ADVANCED OILWELL DRILLING ENGINEERING HANDBOOK & computer programs MITCHELL“Copyright, USA Library of Congres, 1974 to Micchell Engineering 10th Editon, 1st Revision, July 1995 Dr Bill Mitchel MITCHELL ENGINEERING 12299 West New Mexico Place Lakewood, CO 80228, USA Email: bmitchel@mines eu ‘Tel: 303 9867453 USA All rights reserved. This book of any part theranf ret nate repreaced in any foom ‘without the writen consent of MITCHELL ENGINEERING, ‘Printed inthe United States of Amesica For additional copies contact: ‘The Society of Petroleum Engineers of the AIME, PO Box 833836, Richardson, ‘Texas, 75083-3835, USA, ‘Tel 972 952 9293 Fact 972 952 9435 Ema, spedal@spelink pe.orgACKNOWLEDGMENTS ‘Many people have made this book possible. I beg the parton of those who are not named, Kristin A, Oldham, reader Michael S. Stoner, reader Samantha Smith, reader Clark Huffinan, itlustrator Wendy Domeier, reader Max Bordelon, eitor fade Bard, programmer Arlene Aldrich, typist. Ron Crotzer, illustrator Caroline, wifeTABLE OF CONTENTS CHAPTER TUBULAR DESIGN AND USE Tubular Design and use. Failure Theories ae Tubular End Conditions, Names of Casings.. Loads... Salt and Diaperic Shale... Casing Design Criteria Management's Guideli Popular Design Factors. Drilling Burst Criteria. An Overview of Casing Selection, inimum Tubular Strengths. Failure Mode. ‘Triaxial Bquation. Real Gas, Fundamentals of Tubulars... Stress Analysis Effective Tension. Buoyed Weight. Free Bodies. . Stretch and Wall Strains... Change in the Diameter of a Tube... Bending Stress in Doglegs. Lubinsii Bending Stress. Buckling v. Tension & Compression. Critical Buckling Events of Casing, Buckling Tendency & Wellhead Load... Intermediate Casing Design Tubular Strengths... API Collapse Resistance... API Internal Pressure Resistance Pipe Body Yield Strength, API Hydrostatic Test Pressures. Tolerances on Dimensions Make-up Torque for API Couplings. Round ‘Thread with Bending and Tensien. ‘Tubular Connections Slack-off Bending Loads, Surface Running Loads Dogleg Running Lea ‘Tubing Design Drillpipe Design. Combined Tension, Torsion, Bending & Pressure Loads. Von Mises Stress fo Slip Crushing. BppS ese seaekpzreeeurbesaeeebsey TABLEOF CONTENTS i ITOHEL Boe 452 Gator Co BouFatigue of Drillpipe ... Life of Drillpipe. ing Tally. Casing Centralizer Spacing Gasing Sag between Centralizers... Wall Force Bquation Helical Buckled pipe iengih. BE CHAPTER Il DRILLING OPTIMIZATION METHODS. Cost per foot Equation. ‘Time Value of Money. Expected Value Method .. Lagrangian Multiplier ‘Multiple Regression with Least Squares Confidence Lines . Lagrange’s Interpolation Formula CHAPTER III_DRILL HOLE MECHANICS. Selecting Casing Setting depths Stresses around a Drill Hole Leakoft Test. Fractures ina Drill Hole. Fracture Gradient Plot Filtration of Mud into the Formation. : Barite & Water required to drill a Section of Hole. 183 Solids Concontration Selection 185 CHAPTER IV KICK REMOVAL. Kill Parameters Initial Conditions, Drillers Method Engineer's Method... Kick Control Worksheet. Gas Migeation Recognition. High Weight Pill Barite Plugin... Filling the Hole on Trips Novel Techniques. CHAPTER V RIG HYDRAULICS. ae Effect of Mud Weight on Bit Hydraulics Bingham’s Drilling efficiency Diagram, Optimal Bottom Hole Cleaning Theory of Maximizing Impact Force Elect of Mud Weight of Bit Hydraulics, Hole Cleaning, Drill Cuttings concentration in the Annulus. Hopkin's Particle Slip Velocity Chart aeuORSKE BUNBEOribital Motion of the Drill String. ‘Surge and Swab for Long Pipe Strings... Surge and Swab Pressures of Short Tosls.. Circulating Pressures for Short Tools Equivalent Circulating Density... CHAPTER VI_ DIRECTIONAL DRILLING... Directional Drilling. : Directional well planning ‘Transposing MD ta TVD.. ‘Tie Point and Collision... : Kill Well Design... Leading the Target with planned Wall Dogleg Severity of Hales... Dogleg-sbrupt ramen Wilson's Equatio Monitoring of a Directional Well Radius of Curvature... Sectional Method and Mizismum Curvature Siabllty of Computational Saves Errors in Surveying. Ellipse of Uncertainty Systematic and Random Circle of Uncertainty. Declination Changes... Drilling String Measurements Magnetic and other Interferences. by Warren. Hot Spots. People Recording Hrrors 3 Dimensional Dil Hole Planing ‘Tool Face Rotation... (CHAPTER VII_ HORIZONTAL DRILLING. Uses of Horizontal Wel Horizontal’ Drilling... ‘Types of Horizontal Wells... Horizontal Well Costs. Casing & Drill bit sizes : Equipment... Directional Drilling subs and Sabie. Bottom Hole Assemblies. Length of non-magnetic Drill collars. Trajectory Planning ..eenene Vertical Turn to a New Track, Selection of Mud Weights. Drill bit Hydraulice ‘Torque and Drag. Friction factors... oo Buckling of the Dri String pegsbebmmenyugusy wungueaseeeupenelet 2 TABLE OF CONTENTS: iii MTOHELL Bx 482 Goan 2060402Lock-up of the Drill String, : a5 ‘Available Torque for the Drill tt. “15 Gementing Problems. 18 Cement Sheath within Casing. SIE 18 Conveyed Logging... 19 Case Histories «a... a0 Austin Chalk Well CII Cao Tyra field offshore Denmark, oo 7 a CHAPTER VIII_ BOTTOM HOLE ASSEMBLIES. ar Purpose of BHA aT ‘Type of BHS's. 4a Discussion of Components 43 Mechanical Properties of BHA a2 Tapered BHA... 436 Usable Hole Diameter 4938, Centrifugal Force. 40 Torsional. Dampening. at Torque of a Spinning BHA. 42 erry Torsional Buckling of « BHA and Driipipe Buckling by Rotational Drag... Critical’ Buckling Load. Weight on Drill bit in Veriical and inclined Holes, Critical Rotary Speeds of BHA Placement of the Pendulum Stabilizer Packed BHA Directional BHA BHA Connections. Make-up of Connections... Identification of Connections and Drilipipe.... CHAPTER IX AIR DRILLING. Advantages and Limitations of AiriGas. Air Drilling Equipment Pnoumaties and Hydraulics Pressure Losses in Pipe and Fittings. Air Temperature Increases on Compression ‘Air Prossure Requirements Mist Drilling Volumes and Pressure Requirements. Foam Drilling Volumes and Pressure Requirements. Aerated Mud Volume and Pressure Requirements, IKOKU 7 Operational Procedures. Concentric Drillpipe and the Jet Sub Parasite String Safety Practices. & RESERRRRABODRAR BRABBABAE? CHAPTER X CEMENT. ‘One Dozen Cementati 88Solutions to = Dozen Problems... Balanced Plug Cementation Formula, Cementation Temperatures wo... (CHAPTER XI DRILL BIT SELECTION Drill Bit, Characteristics, Rock Bit Terminology . Rock Failure Models... BB Analytical Method. Optimal WOR Rotary Speed Charis Diamond Bit Hydraulic Lit Of... Dull Bit Grading... CHAPTER XII FISHING, Definitions ‘To Fish or Not to Fish. When to Stop Fishing. Breakeven Charts... 6. . Mechanics of Differential Sticking Froeing Differentially Stuck Pipe Jars and Accelerators Free Point Procedures Bree Point with Pipe Stretzh Back-off Procedure... sgssegsesanenees seeneasensul Perforation of Pipe. Perforating Procedure: Fishing Wire Line Tools... Fishing small objects... Fishing Drill Collars. Fishing Drillpipe Backe-off Depth Cutting of Tubular. Sidetracking. ‘Whipstock. PDM snd Bent sub... agegaeaeeaeggag9 ‘TABLEOF CONTENTS. v dure. Box 1422Gosen 0 Bote?Coment Plugs for Sidetrack, 58 Common Fishing Tools. ‘58 Bottom Hole Motor... 57 INDEX. oo Eo Saale or conrents vi oHELL Box 1482 Golden ca B02ADVANCE OILWELL DRILLING ENGINEERING HANDBOOKCHAPTER 1 TUBULAR DESIGN AND USE GENERAL, ‘The axiom of tubular design is that the loads placed on a tube by natural phenomena must be offset by its strengths, There are many natural phenomena ‘which could dictate a particular tubular design. Also, there are many theories for determining the strengths of a tube. The tubular designer must therefore derive practical design equations from the theories and phenomena, These equations represent the “criteria for tubular design’ ‘COMMON FAILURE THEORY ASSUMPTIONS. ‘The most common simplifying assumptions with regard tp tubular strengths are that the failure theory known as the MAXIMUM STRAIN ENERGY OF DISTORTION THEORY! applies only to tubular collapse strengths and that only biaxial? loads are considered within the thoory. Thus tnsile loads and burst loads are thought to be uniaxial? and strengths are rationalized with the MAXIMUM, PRINCIPAL STRESS THEORY OF FAILURE. Design factors ore usually based on experience 2 ‘This theory predicts failure of a specimen subjected to any combination of loads ‘when the portion of the strain energy per unit volume producing change of shape {as opposed to change of volume) reaches a failure determined by uniaxial test, Refer to Strengths of Materials, by S. Timonshenko, reprint 1976, Krieger Publishing Company. 2 Biaxial loads are those which result in the material of a structure being subjected to the simultaneous action of tension or compression in two perpendicular directions. Reference same as above. 3 Uniaxial loads are those which result in the material of a structure being subjected to the action of tension or compression in one direction only. Reference same as above, 4 This theory predicts failure of a specimen subjected to any combination of normal and shear stresses when the maximum principal stress, which is the ‘maximum normal stress acting on a set of perpendicular planes which have no shear stress acting on them, reaches a failure value determined by a uniaxial test. Reference same as above, ‘TUBULAR END CONDITIONS. ‘The ends of tubulars (top and hottom of the easing) may either be fixed or free. The botiom end is usually free until cemented and the top end is free until the wellhead slips are set. These conditions are tubular end conditions. The common, TURIAROESIGN ANOUSE 1 MATCHELL Gor 182 Gaien co Sousapractice in tubular design today is to design tubulars as if both ends were free. Of course, in stability analysis for buckling and loads, the critical conditions sre when both ends are fixed. This condition only occurs after the tubular has been cemented and set in the wellhead. ‘NAMES OF CASINGS. ‘The name given to a casing is closely related to ite primary purpose. Some popular shames are NAME PURPOSE Drive returns mud tn elevated pits Conductor returns mud to elevated, pits and supports the ‘weight of the other casings Consolidation prevents caving of hole (and and gravel) Surface Seals off fresh, water zones Intermediate blocks formations and their fluids, commonly set in top of a pressure transition zone Protection protects against high pressure formation fluids Production conduit for fluid transport Oil or Gas conduit for fluid transport ‘casing terminated down hole rather than at the surface ‘conduit for fatd transport @ formation for testing a well ‘The following is a Ust of loads which could be eritical with a brief diseusion of those loads. 1. Wellhead and BOPE are supported by casing in most designs, 2, When slips are set, the weight of a tubular is transferred from the hhook to the wellhead. The wellhead in turn places this new load onto previously set easing. 8. Gravitational loads are the weights of tubulars and fluid pressure forces. TUBULAR DESIGN AND USE 2 1 TOHELL Gx 1482 Gasen CO RDHe24, Friction loads act in the axial direction of the tubular if torsion is not present, These loads are derived from either an inclined hole tr a dogleg. Doglegs cause a two fold friction problem: (1) the forces which bend the tubular around the dogleg also clamps the tube against the wall of the hole causing the highest of drag frictions, and (2) because all of the sectiors of a dogleg can not be vertical, the tubular, because of gravity, will he lying on the low side of the hole, producing drag. Also Drag is produced in inelined holes only because gravity pulls the tube to the low side of the hole, A load placed on a tubular, such as a collar hanging on a ledge, is not drag. It is contact load. 5. Contact loads are those placed on a tubular by objects within the hole. Common objects are ledges, other pipe, bridges, and even the bottom of the hole, 6, Formation loads can cause hoop loads to levels near those of the overburden, Movement of salt zones are an example. It is also possible for trapped brine in a salt zone to develop full overburden pressure and hydraulically collapse casing. 7. Applied loads at the surface often lead to tubular failure. Common loads are the following {internal and external press Pickup and slackoff ofthe easing Changing the weight of the internal or external fluids ‘evacuating the casing Most human errors which directly cause the failure of tubulars fare those for which combination loads are overlooked. For example, internal pressure and pick-up both add tension to a tubular. 8, Temperature changes produce loads. 9. Tubular corrosion and erosion are not loads, but both reduce the strength of tubulars. Tubular erosion (reduction of wall thickness) by drill collar or tool joint wear while drilling out of casing cannot be reliably quantified at this time; however, some designers add a measure of wall thickness to account for anticipated erosion and/or corrosion, TUBUAR DESIGN ANDUSE MITCHELL Box 482 Gaiden CODD2HYDROGEN SULFIDE AND STEEL SOUR SERVICE. (Hydrogen Sulfide) NACE Material Requirement MR-01.75 defines gas as “sour” if the partial pressure of Hydrogen Sulfide is 0.05 psia or more, ‘At 10000 psi, this translates to 5 parts per million (ppm) or 0.0005 Mol® of hydrogen sulfide ‘MR.01-75 does not address pressures in excess of 10000 psi or partial pressures less than 0.05 psia. The NACE definition of sour" is in Figure 1 Sulfide-stress. cracking of a particular. steel ; depends on the amount NACE Definition of Sour Gas of Hydrogen Sulfide present and also on the ‘amount of tensile stress in the steel i i Steel at low stress can tolerate more Hydrog Sulfide than it can. at high” stress. The “threshold stress” is the sR maximum stress. that 7 4 the steel can tolerate eae without brittle fracture. Pressure (psi) of i’ ‘The Threshold Stress decreases as the amount of Hydrogen Sulfide increases. Similarly, steel at high temperature can tolerate more Hydrogen Sulfide than it can at lower temperatures, Manufacturers usually classify a steel as “sour service’ if the minimum ‘Threshold Stress is 80% or more of the yield stress in tests at room temperature. ‘The next charts, for example, show that steel of grade P-100 should not be used for sour service unless temperatures are 175°F or more while HS is in contact with the steel TUBLLARDESIGN ANDUSE 4 TMTOMELL ox 1692 Glin 0 8082‘MAX. NO FAILURE STRESS (YIELD STRENGTH) ‘MAX. NO FAILURE STRESS (Ge YIELD STRENGTH) STEEL FAILURE IN H, S "UBULAR DESIGN ANDUSE 5 MITCHELL Box 1482 olsen OsoSALT AND DIAPERIC SHALE ‘The basic guidelines for preventing collapse caused by plastic salt are as follows in order of decreasing priority: 1. Drill a gauge hole through the salt. 2, Get a good cement job, 8. Run heavy wall pipe. ‘Two completely different mechanisms may responsible for casing collapse. A third is indirectly responsible, but may be the more prevalent cause of failure ‘Two of the mechanisms are shown in the sketches: 1. Salt Sheer Loading 2 Salt Point Loading ‘A good sheath of cement reduces the point loading and makes the external load more like hydrostatic pressure. The best results are obtained by increasing wall thickness, rather than yield strength, If point loading occurs, it is unlikely that even the’ heaviest pipe which is practical to run will be strong enough. A minimum collapse rating corresponding to a load of 1 pailft or more is usually required. TUBULAR DESIGN AND USE 6 Tce. Box 480 Goten CO BotCASING DESIGN CRITERIA MANAGEMENT'S GUIDELINES Satisfying management's guidelines is one step in the process of choosing casing. ‘Their guidelines fi: into the scheme of design after the objectives and loads are reconciled and before the creation of specific criteria into which the casing mast fit. The total process of selecting casing involves these steps, 1, Decide on rational objectives to be attained by the casing. 2, Identify the loads to which the casing will be subjected during its life 3. Satisfy management's guidelines. Management's guidelines will bbe broad and present a balance between risk and cost 4. Create specific criteria in the form of equations and charts for the well. 5. Make the computations and draw the charts, 8. Select easing. Management's guidelines are based on risk and cost analysis. When addressing {guidelines it should be kept in mind that the primary objective of design is no: to climinace fa''ures; but to provide an optimum balance between materials ccsts fand risk costs, It is the designers function to explain to management that his design satisies their guidelines. Major guideline topies for management's considerations are Inspection of easing ‘Whether to run casing empty or filled ‘Considerations for running casing through dogleg> ‘Margin of overpull for pulling casing Casing wear by drilling operations Run new or used casing ‘Loss of fuidlevel within the casing (lost cireulation) Gas column to surface versus gas kick bubble, versus water column for surface burst, Displacement of cement plugs with mud or water ‘Cement back to the surface TUBULAR DESION ANDUSE 7 VUToHELL Box 1482 Goden CO neeConsion protection ofthe casing TiS considerations Salt zone diaperic shale considerations Permit buckling or not Permit yielding or not Considerations of formation bearing stress versus contained fluid pressures Permit yielding of the steel in the casing within cemented sections Selection of casing test pressures after setting the casing ‘The potential for actually having design loads on the casing and the consequence of failure CRITERIA AND EQUATIONS FOR CASING DESIGN Design criteria are different from menagement's guidelines in that the criteria are specific to loads and casing strengths. Mathematical equations are derived from criteria, not precepts of risk and cost. Every designer must envision the maximum tensile loads and their backups, maximum burst loads and their backups, and maximum collapse loads and their backups, for every foot over the length of the casing, Then the designer must match those loads with sufficient strength casing. All equations must be in the following format. BASIC EQUATION Strength -~ Design Factor * (Load - Backup) MAXIMUM LOADS ‘The governing design load is the maximum which may be reasonably expected. It may or may not be reasonable to expect a fault to slip as shown in the sketch However, prevalent selected maximum loads for casing design are the following. sh 1. Tho maximum burst load for a tubular i occurs if all the mud in the hole is displaced by gas, 2, The maximum collapse load occurs if the pipe is fully evacuated and TURLAADESGN ANDUSE. 8fa. the fall formation fluid pressure acts on the casing \. the formation's rock bearing stresses act on the casing. 3. Maximum tensile loads occur during running casing through doglegs or after cementing during stability loadings ‘Tensile failures and collapse can be tolerated, but a burst failure, particularly if it, occurs at the surface, may be disastrous. A discussion and comparison of various drilling burst load conditions is presented below ‘The following criteria and equations are popular in the industry. TENSION IN WORD FORMAT RRR feo| ‘The design tensile load is the weight of the steel in the casing below the depth for which the easing is being designed. The backup is the buoyancy of the casing below the point. Dogleg bending loads are included and are to be computed with Lubinskis modified equation. IN EQUATION FORMAT. S,= DF Iw, *(TVD-D)+Fyypl S = kuleomgteiesc ent eee ore te BS Been Bo cuales perst eee r ‘The design burt oad i the pressure at any depth placed pon the faving Hy a coluen o telbane ger hich entenda ter the, —L— feinlioncofsining gas mish wif rodues the gues pressure Btn ourface or rom be che af the casing ioe snc ‘The gas pressure at the shoe can not exceed the formation’s fracture strength at the shoe. The formation which will produce the highest pressure at the shoe must be reasoned or found by comparing all probable formations, In any case their are two basic equations. ‘The backup load is the pressure of the mud outside the easing at all depths, TLBUARDESCN INOUSE 8 MITCHELL Box 1482 Gaien 0080402IN EQUATION FORMAT Sy =DP+1@;-2° avD-Dy-SM2, st ommation pressure cones SyeDP*(ey-8¢eTvD-0-MD) pacar strong conels S, = casing burst strength; psi DF Durst dasign factor Pe = formation pressure; psi Pi = formation fracture resistance; psi a gas grodient; psilft TvD depth of hole; D depth of design; & MW = mud weight; ppz COLLAPSE INWORD FORMAT ‘The collapse load is the pressure of the mud outside the casing above the top of the cement and formation fluid pressure below the top of the cement, For production casing, there is no backup load. For intermediate and surface casing, the easing contains a column of water equivalent to the formation fracture strength at the easing shoe, IN EQUATION FORMAT S.hi,=DF*(D* MW- 0} in the evacuated space above the water column S.y,=DP*ID* MW-WG*(D-EL] in the water column - S, = casing collapse strength; psi bix = API method of derating collapse strength for tension S.pix = deratec collapse strength of casing; psi DF = design factor D depth of design; & Mw mud weight; pps we vwater gradient; psilft EL evacuated length; N “TUBULAR DESIGN AND USE 0 VaTeHEUL Box 1482 Gotan 0062402POPULAR DESIGN FACTORS: Design factors for tension loading call for a 1.6 design factor for the pipe body and ‘connection, and a 2.0 design factor for skinny connections. Higher design factors should be’ used for clearance connections, such as a flush liner connection, ‘because these connections are weaker and prone to failure, TABLE OF DESIGN FACTORS gasiic «BURST COLLAPSE Tension‘ STARILITY TORSION VON MISES conpuctoR «1.01.0 16 ae tt SURFACE 10 40 1600 128s PRODUCTION 1.25 1.9, 1604s tas Liner nas 16 neta § Body and Joint unless Joint skinny; then use 2.0 rather than 16. DRILLING BURST CRITERIA ‘Design of intermediate casing for burst is controversial because the range in risk and cost ean be great apd there are many burst criteria. However, they may be placed into four fundamental eategories 1. Gas to surface. This is the most expensive design. It assumes the casing is filled only with gas. 2. Water to surface. This is intermediate in cost, It assumes losses at the casing shoe and the casing is kept full (or partially full) of ‘water by pumping into the casing at the surface, 8, Kick design. This is a lower cost. It assumes taking a gas kick of a specified volume, 4, No control. This permits the least expensive desig. It assumes xo gas, oil, or water will enter the casing. ‘The four criteria are compared in the chart for an intermediate casing set at 14000 {, The external pressure gradient (backup) is 0.488 psi (9 ppg) For the kick criterion, a kick sufficient to fracture the shoe is assumed. The Maximum Anticipated Surface Pressure (MASP) for the three cases are u VOHELL Rox 1482 Galion COBost21. Gas column = 12800 psi 2 Water columa = 7800 psi 3, Kick at curl = 1250psi Tt should be noted that the three load lines intersect at the deepest casing shoe since all assume fracture at the shoe, All are intended to represent an underground blowout, i ‘he well is flowing at the deepest casing shoe. Intermediate String Burst Load Lines 0 1,250 7,800 12,300 14,000" 119.1'ppg 16,000" The high burst ratings required are difficult to obtain for the large diameter casing required to allow. setting multiple liners, Additionally, the gas to surface eriterion would require 16000 psi blowout preventers. Even the water to surface burst condition is difficult to achieve, WATER -| | | | Depth (1,000 feet) 6 8 10 12 14 Pressure (1,000 psi) GASTO SURFACE ‘There are two ways “gas to surface” can occur. A gas bubble ean be allowed to rse to the surface with the well shut in; or. with » dvillpipe kick, the deillpipe parts or is sheared near the surface. An underground blowout will occur if the formations fracture pressure at the shoe is less than the pressure of the gas in the zone from ‘which the gas came; such is usually the case WATER TO SURFACE ‘The assumption of “water to the surface’ also may produce an underground blowout. However, it is assumed that preparations can be made to pamp water into the well before running aut of mud. This does not account for drillpipe failure or pumping equipment failure, The problem of drillpipe kicks can be minimized by running a float. For this case, the pump pressure required is about 7800 rai Even cementing equipment is not rated for extended service at this pressure: therefore, considerable redundancy is mandatory. If the pumping equipment fails, the ‘casing will burst if not designed for the gas to sutface load, leaving & blowout, TWRULAR DESION AND Box 1492 Goon CO BaKICK ‘The assumption of a Kick also represents an underground blowout if the kick exceeds the available kick tolerance (as is the case here). The shoe is broken down and the permeable gas zone will flow if the fracture pressure at the shoe is below formation pressure in the permeable zone. This does not account for drillpipe failure, pumping equipment fllure or running out of mud. A oat minimizes the risk from drillpipe kicks. There is usually sufficient pumping equipment redundancy for pumping mud at the low pressures and rates required. AN OVERVIEW OF CASING SELECTION ‘Tubular designs are now based on real loads and more realistic tubular strengths and limitations. Design factors and tubular strength derating factors are no longer allowing for the lees exacting and arbitrary design, The personal computer is responsible for the new revelation in tubular design, Without a personal it is improbable that a casing can be designed for realistic collapse loading in which buckling and the new API collapse strength equations are applied. ‘THE"APY DESIGN METHOD ‘The old way of casing design is out. The old method is known, and incorrectly so, as the API method. API does not have a method or a procedure for the design of casing or tubing. API has tubular strengths and size tolerances, The old method onsiers four fctiious lads and the required easing stzengthe to overcome these 1. ‘The body tensile strength at any point in the easing had to be 1.8 ‘times the hanging weight in air ofthe casing below that point 2. The joint tensile strength at any point in the casing had to be 2.0 times the hanging weight in air of the casing below that point. 