Capitalism

Slavery

Eric Williams

THE UNIVERSITY OF NORTH CAROLINA PRESS Chapel Hill

C pyri!ht" #$%%" &y THE UNIVERSITY OF NORTH CAROLINA PRESS

PRINTE' IN THE UNITE' STATES OF A(ERICA )Y THE WILLIA( )YR' PRESS" INC* RICH(ON'" VIR+INIA

Pr ,ess r L -ell . seph Ra!at/

Wh se m 01me0tal la& rs i0 this ,iel2 may &e ampli,ie2 a02 2evel pe2 &1t ca0 0ever &e s1perse2e2

PREFACE

THE PRESENT STU'Y is a0 attempt t place i0 hist rical per3 spective the relati 0ship &et-ee0 early capitalism as e4empli,ie2

&y +reat )ritai0" a02 the Ne!r slave tra2e" Ne!r slavery a02 the !e0eral c l 0ial tra2e , the seve0tee0th a02 ei!htee0th ce03 t1ries* Every a!e re-rites hist ry" &1t partic1larly 1rs" -hich has &ee0 , rce2 &y eve0ts t re3eval1ate 1r c 0cepti 0s , hist ry a02 ec 0 mic a02 p litical 2evel pme0t* The pr !ress , the I021strial Rev l1ti 0 has &ee0 treate2 m re r less a2e3 51ately i0 ma0y & 6s & th lear0e2 a02 p p1lar" a02 its less 0s are ,airly -ell esta&lishe2 i0 the c 0sci 1s0ess , 7the e21cate2 class i0 !e0eral a02 , th se pe ple i0 partic1lar -h are re3 sp 0si&le , r the creati 0 a02 !1i2a0ce , i0, rme2 pi0i 0* O0 the ther ha02" -hile material has &ee0 acc1m1late2 a02 & 6s have &ee0 -ritte0 a& 1t the peri 2 -hich prece2e2 the I021strial Rev l1ti 0" the - rl23-i2e a02 i0terrelate2 0at1re , the c mmerce , that peri 2" its 2irect e,,ect 1p 0 the 2e3 vel pme0t , the I021strial Rev l1ti 0" a02 the herita!e -hich it has le,t eve0 1p 0 the civili/ati 0 , t 2ay have 0 t a0y3 -here &ee0 place2 i0 c mpact a02 yet c mprehe0sive perspec3 tive* This st12y is a0 attempt t 2 s " -ith 1t" h -ever" ,ail3 i0! t !ive i02icati 0s , the ec 0 mic ri!i0 , -ell360 -0 s cial" p litical" a02 eve0 i0tellect1al c1rre0ts* The & 6" h -ever" is 0 t a0 essay i0 i2eas r i0terpreta3 ti 0* It is strictly a0 ec 0 mic st12y , the r le , Ne!r slavery a02 the slave tra2e i0 pr vi2i0! the capital -hich ,i0a0ce2 the I021strial Rev l1ti 0 i0 E0!la02 a02 , mat1re i021strial capitalism i0 2estr yi0! the slave system* It is there3 , re ,irst a st12y i0 E0!lish ec 0 mic hist ry a02 sec 02 i0 VU

Vlll PREFACE

West I02ia0 a02 Ne!r hist ry* It is 0 t a st12y , the i0stit13 ti 0 , slavery &1t , the c 0tri&1ti 0 , slavery t the 2e3 vel pme0t , )ritish capitalism* (a0y 2e&ts m1st &e ac60 -le2!e2* The sta,,s , the , ll -3 i0! i0stit1ti 0s -ere very 6i02 a02 help,1l t me8 )ritish (1se1m9 P1&lic Rec r2 O,,ice9 I02ia O,,ice Li&rary9 West I02ia C mmittee9 Rh 2es H 1se Li&rary" O4, r29 )a06 , E0!la02 Rec r2 O,,ice9 the )ritish A0ti3Slavery a02 A& ri!i0es Pr tecti 0 S ciety9 Frie02s7 H 1se" L 02 09 . h0 Ryla02s Li&rary" (a0chester9 Ce0tral Li&rary" (a0chester9 P1&lic Li&rary" Liverp l9 Wil&er, rce (1se1m" H1ll9 Li&rary , C 0!ress9 )i&li teca Naci 0al" Hava0a9 S cie2a2 Ec 0 mica 2e Ami! s 2el Pai7s" Hava0a* I -ish t tha06 the Ne-&erry Li3 &rary" Chica! " , r its 6i020ess i0 ma6i0! it p ssi&le , r me" thr 1!h a0 i0ter3li&rary l a0 -ith F 102ers7 Li&rary" H -ar2 U0iversity" t see Sir Charles Whit- rth7s val1a&le statistics 0 :State , the Tra2e , +reat )ritai0 i0 its imp rts a02 e43 p rts" pr !ressively ,r m the year #;$<3#<<=*:

(y research has &ee0 ,acilitate2 &y !ra0ts ,r m 2i,,ere0t s 1rces8 the Tri0i2a2 + ver0me0t" -hich e4te02e2 a0 ri!i0al sch larship9 O4, r2 U0iversity" -hich a-ar2e2 me t- Se0i r St12e0tships9 the )eit F102 , r the st12y , )ritish C l 0ial Hist ry" -hich ma2e t- !ra0ts9 a02 the .1li1s R se0-al2 F 102ati 0" -hich a-ar2e2 me ,ell -ships i0 #$%> a02 #$%?* Pr ,ess r L -ell .* Ra!at/ , +e r!e Washi0!t 0 U0iversity i0 this city" Pr ,ess r Fra06 W* Pitma0 , P m 0a C lle!e" Clarem 0t" Cali, r0ia" a02 Pr ,ess r (elville .* Hers6 vits , N rth-ester0 U0iversity" very 6i02ly rea2 the ma01script a02 ma2e ma0y s1!!esti 0s* S 2i2 my se0i r c llea!1e at H -ar2 U0iversity" Pr ,ess r Charles )1rch* 'r* Vi0ce0t Harl -" 0 Rh 2es Pr ,ess r , Imperial Hist ry i0 the U0iversity , L 02 0" s1pervise2 my 2 ct ral 2issertati 0 at O4, r2 a02 -as al-ays very help,1l* Fi0ally" my -i,e -as , !reat assista0ce t me i0 ta6i0! my 0 tes a02 typi0! the ma01script* ERIC WILLIA(S* H -ar2 U0iversity Washi0!t 0" '*+ Septem&er #?" #$%=

CONTENTS

CHAPTCR PA+E Pre,ace vii # * The Ori!i0 , Ne!r Slavery = Slave Tra2e * * @>

?* The 'evel pme0t

, the Ne!r

=* )ritish C mmerce a02 the Tria0!1lar Tra2e * * .A %* The West I02ia I0terest B, @* )ritish I021stry a02 the Tria0!1lar Tra2e **** $B ;* The America0 Rev l1ti 0 #>B <* The 'evel pme0t #<B=3#B== #?; , )ritish Capitalism"

B* The Ne- I021strial Or2er A@. $* )ritish Capitalism a02 the West I02ies A @% #>* The :C mmercial Part Slavery #;$ 0* The :Sai0ts: a02 Slavery #<B , the Nati 0: a02

#?* The Slaves a02 Slavery <C< # =* C 0cl1si 0 ?>$ N tes ?#= )i&li !raphy ?;? I02e4 ?Di i4

Capitalism E Slavery

I THE ORI+IN OF NE+RO SLAVERY

WHEN IN #%$? COLU()US" represe0ti0! the Spa0ish m 0archy" 2isc vere2 the Ne- W rl2" he set i0 trai0 the l 0! a02 &itter i0ter0ati 0al rivalry ver c l 0ial p ssessi 0s , r -hich" a,ter , 1r a02 a hal, ce0t1ries" 0 s l1ti 0 has yet &ee0 , 102* P rt13 !al" -hich ha2 i0itiate2 the m veme0t , i0ter0ati 0al e4pa03 si 0" claime2 the 0e- territ ries 0 the !r 102 that they ,ell -ithi0 the sc pe , a papal &1ll , #%@@ a1th ri/i0! her t re3 21ce t servit12e all i0,i2el pe ples* The t- p -ers" t av i2 c 0tr versy" s 1!ht ar&itrati 0 a02" as Cath lics" t1r0e2 t the P pe a 0at1ral a02 l !ical step i0 a0 a!e -he0 the 10iversal claims , the Papacy -ere still 10challe0!e2 &y i02ivi21als a02 ! ver0me0ts* A,ter care,1lly si,ti0! the rival claims" the P pe iss1e2 i0 #%$= a series , papal &1lls -hich esta&lishe2 a li0e , 2emarcati 0 &et-ee0 the c l 0ial p ssessi 0s , the t- states8 the East -e0t t P rt1!al a02 the West t Spai0* The partiti 0" h -ever" ,aile2 t satis,y P rt1!1ese aspirati 0s a02 i0 the s1&3 se51e0t year the c 0te02i0! parties reache2 a m re satis,act ry c mpr mise i0 the Treaty , T r2esillas" -hich recti,ie2 the papal D12!me0t t permit P rt1!1ese -0ership , )ra/il* Neither the papal ar&itrati 0 0 r the , rmal treaty -as i03 te02e2 t &e &i02i0! 0 ther p -ers" a02 & th -ere i0 ,act rep12iate2* Ca& t7s v ya!e t N rth America i0 #%$< -as E0!3 =

% CAPITALIS( AN' SLAVERY

la027s imme2iate reply t the partiti 0* Fra0cis I , Fra0ce v ice2 his cele&rate2 pr test8 :The s10 shi0es , r me as , r thers* I sh 1l2 very m1ch li6e t see the cla1se i0 A2am7s -ill that e4cl12es me ,r m a share , the - rl2*: The 6i0! , 'e0mar6 re,1se2 t accept the P pe7s r1li0! as ,ar as the East I02ies -ere c 0cer0e2* Sir William Cecil" the ,am 1s Eli/a&e3 tha0 statesma0" 2e0ie2 the P pe7s ri!ht :t !ive a02 ta6e 6i0!3 2 ms t -h ms ever he please2*: I0 #@B> the E0!lish ! ver03 me0t c 10tere2 -ith the pri0ciple , e,,ective cc1pati 0 as the 2etermi0a0t , s verei!0ty* # Therea,ter" i0 the parla0ce , the 2ay" there -as :0 peace &el - the li0e*: It -as a 2isp1te" i0 the - r2s , a later ! ver0 r , )ar&a2 s" as t :-hether the Fi0! , E0!la02 r , Fra0ce shall &e m 0arch , the West I02ies" , r the Fi0! , Spai0 ca00 t h l2 it l 0!* * * *: ? E0!3 la02" Fra0ce" a02 eve0 H lla02" &e!a0 t challe0!e the I&eria0 A4is a02 claim their place i0 the s10* The Ne!r " t " -as t have his place" th 1!h he 2i2 0 t as6 , r it8 it -as the &r ili0! s10 , the s1!ar" t &acc a02 c tt 0 pla0tati 0s , the NeW rl2* Acc r2i0! t A2am Smith" the pr sperity , a 0e- c l 0y 2epe02s 1p 0 0e simple ec 0 mic ,act r :ple0ty , ! 2 la02*: = The )ritish c l 0ial p ssessi 0s 1p t #<<;" h -ever" ca0 &r a2ly &e 2ivi2e2 i0t t- types* The ,irst is the sel,3s1,,icie0t a02 2iversi,ie2 ec 0 my , small ,armers" :mere earth3 scratchers: as +i&& 0 Wa6e,iel2 2erisively calle2 them" % livi0! 0 a s il -hich" as Ca0a2a -as 2escri&e2 i0 #B%>" -as :0 l t3 tery" -ith a ,e- e4 r&ita0t pri/es a02 a lar!e 01m&er , &la06s" &1t a sec1re a02 certai0 i0vestme0t*: @ The sec 02 type is the c l 0y -hich has ,acilities , r the pr 21cti 0 , staple articles 0 a lar!e scale , r a0 e4p rt mar6et* I0 the ,irst cate3 ! ry ,ell the N rther0 c l 0ies , the America0 mai0la029 i0 the sec 02" the mai0la02 t &acc c l 0ies a02 the s1!ar isla02s , the Cari&&ea0* I0 c l 0ies , the latter type" as (erivale p i0te2 1t" la02 a02 capital -ere & th 1seless 10less la& r c 1l2 &e c mma02e2* ; La& r" that is" m1st &e c 0sta0t a02 m1st - r6" r &e ma2e t - r6" i0 c 3 perati 0* I0 s1ch c l 0ies the r1!!e2 i02ivi21alism , the (assach1setts ,armer"

ORI+IN OF NE+RO SLAVERY @

practisi0! his i0te0sive a!ric1lt1re a02 -ri0!i0! &y the s-eat , his &r - 0i!!ar2ly ret1r0s ,r m a !r12!i0! s il" m1st yiel2 t the 2iscipli0e2 !a0! , the &i! capitalist practisi0! e4te03 sive a!ric1lt1re a02 pr 21ci0! 0 a lar!e scale* With 1t this c mp1lsi 0" the la& rer - 1l2 ther-ise e4ercise his 0at1ral i0cli0ati 0 t - r6 his -0 la02 a02 t il 0 his -0 acc 10t* The st ry is ,re51e0tly t l2 , the !reat E0!lish capitalist" (r* Peel" -h t 6 @>">>> a02 three h102re2 la& rers -ith him t the S-a0 River c l 0y i0 A1stralia* His pla0 -as that his la& rers - 1l2 - r6 , r him" as i0 the l2 c 10try* Arrive2

i0 A1stralia" h -ever" -here la02 -as ple0ti,1l t ple0ti,1l the la& rers pre,erre2 t - r6 , r themselves as small pr priet rs" rather tha0 102er the capitalist , r -a!es* A1stra3 lia -as 0 t E0!la02" a02 the capitalist -as le,t -ith 1t a serv3 a0t t ma6e his &e2 r ,etch him -ater* < F r the Cari&&ea0 c l 0ies the s l1ti 0 , r this 2ispersi 0 a02 :earth3scratchi0!: -as slavery* The less 0 , the early hist ry , +e r!ia is i0str1ctive* Pr hi&ite2 ,r m empl yi0! slave la& r &y tr1stees -h " i0 s me i0sta0ces" themselves -0e2 slaves i0 ther c l 0ies" the +e r!ia0 pla0ters , 102 them3 selves i0 the p siti 0" as White,iel2 phrase2 it" , pepple -h se le!s -ere tie2 a02 -ere t l2 t -al6* S the +e r!ia ma!istrates 2ra06 t asts :t the 0e thi0! 0ee2,1l: slavery 10til the &a0 -as li,te2* B :O2i 1s res 1rce: th 1!h it mi!ht &e" as (erivale calle2 it" $ slavery -as a0 ec 0 mic i0stit1ti 0 , the ,irst im3 p rta0ce* It ha2 &ee0 the &asis , +ree6 ec 0 my a02 ha2 &1ilt 1p the R ma0 Empire* I0 m 2er0 times it pr vi2e2 the s1!ar , r the tea a02 the c ,,ee c1ps , the Wester0 - rl2* It pr 3 21ce2 the c tt 0 t serve as a &ase , r m 2er0 capitalism* It ma2e the America0 S 1th a02 the Cari&&ea0 isla02s* See0 i0 hist rical perspective" it , rms a part , that !e0eral pict1re , the harsh treatme0t , the 102erprivile!e2 classes" the 10sympa3 thetic p r la-s a02 severe ,e12al la-s" a02 the i02i,,ere0ce -ith -hich the risi0! capitalist class -as :&e!i00i0! t rec6 0 pr sperity i0 terms , p 102s sterli0!" a02 * * * &ec mi0! 1se2 t the i2ea , sacri,ici0! h1ma0 li,e t the 2eity , i0crease2 pr 21cti 0*: #> A2am Smith" the i0tellect1al champi 0 , the i021strial mi23

; CAPITALIS( AN' SLAVERY

2ie class -ith its 0e-3, 102 2 ctri0e , ,ree2 m" later pr pa3 !ate2 the ar!1me0t that it -as" i0 !e0eral" pri2e a02 l ve , p -er i0 the master that le2 t slavery a02 that" i0 th se c 10tries -here slaves -ere empl ye2" ,ree la& r - 1l2 &e m re pr ,ita&le* U0iversal e4perie0ce 2em 0strate2 c 03 cl1sively that :the - r6 2 0e &y slaves" th 1!h it appears t c st 0ly their mai0te0a0ce" is i0 the e02 the 2earest , a0y* A pers 0 -h ca0 ac51ire 0 pr perty ca0 have 0 ther i03 terest tha0 t eat as m1ch" a02 t la& 1r as little as p ssi&le*: ## A2am Smith there&y treate2 as a0 a&stract pr p siti 0 -hat is a speci,ic 51esti 0 , time" place" la& r a02 s il* The ec 3 0 mic s1peri rity , ,ree hire2 la& r ver slave is &vi 1s eve0 t the slave -0er* Slave la& r is !ive0 rel1cta0tly" it is 103 s6il,1l" it lac6s versatility* #? Other thi0!s &ei0! e51al" ,ree me0 - 1l2 &e pre,erre2* )1t i0 the early sta!es , c l 0ial 2evel3 pme0t" ther thi0!s are 0 t e51al* Whe0 slavery is a2 pte2" it is 0 t a2 pte2 as the ch ice ver ,ree la& r9 there is 0 ch ice at all* The reas 0s , r slavery" -r te +i&& 0 Wa6e,iel2" :are 0 t m ral" &1t ec 0 mical circ1msta0ces9 they relate 0 t t

vice a02 virt1e" &1t t pr 21cti 0*: #= With the limite2 p p13 lati 0 , E1r pe i0 the si4tee0th ce0t1ry" the ,ree la& rers 0ecessary t c1ltivate the staple cr ps , s1!ar" t &acc a02 c tt 0 i0 the Ne- W rl2 c 1l2 0 t have &ee0 s1pplie2 i0 51a0tities a2e51ate t permit lar!e3scale pr 21cti 0* Slavery -as 0ecessary , r this" a02 t !et slaves the E1r pea0s t1r0e2 ,irst t the a& ri!i0es a02 the0 t A,rica* U02er certai0 circ1msta0ces slavery has s me &vi 1s a23 va0ta!es* I0 the c1ltivati 0 , cr ps li6e s1!ar" c tt 0 a02 t &acc " -here the c st , pr 21cti 0 is apprecia&ly re21ce2 0 lar!er 10its" the slave -0er" -ith his lar!e3scale pr 21c3 ti 0 a02 his r!a0i/e2 slave !a0!" ca0 ma6e m re pr ,ita&le 1se , the la02 tha0 the small ,armer r peasa0t pr priet r* F r s1ch staple cr ps" the vast pr ,its ca0 -ell sta02 the !reater e4pe0se , i0e,,icie0t slave la& r* #% Where all the 60 -le2!e re51ire2 is simple a02 a matter , r 1ti0e" c 0sta0cy a02 c 3 perati 0 i0 la& r slavery is esse0tial" 10til" &y imp rtati 0 , 0e- recr1its a02 &ree2i0!" the p p1lati 0 has reache2 the p i0t , 2e0sity a02 the la02 availa&le , r appr priati 0 has

ORI+IN OF NE+RO SLAVERY <

&ee0 alrea2y app rti 0e2* Whe0 that sta!e is reache2" a02 0ly the0" the e4pe0ses , slavery" i0 the , rm , the c st a02 mai0te0a0ce , slaves" pr 21ctive a02 10pr 21ctive" e4cee2 the c st , hire2 la& rers* As (erivale -r te8 :Slave la& 1r is 2earer tha0 ,ree -herever a&102a0ce , ,ree la& 1r ca0 &e pr c1re2: #@ Fr m the sta02p i0t , the !r -er" the !reatest 2e,ect , slavery lies i0 the ,act that it 51ic6ly e4ha1sts the s il* The la& r s1pply , l - s cial stat1s" 2 cile a02 cheap" ca0 &e mai0tai0e2 i0 s1&Decti 0 0ly &y systematic 2e!ra2ati 0 a02 &y 2eli&erate e,, rts t s1ppress its i0telli!e0ce* R tati 0 , cr ps a02 scie0ti,ic ,armi0! are there, re alie0 t slave s cieties* As .e,,ers 0 -r te , Vir!i0ia" :-e ca0 &1y a0 acre , 0e- la02 cheaper tha0 -e ca0 ma01re a0 l2 0e*: #; The slave pla0ter" i0 the pict1res51e 0 me0clat1re , the S 1th" is a :la0236iller*: This seri 1s 2e,ect , slavery ca0 &e c 10ter3 &ala0ce2 a02 p stp 0e2 , r a time i, ,ertile s il is practically 10limite2* E4pa0si 0 is a 0ecessity , slave s cieties9 the slave p -er re51ires ever ,resh c 051ests* #< :It is m re pr ,ita&le": -r te (erivale" :t c1ltivate a ,resh s il &y the 2ear la& 1r , slaves" tha0 a0 e4ha1ste2 0e &y the cheap la& 1r , ,ree3 me0*: #B Fr m Vir!i0ia a02 (aryla02 t Car li0a" +e r!ia" Te4as a02 the (i22le West9 ,r m )ar&a2 s t .amaica t Sai0t ' mi0!1e a02 the0 t C1&a9 the l !ic -as i0e4 ra&le a02 the same* It -as a relay race9 the ,irst t start passe2 the &at 0" 10-illi0!ly -e may &e s1re" t a0 ther a02 the0 limpe2 sa2ly &ehi02* Slavery i0 the Cari&&ea0 has &ee0 t 0arr -ly i2e0ti,ie2

-ith the Ne!r * A racial t-ist has there&y &ee0 !ive0 t -hat is &asically a0 ec 0 mic phe0 me0 0* Slavery -as 0 t & r0 , racism8 rather" racism -as the c 0se51e0ce , slavery* U0,ree la& r i0 the Ne- W rl2 -as &r -0" -hite" &lac6" a02 yell -9 Cath lic" Pr testa0t a02 pa!a0* The ,irst i0sta0ce , slave tra2i0! a02 slave la& r 2evel pe2 i0 the Ne- W rl2 i0v lve2" racially" 0 t the Ne!r &1t the I02ia0* The I02ia0s rapi2ly s1cc1m&e2 t the e4cessive la& r 2ema02e2 , them" the i0s1,,icie0t 2iet" the -hite ma07s 2is3

B CAPITALIS( AN' SLAVERY

eases" a02 their i0a&ility t a2D1st themselves t the 0e- -ay , li,e* Acc1st me2 t a li,e , li&erty" their c 0stit1ti 0 a02 temperame0t -ere ill3a2apte2 t the ri! rs , pla0tati 0 slavery* As Fer0a02 Orti/ -rites8 :T s1&Dect the I02ia0 t the mi0es" t their m 0 t 0 1s" i0sa0e a02 severe la& r" -ith3 1t tri&al se0se" -ith 1t reli!i 1s rit1al" * * * -as li6e ta6i0! a-ay ,r m him the mea0i0! , his li,e* *** It -as t e0slave 0 t 0ly his m1scles &1t als his c llective spirit*: #$ The visit r t Ci12a2 Tr1Dill " capital , the ' mi0ica0 Re3 p1&lic Gthe prese0t32ay 0ame , hal, , the isla02 , rmerly calle2 Hispa0i laH" -ill see a stat1e , C l1m&1s" -ith the ,i!1re , a0 I02ia0 - ma0 !rate,1lly -riti0! Gs rea2s the capti 0H the 0ame , the 'isc verer* The st ry is t l2" 0 the ther ha02" , the I02ia0 chie,tai0" Hat1ey" -h " 2 me2 t 2ie , r resisti0! the i0va2ers" sta10chly re,1se2 t accept the Christia0 ,aith as the !ate-ay t salvati 0 -he0 he lear0e2 that his e4ec1ti 0ers" t " h pe2 t !et t Heave0* It is ,ar m re pr &a&le that Hat1ey" rather tha0 the a0 0ym 1s - ma0" represe0te2 c 0temp rary I02ia0 pi0i 0 , their 0e- ver3 l r2s* E0!la02 a02 Fra0ce" i0 their c l 0ies" , ll -e2 the Spa0ish practice , e0slaveme0t , the I02ia0s* There -as 0e c 03 spic1 1s 2i,,ere0ce the attempts , the Spa0ish Cr -0" h -3 ever i0e,,ective" t restrict I02ia0 slavery t th se -h re3 ,1se2 t accept Christia0ity a02 t the -arli6e Cari&s 0 the speci 1s plea that they -ere ca00i&als* Fr m the sta02p i0t , the )ritish ! ver0me0t I02ia0 slavery" 10li6e later Ne!r slavery -hich i0v lve2 vital imperial i0terests" -as a p1rely c l 0ial matter* As La1&er -rites8 :The h me ! ver0me0t -as i0tereste2 i0 c l 0ial slave c 02iti 0s a02 le!islati 0 0ly -he0 the A,rica0 slave tra2e -as i0v lve2* * * * Si0ce it GI02ia0 slaveryH -as 0ever s1,,icie0tly e4te0sive t i0ter,ere -ith Ne!r slavery a02 the slave tra2e" it 0ever receive2 a0y at3 te0ti 0 ,r m the h me ! ver0me0t" a02 s e4iste2 as le!al &e3 ca1se 0ever 2eclare2 ille!al*: ?> )1t I02ia0 slavery 0ever -as e4te0sive i0 the )ritish 2 3 mi0i 0s* )alla!h" -riti0! , Vir!i0ia" says that p p1lar se0ti3

me0t ha2 0ever :2ema02e2 the s1&Decti 0

, the I02ia0 race

ORI+IN OF NE+RO SLAVERY $

per se" as -as practically the case -ith the Ne!r i0 the ,irst slave act , #;;#" &1t 0ly , a p rti 0 , it" a02 that a2mitte2ly a very small p rti 0* *** I0 the case , the I02ia0 * * * slavery -as vie-e2 as , a0 ccasi 0al 0at1re" a preve0tive pe0alty a02 0 t as a 0 rmal a02 perma0e0t c 02iti 0*: ?# I0 the NeE0!la02 c l 0ies I02ia0 slavery -as 10pr ,ita&le" , r slavery , a0y 6i02 -as 10pr ,ita&le &eca1se it -as 10s1ite2 t the 2i3 versi,ie2 a!ric1lt1re , these c l 0ies* I0 a22iti 0 the I02ia0 slave -as i0e,,icie0t* The Spa0iar2s 2isc vere2 that 0e Ne!r -as - rth , 1r I02ia0s* ?? A pr mi0e0t ,,icial i0 Hispa0i la i03 siste2 i0 #@#B that :permissi 0 &e !ive0 t &ri0! Ne!r es" a race r &1st , r la& r" i0stea2 , 0atives" s -ea6 that they ca0 0ly &e empl ye2 i0 tas6s re51iri0! little e021ra0ce" s1ch as ta6i0! care , mai/e ,iel2s r ,arms*: ?= The ,1t1re staples , the NeW rl2" s1!ar a02 c tt 0" re51ire2 stre0!th -hich the I02ia0 lac6e2" a02 2ema02e2 the r &1st :c tt 0 0i!!er: as s1!ar7s 0ee2 , str 0! m1les pr 21ce2 i0 L 1isia0a the epithet :s1!ar m1les*: Acc r2i0! t La1&er" :Whe0 c mpare2 -ith s1ms pai2 , r Ne!r es at the same time a02 place the prices , I02ia0 slaves are , 102 t have &ee0 c 0si2era&ly l -er*: ?% The I02ia0 reserv ir" t " -as limite2" the A,rica0 i0e43 ha1sti&le* Ne!r es there, re -ere st le0 i0 A,rica t - r6 the la02s st le0 ,r m the I02ia0s i0 America* The v ya!es , Pri0ce He0ry the Navi!at r c mpleme0te2 th se , C l1m&1s" West A,rica0 hist ry &ecame the c mpleme0t , West I02ia0* The imme2iate s1ccess r , the I02ia0" h -ever" -as 0 t the Ne!r &1t the p r -hite* These -hite serva0ts i0cl12e2 a variety , types* S me -ere i02e0t1re2 serva0ts" s calle2 &e3 ca1se" &e, re 2epart1re ,r m the h mela02" they ha2 si!0e2 a c 0tract" i02e0te2 &y la-" &i02i0! them t service , r a stip13 late2 time i0 ret1r0 , r their passa!e* Still thers" 60 -0 as :re2empti 0ers": arra0!e2 -ith the captai0 , the ship t pay , r their passa!e 0 arrival r -ithi0 a speci,ie2 time there3 a,ter9 i, they 2i2 0 t" they -ere s l2 &y the captai0 t the hi!hest &i22er* Others -ere c 0victs" se0t 1t &y the 2eli&erate p licy , the h me ! ver0me0t" t serve , r a speci,ie2 peri 2* This emi!rati 0 -as i0 t10e -ith merca0tilist the ries , the

#> CAPITALIS( AN' SLAVERY

2ay -hich str 0!ly a2v cate2 p1tti0! the p r t i021stri 1s a02 1se,1l la& r a02 ,av re2 emi!rati 0" v l10tary r i0v l103

tary" as relievi0! the p r rates a02 ,i02i0! m re pr ,ita&le cc1pati 0s a&r a2 , r i2lers a02 va!ra0ts at h me* :I02e03 t1re2 servit12e": -rites C* (* Haar" :-as calle2 i0t e4iste0ce &y t- 2i,,ere0t th 1!h c mpleme0tary , rces8 there -as & th a p sitive attracti 0 ,r m the Ne- W rl2 a02 a 0e!ative re3 p1lsi 0 ,r m the Ol2*: ?@ I0 a state paper 2elivere2 t .ames I i0 #;>; )ac 0 emphasi/e2 that &y emi!rati 0 E0!la02 - 1l2 !ai0 :a 2 1&le c mm 2ity" i0 the av i2a0ce , pe ple here" a02 i0 ma6i0! 1se , them there*: ?; This temp rary service at the 1tset 2e0 te2 0 i0,eri rity r 2e!ra2ati 0* (a0y , the serva0ts -ere ma0 rial te0a0ts ,leei0! ,r m the ir6s me restricti 0s , ,e12alism" Irishme0 see6i0! ,ree2 m ,r m the ppressi 0 , la02l r2s a02 &ish ps" +erma0s r100i0! a-ay ,r m the 2evastati 0 , the Thirty Years7 War* They tra0spla0te2 i0 their hearts a &1r0i0! 2esire , r la02" a0 ar2e0t passi 0 , r i02epe02e0ce* They came t the la02 , pp rt10ity t &e ,ree me0" their ima!i0ati 0s p -er3 ,1lly -r 1!ht 1p 0 &y !l -i0! a02 e4trava!a0t 2escripti 0s i0 the h me c 10try* ?< It -as 0ly later -he0" i0 the - r2s , 'r* Williams 0" :all i2eals , a 2ece0t c l 0ial s ciety" , a &etter a02 !reater E0!la02 verseas" -ere s-ampe2 i0 the p1rs1it , a0 imme2iate !ai0": ?B that the i0tr 21cti 0 , 2is3 rep1ta&le eleme0ts &ecame a !e0eral ,eat1re , i02e0t1re2 service* A re!1lar tra,,ic 2evel pe2 i0 these i02e0t1re2 serva0ts* )e3 t-ee0 #;@% a02 #;B@ te0 th 1sa02 saile2 ,r m )rist l al 0e" chie,ly , r the West I02ies a02 Vir!i0ia* ?$ I0 #;B= -hite serv3 a0ts represe0te2 0e3si4th , Vir!i0ia7s p p1lati 0* T- 3thir2s , the immi!ra0ts t Pe00sylva0ia 21ri0! the ei!htee0th ce03 t1ry -ere -hite serva0ts9 i0 , 1r years ?@">>> came t Phila3 2elphia al 0e* It has &ee0 estimate2 that m re tha0 a 51arter , a milli 0 pers 0s -ere , this class 21ri0! the c l 0ial peri 2" B> a02 that they pr &a&ly c 0stit1te2 0e3hal, , all E0!lish immi!ra0ts" the maD rity ! i0! t the mi22le c l 0ies* B# As c mmercial spec1lati 0 e0tere2 the pict1re" a&1ses crept i0* Fi20api0! -as e0c 1ra!e2 t a !reat 2e!ree a02 &ecame

ORI+IN OF NE+RO SLAVERY II

a re!1lar &1si0ess i0 s1ch t -0s as L 02 0 a02 )rist l* A21lts - 1l2 &e plie2 -ith li51 r" chil2re0 e0tice2 -ith s-eetmeats* The 6i20apers -ere calle2 :spirits": 2e,i0e2 as : 0e that ta6eth 1pp me0 a02 - me0 a02 chil2re0 a02 sells them 0 a shipp t &e c 0veye2 &ey 02 the sea*: The captai0 , a ship tra2i0! t .amaica - 1l2 visit the Cler6e0-ell H 1se , C rrecti 0" ply -ith 2ri06 the !irls -h ha2 &ee0 impris 0e2 there as 2is3 r2erly" a02 :i0vite: them t ! t the West I02ies* =? The temptati 0s hel2 1t t the 10-ary a02 the cre21l 1s -ere s attractive that" as the may r , )rist l c mplai0e2" h1s&a02s -ere i021ce2 t , rsa6e their -ives" -ives their h1s&a02s" a02

appre0tices their masters" -hile -a0te2 crimi0als , 102 0 the tra0sp rt ships a re,1!e ,r m the arms , the la-* BB The -ave , +erma0 immi!rati 0 2evel pe2 the :0e-la02er": the la& r a!e0t , th se 2ays" -h travele2 1p a02 2 -0 the Rhi0e Val3 ley pers1a2i0! the ,e12al peasa0ts t sell their &el 0!i0!s a02 emi!rate t America" receivi0! a c mmissi 0 , r each emi3 !ra0t* B% (1ch has &ee0 -ritte0 a& 1t the tric6ery these :0e-la02ers: -ere 0 t averse t empl yi0!* B@ )1t -hatever the 2ecepti 0s practise2" it remai0s tr1e" as Frie2rich Fapp has -ritte0" that :the real !r 102 , r the emi!rati 0 ,ever lay i0 the 10healthy p litical a02 ec 0 mic c 02iti 0s* * * * The misery a02 ppres3 si 0 , the c 02iti 0s , the little G+erma0H states pr m te2 emi!rati 0 m1ch m re 2a0!er 1sly a02 c 0ti01 1sly tha0 the - rst 70e-la02er*7 : =; C 0victs pr vi2e2 a0 ther stea2y s 1rce , -hite la& r* The harsh ,e12al la-s , E0!la02 rec !0i/e2 three h102re2 capital crimes* Typical ha0!i0! ,,e0ces i0cl12e28 pic6i0! a p c6et , r m re tha0 a shilli0!9 sh pli,ti0! t the val1e , ,ive shill3 i0!s9 steali0! a h rse r a sheep9 p achi0! ra&&its 0 a !e0tle3 ma07s estate* =< O,,e0ces , r -hich the p10ishme0t prescri&e2 &y la- -as tra0sp rtati 0 c mprise2 the steali0! , cl th" &1r03 i0! stac6s , c r0" the maimi0! a02 6illi0! , cattle" hi02eri0! c1st ms ,,icers i0 the e4ec1ti 0 , their 21ty" a02 c rr1pt le!al practices* =B Pr p sals ma2e i0 #;;% - 1l2 have &a0ishe2 t the c l 0ies all va!ra0ts" r !1es a02 i2lers" petty thieves" !ipsies" a02 l se pers 0s ,re51e0ti0! 10lice0se2 &r thels* B$ A pite 1s

#? CAPITALIS( AN' SLAVERY

petiti 0 i0 #;;< praye2 , r tra0sp rtati 0 i0stea2 , the 2eath se0te0ce , r a -i,e c 0victe2 , steali0! ! 2s val1e2 at three shilli0!s a02 , 1r pe0ce* %> I0 #<%@ tra0sp rtati 0 -as the pe03 alty , r the the,t , a silver sp 0 a02 a ! l2 -atch* %# O0e year a,ter the ema0cipati 0 , the Ne!r slaves" tra0sp rtati 0 -as the pe0alty , r tra2e 10i 0 activity* It is 2i,,ic1lt t resist the c 0cl1si 0 that there -as s me c 00ecti 0 &et-ee0 the laa02 the la& r 0ee2s , the pla0tati 0s" a02 the marvel is that s ,e- pe ple e02e2 1p i0 the c l 0ies verseas* )e0Dami0 Fra06li0 pp se2 this :21mpi0! 1p 0 the NeW rl2 , the 1tcasts , the Ol2: as the m st cr1el i0s1lt ever ,,ere2 &y 0e 0ati 0 t a0 ther" a02 as6e2" i, E0!la02 -as D1sti,ie2 i0 se02i0! her c 0victs t the c l 0ies" -hether the latter -ere D1sti,ie2 i0 se02i0! t E0!la02 their rattles0a6es i0 e4cha0!eI %? It is 0 t clear -hy Fra06li0 sh 1l2 have &ee0 s se0sitive* Eve0 i, the c 0victs -ere har2e0e2 crimi0als" the !reat i0crease , i02e0t1re2 serva0ts a02 ,ree emi!ra0ts - 1l2 have te02e2 t re02er the c 0vict i0,l1e0ce i00 c1 1s" as i03 creasi0! 51a0tities , -ater p 1re2 i0 a !lass c 0tai0i0! p is 0* With 1t c 0victs the early 2evel pme0t , the A1stralia0 c l3

0ies i0 the 0i0etee0th ce0t1ry - 1l2 have &ee0 imp ssi&le* O0ly a ,e- , the c l 0ists" h -ever" -ere s partic1lar* The !e0eral attit12e -as s1mme2 1p &y a c 0temp rary8 :Their la& r - 1l2 &e m re &e0e,icial i0 a0 i0,a0t settleme0t" tha0 their vices c 1l2 &e per0ici 1s*: %= There -as 0 thi0! stra0!e a& 1t this attit12e* The !reat pr &lem i0 a 0e- c 10try is the pr &lem , la& r" a02 c 0vict la& r" as (erivale has p i0te2 1t" -as e51ivale0t t a ,ree prese0t &y the ! ver0me0t t the settlers -ith 1t &1r2e0i0! the latter -ith the e4pe0se , im3 p rtati 0* %% The ! ver0 r , Vir!i0ia i0 #;## -as -illi0! t -elc me c 0victs reprieve2 ,r m 2eath as :a rea2ie -ay t ,1r0ish 1s -ith me0 a02 0 t all-ays -ith the - rst 6i02 , me0*: %@ The West I02ies -ere prepare2 t accept all a02 s103 2ry" eve0 the spa-0 , Ne-!ate a02 )ri2e-ell" , r :0 ! ale3 &ir2 JsicK ca0 &e s i0c rri!i&le" &1t there is h pe , his c 03 , rmity here" as -ell as , his pre,erme0t" -hich s me have happily e4perime0te2*: %; The p litical a02 civil 2ist1r&a0ces i0 E0!la02 &et-ee0 #;%>

ORI+IN OF NE+RO SLAVERY #=

a02 #<%> a1!me0te2 the s1pply , -hite serva0ts* P litical a02 reli!i 1s 0 0c 0, rmists pai2 , r their 10 rth 2 4C &y tra0s3 p rtati 0" m stly t the s1!ar isla02s* S1ch -as the ,ate , ma0y , Cr m-ell7s Irish pris 0ers" -h -ere se0t t the West I02ies* %< S th r 1!hly -as this p licy p1rs1e2 that a0 active ver& -as a22e2 t the E0!lish la0!1a!e t :&ar&a2 es: a per3 s 0* %B ( 0tserrat &ecame lar!ely a0 Irish c l 0y" %$ a02 the Irish &r !1e is still ,re51e0tly hear2 t 2ay i0 ma0y parts , the )ritish West I02ies* The Irish" h -ever" -ere p r serva0ts* They hate2 the E0!lish" -ere al-ays rea2y t ai2 E0!la027s e0emies" a02 i0 a rev lt i0 the Lee-ar2 Isla02s i0 i;B$ @> -e ca0 alrea2y see si!0s , that &1r0i0! i02i!0ati 0 -hich" acc r2i0! t Lec6y" !ave Washi0!t 0 s me , his &est s l2iers* ;# The va051ishe2 i0 Cr m-ell7s Sc ttish campai!0s -ere treate2 li6e the Irish &e, re them" a02 Sc tsme0 came t &e re!ar2e2 as :the !e0eral travaillers a02 s l2iers i0 m st , rei!0 parts*: @? Reli!i 1s i0t lera0ce se0t m re - r6ers t the pla0tati 0s* I0 r ;; # L1a6ers re,1si0! t ta6e the ath , r the thir2 time -ere t &e tra0sp rte29 i0 #;;% tra0sp rtati 0" t a0y pla0tati 0 e43 cept Vir!i0ia r Ne- E0!la02" r a ,i0e , 0e h102re2 p 102s -as 2ecree2 , r the thir2 ,,e0ce , r pers 0s ver si43 tee0 assem&li0! i0 !r 1ps , ,ive r m re 102er prete0ce , reli!i 0* @= (a0y , ( 0m 1th7s a2here0ts -ere se0t t )ar3 &a2 s" -ith r2ers t &e 2etai0e2 as serva0ts , r te0 years* The pris 0ers -ere !ra0te2 i0 &atches t ,av rite c 1rtiers" -h ma2e ha02s me pr ,its ,r m the tra,,ic i0 -hich" it is alle!e2" eve0 the L1ee0 share2* @% A similar p licy -as res rte2 t a,ter the .ac &ite risi0!s , the ei!htee0th ce0t1ry* The tra0sp rtati 0 , these -hite serva0ts sh -s i0 its tr1e li!ht the h rr rs , the (i22le Passa!e 0 t as s methi0!

101s1al r i0h1ma0 &1t as a part , the a!e* The emi!ra0ts -ere pac6e2 li6e herri0!s* Acc r2i0! t (ittel&er!er" each serva0t -as all -e2 a& 1t t- ,eet i0 -i2th a02 si4 ,eet i0 le0!th i0 &e2* @@ The & ats -ere small" the v ya!e l 0!" the , 2" i0 the a&se0ce , re,ri!erati 0" &a2" 2isease i0evita&le* A petiti 0 t Parliame0t i0 #;@$ 2escri&es h - seve0ty3t- serv3 a0ts ha2 &ee0 l c6e2 1p &el - 2ec6 21ri0! the -h le v ya!e , ,ive a02 a hal, -ee6s" :am 0!st h rses" that their s 1ls"

#% CAPITALIS( AN' SLAVERY

thr 1!h heat a02 steam 102er the tr pic" ,ai0te2 i0 them*: @; I0evita&ly a&1ses crept i0t the system a02 Fear 0 -as sh c6e2 &y :the h rri&le pict1re , h1ma0 s1,,eri0! -hich this livi0! sep1lchre: , a0 emi!ra0t vessel i0 Phila2elphia a,, r2e2* ;< )1t c 02iti 0s eve0 , r the ,ree passe0!ers -ere 0 t m1ch &etter i0 th se 2ays" a02 the c mme0t , a La2y , L1ality 2escri&i0! a v ya!e ,r m Sc tla02 t the West I02ies 0 a ship ,1ll , i02e0t1re2 serva0ts sh 1l2 &a0ish a0y i2eas that the h rr rs , the slave ship are t &e acc 10te2 , r &y the ,act that the vic3 tims -ere Ne!r es* :It is har2ly p ssi&le": she -rites" :t &e3 lieve that h1ma0 0at1re c 1l2 &e s 2eprave2" as t treat ,ell creat1res i0 s1ch a ma00er , r s little !ai0*: @B The tra0sp rtati 0 , serva0ts a02 c 0victs pr 21ce2 a p -er,1l veste2 i0terest i0 E0!la02* Whe0 the C l 0ial ) ar2 -as create2 i0 #;;#" 0 t the least imp rta0t , its 21ties -as the c 0tr l , the tra2e i0 i02e0t1re2 serva0ts* I0 #;;% a c m3 missi 0 -as app i0te2" hea2e2 &y the Fi0!7s &r ther" t e43 ami0e a02 rep rt 1p 0 the e4p rtati 0 , serva0ts* I0 #;<> a0 act pr hi&iti0! the tra0sp rtati 0 , E0!lish pris 0ers verseas -as reDecte29 a0 ther &ill a!ai0st the steali0! , chil2re0 came t 0 thi0!* I0 the tra0sp rtati 0 , ,el 0s" a -h le hierarchy" ,r m c 1rtly secretaries a02 !rave D12!es 2 -0 t the Dail rs a02 t1r06eys" i0siste2 0 havi0! a share i0 the sp ils* ;$ It has &ee0 s1!!este2 that it -as h1ma0ity , r his ,ell - c 10try3 me0 a02 me0 , his -0 c l r -hich 2ictate2 the pla0ter7s pre,ere0ce , r the Ne!r slave* ;> O, this h1ma0ity there is 0 t a trace i0 the rec r2s , the time" at least as ,ar as the pla0ta3 ti 0 c l 0ies a02 c mmercial pr 21cti 0 -ere c 0cer0e2* At3 tempts t re!ister emi!ra0t serva0ts a02 re!1lari/e the pr ce3 21re , tra0sp rtati 0 there&y !ivi0! ,1ll le!al rec !0iti 0 t the system -ere eva2e2* The lea2i0! mercha0ts a02 p1&lic ,,icials -ere all i0v lve2 i0 the practice* The pe0alty , r ma03 steali0! -as e4p s1re i0 the pill ry" &1t 0 missiles ,r m the spectat rs -ere t lerate2* S1ch pp siti 0 as there -as came ,r m the masses* It -as e0 1!h t p i0t a ,i0!er at a - ma0 i0 the streets , L 02 0 a02 call her a :spirit: t start a ri t* This -as the sit1ati 0 i0 E0!la02 -he0 .e,,reys came t )rist l 0 his t 1r , the West t clea0 1p the rem0a0ts ,

ORI+IN OF NE+RO SLAVERY #@

( 0m 1th7s re&elli 0* .e,,reys has &ee0 ha02e2 2 -0 t p s3 terity as a :&1tcher": the tyra00ical 2ep1ty , a0 ar&itrary 6i0!" a02 his le!al visitati 0 is rec r2e2 i0 the te4t& 6s as the :)l 2y Assi/es*: They ha2 0e re2eemi0! ,eat1re* .e,,reys v -e2 that he ha2 c me t )rist l -ith a &r m t s-eep the city clea0" a02 his -rath ,ell 0 the 6i20apers -h i0,este2 the hi!hest m10icipal ,,ices* The mercha0ts a02 D1stices -ere i0 the ha&it , strai0i0! the la- t i0crease the 01m&er , ,el 0s -h c 1l2 &e tra0sp rte2 t the s1!ar pla0tati 0s they -0e2 i0 the West I02ies* They - 1l2 terri,y petty ,,e02ers -ith the pr spect , ha0!i0! a02 the0 i021ce them t plea2 , r tra0sp rtati 0* .e,,reys t1r0e2 1p 0 the may r" c mplete i0 scarlet a02 ,1rs" -h -as a& 1t t se0te0ce a pic6p c6et t tra0sp rtati 0 t .amaica" , rce2 him" t the !reat ast 0ish3 me0t , )rist l7s - rthy citi/e0s" t e0ter the pris 0ers7 2 c6" li6e a c mm 0 ,el 0" t plea2 !1ilty r 0 t !1ilty" a02 hect re2 him i0 characteristic la0!1a!e8 :Sir" (r* (ay r" y 1 I mea0e" Fi20apper" a02 a0 l2 .1stice , the Peace 0 the &e0ch* *** I 2 e 0 t 60 -e him" a0 l2 60ave8 he ! es t the taver0e" a02 , r a pi0t , sac6 he -ill &i02 pe ple serva0ts t the I02ies at the taver0e* A 6i20appi0! 60aveM I -ill have his ears ,," &e, re I ! e , rth , t -0e* * * * Fi20apper" y 1" I mea0" Sir* *** I, it -ere 0 t i0 respect , the s- r2" -hich is ver y 1r hea2" I - 1l2 se02 y 1 t Ne-!ate" y 1 6i20appi0! 60ave* Y 1 are - rse tha0 the pic63p c6ett -h sta02s there* *** I hear the tra2e , 6i20appi0! is , !reat re51est* They ca0 2ischar!e a ,el 0 r a trait r" pr vi2e2 they -ill ! t (r* Al2erma07s pla0tati 0 at the West I02ies*: The may r -as ,i0e2 0e th 1sa02 p 102s" &1t apart ,r m the l ss , 2i!0ity a02 the ,ear ar 1se2 i0 their hearts" the mercha0ts l st 0 thi0! their !ai0s -ere le,t i0vi late* ;# Acc r2i0! t 0e e4pla0ati 0" .e,,reys7 i0s1lts -ere the res1lt , i0t 4icati 0 r i0sa0ity* ;? It is 0 t impr &a&le that they -ere c 00ecte2 -ith a c mplete reversal , merca0tilist th 1!ht 0 the 51esti 0 , emi!rati 0" as a res1lt , the i0ter0al 2evel p3 me0t , )ritai0 hersel,* )y the e02 , the seve0tee0th ce0t1ry the stress ha2 shi,te2 ,r m the acc1m1lati 0 , the preci 1s metals as the aim , 0ati 0al ec 0 mic p licy t the 2evel p3

l; CAPITALIS( AN' SLAVERY

me0t , i021stry -ithi0 the c 10try" the pr m ti 0 , em3 pl yme0t a02 the e0c 1ra!eme0t , e4p rts* The merca0tilists ar!1e2 that the &est -ay t re21ce c sts" a02 there&y c mpete -ith ther c 10tries" -as t pay l - -a!es" -hich a lar!e p p3 1lati 0 te02e2 t e0s1re* The ,ear , verp p1lati 0 at the &e3 !i00i0! , the seve0tee0th ce0t1ry !ave -ay t a ,ear , 102er3

p p1lati 0 i0 the mi22le , the same ce0t1ry* The esse0tial c 02iti 0 , c l 0i/ati 0 emi!rati 0 ,r m the h me c 10try 0 - ra0 c 10ter t the pri0ciple that 0ati 0al i0terest 2e3 ma02e2 a lar!e p p1lati 0 at h me* Sir . siah Chil2 2e0ie2 that emi!rati 0 t America ha2 -ea6e0e2 E0!la02" &1t he -as , rce2 t a2mit that i0 this vie- he -as i0 a mi0 rity , p s3 si&ly 0e i0 a th 1sa02" -hile he e02 rse2 the !e0eral pi0i 0 that :-hatever te02s t the 2ep p1lati0! , a 6i0!2 m te02s t the imp verishme0t , it*: >= .e,,reys7 101s1al h1ma0itaria0ism appears less stra0!e a02 may &e attri&1te2 rather t ec 0 mic tha0 t spirit1 1s c 0si2erati 0s* His patr 0s" the R yal Family" ha2 alrea2y !ive0 their patr 0a!e t the R yal A,rica0 C m3 pa0y a02 the Ne!r slave tra2e* F r the s1rpl1s p p1lati 0 0ee2e2 t pe ple the c l 0ies i0 the Ne- W rl2 the )ritish ha2 t1r0e2 t A,rica" a02 &y #;B> they alrea2y ha2 p sitive evi3 2e0ce" i0 )ar&a2 s" that the A,rica0 -as satis,yi0! the 0eces3 sities , pr 21cti 0 &etter tha0 the E1r pea0* The stat1s , these serva0ts &ecame pr !ressively - rse i0 the pla0tati 0 c l 0ies* Servit12e" ri!i0ally a ,ree pers 0al relati 0 &ase2 0 v l10tary c 0tract , r a 2e,i0ite peri 2 , service" i0 lie1 , tra0sp rtati 0 a02 mai0te0a0ce" te02e2 t pass i0t a pr perty relati 0 -hich asserte2 a c 0tr l , vary3 i0! e4te0t ver the & 2ies a02 li&erties , the pers 0 21ri0! service as i, he -ere a thi0!* ;% E22is" -riti0! 0 the eve , the Rev l1ti 0" , 102 the serva0ts !r a0i0! :&e0eath a - rse tha0 E!yptia0 & 02a!e*: ;@ I0 (aryla02 servit12e 2evel pe2 i0t a0 i0stit1ti 0 appr achi0! i0 s me respects chattel slavery* ;> O, Pe00sylva0ia it has &ee0 sai2 that :0 matter h - 6i02ly they may have &ee0 treate2 i0 partic1lar cases" r h - v l10tarily they may have e0tere2 i0t the relati 0" as a class a02 -he0 0ce & 102" i02e0t1re2 serva0ts -ere temp rarily chattels*: ;< O0 the s1!ar pla0tati 0s , )ar&a2 s the serva0ts spe0t their

ORI+IN OF NE+RO SLAVERY I.

time :!ri02i0! at the mills a02 atte02i0! the ,1r0aces" r 2i!!i0! i0 this sc rchi0! isla029 havi0! 0 thi0! t ,ee2 0 G0 t-ithsta02i0! their har2 la& 1rH &1t p tat e r ts" 0 r t 2ri06" &1t -ater -ith s1ch r ts -ashe2 i0 it" &esi2es the &rea2 a02 tears , their -0 a,,licti 0s9 &ei0! & 1!ht a02 s l2 still ,r m 0e pla0ter t a0 ther" r attache2 as h rses a02 &easts , r the 2e&ts , their masters" &ei0! -hipt at the -hippi0! p sts Gas r !1es"H , r their masters7 pleas1re" a02 sleepi0!" i0 sties - rse tha0 h !s i0 E0!la02* * * *: ;B As Pr ,ess r Harl c 0cl12es" the -ei!ht , evi2e0ce pr ves i0c 0testa&ly that the c 02iti 0s 102er -hich -hite la& r -as pr c1re2 a02 1tili/e2 i0 )ar&a2 s -ere :persiste0tly severe" ccasi 0ally 2is3 h 0 1ra&leC02 !e0erally a 2is!race t the E0!lish 0ame*: >$ E0!lish ,,icial2 m" h -ever" t 6 the vie- that servit12e -as 0 t t &a2" a02 the serva0t i0 .amaica -as &etter ,, tha0 the h1s&a02ma0 i0 E0!la02* :It is a place as !rate,1l t y 1 , r

tra2e as a0y part , the - rl2* Tt is 0 t s 2i 1s as it is represe0te2*: <> )1t there -as s me se0sitive0ess 0 the 51es3 ti 0* The L r2s , Tra2e a02 Pla0tati 0s" i0 #;<;" pp se2 the 1se , the - r2 :servit12e: as a mar6 , & 02a!e a02 slavery" a02 s1!!este2 :service: i0stea2* <# The i0stit1ti 0 -as 0 t a,3 ,ecte2 &y the cha0!e* The h pe has &ee0 e4presse2 that the -hite serva0ts -ere spare2 the lash s li&erally &est -e2 1p 0 their Ne!r c mra2es* <? They ha2 0 s1ch ! 2 , rt10e* Si0ce they -ere & 102 , r a limite2 peri 2" the pla0ter ha2 less i0terest i0 their -el,are tha0 i0 that , the Ne!r es -h -ere perpet1al serva0ts a02 there, re :the m st 1se,1l app1rte3 0a0ces: , a pla0tati 0* <= E22is , 102 the Ne!r es :alm st i0 every i0sta0ce" 102er m re c m, rta&le circ1msta0ces tha0 the misera&le E1r pea0" ver -h m the ri!i2 pla0ter e4ercises a0 i0,le4i&le severity*: <% The serva0ts -ere re!ar2e2 &y the pla0ters as :-hite trash": a02 -ere &rac6ete2 -ith the Ne!r es as la& rers* :N t 0e , these c l 0ies ever -as r ever ca0 &e &r 1!ht t a0y c 0si2era&le impr veme0t -ith 1t a s1pply , -hite serva0ts a02 Ne!r es": 2eclare2 the C 10cil , ( 0t3 serrat i0 i;B * <@ I0 a E1r pea0 s ciety i0 -hich s1& r2i0ati 0 -as c 0si2ere2 esse0tial" i0 -hich )1r6e c 1l2 spea6 , the - r6i0! classes as :misera&le sheep: a02 V ltaire as :ca0aille":

lB CAPITALIS( AN' SLAVERY

a02 Li0!1et stre0!th al that he ha2 see6 , r ap c l 0ies*

c 02em0 the - r6er t the 1se , his physical 0e" , r :everythi0! - 1l2 &e l st 0ce he 60ea mi02: <; i0 s1ch a s ciety it is 100ecessary t l !ies , r the c 02iti 0 , the -hite serva0t i0 the

'e, e &l10tly state2 that the -hite serva0t -as a slave* << He -as 0 t* The serva0t7s l ss , li&erty -as , limite2 21rati 0" the Ne!r -as slave , r li,e* The serva0t7s stat1s c 1l2 0 t 2esce02 t his ,,spri0!" Ne!r chil2re0 t 6 the stat1s , the m ther* The master at 0 time ha2 a&s l1te c 0tr l ver the pers 0 a02 li&erty , his serva0t as he ha2 ver his slave* The serva0t ha2 ri!hts" limite2 &1t rec !0i/e2 &y la- a02 i0serte2 i0 a c 0tract* He e0D ye2" , r i0sta0ce" a limite2 ri!ht t pr perty* I0 act1al la- the c 0cepti 0 , the serva0t a a piece , pr perty 0ever -e0t &ey 02 that , pers 0al estate a02 0ever reache2 the sta!e , a chattel r real estate* The la-s i0 the c l 0ies mai0tai0e2 this ri!i2 2isti0cti 0 a02 visite2 c 3 ha&itati 0 &et-ee0 the races -ith severe pe0alties* The serva0t c 1l2 aspire" at the e02 , his term" t a pl t , la02" th 1!h" as Werte0&a6er p i0ts 1t , r Vir!i0ia" it -as 0 t a le!al ri!ht" <B a02 c 02iti 0s varie2 ,r m c l 0y t c l 0y* The ser, i0 E1r pe c 1l2 there, re h pe , r a0 early ,ree2 m i0 America -hich villei0a!e c 1l2 0 t a,, r2* The ,ree2 serva0ts &ecame small ye me0 ,armers" settle2 i0 the &ac6 c 10try" a 2em cratic , rce i0 a s ciety , lar!e arist cratic pla0tati 0 -0ers" a02 -ere the pi 0eers i0 -est-ar2 e4pa0si 0* That -as -hy .e,,ers 0 i0 America" as Sac i0 C1&a" ,av re2 the i03

tr 21cti 0 , E1r pea0 serva0ts i0stea2 , A,rica0 slaves as te02i0! t 2em cracy rather tha0 arist cracy* <$ The i0stit1ti 0 , -hite servit12e" h -ever" ha2 !rave 2is3 a2va0ta!es* P stleth-ayt" a ri!i2 merca0tilist" ar!1e2 that -hite la& rers i0 the c l 0ies - 1l2 te02 t create rivalry -ith the m ther c 10try i0 ma01,act1ri0!* )etter &lac6 slaves 0 pla0tati 0s tha0 -hite serva0ts i0 i021stry" -hich - 1l2 e03 c 1ra!e aspirati 0s t i02epe02e0ce* B> The s1pply m re ver -as &ec mi0! i0creasi0!ly 2i,,ic1lt" a02 the 0ee2 , the pla0ta3 ti 0s 1tstrippe2 the E0!lish c 0victi 0s* I0 a22iti 0" mer3 cha0ts -ere i0v lve2 i0 ma0y ve4ati 1s a02 c stly pr cee2i0!s

ORI+IN OF NE+RO SLAVERY #$

arisi0! ,r m pe ple si!0i,yi0! their -illi0!0ess t emi!rate" ac3 cepti0! , 2 a02 cl thes i0 a2va0ce" a02 the0 s1ei0! , r 103 la-,1l 2ete0ti 0* B# I02e0t1re2 serva0ts -ere 0 t , rthc mi0! i0 s1,,icie0t 51a0tities t replace th se -h ha2 serve2 their term* O0 the pla0tati 0s" escape -as easy , r the -hite serva0t9 less easy , r the Ne!r -h " i, ,ree2" te02e2" i0 sel,32e,e0ce" t stay i0 his l cality -here he -as -ell 60 -0 a02 less li6ely t &e apprehe02e2 as a va!ra0t r r10a-ay slave* The serva0t e43 pecte2 la02 at the e02 , his c 0tract9 the Ne!r " i0 a stra0!e e0vir 0me0t" c 0spic1 1s &y his c l r a02 ,eat1res" a02 i!0 3 ra0t , the -hite ma07s la0!1a!e a02 -ays" c 1l2 &e 6ept perma0e0tly 2iv rce2 ,r m the la02* Racial 2i,,ere0ces ma2e it easier t D1sti,y a02 rati 0ali/e Ne!r slavery" t e4act the mecha0ical &e2ie0ce , a pl 1!h3 4 r a cart3h rse" t 2ema02 that resi!0ati 0 a02 that c mplete m ral a02 i0tellect1al s1&3 Decti 0 -hich al 0e ma6e slave la& r p ssi&le* Fi0ally" a02 this -as the 2ecisive ,act r" the Ne!r slave -as cheaper* The m 0ey -hich pr c1re2 a -hite ma07s services , r te0 years c 1l2 &1y a Ne!r , r li,e* B? As the ! ver0 r , )ar&a2 s state2" the )ar&a2ia0 pla0ters , 102 &y e4perie0ce that :three &lac6s - r6 &etter a02 cheaper tha0 0e -hite ma0*: B= )1t the e4perie0ce -ith -hite servit12e ha2 &ee0 i0val1a&le* Fi20api0! i0 A,rica e0c 10tere2 0 s1ch 2i,,ic1lties as -ere e0c 10tere2 i0 E0!la02* Captai0s a02 ships ha2 the e4perie0ce , the 0e tra2e t !1i2e them i0 the ther* )rist l" the ce0ter , the serva0t tra2e" &ecame 0e , the ce0ters , the slave tra2e* Capital acc1m1late2 ,r m the 0e ,i0a0ce2 the ther* White servit12e -as the hist ric &ase 1p 0 -hich Ne!r slavery -as c 0str1cte2* The ,el 032rivers i0 the pla0tati 0s &ecame -ith 1t e,, rt slave32rivers* :I0 si!0i,ica0t 01m&ers": -rites Pr ,ess r Phillips" :the A,rica0s -ere latec mers ,itte2 i0t a system alrea2y 2evel pe2*: B% Here" the0" is the ri!i0 , Ne!r slavery* The reas 0 -as ec 0 mic" 0 t racial9 it ha2 t 2 0 t -ith the c l r , the la& rer" &1t the cheap0ess , the la& r* As c mpare2 -ith I02ia0 a02 -hite la& r" Ne!r slavery -as emi0e0tly s1peri r*

:I0 each case": -rites )assett" 2isc1ssi0! N rth Car li0a" :it

?O CAPITALIS( AN' SLAVERY

-as a s1rvival , the ,ittest* ) th I02ia0 slavery a02 -hite servit12e -ere t ! 2 -0 &e, re the &lac6 ma07s s1peri r e021ra0ce" 2 cility" a02 la& r capacity*7 < B@ The ,eat1res , the ma0" his hair" c l r a02 2e0ti,rice" his :s1&h1ma0: charac3 teristics s -i2ely plea2e2" -ere 0ly the later rati 0ali/ati 0s t D1sti,y a simple ec 0 mic ,act8 that the c l 0ies 0ee2e2 la& r a02 res rte2 t Ne!r la& r &eca1se it -as cheapest a02 &est* This -as 0 t a the ry" it -as a practical c 0cl1si 0 2e21ce2 ,r m the pers 0al e4perie0ce , the pla0ter* He - 1l2 have ! 0e t the m 0" i, 0ecessary" , r la& r* A,rica -as 0earer tha0 the m 0" 0earer t tha0 the m re p p1l 1s c 10tries , I02ia a02 Chi0a* )1t their t1r0 -as t c me* This -hite servit12e is , car2i0al imp rta0ce , r a0 102er3 sta02i0! , the 2evel pme0t , the Ne- W rl2 a02 the Ne!r 7s place i0 that 2evel pme0t* It c mpletely e4pl 2es the l2 myth that the -hites c 1l2 0 t sta02 the strai0 , ma01al la& r i0 the climate , the Ne- W rl2 a02 that" , r this reas 0 a02 this reas 0 al 0e" the E1r pea0 p -ers ha2 re3 c 1rse t A,rica0s* The ar!1me0t is 51ite 10te0a&le* A (issis3 sippi 2ict1m -ill have it that : 0ly &lac6 me0 a02 m1les ca0 ,ace the s10 i0 .1ly*: )1t the -hites ,ace2 the s10 , r -ell ver a h102re2 years i0 )ar&a2 s" a02 the Sal/&1r!ers , +e r!ia i02i!0a0tly 2e0ie2 that rice c1ltivati 0 -as harm,1l t them* B> The Cari&&ea0 isla02s are -ell -ithi0 the tr pical / 0e" &1t their climate is m re e51a&le tha0 tr pical" the tem3 perat1re rarely e4cee2s B> 2e!rees th 1!h it remai0s 10i, rm the -h le year r 102" a02 they are e4p se2 t the !e0tle -i02s ,r m the sea* The 10&eara&le h1mi2ity , a0 A1!1st 2ay i0 s me parts , the U0ite2 States has 0 e51al i0 the isla02s* ( re ver 0ly the s 1ther0 tip , Fl ri2a i0 the U0ite2 States is act1ally tr pical" yet Ne!r la& r ,l 1rishe2 i0 Vir!i0ia a02 Car li0a* The s 1ther0 parts , the U0ite2 States are 0 t h tter tha0 S 1th Italy r Spai0" a02 2e T c51eville as6e2 -hy the E1r pea0 c 1l2 0 t - r6 there as -ell as i0 th se t- c 103 triesI B< Whe0 Whit0ey i0ve0te2 his c tt 0 !i0" it -as c 0,i3 2e0tly e4pecte2 that c tt 0 - 1l2 &e pr 21ce2 &y ,ree la& r 0 small ,arms" a02 it -as" i0 ,act" s pr 21ce2* BB Where the -hite ,armer -as 1ste2" the e0emv -as 0 t the climate &1t the slave

ORI+IN OF NE+RO SLAVERY ?#

pla0tati 0" a02 the -hite ,armer m ve2 -est-ar2" 10til the e4pa02i0! pla0tati 0 se0t him 0 his -a02eri0!s a!ai0* Writ3 i0! i0 #B@<" West 0 p i0te2 1t that la& r i0 the ,iel2s , the

e4treme S 1th a02 all the heavy 1t2 r - r6 i0 Ne- Orlea0s -ere per, rme2 &y -hites" -ith 1t a0y ill c 0se51e0ces* :N part , the c 0ti0e0tal & r2ers , the +1l, , (e4ic ": he -r te" :a02 0 0e , the isla02s -hich separate it ,r m the cea0" 0ee2 &e a&a02 0e2 t the &ar&arism , 0e!r slavery*: B$ I0 1r -0 time -e -h have -it0esse2 the 2isp ssessi 0 , Ne!r es &y -hite sharecr ppers i0 the S 1th a02 the mass mi!rati 0 , Ne!r es ,r m the S 1th t the c l2er climates , 'etr it" Ne- Y r6" Pitts&1r!h a02 ther i021strial ce0ters , the N rth" ca0 0 l 0!er accept the c 0ve0ie0t rati 0ali/ati 0 that Ne!r la& r -as empl ye2 0 the slave pla0tati 0s &e3 ca1se the climatS -as t ri! r 1s , r the c 0stit1ti 0 , the -hite ma0* A c 0sta0t a02 stea2y emi!rati 0 , p r -hites ,r m Spai0 t C1&a" t the very e02 , Spa0ish 2 mi0i 0" characteri/e2 Spa0ish c l 0ial p licy* Fer0a02 Orti/ has 2ra-0 a stri6i0! c 0trast &et-ee0 the r le , t &acc a02 s1!ar i0 C1&a0 his3 t ry* T &acc -as a ,ree -hite i021stry i0te0sively c1ltivate2 0 small ,arms9 s1!ar -as a &lac6 slave i021stry e4te0sively c1ltivate2 0 lar!e pla0tati 0s* He ,1rther c mpare2 the ,ree C1&a0 t &acc i021stry -ith its slave Vir!i0ia0 c 10terpart* >> What 2etermi0e2 the 2i,,ere0ce -as 0 t climate &1t the ec 3 0 mic str1ct1re , the t- areas* The -hites c 1l2 har2ly have e021re2 the tr pical heat , C1&a a02 s1cc1m&e2 t the tr pical heat , )ar&a2 s* I0 P1ert Ric " the Di&ar " the p r * -hite peasa0t" is still the &asic type" 2em 0strati0!" i0 the - r2s , +re0,ell Price" h - err 0e 1s is the &elie, that a,ter three !e0erati 0s the -hite ma0 ca00 t &ree2 i0 the tr pics* $# Similar -hite c mm10ities have s1rvive2 i0 the Cari&&ea0" ,r m the earliest settleme0ts ri!ht 2 -0 t 1r -0 times" i0 the '1tch West I02ia0 isla02s , Sa&a a02 St* (arti0* F r s me si4ty years Fre0ch settlers have live2 i0 St* Th mas 0 t 0ly as ,isherme0 &1t as a!ric1lt1ralists" , rmi0! t 2ay the :lar!est si0!le ,armi0! class: i0 the isla02* $? As 'r* Price c 0cl12es8 :It appears that 0 rther0 -hites ca0 retai0 a ,air sta02ar2 , r

?? CAPITALIS( AN' SLAVERY

!e0erati 0s i0 the tra2e3 -i02 tr pics i, the l cati 0 is ,ree ,r m the - rst , rms , tr pical 2isease" i, the ec 0 mic ret1r0 is a2e51ate" a02 i, the c mm10ity is prepare2 t 102erta6e har2" physical - r6*: >= Over 0e h102re2 years a! a 01m&er , +erma0 emi!ra0ts settle2 i0 Sea, r2" .amaica* They s1rvive t 2ay" -ith 0 visi&le si!0s , 2eteri rati 0" ,latly c 0tra2ict3 i0! the p p1lar &elie, as t the p ssi&ility , s1rvival , the 0 rther0 -hite i0 the tr pics* $% Wherever" i0 sh rt" tr pical a!ric1lt1re remai0e2 0 a small ,armi0! &asis" -hites 0 t 0ly s1rvive2 &1t pr spere2* Where the -hites 2isappeare2" the ca1se -as 0 t the climate &1t the s1persessi 0 , the small ,arm &y the lar!e pla0tati 0" -ith its c 0se51e0t 2ema02 , r a lar!e a02 stea2y s1pply , la& r*

The climatic the ry , the pla0tati 0 is th1s 0 thi0! &1t a rati 0ali/ati 0* I0 a0 e4celle0t essay 0 the s1&Dect Pr ,ess r E2!ar Th mps 0 -rites8 :The pla0tati 0 is 0 t t &e ac3 c 10te2 , r &y climate* It is a p litical i0stit1ti 0*: It is" -e mi!ht a22" m re8 it is a0 ec 0 mic i0stit1ti 0* The climatic the ry :is part , a0 i2e l !y -hich rati 0ali/es a02 0at1ral3 i/es a0 e4isti0! s cial a02 ec 0 mic r2er" a02 this every-here seems t &e a0 r2er i0 -hich there is a race pr &lem*: $@ The hist ry , A1stralia cli0ches the ar!1me0t* Nearly hal, , this isla02 c 0ti0e0t lies -ithi0 the tr pical / 0e* I0 part , this tr pical area" the state , L1ee0sla02" the chie, cr p is s1!ar* Whe0 the i021stry &e!a0 t 2evel p" A1stralia ha2 a ch ice , t- alter0atives8 &lac6 la& r r -hite la& r* The c mm 0-ealth &e!a0 its s1!ar c1ltivati 0 i0 the 1s1al -ay -ith imp rte2 &lac6 la& r ,r m the Paci,ic isla02s* I0creasi0! 2ema02s" h -ever" -ere ma2e , r a -hite A1stralia p licy" a02 i0 the t-e0tieth ce0t1ry 0 03-hite immi!rati 0 -as pr 3 hi&ite2* It is irreleva0t t c 0si2er here that as a res1lt the c st , pr 21cti 0 , A1stralia0 s1!ar is pr hi&itive" that the i03 21stry is arti,icial a02 s1rvives 0ly &ehi02 the Chi0ese -all , A1stralia0 a1tarchy* A1stralia -as -illi0! t pay a hi!h price i0 r2er t remai0 a -hite ma07s c 10try* O1r s le c 03 cer0 here -ith the 51esti 0 is that this price -as pai2 ,r m the p c6ets , the A1stralia0 c 0s1mer a02 0 t i0 the physical 2e3 !e0erati 0 , the A1stralia0 - r6er*

ORI+IN OF NE+RO SLAVERY ?=

La& r i0 the L1ee0sla02 s1!ar i021stry t 2ay is -h lly -hite* :L1ee0sla02": -rites H* L* Wil6i0s 0" :a,, r2s the 0ly e4ample i0 the - rl2 , E1r pea0 c l 0i/ati 0 i0 the tr pics 0 a0 e4te0sive scale* It 2 es m re9 it sh -s a lar!e E1r pea0 p p1lati 0 2 i0! the -h le , the - r6 , its civili/ati 0 ,r m the mea0est service" a02 m st e4acti0! ma01al la& r" t the hi!hest , rm , i0tellect1alism*: $; T s1ch a0 e4te0t has scie0ce e4pl 2e2 s1perstiti 0 that A1stralia0 scie0tists t 2ay ar!1e that the 0ly c 02iti 0 0 -hich -hite me0 a02 - me0 ca0 remai0 healthy i0 the tr pics is that they m1st e0!a!e i0 har2 ma01al - r6* Where they have 2 0e s " as i0 L1ee0sla02" :the m st ri! r 1s scie0ti,ic e4ami0ati 0": acc r2i0! t the A1stralia0 (e2ical C 0!ress i0 #$?>" :,aile2 t sh - a0y r3 !a0ic cha0!es i0 -hite resi2e0ts -hich e0a&le2 them t &e 2is3 ti0!1ishe2 ,r m resi2e0ts , temperate climates*: $< Ne!r slavery" th1s" ha2 0 thi0! t 2 -ith climate* Its ri!i0 ca0 &e e4presse2 i0 three - r2s8 i0 the Cari&&ea0" S1!ar9 0 the mai0la02" T &acc a02 C tt 0* A cha0!e i0 the ec 3 0 mic str1ct1re pr 21ce2 a c rresp 02i0! cha0!e i0 the la& r s1pply* The ,102ame0tal ,act -as :the creati 0 , a0 i0,eri r s cial a02 ec 0 mic r!a0i/ati 0 , e4pl iters a02 e4pl ite2*: $B S1!ar" t &acc " a02 c tt 0 re51ire2 the lar!e pla0tati 0 a02 h r2es , cheap la& r" a02 the small ,arm , the e43i02e0t1re2

-hite serva0t c 1l2 0 t p ssi&ly s1rvive* The t &acc , the small ,arm i0 )ar&a2 s -as 2isplace2 &y the s1!ar , the lar!e pla0tati 0* The rise , the s1!ar i021stry i0 the Cari&&ea0 -as the si!0al , r a !i!a0tic 2isp ssessi 0 , the small ,armer* )ar3 &a2 s i0 #;%@ ha2 ##"?>> small -hite ,armers a02 @";B> Ne!r slaves9 i0 #;;< there -ere <%@ lar!e pla0tati 0 -0ers a02 B?">?= slaves* I0 #;%@ t Ce isla02 ha2 #B"=>> -hites ,it t &ear arms" i0 #;;< 0ly B"=>>*: The -hite ,armers -ere s51ee/e2 1t* The pla0ters c 0ti01e2 t ,,er i021ceme0ts t 0e-3 c mers" &1t they c 1l2 0 l 0!er ,,er the mai0 i021ceme0t" la02* White serva0ts pre,erre2 the ther isla02s -here they c 1l2 h pe , r la02" t )ar&a2 s" -here they -ere s1re there -as 0 0e* #>> I0 2esperati 0 the pla0ters pr p se2 le!islati 0 -hich - 1l2 preve0t a la02 -0er ,r m p1rchasi0! m re la02"

?% CAPITALIS( AN' SLAVERY

c mpel Ne!r es a02 serva0ts t -ear 2imity ma01,act1re2 i0 )ar&a2 s G-hat - 1l2 E0!lish merca0tilists have sai2IH t pr vi2e empl yme0t , r the p r -hites" a02 preve0t Ne!r es ,r m &ei0! ta1!ht a tra2e* #># The ! ver0 r , )ar&a2 s i0 #;$@ 2re- a piti,1l pict1re , these e43serva0ts* With 1t ,resh meat r r1m" :they are 2 mi0eere2 ver a02 1se2 li6e 2 !s" a02 this i0 time -ill 102 1&te2ly 2rive a-ay all the c mm 0alty , the -hite pe ple*: His 0ly s1!!esti 0 -as t !ive the ri!ht t elect mem&ers , the Assem&ly t every -hite ma0 -0i0! t- acres , la02* Ca02i2ates , r electi 0 - 1l2 :s metimes !ive the p r misera&le creat1res a little r1m a02 ,resh pr 3 visi 0s a02 s1ch thi0!s as - 1l2 &e , 0 1rishme0t t them": i0 r2er t !et their v tes a02 electi 0s -ere hel2 every year* #>? It is 0 t s1rprisi0! that the e4 21s c 0ti01e2* The p r -hites &e!a0 their travels" 2isp1ti0! their -ay all ver the Cari&&ea0" ,r m )ar&a2 s t Nevis" t A0ti!1a" a02 the0ce t +1ia0a a02 Tri0i2a2" a02 1ltimately Car li0a* Every3 -here they -ere p1rs1e2 a02 2isp ssesse2 &y the same i0e4 3 ra&le ec 0 mic , rce" s1!ar9 a02 i0 Car li0a they -ere sa,e ,r m c tt 0 0ly , r a h102re2 years* )et-ee0 #;<? a02 #<>B the -hite me0 i0 Nevis 2ecrease2 &y m re tha0 three3,i,ths" the &lac6 p p1lati 0 m re tha0 2 1&le2* )et-ee0 #;<? a02 #<?< the -hite males , ( 0tserrat 2ecli0e2 &y m re tha0 t- 3 thir2s" i0 the same peri 2 the &lac6 p p1lati 0 i0crease2 m re tha0 eleve0 times* #>= :The m re they &1ie": sai2 the )ar&a2ia0s" re,erri0! t their slaves" :the m re they are a&le t &1ye" , r i0 a yeare a02 a hal,e they -ill ear0e -ith + 27s &lessi0! as m1ch as they c st*: #>% Fi0! S1!ar ha2 &e!10 his 2epre2ati 0s" cha0!3 i0! ,l 1rishi0! c mm 0-ealths , small ,armers i0t vast s1!ar ,act ries -0e2 &y a camarilla , a&se0tee capitalist ma!0ates a02 - r6e2 &y a mass , alie0 pr letaria0s* The pla0tati 0 ec 0 my ha2 0 r m , r p r -hites9 the pr priet r r ver3 seer" a physicia0 0 the m re pr sper 1s pla0tati 0s" p ssi&ly their ,amilies" these -ere s1,,icie0t* :I, a state": -r te West 0" :c 1l2 &e s1pp se2 t &e ma2e 1p , c 0ti01 1s pla0tati 0s"

the -hite race - 1l2 &e 0 t merely starve2 1t" &1t literally s51ee/e2 1t*: #>@ The resi2e0t pla0ters" apprehe0sive , the !r -i0! 2ispr p rti 0 &et-ee0 -hites a02 &lac6s" passe2 'e3

ORI+IN OF NE+RO SLAVERY ?@

,icie0cy La-s t c mpel a&se0tees" 102er pe0alty , ,i0es" t 6eep -hite serva0ts* The a&se0tees pre,erre2 t pay the ,i0es* I0 the West I02ies t 2ay the p r -hites s1rvive i0 the :Re23 le!s: , )ar&a2 s" palli2" -ea6 a02 2eprave2 ,r m i03&ree2i0!" str 0! r1m" i0s1,,icie0t , 2 a02 a&sti0e0ce ,r m ma01al la& r* F r" as (erivale -r te" :i0 a c 10try -here Ne!r slavery prevails e4te0sively" 0 -hite is i021stri 1s*: #>; It -as the tri1mph" 0 t , !e !raphical c 02iti 0s" as Har3 l - c 0te02s" #>< &1t , ec 0 mic* The victims -ere the Ne!r es i0 A,rica a02 the small -hite ,armers* The i0crease , -ealth , r the ,e- -hites -as as phe0 me0al as the i0crease , misery , r the ma0y &lac6s* The )ar&a2 s cr ps i0 #;@>" ver a t-e0ty3m 0th peri 2" -ere - rth ver three milli 0 p 102s" #>B a& 1t ,i,tee0 milli 0s i0 m 2er0 m 0ey* I0 #;;; )ar&a2 s -as c mp1te2 t &e seve0tee0 times as rich as it ha2 &ee0 &e, re the pla0ti0! , s1!ar* :The &1il2i0!s i0 #;%= -ere mea0" -ith thi0!s 0ly , r 0ecessity" &1t i0 #;;;" plate" De-els" a02 h 1seh l2 st1,, -ere estimate2 at @>>">>>" their &1il2i0!s very ,air a02 &ea1ti,1l" a02 their h 1ses li6e castles" their s1!ar h 1ses a02 0e!r es h1ts sh - themselves ,r m the sea li6e s ma0y small t -0s" each 2e,e02e2 &y its castle*: #>$ The price , la02 s6yr c6ete2* A pla0tati 0 , ,ive h102re2 acres -hich s l2 , r %>> i0 #;%> ,etche2 <">>> , r a hal,3share i0 i;%B* ##> The estate , 0e Captai0 Waterma0" c mprisi0! ei!ht h102re2 acres" ha2 at 0e time &ee0 split 1p am 0! 0 less tha0 , rty pr priet rs* ### F r s1!ar -as a02 is esse0tially a capitalist 103 2erta6i0!" i0v lvi0! 0 t 0ly a!ric1lt1ral perati 0s &1t the cr12e sta!es , re,i0i0! as -ell* A rep rt 0 the Fre0ch s1!ar isla02s state2 that t ma6e te0 h !shea2s , s1!ar re51ire2 as !reat a0 e4pe02it1re i0 &easts , &1r2e0" mills a02 1te0sils as t ma6e a h102re2* ##? .ames F0i!ht , .amaica estimate2 that it re51ire2 , 1r h102re2 acres t start a s1!ar pla0tati 0* ##B Acc r2i0! t E2-ar2 L 0!" a0 ther pla0ter a02 the hist ria0 , the isla02" it 0ee2e2 @">>> t start a small pla0tati 0 , three h102re2 acres" pr 21ci0! ,r m thirty t ,i,ty h !shea2s , s1!ar a year" #%">>> , r a pla0tati 0 , the same si/e pr 3 21ci0! 0e h102re2 h !shea2s* ##% There c 1l2 &e 0ly tclasses i0 s1ch a s ciety" -ealthy pla0ters a02 ppresse2 slaves*

?; CAPITALIS( AN' SLAVERY

The m ral is rei0, rce2 &y a c 0si2erati 0

, the hist ry

Vir!i0ia" -here the pla0tati 0 ec 0 my -as &ase2 0 t 0 s1!ar &1t 0 t &acc * The researches , Pr ,ess r Werte03 &a6er have e4pl 2e2 the le!e02 that Vir!i0ia ,r m the 1tset -as a0 arist cratic 2 mi0i 0* I0 the early seve0tee0th ce0t1ry a& 1t t- 3thir2s , the la02h l2ers ha2 0either slaves 0 r i03 2e0t1re2 serva0ts* The stre0!th , the c l 0y lay i0 its 01mer3 1s -hite ye ma0ry* C 02iti 0s &ecame - rse as the mar6et , r t &acc -as !l1tte2 &y Spa0ish c mpetiti 0 a02 the Vir3 !i0ia0s 2ema02e2 i0 -rath that s methi0! &e 2 0e a& 1t :th se petty E0!lish pla0tati 0s i0 the sava!e isla02s i0 the West I02ies: thr 1!h -hich 51a0tities , Spa0ish t &acc reache2 E0!la02* ##@ N 0e the less" th 1!h prices c 0ti01e2 t ,all" the e4p rts , Vir!i0ia a02 (aryla02 i0crease2 m re tha0 si4 times &et-ee0 #;;= a02 #;$$* The e4pla0ati 0 lay i0 t- r2s Ne!r slavery" -hich cheape0e2 the c st , pr 21c3 ti 0* Ne!r slaves" 0e3t-e0tieth , the p p1lati 0 i0 #;<>" -ere 0e3, 1rth i0 #<=>* :Slavery" ,r m &ei0! a0 i0si!0i,ica0t ,act r i0 the ec 0 mic li,e , the c l 0y" ha2 &ec me the very , 102ati 0 1p 0 -hich it -as esta&lishe2*: There -as still r m i0 Vir!i0ia" as there -as 0 t i0 )ar&a2 s" , r the small ,armer" &1t la02 -as 1seless t him i, he c 1l2 0 t c mpete -ith slave la& r* S the Vir!i0ia0 peasa0t" li6e the )ar&a2ia0" -as s51ee/e2 1t* :The Vir!i0ia -hich ha2 , rmerly &ee0 s lar!ely the la02 , the little ,armer" ha2 &ec me the la02 , (asters a02 Slaves* F r a1!ht else there -as 0 r m*: ##; The -h le ,1t1re hist ry , the Cari&&ea0 is 0 thi0! m re tha0 a 2 tti0! , the i7s a02 a cr ssi0! , the t7s* It happe0e2 earlier i0 the )ritish a02 Fre0ch tha0 i0 the Spa0ish isla02s" -here the pr cess -as 2elaye2 10til the a2ve0t , the 2 llar 2ipl macy , 1r -0 time* U02er America0 capital -e have -it0esse2 the tra0s, rmati 0 , C1&a" P1ert Ric a02 the ' mi0ica0 Rep1&lic i0t h1!e s1!ar ,act ries Gth 1!h the lar!e pla0tati 0" especially i0 C1&a" -as 0 t 1060 -0 102er the Spa0ish re!imeH" -0e2 a&r a2 a02 perate2 &y alie0 la& r" 0 the )ritish West I02ia0 patter0* That this pr cess is ta6i0! place -ith ,ree la& r a02 i0 0 mi0ally i02epe02e0t areas GP1ert Ric e4cepte2H helps 1s t see i0 its tr1e li!ht the ,irst im3

ORI+IN OF NE+RO SLAVERY ?.

p rtati 0 , Ne!r slave la& r i0 the )ritish Cari&&ea0 a phase i0 the hist ry , the pla0tati 0* I0 the - r2s , Pr ,ess r Phillips" the pla0tati 0 system -as 1 less 2epe02e0t 1p 0 slavery tha0 slavery -as 1p 0 it* *** The pla0tati 0 system , rme2" s t spea6" the i021strial a02 s cial ,rame , ! ver0me0t * * *" -hile slavery -as a c 2e , -ritte0 la-s e0acte2 , r that p1r3 p se*: =#< Where the pla0tati 0 2i2 0 t 2evel p" as i0 the C1&a0 t &acc i021stry" Ne!r la& r -as rare a02 -hite la& r pre3 2 mi0ate2* The li&eral secti 0 , the C1&a0 p p1lati 0 c 03 siste0tly a2v cate2 the cessati 0 , the Ne!r slave tra2e a02

the i0tr 21cti 0 , -hite immi!ra0ts* Sac " m 1thpiece , the li&erals" calle2 , r the immi!rati 0 , - r6ers :-hite a02 ,ree" ,r m all parts , the - rl2" , all races" pr vi2e2 they have a -hite ,ace a02 ca0 2 h 0est la& r*: ##B S1!ar 2e,eate2 Sac * It -as the s1!ar pla0tati 0" -ith its servile &ase" -hich retar2e2 -hite immi!rati 0 i0 0i0etee0th ce0t1ry C1&a as it ha2 &a00e2 it i0 seve0tee0th ce0t1ry )ar&a2 s a02 ei!htee0th ce0t1ry Sai0t ' mi0!1e* N s1!ar" 0 Ne!r es* I0 P1ert Ric " -hich 2evel pe2 relatively late as a !e01i0e pla0tati 0" a02 -here" &e, re the America0 re!ime" s1!ar 0ever 2 mi0ate2 the lives a02 th 1!hts , the p p1lati 0 as it 2i2 else-here" the p r -hite peasa0ts s1rvive2 a02 the Ne!r slaves 0ever e4cee2e2 , 1rtee0 per ce0t , the p p1lati 0* ##$ Sac -a0te2 t :-hite0: the C1&a0 s cial str1ct1re* #?> Ne!r slavery &lac6e0e2 that str1ct1re all ver the Cari&&ea0 -hile the &l 2 , the Ne!r slaves re22e0e2 the Atla0tic a02 & th its sh res* Stra0!e that a0 article li6e s1!ar" s s-eet a02 0ecessary t h1ma0 e4iste0ce" sh 1l2 have ccasi 0e2 s1ch crimes a02 &l 2she2M A,ter ema0cipati 0 the )ritish pla0ters th 1!ht , -hite im3 mi!rati 0" eve0 c 0victs* The ! ver0 r , )ritish +1ia0a -r te i0 !l -i0! terms i0 #B%@ a& 1t P rt1!1ese immi!ra0ts ,r m (a2eira* #?# )1t th 1!h the P rt1!1ese came i0 lar!e 01m&ers" as is atteste2 &y their stre0!th eve0 t 2ay i0 Tri0i2a2 a02 )ritish +1ia0a" they pre,erre2 retail tra2e t pla0tati 0 la& r* The ! ver0 r , .amaica -as s me-hat m re ca1ti 1s i0 his pi0i 0 , )ritish a02 Irish immi!ra0ts* Sic60ess ha2 &r 6e0 1t" -a!es -ere t l -" the e4perime0t c 1l2 0ly

?B CAPITALIS( AN' SLAVERY

&e partially 1se,1l i0 ma6i0! a0 imme2iate a22iti 0 t the la& r3 i0! p p1lati 0" a02 there, re i02iscrimi0ate imp rtati 0 -as i0a2visa&le* #?? The E1r pea0 immi!ra0ts i0 St* Christ pher &e3 -aile2 their ,ate pite 1sly" a02 &e!!e2 t &e permitte2 t re3 t1r0 h me* :There is 0 t the sli!htest rel1cta0ce 0 1r part t c 0ti01e i0 the isla02 , r a0 h 0est livelih 2 &y pleasi0! 1r empl yers &y 1r i021stri 1s la& 1r i, the climate a!ree2 -ith 1s" &1t 10, rt10ately it 2 0 t9 a02 -e are m1ch a,rai2 i, -e c 0ti01e l 0!er i0 this i0D1ri 1s h t climate Gthe West I02iesH 2eath -ill &e the c 0se51e0ce t the pri0cipal part , 1s : #?= It -as 0 t the climate -hich -as a!ai0st the e4perime0t* Slavery ha2 create2 the per0ici 1s tra2iti 0 that ma01al la& r -as the &a2!e , the slave a02 the sphere , i0,l1e0ce , the Ne!r * The ,irst th 1!ht , the Ne!r slave a,ter ema0cipati 0 -as t 2esert the pla0tati 0" -here he c 1l2" a02 set 1p , r himsel, -here la02 -as availa&le* White pla0tati 0 - r6ers c 1l2 har2ly have e4iste2 i0 a s ciety si2e &y si2e -ith Ne!r peasa0ts* The -hites - 1l2 have pr spere2 i, small ,arms ha2 &ee0 e0c 1ra!e2* )1t the a& liti 0 , slavery 2i2 0 t mea0 the

2estr1cti 0 , the s1!ar pla0tati 0* The ema0cipati 0 , the Ne!r a02 the i0a2e51acy , the -hite - r6er p1t the s1!ar pla0ter &ac6 t -here he ha2 &ee0 i0 the seve0tee0th ce0t1ry* He still 0ee2e2 la& r* The0 he ha2 m ve2 ,r m I02ia0 t -hite t Ne!r * N -" 2eprive2 , his Ne!r " he t1r0e2 &ac6 t -hite a02 the0 t I02ia0" this time the I02ia0 ,r m the East* I02ia replace2 A,rica9 &et-ee0 #B== a02 #$#<" Tri0i2a2 im3 p rte2 #%@">>> East I02ia0sN a02 )ritish +1ia0a ?=B">>>* The patter0 -as the same , r the ther Cari&&ea0 c l 0ies* )e3 t-ee0 #B@% a02 #BB= =$">>> I02ia0s -ere i0tr 21ce2 i0t +1a2el 1pe9 &et-ee0 #B@= a02 #$?%" ver ??">>> la& rers ,r m the '1tch East I02ies a02 =%">>> ,r m )ritish I02ia -ere carrie2 t '1tch +1ia0a* #?% C1&a" ,ace2 -ith a sh rta!e , Ne!r slaves" a2 pte2 the i0teresti0! e4perime0t , 1si0!

NThis is the c rrect West I02ia0 2escripti 0* It is 51ite i0c rrect t call them" as is 2 0e i0 this c 10try" :Hi021s*: N t all East I02ia0s are Hi021s* There are ma0y ( slems i0 the West I02ies*

ORI+IN OF NE+RO SLAVERY ?L

Ne!r slaves si2e &y si2e -ith i02e0t1re2 Chi0ese c lies" #?@ a02 a,ter ema0cipati 0 t1r0e2 t the teemi0! th 1sa02s , Haiti a02 the )ritish West I02ies* )et-ee0 #$#= a02 #$?% C1&a imp rte2 ?#<">>> la& rers ,r m Haiti" .amaica a02 P1ert Ric * #?; What Sac -r te a h102re2 years a! -as still tr1e" si4ty years a,ter C1&a7s a& liti 0 , slavery* Ne!r slavery there, re -as 0ly a s l1ti 0" i0 certai0 his3 t rical circ1msta0ces" , the Cari&&ea0 la& r pr &lem* S1!ar mea0t la& r at times that la& r has &ee0 slave" at ther times 0 mi0ally ,ree9 at times &lac6" at ther times -hite r &r -0 r yell -* Slavery i0 0 -ay implie2" i0 a0y scie0ti,ic se0se" the i0,eri rity , the Ne!r * With 1t it the !reat 2evel pme0t , the Cari&&ea0 s1!ar pla0tati 0s" &et-ee0 #;@> a02 #B@>" - 1l2 have &ee0 imp ssi&le*

? 3 THE 'EVELOP(ENT OF THE NE+RO SLAVE TRA'E

THE NE+RO SLAVES -ere :the stre0!th a02 si0e-s , this -est3 ter0 - rl2*: # Ne!r slavery 2ema02e2 the Ne!r slave tra2e* There, re the preservati 0 a02 impr veme0t , the tra2e t A,rica -as :a matter , very hi!h imp rta0ce t this 6i0!2 m

a02 the pla0tati 0s there10t &el 0!i0!*: ? A02 th1s it re3 mai0e2" 1p t #<B=" a car2i0al &Dect , )ritish , rei!0 p licy* The ,irst E0!lish slave3tra2i0! e4pe2iti 0 -as that , Sir . h0 Ha-6i0s i0 #@;?* Li6e s ma0y Eli/a&etha0 ve0t1res" it -as a &1cca0eeri0! e4pe2iti 0" e0cr achi0! 0 the papal ar3 &itrati 0 , #%$= -hich ma2e A,rica a P rt1!1ese m 0 p ly* The slaves &tai0e2 -ere s l2 t the Spa0iar2s i0 the West I02ies* The E0!lish slave tra2e remai0e2 2es1lt ry a02 per3 ,10ct ry i0 character 10til the esta&lishme0t , )ritish c l 0ies i0 the Cari&&ea0 a02 the i0tr 21cti 0 , the s1!ar i021stry* Whe0 &y #;;> the p litical a02 s cial 1pheavals , the Civil War peri 2 came t a0 e02" E0!la02 -as rea2y t em&ar6 -h lehearte2ly 0 a &ra0ch , c mmerce -h se imp rta0ce t her s1!ar a02 her t &acc c l 0ies i0 the Ne- W rl2 -as &e!i00i0! t &e ,1lly appreciate2* I0 acc r2a0ce -ith the ec 0 mic p licies , the St1art m 0archy" the slave tra2e -as e0tr1ste2 t a m 0 p listic c m3 pa0y" the C mpa0y , R yal A2ve0t1rers tra2i0!: t A,rica" =

'EVELOP(ENT OF THE SLAVE TRA'E =# i0c rp rate2 i0 #;;= , r a peri 2 , 0e th 1sa02 years* The Earl , Clare02 0 v ice2 the e0th1siasm c1rre0t at the time" that the c mpa0y - 1l2 :&e , 102 a m 2el e51ally t a23 va0ce the tra2e , E0!la02 -ith that , a0y ther c mpa0y" eve0 that , the East I02ies*: B The ptimistic pre2icti 0 -as 0 t reali/e2" lar!ely as a res1lt , l sses a02 2isl cati 0s ca1se2 &y -ar -ith the '1tch" a02 i0 #;<? a 0e- c mpa0y" the R yal A,rica0 C mpa0y" -as create2* The p licy , m 0 p ly h -ever remai0e2 10cha0!e2 a02 pr v 6e2 2etermi0e2 resista0ce i0 t- 51arters the mercha0ts i0 the 1tp rts" str1!!li0! t &rea6 2 -0 the m 0 p ly , the capital9 a02 the pla0ters i0 the c l 0ies" 2ema02i0! ,ree tra2e i0 &lac6s as v ci,er 1sly a02 -ith as m1ch !1st as 0e h103 2re2 a02 ,i,ty years later they pp se2 ,ree tra2e i0 s1!ar* The merca0tilist i0telli!e0tsia -ere 2ivi2e2 0 the 51esti 0* P stle3 th-ayt" m st pr li,ic , the merca0tilist -riters" -a0te2 the c mpa0y" the -h le c mpa0y a02 0 thi0! &1t the c mpa0y* % . sh1a +ee emphasi/e2 the ,r1!ality a02 ! 2 ma0a!eme0t , the private tra2er* @ 'ave0a0t" 0e , the a&lest ec 0 mists a02 ,i0a0cial e4perts , his 2ay" at ,irst pp se2 the m 0 p ly" ; a02 the0 later cha0!e2 his mi02" ar!1i0! that ther 0ati 0s , 102 r!a0i/e2 c mpa0ies 0ecessary" a02 that the c mpa0y - 1l2 :sta02 i0 place , a0 aca2emy" , r trai0i0! a0 i02e,i0ite 01m&er , pe ple i0 the re!1lar 60 -le2!e , all matters relati0! t the several &ra0ches , the A,rica0 tra2e*: < The case a!ai0st m 0 p ly -as s1cci0ctly state2 &y the ,ree tra2ers r i0terl pers as they -ere the0 calle2 t the ) ar2 , Tra2e i0 #<##* The m 0 p ly mea0t that the p1rchase ,

)ritish ma01,act1res , r sale 0 the c ast , A,rica" c 0tr l , ships empl ye2 i0 the slave tra2e" sale , Ne!r es t the pla0tati 0s" imp rtati 0 , pla0tati 0 pr 21ce :this !reat circle , tra2e a02 0avi!ati 0": 0 -hich the livelih 2" 2irect a02 i02irect" , ma0y th 1sa02s 2epe02e2" - 1l2 &e 102er the c 0tr l , a si0!le c mpa0y* B The pla0ters i0 their t1r0 c mplai0e2 , the 51ality" prices" a02 irre!1lar 2eliveries" a02 re,1se2 t pay their 2e&ts t the c mpa0y* $ There -as 0 thi0! 10i51e i0 this pp siti 0 t the m 0 p ly , the slave tra2e* ( 0 p ly -as a0 1!ly - r2" -hich c 03

=? CAPITALIS( AN' SLAVERY

D1re2 1p mem ries , the p litical tyra00y , Charles I" th 1!h 0 :,ree tra2er: , the time c 1l2 have ha2 the sli!ht3 est i2ea , the still 1!lier visi 0s the - r2 - 1l2 c 0D1re 1p 0e h102re2 a02 ,i,ty years later -he0 it -as ass ciate2 -ith the ec 0 mic tyra00y , the West I02ia0 s1!ar pla0ter* )1t i0 the last 2eca2e , the seve0tee0th ce0t1ry the ec 0 mic c1r3 re0t -as ,l -i0! 2e,i0itely a!ai0st m 0 p ly* I0 #;<? the )altic tra2e -as thr -0 pe0 a02 the m 0 p ly , the East3 la02 C mpa0y verthr -0* O0e , the m st imp rta0t c 03 se51e0ces , the +l ri 1s Rev l1ti 0 , #;BB a02 the e4p1lsi 0 , the St1arts -as the impet1s it !ave t the pri0ciple , ,ree tra2e* I0 #;$B the R yal A,rica0 C mpa0y l st its m 0 p ly a02 the ri!ht , a ,ree tra2e i0 slaves -as rec !0i/e2 as a ,102a3 me0tal a02 0at1ral ri!ht , E0!lishme0* I0 the same year the (ercha0t A2ve0t1rers , L 02 0 -ere 2eprive2 , their m 0 p ly , the e4p rt tra2e i0 cl th" a02 a year later the m 0 p ly , the (1sc vy C mpa0y -as a&r !ate2 a02 tra2e t R1ssia ma2e ,ree* O0ly i0 0e partic1lar 2i2 the ,ree2 m acc r2e2 i0 the slave tra2e 2i,,er ,r m the ,ree2 m acc r2e2 i0 ther tra2es the c mm 2ity i0v lve2 -as ma0* The R yal A,rica0 C mpa0y -as p -erless a!ai0st the c mpetiti 0 , the ,ree tra2ers* It s 0 -e0t &a06r1pt a02 ha2 t 2epe02 0 parliame0tary s1&si2y* I0 #<=# it a&a02 0e2 the slave tra2e a02 c 0,i0e2 itsel, t the tra2e i0 iv ry a02 ! l2 21st* I0 #<@> a 0e- r!a0i/ati 0 -as esta&lishe2" calle2 the C mpa0y , (ercha0ts tra2i0! t A,rica" -ith a & ar2 , 0i0e 2irect rs" three each ,r m L 02 0" )rist l a02 Liverp l* O, the slave tra2ers liste2 i0 #<@@" ?=< &el 0!e2 t )rist l" #%< t L 02 0" a02 B$ t Liverp l* #> With ,ree tra2e a02 the i0creasi0! 2ema02s , the s1!ar pla0tati 0s" the v l1me , the )ritish slave tra2e r se e0 r3 m 1sly* The R yal A,rica0 C mpa0y" &et-ee0 #;B> a02 #;B;" tra0sp rte2 a0 a001al avera!e , @">>> slaves* ## I0 the ,irst 0i0e years , ,ree tra2e )rist l al 0e shippe2 #;>"$@> Ne!r es t the s1!ar pla0tati 0s* #? I0 #<;>" #%; ships saile2 ,r m )ritish p rts , r A,rica" -ith a capacity , r =;">>> slaves9 #B i0 #<<#" the 01m&er , ships ha2 i0crease2 t #$> a02 the 01m&er , slaves

'EVELOP(ENT OF THE SLAVE TRA'E == t %<" ;#>">>>" i0t all milli 0* * #% The imp rtati 0 i0t .amaica ,r m #<>> t #<B; -as a02 it has &ee0 estimate2 that the t tal imp rt , slaves the )ritish c l 0ies &et-ee0 #;B> a02 #<B; -as ver t#@

)1t the slave tra2e -as m re tha0 a mea0s t a0 e02" it -as als a0 e02 i0 itsel,* The )ritish slave tra2ers pr vi2e2 the 0ecessary la& rers 0 t 0ly , r their -0 pla0tati 0s &1t , r th se , their rivals* The e0c 1ra!eme0t there&y !ive0 t , rei!0ers -as c 0trary 0 t 0ly t c mm 0 se0se &1t t strict merca0tilism" &1t" i0 s ,ar as this , rei!0 slave tra2e mea0t the Spa0ish c l 0ies" there -as s me 2e,e0ce , r it* Spai0 -as al3 -ays" 1p t the 0i0etee0th ce0t1ry" 2epe02e0t 0 , rei!0ers , r her slaves" either &eca1se she a2here2 t the papal ar&itra3 ti 0 -hich e4cl12e2 her ,r m A,rica" r &eca1se , a lac6 , capital a02 the 0ecessary ! 2s , r the slave tra2e* The privile!e , s1pplyi0! these slaves t the Spa0ish c l 0ies" calle2 the Asie0t " &ecame 0e , the m st hi!hly c vete2 a02 &itterly c 0teste2 pl1ms , i0ter0ati 0al 2ipl macy* )ritish merca0tilists 2e,e02e2 the tra2e" le!al r ille!al" -ith the Spa0ish c l 0ies" i0 Ne!r es a02 ma01,act1re2 ! 2s" as , 2isti0ct val1e i0 that the Spa0iar2s pai2 i0 c i0" a02 th1s the s1pply , &1lli 0 i0 E0!la02 -as i0crease2* The s1pply , slaves t the Fre0ch c l 0ies c 1l2 plea2 0 s1ch D1sti,icati 0* Here it -as clearly a clash , i0terest &et-ee0 the )ritish slave tra2er a02 the )ritish s1!ar pla0ter" as the tra2e i0 the e4p rt , )ritish machi0ery a,ter #B?@ le2 t a clash , i0terests &e3 t-ee0 )ritish shippers a02 )ritish pr 21cers* The s1!ar pla0ter -as ri!ht a02 the slave tra2er -r 0!* )1t i0 the ,irst hal, , the ei!htee0th ce0t1ry this -as 0 tice2 0ly &y the very 2iscer0i0!* P stleth-ayt c 02em0e2 the Asie0t , #<#= as sca02al 1s a02 r1i0 1s" a0 e4cha0!e , the s1&3 sta0ce , r the sha2 -8 :a treaty c 1l2 scarce have &ee0 c 03 trive2 , s little &e0e,it t the 0ati 0*: #; '1ri0! the 0i0e m 0ths , )ritish cc1pati 0 , C1&a i0 the Seve0 Years7 War" #>"<>> slaves -ere i0tr 21ce2" ver 0e3si4th , the imp rta3 ti 0s ,r m #@#? t #<;=" ver 0e3thir2 , the imp rtati 0s ,r m #<;= t I<B$* #< F rty th 1sa02 Ne!r es -ere i0tr 21ce2 i0t +1a2el 1pe &y the )ritish i0 three years 21ri0! the same

=% CAPITALIS( AN' SLAVERY

-ar* #B The Privy C 10cil C mmittee , #<BB pai2 special at3 te0ti 0 t the ,act that , the a001al )ritish e4p rt , slaves ,r m A,rica t- 3thir2s -ere 2isp se2 , t , rei!0ers* #$ '1r3 i0! the -h le , the ei!htee0th ce0t1ry" acc r2i0! t )rya0 E2-ar2s" )ritish slave tra2ers ,1r0ishe2 the s1!ar pla0ters ,

Fra0ce a02 Spai0 -ith hal, a milli 0 Ne!r es" D1sti,yi0! his 2 1&ts , :the -is2 m a02 p licy , this &ra0ch , the A,rica0 c mmerce*: ?> )ritai0 -as 0 t 0ly the , rem st slave tra2i0! c 10try i0 the - rl29 she ha2 &ec me" i0 Ramsay 7s phrase" the :h 0 1ra&le slave carriers: , her rivals* ?# The st ry , this i0crease i0 the slave tra2e is mai0ly the st ry , the rise , Liverp l* Liverp l7s ,irst slave tra2er" a m 2est vessel , thirty t 0s" saile2 , r A,rica i0 #<>$* This -as the ,irst step 0 a r a2 -hich" &y the e02 , the ce0t1ry" !ai0e2 Liverp l the 2isti0cti 0 , &ei0! the !reatest slave tra2i0! p rt i0 the Ol2 W rl2* Pr !ress at ,irst -as sl -* The t -0 -as m re i0tereste2 i0 the sm1!!li0! tra2e t the Spa0ish c l 0ies a02 the t &acc tra2e* )1t" acc r2i0! t a hist ria0 , the t -0" it s 0 , r!e2 ahea2 &y its p licy , c1tti0! 2 -0 e4pe0ses t a mi0im1m" -hich e0a&le2 it t 102ersell its E0!3 lish a02 c 0ti0e0tal rivals* I0 #<=> it ha2 ,i,tee0 ships i0 the slave tra2e9 i0 #<<# seve0 times as ma0y* The pr p rti 0 , slave ships t the t tal shippi0! -0e2 &y the p rt -as sli!htly ver 0e i0 a h102re2 i0 #<>$9 i0 #<=> it -as 0e3eleve0th9 i0 #<;=" 0e3, 1rth9 i0 #<<#" 0e3thir2* ?? I0 #<$@ Liverp l ha2 ,ive3ei!hths , the )ritish slave tra2e a02 three3seve0ths , the -h le E1r pea0 slave tra2e* ?= The :h rr rs: , the (i22le Passa!e have &ee0 e4a!!erate2* F r this the )ritish a& liti 0ists are i0 lar!e part resp 0si&le* There is s methi0! that smac6s , i!0 ra0ce r hyp crisy r & th i0 the i0vectives heape2 &y these me0 1p 0 a tra,,ic -hich ha2 i0 their 2ay &ec me less pr ,ita&le a02 less vital t E0!3 la02* A West I02ia0 pla0ter 0ce remi02e2 Parliame0t that it ill &ecame the electe2 represe0tative , a c 10try -hich ha2 p c6ete2 the !ai0s ,r m the slave tra2e t sti!mati/e it as a crime* ?% The a!e -hich ha2 see0 the m rtality am 0! i02e03 t1re2 serva0ts sa- 0 reas 0 , r s51eamish0ess a& 1t the m r3 tality am 0! slaves" 0 r 2i2 the e4pl itati 0 , the slaves 0 the

