C hc lng t

C hc lng t
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C hc lng t
C hc lng t l mt trong nhng l thuyt c bn ca vt l hc. C hc lng t
l phn m rng v b sung ca c hc Newton (cn gi l c hc c in). N l c
s ca rt nhiu cc chuyn ngnh khc ca vt l v ha hc nh vt l cht rn, ha
lng t, vt l ht. Khi nim lng t ch mt s i lng vt l nh nng lng
(xem Hnh 1) khng lin tc m ri rc.
C hc lng t l mt l thuyt c hc, nghin cu v chuyn ng v cc i lng
vt l lin quan n chuyn ng nh nng lng v xung lng, ca cc vt th nh
b, lng tnh sng ht c th hin r[2]. Lng tnh sng ht c gi nh l
tnh cht c bn ca vt cht, chnh v th c hc lng t c coi l c bn hn c hc
Newton v n cho php m t chnh xc v ng n rt nhiu cc hin tng vt l m
c hc Newton khng th gii thch c. [cn dn ngun]Cc hin tng ny bao gm
cc hin tng quy m nguyn t hay nh hn (h nguyn t). C hc Newton khng
th l gii ti sao cc nguyn t li c th bn vng n th, hoc khng th gii thch
c mt s hin tng v m nh siu dn, siu chy. Cc tin on ca c hc lng
t cha bao gi b thc nghim chng minh l sai sau mt th k. [cn dn ngun]C
hc lng t l s kt hp cht ch ca t nht ba loi hin tng m c hc c in
khng tnh n, l: (i) vic lng t ha (ri rc ha) mt s i lng vt l, (ii)
lng tnh sng ht, v (iii) vng lng t. Trong cc trng hp nht nh, cc nh
lut ca c hc lng t chnh l cc nh lut ca c hc c in mc chnh xc
cao hn. Vic c hc lng t rt v c hc c in c bit vi ci tn nguyn l
tng ng.[cn dn ngun]
C hc lng t c kt hp vi thuyt tng i to nn c hc lng t tng
i tnh, i lp vi c hc lng t phi tng i tnh khi khng tnh n tnh tng
i ca cc vt th.[cn dn ngun] Ta dng khi nim c hc lng t ch c hai
loi trn. C hc lng t ng ngha vi vt l lng t. Tuy nhin vn c nhiu nh
khoa hc coi c hc lng t c ngha nh c hc lng t phi tng i tnh, m nh
th th n hp hn vt l lng t.[cn dn ngun]

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Mt s nh vt l tin rng c hc lng t cho ta mt m t chnh xc th gii vt l vi

hu ht cc iu kin khc nhau.[cn dn ngun] Dng nh l c hc lng t khng
cn ng ln cn cc h en hoc khi xem xt v tr nh mt ton th. phm vi ny
th c hc lng t li mu thun vi l thuyt tng i rng,[cn dn ngun] mt l
thuyt v hp dn. Cu hi v s tng thch gia c hc lng t v thuyt tng i
rng vn l mt lnh vc nghin cu rt si ni.
C hc lng t c hnh thnh vo na u th k 20 do Max Planck, Albert Einstein,
Niels Bohr, Werner Heisenberg, Erwin Schrdinger, Max Born, John von Neumann,
Paul Dirac, Wolfgang Pauli v mt s ngi khc to nn.[1] Mt s vn c bn ca
l thuyt ny vn c nghin cu cho n ngy nay.[2]
M t l thuyt
C nhiu phng php ton hc m t c hc lng t, chng tng ng vi nhau.
Mt trong nhng phng php c dng nhiu nht l l thuyt bin i, do Paul
Dirac pht minh ra nhm thng nht v khi qut ha hai phng php ton hc trc
l c hc ma trn (ca Werner Heisenberg) v c hc sng (ca Erwin Schrdinger).
Theo cc phng php ton hc m t c hc lng t ny th trng thi lng t ca
mt h lng t s cho thng tin v xc sut ca cc tnh cht, hay cn gi l cc i
lng quan st (i khi gi tt l quan st), c th o c. Cc quan st c th l nng
lng, v tr, ng lng (xung lng), v m men ng lng. Cc quan st c th l
lin tc (v d v tr ca cc ht) hoc ri rc (v d nng lng ca in t trong nguyn
thydrogen).[cn dn ngun]
Ni chung, c hc lng t khng cho ra cc quan st c gi tr xc nh. Thay vo ,
n tin on mt phn b xc sut, tc l, xc sut thu c mt kt qu kh d t
mt php o nht nh. Cc xc sut ny ph thuc vo trng thi lng t ngay ti lc
tin hnh php o. [cn dn ngun]Tuy nhin vn c mt s cc trng thi nht nh lin
quan n mt gi tr xc nh ca mt quan st c th. Cc gi tr c bit vi ci
tn l hm ring, hay cn gi l trng thi ring ca quan st .
V d, chng ta hy xt mt ht t do, trng thi lng t ca n c th biu din bng
mt sng c hnh dng bt k v c th lan truyn theo ton b khng gian, c gi
l hm sng. V tr v xung lng ca ht l hai i lng quan st. Trng thi ring
ca v tr l mt hm sng c gi tr rt ln ti v tr x v bng khng ti tt c cc v tr
khc x. Chng ta tin hnh o v tr ca mt hm sng nh vy, chng ta s thu c kt
qu tm thy ht ti x vi xc sut 100%. Mt khc, trng thi ring ca xung lng li
c dng mt sng phng. Bc sng ca n l h/p, trong h l hng s Planck v p l
xung lng trng thi ring .

