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Chapter 5
Design against Fluctuating
Load
:
I
y M
b
b

= o
J
r M
t
= t
A
P
t
= o
Elementary equations:
Stress concentration is defined as the localization of high stresses due
to the irregularities presents in the component and abrupt changes of
the cross section.
Stress concentration factor ( ) is defined as
section - cross minimal for equations elementary by obtained stresses nominal
ity discontinu near stress actual of lue highest va
=
t
K
5.1 Stress concentration
t
K
Fig. 5.1 Stress Concentration
Fig. 5.2 Stress Concentration Factor (Rectangular Plate with
Transverse Hole in Tension or Compression)
5.2 Stress concentration factor
The nominal stress is given by
where t is the plate thickness.
t d w
P
) (
0

= o
Fig. 5.3 Stress Concentration Factor (Flat Plate with Shoulder Fillet in
Tension or Compression)
t d
P

0
= o
The nominal stress is given by
where t is the plate thickness.
Fig. 5.4 Stress Concentration Factor (Round haft with Shoulder
Fillet in Tension)
2
0
4
d
P
t
o =
The nominal stress is given by
where d is the diameter on the
small end.
Fig. 5.5 Stress Concentration Factor (Round Shaft with Shoulder
Fillet in Bending)
I
y M
b

0
= o
The nominal stress is given by
where d is the diameter on the
smaller end.
2
and
64
4
d
y
d
I = =
t
Fig. 5.6 Stress Concentration Factor (Round Shaft with Fillet in Torsion)
The nominal stress is given by
where d is the diameter on the
smaller end.
2
and
32
4
d
r
d
J = =
t
J
r M
t

0
= t
Fig. 5.7 Stress Concentration due to Elliptical Hole
) ( 2 1
b
a
K
t
+ =
a = half width (or semi-axis) of ellipse perpendicular to the direction
of load
b = half width (or semi-axis) of ellipse in the direction of load
Following guidelines are considered for the stress
concentration factor:
(1) Ductile material under the static load
When the stress in the vicinity of the discontinuity
reaches the yield point, there is plastic deformation,
resulting in a redistribution of stresses. This plastic
deformation or yielding is local and restricted to very
small area in the component. There is no perceptible
damage to the part as a whole.
(2) Ductile material under the fluctuating load
When the load is fluctuating, the stresses at the
discontinuity exceed the endurance limit, the
component may fail. Therefore, endurance limit of the
components made of the ductile material is greatly
reduced due to stress concentration.
Following guidelines are considered for the stress
concentration factor:
(3) Brittle material
The effect of stress concentration is more severe in case of
brittle material, due to their instability to plastic
deformation.
5.3 Reduction of stress concentation
Fluid mechanics Solid mechanics
volume flow force
velocity stress
Flow pattern intensity Stress concentration factor
}
= dA F o
dA u q
}
=
Flow analogy
Fig. 5.8 Force Flow Analogy
(a) Force Flow around Sharp Corner
(b) Force Flow around Rounded Corner
Fig. 5.9 Reduction of Stress Concentration due to V-notch
(a) Original Notch (b) Multiple Notches
(c) Drilled Holes (d) Removal of Undesirable Material
Fig. 5.10 Reduction of Stress Concentration due to Abrupt
Change in Cross-section
(a) Original Component (b) Fillet Radius
(C) Undercutting (d) Addition of Notch
Fig. 5.11 Reduction of Stress Concentration in Shaft with Keyway
(a) Original Shaft (b) Drilled Holes (c) Fillet Radius
Fig. 5.12 Reduction of Stress Concentration in Threaded Components
(a) Original Component (b) Undercutting
(c) Reduction in Shank Diameter
Fig. 5.15 Types of Cyclic Stresses
S-N curve obtained from a rotating beam
test has completely reverse d stress state.
Many stress histories will not have
completely reverse d stress state
5.4 Fluctuating stresses
Alternating stress
2
min max
o o
o
+
=
m
2
min max
o o
o