'EVELOP(ENT OF THE SLAVE TRA'E =@ pla0tati 0s 2i,,er ,102ame0tally ,r m the e4pl itati 0 , the ,e12al peasa0t r the treatme0t , the p r i0 E1r pea0 cities* (1ti0ies a02 s1ici2es -ere &vi 1sly ,ar m re c mm 0 0 slave ships tha0 0 ther vessels" a02 the &r1tal treatme0t a02 !reater restricti 0s 0 the m veme0ts , the slaves - 1l2 2 1&t3 less have te02e2 t i0crease their m rtality* )1t the ,102ame03 tal ca1ses , this hi!h m rtality 0 the slave ships" as 0 ships carryi0! i02e0t1re2 serva0ts a02 eve0 ,ree passe0!ers" m1st &e , 102 ,irstly i0 epi2emics" the i0evita&le res1lt , the l 0! v ya!es a02 the 2i,,ic1lty , preservi0! , 2 a02 -ater" a02 sec 02ly i0 the practice , vercr -2i0! the vessels* The s le aim , the slave mercha0ts -as t have their 2ec6s :-ell c ver2 -ith &lac6 0es*: ?@ It is 0 t 10c mm 0 t rea2 , a vessel , $> t 0s carryi0! =$> slaves r 0e , #>> t 0s carryi0! %I%* ?; Clar6s 07s i0vesti!ati 0s i0 )rist l reveale2 a sl p , t-e0ty3 ,ive t 0s 2esti0e2 , r seve0ty h1ma0 &ei0!s" a02 a0 ther , a mere eleve0 t 0s , r thirty slaves* ?< The space all tte2 t each

slave 0 the Atla0tic cr ssi0! meas1re2 ,ive a02 a hal, ,eet i0 le0!th &y si4tee0 i0ches i0 &rea2th* Pac6e2 li6e :r -s , & 6s 0 shelves": as Clar6s 0 sai2" chai0e2 t- &y t- " ri!ht le! a02 le,t le!" ri!ht ha02 a02 le,t ha02" each slave ha2 less r m tha0 a ma0 i0 a c ,,i0* It -as li6e the tra0sp rtati 0 , &lac6 cattle" a02 -here s1,,icie0t Ne!r es -ere 0 t availa&le cattle -ere ta6e0 0* ?B The slave tra2er7s aim -as pr ,it a02 0 t the c m3 , rt , his victims" a02 a m 2est meas1re i0 #<BB t re!1late the tra0sp rtati 0 , the slaves i0 acc r2a0ce -ith the capacity , the vessel ev 6e2 a l 12 h -l ,r m the slave tra2ers* :I, the alterati 0 ta6es place": -r te 0e t his a!e0t" :it -ill h1rt the tra2e" s h pe y 1 -ill ma6e hay -hile the s10 shi0es*: ?$ The D 1r0al , 0e slave 2ealer 21ri0! his resi2e0ce i0 A,rica a2mits that he ha2 :, 102 0 place i0 all these several c 10trys , E0!la02" Irela02" America" P rt1!alM" the Cari&es" the Cape 2e Ver2" the A/ res r all the places I have &ee0 i0 *** -here I ca0 i0lar!e my , rt10e s s 0 as -here I 0 - live*: ( 0ey ma2e the ma0* The pr 2i!al -h ret1r0e2 h me empty3 ha02e2 - 1l2 have t &e c 0te0t -ith the c mm 0 0ame , :the (allat D1st c me ,r m +1i0ea*: I," h -ever" he ret1r0e2

=; CAPITALIS( AN' SLAVERY

-ith his p c6ets -ell st1,,e2 -ith ! l2" :that very pertic1lar hi2es all ther i0,irmities" the0 y 1 have hapes , ,ri02s , all 6i02s thr 0!i0! a02 -atei0! , r y 1r c mma02s* The0 y 1r 60 -0 &y the 0ame , 7the A,rica0 !e0tlema07 at every !reat ma07s h 1se" a02 y 1r 2isc 1rce is set 2 -0 as pertic1lar as Crist pher C1l1m&1s7s e4pe2iti 0 i0 America*: B> A& 1t #<=> i0 )rist l it -as estimate2 that 0 a , rt10ate v ya!e the pr ,it 0 a car! , a& 1t ?<> slaves reache2 <">>> r B">>>" e4cl1sive , the ret1r0s ,r m iv ry* I0 the same year the 0et ret1r0 ,r m a0 :i02i,,ere0t: car! -hich arrive2 i0 p r c 02iti 0 -as ver @"< * =# Pr ,its , #>> per ce0t -ere 0 t 10c mm 0 i0 Liverp l" a02 0e v ya!e 0ette2 a clear pr ,it , at least =>> per ce0t* The Lively" ,itte2 1t i0 #<=< -ith a car! - rth #"=><" ret1r0e2 t Liverp l -ith c l 0ial pr 21ce a02 &ills , e4cha0!e t talli0! =">B>" i0 a22iti 0 t c tt 0 a02 s1!ar remitte2 later* The A00" a0 ther Liverp l ship" saile2 i0 #<@# -ith a0 1t,it a02 a car! c sti0! #";>%9 alt !ether the v ya!e pr 21ce2 ="?B< 0et* A sec 02 v ya!e i0 #<@= pr 21ce2 B">>> 0 a car! a02 1t,it am 10ti0! t ="#@=*I A0 ei!htee0th ce0t1ry -riter has estimate2 the sterli0! val1e , the =>="<=< slaves carrie2 i0 B<B Liverp l ships &et-ee0 #<B= a02 #<$= at ver ,i,tee0 milli 0 p 102s* 'e21cti0! c m3 missi 0s a02 ther char!es a02 the c st , the 1t,it , the ships a02 mai0te0a0ce , the slaves" he c 0cl12e2 that the avera!e a001al pr ,it -as ver thirty per ce0t* == ( 2er0

sch larship has te02e2 t repr ach c 0temp rary &servers -ith 1021e e4a!!erati 0* )1t eve0 ta6i0! the re21ce2 estimates , Pr ,ess r '1m&ell" the 0et pr ,it , the E0terprise i0 #B>=" estimate2 0 c st , 1t,it a02 c st , car! " -as =B per ce0t" -hile that , the , rt10e i0 #B>=" , r a car! , p r slaves" -as ver #; per ce0t* A!ai0 -ith these re21ce2 estimates the pr ,it , the L ttery i0 #B>? -as thirty3si4 p 102s per slave" the E0terprise si4tee0 p 102s" a02 the , rt10e ,ive* =% The slave tra2e 0 the -h le -as estimate2 t &ri0! Liverp l al 0e i0 the ei!hties a clear pr ,it , =>>">>> a year9 a02 it -as a c mm 0 sayi0! i0 the t -0 , the ,ar less pr ,ita&le West I02ia0 tra2e that i, 0e ship i0 three came i0 a ma0 -as 0

'EVELOP(ENT OF THE SLAVE TRA'E =< l ser" -hile i, t- came i0 he -as a ! 2 !ai0er* O0 a0 aver3 a!e 0ly 0e ship i0 ,ive miscarrie2* =@ S1ch pr ,its seem small a02 i0si!0i,ica0t c mpare2 -ith the ,a&1l 1s ,ive th 1sa02 per ce0t the '1tch East I02ia C mpa0y cleare2 at times i0 its hist ry* It is eve0 pr &a&le that the pr ,its ,r m the slave tra2e -ere smaller tha0 th se ma2e &y the )ritish East I02ia C mpa0y* Yet these tra2es -ere ,ar less im3 p rta0t tha0 the slave tra2e* The e4pla0ati 0 lies i0 the ,act that ,r m the merca0tilist sta02p i0t the I02ia tra2e -as a &a2 tra2e* It 2rai0e2 )ritai0 , &1lli 0 t &1y 100ecessary -ares" -hich le2 ma0y at the time t thi06 that :it -ere a happie thi0! , r Christe02 me that the 0avi!ati 0 t the East I02ies" &y -ay , the Cape , + 2 H pe" ha2 0ever &e0e , 102 1t*: =; The slave tra2e" 0 the c 0trary" -as i2eal i0 that it -as carrie2 0 &y mea0s , )ritish ma01,act1re2 ! 2s a02 -as" as ,ar as the )ritish c l 0ies -ere c 0cer0e2" i0separa&ly c 03 0ecte2 -ith the pla0tati 0 tra2e -hich re02ere2 )ritai0 i03 2epe02e0t , , rei!0ers , r her s1pply , tr pical pr 21cts* The e0 rm 1s pr ,its , the '1tch spice tra2e" m re ver" -ere &ase2 0 a severe restricti 0 , pr 21cti 0 t e0s1re hi!h prices" -hereas the slave tra2e create2 )ritish i021stry at h me a02 tr pical a!ric1lt1re i0 the c l 0ies* The :attractive A,rica0 mete r": =< as a c 0temp rary Liver3 p l hist ria0 calle2 it" there, re &ecame imme0sely p p1lar* Th 1!h a lar!e part , the Liverp l slave tra,,ic -as m 0 p3 li/e2 &y a& 1t te0 lar!e ,irms" ma0y , the small vessels i0 the tra2e -ere ,itte2 1t &y att r0eys" 2rapers" !r cers" &ar&ers a02 tail rs* The shares i0 the ve0t1res -ere s1&2ivi2e2" 0e havi0! 0e3ei!hth" a0 ther 0e3,i,tee0th" a thir2 0e3thirty3 sec 02 part , a share a02 s 0* :Alm st every ma0 i0 Liver3 p l is a mercha0t" a02 he -h ca00 t se02 a &ale -ill se02 a &a023& 4 * * * alm st every r2er , pe ple is i0tereste2 i0 a +1i0ea car! " it is t this i0,l1e0/a that Gthere areH s ma0y small ships*: =B The p1rchase , slaves calle2 , r a &1si0ess se0se a02 shre-2 2iscrimi0ati 0* A0 A0! la0 Ne!r -as a pr ver& , r - rth3 less0ess9 C r ma0ti0es GAsha0tisH" ,r m the + l2 C ast" -ere

2 - r6ers &1t t

re&elli 1s9 (a02i0! es GSe0e!alH -ere

=B CAPITALIS( AN' SLAVERY

t pr 0e t the,t9 the E& es GNi!eriaH -ere timi2 a02 2e3 sp 02e0t9 the Pa-pa-s r Why2ahs G'ah meyH -ere the m st 2 cile a02 &est32isp se2* =$ The slaves -ere re51ire2 , r ar21 1s ,iel2 - r6" he0ce - me0 a02 chil2re0 -ere less val3 1a&le tha0 r &1st males" the , rmer &eca1se they -ere lia&le t i0terr1pti 0s ,r m - r6 thr 1!h pre!0a0cies" the latter &eca1se they re51ire2 s me atte0ti 0 10til a&le t care , r themselves* O0e Liverp l mercha0t ca1ti 0e2 his a!e0ts a!ai0st &1yi0! r1pt1re2 slaves" i2i ts r a0y : l2 spi2er le!e2 51ality*: %> A West I02ia0 p et a2vise2 the slave tra2er t see that the slave7s t 0!1e -as re2" his chest &r a2 a02 his &elly 0 t pr mi0e0t* %# )1y them y 10!" c 10selle2 0e verseer ,r m Nevis9 :them ,1ll !r -0 ,ellers thi06 it har2 t - r6 0ever &ei0! &r 1!ht 1p t it they ta6e it t heart a02 2ye r is 0ever ! 2 , r a0y thi0!****: %? )1t the slave tra2e -as al-ays a ris6y &1si0ess* :The A,rica0 C mmerce": it -as -ritte0 i0 #<$@" :h l2s , r-ar2 0e c 03 sta0t trai0 , 10certai0ty" the time , slavi0! is precari 1s" the le0!th , the mi22le passa!e 10certai0" a vessel may &e i0 part" r -h lly c1t ,," m rtalities may &e !reat" a02 vari 1s ther i0ci2e0ts may arise imp ssi&le t &e , resee0*: %= S1!ar c1ltiva3 ti 0" m re ver" -as a l ttery* The 2e&ts , the pla0ters" their &a06r1ptcies a02 2ema02 , r l 0! cre2its !ave the mercha0ts ma0y - rries* :As y 1 60 -": -r te 0e , them" :51ic6 2ispatch is the li,e , tra2e" I have ha2 ma0y a04i 1s h 1rs this year" I - 172 0 t -ish the same a!ai0 , r 2 1&le the pr ,its I may !et i, a0y*: %% Fr m #<;= t #<<B the L 02 0 mercha0ts av i2e2 all c 00ecti 0 -ith the Liverp l slave tra2ers" 0 the c 0victi 0 that the slave tra2e -as &ei0! c 021cte2 at a l ss9 &et-ee0 #<<? a02 #<<B the Liverp l mercha0ts -ere alle!e2 t have l st < " * %@ O, thirty lea2i0! h 1ses -hich 2 mi3 0ate2 the slave tra2e ,r m #<<=" t-elve ha2 &y #<BB ! 0e &a063 r1pt" -hile ma0y thers ha2 s1stai0e2 c 0si2era&le l sses* %; The America0 Rev l1ti 0 seri 1sly i0terr1pte2 the tra2e* :O1r 0ce e4te0sive tra2e t A,rica is at a sta02": lame0te2 a Liver3 p l paper i0 #<<@* Her :!alla0t ships lai2 1p a02 1seless": Liverp l7s slave tra2ers t1r0e2 t privateeri0!" %< a04i 1sly a-aiti0! the ret1r0 , peace" -ith 0ever a th 1!ht that they

'EVELOP(ENT OF THE SLAVE TRA'E =$ -ere -it0essi0! the 2eath rattles pa0!s , a 0e-* , a0 l2 ep ch a02 the &irth

Pri r t #<B=" h -ever" all classes i0 E0!lish s ciety pre3 se0te2 a 10ite2 ,r 0t -ith re!ar2 t the slave tra2e* The m 03

archy" the ! ver0me0t" the ch1rch" p1&lic pi0i 0 i0 !e0eral" s1pp rte2 the slave tra2e* There -ere ,e- pr tests" a02 th se -ere i0e,,ective* The Spa0ish m 0archy set the ,ashi 0 -hich E1r pea0 r yalty , ll -e2 t the very last* The palace3, rtresses , (a2ri2 a02 T le2 -ere &1ilt 1t , the payme0t t the Spa0ish Cr -0 , r lice0ces t tra0sp rt Ne!r es* O0e meeti0! , the t- s verei!0s , Spai0 a02 P rt1!al -as hel2 i0 #<># t 2isc1ss the arithmetical pr &lem p se2 &y a c 0tract , r te0 th 1sa02 :t 0s: , Ne!r es !ra0te2 the P rt1!1ese* %B The Spa0ish 51ee0" Christi0a" i0 the mi22le , the 0i0etee0th ce03 t1ry" pe0ly participate2 i0 the slave tra2e t C1&a* The r yal c 1rt , P rt1!al" -he0 it m ve2 t )ra/il t av i2 capt1re &y Nap le 0" 2i2 0 t ,i02 the slave atm sphere , its c l 0ial territ ry 10c 0!e0ial* L 1is OIV ,1lly appreciate2 the im3 p rta0ce , the slave tra2e t metr p lita0 Fra0ce a02 Fra0ce verseas* The pla0s , the +reat Elect r , r Pr1ssia0 a!!ra03 2i/eme0t i0cl12e2 the A,rica0 slave tra2e* %$ Ha-6i0s < slave tra2i0! e4pe2iti 0 -as la10che2 102er the patr 0a!e , L1ee0 Eli/a&eth* She e4presse2 the h pe that the Ne!r es - 1l2 0 t &e carrie2 ,, -ith 1t their ,ree c 0se0t" -hich :- 1l2 &e 2etesta&le a02 call 2 -0 the ve0!ea0ce , Heave0 1p 0 the 102erta6ers*: )1t there -as as m1ch p s3 si&ility that the tra0sp rtati 0 , the Ne!r es - 1l2 &e e,,ecte2 i0 2em cratic ,ashi 0 as there -as , c llective &ar!ai0i0!* The C mpa0y , R yal A2ve0t1rers a02 the R yal A,rica0 C m3 pa0y ha2" as their 0ames imply" r yal patr 0a!e a02" 0 t i03 ,re51e0tly" i0vestme0ts &y mem&ers , the r yal ,amily* ;> Ac3 c r2i0! t Wil&er, rce" +e r!e III later pp se2 a& liti 0" @# a02 !reat -as the D y , the Liverp l slave tra2ers a02 .amaica0 s1!ar pla0ters -he0 the r yal '16e , Clare0ce" the ,1t1re William IV" :t 6 1p the c12!ills: a!ai0st a& liti 0 @? a02 attac6e2 Wil&er, rce as either a ,a0atic r a hypr crite* @B

%> CAPITALIS( AN' SLAVERY

The )ritish ! ver0me0t" pri r t #<B=" -as 10i, rmly c 03 siste0t i0 its e0c 1ra!eme0t , the slave tra2e* The ,irst !reat rivals -ere the '1tch" -h m 0 p li/e2 the carryi0! tra2e , the )ritish c l 0ies* The &itter c mmercial -ar,are , the sec 02 hal, , the seve0tee0th ce0t1ry &et-ee0 E0!la02 a02 H lla02 represe0te2 a0 e,, rt 0 the part , E0!la02 t &rea6 the c mmercial 0et the '1tch ha2 - ve0 a& 1t E0!la02 a02 her c l 0ies* :What -e -a0t": sai2 ( 06 -ith military &l10t3 0ess" :is m re , the tra2e the '1tch 0 - have*: @% Whether it -as 0 mi0al peace r act1al -ar" a s rt , private -ar -as mai0tai0e2" , r thirty years" &et-ee0 the '1tch West I02ia C mpa0y a02 the R yal A,rica0 C mpa0y* E0!la027s vict ry ver H lla02 le,t her ,ace t ,ace -ith Fra0ce* A0!l 3Fre0ch -ar,are" c l 0ial a02 c mmercial" is the

2 mi0a0t theme i0 the hist ry , the ei!htee0th ce0t1ry* It -as a c 0,lict , rival merca0tilisms* The str1!!le -as , 1!ht 1t i0 the Cari&&ea0" A,rica" I02ia" Ca0a2a a02 0 the &a06s , the (ississippi" , r the privile!e , l ti0! I02ia a02 , r the c 0tr l , certai0 vital a02 strate!ic c mm 2ities Ne!r es9 s1!ar a02 t &acc 9 ,ish9 ,1rs a02 0aval st res* @@ O, these areas the m st imp rta0t -ere the Cari&&ea0 a02 A,rica9 , these c mm 2ities the m st imp rta0t -ere Ne!r es a02 s1!ar* The 1tsta02i0! si0!le iss1e -as the c 0tr l , the Asie0t * This privile!e -as c 0ce2e2 t E0!la02 &y the Treaty , Utrecht i0 #<#= as 0e res1lt , her vict ry i0 the War , the Spa0ish S1ccessi 0" a02 pr 21ce2 p p1lar reD ici0!s i0 the c 10try* It -as the pr 12 & ast , Chatham that his -ar -ith Fra0ce ha2 !ive0 E0!la02 alm st the e0tire c 0tr l , the A,rica0 c ast a02 , the slave tra2e* C l 0ial assem&lies ,re51e0tly impe2e2 the slave tra2ers &y imp si0! hi!h 21ties 0 imp rte2 slaves" partly t raise reve01e" partly 1t , their ,ear , the !r -i0! slave p p1lati 0* All s1ch la-s -ere ,r1strate2 &y the h me ! ver0me0t" 0 the i03 siste0ce , )ritish mercha0ts" -h pp se2 ta4es 0 )ritish tra2e* The ) ar2 , Tra2e r1le2 i0 # <>B that it -as :a&s l1tely 0ecessary that a tra2e s &e0e,icial t the 6i0!2 m sh 1l2 &e carrie2 0 t the !reatest a2va0ta!e* The -ell s1pplyi0! , the pla0tati 0s a02 c l 0ies -ith a s1,,icie0t 01m&er , 0e!r es at

'EVELOP(ENT OF THE SLAVE TRA'E %M reas 0a&le prices is i0 1r pi0i 0 the chie, p i0t t &e c 03 si2ere2*: @; I0 #<<= the .amaica Assem&ly" , r the p1rp se , raisi0! reve01e a02 t re21ce the ,ear , slave re&elli 0s" im3 p se2 a 21ty 0 every Ne!r imp rte2* The mercha0ts , L 02 0" Liverp l a02 )rist l pr teste2" a02 the ) ar2 , Tra2e c 02em0e2 the la- as 10D1sti,ia&le" impr per a02 preD13 2icial t )ritish c mmerce* The ! ver0 r -as sharply repri3 ma02e2 , r his ,ail1re t st p e,, rts ma2e t :chec6 a02 2is3 c 1ra!e a tra,,ic s &e0e,icial t the 0ati 0*: @< As c 10sel , r the s1!ar pla0ters later ar!1e28 :i0 every variati 0 , 1r a23 mi0istrati 0 , p1&lic a,,airs" i0 every variati 0 , parties" the p licy" i0 respect t that tra2e" has &ee0 the same* *** I0 every peri 2 , 1r hist ry" i0 alm st every variati 0 , 1r p litics" each si2e a02 2escripti 0 , party me0 have" i0 terms" appr ve2 this very tra2e" v te2 its e0c 1ra!eme0t" a02 c 0si2ere2 it as &e0e,icial t the 0ati 0*: @B Parliame0t appreciate2 the imp rta0ce , slavery a02 the slave tra2e t )ritai0 a02 her pla0tati 0s* I0 #<@> H race Walp le -r te sc r0,1lly , :the )ritish Se0ate" that temple , li&erty" a02 &1l-ar6 , Pr testa0t Christia0ity" * * * p 02eri0! meth 2s t ma6e m re e,,ect1al that h rri2 tra,,ic , selli0! 0e!r es*: @B Parliame0t hear2 ma0y 2e&ates i0 its stately halls ver a& liti 0 a02 ema0cipati 0" a02 its rec r2s sh - the 2 1!hty 2e,e02ers the slave tra2ers a02 slave -0ers p ssesse2* Am 0! them -as E2m102 )1r6e* The champi 0 , c 0ciliati 0 , America -as a0 access ry t the cr1ci,i4i 0 , A,rica* I0 #<<? a &ill came

&e, re the H 1se , C mm 0s t pr hi&it the c 0tr l , the A,rica0 C mmittee &y 1tsi2ers -h -ere 0 t e0!a!e2 i0 the slave tra2e* )1r6e pr teste2" 0 t a!ai0st the slave tra2e" h -3 ever" &1t a!ai0st 2eprivi0! , the ri!ht t v te th se -h ha2 le!ally p1rchase2 that ri!ht* O0ly a ,e-" he ar!1e2" -ere s acc1se2* :O1!ht -e 0 t rather t imitate the patter0 set 1s i0 sacre2 -rit" a02 i, -e ,i02 te0 D1st pers 0s am 0! them" t spare the -h le I * * * Let 1s 0 t the0 c 10teract the -is2 m , 1r a0cest rs" -h c 0si2ere2 a02 rec 0si2ere2 this s1&Dect" 0 r place 1p 0 the , ti0! , a m 0 p ly -hat -as i0te02e2 , r a ,ree tra2e*: ;> )rist l c 1l2 -ell a,, r2 t share i0 the !e0eral a2mirati 0 , the !reat Li&eral*

%? CAPITALIS( AN' SLAVERY

The Ch1rch als s1pp rte2 the slave tra2e* The Spa0iar2s sa- i0 it a0 pp rt10ity , c 0verti0! the heathe0" a02 the .es1its" ' mi0ica0s a02 Fra0cisca0s -ere heavily i0v lve2 i0 s1!ar c1ltivati 0 -hich mea0t slave3h l2i0!* The st ry is t l2 , a0 l2 el2er , the Ch1rch i0 Ne-p rt -h - 1l2 i03 varia&ly" the S102ay , ll -i0! the arrival , a slaver ,r m the c ast" tha06 + 2 that :a0 ther car! , &e0i!hte2 &ei0!s ha2 &ee0 &r 1!ht t a la02 -here they c 1l2 have the &e0e,it , a ! spel 2ispe0sati 0*: ;# )1t i0 !e0eral the )ritish pla0ters p3 p se2 Christia0ity , r their slaves* It ma2e them m re perverse a02 i0tracta&le a02 there, re less val1a&le* It mea0t als i0str1c3 ti 0 i0 the E0!lish la0!1a!e" -hich all -e2 2iverse tri&es t !et t !ether a02 pl t se2iti 0* ;? There -ere m re material reas 0s , r this pp siti 0* The ! ver0 r , )ar&a2 s i0 #;$@ attri&1te2 it t the pla0ters7 re,1sal t !ive the slaves S102ays a02 ,east 2ays ,," ;= a02 as late as #B?= )ritish p1&lic pi0i 0 -as sh c6e2 &y the pla0ters7 reDecti 0 , a pr p sal t !ive the Ne!r es 0e 2ay i0 the -ee6 i0 r2er t permit the a& liti 0 , the Ne!r S102ay mar6et* ;% The Ch1rch &e2ie0tly t e2 the li0e* The S ciety , r the Pr pa!ati 0 , the + spel pr 3 hi&ite2 Christia0 i0str1cti 0 t its slaves i0 )ar&a2 s" ;; a02 &ra02e2 :S ciety: 0 its 0e- slaves t 2isti0!1ish them ,r m th se , the laity9 ;; the ri!i0al slaves -ere the le!acy , Christ pher C 2ri0!t 0* ;< Sherl c6" later )ish p , L 02 0" ass1re2 the pla0ters that :Christia0ity a02 the em&raci0! , the + spel 2 es 0 t ma6e the least 2i,,ere0ce i0 civil pr perty*: ;B Neither 2i2 it imp se a0y &arriers t clerical activity9 , r his la& rs -ith re!ar2 t the Asie0t " -hich he helpe2 t 2ra- 1p as a )ritish ple0ip te0tiary at Utrecht" )ish p R &i0s 0 , )rist l -as pr m te2 t the see , L 02 0* ;$ The &ells , the )rist l ch1rches peale2 merrily 0 the 0e-s , the reDecti 0 &y Parliame0t , Wil&er, rce7s &ill , r the a& liti 0 , the slave tra2e* <> The slave tra2er" . h0 Ne-t 0" !ave tha06s i0 the Liverp l ch1rches , r the s1ccess , his last ve0t1re &e, re his c 0versi 0 a02 impl re2 + 27s &lessi0! 0 his 0e4t* He es3 ta&lishe2 p1&lic - rship t-ice every 2ay 0 his slaver" ,3 ,iciati0! himsel," a02 6ept a 2ay , ,asti0! a02 prayer" 0 t , r the slaves &1t , r the cre-* :I 0ever 60e-": he c 0,esse2"

'EVELOP(ENT OF THE SLAVE TRA'E %= :s-eeter r m re ,re51e0t h 1rs , 2ivi0e c mm10i 0 tha0 i0 the last t- v ya!es t +1i0ea*: <# The ,am 1s Car2i0al (a003 i0! , the 0i0etee0th ce0t1ry -as the s 0 , a rich West I02ia0 mercha0t 2eali0! i0 slave3!r -0 pr 21ce* << (a0y mis3 si 0aries , 102 it pr ,ita&le t 2rive 1t )eel/e&1& &y )eel/e3 &1&* Acc r2i0! t the m st rece0t E0!lish -riter 0 the slave tra2e" they :c 0si2ere2 that the &est -ay i0 -hich t reme2y a&1se , 0e!r slaves -as t set the pla0tati 0 -0ers a ! 2 e4ample &y 6eepi0! slaves a02 estates themselves" acc mplish3 i0! i0 this practical ma00er the salvati 0 , the pla0ters a02 the a2va0ceme0t , their , 102ati 0s*: <= The ( ravia0 missi 03 aries i0 the isla02s hel2 slaves -ith 1t hesitati 09 the )aptists" 0e hist ria0 -rites -ith charmi0! 2elicacy" - 1l2 0 t all their earlier missi 0aries t 2eprecate -0ership , slaves* <% T the very e02 the )ish p , E4eter retai0e2 his ;@@ slaves" , r -h m he receive2 ver #?"<>> c mpe0sati 0 i0 #B= =* Ch1rch hist ria0s ma6e a-6-ar2 ap l !ies" that c 0scie0ce a- 6e very sl -ly t the appreciati 0 , the -r 0!s i0,licte2 &y slavery a02 that the 2e,e0ce , slavery &y ch1rchme0 :sim3 ply ar se ,r m -a0t , 2elicacy , m ral percepti 0*: <; There is 0 0ee2 t ma6e s1ch ap l !ies* The attit12e , the ch1rch3 ma0 -as the attit12e , the layma0* The ei!htee0th ce0t1ry" li6e a0y ther ce0t1ry" c 1l2 0 t rise a& ve its ec 0 mic limitati 0s* As White,iel2 ar!1e2 i0 a2v cati0! the repeal , that article , the +e r!ia charter -hich , r&a2e slavery" :it is plai0 t 2em 0strati 0 that h t c 10tries ca00 t &e c1ltivate2 -ith 1t 0e!r es* : << L1a6er 0 0c 0, rmity 2i2 0 t e4te02 t the slave tra2e* I0 #<@; there -ere ei!hty3, 1r L1a6ers liste2 as mem&ers , the C mpa0y tra2i0! t A,rica" am 0! them the )arclay a02 )ari0! ,amilies* <B Slave 2eali0! -as 0e , the m st l1crative i0vest3 me0ts , E0!lish as , America0 L1a6ers" a02 the 0ame , a slaver" The Willi0! L1a6er" rep rte2 ,r m ) st 0 at Sierra Le 0e i0 #<$=" sym& li/es the appr val -ith -hich the slave tra2e -as re!ar2e2 i0 L1a6er circles* The L1a6er pp siti 0 t the slave tra2e came ,irst a02 lar!ely 0 t ,r m E0!la02 &1t ,r m America" a02 there ,r m the small r1ral c mm10ities , the N rth" i02epe02e0t , slave la& r* :It is 2i,,ic1lt": -rites

%% CAPITALIS( AN' SLAVERY

'r* +ary" :t av i2 the ass1mpti 0 that pp siti 0 t the slave system -as at ,irst c 0,i0e2 t a !r 1p -h !ai0e2 0 2irect a2va0ta!e ,r m it" a02 c 0se51e0tly p ssesse2 a0 &Dec3 tive attit12e*: B>

The Navy -as impresse2 -ith the val1e , the West I02ia0 c l 0ies a02 re,1se2 t ha/ar2 r De par2i/e their sec1rity* The West I02ia0 stati 0 -as the :stati 0 , r h 0 1r": a02 ma0y a0 a2miral ha2 &ee0 ,ete2 &y the slave -0ers* R 20ey pp se2 a& liti 0* B# Earl St* Vi0ce0t plea2e2 that li,e 0 the pla0tati 0s -as , r the Ne!r a verita&le para2ise as c mpare2 -ith his e4iste0ce i0 A,rica* B? A& liti 0 -as a :2am0e2 a02 c1rse2 2 c3 tri0e" hel2 0ly &y hyp crites*: B= The !alla0t a2miral7s se0ti3 me0ts -ere 0 t e0tirely 2iv rce2 ,r m m re material c 03 si2erati 0s* He receive2 ver ;">>> c mpe0sati 0 i0 #B=< , r the -0ership , %#B slaves i0 .amaica* B% Nels 07s -i,e -as a West I02ia0" a02 his vie-s 0 the slave tra2e -ere 10e51iv cal* :I -as &re2 i0 the ! 2 l2 sch l" a02 ta1!ht t appreciate the val1e , 1r West I02ia0 p ssessi 0s" a02 0either i0 the ,iel2 0 r the Se0ate shall their D1st ri!hts &e i0,ri0!e2" -hile I have a0 arm t ,i!ht i0 their 2e,e0ce" r a t 0!1e t la10ch my v ice a!ai0st the 2am0a&le 2 ctri0e , Wil&er, rce a02 his hyp 3 critical allies*: B@ Slavery e4iste2 102er the very eyes , ei!htee0th ce0t1ry E0!lishme0* A0 E0!lish c i0" the !1i0ea" rare th 1!h it -as a02 is" ha2 its ri!i0 i0 the tra2e t A,rica* B> A Westmi0ster ! l23 smith ma2e silver pa2l c6s , r &lac6s a02 2 !s* B< )1sts , &lac6am rs a02 elepha0ts" em&lematical , the slave tra2e" a2 r0e2 the Liverp l T -0 Hall* The i0si!0ia a02 e51ip3 me0t , the slave tra2ers -ere & l2ly e4hi&ite2 , r sale i0 the sh ps a02 a2vertise2 i0 the press* Slaves -ere s l2 pe0ly at a1cti 0* BB Slaves &ei0! val1a&le pr perty" -ith title rec !0i/e2 &y la-" the p stmaster -as the a!e0t empl ye2 0 ccasi 0s t recapt1re r10a-ay slaves a02 a2vertiseme0ts -ere p1&3 lishe2 i0 the ,,icial r!a0 , the ! ver0me0t* B> Ne!r serva0ts -ere c mm 0* Little &lac6 & ys -ere the appe02a!es , slave captai0s" ,ashi 0a&le la2ies r - me0 , easy virt1e* H !arth7s her i0e" i0 The Harl t7s Pr !ress" is atte02e2 &y a Ne!r & y" a02 (ar!1erite Stee07s Ora&ella )1rmester typi,ies ei!htee0th

'EVELOP(ENT OF THE SLAVE TRA'E %@ ce0t1ry E0!lish pi0i 0 i0 her 2esire , r a little &lac6 & y -h m she c 1l2 l ve as her l 0!3haire2 6itte0* $> Free2 Ne!r es -ere c 0spic1 1s am 0! L 02 0 &e!!ars a02 -ere 60 -0 as St* +iles &lac6&ir2s* S 01mer 1s -ere they that a parliame03 tary c mmittee -as set 1p i0 #<B; , r relievi0! the &lac6 p r* $# :Slaves ca00 t &reathe i0 E0!la02A7 -r te the p et C -per* This -as lice0se , the p et* It -as hel2 i0 #;<< t Cat :Ne!r es &ei0! 1s1ally & 1!ht a02 s l2 am 0! mercha0ts" s mercha03 2ise" a02 als &ei0! i0,i2els" there mi!ht &e a pr perty i0 them*: I0 #<?$ the Att r0ey +e0eral r1le2 that &aptism 2i2 0 t &e3 st - ,ree2 m r ma6e a0y alterati 0 i0 the temp ral c 02iti 0 , the slave9 i0 a22iti 0 the slave 2i2 0 t &ec me ,ree &y &ei0! &r 1!ht t E0!la02" a02 0ce i0 E0!la02 the -0er c 1l2 le!ally c mpel his ret1r0 t the pla0tati 0s* $? S emi0e0t a0 a1th rity as Sir William )lac6st 0e hel2 that :-ith respect t

a0y ri!ht the master may have la-,1lly ac51ire2 t the per3 pet1al service , . h0 r Th mas" this -ill remai0 e4actly i0 the same state , s1&Decti 0 , r li,e": i0 E0!la02 r else-here* $= Whe0" there, re" the assi21 1s /eal , +ra0ville Sharp &r 1!ht &e, re Chie, .1stice (a0s,iel2 i0 #<<? the case , the Ne!r .ames S mersett -h -as a& 1t t &e ret1r0e2 &y his -0er t .amaica" there -ere a&102a0t prece2e0ts t pr ve the imp1rity , the E0!lish air* (a0s,iel2 trie2 har2 t eva2e the iss1e &y s1!!esti0! ma01missi 0 , the slave" a02 c 0te0te2 himsel, -ith the m 2est stateme0t that the case -as 0 t :al3 l -e2 r appr ve2 &y the la- , E0!la02: a02 the Ne!r m1st &e 2ischar!e2* (1ch has &ee0 ma2e , this case" &y pe ple c 0sta0tly see6i0! , r tri1mphs , h1ma0itaria0ism* Pr ,ess r C 1pla02 c 0te02s that &ehi02 the le!al D12!me0t lay the m ral D12!me0t a02 that the S mersett case mar6e2 the &e3 !i00i0! , the e02 , slavery thr 1!h 1t the )ritish Empire* $% This is merely p etic se0time0tality tra0slate2 i0t m 2er0 hist ry* )e0Dami0 Fra06li0 p i0te2 sc r0,1lly t :the hyp c3 crisy , this c 10try" -hich e0c 1ra!es s1ch a 2etesta&le c m3 merce" -hile it pi51e2 itsel, 0 its virt1e" l ve , li&erty" a02 the e51ity , its c 1rts i0 setti0! ,ree a si0!le 0e!r *: $@ Tyears a,ter the S mersett case the )ritish ! ver0me0t 2isall -e2

%; CAPITALIS( AN' SLAVERY

the .amaica0 Acts restricti0! the slave tra2e* I0 #<B= a L1a6er petiti 0 , r a& liti 0 -as s lem0ly reDecte2 &y Parliame0t* I0 #<B=" m re ver" the same (a0s,iel2 ha02e2 2 -0 a 2e3 cisi 0 i0 the case , the ship NL 0!* Sh rt , -ater" the captai0 ha2 thr -0 #=? slaves ver& ar2" a02 0 - the -0ers &r 1!ht a0 acti 0 , r i0s1ra0ce alle!i0! that the l ss , the slaves ,ell -ithi0 the cla1se , the p licy -hich i0s1re2 a!ai0st :perils , the sea*: I0 (a0s,iel27s vie- :the case , slaves -as the same as i, h rses ha2 &ee0 thr -0 ver& ar2*: 'ama!es , thirty p 102s -ere a-ar2e2 , r each slave" a02 the i2ea that the captai0 a02 cre- sh 1l2 &e pr sec1te2 , r mass h mici2e 0ever e0tere2 i0t the hea2 , a0y h1ma0itaria0* I0 #<B@ a0 ther i03 s1ra0ce case" i0v lvi0! a )ritish ship a02 m1ti0y am 0! the slaves" came &e, re (a0s,iel2* His 'a0iel D12!me0t -as that all the slaves -h -ere 6ille2 i0 the m1ti0y r ha2 2ie2 , their - 102s a02 &r1ises -ere t &e pai2 , r &y the 102er-riters9 th se -h ha2 2ie2 ,r m D1mpi0! ver& ar2 r ,r m s-all -3 i0! -ater r ,r m :cha!ri0: -ere 0 t t &e pai2 , r 0 the !r 102 that they ha2 0 t 2ie2 ,r m i0D1ries receive2 i0 the m1ti0y9 a02 the 102er-riters -ere 0 t resp 0si&le , r a0y 2epreciati 0 i0 price -hich res1lte2 t the s1rviv rs ,r m the m1ti0y* >; The pr sec1ti 0 , the slave tra2e -as 0 t the - r6 , the 2re!s , E0!lish s ciety* The 2a1!hter , a slave tra2er has as3 s1re2 1s that her ,ather" th 1!h a slave captai0 a02 privateer"

-as a 6i02 a02 D1st ma0" a ! 2 ,ather" h1s&a02" a02 ,rie02* $< This -as pr &a&ly tr1e* The me0 m st active i0 this tra,,ic -ere - rthy me0" ,athers , ,amilies a02 e4celle0t citi/e0s* The a& liti 0ist Ramsay ac60 -le2!e2 this -ith real s rr -" &1t plea2e2 that :they ha2 0ever e4ami0e2 the 0at1re , this c mmerce a02 -e0t i0t it" a02 acte2 as thers ha2 2 0e &e, re them i0 it" as a thi0! , c 1rse" , r -hich 0 acc 10t -as t &e !ive0 i0 this - rl2 r the 0e4t*: $B The ap l !y is 100ecessary* The slave tra2e -as a &ra0ch , tra2e a02 a very imp rta0t &ra0ch* A0 ,,icer i0 the tra2e 0ce sai2 that : 0e real vie-" 0e mi01te a&s l1tely spe0t i0 the slave r ms 0 the mi22le passa!e - 1l2 2 m re , r the ca1se , h1ma0ity tha0 the pe0 , a R &erts 0" r the -h le c llective el 51e0ce , the )ritish

'EVELOP(ENT OF THE SLAVE TRA'E %< se0ate*: $$ This is 21&i 1s* As it -as ar!1e2 later a& 1t the C1&a0 a02 )ra/ilia0 slave tra2e" it -as 0 1se sayi0! it -as a0 10h ly r 10christia0 cc1pati 0* It -as a l1crative tra2e" a02 that -as e0 1!h* #>> The slave tra2e has eve0 &ee0 D1sti,ie2 as a !reat e21cati 0* :Thi06 , the e,,ect" the res1lt , a slave v ya!e 0 a y 10!ster starti0! i0 his tee0s* * * * What a0 e213 cati 0 -as s1ch a v ya!e , r the ,armer la2* What a0 e0lar!e3 me0t , e4perie0ce , r a c 10try & y* I, he ret1r0e2 t the ,arm his -h le 1tl 6 0 li,e - 1l2 &e cha0!e2* He -e0t 1t a & y9 he ret1r0e2 a ma0*: #># The slave tra2ers -ere am 0! the lea2i0! h1ma0itaria0s , their a!e* . h0 +ary" a2v cate , the slave tra2e" -as c 0spic13 1s , r his i0te!rity a02 h1ma0ity a02 -as the , 102er , a s ciety 60 -0 as the :I0c rp rati 0 , the P r*: #>? The )rist l slaver :S 1th-ell: -as 0ame2 a,ter a )rist l parliame03 taria0" -h se m 01me0t 2epicts him as tr1e t 6i0! a02 c 10try a02 stea2y t -hat he th 1!ht ri!ht* #>= )rya0 )l102ell , Liverp l" 0e , Liverp l7s m st pr sper 1s mercha0ts" e03 !a!e2 i0 & th the slave a02 West I02ia0 tra2es" -as , r ma0y years tr1stee" treas1rer" chie, patr 0 a02 m st active s1pp rter , a*charity sch l" the )l1e C at H spital" , 102e2 i0 4y C #>% T this charity a0 ther Liverp l slave tra2er" F ster C10li,,e" c 0tri&1te2 lar!ely* He -as a pi 0eer i0 the slave tra2e* He a02 his t- s 0s are liste2 as mem&ers , the Liverp l C mmittee , (ercha0ts tra2i0! t A,rica i0 #<@?* T !ether they ha2 , 1r ships capa&le , h l2i0! #"#?> slaves" the pr ,its ,r m -hich -ere s1,,icie0t t st c6 t-elve vessels 0 the h me-ar2 D 1r0ey -ith s1!ar a02 r1m* A0 i0scripti 0 t F ster C10li,,e i0 St* Peter7s Ch1rch 2escri&es him th1s8 :a Christia0 2ev 1t a02 e4emplary i0 the e4ercise , every private a02 p1&lic6 21ty" ,rie02 t mercy" patr 0 t 2istress" a0 e0emy 0ly t vice a02 sl th" he live2 esteeme2 &y all -h 60e- him * * * a02 2ie2 lame0te2 &y the -ise a02 ! 2* * * *: #>@ Th mas Leyla02" 0e , the lar!est slave tra2ers , the same p rt" ha2" as may r" 0 mercy , r the e0!r sser" the , restaller" the re!rater" a02 -as a terr r t evil 2 ers* #>; The Hey- 2s -ere slave tra2ers a02 the ,irst t imp rt the slave3!r -0 c tt 0 , the U0ite2 States* Arth1r Hey- 2 -as treas1rer , the (a0chester Aca2emy

%B CAPITALIS( AN' SLAVERY

-here his s 0s -ere e21cate2* O0e s 0" )e0Dami0" -as electe2 mem&er , the Literary a02 Phil s phical S ciety , (a03 chester" a02 -as a2mitte2 t the )illiar2 Cl1&" the m st recherche cl1& (a0chester has ever p ssesse2" -hich a2mitte2 0ly the very &est me0 as re!ar2s ma00ers" p siti 0 a02 attai03 me0ts* T &e a2mitte2 t the charme2 circle , the F rty mea0t 10impeacha&le rec !0iti 0 as a !e0tlema0* Later )e03 Dami0 Hey - 2 r!a0i/e2 the ,irst , the (a0chester e4hi3 &iti 0s , - r6s , art a02 i021stry* #>< These slave tra2ers hel2 hi!h ,,ice i0 E0!la02* The R yal A2ve0t1rers tra2i0! t A,rica i0 #;;<" a list hea2e2 &y r yalty" i0cl12e2 t- al2erme0" three 216es" ei!ht earls" seve0 l r2s" 0e c 10tess" a02 t-e0ty3seve0 60i!hts* #>B The si!0at1res , the may rs , Liverp l a02 )rist l appear 0 a petiti 0 , the slave tra2ers i0 I<=$* #>$ The )rist l C mmittee set 1p i0 #<B$ t pp se a& liti 0 , the slave tra2e i0cl12e2 ,ive al2erme0" 0e a0 e43captai0 , a slaver* ##> (a0y a slave tra2er hel2 Liver3 p l7s hi!hest m10icipal 2i!0ity* ### The slave tra2ers -ere ,irmly esta&lishe2 i0 & th h 1ses , Parliame0t* Ellis C10li,,e represe0te2 Liverp l i0 Parliame0t ,r m #<@@ t I<;<3 ##? The Tarlet 0 ,amily" pr mi0e0t i0 the slave tra2e" v ice2 Liver3 p l7s pp siti 0 t a& liti 0 i0 Parliame0t* ##= The H 1se , L r2s" tra2iti 0ally c 0servative" -as c 0,irme2 i0 its i0sti0ctive pp siti 0 t a& liti 0 &y the prese0ce , ma0y e00 &le2 slave tra2ers* It !ave sympathetic heari0! t the Earl , Westm r3 la027s stateme0t that ma0y , them -e2 their seats i0 the Upper H 1se t the slave tra2e" ##% a02 that a& liti 0 -as .ac &i0ism* ##@ N - 02er Wil&er, rce ,eare2 the Upper Cham&er* ##> N t -ith 1t c 0,i2e0ce 2i2 the Assem&ly , .amaica state cate! rically i0 #<$? that :the sa,ety , the West I02ies 0 t 0ly 2epe02s 0 the slave tra2e 0 t &ei0! a& lishe2" &1t 0 a spee2y 2eclarati 0 , the H 1se , L r2s that they -ill 0 t s1,,er the tra2e t &e a& lishe2*: ##< S me pr tests -ere v ice2 &y a ,e- ei!htee0th i0tellect1als a02 prelates* 'e, e i0 his :Re, 0ers": c 02em0e2 the slave tra2e* The p et Th :S1mmer": 2re- a l1ri2 pict1re , the shar6 , ce0t1ry rmati 0 , (a03 ms 0" i0 his ll -i0! i0 the

'EVELOP(ENT OF THE SLAVE TRA'E %$ -a6e , the slave ship* C -per" a,ter s me hesitati 0" -r te his mem ra&le li0es i0 :The Tas6*: )la6e -r te his &ea1ti,1l p em 0 the :Little )lac6 ) y*: S 1they c mp se2 s me p i!0a0t verses 0 the :Sail r -h ha2 serve2 i0 the Slave Tra2e*: )1t m1ch , this ei!htee0th ce0t1ry literat1re" as Pr ,ess r Sypher has sh -0 i0 a0 e4ha1stive a0alysis" ##B c 03

ce0trate2 0 the :0 &le Ne!r ": the pri0ce 10D1stly ma2e captive" s1peri r eve0 i0 & 02a!e t his capt rs* This se0ti3 me0tality" typical , the ei!htee0th ce0t1ry i0 !e0eral" m re ,te0 tha0 0 t carrie2 the vici 1s implicati 0 that the slavery , the i!0 &le Ne!r -as D1sti,ie2* ) s-ell 0 the ther ha02 state2 emphatically that t a& lish the slave tra2e -as t sh1t the !ates , mercy 0 ma06i02" a02 21&&e2 Wil&er, rce a :2-ar, -ith &i! res 102i0! 0ame*: ##$ T- ei!htee0th ce0t1ry mercha0ts" )e0tley a02 R sc e" p3 p se2 the slave tra2e &e, re #<B=9 they -ere m re tha0 mer3 cha0ts" they -ere Liverp l mercha0ts* T- ei!htee0th ce03 t1ry ec 0 mists c 02em0e2 the e4pe0sive0ess a02 i0e,,icie0cy , slave la& r 'ea0 T1c6er a02 A2am Smith" the -ar0i0! t csi0" the tr1mpeter , the 0e- a!e* The 2isc r2a0t 0 tes -e0t 10hee2e2* The ei!htee0th ce0t1ry e02 rse2 the plea , Temple L1ttrell8 :S me !e0tleme0 may" i02ee2" &Dect t the slave tra2e as i0h1ma0 a02 impi 1s9 let 1s c 0si2er that i, 1r c l 0ies are t &e mai0tai0e2 a02 c1ltivate2" -hich ca0 0ly &e 2 0e &y A,rica0 0e!r es" it is s1rely &etter t s1pply 1r3 selves -ith th se la& 1rers i0 )ritish & tt ms" tha0 p1rchase them thr 1!h the me2i1m , Fre0ch" '1tch" r 'a0ish ,act rs*: #?> O0 0e ccasi 0 a (a1riti1s !e0tlema0" ea!er t c 0vi0ce the a& liti 0ist )04t 0 that :the &lac6s -ere the happiest pe ple i0 the - r rl2": appeale2 t his -i,e t c 0,irm his state3 me0t ,r m her -0 impressi 0s , the slaves she ha2 see0* :Well" yes": replie2 the ! 2 sp 1se" :they -ere very happy" I7m s1re" 0ly I 1se2 t thi06 it s 22 t see the &lac6 c 6s chai0e2 t the ,ireplace*: #?# O0ly a ,e- E0!lishme0 &e, re #<B=" li6e the ! 2 sp 1se" ha2 a0y 2 1&ts a& 1t the m rality , the slave tra2e* Th se -h ha2 reali/e2 that &Decti 0s" as P stleth-ayt p1t it" - 1l2 &e , little -ei!ht -ith statesme0

@O CAPITALIS( AN' SLAVERY

-h sa- the !reat 0ati 0al em l1me0ts -hich accr1e2 ,r m the slave tra2e* :We shall ta6e thi0!s as they are" a02 reas 0 ,r m them i0 their prese0t state" a02 0 t ,r m that -herei0 -e c 1l2 h pe them t &e* *** We ca00 t thi06 , !ivi0! 1p the slave3tra2e" 0 t-ithsta02i0! my ! 2 -ishes that it c 1l2 &e 2 0e*: Later" perhaps" s me 0 &le a02 &e0ev le0t Christia0 spirit mi!ht thi06 , cha0!i0! the system" :-hich" as thi0!s are 0 - circ1msta0ce2" may 0 t &e s easily &r 1!ht a& 1t*: #?? )e, re the America0 Rev l1ti 0 E0!lish p1&lic pi0i 0 i0 !e0eral accepte2 the vie- , the slave tra2er8 :Th 7 t tra,,ic i0 h1ma0 creat1res" may at ,irst si!ht appear &ar&ar 1s" i03 h1ma0" a02 100at1ral9 yet the tra2ers herei0 have as m1ch t plea2 i0 their -0 e4c1se" as ca0 &e sai2 , r s me ther &ra0ches , tra2e" 0amely" the a2va0ta!e , it* *** I0 a - r2" ,r m this tra2e pr cee2 &e0e,its" ,ar 1t-ei!hi0! all" either real r prete02e2 mischie,s a02 i0c 0ve0ie0cies*: #?=

= )RITISH CO((ERCE AN' THE TRIAN+ULAR TRA'E

A* THE TRIAN+ULAR TRA'E ACCOR'IN+ TO A'A( S(ITH" the 2isc very , America a02 the Cape r 1te t I02ia are :the t- !reatest a02 m st imp rta0t eve0ts rec r2e2 i0 the hist ry , ma06i02*: The imp rta0ce , the 2isc very , America lay 0 t i0 the preci 1s metals it pr vi2e2 &1t i0 the 0e- a02 i0e4ha1sti&le mar6et it a,, r2e2 , r E1r pea0 c mm 2ities* O0e , its pri0cipal e,,ects -as t :raise the merca0tile system t a 2e!ree , sple02 1r a02 !l ry -hich it c 1l2 0ever ther-ise have attai0e2 t *: # It !ave rise t a0 e0 rm 1s i0crease i0 - rl2 tra2e* The seve0tee0th a02 ei!htee0th ce0t1ries -ere the ce0t1ries , tra2e" as the 0i0e3 tee0th ce0t1ry -as the ce0t1ry , pr 21cti 0* F r )ritai0 that tra2e -as primarily the tria0!1lar tra2e* I0 #<#B William W 2 sai2 that the slave tra2e -as :the spri0! a02 pare0t -he0ce the thers ,l -*: ? A ,e- years later P stleth-ayt 2escri&e2 the slave tra2e as :the ,irst pri0ciple a02 , 102ati 0 , all the rest" the mai0spri0! , the machi0e -hich sets every -heel i0 m ti 0*: = I0 this tria0!1lar tra2e E0!la02 Fra0ce a02 C l 0ial America e51ally s1pplie2 the e4p rts a02 the ships9 A,rica the h1ma0 mercha02ise9 the pla0tati 0s the c l 0ial ra- ma3 terials* The slave ship saile2 ,r m the h me c 10try -ith a car! , ma01,act1re2 ! 2s* These -ere e4cha0!e2 at a pr ,it

@? CAPITALIS( AN' SLAVERY

0 the c ast , A,rica , r Ne!r es" -h -ere tra2e2 0 the pla0tati 0s" at a0 ther pr ,it" i0 e4cha0!e , r a car! , c l 0ial pr 21ce t &e ta6e0 &ac6 t the h me c 10try* As the v l1me , tra2e i0crease2" the tria0!1lar tra2e -as s1ppleme0te2" &1t 0ever s1ppla0te2" &y a 2irect tra2e &et-ee0 h me c 10try a02 the West I02ies" e4cha0!i0! h me ma01,act1res 2irectly , r c l 0ial pr 21ce* The tria0!1lar tra2e there&y !ave a triple stim1l1s t )ritish i021stry* The Ne!r es -ere p1rchase2 -ith )ritish ma01,ac3 t1res9 tra0sp rte2 t the pla0tati 0s" they pr 21ce2 s1!ar" c t3 t 0" i02i! " m lasses a02 ther tr pical pr 21cts" the pr cess3 i0! , -hich create2 0e- i021stries i0 E0!la029 -hile the

mai0te0a0ce , the Ne!r es a02 their -0ers 0 the pla0ta3 ti 0s pr vi2e2 a0 ther mar6et , r )ritish i021stry" Ne- E0!3 la02 a!ric1lt1re a02 the Ne-, 102la02 ,isheries* )y #<@> there -as har2ly a tra2i0! r a ma01,act1ri0! t -0 i0 E0!la02 -hich -as 0 t i0 s me -ay c 00ecte2 -ith the tria0!1lar r 2irect c l 0ial tra2e* % The pr ,its &tai0e2 pr vi2e2 0e , the mai0 streams , that acc1m1lati 0 , capital i0 E0!la02 -hich ,i0a03 ce2 the I021strial Rev l1ti 0* The West I02ia0 isla02s &ecame the h1& , the )ritish Em3 pire" , imme0se imp rta0ce t the !ra02e1r a02 pr sperity , E0!la02* It -as the Ne!r slaves -h ma2e these s1!ar c l 0ies the m st preci 1s c l 0ies ever rec r2e2 i0 the -h le a00als , imperialism* T P stleth-ayt they -ere :the ,102ame0tal pr p a02 s1pp rt: , the c l 0ies" :val1a&le pe ple: -h se la& r s1pplie2 )ritai0 -ith all pla0tati 0 pr 21ce* The )rit3 ish Empire -as :a ma!0i,ice0t s1perstr1ct1re , America0 c mmerce a02 0aval p -er 0 a0 A,rica0 , 102ati 0*: @ Sir . siah Chil2 estimate2 that every E0!lishma0 i0 the West I02ies" :-ith the te0 &lac6s that - r6 -ith him" acc 10ti0! -hat they eat" 1se a02 -ear" - 1l2 ma6e empl yme0t , r , 1r me0 i0 E0!la02*: ; )y 'ave0a0t7s c mp1tati 0 0e pers 0 i0 the isla02s" -hite r Ne!r " -as as pr ,ita&le as seve0 i0 E0!3 la02* < A0 ther -riter c 0si2ere2 that every ,amily i0 the West I02ies !ave empl yme0t t ,ive seame0 a02 ma0y m re arti3 ,icers" ma01,act1rers a02 tra2esme0" a02 that every -hite per3 s 0 i0 the isla02s &r 1!ht i0 te0 p 102s a001ally clear pr ,it

CO((ERCE AN' THE TRIAN+ULAR TRA'E @= t E0!la02" t-e0ty times as m1ch as a similar pers 0 i0 the h me c 10try* B William W 2 rec6 0e2 that a pr ,it , seve0 shilli0!s per hea2 per a001m -as s1,,icie0t t e0rich a c 10try9 each -hite ma0 i0 the c l 0ies &r 1!ht a pr ,it , ver seve0 p 102s* $ Sir 'al&y Th mas -e0t ,1rther every pers 0 em3 pl ye2 0 the s1!ar pla0tati 0s -as #=> times m re val1a&le t E0!la02 tha0 0e at h me* #> Pr ,ess r Pitma0 has estimate2 that i0 #<<@ )ritish West I02ia0 pla0tati 0s represe0te2 a val1ati 0 , ,i,ty milli 0s sterli0!" ## a02 the s1!ar pla0ters themselves p1t the ,i!1re at seve0ty milli 0s i0 I<BB* #? I0 #<$B Pitt assesse2 the a001al i0c me ,r m West I02ia0 pla0tati 0s at , 1r milli 0 p 102s as c mpare2 -ith 0e milli 0 ,r m the rest , the - rl2* #= As A2am Smith -r te8 :The pr ,its , a s1!ar pla0tati 0 i0 a0y , 1r West I02ia0 c l 0ies are !e0er3 ally m1ch !reater tha0 th se , a0y ther c1ltivati 0 that is 60 -0 either i0 E1r pe r America*: #% Acc r2i0! t 'ave0a0t" )ritai07s t tal tra2e at the e02 , the seve0tee0th ce0t1ry &r 1!ht i0 a pr ,it , ?">>>">>>* The pla0tati 0 tra2e acc 10te2 , r ;>>">>>9 re3e4p rt , pla0tati 0 ! 2s #?>">>>9 E1r pea0" A,rica0 a02 Leva0t tra2e ;>>">>>9 East I02ia tra2e @>>">>>9 re3e4p rt , East I02ia ! 2s iB " * #@

Sir Charles Whit- rth" i0 #<<;" ma2e a c mplete c mpila3 ti 0" ,r m ,,icial rec r2s" , the imp rt a02 e4p rt tra2e , +reat )ritai0 , r the years #;$<3#<<=* His & 6 is i0val1a&le , r a0 appreciati 0 , the relative imp rta0ce , the Cari&&ea0 a02 mai0la02 c l 0ies i0 the )ritish Empire , the ei!htee0th ce0t1ry* F r the year #;$< the West I02ia0 c l 0ies s1pplie2 0i0e per ce0t , )ritish imp rts" the mai0la02 c l 0ies ei!ht per ce0t9 , 1r per ce0t , )ritish e4p rts -e0t t the West I02ies" sli!htly 102er , 1r per ce0t t the mai0la029 the West I02ies acc 10te2 , r seve0 per ce0t , )ritai07s t tal tra2e" the mai0la02 , r si4 per ce0t* I0 #<<= the West I02ies still mai03 tai0e2 their lea2" th 1!h as a0 e4p rt mar6et they ha2 &ec me i0,eri r t the mai0la02 c l 0ies -ith their lar!er -hite p p1la3 ti 0* I0 that year 0early 0e351arter , )ritish imp rts came ,r m all Cari&&ea0 areas" 0e3ei!hth ,r m the e0tire mai0la029 the Cari&&ea0 c 0s1me2 s me-hat ver ei!ht per ce0t , )rit3

@% CAPITALIS( AN' SLAVERY

ish e4p rts" the mai0la02 si4tee0 per ce0t9 ,i,tee0 per ce0t , )ritai07s t tal tra2e -as -ith the West I02ies" , 1rtee0 per ce0t -ith the mai0la02* Ta6i0! the t tals , r the years #<#%3#<<=" a02 i0cl12i0! i0 th se t tals tra2e -ith 0e- ac51isiti 0s" , rei!0 c l 0ies temp rarily cc1pie2 &y )ritish , rces 21ri0! the -ar" r , rei!0 c l 0ies i0 !e0eral" -e !et the , ll -i0! pict1re8 O0e3,i,th , )ritish imp rts came ,r m the Cari&&ea0" 0e3 0i0th ,r m the mai0la029 si4 per ce0t , )ritish e4p rts -e0t t the Cari&&ea0" 0i0e per ce0t t the mai0la029 t-elve per ce0t , )ritai07s t tal , rei!0 c mmerce -as acc 10te2 , r &y the Cari&&ea0" te0 per ce0t &y the mai0la02* '1ri0! these same years 0e3hal, per ce0t , )ritish imp rts came ,r m A,rica" t- per ce0t , )ritish e4p rts -e0t t A,rica" -hile A,rica0 tra2e represe0te2 0early 0e a02 a hal, per ce0t , t tal )rit3 ish tra2e* Leavi0! 1t , acc 10t" there, re" the pla0tati 0 c l 0ies 0 the mai0la02" Vir!i0ia" (aryla02" Car li0a" +e r!ia" the tria0!1lar a02 West I02ia0 tra2es represe0te2 0early 0e3seve0th , t tal )ritish tra2e 21ri0! the years #<#%3#<<=* The ama/i0! val1e , these West I02ia0 c l 0ies ca0 m re !raphically &e prese0te2 &y c mpari0! i02ivi21al West I02ia0 isla02s -ith i02ivi21al mai0la02 c l 0ies* I0 #;$< )ritish im3 p rts ,r m )ar&a2 s -ere ,ive times the c m&i0e2 imp rts ,r m the &rea2 c l 0ies9 the e4p rts t )ar&a2 s -ere sli!htly lar!er* Little )ar&a2 s" -ith its #;; s51are miles" -as - rth m re t )ritish capitalism tha0 Ne- E0!la02" Ne- Y r6 a02 Pe00sylva0ia c m&i0e2* I0 #<<= )ritish imp rts ,r m .amaica -ere m re tha0 ,ive times the c m&i0e2 imp rts ,r m the &rea2 c l 0ies9 )ritish e4p rts t .amaica -ere 0early 0e3 thir2 lar!er tha0 th se t Ne- E0!la02 a02 0ly sli!htly less tha0 th se t Ne- Y r6 a02 Pe00sylva0ia c m&i0e2* F r the years #<#%3#<<= )ritish imp rts ,r m ( 0tserrat -ere three times the imp rts ,r m Pe00sylva0ia" imp rts ,r m Nevis -ere

alm st 2 1&le th se ,r m Ne- Y r6" imp rts ,r m A0ti!1a -ere ver three times th se ,r m Ne- E0!la02* Imp rts ,r m )ar&a2 s -ere m re tha0 t-ice as lar!e as th se ,r m the &rea2 c l 0ies" imp rts ,r m .amaica 0early si4 times as lar!e* F r the same years .amaica as a0 e4p rt mar6et -as as val1a&le

CO((ERCE AN' THE TRIAN+ULAR TRA'E @@ as Ne- E0!la029 )ar&a2 s a02 A0ti!1a c m&i0e2 mea0t as m1ch t )ritish e4p rters as Ne- Y r69 ( 0tserrat a02 Nevis c m&i0e2 -ere a &etter mar6et tha0 Pe00sylva0ia* )ritish e43 p rts t A,rica 21ri0! these years -ere 0ly 0e3te0th less tha0 th se t Ne- E0!la02" )ritish imp rts ,r m A,rica 0e3 51arter m re tha0 th se ,r m Ne- Y r6 a02 m re tha0 2 1&le th se ,r m Pe00sylva0ia* #; (erca0tilists -ere e0th1siastic* The tria0!1lar tra2e" a02 the ass ciate2 tra2e -ith the s1!ar isla02s" &eca1se , the 0avi!ati 0 they e0c 1ra!e2" -ere m re val1a&le t E0!la02 tha0 her mi0es , ti0 r c al* #< These -ere i2eal c l 0ies* )1t , r them )ritai0 - 1l2 have 0 ! l2 r silver" e4cept -hat she receive2 ,r m illicit c mmerce -ith the Spa0ish c l 0ies" a02 a0 10,av3 ra&le &ala0ce , tra2e* #B Their tr pical pr 21cts" 10li6e th se , the 0 rther0 part , the mai0la02" 2i2 0 t c mpete -ith th se , the h me c 10try* They sh -e2 little si!0 , that i03 21strial 2evel pme0t -hich -as the c 0sta0t ,ear -here the mai0la02 -as c 0cer0e2* Their lar!e &lac6 p p1lati 0 -as a0 e,,ective !1ara0tee a!ai0st aspirati 0s t i02epe02e0ce* #$ It all c m&i0e2 t spell 0e - r2" s1!ar* :The pleas1re" !l ry a02 !ra02e1r , E0!la02": -r te Sir 'al&y Th mas" :has &ee0 a2va0ce2 m re &y s1!ar tha0 &y a0y ther c mm 2ity" - l 0 t e4cepte2*: ?> There -as 0e 51ali,icati 0 m 0 p ly* The ec 0 mic phil s phy , the a!e ha2 0 r m , r the pe0 2 r" a02 c l 0ial tra2e -as a ri!i2 m 0 p ly , the h me c 10try* The merca0tilists -ere a2ama0t 0 this p i0t* :C l 0ies": -r te 'ave0a0t" :are a stre0!th t their m ther 6i0!2 m" -hile they are 102er ! 2 2iscipli0e" -hile they are strictly ma2e t &3 serve the ,102ame0tal la-s , their ri!i0al c 10try" a02 -hile they are 6ept 2epe02e0t 0 it* )1t ther-ise" they are - rse tha0 mem&ers l ppe2 ,r m the & 2y p litic" &ei0! i02ee2 li6e ,,e0sive arms -reste2 ,r m a 0ati 0 t &e t1r0e2 a!ai0st it as ccasi 0 shall serve*: ?# The c l 0ies" i0 ret1r0 , r their pr s3 perity" -e2 the m ther c 10try" i0 P stleth-ayt7s vie-" !rati3 t12e a02 a0 i02ispe0sa&le 21ty :t &e imme2iately 2epe02e0t 0 their ri!i0al pare0t a02 t ma6e their i0terest s1&servie0t there10t *: ??

@; CAPITALIS( AN' SLAVERY

It -as 0 these i2eas that the merca0tile system -as erecte2* The c l 0ies -ere &li!e2 t se02 their val1a&le pr 21cts t E0!la02 0ly a02 1se E0!lish ships* They c 1l2 &1y 0 thi0! &1t )ritish 10less the , rei!0 c mm 2ities -ere ,irst ta6e0 t E0!la02* A02 si0ce" as 21ti,1l chil2re0" they -ere t - r6 , r the !reater !l ry , their pare0t" they -ere re21ce2 t a state , perma0e0t vassala!e a02 c 0,i0e2 s lely t the e4pl itati 0 , their a!ric1lt1ral res 1rces* N t a 0ail" 0 t a h rsesh e" sai2 Chatham" c 1l2 &e ma01,act1re2" 0 r hats" 0 r ir 0" 0 r re3 ,i0e2 s1!ar* I0 ret1r0 , r this" E0!la02 ma2e 0e c 0cessi 0 the c l 0ial pr 21cts -ere !ive0 a m 0 p ly , the h me mar6et* The 6eyst 0e , this merca0tilist arch -as the Navi!ati 0 La-s" :E0!lish meas1res 2esi!0e2 , r E0!lish e02s*: ?= The Navi!ati 0 La-s -ere aime2 at the '1tch" :the , ster ,athers": as A02re-s calls them" , the early )ritish c l 0ies" ?% -h s1p3 plie2 cre2it" 2elivere2 ! 2s" p1rchase2 c l 0ial pr 21ce a02 tra0sp rte2 it t E1r pe" all at m re attractive rates tha0 the )ritish c 1l2 ,,er i0 pe0 mar6et* )1t the la-s -ere aime2 als at the Sc tch a02 Irish ?@ a02 Sc tla027s attempt t set 1p a0 i02epe02e0t A,rica0 C mpa0y ?; ar 1se2 !reat ,ears i0 E0!3 la02 a02 -as lar!ely resp 0si&le , r the Act , U0i 0 i0 #<><* The s1!ar isla02s pr teste2 a!ai0st this m 0 p ly , their tra2e* Th se -h " i0 # B%>" -ere l 12est i0 their pp siti 0 t ,ree tra2e" -ere" i0 #;;>" the m st ,erve0t a2v cates , ,ree tra2e* I0 #;;; the ! ver0 r , )ar&a2 s &e!!e2 :leave t &e plai0 -ith His (aDesty" , r he is c me t -here it pi0ches* * * * Free tra2e is the li,e , all c l 0ies * * * -h ever he &e that a2vise2 His (aDesty t restrai0 a02 tie 1p his c l 0ies is m re a mercha0t tha0 a ! 2 s1&Dect*: ?< His s1ccess r repeate2 the -ar0i0!8 :Ye m1st ma6e their p rt a ,ree p rt , r all pe ple t tra2e -ith them that -ill c me* The r2i0ary -ay thats ta6e0 , r 0e- pla0tati 0s I h1m&ly c 0ceive is a little err 0e 1s* (y L r2s the Act , r Tra2e a02 Navi!ati 0 i0 E0!la02 -ill certai0ly i0 tyme &ee the r1i0e , all his (aties , rrei!0e pla0tati 0s*: ?B The L r2s , Tra2e 2eci2e2 t :!ive him a che51e , r 1ph l2i0! this ma4im , ,ree tra2e": a02 ce0s1re2 him severely , r :these 2a0!er 1s pri0ciples -hich he e0ter3

CO((ERCE AN' THE TRIAN+ULAR TRA'E @< tai0s c 0trary t pare0t a2va0ta!e the settle2 la-s , it*: ?$ , the 6i0!2 m a02 the ap3

S1ch s1&versive i2eas c 1l2 0 t p ssi&ly &e t lerate2 i0 a0 a!e -hich hear2 2ema02s that the Navi!ati 0 La-s &e stretche2 t c 0,i0e the pr visi 0 , r :E0!lish &1ilt: ships t ships &1ilt , E0!lish tim&er a02 1si0! )ritish ma2e ca0vas" a02 -hich passe2 le!islati 0 that the 2ea2 &e &1rie2 i0 E0!lish - l a02 all serva0ts a02 slaves 0 the pla0tati 0s &e ma2e t -ear E0!3 lish - l" t e0c 1ra!e E0!la027s , rem st i021stry* Ne!r es" the m st imp rta0t e4p rt , A,rica" a02 s1!ar" the m st im3 p rta0t e4p rt , the West I02ies" -ere the pri0cipal c m3 m 2ities e01merate2 &y the Navi!ati 0 La-s* )1t the West

I02ia0 s1!ar pla0ters 0ever accepte2 this limitati 0 0 their tra2e* Ultimately i0 #<=$ they -ere !ra0te2 a m 2i,icati 0 , the Navi!ati 0 La-s" &1t i0 s limite2 a , rm a02 0ly t s1ch p r , rei!0 mar6ets i0 E1r pe s 1th , Cape Fi0isterre that its a2va0ta!es -ere 01!at ry* )1t eve0 this c 0cessi 0" &a2ly sh r0 th 1!h it -as" ar 1se2 the -rath , E0!lish mer3 cha0ts* It - 1l2" sai2 a Liverp l petiti 0 &e, re the meas1re &ecame a la-" :&e hi!hly preD12icial i0 ma0y i0sta0ces t the i0terest a02 ma01,act1res" t the tra2e a02 0avi!ati 0 , +reat )ritai0 i0 !e0eral a02 , this p rt i0 partic1lar*: => O0e h102re2 years later the same c 0,lict -as t &e , 1!ht 1t" m re &itterly" &et-ee0 m 0 p ly a02 ,ree tra2e" merca0tilism a02 laisse/ ,aire* The a0ta! 0ists -ere the same" )ritish tra2ers a02 i03 21strialists 0 the 0e ha02 a02 West I02ia0 s1!ar pla0ters 0 the ther* )1t )ritish capitalism" 0 - all , r m 0 p ly" -as the0 all , r ,ree tra2e9 the West I02ia0 pla0ters" 0 the ther ha02" , r! t all their 0 &le ,ree tra2e se0time0ts a02 cl10! te0aci 1sly t the pri0ciple , m 0 p ly -hich they ha2 , rm3 erly c 02em0e2" as ma6i0! them :the mercha0ts7 slaves*: B# )* SHIPPIN+ AN' SHIP)UIL'IN+ This e4ter0al tra2e 0at1rally 2re- i0 its -a6e a treme02 1s 2evel pme0t , shippi0! a02 ship&1il2i0!* N t the least , the a2va0ta!es , the tria0!1lar tra2e -as its c 0tri&1ti 0 t the - 2e0 -alls , E0!la02* There -as less 2isti0cti 0 &et-ee0 a

@B CAPITALIS( AN' SLAVERY

mercha0t ship a02 a ma03 ,3-ar i0 th se 2ays tha0 there is t 2ay* The :l 0! v ya!e: -as a0 a2mira&le 01rsery , r the seame0" the mercha0tme0 i0val1a&le ai2es t the 0avy i0 time , -ar9 a02 a2v cates , the slave tra2e ar!1e2 that its a& liti 0 - 1l2 a00ihilate the mari0e &y c1tti0! ,, a !reat s 1rce , seame0* =? As 0e Liverp l slave tra2er -r te8 :It is a matter , t- m1ch imp rta0ce t this 6i0!2 m -he0 ever it is a& lishe2 the 0aval imp rta0ce , this 6i0!2 m is a& lishe2 -ith it" that m me0t 1r ,la!! -ill !ra21ally cease t ri2e tri1m3 pha0t 0 the seas*: == I0 #;<B the C mmissi 0ers , C1st ms rep rte2 that the pla0tati 0 tra2e -as 0e , the !reat 01rseries , the shippi0! a02 seame0 , E0!la02 a02 0e , the !reatest &ra0ches , its tra2e* =% Here a!ai0 the s1!ar c l 0ies 1t2ista0ce2 the &rea2 c l 0ies* ( re E0!lish ships saile2 t the s1!ar c l 0ies tha0 t all the mai0la02 c l 0ies c m&i0e2* I0 #;$> the s1!ar c l 0ies empl ye2 ##% ships" , #=";>> t 0s a02 #"?>= seame09 the mai0la02 c l 0ies i0 ships" , #%"=?> t 0s a02 #"?<# sea3 me0* =@ )et-ee0 #<#> a02 #<#%" #??">>> t 0s , )ritish shippi0! saile2 t the West I02ies" ##?">>> t 0s t the mai0la02* =; The West I02ia0 tra2e i0 #<>$ empl ye2 0e3te0th , )ritish ship3 pi0! e0!a!e2 i0 , rei!0 tra2e* =< )et-ee0 #<>$ a02 #<B< )ritish shippi0! e0!a!e2 i0 , rei!0 tra2e 51a2r1ple29 =B ships cleari0!

, r A,rica m1ltiplie2 t-elve times a02 the t 00a!e eleve0 times* B$ Ship&1il2i0! i0 E0!la02 receive2 a 2irect stim1l1s ,r m the tria0!1lar tra2e* Vessels , a partic1lar type -ere c 0str1cte2 , r the slave tra2e" c m&i0i0! capacity -ith spee2 i0 a0 e,, rt t re21ce m rtality* (a0y ship-ri!hts i0 Liverp l -ere them3 selves slave tra2ers* The 1tsta02i0! ,irm -as )a6er a02 'a-3 s 0" 0e , the lar!est e4p rters , slaves t the West I02ies" a02 e0!a!e2" a,ter #<B=" i0 the s1pplyi0! , slaves t the Spa0ish c l 0ies* . h0 + rell -as 0e , the Liverp l mem3 &ers , the C mpa0y , (ercha0ts tra2i0! t A,rica* S -as . h0 O6ill" 0e , Liverp l7s m st s1ccess,1l ship&1il2ers" &1t appare0tly he esche-e2 the slave tra2e* I0 a p rt -h se pr sperity -as i0timately c 00ecte2 -ith the slave tra2e" Wil3 liam Rath& 0e -as a c1ri sity i0 his re,1sal t s1pply tim&er

CO((ERCE AN' THE TRIAN+ULAR TRA'E @$ , r the c 0str1cti 0 , vessels t tra2e" %> i0 -hich hal, , Liverp &e empl ye2 i0 the slave l7s sail rs -ere e0!a!e2* %#

The shippi0! i021stry -as 2ivi2e2" as i021stry i0 !e0eral" 0 the 51esti 0 , the r!a0i/ati 0 , the slave tra2e* S me secti 0s ,av re2 the R yal A,rica0 C mpa0y" thers the ,ree tra2ers* %? )1t 0 the 51esti 0 , a& liti 0 the i021stry prese0te2 a 10ite2 ,r 0t" ar!1i0! that a& liti 0 - 1l2 stri6e at the very r ts , )ritai07s 0aval a02 imperial s1premacy* The ,irst re3 acti 0 , Liverp l t the act , #<BB re!1lati0! the capacity , slavers -as that it le,t ?? masters , slave ships" %< mates a02 =@> seame0 10empl ye2" -ith their ,amilies a02 the tra2esme0 2epe02e0t m re i02irectly 0 the tra2e -ith A,rica* %= I0 a22iti 0 t the seame0" there -ere the a0cillary tra2es* Carpe0ters" pai0ters a02 & at3&1il2ers9 tra2esme0 a02 artisa0s c 00ecte2 -ith repairs" e51ipme0t a02 la2i0!9 c mmissi 0s" -a!es" 2 c6 21ties" i0s1ra0ces all 2epe02e2 partly 0 the ships tra2i0! t A,rica* T s1pply the ships" there -ere i0 #<<% ,i,tee0 r peries i0 Liverp l* %% There -ere ,e- pe ple i0 the t -0" it -as claime2" -h - 1l2 0 t &e a,,ecte2" 2irectly r i02irectly" &y a& liti 0* %@ The s1!ar isla02s ma2e yet a0 ther c 0tri&1ti 0 t the !r -th , shippi0!* The pec1liar ec 0 my 2evel pe2 i0 the West I02ies c 0ce0trate2 0 e4p rt cr ps -hile , 2 -as im3 p rte2* ( st imp rta0t , all the , 2 s1pplies -as ,ish" a0 article 2ear t the heart , every merca0tilist" &eca1se it pr 3 vi2e2 empl yme0t , r ships a02 trai0i0! , r seame0* La-s -ere passe2 i0 E0!la02 t e0c 1ra!e the c 0s1mpti 0 , ,ish* Fri2ay a02 Sat1r2ay -ere set apart as ,ish 2ays* Fish -as a0 im3 p rta0t item , the 2iet , the slaves 0 the pla0tati 0s" a02 the E0!lish herri0! tra2e , 102 its chie, mar6et i0 the s1!ar pla0ta3 ti 0s* %; The Ne-, 102la02 ,ishery 2epe02e2 t a c 0si2era&le e4te0t 0 the a001al e4p rt , 2rie2 ,ish t the West I02ies" the re,1se r :p r . h0: ,ish" :,it , r 0 ther c 0s1mpti 0*: %<

A West I02ia0 tra2iti 0 -as there&y , stere2* Imp rte2 salte2 c 2 is still t 2ay a 0 rmal a02 ,av rite 2ish i0 all &1t the -ell3t 32 West I02ia0 ,amilies9 -hether it is still :,it , r 0 ther c 0s1mpti 0: is 0 t 60 -0*

;> CAPITALIS( AN' SLAVERY

The i0crease i0 shippi0! s1&Decte2 the ei!htee0th ce0t1ry 2 c6s , E0!la02 t i0t lera&le strai0* The 01m&er , ships e0teri0! the p rt , L 02 0 tre&le2 &et-ee0 #<>@ a02 #<$@" the t 00a!e 51a2r1ple2" e4cl1sive , the smaller vessels e0!a!e2 i0 the c asti0! tra2e* The -areh 1ses 0 the 51ays -ere i03 a2e51ate , r the imp rts* The c lliers c 1l2 0 t &e 2ischar!e2 a02 the price , c als r se e0 rm 1sly* S1!ar -as pile2 si4 r ei!ht h !shea2s hi!h 0 the 51ay" i0creasi0! the 2a0!er , ,ire a02 e0c 1ra!i0! the,ts* A !reat machi0e , r!a0i/e2 crime -as 2evel pe2" i0v lvi0! s me te0 th 1sa02 pe ple* The t tal a001al 2epre2ati 0s at the 2 c6s -ere estimate2 at hal, a milli 0 p 102s" hal, this s1m ,r m vessels ,r m the Cari&&ea0* The West I02ia0 mercha0ts set themselves t !rapple -ith the pr &lem* They r!a0i/e2 a special , rce , c 0sta&les t c pe -ith the the,ts" a02 set 1p a !e0eral re!ister , la& rers 2ischar!i0! West I02ia0 ships* They l &&ie2 i0 Parliame0t a02 eve0t1ally sec1re2 a0 act a1th ri/i0! the c 0str1cti 0 , the West I02ia ' c6s* F r t-e0ty3 0e years they -ere !ive0 a m 0 p ly , l a2i0! a02 10l a2i0! vessels e0!a!e2 i0 the West I02ia0 tra2e* The ,irst st 0e -as lai2 i0 #B>>" a02 the cerem 0y -as , ll -e2 &y a0 ele!a0t e0tertai0me0t , r the 0 ta&les prese0t" at -hich 0e t ast -as appr priately 2r106 t the pr sperity , the West I02ia0 c l 0ies* The 2 c6s -ere p1&licly pe0e2 i0 #B>?" the ,irst ship &ei0! 0ame2 a,ter the Prime (i0ister" a02 the sec 02 la2e0 -ith si4 h102re2 t 0s , s1!ar* %B C* +ROWTH OF THE +REAT )RITISH SEA PORT TOWNS The 2evel pme0t , the tria0!1lar tra2e a02 , shippi0! a02 ship&1il2i0! le2 t the !r -th , the !reat seap rt t -0s* )rist l" Liverp l a02 +las! - cc1pie2" as seap rts a02 tra23 i0! ce0ters" the p siti 0 i0 the a!e , tra2e that (a0chester" )irmi0!ham a02 She,,iel2 cc1pie2 later i0 the a!e , i021stry* It -as sai2 i0 #;B@ that there -as scarcely a sh p6eeper i0 )rist l -h ha2 0 t a ve0t1re 0 & ar2 s me ship & 102 , r Vir!i0ia r the A0tilles* Eve0 the pars 0s tal6e2 , 0 thi0! &1t tra2e" a02 it -as satirically alle!e2 that )rist l ,rei!hts

CO((ERCE AN' THE TRIAN+ULAR TRA'E ;l -ere -0e2 0 t &y mercha0ts &1t &y mecha0ics* %$ C1st ms

21ties r se ,r m #>">>> i0 #;=% t ==%">>> i0 #<B@* Whar,a!e 21es" paya&le 0 every vessel a& ve si4ty t 0s" 2 1&le2 &et-ee0 # <%@ a02 I<<@* @> It -as the slave a02 s1!ar tra2es -hich ma2e )rist l the sec 02 city , E0!la02 , r the ,irst three351arters , the ei!ht3 ee0th ce0t1ry* :There is 0 t": -r te a l cal a00alist" :a &ric6 i0 the city &1t -hat is ceme0te2 -ith the &l 2 , a slave* S1mpt1 1s ma0si 0s" l141ri 1s livi0!" liverie2 me0ials" -ere the pr 21ce , the -ealth ma2e ,r m the s1,,eri0!s a02 !r a0s , the slaves & 1!ht a02 s l2 &y the )rist l mercha0ts* *** I0 their chil2li6e simplicity they c 1l2 0 t ,eel the i0i51ity , the mercha02ise" &1t they c 1l2 ,eel it l1crative*: @# A0 a0alysis , a c mmittee set 1p i0 #<B$ t pp se the m veme0t , r a& li3 ti 0 , the slave tra2e sh -s that am 0! the mem&ers electe2 -ere 0i0e mercha0ts at s me time may rs , )rist l" ,ive -h -ere sheri,,s" seve0 ha2 &ee0 r -ere t &e (asters , the S ciety , (ercha0t Ve0t1rers* @? Whe0 )rist l -as 1tstrippe2 i0 the slave tra2e &y Liver3 p l" it t1r0e2 its atte0ti 0 ,r m the tria0!1lar tra2e t the 2irect s1!ar tra2e* Fe-er )rist l ships saile2 t A,rica" m re -e0t 2irect t the Cari&&ea0* I0 #<>> the p rt ha2 , rty3si4 ships i0 the West I02ia0 tra2e* @= I0 #<B< there -ere thirty )rist l vessels e0!a!e2 i0 the slave tra2e" seve0ty3t- i0 the West I02ia0 tra2e9 the , rmer avera!e2 #%> t 0s each" the latter ?%>* @% I0 #<BB )rist l ha2 as ma0y ships i0 the tra2e t the Lee-ar2 Isla02s" a02 alm st as ma0y i0 the tra2e t .amaica" as i0 the tra2e t A,rica* @@ Nearly 0e3thir2 , the t 00a!e -hich e0tere2" m re tha0 0e3thir2 , that -hich saile2 ,r m" the p rt -as e0!a!e2 i0 the tra2e -ith the s1!ar c l 0ies9 @; a02 it -as the amia&le c1st m i0 )rist l t cele&rate the arrival , the ,irst s1!ar ship each year &y a !i,t , -i0e at the e4pe0se , the , rt10ate -0er* @< The West I02ia0 tra2e -as - rth t )ris3 t l t-ice as m1ch as all her ther verseas c mmerce c m&i0e2* As late as #B=> ,ive3ei!hths , its tra2e -as -ith the West I02ies" a02 it -as sai2 i0 #B== t Cat -ith 1t the West I02ia0 tra2e )ris3 t l - 1l2 &e a ,ishi0! p rt* ;B )rist l ha2 a West I02ia0 S ciety , its -0* The T -0

;? CAPITALIS( AN' SLAVERY

C 10cil 2istri&1te2 m10icipal ,102s , r the relie, , 2istress ca1se2 &y ,ire i0 the s1!ar isla02s* It -as c1st mary , r y 10!er s 0s a02 D10i r mem&ers , West I02ia0 ,irms t spe02 s me years 0 the pla0tati 0s &e, re e0teri0! &1si0ess at h me* )rist l mem&ers , Parliame0t i0 the ei!htee0th ce0t1ry -ere ,re51e0tly ass ciate2" i0 0e -ay r a0 ther" -ith the s1!ar pla0tati 0s" a02 s imp rta0t 2i2 the isla02s &ec me t )rist l that , r the ,irst hal, , the 0i0etee0th ce0t1ry )rist l -as al-ays represe0te2 i0 Parliame0t &y a West I02ia0 a )aillie" a Pr ther e" r a (iles* .ames Eva0 )aillie e4h rte2 his

,ell - citi/e0s 0 t t lay the a4e at the r t , their -0 pr s3 perity &y s1pp rti0! the a& liti 0 , slavery i0 the isla02s* @$ His -0 pr sperity -as als at sta6e* The c mpe0sati 0 pai2 t the ,amily , r their -0ership , 01mer 1s slaves i0 Tri0i2a2 a02 )ritish +1ia0a e4cee2e2 ;?" * ;> )rist l prese0te2 a 2e3 termi0e2 pp siti 0 t the e51ali/ati 0 , the s1!ar 21ties -hich !ave the c 1p 2e !race t the West I02ia0 m 0 p ly* Therea,ter )rist l7s tra2e -ith the West I02ies 2ecli0e2 rapi2ly* I0 #B%< , rty per ce0t , the p rt7s t 00a!e -as & 102 , r the West I02ies" a02 ships ret1r0i0! ,r m the isla02s represe0te2 a mere eleve0 per ce0t* I0 #B<# 0 ship le,t )rist l , r .amaica" a02 the i0-ar2 t 00a!e ,r m the isla02s c 0stit1te2 less tha0 t- per ce0t , the arrivals* )rist l7s tra2e -ith the isla02s 2i2 0 t revive 10til the e02 , the 0i0etee0th ce0t1ry -ith the a23 ve0t , the &a0a0a i0 the - rl2 mar6et* ;# What the West I02ia0 tra2e 2i2 , r )rist l the slave tra2e 2i2 , r Liverp l* I0 #@;@ Liverp l ha2 #=B h 1seh l2ers" seve0 streets 0ly -ere i0ha&ite2" the p rt7s mercha0t mari0e am 10te2 t t-elve ships , ??= t 0s* U0til the e02 , the seve0tee0th ce0t1ry the 0ly l cal eve0t , imp rta0ce -as the sie!e , the t -0 21ri0! the E0!lish Civil War* ;? I0 c l3 lecti0! ship m 0ey Stra,, r2 assesse2 Liverp l at ,i,tee0 p 102s9 )rist l pai2 t- th 1sa02* ;= The shippi0! e0teri0! Liverp l i0crease2 , 1r a02 a hal, times &et-ee0 #<>$ a02 #<<#9 the 1t-ar2 t 00a!e si4 a02 a hal, times* The 01m&er , ships -0e2 &y the p rt m1ltiplie2 , 1r times 21ri0! the same peri 2" the t 00a!e a02 sail rs ver si4 times* ;% C1st ms

CO((ERCE AN' THE TRIAN+ULAR TRA'E ;= receipts s are2 ,r m a0 avera!e , @#">>> , r the years #<@> t #<@< t ;%B">>> i0 # <B@*C ' c6 21ties i0crease2 t- a02 a hal, times &et-ee0 #<@? a02 #<< #* ;; The p p1lati 0 r se ,r m @">>> i0 #<>> t =%">>> i0 #<<=* )y #<<> Liverp l ha2 &ec me t ,am 1s a t -0 i0 the tra2i0! - rl2 , r Arth1r Y 10! t pass it &y 0 his travels ver E0!la02* ;< The a& liti 0ist Clar6s 0 ar!1e2 that the rise , Liverp l -as 21e t a variety , ca1ses" am 0! -hich -ere the salt tra2e" the pr 2i!i 1s i0crease , the p p1lati 0 , La0cashire" a02 the rapi2 a02 !reat e4te0si 0 , the ma01,act1res , (a0chester* ;B This is a partic1larly ,la!ra0t case , p1tti0! the cart &e, re the h rse* It -as 0ly the capital acc1m1lati 0 , Liverp l -hich calle2 the p p1lati 0 , La0cashire i0t e4iste0ce a02 stim13 late2 the ma01,act1res , (a0chester* That capital acc1m1la3 ti 0 came ,r m the slave tra2e" -h se imp rta0ce -as appre3 ciate2 m re &y c 0temp raries tha0 &y later hist ria0s* It -as a c mm 0 sayi0! that several , the pri0cipal streets , Liverp l ha2 &ee0 mar6e2 1t &y the chai0s" a02 the -alls , the h 1ses ceme0te2 &y the &l 2" , the A,rica0 slaves" ;$ a02 0e street -as 0ic60ame2 :Ne!r R -*: <> The re2 &ric6 C1st ms H 1se -as &la/ 0e2 -ith Ne!r hea2s* <# The st ry is t l2 , a0 act r i0 the t -0" -h " hisse2 &y the a12ie0ce , r

appeari0! &e, re them" 0 t , r the ,irst time" i0 a 2r106e0 c 03 2iti 0" stea2ie2 himsel, a02 2eclare2 -ith ,,e02e2 maDesty8 :I have 0 t c me here t &e i0s1lte2 &y a set , -retches" every &ric6 i0 -h se i0,er0al t -0 is ceme0te2 -ith a0 A,rica07s &l 2*: <? It -as estimate2 i0 .<$O that the #=B ships -hich saile2 ,r m Liverp l , r A,rica represe0te2 a capital , ver a milli 0 p 102s* Liverp l7s -0 pr &a&le l ss ,r m the a& liti 0 , the slave tra2e -as the0 c mp1te2 at ver seve0 a02 a hal, milli 0 p 102s* <= A& liti 0" it -as sai2" - 1l2 r1i0 the t -0* It - 1l2 2estr y the , 102ati 0 , its c mmerce a02 the ,irst ca1se , the 0ati 0al i021stry a02 -ealth* :What vai0 prete0ce , li&erty": it -as as6e2 i0 Liverp l" :ca0 i0,at1ate pe ple t r10 i0t s m1ch lice0ti 1s0ess as t assert a tra2e is 10la-,1l -hich c1st m immem rial" a02 vari 1s Acts , Parliame0t" have rati3 ,ie2 a02 !ive0 a sa0cti 0 t I: <%

;% CAPITALIS( AN' SLAVERY

This 2epe02e0ce 0 the slave tra2e has pr ve2 very a-6-ar2 t se0sitive a02 patri tic hist ria0s* A !e0erati 0" ar!1e2 a )rist l hist ria0 i0 #$=$" -hich has see0 the sp ilati 0 , Ethi pia" the &r1tal 2ismem&erme0t , Chi0a a02 the rape , C/ech sl va6ia" ca00 t a,, r2 t c 02em0 the slave tra2e* <@ I0 the pi0i 0 , a Liverp l t -0 cler6" Liverp l has & r0e m re tha0 its share , the sti!ma attachi0! t the slave tra2e* The i02 mita&le persevera0ce a02 e0er!y , its pe ple - 1l2 have e0s1re2 a0 e51al pr sperity i0 ther 2irecti 0s" as e,,ec3 tively i, 0 t as 51ic6ly" ha2 the slave tra2e 0 t e4iste2" a02 the 1ltimate s1ccess , the p rt - 1l2 perhaps have &ee0 re3 tar2e2" th 1!h 0 t preD12ice2 r impaire2" -ith 1t the slave tra2e* <; Acc r2i0! t yet a0 ther Liverp l -riter" there -as 0 thi0! 2er !at ry i0 the ,act that their a0cest rs ha2 2ealt i0 :0i!!ers": a02 the h rr rs , the slave tra2e -ere e4cee2e2 &y the h rr rs , the Liverp l 2ri06 tra,,ic* )1t" a,ter all" :it -as the capital ma2e i0 the A,rica0 slave tra2e that &1ilt s me , 1r 2 c6s* It -as the price , h1ma0 ,lesh a02 &l 2 that !ave 1s a start*: S me , th se -h ma2e their , rt10es 1t , the slave tra2e ha2 s ,t hearts 102er their -aistc ats , r the p r , Liverp l" -hile the pr ,its ,r m slave tra2i0! represe0te2 :a0 i0,l14 , -ealth -hich" perhaps" 0 c 0si2erati 0 - 1l2 i021ce a c mmercial c mm10ity t reli051ish*: << N t 10til the Act , U0i 0 , # <>< -as Sc tla02 all -e2 t participate i0 c l 0ial tra2e* That permissi 0 p1t +las! - 0 the map* S1!ar a02 t &acc 102erlay the pr sperity , the t -0 i0 the ei!htee0th ce0t1ry* C l 0ial c mmerce stim1late2 the !r -th , 0e- i021stries* As )ish p P c c6e -r te i0 #<;>" a,ter a visi, t +las! -8 :the city has a& ve all thers ,elt the a2va0ta!es , the U0i 0" &y the West I02ia tra2e -hich they e0D y" -hich is very !reat" especially i0 t &acc " i02i! es a02 s1!ar*: <B S1!ar re,i0i0! c 0ti01e2 as a0 imp rta0t i021stry i0

the Cly2e Valley 10til the eclipse , the West I02ia0 isla02s i0 the mi22le , the 0i0etee0th ce0t1ry*

CO((ERCE AN' THE TRIAN+ULAR TRA'E ;@

'* THE +OO'S IN THE TRIAN+ULAR TRA'E It is 0ecessary 0 - t trace the i021strial 2evel pme0t i0 E0!la02 -hich -as stim1late2 2irectly r i02irectly &y the ! 2s , r the tria0!1lar tra2e a02 the pr cessi0! , c l 0ial pr 21ce* The -i2esprea2 rami,icati 0s , the slave tra2e i0 E0!lish i03 21stry are ill1strate2 &y this car! t A,rica , r the year #<B<8 c tt 0 a02 li0e0 ! 2s" sil6 ha026erchie,s" c arse &l1e a02 re2 - le0 cl ths" scarlet cl th i0 !rai0" c arse a02 ,i0e hats" - rste2 caps" !10s" p -2er" sh t" sa&ers" lea2 &ars" ir 0 &ars" pe-ter &as 0s" c pper 6ettles a02 pa0s" ir 0 p ts" har2-are , vari 1s 6i02s" earthe0 a02 !lass -are" hair a02 !ilt leather tr106s" &ea2s , vari 1s 6i02s" silver a02 ! l2 ri0!s a02 r0a3 me0ts" paper" c arse a02 ,i0e chec6s" li0e0 r1,,le2 shirts a02 caps" )ritish a02 , rei!0 spirits a02 t &acc * <$ This s102ry ass rtme0t -as typical , the slave tra2er7s car! * Fi0ery , r A,rica0s" h 1seh l2 1te0sils" cl ths , all 6i02s" ir 0 a02 ther metals" t !ether -ith !10s" ha02c1,,s a02 ,etters8 the pr 21cti 0 , these stim1late2 capitalism" pr 3 vi2e2 empl yme0t , r )ritish la& r" a02 &r 1!ht !reat pr ,its t E0!la02* i* W l

U0til the treme02 1s 2evel pme0t , the c tt 0 i021stry i0 the I021strial Rev l1ti 0" - l -as the sp ile2 chil2 , E0!3 lish ma01,act1res* It ,i!1re2 lar!ely i0 all c 0si2erati 0s a,3 ,ecti0! the slave tra2e i0 the ce0t1ry a,ter #;B>* The car! , a slave ship -as i0c mplete -ith 1t s me - le0 ma01,act1res ser!es" says" perpet1a0 s" arra0! es a02 &ays* S metimes the cl th -as calle2 a,ter the l cality -here it -as ,irst ma01,ac3 t1re2* )ri2-aters represe0te2 )ri2!e-ater7s i0terest i0 the c l 0ial mar6et9 Welsh Plai0es" a - le0 cl th , the simplest -eave" -as ma01,act1re2 i0 -ester0 E0!la02 a02 Wales* A parliame0tary c mmittee , #;$@ v ice2 the p1&lic se0ti3 me0t that the tra2e t A,rica -as a0 e0c 1ra!eme0t t the - le0 ma01,act1re* B> Am 0! the ar!1me0ts p1t , r-ar2 t pr ve the imp rta0ce , the slave tra2e" the e4p rts , - l

;; CAPITALIS( AN' SLAVERY

-hich that tra2e e0c 1ra!e2 -ere al-ays !ive0 ,irst place* A pamphlet , #;B>" ill1strati0! the p1&lic 1tility a02 a2va0ta!es , the A,rica0 tra2e" &e!i0s -ith :the e4p rtati 0 , 1r 0ative - lle0 a02 ther ma01,act1res i0 !reat a&102a0ce" m st , -hich -ere imp rte2 , rmerly 1t , H lla02 * * * -here&y the - ll , this 0ati 0 is m1ch m re c 0s1me2 a02 spe0t the0 , rmerly9 a02 ma0y th 1sa02 , the p r pe ple impl ye2*: B# Similarly" the R yal A,rica0 C mpa0y state2 i0 a petiti 0 i0 #;$; that the slave tra2e sh 1l2 &e s1pp rte2 &y E0!la02" &e3 ca1se , the e4p rts it e0c 1ra!e2 , - le0 a02 ther E0!lish ma01,act1res* B? The - le0 ma01,act1rers , the 6i0!2 m t 6 a pr mi0e0t part i0 the l 0! a02 &itter c 0tr versy -a!e2 &et-ee0 the R yal A,rica0 C mpa0y a02 the separate tra2ers* Th se ,r m -h m the c mpa0y ma2e its p1rchases ar!1e2 that the i0ter3 l pers ca1se2 2ist1r&a0ces a02 2isl cati 0 , the tra2e" a02 that the tra2e 2ecli0e2 -he0 the c mpa0y7s m 0 p ly -as m 2i3 ,ie2* I0 #;$% the cl thiers , Wit0ey petiti 0e2 Parliame0t i0 ,av r , the c mpa0y7s m 0 p ly* The cl th - r6ers , Shre-s&1ry , ll -e2 s1it i0 #;$;" a02 the -eavers , Fi22er3 mi0ster t-ice i0 the same year* I0 #<>$ the -eavers , E4eter a02 the - le0 tra2esme0 , L 02 0" a02 i0 #<#= several tra2esme0 i0tereste2 i0 the - le0 ma01,act1re" als t 6 the c mpa0y7s si2e* B= )1t the -ei!ht , the - le0 i0terests -as 0 the -h le thr -0 0 the si2e , the ,ree tra2ers* The c mpa0y7s m 0 p3 ly e0a&le2 it t :scre- 1p the tra2esme0 t a limite2 51a0tity a02 price" le0!th" &rea2th a02 -ei!ht*: B% ( 0 p ly mea0t 0e &1yer a02 0e seller 0ly* A searcher i0 the c1st m h 1se testi,ie2 that -he0 the tra2e -as pe0 there -as a !reater e43 p rtati 0 , - l* Acc r2i0! t the testim 0y , t- L 02 0 mercha0ts i0 #;$=" t 7 ie m 0 p ly ha2 re21ce2 the e4p rts , - l &y 0early 0e3thir2* S1,, l6 e4p rte2 ?@">>> - le0 cl ths a year9 t- years a,ter the i0c rp rati 0 , the c m3 pa0y" the 01m&er 2ecli0e2 t @>>* B@ I0 #;$> the cl thiers , S1,3 , l6 a02 Esse4 a02 the ma01,act1rers , E4eter petiti 0e2 a!ai0st the c mpa0y7s m 0 p ly* E4eter petiti 0e2 a!ai0 i0 #;$%" #;$;" #<>$" #<#> a02 #<## i0 ,av r , ,ree tra2e* The

CO((ERCE AN' THE TRIAN+ULAR TRA'E ;< - le0 mercha0ts , the 6i0!2 m c mplai0e2 i0 #;$% that re3 stricti 0s ha2 !reatly lesse0e2 their sales* Similar petiti 0s -ere prese0te2 a!ai0st the m 0 p ly &y the - le0 tra2ers , L 02 0 a02 the - le0 mercha0ts , Plym 1th i0 #<#>" the - le0 2ealers , T t0es a02 Ash&1rt 0" the - le0 ma01,ac3 t1rers , Fi22ermi0ster" the (ercha0t A2ve0t1rers , (i0e3 hea2 e0!a!e2 i0 the - le0 ma01,act1re i0 #< ii* B; Other petiti 0s t Parliame0t emphasi/e2 the imp rta0ce , the c l 0ial mar6et , r the - le0 i021stry* I0 #;$> the pla0ters , .amaica pr teste2 a!ai0st the c mpa0y7s m 0 p ly

as a 2isc 1ra!eme0t t tra2e" especially the - le0 tra2e* A petiti 0 ,r m (a0chester i0 #<>% reveale2 that E0!lish - l -as tra2e2 t H lla02" Ham&1r! a02 the East , r li0e0 yar0 a02 ,la4" -hich" -he0 ma01,act1re2" -ere se0t t the pla0ta3 ti 0s* The mercha0ts a02 tra2ers , Liverp l i0 #<>$" the mer3 cha0ts a02 i0ha&ita0ts , Liverp l i0 #<#@" c 0te02e2 that the c mpa0y7s m 0 p ly -as 2etrime0tal t the - le0 i021stry* Petiti 0s ,r m the i021strial N rth i0 #<=@ 2iscl se2 that Wa6e3 ,iel2" Hali,a4" )1r0ley" C l0e a02 Fe02al -ere all i0tereste2 i0 the ma01,act1re , - le0 ! 2s , r A,rica a02 the West I02ies* B< That - le0 ! 2s sh 1l2 ,i!1re s pr mi0e0tly i0 tr pical mar6ets is t &e attri&1te2 t the 2eli&erate p licy , merca03 tilist E0!la02* It -as ar!1e2 i0 #<=?" 0 &ehal, , the mai0la02 c l 0ies" that Pe00sylva0ia al 0e c 0s1me2 m re - le0 e43 p rts ,r m E0!la02 tha0 all the s1!ar isla02s c m&i0e2" a02 Ne- Y r6 m re tha0 a0y s1!ar isla02 e4cept .amaica* BB W le0 ! 2s -ere m re s1ite2 , r these c l2er climates" a02 the )ar&a2ia0 pla0ters pre,erre2 li!ht calic es -hich c 1l2 &e easily -ashe2* B$ )1t - l -as E0!la027s staple" a02 climatic c 0si2erati 0s -ere t !reat a re,i0eme0t , r the merca0tilist mi02* A0y 0e ,amiliar -ith )ritish West I02ia0 s ciety t 2ay -ill appreciate the stre0!th , the tra2iti 0 there&y , stere2* W le0 102er!arme0ts are still c mm 0 i0 the isla02s t 2ay" th 1!h m re am 0! the l2er !e0erati 0" a02 s1its , &l1e ser!e are still a si!0 , the -ell32resse2 ma0* Li6e the E0!lishma0 a02 10li6e the N rth America0 i0 the c l 0ies" the Cari&&ea0 c l re2 mi22le class t 2ay still apes the ,ashi 0s ,

;B CAPITALIS( AN' SLAVERY

the h me c 10try i0 its pre,ere0ce , r the heavier materials -hich are s ri2ic1l 1s a02 10c m, rta&le i0 a tr pical e03 vir 0me0t* )1t c tt 0 later s1perse2e2 - l i0 c l 0ial mar6ets as it 2i2 i0 2 mestic* O, a t tal e4p rt , , 1r milli 0 p 102s , - le0 ma01,act1res i0 #<<?" less tha0 three per ce0t -e0t t the West I02ies a02 less tha0 , 1r per ce0t t A,rica* $> The &est c1st mers -ere E1r pe a02 America* I0 #<B= the - le0 i021stry -as sl -ly &e!i00i0! its &elate2 imitati 0 , the tech3 0 l !ical cha0!es -hich ha2 rev l1ti 0i/e2 the c tt 0 i021stry* I0 its pr !ress a,ter #<B= the tria0!1lar tra2e a02 West I02ia0 mar6et playe2 0 apprecia&le part* ?* C tt 0 (a01,act1re What the &1il2i0! , ships , r the tra0sp rt , slaves 2i2 , r ei!htee0th ce0t1ry Liverp l" the ma01,act1re , c tt 0 ! 2s , r the p1rchase , slaves 2i2 , r ei!htee0th ce0t1ry (a03 chester* The ,irst stim1l1s t the !r -th , C tt 0 p lis came ,r m the A,rica0 a02 West I02ia0 mar6ets*

The !r -th , (a0chester -as i0timately ass ciate2 -ith the !r -th , Liverp l" its 1tlet t the sea a02 the - rl2 mar6et* The capital acc1m1late2 &y Liverp l ,r m the slave tra2e p 1re2 i0t the hi0terla02 t ,ertili/e the e0er!ies , (a0chester9 (a0chester ! 2s , r A,rica -ere ta6e0 t the c ast i0 the Liverp l slave vessels* La0cashire7s , rei!0 mar6et mea0t chie,ly the West I02ia0 pla0tati 0s a02 A,rica* The e43 p rt tra2e -as #%">>> i0 #<=$9 i0 #<@$ it ha2 i0crease2 0early ei!ht times9 i0 #<<$ it -as =>=">>>* Up t #<<> 0e3thir2 , this e4p rt -e0t t the slave c ast" 0e3hal, t the America0 a02 West I02ia0 c l 0ies* $# It -as this treme02 1s 2epe02e0ce 0 the tria0!1lar tra2e that ma2e (a0chester* Li!ht - le0 ! 2s -ere p p1lar 0 the slave c ast8 s -ere sil6s" pr vi2e2 they -ere !a12y a02 ha2 lar!e ,l -ers* )1t the m st p p1lar , all materials -as c tt 0 ! 2s" as the A,rica0 -as alrea2y acc1st me2 t c arse &l1e *a02 -hite c t3 t 0 cl ths , his -0 ma01,act1re" a02 ,r m the &e!i00i0! the stripe2 l i0cl ths calle2 :a00a&asses: -ere a re!1lar ,eat1re , every slave tra2er7s car! * I02ia0 te4tiles" &a00e2 i0 E0!la02"

CO((ERCE AN' THE TRIAN+ULAR TRA'E ;$ s 0 esta&lishe2 a m 0 p ly , the A,rica0 mar6et* )ra-ls" tapsells" 0icca0ees" c1tta0ees" &1c6sha-s" 0illias" salemp res these I02ia0 cl ths -ere hi!hly pri/e2" a02 yet a0 ther p -er3 ,1l veste2 i0terest -as 2ra-0 i0t the r&it , the slave tra2e" (a0chester trie2 t c mpete -ith the East I02ia C mpa0y9 &a,ts" , r e4ample" -ere cheap c tt 0 ,a&rics ,r m the East later c pie2 i0 E0!la02 , r the A,rica0 mar6et* )1t the &ac63 -ar20ess , the E0!lish 2yei0! pr cess ma2e it imp ssi&le , r (a0chester t !et the ,ast re2" !ree0 a02 yell - c l rs p p1lar 0 the c ast* (a0chester pr ve2 10a&le t imitate the c l rs , these I02ia0 c tt 0s" a02 there is evi2e0ce t sh - that the Fre0ch c tt 0 ma01,act1rers , N rma02y -ere e51ally 103 s1ccess,1l i0 lear0i0! the secrets , the East* (a0chester -as m re , rt10ate i0 its tra2e i0 c tt 0 a02 li0e0 chec6s" th 1!h ,i!1res , r the ,irst hal, , the ei!htee0th ce0t1ry are 10relia&le* The E1r pea0 a02 c l 0ial -ars , #<=$3#<%B a02 the re r!a0i/ati 0 -hich the A,rica0 C mpa0y -as 102er! i0! 1p t #<@> ca1se2 a sl1mp i0 the c tt 0 tra2e t A,rica" a02 -he0 it revive2 a,ter #<@> I02ia0 e4p rts -ere i0a2e51ate t satis,y the 2ema02* E0!lish ma01,act1rers ma2e ,1ll 1se , this pp rt10ity t p1sh their -0 ! 2s* I0 #<@? the e4p rt , c tt 03li0e0 chec6s al 0e ,r m E0!la02 -as @<">>>9 i0 #<;=" at the e02 , the Seve0 Years7 War" it st 2 at the e4cepti 0ally hi!h ,i!1re , =>?">>>" &1t a,ter #<;< re3 mai0e2 &et-ee0 #>>">>> a02 ?>>">>>" -he0 I02ia0 c mpeti3 ti 0 a!ai0 pr ve2 , rmi2a&le* Availa&le statistics ma6e c mparis 0 &et-ee0 the val1e , E0!lish c tt 0 chec6s a02 I02ia0 c tt 0 pieces e4p rte2 t A,rica imp ssi&le" as the , rmer are !ive0 &y val1e a02 the

latter &y 51a0tity* )1t the !r -th , I02ia0 a02 E0!lish c tt 0 e4p rts t A,rica -ill !ive s me i02icati 0 , the imp rta0ce , the A,rica0 mar6et* T tal c tt 0 e4p rts st 2 at ?#%";>> i0 #<@#9 i0 #<;= they -ere m re tha0 2 1&le9 i0 #<<? they -ere m re tha0 , 1r times as !reat" &1t as a res1lt , the America0 Rev l1ti 0 they 2ecli0e2 t #$@"$>> i0 #<B>* The e,,ect , the -ar 0 the slave a02 pla0tati 0 mar6ets is at 0ce appare0t* )y #<B> chec6s ha2 cease2 t &e a0 imp rta0t part , the c tt 0 i021stry* )1t it -as 0 t the -ar al 0e that -as t &e &lame2*