8. The burst strength of the casing at all points had ta he equal to the highest bottom hole pressure created by the mud while drilling. 4. The collapse strength, after derating it for combined loading, of the easing at a selected point had to-be 1.125 times the pressure created by the mud at that point, The tensile load used in the combined loadirg was the buoyed weight of the casing below the point of interes: The combined load derating factor was biaxial fand Was extracted from yon Mises ‘Maximum Strain Energy of Distortion Theory at Yield failure theory. This set of criteria is not adequate for the design of shallow casings or deep casings. In deep holes casing can not be manufactured of sufficient strengths to overcome the unrealicti: loads. In shallow casings the loads considered are incomplete. For example in a real situation the easing must be lowered into the hiole one joint at a time and the real load associated with this action is call ‘Casing TUBULAR DESIGN ANDUSE B THTCHELL aoe 1282 Goan CO eased‘Running Loads’; however, the above criteria do not contain rules for running casing. ‘The big and important area of ‘Buckling and ‘Wellhead Loads’ after ‘cementing is also not addressed, ITERATIVE CASING ‘The new way considers fictitious loads only to initiate an iterative process which produces the final casing design, GN ‘The iterative steps are the following: A. Casing of sufficient strengths are selected to overcome the fictitious loads of ‘8, Hanging weight of the casing before cementing ’. Burst by formation pressures before cementing . Collapse by mud or formation pressures before cementing 2 Adjust casing strengths to account for running loads and dogleg running loads if required. 3. Adjust casing strengths to account for buckling and wellhead loads during and after cementing. 4. If there were changes in steps 2 end 3, then return to step #1 and continue through step #4 5. If there were no changes, your design is finished. ‘MINIMUM TUBULAR STRENGTHS It is recommended to tubular designers to use the minimum strengths as published by the API. It may be noted that the values of tubular strengths as ‘published by the API have no built in safety factors, API publishes che following strengths for tubulars 1. intornal yield (burst) 2 collapse - 8. body tension 4. joint tension ‘TUBULAR FAILURE CRITERIA It is recommended to tubular designers to use the API procedure for derating casing for collapse. The API procedure incorporates the “Maximum Strain Energy of Distortion Failure Theory at Yield” in a biaxial loading manner. It has been reasonably argued that triaxial equations from the same theory are more valid in theory and less practical in application. To compensate designers frequently use buoyed weight rather than actual loads to initiate their designs Biaxial loads are loads which act simultaneously in only two perpendicular TUBULAR ESN ANDUSE 4 JaoHett ox 482 Gauen COsDIC2directions within the wall of the tubular, ‘MSEDFTY predicts failure of tubvlars based on the energy needed to change its shape (as opposed to change of volume). DESIGN FACTORS AND LOADS, A tube design factor must not have a value of less than one (1.0). The best poliey is that design tubular strengths must be at least equal to loads. If design factor can be reasonably assigned a value which is less than one (1.0), then the load needs to be reexamined, because this means that the load is sufficient to fail the tubular. Design factors are often call “ignorance factors’, because design factors should be higher as less is known about the loads which will be placed on the tubulars, FAILURE MODE: ELASTIC, PLASTIC, AND YIELD ‘Tube failure means that a casing can no longer serve its purpose. In casing design failure means that casing stresses have met or exceeded the API yield point of the steel in the casing. It should be kept in mind that the casing may not show one indication of failure. Yield may occur long before a tube breaks into two pieces, splits, or collapses. Elastic failure can occur during bending and stability loadings, for example. A large diameter casing may be bent to such a degree in a dogleg that its internal diameter may diminish in size to the point that it does not allow the passage of tools or perhaps a bottom hole assembly. If upon pulling the casing from the ddogieg, the casing regains its nominal internal diameter, one could think that the ‘casing had failed, and had failed elastically. One well known plastic design problem in which the easing is failed if judged by the yield point eriterion; but, it vill not have failed if failure is thought of as the inability of the easing to continue to serve its function. The problem occurs in steam injection wells and is caused by the eyelie injection of steam. The problem is this: After comenting the casing and locking it in place, injected steam heats the easing to the point that the casing wall is placed in a compressive stress state which is greater than the yield of the stocl, Thue, the casing ie failed according to the yield point eritarion; however, in practice, the easing will continue to serve its purpose and in fact will not be failed. The reason it is not failed is that the casing’: shape and dimensions can change because the casing does not have a place in which to deform. However, if the cement is bad and the hole is enlarged then deformation of the casing can cause failure. During a cooling eycle, steam is not being injected, the casing can cool and put itself into tension and under those conditions may be capable of pulling itself into two pieces or more, ‘TRIAXIAL VS. BIAXIAL TUBE DESIGN From time to time interest in triaxial stress design of tubulars in the oil patch surfaces. The API supports biaxial stress design in their bulletin 5C3, page 7, February 1, 1985, only in regard to the affect of axial loading on collapse. ‘The usual concern is that triaxial design should be more accurate; and therefore, TUBULAR DESIGN ANOUSE B THEA Box 1402 Geen CO Bo8n2biaxial mast contain some inherent error, Designers have used buoyed weight rether than tension in tubular design to compensate for the ‘known’ error in biaxial design. ‘As indicated by its name, triaxial stress design assumes that every cube of steel has three stresses acting on its surfaces. These are axial, tangential, and radial Biaxial designs set the radial stress to zero, because it is usually the smallest. Other than this assumption, biaxial and triaxial equations are identical API BIAXIAL EQUATION DERIVATION ‘yon Miss failure theory is the begining point for driving the biexal equation Wassumes tha all strestes placed on a volume of cel within the well of@ be consumes pare ofthe strength of he stel, is equation isthe following 2 PAG SF + 6,- 5% +6, 57 YP = API yield point of the steel in the tube; psi s axial stress, pst S) = radial stress, psi S, = tangential stress; psi ‘The arial stress is either the load or design load divided by the minimum cors: sectional area of the wall of the tube, The radial stress is set to zero. The resulting equation is then solved for the tangential stress, S;, API has chosen to name the tangential stress, ‘axial stress equivalent grade’ and has assigned it the symbol “YP, In reality, this is nothing more than the remaining strength of the wall of the tube for resisting collapse pressures It may be easily determined with von Mises’ equation that negative axial leads (compression loads) will increase the collapse resistance of tubes and positive axial loads (tension loads) will increase the internal yield resistance. ‘TRIAXIAL EQUATION DERIVATION ‘The radial and tangential stresses are defined with Lame's equation. Ai Bp oy 2 Pa. Bh nvaas Tangential stress Sa BA -P,AdavG% Radial stress, Ss radial stress, psi S = tangential stress, psi Ai pid, in? ‘Ao = piD? in? A =A AD TUBULARDESGN AND USE 6 MTCHEUL Box 482 Gotten CO Bosca> = diameter of stress investigation; in a internal diameter of the tube; in D external diameter of the tube: in Pi internal pressure; psi P= extemal pressure: psi It may be shown with Lame’s tangential stress equation that setting the parameter ‘b: equal to ‘é’ gives the maximum value of tangential stress for all pressure conditions, Therefore, bis set equal to Following conventional schemes and for the above reason, Lame’s radial stress equation reduces to the following, rather simple, equation: Se=- Py Substitution of ' - Pinto Von Mises’ equation and then solving for St, in a ‘manner similar to the biaxial case, gives the triaxial ‘axial stress equivalent ‘Thereafter, if one so desires, collapse strengths of tubes may be dereted riaxial stress considerations rather than with API's biaxial considerations APT's BIAXIAL STRESS EQUATION ye,=yp { [1 "TRIAXIAL STRESS EQUATION S,-Pioyd 1 Sy ye,-ve {1-3 op ))?- £95 EXAMPLE TRIAXIAL & BIAXIAL PROBLEM 7" 29 ppf L80 casing is run to 15,000" in 16 ppg mud and cemented with 15.2 ppg cement from 15,000 to 10,000’. While the mud is displaced with completion fluid, the temperature of the casing above the cement drops by an average of 128 Deg F. What is the minimum weight completion fluid which must reside within the 7 ‘casing to prevent it from collapsing at a depth of 10,0007 ‘This problem is most easily solved by a trial and error technique in which several weights of completion fluids are estimated. Begin with a 8.31 ppg completion fui ‘The axial stress in the casing at 10,000" is found with a free body of the hottom 5,000’ of the casing. Assume a check valve is at the shoe of the casing and that the cement is displaced with 15.0 ppg mud. The forces acting on the free body are the following: TURLLAR DESIGN ANDUSE wv MITOHEL ox 1498 Colson CO oD.92Weight of stoel 5000 +=145,000Ib External pressure area force = 052 * (10000 * 15 + 5000 15.2)*.7854*7? = 452.271 Ib Internal pressure force area 152 * (15000 "15) 784 * 6.184? =851,4111b ‘The resultant force at 10,000" because of the cementation = 145,000- 452,271 + 951,411 += 44,140 Ib (real tension) Note that the buoyed weight of the casing at 10,000’ is the following (and is not equal in value or meaning to the real tension} = 10,000 * (29+ 0408 * 6.184. 0408 +7") = 285,611 Ib (buoyed weight) ‘The stability load caused by the temperature drop after displacing the mud = 60*29* 126 =219,240 Ib ‘Te stability lad caused by chenging the 15.0 pp mud to the 3.31 ppg completion uid 122* 6.1847 + 10,000 * (3.31 - 15) =545401b ‘Total tension afer cementation and stability considerations = 208,840 Ibs ‘The cross-sectional area of the casing 1854 * (7.61942) =8.4496qin - ‘The axial stress at 10,000" 208,840/8.449 $24,716 psi ‘The external pressure at the depth of 10,000" =.052* 150° 10,000 7,800 psi ‘The internal pressure at the depth of 10,000" = 052 "8.81" 10,000 721 psi TUBULAR DESIGN ANDUSE 8 MITOWELL Boe 102 Geen COsDAEeBIAXIAL, Biaxial axial stress equivalent grade (See API BULLETIN 5C3) = 64275 pst ‘The biaxial collapse resistance of the casing which is also the allowable differential pressure across the wall of the easing at 10,000 =6077 pst ‘Thus, an internal column pressure must be precisely equal to the difference between the external mud pressure at 10,000" and the collapse resistance of the casing at 10,000°. The density of the fluid to achieve this pressure "7800-607 "052 "10000 31 ppg ‘This is the correct density value, because this is also the estimated value, A trial and error procedure of more steps is normally required. TRIAXIAL Begin by estimating that 3.26 ppg completion fluid will be required and complete the above computations. It will be found that the axial stress is 24,609 psi and that the internal pressure is 1,685 psi = 65,171 psi Compute the triaxial axial stress equivalent grade ‘The triaxial collapse resistance of the casing which is also the allowable differential pressure across the wall of the easing at 10,000" '=6,107 psi ‘The required density of internal eompletion uid ‘7800-6107 "052 * 10000 +826 ppg ‘This is the correct density value, because this is also the estimated value. A trial and error procedure of more steps is normally required, Note that the percent difference between the biaxial and triaxial strengths of ‘easing relative to the biaxial strength expressed in internal completion fluid densities as set forth in this problem is 331-326, % difference = $54;328 + 109 5% SGN AND USE ~ MITCHELL Bor 1482 Gotten COOK?REAL GAS SURFACE PRESSURE Estimating gas surface pressures to which tubulars are often subjected is critical in tubular design, It is popular to design the required burst strengths of ceasing, for example, with ideal gas law column equation. A better estimate may be made with the procedure described here. ‘The real gas law is P 2yeyT yressure gradient of the as; psilft P = prosture of the gas; psia 4% = gas deviation factor R = gas constant = 1544 ‘b/mole-R MW molecular weight of the gas (methane = 16.04 1bflb-mole) T = temperature of the gas; Rankine compressibility factor, % Z-factors for Natural Gas Peesdo-reduced Pressure, Pr . i Peowdo-reduced Preseere, Pr Noting that Z is a function of P and TT and the fact that the pressure and temperature changes are small in a st as column suggests that if Z is computed with the known bottom hole temperature and pressure and is thereafter constant, then a reasonable surface pressure for easing design may computed, ‘Thus, the gas gradient for a methane coloma which will give the highest surface pressure of all hydrocarbon gases becomes TUBULAR DESIGN ANDUSE » WeTCHELL Bax 1682 Goen CO BosePon be Ba Peon 16 TH Finally, the surface gauge pressure is Pyurt™ Pau - © * DEPTH - Patmoepheric EXAMPLE GAS COLUMN PRESSURE If methane gas is drilled at 14,000 feet and the expected bottom hole gas pressure 9,000 psig at a temperature of 205°F, what is the expected static shut-in pressure? ‘The absolute bottom hole pressure and temperatures are Ppp = 90004147 = 90147 psia ‘Tyyy = 460+ 205 =65R ‘The critical pressure and critical temperature of methane are P.=673psia Te ‘The reduced pressure and temperature of methane are out Pe Ga ‘The Z factor is taken from the chart where a value of 1.92 was read. gon8.7 ; on = 0.1064 pst 132 i gas ‘The surface pressure is Pause = Pau * DEPTH - Proaphesio Payee 9014.7 - 0,068 * 14000 -14.7 = 7510 psig TUBULAR DESIGN ANDUSE a eTCHELL 80x 1482 Goden 20 S0H02FUNDAMENTALS OF TUBULARS DEFINITIONS AND CONCEPTS ‘The following is a review of only that part of mechanics which is required for a full understanding of the thoughts put forth in this manual. The section begins with meanings of terms, points 1. Neutral points: There are five named neut Points: The neutral -) = 2iz0 a. Neutral point of bending (NPB) is the location within a tube at which the sum of the moments are equal to zero, The tube is not bent above this point. 'b. Neutral point of distortion (NPD) is the location within @ tube at which one-half the sum of the radial and tangential stresses are equal to the axial stress if mud weight inside and out are equal and no surface pressure. Von Mises stress has a value of zero, The tubs at this point is subject to dilataticn but not distortion. 548, 2 c. Neutral point of buoyancy (NPB) is the location within a tube at hich the buoyed weight of the abe hanging below the location is equal to an applied force at its bottom end, d. Neutral point of tension and compression is the location Yithin a tube at which the sum of the axial forces are ‘equal to zero. ‘e, Neutral point of pressure area is the location within a tube at which the sum of the pressure area force acting ‘on its ends and the weight of the tube are equal to axial ‘tension at the location, {It may be shown that the neutrel points a’, b and ‘c, are exactly equal and that points ‘d' and ‘e’ are exactly equal. The thoughts conveyed by '@, Band ‘most useful in tubular design, TUBLLARDESIGN ANDUSE 2 TCHELL Box 482 Osten 00 saez22, Buoyancy: Buoyaney is not a force. There are three recognized percepts of buoyancy and all three have their place. a, Buoyancy is the weight of displaced fluid. This precept solves most problems but has limitations \b. Buoyancy is the difference between fluid pressure area forces acting on the top and bottom of a tube. This precepts also has imitations. . Buoyancy is the sum of the moments acting on a tube or any portion of a tube. This precept is most powerful. 3. Triaxial and biaxial loads and : coordinate systems: a, Triaxial loads are loads in an ' meee, orthogonal coordinate system in which the loads are axial, : tangential, and radial b. Biaxial loads are loads in an orthogonal coordinate system in which the loads are axial and tangential, The radial load is, neglected (omitted) 4. Buckling: The precept is that buckling is severe vc bending: “however, came, buckling in and of itselt BucKLNOLOKD ig not nevesearily bad. em a. Buckled is a bent ry ‘osmtAceNEt condition in which bending increases with litle increase in the load which caused the bending. The steel in the tube may not be yielded. The load exceeds the critical buckling load. b. Bent is @ condition in which the bending increases proportionally with load, 5. Bending: There are two recognized equations for computing axial stresses derived from ending of tubes within curved holes (doglegs), a. Lubinski’s equation is used if the tube has connections which prohibit the wall of the tube from contacting the wall of the hole along the tube's body; i.c., only the connections touch the wall of the hole, ‘TUBULAR DESIGN ANDUSE 2 MeTCHELL on 1480 Gotten CO 80:02\b. The beam equation is usod if al of the tube contacts the wall of the hole throughout the dogleg; i-e., the connections do not provide standoff. Equivalent bending load is the bending stress as computed with either of the above equations multiplied by the cross: sectional area of the steel in the wall of the tube, This was invented because designers had rather work with loads than stresses, 6. Stress and Strain: feet witout Force is an entity which causes mass to <= + palo accelerate, There are only three real forces, not including nuclear physics, contact, mass attraction, and magnetiem and electrical. Examples of contact forces are a liquid pushing on the end of a tube, a drilpipe pulling on a bottom hole assembly, aad gas pushing on the wall of a tube. Examples of mass attraction is the force holding a man on the surface of the earth and the foree pulling a tube down a drill, hole. A fishing magnet holding a piece of steel is an example of magnetism, Note that buoyancy is not a force. All real forces are found with Newton's laws of motion. These are )M = 0 and 2F = 0if a body is static. a, Stress is a force divided by an area perpendicular to the force, It acts within solids and it has a direction. By convention, negative stress is usually associated with compression b, Strain is the change in the value of a dimension divided the original value of the dimension. Two common strains ia tubes are the change in its length divided by its original length and the change in its circumference divided by its original cireumferenee. A third is the change in wall thickness, ©. Yield occurs if the stress is equal to or exceeds the yield point of the steel 4. Pressure is exerted by eid: It oct tm all directions equally in mognirudee A Positive. Differences in 0.5% STRAIN Fresoures may be negative STRESS TUBILAR DESISNAND USE,©. von Mises stress determines if steel is yielded and is computed ‘with von Mises equation, £. Axial stress is real tension divided by the cross-sectional area of the tube 6. Radial stress is computed with Lame’s equation, hh, Tangential stress is computed with Lame's equation. 7. Loads and Tension: 4, Tension eauses two marks which were previously drawn on a tube to separate; Le. become farther apart, \b. Real tension is found with Newton's law of motion (F = M* a) ‘and free bodies. . A free body is sketch of a portion of a tube with all of the loads in a chosen direction (usually vertical or horizontal) drawn on the sketch. 4, Effective tension is the real tension at @ Toeation less the internal pressure at that > location multiplied by the internal area of the tube plus the external pressure at that location multiplied by the outside area of the tube. It, within von Mises equation, controls yield of tubes, ‘©. Load is a generic word which could mean force, tension, ‘compression, bending, pressure, or weight. {. Strencth is ceneric word which means a tubes resistance to a g. Buoyed weight at 2 location is the weight of a tube and its contents hanging below a location less the buoyaney of the that ‘section of tube and its contents hanging below the location, 1h. Weight in mud is the buoyed weight. 4. Air weight isthe ‘nominal APT’ weight and is as liste in the APT tables, " 8. End Conditions ‘a. Fixed end moans that the implied end ofa tube can not move in any direction and especially vertically. TRULIA DESIGN MOUSE % MICHELL Bo 492 Oven CO92u 2 13, ¥4 B . Free end means that the implied end of a tube can move vertically. ©. Moments at the ends of tubes are not considered in this manual 4. Lateral displacements at the ends of tubes are not considered in this manval. ay Poisson's ratio is the negative r Ax contraction of steel perpendicular to 5 the load divided by she extension of the steel in the direction of the load. “s ‘Young's modulus is the slope of the stress-strain plot within the elastic region. Elastic deformation is a deformation which results from a stress ‘which i less than the yield of the steel. Plastic deformation is a deformation which results from a stress which excoeds the yield of the steel. ‘The change in a variable is the last value less the previous value of the variable, Pressure-Area force is the force which results from a pressure ‘acting on an area. Its direction is normal to the area and toward the body which has the exposed area, A moment is the product of a force and a lever arm, “TUBULAR DESIGN ANDLSE B WITCHELL Box 1452 Galen COA?STRESS ANALYSIS In order to perform a stress analysis of casing or tubing, we need to understand how the Stresses and displacements in a tube are affected by internal and external pressure, a iat a In particular we need to know how stresses and displacements change as we change oat internal or external pressure, temperature or apply an axial forve to the end? Areas Bxternal area Ay a Internal aree A @ Area of steel A A @ So If the outside diameter, D, and the inside diameter, 4, are in inches, then the area is in square inches in’), ‘Moments of Inertia Second momant of the area Fora @ Polar moment of inertia an ® INote: TUBLLAA DESIGN ANDUSE a ITOMELL Bor 482 Gotan 20 eDu2rates ence eeecenter tee eee equations. OD XQ . Ion ee Patan abe si A A Radial stress 8, = RHP) -PGha- GA) 6 A, A Tangential stress 8, = PGI A+) -PGa+ G4 a ‘The vale ranges tom dat the inside wall oD at the outside wall Tes wef to nte that the sm 5,48, = emstat = 2 As-PeAD © ‘This fact will be used in determining the axial stress S, or the axial strain e,, The stresses S, and 8, do not depend on S,, saa ° Aaa stro if tenon isin pounds and there Ais in in hen i ending ste "he bending eatin devlpd by Labi i saasepror Tage Bee 7, Pops ao) oso ES] tanto = Se ay Co tbe curvature = °/ fost ‘RAMA DeSCNAIOUSE 3 vate bo encouncosnce‘The pure beam bending equation is Fypay #17195 "DC *D?a) aa ‘The bending stress is F 5 = THE op TBEAM Snich ever i larger a —— Lens THEE PURE BEAM BENDING ooke'saw fo strerstia reais adil stain HSS? gy oo a Tangential senna HEAD? yy a pai rsin ea MEAN? say «s = Youngs mole = 9010p or teal fs Powarerauo 2 03 fr ate! Gimeno 5 —_Leweticient of thermal enponion 69 x 10-6 °F for steel At = temperature increase in “F. TUBULAR DESIGN ANDUSE » vuTeHELA Bc 1492 Catan CO s0402The equations also apply to changes in strain caused by changes in stress. Changes in tres. Sy, aR, Sy and temperature at give changes in strain de, Equation (16) with equations (8) and (8) gives the form that is needed to caleulats length changes of tubes caused by tension, pressing and temperature AT 2u (AP;A; » APy Ag) co bey = BAUM AND Sy ay ‘The change in length of a tube of length L caused by changes in tension, pressure and temperature, is AL = Lisesevg as) whore (Aezayg is the average value of Ae, over the length L. For an axially restrained tube (e.g, cemented casing), Aey=0 and we may solve for AT from Equation (17) 8 (OP; Ay = AP Ag)~ AE BAD), ayy Equations (17), (18) and (29) are all that are needed to solve problems involving straight tubes, Totty = Trealy~ (PA), + PoAoly Cy) “effective tension” at one single depth, ‘x. Effective tension is the sum of the mouieuts alu deplls iat a tube, Tt is called tension only for convenience. In the below sketch and development, the lever arm, 2, is assigned a value of unity for convenience, and because its true value can nat be known or computed. Thus, effective tension is the foe component of a moment. Tygay is ascertained with a free boly and the setting of the sum of forees acting onthe free body to equal zero. ‘Whereas, Tofris ascertained with a free body and the setting of the sum of the moments acting on the free body equal ta zero and then setting the lover arm equal to unity. TUBULAR DESGN ANDUSE a Tee. Boe 182 Gide CO 0402With the sketches Teg is Tyyqi + W + Pyyj - Pg - WOB = 0 ‘and also with the sketches M is Ms+Wa+PyA-PyAJa + (PA, Py Ala - WOBa Considering Af; to be negligible, setting 10, and Tee = M, then, 1, a = Treat ~ Put + Pray which ie the effective real tension at the top of the section, Note that tensions, pressures, and areas’ must be computed at one single depth. For example, 8,984 feet could be the chosen depth. —~< BUOYED WEIGHT En) Note that if jis the weight of the fluid inne che ‘pve wer yh unit length, Wo is the 'WOB weight of ‘the fluid Hieplaeed hy the pipe, and w, is the weight of the steol per unit length in the wall of the pipe, then the effective weight ofthe pipe is Miggt= W, 4-0) Wy = “elective weight (218) Were = wy + 0.0408 * (MWY d?