!

"##$
!"## &'()*')("+
Llvlng organlsms are made up of cells. All of Lhem have cerLaln common feaLures, desplLe Lhelr
speclallsed funcLlons. 8oLh anlmal and planL cells have a cell surface membrane, cyLoplasm and
a nucleus. ln addlLlon, planL cells have a cellulose cell wall, a vacuole and may have
chloroplasLs.





!"##"$ &'()*+', "- ./($) ($0 1$2#(/ !'//,
1he !"## %&'()!" *"*+')," surrounds Lhe cyLoplasm. lL conLrols Lhe enLry and
exlL of dlssolved subsLances and separaLes Lhe cell's conLenLs from lLs
surroundlngs.
1he !-./0#)%* conLalns waLer and dlssolved subsLances such as sugar and salLs.
Chemlcal reacLlons go on ln organelles - for example, proLelns are made ln
rlbosomes and Lhe energy ls released ln mlLochondrla.
1he ,&!#"&% conLalns Lhe geneLlc maLerlal (unA whlch makes up genes on Lhe
chromosomes). 1hls carrles Lhe coded lnsLrucLlons for conLrolllng Lhe acLlvlLles of
Lhe cell. 1he chromosomes only become vlslble durlng cell dlvlslon.


34'52-25 &'()*+', "- ./($) !'//,
1he #)'1" 0"'*),",. 2)!&/#" conLalns waLer necessary Lo provlde Lurgor
pressure and may sLore lons and molecules.
34#/'/0#)%.% conLaln Lhe plgmenL chlorophyll and Lhe enzymes necessary for Lhe
producLlon of glucose by phoLosynLhesls.
5.)'!4 (found ln Lhe cyLoplasm or chloroplasLs) ls Lhe sLorage form of
carbohydraLes.
1he !"##&#/%" !"## 6)## provldes sLrucLural supporL (pressure of cell conLenLs
leads Lo LurgldlLy) and proLecLs agalnsL change caused by osmoLlc lnLake of
waLer. 1he cell wall ls freely permeable Lo waLer and dlssolved subsLances.
1. 1he presence of Lhe cellulose cell wall means LhaL planL cells Lend Lo be
regular ln shape.
2. 1he presence of Lhe vacuole means LhaL planL cells may be qulLe large -
ofLen 60 m (0.06 mm) ln dlameLer.
3. lanL cell feaLures ofLen relaLe Lo auLoLrophlc nuLrlLlon.


34'52-25 &'()*+', "- 1$2#(/ !'//,
5"!'"./'- 2"%7!#"% conLaln cell producLs such as hormones or enzymes and are
much more common ln anlmal cells Lhan ln planL cells.
1he !-./0#)%* ls ofLen denser, wlLh many more organelles and dlssolved
subsLances.
8)!&/#"% ln anlmal cells are ofLen small and Lemporary.
9#-!/1", ls Lhe sLorage form of carbohydraLes.
1. Anlmal cells are lrregular ln shape due Lo Lhe absence of a cell wall.
2. 1he amounL of cyLoplasm ln Lhe cell can be conLrolled by Lhe nucleus,
meanlng anlmal cells are qulLe small - abouL 23 m ln dlameLer.
3. Anlmal cell feaLures ofLen relaLe Lo heLeroLrophlc nuLrlLlon and hlgh raLes
of meLabollc acLlvlLy.



,-" ./0-' 1/*(2$*23"+
Cells are Loo small Lo be seen by Lhe naked eye so a mlcroscope ls used Lo sLudy Lhem. vlslble
llghL passes Lhrough a sulLable speclmen, and a serles of lenses magnlfy Lhe lmage LhaL ls
formed. A llghL mlcroscope can glve a useful magnlflcaLlon of abouL 400 Llmes whlch means Lhe
lmage ls acLually 400 Llmes larger Lhan Lhe speclmen. 1he conLrasL beLween dlfferenL sLrucLures
ln Lhe lmage can be lmproved by uslng dyes or sLalns.
1he correcL (or Lrue slze) of an organlsm can be calculaLed uslng Lhls equaLlon:
:)1,7(7!).7/, ; *")%&'"< #",1.4 = )!.&)# #",1.4

,-" 2(045/$4'/25 26 #/7/50 2(045/$8$+
Large organlsms are mulLlcellular, meanlng Lhey are made up of many cells. ulfferenL Lypes of
cell have parLlcular sLrucLures deslgned Lo help Lhem carry ouL Lasks and funcLlons - Lhey have
become speclallsed. Pere are Lwo examples:


!'// )64' 144'(+($5' &*$5)2"$, ($0 (0(4)()2"$,
8ed blood cell - an
anlmal cell

>'),%0/'.% oxygen from Lhe lungs Lo Lhe
Llssues where aeroblc resplraLlon occurs. 1he
cyLoplasm ls fllled wlLh Lhe plgmenL
haemoglobln, whlch carrles oxygen. 1he cells
have no nucleus, leavlng more space for
haemoglobln, and Lhey are very flexlble
(Lhey can force Lhrough even Lhe narrowesL
of blood vessels).
8ooL halr cell - a planL
cell

?+%/'+% *7,"')#% ),< 6)."' from Lhe soll
waLer. 1he cell has a long exLenslon (a rooL
halr) whlch lncreases Lhe surface are for Lhe
absorpLlon of maLerlals.


127"8"5' /5 459 2)' 26 *"##$+
1he cyLoplasm of a cell ls surrounded by a cell surface membrane, desplLe lLs llLLle sLrengLh, lL
plays a vlLal role ln regulaLlng Lhe maLerlals LhaL pass ln and ouL of Lhe cell. MaLerlals may pass
ln and ouL of Lhe cell by <7((&%7/,@ /%*/%7% ),< )!.72" .'),%0/'..
:/66)$/25+
Molecules and lons ln a llquld or gas move conLlnuously ln random paLLerns, and change
dlrecLlons when Lhey bump lnLo each oLher. 1he parLlcles colllde more ofLen when Lhey are
close LogeLher (!/,!",.')."<), so Lhey Lend <7((&%" (spread ouL) unLll Lhey are evenly spaced
ouL. 1he movemenL of Lhe parLlcles ls due Lo Lhelr own A7,".7! ","'1-. When dlffuslon happens
ln llvlng cells, Lhe cells Lhemselves do noL have Lo expend any energy for lL Lo Lake place.
lf Lhere ls a reglon of hlgh concenLraLlon and a reglon of low concenLraLlon, lL can be sald LhaL
Lhere ls a !/,!",.').7/, 1')<7",. beLween Lhe reglons. ulffuslon can Lherefore be deflned as:
.4" */2"*",. /( 0)'.7!#"% 67.47, ) 1)% /' #7B&7<
('/* ) '"17/, /( 4714 !/,!",.').7/, ./ ) '"17/, /( #/6"' !/,!",.').7/, C</6, )
!/,!",.').7/, 1')<7",.D
&,.7# ), "B&7#7+'7&* 7% '")!4"<E

Powever noL all parLlcles can dlffuse Lhrough cell surface membranes, someLlmes Lhe parLlcles
are Loo blg, or have Lhe wrong elecLrlcal charge on Lhem, or Lhe chemlcal composlLlon of Lhe
membrane prevenLs Lhem passlng across. 1he dlagram below shows a 0)'.7)##- 0"'*")+#"
*"*+')," - lL ls 0"'*")+#" Lo waLer buL lmpermeable Lo sugar.

ulffuslon ls Lhe maln process by whlch subsLances move over shorL dlsLances ln llvlng
organlsms. Some of Lhe llfe processes lnclude:
hoLosynLhesls
8reaLhlng
1he passlng of glucose and amlno aclds Lhrough Lhe guL lnLo Lhe blood
1he absorpLlon of mlnerals ln Lhe ground by planLs.
Llvlng organlsms have cerLaln adapLaLlons Lo speed up dlffuslon:
F7((&%7/, <7%.),!"% )'" %4/'. - Lhe membranes ln Lhe lungs, for example, are very Lhln
so LhaL oxygen and carbon dloxlde can dlffuse beLween Lhem Lhe blood and Lhe lung alr
spaces,
3/,!",.').7/, 1')<7",.% )'" *)7,.)7,"< - glucose molecules LhaL cross from Lhe guL
lnLo Lhe blood, for example, are qulckly removed by Lhe clrculaLlng blood so LhaL Lhelr
concenLraLlon does noL bulld up and equlllbrlum ls noL reached.
F7((&%7/, %&'()!"% )'" #)'1" - Lhe surface of Lhe placenLa, for example, ls hlghly folded
Lo lncrease Lhe surface area for Lhe dlffuslon of molecules beLween a pregnanL female
and Lhe developlng foeLus ln her uLerus.
7,#",2,
1he dlffuslon of waLer ls called /%*/%7%. WaLer moves from where Lhere ls a hlgh
concenLraLlon of waLer molecules Lo where Lhere ls a lower concenLraLlon of
waLer molecules by Lhe process of dlffuslon.
As lL someLlmes confuslng Lo Lalk abouL waLer concenLraLlon, Lhe Lerm 6)."'
0/.",.7)# ls used lnsLead.