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Thng thng, mt h s khng trong trng thi ring ca bt k quan st no m

chng ta ang quan tm. Tuy nhin, nu chng ta o mt quan st, hm sng s ngay
lp tc tr thnh mt trng thi ring ca quan st . Vic ny c gi l s suy sp
hm sng. Nu ta bit hm sng ti mt thi im trc khi o c th chng ta c th
tnh c xc sut suy sp vo mi trng thi ring kh d.[cn dn ngun] V d, ht t
do c cp trn thng c mt hm sng dng mt b sng c tm l mt v
tr x0 no , ch khng phi l trng thi ring ca v tr hay xung lng. Khi ta o
v tr ca ht, chng ta khng th tin on xc nh ca kt qu m chng ta s thu
c. Kt qu thu c c th, ch khng chc chn, nm gn x0 m , bin hm
sng l ln. Sau khi thc hin php o xong, kt qu thu c l x, hm sng suy sp
vo trng thi ring ca v tr nm ti x.
Cc hm sng c th thay i theo thi gian. Phng trnh m t s thay i ca hm
sng theo thi gian l phng trnh Schrdinger, ng vai tr ging nh nh lut th
hai ca Newton trong c hc c in. Phng trnh Schrdinger p dng cho ht t do
ca chng ta s tin on tm ca b sng chuyn ng trong khng gian vi vn tc
khng i, ging nh mt ht c in chuyn ng khi khng c lc no tc dng ln
n. Tuy nhin, b sng s tri rng ra theo thi gian, iu ny c ngha l v tr ca ht
s tr nn bt nh v nh hng n trng thi ring ca v tr lm cho n bin thnh
cc b sng rng hn khng phi l cc trng thi ring ca v tr na.
Mt s hm sng to ra cc phn b xc sut khng i theo thi gian. Rt nhiu h m
khi xem xt bng c hc c in th c coi l "ng" nhng li c m t bng hm
sng "tnh". V d mt in t trong mt nguyn t khng b kch thch c coi mt
cch c in l chuyn ng trn mt qu o hnh trn xung quanh ht nhn nguyn t,
trong khi th c hc lng t li m t in t ny bng mt m my xc sut i
xng cu tnh xung quanh ht nhn (Hnh 1).
S thay i ca hm sng theo thi gian c tnh nhn qu, theo ngha, vi mt hm sng
ti mt thi im ban u c th cho mt tin on xc nh hm sng s nh th no ti
bt k thi im tip theo. Trong php o lng t, s thay i ca mt hm sng thnh
mt hm sng khc khng xc nh v khng th on trc c, iu c ngha s
thay i l ngu nhin.
Bn cht xc sut ca c hc lng t ny sinh t vic thc hin php o: vt th tng
tc vi my o, v hm sng tng ng s b vng. Kt qu l vt th cn o khng
cn tn ti nh mt thc th c lp na. iu ny s lm cho kt qu thu c trong
tng lai c mt bt nh no . n y, ngi ta c th ngh rng nu chun b
cc my o th nhng bt nh c th ch l nhng d liu cha bit. Nhng vn
l ta khng th bit c cc d liu v my o khng th va dng o tnh cht
vt th, va t bit nh hng ca n n vt th cng mt lc.