- MW," D2) (ab All variable in oil field unite: Ib/R, Ih/gal, inches. ‘This is also called "buoyant weight" or ‘weight in mud’, ete. ‘The buoyed weight of pipe at a specified depth is the buoyed weight per unit length, of the pipe multiplied by the length of pipe below the depth, al erYIELDING OF AN IDEAL TUBE ‘The calevlated stresses in a tube is compared with some maximum sllowabie stress in order to determine whether or not the tube is adequate to carry the loads. Itis usually desirable to avoid yielding the pipe, In the following, the formulation for an ideal tube is developed. Note that “real” pipe is not round and the wall thickness is not uniform. ‘The yield stress YP is the maximum tensile stress which may be applied without ‘causing permanent deformation of the steel. The pipe body yield ‘Tyg = YP Ay o is the maximum tension that the tube can withstand. If YP is in psi and A is in square inches, then Ty is in pounds. The pipe body yield strength listed in APL Bulletin 5C2 and most catalogs is in 1000's of pounds. ‘The yield behavior caused by combined Ioads, such as tension and pressure, is a bit more complicated. The yield condition attributed to von Mises is G,-Sp2+G,-Sp2+G.- SP +6 2+ 72 +72) =2¥P2 @) y Sq, S;, S; are the normal stresses ‘Ty, Ty T, are the shear stresses Shear stresses arise from torsion and shearing forces on the pipe, The torsional shear stress is significant for drillpipe but is usually neglected for casing. The other shear stresses are often negligible. For easing under tension and pressure loads, the yield condition becom (S_- SY? + (8, -S,? + (G-S,)2 = 2YPE a A major assumption in von Mises theory of yield behavior is that a hydrostatic pressure, such as the pressure acting on a bar submerged in a fuid, cannot fause yielding. The left side of Equation (23) in'@ mean square measure of shear stress, The average stress, (S, + §,+ 8,18, does ant affect the vale of the let side of Equation (23. ‘Define the "von Mises stress" or “equivalent stress” as BV? =(S,- 8)? +S, SP + (Gy-Sa? +6 (TZ + TE +72) (25) TUBLLAADESGN ANOLE 2 MITCHELL Bax 482 Gaiden CO Bose‘The yield condition is then Vc YP the material is elastic V=YP the material is yielded For a tube under tension and pressure loads, the expression for the von Mises stress V can be written as follows, Substituting the expressions for S,, Se, and S, from Equations (6), (7) and (8) into Equation (25), we obtain (following a little algebraic manipulation) A 1 ve = 3G ap? + GF 26) AP = PP, ‘Teet = Treal ~ PyAi + Poy ‘The Von Mises stress is a maximum at the inside wall of a tube. Equation (26) has, been solved to give the von Mises stress at the inside wall of the tube. Incidentally, this form of the equation is only good for the inside wall of the tube. A tube with pressure and tension loads only always yields at the inside wall, both for burst and collapse loads, Further, it is the eifective tension Tegr which governs the ‘tensile yield behavior of a tube in the absence of shear stress Bending stresses may be accommodated in Equation (26) with the principle of superposition, The bending stress Sp is in the axial (2) direction and adds to the axial stress S;. Equation (26) becomes 1, Ars? en vias GoP ap? + ‘Ihe + in quation (27) appears because the bending stress is positive on one side of the pipe and negative on the other. To obtain the maximum von Mises stress ‘V choose the maximum value of Equation (27) by choosing + or - as appropriate, TUBULAR DESGN ANOUSE s TaTOHELL Bax 1482 Golan CO 80802Since the expression for the von Mises stress is the value at the inner wall, substitute d for D in Equation (12) to obtain the bending stress, This is the usual practice for tubing stress analysis. However, for sufficiently high bending stresses (or low pressure loads), the maximum stress oecars at the outer wall; therefore, the von Mises stress at the outer wall must be calculated as well ‘The usual practice for casing stress analysis is to compute the bending stress at the outer wall as in Equation (12) and ase that value in Equation (27); this is conservative. A useful form of the Von Mises equation is + & WH tatoo] (Bie Cae? -P P| Tage 4310 DCT | cs Tet | Treaty jo = may Pate +l geg (2) FREERODIES Free bodies are constructed for the purpose of ascertaining real tension, "Tres." ‘There are 4 cases which often occur 4. Find the real tension at any depth and let Tryst = 7 | eee tet | TUBULAR DESIGN ANOLE m TOHELL Box 452 Gotan 09 80422. Find the real tension in a tube if the real tension at a second Toeation ie known (Treat = 7) 3. Find the real tension with internal surface pressure (Tyea) =): HL (Hfvok Load) = Buoyant weight of steel in all of the tube (w* total length) OR Weight Indicator less block & tackle zEveo WY HL- PAWL no Tatts PAWL 4, Find the Hook Load, "HL" Case A: stuck tube, resting on bottom of hole or ledge, or ‘supported by wall fiction. HL = Weight Indicator - Block & Tackle Case B: freely suspended pipe. HLe Wyeth TVALLAR DESIGN ANDUSE % MITOHELL Bon 1482 Goten CO S082‘EXAMPLES OF THE FUNDAMENTALS OF TUBES. ‘The examples which follow assume the following data: 10,000" of 7” * 6.276" * 26 PPE * L80 tube with 3000 ps internal pipe surface pressure, 2000 psi external pipe surface pressure, 7.5 ppg internal pipe mud weight, 12.0 ppg external pipe mud weight, "b" at midpoint of wall, real tension equal 300,000 Ibs at the surface, tube curvature is 0.05°IR, and the temperature rises +45°F, In terms of our variables this data would be L =1ag008 Dost i Tas & lier P, = 2000 ps P, =20c0psi TY Zoogoobs == 005m ae Nw, 278ope MW, #120 p08 easing ¥ | 280,000 Als ftom the given data’ b =Dsd 226276 10.000 =6.638in =38485.eqin (2) =20885 sain @) Area ofsteel 4 = TP) or =1549sain ©) Second moment of he area 1 =2-@Dt-a4) - 6.2764) = 41.703 int (4) Polar moment ofineria J=21 =2°41.703 = 83.406 int (5) TUBULAR DESIGN ANDUSE % MITCHELL Soe 182 Goin CO D408‘Radial stress at the surface A A §, = POP -p.Gna-@) 6.276 » 8, = 9000 SEE) (> (ggg?) 2000 CBSE (1. E278) «2,450 pel (6) ‘Tangential stress at the surface Ai 44 2) -p Ao) 2 8 = Gar Br) -PGoa+ G? 8, = 3000022) c+ gaag?r-2000° SHS 14 SZ8%) gens psi 8, +S =constant 2 8.+8= 2 (ria Pedy? ee een ent) Pree} Axial stress at the surface Treat S <8 s, = Spe =89,740 psi (9) ‘Tose = Treal = PiAi + Pode ye = oto son 268.85 = 2841608 an : wawvreryign [ES Five 7 | 9 tanh[o.2 peal a0) Pie = 2085201 oti TUBULAR DESIGN ANOUSE VaToHeLs Sc tate Gon CO 8302Bending stross at the surface y k 5 -TEuH or FBR nichover larger 208520 57645 S, = "7549 °° 7549 S Radial strain at the surface S.-H, +8.) TE 27,625 psi or 7,636 psi (choose largest) £27625 psi (13) + Bcau) oD BEA p045) — easse0-tinte 0 ‘Tangential strain Sus, +8) A + oes 6555 (80740 + 2459) Ope +695 10845) = 1.60x 10~tinin (15) ‘Axial strain SAD «sey 19740-12459 + 6655) S2140- AHAB + 5D «go 108 ca =,00150 infin (16) TLALLAR DESIGN ANDUSE B [UTOHELL Sox 402 Gaon CO 0462Change in pipe length as would be measured atthe surface AL =L(depavg or L*& ° BL = 1000000158) =159R 18) [Effective weight of pipe forall depths Wear = 0.0808 (MWe? MW, D2) Weep = 26 +0.0408 + (7.5%6.276%- 12°72) = 14.062 ppf (2b) Pipe body yield tension for all depthe Ty = YP*A = 80000 7.549 = 608,929 tbs (22, ‘von Mises equivalent stress at the surface v? 23 Asp apt 4 Gaby Vv? 23 Bai? s000? + BEB? 298964 psi (261 von Mises stress including bending stress at the surface 1, v2 ao Aez ap? 4 This? ye rss, ene 33 BES 2 sooo? + ALS areas? v =65,861 psi (27) Also solve for the von Mises stress at the surface with the expanded form of the equation TUBULAR DESIGN AND USE ® TCE. Box 482 Golem CO s0H21, eff Tread & De “2 - fm oS + eu * apna iisal + Plpcal Tere __so0000. 2 ¥ # = eee + 200A A" Fetez1e8) rear =s76t2psi 29) P Toa 4310°7*.05°Y' 2 = BL a pagel {2000 2000]?s ft « ——S810°7 05 ass ___- Vortec rant [0.2 / Ns 2 Y= ross rn v 65,861 psi (28) rueuUm oes mouse 0 UTE oe 42 alto CO BeeSTRETCH, OD, AND ID, WALL STRAINS ‘The following five example problems further demonstrate the fandamentals cet forth in the stress analysis section, All problems use the same tube and associated data as in the previous section: 10,000' OF 7" * 6.276" * 26 PPF * L80 CASING Also, assume as before, that the average change in temperature over the entire length of the casing is 45°F. Other conditions are given as required, CHANGE INTHE DIAMETER OF A TUBE ‘The change in the circumference of a tube because of tangential strain is AQy= Ce which leads to RAD,=2D*e and aD,=D*ey 30) ‘The change in the wall thickness caused by radial strain Because the thickness ofthe wall of ube is equally key t change dimensions nthe nie aon the outdo of Ue wall the aces ena te Bb by nal he change in the total thickness, However, a tbe at any Slameter has two wal ‘hus, the equation fore change in diameter caused by radial strain is an,2285 an ‘The total change in OD caused by tangential and radial strains is 4D = 4D, + aD, aD=De,+te, (321 TUBULAR DESIGN AND USE a MITCHELL Box 1482 Golson COB?EXAMPLE 1 Find the new length of the casing after pulling $00,000 pounds above the buoyed weight of the casing, ‘The area of the pipe is A =} 2-a =3(2-6.276) =7.549eqin (9) ‘The only load which has changed is the tension in the casing which affects the axial stress. Since there is no ‘0:0 4 internal or external pipe pressure Sy and Sy are equal to yep =99,740 psi (9) ‘Hooke's Law relates the strain with the stress +B(a0 Sp-nS, +8) & I 39740 -.3(0+0) pe +69x106 = 00164 infin (16) very f0ot of the casing has changed in length by the same amount, Ls Lee, AL = 10000 * 00164 =164ft as) ‘The new length is the change added to 10,000" Unew = L+ AL = 1000+ 16.4 = 10016 st TUBLLAR DESIGN AND USE 2 TATEHEUL Box 42 Goen CO BoHE2EXAMPLE 2 What is the new outside diameter of the casing after pulling 300,000 pounds above its buoyed weight? This i the same problem as #1, only now the concern is with the radial and tangential strains. Again, the only load which has changed is the tension in the casing which affects the axial strese. As in problem #1, since there is no internal or external pipe pressure, Sp and S| are equal to zero. ‘As in Example #1 A Foe. d) 08072-6276) = 7519sain @) Teal S.=7Re = 0 -s70p4 ‘Hoooke's Law relates the strain with the stress 2 say (4) 0. 200 + 39740) 3 29 202349 569108 #8695 10-Sinin (45) x S.-M. +S) StS * S50) 0 399740 +0) BBO 694108 =-860x103inin 05) Lory It is important to note that even though the radial and tangential stresses are zero, the corresponding radial and tangential strains are NOT. ‘The change in the circumforence is AC = aD “e,=7* 74-8695 10° =-00191 in TRLLAR DESIQN ANDUSE a MITOMELL Bo 882 Golden CO sDsN2and the change in the diameter caused by ot is a2 80 0008 +-600210-4a ‘The change in the wall thickness is arate, = 7828 g69410- 2-918 x105ia and OD will change by an amount equal to At, and is aD, =At =-315x10-5in ‘The total change in the OD is then the sum of the partial changes al AD, + AD, =-608 x 10-44.3,15 10-5 =-6.40x10-4in ‘The new OD is the change added to 7" Drew = Dou + AD =7 +(4.40x10-4) =6.990in EXAMPLE 15 What is the new length of an open end casing after an internal pressure of 9,000 psi is applied? (For this problem let change in temperature = zero.) ‘The various areas a Ag= Ene -Sire = 98.485 eq-im. (3) (eaT6# 90.985 sq.in. (2) - Foo? a2) =F 726.2762) =7519sqin 3) 4 ‘The only loads which are changing are the Sr and St. Sz is equal to zero since there is no tension, S.+8=$ (PA, PAD) TUBLLARDESIGN aNDUSE “ TCHELL Bx 1482 Golde CO stn?S,+8,= 7.255 6000+ 0.985 -0* 38.485) 24,587 psi (8) [Now we solve forthe axial strain SHEN) a iy (24587) p= ORME 469x100) 246% 10-4inin (161 ‘Again, note that even though the axial stress is zero the corresponding azial strain is not. Every foot of the casing has changed length by the same amount, AL= Lee, 10000" *-2.46 x 10-4 = 246 (18) ‘The new length is the change added to 10,000" Low =L+AL=10000+62.46) =9.908 8 ‘An alternate solution is to use ean (18) rather than eqn (R) and ean (15) te determine the axial strain, TUBULAR CESIGN ANUS 6 TONE Box 1452 Gokenco soeEXAMPLE What is the new diameter of the easing after an internal pressure of 2,000 psi is applied? (For this problem let the change in temperature = zero.) Lower end is free and not capped. ‘The change in the axial tension for every foot of easing is AT=AP;*Aj and S = AT/A ‘The change in the radial stress at the outside wall of the easing 8,270 0-BP) -7,A5 0.6% sx oon 4. 2 of883 4. 828%) cope) ‘The change in the tangential stress at the outside wall of the casing is (b=D) A, Da, p Aya, ay 8,= PIAA -P,G5 a0 Oh 20985, 4, 2, 38485, ,, 6276, aaa 8, = 00007 ig) (Lt P+ OSES) (14 O28 2, = 24587 psi (7) ‘The change in the radial strain is, S.-W. + 8) SoHE? (4001 ONE O59, 1950) =-246310-inin 06 eel ‘The change in the circumferential strain is SEES EY gay = t=28"9) 50,1050) eA20x10-tinin an ‘The change in the OD is AD=Dette, TUBULAR DESIGNANDUSE 6 TCE Box 482 Golan CO aDAD=7"820x 10 + 862 x-2.46% 10° =565x10%in ($2) ‘The new OD is ODyey = ODga + AD =7+565x109 += 7.00565 in EXAMPLE Find the new diameter of the Before casing after an internal pressure of 8,000 psi is removed? Further, assume that the casing ic cemented in place snd the diameter of the pipe while it is pressured at 3000 psi is 7". This ‘is the micro-annulus problem. ‘The casing is cemented, thus it is assumed that it can net change length. Micro-annulus: an Algebra and leaping forward a few steips yeilds (T is Prat) AT = 2u(aPjAj - AP,A,) - AE BIA) AT = 2*.3-3000°80.985 - 0°98.485)-7.549°90 x 10869 x 10°5 (0) anes «am snd the chang inthe axial stress 5,075 =) ‘The change in the tangential stress at the OD is: Ai a8, = ar +d » ap, Ah aeG% 15, =-2100 CBS .4 Bp) « oFBAS 4 O82, casera TUBULAR DESIGN ANDUSE a VeToHEUL Bow 42 cote CO 8042a auo5 eSB) 5p 2 MEAD 65 p80 <-74610-4inin 5) ‘The the radial strain is wS, +8.) E +(e) 2 AEST e510 saansi0-tintn Go ‘The micro-annulus which is the change in the outside diameter is AD=Deystey AD = 7 *(7.46x 10-4) +362" 3.20 x10 =-5.28x109in ‘The new diameter is ODpew = ODag + AD =7+(5.28% 10%) = 6.995 in TT TUBLLAR DESIGN ANDUSE 8 WITCH Box 1482 Gotan Co BoseBENDING STRESS IN DOGLEGS ‘Stresses caused by the bending of tubulars within doglogs is computed with one of either two equations. Lubinskt's bending equation resolves the stresses in whch the connections contact the wall ofthe hole but the wall ofthe tube does not contact the wall of the hole. His equation not only requires a standoff at the wall but that the tube not h “e bending moments acting on it (positive effective tension or snogative buckli.; tendency), ‘The second equation is the heam bending equation of mechanies. ‘The equation requires that the wall of the tube fully contacts the wall of a hole which is smooth and circular; for example, slimline tubing in casing. Partial contact near the midpoint of a joint of pipe is possible and in which cease a value for the bending stress would lie between the values computed with the two ‘equations, ‘LUBINSKI BENDING STRESS. ‘Suppose in the above sketch that the plane curve OA represents a free body of a section of a tube between connections but does not include the connections. Further ‘suppose that as a result of connections that the free body does not contact the wall of the hole. The section weighs W pounds per foot in mud. The forces end ‘moments acting on the free body are the buoyed weight of the tube hanging below the section and within the section, B, the bending moment created by the tubes ‘connected free body and at each end of the free body, WIC, and the shear at exch lend by the tube, ,, ‘Summing the moments around the point X at the lover tend of the free body, setting the positive direction of the ‘moments to be counter clockwise, and limiting angles to small values gives the following equation. EM = BIC, 48,4 TY - [EW sind ax ‘The integral is explained in the sketch. Note that the lever arm of the buoyed weight is (a-x)sin@ if tanB = sing and the force is W dx ‘The sum of the moments is equal to the socond derivative of the elastic line of the tube, After integrating the weight tarm, the equation is TURLLARDESIGNAND USE. 2 MITCHELL Bo ate Gon 60 B02ay Ty SoX _W sin8 yo ag? ET > Cot EY ~ BET The, solution of che difarential equation which satisfies the requisite boundary conditions is yee (C,-@) (cosh KX- 1) +5, (sind KX - KX) + LAKH] K feohx sinh x 4 Suppose drill pipe is subject to conditions shown in the figure. If 2 L is the distance between tool joints, ais the change in wellbore angle in the length L, Cis the curvature of the dogleg, then the pipe is parallel to the wellbore at L and a ‘boundary condition for the elastic line of the pipe is Quy -a 1c If the pipe is not contacting the wellbore wall then shear cannot exist at L and a secondary boundary condition is ore Goat =o : Bec, oath On +50 Hy «0 sinh (KL) (6. @) aR RL 8 ° ‘This boundary condition yields (C,-@) tan KL, TUBULAR ESIGN ANDUSE » TCHELL Box 149e older CO sateand the first boundary condition in combination with the last equation yields Bb, = Belly K sinh (RX) + 5, K emh OK-Ks, + 292K = LC 1 K C= BC, -@ fi tanh KL) +q = C tanh LED LVVEL In practical problems the weight of the pipe over the length of the dogleg is insignificant and the length of the tube is 40 fect; therefore 4310 DC \ Tay ~ T, p*- a TaNH[o.2 peal For the convenience of designers, the term equivalent bending force, Pig, was invented and defined to be the bending stress acting over the entire cross-sectional area of the pipe. This allows designers to work with loads rather than stresses. ‘The equivalent bending force in conjunction with Lubinski's equation is, ; ono nding stress in the outer fiber of the wall; psi FLup = equivalent bending force; Ib c srvature of the pipe; “ft Teer fective tension in the pipe at the dogleg; Ib D = OD of the pipe: inch a = ID of the pipe; inch TURULAA DESIGN ANDUSE a TCHEU. Box 192 Gaden CO S042Ifthe pipe is continuously in contact with the wall ofthe hole and collars do not provide standoff, the oquivalent bending force equation for beams applies and is Fheam = 17185 DCD? -€) EXAMPLE Astring of 7" * 6,094" © 92 #/f *P-110 casing has been run to 16,000 feet in 14.0 pps. ‘mud. A dogleg with a severity of 6°/100 feet exists where the effective tension in the casing is 200,000 Tbs, If there is no wall contact except at the collars, what is the ‘equivalent bending force acting on the easing in the dogleg? = +7 ,06-V500000 3885 *7* 06 V305000 ~ [SORES 2080 sno2y/ er) Ifcontinuous wall contact were the ease, then 2 Feam = 17185 * 7 *.06 (7? - 6.0842) =85,3761b TUBULAR DESIGN ANDUSE 2 MITCHELL Box 492 Gotn CO sE42BUCKLING versus TENSION & COMPRESSION A long tubular may be bent 4 or buckled “and. at same Jocation and time be in en tension betnetec Also, a tubular may be straight and be in ray compression at the same Tocation and time, There are COMPRESSION many so called, “neutral points.” BUCKLE The buckling (or bending) NPB and tension situation for a normal drill string is shown BUCKLED. in the sketch. Note that the ‘ORBENT bottom part of the drillpipe is in compression and straight and that only the BHA is ‘buckled (or bent), Buckling is caused by moments while tension is caused by stress. In the drilling literature, the sum of all moments acting at a location within @ tube is known as the buekling tendency, the effective tension, or the fictiticus force. ‘The table summarizes the possibilities of moments and stresses, and che experiments which demonstrate them. TABLE OF MOMENT AND STRESS EXPERIMENTS. TENSIONS STRAGHT BY PULLNGONA RUBBER BAND TENSONS BUCKLING BY PRESSUAINGATUBEFREDONLY ATITS ENDS ‘COMPRESSION BUCKLNG GY PUSHINGON A RUBBER AND.OR RULER (COMPRESSION & STRAIGHT GY SUCKING ANGOOLEINTO THE MOUTH TURAAADESON ANOLE 5 LATCHELL Box 1482 Golsn CosaCRITICAL BUCKLING EVENTS OF CASING Post cementation loads are called stability loads andior buckling and wellhead loads The wellhead load is the real tension in the casing just below the wellhead, ‘The buckling load is the moment in the casing at the top of the cement according to the equations of W. R. Cox as published in the paper, ‘Key Factors Affecting Landing of Casing,’ DRILLING AND PRODUCTION PRACTICES, API, (195), B, 225. Soveral text books contain his equations; ic., Craft, Holden, & Graves, WELL DESIGN: DRILLING AND PRODUCTION, Prentice-Hall, Ine., 1962, and Mitchell, DRILLING HANDBOOK, Mitchell Engincering, 1974 Cox's equations only compute the real tension load in the casing at the wellhead and the buckling load at the top of the cement. To find the real tension at any other location it is only necessary to subtract the air weight of the casing from the surface to the location. To find the buckling load at any other location it is only necessary to subtract the buoyed weight of the casing between the top of the ‘cement and the location. Buoyed weight is the sum of the weights of the steel and fluids contained in the casing less the weights of the fluids displaced by the ceasing. ‘During the life of a casing string there will occur a set of loading conditions which will peak the loading on the easing while lowering its strengths to a minimum, ‘This condition is called the eritical load condition. For example, it is well known that axial compression reduces internal (burst) strength; therefo-e, pressuring the easing with hot oil may creste a eritical buckling load condition. Jt has been found that one of the listed ten sets of loadings (as given on the following page) produces a critical load condition, Within the table the "s’ means fan increase in the important variable or a resulting increase in buckling andor tension, A minus indicates @ decrease. For example, if the casing is tensioned after the cement sets but before inserting the easing slips, (this is called pre-tension), then the important variable is tension and it does increase and the effect is that buckling decreases and tension increases, In practice if tho cooing is buckled of if the teusivas is vavessive Ue steps must be taken to alleviate the situation, PRETENSIONING OF CASING Casing is pretensioned for the purpose of preventing buckles during the life of the casing. Pretension is the additional tension put in the easing above its natural hhook load at the time that the cement sets. Casing may be pretensioned by two methods. FIRST METHOD of PRETENSIONING THE CASING ‘The most popular method of casing pretensioning is to stretch it with rig hoisting equipment after the cement has set and before the casing slips are set. TUBULAR DESIGN ANDUSE ot YTOHELL Sow 1492 Catan 608042TABLE OF CRITICAL LOAD PRODUCING OPERATIONS OPERATION IMPORTANT VARIABLES BUCKLING TENSION Pre-tension Tension(+) : + Casing pressure test intemal surface pressure(+) + + Leak off test Internal surface pressure(+) + + Dring deepor Tomperaturo(+) + Mud woight (+) + + Fracturing Internal surtace pressure(+) + + ‘Temperature(-) : + Internal fuid density(-) : 5 Kick Internal surface pressure(+) + + Temperature(+) : si Mud weight) si : Blowout Internal surface pressure(-) - : Temperature(+) + : Internal fluid density(-) : : Close in on Blowout Internal surface pressure(s) + + Temperature) + : Imernal tuid density) : : Production Internal surface pressure() : Temperature(+) + : Internal fluid density) 5 5 Braden head squeoze Inner casing Extornal surface pressures) - : Exteral lid density) = : Outer casing Internal surtace pressure(+) Temperature(-) [A major problem is that the casing slips do not set instantaneoulsy upon slackoff ar the casing in the casing bowl. Because ofthis, additional load must be Pulled Above the pretension load. ‘The pretension that is pat into the easing may be ascertained with the rig weight indicator. TUBUAROESIGN ANDUSE 5% HELL Box 1482 Golde C0 sateLet us suppose that the casing weighs 200,000 Ibs just after circulating cement {and the pretension load is to be 100,000 Ibs. The blosk and lines weigh 38,000 Ibs. Now. when the slips bite the casing and set, the weight indicator should show 835,000 lbs. To accomplish this setting weight, it may be required to intially pull 350,000 bs. Regardless of what the pull, the final setting weight will be when the weight indicators hand falls rapidly during the setting process, figure ‘C. The hand ‘will not fall quickly before the slips bite, figure a 8 ce 235,000 395,000 335,000 350,000 35,000) TENSION & a PaETEnoa OVER PULL, CASING SET ‘SECOND METHOD ‘The second method is to internally pressure the casing prior to the setting of the cement, The amount of tension put into the casing is the internal pressure ‘multiplied by the internal end area of the easing. Suppose that it is desired to pretension a casing which has an internal cross sectional area of 31 sq. in., Aj, to a value of 100,000 Tbs. ‘Then, the pretensioning. pressure, pP, required is given by the following equation. 