=
a
Mean stress
min max
o o o =
r Stress range
Stress ratio
min
max
o
o
= R
Amplitude ratio
m
a
A
o
o
=
Fig. 5.16 Shear and Fatigue Failure of Wire (a) Shearing of Wire
(b) Bending of Wire (c) Unbending of Wire
5.5 Fatigue failure
Early railroad cars moved on wheels rigidly attached
(shrunk) to a solid axle. The bearings were mounted
outside the wheels (Fig. a).
The corresponding free-body diagram shows the
bearing supports of the beam shaft with vertical
forces acting at each wheel (Fig. b).
At any instant, the axles is loaded in bending with
maximum stresses at top and bottom (Fig. c).
Fatigue in railroad axles (I)
Because of rotation the material at any point undergoes a
complete stress cycle every revolution (Fig. d).
During operation, stress cycles accumulate rapidly, and
fracture may occur at either of the two bearings.
Fatigue fracture surfaces often display two distinctly
different zones. The one section, often discolored by
corrosion, usually exhibits a pattern of lines or beach marks
(Fig. f).
Fatigue in railroad axles (II)
Fatigue in railroad axles (III)
At times, the beach marks are so fine that they are visible
only magnification (such as is possible with an electron at
great microscope). Crack origin and direction of progression
are often indicated by these markings, which thus give a
clue to possible material flaws or inadequate design. The
other zone of the fracture usually has the bright, grainy
appearance of ductile rupture or fracture.
Mechanism of fatigue feature
Crack initiation
Crack propagation
Fracture
Crack-initiation stage
Some regions of geometric stress concentration in location
of time-varying that contains a tensile component.
As the stresses at the notch oscillate, local yielding may
occur due to the stress concentration, even though the
nominal stress is below yield strength of the material.
The localized plastic yielding causes distortion and creates
slip bands along the crystal boundaries of the material.
As the stress cycles, additional slip bands occur and
coalesce into microscopic cracks.
Because of their association with shear stress and
slip, microcracks are oriented with the maximum
shear stress. They may grows across several grains.
Crack propagation stage
The sharp crack creates stress concentrations larger than
those of the original notch, and a plastic zone develops at the
crack tip each time a tensile stress opens the crack, blunting
its tip and reducing the effective stress concentration.
This process continues as long as the local stress is cycling
from below the tensile yield to above the tensile yield at the
crack tip.
The crack growth is due to tensile stress and the crack
grows along planes normal to the maximum tensile stress.
Fracture
The growth of the cracks continues until a critical size is
reached such that one more application of the load brings
about instability and fracture.
Endurance limit
Chapter 5.6 endurance limit
The fatigue or endurance limit of a material is defined as the
maximum amplitude of completely reversed stress that the
standard specimen can sustain for an unlimited number of
cycles without fatigue failure.
cycles is considered as a sufficient number of cycles to
define the endurance limit.
6
10
Fig. 5.17 Specimen for Fatigue Test
Fig. 5.18 Rotating Beam
Subjected to Bending moment
(a) Beam,
(b) Stress Cycle at Point A
Fig. 5.19 Rotating Beam Fatigue Testing Machine
Fig. 5.20 S-N Curve for Steels
The S-N curve is the graphical representation of the stress
amplitude versus the number of the stress cycles (N) before
the fatigue failure on a log-log graph paper.
S-N curve
t
S
t
S
Fig. 5.21 Low and High Cycle Fatigue
5.7 Low cycle and high cycle fatigue
Low cycle fatigue
Any fatigue failure, when the number of stress cycles are
less than 1000, is called low cycle fatigue.
This case is treated as the static condition and a larger
factor of safety is used and design on the basis of
ultimate strength or yield strength.
High cycle fatigue
Any fatigue failure, when the number of stress cycles are
more than 1000, is called high cycle fatigue.
Components are designed on the basis of endurance limit
stress. S-N curve, Soderberg, Goodman are used in
design.
5.8 Notch sensitivity
specimen notched the of limit endurance
specimen free notch the of limit endurance
=
f
K
) 1 ( 1 + =
t f
K q K
Notch sensitivity is defined as the susceptibility of a material
to succumb to the damaging effects of stress raising notches in
fatigue loading.
The notch sensitivity factor is defined as
stress nominal over stress al theoretic of increae
stress nominal over stress actual of increae
= q
Fatigue stress concentration factor is defined as
f
K
Fig. 5.22 Notch Sensitivity Charts (for Reversed Bending
and Reversed Axial Stresses)
Fig. 5.23 Notch Sensitivity Charts (for Reversed Torsional
Shear Stresses)
Chapter 5.9
Endurance limit ---Approximate estimation
The relationship between and is as follow:
where
= surface finish factor
= size factor
= reliability factor
= modifying factor to account for stress concentration
= endurance limit stress of a rotating beam specimen subjected to
reversed beam stress
= endurance limit stress of a particular mechanical component
subjected to reversed beam stress
'
e e
S K K K K S
d c b a
=
b
K

