Chapter 7

Kcouto 7
Atutuvueoq ~ Internet
Etouyeyq
Eo kcooto ooo nopoootocot o pono cntkotvevlo oc cvo lkoo onooyt-
oev. To kcooto cotocot oo Luiueo Atrruou oo OSI (o onolo cloc oo
o0qo q B' Toq). Ilvcot eoooo ovoopo kot oo ovecpo cnlnco oo OSI
yto vo ylvoov koocpo koovoqc ot totkoolc cntkotvevlo ev copoyev
coe tkooo. Ot ootkc op,c cntkotvevlo cqyoovot c q oq0cto oo npe-
okooo TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol / Internet Protocol, Hpeokoo
Ecy,oo Mcoooq kot Atotkooo) kot c qv copoyq oo oo Huroto Atu-
irruo (Internet).
Ot ootkc cvvotc oo kcooloo clvot:
H tco0ovoq cvo onooytoq
To ovoo cvo onooytoq
H topoq noo okooo0oov o nokco c,pt vo oooov oov npooptoo
oo
kot ootko ne oo o noponove ooo,clovot coo oo.
7.1 Eninco Atuvuou
7.1.1 Icvtuc Apc
To cnlnco tkooo oo,oclot c q coopo ev nokcev ono qv ocqplo oov
npooptoo oo kot ko0oplct q topoq noo 0o okooo0qooov. Eo lkoo co-
18 Atutuvueoq ~ Internet
pclo ncpto,q noo ccoooc, o nokco yto vo oooov oov npooptoo oo
,pctocot vo ncpoooov ono cvo opt0o cvtocoev koev. Ot koot oool oo-
cc,oov oq totkoolo nopoooq. Eo o,qo 7.1 olvcot ot o cnlnco tkooo
clvot o ,oqocpo ono o cnlnco oo OSI noo oo,oclot c qv cntkotvevlo ono
okpo oc okpo. To cnlnco tkooo nopc,ct to voqrq puq eutrotvviu coo
oo onooytoev cvo tkooo. To oqovtko oqclo clvot ot o cnlnco tkooo
E,qo 7.1: Ap,trerrovtrq Movre/ou OSI
cv ,pqotonotclot ovo ooo kooo nqyq kot npooptooo u// rut oe /ou
rou evteoou rou uou ouere,ouv orqv eutrotvviu. Ito vo nopcoct ot-
nov vo nopoo0cl cvo nokco 0o npcnct vo oovcpyoooov coo oo oo o cnl-
nco tkooo ev cvtocoev kot ev op,tkev koev (nqyq kot npooptooo).
Aoo oqolvct ot ot cvtocoot koot (E,qo 7.2) 0o npcnct vo to0coov kot vo
nopoov vo ,pqotonotqooov oo o koecpo cnlnco oo OSI, ooo,toov c,pt
7.1 Eninco Atuvuou 19
o cnlnco tkooo (Aq. o ootko, o oovcoq cocvev kot o tkooo). To oo-
voo ev cvtocoev koev noo cooolct qv cntkotvevlo coo ev ctkev
onooytoev ovoocot cntuotvevtuu unoiuvuo. Ekono oo onotkooo oooo
clvot q coopo ev nokcev ono qv nqyq oov npooptoo. Mc ov pono ooo
ylvcot oytko to,eptoo coo ev 0coev cntkotvevlo (noo ovooovct
o cntkotvevtoko onolkoo) kot ev 0coev ev copoyev (noo clvot opo-
toqo ev ctkev onooytoev kot ev onolev o ,ctptoo ylvcot oovq0e oc
ovecpo cnlnco oo OSI). To cnlnco tkooo oc ko0c koo onooolct yto q
E,qo 7.2: Ievtrq etrvu trruou uuo/otorv
topoq noo 0o okooo0qoct ko0c nokco c,pt vo ooct oov cnocvo koo.
H topoq ooq oolcot oo oot,clo noo c,ct o koo oq to0coq oo kot
o onolo oopoov oovq0e qv onooylo oo tkooo ko0e kot qv koooooq
ev ypoev cntkotvevlo. Ilvcot novoc npoono0cto vo cntc,0cl q koocpq
ovoq topoq: Ito nopoctyo koocpq nopcl vo clvot q oovoocpq (ooq
noo ncpvoct ono ov tkpocpo ovoo opt0o cvtocoev koev) q ooq noo q
cocvq otyq ,pqotonotcl oo kooo noo c,oov q tkpocpq klvqoq (co-
oolovo cot ot q koovoq oo oploo oo lkoo clvot ootoopq, kot cv
onop,oov oncpopecvc kot octc ypoc).
To cnlnco tkooo npoocpct ycvtko oo koqyoplc onqpcotev:
Ynqpcolc ,epl oovcoq
Ynqpcolc npooovootocvc oc oovcoq
Avcopqo ono ov ono onqpcotev noo onooqplct o cnlnco tkooo, o cnt-
kotvevtoko onolkoo nopcl vo oolcot oc oo toopctkc tooolc:
Noqoo Kokeoo (Virtual Circuit, VC)
Aooovoev nokcev (datagrams)
qcieoq: 1,cc oovovqoct t noponove cvvotc ot c,vtkc coyeyq oo
o0qo q B' oq.
To voqo kokeoo ,pqotonotoovot kople yto onqpcolc c oovcoq. Eqv nc-
plneoq ooq, oc ot onoooct noo oopoov q topoq noo 0o okooo0qooov
o nokco coo ono o cntkotvevtoko lkoo oovovot ono qv op,q, kot nptv
cktvqoct q kovovtkq coooq ev cocvev. Oo o nokco noo ovqkoov oqv
lto cntkotvevlo 0o okooo0qooov qv lto topoq. 4olvcot cot oov vo onop-
,ct cvo ooykckptcvo ovonot coo ono oo kooo, o onolo oe cv c,ct
qtoopyq0cl ono npoyotkc ootkc ypoc oo ono ooevlo ev koev
coo oo.
Tt coyeyq 0o cl,oc ov o ovonot qtoopyoovov c onco0clo ootkc oov-
coct,
4ootko, ooo oqolvct ot yto to ooykckptcvq oovcoq ko0c koo noo cc,ct
0o npcnct vo nopcl vo ovoyveploct ot o ctocp,ocvo nokco ovqkct oc ooqv kot
vo 0ooot oc noto cnocvo koo npcnct vo o oclct (ko0e oo o nokco to
coto oovcoq npcnct vo okooo0oov qv lto topoq). Ito vo ylvct ooo, ko0c
koo oo cntkotvevtokoo onotkooo to0cct cvo nlvoko c to koo,eptoq yto
ko0c voqo kokeo oo onolo cc,ct (cvo koo nopcl ko0c opo vo cc-
,ct oc cvo opt0o ono voqo kokeoo kot npcnct vo ovoyveplct noto nokco
ovqkct oc noto kokeo). To oot,clo noo ncptoovct to coto koo,eptoq
clvot:
Apt0o ctocp,ocvoo voqoo kokeoo
Ipoq ctoooo
Apt0o ccp,ocvoo voqoo kokeoo
7.1 Eninco Atuvuou 21
Ipoq cooo
E,qo 7.3: Aetroupiu Noqrv Kur/rv
Ec ko0c ncplneoq, oov ylvcot cykoooooq to oovcoq tkooo ovol0cot oc
ooqv cvo ovotko ovoyveptotko opt0o, o upt0 voqvou uuueuvo. O
opt0o ooo nopoycot ontko ono ov koo noo cktvoct qv onoooq kot cv
nopcl vo clvot lto c kovcvo oo noo ,pqotonotclot q cocvq otyq ono
ov lto koo yto konoto oq oovcoq. O ovoyveptotko opt0o ylvcot yve-
oo kot ono0qkcocot ooo nlvokc koooooq oev ev cvtocoev koev
noo cc,oov oq ooykckptcvq cntkotvevlo. Bcoto, nopcl oc konoto cvtocoo
koo o opt0o ooo vo ,pqotonotclot qq ono to oq oovcoq kot vo qv
clvot cco0cpo. Ito ooo o oyo ot koot oool c,oov qv ovooqo vo pono-
notoov ov opt0o voqoo kokeoo ev ctocp,ocvev nokcev kot ono0qkco-
oov qv nqpooplo ooq (noto opt0o c,ct pononotq0cl kot c noto pono) oov
nlvoko koooooq oo.
Eo o,qo 7.3 olvcot to coto ncplneoq: To nokco ono ov koo A c ovo-
yveptotko opt0o voqoo kokeoo 3, colovot oo B c ovoyveptotko
opt0o 2, ko0e o 3 ,pqotonotclot qq yto qv cntkotvevlo D kot V.
Eo uuoirruu uurouvuv uurerv cv cntcycot topoq noo npcnct vo oko-
oo0qooov oo o nokco to cntkotvevlo, okoo kot ov ,pqotonotooc onq-
pcolc c oovcoq. Ko0c nokco nopcl vo okooo0qoct toopctkq topoq yto
vo ooct oov npooptoo oo. Eqv ncplneoq ooq, ot nlvokc ev koev nc-
ptc,oov oot,clo noo npootoploov oc noto ypoq (koo) npcnct vo oocl ko0c
ctocp,ocvo nokco eoc vo ooct oov npooptoo oo.
Tooo oqv ncplneoq noo cvo lkoo ,pqotonotcl oooovoo nokco, ooo kot oq
ncplneoq noo ,pqotonotcl voqo kokeoo, nopooc vo c,ooc onqpcolc c
oovcoq kot onqpcolc ,epl oovcoq.
7.2 Tcvooyiu TCP/IP
7.2.1 Etouyeyq ovqv Tcvooyiu TCP/IP
Av kot ot cpc o o opo TCP/IP ,pqotonotclot yto vo ncptypoct noc
toopctkc cvvotc, q cpqvclo noo c,ct cntkpoqoct ncptooocpo ovocpcot oc
cvo npeokoo cntkotvevlo yto coopo cocvev.
qcieoq uuvuvqoq: Hpeokoo ycvtko ot cntkotvevlc ovooooc cvo
oovoo kovovev ot onolot oploov to yeooo cntkotvevlo. Ekono oo npeo-
kooo clvot vo lvcot q ovooqo cntkotvevlo coo oookcoev toopctkoo
onoo kot koookcoooev coo oo. Ito nopoctyo, 0o nopoov vo cntkotve-
vqooov coo oo onooytoc c toopctko ctoopytko (n.,. Windows kot
UNIX) q okoo kot toopctkc oookcoc (onooytoq c ktvqo qcevo).
To TCP/IP oqolvct Tronsmission Conrrol Prorocol / Inrerner Prorocol kot 0o no-
poooc vo 0cepq0cl ot npokctot yto oovoooo ooev ev oo npeokoev. Eqv
npoyotkoqo eoooo, o TCP kot o IP clvot oo ,eptoo npeokoo (,pqot-
onotoovot oe nopo noo oo,vo oc oovoooo one 0o ooc, ko0e o cvo
,pctocot yto vo cocpct o cocvo noo qtoopycl o oo).
7.2 Tcvooyiu TCP/IP 23
Akoo o TCP/IP onoccl oqv npoyotkoqo to re,vo/oiu eutrotvviu q
onolo ncptoovct kot nq0o oev npeokoev noo cv ncptc,ovot oo ovoo
oo.
qcieoq uuvuvqoq: Mnopcl vo c,cc okoooct cptko ono ooo: Hpokctot
yto npeokoo one o FTP (File Transfer Protocol, npeokoo coopo op-
,clev), SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol, ono npeokoo coopo o,o-
pocloo) kn. Oo ccooooc konoto ono ooo oc cnocvc cvoqc.
To ovoo TCP/IP c,ct cntkpoqoct cnctq npokctot yto o oo nto yveoo npeo-
koo q ooo. Hcqvtkq onoooq ev opev clvot Hprro//o L/e,ou Mer-
ooq / Hprro//o Atutrruou. Hovoykq yto q qtoopylo oo TCP/IP npockoc
ono o ycyovo ot nptv ono ooo, oookcoc toopctkev koookcoooev q c to-
opctko ctoopytko cv nopoooov (cokoo) vo cntkotvevqooov coo oo. H
cntkpoqoq oo TCP/IP oclcot ooo nopokoe oyoo:
Elvot npeokoo ovotko kot to0coto oc ooo
Ynqp,c ovoykq yto cvo ovo kotvo npoono
To npeokoo TCP/IP c,ct oqcpo ko0otkq ovoyveptoq kot ctoopycl c ov
lto pono ot oookcoc oev ev koookcoooev, cooolovo cot cokoq
cntkotvevlo coo toopctkev onooytotkev oooqoev. Motoo oov ,pq-
otonotclot TCP/IP, cv ,pctocot koto totkoolo coponq cocvev yto
q coopo ono cvo oooqo oc cvo oo (okoo kot ov ooo clvot toopctkev
koookcoooev, onocoovot ono toopctko otko (hardware) q ,pqotonotoov
toopctko ctoopytko oooqoo).
qcieoq: Oov ,pqotonotooc ov opo TCP/IP 0o cvvoooc ono ce kot npo
ovo o npeokoo TCP kot o npeokoo IP. Oov 0cooc vo ovocp0ooc
oc oq qv otkoycvcto npeokoev TCP/IP 0o o ovocpooc e npevuou
TCP/IP q e vcvooyiu TCP/IP q vcvooyiu Atutuvuou (Internet).
To lkoo noo ,pqotonotoov o npeokoo TCP/IP, ovocpovot kot e tol-
koo TCP/IP (TCP/IP internets). Acv 0o npcnct eoooo vo ncpcoooc qv cvvoto
ev TCP/IP totkoev c o Huyuoto Atuiuvuo (Internet).
Hopoqpqoc ot oov ovocpoooc oo Hoykooto Atolkoo ypoooc q cq
Internet c kcoolo I cve yto cvo tko o tolkoo TCP/IP, ,pqotonotooc
q cq internet c tkpo ypoo.
1vo tolkoo TCP/IP nopcl vo clvot cvo onotoqnoc lkoo oolcot oqv c-
,vooylo TCP/IP. To Atolkoo (Internet) oe clvot o cyoocpo noykooto l-
koo onooytoev o onolo ckclvcot oc oc t qnclpoo kot oovcct coo oo
ckooopto onooytoev. H c,vooylo oo oolcot ootko oo npeokoo
TCP/IP (oqv npoyotkoqo qtoopyclot cvevovo coo oo noo tkpo-
cpo lkoo onooytoev).
1tvot cnloq ovoov vo o,ctooooc o coecptko (ontko) lkoo to cotplo
eoc vo ctoopycl c nopooto pono c o Internet. Oo nopooooc n.,. vo q-
toopyqoooc t copoyc q cotplo o c coto pono eoc o ,ctptoo
oo vo ylvcot coe toooclev Hoykootoo Iooo (World Wide Web, WWW).
1vo coto ttetko lkoo noo otoct oq ctoopylo oo c o Internet, ovooc-
ot eoreptr ttrtr irruo re,vo/oiu TCP q inrroner. Oo o okooocc okoo
kot c ov opo evoirruo.
Iovoptu qcieu: Ot ooct oo Atotkooo c0qkov ot op,c q ckoclo
oo 1960 ono qv Ynqpcolo Hpoqycvev Epcovqtkev Hpoypooev oo Ynoop-
ycloo Aovq ev HHA (ARPA, Advanced Research Projects Agency). H onqpcolo
ooq covooo0qkc opyocpo oc DARPA (Defense Advanced Research Projects
Agency). Eo coo q ckoclo oo 1960, onqp,c qq cyoq coneoq ev ono-
oytoev ot opotetkc cntkotvevlc, oo kot cvo cyoo npoqo: Ot ono-
oytoc oool npocp,ovov ono toopctkoo koookcoooc kot cv nopoooov
vo oovcpyoooov coo oo. Ot koookcoooc cvc,vo povtov vo to,voov
npeokoo c o onolo nopoooov vo cntkotvevqooov ovo o tko oo npoovo
coo oo. 1ot o opoo cl,c ccpoycvq lkoo (onooytoc toopev koo-
okcoooev) o onolo oe cv nopoooov vo cntkotvevqooov coo oo.
Ito qv ovtcentoq ooev ev npoqoev, oo kot c q okcq ot oc ncpl-
neoq nocoo 0o cnpcnc vo onop,ct konoto oooqo qcntkotvevtev o onolo
vo ctoopycl okoo kot ov c,ct kooopocl cyoo cpo ev ypoev cntkot-
vevlo, qtoopyq0qkc cvo lkoo ootocvo oqv c,vtkq coyeyq nokcev. H
ootkq ono0coq (nopoo,q) yto q o,clooq kot qtoopylo oo qov ot ot oovc-
oct coo ev nocev 0o npcnct vo 0cepoovot cvce ovotontoc. To op,tko
ooo lkoo ovoooqkc ARPANET kot onocoovov ono to0ecvc ypoc
noo oovcovov oc kooo coyeyq.
To ARPANET op,toc vo ctoopycl cnloqo o 1971, kot ot npec onqpcolc noo
nopcl,c qov q coopo op,clev kot q onookpoocvq oovcoq (Eqcleoq: Hpo-
kctot yto t onqpcolc FTP kot telnet). Apyocpo npooc0qkc kot q onqpcolo qc-
kpovtkoo o,opocloo.
Ko0e ot ovoykc cntkotvevlo oo ARPANET ooovovov, ,pqotonotq0qkov o
1974 o npeokoo TCP/IP kot q op,tckovtkq ev poooyqev yto qv co-
7.2 Tcvooyiu TCP/IP 2S
nqpcqoq oo. To vco npeokoo qov ovcopqo ono o otko kot o oytotko
,oqocpoo cntncoo: nopoooc vo ctoopyqoct c ov lto pono oc oookcoc
onotooqnoc koookcoooq kot koopyoooc oo ncptoptooo cntkotvevlo noo
cncoov ot toopot koookcoooc. Aoyekot ooq q kotvoolo oo, o vco
npeokoo npoo0qkc kot yto noykooto tooovcoq (to tco opkco npeono-
ptokq yto qv cno,q).
To 1982 o TCP/IP ko0tcpe0qkc e o ootko npeokoo oo tkooo noo ovo-
noooovov kot o onolo oovccc ncov oooqoo oc oq qv qnctpo. Ynooyl-
cot ot qv npeq ckoclo ctoopylo oo TCP/IP oovcovov oo ARPANET
cvo vco onooytoq ko0c clkoot cpc.
Mc qv cctq oo ARPANET cytvc ovcpo ot o vco lkoo 0o nopoooc vo
otonotq0cl kot ono cpcovqc q opotetkev copoyev. Aqtoopyq0qkc cot
o MILNET e lkoo opotetkev copoyev cve o ARPANET nopcctvc yto
cpcovqtkc kot oc pooqptoqc noo cv o,clovov c o opoo. Mc qv
nopoo oo ,povoo, o ARPANET cncpooc o opto oo opotetkoo tkooo
kot op,toov vo npool0cvot oc ooo o lkoo novcntoqlev, kotvecev op-
yovtoev ko0e kot cotptev. To lkoo ooo ccl,0qkc oo yveoo o oqcpo
Internet.
7.2.2 coq OSI uut TCP/IP
To TCP/IP kot o OSI oootootko ovono,0qkov ooo,povo. Acv onop,ct oqv
npoyotkoqo ooykpoooq coo ev oo npoonev, eoooo onop,oov konotc
oootootkc toopc.
Eo o0qo q B oq o0oc ot o npoono OSI ,eplct q ctoopylo oo t-
kooo oc cnlnco. To TCP/IP ,pqotonotcl cnloq o lto ovco. Mto ono t o-
otkc toopc ev oo clvot ot o OSI ,pqotonotcl cno cnlnco cve o TCP/IP
ovo coocpo. Aoo oqolvct ot cv onop,ct ovtoot,lo ev cntncev cvo npo
cvo. One nopclc vo clc oo o,qo 7.4, nqpq ovtoot,lo onop,ct oo cnlnco
coopo kot tkooo. To cnlnco copoyq, nopooolooq kot oovooo oo OSI
oovooovot oo cnlnco copoyq oo TCP/IP, cve kot o cnlnco oovcoq c-
ocvev kot ootko oovooovot oo cnlnco npooooq tkooo. O oovoooo
ev cntncev oovcoq cocvev kot ootkoo oo TCP/IP clvot onopolqo, ko-
0e ootkq op,q q c,vooylo TCP/IP clvot q oonolqoq npeokooo ,epl
oovcoq.
Eqv npoyotkoqo eoooo, okoo kot oo ovco OSI o cnlnco oovcoq
cocvev kot o ootko cnlnco oovooovot oc cvo convo ccykq (kopo) t-
kooo.
E,qo 7.4: Movre/u OSI rut TCP/IP
Eo o,qo 7.3 nopoootoovot o cnlnco oo TCP/IP oc o,coq c o cnlnco oo
OSI cve nopoootoovot kot o npeokoo noo ,pqotonotoovot yto qv oo-
nolqoq ko0c cntncoo. Hove ono o npeokoo TCP/IP, plokovot o npeo-
koo noo ,pqotonotoovot oo cnlnco copoyq. To npeokoo ooo c,oov
qtoopyq0cl c coto pono eoc vo ,pqotonotoov yto qv cntkotvevlo clc o
Hprro//o L/e,ou Merooq TCP clc o Hprro//o Aurouvuv Hurerv
Xpqorq, User Doroqrom Prorocol, UDP oo cnlnco coopo. Eo cnlnco t-
kooo ,pqotonotclot o Hprro//o Atutrruou, IP ko0e kot o Hprro//o
Mqvuuro L/e,ou Atutrruou, Inrerner Conrrol Messoqe Prorocol, ICMP. Ko0e
o npeokoo ooo oonotoovot c oytotko (npoypooo) o o,qo cl,vct
kot q o,coq ev npoypooev coo oo.
E,qo 7.3: Xroiu Hpror//v TCP/IP
Enc{qyqoq vev Hpevouev vou oquvo 7.S: To npeokoo copoyq noo
olvovot oqv optocpq oqq ,pqotonotoov o npeokoo TCP oo cnlnco c-
oopo. To npeokoo copoyq q cto oqq ,pqotonotoov o npeo-
koo UDP oo cnlnco coopo. Kot ot oo ncptneoct, oo cnlnco tkooo
,pqotonotoovot o npeokoo IP kot ICMP. To npeokoo noo ovocpovot
oo o,qo clvot:
Telnet: Telecommunications Network (Eq: Ao0o oo tloo oqv npoy-
otkoqo oqolvct Teletype Network) o onolo ,pqotcoct yto qv onoo-
kpoocvq oovcoq kot ,ctptoo (oc ncptoov ypoq cvoev) cvo ono-
oytoq ono cvo oo. Et cpc o c,ct ovtkoooo0cl ono o noo nto
oooc SSH (Secure Shell).
FTP: File Transfer Protocol q Hpeokoo Mcoopo Ap,clev o onolo
,pqotonotclot yto q coopo op,clev ono cvo onooytoq oc cvo oo.
To ,pqotonotooc kot oqcpo yto vo kocooooc op,clo ono oo cyo-
cvoo euuqperqre FTP.
SMTP: Simple Mail Transfer Protocol q Ano Hpeokoo Mcoopo To-
,opocloo. Hpokctot yto o npeokoo noo ,pqotonotoov coo oo ot
conqpcqc qckpovtkoo o,opocloo (o yveoo o email) oo Internet
yto vo cocpoov o qvooo noo ocvooc c,pt ov nopoqnq.
TFTP: Hpokctot yto o Ano Hpeokoo Mcoopo Ap,clev (Trivial
FTP) o onolo ,pqotonotclot yto coopo op,clev one kot o FTP oo
c,ct noo tkpocpc ovooqc kot noonokoqo kot ,pqotonotclot oc
cttkc ncptneoct onoo cv nopcl (q cv ,pctocot) vo ,pqotonotq0cl o
kovovtko FTP.
Oo ooc epo t ctoopylc noo ckcoov o cnlnco npooooq tkooo kot
coopo.
7.2.2.1 Eninco Hpouoq Atuvuou
To cnlnco npooooq tkooo nopc,ct qv npooooq oo ootko coo oo onolo
q nqpooplo colcot c qv opq nokcev. To cnlnco npooooq tkooo
ovtnpooencoct o ,oqocpo cnlnco ctoopytkoqo noo onotclot ono cvo
lkoo kot ncptoovct oo o oot,clo q ootkq oovcoq: koeto, kopc
tkooo, npeokoo npooooq ontkev tkoev. One ko0c cnlnco oo TCP/IP
(oo kot oo OSI), o cnlnco ooo nopc,ct t onqpcolc oo oo ocoe ovecpo
cnlnco, o cnlnco tkooo. Eqv c,vooylo TCP/IP cv onop,oov npotoypoc
yto o ,oqocpo cnlnco oo cntncoo tkooo kot cot nopoov vo ,pqoto-
notoovot cvce toopctkc c,vooylc. Aoo npoktko oqolvct ot o TCP/IP
nopcl vo ,pqotonotq0cl oc toopctko ootko coo kot c,vooylc (Ethernet,
Token ring kn).
7.2.2.2 Eninco Atuvuou
To cnlnco ooo clvot onco0ovo yto q coooq oo ootko lkoo ev nokcev
noo qtoopyoovot ono o npeokoo TCP kot UDP noo plokovot oo oc-
oe ovecpo cnlnco (Mcoopo). To ootko npeokoo noo ,pqotonotclot oc
ooo o cnlnco clvot o IP q npeokoo Atotkooo kot clvot ooo noo o co-
oolct qv noykooto tooovcotoqo. To npeokoo IP clvot onco0ovo yto
qv nopo,q oytkev tco0ovocev (ev yveoev o tco0ovocev IP) oo oqclo
tcnoq oo c o ootko lkoo (oc ko0c q. oookcoq oo tkooo noo to0cct
tkq q tco0ovoq). Elvot cnloq onco0ovo yto qv ovtool,qoq ev oytkev (IP)
tco0ovocev c t ootkc tco0ovoct.
qcieoq uuvuvqoq: Tt clvot q ootkq tco0ovoq, Ko0c oookcoq noo c,ct o-
vooqo vo to0cct to tco0ovoq IP (n.,. to kopo tkooo oc cvo onooytoq)
c,ct cnloq kot cvo ovotko ,opokqptotko ovoyveptotko opt0o, qv uotrq
teu0uvoq q teu0uvoq MAC q onolo lvcot ono ov koookcoooq q kot clvot
oo0cpq. Ito t ootkc tco0ovoct oo Ethernet, 0o ovocp0ooc oc cnocvq
cvoqo.
Ot ootkc tco0ovoct nopc,ovot ono o cnlnco npooooq tkooo (ootko
cnlnco) q ono o ono-cnlnco ccy,oo npooncooq cooo MAC (Media Access
Control) oo OSI. To npeokoo IP nopc,ct oytkc tco0ovoct oo oqclo tc-
noq oo c o ootko lkoo cve onop,ct kot ovtool,qoq ev oytkev tco-
0ovocev c ootkc. Ito t cpyoolc ooc ,pqotonotoovot o npeokoo ARP
(AJJress Resolurion Prorocol) kot RARP(Reverse AJJress Resolurion Prorocol).
ARP: Hpeokoo Mcoponq Atco0ovocev
RARP: Hpeokoo Avoopoq Mcoponq Atco0ovocev
Eo cnlnco tkooo ctoopycl cnloq kot o npeokoo ICMP, Inrerner Conrrol
Messoqe Prorocol q Hprro//o L/e,ou Meruop Mqvurv. Aoo ,pqoto-
notclot yto vo ovocpct npoqoo kot ooovq0toc koooooct noo o,clovot
c o npeokoo IP. Eovq0e qtoopycl kot cocpct qvooo noo c,oov vo
kovoov c qv koooooq ctoopylo ev oookcoev oo tkooo. Aqtoopycl cnl-
oq kot cocpct qvooo noo o,clovot c qv lto q ctoopylo oo TCP/IP
kot o,t ono konoto copoyq noo ckccl o ,pqoq. Ito nopoctyo oov konoto
npoono0cl vo oovc0cl oc cvo onooytoq o onolo cv clvot to0coto q co-
cvq otyq (n.,. ytol cv clvot cvcpyo q ytol onop,ct npoqo oo ooykckpt-
cvo qo oo tkooo) 0o oct cvo qvoo ot o onooytoq clvot onpoot-
o.
Hupctyu un vo Epyuovqpto u
$ p1hg 1u.14.2B.11
P1hg1hg 1u.14.2B.11 W1th 32 bytes of data.
uest1hat1oh host uheachabJe.
P1hg stat1st1cs fo 1u.14.2B.11.
Packets. 5eht = 4, Rece1ved = u, Lost = 4 {1uuZ Joss}
Avl0co, to cntkotvevlo noo ctoopycl 0o c,ct o nopokoe onoccoo:
$ p1hg WWW.feebsdg.og
PTNu WWW.feebsdg.og {94.71.112.1u9}. 5 data bytes
4 bytes fon 94.71.112.1u9. 1cnpseq=u ttJ=2 t1ne=21.B49 ns
4 bytes fon 94.71.112.1u9. 1cnpseq=1 ttJ=2 t1ne=21.325 ns
4 bytes fon 94.71.112.1u9. 1cnpseq=2 ttJ=2 t1ne=2u.B9 ns
7.2.2.3 Eninco Mcvuoop
To cnlnco coopo clvot onco0ovo yto qv oonolqoq ev oovcocev coo
ev onooytoev cvo tkooo. To ootko npeokoo ce clvot o TCP (npeo-
koo c oovcoq) cve nopcl vo ,pqotonotq0cl kot o UDP (npeokoo ,epl
oovcoq). To TCP clvot onco0ovo yto qv onokoooooq otontoev ooo,povev
oovcocev tnq koco0ovoq.
Hcvvoto oo ututorou clvot ot o TCP ovooovct vo top0eoct o o0q noo o-
,ov nopoootoovot oq coooq (n.,. colovo ovo cvo nokco noo ,o0qkc
q oote0qkc). To TCP nopc,ct t onqpcolc oo oo ocoe ovecpo cnlnco
(Eopoyq). Ko0e 0cepclot ot ot oovcoct noo nopc,ct clvot otontoc, o
npoypooo oo cnlnco copoyq cv kovoov kovcvo ccy,o yto op0oqo ev
cocvev noo npocp,ovot ono o TCP.
Hcvvoto oo ruur,povou clvot ot cvo onooytoq nopcl oc to cocvq otyq
vo toqpcl nq0o toopctkev oovcocev TCP ot onolc vo ctoopyoov oc
ol oo koto vo qv cnqpcoct qv oq.
Lutrotvviu tu/q rureu0uvoq oqolvct ot coe to oovcoq nopoov ooo-
,povo vo colovot kot vo oovovot cocvo.
To npeokoo oooovoev nokcev UDP clvot cvo npeokoo ,epl oovcoq.
Acv clvot ttolcpo otontoo, oo cnctq clvot tyocpo noonoko ,pqotonotcl-
ot oc ncptneoct noo q otontolo cv clvot kplotq kot cv clvot q cnt0oqq q
,pqoq oo TCP.
Hupuciyuvu uuvuvqoq UDP: Mto coooq potoevoo coe Internet no-
pcl vo ,pqotonotcl coooq c nokco UDP. Av konoto nokco ,o0oov q oote-
0oov 0o c,ct oov onoccoo qv npooeptvq tokonq q nopoopeoq oo q,oo.
Ooooo oq ooykckptcvq copoyq ooo cv clvot kploto. Ano qv oq cv
0o nopooooc vo kocooooc op,clo coe UDP ,epl cpo ccy,o o0ev (o
onolo 0o npcnct npoove vo ylvct ncov oo cnlnco copoyq). Atoopctko
o ncptc,ocvo oo 0o nopoooov vo clvot kocopocvo, ,epl vo nopooc vo
o ovtq0ooc ocoo.
