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PREREQUISITES
Before beginning this chapter you should have achieved the goals of Chapter 5, Energy, and Chapter 28, Atomic Physics.
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H and 21H
! The nuclei,
10 6
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11
12
13
14
15
are all isotopes of carbon. How many neutrons are in the nucleus of each carbon isotope? The nuclei of different elements which have the same number for A are called isobars. This means they must have different values of Z and N. Some isobars are,
23 10
Ne
23
11
Na
23
12
Mg
The nuclei of different elements with equal values of N are called isotones. Some isotones are:
13 5
14
15
16
The two basic nucleons have approximately the same mass, the neutron mass being 1.008665 atomic mass units (amu) and the proton mass being 1.007276 amu. An atomic mass unit (amu) is defined to be one-twelfth of the mass of the carbon-12 nuclear mass or 1.660566 x 10-27 kg. Research is still being done to find out about the composition of nucleons and to formulate a model for the nuclear force that holds the nucleus together We know that this is the strongest of all of the fundamental forces. The fundamental forces and their relative strengths and ranges are listed in Table 31.1. The nuclear force is very short range decreasing rapidly with separation of particles and becoming insignificant for distances greater than a fermi (1 fermi (F) = 10-15 m). But for nucleons within the nuclear volume, the nuclear force is strong enough to hold protons together in spite of their Coulomb repulsive force.
The nuclear force appears to be independent of the electric charge. Thus the neutron-neutron and the neutron-proton forces are equal. Nuclear forces are the only forces in nature that exhibit a saturation effect. That is, the ability of nuclear forces to act upon other nucleons reaches a saturation value when a given nucleon is completely surrounded by other nucleons. This means that nucleons located outside the surrounding nucleons do not experience an interaction with the surrounded nucleon.
where mp is the mass of the proton and mn is the mass of the neutron. However,
Chapter 31 Nuclear Physics
! experiments show that the mass of the nucleus is less than the above. That is, mass < (Zmp + Nmn)
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We shall designate the difference between the computed mass in Equation 31.1 and the real mass as the mass defect. !m = Zmp + Nmn - M (31.3)
where M is the measured mass of the nucleus. We shall now make use of Albert Einstein's famous mass-energy equation, mass is equivalent to energy, !E = (!m)c2 = (Zmp + Nmn - M)c2 = Ebinding (31.4)
This energy is the binding energy that holds the neutrons and protons together in the nucleus. It represents the depth of the energy well that the nucleons experience within a nucleus. This indicates that when Z protons and N neutrons combine there is a release of energy (usually in the form of photons). Also it follows that energy must be supplied to break a stable nucleus into its constituent nucleons. The results of scattering experiments using charged particles as projectiles and the nucleus as a scatterer indicate that the radius of the nucleus is given by: R = roA1/3 where r0 = 1.2 x 10-15 m = 1.2 fermi (F). When neutrons are scattered by the nucleus, a somewhat larger value of R is obtained. For this case, r0 = 1.5 x 10-15 m = 1.5 F In the solution of problems, use a value of 1.3 F for r0. We can determine the density of the nucleus by dividing its mass by the volume. We need to make some assumption about the shape of the nucleus. For strong forces such as nuclear forces one would expect a configuration which would give a minimum volume for a given number of particles, that is, a spherical shape. The nuclear volume V would be given by the usual expression for the volume of a sphere, V = (4/3) "R3 = (4/3) " [roA1/3]3 = (4/3) " ro3A (31.6) (31.5)
We can approximate the nuclear mass by taking the product of A and an approximate mass of a nucleon, let's say m = 1.67 x 10-27 kg. Then, the density of the nucleus !
