Chapter 1

Course: Instrumentation and Measurements
Course Code: EE-383

Department: Electrical Engineering
Text Book: Principles of Electronic Instrumentation and Measurement
Authors: Howard M. Berlin, Frank C. Getz Jr.
12-Feb-14 1
Muhammad Mustafa Masud
Assistant Professor (DEE), NUST-CEME
12-Feb-14 2
Chapter 1: MEASUREMENT
FUNDAMENTALS
EE-383 Instrumentation and Measurements
12-Feb-14 3
Chapter 1: MEASUREMENT FUNDAMENTALS
ACCURACY, PRECISION, RESOLUTION, AND SIGNIFICANT FIGURES
When a voltmeter with an error of 1 % indicates exactly 100 V, the true level
of the measured voltage is somewhere between 99 V and 101 V
Thus, the measurement ACCURACY of 1 % defines how close the
measurement is to the actual measured quantity
PRECISION is a measure of the consistency or repeatability of a series of
measurements
Precision does not necessarily imply accuracy
A precise instrument can be very inaccurate
The RANGE of an instrument describes the limits of magnitude over which a
quantity may be measured. It is normally specified by stating its lower and
upper limits
For example, an ammeter whose scale reads from 0 to 1 mA is said to have a
range from 0 to 1 mA
12-Feb-14 4
The SPAN of an instrument is the algebraic difference between the upper and
lower limits of the instrument's range
Using a -10-mA to +10-mA ammeter, the span is then 10 mA - (- 10 mA), or 20
mA
Consider the digital voltmeter indication shown in Figure
It is indicating 8.135 V, the last (right-side) numeral is in
millivolts
If the measured quantity increases or decreases by 1 mV,
the reading becomes 8.136 V or 8.134 V, respectively
Therefore, the voltage is measured with a RESOLUTION of
1 mV
RESOLUTION is the smallest change in the measured
quantity that will produce a detectable change in the
instrument reading.
12-Feb-14 5
For the 8.135 V measurement in figure the four SIGNIFICANT FIGURES show
that the measurement precision is 0.001 V, or 1 mV
If the measurement was made to a precision of 10 mV, the display would be
8.13 V or 8.14 V, that is, there would be only three significant figures
If a measured current was 2.33 mA, and a calculator was used, then
It does not make sense to have an answer containing 10 significant figures
when each of the original quantities had only three significant figures
The correct approach would be:
12-Feb-14 6
LEAST SQUARES REGRESSION LINE
As an aid in determining a relationship
between two (or more) measured
parameters: graph the data on a
rectangular coordinate system
The resulting set of points is sometimes
referred to as a scatter diagram
From such a graph it is often possible to
visualize a smooth line or
approximating curve
As shown in the scatter diagram of
Figure
A straight line or linear relationship
appears to exist between the
dependent variable Y and the
independent variable X
12-Feb-14 7
The aim is to draw such an
approximating line so as to best fit a set
of measured data
An analytical method known as the
METHOD OF LEAST SQUARES
REGRESSION is often used to describe
the best-fit
The mathematical problem is
straightforward
Given a set of n points (X
i
, Y
i
) on a
scatter plot, find the best-fit line
Such that the sum of squared errors in Y
12-Feb-14 8
( ) ( )
( )
( )
intercept
0
0 2
0 2 2 1 2 2 2
0 0
1 1
1 1
1 1
1 1 1 1 1 1
1
2
min
1
2
1
2
=
=
=
=
|
|
.
|
\
|

=
|
|
.
|
\
|
= + + = =
c
|
|
.
|
\
|
c
=
c
c
=
c
c
=
c
c
=
= =
+ =

= =
= =
= =
= = = = = =
=
= =
n
X b Y
a
X b na Y
a for Solving
X b na Y
X b na Y X b a Y bX a Y
a
bX a Y
a
Q
b
Q
and
a
Q
which for b and a of values at Q Q
bX a Y Y Y Q
bX a Y
n
i
i
n
i
i
n
i
n
i
i i
n
i
n
i
i i
n
i
n
i
n
i
i i
n
i
i
n
i
i
n
i
i i
n
i
i i
n
i
i i
n
i
i i
i i
12-Feb-14 9
( )
( ) ( )
( )