7.2.2.4 Eninco Eoupoyq
To cnlnco copoyq nopc,ct t copoyc (npoypooo) noo ,pqotonotoov
o npeokoo oo cntncoo coopo. Hopoclyoo eooc oqv npoqyoo-
cvq cvoqo (coopo op,clev, qckpovtko o,opoclo, onookpoocvq npo-
oooq). To cnlnco copoyq clvot kot o oqclo noo o ctko ,pqoq cp,cot
oc cnoq c qv oolo npeokoev q c,vooylo TCP/IP.
Eo o,qo 7.6 olvcot o ootko ovco cntkotvevlo noo ,pqotonotclot ot
ncptooocpc copoyc TCP/IP kot o onolo cv clvot oo ono o ovco ue/rq
euuqperqrq. O conqpcqq clvot to tcpyoolo (npoypoo) q onolo ckccl-
ot oc cvo onooytoq (yveoo e server) kot ccy,ct t ctocp,ocvc otqoct
ncoev yto vo ct ov konoto onco0ovcot npo ooqv. Av onop,ct konoto coto
olqoq, o conqpcqq ovooovct vo pct o cocvo noo qoovot kot vo o
oclct oov ncoq.
O ncoq clvot not ovloot,o o npoypoo noo ,pqotonotclot (oovq0e ono
ov ctko ,pqoq) yto vo qqoct o cocvo ono ov conqpcqq. O ncoq
ocvct qv ovloot,q olqoq kot ncptcvct vo oct o cocvo noo qqoc. Mc
o co q conqpcqoq cvo ncoq, o conqpcqq cntopcct ovo oc koo-
oooq ovoovq, ncptcvovo vco olqoq (Eqcleoq: Tontko cvo conqpcqq
clvot oc 0coq vo conqpcqoct ooo,povo ncptooocpc ono to otqoct).
Hupctyu Hcvq ~ E{unqpcvqvq: Oov ,pqotonotclc ov Firefox yto vo
oovc0clc oc to toooclo, o npoypoo ooo ctoopycl e ncoq. Zqoct o
E,qo 7.6: Hpruuo He/rq Luuqperqrq
cocvo q toooclo ono ov ovloot,o euuqperqrq torooe/iv (Web Server)
o onolo ckcclot oo q,ovqo noo npoono0clc vo oovc0clc.
Epyuovqptuuq ouqoq uuvuvqoq: Ekccoc oc cvo q,ovqo:
Linux: hetstat -hpJ |noe
FreeBSD: sockstat -4J |noe
yto vo clc notot conqpcqc ckcoovot kot ovocvoov otqoct ono nco-
c.
Ecktvqoc vo kococc c FTP cvo op,clo (n.,. ono qv ono0colo
ftp.77ftp.otehet.g) kot ,pqotonotqoc t cvoc:
Linux: Jsof -PhJ +h -14 | noe
FreeBSD: sockstat -4L | noe
yto vo clc q oovcoq noo c,ct npoyoonotq0cl coo oo q,ovqoo oo kot
oo onookpoocvoo conqpcqq. Avloot,c cvoc onop,oov kot yto Windows,
oo oo oqve vo t pclc ovot oo!
7.2.3 Buotuc Apc Entuotveviu ovqv Tcvooyiu TCP/IP uut
ovo Atuiuvuo
Ito vo ovtq0ooc qv cntkotvevlo ooevo c o ovco TCP/IP, opkcl vo
koovoqoooc o o,qo 7.7.
One cnooc, oo oqocpo cnlnco (copoyev) oo TCP/IP plokovot ot
copoyc ot onolc ,pqotonotoov o cnlnco noo plokovot koe ono ooo,
E,qo 7.7: Lutrotvviu Lutuev TCP/IP
q. o coopo, tkooo kot npooooq tkooo. To cnlnco copoyev oo
tkoo o onooytoq nopcl vo 0cepq0cl ot cntkotvevcl c o ovloot,o cnlnco
copoyev oo onookpoocvoo npokctcvoo vo ookqpe0cl to cpyoolo (yto
nopoctyo q onoooq cvo qvooo Hckpovtkoo To,opocloo c ooq o
npeokoo SMTP o onolo ovqkct oo cnlnco copoyq). To cvtocoo cnl-
nco npooopooov kot cocpoov o cocvo noo nopoyovot ono o cnlnco
copoyq. Eo nopoctyo o ,pqotonotooc o npeokoo SMTP:
To op,tko cocvo nopoyovot ono qv copoyq oo ,pqoq kot nopo-
lovot oo npeokoo noo ckcclot oo cnlnco copoyq. To SMTP
npoo0cct t cvoc kot o qvooo noo onotoovot yto vo ylvct q cntkot-
vevlo c ov onookpoocvo conqpcqq SMTP (oo o,qo 7.8 nopclc
vo clc to oovotlo coo oo conqpcqev SMTP).
To cocvo ono o cnlnco copoyq nopolovot oo cnlnco coopo
oo onolo copcnovot oc nokco TCP q UDP ovooyo c qv copoyq.
Ito o SMTP ,pctooooc cntkotvevlo TCP.
To nokco ono o cnlnco coopo ctocp,ovot oo cnlnco tkooo onoo
npool0cvot ot nqpooplc tco0ovoq IP noo onotoovot yto q poo-
oyqoq.
Tco, cocpovot oo cnlnco npooooq tkooo onoo npooopoovot
oo npeokoo oo ootkoo cooo (Ethernet, ADSL, token ring kn) kot
nopolovot coo ono q tkookq oookcoq (n.,. qv kopo tkooo) oo
ootko coo.
E,qo 7.8: Lutrotvviu Luuqperqrv SMTP
Hpoove, oqv cpto oo nopoqnq okooo0clot q ovlopoq totkoolo. To
cocvo ctocp,ovot ono o ootko coo (cnlnco npooooq tkooo) kot ovc-
olvoov o cnlnco npo o nove, onoo too,tko ovooov0covot c,pt vo o-
ooov oo cnlnco copoyq kot vo nopoq0oov ono o npeokoo SMTP. To
npeokoo SMTP 0cepcl ot q coooq clvot otontoq (q c,voc ot ylvcot
coe TCP, o onolo clvot otontoo npeokoo). O ccy,o o0ev (n.,. nokco
noo ,o0qkov q oote0qkov) ylvcot oo cnlnco coopo ono o npeokoo
TCP.
Entoquvoq: Ot copoyc noo ,pqotonotoov o npeokoo TCP/IP ,pqoto-
notoov ycvtko coocpo cnlnco:
Hprro//o eupoq: H.,. SMTP, FTP, HTTP. Avooyo c o npeokoo
copoyq 0o cntc,0cl kot o kooqo npeokoo coopo (TCP q
UDP).
Hprro//o eruop: TCP q UDP. 1,ooc qq nct t toopc oo. Ho-
pc,oov t onqpcolc oo oo npeokoo copoyev.
Hprro//o trruou: To IP noo nopc,ct t onqpcolc yto q coopo ev
nokcev oov npooptoo oo.
Hprro//u upouoq trruou (uotrou eoou): Anotoovot yto q to,cl-
ptoq oo ootkoo cooo (n.,. Ethernet).
H c,vooylo TCP/IP oolcot oc ovco noo 0cepcl ot ot onooytoc oov-
covot coo oo tocooo cvo cyooo opt0oo tkoev. Mc lyo oyto, o
cocvo ono ov onooytoq nqyq 0o ncpoooov ono cvo opt0o cvtocoev q-
,ovqoev c,pt vo oooov oov onooytoo npooptooo. To lkoo ooo oov-
covot coo oo c q oq0cto cttkev q,ovqoev noo ovooovot poo-
/oqre.
qcieoq uuvuvqoq: O poooyqq nopcl vo clvot ccttkcocvq oookcoq
(n.,. o poooyqq oo cpyooqploo noo poooycl o cocvo ev q,ovq-
oev o npo o Internet) q kot kovovtko onooytoq o onolo ckccl ooq q
totkoolo c o kooqo oytotko.
H onoooq ev nokcev npcnct vo ylvcot c coto pono eoc o ,pqoq vo
qv ovtoovcot qv totkoolo (npcnct vo clvot tuvq). 1ot o ,pqoq cv
,pctocot vo yveplct ono noto cvtocoo q,ovqoo kot poooyqc 0o nc-
poooov o nokco yto vo oooov oov npooptoo oo. To ovo noo ,pctocot vo
yveplct npoktko, clvot q tco0ovoq IP oo nopoqnq.
Eovq0e o clvot nto cokoo vo 0ooooc ovooo nopo opt0oo, yto o okono
ooo onop,ct kooqo oytotko kot to ooq cocvev c qv onolo ovtoot-
,lovot o ovooo ot IP tco0ovoct oo (npokctot yto qv onqpcolo DNS yto
qv onolo 0o ovocp0ooc oc cnocvo o0qo). Xpqotonotevo one o ovoo,
ylvcot q kooqq ovoqqoq kot q oovcoq oqv ovloot,q IP tco0ovoq.
To npeokoo TCP/IP c,oov qtoopyq0cl c ooq qv c,vooylo ,epl oov-
coq. To nokco colovot oo lkoo ooovoo, ko0cvo ono ooo nopcl vo
okooo0cl toopctkq topoq c,pt vo ooct oov npooptoo oo.
Hupctyu: A ono0coooc ot 0cooc vo oclooc cvo op,clo cyc0oo 13000
bytes (okoev). Et ncptooocpc ncptneoct o coo oo tkooo cv 0o o
cntpcct vo oclooc oc ooc t nqpooplc oc cvo nokco, ytol clvot noo
cyoo. A ono0coooc ot ooo o op,clo 0o onooct oc 30 nokco ev 300 bytes.
Ko0cvo ono ooo o nokco 0o oocl oov npooptoo oo onoo kot 0o cnovooov-
c0oov yto vo o,qolooov o op,tko op,clo ev 13000 bytes.
Eq topkcto q coopo oo, o lkoo cv yveplct ot o nokco ooo o,cl-
ovot coo oo (ot clvot q. cpo q lto coooq). Enloq nopcl konoto
7.2 Tcvooyiu TCP/IP 3S
ono ooo vo ,o0oov, vo oote0oov q vo oooov c o0o octpo. H.,. o nokco
14 nopcl vo okooo0qoct oq topoq kot vo ooct nptv o nokco 13.
Ec ko0c ncplneoq oo ooo o npoqoo npcnct vo o0oov nptv qtoopyq0cl
ovo o op,clo oov npooptoo: To nokco noo ,o0qkov npcnct vo oooov ovo.
Eov npooptoo npcnct vo noov ovo oq oeoq octpo. Oc ooc ot cvcpyctc
onocoov tcpyoolc oo npeokooo TCP. Tlnoo ono ooo cv ylvcot ovtq-
no ono ov ctko ,pqoq.
Ot poooyqc noo ,pqotonotoovot oo Internet npcnct vo ctoopyoov c,pt o
cnlnco tkooo one olvcot oo o,qo 7.9. Oo 0oooc ot kot oo ovco OSI
cyoc okpte o lto, one o OSI c,ct cvo cntncov cnlnco nptv o cnlnco t-
kooo (clc ovo o o,qo 7.1). Itol oe ooolvct ooo, O poooyqq oov
E,qo 7.9: Lutrotvviu oro Atuirruo
oovct konoto nokco to coooq npcnct vo onoooloct oc notov cnocvo
poooyqq 0o o oclct. H totkoolo ooq cnovooovcot c,pt o nokco
vo ooct oov npooptoo oo. Ito vo o onoooloct oe ooo o poooyqq
0o npcnct vo kotoct qv tco0ovoq IP npooptooo. Iveplooc ot ot tco0ovoct
IP npool0cvot oo cnlnco tkooo, opo kot yto vo t toooooc ono cvo nokco
npcnct vo o onoketkonotqoooc c,pt o cnlnco tkooo.
Eovolovo, cvo nopoctyo onoooq coo oo onooytoev clvot o nopo-
koe: 1oe ot to copoyq oov onooytoq nqyq 0cct vo cntkotvevqoct c
qv ovloot,q oov onooytoq npooptooo:
To cocvo qtoopyoovot oo cnlnco copoyq oo onooytoq ono-
ooq kot kocolvoov o cnlnco npo o koe, o,qolovo o nokco
noo npokctot ctko vo coo0cl. 4ovovo oo cnlnco npooooq t-
kooo, o nokco cotocot oo ontko lkoo oo onooytoq onooo-
q.
To nokco koco0ovcot oo poooyqq oo ontkoo tkooo o onolo ovo-
yveplct ot c,ct npooptoo o Internet kot o npoe0cl (O ontko pooo-
yqq clvot oovcccvo c konoto poooyqq oo Atolkoo. Ito nopo-
ctyo, o tko o poooyqq clvot oovcccvo oo ontko o lkoo
kot oqv ADSL ypoq noo kooqyct oc cvo poooyqq oo Hovcqvtoo
E,otkoo Atkooo).
To nokco ktvclot ono poooyqq oc poooyqq coe oo cntkotve-
vtokoo onotkooo (ev cvtocoev poooyqev) c,pt vo ooct oo l-
koo npooptooo. O ko0c poooyqq ono ov onolo ncpvoct o nokco,
ovooct qv cntkcolo oo kot plokct ov npooplcot yto o tko oo l-
koo. Av ooo cv ooolvct o ocvct oc oo poooyqq, ovooyo c
q tco0ovoq IP noo pqkc oqv cntkcolo.
Oov o nokco pc0cl oo lkoo npooptooo, nopooovcot ono ov
ovloot,o poooyqq kot nopolcot oo ontko lkoo. Ano ckcl oq-
yclot oov onooytoq npooptooo onoo kot ovcolvct ovonoo o cnlnco
c,pt vo ooct oo cnlnco copoyq. Tctko, o cnlnco copoyq 0o
eoct o nokco oqv kooqq copoyq ookqpevovo cot q tot-
koolo coopo oo nokcoo.
7.3 Hpevuoo TCP
To npeokoo L/e,ou Merooq, Tronsmission Conrrol Prorocol q TCP onoc-
cl o ootko npeokoo noo plokcot oo cnlnco coopo q c,vooylo
TCP/IP (o oo ootko clvot o UDP yto o onolo 0o tqoooc oc cnocvq cvo-
7.3 Hpevuoo TCP 37
qo). To TCP nopc,ct otontoc onqpcolc, npooovootocvc oc oovcoq, c
cntkotvevlo ono okpo oc okpo (o,qo 7.10).
E,qo 7.10: Lutrotvviu oro Luiueo Atrruou
To npeokoo TCP oovct o npo coooq cocvo ono o npeokoo oo
ovecpoo cntncoo (Eopoyq). Ito nopoctyo oovct ono o SMTP o co-
cvo qckpovtkoo o,opocloo noo npcnct vo onooooov oov onookpoocvo
ovloot,o conqpcqq. To TCP colct ovo oov o nq0o ev cocvev
noo c,ct oct clvot cnopkc yto vo oonqpe0cl o cyc0o oo nokcoo noo c,ct
ooevq0cl koo qv cykoooooq q oovcoq. Ano qv oq oov oct co-
cvo o onolo oncpolvoov ooo o cyc0o nokcoo, o onoct oc tkpocpo (o,qo
7.11). To tkpocpo ooo nokco oqv opooylo oo TCP ovooovot rquru q
seqmenrs. To rqu onoccl qv ovoo coopo oo npeokoo TCP.
Ko0c qo onocclot ono qv Lutreu/iu (HeoJer) kot o npo coooq Ae-
oevu (Doro). H cntkcolo ycvtko onocclot ono o oq0qtko cocvo noo
npoo0cct o TCP kot clvot onopolqo yto q coooq. To cocvo clvot o-
otko koot ev npoyotkev cocvev oo ,pqoq noo 0o cocp0oov ono o
ooykckptcvo qo.
E,qo 7.11: Atouuoq eoevv oe TCP rquru
Hcntkcolo ncptc,ct opkco nclo, oo ooo noo 0o o onoo,oqooov oc ooq
qv cvoqo clvot:
O Apt0 ctp q Sequence Number
O Apt0 Entcuieoq q Acknowledgment number
To Hup0upo q Window Size
Ot Oupc (ports) TCP ocqplo kot npooptooo
Mnopclc nove vo clc qv nqpq opq q cntkcolo TCP oo o,qo 7.12
(nqyq: Wikipedia). To cocvo noo c,oov ,epto0cl oc qoo npcnct oov o-
E,qo 7.12: Lutreu/iu (HeoJer) TCP
ooov oov npooptoo oo vo cve0oov ovo yto vo qtoopyqooov o op,tko cyo-
ocpo nokco. Ito vo ylvct ooo npcnct vo noov oq oeoq octpo. Aoq clvot kot
q ctoopylo oo ncloo noo ovoocot Apt0 Xetp. Ko0c qo c,ct o tko
oo opt0o octpo, o onolo qevct oc noto 0coq npcnct vo nct o ooykckptcvo
7.3 Hpevuoo TCP 39
qo ol c o onootno yto vo qtoopyq0cl ovo o op,tko nokco. Ito nopo-
ctyo, ov o opt0o octpo c,ct qv tq 3, oqolvct ot npokctot yto o plo oc
octpo qo ono ooo noo toonoo0qkc o op,tko nokco.
Ko0e q cntkotvevlo plokcot oc cctq, o nopoqnq npcnct vo nopcl vo cnt-
cotevct oov onoooco ot oovct cocvo. Ito o okono ooo o nopoqnq
ocvct qoo cntcoleoq qq ,pqotonotevo oqv cntkcolo oo ov
Apt0 Luteuioq. O opt0o cntcoleoq qevct ot c,oov q0cl oc ot
okoc (bytes) c,pt kot ooo ov opt0o. Ito nopoctyo, o opt0o cntcoleoq
1300 oqolvct ot c,ooc oct oo o cocvo c,pt ov opt0o okoo 1300.
Av o onoooco cv oct cntcoleoq coo oc cvo oytko ,povtko tooqo, 0o
cnovooct q coooq ev cocvev.
To npeokoo TCP ccy,ct cnloq qv noooqo ev cocvev noo colovot
ko0c opo. H ctoopylo ooq clvot yveoq e e/e,o poq kot npoyoonotcl-
ot c q oq0cto oo ncloo cntkcolo qoo noo ovoocot Hup0upo
(WinJow size). Ito vo c,ooc qv koocpq ovoq onoooq q coooq clvot oo-
vc,q, q. o onoooco cv ncptcvct vo oct cntcoleoq qq cvo qoo
yto vo oclct o cnocvo (toopctko 0o cl,oc noo tkpo po0o coooq).
Ano qv oq coto cv nopcl vo ylvcot oovc,cto onoooq ,epl konoto cl-
o cntcoleoq qq. Av ocvooc c o,oqo noo cyoocpq ono ooq
noo nopcl vo c,0cl o onookpoocvo onooytoq, konoto otyq 0o ycloct q
cvtocoq vqq noo ,pqotonotclot yto qv npooeptvq ono0qkcooq ev co-
cvev kot o nopoqnq 0o op,loct vo onopplnct o ctocp,ocvo cocvo ooo
cv 0o c,ct noo vo o ono0qkcooct. Ito o oyo ooo kot o oo okpo q oovcoq
npcnct vo onoctkvooov nooo cocvo nopoov vo c,0oov ko0c opo, oovo
ov ovloot,o opt0o okoev oo nclo Hopo0opo q cntkcolo.
Hupctyu: Av q tq oo nopo0opoo clvot 1000, oqolvct ot o onooytoq
clvot coto vo c,0cl 1000 okoc cocvev. Av q tq oo ncloo Apt0o
Entcoleoq clvot 12000, o onooytoq clvot coto vo c,0cl cocvo noo
plokovot oqv ncpto,q ono 12000 c,pt 12000100013000. 1,ct q. qq oct
oo o cocvo c,pt o 12000.
qcieoq: O opt0o cntcoleoq clvot novo koo 1 cyoocpo ono o c-
coolo byte cocvev noo c,ooc oct. Aq. cl,vct novo o euevo byte noo
cnt0oooc vo oooc. Eo noponovenopoctyo, o opt0o cntcoleoq 12000
oqolvct ot c,ooc qq oct 11999 bytes kot cnt0oooc vo oooc ono o 12000
kot co.
Tco onop,ct q cvvoto ev 0upv TCP (TCP porrs). To o,otko tlo ypoct
ot o TCP ports clvot oqpqcvo oqclo cntkotvevlo oo ooo cv cqycl q
,pqoq oo. Av 0coc vo eoooc cvo optoo yto q 0opo TCP 0o cyoc ot
clvot cvo opt0o noo ,opokqplct ncov coo oo q,ovqo oo onoooco (q
oo nopoqnq) qv lto qv copoyq noo npokctot vo oct o cocvo oo
ooykckptcvoo TCP qoo.
Ito vo ylvooc nto ooykckptcvot, okcclc ot cvo TCP qo noo oovcot
oov qo to coooq cv cpct oc noto copoyq vo koco0ov0cl. To npo-
qo cv 0o onqp,c npoove ov cvo onooytoq ckcoooc ko0c opo ovo
to copoyq cntkotvevlo (n.,. ov nopooooc vo ooc ovo to oclo oo
Internet ko0c opo, kot vo qv ckcooc ooo,povo koto oq tkookq cop-
oyq), oo ooo cv ooolvct. To npoqo ovcot ov ko0c qo ncptc,ct coo
oo cvo opt0o 0opo noo 0o o koco0ovct oqv copoyq yto qv onolo npoopl-
cot.
1ot, oov yto nopoctyo ovolooc cvo oocpqq one o Firefox kot op,l-
oooc vo cnooc to oclo, o qoo TCP noo coyoov ono ov onooytoq
o e koot q ooykckptcvq cntkotvevlo, ,opokqplovot ono cvo opt0o
o onolo clvot q 0upu uerqpiu. To qoo ooo ncptc,oov cnloq kot to 0upu
upooptoou q onolo cooolct ot oov o qo q0cl ono o q,ovqo npo-
optooo 0o koco0ov0cl oq oeoq copoyq (oq ooykckptcvq ncplneoq oov
conqpcqq toooclev). To qoo noo 0o oooc e onovqoq, 0o c,oov
ncov e 0opo npooptooo qv lto c qv onolo cktvqooc qv cntkotvevlo, kot
opo 0o koco0ov0oov oo lto nopo0opo oo Firefox.
Av ,pqotonotqoooc o Firefox yto vo cnooc noonc oclc (n.,. ovol-
ooc noo nopo0opo q tabs), o qoo TCP yto ko0c oclo 0o ,opokqplo-
vot ono toopctkoo opt0oo 0opev ocqplo, kot opo o cocvo noo 0o
oovooc e onovqoq 0o nopoov novo vo koco0ov0oov oo oeoo nopo-
0opo. Aclc kot o o,qo 7.13.
Kuvuuuivcvc ytol onop,ct npoqo oo o,qo 7-10 oo tloo,
Hupctyu un vqv uu0qcptvvqvu: Av oot kootkooooc oc ovokootklc,
o o,opoo cv 0o ,pctooov nopo ovo q tco0ovoq o (oo/opt0o) yto vo
o nopoeoct cvo co. H tco0ovoq oc ooq qv ncplneoq ovtoot,cl oqv IP
tco0ovoq oo nopoqnq. Enctq oe ot ncptooocpot cvooc oc nookootklc,
o o,opoo npcnct cnloq vo cpct kot ov opoo/ovoo. H tco0ovoq oo nopo-
qnev (oo/opt0o, IP) nopcl vo clvot lto, tooponotoovot oe c ooq o
ovoo/opoo (opt0o 0opo npooptooo).
Eovq0e, oov ylvcot to vco oovcoq TCP npootoplovot op,tko ot 0opc nqyq
7.3 Hpevuoo TCP 41
E,qo 7.13: Aetroupiu Oupv TCP
kot npooptooo kot yveoonotoovot kot oo oo okpo. Eqv npoq, o npoypo-
oo noo ,pqotonotoovot oq cpto oo ncoq (n.,. o oocpqq noo ckc-
ooc yto vo ooc to oclo) cntcyoov to o,olo 0opo TCP, q onolo ovol0cot
ovotko kot ooct yto ko0c vco oovcoq (Eqcleoq: Ot 0opc ooc ovooo-
vot q-npovotoo,c (non-privileged) kot cntcyovot c opt0oo nove ono o
1024). Ano q cpto ev conqpcqev, ,pqotonotoovot ooykckptcvc, ooq
ooooq, 0opc (cyovot kot npovotoo,c, privileged) ot onolc c,oov ono nptv
ooevq0cl kot c,oov oovq0e opt0oo koe ono o 1024.
Ito nopoctyo, q 0opo noo ,pqotonotclot ono ov conqpcqq toooclev cl-
vot q 80. Oov qoc to oclo coe oo Firefox, o qoo TCP noo qtoop-
yoovot c,oov to o,olo 0opo ocqplo oo koco0ovovot novo oq 0opo 80
oo conqpcqq toooclev noo oovcoooc. Avloot,c ononotqcvc 0opc
onqpcotev onop,oov yto ko0c o,cov npoypoo conqpcqq. H.,. yto o npeo-
koo coopo op,clev FTP q 0opo clvot q 21, yto o npeokoo o,opocloo
SMTP q 23 k.o.k. Ot conqpcqc oool novoc oovoov kot cnccpyoovot
oo o cocvo noo koco0ovovot ot 0opc oo (Eqcleoq: Ot 0opc ooc
clvot yveoc kot e 0upe urpuoq, lisreninq porrs).
7.3.1 TCP uvcoct
One c,ooc qq ovocpct, o TCP npeokoo clvot upoouvuro/toevo orq ouv-
eoq. Ec ooq qv cvoqo 0o cqyqoooc c noto pono ooo,clct o TCP npe-
okoo o qoo o onolo ovqkoov oc to oovcoq kot ne o c,eplct ono
oc oovcoct noo nopcl qv lto otyq vo onop,oov oc cvo q,ovqo. H oov-
E,qo 7.14: TCP Xuveoq
coq oo TCP npeokoo c,ct qv cvvoto q voqrq ouveoq noo cyko0looot
ono o TCP npokctcvoo vo oovcoct o oo ctko oqclo coo oo. Mnopooc
vo ovooooc ooq q oovcoq e cvo voqo oeqvo (o,qo 7.14) noo cvevct o
oo ctko oqclo kot cocpct o cocvo ono o cvo okpo oo oo. Hoovcoq
clvot voqq ytol:
Acv onop,ct onco0clo oovcoq oo cvo okpoo c o oo. H oovcoq ylvc-
ot coe oo cntkotvevtokoo onotkooo.
Acv onop,ct ooykckptcvq topoq noo okooo0oov oo o qoo npo-
kctcvoo vo oooov oov npooptoo oo. Avl0co, o qoo toone-
vot oc kooto ono o npeokoo IP kot o ko0cvo okooo0cl tkq oo
topoq c,pt ov npooptoo, onoo kot ovoov ncpccvo c oo q-
oo (toopctkq cntkotvevlo) kot nt0ovov c o0o octpo. To npeo-
koo TCP npcnct vo pct (c q oq0cto konotev ovoyveptotkev oot-
,clev) noto qoo ovqkoov oc noto oovcoq kot vo o eoct oqv koo-
qq copoyq noo 0o o ,ctptocl.
7.3 Hpevuoo TCP 43
Ito vo ooc c noto pono oocooov ot TCP oovcoct, 0o t ccooooc c
ooq o nopokoe nopoctyo:
Hupctyu: 1oe ot 0cooc vo cocpooc op,clo coe q copoyq FTP
(File Transfer Protocol) ono cvo onooytoq oc cvo oo. 1,ooc qq nct ot o
FTP (Hpeokoo Mcoopo Ap,clev) ovqkct oo cnlnco Lupoq oo TCP.
Ito vo oclooc cvo op,clo coe oo FTP ,pctooooc:
1vo npoypoo FTP ono q cpto oo ,pqoq noo 0o oclct o op,clo. O
,pqoq ooo 0cepclot o ncoq ooo oopo q oovcoq. Tcoto npo-
ypooo nopcl clc vo ,pqotonotoov ypotko ncptoov clc vo o cnt-
pcnoov vo oclooc onco0clo t cvoc oo FTP ono cvo cpotko.
Eo okpo q cntkotvevlo noo 0o oct o op,clo 0o onop,ct cvo ovloot,o
npoypoo euuqperqrq FTP o onolo 0o oct o ctocp,ocvo cocvo ono
ov ncoq kot 0o o ono0qkcooct.
Ano o noponove clvot (cnlooc) covc ot q cntkotvevlo cktvoct c npeo-
oolo oo ncoq (,pqoq) cve o conqpcqq FTP clvot one cvo npoypoo
noo ckcclot oovc,cto oo onookpoocvo q,ovqo kot ncptcvct konoto nc-
oq vo oovc0cl oc ooo yto vo oclct (q vo oct) konoto op,clo.
H totkoolo 0o otoct c qv nopokoe:
O ncoq ckccl qv copoyq FTP c qv onolo 0o oclct o op,clo.
Oncoq cntcyct (q ypoct) ov conqpcqq FTP c ov onolo 0o oovc0cl.
Avolyct to oovcoq TCP c ov conqpcqq FTP oo oo okpo q oov-
coq.
Eo okpo q oovcoq oo ncoq o npoypoo FTP cntcyct to o,olo 0opo
(port), n.,. o 1234. One c,ooc qq nct, ot 0opc ooc (q-npovotoo,c) cntc-
yovot o,olo, ytol kovcl cv npokctot vo t ovoqqoct (cv nopc,oov konoto
onqpcolo).
To qoo TCP noo coyoov ono ov ncoq c npooptoo ov conqpcqq FTP
c,oov e 0opo npooptooo o 21. To 21 clvot q ononotqcvq (ooct ooooq)
0opo noo ,pqotonotclot ono oo conqpcqc FTP. Av ot 0opc yto ooykckpt-
cvc onqpcolc cv qov ko0optocvc, cv 0o nopooooc c cokoo pono vo
c,eploooc noto qoo npooplovot yto noto onqpcolo (1vo server nopcl vo
nopc,ct ooo,povo noc toopctkc onqpcolc ot onolc c,ovot ctocp,oc-
vc oovcoct oc toopctkc 0opc).
Ap,lct q coopo oo op,cloo, c o qoo oo ncoq vo cktvovc ono
qv 0opo 1234 kot vo kooqyoov oq 0opo 21 oo conqpcqq
Eo co q cntkotvevlo, ctonotclot o ncoq ot q onoooq oo op-
,cloo c,ct ookqpe0cl kot ylvcot cpotoo q TCP oovcoq.
Elvot ovcpo ot ooo oopo o TCP q oovcoq ,opokqplcot ono q 0opo nqyq
(1234) kot q 0opo npooptooo (21). Mnopooc cokoo vo ko0oploooc o clo
q cntkotvevlo cnovo q 0opo oo npooptooo: H.,. o 21 clvot FTP, o 80
HTTP kn. Elvot cnloq npoovc ot q cntkotvevlo ooq okooo0cl o ovco
ue/rq euuqperqrq oo onolo c,ooc qq ovocp0cl.
Av kot o TCP cvtocpcot yto t 0opc nqyq kot npooptooo, cv npcnct vo
c,voc ot q nqpq cntkotvevlo tcp,cot coo ono o npeokoo IP kot ncptc,ct
coo okoo oo opt0oo: Tqv tco0ovoq IP oo onoooco kot qv tco0ovoq IP
oo nopoqnq. Eovotko otnov q cntkotvevlo ,opokqplcot e ovutr rpuo
ono coocpt opt0oo:
Tqv tco0ovoq IP oo onoooco n.,. 62.103.240.22. Eo nopoctyo o 0o
qov o ncoq noo cnt0ocl vo oclct o op,clo.
Tqv 0opo q nqyq. Eo nopoctyo o q 1234.