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Do , c vn v nguyn tc, ch khng phi v thc tin, c mt bt nh c mt

trong cc tin on xc sut. y l mt trong nhng tng kh hiu nht v bn cht
ca mt h lng t. tng l trung tm ca ca tranh lun Bohr-Einstein, trong ,
h ngh tm cch lm sng t cc nguyn l c bn ny bng cc th nghim t duy.
C mt vi cch gii thch c hc lng t ph nhn s "suy sp hm sng" bng cch
thay i khi nim v nhng thnh phn thit lp nn cc "php o" trong c hc lng
t (xem thm gii thch trng thi tng i).
Cc hiu ng ca c hc lng t
Nh nhc trn, c mt vi lp hin tng xut hin trong c hc lng t m khng
c s tng t vi c hc c in. Chng c gi l "hiu ng lng t".
Loi th nht ca hiu ng lng t l lng t ha cc i lng vt l nht nh.
Trong v d v ht m ta xem xt, c v tr v xung lng u l cc quan st lin tc.
Tuy nhin nu ta gii hn ht trong mt vng khng gian hnh thnh bi ton ht
trong h th th cc quan st s tr nn ri rc. Nhng quan st nh vy c gi l
b lng t ha v n c vai tr quan trng trong cc h vt l. V d v cc quan st
b lng t ha bao gm m men xung lng, nng lng ton phn ca h lin kt, v
nng lng m mt sng in t vi mt tn s cho.
Mt hiu ng na l nguyn l bt nh l hin tng m cc php o lin tip ca
hai hay nhiu hn hai quan st c th c cc gii hn c bn v chnh xc. Trong v
d v ht t do, chng ta khng th tm thy hm sng l trng thi ring ca c v tr
v xung lng. Hiu ng ny c ngha l khng th o ng thi v tr v xung lng
vi chnh xc bt k, ngay c v mt nguyn tc: v khi chnh xc v v tr tng
ln th chnh xc v xung lng gim i v ngc li. Cc quan st chu tc ng ca
nguyn l ny (gm c xung lng v v tr, nng lng v thi gian) l cc bin giao
hon trong vt l c in.
Hiu ng tip theo l lng tnh sng ht. Di mt s iu kin thc nghim nht nh,
cc vt th vi m nh l cc nguyn t hoc cc in t c th hnh x nh cc "ht"
trong th nghim tn x hoc c th hnh x nh cc "sng" trong th nghim giao thoa.
Nhng chng ta ch c th quan st mt trong hai tnh cht trn vo mt thi im m
thi.
Hiu ng na l vng lng t. Trong mt s trng hp, hm sng ca mt h c
to thnh t nhiu ht m khng th phn tch thnh cc hm sng c lp cho mi ht.
Trong trng hp , ngi ta ni cc ht b "vng" vi nhau. Nu c hc lng t
ng th cc ht c th th hin cc tnh cht khc thng v c bit. V d, khi tin
hnh mt php o trn mt ht th nh suy sp ca hm sng ton phn m c th to ra
cc hiu ng tc thi vi cc ht khc thm ch ngay c khi chng xa nhau.

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Hiu ng c v nh mu thun vi l thuyt tng i hp v theo thuyt tng i