100000 i‘ =9,226 psi ‘The lower portion of the easing and the bottom end must be free so that the pressure can stretch the casing downward during the pressuring of the casing: if not, the casing will not be pretensioned, If the casing is internally pressured prior to the setting of the slips and if the weight indicator does not change during the lowering of the easing to set the slips, then the casing will he pretensioned as planned, “TUBULAR DESI ANOLE * MITCHELL Bac 1402GoHen C0 Sou02BUCKLING TENDENCY & WELLHEAD LOAD Buler defined the buckling of a column as the continuous lateral displacement of the column with constant axial loads. An oil field tubular is a column. Tt buckles into a helix if contained in hole. BUCKLING IS MOMENT DEPENDENT AND IS. INDEPENDENT O* TENSION OR COMPRESSION. Recall that a moment is a lever arm multiplied Sy a force. A tubular in a hole can buckle while in either tension or compression. A tubular can be buckled while n either tension or compression. Those who speak of ‘buckling loads’ or ‘buckling tendencies are simply referring to only the force factor in the moment, Buckling Important phenomena which may create buckles in oil tubulars are che following: @Q) Temperatures (2) Surface pressures (@) Fluid densities, (@) Evacuations ) Slack-off NORMAL BUCKLING ANALYSIS OF OIL TUBULARS REQUIRES THAT BOTH ENDS OF THE TUBULAR BE FIXED, This is also true for the equations written in this section. Those who have not readily comprehended the effects of the phenomena, most often have falsely assumed that the change in the length of the tucular is also the change in the distance between the fixed ends. A tubular nay increase in length between two fixed ends by buckling, ‘Temperature Increasing the temperature of steel causes the steel to expand. After it expands in length to a critical length, it will buckle; because, a longer length of tube must ‘cecupy the constant distance hetween ita fixed ends ‘Surface Pressure ‘The volume which a tubular can contain, must increase with an inerease in internal pressure. its containment volume can be increased by either an increase in its diameter, or its length, or both. If the length of the tube and intemal pressure are sufficient, its length must increase and buckling will occur. Fluid Densities ‘The effect of fluid densities is similar to surface pressures, in that, an inerease in densities raises the internal pressure, TURLARDESGY ANOUSE 4 ITCHELL Bos 1492 Golten G0 9992Evacuation ‘The effect of evacuation is similar to surface pressures, in that, an evacuation is a decrease in internal pressure, Shack-off Slack-off i the lowering of the top of the tubular into the hole. This adds to the length of the tube between the constant distance fixtures at the ends, Thus, the lengthening of the tube causes it to buckle. Wellhead Loads ‘The wellhead load is the force placed on the hanger assembly by the tubular, [tis ‘equal to the load in the top af the tubular just below the hanger. ‘The wellhead load equation is a summation of the forees acting on the steel of the tubular. The forces are the attraction of the steel hy the earth and pressures acting ‘on cross-sectional areas of the tubular. ‘Equations ‘The four equations, two for buckling and two for loads, were modified from Cox's derivations. Equations number 1 and 3 (on the following pages) apply to a tubular which has free ends. This is the end condition of a tube before vement sets or before a packer is set. This is often called the "as cemented” condition, Thereafter, the ends are fixed and equations number 2 and 4 must be used. Final buckling ‘and wellhead loads are evaluated by algebraically adding any changes to the free end solutions ("as cemented”) B=B+aB W-Wsaw If the value of Bis positive, then the tubular is buckled. If the value of B (es, cemented) is positive, the tubular is buckled after cementing and it will float out of the hole. If the value of B is negative and cement has been circulated to tie surface, the tubular can never buckle, The reason is that lateral displacement of the tubular and not take place. If cement is not eireulated to the surface and buckling oceurs, the buckles begin at the top of the cement and diminish toward the surface. The value of B or B’ only applies at the top of the cement which is also the bottom end of the free tubular. During the life of a tubular many operations wil be performed with or within it One ofthe operations inthe following ist coed cause maximum buckling EVENTS ‘VARIABLES 1. “as cemented why 2. test casing ap 3, FPIT deak off test) 4D TUBULAR DESON NOUSE 8 MTCHELL Box 482 Geen CO B40?4. drilling deeper at, aw 5. circulating oat a kick at, Ap & during a blowout Atm 7. shuting in on a Blowout 4, dp, n 8. hydraulic fracturing tap 9. production at, Ap, Buckling ‘as cemented’ at the top of cement B=-hu +.0408h (D%c- dw) wo Change in buckling (after zement sets) at the top of cement 3m? cael : 008 ar Haw- os swcen eB + 814 (4? dp- D2 AP) +60 wat as @ SB= +0408 D7(.7 Have (v+aviam+ Wellhead load ‘as cemented’ We + uL-.0408 D?(h e+ Hv) +.0408 d2 w L +7854 (42 p-D? P) @ Change in wellhead load after cements sets AW = 0122 H (D? vd? Aw) 2 +0245 D? (w+ av) (m3 +0245 d? (w+ Aw) (a ~ +471 (a2 Ap DEAD). ALL AS w Welthead load at 'Z' deptt down from the wellhead WeWeuz Buckling at 'Y feet up from the top of the cement B ~¥ (w+ 0408 (D2 va? we) TUBULAR DESIGN ANDUSE ® TCHELL Box 1490 Goes 00 a04caw as ap TUBULAR DESI AND USE @ MTONEL Boe te Goden CO 60 ae Ore = pickup load z = surface Pressure, ‘outside pipe during the setting of the cement; psig = change in surface pressure outside pipe after cement sets; psi = surface pressure inside pipe during the setting of the cement; psig = change in surface pressure inside pipe after coment sets, psi += change in fluid-level outside pipe after cement sets, rise in level) += change in fluid-level inside pipe after cement sets, rise in level) average change in pipe temperature above cement top after cement sts F fluid weight outside pipe when cement sets; ppe ‘change in fluid weight outside pipe after cement sets; ppg fluid weight inside pipe after cement sets, ppg = change in fluid weight inside pipe after cement sets, PPE outside diameter of pipe in inside diameter of pipe: in, ght of ibe cement slurry weight; ppg stance from cement top to hanger; ft. distance from pipe shoe to cement top; ® yuckling tendency load, Ib= 10,000" of 7" * 6.273" * N-80 casing is run in 12 ppg mud and is cemented with 16 ppg cement. Surface pressures were 1000 psig in the annulus and 1600 psig within the casing during the setting of the cement. Cement pluge were displaced with 9 ppg mud, ‘The buckling of the casing "as cemented” is B = 2000 * 26 + 0408 * 2000 (72 *16-6.2762* 9) B = 52,000 + 35,048 = 16,952 Ib (not Sckled) ‘The wellhead load of the casing " as cemented” is ‘W= + 26 (2000 + 8000) -.0408 * 7? (2000 * 16 + 8000 * 12) 4.0408" 6.276" * 9 (8000 + 2000) + .785 (6.276 * 1500 - 7? * 1000) W= + 260,00) - 255,898 + 144,638 + 7,915 '=+156,5501b After the surface pressures are bled off, this is also called the "as cemented” ‘condition: AB = +.814 1500 * 6267-1000 72), $3,166 1b SW = +471 [6.276 * (-1500) -7? *(-1000)) W e+ 156660-4749 '=4151,901 Ib as cemented load B 16,952 -9,166 '=-20,118 Th as cemented buckling ‘Later, 25,000 Ibs are slacked off; the annular fluid density is changed to 15 ppg and drops 1700; the casing fluid is changed to 7 ppg and drops 6000'; the casinz is pressured with gas (negligible density) to 4000 psig; and the average temperature of the free casing from the top of the cement to the wellhead drops by 15°F. + 72E.7 + 8000* 1700 + 3 A008 AB = 4.0408 *72(.7 * 8000 *3 + (12.4.3)¢4 4 1700 + 2170" y «040862167 5000*(2)-@-0¢4 600 + 32H" +60 * 26 * (-15)- (-25,000) + 314 (4000 * 6.2767 - 0) 8 +-295-60384- 20400 15000 46,42 =-spsr Be aBe-20118- 19051 8,061 TUBLLAR DESIGN ANDUSE a Tone ox 402 Goten CO coneAW = -0122° 80007? 8. 6.276% (2) a 205721290700. S22, aa anus earat 2600-200, ++.471 (6.276? * (4000) - 7 (0)}- 60 * 26 * (-15)-+ (25,000) ay 22,096 + 27,360 - 25,882 + 74,207 + 28,400- 25,000 = 452,309 1b W+ AW = + 151,901 + 52,599 = +204,500 Ib ‘Thus, the final buckling is -39,175 Ibs and the wellhead load is +204,500 Ibs. The ‘casing is not buckled and is in tension at the wellhead. Ss TUBULAR DESIGN ANDUSE a TOWEL Bax 482 Gotten CO aotINTERMEDIATE CASING DESIGN An intermediate casing design must consider two factors which promote the buckling of the casing: temperature and/or mud weight changes. It seems reasonable that buckled casing, and therefore crooked casing, will wear at a higher rate, by drill sting rotation, than unbuckled casing. The most critical of the ‘wo factors is the rise in the average temperature of the casing while hot mud is, circulated from desper and deeper depths. Normally, mud weight increases as drilling progresses and casing buckles with higher mud weights. EXAMPLE Calculate the Hook Load required to prevent the buckling of the following described intermediate casing while drilling at the final total depth. Selec: a casing grade to ran across the dogleg, Casing: O.D. 9508" Lb. Best We: 47 pot Length: 12,141 Mud: Casing set in 9.1 ppg water base mud, After Drilling to Total Depth (19,281): 18.8 ppg Cement: Top of Cement Outside 95/8": 11,500" Wt. OfCement: 15.9 pps. Geothermal Bottom hole Temperature: 371°F @ 19,281 Geothermal Surface Temperature: 50°F 6 0° Hole: Final Total Depth: 19,281 Dogleg from 3100 to 3200' w/a severity of 5/100" ‘Temperature Effect Make a temperature profile of the mud while circulating during drilling operations. Assume that the temperatures of the 9 5/8" casing are the temperatures of the mud. The initial temperatures of the casing will be the ‘geothermal temperatures. (See the equations below) Circulating bottom hole temperature =.6*(371-50)+50 =248°F Circulating flow line temperature °(371-50)+50 = 146'F Circulating maximum temperature =.7 (971-50) +50 SE Circulating temperature at the otto of the free easing 1,500/19281 =06 {TUBULAR DESION ANC USE a YWToHELL Bor se Galen CO-8192Fig 7346-4" et ot ee =F Circulating average temperature from the surface to bottom of the free casing 80 2 o Bw = 345+ 6-.195%6?-074 + 6% CIRCULATING TEMPERATURE DIAGRAM TEMPERATURE —= DEPTH roo @ cementeo aunt Casing our ay a | TEMPERATURE o§--------_-.- avo ceHT GTBHT Geothermal (and cemented) average temperature from the surface to the bottom of the free casing ev a0 Use 61, -50 pss =146 °F Average Casing Temperatures Initial =146F Final’ =22F Increase in the average casing temperature to final total depth: 222-146 = 76 Frise) EQUATIONS FOR THE VALUES ON THE SKETCH FLT =.4(GTBHT-GST)+GST OIL MUD FLT = .8(GTBHT-GST)+GST WATER MUD DMT =.7 BHD MCT =.7 (GTBHT- Gs) + GST CBHT = 6 (GTBHT- GST) + GST BUCKLING TENDENCY of the casing as cemented Bo os-h*w+.0408h(D? + MW, -d?* MW) S611 * AT + 0408 * 641 (9.625? *15.9- 8.681 9.2) 10,127 + 98,823 - 17,935 9,589 Ib Change in buckling after drilling to 19,281 feet AMW =183-91 =92 pp Bt =222-146 =16F AB = +0408" d?* (7 *L* AMW) +598 wt at = +0408 * 8.6817 (7 "11,5009 9.2) + 58.8 4477 76 = + 227,711 + 215,606 Ibe + 441,317 1b TUBULAR DESIGN AND UBE 6 MITCHELL Sox 1482 Gotan co.wat02589+ 441,817 = +491,778 bb final buckling tendency Must pull 431,778 Ibs above hook load after cement sets to prevent buckling while Grilling at total depth, WELLHEAD LOAD after cementing Wa sw (hs L)- 0408 °D2 (i * MW, +L * MW.) +0108 * 4? a4 1) * MW, =+47* 12,141 - 0408 * 9.6252 641 * 159 « 11,500* 9.2) +0408, * 8.6819 G41 + 11,500) *9.1 = + 570,627 - 434,073 + 339,700 =+476, 254 1b WELLHEAD LOAD after driling to TD. AW = +0122 ° d? * L* AMW,- 59.8 *w* ate as =+.0122 8681? * 11,500 9.2. 59.847 * 764 431,778 24+ 97,271 - 213,606 + 431,778 54915448 Ib W! =4476,2544 816,501 =+ 791,697 Ib EQUIVALENT TENSION in casing at the top ofthe doglez Wrop = Ww Newton's Law of Motion where: ¥ = Dopth to top of dogleg Wrop =+792,755-47*3100 =+647,055Ib load in casing at top of dogleg LUBINSET bending load caused by the dogleg ai 2 3986 * 9.625 +.05 + V647055 © ra 2858681, 490418 TANH [a | 02S OHTOES_, 9.625¢- a6er ‘TOTAL TENSION LOAD in outer fiber of casing wall Load = Wrop + Ty, = 647,055 + 422,418, = 1,089,478 Ib TUBULAR DESIGN ANDUSE 8 NTOHEL Bax 12 Gsn 60 BoseCasing Selection ‘The body yield strength and joint strength of the easing within the dogleg must be superior to the load eaused by the dogleg. ‘The API listed body strength of 95/8" * 47 ppf* P-110 casing is 1,493,000 Ibs andits Joint strength is 1,500,000 Tbs, Adjusted Strength = 1,493,000 875 ".9 =1,175,738 Ib where: 875 = wall thickness 9° = API yield point ambiguity ‘The tension design factors for P-110 casing and real loads are as follows DEF. body DF, joint = 1,500,000 / 1,069,473 =140 175,788 / 1,089,473, =110 Hf the dogleg is NOT considered, the design factor at the depth of 8,100 ie as DE. body = 1,175,738 /647,085, =182 {TUBULAR DESIGN ANDUSE a MTOHELL Box 1492 Gaeen CO ste?TUBULAR STRENGTHS BIAXIAL FACTOR DEFINED APIs revision of Bulletin 5C3, February 1, 1985, ‘contains its new method for the edmputation of tubular collapse pressure resistance. It requires that the minimum unit yield strength of the steel in the ‘tubular be adjusted rather than a direct adjustment of the collapse pressure resistance. API has called the adjusted minimum unit yield strength, ‘axial stress ‘equivalent grade’, and has given it the symbol, "‘Ypa’ For reasons of brevity, the adjusted minimum unit yield strength is commonly called the adjusted yield strength, The following equation which is derived from the ‘Maximum Strain Energy of Distortion at ‘Yield’ theory forms the basis of the biaxial factor, Y pay Yay 2 Cet +41 TA meu aye A = plain end area of the tubular or casing; in® T axial load in the wall of the tubular; Ibs ‘Substitution and solving for Y,,. gives the API equation for tho adjusted biaxial yield strength of the steel 18. 2YP Care must be observed while using this equation, because it is well known that the ‘axial stress equivalent grade” of steel may be increased as well as reduced, For example, tension reduces the collapse pressure of pipe while it increases the - internal yield pressure ‘The commensurate triaxial stress equation is inherently more accurate than the biaxial equation. Several authors have written that the percent differences in required pipe strength between the two theories will be less than 18%. This means that if 95,000 psi casing, as computed with the biaxial, is required, then in reality 112,100 psi casing may be needed. Biaxial factors, Tx, for both tension and compression are defined by the fullowing equations. Because of the adjustment of the sign which oceurs before the last TUBULAR DESION ANDUSE e TCHEL Bac 480 Getter CO BDHterm, both tension and compression loads may be substituted in the appropriate position as positive values. Tensioneallapse Bef 1 Tension burst Bet Compression-collapse Be [1 Compression burst Beef EXAMPLE Calculate the adjusted yield strengths of 7° 26 ppf N-80 casing for both collapse ‘and burst purposes for a tension load of 400,000 pounds, Its nominal plain end area is 7.549 square inches. yy = sooo. 549 Yq = 80.000 {1-75 *.6828°)5. 5 +6522 Yon = 99,097 psi. (fr callapse computations) oq = 80,0008 (C175 # 66255 6.5 + 6623} Yes = 92,024 psi (or burst computations) API COLLAPSE RESISTANCE ‘The API Bulletin 5C3 fourth edition, February 1, 1985, recommends four equations for computing the collapse pressure resistance of tubulars. The choice ‘of equations is based only on the Dit ratio of the tubular. Equation 1 is a theoretical equation which is based on the yielding of the inner wall of a tubular. Tt is Lame's equation and it is well known in the literature of mechanies of materials. Equation 2 is an empirical equation which was derived from collapsing 2,488 ‘tubes composed of K-55, N-80, and P-110 grades. API calle these values the ‘plastic collapse pressure’ of tubes, It should be noted that API expects one-half percent of TUBULAR DESIGN ANOUSE @ [WITCHELL er 1432 Galion Co B0.22the tubulars which fall into the rango of equation 2 to fail with a frequency of 95 percent. Eqs itrary equation which was generated by connecting the plas:ic collapse equation 2 with the elastic collapse equation 4. It holds no thearetical or empirical substance, ‘Equation 4 is a theoretical equation which is based on the bifurcation of the wall of ‘the tubular without yielding. Bifurcation of the wall of a tube is similar to the axial buckling of a column in which the material of the column is not yielded. Bresse reported the solution to elastic buckling in 1868, The yield st of the steel, Y,,, is not adjusted in this equation, yy? tnoeco Ste e =n TURLLAR DESIGN ANDUSE » MTOHELL Box 1492 Glen CO SoutAPI COLLAPSE RESISTANCE OF TUBULARS TABLE JPROPERTIES © APIFACTORSFORCOLLAPSE CRITICAL Dit RATIOS GRADE Yo A 8 C £ G coi cO.2 COS 1440 40,000 2.950 0.0465 755 2.063 0.0325 16.40 27.01 4264 JJKS5 $5,000 2991 0.0541 1,208 1.989 0.0360 1481 2601 37.21 IC75 75,000 3.054 0.0642 1,806 1.990 0.0418 1360 2291 9205, LIN8O 80,000 3.071 0.0867 1,955 1.998 0.0434 13.08 22.47 31.02 lc95 95,000 2.124 0.0743 2404 2.029 0.0082 12.85 21.93 28.96 |P105 105,000 2.162 0.0794 2702 2.052 0.0515 1257 20.70 2889 P110 170,000 3.181 0.0819 2852 2.066 0.0532 12.44 20.81 26.22 P25 125,000 3.239 0.0895 3901 2.106 0.0582 1211 19.63 24.46 lvi50 150,000 3.996 0.1021 4053 2.174 0.0686 1167 1857 22.11 API COLLAPSE EQUATIONS. 101 ge #27, Wh < Column (IP, #¥, tpgeBI-C (Gal 1 Col 8) A=+28762+0.10679"20%* ¥,, + 0.21901"109° +, ,? -0.53132"107 + ¥,,3 B = +0.026233 + 0.50609 * 10+, ce 5, *y,- pio? ey te rigisey_ 3 165.98 + 0.030867 * ¥, -0.10489°10°7 + ¥,,? + 0.6989"10" *¥,. “TUBULAR DESIGN ANDUSE a WeTOHELL Box 1482 Gotten CO Boe4695+ 19 [32% Fe—geX ).[, 3°xP xR se lte od be ‘ c-F+B API COLLAPSE RESISTANCE (NO TENSION) To ascertain the API collapse pressure resistance of tubulars, itis only necessary to adhere to the following procedure (see the table on the preceding page). 1. Compute the Dit ratio ofthe tubular 2. Find the minimum yield strength of the steel in the column denoted by 'Yp' which is the second column from the left. 3. Compare the D/t ratio for the tubular with the ertical Dit ratios in the far right hand columns, 4. Select the correct collapse equation by comparing the values of the critical Dit ratios with the Dit ratio of the tubular. 5. Substitute the appropriate API constants, A, B,C, F, and G, into the selected collapse equation, 6. Compute the collapse pressure resistance of the tubular, EXAMPLE Compute the API collapse pressure resistance of 7" 26ppf'N-80 casing. Dit =7.000/:362 = 1904 ‘This value of Dit ratio lies between columns 1 and 2 of the critical Dit ratio columns on the right side of the table. Thus, the correct collapse equation is ‘equation 2, the plastic collapse equation +tA-py. Foe =¥p* (pR-BI-C _ 3071 toe . P,, = 80000" (302% - 0667 ] -1.955 = 54414 psi ‘The rounded off table value published by API is 6,410 ps. TUBULAR DESIGN ANDUSE ATCMELL Boe 12 Gotten CO Bota2API ADJUSTED COLLAPSE RESISTANCE (WITH TENSION) ‘The API, within Bulletin 503, 1985, recommends two procedures for the computation of the effect of axial stress (tension or compression ) on the collapse pressure of tubulars EXAMPLE Compute the adjusted collapse pressure resistance of 7” 26 ppf P-110 with an axial ‘tension of 83,040 pounds. Cross-sectional area is 7.549 square inches. ‘The procedure begins with the computation of the biaxial factor and the adjusted ‘minimum unit yield strength of the steel in the tubular. 1. Compute the relative stress variable U. vA v -DA YD 00407 519 u =""10000-— son 2. Compute the biaxial factor. Bx =((1-.75*U%)5-5*U) Bx =((1-.75*01%8 - 5.1) 0.946 3. Compute the adjusted yield strength (axial stress equivalent grade) of the steel. Yon = ¥p “Be Ypq = 110,000 * 0.946 = 104,087 psi pa 4. Compute the constants A, B,C, F, and . A = +2.8762+0,10679"10°* ¥,, + 0.2190141079* ¥, 2 0.69132"1015 49,8 A. = + 2.8762 + 0.10679*10 * 104,087 * 0.21301°10 7° * 104087 -0.53132* 1078 * 104087° 1158 0.026283 + 0.50609 * 10 Y,, TUBULAR DESIGN AND USE co MTOHELL Box 199 Golden COREB =+0.026233 + 0.50609 * 10 * 104,087 = 00789 © =- 465.99 + 0.030867 Y,, - 0.10483 * 107 +Y,? + 0.36989" 107+ y, (© =. 465.9 + 0.080867 * 104087 -0.10489 * 10°7 + 104087 + 0.98989 10°19 + 1040875 22075 Letx = Bin the next fora, ors00.158 cco Ye =101087 46.95 * 108» [3°X 22051 *y,.G3x) 6 areB woog1+Q0te 0.0512 5. Compute the critical (Dit) ranges in order to select the proper collapse equation UA-27 48+ 0,315 404-2) Dip = 2 (B+ON,. 18.158. 2? 6 (0789 aersri04087) 18+ (6168.2) 2° C0769 + 2675104067) = 1250 and less sap y, Oly oe EE 104087 * (8.158 - 2.051) ‘D675 + 104087 * (0789-0512) aoe om, -BR TUBULAR DESIGN ANDUSE on LTCHEL Box 482 Geen CO EHEE2.4.07807.158 = 3 07803.158 ae 6. Collapse ranges for selection of collapse equation. (Dit) for YIELD collapse = 12.59 and less (Dit) for PLASTIC collapse = 12.6910 20.75 (Dit) for TRANSITION collapse = 20.75 10 27.02 (Dit) for ELASTIC collapse = 27.02 and more Note the Blastic collapse value is not altered by the adjusted yield strength of the steel. Always use Yp in equation 4, and never use Ype 1. Compute the nominal Dit ratio for the easing. Di= 369 1934 8, Select the correct collapse equation. Because the real D/t ratio forthe casing i in the Dt range of PLASTIC exlape, the plastic collapse equation is to be Yoq* Ug BIC = 104081 (2258. o7e9)-207 6,110 pt API INTERNAL PRESSURE RESISTANCE ‘The API, in Bulleti 503, February 1, 1986, divides the internal pressure resistance of tubular (BURST) into three areas: 1. INTERNAL YIELD PRESSURE OF THE WALL OF THE TUBE 2, INTERNAL YIELD PRESSURE OF THE COUPLINGS 2, INTERNAL PRESSURE LEAK RESISTANCE TL Marna pressure resetane ofthe tobules Te peoredure ould lens to problems. For example one may be interested in the internal yield pressure of the ‘wall of the tube rather than the listed value which may he the leak resistance. TUBULAR DESIGN ANDUSE cS roHELL Box 1482 Gosen CORBIN?INTERNAL YIELD PRESSURE OF THE WALL OF THE TUBE ‘The internal yield pressure (burst) of the wall of a tube is given by the following API formula, The factor 0.875 accounts for the minimum wall tolerance. This the thin wall formula of mechanics and loses accuracy as walls thicken, ay, ep sosts*[ 2] t e Sedma presse ofthe wall pi Yp 5 paength ofthe sel pa : wal thickness ofthe tube, inches 1 Getaeal diameter of betes aches ‘EXAMPLE Compute the internal yield pressure for the wall of 7" 6.276" 26 ppf LIT&C N-30 casing, t= 0.362 Pw o.s7s (280000 0.382) =7240ps ‘The API lists the same value of 7,240 psi INTERNAL YIELD PRESSURE OF COUPLINGS Computation of the internal yield pressure of couplings requires two publicatiens of API. These are the Bulletin 5C3 and Standard 5B. EXAMPLE AND EQUATIONS Compute the internal yield pressure for the coupling of 7° x 6.276" 26 ppf LT&C N-80 casing. Wall thickness t, is 0.362. P = P = minimum internal yield pressure of couplings; psi Ye = minimum sield strength of couplings; psi 0,000 psi w ‘nominal external diameter of coupling; inches 27.656 inches 4; __-E diameter at the root thread of the coupling; inches For round thread casing and tubing use TUBULAR DESION ANDUSE % YToHELL Bx 282 Gaeen CO gue=9,241 psi Computation of variables for API's equation, 4, UL, +AI*T HH 22S, = 690857 (2.921 +.875}".0625 +0.10825-2* 017 = 877162 B, = pitch diameter at hand tight plane; in. (Std 5B) = 6.90827 inches (TABLE 23, page 7, Std 5B) 1Ly = length, end of pipe to hand tight plane; in (Std 5B) = 2.921 inches (TABLE 23, page 7, Std 5B) A/ =hand tight standoff in. (Sta 5B) column 12/ column 3 (TABLE 2.3, page 7, Std 5B) =38 = 375i T =taper = 0.0825 invin H_ = thread height, ‘= 0.08660 for 10 TP = 0.10825 for 8 TPI S., = 0.014 inches for 10 TPL 0.017 inches for 8 TPI For Buttress thread casing use e000 (58; 858, ‘Computation of variables for API's equation. Gy =, -[ 1, +117 +062 = 8464 psi = 6954-22160 +051 +0605 + 062 Ey = pitch diameter; inches (Std 38) L, _= length of perfect threads; inches (Std 5B) TURLLAR DES ANDUSE 7 MITOHEL. Box 182 Galen CO R402PPESIZE inches: 45 Sthough 13.978 over 13.375 I= 0.400 0.500 0375 T= 0.0825 0.0625 0833 INTERNAL LEAK RESISTANCE OF COUPLINGS ‘The sppropriate equations and tables for the computation of the internal pressure leak resistance of couplings in the API Bulletin 5C3 and Standard SB. ‘EXAMPLE AND EQUATIONS — For 8 round thread casing use 17188 ° NEW? E41 Bw 117186" 45 ¢ (7.6562. 