a
K
c
K
d
K
e
S
'
e
S
'
e
S
e
S
There is an approximate relationship between the endurance
limit and the ultimate tensile strength of the material.
For steel,
For cast iron and cast steel,
For wrought aluminum alloys,
For cast aluminum alloys,
ut e
S S 5 . 0
'
=
ut
'
e
4 . 0 S S =
ut
'
e
4 . 0 S S =
t
S S
u
'
e
3 . 0 =
Fig. 5.24 Surface Finish Factor
Surface Finish Factor
Size factor
The rotating beam specimen is small with 7.5 mm diameter.
The endurance limit reduces with increasing the size of the
component.
For bending and torsion, the value of size factor are given in
Table 5.2.
diameter d (mm)
d 7.5 1.0
7.5 < d 50 0.85
d > 50 0.75
s
b
K
Table 5.2 Size factor
s
Fig. 5.25
Effective diameter is based on an equivalent circular cross-section.
Kuhuel assumes a volume of material that is stresses to 95 % of
maximum stress or above. As high stress volume.
Effective diameter
0766 . 0
95
A
d
e
=
The effective diameter of any non-circular cross section is given by
2
2 2
95
0766 . 0 ]
4
) 95 . 0 (
[ d
d d
A =

=t
= portion of cross-sectional area of the non-cylindrical part that is
stresses between 95 % and 100 % of the maximum stress
= effective diameter of non-cylindrical part.
e
d
95
A
The effective diameter is obtained by equating the volume of the material
stresses at and above 95 % of the maximum stresses to the equivalent
volume in the rotating beam specimens.
The area stressed above 95 % of the maximum stress is the area of a ring,
having an inside diameter of 0.95 d and outside 1.0 d .
Fig. 5.26 Area above 95% of Maximum Stress
For rectangular cross-section the effective
diameter
bh d
e
808 . 0 =
d d
e
37 . 0 =
For non-rotating solid shaft, the effective
diameter
Reliability factor
Reliability
R (%)
50 1.00
90 0.897
95 0.868
99 0.814
99.9 0.753
99.99 0.702
99.999 0.659
c
K
The standard deviation of endurance limit test is 8 % of the
mean value.
The reliability factor is 1.0 for 50 %
reliability.
To ensure insure that more than 50 % of
the part will survive, the stress amplitude
on the component should be lower than
the tabulated value of endurance limit.
Reliability may be defined as the probability that a machine
part will perform its intended function without failure for its
prescribed design lifetime.
where p(x) is the probability density function, is the mean
value of the quantity, and the standard deviation.
- ]
2
) (
[ exp
2
1
) (
) (
1
1
deviation standard
1
mean
2
2
1
2
1
< <