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(A dime's volume of nuclear matter would weigh over 60 millions tons!) Let's compare this with other densities: first, atomic densities. The radius of an atom is about 104 times that of a nucleus. So the volume of an atom is 1012 times that of the nucleus, and you have learned that most of the mass of an atom is concentrated in the nucleus so
where mH is the atomic mass of hydrogen atom and me is mass of the electron. Hence, Zmp = Z(m H - me), and the mass of the nucleus is given by the mass of the atom minus the total mass of all the electrons in the atom, M = ma - Zme where ma is the mass of the atom. Substituting these expressions in Equation 31.7 we have a complete expression for the binding energy: BE = (ZmH + Nmn - ma)c2 (31.10) (31.9)
The binding energy may be expressed in atomic mass units if we divide by c2, and express the masses in amu, thus BEamu = ZmH + Nmn - ma (31.11)
We also find that often the binding energy is expressed in terms of million electron volts (MeV). The conversion factor is
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If the binding energy is greater than zero, the nucleus is stable, and it is necessary to supply energy in order to break the nucleus into its constituent parts. If the binding energy is less than zero, the nucleus is unstable, and it will disintegrate spontaneously. We also find the binding energy per nucleon to be a useful value. This value is found by dividing the total binding energy by the number of nucleons. A graph of the binding energy per nucleon as a function of the number of nucleon is shown in Figure 31.1
EXAMPLES
1. What is the binding energy of deuterium? The deuterium nucleus 21H has one proton and one neutron. Thus, BE =mH + mn - mD. mH = 1 mass 11H = 1.007825 amu mn = 1 mass neutron = 1.008665 amu 2.016490 amu 2 mD = mass of 1H = 2.014102 amu BE = 0.002388 amu = 2.224 MeV BE/nucleon = 1.112 MeV/nucleon 2. What is the binding energy of the most common helium nucleus? Helium nucleus has two protons and two neutrons. BE = 2mH + 2mn - mHe 2 mH = 2.015650 amu 2 mn = 2.017330 amu 4.032980 amu mHe = 4.002603 amu BE = 0.030377 amu = 28.30 MeV;
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The binding energy per nucleon is many orders of magnitude greater than the binding energy of the electron in the atom. Recall that binding energy of the outermost electron (the ionization energy) is of the order of electron volts and for inner electrons of heavy atoms it is the order of thousands of electron volts. You may notice that the binding energy per nucleon is greater for helium than for deuterium. What would you conclude about the relative stability of 21H and 42He from these calculations?
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These active materials were called natural radioactive elements. These elements emit radiation spontaneously without the addition of energy to them. Many studies were made to determine the characteristics of the radiation. The results of these experiments showed that there were three types of radiation which were called alpha ("), beta (#) and gamma ($) radiation. Characteristics of each type of radiation were determined. The alpha radiation was found to be positively charged particles each with a mass of the helium nucleus. They have low penetrating ability. In fact, they are stopped by a sheet of paper. They are heavy ionizers. The beta radiation carries a negative charge and has the mass of an electron; they are high- energy electrons. They were more penetrating than the " particle but could be stopped by thin aluminum sheets. The # particle was less effective as an ionizer than an " particle. The $ radiation was not deflected by a magnetic field; hence it carried no charge. The $ radiation was very penetrating and behaved very much like x rays. Gamma radiation would pass through a lead plate. In fact it was found that $ radiation exhibited the following properties: produced fluorescence in certain crystals; blackened a photographic paper; ionized gases; produced a small effect when absorbed; was diffracted by crystals or ruled grating and refracted in crystals; reflected from crystal planes; propagated rectilinearly; and produced secondary $ rays. In addition to the natural radioactive nuclei there are induced radioactive nuclei. These are produced by bombarding a stable nucleus with some particle that is captured by and combines with the original nucleus, which then breaks up into new constituents.
where N0 is the number of nuclei at t = N is the number of nuclei left after time t, and % is the decay constant for the nuclide.
