of southern France contains some of the earliest known paintings, as well as other evidence of Upper Paleolithic life.

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Figure 2.7 Drawings of Horses from Chauvet Cave in France

As is typical of most cave art, there are no paintings of complete human figures in Chauvet. There are a few panels of red ochre hand prints and hand stencils made by spitting pigment over hands pressed against the cave surface. Abstract markingslines and dots are found throughout the cave. The artists who produced these unique paintings used techniques rarely found in other cave art. Many of the paintings appear to have been made after the walls were scraped clear of debris and concretions, leaving a smoother and noticeably lighter area upon which the artists worked. Similarly, a three-dimensional quality and the suggestion of movement are achieved by incising or etching around the outlines of certain figures. The art also includes scenes that were complex for its timeanimals interacting with each other;

The Chauvet-Pont-d'Arc Cave in the Ardche department of southern France is a cave that contains some of the earliest known cave paintings.

a pair of wooly rhinoceroses, for instance, are seen butting horns in an apparent contest for territory or mating rights. Main Examples of Cave Paintings: Spain Altamira (circa 18,000 BC) is a cave in northern Spain famous for its Upper Paleolithic cave paintings featuring drawings and polychrome rock paintings of wild mammals and human hands. The cave and its paintings has been declared a World Heritage Site by UNESCO (Figure 2.8).

The Chauvet Cave is uncharacteristically large and the quality, quantity, and condition of the artwork found on its walls have been called spectacular. Hundreds of animal paintings have been catalogued, depicting at least 13 different speciesnot only the familiar herbivores that predominate Paleolithic cave art, but also many predatory animals, such as cave lions, panthers, bears, and cave hyenas. Images from the caves notable Horse Panel are seen in (Figure 2.7).

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Figure 2.8 Painting of a Bison in the Great Hall of Policromes, Altamira, Spain Altamira's famous Upper Paleolithic cave paintings feature drawings and polychrome rock paintings of wild mammals and human hands.

anthropologists and art-historians also theorize that the paintings could be an account of past hunting success, or they could represent a mystical ritual to improve future hunting endeavors. An alternative theory, broadly based on ethnographic studies of contemporary hunter-gatherer societies, is that the paintings pertained to shamanism.
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The long cave consists of a series of twisting passages and chambers. Human occupation was limited to the cave mouth, although paintings were created throughout the length of the cave. The artists used polychromycharcoal and ochre or haematite to create the images, often diluting these pigments to produce variations in intensity, creating an impression of chiaroscuro. They also exploited the natural contours in the cave walls to give their subjects a three-dimensional effect. Interpretations Like all prehistoric art, the purpose of these painting remains obscure. In recent years, new research has suggested that the Lascaux paintings may incorporate prehistoric star charts. Some

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Cave Sculptures
Paleolithic sculptures found in caves are some of the earliest examples of representational art.

accomplishments in human creativity. Archeological discoveries across Europe and Asia include over two hundred caves with spectacular paintings, drawings, and sculptures that are among the earliest undisputed examples of representational art-making. Sculptural work from the Paleolithic consists mainly of figurines, beads, and some decorative utilitarian objects constructed with stone, bone, ivory, clay, and wood. During prehistoric times, caves were places of dwelling as well as possible spaces for ritual and communal gathering. Unsurprisingly, caves were the locations of many archeological discoveries owing to their secluded locations and protection from the elements. Venus Figurines Venus figurines is an umbrella term for a number of prehistoric statuettes of women that have been found mostly in Europe, but also in Asia and Siberia, dating from the Upper Paleolithic. These figures are all quite small, between 4 and 25 cm tall, and carved mainly in steatite, limestone, bone, or ivory. These sculptures are collectively described as Venus figurines in reference to the Roman goddess of beauty, as early historians assumed they represented an ideal of beauty from the time. Venus figures are characterized by shared stylistic features, such as

KEY POINTS

Sculptural work from the Paleolithic consists mainly of figurines, beads, and some decorative utilitarian objects constructed with stone, bone, ivory, clay, and wood. Venus figurines is an umbrella term for a number of prehistoric statuettes of women that have been found mostly in Europe, but also in Eurasia and Siberia. Venus figures are characterized by shared stylistic features, such as an oval shape, large belly, wide-set thighs, large breasts and the typical absence of arms and feet. Also known as the Mousterian Protofigurine, the Mask of La Roche-Cotard is a representational artifact from the Paleolithic period that was discovered in the entrance of a cave named La Roche-Cotard. Discoveries of engraved stones and beads in the Blombos Caves of South Africa has led some archaeologists to believe that early Homo Sapiens were capable of abstraction and the production of symbolic art.

The Paleolithic or Old Stone Age existed from approximately 30,000 BCE until 10,000 BCE, and produced the first

an oval shape, large belly, wide-set thighs, large breasts, and the typical absence of arms and feet. Hundreds of these sculptures have

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Figure 2.9 The Venus of Hohle Fels The Venus of Hohle Fels, a 6 cm gure of a woman carved from a mammoths tusk, was discovered in Germanys Hohle Fels cave in 2008 and represents one of the earliest found sculptures of this type.

Mask of La Roche-Cotard Also known as the Mousterian Protofigurine, the Mask of La Roche-Cotard is an artifact from the Paleolithic period that was discovered in the entrance of a cave named La Roche-Cotard, on the banks of the Loire River in France. Constructed using flint and bone, the stone is believed to represent the upper part of a face, while the bone has been interpreted as eyes. While some archaeologists question whether this artifact does indeed represent a rendered face, it is typically regarded as an example of Paleolithic figurative artistic expression.
Figure 2.10 The Venus of Willendorf The Venus of Willendorf is a particularly famous example of the Venus gure.

been found both in open-air settlements and caves. The Venus of Hohle Fels, a 6 cm figure of a woman carved from a mammoths tusk, was discovered in Germanys Hohle Fels cave in 2008 and represents one of the earliest found sculptures of this type (Figure 2.9). Additionally, the Venus of Willendorf is a particularly famous example of the Venus figure (Figure 2.10). While initially thought to be symbols of fertility, or of a fertility goddess, the true significance of the Venus figure remains obscure, as does much of prehistoric art.

Blombos Cave Discoveries of engraved stones and beads in the Blombos Caves of South Africa has led some archaeologists to believe that early Homo Sapiens were capable of abstraction and the production of symbolic art. Made from ochre, the stones are engraved with abstract patterns, while the beads are made from Nassarius shells (Figure 2.11). While they are simpler than

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Figure 2.11 Nassarius shell beads from the Blombos Cave Discoveries of engraved stones and beads in the Blombos Caves of South Africa has led some archaeologists to believe that early Homo Sapiens were capable of abstraction and the production of symbolic art.

Venus Figurines
Venus gurines, made during the Paleolithic Period, are the earliest known works of gurative art.
KEY POINTS

Venus figurines is an umbrella term for a number of prehistoric statuettes of women portrayed with similar physical attributes. These figurines were carved from soft stone (such as steatite, calcite or limestone), bone or ivory, or formed with clay and fired. Most of them are roughly diamond-shaped, with two tapering terminals at top (head) and bottom (legs) and the widest point in the middle (hips/belly). There are many different interpretations of the figurines, but like many prehistoric artifacts, the cultural meaning of these artifacts may never be known.

prehistoric cave paintings found in Europe, some scholars believe these engraved stones represent the earliest known artworks, dating from c. 75,000 years ago.
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The Paleolithic (or Old Stone Age) lasted from around 30,000 BC to 10,000 BC and yielded the first achievements in human creativity, preceding the invention of writing. Man-made artifacts from this period show the very earliest signs of workmanship, from small personal adornments and cave paintings to the prevalent Venus figurines. All generally accepted Paleolithic female figurines are

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from the Upper (or oldest) Paleolithic archaeological cultures of Gravettian, Solutrean, and Magdalenian. Venus figurine is an umbrella term for a number of prehistoric statuettes of women portrayed with similar physical attributes. Archaeologists used this now-controversial term, inspired by the ancient Greek goddess of love, to classify artifacts found mostly in Europe but sometimes as far east as Siberia. These figurines were carved from soft stone (such as steatite, calcite, or limestone), bone or ivory, or formed with clay and fired. The latter are among the oldest ceramics known. In total, over a hundred such figurines are knownvirtually all of modest size, between 1.5 in and 9.8 in height. Considering most human settlements during this period were nomadic, these statuettes exemplify prehistoric portable art. Description and Physical Characteristics The majority of Venus figurines appear to be highly stylized depictions of females, and follow certain artistic conventions. Most of them are roughly diamond-shaped, with two tapering terminals at top (head) and bottom (legs) and the widest point in the middle (hips/belly). In some cases, certain parts of the human anatomy are exaggerated: abdomen, hips, breasts, thighs, and genitalia, but others appear to be quite elongated and thin. By contrast, other

Figure 2.12 Venus of Brassempouy One of the earliest known realistic representations of a human face.Circa 26,000 and circa 24,000.

anatomical details are either neglected or absent, especially the arms and feet. The high amount of fat around the buttocks of some of the figurines, called Steatopygia, has led to numerous controversies and speculations. Some authors see this feature as depicting an actual physical property, resembling the Khoisan tribe of southern Africa, while others interpret it as a symbol of fertility and abundance. Main Examples of Venus Figurines The Venus of Brassempouy, found by douard Piette, is a fragmentary ivory figurine from the Upper Paleolithic. It was discovered in a cave in Brassempouy, France in 1892. About 25,000

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years old, it is one of the earliest known realistic representations of a human face and hairstyle (Figure 2.12). The Venus of Willendorf, also known as the Woman of Willendorf, is a 4.3 in high statuette of a female figure made between 24,000 and 22,000 BCE. It was discovered in 1908 by

Figure 2.13 Venus of Willendorf Venus gurine, oolitic limestone, dated circa 24,000 BC 22,000 BC

features of Venus figurines, including the swollen belly, wide-set thighs, and large breasts (Figure 2.14).
Figure 2.14 Venus from Hohle Fels Original Venus from Hohle Fels, mammoth ivory, Aurignacian, aged about 35-40,000 years.

archaeologist Josef Szombathy at a site near Willendorf, a village Austria. It is carved from an oolitic limestone not local to the area, and tinted with red ochre. The statuette is now in the Natural History Museum in Vienna, Austria (Figure 2.13). In September 2008, archaeologists from the University of Tbingen discovered Venus of Hohle Fels, a figurine woman carved from a mammoths tusk, dated to at least 35,000 years ago. This figurine represents the earliest known sculpture of its type, and the earliest known work of figurative art altogether. The ivory carving, found in six fragments in Germany's Hohle Fels cave, represents the typical

Interpretations There are many different interpretations of the figurines, often based on little argument or fact. Like many prehistoric artifacts, the cultural meaning of these figures may never be known. Archaeologists speculate, however, that they may be emblems of security and success, fertility icons, pornographic imagery, or even direct representations of a mother goddess or various local goddesses. The female figures appear to have no practical use in the context of subsistence. They are mostly discovered in settlement

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contexts, both in open-air sites and caves; burial contexts are much more rare.
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African Art
The oldest African art dates to the Mesolithic and late Upper Paleolithic boundary and includes mostly rockart.
KEY POINTS

Originating in the Nile River Valley, the oldest African art is dated to the Mesolithic and late Upper Paleolithic boundary, about 10,000 to 12,000 years ago. A significant amount of portable rock art made of stone originated in Africa, however, the vast majority has been dated to the early Neolithic period. The Apollo 11 cave complex in Namibia is the site of Africas oldest discovered art. Discoveries of engraved stones in the Blombos Caves of South Africa has led some archaeologists to believe that early Homo Sapiens were capable of abstraction and the production of symbolic art.

The Paleolithic or Old Stone Age originated around 30,000 BC until 10,000 BC and produced the first accomplishments in human creativity. Due to a lack of written records from this time period, nearly all of our knowledge of Paleolithic human culture and life comes from archaeology and ethnographic comparisons to

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Figure 2.15 Zoomorphic pictogram from Apollo 11 cave, Namibia The Apollo 11 cave in Namibia is the site of Africa's oldest discovered art.

Blombos Caves Discoveries of engraved stones in the Blombos Caves of South Africa has led some historians to believe that early Homo Sapiens were capable of symbolic art (Figure 2.16). The stones are made from ochre and covered in abstracted patterns of intersecting, incised lines. While they are simpler than prehistoric cave paintings found in Europe, some scholars believe these engraved stones represent the earliest known artworks, dating from circa 75,000 years ago, though this belief has encountered some contestation.
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Engraved ochre from the Blombos Cave has"led some historians to believe that early Homo Sapiens were capable of symbolic art. Figure 2.16 Engraved ochre from the Blombos Cave

modern hunter-gatherer cultures. The oldest African art is dated to the Mesolithic and late Upper Paleolithic boundary, about 10,000 to 12,000 years ago. Originating in the Nile River Valley, early African art depicts a variety of human and animal life executed using both rock-art methods of painting and engraving. There is a significant amount of portable rock art that originated in Africa. However, the vast majority has been dated to the early Neolithic period. Apollo 11 Discovered in 1969, the Apollo 11 cave in Namibia is the site of Africas oldest discovered art (Figure 2.15). From this complex of caves and rock shelters, seven stone plaques painted with figures of animals have been recovered that date from approximately 22,500 to 27,500 years ago.

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Art in Western Europe

Western Europe was particularly bountiful for archaeological discoveries, such as the Venus"gurines, from the Paleolithic.
KEY POINTS

The Paleolithic or Old Stone Age existed from approximately 30,000 BC until 10,000 BC and produced some of the first accomplishments in human creativity. Western Europe was particularly bountiful for archeological discoveries (especially southern France and northern Spain), with numerous caves and open-air sites containing spectacular parietal (cave art) and portable (small sculpture) artworks being found that are among the earliest undisputed examples of image making. Parietal Art Lascaux (circa 15,000 BC), in southwestern France, is an interconnected series of caves where we can find one of the most impressive examples of artistic creations by Paleolithic humans. Discovered in 1940, the cave contains nearly 2,000 figures, which are often grouped into the three main categories of animals, human figures, and abstract markings (Figure 2.17). The majority of images have been painted onto the stone using mineral pigments, although some designs have also been incised into the stone. The Chauvet-Pont-d'Arc Cave (circa 30,000 BC) in the Ardche department of southern France contains some of the earliest known paintings form the Upper Paleolithic. The Chauvet Cave is uncharacteristically large and the quality, quantity, and condition of the artwork found on its walls has been called spectacular. Hundreds of animal paintings have been catalogued, depicting at

Numerous caves and open-air sites containing spectacular parietal (cave art) and portable (small sculpture) artworks have been found throughout Western Europe. Lascaux (circa 15,000 BC), in southwestern France, is an interconnected series of caves where we can find some of the most impressive examples of artistic creations by Paleolithic humans. The Chauvet-Pont-d'Arc Cave (circa 30,000 BC) in the Ardche department of southern France contains some of the earliest known paintings form the Upper Paleolithic. The Coa Valley (circa 15,000 BC), located in northeastern Portugal, along the Portuguese-Spanish border, is an openair site home to numerous examples of Prehistoric rock carving. Numerous Venus figurines have been discovered throughout western Europe that date from the Paleolithic period. Numerous portable art or engravings in bone and ivory from the Upper Paleolithic have been discovered in western Europe.

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Figure 2.17 Image of a horse form the Lascaux Caves

Altamira (circa 18,000 BC) is a large, winding cave in northern Spain famous for its Upper Paleolithic rock-art featuring polychrome rock paintings of wild mammals and human hands. The artists used polychromy, charcoal, ochre, or haematite to create the images. These pigments were often diluted to produce variations in intensity and creating an impression of chiaroscuro. They also exploited the natural contours in the cave walls to give their subjects a three-dimensional effect. The Coa Valley (circa 15,000 BC), located in northeastern Portugal, along the Portuguese-Spanish border, is an open-air site home to numerous examples of Prehistoric rock carving. Discovered in the late 1980s, the site is comprised of thousands of engraved drawings of horses, cows, other animals, humans, and abstract markings dating from 22,000 to 10,000 BCE. The drawings depict zoomorphic and anthropomorphic images of nature including horses and aurochs with mouths and nostrils. The art at this location is either carved, incised, picked, or a combination of these various techniques, but it is rarely painted. The style often features bold lines, with additional fine lines used for detail. Venus Figurines As elsewhere, many Venus figurines have been discovered throughout western Europe that date from the Paleolithic period. Carved out of stone, bone, ivory, or clay, these sculptures are small

Discovered in 1940, the Lascaux Caves contain nearly 2,000 gures, which are often grouped into the three main categories of animals, human gures, and abstract markings.

least 13 different species, consisting of not only the familiar herbivores that predominate in Paleolithic cave art, but also many predatory animals, such as cave lions, panthers, bears, and cave hyenas. Typical of most cave art, there are no paintings of complete human figures. There are a few panels of red ochre hand prints and hand stencils made by spitting pigment over hands pressed against the cave surface. Abstract markings are found throughout the cave.

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Figure 2.18 Venus of Brassempouy The earliest Venus Figurines include the Venus Impudique and the Venus of Brassempouy.

in size and depict a stylized, feminine form. Western Europe, especially France, Austria, and Germany are the locations of some of the first discoveries of such figures. Among the earliest include the Venus Impudique and the Venus of Brassempouy (Figure 2. 18). Hundreds of these Venus figurines have been discovered to date. Sculpture Numerous engravings in bone and ivory from the Upper Paleolithic have been discovered in western Europe. The Swimming Reindeer is a mammoth tusk carving of two swimming reindeer that was

Figure 2.19 Swimming Reindeer from the Upper Paleolithic

found in France in 1866 (Figure 2.19). The Robin Hood Cave Horse (previously known as the Ochre Horse) is a fragment of rib bone engraved with a horses head, discovered in 1876 in the Robin Hood Cave in Creswell Crags, Derbyshire. It is the only piece of Upper Paleolithc portable art depicting an animal found in Britain.
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The Swimming Reindeer is a mammoth tusk carving of two swimming reindeer that was found in France in 1866.

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Section 3

Mesolithic Period

Mesolithic Art

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Mesolithic Art
During the Mesolithic period, humans developed cave paintings, engravings, and ceramics to reect their daily lives.
KEY POINTS

Background The Mesolithic, or Middle Stone Age, is an archaeological term used to describe specific groups of cultures defined as falling between the Paleolithic and the Neolithic Periods. While the start and end dates of the Mesolithic Period vary by geographical region, we can date it approximately 10,000 BCE8,000 BCE. The Paleolithic was an age of purely hunting and gathering, while in the Neolithic domestication of plants and animals had occurred. Some Mesolithic people continued with intensive hunting, while at the same time others were practicing the initial stages of domestication. Some Mesolithic settlements were villages of huts and others walled cities. The type of tool remains the diagnostic factor. The Mesolithic featured composite devices manufactured with Mode V chipped stone toolssmall stone tools called microliths and retouched bladelets (Figure 2.20). The Paleolithic had utilized more primitive stone treatments, and the Neolithic mainly abandoned the modes in favor of polished, not chipped, stone tools. Art from this period responds to the changing weather conditions to a warmer climate and adaption to sedentism, population size, and use of plant foodsall evidence of the transition to agriculture and eventually the Neolithic. Still, food was not available everywhere forcing Mesolithic populations to become migrating hunters and to

The Mesolithic or Middle Stone Age is an archaeological term used to describe specific groups of cultures defined as falling between the Paleolithic and the Neolithic Periods. The use of small chipped stone tools, called microliths, and retouched bladelets are the key defining factor to identify the Mesolithic as a period in prehistory. Mesolithic men most likely continued the art forms developed during the Upper Paleolithic, including cave paintings and engravings, small sculptural artifacts, and early megalithic architecturein addition to some unique pottery found in Siberia. It is difficult to find a unique type of artistic production during the Mesolithic and men most likely continued the art!forms!developed during the Upper Paleolithic (latest period of the Paleolithic). The native Mesolithic populations were slow in gradually assimilating the agricultural way of life, beginning with just the use of ceramics.

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Figure 2.20 Backed edge bladelet

of ceramics. It took a thousand years into the Neolithic period before they adopted animal husbandry (which became especially important to them) and plant cultivation to any appreciable degree. When they eventually developed interest in the more fertile areas utilized by the late Danubian cultures, they became the threat that compelled the Danubian farmers to fortify their settlements. Findings from Archeological Excavations Excavation of some Megalithic monuments (in Britain, Ireland, Scandinavia, and France) has revealed evidence of ritual activity, sometimes involving architecture, during the Mesolithic. However, in some cases, the megalith monument is so far removed in time from their successors that continuity is unlikely. In other cases, the early dates, or the exact character of activity, are controversial.

The Mesolithic featured composite devices manufactured with Mode V chipped stone toolssmall stone tools called microliths and retouched bladelets.

In North-Eastern Europe, Siberia, and certain southern European and North African sites, a ceramic Mesolithic can be distinguished between 7,0003,850 BCE. Russian archaeologists prefer to describe such pottery-making cultures as Neolithic, even though farming is absent. This pottery-making Mesolithic culture can be found peripheral to the sedentary Neolithic cultures. It created a distinctive type of pottery, with point or knob base and flared rims, manufactured by methods not used by the Neolithic farmers. Though each area of Mesolithic ceramic developed an individual style, common features suggest a single point of origin. The earliest

still settle in rock shelters. However, it is difficult to find a unique type of artistic production during the Mesolithic. Man most likely continued the art forms developed during the Upper Paleolithic (latest period of the Paleolithic). These include cave paintings and engravings, small sculptural artifacts, and early architecture. The native Mesolithic populations were slow in gradually assimilating the agricultural way of life, beginning with just the use

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manifestation of this type of pottery may be in the region around Lake Baikal in Siberia.
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Section 4

Neolithic Art

Art of the Ancient Near East Art in Western Europe

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Art of the Ancient Near East

Sites in the ancient Near East are considered to belong to the beginning of the Neolithic.
KEY POINTS

BC. Considered the last part of the Stone Age, the Neolithic period is signified by a progression in behavioural and cultural characteristics including the cultivation of wild and domestic crops and the use of domesticated animals. The ancient Near East was home to the earliest civilizations within a region roughly corresponding to the modern Middle East and included Mesopotamia, ancient Egypt, ancient Iran, the Levant and the Arabian peninsula. Sites in these locations that go back to approximately 9500 BC are considered the beginning points of the Neolithic period. Neolithic culture in the Near East is separated into three phases, Neolithic 1 (Pre-Pottery Neolithic A), Neolithic 2 (Pre-Pottery Neolithic B), and Neolithic 3 (Pottery Neolithic). Fertile Crescent This is a crescent-shaped region containing comparatively moist and fertile land, within otherwise arid and semi-arid western Asia. Definitions of the area vary slightly, but always include Mesopotamia and the land around the Tigris and Euphrates rivers, with portions of Iran, Kuwait, Turkey and the Levantine coast including Syria, Jordan, Israel, Lebanon and the West Bank. This region is also often called the cradle of civilization, as it saw the development of the earliest human civilizations.

The Neolithic is signified by a progression in behavioural and cultural characteristics including the cultivation of wild and domestic crops and the use of domesticated animals. The ancient Near East was home to the earliest civilizations within a region roughly corresponding to the modern Middle East and included Mesopotamia, ancient Egypt, ancient Iran, the Levant and the Arabian peninsula. The Fertile Crescent is a crescent-shaped region containing comparatively moist and fertile land within otherwise arid and semi-arid western Asia. Neolithic culture in the Near East is separated into three phases, Neolithic 1 (Pre-Pottery Neolithic A), Neolithic 2 (Pre-Pottery Neolithic B), and Neolithic 3 (Pottery Neolithic). Tell Halaf was the first discovered site of Neolithic culture. The temple located in southeastern Turkey at Gobekli Tepe dating from circa 10,000 BC is the oldest human-made place of worship.

The Neolithic or New Stone Age was a period in human development that originated around 10,000 BC, lasting until 3000

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Figure 2.21 View of Gobekli Tepe

developments in farming practices, such as harvesting, seed selection and the domestication of plants and animals. Neolithic 2 (PPNB) The Neolithic 2 began around 8800 BC and is characterized by settlements built with rectangular mud-brick houses with single or multiple rooms, the greater use of domesticated animals, and advancements in tools. Burial findings and the preservation of skulls of the dead which were often plastered with mud to create
Figure 2.22 View of the excavated ruins at Tell Halaf, Syria

Situated in the southeastern Anatolia Region of Turkey, it is recognized as the oldest known human-made religious structure.

Neolithic 1 (PPNA) The Neolithic 1 phase is commonly believed to have begun with a temple located in southeastern Turkey at Gobekli Tepe dating from circa 10,000 BC. The structure was developed by nomadic huntergatherer tribes and serves as the oldest known human-made place of worship. The site features seven stone circles covering 25 acres that contain limestone pillars, believed to have supported roofs of some form, carved with animals, insects, and birds (Figure 2.21). The major advances of the Neolithic 1 phase revolve around
It was the rst nd of the Neolithic culture, subsequently dubbed the Halaf culture; characterized by glazed pottery painted with geometric and animal designs.

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Figure 2.23 Example of Halaan pottery These were produced by specialist potters. Some were painted with geometric and animal motifs.

facial features suggest an ancestoral cult of some form. Neolithic 3 (PN) Beginning around 6400 BC, this period is characterized by the emergence of distinctive cultures throughout the Fertile Crescent, such as the Halafian (Turkey, Syria, Northern Mesopotamia) and Ubaid (Southern Mesopotamia) cultures. Halafian Period Tell Halaf is an archaeological site in northeastern Syria, near the Turkish border, that flourished from about 6100 to 5400 BC (Figure 2.22). It was the first site of Neolithic culture, which was subsequently dubbed Halafian culture, characterized by findings of glazed pottery painted with geometric and animal designs (Figure 2.23). Ubaid Period The Ubaid culture flourished from about 6500 to 3800 BC in Mesopotamia and is characterized by large village settlements that employed multi-room rectangular mud-brick houses. The appearance of the first temples in Mesopotamia, as well as greenish pottery decorated with geometric designs in brown or black paint, are important developments of this period (Figure 2.24). Tell al-Ubaid is a low, relatively small mound site that extends about

Figure 2.24 Pottery from the Late Ubaid period Ubaid-style pottery has been found at various sites along the southern coast of the Persian Gulf.

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two meters above ground level. The lower level was a site where large amounts of Ubaid pottery, kilns, as well as a cemetery were discovered.
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Art in Western Europe

Neolithic art in western Europe is most well-represented by its megalithic (large stone) monuments.
KEY POINTS

Neolithic societies produced female and animal statues, engravings and elaborate pottery decoration in addition to megalithic structures. The Neolithic or New Stone Age was a period in human development that originated around 10,000 BC lasting until 3000 BC. Passage tombs or graves consist of narrow passages made of large stones and one or multiple burial chambers which have been covered in earth or stone. A common layout is the cruciform passage grave, characterized by a cross-shaped structure. Knowth is reputed to have approximately one third of all megalithic art in western Europe carved into its rock faces. The carvings at Newgrange are separated into ten categories consisting of curvilinear forms like circles, spirals, arcs, serpentiforms and dot-in-circles as well as rectilinear examples such as chevrons, lozenges, radials, parallel lines and offsets.

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Passage Tombs
KEY POINTS (cont.)

The megalithic temples in Ggantija, Malta, have been theorized as possible sites of a fertility cult due to numerous associated figurines found on site.

Passage tombs or graves consist of narrow passages made of large stones, and one or multiple burial chambers which have been covered in earth or stone. Megaliths, or large stones, are commonly used in the construction of passage tombs and typically date to the Neolithic. A common layout is the cruciform passage grave, characterized by a cross-shaped structure.

The Neolithic Period Also known as the New Stone Age, this was a period in human development that originated around 10,000 BC lasting until 3000 BC. Considered the last part of the Stone Age, the Neolithic is signified by a progression in behavioural and cultural characteristics including the cultivation of wild and domestic crops and the use of domesticated animals. Agrarian societies first appeared in southeast Europe in the 7th millennium BC. Through migration and cultural diffusion, Neolithic traditions spread west and northwards to reach northwestern Europe by around 4500 BC. Neolithic societies produced female and animal statues, engravings and elaborate pottery decoration but in western Europe it is most well-represented by its megalithic (large stone) monuments and passage tomb structures which have been found from Malta to Portugal, through France and Germany, and across southern England to most of Wales and Ireland.

Newgrange, Ireland Newgrange is part of the Neolithic Bru na Boinne complex, a collection of passage tomb mounds built around 3200 BC and located in County Meath, Ireland (Figure 2.25).
Figure 2.25 View of Newgrange, Ireland Newgrange is more than ve hundred years older than the Great Pyramid of Giza in Egypt, and predates Stonehenge by about a thousand years.

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The Newgrange monument is comprised of a large mound, built of alternating layers of earth and stones, covered with growing grass, and with flat white quartz stones studded around the circumference. The mound covers 4,500 square meters of ground. Within it is a passage that stretches through the structure ending at three small chambers. Newgrange contains various examples of abstract Neolithic art carved onto its rocks. The carvings are separated into 10 categories consisting of curvilinear forms like circles, spirals, arcs, serpentiforms and dot-in-circles as well as rectilinear examples such as chevrons, lozenges, radials, parallel lines and offsets. There is no agreement as to what the site was used for, but it has been speculated that is had some form of religious significance due to its alignment with the rising sun which floods the stone room with light on the winter solstice. Knowth, Ireland Knowth is a Neolithic passage grave and monument located in the valley of the River Boyne in Ireland (Figure 2.26). Located in close proximity to similar sites such as Newgrange, Knowth consists of one large cruciform passage tomb, and 17 smaller satellite tombs, estimated to date between 2500 and 2000 BC.

Figure 2.26 View of the eastern passage, Knowth, Ireland The east-west orientation of the passages at Knowth suggests astronomical alignment with the equinoxes.

Additionally, the monument contains three recesses and basin stones into which the cremated remains of the dead were placed. The right recess is larger and more elaborately decorated than the others, which is a typical trait of Irish passage graves though the reason is unknown. Many of the monuments at Knowth are known to have been megalithic tombs, and archaeologists speculate that most have religious significance. Knowth is reputed to have approximately one third of all megalithic art in western Europe carved into its rock faces. Typical motifs include spirals, lozenges and serpentiform markings. Much of the art was carved on the backs of stones, which is a phenomenon known as hidden art. There are many theories for the function of

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hidden art, including a possible desire to hide images or the recycling of stones in order to use both sides. Ggantija, Malta The megalithic temple complexes of Ggantija on the Mediterranean islands of Gozo and Malta are notable for their gigantic Neolithic structures which date back to 3600 BC (Figure 2.27). Situated at the end of the Xanghra plateau and facing towards the southeast, the temples are built in a clover leaf shape, with inner
Figure 2.27 Entrance to megalithic temple at Ggantija, Malta

facing blocks marking the shape which was then filled with rubble, and leading to a series of semi-circular apses connected by a central passage. The temples have been theorized as the possible site of a fertility cult due to numerous associated figurines found on site. The Hypogeum of Hal-Saflieni, located in Pola, Malta, is a subterranean structure excavated circa 2500 BC, the only prehistoric underground temple in the world, showing a degree of stone artistry unique to the Maltese islands.
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The "gantija temples are older than the pyramids of Egypt and have been designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site.

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Section 5

Advancements in Metallurgy and Stonework

The Bronze Age Rock Carvings

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The Bronze Age

The Bronze Age saw the birth of civilization and the development of advanced cultures in Europe, the Near East, and East Asia.

further advancements in metallurgy, such as the ability to smelt iron ore. The Bronze Age is the earliest period for which we have direct written accounts, since the invention of writing coincides with its early beginnings. Bronze Age cultures differed in their development of the first writing. According to archaeological evidence, cultures in

KEY POINTS

Egypt (hieroglyphs), the Near East (cuneiform), and the Mediterranean, with the Mycenaean culture (Linear B), had viable writing systems. The Art of the Bronze Age: Ancient Near East Cultures in the ancient Near East (often called the cradle of civilization) practiced intensive year-round agriculture, developed a writing system, invented the potter's wheel, created a centralized government, law codes, and empires, and introduced social stratification, slavery, and organized warfare. Societies in the region laid the foundations for astronomy and mathematics. From Mesopotamia came the empires of Sumeria, Babylon, and Assyria. From the fertile flood plains of the Nile emerged the Egyptians, with their great monuments and sophisticated society. From the Iranian Plateau came the Medes and then the Persians, who nearly succeeded in uniting the entire civilized world under one empire. In Mesopotamian Babylonia, an abundance of clay and lack of stone led to greater use of mud brick; Babylonian temples were massive

The Bronze Age is characterized by the use of copper and its alloy bronze as the chief hard materials in the manufacturing of implements and weapons. The Bronze Age is the earliest period for which we have direct written accounts, since the invention of writing coincides with its early beginnings. During the Bronze Age, cultures such as the Sumerian, Babylonian, and Egyptian produced hallmark artistic and architectural achievements.

The Bronze Age The Bronze Age is part of the three-age system of archaeology, which divides human technological prehistory into three periods: the Stone Age, Bronze Age, and Iron Age. The Bronze Age took place circa 33001200 BC and is characterized by the use of copper and its alloy bronze as the chief hard materials in the manufacturing of implements and weapons. This period ended with

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Figure 2.28 Statue of Gudea Neo-Sumerian period, circa 2090 BC

Figure 2.29 Ritual cooking vessel China, Shang or Zhou dynasty bronze, circa 1000 BCE.Taotie a mask of an imaginary animal with eyes, horns, snout, and jaw. Motif common in Shang and early Zhou dynasties.

earliest examples being the Statues of Gudea (Figure 2.28), which are realistic if somewhat clumsy. The paucity of stone in Babylonia structures of crude brick, supported by buttresses, the rain being carried off by drains. The use of brick led to the early development of the pilaster and column, and of frescoes and enameled tiles. The walls were brilliantly colored and sometimes plated with zinc or gold, as well as with tiles. Painted terra-cotta cones for torches were also embedded in the plaster. In Babylonia, in place of the basrelief, there was greater use of three-dimensional figuresthe made every pebble precious, and led to a high perfection in the art of gem-cutting. In Ancient Egypt, the Bronze Age begins in the Protodynastic period, circa 3150 BC (Figure 2.29). The hallmarks of ancient Egyptian civilization, such as art, architecture and many aspects of religion, took shape during the Early Dynastic period lasting until about 2686 BC. During this time period, the pantheon of the gods was established; the illustrations and proportions of

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Figure 2.30 Reverse and obverse sides of Narmer Palette, this facsimile on display at the Royal Ontario Museum in Toronto, Canada

The Art of the Bronze Age: East Asia In the East, civilization emerged in the Indus River valley, and from the Yellow River came the beginnings of Chinese civilization. The Chinese bronze artifacts are generally either utilitarian, like spear points or adze heads, or ritual bronzes, which are more elaborate versions in precious materials of everyday vessels, as well as tools and weapons. Examples are the numerous large sacrificial tripods known as dings in Chinese. There are many other distinct shapes. Ritual bronzes were highly decorated with taotie motifs (Figure 2. 30), including highly stylized animal faces, in three main motif types: demons, symbolic animals, and abstract symbols. Many large bronzes also bear cast inscriptions that are the great bulk of the surviving body of early Chinese writing, and have helped historians and archaeologists piece together the history of China.

The Narmer Palette, named after Egyptian King Narmer, is a signicant Egyptian archeological nd, dating from about the 3100 BC, containing some of the earliest hieroglyphic inscriptions ever found.

The Art of the Bronze Age: Western Europe The Atlantic Bronze Age is a cultural complex of the period of approximately 1300700 BC that includes different cultures in Portugal, Andalusia, Galicia, and the British Isles. It is marked by economic and cultural exchange. Commercial contacts extend to Denmark and the Mediterranean. The Atlantic Bronze Age was defined by a number of distinct regional centers of metal production, unified by a regular maritime exchange of some of their products. The greatest quantities of bronze objects in England were

their human figures were developed; and Egyptian imagery, symbolism, and basic hieroglyphic writing was created. During the Old Kingdom, from 26862181 BC, the Egyptian pyramids were built. Sculptures that appeared more natural were built as well. The first known portraits were completed. It was at the end of the Old Kingdom that the Egyptian style made a shift toward formalized nude figures with long bodies and large eyes.

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discovered in East Cambridgeshireespecially in Isleham, where more than 6,500 pieces were found. Alloying of copper with zinc or tin to make brass or bronze was practiced soon after the discovery of copper. The earliest identified metalworking site (Sigwells, Somerset) is much later, dated by Globular Urn style pottery to approximately the 12th century BC. The Bronze Age in Ireland commenced around 2000 BC, when copper was alloyed with tin and used to manufacture Ballybeg-type flat axes and associated metalwork.
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Rock Carvings
Petroglyphs, or rock engravings, are images created by removing part of a rock surface.
KEY POINTS

Rock carvings are found worldwide, with the highest concentrations in Africa, Scandinavia, Siberia, southwestern North America and Australia which date between the Neolithic and the late Upper Paleolithic. The majority of rock carvings were produced in caves or canyons by hunter-gatherer peoples who inhabited the area and typically depicted animals, humans as well as some narrative scenes. Traditionally, individual markings are called motifs, while groups of motifs are known as panels. Some petroglyphs are thought to be astronomical markers, maps or other such forms of communication. A petroglyph that represents a landform or the surrounding terrain is known as a Geocontourglyph. While there are some exceptions, scholars agree that the majority of ethnographically recorded rock art was produced during or as a ritual of some form.

Petroglyphs, or rock engravings, are pictogram and logogram images created by removing part of a rock surface via incising,

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Figure 2.31 Petroglyph of sheep from Utah, USA

hunter-gatherer peoples who inhabited the area, and typically depicted animals, humans as well as some narrative scenes (Figure 2.32). Interpretations Traditionally, individual markings are called motifs, while groups of motifs are known as panels. Rock carvings are found across a wide geographical and temporal scope of cultures. Scholars have come up
Figure 2.32 Petroglyphs from Paria canyon, Utah

Rock carvings are found worldwide, with the highest concentrations in Africa, Scandinavia, Siberia, southwestern North America and Australia which date between the Neolithic and the late Upper Paleolithic periods, approximately 10,000 to 20,000 years ago.

picking, carving and/or abrading. Rock carvings are found worldwide, with the highest concentrations in Africa, Scandinavia, Siberia, southwestern North America and Australia which date between the Neolithic and the late Upper Paleolithic periods, approximately 10,000 to 20,000 years ago (Figure 2.31). The majority of rock carvings were produced in caves or canyons by
The majority of rock carvings were produced in caves or canyons by huntergatherer peoples who inhabited the area, and typically depicted animals, humans and some narrative scenes, such as the ones shown here.

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with numerous theories to explain their purpose, depending on their location, age and image type. Some petroglyphs are thought to be astronomical markers, maps or other such forms of communication. A petroglyph that represents a landform or the surrounding terrain is known as a Geocontourglyph. Additional interpretations include the use of rock carvings for the possible marking of territory; recording of historical events or narratives; or use as aid in enacting rituals. While there are some exceptions, scholars agree that the majority of ethnographically recorded rock art was produced during or as a ritual of some form. Many researchers have noticed the notable resemblance of different styles of petroglyphs across different continents, a fact which has seen little agreement or explanation among scholars and archaeologists. This could be mere coincidence, an indication that certain groups of people migrated widely from some initial common area, or the indication of a common origin.
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Chapter 3

Art of the Ancient Near East

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Section 1

Mesopotamia

Sumer Akkad Lagash and the Third Dynasty of Ur Babylon The Hittites

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Sumer
Sumer was an ancient"Chalcolithic civilization that saw its artistic styles change throughout di!erent periods in its history.
KEY POINTS

Figure 3.1 Stele of Vultures Battle formations on a fragment of the Stele of the Vultures. Example of Sumerian pictorial cuneiform writing.

The surplus of storable food created by the Eridu economy required an extensive labour force and division of labor with many specialized arts and crafts. In the early Sumerian period, pictograms suggest the abundance of pottery and other artistic traditions. By the late 4th millennium BCE, Sumer was divided into about a dozen independent city-states delineated by canals and other boundary makers. The Sumerian city states rose to power during the prehistorical Ubaid and Uruk periods. called proto-Euphrateans or Ubaidians and are believed to have evolved from the Samarra culture of northern Mesopotamia (Assyria). The Ubaidians were the first civilizing force in Sumer, draining the marshes for agriculture, developing trade, and establishing industries: including weaving, leatherwork, metalwork, Sumer was an ancient civilization and historical region in southern Mesopotamia (modern Iraq) during the Chalcolithic and Early Bronze Age. Although the earliest historical records in the region do not go back much further than ca. 2900 BCE, modern historians have asserted that Sumer was first settled between ca. 4500 and 4000 BCE by a non-Semitic people, who may or may not have spoken the Sumerian language. These prehistoric people are now masonry, and pottery. The Sumerian city of Eridu, on what was then the Persian Gulf, is believed to be the world's first city, where three separate cultures fusedthat of peasant Ubaidian farmers, the mobile nomadic Semitic pastoralists, and fisher folk. The surplus of storable food created by this economy allowed the population of this region to settle in one place, instead of migrating as hunter gatherers. It also

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allowed for a much greater population density, and in turn required an extensive labor force and a division of labor with many specialized arts and crafts. Sumer was also the site of early development of writing called cuneiform (Figure 3.1). By the late 4th millennium BCE, Sumer was divided into about a dozen independent city-states delineated by canals and other boundary makers (Figure 3.2). Each was centered on a temple dedicated to the particular patron god or goddess of the city and ruled over by a priestly governor (ensi) or by a king (lugal), who was intimately tied to the city's religious rites. The Sumerian city states rose to power during the prehistorical Ubaid and Uruk periods. The Ubaid period is marked by a distinctive style of fine quality painted pottery which spread throughout Mesopotamia. During this time, the first settlement in southern Mesopotamia was established at Eridu by farmers who brought with them the Hadji Muhammed culture, which first pioneered irrigation agriculture. Eridu remained an important religious center when it was gradually surpassed in size by the nearby city. The archaeological transition from the Ubaid period to the Uruk period is marked by a gradual shift from painted pottery, domestically produced on a slow wheel, to a great variety of unpainted pottery mass-produced by specialists on fast wheels. By the time of the Uruk period (ca. 41002900 BCE), the volume of

trade goods transported along the canals and rivers of southern Mesopotamia facilitated the rise of many large, stratified, templecentered cities where centralized administrations employed specialized workers. Artifacts, and even colonies of this Uruk civilization, have been found over a wide areafrom the Taurus Mountains in Turkey, to the Mediterranean Sea in the west, and as far east as Central Iran. The Uruk period civilization, exported by Sumerian traders and colonists had an effect on all surrounding peoples, who gradually evolved their own comparable, competing economies and cultures.
Figure 3.2 Sumer Map of the Cities of Sumer.

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In the early Sumerian period, cuneiform and pictograms suggest the abundance of pottery and other artistic traditions. Furthermore, tablets were used for writing purposes, and copper, gold, and silver were worked by the smith. Daggers with metal blades and wooden handles were worn, and copper was hammered into plates, while necklaces or collars were made of gold. Sumerian cities during the Uruk period were probably theocratic and were most likely headed by a priest-king (ensi), assisted by a council of elders, including both men and women. It is quite possible that the later Sumerian pantheon was modeled upon this political structure. There was little evidence of institutionalized violence or professional soldiers during the Uruk period, and towns were generally unwalled. During this period, Uruk became the most urbanized city in the world, surpassing for the first time 50,000 inhabitants. The earliest king authenticated through archaeological evidence is Enmebaragesi of Kish, whose name is also mentioned in the Gilgamesh epicleading to the suggestion that Gilgamesh himself might have been a historical king of Uruk. As the Epic of Gilgamesh shows, this period was associated with increased violence. Cities became walled and increased in size as undefended villages in southern Mesopotamia disappeared.

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Akkad
Akkad was the capital of the Akkadian Empire, which was the dominant political force in Mesopotamia.
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Figure 3.3 Akkadian Empire Map of the Near East showing the extent of the Akkadian Empire and the general area in which Akkad was located.

The existence of Akkad is only known from textual sources: it has not yet been found in archaeological excavations (although scholars have proposed different locations, with most recent proposals pointing to a location east of the Tigris). Before Akkad was identified in Mesopotamian cuneiform texts, the city was only known from a single reference in Genesis 10:10. However, the city of Akkad is mentioned more than 160 times in cuneiform sources ranging in date from the Akkadian period to the sixth century BCE. The location of Akkad is unknown, but throughout the years scholars have made several proposals. Whereas many older proposals put Akkad on the Euphrates, more recent discussions conclude that a location on the Tigris is more likely.

excavations (although scholars have proposed different locations, with most recent proposals pointing to a location east of the Tigris). Before Akkad was identified in Mesopotamian cuneiform texts, the city was only known from a single reference in Genesis 10:10. However, the city of Akkad is mentioned more than 160 times in cuneiform sources ranging in date from the Akkadian period itself (23502170 or 22302050 BCE, according to respectively the Middle or Short Chronology) to the sixth century BCE. The name of the city is spelled as a-ga-dKI or URIKI, which is variously transcribed into English as Akkad, Akkade, or Agade. The etymology of a-ga-d is unclear, but not of Akkadian origin. Sumerian, Hurrian, and Lullubean etymologies have been proposed instead. The non-Akkadian origin of the citys name suggests that the site may have already been occupied in pre-Sargonic times, as

Akkad was the capital of the Akkadian Empire, which was the dominant political force in Mesopotamia at the end of the third millennium BCE (Figure 3.3). The existence of Akkad is only known from textual sources: it has not yet been found in archaeological

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also suggested by the mentioning of the city in one pre-Sargonic year-name. Cuneiform sources also suggest that the Akkadians worshipped Ishtar. The location of Akkad is unknown, but throughout the years scholars have made several proposals. Whereas many older proposals put Akkad on the Euphrates, more recent discussions conclude that a location on the Tigris is more likely. A combined analysis of cuneiform and topographical/archaeological field survey data led archaeologist Harvey Weiss to suggest that Akkad is modern Ishan Mizyad, a large site approximately 3.1 miles northwest from Kish. However, excavations have shown that the remains at Ishan Mizyad date to the Ur III period and not to the Akkadian period. More recent discussions have focused on a location along, or east of, the Tigris. Assyriologist Julian Reade suggested that Akkad may have been located at Qadisiyeh, further north along the Tigris. At this site, north of Samarra and south of where the Adheim River joins the Tigris, a fragment of an Old Akkadian statuenow in the British Museumhas been found that, if complete, would be the largest of its kind.
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Lagash and the Third Dynasty of Ur

Lagash is an ancient city located northwest of the junction of the Euphrates and Tigris rivers.

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With the Akkadian conquest, Lagash lost its independence, and its ruler became a vassal of Sargon of Akkad and his successors. However, Lagash continued to be a city of much importance and above all, a center of artistic development. The Third Dynasty of Ur (Ur III) refers to the twenty-first-totwentieth century BCE Sumerian ruling dynasty based in the city of Ur. Ur III came to preeminent power in Mesopotamia after several centuries of Akkadian and Gutian rule. During Ur III, Sumerian dominated the cultural sphere and was the language of legal, administrative, and economic documents. Sumerian texts were mass produced in the Ur III period, even though the Semitic Akkadian language became the common spoken language.

Lagash is an ancient city located northwest of the junction of the Euphrates and Tigris rivers. Lagash was one of the oldest cities of the Ancient Near East. From inscriptions found at Girsu such as the Gudea cylinders, it appears that Lagash was an important Sumerian

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Figure 3.4 Ur III Map Map showing the Ur III state and its sphere of inuence.

notable for artistic development. Scholars even have a fairly good idea of what Gudea looked like, since he placed in temples throughout his city numerous statues or idols depicting himself with lifelike realism (Figure 3.5).

Figure 3.5 Gudea Gudea of Lagash, diorite statue found at Girsu (Louvre).

city in the late third millennium BC. It was at that time ruled by independent kings, Ur-Nanshe and his successors. With the Akkadian conquest, Lagash lost its independence and its ruler or ensi becoming a vassal of Sargon of Akkad and his successors. However, Lagash continued to be a city of much importance and above all a center of artistic development. After the collapse of Sargon's state, Lagash again thrived under its independent kings (ensis), Ur-Bau and Gudea, and had extensive commercial communications with distant realms. According to his own records, Gudea brought cedars from the Amanus and Lebanon mountains in Syria, diorite from eastern Arabia, and copper and gold from central and southern Arabia. His era was especially

At the time of Gudea, and according to one estimate, Lagash was the largest city in the ancient world. Soon after the time of Gudea, Lagash was absorbed into the Ur III state as one of its prime provinces. The Third Dynasty of Ur The Third Dynasty of Ur, also known as the Neo-Sumerian Empire or the Ur III refers to the twenty-first-to-twentieth century BCE Sumerian ruling dynasty based in the city of Ur (Figure 3.4). The Third Dynasty of Ur is commonly abbreviated as Ur III by historians of the period. Ur III came to preeminent power in Mesopotamia after several centuries of Akkadian and Gutian rule. It

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Figure 3.6 Umma City Plan Plan indicating the real estate of the city of Umma, with indications of the surfaces of the parts. Third Dynasty of Ur.

and bodily structure. Extant copies, written in Old Babylonian, exist from Nippur, Sippar, and also Ur itself. Although the prologue credits Ur-Nammu, the author is still somewhat under dispute. The prologue to the law-code, written in the first person, established the king as the beacon of justice for his land, a role that previous kings normally did not play. He claimed to want justice for all, including traditionally unfortunate groups in the kingdom like widowers or orphans. The image of the king as the supreme judge of the land took hold, and this image appears in many literary works and poems. During Ur III, Sumerian dominated the cultural sphere and was the language of legal, administrative, and economic documents. Sumerian texts were mass produced in the Ur III period, and, although the Semitic Akkadian language became the common spoken language, Sumerian continued to dominate literature and also administrative documents. Government officials learned to write at special schools that used only Sumerian literature. Some scholars believe that the Uruk epic of Gilgamesh was written down during this period into its classic Sumerian form. Kings of the Ur III Dynasty even attempted to establish ties to the early kings of Uruk by claiming to be their familial relations. For example, the Ur III kings often claimed Gilgamesh's divine parents, Ninsun and Lugalbanda, as their own, to evoke a comparison to the epic hero.

controlled the cities of Isin, Larsa, and Eshnunna and extended as far north as the Jazira. The Third Dynasty of Ur arose some time after the fall of the Akkad Dynasty. Following Utu-Hengal's reign, Ur-Nammu founded the dynasty of Ur-III. After four years of ruling in Ur, Ur-Nammu rose to prominence as a warrior-king when he crushed the ruler of Lagash in battle, killing the king himself. After this battle, Ur-Nammu seems to have earned the title king of Sumer and Agade. One salient feature of Ur III is its establishment of one of the earliest known law-codes, the Code of Ur-Nammu. It is quite similar to the famous codex of Hammurabi, resembling its prologue

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The detailed documents from the administration of this period exhibit a startling amount of centralization. The Ur III kings oversaw many substantial state-run projects, including urban building projects (Figure 3.6), intricate irrigation systems, and the centralization of agriculture. Textiles were a particularly important industry in Ur during this time, and the textile industry was run by the state. Men, women, and children alike were employed to produce wool and linen clothing. Trading was another huge industry. The state employed independent merchants to run such commercial activities through a barter system and established a standard system of weights. Coins made of copper, bronze, gold, or silver were produced in certain, pre-set weights so merchants could easily discern values.
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Babylon
Babylon was an Akkadian city-state of ancient Mesopotamia, the remains of which are found in present-day Iraq.

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Today, all that remains of the original ancient famed city of Babylon is a large mound, or tell, of broken mud-brick buildings and debris in the fertile Mesopotamian plain between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers. Babylon controlled little surrounding territory until it became the capital of Hammurabis empire a century later. Hammurabi is famous for codifying the laws of Babylonia into the Code of Hammurabi that has had a lasting influence on legal thought. Nebuchadnezzar II made Babylon into one of the wonders of the ancient world. He ordered the rebuilding of the Etemenanki ziggurat and the construction of the Ishtar Gate. Nebuchadnezzar is also credited with the construction of the Hanging Gardens of Babylon.

Babylon was an Akkadian city-state of ancient Mesopotamia, the remains of which are found in present-day Iraq. Today, all that remains of the original ancient famed city of Babylon is a large mound, or tell, of broken mud-brick buildings and debris in the

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fertile Mesopotamian plain between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers (Figure 3.7). The city itself was built upon the Euphrates, and is divided in equal parts along its left and right banks, with steep embankments to contain the river's seasonal floods. Available historical resources suggest that Babylon was at first a small town which had sprung up by the beginning of the third millennium BCE. Babylon spent long periods under Assyrian, Kassite, and Elamite domination.
Figure 3.7 Babylon Babylon in a 1932 excavation.

dynasties in several south Mesopotamian city-states, including Babylon. Scholars estimate that Babylon was the largest city in the world from c. 1770 to 1670 BCE, and again between c. 612 and 320 BCE. The First Babylonian Dynasty was established by an Amorite chieftain named Sumu-abum in 1894 BCE, when he declared independence from the neighbouring city-state of Kazallu. The
Figure 3.8 Hammurabi's Code The upper part of the stela of Hammurabi's code of laws

Archaeological evidence suggests that around the nineteenth century BCE, much of Mesopotamia was occupied by Amorites, nomadic tribes from the northern Levant. Over time, Amorite grain merchants rose to prominence and established independent

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Amorites, unlike the Sumerians and Akkadian Semites, were not native to Mesopotamia, but were semi-nomadic Semitic invaders from the lands to the west. Babylon controlled little surrounding territory until it became the capital of Hammurabi's empire a century later (Figure 3.9). Hammurabi is famous for codifying the laws of Babylonia into the Code of Hammurabi that has had a lasting influence on legal thought (Figure 3.8). Subsequently, the city of Babylon continued to be the capital of the region known as Babylonia. Following the sack of Babylon by the Hittites, the Kassites invaded and took over Babylon, ushering in a dynasty that was to last for 435 years until 1160 BCE. The city was renamed Karanduniash during this period. Kassite Babylon eventually became subject to domination by Elam to the east and the fellow
Figure 3.9 Map of Babylon Map showing the Babylonian territory upon Hammurabi's ascension in 1792 BCE and upon his death in 1750 BCE.

Mesopotamian state of Assyria to the north, both nations often interfering with or controlling Babylon. Throughout the duration of the Neo-Assyrian Empire (911-608 BCE) Babylonia was under Assyrian domination or direct control. During the reign of Sennacherib of Assyria, Babylonia was in a constant state of revolt, suppressed only by the complete destruction of the city. In 689 BCE, its walls, temples, and palaces were razed, and the rubble was thrown into the Arakhtu, the sea bordering the earlier Babylon on the south. Babylon threw off Assyrian rule and destroyed the Assyrian Empire between 620 and 605 BCE, using an alliance with Cyaxares, king of the Medes, and Persians together with the Scythians and Cimmerians. Babylon thus became the capital of the Neo-Babylonian Empire. With the recovery of Babylonian independence, a new era of architectural activity ensued, and Nebuchadnezzar II (604561 BCE) made Babylon into one of the wonders of the ancient world. Nebuchadnezzar II ordered the complete reconstruction of the imperial grounds, including rebuilding the Etemenanki ziggurat and the construction of the Ishtar Gatethe most spectacular of eight gates that ringed the perimeter of Babylon. Nebuchadnezzar is also credited with the construction of the Hanging Gardens of Babylon (one of the seven wonders of the ancient world), said to have been built for his homesick wife Amyitis. Whether the gardens

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actually existed is a matter of dispute. Although excavations are thought to reveal its foundations, many historians disagree about the location, and some believe it may have been confused with gardens in the Assyrian capital, Nineveh. Under Persian rule, Babylon became a center of learning and scientific advancement. The city was the administrative capital of the Persian Empire, the preeminent power of the then-known world, and it played a vital part in the history of that region for over two centuries. Many important archaeological discoveries have been made that can provide a better understanding of that era. The early Persian kings had attempted to maintain the religious ceremonies of Marduk, however, over-taxation and the strains of numerous wars led to a deterioration of Babylons main shrines and canals, and the disintegration of the surrounding region. In 331 BCE, Babylon fell to Alexander the Great, and again flourished as a center of arts, learning, and commerce. Following Alexander's death in 323 BCE, Babylon again fell into turmoil, which virtually emptied the city. By 141 BCE, when the Parthian Empire took over the region again, Babylon was in complete desolation and obscurity. Under the Parthian, and later, Sassanid Persians, Babylon remained a province of the Persian Empire for nine centuries. It continued to have its own culture and people, who

spoke varieties of Aramaic, and who continued to refer to their homeland as Babylon.
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The Hittites
The Hittites were an ancient people who established an empire at Hattusa in north-central Anatolia around the eighteenth century BCE.
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Figure 3.10 Map of the Hittite Empire

Although they belonged to the Bronze Age, the Hittites were the forerunners of the Iron Age, developing the manufacture of iron artifacts from as early as the fourteenth century BCE, when letters to foreign rulers reveal the latter's demand for iron goods. Archaeological expeditions have discovered in Hattusa entire sets of royal archives in cuneiform tablets, written either in the Semitic Mesopotamian Akkadian language of Assyria and Babylonia, the diplomatic language of the time, or in the various dialects of the Hittite confederation. Civil war and rivalling claims to the throne, combined with the external threat of the Sea Peoples weakened the Hittites and, by 1160 BCE, the Empire had collapsed. Neo-Hittite post-Empire states, petty kingdoms under Assyrian rule, may have lingered on until ca. 700 BCE.

The Hittite Empire is shown in Blue, ca. eighteenth century BCEca. 1178 BCE.

during the mid-fourteenth century BCE under Suppiluliuma I. It encompassed an area that included most of Asia Minor as well as parts of the northern Levant and Upper Mesopotamia. After c. 1180 BCE, the empire came to an end in the Bronze Age collapse, splintering into several independent Neo-Hittite city-states, some surviving until the eighth century BCE.

The Hittites were an ancient Anatolian people who established an empire at Hattusa in north-central Anatolia around the eighteenth century BCE (Figure 3.10). The Hittite Empire reached its height The Hittite military made successful use of chariots. Although they belonged to the Bronze Age, the Hittites were the forerunners of the

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Figure 3.11 Hittite Bronze Religious Standard Bronze religious standard symbolizing the universe, used by Hittite priests, from the Museum of Anatolian Civilizations.

considered the core of the Empire. At its peak during the reign of Mursili II, the Hittite empire stretched from Arzawa in the west to Mitanni in the east, many of the Kaskian territories to the north including Hayasa-Azzi in the far north-east, and on south into Canaan approximately as far as the southern border of Lebanon, incorporating all of these territories within its domain. The Hittite kingdom is conventionally divided into three periods, the Old Hittite Kingdom (ca. 17501500 BCE), the Middle Hittite Kingdom (ca. 15001430 BCE) and the New Hittite Kingdom (the Hittite Empire proper, 14301180 BCE). The earliest known member of a Hittite speaking dynasty, Pithana, was based at the city of Kussara. In the eighteenth century BCE, Anitta, his son and successor, made the Hittite speaking city of Nesa into one of his capitals and adopted the Hittite language for his inscriptions there. During the fifteenth century BCE, Hittite power fell into obscurity, re-emerging with the reign of Tudhaliya I from ca. 1400 BCE. Under Suppiluliuma I and Mursili II, the Empire was extended to most of Anatolia and parts of Syria and Canaan. By 1300 BCE, the Hittites were bordering on the Assyrian and Egyptian spheres of influence, leading to the inconclusive Battle of Kadesh in 1274 BCE. Civil war and rivaling claims to the throne, combined with the external threat of the Sea Peoples, weakened the Hittites. By 1160 BCE, the Empire had collapsed. Neo-Hittite post-Empire states, petty kingdoms

Iron Age. They developed the manufacture of iron artifacts from as early as the fourteenth century BCE, when letters to foreign rulers reveal the latters demand for iron goods. Furthermore, the Hittites used Mesopotamian cuneiform letters. Archaeological expeditions have discovered in Hattusa entire sets of royal archives in cuneiform tablets. These were written either in the Semitic Mesopotamian Akkadian language of Assyria and Babylonia, the diplomatic language of the time, or in the various dialects of the Hittite confederation. The first archaeological evidence for the Hittites appeared in tablets found at the Assyrian colony of Kltepe, containing records of trade between Assyrian merchants and a certain land of Hatti. The Hittite kingdom was centred on the lands surrounding Hattusa and Nesa, known as the land Hatti. After Hattusa was made the capital, the area encompassed by the bend of the Halys River was

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under Assyrian rule, may have lingered on until ca. 700 BCE. The Bronze Age Hittite and Luwian dialects evolved into the sparsely attested Lydian, Lycian and Carian languages. Hittite religion and mythology were heavily influenced by their Hattic, Mesopotamian, and Hurrian counterparts. In earlier times, Indo-European elements, particularly cosmic symbology (Figure 3. 11), may be discerned. For example, storm gods were prominent in the Hittite pantheon. Tarhunt (Hurrian's Teshub) was referred to as The Conqueror, The king of Kummiya, King of Heaven, Lord of the land of Hatti. He was chief among the gods and his symbol is the bull. As Teshub, he was depicted as a bearded man astride two mountains and bearing a club.
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Section 2

Assyria

Kalhu Dur Sharrukin Nineveh

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Kalhu
Nimrud is an ancient Assyrian city housing many examples of Assyrian art and architecture erected by the ancient Assyrian kings.
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ruins of the city are found some 30 kilometers (19 mi) southeast of Mosul. The Assyrian king Shalmaneser I made Nimrud, which existed for about a thousand years, the capital in the thirteenth century BCE. The city gained fame when king Ashurnasirpal II of Assyria (c. 880 BCE) built a large palace and temples on the site of an earlier city that had long fallen into ruins. The city of king Ashurnasirpal II housed as many as 100,000 inhabitants and contained botanic gardens and a zoologic garden. His son, Shalmaneser III (858824 BCE), built the monument known as the Great Ziggurat and an associated temple. The palace, restored as a site museum, is one of only two preserved Assyrian palaces in the world. The other is Sennacherib's palace at Nineveh. Nimrud remained the Assyrian capital until 706 BCE when Sargon II moved the capital to Khorsabad, but it remained a major center and a royal residence until the city was completely destroyed in 612 BCE when Assyria succumbed under the invasion of the Medes. Excavations at Nimrud were first conducted by Austen Henry Layard, working from 1845 to 1847 and from 1849 until 1851. In 1949, digging was resumed by the British School of Archaeology in Iraq, led by Max Mallowan, and the work continued until 1963. Excavations revealed remarkable bas-reliefs, ivories, and sculptures. A statue of Ashurnasirpal II was found in an excellent

Assyrian king Shalmaneser I made Nimrud the capital in the thirteenth century BCE. The city gained fame with king Ashurnasirpal II of Assyria (c. 880 BCE) who built a large palace and temples on the site of an earlier city that had long fallen into ruins. Nimrud remained the Assyrian capital until 706 BCE, when Sargon II moved the capital to Khorsabad, but it remained a major center and a royal residence until the city was completely destroyed in 612 BCE when Assyria succumbed under the invasion of the Medes. Excavations at Nimrud were first conducted by Austen Henry Layard, working from 1845 to 1847 and from 1849 until 1851. In 1949, digging was resumed by the British School of Archaeology in Iraq, and the work continued until 1963. Excavations revealed remarkable bas-reliefs, ivories, and sculptures.

Nimrud is an ancient Assyrian city located southern, modern Iraq on the River Tigris. In ancient times the city was called Kalhu. The

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state of preservation, as were colossal winged man-headed lions, each guarding the palace entrance (Figure 3.12). The large number of inscriptions pertaining to king Ashurnasirpal II provide more details about him and his reign than are known for any other ruler of this epoch.
Figure 3.12 Gate Guardians: The Man-Headed Lions Portal Guardian (Lamassu) from Nimrud"currently located in the British Museum.

Figure 3.13 Black Obelisk Black Obelisk of Shalmaneser III in the British Museum.

Obelisk of Shalmaneser III was discovered in 1846 (Figure 3.13). The monument stands six-and-a-half-feet tall and commemorates the king's victorious campaigns from 859824 BCE. It is shaped like a temple tower at the top, ending in three steps. On one panel, Israelites led by king Jehu of Israel pay tribute and bow in the dust Portions of the site have been also been identified such as temples to Ninurta and Enlil, a building assigned to Nabu, the god of writing and the arts, and extensive fortifications. Furthermore, the Black before king Shalmaneser III, who is making a libation to his god (Figure 3.14) The cuneiform text on the obelisk reads Jehu the son of Omri, and mentions gifts of gold, silver, lead, and spear shafts.

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The Treasure of Nimrud unearthed in these excavations is a collection of over 600 pieces of gold jewelry and precious stones.
Figure 3.14 Obelisk Detail Depiction of either Jehu son of Jehoshaphat son of Nimshi, or Jehu's ambassador, bowing before Shalmaneser III.

Dur Sharrukin
Dur-Sharrukin, present day Khorsabad, was the Assyrian capital in the time of King Sargon II.
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Dur-Sharrukin was constructed on a rectangular layout. The city walls were massive, with 157 towers protecting its sides. The palace was adorned with sculptures and wall reliefs, and its gates were flanked with winged-bull shedu statues weighing up to 40 tons. Since Dur-Sharrukin was a single-period site evacuated in an orderly manner after the death of Sargon II, few individual objects were found. The primary discoveries from Khorsabad shed light on Assyrian art and architecture.

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Dur-Sharrukin, or present day Khorsabad, was the Assyrian capital in the time of King Sargon II. Today, Khorsabad is now a village in northern Iraq, and is still inhabited by Assyrians. Dur-Sharrukin was built in the decade preceding 706 BCE. The construction of Dur-Sharrukin was never finished. Sargon, who ordered the project, was killed during a battle in 705. After his death, his son and successor Sennacherib abandoned the project

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and relocated the capital with its administration to the city of Nineveh. Dur-Sharrukin was constructed on a rectangular layout. Its walls were

Figure 3.15 Palace of Khorsabad Sketch of the Khorsabad Palace.

Figure 3.16 Winged Bull Human-headed winged bull (shedu), found during Botta's excavation. Now in the Louvre Museum.

massive, with 157 towers protecting its sides. Seven gates entered the city from all directions. A walled terrace contained temples and the royal palace (Figure 3.15). The main temples were dedicated to the gods Nabu, Shamash and Sin, while Adad, Ningal and Ninurta had smaller shrines. A temple tower, known as a ziggurat, was also constructed. The palace was adorned with sculptures and wall reliefs, with its gates flanked by winged-bull shedu statues weighing up to 40 tons (Figure 3.16). On the central canal of Sargon's garden stood a pillared pleasure-pavilion which looked up to a great topographic creationa man-made Garden Mound. This mound was planted with cedars and cypresses and modeled after the Amanus mountains in north Syria. The Khorsabad site was excavated from 19281935 by American archaeologists from the Oriental Institute in Chicago. Work was led by Edward Chiera and concentrated on the palace area. The colossal bull statue was uncovered outside the throne room. It was found split into three large fragments. The torso alone weighed about 20 tons. Since Dur-Sharrukin was a single-period site that was evacuated in an orderly manner after the death of Sargon II, few individual objects were found. The primary discoveries from Khorsabad shed light on Assyrian art and architecture.
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Nineveh
Nineveh was one of the earliest, greatest cities in antiquity: an Assyrian city on the Tigris River, and capital of the Neo-Assyrian Empire.

The origin of the name Nineveh is obscure. Possibly it meant originally the seat of Ishtar, since Nina was one of the Babylonian names of that goddess. The ideogram means house or place of fish, and was perhaps due to popular etymology. The Ruins of Nineveh

KEY POINTS

Today, Nineveh's location is marked by two large mounds, Kouyunjik and Nab" Y#nus Prophet Jonah, and the remains of the city walls. These were fitted with fifteen monumental gateways which served as checkpoints on entering and exiting the ancient city, and were probably also used as barracks and armories. With the inner and outer doors shut, the gateways were virtual fortresses. This whole extensive space is now one immense area of ruins overlaid in parts by new suburbs of the city of Mosul. Five of the gateways have been explored to some extent by archaeologists. Ancient, Important City Nineveh was an important junction for commercial routes

Occupying a central position on the great highway between the Mediterranean Sea and the Indian Ocean, Nineveh united the East and the West, received wealth from many sources, and so became the capital of the Neo-Assyrian Empire. Sennacherib made Nineveh a truly magnificent city during his rule (c. 700 BCE). He laid out new streets and squares and built within it the famous "palace without a rival," the plan of which has been mostly recovered. Today, Nineveh's location is marked by two large mounds, Kouyunjik and Nab" Y#nus "Prophet Jonah," and the remains of the city walls. The city wall was fitted with fifteen monumental gateways.

Nineveh was an ancient Assyrian city on the eastern bank of the Tigris River, and capital of the Neo-Assyrian Empire. Its ruins are across the river from the modern-day major city of Mosul, in the Ninawa Governorate of Iraq.

crossing the Tigris. Occupying a central position on the great highway between the Mediterranean Sea and the Indian Ocean, Nineveh united the East and the West, and received wealth from many sources. Thus, it became one of the oldest and greatest of all the region's ancient cities, and the capital of the Neo Assyrian Empire.

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Figure 3.17 Royal Nineveh Carving

Nineveh during the 2nd millennium BCE, it appears to have been originally an Assyrian provincial town. It was not until the Neo-Assyrian Empire, particularly from the time of Ashurnasirpal II (ruled 883859 BCE), that Ninveh experienced a considerable architectural expansion. Thereafter successive monarchs such as Sargon II, Esarhaddon, Sennacherib and Ashurbanipal kept in repair and founded new palaces, temples, Sennacherib Made Nineveh Majestic It was Sennacherib who was credited for making Nineveh a truly magnificent city during his rule (c. 700 BCE). He laid out new streets and squares and built within it the famous palace without a rival, the plan of which has been mostly recovered. It comprised at least 80 rooms, many of which were lined with sculpture. A large number of cuneiform tablets were found in the palace. The solid foundation was made out of limestone blocks and mud bricks. Some of the principal doorways were flanked by colossal stone-door figures that included many winged lions or bulls with a man's head. The stone carvings in the walls include many battle and hunting scenes, as well as depicting Sennacheribs men parading the spoils of war before him (Figure 3.17). Ninevehs greatness was short-lived. In around 627 BCE, after the death of its last great king Ashurbanipal, the Neo-Assyrian empire

The king hunting lion from the North Palace, Nineveh, seen at the British Museum

The area was settled as early as 6000 BCE and, by 3000 BCE, had become an important religious center for worship of the Assyrian goddess Ishtar. The early city (and subsequent buildings) were constructed on a fault line and, consequently, suffered damage from a number of earthquakes. Texts from the Hellenistic period and later offered an eponymous Ninus as the founder of Nineveh, although there is no historical basis for this. The historic Nineveh is mentioned about 1800 BCE as a center of worship of Ishtar. While there is no large body of evidence to show that Assyrian monarchs built at all extensively in

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began to unravel due to a series of bitter civil wars, and Assyria was attacked by its former vassals, the Babylonians and Medes. From about 616 BCE, in a coalition with the Scythians and Cimmerians, they besieged Nineveh, sacking the town in 612, and later razing it to the ground. The Assyrian empire as such came to an end by 605 BC, with the Medes and Babylonians dividing its colonies between them. Following its defeat in 612, the site remained largely unoccupied for centuries with only a scattering of Assyrians living amid the ruins until the Sassanian period, although Assyrians continue to live in the surrounding area to this day.
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Section 3

Neo-Babylonia and Persia

Neo-Babylonia Persia

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Neo-Babylonia
The Neo-Babylonian Empire developed an artistic style motivated by their ancient Mesopotamian heritage.

During the preceding three centuries, Babylonia had been ruled by the Akkadians and Assyrians, but threw off the yoke of external domination after the death of Assurbanipal, the last strong Assyrian ruler. The Neo-Babylonian period was a renaissance that witnessed a great flourishing of art, architecture, and science.

KEY POINTS

The Neo-Babylonian rulers were motivated by the antiquity of their heritage and followed a traditionalist cultural policy, based on the ancient Sumero-Akkadian culture. Ancient artworks from the OldBabylonian period were painstakingly restored and preserved, and treated with a respect verging on religious reverence. NeoBabylonian art and architecture reached its zenith under King Nebuchadnezzar II, who ruled from 604562 BC, and was a great patron of urban development, bent on rebuilding all of Babylonia's cities to reflect their former glory. It was Nebuchadnezzar IIs vision and sponsorship that turned Babylon into the immense and beautiful city of legend. The city spread over three square miles, surrounded by moats and ringed by a double circuit of walls. The river Euphrates, which flowed through the city, was spanned by a beautiful stone bridge. At the heart of the city lay the ziggurat Etemenanki, literally temple of the

The Neo-Babylonian Empire was a civilization in Mesopotamia between 626539 BCE. During the preceding three centuries, Babylonia had been ruled by the Akkadians and Assyrians, but threw off the yoke of external domination after the death of the last strong Assyrian ruler. Neo-Babylonian art and architecture reached its zenith under King Nebuchadnezzar II, who ruled from 604562 BC. He was a great patron of art and urban development and rebuilt the city of Babylon to reflect its ancient glory. Most of the evidence for Neo-Babylonian art and architecture is literary. Of the material evidence that survives, the most important fragments are from the Ishtar Gate of Babylon. Neo-Babylonians were known for their colorful glazed bricks, which they shaped into bas-reliefs of dragons, lions, and aurochs to decorate the Ishtar Gate.

The Neo-Babylonian Empire, also known as the Chaldean Empire, was a civilization in Mesopotamia that began in 626 BC and ended in 539 BC.

foundation of heaven and earth. Originally seven stories high, it is believed to have provided the inspiration for the biblical story of the Tower of Babel. It was also during this period that Nebuchadnezzar

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supposedly built the Hanging Gardens of Babylon, although there is no definitive archeological evidence to prove that they existed. Most of the evidence for Neo-Babylonian art and architecture

Figure 3.18 Ishtar Gate at Pergamon Museum This was reconstructed in Berlin in 1930, using materials excavated from the original build-site.

A reconstruction of the Ishtar Gate and Processional Way was built at the Pergamon Museum in Berlin in 1930, using the material excavated from the original site. Other parts of the gate, which include

Figure 3.19 Ishtar Gate Detail An aurochs above a ower ribbon with missing tiles lled in; Ishtar Gate bas-relief, housed in the Pergamon Museum in Berlin. A prominent characteristic of NeoBabylonian art and architecture was the use of brilliantly colorful glazed bricks.

is literary. The material evidence itself is mostly fragmentary. Some of the most important fragments that survive are from the Ishtar Gate, the eighth gate to the inner city of Babylon. It was constructed in 575 BC by order of Nebuchadnezzar II, using glazed brick with alternating rows of bas-relief dragons and aurochs. Dedicated to the Babylonian goddess Ishtar, it was a double gate and its roofs and doors were made of cedar, according to the dedication plaque. Babylon's Processional Way, which was lined with brilliantly colorful glazed brick walls decorated with lions ran through the middle of the gate. Statues of the Babylonian gods were paraded through the gate and down the Processional Way during New Years celebrations (Figure 3.18).

glazed brick lions and dragons are housed in different museums around the world (Figure 3.19).
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Persia
The Achaemenid Empire was known for its eclectic style of art and architecture synthesized from many foreign inuences between 550330 BCE.
KEY POINTS

in Western Asia, which eventually came to rule the ancient world from the Indus Valley in the East to Thrace and Macedon in the west. Not only was the Achaemenid Dynasty militarily and politically influential but it also left a long-lasting social and cultural legacy throughout its vast realms. Among its greatest cultural achievements was the development of Achaemenid art and architecture, which were intimately intertwined and reflected techniques and influences from the many corners of its huge empire, and synthesized different styles to develop a unique Persian style. The Achaemenid Persians were particularly skilled at constructing complex frieze reliefs, crafting precious metals into jewelry, vessels, statuettes, and a myriad of other shapes, glazed brick masonry, decorating palaces, and creating gardens. They also constructed spectacular cities for governance and habitation, temples for worship and social gatherings, and mausoleums honoring fallen kings. The quintessential characteristic of Persian art and architecture is its eclectic nature, combining elements of Median, Assyrian, and Asiatic Greek styles. The extraordinary architectural legacy of the Achaemenids is best

The Achaemenid Empire stretched across western Asia from the Indus Valley in the east to Thrace and Macedon in the west. The quintessential characteristic of Persian art and architecture is its eclectic nature, combining elements of Median, Assyrian, and Asiatic Greek styles. The Achaemenid Persians were particularly skilled at constructing complex frieze reliefs, crafting precious metals, and glazed brick masonry. They also constructed spectacular cities for governance and habitation, temples for worship and social gatherings, and mausoleums honoring fallen kings. The ceremonial capital of the Achaemenid Empire was Persepolis, which preserves the best of ancient Persian architecture. It is best known for its pillared Apadana Hall, decorated with complex sculptural reliefs depicting the king and his subjects.

Ancient Persian art developed and flourished under the Achaemenid Persian Empire (ca. 550330 BCE), an Iranian empire

seen in the ruins of the opulent city of Persepolis, the ceremonial capital of the Achaemenid Empire. Located about 70 kilometers

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Figure 3.20 Persepolis

northeast of the modern Iranian city of Shiraz, Persepolis is a wide, elevated complex 40 feet high, 100 feet wide, and a third of a mile long (Figure 3.20). It consists of multiple halls, corridors, a wide terrace and a symmetrical double stairway providing access to the terrace, decorated with reliefs depicting scenes from nature and daily life. The largest hall in the complex is the audience hall of Apadana. This is a hypostyle hall (where the roof is supported by

A panoramic view of its ruins.

columns) and has a total of 36 fluted columns with sculpted capitals. It famously features the exquisite Treasure Reliefs friezes emphasizing the divine presence and power of the king and depicting scenes from all across his vast empire and his army of Persian immortals (Figure 3.21). The construction of Persepolis was initiated by Darius I the Great (550486 BCE), who also commissioned the construction of a grand palace in the city of Susa. The palace featured imperial art on an entirely unprecedented scale. Materials and artists were drawn from all corners of the empire to work on it. Styles, tastes, and motifs intermingled in a lavish expression of the hybrid art and architecture that was characteristic of the Persian Achaemenid style (Figure 3.22).

Figure 3.21 Relief from Apadana Hall, Persepolis

Features 5th century BC carving of Persian and Median soldiers in traditional costume. Note the subtle di!erences in the clothing and style of the soldiers on each side. The Medians are wearing rounded hats and boots.

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Figure 3.22 Decorative frieze from the palace of Darius the Great at Susa, ca. 510 BCE

Decorative panels from the terra-cotta gri#ns' frieze. The vivid colors were preserved thanks to the ruins being buried underground and protected from the elements.

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Section 4

Second Millennium B.C.E.

Art in the Second Millennium B.C.E.

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Art in the Second Millennium B.C.E.

The Babylonian and Assyrian empires in Mesopotamia in the 2nd millennium BCE"were renowned for their sculpture and architecture.
KEY POINTS

KEY POINTS (cont.)

A paucity of stone in the region made sun baked bricks and clay the building material of choice for the Babylonians, although the Assyrians used stone as well. One of the most remarkable achievements of Mesopotamian architecture was the development of the ziggurat, a massive structure taking the form of a terraced step pyramid of successively receding stories or levels, with a shrine or temple at the summit.achievements of Mesopotamian architecture was the development of the ziggurat, a massive structure taking the form of a terraced step pyramid of successively receding stories or levels, with a shrine or temple at the summit.

The art of Mesopotamia during this period is sometimes summarized as Assyro-Babylonian because of the close cultural interdependence of the two political centers. The main emphasis was on clay and stone sculpture, many examples of which are durable enough to have survived to the present day, in the form of cylinder seals, free-standing figures, and reliefs of various sizes, and cheap plaques of molded pottery. While Assyrian artists were greatly influenced by the Babylonian style, a distinctly Assyrian artistic style began to emerge in Mesopotamia around 1500 BC. Babylonian culture preferred free-standing sculpture to reliefs.The Assyrians preferred the relief-form and developed a style of large and exquisitely detailed narrative friezes in painted stone or alabaster, portraying royal activities such as hunting or war.

The second millennium BCE marks the transition from the Middle Bronze Age to the Late Bronze Age. The most prominent cultures in the ancient Near East during this period were Babylonia and Assyria. They were both located in Mesopotamia; the former in the south and the latter in the north. Both cultures were renowned for their great empires and their cultural and artistic achievements. The art of Mesopotamia during this period is sometimes summarized as Assyro-Babylonian, because of the close cultural interdependence of the two political centers. It was considered some of the finest in western Eurasia, rivaling that of Ancient Egypt in sophistication and grandeur.

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Figure 3.23 The Burney Relief

The main emphasis was on sculpture, mostly in clay, but sometimes in stone as well. Many examples are durable enough to have survived to the present day. Very little painting has survived; archeological evidence suggests that it was mostly used for geometrical and plant-based decorative schemes, although most sculptures were also painted. The most common surviving forms of second millennium BCE Mesopotamian art are cylinder seals, relatively small free-standing figures, and reliefs of various sizes. These included cheap plaques, both religious and otherwise, of molded pottery for private homes. Babylonian culture somewhat preferred free-standing sculpture to reliefs and depictions of human figures were realistic, if sometimes clumsily executed. The Assyrians, on the other hand, developed a style of large and exquisitely detailed narrative reliefs in painted stone or alabaster. Intended for palaces, these reliefs depict royal activities such as battles or hunting. Predominance is given to animal forms, particularly horses and lions, which are represented in great detail. Human figures are static and rigid by comparison, but also minutely detailed. The Assyrians produced very little freestanding sculpture with the exception of colossal guardian figures, usually lions and winged beasts, that flanked fortified royal gateways. While Assyrian artists were greatly influenced by the Babylonian style, a distinctly Assyrian artistic style began to emerge in Mesopotamia around 1500 BC (Figure 3.23).

The Burney Relief is a Mesopotamian terracotta plaque in high relief of the Old-Babylonian period, depicting a winged, nude, goddess-like gure with bird's talons, anked by owls, and perched upon supine lions. The relief is dated between 1800 and 1750 BCE. It originates from southern Iraq, but the exact nd-site is unknown. Apart from its distinctive iconography, the piece is noted for its high relief and relatively large size, which suggests that is was used as a cult relief, which makes it a very rare survival from the period.

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Figure 3.24 Chogha Zanbil Ziggurat

achievements of Mesopotamian architecture was the development of the ziggurat, a massive structure taking the form of a terraced step pyramid of successively receding stories or levels, with a shrine or temple at the summit. The first surviving ziggurats date from the fourth millennium BCE, but they continued to be a popular architectural form in the late third and early second millennium BCE as well (Figure 3.24).
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The Chogha Zanbil ziggurat was built in 1250 BC by Untash-Napirisha, the king of Elam to honor the Elamite god Inshushinak. The kingdom of Elam was located east of Mesopotamia and Chogha Zanbil is located in present-day Iranone of the few ziggurats outside Mesopotamia.

The Mesopotamians regarded the craft of building as a divine gift taught to men by the gods and architecture flourished in the region during the second millennium BCE. A paucity of stone in the region made sun baked bricks and clay the building material of choice. Babylonian architecture featured pilasters and columns, as well as frescoes and enamelled tiles. Assyrian architects were strongly influenced by the Babylonian style but used stone as well as brick in their palaces, which were lined with sculptured and colored slabs of stone instead of being painted. One of the most remarkable

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Chapter 4

Ancient Egyptian Art

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Section 1

Introduction

Timeline The Nile River

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Timeline
Ancient Egyptian art is the painting, sculpture, and architecture produced by the civilization in the Nile Valley from 5000 BCE to 300 CE.
KEY POINTS

the preservation of knowledge of the past. In a narrower sense, Ancient Egyptian art refers to art of the second and third dynasty developed in Egypt from 3000 BCE until the third century. Most elements of Egyptian art remained remarkably stable over this 3,000 year period, with relatively little outside influence. The quality of observation and execution began at a high level and remained so throughout the period. The Prehistory of Egypt spans the period of earliest human settlement to the beginning of the Early Dynastic Period of Egypt in ca. 3100 BCE, beginning with King Menes/Narmer. The Predynastic Period is traditionally equivalent to the Neolithic period, beginning ca. 6000 BCE and including the Protodynastic Period (Naqada III). The Predynastic period is generally divided into cultural periods, each named after the place where a certain type of Egyptian settlement was first discovered. However, the same gradual development that characterizes the Protodynastic period is present throughout the entire Predynastic period, and individual "cultures" must not be interpreted as separate entities but as largely subjective divisions used to facilitate the study of the entire period. The Old Kingdom is the name given to the period in the third millennium BCE when Egypt attained its first continuous peak of civilization in complexity and achievementthe first of three socalled Kingdom periods which mark the high points of civilization

Ancient Egyptian art reached considerable sophistication in painting and sculpture, and was both highly stylized and symbolic. Much of the surviving art comes from tombs and monuments; hence, the emphasis on life after death and the preservation of knowledge of the past. In a narrower sense, Ancient Egyptian art refers to the 2nd and 3rd dynasty art developed in Egypt from 3000 BCE and used until the third century. Most elements of Egyptian art remained remarkably stable over this 3,000 year period, with relatively little outside influence.

Ancient Egyptian art includes the painting, sculpture, architecture and other arts produced by the civilization in the lower Nile Valley from 5000 BCE to 300 CE. Ancient Egyptian art reached considerable sophistication in painting and sculpture, and was both highly stylized and symbolic. Much of the surviving art comes from tombs and monuments; hence, the emphasis on life after death and

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in the lower Nile Valley (the others being Middle Kingdom and the New Kingdom). While the Old Kingdom was a period of internal security and prosperity, it was followed by a period of disunity and relative cultural decline referred to by Egyptologists as the First Intermediate Period. During the Old Kingdom, the king of Egypt (not called the Pharaoh until the New Kingdom) became a living god, who ruled absolutely and could demand the services and wealth of his subjects. Under King Djoser, the first king of the Third Dynasty of the Old Kingdom, the royal capital of Egypt was moved to Memphis. A new era of building was initiated at Saqqara under his reign. King Djosers architect, Imhotep, is credited with the development of building with stone and with the conception of the new architectural formthe Step Pyramid (Figure 4.1). Indeed, the Old Kingdom is perhaps best known for the large number of pyramids constructed at this time as pharaonic burial places. For
Figure 4.1 Djoser Pyramid Step pyramid of Djoser at Saqqara, Egypt.

this reason, the Old Kingdom is frequently referred to as the Age of the Pyramids. The Middle Kingdom of Egypt is the period in the history of ancient Egypt stretching from the establishment of the Eleventh
Figure 4.2 Osiris The gods Osiris, Anubis, and Horus, from a tomb painting.

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Dynasty to the end of the Thirteenth Dynasty, between 2055 and 1650 BCE. During this period, the funerary cult of Osiris rose to dominate Egyptian popular religion (Figure 4.2). The New Kingdom of Egypt, also referred to as the Egyptian Empire, is the period between the sixteenth century and the eleventh century BCE, covering the Eighteenth, Nineteenth, and Twentieth Dynasties of Egypt. The New Kingdom followed the Second Intermediate Period and was succeeded by the Third Intermediate Period. It was Egypts most prosperous time and marked the peak of its power. The Ptolemaic dynasty was a Macedonian Greek royal family which ruled the Ptolemaic Empire in Egypt during the Hellenistic period. Their rule lasted for 275 years, from 305 BCE to 30 BCE. They were the last dynasty of ancient Egypt.
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The Nile River

The success of ancient Egyptian civilization came partly from its ability to adapt to the conditions of the Nile River Valley.

KEY POINTS

The predictable flooding and controlled irrigation of the fertile valley produced surplus crops, and also fueled social development and culture by providing an abundance of rich natural resources. Egypt is rich in building and decorative stone, copper and lead ores, gold, and semiprecious stones, all of which could be found in the Nile River Valley. These natural resources allowed the ancient Egyptians to build monuments, sculpt statues, make tools, and fashion jewelry. Most of the population and cities of Egypt lie along those parts of the Nile valley north of Aswan, and nearly all the cultural and historical sites of Ancient Egypt are found along riverbanks.

The Nile is a major north-flowing river in northeastern Africa, generally regarded as the longest river in the world. It is 6,650 km (4,130 miles) long and runs through the ten countries of Sudan, South Sudan, Burundi, Rwanda, Democratic Republic of the Congo,

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Figure 4.3 Great River Hieroglyphics

Tanzania, Kenya, Ethiopia, Uganda, and Egypt. The northern section of the river flows almost entirely through desert, from Sudan into

Figure 4.4 Map of Egyptian Settlement in the Nile River Valley Map of ancient Egypt, showing major cities and sites of the Dynastic period (c. 3150 BCE to 30 BCE).

In the ancient Egyptian language, the Nile is called Hpi or Iteru, meaning great river, represented by these hieroglyphs.

Egypt, a country whose civilization has depended on the river since ancient times

(Figure 4.3). Most of the population and cities of Egypt lie along those parts of the Nile valley north of Aswan, and nearly all the cultural and historical sites of Ancient Egypt are found along riverbanks. The Nile ends in a large delta that empties into the Mediterranean Sea (Figure 4.4). Ancient Egypt was a civilization of Northeastern Africa, concentrated along the lower reaches of the Nile River in what is now the modern country of Egypt. Egyptian civilization coalesced around 3150 BCE with the political unification of Upper and Lower Egypt under the first pharaoh. The history of ancient Egypt occurred in a series of stable Kingdoms, separated by periods of relative instability known as Intermediate Periods. The success of ancient Egyptian civilization came partly from its ability to adapt to the conditions of the Nile River Valley. The predictable flooding and controlled irrigation of the fertile valley produced surplus crops, and also fueled social development and culture by providing an

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abundance of rich natural resources. Egypt is rich in building and decorative stone, copper and lead ores, gold, and semiprecious stones, which are all found in the Nile River Valley. These natural resources allowed the ancient Egyptians to build monuments, sculpt statues, make tools, and fashion jewelry. High-quality building stones were abundant: the ancient Egyptians quarried limestone all along the Nile valley, granite from Aswan, and basalt and sandstone from the wadis of the eastern desert. Deposits of decorative stones such as porphyry, greywacke, alabaster, and carnelian dotted the eastern desert and were collected even before the First Dynasty. These resources from the Nile subsequently allowed successive rulers to sponsor mineral exploitation of the valley and surrounding desert regions, the early development of an independent writing system, the organization of collective construction and agricultural projects, trade with surrounding regions, and a military powerful enough to assert Egyptian dominance. Motivating and organizing these activities was a bureaucracy of elite scribes, religious leaders, and administrators under the control of a Pharaoh, who ensured the cooperation and unity of the Egyptian people in the context of an elaborate system of religious beliefs. The many achievements of the ancient Egyptians included the quarrying, surveying, and construction techniques that facilitated the building of monumental

pyramids, temples, and obelisks; a system of mathematics; a practical and effective system of medicine; irrigation systems and agricultural production techniques; the first known ships; glass technology; and new forms of literature.
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Section 2

Early Dynastic Period

Egyptian Pharaohs as God-Kings Common Aesthetic Practices Architecture Painting and Sculpture

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Egyptian Pharaohs as GodKings

The Ancient Egyptian pharaohs were believed to be incarnations of the god Horus, the son of the sun deity, Hathor (or, later, Isis), or Nut.
KEY POINTS

According to Manetho, the first king of the unified Upper and Lower Egypt was Menes (who is now identified with Narmer). Indeed, Narmer is the earliest recorded king of the First Dynasty: he appears first on the king lists of Den and Qa'a. This shows that Narmer was recognized by the first dynasty kings as an important founding figure. Narmer is also the earliest king associated with the symbols of power over the two lands, in particular the Narmer palette (Figure 4.5), a votive cosmetic palette showing Narmer wearing the crowns of Upper and Lower Egypt. Narmer may therefore be the first king to achieve their unification. Consequently, the current consensus is that Menes and Narmer refer to the same person. Alternative theories hold that Narmer was the final king of the Protodynastic Period and Hor-Aha is to be identified with Menes. Throughout ancient Egyptian history, the Ancient Egyptian pharaohs were believed to be incarnations of the god Horus, derived by being the son of the sun deity, Hathor (or later, Isis), or the sky deity, Nut. The 3rd-century BCE Egyptian priest Manetho grouped the long line of pharaohs from Menes to his own time into 30 dynasties, a system still used today. He chose to begin his official history with the king named Meni (or Menes in Greek), who was then believed

The current consensus is that Menes and Narmer refer to the same person. Alternative theories hold that Narmer was the final king of the Protodynastic Period and Hor-Aha is to be identified with Menes. Around 3150 BCE, the first of the Dynastic pharaohs solidified their control over lower Egypt by establishing a capital at Memphis, from which they could control the labor force and agriculture of the fertile delta region as well as the lucrative and critical trade routes to the Levant. The increasing power and wealth of the pharaohs during the early dynastic period was reflected in their elaborate mastaba tombs and mortuary cult structures at Abydos, which were used to celebrate the deified pharaoh after his death. The strong institution of kingship developed by the pharaohs served to legitimize state control over the land, labor, and resources that were essential to the survival and growth of ancient Egyptian civilization.

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Figure 4.5 Narmer wearing the white crown

however, that the mythical Menes may have actually been the Pharaoh Narmer, who is depicted wearing royal regalia on the ceremonial Narmer Palette in a symbolic act of unification. In the Early Dynastic Period of about 3150 BCE, the first of the Dynastic pharaohs solidified their control over lower Egypt by establishing a capital at Memphis, from which they could control the labor force and agriculture of the fertile delta region, as well as the lucrative and critical trade routes to the Levant. The increasing power and wealth of the pharaohs during the early dynastic period was reflected in their elaborate mastaba tombs and mortuary cult structures at Abydos, which were used to celebrate the deified pharaoh after his death. The strong institution of kingship developed by the pharaohs served to legitimize state control over the land, labor, and resources that were essential to the survival and growth of ancient Egyptian civilization.
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Narmer was an ancient Egyptian pharaoh of the Early Dynastic Period (c. 31st century BCE). He is thought to be the successor to the Protodynastic pharaohs Scorpion (or Selk) and/or Ka, and he is considered by some to be the unier of Egypt and founder of the First Dynastytherefore the rst pharaoh of unied Egypt.

to have united the two kingdoms of Upper and Lower Egypt (around 3100 BCE). The transition to a unified state actually happened more gradually than ancient Egyptian writers would have us believe, and there is no contemporary record of Menes. Some scholars now believe,

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Common Aesthetic Practices

Ancient Egyptian art forms depicted gods, human beings, heroic battles, and nature, and were intended to provide solace in the afterlife.
KEY POINTS

taken to include the First and Second Dynasties, lasting from the Protodynastic Period of Egypt until about 2686 BC, or the beginning of the Old Kingdom. With the First Dynasty, the capital moved from Abydos to Memphis, with a unified Egypt ruled by an Egyptian god-king. Abydos remained the major holy land in the south. The hallmarks of ancient Egyptian civilization, such as art, architecture and many aspects of religion, took shape during the Early Dynastic period. Before the unification of Egypt, the land was settled with autonomous villages. With the early dynasties, and for much of Egypts history thereafter, the country came to be known as the Two Lands. The rulers established a national administration and appointed royal governors. Symbolism This also played an important role in establishing a sense of order. Symbolism, ranging from the pharaohs regalia (signifying his power to maintain order) to the individual symbols of Egyptian gods and goddesses, is omnipresent in Egyptian art. Animals were usually also depicted as highly symbolic figures (Figure 4.6). Colors were more expressive rather than natural: red skin implied

Symbolism, ranging from the pharaoh's regalia (signifying his power to maintain order) to the individual symbols of Egyptian gods and goddesses, is omnipresent in Egyptian art. Even animals were usually depicted as highly symbolic figures. Colors were expressive: red skin implied vigorous, tanned youths; yellow skin was used for women or middle-aged men who worked indoors; blue or gold indicated divinity because of its association with precious materials; and, black was used for royal figures to express the fertility of the Nile. Stereotypes were employed to indicate the geographical origins of foreigners. Egyptian art in all its forms obeyed one law: the mode of representing pharaohs, gods, man, nature and the environment. This remained consistent for thousands of years.

The Early Dynastic Period of Egypt immediately followed the unification of Lower and Upper Egypt c. 3100 BC. It is generally

vigorous, tanned youths; yellow skin was used for women or middle-aged men who worked indoors; blue or gold indicated

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divinity because of its unnatural appearance and association with precious materials; and, the use of black for royal figures expressed the fertility of the Nile from which Egypt was born. Stereotypes were employed to indicate the geographical origins of foreigners. Art Forms Ancient Egyptian art forms are characterized by regularity and detailed depiction of gods, human beings, heroic battles, and nature, and were intended to provide solace to the deceased in the afterlife. Artists endeavored to preserve everything from the present as clearly and

Figure 4.6 Sunken relief of the crocodile god, Sobek

permanently as possible. Ancient Egyptian art was created using mediums ranging from papyrus drawings to pictographs (hieroglyphics) and include funerary sculpture carved in relief and in the round from sandstone, quartz diorite, and granite. The art displays an extraordinarily vivid representation of the Ancient Egyptian's socioeconomic status and belief systems. All their art forms obeyed one law: the mode of representing pharaohs, gods, man, nature and the environment remained consistent for thousands of years. The most admired artists were those who replicated the stylized depictions of Egypts most venerated figures; humanity or divinity.
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Animals were usually also highly symbolic gures in Egyptian art.

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Architecture
Our understanding of ancient Egyptian architecture is based mainly on religious monuments like the pyramids of Giza and the Great Sphinx.
KEY POINTS

Ancient Egyptian Building Materials Due to the scarcity of wood, the two predominant building materials used in ancient Egypt were sun-baked mud brick and limestone. From the Old Kingdom onward, stone was generally reserved for tombs and temples, while bricks were used even for royal palaces, fortresses and the walls of temple precincts. The core of the pyramids came from stone quarried in the area while limestone used to face the pyramids came from the other side of the Nile River. Ancient Egyptian houses were made of mud collected from the Nile River. The mud was placed in molds and left to dry in the hot sun to harden. Many Egyptian towns situated near the cultivated area of the Nile Valley have disappeared They were either flooded as the river bed slowly rose during the millennia, or the mud bricks of which they were built used by peasants as fertilizer. Other towns are inaccessible as new buildings have been erected over ancient ones. Fortunately, the dry, hot climate of Egypt preserved some mud brick structures. Examples include the village of Deir al-Madinah, the Middle Kingdom town at Kahun, and the fortresses at Buhen and Mirgissa.

Due to the scarcity of wood, the two predominant building materials used in ancient Egypt were sun-baked mud brick and limestone. Ancient Egyptian houses were made of mud collected from the Nile River. The mud was placed in molds and left to dry in the hot sun to harden. Our understanding of ancient Egyptian architecture is based mainly on religious monuments. These massive structures are characterized by thick, sloping walls with few openings, a method method of construction used to obtain stability. Ancient Egyptian temples were aligned with astronomically significant events like solstices and equinoxes, requiring precise measurements at the moment of the particular event. The pyramids of Giza, which were built in the Fourth Dynasty, testify to the power of the pharaonic religion and state.

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Egypts Religious Monuments Thus, our understanding of ancient Egyptian architecture is based mainly on religious monuments. These massive structures are characterized by thick, sloping walls with few openings, a method of construction used to obtain stability. In a similar manner, the incised and flatly modeled surface adornment of the stone buildings may have derived from mud wall ornamentation. Although the use of the arch was developed during the Fourth Dynasty, all monumental buildings are post and lintel constructions with flat roofs constructed of huge stone blocks supported by the external walls and closely spaced columns. Exterior and interior walls along with columns and piers were covered with hieroglyphic and pictorial frescoes and carvings painted in brilliant colors. Many motifs of Egyptian ornamentation are symbolic, including the scarab (sacred beetle), the solar disk and the vulture. Other common motifs include palm leaves, the papyrus plant and the buds and flowers of the lotus. Hieroglyphs were inscribed for decorative purposes as well as to record historic events or spells. In addition, these pictorial frescoes and carvings allow us to understand how the Ancient Egyptians lived. This was especially true when exploring the tombs of Ancient Egyptian officials in recent years.

Figure 4.7 The Pyramids of Giza

The pyramids, which were built in the Fourth Dynasty, testify to the power of the pharaonic religion and state. They were built to serve both as grave sites and as a way to make their names last forever.

Ancient Egyptian temples were aligned with astronomically significant events like solstices and equinoxes, requiring precise measurements at the moment of the particular event. Measurements at the most significant temples may have been ceremonially undertaken by the pharaoh himself. The Pyramids of Giza The pyramids of Giza (Figure 4.7), built in the Fourth Dynasty, testify to the power of the pharaonic religion and state. They were

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Figure 4.8 The Pyramids of Giza

2532 BC. Khafre ambitiously placed his pyramid next to his fathers. It is not as tall as his father's pyramid, but he gave it the impression of appearing taller by building it on a site with a high foundation. Along with building his pyramid, Khafre commissioned the building of the Great Sphinx (Figure 4.8) as guardian over his tomb. The face of a human, possibly a depiction of the pharaoh, on a lion's body was seen as a symbol of divinity among the Greeks 1,500 years later. The Great Sphinx is carved out of huge blocks of sandstone and stands about 65 feet tall. Menkaures pyramid, meanwhile, dates to circa 2490 BC and stands 213 feet high, making it the smallest of the Great Pyramids.
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The pyramids, which were built in the Fourth Dynasty, testify to the power of the pharaonic religion and state. They were built to serve both as grave sites and as a way to make their names last forever.

built to serve both as grave sites and a way to make their names last forever. The size and simple design show the level of Egyptian design and engineering on a large scale. The Great Pyramid of Giza, which was probably completed c. 2580 BC, is the oldest and largest of the pyramids. It is also the only surviving monument of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World. The pyramid of Khafre is believed to have been completed around

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Painting and Sculpture

The Early Dynastic Period of Ancient Egypt"reached a high level in painting and sculpture, and was both highly stylized and symbolic.

emphasis on life after death and the preservation of knowledge of the past. Painting All Egyptian reliefs were painted, and less prestigious works in tombs, temples and palaces were just painted on a flat surface. Stone surfaces were prepared by whitewash, or, if rough, a layer of coarse mud plaster, with a smoother gesso layer above; some finer limestones could take paint directly. Pigments were mostly mineral, chosen to withstand strong sunlight without fading. The binding medium used in painting remains unclear: egg tempera and various gums and resins have been suggested. It is clear that true fresco, painted into a thin layer of wet plaster, was not used. Instead the paint was applied to dried plaster, in what is called fresco a secco in Italian. After painting, a varnish or resin was usually applied as a protective coating, and many paintings with some exposure to the elements have survived remarkably well, although those on fully exposed walls rarely have. Small objects including wooden statuettes were often painted using similar techniques. Many ancient Egyptian paintings have survived due to Egypt's

KEY POINTS

Much of the surviving art comes from tombs and monuments, and thus there is an emphasis on life after death and the preservation of knowledge of the past. All Egyptian reliefs were painted, and less prestigious works in tombs, temples and palaces were just painted on a flat surface. Egyptian paintings are painted in such a way to show a profile view and a side view of the animal or person. The Egyptians used the distinctive technique of sunk relief, which is well suited to very bright sunlight. By Dynasty IV (26802565 BCE) at the latest the idea of the Ka statue was firmly established. These were put in tombs as a resting place for the ka portion of the soul.

Ancient Egyptian art reached a high level in painting and sculpture, and was both highly stylized and symbolic. Much of the surviving art comes from tombs and monuments, and thus there is an

extremely dry climate. The paintings were often made with the intent of making a pleasant afterlife for the deceased. The themes included journey through the afterworld or protective deities introducing the deceased to the gods of the underworld (such as

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Figure 4.9 Wall painting of Nefertari Egyptian paintings are painted in such a way to show a prole view and a side view of the animal or person. This painting, for example, shows the head from a prole view and the body from a frontal view. The main colors used were red, blue, black, gold, and green.

Sculpture The monumental sculpture of Ancient Egypt is world famous, but refined and delicate small works exist in much greater numbers. The Egyptians used the distinctive technique of sunk relief, which is well suited to very bright sunlight. The main figures in reliefs adhere to the same figure convention as in painting, with parted legs (where not seated) and head shown from the side, but the torso from the front, and a standard set of proportions making up the figure, using 18 fists to go from the ground to the hair-line on the forehead. This appears as early as the Narmer Palette from Dynasty I, but there as elsewhere the convention is not used for minor figures shown engaged in some activity, such as the captives and corpses. Other conventions make statues of males darker than females ones. Very conventionalized portrait statues appear from as early as Dynasty II, before 2780 BCE, and with the exception of the art of the Amarna period of Ahkenaten, and some other periods such as Dynasty XII, the idealized features of rulers, like other Egyptian artistic conventions, changed little until after the Greek conquest (Figure 4.10).

Osiris). Some tomb paintings show activities that the deceased were involved in when they were alive and wished to carry on doing for eternity. Egyptian paintings are painted in such a way to show a profile view and a side view of the animal or person (Figure 4.9). Their main colors were red, blue, black, gold, and green.

By Dynasty IV (26802565 BCE) at the latest, the idea of the Ka statue was firmly established. These were put in tombs as a resting place for the ka portion of the soul. The so-called reserve heads,

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Figure 4.10 A sculpted head of Amenhotep III Very conventionalized portrait statues manifest idealized features of rulers.

decay, or probably used as fuel. Small figures of deities, or their animal personifications, are very common, and found in popular materials such as pottery. There were also large numbers of small carved objects, from figures of the gods to toys and carved utensils. Alabaster was often used for expensive versions of these; painted wood was the most common material, and normal for the small models of animals, slaves and possessions placed in tombs to provide for the afterlife. Very strict conventions were followed while crafting statues and specific rules governed appearance of every Egyptian god. For example, the sky god (Horus) was essentially to be represented with a falcons head, the god of funeral rites (Anubis) was to be always shown with a jackals head. Artistic works were ranked according to their compliance with these conventions, and the conventions were followed so strictly that, over three thousand years, the appearance of statues changed very little. These conventions were intended to convey the timeless and non-aging quality of the figures ka.

plain hairless heads, are especially naturalistic, though the extent to which there was real portraiture in Ancient Egypt is still debated. Early tombs also contained small models of the slaves, animals, buildings and objects such as boats necessary for the deceased to continue his lifestyle in the afterworld, and later Ushabti figures. However, the great majority of wooden sculpture has been lost to

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Section 3

The Old Kingdom

Architecture and the Pyramids of Giza Sculpture Tombs

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Architecture and the Pyramids of Giza

Known as the Age of the Pyramids, the Old Kingdom was characterized by revolutionary advancements in architecture.
KEY POINTS

Figure 4.11 The Pyramids of Giza This view shows all three pyramid structures: the Great Pyramid, the Pyramid of Khafre, and the Pyramid of Menkaure.

The Old Kingdom (2686 BC2182 BC) was a period of political stability and economic prosperity, during which great tombs were built for Egyptian Kings in the form of pyramids. The first king to launch a major pyramid building project was King Djoser, who built his famous Step Pyramid at Saqqara. The Pyramids of Giza are the greatest architectural achievement of the time, and include three pyramid structures and the Great Sphinx monument. It would have taken several thousand workers decades to complete just one pyramid. While we know that the stone for the pyramids was quarried, transported and cut from the nearby Nile, we still cannot be sure just how the massive stones were then put into place. While stone was generally reserved for tombs and temples, sun-baked mud bricks were used in the construction of Egyptian houses, palaces, fortresses, and town walls.

The Old Kingdom of Egypt existed from the 3rd through the 6th Dynasties (2686 BC2182 BC). A period of political stability and economic prosperity, it is characterized by revolutionary advancements in royal funerary architecture. Both Egyptian society and the economy were greatly impacted by the organization of major state-sponsored building projects which focused on building tombs for their kings. These tombs were built in the form of great pyramids, and for this reason, the Old Kingdom is frequently referred to as the Age of the Pyramids. The first king to launch a major pyramid building project was King Djoser, who ruled in the 3rd Dynasty. He built his famous Step Pyramid at Saqqara, not far from the capital city of Memphis (near modern-day Cairo) (Figure 4.11). In the following dynasties, the pyramid design changed from the step pyramid to a true pyramid shape as kings continued to

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Figure 4.12 The Sphinx of Giza, partially excavated, with two pyramids in background. Albumen print. The Great Sphinx of Giza is the largest monolith statue in the world, and was believed to have been built for King Khafra during the 4th Dynasty.

head is that of King Khafra, who ruled during the 4th dynasty. It is the largest monolith statue in the world, standing 241 ft long, 63 ft wide, and 66.34 ft high (Figure 4.13). We still do not know exactly how the huge and impressive stone monuments were built. Most of the stone for the interior seems to have been quarried immediately to the south of the construction site. The smooth exterior of the pyramid, however, was made of a fine grade of white limestone that was quarried from the other side of the Nile River. These exterior blocks had to be carefully cut, transported by river barge to Giza, and dragged up ramps to the construction site. Theorists disagree as to the method by which the stones were then put into place and how possible the method was;
Figure 4.13 Step Pyramid at Saqqara Djosers step pyramid was the rst of the great pyramids built during the Old Kingdom in Eqypt. Unlike later pyramids, it used a step design that is easily recognized.

build tombs for their kings. Among these, the Pyramids of Giza are considered the greatest architectural achievement of the time. The Pyramids of Giza The Pyramids of Giza, also known as the Giza Necropolis, are one of the oldest remaining wonders of the world. The Necropolis includes three pyramid complexes: the Great Pyramid (built by King Khufu of the 4th Dynasty); the somewhat smaller Pyramid of Khafre (Khufu's son); and the relatively modest-sized Pyramid of Menkaure (Figure 4.12). The Necropolis also includes several cemeteries, a workers village, an industrial complex, and a massive sculpture known as the Great Sphinx. The Great Sphinx is a limestone statue of a reclining sphinxa mythical creature with a lion's body and a human head. It is commonly believed that the

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it's also possible that the architects developed their techniques over time. The sides of all three of the Giza pyramids were astronomically oriented to the north-south and east-west within a small fraction of a degree. To ensure that the pyramid remained symmetrical, the exterior casing stones all had to be equal in height and width. Workers might have marked all the blocks to indicate the angle of the pyramid wall and trimmed the surfaces carefully so that the blocks fit together. The work of quarrying, moving, setting, and sculpting the huge amount of stone used to build the pyramids might have been accomplished by several thousand skilled workers and unskilled laborers. Evidence from the tombs indicates that a workforce of 10,000 laborers working in three-month shifts took around 30 years to build a single pyramid. Domestic Architecture Due to the scarcity of wood, the predominant building materials used in ancient Egypt were sun-baked mud-brick and stone (mainly limestone, though sandstone and granite were also used). From the Old Kingdom onward, stone was generally reserved for tombs and temples. Egyptian houses, royal palaces, fortresses, and walls of precincts and towns were made out of mud bricks. Mud was

collected from the Nile river, placed in molds and left to dry in the hot sun to harden for use in construction. Although the use of the arch was developed during the fourth dynasty, all monumental buildings are post and lintel constructions, with flat roofs constructed of huge stone blocks supported by the external walls and the closely spaced columns. Exterior and interior walls, as well as the columns and piers, were covered with hieroglyphic and pictorial frescoes and carvings painted in brilliant colors. Many Ancient Egyptian temples were aligned with astronomically significant events, such as solstices and equinoxes, requiring precise measurements at the moment of the particular event.
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Sculpture
Egyptian artisans during the Old Kingdom"perfected the art of sculpting and carving intricate relief decoration out of stone.

royal decrees, religious scenes, and sculptures of kings, goddesses and gods were common as well (Figure 4.14). Sculptures from the Old Kingdom are characteristically more natural in style than their predecessors; toward the end of the Kingdom images of people shifted toward formalized nude figures with long bodies and large eyes.

KEY POINTS

Egyptian sculpture took the form of statues, which were often life-sized, and reliefs, which were carved into blocks of stone. Many were painted using natural minerals. Sculptures from the Old Kingdom are characteristically more natural in style than their predecessors. Sculptures, such as the ka statues, often served as funerary art, accompanying the deceased in burial tombs with the intention of preserving life after death. The Great Sphinx, located among the Pyramids of Giza, is the largest monolith statue in the world.

Figure 4.14 Egyptian sculpture of the Old Kingdom This sculpture was created in the 4th Dynasty, and represents the goddess Hathor, King Menkaure, and the goddess Bat.

Egyptian sculptors created the first life-sized statues and fine reliefs in stone, copper, and wood. They perfected the art of carving intricate relief decoration, and produced detailed images of animals, plants, and even landscapes, recording the essential elements of their world for eternity in scenes painted and carved on the walls of temples and tombs. Kings used reliefs to record victories in battle,

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Figure 4.15 The Great Sphinx of Giza The Great Sphinx, located among the Pyramids of Giza, is the largest monolith statue in the world.

pressed into cakes, which could be moistened with water when needed.
Figure 4.16 Ka statue of Horawibra

By the 4th Dynasty, the idea of the Ka statue was firmly established. Typically made of wood or stone, these statues were placed in tombs as a resting place for the ka, or spirit, of the person after death (Figure 4.16). Other sculptural works served as funerary art, accompanying the deceased in burial tombs with the intention of preserving life after death. Early tombs contained small models of the slaves, animals, buildings, tools, and

The Great Sphinx, located among the Pyramids of Giza, is the largest monolith statue in the world, standing 241 ft long, 63 ft wide, and 66.34 ft high. Carved out of limestone, it represents a mythical creature known as a sphinx, with a lion's body and a human head. It is commonly believed that the head is that of King Khafra, who ruled during the 4th dynasty when it was built (Figure 4.15). While most sculptures were made of stone, wood was sometimes used as a cheap and easily carved substitute. Paints were obtained from minerals such as iron ores (red and yellow ochres), copper ores (blue and green), soot or charcoal (black), and limestone (white). Paints could be mixed with gum arabic as a binder and

other objects necessary for the deceased to continue his lifestyle in the afterworld. Very strict conventions governed the crafting of deity figures, and these rules were followed so strictly that over three thousand years the appearance of statues changed very little. In addition to funerary art, Egyptians surrounded themselves with objects to enhance their lives in this world, producing cosmetic vessels and finely carved and inlaid furniture. Over time, Egyptian

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artists adopted a limited repertoire of standard types and established a formal artistic canon that would define Egyptian art for more than 3,000 years, while remaining flexible enough to allow for subtle variation and innovation.
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Tombs
During the Old Kingdom, mastabas and pyramids were built as tombs for the deceased in order to preserve their soul in the afterlife.
KEY POINTS

In the early period, Egyptians built mastabas to mark the tombs of their deceased. During the Old Kingdom, these royal mastabas eventually developed into rock-cut step pyramids and then true pyramids, the greatest of which are the Pyramids of Giza. The process of mummification continued and evolved during the Old Kingdom, but was not perfected until the New Kingdom. Ceremonies such as the Opening of the Mouth ceremonies were performed to help the deceased's soul transition into the afterlife. Throughout the Old Kingdom, Egyptians were buried with burial goods that they thought were necessary after death, such as bowls, combs, food, andfor the wealthier Egyptians jewelry, furniture, and other valuables.

The ancient Egyptians had an elaborate set of burial customs that they believed were necessary to ensure their immortality after death. The building of tomb structures such as mastabas and

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pyramids were intended to preserve the corpse of the deceased, under the belief that this would in turn preserve their soul in the afterlife. Rituals and protocols included mummification, casting of magic spells, and burial with specific grave goods thought to be needed in the afterlife. In this way, tombs not only served as a burial place for the deceaseds body, but also as storage for the various items he would need in the afterlife. Burial Tombs: Mastabas and Pyramids In the early period, Egyptians had buried their bodies in simple graves in the desert. These shifted to the use of royal mastabas: flatroofed, rectangular structures made of stone or mud bricks that marked the burial site of many important Egyptians (Figure 4.17). Mastabas gradually evolved through the early dynastic period, with the underground tomb chamber sinking deeper (Figure 4.19). During the Old Kingdom, these royal mastabas eventually developed into rock-cut step pyramids and then true pyramids, although non-royal use of mastabas continued to be used for more than a thousand years. The Pyramids of Giza, massive stone-cut structures built from limestone quarried from the Nile River, are the most well-known example of pyramid tombs built during the Old Kingdom (Figure 4.18). As the pyramids were constructed for the kings, mastabas for lesser royals were constructed around them. Tombs were built of permanent materials and the interior walls of

Figure 4.17 Schematic of an egypt mastaba from the Old Kingdom.

Inside the mastaba,"a deep chamber was dug into the ground and lined with stone or bricks. Over time these tomb chambers sank deeper and were connected by stairs. The"above ground structure had space for a small chapel to which priests and family members could bring o!erings for the soul of the deceased.

the tombs were decorated with scenes of daily life and funerary rituals. Mummification and Ceremony In order to preserve the body and therefore the soul of the deceased, Egyptians used the process of mummification. This involved removing the internal organs, wrapping the body in linen, and burying the mummy in a rectangular stone sarcophagus or wooden coffin. The first evidence of intentional mummification in

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Figure 4.19 Example of a mastaba Royal mastabas were used to mark the burial site of many important Egyptians.

that it could breathe, speak, eat, and drink in the afterlife. There is evidence of this ritual from the Old Kingdom to the Roman Period. Special tools were used to perform the ceremony, such as a ritual adze, an arm shaped ritual censer, a spooned blade known as a peseshkaf, a serpent-head blade, and a variety of other amulets. A calfs leg was also held up to the lips painted on the coffin.The ancient Egyptians believed that in order for a persons soul to survive in the afterlife it would need to have food and water. The opening of the mouth ritual was thus performed so that the person who died could eat and drink again in the afterlife.

Figure 4.18 The Pyramids of Giza The Pyramids of Giza served as tombs to the Kings. By preserving their bodies and providing them with gifts for the afterlife, it was believed that their soul would live on.

Burial Goods From the earliest periods of Egyptian history, all Egyptians were buried with at least some burial goods that they thought were necessary after death. These usually consisted of everyday objects such as bowls, combs, and other trinkets, along with food. Wealthier Egyptians could afford to be buried with jewelry, furniture, and other valuables, which made them targets of tomb robbers. As burial customs developed in the Old Kingdom, wealthy citizens were buried in wooden or stone coffins; however the number of burial goods declined, sometimes to simply a set of copper tools and some vessels. Many mummies were provided with some form of funerary literature, often consisting of spells and instructions for navigating

Egypt dates to 3500 BC; beginning in the Fourth Dynasty, some parts were preserved separately in canopic jars. The process of mummification however was not perfected until the New Kingdom. The Opening of the Mouth Ceremony was a ritual involving the symbolic animation of a mummy by magically opening its mouth so

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the afterlife. During the Old Kingdom, only the pharaoh had access to this material, which scholars refer to as the Pyramid Texts. The Pyramid Texts are a collection of spells to assure the royal resurrection and protect the pharaoh from various malignant influences. The above ground structure of the mastaba had a small offering chapel equipped with a false door to which priests and family members brought food and other offerings for the soul of the deceased. A second hidden chamber called a serdab housed a statue of the deceased that was hidden within the masonry for its protection. Because of the riches included in graves, tombs were a tempting site for grave-robbers. The increasing size of the pyramids is in part credited to protecting the valuables within, and many other tombs were built into rock cliffs in an attempt to thwart grave robbers.
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Section 4

The Middle Kingdom

Sculptures of Sensuret III Tombs Stelae Architecture and the Urban Environment

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Sculptures of Sensuret III

Some of the nest examples of sculpture during the Middle Kingdom were at the height of the empire under Pharaoh Senusret III.

KEY POINTS

Figure 4.20 Three black granite statues of the pharaoh Sesotris III, seen in right prole. From the time of the 12th dynasty, circa 1850 BC. Senusret III is known for his strikingly somber sculptures.

Senusret III is considered to be perhaps the most powerful Egyptian ruler of the dynasty, and led the kingdom to an era of peace and prosperity. Senusret III is known for his strikingly somber sculptures in which he appears careworn and grave. While many statues portray him as a vigorous young man, others deviate from this standard and illustrate him as mature and aging.!This is often interpreted as a portrayal of the burden of power and kingship. Another important innovation in sculpture during the Middle Kingdom was the block statue, which consisted of a man squatting with his knees drawn up to his chest.

Khakhaure Senusret III (also written as Senwosret III or Sesostris III) ruled from 1878 BC to 1839 BC, and was the fifth monarch of the Twelfth Dynasty of the Middle Kingdom. His military campaigns gave rise to an era of peace and economic prosperity that not only reduced the power of regional rulers, but also led to a revival in craftwork, trade, and urban development in the Egyptian kingdom. One of the few kings who were deified and honored with a cult during their own lifetime, he is considered to be perhaps the most powerful Egyptian ruler of the dynasty. Aside from his accomplishments in architecture and war, Senusret III is known for his strikingly somber sculptures in which he appears careworn and grave (Figure 4.20). Deviating from the standard way of representing kings, Senusret III and his successor

During the Middle Kingdom, relief and portrait sculpture captured subtle, individual details that reached new heights of technical perfection. Some of the finest examples of sculpture during this time was at the height of the empire under Pharaoh Senusret III.

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Figure 4.21 Example of a block statue. Block statues of the Middle Kingdom consisted of a man squatting with his knees drawn up to his chest.

Amenemhat III had themselves portrayed as mature, aging men (Figure 4.21). This is often interpreted as a portrayal of the burden of power and kingship. That the change in representation was indeed ideological and should not be

continue to be popular through to the Ptolemaic age almost 2,000 years later (Figure 4.22). Block statues consist of a man squatting with his knees drawn up to his chest and his arms folded on top of his knees. Often, these men are wearing a wide cloak that reduces the body of the figure to a simple block-like shape; in some cases the cloak covers the feet completely, and in others the feet are left uncovered. The head of the sculpture contains the most detail.
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interpreted as the portrayal of an aging king is shown by the fact that in one single relief, Senusret III was represented as a vigorous young man, following the centuries old tradition, and as a mature aging king. Another important innovation in sculpture that occurred during the Middle Kingdom was the block statue, which would
Figure 4.22 Head of pharaoh Sesostris III, made of red granite, circa 1850 BC Some of the sculptures of Senusret III, like this one, portray him as an aging mana style that deviated from the standard representation of Kings.

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Tombs
Grand and royal tombs continued to be built for the deceased during the prosperous Middle Kingdom.

pyramids for their burials. Unlike the Old Kingdom, however, Middle Kingdom royal pyramids were not quite as well constructed, and so few of them remain as pyramid structures today. Among the tombs built during this time are Amenemhat Is funerary monument at El-Lisht; Sesostris Is funerary monument; Amenemhat IIIs pyramid at Hawara, which includes an elaborate

KEY POINTS

As the pharaohs of the Middle Kingdom restored the countrys prosperity and stability, they stimulated a resurgence of art, literature, and monumental building projects, including tombs and burial goods. While burial goods continued to be common, objects of daily use were not typically included as they were in the Old Kingdom. Toward the end of the Middle Kingdom, new objects were introduced such as shabtis and scarabs. Scarabs were popular amulets believed to be protectors of written products. Shabtis were funerary figurines placed in tombs of the deceased to help them in the afterlife. Coffin Texts evolved from the previous Pyramid texts of the Old Kingdom, expanding and introducing spells that were more relatable to nobles and non-royal Egyptians.

Figure 4.23 Shabti gures Shabti were funerary gurines that were placed in tombs along with the deceased to assist them in the afterlife.

Royal funerary practices in the Middle Kingdom remained much the same as in the Old Kingdom, with kings continuing to build

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labyrinth complex; and Sesostris IIs pyramid at Illahun. The construction of pyramids declined toward the end of the 12th Dynasty, as instability led to the decline of the Middle Kingdom. Burial goods continued to be commonplace in tombs. Starting in the First Intermediate period, wooden models became very popular, often depicting everyday activities that the deceased expected to continue doing in the afterlife. The standard coffin was rectangular and brightly painted, often including an offering formula. Unlike the Old Kingdom, objects of daily use were not often included in the tombs; however, they reappeared toward the end of the Middle Kingdom. Other new objects were introduced toward the end of the Kingdom as well, including the first shabtis and the first scarabs. Scarabs were popular amulets believed to be protectors of written products (Figure 4.23). The scarab was also used as a holder or medium for personal name seals. A figurine of a scarab would be carved out of stone, and then on the smooth stomach of the scarab, the engraving of a seal was made. Shabtis were funerary figurines placed in tombs of the deceased to help them in the afterlife (Figure 4.24). Used from the Middle Kingdom until the end of the Ptolemaic Period nearly 2,000 years later, most shabtis were of a small size, often covering the floor around a sarcophagus. Exceptional shabtis were of larger size, or produced as a one of-a-kind master work.

Figure 4.24 A modern imitation of an ancient Egyptian scarab amulet Scarabs were often included in tombs along with other burial goods as protectors of written products.

They were generally distinguished from other statuettes by being inscribed with the name of the deceased, his titles, and often with spells from the Coffin Texts. Another change in funerary practice during this time had to do with non-royal

Egyptians. In contrast to elitist Old Kingdom attitudes towards the gods, the Middle Kingdom experienced an increase in expressions of personal piety and what could be called a democratization of the afterlife. In this worldview, all people possessed a soul and could be welcomed into the company of the gods after death. Previously, literature like funerary Pyramid Texts, which contained spells to help the dead reach the afterlife successfully, were only accessible to the elite. During the Middle Kingdom, Egyptians outside of the elite levels of society gained access to this funerary literature and began incorporating it into their own burials. Coffin Texts, as they are called by the scholars, expanded upon the previous Pyramid Texts,

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introducing new spells and incorporating slight changes to make them more relatable to the nobility.
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Stelae
The stelae of ancient Egypt"served many purposes, from funerary to territorial to publishing decrees.

KEY POINTS

The earliest Egyptian stelae date back to the mid- to latethird millennium BC. Stelae are stone slabs that inscribed, carved, or painted with imagery or text. While most were taller than they were wide, slab stela!took a horizontal dimension. Funerary stelae were generally built in honor of the deceased, and decorated with their names and titles. The Boundary Stelae at Amarna are an example of how stelae were used as territorial markers. Stelae!also!were used to publish laws and decrees, to record a rulers exploits and honors, mark sacred territories or mortgaged properties, or to commemorate military victories.

Egyptians were well known for their stelae, the earliest of which date back to the mid- to late-third millennium BC. Stelae were stone slabs that served many purposes, from funerary to marking territory to publishing decrees. Images and text were intimately interwoven and inscribed, carved in relief, or painted on the stelae.

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While most stelae were taller than they were wide, the slab stela took a horizontal dimension and was used by a small list of ancient Egyptian dignitaries or their wives. The huge number of stelae surviving from ancient Egypt constitute one of the largest and most significant sources of information on those civilizations. Funerary stelae were generally built in honor of the deceased and decorated with their names and titles. Some funerary stelaes were in the form of slab stelaes, as opposed to being the more common vertical stelae. An example of the funerary stelae are the Coregency Stelae, a set of seven limestone stela-fragments which were found in a tomb at Amarna. The stela dates from the late eighteenth dynasty of Egypt and shows the figures of Akhenaten, Nefertiti, and Meritaten (Figure 4.25). Many stelae were used as territorial markers to delineate land ownership. The most famous example of this is the Boundary Stelae at Amarna, constructed under the reign of Akhenaten during the Eighteenth Dynasty. The entire city of Armana was encircled with a total of 14 boundary stelae, cut into the cliffs on both sides of the Nile and each now labeled with a letter. The stelae detail the founding of the new capital city of Egypt and are a primary source of information about the city. Among the accounts are the establishment of the city, the projected layout of the city, commands

for Akhenatens future burial, celebratory events, and the Pharaohs worship of the god Aten. Stelae also were used to publish laws and decrees, to record a rulers exploits and honors, mark sacred territories or mortgaged properties, or to commemorate military victories. Much of what we know of the kingdoms and administrations of Egyptian kings are from the public and private stelae that recorded bureaucratic titles and other administrative information.

Figure 4.25 Ancient Egyptian funerary stela

Funerary stelae were usually inscribed with the name and title of the deceased, along with images or"hieroglyphs.

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Architecture and the Urban Environment

When Egypt had secured military and political security and vast agricultural and mineral wealth, its architecture ourished.
KEY POINTS

As the pharaohs of the Middle Kingdom restored the countrys prosperity and stability, there was a resurgence of building projects. When Egypt had secured military and political security and vast agricultural and mineral wealth, its architecture flourished. Grand tombs in the form of pyramids continued to be built throughout the Middle Kingdom, along with villages, cities and forts. The reign of Amenemhat III is especially known for its exploitation of resources,
Figure 4.26 A view of Buhen from the north. Buhen was an ancient fort built by Senusret III during his multiple campaigns. Its moat, drawbridges and bastions would have provided good defense against enemy attacks.

The reign of Amenemhat III is especially known for its exploitation of resources, in which mining camps were operated on a semi-permanent basis. Ancient Egyptian architects used sun-dried bricks, fine sandstone, limestone and granite for their building purposes, though typically reserved stone for temples and tombs. Hieroglyphic and pictorial carvings in brilliant colors were abundantly used to decorate Egyptian structures. Workers villages, such as Kahun, were often built nearby to pyramid construction sites to house workers and slaves. Senusret III is known for his construction of massive forts to defend the region after his many military campaigns. The White Chapel, built by Senusret I as part of the Karnak temple complex, is one of the finest works of architecture of its time.

in which mining campspreviously only used by intermittent expeditionswere operated on a semi-permanent basis. A vast labor force of Canaanite settlers from the Near East aided in mining and building campaigns. Ancient Egyptian architects used sun-dried bricks, fine sandstone, limestone and granite for their building purposes. As in the Old

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Kingdom, stone was most often reserved for tombs and temples, while bricks were used for palaces, fortresses, everyday houses and town walls. Mud would be collected from the nearby Nile River, placed in molds and left to dry and harden in the hot

Figure 4.27 The White Chapel

a fourth wall, which may have collapsed and been washed away during the annual inundation. The town was rectangular in shape and was divided internally by a mudbrick wall as large and strong as the exterior walls. This wall divided about one third of the area of the town and in this smaller area the houses consisted of rows of back-to-back, side-by-side single room houses. The larger area, which was higher up the slope and thus benefited from whatever breeze was blowing, contained a much smaller number of large, multi-room villas, indicating perhaps a class separation between workers (or slaves) and overseers. A major feature of the town was the so-called acropolis building; its column bases suggest its importance. Senusret III was a warrior-king who helped the Middle Kingdom reach its height of prosperity. In his sixth year, he re-dredged an Old Kingdom canal around the first cataract to facilitate travel to upper Nubia, using this to launch a series of brutal campaigns. After his victories, Senusret III built a series of massive forts throughout the country to establish the formal boundary between Egyptian conquests and unconquered Nubia. Buhen was the northernmost of a line of forts within signalling distance of one another. The fortress itself extended more than 150 meters along the West bank of the Nile, covering 13,000 square meters, and had within its wall a small town laid out in a grid system. At its peak it probably had a population of around 3,500 people. The fortress also included the

The White Chapel of Senusret I at Karnak is a good example of the ne quality of art and architecture produced during the 12th Dynasty. Its columns hold reliefs of a very high quality which are hardly seen elsewhere at Karnak

sun until they formed bricks for construction. Architects carefully planned all their work, fitting their stones and bricks precisely together. Hieroglyphic and pictorial carvings in brilliant colors were abundantly used to decorate Egyptian structures, and motifs such as the scarab, sacred beetle, the solar disk, and the vulture were common. Workers villages were often built nearby to pyramid construction sites. Kahun, for example, is a village that was associated with the pyramid of Senusret II. The town was laid out in a regular plan, with mud-brick town walls on three sides. No evidence was found of

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administration for the whole fortified region. Its fortifications included a moat three meters deep, drawbridges, bastions, buttresses, ramparts, battlements, loopholes, and a catapult. The walls of the fort were about five meters thick and ten meters high (Figure 4.26). The Karnak Temple Complex is an example of fine architecture that was begun during the Middle Kingdom, and continued through the Ptolemaic period. Built by Senusret I, it comprised a vast mix of temples, chapels, pylons, and other buildings. The White Chapel, also referred to as the Jubilee Chapel, is one of the finest examples of architecture during this time. Its columns were intricately decorated with reliefs of a very high quality (Figure 4.27). Later in the New Kingdom the Chapel was demolished; however the dismantled pieces were discovered in the 1920s and carefully assembled into the building that is seen today.
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Section 5

The New Kingdom

Architecture of Great Temple Complexes Hatshepsut Tomb of Ramose Akhenaton and the Amarna Period Tutankhamun and Ramses II Book of the Dead Sculpture and Painting

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Architecture of Great Temple Complexes

The golden age of the New Kingdom created huge prosperity for Egypt and allowed for the proliferation of monumental architecture.
KEY POINTS

The New Kingdom is known as the golden age of ancient Egyptian history, and is the period of Hatshepsut, Tutankhamun, Ramses II, and other famous pharaohs. The wealth gained through military dominance created huge prosperity for Egypt and allowed for the proliferation of monumental architecture, especially works that glorified the pharaohs' achievements. Starting with Hatshepsut, buildings were of a grander and larger scale than anything previously seen in the Middle Kingdom. Luxor Temple Luxor Temple is a large Ancient Egyptian temple complex located on the east bank of the Nile River in what was ancient Thebes (today the city of Luxor). There are six great temples: four on the left bank known as Goornah, Deir-el-Bahri, the Ramesseum, and Medinet Habu; and two on the right bank: the Karnak and Luxor. The Luxor temple was built with Nubian sandstone from southwestern Egypt. Like other Egyptian structures, common techniques were the use of symbolism and illusionism. For example, a sanctuary shaped like an Anubis Jackal was used as a representational symbol of Anubis. To emphasize height and distance and enhance an existing pathway, two obelisks flanking the entrance were built with the illusion that they were the same height
even though they weren't.

Luxor Temple is a large temple complex located in what was ancient Thebes, and is known for its use of symbolism and illusionism. The Temples at Karnak, part of the great city of Thebes, were constructed as an ancient place of worship for the god Amun. They consist of a!vast mix of temples, chapels, pylons, obelisks, and hypostyle halls decorated with elaborate friezes. The complex consists of four main parts: the Precinct of Amun-Re, the Precinct of Mut, the Precinct of Montu, and the Temple of Amenhotep IV. Although pyramids were no longer built at this time, magnificent tombs were constructed for the pharaohs and powerful nobles of the New Kingdom in the!Valley of the Kings!over a period of nearly 500 years. Among the most famous tombs in the Valley of the Kings are the tombs of Tutankhamun, Hatshepsut, Ramesses, and Nerfertiti.

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Temples at Karnak This complex comprises a vast mix of decayed temples, chapels, pylons, and other buildings. An ancient place of worship for the god Amun, it was part of the monumental city of Thebes. Today the complex is a vast open-air museum and the largest ancient religious site in the world. The complex consists of four main parts. The Precinct of Amun-Re, also referred to as the Temple of Amun, is the largest of the temples and the only one open to the public today. Almost every pharaoh of that dynasty has added something to the temple site. It features large sandstone columns (Figure 4.28), several colossal statues, and one of the largest obelisks, weighing 328 tonnes and standing 29 meters tall. Many of the walls were decorated with richly ornamented friezes (Figure 4.29). Located to the south of the newer Amen-Re complex, the Precinct of Mut was dedicated to the mother goddess, Mut. Hapshepsut helped to restore the original precinct, which had been ravaged during the Hyksos occupation, and had twin obelisks erected at the entrance to the temple; one still stands as the tallest surviving ancient obelisk in the world. The precinct has several smaller temples associated with it and has its own sacred lake, constructed in a crescent shape. Six hundred black granite statues were found in the courtyard to her temple, possibly the oldest portion of the site.The smaller Precinct of Montu is dedicated to the war-god of the Theban Triad, Montu, and is located to the north of the Amun-Re complex. The Temple of

Figure 4.28 Colonnaded design of Hatshepsut temple

Hatshepsut's temple is most famous for its Djeser-Djeseru, a colonnaded structure of such architectural skill, predating the Parthenon by nearly one thousand years.

Figure 4.29 A panorama of the great hypostyle hall at Karnak

The Precinct of Amun-Re, also known as the Temple of Amun, is part of the great temple complex at Karnak.

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Amenhotep IV was located east of the main complex, and was destroyed immediately after the death of its builder, so that its full extent and layout is currently unknown. The Valley of the Kings By this time pyramids were no longer built by kings, but they continued to build magnificent tombs. This renowned valley in Egypt is where, for a period of nearly 500 years, tombs were constructed for the Pharaohs and powerful nobles of the New Kingdom. The valley is known to contain 63 tombs and chambers, the most well known of which is perhaps the tomb of Tutankhamun (commonly known as King Tut). Despite its small size, it is the most complete ancient Egyptian royal tomb ever found. In 1979 the Valley became a World Heritage Site, along with the rest of the Theban Necropolis. The Temple of Hatshepsut was Hatshepsut's mortuary temple, and was the first to be built in the area. The focal point of the tomb was the Djeser-Djeseru, a colonnaded structure of perfect harmony that predates the Parthenon by nearly one thousand years. Built into a cliff face, Djeser-Djeseru sits atop a series of terraces that once were graced with lush gardens (Figure 4. 30). The Tomb of Nefertiti, the most famous of Ramesses consorts, is also located in the Valley of the Kings and is known for its magnificent wall paintings.

Figure 4.30 A panorama of a frieze in the precinct of Amun in Karnak

Great monuments and temples were often decorated with elaborate relief sculpture during the New Kingdom.

The Ramesseum was the great mortuary temple of Ramesses II. An enormous pylon representing scenes of the great pharaohs reign stood before one of the opening courts, with the royal palace at the left and a gigantic statue of the king looming up at the back. Scattered remains of two statues of the seated king can be seen, one in pink granite and the other in black granite, which once flanked the entrance to the temple. Thirty-nine out of the 48 columns still stand in the hypostyle hall, and part of the gold-and-blue decorated ceiling has also been preserved.
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Hatshepsut
Hatshepsut is regarded as one of the most successful pharaohs, reigning longer than any other woman of an indigenous Egyptian dynasty.
KEY POINTS

Hatshepsut (15081458 BC) was the fifth pharaoh of the 18th dynasty of Ancient Egypt. She is generally regarded as one of the most successful pharaohs, reigning for 22 years, longer than any other woman of an indigenous Egyptian dynasty. The earliest attestation to her leadership exists in artifacts found in the tomb of Ramose and Hatnofer. Women had a high status in ancient Egypt and enjoyed the legal right to own, inherit, or will property. A woman becoming pharaoh was rare, however, with only 35 preceding her as ruling solely in their own name. Hatshepsuts reign was very successful, marked by an extended period of peace and wealth-building, trading expeditions and great building projects. Hatshepsut was one of the most prolific builders in ancient Egypt, commissioning hundreds of construction projects throughout both Upper Egypt and Lower Egypt. She was known for constructing monuments to glorify her own achievements, and her buildings are argued to have been grander and more numerous than those of any of her Middle Kingdom predecessors. Following the tradition of most pharaohs, Hatshepsut had monuments constructed at the Temple of Karnak. She restored the original Precinct of Mut at Karnak that had been ravaged by the foreign rulers during the Hyksos occupation.

Hatshepsut's reign (15081458 BC) was marked by an extended period of peace, wealth-building, trade, and prolific building projects throughout both Upper and Lower Egypt. Like many pharaohs, she had monuments constructed at the Temple of Karnak, along with great obelisks. Her Temple of Pakhet, a cavernous underground temple portraying lioness-goddesses, was admired by the Greeks for its resemblance to the Greek hunter goddess, Artemis. The masterpiece of Hatshepsuts projects was her tomb, the Temple of Hatshepsut. Its splendid colonnaded structure predates the Parthenon by over a thousand years. While some statues depict her as a woman in typical dress, others such as the Osirian statues at her tomb depict her in traditional royal regalia. Despite her achievements, an attempt was made by her successors to remove Hatshepsut from records, almost erasing her name from history.

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Another project, Karnaks Red Chapel or Chapelle Rouge, was lined with carved stones that depicted significant events in Hatshepsut's life. She had twin obelisks, at the time the tallest in the world, erected at the entrance to the temple. One still stands today as the tallest surviving ancient obelisk in the world; the other has broken and toppled. She later ordered the construction of two more obelisks to celebrate her sixteenth year as pharaoh. The Temple of Pakhet was built at Beni Hasan, and represented a synthesis of two lioness war goddesses. The cavernous underground temple, cut into the rock cliffs on the eastern side of the Nile, was admired by the Greeks during their occupation of Egypt, who compared the goddess to their hunter goddess, Artemis. The temple has an architrave with a long dedicatory text bearing Hatshepsut's famous denunciation of the Hyksos, who had led Egypt into a cultural decline prior to her rule. Following the tradition of many pharaohs, the masterpiece of Hatshepsut's building projects was her mortuary temple. The Temple of Hatshepsut was designed and implemented at a site on the West Bank of the Nile River, near the entrance to what now is called the Valley of the Kings, because of all the pharaohs who later chose to associate their complexes with the grandeur of hers. The focal point of the tomb was the Djeser-Djeseru or the Sublime of Sublimes, a colonnaded structure of perfect harmony that predates

the Parthenon by nearly one thousand years. Built into a cliff face, Djeser-Djeseru sits atop a series of terraces that once were graced with lush gardens (Figure 4.31). Funerary goods belonging to Hatshepsut include a lioness throne, a game board with carved lioness head, red-jasper game pieces bearing her title as pharaoh, a signet ring, and a partial shabti figurine bearing her name. Hatshepsuts construction of statues was so prolific that today almost every major museum in the world has a statue of hers among their collections. While some statues show her in typically feminine attire, others depict her in the royal ceremonial attire. The physical aspect of the gender of pharaohs was rarely stressed in the art, and with few exceptions, subjects were idealized. The Osirian statues of Hatshepsut, located at her tomb, follow the Egyptian tradition of depicting the dead pharaoh as the god Osiris (Figure 4.32).
Figure 4.31 Colonnaded design of Hatshepsut temple Hatshepsut's temple is most famous for its Djeser-Djeseru, a colonnaded structure of such architectural skill, that predates the Parthenon by nearly one thousand years.

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Figure 4.32 Osirian statues of Hatshepsut,!Temple of Hatshepsut at Luxor

However, many of the official statues commissioned by Hatshepsut show her less symbolically, and more naturally, as a woman in typical dresses of the nobility of her day (Figure 4.33).
Figure 4.33 Detail of Hatshepsut, Eighteenth dynasty of Egypt, c. 1473 1458 BC Hatshepsut is depicted in the clothing of a male king, though with a feminine form di!ering from the Osirian statues in which she appears much more androgynous.

Despite her achievements, an attempt was made to remove Hatshepsut from certain historical and pharaonic records. Amenhotep II (the son of Hatshepsuts heir Tuthmose III) sought to erase her legacy and claim many of her accomplishments as his
These gures depict her in traditional royal regalia, as was the custom for pharaohs, regardless of gender. One stood at each pillar of the extensive structure of her tomb.

own. Her cartouches and images were chiselled off some stone walls, leaving very obvious Hatshepsut-shaped gaps in the artwork.

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While it is clear that much of this rewriting of Hatshepsuts history occurred only during the close of Thutmose IIIs reign, it is not clear why it happened, other than the typical pattern of self-promotion that existed among the pharaohs and their administrators. Or perhaps, saving money by not building new monuments for the burial of Thutmose III and instead, using the grand structures built by Hatshepsut. The erasure of Hatshepsuts namewhatever the reason or the person ordering italmost caused her to disappear from Egypts archaeological and written records; however, the erasures were sporadic and haphazard, leaving enough for Egyptologists to piece together the history of this great Pharaoh.
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Tomb of Ramose
One of the most interesting things about Ramoses tomb is the mystery surrounding his social background.

KEY POINTS

Ramose was the father of Senenmut, one of the most important state officials under the reign of the Egyptian Queen Hatshepsut in the 18th dynasty. The tombs of Ramose and Hatnofer were found in 1935 at Sheikh Abd el-Qurna in Western Thebes,!along with six other anonymous poorly-wrapped mummies, assumed to be family members of the couple. While Hatnofers tomb contains rich funerary goods, Ramose's is comparatively simple, suggesting his commoner roots. Although historians cannot be sure if Ramose was a farmer or a minor official, the potential commoner origins of Ramose and the rise of his son Senemut are suggestive of high social mobility in New Kingdom Egypt.

Ramose was the father of Senenmut, one of the most important state officials under the reign of the Egyptian Queen Hatshepsut in the 18th dynasty of Egypts New Kingdom.

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Figure 4.34 Panel in the false door of Senemut's tomb, showing him in the middle with his mother Hatnefer (in front of him) and his father Ramose (behind him) Ramose is featured on the false door of his son"Senenmut's tomb chapel.

by a sudden tragedy, it is also likely that the family members died at different times and were re-buried to be kept together. Ramose and Hatnofers tomb is comparatively simple, and was initially considered by Egyptologists as evidence for the humble personal origins of Ramose in particular. While historians cannot be sure if Ramose was a farmer or a minor official, the potential commoner origins of Ramose and the rise of his son Senemut are suggestive of high social mobility in New Kingdom Egypt (Figure 4. 34). The artifacts uncovered in the tomb suggest that Ramose and his wife Hatnofer had distinctly different funerals. The personal possessions in the tomb chamber were Hatnofers alone, as they were all appropriate for a woman, and included a rich gilded funerary mask (Figure 4.35), a heart scarab, canopic jars, and papyri. In contrast, Ramoses burial only featured his painted coffin though its gold fitting implied some social status. While Hatnofers body had been carefully mummified, Ramoses remains were skeletal. It is assumed that Hatnofer died when her son had already achieved his high state position under Hatshepsut, and was therefore able to provide her with rich funerary goods. Ramoses inferior funerary equipment suggests that Senenmuts position in the Egyptian state must have still been comparatively minor when his father died.