hp, khng c g c th di chuyn nhanh hn nh sng. Nhng y khng c s truyn
thng tin nn khng yu cu phi di chuyn mt thc th vt l tc thi gia hai ht.
Hiu ng y c ngha l, sau khi nghin cu cc thc th b vng vi nhau, hai
ngi nghin cu c th so snh d liu ca h v thu c cc mi tng quan m cc
ht c.
Cng thc ton hc
Trong cc cng thc ton hc rt cht ch ca c hc lng do Paul Dirac v John von
Neumann pht trin, cc trng thi kh d ca mt h c hc lng t c biu din
bng cc vc t n v (cn gi l cc vc t trng thi) c th hin bng cc hm s
phc trong khng gian Hilbert (cn gi l khng gian trng thi). Bn cht ca khng
gian Hilbert ny li ph thuc vo h lng t. V d, khng gian trng thi ca v tr v
xung lng l khng gian ca cc hm bnh phng kh tch, trong khi khng gian
trng thi ca cc spin v in t c lp ch l tch ca hai mt phng phc. Mi quan
st c biu din bng mt ton t tuyn tnh Hermit xc nh (hay mt ton t t hp)
tc ng ln khng gian trng thi. Mi trng thi ring ca mt quan st tng ng vi
mt vc t ring (cn gi l hm ring) ca ton t, v mt gi tr ring (cn gi l tr
ring) tng ng vi gi tr ca quan st trong trng thi ring . Nu ph ca ton t
l ri rc th quan st ch c th c c cc gi tr ring ri rc.
S thay i theo thi gian ca h lng t c m t bng phng trnh Schrodinger,
trong phng trnh ny, ton t Hamilton tng ng vi nng lng ton phn ca h
gy nn s bin i theo thi gian.
Tch v hng gia hai vc t trng thi l mt s phc c gi l bin xc sut.
Trong mt php o, xc sut m mt h suy sp t mt trng thi ban u cho vo
mt trng thi ring c bit no bng bnh phng ca gi tr tuyt i ca bin
xc sut gia trng thi u v cui. Kt qu kh d ca php o l gi tr ring ca
ton t u l cc s thc (chnh v tr ring phi l thc m ngi ta phi chn ton t
Hermit). Chng ta c th tm thy phn b xc sut ca mt quan st trong mt trng
thi cho bng vic xc nh s tch ph ca ton t tng ng. Nguyn l bt nh
Heisenberg c biu din bng cc ton t tng ng vi cc quan st nht nh khng
giao hon vi nhau.
Phng trnh Schrodinger tc ng ln ton b bin xc sut ch khng ch nh
hng n gi tr tuyt i ca n. Nu gi tr tuyt i ca bin xc sut mang cc
thng tin v xc sut, th pha ca n mang cc thng tin v giao thoa gia cc trng thi
lng t. iu ny lm tng tnh cht sng ca trng thi lng t.
Thc ra, nghim gii tch ca phng trnh Schrdinger ch c th thu c t mt s
rt t cc Hamilton nh trng hp ca cc dao ng t iu ha lng t v nguyn

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t hydrogen l cc i din quan trng nht. Thm ch, ngay c nguyn t helium ch
gm hai in t m cng khng th gii bng gii tch c. Chnh v th m ngi ta
dng mt vi php gn ng gii cc bi ton phc tp hn mt in t. V d nh l
thuyt nhiu lon dng nghim ca cc bi ton i ca cc h lng t n gin sau
thm vo nghim mt s hng b chnh do s c mt ca mt ton t ph, c coi
nh nhiu lon gy ra. Mt phng php khc c gi l phng trnh chuyn ng
bn c in c p dng cho cc h vt l m c hc c in ch to ra mt sai khc
rt nh so vi c hc c in. Phng php ny rt quan trng trong hn lon lng t.
Mt phng php ton hc thay th c hc lng t l cng thc tch phn l
trnhFeynman, trong , bin c hc lng t c coi l tng theo tt c cc lch s
gia trng thi u v cui; n tng c vi nguyn l tc dng ti thiu trong c hc
c in.
Mi lin h vi cc l thuyt khoa hc khc
Cc nguyn tc c bn ca c hc lng t rt khi qut. Chng pht biu rng khng
gian trng thi ca h l khng gian Hilbert v cc quan st l cc ton t Hermit tc
dng ln khng gian . Nhng chng khng ni vi chng ta l khng gian Hilbert no
v ton t no. Chng ta cn phi chn cc thng s cho ph hp m t nh lng
h lng t. Mt hng dn quan trng cho vic la chn ny l nguyn l tng
ng, nguyn l ny pht biu rng cc tin on ca c hc lng t s rt v cc tin
on ca c hc c in khi h tr ln ln. "gii hn h ln" ny c coi l "c in"
hay "gii hn tng ng". Do , ta c th bt u bng mt m hnh c in vi mt
h no v c gng tin on mt m hnh lng t m trong gii hn tng ng, m
hnh lng t s rt v m hnh c in.
Ban u, khi thit lp c hc c in, n c p dng cho cc m hnh m gii hn
tng ng l c hc c in phi tng i tnh. V d m hnh dao ng t iu ha
lng t s dng biu thc phi tng i tnh tng minh cho ng nng ca dao ng
t, v n l phin bn lng t ca dao ng t iu ha c in.
Cc c gng ban u kt hp c hc lng t vi l thuyt tng i hp l thay th
phng trnh Schrdinger bng mt phng trnh hip bin nh l phng trnh KleinGordon hoc l phng trnh Dirac. Khi cc l thuyt ny thnh cng trong vic gii
thch cc kt qu thc nghim th chng li c v nh b qua qu trnh sinh v hy tng
i tnh ca cc ht. L thuyt lng t tng i tnh y phi cn n l thuyt
trng lng t. L thuyt ny p dng lng t ha cho trng ch khng ch cho mt
tp hp c nh gm cc ht (c gi l lng t ha ln th hai so snh vi lng
t ha ln th nht l lng t ha dnh cho cc ht). L thuyt trng lng t hon
thnh u tin l in ng lc hc lng t, n m t y tng tc in t.

