DISENO ROBUSTO UTILIZANDO LOS‘Traducido por: Pedro Marlasca Heredero Arturo Quiroga de Prado Francisco Herrera Fernindez © Yuin Wuy Alan Wu, 1996 © Ediciones Diaz de Santos, S.A. 1997 Juan Bravo, 3A, 28006 MADRID Reservados todos tos derechos, «No estd permitida la reproduccién total o parcial de este libro, ni su tratamiento informatico, ni la transmisién de ninguna forma o por cualquier medio, ya sea electronico, mecénico, por fotocopia, por registro u otros métodos, sin el permiso previo y por escrito de los titulares del Copyright.» ISBN ; 84-7978-305-2 Depésito legal: M. 20.654-1997 Disefio de Cubierta: Angel Calvete Fotocomposici6n: Ferndndez Ciudad, S.L. Impresién: Materprint Encuadernacin: Ruistica-Hilo, S.L.Contenido Prélogo a la edicién espafiola PRAQBG oi sccm rarer ameenne aware Recomendacién del doctor Genichi Taguchi. 1.1. {Qué es ingenierfa de calidad? . 1.2. Ingenieria de calidad iv disefio ex 13, Interacciones y matrices ortogonales 14. Desarrollo de tecnologia robusta ; 9 c 13 __14 16 19 220 Disefio de par4metros 28 Esquema para el disefio de pardmetros 32. CAPITULO 2. Tipos de relaciones sefial-ruido 37 (2.1. Introduccién _. 37 2.2. Clasificacién segtin el tipo de asl 37 2.3. Clasificacién segtin el propésito . 39 (2.4, 40 Clasificacién seguin Ja entrada y la sali Vilvill CONTENIDO CAPITULO 3. _Tipos bésicos de relaciones S/R dinémicas para iste 3.5. Ecuacién figs usando la tabla de ecuaciones poling: micas ortogonales 58 3.6._ Maquina de control numérico 62 3.6.1. Introduccién_......... 62 3.6.2._Experimentacién y andlisis utilizando la rela- 3.6.3. Interpretacién y prediccién 68 3.6.4. El experimento confirmatorio 69 2 Ventana: operativa « dindmica 48. anes en el c que los verdaderos valores del factor | seal 102 114 114CONTENIDO ix CAPITULO 5. Tipos no dindmicos ............0..::00eeeeee 151 5.1. Introduccién 151 5.2. Nominal es mej 155 5.3, Menor es mejor 164 5.4. Mayor es mejor . 165 5.5. Ventana operativa no dindmica . 166 6.1. Diferencia entre variables continuas y atributos clasi- 6.2. {Cudles son las soluciones pa vitar interacciones? _178 con_ dos clases y un ti 180 6.4. Caso con dos clases y dos 184 6.4.1. Ejemplos 184 6.4.3. Relacién S/R esténdar ..... 188 64. Comparaci6n de monitores 193 6.4.5. Proceso de separacién por aire 195 6.5. Caso con dos clases y valores verdaderos del factor sefial desconocidos= 198 6.6.__Caso con tres o més clases y valores verdaderos del 6.6.1. Ecuaciones para el cdlculo 201 6.6.2. Reconocimiento del sabor de la cerveza . 203 6.7. Caso con tres o més clases y valores verdaderos ‘del factor sefial desconocidos aa 6.8. Caso con tres o mas clases H estin ordenadas)) ss0iicz sesaca sh stossssessasscasess sea 20: CAPITULO 7. Relaci6n S/R con nameros complejos ......... 213 7.1._La funcién ideal de los circuitos eléctricos.. 213 7.2._Relaci6n S/R para niimeros complejos .... 214 14._D lo di fami ae CAPITULO 8 Formato y andlisis de los cuadrados de Youden. _ 239 8.1. _Propésito del uso de los cuadrados de Youden . 239 8.2. Calculo de los efectos principales _ _242x CONTENIDO- 8.3. _Ejemplo numérico 243 8.4. Demostracién _. 246 CAPITULO 9. Datos incompletos ...............0..0::00000+ 249 9.1. Tipos de datos incompletos 249 9.2. Tratamiento de los datos incompletos 250 9.3. Aproximacién secuencial 254 9.4. Ejemplo numérico 254 CAPITULO 10. Desarrollo de tecnologia robusta ............ 259 10.1 i 259 10.2. 260 10.3. 10.4, Cémo funciona el desarrollo de tecnologia robusta: Piiticipdles conceptos iiciassisisssasmsonsunsastietties 262 10.5. Ventajas del uso del desarrollo de tecnologia ro- busta . 269 10.6. {Hasta TODUSA? .. 22... eee ee eee cece eee eee eee eee e eee eee ne eee 271Prélogo a la edicidn espafiola Durante las tiltimas dos décadas, la calidad en la industria se ha convertido en un factor de competitividad, e incluso de supervivencia, Nuestros clientes nos han ido exigiendo afo tras afio unos niveles de calidad crecientes, estando en la conviccién, tanto ellos como noso- tros, de que un aumento de calidad en el producto se traduce en una reduccién de costes, y por tanto en una fuente de beneficios para toda la cadena de proveedores-clientes. La industria del automédvil, a la cual represento al escribir estas Iineas, ha sido pionera en la aplicacién de los conceptos expuestos en el pfrrafo anterior, y en la actualidad sigue siendo Ifder en la adopcién e implantacién de técnicas de gestién de calidad. Estas técnicas abar- can, en la actualidad, todas y cada una de las actividades que se llevan a cabo en el trabajo diario