5900972) 7188 * 45 © (656% 690574 1 , 690987 * 7656" ad P= internal pressure leak resistance of couplings; psi A. ~ hand tight etandoff; tune (Std 5B) =S turns N wAs15 3415 45 W = external diameter; inch E, = pitch dia, at hand tight plane; inches (Std 5B) = 6.90897 For Buttress thread easing use TUBULAR DESIGN ANDUSE mB YTeMEL Box 142 Gls CO 20:023000000 “T+ N+ W?- sow p = 200000006: = 11,795 pst PIPE SIZE 12.975" andsmallar 16" and larger T 0625 0833 Ne Ast8 Ae PIPE BODY YIELD STRENGTH ‘The API pipe body strength is the axial load required to yield the tube. This equstion does not reduce the body strength of a tubular for tolerances on dimensions or for the API yield point anomaly. » re4Y, * (DP -a4) Py Sipe body yield strength; Ibs YY, = minimum yield strength of steel; psi D ternal diameter of tube; inches internal diometer of te; inches ‘EXAMPLE Compute the API body strength for 7° 6.276" 26 ppf'N-80 casing. P, =0.784* 80,000" 7?-62764) +=008,890 IbCASING STRENGTHS TABLE (API SPEC. 5CT) lcroup Grade Type __Vield__— Tensile. Hardness Specified Extension psi pst Uiimate HRC Wall) for yield min max pel max Thickness ‘pertent ‘49000 80000 eno ‘S000 8000075000 Sow 90000 5000 000 su,000| 5000 5000 7500 500 75.0 500 s,000 S00 5,000 200 511000 500 1,000 100000 28438.0 0800or less S000 e600 10900024540 ONT tO TAD som ie600 1900 5435.0 0.750400999 fcc 05000 190000 4536.0 1.600 and above 5000 130000 105000 5000 130.000 105000 2543.0 0.800 or les 85000 11000 1050 54240 OBO ward 000 11000 105000 5435.0 0750100999 B 2 BEE 8 1.000 135000 130,000 sigaco Latoo9 a5 000 125000 150000 135,000 500 orless 65 135000 150000 186,000 osnream 85 + Additional page in book aher page 6% anima elongation in 2 inches in percent rounded ta nearest U/2 percent is ane 625,000" 5 v' TUBULAR DESIGN AND USE 0 MITCHELL Bor 1282 aldon CO sa108eB ee + nonnenantia tie a le] folf-lecessnnannnnnensnennne ss SSERSBENEEESE| SBE EAACEEREEE EE ES SADE AREER sfeseasacenzaaaeeenenezens 2] ERSRREEIGUEREESTSES Ifjofeance receopeecettcten gee Heese fsfente a gees [peed anaaay A064 MITOHELL Bac 482 Galen CO 0882 “TUBULAR DESIGN ANDUSEAPI HYDROSTATIC TEST PRESSURES ‘The APIs hydrostatic test pressures for plain-end pipe, extreme-line easing, and integral joint tubing are calculated with the following formula. (Exceptions for line pipe are noted in Bulletin 5C3). ‘Test Pressure for the Wall of Casing & Tubing : ats P 1ydrostatic test pressure rounded to nearest 100 psi for casing and tubing: psi s = fiber stress as a percent of specified minimum yield strength as given in the following table. t worminal well thickness; inches D external diameter of pipe; inches, "TABLE OF FACTORS FOR TEST PRESSURES GRADE Size MaxmuM w/o AGREEMENT TH0,J66@ KES 9.625 A under gw 800 10750 larger 00 180 & NSO au © s0p00 cr mrePii0 au 19900 EXAMPLE Compute the API hydrostatic test pressure for 7" 6.276" 26 pf N-80 casing (wall thickness = 0.362") p = 27180" 8900) ¢06 cco Note that this value is 80 percert of minimum internal yield strength, ‘Test Pressures for Coupling Yield and Leak Resistance Coupling yield test pressure is 80% of yield and leak resistance test pressure is 100% of leak resistance. TLSLLAR DESIGN AND USE 2 VaTeHeLL Box 1482 Goer CO SouceTOLERANCES ON DIMENSIONS ‘The following table shows the tolerance on manufacturing dimensions for API ‘tubulars. The following problem shows by example the affect of telerances on the strength of API casing. EXAMPLE ‘Compute the minimum body yield strength of 7° 6.276" 26 ppf'N-80 easing. onion wall ieknes «78216 sose2in Wall ices lem = 252 Minimum wall thidness —<09R2"0-328) 817i Tteraneson OD 1 4.01 0-08 ofvaminl OD Misimom oD 2790-009 =s06sin Misimom 1D Msi OD - Wal thickness ssons-2057 Astin Minimum Cross-sectional Area =.7854 (OD? - 1D?) = 7854 *( 6.965? - 6.314") = 6789 sqin Adjustment of API yield strength factor =0.9 ‘Yield strength =80,000*.9 = 72,000psi ‘Minimum body yield strength = 72,000°6.789 = 488,842 Ib ‘The difference between API and the Adjusted = 115,158 Ib TUBULAR DESION AND USE 8 VaTONELL Sex 182 Geden CO 80402Percent difference below the API minimum body yield strength value is, se aig = APL value Adiused Value «oy = SHO ABSBEE 6 199 =19% TUBULARDESIGN ANDUSE 8 MITCHELL Bx 462 Gotta 09 enan2i iG it 8 ot Ee OE Ee TuRUARDESON MOUSE s rene Bx 182 et ORD?‘MAKE-UP TORQUE FOR API COUPLINGS It is written in the API Bulletin 503, February 1, 1985, on page 39 that the optineal make-up torque is one percent (1%) of the caleulated joint pull-out strength "or round thread casing and tubing. The minimum value is 75% of the ‘optimal value and the maximum is 125% of the optimal. ROUND THREAD WITH BENDING AND TENSION API Bulletin 5C3, page 24, gives the following formula which was taken from the ‘work of Clinedinst for the affect of bending and tension on the fracture strength of round thread pipe. Two bending cases exist, NoBending ‘The joint strength of pipe is the lesser of its ultimate fracture strength, Pu, and its jump out strength, Pp. P, =0.95" A, *U, omDeeu, __Y, », -005°4, °1 Fostranae + rol Bending with Tension ‘The strength of a joint with combined bending and tension is found by reducing the ultimate fracture joint strength. Two cases exist and depend on the axial tensile stress, case mY B noaseayetu, (OE 7 Py 2 : ewer GPa, 5, +095," Leia? +y,-21815 BD] Ajp = 7854°1(D-0.14257 --2402] B ‘bending: degrees/100 D nominal external diameter of pipe; inches a = nominal internal diameter of pipe; inches ‘TUBULAR DESIGN ANDUSE. & TOHELL Gon 1482 Goan cOauneL = Ly -M (APIStd. 5B) p.81 oftext ¥, ‘minimum yield strength of pipe; psi t ‘nominal wall thickness; inches 4U, = minimam ultimate strength of pipe; psi (API Spee. SCT) see page 80 EXAMPLE Compute the coupling strength of 7" 6.276" 26ppfLT&C NBO easing if itis in a 20 deg/100R dogleg. 100,000 pst 20.0 deg/1008 inches i -M =4-0704 #8296 '362 inches = Ta54 *[(D - 0.1495)? -D-2* YF 7864 * [(7 - 0.1425)" -(7-2* 36277) = 5.998 in® 95*Ajn*U, — =0.95+5.998 * 100,000 += 569,829 Ib 074 DU, y, P) 3095" Ay "LUGS CsoaD * LeoiaD! P, = 514,145 Ib ‘The value of the joint strength listed by API is 519,000 Ibs which is the smaller of the two values. Bending » ca. ety, MOSBY B89 5 Cy ye Py = 0.95" 5.998 *{ 100000 - P, = 464,945 Ibs (case #1) TUBULAR DESIGN ANDUSE a LUTOHEL. Box 182 Gaiden CO sse02Pe _ seins x eS =77517 ‘Note that this value of 77,517 pst is less than 80,000 psi which the Yp value for N3O. ‘Thus, this value does not apply and is not the reduced joint tensile strength, u,-Y, PL =095%4, + BoP ey, -21815°B*D) 95 + 5.908 + 1000 800 099-2185" 207) = 458782 I (eset) Rs esa : Po sz = 70,489 pi Note that this value of 76,489 psi is less than 80,000 psi which is the Yp value for N80. Thus, the joint strength of this casing in a 20 degree per 100 foot dogleg is, 458,782 Ibs. ‘Thus, it has been ascertained that the maximum tensile load which this casing can bear is 458,782 ibs while itis in a 20 degree per 100 foot dogleg. TUBLLAA DESIGN ANDUSE ® LwToHEL. Box 1652 Goin CO 60HTUBULAR CONNECTIONS Tubular connections have two funetions: (1) 10, To Much support tension and compression loads and (2) Mtererence Interference contain fluids under pressure. Connections fall into two categories: API and proprietary. The API recognizes four connections 1 Round tread aie fe 2. Bure iead , Extemesine siaox Ee co Soc Loads are supported by threads. API modified thread dope ‘seals the connections except for mattress thread whi must be plated. Common platings are tin, zinc, EOCENTRICITY and metallic phosphate. ‘The illustrations show some of the Sow problems manufacturers have in Box’ making @ connection. All of the _ py ae ‘APL connections are classified as interference connections, TAPER TOLERANOE THICK PIN, NORMAL ibe ranen ,ghtilos Crom es wy ‘The bearing stress, which is a result of interference, is produced while wrquing. the connection and is the most critical aspect of making-up a connection. Bearing stress is the stress between the pin and collar. Proper bearing stress is achieved for an ideal connection by making buttress thread up to the base of a stamped triangle, and by making round thread up until the collar covers the last thread on the pin, Because there are few ideal connections, torque turn devices are popular. To prevent galling of the surfaces of the pin and collar, API recommends that make-up speeds do not exceed 25 rpm for all sizes of pipe. Others recommend that the surfaces not have & relative velocity of more than 50 feet per minute. The rpm's ‘which comresponds to this relative velocity for 7 inches pipe is =273rpm ‘TUBULAR DESIGN ANOUSE 2 YUTeHEUL Box 482 Coden COO?Proprietary connections use threads for supporting loads 1 1 2, 3 and one or more of the following for sealing the T connection. cm Elastomer which may act as O-ring or as 1 packing Bevelled shoulder and a bead Interference of the threads on the pin and 1 Near square shoulders on the pin and See Except in unusual events only one of the multiple seals ~) which are manufactured within the connection will be effective, and the others may or may not serve as back ups SHOULDER _in cases where the effective seal begins to leak. Galling, dirt, and seal damage are the primary causes of leaks. Gainidg proper torque may also be a problem. SLACK-OFF BENDING LOADS aaa Elasiometer— Slacking off weight can cause the tubular being slacked-off| to buckle. ‘The bending stress at the location in the tubular at which the effective tension is being applied is given by Lubinski’s equation g ,OD*(H-OD)* Ty n opt Lubinski also published the following equation for the purpose of ascertaining whether the tubular is bent or buckled. He called tins load which induces buckling the, CRITICAL BUCKLING LOAD. 1s Fy #6013 182 0D? -1D*8* (on? + 2y - S, = bending stress in outer fiber; psi OD = outside diameter of tube; in ID = inside diameter of tube; in H hhole diameter containing the tube; in ‘Toy = effective tansion; Ib B, = buoyancy fector Fy) = eritical buckling load Ib ‘TUBULAR DESIGN AND USE a MITCHELL Box 1482 Gettn CO enueEXAMPLE 20,000 pounds are slacked-off onto the bottom of the hele with 1 * 6.094” casing in ‘a 36" drill hole which contains 14 ppg mud. Is the casing buckled and what is the stress eaused by buckling? (bouyancy factor) 786, 1s Fay = 80.13" 7862-60942 2 + 6.001%) =35761 8, 74196-7)* 20000 : Bs = 018 psi Sonn 60n8t » ‘The tube is buckled and the bending stress alone will not fail N 80 steel MITCHELL Box 1492 Golen CODE?SURFACE AND DOGLEG RUNNING LOADS IN DIRECTIONAL AND VERTICAL HOLES, ‘Tubulats have been broken and parted while being run, Axial tension loading, at any one point in the tube, may be at its highest intensity while that point is being lowered through the rotary table. Further, if tube enters a dogleg, an additional bending load must be added to the tension load. In directions! holes, the true vertical length of a section of tube changes as the section passes from one position to another position, Thus, the tension at one particular point in the tube changes with ite depth in a hole. Also, in a directional hole, the build section is a dogleg and the maximum tension load may occur while the top of section of tube is in the top of the build, This is also true for a dogleg which has increasing inclination with depth, If the inclination angle is decreasing, most likely the maximum tension will oecar while the tube is at the bottom of the dogleg. EXAMPLE Casing: 16°*15.124"*75ppf 7,769 buoyed wt: 64.2 ppt Mud: 9.4 ppm RKB. buoyancy factor: 0.8568 Directional argel departure: 3 , tage og Kickot | 1,510 build gradient: 27100 Point kop ae _ Build 2°7100° 3.683" ‘The following contains a table of VD values and their explanations, 49.3490° 1. Final resting aaa depth (MD) of a point, Xin the easing after the casing has been 1.769" Measured Depth ran to total depth, 8.154" ] 3,875" Depths are TVD Target Departure selected to yield sufficient casing loadings for the purpose of selecting casing. 2. Length (MD) of a cogment of casing hanging below the point of interest, X'. This longth (MD) ean not and will not change 3, TVD of the bottom of the casing with the top of the segment at the surface. This is also the true vertical length of the casing for TUBULAR DESIENANDcomputing surface running loads. Column (8) = Column (2) transposed, 4, Surface running load. It is also the buoyed weight of the casing as itis being run at the surface. Column (4) = Column (8) * wt per foot * buoyancy factor. 5, Length (MD) of casing which is hanging below the top of the dogleg. This is also the depth (MD) of the bottom of the casing with ‘X'at the top of the dogleg. 6. TVD of the bottom of the casing with 'X’ at the top of the dogleg. Column (6) = Column (5) transposed. 1. Trae vertical length of the casing segment below the top of the dogleg. Column (7) = Column (6) - dogieg depth (TVD). 8, Buoyed weight of the casing hanging below the dogleg. Column (8) ‘Column (7) * weight per foot * buoyancy factor. 9. Lubinski’s bending force is computed with the load in Column (8). 10, This is the ‘continuous wall contact’ bending force. LL The dogleg running load is the sum of Column (8) and the larger of Column (9) or Column (10) “TUBULAR DESGN ANDUSE 2 TCHR Bax 1492 Golden CO-sD:02Sr nor aw craoctes nenconaenanmacTNa z 22228 2 22288 8 DOGLEG RUNNING & SURFACE RUNNING LOADS ee eee » 2 : i 4H - : ‘The chart is a plot of the measured depth of the casing after being run in the drill hole (listed in column 1) in the above table versus the surface running load (listed in column § and the dogleg running load (isted in column 11) TUBULAR OESIGN ANDUSE 98 YaTeHELL Box 1482 Gotan 0 Bose'UBING DESIGN TUBING MOVEMENT AND STRESS COMPUTATIONS ‘Tubing designs are resolved with the paper written by Lubinski, A., "HELICAL BUCKLING OF TUBING SEALED’ IN PACKERS’, AIME TRANSACTIONS (Jornal of Petroleum Technology), JUNE, 1962 ASSUMPTIONS, ‘The following problem is one in which tubing is used to squeeze cement casing perforations. The following assumptions, which are standard in most tubing design methods, are mado the tubing fills with the fluid which is within the casing as it is run no surface pressures are applied while running the tubing (no snubbing) initial length of tubing is as measured in the hole’ slack-off pressure area forces gravitational attraction of steel | ballooning fluid flow friction fictitious force (Lubinski’s) temperature changes ‘in tubing depend only on the following ‘packer to tubing foree internal and external tubing pressures bending {gravitational attraction of steel temperature changes Properties of Steet: ». a Poisson's ratio Adiabatic linear expansion coefficient Modulus of Elasticity STEPS. WHAT TODO? 1. Record the tubing O.D.; 2, Record the tubing LD. ‘movement of tubing depends only on the following tubing is at geothermal temperatures immediately after running ve.ainin b=69E6ininF E2306 pst D=2875 inch, d= 2441 inch3. Record the nominal weight of the tubing; 1," 65 ppt 4, Revord the diameter of the hole; H=6004 inch 5. Record the packer bore diameter; D,, 28.25 inch 6. Rocord the depth of the packer; D, = 10000 7. Record the initial surface pressure within the tubing; py, = 0.0 pst 8. Record the initial surface pressure within the tubing annulus; 1, #000 psi 98. Record the final surface pressure within the tubing; Pie = 5:000 pst -95¢= 5,000 psi 10, Record the final surface pressure within the tubing annulus; Pae= 1,000 pst p¢= 1,000 psi 11. Record the initial API gravity of the fluid within the well; APT = 80.0°APT 12 Record the final weight of the fluid within the tubing: MW,-= 18.0 ppg 15. Record the force slacked-off+\/picked-up(-) on to packer; F, = 20,000 Ib 45, Kecord the initial temperature ofthe tubing, T= 1S0°F 15, Record the final temperature ofthe tubing; Ty 100 16, Compute the outside end area of the tubing: sq. A, = T854°D® = 1654" STEPI? = 7864°28752 «49 qin 17, Compute the inside end area of the tubing: sain Aj = Te54ed? =7854¢STHP2? = 7054*246? 24.68sqin 18. Compute the nominal cross-sectional area of the steel of the tubing; sq TUBULAR DESIGVANDUSE % TOME. Bo 1450 Getin CO Bos|, =.7854* (D2 -d2) =.7854° (STEP 1? - STEP 2°) = 7864 * (2.875? -2.4417) =1.81sqin 19. Compute the ratio ofthe tubing O.D. to the tubing LD. inJin. OD, _STBP1 _2875 os ReQh «Steps ae = 1.178 infin 20. Compute the weight per inch of steel in the wall of the tubing; Ibn. W, 2 STEPS _ as ‘0 = 20 “120 ae 21. Compute the moment of inertia of the tubing; in* 1 =Sct- =.0191* TEP 1 -STEP 24) a = +2975 -2441* =161int Zs ast! 240%) 22, Compute the radial clearance; in, _ STEP 4-STEP 1 s 2 r Ay = =161in 28. Compute the depth of the packer; in. Ly =D, %12 =STEP6*12— =10900*12—— = 120,000in 24. Compute the cross-sectional area of the packer bore; sq. in. Bap? oSesrmps? -+3.95? A, =}*Da? =]*STePs? =F +325 830sq in 25. Compute the initial specific gravity of the fluid within the well; ppg. uals, M5 1415 Soi “TGL5+ API “ISTS+STEPTT “iSi5+30 = A762 25, Compute the inital fhid weight within the tubing: Pps MW); = ston * weight of water @ 60°F (gal) =STEP25°8337 =.8162° 8.387 = 30 PPE “TUBULAR DESIGN ANOUSE a YTCHELL ox 1482 GolsencORDHD27. Compute the initial fui weight within the annulus; ppg. MWg; = sg "weight of water @ 60°F Ib/gal) = 7.30 ppg (same steps asin STEP 28) 28, Compote the final uid weight within the annulus; ppg MW,gr = sg" weight of water @ 60°F dbygab = 7.30 ppg (same steps as in STEP 26) 29. Compute the change inthe fuid weight within the tubing: pp. OMW, = MWy-MW, =STEP12-STEP26 =150-73 = 2.7 ppg 30. Compute the change in the fluid weight within the annulus; ppg. AMW, =MW,--MW,, =STEP28-STEP27 =7.0-7.50 =0.0ppg 31. Compute the initial pressure within the tubing at the depth of the packer; psi 052+ MW,,*D, + pj, =.052* STEP 26* STEP 6 + STEP7 = 0527.30 * 10,000+ 0.0 = 3,796 pst 82 Compute the initial pressure within the annulus at the depth of the packer; psi Py, 2.0584 MW,,*D,>pq =.062* STEP 27° STEP 6+ STEPS 152 * 7.80* 10,000+0.0 28,796 psi 88, Compute the final pressure within the tubing at the depth of the packer; si. Pig =.052* MWiy "Dy ~ Diy 052 * STEP 12 * STEP 6+ STEP 9 152 * 15.0* 10,006 + 6,000 = 12,800 psi 34. Compute the final pressure within the annulus at the depth of the packer; psi. P, of = 052° MW, *D, ~ pgp =.052* STEP 28 * STEP 6+ STEP 10 TUBULAR DESQNANOUBE % VITCMELL Box 1492 Gotan COseAn2=.052* 7.30 * 10,000 + 1,000, = 4,796 psi 35, Compute the change in pressure within the tubing at the depth of the packer; psi AP ig =Pyg- Py =STEPS3-STEPS1 = 12,800-3,796 =9,004pst 36, Compute the change in pressure within the annulus at the depth of the packer; psi AP,p =Py-Py, =STEPS4-STEPS2 =4,796-9,796 = 1,000psi 37, Compute the fictitious force on the end of the tubing; Ib, Fy=A,*(@y-Py) =STEP 24+ (STEP 93-STEP 34) = 8.30 * (12,800- 4,796) = 65488 Ib 38, Compute the change in the fictitious force; Ib. AF, ©A,* (APiy- AP,@) = STEP 24 * (STEP 35- STEP 36) =8.80*(9004- 1000) = 66438 1b 39, Compute the real pressure area force on the end of the tubing; Ib Fy =(A,- A) * Pip (A, Aad Py = (TEP 24-STEP 17)*STEP 33 - (STEP 2+-STEP 16)"STEP 34 = (8.30 - 4.68)" 12,800 - (8.0 - 6.49) * 4,796 = 37/855 1b 40, Compute the change in the real pressure area force on the end of the tubing; Ib AP, = (A, - A) * APG (B= AL) * AP ie = (STEP 24-STEP 17)"STEP 35 - (STEP 24 STEP 16)*STEP 36 3 30 - 4.68) * 9004 - (8.30 - 6.49) * 1000 += 80,784 Ib 41, Compute the final weight per inch of the fluid within the tubing; Ibi. MW," A,/231.0 =STBP 12° STEP 17/231.0 = 150* 4.68/2310 = 8089 Ibvin ‘TUBULAR DESIGN AND USE, 2 MSTONELL Boe 1492 Golden COMDD242, Compute the final weight per inch of the Quid displaced by the tubing: MW,pA,/281.0 =STEP 26 * STEP 16/2510 =7.30°6.49/251.0 =.2051 Ibiin 43, Compute the buoyed weight of the tubing at final conditions; Ibjin, Ww, =, 4,06, =STEP20+ STEP 41- STEP 42 = 5420+ 3089-208: -=.6108 Ibn, 44, Compute the distance from the lower end of the tubing to the neutral point; in F, 2 STEP 37 _ e613 aot Le += 108,672 in or 8,689 ft w, “STEPS 7 08 45. Compute the change in tubing length caused by Hooke’s law (STRETCH); inches. ap, --le2DFa __ STaP2s* srEP 49 17 EFA E*STP is 46, Compute the change in tubing length caused by buckling: in. PA? (OP APS? rg Pe BPE w, Aly STEP 22 + STEP 24? * (STEP 35 -STEP 367 OBES STEP 21° STEP SS 1.61 + 8.30? * (9004-10007? = RF DOEMEP LG: * 6408 eee = 47. Enter the Pressure Friction Loss because of fluid motion Pe pailin (flow direction: +down/-up), Py = 0088 psiin 48. Compute the interim variable pj; Ibin®. MW, _ STEP 26 MW: _STEP26 2 Px agit = EE =.0816 Ibin' TUBULAR DESGN aNDUSE 100 MITCHELL Box 1452 Gotten CO Sousa49. Compute the interim variable py Ibfin’ MW, 160 sat age = 0849s? a1 Pir 50. Compute the intarim variable ap,; thin? 40, =p, =STEP49-STEP48 =.0549-.0316 =.0883Ibin® 51. Compute part #1 of the ballooning effect; in Part #1 ROE STEP 197-1 2.3 ,5000-1.178?* 1000 24.3. 5000-1178? * 2000. on999 =-22.36 in SES ea 52, Compute part #2 ofthe ballooning fect; in 126, pj Rap, OH) * Pe “0983 + 20.0002 4 (2286) = -4.18in 178 ‘Tubing ballooning effect change = STEP 51 +STEP 52 =-26.51 in AL, =-2651in 158, Compute the change in temperature of the tubing; “F aT 20°F oT) =STEP 15 -STEP 14 = 190-150 TUBULAR DESIGN AND USE so MITCHELL Box 1482 Gotten CO B04?54, Compute the change in tubing length caused by the temperature expansion/contraction effect; in Aly L,*b*aT — =STEP23*b*STEPS3 +=120,000 * 698-6 * (20) == 16.56in 155. Compute the required seal length fora free motion packer; inch AL = AL, +AL) + AL, +L, = STEP 45 + STEP 46 + STEP 52+ STEP5¢ = (68.08) + (46.20) + (26.51) + 1656) =-15790in ‘56. Compute the virtual tubing length change caused by the packer fors effect in LF, 2B STEP25*STEP 19 | STEP20? + STHP 13? E*STEPI8 *§*E*STEP2i* STEP 43 120000 * 20000 1,617 * 20000 MESS" 181 + B*30E+8* 161 "6008 =4839in 57. Compute the required seal length if the tubing locator lifts off of the packer, in lg =4b+4L, =STEPS5+STEP 56 =-157.30+4539 =-108.91 in IF THE TUBING IS FIXED TO PACKER OR TUBING DOES NOT LIFT OFF 158, Plot a force-length change curve as shown by using several values of F and computing AL with the following equations. 1, %-= 120000 06408 =765061 LF, BQN1 aL,= Bae F,<0 TUBULAR DESGVANOUSE 102, MITCHELL doe 1492 Gaiden CO8oKpe, Bee BN? aly Ea? + sete, OeF, shywp oon bh fate FEC 5] 4l,= Ba, + BET, 2 Fly Oe ea Cue. Fay a, ano00 Yan. “ooo “Hiaa 0G soon 0s 210000282 woo de Zav00 as 90000 ez0 Zeooc = “386 lonoon “ai99 ss09m aes Hito00 B80 “oom “tse FORCE- LENGTH TUBING PLOT MOVEMENT; inch, 59. "A’ is located by intersecting the Force-Length Change curve with the value of F-(STEP 87), + 66,433 I, TUBULAR DESIGN ANOLE 103 TOME Box 1482 Coen CO soe60. 'B'is located by moving a vertical distance equal to dlig (STEP 57) up or down from point ‘A’ The direction to move is found from the sign of dL. IFit is negative,then move up; if itis positive, then move down, up 108.91 61. 'C is located by drawing a horizontal line from ‘B' to the eurve, 62, Line ‘BC’, 39,000 Ib, is the new packer force, F,’. The change in packer force is caused by the changes in temperature, pressure, and fluid density within the tubing. Ey = 38,0001, 63. Compute the new fictitious force Ib Fy =Fy+F, =STEP9T+STEP62 =65495 +9300) =a8400 1b 641. Compate the new pressure area force on the end of the tubing: Ib. STEP 394STEP 62 =97,655+(-88,000) =46551b 65. Compute the axial stress; psi 8, =F /A, =STEP 64 /STEP 18 655/181 = 2,572 psi 66, Compute the bending stress; psi Dare __STEP1*STEP 19 “STEP 3 Sm aeT = 4° STEP 21 2876" 1378* 95489 = BATS 178 489 = 1759 pst 67, Compute the triaxial stress at the outer diameter of the tubing wall (Gension and compression); Ib, 7 soy = fo Ca Fay? FT )"] ee se gp Ma 0744p rasnpeson noise wo eet arene coe(ucten Cay , a a, awl 2. STEP 20-STEP o4p s1EP58-STEP 12-5034, renee orenenhé p Sen gTene, sea fae arenes ster ef nike tte HE os ss Oe = 36842 psi 68. Compute the triaxial stress at the inner diameter of the tubing wall (tension and compression); Ib. Etutade Pct rer, Step w2isrersa.sTep ap STEP S2.9TEp 192 STEP 6, ren gg STEPEEZ,S ea + Ee teste Sieg op dzign are gmne sare ea areca = 59,787 psi Were ty) Pe a 2 g, foe pRB eye oe STEP 19% (STEP. P STEP 39- Ti Ey 8.25 ptiiewlones sane grea doe ceo SEH eer STEP T ap fan ery snare aT 6 ee ae 49746 psi (69, Pick the largest value computed in steps 67 and 68. This is the required minimum yield value of the steel in the tubing. ‘Required minimum yield value 59,787 psi al slak-off, Py yields the steel in the ting Fy Derk, yp abel G2 + ry?) | ‘TUBULAR DESIGN ANDUSE 105, TeHELL Box 1492 Gotan CO B0an2‘STEP 13 | STEP 1°STEP 20*STEP 19 voSgpe ae) 20000 _ 2.875 * 1.61» 200000 va NO Yield, if Yield of steel is > 25,425 Ib TUBULAR DESIBN aNDUSE 108 MTOHELL Box 92 Gaiden CO BoneDRILLPIPE DESIGN INTRODUCTION Drillpipe may fail because of stresses induced by one or a combination of the following phenomena 1. Tension load (@) Gravity (b) Pick up (c) Temperature 2. External pressure (collapse) 8. Internal pressure (a) Burst (b) Leaking of joint 4, Bending a) Shear (b) Equivalent tension 5. Fatigue fa) Rotation in doglegs 6. Crushing (@) Slips (by Stacking 7. Torsion (twisting) (a) Twist offin body (b) Over make up of joint (©) Unserewing (ratcheting) 8, Buckling (stability) (a) Slack off (b) Temperature rise (c) Pressure rise (@) Fluid density rise 9. Acceleration (hard braking) 1 Abrasion (wenn) a) Wall of tube (b) Tooljoints LL Erosion (uid wear) 12, Corrosion (H8, COp, 0) ‘TAPERED DRILLPIPESTRINGS A tapered string contains more than one OD, tocljoint, weight, grade, or levels of ‘The problem with tapered strings is ascertaining how much weight can be placed on the weight indicator without failing any one of the sections of the tapered string. TUBULAR DESIGN NO USE 107 LMTOHELL Bor 1482 Gokien CORDESCOMBINED TENSION, TORSION, BENDING, & PRESSURE LOADS: Combined tension, torsion, bending, and pressure loads are frequently placed on drillpipe. The normal drilling operation of making hole does this, However, the damaging combined loads will most likely occur while fishing. ‘The tension is created by the hook pulling on the drillpipe; the torsion arises while Wwisting the pipe with either tongs or the rotary table; the bending is derived either {rom Goglegs in the drill hole or the misalignment of the erown block with the rota:y table; and pressures are created by surface pressures or different uid weights on the inside and the outside of the drillpipe. ‘Von Mises triaxial equation depicts the combined stress. This stress is also known as general stress. If failure is forecasted by the equation it is known as general failure, because the mode of failure is not forecasted, For example if drillpipe is subjected to tension and pressure simultaneously and it fails, would not be possible to ascertain from Von Mises equation whether it was the Lension 2t the pressure which caused the failure, ‘The fundamental approach to drillpipe selection is to compute all the loads separately to determine if the strength of the drillpipe is exceeded by the individual loads and then combine the individual loads with Von Mises equatien to ascertain if general failure is likely. ‘VON MISES STRESS von Mises equation is 2vPa[iS,-Si?