Ramose and his wife Hatnofer, Senemuts mother, are buried together in a tomb not far from the chapel of their son. One of the most interesting things about his tomb is the mystery surrounding his social background, and whether this father of an important official came from commoner roots. The tomb was found in 1935 by Wiliam Hayes and Ambrose Lansing of the Metropolitan Museum, as they were excavating under a hillside terrace at Sheikh Abd el-Qurna in Western Thebes. Ramose and Hatnofer were buried in the tomb along with six other anonymous poorly-wrapped mummies (three women and three unknown children), who are assumed to be family members of the couple. While it is possible that Senenmuts family had been struck

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It is possible, however, that the tomb of Ramose was robbed shortly after his burial and that Ramose was reburied with his wife when she died. Again, this makes it hard to pinpoint any social background for Ramose and Senenmut, as it is impossible to make
Figure 4.35 A view of Hatnofer's gold gilded funerary mask/cartonnage. Hatnofer was the mother of Senenmut, the highest serving state o#cial under the Queen Hatshepsut. Her rich funerary goods stand in stark contrast to her husband's simple co#n.

any statements about the quality of his original burial equipment, if any. Ramose and Hatnofers tomb is also notable because it suggests the earliest known date for Queen Hatshepsuts reign. The tomb contains a single pottery jar with date Year 7, along with another jar stamped with the seal of the God's Wife Hatshepsut. This establishes that Hatshepsut was recognized by her subjects as the pharaoh of Egypt by Year 7 of her reign. Hatshepsut is considered one of the most accomplished leaders in Egyptian history and, with this evidence from Ramose's tomb, is believed to have reigned longer than any other woman of an indigenous Egyptian dynasty.
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Book of the Dead

The Book of the Dead was a funerary text designed to assist a deceased persons journey through the underworld and into the afterlife.
KEY POINTS

of the deceased, consisted of magic spells intended to assist a deceased persons journey through the Duat, or underworld, and into the afterlife. At present, some 192 spells are known, though no single manuscript contains all of them. The spells served a range of purposes, such as giving the deceased mystical knowledge in the afterlife, guiding them past obstacles in the underworld, or protecting them from various hostile forces. Pyramid Texts and Coffin Texts The Book of the Dead was part of a tradition of funerary texts which includes the earlier Pyramid Texts of the Old Kingdom and the Coffin Texts of the Middle Kingdom; however it differed from its predecessors in many ways. For instance, Pyramid Texts were written in an unusual hieroglyphic style, were exclusive to those of royal privilege, and saw the afterlife as being in the sky. The Coffin Texts used a newer version of the language, included illustrations for the first time, and were available to wealthy private individuals. Both were painted onto walls or objects in the funerary chamber. The Book of the Dead, in contrast, was painted on expensive papyrus, written in cursive hieroglyph, and saw the afterlife as being part of the underworld. The earliest examples developed towards the beginning of the Second Intermediate Period, around 1700 BC, and included new spells among older texts. By the 17th dynasty, the spells were typically inscribed on linen shrouds

The Book of the Dead was part of a tradition of funerary texts which includes the earlier Pyramid Texts of the Old Kingdom and Coffin Texts of the Middle Kingdom. Unlike previous texts which were written on walls or objects in the funerary chamber, the Book of the Dead was written on expensive papyrus. There was no single Book of the Dead, and works tended to vary widely, perhaps based on the preferences of the people commissioning them. The text of a Book of the Dead in the New Kingdom was typically written in cursive hieroglyphs, with lavish illustrations between the text.

The Book of the Dead is the modern name of an ancient Egyptian funerary text, used from the beginning of the New Kingdom (around 1550 BC) to around 50 BC. The original Egyptian name is translated as Book of Coming Forth by Day, or Book of emerging forth into the Light. The text, placed in the coffin or burial chamber

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Figure 4.36 The Weighing of the Heart In Spell 125, Anubis weighs the heart of Hunefer. This spell is rst known from the reign of Hatshepsut and Tuthmose III, c. 1475 BC.

the Dead was in the 1st century BC, though some artistic motifs drawn from it were still in use in Roman times. There was no single Book of the Dead, and works tended to vary widely. Some people seem to have commissioned their own copies, perhaps choosing the spells they thought were most vital in their own progression to the afterlife. Later in the 25th and 26th dynasties, however, the Book was revised and standardized, with spells consistently ordered and numbered for the first time. Books were commissioned by people in preparation for their own funeral, or by the relatives of someone recently deceased. They were written by scribes, and sometimes the work of several different scribes was literally pasted together. Composed of joined sheets of papyrus, the dimensions of a Book of the Dead could vary from one to 40 meters. Books were often prefabricated in funerary workshops, with space left for when the name of the deceased would be written in later. The text of a New Kingdom Book of the Dead was typically written in cursive hieroglyphs (Figure 4.37), most often from left to right, but also sometimes from right to left. The hieroglyphs were in columns separated by black lines, and illustrations were put in frames above, below, or between the columns of text. The text was written in both black and red ink from either carbon or ochre, respectively. The style and nature of the vignettes used to illustrate

wrapped around the dead, though occasionally they are found written on coffins or on papyrus. The Book of the Dead The New Kingdom saw the Book of the Dead develop and spread further. The famous Spell 125, the Weighing of the Heart, is first known from the reign of Hatshepsut and Tuthmose III, c.1475 BC (Figure 4.36). From this period onward, the Book of the Dead was typically written on a papyrus scroll and the text was illustrated with elaborate and lavish vignettes. Later in the Third Intermediate Period, the Book of the Dead started to appear in hieratic script as well as in the traditional hieroglyphics. The last use of the Book of

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a Book of the Dead varies widely: some contain lavish color illustrations, even making use of gold leaf, while others contain only line drawings or a simple illustration at the opening.
Figure 4.37 Cursive Hieroglyphs from the Papyrus of Ani During the New Kingdom, the Book of the Dead was typically written in cursive hieroglyphs.

Sculpture and Painting

Painting and sculpture in the New Kingdom continued in the traditional style, until undergoing a drastic shift during the Amarna period.
KEY POINTS

Traditionally, all Egyptian reliefs were painted, with many less prestigious works in tombs, temples and palaces painted on a flat surface. Paintings in tombs were made with the intent of making a pleasant afterlife for the deceased. The Book of the Dead, consisting of spells painted onto papyrus, was intended to assist the deceased in reaching the afterlife. The Egyptians used the distinctive technique of sunk relief, which is well suited to very bright sunlight. Statues typically depicted Egyptian pharaohs, often representing them as gods. Amarna art is characterized by a sense of movement and activity in images, with figures being more realistically (less idealistically) depicted.

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Painting and sculpture in the New Kingdom continued in the traditional Egyptian style, with many great works produced by

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pharaohs over the years. However, during the later Amarna period, it underwent a drastic shift in style. Painting Traditionally, all Egyptian reliefs were painted. Less prestigious works in tombs, temples and palaces were painted on a flat surface. Stone surfaces were prepared by whitewash, or if rough, a layer of coarse mud plaster, with a smoother gesso layer above; some finer limestones could take paint directly. Pigments were mostly mineral, chosen to withstand strong sunlight without fading. The binding medium used in painting remains unclear, though egg tempera and various gums and resins have been suggested. It is clear that true fresco, painted into a thin layer of wet plaster, was not used. Instead, the paint was applied to dried plaster, in what is called fresco a secco in Italian. After painting, a varnish or resin was usually applied as a protective coating. Many paintings with some exposure to the elements have survived remarkably well, although those on fully-exposed walls rarely have. Small objects, including wooden statuettes, were often painted using similar techniques. Egyptian paintings are created so as to show a profile view and a side view of the animal or person. Their main colors were red, blue, black, gold, and green. Many ancient Egyptian paintings have

Figure 4.38 Colossal statues of Ramses II outside of Abu Simbel. This famous work depicts four repeating statues of Ramses II, following the tradition of deifying pharaohs.

survived due to its extremely dry climate. The paintings were done with the intent of making a pleasant afterlife for the deceased (Figure 4.38). Themes of these paintings included the journey through the afterworld or protective deities introducing the deceased to the gods of the underworld (such as Osiris). Some tomb paintings depict activities that the deceased were involved in when they were alive and wished to carry on doing for eternity. The Book of the Dead is one of the most well-known works of the New Kingdom; consisting of hieroglyphic spells and illustrations painted on papyrus. It was buried with an entombed person to help them navigate to the afterlife.

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Sculpture The monumental sculpture of Ancient Egypt is world-famous, but refined and delicate small works exist in much greater numbers. The Egyptians used the distinctive technique of sunk relief, which is well suited to very bright sunlight. The main figures in reliefs adhere to the same figure convention as in painting, with parted
Figure 4.39 Agricultural scene from the tomb of Nakht, 18th Dynasty Thebes Traditional tomb paintings often depicted scenes that were thought to help the deceased in the afterlife.

legs (where not seated) and head shown from the side, but the torso from the front, and a standard set of proportions making up the figure, using 18 fists to go from the ground to the hair-line on the forehead. Other conventions make statues of males darker than females ones, and the bodies of figures are typically idealized. Statues typically depicted Egyptian pharaohs, often representing them as gods. In the famous sculptures outside the main temple at Abu Simbel, Ramses II is depicted in a row of 4 colossal statues. (Figure 4.39) Other deities are frequently shown in paintings and reliefs. Most of the larger sculpture survives from Egyptian temples or tombs, where massive statues were built to represent gods and pharaohs and their queens. Amarna Art The style of painting and sculpture shifted drastically during the Amarna Period in the late 18th dynasty, when Pharaoh Akhenaten moved the capital to the city of Amarna. This art is characterized by a sense of movement and activity in images, with figures having raised heads, many figures overlapping and many scenes full and crowded. Sunk relief was widely used. Figures are depicted less idealistically and more realistically, with an elongation and narrowing of the neck, sloping of the forehead and nose, prominent chin, large ears and lips, spindle-like arms and calves and large thighs, stomachs, and hips (Figure 4.40).

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Figure 4.40 Artist's sketch: Walk in the Garden; limestone; New Kingdom, 18th dynasty, c. 1335 BC These gures are shown in the typical amarna style, with their bodies depicted more realistically, less idealistically.

While the religious changes of the Amarna period were brief, the styles introduced to painting and sculpture had a lasting influence on Egyptian culture.
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Section 6

First Millennium BCE

The Third Intermediate Period The Kingdom of Kush Late Egyptian Art Art Post-Alexander the Great

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The Third Intermediate Period

The Third Intermediate Period of Ancient Egypt was from 1070 BC up to the foundation of the Twenty-Sixth Dynasty in 664 BC.
KEY POINTS

Introduction The Third Intermediate Period refers to the time in Ancient Egypt from the death of Pharaoh Ramesses XI in 1070 BC to the foundation of the Twenty-Sixth Dynasty by Psamtik I in 664 BC, following the expulsion of the Nubian rulers of the Twenty-Fifth Dynasty (Figure 4.41). This period is characterized by the countrys fracturing kingship. Even in Ramesses XIs day, the Twentieth dynasty of Egypt was losing its grip on power in the city of Thebes, whose priests were becoming increasingly powerful. After his death, his successor Smendes I ruled from the city of Tanis, and the High Priests of Amun at Thebes ruled the south of the country in the period of the Twenty-first dynasty of Egypt. In fact, this division was less significant than it seems, since both priests and pharaohs came from the same family. Art The temple network become a dominant sphere in this period following the decentralization and weakness of the royal authority. Little building took place duing this period, but they created many innovative bronze and precious metal artworks for temples, depicting gods and kings. For example, the gold and silver in burial tombs from Tanis shows the highest-quality techniques. New

The temple network become a dominant sphere in this period following the decentralization and weakness of the royal authority. Little building took place during the period, but they created many innovative bronze and precious metal artworks for temples, depicting gods and kings. The Egyptians were one of the first major civilizations to codify design elements in art. The wall painting done in the service of the pharaohs followed a rigid code of visual rules and meanings. Early Egyptian art is characterized by the absence of linear perspective, which results in a seemingly flat space. These artists tended to create images based on what they knew, rather than what they saw. Objects in these artworks generally do not decrease in size as they increase in distance (as with normal perspective), and there is little shading to indicate depth. Sometimes, distance is indicated through the use of tiered space; but in the same scale and with no overlapping of forms.

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emphasis was placed on the king as the son of a god and explained through the use of royal faience and precious metals. The same theme is manifested in the emergence of a temple where they thought the sun god and king was celebrated (Figure 4.42). The Egyptians were one of the first major civilizations to codify design elements in art. The wall painting done in the service of the pharaohs followed a rigid code of visual rules and meanings. Early Egyptian art is characterized by the absence of linear perspective, which results in a seemingly flat space. These artists tended to create images based on what they knew, rather than on what they saw.
Figure 4.41 Nubian Pharaohs

Figure 4.42 Nuri Pyramids Viewed from northeast. Near Jebel Barkal, Sudan.

Objects in these artworks generally do not decrease in size as they increase in distance (as they would in natural perspective) and there is little shading to indicate depth. Sometimes, distance is indicated through the use of tiered space, where more distant objects are drawn higher above the nearby objects; but in the same scale and with no overlapping of forms. People and objects are almost always drawn in profile. Also, you may notice the people in Egyptian art are never facing forward. Archaeologists are not yet sure of why, but they are leaning towards the fact that the status of artists was low in hierarchy, so they could never be in front of a figure of higher authority, and thus only ever viewed them from the side.
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The Nubian Pharoahs were the rules of the 25th Dynasty.

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The Kingdom of Kush

The Kingdom of Kush was an ancient African state who's art and architecture were inspired by Egyptian design but were distinctly African.
KEY POINTS

KEY POINTS (cont.)

The kings of Kush adopted the Egyptian architectural idea of building stone pyramids as funerary monuments. However, Kushite pyramids were built above the underground graves, whereas the Egyptian graves were inside the pyramid. The most famous Kushite pyramids are in Mero.

Established after the the disintegration of the New Kingdom of Egypt, the Kingdom of Kush was centered at Napata in its early phase and later moved to Mero. After king Kashta invaded Egypt in the 8th century BCE, the Kushite kings ruled as Pharaohs of the 25th dynasty of Egypt for a century. Art and architecture flourished in Egypt under the 25th Dynasty. Kushite pharaohs built and restored many temples and monuments throughout the Nile Valley, and the construction of Kushite pyramids became widespread. The Kushites used sculpture to decorate the walls of palaces and pyramids. The cuts used were deeper and more strategic than Egyptian hieroglyphics. The reliefs mostly depict scenes from African daily life, animals, battle scenes, and kings. Pottery was an important Kushite craft and consisted mostly of pots and bowls that were shaped from clay and then painted in many different colors.!Common decorative motifs included animals and geometric and plant-based patterns.

Introduction The Kingdom of Kush was an ancient African state situated on the confluences of the Blue Nile, White Nile, and River Atbara in what is now the Republic of Sudan (Figure 4.43). Established after the Bronze Age collapse and the disintegration of the New Kingdom of Egypt, it was centered at Napata in modern day northern Sudan in its early phase and moved further south to Mero in 591 BCE. After king Kashta invaded Egypt in the 8th century BCE, the Kushite kings ruled as Pharaohs of the 25th dynasty of Egypt for a century, until they were expelled by Psamtik I in 656 BCE. The reign of the
Figure 4.43 Africa in 400 BC Map of kingdoms, states and tribes in 400 BC Africa.

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25th dynasty ushered in a renaissance period for ancient Egypt, and art and architecture emulating the styles of the Old, Middle, and New Kingdoms flourished. Kushite pharaohs built and restored many temples and monuments throughout the Nile Valley, and the construction of Kushite pyramids became widespread. Some of these are still standing in modern Sudan. Arts The Kushite arts were inspired by the Egyptians but were drastically African. Most remarkable among these was Kushite relief sculpture, which adorned the walls of palaces or pyramids. The cuts that are on the walls were deeper and more strategic than Egyptian hieroglyphics. There are many reliefs scattered across the land of Africa. They mostly depict scenes from African daily life and animals. Reliefs depicting battle scenes or kings are somewhat less common. Pottery was another important Kushite craft and consisted mostly of pots and bowls that were shaped from clay and then painted in many different colors. Most pottery was initially made for the wealthy, but later on, many commoners also began using pottery in their households. While decoration usually took the form of painted designs, some types of pottery also had stamped designs. Common motifs included geometric and plant-based patterns. The finest

pottery was decorated with paintings of animals such as giraffes, antelopes, frogs, crocodiles, snakes, and a variety of birds. Architecture The kings of Kush adopted the Egyptian architectural idea of building pyramids as funerary monuments. However, Kushite pyramids were built above the underground graves, whereas the Egyptian graves were inside the pyramid (Figure 4.44). The kings tombs were lodged under large pyramids made of stone. For a short time, the Kushite kings were mummified. Ordinary citizens were buried in much smaller pyramids. The most famous examples of Kushite pyramids are located in their capital Mero. There are three cemeteries in Mero. The north and south cemeteries are royal cemeteries and house the pyramids of kings and queens, whereas the west cemetery is a purely non-royal site.
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Figure 4.44 Sudan Mero Pyramids Sudan Mero Pyramids UNESCO World Heritage.

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Late Egyptian Art

The art of the Late Period of Ancient Egypt (664332 BC) was notable for its use of symbolism, its painting techniques, and its sculpture.
KEY POINTS

Introduction The Late Period of Ancient Egypt refers to the last flowering of native Egyptian rulers after the Third Intermediate Period from the 26th Saite Dynasty into Persian conquests. It ended with Egypts conquest by Alexander the Great. It ran from 664 BC until 332 BC. It is often regarded as the last gasp of a once great culture, where the power of Egypt had diminished. Ancient Egyptian art refers to the canonical 2nd and 3rd Dynasty art developed in Egypt from 3000 BC and used until the 3rd century. Most elements of Egyptian art remained remarkably stable over that 3,000-year period with relatively little outside influence. The quality of observation and execution started at a high level and remained near that level throughout the period. Symbolism Symbolism, ranging from the pharaoh's regalia to the individual symbols of Egyptian gods and goddesses, is omnipresent in Egyptian art. Animals were usually also highly symbolic figures in Egyptian art. Colors were more expressive rather than natural: red skin implied vigorous tanned youth, whereas yellow skin was used for women or middle-aged men who worked indoors; blue or gold indicated divinity because of its unnatural appearance and association with precious materials; the use of black for royal

The late period of Ancient Egypt is often regarded as the last gasp of a once great culture, where the power of Egypt had diminished. Symbolism, ranging from the pharaohs regalia to the individual symbols of Egyptian gods and goddesses, is omnipresent in Egyptian art. Animals were usually also highly symbolic figures in Egyptian art. All Egyptian reliefs were painted, and less prestigious works in tombs, temples and palaces were just painted on a flat surface. The paintings were often made with the intent of making a pleasant afterlife for the deceased. The themes included journey through the afterworld or protective deities introducing the deceased to the gods of the underworld. The monumental sculpture of Ancient Egypt is world-famous, but refined and delicate small works exist in much greater numbers. The Egyptians used the distinctive technique of sunk relief, which is well suited to very bright sunlight.

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Figure 4.45 Egyptian Female Amulet Sculpture Female gure. The name of Psammetichus I is inscribed under the feet, Louvre Museum.

coarse mud plaster, with a smoother gesso layer above. Some finer limestones could take paint directly. Pigments were mostly mineral, chosen to withstand strong sunlight without fading. The binding medium used in painting remains unclear: egg tempera and various gums and resins have been suggested. It is clear that true fresco, painted into a thin layer of wet plaster, was not used. Instead the paint was applied to dried plaster, in what is called fresco a secco in Italian. Many ancient Egyptian paintings have survived due to Egypts extremely dry climate. The paintings were often made with the intent of making a pleasant afterlife for the deceased. The themes included the journey through the afterworld or protective deities introducing the deceased to the gods of the underworld. Some tomb paintings show activities that the deceased were involved in when they were alive and wished to carry on doing for eternity.
Sunk relief of the crocodile god Sobek Figure 4.46 Sunk relief

figures expressed the fertility of the Nile from which Egypt was born. Painting All Egyptian reliefs were painted, and less prestigious works in tombs, temples and palaces were just painted on a flat surface. Stone surfaces were prepared by whitewash, or if rough, a layer of

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Sculpture The monumental sculpture of Ancient Egypt is world-famous, but refined and delicate small works exist in much greater numbers (Figure 4.45). The Egyptians used the distinctive technique of sunk relief, which is well suited to very bright sunlight. The main figures in reliefs adhere to the same figure convention as in painting, with parted legs and head shown from the side, but with the torso shown from the front, and a standard set of proportions making up the figure, using 18 fists to go from the ground to the hair-line on the forehead (Figure 4.46).
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Art Post-Alexander the Great

Hellenistic art,"richly diverse in subject matter and in stylistic development, characterized culture after Alexander the Great.
KEY POINTS

The Ptolemaic Kingdom (33230 BC) in and around Egypt began following Alexander the Great's conquest in 332 BC and ended with the death of Cleopatra VII and the Roman conquest in 30 BC. Hellenistic art is richly diverse in subject matter and in stylistic development. It was created during an age characterized by a strong sense of history. For the first time, there were museums and great libraries, such as those at Alexandria and Pergamon. Prominent in Hellenistic art are representations of Dionysos, the god of wine and legendary conqueror of the East, as well as those of Hermes, the god of commerce. In strikingly tender depictions, Eros, the Greek personification of love, is portrayed as a young child. Greco-Roman architecture is abundant in columns and size. There are two primary types of Greco-Roman architecture: Doric and Ionic.

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KEY POINTS (cont.)

in Hellenistic art are representations of Dionysos, the god of wine and legendary conqueror of the East, as well as those of Hermes, the god of commerce. In strikingly tender depictions, Eros, the Greek personification of love, is portrayed as a young child. Encouraged by the many pharaohs, Greek colonists set up the trading post of Naucratis, which became an important link between the Greek world and Egypts grain. As Egypt came under foreign domination and decline, the pharaohs depended on the Greeks as mercenaries and even advisors. When the Persians took over Egypt, Naucratis remained an important Greek port, and the colonists were used as mercenaries by both the rebel Egyptian princes and the Persian kings, who later gave them land grants, spreading the Greek culture into the valley of the Nile. When Alexander the Great arrived, he established Alexandria on the site of the Persian fort of Rhakortis. Following Alexanders death, control passed into the hands of the Lagid (Ptolemaic) dynasty;
Figure 4.47 Nile Mosaic of Palestrina Nile Mosaic of Palestrina. Circa 100 BCE.

Hellenistic civilization continued to thrive even after Rome annexed Egypt after the battle of Actium and did not decline until the Islamic conquests. Introduction The Ptolemaic Kingdom (33230 BC) in and around Egypt began following Alexander the Greats conquest in 332 BC and ended with the death of Cleopatra VII and the Roman conquest in 30 BC (Figure 4.47). It was founded when Ptolemy I Soter declared himself Pharaoh of Egypt, creating a powerful Hellenistic state stretching from southern Syria to Cyrene and south to Nubia. Alexandria became the capital city and a center of Greek culture and trade. Art Hellenistic art is richly diverse in subject matter and in stylistic development. It was created during an age characterized by a strong sense of history. For the first time, there were museums and great libraries, such as those at Alexandria and Pergamon (Figure 4.48). Hellenistic artists copied and adapted earlier styles, and also made great innovations. Representations of Greek gods took on new forms. The popular image of a nude Aphrodite, for example, reflects the increased secularization of traditional religion. Also prominent

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Figure 4.48 Alexander the Great Bust Portrait of Alexander the Great. Marble, Hellenistic artwork, 2nd1st century BC. Said to be from Alexandria, Egypt.

Temple of Hephaestus in Athens, while the Erechtheum, which is located right next to the Parthenon is, Ionic. Ionic Greco-Roman architecture tended to be more decorative than the formal Doric styles. Most of the surviving buildings of Roman-Greco architecture lean towards the temples due to the building material used, although limestone does decay over time with natural erosion.
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they built Greek cities across their empire and gave land grants across Egypt to the veterans of their many military conflicts. Hellenistic civilization continued to thrive even after Rome annexed Egypt after the battle of Actium and did not decline until the Islamic conquests. Architecture Greco-Roman architecture is abundant in columns and size. There are two primary types of Greco-Roman architecture: Doric and Ionic. Examples of Doric architecture are the Parthenon and the

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Chapter 5

Aegean Civilizations

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Section 1

The Aegean Bronze Age

The Cyclades

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The Cyclades
Cycladic art during the Greek Bronze Age is noted for its abstract, geometric designs of male and female gures.
KEY POINTS

Figure 5.1 Map of the Cyclades Islands A map marking the Cyclades Islands.

The Cyclades are a chain of Greek Islands in the middle of the Aegean Sea. They encircle the island of Delos. Cycladic marble figurines of abstract male and female forms have been found at burial sites. These figurines are small, abstract, and rely on geometric shapes and flat plans for their design and would have been painted. The female figurines depict a woman with her legs together and arms folded over her abdomen. Breasts and the pubic region are emphasized. The male figures are often depicted sitting in a chair and playing either a harp or a lyre. Cyclades reached its high point during the Bronze Age. The islands were later occupied by the Minoans, Mycenaeans, and later the Greeks. Cycladic art is best known for its small scale marble figurines. The purpose of these figurines is unknown, although all that have been The Cyclades is a group of Greek islands in the Aegean Sea encircling the island of Delos (Figure 5.1). The islands were known for their white marble mined during the Greek Bronze Age and throughout Classical history. Their geographical location placed them, like the island of Crete, in the center of trade between Greece, Egypt, Asia Minor, and the Near East. Indigenous civilization on the discovered have been located in graves. While it is clear that they were regularly used in funerary practices, their precise function remains a mystery. Some are found in graves completely intact, others are found broken into pieces, others show signs of being used during the lifetime of the deceased, but some graves do not contain the figurines. Furthermore, the figurines were buried equally between men and women. The male and female forms do not seem

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Figure 5.3 Cycladic Male Figure A Cycladic male gure with the harp. Marble. Santorini, Greece. ca. 2500 BCE.

to be identified with a specific gender during burial. These figures are based in simple geometric shapes. Abstract female figures all follow the same mold. Each carved statuette is of a nude woman with her arms crossed over her abdomen (Figure 5. 3). The bodies are roughly triangular and the feet are kept together. The head of the women is an inverted triangle with a rounded chin and the nose of the figurine protrudes from the center. Each figure has modeled

breasts, and incised lines draw attention to the pubic region with a triangle. Incised lines also provide small details including toes on the feet and delineate the arms from each other and the stomach. Their flat back and inability to stand on their carved feet suggest that these figures were meant to lie down. While today they are featureless and remain the stark white of the marble, traces of paint allow us to know that they were once colored. Paint would have been applied on the face to demarcate the eyes and mouths, and dots were used to decorate the figures with bracelets and necklaces. Male figures are also found in Cycladic grave sites. These figures differ from the females, as the male typically sits on a chair and plays a harp or a lyre (Figure 5.2). The figures, their chairs, and instruments are all carved into elegant, cylindrical shapes. Like the female figures, the shape of the male figure is reliant on geometric shapes and flat plans. Incised lines provide details (such as toes), and paint would have added distinctive features to the now blank faces.
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Figure 5.2 Cycladic Female Figure A Cycladic female gure. Marble. Cyclades, Greece. ca. 2500 BCE

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Section 2

The Minoans

The Propalatial Period The Neopalatial Period Architecture Painting Sculpture

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The Propalatial Period

The protopalatial period of Minoan civilization lasted from 1900 to 1700 BCE and saw the establishment of administrative centers on Crete.
KEY POINTS

Figure 5.4 Map of Minoan Crete

The Minoan civilization was named after the mythical King Minos, because the first excavator, Sir Arthur Evans, mistook the many rooms and corridors of the administrative palace of Knossos to be the labyrinth in which Minos kept the Minotaur. The protopalatial period, 1900-1700 BCE, saw the establishment of administrative centers on the island of Crete. It was during this time that the identifying features of Minoan civilization, extensive sea trade and the building of communal civic centers, are first seen on the island. The protopalatial period ended in 1700 BCE when the palaces of the island were destroyed and life on the island was significantly disrupted. The unknown cataclysmic event is believed to be either an earthquake or an invasion.
Map of Minoan Crete

this fact and related points, he decided to name the civilization after the mythical King Minos. The many rooms of the palace at Knossos were so oddly shaped and disordered to Evans that they reminded him of the labyrinth of the Minotaur. According to myth, Minos wife had an illicit union with a white bull, which lead to the birth of a half bull and half man, known as the Minotaur. King Minos had his court artist and inventor, Daedalus, build an inescapable labyrinth for the Minotaur to live in. Archaeological evidence dates the arrival of the earliest inhabitants of Crete in approximately 6000 BCE. Over the next four thousand years the inhabitants developed a civilization based on agriculture,

Discovery and Excavation The ancient sites on the island of Crete were first excavated in the early 1900s by British archaeologist Sir Arthur Evans. Evans excavated the site of Knossos, where he discovered a palace. From

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trade, and production. The Minoans civilization on Crete existed on the island during the Bronze Age, from 3000 to 1100 BCE (Figure 5. 4), although the Mycenaeans from Greece invaded the island in the mid 1400s BCE and occupied it for the last centuries before the Greek Dark Age. The Minoans were known as great seafarers. They traded extensively throughout the Mediterranean region. Protopalatial Period The Protopalatial Period is considered the civilizations second phase of development, lasting from 1900 to 1700 BCE. During this time major sites on the island were developed, including the palatial sites of Knossos, Phaistos, and Kato Zakros, which were the first palaces or administrative centers built on Crete. These civic centers appear to denote the emergence of a collective community governing system, instead of system in which a king ruled over each town. During this period the Minoan trade network expanded into Egypt and the Near East; the first signs of writing, the still undeciphered language Linear A, appear. The period ended with a cataclysmic event, perhaps an earthquake or an invasion, which destroyed the palace centers.
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The Neopalatial Period

The apex of Minoan civilization occurred during the Neopalatial period, and lasted from 1700 to 1450 BCE.
KEY POINTS

During the height of Minoan civilization, the Minoans were the greatest sea traders on the Mediterranean and facilitated cultural exchanges between Egypt, Greece, Anatolian, and Near Eastern cultures. Very little is known about Minoan culture and society, although evidence from their material culture suggests a close affinity with nature, marine-life, and especially the bull. Minoan civilization began to fall around 1450, perhaps following an earthquake or volcanic eruption. The island of Crete was occupied by the Mycenaeans before the eventual collapse of Minoan civilization.

New Palaces The Neopalatial period occurred from 1700 to 1450 BCE, during which time the Minoans saw the height of their civilization. Following the destruction of the first palaces in approximately 1700 BCE, the Minoans rebuilt these centers into the palaces which were first excavated by Sir Arthur Evans. During this period, Minoan trade increased; during this period the Minoans were considered to

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Figure 5.5 Flying Fish Fragment of a Minoan fresco depicting a ying sh. Phalakopi, Milos, Greece.

painted on walls and pots are of the natural world, including plants, animals, birds, and marine life (Figure 5.6). The Minoan culture appears to also be closely linked with the bull. Bulls are often depicted in mural frescoes and many bull figurines and rhytons have been excavated (Figure 5.5). Images of the bull are often accompanied one or more additional human

Figure 5.6Bull's Head Rhyton

A rhyton in the shape of a bull's head.

rule the Mediterranean trading routes between Greece, Egypt, Anatolia, the Near East, and perhaps even Spain. Minoans began to settle in colonies away from Crete, including on the islands of the Cyclades, Rhodes, and in Egypt. Cultural Tropes Not much is known about Minoan society and culture, although much can be speculated from the archaeology. The society is believed to not have had a king, as the palace centers are not centered around a single room nor are they designed for use by a ruling family and their attendants. Minoan art suggests that the people felt a close connection to nature, as many of the scenes

figures, some of whom often appear to be engaged with the bull by leaping over its back. Frescoes also depict these bull-leaping scenes; abstracted bull-horn shapes may have been used in Minoan architecture. The numerous examples of bull imagery in Minoan culture point to the significance of the animal, but its precise cultural significance for the Minoans is still unknown. Cultural Collapse In 1450 BCE another cataclysmic event, perhaps an earthquake or the volcanic eruption on Thera, once more disrupted Minoan life. After this, during the Final and Postpalatial period from 1450 to

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1100 BCE the island was occupied by the Mycenaean Greeks before the final collapse of Minoan and Mycenaean civilization and the beginning of the Greek Dark Age.
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Architecture
Minoan palace centers had a central ceremonial courtyard, and were divided into numerous zones for civic, storage, and production purposes.
KEY POINTS

The palaces excavated on Crete functioned more as administrative centers with rooms for civic functions, storage, workshops, shrines around a central, ceremonial courtyard. The palaces had no fortification wall, suggesting a lack of enemies and conflict, although the natural surroundings provided a high level of protection, and the multitude of rooms created a continuous, protective faade. Minoan columns are uniquely shaped, constructed from wood, and were painted. They are tapered at the bottom, larger at the top and fitted with a bulbous, pillow-like capital.

Minoan Architecture The most well known and excavated architectural buildings of the Minoans were the administrative palace centers. When Evans first excavated at Knossos, not only did he mistakenly believe he was looking at a labyrinth, he also thought he was

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excavating a palace. However, the small rooms and excavation of large pithoi, storage vessels, and archives led researchers to believe that these palaces were actually administrative centers. Even so, the name became ingrained, and these large, communal buildings across Crete are now known as palaces. Although each one was unique, they shared similar features and functions. The largest and oldest palace centers are at Knossos, Malia, Phaistos, and Kato Zakro. The Complex at Knossos This provided an example of monumental architecture built by the Minoans (Figure 5.7). The most prominent feature on the plan of Knossos was the palaces large, central courtyard. This may have been the location of large ritual events, including bull leaping, and a similar one can be found in every Minoan palace center. Several small tripartite shrines surrounded the courtyard. The numerous corridors and rooms of the palace center created multiple areas for storage, meeting rooms, shrines, and workshops. The absence of a central room, or even living chambers, suggested the absence of a king and rather, the presence and rule of a strong centralized government. The palaces also had multiple entrances that often took long paths to reach the central courtyard or a set of rooms. The palace

Figure 5.7 Restored Interior Stairwell Palace at Knossos, Crete, Greece. ca. 17001400 BCE.

structures had no fortification walls, although the multitude of rooms created a protective, continuous faade. While this provided some level of fortification, it also provided structural stability for earthquakes. Even without a wall, the rocky and mountainous landscape of Crete, itself an island, created a high level of natural protection. The palaces were organized not only into zones along a horizontal plain, but also had multiple stories. Grand staircases, decorated with columns and frescos, connected to the upper levels of the palaces, only some parts of which survive today. Wells for light and air provided ventilation and light. The Minoans also created careful drainage systems and wells for collecting and

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Figure 5.8 Plan of the Palace at Knossos. Knossos, Crete, Greece. ca. 1700 1400 BCE.

Painting
Minoan painting is distinguished by its vivid colors and curvilinear shapes that bring a liveliness and vitality to the scenes.
KEY POINTS

The bull-leaping fresco found in the palace of Knossos is one of the seminal Minoan paintings. It depicts the Minoan cultures fascination with the bull and the unique event of bull leaping all painted in the distinctive Minoan style. storing water, and sanitation. Columns were uniquely constructed and easy to identify as Minoan (Figure 5.8). These were constructed from wood, not stone, and tapered at the bottom. They stood on stone bases and had large, bulbous tops, now known as cushion capitals. The Minoans painted their columns bright red and the capitals were often painted black.
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The Minoan city of Akrotiri on the island of Thera was destroyed by a volcanic eruption, which preserved the wall paintings in the towns homes. Kamares-ware is pottery made from a fine clay. These vessels are painted with marine scenes and abstract flowers, shapes, and geometric lines. Marine-style vase painting depicts marine life and scenes with organic shapes that fill the entire surface of the pot, using a technique known as horror vacui. Unlike Kamaresware, Marine-style scenes are painted in dark colors on a light surface.

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Wall Painting The Minoans decorated their palace complexes and homes with fresco wall painting. Fresco is a form of painting where the pigment is painted onto a wet limestone plaster. When the plaster dries the painting also dries, becoming an integral part of the wall. The Minoans had a distinct painting style with shapes formed by curvilinear lines that add a feeling of liveliness to the paintings. The Minoan color palette is based in earth tones of white, brown, red, and yellow. Black and vivid blue are also used. These color combinations created vivid and rich decoration.

Figure 5.9 Bull Leaping Fresco

Bull leaping Fresco. Knossos, Crete, Greece. Ca. 14501400 BCE.

Knossos Fragments of frescoes found at Knossos provide us with glimpses into Minoan culture and ritual. A fresco found on a upper story of the palace has come to be known as the Bull-leaping fresco (Figure 5.9). The image depicts a bull in flying gallop with one person at his horns, another at his feet, and a third, whose skin color is brown instead of white, inverted in a handstand leaping over the bull. While the different skin color of the figures may differentiate male (dark) and female (light) figures, the similarity of their dress and body shapes suggest that the figures may all be male. The figures participate in activity known as bull-leaping; we still do not know exactly this was performed. The human figures are stylized, with narrow waists; broad shoulders; long, slender, muscular legs; and

cylindrical arms. Unlike the twisted perspective seen in Egyptian or Ancient Near Eastern works of art, these figures are shown in full profile, an element the adds to the air of liveliness. Thera The Minoans settled on other islands besides Crete, including the volcanic, Cycladic island of Thera. The volcano on Thera erupted in mid-2nd millennium BCE, destroying the Minoan city of Akrotiri. Akrotiri was entombed by pumice and ash and since its rediscovery has been referred to as the Minoan Pompeii. The frescoes on Akrotiri were preserved by the blanketing volcanic ash.

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In one room is a wall painting known as the Landscape with Swallows, or as the Spring Fresco (Figure 5.10). It depicts a whimsical, hilly landscape with lilies sprouting from the ground. Sparrows, painted in blue, white, and red, swoop around the landscape. The lilies sway gracefully and the hills create an undulating rhythm around the room. The fresco does not depict a naturalistic landscape, but instead depicts an essence of the land and nature, whose liveliness is enhanced through the colors and curvilinear lines.
Figure 5.10 Landscape with Sparrows Landscape with Sparrows or Spring Fresco. Akrotiri, Thera, Greece. Ca 1650 BCE.

Vase Painting
Figure 5.11 Kamera Ware Vessel Kamares ware vessel with abstract oral design. Minoan.

Minoan ceramics and vase painting are uniquely stylized and are similar in artistic style to Minoan wall painting. As with Minoan frescoes, themes of nature and marine life are often depicted on their pottery. Similar earth-

tone colors are used, including black, white, brown, red, and blue. Kamares ware, a distinctive type of pottery painted in white, red, and blue over a black backdrop, is created from a fine clay. The paintings depict marine scenes, as well as abstract floral shapes, and they are often include abstract lines and shapes, including spirals and waves. These stylized floral shapes include lilies, palms, papyrus, and leaves and fill the entire surface of the pot with bold designs. (Figure 5.11) The pottery is named for the location where it

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was first found in the late nineteenth century, at a cave sanctuary at Kamares, on Mt. Ida. This style of pottery is found throughout the island of Crete as well in a variety of locations on the Mediterranean. The Marine style emerged during the late Minoan period. As the name suggests, the decoration on these vessels take their cue from the sea. The vessels are almost entirely covered with sea creatures such as dolphins, fish, and octopi, along with seaweed, rock, and sponges. Unlike their Kamares-ware predecessors, the light and dark color scheme is inverted: the figures are dark on a light background. Like the landscape frescoes at Thera, these paintings demonstrate a keen understanding and intimate knowledge of the marine environment. In the Marine style Octopus Vase (Figure 5.12) from the city of Palaikastro, the octopus wraps around the jug,
Figure 5.12 Octopus Vase Octopus Vase. Palaikastro, Crete, Greece. ca. 1500 BCE.

mimicking and accentuating its round shape. The octopus is painted in great detail, from each of its distinct stylized suckers to its bulbous head and the extension of its long tentacles. The surface of this vessel is covered by the main image; bits of seaweed fill the negative space. This filling of the empty space with additional images or designs is another characteristic of Minoan Marine Style pottery. The style is known as horror vacui, which is Latin for fear of empty space. The same aesthetic is seen later, in Greek Geometric pottery.
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Sculpture
Minoan sculpture consist of small-scale gurines that reect the cultures artistic style and important aspects of daily life.
KEY POINTS

Women are often depicted in large, long, layered skirts that accentuate their hips (Figure 5.13). So far, only small-scale sculptures and figurines have been found during Minoan excavations.
Figure 5.13 Snake Goddess Palace at Knossos, Knossos, Crete, Greece. Ca. 1600 BCE.

Minoan sculptures are only found in the small scale. They range from single, often frontal figures to figure groups that include both people and animals. The wide variety of materials used for these figurines represent the extent of the Minoan trade network throughout the Mediterranean. The Snake Goddess statue from Knossos represents an important female figure in Minoan culture. Due to her connection with snakes and felines, as well as her bare breasts, she is perhaps an earth goddess or a Minoan priestess. The Bull Leaper bronze demonstrates the Minoan use of bronze in art as well as highlighting the importance of the bull in Minoan sculpture and artistic style.

Minoan Sculpture As with their painting, Minoan sculpture demonstrates stylistic conventions including curvilinear forms; active, energized scenes; and long-limbed humans with broad shoulders and narrow waists.

Materials The small-scale sculptures of the Minoans were produced in many different materials including ivory, gold, faience, and bronze. The variety of materials acknowledges the extensive trade network

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established by the Minoans. For instance, faience, an quartz ceramic, is an Egyptian material. Its presence in sculpture found on Crete demonstrates that the material was shipped raw from Egypt to Crete, where it was then formed to create Minoan sculpture. Bronze was an important material in Minoan culture and many figurines were produced in this medium, mostly created using the lost-wax casting technique. Snake Goddess
Figure 5.14 Minoan Woman Bronze. Crete, Greece. Ca. 16001500 BCE.

unknown, although it is believed that she may have been an earth goddess or priestess. The snakes are considered chthonic animals related to the earth and the groundand are often symbols of earth deities. Furthermore, the Snake Goddess is dressed in a layered skirt with a tight bodice, covered shoulders, and exposed breasts. The prominence of her breasts may suggest that she is fertility figure. Although her function remains in unknown, the figures significance to the culture is unquestionable. Other figures in similar poses and outfits have also been found among Minoan ruins. Bull Leaper The Bull Leaping bronze, depicting a bull and an acrobat, was created as single group (Figure 5.15). The figures are similar in style and position, as seen in several bull-leaping frescoes, including the one discussed above from Knossos. The bull is in a flying gallop, while a bull leaper appears to be flipping over his back. The acrobats feet are planted firmly on the bulls rump, and the figure bends backwards with its arms planted on the bulls head, perhaps preparing to launch off of the bull. The two figures, bull and man, mirror each other, as the bulls back sways in the gallop and the mans back is arched in a deep back bend.

One figurine, known as the Snake Goddess (Figure 5.14), depicts a woman with open arms holding a snake in each hand, and a feline sitting on her head. The purpose or function of the statue is

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Figure 5.15 Bull Leaper

Bronze. South west Crete, Greece. 15501450 BCE.

The figures are made with curvilinear lines and the positioning of both figures adds a high degree of movement and action that was commonly found in Minoan art.
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Section 3

The Mycenaeans

Architecture Metallurgy Ceramics

https://www.boundless.com/art-history/aegean-civilizations/the-mycenaeans/
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Architecture
The architecture of Mycenaean citadel sites reects the societys war-like culture and constant need for protection and fortication.
KEY POINTS

KEY POINTS (cont.)

The city of Tiryns is known for its thick fortification walls and single access gateways which could be closed at will to entrap enemies. Its megaron is entered from a colonnaded courtyard.

Mycenaean culture can be summarized by its architecture, whose remains demonstrate the Mycenaeans war-like culture and the dominance of citadel sites ruled by a single ruler. The Mycenaeans populated Greece and built citadel sites on high, rocky outcroppings that provided natural fortification and overlooked plains used for farming and raising livestock. The citadel sites vary from city to city but each share common attributes including building techniques and architectural features. Building Techniques The walls of Mycenaean citadel sites were often built with ashlar masonry and massive stone blocks. The blocks were considered too large to be moved by man and were believed by ancient Greeks to have been erected by Cyclopes, one-eyed giants. Due to this ancient belief the use of large, roughly cut, ashlar masonry blocks in building is referred to as Cyclopean masonry. The thick, Cyclopean walls reflect a need for protection and self-defense since these walls

Mycenaean architecture and building techniques reflects their warring society. A wide, strong wall built from large roughly hewn stones was one method of protection. Another method involved limited access to citadel sites and well protected gates. Since a lintel over a doorway could not support the wall above it without collapsing, the Mycenaeans used corbelled vaults and a relieving triangle over lintels to redistribute the weight off the horizontal beam and into the supporting walls. The central feature of a Mycenaean citadel site was the megaron. This room functioned as the kings audience chamber. The megaron is entered through a porch with two columns and the main room included four columns around a central hearth. The city of Mycenae was the center of Mycenaean culture. It is especially known for its protective gateway, the Lion Gate, and a series of wealthy tombs, the Treasury of Atreus built from a corbel vault and Grave Circle A, which was enclosed within the citys walls.

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often encircled the citadel site and the acropolis on which the site was located. The Mycenaens also relied on new techniques of building to create supportive archways and vaults. A typical post and lintel structure is not strong enough to support the heavy structures built above it. Therefore, a corbelled arch is employed over doorways to relieve the weight on the lintel. The corbel arch is constructed by offsetting successive courses of stone (or brick) at the springline of the walls so that they project towards the archways center from each supporting side, until the courses meet at the apex of the archway (often, the last gap is bridged with a flat stone). The corbel arch was often used by the Mycenaeans in conjunction with a relieving triangle, which was a triangular block of stone that fit into the recess of the corbelled arch and helped to redistribute weight off the lintel and onto the supporting walls. Citadel Sites Mycenaean citadel sites were centered around the megaron, a reception area for the king. The megaron was a rectangular hall, fronted by an open, two-columned porch, and a more or less central, open hearth vented though an oculus in the roof above it and surrounded by four columns. The architectural plan of the megaron became the basic shape of Greek temples, demonstrating

Figure 5.16 Lion Gate Lion Gate. Limestone. Ca. 13001250 BCE. Mycenae, Greece.

the cultural shift as the gods of ancient Greece took the place of the Mycenaean rulers. Citadel sites were protected from invasion through natural and manmade fortification. Besides thick walls, the sites were protected by controlled access. Entrance to the site was through one or two large gates, and the pathway into the main part of the citadel was often controlled by more gates or narrow passageways. Since citadels had to protect the areas people in times of warfare, the sites were equipped for sieges. Deep water wells, storage rooms, and open space for livestock and additional citizens allowed a city to access basic needs while being protecting during times of war.

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Figure 5.17 Treasury of Atreus Treasury of Atreus, Mycenae, Greece, ca. 13001250 BCE.

invading army to break through. The Lion Gate received its name from its decorated relieving triangle of lions one either side of a single column. This composition, of lions or another feline animal flanking a single object, is known as a heraldic composition. The lions represent cultural influences from the Ancient Near East, and their heads are turned to face outwards and confront those entered the gate. Mycenae is also home to a subterranean beehive shaped tomb that was located outside the citadel walls. The tomb today is known as the Treasury of Atreus (Figure 5.17), due to the wealth of grave goods found there. This tomb and others like it are demonstrations of corbelled vaulting that covers an

Figure 5.18 Citadel of Tiryns

Mycenae The citadel site of Mycenae was the center of Mycenaean culture. It overlooks the Argos plain on the Peloponnesian peninsula and according to Greek mythology was the home to King Agamemnon. The sites megaron sits on the highest part of the acropolis and is reached through a large staircase. Inside the walls are various rooms for administration and storage along with palace quarters, living spaces, and temples. A large grave site, known as Grave Circle A, is also built within the walls. The main approach to the citadel is through the Lion Gate (Figure 5.16), a cyclopean walled entrance way. The gate is twenty feet wide, which was large enough for citizens and wagons to pass through but its size, and the walls on either side that create a tunneling effect, would be difficult for an

Ground plan of the citadel of Tiryns. Ca. 14001200 BCE. Tiryns, Greece.

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expansive open space. The vault is 44 feet high and 48 feet in diameter. The tombs are entered through a narrow passageway known as a dromos and entered through a post and lintel doorway topped by a relieving triangle. Tiyrns The citadel site of Tiyrns (Figure 5.18) provides another example of Mycenaean fortification and citadel site plans. This site is known for its cyclopean vaulted tunnels that run next to its walls and its tightly controlled access to the megaron and the main rooms of the citadel. Just a few gates provide access to the hill but only one path leads to the main site. This path is narrow and protected by a series of gates that could be opened and closed to trap invaders. The central megaron is easy to locate, and it is surrounded by various palatial and administrative rooms. The megaron is accessed through a courtyard that is decorated on three sides with a colonnade.
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Metallurgy
The Mycenaeans were masterful metalworkers as is demonstrated through gold, silver, and bronze daggers, drinking cups, and other objects.

KEY POINTS

Grave Circle A and B, at Mycenae, are a series of shaft graves enclosed by wall from the 16th century BCE. These grave sites were originally excavated by Heinrich Schleimann in 1876, and the grave goods found there demonstrate the incredible skill Mycenaeans possessed in metalwork. Gold death masks were commonly found placed over the face of the wealthy deceased. These death masks record the main features of the dead and are made with repouss, a metalworking technique. When compared to other masks, the Death Mask of Agamemnon is most likely a fake. Bronze daggers inlaid with gold, silver, and neillo are also a common grave good found at Mycenaean burial sites. These daggers represent international trade and cultural connections between the Mycenaeans and the Minoans, Egyptians, and Near Eastern cultures. Drinking cups, or rhytons, were also crafted out of gold and silver. Some, such as the Silver Siege Rhyton, were used for ritual libations.

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KEY POINTS (cont.)

Schleimanns desire to discover remains that aligned with mythologies and Homeric stories did not seem as unusual as it does today. Upon excavating the tombs, Schleimann declared that he found the remains of Agamemnon and many of his followers. An additional grave circle, Grave Circle B, is also located at

Other objects of gold, silver, and bronze have been excavated from Mycenaean grave sites and cities, including armor, jewelry, signet rings, and seals.

Grave Circle A at Mycenae Grave Circle A is a set of graves from the sixteenth century BCE located at Mycenae. The Grave Circle was originally located outside the walls of the city but was later encompassed inside the walls of the citadel when the citys walls were enlarged during the thirteenth century BCE. The grave circle is surrounded by a second wall and only has one entrance. Inside are six tombs for nineteen bodies that were buried inside shaft graves. The shaft graves were deep, narrow shafts dug into the ground. The body would be placed inside a stone coffin and placed at the bottom of the grave along with grave goods. The graves were often marked by a mound of earth above them and grave stele.

Mycenae, although this one was never incorporated into the citadel site. The two graves circles were elite burial grounds for the ruling dynasty. The graves were filled with precious items made from expensive material, including gold, silver, and bronze. The amount of gold, silver, and previous materials in these tombs not only depict the wealth of the ruling class of the Mycenae but also demonstrates the talent and artistry of Mycenaeans metalworking. Reoccurring themes and motifs underline the cultures propensity for war and the cross-cultural connections that the Mycenaeans established with other Mediterranean cultures through trade, including the Minoans, Egyptians, and even the Orientalizing style of the Ancient Near East Gold Death Masks

The grave site was excavated by Heinrich Schleimann in 1876, who excavated ancient sites such as Mycenae and Troy based on the writings of Homer and was determined to find archaeological remains that aligned with observations discussed in the Illiad and the Odyssey. The archaeological methods of the nineteenth century were fairly different than those of the twenty-first century and Repouss death masks were found in many of the tombs. The death masks were created from thin sheets of gold, through a careful method of metalworking to create a low relief. These objects are fragile, were carefully crafted, and were laid over the face of the dead. The most famous of the death masks is known as the Death

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Figure 5.19 Mask of Agamemnon Mask of Agamemnon. Gold. Ca. 16001500 BCE. Grave Circle A, Grave shaft V, Mycenae, Greece.

Mask of Agamemnon and was declared by Schleimann to be the face of the Homeric king (Figure 5.19). The mask depicts a man with a triangular face, bushy eyebrows, a narrow nose, pursed lips, a mustache, and stylized ears. This mask is an impressive and beautiful specimen, but when compared to other death masks found at the site it looks different (Figure 5.20). The faces on other death masks are rounder and the eyes more bulbous. None of the other figures have a mustache or even the hint of beard. In fact the mustache looks distinctly nineteenth century and is comparable to the mustache that Schleimann himself had. The artistic quality between the Mask of Agamemnon and the others seems dramatically different. Despite these differences, the Mask of

Figure 5.20 Mycenaean Death Mask Mycenaean death mask. Gold. Ca. 16001500 BCE. Grave Circle A, Grave Shaft IV, Mycenae, Greece.

Agamemnon has inserted itself into the story of Mycenaean art. Bronze Daggers Decorative bronze daggers were also found in the grave shafts. These ceremonial daggers were made of bronze and inlaid in silver, gold, and niello with scenes clearly influenced from foreign cultures. Two daggers excavated depict scenes of hunts, which suggest an Ancient Near East influence. One of these scenes depicts lions hunting pray while the other scene depicts a lion hunt (Figure 5.21). The portrayal of the figures in the lion hunt scene draws distinctly from the style of figures found in Minoan painting. These figures have narrow waists, broad shoulders, and large, muscular

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Figure 5.21 Mycenaean Hunting Dagger

of a siege. The scene is only preserved on a portion of the rhyton but a landscape of trees and a fortress wall are clearly recognizable. The figures in the scene appear to be in various positions, some men fight each other, an archer crouches with his bow and arrow, while others throw rocks down from the wall at the invaders. Additional gold trinkets include signet rings, that depict images of

Mycenaean hunting dagger with scene of a lion hunt. Bronze with gold, silver, and niello inlay. Ca. 16th century BCE. Grave Circle A, Mycenae, Greece.

hunts, combat, and animals, along with other decorative jewelry such as bracelets, earrings, pendants, and diadems. Bronze armor,
Figure 5.22 Nestor's Cup Nestor's Cup. Gold. Ca. 16001500 BCE. Grave Circle A, Grave Shaft IV, Mycenae, Greece.

thighs. The scene between the hunters and the lions is dramatic and full of energy, another Minoan influence. Another dagger depicts the influence of Minoan painting and imagery through the depiction of marine life, and Egyptian influences are seen on a dagger filled with lotus and papyrus reeds along with fowl. Gold and Silver Drinking Cups and Other Objects A variety of gold and silver drinking cups have also been found in these grave shafts. These include a rhyton in the shape of a bulls head, with golden horns and a decorative, stylized gold flower, made from silver repouss. Other cups include the golden Cup of Nestor (Figure 5.22), a large two handle cup that Schleimann attributed to the Mycenaean hero Nestor, who fought at Troy. A silver rhyton called the Silver Siege Rhyton was likely used for ritual libations. The Silver Siege Rhyton is unique for it depicts an image

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including breastplates and helmets, have also been uncovered in excavations of the tomb sites.
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Ceramics
The Mycenaeans were talented potters: their ceramics style and decoration reected both their skill and the values of their culture.

KEY POINTS

Mycenaean pottery can be identified by the types of clay and painting the artists used to create and decorate their vessels. Different pottery centers preferred different clay, slips, and motifs. Popular themes include nature, marine life, narratives, and abstract design. The Warriors Vase depicts a static scene of a woman bidding farewell to armed warriors. The vase, from Mycenae, is decorated with minimal color and a uniform design. This vase represents the cultures dependence on warfare. Mycenaean rhytons crafted from terracotta were usually conically shaped with added details and paint to represent different animals, such as a boar or a bull. Small scale Mycenaean figurines made from terracotta are abstract simple figures, often of women, that are simply painted and detailed. The figures have bodies that are either rounded or stand with outstretched arms, their legs represented by cylindrical bases.

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Figure 5.23 Warrior Vase Warrior Vase. Terracotta. Ca. 1200 BCE. Mycenae, Greece.

are so named for the handles that came above the top of the vessel and were used to hold oil and wine. Mycenaean vessels usually had a pale, off-white background and were painted in a single color, either red, brown, or black. Popular motifs include abstract geometric design, animals, marine life, or narrative scenes. The presences of nature scenes, especially of marine life and of bulls, seems to suggest a Minoan influence on the style and motifs painted on the Mycenaean pots. The Warriors Vase

The Mycenaeans created numerous ceramic vessels of various types and decorated in a variety of styles. The vessels were popular outside of Greece, and the decorated and stylized vessels were often exported and traded around the Mediterranean and have been found in Egypt, Italy, Asia Minor, and even Spain. Two of the main production centers were the Mycenaean cities at Athens and Corinth. The products of the two centers were distinguishable by their color and decoration. Corinthian clay was a pale yellow and tended to feature painted scenes based on nature, while the Athenian potters decorated their vessels with a rich red and preferred geometric designs. The most popular types of vessels included kraters, large open mouth jars to mix wine and water, pitches, and stirrup jars, which

The Warriors Vase is a bell krater the depicts a woman bidding farewell to a group of warriors (Figure 5.23). The scene is simple and lacks a background. A single woman stands to the left with her arm raised and a group of identically dressed and heavily armed men marching off to the right. The men all carry round shields and spears and wear helmets. There is no way to tell which woman is waving goodbye, as all the figures are generic and none specifically interacts with her, nor do they interact with each other. The figures are stocky and lack the sinuous lines of the painted Minoan figures. Furthermore, while the men all face right with wide stances and appear to move in that direction, their flat feet and twisted perspective bodies inhibit any potential for movement. Instead the figures remain static and upright. The imagery depicts a simple

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narrative that in the warrior culture of the Mycenaeans must have often been reenacted. Rhytons A rhyton was an elaborate and decorative drinking cup that often took the shape of animals. These drinking cups could be made of precious materials, such as gold or silver, but were also made of terracotta. Several Mycenaean rhyton have been excavated, and
Figure 5.24 Bull headed rhyton. Terracotta. Ca. 1300-1200 BCE. Mycenae, Greece. Bull headed rhyton. Terracotta. Ca. 13001200 BCE. Mycenae, Greece.

Figure 5.25 Phi Figures

Figure 5.26 Psi Figure

Mycenaean Phi Figures. Terracotta. Ca. 13th c. BCE. Mycenae, Greece.

Mycenaean Psi gure. Terracotta. Ca. 1280 BCE. Tiryns, Greece.

include one in the shape of a boars head and another in the shape of a bulls head (Figure 5.24). The bull-headed rhyton may have been influenced by or intended for trade with the Minoans. Both of these rhytons are conically shaped and are painted in a single color with abstract shapes and defining features, such as ears and eyes.

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Figure 5.27 Female head. Female head of a priestess, goddess, or sphinx. Painted plaster. Ca. 1300 1250 BCE. Mycenae, Greece.

letter phi (phi-types) (Figure 5.25), with a rounded upper body shape, and those that look like the Greek letter psi (psi-types) (Figure 5.26), which have outstretched arms. Both figures have heads that are narrow and pinched into a triangle; details such as the eyes, mouth, and nose are painted on. The bases of the figures is cylindrical and their legs seem to have been painted on as a visual afterthought. These figures are painted simply with stripes and zigzags, often on the upper body, and details such as eyes are also added in with paint, while breasts are portrayed with clay protrusions. There are few examples of large scale freestanding sculptures from the Mycenaeans. A painted plaster head of a female (Figure 5.27) perhaps depicting a priestess, goddess, or is one of the few examples of large scale sculptural work. The head is painted white, suggesting that it depicts a female. A red band wraps around her head with bits of hair underneath. The eyes and eyebrows are outlined in blue, the lips are red, and red circles surrounded by small red dots are on her checks and chin.
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Figurines Small terracotta figurines and statuettes are found throughout Mycenaean grave sites and cities. The purpose of these figures is unknown, although they may carry a votive or cult association and some, that were found in childrens tombs, may be toys. The most common style of these figurines depicts female figures and are from the fourteenths and thirteenth centuries BCE. The figures are small and are divided into two categories: those that look like the Greek

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Chapter 6

Ancient Greece

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Section 1

The Greek Civilization

Introduction and History Religion and Sacred Spaces

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Introduction and History

Ancient Greek culture spans over a thousand years, from the earliest civilizations to the cultures that became the Ancient Greeks.
KEY POINTS

KEY POINTS (cont.)

Ancient Greek culture is noted for its government, art, architecture, philosophy, and sport, all of which became foundations for modern western society. It was admired and adopted by others, including Alexander the Great and the Romans, who helped spread Greek culture around the world.

Before Greek culture took root in Greece, early civilizations thrived on the Greek mainland and the Aegean Islands. The two main cultures were the peaceful Minoans and warring Myceanaeans, who are distinguished by their unique architecture and material culture. Greek culture began to develop during the Geometric, Orientalizing, and Archaic periods, which lasted from 900 to 480 BCE. During this time the population of city-states began to grow, panhellenic traditions were established, and art and architecture began to reflect Greek values. The Early, High, and Late Classical periods in Greece occurred from 480 to 323 BCE. During these periods, Greece flourished and the polis of Athens saw its Golden Age under the leadership of Pericles. However, city-state rivalries lead to wars, and Greece was never truly stable until conquered. The Hellenistic period in Greece is the last period before Greek culture becomes a subset of Roman hegemony. This period occurs from the death of Alexander the Great in 323 BCE, to the Greek defeat at the Battle of Actium in 30 BCE. It marks the spread of Greek culture across the Mediterranean.

Ancient Greek Culture Ancient Greek culture covers over a thousand years of history, from the earliest civilizations in the area to the cultures that became the Ancient Greeks. Following a Greek Dark Age, Greece once more flourished and developed into the ancient culture that we recognize today (Figure 6.1). Greek culture is based on a series of shared values that connected independent city-states throughout the region, which expanded as far north as Mount Olympus. Greek society was insular, and
Map of Ancient Greece Figure 6.1 Ancient Greece

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loyalties were focused around ones polis ("city"). Greeks considered themselves civilized and considered outsiders as barbaric. While Greek daily life and loyalty was centered on ones polis, the Greeks did create leagues, which vied for control of the peninsula, and were able to unit together against a common threat (such as the Persians). Greek culture is focused on their government, art, architecture, philosophy, and sport. Athens was intensely proud of its creation of democracy, and citizens from all poleis ("cities") took part in civic duties. Cities commissioned artists and architects to honor their gods and beautify their cities. Greek philosophers, mathematicians, and thinkers are still honored in society today. As a religious people, the Greeks worshipped a number of gods through sacrifice, ritual, and festival. Bronze Age and Proto-Greek Civilizations During the Bronze Age, several distinct cultures developed around the Aegean. The Cycladic civilization, around the Cyclades Islands, thrived from 3,000 to 2,000 BCE. Little is known about the Cycladic civilization because they left no written records. Their material culture is mainly excavated from grave sites, which reveal that the people produced unique, geometric marble figures.

The Minoan civilization stretches from 3700 BCE until 1200 BCE, and thrived during their Neopalatial period (from 1700 to 1400 BCE), with the large-scale building of communal palaces. Numerous archives have been discovered at Minoan sites; however their language, Linear A, has yet to be deciphered. The culture was centered on trade and production, and the Minoans were great seafarers on the Mediterranean Sea. A proto-Greek culture known as the Mycenaeans developed and flourished on the mainland, eventually conquering the Aegean Islands and Crete, where the Minoan civilization was centered. The Mycenaeans developed a fractioned, war-like culture that was centered on the authority of a single ruler. Their culture eventually collapsed, but many of their citadel sites were occupied through the Greek Dark Age and rebuilt into Greek city-states. Archaic Greece Following the Greek Dark Age (1100 to 900 BCE), a new culture emerged on the Greek mainland. The cultures change in language, adaptation of the Phoenician alphabet, and new funerary practices and material culture suggest the ethnic population changed from the mainland's previous inhabitants, the Mycenaeans. During the Geometric period, the new culture was centered on the people and independent poleis, which divided the land into regional populations. In the Orientalizing period, Greece once more made

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contact with the Near East, and international trade began to flourish. Greece's Archaic period lasted from 600 to 480 BCE, in which the Greek culture expanded. The population in Greece began to rise and the Greeks began to colonize along the coasts of the Mediterranean and the Black Sea. The poleis at this time were typically ruled by a single ruler who commanded the city by force; for the city of Athens, this lead to the creation of democracy. Several city-states emerged as major powers, including Athens, Sparta, Corinth, and Thebes. These poleis were often warring with each other, and formed coalitions to gain power and allies. Classical Greece The era of Classical Greece began in 480 BCE with the sacking of Athens by the Persians. The Persian invasion of Greece, first lead by Darius I and then by his son Xerxes, united Greece against a common enemy. With the defeat of the Persian threat, Athens became the most powerful polis until the start of the Peloponnesian War in 431 BCE. These wars continued on and off until 400 BCE. While marred by war, the Classical period saw the height of Greek culture and the creation of some of Greece's most famous art and architecture. However, peace and stability in Greece was not achieved until it was conquered and united by Macedonia under the

leadership of Philip II and Alexander the Great in the mid third century BCE. Hellenistic Greece The Hellenistic period began with the death of Alexander the Great in 323 BCE, and ended with the Roman victory at the Battle of Actium in 30 BCE. Greece poleis spent this time under the hegemony of foreign rulers, first the Macedons and then the Romans, starting in 146 BCE. New centers of Hellenic culture flourished through Greece and on foreign soil, including the cities of Pergamon, Antioch, and Alexandria, the capitals of the postAlexander the Great empires of the Attalids, Seleucids, and Ptolemies.
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Religion and Sacred Spaces

Greek religion played a central and daily role in the life of ancient Greeks, and their worship was centered on the temple and cult sites.

Greek religious traditions encompassed a large pantheon of gods, complex mythologies, rituals, and cult practices. Greece was a polytheistic society, and looked to its gods and mythology to explain natural mysteries as well as current events. Religious festivals and ceremonies were held throughout the year, and animal sacrifice and votive offerings were popular ways to appease and worship the gods. Religious life, rituals, and practices were one of the unifying aspects of Greece across regions and poleis (Figure 6.2). Gods Greek gods were immortal beings who possessed human-like qualities. They were moral and immoral, petty and just, and were often vain. The gods were invoked to intervene and assist in matters large and small, private and public. City-states claimed individual gods and goddess as their patrons. Temples and sanctuaries to the gods were built in every city, and many cities became cult sites due to their connection with a god or goddess and specific myths. For instance, the city of Delphi was known for its oracle and sanctuary of Apollo, since Apollo was believed to have killed a dragon that inhabited that site. The main gods of the Greeks were the twelve Olympian gods and goddesses who resided on Mt. Olympus in northern Greece. These gods were children of the Titans, or giants, who were born from the union of Gaia (Earth) and Uranus (Sky). Zeus, a son of the Titans

KEY POINTS

The pantheon of Greek gods consisted of twelve Olympian gods plus a variety of additional priniciple and minor gods and goddess. The gods had human characteristics and personalities, and their lives were detailed by the mythologies told about them. The gods played a central role in Greek daily life. They were consulted and blamed and honored for a variety of reasons, including natural occurrences (from earthquakes to rain) and public and private affairs of both the polis and its people. Mythologies and cult worship of heroes also played an important role in Greek religion and ritual. Heroes, especially Perseus, Herakles, Theseus, and those involved in the Trojan War, were often depicted in art, and the location of their feats became cult sites. The temple was considered the home of the god and was often an expensive and lavishly decorated building. The temple included a naos, the main room which held the cult statue. Offerings and dedications were left for the gods, and sacrifice took place out of doors.

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Figure 6.2 Principle Religious Sanctuaries of the Greek Aegean

them, from the change in seasons to why the Persians were able to sack Athens. The traditional pantheon of Greek gods includes Zeus, the king of gods and the ruler of the sky; his two brothers, Poseidonwho ruled over the seaand Hadeswho ruled the underworld; Zeuss sister and wife, Hera, the goddess of marriage, frequently jealous and vindictive of Zeuss other lovers; their sisters Hestia, the goddess of the hearth, and Demeter, the goddess of grain and culture; Zeus's children, including Athenagoddess of warfare and wisdom Hermesa messenger godthe twins Apollo and Artemisboth great archersApollogod of music and prophecyArtemis goddess of the hunt and wild animalsDionysosgod of wine Aphroditegoddess of beauty and love, married to Haphaestus and Aresgod of war and lover of Aphrodite. Hephaestus was the god of the forge, and was in some mythologies the son of Zeus while in others the fatherless son of Hera. Heroes Heroes, who were often demigods, were also important characters in Greek mythology. The two most important heroes are Perseus and Herakles. Perseus is known for defeating the Gorgon, Medusa. He slew her with help from the gods; Athena gave him armor and a reflective shield, and Hermes provided Persues with winged sandals so he could fly. Herakles was a strong but unkind man; he was a

Map of the principle religious sanctuaries of the Greek Aegean.

Rhea and Cronos, was hidden from his father (instead of being swallowed), and once he became a man he challenged his fathers rule, forcing Cronos to regurgitate the rest of his swallowed children. These children were Zeuss siblings, and together they overthrew Cronus so that Zeus became the father of gods and men. Violence and power struggles were common in Greek mythology, and the Greeks used their mythologies to explain their lives around

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drunkard who conducted huge misdeeds and social faux pas. In punishment he was sent on twelve labors to atone for his sins. These deeds, and several other stories, were often depicted in art, on ceramic pots, or on temple metopes. The most famous of his deeds include slaying the Nemean Lion and the Hydra, capturing Cerberus (Figure 6.3)the dog of the underworldand obtaining the apples of the Hesperides. A third hero, Theseus, was an Athenian hero known for slaying King Minoss Minotaur. Other major heros in Greek mythology include the warriors and participants of the Trojan WarAchilles, Ajax, Odysseus, Agamemnon, Paris, Hector, and Helen. Hero cult was another popular form of Greek worship that involved the honoring of the dead, specifically the dead heroes of the Trojan War. The sites of hero worship were usually old Bronze Age sites or tombs that the ancient Greeks recognized as important or sacred and then connected these to their own legends and stories. Sacred Spaces Greek worship was centered on the temple. The temple was considered the home of the god, and a cult statue of the god would be erected in the central room, or naos. Temples generally followed the same basic rectangular plan, although a round temple, known as a tholos, began being used at some sites in the Classical period. Temples were oriented east to face the rising sun. Patrons would

Figure 6.3 Herakles and Cerberus Eagle Painter. Herakles bringing Cerberus back to King Eurystheus. Black gure hydra. Ca. 525 BCE.

Figure 6.4 Sacrical Scene Pothos Painter. Scene of a sacrice. Attic redgure bell krater. Ca. 430420 BCE. Athens, Greece.

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leave offerings for the gods, sometimes small votives, sometimes large statues, sometimes libations, or sometimes costly gods, and due to the wealth dedicated to the gods, the temples often became treasuries that held and preserved the wealth of the city. Greek temples would be extensively decorated, and their construction was a long and costly endeavor. Rituals and sacrifice in honor of the god or goddess would take place outside, in front of the temple (Figure 6.4). Rituals often included a large number of people, and sacrifice was a messy business that was best done out of doors. The development and decoration of temples is a primary focus in the study of Greek art and culture.
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Section 2

The Geometric and Orientalizing Periods

The Geometric Period The Orientalizing Period

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The Geometric Period

The Geometric period in Greek art is distinguished by a reliance on geometric shapes to create human and animal gures as well as abstract dcor.

Geometric period that followed, figures once more became present on the vessel. The period lasted from 900 to 700 BCE and marked the end of the Greek Dark Ages. A new Greek culture emerged during this time. The population grew, trade began once more, and the Greeks adopted the Phoenician alphabet for writing. Unlike the Mycenaeans, this culture was more focused on the people of the polis, which is reflected in the art of this period. The period gets its name from the reliance on geometric shapes and patterns and even their use in depicting both human and animal figures. Pottery The city of Athens became the center for pottery production. A potters quarter in the section of the city known as the Kerameikos was located on either side of the Dipylon Gate, one of the citys west gates. The potters lived and work inside the gate in the city, while outside the gate, along the road, was a large cemetery. In the Geometric period, monumental sized kraters and amphoras were used as grave markers for the burials just outside the gate. These monumental vessels could be up to six feet tall and kraters marked male graces, while the amphora marked female graves. The Dipylon Master, an unknown painter whose hand is recognized on many different vessels, displays the great expertise required when decorating these funerary markers. The vessels were first thrown a wheel, an important technological development at the

KEY POINTS

The Geometric period marked the end of Greeces Dark Age and lasted from 900 to 700 BCE. Monumental kraters and amphoras were made and decorated as grave markers. These monumental vessels are characteristic of Geometric vase painting during this period. Every space is filled with patterns and on one or two registers across the body of the pot are depictions of funerary rites. Small scale bronze sculpture is also prominent during this period. Even in sculpture the shape of the figures, either human or animal, can be broken down into geometric shapes.

In the eleventh century BCE, the citadel centers of the Mycenaeans were abandoned and Greece fell into a period with little cultural or social progression. Signs of civilization including literacy, writing, and trade were lost and the population on mainland Greece plummeted. During the Proto-Geometric period, beginning in 1050 BCE, painting on ceramics began to re-emerge. These vessels were only decorated with abstract geometric shapes (Figure 6.5). In the

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Figure 6.5 Protogeometric Amphora.

time, before painting began. Both the Diplyon Krater and Dipylon Amphora demonstrate the main characteristics of painting during this time. For one, the entire vessel is decorated in a style known as horror vacui. On the lip of the krater and on many registers of the amphora, is a decorative meander. This geometric motif is constructed from a single, continuous line in a repeated shape or motif. The main scene is depicted on the widest part of the pots body. These scenes relate to the funerary aspect

Figure 6.6 Geometric Krater

Figure 6.7 Geometric Amphora

Protogeometric amphora., ca. 975950 BCE.

Geometric Krater. From the Dipylon Cemetery, Athens, Greece, ca. 740 BCE.

Geometric Amphora, from the Dipylon Cemetery, Athens, Greece, Ca. 740 BCE.

of the pot and may depict mourners, a prothesis (a ritual of laying the body out and mourning), or even funerary games and processions. On the Dipylon Krater, two registers depict a processional scene, an ekphora, (the transportation of the body to the cemetery) and the prothesis (Figure 6.6). The dead man of the prothesis scene is seen on the upper register. He is laid out on a bier and mourners, distinguished by their hands tearing at their hair, surround the body. Above the body is a shroud, which the artist depicts above and not over the body in order to allow the viewer to

see the entirety of the scene. On the register below, chariots and soldiers form a funerary procession. The soldiers are identified by their uniquely shaped shields. The Dipylon Amphora (Figure 6.7) depicts just a prothesis in a wide a register around the pot. In both vessels, men and women are distinguished by protruding triangles on their chest or waist to represent breasts or a penis. Every empty space in these scenes is filled with geometric shapesMs,

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diamonds, starburstsdemonstrating the Geometric painters horror vacui. Sculpture Small scale sculpture, often made from bronze, is also seen at this time. Like the figures painted on the vases, the shape of these figures derives from geometric shapes. Human figures are made of a
Figure 6.8 Geometric Horse Statuette Geometric horse statuette. Bronze. Olympia, Greece. ca 700 BCE.

triangle as a torso that supports a bulbous head with a triangular chin and nose. Their arms are cylindrical, and only their legs have a slightly more naturalistic shape. Animals, including bulls, deer, horses, and birds, were also based in geometry. A horses body may be described as a rectangle pinched in the middle with rectangular legs and tail and is similar in shape to a deer or a bull (Figure 6.8). The heads of these mammals are more distinctive; the horses neck arches while the bull and deer have cylindrical faces distinguished by horns or ears. While the animals and people are based in basic geometric shapes, the artists clearly observed their subjects in order to highlight distinguishing characters.
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The Orientalizing Period

During the Orientalizing Period, Greek art evolved to feature a blend of Near Eastern and Egyptian stylistic conventions.
KEY POINTS

The Orientalizing Period followed the Geometric period and lasted for about a century, from 700 to 600 BCE. This period was distinguished by international influences, from the Ancient Near East, Egypt, and Asia Minor, each of which contributed a distinctive Eastern style to Greek art. The close contact between cultures developed from increasing trade and even colonization. Motifs, creatures, and styles were borrowed from others cultures by the Greeks transformed into a unique Greek-Eastern mix of style and motifs. Vase Painting During the Orientalizing period, human figures were rarely seen on vases. Animals such as lions, griffins, sphinxes, and sirens were depicted instead. Palmettes and lotus blossoms were used instead of geometric patterns to fill empty space, although on some vessels negative space became more prominent. This oriental black figure style (Figure 6.9) originated in the city of Corinth, spread to Athens, and was exported throughout Greece.
Figure 6.9 Corinthian black gure jug Corinthian black gure jug with animal frieze, ca. 580 BCE.

The Orientalizing Period lasted from 700 to 600 BCE in Greece. During this time, trade with foreign cultures from Asia Minor, Egypt, and the Ancient Near East allowed for new artistic conventions to influence and be incorporated into Greek art. The Corinthians developed the technique of black-figure painting. Corinthian black-figure vases in the Orientalizing period are distinguishable by the inclusion of exotic and mythical animals. This style quickly spread throughout Greece, and artists later developed uniquely Greek images. Sculpture during this time was also influenced by Egyptian and Near Eastern artistic conventions. Rigid, plank-like bodies, as well as the reliance on pattern to depict texture, characterized Greek sculpture in the Orientalizing period. The Daedalic Style, named for the mythical inventor Daedalus, refers the use of patterning and geometric shapes (reminiscent of the Geometric period) during the seventh century BCE.

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The Corinthians developed the technique of black figure painting during this period. Black figure pottery was carefully constructed and fired three different times to produce the unique red and black colors on each vase. The black color came from a slip painted onto the vessel, after which incised lines were drawn on to outline and detail the figures. Additionally, red and white pigments could be added for more color or to differentiate details. Unpainted portions of the vase would remain the original red-orange color of the pot. The full effect of this style of painting would not have been seen until after the vase emerged from its firings in the kiln. As the style spread, the subject matter changed from strictly Near Eastern animals to scenes from Greek mythology and everyday life. Sculpture A small limestone statue of a kore, or maiden, from Crete demonstrates the style of early Greek figural sculptures (Figure 6. 10). This style is known as Daedalic sculpture, named for the mythical creator of King Minoss labyrinth, Daedalus. The style combines Ancient Near Eastern and Egyptian motifs. The Lady of Auxxere is stocky and plank-like. Her waist is narrow and synched, like the waists seen in Minoan art. She is disproportionate, with long rigid legs and a short torso. A dress encompasses nearly her entire bodyit tethers her legs together and restricts her potential for movement. The rigidity of the body
Lady of Auxerra. Limestone, probably from Crete, ca 650625 BCE. Figure 6.10 Lady of Auxerre

Figure 6.11 Modern Reconstruction of the Lade of Auxerre

A modern reconstruction of how the Lady of Auxerre would look when painted.

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recalls pharaonic portraiture. Her head is distinguished with large facial features, a low brow, and stylized hair. The hair appears to be braided, and falls down in rigid rows divided by horizontal bands. This style recalls Near Eastern use of patterns to depict texture and decoration. Her face and hair are reminiscent of the Geometric period. The face forms an inverted triangle wedged between the triangles formed be the hair that frames her face. Traces of paint tell us that this statue would have originally be painted with black hair and a dress of red and blue with a yellow belt (Figure 6.11). Temples The building of stone temples first began during the Oriental period, before temples were made from wood and other perishable materials. These temples derive their structure from Minoan and Mycenaean architectural designs. Minoan shrines, as seen at Knossos, were triparte shrines fronted by three columns, while the plan of the Mycenaean kings chamberor megaronwas appropriated for use by the gods. Oriental Greek stone temples were fronted by three columns and one entrance which lead into a single room chamberor cellawhere the cult statue would be placed. The temple cella was reserved for the cult statue, while cult rituals (often sacrifices) took place outside in front of the temple and usually around an altar.

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Section 3

The Archaic Period

Delphi Temple Architecture Sculpture Painted Ceramics Aegina

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Delphi
Delphi was an important cult site for Apollo and was home to many treasuries that housed the communitys o!erings to the god.
KEY POINTS

Delphi The ancient site of Delphi, located in central Greece on the slope of Mt. Parnassus, was known for its Sanctuary of Apollo, the Delphic Oracle, and the Pythian Games. Delphi was home to the dragon, Python, who protected the navel of the earth. Apollo slew the Python, establishing his presence at the site, and the panhellenic Pythian games held every four years, along with musical compositions, commemorate Apollos victory over the beast. Not only was the site the main place of worship for the god Apollo but it also was the home of an oracle. The oracle was a sibyl or priestess known as a Pythia. According to myth, when Apollo slew the Python, the creatures body fell into a fissure and began decomposing. The oracle would place her tripod seat over the fissure, inhale the fumes, and then would be possessed by Apollo, allowing him to speak through her. The Delphic Oracle was an essential part of Greek life and was consulted for matters public and private, small and large and so had commanding power over the lives of the Greeks. The oracles prophecies were usually unintelligible and would be translated into poetic meter by priests. The site of Delphi is dominated by a central Temple of Apollo, a fourth century BCE replacement of the Archaic sixth century temple. Inside the Temple of Apollo was the seat of the Pythia, in a small restricted room in the back of the naos, known as an adyton.

Delphi was an essential city and sanctuary site for the Greeks. Not only was the city the main cult site for Apollo but it also was home to the Delphic Oracle and a panhellenic games, known as the Python Games which honored Apollos slaying of the Python. The site is known for its numerous treasuries. These treasuries were built by various poleis to house their citystates offerings and votives to Apollo. The treasuries were small, single room structures that were decorated to commemorate the deeds of the city. The Siphian Treasury was built in an Ionic style in 530 BCE with caryatids instead of columns. The continuous frieze and pediments are high reliefs carved in the Archaic style. These figures on the pediment appear more stiff and rigid than the figures on the frieze, who are engaged in battle. The Athenian Treasury was built between 510 and 490 BCE to honors Athenian military power against the Persians. The structure is Doric and while only fragments of the metopes survive, these fragments display emerging naturalism found in Archaic sculpture.

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There was also a large theatre built into the hillside located just above the Temple of Apollo. The theatre was first built in the fourth century BCE and renovated multiple times in the following centuries. It could seat 5,000 spectators and offered a view of the entire sanctuary site and the valley. Treasuries The road leading up to the sanctuary site of Apollo was lined with votive statues and treasuries. The treasuries were built by different poleis to honor the oracle, thank her for her advice, and commemorate military victories. These small, temple-like structures held the votives and offerings made to Apollo as well as a small proportion of the spoils won from battle from each polis. Because the buildings held a wealth of materials and goods, they are known as treasuries. These buildings were single room naos fronted by two columns in antis and decorated in either the Doric or Ionic style. Siphnian Treasury The Siphnian Treasury was built for the polis of Siphnos, a city-state that occupied a Cycladic island. The Siphnians had large gold and silver mines, which they profited from enormously, and they used the profits to erect their treasury at Delphi in honor the god Apollo. The treasury housed their gold and silver gifts to the gods. The

Figure 6.12 Gigantomachy A gigantomachy scene from the north frieze of the Siphnian Treasury. Marble. Ca. 530 BCE. Siphnian Treasury, Delphi, Greece.

Siphian Treasury was the first structure built entirely from marble when it was erected in 530 BCE and was elaborately decorated. The two columns in antis were not typical columns but caryatids, supportive columns that took the shape of a woman. A continuous Ionic frieze that wrapped around the top of the treasury beneath the pediment depicted scenes from Greek mythology, including a gigantomachy on the north side (Figure 6.12), the Judgment of Paris on the west side, and gods watching the sack of Troy by the Greeks on the south and east side. The east pediment recounts the story of Herakles stealing Apollos tripod (Figure 6.13), which visually connects the pediment and the treasury to the oracle site at the Temple of Apollo.

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Figure 6.13 Herakles and Apollo Herakles stealing the tripod of Apollo. From the east pediment of the Siphnian Treasury. Marble. Ca. 530 BCE. Siphnian Treasury, Delphi, Greece.

Athenian Treasury The Athenian treasury at Delphi was built between 510 and 480 BCE to commemorate the Athenian victory over the Persians during the Battle of Marathon (Figure 6.14). Like the Siphnian Treasury, the Athenian Treasury was constructed entirely of marble. The treasury is constructed in the Doric style; it has Doric columns and
Figure 6.14 Treasury of Athens Treasury of Athens. Marble. Ca. 510 490 BCE. Delphi, Greece.

The figures are carved in an Archaic style and in high relief, and they are almost, but not entirely, freed from the wall of the frieze. While the figures appear to be in motion, with wide stances and arms open wide for battle, a majority of them stand with both feet flat on ground. This inhibits the sense of motion given by the rest of their bodies. The pedimental figures are especially rigid and linear, although the figures are no longer scaled to fit into the small corners of the pediment. When looking at these figures, from the front they appear to appropriately model the body, while from the side the figures appear block-like, emphasizing the fact that theyve been carved from stone.

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Figure 6.15 Herakles and Ceryean Hind Metope depicting Herakles and Ceryean Hind. Marble. Ca. 510 480 BCE. Treasury of Athens, Delphi, Greece

the figures, unlike those on the Siphnian pediment, appeared modeled from all sides and not just frontally.
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a frieze of triglyphs and thirty metopes that depict scenes from the life of Theseus, an Athenian mythological hero, and Herakles. The metopes on the Athenian Treasury also display the development of Archaic relief and temple decoration. The figures do not feel forced into their frame but instead begin to fill out the scene. Most of the scenes consist of only two characters and few scenes, such as Herakles fighting an enormous deer (Figure 6.15), and display a new sense of ingenuity. The figure of Herakles breaks out of the frame as he leans on the deer's back, trying to catch it. Furthermore,

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Temple Architecture
Temples in the Archaic period were the rst stone temples built in Greece, and demonstrate a developing knowledge of stone building.
KEY POINTS

Temples of the Archaic Period Stone temples were first built during the Archaic period in ancient Greece. Before this, they were constructed out of mud-brick and wood--simple structures that were rectangular or semi-circular in shape--which may have been enhanced with a few columns and a porch. The Archaic stone temples took their essential shape and structure from both these previous wooden temples and the shape of a Mycenaean megaron. Temple Design The standard form of a Greek temple was established and then refined through the Archaic and Classical periods (Figure 6.16). The temples were rectilinear in shape and stood on a raised stone platform, known as the stylobate, which usually had two or three stairs. Columns were placed on the edge of the stylobate in a line or
Various examples of Greek temples. Figure 6.16 Temple Plans

The design of Greek stone temples was influenced by Mycenaean megarons (a porch with columns in antis and a central room) and their earlier wooden temples. Many decorative elements, such as the triglyphs, replicated the visual design of wooden temples in stone. During the Archaic period, Greeks began developing the ideal temple design. It included a central naos surrounded on two ends by an opisthodomos and a pronaos, but accessed only through the pronaos. These rooms were surrounded by a peripteral colonnade on a raised platform with twp or three steps. The Doric order was the oldest Greek classification of architecture. It is identified by its columns and its frieze. The columns had no base, a bulge in the middle of their shaft, and squashed, flared capitals. The frieze was divided by triglyphs and metopes. The Temple of Hera I and the Temple of Hera II at Paestum, Italy demonstrated the development of the Doric style from its earliest stage through various refinements as the Greeks became more comfortable with building in stone.

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colonnade, which was peripteral and ran around the naos and its porches, completely surrounding the temple. The main portion of the temple was the naos, the cella or main chamber which held the cult statue. To the front of the naos was the pronaos, or front porch. A door between the naos and pronaos provided access to the cult statue. Columns, known as prostyle, often stood in front of the pronaos. These were often aligned with molded projections to the end of the pronaos' wall, called the anta (plural antae). Such aligned columns were referred to as columns in antis. A back porch, called the opisthodomos, was on the other side of the temple and naos. A wall separated the naos and opisthodomos completely. The opisthodomos was used as a treasury and held the votives and offerings left at the temple for the god or goddess. It also had a set of prostyle columns in antis that completed the symmetrical appearance of the temple. While this describes the standard design of Greek temples, it is not the most common form found. The first stone temples varied significantly as architects and engineers were forced to determine how to properly support a roof with such a wide span. Later architects, such as Iktinos and Kallikrates, who designed the Parthenon, tweaked aspects of basic temple structure to better accommodate the cult statue. All temples, though, were built on a

mathematical scale and every aspect of them is related to one another through ratios. For instance, most Greek temples (except the earliest) followed the equation 2x + 1 = y when determining the number of columns used in the peripteral colonnade. In this equation, x stands for the number of columns across the front, the shorter end, while y designates the columns down the sides. The number of columns used along the length of the temple was twice the number plus one the number of columns across the front. Due to these mathematical ratios, we are able to accurately reconstruct temples from small fragments. Doric Order The style of Greek temples is divided into three different, distinct orders (Figure 6. 17). The earliest is the Doric order. These temples had columns which rested directly on the stylobate without a base. Their shafts were fluted with twenty parallel grooves that tapered to a sharp point. The capitals of Doric columns had a
Figure 6.17 Doric and Ionic Order Demonstrating the stylistic di!erences between the Doric and Ionic Order.

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simple, unadorned square abacus and a flared echinus that was often short and squashed. Doric columns are also noted for the presence of entasis or bulge in the middle of the column shaft. This was perhaps a way to correct optical illusion or to emphasize the weight of the entablature above, held up by the columns. The Doric entablature was also unique to this style of temples. The frieze was decorated with alternating panels of triglyphs and metopes. The triglyphs were decorative panels with three groves or glyphs that gave the panel its name. The stone triglyphs mimicked the head of wooden beams used in earlier temples. Between the triglyphs were the metopes. These rectangular or square-shaped spaces were left plain or carved in relief, providing repetitive episodic narratives, often of gods, battles, and heroes. Paestum, Italy The Greek colony at Poseidonia (now Paestum) in Italy, built two Archaic Doric temples that are still standing today (Figure 6.18). The first, the Temple of Hera I, was built in 550 BCE and differs from the standard Greek temple model dramatically. It is peripteral, with nine columns across its short ends and 18 columns along each side. The opisthodomos is accessed through the naos by two doors. There are three columns in antis across the pronaos. Inside the naos is a row of central columns, built to support the roof. The cult statue

Figure 6.18 Temple of Hera II and Temple of Hera I View of the temples, Paestum, Italy. ca. 460 and 550 BCE.

was placed at the back, in the center, and would be blocked from view by the row of columns. When examining the columns, they are large and heavy, and spaced very close together. This further denotes the Greeks unease with building in stone and the need to properly support a stone entablature and heavy roof. The capitals of the columns are round, flat, and pancake-like. The Temple of Hera II, built almost a century later in 460 BCE, began to show the structural changes that demonstrated the Greeks comfort and developing understanding of building in stone, as well as the beginnings of a Classical temple style. In this example, the temple was fronted by six columns, with 14 columns along its length. The opisthodomos was separated from the naos and had its own entrance and set of columns in antis. A central flight of stairs led from the pronaos to the naos and the doors opened to look upon a central cult statue. There were still interior columns, however,

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they were moved to the side, permitting prominent display of the cult statue.
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Sculpture
Sculpture during the Archaic period became increasing naturalistic, although this varied depending on the gender of the subject.

KEY POINTS

Dedicatory male kouroi figures were originally based on Egyptian statues and over the Archaic period these figures developed more naturalistic nude bodies. The athletic body was an ideal form for a young Greek male and is comparable to the ideal body of the god Apollo. Instead of focusing on the body, female korai statues were clothed and throughout the Archaic period artists spent more time elaborating on the detailed folds and drapery of a womans clothing. This reflected the Greek ideals for women, who were suppose to be fully clothed, modest and demure. To add an additional naturalistic element to the body, the typical Archaic smile was added to both male and female statues. While today the smile seems false, to the ancient Greeks it added a level of realism. Pedimental sculpture in the Archaic period was often scaled to fit into the space of the pediment and served an apotropaic instead of a decorative function.

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Figure 6.19 Kouros.

Figure 6.20 Kroisos

narrow-necked jars used for wine and oils) and kraters (widemouthed vessels) of the previous periods, yet still typically painted in vivid colors. Kouroi Kouroi statues (singular, kouros), depicting idealized, nude male youths, were first seen during this period. Carved in the round, often from marble, kouroi are thought to be associated with Apollo; many were found at his shrines and some even depict him. Emulating the statues of Egyptian pharaohs, the figure strides forward on flat feet, arms held stiffly at its side with fists clenched. However, there are some importance differences: kouroi are nude, mostly without identifying attributes and are free-standing.

New York Kouros. Marble. Origin unknown. ca. 600 BCE.

Kroisos, from the Anavysos Group. Marble. Greece. ca. 530 BCE.

Early kouroi figures share similarities with Geometric and Orientalizing sculpture, despite their larger scale. For instance, their hair is stylized and patterned, either held back with a headband or under a cap. The New York Kouros (Figure 6.19) strikes a rigid stance and his facial features are blank and expressionless. The body is slightly molded and the musculature is reliant on incised lines. As kouroi figures developed, they began to lose their Egyptian rigidity and became increasingly naturalistic. The kouros figure of Kroisos (Figure 6.20), an Athenian youth killed in battle, still

Sculpture in the Archaic Period This developed rapidly from its early influences, becoming more natural and showing a developing understanding of the body, specifically the musculature and the skin. Close examination of the styles development allows for precise dating. Most statues were commissioned as memorials and votive offerings or as grave markers, replacing the vast amphora (two-handled,

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Figure 6.21 Peplos Kore Reconstruction of the paint on the Peplos Kore.

Archaic Smile Kroisos face also appears more naturalistic when compared to the earlier New York Kouros. His cheeks are round and his chin bulbous; however, his smile seems out of place. This is typical of this period and is known as the Archaic smile. It appears to have been added to infuse the sculpture with a sense of being alive and to add a sense of realism. Kore A kore (plural korai) sculpture depicts a female youth. Whereas kouroi depict athletic, nude young men, the female korai are fullyclothed, in the idealized image of decorous women. However, they too have archaic smiles, with arms either at their sides or with an arm extended, holding an offering. The figures are stiff and retain more block-like characteristics than their male counterparts. Their hair is also stylized, depicted in long strands or braids that cascade down the back or over the shoulder. The Peplos Kore (Figure 6.21) depicts a young woman wearing a peplos, a heavy wool garment that drapes over the whole body, obscuring most of it. A slight indentation between the legs, a division between her torso and legs and the protrusion of her breasts merely hint at the form of the body underneath. Remnants of paint on her dress tell us that it was painted yellow with details in

depicts a young man with an idealized body. This time though, the bodys form shows realistic modelling. The muscles of the legs, abdomen, chest and arms appear to actually exist and seem to function and work together. Kroisos hair, while still stylized, falls naturally over his neck and onto his back, unlike that of the New York Kouros, which falls down stiffly and in a single sheet.

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Figure 6.22 Pediment of the Temple of Artemis at Corfu Sculpture and reconstruction of the west pediment. Limestone. Corfu, Greece. ca. 600 580 BCE.

and additional adornments such as jewelry, the figure depicts the idealized Greek female, fully clothed and demure. Pedimental Sculpture This sculpture, initially designed to fit into the space of the pediment, underwent dramatic changes during the Archaic period, as will be seen at Aegina. The west pediment at the Temple of Artemis on Corfu (Figure 6.22). depicts not Artemis, but Medusa with her children Pegasus, a winged horse, and Chrysaor, a
Figure 6.23 Kore Wearing a chiton and hamation. Marble. Athens, Greece. ca. 520 510 BCE.

blue and red that may have included images of animals. The presence of animals on her dress may indicate that she is the image of a goddess, perhaps Artemis, but she may also just be a nameless maiden. Later korai figures also show stylistic development, although the bodies are still overshadowed by their clothing. The example of a 520510 BCE Kore (Figure 6.23), shows a bit more shape in the body such as defined hips instead of a dramatic belted waistline, although the primary focus of the kore is on the clothing and the drapery. This kore figure wears a chiton, a himation (a lightweight undergarment) and a mantle. Her facial features are still generic and blank and she has an Archaic smile. Even with the finer clothes

giant welding a golden sword surrounded by heraldic lions. Medusa faces outwards in a challenging position, believed to be apotropaic. Additional scenes include Zeus fighting a Titan, and the slaying of Priam, the king of Troy, by Neoptolemos. These figures are scaled

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down in order to fit into the shrinking space provided in the pediment.
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Painted Ceramics
Archaic black and red gure painting began to depict more naturalistic bodies by conveying form and movement.

KEY POINTS

Black figure painting was used throughout the Archaic period before diminishing under the popularity of red figure painting. Exekias is considered one of the most talented and influential black figure painters due to his ability to convey emotion, use intricate lines, and create scenes that trusted the viewer to comprehend the scene. Red figure painting was developed in 530 BCE by the Andokides Painter, with the style allowing for more naturalism in the body due to the use of a brush. The first red figure paintings were produced on bilingual vases, depicting one scene on each side, one in black figure and the other in red figure. The painters Euthyides and Euphronios were two of the most talented Archaic red figure painters, with their vessels depicting space, movement, and naturalism.

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Black Figure Painting Black figure painting, developed by the Corinthians in the seventh century BCE, became popular throughout the Greek world. As painters became more confident working in the medium, human figures began to appear on vases and painters and potters began signing their creations. Franois Vase One of the most famous early Athenian black figure pots is a large volute krater by the potter Ergotimos and the painter Kleitias, known as the Franois Vase (Figure 6.24). The krater depicts 270 figures on the six registers that wrap around the pot. The pot depicts various mythological scenes with many figures labeled by name. On one side of the kraters neck are scenes from the Calydonian Boar hunt, while the other side depicts Theseus with Athenian youth and Ariadne. Other registers depict scenes of the Trojan War; and Peleus and his son, Achilles. The detail and skill demonstrate new styles of Archaic
Kleitias and Ergotimos. Franois Vase. Athenian black gure volute krater. (Ca. 570 BCE. Chiusi, Italy.) Figure 6.24 Franois Vase

vase painting, shifting away from past centuries animal motifs and geometric patterns. Instead of filling negative space with patterns and geometric designs, Kleitias leaves areas empty. The people and horses are depicted differently than Oriental and Geometric prototypes. Bodies are more accurately rendered and less dependent on geometric shapes, although sharp lines provide texture for musculature and clothing. While many still stand flatfooted, the limbs of people, horses, and centaurs show movement and are dramatic compositions within the confines of the style. Exekias Exekias, considered the most prominent black figure painter of his time, worked between 550 and 525 BCE in Athens. His vessels display attention to detail and precise, intricate lines. Exekias is also well-known for reinterpreting mythologies. Instead of providing the
Figure 6.25 Achilles and Ajax Exekias. Exhilles and Ajax Playing a Dice Game. Athenian Blackgure amphora. (Ca. 540530 BCE. Vulci, Italy.)

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entire story, like on the Franois Vase, he paints single scenes and relies on the viewer to interpret and understand the narrative. One example is an amphora that depicts Greek warriors Achilles and Ajax playing dice (Figure 6.25). The two men are waiting for the next battle with the Trojans and the dice game foreshadows the fate of the two men. Inscribed text allows the two figures to speak: Achilles has rolled a four, while Ajax rolled a three. Both men will die during the the Trojan War, but Achilles dies a hero while Ajax is consistently considered second best, eventually committing suicide. Red Figure Painting Red figure painting developed in Athens in 530 BCE and remained popular into the Classical period. The technique is similar to black figure painting but with key differences. Instead of painting a figure with black slip and using a burin to scrape away the slip to create details, red figure painting has the background painted black and the figures left the red color of the terracotta. Black slip was painted with a brush to add detail. Brushes could achieve more fluid lines than a burin, so details were better rendered and figures became livelier than the black figure silhouettes. The black slip could also be diluted with water to create shades for modeling bodies or clothing. Overall, the technique allowed vase painters to create compositions that rendered the body more naturally. Bilingual Painting

Figure 6.26 Herakles and Athena Herakles and Athena. Black gure side of a bilingual amphora. (Ca. 520 10 BCE. Vulci, Italy.)

Figure 6.27 Herakles and Athena Herakles and Athena. Red gure side of a bilingual amphora. (Ca. 520 510 BCE. Vulci, Italy.)

Bilingual vase painting became popular with the advent of red figure painting. Bilingual vases were painted with a single scene on each side of the vessel, usually the same scene rendered twice. One side depicted the scene in black figure (Figure 6.26) and the other

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side depicted the scene in red figure (Figure 6.27). The Andokides Painter is credited as the inventor of red figure style and its early production on bilingual vases. The Andokides Painter may have been a student of Exekias and several of his bilingual amphorae mimic some of Exekias most famous subjects, such as Achilles and Ajax playing dice. Additional Red Figure Painters Additional red figure painting can be seen in the work of rivals Euthymides and Euphronios. Euthymides is known as a pioneer of red figure painting. His vessels depict people in movement and he attempted perspective by showing figures with foreshortened limbs. The Revelers Vase is an amphora that depicts three drunk men dancing. While the figures do not overlap, the bodies are in shown in profile, three-quarter view, and from behind. Two of the figures stand precariously on one leg, the postures differing from the rigid frontal and profile perspective seen in black figure painting. The painter Euphronios is also recognized for his dramatic and complex compositions. Diluted clay slip created a range of shades to color his figures, making them appear energetic and present in three-dimensional space. A scene of Herakles and Antaios wrestling (Figure 6.28) conveys the bodies of both men with previouslyunseen naturalism. The mens bodies bend and twist and their

limbs overlap, disappearing and reappearing, which helps achieve both naturalism as well as a sense of space.
Figure 6.28 Herakles and Antaios Euphronios. Herakles Wrestling Antaios. Athenian Red-gure calyx krater. (Ca. 510 BCE. Cervetri, Italy.)

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Aegina
The Temple of Aphaia on Aegina is an example of the stylistic changes between Archaic and Classical sculpture.
KEY POINTS

Figure 6.29 Temple of Aphaia This image shows the Temple of Aphaia as it stands today. (Marble; Aegina, Greece; ca. 500490 BCE)

The island of Aegina was located in the Saronic Gulf and was a rival of nearby Athens. It was the home of the fathers of two Greek heroes of the Trojan War. The Temple of Aphaia is an example of the Greeks' development of temple architecture just prior to their adoption of a standard design. The west and east pediments of the temple were sculpted 10 years apartone during the Archaic period and the other at the beginning of the Classical period. A comparison between the two is an excellent study of the progress of the Greeks as sculptors of the human form. The west pediment, carved in 490 BCE, demonstrates Archaic characteristics such as knowledge of the bodys musculature and the Archaic smile. The muscles are not sculpted to show reaction to the warriors environment; the tense body and odd smile contradict the situation of the warriors death. The temple of Aphaia (Figure 6.29) on the island of Aegina is an example of Archaic Greek temple design as well as of the shift in sculptural style between the Archaic and Classical periods. Aegina is a small island in the Saronic Gulf within view of Athens; in fact, Aegina and Athens were rivals. While the temple was dedicated to the local god Aphaia, the temples pediments depicted scenes of the Trojan War to promote the greatness of the island. These scenes involve Greek heroes who fought at TroyTelamon and Peleus, the fathers of Ajax and Achilles. In an antagonistic move, the battle scenes on the pediments are overseen by Athena, and the temples dedicated deity, Aphaia, does not appear on the pediment at all. While very little paint remains now, the entire pediment scene, triglyphs and metopes, and other parts of the temple would have been painted in bright colors.

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Temple Design The Temple of Aphaia is one of the last temples with a design that did not conform to standards of the time (Figure 6.30). Its colonnade has six columns across its width and twelve columns down its length. The columns have become more widely spaced and also more slender. Both the pronaos and opisthodomos have two prostyle columns in antis and exterior access, although both lead into the temples naos. Despite the connection between the opisthodomos
Ground plan of the Temple of Aphaia and the surrounding area Figure 6.30 Plan of the Temple of Aphaia

Figure 6.31 Dying Warrior on the West Pediment

A dying warrior on the west pediment of the Temple of Aphaia. (Marble; Aegina, Greece; ca. 490 BCE)

The Pediments In the case of both pediments, all figures are full-sized and carved completely in the round rather than in relief. The two battle scenes also add movement and excitement to the scene, elements not seen in earlier pedimental sculpture, which were often static and heraldic. The figures are not scaled to fit inside the shrinking space of the pediments corners; instead, figures are properly scaled and placed in positions that allow them to fit. On both pediments, dying warriors are depicted in the corners. However, the warriors on the two pediments, carved about a decade apart, clearly depict the stylistic differences between the Archaic and Classical periods. Let's compare two examples of these dying warriors. West Pediment

and the naos, the doorway between them is much smaller than the doorway between the naos and the pronaos. As in the Temple of Hera II, there are two rows of columns on either side of the temples interior. In this case there are five on each side, and each colonnade has two stories. A small ramp interrupts the sterobate at the center of the temples main entrance.

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The dying warrior on the west pediment was created in 490 BCE and is a prime example of Archaic sculpture (Figure 6.31). The male warrior is depicted nude, with a muscular body that shows the Greeks understanding of the musculature of the human body. His hair is stylized with round, geometric curls and textured patterns. But despite the naturalistic characteristics of the body, the body does not seem to react to its environment or circumstances. The warrior props himself up with an arm, and his whole body is tense, despite the fact that he has been struck by an arrow in his chest. His face, with its archaic smile, and his posture together bely all evidence that he is about to die. East Pediment The dying warrior on the east pediment, sculpted just ten years later, in 480 BCE, is clearly carved in the new Classical style (Figure 6.32). This warrior is actually reacting to his circumstances; nearly every part of him appears to be dying. Instead of propping himself up on an arm, he hangs from his shield and attempts to support himself with his other arm. He also attempts to hold himself up with his legs, but one leg has fallen over the pediments edge and protrudes into space. His muscles are contracted and limp, depending on which ones they are, and they seem to strain under the weight of the man as he dies. However, his mouth still has traces of the archaic smile.

Figure 6.32 Dying Warrior on the East Pediment A dying warrior on the east pediment of the Temple of Aphaia. (Marble; Aegina, Greece; ca. 480 BCE)

When we compare these two figures, the differences between the Archaic and Classical styles are evident. Despite the sculpture in the Archaic period becoming increasingly more naturalistic, the body was still stylized and idealized to create a perfect form, and the face was given a masking smile to give the statue a bit more life. While Classical sculpture is still stylized and idealistic, there is much more naturalism used, and the figures begin to react to their surroundings.
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Section 4

Early Classical Period

Marble Sculpture and Architecture Bronze Sculpture Ceramic Art

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Marble Sculpture and Architecture

Early Classical Greek marble sculpture and temple decoration display new conventions to depict the body and severe style facial expressions.
KEY POINTS

KEY POINTS (cont.)

Polykleitos, an artist and art theorist, developed a canon for the creation of the perfect male body based on mathematical proportions. His Doryphoros is believed to be a sculptural representation of his treatise. The figure stands in contrapposto, with Severe style face.

Temple of Zeus at Olympia The sculpture found on the pediment and metopes at the Temple of Zeus at Olympia represent the style of relief and pedimental sculptural during the Early Classical period. The Severe style is an Early Classical style of sculpting where the body is depicted naturalistically and the face remains blank and expressionless. This style notes the artists understanding of the bodys musculature, while maintaining a screen between art and reality with the stoic face. Contrapposto is a weight shift depicted in the body that rotates the waist, hips, chest, shoulders, and sometimes even the neck and head of the figure. It increases that naturalism in the body since it correctly mimics the inner workings of human musculature. Kritios Boy is an early example of contrapposto and Severe style in use. This marble statue depicts a nude male youth, muscular and well built, with an air of naturalism that dissolves when examining his Severe style face. The Temple of Zeus at Olympia demonstrates the change in architectural design and decorations occurring in the Early Classical period. Its plan is similar to that of the Temple of Aphaia on Aegina. It is hexastyle, with six columns across the front and back and 13 down each side. It has two columns directly connected to the walls of the temple, known as in antis, in front of both the entranceway (pronaos) and the inner shrine (opisthodomos). Like the Temple of Aphaia, there are two, two story colonnades of seven columns on each side of the inner sanctuary (naos). The pedimental figures are depicted in the developing Classical style with naturalistic, although overly-muscular bodies. Most of the figures are shown with the stoic, expressionless faces of the Severe style. The figures on the east pediment, await the start of a chariot race and the whole composition is still and static. One figure though, a seer (Figure 6.33), watches it in horror as he foresees the

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Figure 6.33 Seer from the east pediment Temple of Zeus. Marble. Ca. 470-455 BCE. Olympia, Greece.

display the Early Classical understanding of the body. Herakles' body is strong and idealized, yet it has a level of naturalism and plasticity that increases the reliefs liveliness. The scenes depict varying types of compositions; some are static with two or three figures standing rigidly while others, such as Herakles with the Cretian Bull, convey a sense of liveliness through their diagonal composition and overlapping bodies. Kritios Boy A just smaller-than-life statue known as the Kritios Boy (Figure 6.34) was dedicated to Athena by an athlete and found in the Perserchutt of the Athenian Acropolis. The marble statue is a prime

Figure 6.34 Kritios Boy

death of Oenomaus. This level of emotion would never be present in Archaic statues and it breaks the Early Classical Severe style, allowing the viewer to sense the forbidding events about to happen. Unlike the static composition of the eastern pediment, the Centauromachy on the western one depicts movement that radiates out from its center. The centaurs, fighting men, and abducted women struggle and fight against each other, creating tension and another example of an early portrayal of emotion. Most figures are depicted in Severe style but a few, including a centaur, have facial features that reflect their wrath and anger. The twelve metopes over the pronaos and opisthodomos of the Doric temple depict scenes from the twelve labors of Herakles. Like the development in pedimental sculpture, the reliefs on the metopes

Marble. Ca. 480 BCE. Perserchutt, Acropolis, Athens, Greece.

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example of the Early Classical sculptural style and demonstrates the shift away from the style seen in Archaic kouroi. The torso depicts an understanding of the body and plasticity of the muscles and skin that allows the statue to come to life. Part of this illusion is created by a stance known as contrapposto. This describes a person with their weight shifted onto one leg, which creates a shift in the hips, chest, and shoulders to create a stance that is more dramatic and naturalistic than a stiff, frontal pose. This contrapposto position animates the figure through the relationship of tense and relaxed limbs. However, the face of the Kritios Boy is expressionless which contradicts the naturalism seen in his body. This is known as Severe style. The stoic and blank expressions allow the sculpture to appear less naturalistic, which creates a screen between the art and the viewer. This differs from the use of the Archaic smile (now gone), which was added to sculpture to increase their naturalism. Polykleitos Polykleitos was a well-known Greek sculptor and art theorist during the early fifth century BCE. He is most renowned for his treatise on the male nude, known as the Canon, which describes the ideal, aesthetic body based on mathematical proportions and Classical conventions such as contrapposto. His Doryphoros, or Spearbearer, is believed to be his representation of the Canon in sculpted form (Figure 6.38). The statue depicts a young, well-built, athlete

holding a spear (now lost). The figure has a Severe style face and a contrapposto stance. In another development away from Archaic styles, the Doryphoros left heel is raised off the ground; the figure is able to walk. This sculpture demonstrates how the use of contrapposto creates an x-shaped composition. The juxtaposition of a tension leg and tense arm and relaxed leg and relaxed arm, both across the body from each other, creates an X through the body. The dynamic power of this composition shape places

Figure 6.35 Doryphoros

Polykleitos. Roman marble copy of a Greek bronze original ca. 450 BCE.

elements, in this case, the figures limb, in opposition to each other and emphasizes the tension this creates. The statue, as a visualization of Polykletios canon, also depicts the Greek sense of

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symmetria, the harmony of parts, seen here in the body's proportions.

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Bronze Sculpture
Surviving Greek bronze sculptures of the Early Classical period showcase the skill of Greek artists in representing the body and expressing motion.
KEY POINTS

While bronze was a popular material for Greek sculptors, few Greek bronzes exist today. A majority of famous sculptors and sculptures we know only through marble Roman copies and the few bronzes that survived, often due to shipwreck. Early Classical bronzes are sculpted in similar fashion to Early Classical marble sculpture. The figures are created in the Severe style with naturalistic bodies and blank, expressionless faces. The sculptures appear light and often have the potential for energy and movement. The Charioteer of Delphi, the Riace Warriors, and the Artemision Bronze all display the sculpting characteristics of the Early Classical Severe style while also demonstrating the characteristics of bronze sculpting including the lightness of the material and liveliness that could be achieved.

Greek Bronze Sculpture Bronze was a popular sculpting material for the Greeks. Composed of a metal alloy of copper and tin, it provided a strong and brittle material for use in the ancient world, especially in the creation of

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weapons and art. The Greeks used bronze throughout their history, and in the Geometric period often used molds to create small scale bronze statues. Unfortunately, bronze is a valuable material, and throughout history bronze sculptures were melted down to forge weapons and ammunition or to create new sculptures. The Greek bronzes that we have today mainly survived because of shipwrecks, which kept the material from being reused, and the sculptures have since been recovered from the sea and restored. The Greeks used bronze as a primary means of sculpting, but much of our knowledge of Greek sculpture comes from Roman copies. The Romans were very fond of Greek art, and collecting marble replicas of famous Greek statues was a sign of status, wealth, and intelligence in the Roman world. Roman copies worked in marble had a few differences from the original bronze. Struts, or supports, were added to help support the weight of the marble as well as hanging limbs that did not need support when the statue was originally made in the lighter bronze. The struts appeared either as rectangular blocks that connect an arm to the torso or as tree stumps against the leg, which supports the weight of the sculpture. Lost Wax Technique The lost wax technique, which is also known by its French name, cire perdue, is the process that ancient Greeks used to create their bronze statues. The first step of the process would involve creating a

Figure 6.36 Charioteer of Delphi Charioteer of Delphi. Bronze. Ca. 475 BCE. Sanctuary of Apollo, Delphi, Greece.

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full scale clay model of the intended work of art. This would be the core of the model. Once completed, a mold would be made of the clay core and an additional wax mold would also be created. The wax mold would then be placed between the clay core and the clay mold, creating a pocket, and the wax would be melted out of the mold, after which the gap would be filled with bronze. Once cooled, the exterior clay mold and interior clay core would be carefully removed and the bronze statue would be finished; multiple pieces would be wielded together, imperfections smoothed, and any additional elements, such as inlaid eyes and eyelashes, would be added. Charioteer of Delphi The Charioteer of Delphi (Figure 6.36) is an Early Classical bronze sculpture of a life-sized chariot driver. An inscription at the base tells us that the statues were originally dedicated by a man named Polyzalus of Gela, to Apollo at the Sanctuary of Apollo at Delphi. Polyzalus commissioned and dedicated the work in commemoration of his victorious chariot race during the Pythian Games. The Charioteer is the only remaining part of a large statue group that included the chariot, grooms, and horses. While the commissioner was a tyrant of the Greek colonial city of Gela on Sicily, the statue is believed to have been made in Athens. It was made by the lost wax technique, in multiple sections and then

Figure 6.37 Riace Warriors. Riace Warriors. Bronze. Ca. 460-450 BCE. Riace, Italy.

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assembled. The Charioteer stands tall, his right arm stretched out to grasp reins. His left arm is missing. The Charioteer has a high waist, which probably looked more natural when he stood on his chariot. However, despite the high waist, the figure has a high degree of naturalism, on par with the marble sculptural developments of the Early Classical style. The arms, face, and feet are rendered with high plasticity, and the inlaid eyes and added copper of his lips and eyelashes all add a degree of naturalism. When compared to Archaic sculptures, it appears very natural. However, as an Early Classical sculpture, the Charioteer has yet to achieve the full Classical style. The Archiac smile is gone, but his appears almost blank and expressionless, a rendering of the Severe Style found in Early Classical statues. Riace Warriors The Riace Warriors (Figure 6.37) are a set of two nude, bronze sculptures of male warriors that were recovered off the coast of Riace, Italy. They are a prime example of Early Classical sculpture and the transition between Archaic to Classical sculpting styles. The figures are nude, unlike the Charioteer, and similar to Archaic statues. Their bodies are also similar to late Archaic kouroi since they are idealized, but these bodies appear more dynamic, with freed limbs, a contrapposto shift in weight, and turned heads that imply movement. The muscles are modeled with a high degree of

Figure 6.38 Artemision Bronze Artemision Bronze gure depicting of either Zeus or Poseidon. Bronze. Ca. 460-450 BCE. Cape Artemision, Greece.

plasticity, which the bronze material amplifies through natural reflections of light. Additional elements such as copper for the lips and nipples, silver teeth, and eyes inlaid with glass and bone, were added to the figures to increase their naturalism. Both figures

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originally held a shield and spear, which are now lost. Warrior B wears a helmet and it appears that Warrior A once wore a wreath. Artemision Bronze The Artemision Bronze (Figure 6.38) represents either Zeus or Poseidon, depending on whether the figure originally held a lightning bolt or a trident in his raised right hand. The figure stands in heroic nude, as would be expected with a god, with his arms outstretched, preparing to strike. The bronze is in the Severe style with an idealized and muscular body and a stoic face. The right heel of the figure rises off the ground, which anticipates the motion the figure is about to undertake. The full potential of the gods motion and energy is depicted by the artist, and the grace of the body reflected in the modeling of the bronze.
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Ceramic Art
Ceramic art from Early Classical Greece displayed important compositional developments and increased naturalism in the gures.
KEY POINTS

Red figure painting continued during the Early Classical period. The changes in the depiction of the body and in the drapery of the figures began to change, reflecting the stylistic changes and increased naturalism seen in Classical sculpture. The style of red figure painting also diversified as painters began to depict figures on multiple ground lines, show characters from a variety of perspectives (including threequarter view), and utilize more naturalism (as seen by the work of the Niobid Painter). White ground painting, developed in 500 BCE, became popular during the Classical period. White ground pottery was coated in a white slip before being fired and painted, allowing for the use of polychromy. White ground painting became the primary style for lekythoi, a vessel used to hold oils that had a funerary context. Due to this context, many of the scenes painted on lekythoi depicted scenes of funerary rites and rituals, or scenes that alluded to impending death.

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Red Figure Painting Red figure painting continued to flourish during the Early, High, and Late Classical periods. The naturalism of the figures in Early Classical vase painting continued to increase, as the figures became less stocky and less linear. Both the figures and their drapery began to appear more plastic, and the scenes often depicted a single moment within a mythical story or event. Furthermore, vase painting began to be influenced by the changes occurring in both sculpture and the large-scale painting of walls and panels. The Niobid Painters red figure krater of Artemis and Apollo slaying the children of Niobe, from 460 BCE, is believed to be a composition inspired by a panel painting. The side of the vessel depicting Artemis and Apollo relates to the myth of the twin god and goddess who slew Niobes fourteen children after she boasted that her ability to birth children acceded Leto, the mother of Apollo and Artemis. The scene is unique for it is one of the first vase painting scenes to show the figures on different ground lines (Figure 6.40). Apollo and Artemis stand in the center of the vessel as Niobes children fall to ground around them; one child has even fallen behind a rock in the landscape. On the other side of the vase is an image of gods and heroes, with Herakles at the center (Figure 6.39). All the figures stand and sit on various ground lines. The figures on both sides are depicted from multiple angles, including

three-quarter view, and a profile eye is used for the figures in profile, a first in Greek vase painting. The Berlin Painter is another well-known Early Classical vase painter. His unique style depicted figures, isolated from context, on
Figure 6.40 Artemis and Apollo slaying the children of Niobe Niobid Painter. Artemis and Apollo slaying the children of Niobe. Athenian red gure calyx krater. c. 450 BCE. Orvieto, Italy. Figure 6.39 Herakles with gods and heroes Niobid Painter. Herakles with gods and heroes. Reverse side of the krater depicting Artemis and Apollo slaying the children of Niobe. Athenian red gure calyx krater. c. 450 BCE. Orvieto, Italy.

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Figure 6.41 Ganymede Berlin Painter. Ganymede with a hoop and cock. Attic red gure bell krater. c. 500-490 BCE.

Figure 6.42 Woman attending a tomb Thanatos Painter. Woman attending a tomb. Attic white ground lekythos. c. 440-430 BCE.

a small ground line against a glossy black background. His figures also started in the middle of the vase and extended onto the vessels shoulder, stopping at the neck. He pays particular attention to the details of the body and the drapery of each figure, and allows both figure and drapery to express emotion, space, and movement (Figure 6.41). White Ground Painting White ground painting developed around 500 BCE and gained popularity during the following century. The technique is based on the use of paints, instead of slip, to create polychrome vessels. The vessels were first coated in a white slip before various colors of paint were added. The white background and firing techniques allowed

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for various colors to be used, including blue, yellow, red, brown, and green. The style is less durable than black and red figures, and so was often used for votives and as grave offerings. White ground painting is often seen on a lekythos, a vessel used to hold oils, sometimes oils for anointing the dead. Due to this funerary function, lekythoi were also used as grave offerings. Because of this, many of the scenes painted on white ground lekythoi depict or allude to funerary scenes (such as funerary rites and rituals) or images of a warrior departing his wife for battle and death (Figure 6.42). The Achilles Painter, a pupil of the Berlin Painter and creator of both red figure and white ground vessels, is one of the most well-known white ground painters (Figure 6.43). The

Figure 6.43 Muse with lyre

scenes he painted on his white ground lekythoi are filled with pathos and sorrow, and often depict women sitting in front of a grave stele or bidding their husbands farewell to war. Overall, in both white ground and red figure painting during the Early Classical period, the form of the body was perfected by the artisans. Painted vessels were now depicting figures on a twodimensional plane, with the illusion of three-dimensional space, and these figures were rendered in that space naturally, in terms of their movement and form. Black figure painting nearly disappeared in the Early Classical period and was primarily reserved for objects made to seem old or recall antique styles, such as victory amphorae for panhellenic games.
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Achilles Painter. Muse with lyre. Attic white ground lekythos. c. 440-430 BCE.

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Section 5

High Classical Period

The Acropolis The Parthenon The Propylaia and the Erechtheion The Temple of Athena Nike The Agora Urban Planning Stele Painting Late Classical Period
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Sculpture Paintings, Macedonian Court Art, and the Alexander Mosaic Architecture!

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The Acropolis
The Athenian Acropolis is an"ancient citadel in Athens containing the remains of several ancient buildings, including the Parthenon.
KEY POINTS

Figure 6.44 The Acropolis at Athens

The!Acropolis!has played a significant role in the city from the time that the area was first inhabited during the Neolithic era. The Acropolis was continually inhabited through the Greek Dark Ages and the Geometric period, when it became a sanctuary site and home of the goddess!Athena. In the early fifth century the Persians invaded Greece, and the city of Athensalong with the Acropoliswas destroyed, looted, and burnt to the ground in 480 BCE. It was immediately following the Persian war that Athenian general and statesman!Pericles!coordinated the construction of the site's most important buildings including the!Parthenon, the!Propylaia, the Erechtheion!and!the temple of Athena Nike.

The Acropolis has played an important role in the city of Athens from the time the area was rst inhabited.

words !$%&' (akron, "edge, extremity") and ()*+, (polis, "city"). Although there are many other acropoleis in Greece, the significance of the Acropolis of Athens is such that it is commonly known as "The Acropolis" without qualification. The Acropolis has played a significant role in the city from the time that the area was first inhabited during the Neolithic era. While there is evidence that the hill was inhabited as far back as the fourth millennium BC, it was Pericles (c. 495429 BC) in the fifth century BC High Classical Period who coordinated the construction of the

The Acropolis of Athens (Figure 6.44) is an ancient citadel located on a high rocky outcrop above the city of Athens and containing the remains of several ancient buildings of great architectural and historic significance. The word acropolis comes from the Greek

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site's most important buildings including the Parthenon (Figure 6. 45), the Propylaia, the Erechtheion and the temple of Athena Nike. Early History Archaeological evidence shows that the acropolis was once home to a Mycenaean citadel. The citadels cyclopean walls defended the Acropolis for centuries, and still remains today. The Acropolis was

continually inhabited, even through the Greek Dark Ages when Mycenaean civilization fell. It is during the Geometric period that the Acropolis shifted from being the home of a king to being a sanctuary site, dedicated to the goddess Athena, whom the people of Athens considered their patron. The Archaic era acropolis saw the first stone temple dedicated to Athena known as the Hekatompedon (Greek, hundred-footed). This building was built from limestone around 570 to 550 BCE and, as the name suggests, was a hundred feet long. It has the original home of the olive-wood statue of Athena Polias, known as the Palladium that was believed to have come from Troy. In the early fifth century the Persians invaded Greece, and the city of Athensalong with the Acropoliswas destroyed, looted, and burnt to the ground in 480 BCE. Later the Athenians, before the final battle at Plataea, swore an oath that if they won the battle that if Athena once more protected her citythen the Athenian citizens would leave the Acropolis as it is, destroyed, in a symbolic gesture as a monument to the war. The Athenians did indeed win the war, and the Acropolis was left in ruins for thirty years. Periclean Revival

Figure 6.45 The Parthenon

The Parthenon"is a temple on the Athenian Acropolis,"Greece, dedicated to the maiden goddess Athena,"whom the people of Athens considered their patron. Its construction began in 447"BC when the Athenian Empire"was at the height of its power.

It was immediately following the Persian war that Athenian general and statesman Pericles funded an extensive building program on the Athenian Acropolis. Despite the vow to leave the Acropolis in a

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Figure 6.46 Plan of the Acropolis

of the Acropolis include: (1) Parthenon (2) Old Temple of Athena (3) Erechtheum (4) Statue of Athena Promachos (5) Propylaea (6) Temple of Athena Nike (7) Eleusinion (8) Sanctuary of Artemis Brauronia or Brauroneion (9) Chalkotheke (10) Pandroseion (11) Arrephorion (12) Altar of Athena (13) Sanctuary of Zeus Polieus (14) Sanctuary of Pandion (15) Odeon of Herodes Atticus (16) Stoa of Eumenes (17) Sanctuary of Asclepius or Asclepieion (18) Theatre of Dionysus Eleuthereus (19) Odeon of Pericles (20) Temenos of Dionysus Eleuthereus (21) Aglaureion. The Parthenon was built between 447 BC and 438 BC, and was dedicated to the maiden goddess Athena. It is the most important surviving building of Classical Greece. The Propylaea was built of white Pentelic marble and gray Eleusinian marble or limestone between 437 BC and 432 BC, and served as the monumental gateway to the Acropolis. The Temple of Athena Nike (Nike meaning victory in Greek) was built in honor of the goddess between 427 and 424 BC. The Erechtheion, built between 421 and 406 BC, is an ancient Greek temple on the north side of the Acropolis, believed to have been built in honor of the legendary king Erechtheus. The Parthenon and the other buildings were seriously damaged during the 1687 siege by the Venetians in the Morean War. On March 2007 the Acropolis was formally proclaimed as the preeminent monument on the European Cultural Heritage list of monuments.

Plan of the Acropolis and surrounding area. The buildings include: (1) Parthenon (2) Old Temple of Athena (3) Erechtheum (4) Statue of Athena Promachos (5) Propylaea (6) Temple of Athena Nike (7) Eleusinion (8) Sanctuary of Artemis Brauronia or Brauroneion (9) Chalkotheke (10) Pandroseion (11) Arrephorion (12) Altar of Athena (13) Sanctuary of Zeus Polieus (14) Sanctuary of Pandion (15) Odeon of Herodes Atticus (16) Stoa of Eumenes (17) Sanctuary of Asclepius or Asclepieion (18) Theatre of Dionysus Eleuthereus (19) Odeon of Pericles (20) Temenos of Dionysus Eleuthereus (21) Aglaureion

state of ruin, the site was rebuilt, incorporating all the remaining old materials into the spaces of the new site. The building program began in 447 BCE and was completed by 415. It employed the most famous architects and artists of the age and its sculpture and buildings were designed to complement and be dialogue with one another (Figure 6.46). As illustrated in the diagram, the buildings

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The Parthenon
The Parthenon is dedicated to Athena Parthenos and depicts the glory and power of the Greeks and Athena over their rivals.
KEY POINTS

The Parthenon was designed by the architects Iktinus and Kallikrates, and incorporates both Doric and Ionic elements. It also was built with a slight entasis to compensate for flaws in the human eye so that the entire building would appear perfect. Phidias, the master sculptor in charge of the Acropolis artistic scheme, sculpted a massive chryselephantine statue of Athena Parthenos. The metopes of the Parthenon depict battles between the Greeks and the others, barbarians depicted as giants, Amazons, centaurs, and Trojans. The message promotes the power and glory of the Greeks and the Athenians above all the Greeks. The Parthenons Ionic frieze depicts a processional scene, probably an image of the Panatheniac procession, where energy builds to calm as the scene approaches the solemn ritual act of the annual replacement of the old olive-wood Athena statues peplos.

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Figure 6.47 Parthenon The Parthenon as it stands today. Acropolis, Athens, Greece. ca. 447-438 BCE.

This not only allowed access to the original site but it also placed the Parthenon in a much more prominent position overlooking Athens. While the artist Phidias was in charge of the overall plan of the Acropolis, the architects Iktinos and Kallikrates designed and oversaw the construction of the Parthenon. The Parthenon is built completely from Pentalic marble, although parts of its foundations are limestone from a pre-480 BCE temple that was never completed. The design of the Parthenon varies slightly from the basic temple ground plan (Figure 6.48).

Figure 6.48 Parthenon

Today the Parthenon is considered the crowning element on the Acropolis (Figure 6.47). It was built under Pericles during the Golden Age of Athens as a temple dedicated to Athena Parthenos. It later was converted into a Christian church and then a mosque, when Greece was conquered by the Ottomans in the fifteenth century. It later became an arsenal, which unfortunately was ignited and destroyed parts of the temple. In the early 1800s Lord Elgin persuaded the Ottoman Turks to part with the remaining pediment sculptures, which he removed and took to London and the sculptures now reside in at the British Museum. The Greeks have requested the return of sculptures, but with no success. Architecture The Parthenon replaced the original temple, the Hekatompedon that was first erected for Athena. In building the new temple, the Greeks moved the temples footprint to south of the Hekatompedon.

Plan of the Parthenon.

The temple is peripteral, and so is surrounded by a row of columns. In front of both the pronaos and opisthodomos is a single row of prostyle columns. The opisthodomos is large, accounting for the size of the treasury of the Delian League, which Pericles moved from Delos to the Parthenon. The pronaos or porch is so small it is almost non-existent. Inside the naos is a two-story row of columns

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around the interior and set in front of the columns is the cult statue of Athena. The Parthenons elevation has been streamlined and shows a mix of Doric and Ionic elements. The exterior Doric columns are more slender and their capitals have become rigid and cone like. The entablature has also shrunk and appears less weighty then earlier Doric temples. The exterior of the temple has a Doric frieze consisting of metopes and triglyphs. Inside the temple are Ionic columns and an Ionic frieze wraps around the exterior of the interior building. Finally, instead of the columns the whole building an entasis, a slight curve to compensate for the human eye. If the building was built perfectly at right angles and with straight eyes, the human eye would see the lines as curved. In order for the Parthenon to appear straight to the eye, Iktinos and Kallikrates added curvature to the building that the eye would interpret as straight. Cult Statue of Athena Parthenos The cult statue of the Parthenon was a huge chryselephantine statue of Athena Parthenos sculpted by Phidias (Figure 6.49). It was considered the greatest achievement of Phidias, who himself was already considered the greatest sculptor in Greece. While the statue does not survive, written accounts and reproductions (miniatures and representations on coins and gems) provide us with

Figure 6.49 Reconstruction of Athena Parthenos by Phidias A reconstruction of Athena Parthenos by Phidias, from the replica of the Parthenon in Nashville, Tennessee, USA.

an idea of what the sculpture looked like. The statue was made out of ivory, silver, and gold and had a wooden core support. Athena stood crowned, wearing her helmet and aegis. Her shield stood upright at her left side and her left hand rested on it while in her right hand she held a statue of Nike. Metopes The sculpted reliefs on the Parthenons metopes are both decorative and symbolic and relate stories of the Greeks against the others. Each side depicts a different set of battles. Over the entrance on the east side is a Gigantomachy, depicting the battle between the giants and the Olympian gods. The west side depicts an Amazonomachy,

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Figure 6.50 Centauromachy Metope Metope from the south side of the Parthenon, of a Lapis and a Centuar. Acropolis, Athens, Greece. ca. 447-438 BCE.

Figure 6.51 Horsemen in the processional scene

Horsemen in the processional scene on the Ionic frieze of the Parthenon. Acropolis, Athens, Greece. ca. 447-438 BCE.

historical procession, many scholars believe that it depicts a Panatheniac procession. The Panathenaic procession occurred yearly through the city, leading from the Dipylon Gate to the showing a battle between the Athenians and the Amazons. The north side depicts scenes of the Greek sack of Troy at the end of the Trojan War and the south side depicts a centauromachy, or a battle with centaurs. The centauromachy depicts the mythical battle between the Greek Lapiths and the Centaurs which occurred during a Lapith wedding (Figure 6.50). These scenes are the most preserved of the metopes and demonstrate how Phidias mastered fitting episodic narrative into square spaces. Processional Frieze The interior Ionic processional frieze wraps around the exterior walls of the naos. While the frieze may depict a mythical or Acropolis and culminated in a ritual changing of the peplos worn by the ancient olive-wood statue of Athena. The processional scene begins in the southwest corner and wraps around the building in both directions before culminating in the middle of the of the west wall. It begins with images of horsemen preparing their mounts, followed by riders and chariots (Figure 6.51), Athenian youth with sacrificial animals, elders and maidens, then the gods before culminating at the central event. The central image depicts Athenian maidens with textiles, replacing the old peplos with a new one.

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Pediment The east and west pediment were both described by ancient writers depict scenes from the life of Athena and the east pediment is in better preserved than the west. The west pediment depicted the contest between Athena and Poseidon for the patronage of Athens. At the center of the pediment stood Athena and Poseidon, pulling away from each creating chiastic and strongly charged, dynamic composition. The east pediment depicted the birth of Athena. While the central image of Zeus, Athena, and Haphaestus has been lost, the surrounding gods, in various states of reaction, have survived.
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The Propylaia and the Erechtheion

The Propylaea drew visitors through a monumental entry; the Erechtheion held the most sacred artifacts & ancient sites of the Acropolis.
KEY POINTS

The Propylaea was the monumental entrance onto the Acropolis. It is in the Doric order and is unadorned, and plain. Although its ground plan is not symmetrical, it was designed to appear symmetrical to anyone walking through it. A wing on the north side was a pinacoteca (gallery). A large bronze statue of Athena Promachos, by Phidias, welcomed visitors upon entering the Acropolis through the Propylaea. The Erechtheion is a temple that housed the most sacred artifacts and ancient sites of the Acropolis, including the Palladium, Athenas olive tree, Poseidons salt water well, and trident marks, and shrines to the mythical founders and kings of the city. The Erechtheion is also known for its southern porch; caryatids (statues of women) are used instead of columns to support the porchs entablature. The women represent the dominance of Athens and the fate of traitors. They display High Classical style and are reminiscent of columns.

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Propylaia The Propylaia is the monumental gateway to the Acropolis (Figure 6.52). It funneled all traffic to the Acropolis onto one gently sloped ramp. It was designed by the architect Mnesicles, and was begun in 437 BCE. The Propylaia created a massive screen wall that was impressive and protective as well as welcoming. It was designed to appear symmetrical, but was not. The southern wing of the Propylaia incorporated the original cyclopean walls from the Mycenaean citadel; this space was truncated but served as dining area for feasting after sacrifice. The northern wing of the Propylaia was much larger. It was a pinacoteca, where large panel paintings were hung for public viewing. Despite the structures lack of symmetry, from its entrance it was designed to appear symmetrical; this illusion was created by a colonnade of paired columns that wrapped around the gateway. The order of the Propylaia and its columns are Doric and the decoration of is plain and simple; there are no reliefs carved into the metopes and the pediment is unadorned. Statue of Athena Promachos Upon entering the Acropolis from the Propylaia, visitors were greeted by a colossal bronze statue of Athena Promachos. This statue was also designed and created by Phidas and was dedicated around 456 BCE. Accounts and a few coins of the statue allow us

Figure 6.52 Propylaia The Propylaia as it stands today. Acropolis, Athens, Greece. ca. 437-432 BCE.

today to conclude the bronze statue portrayed a fearsome image of Athena striding forward, helmeted, her shield at her side and her spear raised high, ready to strike. Erechtheion The Erectheion (Figure 6.53) was built on the site of the Hekatompedon, which was the archaic temple to Athena, and also over the megaron of the Mycenaean citadel. The odd design of the temple, built from 421 to 405 BCE by the architect Mnesicles, results from the sites topography and the temples incorporation of numerous ancient sites. The temple housed the Palladium, the ancient olive-wood statue of Athena. It was also believed to be the site of the contest between Athena and Poseidon, and so displayed an olive tree, a salt water well, and the marks from Poseidons

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Figure 6.53 Erechtheion Erechtheion from the southwest. Acropolis, Athens, Greece. ca. 421-405 BCE.

Figure 6.54 Porch of the Erechtheion The porch of the Erechtheion with caryatids. Acropolis, Athens, Greece. ca. 421-405 BCE.

trident to the faithful. Shrines to the mythical kings of Athens, Cecrops and Erechteus, who gives the temple its name, were also found within the Erechtheion. Because of its mythic significance and its religious relics, the Erechtheion was the ending site of the Panathenaic festival, when the peplos on the olive-wood statue of Athena was annually replaced with new clothing with due pomp and ritual. Caryatids: The Form and the Symbol A porch on the south side of the Erechtheion is known as the Porch of the Caryatids, or the Porch of the Maidens (Figure 6.54). Six towering sculpted women (caryatids) support the entablature of the building. The women replace columns, yet look columnar themselves. Their drapery, especially over their weight-bearing leg,

is long and linear, creating a parallel to the fluting on an ionic column. While they stand in similar poses, each statue has its own stance, facial features, hair, and drapery. They carry egg-and-dart capitals on their heads, much as women throughout history have carried baskets. Between their heads and this capital is a sculpted cushion, which gives the appearance of softening the load of the weight of the building. The sculpted columnar form of the caryatids is named after the women of the town of Kayrai, a small town near and allied to Sparta. At one point during the Persian Wars the town betrayed Athens to the Persians. In retaliation, the Athenians sacked their city, killing the man and enslaving the women and children. Thus, the caryatids depicted on the Acropolis are symbolic

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representations of the full power of Athenian authority over Greece and the punishment of traitors.
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The Temple of Athena Nike

The Temple of Athena Nike is a simple Ionic temple with a frieze depicting historical battles and images of Greek and Athenian victory.

KEY POINTS

The Temple of Athena Nike is dedicated to Athena Nike, or Athena the victory, and was built from 427 to 425 BCE by the architect Kallikrates. The temple is a simple prostyle ionic temple with nearly nonexistent pronaos and opisthodomos and single, small, square naos which held the cult statue. The Ionic frieze depicted images of historical battles of Greeks and Athenians during the Persian and Peloponnesian Wars. On the balustrade were relief images of Nike (Victory). The image of Nike adjusting her sandal depicts the goddess in wet drapery style clothing that allows her feminine form to show through her nearly transparent garment and its deep folds.

The Temple of Athena Nike (Figure 6.55) stands on the parapet of the Acropolis, to the southwest and to the right of the Propylaea. The architect Kallikrates, who was one of the two architects of the Parthenon, built the temple from 427 to 425 BCE. The temple is a

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small Ionic temple that consists of a single naos, where a cult statue stood fronted by four piers. The four piers aligned to the four Ionic prostyle columns of the pronaos (Figure 6.56). Both the pronaos and opisthodomos are very small, nearly non-existent, and are defined by their four prostyle columns.
Figure 6.55 Temple of Athena Nike Temple of Athena Nike. Marble. Ca. 427-425 BCE. Acropolis, Athens, Greece.

The continuous frieze around the temple depicts battle scenes. Unlike the metopes of the Parthenon, which depict mythical battles, the battles shown on the frieze of the Temple of Athena Nike depict historical battles of the Greeks. These representations include battles from the Persian and Peloponnesian Wars, including a cavalry scene from the Battle at Marathon and the Greek victory over the Persians

Figure 6.56 Plan of the Temple of Athena Nike

Plan of the Temple of Athena Nike. Ca. 427-425 BE.

at the Battle of Plataea. The scenes on the Temple of Athena Nike are similar to the battle scenes on the Parthenon, which represented Greek dominance over non-Greeks and foreigners in mythical allegory. The scenes depicted on the frieze of the Temple of Athena Nike frieze display Greek and Athenian dominance and military power throughout historical events.

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Figure 6.57 Nike adjusting her Sandal Nike adjusting her sandal. Marble. Ca. 425-420 BCE. Temple of Athena Nike, Acropolis, Athens, Greece.

A parapet was added on the balustrade to protect visitors from falling down the steep hillside. Images of Nike, such as the famous depiction of Nike adjusting her sandal (Figure 6.57), are carved in relief. In this scene Nike is portrayed standing on one leg as she bends over a raised foot and knee to adjust her sandal. Her body is depicted in the new High Classical style. Unlike Archaic sculpture, this scene actually depicts Nikes body. Her body and muscles are clearly distinguished underneath her clothing. Her clothing appears transparent with deep heavy folds in a style known as wet drapery. This style allows sculptors to depict the body of a woman while still preserving the modesty of the female figure. Although Nike's body is visible, she remains fully clothed. This style is found elsewhere on the Acropolis, such as on the Caryatids and on the women in the Parthenons pediment.
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The Agora
Improved during the Classical period, the Athenian agora was home to the central courts, assembly meeting rooms, and important temples.
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and athletic competitions. The agora would also be surrounded by civic and religious buildings. Agora of Athens The Athenian Agora is an excellent example of an ancient agora from the Classical period. The Agora was located near the Acropolis, and the route of the Panathenaic Way passed through the agora on its way up the Acropolis. The site was the location of private houses until the sixth century BCE until the Athenian tyrant Peisistratus decided to dedicate the center of the city to public space. Under Peisistratus the site was cleared, drainage was added, and a temple to the Olympian gods was erected. Tyrants continued to improve the agora with new buildings, temples, fountains, and trees. The Classical Agora of Athens consisted of a large open space surrounded by numerous public buildings (Figure 6.58). One of the first buildings erected in the Classical period was the Stoa of Zeus, a large two story Doric portico dedicated to Zeus Eleutherios, Zeus of Freedom. The stoa served not only civic function but also a religious function due its function as an altar to the god. It also served as a monument celebrating the victory of the Greeks gaining freedom from the Persian threat of domination. Additional stoae surrounded the Athenian Agora, and they were used to house commercial markets and courts for law and civics. One such stoa is the Basileios Stoa, or Royal Stoa, which housed the Areios Pagos

Pericles was not only responsible for rebuilding the Athenian Agora, he also renovated the Agora, building new public buildings for assemblies and restoring old buildings. The sculptor Phidias also oversaw new sculptural decoration. The main purpose of the Agora was as a meeting place and market for the city. The Athenian Agora was large with numerous buildings for civic, judicial, and economic practices such as governing, hearing law cases, and the selling of goods. The most important new building built under Pericles in Classical Athens was the Stoa of Zeus. This was a two story Doric building which served both a civic and religious function. An altar located in the stoa was erected to honor Zeus Eleutherios (Freedom).

An agora was the central, public space of Greek poleis, singular polis. The word means gathering place or assembly in ancient Greek and was the location where members of a polis met to discuss rulings and military actions. The polis was also home to markets

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Figure 6.58 Athenian Agora

Across the agora from the Basileios Stoa was the Heliaea, the supreme court of ancient Athens. It was the location of hearings and law courts and its assembly consisted of 6,000 men chosen annually by lot. These men were male citizens of Athens over 30 years of age. Six hundred members were chosen from each of the citys ten tribes. A new Bouleuterion or meeting chamber for the citys council was also built in the agora during the Classical period. This building replaced the original building used for city council meetings, the Metroon, which was a building dedicated to an earth goddess, either Cybele, Rhea, or Demeter. The new Bouleuterion and the older Metroon were both located near a monument to the Eponymous Heroes of Athens, each of whom represented a tribe of the city. Also near the two buildings was the civic building of the Strategeion, which was the private meeting room for the Strategoi of Athens. These ten men were elected from each of the ten tribes of Athens to serve for a year to lead the discussions and make decisions

Plan of the Athenian Agora. 1 Peristyle Court 2 Mint 3 Enneacrounos 4 South stoa 5 Heliaea 6 Strategeion 7 Colonos Agoraios 8 Tholos 9 Agora stone 10 Monument of the Eponymous Heroes 11 Old Bouleuterion 12 New Bouleuterion 13 Temple of Hephaestus (Hephaestion) 14 Temple of Apollo Patroos 15 Stoa of Zeus 16 Altar of the Twelve Gods 17 Royal stoa 18 Temple of Aphrodite Urania 19 Stoa of Hermes 20 Stoa poikile

regarding the citys finance, politics, foreign policy, and military strategies. There were also a couple of temples built around the agora during the Classical period. The Temple of Hephaestus, the god of the forge, is a Doric peripteral temple built under the reign of Pericles between 449 and 415 BCE. Like the temples and buildings on the Acroplis, the Temple of Hephaestus was built entirely out of

council. The Areios Pagos council was in charge of the citys religious affairs and crimes, and the stoa was also used to house copies of the Athenian law.

