The Development of Jazz in Pittsburgh

Why did Pittsburgh develop a successful jazz scene in the mid-1900s?

Samuel Lapp

Extended Essay in History - May 2013 Candidate Number: 006563008

Word Count: 3956 (4110-50-104)

Abstract
The musician Dave Brubeck once said [Jazz music] seemed to represent freedom, democracy and the United States. (Eaton-Robb 1) In many ways, jazz music is seen as embodying the American ideology and principles of freedom, democracy and self-expression. As a citizen of America and resident Pittsburgh, I feel that it is my duty to understand the origins and development of jazz in this city. Therefore, this paper attempts to answer the question Why did Pittsburgh develop a successful jazz scene in the mid-1900s? This essay explores three approaches to the question. One important characteristic of Pittsburgh is the citys geography; the citys location between Chicago and New York and its access to the Ohio River are studied in the context of jazz music. Pittsburghs twentieth century history was built on the foundation of the steel industry, and the influence of economics and industry cannot be ignored in any historical investigation of Pittsburgheven in jazz. This paper explores the importance of industrialism and key figures such as entrepreneur Gus Greenlee and steel tycoon Andrew Carnegie in local jazz history. Finally, this investigation looks to the source of jazz music itselfthe African American population. The importance of the black demographic, and the religion which it carried with it, is studied as a catalyst of jazz music. This paper concludes that though all three of these factors had some influence on jazz music in Pittsburgh, it was the black population and religion which were the key ingredients to a thriving jazz culture. Without blacks, there was little chance of a successful jazz scene, but with the wave of migration from the South and the rise of a black religious community in Pittsburgh, the city put its name on the map of the American jazz culture.

Word Count: 292

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Table of Contents

Introduction .................................................................................................................. 4 Geography: a Cultural Crossroads ............................................................................... 5 Geography: River Jazz ................................................................................................. 6 Economics: the Steel Town Industry ........................................................................... 7 Economics: Gus Greenlee and the Crawford Grill ...................................................... 8 Demographics: Black Population in Pittsburgh ........................................................... 8 Demographics: The Black Church and Its Influence on Jazz ...................................... 9 Demographics: Black and White Crossover .............................................................. 11 Analyzing the roles of Geography, Industry and Demographics ............................... 11 Conclusion ................................................................................................................. 13 Works Cited ............................................................................................................... 15

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Introduction Jazz was a national phenomenon of the American culture in the 1920s. Drawing from the American marching band, blues and ragtime styles, this new medium of entertainment filled the speakeasies and dance halls of the Roaring Twenties. Originating in New Orleans, jazz spread quickly to a national and international audience (Baskerville 48-50). The genre became a national pastime and treasure, with Duke Ellington calling it American music. Over time Chicago and New York became the centers of the musics development, and in the 1940s and 50s, another city developed a thriving and prominent jazz scene: the steel town of Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania (Miner 32). Pittsburgh was a product of the industrial revolution, with a thriving steel industry which fueled the citys entire economy and ruled its lifestyle. With a population less than 10% of that of New York City in 1940, Pittsburgh could have easily passed under the radar in the national jazz scene (Population 1940). Yet, throughout the mid-1900s the city housed and produced many of the leading jazz artists of the day and became a mandatory stop for any big name in jazz. Out of Pittsburgh came such national stars as Billy Strayhorn, Erroll Garner and Art Blakey (Kenney 153). Despite its moderate size and lack of jazz history, the city became an important center of jazz in the nation. This paper will investigate the question Why did Pittsburgh develop a successful jazz scene in the mid-1900s? The knee-jerk reaction is to conclude that Pittsburgh had the ideal geographic location to become a jazz hub, located midway between New York and Chicago, at the junction of three rivers. Certainly, Pittsburghs geography was one factor which must be considered in answering the question posed. However, it is equally as certain that other factors also weigh into the balance when considering the reasons jazz came to Pittsburgh. As mentioned, Pittsburgh was a city built on the steel industry. Its unique economy and industrial-based society defined and distinguished the city from any other medium-sized municipality, and these characteristics must also be considered in this investigation. Finally, it is important to realize that jazz was essentially a black music form which arose from specific social and ethnic backgrounds. An understanding of the success of jazz in Pittsburgh would not be complete without analyzing the social and demographic nature of the city, specifically in its black population. By studying the Hill District, a neighborhood which became the nucleus of Pittsburghs black community and culture, it

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becomes evident that the citys African American culture and religion were indeed essential to the development of its jazz scene. Studying the development of a successful jazz scene in Pittsburgh can lead to a better understanding of the citys unique culture and history. The fact that Pittsburgh musicians were often successful while artists from similar sized cities found little national recognition suggests that there is something special or at least different about this city. In examining and attempting to answer the research question, it may be possible to better understand what makes Pittsburgh the city that it is today.