+ (SS) + Sy-S)] + oft? +72 +1.) V = von Mises strss or general Sess: psi S, = aiial stress in the wall of the drillpipe: psi ea S, = Facial btress in the wall of the SS drillpipe; psi am = tangential stress in the wall of t the drillpipe; p= tangential shear stress normal to the longitudinal axis of the drilippe si Fadil shear stress normal tothe longitudinal axis of the drillpipe; pi axial shear stress parallel tothe radial ais of the drillpipe; psi ‘The formula for computing the external diameter and cross sectional area of ‘worn drillpipe is the following. The APT specifies that class 1 drillpipe may hare ‘as much as 20% of its external wall worn aveay; ic, 80% will be remaining. It should be noted that much of the deillpipe will have all of its wall remaining. TUBULAR DESIGN ANDUSE 108 MTCHEL Box 482 Gelder CO noeEXAMPLE me Compute the worn diameter and the remaining minimum wall area of 5" x 4.276" 439.5 ppf API class 1 drillpipe. Dy=(0.8D,)+(0.24) no wear on ID Dy=(O.8*5)+(02* 4.276) =4.86inch ‘The worn wall area is Ay=}0,?-2) 24.190 in? Dy API nominal outside diameter; inch Dy ‘worn diameter, inch 4 = API nominal internal diameter; inch AXIAL STRESS. ‘The axial tonsion and tensile stress is found with free bodies and Newton's laws of ‘motion. Thereafter, overpull and equivalent bending stress is added op | Fiub +A tA REAL TENSION ‘Treal; at the rotary table, is the sum of the hook load and the internal pressure area force acting on the end of the drillpipe, At any other depth Troal is the value at the rotary table less the air weight of the drillpipe between the rotary table and depth where Tyeal is desired. The equations are the following. AT THE ROTARY TABLE ‘Treat = HOOKLOAD + Prurfac * Ai ATANY OTHER DEPTH 1, real |OOKLOAD + Pyurface "Ai ~ Woir * DEPTH. TUBULAR DESIGN ANDLSE 09SSO DE EXAMPLE DRILLPIPE TENSION ‘The weight indicator shows 230,000 Ibs. The block and lines weight 30,000 Ibs. A pump pressure gauge in line with the drillpipe shows 7,000 psi. The drillpipe is 5 by 4.276" by 19.5 ppf and the average weight per foot of the steel in the drillpipe is 21.4 Ib. What is the real tension in the drillpipe at the rotary table and at a derth, 0f 5,000 feet? ‘The inside end area of 5" drillpipe = (x!4) 4.276 = 14.380 sq. in. ‘Treat = 280,000 - 30,000 + 7,000 * 14.360 = 900,520 Ib rotary table) Treg) = 300,520 -21.4* 5,000 198,620 Ib (at 5,000 2) — DRAG LOADS Drag loads may be measured with the weight indicator or estimated with equations, ‘MEASURED DRAG ‘The driller, as a standard practice, routinely measures three drillstring loads: 1. Free rotating weight. It is the weight of the drill string with the string off bottom and while the string is being rotated. The rotary speed should be above 35 rpm. 2, Pickcup weight. Itis the weight of the drill string while raising the string at a normal working speed. Most drillers raise the string too slowly. Be careful not to add in the Inad of accelerating the drill string and breaking gel of the mud. 3, Slack-off weight. It is the weight of the drllstring while lowering the string at 2 normal working speed. The above potentials for error must be once again avoided, ‘The differences in the pick-up and slack-off weights from the free rotating weight, are the pick-up drag and the slack-of drag. EXAMPLE DRAG ‘The free rotating weight of a drill string is 200,000 Ibe, the pick-up weight is 250,000 Ibs, and the slakoff weight i 170,000 bs. What are the pick-up and sla off drag loads? TUBULAR DESCN ANDUSE, 0 YATCHELL Ba 482 Gaten CODEPick-up drag = 250,000 - 200,000 = 50,000 Ib Slack-off drag = 200,000 - 170,000 = 30,000 Th ESTIMATION OF DRAG. In a hole which is free of severe doglegs the tension drag may be estimated with ‘the coefficient of friction method, ‘The method requires thatthe coeficient of friction be multiplied by the product of the buoyed weight and departure length of and for each section of the drill string and then summed, Driller inthe North Sea have measured coefficient of friction between 0.2 and 0.3. In the example which follows a value of the coefficient of fiction of 0.28 was choses, ‘The equation for tension drag isthe folowing. ‘Tension drag = E (i Wyuoyed* Lp) EXAMPLE TENSION DRAG The drill string ie composed of three sections: 1,500 of 5” drillpipe which weighs 21.4 If, 1,000 feet of 5 Ey 50 Ibe heavy weight, and 100 fect of by 147 Ih/Rt dell collars. The heavy weight and drill eolars are in a 55 degres hole, ‘The departure Tength of the drillpipe is 1,500 feet. The mad weight is 12.0 ppg. What is the estimated tension drag? ‘The buoyant factoris 1» Bag =0817 ‘The departure factor for tae 55 degree hole is sin(S5) = 0819 ‘The tension drags are Deill collars = 0.28 ° 0817* 147° 100*0819 Heavy wt = 0.2340.817*50*1,000* 0819 Drillpipe = 0.28 0817 21.4+1,500 ‘Toial Tension drag for the drill string TURILAR DESIGN ANOUSE m MITCHEU. Bor 182 Gas CO atePRESSURELOADS ‘The radial and tangential stresses account for the pressure acting on the inner and outer wale ofthe driliipe and are computed with Lames equations @R-DeR, PONE. ?, we Poe @p.D?P, av%P,-P Se * Fore P, = pressure acting within the drillpipe; pi Pe pressure acting outside the drillpipe; » = any diameter within the wall of the drilipipe; inch, Diameters and pressures are always positive in the two Lames’ equations. As always compressional stresses are negative and tensile stresses are positive. TORSIONAL LOADS ‘TANGENTIAL STRESS ‘Two formulas are available for computing the tangential torsional shear stress. ‘The first uses the number of turns of the drillpipe while the second uses the torque applied to the drillpipe. roan Number oftaraa formula 1y=29 Torgus fale nasa and liminating T, from the two formulae relates Q and N shear modulus of steel, 12 * 108; psi ‘number of turns in the free drillpipe; rev torque applied to the drillpipe;Ib-R. = length of deillpipe; tah; inck! = polar moment of inertia, 5 (D* - ); inch’ “reza © “TUBULAR DESIGN ANDUSE m2, ITCNEUL Box 1482 Galen COC?AXIAL STRESS. ‘The equation for axial shear stress which ic associated with bending of the deillpipe is Trent 1, * sin(150) As = Cross-sectional area of steel in wall of pipe; in? RADIAL STRESS 7, is equal to zero for most drillpipe load conditions, BENDING STRESS Lubinski’s bending stress formula is the preferred formula for computing bending stresses in drillpipe derived from the curvature of the drill hole. wsssasce yg [EE Fiyp= . afte As [02 peal 1 tanh) = 5 tube curvature; foot [PLE 5° + 4.276" * 21 ppf 8.185 drillpipe became stuck at a depth of 9,000 f. In an attempt to get loose a hook load of 300,000 ibs is pulled, the pressure within the Arllpipe is inereaced t0'3,000 psi, and the drilptpe is bwisted 9 revolutions. A Aogleg with a severity of 5/1008 esiets at a depth 1,000 fost. Mod weight fe TL ppg. Will the 5” drillpipe yield and most likely fail? ‘von Mises stress must be resolved. The internal and external pressures at the depth of 1000 feet are 11" 1000 Firo00= “Tas ~ 9000 = 3571 psi 11* 1000 : Pyio0= aa95 =571 psi | ‘TUBULAR DESIGN ANDUSE u3 MITCHELL Box 1482 Gotdon COBDMne=1436in® = 19.63 in? = 5.275 in? Curvature ofthe deine 205m Buoyancy fare 1 «gig a Buoyed weigh per fot = 69°21 eran Tenino ®800,0-+5000"1458-2151000 ze. Tene steno = 2 = 61008 ps tv tensinjgg # 921781-3571914964 5711969 =2617101h 4210 6-476) =-9571 psi 4.276% 9571-82 + 57 4.276" * 543571571) Tene stession= agar? * are? 4276) 219385 psi ang shear ggg = #2284276" 8 = 19488 psi Axial shear jgqq = 22328? + sint15 05) = To8psi TUBLKAA DESIGN ANDUSE ny TOWEL Bow 192 Gos C0802Tne caries [Eze 5865+ 4216+ 5 «BRT + | 4200 Fear ai 275+ tanno2 +4 [SE ON A gard Bending str28} 999 = = 28,746 psi von Mises stressiog9 = V.5161005+28746 (2000)? 4(39395+-90001? +(61005+28746.1993577] + 019488" +7960) = 87497 psi ‘Thus, the $-135 grade drillpipe will not fail. A design factor for the drillpipe at a depth of 1,000 feet is 1135000, pre ar 2154 ‘TUBULAR DESION ANDUSE 15 MITCHELL Bor 1492 Golden CO soeceSLIP CRUSHING OF TUBULARS Reinhold, Spiri, and Vreeland published the following equation and table which relates the tube crushing tangential stress derived from slips and axial tensile loads. The steel in the pipe will be crushed when and if Sp, is equal to the unit yield strength, YP, of the steel. DK | DKy»]!? s, -s,[1+ BE. QBy] S tangential stress in the pipe derived from the crushing action of sips and the effective tension in the pape; pst S, = bial effective tensile stess inthe pipe atthe slips ai Tet _* D = outside diameter ofthe pipe; inch L Tength ofthe slips (usually either 12° or 16"; inch KE lateral load factor of spe 1 tantly 4.0 for a coefficient of friction of 0.08 taper of slip, usually 9° 27°45" friction angle = tan"! u coefficient of friction between slips and bushing. = reasonable value for lubricated slips = 0.08 A = cross-sectional area of the wall of the drillpipe; inch? Xp @2) A = F0?-a%) EXAMPLE How deep can 5° 4.276" 21 ppf D-60,000 grade drillpipe be run in 11.2 ppg if only slip crushing is considered? Bed BAA coun =3,1 + Fag +Ghel Ss = 42,262 psi ‘The effective tension a the oar abe while running 5 deipga Cage nn “Depth sgn 12 Doh Pawel (5? - 4.276%) rm s > SO REQUIRED BITLIF It is seen from the chart and the equation, that if the proposed bit is break-even with the data bit, it must drill at a rate of 20 fbr for 25 hours. The proposed bit an not brealceven at any bit life if ts drilling rate is less than 11,80 fbr, EXAMPLE OF EXPECTED VALUE A mud company claims that # spending $3,000 more dollars on the mud will cause bits 10 drill 10% faster and 20% longer. Thus, the values for the date bit adjusted for the new mud are the following. Bit 1.401 Tool Stabilizer $250 Mud $2,000 + 83,000 = $5, Drill Time = Bit fer 33 hr* 12~ 39.6 hr Trip Lost surveying after every trip; 0.3 hr Rig 550 Shir Support Contractor and Supervisors; $250 ‘Tool Rental = Large drill collars; 9 §/br additional Drilling rate =78.91 8 Because the cost is 78.91 $ justified by this analysis. ft versus 84.72 Sift, the cost increase in the mud is DRILLING OPTMRZATION 6‘TIME VALUE OF MONEY Because interest is paid on savings, the value of money varies with time. Suppose that a company has had an average rate of return of 21% over the past five years, Further, if an employee had bought a stabilizer five years ago for $1,000 and did ‘not use it, what would its value need to be today to break-even? ‘The equation for computing the time value of money is the following, sett verti a Y= Valu of ginspl Sve yas later and is unknows; 8 YT ASOSSUPRES geal Reyes oat oe f Teuly sisal tearkar vee ae bat Recon fn TNinitet jus wild ive canned ot @ Number ffupmente person uence ‘EXAMPLE With the numbers given above, the future value of the $1,000 is the following. e390 04025 sors Current required value to break-even, ‘Time Value Money eo mores IG OPTMZATION METHODS ast MITCHELL Boe 1482 COBD4e?EXPECTED VALUE METHOD. ‘The expected value method provides a means of reaching a decision based on expected costs and the probabilities of their occurrences, The fundamental form of the expected value equations are the following. EV=0;P; +03'P) and Py+Ppet EV = Expected Value; $ Cy ost of first event; § PL robability of frst event; fraction C est of second event; $ Pp _ = Probability of second event; fraction, EXAMPLE Ifa coin is tossed 100 times, and one dollar is won on heads and one dollar is lost ‘on tails, what is the expected value of our 100 bets? The answer is zero, because no money should be won or lost. A step by step solution with the expected value ‘method gives a value of zero as expected. ‘Choose & basis for cost. The cost of 100 tosses and bets is chosen, Choose the first event to be the winning of one dollar and assign it a positive value of one. Choose the second event to be the losing of one dollar and assign it a negative value of one. (nthe toss ofa coin, only two posses exis elther a ead ora tal ‘he proebity ota heads 1/2 because a heads on of two possi. ‘probably ota sal 19 because aos of oo pours Chuck to ascertain the individual probabilities at the vale of ne doa 2ta=t ‘ow substitute the values reasoned ins the expected value equation ey = ci00)+2 + (1=300)¢3 ev “0 ‘The expected value is zero as was reasoned, DAILING O*TAZATION METHODS 8 MITCHELL Box 1492 Golan CO B2402‘EXAMPLE Should 4" or 5° drillpipe be rented if the following data are factual? In this problem the expected values of renting the 4" and 5° drillpipes will be computed ‘and compared for the drilling of an interval of hole. ‘TABLE OF COST AND EXPECTED PERFORMANCE DRILLPIPE DELIVERY RENTAL SE CHARGE Cost. inch 8 Siday 71,000 a0 8 1100 00 HOLE: 10,000 f of hole are to be drilled, Cost basis: ‘The drillpipe cost while drilling 10,000 ft of hole. C1 = cost of drilling 10,000 fof hole at 290 f¥hr 10000 , 800 aft, _Siday_ a * a note: C= Ruhr * Sahay Pj = probability of drilling at 290 fUhris 0.2 C2 costofdiling 10,000 fof hoo at 315 fur co) , 300 Cn" at Pa = probability of drilling at 916 Rihris 08 ‘The $1,000 entry is th delivery charg for the deilpipe 0000 , $00, , 10000 0, Tape O24 NID 8) «3,000 $2,076 ‘The costs and probabilities for the 5" selection are reasoned in 8 manner similar tothe 4” drillpipe 100 2506500 paar eeeEVs" ‘The expected saving if 4" drillpipe is selected is $168, EXAMPLE OF EXPECTED VALUE A decision is required as to whether 8", 9°, or 10° outside diameter drill collars fare to be used to drill a tough 1,000 ft section of hole. A data base and an analysis have yielded the following expected information. c Drill ratesiuhe Bit Cost Mud Cost; $ Bit consumption ‘Trip time; hr Rig rate; Shr Cost of fishing Probability of fishing: In the past 72 sections drilled, the number of fishing jobs was 6 plus the collar size divided by 2, ‘The problem will be resolved by comparing the expected computed costs of the three collar sizes, Cost basis: cost to drill the 1,000 fe section, © cost with fishing cost vis mud lip fish c200500*38) «as00% 0-0) + AH 6 Shes + snc £0000 , 2,700 + 3530 °C ‘probability of fishing is given by the equation 6+ B Co= cost per foot and not fishing vite mud aril tip +38, oe, +51" C2 12500 + 11,500 + 500°) + GM+ + $1" 160 DRLENG OP TIMZATIONNETHOOS 180 UsTOHEL Box 482 Golten cose?p= 20002, 20 5800 © 66-5) lity ofnot fishing = 1-P) = vet 6. s wv «M02, ar00 35300) + 222” , 2M, 270045900) + Substituting the Optimum Drill Collar Selection and 10” yields 24000 EVe $21,523 A 2500 Ve" #821407 UV £200 OPTIMAL oe ! This analysis $ predicts that the 2? S' drill collars 21000 should be 6 7" 3 8 © tf @ selected. Drill Collar Outside Diameter (inches) EXAMPLE OF EXPECTED VALUE EVig" =$21,563 A study with a database shows that for 100 trips, ifthe hole were circulated for two hours no fishing jobs occurred; however, if the holes were not circulated, ten fishing jobs occurred, Alzo, the stndy sawed that for every hour of circulation, Fishing costs were reduced rom $20,000 by $7,000. How many hours of circulation should there be between cessation of drilling and tripping? Cost basis: cost to drill 500 ft of the section. 500 ftis an average bit ran. Values of the variables are as shown in the equations, Cy = cost with fishing cost bit mud drill tip. sig fish, circulation Cx= 2,000 + 5,000 +[16 + 8] 400 + (20,000 - 7,007) + 400 Cy = 96,800 - 6.6007 ORLLNG OFTHNZATICNMETHODS BI MITOHELL Boe 82 Golden CO99robot of fishing is given by the equation rrel98 or. 0057 C2 = cost per foot and not fishing dit mud — drill trip rig circulation co=200 + Smo + Ge DP + AE ST c2= 1660044007 a probaly ft Sishingis1-Py 21-208 P, 9+005T EV = (86,600 - 6,600 T) * (0.1.05 T) + (16,600 + 400 T) (0.9 + .05°T) EV = 18,600-1,300T +3507 From calculus, by taking “OPTIMUM CIRCULATING TIME the “derivative of the ‘equation with respect to T and setting the resulting equation equal to zero yields, 700T-1,300=0 Brom which, © mares T 86 hr ‘The analysis predicts that the optimal circulation time 1s 1.86 hours. to 0s 20°15 20 25 30 a8 ao a8 80 TIME br DRLING CPMMZATION METHODS 2 ITOHELL Gon 1482 Gotten CO set02LAGRANGIAN MULTIPLIER ‘The Lagrangian multiplier technique may find maximums and minimums where an objective and a constraining equation exist. The technique is shown with an example, EXAMPLE OF OPTIMUM PIT DIMENSIONS ‘The perimeter of a rectangular mud pit is to be 144 f&. Its depth is 8 ft. What should its length, L, and its width, w, be to maximize its volume? Identify the objective equation; itis, f= 8 WL, The objective equation gives the parameter to be maximized Identify the constraint equation; it is g = 2.w+2L- 144. The constraint equation limits the values of the independent variables which are w and ©. Lagrange’s equation is the following, ot de | at ag aL ow * Bw ab ‘Take partials of f and g, and substitute into Lagrange's equation. Es ol aL Optimum Mud Pit Dimension Determination ‘V 11000 2 sco00 exo M8000 E 70 00 £00 000 ob SS hb & 6 & w PIT LENGTH & WIDTH ft Substitution yields, Swr2-sLe ‘and then w = L DALLNG OptmaATION METHOOS 153 TCE Bax 1482 Golan CO sn4n2‘Substitute L for W in the g equation and find the L. 2Ls2L-144 Yields L = 36 ftand then =36 ft ‘These are the required length and width to maximize the volume of the mud pit. ‘EXAMPLES Maximize the hydraulic horsepower through the jets of a bit, The following relationships are assumed. PeMWQS4 PraQ™ —P, a = bit jot hydraulic horsepower pressure drop through jets circulation rate jet number (size in 32nds of an inch) friction loss through circulation system except jets operating pump pressure mw =mud weight LLagrange’s objective equation and the variable to maximize is 12)Q qq _ JETHYDRAULIC HORSEPOWER yon Subsitution for P; gives Db fe mw Qs 4 - The t equati i 1 constraint equation is = a é | =Pr+Pj-P, ° een ue a a a Substitution for Prand P; gives CIRCULATION RATE gpm £=IQT 4 mV QES4 Py Lagrange’s partial functions are affds = 4 mw SSS [DALUNG OPTMNZATION METHODS 1A ITOMELL Bon 1482 olen COBoHC?a0 Ags = -4 mw QS mw @S4 292 = mjQm1+2 mw QS Lagrangian equation (44 mr G2 8°) (a jQ™1 +2 mw QS4) (3 mw QS (4 mw ESS) 0 which reduces to the following MW Q?S+.mjQu=0 after replacing parameters becomes 1 my Pe substituting Pfin ¢ yields mat! "eit Of course these are the equations for maximizing Jet Hydraulic Horsepower. DRLUNG OPTZATION NE 155 YwteEu tox 1482 oven CO ao4c2MULTIPLE REGRESSION WITH LEAST SQUARES ‘Multiple regression is used to find the parameters of an 7 equation which causes the equation to best represent the ata. If a computer is available an alternative which is rot associated at all with multiple regression and is very powerful is the table look-up method, ‘The multiple regression method is illustrated with two independent variables, X, Z, and three parameters, k, b, and ec. Compute k, b, and c with the least squares method for this popular engineering equation. Yok Ze Begin by putting the equation into linear form by talsing logarithms InY=Ink+bLlaX+elnZ For ease of presentation Ket asink «= Xy=In¥ —-XgeLmX ‘Xe Ln ‘The transformed equation is XsarbXereXs ‘Next, the three least squares equations are solved simultaneously for a, b, and = BX saN +b SXeee BXy EXiXe =a Xo +b Toa +e SKN EXINg =a EXp +b Eos + eEXoN Cramer's rule gives the solutions N 3X. 3Xy EXe DXe Tpke 3s DON BG 3X, 3Xo 3X EXXe TXoXe TKaXe SIX TkaKy TKaXs a DDAILING OPTaMZATION METHODS 16 vTcHeu_ Box 492 Gotan cosasNo Ex 5Xs EX Teka DX ‘kis computed with the equation: k = e@ ‘EXAMPLE OF LEAST SQUARES Find: k, b, and ¢, of the equation, Vek xbze ‘The linear form of the equation is LnY=Ink+bLaX+eLlnZ For esse of presentation let, InX XgeLnZ a=Lnk COMPUTATIONS- Xe_Me XSi Xue KaKn ox 110 161 353° 987 568 LL 177 208 230 510 106) 11M «432 479 283 271 624 1769 1690 803 767 326 318 713 2324 267 1062 1035 361 356 786 2839 2795 1304 1284 391 387 848 3316 9282 1530 15.14 600 3834 1679 1122 11695, 17.76 5252 5257 DALLNG OPTHIZATIONMEDIODS 1st MTOHELL ox 1482 Govt CO en4c2D = 206 a = 074 » = 085 © =u kK = 210 ‘The sought after equation becomes Y = 2.10 x08 zh EXAMPLE A popular friction loss hydraulic equation is Pp=jQ™ Find: j and m with the hydraulic rg test given in the table below Linear form: Ln Py= Lj +mLnQ Let: X1=La Py Xe=1nQ a=Lnj WT 172514 515 2847 D644 189 479 ue ® E DALLNGOPTMZATION METHODS 158 TOHELL Box 1452 atten CO BDI? eeeLeast Squares Fit zs Friction Pres. sure Drop (s 1) g 200 400 600 eon 14001200, Flow Rate (gal/min) ‘The values of j and m are computed to be i =0.084 ™ = 1492 sad the equation is y= 0.084 Qh DALLAS OPTaNzaTION WeTHODS 159 MITCHELL ex 182 coien COMDsreCONFIDENCE LINES Confidence lines are computed and drawn to provide the following type of answer: if 100 holes are drilled, 95 of the holes will have an expected maximum cost of $125,000 per hole and's minimum expected cost of $75,000 per hole and an expected cost, of $100,000 per hole. These are often called the maximum, minimum, and best values. Draw two confidence lines and the least squares line for the linear equation YeatbX Begin by computing a, b, and ¢ NERY Cry x NEX?- (Ex)? oN X, Y are data point pairs Nis number of data point pairs kes tiny, CONFIDENCE AND LEAST SQUARE wen. by. the ee Yao Yearbxets : t Yeux § Ascertain the ralue ofthe cS Sudeat's istribution o distsbution — For example: m Y 2 3 4 5 6 7 ie VALUES OF x desired and N then T= 1-95. and then t, aire = ber = 490 (value depends on number of data points) ‘The two confidence lines as shown in the sketch are Ye $bX4ts upper line 4bX-tS. lower line Where Sis given by the equation below K-08 1, [ Waa be DDRLLNG OFTIMZATION METHODS: 16) MITCHELL Bor 1432 Glden co BiceEXAMPLE Find the confidence lines for the following data, XDATA YDATA _x*¥ 2106 = 28at 8405 815910760 462 4264 20007 542 056219 6736 Bezl 4.509 a= 500 «EX sr aa Sor DY non (OF rae Voor = 4411 SXxbar? = Bam | Pe Exy= uimz Sebo? = oe [ne — Ta000 Game “=.975 student ¢ = 8.180 Confidence and Least Square Valosor¥ Valuce of Selected pairs for plotting chart DRLUNGOPTONZATION METHODS: 6 VITCHEL doe 1482Gelden CO DHELAGRANGE'S NON-LINEAR INTERPOLATION FORMULA ‘The following abbreviated form of Lagrange’s interpolation formula fits a second order polynomial (y = a +b x + ¢ x?) through three data points and then computes 2 value of y corresponding with a value of a selected x. Gooxoeena) Goxpbexs) (xox Knox) ¥ = F Bysakxins) +2 Gpxvogsa) 18 Goan) EXAMPLE Given the following table of x and y values find the value of y which corresponds with the value of x of 26. x b > B SS w y 10764 11184? 