=

= =
= =

=
=
x
x
x p
x
n
x
n
n
i
i
n
i
i
o

to
o

o

Modifying factor to account for stress concentration
f
d
K
K
1
=
The endurance limit is reduced due to stress concentration.
To apply the effect of stress concentration, the designer can
reduce the endurance limit by .
d
K
The endurance limit of a component subjected to the
fluctuating shear stresses is obtained from the endurance
limit in reversed bending ( ) using theories of failure.
From the maximum shear theory,
From the distortion energy theory,
e se
5 . 0 S S =
e se
577 . 0 S S =
se
S
e
S
5.10 Reversed stresses design for finite and infinite life
(1) Infinite life
Endurance limit is the criterion of failure. The amplitude
of stress should be lower than the endurance limit in order
to withstand the infinite number of cycles.
) (
,
) ( fs
S
fs
S
se
a
e
a
= = t o
where are stress amplitude in the component and
are corrected endurance limit in reversed bending
and reversing torsion respectively.
a a
t o ,
se e
S S ,
(2) Finite life
When the components is to be designed for finite life,
S-N curve (Fig. 5.27) can be used. It consists of a
straight line AB drawn from at cycles
to at cycles on a log-log paper.
3
10
6
10
) 9 . 0 (
ut
S
e
S
Fig. 5.27 S-N Curve
At 1000 cycles:
Bending:
Axial bending:
ut m
ut m
S S
S S
75 . 0
9 . 0
=
=
5.12 Soderberg and Goodman lines
When stress amplitude is zero, the load is purely static
and criterion of failure is . These limits are plotted
on the abscissa.
When the mean stress ( ) is zero, the stress is completely
reversing and the criterion of failure is endurance limit ,
that is plotted on the ordinate.
m
o
e
S
a
o
ut yt
or S S
(1) Gerber line
A parabolic curve joining on the ordinate to on the abscissa.
(2) Soderberg line
A straight line joining on the ordinate to on the abscissa.
The equation of Soderberg line is given as:
(3) Goodman line
A straight line joining on the ordinate to on the abscissa
The equation of Goodman line is given as
e
S
e
S
yt
S
ut
S
e
S
yt
S
1
e
a
yt
m
= +
S S
o o
1
e
a
ut
m
= +
S S
o o
Fig. 5.39 Soderberg and Goodman Lines
Any combination of mean and alternating stress that lies on or
below Goodman line will have infinite life.
Goodman line is widely used in the criterion of fatigue failure
when the component is subjected to mean stress as well as
stress amplitude.
(1) Goodman line is safe from design consideration because it
is completely inside the failure points of test data.
(2) The equation of straight line is simple.
5.13 Modified Goodman Diagram
Goodman line is modified by combining fatigue failure with
fatigue by yielding.
The yield strength is plotted on both the axes-abscissa and
ordinate, and a yield line is constructed to join two points
to define failure by yielding.
The region OABC is called modified Goodman diagram. All
the points inside the modified Goodman diagram should cause
neither fatigue failure and yielding.
is the portion of Goodman line and is portion of
yield line.
D C
yt
S
B A
C B
Modified Goodman Diagram
A line is drawn through on the ordinate and parallel to the
abscissa. The point of intersection of this line and yield line is
B. The area OABC represents the region of safety.
The region OABC is called modified Goodman diagram.
All the points inside the modified Goodman diagram should
neither fatigue failure nor yielding.
The point of intersection of lines is X. The point X
indicates the dividing line between the safe region and the
region of failure.
E O B A and
m
a
tan
o
o
u =
The coordinates of point X ( ) represent the limiting
values of stress, that are used to calculate the dimensions of
component.
a m
S S ,
Fig. 5.40 Modified Goodman Diagram for Axial and Bending
Stresses
Fig. 5.41 Modified Goodman Diagram for Torsional Shear Stresses
The modified Goodman diagram for fluctuating torsional
shear stress is shown in Fig. 5.41.
Example 5.13
A transmission shaft of cold drawn steel 27Mn2 (
) is subjected to a fluctuating torque which
varies from -100 N-m to 400 N-m. The factor of safety is 2 and
expected reliability is 90 %. Neglecting the stress concentration,
determine the diameter of the shaft.
Solution:
, N/mm 540
2
ut
= S
2
yt
N/mm 400 and = S
897 . 0 , reliablity % 90 for
85 . 0 , mm 50 5 . 7 assuming
79 . 0
N/mm 0 25 ) 500 ( 5 . 0 5 . 0
c
2
ut
'
=
= < <
=
= = =
K
K d
K
k S S
b
a
e

04 . 59
67 . 1
150
250
) (
) (
tan
m N 250 ] 100 400 [
2
1
] ) ( ) [(
2
1
) (
m N 150 ] 100 400 [
2
1
] ) ( ) [(
2
1
) (
N/mm 1 . 173 300 577 . 0 577 . 0
N/mm 88 . 86 58 . 150 577 . 0 577 . 0
, theory energ distortion the using
N/mm 58 . 150
250 897 . 0 85 . 0 79 . 0
m t
a t
min t max t a t
min t max t m t
2
yt sy
2
e se
2
'
=
= = =
= + = =
= = + =
= = =
= = =
=
= =
u
u
M
M
M M M
M M M
S S
S S
y
S K K K S
e c b a e
The modified Goodman diagram is shown in Fig. 5.44. The ordinate of
point X is
. N/mm 88 . 86 or
2
sa
S
Fig. 5.44
mm 83 . 30
44 . 43