Tqv tco0ovoq IP oo nopoqnq n.,. 61.74.29.32.
Tqv 0opo npooptooo, oo nopoctyo o o 21.
E,qo 7.13: TCP Xuveoet
7.4 Hpevuoo UDP 4S
Mc ooq oooo oo coocpt opt0oo, o TCP npeokoo nopcl vo c,eploct
c ovotko pono noto qoo ovqkoov oc noto oovcoq (oqcleoq: ooq clvot q
pooq oo tloo noto clvot o o0o ce,). Acv clvot ovoov oo toopctkc
oovcoct vo q tocpoov ooo,toov oc cvo ono ooo o qlo.
Elvot oqv npoyotkoqo ovoov vo tocpoov ovo oc cvo ono oooo oo
opt0oo,
Kot coto. 4ovooclc cvo ono o nopokoe ocvopto (o,qo 7.13):
1,cc ovolct oo opc o npoypoo coopo op,clev (FTP) kot ooo-
,povo ocvcc oo toopctko op,clo orov ito conqpcqq.
1,cc ovolct oo opc cvo npoypoo oocpqq (n.,. Firefox) kot c-
ncc ro ito sire (loe toopctkq oclo) kot ono o oo nopo0opo.
1,cc cvo onooytoq noo ,pqotonotclot ooo,povo ono oo ,pqoc ot
onolot c,oov oovc0cl oqv lto toooclo. (Eqcleoq: Mq tooclc vo
nclc ot ooo cv ylvcot, oo UNIX cpyooqpto o o q,ovqoo clvot
ypotko cpotko cvo kot ovoo onooytoq. Oootootko oo ooo o q-
,ovqoo clvot cvo onooytoq).
Ec ko0c to ono t noponove ncptneoct ooct ovo cvo opt0o: H 0upu rq
uqq. A o ooc ovootkocpo:
O onooytoq nqyq clvot cvo, o IP nqyq clvot o lto.
O onooytoq npooptooo clvot o lto, o IP npooptooo clvot o lto.
Honqpcolo oqv onolo npoono0ooc vo oovc0ooc clvot oc ko0c ncplneoq
q lto, opo kot q 0opo npooptooo clvot lto.
To ovo noo ooct clvot q 0opo q nqyq, ko0e ooq cntcycot ko0c
opo o,olo kot clvot toopctkq okoo kot ov ckccoooc noc opc
o lto npoypoo oov lto onooytoq.
7.4 Hpevuoo UDP
To npeokoo TCP coo oev clvot onco0ovo yto o co,too ev qvoo-
ev oc qoo kot qv cnovooovcoq oo oov npooptoo. Eloc cnloq ot o
TCP clvot npeokoo e ouveoq kot npoocpct ututorq eutrotvviu. Eoool-
ct q. ot o cocvo 0o q0oov oeoo kot oqv ovl0cq ncplneoq povlct
yto qv cnovocoooq oo. H totkoolo ooq clvot tuvq ooo oopo o npe-
okoo copoyq noo conqpcoovot ono o TCP: Av kovooc to coopo
op,cloo coe FTP kot konoto TCP qoo cv oooov, o TCP 0o o coeoct
ovo kot q copoyq FTP cv 0o cvqcpe0cl yto ooo.
To oqovtko ooo ncovckqoo oo npeokooo TCP cp,ovot c konoto ko-
oo: Ekcevo ooc ctoopylc (co,too, ccy,o o0ev, ccy,o octpo
kn) o TCP clvot o,ctko noonoko npeokoo oq ctoopylo oo. 1vo ono-
ccoo ooq q noonokoqo clvot ot ctooyct konotc ko0oocpqoct oqv
cntkotvevlo. Ko0e otoo clvot npeokoo c oovcoq, npcnct vo c,ct kot op-
,tkq cntkotvevlo c ov onooytoq oqv oq cpto nptv kov cktvqoct q co-
ooq.
Oov ,pctooooc oc ooc t ctoopylc noo nopc,ct, o TCP clvot o koo-
qo npeokoo. Ynop,oov oe copoyc noo cvo nto ono npeokoo 0o
o conqpcoooc koocpo. Tcoto clq copoyev clvot:
Eopoyc noo o qvooo oo ,epovc ko0c opo oc cvo ovo qo.
Hpoove oc ooq qv ncplneoq cv ,pctooooc q ctoopylo co,t-
ooo noo o nopc,ct o TCP.
Eopoyc noo cv c,ct oqoolo ov ,o0oov konoto cocvo oq coooq,
q cv c,ct voqo q cnovocoooq oo: Ito nopoctyo oc copoyc evq
cv c,ct voqo vo coeoooc ovo cocvo noo ,o0qkov, o cvtocpct
eoooo q coooq vo npo,epoct ooo o ovoov nto ypqyopo kot ,epl
ko0oocpqoct. Atoopctko 0o c,ooc evq noo kokq notoqo.
Icvtko copoyc noo c,ct ncptooocpq oqoolo vo nopooc vo coe-
oooc c t tkpocpc ovoc ko0oocpqoct kot cyoocpq o,oqo
nopo c okplcto kot otontolo.
Ito t ncptneoct ooc, c,ct o,ctoocl cvo okoo npeokoo oo cnlnco co-
opo, o UDP, User Doroqrom Prorocol q toopctko Hprro//o Aurouvuv
Hurerv Xpqorq.
Icvtko yto o UDP nopooc vo nooc:
Elvot noo onooocpo ono o TCP: Acv to0cct co,too, yto o oyo ooo
ko0c qvoo noo colcot ono to copoyq coe UDP npcnct vo ,epoct
c'ookqpoo oc cvo qo UDP.
Elvot npeokoo oooovooo nokcoo ,epl oovcoq: H onoooq ckt-
voct ocoe ,epl vo ylvct cntkotvevlo c qv oq cpto. Acv c,ct cot cnt-
ncov ko0oocpqoct.
Acv to0cct ccy,o o0ev. Acv kovct cnovocoooq cocvev kot cv
kpooct ovlypoo ev cocvev noo oo0qkov yto cntcoleoq. Acv co-
oolct cnloq ot o qoo 0o oooov oov npooptoo oo c q oeoq
octpo. Av to copoyq noo ,pqotonotcl UDP ,pctocot vo coooloct ot
o cocvo q cv c,oov cnqpcoocl ono o noponovenpoqoo, 0o npc-
nct vo o ccyct q lto. Mcocpcot q. o ccy,o o0ev ono o cnlnco
7.4 Hpevuoo UDP 47
coopo oo cnlnco copoyq.
One kot c o npeokoo TCP, o UDP ,pqotonotcl 0opc (ports), o UDP
ports. H ,pqoq oo clvot okpte lto c oo npeokooo TCP (clvot q. koo
o tlo oo oqpqcvo oqclo cntkotvevlo) kot npootoplovot ono cvo okc-
poto opt0o 16 bits (nolpvoov q. tc ono 0 63333). O opt0o ooo ypocot
oqv cntkcolo oo UDP qoo.
E,qo 7.16: H/qpq Aoq UDP
E,qo 7.17: Aqtoupiu UDP Tquro
H cntkotvevlo oo npeokoo UDP clvot noo onq: Ec ooykckptcvo UDP ports
c,oov ovoc0cl ooykckptcvc copoyc noo ckcoovot ono oo conqpcqc.
Ito nopoctyo, o conqpcqq DNS (copcnct o ttko npo o ,pqoq ovo-
oo one www.sch.gr oc tco0ovoct IP n.,. 194.63.238.40) ,pqotonotcl q 0opo
UDP 33 yto vo oovct otqoo. Eo npeokoo SNMP (Ano Hpeokoo
Ato,clptoq Atkooo) ,pqotonotclot q 0opo 161. Ano q cpto oo ncoq, cnt-
cycot (one kot oo TCP) to o,olo 0opo. To ko0c UDP qo onocclot ono
oo ootko kooto, qv cntkcolo kot o cocvo (Anooococvq opq
oo o,qo 7.17, nqpq onctkovtoq oo o,qo 7.16 - nqyq: Wikipedia).
To npeokoo IP oo cnlnco Atkooo nopcl ono qv cntkcolo ko0c ctocp,o-
cvoo qoo vo c,eploct ov clvot TCP q UDP kot o nopolct oo ovloot,o
npeokoo. H ootkq ctoopytkoqo noo npoo0cct o UDP oc ooc oo npe-
okooo IP clvot q noonclo q nqpooplo toopctkev copoyev c q
,pqoq ev 0opev UDP.
7.S Hpevuoo IP
Eo cnlnco tkooo q c,vooylo TCP/IP, oovovoc o uprro//o IP, Inrerner
Prorocol. H ctoopylo oo IP oolcot onokctotko oqv tco oo uurouvuou
uurerou q datagram, o onolo oqolvct ot o nokco cocpovot ono qv nqyq
oov npooptoo ,epl vo okooo0oov ooykckptcvq topoq (o ko0c cvo nopcl
vo okooo0qoct toopctkq). Ot ccy,ot yto otontoq coooq ylvovot ono o
cnlnco coopo, cooov ,pqotonotclot o npeokoo TCP.
Ko0c opo noo o TCP q o UDP npeokoo ono o cnlnco coopo 0cct vo
coeoct konoto qo (0oq0clc ot o TCP kot o UDP nopoyoov segments), o
nopolct oo npeokoo IP. H ovq oq nqpooplo noo ,pctocot o IP (kot
q onolo oo nopc,cot ono o cnlnco coopo) clvot q teu0uvoq rou uuo/otorq
upooptoou. Aoo clvot kot o ovo oot,clo noo cvtocpct o npeokoo IP. To
IP cv cvtocpcot ko0ooo yto o ncptc,ocvo oo qoo q yto o ne (kot ov)
o,clcot c o npoqyoocvo q cnocvo qo noo oovct. Ane o npoe0cl
oov npooptoo oo.
E,qo 7.18: IP Aurouvuo Hurero
Ito vo ylvct ooo coto, 0o npcnct o IP ooo nopooct o qo ono o cnl-
nco coopo vo npoo0coct q tkq oo cntkcolo (E,qo 7.18) c o ono-
7.S Hpevuoo IP 49
polqo oot,clo, o,qolovo cot cvo oooovoo IP nokco. To cytoo qko
oo nokcoo oooo c,ct opto0cl oo 64 Kbytes. Mco o o,qotoo oo nokcoo,
onoooq oo IP clvot vo pct qv kooqq topoq noo 0o o oqyqoct oov
npooptoo oo.
Mco ov npootoptoo q topoq oo nokcoo, ylvcot q coooq oo coe
ev ootkev tkoev (noo ovtoot,oov oo euiueo upouoq trruou rq re,vo-
/oiu TCP/IP q oo cnlnco oovcoq cocvev kot ootko oo OSI kot nc-
ptypoovot ono o ovloot,o npeokoo n.,. Ethernet kot o ootko coo kot
oookcoc koeto, kopc tkooo o onolo ,pqotonotoovot).
1vo ootko lkoo nopcl eoooo vo ,pqotonotcl toopctko cytoo qko o-
voo coopo oc o,coq c o 64 Kbyte noo ,pqotonotcl o IP.
qcieoq: To cytoo qko ovoo coopo ovoocot kot MTU, Moximum
Trons[er Unir. Eopoot oovq0e ono o npeokoo noo ,pqotonotclot oo
cnlnco npooooq tkooo (o onolo npoove c,ct to,cl yto ooykckptcvo
ootko coo, tkookc oookcoc kn). Ito nopoctyo oo Ethernet o MTU clvot
1300 bytes.
Aoo npoove clvot npoqo ov o MTU clvot tkpocpo ono o IP nokco, ko-
0e ooo oqolvct ot koptocktko o IP nokco cv ,epoct vo ncpooct coo
ono o ooykckptcvo ootko lkoo. Ito vo cncpoocl ooo o npoqo, o npe-
okoo IP c,ct q ovooqo vo toonooct o oooovoo nokco oc tkpocpo
qoo noo ovooovot rortu q [roqmenrs. To IP ovooovct vo cnovooov-
0coct ooo o kooto oov npooptoo oo kot vo o,qoloct ovo o op,tko
oooovoo IP nokco.
H toonooq ev nokcev oc fragments ylvcot oov o nokco ooct oov npeo
poooyqq oo tkooo (E,qo 7.19). Opoooyqq ovtoovcot ot o o-
otko lkoo noo oovccot oc ooov cv nopcl vo coeoct ookqpo o nokco
noo coc kot o toono oc kooto. Mq c,voc ot o poooyqq clvot to
oookcoq noo ctoopycl oo cnlnco tkooo kot opo ovtoovcot t nqpoo-
plc q cntkcolo IP. To kooto noo qtoopyoovot clvot kot ooo cvce
oooovoo kot ovcopqo coo oo kot nopcl not o ko0cvo vo okooo0qoct
toopctkq topoq c,pt ov npooptoo.
To nclo Avuvptoq oqv cntkcolo oo nokcoo IP ,pqotonotclot eoc o IP
vo ovoyveplct oc noto oooovoo IP nokco ovqkct o fragment noo oovct
q cocvq otyq. Oo o kooto noo c,oov qv lto tq oc ooo o nclo,
ovqkoov oo lto oooovoo nokco.
To nclo Aeirrq Lvroutoou Tquro oqv cntkcolo oo nokcoo IP ,pqoto-
S0 Atutuvueoq ~ Internet
E,qo 7.19: Atouuoq oe Froqmenrs
notclot eoc o IP vo ovoyveplct oc noto 0coq npcnct vo ono0cq0cl o ooykckpt-
cvo fragment noo oovcot yto vo qtoopyq0cl ovo o oooovoo IP nokco.
H tq oo lvcot oc blocks ev 8 bytes (okoc okoev ypoct o tlo oo,
ytol cv koocpc vo copooct oeoo q wikipedia).
Hpoove o IP ,pctocot kot cvo pono vo yveplct ov o nokco noo oovct q
cocvq otyq clvot cvo kovovtko c,eptoo oooovoo nokco q ov onoccl
qo (fragment) konotoo nokcoo. Ito o okono ooo ,pqotonotclot o nclo
More Froqmenrs (MF) q Evetq Yuupq Heptoorepv Kourtv. Av ooo o
nclo c,ct qv tq 1, oqolvct ot q cocvq otyq oovooc cvo fragment
cvo cyoocpoo nokcoo. Av c,ct qv tq 0 oqolvct clc ot oovooc o
ccoolo fragment q ot o nokco clvot oooovoo. Ec ko0c nokco noo c,ct
kootoocl, oo o kooto c,oov MF1 cko ono o ccoolo. (Eqcleoq:
oqv npoyotkoqo o nclo noo ,pqotonotoovot c ooo ov pono c tc
0 q 1 ovooovot flags q oqolc)
Elvot nt0ovov o onooytoq npooptooo vo qv nopcl yto onotoqnoc oyo vo
c,0cl cocvo o onolo c,oov kootoocl. Av ooolvct ooo, 0cct qv tq
oo ncloo Don`r Froqmenr, (DF), Evetq Auupeuoq Atouuoq Aurouvuou
Hurerou oqv tq 1. Eqv ncplneoq ooq 0o npcnct vo pc0cl topoq coo
ono o ootko lkoo q onolo vo clvot tkovq vo ncpooct o oooovoo IP nokco
,epl vo o kootooct. Av cv onop,ct ooq q ovooqo, o oooovoo nokco
onopplncot.
To onootno nclo noo onop,oov oqv cntkcolo clvot o cq:
7.S Hpevuoo IP S1
Tuooq: Hpootoplct qv ckooq oo npeokooo noo ,pqotonotclot.
Ito vo onop,ct cntkotvevlo coo nqyq kot npooptooo npcnct oneoqnoc
vo ,pqotonotclot q lto ckooq npeokooo (Eqcleoq: Ot to0cotc ck-
ooct clvot o IPv4 kot o IPv6. Mcovtko ovocvcot vo ,pqotonotclot
oo kot ncptooocpo o IPv6).
Mquo Entucouiu: Aqevct o qko q cntkcolo oo nokcoo oc
cct ev 32 bits. H tkpocpq tq noo nopcl vo c,ct o nclo ooo clvot
3. H tkpocpq ovoq cntkcolo c,ct qko 3*32160 bits, kot ov totpc-
oooc c o 8, 160/820 bytes.
Eio E{unqpcvqoq: Mc o nclo ooo qevct o onooytoq o clo
q onqpcolo noo qoct ono o cntkotvevtoko onolkoo. To ,opokqpt-
otko noo npootoploov qv onqpcolo noo npoocpct o onolkoo kot noo
,pqotonotoovot ono o IP yto vo ncptypooov t onotqoct oo clvot: H
po0oonoooq, q otontolo kot q ko0oocpqoq.
Tt 0cct vu nct ceo notqvq; To nclo ooo ovoocot TOS, Type of Service kot
nopooc oc ooo vo oploooc t npotoc koo qv cntkotvevlo: Mcyoocpo
po0o coooq, ooo o ovoov koocpq otontolo q q tkpocpq ovoq ko-
0oocpqoq
uvotu Mquo: Alvct o oovotko qko oo ooykckptcvoo IP nokcoo,
oo onolo ncptoovcot ooo q cntkcolo ooo kot o cocvo. 1,ooc
qq nct ot o cytoo cyc0o clvot 64 Kbytes 64*1024 63336 bytes.
Ecpooc cnloq ot q tkpocpq ovoq cntkcolo clvot 20 bytes. Apo o
cytoo cyc0o yto o cocvo o clvot 63336-2063316 bytes.
Xpvo Zeq: Hpokctot yto cvo cpqq noo ctevcot koo 1 ko0c opo
noo o nokco tcp,cot ono cvo poooyqq. Oov ooct qv tq qcv,
o nokco onopplncot (o kooopcct o poooyqq oov onolo plokc-
ot ckclvq q otyq). Mc ooo ov pono onocoycot vo ncptcpovot oo
lkoo ,ocvo nokco noo c,oov ,ooct ov npooptoo oo kot kovoov ko-
koo q ono c,oov ko0oocpqoct nopo noo vo oooov oov npooptoo
oo oye ov0oocvq topoq q tco0ovoq.
Apt0 Hpevouou: Hpokctot yto cvo opt0o noo ,opokqplct o npe-
okoo oo cntncoo coopo oo onolo 0o npcnct o IP vo nopoeoct o
ctocp,ocvo oooovoo nokco. Ito nopoctyo, ov ooo o nclo c,ct qv
tq 6, o nokco 0o nopoo0cl oo npeokoo TCP. H tq ooq npoo-
ve c,ct c0cl koo qv onoooq (ono o cnlnco coopo oo onoooco,
oov nopceoc o qo oo IP)
A0potou Ecyou: Entpcnct oo npeokoo IP oqv oncvovt ncopo
(npooptoo) vo ccyct qv op0oqo ev cocvev q cntkcolo. Aoo
clvot oqovtko, ko0e q cntkcolo pononotclot ko0c opo noo ncpvoct
ono konoto poooyqq ooovovo cot qv nt0ovoqo vo oocl konoto
ooo.
Atcu0uvoq Hqyq: Hpokctot yto q tco0ovoq IP oo onooytoq nqyq. Oo
tqoooc ovootko yto t tco0ovoct oc cnocvq cvoqo.
Atcu0uvoqHpooptoou: Hpokctot yto q tco0ovoq IP oo onooytoq npo-
optooo. H tco0ovoq ooq toocot ono oo cvtocooo poooyqc
(q ov ovloot,o tkooko contoo) npokctcvoo vo npoe0qooov o no-
kco oov npooptoo oo.
IP Entoyc: Xpqotonotclot yto cttkc ctoopylc oo npeokooo.
unqpeoq: Xpqotonotclot eoc o cyc0o q cntkcolo vo clvot
novo noonooto ev 32 bits. (Eqv npoyotkoqo ovqkct ot IP Ent-
oyc)
Hupctyu: A ono0coooc ot c,ooc cvo oooovoo nokco c 1400 bytes
cocvev kot cntkcolo cyc0oo 20 bytes, o onolo npcnct vo coo0cl coo
ono cvo lkoo noo onooqplct nokco oovotkoo cyc0oo 620 bytes. Eo nokco
ooo q tq oo ncloo Don't Fragment (DF) c,ct qv tq 0, opo cntpcncot
q toonooq oo oc kooto. Hooo 0o clvot ooo o kooto, t cyc0o 0o c,ct
o ko0cvo kot notc 0o clvot ot tc ev nclev MF kot Aclkq Evontooo
Tqoo,
Ito vo cntooooc cvo coto npoqo npcnct vo npoocooc konoto ono o c-
ocvo:
Av o lvoov o oovotko qko ev nokcev q o qko ovo ev coc-
vev. Ee o lvoov o qko ev cocvev kot q cntkcolo ,eptoo.
To Eovotko Mcyc0o oo nokcoo clvot 1420 bytes.
Av o nokco cv c,ct DF0, cv nopcl vo toonoocl!
Av o nokco ,epoct coo oo lkoo oo onolo 0o coo0cl ev npokctot
vo toonoocl!
Av ylvct toonooq oo nokcoo, o MF oc oo o fragments 0o c,ct tq 1
cko ono o ccoolo noo 0o c,ct tq 0.
Ito o Aclkq Evontooo Tqoo npcnct vo totpcoooc c o 8 o oovo-
tko cyc0o cocvev noo c,ct coo0cl c,pt otyq (,epl o fragment
oo onolo ptokoooc ooq q otyq).
7.S Hpevuoo IP S3
Eq ooykckptcvq ncplneoq 0o c,ooc:
To npeo fragment 0o c,ct cyc0o 620 bytes. Hpooo,q: Aoo clvot o oovo-
tko cyc0o oo fragment. Ko0c koot c,ct tkq oo cntkcolo, opo ce
o 600 bytes clvot cocvo kot o 20 bytes clvot cntkcolo.
H tq oo MF 0o clvot 1. Akooo0oov kot oo kooto.
OAclkq Evontooo Tqoo 0o c,ct tq 0. Acv c,ooc coeoct lnoo
nptv ono ooo o koot.
Ito o cocpo koot 0o c,ooc:
To cyc0o 0o clvot ovo 620 bytes. Ano ooo o 600 bytes clvot cocvo
kot o 20 bytes cntkcolo.
H tq oo MF 0o clvot 1. Ynop,ct kot oo koot co ono ooo.
Eovotko c,ooc coeoct c,pt otyq (,epl o ooykckptcvo koot)
600 bytes cocvev. OAclkq Evontooo Tqoo 0o c,ct tq 600/873.
Ito o plo kot ccoolo koot c,ooc:
1,oov onoclvct okoo 200 bytes cocvev vo coeoooc. Apo o cyc-
0o oo ccooloo kootoo 0o clvot 200 bytes cocvo 20 bytes cntkc-
olo 220 bytes.
H tq oo MF 0o clvot 0. Hpokctot yto o ccoolo koot oo op,tkoo
nokcoo.
1,ooc c,pt otyq coeoct 6006001200 bytes cocvev. Apo q
tq oo ncloo Aclkq Evontooo Tqoo 0o clvot 1200/8130
Tt oc nqpooplc c,ooc yto o nokco:
Entkcolo 20 bytes oqolvct 20*8160 bit. Aoo oqolvct ot q tq oo
ncloo Mqko Entkcolo clvot 3 (3X32160).
Tontko ko0c koot noo npokonct 0o c,ct lto cyc0o cntkcolo c o
op,tko nokco.
To nclo Avoyveptoq 0o clvot o lto yto ko0c koot noo c,ct npokoct
ono o lto op,tko IP nokco.
Oov o kooto oooov ctko oov npooptoo oo, clvot nt0ovov vo
c,oov toopctkq tq oo nclo Xpovo Zeq. H tq oo ooykckptc-
voo ncloo ctevcot koo 1 ko0c opo noo ncpvoct o koot ono konoto
poooyqq. Ko0e o nokco IP clvot oooovoo, clvot nt0ovov ko0cvo
vo okooo0qoct toopctkq topoq.
Ot tco0ovoct nqyq kot npooptooo nopocvoov oo kooto ltc c oo-
c oo op,tko nokco.
Eooov q cntkcolo c,ct cyc0o 20 bytes, ooncpolvooc ot cv onop-
,oov IP cntoyc kot nclo oonqpeoq. H cntkcolo onocclot ovo
ono o oo0cpo qo q.
To nclo A0potoo Ecy,oo 0o clvot toopctko oc ko0c koot. Aoo
ooolvct ytol q cntkcolo ooct ko0c opo noo o koot tcp,cot
ono cvo poooyqq (ooct o Xpovo Zeq) kot cnloq ko0c koot c,ct
toopctkq tq oo Aclkq Evontooo Tqoo (kot o ccoolo ko-
ot c,ct MF0).
E,qo 7.20: Atouuoq oe Froqmenrs rut tq orov upoopto
uvupoyqoq vou uptuou nuucvou: Oov o kooto oooov oov onoo-
ytoq npooptooo, npcnct vo oovopooyq0oov ovo kot vo o eooov o op,tko
nokco. To npoqo clvot ot ko0e o kooto ovoov cvc,ocve ono to-
opctkc topoc, clvot nt0ovov vo oooov c cvce o0o octpo. Ito o
nopoctyo o o ono0coooc ot o nokco ovoov c qv cq octpo: Hpeo
o cocpo, co o npeo kot ccoolo o plo. Yno0cooc okoo ot q tq oo
ncloo ovoyveptoq clvot 100 (E,qo 7.20).
Aoovcot o cocpo koot. To IP oov onooytoq npooptooo cco-
ct t tc ev nclev MF kot Aclkq Evontooo Tqoo. Enctq o
MF clvot 1, ooncpolvct ot o nokco cv clvot oooovoo, oo koot
konotoo cyoocpoo nokcoo. Ko0e q tq oo Aclkq Evontooo Tq-
oo cv clvot 0 oo 73, cv npokctot kov yto o npeo koot oo yto
konoto cvtocoo. To koot ono0qkcocot oc to cvtocoq vqq c,pt
vo oooov o onootno.
Aoovcot o npeo koot. To IP ovtoovcot ot clvot o npeo ko-
ot, ko0e MF1 kot o Aclkq Evontooo Tqoo clvot qcv. Ec ko0c
7.6 Atcu0uvotovqoq SS
ncplneoq o IP ccy,ct ot ko0c cvo ono o kooto c,ct ov lto opt0o
oo nclo ovoyveptoq (100) kot cot ovqkoov oo oo lto op,tko IP nokco.
To koot ono0qkcocot cnloq oqv cvtocoq vqq.
Aoovcot o plo koot. To IP ovtoovcot ot npokctot yto o c-
coolo koot ko0e o Aclkq Evontooo Tqoo cv clvot qcv,
oo o MF clvot 0.
Ano t tc ev nclev Evontooo Tqoo o IP ovtoovcot ot
c,oov ncov ooct oo o kooto. Eovopooycl o op,tko IP nokco kot
tooct o nclo Apt0o Hpeokooo. H tq oo ncloo oooo cl,vct
noto npeokoo oo cntncoo coopo (n.,. TCP, UDP) c,ct qtoopyqoct
o nokco. To IP nopolct o coto nokco oo ovloot,o npeokoo oo
cntncoo coopo.
7.6 Atcu0uvotovqoq
HIP tco0ovoq npooptooo clvot ooq noo onoctkvoct oc cvo oooqo, noo npcnct
vo nopoeoct cvo IP oooovoo nokco. Eko ono q tco0ovoq, ,pqotonotooc
oo,vo kot oo opoo ovoo kot topoq ot onolot o,clovot cnloq c q
totkoolo nopoooq.
H tcu0uvoq npootoplct noo plokcot to oookcoq, oovq0e q oytkq q
ootkq 0coq q oc cvo lkoo.
To vou nopcl cnloq vo npootoplct to oookcoq q cvo lkoo kot ,pq-
otonotclot kople yto oyoo cokolo (clvot nto cokoo vo 0ooooc cvo
ovoo ono to octpo opt0ev). Oov ,pqotonotooc ovoo, ylvcot ctko
ovtool,toq oo oc to tco0ovoq c q oq0cto kooqq onqpcolo noo
0o ooc opyocpo (DNS).
H tupoq clvot o ovonot noo npcnct vo okooo0qoct cvo oooovoo
IP nokco yto vo ooct oov npooptoo oo.
Mto oovq0tocvq totkoolo clvot vo npootoploooc ov nopoqnq ,pqoto-
notevo cvo oootko ovoo, o onolo copcncot ono o oooqo oqv ovl-
oot,q IP tco0ovoq. Koontv ko0oplcot q topoq noo npcnct vo okooo0qoct
cvo oooovoo nokco yto vo ooct oov npooptoo oo.
7.6.1 Atcu0uvoq Ecyou Hpouoq ovo Mcoo (Media Access
Control, Atcu0uvoq MAC)
Ko0c oookcoq noo cntkotvevcl oc cvo lkoo to0cct oo tco0ovoct: H lo clvot
q tco0ovoq IP q onolo onolcot ono o npeokoo tkooo kot q oq clvot q
uotrq teu0uvoq yveoq kot e teu0uvoq u/trou (norJwore oJJress).
Ot ootkc tco0ovoct clvot ovotkc, ytol toopctko cv 0o nopooooc vo
npootoploooc t oookcoc oo lkoo. Ito nopoctyo to kopo tkooo (noo
clvot ono t ncov kotvc oookcoc oc cvo lkoo) to0cct to ootkq tco0ovoq
noo q c,ct onoo0cl ono ov koookcoooq q oo ooto q koookcoq q.
Eoevo c o ovco OSI, q ootkq tco0ovoq plokcot oo ono-cnlnco up-
ouoq oro eoo yveoo kot e MeJio Access Conrrol, yto o oyo ooo ovoocot
kot tco0ovoq MAC.
Eo ono-cnlnco ccy,oo npooooq oo coo, ckcclot ovoooq ev ctocp,oc-
vev nokcev kot ccy,cot q MAC tco0ovoq oo. Av q MAC tco0ovoq npoo-
ptooo ovtoot,cl oqv ootkq tco0ovoq q oookcoq noo ckccl ov ccy,o,
oc o nokco nopooovcot kot npoe0clot npo o ovecpo cnlnco. Atoo-
pctko, o nokco oyvoclot. H ovoooq ooq oo ,oqocpo cnlnco oo OSI o
onooooct ono ookonc ko0oocpqoct noo 0o cl,oc ov cnpcnc vo oqyqoooc
ko0c nokco oc ovecpo cnlnco yto vo ooc ov npooplcot yto q ooykckptcvq
oookcoq (ccy,ovo qv IP tco0ovoq npooptooo).
To qko q MAC tco0ovoq npooptooo tocpct ovooyo c o oooqo (o
npeokoo noo ,pqotonotclot oo ootko coo). Ito nopoctyo oo ncptooo-
cpo oooqoo (one o Ethernet) ,pqotonotoovot tco0ovoct cyc0oo 48 bits.
Ec ko0c nokco ovoypoovot npoove ooo q tco0ovoq oo onoooco ooo kot
oo nopoqnq.
Hpokctcvoo vo coootocl q ovotkoqo ev tco0ovocev, q ovo0coq oo yl-
vcot ono o Ivortrouro H/errpo/v rut H/errpovtrv Mq,uvtrv, ILLL, Insrirure
o[ Llecrricol onJ Llecrronic Lnqineers. To 24 npeo bits q tco0ovoq MAC nc-
ptc,oov cvo ovotko yto ko0c koookcoooq ovoyveptotko opt0o o onolo ono-
lcot oc ooov ono o IEEE. To oo 24 bits nopcl o ko0c koookcoooq vo o
,pqotonotqoct one 0cct (E,qo 7.21).