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It is usual to use the half-life as a measure of radioactivity. The half-life t1/2 is the time required for one-half of the nuclei to decay. We can express this in equation form as follows: N = (1/2)No = Noexp(-%t1/2) (1/2) = 1 exp(-%t1/2) t1/2 = ln 2/% t1/2 = 0.693/% (31.13)
The half-lives of radioactive nuclides vary from small fractions of a second to billions of years. Likewise, the decay modes of different radioactive nuclides vary. There are two principles modes of radioactive decay for natural elements. These modes are called alpha and beta decay. Alpha decay involves the emission of a 42He nucleus (a particle) from the radioactive nuclide. For example,
239 94
Pu $ 23592U + 42He
Notice that the total atomic mass numbers (superscripts) and atomic numbers or positive charges (subscripts) are equal across the reaction. All nuclear reaction equations are balanced in this way. A general form for alpha decay can be written as follows:
A Z
X $ A-4Z-2Y + 42He + $ + Q
where X represents the parent nucleus, Y, the daughter nucleus, $ a gamma ray, and Q = energy released as kinetic energy of the daughter nucleus and the alpha particle. The gamma radiation that is present with many natural radioactive nuclides is due to the nuclei changing energy levels. If the alpha decay leaves the daughter nucleus in an excited state, it will decay to its ground state by emitting a high energy photon (nuclear energy levels are mega-electron volts apart). These high energy photons are the gamma rays. The Q value for this general alpha decay can be calculated by finding the massenergy difference for the reaction. If the daughter nucleus is in the ground state, the Q value for the reactions is given by the following equation Q = [mX - (mY + m )]c2
%
(31.14)
where mX is the mass of the parent nucleus, mY is the mass of the daughter nucleus, and m is the mass of the % particle.
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The distribution of the energy Q between the daughter nucleus and the alpha particle is determined by the conservation of momentum in the process. Beta decay is a term that applies to the emission from an unstable nucleus of either an electron or a positron, a particle with the same rest mass of an electron but positive charge. At first beta-decay processes baffled the physicists because the observed particles did not seem to conserve momentum and energy. In 1934 Enrico Fermi
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proposed a theory that involved a new massless, chargeless particle that he called the neutrino (&). The neutrino represented a fudge factor that would satisfy the conservation of energy and of linear and angular momentum for the process. (It was not until 1953 that the existence of the neutrino was experimentally verified. What does this say about the faith of physicists in their conservation laws?) The neutron (when not in a nucleus) decays via beta decay into a proton, an electron and an antineutrino & as follows:
1 0
n $ 11p + e- + &
Twelve minutes is the half-life for free neutrons. Beta decay may alternately involve the emission of a position instead of an electron. In this case, the third particle is a neutrino. An example of positron emission is given in the following:
20 11
Na $ 2010Ne + e+ + &
The e+ is the symbol for a positron which has the same mass as electron but positive charge. Another important beta decay process is that of carbon-14.
14 6
C $ 147N + e- + &
Carbon-14 dating is a technique that can be used to determine the age of relics containing carbon. The ratio of 146C/126C in the atmosphere is assumed to have remained constant as the cosmic rays incident on the earth maintain the equilibrium amount of 14 14 12 6C. Living plants take in natural carbon, maintain a constant ratio of 6C/ 6C, and exhibit a radioactivity of about 16 counts per minute for each gram of carbon. This activity is the number of nuclear decays per minute. The activity of a radioactive sample is governed by the following equation: A = Aoexp(-'t) = Aoexp(-0.693t/t1/2) (31.15)
where A0 is the activity at t = 0, A is the activity at time t, and ' is the decay constant. By Equation 31.13 ' = 0.693/t1/2where t1/2 is the half-life of the decay. Thus, if the activity of a gram of carbon from the relic is measured to be A, we know that this is a measure of the amount of carbon-14 left after the relic died and stopped taking in carbon-14 from its environment. We can obtain the following equation from Equation 31.15 for the time elapsed since the sample stopped taking in carbon: Take the natural logarithm of both sides of Equation 31.15, and then solve for t to obtain: t = ln (Ao/A)/ ' = (t1/2ln (Ao/A))/0.693 t1/2 for 146C is # 5700 years Since A0 is the activity of the same amount of living carbon (about 16 counts per minute per gram) t can be calculated. Carbon-14 dating is limited to about 50,000 years because of its low activity per gram of carbon. Other radioactive dating processes make use of 23892U and 4019K.