<> CAPITALIS( AN' SLAVERY

(a0chester c 1l2 satis,y the A,rica0 mar6et 0ly -he0 I02ia0 c tt 0s -ere scarce r 2ear* F r the pla0tati 0 mar6et cheap3 0ess -as esse0tial" a02 &y #<B> ra- c tt 0 -as &ec mi0!" i03 creasi0!ly e4pe0sive as the s1pply la!!e2 &ehi02 the 2ema02 , the 0e- i0ve0ti 0s* $? )1t acc r2i0! t estimates !ive0 t the Privy C 10cil i0 #<BB" (a0chester e4p rte2 a001ally t A,rica ! 2s - rth ?>>">>>" #B>">>> , this , r Ne!r es 0ly9 the ma01,act1re , these ! 2s represe0te2 a0 i0vestme0t , =>>">>> a02 !ave empl yme0t t #B>">>> me0" - me0 a02 chil2re0* $= The Fre0ch ma01,act1rers" impresse2 -ith the 51ality a02 cheap3 0ess , th se special ! 2s calle2 +1i0ea cl ths pr 21ce2 i0 (a0chester" -ere se02i0! a!e0ts ver t !et partic1lars" a02 e4te02i0! pe0 ,,ers t (a0chester ma01,act1rers" sh 1l2 )ritai0 a& lish the slave tra2e" t set 1p i0 R 1e0 -here they - 1l2 &e !ive0 every e0c 1ra!eme0t* $% I0 a22iti 0" (a0ches3 ter i0 #<BB ,1r0ishe2 , r the West I02ia0 tra2e m re tha0 =>>">>> a001ally i0 ma01,act1res" -hich !ave empl yme0t t ma0y th 1sa02s* $@ )et-ee0 the c tt 0 ma01,act1rers , (a0chester a02 the slave tra2ers there -ere 0 t the cl se c 00ecti 0s that have al3 rea2y &ee0 0 tice2 i0 the case , the ship&1il2ers , Liverp l* )1t t- e4cepti 0al i0sta0ces , s1ch c 00ecti 0s e4ist* T-ell360 -0 c tt 0 ma01,act1rers , La0cashire" Sir William Fa/ac6erly a02 Sam1el T 1chet" -ere & th mem&ers , the C mpa0y , (ercha0ts tra2i0! t A,rica* Fa/ac6erly" a L 03 2 0 2ealer i0 ,1stia0s" prese0te2 the case , the separate tra2ers , )rist l a02 Liverp l a!ai0st the A,rica0 C mpa0y i0 I<?;* $; T 1chet" mem&er , a !reat (a0chester chec63ma6i0! h 1se" represe0te2 Liverp l 0 the ! ver0i0! & 2y , the c mpa0y 21ri0! the peri 2 #<@=3#<@;* He -as c 0cer0e2 i0 the e51ippi0! , the e4pe2iti 0 -hich capt1re2 Se0e!al i0 #<@B a02 trie2 har2 t !et the c 0tract , r vict1alli0! the tr ps* A patr 0 , Pa1l7s 10s1ccess,1l spi00i0! machi0e i0te02e2 t rev l1ti 0i/e the c tt 0 i021stry" acc1se2 pe0ly , attempt3 i0! t m 0 p li/e the imp rt , ra- c tt 0" T 1chet a22e2 t his ma0y i0terests a part0ership" -ith his &r thers" i0 a& 1t t-e0ty ships i0 the West I02ia0 tra2e* T 1chet 2ie2" leavi0! a

CO((ERCE AN' THE TRIAN+ULAR TRA'E .l lar!e , rt10e" a02 -as 2escri&e2 i0 his &it1ary 0 tice as :the m st c 0si2era&le mercha0t a02 ma01,act1rer i0 (a0ches3 ter" remar6a&le , r !reat a&ilities a02 strict i0te!rity" a02 , r 10iversal &e0ev le0ce a02 1se,1l0ess t ma06i02*: T- m 2er0 -riters have le,t 1s this 2escripti 0 , the ma08 :Icar1s3li6e s ari0! t hi!h": he emer!es as :the ,irst c 0si2era&le ,i0a0cier that the (a0chester tra2e pr 21ce2" a02 certai0ly as 0e , the earliest cases , a (a0chester ma0 -h -as c 0cer0e2 at 0ce i0 ma01,act1ri0! a02 i0 lar!e scale ,i0a0cial a02 c mmercial ve0t1res i0 the City a02 a&r a2*: $< Other cases emphasi/e the si!0i,ica0ce , T 1chet7s career* R &ert 'i!!les" A,rica0 slave tra2er , Liverp l" -as the s 0 , a (a0chester li0e0 2raper a02 &r ther , a0 ther* I0 #<%< a (a0chester ma0 -as i0 part0ership -ith t- Liverp l me0 i0 a v ya!e t .amaica* A lea2i0! (a0chester ,irm" the Hi&3 &erts" -0e2 s1!ar pla0tati 0s i0 7.amaica" a02 at 0e time s1pplie2 chec6s a02 imitati 0s , I02ia0 ! 2s t the A,rica0 C mpa0y , r the slave tra2e* $B (a0chester receive2 a 2 1&le stim1l1s ,r m the c l 0ial tra2e* I, it s1pplie2 the ! 2s 0ee2e2 0 the slave c ast a02 0 the pla0tati 0s" its ma01,act1rers 2epe02e2 i0 t1r0 0 the s1pply , the ra- material* (a0chester7s i0terest i0 the isla02s -as t- , l2* The ra- material came t E0!la02 i0 the seve0tee0th a02 ei!htee0th ce0t1ries chie,ly ,r m t- s 1rces" the Leva0t a02 the West I02ies* I0 the ei!htee0th ce0t1ry that I02ia0 c mpeti3 ti 0 -hich pr ve2 t , rmi2a&le , r (a0chester 0 the slave c ast a02 -hich -as threate0i0! t s-amp eve0 the h me mar3 6et -ith I02ia0 ! 2s -as e,,ectively smashe2" as ,ar as E0!3 la02 -as c 0cer0e2" &y the pr hi&itive 21ties 0 I02ia0 im3 p rts i0t E0!la02* The ,irst step -as there&y ta6e0 &y -hich the m therla02 , c tt 0 &ecame i0 the 0i0etee0th a02 t-e03 tieth ce0t1ries the chie, mar6et , La0cashire* I0 the ei!ht3 ee0th ce0t1ry the meas1re !ave (a0chester a m 0 p ly , the h me mar6et" a02 private I02ia0 tra2ers &e!a0 t imp rt the ra- c tt 0 , r the La0cashire ,act ries* A c mpetit r t the West I02ia0 isla02s ha2 arise0" t &e , ll -e2 later &y )ra/il"

<? CAPITALIS( AN' SLAVERY

-h se pr 21ct &y #<B= -as rec !0i/e2 as clearly s1peri r t the ther varieties*

all

)1t i0 the early ei!htee0th ce0t1ry E0!la02 2epe02e2 0 the West I02ia0 isla02s , r &et-ee0 t- 3thir2s a02 three351arters , its ra- c tt 0* C tt 0" 0evertheless" -as esse0tially a sec 023

ary c 0si2erati 0 i0 the West I02ia0 pla0ter7s 1tl 6" a02 h -ever m1ch the pla0ters as a & 2y l 6e2 -ith Deal 1sy 0 its c1ltivati 0 i0 I02ia r A,rica r )ra/il" it remai0e2 a sec 023 ary c 0si2erati 0* I0 pp si0! the rete0ti 0 , +1a2el 1pe i0 #<;=" the West I02ia i0terest meas1re2 their ar!1me0ts i0 terms , s1!ar" -hile" si!0i,ica0tly" a c 0temp rary pam3 phleteer p i0te2 t its c tt 0 e4p rts t E0!la02 as a reas 0 , r 6eepi0! the isla02*: )1t )ritish c 0s1mpti 0 -as small a02 the West I02ia0 c 0tri&1ti 0 -elc me* I0 #<;% )ritish im3 p rts , ra- c tt 0 am 10te2 t 0early , 1r milli 0 p 102s9 the West I02ies s1pplie2 0e3hal,* I0 #<B> )ritai0 imp rte2 m re tha0 si4 a02 a hal, milli 0 p 102s9 the West I02ies s1p3 plie2 t- 3thir2s* #>> I0 #<B=" the West I02ies" there, re" still 2 mi0ate2 the c tt 0 tra2e* )1t a 0e- 2ay -as 2a-0i0!* I0 the phe0 me0al e4pa03 si 0 , a0 i021stry -hich -as t cl the the - rl2" a ,e- ti0y isla02s i0 the Cari&&ea0 c 1l2 har2ly h pe t s1pply the 0eces3 sary ra- material* Their c tt 0 -as the l 0!3staple" sea3isla02 variety" easily clea0e2 &y ha02" limite2 t certai0 areas" a02 there, re e4pe0sive* Whe0 the c tt 0 !i0 permitte2 the c1lti3 vati 0 , the sh rt3staple c tt 0 &y ,acilitati0! the tas6 , clea0i0!" the ce0ter , !ravity shi,te2 ,r m the isla02s t the mai0la02 t meet the e0 rm 1s 2ema02s , the 0e- machi0ery i0 E0!la02* I0 #<B% a shipme0t , America0 c tt 0 -as sei/e2 &y the Liverp l c1st ms a1th rities 0 the !r 102 that c tt 0" 0 t &ei0! a & 0a ,i2e pr 21ct , the U0ite2 States" c 1l2 0 t le!ally &e tra0sp rte2 t E0!la02 i0 a0 America0 vessel* It -as a0 evil me0 , r the West I02ia0s" c i0ci2i0!" as it 2i2" -ith a0 ther si!0i,ica0t 2evel pme0t* '1ri0! the Ameri3 ca0 Rev l1ti 0 (a0chester7s c tt 0 e4p rts t E1r pe alm st tre&le2* #># The Rev l1ti 0 itsel, create2 a0 ther imp rta0t mar6et , r (a0chester" the i02epe02e0t U0ite2 States" at a time -he0 the c tt 0 !i0 -as D1st ar 102 the c r0er* F r & th

CO((ERCE AN' THE TRIAN+ULAR TRA'E <= its imp rt a02 e4p rt mar6ets" there, re" c tt 0 -as &e!i00i0! t reach 1t t the - rl2 mar6et* The s100y Cari&&ea0 s6y -as marre2 &y a &arely percepti&le &1t p rte0t 1s cl 12" a02 the !e0tle West I02ia0 &ree/e -as risi0! mi0 1sly* It heral2e2 the appr achi0! p litical h1rrica0e -hich" t alter E2m102 )1r6e7s 2escripti 0 , th se visitati 0s , 0at1re c m3 m 0 i0 the West I02ies" h1m&le2 the s1!ar pla0ter7s pri2e i, it 2i2 0 t c rrect his vices* =* S1!ar Re,i0i0!* The pr cessi0! , c l 0ial ra- materials !ave rise t 0e- i03 21stries i0 E0!la02" pr vi2e2 ,1rther empl yme0t , r shippi0!" a02 c 0tri&1te2 t a !reater e4te0si 0 , the - rl2 mar6et a02 i0ter0ati 0al tra2e* O, these ra- materials s1!ar -as pre3 emi0e0t" a02 its ma01,act1re !ave &irth t the s1!ar re,i0i0! i021stry* The re,i0i0! pr cess tra0s, rme2 the cr12e &r -0

s1!ar ma01,act1re2 0 the pla0tati 0s i0t -hite s1!ar" -hich -as 21ra&le a02 capa&le , preservati 0" a02 c 1l2 &e easily ha02le2 a02 2istri&1te2 all ver the - rl2* The earliest re,ere0ce t s1!ar re,i0i0! i0 E0!la02 is a0 r2er , the Privy C 10cil i0 #;#@ pr hi&iti0! alie0s ,r m erecti0! s1!ar h 1ses r practisi0! the art , re,i0i0! s1!ar* #>? The imp rta0ce , the i021stry i0crease2 i0 pr p rti 0 t its pr 21cti 0 0 the pla0tati 0s" a02 as s1!ar &ecame" -ith the sprea2 , tea a02 c ,,ee" 0e , the 0ecessities , li,e i0stea2 , the l141ry , 6i0!s* A& 1t the mi22le , the ei!htee0th ce0t1ry there -ere # ?> re,i0eries i0 E0!la02* Each re,i0ery -as estimate2 t pr vi2e empl yme0t , r a& 1t 0i0e me0* I0 a22iti 0 the 2istri&1ti 0 , the re,i0e2 pr 21ct calle2 i0t e4iste0ce a 01m&er , s1&3 si2iary tra2es a02 re51ire2 ships a02 -a! 0s , r the c astal a02 i0la02 tra2e* #>= The s1!ar re,i0i0! i021stry , )rist l -as 0e , the m st imp rta0t , the 6i0!2 m* It -as i0 )rist l i0 #;@% that the 2iarist" Evely0" sa- , r the ,irst time the meth 2 , ma01,ac3 t1ri0! l a, s1!ar" #>% a02 i0 the a00als , )rist l7s hist ry s1!ar ,i!1res ,re51e0tly as a !i,t t 2isti0!1ishe2 visit rs t the t -0 Richar2" s 0 , Oliver Cr m-ell" a02 Fi0! Charles II" i0

<% CAPITALIS( AN' SLAVERY

ret1r0 , r -hich the 6i0! 60i!hte2 , 1r cha0ts* #>@

, the t -07s mer3

I0 #<$$" there -ere t-e0ty re,i0eries i0 )rist l" a02 the t -0 2i2 m re re,i0i0! tha0 L 02 0 i0 pr p rti 0 t si/e a02 p p13 lati 0* )rist l7s s1!ar -as c 0si2ere2 s1peri r i0 51ality" its pr 4imity t the c al s1pplies , r ,1el e0a&le2 it t sell cheaper tha0 L 02 0" -hile it , 102 i0 Irela02" the -h le , S 1th Wales a02 West E0!la02 the mar6ets , r -hich it -as 2esti0e2 &y its !e !raphical l cati 0* #>; S1!ar re,i0i0! l 0! remai0e2 0e , the staples , )rist l* The re,i0ers , the city petiti 0e2 Parliame0t i0 #<B$ a!ai0st the a& liti 0 , the slave tra2e 0 -hich :the -el,are a02 pr sperity" i, 0 t the act1al e4iste0ce" , the West I02ia Isla02s 2epe02*: #>< I0 #B## there -ere si43 tee0 re,i0eries i0 the t -0" -h se c 00ecti 0 -ith this i021s3 try cease2 0ly t -ar2s the e02 , the 0i0etee0th ce0t1ry" -he0 &a0a0as replace2 s1!ar* #>B S me , )rist l7s m st pr mi0e0t citi/e0s -ere c 00ecte2 -ith the s1!ar re,i0i0! &1si0ess* R &ert Al2- rth" seve0tee0th ce0t1ry al2erma0" -as cl sely i2e0ti,ie2 -ith re,i0i0!" -hile he -as at the same time a mercha0t -h &1ilt t- 2 c6s t ac3 c mm 2ate the i0crease2 shippi0!* #>$ William (iles -as the 1tsta02i0! re,i0er , the ei!htee0th ce0t1ry* His career is typ3 ical , ma0y ther cases* (iles came t )rist l -ith three hal,3

pe0ce i0 his p c6et" - r6e2 as a p rter" appre0tice2 himsel, t a ship&1il2er" save2 ,i,tee0 p 102s" a02 saile2 t .amaica as a ship7s carpe0ter i0 a mercha0tma0* He & 1!ht a cas6 r t, s1!ar -hich he s l2 i0 )rist l" at a h1!e pr ,it" a02 -ith the pr cee2s & 1!ht articles i0 !reat 2ema02 i0 .amaica a02 re3 peate2 his , rmer i0vestme0t* (iles s 0 &ecame very -ealthy a02 settle2 i0 )rist l as a re,i0er* This -as the h1m&le ri!i0 , 0e , the !reatest , rt10es ma2e i0 the West I02ia0 tra2e* Ta6i0! his s 0 i0t part0ership" (iles -as -ealthy e0 1!h t !ive him a chec6 , r #>>">>> t e0a&le him t marry the 2a1!hter , a0 arist cratic cler!yma0* The el2er (iles &ecame a0 al2erma0" a02 2ie2 rich a02 h 0 re29 the y 10!er c 03 ti01e2 as a West I02ia0 mercha0t 2eali0! chie,ly i0 s1!ar a02 slaves" a02 at his 2eath i0 #B%B le,t pr perty val1e2 at m re tha0 a milli 0* ##> I0 #B== he -as i0 p ssessi 0 , ;;= slaves i0

CO((ERCE AN' THE TRIAN+ULAR TRA'E <@ Tri0i2a2 a02 .amaica" , r -hich he receive2 C mpe0sati 0 t the am 10t , i<"B@ * m The ,re51e0t ass ciati 0 , +las! - -ith the t &acc i03 21stry is 0ly a part , the tr1th* The pr sperity , the t -0 i0 the ei!htee0th ce0t1ry -as 21e at least as m1ch t its s1!ar re,i0i0! &1si0ess* S1!ar re,i0i0! 2ate2 &ac6 t the sec 02 hal, , the seve0tee0th ce0t1ry* The Wester s1!ar3h 1se -as &1ilt i0 #;;<" , ll -e2 &y the Easter i0 #;;$" a02 sh rtly a,ter the S 1th s1!ar3h 1se a02 a0 ther* Yet a0 ther , ll -e2 i0 #<>#* )1t +las! - la& re2 102er the 2isa2va0ta!e that &e, re #<>< 2irect tra2e relati 0s -ith the c l 0ies -ere ille!al" a02 +las3 ! -7s s1!ar re,i0ers -ere , rce2 t 2epe02 0 )rist l , r their ra- material* )y the Act , U0i 0 a02 a happy acci2e0t this 10satis,act ry sit1ati 0 -as &r 1!ht t a0 e02* T- Sc tch ,,icers" C l 0el William (ac2 -all" ca2et , a0 a0cie0t ,amily" a02 (aD r .ames (illi6e0" -hile 51artere2 i0 St* Fitts" - e2 a02 - 0 t- heiresses" the -i2 - T vie a02 her 2a1!hter" -0ers , !reat s1!ar pla0tati 0s* The missi0! li06 ha2 &ee0 , 102* The arrival , the heiresses a02 their h1s&a02s mea0t that +las! - &ecame 0e , the lea2i0! p rts , e0try , r the car! es , West I02ia0 s1!ar* I0 the very year , the happy eve0t a 0e- re,i0ery -as set 1p* ##? The maD rity , the re,i0eries -ere l cate2 i0 a02 ar 102 the capital ei!hty c mpare2 -ith )rist l7s t-e0ty* I0 #<<% there -ere ei!ht re,i0eries i0 Liverp l" 0e , them" the h 1se , )ra0c6ers" a ,irm als e0!a!e2 i0 the slave tra2e" &ei0! 0e , the m st e4te0sive i0 the -h le 6i0!2 m* ##= There -ere thers i0 (a0chester" Chester" La0cashire" Whitehave0" Ne-3 castle" H1ll" S 1thampt 0 a02 Warri0!t 0* It may -ell &e as6e2 -hy the re,i0i0! , the ra- s1!ar -as 0 t 2 0e at the s 1rce" 0 the pla0tati 0s* The 2ivisi 0 , la& r" &et-ee0 the a!ric1lt1ral perati 0s i0 the tr pical climate" a02 the i021strial perati 0s i0 the temperate climate" has s1rvive2 t this 2ay* The ri!i0al reas 0 ha2 0 thi0! t 2

-ith the s6ill , la& r r the prese0ce , -as the res1lt , the 2eli&erate p licy , The &a0 0 s1!ar re,i0i0! i0 the isla02s c &a0 0 ir 0 a02 te4tile ma01,act1re 0 the

0at1ral res 1rces* It the m ther c 10try* rresp 02e2 t the mai0la02* Sh 1l2

CAPITALIS( AN' SLAVERY

they have re,i0ers i0 E0!la02 r the pla0tati 0sI as6e2 Sir Th mas Cli,, r2 i0 #;<#* :Five ships ! * , r the &lac6s": -as his a0s-er" :a02 0 t a& ve t- i, re,i0e2 i0 the pla0tati 0s9 a02 s y 1 2estr y shippi0!" a02 all that &el 0!s t it9 a02 i, y 1 l se this a2va0ta!e t E0!la02" y 1 l se all*: He0ce the heavy 21ty place2 0 re,i0e2 s1!ar imp rte2 i0t E0!la02" , 1r times as m1ch as 1p 0 the &r -0 s1!ar* )y this p licy E0!la02 -as calle2 1p 0 , r a lar!er 01m&er , cas6s , r the ra- s1!ar" m re c als a02 vict1als -ere c 0s1me2" a02 the 0ati 0al reve01es i0crease2* ##% 'ave0a0t7s pleas , r permissi 0 , c l 0ial re,i0i0! ##@ ,ell 0 2ea, ears* It is si!0i,ica0t that a similar str1!!le -as ta6i0! place i0 Fra0ce" res1lti0! i0 a similar vict ry , r the merca0tilists* C l&ert ha2 permitte2 the re,i0i0! , s1!ar i0 the Fre0ch West I02ies" a02 ra- a02 re,i0e2 s1!ar ,r m the isla02s pai2 the same 21ty i0 Fra0ce* )1t i0 #;B? the 21ty 0 re,i0e2 s1!ar -as 2 1&le2" -hile t- years later" 102er pe0alty , a ,i0e , =">>> livres" it -as , r&i22e0 t erect 0e- re,i0eries i0 the isla02s* A 2ecree , #;$B -as eve0 m re 2rastic* The 21ty 0 ra- s1!ar ,r m the West I02ies -as l -ere2 ,r m , 1r t three livres per h102re2-ei!ht" -hile the 21ty 0 re,i0e2 s1!ar -as i0crease2 ,r m ei!ht t t-e0ty3t- a02 a hal, livres* This latter ,i!1re -as the same 21ty char!e2 0 re,i0e2 s1!ar ,r m , rei!0 la02s8 :the 2rastic 0at1re , the pr tecti 0 a,, r2e2 the Fre0ch re3 ,i0ers as a!ai0st their c mpatri ts i0 the c l 0ies &ec mes ap3 pare0t*: ##; The s1!ar re,i0i0! i0terest , E0!la02 -as e0c 1ra!e2 &y s1ch le!islati 0* It 2i2 0 t al-ays see eye t eye -ith the pla0t3 i0! i0terest 0 -h m it 2epe02e2 , r s1pplies* U02er the mer3 ca0tile system the s1!ar pla0ters ha2 a m 0 p ly , the h me mar6et" a02 , rei!0 imp rts -ere pr hi&ite2* It -as there, re the p licy , the pla0ters t restrict pr 21cti 0 i0 r2er t mai0tai0 a hi!h price* Their le!al m 0 p ly , the h me mar3 6et -as a p -er,1l -eap 0 i0 their ha02s" a02 they 1se2 it mercilessly" at the e4pe0se , the -h le p p1lati 0 , E0!la02* While the price , s1!ar -as &ei0! 0at1rally , rce2 2 -0 i0 the - rl2 mar6et &y the i0crease , s1!ar c1ltivati 0 i0 the Fre0ch" Spa0ish a02 P rt1!1ese c l 0ies" the )ritish pla0ters

CO((ERCE AN' THE TRIAN+ULAR TRA'E .. -ere i0te0t 0 mai0tai0i0! a m 0 p ly price i0 the h me

mar6et* The ,rie02s , the pla0ters -ar0e2 them , the :,atal a02 -retche2 err r: they -ere ma6i0!" , r :i, the )ritish pla0ta3 ti 0s ca00 t" r -ill 0 t" a,, r2 s1!ar" etc*" ple0ty a02 cheap e0 1!h the Fre0ch" '1tch" a02 P rt1!1ese 2 " a02 -ill*: ##< There -ere 0 t -a0ti0! -riters" as early as #<=>" -h 1r!e2 the ! ver0me0t t : pe0 the sl1ices , the la-s" a02 let i0 eve0 the Fre0ch s1!ar 1p 0 them" till they - 1l2 serve 1s at least as cheap as 1r 0ei!h& rs are serv72*: ##B I0 #<=$ .amaica re3 51este2 assista0ce ,r m the m ther c 10try* The C 10cil , Tra2e a02 Pla0tati 0s iss1e2 a clear a02 10mista6a&le -ar0i0!* .amaica ha2 t-ice as m1ch la02 as all the Lee-ar2 Isla02s c m3 &i0e2" yet the e4p rts , the Lee-ar2 Isla02s e4cee2e2 th se , .amaica* :Fr m -he0ce it - 1l2 0at1rally , ll - that 0 t 0e hal, , y 1r la02s are at prese0t c1ltivate2" a02 that +reat )ritai0 2 es 0 t reap hal, the &e0e,it ,r m y 1r C l 0y" -hich she mi!ht 2 i, it -ere ,1lly settle2*: ##$ The pla0ters - 1l2 0 t liste0* I0 the ei!htee0th ce0t1ry" they 2i2 0 t have t * The re,i0ers , L 02 0" Westmi0ster" S 1th3 -ar6 a02 )rist l pr teste2 t Parliame0t i0 #<@= a!ai0st the sel,ish0ess , the pla0ters a02 the :m st i0t lera&le 6i02 , a ta4: represe0te2 &y the hi!her price , )ritish s1!ar* The re3 ,i0ers 1r!e2 Parliame0t t ma6e it the i0terest , the s1!ar pla0ters t pr 21ce m re ra- s1!ar &y i0creasi0! the area 102er c1ltivati 0* They -ere care,1l" h -ever" 0 t7t prete02 t :set 1rselves i0 c mpetiti 0 -ith the i0ha&ita0ts , all the s1!ar c l 0ies" either , r 01m&ers" -ealth" r c 0se51e0ce t the p1&lic*: Parliame0t si2etrac6e2 the iss1e &y passi0! res l13 ti 0s a,y 1t the e0c 1ra!eme0t , -hite settlers i0 .amaica* #?> A0 ther crisis i0 relati 0s &et-ee0 pr 21cers a02 pr cess rs 2evel pe2 21ri0! the America0 Rev l1ti 0* Imp rts , s1!ar 2ecli0e2 &y 0e3thir2 &et-ee0 #<<% a02 #<B>* Prices -ere hi!h" a02 the re,i0ers" i0 2istress" petiti 0e2 Parliame0t , r re3 lie, i0 the , rm , the a2missi 0 , pri/e s1!ar* Rea2i0! &e3 t-ee0 the li0es , the evi2e0ce ta6e0 &y the parliame0tary c mmittee 0 the s1&Dect" -e see the c 0,lict , i0terests &e3 t-ee0 re,i0er a02 pla0ter* Hi!h prices &e0e,ite2 the pla0ter"

<B CAPITALIS( AN' SLAVERY

-hile the re,i0ers -a0te2 a0 i0crease2 s1pply -hich the pla0ters - 1l2 0 t" r c 1l2 0 t" !ive* I, they - 1l2 0 t" ma6e them9 the re,i0ers , )rist l rec mme02e2 :a sal1tary la-": -hich - 1l2 :ma6e it the i0terest , the )ritish s1!ar c l 0ies" t e4te02 the c1ltivati 0 , their la02s" i0 r2er t e0a&le them t raise a lar!er pr 21ce" a02 t se02 !reater 51a0tities , s1!ar t +reat )ritai0" a02 there&y &ec me m re 1se,1l t their m ther c 10try" its tra2e" 0avi!ati 0" a02 reve01e*: #?# I, they c 1l2 0 t" &1y else-here the Fre0ch c l 0ies" , r e43 ample* :Was I a re,i0er": sai2 0e -it0ess" a -h lesale !r cer"

:I sh 1l2 The chasm hea2 hel2 less 0 he lear0e2 0

certai0ly pre,er St* ' mi0! s1!ars t a0y ther*: #?? -as ya-0i0! at the ,eet , the s1!ar pla0ter" &1t" pr 12ly i0 the air" he -e0t his -ay m1m&li0! the ha2 &ee0 ta1!ht &y the merca0tilists a02 -hich he ha2 t -isely &1t t -ell*

%* R1m 'istillati 0 Yet a0 ther c l 0ial ra- material !ave &irth t yet a0 ther E0!lish i021stry* O0e , the imp rta0t &y3pr 21cts , s1!ar is m lasses" ,r m -hich r1m may &e 2istille2* )1t r1m 0ever at3 tai0e2 the imp rta0ce , c tt 0" ,ar less , s1!ar" as a c 0tri&13 ti 0 t )ritish i021stry" partly" perhaps" &eca1se m1ch r1m -as imp rte2 2irect ,r m the isla02s i0 its ,i0ishe2 state* Imp rts ,r m the isla02s i0crease2 ,r m @B">>> !all 0s i0 #<?# t =?>">>> i0 #<=>* I0 #<;= the ,i!1re st 2 at 0e a02 a 51arter milli 0 !all 0s a02 -as stea2ily ver t- milli 0 &et-ee0 #<;@ a02 i <<$ * #?= R1m -as i02ispe0sa&le i0 the ,isheries a02 the ,1r tra2e" a02 as a 0aval rati 0* )1t its c 00ecti 0 -ith the tria0!1lar tra2e -as m re 2irect still* R1m -as a0 esse0tial part , the car! , the slave ship" partic1larly the c l 0ial America0 slave ship* N slave tra2er c 1l2 a,, r2 t 2ispe0se -ith a car! , r1m* It -as pr ,ita&le t sprea2 a taste , r li51 r 0 the c ast* The Ne!r 2ealers -ere plie2 -ith it" -ere i021ce2 t 2ri06 till they l st their reas 0" a02 the0 the &ar!ai0 -as str1c6* #?% O0e slave 2ealer" his &a! ,1ll , the ! l2 pai2 him , r his slaves" st1pi2ly accepte2 the slave captai07s i0vitati 0 t 2i00er* He -as ma2e 2r106 a02 a- 6e 0e4t m r0i0! t ,i02 his m 0ey

CO((ERCE AN' THE TRIAN+ULAR TRA'E <$ ! 0e a02 himsel, strippe2" &ra02e2 a02 e0slave2 -ith his -0 victims" t the !reat mirth , the sail rs* #?@ I0 #<;@ t- 2is3 tilleries -ere esta&lishe2 at Liverp l , r the e4press p1rp se , s1pplyi0! ships & 102 , r A,rica* #?; O, e51al imp rta0ce t the merca0tilist -as the ,act that ,r m m lasses c 1l2 &e &3 tai0e2" i0 a22iti 0 t r1m" &ra02y a02 l - -i0es imp rte2 ,r m Fra0ce* The 2istilleries -ere a0 imp rta0t evi2e0ce , )rist l7s i0terest i0 the s1!ar pla0tati 0s" a02 ma0y -ere the Deremia2s -hich they se0t t Parliame0t i0 2e,e0ce , their i03 terests a02 i0 pp siti 0 t the imp rtati 0 , Fre0ch &ra02ies* )ish p )er6eley v ice2 the prevaili0! ,eeli0! -he0 he as6e2 aci2ly" i0 strict merca0tilist la0!1a!e" :-hether i, 2r106e00ess &e a 0ecessary evil" me0 may 0 t as -ell !et 2r106 -ith the !r -th , their -0 c 10tryI: The ei!htee0th ce0t1ry i0 E0!la02 -as 0 t ri 1s , r its alc h lism* The p p1lar 2ri06 -as !i0" imm rtali/e2 &y H 3 !arth i0 his +i0 La0e* A classic a2vertiseme0t , a !i0 sh p i0 S 1th-ar6 rea28 :'r106 , r a pe00y" 2ea2 2r106 , r t- 3 pe0ce" clea0 stra- , r 0 thi0!*: +i0 a02 r1m c 0te02e2 , r pri2e , place*

The West I02ia0 pla0ters ar!1e2 that the r1m they pr 21ce2 -as e51al t 0e3, 1rth , the val1e , all their ther pr 21cts* T pr hi&it the sale , r1m - 1l2 there, re &e t r1i0 them" a02 2rive the pe ple t , rei!0 s1&stit1tes* The pla0ters e43 presse2 the h pe that the s1ppressi 0 , the evils ccasi 0e2 &y the e4cessive 1se , spirit1 1s li51 rs - 1l2 0 t e0tail the 2e3 str1cti 0 , the s1!ar tra2e* #?< As they sa- it" the 51esti 0 -as 0 t -hether pe ple sh 1l2 2ri06" &1t -hat they sh 1l2 2ri06* +i0" ar!1e2 a0 a0 0ym 1s -riter" -as :vastly m re 2estr1ctive t the h1ma0 ,rame: tha0 r1m* :+i0 is a spirit t ,iery" acri2" a02 i0,lamei0! , r i0-ar2 1se &1t* * * * R1m is a spirit s mil2" &alsamic a02 &e0i!0" that i, its pr perly 1se2 a02 attempere2 it may &e ma2e hi!hly 1se,1l" & th , r the relie, a02 re!ale3 me0t , h1ma0 0at1re*: #?B This -as a stra0!e 2escripti 0 , the spirit -hich the )ar&a2ia0s m re appr priately 0ic60ame2 :Fill3'evill*: A!ai0st the pla0ters it -as c 0te02e2 that the West I02ia0 r1m tra2e -as t 10imp rta0t t permit the c 0ti01a0ce , a

B> CAPITALIS( AN' SLAVERY

!lari0! e0 rmity -hich te02e2 t 2estr y the health a02 m rals , the pe ple , +reat )ritai0* #?$ It is 0 t 10li6ely that ther c 0si2erati 0s -ere i0v lve2* R1m c mpete2 -ith spirits ma2e ,r m c r0* The West I02ia i0terest -as there, re at 22s -ith the E0!lish a!ric1lt1ral i0terest* The s1!ar pla0ters char!e2 that 2istilli0! ,r m c r0 te02e2 t raise the price , &rea2* This c 0cer0 , r the p r c 0s1mer , &rea2 -as t 1chi0!" c mi0! as it 2i2 ,r m e4t rti 0ists -h -a0te2 the p r t spe02 m re m 0ey 0 their s1!ar" a02 it a0te2ate2 &y a h102re2 years a similar &1t m re si!0i,ica0t c 0,lict &et-ee0 E0!lish ,armers a02 E0!lish i021stralists" ver cheaper &rea2 r l -er -a!es , r the - r6i0! classes* :( lasses: em&ittere2 the rela3 ti 0s &et-ee0 West I02ia0 s1!ar pla0ter a02 E0!lish la02l r2 as it em&ittere2 relati 0s &et-ee0 pla0ter a02 mai0la02 c l 03 ist" a02 the West I02ia i0terest -as al-ays 51ic6 t rec mme02 its s1&stit1ti 0 i0 E0!la02 -he0ever there -as a !rai0 sh rt3 a!e" they sai2" &1t i0 reality -he0ever there -as a !l1t , s1!ar* :S-eet !e0tleme0M: -r te a0 a0 0ym 1s champi 0 , the &arley c 10ties i0 #B><* :They have s 1!ht a very ,ar ,etche2 ar!1me0t i0 s1pp rt , their sacchari0e ca1se:9 #=> a02 (ichael Sa2ler" i0 #B=#" pp se2 the i2ea8 :A -h les me &evera!e mi!ht &e ma2e ,r m that article" &1t the pe ple , E0!la02 2i2 0 t li6e it*: #=# The real e0emy" h -ever" , the West I02ia0 2istiller -as 0 t the E0!lish ,armer &1t the Ne- E0!la02 2istiller* The Ne- E0!la02 tra2ers re,1se2 t p1rchase West I02ia0 r1m a02 i0siste2 0 m lasses" -hich they themselves 2istille2" a02 se0t t Ne-, 102la02" the I02ia0 tri&es" a02 a& ve all A,rica* The r1m tra2e 0 the slave c ast &ecame a virt1al m 0 p ly , Ne-

E0!la02* I0 #<<> Ne- E0!la02 e4p rts , r1m t A,rica rep3 rese0te2 ver , 1r3,i,ths , the t tal c l 0ial e4p rt , that year" #=? a02 yet a0 ther imp rta0t veste2 i0terest 2re- its s1ste0a0ce ,r m the tria0!1lar tra2e* )1t here" t " lay the see2 , ,1t1re 2isr1pti 0* Fre0ch West I02ia0 m lasses -as cheaper tha0 )ritish" &eca1se Fre0ch 2istilli0! -as 0 t per3 mitte2 t c mpete -ith the &ra02ies , the h me c 10try* Rather tha0 ,ee2 their m lasses t their h rses" they pre,erre2 t sell it t the mai0la02 c l 0ists* The latter there, re t1r0e2

CO((ERCE AN' THE TRIAN+ULAR TRA'E Bl t the Fre0ch pla0ters" a02 m lasses -as 0e , the pri0cipal items i0 that tra2e &et-ee0 mai0la02 a02 the , rei!0 s1!ar c l 0ies -hich" as the se51el sh -e2" ha2 ,ar3reachi0! c 0se3 51e0ces , r the )ritish s1!ar pla0ters* @* Pac tille The slave car! es -ere i0c mplete -ith 1t the :pac tille": the s102ry items a02 !e-!a-s -hich appeale2 t the A,rica0s7 l ve , &ri!ht c l rs a02 , r -hich" a,ter havi0! s l2 their ,el3 l -s" they - 1l2" late i0 the 0i0etee0th ce0t1ry" part -ith their la02 a02 !ra0t mi0i0! c 0cessi 0s* Articles , !lass a02 &ea2s -ere al-ays i0 2ema02 0 the slave c ast" a02 0 the pla0tati 0s there -as a !reat 2ema02 , r & ttles* ( st , these articles -ere ma01,act1re2 i0 )rist l* #== O0e slave 2ealer re3 ceive2 a ,i0e Ne!r ,r m a pri0ce i0 ret1r0 , r thirtee0 &ea2s , c ral" hal, a stri0! , am&er" t-e0ty3ei!ht silver &ells" a02 three pairs , &racelets , r his - me09 i0 ac60 -le2!me0t , this li&erality" he prese0te2 t the pri0ce7s ,av rite a prese0t , s me r -s , !lass &ea2s a02 a& 1t , 1r 10ces , scarlet - l* #=% I02ivi21ally these items -ere , 0e!li!i&le val1e9 i0 the a!!re!ate they c 0stit1te2 a tra2e , !reat imp rta0ce" s esse0tial a part , the slave tra0sacti 0s that the - r2 :pac 3 tille: is still c mm 0ly 1se2 i0 the West I02ies t 2ay t 2e0 te a cheap a02 ta-2ry &a1&le !ive0 as c mpe0sati 0 , r &Dects , !reat val1e* ;* The (etall1r!ical I021stries Slave tra2i0! 2ema02e2 ! 2s m re !r1es me th 1!h 0 t a -hit less 1se,1l tha0 - le0 a02 c tt 0 ma01,act1rers* Fetters a02 chai0s a02 pa2l c6s -ere 0ee2e2 t ,aste0 the Ne!r es m re sec1rely 0 the slave ships a02 th1s preve0t & th m1ti0y a02 s1ici2e* The practice , &ra02i0! the slaves t i2e0ti,y them re51ire2 re23h t ir 0s* Le!al re!1lati 0s prescri&e2 that 0 a0y ship 2esi!0e2 , r A,rica" the East I02ies" r the West I02ies" :three3, 1rths , their pr p rti 0 , &eer -as t &e p1t i0 ir 0 & 102 cas6" h pe2 -ith ir 0 h ps , ! 2 s1&sta0ce" a02 -ell -r 1!ht ir 0*: #=@ Ir 0 &ars -ere the tra2i0! me2i1m 0 a lar!e part , the A,rica0 c ast a02 -ere e51ivale0t t , 1r

B? CAPITALIS( AN' SLAVERY

c pper &ars* #=; Ir 0 &ars c 0stit1te2 0early three351arters , the val1e , the car! , the S-all - i0 #;<$" 0early 0e3 51arter , the car! , the (ary i0 #;$>" 0early 0e3,i,th , a slave car! i0 I<==3 #=< I0 #;B? the R yal A,rica0 C mpa0y -as e4p rti0! a& 1t #>">>> &ars , ir 0 a year* #=B The ir 0masters" t " , 102 a 1se,1l mar6et i0 A,rica* +10s , rme2 a re!1lar part , every A,rica0 car! * )ir3 mi0!ham &ecame the ce0ter , the !10 tra2e as (a0chester -as , the c tt 0 tra2e* The str1!!le &et-ee0 )irmi0!ham a02 L 02 0 ver the !10 tra2e -as merely a0 ther a0!le t the str1!!le , r ,ree tra2e r m 0 p ly -hich -e have alrea2y 0 tice2 , r the slave tra2e i0 !e0eral &et-ee0 the capital a02 the 1tp rts* I0 #<>$ a02 #<#> the !10 ma6ers , L 02 0 petiti 0e2 i0 ,av r , the R yal A,rica0 C mpa0y7s m 0 p ly* The )irmi0!ham !10 ma6ers a02 ir 0 ma6ers thre- their -ei!ht a02 i0,l1e0ce a!ai0st the c mpa0y a02 the L 02 0 i03 terests* Three times" i0 #<>B" #<>$" a02 #<##" they petiti 0e2 a!ai0st a re0e-al , the c mpa0y7s m 0 p ly -hich ha2 &ee0 m 2i,ie2 i0 i;$B* #=> Their tra2e ha2 i0crease2 si0ce the0 a02 they ,eare2 a re0e-al , the m 0 p ly" -hich - 1l2 s1&Dect their ma01,act1res :t 0e &1yer" r t a0y 0e m 0 p li/i0! s ciety" e4cl1sive , all thers*: #%> I0 the 0i0etee0th ce0t1ry )irmi0!ham !10s -ere e4cha0!e2 , r A,rica0 palm3 il" &1t the ei!htee0th ce0t1ry sa- a less i03 0 ce0t e4cha0!e* The )irmi0!ham !10s , the ei!htee0th ce03 t1ry -ere e4cha0!e2 , r me0" a02 it -as a c mm 0 sayi0! that the price , a Ne!r -as 0e )irmi0!ham !10* The A,rica0 m1s6et -as a0 imp rta0t )irmi0!ham e4p rt" reach3 i0! a t tal , #>>">>> t #@>">>> a001ally* With the )ritish ! ver0me0t a02 the East I02ia C mpa0y" A,rica ra06e2 as the m st imp rta0t c1st mer , the )irmi0!ham !10ma6ers* #%# The 0ee2s , the pla0tati 0s t -ere 0 t t &e 2espise2* I0 the late seve0tee0th ce0t1ry the ir 0masters" Sit-ells" , 'er&y3 shire -ere pr 21ci0! am 0! their items s1!ar st ves a02 r llers , r cr1shi0! ca0e i0 )ar&a2 s" a02 )irmi0!ham" t " -as i03 tereste2 i0 the pla0tati 0s* #%? E4p rts , -r 1!ht ir 0 a02 0ails -e0t t the pla0tati 0s" th 1!h these e4p rts te02e2 t ,l1ct13 ate acc r2i0! t the c 02iti 0 , the s1!ar tra2e* As 0e ir 03 master sai2 i0 #<=<8 :The &a2 state , s me , 1r s1!ar isla02s

CO((ERCE AN' THE TRIAN+ULAR TRA'E B= has &ee0 * * * s me preD12ice t the ir 03tra2e9 , r the c 03 s1mpti 0 , ir 0 -are" i0 th se isla02s" is m re r less" as their tra2e , r s1!ar is &etter r - rse*: #%= A0 l2 hist ria0 , the city has le,t 1s a pict1re , )irmi0!ham7s i0terest i0 the c l 0ial system8 :a4es , r I02ia" a02 t maha-6s , r the 0atives , N rth America9 a02 t C1&a a02 the )ra/ils chai0s" ha02c1,,s"

a02 ir 0 c , America the cattle ham &ells9 s1!ar ca0e

llars , r the p r slaves* * * *I0 the primeval , rests the )irmi0!ham a4e str1c6 2 -0 the l2 trees9 past1res , A1stralia ra0! -ith the s 102 , )irmi0!3 i0 East I02ia a02 the West they te02e2 the ,iel2s , -ith )irmi0!ham h es*: #%%

Al 0! -ith ir 0 -e0t &rass" c pper a02 lea2* The e4p rts , &rass pa0s a02 6ettles t A,rica 2ate2 &ac6 &e, re #;;> &1t i0crease2 -ith ,ree tra2e a,ter #;$B* Therea,ter )irmi0!ham &e!a0 t e4p rt lar!e 51a0tities , c1tlery a02 &rass ! 2s" a02 thr 1!h 1t the ei!htee0th ce0t1ry )ritish ! 2s e,,ectively s1stai0e2 c mpetiti 0 -ith , rei!0 i0 c l 0ial mar6ets* The Chea2le C mpa0y" , 102e2 i0 N rth Sta,, r2shire i0 #<#$" s 0 &ecame 0e , the lea2i0! &rass a02 c pper c 0cer0s i0 E0!la02* It e4te02e2 the sc pe , its perati 0s t i0cl12e the &rass -ire" :the +1i0ea r 2s: a02 the :ma0ell es: Gmetal ri0!s - r0 &y the A,rica0 tri&esH 1se2 i0 the A,rica0 tra2e* The c mpa0y7s capital i0crease2 eleve0 times &et-ee0 #<=% a02 #<B> -he0 the c mpa0y -as re r!a0i/e2* :Starti0! ,r m small &e!i00i0!s * * *" it &ecame 0e , the m st imp rta0t" i, 0 t the m st imp rta0t" , the &rass a02 c pper c 0cer0s , the ei!ht3 ee0th ce0t1ry*: Acc r2i0! t tra2iti 0" ships saile2 t A,rica -ith the h l2s ,1ll , i2 ls a02 :ma0ell es": -hile the ca&i0s -ere cc1pie2 &y missi 0aries :a0 e2i,yi0! e4ample , a material ! 2 i0 c mpetiti 0 -ith a0 immaterial 0e*: #%@ The )aptist (ills , )rist l pr 21ce2 a pr 2i!i 1s 51a0tity , &rass -hich" 2ra-0 i0t -ire a02 , rme2 i0t :&attery": -as e43 te0sively 1se2 i0 the A,rica0 tra2e* #%; The H ly-ell - r6s" i0 a22iti 0 t pr 21ci0! c pper sheathi0! , r the Liverp l ships" ma01,act1re2 &rass pa0s , r the West I02ia0 s1!ar a02 East I02ia tea mercha0ts" a02 all varieties , cheap a02 !a12y &rass i0str1me0ts , r the A,rica0 tra2e* #%< )rass pa0s a02 6ettles -ere e4p rte2 t A,rica a02 the pla0tati 0s" a02 i0 0e list" a,ter the hea2i0! :&rass pa0s": -e rea2 :2itt lar!e t -ash

B% CAPITALIS( AN' SLAVERY

their & 2ies i0*: #%B These :&ath pa0s": ma2e 0 - , !alva0i/e2 ti0" are still a 0 rmal ,eat1re , West I02ia0 li,e t 2ay* The 0ee2s , ship&1il2i0! !ave a ,1rther stim1l1s t heavy i021stry* The ir 0 chai0 a02 a0ch r , 102ries" , -hich there -ere ma0y i0 Liverp l" live2 ,, the &1il2i0! , ships* C pper sheathi0! , r the vessels !ave rise t l cal i021stries i0 the t -0 a02 a2Dace0t 2istricts t s1pply the 2ema02* )et-ee0 thirty a02 , rty vessels -ere empl ye2 i0 tra0sp rti0! the c pper" smelte2 i0 La0cashire a02 Cheshire" ,r m the - r6s at H ly-ell t the -areh 1ses i0 Liverp l* #%$ The ir 0master7s i0terest i0 the slave tra2e c 0ti01e2 thr 1!h 1t the ce0t1ry* Whe0 the 51esti 0 , a& liti 0 came &e, re Parliame0t" the ma01,act1rers , a02 2ealers i0 ir 0" c pper" &rass a02 lea2 i0 Liverp l petiti 0e2 a!ai0st the pr D3

ect" -hich - 1l2 a,,ect empl yme0t i0 the t -0 a02 se02 , rth th 1sa02s as :s litary -a02erers i0t the - rl2" t see6 empl yme0t i0 , rei!0 climes*: #@> I0 the same year )irmi0!3 ham 2eclare2 that it -as 2epe02e0t 0 the slave tra2e t a c 03 si2era&le e4te0t , r a lar!e part , its vari 1s ma01,act1res* A& liti 0 - 1l2 r1i0 the t -0 a02 imp verish ma0y , its i03 ha&ita0ts* #@# These apprehe0si 0s -ere e4a!!erate2* The m10iti 0s 2e3 ma02 , r the c mmercial -ars , the ei!htee0th ce0t1ry ha2 prepare2 the ir 0masters , r the still !reater 2ema02s t c me 21ri0! the Rev l1ti 0ary a02 Nap le 0ic Wars* The c l 0ial mar6ets" m re ver" -ere i0a2e51ate t a&s r& the i0crease2 pr 21cti 0 -hich res1lte2 ,r m the tech0 l !ical i00 vati 0s* )et-ee0 #<#> a02 #<=@ ir 0 e4p rts alm st tre&le2* I0 #<#> the )ritish West I02ies t 6 ver 0e3,i,th , the e4p rts" i0 #<=@ less tha0 0e3si4th* I0 #<#>" ver 0e3thir2 , the e4p rts t the pla0tati 0s -e0t t the s1!ar isla02s" i0 #<=@ ver 0e3 51arter* The pea6 -as reache2 i0 #<?$" -he0 the West I02ies t 6 0early 0e351arter , the t tal e4p rts" a02 0early 0e3 hal, , the e4p rts t all the pla0tati 0s* #;? E4pa0si 0 at h me" c 0tracti 0 i0 the s1!ar isla02s* I0 #<B= the ir 0masters" t " -ere &e!i00i0! t l 6 the ther -ay* )1t Ci02erella" 2ec6e2 1t temp rarily i0 her ,a0cy cl thes" -as e0D yi0! hersel, t m1ch at the &all t pay a0y atte0ti 0 t the ha02s , the cl c6*

%3 THE WEST IN'IA INTEREST

:O1R TO)ACCO COLONIES": -r te A2am Smith" :se02 1s h me 0 s1ch -ealthy pla0ters as -e see ,re51e0tly arrive ,r m 1r s1!ar isla02s*: # The s1!ar pla0ter ra06e2 am 0! the &i!!est capitalists , the merca0tilist ep ch* A very p p1lar play" :The West I02ia0": -as pr 21ce2 i0 L 02 0 i0 #<<#* It pe0s -ith a treme02 1s recepti 0 &ei0! prepare2 , r a pla0ter c mi0! t E0!la02" as i, it -ere the L r2 (ay r -h -as e4pecte2* The serva0t phil s phi/e28 :He7s very rich" a02 that7s s1,,icie0t* They say he has r1m a02 s1!ar e0 1!h &el 0!i0! t him" t ma6e all the -ater i0 the Thames i0t p10ch*: ? The West I02ia0 pla0ter -as a ,amiliar ,i!1re i0 E0!lish s ciety i0 the ei!htee0th ce0t1ry* The e4pla0ati 0 lies i0 the a&se0tee la02l r2ism -hich has al-ays &ee0 the c1rse , the Cari&&ea0 a02 is still 0e , its maD r pr &lems t 2ay* O0e a&se0tee pla0ter 0ce ar!1e2 that :the climate , 1r s1!ar c l 0ies is s i0c 0ve0ie0t , r a0 E0!lish c 0stit1ti 0" that 0 ma0 -ill ch1se t live there" m1ch less -ill a0y ma0 ch1se t settle there" -ith 1t the h pes at least , s1pp rti0! his ,amily i0 a m re ha02s me ma00er" r savi0! m re m 0ey" tha0 he ca0 2 &y a0y &1si0ess he ca0 e4pect i0 E0!la02" r i0 1r pla0tati 0s 1p 0 the c 0ti0e0t , America*: = )1t the West

I02ia0 climate is 0 t 2isa!reea&le" a02" his , rt10e 0ce ma2e" the slave -0er ret1r0e2 t )ritai0* Writi0! i0 #;B$ the a!e0t , r )ar&a2 s state2 that :&y a 6i02 , ma!0etic , rce E0!la02 2ra-s t it all that is ! 2 i0 the pla0tati 0s* It is the ce0ter t -hich all thi0!s te02* N thi0! &1t E0!la02 ca0 -e relish r B@

B; CAPITALIS( AN' SLAVERY

,a0cy8 1r hearts are here" -herever 1r & 2ies &e* *** All that -e ca0 rap a02 re02 is &r 1!ht t E0!la02*: % I0 #;$B the West I02ies -ere se02i0! &ac6 a001ally t E0!la02 a& 1t three h103 2re2 chil2re0 t &e e21cate2" the 2i,,ere0ce &ei0!" acc r2i0! t 'ave0a0t" that the ,athers -e0t 1t p r a02 the chil2re0 came &ac6 rich* @ :Well": says (r* )elc 1r" the pla0ter" i0 the c me2y :The West I02ia0": :, r the ,irst time i0 my li,e here am I i0 E0!la02" at the , 10tai03hea2 , pleas1re" i0 the la02 , &ea1ty" , arts" , ele!a0cies* (y happy stars have !ive0 me a ! 2 estate" a02 the c 0spiri0! -i02s have &l -0 me hither t spe02 it*: ; Ret1r0e2 t E0!la02" the pla0ters7 , 02est -ish -as t ac51ire a0 estate" &le02 -ith the arist cracy" a02 rem ve the mar6s , their ri!i0* Their prese0ce i0 E0!la02" as )r 1!3 ham p i0te2 1t" ha2 a ,re51e0tly 2eleteri 1s e,,ect 0 E0!3 lish character a02 m rals9 -here they -ere 01mer 1s a02 ha2 ac51ire2 la02" they c mm 0ly i0tr 21ce2 a &a2 state , ma03 0ers i0t the l cality* < Their c l ssal -ealth permitte2 lavish e4pe02it1res -hich smac6e2 , v1l!arity a02 e4cite2 the e0vy a02 2isappr val , the less p1le0t E0!lish arist cracy* The p litical ec 0 mist" (erivale" later i0 the 0i0etee0th ce0t1ry ar!1e2 that the cha0!e ,r m resi2e0ce t a&se0teeism -as a cre2it rather tha0 a 2is!race t the E0!lish character" as evi0ci0! a 2istaste , r the 2eep3r te2 har23hearte20ess a02 pr ,li!acy , li,e i0 the slave c l 0ies* )1t that pec1liar ,asti2i3 1s0ess -hich shra06 ,r m c 0tact -ith slavery -hilst it ha2 0 &Decti 0 t e0D yi0! the pr ,its , slavery" (erivale c 1l2 e4plai0 0ly &y :the !e0eral ap l !y , the i0c 0siste0cy , h1ma0 0at1re*: B A&se0teeism" h -ever" ha2 seri 1s c 0se51e0ces i0 the isla02s* Pla0tati 0s -ere le,t t &e misma0a!e2 &y verseers a02 att r0eys* O0 ccasi 0s ! ver0 rs , 102 it 2i,,ic1lt t &tai0 a 51 r1m , r the c 10cils* (a0y ,,ices -ere hel2 &y a si0!le i02ivi21al" a02 the 2ispr p rti 0 &et-ee0 -hite a02 &lac6 p p1lati 0 -as i0crease2" a!!ravati0! the 2a0!er , slave re3 &elli 0s* The 'e,icie0cy La-s ,aile2 t restrai0 the practice , a&se0teeism" s the l cal assem&lies trie2 t c 0,iscate the lar!e tracts , la02 lyi0! i2le a02 -0e2 &y a&se0tees" a02 pr p se2 their re2ivisi 0 am 0! small ,arms* ) th meas1res -ere pp se2

THE WEST IN'IA INTEREST B<

&y the )ritish ! ver0me0t at the i0siste0ce pla0ters* $

, the a&se0tee

O, the s1!ar pla0ters resi2e0t i0 E0!la02 the m st pr mi0e0t -ere the )ec6, r2s" a0 l2 +l 1cestershire ,amily 2ati0! &ac6 t the t-el,th ce0t1ry* O0e 2ie2 ,i!hti0! , r his 6i0! 0 ) s3 - rth Fiel2 i0 #%B=" a0 ther , 102 i0 the E0!lish c 051est , .amaica a mea0s , retrievi0! the ,amily , rt10es* I0 #;<> Al2erma0 Sir Th mas )ec6, r2" 0e , the ,irst , a&se0tee pr priet rs" -as !etti0! ?">>> per a001m ,r m his .amaica0 pr perty clear , all char!es* Peter )ec6, r2 &ecame the m st 2isti0!1ishe2 , the 0e- c l 0ists* He hel2 i0 the c 1rse , time all the m st imp rta0t military a02 civil p siti 0s i0 the isla02" &ecame Presi2e0t , the C 10cil a02 later Lie1te0a0t3 + ver0 r a02 C mma02er3i03Chie,* At his 2eath i0 #<#> he :-as i0 p ssesi 0 , the lar!est pr perty real a02 pers 0al , a0y s1&Dect i0 E1r pe*: I0 #<=< his !ra02s 0" William" i03 herite2 the ,amily -ealth a02 &ecame the m st p -er,1l West I02ia0 pla0ter i0 E0!la02* #> )ec6, r2" 0 his Wiltshire estate" &1ilt F 0thill (a0si 0" l 0! re!ar2e2 as the m st attractive a02 sple02i2 seat i0 the West , E0!la02* :It -as a ha02s me" 10i, rm e2i,ice" c 0sisti0! , a ce0tre , , 1r st ries" a02 t- -i0!s , t- st ries" c 00ecte2 &y c r3 ri2 rs" &1ilt , ,i0e st 0e" a02 a2 r0e2 -ith a & l2 p rtic " resti0! 0 a r1stic &aseme0t" -ith t- s-eepi0! ,li!hts , steps8 its apartme0ts -ere 01mer 1s" a02 sple02i2ly ,1r0ishe2* They 2isplaye2 the riches a02 l141ry , the east9 a02 0 partic1lar ccasi 0s -ere s1per&ly &rillia0t a02 2a//li0!* Whilst its -alls -ere a2 r0e2 -ith the m st c stly - r6s , art" its si2e& ar2s a02 ca&i0ets prese0te2 a ! r!e 1s c m&i0ati 0 , ! l2" silver" preci 1s metals" a02 preci 1s st 0es" arra0!e2 a02 - r6e2 &y the m st taste,1l artists a02 artisa0s* A22e2 t these sple02 1rs" these 2a//li0! &Dects" appare0tly a1!me0te2 a02 m1ltiplie2 &y lar!e c stly mirr rs" -as a vast" ch ice" a02 val1a&le li3 &rary* * * * S me i2ea may &e , rme2 , the e4te0t" etc*" , the h 1se &y the meas1reme0t , its !reat e0tra0ce hall" i0 the &ase3 me0t st ry" -hich -as ei!hty3,ive ,eet te0 i0ches i0 le0!th" &y thirty3ei!ht ,eet si4 i0ches i0 &rea2th* Its r , -as va1lte2" a02

BB CAPITALIS( AN' SLAVERY

s1pp rte2 &y lar!e st 0e piers* O0e apartme0t -as ,itte2 1p i0 the T1r6ish style" -ith lar!e mirr rs" tt ma0s" etc*" -hilst thers -ere e0riche2 -ith ,i0e sc1lpt1re2 mar&le chim0ey3 pieces*::

)ec6, r2" .10i r" -as 0 t t &e 1t2 0e* P ssesse2 , a vivi2 ,a0cy a02 a vast , rt10e -hich" acc r2i0! t the ,amily hist ria0" c 1l2 0 t &e satis,ie2 -ith a0ythi0! c mm 0place" he 2esire2 0 velty" !ra02e1r" c mple4ity a02 eve0 s1&limity* The res1lt -as F 0thill A&&ey" the c 0str1cti 0 , -hich pr vi2e2 empl yme0t , r a vast 01m&er , mecha0ics a02 la& rers" eve0 a 0e- villa!e &ei0! &1ilt t acc m 2ate s me , the settlers* The a&&ey !r 102s -ere i0 0e secti 0 pla0te2 -ith every species , America0 ,l -eri0! shr1& a02 tree" !r -i0! i0 all their 0ative -il20ess* #? I0 #B=< )ec6, r2 -as a-ar2e2 #@"#;> &y -ay , c mpe0sati 0 , r <<> slaves he -0e2 i0 .amaica* #= The Hi&&erts -ere West I02ia0 pla0ters as -ell as mercha0ts" -h " as -e have see0" s1pplie2 c tt 0 a02 li0e0 chec6s , r A,rica a02 the pla0tati 0s* R &ert Hi&&ert live2 i0 )e2, r23 shire ,, the i0c me ,r m his West I02ia0 pr perty* His pla0ta3 ti 0 -as 0e , the ,i0est i0 .amaica9 :th 1!h he -as al-ays a0 emi0e0tly 6i02 master": his &i !rapher ass1res 1s" :he ha2 0 rep1!0a0ce t this 6i02 , pr perty 0 m ral !r 102s*: O0 his 2eath he le,t i0 tr1st a ,102 yiel2i0! a& 1t 0e th 1sa02 p 102s per a001m , r three r m re 2ivi0ity sch larships t e0c 1ra!e the sprea2 , Christia0ity i0 its simplest a02 m st i0telli!i&le , rm a02 the 10,ettere2 e4ercise , private D12!3 me0t i0 matters , reli!i 0* #% A relative" +e r!e" -as part0er i0 a0 p1le0t tra2i0! ,irm i0 L 02 0" a02 -as , r ma0y years a!e0t , .amaica i0 E0!la02* +e r!e Hi&&ert t 6 the lea2 i0 the c 0str1cti 0 , the West I02ia ' c6s* He -as electe2 ,irst chairma0 , the & ar2 , 2irect rs" a02 t 2ay his p rtrait" pai0te2 &y La-re0ce" ha0!s i0 the & ar2 r m , the P rt , L 02 0 A1th rity* A !reat c llect r , & 6s" the sale , his li&rary laste2 , rty3t- 2ays* #@ The Hi&&erts receive2 =#"#?> i0 c mpe0sati 0 , r their #";#B slaves* #; The ,amily ma0si 0 i0 Fi0!st 0" 0e , the l2est h 1ses i0 .amaica" still sta02s t 2ay" -hile the ,amily 0ame is perpet1ate2 i0 the Hi&&ert . 1r0al"

THE WEST IN'IA INTEREST B$

the cele&rate2 51arterly D 1r0al 2ev te2 t reli!i 0" the l !y a02 phil s phy* First p1&lishe2 i0 Oct &er" #$>?" the . 1r0al ha2 :the sa0cti 0 a02 s1pp rt , the Hi&&ert Tr1stees": -h " h -ever" 2isclaime2 resp 0si&ility , r the pi0i 0s e4presse2 i0 its pa!es* #< Als c 00ecte2 -ith .amaica -ere the L 0!s* Charles L 0!" at his 2eath" le,t pr perty i0 S1,, l6" a h 1se i0 )l ms&1ry" L 02 0" a02 t tal pr perty i0 .amaica c mprisi0! #%">>> acres* He e0D ye2 a very !reat i0c me" &y ,ar the lar!est , a0y .amaica0 pr priet r , that peri 2" a02 -as acc r2i0!ly e03 title2 t live i0 sple02 r* #B His !ra02s 0" a .amaica0 pla0ter" -r te a -ell360 -0 hist ry , the isla02* A relative" )eest 0 L 0!" .r*" -as chairma0 , the L 02 0 ' c6 C mpa0y a02 a )a06 2irect r" a02 his ,amily ma0si 0 i0 )ish ps!ate Street" L 02 0" -as D1stly ,am 1s* #$ A0 ther mem&er , the ,amily"

L r2 Far0& r 1!h" &1ilt )r mley Hill Place i0 Fe0t" 0e , the m st ,am 1s ma0si 0s , E0!la02" 0 te2 , r its - 02er,1l r0ame0tal !ar2e0s* ?> N t c 0te0t -ith his part0ership i0 the Liverp l &1si0ess h 1se , C rrie a02 C mpa0y e0!a!e2 i0 the !rai0 tra2e" . h0 +la2st 0e -as i02irectlv c 0cer0e2 i0 the slave tra,,ic as a C slave -0er i0 the West I02ies* :Li6e ma0y m re mercha0ts , rep1te2 pr &ity a02 h 0esty" GheH -as a&le t satis,y his c 03 scie0ce &y ar!1i0! it t &e a 0ecessity*: +la2st 0e" thr 1!h , recl s1res" ac51ire2 lar!e pla0tati 0s i0 )ritish +1ia0a a02 .amaica" -hile at the same time he -as e4te0sively e0!a!e2 i0 the West I02ia0 tra2e* The s1!ar a02 ther pr 21ce -hich he s l2 0 the Liverp l E4cha0!e -ere !r -0 0 his -0 pla0ta3 ti 0s a02 imp rte2 i0 his -0 ships* The , rt10e amasse2 &y this mea0s permitte2 him t pe0 1p tra2e c 00ecti 0s -ith R1ssia" I02ia a02 Chi0a a02 t ma6e lar!e a02 , rt10ate i0vest3 me0ts i0 la02 a02 h 1se pr perty i0 Liverp l* He c 0tri&1te2 lar!ely t the charities , Liverp l" &1ilt a02 e02 -e2 ch1rches" a02 -as a0 el 51e0t champi 0 i0 the t -0 , the +ree6s i0 their str1!!le , r i02epe02e0ce* Whe0 his ,am 1s s 0" William E-art" -as electi 0eeri0! i0 Ne-ar6 i0 #B=?" a p1&lic D 1r0al" acc1rately i, 0 t i0 ! 2 taste" remi02e2 the elect rs that the ca02i2ate -as :the s 0 , +la2st 0e , Liver3

$> CAPITALIS( AN' SLAVERY

p l" a pers 0 -h ha2 amasse2 a lar!e , rt10e &y West I02ia 2eali0!s* I0 ther - r2s" a !reat part , his ! l2 has spr10! ,r m the &l 2 , &lac6 slaves*: ?# '1ri0! the !reater part , the a!itati 0 , r ema0cipati 0 . h0 +la2st 0e -as chairma0 , the West I02ia Ass ciati 0" a02 0 0e ccasi 0 c 021cte2 a mem ra&le c 0tr versy i0 0e , the Liverp l D 1r0als -ith .ames Cr pper" a Liverp l a& liti 0ist" 0 the 51esti 0 , West I02ia0 slavery* ?? The c mpe0sati 0 pai2 t +la2st 0e i0 #B=<" i0 acc r2a0ce -ith the Act , #B==" am 10te2 t B@";>> , r ?"#B= slaves* ?= The C 2ri0!t 0s -ere a0 ther -ell360 -0 ,amily -hich -e2 its -ealth a02 stat1s t its slave a02 s1!ar pla0tati 0s* Christ pher C 2ri0!t 0 -as ! ver0 r , )ar&a2 s 21ri0! the seve0tee0th ce0t1ry" a02 his pla0tati 0s i0 )ar&a2 s a02 )ar3 &12a -ere - rth #>>">>> i0 m 2er0 m 0ey* He , 102e2 a c lle!e there -hich still &ears his 0ame" a02 0 his 2eath le,t #>">>>" m st , it , r a li&rary" a02 his val1a&le c llecti 0 , & 6s - rth ;">>> t All S 1ls C lle!e" O4, r2" -here they , rme2 the 01cle1s , the ,am 1s C 2ri0!t 0 Li&rary* O0e , his 2esce02a0ts -as her , the 0aval vict ry , Navari0 i0

N the ca1se , +ree6 I02epe02e0ce i0 the 0i0etee0th ce0t1ry* ?% The War0er ,amily -as 2isperse2 ver the Lee-ar2 Isla02s" s me i0 A0ti!1a" s me i0 ' mi0ica" s me i0 St* Vi0ce0t" s me i0 Tri0i2a2* Th mas War0er -as a pi 0eer am 0! )ritish c l 0ists i0 the Cari&&ea0* . seph" 0e , the ,amily" r se t &e 0e , the three lea2i0! s1r!e 0s , his 2ay" s1r!e 0 at +1y7s H spital" a02 ,irst mem&er , the C lle!e , S1r!e 0s , 102e2 i0 #<@>* His pict1re &y Sam1el (e2ley is i0 the p ssessi 0 , the R yal C lle!e , S1r!e 0s* I0 the 0i0etee0th ce0t1ry a0 ther War0er -as Presi2e0t , the C 10cil , A0ti!1a" -hile yet a0 ther" as Att r0ey3+e0eral , Tri0i2a2" -as the !reat a2v cate , East I02ia0 immi!rati 0* Perhaps the &est 60 -0 , this West I02ia0 ,amily is Pelham War0er" ,am 1s E0!lish cric6eter a02 ac60 -le2!e2 a1th rity 0 the !reat E0!lish !ame* ?@ Other 0ames" less spectac1lar" recall the !l ry that -as s1!ar* )rya0 E2-ar2s" hist ria0 , the )ritish West I02ies at the e02 , the ei!htee0th ce0t1ry" - 1l2" &y his -0 c 0,essi 0" have

THE WEST IN'IA INTEREST $M

live2 a02 2ie2 i0 &livi 0 0 the small pater0al estate i0 the 2e3 caye2 t -0 , West&1ry i0 Wiltshire" &1t , r his tp1le0t 10cles e0!a!e2 i0 s1!ar c1ltivati 0 i0 the West I02ies* ?> The Pi00eys" -ell360 -0 i0 )rist l" -0e2 s1!ar pla0tati 0s i0 Nevis* ?< . seph (arry at 7s s 0 -as Captai0 Fre2eric6 (arry at" the ,am 1s 0 velist , sea li,e" a02 the i0ve0t r , a c 2e , si!0als , r the mercha0t mari0e 0 t a&a02 0e2 10til iB@<* ?B C l 0el William (ac2 -all -as the m st 0 ta&le ,i!1re i0 +las! -* :O-0er , a 0 &le ma0si 0 i0 the c 10try a02 a rich estate i0 the West3I02ies" -ith ships 0 the seas a02 car! es , s1!ar a02 r1m c 0sta0tly c mi0! h me" he ha2 als the s cial presti!e , his army ra06 a02 his l 0! ,amily 2esce0t" a02 m1st have hel2 the re!ar2 , every 0e as he steppe2" -ith his tall ! l2hea2e2 ca0e" al 0! the ca1se-ay*: ?$ )rya0 E2-ar2s i02i!0a0tly 2e0ie2 the char!e that his ,ell pla0ters -ere remar6a&le , r !i!a0tic p1le0ce r a0 ste0ta3 ti 1s 2isplay , it* The availa&le evi2e0ce p i0ts t the c 03 trary* The -ealth , the West I02ia0s &ecame pr ver&ial* C m3 m10ities , p1le0t West I02ia0s -ere t &e , 102 i0 L 02 0 a02 )rist l" a02 the mem rial pla51es i0 All Sai0ts7 Ch1rch" S 1thampt 0" spea6 el 51e0tly , the s cial p siti 0 they 0ce e0D ye2* => The p1&lic sch ls , Et 0" Westmi0ster" Harr -" a02 Wi0chester" -ere ,1ll , the s 0s , West I02ia0s* =# The carria!es , the pla0ters -ere s 01mer 1s" that" -he0 they !athere2" L 02 0ers c mplai0e2 that the streets -ere , r s me 2ista0ce &l c6e2* The st ry is t l2 , h -" 0 a visit t Wey3 m 1th" +e r!e III a02 Pitt e0c 10tere2 a -ealthy .amaica0

-ith a0 imp si0! e51ipa!e" i0cl12i0! 1t3ri2ers a02 livery* +e r!e HI" m1ch 2isplease2" is rep rte2 t have sai2" :S1!ar" s1!ar" ehI all that s1!arM H - are the 21ties" eh" Pitt" h - are the 21tiesI: =? West I02ia0 pla0ters -ere ,amiliar visit rs at the res rts , Eps m a02 Chelte0ham9 == their chil2re0 mi0!le2 0 terms , e51ality -ith the ele!a0t thr 0!s at the Assem&ly R ms a02 the H t Wells , )rist l* =% A West I02ia0 heiress -as a 2esira&le pl1m" a02 Charles .ames F 4 alm st 2eci2e2 that the B>">>> , rt10e , (iss Phipps -as the s l1ti 0 t his heavy !am&li0! 2e&ts* =@ O0e mi!ht spec1late 0 -hat e,,ect s1ch a marria!e - 1l2 have ha2 0 F 47s career as a0 a& liti 0ist8*

$? CAPITALIS( AN' SLAVERY

(a0y a h1m&le i02ivi21al i0 E0!la02 r se t -ealth a02 a,3 ,l1e0ce ,r m s me cha0ce le!acy , a West I02ia0 pla0tati 0* The time came -he0 s1ch a le!acy -as c 0si2ere2 !all a02 - rm- 2" =; &1t it -as 0 t s i0 the ei!htee0th ce0t1ry* +e r!e C lma07s play" :A,rica0s": p rtrays i0 Y 10! (r* (arr -& 0e" the &1tcher" a sit1ati 0 that m1st have &ee0 very ,amiliar t the a12ie0ce* The &1tcher -as le,t a West I02ia0 pla0tati 0" a02 :0 - &arters , r &lac6s" i0stea2 , &ar!ai0i0! , r &1ll c6s*: =< The stre0!th , the pla0ters -as i0crease2" t " &y the lar!e 01m&er , West I02ia0 mercha0ts -h 2re- vast pr ,its ,r m the West I02ia0 tra2e* Acc r2i0! t Pr ,ess r Namier" :there -ere c mparatively ,e- &i! mercha0ts i0 +reat )ritai0 i0 #<;# -h " i0 0e c 00ecti 0 r a0 ther" 2i2 0 t tra2e -ith the West I02ies" a02 a c 0si2era&le 01m&er , !e0try ,amilies ha2 i03 terests i0 the S1!ar Isla02s" D1st as vast 01m&ers , E0!lishme0 0 - h l2 shares i0 Asiatic r1&&er r tea pla0tati 0s r il ,iel2s*: =B The t- !r 1ps 2i2 0 t al-ays see eye t eye* At the 1tset pla0ters a02 mercha0ts represe0te2 2isti0ct r!a0i/a3 ti 0s" a02 the & 02 &et-ee0 them cre2it 2i2 0 t al-ays ma6e , r harm 0y* )1t this i0 itsel, - 1l2 0 t have &ee0 a &asic ca1se , r c 0,lict" as the mercha0t c 1l2 al-ays have re3 c 1rse t , recl s1re* ( re imp rta0t tha0 the ,act r , 2e&t -as the pla0ters7 2etermi0ati 0 t mai0tai0 m 0 p ly prices" a02 i0 the str1!!le , r the !ra0t , a 2irect tra2e t E1r pe i0 #<=$ ill3,eeli0! &et-ee0 the t- !r 1ps i0crease2 c 0si2er3 a&ly* =$ )1t &y a02 lar!e the i2e0tity , i0terests -as !reater a02 m re imp rta0t tha0 the clash" a02 pla0ters a02 mercha0ts ,i0ally c alesce2 a& 1t #<B>" -he0 all the stre0!th they c 1l2 D i0tly m1ster -as s 0 t &e 0ee2e2 t stre0!the0 the 2y6es , m 0 p ly a!ai0st the !atheri0! t rre0t , ,ree tra2e* The c m&i0ati 0 , these t- , rces" pla0ters a02 mercha0ts" c 1ple2 -ith c l 0ial a!e0ts i0 E0!la02" c 0stit1te2 the p -3 er,1l West I02ia i0terest , the ei!htee0th ce0t1ry* I0 the classic a!e , parliame0tary c rr1pti 0 a02 elect ral ve0ality" their m 0ey tal6e2* They & 1!ht v tes a02 r tte0 & r 1!hs a02 s ! t i0t Parliame0t* Their c mpetiti 0 , rce2 1p the

THE WEST IN'IA INTEREST $=

price , seats* The Earl , Chester,iel2 -as la1!he2 t sc r0 i0 #<;< -he0 he ,,ere2 ?"@>> , r a seat , r -hich a West I02ia0 - 1l2 ,,er 2 1&le* %> N private here2itary E0!lish , rt10e c 1l2 resist this t rre0t , c l 0ial ! l2 a02 c rr1pti 0* The E0!lish la02e2 arist cracy -ere i02i!0a0t" :ve4e2" p1t t !reat e4pe0ses" a02 eve0 &a,,le2: &y the West I02ia0s at elec3 ti 0s* %# There is a0 10mista6a&le 0 te , this c 0cer0 i0 the -ar0i0! iss1e2 &y C1m&erla02 i0 his 2rama t the West I02ia0 ste0tati 1sly ,la10ti0! his -ealth a02 & asti0! , his pla0s t spe02 it* :T 1se it" 0 t t -aste it" I sh 1l2 h pe9 t treat it" (r* )elc 1r" 0 t as a vassal" ver -h m y 1 have a -a0t 0 a02 a 2esp tic p -er9 &1t as a s1&Dect" -hich y 1 are & 102 t ! ver0 -ith a temperate a02 restrai0e2 a1th rity*: %? I0 the electi 0s , #B=> a West I02ia0 pla0ter s1ccess,1lly spe0t #B">>> !etti0! himsel, electe2 i0 )rist l* %= The electi 0 e43 pe0ses , the 10s1ccess,1l West I02ia0 ca02i2ate i0 Liverp l i0 the same year c st 0early @>">>>" , -hich a rich West I02ia0 mercha0t" slave tra2er a02 slave -0er" . h0 ) lt 0" s1pplie2 0e3,i,th* %% The )ec6, r2 2y0asty -as ,itti0!ly represe0te2 i0 Parlia3 me0t i0 acc r2a0ce -ith its -ealth* Fi0! William -as (*P* , r Sha,tes&1ry ,r m #<%<3#<@%" a02 , r the metr p lis ,r m #<@%3#<<>* A0 ther &r ther represe0te2 )rist l" a thir2 Salis3 &1ry" -hile a , 1rth -as i0te02e2 , r a Wiltshire & r 1!h* %@ Richar2 Pe00a0t at 0e time represe0te2 Liverp l* %; O0e , the C 2ri0!t 0s -as a mem&er , Parliame0t i0 I<=<3 %< +e r!e Hi&&ert represe0te2 Sea, r2 ,r m #B>; t iBi?* %B E2-ar2 C lst 0" the C10ar2 , the seve0tee0th ce0t1ry" sat , r )rist l ,r m #<#> t I<i=3 %$ The West I02ia i0terest esta&lishe2 a m 0 p ly" i0 all &1t 0ame" , 0e )rist l seat* . h0 +la2st 0e sat ,irst , r W 2st c6 a02 the0 , r La0caster9 it -as his pleas1re t liste0 i0 (ay" #B==" t the mai2e0 speech , his s 0" (*P* , r Ne-ar6" i0 2e,e0ce , slavery 0 the ,amily estates i0 +1ia0a* @> The !reat statesma0 , 102 all his ,ilial ,eeli0!s i03 v lve2 i0 the 51esti 0 , slavery" a02 his ,amily c 00ecti 0s -ith West I02ia0 s1!ar pla0tati 0s &r 1!ht 1t all his el 3 51e0ce* @# O0e , the Lascelles sat i0 Parliame0t i0 I<@<3 ;? T the &itter e02 He0ry + 1l&1r0 , 1!ht the West I02ia0 &attle*

$% CAPITALIS( AN' SLAVERY

I0 #B== he -as still as6i0! Parliame0t t mar6 the imp1lse !ive0 t tra2e a02 a!ric1lt1re" a02 t l 6 at the hamlets that ha2 spr10! i0t t -0s" i0 c 0se51e0ce , the c 00ecti 0 -ith the c l 0ies* @= Parliame0t pai2 0 hee2" a02 + 1l&1r0 ha2 t

&e c 0te0t -ith 0early @">>> c mpe0sati 0 , r his ?%? slaves* @% . seph (arryat , Tri0i2a2" He0ry )ri!ht , )rist l" Feith ' 1!las" Charles Ellis" all -ere West I02ia0s* Te0 1t , ,i,tee0 mem&ers , 0e , the m st imp rta0t c mmittees , the S 3 ciety , Pla0ters a02 (ercha0ts hel2 seats i0 the E0!lish Parliame0t* @@ T ma6e ass1ra0ce 2 1&ly s1re the West I02ia0s" li6e the slave tra2ers" -ere e0tre0che2 0 t 0ly i0 the l -er h 1se &1t als i0 the H 1se , L r2s" t 2e,e02 their pla0tati 0s a02 the s cial str1ct1re 0 -hich they reste2* Passa!e ,r m 0e h 1se t a0 ther -as easy" peera!es -ere rea2ily c 0,erre2 i0 ret1r0 , r p litical s1pp rt* There are ,e-" i, a0y" 0 &le h 1ses i0 E0!la02" acc r2i0! t a m 2er0 -riter" -ith 1t a West I02ia0 strai0* @; Richar2 Pe00a0t &ecame L r2 Pe0rhy0* The Lascelles" a0 l2 )ar&a2ia0 ,amily" -ere e00 &le2 a02 &ecame Hare3 - 2s9 0e , their 2esce02a0ts is at prese0t marrie2 t the sister , the rei!0i0! Fi0! , E0!la02* The (ar51is , Cha03 2 s" sp 0s r , the :Cha02 s Cla1se: i0 the Re, rm )ill , #B=?" -0e2 West I02ia0 pla0tati 0s a02 -as a sp 6esma0 , the West I02ia i0terest" th 1!h he live2 t see the 2ay -he0 it -as alm st h peless t a2v cate the ca1se , the West I02ies* @< The Earl , )alcarres p ssesse2 s1!ar pla0tati 0s i0 .amaica* Ema0cipati 0 , 102 him -0er , ;%> slaves" , r -h m he re3 ceive2 0early #?"=>> c mpe0sati 0* @B This e4plai0s his hysteri3 cal pp siti 0" as ! ver0 r , the isla02" t the c 0ve0ti 0 ma2e &y +e0eral (aitla02 -ith the slave lea2er" T 1ssai0t L7O1vert1re" , r the evac1ati 0 , Sai0t ' mi0!1e a,ter )rit3 ai07s a& rtive e,, rt t c 051er the Fre0ch c l 0y* :It - 1l2 &e th 1!ht s me-hat 22": he -r te h me" :i, the City , L 02 0 sh 1l2 se02 ver a0 imme0se 51a0tity , pr visi 0s a02 cl thi0! , r the 1se , the sa0s c1l tte army assem&le2 , r the p1rp se , i0va2i0! E0!la02M: @$ L r2 Ha-6es&1ry" 0e .e06i0s 0" -as a West I02ia0 pr priet r" ;> a02" as Presi2e0t , the Privy C 10cil , r Tra2e" he le0t c 0siste0t s1pp rt t the

THE WEST IN'IA INTEREST $@

ca1se , the slave -0ers a02 slave tra2ers* F r this 2ev ti 0 tracts i0 ,av r , the slave tra2e -ere 2e2icate2 t him" ;# a02 Liverp l c 0,erre2 0 him the ,ree2 m , the city i0 !ratit12e , r the esse0tial services re02ere2 t the t -0 &y his e4erti 0s i0 Parliame0t i0 s1pp rt , the slave tra2e* ;? Ha-6es&1ry sym& li/e2 the c 00ecti 0 &y ass1mi0! the title Earl , Liver3 p l -he0 raise2 t the peera!e a02 accepti0! the C rp ra3 ti 07s ,,er t 51arter its arms -ith his -0* ;= It -as 0 t 0ly the m ther , parliame0ts that the slave3 -0ers 2 mi0ate2* Li6e their allies" the s1!ar mercha0ts a02 slave tra2ers" they -ere i0 evi2e0ce every-here" as al2erme0" may rs a02 c 10cill rs* William )ec6, r2 -as al2erma0 , the city , L 02 0 a02 t-ice L r2 (ay r* C 0temp raries la1!he2 at his ,a1lty Lati0 a02 l 12 v ice9 they -ere , rce2 t respect

his -ealth" p siti 0 a02 p litical i0,l1e0ce* As may r his civic e0tertai0me0ts -ere ma!0i,ice0t* O0 0e ccasi 0" at a s1mpt1 1s &a051et" si4 216es" t- mar51ises" t-e0ty3three earls" , 1r visc 10ts" a02 , 1rtee0 &ar 0s , the Upper H 1se D i0e2 the mem&ers , the C mm 0s a02 -e0t i0 pr cessi 0 t the city t h 0 r him* He remai0s ,am 1s" this slave -0er" , r his 2e,e0ce , Wil6es a02 li&erty , speech" i02i,,ere0t t r yal 2ispleas1re* ;% I0 the L 02 0 +1il2hall there sta02s a sple02i2 m 01me0t erecte2 i0 his h 0 r" -ith the ,am 1s speech" !rave0 i0 letters , ! l2 0 the pe2estal" -hich ma2e +e r!e III &l1sh* >@ His &r ther Richar2 -as als a0 al2erma0 , the city , L 02 0* William (iles live2 t &ec me a0 al2erma0 , )rist l* +e r!e Hi&&ert &ecame a0 al2erma0 , L 02 0* ;; The West I02ia i0terest ha2 p -er,1l ,rie02s* Chatham -as the c 0siste0t 2e,e02er , West I02ia0 claims" ri!ht r -r 0!" a02 -as a cl se ,rie02 , )ec6, r2* :He sh 1l2 ever c 0si2er the s1!ar c l 0ies as the la02e2 i0terest , this 6i0!2 m" a02 it -as a &ar&arism t c 0si2er them ther-ise*: ;< . h0 +la23 st 0e a02 . h0 ) lt 0 -ere vi! r 1s s1pp rters , Ca00i0!" -h al-ays harpe2 0 the ,ear,1l0ess a02 2elicacy a02 :m st a-,1l imp rta0ce: , the West I02ia0 51esti 0* ;B H1s6iss 0 a02 Welli0!t 0 -ere very c r2ially 2isp se2 t the pla0ters" the latter re,1si0! t :pl102er the pr priet rs i0 the West I02ies i0 r2er t ac51ire , r themselves a little p p1larity i0

$; CAPITALIS( AN' SLAVERY

E0!la02": ;$ the , rmer c 0si2eri0! ema0cipati 0 10attai0a&le &y le!islative i0terp siti 0 r stat1t ry e0actme0t* <> )1t the recalcitra0ce , the pla0ters a02 their -il,1l re,1sal t ma6e c 0cessi 0s t the a0ti3slavery se0time0t , E0!la02 later alie0ate2 these ,rie02s* Ca00i0! , 102 West I02ia0 slavery a0 10palata&le t pic9 <# slave 51esti 0s 0early 2r ve H1s6iss 0 ma2 a02 the pla0ters seeme2 t him i0sa0e9 <? Welli0!t 0" &e, re the ,i0al - r2 -as sai2 0 )ritish slavery" s1&Decte2 a West I02ia0 2ep1tati 0 i0 L 02 0 t s me r 1!h treatme0t* <= Allie2 -ith the ther !reat m 0 p lists , the ei!htee0th ce0t1ry" the la02e2 arist cracy" a02 the c mmercial & 1r3 !e isie , the seap rt t -0s" this p -er,1l West I02ia i0terest e4erte2 i0 the 10re, rme2 Parliame0t a0 i0,l1e0ce s1,,icie0t t ma6e every statesma0 pa1se" a02 represe0te2 a s li2 phala04 : , -h se s1pp rt i0 emer!e0cy every a2mi0istrati 0 i0 t1r0 has e4perie0ce2 the val1e*: <% They p1t 1p a 2etermi0e2 resis3 ta0ce t a& liti 0" ema0cipati 0" a02 the a&r !ati 0 , their m 0 p ly* They -ere al-ays 0 the -arpath t pp se a0y i03 crease , the 21ties 0 s1!ar" -hich )ec6, r2 0ce 2escri&e2 as :a c 1p32e3!race t 1r s1!ar c l 0ies a02 s1!ar tra2e*: <@ The West I02ia i0terest -as the e0,a0t terri&le , E0!lish p litics 10til America0 I02epe02e0ce str1c6 the ,irst !reat &l at merca0tilism a02 m 0 p ly*

I0 #;B@ the ! ver0 r , .amaica pr teste2 that a0y a22iti 0al 21ty pr p se2 0 s1!ar - 1l2 2isc 1ra!e pla0ti0!" thr - 0epla0tati 0s 1t , c1ltivati 0 a02 preve0t the e0lar!eme0t , thers* )y the pr p sal :Vir!i0ia receives a m rtal sta&" )ar&a3 2 s a02 the Isla02s ,all i0t a hectic ,ever" a02 .amaica i0t a c 0s1mpti 0*: <; I0 #<%% the pla0ters se0t their case t every mem&er , Parliame0t i0 a0 attempt t e0c 1ra!e p p1lar clam r a!ai0st a0 ther pr p sal t i0crease the s1!ar 21ties* The pr p sal -as carrie2 &y a maD rity , t-e0ty3three* :N r -as the small0ess , it matter , s1rpri/e t th se -h c 03 si2ere2 h - ma0y -ere either &y themselves r their ,rie02s" 2eeply c 0cer0e2 i0 0e part r a0 ther , the s1!ar tra2e" a02 that the ca1se itsel, -as al-ays p p1lar i0 the H 1se , C m3 m 0s*: << The West I02ia0s" h -ever" s1ccee2e2 i0 tra0s,erri0!

THE WEST IN'IA INTEREST $<

the e4tra 21ty pr p se2 0 epis 2e merely ill1strate2 layi0! a ,1rther 21ty 1p 0 ,l1e0ce , th se c 0cer0e2 sive &ra0ch , tra2e*: <B

s1!ar t , rei!0 li0e0s* The -h le :the 2i,,ic1lties -hich atte02e2 the s1!ar ,r m the 01m&er a02 i03 2irectly r i02irectly i0 that e4te03

The iss1e came 1p a!ai0 -he0 it -as 0ecessary t ,i0a0ce the Seve0 Years7 War* The la02e2 arist crat , E0!la02 -as 1s1ally the s1pp rter , his &r ther i0 the c l 0ies" &1t -he0 it came t ch si0! &et-ee0 himsel, a02 his 2ista0t relative he t 6 the vie- that :his shirt -as 0ear him &1t his s6i0 -as 0earer*: )ec6, r2" i0 2e,e0ce , his ,ell -s" -as i0terr1pte2 &y h rse3 la1!hs every time he 1ttere2 the - r2 :s1!ar*: <$ The ma!ic ,i0!er -as -riti0!* The a!e0t , r (assach1setts rep rte2 i0 #<;% that there -ere ,i,ty r si4ty West I02ia0 v ters -h c 1l2 t1r0 the &ala0ce a0y si2e they please2* B> It -as the hey3 2ay , the p -er , the West I02ia s1!ar i0terest* )1t i0 the 0e- ce0t1ry a02 i0 the Re, rme2 Parliame0t there appeare2 a0 ther c m&i0ati 0 , ,i,ty r si4ty v ters* It -as the La0ca3 shire c tt 0 i0terest" a02 its sl !a0 -as 0 t m 0 p ly &1t laisse/ ,aire*

@ * )RITISH IN'USTRY AN' THE TRIAN+ULAR TRA'E

)RITAIN WAS ACCU(ULATIN+ !reat -ealth ,r m the tria0!1lar tra2e* The i0crease , c 0s1mpti 0 ! 2s calle2 , rth &y that tra2e i0evita&ly 2re- i0 its trai0 the 2evel pme0t , the pr 3

21ctive p -er , the c 10try* This i021strial e4pa0si 0 re3 51ire2 ,i0a0ce* What ma0 i0 the ,irst three351arters , the ei!htee0th ce0t1ry -as &etter a&le t a,, r2 the rea2y capital tha0 a West I02ia0 s1!ar pla0ter r a Liverp l slave tra2erI We have alrea2y 0 tice2 the rea2i0ess -ith -hich a&se0tee pla0ters p1rchase2 la02 i0 E0!la02" -here they -ere a&le t 1se their -ealth t ,i0a0ce the !reat 2evel pme0ts ass ciate2 -ith the A!ric1lt1ral Rev l1ti 0* We m1st 0 - trace the i0vestme0t , pr ,its ,r m the tria0!1lar tra2e i0 )ritish i03 21stry" -here they s1pplie2 part , the h1!e 1tlay , r the c 0str1cti 0 , the vast pla0ts t meet the 0ee2s , the 0epr 21ctive pr cess a02 the 0e- mar6ets* A* THE INVEST(ENT OF PROFITS FRO( THE TRIAN+ULAR TRA'E i* )a06i0! (a0y , the ei!htee0th ce0t1ry &a06s esta&lishe2 i0 Liver3 p l a02 (a0chester" the slavi0! metr p lis a02 the c tt 0

IN'USTRY AN' THE TRIAN+ULAR TRA'E $$ capital respectively" -ere 2irectly ass ciate2 -ith the tria0!1lar tra2e* Here lar!e s1ms -ere 0ee2e2 , r the c tt 0 ,act ries a02 , r the ca0als -hich impr ve2 the mea0s , c mm10icati 0 &et-ee0 the t- t -0s* Typical , the ei!htee0th ce0t1ry &a06er is the tra0siti 0 ,r m tra2esma0 t mercha0t a02 the0 the ,1rther pr !ressi 0 ,r m mercha0t t &a06er* The term :mercha0t": i0 the ei!ht3 ee0th ce0t1ry c 0te4t" 0 t i0,re51e0tly i0v lve2 the !ra2ati 0s , slaver captai0" privateer captai0" privateer -0er" &e, re settli0! 2 -0 0 sh re t the respecta&le &1si0ess , c mmerce* The varie2 activities , a Liverp l &1si0essma0 i0cl12e8 &re-er" li51 r mercha0t" !r cer" spirit 2ealer" &ill3&r 6er" &a06er" etc* Writes the hist ria08 :O0e - 02ers -hat -as c vere2 &y that 7etc*7: # Li6e the s 0!" the sire0s sa0!" that :etc*: is 0 t &ey 02 all c 0Dect1re* It i0cl12e2" at s me time r ther" s me 0e r m re aspects , the tria0!1lar tra2e* The Hey- 2 )a06 -as , 102e2 i0 Liverp l i0 #<<= a02 e021re2 as a private &a06 10til #BB=" -he0 it -as p1rchase2 &y the )a06 , Liverp l* Its , 102ers -ere s1ccess,1l mercha0ts later electe2 t the Cham&er , C mmerce* :They ha2 their e4perie0ce": the hist ria0 -rites" : , the A,rica0 tra2e": &esi2es privateeri0!* ) th appear i0 the list , mercha0ts tra2i0! t A,rica i0 #<@? a02 their A,rica0 i0terests s1rvive2 1p t #B><* The se0i r part0er , 0e , the &ra0ches , the ,irm -as Th mas Par6e" , the &a06i0! ,irm , William +re!s 0" S 0s" Par6e a02 ( rla02" -h se !ra02,ather -as a s1ccess,1l cap3 tai0 i0 the West I02ia0 tra2e* Typical , the c mmercial i0ter3 relati 0ships , the peri 2" the 2a1!hter , 0e , the part0ers , the Hey- 2s later marrie2 R &erts 0" s 0 , . h0 +la23 st 0e" a02 their s 0" R &erts 0 +la2st 0e" &tai0e2 a part0er3

ship i0 the &a06* I0 #<BB the ,irm set 1p a &ra0ch i0 (a0ches3 ter" at the s1!!esti 0 , s me , the t -07s lea2i0! mercha0ts* The (a0chester &ra0ch" calle2 the :(a0chester )a06": -as -ell 60 -0 , r ma0y years* Eleve0 , , 1rtee0 Hey- 2 2esce02a0ts 1p t #B#@ &ecame mercha0ts r &a06ers* ? The emer!e0ce , Th mas Leyla02 0 the &a06i0! sce0e -as 2elaye2 10til the early years , the 0i0etee0th ce0t1ry" &1t his i0vestme0ts i0 the A,rica0 slave tra2e 2ate2 &ac6 t the

#>> CAPITALIS( AN' SLAVERY

last 51arter , the ei!htee0th* Leyla02" -ith his part0ers" -as 0e , the m st active slave tra2ers i0 Liverp l a02 his pr ,its -ere imme0se* I0 #B>? he &ecame se0i r part0er i0 the &a063 i0! ,irm , Clar6es a02 R sc e* Leyla02 a02 R sc e8 c1ri 1s c m&i0ati 0M Stra0!e 10i 0 , the s1ccess,1l slaver a02 the c 0siste0t pp 0e0t , slaveryM Leyla02 str1c6 ,, 0 his -0 i0 #B><" i0 a m re c 0siste0t part0ership -ith his slave part0er )1lli0s" a02 the title , Leyla02 a02 )1lli0s -as & r0e pr 12ly a02 10smirche2 , r 0i0ety3, 1r years 10til the amal!amati 0 , the &a06" i0 #$>#" -ith the N rth a02 S 1th Wales )a06 Limite2* = The Hey- 2s a02 Leyla02s are 0ly the 1tsta02i0! e43 amples , the !e0eral r1le i0 the &a06i0! hist ry , ei!htee0th ce0t1ry Liverp l* William +re!s 0" &a06er" -as als slave tra2er" ship -0er" privateer" 102er-riter" a02 -0er , a r pe3 -al6* Fra0cis I0!ram -as a slave tra2er" mem&er , the A,rica0 C mpa0y i0 #<<<" -hile he als ha2 a share i0 a r pery &1si3 0ess" a02 em&ar6e2 0 a privateeri0! e0terprise i0 part0ership -ith Th mas Leyla02 a02 the Earles* The latter themselves ha2 amasse2 a h1!e , rt10e i0 the slave tra2e" a02 remai0e2 slave tra2ers ri!ht 1p t #B><* The , 102er , Ha0ly7s &a06 -as Captai0 Richar2 Ha0ly" slave tra2er" -h se sister -as her3 sel, marrie2 t a slave tra2er* Ha0ly -as a pr mi0e0t mem&er , the :Liverp l Firesi2e": a s ciety c mp se2 alm st e03 tirely , captai0s , vessels" slavers" a02 privateers" -ith a spri06li0! , s1peri r tra2esme0* R &ert Fair-eather" li6e Ha0ly" -as slave tra2er" mem&er , the Liverp l Firesi2e" mercha0t a02 &a06er* . 0as ) l2 c m&i0e2 & th slave a02 West I02ia0 tra2es* O0e , the C mpa0y , (ercha0ts tra2i0! t A,rica ,r m #<<< 1p t #B><" ) l2 -as a s1!ar re,i0er" a02 &ecame a part0er i0 I0!ram7s &a06* Th mas Fletcher &e!a0 his career as appre0tice t a mercha0t &a06er -h carrie2 0 a0 e4te0sive tra2e -ith .amaica* Raise2 t a part0ership" Fletcher later &ecame s1c3 cessively Vice3Chairma0 a02 Chairma0 , the Liverp l West I02ia Ass ciati 0" a02 at his 2eath his assets i0cl12e2 i0terests i0 m rt!a!es 0 a c ,,ee a02 s1!ar pla0tati 0" -ith the slaves there 0" i0 .amaica* Charles Cal2-ell" , the &a06i0! ,irm ,

IN'USTRY AN' THE TRIAN+ULAR TRA'E IOI Charles Cal2-ell a02 C *" -as a part0er i0 Ol2ham" Cal2-ell" a02 C *" -h se tra0sacti 0s -ere pri0cipally i0 s1!ar* Isaac Hartma0" a0 ther &a06er" -0e2 West I02ia0 pla0tati 0s9 -hile .ames ( ss" &a06er a02 pr mi0e0t citi/e0 i0 the ei!ht3 ee0th ce0t1ry" ha2 s me very lar!e s1!ar pla0tati 0s i0 )ritish +1ia0a* % What has &ee0 sai2 , Liverp l is e51ally tr1e , )rist l" L 02 0 a02 +las! -* Presi2i0! ver the meeti0! , the i03 ,l1e0tial c mmittee set 1p i0 )rist l i0 #<B$ t pp se a& liti 0 -as William (iles* Am 0! the mem&ers , the c mmittee -ere Al2erma0 'a1&e0y" Richar2 )ri!ht" Richar2 Va1!ha0" . h0 Cave a02 Philip Pr ther e* All si4 -ere &a06ers i0 )rist l* Cave" )ri!ht a02 'a1&e0y -ere part0ers i0 the :Ne- )a06: es3 ta&lishe2 i0 #<B;* Pr ther e -as part0er i0 the )rist l City )a06* William (iles & 1!ht a lea2i0! part0ership i0 the l2 &a06i0! h 1se , Va1!ha0" )ar6er a02 C mpa0y9 t, his s 0s -ere me0ti 0e2 i0 #<$%" a02 :(iles7s )a06": as it -as p p1larly calle2" ha2 a le0!thy a02 pr sper 1s career* @ F r L 02 0 0ly 0e 0ame 0ee2 &e me0ti 0e2" -he0 that 0ame is )arclay* T- mem&ers , this L1a6er ,amily" 'avi2 a02 Ale4a02er" -ere e0!a!e2 i0 the slave tra2e i0 #<@;* 'avi2 &e!a0 his career i0 America0 a02 West I02ia0 c mmerce a02 &ecame 0e , the m st i0,l1e0tial mercha0ts , his 2ay* His ,ather7s h 1se i0 Cheapsi2e -as 0e , the ,i0est i0 the city , L 02 0" a02 -as ,te0 visite2 &y r yalty* He -as 0 t merely a slave tra2er &1t act1ally -0e2 a !reat pla0tati 0 i0 .amaica -here" -e are t l2" he ,ree2 his slaves" a02 live2 t ,i02 that :the &lac6 s6i0 e0cl se2 hearts ,1ll , !ratit12e a02 mi02s as capa&le , impr veme0t as the pr 12est -hite*: The )ar3 clays marrie2 i0t the &a06i0! ,amilies , +1r0ey a02 Freame" li6e s ma0y ther i0termarria!es i0 ther &ra0ches , i021s3 try -hich 6ept L1a6er -ealth i0 L1a6er ha02s* Fr m the c m&i0ati 0 spra0! )arclay7s )a06 -h se e4pa0si 0 a02 pr !3 ress are &ey 02 the sc pe , this st12y* ; The rise , &a06i0! -ith the tria0!1lar 0ess i0 #<@>* F0 -0 part0ers -as A02rei0 +las! - -as i0timately c 00ecte2 tra2e* The ,irst re!1lar &a06 &e!a0 &1si3 as the Ship )a06" 0e , the ri!i0al )1cha0a0" a t &acc l r2 , the city*

IO? CAPITALIS( AN' SLAVERY

A0 ther -as the same William (ac2 -all -h se meeti0! -ith the s1!ar heiresses , St* Fitts ha2 esta&lishe2 & th the , rt10es , his h 1se a02 th se , the city* A thir2 -as Ale4a02er H 1st 0" 0e , the !reatest West I02ia0 mercha0ts , the city" -h se ,irm" Ale4a02er H 1st 0 a02 C mpa0y" -as 0e

, the lea2i0! West I02ia0 h 1ses i0 the 6i0!2 m* This ,irm it3 sel, 0ly !re- 1t , the ret1r0 , the t- Sc tch ,,icers a02 their isla02 &ri2es t the city* F r three351arters , the ce03 t1ry the ,irm carrie2 0 a0 imme0se tra2e" -0i0! ma0y ships a02 vast s1!ar pla0tati 0s* A0ticipati0! the a& liti 0 , the slave tra2e" it spec1late2 0 a !ra02 scale i0 the p1rchase , slaves* The &ill" h -ever" ,aile2 t pass* The slaves ha2 t &e ,e2 a02 cl the2" their price ,ell heavily" 2isease carrie2 them ,, &y the h102re2s* The ,irm c 0se51e0tly crashe2 i0 #<$@" a02 this -as the !reatest ,i0a0cial 2isaster +las! - ha2 ever see0* The s1ccess , the Ship )a06 stim1late2 the , rmati 0 , ther &a06s* The Arms )a06 -as , 102e2 i0 the same year" -ith 0e , the lea2i0! part0ers A02re- C chra0e" a0 ther t &acc l r2* The Thistle )a06 , ll -e2 i0 #<;#" a0 arist 3 cratic &a06" -h se &1si0ess lay lar!ely am 0! the rich West I02ia0 mercha0ts* O0e , the chie, part0ers -as . h0 +lass3 , r2" -h carrie2 0 &1si0ess 0 a lar!e scale* At 0e time he -0e2 t-e0ty3,ive ships a02 their car! es 0 the sea" a02 his a001al t1r0 ver -as m re tha0 hal, a milli 0 sterli0!" < ?* Heavy I021stry Heavy i021stry playe2 a0 imp rta0t r le i0 the pr !ress , the I021strial Rev l1ti 0 a02 the 2evel pme0t , the tria0!13 lar tra2e* S me , the capital -hich ,i0a0ce2 the !r -th , the metall1r!ical i021stries -as s1pplie2 2irectly &y the tri3 a0!1lar tra2e* It -as the capital acc1m1late2 ,r m the West I02ia0 tra2e that ,i0a0ce2 .ames Watt a02 the steam e0!i0e* ) 1lt 0 a02 Watt receive2 a2va0ces ,r m L -e" Vere" Williams a02 .e00i0!s later the Williams 'eac 0s )a06* Watt ha2 s me a04i 1s m me0ts i0 #<<B 21ri0! the America0 Rev l1ti 0 -he0 the West I02ia0 ,leet -as threate0e2 -ith capt1re &y

IN'USTRY AN' THE TRIAN+ULAR TRA'E #>= the Fre0ch* :Eve0 i0 this emer!e0cy": -r te ) 1lt 0 t him h pe,1lly" :L -e" Vere a02 C mpa0y may yet &e save2" i, ye West I02ia0 ,leet arrives sa,e ,r m ye Fre0ch ,leet *** as ma0y , their sec1rities 2epe02 0 it*: B The &a06 p1lle2 thr 1!h a02 the preci 1s i0ve0ti 0 -as sa,e* The s1!ar pla0ters -ere am 0! the ,irst t reali/e its im3 p rta0ce* ) 1lt 0 -r te t Watt i0 #<B=8 :*** (r* Pe00a0t" -h is a very amia&le ma0" -ith te0 r t-elve th 1sa02 p 102s a year" has the lar!est estate i0 .amaica9 there -as als (r* +ale a02 (r* )eest 0 L 0!" -h have s me very lar!e s1!ar pla0tati 0s there" -h -ish t see steam a0s-er i0 lie1 , h rses*: $ O0e , the lea2i0! ir 0m 0!ers , the ei!htee0th ce0t1ry" A0t 0y )ac 0" -as i0timately c 00ecte2 -ith the tria0!1lar

tra2e* His part0er -as +il&ert Fra0c6ly0" a West I02ia0 pla0ter" -h later -r te ma0y letters t the L r2 Presi2e0t , the C mmittee , Privy C 10cil emphasi/i0! the imp rta0ce , ta6i0! ver the Fre0ch s1!ar c l 0y , Sai0t ' mi0!1e i0 the -ar -ith rev l1ti 0ary Fra0ce* #> )ac 0" li6e s ma0y thers" ve0t1re2 i0t the A,rica0 tra2e* He &e!a0 a l1crative c mmerce i0 ,irst vict1alli0! tr ps 0 the c ast a02 the0 s1p3 plyi0! seas 0e2 a02 a&le Ne!r es , r ! ver0me0t c 0tracts i0 the West I02ies* '1ri0! the years #<;B3#<<; he receive2 alm st ;<">>> 102er this latter hea2i0!* I0 #<;@ he set 1p his ir 0 - r6s at (erthyr Ty2,ill -hich e4pa02e2 rapi2ly -i0! t ! ver0me0t c 0tracts 21ri0! the America0 -ar9 i0 #<<; he set 1p a0 ther ,1r0ace at Cy,artha* The ir 0 re , r his ,1r3 0aces -as e4p rte2 ,r m Whitehave0" a02 as early as #<%> )ac 0 t 6 a part i0 impr vi0! its har& r* )ac 0 ma2e a , rt10e 1t , his artillery c 0tracts -ith the )ritish ! ver0me0t* He retire2 i0 #<B? havi0! ac51ire2 a verita&le mi0eral 6i0!2 m* His ir 0- r6s at Cy,artha he lease2 t Cra-shay" reservi0! , r himsel, a clear a001ity , #>">>>" a02 1t , Cy,artha Cra-shay himsel, ma2e a , rt10e* He s l2 Pe0y2are0 t H m,ray" the ma0 -h per,ecte2 the p122li0! pr cess9 ' -lais -e0t t Le-is a02 the Plym 1th - r6s t Hill* The r2i0a0ce c 0tract ha2 alrea2y &ee0 tra0s3 ,erre2 t Carr 0" R e&1c67s s1ccess r* N - 02er that it -as

IO% CAPITALIS( AN' SLAVERY

state2 that )ac 0 c 0si2ere2 himsel, as :m vi0! i0 a s1peri r r&it*: ## William )ec6, r2 &ecame a master ir 0m 0!er i0 iy@=* #? Part , the capital s1pplie2 , r the Th r0cli,,e ir 0- r6s" &e3 !10 i0 #<$?" came ,r m a ra/ r3ma6er" He0ry L 0!2e0" -h receive2 a &e51est , s me ,i,tee0 th 1sa02 p 102s ,r m a -ealthy 10cle" a West I02ia0 mercha0t , She,,iel2* #= =* I0s1ra0ce I0 the ei!htee0th ce0t1ry" -he0 the slave tra2e -as the m st val1a&le tra2e a02 West I02ia0 pr perty am 0! the m st val3 1a&le pr perty i0 the )ritish Empire" the tria0!1lar tra2e c3 c1pie2 a0 imp rta0t p siti 0 i0 the eyes , the risi0! i0s1ra0ce c mpa0ies* I0 the early years" -he0 Ll y27s -as a c ,,ee h 1se a02 0 thi0! m re" ma0y a2vertiseme0ts i0 the L 02 0 +a/ette a& 1t r10a-ay slaves liste2 Ll y27s as the place -here they sh 1l2 &e ret1r0e2* #% The earliest e4ta0t a2vertiseme0t re,erri0! t Ll y27s" 2ate2 #;$?" 2eals -ith the sale , three ships &y a1cti 0* The ships -ere cleare2 , r )ar&a2 s a02 Vir!i0ia* The 0ly pr Dect liste2 at Ll y27s i0 the &1&&les , #<?> c 0cer0e2 tra2e t )ar3 &ary a02 A,rica* Relt 0" the hist ria0 , ,ire i0s1ra0ce" states

that i0s1ra0ce a!ai0st ,ires i0 the West I02ies ha2 &ee0 2 0e at Ll y27s :,r m a very early 2ate*: Ll y27s" li6e ther i0s1ra0ce c mpa0ies" i0s1re2 slaves a02 slave ships" a02 -as vitally i03 tereste2 i0 le!al 2ecisi 0s as t -hat c 0stit1te2 :0at1ral 2eath: a02 :perils , the sea*: Am 0! their s1&scripti 0s t p1&lic her es a02 mercha0t captai0s is 0e , #B>% t a Liverp l captai0 -h " 0 passa!e ,r m A,rica t )ritish +1ia0a" s1c3 cess,1lly &eat ,, a Fre0ch c rvette a02 save2 his val1a&le car! * The thir2 s 0 , their ,irst secretary" . h0 )e00ett" -as a!e0t , r Ll y27s i0 A0ti!1a i0 #B==" a02 the 0ly 60 -0 p r3 trait , his ,ather -as rece0tly 2isc vere2 i0 the West I02ies* O0e , the m st 2isti0!1ishe2 chairme0 , Ll y27s i0 its l 0! hist ry -as . seph (arryat" a West I02ia0 pla0ter" -h s1c3 cess,1lly a02 &rillia0tly , 1!ht t mai0tai0 Ll y27s m 0 p ly , mari0e i0s1ra0ce7 a!ai0st a rival c mpa0y i0 the H 1se , C mm 0s i0 #B#>" -here he -as pp se2 &y a0 ther West

IN'USTRY AN' THE TRIAN+ULAR TRA'E #>@ I02ia0" ,ather , the ,am 1s Car2i0al (a00i0!* #@ (arryat -as a-ar2e2 #@">>> c mpe0sati 0 i0 #B=< , r =$# slaves i0 Tri0i3 2a2 a02 .amaica* #; I0 #<B? the i0! a0 ther c mpa0ies t The Liverp Chairma0 , cha0t" . h0 West I02ia0 s1!ar i0terest t 6 the lea2 i0 start3 i0s1ra0ce c mpa0y" the Ph e0i4" 0e , the ,irst esta&lish a &ra0ch verseas i0 the West I02ies* #< l U02er-riters7 Ass ciati 0 -as , rme2 i0 #B>?* the meeti0! -as the pr mi0e0t West I02ia0 mer3 +la2st 0e* #B

)* THE 'EVELOP(ENT OF )RITISH IN'USTRY TO #<B= Th1s it -as that the A&&e Ray0al" 0e , the m st pr !res3 sive spirits , his 2ay" a ma0 , -i2e lear0i0! i0 cl se t 1ch -ith the Fre0ch & 1r!e isie" -as a&le t see that the la& rs , the pe ple i0 the West I02ies :may &e c 0si2ere2 as the pri0ci3 pal ca1se , the rapi2 m ti 0 -hich 0 - a!itates the 10i3 verse*: #$ The tria0!1lar tra2e ma2e a0 e0 rm 1s c 0tri&1ti 0 t )ritai07s i021strial 2evel pme0t* The pr ,its ,r m this tra2e ,ertili/e2 the e0tire pr 21ctive system , the c 10try* Three i0sta0ces m1st s1,,ice* The slate i021stry i0 Wales" -hich pr 3 vi2e2 material , r r ,i0!" -as rev l1ti 0i/e2 &y the 0emeth 2s a2 pte2 0 his Car0arv 0shire estate &y L r2 Pe03 rhy0" ?> -h " as -e have see0" - L 0e2 s1!ar pla0tati 0s i0 .amaica a02 -as chairma0 , the West I02ia C mmittee at the e02 , the ei!htee0th ce0t1ry* The lea2i0! ,i!1re i0 the ,irst !reat rail-ay pr Dect i0 E0!la02" -hich li06e2 Liverp l a02 (a0chester" -as . seph Sa02ars" , -h m little is 60 -0* )1t his -ith2ra-al i0 #B?% ,r m the Liverp l A0ti3Slavery S 3 ciety is , !reat imp rta0ce" as at least sh -i0! a rel1cta0ce t press the s1!ar pla0ters* ?# Three ther me0 pr mi0e0tly i2e0ti3 ,ie2 -ith the 102erta6i0! ha2 cl se c 00ecti 0s -ith the

tria0!1lar tra2e +e0eral +asc y0e , Liverp l" a stal-art champi 0 , the West I02ia i0terest" . h0 +la2st 0e a02 . h0 ( ss* ?? The )rist l West I02ia i0terest als playe2 a pr mi0e0t part i0 the c 0str1cti 0 , the +reat Wester0 Rail-ay* ?= )1t it m1st 0 t &e i0,erre2 that the tria0!1lar tra2e -as

IO; CAPITALIS( AN' SLAVERY

s lely a02 e0tirely resp 0si&le , r the ec 0 mic 2evel pme0t* The !r -th , the i0ter0al mar6et i0 E0!la02" the pl 1!h3 i0!3i0 , the pr ,its ,r m i021stry t !e0erate still ,1rther capital a02 achieve still !reater e4pa0si 0" playe2 a lar!e part* )1t this i021strial 2evel pme0t" stim1late2 &y merca0tilism" later 1t!re- merca0tilism a02 2estr ye2 it* I0 #<B= the shape , thi0!s t c me -as clearly visi&le* The steam e0!i0e7s p te0tialities -ere 0 t a0 aca2emic 51esti 0* Si4ty3si4 e0!i0es -ere i0 perati 0" t- 3thir2s , these i0 mi0es a02 , 102ries* ?% Impr ve2 meth 2s , c al mi0i0!" c m&i0e2 -ith the i0,l1e0ce , steam" res1lte2 i0 a !reat e4pa0si 0 , the ir 0 i021stry* Pr 21cti 0 i0crease2 , 1r times &et-ee0 #<%> a02 #<BB" the 01m&er , ,1r0aces r se &y 0e3hal,* ?@ The ir 0 &ri2!e a02 the ir 0 railr a2 ha2 appeare29 the Carr 0 W r6s ha2 &ee0 , 102e29 a02 Wil6i0s 0 -as alrea2y ,am 1s as :the ,ather , the ir 0 tra2e*: C tt 0" the 51ee0 , the I021strial Rev l1ti 0" resp 02e2 rea2ily t the 0e- i0ve0ti 0s" 10hamp3 ere2 as it -as &y the tra2iti 0s a02 !1il2 restricti 0s -hich im3 pe2e2 its l2er rival" - l* Laisse/ ,aire &ecame a practice i0 the 0e- i021stry l 0! &e, re it pe0etrate2 the te4t & 6s as rth 2 4 ec 0 mic the ry* The spi00i0! De00y" the -ater ,rame" the m1le" rev l1ti 0i/e2 the i021stry" -hich" as a res1lt" sh -e2 a c 0ti01 1s 1p-ar2 tre02* )et-ee0 #<>> a02 #<B> imp rts , ra- c tt 0 i0crease2 m re tha0 three times" e4p rts , c tt 0 ! 2s ,i,tee0 times* ?; The p p1lati 0 , (a0chester i0crease2 &y 0early 0e3hal, &et-ee0 #<@< a02 I<<=" ?< the 01m&ers e0!a!e2 i0 the c tt 0 i021stry 51a2r1ple2 &et-ee0 #<@> a02 I<B@* ?B N t 0ly heavy i021stry" c tt 0" t the t- i021stries that -ere t 2 mi0ate the peri 2 #<B=3#B@> -as !atheri0! stre0!th , r the assa1lt 0 the system , m 0 p3 ly -hich ha2 , r s l 0! &ee0 2eeme2 esse0tial t the e4iste0ce a02 pr sperity , & th* The e0tire ec 0 my , E0!la02 -as stim1late2 &y this &e0e,ice0t &reath , i0crease2 pr 21cti 0* The 1tp1t , the Sta,, r2shire p tteries i0crease2 ,ive, l2 i0 val1e &et-ee0 #<?@ a02 I<<<3 ?$ The t 00a!e , shippi0! leavi0! E0!lish p rts m re tha0 2 1&le2 &et-ee0 #<>>* a02 #<B#* E0!lish imp rts i03 crease2 , 1r, l2 &et-ee0 #<#@ a02 #<<@" e4p rts tre&le2 &e3

IN'USTRY AN' THE TRIAN+ULAR TRA'E #><

t-ee0 #<>> a02 lyyi* => E0!lish i021stry i0 #<B= -as li6e +1l3 liver" tie2 2 -0 &y the Lillip1tia0 restricti 0s , merca0tilism* T1tsta02i0! ,i!1res , the ei!htee0th ce0t1ry sa- a02" -hat -as m re" appreciate2 the irrepressi&le c 0,lict8 A2am Smith ,r m his pr ,ess rial chair" Th mas .e,,ers 0 0 his pla0tati 0* A2am Smith 2e0 10ce2 the , lly a02 i0D1stice -hich ha2 ,irst 2irecte2 the pr Dect , esta&lishi0! c l 0ies i0 the NeW rl2* He pp se2 the -h le system , m 0 p ly" the 6ey3 st 0e , the c l 0ial arch" 0 the !r 102 that it restricte2 the pr 21ctive p -er , E0!la02 as -ell as the c l 0ies* I, )ritish i021stry ha2 a2va0ce2" it ha2 2 0e s 0 t &eca1se , the m 0 p ly &1t i0 spite , it" a02 the m 0 p ly represe0te2 0 thi0! &1t the sacri,ice , the !e0eral ! 2 t the i0terests , a ,e-" the sacri,ice , the i0terest , the h me c 0s1mer t that , the c l 0ial pr 21cer* I0 the c l 0ies themselves the &a0 0 c l 0ial ma01,act1res seeme2 t him :a ma0i,est vi la3 ti 0 , the m st sacre2 ri!hts , ma06i02 * * * imperti0e0t &a2!es , slavery imp se2 1p 0 them" -ith 1t a0y s1,,icie0t reas 0" &y the !r 102less Deal 1sy , the mercha0ts a02 ma01,act1rers , the m ther c 10try*: )ritish capital ha2 &ee0 , rce2 ,r m tra2e -ith 0ei!h& ri0! c 10tries t tra2e -ith m re 2ista0t c 10tries9 m 0ey that c 1l2 have &ee0 1se2 t impr ve the la02s" i0crease the ma01,act1res" a02 e4te02 the c mmerce , +reat )ritai0 ha2 &ee0 e4pe02e2 i0 , steri0! a tra2e -ith 2ista0t areas ,r m -hich )ritai0 2erive2 0 thi0! &1t l ss GMH a02 ,re51e0t -ars* It -as a ,it system , r a 0a3 ti 0 -h se ! ver0me0t -as i0,l1e0ce2 &y sh p6eepers* =# The Wealth , Nati 0s -as the phil s phical a0tece2e0t , the America0 Rev l1ti 0* ) th -ere t-i0 pr 21cts , the same ca1se" the &ra6e applie2 &y the merca0tile system 0 the 2e3 vel pme0t , the pr 21ctive p -er , E0!la02 a02 her c l 0ies* A2am Smith7s r le -as t &erate i0tellect1ally :the mea0 a02 mali!0a0t e4pe2ie0ts: =? , a system -hich the armies , +e r!e Washi0!t 0 2ealt a m rtal - 102 0 the &attle3 ,iel2s , America*

;3 THE A(ERICAN REVOLUTION

IN #<<> the c 0ti0e0tal c l 0ies se0t t the West I02ies 0early 0e3thir2 , their e4p rts , 2rie2 ,ish a02 alm st all their pic6le2 ,ish9 seve03ei!hths , their ats" seve03te0ths , their c r0" alm st all their peas a02 &ea0s" hal, , their ,l 1r" all their &1tter a02 cheese" ver 0e351arter , their rice" alm st all their 0i 0s9 ,ive3si4ths , their pi0e" a6 a02 ce2ar & ar2s"

ver hal, their staves" 0early all their h ps9 all their h rses" sheep" h !s a02 p 1ltry9 alm st all their s ap a02 ca02les* # As Pr ,ess r Pitma0 has t l2 1s" :It -as the -ealth acc1m1late2 ,r m West I02ia0 tra2e -hich m re tha0 a0ythi0! else 102er3 lay the pr sperity a02 civili/ati 0 , Ne- E0!la02 a02 the (i22le C l 0ies*: ? )1t i0 the imperial scheme , the ei!htee0th ce0t1ry the mai0la02 c l 0ies ra0 a &a2 sec 02* S1!ar -as 6i0!" a02 the West I02ia0 isla02s the s1!ar & -l , E1r pe* The ac51isiti 0 , .amaica ma2e Cr m-ell s happy that he re,1se2 t tra0s3 act a0y ,1rther &1si0ess 0 the 2ay -he0 the !la2 ti2i0!s -as a00 10ce2* He - 1l2 have ta6e0 a -ee67s h li2ay i, he ha2 capt1re2 Hispa0i la" the Fre0ch part , -hich" Sai0t ' mi0!1e" later &ecame the pearl , the A0tilles a02 the &a0e , the )ritish pla0ters* )ar&a2 s -as the :,air .e-ell: , His (aDesty7s Cr -0" a little pearl m re preci 1s a02 rare tha0 a0y the 6i0!s , E1r pe p ssesse2" = a02 i0 #;;# Charles II sh -e2 its imp r3 ta0ce &y creati0! thirtee0 &ar 0ets am 0! its pla0ters i0 a si0!le 2ay* % The ! ver0 rship , .amaica ra06e2 0e4t i0 c l 0ial ap3 p i0tme0ts t the l r23lie1te0a0cy , Irela02" a02 the p stal

THE A(ERICAN REVOLUTION #>$ system ma2e &etter pr visi 0 , r the isla02s tha0 , r the mai03 la02* (erca0tilists l 6e2 as6a0ce at the 0 rther0 c l 0ies i0 partic1lar* They -ere ,1ll , ,armers" mercha0ts" ,isherme0" seame0 &1t 0 pla0ters* They -ere" -ith the e4cepti 0 , their yet 102evel pe2 ma01,act1res" i0 a very literal se0se Ne- E0!la02* @ Rivalry -ith Ol2 E0!la02 -as i0evita&le* They c mpete2 -ith the h me c 10try i0 the ,isheries" -hich &e3 came a 01rsery , r the seame0 , Ne- E0!la02* I0 their a!ri3 c1lt1ral pr 21cts they -ere e0a&le2" &y virt1e , their sit1a3 ti 0" t 102ersell their E0!lish rivals i0 isla02 mar6ets* )y this c mpetiti 0 E0!la02 -as l si0!" i0 sales a02 ,rei!hts" t- a02 a hal, milli 0s sterli0! a year* :Ca0 a0y 0e thi06 ,r m he0ce": as6e2 a0 a0 0ym 1s -riter" :that the tra2e a02 0avi!ati 0 , 1r c l 0ies are - rth 0e !r at t this 0ati 0I: ; Sir . siah Chil2 p i0te2 1t that te0 me0 i0 (assach1setts 2i2 0 t pr 3 vi2e empl yme0t , r a si0!le E0!lishma0 at h me* :Ne- E0!3 la02": he c 0cl12e2" :is the m st preD12icial pla0tati 0 t this 6i0!2 m*: < Chichester - 1l2 have pre,erre2 t la& r -ith his ha02s i0 Irela02 tha0 :2a0ce a02 si0! i0 Vir!i0ia*: B Petty sai2 &l10tly that the i0ha&ita0ts , Ne- E0!la02 sh 1l2 &e re3 patriate2 r se0t t Irela02* $ F 1r separate e,, rts -ere ma2e t pers1a2e the Ne- E0!la02ers t rem ve t the )ahamas" t Tri0i2a2" t (aryla02" a02 t Vir!i0ia* Cr m-ell l 6e2 0 Ne- E0!la02 : 0ly -ith a0 eye , pity" as p r" c l2 a02 1seless*: #> Or2ers , the C 10cil , State -ere se0t i0 #;@@ t the ! ver0 rs a02 i0ha&ita0ts h l2i0! 1t tempti0! ,,ers t ! t .amaica :t e0li!hte0 th se parts *** &y pe ple -h 60 - a02 ,ear the L r29 that th se , Ne- E0!la02" 2rive0 ,r m the la02 , their 0ativity i0t that 2esert a02 &arre0

-il2er0ess" , r c 0scie0ceN sa6e may rem ve t ple0ty*: ##

a la02

These vie-s -ere t e4treme* I, the N rther0 c l 0ies -ere s51ee/e2 1t , the pr visi 0s tra2e" they - 1l2 &e 10a&le t pay , r )ritish ma01,act1res" the e4p rt , -hich -as m re val1a&le t E0!la02 tha0 the e4p rt , a!ric1lt1ral c mm 2i3 ties a02 salte2 meat* What -as m1ch - rse" the c l 0ists mi!ht there&y &e tempte2 t 2evel p their -0 i021stries* )etter

##> CAPITALIS( AN' SLAVERY

the0" 'ave0a0t c 0cl12e2" that they sh 1l2 have the , tra2e* #?