Geography: a Cultural Crossroads Pittsburgh, as mentioned, is located approximately half way between the cities of New York and Chicago. By the 1940s, these two larger cities had been established as the most important centers of jazz music in the nation. Pittsburghs position ensured that artists and music traveling between these two locations would pass though the city on the way. The biggest names in jazz would stay a couple of days in Pittsburgh before moving onward because no other cities were in close range. The Crawford Grill, a bar in Pittsburghs black cultural center the Hill District, featured famous artists such as Louis Armstrong and Ella Fitzgerald, as well as local stars (Gus Greenlee 1). Thus, not only would the ideas and developments of Chicago and New York be left with the city, but local amateurs got the chance to play with the nations best. Billy Strayhorn is one of many Pittsburgh natives who benefited from Pittsburghs crossroads geography and eventually made it big in jazz. Strayhorn, who wrote some of the most famous jazz pieces of all time, grew up in Pittsburgh where he enjoyed moderate local success arranging jazz pieces and playing piano. When the already-famous band leader Duke Ellington visited Pittsburgh and heard Strayhorn play, he recruited the young piano player to his band. Strayhorn went on to arrange Take the A Train and other classics and is remembered as one of the greatest arrangers in jazz (Billy Strayhorn 1). He represents just one of the many Pittsburgh jazz musicians who achieved national recognition after being discovered in Pittsburgh. As a pathway for the national jazz culture, Pittsburghs local jazz scene was boosted by the music and musicians that passed through.

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Geography: River Jazz The city of Pittsburgh also benefited from its location at the golden triangle, where the Allegheny and Monongahela rivers meet to form the Ohio (which proceeds southward and westward to the Mississippi, in turn flowing south to New Orleans). Historians often describe the spread of jazz as moving upstream from New Orleans via the Mississippi river. A distinct river culture and style of music evolved in the early 1900s, and was crucial to the development of jazz music throughout the nation (Kenney 1-2). As one historian puts it, the citys geographical location meant that Pittsburgh was the northern pole, New Orleans the southern, of the river axis around which jazz evolved (Glasco 324). Its placement on the Ohio River made the spread of culture and music from New Orleans more likely. Black musicians, carrying with them the spirit of ragtime and, eventually, jazz, traveled up the river and found a keen audience in Pittsburgh (Miner 29). For this reason, historians such as William Howland Kenney, the author of Jazz on the River, stress the importance of the Ohio River in the development of jazz in river cities like Pittsburgh. To a certain extent, it can be said that jazz lived on the river itself. Some jazz musicians made home on the river boats where they traversed the Pittsburgh-New Orleans axis and pollinated the river towns with their music. Fate Marable, among others, became famous while living on the river; not only did he play for a wide audience, Marable trained a vast school of jazz musicians who would assimilate intoand even revolutionizethe national jazz scene. His students included many future greats, namely Louis Armstrong and Chick Webb. A report describes his remarkable impact: Fate Marable carried jazz up the Mississippi and Ohio to every town along the banks. He himself played it. He picked up one man after another, trained him soundly in musical technique, and watched him leave the river to carry the gospel into cities inland, on lake shore, prairie, and mountainside from coast to coast. (Glasco 324) There is no doubt that the river jazz culture was important in the nationalization of jazz. Pittsburgh was perhaps the city destined to be on the receiving end of this flow of new music because of its geographical location. It is hard to tell what would have happened in Pittsburgh without access to the Ohio River, but it appears clear that the jazz that did develop in the city was nourished by this distinct cultural pathway.