EXAMPLE
Chapter 31 Nuclear Physics
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A relic is found to give an activity count of 12 cpm (counts per minute) for each gram of carbon. If living trees give a count of 16 cpm, find the approximate age of the relic. t = ln {(16/12)/(0.693/5700)}yr = ln [(1.33)(5700)/0.693] yr = 2345 yr A general equation for beta decay can be written as follows:
A Z
or
A Z
In these equations you may notice that atomic mass number A and electric charge are conserved. In addition, total energy, mass, and momentum are conserved. The same principles of disintegration are applicable to all nuclei. The activity of a radioactive sample is expressed in terms of the unit known as the curie (Ci). The curie is defined as 3.70 x 1010 disintegrations per second. The curie is a very high activity, and it is much more common to find samples whose activity is measured in millicuries (mCi) or microcuries (Ci).
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n + 2713Al $ 2813Al + (
where Q is the energy released. Using the method shown in Section 31.4, you should be able to calculate Q for the neutron capture by uranium 235 using the following two sequences of beta decay:
# # # # 140 140 140 140 54Xe $ 55Cs $ 56Ba $ 57La $ 58Ce and # # 94 94 94 Sr $ Y $ 38 39 40Zr The atomic mass of 14058Ce is 139.908013 amu; the atomic mass of 9440Zr is 93.906140 amu; you get a value for Q slightly greater than 200 MeV.
140
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31.9 Fission
O. Hahn and F. Strassman in 1938 showed by chemical analysis that an isotope of barium was present when uranium was bombarded with neutrons. In early 1939, O. Frisch and L. Meitner suggested that the uranium was undergoing nuclear fission. They said a single nucleus was being fragmented into two particles of comparable size. On the basis of Hahn's analysis of 14156Ba and 9236Kr a quick calculation showed that relatively speaking a large amount of energy was available, about 200 MeV. The total mass of the components is less than that of the heavy nucleus, and the mass difference appears as kinetic energy of the produced nuclei. One fission process that is triggered by a thermal neutron hitting a uranium-235 nucleus was shown as the third example of neutron processes in Section 31.8. Such fission reactions were the basis of the nuclear bombs dropped on Japan in 1945 and of the first nuclear reactors.
31.10 Fusion
In 1938 Hans Bethe suggested that the source of energy in the sun and other stars came from a nuclear reaction in which two light nuclei combined to form a heavier nucleus. These reactions are called fusion. Again, the product heavy nucleus has less mass than the sum of the two fusing nuclei, and the mass difference appears as the kinetic energy of the product. In order for a fusion reaction to take place, it is necessary that the fusing nuclei get close enough together that the nuclear force overcomes their repulsion. The temperature needed to get the nuclei close enough together for fusion is in the neighborhood of 109 degrees Kelvin. In the sun gravitational collapse provides the necessary energy. In nuclear fusion bombs the energy can be provided by fission reactions. It is the problem of generating these high temperatures and the associated containment problems that have made fusion energy reactors so elusive. Bethe suggested the following cycle as one for release of energy by fusion. a. 11H + 126C $ 137N + ( b. 137N $ 136C + e+ + & c. 11H + 136C $ 147N + ( d. 11H + 147N $ 158O + ( e. 158O $ 157N + e+ + & f. 11H + 157N $ 126C + 42He In checking we see that 126C acts as a catalyst and the net result is that four 11H atoms are consumed to form one 42He atom, g rays, two neutrinos, and two positrons. The cycle can be represented by 4 11H $ 42He + 2e+ + 2& + Q Again, we can use the method of Section 31.4 and calculate the value of Q, which turns
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out to be 25.7 MeV. That is combining four protons to form one alpha particle in this way yields 25.7 MeV of energy. Another fusion cycle that combines hydrogen to produce helium, called the protonproton cycle, is possible: a. 11H + 11H $ 21H + e+ + & b. 21H + 11H $ 32He + ( These two steps repeated yield 2 32He. c. 32He + 32He $ 42He + 211H In this cycle six protons produce 42He , two positrons, two protons, two neutrinos, and g rays. The energy released is 26.7 MeV. Only certain nuclei are suitable for fission or fusion reactions. What test can you suggest that would be useful in determining candidate nuclei for each of these reactions? (Hint: see Figure 31.1.)