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t khi ngi ta phi dng ton b l thuyt trng lng t m t cc h in t. Mt

phng php n gin hn c ngi ta p dng t khi khi u ca c hc lng
t, l coi cc ht tch in nh l cc thc th c hc lng t ch b tc dng bi
trng in t c in. V d, m hnh lng t c bn v nguyn t hydrogen m t
in trng ca nguyn t hydrogen s dng th nng Coulomb 1/r c in. Phng
php "bn c in" ny b v hiu ha khi thng ging lng t trong trng in t
ng vai tr quan trng nh l s pht x quang t t cc ht tch in.
L thuyt trng lng t cho lc tng tc mnh v lc tng tc yu c pht
trin v gi l sc ng lc hc lng t. L thuyt m t tng tc ca cc ht h ht
nhn nh l cc quark v gluon. Lc tng tc yu v lc in t c thng nht v
l thuyt lng t m t hai lc c gi l l thuyt in-yu.
Rt kh c th xy dng cc m hnh lng t v hp dn, lc c bn cn li duy nht
m cha c thng nht vi cc lc cn li. Cc php gn ng bn c in c th
c s dng v dn n tin on v bc x Hawking. Tuy nhin, cng thc ca mt l
thuyt hp dn lng t hon thin li b cn tr bi s khng tng thch gia l thuyt
tng i rng (l thuyt v hp dn chnh xc nht hin nay) vi mt s gi thuyt c
bn ca l thuyt lng t. Vic gii quyt s khng tng thch ny l mt nhnh ca
vt l m ang c nghin cu rt si ni hin nay. Mt s l thuyt nh l thuyt dy
l mt trong nhng ng c vin kh d cho l thuyt hp dn lng t ca tng lai.
ng dng ca c hc lng t
C hc lng t t c cc thnh cng vang di trong vic gii thch rt nhiu cc
c im ca th gii chng ta. Tt c cc tnh cht ring bit ca cc ht vi m to nn
tt c cc dng vt cht l in t, proton, neutron,... ch c th c m t bng c
hc lng t.
C hc lng t cn quan trng trong vic tm hiu cc nguyn t ring bit kt hp vi
nhau to nn cc cht nh th no. Vic p dng c hc lng t vo ha hc c
gi l ha hc lng t. C hc lng t c th cho php nhn su vo cc qu trnh lin
kt ha hc bng vic cho bit cc phn t cc trng thi c li v nng lng nh th
no so vi cc trng thi thi v lm sao m chng khc nhau. Phn ln cc tnh ton
c thc hin trong ha hc tnh ton da trn c hc lng t.
Rt nhiu cc cng ngh hin i s dng cc thit b c kch thc m hiu ng
lng t rt quan trng. V d nh l laser, transistor, hin vi in t, v chp cng
hng t ht nhn. Nghin cu v cht bn dn dn n vic pht minh ra cc i-t v
transistor, l nhng linh kin in t khng th thiu trong x hi hin i.
Cc nh nghin cu hin ang tm kim cc phng php can thip vo cc trng thi
lng t. Mt trong nhng c gng l mt m lng t cho php truyn thng tin mt