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Economics: the Steel Town Industry The city of Pittsburgh was an important landmark in industrial America, producing more than a third of the nations steel by 1910. The steel corporations of Andrew Carnegie and other industrialists employed a large workforce and accounted for much of the citys economy (Glasco 275). Before 1920, the factories were manned largely by the hands of Eastern European immigrants, who provided abundant inexpensive labor, but in 1924, the Immigration Act greatly restricted European immigration (Shmoop Editorial Team 1). For a new source of labor, Pittsburgh steel companies looked to blacks from the Deep South, and in the 20s alone Pittsburghs African American population grew from 25,000 to 55,000 (Miner 29). This demographic transformation would completely alter Pittsburghs neighborhoods and social structure, as discussed later. The steel workers were employed on 12 hour shifts, which blurred the lines of night and day for citizens and businesses. This meant jazz clubs and other businesses were open through the night to offer entertainment for workers of the day shift, and all day to welcome the factories night shift workers. After playing at a classy downtown venue, famous jazz musicians would head over to the Hill District, where they spent the remainder of the night playing at clubs such as the Crawford Grill (Kenney 154). There they would play alongside local, amateur musicians whom they influenced, inspired, taught and sometimes even picked up to take on the road. The leading industrialists of this era were continuously searching for ways to maximize production and efficiency; they practiced Welfare Capitalism, providing workers with benefits and controlling every aspect of their lives in order to maintain control of the local economy. For captains of industry such as Andrew Carnegie and H. J. Heinz, music became a tool of Welfare Capitalism as well. Historian Curtis Miner proclaims, Heinzs music programs, in an era of sweatshops and assembly lines, made factory work more endurable (32). The people with power and money had gained an interest in music, which meant business and prosperity for at least some of the Pittsburgh jazz industry. Their support influence was limited, however, because Carnegie and Heinz paid more attention to classical music.

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Economics: Gus Greenlee and the Crawford Grill Gus Greenlee was a man important to Pittsburghs economics, just as his Crawford Grill was crucial to Pittsburghs jazz scene. Not only was he the owner of the best-known jazz joint in the Hill, he also owned the Pittsburgh Crawfords Negro League baseball team. Baseball was important in Pittsburgh, which was the only city in the nation to house two Negro League teams. Greenlee was thus a well-known and influential figure in the black community. Known as the King of the Hill, Greenlee also operated gambling organizations and an underground whiskey business. The successful businessman was at the center of the Hills economy. Even though he was not a musician, Greenlee also was at the center of the jazz scene. It was Gus Greenlee and his entertainment establishments that brought people of all backgrounds together on the Hill. National stars met with local amateurs at the Crawford Grill. The audience at the Grill was both black and white, which attracted Steel workers from Homestead and wealthy suburbanites from Fox Chapel to listen to excellent music (Gus Greenlee 1). When Ellington discovered Strayhorn, as described earlier, they were connected through Greenlee. The Hills premier club heard from riverboat bands, locals and touring musicians who, after playing downtown, jammed the rest of the night at the Grill (Kenney 154). As with the industrialists, Jazz benefitted from the attention of wealthy, powerful men in the community. Gus Greenlee was this man in the Hill, where his riches and influence boosted local musicians and glorified jazz with the integrated and successful Crawford Grill.

Demographics: Black Population in Pittsburgh African American culture and society were at the heart of jazzs unique individuality. Even when jazz had entered the American mainstream, blacks referred to it as Black Classical Music. It symbolized African American accomplishment and innovation, in which blacks [were] viewed as the innovators, and everyone else (particularly whites) mere imitator (Baskerville 47). There is no question that jazz was inspired and innovated primarily by the black population. Yet, when jazz was exploding in the national culture of the Roaring Twenties, blacks made up only 6.4% of Pittsburghs population (Dickerson 1). How could the city possibly house
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a thriving jazz scene without a significant African American population? The Great Migration from the South in the 20s and 30s (encouraged, as noted earlier, by the need for labor in the steel industry) brought throngs of Southern blacks to Pittsburgh in this time period. In neighborhoods such as the Hill District, they mixed (with varying degrees of friction) with an assortment of already established Eastern European immigrant populations (Hill 58). It is no coincidence that the Hill District, which became an overwhelmingly black community, also became the center of jazz in Pittsburgh. Similarly it is by no accident that the influx in the citys African American population paralleled a growth in jazz music and culture. If a black population was essential to the existence of jazz music, then it is important to understand the establishment and growth of black society in Pittsburgh. There is no question that racism and segregation existed in Pittsburgh in the mid-1900s. The local black newspaper, The Pittsburgh Courier, wrote that substandard wages, incredibly poor housing and segregation were only a part of the insults suffered by the black community (Hill 80). Indeed, the influential jazz trumpeter Roy Eldridge was expelled from Pittsburghs Oliver High School for dating a white girl (Roy Eldridge). And yet, for many African Americans making the journey from the south, Pittsburgh seemed a much-preferable alternative to the slums of Chicago and New York. Also, Pittsburghs black culture had strong and growing religious communities which appealed to many blacks (Hill 55). The choice of blacks to settle in Pittsburgh, and the religious culture they brought with them, were at the roots of Pittsburghs jazz story.