= = = = =
= = = = =
= =
=
= =
=
= =
= = =
=
= =
=
=
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
+
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
=
=
=
= = =
c
|
|
.
|
\
|
c
=
c
c
n
i
i i
n
i
i
n
i
i
n
i
i
n
i
i
n
i
i
n
i
i
n
i
i
n
i
i
n
i
i i
n
i
i
n
i
i
n
i
i
n
i
i
n
i
i i
n
i
i
n
i
i
n
i
i i
n
i
i
n
i
i
n
i
i i
n
i
i i i i
n
i
i i i i i
n
i
i i
n
i
i i
Y X n Y X X b X nb
Y X X b X nb Y X n
n
X b Y
X
X b Y X
X
X b Y X
a
a for Solving
X b X a Y X
bX aX Y X
bX aX Y X X bX a Y
b
bX a Y
b
Q
1 1 1
2
1 1
2
1 1
2
1 1
2
1
1 1
1
1
2
1
1
1
2
1
1
2
1 1
1
2
1
2
1
1
2
0
0 2
0 2 2
12-Feb-14 10
intercept
intercept
slope
2
1 1
2
1 1 1
2
1
1
2
1 1
2
1 1 1
1
1 1
2
1 1
2
1 1 1
1 1 1
2
1 1
2
1 1 1
2
1 1
2
=
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
|
|
|
|
|
.
|
\
|
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
=
=
=
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
+ =
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
|
|
.
|
\
|
+

= =
= = = =
=
= =
= = =
=
= =
= =
= = =
= = = = =
= = = = =
n
i
i
n
i
i
n
i
i i
n
i
i
n
i
i
n
i
i
n
i
i
n
i
i
n
i
i
n
i
i
n
i
i
n
i
i i
n
i
i
n
i
i
n
i
i
n
i
i
n
i
i
n
i
i
n
i
i
n
i
i i
n
i
i i
n
i
i
n
i
i
n
i
i
n
i
i
n
i
i i
n
i
i
n
i
i
n
i
i
n
i
i
X X n
Y X X X Y
n
X
X X n
Y X Y X n
Y
a
n
X b Y
a
in putting
X X n
Y X Y X n
b
Y X n Y X X b X nb
Y X n Y X X b X nb
12-Feb-14 11
intercept
intercept
slope
2
1 1
2
1 1 1
2
1
1 1
2
1 1
2
1 1 1
=
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
=
=
=
|
|
.
|
\
|
=

= =
= = = =
= =
= =
= = =
n
i
i
n
i
i
n
i
i i
n
i
i
n
i
i
n
i
i
n
i
i
n
i
i
n
i
i
n
i
i
n
i
i
n
i
i
n
i
i i
X X n
Y X X X Y
a
n
X b Y
a
X X n
Y X Y X n
b
12-Feb-14 12
Example: An experiment measured the following 10 voltages across a given
thermocouple at various temperatures
Assuming that there is a direct linear relationship, determine the relationship
between thermocouple-voltage and temperature in the form of an equation of a
straight line
12-Feb-14 13
Solution: Since the measured voltage is dependent on the applied temperature,
voltage is then the dependent variable Y whereas temperature is the independent
variable X
12-Feb-14 14
Slope:
Intercept:
Linear Equation:
Once the relationship between X and Y is determined, we are able to
estimate the value of Y that corresponds to a given value of X without
actually having to measure it
This is called a regression curve of Y on X
12-Feb-14 15
Y is estimated by knowing the value of X and is frequently referred to as
interpolation
If the curve is found to correspond to a straight line between some minimum
and maximum values of X
We may be tempted to extend or extrapolate the line in either direction and
assume that points outside the measured data range also behave in a similar
manner
BUT THAT SHOULD NOT BE DONE!!
For example in the last example we should not step beyond the ranges of
100F and 190F (unless there is not option)

Chapter 1

Загружено:

Сведения о документе

Авторское право

Доступные форматы

Поделиться этим документом

Поделиться или встроить документ

Параметры публикации

Этот документ был вам полезен?

Это неприемлемый материал?

Авторское право:

Доступные форматы

Chapter 1

Загружено:

Авторское право:

Доступные форматы

Course: Instrumentation and Measurements

Course Code: EE-383

Вам также может понравиться