1216) 1.8350 Choose the points 20,1.1134; 35,1.2160; 50,1.3350 to substitute into Lagrange's interpolation formula, Note that'the points'14, 20, and 35, could have also been chosen, (263512650) (26-20)26-50) | 559 262012695) y= 11154 (99.35420.80) * 12160 Gs-2o;35.50) * 18950 §0.20%60.35) LAGRANGE INTERPOLATION rv 1 a > 12 ul 10 Eater e ‘Reduction gives the value of y corresponding to the value of 26 for x, y 1.1525 DDALING OPTANZATION METHODS ie wTCHELL Bay 1482 Galen COBOI02-RENCE: Spiegel, Murray R., Theory and Problems of Statistics, Schaum's Outline Series, McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York, New York, 1961 2 Wylie, GR. Je, Advanced Engineering Mathematics, Third Edition, ‘McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York, New York, 1968 3. Uspensky, J.V., Introduction to Mathematical Probability, MeGraw-Hill ‘Book Company, New York, New York, 1937 4, Hildebrand, F.B, [niroduction to Numerical Analysis, MeGraw-Hill Book Company, New York, New York, 1956 5, Mood, AM, and Graybill, P.A., Introduction to the Theory of Statistics, Second Badition, McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., New York, New York, 1968 6. @Risk, Palisade Corporation, 31 Decker Road, Newfield, NY USA 14867 DRLLNG CeTMAZaTIN METHODS 163 VATCHELL Box tebe Got CORDAEECHAPTER III DRILL HOLE MECHANICS INTRODUCTION Drill hole mechanics is the topic which aids most of all in the choice of a mud weight for drilling a section of hole, The choice of mud weights is one of the most analytically complex, polit al taxing, and critical task, ‘The following list are those factors which may have an effect, Fracture gradients (there are two) Pore pressure Kick tolerance Casing shoe depths Borehole stability (sloughing formations) ‘Surface pressure control equipment Annular cireulating pressures Pressure surges (swabbing and running pipe) ferential sticking of pipe Filtration of mud Filling of the hole Gas cutting of the mud Bit hydraulics Mud cost Drilling rate ‘Removal of dri! solids Formations porosity, permeability, and fluids Safety margin over the pore pressure Safety margin under the fracture gradients Bleetric log analyst Goologist (cuttings analysis) Reservoir engineering (formation damage) DRL HOLE MECHAWES wt ‘TOME Box 1652 Gaten co anonSELECTING CASING SETTING DEPTHS Of the topies in the above list, casing shoe depth is most critical, Casings ‘muust be set at correct depths in order to drill a well into the earth with the rotary drilling system. The sketch considers only a pore pressure gradient and well depth, ‘The least feet of casing will be run and set in a practical well if the casings are planned from the bottom ta the tap of the well. ‘The crucial points are that the mud must be greater than the pore pressiare gradient but less than the weakest fracture gradient in the open hole which is usually at the shoe of the last casing string. ‘Thus, as shown in the sketch the deepest that the hole can be drilled below the casing which is set at a depth of 2,000" is 7,200". An attempt to drill deeper will result in a kick if permeable CASING SETTING DEPTH bb nh bw i GRADIENT ppg & beds are present at 7,200 or lost circulation at the casing shoe if the mud weight is increased above the pore pressure at, 200" ‘As a consequence, the casing string must be set below 2,000' to drill deeper than 7200. A casing setting depth equation ie c*Lor Ppt D Pa = “p95” 2 “Pmesnee = 2 (Pp-MW)D + (MW- 9.3L G LOT- MW e = required shoe depth; feet Pp = equivalent formation pressure; ppg D = drilling depth; feet PALL HOLE MECHANICS 165, MTOHEL Go 482 Golsin co 802MW = drilling mud weight; pps L as kick length; feet Pg = down hole density of gas; pps LOT = leak off test value at depth C: ppg Pa = resistance of the formation to fracturing; psi EXAMPLE ‘What is the required casing setting depth? LOT=150 ppg Pt = 12ppe MW = 10 ppa D=10000 feet MW = 10 ppg L=600feet pg = 2p 8=4.800% LOT = 15 pps L =500 ft D = 10,000 PP = 12pp9 SID = 41800 feet (required shoe depth) | DALLHOLE MECHANICS 168 MITOMEU Box 482 Golden CO Bote ee eneeenensensnsnaennannannesaiaasasaaamameENLARGEMENT & FRACTURE OF DRILL HOLES Drill holes are not : washed out by the < - annular mud stream © Stresses within the wall of ‘ ‘2 drill hole fails the rock y (sand, shale, limestone, ete.) which is the wall of the hole causing this rock 1 fall into the hole where it is carried away by the annular mud stream, The stresses associated with a drill hole are the overburden, radial, tangential, and mud pressure AA perception of the stresses may be’ gained by considering the sketch. Sand grains are resting on top of other creating an overburden sirest, The wedging of the two grains not aligned creates the x direction and y direction stresses. ‘The two x and y stresses are ——C}Q— sd to discuss stresses removed. from the hole while radial and tangential stresses are used to discuss stress near the drill hole. All stresses are orthogonal, may be perceived by imagining a masonry bridge Which spans a stream and is supporting a truck. This is one-half of a drill hole viewed horizontally rather than vertically ‘The bricks will have a tangential stress which will be compressive in this case; however, in a drill hole the mud pressure could put the bricks into tension. If the resulting tension were larger than the tensile strength of the bricks a fracture would occur. ORL HOLE MEcHancs ro uTeHELL Gon 1492 Galen CO soanaMills and Topping developed equations for the compressive, tensile, and shear stresses around # drill hole for the case in which the two horizontal forces are not equal in value. s, _ert iN - 45 y 5 ~_ [NIN [se co al hee an dew ‘W shear plane Sy = overburden stress; psi Sy tangential stress on vest and east sides of hole; psi Sy _= tangential stress on north and south sides of hole; psi t shear stress; psi v = vertical direction WS west or east side of hole N north or south side of hole ‘Their equations for the stresses at the north and south sides and west and east Switangential =+1*(Sy- Sw) (tension at west side} sun “8-2 (Sy Sy) Compresion at marth side Sew -8y+2m Gy-Sy) (Compression at west sid) w =u Se (shear at north side) —_ tw are ae (shear at west side) [ALL HOLEMECHANCS. 168 YMOHELL Sox 482 Gaiden CODECEXAMPLE The drill hole has penetrated a zone in which the overburden stress is 10,000 psi, the horizontal stress in the west east direction is 7,500 psi, and the horizontal stress in the north south direction is 2,500 psi. What are the stresses at the edge of the drill hole at the west east sides andnorth |S south sides? 2500 p: = + 5,000 psi, Sy sangentat =~ 9" 5000 1=-15,000 psi Sw,tangential = + 1 * 000 (= +5,000 psi Sy.yy=- 10000 -2(.25) 5000 =-12,500 psi = 10000 + 2 (.25)5000, = -7,500 psi = +1325 ps = 6,250 psi 10,000 psi N Ww. q E _? 7500 psi — (eet stress at west side) (compression at north sie) (tension at westside) (compression at north side) (compression at west side) (choar at north sido) (shear at west side) POINTS DEDUCED FROM THE ABOVE EXAMPLE 1. Because rocks are weaker in shear than in compression and from this example, it is expected that the hole is to enlarge in the ‘west east direction preferentially: over the north south direction because of the large shear stress ‘on the west east sides. 2 The drill hole is expected to pe with enlarge into an oval s! direction of the major stress, ‘west east stress, DRLLMOLE MECHANICS 19 VUTCHEL Bo 452 Geter CO Ba4. Te may la be sumiaed that direction! holes \ tra ipsa fo slags vertical prforntally seer horizontally because the overburden stress is the major stress, ol) 4, Directional drill holes are expected to require higher mud weights because the difference between the overburden stress which is acting on the upper side of a directional hole and the applicable horizontal stress is more than the differences in the horizontal stresses which would be acting in a vertical bole 5, Directional drill holes are expected to have lower leskoff values, because the sides of the drill hole which are aligned with the ‘major stress is in tension. In the above example, the west and east ‘sides are in 5,000 psi of tension. Kirsch’s equations are the following, coso(1+ 3 (2)4)] Ble 2@F- 9 singo —| ee — s.| Z\ 2. bs ar cru Le wecHecs no vio 0260 cOkon2LEAKOFF TEST LEAK OFF TEST AT 4,398' PLASTIC ROCK DEFORMATION FRACTURE OF 1ST FM, oo / Writ or rnactone 7 suasmcnocx peromsarion ge — NR COMPRESSION 1 2 3 4 VOLUME OF MUD PUMP Eom ved See e888 o 6 BBL) Pressure integrity tests are conducted to ascertain the resistance of a formation penetrated by a wellbore to the initiation of a fracture within the formation, There fare two phases of fracturing a formation: the fracture is initiated and then extended. The pressure required to cause initiation of a fracture is usually greater than the pressure causing extension, A pressure integrity test is a test in which the drill hole is pressured at the surface by pumping mud into tae drill hole. Usually a graph of surface casing pressure versus mud volume pumped is made, A critical problem occurs during an integrity test because the magnitude of the strain at the initiation of the tes: is not known; ie., the strain is not zero in value and one does not know at what point on the curve that the test commenced, This could lead to the fracturing of the drill hole Air residing in the surface equipment may algo change the shape of the plot if not, purged. In practice the pump rate must be continuous and sufficiently reduced to permit, the recording and the plotting of the data during the tests, Thus slatie equilibrium is not met but itis approached and bleed-ofT is minimized, Do not expect all of the mud pumped into the annulus to return after removing the sarface pressure Decause a portion of a test will o:cur in the plastic defermation region of the open formations, DAL HOLE wEcHANCS m TCHEUL Box 192 Goden CO soca‘There are four categories of muds with which a L.O.T. may be run: penetrating versus non-penetrating mud (oil base base versus water base and high Gltrate ‘versus low filtrate mud) and clean versus contained solids, Cementations and stimulations (with sand) show that plugging of fractures which were extending causes most drill holes to regain their initial strongth and in some eases to surpass it, Thus, muds containing a high concentration of solds should, and in most cases do, have higher L.O.T, values than clean muds. It is argued that penetrating muds are more likely to intersect a plane of ‘weakness with... the rock surrounding the drill hole than a non-penetrating mud. A second reason is that a mud with a low filtrate will act as a non= penetrating mud. Thus, it is frequently found that oil base muds will have a lover 1.0.7. than a high filtrate water base mud, ‘Many formations show a significant amount of creep. Two factors aro important: one is that all the mud pumped may not be returned from the drill hole and che second is that the slope of the plot depends on the pumping rate. Multiple open formations may give an S' plot. EXAMPLE Estimate the wellbore pressure required to initiate a fracture in a formation if mw = 10.2 ppg D=5,200 feet INTEGRITY TEST DATA Casing Pressure, psig Volume Mud Pumped, Bbls ERgeeasy ‘The data is plotted on the adjoining chart. Extrapolation of the data (dashed line) indicates a maximum pressure of 1220 psig. The equivalent density of “his pressure at 5200 feet is ALL HOLE MEGHANCS m2 MITCHEL Boe 1 Goeen COBD.2INTEGRITY TEST ¢ 10 Ep A 100 8 iw =45 pps T iow: N 90. Thus the pressure required to G 2B. initiate a fracture is a P 6. Pine £082" 102°82006120 fe E a. 3978 psig 5 a0 ‘and the equivalent mud density spat. ™ sora mee = "952" 5200 =147 ppg oa HOLE MecANES ma TOME Bo ect CO seteFRACTURES IN A DRILL HOLE In order for a drill hole to fracture, the wall of the drill hole must be placed in ‘ension in the tangential direction. Further, the magnitude of the tension must be greater than the tensile strength of the rock comprising the drill hole. In drilling the resistance of a rock to fracturing is known as the ‘leakoff test! value (LOT. ‘The leakoff test depends on the type of fluid within the drill hole which is adjacent to the tock to be tested. Clean water and oil have the lowest leakoff tests of all muds, Clean gat may have the lowest values of all fuids. Water base and oil base ‘muds with high solids concentration have the highest leakoff tests. menting has shown that Sines tay hecure end texe Filet Cake Bed se ctncat hen Sirulsued unt the fectarg se packea “with oles and Teas ae eth te Protauf ihe sopent sche Bethe race of he re dalton ater steal are the zone in sufient tensigh caus ito fatare teat dimivih the tenon Theeahiee the packing ofthe ashe and budig a Alas cake ia dhe he rates the cables, {It has been observed that leakoff tests for a particular zone increases with time. Clean fluids have a lower Ieakolf test because they penetrate and pressure zones further from the drill hole. As a consequence, a plane of weakness is more likely to be intersected and fractured. Every zone appears ty have two values for leakoff tests. One ig the value reauired to fracture a drill hole for the first time, It is called the initiation fracture pressure, ‘The other is the pressure required to extend a fracture and it is called the extension fracture pressure ‘TYPES OF FRACTURES Fractures within a wellbore may be aligned horizontally or vertically. Vertical fractures usually occur et depth. In regard to the drilling of a wellbore, fracturine is synonymous with loss of circulation ALL HOVE MECHANICS wa TCHELL Box 192 Gasen CO 80802 SEEHORIZONTAL FRACTURES fourden Pressure, ‘The pressure of the fluid in the wellbore must surpass the unit weight of the overburden (includes the rock and the fluid within its pores) and the tensile strength of the rock in order to lift the overburden and create a fracture. Phor =8b + Poy = wellbore prescure to create a horizontal fracture; psi Sip = overburden stress; psi 5% = unit tensile of rock being fractured; psi VERTICAL FRACTURES ‘Two vertical fracture gradients exist for all points within a wellbore only because of the size and geometry of common drill holes, These two fracture gradients are called the fracture extension and initiation gradients, Equal stress model If a rock is equally stressed in all horizontal direotions and the rock is totally contained and ean not strain, the equation which relates vertical and horizontal stress may be derived with Poisson's ratio and Hooke's law, EG HS) Hooke's law and Poisson's ratio : stress; ps + Poisons ratio: fin horizontal strain after stresses Sy and 8,5 infin = Young's modulus; psi Because there is no strain, ey = 0 F-herspe0 DRILL HOLE MECHANICS 15 ITOHELL Boe 452 Golden CODECBecause the horizontal stresses are equal (S, = S)), then 8, =758 yy Note that Poisson's ratio v has never been observed to be less than 0 or greater than 1/2 ‘Thus, the horizontal stresses may have values near zero if compared with that of the overburden stress. If a cylindrical hole is drilled into a rock Iayer aupporting overburden, the horizontal stresses (radial) will be relaxed at the wall of the hole, However, tangential stress will develop in the rock, ‘This tangential stress has been quantified by Lame and his equation is gee BS s | tangential stres pai Ifa is large relative to b as is the case of drill holes, s, then & FRACTURE EXTENSION IF a vortical crack exists ina rock which is supporting an overburden, then the magnitude of the stress ‘which is required ta be placed fn the face of the fracture in order to prevent its elosure is that of the horizontal stress which is perpendicular to the fracture. If the fracture is to be extended, then the pressure required in the drill hole is the sum of, the minimum horizontal stress, the pressure of the fluid in the formation, tensile strength of the rock, and the friction (and gel if applicable) pressure loss in the fracture. P, + Pp +S + Pie +P, RAL HANS 16 TCHELL Box 1482.EFFECT OF FLUID If the rock contains a fluid and is both porous and permeable, thon the pressure on the wall of the fracture will need to counter both the pressure of the fluid within the pores of the rock and the horizontal stress transmitted by the grains ofthe Prracture = P+ Sy Pp = Pressure of fluid in the pores of the rock; psi OVERBURDEN CONTAINING FLUID ‘Torzaghi suggested that an overburden stress is the sum of the fluid pressure and the stress transmitted by the grains of the rock, Sa =Pre Sy S, =Sy-Pr and for a vertical fracture INITIATION AND EXTENSION FRACTURE GRADIENTS ‘The equation for fracture extension is iv a“ Praia) *Paia 8, Pat = pressure in the wellbore to cause fracture extension; psi ‘The equation for fracture initiation is T-¥ Sob Pia * Pra * 8 Pine = pressure in the wellbore to create a vertical fracture; psi ‘The two equations may be converted to equivalent densities by dividing both by the depth D. m7 varcHeL. BoeEXAMPLE ‘The overburden gradient of a rock layer at 6,000' is 19 ppg. Poisson's ratio for the rock layer is 0.3 and its unit, tensile strength is 50 psi. The effect of uid pressure is to be illustrated Under pressured, Fluid pressure is 4 ppg. 3 50. wes 735 09-0 +4 + aos = 1044 ppg (extension) we = 3°2 Ff 09-4) +4 + Po = 16.9 ppg (initiation) Normal presnured. Fi pressure a9 poe awe = 325 09-9) + 9+ aes 05 +183 ppatsension) MWE = ate PF 19-9) +9 + sexe eOT 17.6 ppg (initiation) Overpressured. Fluid pressure is 17 ppg. we = 755 a9- 2. D +11 + a5 oT 7.9 pp_é (extension) gra © MWE = 273 19-19) +37 +955 5005 += 18.7 ppg (initiation) Tt may be noted that fluid pressure gradients have a marked affect on the fracture extension gradiants and a lesser affeet on the initiation gradients EXAMPLE Calculate the fracture gradients of a formation at 1491 feet if the air gap (highest rise of the mud in the conduetar pipe abave sea level) is 70 feet, the sea depth is 230 feet, and the formations have an average specific gravity of 1.9, a Poisson's ratio of 2, and a tensile strength of 100 psi. If the wellbore has not been previously fractured then the smaller value of either the horizontal or initiation fracture pressures must be chosen. Sob = 0°70 +052 * 85* 230 +.052°1.9* 8.33 (1491-900) = 2082 psi DAL HOLE mECHaeCs 118 TCHEL, Box 1482 Gotten cO sot02‘The horizontal fracture pressure is = eee etieps ihe FS ‘The expected pore pressure is u Fp=082*85*C4017) saab ‘he vertical ination fstrepreeure i ye (1082 625)27 2546286 109 «955 pie ver ‘The maximum allowable mud weight is 0.052 * MW * 1491 = 955, MW =123 ppg ‘Thus the wellbore at a depth of 1491 fet is expected to fracture vertically at a mud ‘weight or equivalent mud weight of 12.3 ppg. EQUIVALENT MUD DENSITY A pressure with the units of psi acting within a wellbore at a depth D may be converted to equivalent mud density or equivalent gradient in the units of ppg with, tither of the equations P B MWR = 953+ p (totexuco) MWE = 19255 (exact) MWE = equivalent mud weight; ppg P = pressure; psi D = depth; feet DRL HOLE MECHANOS m UITCHELL Boe te Gon 60 erectFRACT “RE GRADIENT PLOT (EATON) In pract al designs of fracture gradient plots problems may be solved by lgeneratir «fracture gradient lines depicting feasible minimum mud weights, The mud weight selection sketch shows pressure gradients versus depth. The pore pressure gradients were chosen to illustrate several points. The two fracture gradients were calculated with the fracture initiation and extension equations; with Eaton's gulf cos: variable overburden gradient. and Poisson's ratio charts; ‘and with @ minimum iormation tensile strength of 100 psi Fracture Gradient Plot (EATON) T T BE eaoewe DEPTH (feet) T i { i | See | 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12 Pressure Gradient (psivft) ‘Squations which very closely approximate Eaton's published curves are Variable Overburden Gradient (psilft) Soy = VOBG = 0.84753 + 0.01494 D - 0.0006 D? + 1.1998-5 D* r 30.99% D_ = depth in 1,000's of feet Poisson's Ratio (no units) ‘v= 0.28748 + 0,05945 D - 0.00668 D? + 0.00035 D?-6:71E-6 D* 5 > 0.99% D = depth in 1,000' of feet DRILL HOLE MECHANICS 180 MITCHELL Box 1482 oid CO-2a102‘EXAMPLE OF FRACTURE GRADIENT Calculate the fracture initiation and extension gradients at a depth of 8,000 feet. Use the approximations to Ben Eaton's data, Sw = VOBG — =0.84753+ 001494 * 8-0,0006 * 82 + 1.19985" 5° = .985 psifft (also known 98 Sb) v 23743 + 0.05845 * 8 - 0,00868 * 8° + 0.00035 * 8° - 6.71E-6* 8 =.497 infin ‘MWE = 14 ppg (takenfrom the sketch at a depth of 6,000') 1102 pio 24 0 437 ME, =(988-.052°19 8p 052 14 «2 ox =.901 psi or 17.34 ppg. ALL HOLE MECHANICS 18 MICHELL Box 1382 Golten CO HoH?FILTRATION OF MUD INTO THE FORMATION ‘Two types of Stration exists within the borehole: static and dynamic, Dynanie Eltration occurs when md is being circulated and occurs at both the wall and ‘be Enttsm of the hole. State Staton sets have shown that bentnite muds have'no ‘ditional filter loss with increases im pressure. This is depicted in the graph Gutman's has shown that dynam filsation is also only slightly dependent on pressure for pressure diffrentints) for incompressible filter cake iE DRL HOLE MECHANICS 12 MTOMELL Box 1492 Gallen COsaC2DRILL SOLIDS OPTIMIZATION Shown below is a sketch of a typical flow loop for rotary drilling rigs. The drill solids are generated by drilling new hole and hole enlargement. Because dri solids accumulate in the annulus, the drill solids are at their highest concentration there. A portion of the solids are removed by the solids removal equipment and a portion are retained. This is called ‘separation of solids. Because of the difficulties in removing solids, few old solids, ie., those which hare been recirculated and reduced in size, can not be mechanically separated; ard only about 60% of the new drill solids can be separated. A fraction of the drill solids are removed by the discarding of mud. This is called ‘discarding solids Chemicals, barite, and water are added to reduce the concentration of drill solids; Dut, this does not remove the drill solids. This is called ‘dilution of drill solide ‘The solids which are retained in the mud are recirculated. Drill solids concentration is the ratio of the volume of the drill solids to the volume of the mud including the drill solids, and is reported as percent drill solids Volume Drill Solids ‘Drill Solids tyme Dei Set Sores fae TT sre a x chemicals Pompe Removed ail solids Discarded mud aril sods One major problem exists in the optimization of mud costs, It is the selection of the concentration of recirculated drill solids to be allowed in the mud. As drill solids are allowed to increase, drill rate decreases and mud consumption decreases, A decrease in drill rate means more bit to drill a section of hole, more rotation time, more trip time, and more support time. Thus, cost per foot for the rig goes up and mud costs goes down. A balance is required. For a weighted mud the recirculated solids concentration can be estimated by comparing the barite and water added to the mud while drilling a section of hele with the computed amounts required. For an un-weighted mud, the comparison must be based on only the water added. 183 duToHeu. Box 1452 abn COUSKBARITE & WATER REQUIRED TO DRILL A SECTION OF HOLE, A definite quantity of barite and water are required to drill a section of hole. ‘The ‘quantity of each depends on the length and size of the hole drilled, efficiency of the Solids removal equipment, percentage of retained solids, volume of the active mud system, and the mud weight. Thus, following formula may be reasoned. [Discarded] INTIAL MUD| Pan vi Seu) [Separated +| Dai). "Dsl | .