Demographics: The Black Church and Its Influence on Jazz The music and culture of the black church had many elements which resembled jazz. The churchs emphasis on emotional expression, as seen in Negro spirituals, had much of the spontaneous character of jazz music. A description of the Negro spiritual reads: A member of the congregation would throw out a line of song, another would be added, the song developed, and improvisation would continue to the music of a piano, tambourine and, traditional for establishing rhythm at the creation of spirituals, the beating of sticks upon the floor. To dancing and ecstatic clapping of hands, the song would run its course, then the singers would sit down until someone else was inspired and another spiritual was born. (Glasco 322)

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This description shows that black religious music was not far off from the unruly, improvised, free jazz music which had sprung up in speakeasies and dance halls. It became but a small leap for those cultivated in this African American culture and music to transition to jazz. Miner notes that many popular jazz singers comfortably crossed over from religious music (30). The influence and importance of the church in jazz music was evidently enormous. The Works Progress Association, a government organization which published a report on Pittsburghs black history wrote the Church has exerted an indelible influence on musical taste, composition, and performance. The rhythms, harmonies, and improvisations of work songs and of the un-concertized spirituals have carried through from their originals to jazz (Glasco 307). It is clear that the black church and jazz were closely linked, and perhaps jazz even had a certain reliance on the church. Consequently, the prominence and size of African American churches could have a major influence on the presence of jazz in the community. Indeed Pittsburghs 136 Black Protestant churches in 1934 dwarfed the mere 24 that had existed in the city as of 1910 (Brown 65). By 1929 the Hill District alone housed 22 Negro churches (Hill 102). These places of worship were not only important for religion and for the education of Negroes in the Hill, but they nurtured the culture of Black soul music in the community (Brown 51). Under the instruction of such teachers as Rubi Blakey, blacks were taught the richness and variety of Negro music (Glasco 319). The pianist of the Holiness Church in the Hill is quoted saying I learned about and acquired a goodly [sic] amount of that uniquely distinguishable Negro soul. I doubt that any other religious denomination could have given me so great a gift (Hill 110). The black religious community built a rich base of musical culture which could be harvested by jazz. Jazz did, indeed, gain momentum with the growth in black religious organizations in the Hill. As Miner says, the popularity of African American musical styles transformed black neighborhoods in the Hill District and lower part of Homestead into meccas for ragtime and jazz musicians after World War I (30). During this time, one could find a number of flourishing jazz clubs in the Hill, which were frequented by the leading jazz musicians of the day (Miner 31). A newspaper article remarked that Pittsburghs colored population has made a marked advance in music (as cited in Glasco 321). The rhythms, spirit and spontaneous energy of the Negro

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spiritual, which had been cultivated by the growing religious community in the Hill, fueled the Pittsburgh jazz scene of the mid-20th Century.

Demographics: Black and White Crossover Even if jazz was essentially a black music form, it could not survive, much less flourish, without the interest of the white community. Black jazz musicians had little (if any) independence in the white-dominated music industry, which exploited the black musicians who were basically powerless laborers (Baskerville 24). As black music historian Frank Kofsky stated, Blacks [owned] nothing but their own talent (as cited in Baskerville 14). This meant that African Americans had to interact withand appeal towhites, if they were to succeed as musicians. According to Baskerville, the recording industries who manipulated the black musicians bent, in turn, to the music critics. For the recording companies, as well as for the various jazz clubs, the wider the audience they could attract, the better the profits. Thus the jazz (and the businesses) that did develop and survive were attracting an audience of both white and black Pittsburghers. Many clubs, such as Rufus Sonnyman Jacksons successful Skyrocket Lounge and the aforementioned Crawford Grill, were able to attract mixed audiences to their displays of outstanding jazz music (Kenney 152). According to one report, 155 dance halls were licensed in Pittsburgh by 1925, many frequented by whites as well as blacks (Miner 31). This is a significant feat considering that blacks could not drink from the same water fountains of whites until twenty years later. In its appeal to a diverse audience, jazz gained a wider base of support and success. The interaction of whites and blacks was ultimately instrumental in the success of Pittsburghs jazz scene.