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The activity of a sample is defined as its rate of decay. Thus, activity A = dN/dt, and we can write A = dN/dt = -%No exp(-%t) = -Ao exp(-%t) where Ao = %No = % x (mass of sample/atomic weight) x Avogadro's number (31.18)
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SUMMARY
Use these questions to evaluate how well you have achieved the goals of this chapter. The answers to these questions are given at the end of this summary with the number of the section where you can find related content material. Definitions 1. a. Nuclear binding energy = (___________)c2 b. Radioactivity is a process characterized by the ____________. c. Half-life is equal to the time required for _____________. d. Fission occurs when a __________ nucleus ___________ into _____________. e. Fusion occurs when a 21H nucleus is ___________ by ___________. f. a particle = ____________; b- particle = _____________; l ray = _____________. Carbon-14 Dating 2. a. What is the count per minute for a gram of living tree? b. What type of radiation is responsible for these counts? c. What does the statement, "The half-life of 146C 5700 years," mean? Radioactivity 3. The activity of a certain radioisotope is observed to decrease by a factor of eight in 30 hours. a. What is the half-life of the isotope? b. What is the disintegration constant? c. If the present activity of the sample is 300 millicuries, what will be its activity after ten hours? 4. The half-life of 23490Th is 24.1 days. How long after a sample of this isotope has been isolated will it take for 90 percent of it to change to 23491Pa? Binding Energy 5. Given that mH = 1.007825 amu, mn = 1.00865 amu, and m160 = 15.994915 amu, what is the binding energy of 168O? Find the binding energy per nucleon. 6. Given the masses 2010Ne = 19.992442 amu, 2110Ne = 20.993849 amu, 2210Ne = 21.991385 amu, and mn = 1.00865 amu, what is the binding energy of the last neutron in 22Ne?
! Answers 1. a. (Zmp + Nmn - M) c2 (Section 31.3) b. random decay of nuclei (Section 31.5) c. one-half of the nuclei to decay (Section 31.6) d. heavy, splits, lighter nuclei (Section 31.9) e. formed, 11H +11H getting close enough for nuclear force to produce 21H (Section 31.10) f. % = 42He nucleus )- = electron, ( = electromagnetic radiation (Section 31.6) 2. a. 16 b. )-ray; c, half the carbon-14 atoms have disintegrated in 5700 years (Section 31.6)
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3. a. 10 hr b. 0.0693 hr-1 c. 150 millicuries (Section 31.6) 4. 80 days (Section 31.6) 5. 127.51 MeV, 7.97 MeV/nucleon (Section 31.4) 6. 10.35 MeV (Section 31.4)
ALGORITHMIC PROBLEMS
Listed below are the important equations from this chapter. The problems following the equations will help you learn to translate words into equations and to solve singleconcept problems.
Equations !E = (!m)c2 !E = (!m)c2 = (Zmp + Nmn - M)c2 = Ebinding R = roA1/3 BE = (ZmH + Nmn - ma)c2 N = Noexp(-%t ) t1/2 = 0.693/% Q = [mX - (mY + m )]c2
%
Problems 1. If you had a system whereby you could completely convert 2 g of gasoline into energy, how much energy would be produced?
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2. In certain experiments one finds that if one has sufficient energy, an electron and positron are produced. What is the minimum energy that would be needed? Assume the mass of the electron and positron to be the same. 3. What is the value for l if one-half of the nuclei in a sample disintegrate in 1 day? 4. If the activity of a given radioactive source is reduced to one-half in one day, when will the activity be reduced to one-fourth? 5. What is the Q value for the radioactive disintegration?
226 88
EXERCISES
These exercises are designed to help you apply the ideas of a section to physical situations. When appropriate the numerical answer is given in brackets at the end of the exercise. Section 31.2 1. About 93 percent of potassium is the isotope with an atomic number 19 and mass number 39. How many protons and neutrons are there in the nucleus? [19, 20] Section 31.4 2. What is the binding energy of the nucleon? [333.7 MeV, 8.55 MeV]
39 19
3. Find the binding energy per nucleon for tritium (31H). [2.83 MeV] 4. Is it energetically possible for a proton to decay into a neutron and a positron? Section 31.6 5. A possible neutron source is called the berylium a particle sponge in which the 94Be nucleus ABSORBS an % particle and a neutron is emitted. Write this nuclear equation? What are the end products? 6. In the uranium-radium family there are 7 %-particle emissions and 4 )-particle emissions from 23892U to the stable end product. What is the end product? Give atomic number and atomic mass.