| i Solids) | Solids |") Hauid lw, Seas 7 ‘The volume and weight of the new érill solids which are not separated and retained in the mud are 2 Vage = 2Egp 71 (1 ER yg] petted cavings may be reasoned into HI Wade = SG * py *Vegg* 42 ‘The objective is to ascertain the volume of water and weight of barite to be added, and the volume of mud to he disearded, for the purpose of controlling the solids coneentration in the recirculated mud while drilling asection of hole. The following equation is based on the conservation of mass of the drill solids. If the pits are to be maintained at a constant volume, it is only necessary to set the fallowing equation equal to zero and solve for the quantity of mud to be discarded, Va Vea" Ve - Vi Srasi* Vi = Sras a" Va + Vode Seas aa ‘The volumes and weights of the barite and water to be added are resolved in the following, From the sketch and the conservation of mass of the mud, the following equation is written, PLVi + Pras Yeas PaVa + Wy + Pw Vw = PrVe ‘The conservation of volume which is adequate for barite and water, but is not satisfactory for salts which can dissolve inte water gives Vanna = Wy M+ Vin Yat 5h + Va Me ‘The simultaneous solution of the last two equations gives the equations for the computation of the weight of barite and the volume of water required to drill a chosen interval of formation 1 MSTONEL. BOX 1492 Gaiden COUSK‘Volume of new drill solids which are not separated from the mud (retained); bbl Weight of retained drill solids; Ibm Hole diameter; inch Length of section drilled; fe Efficiency of solids removal equipment; fraction Specific gravity of drill solids; ppg/ppe density of water, (350 ppb) (8.83 ppg) (62.3 ppef) Density of barite; (1488 ppb) (35.43 ppg) (265 pret) Increase in mud volume during the drilling of the be ling the section; fraction Fotreulated dil sede concentaion atthe end of dailing the section; faction Recirclated dil solids concenteation discarded during the dillng ofthe section, fraction Volume of mud atthe boginning of the driing of the section; Volume of mad at the ond of the ding of the section; bh ‘Volume of mad dicarded during the during of the section; bl Mud density at che end of drilling the seston; ppg Mud density atthe beginning of drilling the section; pp Density f the discarded mud; ppg ‘Quantity of barite to be added to the mud; Ib Quantity of water to be added to the mud; bbl Density of retained dil eolids: ppe 185 VTCHELL BOK 492 Gokcen COUSKEXAMPLE ‘The minimum volume of a mud ystem is 600 Bla, The native solids (S. G. = 2.65) are to be kept at 5% volume wit the addition of barite and water while drilling a 9" hole at rol 200 feet per day. In all eases the mud weight is 10 ppg initially and the shale shaker and other equipment remove 1/3 of the solids. Caleulate the sacks of barite required to increase and maintain the system to and at higher mud weights, Woor =11406 1b 1913 bbl root 200 ttiday Vwater SOLIDS CONCENTRATION SELECTION ‘The selection of the concentration of recirculated drill solids to be maintained in the mud can be based on minimum drilling cost per foot. The basic equation combines the cost of the rig, tools, services, and mud for the drilling of a section of hhole. The optimal solids concentration equation is ote aad | ole cer = TES, gun « CPF = contperfitin dela econ ot nies 8 TES = oly cot one oth ltl & rns HOP = rateofpeneuatim ofthe it wot 1 Stein err ai edn o the seen eee eee ined sam ding the ing fhe svton ae = ETE ccdon than di ROP versus SOLIDS CONCENTRATION A popular relationship for ROP versus Sogo is 41" 5,39) ROP=k € 1 exponent for drill rate impedence caused by retireulated drill solids x = correlation coefficient A suggestion for finding the values of k and I are to measure the ROP during ‘normal drilling and then measure the ROP after pumping a slug of new mud 186 NITCHELL 30x 192 Galen COUSAwithout solids to the bit. The Sig will be that which is being maintained during normal drilling and will be zero while drilling with the new mud. VOLUME OF MUD TO BE MIXED during the drilling of an interval of hole Ifthe final and beginning mud densities, retained drill solids, and mud volumes are to be equal, and mud is to be discarded and mixed on a continuous basis, then the equation for the volume of mud to be mixed and added is developed and given in the following equations. =] TT 9 ]. ES). _ Cal * |i + Yes * | CE Vj = Vp {no change in mud volume in the syater! which becomes New] _ [Discarded] Mud) = | Mud) ~ ‘The algebraic equation is Vom = Vem * Veas Conservation of solids volume requires 0 = Sas Yam ~ Vai Vras Stas * Yam Vege Vag = 2 fam = Bay Conservation of mud excluding solids requires Yam = Vam - Sras* Van Vom = Vam(l - Syas) substituting for V,, gives Yeas, fm = Bae Sa) ‘The volume of nev mud to be mixed and consumed for the section is HE, |, (+ EFFyql (2 - Spa) em = gag * be Substitution of the above gives the equation for selecting optimal solids concentration. In order to astertain the variance of cost per foot with retained Solids concentration a plot is made with the two variables, w | (1 - BFF,,) [1-S,a.) swup [ite * ee] y, y, cre 17 \wToHELL 60x 1482 Geen COUSAEXAMPLE Rig, tools, and supplies cost $500/hr. Other variables are as listed. Si, = 0.05, ‘Mud = 820/561 Ef, = 04 Hole dia = 9.0 in ‘The appropriate equations and values from the table of ROP versus Solids give the following values for and I in re ee k= Kore Ss . e Seas ~ Sra 1 = 1567 k= 267 ‘Now, the cost per foot equation ean be completed. It is seen from the plot Tq | Minimal Cost sao @_, AI Sad cer - ——® 5 + w Ge SS) T5878) 0083 . sere a ‘TABLEOF Cost ‘VS. SOLIDS Sas CPF > OPTIMUM SOLIDS Roo t Le fe pins etreulated 8 s t st that 5.2 volume % of 38.55 8 eas) solids is the optimal recirculated drill solids = © concentration for this DOL O02 063 00s 005 008 007 008 009 0.10 example, [RECIRCULTED SOLIDS vf 188 MrTCHEL BOX 1482 Gaiden COUSAREFERENCES 1 10. iL. 2, 38, 14 Gostley, B.D. Hazards and Costs Cut by Planned Drilling Programs’, , Oct, 1967, p.92 Crittendon, B.C., “The Mechanics of Design and Interpretation of Hydraulic Fracture Treatments’, JOURNAL OF PETROLEUM TECHNOLOGY, Oct, 1959, p21 ‘Mathews, W.R. and Kelly, John, "How to Predict Formation Pressure and Fracture Gradient”, OIL AND GAS JOURNAL, Feb. 20, 1967 Hubert, M. King Eaton, Ben A. Operations”, ig and Willis, DG., “Mechanics of Hydraulic Fracturing’, , 1997, V. 210, p.159) ‘racture Gradient Prediction and Its Application in Oilfied ws Zs Oct,, 1969, p.1353 Gnirk, P.P.. "The Mechanical Behavior of Uneased Wellbores Situated in Elastic/Piastic Media Under Hydrostatic Stress" SOCIETY OF PETROLEUM ENGINEER JOURNAL, Feb, 1972, p1-49 ‘Terzaghi, K., Theoretical Soil Meckanies, John Wiley and Sons, Inc., 1943 ‘Timoshenko, S.P. and Groedier, J.N., Theory of Elasticity, MeGraw-Hill Book Company, 3rd Edition, 1934, 1951, and 1970, .69 Love, AE.H., A Treatise on the Mathematical Theory of Elasticity, Dover Publications, 4th Edition, 1927, p.144 Hottman, C.E, and Johnson, R-K.,, “Estimation of Formation Pressures from Log-Derived’ Shale Properties" E ‘TECHNOLOGY, lh 2, 1985, p TIT Darley, HCH, "A Laboratory Investigation of Borehole Stability’ JOURNAL OF PETROLEUM TECHNOLOGY. July, 1969, p.883 Burkhardt, JA, "Wellbore Pressure Surges Produced by Pipe Movement’ JOURNAL OF BETROLBUM TECHNOLOGY, June, 1961, Annis, MR. and Monaghan, P.H., “Differential Pressure Sticking - Laboratory Studies of Friction Beiween Steel and Mud AJQURNAL OF PETROLEUM TECHNOLOGY, Maurer, W.C., ter Cake’ May, 1962, p. 537 “The ‘Perfect-Cleaning’ Theory of Rotary Drilling’, , Nov., 1962, p. 1270 159) ITCHEL. 0X 1452 Gotlen COUSA1B, 16. ¥. Fo w. aL 22, 23. Jordan, J.R. and Shirley, 0.4., “Application of Drilling Performance Data to Overpressure Detection’, JOURNAL OF PETROLEUM TECHNOLOGY, Nov., 1968 Galle, EM. and Wilhoit, Jr., J.C, "Stresses Around a Wellbore Due to Internal Pressure and Unequal Principal Geostatie Stresses", SOCIETY OF PETROLEUM ENGINEERING JOURNAL, June, 1962, p. 145 MeGuire, W.J., Harrison, E., and Kieschnick, W., "The Mechanics of Formation Fracture Induction and Extension", TRANSACTIONS IME, 1954, Vol. 201, p. 252 Clark, B.H., Je, "A Graphic View of Pressure Surges and Lost Circulation’, DRILLING AND PRODUCTION PRACTICES API, 1956, p. an Cardwell, W.T., Jr, "Pressure Changes i Drilling Well Caused by Pipe Movement’, DAI IN PRACTICES API, 1953, p. 97 Goins, W.C., Jr. et.al, "Down-the Hole Pressure Surges and Their Effect on ‘Loss of Circulation’, "DRILLING AND PRODUCTION PRACTICES API, 1951, p. 125 Hall, H.N., et.al., “Ability of Drilling Mud to Lift Cuttings”, ‘TRANSACTIONS AIME, 1950 Krueger, RF, "Evaluation of Drilling-Fluid Filter-Loss Additives Under ‘Dynamic Conditions", JOURNAL OF PETROLEUM TECHNOLOGY, Jan., 1963, p. 90 Outmans, H.D., "Mechanics of Static and Dynamic Filtration In the Borehole’, SOCIETY OF PETROLEUM ENGINEERING JOURNAL, Sept., 1963, p236 White, RJ., "Bottom-hole Pressure Reduction Due to Gas Cut Mud”, ‘TRANSACTIONS AIME, Vol. 210, 1957, p. 382 Sifferman, TR, et al., "Drill Cut Annuli’, Las Vege ¢ Transport in Full-Scale Vertical ‘evada, Sept. 30, 1973, SPE PAPER NO. 4514 Sample, KJ. and Bourgoyne, AT, “.. . Experimental . . . Cutting Slip ‘Velocity’, Denver, Colorado, Oct.9, 1977, SPig PAPER NO. 6645 Mills, A.J. and Topping, A.0., "Stresses Around a Deep Well", SOCIETY (OF PETROLEUM ENGINEERS TRANSACTIONS, 1948, pp. 186-191 Hopkin, E.A., "Factors Affecting Cutting Removal”, AIME-SPE, 1967 190 vreHELL 80x 1482 oldenIyoho, A.W... “Drilled Cuttings Transport by Non-Newtonian Drilling Fluids ‘Through Inclined, Eccentric Annuli', Ph, D. Thesis, Petroleum Engineering, ‘University of Tulsa, 1980 Kirsch, G., VDI, 1898, 42 a1 ITCHEML BOK 1482 Gaiden COUSACHAPTER IV KICK REMOVAL ‘The driller’s and engineer's removal methods are two reliable methods of circulating drilling kick from a hole, The other methods presented below are ‘satisfactory in special circumstances. The depicting attributes of each method are the following: Drilles's 1. kill mud is pumped after the kick is removed from the hole 2. two eireulations of the hole are required 3, annular and surface pressures will be higher while removing the kkick than those of the engineer's method Engineer's 1. the drilling mud is weighted to kill mud weight prior to pumping 2, kaill mud is pumped while removing the kick 3. one cireulation is required to kill the hole Concurrent, 1, drilling mud is weighted as it is pamped into the hole but not necessarily to the weight of kill mud 2. the hole will contain a variable weight mud 3. annular and surface pressures will be higher than the engineer's and less than the driller's Gas Migration 1. the gas bubble is allowod to rise in the annulus without circulating 2. the casing pressure is allowed to rise to a selected value without, bleeding mud 3, mad is bled from the annulus while keeping the pressure at the selected value 4. after the kick rises to the surface, heavy mud is lubricated into the annulus to kill the annulus and wel. Dynamic 1, kill weight mud is pumped at a rate sufficient to raise the pressure at the bottom of the hole above or equal to that of the kicking formation, The increase in bottom hole pressure occurs because mud is occupying more and more of the volume of the DDALING OPTIZATION METHODS 1 MITCHELL BOX "452 Gtr COUEA reannulus, and friction pressure losses in the annulus. (pump mud faster than gas entry rate) 2. a choke pressure may or may not be applied Low choke pressure 4. a pressure is held at the choke which will prevent the fracturing of.a formation in the hole 2, additional gas will enter the hole during the removal of the kick 3. similar to the dynamic method Partition 1. the kick is pumped out of the hole in partitions 2 pressures will be the lowest of the methods 3. mud may or may not be weighted prior to the circulation of a partition ‘There are three primary causes of kicks, 1) drilling into # permeable formation which has a higher pressure gradient than the drill mud, 2) pulling of the drilling string without filling the hole, and 3) lowering the mud weight after drilling a section of hole. The following development discusses the type of kick ‘which arises from drilling into higher pressured formations. In order to Successfully remove a kick with any methods other than the dynamic or the low choke methods, two basic rules must he observed, The first is that additional gas must be prohibited from entering the drill hole. The second is thet ‘the pressure of the mud within the entire open drill hole must be less than the fracture strength of the formation or the last easing, The first rule requires that ‘the pressure at the bottom of the hole be equal to or greater than the formation pressure from which the gas came. The second requires that the choke be ‘continually adjusted. In equation form these two rules are Poth 2Pp Rule number 1 Px SPiry Rule number 2 ‘After the kick is detected and the blowout prevanters are closed, the standpipe and ‘casing pressures as well as the gain in the pits ate recorded, In the following discussion it is assumed that 1. the gas kick enters the drill hole at the bottom of the hole as a contiguous bubble and remains as one through its removal from the drill hole 2, the mass of the gas in the contiguous bubble does not change (absorption into the mud, adsorption onto solids, loss into formations, ete.) Kick AeWOVAL 198 TOHELL doe 1492 Gelien CO Boscethe intrinsic gas properties do not change (molecular weight, density, etc.) the temperature of the kick does not change during its removal gel and friction pressure losses in the annulus are neglected the kick will not rise in the hole without circulation. ‘The removal of the kick with the driller’s method is segmented into five mud pumping intervals ascertaining initial conditions before pumping begins pumping the top of the kick to the surface venting the kick at the surface pumping the kill mud to the drill bit pumping the kill mud to surface, EXAMPLE The following example is carried throughout the discussions. Suppose a 30 barrels kick has flowed into the hole and the standpipe and casing pressures are recorded to be 200 psig and 400 psig, respectively. The mud weight is 14.3 ppg. The rill string is 600 feet of 8” by 3 hha and 7,400 feet of 5 by 19.5 ppf drill pipe. The last casing was set at 5,000 feet and the formation pressure integrity test at the shoe gave a value of 16.0 ppg. The low circulating rate preseure is 1,500 psig, A sketch of the drill hole follows INITIAL DRILLER'S ENGINEERS ‘SKETCH OF HOLE WITH GAS KICK 19RIG KICK REMOVAL EQUIPMENT Larger drilling rigs have the equipment shown in the sketch. 1 8 2 6 14 NUMBER EQUIPMENT 1 standpipe pressure gauge 2 hole fll tank 3 casing pressure gauge 4 blowout preventer rams (or bog) 5 mud pump 6 mud pump stroke sensor 7 kill kine 8 choke in choke line 9 flow line mud flow sensor 10 gas flare and flare line 3 mud flow fine 12 gas mud separator 3B mod pit level sensor 1 active mud pit 35 separator mud flow line 38 choke line IT accumulator 18 hope lines 19 cement for last casing vent line 1 fracture in formation and loss of mud B shoe ofllast casing B ill mud and inside drillpipe 24 drilling mud and dilipipe annulus B drill collars 2% kick uid and dell collar annalus Bi drill bit 38 kicking formation B jets in the drill bit, &) drillpipe 195 THEA Box 48| Kick REMOVAL 196 LMITCHEU Boe 192 Gaten CO cosa mseKILL PARAMETERS Volumetric capacities of the annali around the bha and drillpipe He. p? 12,257 - 5? wpe qe BEE oe oomsnnun . Cy BEE eotzn boi ‘Volumetric capacities within the bha and drillpipe 1? a C= i095 Co T095 4.276" y= T0298 INITIAL CONDITIONS ‘The initial length of the gas Kick is y, =a iki anit above te dil oars) Fa Li a6 1L,= 959 ft (initial longth ofthe gas kick) The formation Prossnre is Ppa Pa +052 Pm D D = Drilling dopth Pm Deiling mud woight Pj = Initial shutin standpipe pressure P= 2004.052 * 14.3 * 8000 = 6149 psig ‘The pressure gradient ofthe formation is Pr suo Sab SRF Bao = 148 ppg OK REMOVAL a eu Bec ee Goer COoHnE‘The initial density ofthe kick fluid is found with the equation Pra Py + 052° pm * (DL) +.052 px Ly Pg = Initial shutin casing pressure Pai = Initial kick density 6149 = 400 + 052 148 * 7641 +.052 +p," 359 Pri =36 ppg (Gas and a tie sl) ‘The initial pressure drop across the length of the kick and atthe top of the kik is AP, = 082" py * Ly = 052" 26 359 = 67.2 psig Pu=Pr-aP, = 6149-672 = 0082 psig Ifthe gas passes from one annulus to another, the pressure drop across the kick only because of the annular capacity change is Cea AP how annulus = SPE The ges column factor for the hick, @ = BM, is computed with the ens column formula re 6082 pressure at bottom of gas column; psia pressure at top of gas column; psia length of gas column; fe gas constant; R = 1544 average gas temperature; Rankine average gas deviation factor; no units molecular weight of the gas Kok REMOVAL 198 DITCHELL Boe 1492 Gateen CO 8D2DRILLER'S METHOD DEFINITION OF THE DRILLER'S METHOD ‘The driler's method is a method of removing a kick from the hole which requires {he Kick to be circulated from the hole prior to circulating a kill mud into the hdl. ‘Two circulations are required and the method is sometimes called the two circulation method. PUMPING THE KICK TO THE SURFACE with driller's method ‘The volume of mud to be pumped to move the top of the kick to the top of the hole is Von = Liha Coa + (D Lea“ L) Cp Vy = 6000836 + (8000 - 600-3311) * 121, Vq=790bb1 Vqy ® Total volume of mud pumped after shut-in ‘The static length of the gas kick while the top of the gas kick is at a depth, X, is (Note: the kick must he completely bad contained in the annulus of the BHA or the annulus of the drillpipe. If the kick is within the annulus of the BHA set C, equal to Cy, ifnot use as is.) Lf orig dandy, —— ioe ued 1+—z Pr AP; gS 05295 DAL! ‘The length of the kick while tho kick is at the shoe of the last easing, 000 ft 67.296 1L=82790Ln 1+ = 6149-67257 052 *14318000-5000-L) L 96st ‘The length end the volume of the kick when the top of the kick is pumped to the surface is ce REMOVAL, 199) TCH. eon 1492 Gotan 9 BaKeon. 88 \ 6119 67.2538 052 *14.318000-0-L) ero V;, = Pit gain ‘The static pressure acting on the drill hole at a depth of X ( top of the Kick at a depth of X is Cos, Py = Pr .052* py (D-L-X)- APG {6149 052 #143 (8000 -363 - 5000) -67:2:2826 Pon 2b Ps000 ‘The casing pre Pr sare with the top of the kick at 5,000 feet is C 6-052 * Py D-L)- APG pa Pex 649-062 143 6000-968) 072-88 ‘The casing pressure with the tap of the kiek at the surface is oea6 P= 6149-052" 14. 000 - 1311) -67.2° 992 ‘The static standpipe pressure is P, ‘The circulating standpipe pressure is LORP + Py LORP. 500+ 200 Alok REMOVAL, e181 fe = 159 bbls 5,000 feet) with the 4,142 psi 2424 psi = 1,128 psi +200 psig = Low circulating rate pressure = 1700 psig, VMTCHELL ox 1492 Gotten CO 80402‘The volume of mud to be pumped to bring the top ofthe kick to a depth of 6,000 is Vay # Lag Con + D°X- Lang“ L) pg Lng = Length ofthe bottom hole assembly TL" slength of kick with its top a 5,000 Vp, = 600 * 0835 +(6000- 5000. 600-369)* 191 296 bbl ‘The pit volume gain after pumping 296 barrels of mud is VprL*C, 363° 121 =44bb1 VENTING THE KICK with driller's method During the venting of the kick, the casing pressure will drop, from its highest value to the initial standpipe shut in value, in a linesr manner as the mud fills the space occupied by the kick . In our example the highest casing pressure value is 1,129 psig and the initial standpipe pressure value was 200 psig. The volume of mud to pump to remove the kick from the hole (volume of the annul Vn = Tana Ceu? Lana) Cpu ‘Vp = 600 * 0886 + (8000-600) * 121, bs sna 3 Ns Vin = Vanmulus = 89 bbL ‘The length of the kick is Ly = length of kick with the top of the kick is at the surfece aan) ‘Vy. = Volume of the kick with the top of the kick at the surface (159 bbl) After pumping 870 barrels of mud the length of the kick is 949-87) erst 6538 lok REMOVAL am MTCHELL Box 482 atta COSONE‘The casing pressure during the venting of the kick at the surface is ‘Py = casing pressure with the top of the kick at the surface (1128 psig) Psi = initial shut-in standpipe pressure (200 psig) Let the volume of mud pumped be 870 barrels, the easing pressure is Pe =200 + 895770 199.200) = 661 psig ‘The static standpipe pressure is Pre Py += 200 psig ‘The ciroulating standpipe pressure ie Pye LORP + Py = 1500+ 200 = 1700 psig, ‘The pit volume gain after pumping 870 barrels of mud is Vege" Cy =655* 121 =7bb1 PUMPING THE KILL MUD TO THE BIT with driller's method ‘The valuma of mud roqniend ta piemp the lel weight mud ta the Be bit is the volume contained within the drill string. Vp = Lahn e*(D-Lnha) Vay = 600 * 00874 «(6000 -600)*.0178 =137BbL Sa total V,, =949 + 137 =1,086 bbl ERE SE ‘The static easing pressure with the kill mud at the bit is equal to the initial standpipe pressure PP, CALLERS i = 200 psig 0 REMOVAL, me vuTeHet Box e82 Gotten CO s0402‘The circulating standpipe pressure while the kill mud is being pumped to the bit ae P25] fucue + C97. 050+ yt] +f - S229] [Lone..o82 + p,¢D] P, Plem = Weight of kill mud (14.8 ppg) After pumping a total volume of mud of 1,000 barrels which consists of 949 harrels of light mud and 51 barrels of kill mud, the circulating standpipe pressure is P6140 (22S 59)» BT, o5p +43 #5000) (1, 2002929, 559.o52* 1458000) = 4840p ‘The additional pit volume gain is equal only to the volumes of barite and other ‘additives mixed into the mud to increase the density of the mud. PUMPING THE KILL MUD TO THE SURFACE with drillers method ‘The additional volume of mud required to pump the kil weight rau fo the suoface isthe volumo of the annulus Vin = Usha Cea +(D Tne) Cp ‘Von = 600 * 0836 + (8000 - 600) * 121 = 9191 Vine = 790 + 159 + 1874-949 = 2085 bh va otal mud volume to kill dill hole ‘DALERS ‘The casing pressure is = volume of mud pumped to pat kill mud at the bit ( 11086 but) ‘Let 1,600 barrels of mud be pumped, the easing pressure is "2085 - 1600 Pe = Be TE (200) =91 psig Kok REMOVAL 8 TOWEL Gon 482 Gotten CORDATho circulating standpipe pressure is P= Lore» i) ® ENGINEER'S METHOD ‘DEFINITION OF THE ENGINEER'S METHOD = 1,599 psig ‘The engineeer's method is a method of removing @ from a bole which requires that the mud in the pits be ‘weighted to a kill value prior to circulating the kick from the hole. One circulatio.. is required, The method is often called the wait and weight method, PUMPING THE KICK TO THE SURFACE with engineer's method ‘The volume of mud to be pumped to move the top of the kick > to the top of the hole is Vp= Liha Cent Dla LD Cyn ‘Vy = 800 * 0836 + (8000 - 600 - 1399) *.121 =779bb1 ‘The pressure drop across the drill mud below the kick, and while the kill mud is in the annulus of the drillpipe is Vas Pam =052* dy Gt a 149+ 80 052" 145° 837 psi ‘The static length of the gas kick while the top of the gas kick is at a of depth, X, is, (Note: the Kick and the kill mud must be completely contained in the annulus of the BHA or the annulus of the drillpipe. Goa { — fas : | Kok REMOVAL mH serrata Tene Box 482 Gotenco see‘he length ofthe kick while the kick is at the shoe of the last casing, i.e, X = 5,000 } Le smn + 48 (e000. St 6149 67.297 -837 -052 "14.8 * (8000-454 -5000-L) L =386 ‘The length and the volume of the kick when the top of the kick is pumped to te surface is 083g eng ae ueserorafi+—— gy } ; en ‘The static pressure acting on the drill hole at a depth of X (X = 5,000 feet) with the top of the kick at a depth of Xis, Cog Vas Fae P= APG + APay ~ 052 Py D ~GoE = X = ams 6149 672.988 . sor -052° 148 0000-2. 000-908 — = 4,110 pst ‘The state casing pressure with the top ol the kick at 5,000 fet is Cog Vas Pear APG - AP yn ~ £052 Pj D = Qe -X - L) = me eaciaa 72-898 sar «052 14s 6000 2-0 260 > += 262 psi ‘The stati casing pressure with the top ofthe kick a the surface i Pex o1so -672 98 sa o50+ 48 6000-2. 190) PR #1087 psi Nox RMON 26 Troe ee tn co‘The static standpipe pressure is P, . none The circulating standpipe pressure afer filling the drilstrng with kill mud is Phy Pyetenp«@B)"S 1500+ G95)" = 1,580 pats ‘The volume of mud to be pumped to bring the top of the kick to a depth of 5,000 is, Vin = Laing Cea + D =X Lug LI Coy ‘Vn 600 * 0836 + (8000 - 8000 - 600 - 966) * 121 =297bbL ‘The pit volume gain after pumping 296 barrels of mud is Vy=L* Cog =366" 121 =44bb1 VENTING THE KICK with engineer's method During the venting of the kick, the casing pressure will drop, from its highest value to a pressure equal to the difference in the pressure across the length of the kill mud and the pressure across a similar length of kill mud, in a linear ‘manner as the mud fills the space occupied by'the kick . In our example the highest casing pressure value is 1,057 psig and the pressure difference is 29 peig. ‘The volume of mud to Pump to remove the kick from the hole (volume of the annulus) is Vou Tne Cox Dla) Cpe Vpn = 600 * 0836 + (8000 - 600) * 121 Van = Vannslas =919bL ‘The longth of the kick while the kick is being vented is Vann ~ ¥en rr Ly = length of kick with the top of the kick at the surface 311) Vy = volume of the kick with the top of the kick at the surface (159 bbl) 0K REMOVAL 26 TENE Bax 1452 aten COZiter pungog 60 bares of ud the lngth ofthe hick i 1. 29,800 sn ‘The casing pressure during the venting of the kick at the surface is P my sing pressure with the top of the kick at the surface (1057 prig) P, = pressure difference (29 psig) Pq = basing pressure with the top of the kill mud at the surface (29 psig) Let the volume of mud pumped be 870 barrels, the easing pressure is = 507 psig ‘The static standpipe pressure is P ‘The circulating standpipe pressure is year +f = 1,599 psig =79bb ice Reva, aT MITCHELL Box 1482 Goer Co ao4n2PUMPING THE KILL MUD TO THE BIT with engineer's method ‘The volume of mud required to pump the kill weight mud to the Dit is the volume contained within the drill string Van # La fe + DT ‘Von = 600" 00874 + (8000 -600)*.0178 = 187hbI ‘The circulating standpipe pressure is rate nna [i 2st] fucne «082 0] After pumping a total volume of mud of 100 barrels of kill mud, the standpipe pressure is P= 6149 + OS ya500 + G48) 052 + 14.8* 8000) (10H a5 52" 200) p 582 psi ‘The volume of mud required to pump the kill mud to the surface after venting the gas is the volume of the drillstring Vn = Vas = 287 bb1 Y0Ck REMOVAL, MITCHELL Boe 482 Gollan CO 8102‘The static easing pressure during the venting of the kick at the surface is Let the volume of mud pumped after venting the gas be 100 barrels, the easing pressure is = Te sing ski one oye ene +2" += 1,539 psist xs s090058 ick REMOVAL 9 TOHEL Box 1452 Gotten GO D4KICK CONTROL WORK SHEET DATE COMPLETED:., ‘Low Circulating Rates and Pressures Pump #1 Cire, ate#l___ Preset Cire. eaten, Presst2, Pump #2 Cire. ratetl Preset, Cire, ratee2 Presst2___ PUMP DATA rv, LINER STROKE MAX PRESS. DISPLACEMENT NAME inch inch ai bolt Pump Ne. Pomp No.2 DRILLSTRING AND HOLE VOLUME DATA baa n ‘CAP * LENGTH. VOLUME, 2 op? w_*- on, . Hoe x pHa ann DOD" cap « uenoTH, VOUUME 2 pes Ds CaP * LENGTH, VOLUME 2 op? oy 20D? _ . ° woLe s pri any P=oOP" 2 __ cap + wena, VOLUME w_? ppez Se CAP * LENGTH. VOLUME won? HOLE x DP2aNN1Po—=OP— = __cap + LENGTH____ = __VOLUME TOTAL DEPTH____ vot, PIT VOLUMES: Lew we prea size__ux ws ow 13 Loar cosviny EE =___vor (00) Lew Lewes, PIT #2. SIZE___Lx__wx 3S CAP (woviny SEE VoL (bb Law Lawn prr es sizp___ux__ws_ow WN. cap anv EMH VOL (bb Kick REMOVAL 210 MeTCHEL Gor 1492 Gotan CO Bot02CASING, BOPE, AND SURFACE EQUIPMENT CASING sizB__* weiGHT. Gnapr___ swop pzrra__ Burst PRESS,_ WORKING PRESSURE OF BOPE AND SURFACE EQUIPMENT. Pst (LEAKOFF___. pant. Mu Wr * SHOE DEPTH / 19.25 = FRAC CASING sip Ps “IF THD CASING PRESSURE EXCEEDS THE FRACTURE CASING SIP BEFORE THE KICK FLUID ENTERS THE CASING, AN UNDERGROUND BLOWOUT COULD OCCUR. WELL KILLING VOLUMES vil string bb cmctoprr — ~asting by - DS stk CIRC ANN (KICK OUT) = 225ulus bbl = ANN st ‘pump volsth’ ee CIRC to KILL HOLE = 2 “ANN stk 4DS stk = KILL ek KICK DATA SHUTIN DRILLPIFE PRESS___SIDP_ SHUTIN CASING PRESS sice PIT GaIN__ Pv COMPUTATIONS INIT. CIRC, PRESS. =LOW CIRC. RATEPRESS~SIDP —(DRILLER'S & W&W) KILL MUD WT. ADE 229, pp MUD WE. CDRILLER'S & Waw) PT siwaLome. ness = KILLMUDT. ow cnc Rane PRESS CWEW ONLY) CK REMOVAL aun UUTCNEL. Sox 1682 Goden CORO