Analyzing the roles of Geography, Industry and Demographics River jazz and Pittsburghs access to the Ohio were, as noted, significant to the citys jazz scene. Nonetheless, Pittsburghs jazz was not completely dependent on, or born of, river jazz. The majority of musicians, though perhaps influenced by the sounds they heard coming of the banks of the river, stuck to firm ground throughout their careers. By the 40s, Pittsburgh was giving as well as taking, and produced many successful musicians, most notably on the piano
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(Kenney 142). William Howland Kenney, who wrote Jazz on the River, stresses the importance of the river culture in the importance of jazz. It is natural that his book concentrates on, and perhaps inflates, the role of the Ohio River in jazz, because the entire purpose of his book is to tell the story of river jazz. Yet even with this intent, Kenney notes the limitations of the rivers influence on Pittsburgh jazz. In fact, the author states that Pittsburghs exceptionally strong and creative jazz scene was fueled not by the river culture, but by the Great Migration from the South (Kenney 152-152). Thus even with a focus on Jazz on the river, this historian notes the primary importance of demographic changes for Pittsburgh jazz. Economics had limited influence on Pittsburgh jazz, though perhaps it could have been much bigger. Gus Greenlee was one man who took Pittsburgh jazz in his arms and nurtured it with his sizable influence. Yet there were men much bigger than Greenlee in Pittsburghs economicsnamely Carnegie and Heinzwho were powerful capitalists at not only a local but a national level, who had limited interest in jazz. When Carnegie donated $300,000 to the future of Pittsburghs music, it went to the construction of the Allegheny Music Hall (Seibel 1). This meant that most jazz musicians and most jazz audiences would never benefit from Carnegies philanthropy; it was the white, upper-middle class, classical musicians and listeners who enjoyed the benefits. In a similar fashion, the white-dominated music industry gave little opportunity for black musicians to succeed on their own. Blacks were basically at the mercy of whites when it came to the fiscal side of professional music; thus African American jazz musicians often felt suppressed, and not supported, but Pittsburghs economy. It is important to realize that, although jazz was an American phenomenon of the 20s, Pittsburgh received little national attention for jazz until the mid-century; this indicates that something changed in Pittsburgh around this time to spur the growth of jazz. Unlike economics, industry, demographics and social structures, geography tends not to change. And during the decades from the 20s through the 50s, Pittsburgh was established and remained the leading steel producer of the nation; thus, industrialism was nothing new in Pittsburgh in the mid-1900s. There was a major change at this time, however, in demographics. The Great Migration and the labor void in the steel mills brought a huge population of blacks to Pittsburgh for the first time in its history. This new ethnic group altered Pittsburghs social landscape dramatically, transforming the Hill District into a community where black culture and religion thrived. This in

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turn led to a strong base of potential jazz musicians and culture. By attracting both white and black audiences, jazz music was able to survive in an essentially segregated city by bringing together listeners from all socioeconomic backgrounds. The black church instilled a spirit of rhythm, spontaneity and expression which was essential to jazz music; this community served as a source for young jazz musicians with high potential. More than anything, it seems, the black culture and population of Pittsburgh aided the development of the citys jazz scene.