To npeo 24 bits clvot yveoo c qv ovooolo ruurrqru opuvtoou, OUI, Orqonizorion
Unique IJenri[ier. To /trepo oquvrtr bir q tco0ovoq (o npeo oo o,qo)
npootoplct ov q tco0ovoq clvot ootkq q ootkq. Av clvot 0 npokctot yto oo-
tkq (Individual) cve ov clvot yto ootkq (Group). Mto ootkq tco0ovoq cv
npootoplct cvo ooykckptcvo q,ovqo q kopo tkooo, oo cvo oovoo tco-
0ovocev yto o onolo onotclot cntncov ovoooq.
7.6 Atcu0uvotovqoq S7
E,qo 7.21: Aoq 1uotrq Ateu0uvoq
Av oo o qlo q OUI c,oov qv tq 1, q tco0ovoq c,ct ttolcpq oqoolo:
To nokco ooo npcnct vo q0cl ono ooo oo onooytoc oo ooykckptcvoo
oooqoo.
To eurepo bir npootoplct noto op,q c,ct kovct qv ovo0coq q tco0ovoq. Av
clvot 0, q tco0ovoq c,ct onoo0cl oc noykooto cnlnco ono qv IEEE, ov clvot 1
c,ct ovoc0cl ontko. Aoo ylvcot yto vo npootoplcot cokoo ov to tco0ovoq
clvot npoyotko ovotkq oc noykooto lkoo. Mto tco0ovoq noo c,ct ovoc-
0cl ontko nopcl vo clvot ooto c to noo c,ct ovoc0cl oc noykooto cnlnco
ono qv IEEE. To bit ooo kovct o to,eptoo (,epl ooo cv 0o nopooooc vo
coooloooc q ovotkoqo ev tco0ovocev).
To cnocvo 22 bit oov0coov q ootkq tco0ovoq onotkooo noo ovoc0qkc ono
o IEEE oo ooykckptcvo opyovtoo. H cocpq ooo ev 24 bit npootoploov
tco0ovoct t onolc to,ctplcot ontko o opyovtoo. Opyovtool ooo onol-
oo ovol0cvot ono qv IEEE tco0ovoct onotkooo (OUI), clvot oovq0e ot
koookcoooc kopev tkooo (n.,. Ethernet) kot tkookoo otkoo. Ko0c coto
cotplo npoypoolct oc ko0c kopo tkooo noo kokoopcl oo cnopto cvo
toopctko opt0o ootkq tco0ovoq oo cocpo 24 bit (oo npeo 24 ,pqot-
onotclot o OUI noo q c,ct ovoc0cl). Av covqoct oq qv cocpq ncpto,q
tco0ovocev, nopcl vo qqoct ono o IEEE kot cocpo OUI.
7.6.2 IP Atcu0uvoct
H c,vooylo TCP/IP ,pqotonotcl tco0ovoct IP cyc0oo 32 bit. Mto tco0ovoq
IP npootoplct oo npoyoo:
1vo qo oo tkooo
1vo onooytoq noo oovccot oc ooo o qo
Hpcnct vo tcokptvloooc ot q IP tco0ovoq npootoplct oqv npoyotkoqo q
oovcoq (0coq) to oookcoq oo lkoo kot o,t q oookcoq oov q,ovqo. Aoo
oqolvct yto nopoctyo ot ov coktvqoooc cvo onooytoq ono cvo qo oo
tkooo oc cvo oo, 0o ,pctoocl vo ooooc q tco0ovoq oo eoc vo otptoct
c o qo npooptooo. Mnopooc oe vo kpoqoooc o lto ovoo onooytoq
(cvqcpevovo kooqo o DNS noo 0o ooc nopokoe).
Mto oookcoq nopcl vo c,ct ncptooocpc ono to tco0ovoct IP ov ovqkct ooo-
,povo oc noo toopctko lkoo. Aoo nopcl vo ylvct ov to oookcoq to0cct
yto nopoctyo ncptooocpc ono to tcnoc (kopc) tkooo (ov kot nopcl vo
ylvct kot c lo). Mto oovq0tocvq ncplneoq clvot ot poooyqc noo to0coov
to tco0ovoq tkooo yto ko0cvo ono o lkoo oo onolo clvot oovcccvot kot
poooyoov nokco.
Hupctyu: Eo cpyooqpto o, o poooyqq noo o oovcct c o Internet
c,ct oo tco0ovoct: Tq tco0ovoq 10.14.28.10 q onolo olvcot oo coecptko
o lkoo Ethernet kot q tco0ovoq 81.186.32.182 c qv onolo oovccot oo
Internet coe oo Hovcqvtoo E,otkoo Atkooo.
Mto tco0ovoq IP ,eplcot ontko oc oo nclo, o nclo trruou kot o nclo uuo-
/otorq. Oootootko ooo oqolvct ot c,ooc one 0o ooc nopokoe oo-
evqoct ot cvo cpo ev qlev q tco0ovoq ,pqotonotclot yto vo ovoyve-
ploct o qo oo tkooo q uuoirruo kot o onootno o ooykckptcvo q,ovqo
(o,qo 7.23). Mc ov pono ooo, ot tco0ovoct IP okooo0oov tcpop,tkq op,tc-
kovtkq kot ovovokoov qv coecptkq tcpop,tkq tolpcoq oo tkooo oc onol-
koo. Bcnovo o o,qo 7.22 nopoqpooc to tcpop,lo ptev cntncev:
Ookqpo o lkoo ovoyveplcot ono ov opt0o 22.
1,ct ,eptocl oc plo onolkoo, o 33, 43 kot 33.
Ko0cvo ono ooo totpclot oc okoo tkpocpo onolkoo noo ,opokqpl-
ovot ono ov plo opt0o (1,2,3,4)
Occoolo opt0o noo ceolvcot e X ,opokqplct ov onooytoq.
One koooolvcc, oo ooykckptcvo lkoo c,ooc onoooloct ot pct npeot
opt0ol (octets) vo ,opokqploov o lkoo kot o ccoolo ov onooytoq.
qcieoq: Ot opt0ol oool ovooovot orre q ocrers kot clvot q ovonopo-
oooq oo ckotko oooqo 8 ootkev qlev q. cvo byte. Aoo oqolvct
ot ko0cvo ono oo opt0oo oooo nopcl vo nopct tc ono o 0 e o 233. Av
,pqotonotooc (one oo nopoctyo o) oo pct npeoo yto qv tco0ovoq
7.6 Atcu0uvotovqoq S9
E,qo 7.22: Iepup,trq tuipeoq trruou oe uuoirruu rut ,pto teu0uvoev oe
uuoteu0uvoet
oo tkooo kot ov copo yto q tco0ovoq oo onooytoq c,ooc qv nopokoe
koovoq qlev yto q tco0ovoq IP:
Tplo bytes yto q tco0ovoq tkooo 3 * 8 24 bits.
1vo byte yto q tco0ovoq oo onooytoq 8 bits
No oqcteoooc ot o oovotko qko q tco0ovoq clvot 32 bits.
One koooolvcc, clvot ovoov vo ,eploooc q tco0ovoq oc toopctko
oqclo ovooyo c o ov 0cooc vo qtoopyqoooc noo lkoo c lyoo ono-
oytoc o ko0cvo (one oo nopoctyo o, onoo nopooc vo c,ooc c,pt 234
onooytoc) q ov 0cooc vo qtoopyqoooc cvo lkoo c nooo onooytoc.
E,qo 7.23: Aoq Ateu0uvoq IP
Oov o lkoo o clvot ooovoo kot cv oovccot (q cv clvot opoo) oo q-
ooto Internet, c,ooc q ovooqo vo cntcooc t tco0ovoct noo 0cooc
kot vo ,eploooc o onolkoo o one cnt0oooc. Ooooo ov o q,ovqoo
o clvot onco0clo npooooto oo Internet npcnct c konoto pono vo cooot-
ocl ot ot tco0ovoct oo clvot ovotkc kot cv ,pqotonotoovot ono kovcvo
oo onooytoq. Ec ovl0cq ncplneoq q oovcoq o 0o qtoopyqoct ooopo
npoqoo oq ctoopylo oo Atotkooo.
Ito o okono ooo, q ovo0coq cotev tco0ovocev cv ylvcot o,olo oo c,ct
ovoc0cl oo Kevrpo H/qpoopiu Atrruou, Nerwor| In[ormorion Cenrer, NIC q
InrerNIC. Oov npokctot vo oovcoooc cvo tko o lkoo q onooytoq onco-
0clo oo lkoo, o NIC 0o o eoct q tco0ovoq q ncpto,q tco0ovocev noo
npcnct vo ,pqotonotqoooc cooolovo ooo,povo ot clvot ovotkq kot
cv ,pqotonotclot ooo.
qcieoq: Tt ylvcot c oo onooytoc oo onlt o, Av yto nopoctyo c,ooc
to oovcoq ADSL, onco0ovo yto q tco0ovoq IP noo c,ooc clvot o nopo,co
Internet (q cotplo noo o oovcct). Eqv cotplo ooq c,ct o0cl ono o NIC to q
ncptooocpc ncpto,c tco0ovocev kot ko0c opo noo oovcoooc, o ovol0c-
ot to tco0ovoq ono ooc. Ko0c opo nopcl vo c,ooc toopctkq tco0ovoq,
oo olyoopo q otyq noo q ,pqotonotooc ccl cv qv c,ct kovcl oo.
Eqv op,tkq o,clooq oo Atotkooo onqp,c q olo0qoq ot 0o onopoov nopo
noo lkoo. H op,tkq okcq qov vo cocooov yto o qo tkooo q tco-
0ovoq 24 bits, eoc vo onop,oov to0cotc tco0ovoct yto ko0c lkoo noo 0o
qtoopyq0cl. To lkoo ooo npocnovov vo clvot tkpo, onqp,c oe q cvo-
neoq ot 0o qtoopyq0oov kot konoto noo cyoo lkoo o onolo cvc,ocve
vo ,pctoovov 24 bits yto o qo Ynooytoq q tco0ovoq yto vo nopoov vo
ncptooov ooo oo onooytoc oo.
Mc ooq o noponove olvcot ot 0o ,pctooooov o oovotko qko q tco-
0ovoq IP vo clvot 24 24 48 bits. Ot o,ctooc oe cnt0ooooov vo ,pqoto-
notqooov tco0ovoct oovotkoo qkoo 32 bits. Yno0covo ot o ncptooocpo
lkoo 0o clvot ctko tkpo, qtoopyqoov coocpt toopctkc oc tco0ov-
ocev (kot to ncnq noo clvot cococvq yto covtkq ,pqoq) ot onolc ,pq-
otonotoovot ovooyo c o cyc0o oo tkooo. Ot oc ooc kooooooov o
lkoo oc coocpt r/oet, A, B, C kot D (o,qo 7.24). To npeo qlo ko0c ko-
oq o oq0oov vo koooooc onco0clo oc noto kooq ovqkct o ooykckptcvo
lkoo, c ov pono noo ncptypocot nopokoe.
Koq A: Eqv kooq Ao npeo qlo clvot 0. Aoo oqolvct ot o npeo
octet c,ct tc ono 00000000 e 01111111 q. oc ckotko ono 0 e 127.
7.6 Atcu0uvotovqoq 61
E,qo 7.24: K/oet IP Ateu0uvoev
Eqv kooq ooq cocoovot 7 bits yto q tco0ovoq tkooo kot o ono-
otno 24 yto q tco0ovoq onooytoq. H kooq A npooplcot yto noo c-
yoo lkoo: Mnopooc vo qtoopyqoooc 128 lkoo c ncptooocpoo
ono 16 ckooopto onooytoc o ko0cvo.
Koq B: Eqv kooq B o oo npeo qlo c,oov tq 10. Ito o qo
Ynooytoq ,pqotonotoovot 16 bits (o oo ccoolo octets) cve yto o
qo Atkooo 14 bits. Mc ooq o noponove, o npeo octet 0o c,ct tc
ono 10000000 e 10111111 q. ono 128 e 191. To onootno octets 0o c,oov
ootko tc ono 0 e 233. H kooq ooq npooplcot yto q qtoopylo
tkoev cooloo cyc0oo. Mnopooc vo qtoopyqoooc 16384 lkoo c
63336 onooytoc o ko0cvo.
Koq C: Eqv kooq C o plo npeo qlo clvot 110. Ito o qo oo
tkooo ,pqotonotoovot 21 bits, cve yto o qo onooytoq ovo 8 bits.
Aoo oqolvct ot nopooc vo c,ooc ncplnoo 2 ckooopto lkoo c
c,pt 236 onooytoc o ko0cvo. To npeo octet nolpvct tc ono 11000000
e 11011111 q. ono 192 e 223. To onootno octets 0o c,oov ootko tc
ono 0 e 233.
Koq D: H kooq D c,ct cttko okono: Ynooqplct ootkc tco0ovoct
onooytoev (multicast). Ot tco0ovoct ooc cv onco0ovovot oc cvo oo-
ykckptcvo q,ovqo oo oc to ooo q,ovqoev kot ,pqotonotoo-
vot yto coooct cknonq. Eqv kooq D o coocpo npeo qlo oo
npeoo octet c,oov qv tq 1110.
One c,ooc qq ct, t IP tco0ovoct t ypoooc oov ooc ev cooopev
opt0ev ev 8 bits (octets q okoc) ot onolc to,eplovot coo oo c cclo.
H.,. to tco0ovoq oo coecptkoo o tkooo oo o,oclo clvot:
10.14.28.32
H ypoq ooq o conqpccl ko0e ,pqotonotooc ckotko ovl yto ootko.
Avooyo c qv kooq oo tkooo, ko0c okoo nopcl vo ovtnpooencoct cvo
qo q tco0ovoq tkooo q oo Ynooytoq. Ito nopoctyo oqv kooq A,
to tco0ovoq ovtnpooencoct:
Alkoo.Ynooytoq.Ynooytoq.Ynooytoq
cve oc to kooq C, 0o clvot:
Alkoo.Alkoo.Alkoo.Ynooytoq
Ito nopoctyo, oc cvo lkoo kooq C loe onop,ct q tco0ovoq 192.168.2.34.
To 192.168.2 ovtnpooencoct o lkoo, cve o 34 o ooykckptcvo onooytoq.
Ano q tco0ovoq clvot o,ctko cokoo vo coyooc nqpooplc o,ctko c o
lkoo kot o onolo o tcokoovct kot oqv onoccootkq poooyqoq ev
oooovoev nokcev.
7.6.3 Ynoiuvuu uut Mouu Ynotuvuou
Eotplc kot opyovtool ot onolot to0coov cyoo lkoo, npotoov vo ,eploov
o lkoo oo oc cntcpoo onolkoo (subnets) oo onolo yto oo ctkoo ono-
oytoc tol0cot cvo tkpo opt0o ono bits.
One clnoc kot oqv npoqyoocvq cvoqo, clvot ovoov vo oploooc nooo q-
lo ,pqotonotoovot yto o nclo Atkooo kot nooo yto o nclo Ynooytoq oq
tco0ovoq IP. H po0toq ylvcot ovooyo c t ovoykc, o eoc vo nopooc vo
qtoopyqoooc lyo lkoo c nooo onooytoc q noo lkoo c lyoo ono-
oytoc. Ito oyoo to,clptoq clvot t ncptooocpc opc nto otko vo c,ooc
noo tkpocpo lkoo ono cvo cyoo. Aoo 0o ylvct ncptooocpo koovoqo c
o nopokoe nopoctyo:
Hupctyu: A ono0coooc ot oc cvo cyoo opyovtoo q cotplo c,ct ovoc-
0cl to ncpto,q tco0ovocev tkooo kooq B, q 128.6.X.X. Eoecptko, ooo o
opyovtoo nopcl vo ,eploct ooq qv ncpto,q tco0ovocev eoc q plq okoo
vo qevct cvo toopctko onolkoo. Ito nopoctyo, nopcl o coecptko l-
koo vo onocclot ono oo lkoo Ethernet. Eo cvo 0o ,pqotonotq0cl q ncpto,q
128.6.3.X kot oo oo q 128.6.4.X. Ec ko0c ncplneoq o nclo Ynooytoq q
tco0ovoq 0o ovtoot,cl ovo oqv ccoolo okoo (X). O to,eptoo ooo
c,ct oqoolo ovo oo coecptko lkoo oo opyovtooo.
Ot onooytoc noo plokovot ce ono ooo o lkoo (n.,. oo Alkoo A oo o,q-
oo 7.23) cv ,pctoovot vo yveploov kot yto ooo, ooo nopoov vo oovc,l-
ooov vo poooyoov oooovoo nokco oo 128.6.X.X (,epl vo kotooov qv
7.6 Atcu0uvotovqoq 63
E,qo 7.23: Loreptrq opvoq trruou oe uuoirruu
plq okoo) kot otoo coo ono ov lto poooyqq. Eo coecptko lkoo
oo opyovtooo, q to,clptoq ev nokcev ooct: ot poooyqc oo opyovt-
ooo c,oov toopctkc cyypoc yto o lkoo 128.6.4 kot o 128.6.3, c okono
vo nopoov ncov vo to,eplooov kot vo poooyqooov o nokco npo o koo-
qo onolkoo. Ot poooyqc noo plokovot ce ono o lkoo cv ,pctocot
vo kovoov ooo o to,eptoo kot cot c,oov ovo to cyypoq noo clvot kotvq yto
oc t tco0ovoct 128.6.X.X.
Av okcooc ooo o nopoctyo, clvot oov vo c,ooc nopct cvo lkoo kooq B
kot vo o c,ooc ,eploct coecptko oc tkpocpo onolkoo kooq C. Kovovtko
oc cvo lkoo kooq B, ot oo ccoolc okoc ,opokqploov ov Ynooytoq.
Ec cvo lkoo kooq C oe, ovo q ccoolo okoo ,opokqplct ov Ynooyt-
oq. Ee qqooc ono o NIC vo o ovo0coct to ncpto,q tco0ovocev oc Class
B, oo coecptko onooolooc vo ,pqotonotqoooc kot qv plq okoo yto
vo qeoooc o lkoo, totpevo oootootko o lkoo Class B oc tkpocpo
onolkoo Class C.
Oo nopooooc c qv lto oytkq ovl vo qqoooc cvo Class B lkoo ono
o NIC, vo qqoooc onco0clo ncptooocpo ono cvo Class C, Not. Ao ooo
0o ckovc nto noonokq qv cntkotvevlo c cecptko lkoo. Eqv ncplneoq
noo c,ooc o to,eptoo coecptko oov opyovtoo, ot cecptkol poooyq-
c c,oov to ovotkq cyypoq yto o lkoo o, cve ot tkol o poooyqc
c,oov ncptooocpc kot ckcoov o to,eptoo coo oov opyovtoo. Av qq-
oooc ncptooocpo ono cvo Class C onolkoo, 0o c,ooc ovo0coct o to,eptoo
oc poooyqc noo plokovot ce ono ov opyovtoo. Aoo oqolvct ot ot po-
ooyqc ce ono o lkoo o cv 0o nopoov one vo poooyoov oo 128.6
oo 0o npcnct vo yveploov o okptc o onolkoo, 128.6.4 q 128.6.3. Kot c-
oto oqolvct ootko ot 0o c,oov kot ncptooocpc ono to koo,eploct cttko
yto o ooykckptcvo opyovtoo.
Mcocpovo ooq qv tolpcoq oc onolkoo oo coecptko oo opyovtooo,
kpoooc qv noonokoqo (coecptkq oq) oo tkoo o tkooo ono ov ce
kooo kot ononotooc koo noo t po0loct ev poooyqev noo plokovot
ce ono o lkoo o.
7.6.3.1 Mouu Ynotuvuou
Horu uuotrruou (subner mos|) clvot cvo opt0o c ov onolo nopooc vo ko-
0oploooc c okplcto ncov cvo bit, noto qlo to tco0ovoq IP ovqkoov oo
nclo Atkooo kot noto oo nclo Ynooytoq. H ooko onotkooo c,ct cyc0o
32 bit kot ,eplcot oc okoc one kot q tco0ovoq IP.
H ooooq noo ,pqotonotclot clvot q nopokoe. 1oe ot c,ooc q tco0ovoq
IP:
1u.14.2B.1u
Tq ypoooc nopokoe c q ootkq q opq, ovo okoo:
uuuu1u1u.uuuu111u.uuu111uu.uuuu1u1u
A ono0coooc ot o c,oov eoct ov nopokoeopt0o e ooko onotkooo:
255.255.255.u
Tov ypoooc kot ooov oq ootkq oo opq:
11111111.11111111.111111111.uuuuuuuu
Boooc ov cvo opt0o koe ono ov oo, kot ckcooc q oytkq npoq AND
ovo qlo. AND oqolvct ot o onoccoo 0o clvot 1 ovo ov KAI o oo qlo
clvot 1:
uuuu1u1u.uuuu111u.uuu111uu.uuuu1u1u
11111111.11111111.11111111.uuuuuuuu
ANu
uuuu1u1u.uuuu111u.uuu111uu.uuuuuuuu
Oopt0o noo npokonct, ov ov copcooc oc ckotko ovo clvot o 10.14.28.0
kot ovoocot Ateu0uvoq Yuotrruou.
Icvtko cvo cokoo kovovo clvot: Onoo o qlo q ooko onotkooo clvot
1, o ovloot,o qlo oq tco0ovoq IP ovqkoov oo nclo Alkoo. Onoo o q-
7.6 Atcu0uvotovqoq 6S
E,qo 7.26: Xpqoq Moru Yuotrruou
lo q ooko clvot 0, o ovloot,o qlo q tco0ovoq IP ovqkoov oo nclo
Ynooytoq. Aclc kot o nopoctyo oo o,qo 7.26.
One kot oqv ncplneoq ev ootkev (MAC) tco0ovocev, kot ot IP tco-
0ovoct ov 0coooc oo o bits oc 1 (kot o onolo ovtoot,cl oc to tco0ovoq
233.233.233.233 oo ckotko) qevooc ot 0cooc vo oclooc o qvoo
o oc ooo oo onooytoc oo ooykckptcvoo tkooo kot otoo oo,co
ono o onolkoo oo onolo ovqkoov. Av not 0cooc vo oclooc o qvoo
o oc ooo oo onooytoc cvo ooykckptcvoo onotkooo ,pqotonotooc
e tco0ovoq q tco0ovoq onotkooo 0covo oc 1 oo o qlo oo ncloo
Ynooytoq.
Xpqotonotevo o npoqyoocvo o nopoctyo: 1oe ot 0cooc vo ocl-
ooc o qvoo oc ooo oo onooytoc oo onotkooo 10.14.28.X. 1,ooc
pct ot q tco0ovoq onotkooo clvot:
1u.14.2B.u
Eov noponove opt0o, o 0 ovtnpooencoct o qo Ynooytoq. Oo npcnct
vo 0coooc oo o qlo oooo oo opt0oo oo 1, opo o opt0o noo 0o npokoct
0o clvot o 11111111233. Ito vo oclooc o qvoo 0o ,pqotonotqoooc q
tco0ovoq:
1u.14.2B.255
Av cl,oc tco0ovoq IP 176.44.23.19 c ooko 233.233.0.0 t tco0ovoq 0o ,pqot-
onotooooc yto vo oclooc o qvoo oc oo o onolkoo,
To ccoolo ,povto c,ct oqcte0cl to cvoneotokq ovonoq oo Atotkooo
(Internet). Aoo cl,c e onoccoo vo covtooov o npeo npoqoo, ko-
0e o nq0o ev tco0ovocev noo nopooc vo ypoooc c 32 bit clvot nc-
ncpoocvo (kot oqv npoyotkoqo c,ooc qq ,pqotonotqoct o cyoocpo
cpo). Ko0e o lkoo noo oovcovot coo oo coe Atotkooo ooovo-
vot, o to0coto ,epo tco0ovocev ctevcot cve ooo,povo cyoevoov kot
ylvovot ncptooocpot noonokot ot nlvokc poooyqoq.
To npoqo ylvcot okoo nto cvovo ko0e cyoo cpo ev tco0ovocev nopo-
cvct o,pqotonolqo ono oo opyovtooo ooo onoloo c,ct ovoc0cl. Ito no-
poctyo ov cvo opyovtoo ,pctocot cvo lkoo c 70000 onooytoc, q kooq
B cv ov koonct, oo c qv kooq A ncptoocooov ckooopto tco0ovoct ot
onolc oe cocoovot kot cv nopoov vo ,pqotonotq0oov konoo ooo. To
lto ooolvct kot ov 0cooc vo oovcoooc oc cvo lkoo 300 onooytoc. H
kooq C cv o koonct, eoooo oqv kooq B 0o clvoov o,pqotonolqc nc-
ptooocpc ono 63000 tco0ovoct!
Ito vo ovtcentooov o noponove npoqoo, npoo0qkc q Aveuprqrou K/-
oev Apoo/qoq Yuep-Hepto,v (Clossless InrerDomoin Rourinq) q CIDR. To oo-
oqo ooo koopycl cvce t kooct tco0ovocev kot o cntpcnct vo ko0opl-
oooc c onooq okplcto nooo qlo tol0cvot oo nclo Alkoo kot nooo oo
nclo Ynooytoq, ovooyo c t ovoykc oo opyovtooo. Ito o okono ooo ,pq-
otonotclot o oooqo c qv ooko onotkooo noo cloc npoqyoocve.
1vo oovoo pono yto vo qeoooc o cyc0o ko0c ncloo (Alkoo/Ynooyt-
oq) q tco0ovoq IP clvot ,pqotonotevo o up0eu. To npo0co clvot cvo
opt0o noo ypoooc co q tco0ovoq IP kot qevct ono nooo qlo onoc-
clot q ooko tkooo (q onotkooo) ko0c tco0ovoq. Ito nopoctyo, ypoo-
vo:
1u.14.2B.1u724
qevooc ot q ooko tkooo onocclot ono 24 qlo. Mc oo oyto ,pqot-
onotoovot 24 bit yto o nclo tkooo (q. 3 bytes, opo ot pct npec okoc)
kot cvoov 8 bit yto o nclo Ynooytoq. Aoo ovtoot,cl oc to ooko tkooo
233.233.233.0.
Acv clvot onopolqo eoooo o npo0co vo totpclot okpte c o 8. Oo no-
pooooc vo c,ooc o nopokoe:
1u.14.2B.1u727
Aoo oqolvct ot ,pqotonotooc 27 qlo yto o nclo Atkooo, opo o ono-
cvoov 3 qlo yto o nclo Ynooytoq. Ec cvo coto lkoo 0o nopooooc vo
oovcoooc cvo cytoo 32 q,ovqoev.
To oooqo CIDR cntpcnct qv ovo0coq cyoev oovc,ocvev ncpto,ev tco-
0ovocev oc cotplc noo nopc,oov onqpcolc Atotkooo (oo yveooo o ISP,
Inrerner Service ProviJers). Ot cotplc ooc clvot cncto onco0ovc vo ovo0cooov
7.7 Hpevuoo ARP 67
tkpocpc ncpto,c tco0ovocev ooo ncoc oo ovooyo c t ovoykc oo
ko0cvo. Mc ooo ov pono cntoy,ovcot q ooonolqoq ev tco0ovocev noo
conqpcoovot ono ov lto ISP. H ooonolqoq cntpcnct q poooyqoq q
klvqoq npo o oeoo npooptoo, toqpevo ovo to cyypoq yto ooo oo
npooptooo (tco0ovoct) noo conqpcoovot ono ov lto ISP.
qcieoq: Mnopclc vo clc q tco0ovoq IP kot q Mooko oc cvo q,ovqo
Windows coo ono o ctkovlto tkooo oo Hlvoko Ecy,oo. Entcc o npeo-
koo TCP/IP kot ntcoc Itoqc. Mnopclc cnloq vo clc t ltc nqpoo-
plc oq ypoq cvoev, ypoovo:
1pcohf1g 7aJJ |noe
Ec UNIX q,ovqoo nopclc vo nopcc ooc t nqpooplc ypoovo oq
ypoq cvoev:
1fcohf1g
7.7 Hpevuoo ARP
1,ooc ncov tqoct kot yto o oo clq tco0ovocev:
Tq ootkq (MAC) tco0ovoq noo lvct o koookcoooq oo tkookoo ot-
koo ot oookcoc oo (n.,. ot kopc tkooo). Hncpto,q tco0ovocev noo
nopcl vo ,pqotonotq0cl, onolcot oov koookcoooq ono o IEEE.
Tq tco0ovoq IP noo ovqkct oqv c,vooylo TCP/IP kot onolcot ot oo-
okcoc oo tkooo ono ov to,ctptoq oo tkooo. Av o lkoo ooo clvot
onco0clo oovcccvo c o qooto Internet, ot tco0ovoct ooc onoyo-
pcoovot ono o NIC, toopctko o to,ctptoq nopcl vo cntcct t tco-
0ovoct noo ov conqpcoov.
To npoqo noo l0cot ncov clvot ne ylvcot q coponq ono o cvo clo
tco0ovoq oqv oq. Ec cvo ncptoov ontkoo tkooo (oovq0e Ethernet) ooo
cntoy,ovcot c o npeokoo ARP, AJJress Resolurion Prorocol, Hprro//o
Merurpouq Ateu0uvoq. No oqcteoooc ce ot o ARP ovqkct oo npeokoo
oo ,oqocpoo cntncoo (Eovcoq Atkooo) oqv tcpop,lo oo TCP/IP.
Ituvi civut oquvvtu vo ARP; Ec cvo lkoo Ethernet, oo o q,ovqoo oo-
voov oo o qvooo, oo,co c o noo onco0ovovot (oo kootko Ethernet oo
o q,ovqoo otpoovot o lto ootko coo). Ko0c q,ovqo npoove npc-
nct vo cnccpyoocl ovo o cocvo noo onco0ovovot oc ooo. Av cv onqp,c
o npeokoo ARP, o q,ovqo 0o cnpcnc vo nopooct ko0c nokco ono o
ootko coo kot vo o cnccpyoocl e,pt ro euiueo trruou yto vo tontoeoct
ov q tco0ovoq IP npooptooo oolcot c q tkq oo. Mc q oq0cto oo ARP,
nopcl vo o tontoeoct ocoo oo cnlnco oovcoq tkooo onocoyovo cot
ncptq cnccpyoolo.
To npeokoo ARP ovooovct vo copcct to IP tco0ovoq oqv ovloot,q
ootkq. Aoo 0o nopooooc vo o cnto,ooc ono0qkcoovo qv ovtool,toq
ooq oc cvo nlvoko oo oqev (IP Atco0ovoq, 4ootkq Atco0ovoq). Ooooo ov
kovooc ooq q totkoolo ,ctpoklvqo, oovoo 0o c,ooc cyoo npoqo,
cttko oov npool0cvot vcc oookcoc (onoc kot 0o onotclot cvqcpeoq). Ev-
voclot ot o npoqo ylvcot okoo nto cvovo oc cyoo lkoo.
To npeokoo ARP kovct okpte ooq qv ovtool,toq ono IP tco0ovoq oqv
ootkq kot toqpcl ov nlvoko ov onolo ooqqooc noponove oo uvutr.
Aoo oqolvct ot ovooovct vo ovokooct op,tko noto tco0ovoq IP ovtoot-
,cl oc noto tco0ovoq MAC oo kot vo cvqcpevct ooc t koo,eploct oov
npool0cvot vco q,ovqoo (q oov ylvcot ooyq tco0ovocev oc onop,ovo).
Kcvptko oot,clo oq ctoopylo oo npeokooo ARP clvot o nlvoko oo oq-
ev (IP Atco0ovoq, 4ootkq Atco0ovoq). Ko0c ypoq oo nlvoko ovtoot,cl oc
to cyypoq q. oc to oookcoq. 1vo nopoctyo ARP nlvoko olvcot nopo-
koe:
IP Atcu0uvoq Ethernet Atcu0uvoq
223.1.2.1 08-00-39-00-2F-C3
223.1.2.3 08-00-3A-21-A7-22
223.1.2.4 08-00-10-99-AC-34
Oov o npeokoo ARP oct to tco0ovoq IP, op,tko 0o tcpcovqoct ov nlvoko
ARP yto vo ct ov onop,ct q ovloot,q cyypoq:
Av pc0cl q cyypoq oov nlvoko ARP, o npeokoo 0o cntopcct qv
ovloot,q ootkq tco0ovoq noo ovocpct o nlvoko.