F r the West I02ia0 c l 0ies 0ee2e2 , 2* I, they -ere t c 0ce0trate 0 the s1!ar t -hich the ec 0 mic speciali/ati 0 , the merca0tile ep ch c 0,i0e2 them" they ha2 0 &ac6 c 103 try -here staples c 1l2 0 t &e raise2" a02 their cash cr p -as t pr ,ita&le , r them t a,, r2 the l141ry , 2iverti0! la02 a02 la& r t cattle !ra/i0! a02 , 2 cr ps* :(e0 are s i0te0t 1p 0 pla0ti0! s1!ar": a c rresp 02e0t -r te t + ver0 r Wi0thr p i0 #;%< a& 1t the West I02ies" :that they ha2 rather &1y , 2e at very 2eare rates tha0 pr 21ce it &y la& 1r" s i03 ,i0ite is the pr ,itt , s1!ar - r6es a,ter 0ce acc mplishe2*: #= The tra2iti 0 -as there&y esta&lishe2 &y -hich s1!ar &ecame :the -heat r &rea2: , the West I02ies* #% O0ly the p ssessi 0 , the mai0la02 c l 0ies permitte2 this s1!ar m 0 p ly , the West I02ia0 s il* :T s1&sist a c l 0y i0 America": -r te the A&&e Ray0al" :it is 0ecessary t c1ltivate a pr vi0ce i0 E1r pe*: #@ )ritai0 v l10tarily a&2icate2 this privile!e" as the lesser , t- evils" t the mai0la02 c l 0ists* (erca0tilism -as 1ltimately 2estr ye2 as a &a2 system" &1t it is a&s1r2 0 t t rec !0i/e that it -as a system" a02 that there -as meth 2 i0 its &a20ess* Th1s 2i2 the N rth America0 c l 0ies c me t have a rec !0i/e2 place i0 imperial ec 0 my" as p1rvey rs , the s1pplies 0ee2e2 &y the s1!ar pla0ters a02 their slaves" a02 the Ne- E0!la02ers came t &e re!ar2e2 as the '1tchme0 , America* The mi4e2 h1s&a02ry , the N rther0 a02 (i22le c l 0ies s1ppleme0te2 the speciali/e2 a!ric1lt1re , the West I02ies" as i0 the 0i0etee0th ce0t1ry it ,e2 the c tt 0 a02 rice re!i 0s , the America0 S 1th* As early as #;@> the Ne- E0!3 la02 c l 0ies -ere ,ee2i0! their :el2er sisters": Vir!i0ia a02 )ar&a2 s* #; Wi0thr p assi!0e2 the cre2it t Pr vi2e0ce" #< &1t merca0tilism ha2 m1ch t 2 -ith the arra0!eme0t* :His ma tya c ll 0ys i0 these parts": -r te + ver0 r Will 1!h&y , )ar&a2 s i0 #;;<" :ca00 t i0 tyme , peace pr sper" 0 r i0 tyme , -ar s1&sist" -ith 1t a c rresp 02e0ce -ith the pe ple , Ne-e E0!la02*: #B N t 0ly , 2" &1t h rses t s1pply the m tive p -er , the trea23mills 1se2 i0 s1!ar ma01,act1re" a02

THE A(ERICAN REVOLUTION III l1m&er , r &1il2i0!s" -ere the articles m st i0 2ema02 i0 the isla02s* :There is 0 isla02 the )rittish p ssess i0 the West I02ies": -r te Sam1el Vetch i0 #<>B" :that is capa&le , s1&3 sisti0! -ith 1t the assista0ce , the C 0ti0e0t" , r t them -e tra0sp rt their &rea2" 2ri06 a02 all the 0ecessaryes , h1ma0e li,e" their cattle a02 h rses , r c1ltivati0! their pla0tati 0s" l1m&er a02 staves , all s rts t ma6e cas6s , r their r1mm" s1!ar a02 m lasses" -ith 1t -hich they c 1l2 have 0 0e" ships t tra0sp rt their ! 2s t the E1r pea0 mar6ets" 0ay" i0 sh rt" the very h 1ses they i0ha&itt are carrye2 ver i0 ,rames" t !ether -ith shi0!les that c ver them" i0 s m1ch that their &ei0!" m1ch m re their -ell &ei0!" 2epe02s alm st e0tirely 1p 0 the C 0ti0e0t*: #$ The West I02ia0 pla0ters e0tertai0e2 0 ill1si 0s a& 1t the imp rta0ce , mai0la02 pr visi 0s a02 h rses* The )ar&a2ia0s" -r te a ) st 0 ,act r i0 #;<%" are :all se0sa&le , the !reate preD12is -hich -ill accr1e t them y, they l se the &e0e,itt , th se t- c mm 2yties" -hich are ve02a&le i0 0 e part , y e - rl2 &1t Ne- E0!la02 a02 Vir!i0ia*: ?> This -as 2eli&erate p licy 0 the part , statesme0 i0 E0!3 la02 a02 the pla0ters i0 the c l 0ies* (a0y , the articles e43 p rte2 &y Ne- E0!la02 t the isla02s c 1l2 have &ee0 pr 3 21ce2 i0 the isla02s themselves* )1t" as a .amaica0 pla0ter as6e2" :I, this isla02 -ere a&le t mai0tai0 itsel, -ith 2iet a02 ther 0ecessaries -hat - 1l2 &ec me , the Ne- E0!la02 tra2eI: ?# The a0s-er is that -ith 1t the s1!ar isla02s the mai03 la02 c l 0ies - 1l2 have receive2 a seri 1s set&ac6* They &e3 came :the 6ey t the I02ies": ?? -ith 1t -hich the isla02s - 1l2 have &ee0 10a&le t ,ee2 themselves e4cept &y a 2iver3 si 0 , pr ,ita&le s1!ar la02 t , 2 cr ps" t the 2etrime0t 0 t 0ly , Ne- E0!la02 ,armers &1t )ritish shippi0!" )ritish s1!ar re,i0i0!" a02 the c1st ms reve01e" !l ry a02 !ra02e1r , E0!la02* I0 #;$B Parliame0t reDecte2 a pr p sal t pr hi&it the e4p rt , c r0" meal" ,l 1r" &rea2 a02 &isc1it ,r m E0!la02 t the s1!ar isla02s* The pr hi&iti 0 :may p1t the i0ha&ita0ts there 1p 0 pla0ti0! pr visi 0s themselves" i0stea2 , s1!ar3 ca0es" cptt 0" !i0!er" a02 i02ic 9 -hich -ill &e !reatly preD12i3 cial t E0!la02" i0 respect , its 0avi!ati 0 a02 riches*: ?B

##? CAPITALIS( AN' SLAVERY

Ec 0 mic relati 0s &et-ee0 isla02s a02 mai0la02 -ere stre0!the0e2 &y i02ivi21al c 0tacts* West I02ia0s -0e2 pr p3 erty 0 the mai0la02" N rth America0s -0e2 pla0tati 0s i0 the isla02s* S 1th Car li0a -as settle2 ,r m )ar&a2 s* The (i22let 0s" )1lls a02 C llet 0s , S 1th Car li0a -0e2 pla0tati 0s i0 .amaica a02 )ar&a2 s* Aar 0 L pe/" Rh 2e Is3 la02 slave tra2er" -as -0er , a s1!ar pla0tati 0 i0 A0ti!1a*

Ale4a02er Hamilt 0 -as & r0 i0 Nevis* The +e20ey Clar6es , Salem are the 1tsta02i0! e4ample , N rth America0 s1c3 cess i0 the isla02s* The ,ather -0e2 e4te0sive pla0tati 0s i0 )ar&a2 s a02 +1ia0a* His s 0 &ecame s1rvey r !e0eral , c1st ms i0 )ar&a2 s" mem&er , the H 1se , Assem&ly a02 s1&se51e0tly , the C 10cil* N rth America0s s 0 2isc vere2 the val1e , West I02ia0 s10shi0e" West I02ia0s s 1!ht i0 N rth America the rec very , &r 6e0 c 0stit1ti 0s* :I - 1l2 a2vise A2am Chart": -r te a0 America0 t ,rie02s i0 Phila3 2elphia" :t &e!i0 a0 ther h 1se 2irectly a02 call it the )ar3 &a2 s H tel" p1tti0! 1p , r a si!0" the - r03 1t West I02ia0" 2yi0! , a 2r psy ,r m i0temperate livi0!*: West I02ia0 heiresses" it is sai2" -ere as 2esira&le i0 N rth America as they -ere i0 E0!la02* ?% I0 e4cha0!e , r their pr visi 0s the mai0la02 c l 0ists t 6 West I02ia0 s1!ar" r1m a02 m lasses" i0 s1ch 51a0tities that as early as #;<; the E0!lish mercha0ts c mplai0e2 that NeE0!la02 -as &ec mi0! the !reat mart a02 staple , c l 0ial pr 21ce* ?@ It -as a m1t1al i0ter2epe02e0ce &et-ee0 the t10its* The mai0te0a0ce , harm 0y imperatively 2ema02e2 t- thi0!s8 isla02 pr 21cti 0 , s1!ar a02 m lasses m1st &e s1,,icie0t t satis,y mai0la02 c 0s1mpti 09 isla02 c 0s1mpti 0 , mai0la02 staples m1st 6eep pace -ith mai0la02 pr 21cti 0* At &est this - 1l2 have &ee0 2i,,ic1lt" &eca1se , the relative si/e , the t- i0ter2epe02e0t areas* )1t the impe02i0! c 03 ,lict c 1l2 have &ee0 p stp 0e2 i0 0e , t- -ays r & th* I0 the ,irst place the )ritish s1!ar pla0ter c 1l2 have e4te02e2 his c1ltivati 0* ( re la02 - 1l2 have re51ire2 m re slaves -h - 1l2 have pr 21ce2 m re s1!ar a02 calle2 , r !reater s1pplies , , 2* .amaica c 1l2 have 2 0e this m re easily tha0 )ar&a2 s" -hich i0 the ei!htee0th ce0t1ry -as alrea2y

THE A(ERICAN REVOLUTION ##= s1,,eri0! ,r m the i0evita&le c 0se51e0ces , slave la& r a02 51ic6 e4tracti 0 , pr ,it ,r m the s il* There -as ,resh la02 i0 a&102a0ce i0 .amaica* The sec 02 reme2y -as the ac51isi3 ti 0 , m re s1!ar c l 0ies* This - 1l2 have appease2" par3 tially" the le!itimate !rieva0ces , the mai0la02* )1t these" the 0ly p ssi&le s l1ti 0s -ith 1t res rt t , rce" the )ritish s1!ar pla0ters res l1tely pp se2* The c1ltivati 0 , ,resh la02s a02 the ac51isiti 0 , m re s1!ar c l 0ies mea0t a !reater s1pply , s1!ar i0 the )ritish mar6et a02 a c 0se51e0t re21cti 0 , price* The )ar&a2ia0s ha2 very early i0 their hist ry l 6e2 apprehe0sively at the e4te0si 0 , )ritish s1!ar c 051ests* They pp se2 )ritish settleme0t , S1ri0am9 ?; they rese0te2 the 2rai0 , their -hite serva0ts t the Lee-ar2 Isla02s" a02 -he0 as6e2 &y the ! ver0 r , .amaica t c 0tri&1te t a0 e4pe2iti 0 t p1t 2 -0 piracy i0 the Lee-ar2 Isla02s" they replie2 that they - 1l2 0 t spe02 t-e0ty shilli0!s t Csave the Lee-ar2 Isla02s a02 .amaica* ?< I0 #<<? it -as pr p se2 i0 Parliame0t that a2e3 51ate sec1rity &e ,,ere2 t , rei!0ers -illi0! t a2va0ce m 0ey , r the 2evel pme0t , the s1!ar isla02s a00e4e2 a,ter

the Seve0 Years7 War* The pr p sal -as -armly pp se2" as a0 :imp litic i00 vati 0": &y the West I02ia0 pla0ters* ?B It -as the l2 2ivisi 0" i0 4 the - r2s , Pr ,ess r Namier" &et-ee0 :sat1rate2 pla0ters: a02 :pla0ters 0 the ma6e*: ?$ The , rei!0 s1!ar isla02s" t " -ere alrea2y ill1strati0! the la- , slave pr 21cti 0* Less e4ha1ste2 tha0 the l 0!er3settle2 E0!lish isla02s" c1ltivati 0 i0 the Fre0ch isla02s -as easier a02 the c st , pr 21cti 0 less* As early as #;;=" a mere t-e0ty years a,ter the rise , the s1!ar i021stry" )ar&a2 s -as :2ecay3 i0! ,ast": => a02 the c mplai0ts , s il e4ha1sti 0 !re- m re 01mer 1s a02 m re plai0tive* I0 #<#< )ar&a2 s" acc r2i0! t a represe0tati 0 t the ) ar2 , Tra2e" 0ee2e2 ,ive times the 01m&er , Ne!r es a02 ma0y m re hea2 , cattle a02 h rses tha0 the Fre0ch isla02s t c1ltivate a !ive0 acrea!e9 0e slave i0 Fre0ch Sai0t ' mi0!1e -as e51ivale0t t , 1r i0 .amaica* =# I0 #<=< the )ar&a2ia0 -0er , a pla0tati 0 , 0e th 1sa02 acres" -hich re51ire2 a capital i0vestme0t , ,i,ty th 1sa02 p 102s" -as ma6i0! a pr ,it , t- per ce0t9 a similar pla0ta3 ti 0 i0 the Fre0ch isla02s c st 0e3si4th as m1ch" a02 yiel2e2

##% CAPITALIS( AN' SLAVERY

a pr ,it , ei!htee0 per ce0t* =? There -as s me e4a!!erati 0 i0 these ,i!1res" &1t the ,102ame0tal s1peri rity , the Fre0ch s1!ar pla0ter" as a res1lt , lar!e tracts , ,ertile" 10e4ha1ste2 s il" -as 0 t ri 1s* Fre0ch s1!ar -as i0va2i0! the E1r pea0 mar6ets a02 selli0! at hal, the price it -as s l2 at i0 E0!la02* == Ac51isiti 0 , s1ch isla02s - 1l2 have mea0t the eclipse , the l2er )ritish pla0ters* The latter" there, re" 2ema02e2 their 2estr1cti 0 rather tha0 their ac51isiti 0* The ! ver0 r , .amaica -r te i0 #<%B that 10less Fre0ch Sai0t ' mi0!1e -as 2estr ye2 21ri0! the -ar" it - 1l2" 0 the ret1r0 , peace" r1i0 the )ritish s1!ar c l 0ies &y the 51ality a02 cheap0ess , its pr 21cti 0* =% '1ri0! the Seve0 Years7 War" )ritai0 cap3 t1re2 C1&a ,r m Spai0 a02 +1a2el 1pe ,r m Fra0ce* ) th isla02s -ere rest re2 t their -0ers i0 #<;=" )ritai0 ta6i0! i0 ret1r0 Fl ri2a a02 Ca0a2a* T rati 0ali/e this 2ecisi 0 i0 the li!ht , the imp rta0ce , the 2i,,ere0t areas t 2ay misses the -h le p i0t* C1&a -as still a0 1!ly 21c6li0! i0 #<;=" &1t a0y , l c 1l2 have !1esse2 -hat a &ea1ti,1l s-a0 it - 1l2 eve0t1ally t1r0 1t t &e* There -as 0 e4c1se -here +1a2el 1pe -as c 0cer0e2* The :,e- acres , s0 -": as V ltaire 2erisively 2escri&e2 Ca0a2a" c 1l2 & ast 0ly , ,1rs9 +1a2el 1pe ha2 s1!ar* :What 2 es a ,e- hats si!0i,y": as6e2 a shre-2 a0 0ym 1s -riter i0 #<;=" :c mpare2 -ith that article , l141ry" s1!arI: He p i0te2 1t" t " that the -ay t 6eep N rth America 2epe02e0t -as t leave the Fre0ch i0 Ca0a2a* =@ It is i0c 0ceiva&le that the )ritish mi0istry , the 2ay -as i!0 ra0t , -hat -as p1&lic 60 -le2!e" i0 E0!la02" Fra0ce

a02 America* )et-ee0 #<@$ a02 #<;? )ritish imp rts ,r m :L1e&ec: t talle2 %B">>>" e4p rts t L1e&ec %?;"%>>* )ritish imp rts ,r m +1a2el 1pe am 10te2 t ?">>%"$== &et-ee0 #<@$ a02 #<;@" e4p rts t +1a2el 1pe t %<@"?=<* )ritish im3 p rts ,r m Hava0a -ere ?;=">B% &et-ee0 #<;? a02 #<;;" e4p rts t Hava0a #?="%?#* C mpare Ca0a2a a02 Fl ri2a -ith +re0a2a a02 ' mi0ica" t, the West I02ia0 c 051ests that -ere retai0e2 i0 #<;=* Up t #<<= )ritish imp rts ,r m +re0a2a am 10te2 t ei!ht times the imp rts ,r m Ca0a2a" )ritish e43 p rts t Ca0a2a -ere 2 1&le th se t +re0a2a* Imp rts ,r m

THE A(ERICAN REVOLUTION ##@ ' mi0ica -ere m re tha0 ei!htee0 times the imp rts ,r m Fl ri2a9 e4p rts t ' mi0ica -ere 0ly 0e3seve0th less tha0 th se t Fl ri2a* =; Clearly Ca0a2a a02 Fl ri2a -ere retai0e2 0 t &eca1se they -ere m re val1a&le tha0 C1&a r +1a2el 1pe" &1t precisely &eca1se they -ere less val1a&le* Th1s the peace treaty , #<;= simply ma6es 0 se0se 10less it is re!ar2e2 as a0 ther vict ry , r the p -er,1l West I02ia i0terest* It pr ve2 1ltimately t &e a Pyrrhic vict ry" &1t i0 #<;= it -as 0 0e the less a vict ry* The t- m st stre01 1s a2v cates , the ret1r0 , +1a2el 1pe -ere t- West I02ia0 pla0ters" )ec6, r2 a02 F1ller" =< a02 )ec6, r27s i0,l1e0ce -ith Chatham -as 0 t ri 1s* :Th1s +1a2el 1pe" 0e , the !reatest ac51isiti 0s )ritai0 ever ma2e" ac51ires ma0y p -er,1l e0emies ,r m private vie-s" a02 has 0 thi0! t plea2 &1t her p1&lic 1tility a0 a2va0ta!e ,te0 , 102 t ,ee&le a0 pp 0e0t t the private i0terest , a ,e-*: =B The West I02ia0s ha2 t- aims i0 vie-* They -ishe2 t preve0t the Fre0ch ,r m ma6i0! Ca0a2a a N rth America" a s 1rce , s1pplies , r their s1!ar c l 0ies a &aseless ,ear" as the )ritish s1!ar pla0ter reali/e2 a,ter #<B= -he0 Ca0a2a pr ve2 a p r s1&stit1te , r the l st N rther0 c l 0ies9 a02" m re imp rta0t" they -ere 2etermi0e2 t 6eep a 2rea2e2 rival 1t , the )ritish s1!ar mar6et* S Chatham c 051ere2 i0 the isla02s t a00e4 0 the c 0ti0e0t" c 051ere2 s1!ar t a00e4 ,1rs* The 51esti 0 ar 1se2 !reat c 0tr versy i0 E0!la02" a02 Chatham 0ce as6e2 -hether he sh 1l2 &e ha0!e2 , r ret1r0i0! Ca0a2a r ret1r0i0! +1a2e3 l 1pe* =$ I, there -as a0y ha0!i0! t &e 2 0e" )ec6, r2 ha2 the &est claim* It all am 10te2 t this the -h le empire -as t &e &r -3 &eate0 i0t payi0! tri&1te t the s1!ar pla0ters a02 accepti0! s1!ar at a m 0 p ly price &eca1se it -as )ritish !r -0* The mai0la02 c l 0ists t1r0e2 0at1rally" i, 10patri tically" t the , rei!0 s1!ar c l 0ies* :F r!etti0! all ties , 21ty t his (aDesty": s ra0 a petiti 0 , L 02 0 mercha0ts i0 #<@>" :the i0terest , their m ther3c 10try" a02 the revere0ce 21e t its la-s": %> the mai0la02 c l 0ists sa- 0ly that i0crease2 tra2e -as 2ema02e2 &y their i0crease2 pr 21cti 0* I, they c 1l2 0 t tra2e -ith , rei!0 s1!ar c l 0ies &ec me )ritish" they - 1l2

Il; CAPITALIS( AN' SLAVERY

tra2e -ith th se c l 0ies 1tsi2e the imperial ,rame- r6 eve0 i0 -artime* Their e4iste0ce -as at sta6e* The t1!3 ,3-ar &et-ee0 isla02s a02 mai0la02 ha2 &e!10" a02 therea,ter the West I02ia0s a02 N rth America0s -ere al-ays :Darri0!*: %# Nat1rally the mai0la02 c l 0ist 2i2 0 t & yc tt the )ritish s1!ar isla02s* It - 1l2 have &ee0 c1tti0! ,, his -0 0 se t spite the s1!ar pla0ter7s ,ace* I0stea2 the mai0la02 c 0ti01e2 t s1pply the )ritish isla02s* )1t i0 ret1r0 they i0siste2 0 cash" -hich 2rai0e2 the isla02s , specie a02 raise2 the specter , i0,lati 0* I0 #<@= the t tal val1e , the tra2e &et-ee0 N rther0 c l 0ies a02 .amaica -as estimate2 at <@">>> sterli0!* The N rther0 c l 0ists t 6 i0 ret1r0 pr 21cts t the val1e , ?@">>>9 the rest -as carrie2 a-ay i0 cash* %? With the cash they -e0t t the Fre0ch isla02s -here they & 1!ht s1!ar at cheaper rates a02 the m lasses -hich the Fre0ch pla0ter -as 0 t all -e2 t 2istil i0t r1m &eca1se it - 1l2 c mpete -ith Fre0ch &ra02ies* The )ritish s1!ar pla0ters l st a mar6et , r their s1!ar a02 r1m* Their Fre0ch rivals st le this mar6et ,r m them" -hile i0 a22iti 0 they receive2 the s1pplies they 0ee2e2 t e0a&le them t c mpete 0 m re a2va0ta!e 1s terms -ith the )ritish* This c mplicate2 tria0!1lar tra2e , the mai0la02 -as a c mplete vi lati 0 , the )ritish imperial scheme* The s1!ar pla0ters th 1!ht it reprehe0si&le* The smallest s1!ar isla02" i0 their vie-" -as te0 times m re val1a&le t E0!la02 tha0 NeE0!la02* %= It -as a c 0test" they ar!1e2" 0 t &et-ee0 c l 0y a02 c l 0y &1t &et-ee0 E0!la02 a02 Fra0ce , r the c 0tr l , he s1!ar tra2e* %% Strict merca0tilists e02 rse2 this vie-* The Fre0ch ! ver03 me0t" it -as alle!e2" 0 t 0ly c 00ive2 at the tra2e" &1t e03 c 1ra!e2 it" i0 r2er t 2epress the )ritish s1!ar c l 0ies* %@ P stleth-ayt calle2 it a lice0ti 1s a02 per0ici 1s c mmerce" a02 -as 51ic6 t see that it ha2 :t m1ch c 0tri&1te2 t l se0 the 2epe02e0cy , 1r c l 0ies 1p 0 their m ther3 c 10try" a02 have pr 21ce2 s1ch c 00ecti 0 , i0terests &e3 t-ee0 them a02 th se , Fra0ce" as have te02e2 t alie0ate them ,r m +reat )ritai0" a02 t ma6e it t i02i,,ere0t t them -hether they -ere 102er a Fre0ch r a )ritish ! ver03

THE A(ERICAN REVOLUTION # #< me0t*: %; Chatham ech e2 P stleth-ayt* It -as :a0 ille!al a02 m st per0ici 1s tra2e * * * ,la!iti 1s practices" s 1tterly s1&3 versive , all la-s" a02 s hi!hly rep1!0a0t t the -ell3&ei0! , this 6i0!2 m*: %< It is 0 t clear" h -ever" -hy this America0 tra2e sh 1l2 have &ee0 si0!le2 1t , r c 02em0ati 0* It -as 0 2i,,ere0t ,r m the tra2e carrie2 0 ,r m .amaica -ith the

Spa0ish c l 0ies" &y -hich m1ch Spa0ish c l 0ial s1!ar -as sm1!!le2 i0t E0!la02 as )ritish c l 0ial pr 21ce* The N rth America0 p licy , s1pplyi0! the Fre0ch pla0ters -ith pr 3 visi 0s -as at least 0 m re reprehe0si&le tha0 the )ritish p licy , s1pplyi0! them -ith slaves* The mai0la02 c l 0ists c 10tere2 that :the 0e !reat e02 al-ays aime2 at &y the s1!ar pla0ters" G-asH that they may raise -hat ,1rther prices they shall thi06 ,it 1p 0 their ,ell -3 s1&Dects" m re especially th se i0 N rth America" , r the 0ecessaries , li,e*: %B It -as a&s1r2 , r the pla0ters t attempt t mai0tai0 m 0 p ly prices i0 E0!la02 -he0 the la-s , s1pply a02 2ema02 -ere perati0! all ver E1r pe t re21ce the price , s1!ar i0 resp 0se t a0 i0creasi0! s1pply9 it - 1l2 &e as se0si&le , r them :t pray , r a0 Act , Parliame0t t e0a&le them t -ash their &lac6am rs -hite*: %$ These : ver3 !r -0 West I02ia0s: @> -h -ere plea2i0! 2istress a02 thr -3 i0! themselves 0 the mercy , Parliame0t -ere 0 t p r a02 i02i!e0t* They -ere -ealthy pla0ters -h -ishe2 t r ll i0 their !il2e2 e51ipa!es thr 1!h the streets , L 02 0 at the e4pe0se , the N rth America0s* @# :What - 1l2 -e say t a ma0 -h sh 1l2 as6 1r charity i0 a0 em&r i2er 72 c atI: @? I, the i0terests , the mai0la02 c l 0ies as -ell as th se , the E0!lish c 0s1mers -ere t &e sacri,ice2 t a ha02,1l , pampere2 s1!ar &ar 0s i0 ti0y )ar&a2 s" the0 it - 1l2 &e &etter i, that isla02 -ere s106 i0 the sea* @= :It appears t me": -r te . h0 'ic6i0s 0" :0 para2 4 t say that the p1&lic - 1l2 &e as !reat a !ai0er" i, estates here Gi0 the West I02iesH -ere s m 2erate that 0 t a te0th part , the West I02ia0 !e0tleme0 -h 0 - sit i0 the H 1se , C mm 0s c 1l2 &tai0 that ,re51e0tly e4pe0sive h 0 1r*: @% Pe00sylva0ia pr 21ce2 a c1ri 1s ar!1me0t8 the isla02s -ere less 1se,1l t E0!la02 tha0 the mai0la029 their slaves -ere 0a6e2" they ha2 ,e- -hite

IlB CAPITALIS( AN' SLAVERY

resi2e0ts" the !reat heat , their climate 2estr ye2 a 01m&er , 1se,1l )ritish sail rs* @@ E0!lish e4p rts" partic1larly - le0" - 1l2 s1,,er c 0si2era&ly i, the N rther0 c l 0ies -ere i03 D1re2* @; The )ritish West I02ies c 1l2 0either c 0s1me all the pr 21ce , Ne- E0!la02 0 r pr vi2e s1pplies , m lasses at s1,,icie0tly l - rates , r the N rther0 c l 0ies* It -as a 2 !3 i03the3ma0!er attit12e" :t preve0t their ,ell -3s1&Dects re3 ceivi0! ,r m thers -hat they themselves 2 0 t ,1r0ish*: @< I0 #<;= all &1t three per ce0t , (assach1setts < imp rts , m lasses came ,r m the Fre0ch West I02ies9 the )ritish West I02ies s1pplie2 &arely 0e3te0th , the imp rts , Rh 2e Isla02 a02 (assach1setts* The 2istilli0! &1si0ess cc1pie2 a0 imp r3 ta0t p siti 0 i0 c l 0ial ec 0 my* (assach1setts ha2 si4ty 2is3 tilleries i0 #<;=" Rh 2e Isla02 thirty* I0 a22iti 0" it -as 0ly &y this tra2e -ith the Fre0ch West I02ies that Rh 2e Isla02 -as a&le t ma6e remitta0ces t E0!la02 , %>">>> a year* :With 1t this tra2e": the c l 0y pr teste2" :it - 1l2 have

&ee0 a02 al-ays -ill &e" 1tterly imp ssi&le , r the i0ha&ita0ts , this c l 0y t s1&sist themselves" r t pay , r a0y c 03 si2era&le 51a0tity , )ritish ! 2s*: @B The m re tra2e they ha2 -ith the , rei!0 c l 0ies" plea2e2 + l2e0" the !reater - 1l2 &e their c 0s1mpti 0 , )ritish ma01,act1res* @$ I, a0y ar!1me0t c 1l2 s ,te0 the merca0tilist heart" that -as the 0e* It -as the plea , a0 imp rta0t merca0tilist" William W 2* Writi0! as early as #<#B" he -as prepare2 t permit the tra2e &et-ee0 the mai0la02 a02 the , rei!0 pla0tati 0s i0 the West I02ies* He ar!1e2 that &y this tra2e E0!lish ma013 ,act1res - 1l2 &e sm1!!le2 i0t the Fre0ch isla02s9 i0 ret1r0 the N rth America0s mi!ht 0 t !et ! l2 a02 silver" &1t they - 1l2 !et -hat -as D1st as val1a&le" the pr 21cts , th se c 10tries* :This may 0 t perhaps &e relishe2 &y 1r pla0ters9 &1t i, they -ill 0 t all - it t &e , r their i0terest i0 partic1lar" I am s1re they ca07t 2isp1te its &ei0! , r the i0terest , +reat )ritai0 i0 !e0eral* F r &y this mea0s -e re02er , rei!0 c l 0ies a02 pla0tati 0s" t &e i0 e,,ect" the c l 0ies a02 pla0tati 0s , +reat )ritai0*: The tra2e - 1l2 i0crease shippi0! a02 seame09 it - 1l2 i0crease the s1pply , c l 0ial pr 21ce , r re3e4p rt &y E0!la02* O0e c 02iti 0 0ly m1st &e respecte28 i0 ret1r0

THE A(ERICAN REVOLUTION # #$ , r their s1pplies" the America0s m1st 0 t ta6e , rei!0 ma013 ,act1res* ;> This -as a c1ri 1s ar!1me0t , r a merca0tilist a02 it a0tici3 pate2 the p licy , the 0i0etee0th ce0t1ry i0 ma0y respects* It - 1l2 have a0ta! 0i/e2 the s1!ar pla0ters" &1t it - 1l2 have retai0e2 the alle!ia0ce , the mai0la02* )1t it -as ra06 heresy a!ai0st the merca0tilist ,aith* The ,rie02s , the mai03 la02 plea2e2 i0stea2 , r ca1ti 0* They 1!ht 0 t" sai2 O!le3 th rpe" :t e0c 1ra!e r raise 0e c l 0y 1p 0 the 2estr1cti 0 r 2etrime0t , a0 ther*: ;# I, the relie, r e0c 1ra!eme0t as6e2 , r &y the pla0ters appeare2 t &e a0 i0D1ry t the empire as a -h le" r i, it appeare2 that it - 1l2 2 m re harm t ther parts , the empire tha0 ! 2 t the West I02ies" the relie, sh 1l2 &e re,1se2* ;? Sir . h0 )ar0ar2 -ar0e2 that 0 t the -h le army , e4cise ,,icers c 1l2 preve0t the sm1!!li0! , a c mm 2ity esse0tial t mai0la02 pr sperity* ;= Heathc te ca1ti 0e2 that t pr hi&it the tra2e - 1l2 &e t e0c 1ra!e the Fre0ch t 2evel p Ca0a2a* ;% Parliame0t remai0e2 l yal t Fi0! S1!ar a02 the West I02ia i0terest* :It -as lai2 2 -0 as a ,102ame0tall that the Isla02s -ere the 0ly 1se,1ll c l 0ies -e ha2 a02 that the c 0ti0e0t -as rather a 01sa0ce*: ;@ The ( lasses Act , #<== -as a tri1mph , r the s1!ar pla0ters* It pr hi&ite2 America0 e4p rts t the , rei!0 isla02s" a02 imp se2 hi!h 21ties 0 , rei!0 s1!ar a02 m lasses* It -as" Pitma0 -rites" :a challe0!e t the ,1t1re pr !ress , the -h le re!i 0 ,r m P rtla02 t )altim re*: ;; It -as 0e thi0!" h -ever" t pass the Act" a0 ther thi0! t

e0, rce it* As .ames Otis & aste2" 0 t eve0 the Fi0! , E0!3 la02" e0campe2 0 ) st 0 C mm 0 at the hea2 , ?>">>> me0" c 1l2 have e0, rce2 &e2ie0ce t the Act* ;< La-less0ess -as erecte2 i0t a car2i0al virt1e , America0 ec 0 mic practice" the c1st ms ,,icers ma2e a l1crative D & , sh1tti0! their eyes" r at least , pe0i0! them 0 ,1rther tha0 their private i03 terest re51ire2* As the Pe00sylva0ia petiti 0 , #<@# p1t it" :every c mm10ity may a,, r2 a ,e- &a2 me0*: ;B The S1!ar '1ties Act , #<;% repeate2 the i0D10cti 0s , the , rmer meas1re9 t 2isc 1ra!e sm1!!li0!" h -ever" the 21ties -ere l -ere2" &1t they -ere t &e c llecte2* The act ca1se2" i0 the

I?O CAPITALIS( AN' SLAVERY

- r2s , + ver0 r )er0ar2" a !reater alarm i0 America tha0 2i2 the capt1re , F rt William He0ry i0 I<@<" ;$ a02 it has &ee0 ri!htly sai2 that it -as a !reater &l - t risi0! c l 0ial c 03 sci 1s0ess tha0 the Stamp Act* The N rth America0s &e!a0 t cha,e 102er the i0c 0ve0ie0ce , &ei0! )ritish s1&Dects* The attempt t re02er the Act e,,ective a02 stamp 1t sm1!!li0! le2 2irectly t the America0 Rev l1ti 0* It -as this that . h0 A2ams ha2 i0 mi02 -he0 he state2 that he 2i2 0 t 60 - -hy the America0s :sh 1l2 &l1sh t c 0,ess that m lasses -as a0 esse0tial i0!re2ie0t i0 America0 i02epe02e0ce*: <> :Whe0 i0 the c 1rse , h1ma0 eve0ts" it &ec mes 0ecessary , r 0e pe ple t 2iss lve the p litical &a02s -hich have c 03 0ecte2 them -ith a0 ther* * * *: .e,,ers 0 -r te 0ly part , the tr1th* It -as ec 0 mic" 0 t p litical" &a02s that -ere &ei0! 2iss lve2* A 0e- a!e ha2 &e!10* The year #<<; mar6e2 the 'eclarati 0 , I02epe02e0ce a02 the p1&licati 0 , the Wealth , Nati 0s* Far ,r m acce0t1ati0! the val1e , the s1!ar isla02s" America0 i02epe02e0ce mar6e2 the &e!i00i0! , their 10i03 terr1pte2 2ecli0e" a02 it -as a c1rre0t sayi0! at the time that the )ritish mi0istry ha2 l st 0 t 0ly thirtee0 c l 0ies &1t ei!ht isla02s as -ell* America0 i02epe02e0ce 2estr ye2 the merca0tile system a02 2iscre2ite2 the l2 re!ime* C i0ci2i0! -ith the early sta!es , the I021strial Rev l1ti 0" it stim1late2 that !r -i0! ,eeli0! , 2is!1st -ith the c l 0ial system -hich A2am Smith -as v ici0! a02 -hich r se t a verita&le cresce02 , 2e010cia3 ti 0 at the hei!ht , the ,ree tra2e era* Reare2 i0 the same sch l as A2am Smith" Arth1r Y 10!" the champi 0 , the a!ric1lt1ral rev l1ti 0 i0 E0!la02" 2re- imp rta0t less 0s ,r m the America0 rev lt a02 calle2 the c l 0ies 01isa0ces* :That !reat less 0 , m 2er0 p litic6s": he -r te -ith asperity" :the i02epe02a0cy , N rth America 1!ht t e0lar!e the h ri/ 0 , 1r c mmercial p licy*: It -as 0 t that the s1!ar isla02s -ere 0 t , c 0se51e0ce9 :they have &ee0 mischiev 1sly ma2e , !reat c 0se51e0ce8 &1t they are 0 t , the imp rta0ce their a2v cates ,alsely c 0te02 , r*: <#

The s1!ar pla0ters -ere ,1lly a-are

, the implicati 0s

THE A(ERICAN REVOLUTION #?# America0 secessi 0* The Stamp Act -as as 10p p1lar -ith the mercha0ts , the isla02s as it -as 0 the mai0la029 the stamps -ere p1&licly &1r0t" t the acc mpa0ime0t , sh 1ts , li&erty* <? :+ 2 0ly 60 -s": -r te Pi00ey ,r m Nevis as s 0 as h stilities &r 6e 1t" :-hat -ill &ec me , 1s* We m1st either starve r &e r1i0e2*: <= It -as - rse* They 2i2 & th* Fi,tee0 th 1sa02 slaves 2ie2 , ,ami0e i0 .amaica al 0e &e3 t-ee0 #<B> a02 #<B<" a02 America0 i02epe02e0ce -as the ,irst sta!e i0 the 2ecli0e , the s1!ar c l 0ies* A,ter the i02epe02e0ce , the mai0la02 -as rec !0i/e2" the ec 0 mic i0terest , the s1!ar pla0ters le2 them t ma6e the rev l1ti 0ary s1!!esti 0 that the Navi!ati 0 La- :m1st a2apt itsel, t every material alterati 0 , circ1msta0ces r its pr vi3 si 0s -ill &e 0 l 0!er -ise r sal1tary*: <@ The America0s -ere e51ally alive t this i0ter2epe02e0ce* :The c mmerce , the West I02ia Isla02s": -r te A2ams" :is a part , the Amer3 ica0 system , c mmerce* They ca0 0either 2 -ith 1t 1s" 0 r -e -ith 1t them* The Creat r has place2 1s 1p 0 the !l &e i0 s1ch a sit1ati 0 that -e have ccasi 0 , r each ther*: <; I0 E0!la02 A2am Smith a02 Pitt plea2e2 i0 vai0 that the l2 ec 0 mic relati 0s &e all -e2 t c 0ti01e* )1t" as Chalmers p1t it" a c mm10ity , <?">>> masters a02 %>>">>> slaves -as t 10imp rta0t t permit the sacri,ice , vital E0!lish i03 terests* << :The Navi!ati 0 Act": -r te L r2 She,,iel2" :the &asis , 1r !reat p -er at sea" !ave 1s the tra2e , the - rl2* I, -e alter that Act" &y permitti0! a0y state t tra2e -ith 1r isla02s *** -e 2esert the Navi!ati 0 Act" a02 sacri,ice the mari0e , E0!la02*: <B L r2 N rth7s pi0i 0 em& 2ie2 the 51i0tesse0ce , )ritish imperialism8 :The America0s ha2 re3 ,1se2 t tra2e -ith +reat )ritai0" it -as &1t D1st that they &e 0 t s1,,ere2 t tra2e -ith a0y ther 0ati 0*: <$ The America0s &ecame , rei!0ers" s1&Dect t all the pr vi3 si 0s , the Navi!ati 0 La-s" a02 the isla02s -ere 2e,lecte2 ,r m their 0at1ral mar6et i0 acc r2a0ce -ith the - rl2 his3 t rical sit1ati 0 , that time* N va Sc tia - 1l2 &e ma2e i0t a0 ther Ne- E0!la02* )1t N va Sc tia c 1l2 0 t &e &1ilt 1p ver0i!ht" a02 0 thi0! c 1l2 c mpe0sate , r the l ss , Amer3 ica* The 2ema02 , r America0 pr 21cts -as 0 t 2imi0ishe2 &y

#?? CAPITALIS( AN' SLAVERY

i02epe02e0ce" 0ly the s1pply -as ma2e m re 2i,,ic1lt* The West I02ia0 isla02s &e!!e2 , r the creati 0 , ,ree p rts" B> America0 s1pplies c 0ti01e2 t pe0etrate the )ritish isla02s &y 2evi 1s r 1tes -hich res1lte2 merely i0 i0creasi0! the

prices t the )ritish pla0ter" -hile i0 time , -ar seri 1s rela4ati 0s 0 the pr hi&iti 0 , America0 tra2e ha2 t &e permitte2 t relieve em&arrassme0t a02 2istress i0 the isla02s* I0 # <$; America0 e4p rts t the )ritish West I02ies -ere three times the ,i!1re , r #<$=9 )ritish e4p rts 2ecli0e2 &y 0e3hal,* B# I0 # B> # America0 e4p rts t the West I02ies -ere 0early ,ive times -hat they -ere i0 #<$?* Five3si4ths , the e4p rts i0 #B#$ came thr 1!h Ca0a2a a02 the S-e2ish a02 'a0ish isla02s* B? 'e0ie2 the )ritish West I02ia0 mar6et" the America0s t1r0e2 i0creasi0!ly t the , rei!0 isla02s" -here the 1t&rea6 , -ar &et-ee0 E0!la02 a02 Fra0ce a02 the 2estr1cti 0 , the Fre0ch 0avy a02 mari0e ma2e the U0ite2 States the !reat carrier , Fre0ch a02 Spa0ish pr 21ce* America0 tra0sp rt , , rei!0 West I02ia0 pr 21ce t E1r pe i0crease2 ,r m less tha0 0e milli 0 p 102s , c ,,ee a02 seve0ty3,ive th 1sa02 p 102s , s1!ar i0 #<$# t , rty3seve0 milli 0 p 102s , c ,,ee a02 0e h102re2 a02 , rty3,ive milli 0 p 102s , s1!ar i0 # B ;* B= 'espite the -ars at the e02 , the ei!htee0th ce0t1ry , rei!0 pla0tati 0 pr 21ce c 0ti01e2 its c mpetiti 0 -ith )ritish i0 the mar6ets , E1r pe* )1t the !reatest 2isaster , r the )ritish s1!ar pla0ters -as that the rev lt , America le,t them ,ace t ,ace -ith their Fre0ch rivals* The s1peri rity , the Fre0ch s1!ar c l 0ies -as , r the )ritish pla0ters the chie, am 0! the ma0y ills -hich ,le- 1t , the Pa02 ra7s & 4 that -as the America0 Rev l13 ti 0* )et-ee0 #<B= a02 #<B$ the pr !ress , the Fre0ch s1!ar isla02s" , Sai0t ' mi0!1e especially" -as the m st ama/i0! phe0 me0 0 i0 c l 0ial 2evel pme0t* The ,ertility , the Fre0ch s il -as 2ecisive* Fre0ch s1!ar c st 0e3,i,th less tha0 )ritish" the avera!e yiel2 i0 Sai0t ' mi0!1e a02 .amaica -as ,ive t 0e* B% '1ri0! the years #<<# t #<B# the pla0tati 0s , the L 0! ,amily i0 .amaica ear0e2 0 a0 avera!e a pr ,it , 0i0e a02 a hal, per ce0t" the pr ,it i0 #<<% &ei0! as hi!h as si4tee0 per ce0t* B; I0 #<BB the 0et pr ,it i0 .amaica -as , 1r per ce0t

THE A(ERICAN REVOLUTION #?= as c mpare2 -ith a0 avera!e , ei!ht t t-elve per ce0t i0 Sai0t ' mi0!1e* B; I0 #<<@ .amaica ha2 <<@ pla0tati 0s9 &y #<$#" 1t , every h102re2 t-e0ty3three ha2 &ee0 s l2 , r 2e&t" t-elve -ere i0 the ha02s , receivers" -hile seve0 ha2 &ee0 a&a02 0e29 B< a02 the West I02ia0 pla0ters" i02e&te2 t the e0 rm 1s s1m , t-e0ty milli 0s" c 1l2 &e challe0!e2 : 0 a0y pri0ciple t pr ve that a0y 0e- system - 1l2 i0v lve them s 2eep as that 0 -hich they ha2 hithert pr cee2e2*: BB Sai0t ' mi0!1e7s e4p rts i0 #<BB -ere 2 1&le th se , .amaica9 i0 #<B$ they -ere val1e2 at ver 0e3thir2 m re tha0 th se , all the )ritish West I02ies c m&i0e2* I0 the peri 2 , te0 years &e, re #<B$ the Ne!r p p1lati 0 a02 t tal pr 21cti 0 , Sai0t ' mi0!1e alm st 2 1&le2* B$ All the E0!lish s1!ar c l 3 0ies" & aste2 Hilliar2 27A1&erte1il" -ere 0 t e51al t Fre0ch Sai0t ' mi0!1e9 $> a02 the )ritish pla0ters a2mitte2 that they c 1l2 0 l 0!er c 0ti01e t :retai0 i0 the E1r pea0 mar6et

that asce02a0cy -hich" -e 0 - ,ear" is irretrieva&ly l st t )ritai0I7 $# Fre0ch c l 0ial e4p rts" ver ei!ht milli 0 p 102s" a02 imp rts" ver , 1r milli 0s" empl ye2 #;%">>> t 0s , shippi0! a02 ==">>> sail rs9 )ritish c l 0ial e4p rts" ,ive mil3 li 0 p 102s" a02 imp rts" less tha0 t- milli 0s" empl ye2 #%B">>> t 0s , shippi0! a02 #%">>> seame0* $? I0 every respect the s1!ar c l 0ies ha2 &ec me vastly m re esse0tial t Fra0ce tha0 they -ere t E0!la02* The Cari&&ea0 cease2 t &e a )ritish la6e -he0 the Amer3 ica0 c l 0ies - 0 their i02epe02e0ce* The ce0ter , !ravity i0 the )ritish Empire shi,te2 ,r m the Cari&&ea0 Sea t the I02ia0 Ocea0" ,r m the West I02ies t I02ia* I0 #<B=" m me03 t 1s year" Prime (i0ister Pitt &e!a0 t ta6e a0 a&0 rmally !reat i0terest i0 the )ritish 2 mi0i 0s i0 the East* >= I0 #<B< Wil&er, rce -as e0c 1ra!e2 &y Pitt t sp 0s r the pr p sal , r a& liti 0 , the slave tra2e* $% I0 the same year the East I02ia C mpa0y t1r0e2 its atte0ti 0 t the c1ltivati 0 , s1!ar i0 I02ia" $@ a02 i0 #<B$ a c mmittee , the c mpa0y , rmally rec mme02e2 its c1ltivati 0 t the c 1rt , 2irect rs* $; Pri r t #<B= the )ritish ! ver0me0t -as 10i, rmly c 03 siste0t i0 its p licy t -ar2s the slave tra2e* The -ith2ra-al the thirtee0 c l 0ies c 0si2era&ly 2imi0ishe2 the 01m&er , ,

#?% CAPITALIS( AN' SLAVERY

slaves i0 the empire a02 ma2e a& liti 0 easier tha0 it - 1l2 have &ee0 ha2 the thirtee0 c l 0ies &ee0 E0!lish -he0 the c tt 0 !i0 revivi,ie2 a m ri&102 slave ec 0 my i0 the S 1th* :As l 0! as America -as 1r -0": -r te Clar6s 0 i0 #<BB" :there -as 0 cha0ce that a mi0ister - 1l2 have atte02e2 t the !r a0s , the s 0s a02 2a1!hters , A,rica" h -ever he mi!ht ,eel , r their 2istress* Fr m the same sp t" -hich -as 0ce th1s the mea0s , creati0! a0 i0s1pera&le impe2ime0t t the relie, , these 10, rt10ate pe ple" 1r a,,ecti 0" &y a - 02er,1l c 0cate0ati 0 , eve0ts" has &ee0 ta6e0 ,, a02 a pr spect prese0te2 t 1r vie-" -hich sh -s it t &e a p licy t rem ve their pai0*: $< The l2 c l 0ial system ha2 &ee0 &ase2 0 the i2ea that" -ith 1t a m 0 p ly , the c l 0ial mar6et" )ritish ma013 ,act1res - 1l2 0 t &e s l2* The ther aspect , the m 0 p listic pict1re" the c l 0ial m 0 p ly , the h me mar6et" -as &ase2 0 the same ass1mpti 0* The l2 c l 0ial system" i0 ther - r2s" -as a 2e0ial , the pri0ciple that tra2e -ill ,i02 its 0at1ral 1tlets* America0 i02epe02e0ce e4pl 2e2 these ,allacies* I0 .1ly #<B= a0 Or2er i0 C 10cil 2ecree2 ,ree tra2e &et-ee0 )ritai0 a02 the U0ite2 States* )ritish imp rts ,r m the , rmer c l 0ies i0crease2 ,i,ty per ce0t &et-ee0 #<B% a02 #<$>9 -he0 the i0ve0ti 0 , the c tt 0 !i0 e0tere2 the pict1re" )ritish imp rts i0crease2 ,r m 0i0e milli 0 2 llars i0 #<$? t 0early thirty3 0e milli 0 i0 iB i* $B :The c mmerce &et-ee0 the

m ther c 10try a02 the c l 0y": as (erivale p1t it i0 #B=$" :-as &1t a pe22li0! tra,,ic" c mpare2 t that vast i0ter0ati 0al i0terc 1rse" the !reatest the - rl2 has ever 60 -0" -hich !re1p &et-ee0 them -he0 they ha2 e4cha0!e2 the tie , s1&Dec3 ti 0 , r that , e51ality*: $$ These ,acts impresse2 the capitalist class -hich -as &e!i00i0! t re!ar2 the Empire ,r m the sta02p i0t , pr ,it a02 l ss" a02 c 0tri&1te2 t the s1ccess , A2am Smith7s & 6 i0 102ermi0i0! the merca0tilist phil s phy* I0 #B?@ H1s6iss 0" the ,irst , the ,ree tra2ers" as6e2 p i0te2ly :-hether the 2issevera0ce , the U0ite2 States ,r m the )ritish Empire" vie-e2 as a mere 51esti 0 , c mmerce" has &ee0 a0 i0D1ry t this c 10tryI Whether their ema0cipati 0 ,r m the c mmercial thral2 m , the c l 0ial system has really &ee0

THE A(ERICAN REVOLUTION #?@ preD12icial t the tra2e a02 i021stry , +reat )ritai0I *** Is there 0 1se,1l a2m 0iti 0 t &e 2erive2 ,r m this e4ampleI: #>> There -as" &1t Rip Va0 Wi06le" 2r1!!e2 &y the p ti 0 , merca0tilism" ha2 ! 0e t sleep , r a h102re2 years 0 his s1!ar pla0tati 0*

<3 THE 'EVELOP(ENT OF )RITISH CAPITALIS( #<B=3#B==

FAR FRO( )EIN+ A NATIONAL 'ISASTER" as it -as !e0erally re!ar2e2 i0 E0!la02 a02 the - rl2 at the time" America0 i02e3 pe02e0ce i0 reality mar6e2 the e02 , a0 1t- r0 a!e a02 the emer!e0ce , a 0e-* I0 this 0e- a!e there -as 0 r m , r the West I02ia0 m 0 p ly* We m1st 0 - trace the e4pa0si 0 , the pr 21ctive , rces , E0!la02" stim1late2 a02 &r 1!ht t the eve , mat1rity &y the c l 0ial system" a02 see h that c l 0ial system i0 the 0e- a!e acte2 as a &ra6e -hich ha2 t &e rem ve2* I0 .10e" #<B=" the Prime (i0ister" L r2 N rth" c mpli3 me0te2 the L1a6er pp 0e0ts , the slave tra2e 0 their h1ma0ity" &1t re!rette2 that its a& liti 0 -as a0 imp ssi&ility" as the tra2e ha2 &ec me 0ecessary t alm st every 0ati 0 i0 E1r pe* # Slave tra2ers a02 s1!ar pla0ters r1&&e2 their ha02s i0 !lee* The West I02ia0 c l 0ies -ere still the 2arli0!s , the empire" the m st preci 1s De-els i0 the )ritish 2ia2em* )1t the r1m&li0!s , the i0evita&le st rm -ere a12i&le , r th se -h ha2 ears t hear* The year , Y r6t -0 -as the year , Watt7s sec 02 pate0t" that , r the r tary m ti 0" -hich c 0verte2 the steam e0!i0e i0t a s 1rce , m tive p -er a02

ma2e i021strial E0!la02" i0 (atthe- ) 1lt 07s phrase" :steam3 #?;

)RITISH CAPITALIS(" #<B=3#B== #?< mill ma2*: ? R 20ey7s vict ry ver the Fre0ch" -hich save2 the s1!ar c l 0ies" c i0ci2e2 -ith Watt7s 1tili/ati 0 , the e4pa03 sive p -er , steam t &tai0 the 2 1&le str 6e , r his pist 0s* The peace treaty , #<B= -as &ei0! si!0e2 -hile He0ry C rt -as - r6i0! 0 his p122li0! pr cess -hich rev l1ti 0i/e2 the ir 0 i021stry* The sta!e -as set , r that !i!a0tic 2evel pme0t , )ritish capitalism -hich 1pset the p litical str1ct1re , the c 10try i0 #B=? a02 there&y ma2e p ssi&le the attac6 0 m 0 p ly i0 !e0eral a02 West I02ia0 m 0 p ly i0 partic1lar* )y #B== 0 si0!le )ritish i021stry ha2 achieve2 a c mplete tech0ical rev l1ti 09 the a0cie0t types , r!a0i/ati 0 s1rvive2 every-here" a02 0 t merely as , ssils r c1ri sities* W l -as still !ive0 1t t &e sp10" yar0 t &e - ve0" 0ail3r 2 t &e ma2e 1p i0t 0ails" leather t &e ret1r0e2 as sh es* L ms -ere !e0erally ha02 - r6e2" - 2e0 spi00i0! De00ies -ere le!i 0" a02 the - r2 :spi0ster: c 00 te2 a cate! ry &ase2 0 pr 21c3 ti 0 a02 0 t yet 0 matrim 0y* = )1t i, h 1seh l2 pr 21cti 0 still s1rvive2" it ha2 cease2 t &e typical* The early phase , the I021strial Rev l1ti 0 -as tie2 1p -ith -ater p -er" the later -ith steam p -er* The applicati 0 , steam -as" h -ever" a !ra21al pr cess* At the &e!i00i0! , the 0i0etee0th ce0t1ry its 1se i0 i021stry -as 0either 10iversal 0 r e4te0sive* The t tal 01m&er , e0!i0es i0 e4iste0ce i0 the U0ite2 Fi0!2 m -as =?#" the t tal h rse p -er am 10te2 t @?i * % Acc r2i0! t Clapham" -riti0! i0 the t-e0ties" the t tal h rse p -er , +las! - a02 the Cly2e i0 #B=# - 1l2 have 2rive0 0e m 2er0 cr1iser* @ )1t" i0 (a03 t 147s - r2s" :there -as m re 2i,,ere0ce &et-ee0 a spi00i0! mill a02 a 2 mestic - r6sh p as they e4iste2 si2e &y si2e &e3 t-ee0 #<B> a02 #B>>" tha0 &et-ee0 a ,act ry , that 2ate a02 a m 2er0 0e*: ; The c tt 0 i021stry -as the capitalist i021stry par e4cel3 le0ce* A calc1lati 0 i0 #B=@ !ave a0 avera!e empl yme0t ,i!1re , #<@ , r all c tt 0 mills" #?@ , r sil6" $= , r li0e0" %% , r - l* The si/e , the avera!e c tt 0 mill -as s methi0! 103 prece2e0te2 i0 )ritish ec 0 mic hist ry* F rty3three imp rta0t mills i0 (a0chester ha2 a0 avera!e la& r , rce , =>> i0 #B#@9

#?B CAPITALIS( AN' SLAVERY

i0 #B=? the ,i!1re ha2 rise0 t %> #* < The ,irst steam spi00i0! mill -as set 1p i0 E0!la02 i0 #<B@" the ,irst i0 (a0chester i0

#<B$* )et-ee0 #<B@ a02 #B>>" ei!hty3t- steam e0!i0es -ere c 0str1cte2 , r c tt 0 mills" ,i,ty3,ive , these i0 La0cashire al 0e* B The ,irst steam l m ,act ry -as &1ilt i0 (a0chester i0 #B>;* I0 #B=@ there -ere ##;"B>> p -er l ms i0 all +reat )ritai0" all &1t si4 per ce0t i0 the c tt 0 i021stry* $ I0 #<B@ the e4p rts , )ritish c tt 0 ma01,act1res e4cee2e2 0e milli 0 p 102s i0 val1e9 #> they -ere thirty3 0e milli 0 i0 iB= * 1 The cl th pri0te2 i0 +reat )ritai0 i0crease2 ,r m ?> milli 0 yar2s i0 #<$; t =%< milli 0 i0 iB= * #? The p p1lati 0 empl ye2 &y the i021stry r se ,r m =@>">>> i0 I<BB #= t B>>">>> i0 iB ;* #% There -ere ;; c tt 0 mills i0 (a0chester a02 Sal, r2 i0 #B?>" $; i0 iB=?* #@ C tt 0 -as :raisi0! me0 li6e m1shr ms*: #> Ol2ham i0 #<;> -as a villa!e , %>> i0ha&ita0ts9 i0 #B># it ha2 ?>">>>* I0 #<@= ) lt 0 ha2 a si0!le" r 1!h" ill3 pave2 street9 i0 #B># the p p1lati 0 -as i<" * #< (a0chester7s p p1lati 0 i0crease2 si4, l2 &et-ee0 #<<= a02 iB?%* #B C tt 0 -eavers a02 ma01,act1rers" 10represe0te2 i0 the (a0chester pr cessi 0 , tra2es i0 #<;= 0 the ccasi 0 , the c r 0ati 0 , +e r!e III" -ere the m st pr mi0e0t ,eat1re , the c r 0a3 ti 0 pr cessi 0 , +e r!e IV i0 iB? * #$ I0 a lar!er se0se it -as the c r 0ati 0 , Fi0! C tt 0* The (a0chester capitalist ,r m his m 10tai0" li6e ( ses 0 Pis!ah" &ehel2 the pr mise2 la02* )ritish c tt 0 imp rts r se ,r m ii milli 0 p 102s i0 #<B%C t ?B= milli 0 i0 i=?* ?# The Ne- W rl2" tha06s t Eli Whit0ey" ha2 c me" 0 t , r the last time" t the resc1e , the Ol2* The U0ite2 States s1pplie2 less tha0 0e3h102re2th part , )ritish c tt 0 imp rts i0 the ,ive years #<B;3#<C>" three351arters i0 the years #B?;3#B=>" , 1r3 ,i,ths i0 #B%;3#B@>* The )ritish West I02ia0 pla0ter" ,aith,1l t his ,irst l ve" s1!ar" c 1l2 0 t 6eep pace -ith (a0chester7s re51ireme0ts* The s1!ar isla02s pr vi2e2 seve03te0ths , )ritish c tt 0 imp rts i0 #<B;3#<$>" 0e3,i,tieth i0 #B?;3#B=>" less tha0 0e3h102re2th part i0 iB%;3iB@ * ?? The West I02ies ha2 &1ilt 1p (a0chester i0 the ei!htee0th ce0t1ry* )1t they ha2 &ec me a ti0y spec6 0 (a0chester7s limitless h ri/ 0 i0 the year her parve01 ma!0ates se0t their ,irst 2ele!ates t Westmi0ster" a02

)RITISH CAPITALIS(" #<B=3#B== #?$ this -as ,1ll , p rte0t , r th se -h persiste2 i0 their 2el1si 0 that the & 02s , empire" li6e th se , matrim 0y" -ere i02is3 s l1&le* Less spectac1lar" perhaps" &1t 0 less si!0i,ica0t -as the pr !ress ma2e i0 the metall1r!ical i021stries" -ith 1t -hich the rei!0 , machi0ery - 1l2 have &ee0 imp ssi&le* )ritai07s pr 21cti 0 , pi! ir 0 i0crease2 te0 times &et-ee0 #<BB a02 iB= * ?= There -ere three times as ma0y ,1r0aces i0 perati 0 i0 #B=> as i0 iDBB* ? N The ir 0 se0t 2 -0 the +lam r!a0shire a02 ( 0m 1thshire Ca0als i0crease2 t- a02 a hal, times &et-ee0 the years #B?> a02 #B==9 ,r m Cy,artha the e4p rt 2 1&le2" ,r m ' -lais it tre&le2 21ri0! the same peri 2* ?; I0 #B>> the pr p rti 0 , h me ma6e t the , rei!0 imp rt -as

, 1r t 0e9 i0 #B?B" ,i,ty t 0e* ?; :)ritai0 a,ter Waterl Clapham -rites" :cla0!e2 -ith ir 0 li6e a smithy*: ?< Ir 0 smelti0! re51ire2 c al* The c al mi0es - r6e2 i0 N rth1m&erla02 a02 '1rham alm st 2 1&le2 i0 01m&er &e3 t-ee0 #B>> a02 #B=;" pr 21cti 0 i0crease2 ,r m si4 milli 0 t 0s i0 #<B> t thirty milli 0 i0 iB=;* ?B A0 e0 rm 1s savi0! -as e,,ecte2 -he0 i0 #B?$ the i0ve0ti 0 , the h t &last i0 smelti0! re21ce2 the c al ,1el re51ire2 &y m re tha0 t- 3 thir2s* ?$

":

Ir 0 -as &ei0! p1t t a variety , 0e- 1ses pillars" rails" !as a02 -ater mai0s" &ri2!es" ships* Wil6i0s 0 &1ilt a :cast ir 0 chapel: , r the (eth 2ists at )ra2ley" => a02 L 02 0 eve0 e4perime0te2 -ith ir 0 pavi0!* )1t the !reatest vict ry -as i0 the c 0str1cti 0 , machi0ery* The early te4tile machi0ery -as ma2e , - 2" &y the ma01,act1rers themselves r t their r2er* The 2eca2e , the t-e0ties sa- the emer!e0ce , the pr ,essi 0al p1rvey r , machi0es ma2e -ith the help , ther machi0es" a02 the &e!i00i0! , the ma01,act1re , i0ter3 cha0!ea&le parts -hich -as ,acilitate2 &y the i0ve0ti 0 , 0et ls a02 the 2isc very , the tech0i51e , c1tti0! acc1rate scre-s* I0 #B=% the ,irm , William Fair&air0 ,,ere2 t t1r0 1t a0 e51ippe2 mill , r a0y price" tra2e" site r m tive p -er* B# I0 #B=? the avera!e ir 0 master ra06e2" as capitalist a02 e0trepre0e1r" 0 e51al terms -ith the c tt 0 spi00er* B? I0 the

#=> CAPITALIS( AN' SLAVERY

Re, rme2 Parliame0t 0 t 0ly c tt 0" ir 0" t " -as rea2y t 2iscar2 m 0 p ly as a s1it it ha2 1t!r -0* )ar ir 0 e4p rts m re tha0 2 1&le2 &et-ee0 #B#@ a02 #B==" a02 i0 #B?@ )ritai0 permitte2 -hat t1r0e2 1t t &e a ,atal 2ecisi 0 a partial rela4ati 0 , the &a0 0 the e4p rt , machi0ery* )ritish rails c vere2 the railr a2s , Fra0ce a02 the U0ite2 States* The s1!ar c l 0ies t 6 0e3te0th , )ritish ir 0 e4p rts i0 #B#@" 0e3thirty3thir2 i0 #B==9 the U0ite2 States 0e351arter i0 #B#@" 0e3thir2 i0 iB==* == The s1!ar pla0ters" -h ha2 , r s l 0! e0D ye2 a0 1051esti 0e2 ri!ht t a & 4 seat" c 1l2 0 - &arely ,i02 sta02i0! r m* :I0 my h1m&le pi0i 0": -r te a ma01,act1rer i0 #B>%" :the - lle0 ca00 t t cl sely , ll - the steps , the c tt 0 tra2e*: =% Imitati 0" h -ever" -as sl -" a02 the persiste0ce , the a0cie0t , rms m re pr 0 10ce2 i0 the - le0 i021stry* The ,lyi0! sh1ttle -as 0 t i0 !e0eral 1se i0 the West Ri2i0! till #B>>" p -er -eavi0! remai0e2 e4perime0tal 2 -0 t #B=>* The 2 mestic cl thier -as still a p -er,1l eleme0t i0 - le0 pr 3 21cti 0" a02 as late as #B@; 0ly hal, the 01m&er , pe ple em3 pl ye2 i0 the i021stry - r6e2 i0 ,act ries* The avera!e - le0 r - rste2 mill i0 #B=@ c 0tai0e2" as -e have see0" 0ly 0e3 , 1rth , the 01m&er , - r6ers i0 c tt 0 mills* =@

I0 #B#< the pr 21cti 0 , - le0 pieces i0 the West Ri2i0!" the chie, ce0ter , the i021stry" -as si4 times the ,i!1re , r I<=B* =; I0 #B>> the imp rts , - l -ere %";>> t 0s9 i0 the late thirties they -ere ,ive times as lar!e* =< The val1e , - le0 ,a&rics e4p rte2 r se ,r m , 1r milli 0 p 102s i0 #<<? t seve0 milli 0 i0 # B> #* I0 #B>?" , r the ,irst time" they -ere e43 cee2e2 &y the e4p rts , c tt 0 ma01,act1res9 i0 #B=> they -ere ,ive milli 0 p 102s" 0e3si4th , the val1e , the c tt 0 e4p rts* =B P p1lati 0 i0crease2 rapi2ly" as i0 the c tt 0 ce0ters* Lee2s ha2 a p p1lati 0 , #<">>> 0 the eve , the America0 Rev l1ti 0" seve0 times as ma0y i0 #B=#* Hali,a4 m re tha0 2 1&le2 its p p1lati 0 &et-ee0 #<;> a02 #B=#9 )ra2, r27s i03 crease2 t- a02 a hal, times &et-ee0 #B># a02 #B=#9 H122ers3 ,iel27s 2 1&le2* '1ri0! these thirty years the p p1lati 0 , the -h le West Ri2i0! r se ,r m @;%">>> t $B " * =$

)RITISH CAPITALIS(" #<B=3#B== #=M Up t #B#@ )ritai0 2epe02e2 , r her s1pplies , - l chie,ly 0 Spai0" P rt1!al a02 +erma0y* Captai0 . h0 (acarth1r" 0 his -ay t Ne- S 1th Wales" & 1!ht s me meri0 sheep at the Cape* I0 #B>; the ,irst shipme0t , A1stralia0 - l" ?%; p 102s" reache2 E0!la02* T-e0ty3, 1r years later" the imp rt -as ="@;%"@=? p 102s* %> I0 #B?B A1stralia0 - l -as 2escri&e2 as , e4tra r2i0ary s ,t0ess a02 m re hi!hly pri/e2 tha0 a0y ther variety" a02 it -as pre2icte2 that i0 ,i,tee0 r t-e0ty years )ritai0 - 1l2 &e !etti0! ,r m A1stralia as m1ch , the ,i0er - l as she 0ee2e2* %# The pre2icti 0 -as D1sti,ie2* A1stra3 lia e0D ye2 i0 the 0i0etee0th ce0t1ry i0 re!ar2 t - l :s me3 thi0! appr achi0! t the 6i02 , m 0 p ly": as (erivale p1t it" :-hich (e4ic e0D ye2" i0 the 2ays , her pr sperity" i0 the pr 21cti 0 , the preci 1s metals*: %? I0 the 0e- a0ti3imperialist - rl2 -hich &e!a0 i0 the , rties" emphasis shi,te2" -here em3 pire ha2 t &e mai0tai0e2" ,r m isla02s t c 0ti0e0ts" ,r m tr pical t temperate climates" ,r m pla0tati 0s , &lac6s t settleme0ts , -hites* )ritai07s mecha0i/e2 mi!ht -as ma6i0! the -h le - rl2 her , tst l* She -as cl thi0! the - rl2" e4p rti0! me0 a02 ma3 chi0es" a02 ha2 &ec me the - rl27s &a06er* With the e4cepti 0 , I02ia a02 Si0!ap re the 6ey t the Chi0a tra2e ac51ire2 i0 #B#$" the )ritish Empire -as a !e !raphical e4pressi 0* :It - 1l2 0 t &e - rth my -hile": -r te ) 1lt 0 i0 #<;$ , his steam e0!i0es" :t ma6e , r three c 10ties 0ly" &1t I ,i02 it very -ell - rth my -hile t ma6e , r all the - rl2*: %= )rit3 ish capital" li6e )ritish pr 21cti 0" -as thi06i0! i0 - rl2 terms* :)et-ee0 #B#@ a02 #B=>": -rites Lela02 .e06s" :at least ,i,ty milli 0 p 102s ha2 &ee0 i0veste2 m re r less perma0e0tly i0 the sec1rities , the m st sta&le E1r pea0 ! ver0me0ts" m re tha0 t-e0ty milli 0 ha2 &ee0 i0veste2 i0 0e , rm r a0 ther i0 Lati0 America" a02 ,ive r si4 milli 0s ha2 very 51ietly , 102 their -ay t the U0ite2 States*: %% )1t 0 0e - 1l2 a2va0ce a shilli0! 0 West I02ia0 pla0tati 0s* %@

)et-ee0 #B?> a02 #B=> ver 0e3thir2 , U0ite2 States e43 p rts -e0t t )ritai0" a02 the U0ite2 States t 6 0e3si4th , )ritish e4p rts" -hich c 0stit1te2 ver t- 3,i,ths , her t tal

#=? CAPITALIS( AN' SLAVERY

imp rts* %; I0 #B?# the U0ite2 States t 6 0e3seve0th , )rit3 ish e4p rts" i0 #B=? 0e30i0th9 the e4p rts i0crease2 i0 val1e &y 0e3te0th* %< )ritish p1rchases , S 1ther0 c tt 0 stim1late2 the e4pa0si 0 , the c tt 0 6i0!2 m9 private a02 state3 -0e2 &a06s i0 the S 1th s 1!ht l a0s i0 L 02 0* %B The rev l1ti 0s i0 Lati0 America pe0e2 1p a -i2e vista t )ritish tra2e" 0ce the &arriers , Spa0ish merca0tilism ha2 &ee0 &r 6e0 2 -0" -hile )ritai07s a0cie0t allia0ce -ith P rt13 !al !ave her a privile!e2 p siti 0 i0 )ra/il* :The 0ail is 2rive0": -r te Ca00i0! i0 e41ltati 0" :Spa0ish America is ,ree" a02 i, -e 2 0 t misma0a!e 1r a,,airs sa2ly she is E0!lish*: %$ )ra/il t 6 0e3t-e0tieth , t tal )ritish e4p rts i0 #B?#" 0e3t-el,th i0 #B=?9 the e4p rts i0crease2 t- a02 a hal, times* @> F rei!0 c l 0ies i0 N rth a02 S 1th America" -hich acc 10te2 , r 0e3thirtee0th , the t tal )ritish e4p rt tra2e i0 #B?#" t 6 m re tha0 0e3seve0th i0 #B=?9 the e4p rts tre&le2 i0 val1e 21ri0! these years* @# The 0e- Lati0 America0 ! ver0me0ts , 102 -illi0! le02ers i0 E0!lish ,i0a0cial circles* :The m re a c 10try & rr -e2": says .e06s" :the &etter its cre2it" it seeme2*: @? Liverp l , r! t .amaica" +re0a2a a02 )ar&a2 s9 it tra2e2 a02 th 1!ht 0 - i0 terms , Valparais " A0t ,a!asta" Calla a02 +1aya51il* I0 #B?# )ritish e4p rts t the - rl2 am 10te2 t , rty3three milli 0 p 102s9 i0 #B=? they -ere si4ty3,ive milli 0" a0 i0crease , 0e3hal,* @= I0 & th years E1r pe t 6 0early hal, , the t tal* @% The East I02ies a02 Chi0a t 6 0e3t-el,th i0 #B?#" 0e3te0th i0 #B=?9 the e4p rts i0crease2 &y three351arters* @@ What" the0" , the )ritish West I02iesI E4p rts t all the isla02s 2ecli0e2 &y 0e3,i,th" t .amaica &y 0e3thir2* I0 #B?# the )ritish West I02ies t 6 0e30i0th , the t tal" i0 #B=? 0e3 seve0tee0th9 i0 #B?# .amaica t 6 0e3thirtee0th" i0 #B=# 0e3 thirty3thir2* @; The )ritish West I02ies -ere th1s &ec mi0! i03 creasi0!ly 0e!li!i&le t )ritish capitalism" a02 this -as , pr 3 , 102 imp rta0ce t a0 a!e i0 -hich the 2 ctri0e , i0creasi0! ret1r0s -as ,i02i0! its -ay i0t the & 2y , ec 0 mic th 1!ht* As )1r0 -rites8 :D12!e2 &y the sta02ar2s , ec 0 mic im3 perialism" the )ritish West I02ia c l 0ies" a c 0si2era&le s1ccess a& 1t #<@>" -ere a ,ail1re ei!hty years later*: ;<

)RITISH CAPITALIS(" #<B=3#B== #== I0 #B?@" m re ver" the Navi!ati 0 La-s ha2 &ee0 m 2i,ie2"

a02 the c l 0ies -ere !ive0 permissi 0 t tra2e 2irectly -ith a0y part , the - rl2* The ,irst salie0t i0 the m 0 p listic ,r 0t ha2 &ee0 2rive0* It -as e0lar!e2 i0 the same year" -he0 the s1!ar , (a1riti1s" a0 Easter0 p ssessi 0 ac51ire2 i0 #B#@" -as a2mitte2 0 the same , ti0! as )ritish West I02ia0 s1!ar* The c l 0ial m 0 p ly , the h me mar6et remai0e2* This -as vital t the West I02ia0* As ,ar as the )ritish capitalist -as c 0cer0e2" 0 special le!islati 0 -as re51ire2 t ma6e the West I02ia0 s1!ar pla0ter &1y ! 2s -hich the -h le - rl2 -as &1yi0! &eca1se they -ere cheapest a02 &est* I, (a0chester still thrive2 0 :shirts , r &lac6 me0": the )ritish West I02ies ha2 0 m 0 p ly , &lac6s" a02 the lar!er slave p p1lati 0s , the U0ite2 States a02 )ra/il ,,ere2 attractive mar6ets* The West I02ia0 pla0ter 2i2 0 t pay a ,arthi0! m re tha0 his )ra/ilia0 rival , r calic es* O, -hat 1se" the0" as6e2 (a0chester i0 -rath" -as the system , m 0 p ly t the )ritish ma01,act1rerI @B Its ri!i0al p1rp se -as 0 -" as (erivale p1t it" :p1rs1e2 &y mea0s , sacri,ices 0 1r part" ma2e a&s l1tely -ith 1t a0y c 0si2erati 0 ,r m theirs:* @$ I," t alter s me-hat the - r2s , a m 2er0 -riter" the )ritish West I02ies i0 #B=? -ere" s cially" a0 i0,er0 9 they -ere" ec 0 mically" -hat -as m1ch - rse" a0 a0achr 0ism* ;> (erca0tilism ha2 r10 its c 1rse* It -as 0ecessary 0ly t !ive p litical e4pressi 0 t the 0e- ec 0 mic sit1ati 0* The a!ita3 ti 0 , r the Re, rm )ill -as m st p -er,1l i0 the i021strial ce0ters a02 their c mmercial satellites* I0 this p litical str1!!le the West I02ia0 slave -0ers -ere vitally i0tereste2* :+ 2 , r3 &i2": sai2 L r2 Wy0, r2" :that there sh 1l2 &e a0ythi0! li6e a , rci0! , the master t a&a02 0 his pr perty i0 the slaveM O0ce a2 pt that pri0ciple a02 there -as a0 e02 t all pr p3 erty*: ;# West I02ia0 slavery 2epe02e2 1p 0 the r tte0 & r 1!hs" a02 C &&ett reali/e2 0ly &elate2ly that :the ,r1it , the la& 1r , these slaves has l 0! &ee0 c 0verte2 i0t the mea0s , ma6i0! 1s slaves at h me*: ;? Whe0 the Re, rm )ill -as reDecte2 &y the H 1se , L r2s" the L 02 0 re, rmist press appeare2 i0 &lac63e2!e2 e2iti 0s"

#=% CAPITALIS( AN' SLAVERY

a02 0i!htly i0 every ch1rch i0 the la02 the &ells -ere r10!* N tti0!ham Castle" -0e2 &y the '16e , Ne-castle" pri0ce , r tte03& r 1!h3 -0ers" -as &1r0e2 t the !r 102 &y a0 a0!ry cr -2* )rist l7s represe0tative" -h ha2 pp se2 Re, rm i0 the H 1se , C mm 0s" -as i0 2a0!er , his li,e* The t -0 hall -as sac6e2" the Dails a02 &ish p7s palace &1r0e2* Att- 2 , rme2 the P litical U0i 0 i0 )irmi0!ham a02 threate0e2 rev l1ti 0* The tric l r -as raise2 at )eth0al +ree0" L 02 09 rev l13 ti 0ary ma0i,est es appeare2 a02 placar2s -ere 2isplaye2 &ear3 i0! the i0scripti 0" :0 ta4es pai2 here*: The C mm 0 C 10cil calle2 1p 0 the H 1se , C mm 0s 0 t t pass t the &12!et 10til the Re, rm )ill ha2 &ec me la-* The R yal Family -ere

caricat1re2 a02 i0s1lte2 a02 a2vise2 t leave L 02 0* A rev l13 ti 0ary 2evice -as pr p se2 a r10 0 the &a06s8 :t st p the '16e GWelli0!t 0H" ! , r ! l2*: Rev l1ti 0 -as ar 102 the c r0er* ;= The pp 0e0ts , the meas1re" h -ever" &ac6e2 2 -0 a,ter the Fi0!7s rel1cta0t pr mise t create s1,,icie0t 0e-C peers" a02 the Re, rm )ill &ecame la-* The p litical str1ct1re , E0!la02 -as &r 1!ht i0t acc r2 -ith the ec 0 mic rev l1ti 0 -hich ha2 ta6e0 place* I0 the 0e- Parliame0t the capitalists" their 0ee2s a02 aspirati 0s -ere param 10t* O0ce the c l 0ial tra2e ha2 mea0t everythi0!* I0 the 0e- capitalist s ciety the c l 0ies ha2 little place* :The e4p rtati 0 , a piece , )ritish &r a23 cl th": -r te E2e0 i0 #B>?" :is m re &e0e,icial t 1s tha0 the re3e4p rtati 0 , a 51a0tity , )e0!al m1sli0 r , West I02ia c ,,ee , e51al val1e*: ;% I0 #B=? a0 ,,icial , the East I02ia C mpa0y e4plai0e2 t a parliame0tary c mmittee that - le0s -ere e4p rte2 t Chi0a" eve0 -he0 the mar6et -as 0 t ! 2" as a matter , tra2iti 0 a02 21ty8 :it -as c 0si2ere2 a m ral &li!ati 0*: ;@ Tra2e &y :m ral &li!ati 0: -as 0e , the 2ea2ly si0s i0 the ! spel acc r2i0! t (a0chester*

B * THE NEW IN'USTRIAL OR'ER

IT WAS THIS TRE(EN'OUS IN'USTRIAL EOPANSION that the West I02ia0 m 0 p lists ha2 t ,ace* They ha2 the a2va0ta!es , presti!e" c1st m" their !reat c 0tri&1ti 0s t )ritish ec 0 my i0 the past" a02 a str 0!ly e0tre0che2 p siti 0* We ca0 see t 2ay that they -ere 2 me2" that the Lillip1tia0s c 1l2 0 t h l2 2 -0 +1lliver 0 r their &ar&s h1rt him* Lect1ri0! t O43 , r2 102er!ra21ates i0 #B=$" (erivale -ar0e2 that :the rapi2 ti2e , s1&l10ary eve0ts is carryi0! 1s i0evita&ly past that p i0t at -hich the mai0te0a0ce , c l 0ial systems a02 0avi!a3 ti 0 la-s -as practica&le" -hether it -ere 2esira&le r 0 t* We are & r0e helplessly al 0! -ith the c1rre0t9 -e may str1!!le a02 pr test" a02 marvel -hy the &arriers -hich a0cie0t , re3 th 1!ht ha2 raise2 a!ai0st the stream 0 - &e02 li6e ree2s &e3 , re its vi le0ce" &1t -e ca00 t cha0!e 1r 2esti0y* The m 3 0 p ly , the West I02ia0 isla02s ca00 t sta02* * * *: # The West I02ia0s" h -ever" c 1l2 0 t see this a02 acte2 as all veste2 i0terests 2 * They p1t 1p a 2esperate ,i!ht" :str1!!li0! &y the ai2 , their acc1m1late2 -ealth a!ai0st the e0cr achi0! pri0ciple , 2ecay": ? &li02 t all c 0si2erati 0s a02 c 0se3 51e0ces e4cept the mai0te0a0ce , their 2isease2 system* The attac6 0 the West I02ia0s -as m re tha0 a0 attac6 0 slavery* It -as a0 attac6 0 m 0 p ly* Their pp 0e0ts -ere 0 t 0ly the h1ma0itaria0s &1t the capitalists* The reas 0 , r the attac6 -as 0 t 0ly that the West I02ia0 ec 0 mic system -as vici 1s &1t that it -as als s 10pr ,ita&le that , r this

reas 0 al 0e its 2estr1cti 0 -as i0evita&le* = The a!e0t , r #=@

#=; CAPITALIS( AN' SLAVERY

.amaica c mplai0e2 i0 #B?< that :the ca1se , the c l 0ies al3 t !ether" &1t m re especially that part , it -hich t 1ches 1p 0 pr perty i0 slaves" is s 10attractive t ,l ri2 rat rs a02 s 103 p p1lar -ith the p1&lic" that -e have a02 m1st have very little pr tecti 0 ,r m Parliame0tary spea6i0!*: % Hi&&ert -as 0ly hal, ri!ht* I, West I02ia0 slavery -as 2etesta&le" West I02ia0 m 0 p ly -as 10p p1lar" a02 the 10ite2 2i1m , & th -as m re tha0 the c l 0ies c 1l2 &ear* @ The attac6 ,alls i0t three phases8 the attac6 0 the slave tra2e" the attac6 0 slavery" the attac6 0 the pre,ere0tial s1!ar 21ties* The slave tra2e -as a& lishe2 i0 #B><" slavery i0 #B==" the s1!ar pre,ere0ce i0 #B%;* The three eve0ts are i0separa&le* The very veste2 i0terests -hich ha2 &ee0 &1ilt 1p &y the slave system 0 - t1r0e2 a02 2estr ye2 that system* The h1ma0itar3 ia0s" i0 attac6i0! the system i0 its -ea6est a02 m st i02e,e0si&le sp t" sp 6e a la0!1a!e that the masses c 1l2 102ersta02* They c 1l2 0ever have s1ccee2e2 a h102re2 years &e, re -he0 every imp rta0t capitalist i0terest -as 0 the si2e , the c l 0ial system* :It -as a0 ar21 1s hill t clim&": sa0! W r2s- rth i0 praise , Clar6s 0* The t p - 1l2 0ever have &ee0 reache2 &1t , r the 2e,ecti 0 , the capitalists ,r m the ra06s , the slave3 -0ers a02 slave tra2ers* The West I02ia0s" pampere2 a02 pette2 a02 sp ile2 , r a ce0t1ry a02 a hal," ma2e the mista6e , elevati0! i0t a la- , 0at1re -hat -as act1ally 0ly a la, merca0tilism* They th 1!ht themselves i02ispe0sa&le a02 carrie2 ver t a0 a!e , a0ti3imperialism the less 0s they ha2 &ee0 ta1!ht i0 a0 a!e , c mmercial imperialism* Whe0" t their s1rprise" the :i0visi&le ha02: , A2am Smith t1r0e2 a!ai0st them" they c 1l2 t1r0 0ly t the i0visi&le ha02 , + 2* ; The rise a02 ,all , merca0tilism is the rise a02 ,all , slavery* A* PROTECTION OR LAISSEP FAIREI L1ee0 Vict ria 0ce se0t a ,am 1s messa!e t t- A,rica0 chie,s8 :E0!la02 has &ec me !reat a02 happy &y the 60 -l3 e2!e , the tr1e + 2 a02 .es1s Christ*: < T the (a0chester capitalist" :.es1s Christ -as Free Tra2e" a02 Free Tra2e -as .es1s Christ*: B

THE NEW IN'USTRIAL OR'ER #=< I, C r0 -as the 6i0! , m 0 p lies" S1!ar -as his 51ee0* The attac6 0 the pre,ere0tial s1!ar 21ties , the West I02ies

-as a part , that !e0eral phil s phy -hich i0 #B#? 2estr ye2 the East I02ia C mpa0y 7s m 0 p ly a02 i0 # B%; the C r0 La-s , E0!la02* The A0ti3C r0 La- Lea!1e" sai2 its treas1rer" -as :esta&lishe2 0 the same ri!hte 1s pri0ciple as the A0ti3Slavery S ciety* The &Dect , that s ciety -as t &tai0 the ,ree ri!ht , r the Ne!r es t p ssess their -0 ,lesh a02 &l 2 the &3 Dect , this -as t &tai0 the ,ree ri!ht , the pe ple t e43 cha0!e their la& r , r as m1ch , 2 as c 1l2 &e ! t , r it*: $ I0 the 2eliri1m , ,ree tra2e se0time0ts the &r10t , the a2va0ce 0 the a0ti3m 0 p listic ,r 0t ha2 t &e & r0e &y the West I02ia0 m 0 p ly -hich -as 0 t 0ly i0i51it 1s &1t e4pe0sive* The a2v cates , East I02ia s1!ar persiste0tly attac6e2 the West I02ia0 m 0 p ly* They calle2 the isla02s :sterile r c6s": -h se i0satia&le calls , r m 0ey represe0te2 :a0 eter0al sp 0!e 0 the capitals , this c 10try" & th 0ati 0al a02 c mmercial*: Eve0 &e, re the e02 , the ei!htee0th ce0t1ry )ritai0 -as :ripe , r a0 a& liti 0 , m 0 p lies*: A !e0eral har2ship c 1l2 0 t &e i0,licte2 0 the c mm10ity at lar!e , r the sa6e , a,3 , r2i0! a partial a02 10reas 0a&le &e0e,it t a small 01m&er , its mem&ers* #> The East I02ia0 pp siti 0 -as m re vir1le0t i0 the ei!htee0 t-e0ties* They -a0te2" at least s they alle!e2" 0 e4cl1sive ,av r" pre,ere0ce r pr tecti 0* All they as6e2 , r -as e51ality -ith the West I02ies* ## Were the West I02ia0s e0title2 t the e0D yme0t , the m 0 p ly merely &eca1se they ha2 e0D ye2 it , r a le0!th , timeI :It - 1l2 &e t c 0te02" that &eca1se a !reat ma0y pe ple -h 1se2 t &e empl ye2 i0 the ma013 ,act1re , c tt 0" r ther articles" &y ha02" are thr -0 1t , empl yme0t &y the i0ve0ti 0" , machi0ery" a ta4 1p 0 ma3 chi0ery sh 1l2 there, re &e levie2* *** It - 1l2 &e t say that &eca1se the c 0veya0ce &y ca0al has &ee0 , 102 m1ch m re cheap a02 c 0ve0ie0t tha0 the l2 m 2e , c 0veya0ce &y -a! 0" a ta4 sh 1l2 there, re &e lai2 1p 0 ca0al c 0veya0ce*: #? The claim , the West I02ia0s that they -ere e0title2 t a c 03 ti01a0ce , pr tecti 0 &eca1se they ha2 i0veste2 their capital i0 s1!ar c1ltivati 0 -as :a claim -hich mi!ht &e 1r!e2 -ith

#=B CAPITALIS( AN' SLAVERY

e51al , rce i0 the case , every impr vi2e0t spec1lati 0*: #= They c 1l2 0 t 2epart ,r m the r2i0ary pri0ciples , c m3 merce i0 r2er t &e0e,it the West I02ia0s* #% H1me tr1ste2 that the ! 2 se0se" the h 0est ,eeli0! a02 the patri tism , the )ritish pe ple - 1l2 0ever all - the c 0ti01a0ce , s1ch a m 0 p ly" , r all restrai0ts a02 m 0 p lies -ere &a2* #@ As early as #B#@ a pr test -as e0tere2 i0 the . 1r0als , the H 1se , L r2s a!ai0st the C r0 La-s" threate0i0! the very 6eyst 0e , the arch , pr tecti 0* I0 #B?> the mercha0ts , L 02 0 prese0te2 a petiti 0 t Parliame0t i0 -hich it -as state2 that :,ree2 m ,r m restrai0t is calc1late2 t !ive the 1t3

m st e4te0si 0 t , rei!0 tra2e a02 the &est 2irecti 0 t the capital a02 i021stry , the c 10try*: #; I0 the same year (r* Fi0lay" , +las! -" ma2e a0 impassi 0e2 speech i0 s1pp rt , a petiti 0 ,r m the Cham&er , C mmerce , +las! prayi0! , r ,ree tra2e a02 the rem val , all restricti 0s 1p 0 c mmercial imp rts a02 e4p rts* :I, it sh 1l2 &e , 102": sai2 Fi0lay" :that the hist ry , 1r c mmercial p licy has &ee0 a tiss1e , mista6es a02 ,alse 0 ti 0s" it s1rely -as 0 t t m1ch t e4press a h pe that the p licy sh 1l2 &e !ive0 1p*: #< All m 0 p lies" 2eclare2 the mercha0ts , Liverp l" -hich pr 3 hi&ite2 tra2e -ith a0y ther c 10try" a02 i0 partic1lar the East I02ia C mpa0y7s m 0 p ly" -ere i0D1ri 1s t the !e0eral i03 terests , the c 10try* The C rp rati 0 , the t -0 2eclare2 that )ritish s1&Dects p ssesse2 :a0 i0here0t ri!ht: t a ,ree i0terc 1rse -ith a0y part , the - rl2* N t -ith 1t reas 0 ha2 Pitt c mplime0te2 A2am Smith s me thirty years &e, re at a 2i00er party" :We are all y 1r sch lars*: #B The West I02ia0 m 0 p ly -as 0 t 0ly 10s 102 i0 the ry" it -as 10pr ,ita&le i0 practice* I0 #B?B it -as estimate2 that it c st the )ritish pe ple a001ally m re tha0 0e a02 a hal, mil3 li 0 p 102s* #$ I0 #B%% it -as c sti0! the c 10try <>">>> a -ee6 a02 L 02 0 ;" * ?> E0!la02 -as payi0! , r its s1!ar ,ive milli 0s m re a year tha0 the C 0ti0e0t* ?# Three a02 a hal, milli 0 p 102s , )ritish e4p rts t the West I02ies i0 #B=B" sai2 (erivale" p1rchase2 less tha0 hal, as m1ch s1!ar a02 c ,,ee as they - 1l2 have p1rchase2 i, carrie2 t C1&a a02 )ra/il* + 2s t the val1e , 0e a02 three351arter milli 0 p 102s

THE NEW IN'USTRIAL OR'ER #=$ :-ere there, re as c mpletely thr -0 a-ay" -ith 1t rem10era3 ti 0" as ,ar as )ritai0 is c 0cer0e2" as i, the vessels -hich c 03 veye2 them ha2 perishe2 0 the v ya!e*: ?? T- 3,i,ths , the price , every p 102 , s1!ar c 0s1me2 i0 E0!la02 represe0te2 the c st , pr 21cti 0" t- 3,i,ths -e0t i0 reve01e t the ! v3 er0me0t" 0e3,i,th i0 tri&1te t the West I02ia0 pla0ter* ?= It -as hi!h time t revise this :&eetle3eye2: p licy -hich & lstere2 1p :the r tte0 ca1se: , the West I02ia0 slave3 h l2er* ?% H1s6iss 0 plea2e2 , r ca1ti 0* :That the West I02ia0 -as a0 -0er , slaves -as 0 t his ,a1lt &1t his mis, rt10e9 a02 i, it -as tr1e that the pr 21cti 0 , slavery -as m re c stly tha0 that , ,ree la& 1r" that - 1l2 &e a0 a22iti 0al reas 0 , r 0 t 2eprivi0! him , the a2va0ta!e , his pr tecti0! 21ty*: ?@ )1t the West I02ia0s -ere 0 t t mis102ersta02 this* :The time m1st c me" a02 c 1l2 0 t &e ,ar 2ista0t" -he0 the s1&Dect - 1l2 &e ripe , r c 0si2erati 0" a02 -he0 it - 1l2 &e the imperative 21ty , Parliame0t t e0ter i0t a ,1ll i0vesti!a3 ti 0 , all the circ1msta0ces c 00ecte2 -ith it*: ?; The capitalists" ea!er t l -er -a!es" a2v cate2 the p licy , :the ,ree &rea6,ast ta&le*: It -as i0D1stice a02 , lly t imp se pr tective 21ties 0 , 2* ?< ( 0 p ly -as 10s 102" c stly t all" a02 ha2 2estr ye2 the !reat c l 0ial empires , the past* ?B

The West I02ia i0terest -as 2 me2* :There ca0 &e 0 pr s3 perity , r the West I02ia c l 0ies &y a0y arra0!eme0t r D1!!li0! , 21ties i0 this h 1se* N maD rities here -ill !ive pr sperity t the West I02ies9 a02 0 2a0ci0! atte02a0ce at the C l 0ial O,,ice -ill acc mplish a0y s1ch e02*: ?$ The pr 3 tective system -as c mpare2 t ma0y m 06eys i0 2i,,ere0t ca!es" each steali0! ,r m his 0ei!h& r7s pa0" a02 each l si0! as m1ch as he ha2 st le0* => Ricar2 a2vise2 the pla0ters t yiel2 !race,1lly9 :the &all -as r lli0!" a02 0 thi0! that they c 1l2 2 - 1l2 s1,,ice t st p it*: =# Time -as -he0 the lea2i0! statesme0 -ere 0 the West I02ia0 si2e* N - Palmerst 0 li0e2 1p -ith the pp 0e0ts , the pla0ters* The - r2 :pr tecti 0: sh 1l2 &e erase2 ,r m every c mmercial 2icti 0ary" =? as :a pri0ciple , ,atal i0D1ry t the c 10try a02 i0imical t the pr sperity , every c 10try t -h se a,,airs it may &e applie2*: ==

#%> CAPITALIS( AN' SLAVERY

The pr tecti 0ists -ere 0 the si2e , the West I02ia0s* The la02e2 arist cracy , the c r0 &1shels D i0e2 ha02s -ith the la02e2 arist cracy , the s1!ar h !shea2s* Peel" ,ree tra2er i0 c tt 0 a02 sil6" -as pr tecti 0ist i0 c r0 a02 s1!ar* The West I02ia0 ca1se -as a&ly champi 0e2 &y )e0ti0c6" Sta0ley a02 'israeli* I, the West I02ia0 i0terest -as ma2e" as 'israeli critici/e2" :the harri2a0 , partyA7 =% he t -as i0str1me0tal i0 s ma6i0! it* The 2e&ates 0 the repeal , the c r0 la-s a02 the e51ali/ati 0 , the s1!ar 21ties !ave him a0 a12ie0ce , r his matchless rat ry a02 m r2a0t -it" &1t it is 2 1&t,1l -hether a0y seri 1s pers 0al c 0victi 0s r ec 0 mic phi3 l s phy m tivate2 his 2iatri&es* F r -he0 the West I02ia0s" a,ter #B%;" -ere tryi0! t p stp 0e the evil 2ay , act1al e03 , rceme0t , the pri0ciple , ,ree tra2e i0 s1!ar" 'israeli" t " t1r0e2 a!ai0st them* :A,ter the imme0se rev l1ti 0 that has &ee0 carrie2 i0t e,,ect" -e ca00 t cli0! t the ra!s a02 tatters , a pr tective system:9 =@ a02 i0 Sy&il he -r te -ith 2etach3 me0t that i0 a c mmercial c 10try li6e E0!la02 every hal, ce0t1ry 2evel pe2 s me 0e- s 1rce , p1&lic -ealth a02 &r 1!ht i0t p1&lic 0 tice s me 0e- a02 p -er,1l class the Leva0t mercha0t" the West I02ia0 pla0ter" the East I02ia0 0a& &* =; (erca0tilism -as 0 t 0ly 2ea2 &1t 2am0e2* The West I02ia0s trie2 t stem the ,ree tra2e t rre0t* The c l 0ial system -as :a0 implicit c mpact * * * , r a m1t1al m 0 p ly*: =< It -as theirs" they claime2" 0 t , !race &1t , ri!ht* Their e4cl1sive p ssessi 0 , the h me mar6et -as their D1st re-ar2 , r the restricti 0s imp se2 0 them &y the c l 0ial system* =B At ther times they -ere 0 t i02isp se2 t plea2 , r charity* The s1peri r a2va0ta!es , their rivals ma2e c mpeti3 ti 0 imp ssi&le a02 the pr tecti0! 21ty i02ispe0sa&le t their preservati 0* I0 the case , I02ia they p i0te2 t the cheap0ess , la& r" the a&102a0ce , , 2 a02 10limite2 e4te0t , the

richest s il" capa&le , irri!ati 0 a02 i0tersecte2 -ith 0avi!a&le rivers* =$ I0 the case , )ra/il they &lame2 the ,acility -ith -hich the )ra/ilia0s c 1l2 ac51ire la& rers , r their ,ertile s il* Whatever the state , these c l 0ies their re,rai0 -as al-ays the same pr tecti 0* :R1i0: -as ever the ,irst - r2 i0 their

THE NEW IN'USTRIAL OR'ER #%# v ca&1lary a - r2 1se2 t 2esi!0ate :0 t the p verty , the pe ple" 0 t the -a0t , , 2 r raime0t" 0 t eve0 the a&se0ce , riches r l141ry" &1t simply the 2ecrease , s1!ar c1ltiva3 ti 0*: %> Where they ha2" as slave -0ers &e, re #B==" 2e3 ma02e2 pr tecti 0 a!ai0st the ,ree3!r -0 s1!ar , I02ia" 0 -" as empl yers , ,ree la& r a,ter #B==" they 2ema02e2 it a!ai0st the slave3!r -0 s1!ar , )ra/il a02 C1&a* Where , rmerly they ha2 e4te01ate2 the evils , s1!ar c1ltivati 0 &y slaves" 0 they e4a!!erate2 th se evils* As slave -0ers they ha2 ap l3 !ise2 , r the evils , slavery9 as empl yers , ,ree me0 they e4alte2 the &lessi0!s , ,ree2 m* I0c 0siste0t i0 all thi0!s" they -ere yet c 0siste0t i0 0e the mai0te0a0ce , their m 0 p ly* T the very e02 the West I02ia0s c 0ti01e2 t s1,,er ,r m their my pia a02 t 2ema02 a seve0tee0th ce0t1ry p siti 0 i0 a 0i0etee0th ce0t1ry empire* Rea2 their ma0i,est es" pamphlets a02 speeches i0stea2 , Sai0t ' mi0!1e there is I02ia r (a1riti1s r )ra/il r C1&a* The 2ates have cha0!e2" ,ree3 2 m has replace2 slavery* )1t their claims are the same" their ,allacies i2e0tical* They 6eep :cryi0! 1t , r m re m 0 p ly" i0 r2er t re2ress th se evils -hich m 0 p ly itsel, i03 ,licte2*: %# They are !reete2 -ith s0eers a02 c 0tempt %? &1t pay 0 hee2* Occasi 0ally they tal6 ,ree tra2e" as -he0 a West I02ia0" pp si0! the re0e-al , the charter , the West I02ia ' c6 C mpa0y" lect1re2 Parliame0t 0 :the imp licy as -ell as i0D1stice , c 0ti01i0!" i0 a0 e0li!hte0e2 a!e as this" s1ch m 0 p lies" -hich -ere at 0ce i0D1ri 1s t c mmerce a02 t the reve01e , the c 10try*: %= I0 !e0eral" h -ever" they re3 mai0 &livi 1s , the 0e- r2er a02 the &eam i0 their -0 eyes* Pr tecti 0 a02 La& r these -ere their sl !a0s i0 #B%; as they ha2 &ee0 i0 #<%;* Pr tecti 0 -as simply D1stice* %% T re3 ,1se it -as 103E0!lish* %@ The pr tecti0! 21ty -as 0ecessary t sa,e!1ar2 the e4perime0t , ,ree la& r* %; S1!ar c1ltivati 0 re3 51ires la& r* +ive 1s i02e0t1re2 A,rica0s" i02e0t1re2 East I02ia0s" c 0victs" 0 - that y 1 have ema0cipate2 the Ne!r es a02 ma2e them la/y9 a02 s me" i0 2esperati 0" eve0 a2v cate2 the re0e-al , the slave tra2e* %< Their 1tsta02i0! champi 0 -as +la2st 0e* )1t +la2st 0e

#%? CAPITALIS( AN' SLAVERY

-as m re tha0 a West I02ia09 he -as a0 imperial statesma0 as -ell" -h 0ever l st si!ht , the - 2 , r the trees* With all the cas1istry a02 el 51e0ce at his 2isp sal a02 he ha2 m1ch , & th +la2st 0e trie2 t D1sti,y the West I02ia0 m 0 p ly 0 the !r 102 that it -as pr tecti 0 , r ,ree3!r -0 s1!ar a!ai0st slave3!r -0 s1!ar* )1t he -as , rce2 t a2mit that the 2is3 ti0cti 0 -as 0 t s clear that it c 1l2 &e 2ra-0 -ith 10i, rm a02 a&s l1te precisi 0* %B N r c 1l2 he i!0 re the ,act that the West I02ia0 claim , r pr tecti 0 -as -ea6e0e2 a,ter #B=; -he0 the pr tecti0! 21ty -as e4te02e2 t East I02ia0 s1!ar -hich c 1l2 plea2 0 s1ch 2i,,ic1lties a02 2isa2va0ta!es as ,ace2 the West I02ia0s* %$ A02 +la2st 0e 60e- that the c 1rse ha2 &ee0 r10* Pr tecti 0 c 1l2 0 t &e perma0e0t" a02 eve0 i, c 0ti01e2 , r t-e0ty years" - 1l2 0 t &ri0! West I02ia0 c1ltivati 0 t a s 102 a02 healthy state* @> )* THE +ROWTH OF ANTI3I(PERIALIS( The c l 0ial system -as the spi0al c r2 , the c mmercial capitalism , the merca0tile ep ch* I0 the era , ,ree tra2e the i021strial capitalists -a0te2 0 c l 0ies at all" least , all the West I02ies* The tre02 2ate2 &ac6" as -e have see0" t the early years , the I021strial Rev l1ti 0* Its 2evel pme0t parallele2 the 2e3 vel pme0t , the ,ree tra2e m veme0t* The -h le - rl2 0 &ecame a )ritish c l 0y a02 the West I02ies -ere 2 me2* The lea2er , the m veme0t -as C &2e0* C &2e0 re,erre2 ap3 pr vi0!ly t A2am Smith7s chapters i0 his :imm rtal - r6: 0 the e4pe0se , c l 0ies* @# T him the c l 0ial 51esti 0 -as a pec10iary 51esti 0* @? The c l 0ies -ere e4pe0sive e0c1m3 &ra0ces" ma6i0! 2a//li0! appeals t the passi 0s , the pe ple" servi0! 0ly as :! r!e 1s a02 p 02er 1s appe02a!es t s-ell 1r ste0si&le !ra02e1r" &1t" i0 reality" t c mplicate a02 ma!0i,y 1r ! ver0me0t e4pe02it1re" -ith 1t impr vi0! 1r &ala0ce , tra2e*: He c 1l2 see 0 thi0! &1t a :m 0str 1s im3 p licy: i0 :sacri,ici0! 1r tra2e -ith a 0e- c 0ti0e0t" , al3 m st & 102less e4te0t , rich territ ry" i0 ,av 1r , a ,esmall isla02s" -ith c mparatively e4ha1ste2 s ils*: @= I0 #B@?