Conclusion As with any complex historical question, there is no single reason that Pittsburgh developed as successful jazz scene in mid-1900s. Pittsburghs geographical position and landscape had some undeniable influence on the citys music. River Jazz coming up the Ohio brought the sounds of New Orleans Dixieland (early jazz) to the northern steel town. Musicians passing to and from Chicago, New York and other major cities made pit-stops in the city, where they influenced and sometimes brought to prominence the local musicians. Yet, in a transforming city and musical landscape, geography was a constant which did not change. The river jazz and geographical position of Pittsburgh had noticeable, but limited influence on the citys unique music. The role of industry and economics in Pittsburghs jazz music scene is limited, but definitely detectible. The steel mills were, in part, responsible for bringing black populations to Pittsburgh (which turned out to be crucial for jazz). However, many cities, steel mills or no, had influxes in black populations during the years of the Great Migration (Shmoop Editorial Team 1). Captains of Industry such as Andrew Carnegie and H.J. Heinz also used music as a tool in there schemes to maximize production, and jazz benefited from the attention of such wealthy patrons. Jazz music was also aided by local benefactors with substantial power and influence such as Gus Greenlee, who brought musicians and populations of all grades together to play and enjoy this special genre. However, these were only small, somewhat isolated occurrences that boosted a particular artist or event, but had limited influence on the bigger scale. Even the likes of Carnegie, Heinz and Greenlee certainly did not singlehandedly cultivate and support Pittsburghs entire jazz scene for multiple decades. The economy and Pittsburghs industrial and

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commercial sects were moderately influential in the citys jazz, giving some support but not playing a very major role. Black culture, populations and religion were key factors in the creation and evolution of jazz. Pittsburghs influx in African American population mirrors its output of jazz stars by no mere coincidence. The music which was born of black origins was cultivated in the black communities of Pittsburgh, such as the Hill District. It was nourished by the tradition and life of the black church and the Negro spiritual, and ultimately successful through cooperation and integration with white populations. When examining the success of Pittsburgh jazz, Pittsburghs social and demographic changes can be seen as the primary catalysts of the booming music scene. The black culture and church were the driving forces behind the extraordinary jazz music that came out of Pittsburgh in this time.

Word Count: 3956

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Works Cited

Baskerville, John D. The Impact of Black Nationalist Ideology on American Jazz Music of the 1960s and 1970s. Lewiston, NY: E. Mellen, 2003. Print. Billy Strayhorn. Pittsburgh Music History. N.p., 2011. Web. 17 Dec. 2012. <https://sites.google.com/site/pittsburghmusichistory/pittsburgh-music-story/composerarrangers/billy-strayhorn>. Brown, Eliza Smith., Daniel Holland, Laurence A. Glasco, Ronald C. Carlisle, Arthur B. Fox, and Diane C. DeNardo. African American Historic Sites Survey of Allegheny County. Harrisburg: Commonwealth of Pennsylvania, Pennsylvania Historical and Museum Commission, 1994. Print. Dickerson, Dennis. African American Population in Western Pennsylvania Milltowns, 19101930. ExplorePAhistory. WITF, Inc., 2011. Web. 17 Dec. 2012. <http://explorepahistory.com/odocument.php?docId=1-4-125>. Eaton-Robb, Pat. Dave Brubeck. The Big Story. Associated Press, 5 Dec. 2012. Web. 17 Feb. 2013. <http://bigstory.ap.org/article/jazz-great-dave-brubeck-dies>. Glasco, Laurence A., ed. The WPA History of the Negro in Pittsburgh. Pittsburgh: Univ Of Pittsburgh, 2011. Print. Gus Greenlee. Pittsburgh Music History. N.p., 2011. Web. 20 Dec. 2012. <https://sites.google.com/site/pittsburghmusichistory/pittsburgh-music-story/managersand-promoters/gus-greenlee>. Hill, Ralph L. A View of the Hill: A Study of Experiences and Attitudes in the Hill District of Pittsburg, Pennsylvania, from 1900 to 1973. N.p.: n.p., 1974. Print. Kenney, William Howland. Jazz on the River. Chicago: University of Chicago, 2005. Print. Miner, Curtis. Pittsburgh Rhythms: The Music of a Changing City, 1840-1930. Pittsburgh, PA: Society, 1991. Print.

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Population of the 100 Largest Urban Places: 1940. Census.gov. .S. Bureau of the Census, 15 June 1998. Web. 18 Dec. 2012. <http://www.census.gov/population/www/documentation/twps0027/tab17.txt>. Roy Eldridge. Pittsburgh Music History. N.p., 2011. Web. 20 Dec. 2012. <https://sites.google.com/site/pittsburghmusichistory/pittsburgh-music-story/jazz/jazz--early-years/roy-eldrige>. Seibel, George. Allegheny Library Timeline. Allegheny City Society. N.p., 2010. Web. 1 Feb. 2013. Shmoop Editorial Team. Immigration in the 1920s Shmoop.com. Shmoop University, Inc., 11 Nov. 2008. Web. 20 Dec. 2012.

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