Av cv pc0cl cyypoq, o npeokoo 0o qtoopyqoct to uirqoq ARP. H
olqoq ooq clvot cvo qvoo o onolo onco0ovcot oc oo o q,ovqoo
oo ontkoo tkooo. Hcptc,ct qv tco0ovoq IP oo onooytoq npooptooo.
Av to oookcoq oo lkoo ovoyveploct ooq qv IP e tkq q, 0o oclct
q ootkq q tco0ovoq e onovqoq oq oookcoq noo qtoopyqoc qv
olqoq.
7.7 Hpevuoo ARP 69
Acoe co q qq q onovqoq, q oookcoq noo qtoopyqoc qv olqoq 0o
cvqcpeoct ov nlvoko ARP, qtoopyevo to vco cyypoq c q tco0ovoq IP
kot q ootkq tco0ovoq q oookcoq noo ot coc. Oov ,pctoocl ovo vo
pct q ootkq tco0ovoq ooq q oookcoq, 0o toooct one ov nlvoko kot
cv 0o ,pctoocl vo qtoopyq0cl vco olqo ARP.
One clvot ootko, ko0e oovcooc kot ootpooc oookcoc ono o lkoo, o nl-
voko ARP cvqcpevcot ooooo, ko0e ocvovot vcc otqoct kot oovo-
vot ot onovqoct oo. H npooopoyq cot cntoy,ovcot ooooo kot ovotko,
,epl vo onotclot cncooq ono o to,ctptoq oo tkooo. Av o nlvoko ARP
cv onqp,c, 0o cnpcnc oovc,cto vo ocvovot otqoct (okoo kot yto tco0ovoct
noo c,oov tcokptvtocl oo nopc0ov). Kot coto 0o ooovc qv klvqoq oo l-
koo kot 0o cl,c cntneoct oqv onoooq oo. Mnopcl eoooo vo ,pqotonotq0cl
oc konoto ono lkoo, kot cttko ov o opt0o ev oovcccvev onooytoev
clvot tkpo onoc q ooqoq q klvqoq cv clvot oqovtkq.
Oov oovcooc to vco oookcoq oo lkoo, ooq cvc,ocve cv to0cct okoo
IP tco0ovoq. 1vo ctovckqo oo npeokooo ARP clvot ot cv npocnct ko-
noto clo qvooo c o onolo to coto oookcoq vo qtoopycl olqoq yto
vo q ,opqyq0cl IP. Eqv ncplneoq ooq q oookcoq yveplct ovo q ootkq
q tco0ovoq. Mto ooq oc ooo o npoqo lvcot ono o npeokoo RARP,
Reverse AJJress Resolurion Prorocol, Hprro//o Avriorpoq Merurpouq Ateu-
0uvoq o onolo kovct qv ovlopoq oocto ono o ARP. Aqtoopycl q. cvo
olqo oo onolo lvcot q ootkq tco0ovoq kot ncptcvct e onovqoq qv ovl-
oot,q IP tco0ovoq. To olqo ooo onco0ovcot (one kot o ARP) oc oc t
oookcoc oo tkooo, oo nopcl vo onovq0cl ovo ono ooykckptcvc oookcoc
noo ovooovot euuqperqre RARP.
Tt 0cct vu nct ceo notqvq; Tt cvvocl cyovo ot to vco oookcoq cv yveplct
qv IP tco0ovoq q, Mo npoqyoocve cyoc ot o to,ctptoq q / kot o NIC
clvot onco0ovo yto vo lvoov IP tco0ovoct oo q,ovqoo!
H npoyotkoqo clvot q cq: Ec noo ontko lkoo, q oovcoq oo Internet
ylvcot coe cvo ovo oqcloo (n.,. oo cpyooqpto oo o,ocloo ylvcot coe
oo ADSL poooyqq). To oqclo ooo clvot kot o ovo noo olvcot ocoo
oo Internet. Oc ot tco0ovoct oo coecptkoo tkooo nopoov vo onoo0oov
ono ov ontko to,ctptoq one ooo 0cct. Ynop,oov oo ponot yto vo ylvct
ooo:
No o0oov orurtre teu0uvoet. Aq. o to,ctptoq vo noct oc cvo-cvo o q-
,ovqoo oo tkooo kot vo po0loct ,ctpoklvqo qv kooqq tco0ovoq,
npooc,ovo vo q eoct qv lto tco0ovoq noponove ono to opo.
No ,pqotonotqoct konoto oooqo o onolo ko0c opo noo oovccot cvo
vco q,ovqo, vo oo onolcot ooooo to tco0ovoq IP. Hpoove o
oooqo ooo 0o povlct vo lvct toopctkc tco0ovoct oc toopctko
q,ovqoo oo kot vo ovovcevct ov ovloot,o ARP nlvoko. O to,ctpt-
oq 0o npcnct vo ko0oploct ono nptv to ncpto,q cykopev tco0ovocev, ono
t onolc 0o lvcot ko0c opo cvo vco IP.
1vo coto oooqo clvot o RARP. To vco oooqo o onolo cv c,ct IP tco0ovoq,
qtoopycl cvo cpeqo RARP o onolo onooccot oc ookqpo o lkoo (ono-
,pcetko: cv nopcl vo oocl oc ooykckptcvo q,ovqo ,epl vo c,ooc IP
tco0ovoq!). To qvoo ooo oovcot ono ov kooqo conqpcqq ARP
o onolo ocvct e onovqoq qv IP tco0ovoq noo 0o npcnct vo ,pqotonotqoct
o q,ovqo.
Eqv npoyotkoqo, oqcpo o RARP cv ,pqotonotclot ncov. Avtkoooo-
0qkc ono o npeokoo BOOTP kot o nto kotvoopto DHCP o onolo ckccl
ovloot,c ctoopylc, oo nopcl vo oclct (cko ono q tco0ovoq IP) kot
oc nopocpoo ctoopylo oo vco q,ovqo.
Hupctyu: A ono0coooc ot cvo oooqo c tco0ovoq IP 128.6.4.194 0cct
vo oovc0cl c o 128.6.4.7:
To oooqo 0o ccyct op,tko ov o 128.6.4.194 plokcot oo lto lkoo c
o 128.6.4.7 yto vo npootoptocl ov nopoov vo cntkotvevqooov onco0clo
coe oo ontkoo tkooo (Ethernet). Hpoove ooo ooolvct oq ooykc-
kptcvq ncplneoq (nopoqpqoc ot ooct ovo q ccoolo okoo).
To oooqo 0o oct oov nlvoko ARP yto vo ct ov onop,ct koo,epqcvq q
tco0ovoq 128.6.4.7. Av onop,ct 0o ovokqoct ono ckcl onco0clo qv ootkq
tco0ovoq.
Av cv onop,ct koo,eptoq yto o 128.6.4.7 oov nlvoko ARP, 0o npcnct
vo npootoptocl q ootkq tco0ovoq oo oooqoo nptv ylvct onoooq
oo nokcoo. Aqtoopyclot to olqoq ARP c o cpeqo Xpctooot qv
Ethernet tco0ovoq oo 128.6.4.7. To olqo oovcot ono ooo oo
onooytoc oo ontkoo tkooo kot 0o onovq0cl ono qv oookcoq noo
ovoyveplct ooq q tco0ovoq e tkq q c to onovqoq oo onoo H
ootkq tco0ovoq oo 128.6.4.7 clvot 08:00:20:01:36:34 (Ot ootkc tco-
0ovoct oo Ethernet clvot 48 bit, q. 6 okoc).
1,ovo ncov kot q ootkq tco0ovoq, o onooytoq 128.6.4.194 nopcl
vo oclct o nokco oov 128.6.4.7.
7.7 Hpevuoo ARP 71
Oov to ARP cyypoq cv c,ct ,pqotonotq0cl yto cyoo ,povtko tooqo, oo
ncptooocpo oooqoo toypocot ooooo.
O nlvoko ARP clvot ovoykolo, ko0e cv onop,ct konoto oovcoq coo q IP
tco0ovoq kot q ootkq (cv onop,ct q. oyopt0o q pono onooytooo
noo vo lvooc qv lo kot vo o onooylct qv oq o IP o lvct o to,ctptoq
oo tkooo c ooq qv ncpto,q noo oo c,ct onoo0cl ono o NIC, q ootkq tco-
0ovoq lvcot ono ov koookcoooq oo tkookoo otkoo c ooq qv ncpto,q
tco0ovocev noo oo c,ct ovoc0cl ono o IEEE).
A ono0coooc ot to copoyq tkooo (n.,. onookpoocvq npooooq, Telnet)
0cct vo oovc0cl c cvo onookpoocvo onooytoq. Ito vo ylvct ooo 0o npcnct vo
qtoopyq0cl to TCP oovcoq coo ev oo onooytoev (o telnet oolcot oc
oovcoq TCP). To cocvo oo TCP 0o cocp0oov oo cnlnco tkooo kot 0o
nopoq0oov ono o npeokoo IP yto vo coponoov oc oooovoo IP nokco.
Eo oqclo ooo, 0o npcnct vo npootoptocl kot q ootkq (Ethernet) tco0ovoq
npooptooo.
Av q nqpooplo cv clvot ocoo to0cotq coe oo nlvoko ARP, o nokco IP
0o ono0cq0cl oc to oopo ovoovq kot 0o qtoopyq0cl o olqo ARP (nopo-
ctyo oo o,qo 7.27). Eo olqo ooo clvot oonqpecvo o nclo oo ono-
ooco kot oo npooptooo cko ono qv Ethernet tco0ovoq npooptooo. To
olqo 0o q0cl ono oo o q,ovqoo oo ontkoo tkooo. O onooytoq noo
0o ovoyveploct qv tco0ovoq oo, 0o qtoopyqoct qv ARP onovqoq oqv onolo
o nclo onoooco kot npooptooo clvot ovcopocvo oc o,coq c qv olqoq
kot ncptc,ct qv ootkq tco0ovoq noo qq0qkc. H onovqoq 0o q0cl ono ov
onooytoq noo coctc qv olqoq. H ARP ovoo oo ccoct qv onovqoq
kot koo,epcl qv tco0ovoq IP kot q ootkq tco0ovoq oov nlvoko ARP, q-
toopyevo cot ovotko to vco cyypoq. To nokco IP yolvct ono qv oopo
ovoovq, q tco0ovoq IP oo copcncot oq yveoq ncov ootkq (Ethernet)
tco0ovoq ono ov cvqcpecvo ARP nlvoko, o,qolcot o noloto Ethernet kot
totocot oo lkoo.
Eovolovo, 0o ylvoov ot nopokoe cvcpyctc:
Aqtoopyclot q ARP cpeqoq.
To IP oooovoo nokco nolvct oc oopo ovoovq.
Aoovcot q ARP onovqoq kot koo,epclot to vco cyypoq oov nlvoko
ARP.
Mc ooq ov cvqcpecvo nlvoko, copcncot q tco0ovoq IP oqv ovl-
oot,q Ethernet.
E,qo 7.27: ARP Airqoq rut Auvrqoq
To oooovoo IP nokco yolvct ono qv oopo ovoovq, o,qolcot cvo
noloto Ethernet kot onooccot oo lkoo.
Av kovcl onooytoq oo tkooo cv onovqoct oqv olqoq ARP, cv 0o onopct
cyypoq oov nlvoko ARP kot o npeokoo IP 0o onopplct o oooovoo IP
nokco noo plokcot oqv oopo ovoovq.
7.8 uovqu Ovovev Hcptoev, Domain Name Sy-
stem (DNS)
One c,ooc qq ovocpct, o kopto pono ovoyveptoq cvo onooytoq oo
lkoo clvot q IP tco0ovoq oo. Ooooc ot q tco0ovoq IP c,ct cyc0o 32 bit
kot ontko qv ypoooc c q opq cooopev ckotkev opt0ev (ev okoev
q octets) o onolo ,eplovot coo oo c cclc. Ito nopoctyo to cykopq
tco0ovoq IP clvot:
94.9.7B.9u
7.8 uovqu Ovovev Hcptoev, Domain Name System (DNS) 73
Ot ,pqoc oe plokoov opkco ookoo vo onovqovcoooov oooo oo opt0-
oo npokctcvoo vo oo ,pqotonotqooov yto vo nopcooov n.,. vo oovc0oov oc
cvo onooytoq. Ito o okono ooo, kpl0qkc okonto vo ,pqotonotoovot ooo
onooytoc oootko ovooo.
Hupctyu: To kcvptko q,ovqo oo cpyooqploo o c,ct qv tco0ovoq:
1u.14.2B.1u
Mnopclc oe vo ovocp0clc oc ooo kot c o oootko oo ovoo, o onolo
clvot:
aqua1us4.Jab1.JocaJ
Mc ov lto pono kot o onootno q,ovqoo oo tkooo to0coov ovooo
one PC1, PC2, PC3.
Elvot cnlooc npoovc, ot oov ,pqotonotooc o ovoo yto vo ovocp0ooc
oc cvo onooytoq ooo c konoto pono copcncot oqv tco0ovoq IP oo ono-
oytoq. Ito o okono ooo ,pqotonotclot o oooqo DNS yto o onolo 0o t-
qoooc.
One c,ooc nct, to tco0ovoq IP ,opokqplct koo ooq q 0coq cvo onooyt-
oq oo lkoo. 1ot ov coktvqoooc ov onooytoq oc oo lkoo 0o npcnct
vo ooooc kot q tco0ovoq oo. To ovoo eoooo ,opokqplct ov lto ov
onooytoq, npoocpovo cvo ovoyveptotko oot,clo noo ov c,eplct ono o-
oo onooytoc oo tkooo. To ovoo cv ,pctocot vo ooct oov ooooc
q 0coq oo onooytoq q o IP oo. Hpoove coto 0o ooct q tco0ovoq IP
noo ovtoot,cl oo ovoo oo.
Ko0e cvo onooytoq nopcl vo c,ct ncptooocpc ono to IP tco0ovoct (ov
clvot oovcccvo oc noono lkoo yto nopoctyo), c ov lto pono no-
pcl vo c,ct kot ncptooocpo ono cvo ovooo, o ko0cvo vo ovtoot,cl kot oc to
IP.
Ot ,pqoc nopoov cnloq vo ovocpovot c ovooo o,t ovo oc ooykckptcvc
oookcoc (onooytoc) oo oc ookqpo lkoo. To ovooo ev onooytoev
clvot oovq0e ncptypotko eoc vo nopcl o onooytoq vo ovoyveplcot co-
koo coo oo lkoo, oo o ovooo ev tkoev ovtkoonploov oovq0e
o ovoo oo opyovtooo q q cotplo oqv onolo ovqkoov. Ec cyoo lkoo,
o ovooo ev ootkev onooytoev clvot oovq0e oootko kot npokonoov
ketkonotevo cocvo one ov ono q oookcoq, q 0coq q, o okono noo
conqpccl (q ,pqoq q).
Hupctyu: Ec to cyoq cotplo, o npeo onooytoq oo oytoqploo 0o
nopoooc vo ovooocl n.,:
accouht1hg-pcu1
To ovoo qevct:
Tq 0coq oo kot o okono oo (accounting, oytoqpto)
To clo q oookcoq (pc, npooentko onooytoq)
1vov opt0o (01) noo ov c,eplct ono ooo onooytoc noo plokovot
oo oytoqpto.
1oe o ,opokqptotko pc vo olvcot ncpto, oo ovooclc ot oo lto
qo oo tkooo (oytoqpto) nopcl vo onop,oov tkookc oookcoc opoc
oo lkoo, ot onolc eoooo cv clvot onooytoc. Ito nopoctyo cvo tkooko
ckoneq oov lto ,epo 0o nopoooc vo ovoocot:
accouht1hg-Jpu1
(To lpr npokonct ono o op,tko line printer, ckoneq ypoq)
To ovooo noo ,pqotonotoovot oc ooc t ncptneoct nopcl vo clvot co-
koo koovoqo ono oo ov0penoo noo ,pqotonotoov o lkoo ko0qcptvo
oqv cpyoolo oo, oo nt0ovov vo qv oqolvoov kot o ttolcpo yto konotov
plo.
Ec ko0c ncplneoq, yto vo cntkotvevqoooc c konoto onookpoocvq oookcoq
clvot onopolqo vo ,pqotonotqoooc qv tco0ovoq IP q. Oov ,pqotonotooc
o ovoo q (o onolo clvot nto cokoo vo o 0ooooc), npcnct c konoto pono
vo ylvct q coponq oo oqv ovloot,q IP tco0ovoq.
1vo ono pono vo ylvct ooo clvot ko0c onooytoq vo to0cct cvo op,clo o
onolo vo ncptc,ct qv ovtoot,lo oootkev ovooev kot IP tco0ovocev. Ito
vo oocct ooo o oooqo, 0o npcnct ooo o op,clo vo ncptc,ct o ovooo
kot t tco0ovoct oev ev onooytoev oo tkooo, vo onop,ct oc ooo oo
onooytoc kot vo toqpclot cvqcpecvo oov ylvovot ooyc.
O onooytoq noo cktvoct to onoooq cocvev, 0o oct coo oc ooo o
op,clo vo pct o ovoo oo onooytoq npooptooo kot ono qv lto ypoq 0o
toooct qv tco0ovoq IP noo npcnct vo ,pqotonotqoct.
Ocepcloc yto nopoctyo ot c,ooc o ono lkoo oo o,qoo 7.28. 1oe ot
ot onooytoc c,oov o oootko ovooo A, B, I, A (4ootko oc cvo kovovtko
lkoo ,pqotonotooc nto ncptypotko ovooo). 1vo nopoctyo op,cloo noo
ovtoot,cl o ovooo oc tco0ovoct nopcl vo clvot o nopokoe:
7.8 uovqu Ovovev Hcptoev, Domain Name System (DNS) 7S
E,qo 7.28: TCP/IP Airruo Teoopv Yuo/otorv
Atcu0uvoq Ovou
192.168.0.1 A
192.168.0.2 B
192.168.0.3 I
192.168.0.4 A
Eov noponove nlvoko, q npeq oqq lvct q tco0ovoq kot q cocpq o ovoo
noo ovtoot,cl.
Oov o onooytoq A 0cct vo cntkotvevqoct c ov onooytoq I, 0o oct ,pq-
otonotevo e kctl o A oc ooo o op,clo kot 0o pct ot ovtoot,cl oo
192.168.0.3. Ano kct kot ncpo o ovoo ncov cv ,pctocot: 0o ,pqotonotq0cl q
tco0ovoq IP noo pc0qkc.
qcieoq: Eo ncptooocpo ctoopytko oooqoo o op,clo ooo ovoocot
hosts. Ito nopoctyo, oo q,ovqo oo cpyooqploo o o op,clo hosts
otoct c o nopokoe:
127.u.u.1 JocaJhost JocaJhost.Jab1.JocaJ
1u.14.2B.1u aqua1us4.Jab1.JocaJ aqua1us4
1u.14.2B.11 PC1.Jab1.JocaJ PC1
Ec ko0c tco0ovoq IP nopoov vo ovtoot,lovot ncptooocpo ono cvo ovooo
o onolo one ono0coovot o cvo lno ono o oo.
Hono0colo oo op,cloo hostsclvot toopctkq ono ctoopytko oc ctoopytko.
Ito nopoctyo, oc q,ovqoo Windows 0o o pclc oq 0coq:
C.`W1hdoWs`5ysten32ù1vesètc`hosts
Ec q,ovqoo c ctoopytko onoo UNIX 0o o pclc oq 0coq:
ètc`hosts
H opq oo clvot nove q lto.
Hc0oo ooq c o op,clo ovtool,toq tco0ovocev ovooev oococt koo
oov o lkoo clvot tkpo. To ootko npoqoo yto vo o ,pqotonotqoooc oc
cvo cyoo lkoo clvot:
Ko0c onooytoq oo tkooo npcnct vo c,ct cvo ovlypoo oooo oo op-
,cloo.
To op,clo npcnct vo toqpclot cvqcpecvo ko0c opo noo ylvcot konoto
ooyq oo lkoo. Ito nopoctyo oov npoo0cooc q ootpooc cvo ono-
oytoq, q oov ooooc cvo ovoo q tco0ovoq. Enloq npcnct vo kpooc
cvqcpecvo oo o ovlypoo oo op,cloo.
Av o nq0o ev onooytoev clvot cyoo, q ovoqqoq oc cvo ono op,clo
kctcvoo (ASCII) 0o clvot noo opyq. Enloq cvc,cot vo cncpooooc o
cytoo cyc0o op,cloo. Ec ko0c ncplneoq 0o onooqoooc noo ,povo
kot kono yto vo cvqcpeoooc oo o ovlypoo.
Iveplcc oe ot nopooc vo kovooc cokoc kot ypqyopc ovoqqoct oc
cocvo, ov o ono0qkcooooc c kooqo pono oc to oq eoevv. H
ooq oo noponove npoqoo o0qkc c qv ovonoq oo Xuorquro Ovo-
rv Hepto,v q DNS, Domoin Nome Sysrem. To DNS clvot cvo q,ovtoo onct-
kovtoq tco0ovocev oc ovooo kot o ovlopoo. To DNS ncptc,ct cvo ,epo
ovooev opyuvecvo tcpuptu kot q ctoopylo oo oolcot oc to ruruveq-
evq oq eoevv.
Kuruveqevq clvot to ooq cocvev oov o cocvo q clvot tookopnt-
ocvo oc ncptooocpo ono cvo q,ovqoo, ovl yto cvo kot ovotko kcvptko
op,clo. Ito vo ctoopyqoct o oooqo DNS noo koonct oo o q,ovqoo oo
Internet, cv 0o qov ovoov vo ,pqotonotq0cl cvo ovo q,ovqo: 0o cl,c c-
pooto klvqoq cocvev oye oo cyooo opt0oo cpeqocev kot 0o opyoooc
oqovtko. Enloq o,ov npoqo oq ctoopylo oo 0o oqotvc oootootko to-
konq ev onqpcotev oo Internet.
Oov cc ot o oooqo DNS clvot tepup,tr opuvevo cvvoooc ot ,pqoto-
notooc uepto,e ovorv. Ito nopoctyo, cvo onooytoq cv ,opokqplcot
ovo ono o ovoo oo, oo kot ono o ovoo oo tkooo oo onolo plokc-
ot:
oshua.feebsdg.og
Hpokctot yto ov onooytoq joshua oo lkoo freebsdgr.org. Konoto ono-
oytoq oo oooqo DNS clvot cntoptocvo c qv qpqoq ev ovooev kot
tco0ovocev oev ev onooytoev oo tkooo freebsdgr.org. To ovoo oo
onooytoq joshua nopcl vo ,pqotonotq0cl ovo oc cvo oo lkoo c too-
pctko ovoo.
E,qo 7.29: Opvoq Atrruou oe Zve
Ito q ctoopylo oo oooqoo DNS, ,pqotonotoovot ot euuqperqre ovo-
rv ot onolot plokovot oc toopo oqclo oo lkoo. Eovq0e ko0c conqpc-
qq ovooev clvot onco0ovo yto ooykckptcvc ncpto,c ovooev. Ot conq-
pcqc oovcpyoovot coo oo npokctcvoo vo onovqooov oc cpeqoo yto
onooytoc noo cv yveploov (noo cv plokovot oq ncpto,q co0ovq oo). Av
o lkoo clvot tkpo, o conqpcqq DNS nopcl vo koonct oq qv ncpto,q
oo, oc ovl0cq ncplneoq koonct konoto qo q o onolo ovoocot vq
(o,qo 7.29). 1ot q ooq cocvev oo DNS ,eplcot oc qoo o onolo cv
cntkoonovot coo oo. Ec cyoo lkoo clvot ovoov vo c,ooc ootkoo
kot ccptkoo conqpcqc yto vo coooloooc q oovc,cto q ctoopylo
oc ncplneoq oq. Tontko ot conqpcqc oool cv plokovot kov oqv lto
ootkq ono0colo npokctcvoo vo qv cnqpcoovot ono o lto otvocvo (n.,.
tokonq pcooo q to ootkq kooopoq).
H tcpop,tkq opyoveoq ev ovooev oo DNS okooo0clot ono oo conqpc-
qc DNS noo clvot cot kot ote opyovecvot koo evc. To oooqo DNS
ctoopycl c q opq evev noo q to ncptc,ct qv oq (etoocvc evc).
Ko0c conqpcqq ovooo cntkotvevcl c oo conqpcqc q ocoe oq-
ocpq kot ,oqocpq (ov onop,ct) tcpop,tko evq.
Itu vu vo uuvucvc ovooclc ovo ot o,vcc qv tco0ovoq oo onooyt-
oq:
oshua.feebsdg.og
H ovoqqoq oo nopcl vo ylvct e cq:
To q,ovqo oo 0o cntkotvevqoct c ov conqpcqq DNS noo clvot onco-
0ovo yto qv ncpto,q .org.
O conqpcqq DNS cv yveplct ov onooytoq joshua oo yveplct
noto onooytoq DNS clvot onco0ovo yto q evq freebsdgr.org q onolo
clvot cvo tkpo koot oo org. Oo peqoct ov conqpcqq ooo yto q
tco0ovoq oo onooytoq joshua.
Oo oct qv onovqoq joshua.freebsdgr.org 94.71.69.206 qv onolo kot
0o oclct oo tko oo onooytoq.
Aoo clvot cvo ovo pono ctoopylo. 1vo toopctko pono clvot: o co-
nqpcqq DNS q kcvptkq evq .org vo noponcct o tko oo onooytoq
cyovo Acv cpe noto clvot o joshua.freebsdgr.org oo yto o freebsdgr.org
clvot onco0ovo o DNS conqpcqq 204.13.248.73. Peqoc ckcl.
Elvot cnlooc ovcpo ono o noponove ot q tcpop,tkq opyoveoq ev conqpc-
qev okooo0cl ooq ev ovooev.
Ito vo peqocc cvo conqpcqq DNS, nopclc vo ,pqotonotqocc t cvo-
c:
hsJookup
d1g
Oo ylvct to oovoq cnlctq ev cvoev ooev oo cpyooqpto.
7.8.1 Xepo Ovovev vou DNS
1,ooc qq ovocpct ot o ,epo ovooev oo DNS ,pqotonotcl tcpop,tkq op-
,tckovtkq. 1ot o ,epo totpclot oc cvo oovoo ncpto,ev noo nopoov vo tot-
pc0oov ovo oc ncptooocpc ncpto,c. Mto coto oq otoct c cvpo kot ol-
vcot oo o,qo 7.30.
To upro euiueo uepto,v ovooovot uotre uepto,e kot plokovot oo cto
oo ovooo. Et HHAonop,oov cno cotc ncpto,c ot onolc c,oov ko0tcpe0cl
oootootko noykooto, kot ot onolc koooooovot o lkoo ovooyo c t
E,qo 7.30: Buotre uepto,e ,pou ovorv DNS
pooqptoqc oo opyovtooo q q cnt,clpqoq oqv onolo ovqkoov. Ot ncpto,c
ooc clvot ot nopokoe:
- .arpa: Ettkol opyovtool totkooo
- .com: Eotplc
- .edu: Eknotcotko tpooo
- .gov: Kocpvqtkol opyovtool
- .mil: Epotetkol opyovtool
- .net: Kcvpo tolkqoq tkooo
- .org: Otqnoc cv nopcl vo koooycl oc konoto ono t npoqyoocvc
koqyoplc (ontko q-kcpookontkol opyovtool)
Eko ono t noponove koqyoplc ot onolc to,ooov ot HHA (ov kot ooo cv
oqolvct ot to tkookq ono0colo noo cctevct n.,. oc .con 0o plokcot ot
HHA nopcl vo plokcot onooqnoc kot ycvtko ooo o to,eptoo ,pqoto-
notclot tc0ve) onop,ct cnloq to ootkq ncpto,q ovo ,epo. O npootoptoo
oo ylvcot c ooq cvo tkpo qo (oo plo ypooo) oo ovooo q ,e-
po. Ito nopoctyo, q ncpto,q noo ovtoot,cl oqv Eoo ovoocot .qr, q
Icpovlo clvot .Je kot q Mcyoq Bpcovlo clvot .u|.
Koe ono ko0c ootkq ncpto,q plokcot cvo eurepo euiueo ncpto,ev o onolo
ovoocot Jomoin. To cocpo ooo cnlnco, ontko npootoplct ov opyovtoo q
qv cnt,clpqoq o onolo ,pqotonotcl o ovoo (kot oov onolo ovqkct o ovloot,o
lkoo). Ko0c to ono ooc t ncpto,c clvot ovotkq. To ovooo (Jomoin nomes)
noo ck,epoovot clvot oovq0e ovtnpooencotko q cotplo q opyovtooo oov
onolo ovqkoov. To domain names ono0coovot optocpo oo ovooo q oot-
kq ncpto,q kot to,eplovot c to cclo.
Ito nopoctyo, o htua.g ovocpcot oo lkoo oo E0vtkoo Mcooctoo Ho-
oc,vcloo. To ovoo domain ntua c,ct onoo0cl oo lpoo yto ooo o okono kot
o .gr cl,vct ot ovqkct oq ootkq ncpto,q noo c,ct ck,epq0cl yto qv Eoo
(NTUANational Technical University of Athens).
Hopooto, o feebsdg.ogcl,vct o domain c ovoo feebsdgo onolo
clvot koo,epqcvo oqv ncpto,q .org. Ano qv ootkq ncpto,q koooolvooc
ot nt0ove npokctot yto cvo q kcpookontko opyovtoo.
H cotplo q opyovtoo oqv onolo c,ct ck,epq0cl cvo domain name clvot o ono-
kctotko onco0ovo yto qv to,clptoq oo. Ito nopoctyo, ov o to,ctptoq t-
kooo q cotplo onoooloct ot o lkoo 0o ,eptocl oc tkpocpo qoo
(onolkoo) o lto nopcl vo ylvct kot c qv ncpto,q ovooev oo opyovtooo.
Ko0c vco onolkoo ovtoot,cl oc uepto,q ovorv rpirou eutueou kot ovooc-
ot subJomoin. Eo ovoo, covlcot optocpo oo domain name kot ,eplcot
not c to cclo. Ito nopoctyo:
teJecon.htua.g
To telecom clvot cvo subdomain oo domain htua noo plokcot oqv ncpto,q
.g (Eoo). To ooykckptcvo ovoo c,ct onoo0cl oqv ncpto,q noo ovqkct o
cpyooqpto qcntkotvevtev oo Hooc,vcloo (cvo ono o noo cpyooqpto noo
to0cct) yto qv onctkovtoq oo tkoo oo tkooo (o,qo 7.31).
E,qo 7.31: Iepup,trq opvoq ,pou ovorv DNS
1vo ovoo nopcl vo ovocpcot oc cvo ooykckptcvo onooytoq ovl yto to
ookqpq ncpto,q tco0ovocev. Ito nopoctyo, ov c,ooc o subdomain:
teJecon.htua.g
kot 0cooc vo ovocp0ooc oov onooytoq pc01 noo ovqkct oc ooov, o nq-
pc ovoo 0o qov:
7.9 Apooyqoq 81
pcu1.teJecon.htua.g
Ko0e koooolvcc, c ooo ov pono c,ooc toct ovooo vcvpvou cntnc-
ou. Ooooo cv clvot onopolqo vo ooooc oo copo cnlnco yto vo ovoo-
oooc ooykckptcvo q,ovqoo. To ovoo oo subdomain nopcl qq vo cl,vct
oc cvo ooykckptcvo q,ovqo oo tkooo ovl yto to ookqpq ncpto,q tco-
0ovocev. Ito nopoctyo:
WWW.feebsdg.og
cl,vct cvo onooytoq c ovoo www noo ovqkct oo domain feebsdg.og.