10 250 16
N/mm 44 . 43
2
88 . 86
) (

. N/mm 88 . 86
3
3
2
sa
2
sa
=
=

= =
=
=
d
d
fs
S
S
a
t
t
Fig. 5.52 Gerber
line
5.14 Gerber line
1 ) (
2
ut
m
e
a
= +
S
S
S
S
Gerber equation is given as:
Gerber curve takes mean path through failure points. It is more
accurate than Goodman or Soderberg line.
5.15 Fatigue design under combined stresses
The general equation of distortion energy theory is as follows.
where are normal stresses in X, Y, Z directions and
are shear stresses in their respective planes.
z y x
o o o , ,
zx yz xy
t t t , ,
The bending moment as well as torsional moment may have
two components mean and alternating stresses. Such
problems involving combinational of stresses are solved by the
distortion energy theory of failure.
2
)] ( 6 ) ( ) ( ) [(
2 2 2 2 2 2
zx yz xy x z z y y x
t t t o o o o o o
o
+ + + + +
=
In case of combined bending and torsional moments, there is a
normal stress accompanied by the torsional shear
stress .
0 = = = =
zx yz z y
t t o o
2 2
3
xy x
t o o + =
xy
t
x
o
xa xm
t t and
The mean and alternating component of are
respectively.
The mean and alternating component of are
respectively.

x
o

xy
t
xa xm
o o and
2 2
m
3
xym xm
t o o + =
2 2
a
3
xya xa
t o o + =
The Two stresses are used in the modified Goodman
diagram to design the component.
a m
,o o
Example 5.20
A transmission shaft carries a pulley midway between the two
bearings. The bending moment at the pulley varies from 200
N-m to 600 N-m , as the torsional moment in the shaft varies
from 70 N-m to 200 N-m. The frequency of variation of
bending and torsioal moments are equal to the shaft speed. The
shaft is made of steel fee 400 (
). The corrected endurance limit of the shaft is
200 . Determine the diameter of the shaft using a
factor of safety of 2.
400 and , N/mm 540
yt
2
ut
= = S S
2
N/mm
2
N/mm
2
3
3
3 3
a b
xa
2
3
3
3 3
m b
xm
min t max t a t
min t max t m t
min b max b a b
min b max b m b
N/mm
10 18 . 2037
d
) 1000 200 ( 32
d
) ( 32
N/mm
10 37 . 4074
d
) 1000 400 ( 32
d
) ( 32
m N 65 ] 70 200 [
2
1
] ) ( ) [(
2
1
) (
m N 135 ] 70 200 [
2
1
] ) ( ) [(
2
1
) (
m N 200 ] 200 600 [
2
1
] ) ( ) [(
2
1
) (
m N 400 ] 200 600 [
2
1
] ) ( ) [(
2
1
) (
d
M
d
M
M M M
M M M
M M M
M M M

= =

= =
= = =
= + = + =
= = =
= + = + =
t t
o
t t
o
Solution
2
3
3
2
3
3
2
3
3
2
xya
2
xa a
2
3
3
2
3
3
2
3
3
2
xym
2
xm m
2
3
3
3 3
a t
xya
2
3
3
3 3
m t
xym
N/mm )
10 33 . 2116
(
)
10 04 . 331
( 3 )
10 18 . 2037
( 3
N/mm )
10 84 . 4244
(
)
10 55 . 687
( 3 )
10 37 . 4074
( 3
N/mm
10 04 . 331
d
) 1000 65 ( 16
d
) ( 16
N/mm
10 55 . 687
d
) 1000 135 ( 16
d
) ( 16
d
d d
d
d d
d
M
d
M

= + =

= + =

= =

= =
t o o
t o o
t t
t
t t
t

5 . 26
4986 . 0
84 . 4244
33 . 2116
tan
m
a
=
= = =
u
o
o
u
The modified Goodman diagram is shown in Fig. 5.56. The
coordinate of point X are obtained by solving the following
two equations simultaneously.
Fig. 5.56
mm 29 . 33
38 . 57
10 33 . 2116
N/mm 38 . 57
2
76 . 114
) (
N/mm 16 . 230
N/mm 76 . 114
4986 . 0 tan
1
540 200
3
3
2
a
2
m
2
a
m
a
m a
=
=

= = =
=
=
= =
= +
d
d
fs
S
S
S
S
S
S S
a
o
u
Exercise chapter 05
1. Prob. 5.10 page 201