THE NEW IN'USTRIAL OR'ER #%= the )ritish 2eclare2 -ar 0 )1rma a02 a00e4e2 L -er )1rma* C &2e0 pr teste2* He -r te a0 article e0title2 :H - -ars are ! t 1p i0 I02ia": s1!!esti0! that )ritai0 1!ht :t a2vertise i0 the Times , r a ! ver0 r3!e0eral -h ca0 c llect a 2e&t , a th 1sa02 p 102s -ith 1t a00e4i0! a territ ry -hich -ill &e r1i0 1s t 1r ,i0a0ces*: @% T ( les- rth" 0e , the 1tsta02i0! c l 0ial re, rmers" )ritai07s c l 0ial p licy -as m tivate2 &y :a0 i0sa0e 2esire , - rthless empire": as 0 the ,r 0tier , the Cape C l 0y i0 S 1th A,rica" -here :the l ss , 0e a4e a02 t- ! ats * * * has c st this c 10try a c 1ple , milli 0s sterli0!*: A1stralia

-as a c llecti 0 , :c mm10ities" the ,,spri0! , c 0vict emi3 !rati 0*: Ne- Peala02 -as a c 0sta0t hea2ache -ith its :im3 &ecile ! ver0 rs" 2iscre2ita&le ,10cti 0aries" a02 100ecessary -ars -ith the 0atives*: S 1th A,rica -as :a h1!e - rthless a02 c stly empire" e4te02i0! ver 0early =>>">>> s51are miles" chie,ly r1!!e2 m 10tai0s" a02 ari2 2eserts" a02 &arre0 plai0s" -ith 1t -ater" -ith 1t her&a!e" -ith 1t 0avi!a&le rivers" -ith3 1t har& 1rs" i0 sh rt" -ith 1t everythi0! e4cept the eleme0ts , !reat a02 i0creasi0! e4pe0se t this c 10try*: I0 char!e , this 2iverse a02 heter !e0e 1s c llecti 0 , c l 0ies -as the C l 0ial Secretary" :traversi0! a02 retraversi0!" i0 his ima!i3 0ati 0" the terra51e 1s !l &e ,lyi0! ,r m the Arctic t the A0tarctic p le h1rryi0! ,r m the s0 -s , N rth America t the &1r0i0! re!i 0s , the Tr pics r1shi0! acr ss ,r m the ,ertile isla02s , the West I02ies t the ari2 2eserts , S 1th A,rica a02 A1stralia li6e 0 thi0! 0 earth" r i0 r ma0ce" save the Wa02eri0! .e-*: @@ The c st , pr tecti0! this em3 pire -as 0e3thir2 , )ritai07s e4p rt tra2e t the c l 0ies* C 3 l 0ial i02epe02e0ce -as cheaper* The c l 0ies sh 1l2 &e ,ree2 ,r m the :ever3cha0!i0!" ,re51e0tly -ell3i0te0ti 0e2" &1t i03 varia&ly -ea6 a02 i!0 ra0t 2esp tism: , the C l 0ial O,,ice* @> H1me" a0 ther ra2ical p liticia0" D i0e2 i0 the attac6 0 :(r* ( ther C 10try*: Rem ve the ir 0 chai0s -hich ,ettere2 the &est e4erti 0s , the c l 0ies" @< let them ma0a!e their -0 a,,airs i0stea2 , &ei0! 6ept i0 lea2i0! stri0!s a02 s1&Decte2 t the ,l1ct1ati0! ma0a!eme0t , ' -0i0! Street* @B The C l 0ial O,,ice :is: a 01isa0ce a02 sh 1l2 &e l c6e2 1p* @$

#%% CAPITALIS( AN' SLAVERY

Tr1steeship -as 1t , ,ashi 0* R e&1c6" a ,ree3la0ce Ra2i3 cal" pp se2 as ca0t the h1ma0itaria0 re,1sal t s1rre02er the c l 0ies t l cal sel,3! ver0me0t* Hist ry ta1!ht that the sav3 a!e m1st 2isappear i0 the ,ace , the rele0tless a2va0ce , a s1peri r race9 D1stice a02 h1ma0ity m1st yiel2 t the ir 0 la, a0 10D1st 0ecessity* ;> .ames Stephe0" the ,am 1s Perma0e0t U02er3Secretary , the C l 0ial O,,ice" 0ever -avere2 i0 his 2etermi0ati 0 0 t t lay 2 -0 the :-retche2 &1r2e0s -hich i0 a0 evil h 1r -e ass1me2*: )1t the capitalists" li6e Tayl r" als , the C l 0ial O,,ice" c 1l2 see i0 the c l 0ies 0 thi0! &1t :,1ri 1s assem&lies" , lish ! ver0 rs" missi 0aries a02 slaves": ;# -hich" i0 the - r2s , (erivale" -ere t &e retai0e2 , r the mere :pleas1re , ! ver0i0! them*: ;? N thi0! -as tr1e &1t -hat -e0t t West I02ia0 c 02em0ati 0" 0 thi0! -as D1st &1t -hat -e0t t West I02ia0 r1i0* ;= It seeme2 t the 2esperate pla0ters as i, a c aliti 0 ha2 &ee0 , rme2 t 2estr y the c l 0ies* ;% The assem&lies , .amaica a02 )ritish +1ia0a -e0t 0 stri6e i0 #B=B a02 #B%> a02 re,1se2 t v te s1pplies* .amaica pre,erre2 :Ya06ee ' 2le: t :+ 2 save the L1ee0*: ;@ Wh care2I (em&ers , Parliame0t -ere prepare2 t &arter the West I02ies t America , r a sli!ht c m3 pe0sati 0* ;; :.amaica t the & tt m , the sea": th102ere2

R e&1c6" :a02 all the A0tilles a,ter it*: These :&arre0 c l 0ies: ha2 &ee0 a s 1rce , 0 thi0! &1t -ar a02 e4pe02i3 t1re* ;< They ha2 ever &ee0 the :m st ,atal appe02a!es: , the )ritish empire" a02 i, they -ere t &e &l tte2 1t ,r m the ,ace , the earth )ritai0 - 1l2 l se 0 t : 0e D t , her stre0!th" 0e pe00y , her -ealth" 0e i0str1me0t , her p -er*: BB It -as a0 epi2emic* Eve0 'israeli" the arch imperialist , later 2eca2es" -as i0,ecte2* I0 # B%; the :, rl r0 A0tilles: -ere still t him :a ,ra!me0t" &1t a ,ra!me0t -hich I val1e" , the c l 0ial system , E0!la02*: ;$ Si4 years later Ca0a2a ha2 &e3 c me a 2ipl matic em&arrassme0t" a02 the -retche2 c l 0ies a :2am0 sa here2itas": millst 0es r 102 )ritai07s 0ec6* <> I0 0i0e cases 1t , te0" acc r2i0! t +la2st 0e" it -as imp ssi&le t sec1re parliame0tary atte0ti 0 t c l 0ial c 0cer0s a02 i0 the te0th case it -as 0ly &tai0e2 &y the cas1al perati 0s ,

THE NEW IN'USTRIAL OR'ER #%@ party spirit* <# The a!e , empire -as 2ea29 that , ,ree tra2ers" ec 0 mists" a02 calc1lat rs ha2 s1ccee2e2" a02 the !l ry , the West I02ies -as e4ti0!1ishe2 , r ever* O0ly a0 ther thirty years" h -ever" the t10e - 1l2 cha0!e* )1t the West I02ia0 H1mpty '1mpty ha2 ha2 a !reat ,all" a02 all the Fi0!7s h rses a02 all the Fi0!7s me0 c 1l2 0 t p1t H1mpty '1mpty t !ether a!ai0*

C* THE +ROWTH OF WORL' SU+AR PRO'UCTION The stre0!th , the )ritish s1!ar isla02s &e, re #<B= lay i0 the ,act that as s1!ar pr 21cers they ha2 ,e- c mpetit rs* I0 s ,ar as they c 1l2" they - 1l2 permit 0 0e* They resiste2 the attempt t i0tr 21ce the c1ltivati 0 , s1!ar Ga02 c tt 0H i0t Sierra Le 0e 0 the !r 102 that it - 1l2 &e a prece2e0t t :, rei!0 0ati 0s" -h have as yet 0 c l 0ies a0y-here": <? a02 mi!ht pr ve 2etrime0tal t th se -h p ssesse2 West I03 2ia0 c l 0ies9 <= D1st as a ce0t1ry previ 1sly they ha2 pp se2 the c1ltivati 0 , i02i! i0 A,rica* <% Their chie, c mpetit rs i0 the s1!ar tra2e -ere )ra/il a02 the Fre0ch isla02s" C1&a &e3 i0! hampere2 &y the e4treme e4cl1sive0ess , Spa0ish merca03 tilism* This sit1ati 0 -as ra2ically altere2 -he0 Sai0t ' mi0!1e , r!e2 ahea2 i0 the years imme2iately , ll -i0! the secessi 0 , the mai0la02 c l 0ies* The c1ltivati 0 , )ar&a2 s a02 .amaica ha2 tra0s,erre2 the s1!ar tra2e , E1r pe ,r m *P rt1!al t E0!la02* The pr !ress , Sai0t ' mi0!1e !ave c 0tr l , the E1r pea0 s1!ar mar6et t Fra0ce* )et-ee0 #<#@ a02 #<B$ Fre0ch imp rts ,r m the c l 0ies m1ltiplie2 eleve0 times" Fre0ch c l 0ial pr 21cts re3 e4p rte2 a&r a2 te0 times* <@ I0 #<B$ t- 3thir2s , Fre0ch e43 p rts t the )altic" ver 0e3thir2 , the e4p rts t the Leva0t" -ere c l 0ial pr 21ce* It -as :&y it" a02 &y it al 0e" that she

t1r0e2 the &ala0ce a&le res1lt*: <;

, the tra2e -ith all the - rl2 t

a ,av 1r3

It -as the l2 la- , slave pr 21cti 0 at - r6* Sai0t ' m3 i0!1e -as lar!er tha0 a0y )ritish c l 0y" its s il -as m re ,ertile a02 less e4ha1ste2" he0ce its c sts , pr 21cti 0 -ere l -er* This 2i,,ere0ce i0 c sts , pr 21cti 0 &ecame a0 &Dect

#%; CAPITALIS( AN' SLAVERY

, partic1lar i051iry -ith the Privy C 10cil C mmittee

, #<BB*

Fr m the sta02p i0t , the C)ritish Prime (i0ister" William Pitt" this -as the 2ecisive ,act r* The a!e , the )ritish s1!ar isla02s -as ver* The West I02ia0 system -as 10pr ,ita&le" a02 the slave tra2e 0 -hich it reste2" :i0stea2 , &ei0! very a2va0ta!e 1s t +reat )ritai0 *** is the m st 2estr1ctive that ca0 -ell &e ima!i0e2 t her i0terests*: << F r a Prime (i0ister -h se ,ather ha2 &ee0 c 0siste0tly 0 the West I02ia0 si2e , the ,e0ce" a02 -h se pre2ecess r a mere te0 years previ 1sly ha2 &la02ly t1r0e2 2 -0 a petiti 0 , r a& liti 0" this -as a m me0t 1s c 0versi 0* Pitt t1r0e2 t I02ia* Pitt7s pla0 -as t- , l28 t recapt1re the E1r pea0 mar6et -ith the ai2 , s1!ar ,r m I02ia" <B a02 t sec1re a0 i0ter3 0ati 0al a& liti 0 , the slave tra2e <$ -hich - 1l2 r1i0 Sai0t ' mi0!1e* I, 0 t i0ter0ati 0al a& liti 0" the0 )ritish a& liti 0* The Fre0ch -ere s 2epe02e0t 0 )ritish slave tra2ers that eve0 a 10ilateral a& liti 0 &y E0!la02 - 1l2 seri 1sly 2isl cate the ec 0 my , the Fre0ch c l 0ies* Pitt7s pla0 ,aile2" , r t- reas 0s* The imp rtati 0 , East I02ia s1!ar" 0 the scale pla00e2" -as imp ssi&le -i0! t the hi!h 21ties imp se2 0 all s1!ar 0 t the pr 21ce , the )ritish West I02ies* B> L r2 Ha-6es&1ry" , r the West I02ia0 m 0 p3 lists" pp se2 the alterati 0 , the e4isti0! la- :i0 ,av 1r , a m 0 p lisi0! c mpa0y: -hich -as e4cee2i0! the & 102s , its charter* B# )1t Ha-6es&1ry -as m re tha0 a West I02ia0* He -as i0 cl se t 1ch -ith )ritish c mmerce a02 i021stry" especially Liverp l* He there, re rec mme02e2" i0stea2" the imp rtati 0 , all , rei!0 s1!ar pr vi2e2 it -as 2 0e i0 )ritish ships a02 s lely , r re,i0i0! a02 re3e4p rt* :The c mmerce a02 shippi0! , Fra0ce -ill &e m re 2imi0ishe2" a02 the c mmerce a02 shippi0! , +reat )ritai0 m re a1!me0te2" tha0 &y a0y si0!le meas1re that has &ee0 p1rs1e2 , r the last ce0t1ry*: B? )y this very simple re!1lati 0 )ritai0 - 1l2 rec ver the s1!ar tra2e she ha2 e0D ye2 ,r m #;;> t #<#= &1t -hich therea,ter she l st t Fra0ce* B= Sec 02ly" the Fre0ch" '1tch a02 Spa0iar2s re,1se2" -ith -hat L r2 Liverp l calle2 thirty years later :sheer perverse3 0ess": B% t a& lish the slave tra2e* B@ It -as 0 t 2i,,ic1lt t

see

THE NEW IN'USTRIAL OR'ER #%< the p litical m tives &ehi02 Pitt7s cl a6 , h1ma0itaria0ism* +ast 03(arti0" the -ell360 -0 Fre0ch hist ria0 , the slave tra2e a02 the Cari&&ea0 c l 0ies" acc1ses Pitt , aimi0! &y pr pa!a02a t ,ree the slaves" 1 i0 the 0ame 0 2 1&t , h1ma03 ity" &1t als t r1i0 Fre0ch c mmerce": a02 c 0cl12es that i0 this phila0thr pic pr pa!a02a there -ere ec 0 mic m tives -hich e4plai0 the li&erality -ith -hich )ritai0 p1t ,102s at the 2isp sal , the Fre0ch a& liti 0ists" a02 the -ay i0 -hich Fra0ce -as s-ampe2 -ith tra0slati 0s , the a0ti3slavery - r6s , the )ritish a& liti 0ist" Clar6s 0* B; As Ramsay ha2 a2mitte28 :We may c 0,i2e0tly c 0cl12e that the A,rica0 tra2e is m re c 0,i0e2 i0 its 1tility tha0 is !e0erally ima!i0e2 a02 that , late years it has c 0tri&1te2 m re t the a!!ra02iseme0t , 1r rivals tha0 , 1r 0ati 0al -ealth*: B< At this D10ct1re the Fre0ch Rev l1ti 0 came t the ai2 , Pitt* Fear,1l that the i2ealism , the rev l1ti 0ary m veme0t - 1l2 2estr y the slave tra2e a02 slavery" the Fre0ch pla0ters , Sai0t ' mi0!1e i0 #<$# ,,ere2 the isla02 t E0!la02" BB a02 -ere s 0 , ll -e2 &y th se , the Wi02-ar2 Isla02s* B : Pitt ac3 cepte2 the ,,er" -he0 -ar &r 6e 1t -ith Fra0ce i0 #<$=* E4pe2iti 0 a,ter e4pe2iti 0 -as se0t 10s1ccess,1lly t capt1re the preci 1s c l 0y" ,irst ,r m the Fre0ch" the0 ,r m the Ne!r es* It -as 0 t" Parliame0t -as ass1re2" :a -ar , r riches r l cal a!!ra02iseme0t &1t a -ar , r sec1rity*: $> The allie2 ca1se i0 E1r pe -as -ea6e0e2 i0 the i0terests , )ritish im3 perialism* :The secret , E0!la027s imp te0ce , r the ,irst si4 years , the -ar": -rites F rtesc1e" hist ria0 , the )ritish army" :may &e sai2 t lie i0 the t- ,atal - r2s" St* ' 3 mi0! *: $# )ritai0 l st th 1sa02s , me0 a02 spe0t th 1sa02s , p 102s i0 the attempt t capt1re Sai0t ' mi0!1e* She ,aile2" &1t the - rl27s s1!ar & -l -as 2estr ye2 i0 the pr cess a02 Fre0ch c l 0ial s1peri rity smashe2 , rever* :F r this": -rites F rtesc1e" :E0!la027s s l2iers ha2 &ee0 sacri,ice2" her treas1re s51a02ere2" her i0,l1e0ce -ea6e0e2" her arm , r si4 ,ate,1l years ,ettere2" 01m&e2 a02 paralyse2*: $? This is , m re tha0 aca2emic i0terest* Pitt c 1l2 0 t have ha2 Sai0t ' mi0!1e a02 a& liti 0 as -ell* With 1t its %>">>> slave imp rts a year" Sai0t ' mi0!1e mi!ht as -ell have &ee0

#%B CAPITALIS( AN' SLAVERY

at the & tt m , the sea* The very accepta0ce , the isla02 mea0t l !ically the e02 , Pitt7s i0terest i0 a& liti 0* Nat1rally he 2i2 0 t say s * He ha2 alrea2y c mmitte2 himsel, t ,ar i0 the eyes , the p1&lic* He c 0ti01e2 t spea6 i0 ,av r , a& liti 0" eve0 -hile !ivi0! every practical e0c 1ra!eme0t t the slave tra2e* )1t it -as 0 t the l2 Pitt , #<B$3#<$#" the

Pitt , Lati0 ta!s" &rillia0t rat ry a02 i0,ecti 1s h1ma0itaria03 ism* The cha0!e ca0 &e , ll -e2 i0 the 2e&ates i0 Parliame0t a02 i0 Wil&er, rce7s 2iary* I0 #<$? Wil&er, rce7s 2iary str1c6 the ,irst mi0 1s 0 te8 :Pitt thre- 1t a!ai0st slave m ti 0 0 St* ' mi0! acc 10t*: $= Therea,ter Pitt7s s1pp rt , Wil&er3 , rce7s a001al m ti 0s &ecame 0 thi0! sh rt , per,10ct ry* O0 0e ccasi 0 he s1pp rte2 the West I02ia0s" 0 a0 ther he p1t ,, the m ti 0" 0 a0 ther he :st 2 sti,,ly: &y Wil&er3 , rce" 0 yet a0 ther he simply staye2 a-ay* $% U02er Pitt7s a23 mi0istrati 0 the )ritish slave tra2e al 0e m re tha0 2 1&le2" $@ a02 )ritai0 c 051ere2 t- m re s1!ar c l 0ies" Tri0i2a2 a02 )ritish +1ia0a* As the a& liti 0ist Stephe0 -r te -ith &itter3 0ess8 :(r* Pitt" 10happily , r himsel," his c 10try a02 ma06i02" is 0 t /eal 1s e0 1!h i0 the ca1se , the 0e!r es" t c 0te02 , r them as 2ecisively as he 1!ht" i0 the ca&i0et a0y m re tha0 i0 parliame0t*: $B Li&eral hist ria0s plea2 Pitt7s ,ear , .ac &i0ism* The real reas 0 is m re simple* It ca0 &e ta6e0 as a4i matic that 0 ma0 cc1pyi0! s imp rta0t a p siti 0 as Prime (i0ister , E0!3 la02 - 1l2 have ta6e0 s imp rta0t a step as a& lishi0! the slave tra2e p1rely , r h1ma0itaria0 reas 0s* A Prime (i0ister is m re tha0 a ma0" he is a statesma0* Pitt7s reas 0s -ere p 3 litical a02 0ly sec 02arily pers 0al* He -as i0tereste2 i0 the s1!ar tra2e* Either he m1st r1i0 Sai0t ' mi0!1e &y ,l 2i0! E1r pe -ith cheaper I02ia0 s1!ar r &y a& lishi0! the slave tra2e9 r he m1st !et Sai0t ' mi0!1e , r himsel,* I, he c 1l2 !et Sai0t ' mi0!1e" the &ala0ce i0 the Cari&&ea0 - 1l2 &e re3 st re2* Sai0t ' mi0!1e - 1l2 &e :a 0 &le c mpe0sati 0: , r the l ss , America" a02 :a !l ri 1s a22iti 0 t the 2 mi0i 0" 0avi!ati 0" tra2e a02 ma01,act1res , )ritai0*: $< It - 1l2 !ive )ritai0 a m 0 p ly , s1!ar" i02i! " c tt 0 a02 c ,,ee8 :This isla02" , r a!es" - 1l2 !ive s1ch ai2 a02 , rce t i021stry as

THE NEW IN'USTRIAL OR'ER #%$ - 1l2 &e m st happily ,elt i0 every part , the 6i0!2 m*: F l3 l -e2 &y a0 ,,e0sive a02 2e,e0sive allia0ce &et-ee0 )ritai0 a02 Spai0" :s1ch ,rie02ship , r a!es mi!ht precl12e Fra0ce a02 America ,r m the Ne- W rl2" a02 e,,ect1ally sec1re the i0val1a&le p ssessi 0s , Spai0*: >B )1t i, Pitt capt1re2 Sai0t ' mi0!1e" the slave tra2e m1st c 0ti01e* Whe0 Sai0t ' 3 mi0!1e -as l st t Fra0ce" the slave tra2e &ecame merely a h1ma0itaria0 51esti 0* The 2estr1cti 0 , Sai0t ' mi0!1e mea0t the e02 , the Fre0ch s1!ar tra2e* N t all the 2ecrees , c 0s1ls" &lac6 r -hite" -r te E2e0 -ith c mplace0cy" c 1l2 ,ill 1p the !aps i0 the p p1lati 0 , the isla02*: )1t the r1i0 , Sai0t ' mi0!1e 2i2 0 t mea0 the salvati 0 , the )ritish West I02ies* T- 0ee0emies appeare2 0 the sce0e* C1&a , r!e2 ahea2 t ,ill the !ap le,t i0 the - rl2 mar6et &y the 2isappeara0ce , Sai0t ' mi0!1e* ) 0aparte" 2e,eate2 i0 his attempts t recapt1re the l st c l 0y a02 2etermi0e2 t c 051er E0!la02 &y stra0!1la3 ti 0 , her tra2e" !ave the ,irst impet1s t &eet s1!ar" a02 the

-ar , the t- s1!ars &e!a0* Whilst" 102er the America0 ,la!" C1&a0 a02 ther 0e1tral s1!ar still , 102 a mar6et i0 E1r pe" )ritish West I02ia0 s1rpl1ses pile2 1p i0 E0!la02* )a06r1pt3 cies -ere the r2er , the 2ay* )et-ee0 #<$$ a02 #B><" ;@ pla0tati 0s i0 .amaica -ere a&a02 0e2" =? -ere s l2 , r 2e&ts" a02 i0 # B>< s1its -ere pe02i0! a!ai0st # # @ thers* 'e&t" 2isease a02 2eath -ere the 0ly t pics , c 0versati 0 i0 the isla02* #>> A parliame0tary c mmittee set 1p i0 #B>< 2isc vere2 that the )ritish West I02ia0 pla0ter -as pr 21ci0! at a l ss* I0 #B>> his pr ,it -as ? l A ? per ce0t" i0 #B>< 0 thi0!* I0 #<B< the pla0ter ! t i$A;2 pr ,it per h102re2-ei!ht9 i0 #<$$" i A$29 i0 #B>=" iBA;29 i0 #B>@" i?A39 i0 #B>;" 0 thi0!* The c mmittee attri&1te2 the mai0 evil t the 10,av ra&le state , the , rei!0 mar6et* #># I0 #B>; the s1rpl1s , s1!ar i0 E0!la02 am 10te2 t si4 th 1sa02 t 0s* #>? Pr 21cti 0 ha2 t &e c1rtaile2* T restrict pr 21cti 0" the slave tra2e m1st &e a& lishe2* The :sat1rate2: c l 0ies 0ee2e2 0ly seve0 th 1sa02 slaves a year* #>= It -as the 0ec l 0ies" cryi0! 1t , r la& r" ,1ll , p ssi&ilities" that ha2 t &e restrai0e2" a02 they -ere perma0e0tly cripple2 &y a& liti 0* That e4plai0s the s1pp rt , the a& liti 0 &ill &y s ma0y West

#@> CAPITALIS( AN' SLAVERY

I02ia0 pla0ters , the l2er isla02s* Ellis ha2 state2 cate! ri3 cally i0 # B>% that the slave tra2e sh 1l2 &e c 0ti01e2" &1t 0ly t the l2er c l 0ies* #>% It -as the same l2 c 0,lict &et-ee0 :sat1rate2 pla0ters: a02 :pla0ters 0 the ma6e*: The -ar a02 ) 0aparte7s c 0ti0e0tal &l c6a2e ma2e a& liti 0 imperative i, the l2er c l 0ies -ere t s1rvive* :Are they 0 t 0 -A7 as6e2 Prime (i0ister +re0ville" :2istresse2 &y the ac3 c1m1lati 0 , pr 21ce 0 their ha02s" , r -hich they ca00 t ,i02 a mar6et9 a02 -ill it 0 t there, re &e a22i0! t their 2is3 tress" a02 lea2i0! the pla0ters 0 t their r1i0" i, y 1 s1,,er the c 0ti01ati 0 , ,resh imp rtati 0sI: #>@ Wil&er, rce reD ice28 West I02ia0 2istress c 1l2 0 t &e imp1te2 t a& liti 0* #>; Act1ally" a& liti 0 -as the 2irect res1lt , that 2istress* I, a& liti 0 , the slave tra2e -as the s l1ti 0 , the pla0ter7s pr &lems" it -as 0ly a temp rary s l1ti 0* F r" as (erivale ar!1e2 s 102ly" -ith 1t imp rts t replace their slaves" the West I02ies" a02 especially the 0e-er c l 0ies" c 1l2 0 t h pe t s1stai0 the still ,iercer c mpetiti 0 , the 0i0etee0th ce0t1ry* :Slavery -ith 1t the slave tra2e * * * -as rather a l ss tha0 a !ai0*: =QH< At the e02 , the Nap le 0ic Wars i0 #B#@" the s1!ar pla0ters -ere 0 &etter ,, tha0 they ha2 &ee0 &e, re* I02ia -as still a rival t &e ,eare2* The 0e 2evil , Sai0t ' mi0!1e -as replace2 &y three" (a1riti1s" C1&a" )ra/il* S1!ar c1ltiva3 ti 0 -as later e4te02e2 t L 1isia0a" A1stralia" Ha-aii" .ava* )eet c 0ti01e2 its pr !ress 10til its maD r vict ry i0 #B%B -he0 it ,ree2 the slaves 0 the ca0e s1!ar pla0tati 0s , the Fre0ch c l 0ies" -hile it &ecame later a perma0e0t E1r pea0 a02 eve0 a0 America0 ,eat1re i0 the i0terest , a1tarchy*

)et-ee0 #<$= a02 #B== the imp rts , s1!ar i0t )ritai0 m re tha0 2 1&le2* C mplete rec r2s , r the same peri 2 , r the West I02ies are lac6i0!" &1t &et-ee0 #B#@ a02 #B== West I02ia0 pr 21cti 0 -as stati 0ary ="=B#"<>> h !shea2s i0 #B#@" ="=@#"B>> i0 #B==" -ith a ma4im1m , %">;B">>> i0 #B?B* It is si!0i,ica0t that this level , pr 21cti 0 -as mai0tai0e2 0ly at the e4pe0se , the l2er isla02s -ith their e4ha1ste2 s il* )e3 t-ee0 #B#= a02 #B== .amaica7s pr 21cti 0 2ecli0e2 &y 0early 0e3si4th9 the e4p rts , A0ti!1a" Nevis a02 T &a! &y m re

THE NEW IN'USTRIAL OR'ER #@M tha0 0e351arter" St* Fitts &y 0early 0e3hal," St* L1cia7s &y t- 3thir2s" St* Vi0ce0t7s &y 0e3si4th" +re0a2a7s &y alm st 0e3 ei!hth* ' mi0ica7s e4p rts sh -e2 a sli!ht i0crease" -hile )ar&a2 s alm st 2 1&le2 its e4p rts* O0 the ther ha02" the 1tp1t , the 0e-er c l 0ies i0crease2" )ritish +1ia0a7s &y ta02 a hal, times" Tri0i2a27s &y 0e3thir2* #>B (a1riti1s le02s ,1rther c 0,irmati 0 t this la- , slave pr 3 21cti 0* Its e4p rts t )ritai0" less tha0 A0ti!1a7s i0 #B?>" -ere ver , 1r times A0ti!1a7s i0 iB==* #>$ East I02ia s1!ar s l2 i0 E0!la02 i0crease2 t-e0ty3ei!ht times &et-ee0 #<$# a02 iB==* ##> F rei!0 s 1rces -ere arisi0! as s1ppliers , the ramaterial )ritai0 0ee2e2 , r re,i0i0!" c 0s1mpti 0 a02 e4p rt* Si0!ap re7s e4p rts i0 #B== -ere s N 4 times th se , #B?<9 im3 p rts ,r m the Philippi0es 51a2r1ple2" ,r m .ava i0crease2 m re tha0 t-e0ty times* ### C1&a0 s1!ar pr 21cti 0 i0crease2 m re tha0 , rty times &et-ee0 #<<@ a02 iB;@* ##? )ritish im3 p rts ,r m )ra/il i0crease2 seve0, l2 &et-ee0 #B#< a02 #B=#" ,r m C1&a si4, l2 &et-ee0 #B#< a02 iB=?* ##= S1!ar pr 21cti 0" as -e have see0" is m re e,,icie0t 0 a lar!e pla0tati 0 tha0 0 a smaller 0e* )1t the si/e , the pla0tati 0 is limite2 &y 0e ,act r tra0sp rtati 0* The ca0e" -ithi0 a speci,ie2 time a,ter it has &ee0 c1t" m1st &e ta6e0 t the ,act ry* ( re tha0 a0y ther )ritish isla02" .amaica i0 the ei!htee0th ce0t1ry -as the la02 , lar!e pla0ters* )1t i0 #<@= there -ere 0ly three pla0tati 0s i0 the ?" 3acre class i0 .amaica -hich ha2 a& 1t 0e3te0th , the la02 i0 ca0e* The lar!est" &el 0!i0! t Philip Pi00 c6" a02 calle2 &y Pitma0 :the sh - place: , .amaica , that 2ay" c 0tai0e2 ?"B<? acres , -hich ?%? -ere i0 ca0e" empl ye2 ?B> slaves" a02 pr 21ce2 #B% t 0s , s1!ar a year* ##% A,ter ema0cipati 0 .amaica -as ,ace2 -ith the sh rta!e , la& r a02 -a!es r se* The isla02 -as 10a&le t c mpete -ith the m re e4te0sive a02 m re ,ertile s il , C1&a -ith its slave p p1lati 0* The 2evel pme0t , the rail3 r a2 the ,irst -as c 0str1cte2 i0 C1&a i0 #B=< e0a&le2 the C1&a0 pla0ter t e0lar!e his pla0tati 0" i0crease his 1tp1t a02 re21ce his c sts , pr 21cti 0" -hile the .amaica0 pla0ter -as still as6i0! , r pr tecti 0 a02 la& r* The c mpetiti 0 there&y &ecame m re 10e51al* )y #B;> -e rea2 , :m 0ster: pla0ta3

#@? CAPITALIS( AN' SLAVERY

2 0s i0 C1&a" the lar!est c mprisi0! ##">>> acres" , -hich ver 0e3te0th -as i0 ca0e" empl yi0! B;; slaves" a02 pr 21c3 i0! ?";<> t 0s , s1!ar a year* ##@ The )ritish West I02ies ha2 clearly l st their m 0 p ly , s1!ar c1ltivati 0* I0 #<B$ they c 1l2 0 t c mpete -ith Sai0t ' mi0!1e9 0 r i0 #B?> -ith (a1riti1s9 0 r i0 #B=> -ith )ra/il9 0 r i0 #B%> -ith C1&a* Th5ir 2ay ha2 passe2* Limite2 i0 e4te0t" slave r ,ree" they c 1l2 0 t c mpete -ith lar!er areas" m re ,ertile" less e4ha1ste2" -here slavery -as still pr ,ita&le* C1&a c 1l2 c 0tai0 all the )ritish isla02s , the Cari&&ea0" .amaica i0cl12e2* O0e , )ra/il7s mi!hty rivers c 1l2 h l2 all the West I02ia0 isla02s -ith 1t its 0avi!ati 0 &ei0! &str1cte2* ##; I02ia c 1l2 pr 21ce e0 1!h r1m t 2r -0 the West I02ies* ##< The West I02ia0 sit1ati 0 -as a!!ravate2 &y the ,act that pr 21cti 0 -as i0 e4cess , the h me c 0s1mpti 0* This s1r3 pl1s" estimate2 at t-e0ty3,ive per ce0t" ##B ha2 t &e s l2 i0 E1r pea0 mar6ets i0 c mpetiti 0 -ith cheaper )ra/ilia0 r C1&a0 s1!ar* This c 1l2 &e 2 0e 0ly &y s1&si2ies a02 & 10ties* The West I02ia0 pla0ters -ere &ei0! pai2" i0 ,act" t e0a&le them t c mpete -ith pe ple -h " as -e have see0" -ere s me , )ritai07s &est c1st mers* )et-ee0 #B?% a02 #B?$ the imp rts , C1&a0 a02 )ra/ilia0 s1!ar i0t Ham&1r! i0crease2 &y te0 per ce0t -hile th se i0t Pr1ssia 2 1&le29 C1&a0 s1!ar im3 p rte2 &y R1ssia i0crease2 &y ,i,ty per ce0t a02 )ra/ilia0 &y t-e0ty3,ive per ce0t i0 the same peri 2* ##$ T the capitalists this -as i0t lera&le* Overpr 21cti 0 i0 #B>< 2ema02e2 a& li3 ti 09 verpr 21cti 0 i0 #B== 2ema02e2 ema0cipati 0* :As ,ar as the am 10t , the pr 21cti 0 , s1!ar is c 0cer0e2": state2 Sta0ley" sp 0s r , the ema0cipati 0 meas1re" :I am 0 t 51ite certai0 that t s me e4te0t a 2imi01ti 0 , that pr 21cti 0 - 1l2 &e a matter , re!ret I am 0 t 51ite certai0 that it mi!ht 0 t &e , r the &e0e,it , the pla0ters a02 , the c l 0ies them3 selves" i0 the e02" i, that pr 21cti 0 -ere t &e 2imi0ishe2*: #?> A ce0t1ry &e, re the )ritish ha2 c mplai0e2 , West I02ia0 102erpr 21cti 0" 0 - they -ere c mplai0i0! , West I02ia0 verpr 21cti 0* C mm 0 se0se al 0e - 1l2 sh - that the ema0cipate2 Ne!r es - 1l2 remai0 0 the pla0tati 0s 0ly

THE NEW IN'USTRIAL OR'ER #@= -here they ha2 0 ch ice* I0 ,act" c mpari0! the years #B=$3 #B%? -ith the years #B=#3#B=%" the pr 21cti 0 , .amaica a02 +re0a2a 2ecli0e2 &y 0e3hal," )ritish +1ia0a7s &y three3,i,ths" St* Vi0ce0t7s &y t- 3,i,ths" Tri0i2a27s &y 0e3,i,th" a02 the ther isla02s pr p rti 0ately* #?# I0 D1sti,icati 0 , ema0cipati 0C it -as ar!1e2 that the re3

stricti 0 , pr 21cti 0 - 1l2 !ive the pla0ters a :real: m 0 p3 ly , the h me mar6et &y e51ati0! pr 21cti 0 -ith h me c 0s1mpti 0* This -as parliame0tary strate!y* Every e,, rt -as &ei0! ma2e t ma6e West I02ia0 c1ltivati 0 as e4pe0sive as p ssi&le* I0 #B=? the Tri0i2a2 C 10cil petiti 0e2 , r the a& liti 0 , the slave ta4 , 0e p 102 isla02 c1rre0cy per hea2* The C l 0ial O,,ice re,1se28 it -as : , very !reat imp rta0ce that this ta4 sh 1l2 &e c 0ti01e29 i0stea2 , re03 2eri0! slave la& 1r cheaper it is 2esira&le t re02er it 2earer*: #?? The iss1e at sta6e -as the m 0 p ly itsel,* It -as 0ly the West I02ia0 m 0 p ly -hich restricte2 the ,1ll 2evel pme0t , )rit3 ish tra2e i0 s1!ar -ith all the - rl2* The m 0 p ly there, re m1st &e 2estr ye2* I0 #B=; the m 0 p ly -as m 2i,ie2 &y a23 mitti0! East I02ia s1!ar 0 e51al terms* I0 # B%;" the year , the repeal , the C r0 La-s" the s1!ar 21ties -ere e51ali/e2* The )ritish West I02ia0 c l 0ies -ere therea,ter , r! tte0" 10til the Pa0ama Ca0al remi02e2 the - rl2 , their e4iste0ce a02 re3 v lts , their 102erpai2 ,ree - r6ers ma2e them ,r 0t3pa!e 0e-s*

$ 3 )RITISH CAPITALIS( AN' THE WEST IN'IES

WHEREAS )EFORE" i0 the ei!htee0th ce0t1ry" every imp rta0t veste2 i0terest i0 E0!la02 -as li0e2 1p 0 the si2e , m 0 p ly a02 the c l 0ial system9 a,ter #<B=" 0e &y 0e" every 0e , th se i0terests came 1t a!ai0st m 0 p ly a02 the West I02ia0 slave system* )ritish e4p rts t the - rl2 -ere i0 ma01,act1re2 ! 2s -hich c 1l2 &e pai2 , r 0ly i0 ra- materials the c t3 t 0 , the U0ite2 States" the c tt 0" c ,,ee a02 s1!ar , )ra/il" the s1!ar , C1&a" the s1!ar a02 c tt 0 , I02ia* The e4pa0si 0 , )ritish e4p rts 2epe02e2 0 the capacity , )ritai0 t a&s r& the ra- material as payme0t* The )ritish West I02ia0 m 0 p3 ly" pr hi&iti0! the imp rtati 0 , 0 03)ritish3pla0tati 0 s1!ar , r h me c 0s1mpti 0" st 2 i0 the -ay* Every imp rta0t veste2 i0terest the c tt 0 ma01,act1rers" the ship -0ers" the s1!ar re,i0ers9 every imp rta0t i021strial a02 c mmercial t -0 L 02 0" (a0chester" Liverp l" )irmi0!ham" She,,iel2" the West Ri2i0! , Y r6shire" D i0e2 i0 the attac6 0 West I02ia0 slavery a02 West I02ia0 m 0 p ly* The a& liti 0ists" si!3 0i,ica0tly" c 0ce0trate2 their attac6 0 the i021strial ce0ters* # A* THE COTTON (ANUFACTURERS The West I02ia0 pla0ters i0 the ei!htee0th ce0t1ry -ere & th e4p rters , ra- c tt 0 a02 imp rters , c tt 0 ma013

CAPITALIS( AN' THE WEST IN'IES #@@ ,act1res* I0 & th respects" as -e have see0" they ha2 &ec me i0creasi0!ly 0e!li!i&le* The steam e0!i0e a02 the c tt 0 !i0 cha0!e2 (a0chester7s i02i,,ere0ce i0t 2 -0ri!ht h stility* As early as #<BB Wil&er, rce e41lte2 at the ,act that a li&eral s1&3 scripti 0 t -ar2s a& liti 0 ha2 &ee0 raise2 at (a0chester" :2eeply i0tereste2 i0 the A,rica0 tra2e*: ? (a0chester -as 10represe0te2 i0 the H 1se , C mm 0s &e, re #B=?" s its parliame0tary 2e010ciati 0 , the West I02ia0 system c mes 0ly a,ter that 2ate* )1t the seat , the c tt 0 i021stry -as i0tereste2 i0 the pr &lem &e, re #B=?* I0 #B=> C &&ett" the - r6ers7 champi 0" prese0te2 himsel, as a ca02i2ate , r the c 0stit1e0cy , (a0chester* His pp siti 0 t the la02e2 i0terest - 1l2 have e02eare2 him t the later seat , the A0ti3C r0 La- Lea!1e* The test came 0 his at3 tit12e t West I02ia0 slavery* C &&ett hate2 Wil&er, rce a02 the (eth 2ists* Whe0 he ,le2 t the U0ite2 States i0 #B#B he -r te a letter t Orat r H10t" i0 -hich he state2 that America ha2 :N Wil&er, rces* Thi06 , thatM N Wil&er, rces*: = The (eth 2ists -ere :the vilest cre- + 2 ever s1,,ere2 t i0,est the earth": a02 he e0c 1ra!e2 the pe ple t pelt them -ith r tte0 e!!s* I0 his pi0i 0 the slaves -ere :,at a02 la/y 0i!3 !ers": la1!hi0! ,r m m r0i0! till 0i!ht" a02 the slave3 -0ers me0 as !e0tle" as !e0er 1s a02 as ! 2 as ever &reathe2* % The West I02ia0 m 0 p ly c st the E0!lish pe ple 0 thi0!* @ (a03 chester t1r0e2 him 2 -0" a02 his c 0versi 0 t the ca1se came t late* (a0chester -as pe0ly i0 ,av r , the campai!0 0 &ehal, , East I02ia s1!ar* O0 (ay %" #B?#" the (a0chester Cham&er , C mmerce prese0te2 a petiti 0 t the H 1se , C mm 0s 2eprecati0! a pre,ere0ce t 0e c l 0y ver a0 ther" a02 partic1larly a pre,ere0ce t a settleme0t , slaves ver a 0ati 0 , ,ree me0* ; I0 #B== (a0chester a2v cate2 the a2missi 0 , )ra/ilia0 s1!ar , r re,i0i0!* (ar6 Philips" its represe0tative i0 Parliame0t" sp 6e &rie,ly &1t tersely 0 the vast imp rta0ce , the s1&Dect t the !reat seat , the c tt 0 ma01,act1re -hich he represe0te2* He emphasi/e2 the har2ships imp se2 0 ships havi0! t ret1r0 ,r m )ra/il -ith 1t car! es" a02 ar!1e2 that the e0c 1ra!eme0t , s1!ar re,i0i0! - 1l2 i0crease empl y3 me0t , r the i021stri 1s la& ri0! classes* <

#@; CAPITALIS( AN' SLAVERY

I0 this si0!le 0ame Philips is s1mme2 1p the -h le ev l1ti 0 , (a0chester a02 its c tt 0 i021stry* I0 # <%$ the ,irm , .* N* Philips a02 C mpa0y -as 2eeply e0!a!e2 i0 the West I02ia0 tra2e* I0 #B=? (ar6 Philips -as electe2 as 0e , the t- mem3 &ers t represe0t (a0chester" , r the ,irst time" i0 the Re, rme2 Parliame0t* B Philips7 West I02ia0 c 00ecti 0s still persiste2* A relative , R &ert Hi&&ert" he -as selecte2 &y the latter as 0e

, the ,irst & ar2 , tr1stees t a2mi0ister the R &ert Hi&&ert Tr1st* $ )1t ec 0 mically his c 00ecti 0s -ith the West I02ies -ere ver* He -as pp se2 t the , 1l &l t , slavery" a se0ti3 me0t -hich ar 1se2 cheers at a 2i00er !ive0 i0 the t -0 t cele&rate his electi 0* (r* Ha2,iel27s el 51e0t h1ma0itaria0ism 0 the same ccasi 0 ev 6e2 l 12 appla1se* :I appeal t y 1 *** i, li&erty c 1l2 p ssi&ly &e e0D ye2 &y a0y rati 0al me0 -ith 1t the 2esire t c mm10icate it t thersI * * * Shall the mere 2isti0cti 0 , &lac6 a02 -hite , r ever ca1se 0e race t &e slaves -hile a0 ther is ,reeI Shall it al-ays &e that 0e ma0 sh 1l2 &e a slave &eca1se he is &lac6" a02 a0 ther &e ,ree &e3 ca1se he is -hiteI *** I tell y 1" that 10til -e -ash 1t this , 1l p ll1ti 0 ,r m the i0stit1ti 0s , 1r c 10try" li&erty it3 sel, is 0 t sa,e a0y-here*: #> The , 1l p ll1ti 0 -as 0 t slavery &1t m 0 p ly* (a0chester -as i0tereste2 0 t i0 the H ly Script1res &1t i0 the ce0s1s ret1r0s* A,ter #B== the (a0chester capitalists -ere all , r ,ree tra2e i0 s1!ar" -hich mea0t slave3!r -0 s1!ar* Philips s1pp rte2 the e51ali/ati 0 , the East I02ia0 s1!ar 21ties* The pla0ters ha2 ha2 their c mpe0sati 0 a02 sh 1l2 0 t !et a ,arthi0! m re* ## I0 #B=$ he -as , r the e51ali/ati 0 , the 21ties 0 all , rei!0 s1!ar" , r it -as the 21ty , Parliame0t t l -er the prices , all the 0ecessities , li,e a02 a,, r2 every e0c 1ra!eme0t t the val1a&le tra2e -ith )ra/il* #? . h0 )ri!ht a02 (il0er +i&s 0" -h at 0e time -as Vice3Presi2e0t , the ) ar2 , Tra2e" hel2 the ,ree tra2e ,la! al ,t* They ar!1e2 that the pr tecti0! 21ty t the West I02ia0s , rce2 the )ritish - r6i0! class t pay hi!her prices , r s1!ar a02 s t 6 a-ay ,r m them the m 0ey ear0e2 i0 the ,act ries* #= They calle2 the 21ty a0 : &3 0 4i 1s ta4": #% a :species , parliame0tary charity": #; -hich -as m re tha0 the c st , pr 21cti 0* I, the )ra/ilia0s c 1l2

CAPITALIS( AN' THE WEST IN'IES #@< !r - s1!ar , r 0 thi0!" i, their s1!ar rai0e2 2 -0 ,r m the s6ies" i, the West I02ia0 pla0ters ha2 st le0 their s1!ar" it - 1l2 have ma2e 0 2i,,ere0ce* #; Pr tecti 0" sai2 . h0 )ri!ht" -as a0 piate -hich ma2e the pla0ters everlasti0! !r1m&lers li6e Oliver T-ist al-ays as6i0! , r m re* #< The c tt 0 ma013 ,act1rers" he & aste2" as6e2 , r 0 pr tecti 0 a02 0ee2e2 0 0e" #B c 0ve0ie0tly , r!etti0! the pr tecti 0 they ha2 as6e2 , r a ce0t1ry a02 a hal, earlier a!ai0st I02ia0 ! 2s a02 i!0 ra0t , the pr tecti 0 they - 1l2 as6 , r three351arters , a ce03 t1ry later a!ai0st .apa0ese te4tiles* The ,ree tra2ers" )ri!ht -ar0e2" mi!ht &e 2e,eate2" &1t they - 1l2 ret1r0 t the char!e -ith re0e-e2 e0er!y* #$ The pla0ters7 2ema02s -ere imp13 2e0t9 ?> it -as 0 t the 21ty , Parliame0t t ma6e s1!ar c1lti3 vati 0 pr ,ita&le" ?# a02 )ri!ht a2vise2 them t !r - cl ves a02 01tme!s* ?? )* THE IRON(ASTERS As early as #<BB a0 a& liti 0 s ciety -as starte2 i0 )irmi0!3 ham a02 a li&eral s1&scripti 0 c llecte2 , r the ca1se* ?= I0 this

s ciety the ir 0masters -ere pr mi0e0t* Three , the Ll y2 ,amily" -ith their &a06i0! i0terests as -ell" -ere 0 the c m3 mittee* The 2 mi0a0t ,i!1re" h -ever" -as Sam1el +ar&ett* ?% +ar&ett -as a0 1tsta02i0! ,i!1re , the I021strial Rev l1ti 0" m re remi0isce0t , the t-e0tieth tha0 the ei!htee0th ce0t1ry* I0 his &rea2th , visi 0" the sc pe , his activities" the m1lti3 plicity , his i0terests" he remi02s 1s , Sam1el T 1chet* Li6e T 1chet a part0er i0 the spi00i0! e0terprise , Wyatt a02 Pa1l" +ar&ett -as a0 ass ciate , R e&1c67s i0 the Carr 0 W r6s" a shareh l2er -ith ) 1lt 0 a02 Watt i0 the Al&i 0 (ills a02 i0 the c pper mi0es , C r0-all* :There -ere i03 2ee2": -rites Asht 0" :,e- si2es , the i021strial a02 c mmer3 cial li,e , his 2ay that he 2i2 0 t t 1ch*: I0 a22iti 0 his e0er!y -as thr -0 i0t the p litics , i021stry rather tha0 i0t the 2etails , a2mi0istrati 0* He &ecame the ir 0master7s sp 6esma0 t the ! ver0me0t* ?@ This -as a 2a0!er 1s ma0 i02ee2 t have as a0 pp 0e0t" , r +ar&ett" i0 the lar!er se0se" -as )irmi0!ham"

#@B CAPITALIS( AN' SLAVERY

At a meeti0! , ma0y respecta&le i0ha&ita0ts , )irmi0!ham 0 .a01ary ?B" #<BB" Sam1el +ar&ett presi2i0!" it -as 2eci2e2 t se02 a petiti 0 t Parliame0t* The petiti 0 state2" i0ter alia" that" :as i0ha&ita0ts , a ma01,act1ri0! t -0 a02 0ei!h& 1rh 2 y 1r petiti 0ers have the c mmercial i0terests , this 6i0!3 2 m very 2eeply at heart9 &1t ca00 t c 0ceal their 2etestati 0 , a0y c mmerce -hich al-ays ri!i0ates i0 vi le0ce" a02 t ,te0 termi0ates i0 cr1elty*: +1stav1s Vasa" a0 A,rica0" visite2 )irmi0!ham" a02 receive2 a sympathetic -elc me* ?; This -as 0 t t say that )irmi0!ham -as 10a0im 1s r si0!le3mi02e2 0 the iss1e , a& liti 0* The ma01,act1rers still i0tereste2 i0 the slave tra2e hel2 c 10ter3meeti0!s a02 se0t c 10ter3petiti 0s t Parliame0t* ?< )1t Sam1el +ar&ett" the Ll y2s a02 thers , that cali&er -ere" ,r m the West I02ia0 sta02p i0t" 0 the -r 0! si2e , the ,e0ce* I0 #B=? )irmi0!ham -as the ce0ter , that a!itati 0 -hich" le2 &y the ir 0master Att- 2" &r 1!ht E0!la02 t the ver!e , rev l1ti 0 a02 c1lmi0ate2 i0 the Re, rm )ill , #B=?* A!ai0 the t -0 -as 2ivi2e2 0 the ema0cipati 0 iss1e* A p1&lic meet3 i0! hel2 i0 the Assem&ly R m , the R yal H tel 0 April # ;" #B==" -as , a 0 isy a02 t1r&1le0t character a02 e02e2 i0 2is r2er" the pr priet r claimi0! 2ama!es , r &r 6e0 chairs a02 !lass* ?B )irmi0!ham -as 0e , the ma0y i021strial ce0ters -hich v te2 i0 #B== , r a sh rter peri 2 , :appre0ticeship: 102er -hich" &y the Ema0cipati 0 Act" Ne!r slavery -as perpet1ate2 i0 a m 2i,ie2 , rm* . seph St1r!e -as a pr mi0e0t ,i!1re i0 the ema0cipati 0 str1!!le* A,ter #B== St1r!e t 6 the lea2 i0 E0!la02 i0 pr test a!ai0st the appre0ticeship system* With the a& liti 0ist +1r0ey he saile2 t the West I02ies i0 #B=; :-ith the &e0ev le0t i2ea , ma6i0! pers 0al i051iries as

t the state , the Ne!r p p1lati 0" i0 the h pe , &tai0i0! ,1rther ameli rati 0 , their c 02iti 0*: His sa,e ret1r0 the , l3 l -i0! year -as cele&rate2 &y a p1&lic &rea6,ast i0 his h 0 r at the T -0 Hall" i0 appreciati 0 , :his 10-earie2 phila03 thr pic e4erti 0s i0 the ca1se , 0e!r ema0cipati 0*: ?$ This -as 0i0etee0th ce0t1ry a02 0 l 0!er ei!htee0th ce0t1ry )ir3 mi0!ham" a02 yet a0 ther veste2 i0terest ha2 t1r0e2 a!ai0st the c l 0ial system*

CAPITALIS( AN' THE WEST IN'IES #@$ With )irmi0!ham may pr ,ita&ly &e c 0si2ere2 She,,iel2" the ce0ter , the steel i021stry* She,,iel27s i0terest i0 the c l 0ial system ha2 at m st &ee0 sli!ht9 :-ith 0 veste2 i0terest i0 the mai0te0a0ce , c l 0ial slavery" GitH ,,ere2 a ,av 1ra&le ,iel2 , r the a& liti 0ist*: She,,iel2" li6e (a0chester" )irmi0!ham a02 ther ce0ters , i021stry" -as 10represe0te2 i0 Parliame0t &e3 , re #B=?* It , rme2 a part , the c 10ty , Y r6 -h se repre3 se0tative -as ,irst Wil&er, rce a02 the0 )r 1!ham & th 1t3 sta02i0! a& liti 0ists* :I am a0 a2v cate , r the a& liti 0 , West I02ia0 slavery": campai!0e2 )r 1!ham i0 the t -0 i0 #B=>" :a02 & th r t a02 &ra0ch I -ill tear it 1p* I have l s3 e0e2 it alrea2y" a02 i, y 1 -ill assist me" I -ill &ra02ish it ver y 1r hea2s*: => S me part , She,,iel27s assista0ce ca0 &e attri&1te2 t its i03 terest i0 the East* I0 #B?@ the a& liti 0ists &e!a0 a & yc tt , West I02ia0 pr 21ce a02 1r!e2 the c 0s1mpti 0" i0stea2" , the s1!ar a02 r1m , I02ia* She,,iel2 -as the ce0ter , this m veme0t* A0 a14iliary s ciety -as , rme2 i0 the same year , r the relie, , the Ne!r slaves* The c mmittee r!a0i/e2 a th r 1!h campai!0 i0 the t -0* Each mem&er t 6 t- streets i0 r2er t ma6e a ca0vass as t the practica&ility , i021ci0! h 1se6eepers t a2 pt the 1se , East I02ia pr 21ce* The c m3 mittee estimate2 that , r every si4 ,amilies -h 1se2 East I02ia s1!ar 0e slave less -as re51ire2 i0 the West I02ies &vi 1sly a ,ar3,etche2 ar!1me0t" &1t a0y stic6 -as ! 2 e0 1!h , r &eati0! the West I02ia0s" s l 0! as the West I02ia0s -ere &eate0* :S1rely": the c mmittee 1r!e2 their ,ell - t -0sme0" :t release a ,ell -3creat1re ,r m the state , cr1el & 02a!e a02 misery" &y s small a sacri,ice" is - rthy the atte0ti 0 , all*: She,,iel2 r se t the ccasi 08 the sale , East I02ia s1!ar 2 1&le2 i0 si4 m 0ths* =# I0 (ay" #B==" the A0ti3Slavery S ciety , the t -0 , r3 -ar2e2 a mem rial t the Prime (i0ister 1r!i0! imme2iate rather tha0 !ra21al ema0cipati 0* =? T the e02 it pr teste2 a!ai0st c mpe0sati 0 t the slave -0ers a02 the appre0tice3 ship scheme" a02 She,,iel2" li6e )irmi0!ham" v te2 1ltimately , r termi0ati0! the appre0ticeship i0 the sh rtest p ssi&le time" ==

l;

CAPITALIS( AN' SLAVERY

C* THE WOOLEN IN'USTRY The - le0 i021stry" t " D i0e2 the ch r1s , pp siti 0* Wil&er, rce a02 )r 1!ham sp 6e" 0 t 0ly , r the h1ma0itar3 ia0s" &1t als , r the - le0 ce0ters* Was the H 1se" as6e2 (r* Stric6la02 , r Y r6shire i0 #B==" t ta6e ,ree2 m , c mmerce a02 the e4te0si 0 , the empl yme0t , capital as the r1le i0 le!islati0!" r -as it t i0crease m 0 p lies &y restricti 0sI He !ave the a0s-er himsel,8 all m 0 p lies 1!ht t &e rem ve2" as 2estr1ctive t the pr !ress" , c mmerce* =% . h0 )ri!ht i0 c tt 0" Sam1el +ar&ett i0 ir 0* These -ere mi!hty 0ames" t &e D i0e2 &y 0e mi!htier still" spea6i0! , r the - le0 i021stry Richar2 C &2e0* O0 the 51esti 0 , the West I02ia0 m 0 p ly the eva0!elist , ,ree tra2e a02 the lea2er , the A0ti3C r0 La- Lea!1e sp 6e -ith a vi! r" a l !ic a02 a p p1lar s1pp rt that -ere irresisti&le* The West I02ia0s7 claim t the m 0 p ly -as" i0 pri0ciple" a0 a12acity* There -as a time" th102ere2 C &2e0" res1rrecti0! the sha2es , the L 0! Parliame0t a02 Charles I" -he0 0 mem3 &er - 1l2 have 2are2 t rise i0 Parliame0t t ma6e a claim 0 the !r 102 , a m 0 p ly* =@ (e0 , &1si0ess - 1l2 calc1late the c st" a02 c 1l2 0 t &e e4pecte2 t &e satis,ie2 i, they , 102 themselves payi0! hal, as m1ch i0 e4pe0ses as the -h le val1e , the c l 0ial tra2e* =; I, )ritai0 ha2 ma2e a prese0t t the pla0ters , her e4p rts" i0 ret1r0 , r ,ree tra2e -ith )ra/il a02 C1&a" she - 1l2 act1ally have !ai0e2* =< The0 -hat s rt , tra2e -as thisI :It -as precisely as i, a sh p6eeper sh 1l2 !ive" -ith every p 1027s - rth , ! 2s" hal, a s verei!0 t his c1st mer*: The H 1se , C mm 0s c 021cte2 &1si0ess -ith less -is2 m tha0 -as re51ire2 , r the s1ccess,1l ma0a!eme0t , a cha02ler7s sh p* =B O0 the ar!1me0t that the 2i,,ere0tial 21ty i0 ,av r , West I02ia0 s1!ar -as i0te02e2 t pr hi&it the c 0s1mpti 0 , slave3 !r -0 s1!ar C &2e0 p 1re2 -itheri0! sc r0* What ri!ht ha2 a pe ple -h -ere the lar!est 2istri&1t rs , te4tiles t ! t )ra/il -ith their ships ,1ll , c tt 0 ! 2s ma01,act1re2 ,r m slave3!r -0 material" a02 the0 t1r0 1p the -hites , their eyes" she2 cr c 2ile tears ver the slaves a02 re,1se t ta6e slave3

CAPITALIS( AN' THE WEST IN'IES l;l !r -0 s1!ar i0 ret1r0I =$ The sit1ati 0 -as ,arcical" a02 C &3 2e0 -r te a s6it 0 it i0 the , rm , a0 ima!i0ary i0tervie- at the ) ar2 , Tra2e &et-ee0 L r2 Rip 0 a02 the )ra/ilia0 Am3 &assa2 r* The Am&assa2 r ta10ts the em&arrasse2 L r2 Rip 08 :N reli!i 1s scr1ples a!ai0st se02i0! slave3!r -0 c tt 0s i0t every c 10try i0 the - rl2I N reli!i 1s scr1ples a!ai0st eat3 i0! slave3!r -0 riceI N reli!i 1s scr1ples a!ai0st sm 6i0! slave3!r -0 t &acc I N reli!i 1s scr1ples a!ai0st ta6i0! slave3

!r -0 s01,,I* * * * Am I t 102ersta02 that the reli!i 1s scr1ples , the E0!lish pe ple are c 0,i0e2 t the article , s1!arI: Rip 0" &vi 1sly 10c m, rta&le" reiterates his i0a&ility t ta6e )ra/ilia0 s1!ar" a02 plea2s" i0 2e,e0ce" the pr mpti0!s , the A0ti3Slavery Party le2 &y . seph St1r!e* At this m me0t i0 -al6s St1r!e" -ith a c tt 0 cravat" a hat li0e2 -ith calic " a c at se-0 -ith c tt 0 threa2" p c6ets -ell li0e2 -ith slave -r 1!ht ! l2 a02 sliver* The t- 2ipl mats &1rst i0t la1!hter* %> L !ic" i, 0 t h1ma0ity" -as 0 C &2e07s si2e* S -as the A0ti3Slavery Party* That party" he & aste2 -ith D1stice" ha2 ha2 its stre0!th a02 hea251arters i0 the i021strial t -0s" a02 -as 0 - i0 the ra06s , the C r0 La- repealers* %# He a02 they sp 6e -ith 0e v ice* :I am the represe0tative , the - lle0 i021stry": he asserte2 i0 #B%B" :a0 i02i!e0 1s i021stry" , -hich there is 0 Deal 1sy i0 this H 1se* *** I am the repre3 se0tative , a c 10ty -hich -as emi0e0t i0 the slavery m ve3 me0t* * * * N -" I 10hesitati0!ly assert that 0early all the me0 -h le2 the a!itati 0 , r the ema0cipati 0 , the slaves" a02 -h &y their i0,l1e0ce 0 p1&lic pi0i 0 ai2e2 i0 pr 21ci0! that res1lt" are a!ai0st th se h 0* +e0tleme0 i0 this H 1se -h a2v cate a 2i,,ere0tial 21ty 0 , rei!0 s1!ar -ith a vie- t p1t 2 -0 slavery a&r a2*: %? '* LIVERPOOL AN' +LAS+OW Perhaps the m st &itter ,act , r the West I02ia0s -as that Liverp l" t " t1r0e2 a02 &it the ha02 that ha2 ,e2 it* I0 #B>< there -ere still seve0ty3t- slave tra2ers i0 the t -0" a02 it -as ,r m Liverp l that the last , the E0!lish slave tra2ers"

#;? CAPITALIS( AN' SLAVERY

Captai0 H1!h Cr -" saile2 D1st &e, re the a& liti 0 &ill &ecame e,,ective* %= )1t i, Tarlet 0 c 0ti01e2 his pp siti 0 i0 Parlia3 me0t t s 0ecessary a meas1re as the a& liti 0 , the )ritish slave tra2e t the , rei!0 s1!ar c l 0ies" %% i0 #B>< Liverp l -as als represe0te2 &y William R sc e" -h se a0ti3slavery se0time0ts have alrea2y &ee0 0 tice2* Whilst Liverp l still carrie2 0 the slave tra2e i0 #B><" the slave tra2e ha2 &ec me less vital t the p rt7s e4iste0ce* I0 # <$? 0e 1t , every t-elve ships &el 0!i0! t the p rt -as e0!a!e2 i0 the slave tra2e9 i0 #B>< 0e 1t , every t-e0ty3, 1r* %@ I0 #<<?" -he0 #># Liverp l ships -ere e0!a!e2 i0 the slave tra2e" the 2 c6 21ties -ere %"@@?9 i0 #<<$" -he0" as a res1lt , the America0 Rev l1ti 0" 0ly eleve0 ships saile2 ,r m Liverp l t A,rica" the 2 c6 21ties -ere %"$@<* %; I0 #B?% they -ere i= " * %< Clearly a& liti 0 c 1l2 0 t r1i0 Liverp l* As R sc e state2" the i0ha&ita0ts , the t -0 -ere 0 t 10a0im 1s i0 pp si0! a& liti 0" a02 t th se -h - 1l2 &e a,,ecte2 &y the meas1re" he hel2 1t the e0tici0! pr spect , a tra2e -ith

I02ia &y plea2i0! that the a&r !ati 0 , the East I02ia C m3 pa0y7s m 0 p ly - 1l2 &e c mpe0sati 0 , r a0y l ss -hich the a& liti 0 , the slave tra2e mi!ht i0,lict 0 )ritish mer3 cha0ts* %B )1t i, Liverp l t1r0e2 a!ai0st the slave tra2e" it still retai0e2 its i0terest i0 slavery* It -as 0 l 0!er" h -ever" West I02ia0 slavery &1t America0" 0 l 0!er s1!ar &1t c tt 0* The America0 c tt 0 tra2e &ecame the m st imp rta0t si0!le tra2e , Liverp l* I0 #B>? hal, , )ritai07s c tt 0 imp rts came thr 1!h Liverp l" i0 #B#? t- 3thir2s" i0 #B== 0i0e3te0ths* %$ Liverp l ha2 &1ilt 1p (a0chester i0 the ei!htee0th ce0t1ry9 (a0chester &la/e2 the trail i0 the 0i0etee0th a02 Liverp l tr12!e2 &e2ie0tly &ehi02* I0 the a!e , merca0tilism (a03 chester -as Liverp l7s hi0terla02" i0 the a!e , laisse/ ,aire Liverp l -as (a0chester7s s1&1r&* Liverp l , ll -e2 the ,ree3tra2e lea2 !ive0 &y the c tt 0 capital* Am 0! its represe0tatives a,ter #B>< it selecte2 Ca00i0! a02 H1s6iss 0" me0 -h sp 6e the la0!1a!e , ,ree tra2e" i, i0 s me-hat s1&21e2 t 0es* E4cl1sive privile!es" sai2 H1s6iss 0 i0 #B=>" -ere 1t , ,ashi 0" @> there&y ear0i0! the ma!0i,ice0t

CAPITALIS( AN' THE WEST IN'IES #;= service , plate the t -0 ha2 &est -e2 0 him as a :testim 0y , GherH se0se , the &e0e,its 2erive2 t the 0ati 0 at lar!e ,r m the e0li!hte0e2 system , c mmercial p licy &r 1!ht , r-ar2 &y him as Presi2e0t , the ) ar2 , Tra2e*: @# A0y mi0ister" sai2 its 0e- represe0tative E-art i0 #B==" thi06i0! , (a0chester7s ! 2s" -h sh 1l2 c 0ti01e t imp se ,etters 0 )ritish c mmerce 2eserve2 t &e impeache2* @? The mercha0ts a02 ship -0ers , the t -0 petiti 0e2 Parliame0t i0 the same year" prayi0! that the e4cl1sive c l 0ial m 0 p ly , the h me mar6et &e c 0si2ere2* @= There -as a p -er,1l )ra/ilia0 Ass ciati 0 i0 the t -0" emphasi/i0! that" as a res1lt , the West I02ia0 m 0 p ly" m re tha0 t- milli 0s , )ritish capi3 tal -ere , rce2 i0t ther cha00els" !ivi0! empl yme0t t , r3 ei!0 shippi0! a02 payi0! t , rei!0ers ,rei!hts" c mmissi 0s a02 char!es" t the !reat l ss , )ritish ship -0ers* @% The mercha0ts a02 ship -0ers , Liverp l e4presse2 the h pe that -hile Parliame0t -as le!islati0! , r the &e0e,it , slaves i0 2ista0t c l 0ies" it - 1l2 als c 0si2er the prese0t c 02iti 0 a02 ,1t1re -el,are , the la& ri0! p p1lati 0 at h me* @@ I0 +las! -" t " the West I02ia0s l st a0 ther ,rie02* The 2ays , (ac2 -all a02 the s1!ar heiresses -ere ver* The cha0!e ca0 &e sym& li/e2 i0 the vicissit12es , 0e +las! ,amily* I0 the ei!htee0th ce0t1ry a h1m&le citi/e0 , the t -0" Richar2 Os-al2" mi!rate2 t L 02 0* There" thr 1!h a , r3 t10ate marria!e -ith a0 heiress , !reat s1!ar pla0tati 0s" he ma2e his , rt10e* @; He -as , r years a lar!e 2ealer i0 slaves" -0i0! his -0 ,act ry 0 )e0ce Isla02 i0 the m 1th , the Sierra Le 0e River* @< The -ealth eve0t1ally passe2 t .ames Os-al2" +las! -7s ,irst represe0tative i0 the Re, rme2 Parlia3

me0t* I0 #B== Os-al2 prese0te2 a petiti 0" &eari0! the si!0a3 t1res , ma0y respecta&le me0" prayi0! , r a re21cti 0 , the e4cessive 21ties levie2 0 )ra/ilia0 s1!ar imp rte2 , r re,i0i0!* @B E* THE SU+AR REFINERS I0 the 0i0etee0th ce0t1ry 0 less tha0 i0 the ei!htee0th )ritai07s am&iti 1s pla0 -as t &ec me the s1!ar emp ri1m , the - rl2" t s-eete0 the - rl27s tea a02 c ,,ee as the I021s3

#;% CAPITALIS( AN' SLAVERY

trial Rev l1ti 0 ha2 permitte2 her t cl the the - rl2* This - rl2 vie- -as i0 c 0,lict 0 t 0ly -ith the 2ecli0i0! imp r3 ta0ce , West I02ia0 pr 21cti 0 relative t - rl2 pr 21cti 0" &1t als -ith the persiste0t 2etermi0ati 0 , the West I02ia0 pla0ters t restrict their c1ltivati 0 i0 r2er t mai0tai0 m 0 p ly prices* The slave i0s1rrecti 0 i0 Sai0t ' mi0!1e se0t the prices , s1!ar i0 the E1r pea0 mar6et spiralli0!* Prices r se &y ,i,ty per ce0t &et-ee0 Septem&er" #<BB" a02 April" I<$=* ;$ The s1!ar re,i0ers , E0!la02 se0t a petiti 0 t Parliame0t i0 #<$?* They -ere 0 l 0!er as m 2est as they ha2 &ee0 , rty years &e, re* They &lame2 the evils , the West I02ia0 m 0 p ly" p i0te2 t :the 2ecay , their 0ce ,l 1rishi0! ma01,act ry": praye2 , r the a2missi 0 , , rei!0 s1!ar i0 )ritish ships at hi!her 21ties" a02 2ema02e2 the e51ali/ati 0 , the 21ties 0 East a02 )ritish West I02ia0 s1!ar* >> Sa& ta!e ha2 &e!10" ri!ht i0 the West I02ia0 pla0ter7s &ac6yar2* P1&lic pi0i 0 10D1stly &lame2 the re,i0ers , r the hi!h prices* ;# )1t a c mmittee set 1p at a p1&lic meeti0! t c 0si2er mea0s , re21ci0! the price , s1!ar e4 0erate2 the re,i0ers a02 a2v cate2 the a2missi 0 , East I02ia s1!ar 0 e51al terms as :a0 act , D1stice*: ;? The I02ia0 51esti 0" as -e have see0" -as si2etrac6e2 -he0 the rich Sai0t ' mi0!a0 pl1m -as 2a0!le2 &e, re the eyes , the )ritish + ver0me0t* )1t the iss1e -as revive2 i0 the #B?>N@" -he0 I02ia 0ee2e2 t e4p rt s me ra- material -ith -hich t pay , r )ritish ma01,act1res* C mpetiti 0 -ith America0 c t3 t 0 -as imp ssi&le" ;= s I02ia0 tra2ers" it -as 1r!e2" ha2 t ch se &et-ee0 s1!ar a02 the sa02s , the +a0!es* ;% The East I02ia0s sp 6e ,ree tra2e &1t their real aim -as t share the West I02ia0 m 0 p ly , the h me mar6et* Here they a02 the re,i0ers parte2 c mpa0y* As Ricar2 p1t it8 :N e4cl1sive pr tecti 0 sh 1l2 &e !ra0te2 t either the East r the West I02ies" a02 -e sh 1l2 &e ,ree t imp rt 1r s1!ar ,r m a0y 51arter -hatever* N p ssi&le i0D1ry c 1l2 arise ,r m this*: ;@ The sit1ati 0 , the s1!ar re,i0ers i0 #B=# -as 2esperate* The West I02ia0s ha2 a m 0 p ly , the h me mar6et* I02ia0 s1!ar c 1l2 &e imp rte2 0ly at e4cessive 21ties" e4cept , r re3 e4p rt* A001al acts -ere passe2 &y Parliame0t permitti0! the

CAPITALIS( AN' THE WEST IN'IES #;@ imp rtati 0 , )ra/ilia0 a02 C1&a0 s1!ar s lely , r re,i0i0! a02 re3e4p rtati 0* This -as clearly 10satis,act ry* There -as a lar!e capital i0veste2 i0 the s1!ar re,i0i0! i021stry" estimate2 at &et-ee0 three a02 , 1r milli 0s i0 iB=i* ;; As a res1lt , the pr hi&iti 0 , all &1t )ritish West I02ia0 s1!ar the i021stry -as 0 the ver!e , r1i0* The hi!her c sts , )ritish West I02ia0 s1!ar mea0t that c 0ti0e0tal re,i0ers -ere 2isplaci0! the )ritish i0 all the E1r pea0 mar6ets* I0 #B=> there -ere ??% pa0s at - r6 i0 L 02 09 i0 #B== less tha0 0e3thir2 that 01m3 &er* T- 3thir2s , the s1!ar re,i0i0! tra2e i0 the e0tire c 10try -as at a c mplete sta02still* ;< Were the West I02ia0 i0terests" as6e2 . h0 W 2 , r the s1!ar re,i0ers , Prest 0" al 0e t &e re!ar2e2I ;B W 1l2 Parlia3 me0t" :t !rati,y m 0 p lists" c 0se0t t r1i0 1r ,1t1re re3 s 1rces:I ;$ )ritai0" sai2 H1s6iss 0 , the ) ar2 , Tra2e" mi!ht &e ma2e the e0trep t , the s1!ar , the - rl2" a02 mi!ht there&y !ive empl yme0t t her i2le me0 a02 i2le capital i0 re,i0i0! that s1!ar , r the mar6ets , E1r pe* I02ee2" he 60e- , 0 cha00el i0 -hich capital mi!ht &e m re &e0e,icially empl ye2 tha0 i0 s1!ar re,i0i0!* <> Relie, ,r m the West I02ia0 m 0 p ly" sai2 William Clay , r the s1!ar re,i0i0! 2istrict , the T -er Hamlets" :- 1l2 &e cheaply p1rchase2 &y !ra0ti0! the West I02ia pr priet rs the ,1ll am 10t , the c mpe0sa3 ti 0 pr p se2*: <# This -as ! i0! t ,ast , r a ! ver0me0t still 2 mi0ate2" i0 #B=?" &y the la02e2 arist cracy a02 there, re sympathetic t its c l 0ial &rethre0* The ! ver0me0t a2 pte2 a temp rary c m3 pr mise* I0 ret1r0 , r ema0cipati 0" the ri!ht , the West I02ia0s t the m 0 p ly , the h me mar6et -as c 0,irme2" -hilst the 10restricte2 imp rtati 0 , , rei!0 s1!ar -as per3 mitte2 &1t 0ly , r re,i0i0! a02 e4p rt t E1r pe* The sit1ati 0 -as ,a0tastic* The e4pla0ati 0 ,,ere2 -as that )ra/ilia0 a02 C1&a0 s1!ar -as slave3!r -0* )1t s -ere Amer3 ica0 c tt 0 a02 )ra/ilia0 c ,,ee* I, the same restricti 0s ha2 &ee0 applie2 t , rei!0 c tt 0 as -ere applie2 t , rei!0 s1!ar" -hat - 1l2 have &ec me , )ritai07s i021strial pre3emi0e0ce i0 the - rl2I The 2isti0cti 0 &et-ee0 ,ree3!r -0 a02 slave3 !r -0 pr 21cts -as a pri0ciple , r i02ivi21al a!e0cy" 0 t a

l;; CAPITALIS( AN' SLAVERY

r1le -hich c 1l2 2irect i0ter0ati 0al c mmerce* <? The capital3 ists -a0te2 0ly cheap s1!ar* They c 1l2 see 0ly 0e thi0!" that it -as :m 0str 1s: t have t 2epe02 , r their s1pply 0 s1!ar pr 21ce2 at a m 0 p ly price* <= They c 1l2 0 t" as

L r2 La0s2 -0e p1t it" try thi0!s &y a special therm meter" -hich r se t & ili0! p i0t 0 C1&a0 s1!ar" a02 sa06 t a m st a!reea&le temperat1re 0 Car li0a c tt 0* <% F* SHIPPIN+ AN' SEA(EN The West I02ia0s ha2 al-ays p i0te2" i0 D1sti,icati 0 , their system" t their c 0tri&1ti 0 t the 0aval s1premacy , E0!3 la02* Tha06s t the researches , Clar6s 0" E0!la02 lear0e2 the price she ha2 t pay , r this c 0tri&1ti 0* )ear2i0! the li 0 i0 his 2e0" Clar6s 0" at m1ch pers 0al ris6" r ame2 the 2 c6s , Liverp l" )rist l a02 L 02 0" 51esti 0e2 seame0" e4ami0e2 m1ster r lls a02 c llecte2 evi2e0ce -hich -as a terri,ic i02ict3 me0t , the e,,ects , the slave tra2e" 0 t 0 - 1p 0 the &lac6s" &1t 1p 0 the -hites* Acc r2i0! t Clar6s 0" the pr p rti 0 , 2eaths i0 the slave tra2e c mpare2 t th se i0 the Ne-, 102la02 tra2e -as as t-e0ty t 0e* <@ Wil&er, rce estimate2 the a001al l sses at 0e3, 1rth , the sail rs* <> Fr m the m1ster r lls , Liverp l a02 )rist l he sh -e2 Parliame0t that 0 =@> slave vessels" -ith #?"?;= seame0" there -ere ?";%= 2eaths t-e0ty3 0e a02 a hal, per ce0t i0 t-elve m 0ths" -hereas , %;? ships e0!a!e2 i0 the West I02ia0 tra2e" -ith <";%> seame0 there -ere 0ly # #B 2eaths i0 seve0 m 0ths r less tha0 three per ce0t a001ally* << William Smith e4pl 2e2 the ,allacy that the slave tra2e -as resp 0si&le , r i0tr 21ci0! ma0y :la02sme0: t the mari0e* The pr p rti 0 , the la02sme0" ,r m the )rist l m1ster r lls" -as 0e3t-el,th9 i0 Liverp l it -as 0e3si4tee0th* <B Acc r23 i0! t L r2 H -ic6" the l sses am 0! seame0 i0 the slave tra2e -ere ei!ht times the l sses i0 the West I02ia0 tra2e" a02 the , rmer -as 10i51e i0 the rea2i0ess -ith -hich me0 2eserte2 it 0 their arrival i0 the West I02ies , r the Fi0!7s ships* <$ The A& liti 0 C mmittee 2eclare2 that the m rtality i0 the slave tra2e -as m re tha0 2 1&le that , all the ther &ra0ches , c mmerce i0 the 6i0!2 m* B> . h0 Ne-t 0" a0 a1th rity 0

CAPITALIS( AN' THE WEST IN'IES #;< the s1&Dect" sp 6e , the :tr1ly alarmi0!: l ss i0 the slave tra2e* B# Ramsay s1mme2 1p the !e0eral ,eeli0!8 :It , rms 0 t &1t 2estr ys seame0* A02 this 2estr1cti 0 , seame0 is a str 0! ar!1me0t , r the a& liti 0 , it* I, -e have a0y re!ar2 t the lives , seame0" -e 1!ht t a&a02 0 a &ra0ch , tra2e -hich 2issipates the me0 i0 s 10pr ,ita&le a ma00er*: B? )y #B>< the ship -0ers7 i0terest i0 the slave tra2e ha2 2e3 cli0e2 c 0si2era&ly* O0 the avera!e , te0 years prece2i0! # B>> the capital i0veste2 i0 the slave tra2e -as less tha0 ,ive per ce0t , the t tal e4p rt tra2e , the c 10try9 i0 # B>< it -as 0e a02 a 51arter per ce0t* I0 # B>@ t- per ce0t , )ritish e4p rt t 00a!e" e4cl12i0! Irela02 a02 the c astal tra2e" -as empl ye2 i0 the slave tra2e" 0ly , 1r per ce0t , the seame0 e0!a!e2 i0 !e0eral tra2e* B=

The ship -0ers" t " &e!a0 t ,i02 the West I02ia0 m 0 p3 ly ir6s me* They -ere pr mise2 that e51ali/ati 0 , the 21ties 0 East I02ia s1!ar - 1l2 !ive empl yme0t t , rty per ce0t m re shippi0!* B% )ritish shippi0! e0!a!e2 i0 the tra2e t I02ia i0crease2 , 1r times &et-ee0 #B#? a02 #B?B" a02 H1s6iss 0 a2mitte2 that the 2i,,ic1lty -as t ,i02 ret1r0s ,r m I02ia* B@ The ship -0ers -ere e51ally alive t the val1e , )ra/ilia0 s1!ar* P 1lett Th ms 0 , the ) ar2 , Tra2e emphasi/e2 that the imp rtati 0 , , rei!0 s1!ar , r re,i0i0! -as m st &e0e,icial t the i0terests , the )ritish ship -0ers* B; Acc r2i0! t E-art" s1ch a0 imp rtati 0 - 1l2 ,1r0ish ,rei!ht , r #?>">>> t 0s , shippi0! a001ally ,r m )ra/il al 0e" -hile Sa0t ' mi0! GSpa0ishH" C1&a" (a0ila a02 Si0!ap re - 1l2 pr vi2e car! es , r a ,1rther ?>>">>> t 0s* B< (ar6 Philips t l2 the H 1se a pite 1s tale , vessels ret1r0i0! ,r m )ra/il empty i0 #B=? ,i,ty3 0e vessels saile2 ,r m Liverp l t Ri 2e .a0eir " 0 t 0e , -hich c 1l2 !et a ret1r0 car! h me* BB Acc r2i0! t William Clay" , , 1r )ritish vessels -hich ha2 saile2 m 0thly ,r m Liverp l t )ra/il i0 #B=?" 0 t 0e ha2 ret1r0e2 -ith the pr 21ce -ith -hich their car! es ha2 &ee0 p1rchase2* B$ The ship -0ers -ere all , r ,ree tra2e" &1t 0ly -he0 s me3 0e else7s m 0 p ly -as i0v lve2* I0 #B?@ the Navi!ati 0 La-s -ere m 2i,ie2* The )ritish West I02ies -ere !ive0 permissi 0 t tra2e -ith every part , the - rl2* This -as the thi0 e2!e

l;B CAPITALIS( AN' SLAVERY

, the -e2!e* I0 #B%B the Navi!ati 0 La-s" the very heart a02 c re , the c l 0ial system" -ere s-ept a-ay &y the ,1ll ti2e , laisse/ ,a6e as the l1m&er , , rmer times* Ricar2 ri2ic1le2 the r 102a& 1t a02 e4pe0sive -ay -here&y e43 cha0!es , pr 21ce -ere carrie2 0* He 51 te2 0e i0sta0ce -here America0 hi2es -ere ta6e0 ,r m (arseilles t R tter2am* N t ,i02i0! a mar6et" they -ere ta6e0 &ac6 t (arseilles" -he0ce they -ere se0t t Liverp l* At Liverp l they -ere sei/e2 0 the !r 102 that they -ere imp rte2 i0 a Fre0ch vessel" a02 release2 0ly 0 the c 02iti 0 that they sh 1l2 &e se0t &ac6 t Ne- Y r6* The Spa0iar2" Ricar2 c 0ti01e2" -as 0 t permitte2 &y the E0!lish Navi!ati 0 La-s t ta6e i0 a car! , s1!ar at C1&a , r 2elivery t a Fre0ch p rt" -here he - 1l2 ta6e i0 -i0e , r E0!la02* I0 E0!la02 he - 1l2 &e met &y a c1st m h 1se ,,icer" -h - 1l2 tell him that he c 1l2 0 t la02 his car! * :WhyI: the Spa0iar2 - 1l2 i051ire* :I 102erst 2 y 1 -a0te2 -i0e*: :S -e 2 ": the ,,icer - 1l2 reply* The0 the Spa0iar2 - 1l2 say" :I -ill e43 cha0!e my -i0e , r y 1r earthe0-are*: :That -ill 0 t 2 ": replies the ,,icer* :It m1st &e &r 1!ht &y Fre0chme0 0 a Fre0ch ship*: :)1t the Fre0ch 2 0 t -a0t y 1r earthe0-are*: :We ca00 t help that": the ,,icer replies* :We m1st 0 t let y 1 vi late 1r Navi!ati 0 La-s*: I, the Spa0iar2s -a0te2 earthe0-are" c 0cl12e2 Ricar2 " the Fre0ch s1!ar" a02 the

E0!lish -i0e" :-hy 0 earth sh 1l2 -e , r&i2 the 0at1ral c 1rse , the tra0sacti 0I : ( The ship -0ers - 1l2 have 0 0e , it* They ha2 v te2 a!ai0st the m 0 p ly , c r0 a02 the m 0 p ly , s1!ar &1t - 1l2 0 t reli051ish the m 0 p ly , shippi0!* Where c r0 a02 s1!ar -ere 0 the r10" shippi0! c 1l2 e0D y 0 imm10ity* I0 #B%B the Navi!ati 0 La-s -ere repeale2* The ,i0al 0ail -as 2rive0 i0t the c ,,i0 , merca0tilism -he0 Ricar2 a2vise2 the a2v cates , the :l 0! v ya!e: t sail their car! three times r 102 the )ritish Isles* $#

IO 3 :THE CO((ERCIAL PART OF THE NATION: AN' SLAVERY

THE CAPITALISTS ha2 ,irst e0c 1ra!e2 West I02ia0 slavery a02 the0 helpe2 t 2estr y it* Whe0 )ritish capitalism 2e3 pe02e2 0 the West I02ies" they i!0 re2 slavery r 2e,e02e2 it* Whe0 )ritish capitalism , 102 the West I02ia0 m 0 p ly a 01isa0ce" they 2estr ye2 West I02ia0 slavery as the ,irst step i0 the 2estr1cti 0 , West I02ia0 m 0 p ly* That slavery t them -as relative 0 t a&s l1te" a02 2epe02e2 0 latit12e a02 l 0!it12e" is pr ve2 a,ter #B== &y their attit12e t slavery i0 C1&a" )ra/il a02 the U0ite2 States* They ta10te2 their pp 3 0e0ts -ith seei0! slavery 0ly -here they sa- s1!ar a02 limiti0! their &servati 0 t the circ1m,ere0ce , a h !shea2* # They re,1se2 t ,rame their tari,, 0 !r 102s , m rality" erect a p1lpit i0 every c1st m h 1se" a02 ma6e their la02i0!3 -aiters e0, rce a0ti3slavery 2 ctri0es* ? )e, re a02 a,ter #B#@ the )ritish ! ver0me0t trie2 t &ri&e the Spa0ish a02 P rt1!1ese ! ver0me0ts i0t a& liti 0 , the slave tra2e i0 #B#B Spai0 -as !ive0 %>>">>> i0 ret1r0 , r a pr mise t 2 s * All t 0 avail* The treaties -ere treate2 as scraps , paper" as a& liti 0 - 1l2 have r1i0e2 C1&a a02 )ra/il* The )ritish ! ver0me0t" there, re" 1r!e2 0 &y the West I02ia0s" 2eci2e2 t a2 pt m re 2rastic meas1res* Wel3 li0!t 0 -as se0t t the i0ter0ati 0al c 0,ere0ce at Ver 0a t #;$

#<> CAPITALIS( AN' SLAVERY

pr p se that the C 0ti0e0tal P -ers & yc tt the pr 21ce

c 10tries still e0!a!e2 i0 the slave tra2e* I, he -ere met -ith the i051iry" -hether )ritai0 -as similarly prepare2 t e4cl12e the pr 21ce , slave3tra2i0! c 10tries imp rte2 0 t , r c 03 s1mpti 0 &1t i0 tra0sit" he -as t e4press his rea2i0ess t re,er that pr p siti 0 , r imme2iate c 0si2erati 0 t his ! ver03 me0t* = These i0str1cti 0s 2i2 little D1stice t the perspicacity , the C 0ti0e0tal statesme0* Welli0!t 07s pr p sal -as re3 ceive2 i0 sile0ce" a02 he &serve2 :th se sympt ms , 2is3 appr &ati 0 a02 2isse0t -hich c 0vi0ce me 0 t 0ly that it -ill 0 t &e a2 pte2" &1t that the s1!!esti 0 , it is attri&1te2 t i0tereste2 m tives 0 t c 00ecte2 -ith the h1ma0e 2esire , a& lishi0! the slave tra2eM: % As Ca00i0! rep rte2 t his ca&i0et8 :The pr p se2 re,1sal t a2mit )ra/ilia0 s1!ar i0t the 2 mi0i 0s , the Emper rsN a02 the Fi0! , Pr1ssia -as met Gas mi!ht &e e4pecte2H -ith a smile9 -hich i02icate2 0 the part , the c 0ti0e0tal statesme0 a s1spici 0 that there mi!ht &e s methi0! , sel,3i0terest i0 1r s1!!esti 0 , r e4cl12i0! the pr 21ce , rival c l 0ies ,r m c mpetiti 0 -ith 1r -0" a02 their s1rprise that -e sh 1l2 c 0se0t t &e the carriers , the pr 21ce -hich -e - 1l2 ,ai0 2iss1a2e them ,r m c 03 s1mi0!*: @ It -as clearly -hat a mem&er , Parliame0t -as later t call :l1crative h1ma0ity*: ; The i02epe02e0ce , )ra/il !ave Ca03 0i0! a &etter pp rt10ity* Rec !0iti 0 i0 ret1r0 , r a& liti 0* < )1t there -as a 2a0!er that Fra0ce - 1l2 rec !0i/e )ra/il 0 c 02iti 0 that the slave tra2e &e c 0ti01e2* B What the0 , the )ritish carryi0! tra2e a02 )ritish e4p rtsI :There are imme0se )ritish i0terests e0!a!e2 i0 the tra2e -ith )ra/il": Ca00i0! re3 mi02e2 Wil&er, rce" :a02 -e m1st pr cee2 -ith ca1ti 0 a02 ! 2 hee29 a02 ta6e the c mmercial as -ell as m ral ,eeli0!s , the c 10try -ith 1s*: $ ( rality r pr ,itI )ritai0 ha2 t ch se* :Y 1 ar!1e": -r te Ca00i0! ca02i2ly t Wil&er, rce" :a!ai0st the ac60 -le2!me0t , )ra/il 10p1r!e2 , Slave Tra2e * * * y 1 are s1rprise2 that the '16e , Welli0!t 0 has 0 t &ee0 i0str1cte2 t say that he -ill !ive 1p the tra2e -ith

NO, R1ssia a02 A1stria3H10!ary*

THE CO((ERCIAL PART OF THE NATION #<# )ra/il" G, r that is" I am a,rai2" the am 10t , !ivi0! 1p the imp rt a02 re3e4p rt , the s1!ar a02 c tt 0H" i, A1stria" R1ssia a02 Pr1ssia -ill pr hi&it her pr 21ce* I0 ,air reas 0i0!" y 1 have a ri!ht t &e s1rprise2" , r -e 1!ht t &e rea2y t ma6e sacri,ices -he0 -e as6 them" a02 I am , r ma6i0! them9 &1t -h - 1l2 2are t pr mise s1ch a 0e as this -ith 1t a ,1ll 60 -le2!e , the pi0i 0s , the c mmercial part , the 0ati 0I: #> The c mmercial part , the 0ati 0 2i2 0 t leave Ca00i0! l 0! i0 2 1&t* A &ill ha2 alrea2y &ee0 prese0te2 i0 Parliame0t i0 # B # @ t pr scri&e the slave tra2e as a0 i0vestme0t , r )ritish

capital* )ari0!" , the !reat &a06i0! h 1se -hich -as t have s1ch i0timate relati 0s -ith i02epe02e0t Spa0ish America" is3 s1e2 a s lem0 -ar0i0! that every c mmercial r!a0i/ati 0 i0 )ritai0 - 1l2 petiti 0 a!ai0st it" ## a02 the H 1se , L r2s thre- it 1t* #? I0 #B?% 0e h102re2 a02 seve0tee0 mercha0ts , L 02 0 petiti 0e2 , r the rec !0iti 0 , the i02epe02e0ce , S 1th America the petiti 0ers -ere" i0 a - r2" the city , L 02 0* #= The Presi2e0t" Vice3Presi2e0t a02 mem&ers , the Cham&er , C mmerce , (a0chester 2eclare2 that the pe0i0! , the S 1th America0 mar6et t )ritish i021stry - 1l2 &e a0 eve0t -hich m1st pr 21ce the m st &e0e,icial re3 s1lts t )ritish c mmerce* #% )ritish capitalism c 1l2 0 l 0!er &e c 0te0t -ith sm1!!li0!* This S 1th America0 mar6et" )ra/il i0 partic1lar" -as &ase2 0 slave la& r a02 re51ire2 the slave tra2e* The )ritish capital3 ists" there, re" &e!a0 a vi! r 1s campai!0 a!ai0st their ! ver03 me0t7s p licy , , rci&le s1ppressi 0 , the slave tra2e &y stati 0i0! -arships 0 the A,rica0 c ast* The p licy -as e43 pe0sive" e4cee2i0! the a001al val1e , the t tal tra2e -ith A,rica* A,rica0 e4p rts -ere #@%">>> i0 #B?%9 imp rts i #B">>> i0 )ritish ! 2s a02 ##$">>> i0 , rei!0* This -as the !reat e4te0t , c mmerce" sai2 H1me" , r -hich the c 10try -as t ma6e s1ch a vast sacri,ice , h1ma0 li,e 0 the 2ea2ly slave c ast* #@ H1ma0ity , r E0!lish sail rs 2ema02e2 its a&a02 03 me0t* I, s me a& liti 0ists -ere s1,,eri0! ,r m a h1ma0e 2el1si 0" -hy sh 1l2 they &e all -e2 t 2el12e the E0!lish Parliame0tI #; The )ritish pe ple c 1l2 0 t a,, r2 t &ec me

#<? CAPITALIS( AN' SLAVERY

p1rchasers A,rica* #<

0 s1ch e4trava!a0t terms

, i021l!e0ces , r

All this -as &e, re #B==" c 0temp ra0e 1s -ith the capitalist attac6s 0 West I02ia0 slavery* A,ter #B== the capitalists -ere still i0v lve2 i0 the slave tra2e itsel,* )ritish ! 2s" ,r m (a03 chester a02 Liverp l" c tt 0s" ,etters a02 shac6les" -ere se0t 2irect t the c ast , A,rica r i02irectly t Ri 2e .a0eir a02 Hava0a" -here they -ere 1se2 &y their C1&a0 a02 )ra/ilia0 c 0si!0ees , r the p1rp se , p1rchasi0! slaves* #B It -as sai2 that seve03te0ths , the ! 2s 1se2 &y )ra/il , r slave p1r3 chases -ere )ritish ma01,act1res" #$ a02 it -as -hispere2 that the )ritish -ere rel1cta0t t 2estr y the &arrac 0s 0 the c ast &eca1se they - 1l2 there&y 2estr y )ritish calic es* ?> I0 #B%@ Peel re,1se2 t 2e0y the ,act that )ritish s1&Dects -ere e0!a!e2 i0 the slave tra2e* ?# The Liverp l represe0ta3 tive i0 Parliame0t" 51esti 0e2 p i0t &la06" -as 0 t prepare2 t c 0tra2ict that Liverp l e4p rts t A,rica r else-here -ere appr priate2 t :s me impr per p1rp se*: ?? )ritish &a063 i0! ,irms i0 )ra/il ,i0a0ce2 the slave tra2ers a02 i0s1re2 their car! es" there&y ear0i0! the ! 2-ill , their h sts* )ritish mi0i0! c mpa0ies -0e2 a02 p1rchase2 slaves -h se la& r

they empl ye2 i0 their e0terprises* :We m1st 0ee2s a2 pt the pai0,1l c 0cl1si 0": sai2 )r 1!ham -ith re,ere0ce t C1&a0 a02 )ra/ilia0 2evel pme0t" :that i0 !reat part at least s1ch a0 ample am 10t , capital as -as re51ire2" m1st have &el 0!e2 t the rich me0 , this c 10try*: ?= . h0 )ri!ht -as -ell a-are , the i0terests , his La0cashire c 0stit1e0ts -he0 he ar!1e2 el 51e0tly i0 #B%= a!ai0st a &ill pr hi&iti0! the empl yme0t , )ritish capital" h -ever i02irectly" i0 the slave tra2e 0 the !r 102 that it - 1l2 &e a 2ea2 letter" a02 that the matter sh 1l2 &e le,t t the h 0 ra&le a02 m ral ,eeli0!s , i02ivi21als* ?% I0 that very year" )ritish ,irms ha02le2 three3ei!hths , the s1!ar" 0e3hal, , the c ,,ee" ,ive3ei!hths , the c tt 0 e43 p rte2 ,r m Per0am&1c " Ri 2e .a0eir a02 )ahia* ?@ The capitalists ha2 ha2 e0 1!h , )ritai07s :0 &le e4peri3 me0t*: C mmerce -as the !reat ema0cipat r* ?; The 0ly -ay t p1t 2 -0 slavery -as t tr1st t the eter0al a02 D1st pri03 ciples , ,ree tra2e* ?< Leave the slave tra2e al 0e" it - 1l2

THE CO((ERCIAL PART OF THE NATION #<= c mmit s1ici2e* I, the miscrea0ts , a0y 0ati 0 ch se t e0!a!e i0 it" their !1ilt &e 1p 0 their -0 hea2s9 leave t a hi!her tri&10al the m ral ! ver0me0t , the - rl2* ?B The m 0ey e4pe02e2 i0 ,r1itless e,, rts t s1ppress the slave tra2e c 1l2 &e m re &e0e,icially a02 phil s phically empl ye2 at h me* ?$ )ri!ht critici/e2 as a12acity the i2ea that D1stice t A,rica sh 1l2 &e 2 0e at the e4pe0se , i0D1stice t E0!la02* => They ha2 a !reat 2eal t 2 at h me" ar!1e2 C &2e0" -ithi0 a st 0e7s thr - , the H 1ses , Parliame0t" &e, re they em&ar6e2 0 a scheme , re2eemi0! ,r m &ar&arism the -h le , A,rica* B# The activities , the )ritish s51a2r 0 0 the A,rica0 c ast -ere 2escri&e2 as &1cca0eeri0! e4pe2iti 0s" =? -hich -ee2e2 E0!3 la02 a001ally , her &est a02 &ravest a02 2es late2 c 10tless E0!lish ,iresi2es* == There -ere ther ccasi 0s 0 -hich t 2ev te atte0ti 0 t the s cial happi0ess , the - rl2" ther mea0s , e02eav ri0! t a2va0ce that happi0ess" a02 they sh 1l2 0 t i0ter,ere vi le0tly &y ,iscal re!1lati 0s -ith the ,eeli0!s , thers* =% P1&lic pi0i 0 i0 the slave tra2i0! c 103 tries m1st &e - 0 ver t the ca1se , h1ma0ity" 0 t alie0ate2 &y a p licy , c erci 0" a02 the )ra/ilia0s c 1l2 0 t &e e43 pecte2 t travel the h1ma0itaria0 r a2 ,aster tha0 the E0!lish ha2 2 0e* =@ )ritai07s :&l102eri0! a02 i!0 ra0t h1ma0ity: ha2 0ly a!!ravate2 the s1,,eri0!s , the slaves* =; They ha2 1se2" sai2 H1tt" :the 1tm st latit12e" 0e mi!ht say lice0ti 1s0ess" , mea0s p1&lic m 0ey t a0y e4te0t 0aval armame0ts -atchi0! every sh re a02 every sea -here a slave ship c 1l2 &e see0 r s1specte2 c 1rts , special D12icat1re i0 hal, , the i0tertr pical re!i 0s , the !l &e 2ipl matic i0,l1e0ce a02 a!e0cy s1ch perhaps as this c 10try 0ever &e, re c 0ce0trate2 0 a0y p1&lic &Dect*: =< 'espite all this" the slave tra2e ha2 i0crease2* It -as a -il2 cr1sa2e" a02 0 t all the , rces , the )ritish Navy" 0 t all the res 1rces , the )ritish Treas1ry c 1l2 s1ppress it* =B They ha2 &ee0 la& ri0! , r thirty years" a02 0 t eve0 a l10atic - 1l2 e0tertai0 a0y ptimistic ill1si 0 a& 1t

their ,1t1re s1ccess* B$ Ha2 the )ritish ! ver0me0t s1rre02ere2 its reas 0 t phila0thr pyI N Ha2 it pr stit1te2 its 2ipl macy t the p1rp ses , a0 10reas 0a&le ,a0aticismI %# It -as c1ri 1s t see a2mi0istrati 0s" 0 t 2isti0!1ishe2 &y 2ev ti 0 t c 03

#<% CAPITALIS( AN' SLAVERY

stit1ti 0al li&erties at h me" ass1mi0! that a 2ista0t a02 &ar3 &ar 1s pe ple ha2 m re claims 0 their c 0scie0ce tha0 their -0 c 10tryme0* %? The 0ati 0s -ere 2is!1ste2 -ith :this phila0thr pic ca0t*: %= These va!aries" this rash a02 i2le sys3 tem %% m1st &e a&a02 0e2" as si0ster a02 sp1ri 1s phila0thr py" %@ c stly a02 a& rtive e4perime0ts" %; -hich ha/ar2e2 the peace , the - rl2* %< The la-s , Heave0 2i2 0 t a1th ri/e the )ritish pe ple t 6eep the -h le - rl2 i0 a p ther a& 1t the slave tra2e* %B Where -as Palmerst 0I The slave tra2e has &ee0 calle2 Palmerst 07s :&e0ev le0t cr tchet: a02 he emer!es i0 1r te4t& 6s as the persiste0t pp 0e0t , the slave tra2e* I0 ,,ice Palmerst 0 acc mplishe2 little* O1t , ,,ice he ! a2e2 the ! ver0me0t t !reater e,, rts t acc mplish -hat he ha2 ,aile2 t 2 * A simple m ti 0 , r ret1r0s , the slave tra2e &et-ee0 #B#@ a02 #B%= -as acc mpa0ie2 &y a speech -hich ,ills ver t-e0ty3,ive c l1m0s i0 Ha0sar29 a rhet rical 2isplay cr -0e2 &y a ma!0i,ice0t per rati 0" -hich mi!ht have &ee0 c1lle2 ,r m a0ti3slavery speeches , the last hal,3ce0t1ry" acc m3 pa0ie2 a simple i00 c1 1s m ti 0* %> As i, he -ere appeali0! t Parliame0t a02 the c 10try , r ,1ll appreciati 0 , his la& rs i0 the ca1se" 0ce every m 0th he 2re- atte0ti 0 t th se la& rs* @> )1t -he0 (a0chester7s represe0tative empha3 si/e2 the 2i,,ic1lties -hich )ritai07s s1ppressi 0 p licy -as ca1si0! -ith the )ra/ilia0 ! ver0me0t a02 2eprecate2 arme2 i0ter,ere0ce" Palmerst 0 sp 6e a& 1t Fra0ce" C1&a" the Ima1m , (1scat" everythi0! &1t the )ra/ilia0 slave tra2e* @# A02 -ith the parliame0tary campai!0 a!ai0st the s1ppressi 0 p licy at its hei!ht" Palmerst 0 c 0te0te2 himsel, -ith the h pe that :0 C mmittee -ill rec mme02 a c 1rse the reverse , that -hich -e have &ee0 p1rs1i0! **** 0 0e -ill &e , 102 t say that -e 1!ht t retrace 1r steps*: @? They ha2 !ive0 pr ," he th 1!ht" , their /eal , r the s1ppressi 0 , the slave tra2e" a02 i, they pr hi&ite2 the imp rtati 0 , )ra/ilia0 s1!ar" )ra/il - 1l2 thi06 that they 2i2 0 t really &elieve that ,ree la& r -as cheaper tha0 slave* @= I0 1r!i0! the Spa0ish claim t recipr city" he -ar0e2 that they - 1l2 l se their tra2e -ith Spai0 GC1&aH as they -ere l si0! it -ith )ra/il" all &eca1se , the :a&s1r2