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Pentelic and Parian marble. The temple also had an interior ushape colonnade that encircled the cult statue in the naos, which is also seen in the Parthenon. A temple dedicated to Aphrodite Urania, Aphrodite the Heavenly, stood nearby the Temple of Hephaestus. Little of the temple survives today, although it is reported that the cult statue was sculpted by Phidias. The Athenian Agora was an important central meeting place before the Classical period. However, during the Classical period under the reign of Pericles, the Athenian Agora was built into a central site for the citys religious, civic, and judicial practices as well as home to commerce and markets. The Agoras location in the center of the city, just below the Acropolis, notes its importance. The central location was easily accessible by Athenian citizens. The Agora is where Athenian democracy thrived and where the citizens of the Athens were able to take part in daily religious and civic duties.
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Urban Planning
Hippodamus of Miletus is considered the father of rational city planning and the city of Priene is a prime example of his gird planned cities.
KEY POINTS

Hippodamus of Miletus lived through the Classical era Greece during the fifth century BCE. As an architect and city planning he developed an urban plan based on streets intersecting at right angles, known as the Hippodamian Plan. The Hippodamian plan is based on a grid of right angles and the allocation of public and private space. The center of the city is the home of the citys most important civic public spaces, including the agora, the bouleuterion, theatres, and temples. Private rooms surround the citys public arenas. Since the Hippodamian plan is based on angles and measurements, it can be laid out uniformly over any kind of terrain. In the city of Priene the plan is laid out over a sloping hillside and the terrain is terraced to fit into the rational network of houses, streets, and public buildings.

Hippodamus of Miletus Rational city planning developed during the Late Classical and Hellenistic period throughout Greece. Following the destruction left by the Persians and Peloponnesian Wars, many cities were left

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decimated and in need of rebuilding. Before rational city planning, cities grew organically and often radiated out from a central point, such as the Acropolis and Agora at the center of Athens. The Greek
Figure 6.59 Bouleuterion Bouleuterion. Marble. Priene, Turkey.

was adopted by Alexander the Great for the cities he founded and was later used extensively by the Romans for their colonies. The plan not only encompassed the grid pattern for the streets but also designated a standard size for city blocks and allocated public and private space. Typically the public spaces of the Greeks agora and theatres were located at the center of the city. Additional space would be cleared for gymnasiums and stadiums and the acropolis, the highest part of the city, was always reserved for the citys most important temples. Priene The city of Priene, located near to Miletus on the Ionian coast, is a prime example of the Hippodamian plan. The city is located on a hillside and the urban plan forces structure onto the natural landscape. The citys grid plan streets divided the sloping hillside into blocks which were further divided into lots for private housing. In the middle of the city were many public buildings. The agora was the central component of the city. Its colonnaded stoa bounded the public space to the north. The agora stretched the length of six city blocks and was flanked on its southern side by the Temple of Zeus. North of the stoa was the bouleuterion, the assembly hall (Figure 6.59), and a small theatre. A Temple of Athena was located just northwest of the agora. Blocks of housing surrounded the agora and down the slope from them on level ground as the gymnasium and

Hippodamus from the city of Miletus on the Ionian coast (the western coast of modern Turkey) was an architect and urban planner who lived between 498 and 408 BCE. He is considered the father of urban planning and his name is given to the grid layout of city planning, known as the Hippodamian plan. The Hippodamian plan is now also known as a grid plan and is an urban planned form by streets intersecting at right angles. Hippodamus helped rebuild many Greek cities using this plan and the construction was exported to new settled Greek colonies and

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stadium, while above the city, high on hillside was the citys acropolis. The plan of Priene follows the rational grid plan established by Hippodamus and demonstrates its function, even when laid over the rocky and hilly terrain. The citys location on a hillside did not constrict its uniformity or the allocation of public and private space. Instead, the rational plan of Priene allowed for access to multiple sites of the city and easy navigation through the city.
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Stele
Large, relief-carved stele became the new funerary marker in Greece during the High Classical period.
KEY POINTS

The funerary stele were large and rectangular. They would be topped by a pediment that was often, although not always, supported by columns. The stelae would originally have been painted and in some cases adorn with metal props such as spears. The funerary stele of Classical Greece were idealized portraits which attempted to relate the character and social position of the dead through attributes depicted on the grave marker. For instance, a warrior depicted in battle or a woman adorning herself in jewelry. The reliefs on funerary stele followed the stylistic characteristics of the Classical period. The bodies of the men are well modeled and if standing, often stand with contrapposto. Drapery is often portrayed in the wet drapery style, which allows for the form of the womans body to be shown.

Stele (plural stelae) are large slabs of stone or wood erected for commemorative and funerary purposes. The stele of ancient Greece replaced the funerary markers of the geometric kraters and

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amphorae and Archaic kouroi and korai in the Classical period. The stelae were wide and tall and were Classical style portraitures; while the figures were still idealized, they were meant to represent a specific individual. Stelae would be inscribed with the name of the dead and often the name of the relatives. Most stelae were rectangular in shape and topped with a pediment. Columns often but not always were carved on each side of the stele to appear to support the pediment. An inscription would be located on the pediment or else below the image, in which case the pediment was painted, plain, or decorated simply with geometric designs. The figures depicted on Classical era stele are in the same style and manner seen in Classical sculpture and on sculptural decoration of architecture, such as a temples pediments and frieze. Stele as grave markers became popular around 430 BCE, coinciding with the beginning of the Peloponnesian War. Each stele is unique for its attempts to individualize and characterize the attributes and personality of the dead. Grave Stele of Hegeso The grave stele of Hegeso (Figure 6.60) from the Kerameikos Cemetery outside of Athens depicts an elegantly seated woman. The stele dates to 400 BCE, and the woman fits the stylistic representation of women at this time. Hegeso sits on a chair with her feet resting on a footstool. She is elegantly dressed in long

Figure 6.60 Grave Stele of Hegeso. Grave stele of Hegeso. Marble. Ca. 400 BCE. Dipylon Cemetery, Athens, Greece

flowing drapery. A simple dressed female attendant stands before her holding a small box, from which Hegeso picks out jewelry. The stele would have originally been painted and the jewelry would have been painted, not carved, additions. Both women wear transparent clothing that clings to their body to relieve their feminine form, although the clothing is more revealing on Hegeso than her servant. The style is recalls the wet drapery style seen on the Parthenon and both figures are expressionless and emotionless.

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Grave Stele of an Athlete Another stele from the early fourth century BCE depicts a male athlete receiving lekythos of oil from a male youth (Figure 6.61). The stele from the island of Delos depicts both figures in the classical manner. The athletes body is reminiscent of Polykleitos Doryphoros. It is athletic and the muscles are defined through modeling instead of lines. He stands in contrapposto with a set of

Figure 6.62 Grave Stele of Dexileos. Grave stele of Dexileos. Marble. Ca. 390 BCE. Dipylon Cemetery, Athens, Greece.

Figure 6.61 Grave Stele of an Athlete Grace stele of an athlete. Marble. Ca. 375 BCE. Delos, Greece.

relaxed and tense legs and arms, and even his head is cocked. He reaches out for the flask held by the young attendant. The male youths age is defined not by his well- built body (which is very similar to the athletes) but by his diminutive size. Grave Stele of Dexileos The stele of Dexileos (Figure 6.62) from 390 BCE in the Kerameikos Cemetery of Athens is another demonstration of how

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stele reliefs reflect the sculpture style and motifs of the period. This stele recalls the carved relief of Athenian horsemen from the Ionic frieze of the Parthenon. Dexileos rides astride a rearing horse, charging down an enemy. The inscription refers to his early death in battle against the Corinthians, and he probably originally held an attached, metal spear in his raised hand. The two figures, Dexileos and the Corinthian, are dressed differently. The Corinthian is nude; signify his difference from the civilized Athenian who is properly clothed. Dexileos cape flies behind him, adding drama to scene, which despite its content, is oddly expressionless due to emotionless faces of the characters.
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Painting
Classical period paintings such as vase, panel, and tomb paintings depicted natural gures with high plasticity and dynamic compositions.

KEY POINTS

Vase painting in the Classical and High Classical Period was produced in a style known as the Kerch style. This style is recognized by its full compositions on several registers and use of polychromy. Few examples of panel, fresco, and wall painting survive due to their organic materials. However, the examples that do survive from the Archaic, Classical, and Late Classical periods demonstrate the same development of the figure, from stiff, rigid images to dynamic scenes of natural figures. The painter Apollodorus was considered one of the most talented painters in the Classical period. He developed a technique of depicting shadows and depth known to the Greeks as skiagraphia, which is similar to the Renaissance use of chiaroscuro.

Vase Painting Vase painting, from 370 to 330 BCE, was dominated by the red figure style known as the Kerch style (Figure 6.63). This style

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Figure 6.63 Nymphs playing a game of love. This vase is an example of the red gure or Kerch style Lekythos. ca. 350 BCE. Athens, Greece.

common, as were Dionysian scenes and images of the goddesses Artemis and Demeter. Panel Painting Panel painting is the painting on flat panels of wood, either a large single piece or several joined together. Because of their organic nature many panel paintings no longer exist. Copies though, are suspected in other mediums, such as on vases or mosaics. The Niobid Painters vase painting of Apollo and Artemis slaying the children of Niobe and the Alexander Mosaic of Alexander the Great defeating the Persian king Darius, are both believed to be reproductions of popular Greek panel paintings. Panel paintings were usually done in encaustic or tempera and were displayed in the interior of public buildings, such as in the pinacoteca of the Propylaea of the Athenian Acropolis.

favored crowded, multi-register compositions reminiscent of geometric and early black figure painting. The figures are painted in red figure and demonstrate a culmination of mastery by accurately depicting space and volume on the vase despite the slender, statuelike stance of many of the figures. The figures painted in polychromy; white, green, and blue are commonly found on these types of vessels. The elaborate painting of the vessels makes the pots seem quite ornamental. Scenes of women and idyllic lives were

The earliest known panel paintings are the Pitsa Panels (Figure 6. 64) that date to the Archaic period between 540 and 530 BCE. Unsurprisingly the figures are portrayed in a recognizably Archaic style despite the difference in between panel painting and Archaic vase painting and sculpture. The figures are rigid and plank-like and the bodies are defined more by their clothing than actual musculature. Men and women in the Pitsa panel are differentiated through skin color: women have white skin, while men have darker brown skin.

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Figure 6.64 Pista Panel

Figure 6.65 Tomb of the Diver

Painted Wood. The earliest known panel paintings. ca. 540-530 BCE. Athens, Greece.

This is the symposium scene painted on the Tomb of the Diver"in Paestum. Fresco. Ca. 480 BCE. Tomb of the Diver, Paestum, Italy.

The unique and new use of multiple ground lines and the implication and interaction with the landscape seen in the work of the Niobid Painter, suggests the artists reliance on panel painting. Scholars question where the idea of such innovated vase painting emerged from and panel painting may be the cause. The unique styles of panel painters may have been the subject to reinterpretation by vase painters. The painter, Apollodorus, was considered by the Greeks and Romans to be one of the best painters of his era, although none of his work survived. Apollodorus was active during the Early Classical period and is credited for the use of creating shadows by a technique known as skiagraphia. The technique layers crosshatching and contour liners to add perspective to the scene and is similar to the Renaissance technique of chiaroscuro.

Tomb Painting Tomb painting was another popular method of painting, which due to its fragile nature has often not survived. However a few examples do remain, including the 480 BCE Tomb of the Diver from Paestum, Italy and the wall paintings from the royal Macedonian tombs in Vergina that date to the mid-fourth century BCE. A comparison between the paintings demonstrate how painting followed sculptural development in regards to the rendering of the human body. The Tomb of the Diver is from a small necropolis in Paestum, which was then the Greek colony of Poseidonia and dates from the beginning of the Classical period. The tomb depicts a symposium scene on its walls (Figure 6.65) and an image of diver on the inside

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Figure 6.66 Man on a Chariot Wall painting. Ca. 4th c. BCE. Vergina, Greece.

image believed to depict King Philip II on a chariot pulled by two horses (Figure 6.66). The fresco is poorly preserved but one is able to see on Philips horse the modeling of the animals produced by the color shading and a suggestion of perspective when looking at the chariot. The artist relies on the shades and hues of his paints to create depth and a life-like feeling in the painting. One of the quintessential wall paintings at Vergina is a scene of Hades abducting Persephone (Figure 6.67). While a painted image, the scene appears similar to the Late Classical sculptural style and

Figure 6.67 Hades Abducting Persephone

of the covering slab. The images are painted in true fresco with a limestone mortar. The scene of the diver is simple image with a small landscape of trees, water, and the divers platform. The diver is nude and his body is simply defined through the use of line and color. The bodies of the men at the symposium, from the tombs walls, more accurately demonstrate an Archaic reliance on line to model the form of the body and the draping of their clothing. Compared to the wall paintings from the tombs at Vergina, the Early Classical tomb painting, such as Tomb of the Diver, is static and rather Archaic.The frescos from Vergina depict figures in a full painted version of the High Classical style. For example, there is an

Wall painting. Ca. 4th c. BCE. Vergina, Greece.

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the dynamic, emotion-filled composition seems to predict the style of Hellenistic sculpture. The scene depicts Hades on his chariot, grasping on to Persephones nude torso as the pair ride away. The colors are faded and faint, but the bright red drapery worn by Persephone is still easily identifiable. Lines and shading emphasize its folds. The style appears almost impressionistic, especially when examining Persephones face and hair. Persephone and Hades create a tension filled chiastic composition, as Hades races to the left, against the pull of Persephones outward, desperate reach to the right.
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Late Classical Period

Late Classical sculpture began to examine new subjects and emotions by creating elements of narrative and incorporating the viewer.
KEY POINTS

The sculptors of the 4th century Late Classical period developed Classical sculpture from idealized, life-like, stoic statues to depicting narratives and figures in less ideal states. These figures begin to break into the viewers space and ask the audience to view them from all angles. Praxiteles was the first sculptor to depict a female nude with!Aphrodite of Knidos, renowned for its beauty and sexual allure. Not only does the statue rely on the Classical convention of contrapposto, but she also makes eye contact with viewer, incorporating them into the scene. Praxiteless!Hermes and Infant Dionysus depicts an interesting moment between two gods that relies on the viewers knowledge of Dionysus future as the god of wine, as Hermes teases the infant with a vine of grapes. The Apoxyomenos by Lysippos depicts an athlete in the unattractive pose of cleaning himself after exercise. The figures posture and outstretched arm breaks into the viewers space, creating a dramatic element to a simple task. The Farnese Herakles ("weary Herakles") was a colossal

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KEY POINTS

commissioned by the city of Kos to create for them a statue of the goddess Aphrodite. The city asked for two different statues so they could chose their preference. Praxiteles produced two similar statues of Aphrodite, one in which she was clothed and the other were she was nude. Shocked and offended, the city of Kos chose the clothed statue for their temple and the nude version was bought by the city of Knidos. Copies of the clothed version of Aphrodite do not exist, and attention was given to Knidos and the nude Aphrodite. The statue became a tourist attraction and its beauty was said to sexually arouse the men who viewed it. Stories circulated throughout the ancient world of men who broke into the sanctuary in an attempt to consummate their love with the goddess and the statue. The statue of Aphrodite depicts the goddess preparing for her bath. She has just removed her drapery, which hangs from her left hand onto a jug for bath water. Her right hand attempts to cover up her genitals and she stares outward at the viewer. Her stare catches her viewer in the act of seeing her nude, and so breaks the barrier between the art and the viewer. The goddess was considered to be beautiful from all sides and the statue was placed in the center of a tholos. The round shape of the tholos and its colonnade provided a way for viewers to walk around the goddess and catch glimpses of her from all directions.

bronze sculpture by Lysippos that incorporated the viewers response and movement around the statue to create a narrative about one of the labors of Herakles. It is one of the first sculptures that displays discernible emotion.

The Late Classical period covers the last decades of the Classical periods in the fourth century BCE before the conquest of Greece by Philip II of Macedon and the beginning of the Hellenistic period following the death of Alexander the Great. Art from 400 to 323 BCE began to push at the boundaries created by Classical artists. At this point, the physical form of the body was nearly as naturalistic as it could be. Slowly at first, artists began to examine new ways of representing the body and telling stories in a single work. Artist transitioned away from stoic sculptures of the gods and ideal forms, and into more human representation of the gods that began to explore emotion and personality. Praxiteles Praxiteles, a sculptor from Athens, was considered one of the most renowned sculptors of the 4th century and, unlike many previously discussed sculptors, he worked exclusively in marble. One of his most famous sculptures was the Aphrodite of Knidos, which was the first nude sculpture of a woman in Greek art. Praxiteles was

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Praxiteles is also well known today for his sculpture of Hermes with the Infant Dionysus (Figure 6.68). The marble sculpture that we have today was found among the ruins of the Temple of Hera at Olympia. It is believed to have been an original, but may be a copy; no other copies have been found and it may not have been a popular image in the ancient period. The statue was carved from a single block of Parian marble and stands just over seven feet tall. The sculpture depicts Hermes holding an infant Dionysus in his right arm. In his missing left arm, he would have held grapes, which

Figure 6.68 Hermes and the Infant Dionysus

figure of Hermes is highly polished and his pose is a dramatic take on Polykleitoss Doryphoros and contrapposto. Lysippos Lysippos is another well-known, 4th century BCE Greek sculptor whose work is considered a transition into the Hellenistic era. Lysippos ran a large workshop and copies of his work were in high demand. The artist was also hired as a court sculptor to Alexander the Great and he was assigned the task of crafting Alexanders portrait style in sculpture and creating the sculptures that were disseminated throughout Alexanders empire. His two most famous works are the Farnese Herakles and the Apoxyomenos. The Apoxyomenos depicts a young, nude, male athlete (Figure 6.69). Unlike previous sculptures of athletes, Lysipposs statue does not depict the figure idle or in the middle of an athletic performance, but instead depicts him cleaning himself off after his workout. After sweating in the gymnasium, men would cover themselves
Lysippos. Apoxyomenos. Roman copy of a Greek bronze original c. 330 BCE. Figure 6.69 Apoxyomenos

Praxiteles. Hermes and the Infant Dioynsus. Marble. Copy or original c. 340 BCE. Temple of Hera, Olympia, Greece.

he uses to tease Dionysus. It is seen as the god of wines first introduction to the grape. The image depicts the gods in an almost mortal setting and, while it does not depict a specific myth, it does present the viewer with a moment. The viewer is invited into the story through the complex stance and Hermess raised arm. The

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in oil and then scrape off the oil, sweat, and dirt with a strigil, a small curved instrument. Instead of depicting the athlete before or in the middle of movement, Lysippos depicts the athlete after the fact, in a rather unattractive action. The original, in which the figure is slender and attenuated, was cast in bronze and depicts the athlete in off-balanced contrapposto. The figures wide stance and outstretched arms breaks into the viewers space, creating a more dynamic pose. The Farnese Herakles, or the "Weary Herakles," was a colossal statue depicting an old and tired Herakles (Figure 6.70). The original bronze statue was copied into marble to be displayed in the Baths of Caracalla in Rome. The statue depicts Herakles leaning on his club, over which his lion skin is draped. He is extremely muscular and his exhausted figure contradicts his supposed strength. He stands in contrapposto with his resting leg out in front of him, and one arm held behind his back. The position of this single arm is essential to the composition, because when the viewer
Lysippos. Farnese Herakles (Weary Herakles). Roman marble copy signed by Glykon of Athens, of a Greek bronze original c. 320 BCE. Figure 6.70 Farnese Herakles

walks behind the statue it is revealed that Herakles is holding the apples of the Hesperides. In this way, Lysippos creates a narrative that is reliant on the viewers initiative to discover the reason for Herakless weariness: he has been holding the world for Atlas, while Atlas fetched him the apples.
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Sculpture
High Classical sculpture demonstrates the shifting style in Greek sculptural work as gures became more dynamic and less static.
KEY POINTS

Polykleitos
Figure 6.71 Diadoumenos

Polykleitos was a famous Greek sculptor who worked in bronze; he was also an art theorist who developed a canon of proportion that is demonstrated in his statue of Doryphoros. Many of Polykleitos bronze statues from the Classical period, including the Doryphoros, survive only as Roman copies executed in marble. Polykleitos, along with
Figure 6.72 Discophoros

After mastering the portrayal of naturalistic bodies from stone, Greek sculptors began to experiment with new poses that expanded the repertoire of Greek art. The sculptures of this later period are moving away from the Classical characteristics they still maintain: idealism and Severe style. Polykleitos is most well known for his Canon, depicted in the Doryphoros, but is also known for his Diadumenos and Discophoros. These two sculpted athletes are also done in accordance to his canon and are depicted in contrapposto with chiastic poses. Phidias was one of the most renowned sculptors his time. He oversaw the sculptural program on the Athenian Acropolis and is also known for his giant chryselephantine cult statues of Zeus and Athena Parthenos. Myron is a bronze sculptor of the High Classical period. His statues are known for being imbued with potential energy. His Discobolos is poised to spring, preparing to throw a discus. While still idealized, the figure appears to be frozen in an action of intense movement.

Polykleitos. Diadoumenos. Roman marble copy of Greek bronze original ca. 430 BCE.

Phidias, is thought to have created the style recognized as

Classical Greek sculpture. Another example of Polykleitos canon at work is seen in his statue of Diadumenos, a youth trying on a headband (Figure 6.71), and his statue Discophoros, a discus bearer (Figure 6.72). Both Roman marble copies
Polykleitos. Discophoros. Roman marble copy of a Greek bronze original ca. 440 BCE.

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depict athletic, nude male figures. The bodies of the two figures are idealized; the nudity allows the harmony of parts, or symmetria, to easily be seen, illustrating the principles discussed in the canon. The canon focused on the proportion of parts of the body in relationship to each other to create the ideal male form. Both statues demonstrate fine proportion, ideal balance, and definable parts of the body. The athletes are shown in contrapposto stances. The Discophoros shifts his weight to his left leg. The weight shift is exaggerated by his hips and the slightly forward lean toward his right leg. The figure is balanced on his left leg, which is drawn back, and the rest of his body appropriately responds to this stance. The Diadumenos is also in contrapposto, although his movement seems more forward and stable than that of the Discophoros. The figure is tying on band that identifies him as a winner in an athletic contest. The raised arms add a new dynamic component to the composition. The Discophoros and Diadumenos, along with the Doryphoros, are all sculptures which demonstrate the flexibility of composition based on Polykleitos canon and the innate liveliness produced by contrapposto postures. Despite the lively aspects and unique poses of the figures, all three still retain the severe style and expressionless face of early Greek sculpture. Polykleitos not only worked in bronze but is also known for his chryselephantine cult

statue of Hera at Argos, which in ancient times was compared to Phidias colossal chryselephantine cult statues. Phidias Phidias was the sculptor and artistic director of the Athenian Acropolis and oversaw the sculptural program of all the Acropolis buildings. Phidias was considered one of the greatest sculptors of his time. He created monumental cult statues of gold and ivory for city-states across Greece. Before he created the statue of Athena Parthenos and the colossal bronze of Athena Promachos for Athens, Phidias was most well-known for his chryselephantine statue of Zeus at Olympia, which was considered one of the wonders of the world. The statue of Zeus at Olympia is said to have been 39 feet tall chryselephantine statue. As with the statue of Athena Parthenos, not much is known for sure about how the statue looked, although written accounts and marble and coinage copies provide an idea of what the statue would have looked like. Besides being built on a colossal scale, reports indicate that the figure of Zeus was seated, holding a scepter and a statue of Nike. An eagle was perched either at his side or on his scepter. Besides being decorated with gold and ivory, the sculpture was further embellished with ebony and previous stones.

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Myron The Athenian artist Myron also produced bronze sculptures during the mid-5th century BCE. His most famous work is of the Discobolos, or discus thrower (not to be confused with Polykletios discus bearer, Discophoros). The Discobolous shows a young,athletic, nude male with a severe style face (Figure 6.73) . His body holds a contrapposto pose; one leg bears his weight, while the other is relaxed. A relaxed arm balances his body and the other arm tenses, preparing to let go of the disc. The Discobolus demonstrates a dynamic, chiastic composition that relies on diagonal lines to move the eye about the sculpture. This figure represents another new element in Classical sculpture: the illustration of the potential for energy. The figure is full of life and motion. His energy appears wound up, waiting for the figure to release it. The statue depicts a swift and transitory moment and that
Myron. Discobolus. Roman marble copy of a Greek bronze original ca. 450 BCE. Figure 6.73 Discobolus

is frozen at a precise moment to exhibit the harmony, balance, and rhythm perfected by both the athlete and the artist.
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Paintings, Macedonian Court Art, and the Alexander Mosaic

Alexander the Great was a talented general who conquered territory from the Mediterranean to India and maintained power through use of art.
KEY POINTS

Philip II Philip II of Macedon ruled Macedon and expanded the Macedonian empire into Greece, reigning from 359 until 336 BCE, when he was assassinated. Macedon was a kingdom to the north of mainland Greece and its inhabitants were considered barbarians by the Greeks. However, Philip II was a crafty politician and he carefully cultivated relationships and rivalries among the Greek city-states until, in 338 BCE, he began conquering Greece. Philip II was able to offer stability to the Greek poleis and to strengthen his ties to Greece. He claimed that he was a descendant of the Greek hero Herakles. He established Macedonian power over Greece, which passed to his son Alexander upon his death. Alexander the Great The son of Philip II, Alexander, inherited the throne of Macedon as Philip was preparing to campaign in Asia Minor against the Persian Empire in 336 BCE. Alexander followed through on his fathers plans. In 333 BCE Alexander led his army in a ten year campaign across Asia Minor until reaching the Indus River in India conquering Egypt, Persia, and the Middle East. Along the way, Alexander established cities and practiced cultural assimilation. Instead of forcing conquered territories to adopt a new style of living, Alexander allowed cultures to keep their traditional ways of life, while introducing Greek culture and art to territories he

Philip II of Macedon was a shrewd politician who managed to conquer Greece in the mid fourth century. Upon his death his kingdom passed to his son Alexander who expanded the territory through a ten year campaign that eventually cost him his life. His death marks the start of the Hellenistic period. In order maintain an illusion of being everywhere in his empire at once, Alexander very carefully crafted and maintained his portrait style. He hired artists to create the style for their given medium (sculpture, painting, etc) and his image never changed from a young and charismatic general. The Alexander Mosaic from Pompeii is believed to be a mosaic copy of a panel painting of Alexander defeating Darius III of Persia during the Battle of Issus. This mosaic depicts this dramatic scene with a careful use of light and shadow to create illusionistic space.

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conquered. This created a procession known as Hellenization, as new cultures such as Egyptian and Persian adopted and adapted Greek values. Alexander desired to push into India and conquer the entirety of the continent, but his troops weary and exhausted from ten years of campaign protested. Finally, Alexander relented and turned home. While in Babylon, he became ill and died after twelve days of fever on June 23 in 323 BCE. His death marked the beginning of the Hellenistic period in Greece. Following Alexanders death, his generals and other close companions divided his empire, with each man taking their own territory to rule. The most powerful dynasties included the Attalids who ruled the kingdom of Pergamon in Ionia, the Seleucids who controlled Anatolia and the Near East, and the Ptolemaic dynasty that ruled Egypt. The death of the last Ptolemaic ruler in Egypt, Cleopatra VII, and the annexation of Egypt by the Romans under Octavian, marked the end of the Hellenistic period. Portraiture Alexander very carefully controlled and crafted his portraiture. In order to maintain control and stability in his empire, he had to ensure that his people recognized him and his authority. Because of this, Alexanders portrait was set when he was very young, most likely in his teens, and it never varied throughout his life. To further control his portrait types, Alexander hired artists in different

mediums such as painting, sculpture, and gem cutting to design and promote the portrait style of the medium. In this way, Alexander used art and artisans for their propagandistic value to support and provide a face and legitimacy to his rule.

Figure 6.74 Bust of Alexander Bust of Alexander. Marble. Ca. 350-323 BCE.

The head of Alexander the Great demonstrates Alexanders portrait style (Figure 6.74). Busts of Alexander depict a young, ageless man. His eyes are cast upward to signify divine inspiration and his hair is tousled and unkempt, except for a perfect and characteristic part in the center of his hairline. The portraits of Alexander not only depicted him as ageless but also reflect his charisma and strength as a warrior and leader. Alexander Mosaic The Alexander Mosaic (Figure 6.75) is a Roman floor mosaic from 100 BCE that was excavated from the House of the Faun in Pompeii. The mosaic depicts the Battle of Issus that occurred

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Figure 6.75 Alexander Mosaic

remains focused on Darius and he appears calm and in control, despite the hectic battle happening around him. Darius III on the other hand commands the battle in desperation from his chariot, as his charioteer removes them from battle. His horses flee under the whip of the charioteer and Darius leans outward, stretching out a hand having just thrown a spear. His body position contradicts the motion of his chariot, creating tension between himself and his flight. Other details in the mosaic include the expressions of the soldiers and horses such as a collapsed horse and his rider in the center of

Alexander Mosaic, Battle of Issus. Late second or rst century BCE. Mosaic. House of the Faun, Pompeii, Italy.

the battle to a terrified fallen Persian, whose expression is reflected on his shield. The shading and play of light in the mosaic, reflects the use of light and shadow in the original painting to create a realistic three-dimensional space. Horses and soldiers are shown in multiple perspectives from profile, to three quarter, to frontal, and one horse even faces the audience with his rump. The careful shading within the mosaic tesserae models the characters to give the figures mass and volume.
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between the troops of Alexander the Great and King Darius III of Persia. The mosaic is believed to be a copy of a large scale panel painting by Aristides of Thebes or a fresco by the Philoxenos of Eretria from the late fourth century BCE. The mosaic is remarkable. It depicts a keen sense of detail, dramatically unfolds the drama of the battle, and demonstrates the use of perspective and foreshortening. The two main characters of the battle are easily distinguishable and this portrait of Alexander may be one of his most recognizable. He wears a breastplate and an aegis, and his hair is characteristically tousled. He rides into battle on his horse, Bucephalo, leading his troops. Alexanders gaze

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Architecture
High and Late Classical architecture is distinguished by its adherence to proportion, optical renements, and early exploration of monumentality.
KEY POINTS

The study of Classical era architecture is dominated by the study of the construction of the Athenian Acropolis under the supervision of the Athenian statesmen, Pericles, and the cultural minister, Phidias, and the development of the Athenian agora. The Parthenon on the Acropolis represents a culmination of style in Greek temple architecture. The optical refinements found in the Parthenon, the slight curve given to the whole building and the ideal placement of the metopes and triglyphs over the column capitals represent the Greek desire to achieve a perfect and harmonious design known as symmetria. Overall, the columns become more slender and the entablature lighter during this period. Throughout the Classical period, proportion and monumentality are begun to be examined in terms of architecture, which is more fully utilized in the Hellenistic period. The architectural refinements perfected during the Late Classical period open the doors of experimenting with how architecture could define space, an aspect that became the forefront of Hellenistic architecture. Temples Throughout the Archaic period, Greeks experimented with building in stone and slowly developed the ideal temple. An ideal number of columns was decided upon, where twice the number of columns across the front of the temple plus one was the number of columns down each side (2x + 1 = y). Many temples during the Classical

Architecture during the Early and High Classical periods was refined and the optical illusions corrected to create the most aesthetically pleasing proportions. The High and Late Classical periods begin to tweak these principles to experiment with monumentality and space. Temples during the Late Classical period began to experiment with new architectural designs and decoration. The Tholos at Delphi is a circular shrine with two rings of columns, the outer Doric and the inner Corinthian. This demonstrates that Corinthians decorative use. The Temple of Epikourious at Bassae is noted for its unique ground plan and the use of architectural elements from all three Classical orders: Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian. The temples use of architectural decoration and ground plan demonstrate changing aesthetics. The theater in the city of Epidaurus is a prime example of the architectural and engineering skill during this period. The theater is built with refined acoustics that could amplify the sounds on the stage to every one of the theaters 15,000 spectators.

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period followed this formula for their peripteral colonnade, although not all. Also, many temples in the Classical period and beyond are noted for the curvature given to the stylobate of the temple that corrected for optical distortions. The Temple Epikourious at Bassae is a hexastyle temple with fifteen columns down its length. The temple was built by the Parthenon architect, Iktinos, in the second half of the fifth century BCE. The temples plan is unusual for a variety of different attributes (Figure 6.76). First, the temple faces north-south instead of east-west, which accommodates the landscape of the site. Secondly, the temple has a door on the naos which provides access and light to the naos. Thirdly, it takes some cues from the Parthenon, such as a colonnade in the naos, but in this case the colonnade is a single story and only the columns of the temple and not the stylobate have entasis. Finally, the temple has elements of all three architectural orders and is currently has the earliest known example of a Corinthian capital. Only one Corinthian capital has been found and it is
Figure 6.76 Temple of Apollo Epicurius at Bassae Ground plan of the Temple of Apollo Epicurius. Marble. Bassae, Greece.

Figure 6.77 Tholos of Athena Pronaia Theodoros of Phoncia. Tholos. Marble. Ca. 375 BCE. Delphi, Greece. Figure 6.78 Theater at Epidauros Polykleitos the Younger. Theater. Ca. 350 BCE. Epidauros, Greece.

hypothesized that it was place on a column in the center of the naos, replacing the cult statue as an aniconic representation of Apollo. The Tholos at Delphi (Figure 6.77) was a sanctuary of Athena Pronaia built by Theodoros of Phoenicia between 380 and 360 BCE. The tholos was a circular shrine with twenty exterior Doric columns

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and 10 Corinthian columns in the interior. The Corinthian capital was developed in the middle of the fifth century and used minimally until the Hellenistic era and was later popular with the Romans. Theater of Epidaurus The large theatre located at Epidaurus is an example of the architecture and engineering at the time (Figure 6.78). The theater was designed by Polykleitos the Younger, the son of the sculptor Polykleitos, in the mid fourth century BCE. The theater seats up to 15,000 people. Like all Greek theaters, this theatre was built into the hillside, which supports the stadium seating, and the theater overlooks a lush valley and mountainous landscape. The theater is especially well known for its acoustics that could amplify a spoken voice on the stage to every spectator, no matter where they sat. The shape of the theater helped to amplify the sounds from the stage, while the limestone seating is credited with muffling additional noises coming from the crowd.
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Section 6

The Hellenistic Period

Architecture and the Corinthian Order Sculpture Pergamon Money and Fashion: The Commissions of Roman Patrons

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Architecture and the Corinthian Order

Architecture during the Hellenistic period focused on theatricality and drama; the period also saw the development of the Corinthian order.

KEY POINTS (cont.)

The Corinthian order was developed during the Hellenistic period. The columnar style of the order is similar in many ways to the Ionic order except for the column's capital which is vegetal and lush. A double layer of acanthus leaves line the basket from which stylized stems and volutes emerge.

Architecture
KEY POINTS

Hellenistic architecture, in a manner!similar!to Hellenistic sculpture, focused on theatricality, drama, and the experience of the viewer. Public spaces and temples were created with the people in mind, and so were built on a new monumental scale. Stoas were colonnade porticos that were used to define public space and protect !patrons from the elements. Stoas are often found around a citys agora, turning the citys central place for civic, administrative, and market elements into a grand space. The Temple of Apollo at Didyma was an oracle site with an ambitious building plan that was never completed. Its plan consisted of a double colonnade of massively tall columns that engulfed the viewer in dark!corridors!before opening into a bright courtyard and the shrine to god.

Architecture in the Greek world during the Hellenistic period developed theatrical tendencies, as had Hellenistic sculpture. The conquests of Alexander the Great had caused power to shift from the city-states of Greece to the ruling family dynasties; dynastic families patronized large complexes and dramatic urban plans within their cities. These urban plans often focused on the natural setting, and were intended to enhance views and create dramatic civic, judicial, and market spaces that differed from the orthogonal plans of the houses that surrounded them. Stoa A stoa, or a covered walkway or portico, was used to bound agoras and other public spaces. Highlighting the edge of open areas with such decorative architecture created a theatrical effect for the public space and also provided citizens with a basic daily form of protection from the elements. Both the stoa and the agora would

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Figure 6.79 Restored Stoa of Attalos The restored Stoa of Attalos. Marble. Ca. 150 BCE. Agora, Athens, Greece.

Figure 6.80 Temple of Apollo Temple of Apollo. Begun ca. 313 BCE. Didyma, Turkey.

have been used by merchants, artists, religious festivals, judicial courts, and civic administration. The Stoa of Attalos (Figure 6.79) in Athens was built the Agora, under the patronage of King Attalos II of Pergamon. This portico, built around 150 BCE, consists of a double colonnadel it was two stories tall, and had a row of rooms on the ground floor. The exterior colonnade on the ground floor level was of the Doric order; the interior columns were Ionic; while on the second level Ionic columns lined the exterior and columns with a simple, stylized capital lined the interior. Temple of Apollo at Didyma Other examples of grand and monumental architecture can be found in Ionia, modern day Turkey in Pergamon and Didyma. The Temple of Apollo at Didyma was both a temple and an oracle site for the god Apollo (Figure 6.80). The temple was designed by the architects Paionios of Ephesus and Daphnis of Miletus and was begun in 313 BCE and was never completed, although work continued until the second century CE. This temples site is vast. (Figure 6.81) The interior court was 71 feet wide by 175 feet long and contained a small shrine. The court was also dipteral in form, edged with a double row of 108 columns 65 feet tall which surrounded the temple. The structure creates a series of imposing spaces from the exterior colonnade to the oracle rooms and the interior courtyard inside of which the shrine to Apollo stood. The building plan also played with theatricality and drama, forcing its visitors through a dark interior and then opening up into

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a bright and open courtyard that did not have a roof. The building is dramatically different from the perfected Classical plan of temples. Instead of focusing on symmetry and harmony, the building focuses on the experience of the viewer. Corinthian Order The Corinthian order is considered the third order of Classical architecture. The orders columns are similar to Ionic columns; the columns are slender and fluted and sit atop a base. The capital of the column differs and is substantially vegetal. The capital consists of a double layer of acanthus leaves and a stylized plant stem that curls up towards the abacus in the shape of a scroll or volute
Figure 6.81 Plan and Elevation of the Temple of Apollo Plan and elevation of the Temple of Apollo. Begun ca. 313 BCE. Didyma, Turkey.

Figure 6.82 Corinthian Capital Corinthian Capital. Marble. Ca. 14 BCE. Odeon of Agrippa, Agora, Athens, Greece.

(Figure 6.82). The decorative Corinthian order was not widely adopted in Greece, although it was popular in tholos shrines; it was, however, used substantially throughout the Roman period.
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Sculpture
A key component of Hellenistic sculpture is the expression of a sculptures face and body to elicit an emotional response from the viewer.
KEY POINTS

During this time, the rules of Classical art were pushed and abandoned in favor of new themes, genres, drama, and pathos that never before were explored by Greek artists. Furthermore, the Greek artists added a new level of naturalism to their figures by adding an elasticity to their form and expressions, both facial and physical, to their figures. These figures interact with their audience in a new theatrical manner by eliciting an emotional reaction from their view, this is known as pathos. Nike of Samothrace One of the most iconic statues of the period, it commemorates a naval victory (Figure 6.83). This Parian marble statue from the early second century BCE depicts Nike, who has lost her arms and head, alighting onto the prow of the ship. The prow is visible
Figure 6.83 Nike of Samothrace Marble. ca. 190 BCE. Samothrace, Greece.

Hellenistic sculpture takes the naturalism of the bodys form and expression to level of hyper-realism where the expression of the sculptures face and body elicit an emotional response. The sculptures are full of pathos and drama and no longer focus on the ideal. Drama and pathos are new factors in Hellenistic sculpture. Figures are crafted and carved to cause an immediate emotional response from the viewer. The style of the sculpting is often exaggerated and details are emphasized to add a new heightened level of motion and pathos. New compositions and states of mind are explored in Hellenistic sculptures including old age, drunkenness, sleep, agony, and despair. Portraiture also becomes popular in this period and figures are no longer idealized, but represented as they are with all their imperfections.

Hellenistic sculpture continues the trend of increasing naturalism seen in the stylistic development of Greek art.

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beneath her feet and the scene is filled with theatricality and naturalism as the statue reacts to her surroundings. Nikes feet, legs, and body thrust forward in contradiction to her drapery and wings that stream backwards. Her clothing whips around her from the wind and her wings lift upwards. This depiction provides the impression that she has just landed and that this is the precise moment that she is settling onto the ships prow. In addition to the sculpting, the figure was most likely set within a fountain, creating a theatrical setting where both the imagery and the auditory effect of the fountain would create a striking image of action and triumph. Venus de Milo This sculpture of Aphrodite covered from the waist down is another well-known icon of the Hellenistic period (Figure 6.84). From the polis Milos, the Venus de Milos was created between 130 and 100 BCE by the sculptor Alexandros of Antioch. Today
by Alexandros of Antioch. Marble. Ca. 130-100 BCE. Melos, Greece. Figure 6.84 Venus de Milo

the goddess arms are missing, although it has been suggested that one arm clutched at her slipping drapery while the other arm held out an apple, perhaps an illusion to the Judgment of Paris and the abduction of Helen. Originally, like all Greek sculptures, the statue would have been painted and adorned with metal jewelry, which is evident from the attachment holes. This image is in some ways similar to the Late Classical image of Aphrodite of Knidos but is considered to be more erotic than its earlier counterpart. For instance, while she is covered below the waist, Aphrodite makes little attempt at covering herself. She appears to be teasing and ignoring her viewer, instead of accosting him and making eye contact. Altered States While the Nike of Samothrace exudes a sense of drama and the Venus de Milo a new level of feminine sexuality, other Greek sculptors explored new states of being. Instead of, as was favored during the Classical period, reproducing images of the ideal Greek male or female, sculptors began to depict images of the old, tired, sleeping, and drunknone of which are ideal representations of a man or woman. The Barberini Faun, also known as the Sleeping Satyr (Figure 6.85), depicts an effeminate figure, most likely a satyr, drunk and passed out on a rock. His body splays across the rock face without regard to

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Figure 6.85 Barberini Faun

modesty. He appears to have fallen to sleep in the midst of a drunken revelry and he sleeps restlessly, his brow is knotted, face worried, and his limbs are tense and stiff. Unlike earlier depicts of nude men, but in a similar manner to the Venus de
Figure 6.86 Drunken Old Woman

with her arms and legs wrapped around a large jug and a hand gripping the jugs neck. Grape vines decorating the top of the jug make it clear that it holds wine. The womans face, instead of being expressionless, is turned upward and she appears to be calling out, possibly to those passing by. Not only is she intoxicated, but she is old: deep wrinkles line her face, her eyes are sunken, and her bones stick out through her skin. Another image of the old and weary is a bronze statue of a boxer sitting down (Figure 6. 87). While the image of an athlete is a common theme in Greek art, this bronze presents a Hellenistic twist. He is old and tired, much like the Late Classical image of a Weary Herakles. However, unlike Herakles, the boxer is depicted beaten and exhausted from his pursuit. His face is swollen, lip spilt, and ears cauliflowered. This is not an image of a heroic, young athlete but rather an old, defeated man many years past
Bronze. Ca. 100-50 BCE. Rome, Italy. Figure 6.87 Seated Boxer

Or Sleeping Satyr, Roman marble copy of Greek bronze original ca. 220 BCE. Rome, Italy.

Milo, the Barberini Faun seems to exude sexuality. Images of drunkenness were also created of women, which can be seen in a statue attributed to the Hellenistic artist Myron of a drunken beggar woman (Figure 6. 86). This woman sits on the floor
Roman marble copy after Greek original by Myron ca. 200-180 BCE.

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his prime. Portraiture Individual portraits, instead of idealization, also became popular during the Hellenistic period. A portrait of Demosthenes (Figure 6.88) by Polyeuktos from 280 BCE is not an idealization of the Athenian statesman and orator. Instead, the statue takes notes of Demosthenes' characteristic features, including his overbite, furrowed brow, stooped shoulders, and old, loose skin. Even portrait busts, often copied from Polyeuktos' famed statue, depict the weariness and sorrow of a man despairing the conquest of Philip II and end of Athenian democracy.
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Figure 6.88 Demosthenes Portrait bust, Roman copy after Greek bronze original by Polyeuktos ca. 280 BCE.

Pergamon
Pergamon came to power under the Attalids and provides examples of the drama and theatrics found in Hellenistic art and architecture.
KEY POINTS

Pergamon was the capital city of the Kingdom of Pergamon which was ruled by the Attalids in the centuries following the death of Alexander the Great. The Acropolis of Pergamon is famous for its monumental architecture. Most of the buildings commanded a great view of the surrounding countryside and together create a dramatic public space. The Altar of Zeus at Pergamon was a monumental u-shaped Ionic building that stood on a high platform and was accessed by a wide set of stairs. Besides its dramatic architecture, the Altar is known for its gigantomachy frieze and statues of defeated Gauls. The gigantomachy frieze represents the full blossoming of Hellenistic sculpture. The figures are chiastic and dramatic and the scenes are full of tension. They are carved in high relief with deep drilling that allows for a play of light and shadows that increases the naturalism of the figures. The statue group of the Dying Gauls depicts a defeated trumpeter and a Gallic chief killing himself and his wife. The

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KEY POINTS (cont.)

Altar of Zeus
Figure 6.89 Altar of Zeus

figures, while enemies Pergamon, are depicted with incredible pathos and heroics to demonstrate their worthiness as adversaries and empower the Attalid victors.

The ancient city of Pergamon, now modern day Bergama, in Turkey was the capital of the Kingdom of Pergamon following the death of Alexander the Great and was ruled under the Attalid dynasty. The Acropolis of Pergamon is a prime example of Hellenistic architecture and the convergence of nature and architectural design to create dramatic and theatrical sites. The Acropolis was built into and on top a steep hill that commands great views of the surrounding countryside. Both the upper and lower portions of the Acropolis were home to many important structures to urban life, including gymnasiums, agoras, baths, libraries, a theater, shrines, temples, and altars. The theater at Pergamon could seat 10,000 people and was one of the steepest theaters in the ancient world. Like all Hellenic theaters the theater at Pergamon was built into the hillside, which supported the structure and provided stadium seating that would have overlooked the ancient city and its surrounding countryside. The theater is one example of the creation and use of dramatic and theatrical architecture.
Altar of Zeus. Marble. Cal. 175 BCE. Original from Bergama, Turkey now in Berlin, Germany.

Another element found at Pergamon is the great Altar of Zeus (which now resides in Germany (Figure 6.89). The Altar was commissioned in the first half of the second century BCE during the reign of King Eumenes II to commemorate his victory over the Gauls, who were migrating into Asia Minor. The altar is a u-shaped Ionic building built on a high platform with central steps leading to the top (Figure 6.90). It faced east, was located near the theater of Pergamon, and commanded an outstanding view of the region. The Altar is known for its grand design and for its frieze
Plan of the Altar of Zeus. Ca. 175 BCE. Bergama, Turkey. Figure 6.90 Plan of the Altar of Zeus

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which wraps 370 feet around the base of the altar depicting gigantomachy. The Gigantomacy The gigantomachy depicts the Olympian gods fighting against the Giants, the children of the goddess Gaia. The frieze is known for its incredibly high relief on which the figures are barely restrained by the wall and for its deep drilling of lines with details to create dramatic shadows. The high relief and deep drilling create a play between light and shadow that increases the liveliness and naturalism of the scene. The figures are rendered with high plasticity. The texture of their skin, drapery, and scales add another level of naturalism. Furthermore, as the frieze follows the stairs, the limbs of the figures begin to spill out of their frame and onto the stairs, physically breaking into the space of the viewer (Figure 6. 92). The style and high drama of the scenes is often referred to as the Hellenistic Baroque for its exaggerated motion, emphasis on details, and the liveliness of the characters. The most famous scene on the frieze depicts Athena fighting the giant Alkyoneus (Figure 6.91). She is depicted grabbing his head and pulling it back while Gaia emerges from the ground to plead for the life of her son and a winged Nike reaches over to crown Athena. Athenas drapery swirls around her with deep folds and her whole body is nearly removed from the frieze. The figure of Athena

Figure 6.92 Altar of Zeus Altar of Zeus. Marble. Cal. 175 BCE. Original from Bergama, Turkey now in Berlin, Germany.

Figure 6.91 Athena and Alkyoneos Athen and Alkyoneos. Marble. Ca. 175 BCE. From east frieze of the Altar of Zeus, Bargama, Turkey.

demonstrates the high relief and deep drilling of the frieze. The figures are depicted with the heighten emotion commonly found on Hellenistic statues. Alkyoneus face strains in pain and Gaias eyes,

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which are all that remain of her face, are full of terror and sorrow at the death of her son. The entire composition is depicted in a chiastic shape. Athena stretches out to grasps Alkoyneus head, the two figures pull at each other in opposite directions. Meanwhile, the figure of Nike moves diagonally towards Athena, showing their convergence in a moment of victory. The diagonal line created by Gaia mimics the shape of her son, connecting the two figures through line and pathos. The scene is dramatic filled with the tension and emotion that is a key feature in Hellenistic sculpture. The Dying Gauls A group of statues depicting dying Gauls, the defeated enemy of the Attalids, were situated inside the Altar of Zeus. The original set of statues is believed to have been done in bronze by the court sculptor, Epigonus, in 230-220 BCE. Now only marble Roman copies of the figures remain. Like the figures on the frieze and other Hellenistic sculptures, the figures are depicted with lifelike details and a high level of naturalism. They are also depicted in the common motif of barbarians. The men are nude and wear a Celtic torc and their hair is shaggy and disheveled. The figures are positioned in dramatic compositions and are shown dying heroically, which turns them into worthy adversaries increasing the perception of power of the Attalid dynasty. All three figures in the group are depicted in a Hellenistic manner. To fully appreciate the

Figure 6.93 Dying Gaul Epigonos. Dying Gaul. Roman marble copy of Greek bronze original ca. 230-220 BCE. Pergamon, Turkey.

statues, it is best to walk around them. Their pain, nobility, and death are evident from all angles. One Gaul is depicted lying down, supporting himself over his shield and a discarded trumpet (Figure 6.93). He looks downward, his brow is furrowed, and his face is hard as he prepares himself for death. He supports his tense upper body and has a bleeding wound under his chest. His muscles are large and strong, signifying his strength as a warrior and implying the strength of the one who struck him down. Two other figures complete the group. One figure depicts a Gallic chief committing suicide after he has killed his own wife. This

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displays another heroic and noble deed of the foes, for typically women and children of the defeated would be murdered to avoid them from being captured and sold as slaves by the victors. The chief holds his fallen wife by the arm as he plunges his sword into his chest, where blood is already exiting the wound.
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Money and Fashion: The Commissions of Roman Patrons

Wealthy Romans commissioned both copies of famous Greek sculptures and originals done in the dramatic, Hellenistic style.
KEY POINTS

Romans were not only attracted to Greek culture and art, but readily bought copies of famous Greek sculptures and commissioned originals by contemporary Greek artists. This helped the Greek Hellenistic style to travel and spread throughout the Mediterranean. The statue of Laocon displays a dramatic composition of the last moments of Laocon and his sons as they were tortured and killed by serpents. The figures are expressive and the composition is dramatic. Laocon establishes the tension through his chiastic body position. His face, and that of his sons, depict terror and agony, expressions reflected in their bodies. The scene immediately elicits an emotional response from the viewer, including pity, horror, and fear. The Farnese Bull is another example of a Roman commission.

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KEY POINTS (cont.)

Laocon Laocon was a Trojan priest of Poseidon who warned the Trojans, Beware of Greeks bearing gifts, when the Greeks left a large wooden horse at the gates of Troy. Athena or Poseidon (depending on the storys version), upset by his vain warning to his people, sent two sea serpents to torture and kill Laocon and his sons. A Hellenistic marble statue (attributed by Roman historian Pliny the Elder to the sculptors Agesander, Athenodoros, and Polydorus from the island of Rhodes) was created in the early first century CE to depict this scene (Figure 6.94).
Figure 6.94 Laocon Agesander, Athenodoros, and Polydorus of Rhodes."Laocon. Marble. Early rst century BCE.

The colossal sculpture was carved from a single block of marble and depicts the tragic end of Dirce's life. The large scale allows viewers to approach the narrative from all sides, which slowly reveals the varied emotions of each figure.

The Romans conquered Greece in the second century BCE, and the peninsula fell to Roman power in 146 BCE. Greece was a key province of the Roman Empire, and the Romans interest in Greek culture helped to circulate Greek art around the empire, especially in Italy, during the Hellenistic period and into the Imperial period of Roman hegemony. Greek sculptors were in high demand throughout the remaining territories of the Alexanders empire and then throughout the Roman Empire. Famous Greek statues were copied and replicated for wealthy Roman patricians and Greek artists were commissioned for large-scale sculptures in the Hellenistic style. Many Greek sculptures that we have today survive only as marble Roman copies (often they were originally cast in bronze). Some of the most famous colossal marble groups were sculpted in the Hellenistic style for wealthy Roman patrons and for the imperial court. Despite their Roman audience, these were purposely created in the Greek style and continued to display the drama, tension, and pathos commonly found in Hellenistic art.

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Figure 6.95 Detail of Laocon's!face Agesander, Athenodoros, and Polydorus of Rhodes. Deatil of Laocon's face. Marble. Early rst century BCE.

Farnese Bull The Farnese Bull (Figure 6.96), named for the patrician Roman family who owned the statue in the Renaissance, is believed to have been created at the end of the second century BCE for the collection of Asinius Pollio, a Roman patrician. Pliny the Elder attributes the statue to the artists and brothers Apolllonius and Tauriscus of Trallles, Rhodes. The colossal marble statue, carved from a single block of marble, depicts the myth of Dirce, wife of the King of Thebes, who was tied to a bull by the sons of Antiope to punish her for mistreating their mother. The composition is large and
Figure 6.96 Farnese Bull

Similar to other examples of Hellenistic sculpture, the marble sculpture of Laocon and his sons depicts a chiastic scene filled with drama, tension, and pathos. The figures writhe as they are caught in the coils of the serpents. The faces of the three men are filled with agony and toil, which is reflected in the tension and strain of their muscles. Laocon stretches out in a long diagonal from his right arm to his left as he attempts to free himself. His sons are also entangled by the serpents, and their faces react to their doom with confusion and despair (Figure 6.95). The carving and detail, the attention to the musculature of the body, and the deep drilling, seen in Laocons hair and beard, are all characteristic elements of the Hellenistic style.

Apollonius and Tauriscus of Tralles, Rhodes. Farnese Bull. Marble. Ca. 200-180 BCE.

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dramatic, and demands the viewer to encircle it in order to view and appreciate the narrative and pathos from all angles. The various angles reveal different expressions, from the terror of Dirce, to the determination of Antiopes sons, to the savagery of the bull.
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Chapter 7

The Etruscans

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Section 1

Early Etruscan Art

Orientalizing Art Archaic Art Temples Tombs

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Orientalizing Art
Etruscan society developed in central Italy; the Orientalizing period connected Etruscan arts with eastern Mediterranean culture.
KEY POINTS

KEY POINTS (cont.)

The Etruscans are also known for their pottery, specifically the production of bucchero. This is a fine, often thin, black pottery that is fired and burnished to create a rich, lustrous shine. Bucchero was developed to imitate metal and became a luxury good in its own right.

Etruscan civilization flourished in central Italy and expanded as far north as the Po River and as far south as the Tiber River and northern Campania. Despite having a distinct artistic style, Etruscan art follows similar artistic and stylistic developments to the Greeks, due to Greek influence, and is divided into similar artistic periods including the Orientalizing (700-600 BCE), Archaic (600-480 BCE), and Classical (480-200 BCE) periods. Etruscan art during the Orientalizing period demonstrates oriental influences, similar to those seen in Greek art, including the use of intricate designs, patterning, and the depiction of animals, including lions, leopards, and composite animals like sphinxes and griffins. The Etruscans are known for their metalwork, especially their skill in crafting gold. Gold jewelry was popular among the Etruscans and often buried with its owners. The fibulas, earrings, bracelets, and other pieces of jewelry and decoration demonstrate Etruscan skill with repouss and granulation.

Etruscan Civilization The Etruscan civilization thrived in central Italy during the first millennium BCE. During the eighth and seventh centuries BCE, the Etruscans became sea traders and actively participated in Mediterranean trade. The civilization also began to expand, and the Etruscans eventually settled as far north as the Po River and as far south as the Tiber River and northern parts of Campania (Figure 7. 1). Aside from trade, a large part of Etruscan wealth came from the rich natural resources of the territories they lived in. The soil was fertile for agriculture and the land was rich with minerals and metals, which were mined. Etruscan cities and regions appear to have been ruled over by a king, and Etruscan kings are accounted for as the early rulers of Rome. While the Romans proudly remember overthrowing their Etruscan rulers, many aspects of Etruscan society were adopted by the Romans.

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Very little is known about the Etruscans through written records. The Etruscans did not leave any written historical accounts, and what is known today about their culture and history is written records by the Greeks and Romans which have survived. These records, while providing information, view Etruscan culture from an outside, foreign eye and so can be deceptive in their accounts of Etruscan society. Because of this, most of what is known about the Etruscans comes from archaeological records. Since many Etruscan cities have been continually occupied since their foundation, first by the Etruscans, then Romans, up through modern day, a majority of Etruscan archaeological sites are tombs and necropoleis. Archaeologists and historians rely on Etruscan funerary culture to derive ideas about the societys culture, customs, and history. Orientalizing Art Despite the distinctive character of Etruscan art, the history and stylistic division of Etruscan art generally follows the divisions seen within Greek art history and stylistic developments. The Etruscans established contact with eastern cultures, including Greeks, Phoenicians, and Egyptians, around 700 BCE, beginning the Orientalizing period of their culture. As is similar with the Greek Orientalizing period, the art of this period in Etruria reflects eastern themes and motifs. Patterning and depictions of animals, especially

Figure 7.1 Map of Etruria.

lions, leopards, and mythological composite creatures such as sphinxes and griffins were common. Gold and Ivory The Etruscans were master metal smiths and mined various ores including iron, tin, copper, silver, and gold, even smelting bronze to work with. The Etruscan artists who worked with metal were extremely talented and developed unique skills and specialized techniques, including granulation and repouss. Gold

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Figure 7.2 Gold stud with Pegasus and Chimera Earring stud with Pegasus and chimera. Gold. Ca. 4th century BCE.

ornaments and jewelry depict both of these techniques, demonstrating Etruscan precision when working with gold to create intricate designs and patterns in incredibly fine detail. The gold jewelry, including an enormous gold fibula and golden bracelets, from the Regolini-Galassi tomb, a wealthy Etruscans family tomb that dates from 650-600 BCE, demonstrates these techniques. The elaborate and intricate metal work was not isolated to the Orientalizing period but continued to be created by the Etruscans through the next several centuries. A gold reel, possibly an earring stud, from the early fourth century BCE represents the combination of both the hammered relief of repouss as well as the careful and precise fusing of tiny gold granules (Figure 7.2). The work also

Figure 7.3 Gold Earring Stud Earing stud. Gold with glass paste insets. Ca. 530-480 BCE.

demonstrates lingering oriental inspired designs that depict repetitive images of Pegasus and the chimera. Another earring from the Archaic period combines repouss and granulation with glass beads and intricate, patterned designs (Figure 7.3). Other objects besides the gold jewelry found in the Regolini-Galassi tomb demonstrate the Orientalizing influences on Etruscan art. An ivory pyxis (Figure 7.4), which appears to imitate a Phoenican style, has a clearly Etruscan origin. The relief figures are carved in an Etruscan style, with egg-shaped human heads and distinctly thin, straight noses and oval eyes. The pyxis is made from ivory, which demonstrates that the material was imported into Etruria as a raw

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Figure 7.4 Pyxis with sphinxshaped handle lid. Ivory. Ca. 650-625 BCE. RegoliniGalassi Tomb, Cerveteri, Italy. Pyxis with sphinxshaped handle lid. Ivory. Ca. 650-625 BCE. RegoliniGalassi Tomb, Cerveteri, Italy.

for basic, utilitarian pottery such as storage jars and cooking pots as well as for funerary urns during the Orientalizing period. Bucchero pottery was developed by the Etruscans (Figure 7.5). This type of pottery is created from a fine clay that was fired to create a glossy, black surface that was then burnished to shine. The pottery style was developed to imitate the appearance and shine of metal and was developed around 675 BCE. While less expensive than metal vessels, bucchero was still considered a luxury item and was exported around the Mediterranean; bucchero vessels have been found as far east as Egypt and Syria. During the Orientalizing period, bucchero was created with thin walls that at times could be less than 2 mm thin. This is type of bucchero ware is known today as bucchero sottile, or delicate bucchero, and the thin, delicate walls further reinforced the materials imitation of metal.

good for the Etruscans themselves to work. The Oriental theme is reflected in the lids handle in the shape of a sphinx, the frieze of animals at the top, and the sphinxes in the bottom register. The middle register depicts a procession of horses and chariots. Pottery The Etruscans were also well known for their pottery. Etruscan pottery was typically made from two materials, impasto and bucchero. Impasto was a coarse form of pottery made from a clay that contained chips of mica, a silicate, or stone. Impasto was used
Figure 7.5 Bucchero Plate Plate. Bucchero. Ca. 7th-6th century BCE.

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Decoration on bucchero was often limited to abstracted designs and did not often include figures. Bucchero was often simply decorated with incised lines that formed geometric and abstract patterns. Some patterns were incised with a stylus and others with a toothed wheel or comb-like instruments to create consistent rows of dots or patterns of dots in the shape of fans. While bucchero thrived during the Orientalizing and Archaic periods, its production began to decline during the Classical period as painted Greek pottery became more and more available and popular in Etruscan culture and as goods for funerary deposits.
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Archaic Art
Etruscan archaic art often produced terracotta statues that were stylistically and aesthetically Etruscan, but inuenced by Greek art.
KEY POINTS

During the Archaic period, from 600 to 480 BCE, the Etruscans began building large wood and terracotta temples, creating underground burial chambers, and producing large scale terracotta sculptures. Stylistic influences from the Greeks in Etruscan Archaic sculpture include the Archaic smile and the stylized patterning of hair and clothing. Yet Etruscan sculpture was distinct: the figures had egg shaped heads, almond eyes, were clothed, and their bodies had a higher degree of plasticity. The Apulu of Veii is an example of Etruscan Archaic sculpture. The figure, believed to have been made by the Etruscan artist Vulca from Veii, depicts an Apulu in midstride, with an outstretched arm. The figure is dynamic and not as static as Greek archaic examples. The Sarcophagus of Spouses depicts a couple reclining together on a dining couch. The figures are distinctly Etruscan, animated through their gestures, with faces made from the same mold and distinguished by feminine or masculine characteristics.

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During the Archaic period, from 600 to 480 BCE, Etruscan culture flourished. During this time, the Etruscans began building stone and wood temples and creating subterranean tombs. Etruscan trade flourished and the civilization expanded to its furthest boundaries. The period and style of art is named for its Greek counterpart, and although there are similarities between Etruscan and Greek archaic art, there are many important differences as well. Terracotta Few examples of large-scale or monumental Etruscan sculptures survive. Very few Etruscan bronzes escaped being melted down for reuse, and the Etruscans did not often work in marble or other hard stones. Instead, many surviving examples of Etruscan sculpture are in terracotta. Terracotta is a baked clay that is fired and painted. While the firing of the terracotta could be difficult, especially for large pieces, working with terracotta was a means of additive sculpture. Unlike subtractive sculptural techniques used by the Greeks when carving limestone and marble, this allowed for subtle modeling and more expressive and dynamic features. A pair of winged horses (Figure 7.6) from the Altar of the Queen, an Etruscan sanctuary located in Tarquinia, are examples of Etruscan skill and modeling with terracotta. The horses are muscular, with strong chests, fine legs, and elongated bodies. They appear to prance as they wait to pull a chariot. Their necks arch, with manes

Figure 7.6 Winged Horses Winged Horses. Painted terracotta. Ca. 6th century BCE. Tarquinia, Italy.

blowing in the wind, and their heads are drawn in, as if pulled back by a pair of unseen reins. Apulu of Veii The Apulu of Veii is a prime example of Etruscan sculpture during the Archaic period. Apulu, the Etruscan equivalent of Apollo, is a terracotta akroteria figure that is slightly larger than life-size from the Portonaccio Temple at Veii, an Etruscan city just north of Rome. The figure was part of a group of akroteria that stood on the ridgepole of the temple and depicted the myth of Heracles and the Ceryneaian hind. The figure of Apulu confronts the hero, Heracles,

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who is attempting to capture a deer sacred to Apulus sister, Artumes (Artemis). Of the akroteria figures from this temple, Apulu is the most complete surviving statue. The figure of Apulu has several Greek characteristics. The face is similar to the faces of Archaic Greek kouroi figures. The face is simply carved and an archaic smile provides a notion of emotion and realism (Figure 7.7). The hair of Apulu is stylized and falls across his shoulders and
Figure 7.7 Apulu of Veii

Figure 7.8 Sarcophagus of Spouses Sarcophagus of Spouses. Painted terracotta. C. 520 BCE. Banditaccia Necropolis, Cerveteri, Italy.

down his neck and back in stylized, geometric twists that seem to represent braids. The figure, like Greek figures, was painted in bright colors, and the edge of his toga appears to be lined in blue. Unlike Archaic Greek statues and kouroi, the figure of Apulu is full of movement and presents aesthetic from the Greek style. The figure of Apulu is dynamic and flexible; Apulu strides forward, with an arm stretched out. He leans forward on his front foot and his back foot is slightly raised. The body is more faithfully modeled (comparable to later Greek kouroi), and instead of being a nude male, he wears a toga that is draped over one shoulder. The garments folds are patterned and stylized but cling to the body, allowing the viewer to clearly distinguish the gods chest and thigh muscles. While the Etruscan artist applied an Archaic smile to Apulu, the figures lips are full and his head is more egg-shaped than round both characteristics of Etruscan art and sculpture. The Apulu of Veii is believed to have been made by the Etruscan artist Vulca of Veii. Besides the Apulu of Veii, Vulca is credited by

Apulu of Veii. Painted terracotta. Ca. 510-500 BCE. Portonaccio Temple, Veii, Italy.

the viewer with an entirely different

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Roman historians with the creation of the cult statue for the Temple of Jupiter Optiumus Maximus, the most important temple in Rome. Vulca created this statue when Rome was ruled under the last Etruscan king, Tarquinius Superbus. The Sarcophagus of Spouses A late sixth century sarcophagus excavated from a tomb in Cerveteris is a terracotta sarcophagus depicting a couple reclining together on a dining couch (Figure 7.8). The piece is made from terracotta and displays not only the Etruscan Archaic style but also Etruscan skill in working with terracotta. The figures' torsos are modeled and their heads are in a typical Etruscan egg-shape with almond shaped eyes, long noses, and full lips. The hair is stylized and the figures are animated by their gestures. The use of gesture is seen throughout Etruscan art, both in sculpture and painting. The woman may have originally held a small vessel, and the couple appears to be intimate and loving due to the fact that man has his arm around the woman. A close look at the figures reveals some peculiarities. First, the faces of the two figures are the same and in fact were most likely created from the same mold, a technique common in Etruscan terracotta sculpture. The identical faces are differentiated by the addition of female and male hairstyles, including the mans beard. Furthermore, despite the modeling of their upper bodies, the legs of

the figures are flat and rather lifeless, an odd comparison to the liveliness of the figures upper half.
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Temples
Etruscan temples derive from Greek models but are distinguished by a high podium, deep porch, prostyle columns, and frontality.
KEY POINTS

Etruscan temples were adapted from Greek style temples to create a new Etruscan style. This style later influenced Roman temple design. The temple building was only one part of the templum, the defined sacred space that including the building, altar and other sacred ground, springs, and buildings. As is similar with Greek and Roman temples, the altar used for sacrifice and ritual ceremonies was located outside the temple. Today only the foundations and terracotta decorations of Etruscan temples remain. Since Etruscan temples were primarily built of wood and mudbrick that eroded and degraded over time. The Etruscans used stone or tufa as the foundation of their temples. Tufa is a local volcanic stone that was soft and easy to carve and which hardens when exposed to air. The superstructure of the temple was built from wood and mud brick. The walls would be covered in stucco or plaster and burnished to shine or painted. Terracotta roof tiles protected the organic material and increase the longevity and integrity of the building. Archaeology and a written account by the architect Vitruvius during the late first century BCE, allows us to reconstruct a basic model of an Etruscan temple (Figure 7.10). Etruscan temples were frontal, axial, and built on a high podium with a single, central staircase that allowed access to the temples cellas. The Etruscan temple was fronted by two rows of prostyle columns. The columns are of the

The superstructure of Etruscan temples was built from wood and mud brick that was often covered in stucco, plaster, or painted for decoration. The temple had a stone or tufa foundation and the roof was covered in protective terracotta tiles, which consisted of the temples archaeological remains. Despite their Greek origins, Etruscan temples are uniquely Etruscan. The temple is frontal and axial and often has more than one cella. Etruscan temples stood on high podiums with a single central staircase. Prostyle Tuscan columns stood on a deep porch and supported the roof. The temples wide eaves, low pitch roof, and terracotta roof tile protected the buildings organic materials. Antefixes decorative caps at the end of a line of tilesfurther protected the building from the elements and animals by concealing the wooded beams. Akroteria, life-sized terracotta sculptures, were placed along the ridgepole and on the pediments cornice and peaks to decorate the temple. These figures were often tied together thematically or through myths.

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Figure 7.9 Antex with Silenus Face Antex with the face of Silenus, terracotta

Etruscan order; a simple wooden column on a base with a plain capital. The columns were tall and widely spaced across a deep porch, aligning with the walls of the cellas. Etruscans often, although not always, worshiped multiple gods in a single temple, and if so, each god received its own cella,

Figure 7.10 Ground Plan of an Etruscan Temple

where stood its cult statue. Often the three cella temple would be dedicated to the principle gods of the Etruscan pantheon, Tinia, Uni, and Menrva (comparable to the Roman gods Jupiter, Juno, and Minerva). The wooden roof of the temple had a low pitch and was covered by a protective layer of terracotta roof tiles. The roof had eaves with a wide overhang that help protect the organic material from rain. Antefix To further protect the roof beams from rain, insects, and birds, the end of each column of roof tiles was capped by an ornament known as an antefix. These flat ornaments were usually made with terracotta from a mold, and were sometimes made of stone. The antefixes would be brightly painted, and often depicted images female and male faces or else simple geometric designs. The male faces were often representations of the Etruscan equivalent to Dionysus or his followers, including Silenus or fauns (Figure 7.9). Although some antefixes depicted women (Figure 7.11), many of the female figures were representations of the Gorgon. The Gorgonfaced antefixes often showed a wide, circular face surrounded by either wings or snakes. The Gorgon and Dionysiac antefixes served

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apotropaic functions and were meant to ward off evil and protect the temple site. Akroteria The Etruscans did not decorate their temples in the Greek manner. Their temples did not contain a frieze for relief sculpture and the pediments were only sometimes decorated with pedimental sculpture. Instead, the Etruscans placed terracotta statues called akroteria along the roofs ridge pool and on the peaks and edges of the pediment. These akroteria figures were generally build slightly larger than life size and would be connected together thematically. The Apulu of Veii is one example of an akroteria and is part of a sculptural group that depicted the story of Herakles and the Ceryneaian Hind.
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Figure 7.11 Antex with a Woman's Face. Antex with a woman's face. Terracotta.

Tombs
Etruscan tombs, grave goods, and necropoleis provide invaluable evidence for the study of Etruscan society and culture.

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KEY POINTS

KEY POINTS (cont.)

Etruscan burial methods include both cremation and inhumation. The funerary practices of the Etruscans changed from the 9th and 8th century use of cinerary urns in the shape of huts to subterranean tombs carved from tufa and living rock that was richly decorated. The Banditaccia Necropolis at Cervetri is known for its tufa tombs craved into tumuli. These tombs often took the shape of Etruscan homes and included roof beams and thatching carved into the ceilings. The tombs hold beds or niches or sarcophagi for the remains of the deceased. The Tomb of the Reliefs is a richly decorated, multigeneration tomb. On the walls and pillars of the tomb are carved a variety of objects that would be used by the dead in the afterlife, from everyday to specialty objects including dining utensils, helmets, and swords. The Monterozzi Necropolis outside of Tarquinia was used from the 9th century to the 2nd century BCE. It is most well known for its frescoed tombs that include painted scenes of symposia, dancing, hunting, fishing, and ritual.

The Tomb of Hunting and Fishing and the Tomb of the Leopards depict typical Etruscan funerary imagery in a common Etruscan painting style. The scenes relate to Etruscan culture and society, including the inclusion of women in a symposium and a close connection to nature.

The tombs and necropoleis are one of the most excavated and studied parts of Etruscan culture. Scholars learn about Etruscan society and culture from the archaeological research and study of Etruscan funerary practice. Burial urns and sarcophagi, both large and small, were used to hold the cremated remains of the dead. Early forms of burial include the burial of ashes with grave goods in funerary urns and small ceramic huts (Figure 7.12). Later, in the seventh century BCE, the Etruscans began burying their dead in subterranean family tombs. The necropoleis at Cerveteri and Tarquinia are the most well known for their tumuli and frescoed tombs. The grave goods found in these tombs point to the Etruscan belief in an afterlife that required the same types of goods and materials as in the world of the living. Many examples of Greek pottery have been recovered from Etruscan tombs. The Greek vessels, along with other foreign goods, demonstrate the extent of the Etruscan trade network. Painted scenes of frivolity, celebration, hunting, and

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religious practice tell the viewer about Etruscan daily life, ritual, their belief about the afterlife, and their social norms. The imagery and grave goods found in Etruscan tombs help inform the modern day viewer about the nature of Etruscan society. Banditaccia Necropolis at Cerveteri The tombs of the Banditacia Necropolis outside Cerveteri were carved into large, circular mounds known as tumuli (Figure 7.13). Each tumulus was the burial site for a single family and one to four underground tombs were cut into the round tumulus. The different tombs in a tumulus often represented different generations of the family. The tombs were carved with a long, narrow entranceway
Figure 7.12 Hut Urn Etruscan cinerary hut urn with a door. Impasto. 8th century BCE.

Figure 7.13 Banditaccia Necropolis Banditaccia Necropolis. 7th-2nd c. BCE. Cerveteri, Italy.

known as a dromos that opened into a single or multi-room chamber. The decorative style of each chamber and tomb varied with the period and the family's wealth. The more wealthy the family, the more intricately carved and decorated the tomb. Most tombs took on the shape and style of Etruscan homes. The ceilings of the tombs were often carved to represent wood roof beams. Thatching and decorative columns were often added to a room. The entrance to the tombs and the individual rooms inside were often framed by a doorway carved in a typical design. Each room would contain beds or niches, sometimes with a carved tufa pillow, for the deposition of the body. The Tomb of the Reliefs (Figure 7.14) is one of the most well known, largest, and richly decorated tombs from the Banditaccia

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Figure 7.14 Tomb of the Reliefs Interior of the Tomb of the Reliefs. Carved tufa and paint. 3rd c. BCE. Banditaccia Necropolis, Cerveteri, Italy.

Figure 7.15 Tomb of the Leopards Interior backwall of the Tomb of the Leopards. Fresco. Ca. 480-470 BCE. Monterozzi Necropolis, Tarquinia, Italy.

Necropolis. This tomb is named for the numerous tufa reliefs of everyday objects inside. The walls and piers of the tomb are covered in carved and painted reliefs of everyday objects including rope, drinking cups, pitches, mirrors, knives, helmets, and shields. In the center is a depiction of the three headed dog, Cerberus, the guardian to the underworld. Monterozzi Necropolis at Tarquinia The tombs of the Monterozzi Necropolis outside of Tarquinia are also subterranean burial chambers. The graves from the necropolis date from the seventh century BCE until the first century BCE. The tombs here are similar to the underground, tufa cut tombs of Cerveteri that were accessed through a dromos.

The Tomb of the Leopards (Figure 7.15) is one of the most well known tombs of Tarquinia. The tomb is a single room from the early fifth century BCE. The main scene of the Tomb of the Leopards is divided into two panels. The first is the pediment, which depicts two white leopards in a heraldic composition. The use of the leopards is reminiscent of the leopards from the pediment of the Temple of Artemis at Corfu. The felines are used for their apotropaic, protective features. The main scene of the tomb is depicted on a central frieze that wraps around the room. The image depicts men and women with servants at a symposium. The scenes are festive and joyous. Men and women are distinguished with dark and light skin tones. The presence of women in the scene, enjoying the food and wine as equals to the men, demonstrate the role women had in Etruscan society.

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Figure 7.16 Tomb of Hunting and Fishing Interior back wall from the Tomb of Hunting and Fishing. Fresco. Ca. 530-520 BCE. Monterozzi Necropolis, Tarquinia, Italy.

The Tomb of Hunting and Fishing consists of two rooms. The frescos in the first room are badly damaged, but appear to depict Etruscans dancing outside. Two trees frame the doorway into the second room. This room gives the tomb its name, as it depicts a scene of men hunting and fishing (Figure 7.16). Men in boats are fishing in a sea populated by fish and dolphins. On a rock outcropping in the water, one man dives off while another climbs to the top. The sky is filled with birds and a man aims a slingshot at them. The scene depicts Etruscans' relationship with nature and the importance of hunting and fishing in Etruscan society.
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Section 2

Later Etruscan Art

Bronze Classical Art The Road to Rome

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Bronze Classical Art

Etruscan bronze classical art demonstrates the range and skill of artists who crafted large votive o!erings and small, personal trinkets.

KEY POINTS (cont.)

metal smiths that was first seen in the Orientalizing period with Etruscan jewelry and granulation techniques.

During its Classical period, from 480 to 300 BCE, Etruscan art is
KEY POINTS

known for its bronze sculpture. As discussed previously, the Etruscans were known for their metal work and mined natural materials. The Etruscans used a lost wax technique to create hollow bronze sculptures. Very few Etruscan bronzes survived from being melted down in the following centuries to be used for other purposes. Two that did survive, the Capitoline Wolf and the Chimera of Arezzo have both been accused in the last few decades of being fakes due to their shady history on the art market, or for their style or casting method. Capitoline Wolf The Capitoline Wolf depicts the she-wolf attributed to finding and suckling Romes founding twins, Romulus and Remus (Figure 7.17). The bronze statue was originally just the she-wolf; the suckling twins were added in the late fifteenth century CE by the sculptor Pollaiolo. The she-wolf is depicted slightly larger than life, with a gaunt body, full teats, and a tense and alert face. The she-wolf is part of the foundation myths of Rome and, if it was an Etruscan

Few examples remain of large scale Etruscan bronze statues from the Classical era. Due to this, their Etruscan origins have been questioned. The Capitoline Wolf is believed to be a 14th century CE bronze that may have been intended to replicate a documented bronze sculpture of a she-wolf that stood in the Roman forum. The bronze depicts a gaunt and alert she-wolf with 15th century additions of the suckling twins, Romulus and Remus. The Chimera of Arezzo is a unique bronze votive offering to the god Tinia. The bronze sculpture demonstrates Etruscan skill in bronze casting through the beasts tense and plastic musculature, stylized mane, and fierce expression. Small objects such as mirrors and cistae, small boxes, were also made of bronze during the Classical period. These objects were decorated with engravings or low relief casts depicting mythological scenes and were popular grave goods. While distinctly different from large scale bronze, the small bronze objects demonstrate the variety and skill of Etruscan

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Figure 7.17 Capitoline Wolf Capitoline Wolf. Bronze. Ca. 4th century BCE or 14th c. CE. Rome, Italy.

Figure 7.18 Chimera of Arezzo Chimera of Arezzo. Bronze. Early 4th century BCE. Arezzo, Italy.

sculpture, would demonstrate an additional connection between the Etruscans, the Romans, and the founding of Rome. However, an examination of the bronzes casting technique and radiocarbon dating resulted in the statue being dated to the thirteenth century CE. While the results which would confirm the forgery have yet to be published, the statue, like the Mask of Agamemnon, is still incorporated in the canon of Etruscan art. Historical written accounts by Romans, including the statesman Cicero and the historian Pliny the Elder, attest to the presence of a sacred bronze statue of a she-wolf in the Roman Forum that was struck by lightning in 65 BCE. In this case, despite the dating of the Capitoline Wolf, the statue remains an icon and a reminder of the myths of Romulus and Remus and the rise of the Romans in Italy.

Chimera of Arezzo The bronze statue of a Chimera (Figure 7.18), discovered in the city of Arezzo in 1553, has also recently been accused as a forgery. The reasoning rests more on the fact that there are no comparable existing Etruscan sculptures than on scientific testing. An inscription on the right foreleg marks the bronze as a votive offering to the supreme Etruscan god, Tinia (comparable to Roman Jupiter). The sculpture depicts a chimera, a mythical beast with the body and head of a lion, a serpent for a tail, and with a goat's head in the middle of its back. The beast plagued the area of Lycia until it was slain by the hero Bellerophon. The serpent tail was not discovered with the statue; the current tail is an eighteenth century restoration.

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The bronze statue demonstrates Etruscan artistic techniques and liveliness, seen in Etruscan terracotta sculpture, transmitted into the bronze medium. The figure is well modeled and expressive from its tense muscles, ready pose, and roaring face of the lion and goat. The beasts ribs are clearly visible and a wound on its rump bleeds. The lions posture, he crouches and looks up, suggest that there may have been an additional figure of Bellerophon to create a votive group. The figures face and mane is stylized and the patterning is reminiscent of Near Eastern depictions of lions. Bronze Objects The Etruscans also used bronze to create small objects, including storage jars, or cistae and mirrors. Etruscan bronze mirrors were used by women and often deposited as grave goods. These mirrors were highly burnished on one side to reflect an image, and on the other side were decorated with engraved or low relief casted scenes (Figure 7. 19). The images depicted were often scenes from Greek mythology, demonstrating the
Figure 7.19 Judgment of Paris Mirror with an engraving of the Judgment of Paris. Bronze. 4th-3rd century BCE.

importation of Greek culture and mythology. Many of these mirrors were inscribed with the deceaseds nameand ritual blessings. Cista were also often inscribed and were also decorated with engravings and added bronze elements, such as feet, chains, and decorative handle lids (Figure 7.20). The cista were small boxes with lids, much like a pyxis, that was made from bronze and was usually cylindrical. The handles of the lids were often figures, such as a man or a sphinx, or figural groups. Like the mirrors, the engraved scenes represented images from mythology, but some images also depict scenes from Etruscan history.
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Figure 7.20 Cista with a Battle between Etruscans and Gauls Cista with a battle between Etruscans and Gauls. Bronze. 3rd century BCE. Praeneste, Italy.

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The Road to Rome

As Etruscan territory fell under Roman dominance, Etruscan culture and art changed to reect Roman inuence and new cultural values.
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KEY POINTS (cont.)

sculpture demonstrates the mix of Etruscan and Roman style and culture.

In 509 BCE, the Etruscan kings of Rome were expelled from the city and the Roman Republic was established. By the fourth century BCE, Rome was beginning to expand across the Italian peninsula, and the first Etruscan city to fall was Veii in 396 BCE. Over the following centuries, Etruria was involved in Roman wars, and Etruscan territory was fully conquered by the Romans by the beginning of the first century BCE. While Roman culture drew from its Etruscan roots, borrowing and adapting Etruscan customs, Etruscan society was also influenced by Roman culture. During this period the figures begin to adopt a Roman style, and the presence of violence, especially in funerary images, becomes normal. Funerary Art and Sarcophagi Funerary art, both in tomb paintings and on carved sarcophagi, undergo a noticeable change in subject matter during the Roman period. The figures of Charon and Vanth begin to appear. These figuresmale and female demons of the Underworldare often painted in blue and with wings. The figures also carry torches, which they would use to light the way to the underworld, or sometimes keys, to open the door to the underworld, which

Funerary imagery changes in Etruscan society as the Etruscans begin to encounter violence and conquest by their Roman neighbors. Figures of Charun and Vanth, male and female underworld deities, are depicted on frescoed tomb paintings and sarcophagi during the Etruscan-Roman period. The increasing violence due to Roman conquest in Etruscan society is reflected in its art. Tombs, sarcophagi, and cinerary urns are no longer decorated with joyous scenes of frivolity and everyday life. Instead, this imagery is replaced by scenes of violence and battle and apotropaic figures. The Sarcophagus of Lars Pulena not only depicts figures of Charun and Vanth, but on the lid it depicts the deceased as a prosperous and wealthy Etruscan, complete with a scroll listing his accomplishments. The!sarcophagus!demonstrates shifting values in Etruscan society. The life-size bronze statue of Aule Metele depicts an Etruscan man dressed and behaving as a Roman. The man wears a toga and Roman sandals and is posed in a position of address, as would be common for a Roman magistrate. The

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underline the figures role as guides between the world of the living and the world of the dead (Figure 7.21). In tomb paintings in Tarquinia, figures of Charun and Vanth can be seen painted in front of or around doorways.
Figure 7.21 Charun and Vanth Charun guarding the gate to the Underworld, while Vanth guides the deceased to the gate. Fresco. 3rd century BCE. Tomb 5636, Monterozzi Necropolis, Tarquinia, Italy.

representations of Vanth also appear on the sarcophagus, at either end of the frieze.
Figure 7.22 Sarcophagus of Lars Pulena Sarcophagus of Lars Pulena with gures of Charon and Vanth on the frieze. Tufa. Early 2nd century BCE. Tarquinia, Italy.

The lid of the Sarcophagus of Lars Pulena (Figure 7.22) depicts a portrait of the deceased. The man lays across the lid, alone, with a somber expression, unlike the earlier terracotta Sacophagus of Spouses. His face is winkled and reflects a Roman republican portrait style. He had a pot belly, signifying his wealth, good life, and robust eating, and he holds a scroll across his lap that is inscribed with a list of his accomplishments. Smaller cinerary urns (Figure 7.23) take the shape of a sarcophagus during this period. These urns are topped by images of the deceased laying across the lid, often in Roman dress, with reliefcarved scenes of battle, violence, or Charun and Vanth figures. The

Figures of Charon and Vanth also appear on stone and terracotta sarcophagi. Charun is also sometimes depicted with a hammer, and on the Sarcophagus of Lars Pulena, two figures of Charun (with hammers but without wings) are depicted on either side of a central figure, most likely Lars Pulena, swinging their hammers at his head. The violent image may have been used as an apotropaic device to ward off evil, but in comparison to earlier funerary images, the level of violence seems to mimic the new level of violence in Etruscan society from Roman forces and influence. Two winged

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Figure 7.23 Cinerary Urn Cinerary Urn for a woman with apotropaic imagery. Terracotta. Mid-2nd century BCE.

this gesture, the hand is slightly enlarged. He is clearly depicted as an individual, and an inscription on the hem of his toga in Etruscan names him as Aule Metele. Aule Metele dresses as a Roman magistrate and his face is a cross between Hellenistic and Roman veristic portraiture. It is idealized to an extent, but shows a level of individuality through the gaunt checks, thin lips, and wrinkled forehead. While the inscription marks him as an Etruscan, his dress and pose demonstrate the absorption of Roman culture into Etruscan values and the adoptionespecially by the upper, ruling class of Etruscansof Roman civic practices.

shifting style of funerary customs and art underlines the change in Etruscan culture and its outlook on the afterlife as the Romans intruded and conquered their territories. Aule Metele Aule Metele (Figure 7.24) is a life size bronze sculpture of an Etruscan-Romano man. The figure is depicted wearing a Roman toga and Roman sandals and he stands in a pose of an orator, with his hand raised to address a crowd. To further emphasize
Figure 7.24 Aule Metele Aule Metele. Bronze. 1st century BCE. Cortona, Italy.

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Chapter 8

The Romans

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Section 1

Who were the Romans?

The Founding of Rome Roman Religion

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The Founding of Rome

There are two main myths relating to the origins of Rome, inhabited by the mid-eighth century BCE according to archaeological evidence.

Nearly all Roman historians believed that the city was founded in 753 BCE and all agree on the date: April 21. Romulus is credited for founding Rome, since he named the city after himself. He is also credited with establishing the period of monarchial rule. Six kings ruled after him until 509 BCE, when the people rebelled against the last king, Tarquinius Superbus, and established the Republic. Throughout its history, the people-including plebeians, patricians, and senatorswere wary of giving one person too much power and feared the tyranny of a king. Foundation Myths The Romans relied on two sets of these to explain their origins: the first story tells the tale of Romulus and Remus, while the second tells that of Aeneas and the Trojans, who survived the sack of Troy by the Greeks. Oddly, both stories relate the founding of Rome and the origins of its people to brutal murders. Romulus kills his twin brother, Remus, in a fit of rage and Aeneas slaughters his rival, Turnus, doing combat. The vicious endings to these tales is explained by Roman historians as the reason for Romes own

KEY POINTS

Most historians agree that Rome was founded by Romulus on April 21, 753 BCE. The foundation myths of Rome establish Romes earliest history, rivalries, and link the Roman people as descendants of the Trojans. According to the myths, the Roman people are decendants of Aeneas while his descendant, Romulus, founded the city of Rome. Archaeological research confirms that the site of Rome was inhabited by the mid-eighth century BCE, corresponding with the 753 BCE date provided by ancient Roman historians.

Historically, Rome appears to have been occupied since the eleventh century BCE. Archaeological research provides evidence of inhabitation on and fortification of the Palatine Hill during the eighth century BCE.

bloody history and periods of civil war. Romulus and Remus The legends about Romulus and Remus vary from one telling to another but key parts of the story are consistent. They are believed

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Figure 8.1 Capitoline Wolf

Romulus and Remus eventually discover their true heritage and reinstate Rheas father as king before returning to the site of Rome to found their own city. However, the two men disagree as to where to establish the city: Romulus prefers the Palatine Hill, while Remus argues for the Aventine Hill. The two decide to select the site through augury and they each search for sacred signs from their own hill. Remus sees six birds, while Romulus sees twelve. Romulus declares his claim to be superior, despite Remus arguing that because he saw the birds first, the city should be built on the Aventine. Romulus and Remus continue quarrelling even as Romulus begins to build his city. At one point Remus mocks a wall Romulus is building and enraged, Romulus kills Remus. Despite this, Romulus establishes his city, which he calls Rome, and attracts

Due to the stories about Rome's founding twins, the she-wolf (often shown with suckling boys) became an icon of the city. This she-wolf was either cast in the 5th century BCE or the 13th century CE. The twins were added by the sculputer Pollaiolo in the 15th century CE.

settlers to the region. Aeneas The tale of Aeneas was written at the end of a long period of civil war in Rome and during major political changes as the power of the Roman Republic was solidified under one man, Augustus. The poet Virgil wrote his epic, The Aeneid, during the first decades of Augustuss reign. The poem tells the tale of Aeneas, a Trojan prince, who escapes Troy as the Greeks are sacking the city with his elderly father, his young son, a sacred statue known as the Palladium, and Trojan refugees.

to be the twin sons born to the Vestal Virgin, Rhea Silvia, and the god, Mars. Rhea is forced to abandon her children and the servant sent to expose the twins is unable to do so. Instead of killing the boys, he places them in a basket on the river Tiber. They safely float downriver until the baskets stops at the base of the Palatine Hill, where a she-wolf finds and suckles the twins (Figure 8.1). The shepherd, Faustulus, later discovers the boys and, with his wife, raises them as his own.

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The first six books describe the wonderings of Aeneas and his followers and their stay in Carthage ruled by Queen Dido. When Aeneas and his men leave Carthage for Italy, Dido commits suicide and curses Aeneas and his descendants. This curse explains, through myth, the historical rivalry between Carthage and Rome that resulted in the Punic Wars in the third century BCE. The last six books describe Aeneas arrival in Italy and his attempt to find a home for his people and local allies. A war eventually occurs between Aeneas and his supporters and the Rutuli, a local tribe lead by their king, Turnus. Despite being chronologically first, the tale of Aeneas was not codified until the poet Virgil created his epic poem. This not only became a definitive account of Aeneas travels and arrival in Italy but also served as propaganda for the legitimacy of Augustus' reign. Furthermore, Virgils tales allude to actual Roman history, such as the third century BCE wars with Carthage, Octavians victory at Actium over Mark Antony and Cleopatra, and the greatness of Aeneas descendents found within the Julian family (Julius Caesar and Augustus). Aeneas did not found Rome but rather became the father of the Roman people. Romulus and Remus, the founders of Rome, are considered his descendants.

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Roman Religion
Roman religion encompasses an array of gods, rituals, and cults that were present in the lives of the Romans every day.

autonomy within the state, receiving rights other women would never receive both during and after their thirty years serving the goddess of the hearth, Vesta. Furthermore, the Roman year was filled with days for feasting and religious celebrations. The Roman pantheon of gods can be easily juxtaposed to Etruscan and Greek deities. Jupiter (Greek Zeus) was considered the most

KEY POINTS

powerful and important of all the Gods. In nearly every Roman city, a central temple known as the Capitolia that was dedicated to the supreme triad of deities: Jupiter, Juno, and Minerva (Greek Hera and Athena, (Figure 8.2). Gods also had numerous associates that Romans prayed to, sought help from, and dedicated temples to, such as Jupiter Optimus Maximus or Jupiter the Best and Greatest, or Mars Ultor, Mars the Avenger. The political and military rivals Pompey the Great and Julius Caesar each claimed Venus as a personal deity. They both built her a temple, although Pompey built his to Venus Victrix, Venus the Conqueror, while Caesar dedicated a temple to Venus Genetrix, a motherhood and domesticity goddess. Small household gods, known as Lares, were also popular. Each family claimed their own set of personal gods and laraium, or shines to the Lares, are found not only in houses but also at street corners, on roads, or for a city neighborhood (Figure 8.3). Roman religious practice often centered around prayers, vows, oaths, and sacrifice. Many Romans looked to the gods for protection

The Roman pantheon of gods is comparable to Greek counterparts, who Romans worshiped and sent prayers to throughout their lives. The general openness of Roman religious beliefs allowed the Romans to easily incorporate and absorb foreign gods and cults. In the Imperial period, an imperial cult developed to worship the emperors who where deified upon their death.

The Roman people considered themselves to be very religious. Religious beliefs and practices helped establish stability and social order among the Romans during the reign of Romulus and the period of the legendary kings. Some of the highest religious offices, such as the Pontifex Maximus, was a sought after political position, which because it was ascribed to both Julius Caesar and Augustus eventually became one of the titles of the emperor. Women who became Vestal Virgins received a high degree of

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and would complete a promise sacrifice or offering as thanks when their wishes were fulfilled. Sacrifices were common and many processional and sacrificial scenes show bulls, lambs, or pigs being brought to an altar for sacrifice. Augury and haruspicy were also commonly practiced. An Augur, a specially trained priest or official, would study the flight of birds for portents and omens. Many ceremonial functions could only precede following an auger taking the auspices, including the foundations of towns, the declaration of
Figure 8.2 Capitoline Triad Figure 8.3 Lararium A lararium from the House of the Vettii. Fresco and stucco. Pompeii, Italy.

war, and (hence the English word) the inauguration into political official. Haruspicy involved the careful study of the internal organs, usually the liver, of sacrificial animals to foretell the future. The Romans were not exclusive in the religious practices and a Roman often and easily participated in numerous rituals for different gods. Furthermore, the Romans readily absorbed foreign gods and cults into their pantheon. During the Punic Wars in the third century BCE, the Roman Senate consulted the Sibylline oracle on how to defeat the Carthaginians. The oracle advised the Romans to import the goddess Magna Mater, Great Mother (also known as
Juno, Jupiter, and Minerva were the three most important gods in the Roman pantheon and made up the Capitoline Triad. They often shared a temple, known as the Capitolia, in the center of a Roman city. Sanctuary of Fortuna Primigenia, Palestrina, Italy.

Cybele), from Ionian to Rome. With permission of their ally the king of Pergamum, the Romans relocated a black meteoric stone to Rome and officially established a cult to Magna Mater. The

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Egyptian goddess Isis received a large Roman cult following the annexation of Egypt. Mystery cults were also popular throughout the Roman Empire. The Senate tried to ban mystery cults to Bacchus, since it threaten Roman morality in the second century BCE, while the mystery cult for the Persian god Mithras became popular among Roman soldiers starting in the first century CE. With the rise of imperial rule, the emperors were considered gods and nearly all were deified upon their death. Family members of the emperor could also received deification and temples were built to many emperors upon their death. Sites of imperial cult worshiped the dead and deified emperors along with the living consort, and the household gods of the emperors family were also incorporated into Roman worship. The Augustales were an order of priests specifically charged with maintaining the cult to Augustus and imperial cult ritual.
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Section 2

The Republic

Portrait Sculpture Architecture and Temples

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Portrait Sculpture
The veristic style of Republican portraiture allows a man to associate oneself with his distinguished ancestors and to depict their own authority.

hairlines, deep winkles, and even with warts. While the face of the portrait was often shown with incredible detail and likeness, the body of the subject would be idealized and does not seem to correspond to the age shown in the face (Figure 8.5). The popularity and usefulness of verism appears to derive from the need to have a recognizable image. Veristic portrait busts provided a means to remind people of your distinguished ancestors

Figure 8.4 Bust of an Old Man.

KEY POINTS

Veristic portraiture depicts the subject in hyper-realism, winkles and individual facial characteristics were carefully formed in these images. Portraits of Pompey the Great and Julius Caesar set precedents for future imperial portraiture by quoting iconographic characteristics and introducing likeness of the living imperator on coins. Death masks provided a means for a family to remember their ancestors as well as remind others of the illustriousness of their ancestry.

Veristic portraiture of an Old Man.

or to display ones power and wisdom. Statues were often erected of Roman portraiture during the Republic is identified by its considerable realism, known as veristic portraiture (Figure 8.4). Verism refers to a hyper-realistic portrayal of the subjects facial characteristics. The style originated from Hellenistic Greece, however, its use in the Republican Rome and survival throughout much of the Republic is due to Roman values, customs, and political life. Veristic images often show their male subject with receding generals and elected officials in public forumsa veristic image ensured that a passerby would recognize the person when they actually saw them. The Late Republic The use of veristic portraiture began to diminish during the Late Republic, in the first century BCE. During this time civil wars

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Figure 8.5 Portrait of a Roman General

threatened the empire and individual men began to gain more power. The portraits of Pompey the Great and Julius Caesar, two political rivals who were also the most powerful generals in the Republic, began to change the style of the portraits and their use. The portraits of Pompey the Great are not fully idealized, but nor were they created in the same veristic style of Republican senators. Pompey borrowed a specific parting and curl of his hair from an older and renowned general, Alexander the Great (Figure 8.6). This quote served to link Pompey visually with likeness of Alexander and to remind people that he possessed similar characteristics and qualities.
Figure 8.6 Pompey the Great Marble bust of Pompey the Great.

The portraits of Julius Caesar are more true to life than Pompey and
Portrait of a Roman General. Sanctuary of Hercules, Tivoli, Italy. Ca. 75-50 BCE. Marble.

more clearly follow the veristic style. Despite staying closer to

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Figure 8.7 Julius Caesar Portrait

bronze, marble, and terracotta), death masks were kept by families and displayed in the atrium of their homes. Visitors and clients who entered the home would have been reminded of the familys ancestry and the honorable qualities of their ancestors. Such displays served to bolster the reputation and credibility of the family. Death masks were also worn and paraded through the streets during funeral procession. Again, this served not only a memorial for the dead, but also to link the living members of a family to their illustrious ancestors in the eyes of the spectator.

Portrait of Julius Caesar on a denarius. On the reverse side stands Venus Victix holding a winged Victory.

stylistic convention, Caesar was the first man to mint coins with his own likeness printed on them (Figure 8.7). In the decades prior to this, it had become increasingly common to place an illustrious ancestor on a coin, but putting a living person, nevertheless your own self, on a coin broke the boundaries of Roman propriety. By circulating coins issued with his image, Caesar directly showed the people that they were indebted to him for their own prosperity and therefore should support his political pursuits. Death Masks The creation and use of death masks demonstrates Roman veneration of their ancestors. These masks were created from molds taken of a person at the time of their death. Made of wax (but also

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Architecture and Temples

Roman architecture relies heavily on the use of concrete and the arch to create unique interior spaces and architectural forms.

up to a podium and a deep portico filled with columns. They are also usually rectilinear and the interiors consist of at least one cella, which contained a cult statue or image. If multiple gods were worshiped in one temple, each god would have its own cella and cult image. For example, Capitolia, temples dedicated to the Capitoline Triad, would always be built with three

KEY POINTS

cellae, one for each god of the triad: Jupiter, Juno, and Minerva. Roman temples were typical made of brick and concrete and then faced in either marble or stucco. Engaged columns, decorative and not needed for structural support, adorn the exterior sides of the temples. This creates an effect of columns completely surrounding a cella, as seen with Greek peripteral temples, as is known as psuedoperipteral (Figure 8.8). The altar of the temple, used for sacrifices and offerings, always stood in front of the temple. While most Roman temples followed this typical plan, some were dramatically different. At times, the Romans erected round temples that imitated a Greek style. Examples can be found in the Forum Boarium in Rome, at Hadrians Villa in Tivoli and, most famously, the Pantheon at Rome, also built by the emperor Hadrian. The first two examples are very similar to round Greek temples, while the Pantheons plan includes a deep colonnaded porch that gives one the illusion of entering a normal rectilinear temple until you walk inside.

Roman temple design is based on an eclectic use of Etruscan and Greek models. They are typically strictly frontal, on a high podium with a flight of stairs, and have a deep colonnade portico in front of the cella. Concrete was an essential building material for the Romans. It is lightweight, strong, and durable and could even be used underwater. Most Roman buildings were built with concrete and brick and then faced in stucco, expensive stone, or marble. The arch is a quintessential architectural shape in Roman architecture. Arches can be used together to create vaults (barrel and groin) and domes as well as to create unique interior spaces.

Roman Temples The form of Roman temples derived from Etruscan prototypes. Like Etruscan temples, Roman temples were frontal with stairs leading

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Figure 8.8 Temple of Portunus A typical Roman Republican temple. Rome, Italy. Ca. 75 BCE.

that was then covered in faade of stucco, expensive stone, or marble. Concrete was a cheaper and lighter material than most stones used for construction, which helped the Romans build structures that were taller than any previous ones. Once dried, concrete was also extremely strong, although flexible enough to remain standing during moderate seismic activity. The Romans were even able to use concrete underwater, allowing them build harbors and breakers for their ports. Arches, Vaults, and Domes The Romans effectively combined concrete and the structural shape of the arch. These two elements became the foundation for most Roman structures and building types. The structure of an arch is incredibly solid and strong. It can bear immense weight as it is designed to redistribute weight from the top of the arch to its sides and down into the ground (Figure 8.9). While the Romans did not invent the arch, they were the first culture to manipulate and readily rely on its shape. The arch is a shape that can be manipulated into a variety of forms that create unique architectural spaces. Multiple arches can be used together to create a vault. The simplest type is known as a barrel vault (Figure 8.10). Barrel vaults consist of a line of arches in a row that create the shape of a barrel cut in half. When two barrel vaults intersect at right angles, they create a groin vault. These are easily

Concrete The Romans perfected the recipe for concrete during the third century BCE by mixing together water, lime, and pozzolana. The volcanic ash was mined from the countryside surrounding Mt. Vesuvius. Concrete became the primary building material for the Romans and it is largely the reason that they were such successful builders. Most Roman buildings were built with concrete and brick

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Figure 8.9 Arch Diagram

identified by the x-shape they create in the ceiling of the vault. Furthermore, because of the direction, the thrust is concentrated along this xshape, so only the corners of a groin vault need to be grounded. This allows an architect or engineer to manipulate the space below the groin vault in a variety of ways. Arches and vaults can be

structure built into the hillside in first century BCE in a series of terraces, exedras, and porticoes. Concrete was used as the primary building material and barrel vaults provide structural support both as a terracing method for the hill and in creating interesting architectural spaces for the sanctuary. Bath structures also make great use out concrete, arches, and a

Figure 8.10 Barrel Arch

Diagram of a barrel arch

Diagram of the structural support of an arch.

stacked and intersected with each other in a multitude of ways. One of the most important forms that they can create is the dome. This is essentially an arch that is rotated around a single point to create a large hemispherical vault. The Pantheon is the most famous of Roman domes. The center of some domes is a large round window, opened to the sky. This is known as an oculus (Latin for eye) and it lets in light, rain, and even props such as flower petals that were used during festivals. The arch and concrete are found in many iconic Roman structures. The Sanctuary of Fortuna at Palestrina, Italy is a massive temple

system of vaults and domes. Some of the largest bath structures included vaults or domes that spanned over eighty feet. Roman aqueducts are another iconic use of the arch. The arches that make up an aqueduct provided support without requiring as much building material that would be needed if the aqueducts were supported by solid walls.
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Section 3

The Early Empire

Augustan Art The Julio-Claudians Roman Frescoes The Flavians

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Augustan Art
Augustan art served a vital visual means to promote the legitimacy of Augustus' power, and emphasized the empire's peace and prosperity under his reign.

During his reign, Augustus enacted an effective propaganda campaign to promote the legitimacy of his rule as well as to encourage moral and civic ideals among the Roman populace. Augustan art and architecture is filled with iconography of Augustus reign with strong themes of legitimacy, stability, fertility, prosperity, and religious piety. The visual motifs employed within

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this iconography became the standards for imperial art. Augustus also enacted a program of extensive building and restoration throughout the city of Rome. He famously noted that he found Rome a city of brick and left it a city of marble. This building program served the people of Rome by expanding public space, allocating places for trade and politics, and providing and improving temples so the people could the serve the gods. As with the artistic iconography, this too became the standard that later emperors modeled their own building programs on. Ara Pacis Augustae The Ara Pacis Augustae (Figure 8.11), or Altar of Augustan Peace, is one of the best examples of Augustan artistic propaganda. Not only does it demonstrate a new moral code promoted by Augustus, but it also established imperial iconography. It was commissioned by the Senate in 13 BCE to honor the peace established by Augustus following his return from Spain and Gaul and it was consecrated on

Augustus effectively used artistic and architectural propaganda to mold public opinion and promote his legitimacy as the supreme ruler of Rome with a reign of peace, prosperity, and stability. Augustan art set the standards for imperial portraiture, iconography, and motifs used by Roman emperors over the next three centuries. The intricate and deliberate iconography of Ara Pacis Augustae promotes religious piety, fertility, and the flourishing of the empire under Augustus. Augustus abandoned the veristic portraiture of the Roman Republic in favor of creating an image of a forever youthful emperor. His imperial portraits often promoted his piety and military accomplishments. Augustus established a massive building program in the city of Rome to revitalize the neglected city, famously turning a city of brick into a city of marble.

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Figure 8.11 Ara Pacis Augustae View from the northeast. Marble, 13-9 BCE, Rome, Italy.

of the political elite during the Augustan age, including Augustus, Livia, Agrippa, and Tiberius. The east and west walls of the Ara Pacis contained two panels each, although only small fragments remain for one panel on each side. On the east side, sits an unidentified goddess, presumed by scholars to be Tellus, Venus, or Peace, within an allegorical scene of
Figure 8.12 Ara Pacis Augustae Detail from the processional scene on the south wall. Marble. 13-9 BCE. Rome, Italy.

January 30, 9 BCE. The marble altar was erected just outside the boundary of the Pomerium to the north of the city along the Via Flaminia on the Campus Martius. The actual u-shaped altar sits atop a podium inside a square wall that demarcates the precincts sacred space. The altars exterior relief is divided into three separate programs of decoration. The entire exterior is divided into two registers, separated by a geometric meander. The lower register is filled with stylized acanthus vines, detailed with blossoming flowers and animals. The north and south walls depict a procession of life-sized figures on the upper register (Figure 8.12). These figures include men, women, children, priests, lictors, and identifiable members

Figure 8.13 Ara Pacis Augustae Detail of eastern panel, female personication. Marble, 13-9 BC, Rome, Italy.

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prosperity and fertility (Figure 8.13). Twins sit on her lap along with a cornucopia of fruits. Personifications of the wind and sea surround her, each riding on a bird or a sea monster. Beneath the women rests a bull and lamb, both sacrificial animals, and flowering plants fill the empty space. The nearly incomplete second eastern panel appears to depict a female warrior, possibly Roma, amid the spoils of conquest. On the western wall, the lesser-preserved panel appears to depict the moment when Romulus and Remus are discovered by a shepherd Faustulus. The other panel, much more intact, is a relief of a bearded man with two attendants and sacrificial animals. A temple stands atop a hill above the scene. The man is often considered to be Aeneas, but may be a priest or perhaps the Roman king, Numa Pompilius. The inside of the precinct wall of the Ara Pacis is also divided into two registers. The lower one is carved to look like wood paneling while on the upper register hang several marble bucrania, between which are garlands filled with fruits and plants. On a small register that surrounds the altar is another procession scene, this one filled with generic figures and sacrificial animals. Imperial Portraiture Augustus very carefully controlled his imperial portrait. Abandoning the veristic style of the Republican period, his portraits always showed him as an idealized young man. These portraits

Figure 8.14 Augustus

Figure 8.15 Augustus of Prima Porta

Portrayed as Pontifex Maximus.

Ca 20 BCE, marble, Primaporta, Italy.

linked him to divinities and heroes, both mythical and historical. He is often barefoot and he is shown with an identifiable cowlick that was originally shown on the portraits of Alexander the Great. Two portraits of him, one as Imperator and the other as Pontifex Maximus (Figure 8.14) depict two different personas of the emperor. When consolidating power, Augustus was given the position of Pontifex Maximus. From that point on, this position

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became a title for all Roman emperors, and it is still used today by the Bishop of Rome, the Pope. Augustus portrait as Pontifex Maximus shows him appropriately attired: with a toga over his ever-youthful head that serves to remind viewers of his own extreme piety to the gods. In the Augustus of Prima Porta (Figure 8.15), Augustus wears military grab in a pose known as adlucotio, of addressing his troops.
Figure 8.16 Livia

Besides being in a pose and dress of a general, the relief on the cuirass shows one of Augustus greatest victoriesthe return of the Parthian standards. During the civil wars, a legions standards were lost when the legion was defeated by the Parthians. In a great feat of diplomacy, and curiously not military action, Augustus was able to negotiate the return of the standards to the legion and to Rome. Additional figures on the cuirass personify Roman gods and the arrival of Augustan peace. Portraits of his wife, Livia, depict a proper, virtuous Roman woman demure and dressed in simple clothing. Her hair is pulled into a knot, or nodus, onto the nape of her neck. Some portraits depict her as pious, with her head covered, and yet others in the guise of Ceres (Figure 8.16), goddess of agriculture and fertility, linking Livia to Augustus' revival of the empire through fertility and abundance.
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The statue shows Augustus as a military leader or imperator, while also including iconography of his divine ancestry. At his feet Cupid rides a dolphin. Cupid is the son of Venus, as was Aeneas. The Julian family traced their ancestry back to Aeneas and, therefore, consider themselves descendants of Venus. As Caesars nephew and adopted son, this use of iconography allows Augustus to remind viewers

A marble statue in the guise of Ceres.

of his divine lineage.

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The Julio-Claudians
The Julian-Claudian dynasty was established by Augustus as the rst imperial dynasty of Rome.

Augustus As the first emperor of Rome, Augustus established the JulioClaudian dynasty that ruled Rome from the end of the first century BCE until 68 CE. Augustus, originally known as Octavian, was Julius Caesars great nephew and was adopted by Caesar as his son

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and heir. Following Caesars assassination in 44 BCE, Octavian was thrust into a civil war with competing generals and Senators for power over the large but unstable Roman empire. In 31 BCE, Octavian defeated his final rivals, Mark Antony and Cleopatra, during a naval battle at Actium. In 27 BCE, Octavian took the name Augustus and the title Princeps, which marked the beginning of his reign over Rome. Following the defeat of his rivals, Augustus stabilized the empire, weak from nearly a century of civil war. Because the idea of a single ruler or monarch was so despised by the Romans, Augustus had to carefully consolidate power under his control. He succeeded in expanding the empire and establishing an imperial rule that lasted for centuries. Augustus notably negotiated peace with the Parthians and enacted civic and moral legislation to promote a return to Republican morals and ideals of Roman virtue. During this time the arts flourished, and Augustus actively patronized poets and artists. Augustus and his wife, Livia, never produced a son, so Augustus initially named his grandsons by his daughter Julia as his heirs and

The Julio-Claudian dynasty was the first dynasty of imperial rulers of Rome, having ruled from 27 BCE until 68 CE. Following nearly a century of civil war, Augustus carefully consolidated power under himself, as imperator, and established the Pax Romana, an extended period of peace, prosperity, and expansion throughout the Roman empire. Reigning dates of the Julio-Claudians: Augustus 27 BCE14 CE, Tiberius 1437 CE, Caligula 3741 CE, Claudius 4153 CE, and Nero 5468 CE. Neros death!in 69 CE plunged the empire into a civil war known as the Year of the Four Emperors. Nero built the Domus Aurea on appropriated land following the devastating fire in 64 CE. The palatial structure was lavishly decorated and the Octagonal Hall demonstrates architectural innovations available to architects and engineers when working with concrete.

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Figure 8.17 Caligula

Figure 8.18 Claudius

was forced to accept his step-son, Tiberius Claudius, by Livias first husband as his adopted son and heir. The Julian-Claudian Dynasty Augustus adoption of Tiberius incorporated the Claudian family into the dynastic line. The succession of emperors from Tiberius through Nero occurred as planned through the chosen adopted heir (typically a great-nephew), although each of these emperors died by assassination or forced suicide. Tiberius reigned after Augustus,
Figure 8.19 Nero, dressed as Apollo with a Lyre 1st century CE

Bust of Caligula (r. 3741 CE)

Portrait of Claudius (r. 41-52 CE). Marble, 41-54 CE.

adopted them as his own sons. Augustuss adoption by Caesar established the method succession used by the emperors throughout Imperial Rome. The living emperor chose his successor through adoption of a son and heir. In many cases the heirs chosen were not sons, but relatives or close comrades who were groomed for the position. This method was supposed to secure peaceful succession, although that was not always case. Unfortunately for Augustus, his chosen heirs, Gaius and Lucius, died young and he

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followed by Caligula (Figure 8.17), Claudius (Figure 8.18), and finally Nero (Figure 8.20). Augustuss successors are remembered more for their immoral personalities and scheming families than for their artistic achievements or social-political contributions. Nero, the last of the Julian-Claudian line, was one of the most notorious emperors in Roman history. He is remembered for his obsession with his own popularity among the masses, public performances on the lyre, reciting poetry, acting, or participating in sporting eventsall activities considered scandalous behavior for an emperor (Figure 8.19). Nero chose suicide instead of facing a public execution during an rebellion that sought to establish the general Galba as emperor. The Senate declared Galba emperor following Neros death in 68 CE; however, the event sparked a civil war the following year as generals from around the empire vied for power.

Figure 8.21 Wall painting from the Domus Aurea

Wall painting from the Domus Aurea, 63-68 CE

The Domus Aurea In 64 CE, a fire erupted in Rome and burned ten out of fourteen districts in the city. Nero appropriated some of the newly cleared land for his own use. This land, located on the hills east of the Forum Romanum, became home to his new palatial structure known as the Domus Aurea, or the Golden House. Neros complex included a private lake, landscaped gardens and porticos, a colossal golden statue of himself, and rooms for entertaining that were lavishly decorated with mosaics, frescos, and gold leaf. The surviving frescos provide excellent examples of Pompeiian fourth-

Figure 8.20 Head of Nero Portrait bust of Nero

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style painting, a fantastical style that inspired Renaissance grottesche when portions of the palace were discovered at the end of the 1400s (Figure 8.21). Neros architects and engineers, Severus and Celer, designed the Domus Aurea and demonstrated some of the unique architectural shapes made possible through concrete construction. An octagonal hall testifies to the architects ingenuity. The octagonal room stands between multiple rooms, possibly for dining, and is delineated by eight piers that support a domed roof with an oculus that lit not only the hall but also the surrounding rooms. The octagonal hall emphasizes the role of concrete in shaping interior space, and the use of natural light to create drama.
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Roman Frescoes
Roman frescoes were the primary method of interior decoration and their development is generally categorized into four di!erent styles.

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August Mau studied and classified Pompeian styles of wall painting at the end of the 19th century CE. The development of fresco painting styles is a visual example of the changing tastes from the third century BCE through the first century CE. The change in styles reflects changes occurring in Roman society. Pompeian Fourth Style is a less ornamented but more complex reaction to Third Style, that borrows elements from the three preceding styles, including faux masonry, architectural vistas, ornamental decorations, and panels of painted scenes. Fourth Style is seen during the 1st!century CE. Pompeian First Style is also known as masonry style. It mimics marble and colored stone to create the illusion of expensive veneer. It was popular from 200 to 80 BCE and the style originated from the Greeks. Pompeian Second Style is known for its dissolution of the wall into an architectural vista that make logical sense. This style was typically used from 80 to 20 BCE.

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demonstrate artistic talent when conveying real-life objects and

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likenesses. The attention to detail seen in still-life paintings include minute shadows and attention to light to properly depict the material of the object, whether it be glass, food, ceramics, or animals. Roman portraiture further exhibits the talent of Roman painters and often shows careful study on the artists part in the techniques used to portray individual faces and people. Some of the most interesting portraits come from Egypt, from late 1st century BCE to early 3d century CE, when Egypt was a province of Rome. These images from the Fayum necropolis were painted in encaustic and laid over the mummified body (Figure 8.22). They show remarkable realism, while conveying the ideals and changing fashions of the Roman-Egyptian people.
A mummy portrait of a young women. Fayum Necropolis, Egypt. Second century CE. Figure 8.22 Fayum Mummy Portrait

Pompeian Third Style is a whimsical style full of fanciful architecture and Egyptian motifs that focuses more on creating an ornate rather than realistic space. It also includes painted scenes floating on a monochromatic backdrop. This style became popular in 20 BCE until about 60 CE.

Roman painters often painted frescoes, a technique that involved painting pigment on wet plaster. When the painting dried, the image became an integral part of the wall. Fresco painting was the primary method of decorating an interior space; however, few examples survive and the majority that do come from the remains of Roman houses and villas around Mt. Vesuvius. Other examples of frescoes come from locations that were buried, such as parts of Neros Domus Aurea and at the Villa of Livia. Burial protected the painting and preserved the frescoes. The Roman frescoes that have been preserved demonstrate a wide variety of styles. Popular subjects include mythology, portraiture, still-life painting, and historical accounts. The surviving Roman paintings reveal the high degree of sophistication, employing visual techniques that include atmospheric and one-point linear perspective to properly convey the idea of space. Furthermore, portraiture and still-life images

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Classification At the end of the 19th century, August Mau, a German art historian, studied and classified Roman styles of painting at Pompeii. These styles, known simply as Pompeian First, Second, Third, and Fourth Style, demonstrate period fashions of interior decoration preferences and changes in taste and style from the Republic through the early Empire. First Style Also known as masonry style, Pompeian First Style painting was most commonly used from 20080 BCE (Figure 8.23). The style is known for its deceptive painting of a faux surface; the painters were often trying to mimic richly veneered surfaces of marble, alabaster, and other expensive types of stone veneer. This type of painting is a Hellenistic (Greek) style that came to be practiced by the Romans. While creating an illusion of expensive decor, First Style painting reinforces the idea of a wall. The style is often found in the fauces and atrium of a Roman domus. A vivid example is preserved in the fauces of the Samnite House at Herculaneum. Second Style Pompeian Second Style was first used around 80 BCE and was especially fashionable from 40 BCE onward, until its popularity waned in the final decades of the first century BCE. The style is

Figure 8.23 Pompeian First Style Wall Pompeian rst style wall painting from the Samnite House. Fresco. 2nd c. BCE. Herculaneum, Italy.

noted for its visual illusions. These trompe l'oeil are intended to trick the eye into believing that the walls of a building have dissolved into the depicted three-dimensional space (Figure 8.24). Wall frescoes were usually divided into three registers, with the bottom register depicting false masonry painted in the manner of the First Style, while a simple border was painted in the upper-most register. The central register was the largest and the focal point of the painting. This space was an architectural zone that became the main component of Second Style painting. It is here that main scene unfolded; typically paintings that relied on linear perspective to depict architectural expanses and landscapes that were painted on a human scale so that the viewer felt as if, while in the room, they physically were transported to these spaces.

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Figure 8.24 Detail from Villa of P. Fannius Synistor Detail of an architectual vista from a second style wall painting. Villa of P. Fannius Synistor, Boscoreale, Italy. Ca. 50-40 BCE.

Figure 8.25 Villa of Livia Second style garden vista from the Villa of Livia, Primaporta, Italy. Late rst century BCE.

Naturalistic elements like this, along with the flight of the birds and other details, help transport the occupant in the room into an outdoor setting. Third Style Third Style Pompeian painting developed during the last decades of the first century BCE; it was popular from 20 BCE until the middle Villa of Livia As the style evolved, the top and bottom registers became less important. Architectural scenes grew to incorporate the entire room such as at the Villa of the Mysteries and the Villa of Livia. In the case of the Villa of Livia architectural vistas are replaced with a natural landscape that completely surrounds the room. (Figure 8. 25) The painting mimics the natural landscape outside the villa, and is filled with identifiable trees, flowers, and birds. Light filters naturally through the trees, which appear to bend in a slight breeze. of the 1st century CE. During this period, wall painting began to develop a more fantastical personality. Instead of attempting to dissolve the wall like the Second Style, the Third Style acknowledges the wall through flat, monochromatic expanses painted with small central motifs that look like a hung painting. The architecture painted in third style scenes is often logically impossible (Figure 8. 26). The wall is frequently divided into three to five vertical zones by narrow, spindly columns and decorated with painted foliage, candelabra, birds, animals, and figurines. Often these creatures and people were derived from Egyptian motifs, resulting from a

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Figure 8.26 Third Style Wall Painting Detail of third style wall painting from the Villa of Agrippa Postumus. Boscotrecase, Italy. Ca. 10 BCE. Fresco.

Figure 8.27 Fourth Style Detail of a fourth style wall in the Ixion Room of the House of the Vettii. Fresco. Pompeii, Italy. Ca. 70-79 CE.

contemporary Roman fascination with Egypt known as Egyptomania, following the defeat of Cleopatra at Actium and the annexation of Egypt in 30 BCE. Fourth Style The Pompeian Fourth Style became popular around the middle of the 1st century CE. While considered less ornate than the Third Style, the Fourth Style is more complex and draws on elements from each of the three previous Styles (Figure 8.27). In this style, masonry details of the First Style reappear on bottom registers and architectural vistas of the Second Style are once more fashionable, although infinitely more complex than their Second Style
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predecessor. Fantastical details, Egyptian motifs, and ornamental garlands from the Third Style continued into the Fourth Style. Large pictures, connected to each other by a program or theme, dominated each wall, such as those seen at the House of the Vettii in Pompeii.

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The Flavians
The Flavian Dynasty (6996 CE) is known for its peaceful successions and the building of the Colosseum and Arch of Titus.

Following Neros forced suicide in 68 CE, Rome plunged into a year of civil war as four generals vied against each other for power and Vespasian emerged victorious. After the year of warfare, Vespasian sought to establish stability both in Rome and throughout the empire. He and the sons who succeeded him ruled Rome for twenty-seven years. Vespasian was succeeded by his son Titus, whose reigned was short; Titus was deified upon his death. Domitian, Titus' younger brother, succeeded Titus as emperor and reigned until his assassination in 96 CE. Despite being a relatively popular emperor with the people, Domitian had few friends in the Senate. His memory was condemned formally through damnatio memoriae. Flavian Amphitheater Upon his succession, Vespasian began a vast building program in Rome that was continued by Titus and Domitian. It was a cunning political scheme to garner support from the people of Rome. Vespasian transformed land that had been appropriated by Nero into public buildings for leisure and entertainment such as the Baths of Titus and the Flavian Amphitheatre (Figure 8.28). Nero's private lake was drained and became the foundations for the Flavian Amphitheater, the first permanent amphitheater built in the city of Rome. Before this time, gladiatorial contests in the city were held in temporary wooden arenas. The amphitheater became known

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Vespasian and his two sons, Titus and Domitian, constitute a dynasty that ruled Rome for 27 years. Vespasian came to power following the death of Nero and the Year of the Four Emperors. He reigned from 6979 CE. Titus, Vespasian's eldest son, is best known for suppressing Jewish rebellion and his conquest over Judea in 70 CE. This is celebrated in the Arch of Titus erected after his death by his brother. He ruled from 7981 CE. Domitian was popular with the people but unpopular among the Senators. His memory received damnatio memoriae after his death. He ruled Rome from 8196 CE. The Flavian Amphitheatre, also known as the Colosseum, was constructed under the Flavians on land in Rome owned by Nero. This shrewd political act not only returned Roman land back to the people but also provided a means of entertaining the masses of the city in the centuries to come.

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as the Colosseum for its size, but in reference to a colossal golden statue of Nero that stood nearby, which Vespasian had reworked into an image of the sun god, Sol. The building of the amphitheater began under Vespasian in 72 CE, and was completed under Titus in 80 CE. Titus inaugurated the amphitheater with a series of gladiatorial games and events that lasted for one hundred days. During his reign, Domitian remodeled parts of the amphitheater to enlarge the seating capacity to hold 50,000 spectators and added a hypogeum beneath the arena, for storage and to transport animals and people to the arena floor. Not only was the Colosseum home to gladiatorial events; because it had

been built over Neros private lake, could be flooded to stage mock naval battles. Like all Roman amphitheaters, the Colosseum is a free-standing structure, whose shape comes from the combination of two semispherical theaters. The Colosseum exists in part as a result of improvements in concrete and the strength and stability of Roman engineering based on the repetitive form of the arch. The concrete structure was faced in travertine and marble. The exterior of the Colosseum is divided into four bands, representing four interior arcades. The arcades were carefully designed to allow tens of thousands of spectators to enter and exit within minutes. Attached to the uppermost band are over two hundred corbels which supported the velarium, or a retractable awning to protect spectators from sun and rain. The top band is also pierced by a number of small windows, between which are engaged Corinthian pilasters. The three bands below are notable for the series of arches that visually break up the massive faade. The arches on the ground level served as numbered entrances, while those of the two middle levels framed statues of gods, goddesses, and mythical and historical heroes. Between the arches on all three levels are a series of engaged columns: Tuscan ordered columns on the base, Ionic columns on the second level, Corinthian columns on the third, and finally Corinthian pilasters at the upper most band.

Figure 8.28 Flavian Amphitheater (Colosseum) Exterior of the Flavian Amphitheater or Colosseum. 70-80 CE. Rome, Italy.

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The order follows a standard sequence where the sturdiest and strongest order is shown on bottom level, since it appears to support the weight of the structure, and the lightest order at the top. However, despite this illusion the engaged columns and pilasters were merely decorative. Arch of Titus Following his brothers death, Domitian erected a triumphal arch over the Via Sacra, on a rise as the road enters the Republican Forum. The Arch of Titus honors the deified Titus and celebrates his victory over Judea in 70 CE. The arch follows typical standard forms for a triumphal arch, with an honorific inscription in the attic, winged Victories in the spandrels, engaged columns, and more sculpture which is now lost. Inside the archway at the center of the ceiling is a relief panel of the apotheosis of Titus. Two remarkable relief panels decorate the interior sides of the archway and commemorate Titus victory in Judea. The southern panel inside the arch depicts the sacking of Jerusalem (Figure 8.29). The scene shows Roman soldiers carrying the menorah, the sacred candelabrum, and other spoils from the Temple of Jerusalem. The opposite northern panel depicts Titus triumphal procession in Rome, awarded in 71 CE (Figure 8.30). In this panel, Titus rides through Rome on a chariot pulled by four horses. Behind him a winged Victory figure crowns Titus with a

Figure 8.29 Sacking of Jerusalem. Sacking of Jerusalem relief from the Arch of Titus. Marble. Ca. 81 CE. Rome, Italy.

Figure 8.30 Triumph of Titus Triumphal procession for Titus upon his victory over Judea. From the Arch of Titus. Marble. Ca. 81 CE. Rome, Italy.$

laurel wreath and Titus is accompanied by personifications of Honor and Valor. This is one of the first examples in Roman art of humans and divinities, as Titus was deified upon his death, mingling together in one scene. While today these panels are

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damaged and often dirty, they would have originally been painted and decorated with metal attachments and gilding. The panels on the Arch of Titus are depicted in deep relief showing a change in technical style from the shallow relief seen on the Ara Pacis Augustae.
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Section 4

Pompeii and the Vesuvian Cities

The Eruption of Mount Vesuvius Architecture Painting

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The Eruption of Mount Vesuvius

In 79 CE, Vesuvius erupted, burying Roman settlements, including Pompeii, which were preserved until excavation in the modern period.
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The Eruption in August 79 CE During the Roman Republic and into the early Empire, the area today known as the Bay of Naples was developed as a resort-type area for elite Romans escaping the pressure and politics of Rome. The region was dominated by Mt. Vesuvius, which famously erupted in August 79 CE, burying and preserving the cities of Herculaneum, Pompeii, along with the regions villas and farms. While today the cities of Pompeii and Herculaneum are often described as cities frozen in time, the inhabitants of these cities and the region around Vesuvius had many warnings prior to the eruption that something was about to happen. A major earthquake shook the region in 62 CE, causing damage to buildings that still had not been repaired by the time of volcanos eruption seventeen years later. In the days leading up to the eruption the number of tremors became more frequent. While not everyone left prior to the eruption, archaeological evidence shows that people did leave the city. Some houses give the impression of having been packed up and in some cases furniture and objects were excavated jumbled together. Other objects of value appear to have been buried or hidden. There is evidence of people returning after the eruption to dig through the remainseither recovering lost goods or looting for valuables.

The ash and pyroclastic flows from the eruption of Mt. Vesuvius on August 24, 79 CE, buried multiple cities and nearby villas and farms, including the cities of Pompeii and Herculaneum. The city of Pompeii was covered in ash, which buried the buildings and all of its remaining citizens. The ash preserved frescos, among other artifacts, providing scholars today with an opportunity to study Roman painting. The pryoclastic flow that buried Herculaneum preserved organic materials, including wood and human remains. The cities of Pompeii and Herculaneum were rediscovered in the 18th century and have been slowly excavated over the last two centuries.

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Figure 8.31 Ash Cloud of Mt. Vesuvius Ash cloud of Mt. Veusvius, Bay of Naples, Italy.

Rediscovery The Roman historian Pliny the Elder documented the eruption and lost his life during it. While the cities lingered in the memories of many Romans of the period, they were eventually forgotten, only to be rediscovered in the 18th century when the region was ruled by the King of Naples, Charles Bourbon. Excavations continued on and off over the next two centuries, and the sites of Pompeii and Herculaneum became major tourists attractions for visiting royalty, members of the Grand Tour, and even tourists today.
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When Vesuvius erupted (Figure 8.31) on August 25, a cloud of ash spewed south, burying the cities of Pompeii, Nuceria, and the sumptuous villas at Stabiae. The ash suffocated the remaining population; empty cavities within the ash are all that remains of those who died on the site. A pyroclastic flow of superheated gas and rock went west to the coast and the city of Herculaneum. Unlike the ash blanket of Pompei, in which organic material decomposed, the pyroclastic flow in Herculaneum petrified organic material, ensuring the preservation of human remains and wood, including the preservation of wooden screens, beds, and shelving. Many of the frescoes, mosaics, and other non-organic materials in both ash and pyroclastic flow were preserved until their excavation in the modern period.

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Architecture
The Roman domus"featured a division between public and private space and reected a patrons interaction with his clients.

The Roman Domus The Roman domus, or house, played two important roles in Roman society, serving both as a home and as a place of business for patricians and wealthy Romans. To facilitate this dual functionality, the domus had a distinct set of rooms that could be used as either public or private spaces. While no modern domus adheres to the

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standard model of a domus (Figure 8.32), many Roman houses, both small and large, have nearly all of these different rooms. The design of the domus reflects the Roman patronage where a client is protected by a wealthy patron, and in return supports the actions and estate of the patron. Many of a patrons clients would be former slaves, now freedmen, or other plebeians and lesser patricians. The domus is often set back from the main street, and shopsor tabernaeline the streets on either side of the houses main entrance. A client would enter the house through the fauces (Latin for jaw), which was a narrow entryway into an atrium. The atrium was the most important part of the house and would be the spot where clients and guests were greeted. The atrium often included an impluvium, or basin for collecting rain water. The roof of the house did not cover the impluvium and the open space above the basin was called the compluvium. The atrium would often be richly decorated with thematic frescos and images of the patrons ancestors. Cubiculum, or rooms, lined the atrium, and at the far end

The main public part of the domus included the fauces, an entryway, the atrium, and the tablinum, a space for conducting business. Decorates of these spaces were lavish and often depicted images of the patrons illustrious ancestors. The main private portions of the domus included the peristyle and garden and the triclinium or dining room, which would be lavishly painted. Additional parts of the house included rooms, cubiculum, a kitchen, and open spaces known as ala. Most Roman domus had a second story, although these did not survive in Pompeii. Houses deviated greatly from the standard model created by historians. Examples in Pompeii and Herculaneum demonstrate how the standard elements could be rearranged to fit almost any footprint and the wealth of the patron.

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Figure 8.32 Roman Domus

Figure 8.33 House of the Faun

Ground plan of the House of the Faun. Pompeii, Italy.

Typically, the front half of the house served as public space, while the back of the domus was reserved for more private functions of the family. In the back of the house, beyond the tablinum, would be one or more triclinium, or dining rooms. Dining rooms were lavishly decorated and were typically furnished with dining couches and a low table. A peristylea colonnaded courtyardwas usually the main feature of the back of the house. It could contain gardens and even a pool and provided light as well as shade and breeze for hot summer days. Other features of the domus, include alae or open rooms with an unknown function, kitchens (culina), and additional rooms for work, sleeping, and servants.
A standard plan of a Roman domus.

Domus at Pompeii was the tablinum. The tablinum functioned as the office of the patron and was where he would meet with his clients during the morning ritual of salutatio. The tablinum often provided a glimpse into the private sphere of the house, which was set behind the office. Each domus throughout Pompeii represents the various ways the standard components of a domus may be used to create unique floor plans that showcase the status and wealth of the owner. The

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Figure 8.34 House of the Vettii

constructions than the House of the Faun, but both house plans still readily depict the wealth of the household. Visitors entering the House of the Vettii (Figure 8.34) were greeted by a frescoed image of Payrapus, an image that portrayed the wealth and luck of the two bacholers who lived inside. The main attributes of their house were the atrium and the large garden peristyle, surrounded by decorated triclinium and a garden complete with fountains, statues, and flowers. While this house had fewer publicprivate access restrictions than the standard domus, it did include the main attributes of a traditional Roman house.
Figure 8.35 House of the Tragic Poet

Ground plan of the House of the Vettii. Pompeii, Italy.

The House of the Tragic Poet (Figure 8.35) was small but maintained the public-private access characteristic of the traditional domus. The fauces was especially noted for its mosaic image of a dog, complete with the
Ground plan of the House of the Tragic Poet.

large complex of the House of the Faun encompasses an entire city block (Figure 8.33). This domus has two atriums, each with its own fauces, although with two peristyles of different sizes. In essence, the House of the Faun becomes a private villa despite its urban setting. Two houses, the House of the Vettii and the House of the Tragic Poet both discussed for their wall paintingsare simpler

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warning Cave canem, or, roughly, Beware of dog. The fauces led the guest into the atrium and the tablinum, which divided the public front of the house from the private back of the house, where a small peristyle and a frescoed triclinium could be found. Herculaneum Herculaneum was a smaller town than Pompeii, but the domus followed the basic standard design of Roman houses. Houses in Herculaneum often had a smaller footprint than those in Pompeii. In many cases, the second stories of the houses at Herculaneum survived or survived in part, which provides historians with an additional layer of understanding regarding the design of Roman homes. The Samnite House, for instance, was rather small, but the First Style decorated fauces open to an atrium that leads into a tablinum. A few small rooms surround the atrium on three sides and a set of stairs lead up to the second floor.
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Painting
Fresco painting at Pompeii provides examples of the ingenuity of the artist and the complexity of the scenes that interrelate through themes.

KEY POINTS

A fresco depicts a visual account of the historical riot between Pompeii and Nuceria which resulted in the banning of gladiatorial games for ten years. The Villa of the Mysteries is known for its fantastic Second Style fresco depicting a ritual related to the mystery cult of Dionysus. The style of the painting allows the wall to dissolve not into an architectural or natural vista but instead incorporates the viewer into the ritual scene. Often scenes painted in one room related to each through one or more themes. The fresco cycle at the House of the Faun relates to the story of Trojan War as well as male-female relationships while those in the House of the Vettii tell mythological stories.

As discussed previously, the fresco paintings discovered at Pompeii were studied and classified by the German art historian August Mau in the end of the 19th century. Mau classified Roman painting into four developmental styles using the surviving Pompeiian paintings.

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While it was due to Mau that Pompeiian art became the model used in classifying Roman painting styles, the uniqueness of several of the paintings and houses deserves a closer look. Riot at the Amphitheatre In 59 CE, a riot broke out between the citizens of Pompeii and the citizens of nearby Nuceria during a gladiatorial event. The brawl in the amphitheater resulted in serious injuries between both parties
Figure 8.36 Riot at the Pompeii Ampitheatre Depiction of a riot at the amphitheatre at Pompeii. Pompeii, Italy. ca. 60-79 CE.

and the banning of all gladiatorial events for ten years. A fresco from Pompeii that depicts the event (Figure 8.36) has also survived. The fresco depicts the Pompeiian amphitheatre, with its distinctive exterior staircase, as well as an awning, the velarium. It
Figure 8.37 Villa of the Mysteries

One wall on the ritual scene depicted at the Villa of Mysteries. Pompeii, Italy. ca. 60-50 BCE.

also depicts the riot occurring both inside the arena and on the grounds surrounding the amphitheatre. Villa of the Mysteries At the Villa of the Mysteries, just outside of Pompeii, a fantastic scene filled with life-size figures depicts a ritual element from a Dionysian mystery cult (Figure 8.37). In this Second Style example, architectural elements play a small role in creating the illusion of ritual space. The people and activity in the scene are the main focus. The architecture present is mainly piers or wall panels that divide

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the main scene into separate segments. The figures appear life-size, which brings them into the space of the room. The scene wraps around the room, depicting what may be a rite of marriage. A woman is seen preparing her hair. She is surrounded by other women and cherubs while a figure, identified as Dionysus, waits. The ritual may reenact the marriage between Dionysus and Ariadne, the daughter of King Minos. All the figures, except for Dionysus and one small boy, are female. The figures also appear to interact with one other from across the room. On the two walls in one corner, a woman reacts in terror to Dionysus and the mask over his head. On the opposite corner, a cherub appears to be whipping a woman on the adjoining wall. While the cult aspects of the ritual are unknown, the fresco demonstrates the ingenuity and inventiveness of Roman painters. House of the Vettii Many rooms in the House of the Vettii are lavishly painted. Each triclinium is themed and painted in the Fourth Style. Each panel in the room follows the rooms theme, providing visual entertainment and a narrative during dining. The Ixion Room, for instance, is a model of Fourth Style wall painting. Within each red panel is a scene depicting myths where the main character commits a major slight. One panel is dedicated to Ixion, who refused to pay a dowry and murdered his father-in-law. He also lusted after Zeuss wife,

Figure 8.38 Daedalus and Pasipha Daedalus presents Pasipha with a wooden heifer.

betraying the relationship between guest and host. Another panel depicts Daedalus presenting a wooden cow to Pasipha, wife of King Minos, so she could relieve her lust for a white bull (Figure 8.38). From this union, Pasipha birthed the Minotaur, a half-man, halfbull monster. Another Fourth Style triclinium depicts scenes from the lives of Hercules and Theseus. House of the Tragic Poet The atrium of the House of the Tragic Poet includes a series of paintings depicting scenes from the Trojan War. The panels on the

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Figure 8.39 Sacrice of Iphigenia Fresco scene of the Sacrice of Iphigenia. House of the Tragic Poet, Pompeii, Italy. Ca. 60-65 CE.

womanly ideals. Two pairs of scenes, set across from each other, depict different, interrelated themes. The abduction of women is one theme visible in one image of Helen with Paris leaving for Troy. Another image portrays the abduction of Amphitrite by Poseidon. In both cases, a male abducts a woman. The other two scenes deal with the argument between Achilles and Agamemnon, which begins the story of the Iliad. Of these two scenes, one depicts Achilles with Agamemnon, while the other depicts Achilles returning Briseis, his lover and captive, to his commander, Agamemnon. A final image, found in the peristyle, depicts the Sacrifice of Iphigenia (Figure 8. 39). All of these paintings are related to one another through themes such as marriage, womanly virtue, and the Trojan War.
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walls depict scenes that appear to be interrelated. Just like the mythological panels in the House of the Vettii are related to each other based on a common theme so, too, do many of these scenes. Scholars believe themes were carefully crafted not only to relate stories, but also to depict the virtues of the houses owner. Two panels on the south wall relate the beginnings of the Trojan War. One panel is of Zeus and Hera on Mount Ida. Another, badly damaged, appears to be a scene of the Judgment of Paris. These panels relate the beginnings of the Trojan War while portraying

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Section 5

The Nervan-Antonines

Architecture Portraits Trajan Hadrian Ostia The Antonines

https://www.boundless.com/art-history/the-romans/the-nervan-antonines/
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Architecture
The emperors Trajan and Hadrian were the two most prolic emperors who constructed buildings during the Nerva-Antonine dynasty.

sought to cast themselves in the image of the first imperial builder, Augustus. The projects these emperors conducted around the empire included the building and restoration of roads, bridges, and aqueducts. In Rome, imperial building projects strengthened the image of the emperor and directly addressed the needs of the citizens of the city.

KEY POINTS

Trajans Forum Trajans Forum (Figure 8.40) was the last of the imperial fora to be built in the city. The forums main entrance was accessed from the south, near to the Forum of Augustus as well as the Forum of Caesar (which Trajan also renovated). The Forum of Augustus may have been the model for the Forum of Trajan, even though Trajans forum was much larger. Both forums were rectangular in shape with a temple at one end and both appear to have a set of exedra on either side. Trajan built his forum with the spoils from his conquest of Dacia. The visual elements within the forum all speak of his military prowess and Romes victory. A triumphal arch mounted with an image of Trajan in a six-horse chariot greeted patrons at the southern entrance. In the center of the large courtyard stood an

Trajans Forum was built from 106 to 113 CE from the spoils of the conquest of Dacia; it celebrates Trajans military power. The forum provided much needed public space for law courts and other political and administrative meetings. The Markets of Trajan were built into the Quirinal Hill. The vaulted halls provided rooms for administrative offices, shops, and perhaps even apartments. Apollodorus of Damascus was Trajans court architect who designed and built many of Trajans architectural projects. He was dismissed by Hadrian, because he did not appreciate Hadrians architectural inspirations. Hadrian rebuilt the Pantheon of Agrippa in 118125 CE. The Pantheon is an architectural innovation with a magnificent concrete, unreinforced dome.

Public building programs were prevalent under the emperors of the Nervan-Antonine dynasty. During this period of peace, stability, and an expansion of the empires borders, many of the emperors

equestrian statue of Trajan, and additional bronze statues of Trajan in a quadriga lined the roof of the Basilica Ulpia, which transected the forum in the northern end. This large civic building served as a

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Figure 8.40 Plan of the Forum of Trajan and Trajan's Markets

Trajans Markets Trajans markets (Figure 8.41) were an additional public building that Trajan had built at the same time as his forum. The markets were built on top of and into the Quirinal Hill, and consisted of a
Figure 8.41 Trajan's Markets

Trajan's Markets as they stand today

series of multi-leveled halls lined with rooms for either shops,

Trajan built the forum and markets around the same time"from 106 to 113 CE.

administrative offices, or perhaps even apartments. The markets follow the shape of the Trajans forum and a portion of them are shaped into a large exedra, framing one of the exedra of the forum. Like Trajans forum, the markets were elaborately decorated with marble floors and revetment, as well as decorative columns to frame the doorways. Apollodorus of Damascus Many of Trajans architectural achievements were designed by his architect, Apollodorus of Damascus. Apollodorus was a Greek engineer from Damascus, Syria whose work was favored by Trajan.

meeting place for commerce and law courts. It was lavishly furnished with marble floors, facades, and the hall was filled with tall marble columns. The Basilica Ulpia also separated the arcaded courtyard from two libraries (one for Greek the other for Latin texts), the Column of Trajan, and a temple dedicated to the Divine Trajan.

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Not only did he design Trajans market and forum, but he also designed the Arch of Trajan at Benevento, and an important bridge across the Danube during the campaigns against the Dacians. Unfortunately for Apollodorus, Trajans heir Hadrian also took an interest in architecture. According to Roman biographers, Apollodorus did not appreciate Hadrians interests or architectural drawings and often discredited them. Upon Hadrians succession, Apollodorus was dismissed from court. Hadrians Pantheon Hadrians most famous contribution to the city of Rome was his rebuilding of the Pantheon (Figure 8.42), a temple to all the gods, that was first built by Agrippa during the reign of Augustus. Agrippas Pantheon burnt down in the 80s CE, was rebuilt by
Figure 8.42 Pantheon Hadrian rebuilt the Pantheon of Agrippa in 118-125 CE.

Figure 8.43 Elevation drawing of the Pantheon The Pantheon is an architectural innovation with a magnicent concrete, unreinforced dome.

Domitian, and burned down again in 110 CE. Hadrians Pantheon still remains standing today, a great testament of Roman engineering and ingenuity (Figure 8.43). The Pantheon was consecrated as a church during the medieval period and was later used a burial site. The most unusual aspect of the Pantheon is its magnificent coffered dome, that was originally gilded in bronze. The concrete dome, which provided inspiration to numerous Renaissance artists, including Brunelleschi and Michelangelo, spans over 142 feet and remains the largest unreinforced dome today. It stands due to a series of relieving arches, and because the supportive base of the building is nearly twenty feet thick. At the center of the dome is a large oculus that lets in light, fresh air, and even rain. Both the

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oculus and the coffered ceiling lighten the weight of the dome itself, allowing the dome to stand without additional supports. The Pantheon takes its shape from Greek circular temples, however it is faced by a Roman rectangular porch and a triangular pediment held up by monolithic granite columns imported from Egypt. The porch, which originally included a flight of stairs up a podium, acts as a visual trick, preparing viewers to enter a typical rectangular temple when they would instead be walking into a circular one. A dedicatory inscription is carved in the entablature under the pediment. The inscription reads as the original inscription would have read when the Pantheon was first built by Agrippa. Hadrians decision to use the original inscription links him to the original imperial builders of Rome.
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Portraits
Imperial portraiture of men and women in the early to mid 2nd century reects increasing austerity and interest in the Greeks.
KEY POINTS

The portraiture of Nerva and Trajan display a militaristic look. Hadrian changed Roman portrait style to reflect Greek styles and mimicked the hair and beard style of ancient Greek politicians. This style was kept by his successor Antoninus Pius. A great admirer of Greek philosophers, and a philosopher himself, the emperor Marcus Aurelius continued the fashion for Greek hairstyles, but his hair and beard reflected in the style of ancient Greek philosophers rather than heroes or military figures. The emperor Commodus believed himself to be the reincarnation of Hercules and commissioned portraits of himself as Hercules, complete with attributes associated with the hero and his deeds. Imperial women set the style and fashion for elite hair styles. The styles of Trajan's wife Pompeia Plotina and his niece Matidia demonstrate a simplified abstract vertical form based on the earlier curly, extravagant Flavian style.