Hpoove o onooytoq ooo clvot cntoptocvo c qv conqpcqoq toooc-
lev.
Aoo noo nopooc vo ovtq0ooc ono o noponove nopoclyoo clvot ot q
tcpop,lo ev ovooev nqyolvct ono o ctocpo cpo (plo) npo o optocpo.
H plo cl,vct novo q cyoocpq ncpto,q kot ooo coktvooooc optocpo,
ptokoooc oc oo kot nto ooykckptcvo koot oo tkooo:
Hupctyu: pcu1.teJecon.htua.g
- gr: Plo (o nto ycvtko, oq q ncpto,q noo c,ct onoo0cl oq ,epo o)
- ntua: H ncpto,q noo c,ct onoo0cl oo EMH. Elvot cvo tkpo cpo ono t
tco0ovoct noo c,oov o0cl oo .gr
- telecom: H ncpto,q noo c,ct onoo0cl oo cpyooqpto qcntkotvevtev oo
EMH. Elvot cvo tkpo cpo ev tco0ovocev noo c,oov o0cl oo ntua.
- pc01: 1vo ooykckptcvo q,ovqo noo plokcot oo cpyooqpto qcntkot-
vevtev oo EMH.
Evtuocpov ncipuu: Mnopclc vo pclc noto c,ct koo,opeoct (oootootko oc
notov ovqkct) cvo domain, ,pqotonotevo qv cvoq Who1s oc cvo q,ovqo
UNIX. Ito nopoctyo:
Who1s feebsdg.og
0o oo nct oc notov clvot koo,opecvo o ovoo freebsdgr.org (noto vo clvot
opoyc.). Eqcteoc ot ooo cv ctoopycl oqv ncpto,q .gr.
7.9 Apooyqoq
O oyopt0o poooyqoq ovqkct oo cnlnco tkooo kot okono oo clvot vo
koco0ovct cvo nokco ono qv nqyq oov npooptoo oo. O opo poooyqoq
ovocpcot oq totkoolo copcoq q topoq noo npcnct vo okooo0qoct cvo
nokco yto vo ooct oov npooptoo oo. H totkoolo ooq cv clvot novo co-
koq, q otyq noo yveplooc ot cvo oov0co lkoo (one o Internet) nopcl
vo to0cct noc cvooktkc topoc noo vo oqyoov o nokco oov lto
npooptoo.
Icvtko nopclc vo ovooclc ot cvo ovloot,o npoqo clvot vo pct cvo notl
q topoq ovocoo oc poncto cvo cotooploo yto vo koco0ov0cl oo ponct
ev yovtev oo. Av kot cvc,ocve cvo cvqtko nopcl vo ooct ooo o npo-
qo cokoo (kplvovo noo ypqyopo noto topoq clvot q ctoq), o notl
cv c,ct okoo qv nqpq cnonclo oo ,epoo kot qv onotoocvq cnctplo. 4o-
vooclc ot o oyopt0o poooyqoq 0o npcnct vo kplvct c ooq opkco kpt-
qpto noto topoq 0o npcnct vo cntc,0cl yto cvo nokco noo koco0ovcot npo
cvo ooykckptcvo npooptoo.
H ,povtkq otyq koo qv onolo oovovot ot onoooct poooyqoq cop-
oot ono o lkoo kot cttkocpo ono o ov ,pqotonotoovot voqr rur/uru
q uurouvuu uureru.
Av ,pqotonotoovot voqo kokeoo, q cyko0lpooq q oovcoq ylvcot
oqv op,q q cntkotvevlo kot ono,pcetko oo o nokco okooo0oov qv
lto topoq (voqo kokeo). Eqv ncplneoq ooq, q cntoyq q topo-
q ylvcot oqv op,q, koo qv cykoooooq q oovcoq.
Av ,pqotonotoovot oooovoo nokco, cv clvot onopolqo o nokco
noo ovqkoov oqv lto oovcoq vo okooo0oov qv lto topoq. Eqv nc-
plneoq ooq, q onoooq yto q topoq noo 0o okooo0qoct ko0c nokco,
oovcot yto ko0cvo ono ooo, c,eptoo.
Avcopqo ono o noponove, cvo oyopt0o poooyqoq clvot ycvtko cnt0o-
qo vo to0cct t nopokoe ttoqc:
Anvqvu: O oyopt0o npcnct vo clvot ono - vo ncptc,ct oocl kot ko-
ovoqoo kovovc noo vo tcnoov q ctoopylo oo.
Op0vqvu: O oyopt0o npcnct vo cntoct oeoo o npoqo q poo-
oyqoq.
Av0cuvtuvqvu: O oyopt0o npcnct vo clvot oc 0coq vo ovtcenlct o-
oyc oqv onooylo oo tkooo - n.,. oqv ncplneoq noo konoto cvto-
coo koo q ypoq oovcoq oooqooov vo ctoopyoov.
Atuutoouvq: To nokco noo npocp,ovot ono toopctkc oovcoct 0o npc-
nct vo ovtcenlovot c lkoto pono. Ito nopoctyo cv 0o npcnct o
nokco to oovcoq vo ko0oocpoov oovc,cto yto vo coo0oov c cyo-
ocpq o,oqo o nokco konoto oq. Ooooo ooo nopcl vo cp,cot
7.9 Apooyqoq 83
oc ovl0coq c qv ttoqo q ctoonolqoq.
Bcvtovonoiqoq: Eo,coct oqv koocpq ovoq otonolqoq ev nopev oo
tkooo. Ito nopoctyo oqv cytoonolqoq q oovotkq klvqoq noo co-
nqpcclot ono o lkoo.
To cpyo q poooyqoq clvot ttolcpo noonoko ko0e ,pctocot oovovt-
oo kot oovcpyoolo oev ev cvtocoev koev oo tkooo kot o,t ovo ev
yctovtkev one onotclot ono o npeokoo ev ,oqocpev cntncev oo
OSI kot oo TCP/IP (n.,. ono o cnlnco oovcoq cocvev). Tontko, yto q po-
ooyqoq oc cvo lkoo oovcpyoovot coo oo nool oyopt0ot ot onolot
e cvo oqclo ctoopyoov coo oo ovcopqo.
Ot oo ootkc ctoopylc cvo oyopt0oo poooyqoq clvot:
H cntoyq q topoq yto q coopo ev cocvev ono qv nqyq oov
npooptoo oo.
H nopoooq ev nokcev oov npooptoo oo oov ncov c,ct ko0optocl
q topoq.
H nopoooq ev nokcev oov npooptoo oo ylvcot c q ,pqoq ev utvrv
poo/qoq. Hcntoyq q topoq kot q cvqcpeoq ev ntvokev poooyq-
oq onoccl cvo ookoo npoqo o onolo cnqpcoct qv onoooq oo tkooo.
To ootko cpo onoooq noo cnqpcoovot ono ov oyopt0o poooyqoq
clvot:
H po0oonoooq (q. o po0o coooq noo cntoy,ovcot)
H coq ko0oocpqoq (o ,povo q. noo ,pctocot yto vo ylvct q pooo-
yqoq ev nokcev oov npooptoo oo koo coo opo)
Elvot npoovc ot q coq ko0oocpqoq noo oloovot o nokco, copoot ono
qv topoq noo 0o okooo0qooov c,pt ov npooptoo oo. H topoq ooq
eoooo onooolcot ono ov oyopt0o poooyqoq. Ot onoooct oo oyo-
pl0oo c,oov koo oovcncto ocoq cnlpooq oq coq ko0oocpqoq. Oov q ko-
0oocpqoq ooovcot ttolcpo, oqolvct ot q ctocp,ocvq klvqoq cv nopcl vo
conqpcq0cl. Mnopclc vo ovooclc t ypoc cvo tkooo oov to otkq
opqplo. Oov q klvqoq clvot ooqcvq, o oooklvqo ktvoovot c tkpocpq o-
,oqo. Av q klvqoq ooq0cl okoo ncptooocpo 0o qtoopyq0cl kokooptokq
ooopqoq (nottoptoo) kot q klvqoq o,cov 0o oooqoct. Avloot,o ot-
vocvo nopoqpoovot kot oo lkoo cocvev.
Oov q coq ko0oocpqoq ooovcot nove ono cvo opto, cvcpyonotclot cvo q-
,ovtoo npoooolo noo ovoocot e/e,o poq. O ccy,o poq cnolct qv
clooo vcoo oploo oo lkoo. Ekono oo clvot vo ctoopponqoct qv po0oo-
noooq c qv ko0oocpqoq. Ooo nto onoccootko clvot o oyopt0o oqv
toqpqoq ,oqq ko0oocpqoq, ooo ncptooocpq klvqoq nopcl vo c,0cl o
lkoo kot opo cntoy,ovct kot cyoocpq po0oonoooq.
Ot oyopt0ot poooyqoq tokplvovot oc:
Hpeov oc Kuvuvcqcvou kot uyucvvpevtuou
Acocpov oc vuvtuou kot Hpooupocvq Apooyqoq
Eoo ourevrprtrou u/pt0ou ot onoooct poooyqoq oovovot c'
ookqpoo ono cvo kcvptko koo. O koo ooo npcnct vo yveplct nqpe
qv koooooq oo tkooo kot opo ot nlvokc poooyqoq noo 0o toqpcl 0o
c,oov opkco cyoo cyc0o. 1ot o koo npcnct vo c,ct cyoc ovooqc
ontkq ono0qkcooq cocvev oo kot noo to,opq kcvptkq ovoo cnccp-
yoolo (CPU, Central Processing Unit) eoc q ovoqqoq ooo nlvokc vo ylvcot
c cyoq o,oqo.
Avl0co ooo ruruveqevou u/pt0ou ot onoooct poooyqoq oo-
vovot koovcqcvo coo ev koev oo tkooo. Oov ,pctocot, ot ko-
ot oool cntkotvevoov coo oo kot ovoooooov nqpooplc yto vo ooov
oeoocpc onoooct (n.,. o0olvoov o oplo noo ovtcenlct q cocvq
otyq konoto ooykckptcvo qo oo tkooo, eoc ov ,pctocot kot clvot ct-
ko vo onocoyoov vo ,pqotonotqooov q ooykckptcvq topoq).
Ot orurtroi u/pt0ot poooyqoq ,pqotonotoov oo0cpc topoc yto q
coopo cocvev. Ot topoc clvot ovcopqc ono t oov0qkc klvqoq
noo cntkpooov oo lkoo kot oooov ovo ov cvo koo q to ypoq oovc-
oq c0oov cko ctoopylo. Ot ootkol oyopt0ot ,pqotonotoovot oovq0e
oc o,ctko ono lkoo ko0e cv nopoov vo cnto,oov cyoc po0oonoooct
kot clvot okooqot yto lkoo noo o oplo c,ct cyoc tokoovoct.
Ot u/pt0ot upooupoevq poo/qoq c,oov q ovooqo vo pononotoov
t topoc ovooyo c o oplo ev ypoev oo tkooo. Ito nopoctyo, oov
ovtq0oov ot cvo qo oo tkooo c,ct onoocl ooopqoq oye cyoq ct-
ocp,ocvq klvqoq, c,oov q ovooqo vo pononotqooov t topoc oo
eoc o nokco vo okooo0oov topoq noo cv ncpvoct ono ooo o qo. Ito
vo onooolooov yto t topoc, ot oyopt0ot oool cpoov q cktoov ccoo
qv klvqoq oo tkooo c ooq qv onooylo oo (nopoov cnloq vo cvqcpevo-
vot c qvooo o,ctko c qv klvqoq oo tkooo ono ovloot,oo oyopt0oo
onookpoocvev koev).
quvvtuq nupuvqpqoq: To kptqpto c o onolo oovoov t onoooct oo
ot oyopt0ot poooyqoq clvot:
H Xuvrorepq Atupoq q onolo ko0oplcot c ooq:
7.9 Apooyqoq 8S
~ clc ov opt0o ev ,eptoev qoev noo qv onocoov
~ clc q coq ko0oocpqoq (oopo kot coooq) noo ctooyct
~ clc q ,pqotonolqoq oo copoo evq q ypoq oo tkooo
Tov Apt0 Hurerv noo ncptcvoov npo coooq oqv oopo cooo
To Koro Ipuq. Elvot to oovopqoq oqv onolo oocc,oov c to-
opctkoo oovccoc opoqo ot nopoyovc: coq ko0oocpqoq, coo
qko oopo, ,pqoq copoo evq.
7.9.1 Apooyqoq oc Aiuvuu TCP/IP
Mc,pt epo c,ooc ccooct o npeokoo TCP/IP kot c,ooc ovtq0cl ot o
npeokoo IP clvot onco0ovo yto qv coopo ev oooovoev nokcev oo
npooptoo oo (one qevcot ono q tco0ovoq npooptooo), oo cv c,ooc
nct okoo c noto pono npoyoonotclot q poooyqoq.
Oo npcnct koop,qv vo tcokptvloooc ot oc cvo lkoo TCP/IP cv clvot oot
ot koot onco0ovot vo ckcoov onqpcolc poooyqoq. Icvtko nopooc vo
tokplvooc oo clq koev:
Tou vctuou unooytovc - hosts: Ot onooytoc oool nolpvoov onoo-
oct poooyqoq ovo yto o tko oo oooovoo nokco. Oov oo-
voov nokco noo cv npooplovot yto oooo, cv ckcoov koto totkoolo
yto vo o npoe0qooov oov npoyotko npooptoo oo.
Tou poooyqvc - routers: To q,ovqoo ooo nolpvoov onoooct
poooyqoq yto oo o nokco noo oovoov kot o npoe0oov oov npo-
optoo oo.
No oqcteoooc ce ot q noponove tokptoq c,ct vo kovct c o okono kot ct-
oopylo oo q,ovqoo kot o,t q ootkq oo onooooq: 1vo kovovtko ono-
oytoq nopcl vo ctoopyqoct e poooyqq ov ov conloooc c o ko-
oqo oytotko. Ec noc ncptneoct ,pqotonotooc e poooyqc cct-
tkcocvo q,ovqoo (rourers). Oov ,pqotonotooc kovovtko onooytoq yto
poooyqoq, clvot ovoov o lto q,ovqo vo c,ct kot o poo oo ctkoo q-
,ovqoo (ooo oovq0e ooolvct oc tkpo lkoo). Avloot,o, oc noo cyoo
lkoo cvo ccttkcocvo poooyqq nopcl vo clvot one cvo noo to,opo
ycvtko onooytoq c kooqo npoypoo.
Bootko poo oq totkoolo poooyqoq c,ct o uivuru poo/qoq. To npe-
okoo IP ,pqotonotcl ooo ov nlvoko yto vo nopct oc t onoooct noo c,oov
vo kovoov c qv poooyqoq nokcev oov npooptoo oo.
Ec cyoo cntkotvevtoko kcvpo, onop,oov oovq0e poooyqc noo tooov-
coov noo lkoo coo oo. Eo IP, q poooyqoq oovq0e oolcot oqv
tco0ovoq oo tkooo npooptooo. Ko0c onooytoq to0cct cvo nlvoko c tco-
0ovoct tkoev, yto ko0cvo ono o onolo ovtoot,cl cvo poooyqq. Oov
qtoopyclot cvo oooovoo nokco npo konoto lkoo, o onooytoq oooo-
cocot ooo ov nlvoko yto vo o oclct oov ovloot,o poooyqq o onolo
kot 0o o npoe0qoct ctko oo lkoo npooptooo. Eqcteoc ce ot o poo-
oyqq ooo cv clvot onopolqo vo clvot oovcccvo onco0clo c o lkoo
npooptooo: opkcl vo onoccl qv koocpq cntoyq yto tooovcoq c o ooykc-
kptcvo lkoo oc o,coq c oo onootnoo poooyqc oo nlvoko. Opooo-
yqq 0o ovooct vo oclct o nokco oc oo poooyqq k.o.k. c,pt ooo vo
ooct oc cvo poooyqq o onolo vo clvot oovcccvo onco0clo c o lkoo
npooptooo.
O oyopt0o poooyqoq noo ,pqotonotclot ono o npeokoo IP yto q
poooyqoq oooovoev nokcev tokplvct oo ncptneoct:
Acoq Apooyqoq (direct routing): Eqv ncplneoq ooq o onooytoq
npooptooo plokcot oo lto lkoo c ov onooytoq onoooq. To no-
kco nopcl vo oocl onco0clo ,epl oo qoo, kot opo cv ylvcot ko-
to npoe0qoq oo nokcoo. Hpokctot yto qv onooocpq opq pooo-
yqoq.
Tcoq Apooyqoq (indirect routing): Eqv ncplneoq ooq o onooyt-
oq npooptooo plokcot oc toopctko lkoo ono ov onooytoq ono-
ooq. Oo npcnct o nokco vo poooyq0cl coe ev kooqev poo-
oyqev yto vo ooct oov npooptoo oo. Hpoove yto o okono ooo 0o
,pqotonotq0oov ot nlvokc poooyqoq noo ovocpoc npoqyoocve.
Oov cvo onooytoq qtoopyqoct kot npokctot vo oclct cvo oooovoo IP
nokco, ccy,ct npeo ov q tco0ovoq npooptooo oo plokcot oo lto ontko l-
koo c qv tkq oo. Ito nopoctyo, ov o onooytoq onoooq c,ct tco0ovoq
192.168.0.42 kot o npooptooo 192.168.0.31, plokovot kot ot oo oo lto lkoo,
o 192.168.0. Eqv ncplneoq ooq o nokco nopcl vo oocl onco0clo kot cv
onotoovot cntncov qoo. Ec ovl0cq ncplneoq, o oooqo 0o pct to cy-
ypoq oov nlvoko poooyqoq noo vo ovocpct oc noto poooyqq npcnct vo
oocl o nokco yto vo npoe0q0cl oo lkoo npooptooo. Ko0e o Atolkoo
(Internet) ovonooocot c poyoloo po0oo kot tooovcct noo ckooopto
onooytoev, clvot ovcpo ot o cyc0o cvo cotoo nlvoko poooyqoq ooo-
vct cntklvovo kot q to,clptoq oo ylvcot npoqotkq. Ito o okono ooo c,oov
ovono,0cl c,vtkc yto q cleoq oo cyc0oo ev ntvokev poooyqoq. Mto
coto c,vtkq clvot q ,pqoq cvo kot ovo optocvoo ono nptv npocntcycvoo
7.9 Apooyqoq 87
poooyqq. Ec noo lkoo onop,ct cvo kot ovo poooyqq noo oovcct
o lkoo c ov ce kooo (Ito nopoctyo, oo o,oclo o q oovcoq ylvcot
c cvo poooyqq oo rack oo cpyooqploo noo o oovcct c o Hovcqvto
E,otko Alkoo). 1vo coto poooyqq ontko oovcct cvo ontko lkoo oc
konoto lkoo kopoo.
Eqv noponove ncplneoq, o nlvoko poooyqoq ko0c onooytoq oo ontkoo
tkooo clvot ttolcpo ono, ooo cv ,pctocot to cyypoq yto ko0c lkoo
npooptooo. Ane qevcot o npocntcycvo poooyqq o onolo kot 0o
ovooct ko0c klvqoq noo npooplcot yto ov cecptko kooo, ovcopqo ono
o lkoo npooptooo.
qcieoq uuvuvqoq: Hpokctot yto o q,ovqo noo ovooooc npocntcy-
cvq nuq q default gateway. Ec cvo oovq0tocvo tkpo lkoo nopcl vo onop,ct
ovo ooo. Mnopclc vo pclc noto clvot oc cvo lkoo ypoovo qv cvoq
(clvot lto yto Windows / Linux / FreeBSD):
hetstat -h
kot 0o clc e onovqoq kot oov o nopokoe:
Rout1hg tabJes
Thtehet.
uest1hat1oh uateWay FJags Refs Use Net1f Exp1e
defauJt 192.1B.u.25u Uu5 u 325353 Ju
127.u.u.1 127.u.u.1 Uh u 134u4 Jou
Ee clvot npoovc ot o npocntcycvo poooyqq clvot o 192.168.0.230. H
opq q onovqoq ooct copo ovooyo c o ctoopytko, oo ov cv no-
pclc vo kooocc noto clvot o npocntcycvo poooyqq, oc oq oqq
Flags yto qv koo,eptoq noo ncptc,ct o ypoo G.
Hpocntcycvo poooyqq nopcl vo onop,ct kot oc lkoo o onolo ncptc,ct
ncptooocpoo ono cvo poooyqq. Ec ooo o poooyqq ooo npoe0oovot
o oooovoo nokco o onolo oqv cntkcolo oo cv ko0oploov konotov ono
oo ooo to0cotoo poooyqc. Eov o npocntcycvo poooyqq cv
nopcoct vo npoe0qoct konoto oooovoo nokco oov npooptoo oo, onop,ct
npocq eoc ot poooyqc vo ocvoov cvo qvoo oo onoo: Acv clot q
kooqq cntoyq poooyqq ,pqotonotqoc ov poooyqq X. To q-
voo ooo ocvcot coe oo npeokooo ICMP. To qvooo ooo oovo-
vot ono o cnlnco tkooo kot ,pqotonotoovot oovq0e yto qv npoo0qkq kot
cvqcpeoq cyypoev ooo nlvokc poooyqoq.
Hupctyu: 1oe o lkoo c tco0ovoq 128.6.4 oo Hovcntoqloo A0qvev,
c oo poooyqc ov 128.6.4.39 kot 128.6.4.1. O 128.6.4.39 oovcct o lkoo
c oo lkoo noo plokovot cnloq coo oo novcntoqto, cveo 128.6.4.1 oov-
cct o lkoo onco0clo c o Hovcntoqto Hctpote. A ono0coooc ot c,ooc
oploct ov 128.6.4.39 e npocntcycvo kot cv c,ooc oc cyypoc oov nlvoko
poooyqoq. Tt 0o oocl ov qtoopyqoooc kot npoono0qoooc vo oclooc
cvo oooovoo nokco npo o Hovcntoqto Hctpoto,
1. Ko0e cv onop,ct oq ypoq oov nlvoko poooyqoq, o nokco 0o
koco0ov0cl npo ov npocntcycvo poooyqq, ov 128.6.4.39. Aoo
oe oovcct o lkoo c oo lkoo cvo oo Hovcntoqloo A0qvev.
2. Ko0e o poooyqq ooo cv clvot o oeoo yto ov npooptoo, 0o ocl-
ct o nokco oo poooyqq 128.6.4.1 yto vo o npoe0qoct. Tooo,povo
0o oclct kot cvo qvoo o0oo oo oooqo noo qtoopyqoc o oooo-
voo nokco. To qvoo ooo 0o oocl coe oo ICMP kot 0o clvot kot
oov ooo: Ito poooyqoq oo Hovcntoqto Hctpoto, ,pqotonotqoc o
poooyqq 128.6.4.1.
3. O onooytoq noo 0o oct o qvoo ICMP, 0o o ,pqotonotqoct yto vo
npoo0coct to cyypoq oov nlvoko poooyqoq oo. Koo oovcncto, ko0c
oooovoo nokco noo 0o nopoyct ono ooo o oqclo kot co c npoo-
ptoo o Hovcntoqto Hctpoto, 0o ocvcot onco0clo oov poooyqq
128.6.4.1.
O oyopt0o poooyqoq nopcl vo npootoplct o cnocvo qo oo oq to-
poq o,t c ooq q tco0ovoq oo tkooo npooptooo oo c ooq ov ono-
oytoq npooptooo (Eqcleoq: Acv clot olyoopo yto o t okpte cvvocl ce o
notqq).
Hopokoe 0o pclc cvo oovontko toypoo oo oyopt0oo poooyqoq noo
,pqotonotclot ono o npeokoo IP:
AH Atco0ovoq Hpooptooo n., 128.6.3.2, AAH Atco0ovoq Atkooo Hpoopt-
ooo n.,. 128.6.3
5smp1os iq ^h dn io duiouvdo ndkcio
YnoAy1os iq ^^h dn iq ^h
Av q ^^h dvqkci oc ikiuo c io onoio o pooKoyqiq
civdi cod ouvcccvo
hpom6qos io ndkcio npo iov npoopio iou coO
iou ikiuou c iq ^^h
7.9 Apooyqoq 89
1dopsi1x Av q ^h unpci oiov nivdkd pooKyqoq
c oq iov unoKoyioiq npoopioou
pooAyqos io ndkcio nO dvdypci o nivdkd
1dopsi1x Av q ^^h unpci oiov nivdkd pooKyqoq
pooAyqos io ndkcio nO dvdypci o nivdkd
1dopsi1x Av cci npooiopioici npiunq idpoq
pooAyqos io duiouvdo ndkcio npo iov
dviioioio pooKoyqiq
1dopsi1x oqciOoc oiq pooKyqoq
7.9.2 Acoq Apooyqoq
Ito vo ovtq0ooc ne ctoopycl q ocoq poooyqoq, o nopooc o l-
koo oo o,qoo 7.32. Hpokctot yto cvo ono lkoo ptev onooytoev o-
noo Ethernet. Elvot covc ot kot ot pct onooytoc c,oov qv lto tco0ovoq
tkooo, opo o nokco nopoov vo poooyq0oov onco0clo ono ov cvo oov
oo, ,epl q coooqoq konotoo poooyqq. No 0oq0ooc okoo ot oo
Ethernet c,ooc kot t uotre teu0uvoet (o yveoo o MAC Address). Kot
ootko ko0c q,ovqo to0cct to tco0ovoq IP noo olvcot oo o,qo.
E,qo 7.32: TCP/IP Airruo Tptv Yuo/otorv
Oov o onooytoq A ocvct cvo IP oooovoo nokco oov onooytoq B, oqv
cntkcolo oo nokcoo q tco0ovoq nqyq clvot q IP oo A kot npooptooo q IP
oo B. Koo qv onoooq, oov o nokco ooct oo ootko cnlnco oo Ethernet
qtoopyoovot o ovloot,o noloto Ethernet o onolo ncptc,oov ovloot,o oov
tco0ovoq onoooq qv ootkq tco0ovoq oo A kot npooptooo qv ovloot,q
tco0ovoq oo B, one olvcot oov nopokoe nlvoko:
Atcu0uvoq Hqyq Atcu0uvoq Hpooptoou
IP Entkcolo Atco0ovoq A Atco0ovoq B
Ethernet Entkcolo Atco0ovoq A Atco0ovoq B
Eqv noponove ncplneoq onq coopo nokcev ono o A oo B, o npeo-
koo IP cv npoocpct konoto cntncov onqpcolo oc o,coq c ooc noo nopc,o-
vot qq ono o ootko cnlnco Ethernet. Ito qv okplcto, oov o cntopovct
q otyq noo 0o npcnct vo qtoopyq0cl, coo0cl kot ovoo0cl oc ko0c ncpl-
neoq q ovloot,q cntkcolo IP. Ooq0clc ot ov kot oo Ethernet ko0c q,o-
vqo nopcl vo ct oc t coooct ev onoolnev (ooo plokovot npoktko
noveoo lto ootko coo), o ko0c koo nopcl vo c,eplct noto cocvo npo-
oplovot yto ooov kotoovo qq oo ootko cnlnco qv cntkcolo Ethernet
npooptooo. One c,ooc nct ooq clvot to ypqyopq totkoolo q onolo ylvcot
ono qv kopo tkooo cv ,pctocot vo ooooc c,pt o cnlnco tkooo kot
qv cntkcolo IP yto vo ooc ov o nokco npooplcot yto o ooykckptcvo
q,ovqo.
Oov o npeokoo IP oo Boct o IP oooovoo nokco ono o A, 0o ccooct
qv IP tco0ovoq npooptooo yto vo ct ov clvot lto c q tkq oo (kot 0o clvot
ootko, ytol 0o c,ct qq cntcycl c ooq qv Ethernet tco0ovoq). Av clvot, o
nokco 0o ncpooct oo ovecpo cnlnco. H cntkotvevlo oo A c o B ylvcot c
ocoq poooyqoq.
7.9.3 Tcoq Apooyqoq
Eo o,qo 7.33 olvcot cvo lkoo o onolo onocclot ono plo TCP/IP lkoo
noo cvevovot coo oo c q oq0cto cvo poooyqq (A). To lkoo ooo
clvot nto ovtnpooencotko ono o ono lkoo noo nopoootoooc oqv npoqyoo-
cvq cvoqo. To ko0c lkoo ,pqotonotcl Ethernet kot onocclot ono pct ono-
oytoc.
Ko0e o poooyqq (A) clvot cvo IP poooyqq, clvot oovcccvo kot
oo plo lkoo. Aoytko clvot otnov ot to0cct pct tco0ovoct IP (to yto ko0c
lkoo, kot npoove c qv ovloot,q yto ko0c lkoo tco0ovoq) ko0e kot pct
tco0ovoct Ethernet.
7.9 Apooyqoq 91
E,qo 7.33: TCP/IP tuirruo uuore/ouevo uu rpiu TCP/IP irruu
Oov q cntkotvevlo ylvcot coo cvo onooytoq cvo tkooo oc cvo oo vou
itou tkooo, o poooyqq cv kovct lnoo. Ito nopoctyo, ov o onooytoq
A oclct cvo nokco oov B, ko0e kot ot oo plokovot oo lto onolkoo q
poooyqoq clvot ocoq kot okooo0cl oo onoo kovovc noo nopoootoooc
oqv npoqyoocvq cvoqo.
H cntkotvevlo c,ct cyoocpo cvtocpov oov ylvcot coo onooytoev noo
ovqkoov oc toopctko onolkoo. Ito nopoctyo ono0coc ot o onooytoq A
0cct vo cntkotvevqoct c ov onooytoq E. Elvot covc ot cv onop,ct ocoq
oovcoq coo A kot E, opo o nokco 0o npcnct vo ncpoooov tocooo oo po-
ooyqq (A). Hopoqpqoc ot ko0e o poooyqq (A) c,ct to oovcoq oc
ko0cvo ono o lkoo, q poooyqoq nokcev npo ooov clvot ocoq. Ano ov A
oe npo ov E q cntkotvevlo cv clvot ocoq, ko0e nopcocot o (A). Mto
coto cntkotvevlo ovoocot eeoq.
Ito vo oclct o nokco o onooytoq A oov onooytoq E, 0cct e IP tco-
0ovoq nqyq q tkq oo kot e IP tco0ovoq npooptooo qv tco0ovoq oo E.
Avloot,o 0cct e tco0ovoq Ethernet nqyq q tkq oo, oo e tco0ovoq npo-
optooo rqv teu0uvoq rou poo/oqrq A. Aoo ooolvct cnctq o Acv nopcl vo
oclct onco0clo (ocoo) o nokco oov Eko0e cv clvot oo lto lkoo (Ito qv
okplcto, cv yveplct kov qv Ethernet tco0ovoq oo E). Boovo e tco0ovoq
Ethernet npooptooo qv ovloot,q oo poooyqq (A), o nokco (yto vo clo-
oc nto okptcl o noloto noo o onocoov) 0o koco0ov0cl oo poooyqq.
O poooyqq 0o ovooct vo npoe0qoct o nokco oo lkoo noo plokcot o
E yto vo nopoq0cl ono ooov.
Hopoqpooc otnov ot oc o,coq c qv ocoq poooyqoq noo ccoooc,
q npoyotkq toopo ooo oopo t cntkcolc plokcot oqv cntkcolo
Ethernet npooptooo. Oov ylvcot ccoq poooyqoq, q cntkcolo ooq cl-
,vct novo qv tco0ovoq Ethernet oo poooyqq noo cvevct o lkoo coo
oo.
IP Entkcolo Atco0ovoq A Atco0ovoq E
Ethernet Entkcolo Atco0ovoq A Atco0ovoq (A)
To npeokoo IP oo poooyqq (A) oovct o IP oooovoo nokco ono ov
A kot ccoovo qv IP tco0ovoq npooptooo ovtoovcot ot cv onco0ovc-
ot oqv npoyotkoqo oc ooov, oo oov onooytoq E oo ooo tkooo.