THE CO((ERCIAL PART OF THE NATION #<@ tari,, a02 mischiev 1s p licy: , the ! ver0me0t* :They have sacri,ice2 the c mmercial i0terests , the c 10try i0 the )ra/il3

ia0 tra2e" i0 the Spa0ish tra2e" a02 I ,ear" als i0 ther 51arters a& 1t t , ll -" a02 all , r the p1rp se , mai0tai0i0! a ,av 1rite cr tchet" &ase2 1p 0 hyp critical prete0ces*: ;% The :last ca02le , the 0i0etee0th ce0t1ry: ha2 &ee0 s01,,e2 1t* 'israeli" t " c 02em0e2 the s1ppressi 0 , the slave tra2e 0 !r 102s , ec 0 my a02 as 51esti 0a&le p licy -hich i03 v lve2 )ritai0 i0 2i,,ic1lties i0 every c 1rt a02 i0 every c l 0y* @@ Welli0!t 0 calle2 it crimi0al :a &reach , the la, 0ati 0s a &reach , treaties*: @; Eve0 +la2st 0e -as , rce2 t ch se &et-ee0 the 0ee2s , the )ritish capitalists a02 the 0ee2s , the West I02ia0 pla0ters* I0 #B%# he -as all , r s1p3 pressi 0" a02 as6e2 the capitalists -hether" , r small a02 paltry pec10iary a2va0ta!es" they -ere prepare2 t , r! the hi!h title a02 0 &le character they ha2 ear0e2 &e, re the -h le - rl2* Were they 2ra!!i0! every i0c 0siste0cy i0t the li!ht , r the p1rp se , 1si0! it as a plea , r ,1rther a02 m re m 0str 1s i0c 0siste0cy" r i0 r2er t s1&stit1te a 10i, rmity i0 -r 0! , r a0 i0c 0siste0t ac60 -le2!me0t , -hat -as ri!htI @< I0 #B@>" h -ever" he c 02em0e2 the p licy , s1p3 pressi 0 as a0 mal 1s a02 prep ster 1s* :It is 0 t a0 r2i0a0ce , Pr vi2e0ce that the ! ver0me0t , 0e 0ati 0 shall c rrect the m rals , a0 ther*: @B Ir 0ically e0 1!h" it -as the , rmer slave -0ers , the West I02ies -h 0 - hel2 the h1ma0itaria0 t rch* Th se -h " i0 #B><" -ere l1!1&ri 1sly pr phesyi0! that a& liti 0 , the )ritish slave tra2e - 1l2 : ccasi 0 2imi0ishe2 c mmerce" 2imi0ishe2 reve01e a02 2imi0ishe2 0avi!ati 09 a02 i0 the e02 sap a02 t tally rem ve the !reat c r0erst 0e , )ritish pr s3 perity": @$ -ere" a,ter #B><" the very me0 -h pr teste2 a!ai0st :a system , ma03steali0! a!ai0st a p r a02 i0 ,,e0sive pe 3 ple*: ;> )arham" a West I02ia0" i0tr 21ce2 the &ill , #B#@ t ma6e pe0al the empl yme0t , )ritish capital i0 the , rei!0 slave tra2e" a02 eve0 t ma6e the i0s1ra0ce , ships i0 the slave tra2e crimi0al* ;# Am 0! the reme2ies s1!!este2 &y the West I02ia i0terest i0 #B=> t meet the i0creasi0! 2istress , the c l 0ies -as a res l1ti 0 :t a2 pt m re 2ecisive meas1res tha0

#<; CAPITALIS( AN' SLAVERY

a0y that have hithert &ee0 empl ye2 t st p the , rei!0 slave tra2e9 0 the e,,ect1al s1ppressi 0 , -hich the pr sperity , the )ritish West I02ia0 c l 0ies * * * 1ltimately 2epe02 GsH*: ;? .amaica0 e0v ys" se0t t )ritai0 i0 #B=?" 2eclare2 that :the c l 0ies -ere easily rec 0cile2 t the a& liti 0 , a &ar&ar 1s c mmerce" -hich the a2va0ce2 civili/ati 0 , the a!e 0 l 0!er permitte2 t e4ist9 &1t they have th 1!ht" a02 appare0tly -ith reas 0" that the phila0thr pists sh 1l2 0 t have &ee0 satis,ie2 -ith the e4ti0cti 0 , the )ritish tra2e*: ;= A !reat mass m ve3 me0t , r a& liti 0 , the slave tra2e 2evel pe2 i0 .amaica i0 #B%$* All classes" c l rs" parties a02 sects -ere 10ite2 0 the 51esti 0 , D1stice t A,rica* They 2e0 10ce2 the slave tra2e

a02 slavery as : pp se2 t h1ma0ity pr 21ctive , the - rst evils t A,rica 2e!ra2i0! t all e0!a!e2 i0 the tra,,ic" a02 i0imical t the m ral a02 spirit1al i0terests , the e0slave2": a02 plea2e2 that :the 2i 1s term 7slave7 G&eH e4p10!e2 ,r m the v ca&1lary , the 10iverse*: :SLAVERY (UST FALL" a02" -he0 it ,alls" .A(AICA WILL FLOURISH*: E0!la02" they 2eclare2 p i0te2ly" ha2 ! 0e t -ar , r less D1sti,ia&le ca1ses* ;% The )ritish capitalists" h -ever" remai0e2 10impresse2* I0 #B@< a0 e2it rial i0 the L 02 0 Times 2eclare28 :We 60 that , r all merca0tile p1rp ses E0!la02 is 0e , the States" a02 that" i0 e,,ect" -e are part0ers -ith the S 1ther0 pla0ter9 -e h l2 a &ill , sale ver his ! 2s a02 chattels" his live a02 2ea2 st c6" a02 ta6e a li 07s share i0 the pr ,its , slavery* * * * We ,ete (rs* St -e" cry ver her & 6" a02 pray , r a0 a0ti3 slavery presi2e0t * * *" &1t all this time -e are cl thi0! 0 t 0ly 1rselves" &1t all the - rl2 &esi2es" -ith the very c tt 0 pic6e2 a02 clea0e2 &y 7U0cle T m7 a02 his ,ell -3s1,,erers* It is 1r tra2e* It is the !reat staple , )ritish i021stry* We are (r* 7Le!reeV a!e0ts , r the ma01,act1re a02 sale , his c tt 0 cr ps*: ;@ )ritish capitalism ha2 2estr ye2 West I02ia0 slavery" &1t it c 0ti01e2 t thrive 0 )ra/ilia0" C1&a0 a02 America0 slavery* )1t West I02ia0 m 0 p ly ha2 ! 0e , r ever* I0 the Civil War the )ritish ! ver0me0t 0early rec !0i/e2 the C 03 ,e2eracy* )y a s1preme ir 0y it -as le,t , r the West I02ia0" +la2st 0e" t remi02 a0 a12ie0ce i0 Ne-castle that the Amer3

THE CO((ERCIAL PART OF THE NATION #<< ica0 Civil War ha2 :perhaps &ec me the m st p1rp seless , all !reat civil -ars that have ever &ee0 -a!e2": a02 that :there is 0 2 1&t that .e,,ers 0 'avis a02 ther lea2ers , the S 1th have ma2e a0 army9 they are ma6i0!" it appears" a 0avy9 a02 they have ma2e -hat is m re tha0 either" they have ma2e a 0ati 0*: ;;

II THE :SAINTS: AN' SLAVERY

THIS STU'Y has 2eli&erately s1& r2i0ate2 the i0h1ma0ity , the slave system a02 the h1ma0itaria0ism -hich 2estr ye2 that system* T 2isre!ar2 it c mpletely" h -ever" - 1l2 &e t c m3 mit a !rave hist rical err r a02 t i!0 re 0e , the !reatest pr pa!a02a m veme0ts , all time* The h1ma0itaria0s -ere the spearhea2 , the 0sla1!ht -hich 2estr ye2 the West I02ia0 system a02 ,ree2 the Ne!r * )1t their imp rta0ce has &ee0 seri 1sly mis102erst 2 a02 !r ssly e4a!!erate2 &y me0 -h have sacri,ice2 sch larship t se0time0tality a02" li6e the sch lastics , l2" place2 ,aith &e, re reas 0 a02 evi2e0ce*

Pr ,ess r C 1pla02" i0 a0 ima!i0ary i0tervie- -ith Wil&er3 , rce" as6s him8 :What 2 y 1 thi06" sir" is the primary si!3 0i,ica0ce , y 1r - r6" the less 0 , the a& liti 0 , the slave systemI: The i0sta0t a0s-er is8 :It -as + 27s - r6* It si!0i,ies the tri1mph , His -ill ver h1ma0 sel,ish0ess* It teaches that 0 &stacle , i0terest r preD12ice is irrem va&le &y ,aith a02 prayer*: l This mis102ersta02i0! spri0!s" i0 part" ,r m a 2eli&erate attempt &y c 0temp raries t prese0t a 2ist rte2 vie- , the a& liti 0ist m veme0t* Whe0 the slave tra2e -as a& lishe2 i0 # B><" the &ill i0cl12e2 a phrase t the e,,ect that the tra2e -as :c 0trary t the pri0ciples , D1stice" h1ma0ity a02 s 102 p licy*: L r2 Ha-6es&1ry &Decte29 i0 his pi0i 0 the - r2s :D1stice a02 h1ma0ity: re,lecte2 0 the slave tra2ers* He there3 , re m ve2 a0 ame02me0t e4cl12i0! th se - r2s* I0 s 2 i0! he c 0,i0e2 the 0ecessity , a& liti 0 s lely t e4pe2ie0cy*

THE :SAINTS: AN' SLAVERY #<$ The L r2 Cha0cell r pr teste2* The ame02me0t - 1l2 ta6e a-ay the 0ly !r 102 0 -hich the ther p -ers c 1l2 &e as6e2 t c 3 perate i0 a& liti 0* The Earl , La12er2ale 2e3 clare2 that the - r2s mitte2 -ere the m st esse0tial i0 the &ill* The missi 0 - 1l2 le02 c l r t the s1spici 0 i0 Fra0ce that )ritish a& liti 0 -as 2ictate2 &y the sel,ish m tive that her c l 0ies -ere Well3st c6e2 -ith Ne!r es* :H -" i0 th1s &ei0! s1pp se2 t ma6e 0 sacri,ice 1rselves" c 1l2 -e call -ith a0y e,,ect 1p 0 , rei!0 p -ers t c 3 perate i0 the a& liti 0I: The L r2s v te2 , r the ri!i0al versi 0* ? The )ritish h1ma0itaria0s -ere a &rillia0t &a02* Clar6s 0 pers 0i,ies all the &est i0 the h1ma0itaria0ism , the a!e* O0e ca0 appreciate eve0 t 2ay his ,eeli0!s -he0" i0 r1mi0ati0! 1p 0 the s1&Dect , his pri/e3 -i00i0! essay" he ,irst a- 6e t the reali/ati 0 , the e0 rm 1s i0D1stice , slavery* Clar6s 0 -as a0 i02e,ati!a&le - r6er" -h c 021cte2 e02less a02 2a03 !er 1s researches i0t the c 02iti 0s a02 c 0se51e0ces , the slave tra2e" a pr li,ic pamphleteer -h se hist ry , the a& liti 0 m veme0t is still a classic* His la& rs i0 the ca1se , D1stice t A,rica -ere acc mplishe2 0ly at the c st , m1ch pers 0al 2isc m, rt" a02 imp se2 a severe strai0 0 his sca0ty res 1rces* I0 #<$= he -r te a letter t . siah We2!- 2 -hich c 0tai0s s me , the ,i0est se0time0ts that m tivate2 the h1ma0itaria0s* He 0ee2e2 m 0ey a02 -ishe2 t sell t, his shares i0 the Sierra Le 0e C mpa0y" , 102e2 i0 #<$# t pr m te le!itimate c mmerce -ith A,rica* :)1t": he p i0te2 1t" :I sh 1l2 0 t ch1se t permit a0y 0e t &ec me a p1rchaser" -h - 1l2 0 t &e &etter please2 -ith the ! 2 res1lti0! t A,rica tha0 ,r m !reat c mmercial pr ,its t himsel,9 0 t that the latter may 0 t &e e4pecte2" &1t i0 case , a 2isapp i0tme0t" I sh 1l2 -ish his mi02 t &e ma2e easy &y the ass1ra0ce that he has &ee0 i0str1me0tal i0 i0tr 21ci0! li!ht a02 happi0ess i0t a c 10try" -here the mi02 -as 6ept i0 2ar60ess a02 the & 2y 0 1rishe2 0ly , r E1r pea0 chai0s*: = T impet1 1s a02

e0th1siastic , r s me , his c llea!1es" % Clar6s 0 -as 0e th se ,rie02s , -h m the Ne!r race has ha2 10, rt10ately 0ly t ,e-*

lB

CAPITALIS( AN' SLAVERY

The0 there -ere .ames Stephe0" the ,ather" a02 .ames Stephe0" the s 0* The ,ather ha2 &ee0 a la-yer i0 the West I02ies a02 60e- c 02iti 0s at ,irst ha02* The s 0 &ecame the ,irst 1tsta02i0! perma0e0t 102er3secretary , the C l 0ial O,,ice" the :Oversecretary Stephe0: a02 :(r* ( ther C 103 try: , 10,rie02ly Di&es* I0 this capacity he hel2 a -atchi0! &rie, , r his helpless c 0stit1e0ts" the Ne!r slaves* He -as c 0sta0tly sp1rri0! 0 Wil&er, rce t !reater a02 m re p1&lic e,, rts i0stea2 , the p licy , mem rials a02 i0tervie-s -ith mi0isters* The 0ly thi0! t chec6 c l 0ial crimes -as t :&la/ 0 them t the E0!lish p1&lic" a02 arm 1rselves -ith p1&lic i02i!0ati 0*: @ Stephe0 -as 0 t impresse2 -ith the pla0ter7s ar!1me0ts* :The 2eprivati 0 , a ma0si 0 r a0 ep1ipa!e pai0,1l th 1!h it may &e is har2ly t &e set a!ai0st the pr tracte2 e4cl1si 0 ,r m th se c mm 0 a2va0ta!es , h1ma0 li,e 102er -hich ,r m the a2mitte2 ,acts , the case the slaves are pr ve2 t &e la& 1ri0!* * * " ; The 1ltimate e02 , h1ma0 s ciety the sec1rity , li,e" pr perty a02 rep1ta3 ti 0 m1st &e pre,erre2 t its s1& r2i0ate e02s the e0D yme0t , partic1lar ,ra0chises*: < It -as tr1steeship i0 its 0 &lest , rm a02 ,i0est la0!1a!e* Stephe0 2ra,te2 the Ema0cipati 0 )ill" -hich i0cl12e2 c 0cessi 0s he -as l th t ma6e t the pla0ters* Where the thers sat &ac6 a02 c 0!rat1late2 themselves" the perma0e0t 102er3secretary c 0ti01e2 t -atch c l 0ial le!is3 lati 0 -ith Deal 1sy a02 2istr1st* :P p1lar ,ra0chises i0 the ha02s , the masters , a !reat & 2y , slaves": he -r te i0 #B%#" :-ere the - rst i0str1me0ts , tyra00y -hich -ere ever yet , r!e2 , r the ppressi 0 , ma06i02*: B I0 th se 2ays a02 102er s1ch a0 a2mi0istrat r Cr -0 C l 0y ! ver0me0t -as a 0 ta&le step i0 the pr tecti 0 , -ea6er pe ples* O0e , the earliest" a&lest a02 m st 2ili!e0t , the a& liti 0ists -as .ames Ramsay" -h " as a rect r i0 the West I02ies" ha2 ha2 s me t-e0ty years7 e4perie0ce , slavery* :The 0ly 1se": he -r te t Wil&er, rce i0 #<B<" :I ca0 &e , i0 the &1si0ess is as a pi 0eer t rem ve &stacles9 1se me i0 this -ay a02 I shall &e happy*: $ He 60e- ,r m e4perie0ce the heavy m rtality c3 casi 0e2 &y the slave tra2e am 0! the -hite sail rs9 he c 1l2 spea6 at ,irst ha02 , the heavy m rtality ccasi 0e2 am 0!

THE :SAINTS: AN' SLAVERY #B# the slaves &y e4cessive t il 0 the pla0tati 0s* #> The pla0ters p1rs1e2 him -ith a rele0tless0ess reserve2 , r him al 0e* :Ramsay is 2ea2": & aste2 0e , them" :I have 6ille2 him*:

)esi2es these me0 Wil&er, rce -ith his e,,emi0ate ,ace ap3 pears small i0 stat1re* There is a certai0 sm1!0ess a& 1t the ma0" his li,e" his reli!i 0* As a lea2er" he -as i0ept" a22icte2 t m 2erati 0" c mpr mise a02 2elay* He 2eprecate2 e4treme meas1res a02 ,eare2 p p1lar a!itati 0* He relie2 , r s1ccess 1p 0 arist cratic patr 0a!e" parliame0tary 2ipl macy a02 pri3 vate i0,l1e0ce -ith me0 i0 ,,ice* ## He -as a l &&yist" a02 it -as a c mm 0 sayi0! that his v te c 1l2 sa,ely &e pre2icte2" , r it -as certai0 t &e pp se2 t his speech* #? :+e0erally": sai2 Tier0ey" :his phrase l !y is a2apte2 t s1it either party9 a02 i," 0 - a02 the0" he l ses the &ala0ce , his ar!1me0t a02 &e02s a little t 0e si2e" he 51ic6ly rec vers himsel, a02 2eviates as m1ch i0 a0 pp site 2irecti 0 as -ill ma6e a ,air 2ivisi 0 , his speech 0 & th si2es , the 51esti 0*: #S )1t he -as a pers1asive a02 el 51e0t spea6er" -ith a mel 2i 1s v ice -hich ear0e2 him the s &ri51et , :the 0i!hti0!ale , the H 1se*: A& ve all he ha2 the rep1tati 0 , &ei0! ther- rl23 mi02e2" a02 it is certai0 that this rep1tati 0 , r sai0tli0ess a02 his 2isi0tereste20ess i0 the ca1se -ere p -er,1l ,act rs i0 Pitt7s pr 22i0! that he sh 1l2 lea2 the parliame0tary cr1sa2e* These -ere the me0 -h m the pla0ters calle2 visi 0aries a02 ,a0atics" a02 li6e0e2 t hye0as a02 ti!ers* #% With the ai2 , the thers" (aca1lay" Wesley" Th r0t 0 a02 )r 1!ham" they -ere s1ccess,1l i0 raisi0! a0ti3slavery se0time0ts alm st t the stat1s , a reli!i 0 i0 E0!la02" a02 these reli!i 1s re3 , rmers -h ma2e Clapham i0t m re tha0 a rail-ay D10cti 0 -ere 0 t i0appr priately 0ic60ame2 :the Sai0ts*: The very em ti 0alism -hich s1ch a phe0 me0 0 ar 1ses calls , r !reater ca1ti 0 0 the part , the st12e0t , the s cial scie0ces* F r i," as s ma0y have hel2" slavery ,alls i0t the realm , the l !y" m 0 p ly m st emphatically 2 es 0 t* The a& liti 0ists -ere 0 t ra2icals* I0 their attit12e t 2 mes3 tic pr &lems they -ere reacti 0ary* The (eth 2ists ,,ere2 the E0!lish - r6er )i&les i0stea2 , &rea2 a02 Wesleya0 capitalists e4hi&ite2 pe0 c 0tempt , r the - r6i0! class*

lBl CAPITALIS( AN' SLAVERY

Wil&er, rce -as ,amiliar -ith all that -e0t 0 i0 the h l2 , a slave ship &1t i!0 re2 -hat -e0t 0 at the & tt m , a mi0esha,t* He s1pp rte2 the C r0 La-s" -as a mem&er , the secret c mmittee -hich i0vesti!ate2 a02 represse2 - r6i0! class 2isc 0te0t i0 #B#<" pp se2 ,emi0i0e a0ti3slavery ass cia3 ti 0s" a02 th 1!ht the First Re, rm )ill t ra2ical* #; The i0itial err r i0t -hich ma0y have ,alle0 is the ass1mp3 ti 0 that the a& liti 0ists" ,r m the very 1tset" 0ever c 03 ceale2 their i0te0ti 0 , - r6i0! , r c mplete ema0cipati 0* The a& liti 0ists , r a l 0! time esche-e2 a02 repeate2ly 2is3 -0e2 a0y i2ea , ema0cipati 0* Their i0terest -as s lely i0

the slave tra2e" -h se a& liti 0" they th 1!ht" - 1l2 eve0t1ally lea2" -ith 1t le!islative i0ter,ere0ce" i0t ,ree2 m* O0 three ccasi 0s the A& liti 0 C mmittee e4plicity 2e0ie2 a0y i0te03 ti 0 , ema0cipati0! the slaves* #; Wil&er, rce i0 #B>< p1&licly 2is -0e2 s1ch i0te0ti 0s* #< The )ish p , R chester asserte2 that the a& liti 0ists pr cee2e2 1p 0 0 visi 0ary 0 ti 0s , e51ality a02 imprescripti&le ri!hts , me09 they stre01 1sly 1phel2 the !ra2ati 0s , civil s ciety* #B I0 #B#@ the A,rica0 I0stit1ti 0 state2 clearly that it l 6e2 , r ema0cipati 0 ,r m the slave -0ers* #$ It -as 0 t 10til #B?= that ema0cipati 0 &ecame the av -e2 aim , the a& liti 0ists* The chie, reas 0 -as the persec1ti 0 , the missi 0aries i0 the c l 0ies the 2eath , Smith i0 +1ia0a" the e4p1lsi 0 , Shre-s&1ry i0 )ar&a2 s" the persec13 ti 0 , F0i&& i0 .amaica* Eve0 the0 ema0cipati 0 -as t &e !ra21al* :N thi0! rash": -ar0e2 )14t 0" :0 thi0! rapi2" 0 th3 i0! a&r1pt" 0 thi0! &eari0! a0y ,eat1re , vi le0ce*: A& ve all" pas 2e /ele* Slavery - 1l2 0ever &e a& lishe2* :It -ill s1&si2e9 it -ill 2ecli0e9 it -ill e4pire9 it -ill" as it -ere" &1r0 itsel, 2 -0 i0t its s c6et a02 ! 1t* * * * We shall leave it !e0tly t 2ecay sl -ly" sile0tly" alm st impercepti&ly" t 2ie a-ay a02 t &e , r! tte0*: ?> As i0 the U0ite2 States" slavery -as t -ither a-ay* The h pe -as 0 t reali/e2 i0 E0!la02 either" th 1!h the West I02ia0s -ere t -ea6 a02 ,e- t ,i!ht a civil -ar* This -as the sit1ati 0 i0 #B=>" -he0 the .1ly Rev l1ti 0 &r 6e 1t i0 Fra0ce a02 ,a00e2 the ,lames , parliame0tary re, rm i0 E0!la02* The a& liti 0ists -ere still l &&yi0! a02

THE :SAINTS: AN' SLAVERY #B= temp ri/i0!" se02i0! mem rials a02 2ep1tati 0s t mi0isters" -hile c l 0ial slavery a02 c l 0ial m 0 p ly c 0ti01e2 103 a&ate2* :It -as there, re 0ecessary that a0 ther r2er , me0" , & l2er a02 m re r &1st" i, s me-hat less re,i0e2" 0at1res sh 1l2 0 - appear t ta6e the - r6 i0 ha02" 0 t s m1ch t s1perse2e as t s1ppleme0t the e4erti 0s , their m re -ary a02 hesitati0! c llea!1es*: ?# C 0servatives a02 ra2icals clashe2 i0 a !reat a0ti3slavery meeti0! i0 (ay" #B=>* )14t 0 ha2 pr p se2 the 1s1al res l1ti 0s" :a2mira&ly - r2e29 a2mira&ly i02i!0a0t" &1t a2mira&ly pr12e0t*: P -0all r se t p1t his ame02me0t imme2iate a& liti 0* The e,,ect 0 the 2ele!ates -as electric* )14t 0 2eprecate2" )r 1!ham i0terp se2" Wil&er3 , rce -ave2 his ha02 , r sile0ce" &1t the ame02me0t -as eve0t1ally p1t a02 :carrie2 -ith a &1rst , e41lti0! tri1mph*: ?? The 0e- p licy -as a2mira&ly state2 &y 0e , St1r!e7s ,rie02s8 :Si0 -ill lie at 1r 2 r i, -e 2 0 t a!itate" a!itate" a!itate* * * * The pe ple m1st ema0cipate the slaves" , r the ! ver0me0t 0ever -ill*: ?= As ,ar as the a& liti 0ist lea2ership -as c 0cer0e2" h -ever" their attit12e t West I02ia0 slavery m1st &e see0 i0 its relati 0 t slavery i0 ther parts , the - rl2* Their c 02em0ati 0 , slavery applie2 0ly t the Ne!r a02 0ly t the Ne!r i0 the

)ritish West I02ies* First" I02ia* I0 their campai!0 a!ai0st the West I02ia0 pla0ters the a& liti 0ists i0a1!1rate2 -hat C chi0 has calle2 :a s rt , pi 1s a02 silly cr1sa2e*: ?% They 1r!e2 their sympathisers t & yc tt slave3!r -0 pr 21ce i0 ,av r , the ,ree3!r -0 pr 21ce , I02ia* This cr1sa2e -as rec mme02e2 &y the A& liti 0 C mmittee i0 I<$@ ?@ a02 &y ma0y pamphleteers* William F 4 i0 #<$? i0, rme2 the )ritish pe ple that i0 every p 102 , s1!ar they c 0s1me2 t10ces , h1ma0 ,lesh* ?; )y a0 ela& rate mathematical c mp1tati 0 it -as estimate2 that i, 0e ,amily 1si0! ,ive p 102s , s1!ar a -ee6 - 1l2 a&stai0 , r t-e0ty3 0e m 0ths" 0e Ne!r - 1l2 &e spare2 e0slaveme0t a02 m1r2er* ?< The c 0s1mer , s1!ar -as really :the prime m ver" the !ra02 ca1se , all the h rri&le i03 D1stice: )y s1&stit1ti0! East , r West I02ia0 s1!ar" the

#B% CAPITALIS( AN' SLAVERY

Pec6ham La2ies7 A,rica0 A0ti3Slavery Ass ciati 0 -as i03 , rme2" they -ere 102ermi0i0! the system , slavery i0 the sa,est" easiest a02 m st e,,ective ma00er* ?$ A0 a& liti 0ist lea,let -as circ1late2" e0title2 :The Ne!r Slave7s C mplai0t t the Frie02s , H1ma0ity*: The Ne!r plea2e28 :A02 0 -" massa" y 1 &e 2e ,rie02 , ,ree2 m" ! 2 ma0" pity p r Ne!r " me &e! &1y 2e East S1!ar" 0 slave s1!ar" 2e ,ree" a02 2e0 my massa vill ti06 a02 say" ve 0 m1ch sell 2e slave s1!ar" slaves m1st &e 0 slaves" m1st &e ,ree" a02 ve pay 2e va!es" a02 2e0 vill v r6 villi0! a02 2 m re - r6" a02 ve 2e0 sell m re s1!ar" a02 !et m re , 2e m 0ey* 'e me0 at 2e East &e vise me0" a02 2e vise me0 at 2e East 0 slave ma6e s1!ar ,ree" ,ree" ,ree*: B> N t 0ly s1!ar &1t c tt 0* A m veme0t -as starte2 am 0! the la2ies t e0c 1ra!e the c 0s1mpti 0 , ,ree3!r -0 c tt 0" B# -hich" acc r2i0! t +1r0ey" - 1l2 2 m re t a& lish slavery i0 America tha0 all the a& liti 0ist pamphlets* =? As the Irish a& liti 0ists p1t it" their aim -as t :10iversali/e the 1se , ,ree la& 1r tr pical pr 21ce*: == )1t the -ise me0 , the East -ere 0 m re impecca&le tha0 the si0,1l pla0ters , the West* The act ema0cipati0! the slaves i0 the )ritish West I02ies passe2 its thir2 rea2i0! 0 A1!1st <" #B==* F rty3ei!ht h 1rs &e, re" the East I02ia C mpa0y7s Charter ha2 c me 1p , r re0e-al i0 the H 1se , L r2s* The &ill i0cl12e2 a cla1se -hich 2eclare2 that slavery :sh 1l2 &e a& lishe2: i0 I02ia* L r2 Elle0& r 1!h e4presse2 his ast 0ish3 me0t that s1ch a pr p siti 0 sh 1l2 ever have e0tere2 the hea2 , a0y statesma0* L r2 A1c6la02 2e,e02e2 the &ill8 :It ha2 &ee0 ,rame2 -ith the 1tm st ca1ti 0 c 0siste0t -ith the 2estr1cti 0 , a0 2i 1s system9 as -ell as the 1tm st care 0 t t i0ter,ere -ith the 2 mestic ma00ers , the 0atives*: The '16e , Welli0!t 0 calle2 1p 0 their L r2ships t 2eal li!htly -ith the 51esti 0" as they val1e2 the mai0te0a0ce , )ritish I02ia* It -as a vi le0t i00 vati 0" alt !ether 10calle2 , r"

-hich - 1l2 pr 21ce the !reatest 2issatis,acti 0" i, 0 t a&s 3 l1te i0s1rrecti 0* =% Repeate2 2eclarati 0s -ere later ma2e i0 Parliame0t 0 &ehal, , the ! ver0me0t that the East I02ia C mpa0y -as prepari0! le!islati 0 -ith a vie- t the :ameli rati 0: ,

THE :SAINTS: AN' SLAVERY #B@ slavery a02 that s1ch le!islati 0 - 1l2 &e pr 21ce2 i0 Parlia3 me0t* )1t the pr mise2 le!islati 0 0ever -as , rthc mi0!* :The ! ver0me0t , I02ia -ere ta6i0! s1ch steps t ameli rate the c 02iti 0 , slavery as" at 0 2ista0t peri 2" sh 1l2 lea2 t its t tal e4ti0cti 0*: =@ This -as i0 #B=<* )y #B%# 0 0e , the r1les a02 re!1lati 0s , r the miti!ati 0 , slavery ha2 &ee0 pr 21ce2* =; A02 -he0 the 51esti 0 , e51ali/i0! the 21ties 0 East I02ia0 r1m came 1p a02 it -as ar!1e2 that East I02ia0 r1m -as slave pr 21ce" Prime (i0ister Peel replie2 that :t p stp 0e the e51ali/ati 0 * * * 10til he ha2 act1ally settle2 that a& liti 0" - 1l2 &e 2e,erri0! its perati 0 t a m1ch m re 2is3 ta0t peri 2 tha0 eve0 the m st ar2e0t a2v cates , the West I02ia0s c 1l2 -ish*: =< I0 2e,e0ce , the East I02ia0s it -as plea2e2" i0 #B%?" that they ha2 pr hi&ite2 the selli0! , chil3 2re0 i0t slavery i0 peri 2s , scarcity* =B Te0 years a,ter )ritai07s :!reat at 0eme0t": the Earl , A1c6la02 - 1l2 0 t 2e0y that :s me c 02iti 0 , servit12e" m re r less pai0,1l" mi!ht 0 t still e4ist:9 =$ a02 Peel c 0si2ere2 that s1ch meas1res as ha2 &ee0 a2 pte2 :appeare2 -ell calc1late2 t arrest the pr !ress , slavery" a02 chec6 a&1ses" a02 -he0 carrie2 1t i0 all parts , I02ia 102er 1r c 0tr l r -hich -e c 1l2 i03 ,l1e0ce" - 1l2 ! a l 0! -ay t s1ppress slavery*: %> Yet this -as the tr pical pr 21ce that the a& liti 0ists -ere rec mme02i0! t the pe ple , E0!la02* Clar6s 0 calle2 0 them t :she- their a&h rre0ce , the pla0ters7 system &y leav3 i0! ,, the 1se , their pr 21ce": %# a02 as late as #B%> -as still l 6i0! t the East I02ia C mpa0y t e4tirpate slavery :&y mea0s that are per,ectly m ral a02 paci,ic * * * 0amely" &y the c1ltivati 0 , the earth a02 &y the empl yme0t , ,ree la& 1r87 %? The a& liti 0ists 2i2 this 0 t 1t , i!0 ra0ce* As a0 ap l !y , r the East I02ia C mpa0y" Pachary (aca1lay 1r!e2 that :they ha2 &tai0e2 2 mi0i 0 ver c 10tries -hich ha2 &ee0 previ 1sly 102er the Hi021 a02 ( !1l + ver0me0t* They there, re c 1l2 0 t &e &lame2 i," -he0 they came i0t p sses3 si 0 , th se c 10tries" they , 102 pri0ciples acte2 1p 0 -ith -hich" h -ever a2verse t their ,eeli0!s" it - 1l2 &e 10sa,e t i0ter,ere" -ith 1t 21e ca1ti 0*: %= I0 #B=< )14t 0 e4presse2

lB; CAPITALIS( AN' SLAVERY

the ,ear that s1!ar - 1l2 pr 21ce a system , slavery i0 the East as 2is!race,1l as it ha2 pr 21ce2 i0 the West* The ! ver03 me0t sp 6esma0 ass1re2 him it - 1l2 0 t* )14t 0 :-as m1ch &li!e2 *** , r that ass1ra0ce*: %% I0 #B%= )r 1!ham -as still l 6i0! , r-ar2 -ith sa0!1i0e h pe t the a& liti 0 , slavery i0 I02ia" :a c 0s1mmati 0 0 t t &e acc mplishe2 s m1ch &y le!islati 0" r &y 2 i0! vi le0ce t pr pertyAN as &y e0c 1ra!3 i0! the 0ative slave -0ers t 2eclare their chil2re0 ,ree a,ter a certai0 2ate* %@ S me , the Clapham Sect ha2 East I02ia0 i0terests a02 :per3 haps their 2etestati 0 , West I02ia0 slavery -as sharpe0e2 &y a se0se , the 10,air 2iscrimi0ati 0 , the s1!ar 21ties i0 ,av 1r , the West I02ies a02 a!ai0st the !r -i0! s1!ar pla0ta3 ti 0s , I02ia*: %; The Th r0t 0s -0e2 East I02ia st c69 %< 0e , the ,amily participate2 i0 the 2e&ate at East I02ia H 1se i0 #<$= 0 the s1!ar tra2e" a02 2e0ie2 the e4iste0ce , a0y c mpact i0 ,av r , the West I02ia0 m 0 p ly* %B Pachary (aca1lay ha2 shares i0 the East I02ia C mpa0y" a02 -as 0e , the 0i0e si!0at ries -h s1mm 0e2 the meeti0! , the C 1rt , Pr priet rs i0 #B?= t 2isc1ss the s1!ar 51esti 0* %$ I0 a p -er,1l pamphlet i0 #B?= he 2eclare2 that the West I02ia0s :have 0 m re ri!ht t claim the c 0ti01a0ce , a pr tecti0! 21ty 0 s1!ar" t the ma0i,est -r 0! , I02ia a02 , +reat )ritai0" tha0 they ha2 &e, re a ri!ht t claim the c 03 ti01a0ce , the Slave Tra2e" t the ma0i,est -r 0! , A,rica*: @> (aca1lay7s speech i0 the 2e&ate at East I02ia H 1se 0 the s1!ar tra2e i0 #B?= -as s1ch a 2iatri&e a!ai0st slavery that a s1&se51e0t spea6er ha2 t remi02 him that :i, the slave tra2e -ere te0 times - rse tha0 it ha2 &ee0 state2 t &e" they -ere 0 t met t c 0si2er that 51esti 0*: @# ( re imp rta0t tha0 Th r0t 0 r (aca1lay -as .ames Cr pper* A pr mi0e0t a& liti 0ist" Cr pper -as the !reatest imp rter , East I02ia s1!ar i0t Liverp l" a02 -as the , 102er a02 hea2 , the i02epe02e0t East I02ia h 1se" Cr pper" )e0s 0 a02 C mpa0y , Liverp l" -ith a tra2e , a th 1sa02 p 102s a 2ay* @? Cr pper -as a-are that his private i0terests re02ere2 his m tives lia&le t s1spici 0* @= West I02ia0s recalle2 that he ha2 0ce imp rte2 slave3!r -0 c tt 0 ,r m the U0ite2

THE :SAINTS: AN' SLAVERY #B< States* @% Cr pper7s -0 e4pla0ati 0 is as , ll -s8 :I sa- that hi2e 1s m 0ster" slavery" !aspi0!" as it -ere" i0 the a! 0ies , 2eath" see6i0! , r the s1pp rt -hich c 1l2 al 0e c 0ti01e its e4iste0ce* *** I c 1l2 0 t s1,,er the ,ear , repr aches" 0 acc 10t , &ei0! i0tereste2" t !et the &etter , the param 10t ,eeli0! , h1ma0ity a02 21ty* I 21rst 0 t e0c 10ter the re3 pr aches , my -0 c 0scie0ce*: @@ I0 his a0ti3slavery ar!13 me0ts he re,1se2 t steer clear , c mmercial c 0si2erati 0s* Slavery" he -r te" :ca0 &e l1crative 0ly 0 ,ertile s ils" a02 am 0!st a sca0ty p p1lati 0 as i0 the 0e- states i0 America" -here t- 2ays7 la& 1r -ill p1rchase a0 acre , la02*: ;; 'is3

c1ssi0! the a& liti 0 , slavery i0 F"1r pe" the N rther0 states , the U0i 0 a02 certai0 parts , S 1th America" he reache2 the c 0cl1si 0 that the ,act that ema0cipati 0 ha2 0 t &ee0 e4te0sive -here slave la& r -as pr ,ita&le sh -e2 that :the e,, rts , &e0ev le0t me0 have &ee0 m st s1ccess,1l -he0 c 3 perati0! -ith 0at1ral ca1ses*: @< Whe0 he -r te lyrically , )ritai07s ma01,act1ri0! s6ill a02 i021stry" :10shac6le2 &y & 10ties" 10ai2e2 &y 1seless m 0 p lies" thrivi0! -ith 103 restrai0e2 ,ree2 m": @B he -as thi06i0! less , West I02ia0 slavery tha0 , West I02ia0 m 0 p ly* Why sh 1l2 )ritai0 0 t s1pply the C 0ti0e0t -ith re,i0e2 s1!ar as -ell as -ith ma01,act1re2 c tt 0I @$ )1t -he0 the West I02ia0s as6e2 him p i0te2ly -hether he mea0t t i0tr 21ce )ra/ilia0 as -ell as I02ia0 s1!ar" he replie2 that all s1!ar sh 1l2 &e a2mitte2 at a 10i, rm 21ty" 0 the c 02iti 0 that )ra/il a02 C1&a a!ree2 t a& lish the slave tra2e* ;> What the0 ha2 &ec me , his :0at3 1ral ca1ses:I His 21al p siti 0 , h1ma0itaria0 a02 ec 0 mist , rce2 him i0t i0c 0siste0cies* I0 his h me a special 2i00er service p rtraye2 a Ne!r i0 chai0s" a02 i0 #B=< he p1rchase2 #?">>> small & ttles -hich he ,ille2 -ith samples , ,ree3!r -0 s1!ar a02 c ,,ee a02 2istri&1te2 am 0! sympathisers a02 mem3 &ers , Parliame0t* ;# )1t the s1pp rt , Liverp l7s :&e0ev le0t t -0sma0: ;? 2i2 10t l2 harm t the ca1se , h1ma0itaria0ism* Th mas Whitm re" East I02ia0 lea2er i0 Parliame0t" -as a vice3presi2e0t , the A0ti3Slavery S ciety a02 -as at 0e time ca02i2ate , r s1ccessi 0 t the lea2ership , the A0ti3Slavery party* ;= Wil&er, rce7s 2iary , r (ay ??" #B?=" the 2ate ,

lBB CAPITALIS( AN' SLAVERY

Whitm re7s m ti 0 0 the s1!ar 21ties" rea2s8 :N 0e i0tereste2 , r the 51esti 0 &1t the East I02ia0s a02 a ,e- , 1s A0ti3 Slavers" a02 the West I02ia0s a02 ! ver0me0t a!ai0st 1s*: ;% The t- tellers , r the East I02ia0 si2e -ere Whitm re a02 )14t 0* ;@ O, all the a& liti 0ists" 0ly 0e" )r 1!ham" -as p3 p se2 t e51ali/ati 0 , the 21ties" 0 the !r 102 that it - 1l2 very spee2ily lay -aste the -h le , the West I02ia0 archi3 pela! * ;; This c 00ecti 0 &et-ee0 East I02ia0s a02 certai0 a& liti 03 ists has 0 t &ee0 ,1lly appreciate2* C 1pla02 is clearly 10happy a& 1t the -h le thi0!" as is see0 i0 his c 0cer0 -ith the :si03 cerity: , & th !r 1ps* ;< Fli0!&er! spea6s , :c 3 perati 0*: ;B )1r0 is c 0vi0ce2 that the attac6s 0 Cr pper7s 2isi0tereste23 0ess -ere 10, 102e2* ;> Ra!at/7 e4pla0ati 0 is the m st satis3 ,act ry , all8 Cr pper7s -as : 0e , th se ccasi 0al cases i0 -hich c 021ct is 0 t primarily i0,l1e0ce2 &y sel,3i0terest th 1!h they may acci2e0tally c i0ci2e*: <> The real si!0i,3 ica0ce" h -ever" , the a& liti 0ists7 s1pp rt , East I02ia" a02 later , )ra/ilia0 s1!ar" is that the iss1es i0v lve2 -ere 0 t 0ly the i0h1ma0ity , West I02ia0 slavery &1t the 10pr ,ita&le0ess , West I02ia0 m 0 p ly*

A,ter I02ia" )ra/il a02 C1&a* )y 0 stretch , ima!i0ati 0 c 1l2 a0y h1ma0itaria0 D1sti,y a0y pr p sal calc1late2 t rivet the chai0s , slavery still m re ,irmly 0 the Ne!r es , )ra/il a02 C1&a* That -as precisely -hat ,ree tra2e i0 s1!ar mea0t* F r a,ter #B>< the )ritish West I02ia0s -ere 2e0ie2 the slave tra2e" a02 a,ter #B== slave la& r* I, the a& liti 0ists ha2 rec m3 me02e2 I02ia0 s1!ar" i0c rrectly" 0 the h1ma0itaria0 pri0ciple that it -as ,ree3!r -0" it -as their 21ty t their pri0ciples a02 their reli!i 0 t & yc tt the slave3!r -0 s1!ar , )ra/il a02 C1&a* I0 ,aili0! t 2 this it is 0 t t &e i0,erre2 that they -ere -r 0!" &1t it is 102e0ia&le that their ,ail1re t a2 pt s1ch a c 1rse c mpletely 2estr ys the h1ma0itaria0 ar!1me0t* The a& liti 0ists" a,ter #B==" c 0ti01e2 t pp se the West I02ia0 pla0ters -h 0 - empl ye2 ,ree la& r* Where" &e, re #B==" they ha2 & yc tte2 the )ritish slave -0er" a,ter #B== they esp 1se2 the ca1se , the )ra/ilia0 slave -0er*

THE :SAINTS: AN' SLAVERY #B$ The a& liti 0ists at ,irst ha2 0 t c 0,i0e2 their atte0ti 0 t the )ritish slave tra2e* They ha2 2reame2 , 0 thi0! sh rt , the t tal a02 10iversal a& liti 0 , the slave tra2e* They t 6 a2va0ta!e , the ret1r0 , peace i0 #B#@ a02 the i0ter0ati 0al c 0,ere0ces the0 i0 v !1e t 2issemi0ate their vie-s* They se0t -h le :l a2s , h1m&1!: t Parliame0t9 <# i0 thirty3, 1r 2ays i0 #B#%" they se0t <<? petiti 0s -ith a milli 0 si!0at1res* <? They 2e0 10ce2 the paper 2eclarati 0 , the C 0!ress , Vie00a a!ai0st the slave tra2e" -here they ha2 - 0 ver )ritai07s ple0ip te0tiary" Welli0!t 0" a02 -ere eve0 prepare2 t ! t -ar , r a& liti 0* <= They !ai0e2 the s1pp rt , the Tsar , R1ssia* <% They se0t a special &server" Clar6s 0" t the C 03 !ress , Ai43la3Chapelle* They -ere rea2y t ,i!ht Fra0ce all ver a!ai0 t preve0t Fre0ch rec 051est , Sai0t ' mi0!1e" <; a02 -ere 10-illi0! t rec !0i/e the i02epe02e0ce , )ra/il ,r m P rt1!al -ith 1t a0 e4plicit pr mise t re0 10ce the slave tra2e* They , rce2 the )ritish ! ver0me0t" &y their :,rie02ly vi le0ce": <; t stati 0 a s51a2r 0 0 the A,rica0 c ast t s1ppress the slave tra2e &y , rce* The press1re 0 the ! ver0me0t -as terri,ic* The ! ver03 me0t plea2e2 , r time" , r ca1ti 0* :( rals": sai2 Castlerea!h" :-ere 0ever -ell ta1!ht &y the s- r2*: << He &e!!e2 the h13 ma0itaria0s t :m 2erate their virt1 1s ,eeli0!s" a02 p1t their s licit12e , r A,rica 102er the 2 mi0i 0 , reas 0*: <B )1t the a& liti 0ists !ave the ! ver0me0t 0 peace* As Liverp l c 03 ,esse2 0 0e ccasi 0 t Wil&er, rce8 :I, I -ere 0 t a04i 1s , r the a& liti 0 , the slave tra2e 0 pri0ciple" I m1st &e a-are , the em&arrassme0t t -hich a0y ! ver0me0t m1st &e e4p se2 ,r m the prese0t state , that 51esti 0 i0 this c 10try*: <$ The ! ver0me0t -as c 0si2era&ly hampere2 i0 its , rei!0 relati 0s , r they 60e- that all 0e! tiati 0s -ere ,1tile* )1t they 0ever 2are2 t say s pe0ly* :We shall 0ever s1c3 cee2": -r te Welli0!t 0 t A&er2ee0" :i0 a& lishi0! the , rei!0 slave tra2e* )1t -e m1st ta6e care t av i2 t ta6e a0y steps -hich may i021ce the pe ple , E0!la02 t &elieve that

-e 2 0 t 2 everythi0! i0 1r p -er t 2 -0 as s 0 as p ssi&le*: B>

2isc 1ra!e a02 p1t it

I0 a0 10, r!etta&le !e0eral electi 0 i0 #B=#" i0 -hich ca02i3

#$> CAPITALIS( AN' SLAVERY

2ates -ere 51i//e2 0 their vie-s 0 slavery" the a& liti 0ists 2ra!!e2 Ne!r es t electi 0 -ith ! l2e0 chai0s" a02" -here they c 1l2 ,i02 0 Ne!r es" chim0ey s-eeps* They placar2e2 the h1sti0!s all ver the 6i0!2 m -ith ,1ll3le0!th pict1res , -hite pla0ters ,l !!i0! Ne!r - me0* B# I0 their campai!0s they appeale2 t the hearts a02 c 0scie0ces , )ritish - me0" a02 eve0 appr ache2 chil2re0* Lee2s p1&lishe2 a0 a0ti3slavery series , r D1ve0ile rea2ers* A0 a0ti3slavery 2ial -as ma01,ac3 t1re2" s that &e0ev le0t pe ple" e0D yi0! the 2 mestic c m3 , rts , a0 eve0i0! ,iresi2e i0 E0!la02" - 1l2 60 - that the Ne!r es -ere t ili0! 0 the pla0tati 0s 102er the ppressive heat , a tr pical s10* B? This -as i0 the years &e, re #B==* )liss -as i0 that 2a-0* )1t eve0 i0 that 2a-0 the st rm cl 12s ha2 &e!10 t !ather* The a& liti 0ists -ere & yc tti0! the slave3!r -0 pr 21ce , the )ritish West I02ies" 2ye2 -ith the Ne!r 7s &l 2* )1t the very e4iste0ce , )ritish capitalism 2epe02e2 1p 0 the slave3 !r -0 c tt 0 , the U0ite2 States" e51ally c 00ecte2 -ith slavery a02 p ll1te2 -ith &l 2* The West I02ia0 c 1l2 le!iti3 mately as6 -hether :slavery -as 0ly reprehe0si&le i0 c 103 tries t -hich th se mem&ers 2 0 t tra2e" a02 -here their c 00ecti 0s 2 0 t resi2e*: B= The a0s-ers !ive0 -ere c1ri 1s* The pers 0 -h receive2 slave3!r -0 pr 21ce ,r m America 2ealt i0 the pr 21ce , la& r per, rme2 &y slaves -h -ere 0 t his ,ell - s1&Dects" a02 there -as 0 t" i0 the slavery , the U0ite2 States" a0y evi2e0ce , that 2estr1cti 0 , h1ma0 li,e -hich -as 0e , the m st appalli0! ,eat1res , the system i0 the )ritish West I02ies* B% The & yc tters , West I02ia0 s1!ar sat 1p 0 chairs , C1&a0 mah !a0y" &e, re 2es6s , )ra/ilia0 r se- 2" a02 1se2 i06sta02s , slave3c1t e& 0y9 &1t :it - 1l2 2 0 ! 2 t ! r 102 a02 i051ire i0t the pe2i!ree , every chair a02 ta&le*: I0 a c 10try li6e E0!la02 t tal a&sti0e0ce ,r m slave pr 21ce -as imp ssi&le" 10less they -ishe2 t &eta6e themselves t the - 2s a02 live 0 r ts a02 &erries* B@ As the Ne-castle a& liti 0ists ar!1e2" 0ly :the 100ecessary p1rchase , 0e i ta , slave pr 21ce i0v lves the p1rchaser i0 the !1ilt , the slaveh l2er*: B; Was )ra/ilia0 s1!ar 0ecessaryI The capitalists sai2 yes9 it

THE :SAINTS: AN' SLAVERY #$# -as 0ecessary t 6eep )ritish capitalism ! i0!* The a& liti 0ists

6 the si2e , the capitalists* I0 #B==" L1shi0!t 0" 0e , the l2est , the a& liti 0ists" represe0ti0! a s1!ar re,i0i0! 2istrict" &e!!e2 the ! ver0me0t 0 t t l se a0 h 1r i0 !ra0ti0! relie, t his c 0stit1te0ts" -h as6e2 , r 0 & 10ty" 0 10,air a23 va0ta!es" 0 10D1st m 0 p ly* B< He ha2 i0 mi02 the s1!ar re,i0ers , the T -er Hamlets" 0 t the Ne!r es , the )ritish West I02ies* )14t 0 t 6 a c1ri 1s p siti 0* I, it c 1l2 &e sh -0 that the , rei!0 s1!ar t &e imp rte2 - 1l2 &e c 03 s1me2 at h me" i0stea2 , &ei0! e4p rte2" he - 1l2 v te 0 * )1t it re51ire2 0e3thir2 m re la& r t re,i0e s1!ar i0 )ra/il a02 the0 imp rt it i0t )ritai0 i0 a re,i0e2 state* I0 permitti0!" there, re" , rei!0 s1!ar t &e re,i0e2 i0 )ritai0" they -ere s1&3 stit1ti0! )ritish machi0ery at h me , r slave la& r a&r a2" a02 c 0se51e0tly t that e4te0t 2imi0ishi0! slave la& r a02 2is3 c 1ra!i0! the slave tra2e* BB Parliame0t -as ast 0ishe2* B$ Well mi!ht it &e* This -as i0 Septem&er" #B=#* T- years later )14t 0 -as reD ici0! i0 the s1ccess , his la& rs* :A mi!hty - r6 is acc m3 plishe2 as ,ar as this c 10try is c 0cer0e2*: $> The Ema0cipa3 ti 0 Act mar6e2 the e02 , the a& liti 0ist e,, rts* They -ere satis,ie2* It 0ever 2a-0e2 1p 0 them that the Ne!r 7s ,ree2 m c 1l2 &e 0ly 0 mi0al i, the s1!ar pla0tati 0 -as all -e2 t e021re* Whe0 +la2st 0e" i0 #B%B" still claime2 the pr tecti0! 21ty , r the pla0ters" he m st emphatically state2 it ha2 0 thi0! t 2 -ith the Ne!r * He c 1l2 see :0 reas 0 -hy -e sh 1l2 thr - a-ay the ,102s , the c 10try i0 !ivi0! a ,1rther stim1l1s t that c 02iti 0" -hich is 0e , c m, rt ,1lly a2e3 51ate t their scale i0 s ciety a02 their 2esires*: $# The a& liti 03 ists -ere sile0t* It 0ever cc1rre2 t them that the Ne!r mi!ht -a0t the la02* I0 A0ti!1a" -here all the la02 -as appr priate2" pla0ters a02 slaves ,l c6e2 t the ch1rches -he0 the 0e-s , ema0cipati 0 reache2 the isla02" tha06e2 + 2 , r the &less3 i0!s , ,ree2 m" a02 ret1r0e2 t their la& rs" the slaves 0 raise2 t the 2i!0ity , la02less -a!e ear0ers pai2 t-e0ty3,ive ce0ts a 2ay* The same -as tr1e , )ar&a2 s" -here similar c 03 2iti 0s prevaile2" e4cept that the )ar&a2ia0s mitte2 the tha06s3 !ivi0!* Where -ere the a& liti 0istsI :The Ne!r race": -r te

#$? CAPITALIS( AN' SLAVERY

)14t 0" :are &lesse2 -ith a pec1liar aptit12e , r the recepti 0 , m ral a02 reli!i 1s i0str1cti 0" a02 it 2 es seem t me that there 0ever -as a str 0!er call 0 a0y 0ati 0 tha0 there is 0 0 1s t meet this i0cli0ati 0 i0 them" t s1pply them amply -ith the mea0s , i0str1cti 0" t 2ispatch missi 0aries" t i0sti3 t1te sch ls" a02 t se02 1t )i&les* It is the 0ly c mpe0sati 0 i0 1r p -er* It is a0 a&102a0t 0eM We may i0 this ma00er rec mpe0se all the s rr -s a02 s1,,eri0!s -e have i0,licte2 a02 &e the mea0s , ma6i0! i0 the e02 their &ar&ar 1s rem val ,r m their -0 la02 the !reatest , &lessi0!s t them*: $? Similarly , r A,rica* I0 #B%> +1r0ey -r te that :the 1ltimate a02 0ly ra2ical c1re , the vices a02 miseries , A,rica is Christia0ity*

* * * We m1st 0ever , r!et the param 10t val1e ti 0*: >B

, Eva0!eli/a3

The &ar&ar 1s rem val , the Ne!r es ,r m A,rica c 03 ti01e2 , r at least t-e0ty3,ive years a,ter #B==" t the s1!ar pla0tati 0s , )ra/il a02 C1&a* )ra/ilia0 a02 C1&a0 ec 0 my 2epe02e2 0 the slave tra2e* C 0siste0cy al 0e 2ema02e2 that the )ritish a& liti 0ists pp se this tra2e* )1t that - 1l2 re3 tar2 )ra/ilia0 a02 C1&a0 2evel pme0t a02 c 0se51e0tly hamper )ritish tra2e* The 2esire , r cheap s1!ar a,ter #B== vercame all a&h rre0ce , slavery* + 0e -as the h rr r -hich 0ce -as e4cite2 at the i2ea , a )ritish West I02ia0 slave32river arme2 -ith a -hip9 the C1&a0 slave32river" arme2 -ith -hip" c1tlass" 2a!!er a02 pist ls" a02 , ll -e2 &y &l 2h 102s" ar 1se2 0 t eve0 c mme0t ,r m the a& liti 0ists* E4eter Hall" the ce0ter , )ritish h1ma0itaria0ism" yiel2e2 t the (a0chester Sch l" the spearhea2 , )ritish ,ree tra2e* The a& liti 0ists" 0ce s &elli!ere0t -here the slave tra2e -as c 0cer0e2" -ere 0 - paci,ists* )14t 0 -r te a & 6 c 03 2em0i0! the slave s51a2r 0 a02 the p licy , , rci&le s1ppres3 si 0 , the slave tra2e as ca1si0! a!!ravate2 s1,,eri0! t m1lti3 plie2 01m&ers* $% St1r!e re r!a0i/e2 the A0ti3Slavery S ciety 0 a p1rely paci,ic &asis* :The 1tter ,ail1re": sai2 Wil&er, rce" D10i r" )ish p , O4, r2" at a !reat a& liti 0ist meeti0! i0 #B%>" : , every attempt &y treaty" &y rem 0stra0ce" a02 &y 0aval armame0ts t arrest the pr !ress , the slave tra2e" pr ves the 0ecessity , res rti0! t a preve0tive p licy , 102e2 0 2i,3

THE :SAINTS: AN' SLAVERY #$= ,ere0t a02 hi!her pri0ciples*: $@ Y 10! )14t 0 :c 1l2 0 t &1t see that th se hi!h pri0ciples &y -hich this c 10try ha2 &ee0 !1i2e2 , r ma0y years -ere 0 - s1ppla0te2 &y thers -hich" th 1!h imp rta0t i0 themselves" -ere ,ar i0,eri r t th se pri0ciples 0 -hich he ha2 acte2 i0 , rmer years*: $; )r 1!h3 am7s phila0thr py -as e4cite2 0ly &y s1!ar a02 0 t &y c t3 t 0" 0ly &y the slave tra2e a02 0 t &y slavery" 0ly &y the slave tra2e &et-ee0 A,rica a02 )ra/il a02 0 t &y the slave tra2e &e3 t-ee0 Vir!i0ia a02 Te4as* He c 02em0e2 as :a !r ss perver3 si 0 , the 2 ctri0es , ,ree tra2e: the p licy , &tai0i0! :cheap s1!ar at the heavier c st , piracy" a02 t rt1re" a02 &l 2*: >< He 60e- it - 1l2 &e ma20ess t e4cl12e America0 c tt 0" s ta6i0! as his sta02ar2 , meas1reme0t 0 t slavery &1t the slave tra2e" he ar!1e2 that -hile he ha2 0 ri!ht t i0ter3 ,ere i0 the 2 mestic i0stit1ti 0s , i02epe02e0t states" he ha2 every ri!ht t 2ema02 the e0, rceme0t , treaties si!0e2 &y i02epe02e0t states* $B Acc r2i0! t his i0terpretati 0 the U0ite2 States 2i2 0 t carry 0 the slave tra2e* There -as a 2i,,ere0ce" he c 0te02e2" &et-ee0 slave3!r -0 s1!ar i0 L 1isia0a" i03 crease2 &y the 0at1ral i0crease , the slaves r m re e,,icie0t c1ltivati 0" a02 slave3!r -0 s1!ar i0 )ra/il" i0crease2 &y :the 100at1ral" , rce2" a02 i0,er0al tra,,ic i0 A,rica0s carrie2 0 &y , rce a02 ,ra12": >$

Perhaps the !reatest si0!le speech ever ma2e 0 the slavery 51esti 0 -as the speech , Th mas )a&i0!t 0 (aca1lay" later L r2 (aca1lay" i0 #B%@* It -as a masterpiece , clarity a02 l1ci2ity" &e,itti0! a !reat hist ria0* It ha2 0e 2e,ect8 it -as pr 3slavery a02 0 t a0ti3slavery* :(y especial &li!ati 0s i0 respect t 0e!r slavery": sai2 (aca1lay tartly" :cease2 -he0 slavery itsel, cease2 i0 that part , the - rl2 , r the -el,are , -hich I" as a mem&er , this H 1se" -as acc 10ta&le*: He re3 ,1se2 t t1r0 the ,iscal c 2e , the c 10try i0t a pe0al c 2e , r the p1rp se , c rrecti0! vices i0 the i0stit1ti 0s , i02e3 pe02e0t states" r the tari,, i0t :a0 i0str1me0t , r re-ar2i0! the D1stice a02 h1ma0ity , s me , rei!0 ! ver0me0ts" a02 , r p10ishi0! the &ar&arity , thers*: He & l2ly ,ace2 the i0c 03 siste0cy , imp rti0! )ra/ilia0 s1!ar , r re,i0i0! &1t 0 t , r c 0s1mpti 0* :We imp rt the acc1rse2 thi0!9 -e & 02 it9 -e

#$% CAPITALIS( AN' SLAVERY

empl y 1r s6ill a02 machi0ery t re02er it m re all1ri0!" t the eye a02 t the palate9 -e e4p rt it t Le!h r0 a02 Ham3 &1r!9 -e se02 it t all the c ,,ee h 1ses , Italy a02 +erma0y9 -e p c6et a pr ,it 0 all this9 a02 the0 -e p1t 0 a Pharisaical air" a02 tha06 + 2 that -e are 0 t li6e th se si0,1l Italia0s a02 +erma0s -h have 0 scr1ple a& 1t s-all -i0! slave3 !r -0 s1!ar*: #>> They 2are2 0 t pr hi&it the imp rtati 0 , )ra/ilia0 s1!ar" 10less they -ishe2 t ma6e +erma0y a War3 -ic6shire a02 Leip/i! a0 ther (a0chester* #># :I -ill 0 t have t- sta02ar2s , ri!ht* *** I -ill 0 t have t- -ei!hts r tmeas1res* I -ill 0 t &l - h t a02 c l2" play ,ast a02 l se" strai0 at a !0at a02 s-all - a camel*: #>? All the !reat 0ames -ere here Wil&er, rce" )14t 0" (ac3 a1lay" )r 1!ham* All &1t Clar6s 0" a v ice i0 the -il2er0ess calli0! , r the e4cl1si 0 , all articles pr 21ce2 &y ma0acle2 a02 ,ettere2 ha02s* #>= Yet eve0 Clar6s 0 i0 #B=$ pp se2 s1p3 pressi 0 0 the c1ri 1s !r 102 that it -as :&1t p1tti0! m 0ey i0t the p c6ets , 1r me0 , -ar*: #>% Slavery -as 0 - re!ar2e2 i0 a 2i,,ere0t li!ht* (r* Wils 0 -as 0 t prepare2 t say that" &eca1se the relati 0 &et-ee0 em3 pl yer a02 empl ye2 -as that , master a02 slave" it sh 1l2 &e &ra02e2 as i0D1stice a02 ppressi 0* #>@ The mem&er , r O43 , r2 U0iversity pp se2 the slave tra2e a02 -as prepare2 , r -ar" i, 0ecessary" t s1ppress it" #>; &1t he ha2 0ever accepte2 the vie- that pr perty i0 ma0 -as ille!al* #>< The p litical ec 3 0 mist" (7C1ll ch" recalle2 that -ith 1t slavery the tr pics c 1l2 0ever have &ee0 c1ltivate2 a02 that" as a0 i0stit1ti 0" it -as 0 t D1stly pe0 t the ppr &ri1m a02 2e010ciati 0 ap3 plie2 t it* #>B L 6 at the system , slavery m re calmly" lec3 t1re2 Pr ,ess r (erivale at O4, r29 it -as a !reat s cial evil" &1t 0e 2i,,eri0! i0 2e!ree a02 51ality" 0 t i0 6i02" ,r m ma0y ther s cial evils they -ere c mpelle2 t t lerate" s1ch as the !reat i0e51ality , , rt10es" pa1perism" r the ver- r6i0! ,

chil2re0* #>$ 'israeli" c 02em0e2 mitte2 &y a22resse2 li6e ma0y t , ll - i0 )ritai0 a02 the U0ite2 States" ema0cipati 0 as the !reatest &l102er ever c m3 the E0!lish pe ple* It -as :a0 e4citi0! t pic * * * t a0 i0s1lar pe ple , Cstr 0! p1rp se" &1t very 2e3

THE :SAINTS: AN' SLAVERY #$@ ,icie0t i0, rmati 0*: ##> This -as 0 t a hasty D12!me0t i0 the c 1rse , a &rillia0t rat rical per, rma0ce* It -as a c 0si2ere2 pi0i 0" -hich he 2eli&erately repeate2 i0 his Li,e , L r2 +e r!e )e0ti0c6* :The m veme0t , the mi22le class , r the a& liti 0 , slavery -as virt1 1s" &1t it -as 0 t -ise* It -as a0 i!0 ra0t m veme0t* The hist ry , the a& liti 0 , slavery &y the E0!lish a02 its c 0se51e0ces" - 1l2 &e a 0arrative , i!0 ra0ce" i0D1stice" &l102eri0!" -aste" a02 hav c" 0 t easily parallele2 i0 the hist ry , ma06i02*: ### Eve0 the i0tellect1als -ere e0!1l,e2* C leri2!e ha2 &ee0 a-ar2e2 the )r -0e + l2 (e2al at Cam&ri2!e , r a0 2e 0 slavery a02 ha2 a&stai0e2 ,r m s1!ar* )1t i0 #B## he s0eere2 at the :phila0thr py3tra2e": acc1se2 Wil&er, rce , cari0! 0ly , r his -0 s 1l" a02 critici/e2 Clar6s 0 as a ma0 ma2e vai0 &y &e0ev le0ce" :the m ral steam e0!i0e r the !ia0t -ith 0e i2ea:9 ##? -hile i0 #B== he -as str 0!ly pp se2 t ,re51e0t 2isc1ssi 0s , the :ri!hts: , the Ne!r es -h sh 1l2 &e :ta1!ht t &e tha06,1l , r the pr vi2e0ce -hich has place2 them -ithi0 the reach , the mea0s , !race*: ##= I0 #<$? W r2s- rth -as c mpletely i02i,,ere0t t the :0 vel heat , virt1 1s ,eeli0!: -hich -as sprea2i0! thr 1!h E0!la02* ##% His ,am 1s s 00ets t Clar6s 0" T 1ssai0t L7O1vert1re" a02 the :-hite3r &e2 Ne!r : are merely ma!0i,ice0t rhet ric a02" 0 t acci2e0tally" lac6 the 2epth , his ,i0est p etry* I0 #B== C e plea2e2 that slavery -as i0 pri0ciple m 0str 1s &1t -as 0 t the - rst thi0! i0 h1ma0 0at1re9 it -as 0 t i0 itsel, at all times a02 102er all circ1msta0ces t &e 2epl re2" a02 i0 # B%> he re3 ,1se2 t &e p1&licly ass ciate2 -ith the a& liti 0ists* ##@ S 1they ,av re2 c mp1ls ry ma01missi 0 &y -hich slavery - 1l2" -ith reas 0a&le h pe" &e e4ti0!1ishe2 i0 the c 1rse , a !e0era3 ti 0" ##; )1t reacti 0 at its &lac6est a02 cheapest -as pers 0i,ie2 &y Carlyle* He -r te a0 essay 0 :The Ni!!er L1esti 0": s0eer3 i0! at the :E4eter3Hallery a02 ther tra!ic T m, lery: -hich" pr cee2i0! 0 the ,alse pri0ciple that all me0 -ere e51al" ha2 ma2e , the West I02ies a )lac6 Irela02* W 1l2 h rses &e the 0e4t t &e ema0cipate2I he as6e2* He c 0traste2 the :&ea1ti,1l )lac6s sitti0! there 1p t the ears i0 p1mp6i0s"

#$; CAPITALIS( AN' SLAVERY

a02 2 le,1l Whites sitti0! here -ith 1t p tat es t eat*: It -as 0ly the -hite ma0 -h ha2 !ive0 val1e t the West I02ies" a02 the :i02 le0t t- 3le!!e2 cattle: sh 1l2 &e , rce2 t - r6* The a&1ses , slavery sh 1l2 &e a& lishe2" a02 the preci 1s thi0! i0 it save28 the Ne!r :has a0 i02isp1ta&le a02 perpet1al ri!ht t &e c mpelle2 *** t 2 c mpete0t - r6 , r his livi0!*: It -as 0 t that Carlyle hate2 the Ne!r * N " he li6e2 him" a02 , 102 that :-ith a pe00y- rth , il" y 1 ca0 ma6e a ha023 s me !l ssy thi0! , p r L1ashee*: The &lac6 A,rica0" al 0e , -il2 me0" c 1l2 live am 0! civili/e2 me0" &1t he c 1l2 &e 1se,1l i0 + 27s creati 0 0ly as a perpet1al serva0t" 10less the )ritish West I02ies -ere t &ec me" li6e Haiti" :a tr pical 2 !3 6e00el": &lac6 Peter e4termi0ati0! &lac6 Pa1l* ##< P1&lic pi0i 0" as L r2 'e0ma0 m a0e2" ha2 102er! 0e a lame0ta&le a02 2is3 !race,1l cha0!e* ##B

#? THE SLAVES AN' SLAVERY

WE HAVE CONSI'ERE' the 2i,,ere0t attit12es t slavery , the )ritish + ver0me0t" the )ritish capitalists" the a&se0tee )ritish West I02ia0 pla0ters" a02 the )ritish h1ma0itaria0s* We have , ll -e2 the &attle , slavery i0 the h me c 10try* It - 1l2 &e a !rave mista6e" h -ever" t treat the 51esti 0 as i, it -ere merely a metr p lita0 str1!!le* The ,ate , the c l 0ies -as at sta6e" a02 the c l 0ists themselves -ere i0 a ,erme0t -hich i02icate2" re,lecte2" a02 reacte2 1p 0 the !reat eve0ts i0 )ritai0* First" there -ere the -hite pla0ters" -h ha2 t 2eal 0 t 0ly -ith the )ritish Parliame0t &1t -ith the slaves* Sec 02ly" there -ere the ,ree pe ple , c l r* A02" thir2ly" there -ere the slaves themselves* ( st -riters 0 this peri 2 have i!0 re2 them* ( 2er0 hist rical -riters are !ra21ally a-a6i0! t the 2ist rti 0 -hich is the res1lt , this* # I0 c rrecti0! this 2e3 ,icie0cy they c rrect a0 err r -hich the pla0ters a02 the )ritish ,,icials a02 p liticia0s , the time 0ever ma2e* First" the pla0ters* I0 #B?= the )ritish ! ver0me0t a2 pte2 a 0e- p licy , re, rm t -ar2s West I02ia0 slavery* The p licy -as t &e e0, rce2" &y r2ers i0 c 10cil" i0 the Cr -0 C l 0ies , Tri0i2a2 a02 )ritish +1ia0a9 its s1ccess" it -as h pe2" - 1l2 e0c 1ra!e the sel,3! ver0i0! c l 0ies t em1late it sp 0ta0e 1sly* The re, rms i0cl12e28 a& liti 0 , the -hip9 a& liti 0 , the Ne!r S102ay mar6et" &y !ivi0! the slaves a0 ther 2ay ,," t permit them time , r reli!i 1s i0str1cti 09 pr hi&iti 0 , the ,l !!i0! , ,emale slaves9 c mp1ls ry ma013 #$<

#$B CAPITALIS( AN' SLAVERY

missi 0 , ,iel2 a02 2 mestic slaves9 ,ree2 m , ,emale chil2re0 & r0 a,ter #B?=9 a2missi&ility , evi2e0ce , slaves i0 c 1rts , la-9 esta&lishme0t , savi0!s &a06s , r slaves9 a 0i0e3h 1r 2ay9 a02 the app i0tme0t , a Pr tect r , Slaves -h se 21ty it -as" am 0! ther thi0!s" t 6eep a0 ,,icial rec r2 , the p10ishme0ts i0,licte2 0 the slaves* It -as 0 t ema0cipati 0 &1t ameli rati 0" 0 t rev l1ti 0 &1t ev l1ti 0* Slavery - 1l2 &e 6ille2 &y 6i020ess* The reply , the pla0ters" i0 the Cr -0 C l 0ies as -ell as i0 the sel,3! ver0i0! isla02s" -as a0 emphatic re,1sal t pass -hat they c 0si2ere2 :a mere catal !1e , i021l!e0cies t the )lac6s*: la They 60e- that all s1ch c 0cessi 0s mea0t 0ly ,1rther c 0cessi 0s* N t 0e si0!le rec mme02ati 0 receive2 the 10a0im 1s appr val , the West I02ia0 pla0ters* They -ere r 1se2 t ,1ry especially &y the pr p sals , r the pr hi&iti 0 , the ,l !!i0! , ,emale slaves a02 the a& liti 0 , the Ne!r S103 2ay mar6et* Fr m the pla0ters7 sta02p i0t" it -as 0ecessary t p10ish - me0* Eve0 i0 civili/e2 s cieties" they ar!1e2" - me0 -ere ,l !!e2" as i0 the h 1ses , c rrecti 0 i0 E0!la02* :O1r &lac6 la2ies": sai2 (r* Ham2e0 i0 the )ar&a2 s le!islat1re" :have rather a te02e0cy t the Ama/ 0ia0 cast , character9 a02 I &elieve that their h1s&a02s - 1l2 &e very s rry t hear that they -ere place2 &ey 02 the reach , chastiseme0tA7 ? O0 the 51esti 0 , the a& liti 0 , the Ne!r S102ay mar3 6et" )ar&a2 s re,1se2 t s1rre02er 0e3si4th , its alrea2y re3 21ce2 i0c me* B .amaica replie2 that the :prete0ce , havi0! time , r reli! i1s 21ties: - 1l2 merely e0c 1ra!e i2le0ess am 0! the slaves* % S !reat -as the pp siti 0 , the pla0ters that the ! ver0 r 2eeme2 a0y attempt at alterati 0 hi!hly impr12e0t a02 c 1l2 see 0 alter0ative &1t leavi0! it :t the perati 0 , time a02 that cha0!e , circ1msta0ces a02 pi03 i 0s -hich is sl -ly &1t s1rely lea2i0! t the impr veme0t , the ha&its a02 ma00ers , the slaves*: @ It -as a tr1e a02 im3 p rta0t ,act that" -ith time" mere c 0tact -ith civili/ati 0 impr ve2 the slave" &1t the slave -as i0 0 m 2 , r the i0evita&ility , !ra21alism*

THE SLAVES AN' SLAVERY #$$

The -hip" ar!1e2 the pla0ters" -as 0ecessary i, 2iscipli0e t &e mai0tai0e2* A& lish it" :a02 the0 a2ie1 t all peace c m, rt 0 pla0tati 0s*: ; A Tri0i2a2 pla0ter calle2 it :a 10D1st a02 ppressive i0vasi 0 , pr perty: t i0sist 0 a

-as a02 m st 0i0e3

h 1r 2ay , r ,1ll3!r -0 slaves i0 the West I02ies" -hile the E0!lish ,act ry -0er c 1l2 e4act t-elve h 1rs7 la& r ,r m chil2re0 i0 a heate2 a02 sic6ly atm sphere* < I0 .amaica the &ill , r a2mitti0! slave evi2e0ce ar 1se2 a !reat a02 vi le0t clam r" a02 it -as reDecte2 0 the sec 02 rea2i0! &y a maD rity , thirty3si4 t 0e* B The Assem&ly , the isla02 p stp 0e2 the savi0!s &a06s cla1se t a ,1t1re sessi 0" $ a02 the ! ver0 r 2are2 0 t eve0 me0ti 0 the 51esti 0 , the ,ree2 m , ,emale chil2re0* #> The le!islat1re , )ritish +1ia0a 2eci2e2 that :i, the pri0ciple , ma01missi 0 i0vit 2 mi0 is t &e a2 pte2" it is m re , r their c 0siste0cy a02 , r the i0terests , their c 03 stit1e0ts that it sh 1l2 &e 2 0e , r them tha0 &y them*: ## I0 Tri0i2a2 the 01m&er , ma01missi 0s 2ecli0e2 c 0si2era&ly" #? -hile appraisals , r ma01missi 0 i0crease2 s122e0ly8 #= :the p ssi&ility , s- r0 appraisers pr 0 10ci0! a0 10D1st 2eci3 si 0": Stephe0 c 0,esse2" :-as 0 t c 0template2 a02 is 0 t pr vi2e2 a!ai0st*: #% O0e ma0a!er i0 Tri0i2a2 tal6e2 , :the silly r2ers i0 c 10cil": a02 i0 rec r2i0! p10ishme0ts res rte2 t la0!1a!e 10&e,itti0! his resp 0si&ility a02 i0s1lti0! t the ,ramers , the le!islati 0* #@ The ,,ice , Pr tect r , Slaves i0 )ritish +1ia0a -as a :2el1si 0:8 :There is 0 pr tecti 0 , r the Slave P p1lati 0": -r te the i0c1m&e0t i0 #B=?" :I am 2esperately 10p p1lar* * * *: #; N t 0ly 2i2 the West I02ia0 pla0ters 51esti 0 the speci,ic pr p sals , the )ritish + ver0me0t" they als challe0!e2 the ri!ht , the imperial parliame0t t le!islate 0 their i0ter0al a,,airs a02 iss1e :ar&itrary ma02ates *** s p sitive a02 103 51ali,ie2 i0 p i0t , matter" a02 s precise a02 perempt ry i0 p i0t , time*: #< Fr m )ar&a2 s the ! ver0 r rep rte2 that a0y attempt at 2ictati 0 !ave rise t i0sta0t irritati 0 a02 pp siti 0* #B The i0c 0siste0cy , slave -0ers tal6i0! , ri!hts a02 li&erties -as 2ismisse2 as :the clam 1r , i!0 ra0ce*: L 6 t hist ry" e4p st1late2 Ham2e0" :y 1 -ill there ,i02 that 0 0ati 0s i0 the - rl2 have &ee0 m re Deal 1s , their

?>> CAPITALIS( AN' SLAVERY

li&erties tha0 th se am 0!st -h m the i0stit1ti 0 e4iste2*: #$

, slavery

I0 .amaica the e4citeme0t reache2 ,ever pitch* The As3 sem&ly v -e2 that it - 1l2 :0ever ma6e a 2eli&erate s1r3 re02er , their 102 1&te2 a02 ac60 -le2!e2 ri!hts: &y le!is3 lati0! i0 the ma00er prescri&e2 ?> :1p 0 a s1&Dect , mere m10icipal re!1lati 0 a02 i0ter0al p lice*: ?# I, the )ritish Parliame0t -as t ma6e la-s , r .amaica" it m1st e4ercise that prer !ative -ith 1t a part0er* ?? The 2 ctri0e , the tra0s3 ce02e0tal p -er , the imperial parliame0t -as 2eclare2 t &e s1&versive , their ri!hts a02 2a0!er 1s t their lives a02 pr perties* ?= Acc r2i0! t the ! ver0 r" :the 102 1&te2 ri!hts , the )ritish Parliame0t have &ee0 -a0t 0ly a02 repeate2ly 2e0ie2" Ga02H 10less the arr !a0ce , s1ch prete0si 0s is e,3

,ect1ally c1r&e2" His (aDesty7s a1th rity i0 this c l 0y -ill e4ist 0ly i0 0ame*: ?% T- .amaica0 2ep1ties" se0t t E0!3 la02 i0 #B=? t lay their !rieva0ces &e, re the h me a1th rities" p i0te2ly 10c vere2 the arca0a imperil8 :We -e 0 m re alle!ia0ce t the i0ha&ita0ts , +reat )ritai0 tha0 -e -e t 1r &r ther c l 0ists i0 Ca0a2a **** -e 2 0 t , r a m me0t ac60 -le2!e that .amaica ca0 &e cite2 t the &ar , E0!lish pi0i 0 t 2e,e02 her la-s a02 c1st ms*: ?@ O0e mem&er , the isla02 assem&ly -e0t ,1rther8 :as , r the Fi0! , E0!3 la02": he as6e2" :-hat ri!ht I sh 1l2 &e !la2 t 60 - has he t .amaica e4cept that he st le it ,r m Spai0I: ?; A West I02ia0 i0 Parliame0t remi02e2 the )ritish pe ple that :&y persisti0! i0 the 51esti 0 , ri!ht -e l st America*: ?< Tal6 , secessi 0 -as ri,e* The h me ! ver0me0t -as -ar0e2 that there -as c 0sta0t c mm10icati 0 i0 .amaica -ith i02ivi21als i0 the U0ite2 States" ?B a02 that ,eelers ha2 &ee0 p1t 1t &y s me pla0ters t the U0ite2 States + ver0me0t* ?$ The ca&i0et t 6 the matter s1,,icie0tly seri 1sly t 51esti 0 the ! ver0 r a& 1t the matter* B> Ha2 0 t Sai0t ' mi0!1e" i0 similar cir3 c1msta0ces" ,,ere2 itsel, t )ritai0I This -as m re tha0 the la0!1a!e , 2esperate me0 r a0 i0sa0e ,l 1ti0! , the :temperate &1t a1th ritative a2m 0i3 ti 0: B# , the imperial a1th rities* It -as a less 0 0 t s m1ch t the p1&lic , +reat )ritai0 as t the slaves , the West I02ies*

THE SLAVES AN' SLAVERY ?OI

I, the ! ver0 r , .amaica , 102 i0 the pla0ters :a !reater rel1cta0ce t part -ith p -er ver the slave tha0 mi!ht have &ee0 e4pecte2 i0 the prese0t a!e": =? it is &vi 1s h - the recalcitra0ce , the pla0t cracy appeare2 t the slaves* The Ne!r es" least , all pe ple" -ere li6ely t , r!et that" i0 the - r2s , the ! ver0 r , )ar&a2 s" :the l ve , p -er , these pla0ters ver the p r Ne!r es" each i0 his little s1!ar 2 mi0i 0" has , 102 as !reat a0 &stacle t ,ree2 m as the l ve , their la& r: Ema0cipati 0 - 1l2 c me 0 t ,r m the pla0ters &1t 2espite the pla0ters* Whilst the -hites -ere pl tti0! treas 0 a02 tal6i0! , secessi 0" the ,ree pe ple , c l r -ere stea2,astly l yal* They 2eprecate2 :a 2iss l1ti 0 , the ties -hich &i02 1s t the ( ther C 10try as the !reatest calamity that c 1l2 p ssi&ly &e,all 1rselves a02 1r p sterity*: =% T their !reat cre2it" the ! ver0 r , Tri0i2a2 rep rte2" they ha2 0 t participate2 i0 th se meeti0!s :-hereat s m1ch pai0s have &ee0 ta6e0 t s - the see2s , 2isc 0te0t i0 the c l 0y & th am 0! the ,ree a02 the slave p p1lati 0*: =@ Whilst the -hites -ere re,1si0! t h l2 ,,ice" the m1latt es -ere i0sisti0! 0 their ri!ht t p1&lic service* =; They -ere l yal 0 t ,r m i0here0t virt1e &1t &eca1se they -ere t -ea6 t !ai0 their ri!hts 0 their -0 &ehal, a02 c 1l2 see 0 pr spect , their -0 ema0cipati 0 e4cept thr 1!h the )ritish ! ver0me0t* F1rtherm re" the l cal

! ver0me0ts" i0 s ,ar as they -ere tryi0! t carry 1t the p licy , the a0ti3m 0 p lists" ha2 t lea0 0 them* I0 )ar3 &a2 s" -r te the ! ver0 r" the &ala0ce , re,i0eme0t" m rals" e21cati 0" a02 e0er!y -as 0 the si2e , the m1latt es" -hilst the -hites ha2 0 thi0! &1t l2 ri!hts a02 preD12ices t mai03 tai0 their illi&eral p siti 0* :Y 1 -ill see": he a2vise2 the h me ! ver0me0t" :a lar!e p licy i0 prese0t circ1msta0ces i0 &ri0!3 i0! these castes , r-ar2* They are a s &er" active" e0er!etic a02 l yal race9 a02 I c 1l2 e51ally 2epe02 0 them i, 0ee2 came" a!ai0st either slaves r -hite militia*: =< C 0trary t p p1lar a02 eve0 p litical crisis 2eepe0e2 i0 p -er,1l s cial , rce i0 the aspect , the West I02ia0 pr lear0e2 &elie," h -ever" as the )ritai0" the m st 2y0amic a02 c l 0ies -as the slave himsel,* This &lem has &ee0 st12i 1sly i!0 re2"

?>? CAPITALIS( AN' SLAVERY

as i, the slaves" -he0 they &ecame i0str1me0ts , pr 21cti 0" passe2 , r me0 0ly i0 the catal !1e* The pla0ter l 6e2 1p 0 slavery as eter0al" r2ai0e2 &y + 2" a02 -e0t t !reat le0!ths t D1sti,y it &y script1ral 51 tati 0s* There -as 0 reas 0 -hy the slave sh 1l2 thi06 the same* He t 6 the same script1res a02 a2apte2 them t his -0 p1rp ses* T c erci 0 a02 p10ishme0t he resp 02e2 -ith i02 le0ce" sa& ta!e a02 rev lt* ( st , the time he merely -as as i2le as p ssi&le* That -as his 1s1al , rm , resista0ce passive* The 2 cility , the Ne!r slave is a myth* The (ar 0s , .amaica a02 the )1sh Ne!r es , )ritish +1ia0a -ere r10a-ay slaves -h ha2 e4tracte2 treaties ,r m the )ritish + ver0me0t a02 live2 i02epe02e0tly i0 their m 10tai0 ,ast0esses r D10!le retreats* They -ere sta02i0! e4amples t the slaves , the )ritish West I02ies , 0e r a2 t ,ree2 m* The s1ccess,1l slave rev lt i0 Sai0t ' mi0!1e -as a la02mar6 i0 the hist ry , slavery i0 the Ne- W rl2" a02 a,ter #B>%" -he0 the i02e3 pe02e0t rep1&lic , Haiti -as esta&lishe2" every -hite slave3 -0er" i0 .amaica" C1&a" r Te4as" live2 i0 2rea2 , a0 ther T 1ssai0t L7O1vert1re* It is i0c 0ceiva&le a pri ri that the ec 0 mic 2isl cati 0 a02 the vast a!itati 0s -hich sh 6 mil3 li 0s i0 )ritai0 c 1l2 have passe2 -ith 1t e,,ect 0 the slaves themselves a02 the relati 0 , the pla0ters t the slaves* Pres3 s1re 0 the s1!ar pla0ter ,r m the capitalists i0 )ritai0 -as a!!ravate2 &y press1re ,r m the slaves i0 the c l 0ies* I0 c m3 m10ities li6e the West I02ies" as the ! ver0 r , )ar&a2 s -r te" :the p1&lic mi02 is ever trem&li0!ly alive t the 2a0!ers , i0s1rrecti 0*: =B N t 0early as st1pi2 as his master th 1!ht him a02 later hist ria0s have pict1re2 him" the slave -as alert t his s1r3 r 102i0!s a02 6ee0ly i0tereste2 i0 2isc1ssi 0s a& 1t his ,ate* :N thi0!": -r te the ! ver0 r , )ritish +1ia0a i0 #B=>" :ca0 &e m re 6ee0ly &serva0t tha0 the slaves are , all that a,,ects their i0terests*: =$ The pla0ters pe0ly 2isc1sse2 the 51esti 0

, slavery i0 the prese0ce , the very pe ple -h se ,1t1re -as 102er c 0si2erati 0* :I, the t1r&1le0t meeti0!s -hich are hel2 here am 0! the pr priet rs": -r te the ! ver0 r , Tri0i2a2 i0 #B=?" :are c 10te0a0ce2" 0 thi0! that may cc1r 0ee2 &e

THE SLAVES AN' SLAVERY ?>=

matter , s1rprise* * * *: %> The l cal press a22e2 t the i03 ,lamma&le material* A Tri0i2a2 paper calle2 the r2er i0 c 103 cil :villai0 1s": %# a0 ther sp 6e , :the ri2ic1l 1s pr visi 0s , the r1i0 1s C 2e N ir*: %? O0e D12!e re,1se2 t sit 0 a0y trial arisi0! 1t , the r2er i0 c 10cil a02 -al6e2 1t , c 1rt* %= The pla0ters have &ee0 &lame2 , r this rec6less at3 tit12e* )1t they c 1l2 0 t help it* It is a ,eat1re , all 2eep s cial crises* )e, re the Fre0ch Rev l1ti 0 the Fre0ch c 1rt a02 arist cracy 2isc1sse2 V ltaire a02 R 1ssea1 0 t 0ly ,reely &1t" i0 certai0 spheres" -ith real i0tellect1al apprecia3 ti 0* The arr !a0t &ehavi r a02 i0temperate la0!1a!e , the pla0ters" h -ever" serve2 0ly t i0,lame the mi02s , the alrea2y restless slaves* The c 0se0s1s , pi0i 0 am 0! the slaves" -he0ever each 0e- 2isc1ssi 0 ar se r each 0e- p licy -as a00 10ce2" -as that ema0cipati 0 ha2 &ee0 passe2 i0 E0!la02 &1t -as -ith3 hel2 &y their masters* The ! ver0 r , .amaica rep rte2 i0 #B>< that a& liti 0 , the slave tra2e -as c 0str1e2 &y the slaves as :0 thi0! less tha0 their !e0eral ema0cipati 0*: %% I0 #B#; the )ritish Parliame0t passe2 a0 act ma6i0! c mp1ls ry the re!istrati 0 , all slaves" t preve0t sm1!!li0! i0 vi lati 0 , the a& liti 0 la-* The slaves i0 .amaica -ere , the impres3 si 0 that the &ill :c 0templates s me 2isp siti 0s i0 their ,av 1r -hich the Assem&ly here s1pp rte2 &y the i0ha&ita0ts !e03 erally are 2esir 1s t -ithh l2": %@ a02 the pla0ters ha2 t rec3 mme02 a parliame0tary 2eclarati 0 that ema0cipati 0 -as 0ever c 0template2* %; A similar mis102ersta02i0! prevaile2 am 0! the slaves i0 Tri0i2a2 %< a02 )ar&a2 s* %B All ver the West I02ies the slaves -ere as6i0! :-hy )acchra 0 2 that Fi0! &i2 himI: %$ S 2eeply -as the i2ea im&e22e2 i0 the mi02s , the slaves that s me !reat &e0e,it -as i0te02e2 , r them &y the h me ! ver0me0t i0 pp siti 0 t their masters that they ea!erly sei/e2 1p 0 every tri,li0! circ1msta0ce i0 c 0,irmati 0* @> Every cha0!e , ! ver0 r -as i0terprete2 &y them as ema0cipati 0* The arrival , '7Ur&a0 i0 )ritish +1ia0a i0 #B?% -as c 0str1e2 &y the slaves as i0v lvi0! :s methi0! i0teresti0! t their pr spects*: @# The ! ver0 r , Tri0i2a2 -e0t 0 leave i0 #B=#9 the Ne!r es ha2 it that he :-as t

?>% CAPITALIS( AN' SLAVERY

&ri0! 1t ema0cipati 0 , r all the slaves*: @? (1l!rave7s arrival i0 .amaica i0 #B=? create2 !reat e4citeme0t* At a revie- 0ear Fi0!st 0 he -as , ll -e2 ar 102 &y a !reater 01m&er , slaves tha0 ha2 ever assem&le2 &e, re i0 the isla02" all -ith 0e i2ea i0 their mi02s" that he ha2 :c me 1t -ith ema0cipati 0 i0 his p c6et*: @= The app i0tme0t , Smith as ! ver0 r , )ar&a2 s i0 #B== -as 102erst 2 &y the slaves as mea0i0! !e0eral ema0ci3 pati 0* His arrival i0 the isla02 !ave rise t a c 0si2era&le 01m&er , 2eserti 0s ,r m 2ista0t pla0tati 0s t )ri2!et -0 :t ascertai0 i, the + ver0 r ha2 &r 1!ht 1t ,ree2 m r 0 t*: @% The slaves" h -ever" -ere 0 t prepare2 t -ait , r ,ree2 m t c me t them as a 2ispe0sati 0 ,r m a& ve* The ,re51e0cy a02 i0te0sity , slave rev lts a,ter #B>> re,lect the !r -i0! te0si 0s -hich rever&erate2 i0 the stately halls , Westmi0ster* I0 #B>B a slave rev lt &r 6e 1t i0 )ritish +1ia0a* The rev lt -as &etraye2 a02 the ri0!lea2ers arreste2* They c 0siste2 , :the 2rivers" tra2esme0" a02 ther m st se0si&le slaves 0 the estates": @@ that is" 0 t the ,iel2 ha02s &1t the slaves -h -ere m re c m, rta&ly ,, a02 &etter treate2* I0 the same -ay a re&el i0 .amaica i0 #B?%" -h c mmitte2 s1ici2e" pe0ly a23 mitte2 that his master -as 6i02 a02 i021l!e0t" &1t 2e,e02e2 his acti 0 0 the !r 102 that ,ree2 m 21ri0! his li,etime ha2 &ee0 -ithhel2 0ly &y his master* @; It -as a 2a0!er si!0al* T 1ssai0t L7O1vert1re i0 Sai0t ' mi0!1e ha2 &ee0 a tr1ste2 slave c achma0* I0 #B#; came the t1r0 , )ar&a2 s* It -as a r12e sh c6 , r the )ar&a2ia0 pla0ters -h ,lattere2 themselves that the ! 2 treatme0t , the slaves - 1l2 :have preve0te2 their res rti0! t vi le0ce t esta&lish a claim , 0at1ral ri!ht -hich &y l 0! c1st m sa0cti 0e2 &y la- has &ee0 hithert re,1se2 t &e ac60 -le2!e2*: @< The re&els" -he0 51esti 0e2" e4plicitly 2e0ie2 that ill treatme0t -as the ca1se* :They st 1tly mai03 tai0e2 h -ever": s the c mma02er , the tr ps -r te t the ! ver0 r" :that the isla02 &el 0!e2 t them" a02 0 t t -hite me0" -h m they pr p se2 t 2estr y" reservi0! the ,emales*: @B The rev lt ca1!ht the pla0ters ,, their !1ar2" a02 0ly its premat1re &rea6i0! 1t" as a res1lt , the i0t 4icati 0

THE SLAVES AN' SLAVERY ?>@

, 0e , the re&els" preve0te2 it ,r m e0!1l,i0! the e0tire isla02* >$ The .amaica0 pla0ters c 1l2 see i0 the rev lt 0 thi0! &1t :the ,irst ,r1its , the visi 0ary schemes , a ,e- h t3 hea2e2 phila0thr pic the rists" i!0 ra0t 2eclaimers" a02 &i! tte2 ,a0atics*: ;> All they c 1l2 thi06 , -as 1r!e0t rep3 rese0tati 0s t the ! ver0 r t recall a 2etachme0t that ha2 saile2 a ,e- 2ays &e, re t E0!la02 a02 t 2etai0 the remai02er , the re!ime0t i0 .amaica* ;#

)1t the te0si 0 -as rapi2ly m 10ti0!* )ritish +1ia0a i0 #B>B" )ar&a2 s i0 #B#;* I0 #B?= )ritish +1ia0a -e0t 1p i0 ,lames" , r the sec 02 time* Fi,ty pla0tati 0s rev lte2" em&rac3 i0! a p p1lati 0 , #?">>>* Here a!ai0 the rev lt -as s care3 ,1lly a02 secretly pla00e2 that it t 6 the pla0ters 10a-ares* The slaves 2ema02e2 10c 02iti 0al ema0cipati 0* The ! ver3 0 r e4p st1late2 -ith them they m1st ! !ra21ally a02 0 t &e precipitate* The slaves liste0e2 c l2ly* :These thi0!s they sai2 -ere 0 c m, rt t them" + 2 ha2 ma2e them , the same ,lesh a02 &l 2 as the -hites" that they -ere tire2 , &ei0! slaves t them" that they sh 1l2 &e ,ree a02 they - 1l2 0 t - r6 a0y m re*: The ! ver0 r ass1re2 them that :i, &y peace3 ,1l c 021ct they 2eserve2 His (aDesty7s ,av r they - 1l2 ,i02 their l t s1&sta0tially th 1!h !ra21ally impr ve2" &1t they 2eclare2 they - 1l2 &e ,ree*: ;? The 1s1al severities , ll -e2" the rev lt -as 51elle2" the pla0ters cele&rate2 a02 -e0t their -ay" 10hee2i0!* Their s le s licit12e -as the c 0ti01ati 0 , the martial la- that ha2 &ee0 2eclare2* ;= :N - the &all has &e!10 t r ll": -r te the ! ver0 r , )ar&a2 s c 0,i2e0tially t the Secretary , State , r the C l 3 0ies -he0 he hear2 the 0e-s , the +1ia0a rev lt" :0 & 2y ca0 say -he0 r -here it is t st p*: ;% The 0e4t year the slaves 0 t- pla0tati 0s i0 the parish , Ha0 ver i0 .amaica rev lte2* The rev lt -as l cali/e2 a02 s1ppresse2 &y a lar!e military , rce a02 the ri0!lea2ers e4ec1te2* The slaves as a !r 1p" h -3 ever" c 1l2 0ly -ith 2i,,ic1lty &e restrai0e2 ,r m i0ter,eri0! -ith the e4ec1ti 0* I0 a22iti 0" the e4ec1te2 me0" -r te the ! ver0 r" :-ere ,1lly impresse2 -ith the &elie, that they -ere e0title2 t their ,ree2 m a02 that the ca1se they ha2 em&race2 -as D1st a02 i0 vi02icati 0 , their -0 ri!hts*: Acc r2i0!

?>; CAPITALIS( AN' SLAVERY

t 0e , the lea2ers" the rev lt ha2 0 t &ee0 s1&21e2" :the -ar ha2 0ly &e!10*: ;@ O1t-ar2 calm -as rest re2 i0 )ritish +1ia0a a02 i0 .amaica" &1t the Ne!r es c 0ti01e2 restless* :The spirit , 2isc 0te0t is a0ythi0! &1t e4ti0ct": -r te the ! ver0 r , )ritish +1ia0a" :it is alive as it -ere 102er its ashes" a02 the 0e!r mi02 al3 th 1!h !ivi0! , rth 0 mar6e2 i02icati 0 , mischie, t th se 0 t acc1st me2 t &serve it" is still a!itate2" Deal 1s a02 s1spici 1s*: ;; The ! ver0 r ca1ti 0e2 a!ai0st ,1rther 2elay" 0 t 0ly , r the sa6e , the i0tri0sic h1ma0ity a02 p licy , the meas1re" &1t that e4pectati 0 a02 c 0Dect1re mi!ht cease a02 the Ne!r es &e release2 ,r m that ,everish a04iety -hich - 1l2 c 0ti01e t a!itate them" 10til the 51esti 0 -as set 2e,i0itely at rest* ;< N state , the Ne!r mi02 -as s 2a0!er3 1s as 0e , 102e,i0e2 a02 va!1e e4pectati 0* ;B This -as i0 #B?%* Seve0 years later the same 2isc1ssi 0s a& 1t pr perty a02 c mpe0sati 0 a02 veste2 ri!hts -ere still ! i0!

0* I0 #B=# the slaves t 6 the matter i0t their -0 ha02s* A0 i0s1rrecti 0ary m veme0t 2evel pe2 i0 A0ti!1a* The ! ver0 r , )ar&a2 s ha2 t se02 rei0, rceme0ts* ;$ I0 )ar&a2 s itsel, the i2ea prevaile2 that the Fi0! ha2 !ra0te2 ema0cipati 0 &1t the ! ver0 r -as -ithh l2i0! the & 0" -hile a r1m r sprea2 that" i0 the eve0t , i0s1rrecti 0" the Fi0!7s tr ps ha2 receive2 p sitive r2ers 0 t t ,ire 1p 0 the slaves* <> The clima4 came -ith a rev lt i0 .amaica 21ri0! the Christ3 mas h li2ays* .amaica -as the lar!est a02 m st imp rta0t )ritish West I02ia0 c l 0y" a02 ha2 m re tha0 hal, the slaves i0 the e0tire )ritish West I02ies* With .amaica 0 ,ire" 0 thi0! c 1l2 st p the ,lames ,r m sprea2i0!* A0 :e4te0sive a02 2estr1ctive i0s1rrecti 0: &r 6e 1t am 0! the slaves i0 the -ester0 2is3 trict* <# The i0s1rrecti 0" rep rte2 the ! ver0 r" :-as 0 t c3 casi 0e2 &y a0y s122e0 !rieva0ce r* imme2iate ca1se , 2is3 c 0te0t" it ha2 &ee0 l 0! c 0certe2 a02 at 2i,,ere0t peri 2s 2e,erre2*: The lea2ers -ere slaves empl ye2 i0 sit1ati 0s , the !reatest c 0,i2e0ce" -h -ere c 0se51e0tly e4empte2 ,r m all har2 la& r* :I0 their p siti 0 m tives 0 less str 0! tha0 th se -hich appear t have act1ate2 them a 2esire , e,,ecti0! their ,ree2 m" a02 i0 s me cases , p ssessi0! them3

THE SLAVES AN' SLAVERY ?><

selves , the pr perty &el 0!i0! t i0,l1e0ce2 their c 021ct*: <?

their masters c 1l2 have

The West I02ia0 pla0ters" h -ever" sa- i0 these slave rev lts 0 thi0! &1t a0 pp rt10ity , em&arrassi0! the m ther c 103 try a02 the h1ma0itaria0s* Fr m Tri0i2a2 the ! ver0 r -r te as , ll -s i0 #B=?8 :* * * the isla02" as ,ar as the slaves are c 03 cer0e2" is 51ite tra051il a02 very easily c 1l2 &e 6ept s i, s1ch -as the 2esire , th se -h 1!ht t !1i2e their e02eav 1rs i0 this -ay It - 1l2 alm st appear t &e the act1ati0! m tives

, s me lea2i0! pe ple here t 2rive the + ver0me0t t a&a02 0 its pri0ciples" eve0 at the ris6 , e4citi0! the slaves t i0s1rrecti 0*: <= The ! ver0 r , .amaica e0c 10tere2 the same sit1ati 08 :There is 0 2 1&t that there - 1l2 &e th se sh rt si!hte2 e0 1!h t e0D y at the m me0t a0y 2ist1r&a0ce 0 the part , the Ne!r es arisi0! ,r m 2isapp i0tme0t -hich these pers 0s 2espairi0! , their -0 pr spects - 1l2 c 0si2er as s me c 0s lati 0 ,r m its e0taili0! em&arrassme0t 0 the )ritish + ver0me0t*: <% The West I02ia0 pla0ter" i0 the - r2s , 'a0iel O7C 00ell" c 0ti01e2 t sit" :2irty a02 &e!rime2 ver a p -2er ma!a/i0e" ,r m -hich he - 1l2 0 t ! a-ay" a02 he -as h 1rly a,rai2 that the slave - 1l2 apply a t rch t it*: <@ )1t the c 0,lict ha2 le,t the sta!e , a&stract p litical 2isc1s3 si 0 a& 1t slaves as pr perty a02 p litical meas1res* It ha2 &ec me tra0slate2 i0t the passi 0ate 2esires , pe ple* :The

51esti 0": -r te a .amaica0 t the ! ver0 r" :-ill 0 t &e le,t t the ar&itrame0t , a l 0! a0!ry 2isc1ssi 0 &et-ee0 the + ver0me0t a02 the pla0ter* The slave himsel, has &ee0 ta1!ht that there is a thir2 party" a02 that party himsel,* He 60 -s his stre0!th" a02 -ill assert his claim t ,ree2 m* Eve0 at this m me0t" 10a-e2 &y the late ,ail1re" he 2isc1sses the 51esti 0 -ith a ,i4e2 2etermi0ati 0*: <; Fr m )ar&a2 s the ! ver0 r emphasi/e2 the :2 1&le cr1elty: , s1spe0se it paraly/e2 the e,, rts , the pla0ters" a02 2r ve the slaves" -h ha2 &ee0 6ept i0 years , h pe a02 e4pectati 0" t s1lle0 2espair* << N thi0! c 1l2 &e m re mischiev 1s" he -ar0e2" tha0 h l2i0! 1t t the slaves ,r m sessi 0 t sessi 0 that their ,ree2 m -as c m3 i0!* <B It -as m st 2esira&le" he -r te a , rt0i!ht later" that :the state , this 10happy pe ple sh 1l2 &e early c 0si2ere2 a02

?>B CAPITALIS( AN' SLAVERY

2eci2e2 0 &y the H me A1th rities" , r the state , 2el1si 0 they are la& 1ri0! 102er re02ers them &0 4i 1s t their -0ers a02 i0 s me i0sta0ces e0creases the 10av i2a&le misery , their c 02iti 0*: <$ I0 #B==" there, re" the alter0atives -ere clear8 ema0cipati 0 ,r m a& ve" r ema0cipati 0 ,r m &el -* )1t E(ANCIPA3 TION* Ec 0 mic cha0!e" the 2ecli0e , the m 0 p lists" the 2evel pme0t , capitalism" the h1ma0itaria0 a!itati 0 i0 )ritish ch1rches" c 0te02i0! per rati 0s i0 the halls , Parliame0t" ha2 0 - reache2 their c mpleti 0 i0 the 2etermi0ati 0 , the slaves themselves t &e ,ree* The Ne!r es ha2 &ee0 stim1late2 t ,ree2 m &y the 2evel pme0t , the very -ealth -hich their la& r ha2 create2*

CONCLUSION

THIS STU'Y" th 1!h treati0! speci,ically , )ritai0" has &ee0 !ive0 the !e0eral title , :Capitalism a02 Slavery*: The title :)ritish Capitalism a02 Slavery": th 1!h pe2a0tically m re ac3 c1rate" - 1l2 0evertheless have &ee0 !e0erically ,alse* What -as characteristic , )ritish capitalism -as typical als , capitalism i0 Fra0ce* +ast 03(arti0 -rites8 :There -as 0 t a si0!le !reat ship -0er at Na0tes -h " &et-ee0 #<#% a02 #<B$" 2i2 0 t &1y a02 sell slaves9 there -as 0 t 0e -h s l2 0ly slaves9 it is alm st as certai0 that 0 0e - 1l2 have &ec me -hat he -as i, he ha2 0 t s l2 slaves* I0 this lies the esse0tial imp rta0ce , the slave tra2e8 0 its s1ccess r ,ail1re 2epe02e2 the pr !ress r r1i0 , all the thers*: # )ritai0" ,ar ahea2 , the rest , the - rl2" a02 Fra0ce -ere the c 10tries -hich 1shere2 i0 the m 2er0 - rl2 , i021strial

2evel pme0t a02 parliame0tary 2em cracy -ith its atte02a0t li&erties* The ther , rei!0 stream -hich ,e2 the acc1m1lati 0 , capital i0 )ritai0" the tra2e -ith I02ia" -as sec 02ary i0 the peri 2 -e have prese0te2* It -as 0ly -ith the l ss , the America0 c l 0ies i0 #<B= that )ritai0 t1r0e2 t the seri 1s e4pl itati 0 , her I02ia0 p ssessi 0s* The crisis -hich &e!a0 i0 #<<; a02 c 0ti01e2 thr 1!h the Fre0ch Rev l1ti 0 a02 the Nap le 0ic -ars 10til the Re, rm )ill , #B=?" -as i0 ma0y respects a - rl2 crisis similar t the crisis , t 2ay" 2i,,eri0! 0ly i0 the m re c mprehe0sive ra0!e" 2epth a02 i0te0sity , the prese0t* It - 1l2 &e stra0!e i, the st12y , the previ 1s 1pheaval 2i2 0 t at least leave 1s -ith ?>$

?#> CAPITALIS( AN' SLAVERY

certai0 i2eas a02 pri0ciples , r the e4ami0ati 0 0 ar 102 1s t 2ay*

, -hat is ! i0!