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Figure 8.44 Nerva.

Figure 8.45 Trajan

KEY POINTS (cont.)

Both Hadrian and Marcus Aurelius's wives chose to follow their respective husband's choice of style, and are depicted with hairstyles that derive from Greece, though they are notably more subdued than the styles of their predecessors.

Imperial Portraiture Imperial portraiture under the Flavians had begun depicting the emperors as mature, older men. Nerva, who only reigned for two years before his natural death in 98 CE, was declared emperor by the Senate following Domitians assassination. Since he had no natural sons of his own, Nerva adopted a young and popular general, Trajan, to be his successor. Nervas portraiture was no different than the style of imperial portraiture during the Flavian era. The few portraits that remain from the two years of his rule depict a man with receding hairline and small mouth (Figure 8. 44).The portraiture of Nerva and later Trajan display an increasing militaristic look. Nervas successor and adopted son, Trajan (Figure 8.45), was a much more successful emperor, who was well liked by both the Senate and the people of Rome.He reigned for nearly twenty years (r. 98117 CE), expanding the empires borders and implementing extensive public building and social welfare programs.Trajans portraits depict him as aging, but always with a full head of hair and a typical Roman hairstyle that is reminiscent of, although not identical to, that of Augustus and Alexander the Great. Hadrian (Figure 8.46), Trajans adopted son and heir, peacefully succeeded Trajan in 117 CE. Hadrian was a great lover of Greek culture and wore a closely trimmed beard in the style of Classical Greek statesmen, such as the Athenian Pericles. Hadrian set a fashion for beards among Romans, and most emperors after him
Portrait bust of Nerva. Portrait bust of Trajan.

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Figure 8.46 Hadrian

Figure 8.47 Marcus Aurelius.

statesmen, this style was more akin to the preferred style of the Greek philosophers. Marcus Aurelius admired the Greeks and was himself a philosopher; this style matched his personality and interests. Unlike the rest of the emperors of the Nervan-Antonine line, Marcus Aurelius fathered a son who became his heir. Commoduss portrait-style

Figure 8.48 Commodus as Hercules.

Portrait bust of Hadrian.

Portrait bust of Marcus Aurelius.

followed that of his father and of preceding emperors. Commodus was egotistical and even had the head of the
The Emperor Commodus in the guise of Hercules.

also wore a beard. Prior to Hadrian nearly all Roman men were clean shaven. Hadrian adopted the Antoninus Pius and his imperial portraiture adopts Hadrians portrait stylethick curly hair and a curly, closelytrimmed beard. By having his own portrait mimic that of Hadrian, Antoninus Pius forged a visual link between Emperor Hadrian and his adopted heir. Antonius Pius' adoptive sons Lucius Verus and Marcus Aurelius (Figure 8.47) are also identified by the beards they wore. Both men are shown with a head of thick, curly hair and a long, curly beard. Unlike the closely trimmed beard style of Greek

Colossus of Nero (now an image of the god Sol) recast in his own likeness. Commodus also believed he was the reincarnated hero and demigod Hercules, and he claimed power from Hercules' father, Jupiter. He commissioned portraits of himself as Hercules (Figure 8.48). These portraits show him with the now-traditional imperial style of thick, curly hair and a curly beard; Herculess lion skin is draped over his head and around his shoulders and he often carries a club and sometimes the apples of the Hesperides.

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Figure 8.49 Flavian Woman

Figure 8.50 Matidia

Figure 8.51 Vibia Sabina

Figure 8.52 Faustina the Younger

Bust of a Flavian Woman.

Portrait bust of Matidia. Portrait Bust of Sabina, wife of Hadrian. Portrait bust of Faustina the Younger.

Imperial Female Portraiture The women of imperial families set the standards of fashion and beauty during the reign of their husbands or other male family members. These women also established the hairstyles of the period, which are so distinctive that busts and statues are easily dated to specific decades in accordance with the hairstyle of the woman depicted. During the Nervan-Antonine period, portraits of imperial women and their hairstyles kept some Flavian flavor but where simpler than they had been. The fashionable style among women during the reign of the Flavians had involved hairpieces and wigs to create a

stack of curls on the crown of the head (Figure 8.49). Trajans wife Pompeia Plotina and his niece Matidia (Figure 8.50) established a new style that was almost an abstraction of the Flavian style. Their hairstyle still involved a vertical element, but the curls were simplified on the crown of the head and the natural hair was gathered in a low braid at the nape of the neck. Just as Hadrian chose to wear his hair and beard in a Greek style, his wife Sabina also chose a Greek hair style (Figure 8.51). This helped promote Hadrians Pan-Hellenic agenda. Sabina is depicted with simplified facial features and her style is comparable that worn

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by the famous Greek statue known as the Venus of Cnidus. Her hair is held back by a band and carefully woven around the back of the head. A similar style was promoted by Marcus Aureliuss wife, Faustina the Younger, who is depicted with carefully crimped hair worn close the head (Figure 8.52).
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Trajan
The monuments dedicated to the reign of Emperor Trajan emphasize his military conquests, divinity, and public works.
KEY POINTS

The Emperor Trajan continued an era of peace and stability that saw the fullest expansion of the empire, as well as the execution of numerous public works, ranging from building programs to social welfare. Trajan reigned from 98 to 117 CE. The Column of Trajan is an artistic feat that!depicts Trajan's military conquest over the Dacians (101 CE102 CE and 105 CE16 CE), through a series of more than!150 episodes and showing over 2,500 figures . The Arch of Trajan at Benevento depicts scenes often seen on triumphal arches, including scenes of military conquest, imperial piety and divinity, as well depicted programs of building and social works that Trajan patronage and implemented.

Imperial Memorial Trajan was born in Spain and rose to prominence in the Roman army during the reign of Domitian. He was a popular general and

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was adopted by the Emperor Nerva as son and heir after Nerva realized the he needed chose a successor who was liked by the people. During Trajans reign of nearly twenty years, from 98 CE to 117 CE, the Roman Empire reached its greatest territorial range. Trajan established large building programs both in Rome and throughout the empire. Column of Trajan As discussed previously, Trajan and his architect, Apollodorus of Damascus, designed and built a large forum complex in the center of Rome. Standing between the libraries of the Forum of Trajan is a 128 foot tall victory column, known as the Column of Trajan (Figure 8.53). It stands on top of a large pedestal carved with a relief of the spoils of war. The pedestal later served as a tomb for Trajan's ashes upon his death and deification. He is notably the first emperor to be buried inside the pomerium. In a spiral relief that wraps around the column, from its bottom to its top, is a 625 foot frieze depicting Trajans two military campaigns against the Dacians. The frieze depicts over 150 episodes with more than 2,500 figures. The scenes show the Roman army preparing for and war, including scenes (Figure 8.54). of moving the army, building fortifications, of Emperor Trajan addressing the troops, battles, and the eventual surrender by the Dacians to Trajan. Only one quarter of the narration depicts battles, while the remaining panels depict scenes

of preparation and other activities. The heavy emphasis on preparation, instead of battle, emphasizes the Roman's organization and the power behind the army. The visual narration is depicted in low relief (bas relief) and relies little on naturalistic detail, preferring to show some scenes in multiple perspectives and with figures on different ground lines. Important characters, such as Trajan, reappear throughout the frieze and are easily identified. Trajan himself appears fifty-nine times, leading his troops as the head of the army and the empire. With the exception of the appearance of a few Victory figures and a river god, the Romans and Trajan are shown conquering the Dacians under

Figure 8.53 Column of Trajan The Column of Trajan. Rome, Italy. 112 CE.

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Figure 8.54 Detail from the Column of Trajan Detail of ve registers or bands from the Column of Trajan.

narrative was more important than being physically able to read the narrative. The Arch of Trajan at Benevento Trajan also had numerous triumphal arches built for him across the empire. The Arch of Trajan in Benevento (Figure 8.55) draws visual cues from the Arch of Titus at Rome. This arch, built between 114 and 117 CE, was erected over the Via Appia, one of Rome's most ancient roads through southern Italy, as the road entered Beneventum. Like the Arch of Titus, the Arch of Trajan is ornately
Figure 8.55 Arch of Trajan The Arch of Trajan at Benevento (ancient Beneventum).

their own power, though their own superiority over their enemy, without the help of divine intervention. Trajans victory column was originally topped by an eagle and later with a statue of Trajan. The statue of Trajan eventually disappeared and was replaced in the 16th century by a bronze statue of St. Peter. Scholars have recently called the legibility of the figures into question; because of the columns location, nestled between the libraries and the basilica of the Trajans Forum, the scenes, which are carved in low relief, are small and hard to read. It is uncertain how much of the columns relief Romans would have been able to see; there's some speculation whether knowledge of the idea of the

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decorated with scenes of conquest and the deeds completed by Trajan. On both sides of the arch is a dedicatory inscription;the exterior is decorated with engaged columns and reliefs of Trajans military conquest of Dacia, the extent of the Roman empire, and allegorical scenes of imperial power as well as Trajans good deeds as both a builder of public works and as the founder of a charitable institution for children in Roman Italy. The two interior relief panels depict the religious activity of Trajan. One shows him making a sacrifice in one of Rome's oldest forae, the Forum Boarium, which was home of some of the citys oldest temples. The other panel depicts Trajan being welcomed after his apotheosis by the Capitoline Triad of gods: Jupiter, Juno, and Minerva. These two scenes depict Trajans piety as well as the approval given him by the three most important gods in the Roman pantheon.
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Hadrian
Hadrian was a great lover of architecture, Greek culture, and travel; the buildings he designed reect these attributes of his character.

KEY POINTS

Hadrians reigned from 117 to 138 CE. Hadrians private architecture indulged his love of unique forms, including circles and domes. Hadrians Villa in Tivoli was built as a his private residence. Its buildings were named for places around the empire and several were meant to represent specific places. The Canopus and Serapeum were a large pool, surrounded by a portico and statues, and an artificial grotto reminiscent of the Egyptian city Canopus and the Serapeum, a temple to the god Serapis. Hadrian also built a mausoleum!for himself and his family, which became an imperial mausoleum over the next several generations.

Like Trajan before him, the emperor Hadrian had a long and successful career as an emperor of Rome, reigning from 117 to 138 CE.

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His time as emperor was marked with peace and relative stability throughout the empire. He was an active general in the military, both before and after becoming Emperor, despite a lull in military conflicts during his reign. He worked to strengthen Romes borders by building fortifications, outposts, and walls along the empires border. The most famous of these is Hadrians Wall in Britain that marked the northern boundary of the empire on the isle. Hadrian also traveled extensively, enjoying new cultures, inspecting troops, and promoting military readiness. Hadrians Villa The Emperor Hadrian was also an extensive builder. His personal travels through the eastern portion of the empire, especially Greece and Egypt, resonated with him. He enjoyed the arts and when he was young he developed an interest in architecture. Besides his public buildings in Rome, Hadrian also designed and had built a large imperial villa eighteen miles outside of Rome, in modern day Tivoli. Hadrians Villa is a large complex of 30 buildings on over 250 acres. The complex includes a series of baths, halls for dining, porticos, pools, libraries, temples, and quarters for the court, servants, and imperial guards. Due to Hadrians travels and interest in architecture, many of his buildings were designed or named to recall specific places within the empire. Several of the buildings

Figure 8.56 The so-called Maritime Theatre

At Hadrian's Villa.

display a whimsical use of architectural elements to obtain to unique styles of form and space. One of the most intriguing of these is known today as the Maritime Theatre (Figure 8.56). While not a theatre at all, it is quite unique. A small-scale villa was built on an island surrounded by a moat. The entire complex is walled off from the rest of the larger villa with only two drawbridges across the moat provided access to it. These bridges could be raised by Hadrian when he was on the island and it provided a means for the emperor to find seclusion. Another interesting part of the Villa is known as the Canopus and Serapeum (Figure 8.57). This large pool with an artificial dining grotto at one end was named after a location in Egypt: the city

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Canopus and its temple to the god Serapis, known as a Serapeum. In Egypt, the city of Canopus is located in the Nile Delta on the outskirts of modern Alexandria. In Hadrians Villa, the Canopus was a large, rectangular pool representing an Egyptian canal and is 119 meters long and 18 meters across. It was bordered by decorative porticos that playfully alternated between normal horizontal lintels and arched lintels. Marble copies of famous Greek bronzes stood underneath the arches. A set of caryatids, replicated from the Athenian Acropolis, lined a section of the pool. The stance of these caryatids differ slightly from their Athenian counterparts as they stand a bit taller and straighter as if holding less weight. Status of crocodiles, animals associated with the Nile, could also be found around and in the pool. At the end of it was the Serapeum, an
Figure 8.57 The Canopus and Serapeum A view of the Canopus with the Serapeum in the background.

Figure 8.58 Castel Sant' Angelo Hadrian's Mausoleum as it stands today.

artificial grotto for dining and entertaining. This was created from a half dome and the interior was lined with small rocks and shells to replicate the feeling of a sea-side cave. Hadrians Mausoleum Hadrian also built a large mausoleum for himself and his family (Figure 8.58) on the right bank of the Tiber River in Rome. Its original design seems to have purposely recalled the Mausoleum of Augustus, located across the river on the Campus Martius. The Mausoleum of Hadrian was a large cylinder topped by a garden and quadriga statue. A central room housed the ashes of Hadrian, his family, as well as several of the emperors who succeeded him. While Hadrians Mausoleum still stands today, it was later converted into

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a residence and fortress under the Roman popes and now serves as a museum.
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Ostia
The city of Ostia represents a more typical urbandwelling existence for Roman plebeians.

KEY POINTS

Ostia was the port city of Rome throughout the Republic and into the fourth CE. It was most prosperous during the second and third century CE. Ostias prominence first flourished with the expansion of the harbor at Portus under Trajan, but began to wane as trade and shipping was diverted from Ostia to Portus. Excavations have uncovered temples to a pantheon of Roman gods including the Capitoline Triad, Hercules, Cybele, and Mithras. Guilds often built temples to honor their patron gods and both a Jewish synagogue and Christian basilica have been excavated in the city. The necropolis on the Isola Sacra provides insight to plebeian funerary practices and artistic styles.

Located at the mouth of the Tiber on the Tyrrhenian Sea, Ostia was the main port city of Rome. Today, due to the silting of the river, the remains of Ostia lay about 3 km from the sea. The city was first founded during the third century BCE, as one of Romes earliest colonies. Its initial plan recalls a castru, or a military encampment,

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that was often used as a layout when establishing new cities or colonies. Today, Ostia Antica is noted for its impressive set of ruins. A majority of the city was hastily excavated and reconstructed under Mussolini for the 1942 Worlds Fair, which never occurred because of the start of World War II. The ruins of Ostia are from the citys imperial period when it was at the height of its prosperity. Since Rome was settled inland, Ostia was always an important component to Rome, especially as the empire expanded and relied on its provinces for survival. Merchant vessels and large ships filled with grains, building materials, and other goods to sell in Rome docked at Ostia, The goods were transferred to barges and taken up river to Rome. Under the patronage of Tiberius, Ostia became much larger and began to grow into an even larger and busier port. Trajan enlarged a second harbor, known as Portus, just to the north of Ostia. Portus could handle a larger capacity of ships than Ostia, and this eventually diverted trade from Ostias habors, causing the citys importance to diminish. At its height in the second and third centuries CE, Ostia reached 75,000 inhabitants. Insulae Ostia provides evidence of what a busy, typical Roman city would have looked like. The city is typical of a Roman city, including a large central forum, bath houses (Figure 8.59), temples, a theatre,

Figure 8.59 Mosaics from the Baths of Neptune. Mosaics from the Baths of Neptune, Ostia Antica. The mosaic shows the god Neptune in a sea-quadriga surrounded by creatures of the sea.

Figure 8.60 Insulae at Ostia Insulae, or apartment blocks, in the city of Ostia Antica.

barracks for firemen, and apartment buildings. The two central streets of the city, the cardo and decumanius ran north-south and east-west through the city, intersecting at the forumthe center of the city's civic and religious activities. Citizens of Ostia lived in

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apartment houses or insulae (Figure 8.60), which stood six or seven stories high. The insulae of Ostia demonstrate the cramped and noisy living style that would have been common, not only in Ostia but also in Rome. Shops, known as tabernae, occupied the ground level of insulae, while the upper stories housed apartments. Roman apartments varied in size from larger homes located on the lower floors with private dining and cooking areas, as well as private toilets to small cramped rooms with communal cooking areas and toilets on the upper floors. Religion Excavations at Ostia reveal a variety of temples and meeting sites for cults and rituals. This reflects the relative religious diversity within the Roman Empire. Common features throughout the Empire include the Capitolium, the temple dedicated to Jupiter, Juno, and Minerva, in the forum at the center of the city (Figure 8. 61. Across from the Capitolium in the forum stands a temple dedicated to Augustus and Roma. Close by is the Temple to Hercules, and throughout the city are temples dedicated to gods related to shipping and commerce, as well temples built by guilds, such as the ship builders or the rope makers, for their patron gods. On the city's outskirts, there is also a large sanctuary to the goddess Cybele or Magna Mater, attesting to her popularity in the city. The god Mithras was also popular among the Ostians and worshiped Isola Sacra

Figure 8.61 The Capitolium at Ostia Antica The Capitolium in the forum at Ostia Antica.

solely by men in the form of a mystery cult. Over 15 mithraea have been discovered in the city. These mithraea are nearly all built underground to replicate the cave central to the myths of Mithras. Ostia was also home to an early Christian church, as well as a Jewish Synagogue. The church takes the rough form of a basilica with a central nave decorated with two rows of columns and an aisle on one side and rooms on the other. The Ostia synagogue is considered to be the oldest in Europe and dates to the mid-first century CE, under the reign of Claudius.

The necropolis of the Isola Sacra was developed along the road between the cities of Ostia and Portus. When Trajan expanded Portus, he had a canal constructed between the harbor and the river

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Tiber that turned the area of the necropolis into an island. The Isola Sacra provides insight into plebeian art and funerary practices during the second and third centuries CE. The wealthier families of Ostia were able to build large, elaborate burial houses for their personal use, while the everyday shopkeepers and workers relied on their guilds to create communal funerary homes and see to the proper burial of each other's remains. These tombs are identified by scenes of daily life and images of the guild members profession.
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The Antonines
The art commemorating the reign of the Antonine emperors depicts both the stability and the military accomplishments of the empire.

KEY POINTS

The Antonine dynasty consisted of four emperors, ruling from 132 to 192 CE. Antoninus Pius and Marcus Aurelius are considered the last two of the Five Good Emperors who reigned consecutively during the second century CE. Antoninus Pius was named so for convincing the Senate to deify his adopted father and emperor, Hadrian. The pedestal for the Column of Antoninus Pius, erected by his adopted sons and heirs, depict both a conservative Classical artistic style as well as a new, artistic style previously only seen in plebeian art. Marcus Aurelius, a philosophical emperor, is considered the last of the good emperors. He started his reign (161180) ruling jointly with co-emperor Lucius Verus (r. 161169). The Equestrian Statue of Marcus Aurelius and the victory Column of Marcus Aurelius depict two personas of the emperor: that of a benevolent ruler and that of a victorious general.

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noticeably deep; the figures protrude from the sides and are visible
KEY POINTS (cont.)

when viewing the non-decursio side of the pedestal. All naturalism has been removed from the scene. It depicts each figure from a ground-level perspective while showing the circular parade from a birds eye view. On one of the other two sides is a dedicatory inscription and on the

The reign of Commodus (r. 181192) is considered to be the beginning of the decline of Rome due to his poor ability to administrate the empire and his self-indulgent manner.

Antoninus Pius Antoninus Pius was the first of the Antonine emperors. He was adopted by Hadrian as his son and heir under the condition that he, in turn, adopt Lucius Veras and Marcus Aurelius as his sons and heirs. Antoninus accepted and established a peaceful reign, ruling from 138 to 161 CE. Upon Hadrians death, Antoninus persuaded the Senate to deify Hadrian, and so received the name Pius. He also deified his wife, Faustina, after her death and built a temple to her in the Republican Forum. Upon his death, Antoninus was also deified and this temple was rededicated to the both of them. Antoninus Pius heirs, Lucius Verus and Marcus Aurelius, had a column erected to him on the Campus Martius, the base of which survives today. On two of its sides is an identical scene of a military decursio (Figure 8.62), depicting cavalry men parading around soldiers, two of whom hold standards. The relief carvings are

panel across from that is a scene of the apotheosis of Antoninus Pius and Faustina (Figure 8.63). The scene depicts a large winged figure, Aion (Eternity), carrying them, surrounded by two eagles, to heaven. Two figures look on from the ground. One is a personification of the Campus Martius, lounging on the ground with
Figure 8.62 Decursio Scene from the pedestal of the Column of Antoninus Pius

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Figure 8.63 Apotheosis of Antoninus Pius and Faustina Scene of Antoninus Pius and his wife Faustina on the pedestal of the Column of Antoninus Pius.

Marcus Aurelius Lucius Verus and his co-emperor, Marcus Aurelius, succeeded Antoninus Pius and successfully co-ruled until Luciuss death in 169. Upon the death of his adopted brother, Marcus Aurelius became the sole emperor of Rome, and his reign continued the long period of stability throughout the empire.

Figure 8.64 Equestrian Statue of Marcus Aurelius

an arm around Augustus sun-dial obelisk, the location where the ritual of deification occurred. The other is an armed female, Roma. She wears and sits among armor, saluting the emperor and empress during their apotheosis,while leaning on a shield depicting the shewolf suckling Romulus and Remus. The style of this relief is noticeably different. While still detailed, the apotheosis scene is less deeply carved. Furthermore, the figures are more classical in form; they follow the more traditional artistic style established by Augustus. The figures on the decursio relief are stockier and in a style more commonly seen in the plebeian art of this time. These two different scenes and styles demonstrate the Classical conventions of imperial art and the emerging style developed to represent the common man.

Fortunately survived the medieval period as it was mistaken to be that of Constantine, the rst Christian emperor of Rome.

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Figure 8.65 Column of Marcus Aurelius Detail of ve bands from the column.

the Temple of Divine Marcus Aurelius. A relief frieze encircles the column and depicts his military campaigns at the end of his life in Germania. Despite the similar military scenes, the artistic style of the Column of Marcus Aurelius differs greatly from the Column of Trajan. The figures in this column are stockier and their proportions are distorted. The extra-large heads and deep relief carving were utilized so that the figures were easier to see from the ground than those on Trajans column. The military strength of the empire is emphasized more so than on the Column of Trajan where the majority of the scenes depict the preparation for battle, instead of the battles themselves. The new style, high relief, and military emphasis demonstrates the changing priorities and social-political attitudes of the period. Commodus Unlike the previous four emperors, Marcus Aurelius had, and so selected, his own biological son as his heir. Unlike his five predecessors, Commodus was not considered to be a good emperor and his reign generally marks the beginning of Romes decline. Commodus was disliked by the Senate, had little interest in the administrative aspects of running a large empire, and he preferred to demonstrate physical prowess by competing in gladiatorial games.

The Equestrian statue of Marcus Aurelius (Figure 8.64) is a bronze cast that survived being melted down in the medieval period as it was fortunately mistaken to be that of Constantine, the first Christian emperor of Rome. It depicts Marcus Aurelius, large in stature, on horseback with an arm outstretched in a gesture of clemency. He wears not military garb, but is clothed simply in a toga, casting him as an emperor of peace, rather than as a military conqueror. A victory column was also erected for Marcus Aurelius (Figure 8. 65). This is modeled on Trajans column and was originally erected on the Campus Martius between the Temple of Divine Hadrian and

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Like Neros public performances, Commodus performances in the arena were considered scandalous and disgraceful. After many failed attempts, he was eventually assassinated in 192 CE.
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Section 6

The Severans to the Dominate Period

The Severans The Soldier Emperors A Pair of Caesars: Diocletian and the Tetrarchy Constantine The Romans After Constantine

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The Severans
The Severan Dynasty was the last stable period of imperial reign over the Roman Empire until that of Constantine.

KEY POINTS (cont.)

Caracalla and Geta were designated as Septimius Severuss heirs and ruled as co-emperors with their father prior to his death. The brothers did not get along and after Septimius Severuss death, Caracalla had his brother murdered and his memory damned. The Baths of Caracalla were his major building program in Rome as a gift to the Roman people. The baths demonstrate the impressive and expansive use of Roman concrete, vaults, and architectural design. Reigning dates of the Severan emperors: Septimius Severus 193211; Caracalla 198217; (Geta as a co-emperor 209 211); Macrinus 217218; Elagabalus 218222; and Alexander Severus 222235.

KEY POINTS

Septimius Severus established the Severan dynasty and declared himself a son of Marcus Aurelius to legitimize his reign, depicting himself in the fashion of the last good emperor. The Arch of Septimius Severus in Rome visually relates to the triumphal arches of the city, especially the triple arch of Augustus; not only by commemorating victory of the Parthians but by also using narrative conventions to establish Severan authority. The Arch of Septimius Severus in Leptis Magna, the emperors hometown, is a unique four-sided arch that demonstrates both the new style of the Late Antique as well as the triumphal events of Septimius Severuss victory over the Parthians that occurred in Rome.

The assassination of Commodus in 192 CE once again plunged the Roman Empire into a year of civil war. Five generals succeeded one another until the fifth, Septimius Severus, consolidated power and managed to reign over Rome until his death from illness, 19 years later in 211 CE. He established the Severan Dynasty that reigned until 235 CE, overseen by five different emperors. Unfortunately for Rome, the economy and the bureaucratic and administrative power of the Emperor and the Senate were declining during this time. The five

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Severan emperors faced great difficulties maintaining control over the empire. Their troubles demonstrate the importance of this pivotal period that ultimately led to Romes decline. Septimius Severus To strengthen his claim as emperor, he declared himself to be the secret son of Marcus Aurelius and even had his portrait fashioned in a similar manner to him. Like Marcus, Septimius wore his beard thick and curly in the style of Greek philosophers. His portraits show him as old, but fit and without the winkles of wisdom seen in Republican veristic portraiture. A painted tondo of him with his family shows him with gray hair and that his wife, Julia Domna, also maintained a fashionable, but modest hairstyle. Her hair was worn crimped down the side of her head. The tondo (Figure 8.66) is also interesting because it depicts his two sons and heirs, Geta and Caracalla. The two brothers become co-emperors after their fathers death, but Caracalla arranged to have his brother murdered and for the Senate to issue a damnatio memoriae on Getas name. Triumphal Arches of Septimius Severus Two of these still stand today: the first at the northwest entrance to the Roman forum, and the second on the main road leading into the city of Leptis Magna, the Roman colony in modern Libya where

Figure 8.66 Tondo of the Severan Family Portrait of Septimius Severus with his wife, Julia Domna, and his sons and heirs Geta and Caracalla.

Septimius Severus was born. Both were erected in 203 CE and commemorate the emperors victory over the Parthians. The Roman Arch of Septimius Severus (Figure 8.69) recalls the triumphal arch of Augustus, also erected to honor his victory over the Parthians. Like Augustuss arch, that of Septimius is a triple arch--the only surviving one in Rome. Decorative panels depict scenes of conquest echoing the military scenes seen on the Columns of Trajan and Marcus Aurelius. These, however, depart from the classical style, stylistically resembling more the figures on the Column of Marcus Aurelius. The figures (Figure 8.68) on the panels are carved in high relief and each shows multiple scenes. Small friezes recounting the triumphal procession also frame the panels.

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Figure 8.67 The Roman Arch of Septimius Severus Rome, Italy.

Figure 8.69 Arch of Septimius Severus Leptis Magna, Libya.

Figure 8.68 Detail of the Arch of Septimius Severus Detail of a panel relief.

arch. On the pedestal of each are reliefs of Romans leading captive Parthians away. This arch visually recalls the triumphal arches of the past that would have also been seen in the Roman Forum, and expresses the continuity of Septimius Severuss imperial rule and the momentum of the empire. Other decorative elements include winged victories in the spandrels and two sets of four columns, one on each side, framing the archways. The columns are free-standing, decorative editions to the The Arch of Septimius Severus at Leptis Magna (Figure 8.69) is architecturally distinct and unique in comparison to the triumphal arches of Rome. This arch is four-sided and acts as a gateway into

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the city. Corinthian columns, eight in total, stand at each corner and support broken pediment, a common architectural feature in the North African and Eastern provinces. Despite its very different design, the archs components are in dialogue with the triumphal arch in Rome. Depictions of war spoils and captive barbarians line the interior of the arches and a frieze wraps around them, depicting the triumphal procession that would have occurred in Rome. This frieze is both a portrayal of the actual triumph that Septimius Severus enjoyed as well as a mythical presentation, as gods and personifications are also shown with him in the procession and at the sacrifice which followed. Most importantly, the arch at Leptis Magnus demonstrates the emerging artistic style of the second century CE and Late Antiquity. The figures in the frieze are squat and square. The limbs are thick and their clothing is stylistically rendered with incised lines that give no indication of the body underneath. It is a complete displacement of the classical style that dominated Roman art during the previous three centuries Caracallan Bath Complex Caracalla was one of the last emperors of the century who had the time, resources, and power to build in the city of Rome.

Figure 8.70 Baths of Caracalla

Reconstructed ground plan of this vast complex.

His longest-lasting contribution is a large bath complex (Figure 8. 70) that stands to the southeast of Rome's centre. It covered over 33 acres and could hold over 1,600 bathers at a time. Bathing was an important part of the daily life of Romans and the baths were a place for leisure, business, socializing, working out, learning, and even elicit affairs. These baths not only held the traditional bathing pools but also exercise courts, changing rooms, and Greek and Latin libraries. A mithraeum has also been found on the site. Architecturally, the Baths of Caracalla demonstrate the impressive mastery of Roman building and the importance of concrete and the

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vaulting systems developed by the Romans to create large and impressive buildings with ceilings spanning great distances. The building was lavishly decorated with marble veneer, fanciful mosaics, and monumental Greek marble statues.
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The Soldier Emperors

The Dominate Period, when warring generals controlled Rome, was a time marked by insecurity, anxiety, and a rapid succession of emperors.

KEY POINTS

Portraits of the soldier emperors reflect the anxiety and fear the men must have felt with their lives so endangered and the need to depict oneself as heroic, strong, and firm. The Crisis of the Third Century saw over twenty-five men claim the title of emperor and assume power over the empire. Sculpture during this time fully develops into the Late Antique style, which derives from second century CE plebeian art. An early instance of its use is seen on the Arches of Septimius Severus. The Late Antique style becomes simple, less realistic, and rejects Classical conventions that focused on naturalism and the proper rendering of the body and clothing in favor of simplicity and heavy, angular lines, squat bodies, and incised details.

After Caracalla The Roman Emperor Caracalla was assassinated while campaigning against the Parthians in 217 CE. He was quickly succeeded by a

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member of his personal guard, Macrinus, who ruled for less than a year before his death. Elagabalus, the grandson of Julia Domnas sister and his cousin Alexander Severus was the last in the Severan line. Both men managed to maintain control of Rome, and Alexander Severus was even able to improve the economic condition of the empire. Following Alexander's death at the hands of his own soldiers, Rome plunged into a long period of uneasy, rapid successions referred to as the Crisis of the Third Century, a crisis that lasted for fifty years. Soldier Emperors The first 26 emperors of this period were generals who either proclaimed themselves or were officially acknowledged as the emperor. Their reigns lasted from a couple of months to a couple of years, if they were lucky. The fact that they were all generals in the Roman army underscores the military insecurity of the empire at this time. Legions of soldiers were often fighting each other in support of one emperor or another, instead of protecting the border or trade routes. Roman power was still centered in Rome. Thus, the only building project that succeeded through this period was the building and maintaining of the citys Aurelian Wall, under the emperor Aurelian (r. 270275 CE).

Figure 8.71 Trajanus Decius Bust of Trajanus Decius.

period and the need for soldier-emperors to assert power to maintain some semblance of control. Trajan Deciuss portrait (Figure 8.71) at first seems to take its artistic style from Republican veristic portraiture but a closer look reveals something else. Instead of depicting a hyper-realistic portrait of an old and wise man, this portrait reveals the anxiety and nervousness of the emperor. His brow is furrowed with worry and wrinkles, and his eyes and mouth impart a feeling of fear and anguish. The portrait of his successor, Trebonianus Gallus (Figure 8.72)

The portraits of Trajan Decius (r. 249251 CE) and Trebonianus Gallus (r. 252253 CE) serve to illustrate the instability of the

takes a different style, relying on old sculpture and narrative conventions to depict the emperor as a contemporary hero. This

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larger-than-life bronze statue depicts a muscled, nude man with his right arm raised in a gesture of speech. He seems to be in adlocutio pose, addressing the troops or perhaps the people of Rome. His head is notably smaller than his torso and disproportional to his

Figure 8.73 Ludovisi Sarcophagus Ludovisi Sarcophagus. Marble, Rome, Italy. Ca 250-260 CE.

Figure 8.72 Trebonianus Gallus Portrait of Trebonianus Gallus.

body. This places emphasis on his bulk and reminds the viewer of the emperors power and the stability he hoped to create. Sculpture Sculpture during this period demonstrates the style and design of Late Antique art that was initially developed during the late second century CE from plebeian models. The emergence of the style corresponds with the social, political, and economic upheaval of the empire that began during the reign of Commodus. This style removes Classical conventions of realism (Figure 8.73). It pushes its characters into the foreground and almost entirely removes the background. In the scenes shown on the Arches of Septimius Severus, the bodies are squat, with square heads. The clothing often, although not always, covers the form of the body in stylized drapery. Details are conveyed with incised lines; ground lines were

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no longer required in the case of certain scenes, such as battle reliefs where the figures mass together, over and on top of each other, highlighting the feelings of chaos and insecurity. After the Soldier Emperors The Crisis of the Third Century continued after the reign of the Soldier Emperors as the title of emperor was auctioned off to the highest bidder by the Praetorian Guard and various men, not always generals, from around the empire seized power for brief periods of time. This process continued until the reign of Diocletian, beginning in 284 CE.
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A Pair of Caesars: Diocletian and the Tetrarchy

Emperor Diocletian institutionalized the Tetrarchy, a corule that reestablished stability in the empire for the period of Diocletians reign.

KEY POINTS

Diocletian reigned from 284 to 305 CE both as an individual emperor and as a member of the Tetrarchy. The Tetrarchy, or rule of four was established by Diocletian as a means to more effectively administrate the empire. The four chosen men were given the title of Augustus for the senior emperor or Caesar to designate the junior emperor. Portraits of the Tetrarchs depict four nearly identical men standing with their arms around each other to represent their solidarity, authority and the stability their reign brought to the empire. Diocletian abdicated from power and retired to his palace, an imperial villa built in the model of a military encampment known as a castrum.

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The Tetrarchy Diocletian (Figure 8.74), a military general from the cavalry, was declared emperor by his legion in 284 CE. Diocletian re-established stability in the empire, paving the way for fourth-century political and social developments. Diocletian did this by establishing the Tetrarchy, Greek for rule by four. The Tetrarchy consisted of four emperors reigning over two

Figure 8.74 Portrait of Diocletian

Portraits of the Tetrarchs Imperial portraiture of the Tetrarchs depicts the four Tetrarchs together and are nearly identical (Figure 8.75). The portraiture symbolizes the concept of co-rule and cohesiveness instead of the power of the individual. The idea of the Tetrarchy, which is
Figure 8.75 Portrait of the Tetrarchs Portrait of the Tetrarchs from Constantinople, now in Venice, Italy. Porphyry. Ca. 305 CE.

Portrait bust of Diocletian.

halves of the empire. Each pair of emperors was given control over either the eastern or western portion of the empire. Of the pair, one was given the title Caesar (a junior emperor) and the other Augustus (the senior emperor). This allowed Diocletian and his fellow emperors to organize the administration of the provinces, separate military and civic command, and restore authority throughout the realm. They further solidified their commitment to each other and communal rule by marrying into each others families.

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apparent in their portraits, is based on the ideal of four men working together to establish peace and stability throughout the empire. This porphyry sculpture of the Tetrarchs, originally from the city of Constantinople, now resides in Venice at St. Marks. The porphyry made from durable stone represents the permanence of the Tetrarchs; the same way that Egyptian pharoahnic portraits relied on durable stones such as diorite to impart an idea of eternal rule. Furthermore, the two pairs of rulers - a Caesar and an Augustus with arms around each other - form a solid, stable block that reinforces the stability the Tetrarchy brought to the Roman Empire. Stylistically, this portrait of the Tetrarchs is done in Late Antique style, which uses a distinct squat, formless bodies, square heads, and stylized clothing clearly seen in all four men. The Tetrarchs have almost no body. Instead of the clothes molding to the form of the body underneath, the clothes of the Tetrarchs form their bodies into chunky rectangles. Details such as the cuirass (breastplate), skirt, armor, and cloak are highly stylized and based on simple shapes and the repetition of lines. Despite the culmination of this artistic style, the rendering of the Tetrarchs in this manner seems to fit the connotations of Tetrarch rule and need for stability throughout the empire. Palace of Diocletian

Figure 8.76 Peristyle at the Palace of Diocletian The Peristyle or central court of the Palace of Diocletian as it stands today. Split, Croatia.

Diocletian abdicated power in 305 CE and left the Tetrarchy to his co-emperors and Severus, the newly inaugurated general. Diocletian then retired to his boyhood palace in Dalmatia. The palaces remains became the center of the modern city of Spilt in Croatia. Diocletians palace was built as a fortress, demonstrating that despite Diocletians success as emperor, he still required security living in a hostile Roman environment. The palace was set up in a similar fashion to a castrum, containing courts, libraries and other features found in imperial villas. The southern wall was practically built on the waterfront and appeared to rise out of the Adriatic Sea.

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Despite the stylistic changes in sculpture, the style of Roman architecture continued to be based on classical models and forms. Diocletians palace demonstrates the Roman use of vaults in the substructure and the use of columns, peristyles, and entablatures to create monumental spaces (Figure 8.76). For instance, the central court of the palace, known as the Peristyle, demonstrates the stylistic and monumental use of these architectural elements. Furthermore, the central court was sunken and a flight of stairs enclosed the court and lead up to the decorative Peristyle and surrounding rooms. This increased the feeling of monumentality while emphasizing Diocletians imperial power, as members of the court would have had to stand several steps below the entrances to the temples, mausoleum, and court rooms.
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Constantine
Constantine seized sole power over Rome, establishing authority and stability. He then moved the capital from Rome to Constantinople.

KEY POINTS

Constantine reigned from 306 to 337 CE. He managed to reestablish stability in the empire and ruled as a single emperor. Constantine is most noted for legalizing Christianity, which allowed the religion to flourish among new converts. He also moved the capital of the empire to the east, to newly-formed Constantinople. The Arch of Constantine, a triumphal arch commemorating Constantines victory over Maxentius, makes use of spolia from monuments dedicated to Trajan, Hadrian, and Marcus Aurelius. Constantine completed the Basilica Nova, the construction of which was begun by his rival, Maxentius. This massive concrete building displayed the impressive power and authority of Constantine.

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KEY POINTS (cont.)

monarch. As the sole emperor of an empire with new-found stability, Constantine was able to patronize large building projects in Rome. However, despite his attention to that city, he moved the capital of the empire east to the newly-founded city of Constantinople (modern-day Istanbul). Arch of Constantine The Arch of Constantine (Figure 8.77) demonstrates the continuance of the newly-adopted artistic style for imperial sculpture. This arch was erected between the Colosseum and Palatine Hill, the home of the imperial palace. It stands over the triumphal route before it enters the Republican Forum, forming a dialogue with the Arch of Titus at the top, overlooking the Forum
Figure 8.77 Arch of Constantine Rome, Italy

At one end of the Basilica Nova sat the Colossus of Constantine: over 40 feet tall and made of marble, brick, wood frames, and bronze gilding. The Colossus further emphasized the sole authority, control, and power held by Constantine.

The End of the Tetrarchy Not only did Diocletian abdicate power, but so did his first coemperor, Maximian. Power eventually passed down to Maximians son, Maxentius and Constantine, the son of a third co-emperor, Constantius. Unfortunately for Diocletians legacy and the stability created by the Tetrarchy, neither Maxentius nor Constantine was content with sharing power and civil war broke out. The Battle of the Milvian Bridge in 312 CE, saw the defeat of Maxentius and his army by Constantine and his forces. Constantine attributed this victory to the aid of the Christian god. He supported Christianity by issuing the Edict of Milan in 313, which proclaimed religious tolerance, and later convened the Council of Nicaea in 325 CE that declared Christianity the official religion of Rome. Following a rebellion from Licinius, his own co-emperor in 324 CE, Constantine was able to consolidate power once more under a single

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Figure 8.78 Detail of northern frieze of the Arch of Constantine Detail of Constantine distributing gifts, Rome, Italy. Marble. 312-315 CE.

barbarians. The original face was reworked to take the likeness of Constantine. Eight roundels, or relief discs, adorn the space just above the two smaller side arches. These are Hadrianic and depict images of hunting and sacrifice. The final set of spolia includes eight panel reliefs on the archs attic, from the era of Marcus Aurelius, depicting the dual identities of the emperor, as both a military and a civic leader. The rest of the arch is decorated using Late Antique styles. The proximity of different artistic styles, under four different emperors,

and the Arch of Septimius Severus, that stands at the other end of the Forum, before the Via Sacra heads uphill to the Capitolium. The Senate commissioned the triumphal arch in honor of Constantines victory over Maxentius. It is a triple arch and its iconography represents Constantine's supreme power and how his rule stabilizes and brings an era of peace to Rome. The Arch of Constantine is especially noted for its use of spolia, architectural and decorative elements removed from one monument for use on another. Those from the monuments of Trajan, Hadrian, and Marcus Aureliusall considered good emperors of the Pax Romanawere reused as decoration. Trajanic panels adorn the interior of the central arch. These depict the emperor on horseback charging into battle and defeating

highlights the stylistic variations and artistic development that occurred, both in the second century CE, as well as their differences to the Late Antique style. Besides decorative elements in the spandrels, a Constantinian frieze runs around the arch, between the tops of the small arches and the bottoms of the roundels. This frieze highlights the artistic style of the period and chronologically depicts Constantines raise to power. Unlike previous examples of Late Antique art, the bodies in this frieze are completely schematic and defined only by stiff, rigid clothes. In one scene, featuring Constantine distributing gifts, the emperor is centrally depicted and raised above his supporters on a throne (Figure 8.78). Basilica Nova and the Colossus of Constantine When Constantine and Maxentius clashed at the Mulvian Bridge, Maxentius was in the middle of building a grand basilica near the

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Figure 8.79 Basilica Nova As it stands today in Rome, Italy.

Only parts of the Colossus remain, including the head that is over eight feet tall and 6.5 feet long. It shows a portrait of an individual with clearly defined features: a hooked nose, prominent jaw, and large eyes that look upwards. He also held an orb and, possibly, a scepter, and one hand points upwards towards the heavens. Overall, the Colossus inspires a feeling of awe, and overwhelming power and authority; both from the immensity of the scale and his depiction as Jupiter: seated, heroic, and semi-nude. The basilica was a common Roman building and functioned as a multi-purpose space for law courts, senate meetings, and business transactions. The form was appropriated for Christian worship and most churches, even today, still maintain this basic shape.

Roman Forum (Figure 8.79). When Constantine took over and completed the grand building, it was 300 feet long, 215 feet wide, and stood 115 feet tall down the nave (Figure 8.80). Concrete walls, 15 feet thick, supported the basilicas massive scale and expansive vaults. It was lavishly decorated with marble veneer and stucco. The Basilica Nova's entry was on the side and consisted of two aisles on either side of a central nave. The southern end of the basilica was flanked by a porch, with an apse at the northern end where the Colossus of Constantine sat (Figure 8.81). This colossus was built from many partsthe head, arms, hands, legs, and feet were carved from marble, while the body was built with a brick core and wooden framework and then gilded.

Figure 8.80 Ground plan Basilica Nova, Rome

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Figure 8.81 Head of the Colossus of Constantine Marble, Rome, Italy

The Romans After Constantine

Although Roman"architectural"style survived, the era after Constantine's rule saw the degradation of Roman monuments and art.

KEY POINTS

The multiple sackings of Rome caused the monuments and arts of Rome to be raided of their marble, facades, dcor, and columns. Some stylistic aspects of Roman architecture survived after the rule of Constantine, like the popularization of the Roman basilica as a model for Christian churches. Rome did not regain its high level of artistic significance until just prior to and during the Renaissance.

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Background Following Constantines founding of a New Rome at the city called Constantinople, the prominence and importance of the city of Rome diminished. The empire was then divided into two parts, east and west. The more prosperous eastern half of the empire continued to thrive, mainly due to its connection to important trade routes and

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became known as the Byzantine Empire, while the western half of the empire fell apart. While at times over the next several centuries, Byzantium controlled Italy and the city Rome, for the most part the Western Roman Empire, due to being less urban and less prosperous, was difficult to protect. Indeed, the city of Rome was sacked multiple times by invading armies, including the Ostrogoths and Visigoths, over the next century. Roman Arts The style of art during this time, which had already seen a stylistic change from Classical to Late Antique, continued to serve as means of political, religious, and imperial expression. The multiple sackings of Rome did not help the monuments and arts of Rome to remain unscathed. Furthermore, Roman monuments were raided of their marble, facades, dcor, and columns for the building and decoration of churches throughout the city. Today when touring Rome, you can easily spot spolia of ancient Roman columns, capitals, and bases used to build and decorate medieval Christian churches. Parts of ancient Rome, especially the Republican Forum, returned once again to the cow pastures that they originally were at the time of the citys founding, as floods from the Tiber washed them over in debris and sediment (Figure 8.82). However, some aspects of Roman architecture survived after the rule of Constantine. For instance, the popularization of the Roman

Figure 8.82 Campo Vaccino

A view of the Roman Forum by Italian engraver, Giambattista Piranesi. This shows what the forum looked likean empty cow eldduring his own time in the mid 18th century CE.

basilica as a model for Christian churches began under Constantine but continued to thrive even after his death and is an important feature of post-Constantinian Roman architecture. Revival Rome once more regained significance just prior to and during the Renaissance, as the papal authority paid great attention to

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embellishing the city and renowned artists were hired to study, rebuild, and decorate the eternal city of Rome.
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Chapter 9

Late Antiquity

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Section 1

Jews, Christians, and Muslims

Early Jewish Art Early Christian Art Dura-Europos

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Early Jewish Art

Early Jewish artforms included frescoes, illuminated manuscripts and elaborate oor mosaics.

first known examples of Jewish art. During the first centuries of the Common Era, Jewish religious art was also created in Syria and Greece, For example, the frescoes found on the wall of the Dura Europas Synagogue. The Jewish tradition of illuminated manuscripts during the Late

KEY POINTS

Antiquity can be deduced from borrowings in Early Medieval Christian art. Middle Age Rabbinical and Kabbalistic literature also contain textual and graphic art, most famously the illuminated haggadahs like the Sarajevo Haggadah, and manuscripts like the Nuremberg Mahzor. Some of these were illustrated by Jewish artists and some by Christians; equally some Jewish artists and craftsmen in various media worked on Christian commissions.

Jews, like other early religious communities, were wary of art being used for idolatrous purposes. The zodiac, generally associated with paganism, was the subject of multiple early Jewish mosaics. An ancient synagogue in Gaza provides a rare example of the use of graven images in mosaics, depicting King David as Orpheus.

As most Rabbinical authorities believed that the Second Commandment prohibited visual art that would qualify as graven images, Jewish artists were relatively rare until they lived in assimilated European communities beginning in the late 18th century. Despite fears by early religious communities that art could be used for idolatrous purposes, Jewish sacred art is recorded in the Tanakh and extends throughout Jewish Antiquity and the Middle Ages. The Tabernacle and the two Temples in Jerusalem form the

Figure 9.1 Mosaic oor at Sepphoris synagogue, Israel This 5th century mosaic is a depiction of the Zodiac Wheel.

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Figure 9.2 Beth Alpha Mosaic

Along the sides of the mosaic are strips depicting the binding of Isaac and other Biblical scenes. The floor of the Beth Alpha synagogue, built during the reign of Justin I (51827), also featured elaborate nave mosaics. Each of its three panels depicts a different scenethe Holy Ark, the zodiac and the story Isaac's sacrifice. In the center of the zodiac is the sun god Helios. The four women in the corners of the mosaic represent the
Figure 9.3 Gaza Synagogue Mosaic This mosaic from the ancient synagogue at Gaza is an unusual example of gurative depiction in early Jewish art.

The Byzantine synagogue at Beth Alpha features elaborate nave mosaics.

four seasons (Figure 9.2). The ban on figurative depiction was not taken so seriously by Jews living in Byzantine Gaza. In 1966, remains of a synagogue were found in the region's ancient harbor area. Its mosaic floor depicts King David as Orpheus, identified by his name in Hebrew letters. Near him are lion cubs, a giraffe and a snake listening to him playing a lyre. A further portion of the floor was divided by medallions formed by vine leaves, each of which contains an animal: a lioness suckling her cub, a giraffe, peacocks, panthers,

Byzantine synagogues also frequently featured elaborate mosaic floor tiles. The remains of a 6th-century synagogue were uncovered in Sepphoris, an important centre of Jewish culture between the 3rd and 7th centuries. The mosaic reflects an interesting fusion of Jewish and pagan beliefs. In the center of the floor the zodiac wheel was depicted (Figure 9.1). The sun god Helios sits in the middle in his sun chariot, and each zodiac is matched with a Jewish month.

bears, a zebra and so on. The floor was completed c. 508509 (Figure 9.3).
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Early Christian Art

Christian art developed throughout the 2nd and 3rd centuries as the tenets of Christian doctrine became strongly established.

Figure 9.4 Sarcophagus of Junius Bassus This sarcophagus features an early example of Christian relief sculpture.

KEY POINTS

Early Christian converts brought with them a cultural appreciation for pictorial imagery. Depictions of Christ are rare in early Christianity, given its status as a mystery religion. In contrast to contemporaneous public cults, early Christians sought to establish a canonical set of texts and an orthodox doctrine. experience, wanted to continue this in their Christian experience. For example, there was a shift in burial practices in the Roman world away from cremation and towards inhumation. Outside the city walls of Rome, adjacent to major roads, catacombs were dug into the ground to bury the dead. The beginnings of an identifiable Christian art can be traced to the end of the second century and the beginning of the third century. Considering the Old Testament prohibitions against graven images, it is important to consider why Christian art developed in the first place. The best explanation for the emergence of Christian art in the early church is due to the important role images played in Greco-Roman culture. As Christianity gained converts, these new Christians, who had been brought up on the value of images in their previous cultural Families would have chambersor cubiculadug to bury their members. Wealthy Romans would also have a sarcophagus or marble tomb carved for their burial. The Christian converts wanted the same things. Christian catacombs were frequently dug adjacent to non-Christian ones, and sarcophagi with Christian imagery were apparently popular with the richer Christians (Figure 9.4). A striking aspect of the Christian art of the third century is the absence of the imagery that would dominate later Christian art. We

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do not find in this early period images of the Nativity, Crucifixion, or Resurrection of Christ, for example. This absence of direct images of the life of Christ is best explained by the status of Christianity as a mystery religion. The story of the Crucifixion and Resurrection would be part of the secrets of the cult. While not directly representing these central Christian images, the theme of death and resurrection was represented through a series of images, many of which were derived from the Old Testament that echoed the themes. For example, the story of Jonahbeing swallowed by a great fish and then, after spending three days and three nights in the belly of the beast, is vomited out on dry ground was seen by early Christians as an anticipation or prefiguration of the story of Christ's own death and resurrection. Images of Jonah, along with those of Daniel in the Lion's Den, the Three Hebrews in the Firey Furnace, and Moses Striking the Rock, among others, are widely popular in the Christian art of the third century, both in paintings and on sarcophagi. One of the major differences between Christianity and the public cults was the central role faith played in Christianity and the importance of orthodox beliefs. The history of the early Church was marked by the struggle to establish a canonical set of texts, and by the establishment of orthodox doctrine.

Within the civic cults, there were no central texts and there were no orthodox doctrinal positions. The emphasis was on maintaining customary traditions. One accepted the existence of the gods, but there was no emphasis on belief in the gods.
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Dura-Europos
Dura-Europos was an ancient city where Hellenistic, Parthian, and Roman cultures thrived in what is Syria today.
KEY POINTS

Its location on the edge of empires made for a co-mingling of cultural traditions, much of which was preserved under the city's ruins. Some remarkable finds have been brought to light, including numerous temples, wall decorations, inscriptions, military equipment, tombs, and even dramatic evidence of the Sassanian siege during the Imperial Roman period which led to the site's abandonment. It was founded in 303 BC by the Seleucids on the intersection of an east-west trade route and the trade route along the Euphrates. During the late second century BC it came under Parthian control and in the first century BC, it served as a frontier fortress of the Arsacid Parthian Empire. There is proof of a multicultural population as inscriptions were discovered in Greek, Latin, Aramaic, Hebrew, Syriac, Hatrian, Palmyrenean, Middle Persian, and Safaitic Pahlavi. It was captured by the Romans in 165 CE and abandoned after a Sassanian siege in 256257 CE. After it was abandoned, it was covered by sand and mud and disappeared from sight.

Dura-Europos is the site of an early synagogue, dating from 244 CE. House churches were private homes that were converted into Christian churches to protect the secrecy of Christianity. The house church at Dura-Europos is the earliest house church that has been discovered. The house was constructed early in the third century and was converted for use as a Christian church at some point between 240250 CE. A Mithraeum, or temple, for the Roman cult Mithras is also preserved at Dura-Europos, and dates from between 168171 CE.

Dura-Europos The Synagogue Dura-Europos was a Hellenistic, Parthian and Roman border city built on an escarpment above the right bank of the Euphrates river. It is located near the village of Salhiy, in today's Syria. An early Jewish synagogue is located by the western wall and dated by an Aramaic inscription to 244 CE. It is the best preserved of the many ancient synagogues of that era that have been uncovered by archaeologists. The synagogue, uncovered in 1932, contains a

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Figure 9.5 Remains of Synagogue at Dura-Europos This is the best preserved ancient synagogue to be uncovered by archaeologists.

Figure 9.6 Remains of House Church at Dura-Europos House churches, where Christians congregated secretly, were common prior to the legalization of Christianity.

forecourt and house of assembly with frescoed walls depicting people and animals, and a Torah shrine in the western wall facing Jerusalem. The synagogue paintings, the earliest continuous surviving biblical narrative cycle, are conserved at Damascus, together with the complete Roman horse-armor. The synagogue was preserved, ironically, when it was filled with earth to strengthen the city's fortifications against a Sassanian assault in 256 CE (Figure 9.5). The House Church The Dura-Europos church also discovered at the site, is the earliest Christian house church, preserved by the same defensive fill that saved the synagogue.

When Christianity emerged in the late antique world, Christian ceremony and worship was much more privateeven secretive than it would become in the later Medieval periods. Before Christianity was legalized in the fourth century, Christians suffered intermittent periods of persecution at the hands of the Romans. Therefore, Christian worship was purposefully kept as inconspicuous as possible. Rather than building prominent new structures for express religious use, Christians in the late antique world took advantage of pre-existing, private structureshouses. House churches were known as domus ecclesiae, Greek for house and assembly. Domus ecclesiae emerged in third century Rome and are closely tied to domestic Roman architecture of this period, specifically to the peristyle house in which the rooms were arranged around a central courtyard. These house churches had a central

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courtyard surrounded on three sides by a number of rooms. These rooms were often adjoined to create a larger gathering space that could accommodate small crowds of around fifty people. Other rooms were used for different religious and ceremonial purpose, including education, the celebration of the Eucharist, the baptism of Christian converts, storage of charitable items, and private prayer and mass (Figure 9.6). When Christianity was legalized in the fourth century, Christians were no longer forced to use pre-existing homes for their churches and meeting houses. Instead, they began to build churches of their own. Even then, Christian churches often purposefully featured unassumingeven plainexteriors. They tended to be much larger as the rise in the popularity of the Christian faith meant that churches needed to accommodate an increasing volume of people. The Mithraeum The Mithraeum was also partially preserved by the defensive embankment. The earliest archaeological traces of the Roman Mithras cult found within the temple are from between 168 and 171 CE, which coincides with the arrival of Lucius Verus and his troops. At this stage it was still a room in a private home; it was extended and renovated circa 210 CE, and most of the frescoes are from this period. The mithraeum was enlarged again in 240 CE, but in 256 CEwith the war against the Sassanians loomingthe sanctuary

was filled in and became part of the strengthened fortifications. The surviving frescoes, graffiti and dipinti (which number in the dozens) are of enormous interest to the study of the social composition of the cult. The statuary and altars were found intact, as also the typical relief of Mithras slaying the bull.
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Section 2

Architecture, Mosaics, and Imperial Christian Art

Funerary Art Architecture Sculpture Ravenna Painting Rome Ivory Carving

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Funerary Art
Funerary art is any work of art forming, or placed in, a repository for the remains of the dead.

objects specially created for the burial, or miniature versions of things believed to be needed in the afterlife. The catacombs of Romethe early Christian tombscontain most of the surviving Christian funerary art of the Early Christian period, mainly in the form of frescoes and sculpted sarcophagi. They show a Christian iconography emerging, initially from Roman popular decorative art but later borrowing from official imperial and pagan motifs. Initially, Christians avoided iconic images of religious figures, and sarcophagi were decorated with ornaments, Christian symbols, and narrative religious scenes. After the end of persecution, Late Antiquity Christians began to build churches (most famously St Peter's, in the Vatican) over the burial places of martyrs who had originally been buried discreetly or in a mass grave. This led to the most distinctive feature of Christian funerary art: the church monument, or tomb inside a church. Although mass ossuaries have also been used, burial has always been the preferred Christian tradition, at least until recent times. Burial was, for as long as there was room, usually in a graveyard adjacent to the church, with a gravestone or horizontal slab, or for the wealthy or important clergy, inside it. Wall tombs in churches strictly included the body itself, often in a sarcophagus, while the body is frequently buried in a crypt or under the church floor, with a monument on the wall. Persons of importance, especially

KEY POINTS

The catacombs of Romethe early Christian tombscontain most of the surviving Christian funerary art, mainly in the form of frescoes and sculpted sarcophagi. They show a Christian iconography emerging from Roman popular decorative art and from official imperial and pagan motifs. After the end of persecution, Christians began to build churches over the burial places of martyrs who had originally been buried discreetly or in a mass grave. This led to the most distinctive feature of Christian funerary art: the church monument, or tomb inside a church. In the late Middle Ages, influenced by the Black Death and devotional writers, explicit memento mori imagery of death in the forms of skulls or skeletons, or even decomposing corpses overrun with worms in the transi tomb, became common in northern Europe.

Funerary art is any work of art forming, or placed in, a repository for the remains of the dead. Tomb is a general term for a repository, while grave goods are objects that have been placed inside. Such objects may include the personal possessions of the deceased,

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Figure 9.7 Tomb of Saint Dominic Front side of the sarcophagus.

Figure 9.8 Mirror of Death "The Mirror of Death": Detail from a French Renaissance monument of 1547.

monarchs, might be buried in a free-standing sarcophagus, perhaps surrounded by an elaborate enclosure using metalwork and sculpture. Traditionally, the grandest of all were the shrines of saints, which became the destinations of pilgrimages. Often, these elaborate shrines took a long time to completelong after an important individual's death. For instance, the tomb of Saint Dominic in Bologna took several centuries to reach its final form (Figure 9.7). In the late Middle Ages, influenced by the Black Death and devotional writers, explicit memento mori imagery of death in the forms of skulls or skeletons, or even decomposing corpses overrun with worms in the transi tomb, became common in northern Europe. These were often found in funerary art, as were motifs like the Dance of Death and works like the Ars moriendi, or Art of Dying (Figure 9.8). As cities became more crowded, bones were sometimes placed in ossuaries where they might be arranged for artistic effect, as at the Czech Sedlec Ossuary, which has a chandelier made of skulls and bones (Figure 9.9). The church struggled to eliminate the pagan habit of leaving grave goods untouched, except for the clothing and usual jewelry of the powerful. However, the tradition still persisted: kings were buried with scepters, bishops with a crozier, and important knights with

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Figure 9.9 Sedlec Ossuary Chandelier The Sedlec Ossuary, located in the Czech Republic, contains a chandelier that is constructed entirely of bones, with skulls interspersed.

decorations. From the early thirteenth to sixteenth century, a popular form of monument north of the Alpsespecially for the smaller landowner and merchant classeswas the monumental brass, a sheet of brass on which the image of the person or persons commemorated was engraved, often with inscriptions and an architectural surround. Elsewhere, death masks were used in similar fashion.
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their armor and swords, like those of the Black Prince in Canterbury Cathedral. The Early Christian Church encouraged burial in a plain white winding-sheet, and, for centuries, most except royalty followed this custom. The use of a rich cloth pall to cover the coffin during the funeral developed during the Middle Ages. Initially, these were brightly colored and patterned, but later were often black. They were usually then given to the Church to use for vestments or other

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Architecture
After their persecution ended, Christians began to build larger edices for worship than the meeting places they had been using.
KEY POINTS

Figure 9.10 Basilica at Trier Constantine's basilica at Trier contains one aisle and an apse beyond an extensive arch.$

Architectural formulas for temples were unsuitable. Therefore, Christians began using the model of the basilica: which had a central nave with one aisle at each side and an apse at one end. A Christian basilica of the fourth or fifth century stood behind its entirely enclosed forecourt ringed with a colonnade or arcade. This forecourt was entered from outside through a range of buildings along the public street. Some basilicas in the Caucasus, particularly those of Georgia and Armenia, have a central nave only slightly higher than the two aisles and a single pitched roof covering all three. The result is a much darker interior. This plan is known as the oriental basilica. Architectural formulas for temples were deemed unsuitable. This was not simply for their pagan associations, but because pagan cult and sacrifices occurred outdoors under the open sky in the sight of the gods. The temple, housing the cult figures and the treasury, served as a backdrop. Therefore, Christians began using the model of the basilica, which had a central nave with one aisle at each side and an apse at one end. The basilica model was first adopted with Constantine, who sought to memorialize his imperial piety at his palace complex at Trier. After their persecution ended in the fourth century, Christians began to build larger and more handsome edifices for worship than the meeting places they had been using. However, what emerged was an architectural style distinct from classical pagan forms. This Church contained a long rectangle two stories high, with ranks of arch-headed windows one above the other, and no aisles. At the far end, beyond a massive arch, was the apse in which Constantine held state (Figure 9.10). Putting an altar instead of the throne, as

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was done at Trier, made a church. Basilicas modeled on the one at Trier were built in western Europe, Greece, Syria, Egypt, and Palestine, that is, at any early center of Christianity. Good early examples of the architectural basilica include the Church of the Nativity at Bethlehem (sixth century, (Figure 9.11)) and the church of St Elias at Thessalonica (fifth century). A Christian basilica of the fourth or fifth century stood behind its entirely enclosed forecourt. It was ringed with a colonnade or arcade, like the stoa or peristyle that was its ancestor, or like the cloister that was its

Figure 9.11 Basilica of the Church of the Nativity

called a clerestory. Some basilicas in the Caucasus, particularly those of Georgia and Armenia, have a central nave only slightly higher than the two aisles and a single pitched roof covering all three. The result is a much darker interior. This plan is known as the oriental basilica. Gradually, in the early Middle Ages, there emerged the massive Romanesque churches, which still kept the fundamental plan of the early Christian basilica.
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An illustration from 1911 Encyclopdia Britannica depicting the plan of Church of the Nativity, Bethlehem. (1) Narthex; (2) nave; (3) aisles.

descendant. This forecourt was entered from outside through a range of buildings along the public street. In most basilicas, the central nave is taller than the aisles, forming a row of windows

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Sculpture
The Early Christians were opposed to monumental religious sculpture, even though they continued ancient Roman sculptural traditions.

generally in ivory, wood or metal and decorated with rich sculpted decoration). Such objects, often in valuable materials, were also the main sculptural traditions (as far as is known) of the barbaric civilizations of the Migration period. This is specifically seen in the objects found in the sixth-century burial treasure at Sutton Hoo, the jewellery of

KEY POINTS

Scythian art, and the hybrid Christian and animal style productions of Insular art. Following the Byzantine tradition, Carolingian art revived ivory carving, often in panels for the treasure bindings of grand illuminated manuscripts, as well as crozier heads and other small fittings. Byzantine art, though producing superb ivory reliefs and architectural decorative carving, never returned to monumental sculpture, or even much small sculpture in the round. However, there was the beginnings of a production of monumental statues in courts and major churches in the West during the Carolingian and Ottonian periods. This gradually spread and there are records of several apparently life-size sculptures in Anglo-Saxon churches by the tenth and eleventh centuries. These sculptures are probably of precious metal around a wooden frame, like the Golden Madonna of Essen. The Golden Madonna of Essen is a sculpture of the Virgin Mary and the infant Jesus. It is a wooden core covered with sheets of thin gold leaf (Figure 9.12). Dated around the year 980, it is both the oldest known sculpture of the Madonna and the

Early Christians continued ancient Roman traditions in portrait busts and sarcophagus reliefs, as well as smaller objects such as the consular diptych. Such objects, often in valuable materials, were also the main sculptural traditions of the barbaric civilizations of the Migration period. This may be seen in the hybrid Christian and animal style productions of Insular art. However, there was the beginnings of a production of monumental statues in courts and major churches!in the West during the Carolingian and Ottonian periods.!By the tenth and eleventh centuries, there are records of several apparently life-size sculptures in Anglo-Saxon churches.

The Early Christians were opposed to monumental religious sculpture. Nevertheless, they continued ancient Roman sculptural traditions in portrait busts and sarcophagus reliefs, as well as smaller objects such as the consular diptych (a pair of linked panels,

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Figure 9.12 Golden Madonna of Essen Golden Madonna of Essen

oldest free-standing medieval sculpture north of the Alps. It is also one of the few major works of art to survive from Ottonian times. The Golden Madonna of Essen is the only full-length survivor from what appears to have been a common form of statue among the wealthiest churches and abbeys of tenth and eleventh century Northern Europe. Some of these statues were life-size (especially figures of the Crucifixion). The Gero Cross (circa 96570), a crucifix (Figure 9.13), was evidently the most common type of early Christian sculpture: Charlemagne had set one up in the Palatine Chapel in Aachen, around 800 AD. These continued to grow in popularity, especially in Germany and Italy. Furthermore, engraved stones were northern sculptural traditions that bridged the period of early Christian sculpture. Some examples are Nordic tradition rune stones, the Pictish stones of Scotland, and possibly the high cross reliefs of Christian Great Britain,
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Figure 9.13 Gero Cross Detail of the Gero Cross Sculpture

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Ravenna
The Basilica of San Vitale in Ravenna, Italy is one of the most important examples of early Christian Byzantine art and architecture.

not of architectural basilica form. The church is of extreme importance in Byzantine art, as it is the only major church from the period of the Emperor Justinian I to survive virtually intact to the present day (Figure 9.14). The church was begun by Bishop Ecclesius in 527, when Ravenna was under the rule of the Ostrogoths, and completed by the twenty-

KEY POINTS

seventh Bishop of Ravenna, Maximian, in 546 during the Byzantine Exarchate of Ravenna. The architect or architects of the church is unknown. The construction of the church was sponsored by a Greek banker, Julius Argentarius, and the final cost amounted to 26,000 solidi (gold pieces). The church has an octagonal plan and combines Roman elements (the dome, shape of doorways, and stepped

The building is styled an ecclesiastical basilica in the Roman Catholic Church, though it is not of architectural basilica form. The church is of extreme importance in Byzantine art as it is the only church from the period of the Emperor Justinian I to survive virtually intact to the present day. The church has an octagonal plan and combines Roman elements (the dome, shape of doorways, and stepped towers) with Byzantine elements (polygonal apse, capitals, and narrow bricks). The Basilica of San Vitale is most famous for its wealth of Byzantine mosaics, the largest and best preserved outside of Constantinople.

Figure 9.14 Basilica of San Vitale The Basilica of San Vitale is styled an "ecclesiastical basilica" in the Roman Catholic Church, though it is not of architectural basilica form.

The Basilica of San Vitale is a church in Ravenna, Italy and one of the most important examples of early Christian Byzantine art and architecture in Western Europe. The building is styled an "ecclesiastical basilica" in the Roman Catholic Church, though it is

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towers) with Byzantine elements (polygonal apse, capitals, and narrow bricks). The church is most famous for its wealth of Byzantine mosaics, the largest and best preserved outside of Constantinople. The central section is surrounded by two superposed ambulatories, or covered passages around a cloister. The upper one, the matrimoneum, was reserved for married women. A series of mosaics in the lunettes above the triforia depict sacrifices from the Old Testament. On the side walls, the corners, next to the mullioned windows, have mosaics of the Four Evangelists, under their symbols (angel, lion, ox and eagle), who are dressed in white. The crossribbed vault in the presbytery is richly ornamented with mosaic festoons of leaves, fruit, and flowers, converging on a crown encircling the Lamb of God (Figure 9.15). The crown is supported by four angels, and every surface is covered with a profusion of flowers, stars, birds, and animals, specifically many peacocks. Above the arch, on both sides, two angels hold a disc and beside them are representations of the cities of Jerusalem and Bethlehem. These two cities symbolize the human race. All these mosaics are executed in the Hellenistic-Roman tradition: lively and imaginative, with rich colors and a certain perspective and with a vivid depiction of the landscape, plants, and birds. They were finished when Ravenna was still under Gothic rule. The apse is

Figure 9.15 The Presbytery The cross-ribbed vault in the presbytery is richly ornamented with mosaic festoons of leaves, fruit and owers, converging on a crown encircling the Lamb of God.$

flanked by two chapels, the prothesis and the diaconicon, typical for Byzantine architecture. Inside, the intrados of the great triumphal arch is decorated with fifteen mosaic medallions, depicting Jesus Christ, the twelve Apostles, and Saint Gervasius and Saint Protasius, the sons of Saint Vitale. The theophany was begun in 525 under bishop Ecclesius. It has a great gold fascia with twining

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Figure 9.16 Justinian Mosaic The mosaic of Emperor Justinian and his entourage of bishops and o#cials of state.

entourage are inside the church. The figures are placed in a V shape. Justinian is placed in the front middle to show his importance. Bishop Maximian is on his left, and lesser individuals are placed behind them.
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flowers, birds, and horns of plenty. Jesus Christ appears, seated on a blue globe in the summit of the vault, robed in purple, with his right hand offering the martyr's crown to Saint Vitale. At the foot of the apse's side walls are two famous mosaic panels, executed in 547 (Figure 9.16). On the right is a mosaic depicting the East Roman Emperor Justinian I, clad in purple with a golden halo, standing next to court officials, Bishop Maximian, palatinae guards, and deacons. The halo around his head gives him the same aspect as Christ in the dome of the apse. Justinian himself stands in the middle, with soldiers on his right and clergy on his left, emphasizing that Justinian is the leader of both church and state of his empire. The gold background of the mosaic shows that Justinian and his

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Painting
Early Christian art is the art produced by Christians or under Christian patronage from about the year 100 AD to about the year 500 AD.

The Start of a Religious Tradition Early Christian art is the art produced by Christians or under Christian patronage from about the year 100 CE to about the year 500 CE. Prior to 100, there is no surviving art that can be called Christian with absolute certainty. After about 500, Christian art shows the beginnings of Byzantine artistic style; prior to 100,

KEY POINTS

Christians may have been constrained from producing durable works of art by their position as a persecuted group. Surviving paintings that feature early Christian art are most often found in Roman catacombs. Early Christians used the same artistic media as the surrounding pagan culture, which included fresco, mosaics, sculpture, and manuscript illumination. Furthermore, early Christians used Roman forms and styles. Late classical style included a proportional portrayal of the human body and impressionistic presentation of space; this style is seen in early Christian frescos, such as those in the catacombs of Rome. Early Christians also adapted Roman motifs and gave new meanings to what had been pagan symbols. Among the motifs adopted were the peacock, grapevines, and the "good shepherd" (Figure 9.19). Early Christians also developed their own iconography; symbols such as the fish (ikhthus) were not borrowed from pagan iconography (Figure 9.18). The result, was a

Early Christians used the same artistic media as the surrounding pagan culture, which included fresco, mosaics, sculpture, and manuscript illumination. Furthermore, early Christians used Roman forms and styles. During the persecution of Christians, their art was necessarily ambiguous, using imagery that was shared with pagan culture but had a special meaning for Christians. The earliest Christian art comes from the second to fourth centuries and is found on the walls of Christian tombs in Roman catacombs. Early Christians adapted Roman motifs and gave new meanings to pagan symbols. Among the motifs adopted were the peacock, grapevines, and the "good shepherd." They also developed their own iconography, including such symbols as the fish, which were not borrowed from pagan iconography.

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Figure 9.17 The Good Shepherd The Good Shepherd motif in painting is a fusion of pagan and Christian symbolism.

Figure 9.18 Fish and Loaves Fresco This sh and loaves fresco, iconography particular to Christians and representative of the Eucharist, is found in the Catacombs of San Callisto.

Christian art comes from the late second to early fourth centuries on the walls of Christian tombs in the catacombs of Rome. From literary evidence, there may well have been panel icons which, like almost all classical painting, have disappeared. Initially Jesus was represented indirectly by pictogram symbols such as the Ichthys, the peacock, the Lamb of God, or an anchor. Later, personified fusion of pagan motifs and Christian symbolism that infused early Christian painting and iconography. Christian Art, Hidden and Disguised During the persecution of Christians under the Roman Empire, Christian art was necessarily and deliberately furtive and ambiguous, using imagery that was shared with pagan culture but had a special meaning for Christians. The earliest surviving symbols were used, including Jonah, whose three days in the belly of the whale pre-figured the interval between the death and resurrection of Jesus, Daniel in the lion's den, or Orpheus charming the animals. The image of "The Good Shepherd," a beardless youth in pastoral scenes collecting sheep, was the commonest of these images, and was probably not understood as a portrait of the historical Jesus (Figure 9.19). These images bear some resemblance to depictions of kouros figures in Greco-Roman art.

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Figure 9.19 The Good Shepherd Good Shepherd fresco from the Catacombs of San Callisto.

as specifically Christian, as the sign of the cross was made by Christians from very early on.
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The almost total absence from Christian paintings during the persecution period of the cross, except in the disguised form of the anchor, is notable. The cross, symbolizing Jesus' crucifixion, was not represented explicitly for several centuries, possibly because crucifixion was a punishment meted out to common criminals, but also because literary sources noted that it was a symbol recognised

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Rome
Rome remains the world's epicenter of classical architecture, and ancient Romans are considered innovators of the arch and the dome.

Rome remains the world's epicenter of classical architecture, and ancient Romans are considered the innovators of foundational architectural forms, such as the arch and the dome. Arches and Domes Wealth, high population densities, and other factors forced the

KEY POINTS

Romans to develop innovative architectural solutions for urban expansion. The use of domes and arches, together with a sound

The use of vaults and arches, together with a sound knowledge of building materials, enabled Romans to achieve unprecedented success constructing imposing structures for public use. Romans also experimented with materials in their architecture. Tile-covered concrete quickly supplanted marble as the primary building material, and massive buildings soon followed, with great pillars supporting broad arches and domes, rather than dense lines of columns suspending flat architraves. Though most would consider concrete the most relevant Roman contribution to the modern world, Roman style can still be seen throughout Europe and North America in the arches and domes of many governmental and religious buildings.

Figure 9.20 Baths of Caracalla

The Baths of Caracalla, built for public use, were also designed to have an imposing e!ect.

knowledge of building materials, enabled them to achieve unprecedented successes in constructing imposing structures for public use. Examples include the aqueducts of Rome, the Baths of Caracalla (Figure 9.20), basilicas, and the Roman Colosseum. The Romans intended for public buildings to impress citizens and visitors, as well as to perform a public function. The Pantheon is an

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example of this. Intended as a temple, it served as inspiration for countless public buildings in the Western hemisphere. The Roman use of the arch, and their improvements in the use of concrete and bricks, facilitated the building of many aqueducts throughout the empire (Figure 9.21). Initially adopted from the Greeks, Roman arches are very strong, because no single spot holds all the weight. Because of this, the arch was employed in Roman aqueducts throughout the empire, and their survival is testimony to the durability of their materials and design.

Figure 9.22 Roman Dome Dome of the Pantheon, inner view.

Figure 9.21 Roman Arch The Aqueduct of Segovia, Spain.

The dome permitted Romans to construct vaulted ceilings and provided covering for large public spaces like baths and basilicas. The Romans based much of their architecture on the dome, such as Hadrian's Pantheon in the city of Rome (Figure 9.22). Some of the most impressive public buildings were amphitheaters, including the Roman Colosseum. They were used for gladiatorial contests, public displays, public meetings, and bullfights, and are among the most impressive remains of the Roman empire at its height.

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Concrete In addition to devising new shapes, Romans also experimented with materials in their architecture. For instance, tile-covered concrete quickly supplanted marble as the primary building material. Massive buildings soon followed, with great pillars that supported broad arches and domes, rather than dense lines of thin columns suspending flat architraves. The freedom of concrete also inspired the colonnade screen, a row of purely decorative columns in front of a load-bearing wall. In smaller-scale architecture, concrete's strength freed the floor plan from rectangular cells and facilitated a more free-flowing environment. Ancient Roman concrete was a mixture of lime mortar, sand with stone rubble, pozzolana, water, and stones. Builders placed these ingredients in wooden frames, which hardened and bonded to a face of stones, or, more frequently, bricks. When the framework was removed, the new wall was very strong and had a rough surface of bricks or stones. This surface could be smoothed and faced with attractive stucco, thin panels of marble, or other colored stones called revetment. Concrete construction proved to be more flexible and less costly than buildings constructed out of solid stone. The materials were readily available and not difficult to transport, and the wooden frames could be used more than once, allowing builders to work quickly and efficiently.

Mosaics On return from military campaigns in Greece, Sulla, a general, returned with what is probably the most well-known element of the early imperial period, the mosaic, a decoration of colourful chips of stone inserted into cement. This tiling method took the empire by storm in the late first century and the second century. In Roman home decor, it joined murals in decorating floors, walls, and grottoes in geometric and pictorial designs. Though most would consider concrete to be Rome's greatest contribution to modern architecture, Roman style can still be seen throughout Europe and North America in the arches and domes of many governmental and religious buildings.
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Ivory Carving
Ivory carving is the carving of animal tooth or tusk, by using sharp cutting tools, either mechanically or manually.

and is not easily recycled like precious metals or jewels. Humans have ornamentally carved ivory since prehistoric times, though until the nineteenth century, it was usually a rare and expensive material used for luxury products. In the early Christian period, Christians avoided
Figure 9.23 The Barberini Diptych

KEY POINTS

monumental sculpture, which was associated with the old pagan Roman religion, and sculpted almost exclusively in relief. During the persecution of Christians, such reliefs were typically kept small in scale; those on sarcophagi being the largest. The result was that when Christianity became first patronized by the emperors (and later, the official religion of the Empire), these attitudes remained. As a result, small-scale sculpturefor which ivory was in many ways the best materialwas central to art in a way that it rarely was at other times.
The Barberini Diptych depicts a victorious early sixth century Byzantine emperor. Carved ivory relief.

Ivory carving has a special importance to medieval art history of Europe and Byzantium because it has no bullion value and is not easily recycled: like precious metals or jewels. In the early Christian period, Christians sculpted almost exclusively in relief that were kept normally small in scale, for which ivory was in many ways the best material. Ivory panels were used as book-covers, usually as the centerpiece to a surround of metalwork and gems. They were assembled from up to five smaller panels because of the limited width of the tusk. Carved ivory covers were used for treasure bindings on the most precious illuminated manuscripts.

Ivory carving is the manual or mechanical carving of either animal tooth or tusk, wherein very fine detail can be achieved, and the surviving works often demonstrate intricate and complicated designs. Ivory carving has a special importance to medieval art history of Europe and Byzantium because it has no bullion value

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Consuls, civil officers who played an important administrative role until 541, gave Roman Consular diptychs as presents. These Roman Consular diptychs consisted of two panels carved on the outsides joined by hinges with the image of the consul (Figure 9.23). The form was later adopted for Christian use, with images of Christ, the Theotokos and saints. Such ivory panels were used as book-covers from the sixth century, usually as the centerpiece and surrounded by metalwork and gems. These book covers were sometimes assembled from up to five smaller panels due to the limited width of the tusk. Carved ivory covers were used for treasure bindings on the most precious illuminated manuscripts.
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Chapter 10

The Byzantines

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Section 1

Early Byzantine Art

The Byzantines Under Justinian Objects of Worship Icons and Iconoclasm Architecture and Mosaics Ivory Carving and Painting

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The Byzantines Under Justinian

Byzantine Emperor Justinian I launched an ambitious building program to develop holy sites to restore the glory of the Roman Empire.

Figure 10.1 Justinian I from San Vitale in Ravenna Byzantine Emperor Justinian forcefully pushed for the spread of Christianity along with the expansion of his empire.

KEY POINTS

One of Justinian's major contributions to history was the codification of Byzantine laws. Christian architecture was a significant component of Justinian's project of imperial renovation. The church building program of Justinian was composed of glorious churches constructed to aid the Emperor in his religious unification undertaking. Justinian hoped to recreate the former Roman Empire as a Christian empire. Justinian, during the sixth century, is one of the most extraordinary of these creative explosions. Justinian devoted much of his reign (527565 CE) to reconquering Italy, North Africa, and Spain. He also laid the foundations of the imperial absolutism of the Byzantine state, codifying its laws and imposing his religious The history of the architecture of the western world, from 3500 BCE to the present, is the story of a slow, steady advancement in building methods, materials, and styles, punctuated by a few short bursts of terrific activity that produce both monuments and techniques that have had a lasting impact on future generations. The great age of views on all his subjects by law (Figure 10.1). If the outstanding contribution of Rome to the development of civilization was the rule of law, Justinian's codifying of the laws alone would justify his notable place in world history. In addition to the laws, he reconstructed the flagging fortresses of the Roman

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Empire providing cisterns, ramparts, civic buildings, residences, waterways, churches, and indeed whole cities, an achievement that dwarfs any other architectural accomplishment by a single individual in the Roman or any other empire. Finally, he was responsible for the supreme creation of Byzantine architecture, the Hagia Sophia (Figure 10.2). Justinian's aim was to restore the Roman empire to its former glory within a Christian context. Justinian renovated, rebuilt, and founded countless churches within Constantinople, including Hagia Sophia, which had been destroyed during the Nika riots, the Church of the

Figure 10.2 Interior View of Hagia Sophia

Holy Apostles, and the Church of Saints Sergius and Bacchus. Justinian also built a number of churches and fortifications outside of the imperial capital, including the Monastery of St. Catherine on the Sinai Peninsula and the Basilica of St. John in Ephesus. The manifestation of the church as a focal point of the community was solidified by Justinian in all of his city and town reconstructions. Several major churches of this period were built in the provinces by local bishops in imitation of the new Constantinopolitan foundations. One such church, the Basilica of San Vitale in Ravenna, was built by Bishop Maximianus. The decoration of San Vitale includes important mosaics of Justinian and his empress, Theodora, although neither ever visited the church. The Euphrasian Basilica in Pore- is another example of churches built to imitate the new Constantinopolitan foundations.
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Emperor Justinian ordered the construction of Hagia Sophia in 532 CE.

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Objects of Worship
Religious gures were frequently depicted in Christian imagery during the early Byzantine period in order to emphasize their humanity.

Figure 10.3 Christ Pantocrator, detail of the Deesis mosaic, 12th c. Religious imagery played an important role in the spread of early Christianity.

KEY POINTS

Emperor Constantine legalized Christianity in 313 CE, and a wave of conversion to the new religion rapidly followed. As Christians were able to practice their religion openly, paintings depicting the stories of martyrs became popular. The Church soon began to discourage representation of human figures who were not wealthy patrons, leaders, or religious figures.

After Christianity was legalized within the Roman Empire in 313 CE by the emperor Constantine, huge numbers of pagans became converts. This created the necessity for the transfer of allegiance

Icon painting, as distinct from other forms of painting, emerged in the Early Byzantine period as an aid to religious devotion. Whereas earlier Christian art relied more on allegory and symbolism. For example, earlier art might have featured a lamb representing Christ rather than Christ shown in human form. Before long, religious figures were being depicted in their human form to emphasize their humanity and their spirituality. While this issue would be debated and challenged during the later iconoclastic period, for a time, images of the saints in icon paintings flourished.

and practice from the old gods and heroes to the new religion and for the gradual adaptation of the old system of image making and veneration to a Christian context. This process was called Christianization (Figure 10.3). After the adoption of Christianity as the only permissible Roman state religion under Theodosius I, Christian art began to change not only in quality and sophistication but also in nature. This was in no small part due to Christians being free for the first time to express

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their faith openly without persecution from the state and to the faith spreading to the non-poor segments of society. Paintings of martyrs and their feats began to appear, and early writers commented on their lifelike effect, one of the elements a few Christian writers criticized in pagan artthe ability to imitate life. The writers mostly criticized pagan works of art for pointing to false gods, thus encouraging idolatry. Statues in the round were avoided as being too close to the principal artistic focus of pagan cult practices, as they have continued to be (with some small-scale exceptions) throughout the history of Eastern Christianity. Nilus of Sinai, in his Letter to Heliodorus Silentiarius, records a miracle in which St. Plato of Ankyra appeared to a Christian in a dream. The Saint was recognized because the young man had often seen his portrait. This recognition of a religious apparition from likeness to an image was also a characteristic of pagan pious accounts of appearances of gods to humans and was a common theme in hagiography. During this period, the church began to discourage all non-religious human imagesthe Emperor and donor figures counting as religious.
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Icons and Iconoclasm

Emperor Leo III (717741) and his successors banned the worship of icons and encouraged the persecution of those who venerated images.
KEY POINTS

Biblical grounds for iconoclasts are found in the Ten Commandments, which forbid the making and worshiping of graven images. Veneration of icons is forbidden in Islam; some historians have suggested that the Byzantine iconoclasts were inspired by Islamic contemporaries. There were two Iconoclast periods: First Iconoclasm from 730787, and Second Iconoclasm from 814842. Iconoclasm has been interpreted by some recent historians as a form of medieval class struggle.

The Byzantine Iconoclasm encompasses two periods in the history of the Byzantine Empire when religious images of icons came under scrutiny by religious and imperial authorities within the Orthodox Church and the temporal imperial hierarchy. The First Iconoclasm, as it is sometimes called, lasted between about 730787. The Second Iconoclasm was between 814842 (Figure 10.4).

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Figure 10.4 Chludov Psalter Illuminated Manuscript, 9th c. This illuminated manuscript depicts the Byzantine Iconoclasm.

Iconoclasm has generally been motivated theologically by an Old Covenant interpretation of the Ten Commandments, which forbade the making and worshiping of "graven images." The two periods of iconoclasm in the Byzantine Empire during the 8th and 9th centuries made use of this theological theme in discussions over the propriety of images of holy figures, including Christ, the Virgin and saints. It was a debate triggered by changes in Orthodox worship, which were themselves generated by the major social and political upheavals of the seventh century for the Byzantine Empire (Figure 10.5). Traditional explanations for Byzantine iconoclasm have sometimes focused on the importance of Islamic prohibitions against images influencing Byzantine thought. According to Arnold J. Toynbee, for example, it was the prestige of Islamic military

According to the traditional view, Byzantine Iconoclasm constituted a ban on religious images by Emperor Leo III and continued under his successors, and was accompanied by widespread destruction of images and persecution of supporters of the veneration of images. Iconoclasm, Greek for "image-breaking," is the deliberate destruction within a culture of the culture's own religious icons and other symbols or monuments, usually for religious or political motives. Conversely, people who revere or venerate religious images are derisively called "iconolaters."

successes in the 78th centuries that motivated Byzantine Christians to adopt the Islamic position of rejecting and destroying idolatricous images. The role of women and monks in supporting the veneration of images has also been asserted. Social and class-based arguments have been put forward, such as that iconoclasm created political and economic divisions in Byzantine society; that it was generally supported by the Eastern, poorer, non-Greek peoples of the Empire who had to constantly deal with Arab raids. On the other hand, the wealthier Greeks of

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Figure 10.5 Interior of Hagia Irene This simple cross is an example of Iconoclast art from the 8th century.

Architecture and Mosaics

In the Byzantine period, a buildings interior decoration often took the form of mosaic paintings.

KEY POINTS

The use of mosaics in Greek and Roman design was reserved for placement in the floor, rather than on the walls and ceilings. The Italian city of Ravenna was the site of many of the great Byzantine structures which incorporated mosaic. The Mausoleum of Galla Placidia in Ravenna is a prime example of the powerful impact and spiritual effect of the Byzantine mosaic style. Constantinople and also the peoples of the Balkan and Italian provinces strongly opposed Iconoclasm. In recent decades in Greece, Iconoclasm has become a favorite topic of progressive and Marxist historians and social scientists, who consider it a form of medieval class struggle and have drawn inspiration from it.
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Mosaic tiles were more costly than materials for traditional painting, demonstrating the wealth of the Byzantine empire.

Whereas in antiquity, walls were usually decorated with lessexpensive painted scenes, the Byzantine aesthetic favored the more sumptuous, glittering effect of mosaic decoration. Some of the finest surviving Byzantine mosaics are preserved in the Italian city of Ravenna, which was one of the most important Italian cities through the Early Byzantine Period. Mosaics were not a Byzantine

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Figure 10.6 Internal View of Mausoleum of Galla Placidia This early Byzantine structures demonstrates the intricate use of mosaics in Byzantine design.

The mosaic technique was more expensive than traditional wall painting, but its effects were so desirable as to make it worth the cost. Further, technological advances (lighter-weight tesserae and a new cement recipe) made wall mosaics easier than they had been in the preceding centuries, when floor mosaics were favored. The imagery befit Byzantine culture, which emphasized the power of a sole emperor and the authority of one true religion. The Mosaic technique involved fitting together small pieces of stone and glass (tesserae). When set together, the stone pieces create a paint-like effect in which different colors meld into one another to create
Figure 10.7 Ceiling Mosaic at the Mausoleum of Galla Placida The Byzantines more creatively and liberally than other cultures in the classical world.

invention. In fact, some of the most famous surviving mosaics are from ancient Greece and Rome. Most often, however, mosaic decoration in the classical world was reserved for floor surfaces. It was the Byzantines who celebrated the possibilities of the mosaic technique and began to use it on wall surfaces as a sort of painting in stone. Unlike traditional wall paintings, mosaics could create a glittering, shimmering effect that lent itself to a heightened sense of spirituality (Figure 10.7).

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shadows and a sense of depth. Mosaic decoration, however, has the added benefit that stone and glass reflect the light in a way that paint cannot. Moreover, the Byzantines often placed gold backing behind the clear glass tesserae such that the mosaics would appear to emit a mysterious light of their own. This play of light added a sense of drama and spiritualism to the images that suited the symbolism and magic inherent in the Byzantine religious ceremony. The Mausoleum of Galla Placidia is one of the earliest Byzantine buildings in Ravenna. The small mausoleum is a dome-covered Greek cross plan. While the exterior is plain, the interior is extensively decorated in elaborate mosaics. These mosaics create a truly spiritual spacea world removed from the ordinary. The vaulting is covered with floral motifs and stars that stand out against a blue background, even seeming to sparkle with their own mystical light (Figure 10.6).

Ivory Carving and Painting

Illuminated manuscripts and carved relief sculptures were central features of Early Byzantine art.
KEY POINTS

Painted Illuminated Manuscripts were important religious documents in the Early Byzantine Period. Elaborate Ivory diptychs were also central to the art of this period; early Christians valued the small scale of these relief sculptures which contrasted with the monumental sculpture favored by pagans. Western art gradually began to focus on monumental sculpture and ivory carving declined in importance; however, in the Eastern Orthodox tradition it remained significant.

The Appeal of the Miniature

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A number of important illuminated manuscripts, both sacred and secular, survive from the Early Byzantine period. Classical authors, including Virgil and Homer, were illustrated with narrative paintings. Illuminated biblical manuscripts of this period survive only in fragments: for example, the Quedlinburg Itala fragment is a small portion of what must have been a lavishly illustrated copy of 1 Kings (Figure 10.8).

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Early Byzantine art was also marked by the cultivation of ivory carving. Ivory diptychs, often elaborately decorated, were issued as gifts by newly appointed consuls. In the Early Christian period, Christians avoided monumental sculpture, which was associated with the old pagan Roman religion, and sculpted almost exclusively in relief. The difficult circumstances of the growing religion meant that these reliefs were normally small in scalethose on sarcophagi being the largest. When Christianity became first patronized by the emperors, and later the official religion of the Empire, these attitudes remained.
Figure 10.8 Scenes from Chapter 15 of 1 Samuel in the Quedlinburg Itala fragment The Quedinburg Itala fragment is a portion of six folios from a large 5th century illuminated manuscript.

Figure 10.9 Barberini Diptych The Barberini Diptych is an early example of Byzantine Ivory work.

Small-scale sculpture was central to art in a way that it rarely was at other times, and ivory was in many ways the best medium for miniature work. The Barberini Ivory The Barberini Ivory is a Byzantine ivory leaf from an imperial diptych dating from Late Antiquity, now in the keeping of the Louvre in Paris. It is carved in the style known as late Theodosian, representing the emperor as triumphant victor (Figure 10.9).

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The Barberini Ivory is generally dated from the first half of the 6th century, and is attributed to an imperial workshop in Constantinople. The emperor depicted, however, is usually identified as Justinian, or possibly Anastasius I or Zeno. Although it is not a consular diptych, it shares many features of their decorative schemes. The emperor is accompanied in the main panel by a conquered barbarian in trousers at left, a crouching allegorical figure, probably representing territory conquered or reconquered, who holds his foot in thanks or submission, and an angel or victory shown crowning the emperor with the traditional palm of victory, which is now lost. Although the barbarian is partly hidden by the emperor's huge spear, this does not pierce him, and he seems more astonished and over-awed than combative. Above, Christ, with a fashionable curled hair-style, is flanked by two more angels in the style of pagan victory figures; he reigns above, while the emperor represents him below on earth. In the bottom panel barbarians from West (left, in trousers) and East (right, with ivory tusks, a tiger and a small elephant) bring tribute, which includes wild animals. The figure in the left panel, apparently not a saint but representing a soldier, carries a statuette of Victory; his counterpart on the right is lost. In the Byzantine and Eastern Orthodox world the disapproval of large religious sculpture was to remain unchanged to the present day, but in the West it was overcome, probably beginning with the

court of Charlemagne. As large monumental sculpture in other materials became more important, the centrality of ivory carving slowly lessened.

EXAMPLE

The Barberini Ivory was an impressive example of Early Byzantine relief sculpture.

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Section 2

Middle Byzantine Art

Architecture and Mosaics Objects of Worship Ivory Carving and Painting Late Byzantine Art The Chora Church in Constantinople Rublev in Moscow Painting

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Architecture and Mosaics

Architecture and mosaic decoration thrived during the Middle Byzantine period following a stiing of the arts under Iconoclasm.

KEY POINTS (cont.)

At the Hosios Loukas monastery in Greece,!dedicated to St. Luke, are two connected churches whose architecture represents new styles in building, including the older use of pendentives and the newer use of squinches which create a new architectural space through an octagonal base. The mosaics found in the Hosios Loukas churches represent the early Byzantine style that is just beginning to change at the time of the decoration. These mosaics depict figures in a more schematic manner and on flat, gold backgrounds with little hints at setting. Saint Marks Basilica in Venice, Italy is a grand Greek crossplan church that is richly decorated in marble revetment, pattern stone floors, and a detailed and extensive program of mosaics.

KEY POINTS

Iconoclasm ended in 843, leading to the renewal of churches through decorative and figurative mosaics and frescos. New elements and styles began to emerge during the Middle Byzantine period under the rule of the Macedonian emperors. The Theotokos mosaic of the Virgin and Child, in the central apse of the Hagia Sophia, was dedicated by the Patriarch Photius and the emperors, Michael III and Basil I. The mosaic is believed to reconstruct an earlier sixth century mosaic destroyed during Iconoclasm. The image of the Virgin and Child in the Hagia Sophia demonstrates the continuation of early Byzantine mosaic styles and the development of new conventions, including softer folds, increase modeling, and the addition of perspective.

Theotokos Mosaic at the Hagia Sophia Following the end of the Iconoclasm controversy, Byzantine religious art was renewed and a series of new innovations can be seen in the style and production of Byzantine art after 843. At this time, a new mosaic was dedicated in the Hagia Sophia under the Patriarch Photius and the Macedonian emperors Michael III and Basil I. The mosaic (Figure 10.10) is located in the apse over the main alter and depicts the Theotokos, the Mother of God. The

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Figure 10.10 Theokotos and Child Theokotos and Child. Apse mosaic. Ca. 867. Hagia Sophia, Constantinople (Istanbul), Turkey.

refers to the recent past and the renewal of Byzantine art under the Macedonian emperors. The image of the Virgin and Child is a common Christian image, and the mosaic depicts Byzantine innovations and the standard style of the period. The lap of the Virgin is large, and Christ sits nestled between her two legs. The faces of the figures are depicted with gradual shading and modeling that provides a sense of realism which contradicts the schematic folding of the drapery worn by Christ and the Virgin. The drapery is defined by thick, harsh folds delineated by contrasting colors, the Virgin in blue and Christ in gold. The two frontal figures sit on an embellished gold throne that is tilted to imply perspective. The attempt at perspective is a new addition in Byzantine art during this period. The space given to the chair contradicts the frontality of the figures, but it provides a sense of realism and dynamic previously unknown in Byzantine mosaics. Hosios Loukas, Greece

Virgin Mary sits on a throne with her son Christ in her lap. The image is believed to be a reconstruction of a sixth century mosaic that was destroyed during the Iconoclasm. Like the previous image, the late ninth century mosaic depicts the Theotokos on a gold background. An inscription accompanied the image, which is recorded as reading: The images which the impostors had cast down here, pious emperors (Michael and Basil) have again set up,

The monastery of Hosios Loukas (St. Luke) in Greece was founded in the early tenth century by a hermit to host the relics of St. Luke. The monastery is located on the slope of Mount Helicon, near the ancient Greek city of Delphi. The monastery is known for its two churches, the Church of the Theotokos and the Katholikon, the main church building of the monastery. The churches were decorated in mosaics, frescoes, and marble revetment. The Church

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of the Theotokos was built in the tenth century and is the only known mainland Greek Church built in the tenth century. The Katholikon was built in the early eleventh century. The two churches are connected together, by the narthex of the Theotokos and an arm of the Katholikon, and the churches demonstrate two different styles of architecture. The Church of the Theokotos represents a Greek cross-plan style church. It has a central dome that rests on a series of pendentives, an architectural form that transitions the building from a four-sided structure to a dome. The Katholikon is also a Greek cross-plan style church but instead of the dome resting on pendentives, the dome of the Katholikon rests on squinches (Figure 10.11). The squinches created an octagonal transition between the square plan of the church and the circular plan of the dome. The difference in style between the pendentives and the squinches allow for different relationships between the architecture and the decoration and different play of light and darkness in the shapes the squinches provided. The mosaics found in the Katholikon are completed in an early Byzantine style commonly seen in the centuries before Iconoclasm. The scenes depicted are flat with little architecture or props to provide a setting, instead the background is covered in brilliant gold mosaics. The figures in the scenes, such as those seen in the apse

Figure 10.11 Hosios Loukas Katholikon Central dome of the Katholikon. Fresco. First quarter of the 11th century. Hosios Loukas, Greece.

Figure 10.12 Christ Washing the Feet of His Disciples Christ Washing the Feet of His Disciples. Mosaic. Late 10th to early 11th century. Hosios Loukas, Greece.

mosaic of Christ washing the feet of his disciples (Figure 10.12), are depicted with naturalistic faces that are modeled and with long, narrow noses and small mouths. The clothing of the figures is represented through schematic folds and contrasting colors. While the folds of the drapery represent a body underneath, there appears to be no actual mass to the body. These characteristics of figures

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seen in Byzantine mosaics begin to change in the following century, as is already seen, partially through the addition of perspective in the Theokotos of the Hagia Sophia. Saint Marks Basilica, Venice Saint Marks Basilica in Venice, Italy was first built in the ninth century and rebuilt in the eleventh century in its current form following a fire. The basilica is a grand building, built next to the Doges Palace in Venice and functioned as the doges chapel, a state church, and in 1806 became the citys cathedral.The Basilica is dedicated to St. Mark and is home to his remains, which the Venetians looted from Alexandria in 828 (prompting the building of the basilica). Saint Marks Basilica was built in the Byzantine style of a Greek cross-plan church. Each arm is divided into three naves and is topped by a dome. At the crossing is a large central dome and the main apse is flanked by two smaller chapels. The narthex of the basilica is u-shaped and wraps around the western arm of the basilica and is decorated with scenes from the lives of Old Testament prophets. The entirety of the Basilica is richly decorated. The floor is covered in geometric patterns and designs using Roman decorated techniques known as opus sectile and opus tessellatum. The lower

Figure 10.13 Interior of St. Mark's Basilic A view of the interior of St. Mark's Basilica from the clerestorylevel walkway. Begun in 1060. Venice, Italy.

walls and pillars are covered in marble polychrome panels and the upper levels of the walls and the domes are decorated with twelfth and thirteenth century mosaics (Figure 10.13). The mosaics are a bright addition to the basilica, and the gold and bronze illuminate the interior. The central dome depicts an image of Christ Pantocrator, and the overall decorative program depicts scenes from the life of Christ and images of salvation from both the Old and New Testament.

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Source: https://www.boundless.com/art-history/the-byzantines/ middle-byzantine-art/architecture-and-mosaics/ CC-BY-SA Boundless is an openly licensed educational resource

Objects of Worship
Personal objects (psalters and triptychs), reliquaries, and icons were popular objects of worship during the Middle Byzantine period.

KEY POINTS

The triptych is a small, personal object made from three panels (either painted or carved from wood or ivory) that was used by an individual to guide their devotion and prayers to God. Psalters were another form of personal devotion. These books contained the Books of Psalms and were often richly decorated, or illuminated, with scenes and miniatures. The reliquary was a protective container for a relic, a body part of a saint or a sacred object, that was preserved for veneration. While they could be simple, these containers were often decorated with or made from expensive materials such as gold, silver, and precious stones. The icon is an image of a saint that was also a considered sacred and was venerated by the public. These images, which vary in size and subject, were often painted panels.

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Triptych Triptychs are a type of panel painting for devotional objects that are created on three panels. The panels could also be divided in two, known as diptychs, or sometimes had more than three panels, known as a polyptych. The use of triptychs began in the Byzantine period and they were originally made to be small and portable. Later during the Gothic period, multi-panel devotional paintings were enlarged as altarpieces. However, the small, portable triptychs of the Byzantine period were used as personal objects of worship. They were designed to guide their owner in prayer and direct their thoughts towards Christ. The triptych was designed with one central panel and two wings that folded over the main image and allowed the object to be portable, when closed, and to stand, when the wings were open. The wings are typically carved with portrayals of Saints, while the main image often depicted Christ. Although the image of Christ varied. The Harbaville Triptych depicts a scene of Deesis with Christ as the Pantocrator, while the Borradaile Triptych depicts an image of the Crucifixion. Reliquaries A reliquary is a protective container used for the storage and display of relics. Relics were a part of the body of a dead saint that

Figure 10.14 Reliquary of the True Cross This reliquary depicts a scene of the Crucixion with fourteen saints around the border. The reliquary is very small and probably contained a piece of the True Cross, the cross on which Christ was crucied.

was preserved for veneration. Some relics are believed to be endowed with miraculous powers, and other relics have come to play key roles in certain church festivals. The veneration of relics and use of reliquaries became popular during the Byzantine period when the bodies of saints were often moved and divided between Churches. While many relics were honored and venerated, the church never considered this form of devotion as a form of worship, which was an act reserved for God. Reliquaries take many forms and shapes and are made out of a variety of materials. However many reliquaries were made out of or

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decorated with expensive material, such as gold and precious stones. A reliquary from the early ninth century depicts a scene of the Crucifixion with fourteen saints around the border (Figure 10. 14). The reliquary is very small and probably contained a piece of the True Cross, the cross on which Christ was crucified. This reliquary is made from cloisonne, a metalworking technique in which metal was soldered into compartments that was then filled with enamel, glass, gems, or other materials. In this case, the reliquary is made with green, white, blue, and red enamel and gold and is only four inches high by nearly three inches wide. Psalters Like triptychs, psalters were small, private objects used for private devotion and worship. A psalter is a book containing the Book of Psalms and other liturgical material such as calendars. Since psalters were private books, they were often commissioned and were richly decorated and illuminated. The surviving psalters contain many fine examples of painting styles and techniques through the Byzantine and Middle periods. The Paris Psalter (Figure 10.15) is a mid-tenth century manuscript with fourteen full page miniatures, or paintings, created in a Classical style. The manuscript is believed to have been painted in Macedonia, and shares some stylistic similarities with other Macedonian paintings, such as seen in the Lamentation wall

Figure 10.15 Paris Psalter David Composing on his harp. Paris Psalter.

painting in the Church of Saint Pantaleimon. The figures painted in these scenes have bodies with mass and drapery that conforms, not shapes, their bodies. The image of David, a psalmist, depicts David in an idyllic country setting outside a city (seen in the distance) composing psalms on his harp. He sits with a sheep, goats, dogs, and an angel, representing Melody, while a personification of Echo peers around a column. A male figure, representing the mountain of Bethlehem, lounges on the ground. The image is reminiscent of Greco-Roman wall painting of the musician Orpheus charming people and animals with his music. While the figures appear

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modeled and are reminiscent of Classical art, the psalter has a Byzantine style to it. The clothing is still rendered with bright, contrasting colors and the folds of the drapery are stylized and dark. The slightly skewed perspective given to the vase on top the column and the city in the background are additional elements that provide the scene a Byzantine artistic style. Icons Icons were also popular devotional objects during the Byzantine period. These objects, which varied in size, depicted the image of a saint, or sacred person such as Christ or Mary, that was considered sacred and was venerated. The images were often painted panels and the display of icons surged following the end of Iconoclasm in the ninth century. Many icons, once reaching this status, would be furthered objectified and protected through the addition of custom gilded frames or gold or silver cases that covered the entirety of the image except for the face of the subject.
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Ivory Carving and Painting

Ivory carvings and paintings were popular materials for representing stories and to guide devotion during the Middle Byzantine period.

KEY POINTS

The Harbaville Triptych is a mid-tenth century ivory carving of a Deesis and Saints. The triptych is carved in a Byzantine style with elongated, solemn figures. The Borradaile Triptych is also a tenth century ivory carving depicting the Crucifixion with Mary, St. John the Baptist, and other Saints. These figures are carved in shallow relief but are also elongated and solemn, although the Virgin Mary is depicted full of sorrow. Emotional elements begin to be seen in Byzantine painting, as one can see in the Lamentation wall painting from the Church of St. Pantaleimon. The figures of the scene are rendered with humanity and sorrow as they grieve over the dead body of Christ. The Theotokos of Vladimir is a late 11th to early 12th century icon of the Virgin and Child. The icon is considered a protective icon of Russia and depicts a compassionate and emotionally charged Virgin and Child.

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Harbaville Triptych The Harbaville Triptych (Figure 10.16) is an early example from the mid-tenth century of the new ivory triptychs that replaced diptychs during the Middle Byzantine period. The main scene depicts the figures of Christ Pantocrator flanked by John the Baptist and the Virgin Mary, in a supplication scene known as a Deesis. John the Baptist and the Virgin Mary are depicted as intercessors, praying on behalf of the triptychs owner to Christ. On the register below them are the apostles James, John, Peter, Paul, and Andrew. The two side panels depict two registers with two characters each, all of which are identifiable saints. The figures are carved in a recognizably Byzantine style. Their bodies are elongated and narrow, and they seem to float or hover just above the ground instead of stand with weight. This illusion is furthered by the fact that nearly each character stands on a small platform. The saints are elegantly draped and their bodies are distinguished by the folds of their drapery and not any type of modeling. The faces of each figure are solemn and their facial features, such as eyes, mouth, and hair, are deeply carved. The saints each face outward, except for John the Baptist and the Virgin Mary, who are each slightly turned and bowing to an enthroned Christ. Christ sits on an elaborate throne as the Pantocrator, with a

Figure 10.16 Harbaville Triptych Deesis with Saints, Harbaville Triptych. Ivory. Ca. 950.$

book of Gospels in one arm and his hand gesturing in a motion of blessing. Borradaile Triptych The Borradaile Triptychs main image depicts the Crucifixation of Christ instead of a Deesis (Figure 10.17). The central image takes up the entirety of the main frame and the two wings are divided into three registers. The figures on the wings are images of saints, similar to the Harbaville Triptych. The central scene is dominated by the image of Christ on the cross. Two angels flank him in the sky and below are the figures of the Virgin Mary and St. John. St. John gestures and averts his eye while Mary lifts a veil to her face and her expression is filled with distraught.

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Figure 10.17 Borradaile Triptych Crucixion of Christ and Saints, Borradaile Triptych. Ivory. Ca.10th century.

Figure 10.18 Lamentation of Christ Detail of the Lamentation of Christ. Wall painting. 1164. Church of Saint Pantaleimon, Nerezi, Macedonia.

Painting during the Middle Byzantine period began to progress and The figures, like those of the Harbaville Triptych, are elongated, although less narrow and more rigid. They also are less deeply carved and, because of this appear, more insubstantial. Except for Christs upper body, which is unclothed, the bodies of the figures are defined by the schematic, rigid drapery. The saints stand in straight, upright positions that further provide a sense of solemnity to the scene. Christ is seen on the cross in a stance that focuses on his divine qualities and not his human suffering. The only emotion from the scene derives from his mother, the Virgin Mary, who stands weeping beneath him. Lamentation from Saint Pantaleimon, Nerezi, Macedonia change stylistically. Artists approached common scenes with an ingenuity based on a mix of naturalism and schematics. This can be seen in the fresco of the Lamentation found in the Church of Saint Pantaleimon in the city of Nerezi, Macedonia (Figure 10.18). The Lamentation of Christ is an iconic scene that depicts the Virgin Mary hold and mourning her dead son, just after Christ has been removed from the cross. She wraps an arm around his shoulders and presses her face against his. St. John grasps Christs right hand while Joseph of Arimathea and Nicodemus kneel at Christs feet. A fifth follower enters the scene with arms outstretched from the right and group of angels fly above the scene in the deep blue sky.

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The Macedonian painters created a scene filled with emotional tension that is not seen in Byzantine art before then. The figures faces are neither solemn nor formal but instead are emotionally charged with grief and sorrow. Marys face especially denotes the emotions and pain that a mother feels when grieving a lost child. The figures are also bent over Christs body, which further emphasizes the emotions in the sceneno longer stiff or static, these figures feel and cause the viewer to be filled with emotion. Despite this, there are some elements of Byzantine style in the fresco. For one, the figures clothing is still schematically rendered, even though most of the figures appear to have bodies and mass under their garments. For another, the nude body of Christ is rendered in a style similar to the drapery. The muscles are defined through schematic lines that denote parts of his body, such as his abs and knees. Another oddity is that Christs body is not on the ground but instead hovers non-naturalisticaly off the ground. This is hardly noticed at first, since the placement of his torso and feet make sense in their individual context, but as whole it requires Christs body to float, instead of lay naturally on the ground. Theotokos of Vladimir The Theotokos of Vladimir (Figure 10.19), an icon of the Virgin and Child, represented the new style of icons that were created in the eleventh and twelfth centuries. These icons depict emotion,

Figure 10.19 Theotokos of Vladimir Theotokos of Vladimir. Tempera on wood. Late 11th to early 12th century. Vladimir, Russia.

compassion, and the growing trend in spirituality. The mother and child are depicted with serene faces in the Byzantine style. Marys nose is long and narrow and her mouth small. She looks out and confronts the viewer with compassionate, knowing eyes that remind the viewer of Christs future sacrifice. The Christ child is small, although his face is adult-like and he is drawn to his mother and embraces her. His drapery shines as if it was golden rays, and the Virgin is dressed in rich, dark fabric with gold embellishments. The compassion and humanity between the characters prefigures the emotional Late Byzantine style of the next two centuries. The image

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was given as a gift to the Grand Duke of Kiev in 1131 by the Greek Patriarch of Constantinople and is an important and protective icon of the Russian cities of Vladimir and Moscow and the country of Russia itself.
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Late Byzantine Art

Late Byzantine Art began following the sack of Constantinople in 1204 and continued until the fall of Byzantium in 1452.

KEY POINTS

French and Italian armies sacked Constantinople during the Fourth Crusades in 1204 and divided the Byzantium empire into smaller kingdoms. The Byzantines eventually reconquered Constantinople in 1261 and the Byzantine Empire continued to reign until falling to the Ottoman Turks in 1452. Art during the final centuries of the Byzantine Empire is known as Late Byzantine art and the styles and conventions of the early and middle Byzantium periods begin to change to reflect emerging dynamics and tastes. Mosaics and frescos are both still used for church decoration, although frescoed wall paintings became more popular. The change in favored medium also changes the types of imagery; wall paintings more heavily favor narrative scenes and cycles instead of standard single images. During this period landscapes and settings begin to emerge in painted and mosaic images and the new method of depicting the body, with softer modeling and shading used. Robes and drapery are still schematically rendered, but the figures now have mass and a tangible body.

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Figure 10.20 The Division of the Byzantine Empire after its Sacking in 1204

marks the starting point of Late Byzantine Art, which lasted until the fifteenth century and spread beyond the borders of Byzantium. Art during this period began to change from the standards and styles seen in the early and middle periods of Byzantium rule. A renewed interest in landscape and setting can be seen in mosaics, frescoes, and psalters. The desire to mimic the gold background of mosaic work gives way, first in painting and later in mosaic, to the inclusion of scenery and setting. The settings are often simple, perhaps a hill or a chair at first, and are often pastoral. Architecture begins to be depicted more often, which renews the use of perspective. At first buildings are rendered slightly skewed, but eventually artists refine the combination of material (mosaic and painting) with architecture and perspective (Figure 10.21).
Figure 10.21 Christ Healing a Paralitic!Mosaic (Ca. 1310-1320; Outer narthex, Chora Church, Constantinople, Turkey) Christ healing a paralitic in Caphernaum from cycle of the Life of Christ

The division of the Byzantine Empire after its sacking in 1204 by French and Italian armies during the Fourth Crusades

The period of Late Byzantium saw the decline of the Byzantine Empire during the thirteenth through fifteenth centuries. Byzantiums location centered on Constantinople and although the city and empire prospered as a connection between east and west traders, Byzantium was continually dealing with threats from the Ottoman Turks in the east and the Latin Empire to the west. During the Fourth Crusades, the crusaders attacked Constantinople, took the city under siege in 1203, and eventually overcame the defenses to sack Constantinople in 1204. Constantinople became the capital city of the Latin Empire (Figure 10.20), one of the new kingdoms of divided Byzantium, until it was retaken by the Byzantines in 1261, and once more became a prosperous Byzantine city, until falling to the Ottoman Turks in 1452. The sack of Constantinople in 1204

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Figure 10.22 Frescoed Interior of the Paracclesion!!Fresco (Ca. 1310-1320; Paracclesion, Chora Church, Constantinople (Istanbul), Turkey)

less on sharp, schematic folds and patterns to portray dress and the body and instead use softer, more subtle modeling and shading. While sharp folds in the drapery can still be found in images from this period, these folds are rendered in similar, not complimentary, colors and shades. Furthermore the bodies appear to have mass and weight. The figures no longer float or hover on their toes but stand on their feet. This allows for the addition of movement and energy in the painted figures and overall increase of drama and emotion.
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Frescoed interior of the paracclesion depicting saints, evangelists, and scenes from the lives of the Virgin Mary and Christ

Mosaic work is still popular in the Late Byzantine period, but frescoes and the depiction of narrative cycles begin to gain in popularity and are found as the primary decoration in churches. This transition is seen in the Chora Church, which was initially decorated in mosaic, with the final wing decorated with wall paintings (Figure 10.22). The shift in material also changes the subjects depicted; mosaics of single scenes and figures are replaced in favor of frescoed narrative cycles and biblical stories. The rendering of the figures also begins to change. Artists begin to rely

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The Chora Church in Constantinople

The Chora Church is decorated with iconic murals and mosaics from the fourteenth century that represent the Late Byzantine artistic styles.

KEY POINTS (cont.)

The mosaics demonstrate the new weightiness and smoothness that is seen in Late Byzantine art. As is seen of the Koimesis Mosaic, the bodies are more modeled, are!delicately!shaded, and have massthe figures appear to stand in the ground instead of float. Frescoed wall painting is the primary means of decoration in the paracclesion. The program of images relate to Christ and the Virgin Mary by depicting scenes from their lives, their ancestors, and themes of salvation, which culminate in scenes from the Last Judgment. The apse fresco of the Anastasis depicts Christ redeeming Old Testament souls from Hell. The scene is full of energy and is centered on Christ who grabs the wrists of Adam and Eve. The figures are depicted with grace and a smooth modeling of mass and drapery.

KEY POINTS

The Chora Church, or the Church of the Holy Savior in Chora, was originally built in the early fifth century outside the walls of Constantinople. Today its architecture, mosaics, and frescoes are exceptional examples of Late Byzantine artistic developments and style. The church that stands today is the product of additions and renovations funded by Theodore Metochites, a Byzantine statesman. The church was expanded to include two narthexes, a parecclesion, and a mortuary chapel. At this time the interior was fully decorated in mosaics and well paintings. Mosaics were used extensively to decorate the naos and narthexes of the church in scenes depicting the lives of Christ, the Virgin Mary, and other imagery related to the church. A donor scene is depicted in the inner narthex of Christ Pantocrater receiving the Chora Church from Metochites.

The Chora Churchs, located in Constantinople, full name is the Church of the Holy Savior in Chora. The church was first built in the early fifth century, and its name references the fact that it stood outside the citys fourth century walls. Even when the walls were expanded in the fifth century by Theodosius II, the church maintained its name, despite being located within the new walls. Inside the church is a set of beautiful frescos and mosaics that survived the churches conversion into a mosque in the sixteenth

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century and the plastering over of the Christian imagery. In 1948 the church became a museum after undergoing extensive restoration to uncover and restore its fourteenth century decoration. It is now known as the Kariye Museum or Kariye Camii. Architecture The Chora Church that stands today is the result of the churchs third stage of building (Figure 10.23). This building and the interior decoration was completed between 1315 and 1321 under the Byzantine statesman, Theodore Metochites. Metochites additions and reconstruction in the fourteenth century enlarged the ground plan from the original small, symmetrical church into a large, unsymmetrical square that consists of three main areas: an inner and outer narthex or entrance hall, the naos or main chapel, and the side chapel, known as the parecclesion. The parecclesion serves as a mortuary chapel and held eight tombs that were added
Figure 10.23 Ground plan of the Chora Church.

after the area was initially decorated. There are six domes in the church, three over the naos (one over the main space and two over smaller chapels), two in the inner narthex, and one in the side chapel. The domes are pumpkin shaped, with concave bands radiating out from the center, and are richly decorated with frescos and mosaics that depicted images of Christ and the Virgin at the center with angels or ancestors surrounding them in the bands. Mosaics Mosaics extensively decorate the narthexes of the Chora Church. The artists first decorated the church in the naos and then completed the work in the inner and outer narthexes which results in differences in the mosaics execution as the style progressed to show more liveliness and subtlety. The surviving mosaics in the naos depict the Virgin and Child and the Dormition of the Virgin, a koimesis scene depicting the Virgin after death before she ascends to Heaven (Figure 10.24). This scene is located above the west door and depicts the Virgin in blue laying on a sarcophagus draped in purple and gold. Christ in gold holds stands behind the Virgin surrounded by a mandorla and holds an infant, representing the Virgins soul. The figures in the scene all have a certain weightiness to them that helps to ground them adding an element of naturalism.

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Figure 10.24 Koimesis Mosaic. Koimeis Mosaic. 1310-1320. Naos, Chora Church, Constantinople (Istanbul), Turkey.

Figure 10.26 South Dome of the Inner Narthex. South dome of the inner narthex depicting Christ Pantocrator surrounded by ancestors."1310-13 20. Inner Narthex, Chora Church, Constantinople (Istanbul), Turkey.

The mosaics found in the narthexes of the Chora Church also depict scenes of the lives of the Virgin and Christ, while other scenes depict Old Testament stories that prefigure the Salavation of Christ. In the
Figure 10.25 Dedication Mosaic. Dedication Mosaic. 1310-1320. Outer Narthex, Chora Church, Constantinople (Istanbul), Turkey.

outer narthex, above the doorway to the inner narthex is a mosaic depicting Christ as the Pantocrator (Figure 10.26), the ruler or judge of all in the center of a dome. The mosaic depicts a stern faced Christ against a gold backdrop holding the gospels in one hand while gesturing with the other. An inscription in the mosaic reads, Jesus Christ, Land of the Living. In another important scene above the entrance to the naos, Christ Enthroned is depicted receiving the donor of the church (Figure 10. 25). The scene follows the Byzantine convention of depicting an architectural donation with an image of Christ in the center and the donor kneeling besides him, holding a model of his donation. In this

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Figure 10.27 Virgin and Child with Angels. Dome depicting the Virgin and Child with Angels. Fresco."1310-1320. Parecclesion, Chora Church, Constantinople (Istanbul), Turkey.

Frescos The walls and ceilings of the parecclesion are decorated with scenes from the life of Christ and the Virgin and themes of salvation befitting for a mortuary chapel. Like the mosaics, the scenes are painted in the upper levels of the building and lower levels are
Figure 10.28 Anastasis Anastasis. Fresco."1310-1320. Parecclesion, Chora Church, Constantinople (Istanbul), Turkey.

reserved for painted images of saints and prophets and a decorative case, Christ sits on a throne in a position similar to the image of him as Pantocrater, holding a book of gospels with his other hand gesturing. The donor, Theodore Metochites, kneels on Christ's right in the clothes of his office and Metochites offers to Christ a representation of the Chora Church in his hands. An inscription gives his titles. dado that mimics marble revetment. The entirety of the parecclesion is covered in fresco scenes and painted images (Figure 10.27), creating an overwhelming sense of splendor and glory that ultimately brings the viewer to final scenes of salvation and judgment.

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The most important of these frescos is the Anastasis, a representation of the Last Judgment, in the apse of the eastern bay (Figure 10.28). The image depicts Christ in Hell bringing up the souls of the Old Testament. Christ stands in the center grasping the wrists of Adam and Eve, whom he heaves out of their sarcophagi. Saints, prophets, martyrs and other righteous souls, including John the Baptist, King David, and King Solomon, from the Old Testament stand on either side of Christ. Christ wears a white robe and is framed by a white and light blue mandorla and stands over a bound Satan, who remains helpless beneath Christs feet. The image is the culmination of the parecclesions fresco cycle and one of the most impressive Late Byzantine paintings. Christ stands in an active, chiastic position. His arms reach out to Adam and Eve and his feet are positioned on uneven ground, providing the sensation of unbalance as Christ retrieves righteous souls. The figures themselves are rendered in a softer, subtler mode. The harsh jagged drapery has softened slightly with fluid and delineated folds. The expression of Christ and the others are dignified and stern. The Old Testament figures on either side gesture towards the scene, signaling the future of the faithful, as they themselves wait for Christ to bring them into Heaven.

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Rublev in Moscow
Andrei Rublev is considered the foremost fteenth century Russian icon painter and the master behind the Old Testament Trinity.

Andrei Rublev Russian icon painters flourished throughout the Byzantine period. Russian icons were known for their strict adhesion to Byzantine style painting including the use of patterns, strong lines, and contrasting colors. Most Byzantine Russian icons were painted in egg tempera on wood panels. Gold leaf was often used for halos

KEY POINTS

and background colors and bronze, silver, and tin were also used to embellish the icons. The work of Andrei Rublev, a Russian icon painter in the fifteenth century, is considered to be the pinnacle of Byzantine Russia icon painting. Not much is known about his life. He was born in the 1360s and died in either 1427 or 1430. What is known about Rublev comes from monastic chronicles, which account for his work as a painter and do not discuss his life. He is believed to have lived at the Trinity-St. Serguis Lavra, a monastery outside of Moscow in the town of Sergiyev Posad. Rublev is first recorded to have pained icons and frescos for the Cathedral of the Annunciation in Moscow in 1405. He worked at the Cathedral of the Annunciation under Theopanes the Greek, a Byzantine master, who moved to Russia and is believed to have been Rublevs teacher. Rublev also often worked with Daniil Cherni, another monastic artist. The two painted icons for the Assumption Cathedral in Vladimir in 1408 and

Russian icon painting flourished during the Late Byzantine period. The painted icons of Andrei Rublev, who worked in the fifteenth century, are considered to be the pinnacle of Russian icon painting, demonstrating the combination of Byzantine and Russian styles. Rublev is believed to have lived in the Trinity-St. Serguis Lavra, a monstary outside of Moscow. Records suggest that he was trained under the Byzantine master painter, Theopanes the Greek, and that Rublev worked primarily during the first three decades of the 1400s. The Old Testament Trinity, depicting the three angels hosted by Abraham and Sarah as described in Genesis 18, is an icon that is attested solely to Rublevs hand. The icon is painted with brilliant colors and a delicate hand to depict subtle lines, modeling, and humanity in the scene.

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Figure 10.29 Old Testament Trinity Old Testament Trinity. Tempera on wood. Ca. 1411 or 1425-1427.

The icon depicts three angels around a table and is an illustration of Genesis 18, the Hospitality of Abraham, where Abraham and Sarah host three angels at their table. The scene depicts the three angels and is full of symbolism that focuses on the mystery of the Holy Trinity and the prefiguration of salvation. The image today is poorly preserved, but it demonstrates the style and skill of Rublev. The three angels sit around a table with a single chalice. The figures are delicately rendered. Their faces and hands are shaded to create volume and their expressions are calm and serene. Each angel has a halo, wings, and holds a thin scepter. The three figures are nearly identical and are distinguished by their vividly painted garments. The garments are painted in rich, saturated colors. Each angel wears a robe in brilliant blue coupled with a second complementary color including a orange, a deep red, and a green. The linearity of the robes highlights Byzantine methods of modeling that are based on the use of solid lines and complimentary colors to create contrasting folds and replicate the bodys mass and height. While the figures themselves appear weighty and naturalistic, the scenery and landscape around them are equally non-naturalistic. The table and chairs are painted in a skewed perspective and a small architectural detail in the upper left of the panel and a central tree create the basis of the setting.

the Church of the Trinity in the Trinity-St.Sergius Lavra monastery from 14251427. The Old Testament Trinity The icon known as the Old Testament Trinity (Figure 10.29) is the only work to be attributed solely to Rublevs hand. It is considered to represent the brilliance of Rublevs work and the greatest achievement of Byzantine Russian icons. The icon was made for the Church of the Trinity in the Trinity-St. Sergius Lavra between 1411 and 1427. The egg tempera icon stands just less than five feet tall and is nearly four feet wide.

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Painting
As Late Byzantine painting became more naturalistic, bodies gained mass and"gures portrayed humanity with emotion and movement.

KEY POINTS

Painters in the Late Byzantine period painted scenes with a new sense of naturalism as figures gained mass and naturalistic bodies under their clothing, as drapery became a garment through which the body was rendered, and not the body itself, and landscape and setting were increasing used. Figures were also painted with increased movement and emotion in the Late Byzantine period. This lends each character an additional level of humanity as the figures interact to their surroundings and one anothers actions. The Ohrid Icons are a series of icons produced in Constantinople and were later moved to Ohrid Macedonia. The Annunciation scene from one of the icons depicts the moment of the angel Gabriels arrival to greet the Virgin Mary and is a delicately painted scene filled with emotion and tension.

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KEY POINTS (cont.)

from the sanctuary and altar of the church (Figure 10.30). This wall would be covered in icons and usually had three doors that allowed access into the sanctuary and viewing of the altar. Icons were placed on the iconostatis following a general guideline that included the presence of a Deesis, Christ enthroned surrounded by John the Baptist and the Theotokos. Other icons included images of angels, saints, Old Testament prophets, the Apostles, and the patron saints of the church and city. The presence of the icons and the iconostasis
Figure 10.30 Iconostasis of the Church of the Annunciation Theophanes the Greek. Iconostasis. Gold leaf and tempera on wood panels. Ca. 1405. Church of the Annunciation, Moscow Kremlin, Russia.

The Crucifixion scene painted behind the altar of the Katholikon of the Monastery of the Virgin at Studenica is Serbia is another scene that depicts figures in the Byzantine style infused with emotion and humanity, represented through their figures expressions and the sway of Christs body. During this time the iconostasis was fully developed and was a popular method of dividing the nave from the altar in Byzantine churches, especially in Russia. This screen was often large and covered in icons of saints and Christ in the general pattern of a Deesis.

The paintings in the Church of Christ in Chora, in Constantinople, are representative of the style of painting produced in the last centuries of the Byzantine Empire. Large murals were painted over expanses of architecture and many icons at this time were panels painted on both sides. Icons were painted this way since they were used in processions, and so seen from two directions, and therefore were often displayed in churches in special stands so both sides could be seen. Iconostasis During the Late Byzantine period the iconostasis fully developed. This was a screen or wall that stood in the nave separating the space

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was not to separate but to provide a bridge or a connection between the earthly realm and the realm of Heaven. Ohrid Icons The Ohrid Icons are a series of icons produced in the early fourteenth century in Constantinople that were later moved to Ohrid in Macedonia. One icon depicts the Virgin Mary on one side and the Annunciation on the other side. The Annunciation scene (Figure 10.31) portrays the Virgin Mary seated on a throne as the angel Gabriel approaches her to deliver the news of her conception of the son of God. The background is typically Byzantine: it was a gold leaf background that mimics the golden backgrounds of mosaics. The architecture is also rendered in a later Byzantine style. The buildings are painted with an attempt at perspective that is more skewed than correct, but which still provides a suggestion of space. This was also seen in the Theotokos of the Hagia Sophia, but in this case the architecture provides more of a place setting, like the landscape of the Lamentation from Nerezi. The figures themselves are rendered with Byzantine facessmall mouths and long, narrow noses. The faces, hands, and feet are carefully shaded and modeled. The clothing is also follows the Byzantine style with dramatic, deep folds and a schematic patterning that renders the body underneath. The bodies, however, differ from their earlier

Figure 10.31 Annunciation The Annunciation scene portrays the Virgin Mary seated on a throne as the angel Gabriel approaches her to deliver the news of her conception of the son of God."

Byzantine predecessors. They have weight and appear to exist underneath their clothing. The scene also takes cues from Late Byzantine styles since it is dramatically depicted. The Virgin sits still and a single gesture signifies her unease at the angels approach. The angel Gabriel, meanwhile, appears to have just landed. He strides forward, with an arm outstretched. His weight placed completely on his front leg and his back leg appears to just be about to set down on the ground. We are witness to the moment of his arrival. The momentum of his

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arrival is further emphasized by the placement of the angels wings. One wing has settled down onto his back while the other reaches upwards, balancing his flight. The movement and emotion in the scene can be related to the Anastasias scene of the Chora Church. Both images have a single, central figure full of motion that provides energy to the different scenes depicted. Monastery of the Virgin at Studenica, Serbia The Serbian Monastery of the Virgin was built in the twelfth century outside the city of Kraljevo. While the monasterys churches do not appear from the outside to follow Byzantine architectural styles, the interior painting of the monasterys Katholikon, the Church of the Virgin, is painted in the Late Byzantine manner. The Crucifixion scene (Figure 10.32), painted on the western wall overlooking the altar, represents the mastery of Serbian art and the development and spread of the Late Byzantine style from the center of Byzantium in Constantinople. The figures are less elongated than their earlier counterparts and the background is painted in a brilliant blue with golden stars. The central image of Christ on the Cross is surrounded by mourners, including his mother. The scene is calm, and the figures have mass and are weighted. While some figures, like the Virgin Mary, still appear to be a mass of robes, her drapery is more subtly rendered. The bodies of the other figures are more easily denoted by the modeling of their robes. The drapery is still reliant

Figure 10.32 Crucixion The Crucixion scene painted behind the altar of the Katholikon of the Monastery of the Virgin at Studenica.

on deep folds but the folds are no longer contorted and are less schematic. While less dramatic and more serene, there is an underlying emotion of sadness that subtly depicted by the sway of Christs body.
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Chapter 11

Islamic Art

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Section 1

Introduction

Islam Early Islamic Society

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Islam
Islamic art encompasses visual arts produced from the seventh century onwards by culturally Islamic populations, calligraphy in particular.

Overview and History Islamic art encompasses visual arts produced from the seventh century onward by people (not necessarily Muslim) who lived within the territory that was inhabited by, or ruled by, culturally Islamic populations. It is thus a very difficult art to define because it spans some 1,400 years, covering many lands and populations. This

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art is also not of a specific religion, time, place, or single medium. Instead Islamic art covers a range of artistic fields including architecture, calligraphy, painting, glass, ceramics, and textiles, among others. Islamic art is not at all restricted to religious art, but instead includes all of the art of the rich and varied cultures of Islamic societies. It frequently includes secular elements and elements that are frowned upon, if not forbidden, by some Islamic theologians. Apart from the ever-present calligraphic inscriptions (Figure 11.1), specifically-religious art is actually less prominent in Islamic art than in Western medieval art, with the exception of Islamic architecture where mosques and their complexes of surrounding buildings are the most common remains. Figurative painting may cover religious scenes, but normally in essentially secular contexts, such as the walls of palaces or illuminated books of poetry. The calligraphy and decoration of manuscript Qu'rans is an important aspect, but other religious art such as glass mosque lamps (and

Islamic art is not art of a specific religion, time, place, or of a single medium. Instead it covers a range of artistic fields including architecture, calligraphy, painting, glass, ceramics, and textiles, among others. Apart from the ever-present calligraphic inscriptions, specifically religious art is actually less prominent in Islamic art than in Western medieval art, with the exception of Islamic architecture where mosques and their complexes of surrounding buildings are the most common remains. Islamic art developed from many sources: Roman, early Christian art, and Byzantine styles; Sassanian art of preIslamic Persia; Central Asian styles brought by various nomadic incursions; and Chinese influences on Islamic painting, pottery, and textiles. Islamic art has focused on the depiction of patterns and Arabic calligraphy, rather than on figures, because it is feared by many Muslims that the depiction of the human form is idolatry, and thereby a sin against God, forbidden in the Qur'an.

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Figure 11.1 A Calligraphic Panel by Mustafa Rkim (late 18thearly 19th century) which reads: "God, there is no god but He, the Lord of His prophet Muhammad (peace be upon him) and the Lord of all that has been created"

"Islamic art developed from many sources: Roman, early Christian art, and Byzantine styles were taken over in early Islamic art and architecture; the influence of the Sassanian art of pre-Islamic Persia was of paramount significance; Central Asian styles were brought in with various nomadic incursions; and Chinese influences had a formative effect on Islamic painting, pottery, and textiles."(1) Though the whole concept of "Islamic art" has been criticized by some modern art historians, calling it a "figment of imagination" or a "mirage," the similarities between art produced at widely different times and places in the Islamic world have been sufficient to keep the term in wide use by scholars. Themes There are repeating elements in Islamic art, such as the use of geometrical floral or vegetal designs in a repetition known as the arabesque (Figure 11.2). The arabesque in Islamic art is often used to symbolize the transcendent, indivisible and infinite nature of God. Mistakes in repetitions may be intentionally introduced as a show of humility by artists who believe only God can produce perfection, although this theory is disputed. Typically, though not entirely, Islamic art has focused on the depiction of patterns and Arabic calligraphy, rather than on figures, because it is feared by many Muslims that the depiction of the human form is idolatry and thereby a sin against God, forbidden in

Islamic art has focused on the depiction of patterns and Arabic calligraphy, rather than on gures, because it is feared by many Muslims that the depiction of the human form is idolatry.

other mosque fittings, such as Girih tiles), woodwork, and carpets usually have the same style and motifs as contemporary secular art, although with more prominent religious inscriptions.

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Figure 11.2 Arabesque Inlays at the Mughal Agra Fort, India

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Geometrical designs in repetition, know as Arabesque, are used in Islamic art to symbolize the transcendent, indivisible, and innite nature of God.

the Qur'an. Human portrayals can be found in all eras of Islamic art, above all in the more private form of miniatures, where their absence is rare. Human representation for the purpose of worship is considered idolatry and is duly forbidden in Islamic law, known as Sharia law. There are also many depictions of Muhammad, Islam's chief prophet, in historical Islamic art. Small decorative figures of animals and humans, especially if they are hunting the animals, are found on secular pieces in many media from many periods; however portraits were slow to develop.

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Early Islamic Society

Islam was established in Arabia between 610 and 661 and e!ected great changes to society, family structure, slavery, and the rights of women.

According to William Montgomery Watt, for Muhammad, religion was not a private and individual matter, but rather "the total response of his personality to the total situation in which he found himself. He was responding [not only]...to the religious and intellectual aspects of the situation, but also the economic, social, and political pressures to which contemporary Mecca was subject."

KEY POINTS

The historian Bernard Lewis says that there are two important political traditions in Islamone that views Muhammad as a statesman in Medina, and another that views him as a rebel in Mecca. He sees Islam itself as a type of revolution that greatly changed the societies into which the new religion was brought (Figure 11.3). Historians generally agree that changes in areas such as social security, family structure, slavery, and the rights of women were improved from what was present in existing Arab society. For example, according to Lewis, Islam "denounced aristocratic privilege, rejected hierarchy, and adopted a formula of the career open to the talents." Bernard Lewis believes that the advent of Islam was a revolution that only partially succeeded due to tensions between the new religion and the very old societies that the Muslims conquered. He thinks that one such area of tension was a consequence of what he sees as the egalitarian nature of Islamic doctrine. Lewis however

Islam denounced aristocratic privilege, rejected hierarchy, and adopted a formula of the career open to the talents. Although equality in Islam was restricted to free adult male Muslims, even that represented a very considerable advance on the practice of both the Greco-Roman and the ancient Iranian world. The Constitution of Medina was drawn up with the explicit concern of bringing an end to bitter, inter-tribal fighting. !It also instituted a number of rights and responsibilities for the Muslim, Jewish, and pagan communities of Medina, uniting them in one communitythe Ummah.

Many social changes took place after Islam was established (between 610 and 661), including the period of Muhammad's mission and the rule of his four immediate successors, who established the Rashidun Caliphate.

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Figure 11.3 Al-Masjid al-Nabawi (the Mosque of the Prophet) in Medina, Saudi Arabia, is the 2nd most sacred Mosque in Islam.

agreement between Muhammad and all of the significant tribes and families of Yathrib (later known as Medina), including Muslims, Jews, and pagans. The document was drawn up with the explicit concern of bringing an end to the bitter, inter-tribal fighting between the clans of the Aws (Banu Aus) and Banu Khazraj within

Medina was the power base of Islam in its rst century. "It was where the early Muslim community (ummah) developed under the Prophet's leadership, then under the leadership of the rst four caliphs of Islam: Abu Bakr, Omar, Othman, and Ali.

Medina. To this effect, it instituted a number of rights and responsibilities for the Muslim, Jewish, and pagan communities of Medina, bringing them within the fold of one communitythe Ummah. The precise dating of the Constitution of Medina remains debated, but generally scholars agree it was written shortly after the hijra (622). It effectively established the first Islamic state. The Constitution established the security of the community, religious freedoms, the role of Medina as a haram or sacred place (barring all violence and weapons), the security of women, stable tribal relations within Medina, a tax system for supporting the community in times of conflict, parameters for exogenous political alliances, a system for granting protection of individuals, a judicial system for resolving disputes, and also regulated the paying of blood money (the payment between families or tribes for the slaying of an individual in lieu of lex talionis).

notes that the equality in Islam was restricted to free adult male Muslims, but even that "represented a very considerable advance on the practice of both the Greco-Roman and the ancient Iranian world." Lewis writes about the significance of Muhammad's achievements: He had achieved a great deal. To the pagan peoples of western Arabia he had brought a new religion that, with its monotheism and its ethical doctrines, stood on an incomparably higher level than the paganism it replaced. He had provided that religion with a revelation that was to become in the centuries to follow the guide to thought and count of countless millions of Believers. But he had done more than that; he had established a community and a wellorganized and armed state, the power and prestige of which made it a dominant factor in Arabia." The Constitution of Medina, also known as the Charter of Medina, was drafted by Muhammad in 622. It constituted a formal

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Section 2

Islamic Art to 1300

Architecture Luxury Arts

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Architecture
Islamic architecture encompasses a wide range of styles, of which the principal types are the Mosque, the Tomb, the Palace, and the Fort.

buildings of lesser importance such, as public baths, fountains, and domestic architecture. Specifically recognizable Islamic architectural style emerged soon after Muhammad's time, inspired by Islam, with the addition of localized adaptations of the former Sassanid and Byzantine models. The Germanic Visigoths in Spain also made a big contribution to

KEY POINTS

Islamic architecture. They invented the Horseshoe arch in Spain and used them as one of their main architectural features. After the Moorish invasion of Spain in 711, the form was taken by the Umayyads, who accentuated the curvature of the horseshoe. The Dome of the Rock (Qubbat al-Sakhrah) in Jerusalem (691, (Figure 11.4)) is one of the most important buildings in all of Islamic architecture, bearing purely Islamic elements (such as the great epigraphic frieze), but also marked by a strong Byzantine influence (mosaic against a gold background, and a central plan that resembles that of the Church of the Holy Sepulchre, although the church itself was renovated several times in the Islamic period). It featured interior vaulted spaces, a circular dome, and the use of stylized, repeating decorative arabesque patterns. The desert palaces in Jordan and Syria (for example, Mshatta, Qasr Amra, and Khirbat al-Mafjar) served the caliphs as living quarters, reception halls, and baths, and were decorated to promote an image of royal luxury.

Specifically recognizable Islamic architectural style emerged soon after Muhammad's time, inspired by Islam, with the addition of localized adaptations of the former Sassanid and Byzantine models. The Germanic Visigoths in Spain made a contribution to Islamic architecture through the Horseshoe arch. After the Moorish invasion of Spain in 711 AD the form was taken by the Umayyads, who accentuated the curvature of the horseshoe. The distinguishing motifs of Islamic architecture are ordered repetition, radiating structures, and rhythmic, metric patterns. In this respect, fractal geometry has been a key utility, especially for mosques and palaces.

Islamic architecture encompasses a wide range of both secular and religious styles. The principal Islamic architectural types are: the Mosque, the Tomb, the Palace, and the Fort. From these four types, the vocabulary of Islamic architecture is derived and used for

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Figure 11.4 The Dome of the Rock in Jerusalem

The Abbasid dynasty (7501258) witnessed the movement of the capital from Damascus to Baghdad, and then from Baghdad to Samarra. The shift to Baghdad influenced politics, culture, and art. The Great Mosque of Samarra, once the largest in the world, was built for the new capital. Other major mosques built in the Abbasid Dynasty include the Mosque of Ibn Tulun in Cairo, Abu Dalaf in Iraq, and the great mosque in Tunis. Abbasid architecture in Iraq, as exemplified in the Fortress of Al-Ukhaidir (c. 7756), demonstrated the "despotic and the pleasure-loving character of the dynasty" with its grand size but cramped living quarters. The Great Mosque of Kairouan (in Tunisia, (Figure 11.5)), considered as the ancestor of all the mosques in the western Islamic

The Dome of the Rock (Qubbat al-Sakhrah) in Jerusalem (691) is one of the most important buildings in all of Islamic architecture, marked by a strong Byzantine inuence.

world, is one of the best preserved and most significant examples of early great mosques. Founded in 670, its present form dates largely from the Aghlabid period (9th century). The Great Mosque of Kairouan is constituted of a massive square minaret, a large courtyard surrounded by porticos, and a huge hypostyle prayer hall covered on its axis by two cupolas. The Great Mosque of Samarra in Iraq, completed in 847, combined the hypostyle architecture of rows of columns supporting a flat base, above which a huge spiraling minaret was constructed. The Hagia Sophia in Istanbul also influenced Islamic architecture. When the Ottomans captured the city from the Byzantines, they

Religious and civic architecture were developed under the Umayyads, when new concepts and new plans were put into practice. Thus, the "Arab plan," with court and hypostyle prayer hall, truly became a functional type with the construction of the Umayyad Mosque, or the Great Mosque of Damascus (completed in 715 by caliph Al-Walid I) on top of the ancient temple of Jupiter and in place of the basilica of St. John the Baptist, the most sacred site in the city. This building served as a point of reference for builders (and for art historians) as the birth of the Arab plan.