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cch an ton. Mc ch xa hn l pht trin cc my tnh lng t, c th thc hin cc

tnh ton nhanh hn cc my tnh hin ny rt nhiu ln. Mt lnh vc khc l vin
ti lng t c th cho php truyn cc trng thi lng t n nhng khong cch bt
k.
H qu trit hc ca c hc lng t
Ngay t u, cc kt qu ngc vi cm nhn con ngi bnh thng ca c hc lng
t gy ra rt nhiu cc cuc tranh lun trit hc v nhiu cch gii thch khc nhau
v c hc lng t. Ngay c cc vn c bn nh l cc quy tc Max Born lin quan
n bin xc sut v phn b xc sut cng phi mt n hng thp k mi c tha
nhn.
Gii thch Copenhagen, ch yu l do Niels Bohr a ra, l cch gii thch mu mc v
c hc lng t t khi l thuyt ny c a ra ln u tin. Theo cch gii thch ca
trng phi ny th bn cht xc sut ca cc tin on ca c hc lng t khng th
c gii thch da trn mt s l thuyt tt nh, v khng ch n gin phn nh kin
thc hu hn ca chng ta. C hc lng t cho cc kt qu c tnh xc sut v v tr
m chng ta ang thy mang tnh xc sut ch khng phi l mang tnh tt nh.
Bn thn Albert Einstein, mt trong nhng ngi sng lp l thuyt lng t, cng
khng thch tnh bt nh trong cc php o vt l. ng bo v tng cho rng c mt
l thuyt bin s n cc b nm ng sau c hc lng t v h qu l l thuyt hin ti
cha phi l hon thin. ng a ra nhiu phn i vi l thuyt lng t, trong s
th nghch l EPR (nghch l do Albert Einstein, Boris Podolsky, v Nathan Rosen
a ra) l ni ting nht. John Bell cho rng nghch l EPR dn n cc s sai khc c
th c kim nghim bng thc nghim gia c hc lng t v l thuyt bin s n
cc b. Th nghim c tin hnh v khng nh c hc lng t l ng v th gii
thc ti khng th c m t bng cc bin s n. Tuy nhin, vic tn ti cc k h Bell
trong cc th nghim ny c ngha l cu hi vn cha c gii p tha ng.
Cch gii thch a th gii ca Hugh Everett c a ra vo nm 1956 cho rng tt
c cc xc sut m t bi c hc lng t xut hin trong rt nhiu th gii khc nhau,
cng tn ti song song v c lp vi nhau. Trong khi a th gii l tt nh th chng ta
nhn c cc tnh cht bt nh cho bi cc xc sut bi v chng ta ch quan st c
th gii m chng ta tn ti m thi.
Gii thch Bohm, do David Bohm a ra, tha nhn s tn ti ca cc hm sng ph
qut, phi cc b. Hm sng ny cho php cc ht xa nhau c th tng tc tc thi
vi nhau. Da trn cch gii thch ny Bohm l lun rng bn cht su xa nht ca thc
ti vt l khng phi l tp hp cc vt th ri rc nh chng ta thy m l mt thc th
thng nht nng ng, khng th phn chia, v bt dit. Tuy nhin cch gii thch ca
Bohm khng c ph bin trong gii vt l v n c coi l khng tinh t.