#* The 2ecisive , rces i0 the peri 2 , hist ry N-e have 2is3 c1sse2 are the 2evel pi0! ec 0 mic , rces* These ec 0 mic cha0!es are !ra21al" impercepti&le" &1t they have a0 irresisti&le c1m1lative e,,ect* (e0" p1rs1i0! their i03 terests" are rarely a-are , the 1ltimate res1lts , their activity* The c mmercial capitalism , the ei!htee0th ce0t1ry 2evel pe2 the -ealth , E1r pe &y mea0s , slavery a02 m 0 p ly* )1t i0 s 2 i0! it helpe2 t create the i021strial capitalism , the 0i0e3 tee0th ce0t1ry" -hich t1r0e2 r 102 a02 2estr ye2 the p -er , c mmercial capitalism" slavery" a02 all its - r6s* With 1t a !rasp , these ec 0 mic cha0!es the hist ry , the peri 2 is mea0i0!less* ?* The vari 1s c 0te02i0! !r 1ps , 2 mi0a0t mercha0ts" i03 21strialists a02 p liticia0s" -hile 6ee0ly a-are , imme2iate i03 terests" are , r that very reas 0 !e0erally &li02 t the l 0!3 ra0!e c 0se51e0ces , their vari 1s acti 0s" pr p sals" p licies* T the lar!e maD rity , th se resp 0si&le , r )ritish p licy the l ss , the America0 c l 0ies seeme2 a catastr phe* I0 reality" as -as rapi2ly see0" it pr ve2 the &e!i00i0! , a peri 2 , creative -ealth a02 p litical p -er , r )ritai0 -hich ,ar e4cee2e2 all the 102 1&te2 achieveme0ts , the previ 1s a!e* Fr m this p i0t , vie-" the pr &lem , the ,ree2 m , A,rica a02 the Far East ,r m imperialism -ill &e ,i0ally 2eci2e2 &y the 0ecessities , pr 21cti 0* As the 0e- pr 21ctive p -er , #B== 2estr ye2 the relati 0s , m ther c 10try a02 c l 0ies -hich ha2 e4iste2 si4ty years &e, re" s the i0c mpara&ly !reater pr 3 21ctive p -er , t 2ay -ill 1ltimately 2estr y a0y relati 0s -hich sta02 i0 its -ay* This 2 es 0 t i0vali2ate the 1r!e0cy a02 vali2ity , ar!1me0ts , r 2em cracy" , r ,ree2 m 0 - r

, r ,ree2 m a,ter the -ar* )1t m1tatis m1ta02is" the ar!1me0ts have a ,amiliar ri0!* It is help,1l t appr ach them -ith s me e4perie0ce , similar ar!1me0ts a02 the privile!e Gappare0tly 2e0ie2 t active c 0temp rariesH , 2ispassi 0ate i0vesti!ati 0 i0t -hat they represe0te2*

CONCLUSION ?##

=* The p litical a02 m ral i2eas , the a!e are t &e e4ami0e2 i0 the very cl sest relati 0 t the ec 0 mic 2evel pme0t* P litics a02 m rals i0 the a&stract ma6e 0 se0se* We ,i02 the )ritish statesme0 a02 p1&licists 2e,e02i0! slavery t 2ay" a&1si0! slavery t m rr -" 2e,e02i0! slavery the 2ay a,ter* T 3 2ay they are imperialist" the 0e4t 2ay a0ti3imperialist" a02 e51ally pr 3imperialist a !e0erati 0 a,ter* A02 al-ays -ith the same veheme0ce* The 2e,e0ce r attac6 is al-ays 0 the hi!h m ral r p litical pla0e* The thi0! 2e,e02e2 r attac6e2 is al3 -ays s methi0! that y 1 ca0 t 1ch a02 see" t &e meas1re2 i0 p 102s sterli0! r p 102s av ir21p is" i0 2 llars a02 ce0ts" yar2s" ,eet a02 i0ches* This is 0 t a crime* It is a ,act* It is 103 2ersta02a&le at the time* )1t hist ria0s" -riti0! a h102re2 years a,ter" have 0 e4c1se , r c 0ti01i0! t -rap the real i0terests i0 c 0,1si 0*N Eve0 the !reat mass m veme0ts" a02 the a0ti3 slavery mass m veme0t -as 0e , the !reatest , these" sh a c1ri 1s a,,i0ity -ith the rise a02 2evel pme0t , 0e- i0terests a02 the 0ecessity , the 2estr1cti 0 , the l2* %* A0 1t- r0 i0terest" -h se &a06r1ptcy smells t heave0 i0 hist rical perspective" ca0 e4ercise a0 &str1cti 0ist a02 2isr1p3 tive e,,ect -hich ca0 0ly &e e4plai0e2 &y the p -er,1l serv3 ices it ha2 previ 1sly re02ere2 a02 the e0tre0chme0t previ 1sly !ai0e2* H - else e4plai0 the p -er,1l 2e,e0ce p1t 1p &y the West I02ia0s -he0 a0y impartial &server" i, s1ch e4iste2" c 1l2 have see0 that their time -as 1pI H -ever" i0 a simpli,ie2 acc 10t s1ch as hist ry al-ays m1st &e" the care,1lly ch se0 represe0ta3 tive" c 0temp rary 1ttera0ces !ive a mislea2i0! e,,ect , clarity , aim a02 p1rp se* @* The i2eas terests have is all the m c rresp 02e2 &1ilt 0 these i0terests c 0ti01e l 0! a,ter the i03 &ee0 2estr ye2 a02 - r6 their l2 mischie," -hich re mischiev 1s &eca1se the i0terests t -hich they 0 l 0!er e4ist*

NO, this 2epl ra&le te02e0cy Pr ,ess r C 1pla02 is a 0 ta&le e4ample*

, O4, r2 U0iversity

?#? CAPITALIS( AN' SLAVERY

S1ch are the i2eas , the 10,it0ess , the -hite ma0 , r la& r i0 the tr pics a02 the i0,eri rity , the Ne!r -hich c 03 2em0e2 him t slavery* We have t !1ar2 0 t 0ly a!ai0st these l2 preD12ices &1t als a!ai0st the 0e- -hich are &ei0! c 0sta0tly create2* N a!e is e4empt* The p i0ts ma2e a& ve are 0 t ,,ere2 as s l1ti 0s , prese0t3 2ay pr &lems* They are 0 te2 as !1i2e3p sts that emer!e ,r m the charti0! , a0 ther sea -hich -as i0 its time as st rmy as 1r -0* The hist ria0s 0either ma6e 0 r !1i2e hist ry* Their share i0 s1ch is 1s1ally s small as t &e alm st 0e!li!i&le* )1t i, they 2 0 t lear0 s methi0! ,r m hist ry" their activities - 1l2 the0 &e c1lt1ral 2ec rati 0" r a pleasa0t pastime" e51ally 1se3 less i0 these tr 1&le2 times*

NOTES

CHAPTER I #* C* (* A02re-s" The C l 0ial Peri 2 Have0" #$=%3#$=BH" I" #?3#%" #$3?>* , America0 Hist ry GNe-

?* N* (* +r 1se" The Fre0ch Str1!!le , r the West I02ies" #;;@3#<#= GNe- Y r6" #$%=H" <* =* A2am Smith" The Wealth , Nati 0s GCa00a0 e2iti 0" Ne- Y r6" #$=<H" @=B* T this Smith a22e2 a p litical ,act r" :li&erty t ma0a!e their -0 a,,airs i0 their -0 -ay:* %* H* (erivale" Lect1res e2iti 0H" ?;?* 0 C l 0i/ati 0 a02 C l 0ies GO4, r2" #$?B

@* I&i2*" =B@* The 2escripti 0 is L r2 Sy2e0ham7s" + ver0 r3+e0eral , Ca0a2a* ;* (erivale" <* I&i2* B* R* )* Fla02ers" Pla0tati 0 Slavery i0 +e r!ia GChapel Hill" #$==H" #@3#;" ?>* $* (erivale" p* cit*" ?;$* p* cit*" ?@;*

#>* (* .ames" S cial Pr &lems a02 P licy 21ri0! the P1rita0 Rev l13 ti 0" #;%>3#;;> GL 02 0" #$=>H" HI* H* A2am Smith" p* cit*" =;@*

#?* .* Cair0es" The Slave P -er GNe- Y r6" #B;?H" =$* #=* +* Wa6e,iel2" A Vie=?=3 #%* A2am Smith" #@* (erivale" p* cit*" =;@3=;;* p* cit*" =>=* Italics (erivale7s* , the Art , C l 0i/ati 0 GL 02 0" #B%$H"

# ;* (* )* Hamm 02" The C tt 0 I021stry8 A0 Essay i0 America0 Ec 0 mic Hist ry GNe- Y r6" #B$<H" =$3 #<* Cair0es" p* cit*" %%9 (erivale" p* cit*" =>@3=>;* O0 s il e4ha1sti 0 a02 the e4pa0si 0 , slavery i0 the U0ite2 States see W* C* )a!ley" S il E4ha1sti 0 a02 the Civil War GWashi0!t 0" '* C*" #$%?H* # B* (erivale" p* cit*" =><3=>B*

#$* .* A* Sac " Hist ria 2e la Esclavit12 2e l s I02i s e0 el N1ev (102 GLa Ha&a0a" #$=? e2iti 0H" I" I0tr 21cti 0" p* 444viii* The I0tr 3 21cti 0 is -ritte0 &y Fer0a02 Orti/* ?#=

?#% NOTES TO PA+ES B3#?

?>* A* W* La1&er" I02ia0 Slavery i0 C l 0ial Times 7-ithi0 the Prese0t Limits , the U0ite2 States GNe- Y r6" #$#=H" ?#%3?#@* ?#* .* C* )alla!h" A Hist ry @i3 ??* F* Orti/" C 0trap10te Ha&a0a" #$%>H" =@=* ?=* I&i2*" =@$* ?%* La1&er" p* cit*" =>?* C1&a0 2el Ta&ac y el A/1car GLa , Slavery i0 Vir!i0ia G)altim re" #$>?H"

?@* C* (* Haar" :White I02e0t1re2 Serva0ts i0 C l 0ial Ne- Y r6": America0a G.1ly" #$%>H" =<#* ?;* Cam&ri2!e Hist ry , the )ritish Empire GCam&ri2!e" #$?$H" I" ;$*

?<* See A02re-s" p* cit*" I" @$9 F* F* +eiser" Re2empti 0ers a02 I02e0t1re2 Serva0ts i0 the C l 0y a02 C mm 0-ealth , Pe00sylva0ia GNe- Have0" #$>#H" #B* ?B* Cam&ri2!e Hist ry , the )ritish Empire" I" ?=;* , Empire G)rist l" #$=$H"

?$* C* (* (acl00es" )rist l" a +ate-ay

#@B3#@$* =>* (* W* .er0e!a0" La& ri0! a02 'epe02e0t Classes i0 C l 0ial America" #;><3#<B= GChica! " #$=#H" %@* =#* H* E* ) lt 0 a02 T* (* (arshall" The C l 0i/ati 0 America" #%$?3#<B= GNe- Y r6" #$=;H" ==;* , N rth

=?* .* W* )rea2y" E0!la02 )e, re a02 A,ter Wesley The Eva0!elical Revival a02 S cial Re, rm GL 02 0" #$=BH" #>;* ==* Cale02ar =%* +eiser" , State Papers" C l 0ial Series" V" $B* .1ly #;" #;;?* p* cit*" #B*

=@* See +* (ittel&er!er" . 1r0ey t Pe00sylva0ia i0 the year #<@> GPhila2elphia" #B$BH" #;9 E* I* (cC rmac" White Servit12e i0 (aryla02 G)altim re" #$>%H" %%" %$9 :'iary , . h0 Harr -er" #<<=3#<<;": America0 Hist rical Revie- GOct*" #$>>H" <<* =;* E* A&& tt" Hist rical Aspects ' c1me0ts GChica! " #$?;H" i?0* =<* )rea2y" p* cit*" #?<* , the Immi!rati 0 Pr &lem" Select

=B* L* F* St c6 Ge2*H" Pr cee2i0!s a02 'e&ates i0 the )ritish Parliame0t respecti0! N rth America GWashi0!t 0" '* C*" #$?%3#$%#H" I" =@= 0" =@@9 III" %=< 0" %$%* =$* Cale02ar , State Papers" C l 0ial Series" V" ??#*

%>* I&i2*" V" %;=* April" #;;< GIH %#* St c6" p* cit"" V" ??$ 0* p* cit*" %$*

%?* .er0e!a0"

%=* .* '* La0!" Tra0sp rtati 0 a02 C l 0i/ati 0 GL 02 0" #B=<H" #>* %%* (erivale" p* cit*" #?@* America0 C l 0ies":

%@* .* '* )1tler" :)ritish C 0victs Shippe2 t America0 Hist rical Revie- GOct*" #B$;H" ?@*

%;* .* C* .ea,,res 0 Ge2*H" A Y 10! S51ire , the Seve0tee0th Ce0t1ry* Fr m the Papers GA*'* #;<;3#;B;H , Clmst pher .ea,,res 0 GL 02 0" #B<BH" I" ?@B* .ea,,res 0 t P y0t/" (ay ;" #;B#*

NOTES TO PA+ES #=3#< ?#@

%<* F r Cr m-elPs -0 ass1ra0ce , r this" see St c6" Cr m-ell t Spea6er Le0thall" Sept* #<" #;%$*

p* cit*" I" ?##*

%B* V* T* Harl -" A Hist ry ?$@*

, )ar&a2 s" i;?,3i;B, GO4, r2" #$?;H"

%$* .* A* Williams 0" The Cari&&ee Isla02s U02er the Pr prietary Pate0ts GO4, r2" #$?;H" $@* @>* Cale02ar , State Papers" C l 0ial Series" OIII" ;@* . seph Crispe t C l* )ayCr" .10e #>" #;B$" ,r m St* Christ pher8 :)esi2es the Fre0ch -e have a still - rse e0emy i0 the Irish Cath lics*: I0 ( 0tserrat the Irish" three t every 0e , the E0!lish" threate0e2 t t1r0 ver the isla02 t the Fre0ch GI&i2*" <=* .10e ?<" #;B$H* + ver0 r C 2ri0!t 0 ,r m A0ti!1a pre,erre2 t tr1st the 2e,e0ce , ( 0tserrat t the ,e- E0!lish a02 their slaves rather tha0 rely 0 2ie :2 1&t,1l ,i2elity: , the Irish GI&i2*" ##?3##=* .1ly = # N #;B$H* He 2isarme2 the Irish i0 Nevis a02 se0t them t .amaica GI&i2*" #?=* A1!* #@" #;B$H* @#* H* .* F r2" The Sc tch3Irish i0 America GNe- Y r6" #$%#H" ?>B* @?* Cale02ar , State Papers" C l 0ial Series" V" %$@* Petiti 0 )ar&a2 s" Sept* @" #;;<* @=* St c6" @%* Harl -" p* cit*" I" ?BB 0" =?# 0" =?<* p* cit*" ?$<3?$B* p* cit*" #$* ,

@@* (ittel&er!er" @;* St c6" @<* +eiser"

p* cit*" I" ?%$* (arch ?@" #;@$* p* cit*" @<*

@B* E* W* A02re-s Ge2*H" . 1r0al , a La2y , L1ality9 )ei0! the Narrative , a . ttmey ,r m Sc tla02 t the West I02ies" N rth Car 3 li0a a02 P rt1!al" i0 the years <<<%3<<<; GNe- Have0" #$?=H" ==* @$* .earTres 0" p* cit*" II" %*

;>* .* A* ' yle" E0!lish C l 0ies i0 America Vir!i0ia" (aryla02" a02 the Car li0as GNe- Y r6" #BB$H" = B <3 ;#* (acl00es" p* cit*" #;%3#;@9 S* Seyer" (em irs Hist rical a02 T p !raphical , )rist l a02 its Nei!h& 1rh 2 G)rist l" #B?#3#B?=H" II" @=#9 R* N rth" The Li,e , the Rt* H 0* Fra0cis N rth" )ar 0 +1il23 , r2 GL 02 0" #B?;H" II" ?%3?<* ;?* Seyer" p* cit*" II" @=?* , the )ritish Empire" I" @;=3@;@*

;=* Cam&ri2!e Hist ry ;%* )alla!h" ;@* (cC rmac" ;;* I&i2*" i0*

p* cit*" %?* p* cit*" <@*

;<* C* A* Herric6" White Servit12e i0 Pe00sylva0ia GPhila2elphia" #$?;H" =*

;B* St c6" ;$* Harl -" <>* St c6" <#* Cale02ar

p* cit*" I" ?%$* p* cit*" =>;* p* cit*" I" ?@>* (arch ?@" #;@$* , State Papers" C l 0ial Series" IO" =$%* (ay =>" #;<;*

<?* Sir W* )esa0t" L 02 0 i0 the Ei!htee0th Ce0t1ry GL 02 0" #$>?H" @@<3

?l; NOTES TO PA+ES #<3?%

<=* Cale02ar , State Papers" C l 0ial Series" V" ??$* Rep rt mittee , C 10cil , r F rei!0 Pla0tati 0s" A1!*" #;;% GIH* <%* +* S* Calle02er" Selecti 0s ,r m the Ec 0 mic Hist ry U0ite2 States" #<;@3#B;> GNe- Y r6" #$>$H" %B* <@* Cale02ar

, C m3

, the

, State Papers" C l 0ial Series" O" @<%* .1ly #=" #;B>* , E1r pea0 Li&eralism GL 02 0" #$=;H" #$$"

<;* H* .* Las6i" The Rise ?#@" ??#*

<<* 'a0iel 'e, e" ( ll Fla02ers GA&&ey Classics e2iti 0" L 02 0" 0*2*H" Ii3 <B* T* .* Werte0&a6er" The Pla0ters #$??H" ;#* <$* Herric6" B>* I&i2*" #?* B#* Cale02ar , State Papers" C l 0ial Series" V" ??>* Petiti 0 , (er3 cha0ts" Pla0ters a02 (asters , Ships tra2i0! t the Pla0tati 0s" .1ly #?" #;;%* B?* Harl -" B=* Cale02ar p* cit*" =><* , State Papers" C l 0ial Series" IO" %%@* A1!* #@" #;<;* p* cit*" ?<B* , C l 0ial Vir!i0ia GPri0cet 0"

B%* U* )* Phillips" Li,e a02 La& r i0 the Ol2 S 1th G) st 0" #$?$H" ?@* B@* .* S* )assett" Slavery a02 Servit12e i0 the C l 0y , N rth Car 3 li0a G)altim re" #B$;H" <<* O0 the 2 cility , the Ne!r slave" see i0,ra" pp* ?>#3?>B* B;* Fla02ers" p* cit*" #%*

B<* Cair0es" BB* Calle02er" B$* Cair0es" $>* Orti/"

p* cit*" =@ 0* p* cit*" <;% 0* p* cit*" =;* p* cit*" ;" B%*

$#* A* +* Price" White Settlers i0 the Tr pics GNe- Y r6" #$=$H" B=* $?* I&i2*" B=" $@* $=* I&i2*" $?* $%* I&i2*" $%* $@* E* T* Th mps 0" :The Climatic The ry t1ral Hist ry G.a0*" #$%>";>* , the Pla0tati 0": A!ric1l3

$;* H* L* Wil6i0s 0" The W rl27s P p1lati 0 Pr &lems a02 a White A1stralia GL 02 0" #$=>H" ?@>* $<* I&i2*" ?@#* $B* R* +1erra" A/1car y P &laci 0 e0 Las A0tillas GLa Ha&a0a" #$=@H" ?>* >$* Williams 0" p* cit*" #@<3#@B*

#>>* Cale02ar , State Papers" C l 0ial Series" O" @>=* + ver0 r At6i0s" (arch ?;" #;B>* #>#* I&i2*" VII" #%#* Sir Peter C llet 0 t + ver0 r C 2ri0!t 0" 'ec* #%" #;<>* A similar s1!!esti 0 came ,r m .amaica i0 #;B;* Permissi 0 -as re51este2 , r the i0tr 21cti 0 , c tt 0 ma01,act1re" t pr vi2e em3 pl yme0t , r the p r -hites* The reply , the )ritish C1st ms a1th ri3 ties -as that :the m re s1ch ma01,act1res are e0c 1ra!e2 i0 the C l 0ies

NOTES TO PA+ES ?%3?$ ?#<

the less they -ill &e 2epe02e0t 0 E0!la02*: F* C102all" The + ver0 rs , .amaica i0 the Seve0tee0th Ce0t1ry GL 02 0" #$=;H" #>?3#>=* #>?* Cale02ar , State Papers" C l 0ial Series" OIV" %%;3%%<* + ver0 r R1ssell" (arch ?=" #;$@* #>=* C* S* S* Hi!ham" The 'evel pme0t , the Lee-ar2 Isla02s 102er the Rest rati 0" #;;>3#;BB GCam&ri2!e" #$?#H" #%@* #>%* Harl -" p* cit*" %%* p* cit*" <;?*

#>@* Calle02er"

#>;* (erivale" #><* Harl -"

p* cit*" ;?* p* cit*" ?$=*

# >B* I&i2*" %#* #>$* Cale02ar , State Papers" C l 0ial Series" V" @?$* :S me O&serva3 ti 0s 0 the Isla02 , )ar&a2 es": #;;<* 0 * Harl -" p* cit*" %#* i0* I&i2*" %=* ##?* (erivale" p* cit*" Si*

##=* F* W* Pitma0" The Settleme0t a02 Fi0a0ci0! , )ritish West I02ia Pla0tati 0s i0 the Ei!htee0th Ce0t1ry" i0 Essays i0 C l 0ial Hist ry &y St12e0ts , C* (* A02re-s GNe- Have0" #$=#H" ?;<* ##%* l&i2*y ?;<3?;$* ##@* Cale02ar , State Papers" C l 0ial Series" I" <$* + ver0 r Sir Fra0cis Wyatt a02 C 10cil , Vir!i0ia" April ;" #;?;* ##;* Werte0&a6er" p* cit*" @$" ##@" #??3#?=" #=#" #@#*

##<* R* )* Va0ce" H1ma0 Fact rs i0 C tt 0 C1lt1re8 A St12y i0 the S cial +e !raphy , the America0 S 1th GChapel Hill" #$?$H" =;* # # B* .* A* Sac " Hist ria 2e la Esclavit12 2e la Ra/a A,rica0a e0 el N1ev (102 y e0 especial e0 l s Paises America3Hispa0 s GLa Ha&a0a" #$=BH" I" I0tr 21cti 0" p* 44viii* The I0tr 21cti 0 is &y Fer0a02 Orti/* ##$* T* )la0c " :El PreD1ici c1&a0 s" II G#$=BH" ?;* Racial e0 P1ert Ric ": Est12i s A,r 3

#?>* Sac " Hist ria 2e la Esclavit12 2e la Ra/a A,rica0a * * * I0tr 21c3 ti 0" p* 444* #?#* Immi!rati 0 , La& 1rers i0t the West I02ia0 C l 0ies a02 the (a1riti1s" Part II" Parliame0tary Papers" A1!* ?;" #B%;" ;>* He0ry Li!ht t L r2 Sta0ley" Sept* #<" #B%@8 :As la& 1rers they are i0val1a&le" as citi/e0s they are am 0!st the &est" a02 rarely are &r 1!ht &e, re the c 1rts , D1stice r the p lice*: #??* Papers Relative t the West I02ies" #B%#3#B%?" .amaica3)ar&a2 s" # B* C* T* (etcal,e t L r2 . h0 R1ssell" Oct* ?<" #B%#* #?=* Immi!rati 0 , La& 1rers i0t the West I02ia0 C l 0ies * * *" i0* William Rey0 l2s t C* A* Fit/r y" A1!1st ?>" #B%@* #?%* These ,i!1res are ta6e0 ,r m ta&les i0 I* Fere0c/i" I0ter0ati 0al (i!rati 0s GNe- Y r6" #$?$H" I" @>;3@>$" @#;3@#B" @?>" @=%" @=<* #?@* The , ll -i0! ta&le ill1strates the 1se s1!ar pla0tati 0s i0 #B@<8 , Chi0ese la& r 0 C1&a0

?lB NOTES TO PA+ES ?$3=?

Pla0tati 0 Ne!r es Chi0ese Fl r 2e C1&a %>$ #<> Sa0 (arti0 %@? #?@ El Pr !res @@> %>

Arm 0,a ==> ?> Sa0ta R sa =>> => Sa0 Ra,ael ?;> ?> Sa0ta S1sa0a ;=? ?>> The last pla0tati 0 -as tr1ly c sm p lita09 the slave !a0! i0cl12e2 =% 0atives , Y1cata0* These ,i!1res are ta6e0 ,r m .* +* Ca0ter " L s I0!e0i s 2e la Isla 2e C1&a GLa Ha&a0a" #B@<H* The & 6 is 0 t pa!e2* There -as s me pp siti 0 t this Chi0ese la& r" 0 the !r 102 that it i03 crease2 the heter !e0eity , the p p1lati 0* :A02 -hat shall -e l se there&yI: -as the ret rt* A0ales 2e la Real .10ta 2e F me0t y S cie2a2 Ec 0 rmca 2e La Ha&a0a GLa Ha&a0a" #B@#H" #B<* #?;* Fere0c/i" p* cit*" I" @?<*

CHAPTER ? #* Cale02ar , State Papers" C l 0ial Series" V" #;<* Re0at1s E0ys t Secretary )e00et" N v* i" #;;=* ?* C* Whit- rth Ge2*H" The P litical a02 C mmercial W r6s Charles 'ave0a0t GL 02 0" #<B#H" V" #%;* =* +* F* P 6" The C mpa0y GLa0caster" #$#$H" $" #;* , R yal A2ve0t1rers tra2i0! i0t , A,rica

%* (* P stleth-ayt" +reat )ritai07s C mmercial I0terest E4plai0e2 a02 Impr ve2 GL 02 0" #<@$H" II" #%B3#%$" ?=;9 P stleth-ayt" The A,rica0 Tra2e" the +reat Pillar a02 S1pp rt , the )ritish Pla0tati 0 Tra2e i0 N rth America GL 02 0" #<%@H" =B3=$9 P stleth-ayt" The Nati 0al a02 Private A2va0ta!es , the A,rica0 Tra2e C 0si2ere2 GL 02 0" #<%;H" ##=" #??* @* .* +ee" The Tra2e a02 Navi!ati 0 G+las! -" #<@>H" ?@3?;* ;* Whit- rth" p* cit*" II" =<3%>* , +reat )ritai0 C 0si2ere2

<* I&i2*" V" #%>3#%#* The -h le essay" :Re,lecti 0s 1p 0 the C 0stit13

ti 0 a02 (a0a!eme0t

, the A,rica0 Tra2e": -ill repay rea2i0!*

B* E* ' 00a0 Ge2*H" ' c1me0ts Ill1strative , the Hist ry , the Slave Tra2e t America GWashi0!t 0" '* C*" #$=>3#$=@H" II" #?$3#=>* $* I&i2*" I" ?;@* I0 # ;B # these 2e&ts -ere estimate2 at ?<#">>>* E* '* C lli0s" St12ies i0 the C l 0ial P licy , E0!la02" #;<?3#;B> GA001al Rep rt , the America0 Hist rical Ass ciati 0" #$>>H" #B@* #>* .* Latimer" A00als #B$=H" ?<#* , )rist l i0 the Ei!htee0th Ce0t1ry G)rist l"

NOTES TO PA+ES =?3=% ?#$

##* Hi!ham" #?* Larimer"

p* cit*" #@B* p* cit*" ?<?* the prese0t state ,

#=* A0 0ym 1s" S me (atters , Fact relati0! t the A,rica0 Tra2e GL 02 0" #<?>H" =* #%* Pitma0" The 'evel pme0t GNe- Have0" #$#<H" ;<* #@* I&i2*" ;$3<>" <$*

, the )ritish West I02ies" #<>>3#<;=

# ;* P stleth-ayt" +reat )ritai07s C mmercial I0terest * * *" II" %<$3 %B>* See als pp* #%$3#@#" #@%3#@@* #<* H* H* S* Aimes" A Hist ry Y r6" #$><H" ==" ?;$* # B* W* E* H* Lec6y" A Hist ry GL 02 0" #B$?3#$?>H" II" ?%%* , Slavery i0 C1&a" AD3AA t #B;B GNe-

, E0!la02 i0 the Ei!htee0th Ce0t1ry

#$* Rep rt , the L r2s , the C mmittee , Privy C it0cil app i0te2 , r the c 0si2erati 0 , all matters relati0! t Tra2e a02 F rei!0 Pla0ta3 ti 0s 7" #<BB* Part VI" Evi2e0ce , (essrs* )aillie" Fi0!" Cam2e0 a02 H1&&ert* The , ll -i0! ,i!1res" ta6e0 ,r m the same rep rt GPart IV" N * % a02 N * #@" S1ppleme0t N * ;" a02 Papers receive2 si0ce the 2ate , the rep rtH" !ive s me i02icati 0 , the e4te0t , the re3e4p rt tra2e8 C l 0y Years Imp rts Re3E4p rts .amaica #<B%3#<B< =<"B%# #%"%<< St* Fitts #<<B3#<BB ?"<B% #"<;$ ' mi0ica #<B%3#<BB ?<"@@= I @C # +re0a2a #<B%3#<$? %%NI # N =#"?#> Acc r2i0! t '102as" the t tal )ritish West I02ia0 imp rtati 0 , r

#<$# am 10te2 t <%">>>" the re3e4p rts t =%">>>* C &&ett7s Parliame0tary Hist ry , E0!la02 Gre,erre2 t herea,ter as Parl* Hist*H" OOIO" #?>;* April ?=" #<$?* ?>* )* E2-ar2s" The Hist ry" Civil a02 C mmercial" , the )ritish C l 0ies i0 the West I02ies GL 02 0" #B>#H" I" ?$$* ?#* .* Ramsay" A (a01script e0tirely i0 his -0 ha02 mai0ly c 03 cer0e2 -ith his activities t -ar2s the A& liti 0 , the Slave Tra2e" #<B< GRh 2es H 1se Li&rary" O4, r2H" ,* ?= GvH* :(em rial 0 the S1pplyi0! , the Navy -ith Seame0*: ??* W* E0,iel2" A0 Essay t -ar2s the hist ry , Leverp l GL 02 0"

?=* ' 00a0" p* cit*" II" ;=>* Liverp , ll -i0! ta&le8 Year Liverp #<?> ?# ;> =$ #<@= ;% #= ?< #<<# #>< @B ?= l L 02 0 )rist l

l7s pr !ress is see0 ,r m the

??O NOTES TO PA+ES =%3=B

)et-ee0 #<@; a02 #<B; )rist l se0t @BB ships t A,rica" Liverp l #"B@B9 &et-ee0 #<$@ a02 #B>% Liverp l se0t #">$$ vesselsM t A,rica" L 02 0 #@@" )rist l ?$* GThe ,i!1res , r #<?> c me ,r m S me (atters , Fact * * *" =9 the thers ,r m (acl00es" p* cit*" #$#*H ?%* C &&er,s Parliame0tary 'e&ates GRe,erre2 t herea,ter as Parl* 'e&*H" IO" #?<* +e r!e Hi&&ert" (arch #;" #B><* ?@* C rresp 02e0ce &et-ee0 R &ert ) st c6" master mari0er a02 mer3 cha0t" a02 thers" !ivi0! partic1lars , the slave tra2i0! , Liverp l ships i0 the West I02ies" #<B$3#<$? G(S* V l*" Liverp l P1&lic Li&raryH* ) st c6 t Capt* .ames Fryer" .1ly #<" #<$>* ?;* (acl00es" p* cit*" ?>?*

?<* T* Clar6s 0" Hist ry , the Rise" Pr !ress" a02 Acc mplishme0t , the A& liti 0 , the A,rica0 Slave Tra2e &y the )ritish Parliame0t GL 03 2 0" #B=$H" #$<* ?B* ' 00a0" p* cit*" I" #=?* The +1i0ea C mpa0y t 'ec" $" #;@#* Fra0cis S a0e"

?$* . 1r0als , Liverp l Slave Ships G:)l m: a02 thersH9 -ith c rresp 02e0ce a02 prices , slaves s l2 G(S* V l*" Liverp l P1&lic

Li&raryH* ) st c6 t

F0 -les" .10e #$" #<BB*

=>* E* (arti0 Ge2*H" . 1r0al , a Slave 'ealer* :A Vie- , s me 7Remar6a&le A4ce2e0ts i0 the Li,e , Nics* O-e0 0 the C ast , A,rica a02 America ,r m the year #<%; t the year <<@<: GL 02 0" #$=>H" <<3<B" $<3$B* =#* La timer" p* cit*" #%%3#%@*

=?* A* P* Wa2s- rth a02 .* 2e L* (a00" The C tt 0 Tra2e a02 I021strial La0cashire G(a0chester" #$=#H" ??B3??$* ==* ' 00a0" p* cit*" II" ;?@3;?<*

=%* I&i2*" II" ;=#* =@* Latimer" p* cit*" %<;9 Wa2s- rth a02 (a00" p* cit*" ??@* ,

=;* L1 te2 ,r m Sir Th mas (10 i0 .* E* +illespie" The I0,l1e0ce Oversea E4pa0si 0 0 E0!la02 t Ay GNe- Y r6" #$?>H" #;@* =<* ' 00a0" p* cit*" II" ;?<*

=B* .* Wallace" A +e0eral a02 'escriptive Hist ry , the A0cie0t a02 Prese0t State , the T -0 , Liverp l * * * t !ether -ith a Circ1m3 sta0tial Acc 10t , the Tr1e Ca1ses , its E4te0sive A,rica0 Tra2e GLiverp l" #<$@H" ??$3?=>* F r i0sta0ces , s1&2ivisi 0 see als Wa2s3 - rth a02 (a00" p* cit*" ??%3??@* =$* E2-ar2s" p* cit*" II" <?" <%" B<3B$9 .* At6i0s" A V ya!e t +1i0ea" )rasil" a02 the West3I02ies GL 02 0" #<=@H" #<$* F r a0 a1th ritative m 2er0 2isc1ssi 0" see (* .* Hers6 vits" The (yth , the Ne!r Past GNe- Y r6" #$%#H" =%3@>* %>* C rresp 02e0ce &et-ee0 R &ert ) st c6 * * * ) st c6 t .a0* #<$>9 ) st c6 t Fli0t" N v* 0" #<$>* Fryer"

%#* W* Sypher" +1i0ea $ s Captive Fi0!s" )ritish A0ti3Slavery Lit era3 t1re , the OVIllth Ce0t1ry GChapel Hill" #$%?H" #<>* The slaves -ere i0specte2 as care,1lly as cattle i0 the Smith,iel2 mar6et" the chie, 51alities

NOTES TO PA+ES =B3%? ??#

emphasi/e2 &ei0! hei!ht" s 102 teeth" plia0t lim&s" a02 lac6 2isease* At6i0s" p* cit*" #B>*

, ve0ereal

%?* E* F* +ay" :Letters ,r m a S1!ar Pla0tati 0 i0 Nevis" #<?=3#<=?": . 1r0al , Ec 0 mic a02 )1si0ess Hist ry GN v*" #$?BH" #;%* %=* ' 00a0" p* cit*" II" ;?;* Clevela02"

%%* C rresp 02e0ce &et-ee0 R &ert ) st c6 * * *" ) st c6 t

A1!* #>" #<B$* %@* T* Clar6s 0" Essay GL 02 0" #<BBH" ?$* 0 the Imp licy , the A,rica0 Slave Tra2e

%;* W* R sc e" A +e0eral Vie- , the A,rica0 Slave Tra2e 2em 03 strati0! its I0D1stice a02 Imp licy GL 02 0" #<BBH" ?=3?%* %<* A* (ac6e0/ie3+rieve" The Last Years GL 02 0" #$%#H" #<B* , the E0!lish Slave Tra2e 2el Pr !res

%B* F* Caravaca" Esclav sM El H m&re Ne!r 8 I0str1me0t 2el )la0c G)arcel 0a" #$==H" @>*

%$* This -as the )ra02e0&1r! C mpa0y" s metimes calle2" ,r m its hea251arters" the Em2e0 C mpa0y* I0c rp rate2 i0 #;B?" the c mpa0y esta&lishe2 t- settleme0ts 0 the A,rica0 c ast a02 10s1ccess,1lly trie2 t &tai0 West I02ia0 p ssessi 0s* ' 00a0" p* cit*" I" #>=3#>%* @>* P 6" p* cit*" ##3#?" #$*

@#* R* I* a02 S* Wil&er, rce" The Li,e , William Wil&er, rce GL 03 2 0" #B=BH" I" =%=* +e r!e III ha2 0ce -hispere2 Desti0!ly t the a& liti 0ist at a levee8 :H - ! 0 y 1r &lac6 clie0ts" (r* Wil&er, rceI: I0 #B>% Wil&er, rce -r te t (10caster that :it -as tr1ly h1miliati0! t see" i0 the H 1se , L r2s" , 1r , the R yal Family c me 2 -0 t v te a!ai0st the p r" helpless" ,rie02less slaves*: I&i2*" Ill" #B?* .1ly ;" #B>%* @?* C rresp 02e0ce &et-ee0 (ay ?%" #<$?* The '16e -as p r &1t h 0 1ra&le testim +* W* )ri2!es" The A00als R &ert ) st c6 * * *" ) st c6 the recipie0t , a service , 0y , the !ratit12e , the pe , .amaica GL 02 0" #B?BH" II" t Fryer" plate as :the ple , .amaica*: ?;= 0*

@=* Parl* Hist*" OOO" ;@$* April 0" #<$=* @%* A02re-s" p* cit*" IV" ;#*

@@* C* (* A02re-s" :A0!l 3Fre0ch C mmercial Rivalry" #<>>3#<@>": America0 Hist rical RevievD GApril" #$#@H" @%;* @;* ' 00a0" p* cit*" II" %@*

@<* H* , C* Sess* Pap*" Acc 10ts a02 Papers" #<$@3#<$;* A* E P* %?" Series N * #>>" ' c1me0t B%B" #3?#* @B* A22* (SS* #?%== G)ritish (1se1mH" ,,* #=" #$* E2-ar2 La-" (ay #%" #<$?* @$* P* C100i0!ham Ge2*H" The Letters , H race Walp le GL 02 0" #B$#H" II" #$<* T Sir H* (a00" Fe&* ?@" #<@>* ;>* Parl* Hist*" OVII" @><3@>B* (ay @" #<<?* ;#* R* Terry" S me Ol2 Papers relati0! t the Ne-p rt Slave Tira2e G)1lleti0 , the Ne-p rt Hist rical S ciety" .1ly" #$?<H" #>*

;?* Cale02ar

, State Papers" C l 0ial Series" O" ;##* Evi2e0ce

??? NOTES TO PA+ES %?3%%

)ar&a2 s pla0ters &e, re the L r2s , Tra2e a02 Pla0tati 0s" Oct* B" #;B>* F r a vi! r 1s 2isse0t ,r m the vie- that the slaves ha2 0 mea0s , c mm10icati 0 e4cept i0 the la0!1a!e , their masters" see Hers6 vits" p* cit*" <>3B#* ;=* Cale02ar #;$@* , State Papers" OIV" %%B* + ver0 r R1ssell" (arch ?="

;%* See i0,ra" p* #>B* The ! ver0 r , )ar&a2 s pp se2 the &1il2i0! , ch1rches 0 the !r 102 that permissi 0 t the Ne!r es th1s t as3 sem&le - 1l2 t1r0 their mi02s t pl ts a02 i0s1rrecti 0s* C*O* ?B $? GP1&lic Rec r2 O,,iceH" N v* %" #B?=* The pla0ters D1sti,ie2 their attit12e &y the plea that the missi 0aries i0stille2 2a0!er 1s 0 ti 0s i0t the hea2s , the slaves -hich -ere s1&versive , pla0tati 0 2iscipli0e* ;@* Lec6y" ;;* Sypher" p* cit*" II" ?%$* p* cit*" #%*

;<* V* T* Harl -" Christ pher C 2ri0!t 0 GO4, r2" #$?BH" ?##" ?#@* ;B* Sypher" ;$* Larimer" p* cit*" ;@* p* cit*" #>>*

<>* I&i2*" %<B* <#* S* H* S-i00y" The H1ma0itaria0ism , the Ei!htee0th Ce0t1ry a02 its res1lts" i0 F* S* (arvi0 Ge2*H" Wester0 Races a02 the W rl2 GO4, r2" #$??H" #=>3#=#* <?* L* Strachey" Emi0e0t Vict ria0s GPh e0i4 e2*" L 02 0" #$?$H" =* <=* (ac6e0/ie3+rieve" p* cit*" #;?*

<%* +* R* Wy00e" The Ch1rch i0 +reater )ritai0 GL 02 0" #$##H" #?>* <@* H* , C* Sess* Pap*" #B=<3B" V l* %B* The e4act ,i!1re -as #?"<?$*%*% Gpp* #$" ??H* <;* Wy00e" p* cit*" #?>9 C* .* A&&ey a02 .* H* Overt 0" The E0!lish Ch1rch i0 the Ei!htee0th Ce0t1ry GL 02 0" #B<BH" II" #><* <<* A&&ey a02 Overt 0" p* cit*" II" #>;*

<B* A* T* +ary" The P litical a02 Ec 0 mic Relati 0s , E0!lish a02 America0 L1a6ers" #<@>3#<BR GO4, r2 U0iversity '* Phil* Thesis" #$=@H" @>;* The c py e4ami0e2 -as 2ep site2 i0 the Li&rary , Frie02s7 H 1se" L 02 0*

<$* H* .* Ca2&1ry" C l 0ial L1a6er A0tece2e0ts t Slavery GFrie02s7 H 1se" L 02 0" #$==H" i* B>* +ary" p* cit*" #<=3#<%*

)ritish A& liti 0

B #* See Liverp l Papers" A22* (SS* =B??< G)ritish (1se1mH" ,* ?>?" , r a0 102ate2 letter , L r2 Ha-6es&1ry" Presi2e0t , the Privy C 10cil" t L r2 R 20ey" a!reei0! t 1se R 20ey7s pr 4y* Ha-6es&1ry pr mise2 t :ma6e the &est 1se , it i0 2e,e02i0! the isla02 , .amaica a02 the ther West I02ia isla02s -hich his L r2ship s !l ri 1sly 2e3 ,e02e2 a!ai0st a , rei!0 e0emy 0 the mem ra&le i?th* April": a02 he e4presse2 his s rr - that 0ly a severe ,it , the ! 1t preve0te2 R 20ey ,r m :atte02i0! Parliame0t a02 a,, r2i0! his pers 0al s1pp rt t th se -h are i0 s m1ch -a0t , it*: B?* Part" 'e&*" VIII" ;;$* Fe&* @" #B><*

NOTES TO PA+ES %%3%B ??=

B=* F* .* Fli0!&er!" The A0ti3Slavery ( veme0t i0 E0!la02 GNeHave0" #$?;H" #?<* B%* H* , C* Sess* Pap*" #B=<3B" V l* %B* The e4act ,i!1re is ;"?><*<*; Gpp* %$" ;?H* B@* )rea2y" B;* P 6" p* cit*" =%#* p* cit*" #B* p* cit*" #%>*

B<* S-i00y"

BB* +* Williams" Hist ry , the Liverp l Privateers" -ith a0 Acc 10t , the Liverp l Slave Tra2e GLiverp l" #B$<H" %<=3%<%* B$* Latimer" p* cit*" #%<*

$>* (* Stee0" The S10 is (y U02 i0! GNe- Y r6" #$%#H" @>* $#* (* '* +e r!e" L 02 0 Li,e i0 the Ei!htee0th Ce0t1ry GL 02 0" #$?@H" #=<3#=B* $?* H* T* Catterall" .12icial Cases c 0cer0i0! Ne!r i0!t 0" '* C*" #$?;3#$?<H" #" $" #?* $=* )rea2y" p* cit*" #>%3#>@* Slavery GWash3

$%* R* C 1pla02" The )ritish A0ti3Slavery ( veme0t GL 02 0" #$==H" @@3@N3 $@* Sypher" p* cit*" ;=*

$;* Catterall" p* cit*" I" #$3?>9 W* (assey" A Hist ry , E0!la02 21ri0! the Rei!0 , +e r!e the Thir2 GL 02 0" #B;@H" III" #<B3#<$* $<* A0 0ym 1s" Rec llecti 0s GLiverp l" #B;=H" #>* , Ol2 Liverp l" &y a N 0a!e0aria0 0 the Pr p se2 )ill , r the

$B* Ramsay" (S* V l*" ,* ;@* :A0 A22ress A& liti 0 , the Slave Tra2e*: $$* +* Williams" p* cit*" @B;*

#>>* Ha0sar2" Thir2 Series" CIO" ##>?* H1tt" (arch #$" #B@>* #>#* H* W* Prest 0" Rh 2e Isla02 a02 the Sea GPr vi2e0ce" #$=?H" <>" <=* The a1th r -as 'irect r , the State )1rea1 , I0, rmati 0* #>?* Latimer" p* cit*" #%?* , War GL 02 0"

#>=* .* W* '* P -ell" )rist l Privateers a02 Ships #$=>H" #;<*

#>%* H* R* F* ) 1r0e" E0!lish (ercha0ts" (em irs i0 Ill1strati 0 , the Pr !ress , )ritish C mmerce GL 02 0" #B;;H" II" ;=9 .* )* ) ts, r2" E0!lish S ciety i0 the Ei!htee0th Ce0t1ry as I0,l1e0ce2 ,r m Oversea GNe- Y r6" #$?%H" #??9 E0,iel2" p* cit*" %B3%$* F r )l102ell7s slave tra23 i0!" see ' 00a0" p* ch* y II" %$?* #>@* F r C10li,,e" see ) 1r0e" p* cit*" II" @<9 ) ts, r2" E0,iel2" p* cit*" %=" %$9 ' 00a0" p* cit*" II" %$?" %$<* # >;* ' 00a0" p* cit*" II" ;=#9 .* H1!hes" Liverp A<; 3ASA< GLiverp l" #$>;H" #<%* p* cit*" #??9

l )a06s a02 )a06ers"

#><* L* H* +ri02 0" (a0chester )a06s a02 )a06ers G(a0chester" #B<BH" @@" <$3B>" #B<3#BB9 ) 1r0e" p* cit*" II" ;%" <B9 ) ts, r2" p* cit*" #??9 ' 00a0" p* cit*" II" %$?* # >B* ' 00a0" p* cit*" I" #;$3#<?*

#>$* I&i2*" II" %;B*

??% NOTES TO PA+ES %B3@=

# #>* Larimer"

p* cit*" %<;3%<<*

i0* F r e4amples" see Wa2s- rth a02 (a00" p* cit*" ?#; 09 H1!hes" p* cit*" #>$" #=$" #<?" #<%" #<;9 ' 00a0" p* cit*" II" %$? 0* ##?* L* )* Namier" :A0t 0y )ac 0" a0 Ei!htee0th Ce0t1ry (ercha0t": . 1r0al , Ec 0 mic a02 )1si0ess Hist ry GN v*" #$?$H" ?#* ##=* ' 00a0" p* cit*" II" ;%?3;%%" ;@;3;@< 0*

##%* Parl* 'e&*" IO" #<>* (arch ?=" #B><* ##@* I&i2*" VII" ?=>* (ay #;" #B>;* # # ;* Wil&er, rce" Li,e Ne-t 0" .10e" #B>%* , Wil&er, rce" III" #<>* Wil&er, rce t . h0

##<* CO* #=<A$#* Petiti 0 , C mmittee , .amaica H 1se 0 the S1!ar a02 Slave Tra2e" 'ec* @" #<$?* ##B* Sypher"

, Assem&ly

p* cit*" #@<3#@B" #;?3#;=" #B;3#BB" ?#<3?#$* p* cit*" =%#*

##$* I&i2*H @$9 )rea2y"

#?>* Parl* Hist*" OIO" =>@* (ay ?=" #<<<* #?#* )rea2y" p* cit*" #>?*

#??* P stleth-ayt" +reat )ritai07s C mmercial I0terest * * *" II" ?#<3?#B9 Savary 2es )r1sl 0s" The U0iversal 'icti 0ary , Tra2e a02 C mmerce* With lar!e a22iti 0s a02 impr veme0ts &y (* P stleth-ayt GL 02 0" #<@#H" I" ?@* It is 0 t tr1e t say" as Sypher 2 es G p* cit*" B%H" that P stleth-ayt :ta6es a 2ar6 vie-: , the slave tra2e* #?=* W* S0el!rave" A Ne- Acc 10t GL 02 0" #<@%H" #;>3#;#* , +1i0ea a02 the Slave Tra2e

CHAPTER = #* A2am Smith" ?* W* W p* cit*" %#@3%#;" @>>3@$#* , Tra2e GL 02 0" #<#BH" Part III" #$=*

2" A S1rvey

=* .* F* Rees" :The Phases , )ritish C mmercial P licy i0 the Ei!ht3 ee0th Ce0t1ry": Ec 0 mica G.10e" #$?@H" #%=* %* +ee" p* cit*" i0*

@* P stleth-ayt" The A,rica0 Tra2e" the +reat Pillar * * *" %" ;* ;* Cam&ri2!e Hist ry <* Whit- rth" , the )ritish Empire" I" @;@*

p* cit*" II" ?>* 0 the S1!ar

B* .* )e00ett" T- Letters a02 Several Calc1lati 0s C l 0ies a02 Tra2e GL 02 0" #<=BH" @@* $* W 2" p* cit*" #@;*

#>* Sir '* Th mas" A0 Hist rical Acc 10t , the Rise a02 +r -th , the West I02ia C l 0ies" a02 , the +reat A2va0ta!es they are t E0!3 la02" i0 respect t Tra2e GL 02 0" #;$>H* The essay is pri0te2 i0 the Harleia0 (iscella0y" II" =%<* 0* Pitma0" The Settleme0t * * * , )ritish West I02ia Pla0tati 0s * * *"

?<#*

NOTES TO PA+ES @=T@@ ??@

#?* Rep rt Appe02i4*

, the C mmittee

, Privy C 10cil" #<BB" Part IV" N * #B"

#=* .* H* R se" William Pitt a02 the +reat War GL 02 0" #$##H" =<>" #%* A2am Smith" #@* Whit- rth" p* cit*" =;;* p* cit*" II" #B*

# ;* The , ll -i0! ta&les have &ee0 c mpile2 ,r m Sir C* Whit- rth" State , the Tra2e , +reat )ritai0 i0 its imp rts a02 e4p rts" pr !res3 sively ,r m the year #;$<3#<<= GL 02 0" #<<;H" Part II" pp* #3?" %<3@>" @=T< ? <@3<; <B" B?3$#* Tra2e ,i!1res are i0 p 102s sterli0!* I0 the !e0eral perce0ta!es !ive0 i0 the te4t , r West I02ia0 a02 mai0la02 tra2e" I have i0cl12e2 i0 the West I02ies ,i!1res , r #<#%3#<<= tra2e -ith mi0 r places" s1ch as St* Cr i4" ( 0te Christi" St* E1stati1s" a02 als tra2e -ith isla02s c 051ere2 &y )ritai0 i0 -ar &1t later rest re2 e*!*" C1&a" +1a2el 1pe" etc* Similarly ,i!1res , r the mai0la02" #<#%3 #<<=" i0cl12e Ca0a2a" Fl ri2a" etc* F r the c mparative imp rta0ce , these 2i,,ere0t areas" see Chapter VI" pp* ##%3##@" a02 0 te =;* I0 r2er t see these statistics i0 their pr per perspective" !e0eral )ritish tra2e ,i!1res m1st &e i0cl12e2* They are as , ll -s GI&i2*" Part I" pp* <B3<$*H

Year #;$< #<<= #<#%3#<<=

)ritish Imp rts =%B?@B; ##%>;B%# %$?#%;;<>

)ritish E4p rts =@?@$>; #%<;=?@? <=>$;?#>@

U ,

U , U ,

)ritish T tal )ritish T tal T tal C l 0y Year Imp rts )ritish E4p rts )ritish )ritish

,r m Imp rts t E4p rts Tra2e West I02ies** #;$< =?;@=; $3= H?<$@ % < (ai0la02* * * * #;$< ?<$B@? B #%>#?$ =3$

; A,rica #;$< ;;#@

#=%=@

West I02ies** #<<= ?B=>B@= ?%*B #?<>B%; B*; #@3@ (ai0la02 #<<= #%?>%<# #?*@ ?=<@<$<

#;*# H3@ A,rica #<<= ;B%?%

;;?##?

West I02ies** I<U3I<<= #>#?;%B#B ?>*@ %@=B$$BB ;*? #?* (ai0la02* * * * I<H3I<<= @@@@?;<@ II* =

;$$>=;#= $3; #>*? A,rica #<#%3#<<= ?%><%%< >*@ #@?=@B?$ ?*# #*%

??; NOTES TO PA+E @@

Imp rts ,r m a02 e4p rts t

the i02ivi21al c l 0ies are as , ll -s8

C l 0y

)ritish Imp rts ,r m #;$< #<<= )ritish E4p rts t #;$< #<<= )ritish Imp rts ,r m I<I%3I<<*= )ritish E4p rts t #<#%3#<<= A0ti!1a ?B?OL I #?<<> BO?O L##?# #?<B@?;? #B?#<?; )ar&a2 s .amaica #$;@=? #;B;B? <OOOO #?B;BBB <<%;@ #%BB#< %><?; ;B=%@# #%@>;%$< %*??@L<%*L

<%%?;@? I ;B%%$$> ( 0tserrat * * * Nevis #%;$$ %<$II I <OL; #L?LL =@=? #%$%< I#O%*# LlBl ==B<?=< l;l;@O%* @=<B=# @%*L @;%* Car li0a #?#<A# %*@;@## @?BL #%*%*B@L ##%#>%B> BA?#@BB Ne- E0!la02* Ne- Y r6* * *" Pe00sylva0ia * Vir!i0ia a02 (aryla02** * +e r!ia ?;?B? #?%;?% #>>$= <;?%; ==%< =;;@? ??<<@; @B$B>= B@#LI

;B%;B @?<>@@ %@<$ ?B$?#% ?$$< %?;%%B @B<$; =?B$>% ;?>#? %#=%=$? #$#><$; III@II? =@I@B%BI ;??L@BN #;$=%=#; ##=<<;$; $;?<%>$ #B=$#>$< <%*;>>#N St* Fitts I@O@I? ;?;>< ###O@;@L =lBl$OI T &a! ?O%* SI #OO%*L %>@B<M I ??O$= , +re0a2a

%*%*@O%*I #>?<;# l;?O@O%*t II<L?<L# St* Vi0ce0t * * * ' mi0ica Spa0ish West I02ies #%@;#$ ?%BB;B #@L%*I =B%%% %=;<$ I@II% ;<?$$# #%;$<>%M ?=@;;@ =???$% T rt la %B>>> ?;$?< B;=$=# #V ??OO=B #V A0!1illa

?LLllH I?%lF West I02ies i0 !e0eral * * H12s 07s )ay*

??>%%BNN @B=B#< <#$=B=$NN ?##==;

R#<;?3#<<= #<;=3#<<= VVI<%B3I<<= #G#<@>3#<<> NNI<I%3I<;B

#<* )e00ett" # B* St c6"

p* cit* y @>" @%* p* cit*y IV" =?$* Sir . h0 )ar0ar2" (arch ?B" #<=<*

#$* P s2eth-ayt" The A,rica0 Tra2e" the +reat Pillar * * *" #=3#%*

NOTES TO PA+ES @@N@$ ??<

?>* E* '* Ellis" A0 I0tr 21cti 0 t m 2ity GPhila2elphia" #$>@H" B?* ?#* Whit- rth" W r6s

the Hist ry

, S1!ar as a C m3

, 'ave0a0t" II" #>*

??* H* See" ( 2er0 Capitalism" its Ori!i0 a02 Ev l1ti 0 GNe- Y r6" #$?BH" #>%*

?=* L* A* Harper" The E0!lish Navi!ati 0 La-s GNe- Y r6" #$=$H" ?%?* ?%* A02re-s" The C l 0ial Peri 2 * * *" IV" $* ?@* I&i2*" IV" ;@" <#" #?;" #@%3#@@* ?;* See the st12y &y +* P* I0sh" The C mpa0y A,rica a02 the I02ies GL 02 0" #$=?H* ?<* C lli0s" p* cit*" #%=* , Sc tla02 Tra2i0! t

?B* I&i2*" #@<* I0 #;$< the ! ver0 r , .amaica as6e2 , r a rela4ati 0 , the Navi!ati 0 La-s , r seve0 years t e0s1re rec very* Cale02ar , State Papers" C l 0ial Series" OV" =B;* )eest 0 t )lath-ayt" Fe&* ?<" #;$<* ?$* Cale02ar =>* St c6" , State Papers" C l 0ial Series" IO" %<%3%<@* Oct* ?;" #;<;* p* cit*" IV" B?B* (ay =>" #<=$*

=#* A02re-s" The C l 0ial Peri 2 * * *" II" ?;%* =?* Parl* Hist*" OOIO" =%=* Al2erma0 Wats 0" April #B" #<$#9 ' 00a0" p* cit*" II" ;>;* ==* H lt a02 +re!s 0 Papers GLiverp l P1&lic Li&raryH" O" %?$* Letter e0title2 :C mmerce": i0 +re!s 07s ha02-riti0!" 102ate2* =%* +* L* )eer" The Ol2 C l 0ial System GNe- Y r6" #$==H" I" #<* =@* I&i2*" I" %= 0* =;* St c6" p* cit*" Ill" =@@*

=<* This pr p rti 0 is &tai0e2 &y ta6i0! the avera!e , the #??">>> t 0s , r the West I02ies i0 the ,ive years #<#>3#<#%" a02 c mpari0! it -ith the ,i!1re , ?%=";>> t 0s e0!a!e2 i0 , rei!0 tra2e i0 #<>$" !ive0 i0 A* P* Usher" :The +r -th , E0!lish Shippi0!" #@<?3#$??": L1arterly . 1r0al , Ec 0 mics G(ay" #$?BH" %;$* =B* Usher" p* cit*" %;$* I0 #<B<" $$B";=< t 0s* , the )ritish West I02ies" ;;*

=$* Pitma0" 'evel pme0t

%>* R* Ste-art3)r -0e" Liverp l Ships i0 the Ei!htee0th Ce0t1ry GLiverp l" #$=?H" ##<" ##$" #?;3#?<" #=>* F r )a6er a02 'a-s 07s slave tra2i0! -ith the Spa0ish c l 0ies" see ' 00a0" p* cit*" II" @<< 09 Aimes" p* cit*" =;9 Rep rt , the C mmittee , Privy C 10cil" #<BB" Part VI* %#* E0,iel2" p* cit*" ?;" !ives @">;< seame0 i0 #<<#* +re!s 0 says =">>> -ere empl ye2 i0 the slave tra2e* H lt a02 +re!s 0 Papers" O" %=%* U03 2ate2 letter t T* )r 6e" (*P* %?* The shippi0! tra2es , L 02 0 petiti 0e2 i0 #<>B i0 ,av r , the m 0 p ly* A!ai0st the m 0 p ly came t- petiti 0s ,r m the ship3 -0ers , Whitehave0 i0 #<>$ a02 #<#>9 three petiti 0s ,r m the ship3 -ri!hts , L 02 0 a02 its e0vir 0s i0 #<>B a02 #<#>9 a02 a petiti 0 ,r m

the ship-ri!hts , several cities i0 #<>$* St c6" 0" ??@ 0" ??;" ?%$" ?@> 0" ?@#* %=* H lt a02 +re!s 0 Papers" O" =<@" =<<*

p* cit*" Ill" ?>% 0" ?><

??B NOTES TO PA+ES @$3;%

%%* E0,iel2"

p* cit*" B$* )r 6e*

%@* H lt a02 +re!s 0 Papers" O" %=@* +re!s 0 t %;* (acl00es" p* cit*" ==<*

%<* Parl* Hist*" OOIO" =%=* Al2erma0 Wats 0" April #B" #<$#* %B* .* +* )r 2&a06" Hist ry , the P rt , L 02 0 GL 02 0" #$?#H" I" <;3B?" B$3#>B9 W* S* Li02say" A Hist ry , (ercha0t Shippi0! a02 A0cie0t C mmerce GL 02 0" #B<%3#B<;H" II" %#@3%?>* %$* Latimer" p* cit*" ;*

@>* W* N* Rei2 a02 .* E* Hic6s" Lea2i0! Eve0ts i0 the Hist ry , the P rt , )rist l G)rist l" 0*2*H" #>;9 .* Latimer" A00als , )rist l i0 the Seve0tee0th Ce0t1ry G)rist l" #$>>H" ==%9 W* )arrett" The Hist ry a02 A0ti51ities , the City , )rist l G)rist l" #<B>H" #B;9 .* A* Eraser" Spai0 a02 the West C 10try GL 02 0" #$=@H" ?@%3?@@* @#* .* F* Nich lls a02 .* Tayl r" )rist l Past a02 Prese0t G)rist l" #BB#3 #BB?H" III" #;@* @?* (acl00es" @=* I&i2*" ?>?* @%* I&i2*" ?==* @@* )arrett" p* cit*" #B$* p* cit*" ==@*

@;* I&i2* I0c mi0! ships ,r m the West I02ies am 10te2 t #;"?>$ 1t , a t tal , %B"#?@ t 0s9 1t! i0! ships t the West I02ies represe0te2 #;"$#= 1t , a t tal , %;"<?$ t 0s* @<* (acl00es" p* cit*" ?=;" =;<*

@B* I&i2*" =@B" =<>* @$* I&i2*" ??B" ?=>" ?=@" =;=" =<>" ;>* H* , C* Sess* Pap*" #B=<3B" V l* %B* The e4act ,i!1re -as C;?"==@">*@* The ,amily -0e2 $@% slaves 1tri!ht" a02 -as part -0er , a0 ther %@; Gpa!es ##<" #?>" #=?" #;BH*

;#* (acl00es" ;?* E0,iel2"

p* cit*" =<#* p* cit*" ##3#?*

;=* P* (a0t 14" The I021strial Rev l1ti 0 i0 the Ei!htee0th Ce0t1ry GL 02 0" #$?BH" #>B* ;%* E0,iel2" ;@* Eraser" ;;* E0,iel2" ;<* (a0t 14" p* cit*" ;<* p* cit*" ?@%3?@@* p* cit*" ;$* p* cit* $ #>$* 0 the Imp licy * * *" #?=3#?@* , La0cashire GL 02 0" #B?@H" II" ;$>* l" Its C mmerce" Statistics a02 I0stit1ti 0s p* cit*" %*

;B* Clar6s 0" Essay

;$* .* C rry" The Hist ry <>* H* Smithers" Liverp GLiverp l" #B?@H" #>@* <#* (ac6e0/ie3+rieve" <?* +* Williams"

p* cit*" @$%*

<=* H lt a02 +re!s 0 Papers" O" =;<" =;$" =<#" =<=* <%* .* A* Pict 0" (em rials <@* (acl00es" p* cit*" #$#* , Liverp l GL 02 0" #B<=H" I" ?@;*

NOTES TO PA+ES ;%3<% ??$

<;* .* T 1/ea1" The Rise a02 Pr !ress GLiverp l" #$#>H" II" @B$" <%@*

, Liverp

l ,r m #@@# t

#B=@

<<* :R &i0 H 2": :The Liverp l Slave Tra2e": The C mmercial W rl2 a02 . 1r0al , Tra0sp rt GFe&* ?@" #B$=H" pp* B3#>9 G(arch %" #B$=H" p* =* <B* +* Eyre3T 22" Hist ry <$* ' 00a0" B>* St c6" B#* ' 00a0" B?* St c6" B=* ' 00a0" III" , +las! - G+las! -" #$=%H" III" ?$@*

p* cit*" II" @;<3@;B* p* cit*" II" #>$* p* cit*" I t ?;<* p* cit*" II" #<$* p* cit*" I" %#=" %#<3%#B9 St c6" p* cit*" II" #;? 0" #B; 0"

?>< 0" =>? 0* B%* ' 00a0" p* cit*" I" =<$*

B@* I &i2*" #"%##"%#B 0* B;* St c6" p* cit*" II" ?$ 0" B$ 0" $%" #B; 0*

B<* I&i2*" II" ?>9 III" $>" ??% 0" ?$B9 IV" ?$=3?$<* BB* I&i2*" IV" #;# 03i;? 0* B$* I&i2*" Ill" %@* $>* .* .ames" Hist ry , the W rste2 (a01,act1re i0 E0!la02 ,r m the Earliest Times GL 02 0" #B@<H" appe02i4" p* <* $#* A* S* T1r&erville" . h0s 07s E0!la02 GO4, r2" #$==H" I" ?=#3?=?* $?* Wa2s- rth a02 (a00" p* cit*" #%<3#;;*

$=* H lt a02 +re!s 0 Papers" O" %??3%?=* $%* Rep rt , the C mmittee , (r* Tayl r* , Privy C 10cil" #<BB" Part VI* Evi2e0ce

$@* H lt a02 +re!s 0 Papers" O" %?=* $;* ' 00a0" p* cit*" II" ==< 0" @?#3@?? 0* p* cit*" #%$" #@;3#@<" ?=#" ?==" ?%=3?%<" %%<*

$<* Wa2s- rth a02 (a00"

$B* I&i2*" ??$ 0" ?=#" ?=# 0* $$* Cam&ri2!e Hist ry (a00" p* cit*" #$>* , the )ritish Empire" II" ??%9 Wa2s- rth a02

#>>* The )ritish imp rt ,i!1res are !ive0 i0 .* Wheeler" (a0chester" its P litical" S cial a02 C mmercial Hist ry" A0cie0t a02 ( 2er0 G(a03 chester" #B%?H" #%B" #<>9 the West I02ia0 imp rts i0 L* .* Ra!at/" Statistics , r the St12y , )ritish Cari&&ea0 Hist ry" #<;=3#B== GL 02 0" 0*2*H" #@" Ta&le VI* # >#* Wa2s- rth a02 (a00" #>?* Fraser" p* cit*" ?%#* p* cit*" #;$*

#>=* Latimer" A00als , )rist l i0 the Ei!htee0th Ce0t1ry" =>?9 Pitma0" 'evel pme0t , the )ritish West I02ies" =%>* #>%* Nich lls a02 Tayl r" #>@* Latimer" A00als =#B3=?>* p* cit*" Ill" =%*

, )rist l i0 the Seve0tee0th Ce0t1ry" ?B>3?B#"

# >;* The NeN- )rist l +1i2e G)rist l" #<$$H" <>*

#><* ' 00a0"

p* cit*" II" ;>?3;>%*

?=> NOTES TO PA+ES <%3B>

#>B* Rei2 a02 Hic6s" #>$* Larimer" A00als # #>* ) 1r0e"

p* cit*" ;;9 (acl00es"

p* cit*" =<#*

, )rist l i0 the Seve0tee0th Ce0t1ry" %%3%@" BB* p* cit*" #?>" #?=*

p* cit*" II" #<3#B9 ) ts, r2"

HI* H* , C* Sess* Pap*" #B=<3B" V l* %B* The e4act s1m -as #<"B;B*#;*B Gpa!es ;B3;$" #;<3#;BH* ##?* Eyre3T 22" p* cit*" Ill" =$3%>" #@>3#@%*

##=* E0,iel2" p* cit*" 9 T* Faye" The Stra0!er i0 Liverp l9 r" a0 Hist rical a02 'escriptive Vie- , the T -0 , Liverp l a02 its e0vir 0s GLiverp l" #B?$H" #B%* F r the )ra0c6ers a02 the slave tra2e" see ' 00a0" p* cit*" II" ;@@ 0* # #%* St c6" ap* cit*" I" =B@" =$>* ##@* Whit- rth" W r6s , 'ave0a0t" II" =<*

# # ;* C* W* C le" Fre0ch (erca0tilism" #;B=3#<>> GNe- Y r6" #$%=H" B<3BB* The pr hi&iti 0 is still i0 perati 0 t 2ay* See .* E* 'alt 0" S1!ar" A Case St12y , + ver0me0t C 0tr l GNe- Y r6" #$=<H" ?;@3?<%* ##<* )e00ett" p* cit*" I0tr 21cti 0" p* 44vii*

# # B* A0 0ym 1s" S me C 0si2erati 0s h1m&ly ,,ere2 1p 0 the )ill 0 - 2epe02i0! i0 the H 1se , L r2s" relati0! t the Tra2e &et-ee0 the N rther0 C l 0ies a02 the S1!ar3Isla02s GL 02 0" #<=?H" #@* ##$* F* C102all" The + ver0 rs , .amaica i0 the First Hal, Ei!htee0th Ce0t1ry GL 02 0" #$=<H" #<B* , the

# ?>* Parl* Hist*" OIV" #?$=3#?$%* .a0* ?;" #<@=9 A0 0ym 1s" A0 Ac3 c 10t , the Late Applicati 0 t Parliame0t ,r m the S1!ar Re,i0ers" +r cers" etc*" , the Cities , L 02 0 a02 Westmi0ster" the ) r 1!h , S 1th-ar6" a02 , the City , )rist l GL 02 0" #<@=H" =3@" %=* #?#* St c6" p* cit*" V" @@$* (arch ?=" #<@=*

#??* H* , C* Sess* Pap*" Rep rts" (iscella0e 1s" #<<B3#<B?" V l* =@" #<B#* Rep rt ,r m the C mmittee t -h m the Petiti 0 , the S1!ar Re,i0ers , L 02 0 -as re,erre2* See especially the evi2e0ce , Fra0ces Fem&le* #?=* St c6" p* cit*" IV" #=? 09 Ra!at/" Statistics * * *" #<" Ta&le OI* the C ast , A,rica GL 02 0"

#?%* Sa1!0ier a02 )riss 0" V ya!es t #<$?H" ?B@*

#?@* R* (1ir" A Hist ry #?;* ' 00a0" #?<* St c6"

, Liverp

l GL 02 0" #$><H" #><*

p* cit*" II" @?$ 0* p* cit*" IV" =>=" =>;" =>$*

#?B* A0 0ym 1s" Sh rt A0ima2versi 0s 0 the 'i,,ere0ce 0 - set 1p &et-ee0 +i0 a02 R1m" a02 O1r ( ther C 10try a02 C l 0ies GL 03 2 0" #<;$H" B3$* #?$* St c6" p* cit*" IV" =#>*

#=>* Wi02ham Papers G)ritish (1se1mH" A22* (SS* =<BB;" ,,* #?@3#?B* :O&servati 0s 0 the pr p sal , the West I02ia (ercha0ts t s1&stit1te s1!ar i0 the 2istilleries i0stea2 , &arley*: A0 0ym 1s" pr &a&ly #B><* #=#* Ha0sar2" Thir2 Series" V" B?* .1ly ?>" #B=#* #=?* E* R* . h0s 0" et al*" Hist ry , ' mestic a02 F rei!0 C mmerce

NOTES TO PA+ES Bl3B; ?=#

, the U0ite2 States GWashi0!t 0" '* +" #$#@H" I" ##B* The e4p rts t A,rica -ere ?$?"$;; !all 0s 1t , t tal e4p rts , =%$"?B#* #==* .* C rry a02 .* Eva0s" The Hist ry , )rist l" Civil a02 Ecclesias3 tical G)rist l" #B#;H" II" =><3=>B9 Sa1!0ier a02 )riss 0" p* cit*" ?$;3?$$* #=%* Sa1!0ier a02 )riss 0" #=@* St c6" #=;* ' 00a0" p* cit*" ?#<*

p* cit*" II" ?;% 0* p* cit*" I" ?=% 0" =>> 0*

#=<* l&i2*"#" ?@;" ?;?9 ##"%%@* #=B* I&i2*" I" ?B=* #=$* St c6" p* cit*" Ill" ?>< 0" ??@ 0" ?@> 0" ?<B 0 G)irmi0!hamH9 ?>% 0" ??B 0 GL 02 0H* #%>* ' 00a0" p* cit*" II" $B* , the (i2la02 I021stries GO4, r2"

#%#* W* H* )* C 1rt" The Rise #$=BH" #%@3#%;*

#%?* T* S* Asht 0" Ir 0 a02 Steel i0 the I021strial Rev l1ti 0 G(a03 chester" #$?%H" #$@* #%=* St c6" p* cit*" IV" %=%* , )irmi0!ham8 &ei0! a Hist ry , the

#%%* R* F* 'e0t" The (a6i0!

Rise a02 +r -th

, the (i2la02 (etr p lis G)irmi0!ham" #B>%H" #%<* #B>>

#%@* H* Hamilt 0" The E0!lish )rass a02 C pper I021stries t GL 02 0" #$?;H" #=<3#=B" #%$3#@#" ?B;3?$?*

#%;* E* Shiercli,," The )rist l a02 H ,-ell +1i2e G)rist l" #<B$H" #;* #%<* A* H* ' 22" The I021strial Rev l1ti 0 i0 N rth Wales GCar2i,," i$==HW #@;3#@<3 #%B* ' 00a0" p* cit*" I" ?=<* p* cit*" @?3@=*

#%$* Ste-art3)r -0e" #@>* ' 00a0"

p* cit*" II" ;#>3;##*

#@#* I&i2*" II" ;>$* #@?* H* Scrive0 r" A C mprehe0sive Hist ry , the Ir 0 Tra2e GL 02 0" #B%#H" =%%3=%;" =%<3=@@* The perce0ta!es have &ee0 c mp1te2 ,r m ta&les !ive0*

CHAPTER % #* A2am Smith" p* cit*" #@B* p*

?* R* C1m&erla02" The West I02ia08 A C me2y GL 02 0" #<<@ e2i3 ti 0H " Act I" Sce0e III* A &rie, 0 tice , the play is !ive0 i0 Sypher" ch* y ?=$* =* St c6" p* cit*" V" ?@$* William )ec6, r2" Fe&* B" #<%<*

%* F* W* Pitma0" :The West I02ia0 A&se0tee Pla0ter as a )ritish C l 0ial Type: GPr cee2i0!s , the Paci,ic C ast )ra0ch , the Ameri3 ca0 Hist rical Ass ciati 0" #$?<H" ##=* @* Whit- rth" W r6s , 'ave0a0t" II" <*

?=? NOTES TO PA+ES B;3$>

;* C1m&erla02" p* cit*" Act I" Sce0e V* L1 te2 als West I02ia0 A&se0tee Pla0ter * * *" #?%*

i0 Pitma0" The

<* Pitma0" The West I02ia0 A&se0tee Pla0ter * * *" #?@* B* (erivale" p* cit*" B?3B=*

$* L* .* Ra!at/" A&se0tee La02l r2ism i0 the )ritish Cari&&ea0" #<@>3 #B== GL 02 0" 0*2H" B3?>9 Pitma0" The West I02ia0 A&se0tee Pla0ter * * *" ##<3#?#*

#>* R* (* H -ar2 Ge2*H" Rec r2s a02 Letters , the Family , the L 0!s , L 0!ville" .amaica" a02 Hampt 0 L 2!e" S1rrey GL 02 0" N$N@H I ##3#?9 C102all" The + ver0 rs , .amaica i0 the Seve0tee0th Ce0t1ry" ?;* ##* .* )ritt 0" +raphical a02 Literary Ill1strati 0s , F 0thill A&&ey" Wiltshire" -ith Heral2ical a02 +e0eal !ical N tices , the )ec6, r2 Family GL 02 0" #B?=H" ?@3?;* #?* I&i2*" ?;3?B" =@" =$* #=* H* , C* Sess* Pap*" #B=<3=B" V l* %B* The e4act am 10t -as #@"#;>*?*$ Gpp* ?>3?#" ;%3;@H* #%* .* (1rch" (em ir , R &ert Hi&&ert" Es51ire G)ath" #B<%H" @3;" #@" #B3#$" $<i $$N #>%3#>@* #@* )r 2&a06" p* cit*" I" #>?3#>=9 A* )eave0" The Al2erme0 City , L 02 0 GL 02 0" #$>B3#$#=H" II" ?>=* , the

#;* H* , C* Sess* Pap*" #B=<3=B" V l* %B* The precise ,i!1re -as =#"3 #?#*#;*> Gpp* ?>" ??"%;" @?";<" <$H* #<* See i0si2e c ver pa!e , the ,irst iss1e , the Hi&&ert . 1r0al* The ,amily ma0si 0" i0 '16e Street" Fi0!st 0" .amaica" -as erecte2 &y Th mas Hi&&ert -h arrive2 i0 the isla02 i0 #<=%* Calle2 at ,irst :Hi&&ert7s H 1se": it serve2 , r s me time as the hea251arters , the C mma02er3i03Chie, , the arme2 , rces a02 -as p p1larly 60 -0 as Hea251arters H 1se* It later h 1se2 the C l 0ial Secretary7s ,,ice a02 the Le!islative C 10cil Cham&er* See Papers relati0! t the Preservati 0 , Hist ric Sites a02 A0cie0t ( 01me0ts a02 )1il2i0!s i0 the West I02ia0 C l 0ies" C2* ;%?B GHis (aDesty7s Stati 0ery O,,ice" #$#?H" #=* # B* H -ar2" p* cit*" I" ;<" <#*

#$* I&i2*" I" #<<* ?>* C* 'e Thierry" :'isti0!1ishe2 West I02ia0s i0 E0!la02": U0ite2 Empire GOct*" #$#?H" B=#* ?#* A0 0ym 1s" F rt10es ma2e i0 )1si0ess GL 02 0" #BB%H" II" ##<3 ##$" #??3#?%" #=>" #=%9 ) 1r0e" p* cit*" II" =>=* ??* C rresp 02e0ce &et-ee0 . h0 +la2st 0e" (*P* a02 .ames Cr pper" 0 the prese0t state , Slavery i0 the )ritish West I02ies a02 i0 the U0ite2 States , America" a02 0 the Imp rtati 0 , S1!ar ,r m the )ritish Settleme0ts i0 I02ia GLiverp l" #B?%H* ?=* H* , C* Sess* Pap*" #B=<3=B" V l* %B* The e4act s1m -as B@";>;*>*? Gpp* ?=" @B" #?>3#?#H* ?%* Harl -" Christ pher C 2ri0!t 0" ?#>" ?%?*

NOTES TO PA+ES $>3$= ?==

?@* A* War0er" Sir Th mas War0er" Pi 0eer GL 02 0" #$==H" ##$3#?=" #?;" #=?* ?;* E2-ar2s" ?<* (acl00es"

, the West I02ies

p* cit*" I" I0tr 21cti 0" p* i4* p* cit*D =>B3=#>*

?B* C* Wri!ht a02 C* E*7Fayle" A Hist ry , Ll y27s" ,r m the F 102i0! , Ll y27s C ,,ee H 1se t the Prese0t 'ay GL 02 0" #$?BH" ?B;* ?$* Eyre3T 22" p* cit*" Ill" #@#3#@?*

=>* L* .* Ra!at/" The Fall , the Pla0ter Class i0 the )ritish Cari&&ea0" #<;=3#B== GNe- Y r6" #$?BH" @#* =#* ParA* Hist*H OOOIV" ##>?* '16e =?* Ra!at/" Fall ==* ) ts, r2" ?B%* =%* (acl00es" =@* )rea2y" , Clare0ce" .1ly @" #<$$*

, the Pla0ter Class * * *" @>*

p* cit*" #%B9 A* P 0s 0&y" E0!lish 'iaries GL 02 0" #$?=H" p* cit*D ?=;* p* cit*" #@<* , a0 Eve0t,1l Li,e GL 02 0" #B<>H" I" $3#>*

=;* +* W* 'ase0t" A00als =<* Sypher" p* cit*" ?@@*

=B* L* )* Namier" The Str1ct1re III GL 02 0" #$?$H" I" ?#>*

, P litics at the Accessi 0

, +e r!e

=$* L* (* Pe0s 0" The C l 0ial A!e0ts GL 02 0" #$?%H" #B@3#B<*

, the )ritish West I02ies

%>* A* S* T1r&erville" E0!lish (e0 a02 (a00ers i0 the Ei!htee0th Ce0t1ry GO4, r2" #$?;H" #=%* %#* Lec6y" p* cit*" #" ?@#" 51 ti0! ) li0!&r 6e* 51 te2 i0 Pitma0" The

%?* C1m&erla02" p* cit*" Act I" Sce0e V* Als West I02ia0 A&se0tee Pla0ter * * *" #?%* %=* .* Larimer" A00als #BB<H" #=<3#=B*

, )rist l i0 the Ni0etee0th Ce0t1ry G)rist l"

%%* Rec llecti 0s , Ol2 Liverp l" <;3B?* Si!0i,ica0t , the 0e- tre02" the West I02ia07s rival" William E-art" -h -as t play a pr mi0e0t part i0 2estr yi0! West I02ia0 slavery a02 m 0 p ly" -as s1pp rte2 am 0! thers &y s1ch 0ames as )ra0c6er a02 Earle" -h se c 00ecti 0s -ith slavery a02 the slave tra2e have alrea2y &ee0 0 te2* . h0 ) lt 0 receive2 #@"=$#*#<*## , r ?B$ slaves i0 )ritish +1ia0a* H* , C* Sess* Pap*" #B=<3B" V l* %B Gpa!e #=#H* I0 #<$B ) lt 0 ha2 si4 ships -hich saile2 t

A,rica a02 tra0sp rte2 ?"@=% slaves* ' 00a0" %@* Pe0s 0" %;* E0,iel2" p* cit*" #<;* p* cit*" $?*

p* cit*" II" ;%?3;%%*

%<* C* 'e Thierry" :C l 0ials at Westmi0ster": U0ite2 Empire" G.a0*" #$#?H" B>* %B* )eave0" p* cit*" II" #=$* p* cit*" @<*

%$* Rei2 a02 Hic6s"

@>* F rt10es ma2e i0 )1si0ess" II" #?<" #?$3#=#* @#* Ha0sar2" Thir2 Series" LOOVIII" %;$* . h0 )ri!ht" (arch <" #B%@* @?* 'e Thierry" :C l 0ials at Westmi0ster": B>*

?=% NOTES TO PA+ES $%3$;

@=* Ha0sar2" Thir2 Series" OVIII" i0* (ay =>" #B==* @%* H* , C* Sess* Pap*" #B=<3B" V l* %B* The c mpe0sati 0 pai2 -as %"B;;*#$*## Gpa!e #$H* @@* Ra!at/" Fall , the Pla0ter Class * * *" @=*

@;* 'e Thierry" :C l 0ials at Westmi0ister": B>* @<* Ha0sar2" Thir2 Series" O" #?=B* (arch <" #B=?* @B* H* , C* Sess* Pap*" #B=<3B" V l* %B* The s1m pai2 -as #?"?B#*@*#> Gpa!es ?%" @=H* @$* CO* # =<A# * )alcarres t P rtla02" Sept* #;" #<$B* cee2i0!s , the C mmittee , e,,ecti0! a re21cti 0 i0 the hi!h prices , re,i0e2 s1!ar e4p rte2" a02 c rrecti0! ly GL 02 0" #<$?H" =%*

;>* A0 0ym 1s" A Rep rt , the Pr S1!ar Re,i0ers , r the p1rp se , , s1!ar" &y l -eri0! the & 10ty the evils , the West I02ia m 0 p

;#* A0 0ym 1s" A (ercha0t t his Frie02 0 the C 0ti0e0t8 Letters C 0cer0i0! the Slave Tra2e GLiverp l" 0*2*H* T L r2 Ha-6es&1ry" :as a patr 0 t the tra2e , this c 10try i0 !e0eral" a02 a ,av rer , that" the s1&Dect , these letters*: ;?* Liverp #<BB* l Papers" A22* (SS* =B??=" ,,* #<>" #<@* Sept* B" a02 #?"

;=* I&i2*" A22* (SS* =B?=#" ,* @$* Th mas Nayl r" (ay r" t Ha-6es3 &1ry" .1ly #>" #<$;9 ,* ;>" (i01tes , the C mm 0 C 10cil" .1ly ;" #<$;9 ,* ;%" Ha-6es&1ry t Nayl r" .1ly #;" #<>;*

;%* ) 1r0e" p* cit*" II" #=@ 0* (aca1lay 2escri&e2 him as :a 0 isy" p1rse3pr 12" illiterate 2ema! !1e" -h se C c60ey E0!lish a02 scraps , mispr 0 10ce2 Lati0 -ere the Dest , the 0e-spapers*: I&i2* T H race Walp le he -as :a 0 isy vap 1ri0! , l*: The Letters , H race Walp le" V" ?%B* Walp le t Earl , Strat, r2" .1ly $" #<<>* )ec6, r27s Lati0 sch larship is ill1strate2 &y his ,am 1s : m0i1m me1m mec1m p rt *: )eave0" p* cit*" II" ?##* This -as 0ly t &e e4pecte2 ,r m a pr 21ct , a s ciety -hich tal6e2 0ly , pla0ti0! a02 t -hich 'ry2e0 -as 0 thi0! &1t a 0ame* Stee0" p* cit*" %=>" %==* ;@* +1i2e t @B3@$* ;;* )eave0" the +1il2hall , the City , L 02 0 GL 02 0" #$?<H"

p* cit*" II" #=$*

;<* R* Pares" War a02 Tra2e i0 the West I02ies" #<=$3#<;= GO4, r2" #$=;H" @>$* ;B* E* .* Staplet 0 Ge2*H" S me O,,icial C rresp 02e0ce , +e r!e Ca00i0! GL 02 0" #BB<H" I" #=%* T Liverp l" .a0* $" #B?%* :This m st ,ear,1l 51esti 0* * * * There are 60 ts -hich ca0 0 t &e s122e0ly 2is3 e0ta0!le2" a02 m1st 0 t &e c1t* * * * Care sh 1l2 &e ta6e0 0 t t c 03 , 102 * * * -hat is m rally tr1e -ith -hat is hist rically ,alse* * * * We ca00 t le!islate i0 this H 1se as i, -e -ere le!islati0! , r a 0e- - rl2*: Ha0sar2" Ne- Series" IO" ?<@" ?<B" ?B?* (ay #@" #B?=* ;$* 'espatches" C rresp 02e0ce a02 (em ra02a , Fiel2 (arshal Arth1r" '16e , Welli0!t 0 GL 02 0" #B;<3#BB>H" V" ;>=* (em ra021m , r Sir +e r!e (1rray" (ay #;" #B?$*

NOTES TO PA+ES $;3#>? ?=@

<>* H1s6iss 0 Papers G)ritish (1se1mH" A22* (SS* =B<%@" ,T* #B?3#B=* T . seph Sa02ars" .a0* ??" #B?%* See als I&i2*" ,* B#8 :It appears t 0 t immaterial that the Presi2e0t , the ) ar2 , Tra2e a02 mem&er , r Liverp l sh 1l2 !et 1t as s 0 as he ca0*: H1s6iss 0 t Ca00i0! 0 his mem&ership i0 the A0ti3Slavery S ciety" N v* ?" #B?=*

me

<#* I&i2*" A22* (SS* =B<@?" ,* ?;* H1s6iss 0 t H rt 0" N v* <" #B?<* F r Ca00i0!7s letter , resi!0ati 0 ,r m the ) ar2 , + ver0 rs , the A,rica0 I0stit1ti 0" see I&i2*" A22* (SS* =B<%@" ,,* ;>3<>* Oct* ?;" #B?=* <?* I&i2*" A22* (SS* =B<@?" ,,* ?;3?<* <=* W* Smart" Ec 0 mic A00als #$#>3#$#<H" II" @%@* , the Ni0etee0th Ce0t1ry GL 02 0"

<%* The Ri!ht i0 the West I02ia (ercha0ts t a ' 1&le ( 0 p ly , the S1!ar3(ar6et , +reat )ritai0" a02 the E4pe2ie0ce , all ( 0 p lies" e4ami0e2 GL 02 0" 0*2*H" @$3;>* <@* St c6" p* cit*" V" ?;#* Fe&* B" #<%<*

<;* C102all" The + ver0 rs #>>*

, .amaica i0 the Seve0tee0th Ce0t1ry"

<<* Parl* Hist*" OIII" ;%#* Fe&* #=" #<%%* <B* I&i2*" ;@?" ;@@* Fe&* ?>" #<%%* <$* Pares" B>* Pe0s 0" p* cit*" @>B3@>$* p* cit*" ??B*

CHAPTER @ #* H1!hes" p* cit*" @;3@<" ?#<*

?* I&i2*" $#3$<" #>#9 +ri02 0" p* cit*" %?" @%" <$3B?" #B@3#B$9 ) ts, r2" p* cit*" #??9 ) 1r0e" p* cit*" II" <B3<$9 ' 00a0" p* cit*" II" %$=" ;@;* =* H1!hes" p* cit*" #<>3#<%* I0 #<$$ Leyla02 ha2 , 1r ships i0 the slave tra2e" -hich carrie2 #";%# slaves* ' 00a0" p* cit*" II" ;%;3;%$* %* H1!hes" p* cit*" <%3<$" B%3B@" #><3#>B" i0" #==" #=B3#%#" #;?" #;@3#;;" #$;3#$B" ??>3??#* F r the Earles see ) ts, r2" p* cit*" #?=9 ) 1r0e" p* cit*" II" ;%* I0 #<$$ the Earles ha2 three ships i0 the slave tra2e" -hich carrie2 $;$ slaves9 I0!ram" i0 #<$B" three ships" -ith #">>@ slaves9 ) l2" i0 #<$$" t- ships" -ith @=$ slaves* ' 00a0" p* cit*" II" ;%?3;%$* @* Larimer" A00als , )rist l i0 the Ei!htee0th Ce0t1ry" ?$<3?>B" =$?" %;B" @><9 A00als , )rist l i0 the Ni0etee0th Ce0t1ry" ##=" %$%9 ) 1r0e" p* cit*" II" # B* ;* C* W* )arclay" A Hist ry , the )arclay Family GL 02 0" #$?%3 #$=%H" III" ?=@" ?%?3?%=" ?%;3?%<" ?%$9 +ary" p* cit*" #$%" ??#" %@@" @>;9 ) 1r0e" p* cit*" II" #=%3#=@9 ) ts, r2" p* cit*" #?>3#?#" ?$@* A0 ther pr mi0e0t &a06i0! 0ame i0 L 02 0 ass ciate2 -ith the slave tra2e -as )ari0!* +ary" p* cit*" @>;* <* Eyre3T 22" p* cit*" Ill" #@#" ?#B3??>" ?%@" =<?9 .* )1cha0a0" )a06i0! i0 +las! - 21ri0! the l2e0 time G+las! -" #B;?H" @3;" #<" ?=3?;" =>3=%*

?=; NOTES TO PA+ES #>=3#>;

B* .* L r2" Capital a02 Steam3P -er" #<@>3#B@> GL 02 0" #$?=H" ##=* $* I&i2*D #$?* #>* Liverp l Papers" A22* (SS* =B??<" rT* %=" @>" #%>" #%#* Sept* < a02 #%" N v* #@ a02 #<" #<$#*

0* Namier" :A0t 0y )ac 0 * * *": ?@3?<" =?" =$" %#" %=9 Asht 0" p* cit*" @?" #=;" ?%#3?%?9 .* H* Clapham" A0 Ec 0 mic Hist ry , ( 2er0 )ritai0" The Early Rail-ay 7 A!e" #B?>3#B@> GCam&ri2!e" #$=>H" #B<3#BB* #?* )eave0" #= Asht 0" p* cit*" II" #=#* p* cit*" #@<* , (ari0e I0s1ra0ce i0 +reat

#%* F* (arti0" The Hist ry , Ll y27s a02 )ritai0 GL 02 0" #B<;H" ;?*

#@* Wri!ht a02 Fayle" p* cit*" #$" $#" #@#" ?#?" ?#B3?#$" ?%=" ?$=" =?<* Other pr mi0e0t 0ames ass ciate2 -ith Ll y27s -ere )ari0!" a02 the a& liti 0ists" Richar2 Th r0t 0 a02 Pachary (aca1lay* I&i2*" #$;3#$<* #;* H* , C* Sess* Pap*" #B=<3B" V l* %B* The e4act ,i!1re -as #@">$@*%*% Gpp* #?" #;@" #;$H* #<* Clapham" p* cit*" ?B;* p* cit*" ?%>3?%#*

# B* Wri!ht a02 Fayle" #$* Calle02er"

p* cit*" <B3<$*

?>* ' 22" p* cit*" =<" $#" #?@" ?>%3?>B" ?#$* See als C* R* Fay" Imperial Ec 0 my a02 its place i0 the , rmati 0 , Ec 0 mic ' ctri0e GO4, r2"

?#* H1s6iss 0 Papers" A22* (SS* =B<%@" ,,* #B?3#B=* H1s6iss 0 t Sa02ars" .a0* ??" #B?%" a!reei0! -ith his -ith2ra-al* See als .* Fra0cis" A Hist ry , the E0!lish Rail-ay9 its S cial Relati 0s a02 Revelati 0s" #B?>3#B%@ GL 02 0" #B@#H" #"$=* ??* See Ha0sar2" VI" $#$" -here +asc y0e pp se2 the pr hi&iti 0 , the )ritish slave tra2e t 0e- c l 0ies c 051ere2 21ri0! the Nap le 0ic -ars as a vi lati 0 , ,aith* April ?@" #B>;* F r +la2st 0e" see Fra0cis" p* cit*" I" #?=9 F* S* Williams" O1r Ir 0 R a2s8 their hist ry" c 0str1cti 0H a02 s cial i0,l1e0ces GL 02 0" #B@?H" =?=3=?%" ==<* F r ( ss" see Fra0cis" p* cit*" I" #?=9 H1!hes" p* cit*" #$<3#$B* ?=* V* S mmer,iel2" E0!lish Rail-ays" their &e!i00i0!s" 2evel pme0t a02 pers 0alities GL 02 0" #$=<H" =%3=B9 Latimer" A00als , )rist l i0 the Ni0etee0th Ce0t1ry" m" #B$3#$>* Three , the 2irect rs -ere c 03 0ecte2 -ith the West I02ies" a02 s1&scri&e2 @#"B>> 1t , ?#<"@>>* ?%* L r2" p* cit*" #;;*

?@* Scrive0 r" p* cit*" B;3B<* I0 #<%>8 #<"=@> t 0s i0 B$ ,1r0aces9 i0 #<BB8 ;B"=>> t 0s i0 B@ ,1r0aces* ?;* Wheeler" p* cit*" #%B" #<>* Imp rts8 ,r m #"$B@"B;B t p 102s9 e4p rts8 ,r m ?="?@= t =@@">;>* ;"<>>">>>

?<* W* T* .ac6ma0" The 'evel pme0t , Tra0sp rtati 0 i0 ( 2er0 E0!la02 GCam&ri2!e" #$#;H" II" @#% 0* Fr m #$"B=< t ?<"?%;*

?B* )1tter- rth" B>">>>*

p* cit*" @<9 Wheeler"

p* cit* y #<#* Fr m ?>">>> t

NOTES TO PA+ES I ;3II? ?=<

?$* L r2"

p* cit*" #%=* p* cit*" #>?3#>=* p* cit*" @%$" @@@" @@B3@@$" @;<" @<=" @<;" @<$" @B#" @$@"

=>* (a0t 14"

=#* A2am Smith" ;?@3;?;* =?* I&i2*" @<<3

CHAPTER ; #* . h0s 0" p* cit*" I" ##B3##$* The pr p rti 0s have &ee0 c mp1te2 ,r m the ta&le , e4p rts !ive0* ?* Pitma0" 'evel pme0t , the )ritish West I02ies" Pre,ace" p* vii*

=* Cale02ar , State Papers" C l 0ial Series" F" =B?* + ver0 r Wil3 l 1!h&y" (ay #?" #;;;9 I&i2*" V" %#%* . h0 Rei2 t Secretary Arli0!t 0" #;;; GIH %* P stleth-ayt" U0iversal 'icti 0ary * * *" II" <;<* @* Calle02er" ;* I&i2*" $;* <* Cam&ri2!e Hist ry , the )ritish Empire" I" @<?* p* cit*" $;" 51 ti0! America0 H1s&a02ry G#<<@H*

B* A02re-s" The C l 0ial Peri 2 * * *" I" <?* $* Cam&ri2!e Hist ry , the )ritish Empire" I" @;%*

#>* A02re-s" The C l 0ial Peri 2 * * *" I" %$<3%>$* ##* Cale02ar , State Papers" C l 0ial Series" I" %?>3%=>* Sept* ?;" #;@@* + ver0 r Wi0thr p pp se2 emi!rati 0 as :2ispleasi0!: t + 2* R* C* Wi0thr p" Li,e a02 Letters , . h0 Wi0thr p G) st 0" #B;%3#B;<H" II" ?%B* #?* Whit- rth" W r6s , 'ave0a0t" II" $" ?#" ??* , a0 I0ter0ati 0al

#=* H* A* I00is" The C 2 Fisheries" the Hist ry Ec 0 my GNe- Have0" #$%>H" <B* #%* St c6"

p* cit*" V" ?@$* William )ec6, r2" Fe&* B" #<%<*

#@* Calle02er"

p* cit*" <B*

# ;* P* W* )i2 -ell a02 .* I* Falc 0er" Hist ry , A!rict2t1re i0 the N rther0 U0ite2 States" #;?>3#B?> GNe- Y r6" #$%#H" %=* #<* Harl -" A Hist ry # B* I&i2*" ?;B* #$* A02re-s" The C l 0ial Peri 2 * * *" IV" =%<* ?>* Harl -" A Hist ry , )ar&a2 s * * *" ?B<* , )ar&a2 s * * *" ?<?*

?#* Cale02ar , State Papers" C l 0ial Series" VII" %* . h0 Style t Secretary ( rrice" .a0* #%" #;;$* ??* I&i2*" O" ?$<* :Narrative a02 'isp siti 0 i0! Ne- E0!la02": Oct* #<" #;<B* ?=* St c6" p* cit*" II" ?;$* .a0* ?<" #;$B* , Capt* )ree2 0 c 0cer03

?%* A* (* Whits 0" :The O1tl 6 , the C 0ti0e0tal America0 C l 3 0ies 0 the )ritish West I02ies" #<;>3#<<@": P litical Scie0ce L1arterly G(arch" #$=>H" ;#3;=*

?=B NOTES TO PA+ES ##?3Iiy

?@* I00is"

p* cit*" #=%3#=@*

?;* Cale02ar , State Papers" C l 0ial Series" V" #;<* Re0at1s E0ys t Secretary )e00et" N v* i" #;;=8 :The s- r0 e0emies , the c l 0y are the ' 0s , )ar&a2 es * * *9 they 1se the 1tm st mea0s t 2ispara!e the c 10try*: ?<* I&i2*" OI" %=#* + ver0 r Ly0ch t -ar2 Isla02s" (ay #;" #;B=* + ver0 r Staplet 0 , the Lee3

?B* Part* Hist*" OVII" %B?3%B@* April ?$" #<<?* The 51esti 0 is 2isc1sse2 i0 C* Wils 0" A0!l 3'1tch C mmerce a02 Fi0a0ce i0 the Ei!htee0th Ce0t1ry GCam&ri2!e" #$%#H" #B?3#B=* ?$* Pares" p* cit*" ??>*

=>* Cale02ar , State Papers" C l 0ial Series" V" #;<* + ver0 r Wil3 l 1!h&y" N v* %" #;;=* =#* Pitma0" 'evel pme0t p* cit*" IV" $<* =?* )e00ett" , the )ritish West I02ies" <>3<#9 St c6"

p* cit*" ??3?@*

==* P stlcth-ayt" +reat )ritai07s C mmercial I0terest * * *" I" %$%9

P stlcth-ayt" U0iversal 'icti 0ary * * *" I" B;$9 A0 Acc 10t , the late applicati 0 * * * ,r m the S1!ar Re,i0ers" %9 St c6" p* cit*" IV" #>#* =%* Pares" p* cit*" #B>*

=@* .* Alm 0" A0ec2 tes , the Li,e , the Ri!ht H 0 1ra&le William Pitt" Earl , Chatham" a02 , the pri0cipal eve0ts , his time GL 02 0" #<$<H" III" ???" ??@* The 51 tati 0s came ,r m a c 0temp rary pamphlet" Letter ,r m a +e0tlema0 i0 +1a2el 1pe t his Frie02 i0 L 02 0 G#<;>H" -hich is repr 21ce2 &y Alm 0* =;* Whit- rth" State , the Tra2e , +reat )ritai0 * * *" Part II" pp* B@3B;* The ,i!1res , r Ca0a2a a02 Fl ri2a are as , ll -s8 )ritish Imp rts ,r m )ritish E4p rts t Ca0a2a C%%B@;= ?=B=;<$ Fl ri2a i <$$$= =<@QW;B F r +re0a2a a02 ' mi0ica" see Chapter III" 0 te #;" s1pra* =<* Pares" =B* Alm 0" =$* Pares" %>* St c6" %#* Whits 0" %?* St c6" p* cit*" ?#$* p* cit*" Ill" ??@* p* cit*" ??%* p* cit*" V" %;#* (arch <" #<@>* p* cit*" <=* p* cit*" V" @=< 0* +reat

%=* A0 0ym 1s" The Imp rta0ce , the S1!ar C l 0ies t )ritai0 State2 GL 02 0" #<=>"<* %%* St c6"

p* cit*" IV" #=;* Th mas Wi00i0!t 0" Fe&* ?=" #<=#*

%@* I&i2*" V" %;?* %;* P stleth-ayt" U0iversal 'icti 0ary * * *" I" B<#3B<?" II" <;$9 P stle3 th-ayt" +reat )ritai07s C mmercial I0terest * * *" I" %B?" %B@" %B$3%$>" %$=*

NOTES TO PA+ES I I <3M ? I ?=$

%<* Alm 0" p* cit*" Ill" #;* Circ1lar Letter t America" A1!* ?=" #<;>* %B* St c6" p* cit*" V" %<B* April #;" #<@#*

the + ver0 rs

, N rth

%$* A0 0ym 1s" A Letter t a N &le Peer" relati0! t ,av 1r , the S1!ar3Pla0ters GL 02 0" #<==H" #B*

the )ill i0

@>* Whits 0"

p* cit*" <;*

@#* A* (* Schlesi0!er" The C l 0ial (ercha0ts a02 the America0 Rev l1ti 0" #<;=3#<<; GNe- Y r6" #$#BH" %?3%=* @?* S me C 0si2erati 0s H1m&ly @=* A Letter t @%* Whits 0" @@* St c6" ,,ere2 * * *" 0*

a N &le Peer * * *" ?>* p* cit*" <>*

p* cit*" V" %<<* April #;" #<@#*

@;* I&i2*" IV" #;# 0" #;? 0" #;= 0* @<* I&i2*" V" %B?* April #$" #<@#* @B* ' 00a0" p* cit*" Ill" ?>=3?>@* .a0* ?%" #<;%*

@$* W* S* (cClella0" Sm1!!li0! i0 the America0 C l 0ies at the O1t3 &rea6 , the Rev l1ti 0 GNe- Y r6" #$#?H" =<* ;>* W 2" p* cit*" #=;3#%#* p* cit*" IV" #%=* Fe&* ?=" #<=#*

;#* St c6"

;?* I&i2*" IV" #?@* .a0* ?B" #<=#* ;=* I&i2*"IV" #B@* Fe&* ?#" #<=?* ;%* I&i2*" IV" #=$* Fe&* ?=" #<=#* ;@* E* ' 00a0" :Ei!htee0th Ce0t1ry E0!lish (ercha0ts" (icaDah Perry": . 1r0al , Ec 0 mic a02 )1si0ess Hist ry GN v*" #$=#H" >;* Perry t Ca2-alla2er + l2e0 , Ne- Y r6* ;;* Pitma0" 'evel pme0t , the )ritish West I02ies" ?<?*

;<* C* W* Ta1ssi!" R1m" R ma0ce a02 Re&elli 0 GNe- Y r6" #$?BH" =$3 ;B* St c6" p* cit*" V" %<<* April #;" #<@#* p* cit*" #==*

;$* Calle02er" <>* I00is"

p* cit*" ?#?*

<#* Arth1r Y 10!" A00als , A!ric1lt1re GL 02 0H" IO" #<BB" $@3$;9 O" #<BB" ==@3=;?* The -h le essay" 0 :West I02ia0 A!ric1lt1re": sh 1l2 &e rea2* <?* Whits 0" <=* (acl00es" p* cit*" <<3<B* p* cit*" ?$@*

<%* E2-ar2s" <@* Whits 0"

p* cit*" II" @#@* p* cit*" B;* , the Pla0ter Class * * *" #<%*

<;* Ra!at/" Fall

<<* +* Chalmers" Opi0i 0s 0 I0teresti0! S1&Dects , P1&lic La- a02 C mmercial P licy9 arisi0! ,r m America0 I02epe02e0ce GL 02 0" # <B%H" ;>* <B* Ra!at/" Fall , the Pla0ter Class * * *" #<;* ts , America0 Civili/ati 0 GNe- Y r6"

<$* C* P* Nettels" The R #$=$HC@@*

?%> NOTES TO PA+ES #??3#?=

B>* Petiti 0s ,r m the vari 1s isla02s that the p rts sh 1l2 &e pe0e2 -ere s 01mer 1s that L r2 Ha-6es&1ry -as :apprehe0sive that every p rt i0 1r West I02ia isla02s -ill apply t &e ma2e a ,ree p rt ,r m a se0se , the !reat a2va0ta!es t &e 2erive2 there,r m*: Liverp l Papers" A22* (SS* =B??B" ,* =?%* Fe&* #<$=* O0 Fe&* ?>" #<B%" + ver0 r Or2e -r te ,r m ' mi0ica8 :The pe ple l 6 -ith 10c mm 0 a04iety , r the arrival , a ,ree p rt act*: )*T*;AI>= GP1&lic Rec r2 O,,iceH* B#* W* H* El6i0s" )ritish P licy i0 its Relati 0 t the C mmerce a02 Navi!ati 0 , the U*S*A*" #N#$%3#B>< GO4, r2 U0iversity '* Phil* Thesis" c* #$=@H" $;* 'r* Vi0ce0t Harl -" -h s1pervise2 the thesis" 6i02ly permitte2 me t rea2 it* B?* I00is" p* cit*" ??#" ?@#* , the C mmerce , the U0ite2 States

B=* T* Pit6i0" A Statistical VieGHart, r2" #B#<H" #;<*

B%* Rep rt , the C mmittee , Privy C 10cil" #<BB" Part V" L1esti 0 i* Evi2e0ce , (essrs* F1ller" L 0! a02 Chish lme , .amaica* B@* Pitma0" The Settleme0t * * * ?<;* B;* Rep rt , the C mmittee , )ritish West I02ia Pla0tati 0s * * *"

, Privy C 10cil" #<BB* See 0 te B% s1pra* , )ritish West I02ia Pla0tati 0s * * *"

B<* Pitma0" The Settleme0t * * * ?B>*

BB* Parl* Hist*" OOIO" ?;>* Wil&er, rce" April #B" #<$#* B$* Fli0!&er!" p* cit*" #=3#%" #>=9 H* )r 1!ham" A0 I051iry i0t the C l 0ial P licy , the E1r pea0 P -ers GE2i0&1r!h" #B>=H" I" @??* $>* Chatham Papers GP1&lic Rec r2 O,,iceH" >*>*BA=%$* West I02ia0 Isla02s" Papers relati0! t .amaica G#<B=3#B>%H a02 St* ' mi0! G#<BB3

#B>>H* E4tracts ,r m :C 0si2erati 0s Hilliar2 27A1&erte1il" =>=* $#* Rep rt s1pra* , the C mmittee

0 the State

, St* ' mi0! ": &y

, Privy C 10cil" #<BB" Part V* See 0 te B%

$?* )r 1!ham"

p* cit*" I" @=$3@%>*

$=* I0 the Chatham Papers" +*'*BAIO?" there is this c1ri 1s letter , Pitt7s" 2ate2 N v* ?@" #<B=" pr &a&ly t the + ver0 r , the East I02ia C mpa0y8 :It has cc1rre2 t me t &e a very material part , the C m3 pa0y7s case t sh - that the &ill3h l2ers are -illi0! t all - the c mpa0y all c 0ve0ie0t time &e, re they call , r payme0t* I have i0 !e0eral 102er3 st 2 that they are i0cli0e2 t 2 s 9 &1t it - 1l2 a22 a !reat -ei!ht i, a p1&lic 2eclarati 0 c 1l2 &e &tai0e2 ,r m them as a & 2y t that e,,ect* F r that p1rp se it mi!ht &e 2esira&le t c 0ve0e a p1&lic meeti0! , them9 th 7 s1ch a meas1re 1!ht 0 t 102 1&te2ly t &e pr p se2 -ith 1t a certai0ty , s1ccess" I c 1l2 0 t , r&ear s1!!esti0! this t y 1r c 0si2erati 0* I m1st &e! the ,av 1r , y 1" h -ever" 0 t t me0ti 0 the i2ea as ,r m me" a02 t e4c1se the li&erty I ta6e i0 tr 1&li0! y 1*: $%* R* C 1pla02" Wil&er, rce GO4, r2" #$?=H" $=* $@* S1!ar8 Vari 1s (SS* Gi0 the -riter7s p ssessi 0H* A2ams 0 t Fer!1s 0" (arch ?@" #<B<*

NOTES TO PA+ES #?=3#?$ ?%M

$;* East I02ia S1!ar" Papers respecti0! the C1lt1re a02 (a01,act1re , S1!ar i0 )ritish I02ia GL 02 0" #B??H" Appe02i4 I" p* =* $<* Clar6s 0" Essay 0 the Imp licy * * *" =%*

$B* Pit6i0" p* cit*" =>" ?>>3?>#* Pit6i0 !ives the ,i!1res , r #<B%3#<$> i0 p 102s" #<$?3#B># i0 2 llars* The pr p rti 0s !ive0 i0 the te4t are &ase2 0 the ta&les as !ive0 i0 Pit6i0* It seeme2 a m re satis,act ry -ay t sh the i0crease , the tra2e tha0 t attempt the c 0versi 0 , p 102s i0t 2 llars* $$* (erivale" p* cit*" ?=>*

4 * A0 0ym 1s" The Speeches , the Ri!ht H 0 1ra&le William H1s6iss 0 -ith a )i !raphical (em ir GL 02 0" #B=#H" II" =#?* (arch ?#" #B?@*

CHAPTER < #* Parl* Hist*" OOIII" #>?;3#>?<* .10e #<" #<B=* ?* (a0t 14" p* cit*" =%>*

=* Clapham" %* L r2"

p* cit*" Chap* V*

p* cit*" #<;* p* cit*" #@;* p* cit*" ?@<* p* cit*" #B%3#B@" #$;*

@* Clapham" ;* (a0t 14" <* Clapham" B* L r2"

p* cit*" #<%* , E0!la02" #<;>3#B;> GL 02 0"

$* A* Re2, r2" The Ec 0 mic Hist ry #$=#H" ??* #>* (a0t 14" p* cit*" ?@B*

##* N* S* )1c6" The 'evel pme0t , the Or!a0i/ati 0 America0 Tra2e" #B>>3#B@> GNe- Have0" #$?@H" #;;* #?* I&i2*" #;%* #=* Wheeler" p* cit*" #<@* p* cit*" ##?*

, A0!l 3

#%* )1tter- rth" #@* )1c6"

p* cit*" #;$* p* cit*" =;B* The phrase is Arth1r Y 10!7s*

# ;* (a0t 14"

#<* I&i2*" =;<3=;B* # B* .ac6ma0" p* cit*" II" @#% 0* Fr m ?<"?%; t p* cit*" =<* #;="BBB*

#$* )1tter- rth" ?>* (a0t 14"

p* cit*" ?@B*

?#* C* H* Timperley" A00als , (a0chester9 )i !raphical" Ecclesiastical" a02 C mmercial" ,r m the earliest peri 2 t the cl se , the year #B=$ G(a0chester" #B=$H" B$* ??* )1c6" p* cit*" =; 0* p* cit*" #%$

?=* Scrive0 r" p* cit*" B< G;B"=>> t 0s i0 #<BBH9 Clapham" G;@>">>>3<>>">>> t 0s i0 #B=>H*

?%? NOTES TO PA+ES #?$3#=?