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Figure 11.5 Dome of the mihrab (9th century) in the Great Mosque of Kairouan, also known as the Mosque of Uqba, in Kairouan, Tunisia The Great Mosque of Kairouan (in Tunisia) is considered as the ancestor of all the mosques in the western Islamic world.

mosques and palaces. Other significant features employed as motifs include columns, piers, and arches, organized and interwoven with alternating sequences of niches and colonnettes. The role of domes in Islamic architecture has been considerable. Its usage spans centuries, first appearing in 691 with the construction of the Dome of the Rock, and recurring even up until the 17th century with the Taj Mahal. As late as the 19th century, Islamic domes had been incorporated into Western architecture.
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converted the basilica to a mosque (now a museum) and incorporated Byzantine architectural elements into their own work (e.g., domes). The Hagia Sophia also served as a model for many Ottoman mosques, such as the Shehzade Mosque, the Suleiman Mosque, and the Rstem Pasha Mosque. The distinguishing motifs of Islamic architecture are ordered repetition, radiating structures, and rhythmic, metric patterns. In this respect, fractal geometry has been a key utility, especially for

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Luxury Arts
Glassmaking and lustre painting were the most important Islamic luxury arts of the early Middle Ages.

abruptexcept that the whole area initially formed a political whole, and, for example, Persian innovations were now almost immediately taken up in Egypt. For this reason it is often impossible to distinguish between the various centers of production (of which Egypt, Syria, and Persia were the most important), except by scientific analysis of the material, which itself has difficulties. From various documentary references, glassmaking and glasstrading seems to have been a speciality of the Jewish minority. Between the 8th and early 11th centuries, the emphasis in luxury glass was on effects achieved by "manipulating the surface" of the glass, initially by incising into the glass on a wheel, and later by cutting away the background to leave a design in relief. The very massive Hedwig glasses, only found in Europe, but normally considered Islamic (or possibly from Muslim craftsmen in Norman Sicily), are an example of this, though puzzlingly late in date. These and other glass pieces probably represented cheaper versions of vessels of carved rock crystal (clear quartz)themselves influenced by earlier glass vesselsand there is some evidence that at this period glass and hardstone cutting were regarded as the same craft. From the 12th century, the industry in Persia and Mesopotamia appears to decline, and the main production of luxury glass shifts to Egypt and Syria. Throughout the period, local centers made simpler wares such as Hebron glass in Palestine (Figure 11.6).

KEY POINTS

Between the 8th and early 11th centuries, the emphasis in luxury glass was on effects achieved by "manipulating the surface" of the glass, initially by incising into the glass on a wheel, and later by cutting away the background to leave a design in relief. Lustre painting, by techniques similar to lustreware in pottery, dates back to the 8th century in Egypt, and became widespread in the 12th century. Very high levels of achievement were reached in other materials, including hardstone carvings and jewellery, ivory carving, textiles, and leatherwork. In the Middle Ages, Islamic work in these fields was highly valued in other parts of the world, and often traded outside the Islamic zone.

For most of the Middle Ages, Islamic glass was the most sophisticated in Eurasia, exported to both Europe and China. Islam took over much of the traditional glass-producing territory of Sassanian and Ancient Roman glass, and since figurative decoration played a small part in pre-Islamic glass, the change in style was not

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Figure 11.6 "The Luck of Edenhall," a 13th-century Syrian beaker, in England since the Middle Ages. For most of the Middle Ages, Islamic glass was the most sophisticated in Eurasia, exported to both Europe and China.

a brownish-yellow tinge, and is rarely free from bubbles." Aleppo ceased to be a major center after the Mongol invasion of 1260, and Timur appears to have ended the Syrian industry around 1400 by carrying off the skilled workers to Samarkand. By about 1500, the Venetians were receiving large orders for mosque lamps. Very high levels of achievement were reached in other materials, including hardstone carvings and jewellery, ivory carving, textiles, and leatherwork. In the Middle Ages, Islamic work in these fields was highly valued in other parts of the world, and often traded outside the Islamic zone. Apart from miniature painting and calligraphy, other arts of the book are decorative illumination, the
Figure 11.7 Lustreware bowl fom Susa, Iran, 9th century Lustreware was an important Islamic art in the Middle Ages.$

Lustre painting, by techniques similar to lustreware in pottery, dates back to the 8th century in Egypt, and became widespread in the 12th century (Figure 11.7). Another technique was decoration with threads of glass of a different color, worked into the main surface, and sometimes manipulated by combing and other effects. Gilded, painted, and enameled glass were added to the repertoire, as were shapes and motifs borrowed from other media, such as pottery and metalwork. Some of the finest work was in mosque lamps donated by a ruler or wealthy man. As decoration grew more elaborate, the quality of the basic glass decreased, and it "often has

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only type found in Qu'ran manuscripts. Islamic book covers, which are often highly decorative in luxury manuscripts, used either the geometric motifs found in illumination, or sometimes figurative images probably drawn for the craftsmen by miniature painters. Materials include colored, tooled, and stamped leather, plus lacquer-over paint. The Almoravid and Almohad dynasties are characterized by a tendency toward austerity, for example, in mosques with bare walls. Nevertheless, luxury arts continued to be produced in great quantity. The Marinid and Hafsid dynasties developed an important, but poorly understood, architecture, and a significant amount of painted and sculpted woodwork. The Fatamid dynasty, which reigned in Egypt from 909 and 1171, introduced to Cairo crafts and knowledge from the politically troubled Baghdad. By the year 1070 the Seljuks emerged as the dominant political force in the Muslim world after they liberated Baghdad and defeated the Byzantines at Manzikert. During the rule of Malik Shah, the Seljuks excelled in architecture, while at the same time in Syria, the atabegs (governors of Seljuk princes) assumed power. Quite independently, they capitalized on conflicts with the Frankish crusaders. In 1171, Saladin seized Fatimid Egypt, and installed the transitory Ayyubid dynasty on the throne. This period is notable for

innovations in metallurgy and the widespread manufacture of Damascus steel swords and daggers. Ceramics, glass, and highquality metalwork were produced without interruption, and enameled glass became another important craft.
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Section 3

Later Islamic Art

The Mediterranean The East Pottery, Metalwork, and Wood Calligraphy and Decorative Illumination in Books Book Painting Luxury Arts

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The Mediterranean
In the Middle Ages, the Mediterranean Al-Andalus was a great center for culture and art, as well of philosophical and scientic thought.

kingdoms, the taifas (103191), but the artistic production from this period does not differ significantly from that of the Umayyads. At the end of the 11th century, two Berber tribes, the Almoravids and the Almohads, captured the head of the Maghreb and Spain, successively, bringing Maghrebi influences into art. By the end of the 14th century, a series of military victories by Christian monarchs had reduced Islamic Spain to the city of Granada, ruled by the Nasirid dynasty, who managed to maintain their hold until 1492, when they had to abandon the Alhambra, a complex of Islamic palaces built for the Muslim emirs in Spain (Figure 11.8). Al-Andalus was a great cultural center of the Middle Ages. Besides the great universities, which taught philosophies and sciences yet unknown in Christendom (such as those of Averroes), the territory was an equally vital center for art. Many techniques were employed in the manufacture of objects. Ivory was used extensively for the manufacture of boxes and caskets. The pyxis of al-Mughira is a masterwork of the genre. In metalwork, large sculptures in the round, normally rather scarce in the Islamic world, served as elaborate receptacles for water or as fountain spouts. A great number of textiles, most notably silks, were exported; many are found in the church treasuries of Christendom, where they served as covering for saints reliquaries. From the

KEY POINTS

Ivory was used extensively for the manufacture of boxes and caskets. In metalwork, large sculptures in the round, normally rather scarce in the Islamic world, served as elaborate receptacles for water or as fountain spouts. A great number of textiles, most notably silks, were exported; many are found in the church treasuries of Christendom, where they served as covering for saints reliquaries. The Almoravid and Almohad dynasties are characterized by a tendency toward austerity, for example in mosques with bare walls.

Spain and the Arab Maghreb The first Islamic dynasty to establish itself in Spain (or al-Andalus) was that of the Spanish Umayyads. As their name indicates, they were descended from the great Umayyads of Syria. After their fall, the Spanish Umayyads were replaced by various autonomous

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Figure 11.8 One detail of the arabesques completed towards the end of Muslim rule of Spain by Yusuf I (13331353) and Muhammed V, Sultan of Granada (13531391)

understoodarchitecture, as well as a significant amount of painted and sculpted woodwork.

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The Alhambra is a reection of the culture during the last centuries of the Moorish rule of Al-Andalus, reduced to the Emirate of Granada.

periods of Maghrebi rule, one may also note a taste for painted and sculpted woodwork. The art of northern Africa is not as well studied. The Almoravid and Almohad dynasties are characterized by a tendency toward austerity, for example in mosques with bare walls. Nevertheless, luxury arts continued to be produced in great quantity. The Marinid and Hafsid dynasties developed an importantbut poorly

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The East$
Art of the eastern Islamic world included miniature painting, while architecture was a fusion of Arab, Central Asian, and Persian elements.
KEY POINTS

language and maintained some Turko-Mongol practices, they became essentially Persianized and transferred the Persian literary and high culture to India, thus forming the base for the IndoPersian culture and the spread of Islam in South Asia. Mughal painting is generally confined to miniatures, either as book illustrations or as single works to be kept in albums, which emerged from Mongol Persian miniature painting, with Indian Hindu, Jain, and Buddhist influences (Figure 11.9). There was already a Muslim tradition of miniature painting under the Sultanate of Delhi, which the Mughals overthrew. Although the first surviving manuscripts are from Mandu in the years surrounding 1500, there were very likely earlier ones that are either lost, or perhaps now attributed to southern Persia. Later manuscripts can be hard to distinguish from these by style alone, and some remain the subject of debate among specialists. By the time of the Mughal invasion, the tradition had abandoned the high viewpoint typical of the Persian style, and adopted a more realistic style for animals and plants. No miniatures survive from the reign of the founder of the dynasty, Babur, nor does he mention commissioning any in his diaries, the Baburnama. Copies of this were illustrated by his descendants, Akbar in particular, with many portraits of the numerous new animals Babur encountered when he invaded India, which are carefully described.

Mughal painting is generally confined to miniatures, either as book illustrations or as single works to be kept in albums, which emerged from Mongol Persian miniature painting, with Indian Hindu, Jain, and Buddhist influences. Indo-Islamic architecture in South Asia is a fusion of Arab, Central Asian, and Persian elements with the local Hindu architecture. The development and refinement of Indonesian batik cloth was closely linked to Islam. The Islamic prohibition on certain images encouraged batik design to become more abstract and intricate.

When one thinks of art and architecture in the eastern Islamic world during the late Middle Ages and Early Modern period, the Mughal Empire comes to mind. The name Mughal is derived from the original homelands of the Timurids, the Central Asian steppes once conquered by Genghis Khan and hence known as Moghulistan, "Land of Mongols." Although early Mughals spoke the Chagatai

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Figure 11.9 Babur Receives a Courtier, 1589, by Farrukh Baig Mughal painting took a much greater interest in realistic portraiture than was typical of Ilkhnate Persian miniatures.

Figure 11.10 Taj Mahal

The Taj Mahal in Agra, India, built by Mughal Emperor Shah Jahan as a mausoleum for his wife, represents the pinnacle of Mughal Islamic architecture in India and is one of the most recognizable buildings in the world.

some of the most lavishly decorated texts, such as the Padshahnama genre of official histories. Subjects are rich in variety and include portraits, events, and scenes from court life, wild life and hunting The Mughals came from a long line stretching back to Timur. They were fully assimilated into Persianate culture and expected to patronize literature and the arts. Mughal painting immediately took a much greater interest in realistic portraiture than was typical of Ilkhnate Persian miniatures. Animals and plants were also more realistically shown. Although many classic works of Persian and Indian literature continued to be illustrated, the Mughal emperors' taste for writing memoirs or diaries, begun by Babur, provided scenes, and illustrations of battles. Eastern Islamic Architecture Indo-Islamic architecture in South Asia is a fusion of Arab, Central Asian, and Persian elements with the local Hindu architecture. The most famous examples of Mughal architecture are the series of imperial mausolea, starting with the pivotal Tomb of Humayun, and including the world-famous Taj Mahal, completed in 1648 by

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Figure 11.11 Javanese court batik, in typical reddish-brown color, from Indonesia. The development and renement of Indonesian batik cloth was closely linked to Islam.

west of the main structure. A famous example of the charbagh style of Mughal garden is the Shalimar Gardens in Lahore, where the domeless Tomb of Jahangir is also located. Indonesian Batik The development and refinement of Indonesian batik cloth was closely linked to Islam. The Islamic prohibition on certain images encouraged batik design to become more abstract and intricate (Figure 11.11). Realistic depictions of animals and humans are rare on traditional batik, but serpents, puppet-shaped humans, and the Garuda of pre-Islamic mythology are all commonplace. Although its existence in Indonesia pre-dates Islam, batik reached its high point in the royal Muslim courts such as Mataram and Yogyakarta, whose Muslim rulers encouraged and patronized batik production. Today, batik has undergone a revival, and cloths are used for other purposes besides wearing, such as wrapping the Quran.

emperor Shah Jahan in memory of his wife Mumtaz Mahal, who died while giving birth to their 14th child (Figure 11.10). It made use of precious and semiprecious stones as inlay, not to mention vast quantities of white marble. The Taj Mahal is completely symmetrical except for Shah Jahan's sarcophagus, which is placed off center in the crypt room below the main floor. This symmetry extended to the building of an entire mirror mosque in red sandstone to complement the Mecca-facing mosque place to the

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Pottery, Metalwork, and Wood

Islamic art has notable achievements in ceramics which reached heights unmatched by other cultures.

opacified glazing technique was developed by Islamic potters. The first Islamic opaque glazes can be found as blue-painted ware in Basra, dating to around the 8th century. Another significant contribution was the development of stonepaste ceramics, originating from 9th century Iraq. The first industrial complex for glass and pottery production was built in Ar-Raqqah, Syria, in the 8th century. Other centers for innovative pottery in the Islamic world included Fustat (from 975 to 1075), Damascus (from 1100 to around 1600), and Tabriz (from 1470 to 1550). Lusterwares with iridescent colors may be continuations of pre-Islamic Roman and Byzantine techniques, but were either invented or considerably developed on pottery and glass in Persia and Syria from the 9th century onward (Figure 11.12). Techniques, shapes, and decorative motifs of Chinese ceramics were admired and emulated by Islamic potters, especially after the Mongol and Timurid invasions. Until the Early Modern period, Western ceramics had little influence, but Islamic pottery was highly sought after in Europe, and was often copied. An example of this is the albarello, a type of earthenware jar originally designed to hold apothecary ointments and dry drugs. The development of this type of pharmacy jar had its roots in the Islamic Middle East. Hispano-Moresque examples were exported to Italy, inspiring the earliest Italian examples, from 15th century Florence.

KEY POINTS

The first Islamic opaque glazes date to around the 8th century and another significant contribution was the development of stonepaste ceramics in 9th century Iraq. Lusterwares with iridescent colors were either invented or considerably developed in Persia and Syria from the 9th century onward. Techniques, shapes, and decorative motifs of Chinese ceramics were admired and emulated by Islamic potters, especially after the Mongol and Timurid invasions. The Hispano-Moresque style emerged in the 8th century, with more refined production happening later, presumably by Muslim potters working in areas reconquered by Christian kingdoms.

Islamic art has notable achievements in ceramics, both in pottery and tiles for walls, which reached heights unmatched by other cultures. Early pottery had usually been unglazed, but a tin-

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Figure 11.12 10th Century Dish, East Persia or Central Asia Islamic art has very notable achievements in ceramics, both in pottery and tiles for walls, which reached heights unmatched by other cultures.

until modern times. The medieval Islamic world also painted pottery with animal and human imagery, with examples found throughout the medieval Islamic world, particularly in Persia and Egypt.
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The Hispano-Moresque style emerged in Al-Andaluz, or Muslim Spain, in the 8th century, under Egyptian influence. More refined production happened much later, presumably by Muslim potters working in areas reconquered by Christian kingdoms. The HispanoMoresque style mixed Islamic and European elements in its designs and was exported to neighboring European countries. The style introduced two ceramic techniques to Europe: glazing with an opaque white tin-glaze and painting in metallic lusters. Ottoman Iznik pottery produced most of the finest ceramics of the 16th century, in tiles and large vessels boldly decorated with floral motifs influenced by Chinese Yuan and Ming ceramics. These were still in earthenware, since porcelain was not made in Islamic countries

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Calligraphy and Decorative Illumination in Books

Calligraphic design is omnipresent in Islamic art in the Middle Ages, when religious exhortations were included in secular objects.
KEY POINTS

Calligraphic design is omnipresent in Islamic art, where, as in Europe in the Middle Ages, religious exhortations, including Qur'anic verses, may be included in secular objects, especially coins, tiles, and metalwork. Most painted miniatures include some script. Other calligraphic inscriptions include verses of poetry or inscriptions recording ownership or donation. Two of the main scripts involved in Islamic calligraphy are the symbolic kufic and naskh scripts, which adorn and enhance the walls and domes of buildings, the sides of minbars, and metalwork. The main languages, all using Arabic script, are Arabic, which is always used for Qu'ranic verses; Persian in the Persianate world, especially for poetry; and Turkish; with Urdu appearing in later centuries. Calligraphers usually held a higher cultural status than other artists. Although there has been a tradition of wall paintings, especially in the Persianate world, the best-surviving and most highly developed form of painting in the Islamic world involves miniature in illuminated manuscripts, or later as a single page for inclusion in a muraqqa or bound album of miniatures and calligraphy. The tradition of the Persian miniature (Figure 11.13) has been dominant since about the 13th century, strongly influencing the Ottoman miniature of Turkey and the Mughal miniature in India (Figure 11. 14). Because miniatures were an art of the court and not seen in

Besides Qur'anic verses, other inscriptions include verses of poetry, and inscriptions recording ownership or donation. Although there has been a tradition of wall paintings, the best-surviving and most highly developed form of painting in the Islamic world involves miniature in illuminated manuscripts, or later as a single page for inclusion in a bound album of miniatures and calligraphy. Because miniatures were an art of the court and not seen in public, constraints on the depiction of the human figure were much more relaxed, with miniatures often containing great numbers of small figures, and from the 16th century, portraits of individual figures. The largest commissions of illustrated books were usually classics of Persian poetry, although the Mughals and Ottomans both produced lavish manuscripts of more recent history with the autobiographies of the Mughal emperors and more purely military chronicles of Turkish conquests.

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public, it has been argued that constraints on the depiction of the human figure were much more relaxed. Indeed, miniatures often contain great numbers of small figures, and from the 16th century, portraits of individual figures. Recent scholarship has noted that, although surviving early examples are now uncommon, human figurative art was a continuous tradition in Islamic lands in secular contexts (such as literature, science, and

Figure 11.13 Scene from the Khamsa of Nizami, Persian, 1539-43

in Mesopotamia, Syria, and Egypt from this earlier time period is also mentioned in sources. The largest commissions of illustrated books were usually classics of Persian poetry, such as the epic Shahnameh, although the Mughals and Ottomans both produced lavish manuscripts of more recent history with the autobiographies of the Mughal emperors and more purely military chronicles of Turkish conquests. Portraits of rulers
Figure 11.14 The Emperor Jahangir Receiving His Two Sons

The best-surviving and highest developed form of painting in the Islamic world is the miniature in illuminated manuscripts, or later as a single page for inclusion in a muraqqa or bound album of miniatures and calligraphy.

history). As early as the 9th century, such art flourished during the Abbasid Caliphate (c. 7491258, across Spain, North Africa, Egypt, Syria, Turkey, Mesopotamia, and Persia). Figurative wall painting
Mughal illuminated manuscript

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developed in the 16th century, and later in Persia, then becoming very popular. Mughal portraits, normally in profile, are very finely drawn in a realist style, while the best Ottoman ones are vigorously stylized. Album miniatures typically featured picnic scenes, portraits of individuals, or (in India especially) animals, or idealized youthful beauties of either sex. Chinese influences included the early adoption of the vertical format natural to a book, which led to the development of a bird'seye view where a very carefully depicted background of hilly landscapes or palace buildings rises up to leave only a small area of sky. The figures are arranged in different planes on the background, with recession (distance from the viewer) indicated by placing more distant figures higher up in the space, but of essentially the same size. The colors, which are often very well-preserved, are strongly contrasting, bright, and clear. The tradition reached a climax in the 16th and early 17th centuries, but continued until the early 19th century, and has been revived in the 20th.
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Book Painting
Book painting in the late medieval Islamic world reached its height in Persia, Syria, Iraq, and the Ottoman Empire.
KEY POINTS

The art of the Persian book was born under the Ilkhanid dynasty, encouraged by aristocratic patronage of large manuscripts. Islamic book painting witnessed its first golden age in the 13th century, influenced by the Byzantine visual vocabulary and combined with Mongol facial types from 12th-century book frontispieces. The medieval Islamic texts called Maqamat were some of the earliest "coffee table books" and among the first Islamic art to mirror daily life. Masterpieces of Ottoman manuscript illustration include the two books of festivals, one dating from the end of the 16th century and the other from the era of Sultan Murad III. Under the rule of the Safavids in Iran (1501 to 1786), the art of manuscript illumination achieved new heights, in particular in the Shah Tahmasp Shahnameh, an immense copy of Ferdowsis poem containing more than 250 paintings.

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Book painting in the late medieval Islamic world reached its height in Persia, Syria, Iraq, and the Ottoman Empire. The art form blossomed across the different regions and was inspired by a range of cultural reference points. The evolution of book painting first began when, in the 13th century, the Mongols, under the leadership of Genghis Khan, swept through the Islamic world. Upon the death of Genghis Khan, his empire was divided among his sons and dynasties formed: the Yuan in China, the Ilkhanids in Iran, and the Golden Horde in northern Iran and southern Russia. The Ilkhanids were a rich civilization that developed under these little khans in Iran. Architectural activity intensified as the Mongols became sedentary yet retained traces of their nomadic origins, such as the north-south orientation of buildings. At the same time a process of iranisation took place, and construction according to previously established types, such as the Iranian plan mosques, was resumed. The art of the Persian book began under this dynasty, and was encouraged by aristocratic patronage of large manuscripts such as the Jami' al-tawarikh by Rashid-al-Din Hamadani (Figure 11.15). Islamic book painting witnessed its first golden age in the 13th century, mostly within Syria and Iraq. Influence from the Byzantine visual vocabulary (blue and gold coloring, angelic and victorious

Figure 11.15 Mongol soldiers, in Jami al-Tawarikh by Rashidal-Din Hamadani, 13051306

The J%mi& al-taw%r'kh is a work of literature and history, produced by the Mongol Ilkhanate in Persia. The breadth of the work has caused it to be called "the rst world history" and its lavish illustrations and calligraphy required the e!orts of hundreds of scribes and artists.

motifs, symbology of drapery) was combined with Mongol facial types seen in 12th-century book frontispieces. The medieval Islamic texts called Maqamat, copied and illustrated by Yahya ibn Mahmud al-Wasiti, were some of the earliest "coffee table books." They were among the first texts in Islamic art to hold a

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Figure 11.16 Yusuf and Zulaikha (Joseph chased by Potiphar's wife), miniature by Kam"l ud-D#n Behz"d, 1488 A beautiful example of Persian miniature painting, from the early Safavid era, depicting a Quranic verse.

perhaps inspired by books captured in the course of the OttomanSafavid wars of the 16th century. Under the rule of the Safavids in Iran (1501 to 1786), the art of manuscript illumination achieved new heights, in particular in the Shah Tahmasp Shahnameh, an immense copy of Ferdowsis poem containing more than 250 paintings. In the 17th century a new type of painting developed, based around the album (muraqqa). The albums were the creations of connoisseurs who bound together single sheets containing paintings, drawings, or calligraphy by various artists, sometimes excised from earlier books and other times created as independent works. The paintings of Reza Abbasi figure largely in this new form of book art, depicting one or two larger figures, typically idealized beauties in a garden setting, often using the grisaille techniques previously used for background border paintings (Figure 11.16).
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mirror to daily life, portraying humorous stories and showing little adherence to prior pictorial traditions. Masterpieces of Ottoman manuscript illustration include the two books of festivals, one dating from the end of the 16th century and the other from the era of Sultan Murad III. These books contain numerous illustrations and exhibit a strong Safavid influence,

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Luxury Arts
Islamic luxury arts of the later Middle Ages were particularly distinguished in the Mughal Empire (India) and in Egypt under the Mamluks.

KEY POINTS (cont.)

Islamic art is not restricted to religious art; it includes all the art of the rich and varied cultures of Islamic societies as well. It frequently includes secular elements and elements that are frowned on, if not forbidden, by some Islamic theologians. The calligraphy and decoration of manuscript Qurans is an important aspect, but other religious art like glass mosque lamps and other mosque fittings such as tiles, woodwork, and carpets usually have the same style and motifs as contemporary secular art.

KEY POINTS

The arts of jewelry and hardstone carving of gemstones, such as jasper and jade, adorned with rubies, diamonds, and emeralds are mentioned by the Mughal chronicler Abu'l Fazl, and a range of examples survive. The series of hard stone daggers in the form of horses heads is particularly impressive. The Mughals were also fine metallurgists. They introduced Damascus steel and refined the locally produced Wootz steel. The Mughals also introduced the bidri technique of metalwork in which silver motifs are pressed against a black background. Islamic art encompasses the visual arts produced from the 7th century onwards by people who lived within the territory that was inhabited or ruled by culturally Islamic populations.

Islamic Art Islamic art encompasses the visual arts produced from the 7th century onwards by people who lived within the territory that was inhabited or ruled by culturally Islamic populations. It is therefore a very difficult art to define because it covers many lands and various peoples over some 1,400 years. It is not art specific to a religion, a time, a place, or a single medium like painting. The huge field of Islamic architecture is the subject of a separate article, leaving fields as varied as calligraphy, painting, glass, ceramics, and textiles among others. Islamic art is not restricted to religious art; it includes all the art of the rich and varied cultures of Islamic societies as well. It frequently

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Figure 11.17 Mustafa Rakim, Calligraphy Model Untitled calligraphic panel written by Mustafa Rakim (Sakip Sabanci Mzesi)

Typically, though not entirely, Islamic art has focused on the depiction of patterns and Arabic calligraphy, rather than on figures (Figure 11.17). Many Muslims fear that the depiction of the human form is a type of idolatry and thereby a sin against God, forbidden in the Qur'an. Human portrayals can be found in all eras of Islamic

Figure 11.18 Khamseh Nizami Sultan Muhammed, from the Khamsa of Nizami, British Library, Or. 2265, f. 18r.. The Old Woman complaining to Sultan Sanjar. 1539-43, with border replaced in the 17th Century.

includes secular elements and elements that are frowned on, if not forbidden, by some Islamic theologians. Apart from the everpresent calligraphic inscriptions, specifically religious art is actually less prominent in Islamic art than in Western medieval art, with the exception of Islamic architecture where mosques and their complexes of surrounding buildings are the most common remains. Figurative painting may cover religious scenes, but normally in essentially secular contexts such as the walls of palaces or illuminated books of poetry. The calligraphy and decoration of manuscript Qurans is an important aspect, but other religious art like glass mosque lamps and other mosque fittings such as tiles, woodwork, and carpets usually have the same style and motifs as contemporary secular art, although religious inscriptions are even more prominent.

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art, above all in the more private form of miniatures, where their absence is rare. Human representation for the purpose of worship is considered idolatry and is duly forbidden in Islamic law, known as Sharia law. There are also many depictions of Muhammad, Islam's chief prophet, in historical Islamic art. Small decorative figures of animals and humans, especially if they are hunting the animals, are found on secular pieces in media from many periods; however, portraits were slow to develop (Figure 11.18). Mughal Art The later Mughal Empire period is most notable for luxury arts of the court, and Mughal styles heavily influenced local Hindu and later Sikh rulers as well. The Mughal miniature movement began by importing Persian artists, especially a group brought back by Humayun when exiled in Safavid, Persia. Soon local artists, many of them Hindu, were trained in the style. Realistic portraiture and images of animals and plants were developed in Mughal art beyond what the Persians had so far achieved, and the size of miniatures increased, sometimes onto canvas. The Mughal court had access to European prints and other art, and these had increasing influence, shown in the gradual introduction of aspects of Western graphical perspective, and a wider range of poses in the human figure. Some Western images were directly copied or borrowed. As the courts of local Nawabs developed,

Figure 11.19 The medallion on the outside of the Baptistre de Saint Louis The Baptistre de Saint-Louis is an example of the very high quality of metalwork in the late Middle Ages.

distinct provincial styles with stronger influence from traditional Indian painting developed in both Muslim and Hindu princely courts. The arts of jewelry and hardstone carving of gemstones, such as jasper and jade, adorned with rubies, diamonds, and emeralds are mentioned by the Mughal chronicler Abu'l Fazl, and a range of examples survive. The series of hard stone daggers in the form of horses heads is particularly impressive. The Mughals were also fine metallurgists. They introduced Damascus steel and refined the locally produced Wootz steel. The Mughals also introduced the bidri technique of metalwork in which silver motifs are pressed against a black background. Famous Mughal metallurgists like Ali Kashmiri and Muhammed Salih Thatawi created the seamless celestial globes. Sixteenth century

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Egypt, under the Mamluks patronage of luxury arts, favored primarily enameled glass and metalwork and is remembered as the golden age of medieval Egypt. The Baptistre de Saint-Louis in the Louvre is an example of the very high quality of metalwork of this period (Figure 11.19).
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Section 4

The Ottom, Safavid, and Mughai Dynasties

Ottoman Empire Safavid Dynasty Mughal Dynasty

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Ottoman Empire
Ottoman art and architecture were a vibrant synthesis of Turkish, Middle Eastern, and Mediterranean styles.
KEY POINTS

KEY POINTS (cont.)

Ottoman painters did not seek to depict human beings or other figures realistically, aiming instead to hint at an infinite and transcendent reality. As a result, their paintings were stylized and abstract. The Ottoman Turks were also renowned for their decorative arts including carpet weaving, jewelry making, paper marbling, and their characteristic Iznik ware ceramics.

The Ottoman state was founded by Turkic tribes in northwestern Anatolia in 1299 and became an empire in 1453 after the momentous conquest of Constantinople. It lasted until 1922 when the monarchy was abolished in Turkey. Ottoman architecture first emerged in the cities of Bursa and Edirne in the 14th and 15th centuries, developing from earlier Seljuk Turk architecture. There were additional influences from Byzantine, Persian, and Islamic Mamluk traditions after the conquest of Constantinople in 1453. Examples of Byzantine architecture such as the church of Hagia Sophia served as particularly important models for Ottoman mosques. Ottoman miniature painting was usually used to illustrate manuscripts or in albums specifically dedicated to miniatures. It was heavily influenced by Persian miniature painting with additional elements of the Byzantine tradition of illumination and painting and Chinese artistic influences.

The Ottoman state was founded by Turkish tribes in northwestern Anatolia in 1299 and became an empire in 1453 after the momentous conquest of Constantinople. Stretching across three continents--Asia, Europe, and Africa--the Ottoman Empire was vast and incredibly long lived, lasting until 1922 when the monarchy was abolished in Turkey. Ottoman art was a vibrant synthesis of Turkish and Persian-Islamic, Byzantine, and Mediterranean culture and styles. The Ottoman Turks were renowned for their architecture, building a large number of public buildings, mosques, and caravanserais or roadside inns for travelers, as well as for their traditions of calligraphy and miniature painting. They were also renowned for their decorative arts including carpet weaving, jewelry making, paper marbling, and their characteristic Iznik ware ceramics.

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Architecture Ottoman architecture first emerged in the cities of Bursa and Edirne in the 14th and 15th centuries, developing from earlier Seljuk Turk architecture, with additional influences from Byzantine, Persian, and Islamic Mamluk traditions after the conquest of Constantinople in 1453. Examples of Byzantine architecture such as the church of Hagia Sophia served as particularly important models for Ottoman mosques. Building reached its peak in the 16th century when Ottoman architects mastered the technique of building vast inner spaces surmounted by seemingly weightless yet incredibly massive domes, and achieved perfect harmony between inner and outer spaces, as well as articulated light and shadow. They incorporated vaults, domes, semi-domes, and columns into their mosques, which became sanctuaries of transcendently aesthetic and technical balance. Examples of Ottoman architecture of the high classical period can be found in Turkey, the Balkans, Hungary, Egypt, Tunisia, and Algeria, where mosques, bridges, fountains, and schools were built. A particularly fine example of an Ottoman mosque is the Selimiye Mosque in Edirne, built between 1568 and 1574. Flanked by four tall minarets and crowned by a monumental dome, the mosque also has a remarkable interior, which is lit by a multitude of tiny windows

Figure 11.20 Selimiye Mosque, Edirne

Commissioned by Sultan Selim II and was built by famous Ottoman architect Mimar Sinan between 1569 and 1575, the Selimiye Mosque was considered by Sinan to be his masterpiece and is one of the highest achievements of Islamic architecture.

that allow the tiled walls to sparkle in the interplay of shadow and light (Figure 11.20). Miniature Painting Ottoman miniature painting, which was usually used to illustrate manuscripts or in albums specifically dedicated to miniatures, was heavily influenced by Persian miniature painting with additional elements of the Byzantine tradition of illumination and painting

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Figure 11.21 Ottoman Miniature Painters, late 16th/early 17th century

works of Persian poetry. Scientific books on botany, zoology, alchemy, cosmography, and medicine were also often illustrated. Works were usually created by a team of painters. The head painter designed the composition while his apprentices drew the contours and then painted the miniature. The colors were obtained from ground powder pigments mixed with egg whites or diluted gum arabic, resulting in brilliant colors. The most commonly used colors were bright red, green, and varying shades of blue. Ottoman painters did not seek to depict human beings or other figures realistically, aiming instead to hint at an infinite and transcendent reality. As a result, their paintings were stylized and abstract, although they became progressively more realistic from the 18th century onwards with influences from European baroque and

Painting atelier of the Sultan. The miniature shows the author, probably the court chronicler Talikizade, caligraphist and miniature painter working on the "Shahname" for Mehmet III (ruled 1595-1603). The painter on the left is Nakka( Hasan, who is working on a scene of the capitulation of Eger Castle.

Rococo styles (Figure 11.21). Decorative Arts The art of carpet weaving was particularly important in the

and Chinese artistic influences. A Greek academy of painters, the Nakkashane-i-Rum, was established in the Topkapi Palace in Istanbul in the 15th century and a Persian academy, the Nakkashane-i-Irani, added in the early 15th century. The Greek artists typically specialized decorating documentary books and painting portraits and scenes from the lives of rulers and historical events. The Persian artists specialized in illustrating traditional

Ottoman Empire, where carpets were immensely valued both as decorative furnishings and for their practical value. They were used not just on floors but also as wall and door hangings, where they provided additional insulation. These intricately knotted carpets were made of silk, or a combination of silk and cotton, and were often rich in religious and other symbolism. Hereke silk carpets, which were made in the coastal town of Hereke, were the most

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Figure 11.22 Carpet and Interior of the Harem Room, Topkapi Palace, Istanbul The Ottoman Turks were famed for the quality of their nely woven and intricately knotted silk carpets.

incorporated complex filigree work and a variety of Persian and Byzantine motifs. They were renowned for their ceramics, particularly Iznik pottery, which was made in western Anatolia and consisted of high quality pottery made of fritware and painted with cobalt blue under a colorless lead glaze. The intricate designs combined traditional Ottoman arabesque patterns with Chinese elements.
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valued of the Ottoman carpets because of their fine weave. The Hereke carpets were typically used to furnish royal palaces (Figure 11.22). The Ottoman Empire was also known for the skill of its gold and silver smiths, who made jewelry with complex designs and

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Safavid Dynasty
The Islamic Iranian Safavid Empire (15011786) is marked by the development of various artistic styles in Persia.

bookbinding, decoration, calligraphy, and handicrafts such as tile making, pottery, and textiles. In the sixteenth century, carpet weaving evolved from

Figure 11.23 Ardabil Carpet

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a nomadic and peasant craft to a well-executed industry with specialization of design and manufacturing using quality fibers such as silk. The carpets of Ardabil, for example, were commissioned to commemorate the Safavid dynasty and are now considered to be the best examples of classical Persian weaving, particularly for their use of graphical perspective (Figure 11.23).
The carpets of Ardabil were commissioned to commemorate the Safavid dynasty and are considered classics of Persian carpet weaving.

Safavid art is characterized by numerous aesthetic traditions: miniature painting, bookbinding, decoration, calligraphy, and handicrafts such as tile making, pottery, and textiles. Reza Abbasi (15651635) introduced new subjects to Persian paintingparticularly semi-nude women, youth, and lovers. His painting and calligraphic style influenced Iranian artists for much of the Safavid period, which came to be known as the Isfahan school. In the seventeenth century, increased contact with distant cultures, especially those of Europe, provided a boost of inspiration to Iranian artists who adopted modeling, foreshortening, spatial recession, and the medium of oil painting.

The Iranian Safavid Empire (15011786) is distinguished from the Mughal and Ottoman dynasties by the Shi'a faith of its shahs, which was the majority Islamic denomination in Persia. Safavid art is characterized by numerous aesthetic traditions: miniature painting,

Manuscript illustration also achieved new heights, particularly in the Shahnameh of Shah Tahmasp, an immense copy of Ferdowsis poem containing more than 250 paintings. In the seventeenth

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Figure 11.25 Architecture in Isfahan

modeling, foreshortening, spatial recession, and the medium of oil painting. Finally, architecture flourished, attaining a high point with the building program of Shah Abbas in Isfahan, which included numerous gardens, palaces (such as Ali Qapu), an immense bazaar,

Naqshe Jahan square in Isfahan is the epitome of 16th-century Iranian architecture. Figure 11.24 Two Lovers

and a large imperial mosque (Figure 11.25). Isfahan bears the most prominent samples of the Safavid architecture, such as the the Imperial Mosque, Masjid-e Shah, the Imam Mosque, the Lutfallah Mosque, and the Royal Palace, which were all constructed in the years after Shah Abbas I permanently moved the capital there in 1598.
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century a new type of painting developed based around the album (muraqqa). The albums were the creations of connoisseurs who bound together single sheets containing paintings, drawings, or calligraphy by various artists, sometimes excised from earlier books, and other times created as independent works. Reza Abbasi (15651635) introduced new subjects to Persian paintingparticularly semi-

Reza Abbasi's Two Lovers, 1630, are emblematic of Safavid painting, which featured portraiture and romantic subjects.

nude women, youth, and lovers (Figure 11.24). His painting and calligraphic style influenced Iranian artists for much of the Safavid period, which came

to be known as the Isfahan school. In the seventeenth century, increased contact with distant cultures, especially those of Europe, provided a boost of inspiration to Iranian artists who adopted

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Mughal Dynasty
The Mughal artistic tradition is characterized as an eclectic style borrowing from the European Renaissance, and Persian, and Indian sources.

the subcontinent. The Mughal artistic tradition is best characterized as an eclectic style, borrowing from the European Renaissance as well as Persian and Indian sources. A major Mughal contribution to the Indian subcontinent was architecture. Mughal architecture found its way into local Indian architecture, most conspicuously in the palaces built by Rajputs and

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Sikh rulers. This combination resulted in many lavish and massive monuments, many of which were built by the Muslim emperors, including Humayun's Tomb. However, it was under the reign of Shah Jahan, the fifth emperor, that the golden age of Mughal architecture and the arts reached its zenith. Shah Jahan erected many splendid monuments, the most famous of which is the legendary Taj Mahal, built in memory of his third wife (Figure 11. 26). This large, white marble structure stands on a square plinth and consists of a symmetrical building with an iwan (an archshaped doorway) topped by a large dome and finial. Like most Mughal tombs, the basic elements are Persian in origin. The Taj Mahal's base structure is essentially a large, multi-

Although Mughal painters borrowed individual motifs and certain naturalistic effects from European Renaissance and Mannerist painting, their structuring principle was derived from Indian and Persian traditions. Mughal painting immediately took a much greater interest in realistic portraiture than was typical of Ilkhnate Persian miniatures and animals and plants were also more realistically shown. Under the reign of Shah Jahan, the fifth emperor, the golden age of Mughal architecture and the arts reached its zenith. Shah Jahan erected many splendid monuments, the most famous of which is the legendary Taj Mahal.

The Mughal empire was an imperial power in the Indian subcontinent from about 1526 to 1757. The Mughal emperors were Muslims and direct descendants of Genghis Khan through Chagatai Khan and Timur. At the height of their power in the late seventeenth and early eighteenth centuries, they controlled most of

chambered cube with chamfered corners, forming an unequal octagon that is approximately 180 feet on each of the four long sides. On each of these sides, a huge pishtaq, or vaulted archway, frames the iwan with two similarly shaped, arched balconies stacked on either side. This motif of stacked pishtaqs is replicated

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Figure 11.26 Taj Mahal

Figure 11.27 Ardabil Carpet

The Taj Mahal was erected by the Mughal Emperor Shah Jahan

on the chamfered corner areas, making the design completely symmetrical on all sides of the building. Four minarets frame the tomb, one at each corner of the plinth facing the chamfered corners.The marble dome that surmounts the tomb is the most spectacular feature. Its height of around 115 feet is about the same as the length of the base, and is accentuated as it sits on a cylindrical "drum" which is roughly 23 feet high. Because of its shape, the dome is often called an onion dome or amrud (guava dome). The top is decorated with a lotus design, which also serves to accentuate its height. The shape of the dome is emphasised by four smaller domed chattris (kiosks) placed at its corners, which replicate the onion shape of the main dome. Their columned bases
The carpets of Ardabil were commissioned to commemorate the Safavid dynasty and are considered classics of Persian carpet weaving.

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open through the roof of the tomb and provide light to the interior. Tall decorative spires (guldastas) extend from edges of base walls, and provide visual emphasis to the height of the dome. The dome and chattris are topped by a gilded finial, which mixes traditional Persian and Hindustani decorative elements. The finial is topped by a moon, a typical Islamic motif whose horns point heavenward. Because of its placement on the main spire, the horns of the moon and the finial point combine to create a trident shape. The minarets, which are each more than 130 feet tall, display the designer's penchant for symmetry. The minarets were constructed slightly outside of the plinth so that in the event of collapse (a typical occurrence for many tall constructions of the period), the material from the towers would tend to fall away from the tomb. Mughal painting developed as a blend of Indian and Persian styles. Although Mughal painters borrowed individual motifs and certain naturalistic effects from European Renaissance and Mannerist painting, their structuring principle was derived from Indian and Persian traditions.There was already a Muslim tradition of miniature painting under the Sultanate of Delhi (which the Mughals overthrew), and this tradition was adopted into the new dynastic cultural regime. However, Mughal painting immediately took a much greater interest in realistic portraiture than was typical of Ilkhnate Persian miniatures and animals and plants were also more realistically shown. Although many classic works of Persian and

Indian literature continued to be illustrated, memories and diaries of Mughal emperors (with Babur leading this fashion) provided some of the most lavishly decorated texts, such as the Padshahnama genre of official histories. Subjects are rich in variety and include portraits, events, and scenes from court life, including wildlife, hunting scenes, and illustrations of battles (Figure 11.27).
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Chapter 12

Art of South and Southeast Asia Before 1200

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Section 1

India and Pakistan

The Indus Civilization The Vedic and Upanishadic Period Maurya Dynasty

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The Indus Civilization

The Indus Valley Civilization was an urban civilization from 33001300 BCE that covered most of present-day Pakistan and northwest India.

The Indus Valley Civilization was a Bronze Age urban civilization that existed from Bronze Age3001300 BCE, and covered most of present day Pakistan and northwest India (Figure 12.1). Situated around the Indus River and the Ghaggar-Hakra River, the Indus Valley civilization is also known as the Harappan civilization, after Harappa, the first city to be excavated in the 1920s. Inhabitants of the ancient Indus Valley developed new and notable techniques in handicraft, metallurgy, trade and transportation, systems of measurement, and urban planning.
Extent of the Indus Valley Civilization, imposed over modern borders Figure 12.1 Indus Valley Civilization Map

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The civilization is often separated into three phases: Early Harappan Phase (3300 BCE2600 BCE), Mature Harappan Phase (2600 BCE1900 BCE), and Late Harappan Phase (1900 BCE1300 BCE). Cities of the ancient Indus Valley had multi-story, brick buildings; employed an advanced sanitation system; and used a unified system of weight and measurement. Most inhabitants of Indus Valley cities were artisans and many sculptures, seals, pottery, gold, jewelry, elaborate beadwork, and anatomically detailed figurines have been excavated. There is evidence of extensive trade networking used to import raw materials such as lapis lazuli and steatite to the Indus Valley from distant regions. Between 400 and 600 distinct Indus symbols indicating a language have been found on ceramics, seals, and tablets, though the language remains entirely unknown to this day.

The civilization is often separated into three phases: Early Harappan Phase (3300 BCE2600 BCE), Mature Harappan Phase (2600 BCE1900 BCE), and Late Harappan Phase (1900 BCE 1300 BCE). The Mature Harappan phase was the cultural high point, a time by which communities had grown into wellfunctioning, enormous urban centers. Many artistic artifacts such as

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ceramics, sculptures, seals, and jewelry have been excavated from this time; more in fact, than from some civilizations which began centuries after its decline. Numerous architectural remains have been found as well, including multi-story buildings, baths, and dockyards. To date, over 1,052 cities and settlements have been found in the general area of the rivers and their tributaries, with the major ones being: Harappa, Mohenjo-Daro, Dholavira, Rupar, Lothal, and Kalibangan. The cities of the ancient Indus Valley consisted of highly functional, multi-story buildings and structures constructed with uniform kilnburnt bricks. There is evidence of urban planning due to the uniformity of size and style of the brickwork, as well as the organization of streets and neighborhoods into grid patterns, much like many current cities. The first-known sanitation system, whereby waste-water was directed into covered drains which lined major streets and where clean water was obtained from wells in a designated room in the home, was employed in the ancient Indus Valley. This system of sewage and drainage is quite remarkable and more advanced than some seen today. The Indus Valley Civilization is known also for developing a unified system of weight and measurement as well as a decimal system and the first-known use of negative numbers. In 2001, it was discovered that people from the early Harappan period had knowledge of proto-dentistry, with the excavation of the first evidence of drilled human teeth.

Figure 12.2 Dancing Girl of Mohenjo-daro A small 4500-yearold bronze statuette of a dancing girl was excavated in Mohenjo-daro in 1926.

It is widely believed that most inhabitants of Indus Valley cities were tradespeople and artisans. Archaeologists have excavated sculptures, seals, pottery, gold jewelry, elaborate beadwork, and anatomically detailed figurines in terracotta, ceramic, bronze, lead, tin, and steatite from the ancient Indus Valley area. A number of bronze, gold, stone, and terracotta figures of girls in dance poses

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Figure 12.3 Pashupati Discovered at Mohenjo-daro, this seal depicts a seated, horned gure surrounded by animals, who is commonly interpreted to be Pashupati, the "Lord of Cattle."

Ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia, there are many depictions of female figures, or possibly fertility goddesses. One motif shows a horned figure seated in a posture reminiscent of the lotus position and surrounded by animals; this was named Pashaputi (lord of cattle) by excavators (Figure 12.3). Between 400 and 600 distinct Indus symbols indicating a language have been found on ceramics, seals, and tablets, though the language remains entirely unknown to this day. Socially, the Indus Civilization appears to have been relatively egalitarian in nature. All homes within the various cities had access to water and drainage facilities and were generally equal in size. The evidence for planned settlements and the uniformity of Harappan artifacts suggests a strong organizational or governing force in the Indus Valley Civilization, though archaeological records provide no immediate answers. Around 1800 BCE, signs of decline began to emerge in the Indus River Valley. By 1700 BCE, many of the cities had been abandoned. The reason for the decline of the civilization is unknown, but it is theorized to be due to enemy invasion throughout the area, a change in climate to significantly cooler and drier conditions, or the disappearance of the Ghaggar-Hakra River. After the collapse, regional cultures emerged showing influence of the Indus Valley Civilization to varying degrees. The Indus Valley period is well

reveal the presence of some dance forms from the time (Figure 12. 2). A harp-like instrument depicted on a seal indicates the use of stringed musical instruments. Similarities in the iconography and construction of excavated artifacts suggest the considerable mobility and trade networks of the Indus Valley inhabitants. Raw materials found only in distant regions, such as lapis lazuli and steatite, were imported for artistic use. It is believed that the trade networks of the Indus Valley reached as far as Afghanistan, coastal Persia, northern and western India, Mesopotamia, and Egypt. The iconography of the artifacts from the Indus Valley region often depict quite anatomically correct animals and human figures. Similar to other civilizations of the same time period, such as

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documented through the wealth of artifacts which have been excavated from its magnificent cities.
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The Vedic and Upanishadic Period

The Vedic period in India (c. 1700500 BCE) is marked by the composition of the Vedas, the oldest scriptures of Hinduism.
KEY POINTS

Transmission of texts in the Vedic period was by oral tradition alone, and a literary tradition began only in postVedic times. The Vedic civilization is thought to have been centered in the northern and northwestern parts of the Indian subcontinent. Crafts within Vedic culture included chariotmaking, cart making, carpentry, metal working, tanning, making of bows, sewing, weaving, making grass and reed mats, leather work, pottery, jewelry, dying, and vintnery. Pottery in the Vedic period is divided into black and red ware culture (BRW, c. 12th9th centuries BCE) and painted grey ware culture (PGW, c. 1200 BCE to 600 BCE). The Upanishads are a collection of philosophical texts which form the theoretical basis for the Hindu religion. All Upanishads are associated with one of the four Vedas Rigveda, Samaveda, Yajurveda, and Atharvavedaand have been passed down in oral tradition.

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The Vedic period (or Vedic age) was a period in history during which the Vedas, the oldest scriptures of Hinduism, were composed. The time span of the period is uncertain, though is thought to span from 1700 BCE to about 500 BCE, with 150 BCE suggested as a terminus ante quem for all Vedic Sanskrit literature. Transmission of texts in the Vedic period was by oral tradition alone, and a literary tradition began only in post-Vedic times. The associated culture, sometimes referred to as Vedic civilization, was probably centered in the northern and northwestern parts of the Indian subcontinent, but has now spread and constitutes the basis of contemporary Indian culture (Figure 12.4). In the 11th century BCE, the Vedic society transitioned from seminomadic life to settled agriculture. This transition led to an increase in trade and increased competition and conflicts over resources such as land and water. However after 1000 BCE, the use of iron axes and ploughs enabled the clearing of jungles, and the Vedic kingdoms were able to expand along the Gangetic plains, ushering in the later Vedic age. By the 6th century BCE, various political units consolidated into large kingdoms called Mahajanapadas. The process of urbanization had begun in these kingdoms and commerce and travel, even over regions separated by large distances, became easy. The end of Vedic India is marked by linguistic, cultural and political changes. The grammar of P./ini marks a final apex in the codification of Sutra

Figure 12.4 Map of northen India in the later Vedic Period

The Vedic civilization is thought to have been centered in the northern and northwestern parts of the Indian subcontinent. Here, river Indus is shown by its Sanskrit name"Sindhu. The location of Vedic shakhas"is labelled in green, and Thar"desert is in orange.

texts, and at the same time the beginning of Classical Sanskrit. The invasion of Darius I of the Indus valley in the early 6th century BC marks the beginning of outside influence, continued in the kingdoms of the Indo-Greeks. After the end of the Vedic period, the Mahajanapadas period in turn gave way to the Maurya Empire (from c. 320 BC), the golden age of classical Sanskrit literature.

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Crafts Crafts within Vedic culture included that of chariot-making, cartmaking, carpentry, metal working (creating instruments such as razors, bangles and axes), tanning, making of bows, sewing, weaving, making mats of grass and reed. Many of these might have required full-time specialists. The usage of iron implements (krishna-ayas or shyama-ayas, literally black metal or dark metal) increased in the later Vedic age, and new crafts and occupations such as leather work, pottery, astrology, jewelry, dying, and vintnery arose. Apart from copper, bronze, and gold, later Vedic texts also mention tin, lead, and silver. The black and red ware culture (BRW) is an early Iron Age archaeological culture associated with the post-Rigvedic Vedic civilization, dating roughly from the 12th9th centuries BCE (Figure 12.5). It was succeeded by the painted grey ware culture (PGW), an Iron Age culture corresponding to the later Vedic period and lasting from roughly 1200 BC to 600 BC. Literature The reconstruction of the history of Vedic India is based on textinternal details. Linguistically, the Vedic texts could be classified in five chronological strata:

1. Rigvedic text: the oldest of the Vedas, thought to have been composed roughly between 1700 and 1100 BCE (Figure 12. 6). 2. Mantra language texts: This period includes both the mantra and prose language of the Atharvaveda (Paippalada and Shaunakiya), the Rigveda Khilani, the Samaveda Samhita, and the mantras of the Yajurveda. This is the time of the early Iron Age in north-western India, corresponding to the Black and Red Ware (BRW) culture.

Figure 12.5 Goblet from Navdatoli, Malwa, ca. 1300 BCE An example of pottery work from the black and red ware culture (BRW). BRW was an early"Iron Age archaeological culture associated with the postRigvedic Vedic civilization.$

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Figure 12.6 Rigveda in Sanskrit on paper, India The Rigveda text is the oldest of the Vedas, thought to have been composed roughly between 1700 and 1100 BCE.$

The Upanishads are a collection of philosophical texts which form the theoretical basis for the Hindu religion. The Sanskrit term Upani1ad means "sitting down near, implying sitting near a teacher to receive instruction. Also known as Vedanta, they are considered by orthodox Hindus to contain revealed truths (Sruti) concerning the nature of ultimate reality (brahman) and describing the character and form of human salvation (moksha). All Upanishads are associated with one of the four VedasRigveda, Samaveda, Yajurveda, and Atharvavedaand have been passed down in oral tradition. More than 200 Upanishads are known, and with the Bhagavad Gita and the Brahmasutra, the mukhya Upanishads provide a foundation for several later schools of Indian philosophy.

3. Samhita prose texts: This period includes the Brahmana part ('commentary' on mantras and ritual) of the Black Yajurveda, and corresponds with the Painted Grey Ware (PGW) culture from ca. 900 BC. 4. Brahmana prose texts: The Brahmanas proper of the four Vedas belong to this period, as well as the Aranyakas, the oldest of the Upanishads and the oldest Shrautasutras. 5. Sutra language texts: This is the last stratum of Vedic Sanskrit leading up to c. 500 BC, comprising the bulk of the 0rauta and Grhya Sutras, and some Upanishads.

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Maurya Dynasty
The Maurya Dynasty was an extensive empire that occupied all of northwestern India from 321185 BCE.
KEY POINTS

second emperor of the Maurya Dynasty was the son of Chandragupta, who expanded the empire further but never achieved the same level of notoriety as his own son, Ashoka. By far the most famous emperor of the Maurya Dynasty was Emperor Ashoka. In fact, Ahsoka is considered one of the most famous rulers in all of Indian history as well as one of the great Buddhist kings. After the Kalinga war (262261 BCE), Ashoka converted from
Figure 12.7 Pillar of Ashoka at Lumbini The most widespread example of Mauryan architecture that exists today are the Pillars of Ashoka, often exquisitely decorated, with more than 40 spread throughout the Indian subcontinent.$

The Maurya Dynasty represents the first time in history that the Indian subcontinent had been united under a single government. The most renowned emperor of the dynasty, Emperor Ashoka, is famous for propagating the Buddhist religion and preaching non-violence throughout India. Emperor Ashoka is responsible for the Pillars of Ashoka, as well as building more than eighty thousand stupas. The Barabar Caves, Mahabodhi Temple, and the stupas at Sanchi are examples of the architecture from the Maurya period.

The Maurya Empire was a powerful Iron Age empire in ancient India ruled by the Maurya Dynasty from 321185 BCE. Founded by Chandragupta Maurya, who overthrew the previous Nanda Dynasty, by 320 BCE the empire had fully occupied Northwestern India. With an area of 5 million square kilometers and a population of 5060 million, it was the first time in history that the subcontinent had been united under a single government. The

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Hinduism to Buddhism. He preached non-violence and religious acceptance and laid a foundation for social harmony and religious transformation across all of India. Ashoka also sponsored the

Figure 12.9 Barabar Caves The faade of Lomas Rishi Cave is the earliest example of rock-cut architecture.

Figure 12.8 Mahabodhi Temple The Mahabodhi Temple is one of the many temples erected by Ashoka across India.

propagation of the Buddhist religion into Sri Lanka, Southeast Asia, and Mediterranean Europe. The conversion of Emperor Ashoka to Buddhism legitimized and popularized the religion much like the conversion of Emperor Constantine to Christianity did. He is famous for ordering that his edicts be carved into stones and caves around the empire and, later, for ordering that his edicts be carved into large sandstone pillars topped with statues of lions, known as the Pillars of Ashoka. The most widespread example of Mauryan architecture that exists today are the Pillars of Ashoka, often exquisitely decorated, with more than 40 spread throughout the Indian subcontinent (Figure 12.7). The works from this empire represent the earliest surviving remnants of monumental sculpture. In addition, Ashoka was

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responsible for erecting several thousand Buddhist temples and stupas across India; examples include the stupas at Sanchi and the Mahabodhi temple (Figure 12.8). His patronage of the religion greatly influenced the visual iconography of time. The Barabar Caves are the earliest example of Buddhist rock-cut architecture and were built during the Mauryan period (Figure 12.9). Attributed to Emperor Ashoka, the caves consist of temples, stupas, and monasteries that are carved elaborately out of granite. The decorated facade of the Lomas Rishi grotto, an offering to the Buddhist sect of the Ajivikas, is a good example of the high degree of craftsmanship. The decline of the Maurya Dynasty took place somewhat rapidly following the death of Ashoka. Historical theories for this include a succession of weak kings and the division of the Empire in two.
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Section 2

The Shungas and Early Andhras

Stupas Buddhist Rock-Cut Architecture Gupta and Post-Gupta Early Medieval Period

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Stupas
A stupa is a traditional Buddhist monument that houses relics associated with the Buddha.

Figure 12.10 Stupa at Sanchi, India A Buddhist stupa at Sanchi, India$

KEY POINTS

Stupas evolved from simple funerary monuments to elaborately decorated objects of veneration. Emperor Ashoka, who ruled from 274236 BCE during the Maurya Dynasty, is said to have redistributed the relics housed in the original stupas into thousands of stupas throughout India. All stupas contain a treasury, a Tree of Life and Tsa-Tsas. It is believed that the more objects placed into the treasury, the stronger the stupa's energy. It is also believed that a stupa brings enlightenment to the one who builds and owns it. There are five types of stupas: Relic stupas, Object stupas, Commemorative stupas, Symbolic stupas and Votive stupas. decorated objects of veneration. Legend has it that following the cremation of Buddha, his ashes were divided into eight parts and distributed among various rulers to be enshrined at special burial mounds. Emperor Ashoka, who ruled from 274236 BCE during the Maurya Empire, is said to have redistributed the relics housed in the original stupas into thousands of stupas throughout India. Ashoka is also credited with construction of numerous stupas that remain to this day, including those at Sanchi (Figure 12.10) and Sarnath. While they can vary visually, all stupas have a few features in A stupa, literally meaning heap," is a mound-like structure designed to encase Buddhist relics and other holy objects. Stupas exist all over the world and are the oldest Buddhist religious monuments. Originally a simple mound of clay or mud, stupas evolved from simple funerary monuments to become elaborately common. Every stupa contains a treasury filled with various objects. Small offerings, or Tsa-Tsas, fill the majority of the treasury. Jewelry and other precious objects are also placed in the treasury. It is believed that the more objects placed into the treasury, the stronger the stupa's energy. The Tree of Life, a wooden pole covered

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with gems and mantras, is an important element of every stupa. It is placed in the stupa's central channel during an initiation ceremony where participants' most powerful wishes are stored. There are five types of stupas: Relic stupas, in which the relics of Buddha and other religious persons are buried; Object stupas, in which the objects belonging to Buddha or his disciples are buried; Commemorative stupas, built to commemorate events in the life of Buddha and his disciples; Symbolic stupas, built to symbolize various aspects of Buddhist theology, and; Votive stupas, constructed to commemorate visits or gain spiritual benefits In the Buddhist religion, it is believed that a stupa brings enlightenment to the one who builds and owns it. In addition, the stupa is a place of worship. Many Buddhists complete pilgrimages to significant stupas.

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Buddhist Rock-Cut Architecture

Rock-cut architecture is the practice of creating a structure by carving it out of solid natural rock.

Rock-cut architecture is the practice of creating a structure by carving it out of solid natural rock. In India, the term cave is often applied in reference to rock-cut architecture, but must be distinguished from a naturally-occurring cave, as rock-cut architecture is a highly engineered and elaborately decorated structure. There are more than 1,500 rock-cut temples in India, most of which are religious in nature, adorned with decorative paintings and exquisite stone carvings reflecting a very high level of craftsmanship. In India, caves have long been regarded as sacred spaces and were enlarged or entirely man-made for use as temples and monasteries by Buddhist monks and ascetics. The Barabar Caves in Bihur, built in the 3rd century BCE during the Mauryan period, are the oldest
Figure 12.11 Barabar Caves The Barabar Caves in Bihur, built in the 3rd"century BCE during the Mauryan period, are the oldest examples of Buddhist rock-cut architecture.

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The Barabar Caves in Bihur, built in the 3rd century BCE and credited to Emperor Ashoka, are the oldest example of Buddhist rock-cut architecture. Buddhist rock-cut temples and structures were often located near trade routes and became stopovers and lodging houses for traders. Their interiors beccame more and more elaborate as their endowments grew. A notable trait of rock-cut architecture is the crafting of rock to imitate timbered and carved wood. The Ajanta Caves contain some very well-preserved tempera wall paintings that illustrate the Jataka and date from the 2nd century BCE. Cave temples have been well-preserved due to their hidden locations and the fact that they are constructed from stone, a far more durable material than wood, clay, or metal. The residences of monks are called Viharas and the cave shrines used for worship are called Chaityas.

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Figure 12.12 Ajanta Cave A great deal of decorative sculpture intricately carved columns and reliefs, including cornices and pilasterare found in the Ajanta Caves.

Figure 12.13 Ellora Cave Similar to the Barabar and Ajanta caves, the Ellora caves contain many frescoes, reliefs, and shrines, including carvings of Buddha, bodhisattvas, and saints

examples of Buddhist rock-cut architecture (Figure 12.11). Credited to Emperor Ashoka, these caves mostly consist of two rooms, carved entirely out of granite. The first, a large rectangular hall, was meant for worshippers to congregate in, and the second was a small, domed chamber for worship. This second chamber is thought to have contained small, stupa-like structures, though is empty now. The Ajanta Caves in Maharashtra are 30 rock-cut Buddhist temples that span 6 centuries, beginning in the 1st century BCE. They are carved into the vertical side of a gorge located in the hills of the Sahyadri mountains. The Ajanta caves are considered masterpieces of Buddhist architecture, and contain living and sleeping quarters, kitchens, monastic spaces, shrines, and stupas. The residences of monks are called Viharas and the cave shrines used for worship and called Chaityas.

Similar to the Barabar Caves, the Ajanta Caves are situated close to main trade routes. A great deal of decorative sculptureintricately carved columns and reliefs (Figure 12.12), including cornices and pilasterare found here. A notable trait of rock-cut architecture is the crafting of rock to imitate timbered and carved wood. The Ajanta Caves are home to some very early and well-preserved wall paintings that decorate the walls and ceilings and date from the 2nd century BCE. Executed using tempera technique on smooth surfaces and prepared by the application of plaster, the themes of the paintings are Buddhist, and gracefully illustrate the major events of Buddhas life, the Jataka tales, and the various divinities of the Buddhist pantheon. The Ellora caves were built between the 5th and 10th centuries. These caves are made up of twelve Buddhist, seventeen Hindu, and

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five Jain rock-cut temples, excavated out of the Charanandri hills. The proximity of the temples belonging to different religions demonstrates the religious harmony indicative of the time. Similar to the Barabar and Ajanta caves, the Ellora caves contain many frescoes, reliefs, and shrines, including carvings of Buddha (Figure 12.14), bodhisattvas, and saints. In many cases the stone is intricately carved to look like wood. Buddhist rock-cut temples and monasteries were often located near trade routes and these spaces became stopovers and lodging houses for traders. As their endowments grew, rock-cut temple interiors become more and more elaborate and decorated. While many temples, monasteries, and stupas have been destroyed, cave temples are better preserved due to their hidden locations and the fact that they are constructed from stone, a far more durable material than wood, clay, or metal.
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Gupta and Post-Gupta

The Gupta Dynasty was an ancient Indian empire that is renowned for supporting art, literature, architecture, and science.

KEY POINTS

The period of Gupta rule is known as the Golden Age of India, as it was a time marked by peace, prosperity, and the flourishing of arts and sciences. The Gupta dynasty patronized Hindu as well as Buddhist and Jain art and culture. The Ajanta cave paintings as well as Dashavatara Temple in Deogarh were created in the Gupta period. The concept of zero, the game of chess, and the Kama-Sutra were all developed during the Gupta period. Some of the great artists and thinkers that flourished in the time of Chandragupta II include Kalidasa, one of the greatest authors of Sanskrit poetry and drama, and Aryabhatta, a brilliant and influential mathematician and astronomer.

The Gupta Empire was an ancient Indian empire that covered much of the Indian subcontinent and was run by the Gupta Dynasty from approximately 320 to 550 CE. After the fall of the Mauryan Empire in the 2nd century BCE, India had remained divided in a number of

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Figure 12.14 Ajanta Cave Painting A wall painting from the Ajanta Caves, painted during the Gupta dynasty c. 6th century CE.$

Figure 12.15 Dashavatara temple The 6th century late Gupta period Dashavatara temple, Deogarh.

disparate kingdoms. During the late 3rd century CE the Gupta family gained control of the kingship of Magadha (modern-day eastern India and Bengal). The period of Gupta rule is known as the Golden Age of India, as it was a time marked by unprecedented prosperity and the flourishing of the arts and sciences in India. The rulers of the Gupta Empire were staunch supporters of the arts, science, literature, and architecture. In addition to patronizing the art of the Hindu religion, which the majority of the rulers subscribed to, the Guptas were known also for their support of Buddhist and Jain art and culture. In particular, Gupta period Buddhist art was quite influential in most of East and Southeast Asia. The Ajanta caves, Buddhist rock-cut architecture dating from the 2nd century BCE to 600 CE, contain wall paintings that were

created during the Gupta period. The paintings depict the Jataka tales and are considered to be masterpieces of Buddhist religious art (Figure 12.14). In addition, the Gupta Empire supported the Buddhist Universities of Nalanda and Vikramasila. Great works of Hindu art and architecture from the period include the Dashavatara Temple in Deogarh (Figure 12.15). The most notable rulers of the Gupta period were Chandragupta I, Samudragupta the Great, and Chandragupta II the Great. Chandragupta included in his court the Navaratna, or Nine Jewels, a group of nine exceptional scholars and poets. The Gupta period produced such masters of literature as Kalidasa, Aryabhata, Varahamihira, Vishnu Sharma, and Vatsyayana. The earliest

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available Indian Epics, or Puranas, are also thought to have been written around this period. In addition to the arts, the various sciences also made great advancements during the Gupta period. Aryabhata, a scholar of the time, postulated the notion that the earth was three dimensional and moved around the sun. He is also believed to be the first mathematician to come up with the concept of zero. Additionally, the game of chess developed during the Gupta period and was known as caturanga, which translates into "four divisions" (of the military). The Kama-Sutra, an ancient Gupta text written in Sanskrit by the Indian scholar Vatsyayana, remains to this day the standard work on human sexual behavior. The Gupta Empire quickly declined under the successors of Chandragupta II. By the middle of the 5th century a new enemy to the empire had appeared, nomadic-pastoralist warriors from the Eurasian steppe. These invaders were called Huna or Huns by the Indians, and today are commonly called Hephalites or White Huns (to distinguish them from the other Huns, who were attacking the Roman Empire around the same time). In the year 480 CE, the Huns launched an invasion of India. By the year 500 CE, the Huns had overrun the Gupta Empire. Though the Huns were eventually driven out of India, the Gupta Empire would never recover. Buddhism started to fade out of the picture, however, and was

replaced by growing Hinduism, which is reflected in this time period. The subcontinent once again became a patchwork of independent states. However, the Gupta Empire and the Golden Age of India would not be forgotten.
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Early Medieval Period

Murals and miniature paintings were the dominant art forms of the early medieval period in India.
KEY POINTS

India (c. 8th13th centuries CE). This period was marked by the appearance of a multitude of states and dynasties who were often in conflict with one another. The dynasties of Medieval India were predominantly Hindu, though some were Jaina, and a very few were Buddhist. Islamic invasions in India began as early as the 8th century and, by the early 12th century, almost all of northern India had been conquered. The Hindu kingdoms of medieval India fell easily to the Islamic invaders, and soon the majority of India was under varying degrees of Islamic control. The impact of Islam on Indian art was initially quite destructive, but resulted eventually in a synthesis of styles and the development of new and important works of art. Cave Murals and Miniature Painting The Ellora caves consist of 34 rock-cut temples and monasteries belonging to Buddhist, Hindu and Jaina faiths, that were built between the 5th and 10th centuries. The majority of the earlier caves were Buddhist, while caves constructed in the 9th and 10th centuries were Hindu and Jain. The caves contain many different elaborately carved rooms as well as figures of gods, stupas and decorative work, all carved in stone. Frescoes on the walls and ceilings of both the Ajanta and Ellora caves are believed to date from the early medieval period, between the 8th and 10th centuries,

Medieval India was a time marked by the appearance of a multitude of states and dynasties who were often in conflict with one another. Islamic invasions in India began as early as the 8th century and by the early 12th century, almost all of northern India had been conquered. The dynasties of Medieval India were predominantly Hindu, though some were Jaina and only a very few were Buddhist. Murals continued to flourish during the early medieval period, mainly in caves or rock-cut temples and monasteries such as the caves of Ajanta, Ellora, Bagh and Sittanavasal. Miniature painting began in the early medieval period as illustrations on palm-leaf manuscripts, painted on the leaves (about 2.25 by 3 inches) and wooden covers of Hindu, Jaina and Buddhist texts.

Overview The disintegration of the Gupta Empire towards the end of the 5th and 6th centuries triggered what is known as the medieval period in

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Figure 12.16 Ajanta cave painting An example of a painting from one of the Ajanta caves.

frescoes believed to be from the 7th9th centuries (Figure 12.17). Again, the themes of the frescoes are religious, and generally employ a palette consisting of black, green, yellow, orange, blue and white. In addition to wall murals, there are paintings on the ceiling
Figure 12.18 Detail of Illuminated manuscript The detail on this piece of artwork was created circa 700-1100 CE.

Figure 12.17 Painting from Sittanavasal The Samanar Padukkai"at Sittanavasal.

of Sittanavasal from the 9th century that depict elephants, buffalo, fish, geese, dancing girls and lotus flowers. These frescoes, along with those of the Ajanta caves and Bagh, are considered to be the high point of Medieval Indian art. Miniature painting is believed to have started in the eastern part of and illustrate various Hindu, Buddhist and Jain themes (Figure 12. 16). Sittanavasal dates from the 2nd century and is the most famous of the Jain rock-cut monasteries. It contains remnants of beautiful medieval India, exemplified by illustrations on palm-leaf religious manuscripts (Figure 12.18) painted on the leaves and wooden covers of manuscripts. Some of the most common Buddhist illustrated manuscripts include the "Astasahasrika

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Prajnaparamita" (one of the earliest examples), the "Pancharaksa," the "Karandavyuha," and the "Kalachakrayanatantra." Miniature painting is thought to have developed slightly later in western India, somewhere between the 10th and 12th centuries, and generally exists with Hindu and Jain texts. Human figures are seen predominantly from a profile view, with large eyes, pointy noses and slim waists. The colour palette is often employs black, red, white, brown, blue and yellow. While it is believed that miniature painting came into existence during the medieval period, it was to flourish extensively from the 16th to 19th centuries, during the Mughal empire.
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Section 3

Kushan and Later Andhra Periods

Gandhara Style Mathura Style

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Gandhara Style
Gandh%ra is noted for the distinctive style of Buddhist art that beneted from its interactions with Greek culture.
KEY POINTS

KEY POINTS (cont.)

In Gandharan art, the Buddha is often shown under the protection of the Greek god Herakles, standing with his club resting over his arm. Stucco as well as stone was widely used by sculptors in Gandhara for the decoration of monastic and cult buildings. Stucco provided the artist with a medium of great plasticity, enabling a high degree of expressiveness to be given to the sculpture.

Gandhara is the name of an ancient kingdom (Mahajanapada), located in parts of modern-day northern Pakistan and eastern Afghanistan. The Kingdom of Gandhara lasted from the early first millennium BC to the eleventh century AD. Gandh.ran style flourished and achieved its peak during the Kushan period, from the first to the fifth century. It declined and suffered destruction after the invasion of the White Huns in the fifth century. Gandh.ra is noted for the distinctive Gandh.ra style of Buddhist art, which developed out of a merger of Greek, Syrian, Persian, and Indian artistic influence. The conquests of Alexander the Great in 332 BC lead to the development of Greco-Buddhist art. Gandharan Buddhist sculpture displays Greek artistic influence, and it has been suggested that the concept of the "man-god" was essentially inspired by Greek mythological culture. It contributed to depicting wavy hair, drapery covering both shoulders, shoes, and sandals.

Introduction Gandhara is the name of an ancient kingdom, Mahajanapada, located in parts of modern-day northern Pakistan and eastern Afghanistan. Gandhara was located mainly in the Peshawar Valley, the Pothohar Plateau, and the Kabul River Valley. The Kingdom of Gandhara lasted from the early first millennium BC to the eleventh century AD. Gandharan art style flourished and achieved its peak during the Kushan period, from the first to the fifth centuries. It declined and suffered destruction after the invasion of the White Huns in the fifth century. Style Gandh.ra is noted for the distinctive Gandh.ra style of Buddhist art, which developed out of a merger of Greek, Syrian, Persian, and

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Figure 12.19 Footprint of the Buddha

Figure 12.20 Gandhara Buddha

In Gandharan art, the Buddha is often shown under the protection of the Greek god Herakles, standing with his club (and later a diamond rod) resting over his arm. This unusual representation of Herakles is the same as the one on the back of Demetrius's coins, and it is exclusively associated to him (and his son Euthydemus II), seen only on the back of his coins (Figure 12.21). Greco-Buddhist Art Gandharan Buddhist sculpture displays Greek artistic influence, and it has been suggested that the concept of the "man-god" was
Figure 12.21 Buddha Herakles The Buddha and Vajrapani under the guise of Herakles.

Footprint of the Buddha. 1st century, Gandhara.

Representation of the Buddha in the Greco-Buddhist art of Gandhara, 1st century AD.

Indian artistic influences (Figure 12.19). This development began during the Parthian Period (50 BCAD 75). The art of Gandhara benefited from centuries of interaction with Greek culture since the conquests of Alexander the Great in 332 BC and the subsequent establishment of the Greco-Bactrian and Indo-Greek Kingdoms, leading to the development of Greco-Buddhist art (Figure 12.20).

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essentially inspired by Greek mythological culture. Artistically, the Gandharan School of sculpture is said to have contributed wavy hair, drapery covering both shoulders, shoes, sandals, and acanthus leaf decorations. Stucco as stone was widely used by sculptors in Gandhara for the decoration of monastic and cult buildings. Stucco provided the artist with a medium of great plasticity, enabling a high degree of expressiveness to be given to the sculpture. Sculpting in stucco was popular wherever Buddhism spread from Gandhara: India, Afghanistan, Central Asia, and China.
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Mathura Style
Although based on a strong Indian tradition, the art of Mathura also incorporated elements of the Hellenistic tradition.
KEY POINTS

The art of Mathura tends to be based on a strong Indian tradition, exemplified by the anthropomorphic representation of divinities such as the Yaksas, although in a style rather archaic compared to the later representations of the Buddha. The representations of the Buddha in Mathura, in central northern India, are generally dated slightly later than those of Gandhara, although not without debate, and are also much less numerous. The Mathura sculptures incorporate many Hellenistic elements, such as the general idealistic realism, and key design elements such as the curly hair, and folded garment. Specific Mathuran adaptations tend to reflect warmer climatic conditions, as they consist in a higher fluidity of the clothing, which progressively tend to cover only one shoulder instead of both. Also, facial types also tend to become more Indianized.

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KEY POINTS (cont.)

clothes covering the left shoulder of thin muslin, the wheel on the palm, the lotus seat, etc. Art of Mathura The representations of the Buddha in Mathura are generally dated slightly later than those of Gandhara, although not without debate, and are also much less numerous (Figure 12.22). Up to that point, Indian Buddhist art had essentially been aniconic, avoiding representation of the Buddha, except for his symbols, such as the wheel or the Bodhi tree, although some archaic Mathuran sculptural representation of Yaksas have been dated to the 1st century BCE. Even these Yaksas indicate some Hellenistic influence, possibly dating back to the occupation of Mathura by the Indo-Greeks during the 2nd century
Figure 12.22 Mathura Buddha A Bodhisattva, 2nd century, Mathura.

Mathura and Gandhara also strongly influenced each other. It is still a matter of debate whether the anthropomorphic representations of Buddha were essentially a result of a local evolution of Buddhist art at Mathura, or a consequence of Greek cultural influence in Gandhara. Hindu art started to develop from the 1st to the 2nd century CE and found its first inspiration in the Buddhist art of Mathura. The art of Mathura acquired progressively more Indian elements and reached a very high sophistication during the Gupta Empire, between the 4th and the 6th century CE.

Introduction Mathura is a city in the North Indian state of Uttar Pradesh. In ancient art, anthropomorphic representations of the Buddha started to emerge from the 1st century AD in Northern India. The two main centers of creation have been identified as Gandhara in todays North West Frontier Province, in Pakistan, and the region of Mathura, in central northern India. The art of Mathura tends to be based on a strong Indian tradition, exemplified by the anthropomorphic representation of divinities such as the Yaksas, although in a style rather archaic compared to the later representations of the Buddha. The Mathuran school contributed

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Figure 12.23 Amaravati Scroll Greek oral scroll, supported by Indian Yaksas, Amaravati, 3rd century CE.

Relationship to Gandhara Style Mathura and Gandhara also strongly influenced each other. During their artistic florescence, the two regions were even united politically under the Kushans, both being capitals of the empire. It is still a matter of debate whether the anthropomorphic representations of Buddha were essentially a result of a local evolution of Buddhist art at Mathura, or a consequence of Greek cultural influence in Gandhara through the Greco-Buddhist

BCE (Figure 12.23). The Mathura sculptures incorporate many Hellenistic elements, such as general idealistic realism, and key design elements, such as curly hair and folded garments. Specific Mathuran adaptations tend to reflect warmer climatic conditions, as they consist in a higher fluidity of the clothing, which progressively tend to cover only one shoulder instead of both. Also, facial types also tend to become more Indianized. Banerjee in Hellenism in India describes "the mixed character of the Mathura School in which we find on the one hand, a direct continuation of the old Indian art of Bharut and Sanchi and on the other hand, the classical influence derived from Gandhara." Moreover, the art of Mathura features frequent sexual imagery. Female images with bare breasts, nude below the waist, displaying labia and female genitalia are common. These images are more sexually explicit than those of earlier or later periods.
Figure 12.24 Gupta Buddha Buddha from the Gupta period, Muse Guimet, Paris. Personal photograph, 2004.

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syncretism. This iconic art was characterized from the start by a realistic idealism, combining realistic human features, proportions, attitudes, and attributes, together with a sense of perfection and serenity reaching to the divine. This expression of the Buddha as both man and God became the iconographic canon for subsequent Buddhist art. Influences and Legacy Hindu art started to develop from the 1st to the 2nd century CE and found its first inspiration in the Buddhist art of Mathura. It progressively incorporated a profusion of original Hindu stylistic and symbolic elements, in contrast with the general balance and simplicity of Buddhist art. The art of Mathura acquired progressively more Indian elements and reached a very high sophistication during the Gupta Empire, between the 4th and the 6th century CE. The art of the Gupta is considered as the pinnacle of Indian Buddhist art (Figure 12.24). Today, the Mathura museum is an archaeological museum in Mathura, Uttar Pradesh. The museum was founded by then collector of the Mathura district, Sir F.S. Growse, in 1874. The museum is famous for ancient sculptures of the Mathura school dating from 3rd century BC to 12th century AD.
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Today, the Mathura museum is an archaeological museum in Mathura, Uttar Pradesh. The museum was founded by then collector of the Mathura district, Sir F.S Growse, in 1874. The museum is famous for ancient sculptures of the Mathura school dating from 3rd century BC to 12th century AD.

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Section 4

Southeast Asia

Sri Lanka Java Cambodia

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Sri Lanka
Sri Lankan art and architecture were deeply inuenced by Buddhism, which was introduced to the island in the third century BCE.

KEY POINTS (cont.)

Sculpture was also a notable art form and many fine statues of the Buddha were produced during the Anuradhapura period. The 4th-century Samadhi statue in Anuradhapura is considered one of the finest examples of ancient Sri Lankan sculpture.

KEY POINTS

The earliest examples of Buddhist architecture found in Sri Lanka are cave temples. The most famous of these, the Dambulla temple complex, dates back to the 1st century BCE. The kingdom of Anuradhapura (377 BCE1017 CE), named for its capital city, produced some the finest of ancient Sri Lankan art and architecture. Sri Lankan stupas were among the largest brick structures known to the premodern world. Intended to enshrine relics of the Buddha, they were built in various shapes and often accompanied by a vahalkada or decorative frontispiece. Another architectural creation associated with stupas and unique to ancient Sri Lankan architecture was the vatadage, a circular Buddhist structure built around small stupas. The rock fortress and palace complex of Sigiriya is particularly renowned for its ancient frescoes of female figures bearing flowers, dating from the 5th century and painted in a very distinctive style.

Sri Lankan art and architecture was deeply influenced by Buddhism, which was introduced to the island in the third century BCE by the son of Ashoka, Mahinda. Ashoka, the great Buddhist emperor of the Maurya Dynasty, dedicated himself to the propagation of the religion across Asia. Sri Lanka has the longest continuous history of Buddhism of any Buddhist nation, and its culture reflects its religious tradition. Architecture The earliest examples of Buddhist architecture found in Sri Lanka are cave temples. The most famous of these, the Dambulla temple complex, dates back to the 1st century BCE. This complex consists of five caves and is decorated inside with statues and frescoes of the Buddha and various gods and goddesses from the Buddhist pantheon.

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Figure 12.25 Polonnaruwa Vatadage Vatadage in the ancient city of Polonnaruwa, Sri Lanka, 12th century CE

bell. The Sri Lankan stupa is characterized by its vahalkada, or frontispiece: a structure, often ornately carved, joining the stupa and often using cardinal directions as a decorative flourish. One of the most famous stupas in Sri Lanka is the Jetavanaramaya stupa, which was built during the 3rd and 4th centuries CE in the sacred city of Anuradhapura and is believed to house a part of a sash of the Buddha. Built from baked bricks bound with limestone, sand, and clay, and coated with lime plaster, this stupa stands at 400 feet and was the tallest stupa in the ancient world. Another architectural creation associated with stupas and unique to ancient Sri Lankan architecture was the Vatadage, a circular Buddhist structure built around small stupas. These were usually made of stone and brick and elaborately carved. They may have also had wooden roofs that were supported by stone columns arranged in concentric rows (Figure 12.25). Artistic Style Another famous monument erected under the patronage of Anuradhapura was the rock fortress and palace complex of Sigiriya. Sigirya is particularly renowned for its ancient frescoes, which date from the 5th century and were painted in a very distinctive style. The lines are painted in a manner that enhances the sense of volume of the figures, and the paint is applied in sweeping strokes, using more pressure on one side than the other and giving the effect

The kingdom of Anuradhapura (377 BCE1017 CE), named for its capital city, produced some of the finest ancient Sri Lankan art and architecture. Some of the most distinctive and famous Sri Lankan monuments were built during this period, including a large number of dagobas or stupas, for which the island is renowned. Sri Lankan stupas were among the largest brick structures known to the premodern world. Intended to enshrine relics of the Buddha, they were built in various shapes, including the bubble, the pot, and the

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Figure 12.26 Sigiriya Fresco Depicting women with owers, the Sigiriya frescoes are examples of a distinctive Sri Lankan school of painting from the 5th century CE.

Sculpture was also a notable art form and many fine statues of the Buddha were produced during the Anuradhapura period. The Samadhi statue in Anuradhapura is considered one of the finest examples of ancient Sri Lankan sculpture. Sculpted from dolomite marble, it dates to the 4th century CE and shows the Buddha seated in a position of deep meditation (Figure 12.27).
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Figure 12.27 Samadhi Statue Located in Anuradhapura, this statue dates to the 4th century CE and is a ne example of ancient Sri Lankan Buddhist sculpture.

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of a deeper tone towards the edges. The frescoes all depict beautiful female figures who are carrying flowers and are hypothesized to be apsaras (celestial nymphs), ladies of the king's court, or women taking part in religious rituals (Figure 12.26).

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Java
The art of Java is the result of a complex cultural mixture very di!erent from the original indigenous cultures.

The Culture of Java The culture of Java has been shaped by long interaction between original indigenous customs and multiple foreign influences. Indonesia is centrally-located along ancient trading routes between the Far East and the Middle East. As a result, many cultural practices are strongly influenced by a multitude of local religions.

KEY POINTS

These include Hinduism, Buddhism, Confucianism, Islam and Christianity; all strong in the major trading cities. The result is a complex cultural mixture very different from the original indigenous cultures. A cultural mingling occurred in the southwestern part of Central Java, bringing together Javanese culture and Sundanese culture to create the Banyumasan culture. This area was also named the Banyumasan region. In the central Javanese court cities of Yogyakarta and Surakarta, contemporary kings trace their lineages back to the pre-colonial Islamic kingdoms that ruled the region, making those places especially strong repositories of classical Javanese culture. Classic arts of Java include wayang puppet shows, gamelan music, and the martial art silat. Wayang Theatre Wayang is a Javanese word for particular kinds of theatre (Figure 12.28). When the term is used to refer to kinds of puppet theatre,

The culture of Indonesia has been shaped by long interaction between original indigenous customs and multiple foreign influences. In theatre, Wayang is a Javanese word for particular kinds of theatre. When the term is used to refer to kinds of puppet theatre, sometimes the puppet itself is referred to as wayang. Performances of shadow puppet theatre are accompanied by a gamelan orchestra in Java, and by gender wayang in Bali. In music, gamelan is a traditional musical ensemble from Indonesia, typically from the islands of Java and Bali, featuring a variety of instruments such as metallophones, xylophones, kendang (drums) and gongs; bamboo flutes, bowed and plucked strings. The art of silat was created and firstly developed in the islands of Java and Sumatra. It is an art for survival and practiced throughout Indonesian archipelago. Centuries of tribal wars in Indonesian history had shaped silat as it was used by the ancient warriors of Indonesia.

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Figure 12.28 Wayang Performance

wayang, as a Masterpiece of Oral and Intangible Heritage of Humanity on 7 November 2003. In return for the acknowledgment, UNESCO required Indonesians to preserve their heritage. Wayang kulit, or shadow puppets, are without a doubt the best known of the Indonesian wayang. Kulit means skin, and refers to the leather construction of the puppets that are carefully chiselled with very fine tools and supported with carefully shaped buffalo horn handles and control rods. The stories are usually drawn from the Hindu epics, the Ramayana, the Mahabharata, or from the Serat Menak. Wayang wong is a type of Javanese theatrical performance with themes taken from episodes of Ramayana or Mahabharata. While wayang gedog usually the theatrical performance that took the themes from the Panji cycles stories from the kingdom of

The Wayang Kulit performance by an Indonesian famous "dalang" (puppet master) Ki Manteb Sudharsono with the story "Gathutkaca Winisuda", in Bentara Budaya, Jakarta, to commemorate Kompas daily anniversary.$

Janggala, in which the players wear masks known as wayang topeng or wayang gedog. Music A gamelan is a traditional musical ensemble from Indonesia, typically from the islands of Java and Bali, featuring a variety of instruments such as metallophones, xylophones, kendang (drums) and gongs; bamboo flutes, bowed and plucked strings (Figure 12. 29). Vocalists may also be included. For most Indonesians, gamelan music is an integral part of Indonesian culture. The term refers more to the set of instruments than to the players of those

sometimes the puppet itself is referred to as wayang. Performances of shadow puppet theatre are accompanied by a gamelan orchestra in Java, and by gender wayang in Bali. The term 'wayang' is the Javanese word for shadow, or bayang in standard Indonesian and Malay. In modern daily Javanese and Indonesian vocabulary, wayang is most often associated with the puppet itself or the whole puppet theatre performance. UNESCO designated wayang kulit, a shadow puppet theatre and the best known of the Indonesian

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Figure 12.29 Javanese Gamelan

Figure 12.30 Silat Minangkabaut Silat Minangkabaut, a particular form of silat.$

Javanese gamelan ensemble performance during traditional Javanese Yogyakarta style wedding ceremony at Sasono Utomo, Taman Mini Indonesia Indah, Jakarta, Indonesia.

instruments. A gamelan is a set of instruments as a distinct entity, built and tuned to stay togetherinstruments from different gamelan are generally not interchangeable. In Javanese mythology, the gamelan was created by Sang Hyang Guru in Saka era 167 (c. AD 230). He is considered the god who ruled as king of all Java from a palace on the Maendra mountain in Medang Kamulan (now Mount Lawu). He needed a signal to summon the gods and thus invented the gong. For more complex messages, he invented two other Gongs, thus forming the original gamelan set. Variations of gamelan ensembles are distinguished by their collection of instruments and use of voice, tunings, repertoire, style, and cultural context. In general, no two gamelan ensembles are the same, and those that arose in prestigious courts are often considered to have their own style. Certain styles may also be shared by nearby ensembles, leading to a regional style.

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Silat The art of silat was created and firstly developed in the islands of Java and Sumatra. It is an art for survival and practiced throughout the Indonesian archipelago. Centuries of tribal wars in Indonesian history had shaped silat as it was used by the ancient warriors of Indonesia. Silat was used to determine rank and social position in old Indonesian kingdoms (Figure 12.30). Silat was used by Indonesian freedom fighters during their struggle against Dutch colonists. Unfortunately, after Indonesia achieved its independence, silat became less popular among Indonesian youth compared to foreign martial arts like Karate and Taekwondo. This probably because silat was not taught openly and was only passed down among blood relatives. Another reason is a lack of media portrayal of the art.
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Cambodia
Throughout Cambodia's long history, religion has been a major source of cultural inspiration for dance and music.

KEY POINTS

Over nearly two millennia, Cambodians have developed a unique Khmer belief from the syncreticism of indigenous animistic beliefs and the Indian religions of Buddhism and Hinduism. Dance in Cambodia consists of three main categories: classical dance of the royal court used for invocation, entertainment and to pay homage, folk dance which portrays cultural traditions, and social dances performed in social gatherings. Cambodian Art music is highly influenced by ancient forms as well as Hindu forms. Religious dancing, many of which depict stories and ancient myths, are common.

Cambodia Throughout Cambodia's long history, religion has been a major source of cultural inspiration. Over nearly two thousand years,

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Cambodians have developed a unique Khmer belief from the syncreticism of indigenous animistic beliefs and the Indian religions of Buddhism and Hinduism. Indian culture and civilization, including its languages and arts, reached mainland Southeast Asia around the 1st century AD. It is generally believed that seafaring merchants brought Indian customs and culture to ports along the Gulf of Thailand and the Pacific en route to trade with China. The Kingdom of Funan was most probably the first Khmer state to benefit from this influx of Indian ideas. Dance Dance in Cambodia consists of three main categories: 1. Classical dance of the royal court used for invocation, entertainment and to pay homage 2. Folk dance which portrays cultural traditions 3. Social dances performed in social gatherings (Figure 12.31). Cambodia's premiere performing art form is the Khmer classical dance, or Robam Preah Reach Trop. It is a highly stylized dance form originating from the royal courts. Performances of classical dance consist of elaborately costumed dancers and music played by a pinpeat ensemble. It is performed for invocation of deities and spirits as well as to pay homage to royalty and guests (Figure 12.32).

Figure 12.31 Khmer Dancer Lady dancer in Siem Reap.

Figure 12.32 Royal Ballet of Cambodia The Royal Ballet of Cambodia at curtain call. This was a performance of a dance drama titled 'Apsara Mera' in Paris, France.

In the mid-20th century, it was introduced to the general public and became widely celebrated as iconic of Cambodian culture. It was often performed during public events, holidays, and for tourists visiting Cambodia. Two of the most performed classical dances are the Robam Chun Por ("Wishing dance") and the Robam Tep Apsara ("Apsara dance").

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Music The music of Cambodia is derived both from traditions dating back to the ancient Khmer Empire and from the rapid Westernization of the popular music scene in modern times. Cambodian Art music is highly influenced by ancient forms as well as Hindu forms. Religious dancing, many of which depict stories and ancient myths, are common. Cambodian pop music, or modern music, is divided into two categories: ramvong and ramkbach. Ramvong is slow dance music, while ramkbach is closely related to Thai folk music. In the Siem Reap province, a form of music called kantrum has become popular; originating among the Khmer Surin in Thailand. Kantrum is famous for Thai and Cambodian stars like Darkie.
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Section 5

Southeast Asia From 300600

Sculpture Painting Temple Style of North Monumental Reliefs Temple Style of the South

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Sculpture
The sculpture of Southeast Asia, was heavily inuenced by Indian religions and artistic styles.

KEY POINTS (cont.)

KEY POINTS

The Indic civilization of Champa flourished along the coasts of what is now central and southern Vietnam from 500 CE onwards and left an impressive artistic legacy consisting primarily of sandstone sculptures, both in the round and in relief. In later periods Chinese influence predominated in Vietnam, Laos and Cambodia, and more wooden sculpture survives from across the region.

The communities and cultures of Southeast Asia were in direct contact with India through trade routes. Furthermore, several Indic kingdoms competed for dominance in the region between the 1st and 8th centuries CE, particularly the Cambodian Funan and the Burmese Mon. Most of the Southeast Asian sculpture of the period 300600 CE was heavily influenced by the style of the Gupta Empire in India, which patronized Buddhist art in the Greco-Buddhist style. Southeast Asian Buddha statues of this period were characterized by a purity of statuary and a delicacy in portraying the folds of clothing. Somewhat less attention was paid to the realism of artistic details, and symbolic shell-like curls were used to render the hair of the Buddha.

Between the 1st and 8th centuries CE, several Indic kingdoms competed for dominance in Southeast Asia, particularly the Cambodian Funan and the Burmese Mon. Most of the Southeast Asian sculpture of the period 300600 CE was heavily influenced by the style of the Gupta Empire in India, which patronized Buddhist art in the Greco-Buddhist style. Buddhist art in Thailand was shaped both by direct contact with Indian traders and the expansion of the Mon kingdom. Southeast Asian Buddha statues of this period were characterized by a purity of statuary and a delicacy in portraying the folds of clothing. Somewhat less attention was paid to the realism of artistic details, and symbolic shell-like curls were used to render the hair of the Buddha (Figure 12.33). A number of votive tablets and Sanskrit inscriptions are also found in the region.

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The communities and cultures of Southeast Asia were in direct contact with India through trade routes and heavily influenced by Indian religion and art. The Pali and Sanskrit languages, Indian script, as well as Hindu epic literature, such as the Ramayana and the Mahabharata,
Figure 12.33 Bronze standing Buddha, Thailand, 7th century Sculpted in the Mon Dwaravati style, this bronze statue has an idealized rather than realistic physical form including shell like curls for hair.

Figure 12.34 The Birth of Brahma, sandstone relief, My Son, Vietnam, 7th century

were transmitted to Southeast Asia in this period. Hinduism and Buddhism was brought to the region and became the main religions practiced from about the 1st century BCE to the 13th century CE. These influences played a considerable role in shaping the art and sculpture of Southeast Asia. The Indic
This unnished pediment is a ne example of Hindu art in the style of Champa. The relief sculpture shows the birth of the Hindu god Brahma from a lotus growing from the navel of Vishnu.

civilization of Champa flourished along the coasts of what is now central and southern Vietnam from 500 CE onwards and left an impressive artistic legacy consisting primarily of sandstone sculptures, both in the round and in relief, although relief was the preferred form. These sculptures expressed religious themes and synthesized elements of Hinduism, Buddhism, and indigenous cults. Common themes included Hindu and Buddhist deities and icons, as well as scenes from daily life (Figure 12.34).

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Painting
Little Southeast Asian painting from 300600 has survived but it mostly took the form of frescoes and reected Hindu and Buddhist themes.
KEY POINTS

Very little Southeast Asian painting from 300600 CE has survived to the present day, owing to the heat and humidity of tropical and subtropical weather. Artists worked in perishable mediums, painting mostly on wood, cloth, and palm leaf, none of which have withstood the rigors of the Southeast Asian climate. Frescoes, usually executed on cave temple or monastery walls, would have been the most common form of Southeast Asian painting. Hinduism and Buddhism were introduced to Southeast Asia from the 1st century BCE onwards. There were also several powerful Indic kingdoms in the region, which practiced Hinduism and Buddhism and produced art that reflected their religious beliefs.

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KEY POINTS (cont.)

Hindu art commonly depicted figures from the Hindu pantheon including Shiva, Vishnu, and Shakti. Buddhist art depicted images of the Buddha, the Bodhisattvas or enlightened beings, apsaras or celestial dancers, and tales and parables from Buddhist lore, including the Jataka tales. The most famous surviving examples of Southeast Asian-style frescoes are to be found in the rock fortress and palace ruin of Sigiriya in Sri Lanka. These date from about the 5th-6th centuries CE and depict graceful female figures bearing flowers.

Figure 12.35 Padmapani fresco, Ajanta Caves Dating from 450 500 CE, this mural depicts the Bodhisattva Padmapani who embodies the virtue of compassion

Very little Southeast Asian painting from 300600 CE has survived to the present day, owing to the heat and humidity of tropical and subtropical weather. One can only hypothesize the styles and techniques that painters would have used based on evidence gleaned from sculpture, which is far more durable and has survived, contemporary painting styles in India, which played a huge role in influencing Southeast Asian art, and literary texts that talk about painting. The few examples of painting that do survive are frescoes done on cave or temple walls. Artists worked in perishable mediums, painting mostly on wood, cloth, and palm leaf, none of which have withstood the rigors of the Southeast Asian climate. The most durable forms of Southeast Asian art are sculpture and architecture in stone. It is likely that stone sculptures, both in relief and in the round, were originally painted in bright colors, but these have worn away over the course of time, leaving the underlying stone exposed. Frescoes, usually executed on cave temple or monastery walls, would have been the most common form of Southeast Asian painting. The themes most commonly depicted would probably mimic those found in contemporary Southeast Asian sculptureprimarily religious themes from Hindu and Buddhist mythology. Hinduism

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Figure 12.36 Sigiriya Fresco The frescoes at Sigiriya depict graceful female gures bearing owers.

Asian painting would have depicted court and battle scenes, animals both real and mythical, and scenes from daily life. The most famous surviving examples of Southeast Asian-style frescoes are to be found in the rock fortress and palace ruin of Sigiriya in Sri Lanka. These date from about the 5th6th centuries CE and depict graceful female figures bearing flowers (Figure 12. 36). These figures are hypothesized to be apsaras or women of the king's court. The paint has been applied in sweeping strokes, using more pressure on one side than the other, resulting in deep colors

and Buddhism, both of which originated in the Indian subcontinent, were introduced to Southeast Asia from the 1st century BCE to the 1st century CE onwards. Southeast Asia subsequently came under the influence of several powerful Indic dynasties, which established kingdoms, practiced and spread Hinduism and Buddhism through the region, and patronized art that reflected their religious beliefs. Hindu art commonly depicted figures from the Hindu pantheon including the gods Shiva and Vishnu, and the divine female creative principle or Shakti, and Buddhist art depicted images of the Buddha, the Bodhisattvas or enlightened beings, apsaras or celestial dancers, and tales and parables from Buddhist lore, including the Jataka talesstories about the previous incarnations of the Buddha, both in human and in animal form. It is also possible that Southeast

towards the edge. These frescoes are reminiscent of the contemporary frescoes in the Ajanta Caves in India, which are masterpieces of Buddhist religious art and depict figures from the Buddhist pantheon and scenes from the Jataka tales (Figure 12.35).
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Temple Style of North

North Indian temples often tend to be less orthodox, and in many cases anybody is permitted to enter the innermost sanctum of the temple.

KEY POINTS (cont.)

The innermost heart of the temple is the sanctum where the deity (usually of fixed stone) is present, followed by a large hall for lay worshipers to stand in and obtain "Dar2ana," or divine audience. Dar2ana is a Sanskrit term meaning sight. 0ikhara, a Sanskrit word translating literally to "mountain peak," refers to the rising tower in the Hindu temple architecture of North India. Sikhara over the sanctum sanctorum where the presiding deity is enshrined is the most prominent and visible part of a Hindu temple of North India.

KEY POINTS

India's temple architecture is developed from the creativity of Sthapathis and Shilpis, both of whom belong to the larger community of craftsmen and artisans called Vishwakarma (caste). A small Hindu temple consists of an inner sanctum, the garbha graha or womb-chamber, in which the idol or deity is housed, a congregation hall, and sometimes an antechamber and porch. The garbhagriha is crowned by a tower-like shikara. At the turn of the first millennium CE two major types of temples existed: the northern or Nagara style and the southern or Dravida type of temple. Most temples in North Indian rituals are very simple in stark contrast to South Indian temples which have elaborate rituals due to constant attack from Muslim in North India.

Introduction India's temple architecture is developed from the creativity of Sthapathis and Shilpis, both of whom belong to the larger community of craftsmen and artisans called Vishwakarma (caste). A small Hindu temple consists of an inner sanctum, the garbha graha or womb-chamber, in which the idol or deity is housed, a congregation hall, and sometimes an antechamber and porch. The garbhagriha is crowned by a tower-like shikara. At the turn of the first millennium CE two major types of temples existed, the northern or Nagara style and the southern or Dravida type of temple.

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Figure 12.37 Kedarnath Temple Kedarnath Temple dedicated to Shiva, in Kedarnath, Uttarakhand

or blessing of the deity in the temple or from a great saintly person, such as a great guru. In the temples, there may or may not be many more surrounding corridors, halls, etc. However there will be space for devotees to go around the temple in a clockwise fashion as a mark of respect. In North Indian temples, the tallest towers are built over the sanctum sanctorum. Many old and big temples were destroyed during Islamic Rule in India. 0ikhara, a Sanskrit word translating literally to "mountain peak,"

Northern Style Most temples in North Indian rituals are very simple in stark contrast to South Indian temples which have elaborate rituals due to constant attack from Muslim in North India (Figure 12.37). Also North Indian temples often tend to be less orthodox, and in many cases anyone is permitted to enter the innermost sanctum of the deity and worship the deity personally. In such cases, the deity is not adorned with valuable jewelry (Figure 12.38). The innermost heart of the temple is the sanctum where the deity (usually of fixed stone) is present, followed by a large hall for lay worshipers to stand in and obtain "Dar2ana" or divine audience. Dar2ana is a Sanskrit term meaning sight, vision, apparition, or glimpse. It is most commonly used for "visions of the divine" in Hindu worship, e.g. of a deity, or a very holy person or artifact. One can "receive" darshana

refers to the rising tower in the Hindu temple architecture of North India (Figure 12.39). Sikhara over the sanctum sanctorum where the presiding deity is enshrined is the most prominent and visible
Figure 12.38 Hindu Temple at Tilla Gogian Ancient Hindu temple ruins at Tilla Jogian Salt Range Pakistan

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Figure 12.39 Adinath Jain Temple Sikhara in Khajuraho.

part of a Hindu temple of North India. Originally, the sikharas were homogeneous. But with time, secondary sikharas, smaller and narrower, were plated on the sides of the main sikhara; these are heterogeneous sikharas.

Monumental Reliefs
Sculpture and architecture were intimately connected in Southeast Asia and monumental reliefs were used to decorate the walls of buildings.

KEY POINTS

The Somnath mandir in Gujarat is considered to be one of the twelve jyotirlinga shrines of Lord Shiva, and has a history dating as far back as the beginning of the common area. Delhis Chhatarpur temple comprises one of the largest Hindu temple complexes in India. Numerous traditional shikharbaddha mandirs, such as the BAPS Swaminarayan Mandir in Chicago have also been constructed outside of India.
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Relief is a sculptural technique. To create a sculpture in relief is to give the impression that the sculpted material has been raised above the background plane. Relief sculpture was used to decorate the walls of buildings, particularly Hindu and Buddhist temples, and accomplished on a very large scale. It was greatly influenced by Indian styles and techniques and generally portrayed religious themes with high iconographic precision. Other themes included court and battle scenes, scenes depicting daily life and the customs of the people, and animals, both real and mythical. Most of ancient Southeast Asian relief sculpture was done in bas-relief, where the projecting images have shallow overall depth, although the kingdom of Champa in southern and central Vietnam excelled in haut-relief sculpture, which was marked by much greater depth and undercut areas. The most famous examples of monumental relief sculptures in Southeast Asia are to be found in the 9th-century Buddhist temple of Borobudur in Java, Indonesia.

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precision. Court and battle scenes, scenes depicting daily life and
KEY POINTS (cont.)

the customs of the people, and animals (both real and mythical), were some other common subjects. Most of ancient Southeast Asian relief sculpture was done in bas-relief, where the projecting images have shallow overall depth, although the kingdom of Champa in southern and central Vietnam excelled in haut-relief sculpture, which was marked by much greater depth and undercut areas.

The Khmer of Cambodia were also renowned for their monumental bas-reliefs, which usually took narrative form, depicting stories from history and mythology. The most famous example of Khmer sculpture is the 12th-century Hindu temple of Angkor Wat.

Relief is a sculptural technique which gives the impression that the sculpted material has been raised above the background plane. This is accomplished by cutting into a flat surface of stone or wood, thereby lowering the field and leaving the unsculpted parts seemingly raised. Reliefs depicting figures that are at least life-size or bigger or are attached to monuments of some sort are termed monumental reliefs by art historians, thus distinguishing them from small metal or ivory reliefs, portable sculptures, and diptychs. Monumental Reliefs Monumental reliefs represent an important facet of ancient Southeast Asian art, where sculpture and architecture were intimately connected with one another. As a result, relief sculpture was generally used to decorate the walls of buildingsparticularly Hindu and Buddhist templesand was accomplished on a very large scale. It was greatly influenced by Indian styles and techniques and generally portrayed religious themes with high iconographic

Borobudur The most famous examples of monumental relief sculptures in Southeast Asia are to be found in the 9th-century Buddhist temple of Borobudur in Java, Indonesia. Built during the rein of the Indic Sailendra Dynasty, the temple is constructed to reveal many different levels of terraces, many of which are heavily ornamented
Figure 12.40 Lalitavistara Deva listening to Dhamma Detail of carved relief from Borobudur, depicting a gure from the Buddhist pantheon.

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Figure 12.41 King and Queen with their subjects

and commoners. They provide glimpses of scenes from 8th-century Java: courtly palace life, a hermit in the forest, commoners in the village, temple and marketplace scenes, native vernacular architecture, and flora and fauna. These bas-relief sculptures have served as a reference for historians in the study of ancient Javanese architecture, weaponry, fashion, and transportation (Figure 12.41). In addition, a group of 160 panels of monumental relief sculpture provides a complete illustration of the law of karma or the principles of cause and effect. There are depictions of both praiseworthy activities (including charity and pilgrimage) and blameworthy activities (ranging from gossip to murder), with their

he bas relief of 8th century Borobudur depicted the palace scene of King and Queen accompanied by their subjects. Its strongly suggested that the relief depicted the actual scene of Sailendran royal court.

with intricate bas-reliefs. In total, there are 2,672 individual basreliefs, 1,460 of which depict narratives from Buddhist lore, including the birth and life of the Buddha. The remaining 1,212 are solely decorative. Themes The reliefs have a diverse range of themes. They depict mythical, spiritual beings from the Buddhist pantheon such as bodhisattvas, apsaras and gandharvas, or celestial dancers and musicians; and asuras or demons (Figure 12.40). They also depict images of people: the king and queen, princes, priests, courtiers, soldiers, servants,

Figure 12.42 The Churning of the Sea of Milk, Angkor Wat This episode from Hindu mythology is depicted in basrelief on the south of the east wall of Angkor Wat's third enclosure.

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corresponding rewards and punishments. These panels provide particularly complex scenes of daily life, depicting the full panorama of samsara (the endless cycle of birth and death.) Khmer Temples The Khmer of Cambodia were also renowned for their monumental bas-reliefs, which usually took narrative form, depicting stories from history and mythology. They decorated the tympana (semicircular arched spaces above a doorway), walls, and ceilings with complex scenes. The earliest surviving example of Khmer narrative bas-relief sculpture comes from the 10th-century Hindu temple of Banteay Srei, which has carved tympana and towers depicting scenes from the great Hindu epics, the Ramayana and the Mahabharata. The most famous example of Khmer bas-relief sculpture is undoubtedly at the 12th-century Hindu temple of Angkor Wat, which has 13,000 square meters of narrative basreliefs on the walls of its outer gallery (Figure 12.42).
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Temple Style of the South

Rituals in South Indian temples tend to be orthodox and elaborate, especially in the large vedic brahmincal temples.

KEY POINTS

A Hindu temple is a place of worship for followers of Hinduism. A characteristic of most temples is the presence of murtis (statues) of the Hindu deity to whom the temple is dedicated. They are usually dedicated to one primary deity, the presiding deity, and other deities associated with the main deity. The main architectural styles are the Dravida style of South India, the Nagara style of North India, and the mixed Vesara style. Most of the largest Hindu temples are found in South India, mostly in Tamil Nadu. The richer the temple, the more elaborate the festivals. However, many ancient temples in small villages with great architectural and historical heritage value languish for lack of funds for maintenance.

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Introduction A Hindu temple is a place of worship for followers of Hinduism. A characteristic of most temples is the presence of murtis (statues) of the Hindu deity to whom the temple is dedicated. They are usually dedicated to one primary deity, the presiding deity, and other deities associated with the main deity (Figure 12.43). However, some temples are dedicated to several deities, and others are dedicated to murtis in an iconic form. Many temples are in key geographical points, such as on a hilltop or near waterfalls, caves,
Figure 12.43 Kapaleeswarar Temple, Mylapore, Chennai The tower (gopuram) of the Kapaleeswarar Temple, a typical South Indian temple complex in Chennai, Tamil Nadu.

and rivers, as these are sattvik places and make it easier to contemplate God. The main architectural styles are the Dravida style of South India, and the Nagara style of North India, and the mixed Vesara style. Other styles include the Pahari architectures of Kashmir, Himachal, Uttarakhand, and Nepal; Kerala rainy style; Goa European style; Bali style; Khmer style; and the modern very basic style of a hall with an altar. South Indian Temples Most of the largest Hindu temples are found in South India, mostly in Tamil Nadu (Figure 12.44). Many large bannabs (grand stone

Figure 12.44 Brihadishwara Temple at Sunset Thanjavur - India Brihadeshwara temple complex in Tanjore, Tamil Nadu

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temples) still stand in South India. Rituals tend to be orthodox and elaborate especially in the large vedic brahmincal temples, which follow the pan-Indian Sanskrit agama scriptural traditions. Apart from the main fixed stone deities, processional deities made of panchaloha (an alloy of gold, silver, copper, zinc and tin) are bathed, dressed, decorated with valuables and taken out in processions for festivals throughout the year. The richer the temple, the more elaborate the festivals. However, many ancient temples in small villages with great architectural and historical heritage value languish for lack of funds for maintenance. Famous South Indian temples include the Tirumala Venkateswara Temple in Andhra Pradesh, the Guruvayur temple in Kerala, the Chettikulangara Devi temple in Kerala, and others (Figure 12.45).
Figure 12.45 Chettikulangara Temple The Frontal view of the Chettikulangara Devi Temple

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Section 6

Southeast Asia from 7001300

The Temple Style of the North The Temple Style of the South The Bhakti Movement

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The Temple Style of the North

North Indian temples are often simpler and less orthodox than those in South, and all people are permitted to worship within them.

Introduction India's temple architecture was developed from the creativity of Sthapathis and Shilpis, both of whom belong to a larger community of craftsmen and artisans called Vishwakarma (caste). A small Hindu temple typically consists of an inner sanctum, a congregation hall, and sometimes an antechamber or porch (Figure 12.46). It also

KEY POINTS

contains the garbha graha, or womb-chamber, in which a particular idol or deity is housed, in a process that is called circumambulation. This chamber is often crowned by a tower-like shikara. At the turn of the first millennium CE, two major types of these temples existed, the northern, or Nagara, style and the southern, or Dravida, style. Northern Architectural Design In contrast to the elaborate appearance of South Indian temples, most temples in North India are very simple in design. This is thought to be due, at least in part, to the constant attacks Hindus have suffered from Muslims historically in this region. North Indian temples also tend to be less orthodox than those in the south. In many cases, all castes and categories of people are permitted to enter the innermost sanctum of these temples and worship the deity personally. However, in such cases, deities are not adorned with valuable jewelry. The innermost heart of this type of temple is a sanctum where a deity (usually cast in fixed stone) is present,

India's temple architecture is developed from the creativity of Sthapathis and Shilpis, both of whom belong to the larger community of craftsmen and artisans called Vishwakarma (caste). In contrast to the elaborate appearance of South Indian temples, most temples in North India are very simple in design. This is thought to be due, at least in part, to the attacks, historically, Hindus have suffered from Muslims in this region. Dar2ana is a Sanskrit term meaning sight, vision, apparition, or glimpse. North Indian temples have a specific hall where devotees can receive this blessing. 0ikhara, a Sanskrit word that translate literally to "mountain peak," refers to the tallest tower in Northern Hindu temple architecture. The Somnath Mandir, a temple in Gujarat, is considered to be one of the twelve jyotirlinga shrines of Lord Shiva, and has a history dating as far back as the beginning of the common area.

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Figure 12.46 Hindu Temple at Tilla Gogian

In this type of temple, there may or may not be a number of additional corridors and halls, in addition to these aforementioned worship rooms. However, in all cases, there will be space for devotees to circulate the temple in a clockwise fashion. In Hindu culture, circumambulation is a mark of respect. Many of these temples were destroyed during Islamic Rule of India during the Mughal Empire. 0ikhara, a Sanskrit word that translates literally to "mountain peak, refers to the tallest tower in Northern Hindu temple architecture. Because the sikhara tower is always situated over the sanctum sanctorum, where the presiding deity is enshrined, it is the most prominent and visible part of this temple's architecture. Originally, the sikharas were homogeneous in design, but over time, secondary sikharas, which are smaller and narrower, have been plated on the sides of many of these main sikharas. Notable Northern Temples The Somnath Mandir, a temple in Gujarat, is considered to be one of the twelve jyotirlinga shrines of Lord Shiva, and has a history dating as far back as the beginning of the common area. Delhis Chhatarpur Temple, notable for its size, is one of the largest Hindu temple complexes in India.

A small Hindu temple consists of an inner sanctum, a congregation hall, and sometimes an antechamber and porch. It also contains"the garbha graha, or womb-chamber, in which the idol or deity is housed, in a process that is called circumambulation,

followed by a large hall where lay worshipers can stand and obtain "Dar2ana," or divine audience. Dar2ana is a Sanskrit term meaning sight, vision, apparition, or glimpse, and is most commonly used for "visions of the divine" in Hindu worship. These visions are either of a deity, a very holy person, or an artifact. An individual can "receive" darsana, or the blessing of a particular deity, within the temple, or from a saintly person, such as a great guru.

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The Temple Style of the South

Most of the largest Hindu Temples are found in South India, mostly in Tamil Nadu.

KEY POINTS

Many large bannabs (grand stone temples) still stand in South India. Ritual tends to be orthodox and elaborate especially in the large vedic brahmincal temples, which follow the pan-Indian Sanskrit agama scriptural traditions. Apart from the main fixed stone deities, processional deities made of panchaloha (an alloy of gold, silver, copper, zinc and tin) are bathed, dressed, decorated with valuables and taken out in processions for festivals throughout the year. The richer the temple, the more elaborate the festivals. However, many ancient temples in small villages with great architectural and historical heritage value languish for lack of funds for maintenance.

Temple Styles of India A Hindu temple is a place of worship for followers of Hinduism. A characteristic of most temples is the presence of murtis (statues) of

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Figure 12.47 Brihadishwara Temple at Sunset India The Brihadishwara Temple at Sunset in Thanjavur, India.

Figure 12.48 Chettikulangara Temple Chettikulangara Devi Temple

the Hindu deity to whom the temple is dedicated. They are usually dedicated to one primary deity, the presiding deity, and other deities associated with the main deity. However, some temples are dedicated to several deities, and others are dedicated to murtis in an iconic form. Many temples are in key geographical points, such as a hill top, near waterfalls, caves and rivers, as these are sattvik places and make it easier to contemplate God. The main architectural styles are the Dravida style of South India, and the Nagara style of North India, the mixed Vesara style. Other styles include the Pahari architectures of Kashmir, Himachal, Uttarakhand, and Nepal; Kerala rainy style, Goa European style, Bali style, Khmer style, and the modern very basic style of a hall with an altar.

South Indian Temples Most of the largest Hindu Temples are found in South India, mostly in Tamil Nadu. Many large bannabs (grand stone temples) still stand in South India. Ritual tends to be orthodox and elaborate, especially in the large vedic brahminical temples, which follow the pan-Indian Sanskrit agama scriptural traditions (Figure 12.47). Apart from the main fixed stone deities, processional deities made of panchaloha (an alloy of gold, silver, copper, zinc and tin) are bathed, dressed, decorated with valuables, and taken out in processions for festivals throughout the year. The richer the temple, the more elaborate the festivals. However, many ancient temples in small villages with great architectural and historical heritage value languish for lack of funds for maintenance.

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Famous South Indian temples are Lord Sri Venkateshwara Temple, Tirumala Tirupati temple, Andhra; Guruvayur temple, Kerala; Chettikulangara Devi temple, Kerala (Figure 12.48), among others.
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The Bhakti Movement

The Bhakti Movement resulted in a mass of devotional literature, music, and art that gave India renewed spiritual impetus.
KEY POINTS

The Bhakti movement is a Hindu religious movement in which the main spiritual practice is loving devotion among the Shaivite and Vaishnava saints. The Bhakti movement originated in ancient Tamil Nadu and began to spread to the north during the late medieval ages when north India was under Islamic rule. The Islamic rulers were pressing the public to convert from Hindu to Islam. During the 14th17th centuries, a great Bhakti movement swept through central and northern India, initiated by a loosely associated group of teachers or saints. Beyond the confines of such formal schools and movements, however, the development of Bhakti as a major form of Hindu practice has left an indelible stamp on the faith. Generally a liberal movement, its denouncement of caste offered recourse for Hindus from the orthodox Brahaminical systems. Of course Bhakti's message of tolerance and love was not often heeded by those ensconced in the societal construct of caste.

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Meera Bai, Kabir, Tulsidas, Namdev, Dnyaneshwar, Tukaram and

KEY POINTS (cont.)

other mystics spearheaded the Bhakti movement in the north while Annamacharya, Bhadrachala Ramadas, and Tyagaraja among others propagated Bhakti in the south. They taught that people could cast aside the heavy burdens of ritual and caste and the subtle complexities of philosophy, and simply express their overwhelming

Bhakti resulted in a mass of devotional literature, music, and art that has enriched the world and given India renewed spiritual impetus, one eschewing unnecessary ritual and artificial social boundaries.

Introduction The Bhakti movement is a Hindu religious movement in which the main spiritual practice is loving devotion among the Shaivite and Vaishnava saints. The Bhakti movement originated in ancient Tamil Nadu and began to spread to the north during the late medieval ages when north India was under Islamic rule. The Islamic rulers were pressing the public to convert from Hindu to Islam. The Bhakti movement also countered the prevalent caste ideology which was dividing Hinduism. There was no grouping of the mystics into Shaiva and Vaishnava devotees as in the south. The movement was spontaneous and the mystics had their own versions of devotional expression. During the 14th17th centuries, a great Bhakti movement swept through central and northern India, initiated by a loosely associated group of teachers or saints. Ramananda, Ravidas, Srimanta Sankardeva, Chaitanya Mahaprabhu, Vallabhacharya, Surdas,

Figure 12.49 Raja Ravi Varma Adi Shankara with Disciples, by Raja Ravi Varma (1904).

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love for God. This period was also characterized by a spate of devotional literature in vernacular prose and poetry in the ethnic languages of the various Indian states or provinces. Influences Beyond the confines of such formal schools and movements, however, the development of Bhakti as a major form of Hindu practice has left an indelible stamp on the faith. Philosophical speculation was of concern to the elite, and even the great Advaitist scholar Adi Shankaracharya (Figure 12.49), when questioned as to the way to God, said that chanting the name of the lord was essential. The philosophical schools changed the way people thought, but Bhakti was immediately accessible to all, calling to the instinctive emotion of love and redirecting it to the highest pursuit of God and self-realization. Generally a liberal movement, its denouncement of caste offered recourse for Hindus from the orthodox Brahaminical systems. Of course Bhakti's message of tolerance and love was not often heeded by those ensconced in the societal construct of caste. Altogether, Bhakti resulted in a mass of devotional literature, music, and art that has enriched the world and given India renewed spiritual impetus, one eschewing unnecessary ritual and artificial social boundaries.

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Chapter 13

Deities and Places of Worship

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Section 1

Introduction

Religion as a Theme Timeline

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Religion as a Theme
Religious art is artistic imagery using religious inspiration and motifs and is often intended to uplift the mind to the spiritual.

Figure 13.1 Christian Art: Virgin and Child Virgin and Child. Wall painting from the early catacombs, Rome, 4th century.

KEY POINTS

Most Christian art is allusive, or built around themes familiar to the intended observer. Buddhist art followed believers as the dharma spread and evolved in each new host country. It developed to the north through Central Asia and into Eastern Asia to form the Northern branch of Buddhist art and to the east as far as Southeast Asia to form the Southern branch of Buddhist art. Islamic art prohibited the depiction of representational images in religious art. Therefore, the naturally decorative nature of Arabic script led to the use of calligraphic decorations, which usually involved repeating geometrical patterns that expressed ideals of order and nature. Christian sacred art is produced in an attempt to illustrate, supplement, and portray in tangible form the principles of Christianity. Most Christian groups, regardless of location or culture, use or have used art to some extent, although some have had strong objections to some forms of religious image, and there have been major periods of iconoclasm within Christianity. Most Christian art is allusive, or built around themes familiar to the intended observer. For instance, one of the most common Christian themes is that of the Virgin Mary holding the infant Jesus (Figure Religious art or sacred art is artistic imagery using religious inspiration and motifs. It is often intended to uplift the mind to the spiritual. Sacred art involves the ritual and cultic practices and practical and operative aspects of the path of the spiritual realization within the artist's religious tradition. 13.1). Another is that of Christ on the Cross. For the benefit of the illiterate, an elaborate iconographic system developed to conclusively identify scenes. The oldest surviving Christian paintings are from the site at Megiddo, dated to around the year 70 CE, and the oldest Christian sculptures are from sarcophagi, dating

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Figure 13.2 Sand Mandala Kalachakra, sand mandala, in the Tibetan Buddhist Art Tradition.

throughout Asia and the world. Buddhist art followed believers as the dharma spread, adapted, and evolved in each new host country. It developed to the north through Central Asia and into Eastern Asia to form the Northern branch of Buddhist art and to the east as far as Southeast Asia to form the Southern branch of Buddhist art. In India, Buddhist art flourished and even influenced the development of Hindu art, while Tibetan Buddhist art was created as a meditation practice. An example of Tibetan meditation art is the sand mandala, which were made by monks (Figure 13.2). The
Figure 13.3 Islamic Calligraphy Eighteenth century writing in Ottoman calligraphy. Depicts the phrase 'In the name of God, Most Merciful, Most Gracious'

to the beginning of the second century. Until the adoption of Christianity by Roman Emperor Constantine, early Christian art derived its style and much of its iconography from popular Roman art. Buddhist art originated on the Indian subcontinent following the historical life of Siddhartha Gautama, sixth to fifth century BCE, and thereafter evolved by contact with other cultures as it spread

form of the mandala represents the pure surroundings (palace) of a Buddha on which he meditates to train the mind. The work is rarely, if ever, signed by the artist. Other Tibetan Buddhist art includes metal ritual objects, such as the vajra and the phurba. Islamic art prohibited the depiction of representational images in religious art. Therefore, the naturally decorative nature of Arabic script led to the use of calligraphic decorations, which usually

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involved repeating geometrical patterns that expressed ideals of order and nature (Figure 13.3). It was used on religious architecture, carpets, and handwritten documents and it focuses on spiritual essence rather than physical form. Calligraphy is the most highly regarded and most fundamental element of Islamic art. The employment of calligraphy as ornament had a definite aesthetic appeal but often also included an underlying talismanic component. Geometric patterns make up one of the three non-figural types of decoration in Islamic art, which also include calligraphy and vegetal patterns. Whether isolated or used in combination with non-figural ornamentation or figural representation, geometric patterns are popularly associated with Islamic art, largely due to their aniconic quality. These abstract designs not only adorn the surfaces of monumental Islamic architecture but also function as the major decorative element on a vast array of objects of all types.
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Timeline
Much of religious prehistory and the chronology of religious art history is subject to ongoing debates due to the nature of evidence.

KEY POINTS

This timeline reaches extensively into prehistoric times, and a lack of written records means that much knowledge of prehistoric religion is derived from archaeological records, artwork, other indirect sources, and suppositions. Much of religious prehistory and the chronology of religious art history is therefore subject to ongoing debates. For an example of prehistory, as early as 91307370 BCE includes the estimated lifespan of Gbekli Tepe, the oldest human-made place of worship yet discovered.

The timeline of religion, and religious art, is a chronological catalog of important and noteworthy religious events, including the worship of deities, from prehistoric to modern times. This timeline reaches extensively into prehistoric times, and a lack of written records means that much knowledge of prehistoric religion is derived from archaeological records, artwork, other indirect sources, and suppositions. Much of religious prehistory and the

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chronology of religious art history is therefore subject to ongoing debates. Prehistoric Period 91307370 BCE: The estimated lifespan of Gbekli Tepe, the oldest human-made place of worship discovered (Figure 13.5). 75005700 BCE: The settlements of Catalhoyuk develop as the likely spiritual center of Anatolia. Possibly practicing worship in communal shrines, its inhabitants leave behind numerous clay figurines and impressions of phallic, feminine, and hunting scenes. 55004500 BCE: The Proto-Indo-Europeans emerged. These peoples developed a religion focused on sacrificial ideology, which would influence the religions of the descendant IndoEuropean cultures throughout Europe, Anatolia, and the Indian subcontinent. Ancient History (33rd Century BCE to 3rd Century CE) 3000 BCE: Sumerian Cuneiform emerges from the protoliterate Uruk period, allowing the codification of beliefs and creation of detailed historical religious records (Figure 13.4). 26352610 BCE: The oldest surviving Egyptian Pyramid is commissioned by pharaoh Djoser.

Figure 13.5 Gbekli Tepe Gbekli Tepe, )anlurfa, is the oldest known human-made religious structure.

Figure 13.4 Sumerian Cuneiform (c. 26th century BC) A Sumerian inscription demonstrating the monumental archaic style.

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 2600 BCE: Stonehenge begins to take on the form of its final phase: featuring an increasingly complex setupincluding altar, portal, station stones, etc.that shows consideration of solar alignments. 2560 BCE: The approximate time accepted as the completion of the Great Pyramid of Giza, the oldest pyramid of the Giza Plateau. 24942345 BCE: The first of the oldest surviving religious texts, the Pyramid Texts, are composed in Ancient Egypt. 2200 BCE: Minoan Civilization in Crete develops. Citizens worship a variety of Goddesses. 1367 BCE: Reign of Akhenaton in Ancient Egypt begins. Akhenaton is sometimes credited with starting the earliest known monotheistic religion, which is believed to be the precursor of the monotheistic doctrines of the Abrahamic religions. 1200 BCE: Olmecs build earliest pyramids and temples in Central America. 950 BCE: The Torah begins to be written, generating the core texts of Judaism and foundation of later Abrahamic religions. 563 BCE: Gautama Buddha, founder of Buddhism is born.

Figure 13.6 Mayan Steppe Pyramid: Comalcalco The pyramids of Comalcalco are the the westernmost Mayan steppe pyramids

70 BCE: Siege of Jerusalem and the Destruction of the Temple. In the Mayan civilization, stepped pyramids are constructed (Figure 13.6). 7 BCE36 CE: The approximate time frame for the life of Jesus of Nazareth, the central figure of Christianity. 300 CE: The oldest known version of the Tao Te Ching is written on bamboo tablets. 313 CE: The Edict of Milan decrees religious toleration in the Roman empire. 325 CE: The first Ecumenical Council, the Council of Nicaea, is convened to attain a consensus on doctrine through an assembly representing all of Christendom.

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 380 CE: Theodosius I declares Nicene Christianity the state religion of the Roman Empire. Middle Ages (Fifth to Fifteenth Century) 405 CE: Saint Jerome completes the Vulgate, the first Latin translation of the Bible. 410 CE: The Western Roman Empire begins to decline, signaling the onset of the Dark Ages. 570632: Life of Muhammad ibn Abdull.h RA, the founder of Islam and considered by Muslims to be a messenger of God. 632-661: The Rashidun Caliphate results in the Arab conquest of Persia, Egypt, and Iraq, bringing Islam into those regions. 650: The verses of the Qur'an are compliled in the form of a book in the era of Uthman RA, the third Caliph of Islam. 661-750: The Umayyad Caliphate brings Arab conquest of North Africa, Spain, and Central Asia, marking the greatest extent of the Arab conquests bringing Islam into those regions.

1204: Crusaders of the Fourth Crusade sack the Christian Eastern Orthodox city of Constantinople, capital of the Byzantine Empire. 1500: African religious systems are introduced to the Americas, with the commencement of the trans-Atlantic forced migration. 1517: Martin Luther, of the Protestant Reformation, posts the 95 theses. In the Spanish Empire, Catholicism is spread and encouraged through such institutions as missions and the Inquisition. Early Modern and Modern Era 17891799: The Dechristianisation of France during the Revolution: the state confiscates Church properties, bans monastic vows with the passage of the Civil Constitution of the Clergy, removes the Church from the Roman Pope and subordinates it as a department of the Government, replaces the traditional Gregorian Calendar, and abolishes Christian holidays. 1791: Freedom of religion, enshrined in the Bill of Rights, is

712: Kojiki, the oldest Shinto text is written. 11991204: The Fourth Crusade takes place.

amended into the Constitution of the United States, forming an early and influential secular government.

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 1917: The October Revolution, in Russia, leads to the annexation of all church properties and subsequent religious suppression.
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Section 2

Images of Deities

Animism Polytheism Pantheism Monotheism Humans and their Deities Ceremonies O"erings Sacrices Prayers

The Cosmos

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Animism
Animism is the religious belief attributing a spiritual essence to natural phenomena, including animals, plants, and inanimate objects.

religions. Although each tribe is unique in its specific mythologies and rituals, the term animism is often used to describe the most common thread of native tribespeoples' spiritual or supernatural perspectives. Most contemporary animist native tribal people do not have a word in their languages that corresponds to "animism," it is a purely anthropological term rather than one self-designated by tribespeople themselves. In terms of its features, animism is defined as a set of beliefs based on the existence of non-human "spiritual beings" or similar kinds of embodied principles. Animists hold that there is no separation between the spiritual and material world, and that souls or spirits existnot only in humans, but also in all other animals, plants, rocks, geographic features such as mountains and rivers, or other entities of the natural environment. Animism may further attribute souls to abstract concepts such as words, true names, or metaphors in mythology. Animism is a belief held in many religions around the world, and is not, as some have purported, a type of religion in itself. It is a belief, such as shamanism, polytheism, or monotheism, that is found in several religions. Examples of animism can be

KEY POINTS

In terms of its features, animism is defined as a set of beliefs based on the existence of non-human spiritual beings: that there is no separation between the spiritual and material world and souls exist not only in humans, but also in all other entities of the natural environment. Animism is used in the anthropology of religion as a term for the religion of indigenous tribal peoples, especially prior to the development of civilization and organized religions. Examples of animist art are as varied and diverse as the multiple world religions that have produced them. However, the common element among them is that they depict natural elements (animals, nature, earth) as spiritual entities.

Animism is the religious belief of attributing a spiritual essence to natural phenomena, including animals, plants, and sometimes inanimate objects. Specifically, animism is used in the anthropology of religion as a term for the religion of indigenous tribal peoples, especially prior to the development of civilization and organized

found in forms of Shinto, Serer, Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism, Pantheism, Paganism, and Neopaganism. Examples of animist art are as varied and diverse as the multiple world religions that have produced them. However, the common

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Figure 13.7 Quetzacoatl

Figure 13.9 Horus

element among them is that they depict natural elements (animals, nature, earth) as spiritual entities. Some, like the Aztecs, are capable of a god's destructive violence (Figure 13.7); while others, such as the Hindu, hold the cow sacred as a spiritual symbol (Figure 13.8). Other groups, most notably the ancient Egyptians, fused animal features with human limbs in visual depictions of their pantheon (Figure 13.9).

Quetzalcoatl, an Aztec man, depicted as a snake devouring a man, from the Codex Telleriano-Remensis. Figure 13.8 Hindu Cow

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In Hinduism, the cow is not considered a god, but rather, a symbol of wealth, strength, abundance, seless giving, and a full Earthly life.

Horus, the Egyptian god of war, is depicted in ancient Egyptian art as a human gure with a a falcon head, wearing a red and white crown, as a symbol of kingship over the entire kingdom of Egypt.

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Polytheism
Polytheism is the belief in multiple deities assembled into a pantheon of gods and goddesses, along with their own religions and rituals.
KEY POINTS

delineated from the animist beliefs and art prevalent in most folk religions. The gods of polytheism are in many cases the highest order of a continuum of supernatural beings or spirits, which may include ancestors, demons, wights, and others. In some cases these spirits are divided into celestial (heavenly) or chthonic (infernal) classes, and belief in the existence of all these beings does not imply that all are worshiped.
Figure 13.10 Temple of Isis The Temple of Isis at Philae, with pylons and an enclosed court on the right and the inner building at left.

Polytheist art is as varied as the cultures and regions where it is or was found. The deities of polytheism are often portrayed as complex personages of greater or lesser status. Polytheism cannot be completely separated from the animist beliefs and art prevalent in most folk religions.

Polytheism is the worship or belief in multiple deities usually assembled into a pantheon of gods and goddesses, along with their own religions and rituals. The term comes from the Greek poly ("many") and theoi ("gods") and was first invented by the Jewish writer Philo of Alexandria. The deities of polytheism are often portrayed as complex personages of greater or lesser status, with individual skills, needs, desires, and histories. In many ways these deities are similar to humans (anthropomorphic) in their personality traits, but with additional individual powers, abilities, knowledge, or perceptions. Polytheism cannot be entirely Some well-known historical polytheistic pantheons include the Sumerian gods and the Egyptian gods, and the classical pantheon which includes the ancient Greek religion and Roman religion. Post-classical polytheistic religions include Norse sir and Vanir, the Yoruba Orisha, the Aztec gods, and many others. Today, most historical polytheistic religions are referred to as "mythology," although the stories cultures tell about their gods should be distinguished from their worship or religious practice. For instance deities portrayed in conflict in mythology would still be worshiped

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Figure 13.11 Twelve Olympians

local cult, as with Egyptian Osiris worship brought to ancient Greece. Polytheist art is as varied as the cultures and regions where it is found. Many cities who worshiped one particular deity often featured a large temple or shrine in the city center. These temples were a sacred space where believers could go with offerings and prayers and to seek oracular guidance from temple priests, as in the ancient Egyptian tradition (Figure 13.10). Similarly, polytheist
Figure 13.12 Seated Buddhas (rst half of the 6th c. Ceramic, h. of bodhisattva 17 cm; National Museum of Korea) Seated Buddhas and bodhisattvas from Wono-ri, Goguryeo

Fragment of a Hellenistic relief (1st century BC 1st century AD) depicting the Twelve Olympians carrying their attributes in procession; from left to right: Hestia (scepter), Hermes (winged cap and sta!), Aphrodite (veiled), Ares (helmet and spear), Demeter (scepter and wheat sheaf), Hephaestus (sta!), Hera (scepter), Poseidon (trident), Athena (owl and helmet), Zeus (thunderbolt and sta!), Artemis (bow and quiver), and Apollo (cithara).

sometimes in the same temple side by side, illustrating the distinction in the devotees mind between the myth and the reality. In many civilizations, pantheons tended to grow over time. Deities first worshiped as the patrons of cities or places came to be collected together as empires extended over larger territories. Conquests could lead to the subordination of the elder culture's pantheon to a newer one, as in the Greek Titanomachia, and possibly also the case of the sir and Vanir in the Norse mythos. Cultural exchange could lead to "the same" deity being renowned in two places under different names, as with the Greeks, Etruscans, and Romans, and also to the introduction of elements of a "foreign" religion into a

groups often depicted cult images of their pantheons in sculpture or paint, as in relief carvings of the Twelve Greek Olympians Figure 13. 11). Other polytheistic art examples include small devotional pieces intended for meditation, as demonstrated by these seated Korean Buddhist statues (Figure 13.12).

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Pantheism
Pantheism refers to a belief in an all-encompassing God in which nature is equivalent with divinity.

KEY POINTS

Pantheists do not believe in a personal or anthropomorphic god that transcends the universe. Pantheism was popularized in the modern era through the work of Baruch Spinoza. Since pantheism appears in multiple varieties, artistic expression of pantheism is similarly varied.

Pantheism is a word derived from the Greek roots pan (meaning "all") and theos (meaning "God"). It is the belief that everything composes an all-encompassing God: in other words, the universe (or nature) is identical with divinity. Pantheists, thus, do not believe in a personal or anthropomorphic god that transcends the universe; however, pantheists do differ in their exact interpretations of the term. Pantheism was popularized in the modern era as both a theology and philosophy based on the work of Baruch Spinoza, whose treatise, Ethics, was an answer to Ren Descartes's famous dualist

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Figure 13.13 Hindu Cow In Hinduism, the cow is a symbol of wealth, strength, abundance, seless giving, and a full earthly life.

Figure 13.14 Taoism and Sex A Chinese print depicting "The Joining of the Essences," based on Tang Dynasty art

theory that the body and spirit are separate. Spinoza held that the two are the same, and this monism is a fundamental quality of his philosophy. He was described as a "God-intoxicated man" and used the word "God" to describe the unity of all substance. Though the term "pantheism" was not coined until after his death, Spinoza is regarded as the most celebrated advocate of pantheism. There are many ways of categorizing the different varieties of pantheism. For example, Paul D. Feinberg, professor of biblical and systematic theology at Trinity Evangelical Divinity School, has

identified seven categories of pantheism. Artistic expression of pantheism is similarly varied. For instance, Hindu religious texts are generally considered the oldest known literature containing pantheistic ideas. In Hindu Sanatana Dharma theology, Brahm/Parabrahma is the one unchanging, infinite, immanent, and transcendent reality which is the divine ground of all things in this universe. According to this belief, since the universe has come forth from the divine, all things and beings are sacred and must be treated so in human thought and

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Figure 13.15 World Pantheist Movement Symbol Spiral images favored in the World Pantheist Movement's symbol

equivalent of heaven and earth. Because of this divine significance, every position and action in lovemaking had importance. Taoist texts described a large number of special sexual positions that served to cure or prevent illness. In the last quarter of the twentieth century, two organizations that incorporate pantheism were formed. The Universal Pantheist Society, open to all varieties of pantheists and supportive of environmental causes, was founded in 1975, but it has seen decreased activity in recent years. The other is the World Pantheist Movement, founded in 1999, which is headed by environmentalist and writer Paul Harrison. The World Pantheist Movement focuses exclusively on promoting a naturalistic version of pantheism, considered by some a form of religious naturalism. It has also been described as a "dark green religion" with a focus on environmental ethics (Figure 13.15).
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action. Hindu art, therefore, often depicts the multiple incarnations of the pantheon or the sacred beings found in nature, in particular the cow, which symbolizes life and wealth, as seen in (Figure 13.13). Taoism also contains elements of pantheism. Specifically, the Tao te Ching never speaks of a transcendent God, but of a mysterious and numinous ground of being underlying all things and that the divine is found in all aspects of nature. Artistic representations of the Tao, or "way," sometimes depict the flow and order of the universe. For example, Taoists considered sexual intercourse an important practice in regulating the "flow of essences" between men and women, promoting longevity and the expression of yin and yang (Figure 13.14). Yang usually referred to the male gender, whereas yin could refer to the female gender; man and woman were the

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Monotheism
Monotheism is the belief in the existence of one god or in the oneness of God, in contrast to polytheism, the belief in several deities.

any theory of the natural progression of religions from polytheism to henotheism to monotheism, even in visual records. Furthermore, in monotheistic religious art, God, or the Supreme Deity, is often presented with multiple forms or, in the Christian case, is understood to be part of a Divine Trinity. Hence, visual representations of monotheism are, in some cases, difficult to distinguish from polytheistic motifs. Although monotheism is the belief in a singular God, polytheism is somewhat reconcilable with inclusive monotheism or other forms of monism. For instance, as an ancient religion, Hinduism
Figure 13.16 Krishna

KEY POINTS

Ancient historical incidences of monotheism are so rare, that it is difficult to support any theory of the natural progression of religions from polytheism to henotheism to monotheism, even in visual records. Although monotheism is the belief in a singular God, polytheism is somewhat reconcilable with inclusive monotheism or other forms of monism. In monotheistic religious art, God, or the Supreme Deity, is often presented with multiple forms or, in the Christian case, is understood to be part of a Divine Trinity. Hence, visual representations of monotheism are, in some cases, difficult to distinguish from polytheistic motifs.

Monotheism is the belief in the existence of one god or in the oneness of God, in contrast to polytheism, the belief in several deities. The word monotheism is derived from the Greek monos, meaning "single" and theos, meaning "god." Ancient historical incidences of monotheism are so rare that it is difficult to support

inherits religious concepts spanning monotheism and polytheism, and its complex concept of God depends upon each
Krishna displays his Vishvarupa (Universal Form) to Arjuna on the battleeld of Kurukshetra.

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Figure 13.17 The Adoration of the Golden Calf by Nicolas Poussin Golden calf imagery inuenced by the Greco-Roman bacchanal

golden calf, a popular motif since adopted in religious art (Figure 13.17). The Christian notion of a Godhead Trinity and the doctrine of Jesus as God incarnate is rejected by adherents of Judaism and Islam. Modern Christians, though, believe God is triune, meaning that the three persons of the Trinity (Father, Son and Holy Spirit) are in one union in which each figure is also wholly God. Christians also do not
Figure 13.18 Crucixion!painting by D. Velzquez, 17th century Crucixion, representing the death of Jesus on the Cross

individual and the tradition followed. Hinduism cannot be said to be purely polytheistic, as all Hindu religious leaders have repeatedly stressed that while God's forms are many and the ways to communicate are many, God is one. Hindu religious art, therefore, sometimes depicts a single figure with multiple faces, limbs, or forms, expressing this inclusion of "many" in "one" all-powerful figure (Figure 13.16). Further, the ancient roots of monotheistic Judaism lie in the Bronze Age polytheistic Ancient Semitic religions. Both archaeological evidence and Biblical texts document tensions between groups comfortable with the worship of Yahweh, or God, alongside local deities such as Asherah and Baal, and those insistent on the worship of Yahweh alone. This tension is best expressed in the Book of Exodus, when Moses was enraged by the Israelites' worship of the

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Figure 13.19 Friday Mosque Tiled exterior of the Friday Mosque of Herat, Afghanistan

such as the idea of a duality of God by arguing that both good and evil generate from God's creative act. God is a universal god rather than a local, tribal, or parochial one: an absolute who integrates all affirmative values and brooks no evil. Islamic art focuses on geometric design, as the Qur'an preaches that depicting human or divine form is idolatrous. Hence, mosques and prayer books are often lavishly decorated with patterns and mosaics rather than depictions of Allah or religious ceremony (Figure 13.19).
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believe that one of the three divine figures is God alone and the other two are not, but that all three are God and one. Most Christian art, however, focuses on Jesus, particularly at the Crucifixion (Figure 13.18) or from the Bible, while the Holy Spirit is often depicted as a dove or tongue of fire, and God the Father is rarely visually depicted. In Islam, All.h (God) is all-powerful and all-knowing, the creator, sustainer, ordainer, and judge of the universe. God in Islam is strictly singular (tawhid) unique (wahid) and inherently One (ahad), all-merciful and omnipotent. All.h is the only God and the same God worshiped in Christianity and Judaism. The Qur'an, the central religious text of Islam, asserts the existence of a single and absolute truth that transcends the world, a unique indivisible being independent of the creation, rejecting binary modes of thinking

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Humans and their Deities

A deity is a natural or supernatural being with superhuman powers or qualities, who may be thought of as holy, divine, or sacred.
KEY POINTS

various ranks. Deities are depicted in a variety of forms, but are also frequently expressed in religious art as having human form, although some faiths and traditions consider it blasphemous to imagine or depict the deity as having any concrete form. Deities are often thought to be immortal, and are commonly assumed to have personalities and to possess consciousness, intellects, desires, and emotions comparable but usually superior to those of humans. Natural phenomena whose causes are not understood, such as lightning and catastrophes like earthquakes and floods, are sometimes attributed to them. They may be thought to be able to work supernatural miracles and to be the authorities and controllers of various aspects of human life (such as birth or death). Theories and myths about, and modes of worship of, deities are largely a matter of religion, and have varied extensively over recorded history. For example, human burials between 50,000 and 30,000 BCE provide evidence of human belief in an afterlife and possibly in deities, although it is not clear when human belief in deities became the dominant view. Some deities are thought to be invisible or inaccessible to humans, dwelling mainly in otherworldly, remote or secluded and holy places, such as the concept of Heaven and Hell, or in a supernatural plane or celestial sphere. Typically, they rarely reveal or manifest themselves to humans, and make themselves known mainly through their effects.

Deities are depicted in a variety of forms but are also frequently expressed in religious art as having human form, although some faiths and traditions consider it blasphemous to imagine or depict the deity as having any concrete form. Theories and myths about, and modes of worship of, deities are largely a matter of religion, and have varied extensively over recorded history. For example, human burials between 50,000 and 30,000 BCE provide evidence of human belief in an afterlife and possibly in deities. The boundary between human and divine in most cultures is by no means absolute. Demigods are the offspring of a union between human and deity, and most royal houses in Antiquity claimed divine ancestors. The religious art of this tradition often depicts royal figures with religious iconography.