Ito vo o oclct ncov oov onooytoq E, ooct qv tco0ovoq Ethernet npoo-
ptooo c ooqv oo E. Tctko, o nokco noo coyct ono ov poooyqq yto ov
E, c,ct o nopokoe:
IP Entkcolo Atco0ovoq A Atco0ovoq E
Ethernet Entkcolo Atco0ovoq A Atco0ovoq E
7.9.4 Hivuuu Apooyqoq
Oo ccqoooc epo ne ylvcot q poooyqoq oo Atolkoo, c q oq0cto oo
uivuru poo/qoq. To npeokoo IP npootoplct o oqclo tcnoq tkooo
noo npokctot vo ,pqotonotqoct tooovo qv ovloot,q ypoq oov nlvoko,
,pqotonotevo e kctl ovoqqoq qv tco0ovoq tkooo npooptooo. Htco-
0ovoq tkooo npooptooo one c,ooc qq nct npokonct ono qv IP tco0ovoq
npooptooo. Onlvoko poooyqoq c,ct to cyypoq (koo,eptoq) yto ko0c to-
poq. Ot ootkc oqc oo nlvoko poooyqoq clvot:
Apt0 Atuvuou IP - Htco0ovoq tkooo npooptooo one npokonct ono
o IP npooptooo. H.,. yto tco0ovoq IP 223.1.2.3 kot ooko 233.233.233.0,
o lkoo npooptooo clvot o 223.1.2
Avuyveptovtu Acoq / Tcoq Apooyqoq - Eq oqq ooq ypo-
cot ov q poooyqoq 0o clvot ocoq (q. o npooptoo plokcot oo
lto lkoo) q ccoq (0o nopcq0cl konoto poooyqq)
IP Atcu0uvoq Apoooyqvq - Eq oqq ooq ypocot q IP tco0ovoq oo
poooyqq noo 0o ,pqotonotq0cl - ov q poooyqoq clvot ocoq, o
nclo ooo nopocvct kcvo.
7.9 Apooyqoq 93
Apt0 Atcnuoq Atuvuou - To tlo cv o tcokptvlct, oo ovocpc-
ot oqv kopo tkooo ono qv onolo npcnct vo cktvqoct o nokco yto vo
noct oov npooptoo oo. Hpoove ooo c,ct voqo ov cvo onooytoq
to0cct ncptooocpc ono to kopc tkooo, kot ko0cto ono ooc clvot
oovcccvq oc toopctko lkoo. Eqv ncplneoq ooq, o oooovoo
nokco noo qtoopyclot npcnct vo cc0ct ono q oeoq kopo yto vo po-
ooyq0cl. Av oe onop,ct ovo lo tcnoq, ooo o nclo 0o c,ct oovc,cto
qv lto tq n.,. 1
qcieoq cuv tiou: Eqv npoyotkoqo cvo nlvoko poooyqoq no-
pcl vo c,ct kot ct nclo. To nclo Apt0o Atcnoq clvot cvo ovo ono plo
npootpctko nclo.
Ito ko0c ccp,ocvo oooovoo nokco, o npeokoo IP oooococot ov nl-
voko poooyqoq. 1ot onooolct ov o nokco 0o oocl c ocoq q ccoq
poooyqoq, ov poooyqq o onolo 0o o nopooct (ov npokctot yto c-
coq poooyqoq) ko0e kot q tcnoq tkooo cooo qv kopo tkooo oo
,oqocpo cnlnco q onolo 0o o npoe0qoct oo ootko coo. A nopooc yto
E,qo 7.34: Ateuue rv uuo/otorv A,B,I TCP/IP trruou
nopoctyo o lkoo oo o,qoo 7.34. Oov o onooytoq A 0cct vo oclct
cvo oooovoo IP nokco oov onooytoq B, op,tko 0o npootoploct qv tco-
0ovoq oo onooytoq B. Aoq clvot 223.1.2.2. Ano qv tco0ovoq ooq npokonct
q tco0ovoq tkooo 223.1.2 (Eqcleoq: Ito vo o pct ooo oqv npoyotkoqo
,pctocot kot q ooko q o npo0co, oo o tlo oo ononotcl oncpotko
o npoyoo). 9o,vovo oqv npeq oqq oo nlvoko poooyqoq plokct qv
ovloot,q tco0ovoq tkooo kot tooct o onootno cocvo q lto ypo-
q. Eqv ncplneoq o o nlvoko clvot o nopokoe:
Aiuvuo Avuyveptovtu Apoooyqvq Apt0
Acoq q Tcoq Atcnuoq
Apooyqoq
Avonoq (223.1.2) Acoq kcvo 1
Aoo ono oqolvct ot o onooytoq B clvot oo lto lkoo, opo q poooyqoq
0o clvot ocoq. Eovcne cv nopcocot poooyqq, cot o ovloot,o nc-
lo clvot kcvo. Tco 0o ,pqotonotq0cl q npeq (kot nt0ovov ovotkq) tcnoq
noo to0cct o onooytoq yto qv ookqpeoq q cntkotvevlo. 1,ovo ko0o-
ploct ot q poooyqoq 0o clvot ocoq kot ko0e o lkoo clvot Ethernet, o
cnocvo qo clvot q copcoq q Ethernet tco0ovoq oo B coe oo nlvoko ARP
kot q onoooq oo nokcoo coe q tcnoq 1. Eo o,qo 7.33 nopooc vo
E,qo 7.33: Ateuue rv uuo/otorv A,A,L,I TCP/IP trruou e poo/oqrq
ooc t ylvcot oqv ncplneoq ccoq poooyqoq. One c,ooc qq ovoc-
pct, o poooyqq A to0cct pct toopctkc tcnoc (kopc tkooo) kot
ko0cto clvot oovcccvq kot oc cvo toopctko lkoo. Avooyo c o lkoo
7.9 Apooyqoq 9S
npooptooo oo ko0c nokcoo noo oovct nopcl vo ,pqotonotqoct qv koo-
qq tcnoq yto vo o oclct. Eqv npoyotkoqo o nlvoko poooyqoq oo
onooytoq noo plokcot oo lkoo A0o ncptc,ct t nopokoekoo,eploct noo
oo cntpcnoov vo oclct oooovoo IP nokco ooo onooytoc ev oev oo
tkoev:
Acoq q Tcoq Atcnuoq
Apooyqoq
Aoytoqploo (223.1.3) 1coq A 1
Hopoyeyq (223.1.4) 1coq A 1
Elvot opkco cokoo vo koooooc ne o onooytoq A 0o oclct cvo nokco
oov onooytoq E (noo plokcot oo qo Aoytoqpto):
1. To npeokoo IP oovct q tco0ovoq tkooo oo onooytoq E ono qv
tco0ovoq IP oo onooytoq E.
2. Atcpcovo ov nlvoko poooyqoq (npeq oqq) kot plokct q tco0ovoq
tkooo oo E oq cocpq ypoq oo nlvoko.
3. Ano qv ovoyveoq ev cocvev q cocpq ypoq oo nlvoko ovt-
oovcot ot 0o ,pqotonotq0cl ccoq poooyqoq coe oo pooo-
yqq A.
4. Ano ov nlvoko ARP plokcot q Ethernet tco0ovoq oo poooyqq A kot
o nokco ocvcot npo ooov (One clnoc oqv npoqyoocvq cvoqo,
cv ooct q IP tco0ovoq npooptooo - ooq cokooo0cl vo cl,vct oov
onooytoq E. Boovo oe qv Ethernet tco0ovoq npooptooo oo A, o
nokco 0o nopoq0cl ono o poooyqq)
3. To nokco ovct oo oqclo tcnoq 1 (oqv kopo tkooo oo A) kot
ncpvoct oo lkoo Avonoq. Hopooovcot ono ov poooyqq A
kot ovct c,pt o cnlnco tkooo oo npeokooo. Ekcl tontoevcot
ot cv npooplcot npoyotko yto ov A, ooo q IP tco0ovoq npooptooo
oo cl,vct oov onooytoq E oo Aoytoqploo.
6. O poooyqq A 0o npoe0qoct o nokco oo lkoo npooptooo oo.
Elvot cvtocpov vo ooc c noto pono 0o ylvct q npoe0qoq oo nokcoo oo
Aoytoqpto. Ito vo o koooooc 0o npcnct vo plooc to oto oov nlvoko
poooyqoq noo plokcot coo oov lto o poooyqq A.
Acoq q Tcoq Atcnuoq
Apooyqoq
Aoytoqploo (223.1.3) Acoq kcvo 3
Hopoyeyq (223.1.4) Acoq kcvo 2
1. To npeokoo IP oo poooyqq A plokct qv tco0ovoq tkooo oo
onooytoq E, ono qv tco0ovoq IP npooptooo noo ncptc,cot oo nokco.
H tco0ovoq tkooo clvot 223.1.3
2. Avt,vcoovo qv npeq oqq oo nlvoko, plokct qv tco0ovoq tkooo
oo E oq cocpq ypoq.
3. To oooovoo nokco IP ocvcot c ocoq ncov poooyqoq oov ono-
oytoq E coe oo oqcloo tcnoq 3.
To oooovoo nokco noo koco0ovcot oov onooytoq E c,ct e IP kot Ethernet
tco0ovoct npooptooo t ovloot,c oo E. O onooytoq E oovct o no-
kco, o onolo ovct c,pt o cnlnco tkooo onoo kot tontoevcot ot q tco-
0ovoq IP npooptooo clvot lto c oo E. 1ot o nokco npoe0clot npo o oq-
ocpo cnlnco oo npeokooo.
7.11 Hpevuou Eoupoyq
7.11.1 Icvtuc Apc
To npeokoo noo c,ooc ccooct c,pt epo ovqkoov oo koecpo cnlnco
oo ovcoo TCP/IP. 1,ooc ct ot c,oov ovooqc one:
No toonoov qv op,tkq nqpooplo oc tkpocpo kooto
No qtoopyoov oooovoo nokco noo ncptc,oov q tco0ovoq onoooco
kot nopoqnq
No poooyoov o nokco c,pt ov npooptoo oo
No oovopooyoov o nokco oovo o oq oeoq octpo, ovooov0covo
o op,tko qvoo
No coooloov qv op0oqo q coooq kn.
Oo ooo kot ncptooocpo ylvovot ono o npeokoo TCP, IP kot o onootno
noo ccoooc oo cnlnco Mcoopo, Atkooo kot Eovcoq Atkooo (ootko).
Oe oq q noponove totkoolo cv opkcl yto vo c,ooc to nqpq cntkotvevlo.
7.11 Hpevuou Eoupoyq 97
Xpctooooc npoove kot konoto pono yto vo qqoooc qv ckccoq to
ooykckptcvq ctoopylo.
A nopooc yto nopoctyo qv ncplneoq noo cvo ,pqoq 0cct vo qqoct q
coopo cvo op,cloo ono cvo onookpoocvo onooytoq oo tko oo. Oo npc-
nct vo onop,ct konoto pono o ,pqoq ooo:
No qqoct qv onokoooooq to oovcoq coo oo onooytoq oo kot
oo onookpoocvoo conqpcqq
No nopc,ct konoto ovoo kot ketko noo 0o oo cntpcct qv npooooq
No ct q loo ev to0cotev op,clev
No qqoct qv onoooq cvo ooykckptcvoo op,cloo
Elvot npoovc ot cv onop,ct konoto npeokoo ono ooo noo c,ooc cco-
oct c,pt epo noo vo tkovonotcl ooc t ctoopylc. Hpoove o npeokoo
noo ,pctooooc ce clvot opkco nto kovo ot copoyc kot q oytkq noo
0o ,pqotonotqoct o ,pqoq yto vo ckccoct qv cpyoolo oo, nopo ot c,vtkc
cnocpctc ctoopylo q coooq coo ono o ootko coo. To npeokoo
noo o oq0oov oc ooq (kot nopootc cpyoolc) ovqkoov oo oqocpo cnlnco
q otkoycvcto TCP/IP, oo uprro//u eupoq.
qcieoq: Ooo nto qo plokcot cvo npeokoo oqv kopoq, ooo nto ko-
vo clvot oov ov0pentvo pono okcq. To npeokoo oo cnlnco copoyq
,pqotonotoov cvoc one get, put, send. Avl0co o npeokoo noo
plokovot oo ccoolo cnlnco (oovcoq tkooo) oo,ooovot onokctotko
c ootko cocvo.
To npeokoo copoyev ko0oploov t ocvcot coo ono q oovcoq. Hpoo-
toploov c lyo oyto o oovoo ev cvoev noo koooolvct q ooykckptcvq
copoyq ko0e kot q oq c qv onolo npcnct vo oooov. Ec cvo npeokoo
copoyq ovotyvoovot o cocvo noo ocvovot q oovovot c t ovl-
oot,c cvoc yto q to,clptoq q oovcoq. Ooo oopo t c,vtkc cno-
cpctc q oovcoq (n.,. q poooyqoq q q qtoopylo nokcev), o npeo-
koo copoyq cv oo,oclot ko0ooo. To npeokoo noo plokovot koe
ono ooo c,oov one c,ooc ct qv onokctotkq co0ovq yto oo ooo. To npe-
okoo copoyq cnoov q oovcoq oov vo qov cvo koeto noo oovcct
onco0clo oo oo onooytoc.
Ooooo o npeokoo copoyq c,oov vo ovtcenlooov toopc ookolc,
noo c,oov vo kovoov c ov kotvo pono nopooolooq. Mcptko ono o npoqoo
noo onop,oov:
Acv onop,ct novo ooevlo coo oo oovooo ,opokqpev noo ,pqoto-
notclot ono onooytoq oc onooytoq. Tontko ,pqotonotclot o oovoo
,opokqpev ASCII q o EBCDIC. Oe npokctot yto opkco ncptoptocvo
oovoo ,opokqpev oo onolo onop,ct npoqo vo ketkonotq0oov yeo-
oc noo ncptc,oov toopctko q/kot ncptooocpo oooo kot ypooo
ono ooo oo otvtkoo ooqoo. To npoyoo ylvovot okoo ,ctpocpo
c yeooc noo ncptc,oov nopo noo ypooo q yto t onolc c,oov npo-
o0cl ncptooocpc ono lo ooooct ketkonolqoq oo ooqoo oo.
Ynop,oov kot oc oooevlc one yto nopoctyo ov ,opokqpo noo
,pqotonotclot oqv cntkotvevlo yto vo qeoct o co to ypoq kct-
cvoo. Hpokctot yto toopctkq okooo0lo n.,. oc q,ovqoo Windows
kot q,ovqoo UNIX.
O pono nopooolooq ev cocvev (kot cnlooq ev noponove npoqo-
ev) clvot onokctotko co0ovq ev npeokoev copoyq. Hpeokoo one
o TCP kot o IP cv oo,ooovot ko0ooo c ooo o 0co.
7.11.2 Buotuc uut Hpoqycvc Ynqpcoic Atutuvuou
Akooo0cl to oovoq ovoopo ot nto ,opokqptotkc copoyc noo tol0c-
vot oo Atolkoo kot onooqplovot ono qv c,vooylo TCP/IP:
Hcuvpovtu Tuupocio
To q/errpovtr ru,upoeio q emoil clvot q copoyq noo cntpcnct qv onoooq
qvooev (cntooev) coo oo q ncptooocpev ,pqoev c qckpovtko pono.
To qckpovtko o,opoclo c,ct o,cov qotvo kooo cve o qvooo nopo-
lovot o,ooo oc o,coq c o oootko o,opoclo. To ooy,povo npoypo-
oo to,clptoq e-mail clvot opkco ttko npo o ,pqoq. Mc q ,pqoq oo e-
mail koopyclot oqv ooolo q ovoovq oc o,opoclo.
To ccoolo ,povto, c qv coneoq kot qv copclo ,pqoq oo Atotkooo, tokt-
vclot coe e-mail cyoo qo ev cyypoev noo ovooooovot coo ev
onqpcotev kot cotptev. Ko0e o npoypooo clvot ttolcpo ttko, cv onot-
oovot ccttkcocvc yveoct yto o ,ctptoo oo o onolo nopcl vo ylvct op-
kco koo ono onoo ,pqoc. Avocoo ot ovooqc noo nopc,ovot clvot
q nopoooq oo ltoo qvooo oc nooo nopoqnc, cvqcpeoq qq oo
qvooo oov onoooco, ko0e kot ooooq to,clptoq kot otvoqoq ev
ctocp,ocvev qvooev ovo koqyoplo, ncptc,ocvo, onoooco k..n. No oq-
cteoooc ce ot cv clvot onopolqo vo clvot nopev o nopoqnq yto q qq
oo qvooo, ko0e ooo nopocvct oov onookpoocvo conqpcqq oqo-
ypolo c,pt vo oovc0cl o ,pqoq kot vo o oct oov npooentko oo onoo-
ytoq.
Hcovcuvquvu
Elvot noo ypqyopo. O ontko ,povo qq cvo qvooo clvot yope oo
oo cno. O ,povo nopoooq cv copoot ono qv yceypotkq 0coq oo
nopoqnq, oo ono qv o,oqo ev oovcocev oo tkooo noo nopc-
oovot coo onoooco kot nopoqnq. 1ot yto nopoctyo cvo q-
voo nopcl vo kovct tyocpo ,povo vo ooct oc cvo okptvocpo npoopt-
oo (n.,. Acptkq) cnctq ot cvtocoot oovcoct clvot o,ocpc.
O,pqoq cv ,pctocot vo nopokooo0cl q coopo oo qvooo coe
oo e-mail (one yto nopoctyo ylvcot c o Fax q o qcevo). To q-
voo nopolcot oov conqpcqq npooptooo kot o nopoqnq 0o o o-
ct ot cvcpyonotqoct ov onooytoq oo kot o npoypoo qckpovtkoo
o,opocloo.
Elvot nto otkovotko ono o kotvo o,opoclo. Mnopooc vo ko0oploooc
noonoo nopoqnc oc cvo qvoo kot vo coeoooc cyoo opt0o
qvooev c to onq oovcoq. Mnopooc okoo vo coeoooc ctkovc
kot q,o cooov ,pqotonotooc o kooqo npoypoo.
Mctovcuvquvu
Acv onop,ct onooq cyyoqoq ot o qvoo 0o q0cl
qcieoq cuv tiou: Eqv npoyotkoqo o email c,ct oo ooopocpo
ctovckqoo ono ooo oqv npoq o email ,ovovot onovto. Ao ctovckq-
oo clvot:
Acv cooolcot ot o onoooco clvot npoyot ooo noo ovocpcot
oo qvoo. Ito vo ylvct ooo 0o npcnct vo ,pqotonotq0cl konoto cntncov
oooqo, n.,. qtokc onoypoc q ntoonotqtko (Ito t qtokc ono-
ypoc 0o tqoooc oo cnocvo kcooto).
Hoc opc ylvcot toklvqoq tev kot kokoooev npoypooev coe
email.
Aoovooc nopo noo ovcnt0oqo qvooo o yveoo spam.
Aoovooc noponovqtko qvooo (phishing) o onolo c,oov okono vo
o oqyqooov vo onokooooc npooentko q/kot otkovotko oot,clo (opt0-
oo ntoetkev kopev kn).
To oooqo oo qckpovtkoo o,opocloo onocclot ono cvo oovokq kctc-
voo (kctcvoypoo) c o onolo o ,pqoq ypoct o qvooo oo, kot o oooqo
coopo o onolo ovooovct vo o cocpct ooo nopoqnc. Ito q c-
oopo oo qckpovtkoo o,opocloo ,pqotonotclot oo oooqo TCP/IP o
Hprro//o Meruop Au/ou Tu,upoeiou - Simple Moil Trons[er Prorocol (Eq-
cleoq: H copooq oo tloo clvot o0o coto - q cq ono ovocpcot
oo npeokoo). To npeokoo SMTP oovontko oococt e cq:
To SMTP 0cct konotc cpeqoct oov conqpcqq ovooev (DNS). Hpc-
nct vo npootoploct noto clvot o conqpcqq o,opocloo yto ov oco
oov onolo ovqkct o nopoqnq. Ito nopoctyo, ov ocvooc cvo email
oov user1otenet.gr, o SMTP 0o peqoct noto clvot o conqpcqq o-
,opocloo oo oco otenet.gr kot ot nopct o ovoo, 0o peqoct q tco-
0ovoq oo conqpcqq.
To SMTP 0o ovolct to oovcoq c ov onookpoocvo conqpcqq, ,pq-
otonotevo e 0opo TCP npooptooo qv 23. H 0opo 23 clvot q npoko0o-
ptocvq 0opo conqpcqq yto o Hckpovtko To,opoclo. O onooytoq
noo ocvct o qvoo clvot o SMTP ncoq cve ooo noo o oovct
clvot o conqpcqq.
Mot ylvct onokoooooq q oovcoq, o SMTP op,lct vo ocvct to
octpo ono cvoc noo ko0oploov ov onoooco kot ov nopoqnq oo
qvooo. O conqpcqq ovonokplvcot oc ko0c cvo ono ooo o qvo-
oo c onovqoct noo cl,voov ot o otqoo ylvovot cko q ot onop-
,ct konoto npoqo (n.,. ot cv pc0qkc o nopoqnq). Mc o co ooq
q oovcvvoqoq, o onoooco ocvct to cvoq (DATA) noo cl,vct ot
op,lct vo colct o qvoo. Mc q qq oo qvooo, ocvcot cvo
,opokqpo noo cl,vct o co kot ctonotcl o npoypoo oo conqpcqq
vo cpqvcoct not o cocvo noo oovct e cvoc.
Hpevuoo Mcvuoop Apciev (FTP, File Transfer Protocol)
To uprro//o eruop up,eiv, FTP cntpcnct q coopo op,clev coo
onooytoev noo ,pqotonotoov qv c,vooylo TCP/IP. To npeokoo ooo ,pq-
otonotcl o yveoo o ovco ncoq-conqpcqq. Hcoq clvot o onooyt-
oq noo cktvoct qv cntkotvevlo kot qoct vo kocooct konoto ono o op,clo
noo to0cct o conqpcqq (nopcl cnloq ovooyo c t po0loct vo c,ct kot
ovooqo vo ovcooct op,clo). O conqpcqq clvot o onooytoq oov onolo
qoc npooooq. To npeokoo FTP ,pqotonotcl oo cnlnco coopo o
npeokoo TCP yto qv coopo ev cocvev oo. Iveplooc ot o TCP to-
oolct otontoq ono okpo oc okpo cntkotvevlo, kot o onolo clvot onopolqo
ko0e cv clvot onocko vo oovooc op,clo noo vo ncptc,oov o0q. Oooto-
otko o FTP o cntpcnct vo qtoopyooc ovlypoo op,clev cvo onookpo-
ocvoo conqpcqq kot o cntpcnct yto nopoctyo vo oocooc oo onlt
o ooo oooc o kooqo op,clo ono ov conqpcqq oo ypocloo o.
Eqcteoc coto ot o FTP cv c,ct ovooqc ooy,povtooo - cv nopcl q.
vo nopct n.,. t toopc coo oo ckoocev oo ltoo op,cloo, oo ovo,o
ookqpo o op,clo.
Ito vo coootocl q ooocto oo oooqoo kot vo cntpcncot ovo oc coo-
otooqcvoo ,pqoc q npooooq oo op,clo cvo conqpcqq, oonotclot cvo
oooqo ccy,oo coootooqoq. To oooqo ooo oolcot oqv ,pqoq ovoo-
o npooooq kot ketkoo o onolo npcnct vo nqkpooyqoct o ,pqoq yto qv
clooo oo oo oooqo. To oot,clo ooo qtoopyoovot ono o to,ctptoq oo
conqpcqq FTP kot ccy,ovot ko0c opo. No oqcteoooc ot oov cvo ,pq-
oq to0cct cvo oyoptooo FTP oc cvo onookpoocvo oooqo, cv c,ct nqpq
npooooq oo oooqo, o ovo noo nopcl vo kovct clvot vo ovtypoct op,clo
(c lyo oyto, o FTP c,cot cvo noo ncptoptocvo oovoo cvoev noo c,oov
vo kovoov c to,clptoq / ovtypoq op,clev kot o,t o cyoo oovoo cvoev
noo nopcl kovcl vo ckccoct coe cvo cpotkoo oo UNIX - yto nopoctyo
coe cvo oooqoo onookpoocvq npooooq).
Mc qv ookqpeoq q oovcoq kot qv cnoq0cooq ev oot,clev oo ,pqoq,
o oooqo o cntpcnct vo ovtypoooc cvo q ncptooocpo op,clo oov ono-
oytoq o. O opo coopo oo FTP qevct ot o op,clo cocpcot ono
ov cvo onooytoq (conqpcqq) oov oo (ncoq). Ooooo o npeoono op-
,clo cv cnqpcocot ono ooq q totkoolo (npokctot yto ovtypoq, kot o,t yto
coklvqoq).
qcieoq: To FTP ot cpc o cv 0cepclot oooc npeokoo, ko0e c-
ocpct o ovoo ,pqoq kot ov ketko coo ono o lkoo e ono kclcvo, ,epl
koto kponoypoqoq. Ito o oyo ooo onocoycot q ,pqoq oo. To FTP eoooo
nopc,ct kot q ovooqo ovevoq npooooq coeq onolo cvo ,pqoq c,ct
co,too tkoteoo (cnct ovo ooykckptcvoo koooyoo kot nopcl ovo vo
kocooct op,clo). Mc ooo ov pono ctoopylo ,pqotonotclot kot oqcpo yto
vo kocoooc op,clo o onolo clvot qooto to0coto.
H ctoopylo oo FTP clvot kone nto noonokq oc o,coq c q ctoopylo oo
qckpovtkoo o,opocloo SMTP noo ncptypooc npoqyoocve. To FTP oov-
ooct oo toopctkc oovcoct. Eq lo oovcoq (yveoq kot e ruv/t evro-
/v) o FTP ocvct cvoc yto t cvcpyctc noo 0o ylvoov. Ap,tko, q cntkotve-
vlo otoct c ooq oo qckpovtkoo o,opocloo c cvoc one eoc oo
npooooq c ovoo ,pqoq X kot o ketko oo clvot o Y. Mco qv cnto,q
ovoyveptoq oo ,pqoq ocvovot cvoc oo onoo nqyotvc oov koooyo Z,
clc oo o op,clo oo koooyoo kot co oclc oo o op,clo A. Mto nq-
pq coto oovotlo ncoq - conqpcqq olvcot nopokoe:
|13.5.31|puJsta$ ftp WWW.feebsdWoJd.g
Cohhected to feebsdWoJd.g.
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PassWod.
23u-Use use1 has goup access to. use1
23u uK. Cueht est1cted d1ectoy 1s 7
Renote systen type 1s UNTX.
Us1hg b1hay node to tahsfe f1Jes.
ftp> Js
dWx-x--- 12 use1 use1 4u9 Nov 9 1.u1 .
dWx--x--x 12 use1 use1 4u9 Feb 12 15.54 ..
dWx-x-x 2 use1 use1 4u9 uct 2 uB.53 etc
dWx-x--- B use1 use1 4u9 uec 17 uu.2u na1J
-W----- 1 use1 use1 3922B uct 27 1.41 php.1h1
dWx-x--- 3 use1 use1 4u9 uct 2 uB.53 pubJ1cftp
dWx-x--- 12 use1 use1 4u9 Nov 9 1.u1 pubJ1chtnJ
22 7 natches totaJ
ftp> cd pubJ1chtnJ
25u uK. Cueht d1ectoy 1s 7pubJ1chtnJ
dWx-x--- 12 use1 use1 4u9 Nov 9 1.u1 .
dWx--x--x 12 use1 use1 4u9 Feb 12 15.54 ..
dWx-x-x 2 use1 use1 4u9 5ep 1 13.4u sc1pts
-W----- 1 use1 use1 31B77 uct 2 11.1u s1te-Jogo.phg
22 4 natches totaJ
ftp> get s1te-Jogo.phg
JocaJ. s1te-Jogo.phg enote. s1te-Jogo.phg
229 Extehded Pass1ve node uK {|||11932|}
15u-Accepted data cohhect1oh
15u 31.1 kbytes to doWhJoad
1uuZ |***********************************| 31B77 4u.25 K1B7s
22-F1Je successfuJJy tahsfeed
22 u.uu4 secohds {neasued hee}, 7.9u hbytes pe secohd
31B77 bytes ece1ved 1h uu.uu {4u.23 K1B7s}
ftp> bye
221-uoodbye. You upJoaded u ahd doWhJoaded 32 kbytes.
221 Logout.
Mco t cvoc yto qv onoooq cocvev, cktvoct q cocpq oovcoq yto qv
coooq ev cocvev. Eo noponove nopoctyo cnooc qv cnto,q ckkl-
vqoq q cocpq oovcoq c o qvoo oo conqpcqq FTP 130-Accepted
data connection. Eo qckpovtko o,opoclo ooo q coopo ev cocvev
ooo kot ev cvoev ylvcot ono qv lto oovcoq. Eo npeokoo FTP, cnctq
oovq0e q coopo ev op,clev ,pctocot ncptooocpo ,povo (o email clvot oo-
vq0e tkpo), ot o,ctooc oo npeokooo 0cqoov vo eooov q ovooqo
oo ,pqoq q onqpcolo vo nopcl vo ocvct cvoc qv epo noo qq ckccl-
ot konoto coopo. Ito nopoctyo, qv epo noo ckcclot q coopo nopcl
o ,pqoq vo 0cct vo onooct konoto cpeqoq (n.,. vo ct o ncptc,ocvo cvo
ooo koooyoo) q okoo kot vo tokoct (okopeoct) qv coopo. Eoevo
c o npoono, yto t cvoc ,pqotonotclot o TCP port 21 (command channel)
cve yto qv coopo ev cocvev o TCP port 20 (data channel).
qcieoq: To npeokoo FTP onooqplct cvo okoo pono coooq coc-
vev oov onolo o kovot cocvev cntcycot co ono oovcvvoqoq coo nc-
oq kot conqpcqq, kot ovoocot possive moJe. 4olvcot kot oo nopoctyo
noo eooc noponove, ko0e onop,ct o qvoo 229 Extended Passive mode
OK.
Eko ono o npeokoo FTP, yto qv coopo op,clev onop,ct kot o TFTP,
Triviol File Trons[er Prorocol q Hprro//o Au/q Meruop Ap,eiv. Elvot oqv
ooolo to cotpctko ononotqcvq cko,q oo FTP q onolo cv to0cct kovcvo
clo ooocto q coootooqoq kot oootootko cv npooplcot yto ,pqoq ce
ono ontko lkoo. To TFTP ,pqotonotcl o UDP e npeokoo oo cnlnco
coopo.
Anouupuocvq uvcoq - Telnet (Telecommunications Network q Teletype
Network)
To npoypoo Auourpuoevq Xuveoq Telner cntpcnct qv npooncooq oc cop-
oyc noo plokovot cykocoqcvc oc cvo onooytoq oo tkooo, ono onoto-
qnoc oo onooytoq noo clvot oovcccvo oc ooo o lkoo. Mc o telnet
nopcl cvo ,pqoq noo oococt oov onooytoq oo, vo oovc0cl c cvo onoo-
kpoocvo onooytoq kot vo ov ,ctplcot ono o cpotko oo, oov vo ptokoov
npooo oqv kovooo oo. Mnopcl npoktko vo ckccoct onotoqnoc copoyq
plokcot cykocoqcvq oov onookpoocvo onooytoq cooov ooq oolcot
oc ncptoov kctcvoo, ko0e kot vo ckccoct cvoc oo ctoopytkoo oooq-
oo oo onookpoocvoo onooytoq (o Telnet clvot to onqpcolo noo koo
ooq nopc,cot oc onooytoc noo ckcoov oooqoo onoo UNIX). O onoo-
kpoocvo onooytoq nopcl vo plokcot onooqnoc, opkcl vo c,ct ovooqo
oovcoq c ov onooytoq noo ckccl ov conqpcqq telnet, okoo kot coe
oo Internet.