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Lch s c hc lng t
Nm 1900, Max Planck a ra tng l nng lng pht x b lng t ha gii
thch v s ph thuc ca nng lng pht x vo tn s ca mt vt en. Nm 1905,
Einstein gii thch hiu ng quang in da trn tng lng t ca Plank nhng ng
cho rng nng lng khng ch pht x m cn hp th theo nhng lng t m ng
gi l quang t. Nm 1913, Bohr gii thch quang ph vch ca nguyn t hydrogen li
bng gi thuyt lng t. Nm 1924Louis de Broglie a ra l thuyt ca ng v sng
vt cht.
Cc l thuyt trn, mc d thnh cng trong gii thch mt s th nghim nhng vn b
gii hn tnh hin tng lun: chng khng c chng minh mt cch cht ch v
tnh lng t. Tt c cc l thuyt c gi l l thuyt lng t c in.
Thut ng "vt l lng t" ln u tin c dng trong bi Planck's Universe in Light
of Modern Physics ca Johnston (V tr ca Planck di nh sng ca vt l hin i).
C hc lng t hin i c ra i nm 1925, khi Heisenberg pht trin c hc
ma trn v Schrdinger sng to ra c hc sng v phng trnh Schrdinger. Sau ,
Schrdinger chng minh rng hai cch tip cn trn l tng ng.
Heisenberg a ra nguyn l bt nh vo nm 1927 v gii thch Copenhagen cng hnh
thnh vo cng thi gian . Bt u vo nm 1927, Paul Dirac thng nht l thuyt
tng i hp vi c hc lng t. ng cng l ngi tin phong s dng l thuyt
ton t, trong c k hiu Bra-ket rt hiu qu trong cc tnh ton nh c m t
trong cun sch ni ting ca ng xut bn nm 1930. Cng vo khong thi gian ny
John von Neumann a ra c s ton hc cht ch cho c hc lng t nh l mt l
thuyt v cc ton t tuyn tnh trong khng gian Hilbert. N c trnh by trong cun
sch cng ni ting ca ng xut bn nm 1932. Cc l thuyt ny cng vi cc nghin
cu khc t thi k hnh thnh cho n nay vn ng vng v ngy cng c s dng
rng ri.
Lnh vc ha hc lng t c pht trin ca nhng ngi tin phong l Walter Heitler
v Fritz London. H cng b cc nghin cu v lin kt ha tr ca phn t hydrogen
vo nm 1927. Sau , ha hc lng t c pht trin rt mnh trong c Linus
Pauling.
u nm 1927, cc c gng nhm p dng c hc lng t vo cc lnh vc khc nh
l cc ht n l dn n s ra i ca l thuyt trng lng t. Nhng ngi i u
trong lnh vc ny l Paul Dirac, Wolfgang Pauli, Victor Weisskopf v Pascaul Jordan.
Lnh vc ny cc thnh trong l thuyt in ng lc hc lng t do Richard Feynman,
Freeman Dyson, Julian Schwinger v Sin-Itiro Tomonaga pht trin cvo nhng nm

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C hc lng t

1940. in ng lc hc lng t l l thuyt lng t v in t, phn in t v in

t trng v ng vai tr quan trng trong cc l thuyt trng lng t sau ny.
Hugh Everett a ra gii thch a th gii vo nm 1956.
L thuyt sc ng lc hc lng t c hnh thnh vo u nhng nm 1960. L
thuyt ny do Politzer, Gross v Wilzcek a ra vo nm 1975. Da trn cc cng trnh
tin phong ca Schwinger, Peter Higgs, Goldstone v nhng ngi khc, Sheldon Lee
Glashow, Steven Weinberg v Abdus Salam c lp vi nhau chng minh rng lc
tng tc yu v sc ng lc hc lng t c th kt hp thnh mt lc in-yu duy
nht.
Cc th nghim quan trng
Th nghim ca Thomas Young v bn cht sng ca nh sng (1805).
Henri Becquerel pht hin ra phng x (1896).
Th nghim chm ca-tt ca Joseph John Thomson tm ra in t v in tch
m ca n (1897).
Cc nghin cu v bc x ca vt en t 1850 n 1900 dn n gi thuyt
lng t.
Hiu ng quang in: Albert Einstein gii thch hin tng nm 1905.
Th nghim git du ca Robert Millikan cho thy in tch m th hin tnh
lng t (1909).
Th nghim tm vng ca Ernest Rutherford cho thy m hnh bnh mn v
nguyn t l sai v a ra mu hnh tinh nguyn t (1911).
Otto Stern v Walter Gerlach thc hin th nghim Stern-Gerlach chng minh
bn cht lng t ca spin (1920).
Clinton Davisson v Lester Germer chng minh bn cht sng ca in t
(1927).
Clyde L. Cowan v Frederick Reines khng nh s tn ti ca neutrino trong
th nghim neutrino nm (1955).

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