A deity is a natural or supernatural being with superhuman powers or qualities who may be thought of as holy, divine, or sacred. Some religions have one supreme deity, others have multiple deities of

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Figure 13.20 Japanese Emperor Jimmu Depiction of bearded Emperor Jimmu with his emblematic long bow and an accompanying wild birdartwork by Tsukioka Yoshitoshi (18391892).

Figure 13.21 Hatshepsut

Figure 13.22 Naran-Sin of Akkad

Sphinx of Hatshepsut, the ancient Egyptian female pharaoh, with unusual rounded ears and ru! that stress the lioness features of the statue

Naram-Sin, the rst Mesopotamian king known to have claimed divinity for himself (worshiped as the Akkadian moon god), depicted on his victory stele

Monotheistic deities are often thought of as being omnipresent though invisible. In polytheism, deities are conceived of as a counterpart to humans: humans are defined by their station subject to the deities, nourishing them with prayers or sacrifices, and deities are defined

by their sovereignty over humans, punishing and rewarding them, but also depending on their worship. This same concept is also present in monotheistic and henotheistic religions. The boundary between human and divine in most cultures is by no means absolute. Demigods are the offspring of a union between human

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and deity, and most royal houses in Antiquity claimed divine ancestors. For instance, beginning with Djedefra (26th century BCE), the Egyptian pharaohs called themselves "Son of Ra" as well as "Bull (son) of his Mother," among their many titles. Hatshepsut, who ruled from 1479 BC to 1458 BC, traced her heritage not only to her father, Thutmose I, who would have become deified upon his deathbut also to the deity, Mut, as a direct ancestor. Some human rulers, such as the Kings of Egypt, the Japanese Tennos (emperors, Figure 13.20), and some Roman Emperors have been worshiped by their subjects as deities while still alive. In many cultures, rulers and other prominent or holy persons are thought to become deities upon death. The religious art of this tradition (reifying kings and queens as deities) therefore often depicts royal figures with religious iconography. In some cases, this included a fusion of animal form with the face of the king or queen (as in the Hatshepsut-Sphinx, Figure 13.21) or as the god-king victors of an epic battle, as in the stele of Naran-Sin of Akkad (the first Mesopotamian king to claim divinity for himself, Figure 13.22). In some cases, especially in the monotheistic traditions, the divine is not thought of by many believers in the same terms as deitiesas a powerful, anthropomorphic supernatural beingbut rather becomes esoteric and ineffablethe Ultimate, the Absolute Infinite,

etc. In this view, God (Allah, Yaweh, Jesus Christ, etc.) is not a deity, and the anthropomorphic myths and iconography associated with him are regarded as symbolism, allowing worshipers to speak and think about something which otherwise would be beyond human comprehension.
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Ceremonies
A ceremony typically describes an event of ritual signicance, performed on a special occasion.

depicted as events of communal worship, in which believers gather together to celebrate a particular religious process that accompanies major rites of passage. Because "ceremonies" is a broad term that encompasses a disparate range of religious cultural practices as well as aesthetic traditions, it

KEY POINTS

is most effective to focus on art that depicts three popular forms of ceremonial processes: dancing, funereal or burial rites, and festivals. In many indigenous American traditions, dancing was often a component of religious ceremonies. For example, the Ghost Dance was a nineteenth-century religious movement which was incorporated into numerous Native American belief systems. According to this belief, proper practice of the Ghost Dance would reunite the living with the spirits of the dead and bring peace, prosperity, and unity to native peoples throughout the region. The basis for the Ghost Dance, the circle dance, is a traditional ritual

A ceremony typically marks a rite of passage in a human life, marking the significance of birth, initiation, puberty or social adulthood, graduation, death, burial, spiritual events, and weddings. In religious art, ceremonies are often depicted as events of communal worship, in which believers gather together to celebrate a particular religious process that accompanies major rites of passage. Three popular forms of ceremonial processes are: dancing, funereal or burial rites, and festivals.

A ceremony typically describes an event of ritual significance, performed on a special occasion. The word may be of Etruscan origin, via the Latin caerimonia. A ceremony typically marks a rite of passage in a human life, marking the significance of birth, initiation, puberty or social adulthood (Bar or Bat Mitzvah), graduation, death, burial (funeral), spiritual events (baptism, communion), and weddings. In religious art, ceremonies are often

which has been used by many Native Americans since prehistoric times, but this new form was first practiced among the Nevada Paiute in 1889. The practice swept throughout much of the Western United States, quickly reaching areas of California and Oklahoma. As the Ghost Dance spread from its original source, Native American tribes synthesized selective aspects of the ritual with their

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Figure 13.23 Sioux!Ghost Dance: Native American Prayers, 1891

carried from the deceased person's house to the tomb in a funeral procession that included his or her friends and relatives, along with a variety of priests. Before the burial, these priests performed several rituals, including the Opening of the Mouth ceremony intended to restore the dead person's senses and give him or her the ability to receive offerings (Figure 13.24). Then the mummy was buried and the tomb sealed. Afterward, relatives or hired priests gave food offerings to the deceased in a nearby mortuary chapel at regular intervals. Finally, many religious ceremonies are also known as festivals, or feast days which include ritualistic actions and feasting or fasting.

Ghost Dances inuenced many Native American religions. According to this ceremonial tradition, proper practice of the dance would reunite the living with the spirits of the dead and bring peace, prosperity, and unity to native peoples throughout the region.

Figure 13.24 Opening of the Mouth The Opening of the Mouth ceremony, an ancient Egyptian funereal rite, being performed before a tomb.

own beliefs. The Ghost Dance of the Sioux is depicted as a synchronized ritualistic activity (Figure 13.23). In Ancient Egypt, funereal rites were ritualized in a ceremonial process known as mummification. Because it was considered necessary for the survival of the soul, preservation of the body was a central part of Egyptian funerary practices. Thus the Egyptians developed their elaborate embalming practices, in which the corpse was artificially desiccated and wrapped to be placed in its coffin. Once the mummification process was complete, the mummy was

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Figure 13.25 Compitalia Fresco

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A rare fresco from a building near Pompeii, depicting Roman men in togas with dark red borders, probably participating in the Compitalia.

In the ancient Roman religion, the Compitalia was a festival celebrated once a year in honor of the Lares Compitales, household deities of the crossroads, to whom sacrifices were offered at the places where two or more paths met (Figure 13.25). During the celebration of the festival, each family placed the statue of the underworld goddess Mania at the door of their house. They also hung up at their doors figures of wool representing men and women, accompanying them with humble requests that the Lares and Mania would be contented with those figures, and spare the people of the house. During the Roman Republic, public games were added to the festival.

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O!erings
Religious o!erings, also known as sacrices, are the o!erings of food, objects, or the lives of animals to God as an act of worship.

Figure 13.26 Ancient Greek Animal Sacrice Animal sacrice o!ered together with libation in Ancient Greece. Attic red-gure oinochoe, ca. 430 425 BC (Louvre).

KEY POINTS

Religious art often depicts the act of sacrifice according to the traditions and norms of a given religious society. The term "sacrifice" is also used metaphorically to describe selfless good deeds for others or a short term loss in return for a greater power gain. Recently, it has also come into use as meaning "doing without something" or "giving something up." While sacrifice often implies ritual killing, the term offering (Latin oblatio) can be used for bloodless sacrifices of cereal food or artifacts. For offerings of liquids (beverages) by pouring, the term libation is used.

libation is used. Religious art often depicts the act of sacrifice according to the traditions and norms of a given religious society. The Latin term came to be used of the Christian eucharist in particular, sometimes named a "bloodless sacrifice" to distinguish it from blood sacrifices. In individual pre-Christian ethnic religions, terms translated as "sacrifice" include the Indic yajna, the Greek thusia, the Germanic bl3tan, the Semitic qorban/qurban, etc. The term is also used metaphorically to describe selfless good deeds for others or a short term loss in return for a greater power gain. Recently, it has also come into use as meaning "doing without something" or "giving something up." Animal sacrifice is the ritual killing of an animal as part of a religion (Figure 13.26). It is practiced by adherents of many religions as a

Religious offerings, also known as sacrifices, are the offerings of food, objects, or the lives of animals (and sometimes humans) to a higher purpose, to God, or gods as an act of propitiation or worship. While sacrifice often implies ritual killing, the term offering (Latin oblatio) can be used for bloodless sacrifices of cereal food or artifacts. For offerings of liquids (beverages) by pouring, the term

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Figure 13.27 Yagya Symbolism Depicts the symbolism of a yagya ceremony, (Clockwise from left top corner) Rishi, Pitri, Bhuta, Manushya and (centre) Deva yajnas.

charity (a portion of the meat from the slaughtered animal is given to the poor) as well as an act of piety. Finally, in Yagya, a Hindu tradition, offerings of ghee (clarified butter), grains, spices, and wood placed into a fire are made along with the chanting of sacred mantras (Figure 13.27). These offerings can represent devotion, aspiration, and seeds of past karma. Sacrifice in Hinduism can also refer to personal surrender through acts of inner and outer worship.
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means of appeasing a god or gods or changing the course of nature. It also served a social or economic function in those cultures where the edible portions of the animal were distributed among those attending the sacrifice for consumption. Animal sacrifice has turned up in almost all cultures, from the Hebrews to the Greeks and Romans (particularly the purifying ceremony Lustratio), Ancient Egyptians (for example in the cult of Apis) and from the Aztecs to the Yoruba. Human sacrifice was also practiced by many ancient cultures. People would be ritually killed in a manner that was supposed to please or appease a god or spirit. In Catholicism, sacrifice is practiced through the Eucharist, in which the death and transubstantiation of Christ is reenacted in communion. In Islam, animal sacrifice is performed as an act of

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Sacrices
Sacrice is the o!ering of food, objects or the lives of animals to God or gods as an act of propitiation or worship.
KEY POINTS

Animal sacrifice is the ritual killing of an animal as part of a religion. It is practiced by adherents of many religions as a means of appeasing a god or gods or changing the course of nature (Figure 13.29). It also served a social or economic function in those cultures where the edible portions of the animal were distributed among those attending the sacrifice for consumption. Animal sacrifice has turned up in almost all cultures, from the Hebrews to the Greeks and Romans, Ancient Egyptians and from the Aztecs to the Yoruba. Human sacrifice was practiced by many ancient cultures. People would be ritually killed in a manner that was supposed to please or
Figure 13.28 Aztec Human Sacrice Aztec human sacrice, from Codex Mendoza, 16th century (Bodleian Library, Oxford).

Images of animal sacrifice are prevalent in religious art from various cultures: including ancient polytheist religions, Christian, Judaic, and Islam. Often, this art is celebratory of sacrifices and the spiritual commune depicted between God or gods and believers. Animal sacrifice is the ritual killing of an animal as part of a religion. It is practiced by adherents of many religions as a means of appeasing a god or gods or changing the course of nature.!Human sacrifice was also practiced by many ancient cultures.

Sacrifice is the offering of food, objects or the lives of animals to a higher purpose or to God or the gods as an act of propitiation or worship. Images of animal sacrifice are prevalent in religious art from various cultures: including ancient polytheist religions, Christian, Judaic, and Islam. Often, this art is celebratory of sacrifices and the spiritual commune depicted between God or gods and believers.

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Figure 13.29 Ancient Greek Animal Sacrice Animal sacrice o!ered together with libation in Ancient Greece. Attic red-gure oinochoe, ca. 430 425 BC (Louvre).

to the animal sacrifices that the surrounding pagan tribes used as the primary way to commune with their gods. As such, in Maimonides' view, it was only natural that Israelites would believe that sacrifice was a necessary part of the relationship between God and the Jews. In Christian teaching, God became incarnate in Jesus Christ, sacrificing his first-born son to accomplish the reconciliation of God and humanity, which had separated itself from God through sin. According to a view that has featured prominently in Western

appease a god or spirit. The Aztecs practiced human sacrifice on an unusually large scale; a sacrifice would be made every day to aid the sun in rising, the dedication of the great temple at Tenochtitln was reportedly marked with the sacrificing of thousands, and there are multiple accounts of captured Conquistadores being sacrificed during the wars of the Spanish conquest of Mexico (Figure 13.28). The centrality of sacrifices in Ancient Israel is clear, with much of the Bible, particularly the opening chapters of the book Leviticus, detailing the exact method of bringing sacrifices. Sacrifices were either blood sacrifices (animals) or bloodless offerings (grain and wine). Maimonides, a medieval Jewish rationalist, argued that God always held sacrifice inferior to prayer and philosophical meditation. However, God understood that the Israelites were used

Figure 13.30 The Eucharist

The Eucharist has been a key theme in the depictions of the Last Supper in Christian art, as in this 16th-century Juan de Juanes painting.

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theology, God sent Jesus, as a sacrifice to atone for human sin. In Christian theology, this sacrifice, known as the Eucharist, replaced the insufficient animal sacrifice of the Old Covenant and is celebrated in mass as the sacrament Communion (Figure 13.30). An animal sacrifice in Arabic is called Qurban. Qurban is less a religiously-infused practice than an Islamic prescription for the affluent to share their good fortune with the needy in the community. On the occasion of Eid ul Adha (Festival of Sacrifice), affluent Muslims all over the world perform the Sunnah of Prophet Ibrahim by sacrificing a cow or sheep. The meat is then divided into three equal parts. One part is retained by the person who performs the sacrifice. The second is given to his relatives. The third part is distributed to the poor.
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Prayers
Prayer is an invocation or an act that seeks to activate a rapport with a deity or a spiritual entity through deliberate communication.

KEY POINTS

In religious art, prayer often features as a motif to convey belief, devotion, and adoration of the divine. During prayer, a variety of body postures may be assumed, often with specific meaning (mainly respect or adoration) associated with them. In religious art, the depiction of prayer is often understood through these outward signs. Prayer may be either individual or communal and take place in public or in private. It may involve the use of words or song or art. When language is used, prayer may take the form of a hymn, incantation, formal creed, or a spontaneous utterance in the praying person.

Prayer is an invocation or act that seeks to activate a rapport with a deity, an object of worship, or a spiritual entity through deliberate communication. Prayer may be either individual or communal and take place in public or in private. It may involve the use of words or song or art. When language is used, prayer may take the form of a hymn, incantation, formal creed, or a spontaneous utterance in the

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Figure 13.31 Ghost Dance: Native American Prayers

Figure 13.32 Lord Shiva

1891 Sioux Ghost Dance. Ghost Dances inuenced many native American religions and were practiced as a form of prayer.

praying person. Most major religions involve prayer in one way or another. Some ritualize the act of prayer, requiring a strict sequence of actions or placing a restriction on who is permitted to pray, while others teach that prayer may be practiced spontaneously by anyone at any time. In religious art, prayer often features as a motif to convey belief, devotion, and adoration of the divine. Various spiritual traditions offer a wide variety of devotional acts. There are morning and evening prayers, graces said over meals, and reverent physical gestures. Some Christians bow their heads and
Statue of Lord Shiva in Bangalore, India, performing yogic meditation in the Padmasana posture. This Statue of Shiva is approximately 65 feet tall, is made of concrete, and is located at Murugeshpalya at Bangalore. There is a tunnel-like structure underneath the statue where di!erent models of Shiva are kept.

fold their hands. Some Native Americans regard dancing as a form of prayer (Figure 13.31). Some Sufis whirl. Hindus chant mantras or perform yoga as a meditative practice (Figure 13.32). Jewish prayer may involve swaying back and forth and bowing. Muslims practice

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prayer include anointing oneself with oil, ringing a bell, burning

Figure 13.33 Praying Hands Praying Hands by Albrecht Drer depicts the hand position of a medieval commendation ceremony.

incense or paper, lighting a candle or candles, facing a specific direction (i.e. towards Mecca or the East), and making the sign of the cross. A variety of body postures may be assumed, often with specific meaning (mainly respect or adoration) associated with them: standing, sitting, kneeling, prostrating on the floor, folding or clasping one's hands, holding hands with others, and others. In religious art, the depiction of prayer is often understood through these outward signs (Figure 13.33).
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salah (kneeling and prostration) in their prayers. Quakers keep silent. Some pray according to standardized rituals and liturgies, while others prefer extemporaneous prayers. Still others combine the two.These methods show a variety of understandings to prayer, which are led by various underlying beliefs. Prayer can be incorporated into a daily "thought life," in which one is in constant communication with a god. Some people pray throughout all that is happening during the day and seek guidance as the day progresses. Some outward acts that can accompany

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The Cosmos
Religious cosmology explains the origin, history, and evolution of the universe based on the religious mythology of a specic tradition.

structure of the relationship between humans and a particular deity, as well as an understanding of the origin of the universe. Although this section focuses on the religious cosmology of Buddhism and Judeo-Christianity, countless variations of religious cosmology exist, for both polytheistic and monotheistic traditions, as well as for pantheists.

KEY POINTS

In Buddhism, for example, the universe comes into existence dependent upon the actions (karma) of its inhabitants. Buddhists posit neither an ultimate beginning or final end to the universe, but see the universe as something in flux, passing in and out of existence, parallel to an infinite number of other universes doing the same thing. The Buddhist universe consists of a large

Figure 13.34 Praj"p"ramit"

Religious cosmologies usually include an act or process of creation by a creator deity or a larger pantheon. In religious art, cosmology is often expressed in painting, sculpture, or architecture in order to teach followers the belief structure of the relationship between humans and a particular deity, as well as an understanding of the origin of the universe. Although this section focuses on the religious cosmology of Buddhism and Judeo-Christianity, countless variations of religious cosmology exist, for both polytheistic and monotheistic traditions, as well as for pantheists.

Religious cosmology is a way of explaining the origin, the history, and the evolution of the cosmos or universe, based on the religious mythology of a specific tradition. Religious cosmologies usually include an act or process of creation by a creator deity or a larger pantheon. In religious art, cosmology is often expressed in painting, sculpture, or architecture in order to teach followers the belief

The statue of Praj%p%ramit% from Singhasari, East Java.

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Figure 13.35 Example of Zen painting, Edo period

number of worlds that correspond to different mental states, including passive states of trance, passionless states of purity, and lower states of desire, anger, and fear. The beings in these worlds are all coming into existence or being born, and passing out of existence into other states, or dying. Hence, a majority of Buddhist religious art in Indian, Chinese, and Tibetan cultures depicts figures in meditation: who achieve various mental states that allow them to reflect on the infinite nature of the universe and achieve inner purity (Figure 13. 35, Figure 13.34).

Figure 13.36 Creation of Adam, by Michelangelo, c. 1511

The Creation of Adam by Michelangelo in the Sistine Chapel, depicts the Christian cosmology, which revolves around the creation of man (Adam) directly by God and in God's image.

from nothing (and makes human beings in the Image of God). Accordingly, Christian art especially depicts scenes from the Garden of Eden as a means of visually explaining religious cosmology. In this case, the creation of Adam and Eve is a popular theme (Figure 13.36).
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Scroll calligraphy of Bodhidharma. The script reads, "Zen points directly to the human heart, see into your nature and become Buddha," by Hakuin Ekaku (1686 to 1769).

The main Judeo-Christian religious text, the Bible, opens with a story of creation in which God creates all things

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Chapter 14

Chinese and Korean Art Before 1279

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Section 1

The Middle Kingdom

Art of the Middle Kingdom

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Art of the Middle Kingdom

The art of ChinaThe Middle Kingdomhas arguably the oldest continuous tradition in the world.

In China, common names for the country include Zh3nggu () and Zh3nghu (), referring to the group of states in the central plain. It was only in the nineteenth century that the term, which literally means "Middle Kingdom," emerged as the formal name of the country. The Chinese were not unique in regarding their country

KEY POINTS

as "central," as many civilizations have had the same view. Chinese art has arguably the oldest continuous tradition in the world, and is marked by an unusual degree of continuity within, and consciousness of, that tradition, lacking an equivalent to the Western collapse and gradual recovery of classical styles. The decorative arts are extremely important in Chinese art, and much of the finest work was produced in large workshops or factories by essentially unknown artists. Much of the best work in ceramics, textiles and other techniques was produced over a long period by the various Imperial factories or workshops, whichalong with being used by the courtwas distributed internally and abroad on a huge scale to demonstrate the wealth and power of the Emperors. In contrast, the tradition of ink wash painting developed aesthetic values depending on the individual imagination of the artist that are similar to those of the West, but long pre-dated their development there. Painting

The decorative arts are extremely important in Chinese art, and much of the finest work was produced in large workshops or factories by essentially unknown artists. Much of the best work in ceramics and textiles was produced by Imperial factories and distributed on a huge scale to demonstrate the wealth and power of the Emperors. The two main techniques in Chinese painting are Gong-bi (meaning "meticulous," and using highly detailed brushstrokes that delimits details very precisely) and ink and wash painting (also loosely termed watercolour or brush painting). Artists from the Han (202 BC) to the Tang (618906) dynasties mainly painted the human figure, while The time from the Five Dynasties period to the Northern Song period (9071128) is known as the "Great age of Chinese landscape." Chinese ritual bronzes from the Shang and Western Zhou Dynasties have exerted a continuing influence over Chinese art. Large religious sculpture is nearly all Buddhist, dating mostly from the 4th to the 14th century.

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Traditional painting involves essentially the same techniques as calligraphy and is done with a brush dipped in black or colored ink, and painted on paper or silk. The finished work can be mounted on hanging or handscrolls; traditional painting can also be done on album sheets, walls, lacquerware, folding screens, and other media. The two main techniques in Chinese painting are Gong-bi (meaning "meticulous," and using highly detailed brushstrokes that delimits details very precisely) and ink and wash painting (also loosely termed watercolour or brush painting). Artists from the Han (202 BC) to the Tang (618906) dynasties mainly painted the human figure. Much of what is known of early Chinese figure painting comes from burial sites, where paintings were preserved on silk banners, lacquered objects, and tomb walls. Many early tomb paintings were meant to protect the dead or help their souls get to paradise; others illustrated the teachings of Confucius, or showed scenes of daily life. The time from the Five Dynasties period to the Northern Song period (9071128) is known as the "Great age of Chinese landscape." In the north, artists such as Jing Hao, Li Cheng (Figure 14.1), Fan Kuan, and Guo Xi painted pictures of towering mountains, using strong black lines, ink wash, and sharp, dotted brushstrokes to suggest rough stone. In the south, Dong Yuan (Figure 14.2), Juran, and other artists painted the rolling hills and

Figure 14.1 A Solitary Temple amid Clearing Peaks (), Li Cheng (c. 919 c. 967 AD) Li Cheng was among the great landscape painters from northern China.

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Figure 14.2 Dong Yuan. Xiao and Xiang Rivers. 10th century

Native Chinese religions do not usually use cult images of deities, and large religious sculpture is nearly all Buddhist, dating mostly from the 4th to the 14th century and arriving via the Silk Road. Imperial tombs have spectacular avenues of approach lined with real and mythological animals on a scale matching Egypt, and smaller versions decorate temples and palaces. Small Buddhist figures and groups were produced to a very high quality in a range of media, as was relief decoration of all sorts of objects, especially in metalwork and jade. Pottery Chinese ceramic ware shows a continuous development since the pre-dynastic periods, and is one of the most significant forms of Chinese art. China is richly endowed with the raw materials needed for making ceramics, and works range from bricks and tiles, to hand-built pottery vessels fired in bonfires or kilns, to the sophisticated Chinese porcelains made for the imperial court. Most later Chinese ceramics, even of the finest quality, were made on an industrial scale; thus very few individual potters are known.

Dong Yuan painted the rolling hills and rivers of his native countryside using soft, rubbed brushwork.

rivers of their native countryside in peaceful scenes done with softer, rubbed brushwork. These two kinds of scenes and techniques became the classical styles of Chinese landscape painting. Sculpture Chinese ritual bronzes from the Shang and Western Zhou Dynasties have exerted a continuing influence over Chinese art. Many are cast with complex patterned and zoomorphic decoration. The spectacular Terracotta Army (Figure 14.3) was assembled for the tomb of Qin Shi Huang, the first emperor of a unified China from 221210 BCE, as a means of enabling the deceased to enjoy the same lifestyle in the afterlife. Smaller figures in pottery or wood were placed in tombs for many centuries afterwards, reaching a peak of quality in the Tang Dynasty.

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Figure 14.3 Crossbow men from the Terracotta Army, interred by 210 BC, Qin Dynasty The spectacular"Terr acotta Army"was assembled for the tomb of Qin Shi Huang, the rst emperor of a unied China from 221210 BCE.

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Decorative Arts A wide range of valuable materials were worked and decorated with great skill for a range of uses or displays. Chinese jade was attributed with magical powers, and a range of objects and small sculptures were often carved in jade. Bronze, gold and silver, rhinoceros horn, Chinese silk, ivory, lacquer, cloisonne enamel and many other materials had specialist artists working in them.

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Section 2

The Neolithic Age

Painted Pottery Liangzhu

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Painted Pottery
Painted pottery emerged in great numbers during the Neolithic period of the Yangshao and Longshan cultures.$

Yangshao The Yangshao culture was a Neolithic culture that existed extensively along the central Yellow River in China. It is dated from around 5000 BCE to 3000 BCE. The culture flourished mainly in the provinces of Henan, Shaanxi, and Shanxi.

KEY POINTS

The Yangshao culture crafted pottery. Yangshao artisans created fine white, red, and black painted pottery with human facial, animal, and geometric designs. Unlike the later Longshan culture, the Yangshao culture did not use pottery wheels in pottery-making.

Yangshao artisans created fine white, red, and black painted pottery with human facial, animal, and geometric designs. Unlike the Longshan culture, the Yangshao culture did not use pottery wheels. The Longshan culture was known for its highly polished black pottery and the high level of skill employed in the creation of this pottery.

Figure 14.4 Longshan Pottery Black eggshell pottery of the Longshan culture.

Background Ceramics began in China around 6,000 years ago during the New Stone Age, whose advent was marked by the invention of pottery. The earliest earthenware was molded by hand, and the potter's wheel came much later. In the beginning, clay was fired at a temperature of about 500600 degrees Celsius. Painted pottery began to be known during the period of the Yangshao and Longshan cultures.

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Figure 14.5 Yangshao Bowl Human-faced sh decoration bowl, 5000-4000 BCE, from Banpo village, Shaanxi.

Longshan culture had spread out across the ancient boundaries of China. The Neolithic population in China reached its peak during the Longshan culture. Toward the end of the Longshan culture, the population decreased sharply; this was matched by the disappearance of high-quality black pottery found in ritual burials.
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Excavations found that children were buried in painted pottery jars (Figure 14.4). Longshan The Longshan culture was a late Neolithic culture in China, centered in the central and lower Yellow River and dated from about 3000 BCE to 2000 BCE. The distinctive feature of the Longshan culture was the high level of skill in pottery-making, including the use of pottery wheels. The Longshan culture was noted for its highly polished black pottery (or egg-shell pottery, Figure 14.5). This type of thin-walled and polished black pottery has also been discovered in the Yangzi River valley and as far as the southeastern coast of modern China. It is a clear indication that Neolithic agricultural sub-groups of the greater

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Liangzhu
The Liangzhu culture was the last Neolithic jade culture in the Yangtze River Delta of China.
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The culture possessed advanced agriculture, including irrigation, paddy rice cultivation, and aquaculture. Houses were often constructed with stilts on rivers or shorelines. Jade The jade from this culture is characterized by finely worked large ritual jades, commonly incised with the taotie motif. The most exemplary artifacts from the culture were its cong (cylinders). The largest cong discovered weighed 3.5 kg. Bi (discs, Figure 14.6) and Yue axes (ceremonial axes) were also found. Jade pendants were also found, designed with engraved representations of small birds, turtles, and fish. Many Liangzhu jade artifacts had a white milky bone-like aspect due to its tremolite rock origin and the influence of water-based fluids at burial sites, although jade made from actinolite and serpentine were also commonly found.

Liangzhu jade is characterized by finely worked large ritual jades, commonly incised with the taotie motif. Other significant artifacts from the culture include its cong (cylinders) and Yue axes (ceremonial axes). Liangzhu religious structures were elaborate and made of carefully positioned piles of stones and rock walls.

Liangzhu The Liangzhu culture (34002250 BCE) was the last Neolithic jade culture in the Yangtze River Delta of China. Its area of influence extended from around Lake Tai north to Nanjing and the Chang Jiang, east to Shanghai and the sea, and south to Hangzhou. The culture was highly stratified, as jade, silk, ivory and lacquer artifacts were found exclusively in elite burials, while pottery was more commonly found in the burial plots of poorer individuals. The type site at Liangzhu was discovered in Yuhang County, Zhejiang, and initially excavated by Shi Xingeng in 1936.

Religious Architecture A Neolithic altar from the Liangzhu culture, excavated at Yaoshan in Zhejiang, demonstrates that religious structures were elaborate and made of carefully positioned piles of stones and rock walls; this indicates that religion was of considerable importance. The altar has three levels, the highest being a platform of rammed earth. Three additional platforms were paved with cobblestones. There are the remains of a stone wall. On the altar are twelve graves in two rows.

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Figure 14.6 Liangzhu Jade Bi Jade bi from the Liangzhu culture. The ritual object is a symbol of wealth and military power.

A new discovery of ancient city wall base relics was announced by the Zhejiang provincial government on November 29, 2007. All the relics previously identified were parts of city construction. It was concluded that the site was the ancient capital of the Liangzhu Kingdom, whose influence spread as far as modern-day Jiangsu, Shanghai, and Shandong Provinces. A new Liangzhu Culture Museum was completed in 2008 and opened late in the year. It is 17.5 kilometers northwest of the northeast corner of West Lake in Hangzhou.
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Section 3

The Bronze Age

Shang Dynasty Zhou Dynasty

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Shang Dynasty
The artwork of the Shang dynasty, notably bronze pieces, has been discovered through archaeological excavations.

Zhou Dynasty. The classic account of the Shang comes from texts such as the Classic of History, Bamboo Annals, and the Records of the Grand Historian. According to the traditional chronology based on calculations by Liu Xin, the Shang ruled between 1766 BCE and 1122 BCE; however, according to the chronology based on the Bamboo Annals, they ruled between 1556 BCE and 1046 BCE. The results of the Xia-Shang-Zhou Chronology Project place them between 1600 BCE and 1046 BCE. Artifacts The artwork of the Shang Dynasty was discovered through archaeological digs. In particular, archaeological work at the Ruins of Yin, identified as the last Shang capital, uncovered eleven major Yin royal tombs and the foundations of palaces and ritual sites containing both weapons of war and the remains from animal and human sacrifices. Tens of thousands of bronze, jade, stone, bone, and ceramic artifacts have been obtained. The workmanship on the bronzes attests to a high level of civilization. Many Shang royal tombs had been tunneled into and ravaged by

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The Shang Dynasty ruled in the Yellow River Valley during the second millennium, BCE. Tens of thousands of bronze, jade, stone, bone, and ceramic artifacts have been obtained from the Ruins of Yin. While many Shang royal tombs have been raided, bronze vessels, stoneware and pottery vessels, bronze weapons, jade figures, hair combs, and bone hair pins were found at the intact Tomb 5 at Yinxu. Chinese bronze casting and pottery advanced during the Shang dynasty, with bronze commonly being used for art rather than weapons. As far back as c. 1500 BCE, the early Shang Dynasty engaged in large-scale production of bronzeware vessels and weapons.

Shang Dynasty The Shang Dynasty, or the Yin Dynasty, according to traditional historiography, ruled in the Yellow River valley in the second millennium BCE, succeeding the Xia Dynasty and followed by the

grave robbers in ancient times, but in the spring of 1976, the discovery of Tomb 5 at Yinxu revealed a tomb that was not only undisturbed, but one of the most richly furnished Shang tombs that archaeologists had yet come across (Figure 14.7). With over 200 bronze ritual vessels and 109 inscriptions of Lady Fu Hao's name,

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Figure 14.7 Tomb of Fu Hao Bronzewares from the excavated tomb of Fu Hao.

hard-laborers and skilled artisans and craftsmen. The Shang royal court and aristocrats required a vast amount of different bronze vessels for various ceremonial purposes such as ancestral sacrifices, and events of religious divination. Ceremonial rules even decreed how many bronze containers of each type a nobleman or noblewoman of a certain rank could own. With the increased amount of bronze available, the army could also better equip itself with an assortment of bronze weaponry. Bronze was also used for the fittings of spoke-wheeled chariots, which appeared in China around 1200 BCE.

archaeologists realized they had stumbled across the tomb of the militant consort to King Wu Ding, as described in 170 to 180 Shang oracle bones. Bronze vessels, stoneware and pottery vessels, bronze weapons, jade figures, hair combs, and bone hairpins were found. Bronze Work Chinese bronze casting and pottery advanced during the Shang dynasty, with bronze commonly being used for art rather than weapons. As far back as c. 1500 BCE, the early Shang Dynasty engaged in large-scale production of bronzeware vessels and weapons. This production, using the piece-mold method of casting, required a large labor force that could handle the mining, refining, and transportation of the necessary copper, tin, and lead ores. This in turn created a need for official managers that could oversee both

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Zhou Dynasty
The art of the Zhou Dynasty was characterized by its use of iron, the renement of bronzework, and cultural opportunism.

During the Zhou Dynasty, the use of iron was introduced to China, though this period of Chinese history produced what many consider the zenith of Chinese bronze-ware making. The dynasty also spans the period in which the written script evolved into its modern form, with the use of an archaic clerical script that emerged during the late Warring States period.

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Cultural Influences The archaeological record suggests that the Zhou were cultural opportunists. They were quick to adopt the material culture of the Shang, perhaps as a way to establish their legitimacy. Zhou art also borrowed heavily from the Shang, and the Zhou practice of casting inscriptions in bronze vessels, as well as the design of the vessels themselves, suggests a direct Shang influence (Figure 14.8). Part of the success of the Western Zhou may have rested with their

During the Zhou Dynasty the use of iron was introduced to China, China witnessed the zenith of bronze-ware making, and written script evolved into its modern form. Zhou art borrowed heavily from the Shang, as demonstrated by the practice of casting inscriptions in bronze vessels and the design of the vessels themselves. Zhou art was also influenced by religious rituals and military instability.

Introduction The Zhou Dynasty (1046256 BC) was a Chinese dynasty that followed the Shang Dynasty and preceded the Qin Dynasty. Although the Zhou Dynasty lasted longer than any other dynasty in Chinese history, the actual political and military control of China by the Ji family lasted only until 771 BC, a period known as the Western Zhou.

ability to use ritual traditions to unite far-flung regions. These customs underwent a significant change in direction around the early ninth century B.C. Wine vessels were used less than sets of ding and food basins called gui. Changes also began to take place in divination, shifting from the use of oracle bones to the observation of change in nature, codified in the Zhou yi (better known in the West as the Yijing or I Ching). A century had already passed since the start of the dynasty and it is possible that the Zhou wished to set

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Figure 14.8 Zhou Bronze A Western Zhou bronze gui vessel, c. 1000 BC.

court fled to their eastern capital, under pressure from enemies to the west. Religion and Architecture Passages from texts dating as far back as the Zhou dynasty refer to the importance of building the ancestral temple (zongmiao) as the first step in the establishment of a city. Thus, the ancestral temples that the Zhou constructed set a pattern that was followed in subsequent periods. The temple housed ancestral tablets that linked past and present generations. The tablets would be organized with the founding ancestor in the rear and more recent ancestors in front, encapsulating the Zhou conception of the past as the foundation on which the present stands.

new standards of ritual practice as a way of exercising control over a changing political landscape. These changes coincided with a time of military instability, and inscriptions on ninth-century BC vessels sometimes mention conflicts in the south and east. Having a core state surrounded by alliances may have contributed to a feeling among the Zhou that the outside world was filled with barbarians. Notions of what constituted "Chinese-ness" were beginning to develop, and are reflected in poetry of the time. Fear of barbarians with different customs became even more entrenched after 771 BC, when the Zhou

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Section 4

The Qin Dynasty

Art of the Qin Dynasty

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Art of the Qin Dynasty

The Qin Dynasty (221206 BC), though short-lived, was is known for its military strength and its unication of China.
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An attempt to purge all traces of the old dynasties led to the infamous burning of books and burying of scholars incident, which has been criticized greatly by subsequent scholars.

The Qin Dynasty (Figure 14.9) was the first imperial dynasty of China, lasting from 221 to 206 BC. The strength of the Qin state was greatly increased by the legalist reforms of Shang Yang in the 4th century BC, during the Warring States Period. In the mid and late third century BC, the Qin accomplished a series of swift conquests, first ending the powerless Zhou Dynasty, and eventually destroying the remaining six states of the major states to gain control over the whole of China, resulting in a unified China. During its reign over China, the Qin Dynasty achieved increased trade, improved agriculture, and revolutionary developments in military tactics, transportation and weaponry. Despite its military strength, however, the Dynasty did not last long. When the selfproclaimed first Emperor, Qin Shihuang, died in 210 BC, his son was placed on the throne by two of the previous emperor's advisers, in an attempt to influence and control the administration of the entire dynasty through him. The advisors squabbled among themselves, however, which resulted in both their deaths and that of the second Qin emperor. Popular revolt broke out a few years

In the mid and late 3rd century BC, the Qin accomplished a series of swift conquests, eventually gaining control over the whole of China and creating a unified China. During its reign over China, the Qin Dynasty achieved increased trade, improved agriculture, and revolutionary developments in military tactics, transportation and weaponry, such as the sword and crossbow. Qin Shihuang, the self-proclaimed first Emperor, is responsible for the initial construction of what later became the Great Wall of China, which he built along the northern border to protect his empire against the Mongols. The Terracotta Army, consisting of more than 7,000 life-size tomb terracotta figures of warriors and horses, was buried with Qin Shihuang in 210209 BC to protect him after death. Prime Minister Li Si standardized the writing system to be of uniform size and shape across the whole country, having a unification effect on the Chinese culture for thousands of years.

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Figure 14.9 Qin Empire, 210 BC

Architecture Architecture from the Warring States Period had several definitive aspects. City walls, used for defense, were made longer, and indeed several secondary walls were also sometimes built to separate the different districts. Versatility in federal structures was emphasized, to create a sense of authority and absolute power. Architectural elements such as high towers, pillar gates, terraces, and high buildings amply conveyed this. Qin Shihuang developed plans to fortify his northern border, to protect against the nomadic Mongols. The result was the initial construction of what later became the Great Wall of China, which was built by joining and strengthening the walls made by the feudal lords. These walls would be expanded and rebuilt multiple times by later dynasties, also in response to threats from the north. Literature

The coloured territories show the approximate extent of Qin political control at the death of Qin Shi Huang in 210 BC.

The written language of the Qin was logographic, as that of the Zhou had been. As one of his most influential achievements in life, prime minister Li Si standardized the writing system to be of uniform size and shape across the whole country. This would have a unification effect on the Chinese culture for thousands of years. He is also credited with creating the "lesser-seal" style of calligraphy,

later, and the weakened empire soon fell to a Chu lieutenant, who went on to found the Han Dynasty. Despite its rapid end, the Qin Dynasty influenced future Chinese empires, particularly the Han, and the European name for China is thought to be derived from it.

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which serves as a basis for modern Chinese and is still used in cards, posters, and advertising. In 221 BC, Qin Shihuang conquered all of the states and governed with a single philosophy, Legalism. Legalism encouraged severe punishments, particularly when the emperor was disobeyed. Individuals' rights were devalued when they conflicted with the government's or the ruler's wishes, and merchants and scholars were considered unproductive, fit for elimination. One of the more drastic measures employed to accomplish the eradication of the old schools of thought was the infamous burning of books and burying of scholars incident, which almost singlehandedly gave the Qin Dynasty a bad reputation among later scholars. The First Emperor, in an attempt to consolidate power, ordered the burning of all books on non-Legalist philosophical viewpoints and intellectual subjects. All scholars who refused to submit their books were ordered to be executed. Weaponry Qin Shihuang made vast improvements to the military, which used the most advanced weaponry of the time. The sword was invented during the Warring States Period, first made of bronze and later of iron. The crossbow had been introduced in the 5th century BC and was more powerful and accurate than the composite bows used earlier (Figure 14.10). It could also be rendered ineffective by
Figure 14.11 The Terracotta Army The Terracotta Army consists of more than 7,000 life-size tomb terracotta gures of warriors and horses, buried with the rst Emperor of Qin in 210 BC. Figure 14.10 Picture of Qin Dynasty Arcuballista Bolts shown with Regular Handheld Crossbow Bolts, 5th-3rd century B.C. The crossbow was introduced in the 5th century BC and was more powerful and accurate than the composite bows used earlier.

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removing two pins, which prevented enemies from capturing a working crossbow. Sculpture Another project built during Qin Shihuang's rule was the Terracotta army, intended to protect the emperor after his death (Figure 14. 11). The Terracotta army was inconspicuous due to its underground location, and was not discovered until 1974. It consists of more than 7,000 life-size tomb terracotta figures of warriors and horses buried with Qin Shihuang in 210209 BC. The figures were painted before being placed into the vault, and the original colors were visible when the pieces were first unearthed; however, exposure to air caused the pigments to fade, so today the unearthed figures appear terracotta in color. The figures are in several poses including standing infantry and kneeling archers, as well as charioteers with horses. Each figure's head appears to be unique, showing a variety of facial features and expressions as well as hair styles.
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Section 5

Han Dynasty

Philosophy and Art Architecture

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Philosophy and Art

Spanning over four centuries, the Han Dynasty period is considered a golden age in Chinese history and resulted in increased art production.

by the Xin Dynasty (923 AD) of the former regent Wang Mang. This interregnum separates the Han into two periods: the Western Han (206 BC9 AD) and Eastern Han (25220 AD). Spanning over four centuries, Han Dynasty period is considered a golden age in Chinese history. To this day, China's majority ethnic group refers to itself as the "Han people" and Chinese characters are referred to as "Han characters." Han Philosophy The early Western Han court simultaneously accepted the philosophical teachings of Legalism, Huang-Lao Daoism, and Confucianism in making state decisions and shaping government policy. However, the Han court under Emperor Wu gave Confucianism exclusive patronage. In 136 BCE, he abolished all academic chairs or erudites (boshi ) not dealing with the Confucian Five Classics, and encouraged nominees for office to receive a Confucian-based education at the Imperial University that he established in 124 BCE. Unlike the original ideology espoused by Confucius, or Kongzi (551479 BCE), Han Confucianism in Emperor Wu's reign was the creation of Dong Zhongshu (179104 BCE). Dong was a scholar and minor official who aggregated the ethical Confucian ideas of ritual, filial piety, and harmonious relationships with five phases and yin-yang cosmologies. Much to

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The early Western Han court simultaneously accepted the philosophical teachings of Legalism, Huang-Lao Daoism, and Confucianism in making state decisions and shaping government policy. However, the Han court under Emperor Wu gave Confucianism exclusive patronage. During the Western Han period, grave goods were usually wares and pieces of art that were used by the tomb occupant when he or she was alive. During the Eastern Han period, new stylistic goods, wares, and artwork found in tombs were usually made exclusively for burial. The Han Dynasty was known for jade burial suits.

The Han Dynasty The Han Dynasty was an imperial dynasty of China, preceded by the Qin Dynasty (221207 BC) and succeeded by the Three Kingdoms (220280 AD). It was founded by the rebel leader Liu Bang, known posthumously as Emperor Gaozu of Han. It was briefly interrupted

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Figure 14.12 Model of Han ceramic tomb A Han ceramic tomb model of a multiple-story residential tower with a rst-oor gatehouse and courtyard, mid-oor balcony, windows, and clearly distinguished dougong support brackets

and private schools opened in small towns, where teachers earned respectable incomes from tuition payments. Some important texts were created and studied by scholars. Philosophical works written by Yang Xiong (53 BCE18 CE), Huan Tan (43 BCE28 CE), Wang Chong (27100 CE), and Wang Fu (78163 CE) questioned whether human nature was innately good or evil and posed challenges to Dong's universal order. The Records of the Grand Historian by Sima Tan (d. 110 BCE) and his son Sima Qian (14586 BCE) established the standard model for all of imperial China's Standard Histories, such as the Book of Han written by Ban Biao (354 CE), his son Ban Gu (3292 CE), and his daughter Ban Zhao (45116 CE). There were dictionaries such as the Shuowen Jiezi by Xu Shen (c. 58c. 147 CE) and the Fangyan by Yang Xiong. Biographies on important figures were written by various gentrymen. Han dynasty poetry was dominated by the fu genre, which achieved its greatest prominence during the reign of Emperor Wu. Han Art

the interest of the ruler, Dong's synthesis justified the imperial system of government within the natural order of the universe. The Imperial University grew in importance as the student body grew to over 30,000 by the 2nd century CE. A Confucian-based education was also made available at commandery-level schools

During the Western Han period, grave goods were usually wares and pieces of art that were used by the tomb occupant when he or she was alive. During the Eastern Han period, however, new stylistic goods, wares, and artwork found in tombs were usually made exclusively for burial, and were not produced for previous use

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Figure 14.13 A Han Dynasty Jade burial suit A Jade burial suit is a ceremonial suit made of pieces of jade in which royal members in Han Dynasty China were buried.

The Han Dynasty was known for jade burial suits (Figure 14.13). One of the earliest known depictions of a landscape in Chinese art comes from a pair of hollow-tile door panels from a Western Han Dynasty tomb near Zhengzhou, dated 60 BCE. A scene of continuous depth recession is conveyed by the zigzag of lines representing roads and garden walls, giving the impression that one is looking down from the top of a hill. This artistic landscape scene was made by the repeated impression of standard stamps on the clay while it was still soft and not yet fired. However, the oldest known landscape art scene tradition in the classical sense of painting is a work by Zhan Ziqian of the Sui Dynasty (581618).

by the deceased when they were alive. These include miniature ceramic towersusually watchtowers and urban residential towers (Figure 14.12)which provide historians clues about lost wooden architecture. In addition to towers, there are also miniature models of querns, water wells, pigsties, pestling shops, and farm fields with pottery pigs, dogs, sheep, chickens, ducks. Although many items placed in tombs were commonly used wares and utensils, it was considered taboo to bring objects specified for burial into living quarters or the imperial palace. They could only be brought into living quarters once they were properly announced at funerary ceremonies, and were known as mingqi (/, "fearsome artifacts," "objects for the dead," or "brilliant artifacts").
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Architecture
What remains of Han-dynasty architecture are ruins of brick and rammed earth walls, rammed earth platforms, and funerary stone pillar-gates.

wooden buildings found in China (i.e. several temple halls of Mount Wutai) date no earlier than the Tang Dynasty (618907 CE). What remains of Han-dynasty architecture are ruins of brick and rammed earth walls (including above-ground city walls and underground tomb walls), rammed earth platforms for terraced altars and halls, funerary stone or brick pillar-gates (Figure 14.14), and scattered ceramic roof tiles that once adorned timber halls. Sections of the Han-era rammed earth Great Wall still exist in Gansu province, along with the Han frontier ruins of thirty beacon towers and two fortified castles with crenellations. Han walls of frontier towns and forts in Inner Mongolia were typically constructed with stamped clay bricks instead of rammed earth. Thatched or tiled roofs were supported by wooden pillars, since the addition of brick, rammed earth, or mud walls of these halls did not actually support the roof. Stone and plaster were also used for domestic architecture. Tiled eaves projecting outward were built to distance falling rainwater from the walls; they were supported by dougong brackets that were sometimes elaborately decorated. Molded designs usually decorated the ends of roof tiles, as seen in artistic models of buildings and in surviving tile pieces. Architecture of Tombs Valuable clues about Han architecture can be found in Han artwork of ceramic models, paintings, and carved or stamped bricks

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Timber was the chief building material in Han architecture. It was used for grand palace halls, multi-story towers, multistory residential halls, and humble abodes. Thatched or tiled roofs were supported by wooden pillars, since the addition of brick, rammed earth, or mud walls of these halls did not actually support the roof. Stone and plaster were also used for domestic architecture. Valuable clues about Han architecture can be found in Han artwork of ceramic models, paintings, and carved or stamped bricks discovered in tombs and other sites.

Building Materials Timber was the chief building material in Han architecture. It was used for grand palace halls, multi-story towers, multi-story residential halls, and humble abodes. However, due to the rapid decay over time of wood and its susceptibility to fire, the oldest

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Figure 14.14 The Gaoyi Que, a stone-carved pillar-gate (que)

discovered in tombs and other sites. The layout of Han tombs were also built like underground houses, comparable to the scenes of courtyard houses found on tomb bricks and in three-dimensional models. Han homes had a courtyard area (and some had multiple courtyards) with halls that were slightly elevated above it and connected by stairways. Multi-story buildings included the main colonnaded residence halls built around the courtyards as well as watchtowers. The halls were built with intersecting crossbeams and rafters that were usually carved with decorations; stairways and walls were usually plastered over to produce a smooth surface and then painted. Tower Architecture There are Han-era literary references to tall towers found in the capital cities. They often served as watchtowers, astronomical observatories, and religious establishments meant to attract the favor of immortals. The court eunuchs Zhao Zhong and Zhang Rang discouraged the aloof Emperor Ling of Han (r. 168189 CE) from ascending to the top floors of tall towers (claiming it would cause

A stone-carved pillar-gate, or que (), 6 m (20 ft) in total height, located at the tomb of Gao Yi in Ya'an, Sichuan province, Eastern Han Dynasty (25-220 AD). Notice the stone-carved decorations of roof tile eaves, despite the fact that Han Dynasty stone que (part of the walled structures around tomb entrances) lacked wooden or ceramic components (but often imitated wooden buildings with ceramic roof tiles).

bad luck), in order to conceal from him the enormous palatial mansions the eunuchs built for themselves in Luoyang. It is not known for certain whether or not miniature ceramic models of residential towers and watchtowers found in Han-dynasty tombs

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are completely faithful representations of such timber towers, yet they reveal vital clues about lost timber architecture. There are only a handful of existing ceramic models of multi-story towers from pre-Han and Western Han eras. The bulk of the hundreds of towers found so far were made during the Eastern Han period. Model towers could be fired as one piece in the kiln or assembled from several different ceramic pieces to create the whole. No one tower is a duplicate of the other, yet they share common features. They often had a walled courtyard at the bottom, a balcony with balustrades and windows for every floor, roof tiles capping and concealing the ceiling rafters. There were also human figures peering out the windows or standing on the balconies, door knockers, and pets such as dogs in the bottom courtyard. Perhaps the most direct pieces of evidence to suggest that miniature ceramic tower models are faithful representations of real-life Han timber towers are tile patterns. Artistic patterns found on the circular tiles that cap the eave-ends on the miniature models are exact matches of patterns found on real-life Han roof tiles excavated at sites such as the royal palaces in Chang'an and Luoyang. Other Types of Buildings Besides towers, other ceramic models from the Han reveal a variety of building types. This includes multi-story storehouses such as granaries, courtyard houses with multi-story halls, kiosks, walled

gate towers, mills, manufactories and workshops, animal pens, outhouses, and water wells. Even models of single-story farmhouses show a great amount of detail, including tiled roofs and courtyards. Models of granaries and storehouses had tiled rooftops, dougong brackets, windows, and stilt supports raising them above ground level. Han models of water wells sometimes feature tiny tiled roofs supported by beams that house the rope pulley used for lifting the bucket.
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Section 6

Six Dynasties

Painting Calligraphy Art and Architecture

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Painting
During the Six Dynasties period (220589 CE), people began to appreciate painting for its own beauty and to write about art.

Liang Dynasty (502557), and Chen Dynasty (557589). During the Six Dynasties period, people began to appreciate painting for its own beauty and to write about art. From this time we begin to know about individual artists, such as Gu Kaizhi (Figure 14.15). Even when these artists illustrated Confucian moral themessuch as the

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From this time we begin to know about individual artists, such as Gu Kaizhi. Even when these artists illustrated Confucian moral themessuch as the proper behavior of a wife to her husband or of children to their parentsthey tried to make the figures graceful. Xie Hea writer, art historian, and critic in 5th century China is most famous for outlining six points to consider when judging a painting, taken from the preface to his book, The Record of the Classification of Old Painters. The six elements that define a painting are: 1) Spirit Resonance, 2) Bone Method, 3) Correspondence to the Object, 4) Suitability to Type, 5) Division and Planning, and 6) Transmission by Copying.

Figure 14.15 Luoshenfu Gu Kaizhi Luoshenfu by Gu Kaizhi (344-406 CE)

proper behavior of a wife to her husband or of children to their parentsthey tried to make the figures graceful.

Background The Six Dynasties period (220589) takes its name from the six ruling dynasties of the era: the Eastern Wu (222280), Jin Dynasty (265420), Liu Song Dynasty (420479), Southern Qi (479502),

Six Principles Xie Hea writer, art historian, and critic in 5th century Chinais most famous for outlining six points to consider when judging a painting, taken from the preface to his book, The Record of the

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Classification of Old Painters. Keep in mind that this was written c. 550 CE and refers to "old" and "ancient" practices. The six elements that define a painting are: 1. Spirit Resonance, or vitality, refers to the flow of energy that encompasses theme, work, and artist. Xie He said that without Spirit Resonance, there was no need to look further. 2. Bone Method, or the way of using the brush, refers not only to texture and brush strokes, but also to the close link between handwriting and personality. In his day, the art of calligraphy was inseparable from painting. 3. Correspondence to the Object, or the depicting of form, includes shapes and lines. 4. Suitability to Type, or the application of color, includes layers, value, and tone. 5. Division and Planning, or placing and arrangement, corresponds to composition, space, and depth. 6. Transmission by Copying, or the copying of models, means not only from life but also from the works of antiquity.

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Calligraphy
The calligraphic tradition of East Asia originated and developed from China, particularly during the Six Dynasties period.

Background Chinese calligraphy is a widely practiced form of calligraphy revered in the Sinosphere, which often includes China, Japan, Korea, and Vietnam. The calligraphic tradition of East Asia originated and developed in China. The various styles of calligraphy in the tradition adhere to a general standardization. Chinese calligraphy and ink

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and wash painting are closely related; they are accomplished using similar tools and techniques. Chinese painting and calligraphy distinguish themselves from other cultural arts because they emphasize motion and are charged with dynamic life. Ancient China Chinese characters can be retraced to 4000 BC signs. The contemporary Chinese characters set principles were already visible in ancient China's Ji4g5wn characters carved on ox scapulas and tortoise plastrons around 14th11th century BCE. Brush-written examples decay over time and have not survived. During the divination ceremony, after the cracks were made, characters were written with a brush on the shell or bone to be later carved. With the development of J"nwn (Bronzeware script) and Dzhun (Large Seal Script) "cursive" signs continued. Moreover, each archaic kingdom of current China had its own set of characters.

Chinese calligraphy is a form of calligraphy widely practiced and revered in the Sinosphere, which often includes China, Japan, Korea, and Vietnam. The various styles of calligraphy in the tradition adhere to a general standardization. Chinese calligraphy and ink and wash painting are closely related; they are accomplished using similar tools and techniques. In ancient China, painting and calligraphy were the most highly appreciated arts in court circles; they were done almost exclusively by amateurs, aristocrats and scholarofficials who had the leisure to perfect the technique and sensibility necessary for great brushwork. Paper, invented in the 1st century, gradually replaced silk. Original writings by famous calligraphers have been greatly valued throughout China's history; they are mounted on scrolls and hung on walls in the same way that paintings are. Some of the most famous Chinese calligraphers, including Wang Xizhi, lived during the Six Dynasties period.

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Figure 14.16 Nvshizhentu Palace Lady detail from Admonitions of the Instructress to the Palace Ladies.

(265420), and Southern and Northern Dynasties (420589). One of these famous calligraphers was Wang Xizhi who lived during the 4th century AD. His most famous work is the Lanting Xu, the preface to a collection of poems written by a number of poets who gathered at Lan Ting, near the town of Shaoxing in Zhejiang province, and engaged in a game called "qu shui liu shang." Imperial China In about 220 BC, the emperor Qin Shi Huangthe first to conquer

In ancient China, painting and calligraphy were the most highly appreciated arts in court circles; they were done almost exclusively by amateurs, aristocrats, and scholar-officials who had the leisure to perfect the technique and sensibility necessary for great brushwork. Calligraphy was thought to be the highest and purest form of painting. The implements were the brush pen, made of animal hair, and black inks, made from pine soot and animal glue. Writing and painting were done on silk (Figure 14.16). Paper, invented in the 1st century, gradually replaced silk. Original writings by famous calligraphers have been greatly valued throughout China's history; they are mounted on scrolls and hung on walls in the same way that paintings are. Some of the most famous Chinese calligraphers lived during the Six Dynasties period. The Six Dynasties refers to the dynasties during the periods of the Three Kingdoms (220280 AD), Jin Dynasty

the entire Chinese basinimposed several reforms.These reforms included Li Si's character unification, which created a set of 3,300 standardized Xi4ozhun characters. Despite the fact that the main writing implement of the time was already the brush, little paper survives from this period, and the main examples of this style are on steles.
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Art and Architecture

Chinese architecture refers to a style of architecture that has taken shape in East Asia over many centuries.

country. In the Tang and Song dynasties, Nanjing was a place where poets gathered and composed poems reminiscent of its luxurious past; during the Ming and Qing Dynasties, the city was the official imperial examination center (Jiangnan Examination Hall) for the Jiangnan region, again acting as a hub where different thoughts and opinions converged and thrived. Chinese Architecture During the Six Dynasties Chinese architecture refers to a style of architecture that has taken shape in East Asia over many centuries. The structural principles of Chinese architecture have remained largely unchanged, the main changes being only the decorative details. Since the Tang Dynasty, Chinese architecture has had a major influence on the architectural styles of Korea, Vietnam, and Japan.
Figure 14.17 Pottery Palace Han Dynasty pottery palace created for elite burial, c. 2nd century BCE2nd century CE, Henan Provincial Museum, Zhengzhou, China.

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Being one of the four ancient capitals of China, Nanjing has always been a cultural center that attracted intellectuals from all over the country. Since the Tang Dynasty, Chinese architecture has had a major influence on the architectural styles of Korea, Vietnam, and Japan. During the Jin Dynasty (265420) and the Six Dynasties, miniature models of buildings or entire architectural ensembles were often made to decorate the tops of the socalled "soul vases" (hunping), found in many tombs of that period. During the Six Dynasties, sculptural miniatures depicting buildings, monuments, people, and animals adorned the tops of the hunping funerary vessels.

Background Being one of the four ancient capitals of China, Nanjing has always been a cultural center that attracted intellectuals from all over the

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During the Jin Dynasty (265420) and the Six Dynasties, miniature models of buildings (Figure 14.17) or entire architectural ensembles were often made to decorate the tops of the so-called "soul vases" (hunping), found in many tombs of that period. Funerary Art During the Six Dynasties The outsides of tombs often featured monumental brick or stonecarved pillar-gates; an example from 121 CE appears to be the earliest surviving Chinese architectural structure standing above ground. Tombs of the Tang Dynasty (618907) are often rich with glazed pottery figurines of horses, servants, and other subjects, whose forceful and free style is greatly admired today. The tomb art reached its peak in the Song and Jin periods; rich commoners built the most spectacular tombs.
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Section 7

Sui and Tang Dynasties

Art and Architecture Figure Painting

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Art and Architecture

Since the Tang Dynasty, Chinese architecture has had a major inuence on the architectural styles of Korea, Vietnam, and Japan.

The Tang Dynasty (June 18, 618 June 1, 907) was an imperial dynasty of China preceded by the Sui Dynasty and followed by the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms Period. It was founded by the Li family, who seized power during the decline and collapse of the Sui Empire. The dynasty was interrupted briefly by the Second Zhou Dynasty (October 8, 690 March 3, 705), when Empress Wu Zetian seized the throne, becoming the only Chinese empress regnant, ruling in her own right. Since the Tang Dynasty, Chinese architecture has had a major influence on the architectural styles of Korea, Vietnam, and Japan. From the Tang Dynasty (618907) onwards, brick and stone architecture gradually became more common and replaced wooden edifices. The earliest examples of this transition can be seen in
Figure 14.18 The Zhaozhou Bridge The Zhaozhou Bridge, built from 595605 during the Sui Dynasty. It is the oldest fully stone openspandrel segmental arch bridge in the world.

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From the Tang Dynasty (618907) onwards, brick and stone architecture gradually became more common and replaced wooden edifices. The earliest examples of this transition can be seen in building projects such as the Zhaozhou Bridge completed in 605, or the Xumi Pagoda built in 636. Nevertheless, stone and brick architecture is known to have been used in subterranean tomb architecture of earlier dynasties. The tombs and mausoleums of imperial family members can also be counted as part of the imperial tradition in architecture. These above-ground earthen mounds and pyramids had subterranean shaft-and-vault structures that were lined with brick walls.

The Sui Dynasty (589618 CE) was a short-lived Imperial Chinese dynasty. Preceded by the Southern and Northern Dynasties, it unified China for the first time after over a century of north-south division. It was followed by the Tang Dynasty.

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Figure 14.19 The Xumi Pagoda This square-base stone and brick pagoda was built in the year 636 AD during the reign of Emperor Taizong of the Tang Dynasty (618-907). It stands at a height of 48 m (157 ft) and has been well preserved since its initial construction. The monastery that once surrounded the pagoda, however, has largely been destroyed, with the exception of a few structures.

also be counted as part of the imperial tradition in architecture. These above-ground earthen mounds and pyramids had subterranean shaft-and-vault structures that were lined with brick walls since at least the Warring States (481221 BC) period.
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building projects such as the Zhaozhou Bridge completed in 605 (Figure 14.18), or the Xumi Pagoda built in 636 (Figure 14.19). Nevertheless, stone and brick architecture is known to have been used in the subterranean tomb architecture of earlier dynasties. The tombs and mausoleums of imperial family members, such as the 8th century Tang Dynasty tombs at the Qianling Mausoleum, can

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Figure Painting
During the Tang Dynasty, considered a golden age in Chinese civilization, Chinese gure painting developed dramatically.

During the early Tang period, the painting style was mainly inherited from the previous Sui Dynasty. In this period, the "painting of people" developed greatly. Buddhist painting and "court painting"including paintings of the Buddha, monks, nobles, etc.played a major role in this. Figure painting reached the height of elegant realism in the art of the court of Southern Tang (937975). Brothers Yan Liben and Yan Lide were among the most prolific painters of this period. Yan Liben was the personal portraitist to the

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Figure painting reached the height of elegant realism in the art of the court of Southern Tang (937975). Buddhist painting and "court painting"including paintings of the Buddha, monks, nobles, etc.played a major role in the development of painting. The landscape (shan shui) painting technique developed quickly in this period and reached its first maturation. The painting of people also reached a climax. The outstanding master in this field is Wu Daozi, who is referred to as the "Sage of Painting."

Figure 14.20Yan Liben, Thirteen Emperors Scroll (detail) Yan Liben was the personal portraitist to the Emperor Taizong.

During the Tang Dynasty, considered a golden age in Chinese civilization, Chinese painting developed dramatically, both in subject matter and technique. The advances in technique and style that characterized Tang Dynasty painting had a lasting influence in the art of other countries, especially in East Asia (Korea, Japan, Vietnam) and central Asia.

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Emperor Taizong, and his most notable works include the Thirteen Emperors Scroll (Figure 14.20). The great poet Wang Wei first created the brush and ink painting of shan-shui, literally "mountains and waters." He further combined literature, especially poetry, with painting. The use of line in painting became

Figure 14.21 Wu Daozi, The Teaching Confucius (685-758) The painting of people reached a climax under the Tang Dynasty.

Painting" (Figure 14.21). Wu's works include God Sending a Son. Wu created a new technique of drawing named "Drawing of Water Shield." Most of the Tang artists outlined figures with fine black lines and used brilliant colors and elaborate detail. However, Wu Daozi used only black ink and freely painted brushstrokes to create ink paintings that were so exciting, crowds gathered to watch him work. From his time on, ink paintings were no longer thought to be preliminary sketches or outlines to be filled in with color. Instead they were valued as finished works of art. The theory of painting also developed, and Buddhism, Taoism, and traditional literature were absorbed and combined into painting. Paintings on architectural structures, such as murals, ceiling paintings, cave paintings, and tomb paintings, were very popular. An example is the paintings in the Mogao Caves in Xinjiang during this period.
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much more calligraphic than in the early period. Li Sixun and Li Zhaodao (father and son) were the most famous painters of shan shui. In these landscapes, monochromatic and sparse (a style that is collectively called shuimohua), the purpose was not to reproduce exactly the appearance of nature (realism) but rather to grasp an emotion or atmosphere so as to catch the "rhythm" of nature. The painting of people also reached a climax. The outstanding master in this field is Wu Daozi, who is referred to as the "Sage of

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Section 8

Song Dynasty

Neo-Confucianism Paintings from the North Paintings and Ceramics from the South

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Neo-Confucianism
The Song Dynasty was highly inuenced by Buddhism and Confucianism, which was reected in their art.
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banknotes or paper money, and the first Chinese government to establish a permanent standing navy. The visual arts during the Song Dynasty were heightened by new developments such as advances in landscape and portrait painting. The elite engaged in the arts as accepted pastimes of the cultured scholar-official, including painting, composing poetry, and writing calligraphy. The Significance of Literature in Art The poet and statesman Su Shi and his associate Mi Fu (10511107) enjoyed antiquarian affairs, often borrowing or buying art pieces to study and copy. Poetry and literature profited from the rising popularity and development of the ci poetry form. Enormous encyclopedic volumes were compiled, such as works of historiography and dozens of treatises on technical subjects. This included the universal history text of the Zizhi Tongjian, compiled into 1000 volumes of 9.4 million written Chinese characters. The genre of Chinese travel literature also became popular with the writings of the geographer Fan Chengda (11261193) and Su Shi, the latter of whom wrote the 'daytrip essay' known as Record of Stone Bell Mountain that used persuasive writing to argue for a philosophical point. Although an early form of the local geographic gazetteer existed in China since the 1st century, the matured form

The visual arts during the Song Dynasty were heightened by new developments such as advances in landscape and portrait painting. The elite engaged in the arts as accepted pastimes of the cultured scholar-official, including painting, composing poetry, and writing calligraphy. The imperial courts of the emperor's palace were filled with his entourage of court painters, calligraphers, poets, and storytellers. Emperor Huizong was a renowned artist as well as a patron of the arts. In philosophy, Chinese Buddhism had waned in influence but it retained its hold on the arts and on the charities of monasteries. Buddhism had a profound influence upon the budding movement of Neo-Confucianism, led by Cheng Yi (10331107) and Zhu Xi (11301200).

Background The Song Dynasty was a ruling dynasty in China between 960 and 1279. It was the first government in world history to issue

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known as "treatise on a place," or fangzhi, replaced the old "map guide," or tujing, during the Song Dynasty. The imperial courts of the emperor's palace were filled with his entourage of court painters, calligraphers, poets, and storytellers. Emperor Huizong was a renowned artist as well as a patron of the arts. A prime example of a highly venerated court painter was Zhang Zeduan (10851145) who painted an enormous panoramic painting, Along the River During the Qingming Festival. Emperor Gaozong of Song initiated a massive art project during his reign, known as the Eighteen Songs of a Nomad Flute from the life story of Cai Wenji (b. 177). This art project was a diplomatic gesture to the Jin Dynasty while he negotiated for the release of his mother from Jurchen captivity in the north. The Influence of Buddhism in Art In philosophy, Chinese Buddhism had waned in influence but it retained its hold on the arts and on the charities of monasteries (Figure 14.22). Buddhism had a profound influence upon the budding movement of Neo-Confucianism, led by Cheng Yi (1033 1107) and Zhu Xi (11301200). Mahayana Buddhism influenced Fan Zhongyan and Wang Anshi through its concept of ethical universalism, while Buddhist metaphysics had a deep impact upon the preNeo-Confucian doctrine of Cheng Yi. The philosophical work of Cheng Yi in turn influenced Zhu Xi. Although his

Figure 14.22 Wood Bodhisattva A wooden and gilded statue of the Buddha (bodhisattva) from the Chinese Song Dynasty (960-1279), from the Shanghai Museum.

contemporary peers did not accept his writings, Zhu's commentary and emphasis upon the Confucian classics of the Four Books as an introductory corpus to Confucian learning formed the basis of the Neo-Confucian doctrine. By the year 1241, under the sponsorship of Emperor Lizong, Zhu Xi's Four Books and his commentary on them became standard requirements of study for students attempting to pass the civil service examinations. Buddhism's continuing influence can be seen in painted artwork such as Lin Tinggui's Luohan Laundering. However, the ideology was highly criticized and even scorned by some (Figure 14.23). The statesman and historian Ouyang Xiu (10071072) called the religion a "curse" that could only be remedied by uprooting it from Chinese culture and replacing it with Confucian discourse.

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Figure 14.23 Portrait of the Zen Buddhist monk Wuzhun Shifan (1238) Portrait of the Zen Buddhist monk Wuzhun Shifan, painted in 1238.

merchants might choose to wear more ornate clothing and male blouses that came down below the waist. Acceptable apparel for scholar-officials was rigidly defined by social ranking system. However, as time went on this rule of rank-graded apparel for officials was not as strictly enforced. Each official was able to display his awarded status by wearing different-colored traditional silken robes that hung to the ground around his feet, specific types of headgear, and even specific styles of girdles that displayed his graded-rank of officialdom. Women wore long dresses, blouses that came down to the knee, skirts and jackets with long or short sleeves, while women from wealthy families could wear purple scarves around their shoulders. The main difference in women's apparel from that of men was that it was fastened on the left, not on the right.

Buddhism would not see a true revival in Chinese society until the Mongol rule of the Yuan Dynasty, with Kublai Khan's sponsorship of Tibetan Buddhism and Drogn Chgyal Phagpa as the leading lama. The Christian sect of Nestorianismwhich had entered China in the Tang erawould also be revived in China under Mongol rule The Art of Clothing Clothing was made of hemp or cotton cloths, restricted to a color standard of black and white. Trousers were the acceptable attire for peasants, soldiers, artisans, and merchants, although wealthy
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Paintings from the North

Painting during the Song Dynasty (9601279) reached a new level of sophistication with further development of landscape painting.

Painting during the Song Dynasty (9601279) reached a new level of sophistication with further development of landscape painting. The shan shui style painting"shan" meaning mountain, and "shui" meaning riverbecame prominent features in Chinese landscape art. The emphasis laid upon landscape painting in the Song period was grounded in Chinese philosophy: Taoism stressed that humans were but tiny specks among vast and greater cosmos, while NeoConfucianist writers often pursued the discovery of patterns and principles that they believed caused all social and natural phenomena. While the painting of portraits and closely viewed objects such as birds on branches were held in high esteem by the Song Chinese, landscape painting was paramount. Artists mastered the formula of creating intricate and realistic scenes placed in the foreground, while the background retained qualities of vast and infinite space. Distant mountain peaks rise out of high clouds and mist, while streaming rivers run from afar into the foreground. Immeasurable distances were conveyed through the use of blurred outlines and impressionistic treatment of natural phenomena (Figure 14.24). There was a significant difference in painting trends between the Northern Song period (9601127) and Southern Song period (1127 1279). The paintings of Northern Song officials were influenced by their political ideals of bringing order to the world and tackling the

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The shan shui style painting"shan" meaning mountain, and "shui" meaning riverbecame prominent features in Chinese landscape art. Distant mountain peaks rise out of high clouds and mist, while streaming rivers run from afar into the foreground. The Northern Song period (9601127) was characterized by large, sweeping landscapes, influenced by political ideals of bringing order to large societal issues. In contrast, the Southern Song period (11271279) was more interested in reforming society from the bottom up and on a much smaller scale, and their paintings similarly reflected smaller, visually closer, and more intimate scenes. The imperial courts of the emperor's palace were filled with his entourage of court painters, calligraphers, poets, and storytellers. One of the greatest landscape painters of the court was Zhang Zeduan, who painted the original Along the River During Qingming Festival scroll.

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largest issues affecting the whole of their society, hence their paintings often depicted huge, sweeping landscapes. On the other hand, Southern Song officials were more interested in reforming society from the bottom up and on a much smaller scale, a method they believed had a better chance for eventual success. Hence, their paintings often focused on smaller, visually closer, and more intimate scenes, while the background was often depicted as bereft of detail as a realm without substance or concern for the artist or viewer. This change in attitude from one era to the next stemmed largely from the rising influence of Neo-Confucian philosophy. Adherents to Neo-Confucianism focused on reforming society from the bottom up, not the top down, which can be seen in their efforts to promote small private academies during the Southern Song instead of the large state-controlled academies seen in the Northern Song era. Painting had become an art of high sophistication that was associated with the gentry class as one of their main artistic pastimes, the others being calligraphy and poetry. During the Song Dynasty there were avid art collectors that would often meet in groups to discuss their own paintings, as well as rate those of their colleagues and friends. The poet and statesman Su Shi (10371101) and his accomplice Mi Fu (10511107) often partook in these affairs, borrowing art pieces to study, copy, or exchange. They created a new kind of art based upon the three perfections in which

Figure 14.24 Snow Mountains by Guo Xi, located in the Shanghai Museum. Guo Xi, a representative painter of landscape painting in the Northern Song dynasty, has been well known for depicting mountains, rivers and forests in winter. This piece shows a scene of deep and serene mountain valley covered with snow and several old trees struggling to survive on precipitous cli!s. It is a masterpiece of Guo Xi by using light ink and magnicent composition to express his open and high artistic conception.

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Figure 14.25 Detail of the original "Along the River during Qingming Festival" by Zhang Zeduan, early 12th century

collected into albums as poets would write poems along the side to match the theme and mood of the painting. The imperial courts of the emperor's palace were filled with his entourage of court painters, calligraphers, poets, and storytellers. One of the greatest landscape painters given patronage by the Song court was Zhang Zeduan (10851145), who painted the original Along the River During Qingming Festival scroll (Figure 14.25), one of the most well-known masterpieces of Chinese visual art. Emperor Gaozong of Song (11271162) commissioned an art project of numerous paintings for the Eighteen Songs of a Nomad Flute, based on the poet Cai Wenji (177250 AD) of the earlier Han Dynasty. Yi Yuanji achieved a high degree of realism painting animals, in particular monkeys and gibbons. During the Southern Song period,

Zhang Zeduan was instrumental in the early history of the Chinese landscape art style known as shan shui. Zhang's original painting of the Along the River During the Qingming Festival reveals much about life in China during the 11th-12th century. Its myriad depictions of di!erent people interacting with one another reveals the nuances of class structure and the many hardships of urban life as well. It also displays accurate depictions of technological practices found in Song China.

court painters such as Ma Yuan and Xia Gui used strong black brushstrokes to sketch trees and rocks and pale washes to suggest misty space.
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they used their skills in calligraphy (the art of beautiful writing) to make ink paintings. From their time onward, many painters strove to freely express their feelings and to capture the inner spirit of their subject instead of describing its outward appearance. The small round paintings popular in the Southern Song were often

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Paintings and Ceramics from the South

The emphasis on landscape painting in the Song period was grounded in Chinese philosophy.

were made in the visual arts, music, literature, and philosophy. Officials of the ruling bureaucracy reached new heights of education in Chinese society, while general Chinese culture was enhanced by widespread printing, growing literacy, and various arts. Appreciation of the arts among the gentry flourished during the Song Dynasty, especially in painting. Trends in painting styles among the gentry notably shifted from the Northern (9601127) to Southern Song (11271279) periods, influenced in part by the gradual embrace of the Neo-Confucian political ideology at court. Chinese painting during the Song Dynasty reached a new level of sophistication with further development of landscape painting. The shan shui style painting"shan" meaning mountain, and "shui" meaning riverbecame prominent features in Chinese landscape art. The emphasis laid upon landscape painting in the Song period was grounded in Chinese philosophy; Taoism stressed that humans were but tiny specks among the vast and greater cosmos, while NeoConfucianist writers often pursued the discovery of patterns and principles that they believed caused all social and natural phenomena. The making of glazed and translucent porcelain and celadon wares with complex use of enamels was also developed further during the Song period (Figure 14.26). Longquan celadon wares were particularly popular in the Song period. Black and red lacquerwares of the Song period featured beautifully carved artwork

KEY POINTS

Trends in painting styles among the gentry notably shifted from the Northern (9601127) to Southern Song (11271279) periods, influenced in part by the gradual embrace of the Neo-Confucian political ideology at court. Chinese painting during the Song Dynasty reached a new level of sophistication with further development of landscape painting. The shan shui style painting"shan" meaning mountain, and "shui" meaning riverbecame prominent features in Chinese landscape art. Southern Song officials were more interested in reforming society from the bottom up and on a much smaller scale. Hence, their paintings often focused on smaller, visually closer, and more intimate scenes, while the background was often depicted as bereft of detail as a realm without substance.

The Song Dynasty (9601279 AD) was a culturally rich and sophisticated age for China. During this time great advancements

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Figure 14.26 Song Dynasty ding ware porcelain bottle, 11th century The making of glazed and translucent porcelain and celadon wares with complex use of enamels was developed further during the Song period.

Distant mountain peaks rise out of high clouds and mist, while streaming rivers run from afar into the foreground. There was a significant difference in painting trends between the Northern Song period (9601127) and Southern Song period (1127 1279). The paintings of Northern Song officials were influenced by their political ideals of bringing order to the world and tackling the
Figure 14.27 Ma Lin, Listening to the Wind (1246) Southern Song o#cials were interested in reforming society from the bottom up and on a small scale. Hence, their paintings often focused on small, visually closer, and more intimate scenes, while the background was often depicted as bereft of detail as a realm without substance or concern for the artist or viewer.

of miniature nature scenes, landscapes, or simple decorative motifs. However, even though intricate bronze-casting, ceramics and lacquerware, jade carving, sculpture, architecture, and the painting of portraits and closely viewed objects like birds on branches were held in high esteem by the Song Chinese, landscape painting was paramount. By the beginning of the Song Dynasty a distinctive landscape style had emerged. Artists mastered the formula of creating intricate and realistic scenes placed in the foreground, while the background retained qualities of vast and infinite space.

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largest issues affecting their society; hence, their paintings often depicted huge, sweeping landscapes. On the other hand, Southern Song officials were more interested in reforming society from the bottom up and on a much smaller scale, a method they believed had a better chance for eventual success. Their paintings often focused on smaller, visually closer and more intimate scenes, while the background was often depicted as bereft of detail as a realm without substance or concern for the artist or viewer (Figure 14.27). This change in attitude from one era to the next stemmed largely from the rising influence of Neo-Confucian philosophy. Adherents to Neo-Confucianism focused on reforming society from the bottom up, not the top down, which can be seen in their efforts to promote small private academies during the Southern Song instead of the large state-controlled academies seen in the Northern Song era.
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Section 9

Korea

Three Kingdoms Period Unied Silla Period Goryeo Dynasty

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Three Kingdoms Period$

Korean artists sometimes modied Chinese traditions with a native preference for simple elegance, purity of nature, and spontaneity.

Background The earliest examples of Korean art consist of Stone Age works dating from 3000 BCE. These mainly consist of votive sculptures, although petroglyphs have also been recently rediscovered. This period began circa 57 BCE to 668 CE. Three Korean kingdoms, Goguryeo, Baekje, and Silla vied for control over the peninsula.

KEY POINTS

This period began circa 57 BCE to 668 CE. Three Korean kingdoms, Goguryeo, Baekje, and Silla vied for control over the peninsula. Korean artists sometimes modified Chinese traditions with a native preference for simple elegance, purity of nature and spontaneity. Buddhism inspired the Goguryeo kings to begin commission art and architecture dedicated to the Buddha. Baekje Buddhist sculpture is characterized by its naturalness, warmness, and harmonious proportions exhibit a unique Korean style. The Silla Kingdom was the most isolated kingdom from the Korean peninsula because it was situated in the southeast part of the peninsula. The kingdom was the last to adopt Buddhism and foreign cultural influences.

This early period was followed by the art styles of various Korean kingdoms and dynasties. Korean artists sometimes modified Chinese traditions with a native preference for simple elegance, purity of nature and spontaneity. Professionals have begun to acknowledge and sort through Koreas own unique art culture and important role in not only transmitting Chinese culture but also assimilating it and creating a unique culture of its own. An art given birth to and developed by a nation is its own art. Goguryeo Buddhism was introduced to Goguryeo first in 372 CE because of its location spanning much of Manchuria and the northern half of Korea, closest to the northern Chinese states like the Northern Wei. Buddhism inspired the Goguryeo kings to begin commission art and architecture dedicated to the Buddha. Notable aspects of Goguryeo art are tomb murals that vividly depict everyday aspects of life in the ancient kingdom as well as its culture. UNESCO designated the

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Figure 14.28 Goguryeo Moon Goguryeo Tomb Mural

influenced by southern Chinese dynasties, such as the Liang. Baekje was also one of the kingdoms to introduce a significant Korean influence into the art of Japan during this time period. Baekje Buddhist sculpture is characterized by its naturalness, warmness, and harmonious proportions exhibit a unique Korean style. Another example of Korean influence is the use of the distinctive "Baekje smile," a mysterious and archaic smile that is characteristic of many Baekje statutes. While there are no surviving examples of wooden architecture, the Mireuksa site holds the foundation stones of a destroyed temple and two surviving granite

Complex of Goguryeo Tombs and as a World Heritage Site because Goguryeo painting was influential in East Asia, including Japan, an example being the wall murals of Horyu-ji, which was influenced by Goguryeo. Mural Figure 14.28) painting also spread to the other two kingdoms. The murals portrayed Buddhist themes and provide valuable clues about kingdom such as architecture and clothing. These murals were also the very beginnings of Korean landscape paintings and portraiture. However, the treasures of the tombs were easily accessible and looted leaving very little physical artifacts of the kingdom. Baekje Baekje is considered the kingdom with the greatest art among the three states. Baekje was a kingdom in southwest Korea and was

pagodas that show what Baekje architecture may have looked. An example of Baekje architecture may be gleaned from Horyu-ji temple because Baekje architects and craftsmen helped design and construct the original temple. The tomb of King Muryeong held a treasure trove of artifacts not looted by grave robbers. Among the items were flame-like gold pins, gilt-bronze shoes, gold girdles (a symbol of royalty), and swords with gold hilts with dragons and phoenixes Silla The Silla Kingdom was the most isolated kingdom from the Korean peninsula because it was situated in the southeast part of the

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peninsula. The kingdom was the last to adopt Buddhism and foreign cultural influences. The Silla Kingdom tombs were mostly inaccessible and so many examples of Korean art come from this kingdom. The Silla craftsmen were famed for their gold-crafting ability, which have similarities to Etruscan and Greek techniques, as exampled by gold earrings and crowns. Because of Silla gold artifacts bearing similarities to European techniques along with glass and beads depicting blue-eyed people found in royal tombs, many believe that the Silk Road went all the way to Korea. Most notable objects of Silla art are its gold crowns that are made from pure gold and have tree and antler-like adornments that suggest a Scythe-Siberian and Korean shamanistic tradition.
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Unied Silla Period

The Silla craftsmen were famed for their gold-crafting ability.

KEY POINTS

The Silla craftsmen were famed for their gold-crafting ability, which have similarities to Etruscan and Greek techniques, as exampled by gold earrings and crowns. The most notable objects of Silla art are its gold crowns; they are made from pure gold and have tree and antler-like adornments that suggest a Scythe-Siberian and Korean shamanistic tradition. Unified Silla was a time of great artistic output in Korea, especially in Buddhist art. Examples include the Seokguram grotto and the Bulguksa temple. Bulguksa is a head temple of the Jogye Order of Korean Buddhism in the North Gyeongsang province in South Korea. It is home to seven national treasures of South Korea.

Background The Silla Kingdom was the most isolated kingdom from the Korean peninsula because it was situated in the southeast part of the peninsula. The kingdom was the last to adopt Buddhism and foreign cultural influences.

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The Silla Kingdom tombs were mostly inaccessible and so many examples of Korean art come from this kingdom. The Silla craftsmen were famed for their gold-crafting ability, which have similarities to Etruscan and Greek techniques, as exampled by gold earrings and crowns. Because Silla gold artifacts bear similarities to European techniquesalong with glass and beads depicting blueeyed people found in royal tombsmany believe that the Silk Road went all the way to Korea. The most notable objects of Silla art are its gold crowns; they are made from pure gold and have tree and antler-like adornments that suggest a Scythe-Siberian and Korean shamanistic tradition. Unified Silla Art Unified Silla was a time of great artistic output in Korea, especially in Buddhist art. Examples include the Seokguram grotto and the Bulguksa temple. Two pagodas on the ground, the Seokgatap and Dabotap, are also unique examples of Silla masonry and artistry. Craftsmen also created massive temple bells, reliquaries, and statutes. The capital city of Unified Silla was nicknamed the city of gold because of the use of gold in many objects of art. Bulguksa Temple Bulguksa is a head temple of the Jogye Order of Korean Buddhism in the North Gyeongsang province in South Korea. It is home to

Figure 14.29 Seokguram Buddha Buddha at Seokguram in South Korea, World Heritage picture.

seven national treasures of South Korea, including the Dabotap and Seokgatap stone pagodas, Cheongun-gyo (Blue Cloud Bridge), and two gilt-bronze statues of Buddha. The temple is classified as Historic and Scenic Site No. 1 by the South Korean government. In 1995, Bulguksa was added to the UNESCO World Heritage List together with the Seokguram Grotto.

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Seokguram Grotto The Seokguram Grotto (Figure 14.29) is a hermitage and part of the Bulguksa temple complex. It lies four kilometers east of the Bulguksa temple on Mt. Tohamsan, in Gyeongju, South Korea. It is classified as National Treasure No. 24 by the South Korean government and is located at 994, Jinhyeon-dong, Gyeongju-si, Gyeongsanbuk-do. The grotto overlooks the East Sea (Sea of Japan) and rests 750 meters above sea level. In 1962, it was designated the 24th national treasure of Korea. In 1995, Seokguram was added to the UNESCO World Heritage List together with the Bulguksa Temple. It exemplifies some of the best Buddhist sculptures in the world.
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Goryeo Dynasty
Notable aspects of Goguryeo art are tomb murals that vividly depict everyday aspects of life in the ancient kingdom and their culture.

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UNESCO designated the Complex of Goguryeo Tombs as a World Heritage Site because Goguryeo painting influenced a lot of art in East Asia, including the wall murals of Horyu-ji in Japan. The murals portray Buddhist themes and provide valuable clues about the kingdom, including its architecture and clothing. These murals were also the very beginnings of Korean landscape paintings and portraiture. The inhabitants of Goguryeo wore a predecessor of the modern hanbok, just as the other cultures of the three kingdoms. There are murals and artifacts that depict dancers wearing elaborate white dresses. Goguryeo art, preserved largely in tomb paintings, is noted for the vigor of its imagery. Finely detailed art can be seen in Goguryeo tombs and other murals. Many of the art pieces have an original style of painting.

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Background Buddhism was introduced to Goguryeo first in 372 CE because of its location, which spanned much of Manchuria and the northern half of Korea, closest to the northern Chinese states like the Northern Wei. Buddhism inspired the Goguryeo kings to commission art and architecture dedicated to the Buddha. Notable aspects of Goguryeo art are tomb murals that vividly depict everyday aspects of life in the ancient kingdom, as well as its culture. UNESCO designated the Complex of Goguryeo Tombs as a World Heritage Site because Goguryeo painting influenced a lot of art in East Asia, including the wall murals of Horyu-ji in Japan. The murals portray Buddhist themes and provide valuable clues about the kingdom, including its architecture and clothing. These murals were also the very beginnings of Korean landscape paintings and portraiture. However, the treasures of the tombs were easily accessible and looted, leaving very little physical artifacts of the kingdom. Arts and Culture The inhabitants of Goguryeo wore a predecessor of the modern hanbok, just as the other cultures of the three kingdoms. There are murals and artifacts that depict dancers wearing elaborate white dresses as well. Cultural Linkage

Figure 14.30 Goguryeo Mural Art Ssireum, depicted on a Goguryeo mural.

Common pastimes among Goguryeo people were drinking, singing, and dancing. Games such as wrestling (ssireum) attracted curious spectators. Every October, the Dongmaeng Festival was held. The Dongmaeng Festival was practiced to worship the gods. Huge celebratory feasts, games, and other activities followed the ceremonies. Often, the king performed rites to his ancestors. Hunting was a male activity and also served as an appropriate means to train young men for the military. Hunting parties rode on horses and hunted deer and other game with bows. Archery contests also occurred.

Goguryeo art, preserved largely in tomb paintings, is noted for the vigor of its imagery. Finely detailed art can be seen in Goguryeo

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tombs and other murals (Figure 14.30). Many of the art pieces have an original style of painting. Cultural legacies of Goguryeo may be found in modern Korean culture, for example, ssireum, taekkyeon, Korean dance, ondol (Goguryeo's floor heating system), and the hanbok.
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Chapter 15

Japan Before 1333

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Section 1

Prehistoric Japan

Jomon Period Yayoi Period Kofun Period

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Jomon Period
Prehistoric art of Japan from the J*mon period consisted of pottery, said by many scholars to be the oldest yet discovered in the world.

culture, by American Edward Sylvester Morse. J3mon pottery is said by many scholars to be the oldest yet discovered in the world. The J3mon communities consisted of hundreds or even thousands of people, who dwelt in simple houses of wood and thatch set into shallow earthen pits to provide warmth from the soil. They crafted lavishly decorated pottery storage vessels, clay figurines called

KEY POINTS

dog#, and crystal jewels. The oldest examples of J3mon pottery have flat bottoms, though pointed bottoms (meant to be held in small pits in the earth, like an amphora) became common later. In the Middle J3mon period (30002000 BCE), simple decorations, made with cord or through scratching, gave way to highly elaborate designs. So-called flame vessels, along with the closely related crown-formed vessels (Figure 15. 2), are among the most distinctive
Figure 15.1 A Final J$mon statuette (1000-400 BCE) An example of J*mon dog+

J3mon people are named for "cord-markings," impressions made with rope, found as decorations on pottery of this time. J3mon pottery is said by many scholars to be the oldest yet discovered in the world. Figurines called dog#, often described as "goggle-eyed," featured elaborate geometrical designs and short, stubby limbs, and are generally believed to have borne a religious or ritual significance.

Prehistoric art of Japan begins with the J3mon period (c. 10,000 BCE350 BCE). The J3mon people are generally said to have been the first settlers of Japan. Nomadic hunter-gatherers, who later practiced organized farming and built cities, the J3mon people are named for the "cord-markings"impressions made by pressing rope into the clay before it was heated to approximately 600-900 degrees Celsiusthat were found as decorations on pottery of this time. The term J3mon was first applied to the pottery, and the

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Figure 15.2 Crownformed vessel from middle J$mon period (3000-2000 BCE) "Crown-formed vessel," a variation on the ame vessel style for which J*mon art is famous.

Yayoi Period
Artifacts brought to the Japanese islands by the Yayoi bore Chinese and Korean inuences and ushered Japan into the Iron Age.

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The Yayoi people arrived in Japan about 350 BCE, bringing with them their knowledge of wetland rice cultivation, the manufacture of copper weapons and bronze bells (d3taku), and wheel-thrown, kiln-fired ceramics. Artifacts brought to the islands at this time had a powerful effect upon the development of Japanese art, by presenting objects to imitate and copy, such as bronze mirrors and swords in the Chinese (Qin and Han dynasties) and Korean styles. The Yayoi people brought Japan into the Iron Age around the 3rd century CE. Yayoi period pottery tends to be smoother than that of J3mon, and more frequently features decorations made with sticks or combs, rather than rope.

forms from this period; representative forms such as clay figurines of people and animals also appeared around this time. These figurines, called dog#, are often described as "goggle-eyed," and feature elaborate geometrical designs and short, stubby limbs (Figure 15.1). They are generally believed to have borne a religious or ritual significance.
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The wave of immigrants to Japan following the J3mon was the Yayoi people, named for the district in Tokyo where remnants of their settlements first were found. These people, arriving in Japan

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about 350 BCE, brought their knowledge of wetland rice cultivation, the manufacture of copper weapons and bronze bells (d3taku), and wheel-thrown, kiln-fired ceramics. Along with introducing bronze casting and other technologies into the islands, the Yayoi people, who are generally believed to have come from the Korean peninsula, brought cultural influences from China and Korea. Chinese expansion under the Qin (221206 BCE) and Han (206 220 CE) Dynasties is said to have been one of the primary impetuses for migrations to the Japanese archipelago, which brought with it cultural influences and new technologies. Artifacts brought to the islands at this time had a powerful effect upon the development of Japanese art by presenting objects to imitate and copy, such as bronze mirrors and swords in the Chinese and Korean styles. The Yayoi people brought Japan into the Iron Age around the 3rd century CE. Most of the pottery of the period, with its characteristic combed designs, was used for cooking, eating and storage of grain (Figure 15.3). However, burial urns up to 76 cm in height have also been found. Rice, millet, beans and gourds were grown around settlements of thatched pit houses, granaries and wells. The technology of stone implements developed significantly alongside progress in the working of bronze (for ritual objects), and iron (for tools and weapons). Cloth was woven from flax and paper-mulberry

Figure 15.3 Yayoi art A jar from the Yayoi period (1st3rd century CE)

fibers while personal ornaments were made from glass, minerals, shell and bronze. Yayoi period pottery tends to be smoother than that of the J3mon period, and more frequently features decorations made with sticks or combs, rather than rope.
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Kofun Period
The Kofun period is the oldest era of recorded history in Japan and is characterized by a pre-Buddhist Shinto culture.
KEY POINTS

Figure 15.4 Megalithic tomb from the kofun period Daisen Kofun, the largest of all kofun

The Kofun period (250 to 538 CE) is the oldest era of recorded history in Japan. During the Kofun period, the leader of a powerful clan won control over much of west Honsh# and the northern half of Ky#sh# and eventually established the Imperial House of Japan. The word kofun is Japanese for the type of burial mounds dating from this era, whose size reflected the power and influence of the ruling classes. The end of the Kofun period marks Japan's transition to a literate culture with the introduction of the Chinese writing system, alongside the adoption of Buddhism. archaeology. The word kofun is Japanese for the type of burial mounds dating from this era (Figure 15.4). The Kofun and the subsequent Asuka periods are sometimes referred to collectively as the Yamato period. The Kofun period is distinguished from the Asuka period by its cultural differences. The Kofun period is characterized by a Shinto The Kofun period is an era in the history of Japan dating from around 250 to 538 CE. It followed the Yayoi period. The Kofun period is the oldest era of recorded history in Japan. As the chronology of its historical sources tends to be very distorted, studies of this period require deliberate criticism and the aid of culture which existed prior to the introduction of Buddhism. Politically, the leader of a powerful clan won control over much of west Honsh# and the northern half of Ky#sh# and eventually established the Imperial House of Japan. Kofun burial mounds on Tanegashima and two very old Shinto shrines on Yakushima

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Figure 15.5 Aerial photo of notable kofun group Furuichi kofun group, Osaka

Since there are no written records from the early and middle Kofun period, the tombs and grave goods are the main contributors to our appreciation of Kofun culture. The power and influence of the ruling classes is shown by the size of the mounds, from 10 meters across to the gigantic 486 meters of the moated keyhole mound of the Emperor Nintoku near Osaka (early fifth century)(Figure 15.5), Grave goods include iron weapons, armor, gilt horse trappings, jewelry, bronze, mirrors, and pottery of increasing variety and sophistication. However, these burial practices gradually disappeared under governmental controls and the spread of Buddhism.
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suggest that these islands were the southern boundaries of the Yamato state. Its northernmost extent was as far north as Tainai in the modern Niigata Prefecture, where mounds have been excavated associated with a person with close links to the Yamato kingdom. During the Kofun period, contacts with the Korean peninsula, and later with China itself, increased rapidly. Korean migrants introduced technologies such as sword and ceramic production, and intermarried with the Japanese nobility. The end of the Kofun period marks Japan's transition to a literate culture with the introduction of the Chinese writing system, alongside the adoption of Buddhism.

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Section 2

Buddhist Japan

Introduction

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Introduction
The introduction of Buddhism to Japan resulted in temples and monasteries, paintings and sculptures of extraordinary artistic achievement.

Figure 15.6 K$fuku-ji Five-story pagoda and T*kond*.

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Before the introduction of Buddhism, Japan had already been the seat of various cultural (and artistic) influences. The Japanese were introduced to Buddhism in the 6th century when missionary monks traveled to the islands together with numerous scriptures and works of art. The Buddhist religion was adopted by the state in the following century. Countless paintings and sculptures were made, often under governmental sponsorship. Indian, Hellenistic, Chinese and Korean artistic influences blended into an original style characterized by realism and gracefulness. Japan developed an extremely rich figurative art for the pantheon of Buddhist deities, sometimes combined with Hindu and Shinto influences. From the 12th and 13th centuries, a further development was Zen art, which reached its apogee in the Muromachi Period (13371573), following the introduction of the faith by Dogen and Eisai upon their return from China. Before the introduction of Buddhism, Japan had already been the seat of various cultural (and artistic) influences, from the abstract linear decorative art of the indigenous Neolithic J3mon from around 10500 BC to 300 BC, to the art during the Yayoi and Kofun periods, which included developments such as Haniwa art (terracotta clay figures used as funerary objects during the Kofun period). The Japanese were introduced to Buddhism in the 6th century when missionary monks traveled to the islands together with numerous scriptures and works of art. The Buddhist religion was adopted by the state in the following century. Being geographically at the end of the Silk Road, Japan was able to preserve many aspects of Buddhism at the very time it was disappearing in India, and being suppressed in Central Asia and China.

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Figure 15.7 The ASURA in K$fukuji, Nara (734) A sculpture of an Asura, a type of supernatural being, in traditional Buddhist cosmology.

From the 12th and 13th centuries, a further development was Zen art, which reached its apogee in the Muromachi Period (1337 1573), following the introduction of the faith by Dogen and Eisai upon their return from China. Zen art is mainly characterized by original paintings (such as sumi-e) and poetry (especially haikus) that strive to express the true essence of the world through impressionistic and unadorned "non-dualistic" representations. The search for enlightenment "in the moment" also led to the development of other important derivative arts such as the Chanoyu tea ceremony or the Ikebana art of flower arrangement.

From 711, numerous temples and monasteries were built in the capital city of Nara, including a five-story pagoda, the Golden Hall of the Horyuji, and the K3fuku-ji temple (Figure 15.6). Countless paintings and sculptures were made, often under governmental sponsorship (Figure 15.7). Indian, Hellenistic, Chinese and Korean artistic influences blended into an original style characterized by realism and gracefulness. The creation of Japanese Buddhist art was especially rich between the 8th and 13th centuries during the periods of Nara, Heian and Kamakura. Japan developed an extremely rich figurative art for the pantheon of Buddhist deities, sometimes combined with Hindu and Shinto influences. This art can be very varied, creative and bold.

This evolution went as far as to consider almost any human activity as an art with a strong spiritual and aesthetic content, first and foremost in those activities related to combat techniques (martial arts).
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Section 3

Asuka Period

Horyuji Temple

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Horyuji Temple
H*ry+-ji Temple (Asuka period), one of the most celebrated temples in Japan, reects the spread of Buddhism and Chinese culture in Japan.

During this period, the proto-Japanese Yamato polity gradually became a clearly centralized state, defining and applying a code of governing laws. Also during this period, the Japanese developed strong economic ties with the Paikche or Baekje people, from the southwestern coast of the Korean Peninsula. Buddhism was introduced to Japan in 538 by Baekje people. In

KEY POINTS

Japan, however, Buddhism was promoted largely by the ruling class for their own purposes. Prince Sh3toku came to power in Japan as Regent to Empress Suiko in 594. As Regent to Empress Suiko, Prince Shotoku devoted his efforts to the spread of Buddhism and Chinese culture in Japan. He is also credited with bringing relative peace to Japan through the proclamation of the Seventeen-article constitution, a Confucianstyle document that focused on the kinds of morals and virtues that were to be expected of government officials and the emperor's subjects. Buddhism would become a permanent part of Japanese culture. H3ry#-ji is one of the most celebrated temples in Japan. The temple was originally commissioned by Prince Sh3toku; at the time it was called Ikaruga-dera (), a name that is still sometimes used.

The Asuka period is so named because the seat of Japanese government was located in the Asuka Valley from 552 to 710. During this period, the proto-Japanese Yamato polity gradually became a clearly centralized state, defining and applying a code of governing laws. Buddhism was introduced to Japan in 538 by the Baekje people from the Korean Peninsula. In Japan, however, Buddhism was promoted largely by the ruling class for their own purposes. Prince Sh3toku came to power in Japan as Regent to Empress Suiko in 594, and commissioned H3ry#-ji, one of the most celebrated temples in Japan. H3ry#-ji embraces architectural influences ranging from Eastern Han to Northern Wei of China, as well as from the Three Kingdoms of Korea, particularly those of Baekje.

The Asuka period is so named because the seat of Japanese government was located in the Asuka Valley from 552 to 710.

This first temple is believed to have been completed by 607. H3ry#ji was dedicated to Yakushi Nyorai, the Buddha of healing, in honor

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of the prince's father. The original temple, named by modern historians and archaeologists Wakakusa-garan (), was lost, probably burned down after being hit by lightning in 670. The temple was reconstructed (but slightly reoriented in a northwest position), believed to have been completed around 711. Characteristics of H!ry"-ji Temple The reconstructed buildings embrace architectural influences ranging from Eastern Han to Northern Wei of China, as well as from the Three Kingdoms of Korea, particularly those of Baekje. With its origin dating back to early 7th century, the reconstruction has allowed H3ry#-ji to absorb and feature a unique fusion of early Asuka period style elements, added with some distinct ones only seen in H3ry#-ji, that were not found again in the architecture of the following Nara period. There are certain features that suggest the current precinct of H3ryu-ji is not just representative of the Asuka style. One of the most notable is its layout. While most Japanese temples of the period were arranged like their Chinese and Korean prototypesthe main gate, a pagoda, the main hall, and the lecture hall on a straight linethe reconstructed H3ry#-ji breaks from those patterns by arranging the Kond3 and pagoda side-by-side in the courtyard.

Figure 15.8 H$ry%ji pagoda The ve-storied pagoda has certain characteristics unique to H*ry+-ji.

Another example found through the excavations at Yamada-dera, a lost temple originally dated 643, is the difference in the style of the corridor. Whereas Yamada-dera had thicker horizontal poles placed much more densely in the windows, those at H3ry#-ji are thinner, and placed at larger intervals. On the other hand, major Asuka style characteristics seen in H3ryu-ji, and resembling designs found in

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the Yungang Grottoes (Northern Wei), include the railings, decorated with repeat-patterned swastika ( manji kuzushi koran), and placed below are the inverted "V" shape support ( ninji gata warizuka); and the entasis columns. The other notable Asuka style element that is only found in Japan, and with the only surviving originals in H3ryu-ji, is the cloud-shape hybrid bracket supporter (a kumimono (hybrid) of kumoto and kumohijiki). These Asuka characteristics are not seen in Nara period temples. Pagoda The five-story pagoda, located in the Sai-in area and standing at 32.45 meters (122 feet), is one of the oldest wooden buildings in the world (Figure 15.8). The wood used in the pagoda's center pillar is estimated through a dendrochronological analysis to have been felled in 594. The central pillar rests three meters below the surface of the massive foundation stone, stretching into the ground. At its base is enshrined what is believed to be a fragment of one of Buddha's bones. Around it, four sculpted scenes from the life of the Buddha face north, east, south, and west. Although the pagoda is five-storied, it does not allow one to climb up inside, but it is rather designed to inspire people with its external view.

Kond! The kond3, located side-by-side to the pagoda in Sai-in, is another one of the oldest wood buildings extant in the world (Figure 15.9). The hall measures 18.5 meters by 15.2 meters. The hall has two stories, with roofs curved in the corners. Only the first story has a double roof ( mokoshi). This was added later in the Nara period with extra posts to hold up the original first roof because it extended more than four meters past the building. The hall holds the famous Shaka Triad, together with a bronze Yakushi and Amida Nyorai statues, and other national treasures.

Figure 15.9 The kond$ of H$ry%-ji The two-storied kond* is another one of the oldest wood buildings extant in the world.

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Section 4

Nara Period

Art of the Nara Period

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Art of the Nara Period

The Nara period in Japan (710784) marked the emergence of a strong Japanese state, and is often portrayed as a golden age for art.

"Japan had been transformed from a loose federation of uji in the fifth century to an empire on the order of Imperial China in the eighth century. A new theory of state and a new structure of government supported the Japanese sovereign in the style and with the powers of an absolute monarch." There was a cultural flowering during this period. The transmission

KEY POINTS

of Buddhism provided the initial impetus for contact between China, Korea, and Japan. The Japanese recognized the facets of Chinese culture that could profitably be incorporated into their own: a system for converting ideas and sounds into writing; historiography; complex theories of government, such as an effective bureaucracy; and, most important for the arts, new technologies, new building techniques, more advanced methods of casting in bronze, and new techniques and media for painting. The earliest Buddhist structures still stand in Japan, and the oldest wooden buildings in the Far East are found at the H3ry#-ji to the southwest of Nara (Figure 15.10). First built in the early 7th century as the private temple of Crown Prince Sh3toku, it consists of 41 independent buildings. The most important onesthe main worship hall, or Kond3 (Golden Hall), and Goj#-no-t3 (Five-story Pagoda)stand in the center of an open area surrounded by a roofed cloister. The Kond3, in the style of Chinese worship halls, is a

The cultural flowering during the Nara period was spawned by the transmission of Buddhism from contact with China and Korea. The Japanese recognized the facets of Chinese culture that could profitably be incorporated into their own, which for the arts meant new technologies, new building techniques, more advanced methods of casting in bronze, and new techniques and media for painting. Temple-building in the 8th century was focused around the T3dai-ji in Nara. Constructed as the headquarters for a network of temples in each of the provinces, the T3daiji is the most ambitious religious complex erected in the early centuries of Buddhist worship in Japan.

The Nara period of the 8th centuryso named because the seat of Japanese government was located in the city of Nara from 710 until 784marked the emergence of a strong Japanese state, and is often portrayed as a golden age. John W. Hall (1966) concludes that

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Figure 15.10 Golden Hall and Five-Storied Pagoda of H$ry%-ji H*ry+-ji is a Buddhist temple in Ikaruga, Nara prefecture, Japan.

Shaka Trinity (623), the historical Buddha flanked by two bodhisattvas, cast in bronze by the sculptor Tori Busshi (who flourished in the early 7th century) in homage to the recently deceased Prince Sh3toku. At the four corners of the platform are the Guardian Kings of the Four Directions, carved in wood around 650. Also housed at H3ry#-ji is the Tamamushi Shrine, a wooden replica of a Kond3, which is set on a high wooden base that is decorated with figural paintings executed in a medium of mineral pigments mixed with lacquer.

Figure 15.11 Hokked at Todaiji in Nara Japan The T*daiji (dating back to 728) is the most ambitious religious complex erected in the early centuries of Buddhist worship in Japan.

Temple-building in the 8th century was focused around the T3dai-ji in Nara (Figure 15.11). Constructed as the headquarters for a network of temples in each of the provinces, the T3daiji is the most ambitious religious complex erected in the early centuries of Buddhist worship in Japan. Appropriately, the main Buddha hall, or Daibutsuden, was enshrined with the Rushana Buddha, a 16.2-m (53-ft) Buddha completed in 752 that represents the essence of Buddhahoodjust as the T3daiji represented the center for Imperially sponsored Buddhism and its dissemination throughout Japan. Only a few fragments of the original statue survive, and the present hall and central Buddha are reconstructions from the Edo period. Clustered around the Daibutsuden on a gently sloping hillside are a number of secondary halls: the Hokke-d3 (Lotus Sutra Hall), with

two-story structure of post-and-beam construction, capped by an irimoya, or hipped-gabled roof of ceramic tiles. Inside the Kond3, on a large rectangular platform, are some of the most important sculptures of the period. The central image is a

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its principal image, the Fukukenjaku Kannon (the most popular bodhisattva), crafted of dry lacquer (cloth dipped in lacquer and shaped over a wooden armature); the Kaidanin (Ordination Hall) with its magnificent clay statues of the Four Guardian Kings; and the storehouse, called the Sh3s3in. This last structure is of great importance as an art-historical cache, because in it are stored the utensils that were used in the temple's dedication ceremony in 752, the eye-opening ritual for the Rushana image, as well as government documents and many secular objects owned by the Imperial family.
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Section 5

Heian Period

Art of Esoteric Buddhism Art of Pure Land Buddhism Painting and Calligraphy

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Art of Esoteric Buddhism

The Heian period witnessed a owering of Buddhist art and architecture and the introduction of Esoteric Buddhism to Japan.

and 1185, when the Kamakura shogunate was established at the end of the Genpei War. It is considered Japan's "Golden Age," a high point in Japanese culture that later generations have always admired. The period is also noted for the rise of the samurai class, which would eventually take power and start the feudal period of Japan.

KEY POINTS

The Late Nara period saw the introduction of Esoteric Buddhism to Japan from China, by K#kai and Saich3, who founded the Shingon and Tendai schools. The Heian period witnessed a flowering of Buddhist art and architecture and the introduction of Esoteric Buddhism to Japan. Early Heian period sculptures inherited and modified late Nara period sculptural forms while developing new images to depict wrathful Esoteric deities. During this time, wood also replaced bronze as the most common material for making Buddhist sculptures. K#kai impressed the emperors who succeeded Emperor Kammu, and also generations of Japanese, not only with his holiness but also with his poetry, calligraphy, painting, and sculpture. Shingon Buddhist practice is based on various rituals, including the chanting of mantras, puja, hand gestures (mudras), and meditation through visualization of mandalas. The central role of ritual in Japanese Esoteric Buddhism led to a flourishing of the religious arts in the Heian period. These religious paintings, mandalas, and statues

Early Heian period sculptures inherited and modified late Nara period sculptural forms while developing new images to depict wrathful Esoteric deities. During this time, wood also replaced bronze as the most common material for making Buddhist sculptures. K#kai greatly impressed emperors and also generations of Japanese people, not only with his holiness but also with his poetry, calligraphy, painting, and sculpture. The central role of ritual in Japanese Esoteric Buddhism led to a flourishing of the religious arts in the Heian period. These religious paintings, mandalas, and statues provided practitioners with ways to contemplate Buddhist deities and concepts.

In 784 the Emperor Kammu, threatened by the growing secular power of the Buddhist institutions in Nara, moved the capital to Heian-ky3 (Ky3to), which remained the imperial capital for the next 1,000 years. The term Heian period refers to the years between 794

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Figure 15.12 Taizokai (Womb World) mandala (Second Half of the Ninth Century) The Phoenix Hall of the By*d*-in is an exemplar of Fujiwara Amida halls.

By the middle of the Heian period, the powerful Fujiwara clan dominated political and cultural affairs and formal trade with China ended, allowing for the development of indigenous cultural forms. A growing sense of grace, refinement, and softness emerged in Buddhist sculptures, which culminated in the work of J3ch3 (d. 1057), whose workshop in Kyoto perfected the Way3 or Japanese style of sculpture.
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provided practitioners with ways to contemplate Buddhist deities and concepts. A famous example of a Shingon mandala is the Taizokai (Womb World) mandala (Figure 15.12). Part of the Mandala of the Two Realms, the womb world is composed of 12 zones representing different dimensions of Buddha nature. In the center sits the Vairocana Buddha within the lotus of compassion, surrounded by attendant Buddhas and Bodhisattvas. The Shingon sect believed that all beings have an innate Buddha nature.

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Art of Pure Land Buddhism

In the Heian period, Pure Land Buddhism, o!ering salvation through belief in the Buddha of the Western Paradise, inuenced Japanese art.

KEY POINTS (cont.)

Yamato-e, which is considered the classical Japanese style, was first developed during the late Heian period and inspired by the Tang Dynasty Chinese "blue and green style" of landscape painting. Overview Pure Land Buddhism is a branch of Buddhism that offers salvation through belief in Amida Buddha (the Buddha of the Western Paradise). Pure Land Buddhism became popular during the Fujiwara regency (7941185), named for the clan that dominated Japanese politics in the Heian period. The Fujiwara period was a time of cultural and artistic flowering at the imperial court and among the aristocracy, and the Kyoto nobility developed a society devoted to elegant aesthetic pursuits. The Fujiwara family, then the most powerful in the country, ruled as regents for the Emperor becoming, in effect, hereditary civil dictators. Pure Land Buddhist Imagery New types of images were developed to satisfy the devotional needs of the increasingly important Pure Land sects in the tenth century. They created a new form of Buddha hall, the Amida hall. This new hall blends the secular with the religious, and houses one or more Buddha images within a structure resembling the mansions of the

KEY POINTS

The Fujiwara family, then the most powerful in the country, ruled as regents for the Emperor, becoming, in effect, civil dictators. The Kyoto nobility created a new form of Buddha hall, the Amida hall, which blends the secular with the religious, and houses one or more Buddha images within a structure resembling the mansions of the nobility. The H3-3-d3 (Phoenix Hall, completed 1053) of the By3d3-in, a temple in Uji to the southeast of Kyoto, is the exemplar of Fujiwara Amida halls. The golden Amida sculpture inside the Phoenix Hall was executed by the famous sculptor J3ch3, who used a new canon of proportions and the new technique of yosegi. New types of images were developed to satisfy the devotional needs of Pure Land sects in the 10th century. An example is the Raig3, which depicts the appearance of the Amida Buddha on a floating cloud along with his attendant celestial host at the time of one's death.

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Figure 15.13 By$d$-in Phoenix Hall, Uji, Kyoto The Phoenix Hall of the By*d*-in is an exemplar of Fujiwara Amida halls.

believers at the moment of death and transport them in lotus blossoms to the Western Paradise (Figure 15.14). A famous early example of Raig3 imagery dating from 1053 CE is painted on the interior of the Phoenix Hall doors of the H3-3-d3. It depicts the descent of the Amida Buddha, and is one of the first examples of Yamato-e or "Japanese-style painting." It contains landscape elements such as soft rolling hills that seem to reflect the actual appearance of the scenery around Kyoto. Stylistically, the painting is deeply influenced by the Tang Dynasty Chinese "blue and green style" of landscape painting traditions.

nobility. The H3-3-d3 (Phoenix Hall, completed 1053) of the By3d3in, a temple in Uji to the southeast of Kyoto, is one of the finest exemples of Fujiwara Amida halls (Figure 15.13). It consists of a main rectangular structure flanked by two L-shaped wing corridors and a tail corridor, set at the edge of a large artificial pond. Inside, a single golden image of Amida (c. 1053) is installed on a high platform. Other popular images used include the Raig3, which depicts the appearance of the Amida Buddha on a floating cloud along with his attendant celestial Bodhisattvas Kannon and Seishi at the time of one's death. A fine example of this type of image is found in the Phoenix Hall, whose walls are decorated with small relief carvings. These carvings are of the host believed to have accompanied Amida when he descended from his celestial realm to gather the souls of
Figure 15.14 Amida Raigo painting Color on silk, late Heian period. The Raigo image was introduced in Japan by the Pure Land School of Art during the Fujiwara Regency.

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Figure 15.15 Amida Raigo painting Amida Raigo painting

message within these preset limits. This resulted in finer and more ephemeral looking pieces. Most importantly, it allowed several assistants to work on the sculpture at once, thus greatly speeding up the process. J3ch3's sculptures were remarkable for their intricately carved halos and the kindness and compassion of their elegant facial expressions (Figure 15.15).
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The Amida sculpture was executed by J3ch3, a Japanese sculptor of the Heian period, who used a new canon of proportions and a new technique, yosegi, in which a single image is carved from multiple pieces of wood that are joined from the inside. While this technique limited the amount of surface detail an artist could carve into each piece, the method forced the sculptor to convey his intended

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Painting and Calligraphy

In the Heian period, a style of calligraphy unique to Japan emerged.

poem was written in 749 CE, and shows some differences from Chinese calligraphy. The authentically Japanese way3 () style, or way3-shod3 (), is considered to be founded by Ono no Michikaze (894-966 CE), one of the so-called sanseki (, "Three

KEY POINTS

Brush Traces"), along with Fujiwara no Sukemasa and Fujiwara no Yukinari. This development resonated with the court: K#kai said to Emperor Saga, "China is a large country and Japan is relatively small, so I suggest writing in a different way." The "Cry for noble Saich3" ( koku Saich3 shounin?), a poem written by Emperor Saga on the occasion of Saich3's death, was one of the examples of such a transformation. Ono no Michikaze served as an archetype for the Sh3ren-in school, which later became the Oie style of calligraphy. The Oie style was later used for official documents in the Edo period and was the prevailing style taught in the terakoya () schools of that time.

Soukou Shujitsu is regarded to be the first text that shows a style unique to Japanese calligraphy. In the last century of the Heian period, the horizontal, illustrated narrative handscroll, known as emaki (, lit. "picture scroll"), came to the fore. The 12th-century artists of the e-maki version devised a system of pictorial conventions that convey visually the emotional content of each scene. In the second half of the century, a different, livelier style of continuous narrative illustration became popular.

In the Heian period, a style of calligraphy unique to Japan emerged. Writing had been popularized and the kana syllabary was devised to deal with elements of pronunciation that could not be written with the borrowed Chinese characters. Japanese calligraphers still fitted the basic characters, called kanji (), into the squares laid out centuries before. Soukou Shujitsu is regarded to be the first text that shows a style unique to Japanese calligraphy. This Tanka ()

Emaki In the last century of the Heian period, the horizontal, illustrated narrative handscroll, known as emaki (, lit. "picture scroll"), came to the fore. Dating from about 1130, the Genji Monogatari Emaki, a famous illustrated Tale of Genji, represents the earliest surviving yamato-e handscroll, and one of the high points of

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Figure 15.16 Panel from the Genji Monogatari Emaki pictorial scroll

figures in active motion depicted in rapidly executed brush strokes and thin but vibrant colors. Emaki also serve as some of the earliest and greatest examples of the otoko-e ("men's pictures") and onna-e ("women's pictures") styles of painting. There are many fine differences in the two styles, appealing to the aesthetic preferences of the genders. But perhaps most easily noticeable are the differences in subject matter. Onna-e, epitomized by the Tale of Genji handscroll, typically deals with court life, particularly the court ladies, and with romantic themes. Otoko-e, on the other hand, often recorded historical events,

A scene from the Illustrated scroll of the Tale of Genji (written by Murasaki Shikibu in the 11th century). The multi-panel curtain at the center bottom of the image is a kich*. The decorated sliding door panels at the top of the image are fusuma. The scroll was made in about c. 1130 CE and is in the Tokugawa Museum in Nagoya, Japan.

particularly battles. The Siege of the Sanj3 Palace (1160), depicted in the "Night Attack on the Sanj3 Palace" section of the Heiji Monogatari handscroll, is a famous example of this style.
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Japanese painting (Figure 15.16). Written about the year 1000 by Murasaki Shikibu, a lady-in-waiting to the Empress Akiko, the novel deals with the life and loves of Genji and the world of the Heian court after his death. The 12th-century artists of the emaki version devised a system of pictorial conventions that convey visually the emotional content of each scene. In the second half of the century, a different, livelier style of continuous narrative illustration became popular. The Ban Dainagon Ekotoba (late 12th century), a scroll that deals with an intrigue at court, emphasizes

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Section 6

Kamakura Period

Art of Pure Land Buddhism Art of Zen Buddhism

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Art of Pure Land Buddhism

The art of the Kamakura period reected the introduction of the Pure Land School of Buddhism, which depicted the Amidha Buddha.

following the H3gen and Heiji rebellions and the victory of the Minamoto clan over the Taira, marked the beginning of the Kamakura period (11851333 CE), but not quite yet to a return to peace and tranquility. The era is sometimes called "the age of the warriors" and a broad transition from court influences to a leading role of the military establishment pervaded the culture. It is also, however, a time when exchanges with China of the Song dynasty continued and Buddhism greatly flourished. This period saw the introduction of the two schools that had perhaps the greatest impact on the country: (1) the Amidist Pure Land schools, promulgated by evangelists such as Genshin and articulated by monks such as H3nen, which emphasize salvation through faith in Amitabha and remain the largest Buddhist sect in Japan (and throughout Asia); and (2) the more philosophical Zen schools, promulgated by monks such as Eisai and Dogen, which emphasize liberation through the insight of meditation, were adopted equally by the upper classes, and had a profound impact on Japanese culture. Additionally, it was during the Kamakura period that the influential monk Nichiren began teaching devotion to the Lotus Sutra. Eventually, his disciples formed their own school of Nichiren Buddhism, which includes various sects that have their own interpretations of Nichiren's teachings.

KEY POINTS

The Kamakura period saw the introduction of the Amidist Pure Land schools of Buddhism, promulgated by evangelists such as Genshin and articulated by monks such as H3nen. The schools emphasized salvation through faith in Amitabha. The Kamakura period favored a more realistic and naturalistic art, which is exemplified by the sculpture of the Kei School. Some of the most popular paintings of the Kamakura period depict an ascending Amida Buddha. The Kamakura period was a period of crises in which the control of the country moved from the imperial aristocracy to the samurai. It is also, however, a time when exchanges with China of the Song dynasty continued and Buddhism greatly flourished.

The Kamakura period was a period of crises in which the control of the country moved from the imperial aristocracy to the samurai. The ascension of Minamoto Yoritomo to the title of Shogun,

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Figure 15.17 Buddhist sculpture of Kamakura period Unkei in the guise of a monk, with prayer beads; note the powerful hands

Some of the most popular paintings of the Kamakura period depict an ascending Amida Buddha. The main tenet of Pure Land Buddhism is that chanting the name of Amida could lead to a reincarnation in the pure land. Thus, scrolls of Amida would be hung in the room of the dying, who would be saved by chanting the Amida mantra.
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The Kamakura period favored a more realistic and naturalistic art that is exemplified by the sculpture of the Kei School. The Kei school developed out of that led by the busshi (Buddhist sculptor) J3ch3, his successor Kakuj3, and Kakuj3's son Raij3, the leading sculptors of the preceding generations. These artists are sometimes said to have founded the Kei school. Among sculptors of the Kei school, Unkei is the most famous and is considered to be the most accomplished sculptor of the period (Figure 15.17).

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Art of Zen Buddhism

Zen Buddhism, which stresses a connection to the spiritual rather than the physical, was very inuential in the art of Kamakura Japan.

Introduction Japan suffered a series of civil wars in the late 12th century between several rival families. These wars eventually led to the rise of the feudalistic Kamakura shogunate. In a time of disunity and violence, deepening pessimism increased the appeal of the search for salvation. Kamakura was the age of the great popularization of

KEY POINTS

Buddhism as the reestablishment of cultural ties with China spawned the growth of Zen Buddhism and Pure Land Buddhism (J3do sh# Shinran) as the two major branches of Japanese Buddhism. These two new sects dominated the period. The Rise of Zen Buddhism During this time, a number of monks who had left the Tendai sect founded separate Buddhist sects of their own. These included: H3nen, founder of Japanese Pure Land Buddhism; Shinran, disciple of H3nen and founder of the J3do Shinsh# sect; Ippen, founder of the Ji sect, which emphasized devotion to Amida Buddha through an ecstatic dance; D3gen, founder of the S3t3 school of Zen; Eisai, founder of the Rinzai school of Zen;

A deepening pessimism resulting from the civil wars of 12th century Japan increased the appeal of the search for salvation. As a result Buddhism, including its Zen school, grew in popularity. Zen was not introduced as a separate school of Buddhism in Japan until the 12th century. The Kamakura period is widely regarded as a renaissance era in Japanese sculpture, spearheaded by the sculptors of the Buddhist Kei school. The Kamakura period witnessed the production of e-maki or painted hand scrolls, usually encompassing religious, historical, or illustrated novels, accomplished in the style of the earlier Heian period. Japanese calligraphy was influenced by, and influenced, Zen thought.

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 and Nichiren, founder of the Nichiren Sect, which emphasized devotion to the Lotus Sutra, a manual of Buddhist aphorisms presented as a discourse from the Buddha. The older Buddhist sects, such as Shingon, Tendai, and the early schools of the Nara period, continued to thrive through the Kamakura period, and even experienced some measure of a revival. However, with the increasing popularity of the new Kamakura schools, the older schools were partially eclipsed as the newer "Kamakura" schools found followers among the new Kamakura government and its samurai. Zen was not introduced as a separate school until the 12th century, when My3an Eisai traveled to China and returned to establish a Linji lineage, which eventually perished. Decades later, Nanpo Sh3my3 () (12351308) also studied Linji teachings in China before founding the Japanese Otokan lineage, the most influential and only surviving lineage of Rinzai in Japan. In 1215, D3gen, a younger contemporary of Eisai's, journeyed to China himself, where he became a disciple of the Caodong master Tiantong Rujing. After his return, D3gen established the S3t3 school, the Japanese branch of Caodong. The S3t3 school was further expanded by Keizan: S3t3 priests say that if Dogen is the father of Japanese S3t3 Zen, Keizan Jokin (12681325) is its mother. Keizan's Soji-ji temple was a rival to Dogen's Eihei-ji.

Figure 15.18 Nio guardian, Todai-ji complex, Nara Agy*, one of the two Buddhist Ni* guardians at the Nandaimon in front of the Todai ji in Nara. These are some of the nest wooden sculptures in Japan from the 13th century carved by the Kamakura-era sculptor Unkei in 1203.

Others say that D3gen gave S3t3 Zen "high religious ideals" while Keizan ensured S3t3's survival. Painting The Kamakura period witnessed the production of a large number of e-maki or painted hand scrolls, usually encompassing religious, historical, or illustrated novels, accomplished in the style of the earlier Heian period. However, sculpture was by far the most popular art form.

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Kamakura Sculpture The Kamakura period is widely regarded as a renaissance era in Japanese sculpture, spearheaded by the sculptors of the Buddhist Kei school. Based in Nara, it was the dominant school in Japanese Buddhist sculpture into the 14th century, and was responsible for the restoration of the temples of Nara and Kyoto, which had been destroyed during warfare in 11801185. The new style was marked by its realism, its solidity and its representation of movement and emotion (Figure 15.18). Zen Calligraphy Japanese calligraphy influenced and was influenced by Zen thought. For any particular piece of paper, the calligrapher has but one chance to create with the brush. The brush strokes cannot be corrected and even a lack of confidence will show up in the work. The calligrapher must concentrate and be fluid in execution. The brush writes a statement

Figure 15.19 Zen calligraphy of the Kamakura period

Zen, Japanese calligraphy absorbed a distinct Japanese aesthetic often symbolized by the ens3 or circle of enlightenment. Zen calligraphy is practiced by Buddhist monks and most shod3 practitioners. To write Zen calligraphy with mastery, one must clear one's mind and let the letters flow out of themselves, not practice and make a tremendous effort. This state of mind was called the mushin ( "no mind state") by the Japanese philosopher Nishida Kitaro. It is based on the principles of Zen Buddhism, which stresses a connection to the spiritual rather than the physical. Before Japanese tea ceremonies (which are connected to Zen Buddhism), one is to look at a work of shod3 to clear one's mind. This is considered an essential step in the preparation for a tea ceremony.
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Calligraphy by Mus* Soseki (12751351, Japanese zen master, poet, and calligrapher. The characters " " ("no spiritual meaning") are written in a owing, connected sosh* style.

about the calligrapher at a moment in time (Figure 15.19). Through

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Chapter 16

Native American Art Before 1300

https://www.boundless.com/art-history/native-american-artbefore-1300/

Section 1

The New World

Introduction

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Introduction
Indigenous visual arts traditions in the Americas span thousands of years, representing communities ranging from Mesoamerica to the Arctic.
KEY POINTS

Ceramics are used for utilitarian cooking vessels, serving and storage vessels, pipes, funerary urns, censers, musical instruments, ceremonial items, masks, toys, sculptures, and a myriad of other art forms. Due to their resilience, ceramics have been key to learning more about Precolumbian indigenous cultures (Figure 16.1). The earliest ceramics known from the Americas have been found in the lower Amazon Basin. Ceramics from the Caverna de Pedra Pintada, near Santarm, Brazil, have been dated to 7,500 to 5,000 years ago. Ceramics from Taperinha, also near Santarm, have been
Figure 16.1 Mayan Funerary Urn Ceramics such as this urn provide insight into the ceremonial rituals and beliefs of early cultures of the Americas.

Pottery has been a distinctive feature of indigenous art of the Americas for over 7,000 years. The earliest ceramics in the Americas have been found in the lower Amazon basin, and date from 5000 BCE. Ceramics then spread across South America, reaching Mesoamerica around 2000 BCE. Cultures in Florida and Louisiana developed pottery around 2500 BCE, much earlier than most cultures in North America.

Visual artistic traditions of the indigenous peoples of the Americas include works from South America, Mesoamerica, North America including Greenland, as well as Siberian Yup'ik peoples who have great cultural overlap with Native Alaskan Yup'iks. One of the most important of these indigenous artistic traditions is pottery, an art form with at least a 7,500-year history in the Americas. Pottery is fired ceramics with clay as a component.

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Figure 16.2 Human Head Efgy Pot This pot is from the Mississippian Culture, a moundbuilding culture based in what is now the Midwestern, Eastern, and Southeastern United States from approximately 800 CE to 1500 CE.

The spread of ceramics in Mesoamerica came later. Ceramics from Monagrillo in Panama been dated to around 2140 BCE, from Tronadora in Costa Rica to around 1890 BCE, and from Barra in Guatemala to around 1682 BCE. Ceramics of the Purrn tradition in southcentral Mexico have been dated to around 1805 BCE, and from the Chajil tradition of northcentral Mexico, to around 1600 BCE. The appearance of ceramics in the Southeastern United States does not fit the above pattern. Ceramics from the middle Savannah River in Georgia and South Carolina (known as Stallings, Stallings Island, or St. Simons) have been dated to about 2888 BCE, and ceramics of the Orange and Norwood cultures in northern Florida to around

dated to 7,000 to 6,000 years ago. Some of the sherds at Taperinha were shell-tempered, which allowed archeologists to use radiocarbon dating techniques. These first ceramics-making cultures were fishers and shellfish-gatherers. Ceramics appeared next across northern South America and then down the western side of South America and northward through Mesoamerica. Ceramics of the Alaka culture in Guyana have been dated to 6,000 to 4,500 years ago. Ceramics of the San Jacinto culture in Colombia have been dated to about 4530 BCE, and at Puerto Hormiga, also in Colombia, to about 3794 BCE. Ceramics appeared in the Valdivia culture in Ecuador around 3200 BCE, and in the Pandanche culture in Peru around 2460 BCE.

2460 BCE (all older than any other dated ceramics from north of Colombia). Ceramics reached southern Florida (Mount Elizabeth) by 3000 BCE, Nebo Hill (in Missouri) by 1750 BCE, and Poverty Point (in Louisiana) by 1450 BCE. Ceramics appeared later elsewhere in North America (Figure 16.2).
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Section 2

Mesoamerica

The Olmec Teotihuacan The Maya Veracruz Postclassic Mexico

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The Olmec
The Olmec culture of the Gulf Coast of Mexico is known for its artistry, and is particularly famous for the creation of colossal heads.

making human and human-like subjects, Olmec artisans were adept at animal portrayals as seen in (Figure 16.3). While Olmec figurines are found abundantly in sites throughout the Formative period, the stone monuments, such as the colossal heads are the most recognizable feature of Olmec culture. The Olmec colossal heads consist of at least seventeen monumental stone

KEY POINTS

representations of human heads sculpted from large basalt boulders. The heads date from at least before 900 BCE and are a distinctive feature of the Olmec civilization of ancient Mesoamerica.
Figure 16.3 Fish Vessel, 12th9th century BCE Olmec art frequently featured animal as well as human subjects.

In an incredible technological feat, the Olmec culture produced at least 17 sculptures of human heads from large boulders. The only example of a colossal head found in a different region is at Takalik Abaj in Guatemala. The Olmec colossal heads date from between 1500 and 400 BCE. The monuments are thought to represent powerful Olmec rulers.

The Olmec flourished during Mesoamerica's Formative period, dating roughly from as early as 1500 BCE to about 400 BCE. The Olmec culture was first defined as an art style, and this continues to be the hallmark of the culture. Wrought in a large number of mediums like jade, clay, basalt, and greenstone among others; a good deal Olmec art is surprisingly naturalistic. In addition to

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Figure 16.4 Olmec Head No. 3 from San Lorenzo Tenochtitlan 1200-900 BCE. It is believed that the Olmec colossal heads are depictions of powerful rulers.

culture by Matthew Stirling in 1938. Seventeen confirmed examples are known from four sites within the Olmec heartland on the Gulf Coast of Mexico. Most colossal heads were sculpted from spherical boulders but two from San Lorenzo Tenochtitln were re-carved from massive stone thrones. An additional monument at Takalik Abaj in Guatemala is a throne that may have been carved from a colossal head. This is the only known example from outside the Olmec heartland. Dating the monuments remains difficult because of the movement of many from their original contexts prior to archaeological investigation. Most have been dated to the Early Preclassic (or Formative) period (15001000 BCE) with some to the Middle Preclassic (1000400 BCE) period. The smallest weigh 6 tons, while the largest is variously estimated to weigh 40 to 50 tons, although it was abandoned and left unfinished close to the source of its stone.
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Figure 16.4 shows how they portray mature men with fleshy cheeks, flat noses, and slightly crossed eyes. The boulders were brought from the Sierra de los Tuxtlas Mountains of Veracruz. Given that the extremely large slabs of stone used in their production were transported over large distances, requiring a great deal of human effort and resources, it is thought that the monuments represent portraits of powerful individual Olmec rulers. Each of the known examples has a distinctive headdress. The heads were variously arranged in lines or groups at major Olmec centers, but the method and logistics used to transport the stone to these sites remains unclear. The discovery of a colossal head at Tres Zapotes in the nineteenth century spurred the first archaeological investigations of Olmec

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Teotihuacan
With a population of 125,000, Teotihuacan was at one point the largest city in the Americas and one of the largest in the world.

Teotihuacan produced a thin orange pottery style that spread through Mesoamerica, as shown in Figure 16.6. The city is thought to have been established around 100 BCE and completed about 250 CE. The city may have lasted until sometime between the 7th and 8th centuries CE. At its zenith, perhaps in the first half of the 1st millennium CE, Teotihuacan was the largest city

KEY POINTS

in the pre-Columbian Americas, with a population of perhaps 125,000 or more, placing it among the largest cities of the world in this period (Figure 16.7). Teotihuacan began as a new religious center in the Mexican Highland around the first century CE. This city came to be the largest and most populated center in the New World. Teotihuacan was even home to multi-floor apartment compounds built to accommodate this large population. The civilization and cultural complex associated with the site is also referred to as Teotihuacano.

The name Teotihuacan means where man met the gods. A distinctive style of pottery was developed at Teotihuacan, which grew in popularity across Mesoamerica. Teotihuacan may have been the site of a state empire, its precise function is unknown, but its regional influence is well documented. The ethnic background of the city's population is also unknown; some have suggested Teotihuacan was a multiethnic state.

Teotihuacan is an enormous archaeological site in the Basin of Mexico, just 30 miles northeast of Mexico City, containing some of the largest pyramidal structures built in the pre-Columbian Americas (Figure 16.5). The name means where man met the gods. Apart from the pyramidal structures, Teotihuacan is also known for its large residential complexes; the Avenue of the Dead; and numerous colorful, well-preserved murals. Additionally,
Teotihuacan reached its peak in 450 CE, when it was the center of a powerful culture whose inuence extended through much of the Mesoamerican region. Figure 16.5 Wide angle view of the Avenue of the Dead, the Pyramid of the Sun, and the Pyramid of the Moon. Teotihuacan, Mexico

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Figure 16.6 Anthropomorphic tripod vessel, Mexico, Teotihuacan, 200-500!CE This style of pottery originated in Teotihuacan and spread throughout the region.

inhabitants of Teotihuacan is also a subject of debate. Possible candidates are the Nahua, Otomi, or Totonac ethnic groups. Scholars have also suggested that Teotihuacan was a multiethnic state. The city and the archaeological site are located in what is now the San Juan Teotihuacan municipality in the State of Mexico, approximately 25 miles northeast of Mexico City.
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Figure 16.7 View of the Avenue of the Dead and the Pyramid of the Sun, from the Pyramid of the Moon Teotihuacan was the largest city in the pre-Columbian Americas.

Although it is a subject of debate whether Teotihuacan was the center of a state empire, its influence throughout Mesoamerica is well documented; evidence of Teotihuacano presence can be seen at numerous sites in Veracruz and the Maya region. The Aztecs may have also been influenced by this city. The ethnicity of the

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The Maya
The Mayan civilization was highly advanced and produced works of art that are among the most impressive in history.

ceramics. A building at Bonampak holds ancient murals that survived by chance. A beautiful turquoise blue color that has survived through the centuries due to its unique chemical characteristics is known as Maya Blue or Azul maya, and it is present in Bonampak, Tajn Cacaxtla, Jaina, and even in some Colonial Convents (Figure 16.8). The use of Maya Blue survived until the 16th century when the technique was lost. It was discovered with the

Figure 16.8 Mayan Warrior

KEY POINTS

Maya blue was a distinctive color preserved for centuries due to its unique chemical composition; unfortunately the technique involved in producing it has been lost. Mayan artists signed their work, an uncommon practice among Mesoamerican cultures. Mayan architectural accomplishments include elaborate stepped pyramid complexes.

This painting features the unique azure pigment of Maya Blue.

decipherment of the Mayan script that the Maya were one of the few Many consider Mayan art of their Classic Era (c. 250 to 900 AD) to be the most sophisticated and beautiful of the ancient New World. The carvings and the reliefs made of stucco at Palenque and the statuary of Copn are especially fine, showing a grace and accurate observation of the human form that reminded early archaeologists of Classical civilizations of the Old World, hence the name bestowed on this era. Only hints remain of the advanced painting of the classic Maya; the most commonly survived arts are funerary pottery and other Mayan Architecture Maya architecture spans many thousands of years. The most dramatic and easily recognizable Mayan architectures are the stepped pyramids from the Terminal Pre-classic period and beyond. There are also cave sites that are important to the Maya. These cave sites include the following: civilizations where artists attached their name to their work.

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to matching the calendar cycle. However, the process of rebuilding

Figure 16.9 Tikal Ballcourt Tikal is one of the most impressive urban centers of Mayan culture.

on top of old structures is indeed a common one. Most notably, the North Acropolis at Tikal seems to be the sum total of 1,500 years of architectural modifications. In Tikal and Yaxh, there are the Twin Pyramid complexes (seven in Tikal and one in Yaxh, that commemorate the end of a Baktn). Through observation of the numerous consistent elements and stylistic distinctions, remnants of Mayan architecture have become an important key to understanding the evolution of their ancient civilization (Figure 16.9).

Jolja Cave, the cave site at Naj Tunich, the Candelaria Caves, the Cave of the Witch. There are also cave-origin myths among the Maya. Some cave sites are still used by the modern Mayans in the Chiapas highlands. It has been suggested that temples and pyramids were remodeled and rebuilt every fifty-two years in synchrony with the Mayan Long Count Calendar. It appears now that the rebuilding process was often instigated by a new ruler or for political matters, as opposed

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Veracruz
The Veracruz culture thrived during the Classic era, from 100 to 1000 CE, and was known or its pyramids, elaborate ballcourts, and temples.

the Pnuco River to the north and the Papaloapan River to the south. Veracruz artistic scrollwork, frequently depicting human sacrifice in the context of the ballgame, can be seen both on monumental architecture and on portable art, including ceramics and even

KEY POINTS

The cultural center of the Veracruz era was the city of El Tajin. The major theme of Classic Veracruz art is human sacrifice, particularly in the context of the Mesoamerican ballgame. The highly ritualized Mesoamerican ballgame was of crucial importance to the Veracruz culture. The Classic Veracruz produced stone figurines in several distinctive styles.

Figure 16.10 El Tajin El Tajn ourished from 600 to 1200 CE in Veracruz and during this time numerous temples, palaces, ballcourts, and pyramids were built.

Classic Veracruz culture (or Gulf Coast Classic culture) refers to a cultural area in the north and central areas of the present-day Mexican state of Veracruz, a culture that existed from roughly 100 to 1000 CE, or during the Classic era. El Tajin was the major center of Classic Veracruz culture; other notable settlements include Higueras, Zapotal, Cerro de las Mesas, Nopiloa, and Remojadas. The latter two were important ceramics centers (Figure 16.10). The culture spanned the Gulf Coast between

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carved bones. At least one researcher has suggested that the heads and other features formed by the scrolls are a Classic Veracruz form of pictographic writing. This scrollwork may have grown out of similar styles found in Chiapa de Corzo and Kaminaljuyu. In addition to the scrollwork, the architecture is known for its ornate ornamentation, such as that seen on the Pyramid of Niches at El Tajin. This ornamentation produces dramatic contrasts of light and shadow, what art historian George Kubler called a bold chiaroscuro. While Classic Veracruz culture shows influences from Teotihuacan and the Maya, neither of these cultures are its direct antecedents. Instead, the seeds of this culture seem to have come at least in part from the Epi-Olmec culture centers, such as Cerro de las Mesas and La Mojarra. Mesoamerican Ballgame The ballgame was of tremendous importance to the Classic Veracruz culture. Every cultural center had at least one ballcourt, while up to 18 ballcourts have been found at El Tajin.The ballgame rituals appear throughout Classic Veracruz monumental art. The walls of the largest ballcourt, the East Ballcourt at El Tajin are lined with carved murals showing human sacrifice in the context of the ballgame, as shown in Figure 16.11. The culmination of these murals is a tableau showing the rain god, who pierces his penis (an act of bloodletting) to replenish a vat of the alcoholic, ritual drink

Figure 16.11 Mural from the South Ballcourt at El Tajin This stone carving from the South Ballcourt at the archaeological site of El Tajin, Veracruz, Mexico depicts the sacrice of a ballplayer.

Figure 16.12 Statue of a Young Chieftain This terracotta Remojadas style gurine from the Veracruz culture is dated ca. 300600 CE.

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pulque, the apparent desired end result of the ballgame ritual sacrifice. Ceramics Until the early 1950s, the Classic Veracruz ceramics were few, little understood, and generally without provenance. Since then, the recovery of thousands of figurines and pottery pieces from sites such as Remojadas, Los Cerros, Dicha Tuerta, and Tenenexpan (some initially found by looters), has expanded our understanding and filled many museum shelves. Remojadas style figurines, perhaps the most easily recognizable, are usually hand-modeled and often adorned with appliqus (Figure 16. 12). Of particular note are the Sonrientes (smiling faces) figurines, with triangular-shaped heads and outstretched arms. Nopiloa figurines are usually less ornate, without appliqus, and often molded.The Classic Veracruz culture produced some of the few wheeled Mesoamerican figurines and is also noted for the use of bitumen for highlighting.
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Postclassic Mexico
The Postclassic period lasted from roughly 800 C.E. until the conquest of Mesoamrica by the Spaniards, between 1521 and 1697.
KEY POINTS

During the Postclassic period, metal working increased dramatically, as technologies and techniques spread from South America. The Mixtec culture are known for metal crafts as well as Mixtec Codices, a pictorial writing system used for recordkeeping. Architectural innovations included the introduction of nails, the improvement of mortar for structural integrity, and the widespread use of columns and stone roofs.

The Postclassic period is divided into two phases. The first is the early Postclassic, which includes the 10th to the 13th century, and is characterized by the Toltec hegemony of Tula. The 12th century marks the beginning of the late Postclassic period, which begins with the arrival of the Chichimec, linguistically related to the Toltecs and the Mexica, who established themselves in the Valley of Mexico in 1325.

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Figure 16.13 Mixtec and Imperial style silver earrings The Mixtec were renowned for masterful craftsmanship in jewelry.

Figure 16.14 Example of Mixtec Codices This is a depiction of ancient Mixtec writing that was retrieved from the Codex ZoucheNuttall.

There were many cultural changes during the Postclassic period. One of them was the expansion of metallurgy, imported from South America, and whose oldest remnants in Mesoamerica come from the West, as is also the case with ceramics. The Mesoamericans did not achieve great facility with metals; in fact, their use was rather limited (a few copper axes, needles, and above all jewelry). The most advanced techniques of Mesoamerican metallurgy were developed by the Mixtec culture, who produced fine, exquisitely handcrafted articles. The Mixtec were also known for their exceptional mastery of jewelry, in which gold and turquoise figure prominently (Figure 16.13). The Mixtec are well known in the anthropological world for their Codices, or phonetic pictures in which they wrote their history and

genealogies in deerskin in the fold-book form. The best known story of the Mixtec Codices is that of Lord Eight Deer, named after the day in which he was born. His personal name was Jaguar Claw, and his epic history is related in several codices, including the Codex Bodley and Codex Zouche-Nuttall (Figure 16.14). Lord Eight Deer successfully conquered and united most of the Mixtec region. Architecture saw remarkable advances as well. The use of nails in architecture was introduced to support the sidings of the temples, mortar was improved, and the use of columns and stone roofs was widespreadsomething that only the Maya had used during the Classic period.

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Section 3

Central America

Art of Central America

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Art of Central America

The Mesoamerican culture of Central America underwent three successive phases: Preclassic, Classical, and Post-classic.
KEY POINTS

colossal heads. Some of these are up to 8 feet high, and still stand mysteriously in the landscape. The Mesoamerican tradition of building large ceremonial centers appears to have begun under the Olmecs. During the Classic period, the dominant culture was the Maya. Like the Mississippian peoples of North America, such as the Choctaw and Natchez, the Maya organized themselves into large, agricultural communities. They

Figure 16.15 Mayan relief sculpture from Palenque, Mexico

The Olmec typify the Preclassic or Formative period, and produced many incredible colossal heads as well as the earliest examples of great ceremonial centers. The highly advanced Mayan culture dominated the Classical period. The Toltecs, immediate predecessors of the Aztecs, dominated the early Post-classic period with the development of Tula. The late Post-classic period is dominated by the Mexica or Aztecs.

The Maya were among the most advanced cultures of Mesoamerica.

practiced their own forms of hieroglyphic writing, and even advanced astronomy. Mayan art consequently focuses on rain, agriculture, and fertility, expressing these images mainly in relief and surface decoration, as well as some sculpture (Figure 16.15). Glyphs and stylized figures were used to decorate architecture such as the pyramid temple of Chichn Itz. The Post-classic period (10th12th centuries) was dominated by the Toltecs, who made colossal, block-like sculptures such as those employed as free-standing columns at Tula, Mexico (Figure 16.17).