de la empresa, segtn el concepto actual de gestién de calidad total Pero este concepto es la conclusién Iégica de una evolucién en la forma de entender la calidad, que al principio se pensaba basada en el control del producto final y la seleccién del producto conforme, y paulatinamente se fue dirigiendo hacia fases mas tempranas del proce- so e incluso al propio disefto. La preocupacién por la calidad en el grupo ITT le Ilevé a ser pionero en la aplicacién de técnicas de calidad entre los proveedores occidentales del sector del automévil, y en los primeros aftos de la década de los 80 realiz6 los primeros estudios de SPC, control es- tadistico de procesos. Desde entonces hasta ahora ITT se ha manteni- do en su posicion de lider en la utilizacién de técnicas que realmente ayudan a aproximarse a la excelencia. Una de estas técnicas, quizd la mas potente y representativa, es la ingenierfa de calidad desarrollada por el doctor Taguchi en Japén, durante los afios 50 y 60. Estos métodos, que permitieron a la indus- tria japonesa dar un paso de gigante y aventajar en muchos aspectos a la industria occidental (especialmente en el sector del automévil, aun- que no hay que olvidarse de otros como la electrénica, informatica, etcétera), solo fueron conocidos en occidente a partir del afio 1982, fecha en la que el American Supplier Institute comenz6 a aplicarlos en la industria occidental. Xtaa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Prefacio En los comienzos, las actividades del control de calidad se inicia- ban con la inspeccién del producto terminado para prevenir expedi- ciones defectuosas al mercado. Mas tarde, se revelé mis eficiente el vigilar el proceso de fabricaci6n para minimizar la produccién de de- fectuosos y, asi, nacié el control estadistico de procesos. Todo esto sugiere que, cuanto més aguas arriba se implanten acciones de inge- nierfa de calidad, més eficientes y rentables seran los resultados. Sin embargo, una vez completados los planos y especificaciones, y definidos los procesos, la calidad del producto esta casi determinada: no es mucho lo que los ingenieros de produccién pueden hacer para mejo- rar la calidad. Hoy, la ingenieria de calidad, es decir, los Métodos Tagu- chi, comienzan desde Ja etapa de la investigacién y desarrollo. La opti- mizacién de la calidad empieza antes de cualquier planificaci6n del producto y disponibilidad de sus planos. Entonces la pregunta es: C6- mo podemos evaluar la robustez de la futuras funciones del producto? Aquf, llegamos al punto donde debemos cambiar nuestros paradig- mas sobre cémo puede conseguirse calidad en la etapa de 1+ D. El doctor Genichi Taguchi destaca los siguientes puntos clave: 1. No usar pardmetros tales como «fraccién de defectuosos» 0 «fiabi- lidad» como medida de la calidad. 2. Usar la relacién sefial-ruido (S/R) dindmica como el indice que evaliia la robustez de la funcién de un producto. Desde hace décadas, la relacién S/R se ha usado para evaluar el rendimiento de los sistemas de comunicacién. Este indice representa la relaci6n entre la potencia de la sefial y la potencia del ruido, es de- cir, la relacién entre los efectos deseados y los efectos no deseados. xiaa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.XVI RECOMENDACION DEL DR. GENSGHI TAGUCHI zando los Métodos Taguchi. Por ejemplo, en los campos de la quimica o biologfa, datos tales como la produccién o la tasa de supervivencia que generan inherentemente fuertes interacciones no se utilizan aqui. En cambio, se introducen relaciones S/R dinémi- cas tales como la velocidad de reaccion. En el diseno de circuitos electr6nicos se presenta una nueva relacién S/R con nimeros complejos para medir las relaciones entre la entrada y la salida. Los ejemplos se presentan con valores numéricos. Estos plantea- mientos en la recoleccién de datos y en la relacién $/R son nuevos y se han comenzado a aplicar recientemente. 3. Enel proceso de la practica actual del diseito de pardmetros, ocu- rre a menudo la falta de datos o que los datos estén fuera de escala. Los andlisis para estos casos son plenamente ilustrados en este libro y las soluciones se obtienen utilizando el software. 