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PROBLEMS
The following problems may involve more than one physical concept. Problems requiring the material from the enrichment section are marked with a dagger . When appropriate the answer is given in parentheses at the end of each problem. 7. A neutron may have an energy from thermal energy 0.02 eV up to an energy of several MeV (say, 10 MeV). What are the relative velocities of the neutron for these energies? [6.19 x 103 m/sec, 4.4 x 107 m/sec] 8. An alpha particle has a kinetic energy of 6.08 MeV. What is the velocity of the particle? [1.71 x 107 m/sec] 9. Assume that the parent nucleus AZX in alpha decay is at rest. Show that the kinetic energy of the emitted alpha particle is given by (A-4)Q/A. (Hint: Use conservation of momentum, and assume the daughter nucleus is in the ground state.) 10. Find the kinetic energy of the alpha particle in the following reaction:
226 88
Ra $ 22286Rn + 42He
Use the results of problem 9. [4.79 MeV] 11. Find the minimum energy needed to break a carbon-12 nucleus into three alpha particles. [7.27 MeV] 12. Fill in the missing component for each of the following reactions: a. 105B + 42He $ ? + 1n b. 146C $
14 7
N+?
28 14
c. 168O + 168O $
Si + ?
d. 10n +23592U $ 10743Tc + ? + 5n [137N, )-, 42He, 12449In] 13. Find the energy released in the following fusion reaction: 21H + 21H $ 31H + 11H [3.84 MeV] 14. Find the activity of 1g of 22688Ra (half-life = 1620 yr). Compare this number with the definition of the curie. [3.60 x 1010 sec-1] 15. Find the activity of a milligram of 22790Th (half-life 1.9 yr) in curies. [0.85 curies] 16. Given a 10-millicurie sample of sample. [7.5 x 10- 10 g]
24 11
17. Iodine-131 has a half-life of 8 days. If its activity on July 1 is 6 millicuries, find its activity 16 days later. [1.5 millicuries] 18. The 13455Cs nucleus is a beta emitter which has a half-life of 2.30 year. What size source would one need for 10 disintegrations per second? [2.34 x 10-13 g]
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19. The specific activity of an isotope whose atomic mass is 212 is 2.98 x 10-17 curie/g. What is its half-life [3050 sec] 20. A lab radiologist finds a radioactive sample with no date of acquisition on it. She places the sample in front of a counter and records an activity of 1600 cpm. She then places a similar sample that has just arrived in front of the counter and records an activity of 12,800 cpm. How long has the unlabeled sample been in the lab if the halflife of the material is six days? [18 days] 21. Carbon-14 is a beta emitter and has a half-life of 5.7 x 103 year. It is used in radioactive dating. If one finds 45 disintegrations per minute from a sample of 12 g of carbon from a bone sample, how many atoms of 146C are in the sample? Other measurements have indicated that the equilibrium ratio of 146C to 126C in the atmosphere is 1.3 x 10-12. If we assume this was the ratio at the time the bone was formed, what would you conclude was the age of the bone sample? [2 half-lives or 11,400 yrs.] 22. In doing an experiment to determine the half-life of an unknown sample one might get the following data: 30 days ago the activity was recorded as 920 disintegrations per minute. Today, the activity is 230 disintegrations per minute. What is the halflife of the sample? [15 days] 23. The radioactivity of carbon from trees felled in Wisconsin glaciation is about 12 1/2 percent as intense as activity from trees cut today. When did this last ice age occur according to carbon dating? (Use 5700 years as half-life for carbon-14.) [3 half-lives] 24. Given the half-life of 146C as 5700 years. One gram of carbon from a living tree has an activity of 720 counts/hour. A gram sample of a wooden relic has an activity of 45 counts/hour. Find the approximate age of the relic. [4 half-lives] 25. Using calculus, show that the average lifetime of a radioactive isotope is equal to (1/'). Hint: the average life is the total of all lifetimes divided by the number of particles: tave = (1/N0) *oNo t dN