Hpoove yto vo clvot ovoq q ,pqoq oo conqpcqq Telnet ono konoto onoo-
kpoocvo ,pqoq, o ,pqoq ooo 0o npcnct vo c,ct tkoteoo npooooq (ovoo
kot ketko) oov conqpcqq. To ovoo kot o ketko qoovot oqv op,q q
oovcoq kot npcnct vo cnoq0cooov nptv o ,pqoq op,loct vo ckccl cvoc
kot npoypooo oov conqpcqq.
qcieoq: One kot c o FTP, cot kot o telnet ocvct o ovoo ,pqoq kot
ov ketko e ono kclcvo (,epl kponoypoqoq) coo ono o lkoo. Icvtko
oq q cntkotvevlo ylvcot ,epl kovcvo clo kponoypoqoq noo oqolvct ot
nopcl vo onokoncl cokoo oq q oovotlo ono konoto cvtocoo onooytoq.
Ito o oyo ooo o telnet npoktko cv ,pqotonotclot ot cpc o kot c,ct
ovtkoooo0cl ono o npeokoo SSH, Secure Snell oo onolo o novo clvot
kponoypoqcvo.
Enctq ot copoyc noo ckcoovot oc cvo onooytoq clvot e cvo o0o copq-
cvc ono ov ono oo onooytoq, 0o npcnct yto qv onookpoocvq oovcoq vo
onop,ct cvo npeokoo noo 0o cooolct qv cntkotvevlo coo oo cpot-
koo noo ,pqotonotcl o ,pqoq oov ontko oo onooytoq c ooo noo to0cct o
onookpoocvo conqpcqq kot yto o onolo clvot ypocvq q copoyq.
qcieoq: Eo UNIX q cvvoto oo cpotkoo o,clcot coo oev kot c
oo cttkoo ,opokqpc ccy,oo noo ocvovot yto vo ckcco0oov ctoopylc
one ooyq ,peoev, ko0optoo q o0ovq kn. To kootko cpotko oc cvo
UNIX oooqo oovcovot c octptokc oovcoct oov kcvptko onooytoq kot
onop,oov konoto npoono noo oploov notc cvoc koooolvoov. Ito nopo-
ctyo, toopctkc cvoc koooolvct cvo cpotko c ovooqo onctkovt-
oq ,peoev kot oc cvo ovo,peo. Oov o cpotko o cv clvot npoyo-
tko, oo ctkovtko one oc ooq qv ncplneoq 0o npcnct vo ooncptcpcot c
ov lto pono kot vo koooolvct t ltc cvoc c konoto ono o coto npo-
7.11 Hpevuou Eoupoyq 10S
ono noo ovoyveplct o conqpcqq Telnet. To ncptooocpo npoypooo telnet
yto ncoc onooqploov cooleoq cyooo nq0oo cpotkev.
H ctoopylo ooq onooqplcot ono o npeokoo Telnet o onolo oonotcl qv
tco oo ctkovtkoo cpotkoo oqv c,vooylo TCP/IP. To ctkovtko cpotko ono-
ccl ov cvtocoo coo oo cpotkoo oo conqpcqq kot oo ncoq telnet.
To cpotko ckcoov qv onopolqo ovtool,toq kot coponq ev koooo-
ocev oc ooc oo ctkovtkoo cpotkoo eoc vo onop,ct to kotvq yeooo cnt-
kotvevlo. 1ot n.,. ko0oplovot coe oo Telnet kot ot nopocpot cntkotvevlo
kot o ,opokqptotko oo cpotkoo noo npcnct vo ,pqotonotoovot ooo ono
q cpto oo ncoq ooo kot ono q cpto oo conqpcqq.
To npeokoo Telnet one kot o FTP kot SMTP okooo0cl o ovco ncoq
conqpcqq. Hcoq clvot o onooytoq o onolo cktvoct qv cntkotvevlo kot
conqpcqq clvot o onookpoocvo onooytoq noo ckccl ov ovloot,o co-
nqpcqq Telnet kot c,cot t ctocp,ocvc oovcoct. Eo cnlnco coopo, o
Telnet ,pqotonotcl o npeokoo TCP kot ,pqotonotcl yto qv cntkotvevlo oo
o TCP port 23.
Oov cktvo q ckccoq oo npoypooo, ylvcot op,tko q ooonolqoq oo ,pq-
oq coe oo ovooo kot oo ketkoo noo oo c,ct onoo0cl. Otqnoc ypoct
o ,pqoq oo cpotko oo cocpcot kot ckcclot oov conqpcqq Telnet.
Avloot,o cocpovot kot o onoccooo (coo) ev cvoev oo, ono ov
conqpcqq oo cpotko oo. Elvot koptocktko oov vo plokcot npooo oov
conqpcqq. Mcoo ev oo q,ovqoev onop,ct ovo to oovcoq ono qv
onolo cocpovot cvoc kot cocvo. Oov o ,pqoq ,pctocot vo oclct
konoto cvoq noo vo qv onco0ovcot oov onookpoocvo onooytoq oo yto
vo ckccoct to po0toq oo npeokooo Telnet (n.,. vo ooct ov ono oo
cpotkoo q konoto cntoyq ctoopylo) ,pqotonotclot cvo cttko ,opokq-
po (,opokqpo tooyq) o onolo qevct oo oooqo ot ooo noo okooo0cl
cv clvot to cvoq noo npcnct vo q0cl ono ov onookpoocvo onooytoq
oo to cvoq npo o npeokoo Telnet.
Hopokoe olvcot to cvctktkq oovcplo telnet:
|15.39.25|soh1cpuJsta.~$ teJhet pegasus
Ty1hg 2.71.35.221...
Cohhected to pegasus.chah1a-Jug.g.
Escape chaacte 1s '^'.
FeeB5u7and4 {pegasus.dyhdhs.og} {pts73}
Jog1h. soh1c
PassWod.
Last Jog1h. hoh Feb 15 15.39.14 fon JocaJhost
Copy1ght {c} 1992-2uu9 The FeeB5u Poect.
Copy1ght {c} 1979, 19Bu, 19B3, 19B, 19BB, 19B9, 1991, 1992, 1993, 1994
The Regehts of the Uh1ves1ty of CaJ1foh1a. AJJ 1ghts eseved.
FeeB5u B.u-RELEA5E-p2 {PEuA5U5} #1. 5at Jah 3u 22.u5.14 EET 2u1u
WeJcone to FeeB5u!
|15.4u.45|soh1cpegasus.~$ Js -d *7
uesktop7 data7 htnJ7 hotes7
uNUstep7 d1kt1a-heW7 Jogos7 o1g1haJ7
UNTX7 extehaJ7 Jogs7 page7
b1h7 fohts7 nuJt1ned1a7 sone7
books7 feebsd-book7 hethone7 tabaJJs7
Jogout
Cohhect1oh cJosed by foe1gh host.
Huyuoto Iov (World Wide Web, WWW)
To WorlJ WiJe Web q WWW q Huroto Ior clvot cvo oooqo noo op,tko q-
toopyq0qkc yto q toklvqoq okoqokev nqpooptev coo ooev noo pl-
okovov oc onookpoocvc yceypotko ncpto,c. To oooqo oo Hoykootoo
Iooo oovooct t c,vtkc ovokqoq nqpooptev c qv c,vooylo ev oncp-
kctcvev yto qv qtoopylo cvo noykootoo kot cokooo oq ,pqoq oooqoo
nqpooptev.
Hnqpooplo clvot oqcvq c opq uuepeov - nypermeJio q. ncptoovct
cko ono kclcvo kot ctkovc, q,o kot video q ycvtkocpo onotoqnoc opq no-
ocoev. O noykooto too clvot to noopo noo onooqplct qv cntkotve-
vlo noocoev coe cvo ypotkoo ncptoovo cntkotvevlo c o ,pqoq. Mc
oo oyto, o noykooto too onoccl cvo ypotko pono onctkovtoq kot co-
ooq ev nqpooptev. To ncptoov ooo o nopc,ct qv ovooqo vo ,pqot-
onotqoooc oo eoou q lin|s yto vo coktvq0ooc coo oo Atolkoo.
To oncpkclcvo clvot to opq nopooolooq kctcvoo oqv onolo q too,q ev
qoev oo cv okooo0cl ovoykootko q octpo nopooolooq noo cntocot
ono q octonolqoq oo. Ot oooccl cvoqc oncpkctcvoo noo npooovot
oqv o0ovq ovooovot torooe/ie. Ec to toooclo, o qoo noo noponc-
noov oc oo qoo q lto q toopctkq toooclo ovooovot rot.
Ot ovoopc q nopononc cvo qoo oc cvo oo ovooovot eooi q ouv-
eoot (lin|s).
Mc q ,pqoq ev oovcoev, o ,pqoq/ovoyveoq q oclo cv clvot ono,pc-
ecvo vo tooct ono o kclcvo c q octpo noo covlcot, oo nopcl vo
ncptqyq0cl oo toopo qoo q oclo (kooo) q okoo kot oc oc too-
oclc q tkookoo onoo ce ono ooov noo cntokcqkc op,tko. To ypotko
ncptoov cntkotvevlo cntpcnct oo ,pqoq vo cvonloct cokoo o kooto
noo onocoov oovcooo cl,vovo t e cct etocvc, onoypotocvc
q c toopctko ,peo (highlighted). To npoypooo o onolo ,pqotonotoo-
vot yto qv ncptqyqoq oov noykooto too clvot yveoo e puvu u/oqqoq
ueptqqoq, ueptqqre, u//oerpqre q browsers. O opo ncptqyqoq npocp,cot
okpte ono q ovooqo oo ,pqoq vo tooct o kclcvo c q octpo noo
ooo cnt0ocl ko0e kot vo ,pqotonotcl oo oovcooo yto vo coktvclot oc
toopctko qoo oo q kot oc toooclc kot onoo.
E,qo 7.36: Tpet voroi browsers: Gooqle Cnrome, Mozillo Fire[ox, Apple So[ori
To ccoolo ,povto, c qv cctq ev nqpooptokev oooqoev oo kot q
o,oqo npooooq ev onev otktokev oovcocev, cytvc ovoov vo ooncpt-
oovovot coo oo oncpkclcvo kot oot,clo noocoev noo onotoov opkco
cyoocpo oyko nqpooptev, one q,o kot ktvoocvq ctkovo (video). Icvtko o
oooqoo oncpkctcvoo noo ncptoovoov kot oc opc coev cko ono
kclcvo ovooovot uuepeou (nypermeJio).
Av kot coe oo WWW nopooc vo c,ooc npooooq oc oo o,cov o npe-
okoo c,vooylo Atotkooo (copoyev) one o FTP, koo ooq o npe-
okoo noo ,pqotonotooc yto q coopo oncpkctcvoo clvot o Hprro//o
Meruop Yuepretevou, HTTP, Hyperrexr Trons[er Prorocol. Kot ooo o npeo-
koo oolcot oo ovco ncoq conqpcqq. Ot conqpcqc oo noyko-
otoo tooo (yveool kot e Web Servers) clvot q,ovqoo c ovtq oovcoq
oo Atolkoo kot tocvoov t toooclc noo clvot to0cotc yto npooooq.
Mcoe ev oclev ooev nopc,cot cvo oqclo nopooolo oo Atolkoo ooo yto
opyovtooo kot cnt,ctpqoct, ooo kot yto ttec.
Ito qv npooooq oc ooc t oclc, ,pctocot vo ,pqotonotqoooc konoto
ono o npoypooo ncoc noo c,oov ovono,0cl kot clvot one ovocpoc ot
browsers. Ynop,oov browsers yto ko0c noopo kot ctoopytko oooqo ono-
oytoq. Konotot yveool browsers clvot oqcpo o Mozilla Firefox, o MS Internet
Explorer kot o Opera.
Ko0c opyovtoo, cnt,clpqoq q tteq nopcl vo koookcoooct o tko oo oqclo
nopooolo oo Atolkoo. Aoo oovq0e onocclot ono cvo conqpcqq oovc-
ccvo oo Atolkoo oc ovtq ooq, o onolo kot tocvcl t ovloot,c too-
oclc. Ot cyoc cnt,ctpqoct kot opyovtool oovq0e to0coov oo tkoo
oo conqpcqc oo tkpocpot ,pqoc nopoov vo tocvqooov t oclc
ooo conqpcqc ev cotptev nopo,q onqpcotev Atotkooo (ISPs, Internet
Service Providers). Ot conqpcqc oool clvot opyovecvot c coto pono eoc
vo nopoov vo tocvqooov nooo toopctkoo tkookoo onoo ono no-
oo ,pqoc.
Eqcpo coe oo noykootoo tooo nopcl onotooqnoc vo c,ct npooooq oc
toopc nqpooplc ono toopc nqyc oc toopctko oqclo q yq. H npo-
oooq clvot ovoq coe q tco0ovoq noykootoo tooo (tco0ovoq WWW). Ec
ko0c 0coq noykootoo tooo (web site) kot kcvptkq toooclo cotplo q opyo-
vtooo (home page) ovol0cot to ovotkq tco0ovoq www. Aoye oo cyooo
opt0oo ev kcvptkev toooclev, clvot oovoo vo t 0ooooc oc. Ito o
okono ooo kovooc qv ncptqyqoq o oc ooc oovq0e coe oovcoev ono
oc oclc q ,pqotonotooc konoto ono t q,ovc ovoqqoq yto vo t cvo-
nloooc.
Ot q,ovc ovoqqoq clvot cttkc ono0colc noo c,oov ovono,0cl oo Internet
c okono vo o oq0qooov vo pooc toooclc kot ono0colc o,ctkc c t
nqpooplc noo o,vooc. Ot q,ovc ovoqqoq ovokoonoov kot oq oo-
vc,cto otvooov oq ooq cocvev noo to0coov ko0c vco toooclo. Ec
to tkq o ovoqqoq, oooocoovot ooq q ooq yto vo o nopc,oov to
octpo ono onoccooo o,ctko c t cct kctto noo ,pqotonotqooc. Mc-
ptko nopoclyoo yveoev q,ovev ovoqqoq clvot o Google, o Google, o
Google, o Google, o Bing, o Yahoo kn.
Hqotkoqo oo noykootoo tooo clvot cknqktkq: To 1993 onqp,ov 130 Web
sites, o 1994 cncpooov t 10000, o 1996 t 100000 kot o 1997 t 630000. To
Ackcpq oo 2009 onqp,ov ncptooocpo ono 200000000 (tokooto ckooopto!)
sites. Ooo oopo qv klvqoq, o 1994 o noykooto too cl,c o 6% q oovotkq
klvqoq oo Internet cve o 1993 o nooooo cooc o 24%. O opt0o ,pqoev
oo noykootoo tooo qov 3 ckooopto o 1996, 22 ckooopto o 1996 kot
ncptooocpo ono 1.3 t. o 2009!
qcieoq: Mnopclc vo pclc noo ,pqoto oot,clo kot oototko yto o to-
lkoo oqv toooclo q Netcraft, http://www.netcraft.com
Aoupuvo Atuiuvuo
H ovonoq oo Aoupurou Hpror//ou Lupoq, WAP, Wireless Applicorion
Prorocol oc oovoooo c qv nopooolooq ev npeev oookcoev (ktvqev) noo o
onooqploov, lvoov q ovooqo ooo ,pqoc ktvqev qcevev vo c,oov
ooopoq tooovcoq oo Internet. Eqcpo, nopcl kovcl c o ktvqo oo qc-
evo vo:
Hcptnovq0cl oo Internet kot vo ckccoct oovooyc
Avoqqoct nqpooplc ono ooct cocvev
Ecvct kot vo c,cot email
Evqcpevcot yto oo ponctkoo oo oyoptoooo kot vo ckccl oovo-
oyc c oooo (coopo ,pqoev)
Evqcpevcot yto qv (,oto) nopclo oo Xpqotoqploo
qcieoq: Eqcpo q c,vooylo WAP oqv onolo ovocpcot o tlo c,ct ovt-
koooo0cl ono nto ooy,povc c noo cyoocpc o,oqc (3G, GPRS).
Itevtu Eoevcptu Aiuvuu Tcvooyiu TCP/IP (Intranets)
To ccoolo ,povto ovonoooovot lkoo opyovtoev kot cnt,ctpqocev o onolo
,pqotonotoov o npeokoo cntkotvevlo oo Atotkooo oo kot o npoono
ncptc,ocvev oo Hoykootoo Iooo. To lkoo ooo ovooovot Itrtr Lo-
reptr Airruu re,vo/oiu TCP/IP q uu/ Inrroners. Ec o,coq c o nopoootoko
lkoo, ot copoyc noo ,pqotonotoovot oo Intranets oolovot oqv c,voo-
ylo oo Web. Koo ooq q. q npooooq ot nqpooplc oc ooo o lkoo ylvc-
ot coe npoypooev ncptqyqoq (browsers). Et nqpooplc ooc oovq0e
c,oov npooooq ovo ot cpyoocvot kot o cq oo npooentkoo ev ovloot,ev
cotptev.
Mc oo oyto, o Intranet clvot cvo lkoo onoo Internet oo coecptko to cnt-
,clpqoq. Ot onooytoc q cnt,clpqoq cntkotvevoov coo oo c ov lto
pono noo cntkotvevoov coo oo kot ot onooytoc oo Atolkoo. 1vo l-
koo Intranet nopcl vo ckclvcot ncpo ono qv ncptoptocvq ncpto,q cvo ont-
koo tkooo: nopcl vo koonct yto nopoctyo oo o ypoclo oo opyovtooo
q q cnt,clpqoq, oo,co c q yceypotkq oo 0coq. Entpcnct oe npooooq
ovo coecptko oov opyovtoo (c ono oyto, nopcl vo ,pqotonotcl o qo-
oto Internet yto vo cocpct cocvo, ooo oe kot not cv clvot npooooto
nopo ovo ooo cpyoocvoo oo).
Xopokqptotkc onqpcolc noo nopcl vo npoocpct cvo Intranet clvot:
Hckpovtko o,opoclo
Hpooooq kot ovoqqoq nqpooptev c ,pqoq cpyoclev Web (clc nq-
pooptev noo plokovot coecptko oov opyovtoo, clc oo Atolkoo)
Hckpovtkq toklvqoq cyypoev
To Intranets clvot cokoo cnckooto kot nopc,oov cokoq ovoqqoq kot npo-
oooq ot nqpooplc (coe WWW clients, browsers). Elvot oooo o,cov
c oc t onooytotkc noopc kot nopoov vo cvoeoeooov cokoo t
qq onop,oooc nqyc nqpooptev q cnt,clpqoq q opyovtooo.
Tqcoeviu coe Atutuvuou
Mcoe oo Atotkooo nopooc vo c,ooc coooq evq, nopokonovo o
oo0cpo qcevtko lkoo. Ito vo cnto,ooc qcevlo coe Atotkooo ,pcto-
oooc cttko oytotko o onolo 0o cykoooqoooc oc cvo npooentko onoo-
ytoq c ovooqc noocoev. Xpctooooc q. kopo q,oo, tkpoevo kot
q,clo (kot npoove oovcoq oo Atolkoo).
To oytotko oc noc ncptneoct cntpcnct cntkotvevlo half-duplex q. o,t nq-
pe olpoq. Aoo oqolvct ot ko0c opo ovo cvo toct kot o oo okooct.
Avooyo c qv o,oqo kot qv notoqo q oovcoq clvot noc opc o-
voq q cntkotvevlo tnq koco0ovoq (full-duplex). Ec ko0c ncplneoq 0o npcnct
vo ,pqotonotclot oooo oytotko kot ono t oo cptc (koo npolqoq o
lto).
E,qo 7.37: To vor uppuu eutrotvviu S|ype
Elc oc half clc oc full duplex, q coooq evq oo lkoo coyeyq nokcoo
nopcl vo nopoootoct konoto npoqoo. Ko0e q o,oqo kot q ko0oocpqoq
oo tkooo cv clvot cyyoqcvo (kot ooo,povo cv onop,ct ovtq oovcoq c-
oo ev oovpoqev one oo qcevtko lkoo) qtoopyoovot opkcc o-
pc npoqoo oqv cntkotvevlo (n.,. tokonc). To npoqoo ooo cvclvovot
ncptooocpo ov okcooc ot q coooq evq c,ct ttolcpc onotqoct (copo
evq, ooy,povtoo kn). Ec ncplneoq onecto nokcev q cyoev ko0ooc-
pqocev q notoqo q cntkotvevlo clvot ,oqq.
Ao npoqo clvot ot npcnct kot o oo cq noo npokctot vo ,pqotonotqooov
qv onqpcolo vo c,oov oovcvvoq0cl ono nptv yto qv epo q kqoq, ko0e t
ncptooocpc opc o npoypooo cv nopc,oov qv ovooqo vo ocloov
oqo koooovtooo oov kooocvo.
qcieoq: Ano qv cno,q noo ypoqkc o tlo oo noo ono ooo c,oov oo-
ct. Eqcpo c,ooc ookqpo koot ev tkoev noo oo,oclot c qv cntkotve-
vlo evq coe q c,vooylo TCP/IP o yveoo o VoIP, Voice Over IP. Xopt
ot ooqcvc o,oqc oo oqcptvoo Atotkooo, o ncptooocpo npoqoo
cntkotvevlo evq c q oq0cto oytotkoo c,oov ncptoptocl oqovtko q co-
ovtocl. H cntkotvevlo nopcl ncov vo clvot novo tnq koco0ovoq kot vo
oovoocot c video (video kqoq). Tooo,povo o npoypooo c,oov q o-
vooqo vo ckcoov kqoct one o kovovtko qcevo kot vo ocvoov oqo
koooovtooo oov kooocvo.
Mcvooq Etuvu uut Mou coe Atutuvuou
Ap,tko, q coooq cocvev ctkovo kot q,oo coe oo Atotkooo nopoooloc
konotc ttolcpc ookolc. Ito nopoctyo, o op,clo video c,oov opkco cyoo
cyc0o kot cnloq yto vo ovonopoyovot qv epo noo kocolvoov (streaming), 0o
npcnct q oovcoq vo toqpclot oc to ooykckptcvq kot o,ctko oqq o,o-
qo.
Ito vo ylvct ovoq q coooq video coe oo Atotkooo, ovono,0qkov konotc
c,vtkc oonlcoq kot npeokoo o onolo c,oov okono vo cteooov ooo o c-
tko cyc0o oo op,cloo, ooo kot o po0o coooq (bitrate) noo onotclot yto
vo ovonopo,0cl. H oonlcoq co,toonotcl qv nqpooplo noo npcnct vo coo-
0cl ono o cvo kopc oo cnocvo, eoc vo cte0cl o copo evq noo onotclot
yto vo nopokooo0qoooc evovo cvo video ono o Atolkoo. Tooo,povo ot
oyopt0ot oonlcoq noo ,pqotonotoovot npoono0oov vo tooolooov ot cv
ctevcot (koo o ovoov) q notoqo oo video koo q totkoolo ooq.
Ito t c,vtkc oonlcoq ovono,0qkov o oooqoo MPEG1 kot MPEG2 cve
yto q coooq ctkovo kot q,oo oo Atolkoo, ovono,0qkc o npeokoo
H.323. H notoqo q cotocvq ctkovo ovct o 12-13 kopc o cocpo-
cno, o onolo cv clvot okoo o cnt0oqo (23-30 kopc o cocpocno).
H oonlcoq ev op,clev oc oovoooo c qv covtoq vcev c,vtkev coooq
oo kot qv ooqoq oo ontkoo ono0qkcotkoo ,epoo ooo onooytoc ev
,pqoev oovcoov oov ncptoptoo ev npoqoev coooq. Eqcpo clvot
ovoov ot ,pqoc vo oovcovot kot vo ovoooooov coo oo op,clo noo-
coev. Elvot cnloq ovoq q qctookcq, onoo ot ,pqoc nopoov vo ooqoov
cnovo ooo,povo o cvo ov oo c q oq0cto kocpo noo oovccot oov
onooytoq oo. Ito vo ctoopycl tkovonotqtko ooo o oooqo, 0o npcnct vo
c,ooc o,oqo oovcoq oo Internet ooo,toov 64Kbps.
1vo nopoctyo copoyq yto ootkq cntkotvevlo, clvot o npoypoo CU -
SeeMee noo qtoopyq0qkc ono cpcovqc oo Cornell University. To npoypoo
ooo cntpcnct qv cntkotvevlo c,pt 8-12 ooev ooo,povo, c coooq ctko-
vo kot q,oo. H ctkovo cv colcot oovc,cto, oo ovo ko0c opo noo ooq
ooct. 1ot q coooq ctkovo cv clvot oovc,q (kot ckclnct oc ootkoqo)
oo ooo,toov clvot ovoq.
Ito qv npoyoonolqoq qctookcq coe totkooo, onotclot onooytoq
noo npoove vo to0cct tkovoqc noocoev: kopo q,oo, tkpoevo, q,clo
kot kocpo. 4ootko onotclot kot o kooqo oytotko, o onolo npcnct vo
,pqotonotclot (o lto q oooo) ono ooo oo ,pqoc q ooykckptcvq
cntkotvevlo.
qcieoq: One kot npoqyoocve, q cctq q c,vooylo kot q o,oq-
o ev otktokev oovcocev ono qv cno,q noo ypoqkc o o,otko tlo c,ct
koooqoct o ncptooocpo ono o noponove npoqoo kot npoypooo
ovonopko. 1vo tlo noo ovocpct ooykckptcvc c,vtkc kot npoypooo 0o
cnpcnc vo ooct ko0c o,otko co, kot ooo c,ct oov kcloct qq ckoclo.
uvotiu Hpuyuvtuou Xpvou ovo Atuiuvuo c Mopoq Kctcvou
Mcoe oo Atotkooo clvot ovoov vo ooqoc ovooooovo c oo loo
o qvooo oc opq kctcvoo, oc npoyotko ,povo. To qvooo kot ot ono-
vqoct noo nqkpooyooc oov onooytoq o, covlovot qv lto otyq
ot o0ovc oev ooev oocc,oov oq ooqqoq o.
Mc ov pono ooo, nopooc vo qtoopyqoooc ooc ,pqoev noo ooqoov
yto ooykckptcvo 0coo cttkoo cvtocpovo. Oplovot cot ,epot (kovoto)
ooqqoq noo ko0cvo nopcl vo nopct cpo ovooyo c o cvtocpovo oo.
To npoypooo ,pqotonotoov o npeokoo TCP/IP kot cv ,pctocot vo ovo-
no,0oov cttko npeokoo one oqv ncplneoq coooq video. Ito vo ooc-
c,ooc oc to coto ooqqoq, oovq0e onotoovot o nopokoe qoo:
No cykoooqoooc kooqo oytotko oov onooytoq o.
No oovc0ooc oo Atolkoo kot vo ckccoooc o oytotko, lvovo kot
q tco0ovoq oo conqpcqq q oo ,pqoq c ov onolo 0o oovc0ooc.
No ncptcvooc c,pt vo o onovqoct o ,pqoq q konoto noo plokcot
oqv ooo ooqqoq q o ,epo noo oovc0qkoc.
Mnopooc cncto vo cktvqoooc qv cntkotvevlo o. Ec noo npoypo-
oo covlovot oc toopctko nopo0opo ooo noo nqkpooyooc ccl
kot ooo noo nqkpooyoov ot oot.
Ynop,oov oqcpo noo npoypooo noo onooqploov qv coooq ocoev
qvooev kot yponq oovotlo. To ncov noto npoypooo ovono,0qkov yto
o UNIX, one yto nopoctyo o talk kot q ovloot,q ckooq Windows, wintalk.
Ooooo oqcpo ,pqotonotoovot nto ooy,povc cko,c. 1vo ono o npeo oo-
oqoo cntkotvevlo c kovoto kot ovooqo ocoq (cvo npo cvov) cntkot-
vevlo clvot o oooqo IRC, Inrerner Reloy Cnor. To oooqo ooo clvot okoo
oc copclo ,pqoq kot ot cpc o. Mcptko yveoo npoypooo yto o IRC clvot
o XChat, IRCII, miRC k.o. Tooo,povo oqcpo onop,oov nool okoo ponot
yto oovotlo kctcvoo: MSN messenger, Google Talk, okoo kot toooclc noo
nopc,oov onco0clo ooq q ovooqo.
Hcuvpovtu Enpto
O opo Hckpovtko Enopto ovocpcot oc ko0c clo cnoptkq pooqptoq-
o noo npoyoonotclot c q ,pqoq qckpovtkev coev. H ,pqoq qcntkot-
vevtokev tkoev npoocpct qv ovooqo npoyoonolqoq oovooyev ono
okpto, ,epl q ootkq nopooolo oo ncoq, kot ,epl ootko qv ovoykq vo
onop,ct npoyotko oyol! Ot oovooyc npoyoonotoovot qckpovtko, ,e-
pl q ,pqoq ,optoo q o, oo c q oq0cto onooytoev noo oovcovot oo
Internet.
To qckpovtko cnopto cv ovocpcot oc konoto ooykckptcvq c,vooylo, oo
ncptoovct ooo oo q,ovtooo kot c,vooylc noo onotoovot yto qv oo-
kqpeoq to cnoptkq oovooyq coe onooytoev. 1vo nopoctyo cotoo
q,ovtooo clvot q H/errpovtrq Avru//uq Aeoevv, LDI, Llecrronic Doro Inrer-
cnonqe noo oplct to ononotqcvq opq ovooyq nqpooptev. 1vo oo
q,ovtoo clvot o yveoo o email.
Mto cotplo noo cnt0ocl vo nopc,ct onqpcolc qckpovtkoo cnoploo okooo0cl
oovq0e qv nopokoe npoktkq:
Ap,tko qtoopyclot to tkookq ono0colo (web site) oo Atolkoo, oo
onolo onop,oov koooyot c o npoovo q cotplo.
Mcoo ono t toooclc, nopc,cot q ovooqo npo oo ncoc vo cnt-
kotvevqooov c qv cotplo yto vo kovoov qv nopoyyclo oo. H cntkotve-
vlo nopcl vo ylvcot coe email q qcevtko, q okoo kot onco0clo coe
q oclo c q oq0cto q c,vooylo oo Ku/u0tou Aopv, Snoppinq
Bos|er.
Av q nopoyyclo ylvcot qcevtko, o ncoq conqpcclot ono konoto
ovtnpooeno noo onovoct oqv kqoq. Ec ncplneoq nqpoo qckpovtkq
7.11 Hpevuou Eoupoyq 11S
nopoyyclo, o qvoo q nopoyyclo nopooovcot ono ov ovloot,o
onco0ovo yto vo ylvct q ooykcvpeoq kot onoooq ev npoovev.
Tt ncptooocpc opc, q ,pceoq oo ncoq ylvcot coe ntoetkq kop-
o o oot,clo q onolo onooovot coe oo browser c q oq0cto
ooooo (kponoypoqcvq) oovcoq. Ec konotc ncptneoct clvot o-
voq q nqpeq ev npoovev koo qv nopooq oo.
To npoovo onoocovot oov ncoq, clc qckpovtko (ov clvot n.,. o-
ytotko o onolo o ncoq nopcl vo oovc0cl kot vo kocooct) clc coe
cooptkq cotplo.
Av kot op,tko onqp,c q ovlqq ot o qckpovtko cnopto clvot kooqo yto
ooykckptcvc koqyoplc npoovev (oovq0e tlo, copqoo onooytoev,
oootkq, oytotko), oqcpo c,ct cncko0cl oc ooo ocl one cntno, po-
to, not,vlto, ooooto kot o,cov otqnoc neclot kot coe oo koot-
koo cnoploo. To ccoolo ,povto o qckpovtko cnopto ovonooocot c o-
,oooo po0oo, oo onop,oov okoo konoto qqoo one clvot q npooo-
olo, q ooocto ev oovooyev kot q votkq kooq ev cnckocvev nco-
pev.

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