The Mesoamerican cultures are generally divided into three periods: Pre-classic (up to 200 CE), Classic (ca. 200900 CE), and Post-classic (ca. 900 to 1580 CE). The Pre-classic period was dominated by the highly developed Olmec civilization, which flourished around 1200400 BCE. The Olmecs produced jade figurines, and created heavy-featured,

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Figure 16.17 Telamones Tula Toltec warriors were represented by the famous statues of Atlantis in Tula.

The Mixtecs developed a style of painting known as Mixtec-Puebla, as seen in their murals and codices (manuscripts), in which all available space is covered by flat figures in geometric designs. The powerful, late Post-classic Aztec or Mexica culture in Mexico also produced some dramatically expressive works of art. These include the decorated skulls of captives and many impressive works of stone sculpture, of which Tlazolteotl, a goddess in childbirth, is a good example (Figure 16.16).
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Figure 16.16 Huaxtec statue of Tlazolteotl from Mexico, 900-1521 CE In Aztec mythology, Tlazolteotl is a goddess of purication, steam bath, midwives, lth, and a patroness of adulterers.

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Section 4

South America

Chavn de Huntar Paracas and Nasca Moche Tiwanaku and Wari

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Chavn de Huntar
Chavn de Huntar was a ceremonial center constructed by the Chavn which served as an important cultural center for Chavn peoples.

Figure 16.18 The site of Chavn de Huntar The site of Chavn de Huntar was of both of geographical and religious signicance to the Chavn.

KEY POINTS

During its heyday, Chavn de Huntar was used as a religious center for ceremonies and events or consultation with an oracle. The temple at Chavn de Huntar is a massive flat-topped pyramid surrounded by lower platforms. It is a U-shaped plaza with a sunken circular court in the center. Elaborate sculptures and carvings can be found on the inside of the temple walls. Chavn de Huntar was an active center of ceremonial activity until 500 BCE. Occupation at Chavn de Huntar has been carbon dated to at least 3000 BCE, with ceremonial center activity occurring primarily toward the end of the second millennium and through the middle of the first millennium BCE. While the fairly large population was based on an agricultural economy, the city's location at the headwaters of the Maran River, between the coast and the jungle, made it an ideal location for the dissemination and collection of both ideas and material goods. This archaeological site is a large Chavn de Huntar is an archaeological site containing ruins and artifacts constructed ca. 1200 BCE and occupied by later cultures until around 400500 BCE by the Chavn, a major pre-Inca culture. The site is located 160 miles north of Lima, Peru, at an elevation of 10,000 ft, on the edge of the Conchucos Valley (Figure 16.18). ceremonial center that has revealed a great deal about the Chavn culture. Chavn de Huntar served as a gathering place for people of the region to come together and worship. The transformation of the center into a valley-dominating monument had a complex effect. Chavn de Huntar became a pan-regional place of importance. People went to Chavn de Huntar as a meeting center: to attend and participate in rituals or consult an oracle.

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Figure 16.19 The Circular Plaza at Chavn de Huantar The Circular Plaza Terrace was built up around the Circular Plaza in order to make the 21mdiameter plaza articially sunken.$

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Findings at Chavn de Huntar indicate that social instability and upheaval began to occur between 500 and 300 BCE, at the same time that the larger Chavn civilization began to decline. Large ceremonial sites were abandoned, some unfinished, and were replaced by villages and agricultural land. The Chavn civilization was centered on the site of Chavin de Huntar, the religious center of the Chavn people and the capital of the Chavn culture. The temple is a massive flat-topped pyramid surrounded by lower platforms. It is a U-shaped plaza with a sunken circular court in the center (Figure 16.19). The inside of the temple walls are decorated with sculptures and carvings. Chavn de Huntar was constructed over many stages, starting prior to 1200 BCE, with most major construction over by 750 BCE. The site continued in use as a ceremonial center until around 500 BCE.

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Paracas and Nasca

The Paracas and Nazca communities of Peru developed complex geometrical textiles, ceramics, and geoglyphs.

influenced by the preceding Paracas culture, the Nazca produced an array of beautiful crafts and technologies such as ceramics, textiles, and geoglyphs (most commonly known as the Nazca lines). Paracas Ceramics and Textiles Many ceramics and textiles of the Paracas have been found in

KEY POINTS

tombs, particularly in the Paracas Cavernas. The Paracas Cavernas are shaft tombs set into the top of Cerro Colorado, each containing multiple burials. The associated ceramics include incised polychrome, "negative" resist decoration and other wares of the Paracas tradition. The associated textiles include many complex weave structures and elaborate plaiting and knotting techniques. Paracas Textiles To the Paracas culture, embroidered cloth was, for them, roughly what bronze was for the Chinese at the same date: the most revered material in their culture and the clearest sign of status and authority. These particular pieces of cloth have come down to us because they were buried in the dry desert conditions of the Paracas peninsula, just like the textiles that have survived from ancient Egypt from the same period, thousands of miles away. In Peru, as in Egypt, the textiles were intended not just for wearing in daily life but also to wrap the dead. The Paracas textiles were used to clothe Peruvian mummies.

The Paracas culture (from 800 to 100 BCE) immediately preceded and heavily influenced the Nazca culture. The Nazca Lines are a series of ancient geoglyphs located in the Nazca Desert in southern Peru. In the absence of a writing system, markings on ceramics were a method of communication for the Nazca culture. The art of the Paracas culture has mainly been preserved in tombs and on mummies.

The Paracas culture was an important Andean society between approximately 800 BCE and 100 BCE, with an extensive knowledge of irrigation and water management. It developed in the Paracas Peninsula in the Ica Region of Peru. The Paracas culture was known for extremely complex textiles (Figure 16.20). The Nazca culture (also Nasca) flourished from 100 to 800 CE beside the dry southern coast of Peru in the river valleys of the Rio Grande de Nazca drainage and the Ica Valley. Having been heavily

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Figure 16.20 Paracas Textiles Paracas textiles include many complex weave structures as well as elaborate plaiting and knotting techniques.

Figure 16.21 Nazca Lines The Nazca lines featured geometric shapes as well as representations of animals, such as this depiction of a monkey.

There was no writing that we know of at this time in Peru, so these textiles must have been a vital part of the visual language. The colors must have been electrifying against the everyday palette of yellow and beige hues that dominated the landscape of the sandy Paracas peninsula. They were very difficult colors to achieve. The bright red tones were extracted from the roots of plants, while the deep purples came from mollusks gathered on the shore. The background cloth would have been cotton, spun and dyed before being woven on a loom. Figures were outlined first, and then the detailslike clothes and facial featureswere filled-in with different colors using exquisite precision, presumably by young people, as you need perfect eyesight for such stitching.

Nazca Lines Although some geoglyphs resemble Paracas motifs, scholars believe the Nazca Lines were created by the Nazca culture between 400 and 650 CE. The hundreds of individual figures range in complexity from simple lines or geometric shapes to stylized hummingbirds, spiders, monkeys, fish, sharks, orcas, and lizards (Figure 16.21). Other designs include phytomorphic shapes such as trees and flowers. The lines are shallow designs made in the ground by removing the reddish pebbles and uncovering the whitish/grayish ground beneath. The largest figures are over 660 ft across. Scholars differ in interpreting the purpose of the designs, but in general they ascribe religious significance to them.

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Nazca Pottery The Nazca culture is characterized by its beautiful polychrome pottery, painted with at least 15 distinct colors. The shift from post-fire resin painting to pre-fire slip painting marked the end of Paracas-style pottery and the beginning of Nazca-style pottery. Archaeologists have excavated highly valued polychrome pottery among all classes of Nazca society, illustrating that it was not just the elite that had access to them. The Nazca pottery sequence has

Figure 16.22 Nazca Female Efgy

Textiles The Nazca are also known for their technically complex textiles. The textiles were most likely woven by women at habitation sites from spun cotton and wool. The textiles would have been made using a back-strap loom. This is similar to the way textiles are made in the region today. Textiles were woven with the common motifs, earlier than they appeared painted on pottery. The dry desert has preserved the textiles of both the Nazca and Paracas cultures, which comprise most of what is known about early textiles in the region. Shawls, dresses, tunics, belts, and bags have been found through excavations at Cahuachi and elsewhere. Many textiles associated with the Nazca culture are garments that were included with grave goods found at burial sites.

This Nazca e#gy is made of sperm whale tooth, shell and hair.

been divided into nine phases, progressing from realistic subject matter such as fruits, plants, people, and animals to motifs that included abstract elements as part of the design and geometric iconography (Figure 16.22). The Nazca, like all other Pre-Columbian societies in South America including the Inca, had no writing system, in contrast to the contemporary Maya of Mesoamerica. The iconography or symbols on their ceramics served as a means of communication.

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Moche
Moche pottery, found in most North Coast dig sites located in Peru, was varied in artistic forms and were important cultural artifacts.

Figure 16.23 Huaca Huaca del Sol Sol

KEY POINTS

Huaca del Sol, "Temple of the Sun", was the Mochica political capital.

As in other cultures, Moche ceramics were probably used for educational purposes and communication. The Moche culture used mold technology to replicate ceramic forms. Irrigation, as well as the passage of fluids in the human body, are important themes in Moche culture and artwork.

The realistic detail in Moche ceramics may have helped them serve as didactic models. Older generations could pass down general knowledge about reciprocity and embodiment to younger generations through such portrayals. Important social activities are documented in Moche pottery, including war, sex, metalwork, and weaving (Figure 16.24). Moche ceramics vary widely in shape and theme and are not generally uniform, although the use of mold technology enabled for mass production. Because irrigation was the source of wealth and foundation of the empire, the Moche culture emphasized the importance of circulation and flow. Expanding upon this, the Moche focused on the passage of fluids in their artwork, particularly life fluids through vulnerable human orifices. The coloration of Moche pottery is often simple and follows the Peruvian tradition, as noted, with yellowish cream and rich red used almost exclusively on elite pieces and with white and black used in

From 100 CE to 800 CE, Moche civilization flourished in northern Peru with its capital, Huacas del Sol y de la Luna, being located near present-day Trujillo (Figure 16.23). Traditional North Coast Peruvian ceramic art uses a limited palette, relying primarily on red and white, fineline painting, fully modeled clay, veristic figures, and stirrup spouts. Moche ceramics created between 150800 AD epitomize this style. These realistic pots have been found not only in major North Coast archaeological sites, such as Huaca de la luna, Huaca del sol, and Sipan but at small villages and unrecorded burial sites as well.

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Figure 16.24 Erotic Moche Pot This piece is an example of the didactic role of ceramics in Moche culture.

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only a few pieces. Their adobe buildings have been mostly destroyed by looters and natural forces over the last 1300 years, but the huacas that remain show that the coloring of their murals was very vibrant. The Moche also wove textilesmostly from wool from vicua and alpaca.

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Tiwanaku and Wari

Tiwanaku and Waki cultures were neighboring political and religious civilizations who's power can be seen in their comparative art styles.

Figure 16.25 The "Gate of the Sun"

KEY POINTS

The Tiwanaku state was an important precursor to the Inca Empire. Archaeologists still struggle to understand how the giant stones used to construct Tiwanaku were transported to the site. Small decorative objects that held ritual religious meaning were used to spread the influence of the capital city of Tiwanaku to surrounding communities. The Tiwanaku and Wari cultures must have interacted, given the similarities in the artifacts of each culture, but whether their relationship was amicable or antagonistic is unknown.
This site was the spiritual and political center of the Tiwanaku culture.

The city and its inhabitants left no written history, and the modern local people know little about the ancient city and its activities. An archaeologically based theory asserts that around 400 CE, Tiwanaku went from being a locally dominant force to a predatory state. Tiwanaku expanded its reaches into the Yungas and brought

Tiwanaku is an important Pre-Columbian archaeological site in western Bolivia, South America. Tiwanaku is recognized by Andean scholars as one of the most important precursors to the Inca Empire, flourishing as the ritual and administrative capital of a major state power for approximately five hundred years (Figure 16. 25).

its culture and way of life to many other cultures in Peru, Bolivia, and Chile. However, Tiwanaku was not exclusively a violent culture.To expand its reach, Tiwanaku used politics to create colonies, negotiate trade agreements (which made the other cultures rather dependent), and establish state cults. Many others

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Figure 16.26 Walls around the temple Kalasasaya at Tiwanaku

The quarries, from which the stone blocks used in the construction of structures at Tiwanaku came, lie at significant distances from this site, which has led scholars to speculate on how they could have been moved. One theory is that giant andesite stones, weighing over 40 tons, were transported some 90 kilometers across Lake Titicaca on reed boats and then laboriously dragged another 10 kilometers to the city. Sculpture Tiwanaku sculpture is comprised typically of blocky column-like figures with huge, flat square eyes and detailed with shallow relief carving. They are often holding ritual objects. Some have been found holding severed heads, such as the figure on the Akapana which possibly a puma-shaman. These images suggest ritual human beheading, which correlate with the discovery of headless skeletons found under the Akapana. Ceramics & Textiles Ceramics and textiles, composed of bright colors and stepped patterns, were also present at Tiwanaku. An important ceramic artifact is the kero, a drinking cup, that was ritually smashed after ceremonies and placed in burials. Tapestries and tunics provide examples of textiles found at Tiwanaku.

The Kalasasaya temple at Tiwanaku was used as a ceremonial center.

were drawn into the Tiwanaku empire due to religious beliefs (Figure 16.26). Architecture Tiwanaku monumental architecture is characterized by large stones of exceptional workmanship. The main architectural appeal of the site comes from the carved images and designs on carved doorways and giant stone monoliths. Tiwanaku's architecture and skill in stone-cutting reveals a knowledge of descriptive geometry.

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Figure 16.27 Wari earthenware pot with painted design, 650-800 CE (Middle Horizon). The Wari shared much in common aesthetically with the Tiwanaku.

The Wari Throughout their imperial reign, the Tiwanaku shared domination of the Middle Horizon with the Wari. Their culture rose and fell around the same time and was centered 500 miles north in the southern highlands of Peru. The relationship between the two empires is unknown, either being cooperative or antagonistic. Definite interaction between the two is proved by their shared iconography in art. Significant elements of both of these styles (the split eye, trophy heads, and staff-bearing profile figures, for example) seem to have been derived from that of the earlier Pukara culture in the northern Titicaca Basin (Figure 16.27). The Tiwanaku created a powerful ideology, using previous Andean icons that spread throughout their sphere of influence using extensive trade routes and shamanistic art. Tiwanaku art consisted of legible, outlined figures depicted in curvilinear style with a naturalistic manner, while Wari art used the same symbols in a

These decorative objects typically depicted herders, effigies, trophy heads, sacrificial victims, and felines. The key to spreading religion and influence from the main site to the satellite centers was through small portable objects that held ritual religious meaning. They were created in wood, engraved bone, and cloth and depicted puma and jaguar effigies, incense burners, carved wooden hallucinogenic snuff tablets, and human portrait vessels.

more abstract, rectilinear style with a militaristic manner.

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Section 5

North America

The Southwest Eskimo Woodlands in the East

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The Southwest
Southwestern native groups like the Pueblo and Hopi have produced pottery, weaving, jewelry and other artisanal crafts for centuries.

Figure 16.28 Pueblo Bonito The impressive Pueblo Bonito was built by the Ancestral Puebloans as one of several settlements at Chaco Canyon.

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The Anasazi, the ancestors of Pueblo Native American tribes, produced decorative pottery for storage purposes. Chaco Canyon in New Mexico (ca. 10th c) is one of the most impressive early examples of Southwestern Native American architecture. Mastery of acid etching allowed the Hohokam culture to create lasting designs in bone, shell and stone. The Navajo and Apache peoples emigrated from Northern Canada to the Southwest sometime after 1000 CE; these cultures are renowned for their sandpainting and weaving crafts.

used to store water and grain was ubiquitous. For hundreds of years, the Anasazi created utilitarian grayware and black-on-white pottery as well as orange or red ceramics. Turquoise, jet and spiny oyster shell were traditionally used by Ancestral Pueblo for jewelry, and they developed sophisticated inlay techniques centuries ago. Anasazi Architecture Southwest architecture includes Cliff dwellings (multi-story settlements carved from living rock), pit houses, and adobe and sandstone pueblos. One of the most elaborate and largest ancient settlements is Chaco Canyon in New Mexico, which includes 15 major complexes of sandstone and timber. These are connected by a

The Anasazi (1000 BCE700 CE) are the ancestors of today's Pueblo tribes. Their culture formed in the American southwest after the cultivation of corn was introduced from Mexico around 1200 BCE. People of this region developed an agrarian lifestyle, cultivating food, storage gourds and cotton with irrigation or xeriscaping techniques. They lived in sedentary towns, so pottery

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network of roads. The largest of these settlements, Pueblo Bonito, contains over 800 rooms (Figure 16.28). Hopi Culture The Hopi culture emerged in the Southwest in the 14th century. Hopi communities created ollas, dough bowls and food bowls of different sizes for daily use, but they also made more elaborate ceremonial mugs, jugs, ladles, seed jars and vessels for ritual use. These were usually finished with polished surfaces and decorated with black painted designs. Hohokam Culture Around 200 CE the Hohokam culture developed in Arizona as the ancestors of the Tohono O'odham and Akimel O'odham or Pima tribes. The Hohokam are credited with being the first culture to
Figure 16.29 Hohokam Etched Shell This shell was produced by the Hohokam culture of the Southwest.

master acid etching. Artisans produced jewelry from shell, stone, bone and carved stone figures. Pottery and textile production also flourished (Figure 16.29).
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Eskimo
Inuit art refers to artwork produced by the people of the Arctic, or Inuit people, who were previously known as Eskimos.
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Figure 16.30 Ipiutak archaeological site at Point Hope in northwest Alaska The Ipiutak culture arose ca. 100200 BCE and collapsed around 800 CE.

Walrus Ivory was historically the preferred material for carving utensils, tools, and weapons among Pre-Dorset and Dorset artisans. As of 4000 BCE, the Dorset and Ipiutak communities that inhabited Alaska, the Canadian Arctic, Greenland, and Newfoundland were displaced by the Thule population around 1000 CE. Between the 17th19th centuries, Thule communities broke apart because of the "Little Ice Age" and the impact of sustained contact with Europeans. Being a nomadic population, the Thule carved small, delicate versions of non-utilitarian crafts and ceremonial objects that were easily transportable.

Newfoundland. Very little remains of them, and only a few preserved artifacts carved in ivory could be considered works of art. The Dorset culture, which became culturally distinct around 600 BCE, produced a significant amount of figurative art using the following mediums: walrus ivory; bone; caribou antler; and stone, on rare occasions. Subjects included birds, bears, walruses, seals, and human figures, as well as remarkably small masks. These items had a magical or religious significance, and were either worn as amulets to ward off evil spirits, or used in shamanic rituals. Ipiutak Culture

Pre-Dorset and Dorset Cultures The Ipiutak culture represents a classical period of Inuit Around 4000 BCE, nomads known as the Pre-Dorset or the Arctic Small Tool tradition (ASTt) crossed over the Bering Strait from Siberia into Alaska, the Canadian Arctic, Greenland, and development. The artwork is extremely elaborate, incorporating geometric, animal, and anthropomorphic designs (Figure 16.30).

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Thule Culture Around 1000 CE, the people of the Thule culture, ancestors of today's Inuit, migrated from northern Alaska and either displaced or slaughtered the earlier Dorset inhabitants. By the 13th or 14th century, the Thule had occupied an area currently inhabited by the Central Inuit, and by the 15th century, the Thule had fully replaced the Dorset culture. Contact with Europeans began in the 16th century and intensified in the 18th century. Compounded by the already disruptive effects of the "Little Ice Age" (16501850), the Thule communities broke apart, and the people were henceforward known as the Eskimo, and later as the Inuit. Thule art had a definite Alaskan influence and included utilitarian objects such as combs, buttons, needle cases, cooking pots, ornate spears, and harpoons. The graphic decorations incised on them were purely ornamental, bearing no religious significance. They were simply meant to make everyday objects look appealing. All of the Thule utensils, tools, and weapons were made by hand from natural materials: stone, bone, ivory, antler, and animal hides. Nomadic people carried tools necessary for their daily living and could take very little else with them. Non-utilitarian objects were also carved in miniature so that they could be carried around or

worn, such as dance masks, amulets, fetish figures, and intricate combs and figures which were used to tell legends and objectify their mythology and oral history (Figure 16.31).

Figure 16.31 Yup'ik shaman exorcising evil spirits from a sick boy, c.1890 Ceremonial dance masks, important to both the Dorset and Thule cultures, remain meaningful to aboriginal communities in the North.

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Woodlands in the East

Eastern Woodland cultures are known as Mound builders for their practice of building substantial earthen mounds for burial.
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The Woodland Period is divided into early, middle, and late periods, and consisted of cultures that relied mostly on hunting and gathering for their subsistence. Pottery, stone carving and engraved shells are features of the artwork of the shellfish-subsisting communities of the Early Woodland Period. The Middle Woodland Period, from 200500 CE is known for the jewelry and sculpture developed at this time; the Late Woodland Period is traditionally framed as the decline for these hunter-gatherer communities, though many native communities maintained similar lifestyles for several centuries. The agrarian Mississippian Culture emerged in the Southeast following the Late Woodland Period and is known for creating elaborate mounds, as well as ceramic innovation, and work with shells and copper.

The Eastern Woodlands cultures inhabited the regions of North America east of the Mississippi River since at least 2500 BCE.

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Figure 16.32 Grave Creek Mound

The Poverty Point culture inhabited portions of the state of Louisiana from 20001000 BCE during the Archaic period. Many objects excavated at Poverty Point sites were made of materials that originated in distant places, including chipped-stone projectile points and tools, ground stone plummets, gorgets and vessels, and shell and stone beads. Stone tools found at Poverty Point were made from raw materials which originated in the relatively nearby Ouachita and Ozark Mountains and from the much further away Ohio and Tennessee River valleys. Vessels were made from soapstone which came from the Appalachian foothills of Alabama and Georgia. Hand-modeled, lowly-fired clay objects occur in a variety of shapes including anthropomophic figurines and cooking balls. The Middle Woodland Period was dominated by cultures of the Hopewell tradition (200500). Their artwork encompassed a wide variety of jewelry and sculpture in stone, wood, and even human bone (Figure 16.33). The Late Woodland Period (5001000 CE) saw a decline in trade and in the size of settlements, and the creation of art likewise declined. The Mississippian culture flourished in what is now the Midwestern, Eastern, and Southeastern United States from approximately 800 CE to 1500 CE (following the Late Woodland

This mound, located in Moundsville, West Virginia was built by the Adena culture.

While there were many regionally distinct Woodlands cultures, trade between them was common and they shared the practice of burying their dead in earthen mounds, which has preserved many cultural artifacts. Because of this trait the cultures are collectively known as the Mound builders. Ceramics made by the Deptford culture (2500 BCE100 CE) are the earliest evidence of an artistic tradition in this region. The Adena culture is another well-known example. They carved stone tablets with zoomorphic designs, created pottery, and fashioned costumes from animal hides and antlers for ceremonial rituals. Shellfish was a mainstay of their diet, and engraved shells have been found in their burial mounds (Figure 16.32).

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Figure 16.33 Hopewell Art This unique Hopewell piece was carved from Mica between 200 BCE and 500 CE.

Period). After adopting maize agriculture the Mississippian culture became fully agrarian, as opposed to the hunting and gathering supplemented by part-time agriculture practiced by preceding woodland cultures. They built larger and more complex platform mounds than those of their predecessors, and finished and developed more advanced ceramic techniques, commonly using ground mussel shell as a tempering agent. Many were involved with the Southeastern Ceremonial Complex, a pan-regional and panlinguistic religious and trade network. The majority of the information known about the S.E.C.C. is derived from examination of the elaborate artworks left behind by its participants, including pottery, shell gorgets and cups, stone statuary, copper plates such as the Wulfing cache and Long-nosed god maskettes (Figure 16.34). By the time of European contact the Mississippian societies were
Figure 16.34 Ceramic of Underwater Panther This Mississippian culture ceramic e#gy jug was found at Rose Mound in Cross County, Arkansas, and dates from 1400 1600 CE.

already experiencing severe social stress, and with the social upsets and diseases introduced by Europeans many of the societies collapsed and ceased to practice a Mississippian lifestyle, with an exception being the Natchez people. Other tribes descended from Mississippian cultures include the Caddo, Choctaw, Muscogee Creek, Wichita, and many other southeastern peoples.

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Chapter 17

Africa Before 1800

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Section 1

Ancient Africa

Introduction Art of Ancient Africa

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Introduction
The origins of African art lie long before recorded history, and African rock art in the Sahara in Niger preserves 6000-year-old carvings.
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depicting the abundance of surrounding nature, the art was often abstract interpretations of animals, plant life, or natural designs and shapes. The Nubian Kingdom of Kush in modern Sudan was in close and often hostile contact with Egypt, and produced monumental sculpture mostly derivative of styles to the north. In West Africa, the earliest known sculptures are from the Nok culture which thrived between 500 BC and 500 AD in modern Nigeria, with clay figures typically with elongated bodies and angular shapes (Figure 17.1).
Figure 17.1 Nok terracotta, 6th century BC6th century CE The function of Nok sculpture is still unknown, since scientic eld work is still missing. For the most part, the terracotta is preserved in the form of scattered fragments. That is why Nok art is well known today only for the heads, both male and female, whose hairstyles are particularly detailed and rened. The statues are in fragments because the discoveries are usually made from alluvial mud, in terrain made by the erosion of water. The terracotta statues found there are hidden, rolled, polished, and broken. Rarely are works of great size conserved intact making them highly valued on the international art market.

Often depicting the abundance of surrounding nature, ancient African art was often abstract interpretations of animals, plant life, or natural designs and shapes. More complex methods of producing art were developed in sub-Saharan Africa around the 10th century. Most African sculpture was historically in wood and other organic materials that have not survived from earlier than at most a few centuries ago; older pottery figures are found from a number of areas. African masks were an influence on European Modernist art, which was inspired by their lack of concern for naturalistic depiction.

The origins of African art date back to pre-recorded history. African rock art in the Sahara in Niger preserves 6000-year-old carvings. Along with sub-Saharan Africa, the cultural arts of the western tribes, ancient Egyptian paintings and artifacts, and indigenous southern crafts also contributed greatly to African art. Often

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More complex methods of producing art were developed in subSaharan Africa around the 10th century. Some of the most notable advancements include the bronzework of Igbo Ukwu and the terracottas and metalworks of Ile Ife. Bronze and brass castings, often ornamented with ivory and precious stones, became highly prestigious in many parts of West Africa, sometimes limited to the work of court artisans and identified with royalty. An example is the bronzes of the ancient Benin Kingdom. African art constitutes one of the most diverse legacies on earth. Though many casual observers tend to generalize "traditional" African art, the continent is full of people, societies, and civilizations, each with its unique and special visual culture. The definition may also include the art of the African Diasporas, such as the art of African Americans. Despite this diversity, there are some unifying artistic themes when considering the totality of the visual culture from the continent of Africa. Most African sculpture was historically in wood and other organic materials that have not survived from earlier than at most a few centuries ago; older pottery figures are found from a number of areas. Masks are important elements in the art of many peoples, along with human figures, often highly stylized. There is a vast variety of styles, often varying within the same context of origin depending on the use of the object, but wide regional trends are

apparent; sculpture is most common among "groups of settled cultivators in the areas drained by the Niger and Congo rivers" in West Africa. Direct images of deities are relatively infrequent, but masks in particular are or were often made for religious ceremonies; today many are made for tourists as "airport art". African masks were an influence on European Modernist art, which was inspired by their lack of concern for naturalistic depiction. Later West African cultures developed bronze casting for reliefs to decorate palaces like the famous Benin Bronzes, and very fine naturalistic royal heads from around the Yoruba town of Ife in terracotta and metal from the 12th14th centuries. Akan goldweights are a form of small metal sculptures produced over the period 14001900, some apparently representing proverbs and so with a narrative element rare in African sculpture, and royal regalia included impressive gold sculptured elements. Many West African figures are used in religious rituals and are often coated with materials placed on them for ceremonial offerings. The Mande-speaking peoples of the same region make pieces of wood with broad, flat surfaces and arms and legs are shaped like cylinders.

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In Central Africa, however, the main distinguishing characteristics include heart-shaped faces that are curved inward and display patterns of circles and dots. Eastern Africans are not known for their sculpture, producing much textile art, but one sculptural style from the region is pole sculptures, carved in human shapes and decorated with geometric forms, while the tops are carved with figures of animals, people, and various objects. These poles are, then, placed next to graves and are associated with death and the ancestral world. The culture known from Great Zimbabwe left more impressive buildings than sculpture but the eight soapstone Zimbabwe Birds appear to have had a special significance and were mounted on monoliths. Modern Zimbabwean sculptors in soapstone have achieved considerable international success. Southern Africas oldest known clay figures date from 400 to 600 AD and have cylindrical heads with a mixture of human and animal features.
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Art of Ancient Africa

African art is characterized by emphasis on the human gure, sculpture, performance art, and nonlinear scaling.
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The human figure has often been the primary subject matter of African art, and this emphasis even influenced certain European traditions. African artists tend to favor three-dimensional artworks over two-dimensional works. An extension of the utilitarianism and three-dimensionality of traditional African art is the fact that much of it is crafted for use in performance contexts, rather than in static ones. Often a small part of an African design will look similar to a larger part.

Emphasis on the Human Figure The human figure has always been the primary subject matter for most African art, and this emphasis even influenced certain European traditions. For example, in the fifteenth century Portugal traded with the Sapi culture near Cte d'Ivoire in West Africa, who created elaborate ivory saltcellars that were hybrids of African and European designs. This was most notable in the addition of the

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human figure, as the human figure typically did not appear in Portuguese saltcellars. The human figure may symbolize the living or the dead. It may reference chiefs, dancers, or various trades such as drummers or hunters. It may even be an anthropomorphic representation of a god or have other votive function. Another common theme is the inter-morphosis of human and animal. African artworks also tend to favor visual abstraction over naturalistic representation. This is because many African artworks generalize stylistic norms. Ancient Egyptian art, also usually thought of as naturalistically depictive, makes use of highly
Figure 17.2 Nok rider and horse 53 cm tall (1,400 to 2,000 years ago) The Nok culture appeared in Nigeria around 1000 B.C. and vanished under unknown circumstances around 500 AD in the region of West Africa. This region lies in Northern and Central Nigeria. Its social system is thought to have been highly advanced. The Nok culture was considered to be the earliest sub-Saharan producer of lifesized Terracotta.

abstracted and regimented visual canons, especially in painting, as well as the use of different colors to represent the qualities and characteristics of an individual being depicted. Emphasis on Sculpture African artists tend to favor three-dimensional artworks over two-dimensional works. Even many African paintings or cloth works were meant to be experienced in three dimensions. House paintings are often seen as a continuous design wrapped around a house, forcing the viewer to walk around the work to experience it fully. Decorated cloths are worn as decorative or ceremonial garments, transforming the wearer into a living sculpture. Distinct from the static form of traditional Western sculpture, African art displays animation, a readiness to move (Figure 17.2). Emphasis on Performance Art An extension of the utilitarianism and three-dimensionality of traditional African art is the fact that much of it is crafted for use in performance contexts, rather than in static ones. For example, traditional African masks and costumes very often are used in communal, ceremonial contexts, where they are "danced." Most societies in Africa have names for their masks. This single name incorporates not only the sculpture, but also the meanings of the

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mask, the dance associated with it, and the spirits that reside within. In African thought, the three cannot be differentiated. Nonlinear Scaling Often a small part of an African design will look similar to a larger part. Leopold Senghor, Senegals first president, referred to this as "dynamic symmetry." William Fagg, the British art historian, compared it to the logarithmic mapping of natural growth by biologist DArcy Thompson. More recently it has been described in terms of fractal geometry.
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Section 2

Rock Art

The Sahara

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The Sahara
Ancient rock art in the Sahara provides a window into the art and culture of the prehistoric peoples of Africa.

recently that archaeologists and scientists have begun to piece together information about the complex societies that once inhabited the region. The Cave of Swimmers is among the most famous examples of rock art in the Sahara. Located in the mountainous Gilf Kebir plateau of

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the Libyan Desert, the cave and rock art was discovered in 1933 by the Hungarian explorer Lszl Almsy. It contains Neolithic pictographs of people swimming that are estimated to have been created between 6,000 to 10,000 years ago (Figure 17.3).
Figure 17.3 Cave of the Swimmers, Egypt

The Sahara, located in northern Africa, was the home of many complex human settlements dating from the Neolithic period. Images carved and painted on natural rocks depict vibrant and vivid scenes from the Neolithic period, such as animals, hunting, and dancing. Among the most famous sites are the Cave of Swimmers in Libya, Tassili n'Ajjer in Algeria, and Jebel Uweinat near the border of!Libya, Egypt, and Sudan.

Ancient rock and cave art can be found throughout the Sahara desert, providing a significant window into the art and culture of the prehistoric peoples of Africa. The Sahara, located in northern Africa, was the home of many complex human settlements dating from the Neolithic period. The region has a long history of climate change, and the desert area of today was once a savanna. Images carved and painted on natural rocks depict vibrant and vivid scenes from the Neolithic period, such as animals, hunting, and dancing. With the help of these pictographs and petroglyphs, it is only
Painting of men in the Cave of the Swimmers, Wadi Sura, Gilf Kebir, Western Desert, Egypt

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Tassili n'Ajjer is a mountain range in the Algerian section of the Sahara Desert. The range is noted for its prehistoric rock art depicting herds of cattle, large wild animals including crocodiles, and human activities such as hunting and dancing. The art has strong stylistic links to the pre-Nguni Art of South Africa and the region, executed in caves by the San Peoples before the year 1200 BCE. First discovered in 1933, more than 15,000 petroglyphs have been identified. Jebel Uweinat is a large mountain made of granite and sandstone located at the triple borders of Libya, Egypt and Sudan. It harbors one of the richest concentrations of prehistoric rock art in the entire Sahara, mainly of the neolithic cattle pastoralist cultures, but also a number of older paintings from hunter-gatherer societies. Other important regions of rock art include: Tadrart Acacus, Libya; South Oran, Algeria; Tibesti, Chad; Mesak Settafet, Libya; Djelfa, Algeria; Ahaggar, Algeria; Draa River, Morocco; Figuig, Morocco; and the Ar Mountains, Niger.
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Section 3

Sub-Saharan Civilizations

Nok and Lydenburg Igbo-Ukwu Ife Benin

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Nok and Lydenburg

Two of the best examples of ancient terracotta sculptures are from the Nok culture in Nigeria and in Lydenburg, South Africa.
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examples are from the Nok culture in present-day Nigeria and near the town of Lydenburg, South Africa. Nok The Nok culture appeared in the northern and central regions of Nigeria around 1000 B.C., and vanished for unknown reasons around 500 AD. Based on similarities seen in the artwork, it has been suggested that the Nok culture evolved into the later Yoruba Culture of Ife. The Nok culture was considered to be the earliest sub-Saharan producer of life-sized terracotta sculptures. The first scattered fragments were discovered on the Jos Plateua during a tin mining expedition in 1928. The terracotta figures are hollow, and while some include plant and animal motifs, the most well known are of human heads and bodies that often reach lifesized proportions. These human sculptures contain very detailed and stylized features, abundant jewelry, and varied postures; some even illustrate physical ailments, disease or facial paralysis. While their function is largely unknown, theories include use as ancestor portrayal, grave markers, finials for roofs of buildings (suggested by their dome-shaped bases), or charms to protect from crop failure, infertility, or illness (Figure 17.4). Researchers have suggested that Nok ceramics were most likely shaped by hand from coarse-grained clay and then subtractively

The Nok culture, existing in Nigeria from around 1000 BC to 500 AD, was considered to be the earliest sub-Saharan producer of life-sized terracotta sculptures. The Nok sculptures are life-sized and hollow, with detailed and stylized features. While their function is largely unknown, theories include use as grave markers, ancestral portrayal, or charms to protect from crop failure, infertility, or illness. The "Lydenburg heads" are human-shaped terracotta sculptures discovered in Lydenburg, South Africa; their image has since become associated with awards for achievement in the arts.

Nok and Lydenburg Terracotta Sculptures Ancient terracotta sculptures in the form of human bodies or heads have been found in several areas of sub-Saharan Africa, providing glimpses into the cultures that existed in the region. Two of the best

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sculpted in a manner that suggests an influence from wood carving. After some drying, the sculptures would be covered with slip and polished to produce a smooth, glossy surface. The firing process most likely resembled that used today in Nigeria, in which the
Figure 17.4 Nok sculpture. Terracotta, 6th century BC6th century CE, Nigeria.

the arts, as well as in the Golden Horn trophy of the South African Film and Television Awards (SAFTA), where they signify excellence in visual creative arts, performance and drama (Figure 17.5).

Figure 17.5 The Order of Ikhamanga An image of the Order of Ikhamanga, where the Lydenburg head can be seen in the center.

pieces are covered with grass, twigs, and leaves and burned for several hours. Lydenburg Lydenburg, a town in Mpumalanga, South Africa, is also known for the discovery of some of the earliest forms of African sculpture. The "Lydenburg heads" are terracotta sculptures similar to those of the Nok culture, taking the form of human heads. Found in the area in the late 1950's, they date back to 400 or 500 AD, and their function is still subject to speculation. Since their discovery, these heads have

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Nok sculptures may have been used as grave markers, charms or portrayals of ancestors.

come to symbolize African art in multiple awards. The image of the Lydenburg head can be seen both on the badge given by the South African Order of Ikhamanga, where they represent achievement in

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Igbo-Ukwu
The Nigerian town of Igbo-Ukwu is notable for archaeological sites where"highly sophisticated bronze artifacts were discovered.
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Introduction Igbo-Ukwu is a town of the Igbo people in southeastern Nigeria. It is notable for three archaeological sites, where excavations have found bronze artifacts from a highly sophisticated bronze metalworking culture dating perhaps to the 9th or 10th century. This was centuries before other known bronzes of the region, making the Igbo culture the earliest known example of a bronze casting society in the region. The first of the
Figure 17.6 Igbo Ukwu bronze

Excavations in Igbo-Ukwu have found highly sophisticated bronze artifacts from the earliest known age of bronze casting, dating to the 9th or 10th century CE. The three sites were discovered from 1938-1959, and include Igbo Isaiah (a shrine), Igbo Richard (a burial chamber) and Igbo Jonah (a cache). Artifacts are believed to be remnants from the burial of a highly important person, and include ritual vessels, pendants, crowns and breastplates, jewelry, ceramics, copper and iron objects, and thousands of glass beads. The bronze castings, made in stages using the lost wax technique, illustrate the artisans' high level of skill. In addition to the artifacts at Igbo-Ukwu, the Igbo people are known for various other types of art including masks, Mbari houses, and mud sculptures.

sites, Igbo Isaiah, is a shrine that was uncovered in 1938 by Isaiah Anozie, a local villager who stumbled upon the bronze works while digging beside his home. Subsequent excavations by Thurston Shaw in 1959 resulted in the discovery of two other sites: Igbo Richard,

A ceremonial vessel made around the 9th century AD.

a burial chamber, and Igbo Jonah, thought to be a cache. Igbo Bronze Art The bronze sculptures (Figure 17.6) were made in stages using the lost wax technique, an ancient casting process commonly using wax. Many of the castings integrated small decorative items and designs, showing the artisans' high level of skill. It is believed that some of

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the bronzes were part of the furniture in the burial chamber of a highly important person or king. In addition to a variety of ritual vessels, bronze items include pendants, crowns and breastplates, staff ornaments, swords, and flywhisk handles (Figure 17.7). Other artifacts discovered in the sites include jewelry, ceramics, a corpse adorned in what appears to be regalia, and many assorted copper and iron objects. Tens of thousands of glass beads were also discovered, suggesting a longdistance trading system with places as far away as Egypt, Venice or India. Other Examples of Igbo Art Prior to British colonialism, the Igbo people were a fragmented and diverse group, resulting in artistic styles that are widely varied. Besides the bronze artifacts discovered in the 20th century, Igbo art is generally known for various types of masquerade masks and outfits symbolizing people, animals or abstract images. Igbo art is also famous for Mbari houses, which are large open-sided square
The elaborate designs and casting in bronzes such as this one point to the Igbo people's high level of skill. Figure 17.7 Igbo Ukwu bronze

planned shelters containing life-sized mud sculptures. These painted figures are sculpted in the form of deities, animals, legendary creatures, ancestors, officials, craftsmen, and foreigners. Another unique structure of Igbo culture is the Nsude Pyramids, a group of ten pyramidal structures built of clay and mud. The structures were built as temples for the god Ala/Uto, who was believed to reside at the top.
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Ife
The Kingdom of Ife is known, like Benin, for its magnicent bronze sculptures.
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Oduduwa created the world where Ife would be built, and his brother Obatala created the first humans out of clay. The city was a settlement of substantial size between the 9th and 12th centuries CE. Production of Yoruba artwork reached its peak between 1200
Figure 17.8 Ife Bronze Sculpture

and 1400 CE, after which it declined as political and economic power shifted to the nearby kingdom of Benin. Like Benin, Ife is most well known for its bronze sculptures. Ife's sculptures are more typically done in a naturalistic style. Hollow-caste,bronze art created by the Yoruba culture provides an example of realism in precolonial African art. Important people were often depicted with large heads,

Ife is the home to the Yoruba people in south-western Nigeria.!The city was established near the 9th century CE, and reached its peak of artistic between 1200 and 1400 CE. Like Benin, Ife is most well known for its bronze sculptures.!Ife's sculptures are more!typically done in a naturalistic style. Stone and terracotta artwork was also common, and leaders were often depicted with large heads to indicate their power.

Ife is the home to the Yoruba people of south-western Nigeria, located in the present day Osun State. The Yoruba people are one of the largest ethnic groups in Sub-Saharan Africa, constituting close to forty million people found predominantly in Nigeria. Evidence of habitation at the site has been discovered to date back to as early as 600 BCE. Some evidence suggests the Nok culture (1000 BCE500 CE) eventually evolved into the Yoruba people of Ife. The meaning of the word "ife" in Yoruba is "expansion." According to Yoruba faith, the city of Ife is where all of humanity originated:
Sculpture of a king's head, held in the British Museum.

as the Yoruba believed that the Ase, or inner power and energy of a person,

resided in the head. Their rulers were often depicted with their mouths covered so that the power of their speech would not be too great (Figure 17.8). Stone and terracotta artwork were common in Ife. More elaborate festivals organized to worship deities were also common. These

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festivals would often extend over several days and involve theatrical dramatizations in the palace and kingdom. In his book "The Oral Traditions in Ile-Ife," Yemi D. Prince referred to the terracotta artists of 900 CE as the founders of Art Guilds, cultural schools of philosophy, which can be likened to many of Europe's old institutions of learning. These guilds may be some of the oldest non-Abrahamic African centers of learning to remain in the contemporary world.
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Benin
At its height, the Benin Empire displayed an advanced artistic culture that produced beautiful works of bronze, iron and ivory.
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The Benin Empire was a pre-colonial African kingdom that ruled in Nigeria from 1440-1897. Its most famous architectural accomplishment is the Walls of Benin City, considered to be the largest man-made structure in the world. Because of Benin's military strength, Portuguese missionaries were unable to enslave them and, instead, a trade network was established in which the Benin Empire traded beautiful works of art for luxury items from Portugal. Bronze work reached its height during this era, and today the Benin Bronzes are regarded as some of the finest works of that time. Benin City was ravaged by the British in 1897 during what is now known as the Punitive Expedition; the Benin Walls and many works of art were destroyed.

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Benin The Benin Empire was a pre-colonial African kingdom that ruled in Nigeria from 1440-1897. Not to be confused with the present-day country of Benin, this empire dissolved into what is today the EdoState of Nigeria, marked by the capital, Benin City. At its height, the empire developed an advanced artistic culture and produced beautiful artifacts of bronze, iron and ivory. Benin Walls The rise of kingdoms in the West African coastal region produced architecture which drew heavily on indigenous traditions. The famed Benin City, formerly of the Kingdom of Benin, was a large complex of homes in coursed mud, with roofs of shingles or palm leaves. The Palace of the City had a sequence of ceremonial rooms and was decorated with brass plaques (Figure 17.9). Perhaps most famous are the Walls of Benin City, considered to be the largest man-made structure in the world. Built between 800 and 1400 AD, the walls were over 16,000 km in length and enclosed 6,500 km6 of community lands. Construction consisted of a ditch and dike structure, with a combination of ramparts and moats that was used as a defense in times of war. In 1897, the Benin Walls were ravaged by the British during what has come to be called the

Figure 17.9 Ancient Benin City

This illustration shows a number of features in Benin City: in the background is the house of the queens; on the left, the royal courtyard, containing several palaces, showing their spires; the king is depicted in the center, mounted on a horse with his mounted nobles in procession on the right.

Punitive Expedition. Scattered pieces of the structure remain in Edo today. Art of Benin The Benin Empire was also known for its many works of art, including religious objects, ceremonial weapons, masks, animal

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heads, figurines, busts and plaques. Typically made from bronze, brass, clay, ivory, terracotta or wood, art was used to illustrate achievements of the empire or to narrate mythical stories. Iconic imagery depicted religious, social and cultural issues that were central to their beliefs. Because of Benin's military strength, Portuguese missionaries were unable to enslave its people upon their arrival in the 15th century. Instead, a trade network was established in which the Benin Empire traded beautiful works of art for luxury items from Portugal, such as beads, cloth, and brass manillas for casting. The wealth of Benin's art was credited with preventing the Benin Empire from becoming economically dependent on the Portuguese. As trade flourished, Benin art
This sculpture is one of the many examples of Benin Bronzes held today in museums around the world. Figure 17.10 Sculpture of the Benin Kingdom. Bronze, 16th-18th century, Nigeria.

the Benin Bronzes are regarded as some of the finest works of that time. These depict a variety of scenes including animals, scenes of court life, Portuguese sailors and relationships between the Benin Empire and the Portuguese. Much of this work was either destroyed or confiscated during the Punitive Expedition of 1897 (Figure 17. 10).
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began to depict European influence through technique, imagery and themes. Bronze work reached its height during this era, and today

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Section 4

Africa from 1000 to 1700

Djenne Aksun and Lalibela Great Zimbabwe The Kingdom of Kongo Ile-Ife Benin

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Djenne
Djenn, once a thriving town in Mali, is known for its Great Mosque and Sudanese-style mud-brick architecture.
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route, it flourished for several centuries. Much of the trans-Saharan trade in goods such as salt, gold and slaves that moved in and out of Timbuktu passed through Djenn. Djenn was also a chief center of Sudanese Islam in this period. Its Great Mosque was an important center of religious life. However, the rise of the Mali Empire in the 13th century contributed to its steady decline, and its brief period of dominance came to an end when it was reduced to a tributary state of the Mali Empire. Between the 14th and 17th centuries Djenn and Timbuktu were both important trading posts in a long distance trade network.Both towns became centers of Islamic scholarship, and in the 17th century Djenn was a thriving center of learning. The town is famous for its distinctive Sudanese-style mud-brick architecture, most notably the Great Mosque. To the south of the town is Djenn-Jno, the site of one of the oldest known towns in sub-Saharan Africa. Djenn together with Djenn-Jno and the Great Mosque were designated a World Heritage Site by UNESCO in 1988.

From the 11th-13th centuries, Djenn was a leading commercial center in west Africa. After its decline during the rise of the Mali Empire, it continued to operate as an important trading post through the!17th century. The town, designated a World Heritage Site by UNESCO in 1988, is famous for its distinctive Sudanese-style mud-brick architecture. The Great Mosque, originally built in the 13th or 14th century and then rebuilt in 1907, is the largest mud brick building in the world. It is considered by many architects to be the greatest achievement of the Sudano-Sahelian architectural style, with clear Islamic influence.

History Architecture Djenn is a town and an urban commune in the inland Niger Delta region of central Mali. Between the 11th and 13th centuries, Djenn was a leading commercial center in West Africa. As a major terminal in the gold, salt and slave trade of the Trans-Saharan trade Nearly all of the buildings in the town are made from sun-baked mud bricks coated with mud plaster. In Djenn, the mud-brick buildings need to be re-plastered with mud at least every other year.

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Even then, the annual rains can cause serious damage. Older buildings are often entirely rebuilt. Traditional houses are two stories with flat roofs, built around a small central courtyard. Built with imposing facades with pilasterlike buttresses, many have elaborate arrangements of pinnacles forming a parapet above the entrance door. The facades are decorated with bundles of rodier palm sticks, called toron, that project away from the wall and serve as a type of scaffolding. Ceramic pipes extend from the roofline to protect the walls from rain water damage. Many houses built before 1900 are in the Toucouleur-style and have a massive covered entrance porch set between two large buttresses. These houses generally have a single small window onto the street set above the entrance door (Figure 17.11).
Figure 17.11 A house in Djenne

Sudano-Sahelian architectural style, with definite Islamic influences. As well as being the center of religious and community life, it is one of the most famous landmarks in Africa. The actual date of construction of the original mosque is unknown, but dates as early as 1200 and as late as 1330 have been suggested. Falling into disrepair over the centuries, the French administration arranged for the original mosque to be rebuilt in 1907 (Figure 17.12).
Originally built in the 13th or 14th century, the Great Mosque seen today was completed in 1907. Figure 17.12 Great Mosque of Djenn

The Great Mosque The Great Mosque of Djenn is the largest mud brick or adobe building in the world and is considered by many architects to be the greatest
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Many houses in Djenn are built with Toucouleurstyle facades.

achievement of the

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Aksun and Lalibela

Aksum and Lalibela were cities in northern Ethiopia that, during their time, accomplished great feats of architecture.

trading power, the kingdom ruled the region from about 400 BCE to the 10th century, reaching its height under King Ezana (baptized as Abreha) in the 4th century. The stelae are the most identifiable part of the Aksumite legacy. These stone towers served to mark graves and were often engraved with a pattern or emblem denoting the person's rank. The largest

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number are in the Northern Stelae Park (Figure 17.13), ranging to the grand size of the Great Stele (33-meter-high, 2.35 meter deep, and 520 tons), which is believed to have fallen and broken during construction. The stelae have most of their mass above ground, but are stabilized by massive underground counter-weights. Aksum is most well-known for the 1937 discovery of the 24-meter tall, 1,700-year-old Obelisk of Axum. Broken into five parts and lying on the ground, it was found and shipped by Italian soldiers to Rome to be erected. The obelisk is widely regarded as one of the
Figure 17.13 The Northern Stelae Park at the town of Axum, Ethiopia The stelae in Northern Stelae Park range to 33 meters high.

Aksum was the original capital of the Kingdom of Aksum, a naval and trading power that ruled the region from about 400 BCE to the 10th century. The stelae were large stone towers that served as markers for graves and reached up to 33 meters high. In 1937, the 24-meter tall, 1,700-year-old Obelisk of Axum was discovered; today it is widely regarded as one of the finest examples of engineering from the height of the Aksumite empire. Lalibela is a holy town most famous for its churches carved from the living rock, which play an important part in the history of!rock-cut architecture. The buildings of Lalibela, built in the 11th and 12th centuries, are considered to be symbolic representations of Jerusalem.

Aksum Aksum (sometimes spelled Axum) is a city in northern Ethiopia that was the original capital of the Kingdom of Aksum. A naval and

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finest examples of engineering from the height of the Aksumite empire, and in 2005 it was finally returned to Aksum amidst much official and public rejoicing (Figure 17.14). Other features of the town include the Church of St. Mary of Zion, built in 1665 and said to contain the Ark of the Covenant; archaeological and ethnographic museums; the Ezana Stone monument documenting the conversion of King Ezana to Christianity; King

Figure 17.14 The Aksum Obelisk after its return to Ethiopia in 2005

late 12th century and early 13th century, the current town of Lalibela was known as Roha. St. Lalibela is said to have seen Jerusalem, and then attempted to build a new Jerusalem as his capital in response to the capture of old Jerusalem by Muslims in 1187. As such, many features of the city have Biblical nameseven the town's river is known as the River Jordan. It remained the capital of Ethiopia from the late 12th century and into the 13th century. The rural town is known around the world for its churches carved from the living rock, which play an important part in the history of rock-cut architecture. There are 13 churches, assembled in four groups: 1. The Northern Group includesBet Medhane Alem (home to the Lalibela Cross and believed to be the largest monolithic

The Obelisk is an example of the stelae built by the Aksum kingdom.

church in the world), Bete Maryam, Bete Golgotha (known for its arts and said to contain the tomb of King Lalibela), the Selassie Chapel, and the Tomb of Adam. 2. The Western Group includes Bete Giyorgis, said to be the most finely executed and best preserved church (Figure 17. 16). 3. The Eastern Group includes Bete Amanuel (possibly the former royal chapel), Bete Merkorios (possibly a former prison), Bete Abba Libanos, and Bete Gabriel-Rufael (possibly a former royal palace), linked to a holy bakery.

Bazen's megalith Tomb; Queen of Sheba's Bath, a reservoir; the Ta'akha Maryam and Dungur palaces; the monasteries of Abba Pentalewon and Abba Liqanos; and the Lioness of Gobedra rock art. Lalibela Lalibela is a town in northern Ethiopia that is famous for its monolithic rock-cut churches. One of Ethiopia's holiest cities, second only to Aksum, Lalibela is a center of pilgrimage for much of the country. During the reign of Saint Gebre Mesqel Lalibela in the

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4. The last group lies further afield, where lie the monastery of Ashetan Maryam and the Yimrehane Kristos church (built in the 11th century in the Aksumite fashion, but within a cave).
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Great Zimbabwe
Perhaps the most famous site in southern Africa,"Great Zimbabwe is a ruined city constructed by the Mwenemutapa.

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Small cattle-herding communities began to appear in the vicinity of what would become Great Zimbabwe from the 4th - 7th century CE. As the people began to exploit the nearby gold mines, their leaders became very rich and were able to form a centralized state. Capable of sustaining up to 18,000 people,!Great Zimbabwe was built between 1100 and 1400 as a massive capital city and home to the king. Elaborate artifacts, including the famous soapstone Zimbabwe Birds, suggest that Great Zimbabwe was the hub of an extensive global trade network. By 1500, Great Zimbabwe was abandoned, either because of changes in the environment or changes in trade networks. Though European colonists long attempted to deny that Great Zimbabwe had been built by native Africans, it has become a major cultural landmark and source of pride in Africa.

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Perhaps the most famous site in southern Africa, Great Zimbabwe is a ruined city constructed by the Mwenemutapa. A monumental city
Figure 17.15 Close-up of Great Zimbabwe

built of stone, it is one of the oldest and largest structures in southern Africa. Located about 150 miles from the modern Zimbabwean capital of Harare, Great Zimbabwe was the capital of a medieval kingdom that occupied the region on the eastern edge of Kalahari Desert. As there is no written records from the people who inhabited Great Zimbabwe, knowledge of the culture is dependent on archaeology. Small farming and iron-mining communities began to appear in the area between the 4th and 7th century CE. Most were cattle pastoralists, but the discovery of gold and new mining techniques contributed to a rise in trade with caravan merchants to the north. As local leaders became rich from trade, they grew in power and created the centralized city-state of Great Zimbabwe.

Great Zimbabwe is most famous for its enormous walls, built without mortar. Figure 17.16 Bete Giyorgis, the Church of St. George, in Lalibela, Ethiopia Bete Giyorgis is one of the nest examples of rockcut architecture in Ethiopia.

Construction of the monument began in the 11th century and continued through the 14th century, spanning an area of 1,780 acres and covering a radius of 100-200 miles. At its peak, it could have housed up to 18,000 people. It was built using granite with no mortar, evidence of very skilled masonry. There are stone structures linked by passageways, and some parts of the site incorporate natural rock formations into the design. One of its most prominent features were its walls, some of which reached 5 to 11 meters high and extended approximately 820 feet (Figure 17.15).

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The ruins form three distinct architectural groups, known as theHill Complex (occupied from the 9th-13th centuries), the Great Enclosure (occupied from the 13th-15th centuries), and theValley Complex (occupied from the 14th-16th centuries). Notable features of the Hill Complex include the Eastern Enclosure, a high balcony enclosure overlooking the Eastern Enclosure, and a huge boulder in a shape similar to that of the Zimbabwe Bird. The Great Enclosure is composed of an inner wall, encircling a series of structures, and a younger outer wall. The Conical Tower was constructed between the two walls (Figure 17.17). The Valley Complex is divided into the Upper and Lower Valley Ruins, with different periods of occupation. One theory suggests that the complexes were the work of successive kings: perhaps the focus of power moved from the Hill Complex to the Great Enclosure in the twelfth century, then to the Upper Valley, and finally to the Lower Valley in the early sixteenth century. A more structuralist interpretation holds that the different complexes had different functions; for example the Hill Complex was a temple, the Valley Complex was built for the citizens, and the Great Enclosure was used by the king. The most important artifacts recovered from the monument are the eight Zimbabwe Birds. These birds were carved from a soapstone on the tops of monoliths that were the height of a person. Slots in a

platform in the Eastern Enclosure of the Hill Complex appear designed to hold the monoliths with the Zimbabwe birds, but archaeologists cannot be sure that this is where the birds rested. Great Zimbabwe shows a high degree of social stratification, characteristic for centralized states. For the elite, there seems to have been a great deal of wealth. Plentiful pottery, iron tools, copper and gold jewelry, elaborately worked ivory, bronze spearheads, gold beads and pendants, and soapstone sculptures have all been found at the site. Some of the artifacts, such as ceramics and glass vessels, appear to have come from Arabia, India, and even China, suggesting that Great Zimbabwe was a major trade center. Smaller stone settlements called zimbabwes can be found nearby; these are thought to be seats of authority for local governors acting under the king of Great Zimbabwe. These smaller settlements would have been supported by surrounding farmers.
The Conical Tower is 18 ft (5.5m) in diameter and 30 ft (9.1 m) high. Figure 17.17 The Conical Tower

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Great Zimbabwe was abandoned by 1500, possibly due to land exhaustion, drought, famine, or a decline in trade. Zimbabwean culture would continue in Mutapa, centered on the city of Sofala. The site of Great Zimbabwe is considered a source of pride in the region, and the modern nation of Zimbabwe derived its name from the site. Nonetheless, when European colonizers first found the ruins in the late nineteenth century, most did not believe that the site could have been built by indigenous Africans; in fact, political pressure was put on historians and architects to deny its construction by black people until Zimbabwes independence in the 1960s.
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The Kingdom of Kongo

The Kingdom of Kongo was a highly developed state in the thirteenth century, best known for its nkisi or power objects.
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The Kingdom was first established in the thirteenth century and was a highly developed state by the time of European contact. The Kingdom had an extensive trading network that included ivory, copperware, ferrous metal goods, cloth, and pottery. Nkisi were containers, such as ceramics vessels, gourds, animal horns, or shells, that could hold spiritually charged substances and were believed to aid in communication with the dead. Nkisi, made in the shape of humans or animals, were often used in divination practices for healing or for good fortune.

The Kingdom of the Kongo was an African kingdom located in west central Africa in what is now northern Angola, Cabinda, the western portion of the Democratic Republic of the Congo, and the southernmost part of Gabon. At its greatest extent, it reached from the Atlantic Ocean in the west to the Kwango River in the east, and from the Congo River in the north to the Kwanza River in the south.

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The first king of the Kingdom was Lukeni lua Nimi (circa 1280-1320). By the time of the first recorded contact with the Europeans, the Kingdom was a highly developed state at the center of an extensive trading network. Apart from natural resources and ivory, the country manufactured and traded copperware, ferrous metal goods, raffia cloth, and pottery (Figure 17.19). The eastern regions were particularly famous for the production of cloth. Artistically, the Kingdom of Kongo is perhaps best known for its nkisi, objects believed to be inhabited by spirits. Early travelers often called nkisi "fetishes" or "idols," as some were made in human form; modern anthropology has generally called them either "power objects" or "charms." Kongo religion held great importance on communication with the dead, believing that exceptional human powers could result from this communication. Nkisi were containers, such as ceramics vessels, gourds, animal horns, or shells, that could hold spiritually charged substances. Sometimes considered
While this gure was made by the Vili people, it is similar to the nkisi that would have been made by people in the Kongo Kingdom. Figure 17.18 Female power gure of the Vili people Democratic Republic of Congo

"portable graves," they may include earth or relics from the grace of a powerful individual. The powers of the dead thus infuse the object and allow the ngaga (healer, diviner or mediator) to control it. Nkisi were often used in divination practices, for healing, or for good fortune in hunting, trade, or sex. Most famously, nkisi take the form of anthropomorphic or zoomorphic wooden carvings. Birds of prey, dogs (closely tied to the spiritual world in Kongo theology), lightning, weapons, and fire are all common themes. Nkondi - often referred to as "nail fetishes" - are a type of nkisi that are thought to be activated by having nails driven into them. Although nkisi nkondi have probably been made since at least the
Figure 17.19 An example of Kongo pottery

sixteenth century, the specifically nailed figures were most likely made in the northern part of the Kongo in the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries (Figure 17.18).

Made of ceramic and vegetable dye, such pottery was widely manufactured in the Kingdom of Kongo.

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Ile-Ife
Il-If, an ancient Yoruba city in Nigeria, is known worldwide for its naturalistic bronze, stone and terracotta sculptures.

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"Ile-Ife," or "land of expansion," is commonly regarded by those that follow Yoruba faith as the cradle of not just the Yoruba culture, but!of!all humanity. The city was a settlement of substantial size between the 9th and 12th centuries, reaching its peak of artistic expression between 1200 and 1400 A.D. Bronze and terracotta art created by this civilization are significant examples of realism in pre-colonial African art. Important people were often depicted with large heads, symbolizing their "ase," or inner energy. The terracotta artists of Ile-Ife are thought !to be the founders of art guilds, considered some of the oldest non-Abrahamic African centers of learning to remain in the contemporary world.

Ile-Ife is an ancient Yoruba city in south-western Nigeria, located in Osun State. The Yoruba are one of the largest ethnic groups in SubSaharan Africa, constituting close to 40 million people found

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predominantly in Nigeria. Evidence of habitation at the site dates back to as early as 600 BCE. The meaning of the word "ife" in Yoruba is "expansion." "Ile-Ife," or "the land of expansion," references the origin myth of the Yoruba people. The city is commonly regarded by those that follow Yoruba faith as the cradle of not just the Yoruba culture, but of all humanity. According to their mythology, Oduduwa created the world where Ile-Ife would be built, and his brother Obatala created the first humans out of clay. The city was a settlement of substantial size between the 9th and 12th centuries. Il-If is known worldwide for its ancient and naturalistic bronze, stone and terracotta sculptures, which reached their artistic peak between 1200 and 1400 A.D. After this period, production declined as political and economic power shifted to the nearby kingdom of Benin. Bronze and terracotta art are significant examples of realism in precolonial African art. Important people were often depicted with large heads, as the Yoruba believed that the Ase, or inner power and energy of a person, was held in the head. Rulers were often depicted
Figure 17.20 Example of IleIfe bronze sculpture Ife bronze casting of a King, dated around 12th Century, in the British Museum.

with their mouths covered so that the power of their speech would not be too great (Figure 17.20). In his book "The Oral Traditions in Ile-Ife," Yemi D. Prince referred to the terracotta artists of 900 A.D. as the founders of art guilds. These cultural schools of philosophy may be some of the oldest nonAbrahamic African centers of learning to remain in the contemporary world.
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Benin
The Benin Empire (1440-1897) developed an advanced artistic culture, especially known for its famous artifacts of bronze, iron, and ivory.
KEY POINTS

advanced artistic culture, especially known for its famous artifacts of bronze, iron, and ivory. Because of the lack of literary work during this time, Benin art provides an insight into the people, culture, traditions, and beliefs of the Empire. Benin Art The artwork from this period includes a range of religious objects, ceremonial weapons, masks, animal heads, figurines, busts, plaques, and other artifacts. Typically made from bronze, brass, clay, ivory, terracotta, or wood, works of art were produced mainly for the court of the Oba (king) of Benin. Various works promoted theological and religious piety, while others narrated events and achievements (actual or mythical) which had occurred in the past. Iconic imagery depicted religious, social and cultural issues that were central to their beliefs. During the reign of the Kingdom of Benin, the characteristics of the
Pendant ivory mask of Queen Idia (Iyoba ne Esigie (meaning: Queenmother of Oba Esigie)), court of Benin, 16th century (Metropolitan Museum of Art) Figure 17.21 Edo ivory mask

Benin Art includes a range of religious objects, ceremonial weapons, ivory masks, and brass plaques, which illustrate religious themes and cultural events. The peak of Benin Art occurred in the 15th century, when the arrival of the Portuguese prompted the development of a flourishing trade system between the Benin and the Europeans. Portuguese influence can be seen in much of the artwork from this time. In 1897, the British led the Punitive Expedition in which they seized over three thousand brass plaques, known today in museums around the world as the Benin Bronzes.

The Benin Empire (14401897) Also referred to as the Edo Empire, this empire existing in a precolonial African state in what is now Nigeria. At its height, the empire extended from the shores of the Niger river through parts of the southwestern region of Nigeria. It developed an

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artwork shifted from thin castings and careful treatment to thick, less defined castings and generalized features. One of the most common artifacts today is the ivory mask based on Queen Idia, the mother of Oba Esigie who ruled from 1504-1550. Now commonly known as the Festac mask, it was used in 1977 as the logo of the Nigeria-hosted Second Festival of Black & African Arts and Culture (Figure 17.21). Another object unique to Benin art is the Ikegobo, a cylindrical votive object. Used as a cultural marker of an individual's accomplishments, Ikegobo were dedicated to the hand, where the Beninese considered all will for wealth and success to originate from. These commemorative objects were made of brass, wood, terracotta, or clay depending on the patron's hierarchical ranking. Portuguese Influence The peak of the Benin art occurred in the 15th century, with the arrival of the Portuguese missionaries and traders. By that point, Benin was already highly militarized and economically developed; however, the arrival of the Portuguese catalyzed a process of even greater political and artistic development. Because of the Benin's military strength, the European visitors were, at least for a while, unable to enslave them as they could with other peoples in Africa. Instead, a trade system was developed

where the Portuguese provided the Benin with luxury items (such as coral beads, cloth and brass manillas for casting) and received paper, cloth, and Benin artwork in return. By virtue of this, the art of Benin is credited with preventing them from becoming economically dependent on the Portuguese. As trade flourished, the Portuguese influence on the art of Benin became apparent. Traditional art began to incorporate European
Figure 17.22 Benin Plaque, 16th century

The background portrays the oral pattern that is characteristic of plaques made at this time, and is reective of Portuguese inuence. The image in the plaque consists of an Oba (king) surrounded by his subjects. Apart from military and political strength, the plaque illustrates the relationship between the Portuguese and the Benin traders.

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imagery and themes; for example, images of Portuguese sailors decorated bracelets, plaques and masks. Many famous Benin brass plaques incorporated European designs, while others illustrated the relationship between the Benin and the Portuguese (Figure 17.22). In 1897, the British led the Punitive Expedition in which they ransacked the Benin kingdom and destroyed or confiscated much of their artwork. Over three thousand brass plaques were seized, and are now held in museums around the world. Known as the Benin Bronzes, they depict a variety of scenes including animals, fish, humans, and scenes of courtly life. They were cast in matching pairs (although each was individually made), and it is thought that they were originally nailed to walls and pillars in the palace as decoration. In 1936, Oba Akenzua II began a movement to return the art to its place of origin; Nigeria bought around 50 bronzes from the British Museum between the 1950s and 1970s, and has repeatedly called for the return of the remainder.
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Chapter 18

Early Medieval Europe

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Section 1

Early Middle Ages

Introduction

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Introduction
"Medieval Art" is a term applied to more than 1,000 years of art history in Western Europe and encompasses vast and divergent forms of media.
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featured distinct artistic styles, such as Anglo-Saxon art or Norse art. However, a generally accepted scheme includes Early Christian art, Migration Period art, Byzantine art, Insular art, PreRomanesque and Romanesque art, and Gothic art, as well as many other periods within these central aesthetic styles. Medieval art was produced in many media, and the works that remain in large numbers include sculpture, illuminated manuscripts, stained glass, metalwork, and mosaics, all of which have had a higher survival rate than fresco wall-paintings and works in precious metals or textiles such as tapestries. In the early medieval period, the "decorative arts," such as metalwork, ivory carving, and embroidery using precious metals, were probably more highly valued than paintings or sculptures. Early medieval art in Europe grew out of the artistic heritage of the Roman Empire and the iconographic traditions of the early Christian church. These sources were mixed with the vigorous "Barbarian" artistic culture of Northern Europe to produce a remarkable artistic legacy. The history of medieval art can be seen as an ongoing interplay between the elements of classical, early Christian, and "barbarian" art. Apart from the formal aspects of classicism, there was a continuous tradition of realistic depiction that survived in Byzantine art of Eastern Europe throughout the period. In the West realistic presentation appears intermittently,

"Medieval art" applies to various media, including sculpture, illuminated manuscripts, tapestries, stained glass, metalwork, and mosaics. Early medieval art in Europe is an amalgamation of the artistic heritage of the Roman Empire, the early Christian church, and the "barbarian" artistic culture of Northern Europe. Despite the wide range of media, the use of valuable and precious materials is a constant in medieval art: many artworks feature the lavish use of gold, jewels, expensive pigments, and other precious goods.

The Medieval art of the early modern European world covers over 1000 years of art history in Europe, and at times extends into the Middle East and North Africa. It includes major art movements and periods, national and regional art, genres, and revivals. Art historians attempt to classify Medieval art into major periods and styles, often with some difficulty, as medieval regions frequently

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combining and sometimes competing with new expressionist possibilities. These expressionistic styles developed both in Western Europe and in the Northern aesthetic of energetic decorative elements. The medieval period ended with the selfperceived Renaissance recovery of the skills and values of classical art; after this Renaissance shift the artistic legacy of the Middle Ages was disparaged for some centuries. The use of valuable materials is a constant in medieval art. Most illuminated manuscripts of the Early Middle Ages had lavish book-covers decked
This image depicts the jeweled cover of the Codex Aureus of St. Emmeram, c. 870, a Carolingian Gospel book. The Codex cover demonstrates the extensive use of jewels, gold, and other precious metals in early medieval art. Figure 18.1 Jeweled Cover of the Codex Aureus

870, although the workshop in which it was made remains unknown. Gold was also used to create sacred objects for churches and palaces, as a solid background for mosaics, or applied as gold leaf to miniatures in manuscripts and panel paintings.
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with precious metal, ivory, and jewels. One of the best examples of precious metalwork in medieval art is the jeweled Cover of the Codex Aureus of St. Emmeram (Figure 18.1). The Codex is decorated with gems and gold relief, and can be accurately dated to

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Section 2

Barbarian Art

The Merovingians The Norse Britain: The Celts and the Anglo-Saxons

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The Merovingians
Merovingian art and architecture emerged under the Merovingian Frankish dynasty and reected a fusion of Western and Eurasian inuences.
KEY POINTS

Sculpture, for instance, regressed to be little more than a simple technique for the ornamentation of sarcophagi, altars, and ecclesiastical furniture under Merovingian rule. On the other hand, gold work and the new medium of manuscript illumination integrated "barbarian" animalstyle decoration, with Late Antique motifs, and other contributions from as far as Syria fused into the Merovingian artistic legacy. The unification of the Frankish kingdom under Clovis I (465 511) and his successors, corresponded with the need for the building of churches. Merovingian architecture often continued the Roman basilica tradition, but also adopted influences from as far away as Syria and Armenia. In the East, most structures were in timber, but stone was more common for significant buildings in the West and in the southern areas that later
The Baptistry at the cathedral at SaintLonce of Frjus reects the Syrian and Armenian inuences on early Merovingian architecture (demonstrated by the cupola on pillars). Figure 18.2 Baptistry at Saint-Lonce of Frjus

Merovingian architecture often continued the Roman basilica tradition, but also adopted influences from as far away as Syria and Armenia. Merovingian gold work and the new medium of manuscript illumination integrated "barbarian" animal-style decoration with Late Antique motifs, and other contributions from as far as Syria fused into the Merovingian artistic legacy. The Sacramentarium Gelasianum, one of the few surviving Merovingian illuminated manuscripts, also highlights this culturally mixed character of Merovingian art: featuring geometric and animal decoration derived from Anglo-Saxon metalwork motifs, with some influence from the Near East.

Merovingian art and architecture developed under the Merovingian dynasty of the Franks, which lasted from the fifth century to the eighth century in present day France, Belgium, the Netherlands, Luxembourg, and parts of Germany. The advent of the Merovingian dynasty in Gaul in the fifth century led to important changes in visual culture.

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fell under Merovingian rule. Most major churches have been rebuilt, usually more than once. However, some small Merovingian structures remain, especially baptistries, which fell out of fashion and were spared rebuilding in later centuries. For instance, the Baptistry at Saint-Leonce of Frjus, highlights the influence of Syrian technique on Merovingian architecture, evidenced by its octagonal shape and a covered cupola on pillars. (Figure 18.2) By contrast, St. Jean at Poitiers is very different from the Baptistry at Saint-Leonce of Frjus, as it has the form of a rectangle flanked by three apses. The original building has probably undergone a number of alterations but preserves traces of Merovingian influence in its marble capitals (Figure 18.3).
Figure 18.3 Baptistry of Saint-Jean of Poitiers The Baptistry of St. Jean at Poitiers (sixth century) has the form of a rectangle anked by three apses. The original building has probably undergone a number of alterations but preserves in its decoration (marble capitals) a strong Merovingian character.

By the seventh century, Merovingian craftsmen were brought to England for their glass-making skills and Merovingian stonemasons were used to build English churches, suggesting that ornamental Merovingian arts were highly regarded by neighboring peoples. However, very few Merovingian illuminated manuscripts survive: the most richly decorated still in existence is the eighth century
Frontispice and incipit from the Vatican manuscript Figure 18.4 Sacramentarium Gelasianum

Sacramentarium Gelasianum in the Vatican Library. The Sacramentarium Gelasianum features geometric and animal decoration, less complex than that of the Insular art of the British Isles, but similarly derived from metalwork motifs, with some influence from Late Antiquity and the Near East (Figure 18.4).
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The Norse
"Norse art" denes the artistic legacies of Scandinavia during the Germanic Iron Age, the Viking Age, and the Nordic Bronze Age.
KEY POINTS

Although of Scandinavian descent, the term "Norsemen" comes from "North men," referencing their place of origin. They are typically called Vikings after their trading places from the Norwegian shoreline. Known as preChristian traders and pirates, Vikings used their great ships to invade European coasts, harbors, and river settlements on a seasonal basis. They created fast and seaworthy longships that served not

Figure 18.5 Oseberg Bow

The great ships of the Vikings were not only vessels used for war and trade, but also the primary means of artistic expression. Whereas the Norse ships highlight the most distinctive elements of Norse art, brooches and other Viking ornaments demonstrate considerable Celtic influence, especially in terms of geometric and animal design work. During the eleventh century, many Norsemen converted to Christianity and brought their artistic traditions to religious themes. An important example of this fusion is the wooden portal of the Urnes Stave Church, which features decorative animal and abstract motifs in a spiral pattern.

Carved detail from the back bow of the Oseberg ship.

only as warring and trading vessels, but also as media for artistic expression and individual design.

"Norse art" is a blanket term for the artistic styles in Scandinavia during the Germanic Iron Age, the Viking Age, and the Nordic Bronze Age. Norse art has many elements in common with Celtic Art and Romanesque art.

Therefore, the great ships of the Vikings are the major art pieces left from this time. For instance, the Oseberg Bow demonstrates the Norse mastery of decorative wood carving (Figure 18.5). Likewise, the ship head postrepresenting a roaring beastis five inches high

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with complicated surface ornamentation in the form of interwoven animals that twist and turn (Figure 18.6). Other examples of artistic design on Norse ships include the "King" or "Chieftain" vessels that were designated for the wealthier classes. Chieftain ships were distinguishable by the design of the bow of their vessel. This could involve various types of design such as bulls, dolphins, gold lions, drakes spewing fire out of their nose, human beings cast in gold and silver, and other unidentifiable animals cast in bronze metal. Typically, the sides of these vessels were decorated using bright colors and wood-carvings. Whereas the Norse ships highlight
Animal-head post found in the Oseberg viking ship, seen in the Viking Ship Museum, Oslo, Norway. The exact function of the head post is unknown. Figure 18.6 Oseberg Ship Head Post

earlier representations of lions or other creatures from Roman and Celtic art. During the eleventh century, many Norsemen converted to Christianity and subsequently brought their artistic traditions to religious themes. For instance, the decoration of the wooden portal of the stave church located in Urnes, Norway is composed of abstract animal forms that tightly intertwine with flexible plant stalks in a spiral pattern (Figure 18.7). This is one of the few remains left from this time that were later incorporated in the walls of a twelfth century church. Coterminously, while pagan-inspired motifs were

Figure 18.7 Urnes Stave Church

This carving demonstrates the fusion of Norse-inspired artistic tradition with Western Christian subjects.

spreading in Christian Norse art, northern European Christian missionaries were creating a visual Christian content that was very different from early barbarian legacies.
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the most distinctive elements of Norse art, brooches and other Viking ornaments demonstrate considerable Celtic influence (evident in the characteristically large oval shapes of both Norse and Celtic brooches). Typically, Viking brooches and buckles were connected together by bands of metal with the spaces between them forming an animal motif. Such decoration can be attributed to

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Britain: The Celts and the Anglo-Saxons

Celtic and Anglo-Saxon art display similar aesthetic qualities and media, including illuminated manuscripts, architecture, and metalwork.
KEY POINTS

Anglo-Saxon and Insular Art Anglo-Saxon art emerged when the Anglo-Saxons migrated from the continent in the fifth century, and ended in 1066 with the Norman Conquest. Anglo-Saxon art, which favored brightness and color, survives mostly in illuminated manuscripts, architecture, and metalwork. Metalwork is almost the only form in which the earliest AngloSaxon art has survived, mostly in Germanic-style jewelry, which was commonly placed in burials. After the conversion of the AngloFigure 18.8 The Stockholm Codex Aureus

Anglo Saxon art emerged when the Anglo-Saxons migrated from the continent in the fifth century, and ended in 1066 with the Norman Conquest. Anglo-Saxon art, which favored brightness and color, survives mostly in illuminated manuscripts, architecture, and metalwork. Celtic art is ornamental, avoiding straight lines, only occasionally using symmetry, and often involving complex symbolism. Celtic art has used a variety of styles and has shown influences from other cultures in knotwork, spirals, key patterns, lettering, and human figures. With the arrival of Christianity, Celtic art was influenced by both Mediterranean and Germanic traditions, creating the Insular style. The interlace patterns that are regarded as typical of Celtic art were in fact introduced to Insular art from the Mediterranean and Migration artistic traditions.

The evangelist portrait from the Stockholm Codex Aureus, one of the "Tiberius group," that shows the Insular style and classicizing continental styles that combined and competed in early Anglo-Saxon manuscripts.

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Saxons to Christianity in the seventh century, the fusion of Germanic Anglo-Saxon, Celtic, and Early Christian techniques created the Hiberno-Saxon style (or Insular art) in the form of sculpted crosses and liturgical metalwork. Insular art is characterized by detailed geometric designs, interlace, and stylized animal decoration. Anglo-Saxon illuminated manuscripts form a significant part of Insular art and reflect a combination of influences from the Celtic styles that arose when the Anglo-Saxons encountered Irish missionary activity. A different mixture is seen in the opening from the Stockholm Codex Aureus, where the evangelist portrait reflects an adaptation of Italian style (though adding interlace to the chair frame), while the text page is mainly in Insular style, especially in the first line, with its vigorous Celtic spirals and interlace. This is one of the so-called "Tiberius group" of manuscripts, which leant towards the Italian style. It is, in the usual chronology, the last English manuscript in which trumpet spiral patterns are found (Figure 18.8). Celtic Art Anglo-Saxon metalwork initially used the Germanic Animal Style decoration that would be expected from recent immigrants, but gradually developed a distinctive Anglo-Saxon character. For instance, round disk brooches were preferred for the grandest pieces, over continental styles of fibulae and Romano-British

Figure 18.9 Sutton Hoo Shoulder Clasp Shoulder-clasps from Sutton Hoo, which demonstrates the geometric and"highly stylized design patterns characteristic of Anglo-Saxon art.

penannular brooches, reflecting Anglo-Saxon taste throughout the period. Decoration included cloisonn ("cellwork") in gold and garnet for high-status pieces. Despite a considerable number of other finds, the discovery of the ship-burial at Sutton Hoo transformed the history of Anglo-Saxon art, showing a level of sophistication and quality that was wholly unexpected at this date. Among the most famous finds from Sutton Hoo are a helmet and a shoulder clasp (Figure 18.9).

"Celtic art" refers to the art of the people who spoke Celtic languages in Europe, as well as the ancient people whose language is uncertain, but have cultural and stylistic similarities with Celtic speakers. Typically, Celtic art is ornamental, avoiding straight lines, only occasionally using symmetry, and often involving complex

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Figure 18.10 The Ardagh Chalice

over the next three centuries the style spread very widely, as far as Ireland, Italy, and modern Hungary. Early La Tne style adapted ornamental motifs from foreign cultures, including Scythian, Greek, and Etruscan arts. La Tne is "a highly stylized curvilinear art based mainly on classical vegetable and foliage motifs such as leafy palmette forms, vines, tendrils, and lotus flowers together with spirals, S-scrolls, lyre, and trumpet shapes." It remains uncertain whether some of the most notable objects found from the La Tne period were made in Ireland or elsewhere (as far away as Egypt in some cases). But in Scotland and the western parts of Britain, versions of the La Tne style remained in use until it became an important component of the Insular style that developed to meet the needs of newly Christianized populations. Christian Celtic art in the medieval period was practiced by the people of Ireland and parts of Britain over the course of 700 years.

The Ardagh Chalice reects the interlace styles introduced into the Celtic Insular Art form from the Mediterranean.

With the arrival of Christianity, Celtic art was influenced by both Mediterranean and Germanic traditions, (primarily through Irish contact with Anglo-Saxons), which resulted in the Insular style. The interlace patterns that are regarded as typical of Celtic art were in fact introduced from the Mediterranean and Migration Period artistic traditions. Specific examples of Celtic Insular art include the Book of Kells, the Tara Brooch, and the Ardagh Chalice (Figure 18. 10).

symbolism. Celtic art has used a variety of styles and has shown influences from other cultures in knotwork, spirals, key patterns, lettering, and human figures. Around 500 BCE, the La Tne style appeared rather suddenly, coinciding with some kind of societal upheaval that involved a shift of the major centers in a north-westerly direction. La Tne was especially found is in northern France and western Germany, but

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Figure 18.11 Muiredach's High Cross Muiredach's High Cross, Ireland, early tenth century, one of the primary examples of Celtic sculpture.

From the seventh through ninth centuries, Celtic missionaries traveled to Britain and brought with them the Irish tradition of manuscript illumination, which came into contact with Anglo-Saxon metalworking. New techniques employed were

filigree and chip-carving, while new motifs included interlace patterns and animal ornamentation. The art form reached its peak in the late eighth century with the Book of Kells, the most elaborate Insular illuminated manuscript. Catholic Celtic sculpture began to flourish in the form of the "high cross," large stone crosses that held biblical scenes in carved relief. This art form reached its apex in the early tenth century, with Muiredach's Cross at Monasterboice and the Ahenny High Cross (Figure 18.11).
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Section 3

Early Christian Art of North Europe

Illustrated Books

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Illustrated Books
Insular art is often characterized by detailed geometric designs, interlace, and stylized animal decorations in illuminated manuscripts.
KEY POINTS

Background An illuminated manuscript is a manuscript in which the text is supplemented by the addition of decoration, such as decorated initials, borders (marginalia) and miniature illustrations. In the strict definition of the term, an illuminated manuscript only refers to manuscripts decorated with gold or silver. However, the term is now used to refer to any decorated or illustrated manuscript from the Western traditions in both common usage and modern scholarship (Figure 18.12). The earliest surviving substantive illuminated manuscripts are from the period 400 to 600 CE and were initially produced in Italy and the Eastern Roman Empire. The significance of these works lies not only in their inherent art historical value, but in the maintenance of literacy offered by non-illuminated texts as well. Had it not been for the monastic scribes of Late Antiquity who produced both illuminated and non-illuminated manuscripts,
In the strictest denition of illuminated manuscript, only manuscripts with gold or silver, like this miniature of Christ in Majesty from the Aberdeen Bestiary (folio 4v), would be considered illuminated. Figure 18.12 The Aberdeen Bestiary

An illuminated manuscript features text supplemented by the addition of elaborate decoration, such as decorated initials, borders (marginalia,) and miniature illustrations. The term is mostly used to refer to any decorated or illustrated manuscript from the Western traditions. Illuminated manuscripts were written on the best quality of parchment, called vellum, and some feature the use of precious metals and pigments that were imported to northern Europe for the purpose of Illumination. The Book of Kells is considered a masterwork of Western calligraphy, with its illustrations and ornamentation surpassing that of other Insular Gospel books in complexity. The Kells manuscript's decoration combines traditional Christian iconography with the ornate swirling motifs of Insular art. Insular art is characterized by detailed geometric designs, interlaced, and stylized animal decoration spread boldly across illuminated manuscripts. Insular manuscripts sometimes take a whole page for a single initial or the first few words at beginnings of gospels.

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most literature of ancient Greece and Rome would have perished in Europe. The majority of the surviving illuminated manuscripts are from the Middle Ages, and hence, the majority of these manuscripts are of a religious nature. Illuminated manuscripts were written on the best quality of parchment, called vellum. By the sixteenth century, the introduction of printing and paper rapidly led to the decline of illumination, although illuminated manuscripts continued to be produced in much smaller numbers for the very wealthy. Early medieval illuminated manuscripts are the best examples of medieval painting, and indeed, for many areas and time periods, they are the only surviving pieces of pre-Renaissance painting.
This example from the manuscript (folio 292r) shows the lavishly decorated section that opens the Gospel of John. Figure 18.13 The Book of Kells

One illuminated manuscript that represents the pinnacle of Insular Art is the Book of Kells, created by Celtic monks ca. 800, or slightly earlier. The Book of Kells is considered a masterwork of Western calligraphy, with its illustrations and ornamentation surpassing that of other Insular Gospel books in extravagance and complexity (Figure 18.13). The Book of Kells' decoration combines traditional Christian iconography with the ornate swirling motifs typical of Insular art. Figures of humans, animals, and mythical beasts, together with Celtic knots and interlacing patterns in vibrant colors, enliven the manuscript's pages. Many of these minor decorative elements are imbued with Christian symbolism. The manuscript comprises 340 folios made of high-quality vellum, and the unprecedentedly elaborate ornamentation that covers them includes ten full-page illustrations and text pages that are vibrant with decorated initials and interlinear miniatures and mark the furthest extension of the anti-classical and energetic qualities of Insular art. Insular Art in Illustrated Books Insular art is characterized by detailed geometric designs, interlace, and stylized animal decoration spread boldly across illuminated manuscripts. Insular manuscripts sometimes take a whole page for a single initial or the first few words at beginnings of gospels. This technique of allowing decoration a right to roam was later

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influential on Romanesque and Gothic art. The Insular majuscule script of the text itself in the Book of Kells appears to be the work of at least three different scribes. The lettering is in iron gall ink and the colors used were derived from a wide range of substances, many of which were imported from distant lands. The text is accompanied by many full-page miniatures, while smaller painted decorations appear throughout the text in unprecedented quantities. The
Figure 18.14 Book of Kells: Folio 27v Folio 27v contains the symbols of the Four Evangelists (Clockwise from top left): a man (Matthew), a lion (Mark), an eagle (John), and an ox (Luke). The Evangelists are placed in a grid and enclosed in an arcade, as is common in the Mediterranean tradition. However, notice the elaborate geometric and stylized ornamentation in the arcade that highlights the Insular aesthetic.

decoration of the book is famous for combining intricate detail with bold and energetic compositions and the illustrations feature a broad range of colors; purple, lilac, red, pink, green, and yellow used most often. As is usual with Insular work, there was no use of gold or silver leaf in the manuscript. However, the pigments for the illustrations, which included red and yellow ochre, green copper pigment (sometimes called verdigris), indigo, and lapis lazuli, were very costly and precious. They were imported from the Mediterranean region and, in the case of the lapis lazuli, from northeast Afghanistan. The decoration of the first eight pages of the canon tables is heavily influenced by early Gospel Books from the Mediterranean, where it was traditional to enclose the tables within an arcade. Although influenced by this Mediterranean tradition, the Kells manuscript presents this motif in an Insular spirit, where the arcades are not seen as architectural elements but rather become stylized geometric patterns with Insular ornamentation (Figure 18.14). Furthermore, such complicated knot work and interweaving found in the Kells manuscript echo the metalwork and stone carving works that characterized the artistic legacy of the Insular period.

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Section 4

Mozabaric Art of Spain

Beatus Manuscripts

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Beatus Manuscripts
The Commentary on the Apocalypse was originally a Mozabaric eighth-century work by the Spanish monk and theologian Beatus of Libana.
KEY POINTS

survived. The historical significance of the Commentary is made even more pronounced since it included a world map, offering a rare insight into the geographical understanding of the post-Roman world (Figure 18.15). Considered together, the Beatus codices are among the most important Spanish and Mozarabic medieval manuscripts, and have been the subject of extensive scholarly and antiquarian enquiry. Though Beatus may have written these commentaries as a response to Adoptionism in the Hispania of the late 700s, many scholars
Figure 18.15 Beatus World Map

Though Beatus may have written these commentaries as a response to Adoptionism in the Hispania of the late 700s, many scholars believe that the book's popularity in monasteries stemmed from the Arabic-Islamic conquest of the Iberian peninsula. Mozarabic art refers to art of Mozarabs, Iberian Christians living in Al-Andalus who adopted Arab customs without converting to Islam during the Islamic invasion of the Iberian peninsula (from the eighth through the eleventh century). Mozarabic art features a combination of (Hispano) Visigothic and Islamic art styles, as in the Beatus manuscripts, which combine Insular art illumination forms with Arabicinfluenced geometric designs.

The Commentary on the Apocalypse was originally a Mozabaric eighth-century work by the Spanish monk and theologian Beatus of Libana. Often referred to simply as the Beatus, it is used today to reference any of the extant manuscript copies of this work, especially any of the twenty-six illuminated copies that have
The world map from the Saint-Sever Beatus, measuring 37 x 57 cm. This was painted c. 1050 A.D. as an illustration to Beatus's work at the Abbey of Saint-Sever in Aquitaine, on the order of Gregori de Montaner, Abbot from 1028 to 1072 A.D.

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believe that the book's popularity in monasteries stemmed from the Arabic-Islamic conquest of the Iberian peninsula, which some Iberian Christians took as a sign of the Antichrist. Not all of the Beatus manuscripts are complete, and some exist only in fragmentary form. However, the surviving twenty-six of these manuscripts are lavishly decorated in the Mozarabic, Romanesque, or Gothic style of illumination.

Figure 18.16 Beatus Manuscripts

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Beatus of Facundus: Judgement of Babylon.

Mozarabic art refers to art of Mozarabs, Iberian Christians living in Al-Andalus who adopted Arab customs without converting to Islam during the Islamic invasion of the Iberian peninsula (from the eighth through the eleventh century). Mozarabic art features a combination of (Hispano) Visigothic and Islamic art styles, as in the Beatus manuscripts, which combine Insular art illumination forms with Arabic-influenced geometric designs (Figure 18.16).

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Section 5

The Vikings

The Oseberg Ship Runic Stones in Jelling Timber Architecture

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The Oseberg Ship

The Oseberg ship was discovered in a burial mound in Norway and is one of the nest artistic and archaeological nds from the Viking Age.

artistic and archaeological finds to have survived the Viking Age (Figure 18.17). The Oseberg burial mound contained numerous grave goods and the remains of two female human skeletons. The ship's interment into its burial mound dates from
Figure 18.17 The Oseberg Ship

KEY POINTS

834 CE, but parts of the ship date from around 800 CE, and scholars believe that ship itself is older. The bow and stern of the ship are elaborately decorated with complex woodcarvings in the characteristic "gripping beast" style, also known as the Oseberg style (Figure 18.18). Although seaworthy, the ship is relatively frail; it is thought to have been used only for coastal voyages. The skeletons of two women were found in the Oseberg burial mound. It is not clear if one of the females was sacrificed to accompany the other in death. Regardless, the opulence of the burial rite and the grave-goods suggests that this was a burial of very high status. For instance, one woman wore a very fine red wool dress of fabric woven in a lozenge twill pattern (a luxury
The Oseberg ship (Viking Ship Museum, Norway)

The Oseberg burial mound contained numerous grave goods and the remains of two female human skeletons. The ship's interment into its burial mound dates from 834 CE, but parts of the ship date from around 800 CE, and scholars believe that ship itself is older. The bow and stern of the ship are elaborately decorated with complex woodcarvings in the characteristic "gripping beast" style, also known as the Oseberg style. The Oseberg burial contains agricultural and household tools as well as a series of textiles included woolen garments, imported silks, and narrow tapestries. The Oseberg burial is one of the few sources of Viking age textiles, and the wooden cart is the only complete Viking age cart found so far.

A Ship Burial The Oseberg ship is a well-preserved Viking ship discovered in a large burial mound at the Oseberg farm near Tnsberg in Vestfold county, Norway. This ship is widely celebrated as one of the finest

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commodity), and a fine white linen veil in a gauze weave. The other wore a plainer blue wool dress with a wool veil, showing some stratification in their social status. Neither woman wore anything
Figure 18.18 Oseberg Ship

the shape of a figure sitting with crossed legs (Figure 18.19). The bucket itself is made from yew wood held together with brass strips, and the handle is attached to two anthropomorphic figures that are often compared to depictions of the Buddha in lotus posture, (although any connection to Buddhism is most uncertain). Archaeologists also found more mundane items, such as agricultural and household tools, as well as a series of textiles that included woolen garments, imported silks, and narrow tapestries. The Oseberg burial is one of the few sources of Viking age textiles, and the wooden cart is the only complete Viking age cart found so far.
The so-called "Buddha bucket" (Buddha-btte), brass and cloisonn enamel ornament of a bucket (pail) handle in the shape of a gure sitting with crossed legs. Figure 18.19 "Buddha Bucket"

entirely made of silk, although small silk strips were appliqued onto a tunic worn under the red dress. The grave had been disturbed in antiquity, and many precious metals that were initially buried with Oseberg ship are therefore missing. Nevertheless, a great number of everyday items and artifacts were found during the 1904-1905 excavations of the site. These

This detail from the Oseberg ship demonstrates the elaborte woodcarving designs used as ornamentation on the bow and front of the ship.

included four elaborately decorated sleighs, a fourwheel wooden cart, bedposts, wooden chests, and

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other richly-decorated items. For instance, the so-called "Buddha bucket" is a well-known piece from the Oseberg site, which feature a brass and cloisonn enamel ornament of a bucket (pail) handle in

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Runic Stones in Jelling

The Jelling stones are visual records of the transitional period between Norse paganism and the process of Christianization in Denmark.
KEY POINTS

Figure 18.20 Jelling Stones

The Jelling stones are strongly identified with the creation of Denmark as a nation-state, and both stones feature one of the earliest records of the name "Danmark," in the form of accusative "tanmaurk" on the large stone, and genitive "tanmarkar" on the small stone. The larger stone, known as Harald's stone, is often cited as Denmark's baptismal certificate (dbsattest), containing a depiction of Christ and an inscription celebrating the conversion of the Danes to Christianity. Art historians consider the runic inscriptions on the Jelling stones as the best known in Denmark.

Jelling Stones, inside their glass cases.

his conquest of Denmark and Norway, and to document his conversion of the Danes to Christianity. Art historians consider the runic inscriptions on the Jelling stones as the best known in Denmark. Scholars have long considered the Jelling stones to be visual records of the transitional period between the indigenous Norse paganism and the victory of Christianization in Denmark. The larger stone, known as Harald's stone, is often cited as Denmark's baptismal

The Jelling stones are massive carved runestones from the tenth century, which are named for the town of Jelling in Denmark (Figure 18.20). The older of the two Jelling stones is attributed to King Gorm the Old, and is thought to have been raised in memory of his wife Thyra. King Gorm's son, Harald Bluetooth, raised the larger of the two stones in memory of his parents, in celebration of

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certificate (dbsattest), containing a depiction of Christ and an inscription celebrating the conversion of the Danes to Christianity. The Jelling stones are also strongly identified with the creation of Denmark as a nation-state, and both stones offer the earliest examples of the name "Danmark," in the form of accusative "tanmaurk" on the large stone, and genitive "tanmarkar" on the small stone. The runestone of Gorm, which is the older and smaller of the Jelling stones, has an inscription that reads: "King Gormr made this monument in memory of Thyrv, his wife, Denmark's adornment." The runestone of Harald Bluetooth is engraved on one side with an inscription that reads: "King Harald ordered this monument made in memory of Gormr, his father, and in memory of Thyrv, his mother; that Harald who won for himself all of Denmark and
Figure 18.21 Harald's Stone: Inscription This Jelling Stone, with its depiction of Christ and celebration of the Conversion of the Danes, is widely regarded as Denmark's "baptismal certicate."

Norway and made the Danes Christian" (Figure 18.21). Harald's stone has a figure of Jesus Christ on one side and on another side a serpent wrapped around a lion. Of interest to scholars is the depiction of Christ as standing in the shape of a cross and entangled in what appear to be branches (Figure 18.22). One scholar has suggested that this imagery was used to suggest that Christ had replaced the Norse pagan god Odin, who in one myth hung for nine nights in the tree Yggdrasill.
The gure of Christ on Harald's runestone. Figure 18.22 Jelling Stones: Carving of Christ

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Timber Architecture
Archaeological nds of Viking ships and stave churches suggest a signicant mastery of woodworking and engineering in Viking culture.
KEY POINTS

Background Timber architecture can be used to describe a period of medieval art in which two distinctive wood building traditions found their confluence in Norwegian architecture. One was the practice of log building with horizontal logs notched at the corners, a technique thought to have been imported east of Scandinavia. The other influence was the stave building tradition, which possibly evolved from improvements on the prehistoric long houses that had roofbearing posts dug into the ground. Although scant evidence exists, archaeological findings of actual buildings from the earliest permanent structures, the discovery of Viking ships (i.e. the Oseberg), and stave churches suggest a significant mastery of woodworking and engineering in Viking culture. Not counting the twenty-eight remaining stave churches, at least 250 wooden houses predating the Black Death of 1350 are preserved more or less intact in Norway. Most of these are log houses, some with added stave-built galleries or porches. As political power in Norway was consolidated and had to contend with external threats, larger and more durable structures than the timber examples were built in accordance with military technology at the time. Hence, fortresses, bridges, and ultimately churches and manors were built with stone and masonry.

A stave church is a medieval wooden church with a post and beam construction related to timber framing. The wall frames are filled with vertical planks. The load-bearing posts (stafr in Old Norse, stav in Norwegian) have lent their name to this building technique. It is now common to group the churches into two categories: the first without free-standing posts and a single nave is often referred to as Type A, and the other with a raised roof and free-standing internal posts is termed Type B. The stave churches owe their longevity to architectural innovations that protected these large, complex wooden structures against water rot, precipitation, and extreme temperatures. Most important was the introduction of massive sills underneath the staves (posts) to prevent them from rotting. Archaeological excavations have shown that stave churches descend from palisade constructions and later churches with earth-bound posts. Similar palisade constructions are known from the buildings of the Viking era.

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The most commonly cited examples of timber architecture are the Norwegian stave churches. Until the beginning of the nineteenth century, as many as one hundred and fifty stave churches still existed. Many were destroyed as part of a religious movement that favored simple, puritan lines, and today only twenty-eight remain (although a large number were documented and recorded by measured drawings before they were demolished). A stave church is a medieval wooden church with a post and beam construction related to timber framing. The wall frames are filled
Figure 18.23 Stave Church

rotting. Over the two centuries of stave church construction, this building type evolved to an advanced art and science (Figure 18.23). Forms of Church Construction Archaeological excavations have shown that stave churches descend
Figure 18.24 Type A Reinli Stave Church

from palisade constructions and later churches with earth-bound posts. Similar palisade constructions are known from the buildings of the Viking era. Logs were split in two halves, rammed into the ground, and given a roof. This was a simple form of construction but very strong. The wall could last for decades if set in graveleven centuries. Remains of buildings of this type are found over much of Europe. It is now common to group the churches into two categories. Type A had no free-

with vertical planks. The load-bearing posts (stafr in Old Norse, stav in Norwegian) have lent their name to the building technique. The stave churches owe their longevity to architectural innovations that protected these large,
Reinli stave church with the old pillory and a single nave: SrAurdal.

Example of a Norwegian wooden stave church: Stave church in Lom.

standing posts and a single nave, as in (Figure 18.24); Type B had a raised roof and free-standing internal posts, as in (Figure 18.25). Type B churches were often further divided into two subgroups. The first was the Kaupanger group that had a whole arcade row of posts and intermediate posts along the sides and details that mimic stone

complex wooden structures against water rot, precipitation, wind, and extreme temperatures. Most important was the introduction of massive sills underneath the staves (posts) to prevent them from

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Figure 18.25 Type B Lomen Stave Church Interior

because they were too small to accommodate larger congregations and too impractical according to newer architectural standards.
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Interior from Lomen stave church depicting a raised roof and cross braces between upper and lower string beams and posts. Intermediate posts have been omitted.

capitals. These churches gave an impression of a basilica. The other subgroup was the Borgund group. These churches had cross braces joining upper and lower string beams and posts that formed a very rigid interconnection, resembling the triforium of stone basilicas. Many stave churches had or still have outer galleries running around the whole perimeter, loosely connected to the plank walls. They probably served to protect the church from the harsh climate. After the Protestant Reformation, no stave churches were built. Instead, new churches were mainly composed of stone or horizontal log buildings with notched corners. Most old stave churches disappeared because of redundancy, neglect, deterioration, or

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Section 6

The Carolingians

Architecture Illustrated Books Metalwork Sculpture and Painting

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Architecture
Carolingian architecture is characterized by its attempts to emulate late Roman classicism, Christian, and Byzantine styles.
KEY POINTS

Figure 18.26 Lorsch Abbey

Carolingian dynasty dominated western Europe politically, culturally, and economically. Carolingian architecture is characterized by its conscious attempts to emulate Roman classicism and Late Antiquity architecture. To that end, the Carolingians borrowed heavily from Early Christian

Carolingian churches generally are basilican in shape, like the Early Christian churches of Rome, and commonly incorporated westworks (a monumental, west-facing entrance section of a Carolingian, Ottonian, or Romanesque church). The gatehouse of the monastery at Lorsch, built around 800 CE in Germany, exemplifies classical inspiration for Carolingian architecture built as a triple-arched hall dominating the gateway, with the arched facade interspersed with attached Roman-style classical columns and pilasters above. The exterior of a westwork consists of multiple stories between two towers, while the interior includes an entrance vestibule, a chapel, and a series of galleries overlooking the nave.

Lorsch Abbey (800 CE) demonstrates the Roman-classical inspiration the Carolingians took for their architecture, with a triple arch hallway dominating the gateway and interspersed with classical Roman pillars.

and Byzantine architectural styles, although they added their own innovations and aesthetic style. The result was a fusion of divergent cultural aesthetic qualities. For instance, the gatehouse of the monastery at Lorsch, built around 800 CE in Germany, exemplifies classical inspiration for Carolingian architecture, built as a triple-arched hall dominating the gateway, with the arched facade interspersed with attached Roman-style classical columns and pilasters above (Figure 18.26). In contradistinction, the Palatine Chapel in Aachen (Aix-laChapelle), which was constructed between 792-805, was inspired by the Byzantium-style octagonal Justinian church of San Vitale in

Carolingian architecture is the style of northern European PreRomanesque architecture belonging to the period of the Carolingian Renaissance of the late eighth and ninth centuries, when the

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Ravenna (Figure 18.27). However, in Aachen, there is a monumental western entrance complex, called westwork (discussed below), which is a wholly Carolingian innovation added to the inspiration drawn from Byzantine architecture. Carolingian churches generally are basilican, like the Early Christian churches of Rome, and commonly incorporated westworks, which is arguably the precedent for the western facades of later medieval cathedrals. A westwork (German: westwerk) is a
Figure 18.27 Palantine Chapel in Aachen

monumental, west-facing entrance section of a Carolingian, Ottonian, or Romanesque church. This exterior consists of multiple stories between two towers, while the interior of a westwork includes an entrance vestibule, a chapel, and a series of galleries overlooking the nave. The westwork first originated in the ancient churches of Syria although some early examples were in Spanish buildings. The westwork of Corvey Abbeyf (873-885), Germany, is the oldest extant example that still remains (Figure 18.28).

Figure 18.28 Abbey of Corvey

Corvey Abbey: West end in Carolignian style

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The Palatine Chapel in Aachen demonstrates the Byzantine-inuence on Carolingian architecture, evidenced by its octagonal style.

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Illustrated Books
The most numerous surviving works of the Carolingian era are illuminated manuscripts, which further developed the Insular book style.
KEY POINTS

books, have survived. They are decorated with a relatively small number of full-page miniatures, often including evangelist portraits and lavish canon tables, following the precedent of Insular art in Britain and Ireland. Carolingian narrative images and cycles are rarer, but many do exist. They tend to be mostly of the Old Testament, while New Testament scenes are more often found on the ivory reliefs on the covers. Carolingian illuminists adopted the over-sized and heavily decorated initials of Insular art and further developed the historiated initial to produce small narrative scenes seen for the first time towards the end of the period, most notably in the Drogo Sacramentary. Carolingian luxury manuscripts were given treasure bindings or rich covers with jewels set in gold and carved ivory panels, and, as in Insular art, were prestige objects kept in the church or treasury. This was different from the working manuscripts that were kept in libraries, where some initials might be decorated and pen drawings added in a few places. The Utrecht Psalter stands alone as a very heavily illustrated library version of the Psalms, done in pen and wash, and almost certainly copied from a much earlier manuscript. Carolingian manuscripts are presumed to have been produced largely or entirely by clerics in a few workshops around the Carolingian Empire. Each of these workshops practiced its own style that developed based on the artists and influences of that

Carolingian manuscripts are presumed to have been produced largely or entirely by clerics in a few workshops around the Carolingian Empire. Each of these workshops practiced its own style that developed based on the artists and influences of that particular location and time. As the earliest producer of Carolingian manuscripts, the Court School of Charlemagne initiated a revival of Roman classicism, yet still maintained Migration Period art (Merovingian and Insular) traditions in their linear presentation, with no concern for volume and spatial relationships. The Utrecht Psalter was perhaps the most important of all Carolingian manuscripts, because of its innovative and naturalistic figurine line drawings, which were to become the most influential innovation of Carolingian art on later periods.

Illuminated manuscripts are the most numerous surviving works of the Carolingian era. A number of luxury manuscripts, mostly Gospel

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particular location and time. The earliest workshop was the Court School of Charlemagne, then the Rheimsian workshop (which became the most influential of the Carolingian period), the Touronian style, the Drogo style, and the Court School of Charles the Bald. The Court School of Charlemagne (also known as the Ada School) produced the earliest manuscripts, including the Godescalc Evangelistary (781783), the Lorsch Gospels (778820, (Figure 18.29), the Ada Gospels, the Soissons Gospels, the Harley Golden Gospels (800-820), and the Vienna Coronation Gospels. The
Lorsch Gospels: Ivory book cover. The Lorsch Gospels reect its origin in the Court School of Charlemagne with its Late Antiquity Imperial scenes adapted to a Christian theme. Figure 18.29 Lorsch Gospels

In the early ninth century, Archbishop Ebo of Rheims assembled clerical artists and transformed Carolingian art. The resulting Gospel book of Ebbo (816835) was painted with swift, fresh and vibrant brush strokes, evoking an inspiration and energy unknown in classical Mediterranean forms. Other books associated with the Rheims school include the Utrecht Psalter, which was perhaps the most important of all Carolingian manuscripts (for its innovative and naturalistic figure line drawings that were to become the most influential innovation of Carolinian art in later periods), and the Bern Physiologus, the
From the Utrecht Psalter, 9th C. Naturalistic and energetic gurine line drawings were entirely new, and were to become the most inuential innovation of Carolinian art in later periods. Figure 18.30 Ultrecht Psalter

earliest Latin edition of the Christian allegorical text on animals. The expressive animations of the Rheims school, demonstrated fully in the Utrecht Psalter (Figure 18.30), would have influence on northern medieval art for centuries to follow, far into the Romanesque period. Another style developed at the monastery of St Martin of Tours, in which large Bibles were illustrated based on Late Antique Bible

Court School manuscripts were ornate and elaborate: reminiscent of sixth century ivories and mosaics from Ravenna, Italy. The Court School of Charlemagne initiated a revival of Roman classicism, yet still maintained Migration Period art (Merovingian and Insular) traditions in their linear presentation, with no concern for volume and spatial relationships.

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illustrations. Three large Touronian Bibles were created, and one of the best examples was made circa 846 for Charles the Bald (the Vivian Bible). The Tours School was cut short by the invasion of the
Figure 18.31 Drogo Sacramentary

with the Codex Aureus of St. Emmeram (870) being the last and most spectacular.
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Normans in 853, but its style had already left a permanent mark on other centers in the Carolingian Empire. The diocese of Metz was another center of Carolingian art. Between 850 and 855, the Metz workshop created the Drogo Sacramentary. Its illuminated "historiated" decorated initials were to have influence into the Romanesque period and were a harmonious union of classical lettering with figural scenes (Figure 18.31). Finally Charles the Bald

Drogo Sacramentary (c. 850): depicts a historiated initial "C" which contains the Ascension of Christ. The text is in gold ink.

established a Court School that fused Touronian, Rhemsian, and Charlemagne Court School styles. Its location is uncertain, but several manuscripts are attributed to Charles the Bald's School,

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Metalwork
Carolingian metalworkers primarily worked with gold, ivory, gems, and other precious materials.
KEY POINTS

hieratic images derived from consular diptychs and other imperial art, such as the front and back covers of the Lorsch Gospels. Important Carolingian examples of metalwork came out of Charles the Bald's "Palace School" workshop, and include the cover of the Lindau Gospels, the cover of the Codex Aureus of St. Emmeram (Figure 18.32), and the Arnulf Ciborium. All three of these works feature fine relief figures in repouss gold. Another work associated with the Palace School is the frame of an antique serpentine dish, now located in the Louvre. Under Charlemagne, there was a revival of large-scale bronze casting in imitation of Roman designs, although metalwork in gold continued to develop. For example, the Aachen chapel's figure of Christ in gold (now lost) was
Gold and gem-encrusted cover of the Codex Aureus of St. Emmeram, 870. Produced by the Carolingian Palace School. Figure 18.32 Cover of the Codex Aureus

Metalwork subjects were often narrative religious scenes in vertical sections, largely derived from Late Antique paintings and carvings, as were those with more hieratic images derived from consular diptychs and other imperial art. Important Carolingian examples of metalwork came out of Charles the Bald's "Palace School" workshop. Carolingian-era metalwork produced large statues cast entirely in gold that would later influence the development of monumental, elaborate, and rich sculptures and altars made from precious materials in northern European medieval art.

Carolingian-era metalworkers primarily worked with gold, gems, ivory, and other precious materials. For instance, luxury Carolingian manuscripts were given treasure bindings and elaborately ornate covers in precious metals set with jewels around central carved ivory panels. Metalwork subjects were often narrative religious scenes in vertical sections, largely derived from Late Antique paintings and carvings, as were those with more

the first known work of this type that was later to become a crucial inspiring feature of northern European medieval art. Another one of

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the finest examples of Carolingian metalwork is the Golden Altar (824859), also known as the Paliotto, in the Basilica of Sant'Ambrogio in Milan (since damaged by WWII bombings). The altar's four sides are decorated with images in gold and silver repouss, framed by borders of filigree, precious stones, and enamel.
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Sculpture and Painting

Various forms of Carolingian artwork consist of mosaics and frescos which reached a pinnacle of production under the reign of Charlemagne.
KEY POINTS

Mosaics, which are created by assembling small pieces of colored glass, stone, pigments, and other materials, were created in Charlemagne's palatine chapel. However, some fragmentary frescos have survived and have given art historians some material to study in order to theoretically conceptualize Carolingian painting. Carolingian art comes from the Frankish Empire in the period of roughly 120 years from about 780 to 900 CE during the reign of Charlemagne and his immediate heirs popularly known as the Carolingian Renaissance. Art historians have found that there were numerous other Carolingian frescos in churches and palaces that have since been nearly completely lost.

Background Carolingian art comes from the Frankish Empire in the period of roughly 120 years from about 780 to 900 CE during the reign of Charlemagne and his immediate heirs popularly known as the

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Carolingian Renaissance. The art was produced by and for the court circle and a group of important monasteries under Imperial patronage. Survivals from outside this charmed circle show a considerable drop in quality of workmanship and sophistication of design. Mosaics were created by assembling small pieces of colored glass, stone, pigments, and other materials. The mosaics were created in Charlemagne's palatine chapel. The most famous mosaic in Charlemagne's chapel showed an
Mosaic of the Ark of the Covenant, Germigny-des-Prs, c. 806, but restored. The subject seems drawn from illuminated Jewish bibles, and relates to the Libri Carolini, possibly written by Theodulf, where the Ark is cited as divine approval of sacred images. Figure 18.33 Mosaic of the Ark of the Covenant, Germigny-des-Prs

(under a coat of plaster) and shows the Ark of the Covenant adored by angels (Figure 18.33). Carolingian Sculptures and Paintings The majority of surviving Carolingian sculpture consists of statues and figures casted in precious metalwork which was discussed in the previous section. On the other hand, various forms of Carolingian painting consist of both mosaics and frescos that reached a pinnacle of production under the reign of Charlemagne. Another villa, to which the chapel's oratory was attached, belonged to a key associate of Charlemagne, Bishop Theodulf of Orlans. It was destroyed later in the century, but contained multiple Carolignian frescos of the Seven liberal arts, the Four Seasons, and the Mappa Mundi. Art historians have found that there were numerous other Carolingian frescos in churches and palaces that have since been nearly completely lost. Some fragmentary examples have survived at Auxerre, Coblenz, Lorsch, Cologne, Fulda, Corvey, Trier, Mstair, Mals, Naturns, Cividale, Brescia, and Milan. These sites have given art historians some material to study in order to theoretically conceptualize Carolingian paintings.

enthroned Christ, worshiped by the Evangelist's symbols and the twenty-four elders of the Apocalypse. This mosaic no longer survives, but an over-restored one remains in the apse of the oratory at Germigny-des-Prs (806) which was discovered in 1820

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Section 7

The Ottonians

Architecture Sculpture and Painting Illustrated Books

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Architecture
Ottonian architecture ourished from the 10th-11th centuries and drew inspiration from Carolingian and Byzantine architecture.
KEY POINTS

century. Surviving examples of this style of architecture are found today in Germany and Belgium. Ottonian architecture chiefly drew its inspiration from both Carolingian and Byzantine architecture and represents the absorption of classical Mediterranean and Christian architectural forms with Germanic styles. In some of its features, it foreshadowed the development of Romanesque architecture which emerged in the mid-11th century. It is remarkable for its balance and mathematical harmony--a true reflection of the high regard in which the Ottonians held the mathematical sciences. Barring a few examples that were influenced by the octagonal Palatine Chapel built by Charlemagne in Aachen, Ottonian religious architecture tends to diverge from the model of the central-plan church, drawing inspiration instead from the Roman basilica, which typically consisted of a long central nave with an aisle at each side and an apse at one end. The Ottonians adopted the Carolingian double-ended variation on the Roman basilica, featuring apses at both ends of the church rather than merely one. One of the finest surviving examples of Ottonian architecture is St. Cyriakus Church in Gernrode, Germany, constructed between 960-965. The central body of the church has the nave with two aisles sided by two towers characteristic of Carolingian architecture, but it also displays novelties anticipating Romanesque architecture,

Ottonian architecture first developed during the reign of Otto the Great (936-975) and lasted until the mid-11th century. Surviving examples of this style of architecture are found today in Germany and Belgium. Ottonian architecture was inspired by Carolingian and Byzantine architecture and foreshadows Romanesque architecture in some of its features. Ottonian religious architecture diverges from the model of the central-plan church, drawing inspiration instead from the longitudinally-oriented Roman basilica. The Ottonians adopted the Carolingian double-ended variation on the Roman basilica, featuring apses at both ends of the nave rather than merely one.

Originally a ducal family from Saxony, the Ottonians (named after their first king Otto I the Great) seized power after the collapse of Carolingian rule in Europe and re-established the Holy Roman Empire. Ottonian architecture first developed during the reign of Otto the Great (936 - 975 C.E.) and lasted until the mid-11th

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including the alternation of pillars and columns (a common feature in later Saxon churches), semiblind arcades in galleries on the nave, and column capitals decorated

Figure 18.34 Church of St. Cyriakus, Gernrode St. Cyriakus is one of the few surviving examples of Ottonian architecture and combines Carolingian elements with innovations that anticipate Romanesque architecture.

Sculpture and Painting

The Ottonian Renaissance (951-1024) was a period of cultural and artistic achievement inspired by the revival of the Holy Roman Empire.
KEY POINTS

with stylized leaves of acanthus and human heads (Figure 18.34).

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Originally a ducal family from Saxony, the Ottonians seized power after the collapse of Carolingian rule in Europe and reestablished the Holy Roman Empire. This coincided with a period of significant church reform. Ottonian art reflects the Ottonians' desire to confirm a holy Roman imperial lineage connecting them with the Roman emperors, as well as to their Carolingian predecessors. It fuses traditions and influences from late Roman, Byzantine, and Carolingian art. Ottonian ruler portraits are usually found in illuminated manuscripts and include motifs commonly found in ancient Roman iconography. The Ottonians were renowned for their metalwork and their jewel-encrusted, small-scale sculptures in metal and ivory. Jeweled processional crosses embellished with portraits and engravings are some of the finest examples of Ottonian art and sculpture. Ottonian art is abstract and makes use of motifs to refer to deep theological and philosophical concepts.

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Sculpture and Painting Originally a ducal family from Saxony, the Ottonians (named after their first King Otto I the Great) seized power after the collapse of Carolingian rule in Europe and re-established the Holy Roman Empire. Ottonian rule was accompanied by renewed faith in the idea of imperium (Latin, roughly translated as "power to command" and referring to the sovereignty of state over individual) and also coincided with a period of significant church reform. Both combined to create the Ottonian Renaissance (circa 951-1024), a period of heightened cultural and artistic fervor and achievement. The Ottonian Dynasty desired to confirm a sacred Roman imperial lineage that connected them to the Christian rulers of Late Antiquity such as Constantine and Justinian, as well as to their
These bronze doors bear relief sculptures depicting the history of mankind from Adam to Jesus Christ. Figure 18.35 Doors of St. Mary's Cathedral, Hildesheim, ca. 1015

Carolingian predecessors, particularly Charlemagne. Ottonian art reflected this desire, fusing traditions and influences from late Roman, Byzantine, and Carolingian art. Ottonian ruler portraits usually have elements with long iconographic histories in the Roman tradition, including personifications of the provinces of the empire and representatives of the Church and the military flanking the emperor. Another common motif of Roman origin is the hand with the victor's wreath, previously found in Roman mosaics. It was subsequently used by the Ottonian rulers in illuminated manuscript portraits to emphasize their Roman connections and symbolize their God-given authority. Portraits are most frequently found in the dedicatory prefaces of illuminated manuscripts. Ottonian art eschews naturalism for a more abstract style, focusing on symbolism to convey deeply philosophical and theological concepts. The Ottonians were also renowned for their metalwork and ivory carving, producing bejeweled book covers made of carved ivory and massive bronze church doors with relief carvings depicting biblical scenes, a process so complex that it would not be repeated until the Renaissance (Figure 18.35). Fine, small-scale sculpture in metals and ivory flourished and exquisite book covers made of ivory and embellished with gems, enamels, crystals, and cameos were produced during this period. Furthermore, many of the finest examples of the crux gemmata (jeweled cross) date from Ottonian

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rule. Made of wood, these crosses then were encased in carved gold and silver and encrusted with jewels and engraved gems. Arguably the finest of these Ottonian jeweled crosses is the Cross of Lothair, dating from around 1,000 AD and housed in the Aachen Cathedral. The cross takes its name from the large engraced greenish rock crystal seal near its base, bearing the portrait and name of the Carolingian ruler Lothair II, King of Lotharingia (835-869). However, the cross was actually commissioned over a century later for Otto III, the Holy Roman Emperor. The cross bears a cameo of the great Roman emperor Augustus Caesar on one side and an engraving of the crucifixion of Jesus on the other.
Front side of the Cross of Lothair with the cameo of the emperor Augustus Figure 18.36 The Cross of Lothair

the earliest known appearance of the dove motif and the introduction of the entire Trinity into the crucifixion: an iconography that was to have a long future.
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The cross thus represents both church and state, in keeping with the Ottonian agenda, and serving to connect the Ottonian emperors to the original Roman emperors (Figure 18.36). The cross also depicts the Hand of God holding a wreath containing a dove representing the Holy Spirit in the crucifixion scene. This is

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Illustrated Books
Ottonian monasteries produced lavish, illuminated manuscripts under the sponsorship of emperors, bishops, and other wealthy patrons.
KEY POINTS

forms of the period was the illuminated manuscript, a manuscript in which the text is supplemented by ornamentation in the form of colored initials, decorative borders, and miniature illustrations, sometimes executed with the addition of gold and silver leaf. Ottonian monasteries produced some of the most magnificent medieval illuminated manuscripts, working with the best of equipment and talent under the direct sponsorship of emperors, bishops, and other wealthy patrons. The manuscripts produced by Ottonian scriptoria (monastic centers for copying texts) provide invaluable documentation both of contemporary, religious, and political customs, and the stylistic preferences of the period. The most richly illuminated manuscripts were used for display and most likely to be liturgical books, including psalters, gospel books, and huge illuminated complete Bibles. These lavish manuscripts sometimes include a dedication portrait commemorating the book's creation, in which the patron is usually depicted presenting the book to the
Otto II enthroned and surrounded by the four provinces of his empire in the Roman style. Figure 18.37 Portrait of Otto II, Registrum Gregorii

The illuminated manuscript is a manuscript in which the text is supplemented by ornamentation in the form of colored initials, decorative borders, and miniature illustrations, sometimes executed with the addition of gold and silver leaf. Ottonian illuminated manuscripts were used for display and most likely to be liturgical books, including psalters, gospel books, and huge illuminated complete Bibles. Manuscripts sometimes include a dedication portrait commemorating the book's creation, in which the patron is usually depicted presenting the book to the saint of choice. Colored initials, borders, and marginalia also contain miniature portraits and other decorative emblems and motifs.

The Ottonians The Ottonian renaissance (circa 951-1024 AD) coincided with a period of reform and growth in the church, providing an impetus for the production of religious art. One of the most important art

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saint of choice. Colored initials, borders, and marginalia also contain miniature portraits and other decorative emblems and motifs. Illuminated manuscripts were enclosed in ornate metal book covers decorated with gems and ivory carvings. Among the greatest artists of the Ottonian period was the anonymous Master of the Registrum Gregorii who worked chiefly in Trier in the 970s to 80s. He derived his title from the miniatures in the Registrum Gregorii (a collection of letters by Pope Gregory the Great) and the Codex Egberti, a famous gospel lectionary manuscript, both for Archbishop Egbert of Trier (circa 950-993, (Figure 18.37). However, most of the 51 images in the Codex Egberti, which represented events in the life of Jesus Christ, were made by two monks in the island monastery of Reichenau on Lake Constance. The scriptorium of Reichenau became famous for its style of gospel illustration in liturgical books. Other famous scriptoria of the Ottonian age were found at the monasteries of Corvey, Hildesheim and Regensburg, and the cathedral
The dedicatory page of the Codex Egberti. The portrait is done in purple and gold and says "Egbertus" on top. Figure 18.38 Codex Egberti

cities of Trier and Cologne (Figure 18.38).

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Chapter 19

Romanesque Art

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Section 1

The Romanesque Period

Economics and Politics The Church Introduction to Romanesque Art

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Economics and Politics

Romanesque art was a!ected by shifting political powers following the Carolingian period, and the mobility of peoples during the Crusades.
KEY POINTS

The Source of Inspiration Romanesque architecture was the first distinctive style to spread across Europe after the collapse of the Roman Empire. Despite the impression of 19th century Art Historians that Romanesque architecture was a continuation of Roman styles, Roman building techniques in brick and stone were largely lost in most parts of Europe. In the more northern countries Roman style and methods had never been adopted except for official buildings, while in Scandinavia they were unknown. There was little continuity, except in Rome where several great Constantinian basilicas continued to stand as an inspiration to later builders. It was not the buildings of ancient Rome that inspired the Emperor Charlemagne's Palatine Chapel,in Aachen, Germany, built around the year AD 800. Instead, the greatest building of the Dark Ages in Europe was the artistic child of the 6th century octagonal Byzantine Basilica of San Vitale in Ravenna. A New European Empire Charlemagne was crowned by the Pope in St. Peter's Basilica on Christmas Day, in the year AD 800, with an aim to re-establishing the old Roman Empire. Charlemagne's political successors continued to rule much of Europe, leading over time to the gradual emergence of the separate political states that were eventually welded into nations, either by allegiance or defeat. In the process

The invasion of England by William, Duke of Normandy, in 1066, saw the building of both castles and churches to reinforce the Norman presence. Several significant churches built at this time were founded by rulers as seats of temporal and religious power, or places of coronation and burial. The Crusades, 10951270, brought about a very large movement of people and, with them, ideas and trade skills. The continual movement of people, rulers, nobles, bishops, abbots, craftsmen and peasants, was an important factor in creating a homogeneity in building methods and a recognizable Romanesque style, despite regional differences. The period saw Europe grow steadily more prosperous, and art of the highest quality was no longer confined, to the royal court and a small circle of monasteries. Lay artists became increasingly valuable, and most masons, goldsmiths and painters were lay by the end of the period.

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the Kingdom of Germany gave rise to the Holy Roman Empire. The invasion of England by William, Duke of Normandy, in 1066, saw the building of castles and churches that reinforced the Norman presence. Several significant churches built at this time were founded by rulers as seats of temporal and religious power, or as places of coronation and burial. These include the Abbaye-SaintDenis and Westminster Abbey (where little of the Norman church now remains). At a time when the remaining architectural structures of the Roman Empire were falling into decay and much of its technology was lost, the building of masonry
Figure 19.1 Church of Saint Front, Perigueux, France

examples, such as the church of Saint-Front, Prigueux (Figure 19. 1) and Angoulme Cathedral. Feudalism and Warfare Much of Europe was affected by feudalism, in which peasants held tenure from local rulers over the land they farmed in exchange for military service. The result of this was that they could be called upon, not only for local spats, but to follow their lord to travel across Europe to the Crusades. The Crusades, 10951270, brought about a very large movement of people, and with them ideas and trade skills, particularly those involved in the building of fortifications and the metal working needed for the provision of arms, which was also applied to the fitting and decoration of buildings (Figure 19.2). The continual movement of people, rulers, nobles, bishops, abbots,
Europe, 1142. Age of the Crusages. Figure 19.2 Map of Europe, 1142

domes and the carving of decorative architectural details continued unabated, though greatly evolved in style since the fall of Rome, in the enduring Byzantine Empire. The domed churches of Constantinople and Eastern Europe were to greatly affect the architecture

Church of Saint Front, Perigueux, France.

craftsmen and peasants, was an important factor in creating a homogeneity in building methods and a recognizable Romanesque style, despite regional differences.

of certain towns, particularly through trade and through the Crusades. The most notable single building that demonstrates this is St Mark's Basilica, Venice but there are many lesser known

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Life became generally less secure after the Carolingian period. This resulted in the building of castles at strategic points. Many were constructed as strongholds of the Normans; descendants of the Vikings who invaded northern France in 911. Political struggles also resulted in the fortification of many towns, or the rebuilding and strengthening of walls that remained from the Roman period. One of the most notable surviving fortifications is that of the city of Carcassonne. The enclosure of towns brought about a lack of living space within the walls, and resulted in a style of town house that was tall and narrow, often surrounding communal courtyards, as at San Gimignano in Tuscany (Figure 19.3).
Figure 19.3 San Gimignano, Italy

Growing Prosperity The period saw Europe grow steadily more prosperous, and art of the highest quality was no longer confined to the royal court and a small circle of monasteries, as it largely had been in the Carolingian and Ottonian periods. Monasteries remained extremely important, especially those of the expansionist new Cistercian, Cluniac, and Carthusian orders of the period that spread out across Europe. However, city churches, including those on pilgrimage routes and many churches in small towns and villages, were elaborately decorated to a very high standard. Indeed, it is often these that have survived when cathedrals and city churches have been rebuilt, and no Romanesque royal palace has really survived.The lay artist was becoming a valued figure; Nicholas of Verdun seems to have been known across the continent. Most masons and goldsmiths were now lay professionals rather than monastic clergy, and lay painters like Master Hugo seem to have been the majority, at least of those doing the best work, by the end of the period. The iconography of their church work was likely arrived at in consultation with clerical advisers.
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San Gimignano, Italy. Famous for its medieval architecture, unique in the preservation of about a dozen of its tower houses.

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The Church
The expansion of the Church across Europe was the greatest contributing factor to the development of Romanesque art and architecture.
KEY POINTS

art and architecture. Across Europe, the late 11th and 12th centuries saw an unprecedented growth in the number of churches. A great number of these buildings, both large and small, are still standing. Some remain almost intact; others were altered beyond recognition in later centuries. They include many very well known churches, such as Santa Maria in Cosmedin, in Rome; the Baptistery, in Florence; and San Zeno Maggiore, in Verona. In France, the famous abbeys of Aux Dames and Les Hommes, at Caen and Mont SaintMichel respectively, date from this period, as do the abbeys of the pilgrimage route to Santiago de Compostela. Many cathedrals owe their foundation to this period, often beginning as monastic abbey churches. In England, almost all of the cathedrals of medieval foundation were begun in this period. In Spain, the most famous church of the period is Santiago de Compostela. In Germany, the Rhine and its tributaries were the location of many Romanesque abbeys, notably those of Mainz, Worms, Speyer, and Bamberg. In Cologne, which was then the largest city north of the Alps, a very important group of large city churches has survived to the present largely intact. As monasticism spread across Europe, Romanesque churches sprang up in Scotland, Scandinavia, Poland, Hungary, Sicily, Serbia, and Tunisia. Several important Romanesque churches were also built in the Crusader kingdoms.

Across Europe, the late 11th and 12th centuries saw an unprecedented growth in the number of churches due to the spread of monasticism, the practice of pilgrimage, and the movement of peoples during the Crusades. Monasteries, which sometimes also functioned as cathedrals, were major sources of political and spiritual power in Europe. The enormous and powerful monastery at Cluny was to have lasting effect on the layout of other monasteries and the design of their churches. The religious fervor spurred by the Crusades - as well as the movement of peoples, relics, and artistic techniques between regions - inspired great building programs of newly-founded churches or additions of sculpture or gifts to established churches.

Clerical Culture The expansion of the Christian Church across Europe, through developments in monasticism, pilgrimages, and the Crusades, was the greatest contributing factor to the development of Romanesque

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Monasticism The system of monasticism, in which individuals became members of a religious order, was established by the monk Benedict, in the 6th century. The Benedictine Monasteries spread from Italy throughout Europe. This order was always the most numerous in England. They were followed by the Cluniac order, the Cistercians, Carthusians, and Augustinian Canons. In association with the Crusades, the military orders of the Knights Hospitaller and the Knights Templar were founded. Cathedrals, with groups of secular
Cluny III (10881130), reconstruction. Figure 19.4 Cluny III, reconstruction

In France, Burgundy was the centre of monasticism. The enormous and powerful monastery at Cluny was to have lasting effect on the layout of other monasteries and the design of their churches. Unfortunately, very little of the abbey church at Cluny remains. The "Cluny II" rebuilding of 963 onwards has completely vanished, but we have a good idea of the design of "Cluny III" (10881130), which until the Renaissance remained the largest building in Europe (Figure 19.4). However, the church of St. Sernin at Toulouse (10801120) has remained intact and demonstrates the regularity of Romanesque design with its modular form, massive appearance and repetition of the simple arched window. Pilgrimage and Crusade
Figure 19.5 Trumeau with Saint James, Portico de la Gloria, Santiago de Compostela Trumeau with Saint James, Portico de la Gloria, Santiago de Compostela. c. 1168-1188.

clergy often living in community, and monasteries, which sometimes also functioned as cathedrals, were a major source of power in Europe. Bishops and the abbots of important monasteries lived and functioned like princes. Monasteries were also the major seats of learning. Benedict had ordered that all the arts were to be taught and practiced in the monasteries. Within the monasteries books were transcribed by hand, and few people outside the monasteries could read or write.

The Crusades (1095-1291), which were intended to pry the holy places of Palestine from Islamic control, excited a great deal of

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religious fervor. This fervor further inspired great building programs. The military nobles of Europe, upon safe return from the Crusades, thanked God by the building of new churches or the enhancement of old ones. Likewise, those who did not return from the Crusades could be suitably commemorated by their families in works of stone and mortar.The Crusades resulted in the transfer of a great number of holy relics of saints and apostles, among many other things relocated through the fortunes of war. Many churches were like Saint-Front, Prigueux, and had their own homegrown saint; others claimed the remains and the patronage of a powerful
Figure 19.6 The Abbey of SaintFoy, Conques, France. The Abbey of SaintFoy, Conques, France. One of many such abbeys to be built along the pilgrimage Way of St James that led to Santiago de Compostela.

Santiago de Compostela, located near Galicia, became one of the most important pilgrimage destinations in Europe (Figure 19.5). Most of the pilgrims traveled the Way of St. James on foot, many of them barefoot, as a sign of penance. They moved along one of the four main routes that passed through France, congregating for the journey at Jumiges, Paris, Vzelay, Cluny, Arles, and St. Gall in Switzerland. They crossed two passes in the Pyrenees and converged into a single stream to traverse north-western Spain. Along the route they were urged on by those pilgrims returning from the journey. On each of the routes abbeys such as those at Moissac, Toulouse, Roncesvalles, Conques (Figure 19.6). Limoges and Burgos catered to the flow of people and grew wealthy from the passing trade.
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saint whose relics were brought back from the Holy Land, Santiago de Compostella, for example, was host to the presumed relics of one of the Twelve Apostles, St. James (St. Iago = Santiago).

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Introduction to Romanesque Art

Romanesque art refers to the art of Europe from the late 10th century to the rise of the Gothic style in the 13th century.
KEY POINTS

depending on region. The term Romanesque was invented by 19th century art historians, especially for Romanesque architecture, which retained many basic features of Roman architectural style most notably semi-circular arches - but had also developed many very different and regional characteristics. In Southern France, Spain and Italy there had been architectural continuity with the Late Antique period, but the Romanesque style was the first style to spread across the whole of Catholic Europe, making it the first panEuropean style since Imperial Roman Architecture. Romanesque art was also greatly influenced by Byzantine art, especially in painting, and by the anti-classical energy of the decoration of the Insular art of the British Isles, and from these elements forged a highly innovative and coherent style. Architecture Combining features of Roman and Byzantine buildings and other local traditions, Romanesque architecture is known by its massive quality, thick walls, round arches, sturdy piers, groin vaults, large towers and decorative arcades. Each building has clearly defined forms. They are frequently of very regular, symmetrical plan; the overall appearance is one of simplicity when compared with the Gothic buildings that were to follow. The style can be identified across Europe, despite regional characteristics and materials (Figure 19.7).

The Romanesque style was the first style to spread across the whole of Catholic Europe, making it the first pan-European style since Imperial Roman Architecture. Combining features of Roman and Byzantine buildings and other local traditions, Romanesque architecture is known by its massive quality, thick walls, round arches, sturdy piers, groin vaults, large towers, and regular, symmetrical plans. The tympanums of important church portals were carved with monumental schemes, often again depicting iconography from Byzantine painting, but treated with more freedom than painted versions, as there were no equivalent Byzantine models for sculpture.

Overview Romanesque art refers to the art of Europe from the late 10th century to the rise of the Gothic style in the 13th century, or later,

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Figure 19.7 Maria Laach Abbey, Germany

most lavishly decorated manuscripts of the period were mostly bibles or psalters, more originality is seen, as new scenes needed to be depicted. The same applied to the carved capitals of columns, which where never more exciting than in this period. They were often carved with complete scenes with several figures. Precious objects sculpted in metal, enamel, and ivory, such as reliquaries, also had very high status in this period. The large wooden crucifix was a German innovation at the start of the period, as were freestanding statues of the enthroned Madonna, but the high relief carvings of architectural elements were the signature work in the sculptural mode of the period.
Figure 19.8 The portal of Saint-Pierre, Moissac

Maria Laach Abbey, Germany. Founded 1093.

Colors, which we can now see in their original brightness only in stained glass and well-preserved

Sculpture and Painting Aside from Romanesque architecture, the art of the period was characterized by a vigorous style in both sculpture and painting. Painting continued to follow Byzantine iconographic models for the most common subjects in churches. Christ in Majesty, the Last Judgement and scenes from the Life of Christ remained among the most popular depictions. In illuminated manuscripts, where the

The portal of Saint-Pierre, Moissac Abbey, Moissac, France.

manuscripts, tended to be very striking, depending heavily on intense saturated primary colors. It was in this period that stained glass came to be widely used, although there are few surviving examples. In a significant innovation of the period, the tympanums of important church portals were carved with monumental schemes, often again depicting Christ in Majesty or

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the Last Judgement, but treated with more freedom than painted versions. As there were no equivalent Byzantine models Romanesque sculptors felt free to expand rather than merely mimic in their treatment of tympanums. Pictorial compositions usually had little depth, and needed to be flexible to squeeze themselves into the shapes of historiated initials, column capitals, and church tympanums. The tension between a tightly enclosing frame and the

Figure 19.9 The "Morgan Leaf."

The "Morgan Leaf," detached from the Winchester Bible, 1160-75. Scenes from the life of David

composition which sometimes escapes its designated space, is a recurrent theme in Romanesque art (Figure 19.8). Figures still often varied in size in relation to their importance, and landscape backgrounds, if attempted at all, were closer to abstract decorations than realism - as in the trees in the "Morgan Leaf" (Figure 19.9).
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Section 2

Architecture

First Romanesque Pilgramage Churches Cluny The Cistercians Variations in Romanesque Architecture Dover Castle in England

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First Romanesque
The First Romanesque style, developed in the Catalan territory, demonstrated a lower level of expertise than the later Romanesque style.
KEY POINTS

difference is chiefly a matter of the expertise with which the buildings were constructed. The First Romanesque employed rubble walls, smaller windows and unvaulted roofs. A greater refinement marks the Second Romanesque, along with increased use of the vault and dressed stone. Development The First Romanesque style developed in the north of Italy, parts of France, and the Iberian Peninsula in the 10th century prior to the later influence of the Abbey of Cluny. This style, also known as Lombard Romanesque, is characterized by thick walls, lack of sculpture, and the presence of rhythmic ornamental arches known as a Lombard band. The First Romanesque style can be attributed to great architectural activity by groups of Lombard teachers and stonemasons working in the Catalan territory during the
The Monastery of Santa Maria de Ripoll is a Benedictine monastery, built in the Romanesque style, located in the town of Ripoll in Catalonia, Spain. Although much of the present church in 19th century rebuilding, the sculptured portico is a renowned work of Romanesque art. Figure 19.10 Ripoll Monastery

In contrast to the refinement of the later Romanesque style, First Romanesque style employed rubble walls, smaller windows and unvaulted roofs. The First Romanesque style developed in the north of Italy, parts of France, and the Iberian Peninsula during the 10th and 11th centuries. Abott Oliba of the Monastery of Santa Maria de Ripoll served as an important supporter of the First Romanesque style. The term First Romanesque was coined by architect Josep Puig i Cadafalch. First Romanesque, also known as Lombard Romanesque, is characterized by thick walls, lack of sculpture, and the presence of rhythmic ornamental arches known as a Lombard band.

Romanesque vs. First Romanesque Romanesque architecture is often divided into two periods: the "First Romanesque" style and the "Romanesque" style. The

first quarter of the eleventh century. Abott Oliba of the Monastery

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of Santa Maria de Ripoll served as a particularly influential impeller, diffuser, and sponsor of the First Romanesque style. Indeed, he ordered an extension to his monastery in 1032 mirroring the First Romanesque characteristics of two frontal towers, a cruise with seven apses, and Lombard ornamentation of blind arches and vertical strips (Figure 19.10). Coinage The term First Romanesque was coined by architect Josep Puig i Cadafalch to refer to the Romanesque art developed in Catalonia since the late 10th century. He wished to avoid the term "PreRomanesque," which was often used more broadly to indicate early Medieval and early Christian art.
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Pilgramage Churches
The Crusades resulted in the growth and rising wealth of pilgrimage churches, many of which were built in the Romanesque style.

KEY POINTS

New churches were built to thank God for the safe return of a Crusader and to commemorate a fallen Crusader. The Crusades resulted in the transfer of a number of relics to churches, transforming them into places of pilgrimage. The number of abbey churches increased during the period of the Crusades. Many of these are still standing and reflect the core ideas behind Romanesque architecture.

The Crusades One of the effects of the Crusades, which were intended to wrest the Holy Places of Palestine from Islamic control, was to excite a great deal of religious fervor, which in turn inspired great building programs. The Nobility of Europe, upon safe return, thanked God by the building of a new church or the enhancement of an old one. Likewise, those who did not return from the Crusades could be

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suitably commemorated by their family in a work of stone and mortar. Pilgrimage Churches The Crusades resulted in the transfer of, among other things, a great number of Holy Relics of saints and apostles. Many churches, like Saint-Front, Prigueux, had their own home grown saint while others, most notably Santiago de Compostela, claimed the remains and the patronage of a powerful saint, in this case one of the Twelve Apostles. Santiago de Compostela, located near Galicia (present day Spain) became one of the most important pilgrimage destinations in Europe. Most of the pilgrims traveled the Way of St. James (Figure 19.11) on foot, many of them barefooted as a sign of penance. They moved along one of the four main routes that passed through France, congregating for the journey at Jumiges, Paris, Vzelay, Cluny, Arles, and St. Gall in Switzerland. They crossed two passes in the Pyrenees and converged into a single stream to traverse northwestern Spain. Along the route they were urged on by those pilgrims returning from the journey. On each of the routes abbeys, such as those at Moissac, Toulouse, Roncesvalles, Conques, Limoges, and Burgos catered for the flow of people and grew wealthy from the passing trade. Saint-Benot-du-Sault, in the Berry province, is typical of the churches that were founded on the pilgrim route.

Figure 19.11 Way of St. James

The Way of St. James or St. James' Way is the pilgrimage route to the Cathedral of Santiago de Compostela in Galicia in northwestern Spain, where tradition has it that the remains of the apostle Saint James are buried. Many churches were built along this route and reect the Romanesque architectural style.

Growth of Romanesque Architecture The result of the considerable number of new churches being built and the rising wealth of the pilgrimage churches, was the growth of Romanesque architecture. Many castles were built during this period, but they are greatly outnumbered by churches. The most significant are the great abbey churches, many of which are still standing, more or less complete and frequently in use.

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Cluny
Cluny Abbey, rst built in 910 in Romanesque style, inuenced future architecture in Western Europe into the twelfth century.
KEY POINTS

William I, Duke of Aquitaine, founded the Benedictine abbey of Cluny on a modest scale, as the motherhouse of the Congregation of Cluny. The fast-growing community at Cluny required buildings on a large scale. The three successive churches are conventionally called Cluny I, II and III. Much of Cluny was destroyed during the French Revolution and only 10% of the floor area of Cluny III is in existence today.

Cluny Abbey Cluny Abbey is a Benedictine monastery in Cluny, Sane-et-Loire, France. William I "the Pious," Duke of Aquitaine and Count of Auvergne, founded the Benedictine abbey of Cluny in 910 on a modest scale, to serve as the motherhouse of the Congregation of Cluny. It was built in the Romanesque style, with three churches built in succession from the 10th to the early 12th centuries.

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Romanesque Architecture: In keeping with the Romanesque style, Cluny was characterized by its massive quality, thick walls, round arches, sturdy piers, groin vaults, large towers and decorative arcading. The building had clearly defined forms of a very regular, symmetrical plan. The overall appearance was one of simplicity when compared with the Gothic buildings that were to follow. Growth and Influence: The fast-growing community at Cluny required buildings on a large scale. The examples at Cluny profoundly affected architectural practice in Western Europe from the tenth through the twelfth centuries (Figure 19.12). The three successive churches are conventionally called Cluny I, II, and III. In building the third and final church at Cluny, the monastery constructed what was the largest building in Europe before the 16th century, when St. Peter's in Rome was rebuilt. The construction of

Cluny II, ca. 955-981, begun after the destructive Hungarian raids of 953, led the tendency for Burgundian churches to be stonevaulted. Cluny Today The years following the French Revolution were fatal to all Cluny's monastic buildings and its church. In 1793, its archives were burned and the church was delivered to plundering. The abbey estate was sold in 1798 for 2,140,000 francs. Until 1813, the abbey was used as a stone quarry, ransacked for material to build houses in the town. Today, there remain only the buildings built under the Old Mode as well as a small portion of Cluny III. Only the southern transept and its bell-tower still exist. The remaining structure represents less than 10% of the floor area of Cluny III, which was the largest church of Christendom until the construction of St. Peter's Basilica in Rome, five centuries later. Since 1901, the abbey has sheltered a forming center of the cole Nationale Suprieure d'Arts et Mtiers (ENSAM) of the engineers of the Art-and-Trades.
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Figure 19.12 Cluny III, reconstruction Cluny Abbey was a prime example of Romanesque architecture and inuenced architectural practice throughout Western Europe after its creation into the twelfth century.