4. El programa STN para Windows incluye todas las relaciones S/R presentadas en el libro. En los casos de las aplicaciones de qui- mica, biologia o electrénica, por ejemplo, el programa permite los calculos una vez que los datos estén disponibles, Por supuesto, es importante saber cémo utilizar los resultados después de comple- tar el andlisis. El] usuario se centrard en la funcionalidad y la sensi- bilidad, y el programa se encargard de todos los calculos asi como de los informes. Por estas cuatro razones, recomiendo firmemente esta obra para los ingenieros de todas las disciplinas como Ja mejor versién en lengua inglesa de ingenierfa de calidad. Estoy muy satisfecho de ver este libro y el programa publicados. GENICHI_ TAGUCHI 12 de octubre de 1995 San FranciscoIntroduccién 1.1. ;QUE ES INGENIERIA DE CALIDAD? Ingenieria de calidad es un término genérico. Puede ser percibido de manera diferente por profesionales diferentes. En el contexto de este libro, sin embargo, ingenierfa de calidad es un término definido por el doctor Genichi Taguchi. El conjunto de conocimientos contenidos en los trabajos del doctor Taguchi, popularmente conocido como «Méto- dos Taguchi», incluye las siguientes prdcticas: e Ingenieria de calidad. e Disefo experimental. « Analisis de datos financieros. « Sistema de evaluacién divisional. e Reconocimiento de patrones. De entre todos estos métodos, sdlo la ingenieria de calidad y el disefio experimental han sido traducidos y publicados al inglés; véanse referencias (1) y (2). «Ingenierta de calidad es una serie de planteamientos para predecir y prevenir las dificultades o problemas que podrian ocurrir en el mercado después de que un producto se vende y es usado por el cliente bajo multiples condiciones ambientales y de utilizacién durante el pertodo de vida disefiado.» Hay dos dreas en la ingenierfa de calidad: 1, Fuera de linea: Aplicada en investigacién y desarrollo de produc- tos y procesos, 2. En ifnea: Aplicada durante la produccién. 12 DISENO ROBUSTO UTILIZANDO LOS METODOS TAGUCHI” En épocas pasadas del contro! de calidad, fue ampliamente admiti- do que la mala calidad era el problema del departamento de produc- cién. Pero una vez que se dibujan los planos del producto, se determi- nan las especificaciones y se define el proceso de fabricacién, hay muy poco espacio para mejorar la calidad. Planos y especificaciones deben definirse después del disefio de pardmetros, que es el planteamiento de la ingenieria de calidad fuera de linea. El diseno de pardmetros se utiliza para seleccionar la mejor combinacién de niveles de los factores de control, para la optimizacidn de la robustez de la funcién del pro- ducto contra los factores de ruido. Los factores de ruido son aquellos que afectan a la funcién del producto, incluyendo las condiciones de uso del cliente, el deterioro interno y la variabilidad pieza a pieza de las partes que conforman el producto. Por supuesto, el disefio de par4- metros puede aplicarse para optimizar procesos de produccién. Sin embargo, lo que el disefio de parametros puede aportar en esta etapa se reduce sdlo a un tipo de ruido: la variabilidad pieza a pieza. El disefio de parémetros para un proceso de fabricacién no puede reducir los problemas causados ni por las condiciones de uso del cliente ni por el entorno operativo. En otras palabras, la optimizacién de procesos de fabricacién a través del disefio de pardmetros puede tratarse s6lo con uno de los tres factores de ruido. Por el contrario, el planteamien- to del disefio de pardmetros fuera de linea puede reducir los efectos no deseados causados por todas las fuentes de ruido. Este libro solo trata acerca de las aplicaciones fuera de linea. Historicamente, las actividades del control de calidad durante la produccién dependen del uso de grdficos de control. Sin embargo, los grdficos de control son, bdsicamente, una herramienta que vigila el mantenimiento de los niveles de calidad existentes. Otro aspecto im- portante del método basado en los gréficos de control es que el punto de vista econdémico resulta vago e impreciso. No hay orientaciones para determinar la frecuencia 6ptima de muestreo o cudntas muestras deberian tomarse. Estas acciones estén directamente relacionadas con la calidad y coste de un producto. En la ingenierfa de calidad en linea, la importancia esté acentuada sobre mejorar la productividad, tanto como mejorar la calidad. Por ejemplo, diagnosticarfamos la salud de un proceso de fabricacién al minimizar la produccién de defectuosos. Las acciones pertinentes in- cluirfan determinar el intervalo éptimo de inspeccién y los Ifmites de control para ajustar el proceso, establecimiento de sistemas de mante- nimiento preventivo, diseflar el proceso de conexiGn de sistemas para conseguir la maxima automatizacién y racionalizar los sistemas deaa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached 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