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The Cistercians
The Cistercians are a Roman Catholic order whose monasteries and churches reect one of the most beautiful styles of medieval architecture.
KEY POINTS

Architecture Cistercian architecture is considered one of the most beautiful styles of medieval architecture. Cistercian architecture has made an important contribution to European civilization. Because of the pure style of the Cistercian monasteries and churches, they may be counted among the most beautiful relics of the Middle Ages. Cistercian institutions were primarily constructed in Romanesque and Gothic architectural styles during the Middle Ages; although later abbeys were also constructed in Renaissance and Baroque. Theological Principles Cistercian architecture was based on rational principles. In the mid-12th century, the prominent Benedictine Abbot Suger of SaintDenis had united elements of Norman architecture with elements of Burgundinian architecture (rib vaults and pointed arches respectively), creating the new style of Gothic architecture. This new "architecture of light" was intended to raise the observer "from the material to the immaterial" it was, according to the 20th century French historian Georges Duby, a "monument of applied theology." Cistercian architecture expressed a different aesthetic and theology while learning from the Benedictine's advances. Although St. Bernard saw much of church decoration as a distraction from piety, and the builders of the Cistercian monasteries had to adopt a style that observed the numerous rules

Architecturally speaking, the Cistercian monasteries and churches may be counted among the most beautiful relics of the Middle Ages due to their pure style. Cistercian architecture embodied the ideals of the order, and in theory was utilitarian and without superfluous ornament. However, the order was receptive to the technical improvements of Gothic principles of construction; they played an important role in the Gothic method's spread across Europe. Cistercian construction involved vast amounts of quarried stone and employed the best stonecutters.

The Cistercians The Cistercians are a Roman Catholic religious order of enclosed monks and nuns. This order was founded by a group of Benedictine monks from the monastery of Molesme in 1098, with the goal of more closely following the Rule of Saint Benedict.

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inspired by his austere aesthetics, the order itself was receptive to the technical improvements of Gothic principles of construction and played an important role in its spread across Europe. This new Cistercian architecture embodied the ideals of the order, and in theory was utilitarian and without superfluous ornament. The same "rational, integrated scheme" was used across Europe to meet the largely homogeneous needs of the order. Various buildings, including the chapter-house to the east and the dormitories above, were grouped around a cloister, and were sometimes linked to the transept of the church itself by a night stair. Usually Cistercian churches were cruciform, with a short presbytery to meet the liturgical needs of the brethren, small chapels in the transepts for private prayer, and an aisle-edged nave that was divided roughly in the middle by a screen to separate the monks from the lay brothers. Engineering and Construction The building projects of the Church in the High Middle Ages showed an ambition for the colossal, with vast amounts of stone being quarried. This was also true of the Cistercian projects. Foigny Abbey was 98 meters (322 ft) long; Vaucelles Abbey was 132 metres (433 ft) long. Monastic buildings came to be constructed entirely of stone, right down to the most humble of buildings. In the 12th and 13th centuries, Cistercian barns consisted of a stone exterior,

divided into nave and aisles either by wooden posts or by stone piers. The Cistercians recruited the best stone cutters. As early as 1133, St. Bernard was hiring workers to help the monks erect new buildings at Clairvaux. It is from the 12th century Byland Abbey, in Yorkshire, that the oldest recorded example of architectural tracing is found. Tracings were architectural drawings incised and painted in stone, to a depth of 23 mm, showing architectural detail to scale. Legacy The Cistercian abbeys of Fontenay in France, Fountains in England (Figure 19.13), Alcobaa in Portugal, Poblet in Spain and Maulbronn in Germany are today recognized as UNESCO World

Figure 19.13 Fountains Abbey The abbeys of 12th century England were stark and undecorated a dramatic contrast with the elaborate churches of the wealthier Benedictine houses yet to quote Warren Hollister, "even now the simple beauty of Cistercian ruins such as Fountains and Rievaulx, set in the wilderness of Yorkshire, is deeply moving".

Heritage Sites.

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Variations in Romanesque Architecture

While Romanesque architecture tends to possess certain key features, these features often vary in appearance and building material from region to region.
KEY POINTS

Variations in Romanesque architecture can be noted in earlier styles (e.g. First Romanesque) versus later styles. Romanesque architecture varies in the way walls, piers, arches and openings, arcades, columns, vaults and roofs appear. It also varies in the materials used to create these features. Variations in Romanesque architecture across different regions was often due to differences in building materials and local inspirations.

Variations in Romanesque Architecture The general impression given by both ecclesiastical and secular Romanesque architecture is of massive solidity and strength. Romanesque architecture relies upon its walls, or sections of walls called piers, to bear the load of the structure, rather than using arches, columns, vaults, and other systems to manage the weight.

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As a result the walls are massive, giving the impression of sturdy solidity. Romanesque design is also characterized by the presence of arches and openings, arcades, columns, and vaults and roofs. In spite of the general existence of these aforementioned items, Romanesque architecture can vary in how these characteristics are presented. For example, walls may be made of different materials or arches and openings may vary in shape. Later forms of Romanesque architecture may also possess certain features that earlier forms do
Figure 19.14 Notre Dame du Puy

dressed stone. Walls The building material used in Romanesque architecture differs greatly across Europe, depending upon the local stone and building traditions. In Italy, Poland, much of Germany, and parts of the Netherlands, brick is generally used. Other areas saw extensive use of limestone, granite, and flint. The building stone was often used in comparatively small and irregular pieces, bedded in thick mortar. Smooth ashlar masonry was not a

Figure 19.15 Collegiate Church of Nivelles

not. First Romanesque vs. Romanesque Romanesque architecture is often divided into two periods: the "First Romanesque" style and the "Romanesque" style. The difference is chiefly a matter of the expertise with which the buildings were constructed. The First Romanesque builders often employed rubble walls,

The Collegiate Church of Nivelles, Belgium uses ne shafts of Belgian marble to dene alternating blind openings and windows. Upper windows are similarly separated into two openings by colonettes.

distinguishing feature of the style, particularly in the earlier part of the period, but occurred chiefly where easily worked limestone was available. Arches and Openings A characteristic feature of Romanesque architecture, both ecclesiastic and domestic, is the pairing of two arched windows or arcade openings, separated by a pillar or colonette and often set

The facade of Notre Dame du Puy, le Puy en Velay, France, has a more complex arrangement of diversied arches: Doors of varying widths, blind arcading, windows and open arcades.

smaller windows and unvaulted roofs. A greater refinement marks the Second Romanesque, along with increased use of vaults and expertly

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within a larger arch. Occular windows are common in Italy, particularly in the facade gable and are also seen in Germany. Later Romanesque churches may have wheel windows or rose windows with plate tracery. There are also a very small number of buildings in the Romanesque style, such as Autun Cathedral in France and Monreale Cathedral in Sicily, in which pointed arches have been used extensively. Arcades Arcades can occur in stories or stages. The arcade of a cloister is typically of a single stage; the arcade that divides the nave and aisles in a church, however, is typically of two stages, with a third stage of window openings known as the clerestory rising above them. Arcading on a large scale generally fulfills a structural purpose, but it is also used, generally on a smaller scale, as a decorative feature, both internally and externally. External arcading is frequently "blind arcading," with only a wall or a narrow passage behind it (Figure 19.14), (Figure 19.15). Piers Although basically rectangular, piers can often be of highly complex form, with half-segments of large hollow-core columns on the inner surface supporting the arch, or a clustered group of smaller shafts leading into the moldings of the arch. Piers that occur at the

intersection of two large arches, such as those under the crossing of the nave and transept, are commonly cruciform in shape, each arch having its own supporting rectangular pier at right angles to the other. Columns Columns were often used in Romanesque architecture. However, they vary in building material and decorative style. In Italy, a great number of antique Roman columns were salvaged and reused in the interiors and on the porticos of churches. In most parts of Europe, Romanesque columns were massive, as they supported thick upper walls with small windows, and sometimes heavy vaults. Where really massive columns were called for, such as those at Durham Cathedral, they were constructed of ashlar masonry and the hollow core was filled with rubble. These huge untapered columns were sometimes ornamented with incised decorations. A common characteristic of Romanesque buildings, found in both churches and in the arcades that separate large interior spaces of castles, is the alternation of piers and columns. The most simple form that this takes is to have a column between each adjoining pier. Sometimes the columns are in multiples of two or three. Often the arrangement was made more complex by the complexity of the piers themselves, so that the alternation was not of piers and

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columns, but rather, of piers of entirely different form from each other. The foliate Corinthian style provided the inspiration for many Romanesque capitals, and the accuracy with which they were carved depended very much on the availability of original models. Capitals in Italian churches, such as Pisa Cathedral or church of Sant'Alessandro in Lucca and southern France, are much closer to the Classical form and style than those in England. Vaults and Roofs The majority of buildings have wooden roofs, generally of a simple truss, tie beam, or king post form. In the case of trussed rafter roofs, they are sometimes lined with wooden ceilings in three sections like those that survive at Ely and Peterborough cathedrals in England. In churches, typically the aisles are vaulted, but the nave is roofed with timber, as is the case at both Peterborough and Ely. In Italy where open wooden roofs are common, and tie beams frequently occur in conjunction with vaults, the timbers have often been decorated as at San Miniato al Monte, Florence. Vaults of stone or brick took on several different forms and showed marked development during the period, evolving into the pointed, ribbed arch characteristic of Gothic architecture.

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Dover Castle in England

The architecture of Dover Castle was largely inuenced by defensive considerations.
KEY POINTS

Figure 19.16 Dover Castle

Dover Castle took its recognizable shape during the rule of Henry II. New constructions were added to the castle due to a French siege in 1216. The Moat Bulwark was added during the Tudor age to combat new weapons that used gunpowder. Massive rebuilding took place at the end of the eighteenth century to defend the castle during the Napoleonic Wars. The castle carried militaristic significance into the twentieth century with WWII and is now a Scheduled Monument.
The architecture of Dover Castle is reective of its militaristic signicance throughout England's history.

Dover Castle Dover Castle is a medieval castle in the town of the same name in the English county of Kent. It was founded in the twelfth century and has been described as the "Key to England" due to its defensive significance throughout history (Figure 19.16). Indeed, its architecture is highly reflective of militaristic considerations. Dover Castle is also the largest castle in England.

Construction It was during the reign of Henry II that the castle began to take recognizable shape. The inner and outer baileys and the great keep were constructed during this time. Maurice the Engineer was responsible for building the keep, one of the last rectangular keeps ever built.

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In 1216, a group of rebel barons invited Louis VIII of France to come and take the English crown. He had some success breaching the walls but was unable ultimately to take the castle. The vulnerable north gate that had been breached in the siege was converted into an underground forward-defense complex (including St John's Tower), and new gates built into the outer curtain wall on the western (Fitzwilliam's Gate) and eastern (Constable's Gate) sides. During the siege, the English defenders tunneled outwards and attacked the French, thus creating the only counter tunnel in the world. This can still be seen in the medieval works. By the Tudor age, the defenses themselves had been superseded by gunpowder. They were improved by Henry VIII, who added the Moat Bulwark to the castle. Napoleonic Defensive Improvements Massive rebuilding took place at the end of the eighteenth century during the Napoleonic Wars. William Twiss, the Commanding Engineer of the Southern District, as part of his brief to improve the town's defenses, completed the remodeling of the outer defenses of Dover Castle. He added the huge Horseshoe, Hudson's, East Arrow, and East Demi-Bastions to provide extra gun positions on the eastern side and constructed the Constable's Bastion for additional protection on the west. Twiss further strengthened the Spur at the northern end of the castle, adding a redan or raised gun platform.

By taking the roof off the keep and replacing it with massive brick vaults he was able to mount heavy artillery on the top. Twiss also constructed Canon's Gateway to link the defenses of the castle with those of the town. With Dover becoming a garrison town, there was a need for barracks and storerooms for the additional troops and their equipment. The solution adopted by Twiss and the Royal Engineers was to create a complex of barracks tunnels about 15 meters below the cliff top. The first troops were accommodated in 1803. At the height of the Napoleonic Wars, the tunnels housed more than 2,000 men and to date are the only underground barracks ever built in Britain. The tunnels built during the Napoleonic Wars held future significance. Indeed, the outbreak of the Second World War in 1939 saw the tunnels converted first into an air-raid shelter and then later into a military command centre and underground hospital. Significance Today Dover Castle is a Scheduled Monument, which means it is a nationally important historic building and archaeological site that has been given protection against unauthorized change. It is also a Grade I listed building and recognized as an internationally important structure. The castle, secret tunnels, and surrounding

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land are now owned by English Heritage and the site is a major tourist attraction.
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Section 3

Sculpture

Majestat Batilo Mary as the Throne of Wisdom Tomb of Rudolf of Swabia Reiner of Huy

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Majestat Batilo
The Batll Majesty is one of the nest and bestpreserved examples of Catalan sculptures from the 12th century.
KEY POINTS

of worship. One of the most elaborate types in Catalonia was the Christ in Majesty: images of Christ on the Cross that symbolize his triumph over death, of which the most outstanding is the Batll
Figure 19.17 Batll Majesty

Majesty. The frontal geometric composition of the tunic decorated in circles and floral motifs is reminiscent of the refined Byzantine and HispanoMoorish fabrics held in such high esteem in the Christian West during this time. The great reference for this type was the Volto Santo in Lucca (Tuscany, Italy), which was regarded as having miraculous origins and was the object of pilgrimage and extraordinary devotion from the end of the 11th century (Figure 19.17). Symbolism and Description The Batll Majesty presents Christ bearing his suffering with noble stoicism. It is a triumphant Christ

Carved wooden images were a fundamental element in churches as objects of worship. One of the most elaborate types in Catalonia was the Christ in Majesty, images of Christ on the Cross that symbolize his triumph over death, of which the most outstanding is the Batll Majesty. One of the striking features of the Batll Majesty compared to others, is the well-conserved polychromy. The chronology of the Batll Majesty is difficult to date, but the inscription on the cross and the painting could be placed in the eleventh century, although other authors date it back to the twelfth century.

Majestat Batllo The Batll Majesty is a 12th century Romanesque polychrome wood carving now in the Museu Nacional d'Art de Catalunya in Barcelona, Catalonia. The Batll Majesty is one of the finest and best-preserved examples of these Catalan sculptures. Carved wooden images were a fundamental element in churches as objects

The Batll Majesty is a large 12th century Romanesque wooden crucix, now in the National Art Museum of Catalonia in Barcelona. It is one of the most elaborate examples in Catalonia of an image of Christ on the Cross symbolizing his triumph over death.

wearing a colobium, or a long, sleeveless tunic. Although the corners of his mouth turn slightly downward, Christ's open eyes and unfurrowed brow create the impression of a self-possessed

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impassivity. One of the striking features of the Batll Majesty compared to others, is the well-conserved polychromy. Christs colobium, in imitation of rich oriental silk, is decorated with blue floral designs surrounded by circular red frames embellished with dots and circles. A thin belt with an elaborate interlace knot pulls the tunic in above Christs hips, making the fabric above it swell out slightly and curving the path of its flat, wide vertical folds. Such robes are linked with royal and priestly functions and conveyed a message of strength to the viewing audience. They can be seen as a visualization or image of the Apocalyptic Christ from the Book of Revelation. The iconographic tradition of Jesus in a colobium dates to 586 CE, in a manuscript of the Syriac Gospels called the Rabbula Gospels, written by the monk Rabbula somewhere in Mesopotamia. It is thought that the tradition of depicting Christ in such costume was brought to Catalonia by artisans from Pisa, who arrived in 1114 to help Ramon Berenguer III, Count of Barcelona, in his conquest of the Balearic Islands. A Latin inscription above his head reads, "JHS NAZARENUS REX IUDEORUM" ("Jesus of Nazareth King of the Jews) as in biblical accounts, (Matthew 27:37, Mark 15:26, Luke 23:38, John 19:19)

Chronology The chronology of the Batll Majesty is difficult to date, but the inscription on the cross and the painting could be placed in the 11th century. However, other authors date it back to the 12th century, based on the paintings similarity to ones seen in the area of Ripoll, mid-12th century. The tunic also has an analogy with an Islamic motif abacus of the cloister of the abbey of Saint-Pierre de Moissac, which seems to prove the spread during the Romanesque period.
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Mary as the Throne of Wisdom

Mary as the Throne of Wisdom was a popular biblical theme represented throughout medieval and later art forms.
KEY POINTS

to the Throne of Solomon, referring to her status as a vessel of the incarnation carrying the Holy Child. As the phrase associates the Blessed Virgin with glory and with teaching, Madonna-images in this tradition are especially popular in Catholic imagery (Figure 19.18). Cultural History In Christian iconography, sedes sapientiae ("The Throne of Wisdom") is an icon of the Mother of God in majesty. When the Virgin is depicted in sedes sapientiae icons and sculptural representations, she is seated on a throne with the Christ Child on her lap. This type of madonna-image was a variant of the Byzantine Hodegetria type. It appeared in a wide range of sculptural and, later, painted images in Western Europe, especially near 1200 CE. In these representations, some structural elements of the throne invariably appear,
Figure 19.18 Mary as the Throne of Wisdom

Images of Mary as the Throne of Wisdom are especially prevalent throughout Roman Catholic art. When the Virgin is depicted in sedes sapientiae ("Mary as the Throne of Wisdom") icons and sculptural representations, she is seated on a throne with the Christ Child on her lap. The sedes sapientiae icon also appeared in illuminated manuscripts, Romanesque frescoes and mosaics, and was represented on seals.

Background In the Roman Catholic tradition, the epithet "the Seat of Wisdom," or "Throne of Wisdom" (a translation of the still-used Latin sedes sapientiae), is identified with one of many devotional titles for the Mother of God. The phrase was characterized in the 11th and 12th centuries by Peter Damiani and Guibert de Nogent. It likens Mary

Madonna as Seat of Wisdom, 1199, inscribed as by Presbyter Martinus, from the Camaldolese abbey in Borgo San Sepolcro near Arezzo, Italy.

even if only handholds and front legs. For hieratic purposes, the Virgin's feet often rest on a low stool. Later, Gothic sculptures of the

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type are more explicitly identifiable with the Throne of Solomon, where "two lions stood, one at each hand. And twelve little lions stood upon the six steps on the one side and on the other." (I Kings 10, 19-20, see also below.) The sedes sapientiae icon also appeared in illuminated manuscripts and Romanesque frescoes and mosaics, and was represented on seals. The icon additionally possesses emblematic verbal components: the Virgin as the Throne of Wisdom is a trope of Damiani or Guibert de Nogent, based on their typological interpretation of the passage in the Books of Kings that describes the throne of Solomon (I Kings 10: 1820, repeated at II Chronicles 9: 1719). This motif was frequently used in Early Netherlandish painting in works like the Lucca Madonna by Jan van Eyck.
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Tomb of Rudolf of Swabia

The tomb of Rudolf of Swabia is a prime example of Romanesque sculpture.

KEY POINTS

Rudolf of Rheinfelden was the alternative king, or antiking, for the politically oriented anti-Henry German aristocrats. He died during the Great Saxon Rebellion. Rudolf's tomb reflects the Romanesque love of inventive surface patterns, and an expressive approach to the human body using elongation, unnatural poses and emphatic gestures to convey states of mind. The intricate metalwork on Rudolf's tomb is also indicative of Romanesque sculpture.

Background Rudolf of Rheinfelden (c. 1025 15 October, 1080) was Duke of Swabia (10571079) and German Antiking (10771080). He was the son of Count Kuno of Rheinfelden and eventually became the alternative king or Antiking for the politically oriented anti-Henry German aristocrats. This rebellion became known as the Great Saxon Revolt. He died as a result of battle wounds as his faction met and defeated Henry's in the Battle of Elster.

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Tomb of Rudolf of Swabia Rudolf of Rheinfelden's tomb, located at the cathedral of Merseburg, is an example of Romanesque sculpture. Romanesque sculpture is marked by a love of inventive surface patterns and an expressive approach to the human body, using elongation, unnatural poses, and emphatic gestures to convey states of mind. Rudolf's tomb reflects these Romanesque characteristics. His body is elongated and lies with a scepter in one hand and an orb in the other hand, symbolic of the royal title he claimed but never held in life. He is depicted in royal garments and a crown (Figure 19. 19).
The tomb of Rudolf of Swabia is exemplary of Romanesque sculpture. Figure 19.19 Tomb of Rudolf of Swabia

in enamel, became especially sophisticated during the 10th and 11th centuries. Rudolf of Rheinfelden's tomb reflects this aesthetic with its bronze relief of Rudolf's body encased inside of a raised border edge. An inscription is also etched into the border, demonstrating the metalworking skill that went into the construction of the tomb.
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The material used to construct the tomb also reflects the high status of metalwork in Romanesque sculpture. Indeed, precious objects constructed from metalwork, enamelwork, and ivory carried a much higher significance than paintings. Metalwork, including decoration

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Reiner of Huy
Reiner of Huy was a 12th C. metalworker & sculptor, to whom the baptismal font at St. Bartholomew's is attributed.
KEY POINTS

traditionally accepted to be the creator of the font, this attribution, and even the Mosan origin of the font, have been questioned and alternative theories advanced. Baptismal Font at St. Bartholomew's Church The font is a major masterpiece of Mosan art, remarkable for the classicism of its style (Figure 19.20). The basin is 91 centimeters (36 inches) across at the top, tapering slightly toward the base, and is variously described as of brass or bronze. It was made by lost-wax casting, with the basin cast in a single piece. The size was not necessarily exceptional, as both church bells and cauldrons for large households were probably cast at comparable sizes; some church
Figure 19.20 Baptismal Font at St. Bartholomew's Church Reiner of Huy, a 12th century metalworker and sculptor, is generally attributed with creating the baptismal font at St. Bartholomew's Church.

Reiner Huy's status as the creator of the famous font and even the Mosan origin of the font have been questioned. The font is a major masterpiece of Mosan art, remarkable for the classicism of its style. Reiner of Huy may have also created small bronze crucifixes. Reiner of Huy Renier of Huy was a 12th century metalworker and sculptor to whom is attributed a major masterpiece of Mosan art, the baptismal font at St. Bartholomew's Church in Liege, Belgium. The Meuse River valley in modern Belgium and France, roughly comprising the Diocese of Lige, was the leading 12th century center of Romanesque metalwork, which was still the most prestigious medium in art. Nothing is known of Rainer's life other than that he was mentioned in a document of 1125 as a goldsmith. However, a 14th century chronicle mentions him as the artist of the font. He may have died about 1150. Although Reiner of Huy is

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doors that were cast in a single piece, though flat, were much larger. The font sat on twelve oxen (two are now missing) which emerged from a stone plinth, a reference to the "molten sea... on twelve oxen" that were cast in bronze for Solomon's temple. The five scenes shown, identified by Latin inscriptions (tituli) on the rim above and in the image field, can be read in chronological sequence. They include two scenes of John the Baptist, the Baptism of Christ, St. Peter baptizing Cornelius the Centurion, and St. John the Evangelist baptizing the philosopher Craton. Possible Other Works The only other work generally agreed to be by the same master as the font is a small bronze crucifix figure now located in Schntgen Museum, Cologne. Another crucifix in Brussels is probably from the same mould, but with extra chasing. Others in Brussels and Dublin are probably from the same workshop since they have many similarities to the Cologne bronze crucifix.
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Section 4

Textiles and Books

Historical Records Books of Worship

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Historical Records
Historical records developed due to advancements in printing technology and archival science.
KEY POINTS

Movable Type Johannes Gutenberg of the German city of Mainz developed European movable type printing technology around 1439. Compared to woodblock printing, movable type page-setting was quicker and more durable. The metal type pieces were more durable and the lettering was more uniform, leading to typography and fonts. The high quality and relatively low price of the Gutenberg Bible (1455) established the superiority of movable type, and printing presses rapidly spread across Europe, leading up to the Renaissance. Later printing presses spread all around the world. Today, practically all movable type printing ultimately derives from Gutenberg's movable type printing, which is often regarded as the most important invention of the second millennium. Within a year of printing the Gutenberg Bible, Gutenberg also published the first colored prints. The invention of the printing press revolutionized communication and book production, leading to the spread of knowledge. Rapidly, printing spread from Germany by emigrating German printers but also by foreign apprentices returning home. Archival records In 1540, Jacob von Rammingen (1510-1582) wrote the manuscript of the earliest known archival manual. He was an expert on

Johannes Gutenberg developed movable type in Germany in 1439, revolutionizing print communication. In the mid 16th century, Jacob von Rammingen, an expert on historical registries, developed the earliest known archival manual. Rammingen is referred to as the father of archival science.

The emergence of historical records is, of course, tied to the history of printed text. Around the mid-15th century, block-books, woodcut books with both text and images usually carved in the same block, emerged as a cheaper alternative to manuscripts and books printed with movable type. These were all short, heavily illustrated works. The bestsellers of the day were repeated in many different blockbook versions. The Ars moriendi and the Biblia pauperum were the most common of these block-books. There is still some controversy among scholars as to whether their introduction preceded or, as the majority believe, followed the introduction of movable type, with the range of estimated dates being between about 14401460.

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Figure 19.21 Jacob von Rammingen, Von der Registratur (1571), Baldassare Bonifacio, De Archivis (1632) This image depicts two of the earliest archival manuals.

records keeping. These earlier manuals were, however, usually not published. Therefore it is impossible to establish exactly when archival science was "born". Jacob von Rammingen's manual was printed in Heidelberg in 1571 (Figure 19.21).
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registries, or Registraturen, the German word for what later became known as archives. Rammingen elaborated a registry for the Augsburg city council but could not be personally present there, and thus had to describe the structure and management of the archives in writing. Rammingen can be considered the father of archival science since this was the earliest published work dealing with that subject. However, Rammingen himself refers to earlier literature about

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Books of Worship
Many books of worship produced during the Romanesque period were characterized by illuminated manuscript.
KEY POINTS

Ottonian styles continued to develop, along with Byzantine styles, influenced Italy. By the 12th century there had been reciprocal influences between all these, although a degree of regional distinctiveness naturally remained. The typical focii of Romanesque illumination were the Bible; where each book could be prefaced by a large historiated initial; and the Psalter, where major initials were similarly illuminated. In both cases, more lavish examples might have cycles of scenes in fullyilluminated pages, sometimes with several scenes per page, in compartments. The Bibles in particular often had a very large page size, and might be bound into more than one volume. Well-known examples include the St. Alban's Psalter, Hunterian Psalter, Winchester Bible (the "Morgan Leaf"), Fcamp Bible, Stavelot Bible, and Parc Abbey Bible. By the end of the period lay-commercial workshops of artists and scribes were becoming significant, and illumination, and books generally, became more widely available to both laity and clergy. St. Alban's Psalter The St Alban's Psalter (Figure 19.22) also known as the Albani Psalter or the Psalter of Christina of Markyate, is an English illuminated manuscript, one of several psalters known to have been created at or for St Alban's Abbey in the 12th century. It is widely

The typical focii of Romanesque illumination were the Bible, where each book could be prefaced by a large historiated initial, and the Psalter, where major initials were similarly illuminated. St. Alban's Psalter is widely considered to be one of the most important examples of English Romanesque art book production. Other notable books of worship that depict Romanesque art include the Fcamp Bible, Winchester Bible, and Hunterian Psalter.

Romanesque Illuminated Manuscript A number of regional illuminated manuscript schools converged in the early Romanesque period: the "Channel school" of England and Northern France which was heavily influenced by late Anglo-Saxon art; whereas in southern France, the style depended more on Iberian influence; and, in Germany and the Low Countries,

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considered to be one of the most important examples of English Romanesque book production; it is of almost unprecedented
Figure 19.22 St. Alban's Psalter

These are the earliest English miniatures to have gold-leaf

Figure 19.23 Hunterian Psalter

backgrounds incised with patterns of lines and dots. After these pages there is an opening with full-page miniatures of David playing his harp and a "Beatus" initial for the start of Psalm 1 ("Beatus vir"). All the psalms have a large illuminated initial, often historiated, and each verse starts with an enlarged gold initial. The start of the 10 traditional divisions of the text have especially large initials, as is usually the case.

lavishness of decoration, with over 40 full-page miniatures, and contains a number of iconographic innovations that would endure throughout the Middle Ages. Hunterian Psalter Also known as the York Psalter, it is an illuminated manuscript of the 12th century (Figure 19.23). It was produced in England around 1170, and

Depiction of the astrological sign, Gemini.

A scene depicting Mary Magdalene announcing news of the risen Christ.

is considered a striking example of this Romanesque style. The book opens with an illustrated calendar, each

Winchester Bible The Winchester Bible (Figure 19.24) is a Romanesque illuminated manuscript produced in Winchester between 1160 and 1175. With folios measuring 583 x 396 mm., it is the largest surviving 12th-century English Bible. During the Romanesque period, the focus of major illumination in the West moved from the Gospel Book to
A scene depicting God addressing Jeremiah. Figure 19.24 Winchester Bible

month beginning with the historiated letters "KL", an abbreviation for kalenda, i.e. the first day of the month. Then follow 13 pages of prefactory full-page miniatures, two scenes to a page, with three pages of Old Testament scenes, six of scenes from the Life of Christ (further pages are perhaps missing), and unusually for this date, three from the Life of the Virgin, including a Death of the Virgin, with a funeral procession, and an Assumption.

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the Psalter and the Bible, and the Winchester manuscript is one of the most lavish. The artwork is incomplete: many illuminations were left unfinished, while others were deliberately removed. The illuminations throughout the manuscript appear in varying stages of completion, ranging from rough outlines and inked drawings to unpainted gilded images and figures complete in all but the final details. In all, 48 of the major historiated initials that begin each book stand complete. Fcamp Bible The Fcamp Bible is an illuminated Latin Bible, produced in Paris during the third quarter of the 13th century (Figure 19.25). Each book of the Bible and the major sections of Psalms are introduced by a large historiated initial in colors and gold. Exceptions are the books of Deuteronomy, Isaiah and Haggai: the openings to Deuteronomy and Isaiah are on folios replaced in the 15th century (folios 71 and 301); folio 301 has large decorated initials at the beginning of the Book of Isaiah; and the Book of
A historiated "I" at the beginning of the book of Genesis. Figure 19.25 Fcamp Bible

Haggai has large 13th-century flourished initial (folio 391v). In all, there are 79 extant large historiated initials. The beginnings of the prologues have large zoomorphic and foliate initials. The beginning of each chapter is marked by a small initial in red with blue-pen flourishes, or in blue with red-pen flourishes.
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Section 5

France and Spain

The Church of Saint-Lazare, Architecture and Sculpture Painting and Other Forms of Art

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The Church of Saint-Lazare, Architecture and Sculpture

The Autun Cathedral, or the Cathedral of Saint-Lazare, is a Roman Catholic cathedral and a national monument in Autun, France.
KEY POINTS

France (Figure 19.26). Famous for its Cluniac inspiration and its Romanesque sculptures by Gislebertus, it epitomizes Romanesque art and architecture in Burgundy. Due to the veneration of relics in this period, the Bishop of Autun ordered the creation of a larger cathedral to house the relics and accommodate the influx of pilgrims into Autun. The column capitals and main faade of the church are embellished with realistic sculptures carved by Gislebertus, and the artwork is a means of teaching the masses of Christian ethics with dramatic scenes of heaven and hell. Work on the new cathedral of Saint Lazarus or St. Lazare began in around 1120 and advanced rapidly enough for the building to be
Exterior of Autun Cathedral Figure 19.26 Autun Cathedral, ca. 1120-46

The column capitals and main faade of the church are embellished with realistic sculptures carved by Gislebertus and the artwork is a means of teaching the masses of Christian ethics with dramatic scenes of heaven and hell. The cathedral has a ground-plan in the form of a Latin cross, with an aisled nave, a plain transept, and a three-stage choir with a semicircular end. Many of the historiated capitals that adorn the columns witin St Lazare were carved by Gislebertus that include representations of biblical scenes. In the Last Judgement, Gislebertus successfully integrated the modern view of heaven and hell and created a sculpture that would act as a visual educational device for individuals that were illiterate.

consecrated in 1130. The inspiration for the cathedral, both in layout and decoration, was Cluniac. The designs were the work of the bishop Etienne de Bg, who was particularly influenced by the Cluniac abbey of Paray-le-Monial. The interior of the cathedral has a nave and two aisles, divided by massive columns with longitudinal carvings punctuated with

The Church of Saint-Lazare The Autun Cathedral, or the Cathedral of Saint-Lazare, is a Roman Catholic cathedral and a national monument in Autun,

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decorated Romanesque capitals. The plan of the cathedral has a narthex of two bays topped by two towers, followed by a seven-bay nave flanked by side aisles and a transept with the tower surmounting cross. The nave elevation is composed of three levels: grand arcade, triforium, and clerestory, each marked by a cornice. The three story elevation of Saint Lazare was made possible by the use of pointed arches for the nave. Each nave bay is separated at the vault by a transverse rib. Each transept projects to the width of two nave bays and the west entrance has a narthex which screens the main portal.
Figure 19.27 Last Judgement

The cathedral of St. Lazare has a ground-plan in the form of a Latin cross, with an aisled nave, a plain transept and a three-stage choir with a semicircular end. Many of the historiated capitals that adorn the columns in Saint Lazare were carved by Gislebertus. What makes St. Lazare a masterpiece of Romanesque art is the quality of Gislebertus' sculpture that appears on dozens of capitals in the nave and chancel: including scenes from the Bible carved in stone in a very particular style. Specifically, Gislebertus created capitals that used the tendrils of the actual Corinthian capital to create an architectural frame for the narrative of the story to develop. These portal capitals are carved with biblical and traditional scenes. The West faade of St. Lazare contains the tympanum (11301135), signed Gislebertus hoc fecit (meaning Gislebertus made this) within the portico which is ranked among the masterpieces of Romanesque sculpture in France (Figure 19.27). The sheer size of the tympanum required that double lintels support it with a middle column to further support the sculpture. The left side of the tympanum displays the rise to the heavenly kingdom, and on the right is a portrayal of the demons in hell with an angel and a devil weighing the souls on a balance. Zodiac signs surround the arch vault with Christ in the center portrayed as a serene figure. Christ is placed in perfect symmetrical position with a balanced composition of elongated figures. Jesus is flanked by his mother, the Virgin Mary and his apostles cast as penitents and observers of the last

Last Judgement by Gislebertus in the west tympanum.

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judgment. St. Peter guards the gate to heaven and looks on as resurrected individuals attempt to squeeze in with the assistance of the angels. In the Last Judgement, Gislebertus successfully integrated the modern view of heaven and hell and created a sculpture that would act as a visual educational device for individuals that were illiterate. The tympanum would have inspired terror in believers that passed beneath it and viewed the detailed high relief sculpture. Indeed, the bottom of the tympanum underneath the weighing of the souls has an inscription that states, "May this terror terrify those whom earthly error binds for the horror of the images here in this manner truly depicts what will be." The tympanum is framed by two archivolts. The inner one has carved foliage while the outer archivolt consists of magnificently detailed medallions representing the four seasons, zodiacs, and labors of the months.
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Painting and Other Forms of Art

Romanesque art refers to the art of Europe from approximately 1000 AD to the rise of the Gothic style in the 13th century.
KEY POINTS

Romanesque art was also greatly influenced by Byzantine art, especially in painting, and by the anti-classical energy of the decoration of the Insular art of the British Isles, and from these elements forged a highly innovative and coherent style in illumination, painting, and stained glass. The typical subjects of Romanesque manuscript illumination were the Bible, where each book could be prefaced by a large historiated initial, and the Psalter, where major initials were similarly illuminated. The large wall surfaces and plain, curving vaults of the Romanesque period lent themselves to mural decoration. Unfortunately, many of these early wall paintings have been destroyed by damp or the walls have been replastered and painted over.

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Overview Romanesque art refers to the art of Europe from approximately 1000 CE to the rise of the Gothic style in the 13th century or later, depending on region. The term was invented by 19th century art historians, especially for Romanesque architecture, which retained many basic features of Roman architectural style: most notably round-headed arches, but also barrel vaults, apses, and acanthus-leaf decoration. Romanesque art was also greatly influenced by Byzantine art (especially in painting), and by the

Figure 19.28 The "Morgan Leaf."

of scenes in fully illuminated pages, sometimes with several scenes per page separated into independent compartments. The Bibles, in particular, often had a very large page size and might be bound into more than one volume. Examples include the St. Albans Psalter and the Winchester Bible (the "Morgan Leaf," [Figure 19.28) By the end of the period, lay commercial workshops of artists and scribes were becoming significant, and illumination, and books generally, became more widely available to both laity and clergy.
Figure 19.29 The Virgin and Child in Majesty and the Adoration of the Maji

The "Morgan Leaf,"detached from the illuminated Winchester Bible of 1160-75. Scenes from the life of David.

anti-classical energy of the decoration of the Insular art of the British Isles. From these elements was forged a highly innovative and coherent style in illumination, painting, and stained glass. Illumination The typical subjects of Romanesque manuscript illumination were the Bible, where each book could be prefaced by a large historiated initial, and the Psalter, where major initials were similarly illuminated. In both cases more lavish examples might have cycles
Master of Pedret, The Virgin and Child in Majesty and the Adoration of the Magi, apse fresco, Spain, c. 1100, now The Cloisters.

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Wall Paintings The large wall surfaces and plain, curving vaults of the Romanesque period lent themselves to mural decoration. Unfortunately, many of these early wall paintings have been destroyed by damp or the walls have been replastered and painted over. A classic scheme for the full painted decoration of a church was derived from earlier examples often in mosaic. As its focal point in the semi-dome of the apse it commonly presented either Christ in Majesty or Christ the Redeemer enthroned within a mandorla and framed by the four winged beasts, symbols of the Four Evangelists. These iconographic images compared directly with examples from the gilt covers or the illuminations of Gospel Books of the period. If the Virgin Mary was the dedicatee (Patron Saint) of the church, she might replace Christ in the apse (Figure 19.29). On the apse walls below would be saints and apostles, perhaps including narrative scenes.

Stained Glass The oldest-known fragments of medieval pictorial stained glass appear to date from the 10th century. The earliest intact figures are five prophet windows at Augsburg, dating from the late eleventh century (Figure 19.30). The figures, though stiff and formalized, demonstrate considerable proficiency in design, both pictorially and in the functional use of the glass, indicating that their maker was well-accustomed to the medium. Glass craftsmen were slower than architects to change their style, and much glasswork from the first part of the 13th century can be considered as essentially Romanesque. Large figures from the Strasbourg Cathedral, created in about

Figure 19.30 Romanesque Stained Glass

Stained glass, the Prophet Daniel from Augsburg Cathedral, late eleventh century.

1200, are especially fine. Some of these have now been removed to the museum for protection and better viewing. Other exceptional stained glass examples can be found at Saint Kunibert's Church, in Cologne; these were made in about 1220.. Most of the magnificent stained glass of France, including the famous windows of Chartres, date from the 13th century. Glass was both expensive and fairly adaptable, in that it could be added to or re-arranged, and it seems

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to have been often re-used when churches were rebuilt in the Gothic style.
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Section 6

The Holy Roman Empire

Architecture Painting and Other Forms of Art

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Architecture
Architecture from the Holy Roman Empire spans from the Romanesque to the Classic eras.
KEY POINTS

KEY POINTS (cont.)

Classicism arrived in Germany in the second half of the 18th century, just prior to the dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire.

The Holy Roman Empire existed from 962 to 1806, and at its peak included territories of the Kingdoms of Germany, Bohemia, Italy and Burgundy. Pre-Romanesque architecture is thought to have originated with the Carolingian Renaissance in the late 8th century. The Romanesque period (10th - early 13th century) is characterized by semi-circular arches, robust appearance, small paired windows, and groin vaults. Gothic architecture, such as the Cologne Cathedral, flourished during the high and late medieval period. Renaissance architecture (early 15th - early 17th centuries) flourished in different parts of Europe, when there was a conscious revival and development of ancient Greek and Roman thought and culture. Baroque architecture began in the early 17th century in Italy, and arrived in Germany after the Thirty Years War. The interaction of architecture, painting and sculpture is an essential feature of Baroque architecture.

The Holy Roman Empire was a varying complex of lands that existed from 962 to 1806 in Central Europe. The empire's territory lay predominantly in Central Europe and at its peak included territories of the Kingdoms of Germany, Bohemia, Italy and Burgundy. For much of its history, the Empire consisted of hundreds of smaller sub-units, principalities, duchies, counties, Free Imperial Cities and other domains. Pre-Romanesque The Pre-Romanesque period in Western European art is often dated from the Carolingian Renaissance in the late 8th century, to the beginning of the 11th century Romanesque period. German buildings from this period include Lorsch Abbey, which combines elements of the Roman triumphal arch (arch-shaped passageways, half-columns) with the vernacular Teutonic heritage (baseless triangles of the blind arcade, polychromatic masonry). One of the most important churches in this style is the Abbey Church of St. Michael's, constructed between 1001 and 1031 as the chapel of the

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Benedictine monastery. It is built in the so-called Ottonic (EarlyRomanesque) style, during the Ottonian Renaissance. Romanesque The Romanesque period (10th - early 13th century) is characterized by semi-circular arches, robust appearance, small paired windows, and groin vaults. Many churches in Germany date from this time, including the twelve Romanesque churches of Cologne. The most significant building of this period in Germany is Speyer Cathedral (Figure 19.31). It was built in stages from about 1030, and was in the 11th century the largest building in the Christian world and an architectural symbol of the power of the Salian dynasty, a dynasty of four German Kings (10241125). Other important examples of Romanesque styles include the cathedrals of Worms and Mainz, Limburg Cathedral (in the Rhenish Romanesque style), Maulbronn
Figure 19.31 Speyer Cathedral, Image by Alfred Hutter Speyer Cathedral was built during the Romanesque era; in the 11th century it was the largest building in the Christian world and an architectural symbol of the power of the Salian dynasty.

Abbey (an example of Cistercian architecture), and the famous castle of Wartburg, which was later expanded in the Gothic style. Gothic Gothic architecture flourished during the high and late medieval period, evolving from Romanesque architecture. Freiburg Cathedral is noted for its 116-meter tower, which is nearly square at the base, and at its center is the dodecagonal star gallery. Above this gallery, the tower is octagonal and tapered, with the spire above. Cologne Cathedral is - after Milan Cathedral - the largest Gothic cathedral in the world (Figure 19.32). Construction began in 1248 and took, with interruptions, until 1880 to complete a period of over 600 years. Because of its enormous twin spires, it also has the largest faade of any church in the world, and its choir boasts the largest height to width ratio of any Medieval church. Brick Gothic is a specific style of Gothic architecture common in Northern Europe, especially in Northern Germany and the regions
Cologne Cathedral is - after Milan Cathedral - the largest Gothic cathedral in the world, and was built over 600 years. Figure 19.32 Cologne Cathedral

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around the Baltic Sea without natural rock resources. The buildings are built more or less using only bricks. Stralsund City Hall and St. Nicholas Church are good examples of this style. Cities such as Lbeck, Rostock, Wismar, Stralsund and Greifswald are shaped by this regional style. The dwellings of this period were mainly timber-framed buildings, as can still be seen in Goslar and Quedlinburg. Quedlinburg has one of the oldest half-timbered houses in Germany. The method of construction, used extensively for town houses of the Medieval and Renaissance periods, lasted into the twentieth century for rural buildings. Renaissance Renaissance architecture (early 15th - early 17th centuries) flourished in different parts of Europe, when there was a conscious revival and development of ancient Greek and Roman thought and culture. The earliest example of Renaissance architecture in Germany is the Fugger chapel in St. Anne's Church, Augsburg; other works include St. Michael in Munich, Heidelberg Castle, Augsburg City Hall, and castles and manors throughout Wester, Thuringia and Saxony.

Baroque Baroque architecture began in the early 17th century in Italy, and arrived in Germany after the Thirty Years War. The interaction of architecture, painting and sculpture is an essential feature of Baroque architecture. Zwinger Palace in Dresden illustrated the architecture of absolutism, which always put the ruler at the center, thus increasing the spatial composition; for example, a magnificent staircase leading to the person of the ruler. Rococo is the late phase of the Baroque, in which the decoration became even more abundant and showed most colors in even brighter tones. Other examples of Baroque church architecture are the Basilicaof the Vierzehnheiligen in Upper Franconia and the rebuilt
The rebuilt Frauenkirche in Dresden was created by George Bhr between 1722 and 1743, and is an example of Baroque architecture in Germany. Figure 19.33 Die Frauenkirche in Dresden

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Frauenkirche in Dresden (Figure 19.33). Classicism Classicism arrived in Germany in the second half of the 18th century. It drew inspiration from the classical architecture of antiquity, and was a reaction against the Baroque style, in both architecture and landscape design. The most important architect of this style in Germany was undoubtedly Karl Friedrich Schinkel. Schinkel's style, in his most productive period, is defined by its appeal to Greek rather than Imperial Roman architecture; his most famous buildings are found in and around Berlin.
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Painting and Other Forms of Art

The court of the Holy Roman Emperor played an important part in the formation of artwork throughout Central Europe.
KEY POINTS

The most common type of object to survive from medieval times is the illuminated manuscript, under the Frankish Empire of Charlemagne. The court of the Holy Roman Emperor, then based in Prague, played an important part in forming the International Gothic style in the late 14th century. Hamburg was one of the cities in the Hanseatic League, whose artists painted commissions for Baltic cities in Scandinavia and the modern Baltic states to the east. South German wood sculpture was important in developing new subjects that reflected the intensely emotional devotional life encouraged by movements in late medieval Catholicism such as German mysticism. Movable type was a German invention that remained almost a German monopoly for some decades, and was first brought to most of Europe, including France and Italy, by Germans.

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KEY POINTS (cont.)

Switzerland, Ottonian art was mainly a product of the large monasteries, especially Reichenau. The Reichenau style uses simplified and patterned shapes to create strongly expressive images, far from the classical aspirations of Carolingian art, and looking forward to the Romanesque. As in the rest of Europe, metalwork was still the most prestigious form of art, in works like the jewelled Cross of Lothair, made about 1000 (Figure 19.34).
Figure 19.34 The Cross of Lothair The jewelled Cross of Lothair, c. 1000, is an example of the"prestigiou s"metalwork of the time.

The greatest artist of the German Renaissance, Albrecht Drer, worked on the most extravagantly illustrated book of the period, the Nuremberg Chronicle.

The Holy Roman Empire existed from 962 to 1806, and at its peak included territories of the Kingdoms of Germany, Bohemia, Italy and Burgundy. For much of its history, the Empire consisted of hundreds of smaller sub-units, principalities, duchies, counties, Free Imperial Cities and other domains. Medieval Art German medieval art really begins with the Frankish Empire of Charlemagne (d. 814), the first state to rule the great majority of the modern territory of Germany, as well as France and much of Italy. Carolingian art was restricted to a relatively small number of objects produced for a circle around the court and a number of Imperial abbeys they sponsored, but had a huge influence on later Medieval art across Europe. The most common type of object to survive is the illuminated manuscript; wall paintings were evidently common but, like the buildings that housed them, have nearly all vanished. Under the Ottonian dynasty, whose core territory approximated more closely to modern Germany, Austria, and German-speaking

Romanesque and Gothic Styles Romanesque art was the first artistic movement to encompass the whole of Western Europe, though with regional varieties. Later the Gothic style originated in France and then spread through Germany, which continued to use it long after the rest of Europe had abandoned it. The court of the Holy Roman Emperor, then based in Prague, played an important part in forming the International Gothic style in the late 14th century. The style was spread around the wealthy cities of Northern Germany by artists such Conrad von Soest,Meister Bertram, and Stefan Lochner.

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Hamburg was one of the cities in the Hanseatic League, then at the height of its prosperity, and Bertram was succeeded in the city by artists such as Master Francke, Hans Bornemann, Hinrik Funhof and Wilm Dedeke. Hanseatic artists painted commissions for Baltic cities in Scandinavia and the modern Baltic states to the east. In the south, the Master of the Bamberg Altar is the first significant painter based in Nuremberg, while the Master of Heiligenkreuz and then Michael Pacher worked in Austria. Bernt Notke, a painter from the
The Veil of Veronica is an example of an image that reected the intensely emotional devotional life of Gothic-style art. Figure 19.35 Veronica holding her veil, Hans Memling, c. 1470

Renaissance painting and prints The concept of the Northern Renaissance or German Renaissance is somewhat confused by the continuation of the use of elaborate Gothic ornament until well into the 16th century, even in works that are undoubtedly Renaissance in their treatment of the human figure and other respects. Classical ornament had little historical resonance in much of Germany, but in other respects Germany was very quick to follow developments, especially in adopting printing with movable type. Movable type was a German invention that remained almost a German monopoly for some decades, and was first brought to most of Europe, including France and Italy, by Germans. The greatest artist of the German Renaissance, Albrecht Drer (Figure 19.36), began his career as an apprentice to Michael Wolgemut, who had largely abandoned his painting to exploit the new medium. Drer worked on the most extravagantly illustrated book of the period, the
Albrecht Drer is thought to be the greatest artist of the German Renaissance Figure 19.36 The Heller Altar by Albrecht Drer

Hanseatic city of Lbeck, painted altarpieces or carved them in the increasingly elaborate painted and gilded style used as frameworks or alternatives for painted panels. South German wood sculpture was important in developing new subjects that reflected the intensely emotional devotional life encouraged by movements in late medieval Catholicism such as German mysticism. These include the Piet, Pensive Christ, Man of Sorrows, Arma Christi, Veil of Veronica (Figure 19.35), the severed head of John the Baptist, and the Virgin of Sorrows.

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Nuremberg Chronicle, published by his godfather Anton Koberger, Europe's largest printer-publisher at the time. The Danube School is the name of a circle of artists of the first third of the 16th century in Bavaria and Austria, including Albrecht Altdorfer, Wolf Huber and Augustin Hirschvogel. With Altdorfer in the lead, the school produced the first examples of independent landscape art in the West, in both paintings and prints. Their religious paintings had an expressionist style somewhat similar to Grnewald's. Baroque and Later Periods The Baroque and Rococo periods saw German art producing mostly works derivative of developments elsewhere, though numbers of skilled artists in various genres were active. Neoclassicism appears rather earlier in Germany than in France, with Anton Raphael Mengs (172879), the Danish painter Asmus Jacob Carstens (1754 98), and the sculptor Gottfried Schadow (17641850).
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Section 7

Italy

Wiligelmo and Other Forms of Architecture

https://www.boundless.com/art-history/romanesque-art/italy/
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Wiligelmo and Other Forms of Architecture

The Romanesque period was a time of great development in the design and construction of defensive architecture.
KEY POINTS

Background The Romanesque period was a time of great development in the design and construction of defensive architecture. After churches and monastic buildings, castles are the most numerous type of building of the period. While most are in ruins through the action of war and politics, others, like William the Conqueror's White Tower within the Tower of London, have remained almost intact. It is a feature of Romanesque art, both in manuscript illumination and sculptural decoration, that figures are contorted to fit the space that they occupy. Among the many examples that exist, one of the finest is the figure of the Prophet Jeremiah from the pillar of the portal of the Abbey of Saint-Pierre, Moissac, France, from about 1130. A significant motif of Romanesque design is the spiral, a form applied to both plant motifs and drapery in Romanesque sculpture. An outstanding example of its use in drapery is the central figure of Christ on the outer portal at La Madaleine, Vezelay. Many of the smaller sculptural works, particularly capitals, are Biblical in subject and include scenes of creation and the fall of man, episodes from the life of Christ and those Old Testament scenes that prefigure his death and resurrection, such as Jonah and the whale and Daniel in the lions' den. Many Nativity scenes occur, the theme of the Three Kings being particularly popular (Figure 19.

After churches and the monastic buildings, castles are the most numerous type of building of the period. In Romanesque art (both in manuscript illumination and sculptural decoration) figures are contorted to fit the space that they occupy. Among the many examples that exist, one of the finest is the figure of the Prophet Jeremiah from the pillar of the portal of the Abbey of Saint-Pierre, Moissac, France, from about 1130. Wiligelmo was an Italian sculptor, active between c. 1099 and 1120. He was the first sculptor in Italy who started again to produce large size sculptures and signed his work. Wiligelmo was the carver of the Creation and Temptation of Adam and Eve (ca. 1110) reliefs at the west facade of the Duomo di Modena (Cathedral of Modena) in Italy. The relief is marble and about one meter high.

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37). The cloisters of Santo Domingo de Silos Abbey, in Northern Spain, and Moissac are fine surviving examples.
Figure 19.37 A relief from St Trophime, Arles, showing King Herod and the Three Kings.

(Figure 19.38). Wiligelmo also carved portraits of prophets and patriarchs, and most of all the Biblical Stories, at the site. It is a masterpiece of Romanesque sculpture. Scholars have especially pointed out the splendid achievements in the creation of Adam and Eve, the original sin and the story of Noah. The side gates are also noteworthy. On Piazza Grande, the Porta Regia ("Royal Gate"), by the campionesi, and the shorter Porta dei Principi ("Princes' Gate"), are decorated by a pupil of Wiligelmus' with a relief depicting episodes of the life of Saint Geminianus. On the northern side is the Porta della Pescheria ("FishMarket Gate"), with reliefs inspired by the cycle of the year's twelve months (on the arch).
Figure 19.38 Adam and Eve in Modena Cathedral.

It follows the conventions in that the seated Herod is much larger than the standing gures.

The Faade in Cathedral Modena Wiligelmo was an Italian sculptor, active between c. 1099 and 1120. He was the first sculptor in Italy who started again to produce large size sculptures and signed his work. Wiligelmo was the carver of the Creation and Temptation of Adam and Eve (ca. 1110) reliefs at the west faade of the Duomo di Modena (Cathedral of Modena) in Italy

Wiligelmo was the carver of the Creation and Temptation of Adam and Eve (ca. 1110) reliefs at the west facade of the Duomo di Modena (Cathedral of Modena) in Italy.

the doorposts) and tales from the Breton Cycle of King Arthur (on

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Source: https://www.boundless.com/art-history/romanesque-art/ italy/wiligelmo-and-other-forms-of-architecture/ CC-BY-SA Boundless is an openly licensed educational resource

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Section 8

Normandy and England

The Church of Saint-Pierre and Other Forms of Architecture Painting and Other Forms of Art

https://www.boundless.com/art-history/romanesque-art/normandy-and-england/
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The Church of Saint-Pierre and Other Forms of Architecture

Norman architecture classies styles of Romanesque architecture developed by the Normans in the lands under their rule or inuence.
KEY POINTS

of castles and fortifications, including Norman keeps, monasteries, abbeys, churches, and cathedrals. These structures were constructed in a style characterized by the usual Romanesque rounded arches (particularly over windows and doorways) and especially massive proportions compared to other regional variations of the style. Origins Romanesque styles originated in Normandy and became widespread in northwestern Europe, particularly in England. Indeed, England was influential in the development of Romanesque architecture and has the largest number of surviving examples. At roughly the same time the Norman dynasty ruled in Sicily, producing a distinctive variation that incorporated Byzantine and Saracen influence; this style is known as Norman architecture, or alternatively as Sicilian Romanesque. Normandy

Romanesque styles originated in Normandy and became widespread in northwestern Europe, particularly in England. The Church of Saint-Pierre is a prime example of Norman architecture. England was influential in the development of Norman influenced Romanesque architecture and has the largest number of surviving examples.

Background The term Norman architecture is used to categorize styles of Romanesque architecture developed by the Normans in the various lands under their dominion or influence in the 11th and 12th centuries. In particular, the term is traditionally used for English Romanesque architecture. The Normans introduced large numbers

Viking invaders arrived at the mouth of the river Seine in 911, at a time when Franks were fighting on horseback and Frankish lords were building castles. Over the next century the population of the territory was overwhelmed by the Vikings, who were now called Normans. Norman barons built timber castles on earthen mounds, beginning the development of motte-and-bailey castles; they also

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produced great stone churches in the Romanesque style of the Franks. By 950 they were building stone keeps. The Normans were among the most traveled peoples of Europe. They were exposed to a wide variety of cultural influences, including the Near East, and incorporated some of these influences into their art and architecture. They elaborated on the Early Christian basilica plan by making it longitudinal with side aisles and an apse, and a western facade with two towers. This elaboration can be seen in the Church of Saint-tienne at Caen, begun in 1067, which formed a model for the larger English cathedrals whose construction was begun some twenty years later. Church of St. Pierre The Church of Saint-Pierre is a prime example of Norman architecture. It is a Roman Catholic church dedicated to Saint Peter; it is situated on the Place Saint Pierre in the center of Caen, in Normandy, in Northern France (Figure 19.39). The construction of the present building took place between the early 13th and the 16th centuries. The spire was destroyed in 1944, and has since been rebuilt. The eastern apse of the church was built by Hector Sohier between 1518 and 1545. The interior choir and the exterior apse display an architecture that embodies the transition from Gothic to Renaissance. Round its top run balustrades formed of Gothic letters, which read as part of the Magnificat. Its west

Figure 19.39 Church of St. Pierre

The Church of St. Pierre is a good example of Norman architecture.

portal, the decoration of the spire of the tower, and its stained glass are among the features which make it one of the finest churches of the Rouen diocese. England In England, Norman nobles and bishops had influence even before the Norman Conquest of 1066, and Norman influences affected late Anglo-Saxon architecture. Edward the Confessor was brought up in Normandy. In 1042 he brought masons to work on Westminster Abbey, the first Romanesque building in England. In 1051 he

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brought in Norman knights who built "motte" castles as a defense against the Welsh. Following the invasion, Normans rapidly constructed more motte-and-bailey castles, and in a burst of building activity, they built churches and abbeys, as well as more elaborate fortifications including Norman stone keeps. The buildings show massive proportions in simple geometries. The masonry is decorated only with small bands of sculpture, perhaps used as blind arcading. Restrained decoration is seen in concentrated spaces of capitals and round doorways and in the tympanum under an arch. The Norman arch is the round arch, in contrast to the pointed Gothic arch. Norman moldings are carved or incised with geometric ornament, such as chevron patterns, frequently termed "zig-zag moldings", around arches. The cruciform churches often had deep chancels and a square crossing tower, which has remained a feature of English ecclesiastical architecture. Hundreds of parish churches were built and the great English cathedrals were founded during a period start at about 1083. After a fire damaged Canterbury Cathedral in 1174, Norman masons introduced the new Gothic architecture. Around 1191 Wells Cathedral and Lincoln Cathedral brought in the English Gothic style, and Norman became increasingly a modest style seen only in provincial buildings.

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Painting and Other Forms of Art

Norman and English painting is best demonstrated by illuminated manuscripts and wall paintings.
KEY POINTS

cycles of scenes in fully illuminated pages, sometimes with several scenes per page in compartments. The Bibles, in particular, often had a very large page size, and might be bound into more than one volume. Wall Painting The large wall surfaces and plain, curving vaults of the Romanesque period lent themselves to mural decoration. Unfortunately, many of these early wall paintings have been destroyed by damp or the walls

Figure 19.40 Illuminated Manuscript

The Channel School of Normandy and England was influenced by Anglo-Saxon art in the creation of their illuminated manuscripts. Wall paintings were a significant form of Norman and English paintings, though few exist today. Embroidery and stained glass were other important Norman and English art forms.

The Three Magi from the St. Albans Psalter, English, 12th century.

themselves have been re-plastered and painted over. In England Manuscript Illumination The "Channel School" of England and Northern France was heavily influenced by late Anglo-Saxon art in the creation of the early Romanesque illuminated manuscript. The typical foci of Romanesque illumination were the Bible and the Psalter (Figure 19.40). Each book of the Bible was prefaced by a large historiated initial; major initials were similarly illuminated in the Psalter. In both cases, more lavish examples might have and France, such pictures were systematically destroyed or whitewashed in bouts of Reformation iconoclasm. A classic scheme for the full painted decoration of a church had, as its focal point in the semi-dome of the apse, Christ in Majesty or Christ the Redeemer enthroned within a mandorla and framed by the four winged beasts, symbols of the Four Evangelists. If the Virgin Mary was the dedicatee of the church, she might replace Christ here. On the apse walls below would be saints and apostles, perhaps including narrative scenes. On the sanctuary arch were

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figures of apostles, prophets or the twenty-four "elders of the Apocalypse", looking in towards a bust of Christ, or his symbol, the Lamb, at the top of the arch. The north wall of the nave would contain narrative scenes from the Old Testament, and the south wall from the New Testament. On the rear west wall would be a Last Judgment, with an enthroned and judging Christ at the top. One of the most intact schemes to exist is that at Saint-Savin-surGartempe in France. The long barrel vault of the nave provides an excellent surface for fresco, and is decorated with scenes of the Old Testament. One of these shows a lively depiction of Noah's Ark complete with a fearsome figurehead and numerous windows through which Noah and his family can be seen on the upper deck, birds on the middle deck, and pairs of animals on the lower deck. Another scene shows, with great vigor, the swamping of Pharaoh's army by the Red Sea. The scheme extends to other parts of the church, with the martyrdom of the local saints shown in the crypt, and Apocalypse in the narthex and Christ in Majesty. The range of colors employed is limited to light blue-green, yellow ochre, reddish brown and black. Other Visual Arts Romanesque embroidery is best known from the Bayeux Tapestry (Figure 19.41). However, many more closely worked pieces of Opus

Anglicanum ("English work" - considered the finest in the West) and other styles have survived, mostly as church vestments. Another significant Norman and English art form includes stained
Figure 19.41 Bayeux Tapestry

This is an embroidered clothnot an actual tapestrynearly 70 metres (230 ft) long, which depicts the events leading up to the Norman conquest of England concerning William, Duke of Normandy and Harold, Earl of Wessex, later King of England, and culminating in the Battle of Hastings.

glass. Most of the magnificent stained glass of France, including the famous windows of Chartres, date from the 13th century. Far fewer large windows remain intact from the 12th century. One such is the Crucifixion of Poitiers, a remarkable composition which rises through three stages, the lowest with a quatrefoil depicting the Martyrdom of St Peter, the largest central stage dominated by the

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crucifixion and the upper stage showing the Ascension of Christ in a mandorla. The figure of the crucified Christ is already showing the Gothic curve. The window is described by George Seddon as being of "unforgettable beauty". Many detached fragments are in museums, and a window at Twycross Church in England is made up of important French panels rescued from the French Revolution. Glass was both expensive and fairly flexible (in that it could be added to or re-arranged) and seems to have been often re-used when churches were rebuilt in the Gothic style.
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Chapter 20

Gothic Art

https://www.boundless.com/art-history/gothic-art/

Section 1

Introduction

Cathedrals

https://www.boundless.com/art-history/gothic-art/introduction--2/
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Cathedrals
Cathedrals in Europe started to be largely inuenced by the gothic style of architecture that emerged from France in the late 12th century.
KEY POINTS

International Gothic developed in the late 14th century and continued to evolve until the late 15th century. In many areas, especially Germany, Late Gothic art continued well into the 16th century before being subsumed into Renaissance art. Primary media in the Gothic period included the following: Sculpture Panel painting

Figure 20.1 Notre-Dame de!Reims

Cathedral architecture from the 4th to the 17th century falls into seven successive periods: Early Christian, Byzantine, Romanesque, Gothic, Renaissance, Baroque, and Rococo. Geographic and historical trends were both vital to the development of distinctive Cathedral architectural styles. The cathedral, as the seat of the Bishop, fulfills specific ecclesiastical, administrative and community functions. Gothic art was a style of medieval art that developed in France out of Romanesque art in the mid-12th century, led by the concurrent development of Gothic architecture. It spread to all of Western Europe.

Faade of Reims Cathedral, France.

Stained glass Fresco Illuminated manuscripts Many cathedrals, basilicas, and a number of abbey churches are among the most renowned works of architecture in existence. The earliest large churches date from the Roman Empire. The spread of Christianity brought the construction of churches and cathedrals throughout the world, built with local materials and local techniques. Regional styles of architecture spread with the

Background Gothic art was a medieval art style that developed in France from Romanesque art in the mid-12th century, led by the concurrent development of Gothic architecture. It spread to all of Western Europe, taking over art north of the Alpsnever quite effacing more classical styles in Italy (Figure 20.1). The sophisticated court style of

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establishment of monastic orders, the relocation of bishops from one region to another, and the travels of master stonemasons who served as architects. The styles of the great church buildings fall into broad historical periods, but are also defined by regional characteristics. Early Cathedral Architecture The period of architecture termed Early or Paleo-Christian lasted from the first Christian Church buildings of the early 4th century until the development of a distinctly Byzantine style that emerged in the reign of Justinian I in the 6th century. Santa Sabina, in Rome, exemplifies the simplicity of architectural decoration that characterized many of the early Christian basilicas. Byzantine Period St Mark's Basilica in Venice stands as one of the world's best known Byzantine-style churches; it was decorated over many centuries but maintained its centrally-planned Byzantine form. It has a Greek cross plan and a large dome surrounded by four smaller ones. Its decoration, both inside and out, is typical of the Byzantine period in its lavish use of mosaics and polychrome marble veneers.

Romanesque After the decline of the Roman Empire, the building of large churches in Western Europe gradually gained momentum with the spread of organized monasticism under the rule of Saint Benedict and others. The style spread with monasticism throughout Europe. The technique of building high vaults in masonry was revived and painted murals came into fashion. The Romanesque building techniques spread to England around the time of the Norman Conquest. Gothic Many large cathedrals and abbey churches had been constructed by the mid 12th century and the engineering skills required to build high arches, stone vaults, tall towers, and the like were well established. The style evolved to one that was less heavy, had larger windows, lighter-weight vaulting supported on stone ribs, and above allthe pointed arch that is the defining
Notre Dame, began in 1163, is widely considered one of the nest examples of French Gothic architecture. Figure 20.2 Notre-Dame de Paris, south facade, view from the Seine

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characteristic of the style now known as Gothic. With thinner walls, larger windows, and high pointed arched vaults, the distinctive flying buttresses developed as a means of support. Notre Dame in Paris is representative of this period (Figure 20.2). Renaissance Filippo Brunelleschi, inspired by domes he had seen in his travels, designed a huge dome at Santa Maria del Fiore in the early 15th century that is regarded as the first building of the Renaissance period. Though employing Gothic elements, it was distinctly Renaissance in its audacity and the fact that it referenced Roman structural techniques. The greatest cathedral building of the age was the rebuilding of St. Peter's Basilica in Rome, which was the combined work of the architects Bramante, Raphael, Sangallo, Maderno, and
Figure 20.3 Interior of St. Peter's, Rome, by Giovanni Paolo Panini (1731) St Peter's Basilica is the most renowned work of Renaissance architecture and remains one of the largest churches in the world.

Michelangelo (who mounted its glorious dome). Pope Julius II could command the greatest artists of his day as designers and the architects of St. Peter's mastered the Roman principles that had been so carefully recovered, and chose to dispense with them. The effect was a dynamic style of architecture in which the forms seem to take on a life of their own: moving, swaying, and undulating (Figure 20.3). Baroque The word baroque means a pearl of irregular shape. There are many large churches, abbeys, and basilicas built in this style, but few cathedrals in Western Europe. The most notable exception is St Paul's Cathedral in London. St Paul's is an unusual cathedral in that it was designed by a single individual, Sir Christopher Wren, and completed in a short time. Rococo The Rococo style is a late evolution of Baroque architecture, first apparent in French domestic architecture and design. It is distinguished by its decoration that generally takes the form of ornate sculptured cartouches or borders. These decorations are loosely based on organic objectsparticularly seashells and plant growth, but also other natural forms that have an apparent organized chaos, such as waves of clouds.

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EXAMPLE

Great Cathedrals include St. Peters Basilica, Notre Dame de Paris, Cologne Cathedral, Salisbury Cathedral, Prague Cathedral, Lincoln Cathedral, the Basilica of St Denis, the Basilica of Santa Maria Maggiore, the Basilica of San Vitale, St Mark's Basilica, and Westminster Abbey.

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Section 2

French Gothic Art

The Abbey Church of Saint-Denis Gothic Cathedral The Reign of St. Louis

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The Abbey Church of SaintDenis

The Abbey Church of Saint Denis is known as the rst Gothic structure and was developed in the 12th century by the Abbot Suger.
KEY POINTS

Around 475 CE, St. Genevieve established a church at this site. In the 7th century, this structure was replaced by a much grander construction, on the orders of Dagobert I, King of the Franks. The Basilica of Saint Denis is an architectural landmark, the first major structure of which a substantial part was designed and built in the Gothic style. Both stylistically and structurally, it heralded the change from Romanesque architecture to Gothic architecture. Before the term "Gothic" came into common use, it was known as the "French Style." Saint Denis is a patron saint of France and, according to legend, was the first bishop of Paris. Legend relates that he was decapitated on the Hill of Montmartre and subsequently carried his head to the site of the current church, indicating where he wanted to be buried (Figure 20.4).
Saint Denis was martyred in connection with the Decian persecution of Christians, shortly after CE 250. Figure 20.4 Saint Denis, from the Cathdrale Notre-Dame de Paris

The Abbey Church of Saint Denis provided an architectural model for cathedrals and abbeys of northern France, England, and other countries. In the 12th century, the Abbot Suger rebuilt portions of the abbey church using innovative structural and decorative features that were drawn from a number of other sources, resulting in the first truly Gothic building. The two architects who worked under Abbot Suger's direction remain uncredited, identified only by their unique stylistic contributions.

The Abbey Church of Saint Denis The Abbey Church of Saint Denis, also known as the Cathedral Basilica of Saint Denis, is a large medieval abbey church in the commune of Saint-Denis, now a northern suburb of Paris. This site originated as a Gallo-Roman cemetery, in late Roman times.

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Dagobert I refounded the church as the Abbey of Saint Denis, a Benedictine monastery. Dagobert also commissioned a new shrine to house the saint's remains which was created by his chief counselor, Eligius, a goldsmith by training (Figure 20.5). Abbot Suger Abbot Suger (circa 1081-1151), Abbot of Saint Denis from 1122 and a friend and confidant of French kings, began work around 1135 on rebuilding and enlarging the abbey to which he had been given as an oblate at the age of 10.

Figure 20.5 Tomb of Dagobert I

molding profiles with rich and individualized detailing. His successor, who completed the western facade and upper stories of the narthex before going on to build the new choir, displayed a more restrained approach to decorative effects, relying on a simple repertoire of motifs, which may have proved more suitable for the lighter Gothic style that he helped to create. Suger's western extension was completed in 1140 and the three new chapels in the narthex were consecrated on June 9th of that year. On completion of the west front, Abbot Suger moved on to the reconstruction of the eastern end. He wanted a choir (chancel) that would be suffused with light. To achieve his aims, Suger's masons drew on the new elements which had evolved or been introduced to Romanesque architecture: the pointed arch, the ribbed vault, the ambulatory with radiating chapels, the clustered columns supporting ribs springing in different directions, and the flying buttresses which enabled the insertion of large clerestory windows. This was the first time that these features had all been brought together. The new structure was finished and dedicated on June 11th of 1144, in the presence of the King (Figure 20.6). Thus, the Abbey of Saint Denis became the prototype for further building in the royal domain of northern France. Through the rule of the Angevin dynasty, the style was introduced to England and

Dagobert's tomb was improved during the 13th century at the Basilica of Saint Denis.

Suger was the patron of the rebuilding of Saint Denis, but not the architect, as was often assumed in the 19th and early 20th centuries. In fact it appears that two distinct architects, or master masons, were involved in the 12th century changes. Both remain anonymous, but their work can be distinguished on stylistic grounds. The first, who was responsible for the initial work at the western end, favored conventional Romanesque capitals and

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spread throughout France, the Low Countries, Germany, Spain, northern Italy, and Sicily. The dark Romanesque nave, with its thick walls and small window openings, was rebuilt using the latest techniques, in what is now known as Rayonnant Gothic. This new style, which differed from
Figure 20.6 Abbey Church of Saint Denis

buried for centuries. All but three of the monarchs of France from the 10th century until 1789 have their remains here. The effigies of many of the kings and queens are on their tombs, but during the French Revolution, those tombs were opened and the bodies were moved to mass graves.
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Suger's earlier works as much as they had differed from their Romanesque precursors, reduced the wall area to an absolute minimum. Solid masonry was replaced with vast window openings filled with brilliant stained glass and interrupted only by the most slender of bar tracery--not only in the clerestory but also, perhaps for the first time, in the normally dark triforium level. The upper facades of

This is the west facade of the Basilica of Saint Denis.

the two much-enlarged transepts were filled with two spectacular rose

windows. As with Suger's earlier rebuilding work, the identity of the architect or master mason is unknown. The abbey is often referred to as the "royal necropolis of France" as it is the site where the kings of France and their families were

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Gothic Cathedral
Gothic architecture arose from a unique combination of established technologies (the pointed arch, ribbed vault, and ying buttress).
KEY POINTS

in two ways. Firstly, the mathematical and geometrical nature of the construction is an image of the orderly universe, in which an underlying rationality and logic can be perceived. Secondly, the statues, sculptural decoration, stained glass and murals incorporate the essence of creation in depictions of events from the Old and New Testaments. Most Gothic churches have the Latin cross (or "cruciform") plan, with a long nave making the body of the church, flanked on either side by aisles, a transverse arm called the
Autun Cathedral combines Romanesque and Gothic elements. Figure 20.7 Autun Cathedral, ca. 1120-46

Height is characteristically further enhanced by both the architectural features and the decoration of the building. Gothic cathedrals were characterized by lighter construction and large windows. The pointed arch was the defining architectural feature of Gothic construction. All design elements of Gothic cathedrals are intended to pay homage to and bring attention to the Glory of God. The western entrance to the Cathedral is typically the primary point of entry and therefore the most elaborate facade. Stained glass adds a dimension of color to the light within the building, as well as providing a medium for figurative and narrative art.

transept and, beyond it, an extension referred to as the choir. One of the defining characteristics of Gothic architecture is the pointed or ogival arch. Arches of this type were used in the Near East in pre-Islamic as well as Islamic architecture before they were structurally employed in medieval architecture. Therefore, they are thought to have been the inspiration for their use in France, at the Autun Cathedral, which is otherwise stylistically Romanesque (Figure 20.7). The way in which the pointed arch was drafted and utilized developed throughout the Gothic period, and four popular

The Gothic cathedral represented the universe in microcosm, and each architectural concept, including the loftiness and huge dimensions of the structure, were intended to convey a theological message: the great glory of God. The building becomes a microcosm

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styles emerged: the Lancet arch, the Equilateral arch, the Flamboyant arch and the Depressed arch. The Gothic vault, unlike the semi-circular vault of Roman and Romanesque buildings, can be used to roof rectangular and irregularly shaped plans such as trapezoids. This enabled architects to raise vaults much higher than was possible in Romanesque architecture. While, structurally, use of the pointed arch gave a greater flexibility to architectural form, it also gave Gothic architecture a very different and more vertical visual character to Romanesque. In Gothic architecture the pointed arch is used in every location where a vaulted shape is called for, both structurally and decorative.
Figure 20.8 Cross-ribbed vault, BonneEsprance Abbey, Vellereille-lesBrayeux, Belgium, ca, 13th century Ogival or pointed arches increased in popularity in the Gothic period.

Gothic openings, such as doorways, windows, arcades and galleries have pointed arches (Figure 20.8). Rows of pointed arches upon delicate shafts form a typical wall decoration known as 'blind arcading'. Niches with pointed arches that contain statuary are a major external feature. The pointed arch lent itself to elaborate intersecting shapes which developed complex Gothic tracery within window spaces and formed the structural support of the large windows that are characteristic of the style. The faade of a large church or cathedral, often referred to as the West Front, is generally designed to create a powerful impression on the approaching worshipper. In the arch of the door, the tympanum, is often a significant piece of sculpture, most frequently Christ in Majesty and
The verticality demonstrated in this image is a denitive feature of Gothic architecture. Figure 20.9 Interior of Cologne Cathedral

Judgment Day. If there is a central door jamb or a tremeau, then it frequently bears a statue of the Madonna and Child. The West Front of a French cathedral along with many English, Spanish and German cathedrals, generally has two towers, which,

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particularly in France, express an enormous diversity of form and decoration. A characteristic of Gothic church architecture is its height, both absolute and in proportion to its width, the verticality suggests an aspiration to Heaven (Figure 20.9). Another one of the most distinctive characteristics of Gothic architecture is the expansive area of windows and the large size of many individual windows. The increase in size between windows of the Romanesque and Gothic periods is related to the use of the ribbed vault, which allowed for lighter walls. A further development was the flying buttress which arched externally from the springing of the vault across the roof of the aisle, to a large buttress pier projecting well beyond the line of the external wall.
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The Reign of St. Louis

Louis IX's patronage of the arts drove much innovation in Gothic art and architecture.
KEY POINTS

Louis IX was made a saint in 1297, and remains the only French monarch to have been canonized. Louis IX's artistic and architectural patronage was both innovative and highly influential among European royalty. Louis established the Gothic chapel Sainte-Chapelle to house his collection of Christian relics in the mid-13th century. Sainte-Chapelle epitomized the Rayonnant Gothic style of architecture.

Louis IX ruled during the so-called "golden century of Saint Louis", when the kingdom of France was at its height in Europe, both politically and economically. The king of France was regarded as a primus inter pares among the kings and rulers of the continent. He commanded the largest army, and ruled the largest and most wealthy kingdom of Europe, which was the European center of arts and intellectual thought (La Sorbonne) at the time. The prestige and respect for King Louis IX resulted more from his benevolent personality than from his military domination. For his contemporaries, he was the quintessential example of the Christian

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prince, and embodied the whole of Christendom in his person. The king was later recognized as a saint by the Catholic Church (Figure 20.10). The style of Louis' court radiated throughout Europe through the
Figure 20.10 Bust of St. Louis, ca. 1300 from the church of Mainneville, Eure, France

Figure 20.11 Sainte-Chapelle, Ceiling of the Lower Chapel Saint Louis' Sainte-Chapelle epitomizes the Rayonnant Gothic style as was King Louis IX's personal chapel.

purchase of art objects from Parisian masters for export and by the marriage of the king's daughters and female relatives to foreign husbands. Subsequently, they were introduced to Parisian models throughout Europe. Louis' personal chapel, the SainteChapelle in Paris, was copied more than once by his descendants elsewhere (Figure 20.11). La Sainte-Chapelle (The Holy Chapel) is one of the only surviving buildings of the Capetian royal palace on the le de la Cit in the heart of Paris, France. It was commissioned by King Louis IX of France to house his collection of Passion Relics, including the Crown of

the Sainte-Chapelle is considered among the highest achievements of the Rayonnant period of Gothic architecture. Although damaged during the French revolution and heavily restored in the 19th century, it retains one of the most extensive in-situ collections of 13th century stained glass anywhere in the world. The royal chapel is a prime example of the phase of Gothic architectural style called "Rayonnant Gothic," marked by its sense of weightlessness and strong vertical emphasis. It stands squarely upon a lower chapel, which served as parish church for all the inhabitants of the palace, which was the seat of government.

Louis IX or Saint Louis was a revered leader and strong patron of the arts during the Gothic period.

Thorns - one of the most important relics in medieval Christendom. Begun some time after 1239 and consecrated on the April 26, 1248,

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Section 3

English Gothic Art

Illuminated Manuscripts Architecture

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Illuminated Manuscripts
In an illuminated manuscript text is supplemented by the addition of decorated initials, borders (marginalia), and miniature illustrations.
KEY POINTS

initials, borders (marginalia), and miniature illustrations. The earliest surviving substantive illuminated manuscripts are from the period AD 400 to 600, initially produced in Italy and the Eastern Roman Empire. Had it not been for the monastic scribes of Late Antiquity, most literature of Greece and Rome would have perished in Europe; as it was, the patterns of textual survivals were shaped by the usefulness of the manuscripts to the severely constricted literate group of Christians. The majority of surviving manuscripts are from the Middle Ages, although many illuminated manuscripts survive from the Renaissance, along with a very limited number from Late Antiquity. The majority of these manuscripts are of a religious nature. However, especially from the 13th century onward, an increasing number of secular texts were illuminated. Most medieval manuscripts, illuminated or not, were written on parchment, most commonly of calf, sheep, or goat skin. Most illuminated manuscripts were important enough to be written on the best quality of parchment, called vellum. Art historians classify illuminated manuscripts into their historic periods and types, including, but not limited to, Late Antique, Insular, Carolingian manuscripts, Ottonian manuscripts,

The major varieties and historic periods of illuminated manuscripts include Late Antique, Insular, Carolingian manuscripts, Ottonian manuscripts, Romanesque manuscripts, Gothic manuscripts, and Renaissance manuscripts. The earliest surviving illuminated manuscripts were produced in Italy and the Eastern Roman Empire ca. 400 600. Illuminated manuscripts increased during the Gothic Period, including many secular works of literature and educational texts. Early illuminated manuscripts were produced by masterful monks working in solitude; as demand increased, secular scribes were increasingly employed for this task. Illuminated Manuscripts became obsolete with the advent of printing.

An illuminated manuscript is a manuscript in which the text is supplemented by the addition of decoration, such as decorated

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Romanesque manuscripts, Gothic manuscripts, and Renaissance manuscripts. The types of books that were most often heavily and richly illuminated, sometimes known as a "display book," varied between periods. In the first millennium, Gospel Books were often illuminated. The Romanesque period saw the creation of many huge, illuminated, complete Bibles one in Sweden requires three librarians to lift it. Many Psalters were also heavily illuminated in both the Romanesque and the Gothic periods. Single cards or posters of vellum, leather, or paper were in wider circulation. They documented short stories or legends about the lives of saints, chivalry knights or other mythological figures, even criminal, social or miraculous occurrences, and popular events more commonly used by storytellers and itinerant actors to support their plays. Finally, the Book of Hours, commonly the personal devotional book of a wealthy layperson, was often richly illuminated in the Gothic period (Figure 20.12). Other books, both liturgical and not, continued to be illuminated at all periods. The Byzantine world also continued to produce manuscripts in its own style, versions of which spread to other Orthodox and Eastern Christian areas. Illuminations in the Muslim World The Muslim world and, in particular, the Iberian Peninsula, with their traditions of literacy uninterrupted by the Middle Ages, were

Figure 20.12 Page from the Book of Hours, ca. 1400

instrumental in delivering ancient classic works to the growing intellectual circles and universities of Western Europe in the 1100s. Books were produced in this region in large numbers and, for the first time in Europe, on paper. Among these books, illuminations were often found in full treatises on the sciences, especially astrology and medicine, where illuminations were used to provide profuse and accurate representations with the text.

The book of hours, a devotional book popular in the later Middle Ages, is the most common type of surviving medieval illuminated manuscript.

Illuminations in the Gothic Period The Gothic period, which

generally saw an increase in the production of these beautiful artifacts, also saw illuminations in more secular works such as chronicles and works of literature. Wealthy people began to build up personal libraries. Philip the Bold arguably had the largest personal library of his time in the mid-15th century; his library is

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estimated to have housed about 600 illuminated manuscripts, while a number of his friends and relations only had several dozen. The Commercialization of Illuminations Prior to the 12th century, most manuscripts were produced in monasteries, either for use in their own libraries or in fulfillment of a commission from a wealthy patron. Larger monasteries often contained separate areas, known as scriptoriums, for the monks who specialized in the production of manuscripts. By the 14th century, the cloisters of monks writing in the scriptorium had almost fully given way to commercial urban scriptoria, especially in Paris, Rome and the Netherlands. While the process of creating an illuminated manuscript did not change, the move from monasteries to commercial settings was a radical step. Demand for manuscripts grew to an extent that the Monastic libraries were unable to meet, leading to the employment of secular scribes and illuminators. Beginning in the late Middle Ages, manuscripts began to be produced on paper. The introduction of printing rapidly led to the decline of illumination. Illuminated manuscripts continued to be produced in the early 16th century, but in much smaller quantities, mostly for the very wealthy.

Apocalypse Manuscripts Apocalypse manuscripts were a particular type of illuminated manuscript, the most famous of which were produced in England. These manuscripts generally covered the text of or commentary on the Book of Revelations, which describes the end of the world. These manuscripts were written in Latin, French and AngloNorman.
EXAMPLE

The Book of Hours

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Architecture
English Gothic architecture (c. 1180-1520) is dened by pointed arches, vaulted roofs, buttresses, large windows, and spires.
KEY POINTS

Basilique Saint-Denis north of Paris, built by Abbot Suger and dedicated in June 1144. Many of the largest and finest works of English architecture, notably the medieval cathedrals of England, are largely built in the Gothic style. The earliest large-scale applications of Gothic architecture in England are at Canterbury Cathedral and Westminster Abbey. Castles, palaces, great houses, universities, parish churches, and many smaller unpretentious secular buildings, including almshouses and trade halls, were also built in this style. Early English Gothic Period The Early English Gothic period lasted from the late 12th century until midway through the 13th century, according to most modern scholars. By 1175 the Gothic style had been firmly established in England with the completion of the Choir at Canterbury Cathedral by William of Sens. The most significant and characteristic development of the Early English period was the pointed arch known as the lancet. Compared with the rounded Romanesque style, the pointed arch of the Early English Gothic is aesthetically more elegant and is more efficient at distributing the weight of stonework, making it possible to span higher and wider gaps using narrower columns. It also allows for much greater variation in proportions.

The English Gothic style originated in France with the choir of the Basilique Saint-Denis, built by the Abbot Suger and dedicated in June 1144. The lancet, a pointed arch, was the most crucial development of the Early English Gothic period (c. 1180 - 1250), resulting in graceful buildings with thinner walls and more light. The Decorated Gothic Period (c. 1250-1350) is subdivided into the earlier Geometric Period and later Curvilinear Period, differentiated by styles of window tracery. Known for emphasizing vertical lines, the austerity of the Perpendicular Gothic Period was a response to the pandemic Black Death, which emerged in England in 1348.

English Gothic architecture flourished in England from approximately 1180 to 1520. This style is defined by pointed arches, vaulted roofs, buttresses, large windows, and spires. The Gothic style was introduced from France, where the various elements had first been used together within a single building at the choir of the

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Using the pointed arch, walls could become less massive and window openings could be larger and grouped more closely together, so architects could achieve more open, airy, and graceful buildings. At its purest, the style was simple and austere, emphasizing the height of the building, as if aspiring heavenward. In the late 12th century the Early English Gothic style superseded the Romanesque style, and during the late 13th century it developed into the Decorated Gothic style, which lasted until the mid 14th century. Decorated Gothic Period The Decorated period in architecture is traditionally broken into two periods: the Geometric style (125090) and the Curvilinear style (12901350). Decorated architecture is characterized by its window tracery, which are elaborate patterns that fill the top portions of windows. The tracery style was geometric at first, and flowing in the later period during the 14th century. Vaulting also became more elaborate, with the use of increasing numbers of ribs, initially for structural and later for aesthetic reasons. Examples of the Decorated style can be found in many British churches and cathedrals. Principal examples are those of the east ends of Lincoln Cathedral and of Carlisle Cathedral and the west fronts of York Minster and of Lichfield Cathedral (Figure 20.13).

Figure 20.13 York Minster

Perpendicular Gothic Period The Perpendicular Gothic period is the third historical division of English Gothic architecture, and is named because of being characterized by an emphasis on vertical lines. The Perpendicular style began under the royal architects William Ramsey and John Sponlee and lasted into the mid 16th century.

York Minster Cathedral exemplies the Decorated Gothic period.

The Perpendicular style grew out of the shadow of the Black Death, which killed approximately half of England's population in 18 months between June 1348 and December 1349 and returned in 136162 to kill another fifth of the population. This epidemic dramatically impacted every aspect of society, including arts and culture, and designers moved away from the flamboyance and jubilation present in the Decorated style. Architects were also

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responding to labor shortages resulting from the plague, and therefore relied on less elaborate designs. Perpendicular linearity is particularly obvious in the design of windows, which became immense, allowing greater scope for stained glass craftsmen. Some of the finest features of this period are the magnificent timber roofs; hammerbeam roofs, such as those of Westminster Hall (1395), Christ Church Hall, Oxford, and Crosby Hall, appeared for the first time (Figure 20.14). Gothic architecture continued to flourish in England for 100 years after the precepts of Renaissance architecture were formalized in Florence in the early 15th century.
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Westminster Hall features an early example of the hammerbeam roof, a hallmark of English Gothic architecture. Figure 20.14 Westminster Hall

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Section 4

German Gothic Art and the Holy Roman Empire

Architecture Sculpture

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Architecture
Gothic architecture ourished during the high and late medieval period in the Holy Roman Empire, from approximately 1140-1400.
KEY POINTS

Trier, which is known as one of the most important early Gothic cathedrals in Germany. German Gothic architecture is notable for its enormous towers and spires. Sometimes they were so big that they were left unfinished until modern times. The spires are quite different than English spires because they are made of lacy "openwork." There are also many hallenkirke (or hallFigure 20.15 Freiburg Cathedral

The style is particularly renowned for its enormous cathedrals, such as the Liebfrauenkirche, c. 1233-1283 in Trier, one of the most important early Gothic cathedrals in Germany. Cologne Cathedral is, after Milan Cathedral, the largest Gothic cathedral in the world. Construction began in 1248 and took, with interruptions, until 1880 to complete. Brick Gothic is a style of Gothic architecture common in Northern Europe, especially in Northern Germany and the regions around the Baltic Sea without natural rock resources where the buildings are built, more or less, using only bricks.

churches) which have no clerestorey windows. The nave and the aisles are about the same height. Another important German cathedral is Freiburg Cathedral, built in three stages, the first beginning in 1120 under the Dukes of Zahringen, the second beginning in 1210, and the third in 1230 (Figure 20.15). Of the

German Gothic Architecture Gothic architecture flourished during the high and late medieval period in the Holy Roman Empire, from approximately 1140-1400. Evolving from the prior Romanesque style, the Gothic style is particularly renowned for its enormous cathedrals, such as the Liebfrauenkirche (German for Church of Our Lady) c. 1233-1283 in
View of the Freiburg Cathedral in Germany

original building, only the foundations still exist. It is

particularly notable for its 116-meter tower which is nearly square at the base, and the dodecagonal star gallery at its center. Above this gallery, the tower is octagonal and tapered, with the spire at the top.

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It is the only Gothic church tower in Germany completed in the Middle Ages (1330) that survived the bombing raids of November 1944, which destroyed all of the houses on the west and north side of the market. Cologne Cathedral is, after Milan Cathedral, the largest Gothic cathedral in the world (Figure 20.16). Construction began in 1248 and took, with interruptions, until 1880 to complete a
View of the German Gothic Cologne Cathedral, the second largest cathedral in the world Figure 20.16 Cologne Cathedral

also has the largest faade of any church in the world. The choir of the cathedral, measured between the piers, also holds the distinction of having the largest height to width ratio of any Medieval church. The building of Gothic churches was accompanied by the construction, by the rising bourgeoisie, of guild houses and town halls. A good example is the Gothic Town Hall (13th century) at Stralsund. There is also Bremen Town Hall (1410) and the (reconstructed) city hall of Munster (originally from 1350). The dwellings of this period were mainly timber-framed buildings, as can still be seen in Goslar and Quedlinburg. Quedlinburg has one of the oldest half-timbered houses in Germany. The method of construction, used extensively for town houses of the Medieval and Renaissance periods, lasted into the twentieth century for rural buildings. Brick Gothic Brick Gothic (Backsteingotik) is a specific style of Gothic architecture common in Northern Europe, especially in Northern Germany and the regions around the Baltic Sea that lack natural rock resources. The buildings are built, more or less, using only bricks. Stralsund City Hall and St. Nicholas Church are good examples of this style. Cities such as Lubeck, Rostock, Wismar,

period of over 600 years. It is 144.5 metres long, 86.5 m wide and its two towers are 157 m tall. Because of its enormous twin spires, it

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Stralsund and Greifswald are shaped by this regional style. A model for many North German churches was St. Mary's in Lbeck, built between 1200 and 1350. Gothic Architectural Terms Antependium:A decorated frontispiece to an altar, featuring allegorical figures in tapestry or carved forms. Canopy: An overhanging shade or shelter over an artwork or statue, sometimes situated over pillars. Column figure: A statue or sculpted figure which acts as a supportive shaft. Gargoyle: Originally water outlets, they were shaped like monsters and adorn the parapet of the Notre Dame and other such churches. Lady Chapel: Found in the Notre Dame, as well as many other cathedrals, the Lady Chapel is usually located behind the sanctuary; these places are usually assigned to the Virgin Mary. Pieta: Mary cradling the lifeless body of Christ upon her lap. Rose window: Stained glass windows, evolved from the simple Romanesque ones. These windows were created out of metal, glass, and stonerepresenting the known universe in art.

Tympanum: The vertical space, between the arch and the lintel of a doorway, that contains artwork. Abutment: A reinforcing block or wall adding support to vaults and arches. Corbel: A stone abutment projecting from a wall that supports vaults, arches, and roofs. Lancet window: A tall, narrow window which terminates in a pointed apex.
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Sculpture
Gothic art existed as monumental religious sculpture in great churches, such as in the Cologne Cathedral, and as small, portable sculptures.
KEY POINTS

Elaborate sculpture was used extensively to decorate the facades of these buildings. Cologne Cathedral The Cologne Cathedral is a renowned monument to German Gothic architecture as well as a World Heritage Site home to numerous works of art and decorative sculpture. Its exterior serves as a stunning example of German gothic architecture, while its interior houses numerous examples of gothic sculpture and artwork (Figure 20. 17). One of the important works in the cathedral is the High Altar, installed in 1322. It is constructed out of black marble, with a solid slab 15 feet long forming the top. The front and sides
The Cologne Cathedral is an example of German Gothic architecture. Figure 20.17 Cologne Cathedral

The most renowned work of art in the Cologne Cathedral is the Shrine of the Three Kings, an elaborately carved reliquary traditionally believed to hold the remains of the Three Magi or Three Wise Men. The Gero-Kreuz, a large crucifix carved in oak with traces of paint and gilding is the oldest large crucifix north of the Alps. Aside from monumental sculpture, smaller, portable sculptural pieces were also popular during the Gothic period in some urban centres, taking the form of!small reliefs in ivory, bone and wood and covering both religious and secular subjects.

Gothic art was a style that developed concurrently with Gothic architecture during the mid-12th century. Primary media in the Gothic period included sculpture, panel painting, stained glass fresco and illuminated manuscripts. The earliest Gothic art existed as monumental sculpture on the walls of cathedrals and abbeys.

are overlaid with white marble nine inches into which are set figures, with the Coronation of the Virgin at the centre. The most renowned work of art in the cathedral is the Shrine of the Three Kings. It was commissioned by Philip von Heinsberg,

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archbishop of Cologne from 1167 to 1191, and created by Nicholas of Verdun (Figure 20.18). It is traditionally believed to hold the remains of the Three Magi or Three Wise Men, whose relics were acquired at the conquest of Milan in 1164. The shrine takes the form of a large reliquary in the shape of a basilican church, made of bronze and silver. It is gilded and ornamented with architectonic details, figurative sculpture, enamels and gemstones. The entire outside of the shrine is covered with an elaborate decorative overlay. There are 74 high relief figures in silver gilt in all, not counting smaller additional figures in the background decoration. On the sides, images of the prophets decorate the lower sections, while images of the apostles and evangelists decorate the upper part. On one end, there are (across the bottom, from left to right) images of the Adoration of the Magi, Mary enthroned with the infant Jesus, and the baptism of Christ. Above, one may see Christ
Figure 20.18 Shrine of Three Kings The Shrine of Three Kings in Cologne Cathedral is said to house the remains of the Three Magi and serves as an example of German Gothic sculpture.

enthroned at the Last Judgment. The opposite end shows scenes of the Passion: the scourging of Christ (lower left), and his crucifixion (lower left), with the resurrected Christ above. Near the sacristy is the Gero-Kreuz, a large crucifix carved in oak with traces of paint and gilding which have mostly been restored at this point (Figure 20.19). It is the oldest large crucifix north of the Alps, as well as the oldest known free standing Northern sculpture of the medieval period. Portable Sculpture Aside from monumental sculpture, smaller, portable sculptural pieces were also popular during the Gothic period. Small carvings, made generally for the lay and often female market, became a considerable industry in urban centers. Gothic sculptures independent of architectural ornament were primarily created as devotional objects for the home or intended as donations for local churches. Nevertheless, small reliefs in ivory, bone, and wood
The Gero-Kreuz is the oldest large sculpture of the crucied Christ north of the Alps and is located in the Cologne Cathedral. Figure 20.19 The Gero-Kreuz

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covered both religious, as well as secular subjects, and were for church and domestic use. Such sculptures were often the work of urban artisans. The most typical subject for three dimensional small statues is the Virgin Mary alone or with child. Additional objects typical of the time included small devotional polyptychs, single figures, especially of the Virgin Mary, mirror-cases, combs, and elaborate caskets with scenes from romances.
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Section 5

Italian Gothic Art

The Pisano Family Painting

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The Pisano Family

Nicola Pisano and his son Giovanni developed a ProtoRenaissance style of sculpture in Italy combining classical Roman and Gothic styles.
KEY POINTS

KEY POINTS (cont.)

more French Gothic than classical Roman in style and characterized by bold naturalism and animated figures. Giovanni's greatest work is a pulpit at the Cathedral of Pisa, which depicts nine dramatic scenes from the New Testament carved in white marble with a chiaroscuro effect, and a naturalistic carving of a naked Hercules.

The Pisano family's relief sculptures drew heavily from carved Roman sarcophagi and were characterized by sophisticated and crowded compositions and a sympathetic handling of nudity. Nicola Pisano was born between 1220 and 1225. He was active in Tuscany and trained in the local workshops of the Holy Roman Emperor Frederick II. Nicola Pisano's most famous work is the pulpit at the Pisa Baptistery, which synthesizes Roman and French Gothic styles and depicts scenes from the life of Christ. The inspiration for the structure probably came from the triumphal Arch of Constantine in Rome. Giovanni Pisano was born in Pisa around 1250 and trained as a sculptor in his father's workshop. He worked alongside his father on the pulpit in the Siena Cathedral and the Fontana Maggiore in Perugia. Giovanni's early style was almost indistinguishable from his father's but developed further after Nicola's death. It was

Nicola Pisano (ca. 1220 - 1284) and his son Giovanni Pisano (ca. 1250 - 1315) were Italian Gothic sculptors who developed a classical Roman-influenced style of sculpture known as Proto-Renaissance. Their relief sculptures drew heavily from the carved Roman sarcophagus and were characterized by sophisticated and crowded compositions and a sympathetic handling of nudity. They are sometimes considered to be the first modern sculptors. The specifics of Nicola Pisano's origins are uncertain. He was born between 1220 and 1225 in the southern Italian region of Apulia and trained in the local workshops of the Holy Roman Emperor Frederick II. He moved to Tuscany around 1245 and was active in the cities of Lucca, Pisa, Siena, Pistoia, and Perugia. His most famous work is the pulpit of the Pisa baptistery, which is a masterful synthesis of the French Gothic style with the classical Roman style. Made of white Carrara marble, the pulpit depicts scenes from the life of Jesus Christ in a classical Roman fashion.

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The figures wear tunics in a Roman fashion, and his representation of the Madonna is reminiscent of the regal bearing of goddesses in late Roman sculpture. The inspiration for the pulpit probably came from the triumphal arches at Rome. Nicola Pisano had seen the arches on his travels, particularly the Arch of Constantine, many of whose features the pulpit imitates, including figures standing on top of columns and an attic storey with sculpted scenes (Figure 20.20). Other famous projects undertaken by Nicola Pisano include a marble pulpit for the Siena Cathedral, a commission he received
Figure 20.20 Detail of pulpit at Pisa Baptistery

after making his name at Pisa, and the Fontana Maggiore or Great Fountain at Perugia, which he worked on alongside his son Giovanni (Figure 20.21). Nicola's son, Giovanni Pisano, was born in Pisa around 1250 and trained as a sculptor in his father's workshop. He worked alongside his father on the pulpit in the Siena Cathedral and the Fontana Maggiore in Perugia. His earliest works were made in his father's style, and it is difficult to separate the contributions of the two sculptors. However, after his Nicola's death, Giovanni's style grew more distinct. While it continued to incorporate Roman influences, it was more French Gothic in style and characterized by a bold, dramatic animation that had been missing in Nicola's serene sculptural style. Giovanni was the chief architect of the Siena Cathedral
Nicola and Giovanni Pisano worked side by side on the Fontana Maggiore at Perugia. On the twenty-ve sides of the basin are sculptures representing prophets and saints, the labors of the months, the signs of the zodiac, scenes from Genesis, and events from Roman history. Figure 20.21 Fontana Maggiore, Perugia

between 1287 and 1296. He also worked on statues decorating the exterior of the Pisa Baptistery, the facade of the church of San Paolo
Pulpit (detail): the Annunciation to the Shepherds and the Adoration of the Magi. The trefoil arches supporting the pulpit show French Gothic inuence.

a Ripa d'Arno (St. Paul on the Bank of the Arno) at Pisa, and a

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monument commissioned by the emperor Henry VII, commemorating his wife Margaret of Brabant. Giovanni's greatest work is arguably a pulpit at the Cathedral of Pisa sculpted between 1302 and 1310. The pulpit incorporates a dramatic depiction of nine scenes from the New Testament carved in white marble with a chiaroscuro effect and a naturalistic carving of a naked Hercules. The figure of Prudence in the pulpit is thought to have been an inspiration for the Tuscan painter Masaccio in his Expulsion from the Garden of Eden (Figure 20.22).
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The pulpit at the Pisa Cathedral shows Giovanni Pisano's distinct preference for a bold animated style. Figure 20.22 Pulpit of Pisa Cathedral

Painting
Italian Gothic painting developed a distinctively western character and ourished from the second half of the 13th century onward.
KEY POINTS

The transition from the Romanesque to the Gothic style of painting happened quite slowly in Italy, because Italy was strongly influenced by Byzantine art, especially in painting. The initial changes to the Byzantine-inspired Romanesque style were quite small, marked merely by an increase in Gothic ornamental detailing rather than a dramatic difference in the style of figures and compositions. Cimabue of Florence and Duccio of Siena were trained in the Byzantine style but were the first great Italian painters to break away from the Italo-Byzantine art form. They were pioneers in the move towards naturalism and depicted figures with more lifelike proportions, expressions, and shading. Giotto's style represented a clear break with the Byzantine tradition and was distinctly western, making use of foreshortening, chiaroscuro techniques, and depicting highly expressive figures. During the 14th century, Tuscan painting was predominantly accomplished in the International Gothic style, characterized

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KEY POINTS (cont.)

were depicted with more lifelike proportions and shading, as evident in the Crucifixion scene for the church of Santa Croce in Florence (1287-88) which demonstrates delicately shaded draperies and a use of the chiaroscuro technique (Figure 20. 23). His Maest di Santa Trinita, a Madonna and Child painting commissioned by the church of Santa Trinita in Florence between 1290 and 1300, makes use of perspective in portraying Mary's three-dimensional throne, and

Figure 20.23 Crucixion of Santa Croce (Tempera on Wood)

by a formalized sweetness and grace, elegance and richness of detail, and an idealized quality.

The transition from the Romanesque to the Gothic style of painting happened quite slowly in Italy, several decades after it had first taken hold in France. This was partly because Italy was strongly influenced by Byzantine art, especially in painting, particularly after the conquest of Constantinople in 1204 during the Fourth Crusade, after which the influx of Byzantine paintings and mosaics increased greatly. The initial changes to the Byzantine-inspired Romanesque style were quite small, marked merely by an increase in Gothic ornamental detailing rather than a dramatic difference in the style of figures and compositions. Italian Gothic painting began to flourish in its own right around the second half of the 13th century with the contributions of Cimabue of Florence (ca. 1240 - ca. 1302) and Duccio of Siena (ca. 1255-60 - ca. 1318-19), and developed an even more strongly western character under Giotto (1266-1337). While both Cimabue and Duccio were trained in the Byzantine style, they were the first great Italian painters to start breaking away from the Italo-Byzantine art form. While the scenes and forms of the period were still relatively flat and stylized, Cimabue was a pioneer in the move towards naturalism in Italian painting, and his figures

The gure of Christ slumps heavily to one side and is clad in delicate, folded drapery in Cimabue's Crucixion.

depicts the figures with sweeter and more natural expressions than typical in the somber Romanesque style. Much like Cimabue, Duccio of Siena painted in the Byzantine style but made his own personal contributions in the Gothic style as manifested in the linearity, the rich but delicate detail, and the warm and refined colors of his work. He was also one of the first Italian painters to place figures in architectural settings. Over time, he achieved greater naturalism and softness in his work and made use of foreshortening and chiaroscuro techniques. His characters

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Figure 20.24 Maest del Duomo di Siena (Tempera and Gold on Wood)

painting in the Gothic style, he is considered the herald of the Renaissance. During the 14th century, Tuscan painting was predominantly accomplished in the International Gothic style, which was prevalent throughout Western Europe at the time. In its fully developed form, it is best seen in the work of Simone Martini of Siena (1284 - 1344) and Gentile da Fabriano (1370 - 1427), whose paintings are characterized by a formalized sweetness and grace, and elegance and richness of detail, and an idealized quality that was missing in Giotto's stark work. The tempera altarpieces of Fra Angelico bridge the gap between the International Gothic and Renaissance styles of painting, making use of Gothic elaboration, gold leaf, and brilliant color.
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The Maest of the Siena Cathedral is a painted altarpiece composed of many individual paintings. It was commissioned in 1308 by the city of Siena and is widely regarded as Duccio's masterpiece.

are surprisingly expressive and human, interacting tenderly with each other. Duccio is considered the founder of the Sienese Gothic school of painting (Figure 20.24). Both Cimabue and Duccio were probably influenced by Giotto in their later years, who was renowned for his distinctively western style, basing his compositions not an a Byzantine tradition but on his observation of life. His figures are solidly three-dimensional, have discernible anatomy, and are clothed with garments that appear to have weight and structure. His greatest contribution to Italian Gothic art was his intense depiction of a range of emotions, which his contemporaries began to emulate enthusiastically. While

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Chapter 21

Europe from 1200-1400

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Section 1

Italy in the 1200s

Sculpture Painting and Architecture

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Sculpture
In Italy, some sculptures tended towards the Roman Classical styles that elevated sculpture beyond interior design.
KEY POINTS

Much of this was driven by the role these cities played in trade. Elites in many northern city-states including Venice, Genoa and Pisa became wealthy through maritime trade. To ensure their power and wealth, city leaders banded together to form the Lombardi League. The main goal of the league was to counter the authority of the Holy Roman Empire, which in spite of the name was primarily a Germanic power. Leaders of the city-states also used their wealth to act as patrons of the arts, with these artists reviving an interest in classical forms and styles. Meanwhile, in other parts of Europe, sculpture was being reduced to decorations meant to compliment elaborate architecture. In Italy, some sculptures tended towards the Roman Classical styles that elevated sculpture beyond interior design. Nicola Pisano was one of these great sculptors. Pisano's work was not a replication of existing work, but a deft melding of Classical and contemporary Gothic styles.
Italian sculpture in the Medieval period often drew on multiple traditions. The two panels in this image show the Annunciation to the Shepherds and the Adoration of the Magi. Figure 21.1 Pulpit - Pisa Baptistery

During the 13th century, Italian city-states re-asserted their power and authority through trade. The city-states often used their wealth to act as patrons of the arts. Nicola Pisano was one of the great sculptors of the period. His work deftly melded Classical and contemporary Gothic styles. Pisano's work foreshadowed the blend of styles that would be present in much of Italian art, architecture and craft for several centuries to come.

Sculpture During the 1200s, Italy was coming out of what is often described as the Dark Ages. After the end of Roman rule in the 5th century, much of Italy was ruled by Germanic tribes and nations. However, in the period leading up to the 13th century, Italian city-states began to re-assert their own power and authority.

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One of his masterworks is the Pulpit in the Pisa baptistery (Figure 21.1). This piece features both Christian and Roman scenes including the founding of Pisa and The Last Judgment. It also features characters like John the Baptist and Hercules. Pisano's work foreshadowed the blend of styles that would be present in much of Italian art, architecture and craft for several centuries to come.
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Painting and Architecture

Painters and architects in the 1200s were only beginning to explore styles that characterized shifts from Medieval to Renaissance.
KEY POINTS

In the period leading up to the 13th century Italian city-states began to re-assert their own power and authority. Much of this was driven by the role these cities played in trade. In the 1200s leaders of Italian city-states began using their wealth to become patrons of the arts, and artists were reviving an interest in classical forms and styles. Painters and architects in the 13th Century were only beginning to explore some of the style revolutions that would create the shift from the Medieval to the Renaissance period over the next several centuries. Paintings during the 1200s were often produced for the church. Particularly in the Tuscan region, tempera was the predominant medium and painters tended to work true to the Byzantine style. While the Gothic style was exported to much of Europe, it was never wholeheartedly embraced by Italian architects. Instead, local styles and material were favored, and buildings were often a mix of Gothic and Classical styles.

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Italy during the 1200s was emerging from what is often described as the Dark Ages. After the end of Roman rule in the 5th century much of Italy was ruled by Germanic tribes and nations. In the period leading up to the 13th century, Italian city-states began to re-assert their own power and authority. Much of this was driven by the role these cities played in trade. In particular elites in many northern city-states such as Venice, Genoa and Pisa became wealthy through maritime trade. City leaders would, on occasion, work together to insure their power and wealth; for example, banding together to form the Lombardi League. The main goal of the league was to counter the authority of the Holy Roman Empire, which in spite of the name, was primarily a Germanic power. At the same time leaders of the city-states began to use their wealth to become patrons of the arts. Painters and architects in the 1200s were only beginning to explore some of the style revolutions that would later cause the shift from the Medieval to the Renaissance period over the next several centuries. Paintings during this period were often produced for the church. Particularly in the Tuscan region, tempera was the predominant medium and painters tended to stay true to the Byzantine style. This was highly formalistic with little attention to questions of perspective and relationships between figures. Instead, paintings were iconic. For example, images of the Virgin Mary would appear

in multiple paintings featuring the same angles of her head and shoulders, along with the folds in her veil (Figure 21.2). In France, Gothic architecture emerged and was characterized by dramatic flying buttresses,
Figure 21.2 Madonna and Child

lancet archways, an increased use of stain glass, and elevated heights for civic and religious buildings. While the Gothic style was exported to much of Europe, it was never

This alter painting by Duccio di Buoninsegna, c. 1280 demonstrate the Byzantine style.

wholeheartedly embraced by Italian architects.

Instead, local styles and material were favored, and buildings were often a mix of Gothic and Classical styles.
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Section 2

Fourteenth Century Europe

Introduction

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Introduction
The fourteenth century was lled with transformation and turmoil; it is also a bridge between the medieval period and the Renaissance.
KEY POINTS

Background The fourteenth century was filled with a great deal of transformation and turmoil. The population had grown leading up to this period and Europe had also made great improvements in technology, art, and politics. However, several natural and social disasters slowed development in Europe during the fourteenth century. Agriculture was hampered by the Little Ice Age, a climatic cooling that saw temperatures drop, settlements cut off, and crops fail. Additionally, the Black Death caused by the Bubonic Plague killed nearly half the population of Europe through successive waves. Additionally, Europe was in political turmoil with France as it moved through waves of civil and external wars that included invading England in 1066 and the Hundred Years War. Conflicts between the pope and the Holy Roman Empire continued in Central and Southern Europe that included a schism marked by two popes claiming the title and the first sparks of Protestant Reformation. Western Europe became more isolated, cut off from China and other parts of Eastern Europe and Asia. Additionally, the period was characterized by increased fear and blame, including a rise in antiSemitism and hysteria over witchcraft.

The population had grown leading up to this period and great improvements were made in technology, art, and politics. However, several natural and social disasters slowed development in Europe during the fourteenth century. In terms of art culture and architecture, this century is a bridge between the middle ages or medieval period and the Renaissance or Early Modern Period. Medieval art was characterized by gothic architecture, and material arts like sculpture, illuminated manuscripts, stained glass, metalwork, frescoes, and textiles. Romanesque art developed around 1000 and continued until the rise of Gothic art in the 12th century, in conjunction with the rise of monasticism in Western Europe. Gothic art is a variable term depending on the craft, place, and time. The term originated with the Gothic architecture that developed in France from about 1137 with the rebuilding of the Abbey Church of St Denis.

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Art and Culture In terms of art culture and architecture, this century is a bridge between the Middle Ages or medieval period and the Renaissance or
Figure 21.3 Illuminated Manuscript

Figure 21.4 Duccio Maesta

Early Modern Period. Medieval art was characterized by Gothic architecture and material arts like sculpture, illuminated manuscripts (Figure 21.3), stained glass, metalwork, frescoes (Figure 21.4), and textiles. Romanesque art developed in the period between about 1000 to the rise of Gothic art in the 12th century, in conjunction with the rise of monasticism in Western Europe. The style developed initially in France and
The central panel of Duccio's huge Maest altarpiece for Siena Cathedral.

St Denis. As with Romanesque architecture, this included sculpture as an integral part of the style, with even larger portals and other figures on the facades of churches, which is the location of the most important sculptures. It was not until the Late Period, when large carved altarpieces and reredos, usually in painted and gilded wood, became an important focus in many churches. Renaissance art forms started in Italy and were characterized by new experiments with perspective and a renewed focus on painting and classical works of art.

An example from the French Book of Hours.

then spread to Christian Spain, England, Flanders, Germany, Italy,

and elsewhere to become the first medieval style found all over Europe, though with regional differences. Gothic art is a variable term depending on the craft, place, and time. The term originated with the Gothic architecture that developed in France from about 1137 with the rebuilding of the Abbey Church of

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Section 3

Italy

Florence: Architecture and Metalwork Florence: Painting Sienna: Painting Giotto Pisa Venice, and Milan

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Florence: Architecture and Metalwork

Italian architects never fully embraced the gothic style, and tended to hold fast to traditional styles.
KEY POINTS

Florence: Architecture and Metalwork Gothic-style architecture started in France and was characterized by lancet archways, pointed archways used for both windows and doorways. Theses allowed for both thinner walls and larger windows. Other characteristics included the increased use of flying buttresses to support walls, and a shift towards more slender and ornate columns, and vaulted ceilings. While the style gained in popularity in many parts of Europe, in Italy the gothic style was never fully embraced. Instead the great buildings in cities such as Florence retained aspects of local style including classical and byzantine
The rst of the great Basilica in Florence Figure 21.5 Basilica of Santa Maria Novella

Gothic architecture started in France and while the style gained in popularity in many parts of Europe, in Italy the gothic style was never fully embraced. Instead the great buildings in cities such as Florence retained aspects of local style including classical and byzantine styles. The mix of styles is also often a reflection of length of time it took to complete large civic and church buildings. The Santa Maria Novella church in Florence is an example of this mix. The first of the great churches in Florence the building took over one hundred years to complete from approximately 1246 to 1360. While less well recognized today than other forms of art ironwork in Medieval Italy was a well respected craft, and iron artists focused on the difficult and time consuming practices of smiths without tempering the metals.

styles. The mix of styles is also often a reflection of length of time it took to complete large civic and church buildings. Basilica of Santa Maria Novella The Santa Maria Novella church in Florence (Figure 21.5) is an example of this mix. The first of the great churches in Florence the building took over one hundred years to complete from approximately 1246 to 1360.

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Looking at the building from the main faade the bottom section of the church features some of the classic features of gothic style with a series of lancet archways. However, moving up the building one recognizes classical columns, and while the building is topped with the peaked triangle common in classical architecture that is flanked on either side by ornate flying buttresses.
Figure 21.6 Work of Il Caparra

Florence: Painting
In Florence, painters wholeheartedly embraced naturalistic styles, creating images with attention to portraying strong emotions.
KEY POINTS

Metalwork While less well recognized today than other forms of art, ironwork in Medieval Italy was a well respected craft. Florence was one of the cities that excelled in ironwork. Here craftsmen focused on the difficult and time consuming practices of smiths without tempering the metals. Niccol Grosso also known as Il Caparra (Figure 21.6) was one of Florence's great Iron artists, and his work can

The Florentine School of Painting is characterized by the naturalism in painting in Florence that started to emerge in the 13th century. The period between 1200 and 1400 in Northern Italy provides an important bridge in Art History; between the Medieval period and Byzantine and Gothic styles, and the Early Modern period and Renaissance styles. In Florence, painters wholeheartedly embraced the more naturalistic styles. Harkening back to classical figures, they created images portraying strong emotion and that paid attention to relationships between figures. Their painting expressed a type of liveliness not present in Byzantine styles. The dome of the Baptistry of St John is one important example of this work. Begun in 1255, both Venetian and Tuscan painters would have been involved in the project.

Niccol Grosso or Il Caparra was one of the greatest iron smiths in Florence.

also be found in Santa Maria Novella.

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Florence: Painting The Florentine School of Painting is characterized by the naturalism that started to emerge in Florence in the 13th century. This period

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set the stage for what would become the great period of Florentine art in later centuries that would include the work of great artists such as Michelangelo, Fra Angelico, Botticelli, Donatello and Lippi. However, art in Florence and northern Italy during the period between 1200 and 1400 was still in transition; a bridge in Art History between the Medieval period and Byzantine and Gothic styles, and the Early Modern period and Renaissance styles. Sometimes referred to as the proto-Renaissance period, art and architecture in northern Italy provided important hints at the trends that would take hold over the next centuries in the rest of Europe. City states and duchies such as Venice, Pisa, Milan, Lucca, and Florence were the main homes of these developments. In spite of the many challenges during the period, such as the ongoing ravages of the Black Plague, these city
This mosaic ceiling, started in 1255, is an example of the early Florentine Style. Figure 21.7 Baptistry of St John, Florence

states were relatively stable politically, providing good foundations for new experimentations in art. Leading families in each city prospered under this stability and the economic growth promoted through trade. Each of these leading families vied for power, but also for cultural prominence, and became great patrons of the arts. At the same time, there were great changes occurring in art both in terms of styles and philosophies. One important change was a focus on the individual in religious practices, which also translated into a greater naturalistic and humanist focus in art. Florence Painters in this city wholeheartedly embraced naturalist styles. Harkening back to classical figures, they created images with attention to portraying strong emotions and relationships between figures; painting that expressed a type of liveliness not present in Byzantine styles. The dome of the Baptistry of St John (Figure 21.7) is one of the first important examples of a large-scale pectoral project in Florence. Begun in 1255, both Venetian and Tuscan painters would have been involved in the project, particularly the Florentine Coppo di Marcovaldo, one of the earliest painters involved in the project and

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the one thought to have painted the central figure of Christ in the piece. Altar pieces were also an important form of painting during this period. Churches commissioned various artists from various parts of Italy to paint these, including several Sienese artists such as Ugolino di Nerio, who painted the altar piece for the Basilica di Santa, possibly the earliest Florentine altar piece featuring a polyptych. Artists were able to work in Florence at least in part due to the influential art guilds, including the painters' guild Arte dei Medici e Spezeiali. These guilds also became important patrons of the arts, and took over the maintenance and improvement of religious buildings.
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Sienna: Painting
The Sienese school often blended Byzantine and Classical styles to produce a unique style of painting.
KEY POINTS

The period between 1200 and 1400 in northern Italy provides an important bridge in art history between the Medieval period and Byzantine and Gothic styles, and the Early Modern period and Renaissance styles. In Sienna, painting continued to focus on the decorative and religious themes. Frescoes in cathedrals depict typical biblical scenes, but also pay attention to the arrangements between the figures and their place within the architecture in the paintings. Duccio di Buoninsegna is one of the best known Sienna painters of the time. His work was ornate using gold leaf and jewels. His work in egg tempera also use brighter colors, and played with light and dark colors to highlight the figures under the drapery, rounding out features in faces and hands.

Sienna - Painting The Sienese School of painting was more conservative than painting in Florence, but nonetheless important, flourishing between the 1200s and 1400s. Some of the important painters from this period

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included Duccio and his pupils Ambrogio Lorenzetti, Simone Martini and Matteo di Giovanni.
Figure 21.8 Duccio's Maest

of the Black Plague, these city-states were relatively stable and prosperous homes for new experimentations in art. Leading families in each city prospered under the relative political stability and the economic growth promoted through trade. Each of these leading families vied for power, but also for cultural prominence, and became great patrons of the arts. At the same time that patrons were readily available there were great changes occurring in art, both in terms of styles and philosophies. One important change was a focus on the individual in religious practices, which also translated into a greater humanist focus in artistic practice. Byzantine styles in painting focused on formal composition with little relationship between figures, and with little sense of perspective. Painters in the Proto-Renaissance
Detail from the Basilica Inferiore de Assisi, painted between 1310 and 1329. Figure 21.9 Pietro Lorenzetti

One planel of Duccio's multi-painting altarpiece in Sienna, an important example of the Sienese school of painting.

The period between 1200 and 1400 in Northern Italy provides an important bridge in art history between the Medieval period, Byzantine and Gothic styles, and the Early Modern period and Renaissance styles. Sometimes referred to as the proto-Renaissance period, art and architecture in Northern Italy provided important hints at the trends that would take hold over the next centuries in the rest of Europe. City-states and duchies such as Florence, Genoa, Venice, Milan and Sienna were the main home of these developments. In spite of the many challenges during the period, including the ongoing ravages

period returned to an interest in classical forms, with a looser composition but with a greater attention to relationships between figures, and an affinity for recreating a sense of depth in paintings.

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Sienna The Sienese School embraced a renewed focus on giving life to the figures within the painting, and paid attention to the arrangements between the figures as well as their place within the architecture. Despite this, the school was still more conservative than painting in Florence. In Sienna, painting continued to focus on decorative uses and religious themes. Within the great cathedrals, frescoes that were built during this period depicted typical biblical scenes. There was also a focus on miraculous events, coloration that was more dreamlike, and distortions in place and time. Duccio di Buoninsegna is one of the best known Sienna painters of the time. His work was often ornate with the use of gold leaf and jewels. His work in egg tempera also used brighter colors, rounded out features in faces and hands, and played with light and dark colors to highlight the figures under the drapery.
Annunciation 1344, blends Classical and Byzantine styles and provides the rst example of linear perspective. Figure 21.10 Ambrogio Lorenzetti - Annunciation 1344

Duccio's work was considered quite emotional, with a renewed focus on storytelling through the interactions of figures in the images and the selection of strong interpretations of biblical stories. The altarpiece Maest (1308-1310, (Figure 21.8) is one of his great works. Composed of multiple paintings and commissioned by the city of Sienna, the piece depicts the life of the Virgin Mary and Christ. Other painters of the Sienese school include Simone Martini and Pierto Lorenzetti (Figure 21.9), younger painters who pushed Duccio's enovations to new levels. Another important example is Ambrogio Lorenzetti, whose work blended Classical and Byzantine styles. Take, for example, his last known piece, Annunciation (1344, (Figure 21.10): Lorenzetti uses the first known example of linear perspective in the diagonal lines in the floor, while the flat gold background has more in common with traditional Byzantine painting.
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Giotto
Giotto was one of the most revered painters of his time and an important bridge between the medieval and renaissance periods.
KEY POINTS

Giotto Giotto di Bondone was born during the late 1200s in the Florence region of Italy. He would go on to become one of the most revered painters of his time, and an important bridge between the medieval and renaissance periods. The frescos at the Scrovigni Chapel in Padua (Figure 21.11) are some of Giotto's known masterpieces. Also known as the Arena Chapel, the frescos depicted the life of the Virgin Mary and Jesus. Some scholars also suggest that he was the architect of the church, but like much of Giotto's life and work, this is disputed.
Figure 21.11 Kiss of Judas One of the most dramatic scenes from Giotto's frescos at the Scrovegni Chapel is this one depicting the betrayal of Judas.

Giotto di Bondone was born during the late 1200s in the Florence region of Italy. He would go on to become one of the most revered painters of his time and an important bridge between the medieval and renaissance periods. The frescos at the Scrovigni Chapel in Padua are some of Giotto's known masterpieces. Also known as the Arena Chapel, the frescos depicted the life of the Virgin Mary and Jesus. There are great debates between scholars over which works should be attributed to Giotto, as opposed to being the work of assistants or other artists. Giotto's distinct contribution was a return to a style that directly references the natural world with paintings based on life drawings. In Giotto's work, faces had details, fabrics fell in recognizable drapes, and figures were placed in a scene in place, with an attempt to create three dimensional landscapes drawing in the viewer.

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There are great debates between scholars over which works should be attributed to Giotto, as opposed to being the work of assistants or other artists. For example, Giotto appears to have apprenticed with a Florentine painter, Cimabue in Rome, and may have been responsible for portions of the Chapel at Assisi. However, there is no documentation to confirm his work in Assisi. Giotto's distinct contribution was a return to a style that directly references the natural world, a style that had been lost since the classical period. Byzantine styles featured flat elongated figures and a lack of natural perspective. Giotto returned to painting based on life drawings. In Giotto's work, faces had details, fabrics fell in recognizable drapes, and figures were placed in a scene in place, with an attempt to create three dimensional landscapes drawing in the viewer. Another strength of Giotto's work was his storytelling ability. He was skilled at selecting strong interpretations of Biblical stories and at drawing viewers to the most visually and spiritually rich aspects of the story. This focus on relationships between figures, as well as a renewed interest in perspective and life drawing, are some of the aspects that would become prominent in renaissance painting.

Even Giotto's death and final resting place are uncertain. It is believed that he died in the Florence region in 1337, and is believed to have been buried in the Santa Maria del Fiore Cathedral of Florence. However, there is still some uncertainty as to these details.
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Pisa, Venice, and Milan

Italian cities including Pisa, Venice, and Milan were important bridges between the Medieval and the Renaissance periods.
KEY POINTS

Pisa, Venice, and Milan Italy in the late Middle Ages provided an important bridge between what had been the Medieval period with a the fashion for Byzantine and Gothic styles, and what would become the the Early Modern Period with its Renaissance style. This is perhaps unsurprising as the Renaissance was a return to the classical styles of Greece and Rome, traditions which never quite went out of fashion in Italian art and architecture. Additionally, the unique economic and political situation in Italy also promoted the artistic revolutions of the period. Italy was ruled primarily as a set of independent city-states or sometimes slightly larger Duchies. Each was generally ruled by powerful families who had become wealthy through the unique trade economy that was developing in many Italian cities, particularly in the north. Maintaining leadership was difficult, while in power, these Italian princes were inclined to use their wealth to secure their own legacy and promote the cultural superiority of their own cities. As such they became great patrons of the arts. Additionally, the power of the church continued to grow in this period, particularly during the wave of Bubonic Plague that killed as much as a quarter of the population in some cities. Church leaders also sponsored some of the great works of art and architecture that are still scattered around Italy.

Italy in the late Middle Ages provided an important bridge between what had been the Medieval period with a the fashion for Byzantine and Gothic styles, and what would become the the Early Modern Period with its Renaissance style. This is perhaps unsurprising as the Renaissance was a return to the classical styles of Greece and Rome, traditions which never quite went out of fashion in Italian art and architecture. Pisa is located in the Tuscany region of Italy and is home to various iconic architectural pieces including the leaning Tower of Pisa. In addition to exquisite architecture and important painting and architecture, Venice has been since the Medieval period home to an important community of glass craftsmen. Milan is home to some great works of art and architecture from this period including the elaborate and ornate Milan Cathedral, the fourth largest cathedral in the world and an excellent example of gothic architecture.

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Pisa Pisa is located in the Tuscany region of Italy. In spite of the fact that it is now a fairly small town, during the Middle Ages it was a center of religious power and home to various iconic architectural pieces including the Leaning Tower of Pisa. The tower is part of Pisa's Cathedral Square, and while its lean is an unintentional result of inadequate foundation, its design is an important example of the Italian Gothic stye that retains many aspects of Classical architecture. Venice Venice today is known for its series of canals serving as transportation in this city made up of many islands. In the Middle Ages and into the seventeenth century it was known as the Republic of Venice, a strong power in Northern Italian politics and trade, as well as a maritime power. In addition to exquisite architecture and important painting and architecture, Venice has been, since the Medieval period, home to an important community of glass craftsmen. The craft of glass blowing was a much respected skill during that period and into the Renaissance period, and glass blowers were notoriously secretive about their formulas.

Milan Today Milan is the second largest city in Italy, and during this period, it was no less important. A founding member of the Lombardy League, formed to repel the Holy Roman Empire from encroaching on the sovereignty of Italy city-states, Milan also became a Duchy during this period. Milan's leadership was also made wealthy due to its important role in trade. Milan is home to some great works of art and architecture from this period, including the elaborate and ornate Milan Cathedral (Figure 21.12), the fourth largest cathedral in the world and an excellent example of Gothic architecture.
Figure 21.12 Milan Cathedral The ornate Milan Cathedral is an important example of Italian Gothic architecture, and the fourth largest cathedral in the world.

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Section 4

France

Illuminated Manuscripts Metalwork and Ivory

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Illuminated Manuscripts
Illuminated manuscripts where highly ornate texts with decorated initials and illustrations in the margins.
KEY POINTS

parchments made of animal skins, the highest quality of which was vellum. Illuminated manuscripts where highly ornate texts with decorated initials (Figure 21.13) and illustrations in the margins. The technical definition of an illuminated manuscript requires the use of gold or
Figure 21.13 Illuminated Manuscript - Monk Tasting Wine In this detail from the 13th century illuminated manuscript Li Livres dou Sant (The Books of Health), a monk tasting wine from a barrel is part of the ornately decorated initial.

Before the printing press, written texts were considered items of luxury, beauty, and high craft. Illuminated manuscripts where highly ornate texts with decorated initials and illustrations in the margins. The technical definition of an illuminated manuscript requires the use of gold or silver in the illumination. The development of Paris as a cultural center, along with increases in literacy in both aristocratic and merchant classes, increased the demand for books and illuminated manuscripts. The style of manuscripts did not change drastically during this period, with artists remaining heavily influenced by the work of early gothic-era manuscript illuminators, whose work was characterized by delicate figures and the use of grisaille technique with additional touches of color. described as a painted manuscript.

silver in the illumination. Otherwise a text is more accurately Illuminated Manuscripts Before the printing press, written texts were considered items of luxury, beauty, and high craft. Manuscripts were hand produced on

In France, Paris was developing into a center of cultural, economic and political power. Its growing population made it one of the densest cities in Europe. Additionally, new universities and

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churches were built in the city, and the French monarch had moved the capital to Paris in the twelfth century. These developments, along with increases in literacy in both aristocratic and merchant classes, increased the demand for books and illuminated manuscripts. While illuminated manuscripts had been produced primarily for religious purposes, many more histories, literature, and law manuscripts were produced during the fourteenth century. The style of manuscripts did not change drastically during this period. Instead, artists remained heavily influenced by Jean Pucelle, and other gothic-era manuscript illuminators. Pucelle's work was characterized by delicate figures and the use of the primarily monochromatic grisaille technique with additional touches of color. Toward the end of the century, some illuminators began to move toward greater realism in their work, especially in landscapes. Illuminated manuscripts were difficult and expensive to produce, and so the Church and universities were major supporters of their production. Wealthy patrons also supported production of these works. Finally, more simple versions were more common with simple decorations of minimally ornamented initials. Illuminated manuscripts also serve as one of the most enduring examples painting from the early middle-ages.

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Metalwork and Ivory

In France, metal and ivory pieces took on a diminutive but ornate characteristic, and required great skill to create.
KEY POINTS

metalworkers and sculptures working in ivory also made an impact on the the art, architecture, craft and, interior design world of France during the period. While metal and ivory art work was often more diminutive, it was still quite striking. Metalwork Iron work during the gothic period took on various styles and trends from large rough wrought-iron works to more delicate items. In France the dominant trend was towards the ornate, and especially to decorative pieces used as components in doors. These included door knockers, locks, and even hinges with elaborate adornment. These works required high levels of skill and craftsmanship.
The elaborate decoration of the door to Notre Dame Cathedral is a strong example of the ornate metalwork of this period. Figure 21.14 Norte Dame de Paris - Door

Metalworkers and sculptures working in ivory made an impact on the the art, architecture, craft, and interior design world of France during the period. While that work was often more diminutive, metal and ivory art was still quite striking. In France the dominant trend was towards the ornate, and especially to decorative pieces used as components in doors. These included door knockers, locks, and even hinges with elaborate adornment. Paris was a center of production for ivory sculptures of various forms. In addition to various small figures and talismans, there was a fashion for narrative panels in groups of two or three (diptychs and tryptychs), or multi-panel polytychs.

The door to Notre Dame Cathedral in Paris is a key example. Notre Metalwork and Ivory France is credited with exporting the gothic style of architecture during this period. While that style is better known for its large dramatic features such as flying buttresses and elaborate stain glass, Dame is one of the first buildings to use a flying buttress, which became characteristic of gothic architecture. It is also well known for its sculpture, stain glass, and gargoyles. But the door of the cathedral is, in and of itself, a work of art (Figure 21.14),

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Figure 21.15 Notre Dame de Paris Doorknocker The elaborate doorknocker is just one of the details worked into the door of the Notre Dame Cathedral.

Figure 21.16 Siege of the Castle of Love - Mirror This mirror casing is an example of the ornate ivory work that became part of everyday objects in the Middle Ages.

particularly when one takes into account the limited smithing techniques of the time (Figure 21.15). Ivory Ivory became available once again in Europe in the middle ages and created a trend for ivory sculptures of various forms. In addition to small figures and talismans, there was a fashion for narrative panels in groups of two or three (diptychs and tryptychs), or multipanel polytychs. Paris became a center for the creation of these works. Additionally, their popularity spread beyond church art, and these pieces could be found in homes and used for decorative furnishing (Figure 21.16).

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Section 5

England

The Opus Anglicanum Architecture

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The Opus Anglicanum

Opus Anglicanum, Latin for the English work, referred to the elaborate needlework produced during the the middle ages.
KEY POINTS

KEY POINTS (cont.)

Few pieces have survived due to the delicate nature of the work. Some were repurposed as they aged, and other pieces were even buried with their owners.

The Opus Anglicanum England gained a reputation for needlework as early as the preNorman conquest, or Anglo-Saxon period, but it was the in the 13th and 14th centuries that the Opus Anglicanum really flourished. Opus Anglicanum, Latin for the English work, referred to the elaborate needlework produced during the the middle ages. Embroidered pieces were used in religious and secular settings on vestments, clothing for the wealthy, and heraldic tapestries. Style The stye of the work involved combining silk and gold or silver-gilt threads worked on linen and later velvet. The motifs used followed the trends in other forms of art such as illuminated manuscripts and architecture, including the use of scrolls and spirals sometimes with foliage. Embroidered pieces also depicted figures of kings and saints, and the Gothic arches popular in architecture in Europe during this period.

England gained a reputation for needlework as early as the pre-Norman conquest, or Anglo-Saxon period, but it was the in the 13th and 14th centuries that the Opus Anglicanum really flourished. Opus Anglicanum, Latin for the English work, referred to the elaborate needlework produced during the the middle ages. Embroidered pieces were used in religious and secular settings on vestments, clothing for the wealthy and heraldic tapestries. The stye of the work involved combining silk and gold or silver-gilt threads worked on linen and later velvet. The motifs used followed the trends in other forms of art such as illuminated manuscripts and architecture of the time. Opus Anglicanum became popular luxury items across Europe. Pope Martin IV, for example, ordered pieces made for him after admiring the vestments of English Priests. However, as the 14th century moved on there was less demand for luxury goods as funds were re-directed towards military expenditures.

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Craftsmen London was the main hub for this work, and while it is often associated with certain convents, a professional group of male craftsmen produced much of the work. The Worshipful Company of Broderers was the craft guild, incorporated in 1561, to represent these workers. There is some evidence that the group had first incorporated as early as 1515, but those records were lost. Use Opus Anglicanum became popular luxury items across Europe. Pope Martin IV, for example, ordered pieces made for him after admiring the vestments of English Priests. However, as the 14th century moved on, there was less demand for luxury goods as funds were re-directed towards military expenditures. As a result, the style of the work was scaled back, and much of the richness and storytelling involved in these pieces was lost. For example, the work
Figure 21.17 Butler-Bowden Cope This picture is one of the few examples of Opus Anglicanum that has survived. It was reconstructed in the 19th century.

often became small applique pieces that could be added to clothing or tapestries. Few pieces have survived due to the delicate nature of the work. Some were repurposed as they aged, and other pieces were even buried with their owners. Some of the surviving pieces include a cope, a type of vestment, owned by the Butler-Bowdon family (Figure 21.17). This is also an example of a piece that was cut up for re-use. The Butler-Bowdon Cope (1330-1350) was reconstructed in the 19th century.
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Architecture
Gothic style came from France to England, and remained popular after new architectural styles were fashionable in other parts of Europe.
KEY POINTS

KEY POINTS (cont.)

Perpendicular period is characterized by increased focus on the vertical, with windows continuing to grow in size and stain glass becoming increasingly prominent. There was also a retreat from certain types of opulence do to the mood in the country, which was ravaged by the plague.

The Gothic style in architecture made its way from France to various other parts of Europe including the England. In fact in England it remained popular for into the period when new architectural styles had become fashionable in other parts of Europe. .The English gothic style is often divided into three periods 1) Early English (c. 1180-1275), 2) Decorated (c. 1275-1380), 3) Perpendicular, or as some have called it Rectilinear (c. 1380-1520). Early English style is characterized by lancet archways, used for both windows and doorways, and allowing for thinner walls and larger windows. Other characteristics of Early English were the increased use of flying buttresses, more slender and ornate columns, vaulted ceilings and taller buildings. The Decorated period was characterized by greater levels of ornament, and in particular increasingly ornate tracery, the stone work supporting windows.

Background Architecture of the Anglo-Saxon period exists only in the form of churches, the only structures commonly built in stone apart from fortifications. The earliest examples date from the 7th century, notably at Bradwell-on-Sea and Escomb, but the majority from the 10th and 11th centuries. Due to the systematic destruction and replacement of English cathedrals and monasteries by the Normans, no major Anglo-Saxon churches survive; the largest extant example is at Brixworth The main material is ashlar masonry, sometimes accompanied by details in reused Roman brick. Anglo-Saxon churches are typically high and narrow and consist of a nave and a narrower chancel; a west tower often accompanies these. Some feature porticos (projecting chambers) to the west or to the north and south, creating a cruciform plan. Characteristic features include quoins in 'long-and-short work' (alternating vertical and horizontal blocks)

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and small windows with rounded or triangular tops, deeply splayed or in groups of two or three divided by squat columns. Notable examples of this exist at Earls Barton, Bradford-on-Avon and Barton-upon-Humber. Norman Architecture in England: Norwich Castle. where round arches are characteristic of the Romanesque style. In the 11th century the Normans were Europe's leading exponents of Romanesque architecture, a style that had begun to influence English church building before 1066, but became the predominant mode in England with the huge wave of construction that followed the Norman Conquest. The Normans destroyed a large proportion of England's churches and built Romanesque replacements, a process, which encompassed all of England's cathedrals. Most of the latter were later partially or wholly rebuilt in Gothic style, and although many still preserve substantial Romanesque portions, only Durham Cathedral remains a predominantly Romanesque structure (along with St Alban's and Southwell, abbey churches in the medieval period). Even Durham displays significant transitional features leading towards the emergence of Gothic. Massive cylindrical piers, groin vaults and low-relief sculptural decoration support rounded arches, arcades, characterize Romanesque churches. Distinctively Norman features include decorative chevron patterns.

Gothic Architecture in England The Gothic architectural tradition originated in France in the mid-12th century and spread rapidly to England, where it remained the prevailing style for well over 300 years. In addition to new constructions, many earlier buildings were wholly or partially rebuilt in this manner, so that most surviving English medieval buildings are predominantly Gothic in form. The Gothic style arose largely from the introduction of large windows, often filled with stained glass and subdivided by decorative stone tracery. The desire to increase window space drove the development of new structural techniques, which constitute most of the other distinctive features of the style: pointed arches, rib vaults, buttresses (Figure 21.18) and pinnacles. These increased the strength of the building and reduced the amount of weight, which had to be carried by the walls, enabling
Flying buttresses area common feature of Gothic architecture, supporting thinner walls and higher buildings. Figure 21.18 Flying Buttress

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more space to be occupied by glass. They also made possible greater flexibility of proportions than Romanesque afforded. Other characteristic features include columns composed of multiple shafts and high-relief sculpture, usually of a more naturalistic character than found in Romanesque decoration. England's Gothic architecture is conventionally divided into three chronologically successive but overlapping styles. Early English Gothic (late 12th-early 14th centuries) is the plainest and closest to French models. It is
This thin pointed windows are typical feature of Gothic architecture. Figure 21.19 Lacent Windows

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typified by the simplicity of its vaults and tracery, the use of lancet windows (Figure 21.19) and smaller amounts of sculptural decoration than either Romanesque or later varieties of Gothic. Increasing proliferation and elaboration of sculptural decoration and tracery and the emergence of more complex and decorative vaults marked the transition to Decorated Gothic (late 13th-late 14th centuries).

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Section 6

The Holy Roman Empire

Faith in the Face of Su"ering Prague

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Faith in the Face of Su!ering

In Europe, the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries were a time marked by social and economic turmoil, as well as plague and sickness.
KEY POINTS

period the boundaries of the Empire shifted, but generally included what is known as Germany, Austria, and parts of Denmark, Northern Italy, France and Central and Eastern Europe (Figure 21. 20). Throughout the Middle Ages several political, religious and social crises ripped through the Holy Roman Empire. These conflicts included ongoing internal struggles with various local monarchs vying for the role of Emperor, and struggles against rulers in areas attempting to resist the rule of the Holy Roman Empire. This was the case with the Lombardy League, formed late in the 1100's as an alliance of Northern Italian city-state rulers. Additionally, there were power struggles between Popes and Emperors around the balance of power between these two roles. Disease, Famine, and the Black Death The first years of the 14th century were marked by a number of famines, culminating in the Great Famine of 13151317. It is
An illustration of the changing boundaries of the Empire. Figure 21.20 Holy Roman Empire

Throughout the Middle Ages several political, religious and social crises ripped through the Holy Roman Empire. One of the greatest challenges to face the people living within the borders of the Holy Roman Empire were the waves of Bubonic Plague, or the Black Death. Almost a quarter of the population of the Holy Roman Empire were killed during the waves of the plague in the 1300s. The church remained one of the strongest institutions in Europe, and in the Holy Roman Empire. Individuals might have turned to the church for everything from spiritual comfort, to an explanation for the tragedy, and for more mundane needs such as food and other charity. Rulers knew that aligning themselves with this strong institution would also increase the stability of their own rule.

Background The Holy Roman Empire existed for almost eight hundred and fifty years, starting with the reign of Charlemagne in 962. During that

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believed that the Great Famine was triggered by ongoing climatic change that was taking place at the time, a slow transition from the Medieval Warm Period to the Little Ice Age which resulted in the average annual temperature for Europe declining 2 degrees Celsius during the 14th century. Overspecialization in single crops left the population vulnerable when bad weather caused crop failures. In 1347, the Black Death, a disease that spread throughout Europe in the years 1348, 1349, and 1350. The death toll was probably about 35 million people in total in Europe, about one-third of the population. Towns were especially hard-hit because of the crowded conditions. Large areas of land were left sparsely inhabited; in some places, fields were left unworked. Because of the sudden decline in available laborers, the price of wages rose as landlords sought to entice workers to their fields. Lower rents were balanced out by the lower demand for food, which cut into agricultural income. Urban workers also felt that they had a right to greater earnings, and popular uprisings broke out across Europe. Among the uprisings were the Jacquerie in France, the Peasants' Revolt in England, and revolts in Florence, Italy; as well as Ghent and Bruges in Flanders. The trauma of the plague led to an increased piety throughout Europe, which manifested itself in the foundation of new charities, the extreme self-mortification of the flagellants, and the scapegoating of the Jews. Conditions were

further unsettled by the return of the plague throughout the rest of the 14th century.
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Prague
Medieval Prague became an important cultural center, and iconic examples of gothic architecture were built in during this period.
KEY POINTS

Town, the Lesser Town, and the New Town, each of which developed during different parts of the Middle Ages. The city was home to the dukes and then kings of Bohemia, and became the seat of an archbishop in 1344, and the Holy Roman Empire in 1346. In the 12th century, new buildings such as the Premonstratensian Monastery, the Judith Bridge and the Old New Synagogue (one of
Figure 21.21 Old New Synagogue

Prague was an important political and trading center during the medieval period. In the 12th century, Prague built new buildings such as monasteries, bridges, and the Old New Synagogue, one of Prague's first gothic buildings. In 1346, Charles IV became both the Holy Roman Emperor and the king of Bohemia. As a result, Prague became a major political center in Europe, attracting artists and artisans from various locations, including Italy. During this period, Prague became the third largest city in Europe, and Charles IV set about transforming the city in to an imperial capital with monumental architecture. Charles IV oversaw construction of the New Town, including the gothic Charles Bridge, as well as the St. Vitus Cathedral.

Prague's first gothic buildings) were constructed. The synagogue is also one of the oldest in Europe (Figure 21.21). The architecture of the building incorporates both early Christian and Jewish iconography. The building features a double-nave, common in medieval architecture, as well as six 5-partite vault compartments supported by octagonal pillars. Molding on the entry way incorporates twelve vines

One of the oldest synagogues in Prague and Europe, the Old New Synagogue is an example of early gothic architecture.

and twelve bunches of grapes, representing the twelve tribes of Israel. Narrow windows in the six

Prague Prague was an important political and trading center during the medieval period. The city is divided into three areas: the Old

bays also number twelve for the tribes.

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In 1346, Charles IV became both the Holy Roman Emperor and the king of Bohemia. As a result, Prague became a major political center in Europe, attracting artists and artisans from various locations, including Italy. During this period, Prague became the third largest city in Europe, and Charles IV set about transforming the city into an imperial capital with monumental architecture. Charles IV oversaw construction of the New Town, including the gothic Charles Bridge, as well as the St. Vitus Cathedral (Figure 21.22), another important example of gothic architecture in the city. The original master builder was Matthias of Attas, who came from France and imported much of the characteristics of the French gothic style. After his death in 1352, Peter Parler became the new master builder. While Mattias of Arras was
Another important example of gothic architecture, the St. Vitus Cathedral was built under the reign of Charles IV, the Holy Roman Emperor and King of Bohemia. Figure 21.22 St. Vitus Cathedral

trained as a geometer and emphasized mathematical composition and clear, clean proportions, Paler was trained as a sculptor and woodcutter. Paler added unique ornamentation, and innovative, almost sculptural, vaults and pillars to the Cathedral. Paler also oversaw the construction of the St. Wenceslas Chapel.
Source: https://www.boundless.com/art-history/europefrom-1200-1400/the-holy-roman-empire--2/prague/ CC-BY-SA Boundless is an openly licensed educational resource

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