?%* Scrive0 r" p* cit*" B< GB@ ,1r0aces i0 #<BBH 9 Clapham" G?@>3=>> ,1r0aces i0 #B=>H* ?@* Scrive0 r" p* cit*" #?=3#?%" ?$=3?$%*

p* clt* y #%$

?;* Clapham"

p* cit*" ?%>*

?<* Cam&ri2!e Hist ry , the )ritish Empire" II" ??=* The -h le essay" :The I021strial Rev l1ti 0 a02 the C l 0ies" #<B=3#B??": &y .* H* Clap3 ham" sh 1l2 &e rea2 as a0 i02ispe0sa&le ai2 t a0 appreciati 0 , the 2estr1cti 0 , the West I02ia0 m 0 p ly* ?B* Clapham" p* cit*" %=#9 F* E0!els" The C 02iti 0 , the W r6i0! Class i0 E0!la02 m #B%% GL 02 0" #$=; e2iti 0H" #=* The 01m&er , mi0es i0crease2 ,r m %> t <;* ?$* Scrive0 r" =>* Re2, r2" p* cit*" ?$<* p* cit*" %#3%?* , (echa0ical

=#* Clapham" p* cit*" #@?" #@%9 A* P* Usher" A Hist ry I0ve0ti 0s GNe- Y r6" #$?$H" ==?* =?* Clapham" p* cit*" #B$*

==* Scrive0 r" p* cit*" %?#* The ,i!1res are as , ll -s8 #B#@ e4p rts" <$"@$; t 0s9 t )*W*I*" <"=B#9 t U*S*A*" ?#"@>#9 #B== e4p rts" #<$"=#? t 0s9 t )*W*I*" @"%>>9 t U*S*A*" ;?"?@=* =%* (a0t 14" =@* Clapham" =;* E0!els" =<* Clapham" p* cit*" ?<;* p* cit*" #%%" #$;9 )1c6" p* cit*" $* Fr m <@">>> t p* cit*" ?%=" %<B* p* cit*" #;=* %$>">>> pieces*

=B* .ames" p* cit*" ?B;9 (a0t 14" p* cit*" #>; 0*9 Clapham" p* cit*" ?%$* The c tt 0 e4p rt , r #B=> -as =#"B#>"%<%* )1c6" p* cit*" #;;* =$* (a0t 14" %>* (erivale" p* cit*" =;$9 E0!els" p* cit*" # ?>* , the )ritish Empire" II" ?=#* p* cit*" $*

%#* Cam&ri2!e Hist ry %?* (erivale" %=* Re2, r2"

p* cit*" #?#* p* cit*" %@* , )ritish Capital t #B<@ GL 02 0"

%%* L* H* .e06s" The (i!rati 0 #$?<H" ;%*

%@* Ha0sar2" Ne- Series" OV" =B@* L r2 Re2es2ale" April #$" #B?@* %;* .e06s" p* cit*" ;<*

%<* C1st ms B GP1&lic Rec r2 O,,iceH" V ls* #% a02 =@* The ,i!1res are8 #B?# ;"%??"=>%9 #B=? <">#<">%B* %B* .e06s" p* cit*" <@3<;*

%$* The Cam&ri2!e Hist ry , )ritish F rei!0 P licy GCam&ri2!e" #$?=H" II" <%* Ca00i0! t +ra0ville" 'ec* #<" #B?%* @>* C1st ms B" V ls* #% a02 =@* I0 #B?# ?"##%"=?$9 i0 #B=? @"?$B"@$;* @#* I&i2*" I0 #B?# ="?=$"B$%9 i0 #B=? $"%@?"B??* @?* .e06s" p* cit*" %<*

@=* C1st ms B" V ls* #% a02 =@* I0 #B?# %="##="B@@9 i0 #B=? ;@">?@"?<B* @%* I&i2*" I0 #B?# #$">B?";$=9 i0 #B=? ?$"$>B"$;%* @@* I&i2* I0 #B?# =";=$"<%;9 i0 #B=? ;"=<<"@><*

NOTES TO PA+ES #=?3#=B ?%=

@;* I&i2* T the )*W*I*8 #B?# %"<>%";#>9 #B=? ="B#="B?#* T #B?# ="?#%"=;%9 #B=? ?">??"%=@*

.amaica8

@<* W* L* )1r0" Ema0cipati 0 a02 Appre0ticeship i0 the )ritish West I02ies GL 02 0" #$=<H" @?* @B* Ha0sar2" Thir2 Series" LOOVII" #>;?* (il0er +i&s 0" Fe&* ?%" #B%@* @$* (erivale" ;>* )1r0" p* cit*" ?>=*

p* cit*" <=* )1r0 2e0ies that they -ere a0 i0,er0 *

;#* W* L* (athies 0" )ritish Slavery a02 its A& liti 0" #B?=3#B=B GL 03 2 0" #$?;H" ???* ;?* A* Pre0tice" Hist ry #"@3 ;=* E* Halevy" A Hist ry #$?<H" %?3%=" %<" @;3@B* , the E0!lish Pe ple" #B=>3#B%# GL 02 0" , the A0ti3C r0 La- Lea!1e GL 02 0" #B@=H"

;%* F* (* E2e0" Ei!ht Letters 0 the Peace9 a02 0 the C mmerce a02 (a01,act1res , +reat )ritai0 GL 02 0" #B>?H" #?$* ;@* Cam&ri2!e Hist ry , the )ritish Empire" II" ?=$*

CHAPTER B #* (erivale" ?* I&i2*" $=* p* cit*" ?=B3?=$*

=* Liverp l Papers" A22* (SS* =B?$@" ,* #>?* A0 a0 0ym 1s c rre3 sp 02e0t t L r2 )e4ley" .1ly" #B?=* %* C*O* #=<A#;;* Hi&&ert t H rt 0" April ?" #B?<*

@* Ha0sar2" Ne- Series" OIV" ##;%* L r2 '12ley a02 War2" (arch <" #B?;* ;* I&i2*" Thir2 Series" HI" =@%* (r* R &i0s 0" (arch ##" #B=#* <* )rea2y" p* cit*" =>B* ,i02*

B* The stateme0t is 'r* ) -ri0!7s* The 2ate I have &ee0 10a&le t $* Pre0tice" p* cit*" I" <@*

#>* The Ri!ht i0 the West I02ia (ercha0ts * * *" #<" #B3#$" ?;3?<" @>3@#" @=* <%3<@3 ##* Ha0sar2" Ne- Series" VIII" ==$* Petiti 0 , mercha0ts" ship -0ers" etc*" c 0cer0e2 i0 the tra2e t the East I02ies" (arch =" #B?=* #?* Rep rt , a C mmittee , the Liverp l East I02ia Ass ciati 0" app i0te2 t ta6e i0t c 0si2erati 0 the restricti 0s , the East I02ia Tra2e GLiverp l" #B??H" ?#3??* #=* P* (aca1lay" East a02 West I02ia S1!ar9 r a Re,1tati 0 , the Claims , the West I02ia C l 0ists t a Pr tecti0! '1ty 0 East I02ia S1!ar GL 02 0" #B?=H" =<* #%* 'e&ates at the +e0eral C 1rt , Pr priet rs , East I02ia St c6 0 the iRth a02 ?ist (arch #B?= 0 the East I02ia S1!ar Tra2e GL 02 0" #B?=H" #?* (r* T1c6er*

?%% NOTES TO PA+ES #=B3#%#

#@* I&i2*H %>3%#* # ;* Cam&ri2!e ( 2er0 Hist ry GCam&ri2!e" #$=%H" O" <<#3<<?* #<* Ha0sar2" Ne- Series" I" %?%3%?@" %?$* (ay #;" #B?>* # B* I&i2*" OOII" i0" # # B* (arch ?=" #B#?* The c mplime0t t Cam&ri2!e ( 2er0 Hist ry" O" << # * Pitt is i0

#$* W* Naish" Reas 0s , r 1si0! East I02ia S1!ar GL 02 0" #B?BH" #?* ?>* Ha0sar2" Thir2 Series" LOOV" %=B* (r* Villiers" .10e #>" #B%%* ? # * I&i2*" %%%* ??* (erivale" p* cit*" ??@*

?=* I&i2*" ?>@* ?%* .* )* Seely" A FeQ- Hi0ts t the West I02ia0s 0 their Prese0t Claims t E4cl1sive Fav 1r a02 Pr tecti 0 at the E4pe0se , the East I02ia I0terests GL 02 0" #B?=H" B$* ?@* The Speeches , *** H1s6iss 0 * * *" II" #$B* (ay ??" #B?=*

?;* I&i2*" Ill" #%;* (ay #@" #B?<* ?<* Ha0sar2" Thir2 Series" LVII" $?>* Villiers" April @" #B%#* ?B* I&i2*" #;?3#;=* La& 1chere" (arch #?" #B%#* ?$* I&i2*" Thir2 Series" LOOVII" #>@;* (il0er +i&s 0" Fe&* ?%" #B%@* =>* I&i2*" Thir2 Series" LVII" $?>* Villiers" April @" #B%#* =#* I&i2*" Thir2 Series" LOOVII" #><B* Fe&* ?%" #B%@* =?* P* +1e2alla" +la2st 0e a02 P aimer st 0 GL 02 0" #$?BH" =>* ==* Ha0sar2" Thir2 Series" COI" @$?* (ay =#" #B@>* =%* I&i2*" Thir2 Series" OCVI" #?=* Fe&* %" #B%B* =@* I&i2*" Thir2 Series" COOIV" #>=;* (arch =" #B@=* =;* Pitma0" The Settleme0t *** ?B?3?B=* =<* Pe0s 0" p* cit*" ?>B* , )ritish West I02ia Pla0tati 0s * * *"

=B* T* Fletcher" Letters i0 Vi02icati 0 , the Ri!hts , the )ritish West I02ia C l 0ies GLiverp l" #B??H" ?<9 A0 0ym 1s" (em ra021m 0 the Relative Imp rta0ce , the West a02 East I02ies t +reat )ritai0 GL 02 0" #B?=H" =>9 C*O* #=<A#%>* Rep rt ,r m a C mmittee , the H 0 1ra&le H 1se , Assem&ly" app i0te2 t i051ire i0t vari 1s matters relative t the state , c mmerce a02 a!ric1lt1re , the isla029 the pr &3 a&le e,,ects there 0 , pe0i0! the tra2e t the East I02ies9 a02 the pera3 ti 0 , the prese0t ma4im1m 0 the e4p rtati 0 , s1!ar* .amaica" #B#=* =$* C*O* #=<A#%>* Rep rt ,r m a C mmittee , Assem&ly * * *" .amaica" #B#=* , the H 0 1ra&le H 1se

%>* F* )ell a02 W* P* ( rrell" Select ' c1me0ts 0 )ritish C l 0ial P licy" #B=>3#B;> GO4, r2" #$?BH" %#%* R1ssell t Li!ht" Fe&* #@" #B%>* %#* (erivale" p* cit*" B%*

%?* Ha0sar2" Thir2 Series" HI" @=<* (r* Fit/!eral2" (arch #B" #B=#9 I&i2*" Thir2 Series" OVIII" i0* He0ry + 1l&1r0" (ay =>" #B==* %=* I&i2*" Ne- Series" IV" $%<* (arryat" Fe&* ?B" #B?#* %%* I&i2*" Thir2 Series" C" =@;* )e0ti0c6" .1ly #>" #B%B*

%@* I&i2*" Thir2 Series" LOOV" ?#=* Ste-art" .10e =" #B%%9 I&i2*" Thir2 Series" OCIC" #>$%* (iles" .10e ?=" #B%B*

NOTES TO PA+ES #%#3#%@ ?%@

%;* I&i2*" Thir2 Series" LVI" ;#;* Visc 10t Sa02 0" Fe&* #?" #B%#* %<* I&i2*" Thir2 Series" OCIO" #>$B* (iles" .10e ?=" #B%B9 I&i2*" #%;;* N1!e0t" .10e =>" #B%B* They ar!1e2 that -he0 the A,rica0s" at the e02 , their c 0tract" ret1r0e2 h me" they - 1l2 i0tr 21ce civili/ati 0 i0t A,rica* I&i2*" Thir2 Series" LOOOVIII" $#* H !!" .1ly ?<" #B%;* O0 the re51est , r c 0victs" see I&i2*" Thir2 Series" LOOV" #?#%* (r* .ames" .10e ?#" #B%%* %B* I&i2*" Thir2 Series" LOOVII" #?;$* Fe&* ?;" #B%@* %$* I&i2*" Thir2 Series" COI" @B#* (ay =#" #B@>* @>* I&i2*" Thir2 Series" LOOV" #$B* .10e =" #B%%* @#* I&i2*" Thir2 Series" COV" #%%>* April #>" #B@#* @?* I&i2*" #%%=* @*=* The P litical Writi0!s , Richar2 C &2e0 GL 02 0" #B<BH" #?" #%*

@%* I&i2*" ?@<* C &2e0 -as prepare2 t let the U0ite2 States sei/e C1&a* Ha0sar2" Thir2 Series" COOOII" %?$3%=>* April %" #B@%* @@* Ha0sar2" Thir2 Series" CVI" $%?" $@#3$@?" $@B* .10e ?;" #B%$9 I&i2*" Thir2 Series" C" B?@* .1ly ?@" #B%B* @;* I&i2*" Thir2 Series" C" B=#" B=%" B%$* .1ly ?@" #B%B* @<* I&i2*" Ne- Series" OOII" B@@* Fe&* ?=" #B=>* @B* I&i2*" Thir2 Series" OI" B=%* (arch ?=" #B=?* @$* I&i2*" Thir2 Series" OCIO" B<@* .10e #$" #B%B* ;>* W* P* ( rrell" )ritish C l 0ial P licy i0 the A!e sell GO4, r2" #$=>H" ?B;* ;#* )ell a02 ( rrell" ;?* (erivale" , Peel a02 R1s3

p* cit*" I0tr 21cti 0" pp* 4iii" 44iv*

p* cit*" <B*

;=* Ha0sar2" OOOIV" ##$?* )arham" .10e #$" #B#;* ;%* A22resses a02 (em rials t His (aDesty ,r m the H 1se , As3 sem&ly at .amaica" v te2 i0 the years #B?# t #B?;" i0cl1sive" a02 -hich have &ee0 prese0te2 t His (aDesty &y the Isla02 A!e0t GL 02 0" #B?BH"

??* ;@* Ha0sar2" Thir2 Series" OCIO" B<?* Seymer" .10e #$" #B%B* ;;* I&i2*" Thir2 Series" OCVI" <@* R &i0s 0" Fe&* =" #B%B* ;<* I&i2*" Thir2 Series" LOIII" #?#B3#?#$* .10e =" #B%?* ;B* I&i2*" Thir2 Series" LOOV" %;?* .10e #>" #B%%* ;$* I&i2*" Thir2 Series" LOOOVIII" #;%* .1ly ?B" #B%;* <>* E* L* W 2-ar2" The A!e , Re, rm" iSi,3iSD GO4, r2" #$=BH" =@#* ( rrell" p* cit*" @#$" spea6s , this as :the ,am 1s i02iscreti 0: , 'israeli7s" th 1!h it is 0 t clear D1st h - it is i02iscreet* The phrase :2am0 sa here2itas: is Tayl r7s , the C l 0ial O,,ice* )ell a02 ( rrell" p* cit*" I0tr 21cti 0" p* OOVI* <#* .* ( rley" The Li,e I" ?;B* <?* Pe0s 0" , William E-art +la2st 0e GL 02 0" #$#?H"

p* cit*" ?>$*

<=* Chatham Papers" +*'* BA=@?* West I02ia Pla0ters a02 (ercha0ts" Res l1ti 0s" (ay #$" #<$#*

?%; NOTES TO PA+ES #%@3#%<

<%* Cale02ar , State Papers" C l 0ial Series" OIII" <#$* Petiti 0 .amaica (ercha0ts" Oct* 1" #;$?*

<@* A* (* Ar0 1l2" 'e la )ala0ce 21 C mmerce et 2es Relati 0s C m3 mer 2ales E4terie1res 2e la Fra0ce" 2a0s T 1tes les Parties 21 +l &e" p2rtic1liereme0t a la ,i0 21 Re!0e 2e L 1is OIV" et a1 ( me0t 2e la Rev l1ti 0 GParis" #<$#H" I" ?;=" =?;3=?B* <;* Ha0sar2" IO" $>3$#* Hi&&ert" (arch #?" #B><* <<* Parl* Hist*" OOIO" ##%<* April ?" #<$?* <B* Ra!at/" The Fall , the Pla0ter Class * * *" ?##*

<$* See Chatham Papers" +*'* BA#>?* Pitt t E2e0" 'ec* <" #<B<8 :The m re I re,lect 0 it" the m re a04i 1s a02 impatie0t I am that the &1si3 0ess sh 1l2 &e &r 1!ht as spee2ily as p ssi&le t a p i0t*: Pitt re,1se2 t c 0si2er temp rary s1spe0si 0 , the tra2e a02 t c mpr mise :the pri0ciple , h1ma0ity a02 D1stice" 0 -hich the -h le rests*: The . 1r0al a02 C rresp 02e0ce , William" L r2 A1c6la02 GL 02 0" #B;#H" I" =>%* Pitt t E2e0" .a0* <" #<BB* Pitt th 1!ht that 0e ! 2 res1lt , the 0ec 0stit1ti 0 i0 Fra0ce G#<BBH - 1l2 &e that : 1r cha0ce , settli0! s me3 thi0! a& 1t the slave tra2e: - 1l2 &e impr ve2* The (a01scripts , .* )* F rtesc1e Es5* preserve2 at 'r pm re GHist rical (a01scripts C m3 missi 0" L 02 0" #B$?3#$?<H" I" =@=* Pitt t +re0ville" A1!* ?$" #<BB*

B>* Ra!at/" The Fall B#* Liverp i0 #<B$*

, the Pla0ter Class ***" ?#=3?#%*

l Papers" A22* (SS* =B%>$" ,,* #@#" #@@* Writte0 pr &a&ly

B?* I&i2*" ,,* #%<3#%B* B=* I&i2*" A22* (SS* =B=%$" ,* =$=* Writte0 pr &a&ly a,ter #<$#* B%* C rresp 02e0ce 7" 'espatches a02 ther Papers , Visc 10t Castle3 rea!h GL 02 0" #B%B3#B@=H" OI" %#* Liverp l t Castlerea!h" Oct* ?" #B#@* See t Liverp l Papers" A22* (SS* =B@<B" ,* ?B* Liverp l t Castle3 rea!h" N v* ?>" #B#B* C mi0! ,r m a West I02ia0 slave -0er" the phrase is am1si0!* B@* See Liverp l Papers" A22* (SS* =B??%" ,* ##B* L r2 ' rset" )ritish Am&assa2 r i0 Paris" -r te t L r2 Ha-6es&1ry 0 (ay <" #<B$" that the ,latteri0! re,ere0ces t )ritish h1ma0itaria0ism :seem72 0ly mea0t t c mplime0t 1s a02 t 6eep 1s 51iet a02 i0 ! 2 h1m 1r*: Sir .ames Harris" ,r m H lla02" -r te that the pri0ciples , h1ma0ity -ere 0 t li6ely t ma6e m1ch impressi 0 0 the '1tch mercha0ts a02 that it - 1l2 &e 2i,,ic1lt t &tai0 their ac51iesce0ce* The (a01scripts , A* )* F rtesc1e * * *" Ill" %%?3%%=* Harris t +re0ville" .a0* %" #<BB* B;* +ast 03(arti0" La ' ctri0e C l 0iale 2e la Fra0ce e0 #<B$ GCahiers 2e la Rev l1ti 0 Fra0saise" N * =" ) r2ea14" #$=@H" ?@" =$* B<* .* Ramsay" A0 I05i2ry i0t the E,,ects A,rica0 Slave Tra2e GL 02 0" #<B%H" ?%* , P1tti0! a St p t the

BB* Chatham Papers" +*'* BA=%$* West I02ia0 Isla02s" Papers relati0! t .amaica a02 St* ' mi0! * The ,,er -as ma2e &y 'e Ca21sey" Presi3 2e0t , the Isla02 Assem&ly" 0 Oct* ?$" #<$#* He state2 that 0ecessity

NOTES TO PA+ES #%<3#@# ?%<

D1sti,ie2 a step -hich - 1l2 0 rmally &e treas 0" , r &vi 1s reas 0s the ,,er c 1l2 0 t &e : ,,icial": a02 &e!!e2 Pitt i0 the 0ame , p licy as -ell as , h1ma0ity t accept :the e4pressi 0 , the !e0eral -ill*: The ,,er -as 0 t 10e4pecte2 i0 E0!la02* O0 (ay #=" #<$#" the )ritish Am&assa2 r i0 Paris rep rte2 that the Fre0ch c l 0ists -ere tal6i0! , :thr -i0! themselves i0t the arms , E0!la02*: P*O* ?<A=;* GP1&lic Rec r2 O,,iceH* + -er t +re0ville* B$* P*O* ?<A%>* 'e C1rt t Ha-6es&1ry" 'ec* #B" #<$?* 'e C1rt &e!!e2 t &e c 0si2ere2 i0 all respects as a0 E0!lishma0" a02 later , rmally as6e2 , r pr tecti 0 :i0 the 0ame , h1ma0ity a02 E0!lish l yalty*: Liverp l Papers" A22* (SS* =B??B" ,* #$<* .a0* =" #<$=* $>* Part* Hist*" OOOII" <@?* '102as" Fe&* #B" #<$;* $#* .* W* F rtesc1e" A Hist ry , the )ritish Army GL 02 0" #B$$3

#$=>H" IV" Part I" =?@* $?* I&i2*" @;@* $=* Wil&er, rce" Li,e , Wil&er, rce" I" =%#*

$%* I&i2*" II" #%<" ?B;9 A* (* Wil&er, rce" The Private Papers , William Wil&er, rce GL 02 0" #B$<H" =#* Pitt t Wil&er, rce" (ay =#" #B>?* $@* Fli0!&er!" p* cit*" ##;" 51 ti0! Lec6y* , Wil&er, rce" II" ??@* Stephe0 t Wil&er, rce"

$;* Wil&er, rce" Li,e .1ly" #<$<*

$<* Liverp l Papers" A22* (SS* =B??<" ,* @* A1!* <" #<$#* A0 a0 0y3 m 1s -riter ,r m .amaica t 0e (r* )ric6- 2* $B* Chatham Papers" +*'* BA==%* (iscella0e 1s Papers relati0! t Fra0ce" #<B%3#<$@* .ames Chalmers t Pitt" 'ec* ?%" #<$?* $$* E2e0" p* cit*" #B* , the Pla0ter Class * * *" =>B*

#>>* Ra!at/" The Fall

#>#* H* , C* Sess* Pap* Rep rt 0 the C mmercial State , the West I02ia C l 0ies" #B><" %3;9 Ha0sar2" IO" $B* Hi&&ert" (arch #?" #B><* #>?* Ha0sar2" VIII" ?=B3?=$* 'ec* =>" #B>;* #>=* I&i2*" $B@* Hi&&ert" Fe&* ?=" #B><* The !reater 0ee2 , slaves i0 the 0e-er c l 0ies e4plai0s that pec1liar mi!rati 0 ,r m the l2 t the 0e- c l 0ies &et-ee0 #B>< a02 #B== 102er the !1ise , :2 mestics: i0 atte02a0ce 0 their master* See Eric Williams" :The I0terc l 0ial Slave Tra2e a,ter its A& liti 0 i0 #B><": . 1r0al , Ne!r Hist ry GApril" #$%?H* #>%* Ha0sar2" II" ;@?* .10e #=" #B>%* L r2 She,,iel2 replie2 that this - 1l2 &e a &reach , ,aith* I&i2*" VII" ?=@* (ay #;" #B>;* #>@* I&i2*" VIII" ;@B3;@$* Fe&* @" #B><* #>;* I&i2*" IO" #>#* (arch #?" #B><* #><* (erivale" p* cit*" =>=" =#=3=#<*

#>B* Ra!at/" Statistics * * *" ?> GTa&le OVIIH* #>$* I&i2*" ?> GTa&les OVII" OIO a02 OOH* A0ti!1a" #;?"@<= a02 ##@"3 $=? c-t*9 (a1riti1s" #@@"?%< a02 @?%">#< c-t*

?%B NOTES TO PA+ES #@#3#@;

0 * I&i2*" ?> GTa&les OIO a02 OOIH* Fr m %">>> t

###">>> c-t*

i0* C1st ms @ GP1&lic Rec r2 O,,iceH" V ls* #; a02 ??* Si0!ap re7s i03 crease2 ,r m @">>> t ==">>> c-t*9 Philippi0es7 ,r m B"B>> t =?"@>>9 .ava7s ,r m $@> t ?#"<>>* ##?* .* 2e la Pe/1ela" 'icci 0ari +e !ra,ic " Esta2istic " Hist ric la hla 2e C1&a G(a2ri2" #B;?H" I" @$9 A01ari A/1carer 2e C1&a GHa&a0a" #$%>H" @$* Fr m #%"@>> t ;?>">>> t 0s* 2e

##=* C1st ms" @" V ls* ;" ?> a02 ?#* Fr m )ra/il @>"B>> a02 =;?";>> c-t*9 ,r m C1&a =@"@>> a02 ?#>"B>> c-t* # #%* Pitma0" The Settleme0t * * * ?;?* , )ritish West I02ia Pla0tati 0s * * *"

##@* Pe/1ela" p* cit*" I" @$* Alava pla0tati 0" a0 ther :m 0ster: c m3 prise2 %"$== acres" empl ye2 ;>> slaves" a02 pr 21ce2 ="@<> t 0s , s1!ar* I&i2* # # ;* Ha0sar2" Thir2 Series" LOO" ?#?* C &2e0" .10e ??" #B%=* ##<* I&i2*" Thir2 Series" LVII" ;#>* Elle0& r 1!h" (arch ?;" #B%#* # # B* I&i2*" Thir2 Series" II" <>>* P 1lett Th ms 0" Fe&* ?#" #B=#* ##$* Stateme0ts" Calc1lati 0s a02 E4pla0ati 0s s1&mitte2 t the ) ar2 , Tra2e relative t the C mmercial" Fi0a0cial a02 P litical State , the )ritish West I02ia C l 0ies" si0ce the i!th , (ay" #B=>* GH* , C* Sess* Pap*" Acc 10ts a02 Papers" #B=>3#B=#" IO" N * #?>H" @B* Imp rts i0t Ham&1r! r se ,r m ;B"<$B t <@"%%# & 4es9 i0t Pr1ssia ,r m ?><"B># t %#@"#=%* R1ssia0 imp rts , C1&a0 s1!ar r se ,r m ;#;"@%? t $=@"=$@ p 2s G=; p 102sH" , )ra/ilia0 ,r m ==#"@B% t %#@"?B< p 2s* # ?>* Ha0sar2" Thir2 Series" OVII" #?>$" #?##3#?#?* (ay #%" #B==* #?#* )1r0" p* cit*" =;< 0*

#??* C*O* ?$@A$=" 0*2* The C 10cil7s petiti 0 -as e0cl se2 i0 + ver0 r +ra0t7s 2espatch , A1!* ?$" #B=?*

CHAPTER $ #* H* Richar2" (em irs , . seph St1r!e GL 02 0" #B;%H" B%* Cr pper t St1r!e" Oct* #%" #B?@* ?* A1c6la02 Papers G)ritish (1se1mH" A22* (SS* =%%?<" rT* %>#3%>? GvH* Wil&er, rce t E2e0" .a0* #<BB* =* C 1pla02" Wil&er, rce" %??* %* )rea2y" @* Pre0tice" p* cit*" =>?" =%#* p* cit*" I" =3%*

;* T* P* (arti0" :S me I0ter0ati 0al Aspects , the A0ti3Slavery ( veme0t" #B#B3#B?=": . 1r0al , Ec 0 mic a02 )1si0ess Hist ry GN v*" #$?BH" #%;* <* Ha0sar2D Thir2 Series" OVI" ?$>" (arch ;" #B==* B* Wa2s- rth a02 (a00" p* cit*" ?BB" ?B$*

NOTES TO PA+ES #@;3#;# ?%$

$* (1rch"

p* cit*" <;*

D * Rep rt , the Speeches at the +reat 'i00er i0 the Theatre" (a03 chester" t cele&rate the electi 0 , (ar6 Philips" Es5* a02 the Rt* H 0* C* P* Th ms 0 G. h0 Ryla02s Li&raryH" ?" B* ##* Ha0sar2" Thir2 Series" OOOIII" %<?* April ?$" #B=;* #?* I&i2*" Thir2 Series" OL VIII" #>?$* .10e ?B" #B=$* #=* I&i2*" Thir2 Series" C" @%* (il0er +i&s 0" .1ly =" #B%B* #%* I&i2*" Thir2 Series" LOOVII" #>@=* +i&s 0" Fe&* ?%" #B%@* #@* I&i2*" Thir2 Series" LVI" ;>@* Ha-es" Fe&* #?" #B%#* #;* I&i2*" Thir2 Series" LOOVII" #>@=* +i&s 0" Fe&* ?%" #B%@9 I&i2*" Thir2 Scries" C" @%* +i&s 0" .1ly =" #B%B* #<* I&i2*" Thir2 Series" LOOVII" ##%%* Fe&* ?%" #B%@9 I&i2*" Thir2 Series" OCIO" #%?B* .10e =>" #B%B* # B* I&i2*" Thir2 Series" C" =?%* )e0ti0c6" .1ly #>" #B%B" 51 ti0! )ri!ht* )e0ti0c6 emphasi/e2 the previ 1s pr tecti 0 a!ai0st I02ia0 te4tiles* #$* I&i2*" Thir2 Series" LOOVIII" $=>* (arch #%" #B%@* ?>* I&i2*" Thir2 Series" LOOVI" =<* .10e ?<" #B%%* ?#* I&i2*" Thir2 Series" OCIO" #%?>* .10e =>" #B%B* ??* I&i2*" <%<* .10e #;" #B%B* ?=* A1c6la02 Papers" A22* (SS* =%%?<" ,,* %>#3%>? GvH* Wil&er, rce t E2e0" .a0*" #<BB* ?%* .* A* La0!, r2" A Ce0t1ry , )irmi0!ham Li,e8 L cal Eve0ts G)irmi0!ham" #B<>H" I" %=%* ?@* Asht 0" ?;* La0!, r2" p* cit*" ??=* p* cit*" I" %=;" %%>* r a Chr 0icle ,

?<* I&i2*" #" %=<* ?B* 'e0t" ?$* I&i2* =>* N* )* Le-is" The A& liti 0ist ( veme0t i0 She,,iel2" #B?=3#B== G(a0chester" #$=%H" %3@* =#* E0!* (S*" <%= G. h0 Ryla02s Li&raryH* A14iliary S ciety , r the relie, , Ne!r Slaves" ,* #?* .a0* $" #B?<9 ,* #@* .1ly #>" #B?<* The plea t their t -0sme0 is 0 a small car2" 102ate2" i0 the same li&rary" i0 ) 4V* =?* Le-is" p* cit*" ;* p* cit*" %?<*

==* Ha0sar2" Thir2 Series" OIO" #?<>* .1ly ?@" #B==* =%* I&i2*" Thir2 Series" OVI" ?BB* (arch ;" #B==9 I&i2*" Thir2 Series" OVIII" $##* .10e #<" #B==* =@* I&i2*" Thir2 Series" LOOV" %%;3%%<* .10e #>" #B%%* =;* I&i2*" Thir2 Series" LOIII" ##<%* . 10e = I C% ? 3 =<* I&i2*" ##<=* =B* I&i2*" Thir2 Series" LOO" ?#>* .10e ??" #B%=* =$* .* )ri!ht a02 .* T* R !ers Ge2s*H" Speeches 0 L1esti 0s P licy &y Richar2 C &2e0" (* PW GL 02 0" #B<BH" $#3$?* %>* .* E* Ritchie" The Li,e a02 Times #B;;3#B;<H" II" <%=3<%%* , P1&lic

, Visc 10t Palmerst 0 GL 02 0"

?@> NOTES TO PA+ES #;#3#;%

%#* Ha0sar2" Thir2 Series" LOOVII" ##?B* Fe&* ?%" #B%@* %?* I&i2*" Thir2 Series" OCIO" <@#3<@?* .10e #;" #B%B* %=* (ac6e0/ie3+rieve" p* cit*" ?B=*

%%* Ha0sar2" VI" $#B* April ?@" #B>;* %@* I&i2*" VII" ;#?* L r2 H -ic6" .10e #>" #B>;* %;* I&i2*" VIII" $%B* L r2 H -ic6" Fe&* ?=" #B><* %<* .ac6ma0" p* cit*" II" @#@ 0*

%B* Ha0sar2" VIII" $;#3$;?* Fe&* ?=" #B><*

%$* )1c6"

p* cit*" =#3=?*

@>* Ha0sar2" Ne- Series" OOIII" #B>* (arch 0" #B=>* @#* The Speeches , *** H1s6iss 0 * * *" I" ##@* Fe&* #B?;*

@?* Ha0sar2K Thir2 Series" OIO" <$=* .1ly #<" #B==* @=* I&i2*" Thir2 Series" OVIII" $>$3$#>* .10e #<" #B==* @%* I&i2*" Thir2 Series" OVI" ?B@* (arch ;" #B==* @@* I&i2*" Thir2 Series" OVIII" $#>* .10e #<" #B==* @;* Eyre3T 22" @<* ' 00a0" p* cit*" Ill" ?@;" ?;=3?;%*

p* cit*" II" @=< 0" @;% C@;@ 0*

@B* Ha0sar2" Thir2 Series" OVI" ?$#* (arch ;" #B==* I0 #B%; a0 ther Os-al2 -e0t ,1rther8 :Whe0 -e - re slave3!r -0 c tt 0" -he0 -e 2ra06 slave3!r -0 c ,,ee" a02 sm 6e2 slave3!r -0 t &acc " he c 1l2 0 t , r the li,e , him c 0ceive 0 -hat pri0ciple they mi!ht 0 t als 1se slave3!r -0 s1!ar* * * * They m1st l 6 , r the ameli rati 0 , this evil t s me ther 51arter tha0 the C1st m3H 1se*: Ha0sar2" Thir2 Series" LOOOVIII" #??* .1ly ?B" #B%;* It - 1l2 &e i0teresti0! t 60 -hether this -as a mem&er , the same ,amily* @$* Ra!at/" Statistics * * *" $ GTa&le IVH * ;>* Rep rt =" B" #@* , the Pr cee2i0!s , the C Tm0ittee , S1!ar Re,i0ers"

;#* I&i2*" # B 0* ;?* Liverp l Papers" A22* (SS* =B??<" ?#<* Chairma0 t Ha-6es&1ry" .a0* ?=" #<$?9 ,,* ?#$3???* Chairma0 t Pitt" .a0* #?" #<$?* ;=* I02ia0 c tt 0 e4p rts -ere < milli 0 p 102s i0 #B#;" =# milli 0 i0 #B#<" ;< milli 0 i0 #B#B &1t 0ly % milli 0 i0 #B??* E4p rts ,r m the U0ite2 States -ere @> milli 0 i0 #B#;" @$ milli 0 i0 #B??9 ,r m )ra/il ?> milli 0 i0 #B#; a02 ?% milli 0 i0 #B??* C1st ms @" V ls* @" ;" <" 0* )1t I02ia0 c tt 0 -as :the - rst i0 the E0!lish mar6et9 -i0! t the 0e!3 li!e0t c1ltivati 0 a02 pac6i0!*: E* )ai0es" Hist ry , the C tt 0 (a013 ,act1re i0 +reat )ritai0 GL 02 0" #B=@H" =>B* . h0 )ri!ht later 1se2 t tell a st ry , a La0cashire prayer meeti0! at -hich the , ll -i0! petiti 0 -as ,,ere2 1p8 :O L r2" -e &eseech Thee se02 1s c tt 09 &1t O L r2" 0 t Sh rat*: The re,ere0ce is t S1rat c tt 0 a02 pr &a&ly has t 2 -ith the America0 Civil War* +* (* Trevelya0" The Li,e , . h0 )ri!ht G) st 0" #$#=H" =#B 0* ;%* T* P* (arti0" ;@* 'e&ates * * * p* cit*" #%%* The phrase is (7 L1ee07s* 0 the East I02ia S1!ar Tra2e" #$*

NOTES TO PA+ES #;@3#<> ?.I

;;* Ha0sar2" Thir2 Series" VII" <;%* . h0 W

2" Sept* ?B" #B=#*

;<* I&i2*" Thir2 Series" OIO" ##;@3##;<* William Clay" .1ly ?%" #B==* ;B* I&i2*" Thir2 Series" VII" <;%* Sept* ?B" #B=#* ;$* I&i2*" Thir2 Series" VIII" =;?* Oct* <" #B=#* <>* The Speeches , * * * H1s6iss 0 * * *" III" %@%* (ay ?@" #B?$*

<#* Ha0sar2" Thir2 Series" OVIII" @B$* .10e ##" #B==* J <?* I&i2*" Thir2 Series" OVII" <@* William E-art" April =" #B==9 ANW*" Thir2 Series" LVIII" #>#* E-art" (ay #>" #B%#* <=* I&i2*" Thir2 Series" LVI" ;>B* )* Ha-es" Fe&* #?" #B%#* <%* I&i2*" Thir2 Series" LOOOVIII" @#<* A1!* #>" #B%;* <@* Ramsay" (S* V l*" ,* ;%* :A0 A22ress A& liti 0 , the Slave Tra2e*: 0 the pr p se2 &ill , r the E2e0"

<;* A1c6la02 Papers" A22* (SS* =%??<" ,* #?=* Wil&er, rce t N v* ?=" #<B<* <<* Parl* Hist*" OOIO" ?<>* April #B" #<$#* <B* I&i2*" =??* <$* Ha0sar2" VIII" $%B3$%$* Fe&* ?=" #B><*

B>* Pr cee2i0!s , the C mmittee , r A& liti 0 , the Slave Tra2e" #<B<3#B#$ G)ritish (1se1mH" A22* (SS* ?#?@@" C I> G y H3 April #%" #<B$* B#* .* Ne-t 0" Th 1!hts 1p 0 the A,rica0 Slave Tra2e GLiverp #<BBH" B* B?* Ramsay" (S* V l*" ,* ;%* B=* Ha0sar2" VIII" $%<3$%B* L r2 H -ic6" Fe&* ?=" #B><* B%* Rep rt @;* , a C mmittee , the Liverp l East I02ia Ass ciati 0 * * *" l"

B@* The Speeches

, *** H1s6is-0 * * *" Ill" %%?* (ay #?" #B?$"

B;* Ha0sar2" Thir2 Series" VII" <@@* Sept* ?B" #B=#* B<* I&i2*" Thir2 Series" OVI" BB#3BB?* (arch ?>" #B==* BB* I&i2*" ?$>* (arch ;" #B==* B$* I&i2*" Thir2 Series" OIO" ##;$* .1ly ?%" #B==*

$>* Li02say"

p* cit*" Ill" B@3B;* p* cit*" I0tr 21cti 0" p* 4li*

$#* )ell a02 ( rrell"

CHAPTER #> #* Ha0sar2" Thir2 Series" OCIO" #??=* +* Th mps 0" .10e ?;" #B%B* Th mps 0 -as a pr mi0e0t a& liti 0ist spea6er* ?* I&i2*" Thir2 Series" LOOV" #<>* L r2 . h0 R1ssell" .10e =" #B%%* =* 'espatches * * * =>" #B??* , Welli0!t 0" I" =?$* Ca00i0! t Welli0!t 0" Sept*

%* I&i2*" I" %@=* Welli0!t 0 t @* C rresp 02e0ce * * * N v* #@" #B??*

Ca00i0!" Oct* ?B" #B??*

, Ca00i0!" I" ;?* (em ra021m , r the Ca&i0et"

?@? NOTES TO PA+ES #<>3#<=

;* Ha0sar2" Thir2 Series" OCVI" #>$;* H1tt" Fe&* ??" #B%B* <* 'espatches * * * =>" #B??* B* C rresp 02e0ce *** N v* #@" #B??* , Welli0!t 0" I" =?$* Ca00i0! t Welli0!t 0" Sept*

, Ca00i0!" I" ;?* (em ra021m , r the Ca&i0et" , William Wil&er3

$* R* I* a02 S* Wil&er, rce" The C rresp 02e0ce , rce GL 02 0" #B%>H" II" %;;* Oct* ?%" #B??* #>* 'espatches * * *

, Welli0!t 0" I" %<%3%<@* Oct* =#" #B??*

##* Ha0sar2" OOO" ;@<3;@B* April #B" #B#@9 I&i2*" OOOI" #<%* (ay @" #B#@* F r the )ari0!s a02 Lati0 America" see .e06s" p* cit*" %B* #?* Ha0sar2" OOOI* See pa!es @@<" ;>;" B@>3B@#" #>;%* .10e i" @" #;" a02 =>" #B#@* #=* I&i2*" Ne- Series" OI" #=%@* .10e #@" #B?%* #%* I&i2*" #%<@3#%<<* .10e ?=" #B?%* #@* I&i2*" Ne- Series" OOV" =$B* .10e #@" #B=>* #;* I&i2*" %>@* +e0eral +asc y0e" .10e #@" #B=>9 I&i2*" Ne- Series" OO" %$@* +asc y0e" Fe&* ?=" #B?$* #<* C rresp 02e0ce * * * Sept* $" #B#%* , Castlerea!h" O" ##?* Castlerea!h t Liverp l"

# B* Ha0sar2" Thir2 Series" LIO" ;>$* )r 1!ham" Sept* ?>" #B%#* #$* I&i2*" Thir2 Series" OCVI" ##>#3##>?* .ac6s 0" Fe&* ??" #B%B* ?>* I&i2*" Thir2 Series" CII" #>B%* )ish p , O4, r2" Fe&* ??" #B%$*

?#* I&i2*" Thir2 Series" OCVI" #>$@* L1 te2 &y H1tt" Fe&* ??" #B%B* ??* I&i2*" Thir2 Series" OCVIII" ##;B* Palmerst 0" (ay #<" #B%B9 I&i2*" ##$B* Car2-ell" (ay #B" #B%B* ?=* I&i2*" Thir2 Series" LOV" $=B" $%?" $%@* A1!* ?" #B%?* ?%* I&i2*" Thir2 Series" LOOI" $%#* A1!* #B" #B%=* ?@* A* F* (a0chester" )ritish Preemi0e0ce i0 )ra/il" Its Rise a02 'ecli0e GChapel Hill" N* C*" #$==H" =#@* ?;* Ha0sar2" Thir2 Series" LOOVII" #>;;* E-art" Fe&* ?%" #B%@9 I&i2*" LOO" ??%* .10e ??" #B%=* ?<* I&i2*" Thir2 Series" OCIO" ##?#* Ha-es" .10e ?=" #B%B* ?B* I&i2*" Thir2 Series" OCVI" 1 * H1tt" Fe&* ??" #B%B*

?$* I&i2*" Thir2 Series" LOOOI" ##<>* H1tt" .10e ?%" #B%@* =>* I&i2*" Thir2 Series" OCIO" <%B* .10e #;" #B%B* =#* I&i2*" Thir2 Series" COIII" %>* .1ly #$" #B@>* =?* I&i2*" Thir2 Series" OCVII" $BB* Ur51hart" (arch ?%" #B%B* ==* I&i2*" Thir2 Series" LOOOI" ##;$3##<>* H1tt" .10e ?%" #B%@* =%* I&i2*" Thir2 Series" LOOV" #<>* R1ssell" .10e =" #B%%* =@* I&i2*" Thir2 Series" CVII" #>=;* +i&s 0" .1ly ?<" #B%$* =;* I&i2*" Thir2 Series" OCVI" 0 i* H1tt" Fe&* ??" #B%B* =<* I&i2*" Thir2 Series" LOOOI" ##@B3##@$* .10e ?%" #B%@* =B* I&i2*" Thir2 Series" OCVI" #>$?" #>$;* H1tt" Fe&* ??" #B%B* =$* I&i2*" #>$?* %>* I&i2*" Thir2 Series" OCVII" $B;3$B<* Ur51hart" (arch ?%" #B%B*

NOTES TO PA+ES #<=3#<$ ?@=

%#* I&i2*" Thir2 Series" CI" #<<* Ur51hart" A1!* #;" #B%B*

%?* I&i2*" Thir2 Series" LOOOI" ##@;" ##@B* H1tt" .10e ?%" #B%@* %=* I&i2*" Thir2 Series" OCVII" $B<* Ur51hart" (arch ?%" #B%B* %%* I&i2*" Thir2 SeriesK LOOOI" ##;@" ##<>* H1tt" .10e ?%" #B%@* %@* I&i2*" Thir2 Series" CIO" ##>$* H1tt" (arch #$" #B@>* %;* I&i2*" Thir2 Series" COIII" ;#* H1tt" .1ly #$" #B@>* %<* I&i2*" Thir2 Series" LOOOI" ##@B* H1tt" .10e ?%" #B%@* %B* W* L* (athies 0" +reat )ritai0 a02 the Slave Tra2e" #B=$3#B;@ GL 02 0" #$?$H" $> 0* The phrase is Carlyle7s* %$* Ha0sar2" Thir2 Series" LOOVI" $%<" $;=* Peel" .1ly #;" #B%%* @>* I&i2*" Thir2 Series" LOOO" %B?* Peel" (ay #;" #B%@* @#* I&i2*" Thir2 Series" LOOOII" #>@B3#>;%* .1ly ?%" #B%@* @?* I&i2*" Thir2 Series" OCVI" ##?@* Fe&* ??" #B%B* @=* I&i2*" Thir2 Series" LVIII" ;%B" ;@=* (ay #B" #B%#* @%* I&i2*" Thir2 Series" LOOOII" @@>" @@?* .1ly #@" #B%@* @@* I&i2*" Thir2 Series" OCVIII" $$%3$$;* (arch ?%" #B%B* @;* I&i2*" Thir2 Series" L" =B=* A1!* #$" #B=$* @<* I&i2*" Thir2 Series" LVIII" #;<" #;$* (ay #>" #B%#* @B* I&i2*" Thir2 Series" CIO" ##;?* (arch #$" #B@>* @$* The (a01scripts , .* )* F rtes c1e * * *" IO" #%3#$* E2m102 Ly 0 t +re0ville" .a0* #;" #B><* ;>* Ha0sar2" OOVIII" =%$* L r2 H lla02" .10e ?<" #B#%* ;#* I&i2*" OOO" ;@<3;@B* April #B" #B#@* ;?* Stateme0ts" Calc1lati 0s a02 E4pla0ati 0s s1&mitte2 t the ) ar2 , Tra2e * * *" p* B%* Letter ,r m Feith ' 1!las" Oct* =>" #B=>* ;=* C*O* #=<A#B;* (em rial , .amaica 2ep1ties" N v* ?$" #B=?*

;%* '* T1r0&1ll" The .amaica ( veme0t" , r pr m ti0! the e0, rce3 me0t , the Slave3Tra2e Treaties" a02 the S1ppressi 0 , the Slave Tra2e GL 02 0" #B@>H" ;@" $%3$@" $$" #?>" ?>#" ?%$" ?;<* ;@* Times" .a0* =>" #B@<* ;;* +1e2alla" p* cit*" ;%3;;*

CHAPTER II R* C 1pla02" The Empire i0 These 'ays GL 02 0" #$=@H" ?;%* Pr 3 ,ess r C 1pla02 102ersta02s the hist ry , the a& liti 0 m veme0t as little as his her * :H - p p1lar a& liti 0 is" D1st 0 -": -r te Wil&er, rce i0 #B><* :+ 2 ca0 t1r0 the hearts , me0*: Wil&er, rce" Li,e , Wil&er3 , rce" III" ?$@* Fe&* 0" #B><* ?* Ha0sar2" VIII" ;<$3;B?* Fe&* ;" #B><* =* F* Farrer Ge2*H" The C rresp 02e0ce 2 0" #$>;H" I" ?#@3?#;* .10e #<" #<$=* %* See Pr cee2i0!s , . siah We2!2 GL 03

, the C mmittee , r A& liti 0

, the Slave

?@% NOTES TO PA+ES #B>3#B=

Tra2e" A22* (SS*" ?#?@%" ,,* #?3#? GvH* Sam1el H are t Clar6s 0" .1ly ?@" #<B<8 :I h pe the /eal a02 a0imati 0 -ith -hich th 1 hast ta6e0 1p the ca1se -ill &e acc mpa0ie2 -ith temper a02 m 2erati 0" -hich al 0e ca0 i0s1re its s1ccess*: @* Wil&er, rce" Li,e ;* )ell a02 ( rrell" #B=#* , Wil&er, rce" IV" ?%>3?%#* Writte0 i0 #B##* p* cit*" =<;* (em ra021m H -ic6" A1!* ?@" #B=?* , Stephe0" Sept* #@" #B%#* , Stephe0" Oct &er"

<* CO* ?$@A$=* Stephe0 t B* )ell a02 Ai rrell"

p* cit*" %?>* (i01te

$* Ramsay" (S* V l*" ,* ?B* 'ec* ?<" #<B<* #>* Fli0!&er!" p* cit*" ;>3; #* Ramsay7s evi2e0ce &e, re the Privy C 10cil i0 #<BB is -ell - rth rea2i0!* 0* Sir +* Stephe0" A0ti3Slavery Rec llecti 0s GL 02 0" #B@%H" <<@ Richar2" p* cit*" <B* Stephe0 a02 Richar2 act1ally -ere 2isc1ssi0! the A,rica0 I0stit1ti 0 a02 A0ti3Slavery S ciety* #?* Stephe0" p* cit*" <$*

#=* C 1pla02" Wil&er, rce" %#<* #%* Ha0sar2" Ne- Series" OI" #%#=* Wil&er, rce" .10e #@" #B?%* #@* C 1pla02" Wil&er, rce" %>;3%>B" %##3%#<* F r his pp siti 0 t ,emi0i0e a0ti3Slavery ass ciati 0s" see Wil&er, rce" Li,e , Wil&er, rce" V" ?;%3?;@* Wil&er, rce t )a&i0!t 0" .a0* =#" #B?;* F r his vie-s 0 the First Re, rm )ill" see Wil&er, rce" C rresp 02e0ce , Wil&er, rce" II" ?;@* Wil&er, rce t his s 0 Sam1el" (arch %" #B=#*

# ;* Pr cee2i0!s , the C mmittee , r A& liti 0 , the Slave Tra2e" A22* (SS* ?#?@@" ,* @> GvH* A1!* #?" #<BB9 A22* (SS* ?#?@;" ,,* %> GvH" $; GvH* .a0* =#" #<$?" (arch ?$" #<$<* #<* Ha0sar2" IO" #%=3#%%* (arch #<" #B><* #B* Parl* Hist*" OOOIII" ###$* .1ly @" #<$$* #$* Ha0sar2" Ne- Series" OIO" #%;$* L1 te2 &y L r2 Sea, r2" .10e ?=" #B?B* ?>* I&i2*" Ne- Series" IO" ?;@3?;;* (ay #@" #B?=* ?#* Richar2" ??* Stephe0" ?=* Richar2" p* cit*" <$* p* cit*" #?>3#??* p* cit*" #>#3#>?* (arch ?B" #B==*

?%* A* C chi0" U A& liti 0 2e UEsclava!e GParis" #B;#H" I0tr 21cti 0" pp* 4iv34v* ?@* Pr cee2i0!s , the C mmittee , r A& liti 0 A22* (SS"" ?#?@;" ,* $@* .10e ?@" #<$@* , the Slave Tra2e"

?;* W* F 4" A22ress t the Pe ple , +reat )ritai0 0 the Pr priety , A&staim0! ,r m West I02ia S1!ar a02 R1m GL 02 0" #<$#H" passim* ?<* R* F* N1erm&er!er" The Free Pr 21ce ( veme0t" A L1a6er Pr test a!ai0st Slavery G'1rham" N* C" #$%=H" $3#>* ?B* GA0 0ym 1sH" Remar6a&le E4tracts a02 O&servati 0s 0 the Slave Tra2e -ith S me C 0si2erati 0s 0 the C 0s1mpti 0 , West I02ia Pr 21ce GSt c6t 0" #<$?H" $* C py i0 Wil&er, rce (1se1m" H1ll

NOTES TO PA+ES #B%3#B; ?@@

?$* Naish"

p* cit*" =*

=>* U02ate2 sheet" i0 Wil&er, rce (1se1m* =#* A0 0ym 1s" The La2ies # Free +r -0 C tt 0 ( veme0t G. h0 Ryla02s Li&raryH * U02ate2* =?* +1r0ey t Sc &le" 'ec* @" #B%>* I0 Wil&er, rce (1se1m* There is a re,ere0ce 01m&er" '*)* BB=" !ive0 -ith s me hesitati 0" as the heter !e0e 1s papers -ere 0 t -ell arra0!e2* ==* :The Pri0ciples" Pla0s" a02 O&Dects , The Hi&er0ia0 Ne!r 7s Frie02 S ciety" c 0traste2 -ith th se , the previ 1sly e4isti0! A0ti3 Slavery S cieties" &ei0! a circ1lar" i0 the , rm , a letter t Th mas Pri0!le" Es5*" Secretary , the L 02 0 A0ti3Slavery S ciety": =* .a0* B" #B=# G. h0 Ryla02s Li&raryH*

=%* Ha0sar2" Thir2 Series" OO" =#@" =?=" =?%* A1!* @" #B==9 I&i2*" %%;* A1!* $" #B==* =@* I&i2*" Thir2 Series" OOOVIII" #B@=* H &h 1se" .1ly #>" #B=<* =;* I&i2*" Thir2 Series" LVI" ?#B* O7C 00ell" Fe&* ?" #B%#* =<* I&i2*" ;#$* Fe&* #?" #B%#* =B* I&i2*" Thir2 Series" LOV" #><@* )ari0!" A1!* @" #B%?* =$* I&i2*" Thir2 Series" LOO" #?$%* .1ly ?#" #B%=* %>* I&i2*" Thir2 Series" LOVIII" <@=* April #>" #B%=* %#* E0!* (S* <%#* Clar6s 0 t L* T -0se02" A1!* #B?@*

%?* Clar6s 0 Papers G)ritish (1se1mH" A22* (SS* %#?;< A" ,," #<B3#<$* %=* 'e&ates * * * 0 the East I02ia S1!ar Tra2e" =@*

%%* Ha0sar2" Thir2 Series" OOOVIII" #B@=3#B@%* .1ly #>" #B=<* %@* I&i2*" Thir2 Series" LOO" #?$%* .1ly ?#" #B%=* %;* )ell a02 ( rrell" p* cit*" I0tr 21cti 0" p* 444*

%<* East I02ia C mpa0y S1&scripti 0 . 1r0als t B>>">>> a22iti 0al st c6" .1ly #<B;9 East I02ia C mpa0y St c6 Le2!ers" #<B=3#<$#" #<$#3 #<>;* These rec r2s are 6ept i0 the )a06 , E0!la02 Rec r2 O,,ice" R ehampt 0" L 02 0* He0ry Th r0t 0 s1&scri&e2 @>> a02 . h0 Th r0t 0 =">>> t the st c6 iss1e2 i0 #<B;* At his 2eath . h0 le,t ?">>> t each , the thers" -hich le,t He0ry -ith =">>>" R &ert -ith %">>> a02 Sam1el -ith =">>>* %B* 'e&ates 0 the e4pe02ie0cy , c1ltivati0! s1!ar i0 the territ ries , the East I02ia C mpa0y GEast I02ia H 1se" #<$=H* %$* 'e&ates * * * 0 the East I02ia S1!ar Tra2e" @* O0ly Ra!at/" The Fall , the Pla0ter Class * * *" =;=" me0ti 0s this imp rta0t ,act* @>* (aca1lay" p* cit*" ?$* 0 the East I02ia S1!ar Tra2e" =;* H1me*

@#* 'e&ates * * *

@?* C rresp 02e0ce &et-ee0 * * * +la2st 0e * * * a02 Cr pper * * *" #@9 F* A* C 0y&eare" 'i0!le )a06" the h me , the Cr ppers GCam&ri2!e" #$?@H" <9 Ra!at/" The Fall , the Pla0ter Class * * *" =;%* @=* .* Cr pper" Letters t William Wil&er, rc7e" (*P*" rec mme02i0! the e0c 1ra!eme0t , the c1ltivati 0 , s1!ar i0 1r 2 mi0i 0s i0 the East I02ies" as the 0at1ral a02 certai0 mea0s , e,,ecti0! the t tal a02

?@; NOTES TO PA+ES #B<3#B$

!e0eral a& liti 0 p* vii*

, the Slave Tra2e GLiverp

l" #B??H" I0tr 21cti 0"

@%* C rresp 02e0ce &et-ee0 * * * +la2st 0e * * * a02 Cr pper * * *" #;* Cr pper replie2 that this c 00ecti 0 ha2 cease2" t -hich +la2st 0e ret rte28 :It - 1l2 &e rather a c1ri 1s c i0ci2e0ce -ere -e t ,i02 that this cessati 0 -as c eval -ith his &ec mi0! a p1&lic -riter a!ai0st slavery8 a02 i0 that case is it 0 t rather remar6a&le that he sh 1l2 0 t have &ee0 i021ce2 t t1r0 a1th r 10til his slave c tt 0 a!e0cy ha2 cease2I: I&i2*" =<* @@* C rresp 02e0ce &et-ee0 * * * +la2st 0e * * * a02 Cr pper * * *" @@* @;* .* Cr pper" :Slave La& 1r a02 Free La& 1r*: The s1&sta0ce , (r* Cr pper7s a22ress 0 We20es2ay N vem&er ?? G#B?@H at the respect3 a&le meeti0! at the Fi0!7s Hea2" 'er&y G'er&y" #B?@H" =* . h0 Ryla02s Li&rary* @<* .* Cr pper" A Letter a22resse2 t the Liverp l S ciety , r pr 3 m ti0! the a& liti 0 , Slavery" 0 the i0D1ri 1s e,,ects , hi!h prices pr 21ce" a02 the &e0e,icial e,,ects , l - prices" 0 the c 02iti 0 , slaves GLiverp l" #B?=H" B3$* @B* I&i2*" ??* @$* .* Cr pper" Relie, , r West I02ia0 2istress" she-i0! the i0e,,icie0cy , pr tecti0! 21ties 0 East I02ia s1!ar" a02 p i0ti0! 1t ther m 2es , certai0 relie, GL 02 0" #B?=H" $* ;>* l&i2* y =>* ;#* C 0y&eare" ;?* The Liverp <W #B==* p* cit*" ?@" @;3@<* l (erc1ry a02 La0cashire +e0eral A2vertiser" .10e ,

;=* C 1pla02" The )ritish A0ti3Slavery ( veme0t" #?%9 (athies 0" )ritish Slavery a02 Its A& liti 0" #?@* ;%* Wil&er, rce" Li,e , Wil&er, rce" V" #B>*

;@* Ha0sar2" Ne- Series" IO" %;<* (ay ??" #B?=* ;;* I&i2*" Ne- Series" VII" ;$B* (ay #<" #B??* ;<* C 1pla02" The )ritish A0ti3Slavery ( veme0t" #?%* ;B* Fli0!&er!" ;$* )1r0" p* cit*" ?>=*

p* cit*" BB* , the Pla0ter Class * * *" %=;*

<>* Ra!at/" The Fall

<#* Ha0sar2" Ne- Series" IO" =%$* )ari0!" (ay #@" #B?=*

<?* Fli0&er!"

p* cit*" #%;*

<=* I&i2*" #%<3#%B* <%* Wil&er, rce later a2mitte2 that :-e have ha2 the reli!i 1s char3 acter , Ale4a02er the +reat represe0te2 t 1s *** i0 t ,av 1ra&le c l 1rs*: T La2y Olivia Sparr -" (ay =#" #B#%* I0 Wil&er, rce (1se1m" '*)* ?@ G;>H* He -r teCa str 0! letter t the Tsar 0 the s1&Dect* Wil&er3 , rce" Li,e , Wil&er, rce" V" #=;3#=<* Wil&er, rce t (aca1lay" N v* ?>" #B??* Wil&er, rce re!ar2e2 the Tsar7s imp rtati 0 , )ra/ilia0 pr 21ce a,ter his pr mise t & yc tt it as :a &reach , ,aith , -hich a0y private

NOTES TO PA+ES #B$3#$= ?@<

ma0 -h sh 1l2 &e !1ilty - 1l2 , r,eit , r ever the character , a ma0 , h 0 r*: Liverp l Papers" A22* (SS* =B@<B" ,,* =#3=?* Wil&er, rce t Liverp l" Sept* %" #B??* <@* C rresp 02e0ce * * * , Castlerea!h" OII" %3=@* (em ra021m , .ames Stephe0" Sept* B" #B#B" :relative t A,rica a02 c l 0ial 2isc1ssi 0s that may have place i0 the C 0!ress at Ai43la3Chapelle*: <;* Wil&er, rce" Li,e , Wil&er, rce" IV" #==*

<<* Ha0sar2" OOVIII" ?<$" ?B%* .10e ?<" #B#%* <B* I&i2*" =$=* .10e ?B" #B#%* <$* Wil&er, rce" Li,e B>* 'espatches *** , Wil&er, rce" IV" ?>$* Sept* <" #B#%*

, Welli0!t 0" V" #@* Sept* %" #B?B*

B#* Ha0sar2" Thir2 Series" OCVI" =<* )e0ti0c6" Fe&* =" #B%B* B?* Pamphlets i0 the . h0 Ryla02s Li&rary* B=* The Liverp l (erc1ry a02 La0cashire +e0eral A2vertiser" .1ly ?=" #B=?" rep rti0! a meeti0! , the Liverp l West I02ia Ass ciati 0* B%* I&i2*" A1!* ?%" #B=?* Letter , :A0 ther Elect r: t :A0 Elect r*:

B@* A0 0ym 1s" The Tari,, , C 0scie0ce* The Tra2e i0 Slave Pr 3 21ce c 0si2ere2 a02 c 02em0e2 GNe-castle A0ti3Slavery Series" N * 1" 0*2*H * . h0 Ryla02s Li&rary* B;* A0 0ym 1s" C 0scie0ce vers1s C tt 09 r" the Pre,ere0ce , Free La& 1r Pr 21ce GNe-castle A0ti3Slavery Series" N * #>" 0*2*H* . h0 Ryla02s Li&rary* B<* Ha0sar2" Thir2 Series" OIO" ##<<* .1ly ?%" #B==* BB* I&i2*" Thir2 Series" VI" #=@=* Sept* #?" #B=#*

B$* I&i2*" #=@@* H1me* * E0!* (S* %#@* )14t 0 t (rs* Ra-s 0" Oct* ;" #B==*

$#* Ha0sar2" Thir2 Series" OCIO" #>??* .10e ??" #B%B* $?* E0!* (S* %#@* )14t 0 t $=* +1r0ey t (rs* Ra-s 0" Oct* ;" #B==*

Sc &le" 'ec* @" #B%>* Wil&er, rce (1se1m" '*)* BB=*

$%* Ha0sar2" Thir2 Series" LOOOI" ##@$* L1 te2 &y H1tt" .10e ?%" #B%@* $@* I&i2*" Thir2 Series" CIO" #>$B* L1 te2 &y H1tt" (arch #$" #B@>* I0 #B@B" Wil&er, rce state28 :We ha2 0 ri!ht t p1t 1rselves , r-ar2 t the - rl2 as the s1ppress rs , the slave tra2e 10less -e -ere prepare2 h 0estly a02 ,irmly t e0, rce th se treaties , r its s1ppressi 0 -hich 1r allies ha2 ma2e -ith 1s*: I&i2*" Thir2 Series" CL" ??>>* .10e #<" #B@B* >;* I&i2*" Thir2 Series" OCIO" B%$* .10e #$" #B%B* I0 #B@> )14t 0 calle2 , r the e4cl1si 0 , slave3!r -0 s1!ar" th 1!h 0 t , slave3!r -0 c tt 0 a02 t &acc " ar!1i0! that :he sa- 0 reas 0 -hy he sh 1l2 0 t pp se a0 evil that he c 1l2 s1ccess,1lly pp se" &eca1se there -ere ther evils that it -as imp ssi&le , r him t pp se*: I&i2*" Thir2 Series" COI" @==* (ay =#" #B@>* I0 #B@<" he m ve2 a0 a22ress t the L1ee0 prayi0! that all e,, rts &e 1se2 t p1t 2 -0 the Slave Tra2e* I&i2*" Thir2 Series" COLVI" #B@<* .1ly #%" #B@<* This cha0!e , pi0i 0 c i0ci2e2 -ith a cha0!e i0 the vie-p i0t , the capitalists* H1tt -as chairma0 , a c m3 mittee i0 #B%$ -hich 2escri&e2 the e,, rts t s1ppress the slave tra2e as

?@B NOTES TO PA+ES #$=3#$B

impractica&le a02 h peless* A0 ther c mmittee i0 #B@=" , -hich & th H1tt a02 )ri!ht -ere mem&ers" 2eclare2 that :these e,, rts i0 the ca1se , h1ma0ity" c 0ti01e2 thr 1!h s ma0y years" m1st &e c 0si2ere2 as h 0 1ra&le t the 0ati 0" a02 the res1lts a,, r2e2 a str 0! i021ceme0t t persevere 10til this i0i51it 1s tra2e shall &e e0tirely a& lishe2*: (athies 0" +reat )ritai0 a02 the Slave Tra2e" #==3#=%* $<* Ha0sar2" Thir2 Series" COOOIO" ##;* .10e ?;" #B@@* $B* I&i2*" Thtr2 Series" LOOVI" #B<* .1ly ?" #B%%* $$* I&i2*" Thir2 Series" CL" ??>@* .10e #<" #B@B* #>>* I&i2*" Thir2 Series" LOOVII" #?$>" #?$?" #=>>" #=>?* Fe&* ?;" #B%@* #>#* I&i2*" Thir2 Series" LVIII" #$=* (ay 0" #B%#* #>?* I&i2*" Thir2 Series" LOOVII" #?$>* Fe&* ?;" #B%@* #>=* I&i2*" Thrr2 Series" LOOOVIII" %3@* .1ly ?<" #B%;* This -as a

petiti 0 ,r m Clar6s 0 t

the H 1se

, L r2s prese0te2 &y )r 1!ham*

#>%* (athies 0" +reat )ritai0 a02 the Slave Tra2e" =%3=@* The re,ere0ce is t :hea23m 0ey: % a t 0 0 every ship capt1re2 -ith 1t slaves" @ a hea2 0 slaves 2elivere2 alive" ?*#>*>* 0 th se -h 2ie2 a,ter capt1re* #>@* Ha0sar2" Thir2 Series" OCVI" B@* Fe&* %" #B%B* #>;* I&i2*" Thir2 Series" L" #=#* I0!lis" A1!* B" #B=$* #><* I&i2*" Thir2 Series" OCIO" #=?%* I0!lis" .10e ?$" #B%B* #>B* I&i2*" Thir2 Series" LOOOVIII" #;=* L1 te2 &y 'israeli" .1ly ?B" #B%;* #>$* (erivale" p* cit*" =>=3=>%*

1 * Ha0sar2" Thir2 Series" OCVI" #==* Fe&* %" #B%B* i0* ( rley" p* cit*" I" <B* ##?* Sypher" p* cit*" ?#<*

##=* E* )* 'y6es" The Ne!r i0 E0!lish R ma0tic Th 1!ht GWash3 i0!t 0" '* C*" #$%?H" <$3B>* ##%* Sypher" ##@* Le-is" p* cit*" ?#@3?#;9 'y6es" p* cit*" #@" #<* p* cit*" <>*

# # ;* I&i2*" #=3#%* ##<* T* Caryle" :The Ni!!er L1esti 0": i0 E0!lish a02 ther Critical Essays GEveryma07s E2iti 0" L 02 0" #$?@H* The -h le essay" -ritte0 i0 #B%$" sh 1l2 &e rea2* ##B* Ha0sar2" Thir2 Series" OCVI" #>@?* Fe&* ??" #B%B*

CHAPTER #? i* See C* L* R* .ames" The )lac6 .ac &i0s GL 02 0" #$=BH , r the slave rev l1ti 0 i0 Sai0t ' mi0!1e* H* Apthe6er" Ne!r Slave Rev lts i0 the U0ite2 States GNe- Y r6" #$%=H" sh 1l2 als &e c 0s1lte2* A0 a2mira&le sh rt s1mmary" , r the e0tire Wester0 Hemisphere" is t &e , 102 i0 Hers6 vits" p* cit*" B;3#>$* i a* C* O* ?BA$@* H 1se , Assem&ly" )ar&a2 s" N v* #@" #B?@*

NOTES TO PA+ES IpS3POO ?@$

?* C* O* ?BA$?* Rep rt , a 'e&ate i0 C 10cil 0 a 2espatch ,r m L r2 )ath1rst t Sir H* War2e" Sept* =" #B?=* (r* Ham2e0" pp* ?#3??* See als

C* O* ?$@A@$" -here the ! ver0 r , Tri0i2a2 ar!1e2 that this c 0cessi 0 t the ,emale slaves - 1l2 &e c 0si2ere2 a0 i0D1stice &y the me0* W 23 , r2 t )ath1rst" A1!* ;" #B?=9 C* O* ?$@A;>* (r* )1r0ley" 0e , the lea23 i0! pla0ters , Tri0i2a28 :I c 0,ess the i2ea appears t me s m 0str 1s a02 e4tra r2i0ary that I har2ly 60 - h - t appr ach the s1&Dect*: =* C* O* ?BA$?* Rep rt , a 'e&ate i0 C 10cil* * * * (r* Ham2e0" p* @* )ath1rst" N v* ?;" #B#<* )ath1rst" .1ly #>" #B#$*

%* C* O* #=<A#%@* Sha02 t

@* C* O* #=<A#%B* (a0chester t ;* C* O* ?BA$?* Rep rt

, a 'e&ate i0 C 10cil* * * * (r* Ham2e0" p* ?%* + ver0 r +ra0t" 'ec* =#" #B=#*

<* C* O* ?$@A$?* E2-ar2 .ac6s 0 t B* C* O* #=<A#@;* (a0chester t $* C* O* #=<A#;=* (a0chester t #>* C* O* #=<A#@%* (a0chester t # #* C* O* ii #A@@* '7Ur&a0 t

)ath1rst" 'ec* ?%" #B?%* )ath1rst" N v* #=" #B?;* )ath1rst" Oct* #=" #B?=* )ath1rst" .1ly %" #B?;* , ma013

#?* C* O* ?$@AB@* Oct* ?$" #B=>* The , ll -i0! is the 01m&er missi 0s" #B?@3#B=>8 Year N1m&er (a01missi 0s Fiel2 ' mestic (a01mitte2 Pai2 , r Slaves Slaves #B?@ #;? $B =B #?% #B?; #;< #>B %; #?# #B?< #;< #?$ %$ ##B #B?B #?B B% == $@ #B?$ B< %# #@ <? #B=> =? ?? ; ?; Gt Oct* ?$*H #=* C* O* ?$@A<?* W 2, r2 t )ath1rst" A1!* B" #B?;* H rt 0" Oct* @" #B?;*

#%* C* >* ?$@A<=* Stephe0 t

#@* C* O* ?$@A;<* He0ry +l ster" Pr tect r , Slaves" t + ver0 r W 2, r2" .1ly <" #B?@* Fit/!eral27s ret1r0s are as , ll -s8 Slave . h0 Philip :< stripes 0 that part -here i, the , t &e h stilely applie2 is c 0si2ere2 i0 all civili/e2 c 10tries a0 act , the vilest i02i!0ity:9 Slave Philip :?= stripes 0 that part -hich my L r2 Chester,iel2 str 0!ly rec mme02s t &e the last t e0ter a02 the ,irst t retire 0 all prese0ta3 ti 0s at levies a02 t 0ame -hich i0 the prese0ce , la2ies is c 0si2ere2 a !reat &reach i0 the la-s , p lite0ess:9 Slave Sim 0 (i02 :?= stripes 0 that partic1lar part , the & 2y c rp rate -hich is rarely !1ilty , a

crime &1t -hich pays , r tra0s!ressi 0s c mmitte2 &y # ;* )ell a02 ( rrell" p* cit*" p* =B?*

ther mem&ers*:

#<* C* O* ?BA>$* Carri0!t 0" A!e0t , r )ar&a2 s" t #B?;* #B* C* O* ?BA$=* War2e t #$* C* O* ?BA$?* Rep rt )ath1rst" Oct* ?#" #B?%*

)ath1rst" (arch ?"

, a 'e&ate i0 C 10cil* * * " p* ==*

?;> NOTES TO PA+ES ?OO3?O=

?>* C* O* #=<A#;@* (essa!e

, H 1se

, Assem&ly" 'ec* #B?<*

?#* C* O* #=<A#%=* Oct* =#" #B#@* ??* )ell a02 ( rrell" #B=B* p* cit*" %>@* Pr test , Assem&ly , .amaica" .10e"

?=* C* O* #=<A#B=* (a0chester t ?%* I&i2* (a0chester t

+ 2erich" N v* #=" #B=?*

+ 2erich" 'ec* #;" #B=?* , the .amaica 2ep1ties t )ritai0" N v*

?@* C* O* #=<A#B;* (em rial ?$" #B=?*

?;* C* O* #=<A#B=* (a0chester t 'ec* #;" #B=?*

+ 2erich" secret a02 c 0,i2e0tial"

?<* Ha0sar2" OOOI" <B#3<B?* (arry at" .10e #=" #B#@* ?B* C* O* #=<A#B=* (a0chester t 'ec* #;" #B=?* ?$* C* O* #=<A#B<* P* . 0es t =>* C* O* #=<A#B<* + 2erich t =#* The phrase is Ca00i0!7s* =?* C* O* #=<A#@%* (a0chester t ==* C* O* ?BA###* Smith t )ath1rst" 'ec* ?%" #B?=* + 2erich" secret a02 c 0,i2e0tial" + 2erich" Fe&* ??" #B=?* (a0chester" secret" (arch @" #B=?*

Sta0ley" .1ly #=" #B==*

=%* C* O* ?$@A$?* (em rial , r 1rselves a02 i0 &ehal, , all 1r ,ell s1&Dects , A,rica0 2esce0t Ge0cl se2 i0 + ver0 r +ra0t7s 2espatch t + 2erich" (arch ?;" #B=?H* =@* I&i2* +ra0t t + 2erich" (arch ?;" #B=?* + 2erich" .a0* ?<" #B=?*

=;* I&i2* William Cl10es t

=<* C* O* ?BA###* Smith t

Sta0ley" (ay ?=" #B==* )ath1rst" .a0* #@" #B#$*

=B* C* O* ?BABB* C m&e00ere t

=$* C* O* ###A;$* '7Ur&a0 t (1rray" April ?>" #B=>* See als C* O* ?$@AB<* Smith t + 2erich ,r m Tri0i2a2" .1ly #=" #B=#8 :The slaves have a0 10acc 10ta&le ,acility i0 &tai0i0! partial" a02 !e0erally 2is3 t rte2" i0, rmati 0 -he0ever a p1&lic 2 c1me0t is a& 1t t &e receive2 -hich ca0 i0 a0y -ay a,,ect their c 02iti 0 r stati 0*: %>* C* O* ?$@A$?* +ra0t t + 2erich" (arch ?;" #B=?*

%#* I&i2* +a/ette E4tra r2i0ary" (arch ?@" #B=?* %?* C* O* ?$@A$=* E4tract ,r m a Tri0i2a2 paper" 0*2* %=* C* O* ?$@A$?* +ra0t t H -ic6" April =>" #B=?*

%%* C* O* #=<A##$* C te t Castlerea!h" .10e ?<" #B><9 C* O* #=<A#?>" E2m102 Ly 0" A!e0t , r .amaica" t Castlerea!h" .1ly #<" #B><* %@* C* O* #=<A#%?* (a0chester t %;* C* O* #=<A#%=* E4tract %<* C* O* ?$@A=$* . April # B" #B#;* 00 Sp )ath1rst" .a0* ?;" #B#;*

, a letter ,r m .amaica" (ay ##" #B#;* 0er" , )ar&a2 s" t + ver0 r W 2, r2*

%B* C* O* ?BAB@* C # 3 C 22 t + ver0 r Leith" April ?@" #B#;9 I&i2** Rear A2miral Harvey t .* W* Cr 6er" April =>" #B#;* %$* C* O* ?$@A;>* A c mma02a0t A1!* =>" #B?=* @>* C* O* #=<A#%@* Sha02 t , Tri0i2a2 t + ver0 r W 2, r2"

)ath1rst" NOV" ?;" #B#<*

NOTES TO PA+ES ?>=3?>B ?;#

@#* C* O* ###A%%* '7Ur&a0 t )ath1rst" (ay @" #B?%* @? C* O* ?$@AB$* +ra0t t H -ic6" 'ec* #>" #B=#* @=* C* O* #=<A#B=* (1l!rave t @%* C* O* ?BA###* Smith t H -ic6" A1!* ;" #B=?*

Sta0ley" (ay ?=" #B==* Castlerea!h" .10e ;" #B>B* )ath1rst" .1ly =#" #B?%*

@@* C* O* # # #AB* Nich ls 0 t @;* C* O* #=<A#@;* (a0chester t @<* C* O* ?BAB@* Leith t @B* I&i2* C 22 t

)ath1rst" April =>" #B#;*

Leith" April ?@" #B#;*

@$* I&i2* Leith t

)ath1rst" April =>" #B#;* )ath1rst" (ay ?" #B#;*

;>* C* O* #=<A#%=* Ale4a02er Ai6ma0" .r* t ; #* C* O* #=<A#%?* (a0chester t ;?* C* O* ii #A=$* (1rray t ;=* I&i2* (1rray t

)ath1rst" (ay %" #B#;*

)ath1rst" A1!* ?%" #B?=*

)ath1rst" Sept* ?<" #B?=* )ath1rst" A1!* ?<" #B?=* )ath1rst" .1ly =#" #B?%* )ath1rst" (ay @" #B?%*

;%* C* O* ?BA$?* War2e t

;@* C* O* #=<A#@;* (a0chester t ;;* C* O* # # #A%%* '7Ur&a0 t ;<* I&i2* '7Ur&a0 t letter i0 0e 2ay*H ;B* I&i2* '7Ur&a0 t

)ath1rst" (ay @" #B?%* GThis -as the sec 02 )ath1rst" (ay #@" #B?%* + 2erich" (arch ?B" #B=#*

;$* C* O* ?BA#><* Ly 0 t <>* I&i2* Ly 0 t

+ 2erich" April ?" #B=#* + 2erich" .a0* ;" #B=?* + 2erich" (ay ?" #B=?*

<i*C* O* #=<A#B#* )elt0 re t <?* C* O* #=<A#B?* )elm re t <=* C* O* ?$@A$?* +ra0t t

H -ic6" April =>" #B=?* + 2erich" April ?;" #B==*

<%* C* O* #=<A#BB* (1l!rave t

<@* Ha0sar2" Thir2 Series" OIII" <<* (ay ?%" #B=?* <;* C* O* #=<A#$#* F* )* P1ic6e t <<* C* O* ?BA###* Smith t <B* I&i2* <$* I&i2* Smith t Sta0ley" (ay ?=" #B==* + ver0 r )elm re" (ay ?=" #B=?*

+ 2erich" (ay <" #B==*

CHAPTER #= i* +ast 03(arti0" Vtre 2es Ne!riers" #<#%3#<<% GParis" #$=#H" %?%*

)I)LIO+RAPHY

This & Aspect

6 is &ase2 0 a 2 ct ral 2issertati 0" :The Ec 0 mic , the A& liti 0 , the )ritish West I02ia0 Slave Tra2e a02

Slavery": s1&mitte2 t the Fac1lty , ( 2er0 Hist ry , O4, r2 U0iversity i0 Septem&er" #$=B* (a01script s 1rces have &ee0 c 03 s1lte2 chie,ly , r the years #<B=3#B==" the peri 2 c vere2 &y the 2issertati 0* I* PRI(ARY SOURCES G(ANUSCRIPTH A* PU)LIC RECOR' OFFICE" LON'ON #* C l 0ial O,,ice Papers* There is 0 0ee2 t stress the val1e , this s 1rce* While 51 tati 0s have &ee0 re21ce2 t a mi0im1m" th se selecte2 , r the te4t have &ee0 &ase2 0 a th r 1!h i0vesti!a3 ti 0 , m re tha0 ?=> v l1mes" em&raci0! .amaica" )ar&a2 s" Tri0i2a2 a02 'emerara G)ritish +1ia0aH" a02 c veri0! the peri 2 #<B$3#<$; Gthe early years , the A& liti 0 ( veme0tH a02 #B>< t #B==* The call 01m&ers are C*O* ?< G)ar&a2 sH" C*O* i0 G'e3 merara" that is" )ritish +1ia0aH" C*O* ?$@ GTri0i2a2H" C*O* #=< G.amaicaH* ?* Chatham Papers" +*'*AB* These -ere tappe2 0ly , r the c r3 resp 02e0ce a02 rec r2s , the y 10!er Pitt a02 0 t , his ,ather* (1ch i0, rmati 0 0 Chatham is scattere2 i0 the - r6 , Pares* The papers c 0s1lte2 yiel2e2 m1ch val1a&le material 0 the )ritish isla02s" Sai0t ' mi0!1e a02 I02ia" a02 as Pitt 2 mi0ate2 the )ritish parliame0tary sce0e ,r m #<B% 10til his 2eath i0 #B>;" the c llecti 0 is , car2i0al imp rta0ce* =* F rei!0 O,,ice Papers* These -ere 1se2 especially , r the years #<B< t #<$= a02 -ith speci,ic re,ere0ce t the )ritish ! ver0me0t7s attit12e t Fre0ch Sai0t ' mi0!1e9 a ,e- imp rta0t items have &ee0 i0cl12e2 i0 the te4t* The call 01m&er is F*O* ?< GFra0ceH* ?;?

)I)LIO+RAPHY ?;=

%* C1st ms Rec r2s* The rec r2s c 0s1lte2 -ere C1st ms B y )ritish e4p rts" , r the years #B#% t #B=?9 a02 C1st ms D" )ritish imp rts* )* )RITISH (USEU( #* Liverp l Papers* This is the m st imp rta0t , the c llecti 0 , A22iti 0al (a01scripts , r this st12y* The papers r10 i0t ma0y v l1mes9 speci,ic re,ere0ces 0 each ccasi 0 -ill &e , 102 i0 the N tes* As a West I02ia0 pr priet r a02 Presi2e0t , the ) ar2 , Tra2e" L r2 Ha-6es&1ry" later ,irst Earl , Liverp l" cc1pie2 a pr mi0e0t p siti 0 i0 the peri 2 , the A& liti 0 ( veme0t* His c rresp 02e0ce i0cl12es ma0y val1a&le letters a02 mem ra02a rela3 tive t the slave tra2e" the )ritish a02 Fre0ch c l 0ies" )ritish 0e! 3 tiati 0s -ith the re&elli 1s Fre0ch c l 0ists 21ri0! the -ar -ith Fra0ce" a02 the 51esti 0 , East I02ia S1!ar* ?* (i01te ) 6s , the C mmittee , r the A& liti 0 , the

Slave Tra2e three v l1mes c 0tai0i0! m1ch 1se,1l a02 perti0e0t material* =* A1c6la02 Papers* These are the papers , the )ritish e0v y se0t t pers1a2e the Fre0ch i0 #<B< t a& lish the slave tra2e9 they c 03 tai0 ,ive very val1a&le letters ,r m William Wil&er, rce t s1pple3 me0t the &i !raphies , the a& liti 0ist* %* H1s6iss 0 Papers* These papers c 0tai0 s me e4celle0t mate3 rial 0 H1s6iss 07s vie-s , ema0cipati 0" the West I02ia0s" a02 the a& liti 0ists* C* LIVERPOOL PU)LIC LI)RARY This li&rary p ssesses three imp rta0t ma01scripts , r this st12y* They are V l* #> , the H lt a02 +re!s 0 Papers" ,1ll , statistics 0 Liverp l7s 2epe02e0ce 0 the slave tra2e a02 letters ,r m (atthe- +re!s 0 0 the same s1&Dect9 c rresp 02e0ce , a slave tra2er" R &ert ) st c69 -ith his captai0s , r the years #<B$3#<$?9 a02 the . 1r0als , Liverp l Slave Ships" #<<$3#<BB* '* .OHN RYLAN'S LI)RARY" (ANCHESTER I0 this ,am 1s pr vi0cial li&rary" i0 a 6ey t -0 , r the 2evel p3 me0t , )ritish Capitalism a02 its relati 0 t Ne!r slavery" there are the hithert 101se2 E0!lish (a01scripts* The c llecti 0 c 03 tai0s m1ch material 0 East I02ia s1!ar a02 the & yc tt , West I02ia0 slave pr 21ce9 the letter , )14t 0 ,,eri0! Christia0ity t

?;% )I)LIO+RAPHY

the Ne!r es as c mpe0sati 0 , r slavery9 a02 a0 i0teresti0! letter ,r m T* )* Alaca1lay plea2i0! press1re , &1si0ess as the reas 0 , r his i0a&ility t c 0tri&1te t a pr Decte2 a0th l !y t cele&rate the Ema0cipati 0 Act* E* WlL)ERFORCE (USEU(" HULL This i0stit1ti 0 c 0tai0s very little material* A ,e- letters here a02 there" s1ch as +1r0ey7s 0 the val1e , Eva0!eli/ati 0 t A,rica" are 51 te2 i0 the te4t" -ith s1ch call 01m&ers as e4iste2 at the time , my visit G.10e #$=$H* The val1e , the (1se1m lies 0 t i0 its literary rec r2s &1t i0 its e4hi&it , the !r1es me i0str1me0ts 1se2 i0 the slave tra2e* I0 0e , the r ms there is a ,rame2 list , slaves 0 :Ora0!e Hill Estate: Gl cati 0 0 t !ive0H -hich" am 0! the classi,icati 0s acc r2i0! t la& r" a!e a02 c l r" has 0e i0teresti0! cate! ry i0t -hich ,all ,ive , the slaves" varyi0! i0 a!e ,r m i year a02 B m 0ths t ?> years :m 0!rels*: .1st -hat c 0stit1te2 a m 03 !rel" 0 a pla0tati 0 -ith the m re ,amiliar 2ivisi 0s , &lac6" m1latt " etc*" is 0 t clear* F* RHO'ES HOUSE LI)RARY" OOFOR'

I0 the p ssessi 0 , Rh 2es H 1se there is a ma01script v l1me i0 the ha02-riti0! , the a& liti 0ist" .ames Ramsay* It is a0 i0ter3 esti0! c llecti 0 , 0 tes" mem ra02a a02 speeches 1se,1l 0 t 0ly , r a st12y , the a& liti 0 m veme0t i0 !e0eral &1t , r the li!ht they thr - 0 a0 a& liti 0ist t little 60 -0 ,r m his ,e- pam3 phlets a02 the evi2e0ce he !ave &e, re the Privy C 10cil i0 #<BB* +* )ANF OF EN+LAN' RECOR' OFFICE" ROEHA(PTON" LON'ON The St c6 Le2!ers , the East I02ia C mpa0y are 6ept here* The v l1mes e4ami0e2 -ere the East I02ia C mpa0y S1&scripti 0 D 1r0als t "B>>">>> a22iti 0al st c6" .1ly" #<B;" a02 East I02ia C mpa0y St c6 Le2!ers" #<B=3#<$#" #<$#3#<$;* They -ere c 03 s1lte2 , r the c 00ecti 0 &et-ee0 East I02ia0s a02 a& liti 0ists*

II* PRI(ARY SOURCES GPRINTE'H i * Ha0sar2* The imp rta0ce , the Parliame0tary 'e&ates , r this peri 2 0ee2s t &e emphasi/e2" , r -ith th,e e4cepti 0 , 0e )ritish -riter" W* L* (athies 0" 0 real attempt has &ee0 ma2e t 1tili/e a s 1rce -h se val1e" it mi!ht &e th 1!ht" - 1l2 &e rea2ily ap3

)I)LIO+RAPHY ?;@

pare0t* The 2e&ates have &ee0 th r 1!hly c vere2" , r the years #;@> t #B;>* F r the earlier peri 2 e02i0! r 1!hly at #<;>" the speeches are -i2ely scattere2" &1t" , rt10ately , r the st12e0t" they have &ee0 c llecte2 a02 c mpile2 i0 a0 easily c 0s1lte2 , rm &y a pai0sta6i0! - r6er" L* F* St c6" 102er the title , Pr cee2i0!s a02 'e&ates i0 the )ritish Parliame0t respecti0! N rth America" a02 p1&lishe2" i0 ,ive v l1mes t 2ate" 102er the a1spices , the Car3 0e!ie I0stit1ti 0* F r the years #<;> t #B;> the parliame0tary 2e&ates appear 102er the , ll -i0! 2i,,ere0t titles8 #<;> t #B>=" C &&er,s Parlia3 me0tary Hist ry , E0!la029 #B>= t #B#?" C && er, s Parliame0tary 'e&ates9 #B#? t #B?>" Ha0sar29 #B?> t #B=>" Ha0sar2" Ne- Series9 #B=> t #B;>" Ha0sar2" Thir2 Series* I have 6ept this ,,icial 2ivisi 0 t ,acilitate chec6i0! r c 0s1ltati 0* This seeme2 m re satis,act ry tha0 the 1se , the si0!le - r2 Ha0sar2 t c ver e0tirely 2i,,ere0t series" -hich - 1l2 e0tail seri 1s c 0,1si 0 as ,ar as 2i,,ere0t v l3 1mes are c 0cer0e2* I0 the earlier peri 2 ma0y years7 2e&ates are i0cl12e2 i0 a si0!le v l1me9 , r the 2e&ates , r #B%@ a02 later years i0 !e0eral" a si0!le year mea0s 1s1ally , 1r separate v l1mes* ?* ' c1me0ts Ill1strative , the Slave Tra2e t mar6a&le , 1r3v l1me - r6" a0 ther p1&licati 0 I0stit1ti 0" p1ts the st12e0t , Ne!r slavery , the late Pr ,ess r Eli/a&eth ' 00a0 a02 her prese0t p1rp ses the m st imp rta0t v l1me -as 2eals -ith the ei!htee0th ce0t1ry a02 the West America* This re3 , the Car0e!ie eter0ally i0 the 2e&t a&le assista0ts* F r V l1me II" -hich I02ies* )1t V l1me

I" the seve0tee0th ce0t1ry" is als very 1se,1l especially , r the peri 2 a,ter #;BB" -hile" -here 0ecessary" V l1mes III a02 IV" 2eal3 i0! -ith the N rther0 a02 (i22le" a02 the S 1ther0 C l 0ies , the mai0la02 respectively" have &ee0 c 0s1lte2* =* Parliame0tary Papers* U02er this hea2i0! I i0cl12e the papers s1&mitte2 t Parliame0t a02 evi2e0ce c llecte2 &y Parliame0tary C mmittees* A 2etaile2 list is 100ecessary i0 vie- , re,ere0ces !ive0 i0 the N tes" &1t ,r m # <B% t # B%B there are ma0y 1se,1l re3 p rts -hich ca00 t &e i!0 re2 , r a st12y , the West I02ies* I, 0ly &eca1se its e4iste0ce is little 60 -0 a02 its vast p ssi&ilities are still t &e e4pl re2" special me0ti 0 sh 1l2 &e ma2e , V l1me %B , the Sessi 0al Papers , r the Years #B=<3#B=B" -hich !ives a 2e3 taile2 list , the claims , r c mpe0sati 0 , slaves i0 acc r2a0ce -ith the Ema0cipati 0 Act , #B==* The 0ly c mplete c llecti 0 , the Parliame0tary Papers i0 e4iste0ce is i0 the )ritish (1se1m* %* Rep rt , the C mmittee , the L r2s , the Privy C 10cil

?;; )I)LIO+RAPHY

, r all (atters Relati0! t Tra2e a02 F rei!0 Pla0tati 0s" #<BB* This is a0 i02ispe0sa&le 2 c1me0t , r a0y 0e -h see6s t 102er3 sta02 the sit1ati 0 , the s1!ar c l 0ies a,ter the America0 Rev l13 ti 0* It is certai0 that it -as this rep rt -hich e4plai0s the attit12e , Pitt t the slave tra2e* R100i0! i0t ma0y pa!es" its m st imp r3 ta0t secti 0s are Part III" 2eali0! -ith the c 02iti 0s , the slaves9 Part V" Fre0ch c mpetiti 0 i0 the s1!ar tra2e9 a02 Part VI" (is3 cella0e 1s Papers receive2 i0 the late sta!es , p1&licati 0 , the Rep rt* @* The c rresp 02e0ce a02 mem ra02a , vari 1s lea2i0! states3 me0 , the peri 2 have &ee0 p1&lishe2" at least i0 part Ca00i0!" Castlerea!h" Welli0!t 0 a02 +re0ville Gthe last &y the Hist rical (a01scripts C mmissi 0 102er the title , The (a01scripts , A* )* F rtesc1e Es5*" preserve2 at 'r pm reH* I0 this cate! ry mi!ht -ell &e i0cl12e2 the C rresp 02e0ce , William Wil&er, rce a02 the Private Papers , William Wil&er, rce" p1&lishe2 &y his s 0s* ;* Cale02ar , State Papers" C l 0ial Series" America a02 West I02ies* E51ippe2 -ith a0 e4celle0t i02e4" these v l1mes i0cl12e ma0y items" !e0erally i0 c 02e0se2 , rm" relative t the West I02ies" s1!ar c1ltivati 0" the slave tra2e" a02 ec 0 mic relati 0s &et-ee0 isla02s a02 mai0la02" -hile they als c 0tai0 m1ch 1se,1l i0, rmati 0 0 the -hite serva0ts i0 the isla02s* The v l1mes c 03 s1lte2 c ver the peri 2 #;## t #;$<* III* SECON'ARY SOURCES A* CONTE(PORARY The c 0temp rary material is v l1mi0 1s* The -riti0!s , the lea2i0! merca0tilists" P stleth-ayt" 'ave0a0t" +ee" Sir 'al&y

Th mas" W 2" have &ee0 care,1lly e4ami0e29 s has The Wealth , Nati 0s" the a0ti3merca0tilist classic* C 0temp rary i0, rmati 0 0 the i02e0t1re2 serva0ts is limite2" &1t -hat e4ists is 1se,1l* The &itter p lemical -ar,are &et-ee0 West I02ia0s a02 East I02ia07s" , !reat imp rta0ce" has &ee0 th r 1!hly i0vesti!ate29 i0 a22iti 0 t the material i0 the )ritish (1se1m" there -ere the res 1rces , the I02ia O,,ice Li&rary a02 the pamphlet series , the . h0 Ryla02s Li&rary* )rya0 E2-ar2s7 -ell360 -0 Hist ry , the )ritish West I02ies 2eserves s me 0 tice" 0 t 0ly , r its i0tri0sic val1e" &1t as 0e , th se rare c1lt1ral la02mar6s i0 a slave s ciety -hich" 103 li6e the slave s ciety , +reece" 2espise2 e21cati 0 a02 2i2 0 t

)I)LIO+RAPHY ?;<

repr 21ce a0y , the !reat !i,ts , +reece t the - rl2* I0 a22iti 0 01mer 1s l cal hist ries" especially , the !reat seap rt t -0s a02 i021strial ce0ters" a02 c 0temp rary acc 10ts , the !r -th , )ritish c mmerce a02 i021stry" have &ee0 e4ami0e2* The -riti0!s , the a& liti 0ists themselves have &ee0 1se2 t a lar!e e4te0t" espe3 cially the -ell360 -0 ,ive3v l1me" ram&li0! &1t i0, rmative &i !3 raphy , Wil&er, rce &y his s 0s* )* (O'ERN The listi0! , a1th rities a02 s 1rces is 100ecessary i0 a0y st12y , the )ritish West I02ies -hich c vers the years #<;=3#B==* There is a st ry t the e,,ect that i0 the a& liti 0ist circle" -he03 ever a p i0t -as i0 2isp1te" s me 0e - 1l2 remar6" :L 6 it 1p i0 (aca1lay*: :L 6 it 1p i0 Ra!at/: - 1l2 0 t &e a0 e4a!!erati 0 , r Cari&&ea0 hist ry 21ri0! the peri 2 #<;=3#B==* Ra!at/7 The Fall , the Pla0ter Class i0 the )ritish Cari&&ea0 is a c mprehe0sive st12y , the ri!i0al s 1rces* His +1i2e , r the St12y , )ritish Cari&&ea0 Hist ry" #<;=3#B=% GWashi0!t 0" '* C" #$=?H is a0 i03 2ispe0sa&le ai2 t the st12e0t , the Cari&&ea0" -h -ill ,i02 i0 it 0 t 0ly a c mplete list , - r6s , all s rts &1t als a s1cci0ct precis , the lea2i0! i2eas a2va0ce2 i0 each - r6* The same -riter7s Statistics , r the St12y , )ritish Cari&&ea0 Hist ry" #<;=3#B== !ives val1a&le statistical 2ata* The Chec6 Lists , H 1se , C m3 m 0s a02 H 1se , L r2s Sessi 0al Papers" #<;=3#B=% sh 1l2 &e c 03 s1lte2 &y all st12e0ts &a,,le2 &y appare0tly c 0,licti0! -ays , re3 ,erri0! t s1ch papers i0 this peri 2* Pr ,ess r Ra!at/7 three &i&li !3 raphies8 A List , ) 6s a02 Articles 0 C l 0ial Hist ry a02 Overseas E4pa0si 0 p1&lishe2 i0 the U0ite2 States" , r the years #$>>3#$=>" #$=#3#$=?" #$==3#$=@" respectively" cite 01mer 1s & 6s a02 articles -hich treat , the p siti 0 , the -hite i02e0t1re2 serva0t* Fi0ally his m st rece0t &i&li !raphy8 A )i&li !raphy , r the St12y , E1r pea0 Hist ry" #B#@ t #$=$ GA00 Ar& r" #$%?H !ives" 0 pa!es #%>3#@B" a0 e4ha1stive list , - r6s 0 the U0ite2 Fi0!2 m" -hich c 0tai0s ma0y 1se,1l titles , r the 2evel pme0t , )ritai0 i0 the 0i0etee0th ce0t1ry* A,ter Pr ,ess r Ra!at/ c mes yet a0 ther America0 sch lar -h se - r6 0 the Cari&&ea0 2eserves especial me0ti 0" m re s as

it act1ally s1ppleme0ts" i0 the peri 2 , -hich it treats" the research , Ra!at/* Pr ,ess r Fra06 Pitma07s The 'evel pme0t , the )ritish West I02ies" #<>>3#<;= is a0 ther 1tsta02i0! piece , - r6

)I)LIO+RAPHY

&ase2" li6e Ra!at/7" 0 a care,1l a0alysis , ri!i0al same a1th r7s essay 0 The Settleme0t a02 Fi0a0ci0! , West I02ia Pla0tati 0s i0 the Ei!htee0th Ce0t1ry" 0e essays -ritte0 &y st12e0ts , C* (* A02re-s i0 his h 0 i0! sh rt , a masterpiece*

materials* The )ritish , ma0y r" is 0 th3

T- E0!lish st12ies 2eserve t &e separate2 ,r m the i2ealistic a02 !ar&le2 versi 0s , slavery ,amiliar i0 E0!la02* Richar2 Pares7 War a02 Tra2e i0 the West I02ies" #<=$3##;=" -hile i0evita&ly ,1ll , -ar a02 2ipl macy" 0 0e the less c 0tai0s vital i0, rmati 0 0 the West I02ies" a02 is , !reat imp rta0ce , r the attit12e , the West I02ia0 pla0ters t the , rei!0 s1!ar c l 0ies* Where the s cial a02 ec 0 mic -ith Pares are s1& r2i0ate" they 2 mi0ate -ith W* L* )1r0* The latter7s Ema0cipati 0 a02 Appre0ticeship i0 the )ritish West I02ies is a sch larly a0alysis , the appre0ticeship system" #B==3#B=B" th 1!h the ,irst three chapters , the & 6" -hich 2eal -ith ema0cipati 0" are , less val1e" partly &eca1se the a1th r -as c 0te0t -ith sec 02ary s 1rces* Am 0! the lesser E0!lish -riters" W* L* (athies 0 is e0title2 t s me me0ti 0 i, 0ly &eca1se -hile" li6e C 1pla02" he 1se2 0ly sec 02ary s 1rces" 10li6e C 1pla02" he 1se2 them -ell a02 remem&ere2 that E0!la02 has a Parliame0t" -here 2e&ates are hel2* With a &etter i02e4" his , 1r - r6s 0 slavery - 1l2 &e 1se,1l re,ere0ces* C 1pla02 represe0ts the se0ti3 me0tal c 0cepti 0 , hist ry9 his - r6s help 1s t 102ersta02 -hat the a& liti 0 m veme0t -as 0 t* C mpare2 -ith his earlier ve0t1re i0t the ,iel2 , slavery" E0!la02 a02 Slavery GL 02 0" #$=%H" C* (* (acl00es7 )rist l" a +ate-ay , Empire is a healthy 2e3 part1re ,r m em ti 0al t scie0ti,ic hist ry9 the latter - r6 is &ase2 0 10p1&lishe2 materials i0 the )rist l archives* America0 hist rical i2ealism is represe0te2 &y F* .* Fli0!&er!7s The A0ti3Slavery ( ve3 me0t i0 E0!la02* Special me0ti 0 m1st &e ma2e , t- st12ies -hich prese0t i0 a !e0eral Cay the relati 0ship &et-ee0 capitalism a02 slavery* The ,irst is a (aster7s essay &y W* E* Williams8 A,rica a02 the Rise , Capitalis,Hy p1&lishe2 &y the 'ivisi 0 , the S cial Scie0ces , H -ar2 U0iversity i0 #$=B* The sec 02 a02 m re imp rta0t is C* L* R* .ames" The )lac6 .ac &i0s" T 1ssai0t UO1vert1re a02 the Sa0 ' mi0! Rev l1ti 0 GL 02 0" #$=BH* O0 pa!es =B3%# the thesis a2va0ce2 i0 this & 6 is state2 clearly a02 c 0cisely a02" as ,ar as I 60 -" , r the ,irst time i0 E0!lish* I0 the ,iel2 , c l 0ial p licy i0 !e0eral" t- & 6s are i02is3 pe0sa&le* C* (* A02re-s" The C l 0ial Peri 2 , America0 Hist ry" 0 t merely i0cl12es e4celle0t chapters 0 )ar&a2 s a02

)I)LIO+RAPHY ?;$

.amaica9 it p1ts the s1!ar isla02s i0 their pr per perspective i0 the merca0tilist pict1re" -hile his 2escripti 0 a02 a0alysis , the la-s , tra2e a02 the c l 0ial system i0 !e0eral are a0 esse0tial i0tr 21cti 0 t a0y st12e0t , the ,irst )ritish Empire* Less &r a2 i0 sc pe" &1t D1st as perti0e0t" is +* L* )eer7s The Ol2 C l 0ial System* (erivale7s lect1res at O4, r2 21ri0! the years #B=$ t #B%# 0 C l 0i/ati 0 a02 C l 0ies is O4, r2 sch larship at its &est" -hile )ell a02 ( r3 rell7s Select ' cm0e0ts 0 )ritish C l 0ial P licy" #B=>3#B;> i03 cl12es s me very val1a&le repr 21cti 0s , ri!i0al 2 c1me0ts , r a vital peri 2* F r special st12ies , the West I02ies 102er the l2 c l 0ial system the - r6s , Harl -" Williams 0" a02 Hi!ham are very imp rta0t" Harl -7s Hist ry , )ar&a2 s &ei0! the &est , the three as sh -i0! a0 102ersta02i0! , the ,act that )ar&a2ia0 , r that matter" )ritish West I02ia0 pr &lems , the t-e0tieth ce03 t1ry have their r ts i0 the ec 0 mic a02 s cial cha0!es , the seve0tee0th" represe0te2 &y s1!ar a02 slavery* W r6s 0 the !r -th a02 2evel pme0t , i02ivi21al )ritish i021stries are i02icate2 i0 the N tes t the respective chapters* F r the &est !e0eral treatme0t , the 2evel pme0t , capitalism i0 E0!la02" 0ly t- 0ames 0ee2 &e me0ti 0e2 (a0t 14 a02 Clap3 ham* Chapter V , Clapham7s Ec 0 mic Hist ry , ( 2er0 )ritai0" The Early Rail-ay A!e" is the &est sh rt a0alysis , the I021strial Rev l1ti 0" -hile his essay 0 1 The I021strial Rev l1ti 0 a02 the C l 0ies" #<B=3#B??: i0 V l* II , the Cam&ri2!e Hist ry , the )ritish Empire sh -s a m re i0telli!e0t 102ersta02i0! , the a& liti 0 m veme0t a02 the 2estr1cti 0 , West I02ia0 slavery tha0 is t &e , 102 i0 all the - r6s , the : ,,icial: )ritish hist ria0s* I0 the ,iel2 , literat1re Pr ,ess r Sypher7s +1i0ea7s Captive Fi0!s8 )ritish A0ti3Slavery Literat1re , the OVI llth Ce0t1ry is 0e , th se e4celle0t st12ies 0 Ne!r slavery -hich -e have lear0e2 t ass ciate -ith the U0iversity , N rth Car li0a Press* While the & 6 is very -ea6 i0 s me respects 10par2 0a&ly -ea6 ,r m the p litical a0!le" it is a0 i0telli!e0t a02 c mpre3 he0sive a0alysis , the literat1re , the peri 2" a02 as s1ch" a 1se,1l ai2 , r the s cial scie0ces* It ca0 pr ,ita&ly &e s1ppleme0te2 &y a rece0t p1&licati 0 , 0e , my c llea!1es" 'r* Eva 'y6es7 The Ne!r i0 E0!lish R -a0tic Th 1!ht GAss ciate2 P1&lishers" Wash3 i0!t 0" '* C" #$%?H* (ar!1erite Stee07s &est3seller 0 vel" The S10 is (y U02 i0!" reveals a pr , 102 102ersta02i0! , the tria0!1lar tra2e a02 its imp rta0ce t )ritish capitalism* S1ch s 1rces as have &ee0 1se2 , r the 2evel pme0t , Fre0ch Sai0t ' mi0!1e a02 Spa0ish C1&a 21ri0! the peri 2 102er revie-

?<> )I)LIO+RAPHY

have 0ecessarily &ee0 sec 02ary s 1rces* F r Fra0ce the m st im3 p rta0t -riter is +ast 03(arti0* A R se0-al2 Fell -ship i0 the s1mmer , #$%> permitte2 me t - r6 i0 the archives a02 li&raries , C1&a* Pe/1ela7s c mprehe0sive 'icci 0ari , the Isla02 i0cl12es e4celle0t material 102er the hea2i0! :A/1car: GS1!arH" -hile L s I0!e0i s 2e la Isla 2e C1&a" &y a c 0temp rary s1!ar &ar 0" Ca0ter " is a lyrical" pr ,1sely ill1strate2" val1a&le a02 rare - r6* I have" i0 three p1&lishe2 articles" treate2 i0 !reater 2etail s me the iss1es c1rre0tly raise28 :The + l2e0 A!e , the Slave System i0 )ritai0: G. 1r0al , Ne!r Hist ry" .a0* #$%>H9 NNThe I0ter3 c l 0ial Slave Tra2e a,ter its A& liti 0 i0 #B><: G. 1r0al , Ne!r Hist ry" April #$%?H9 :Pr tecti 0" Laisser3Faire a02 S1!ar: GP lit3 ical Scie0ce L1arterly" (arch #$%=H* ,

IN'EO

A& liti 0ists" hyp crisy ," =%9 si!0i,ica0ce , attac6 0 W* I*" #=@3=;9 stre0!th , i0 i021strial ce0ters" #@%9 i0 (a0chester" #@@9 i0 )irmi0!ham" #@<3@B9 i0 She,3 ,iel2" # @$9 & yc tt , slave3!r -0 pr 21ce &y" #@$" #B=3B%" #$>9 s1pp rt , C &2e0 &y" #;#9 A* C mmittee" #;;" #B?3B=9 p rtraits ," #<$3B?9 a02 ema0cipati 0" #B?3B=9 0 East I02ia s1!ar" #B=3 BB9 relati 0s -ith East I02ia0s" #B=3BB9 0 )ra/ilia0 s1!ar" #BB3 $#" #$=3$%9 0 10iversal a& liti 0 , slave tra2e" #B$9 0 rec 051est , Sai0t ' mi0!1e" #B$ A&se0tee pla0ters" a02 'e,icie0cy La-s" ?@" B;3B<9 c 0se51e0ces , a&se0teeism" B@3B;9 (erivale 0" B;9 s cial p siti 0 i0 E0!la02" $# A2ams" . h0" #?>3?# A,rica" )ritish tra2e -ith" @%3@@" #<#9 tra2e c mpare2 -ith Amer3 ica0 mai0la02 c l 0ies" @%3@@9 shippi0! a02 tra2e -ith" @B9 )rist l7s tra2e -ith" ;#9 e4p rts , - l t " ;@3;B9 (a0chester7s tra2e -ith" ;B3<>9 e4p rts , r1m t " <B3B>9 ir 0 e4p rts t " B#3B?9 e4p rts , !10s t " B?9 e4p rts , &rass t " B= A!ric1lt1ral Rev l1ti 0" $B" #?>

America0 mai0la02 c l 0ies" tra2e

-ith )ritai0 c mpare2 -ith W* I* tra2e" @=3@@9 shippi0! a02 tra2e -ith" @B9 tria0!1lar tra2e ," <B" B>" # # ;9 m lasses a02" B>3B #" ##@3#;" ##B3?>9 e4p rts t W* I*" # >B9 attit12e , merca0tilists t " #>$3##9 pers 0al c 0tacts -ith West I02ia0s" ##?9 ec 0 mic re3 lati 0s -ith W* I*" #>B3??9 tra2e -ith , rei!0 W* I*" ##@3?>9 mer3 ca0tilists 0 tra2e , -ith , r3 ei!0 W* I*" ##;3#$9 William W 2 0 tra2e , -ith , rei!0 W* I*" ##B3#$9 e,,ect , ( lasses Act 0" ##$9 e,,ect , S1!ar '1ties Act 0" ##$3?> America0 Rev l1ti 0" @>" #=>9 e,,ect 0 slave tra2e" =B9 e,,ect 0 c tt 0 tra2e" ;$" <?9 e,,ect 0 s1!ar tra2e" <<3<B9 e,,ect 0 mer3 ca0tilism" >;" #><" #?>9 m lasses a0 esse0tial i0!re2ie0t ," #?>9 e,,ect 0 W* I*" #?>3?@9 e,,ect 0 W* I* slave system" #?=3?%9 e,,ect 0 l2 c l 0ial system" #?%3?;9 )ritish reacti 0 t " ?>$3#> A02re-s" C* (*" @; A0!l 3Fre0ch rivalry" rival mer3 ca0tilisms" %>9 i0 s1!ar tra2e" <<3 <B" ##;" #??3?=" H@3%B A0ti3C r0 La- Lea!1e" #=<" #@@" #;> A0ti!1a" tra2e , c mpare2 -ith

?<#

?<? IN'EO

America0 mai0la02 c l 0ies" @%3 @@9 2ecli0e , s1!ar pr 21cti 0 i0" #@>3@#9 ema0cipati 0 i0" #$#9

slave rev lt i0" ?>; Appre0ticeship" )irmi0!ham #@B9 She,,iel2 0" #@$ 0"

Asie0t " imp rta0ce ," ==9 P stle3 th-ayt 0" ==9 t P rt1!al" =$9 A0!l 3Fre0ch str1!!le , r" %>9 )ish p R &i0s 0 a02" %? Att2" Th mas" #@B ," #B%3B@

A1c6la02" Earl

A1stralia" la& r pr &lem i0" @9 c 0vict la& r i0" #?9 -hite la& r i0" ??3?=9 - le0 pr 21cti 0 ," #=#9 ( les- rth 0" #%= .'ac 0" A0t 0y" #>=3% )aillie ,amily" ;? )aptists" %= )ar&a2 s" <9 ! ver0 r 0 -ea60ess , Spai0" %9 ( 0m 1th7s , ll -3 ers se0t t " #=9 c 02iti 0s , serva0ts" #;3#<9 cheap0ess , &lac6 la& r i0" #$9 2ecli0e , -hite p p1lati 0" ?=9 i0crease , &lac6 p p1lati 0" ?=9 e43serva0ts" ?%9 Re2le!s" ?@9 s1!ar a02 i03 crease , -ealth" ?@9 !r -th , Lati,102ia" ?@9 0 Christia0ity , r slaves" %?9 tra2e , c mpare2 -ith America0 mai0la02 c l 3 0ies" @%3@@9 0 ,ree tra2e i0 s1!ar" @;3@<9 - le0 imp rts" ;<9 C 2ri0!t 0 ,amily i0" >>9 Charles II 0 imp rta0ce ," #>B9 ! ver0 r 0 tra2e -ith NeE0!la02" 0 9 s il e4ha1sti 0 i0" ##?3#=9 attit12e t 0e- settle3 me0ts" ##=9 c mpare2 -ith Fre0ch isla02s" ##=3#%9 s1!ar pr 3 21cti 0 i0" #@#9 ema0cipati 0 i0" #$#9 0 p licy , ameli rati 0" #$<3>$9 attit12e , pla0ters t slaves" ?>#9 ,ree pe ple , c l r

i0" ?>#9 misc 0cepti 0s , slaves i0" ?>=3%9 s C ave rev lts i0" ?>%3;9 ! ver0 r 0 slave rev lt i0 )ritish +1ia0a" ?>@9 ! ver0 r 0

cr1elty

, s1spe0se" ?><3B ,"

)arclay ,amily" slave tra2i0! %=9 &a06i0! i0terests ," #># )ari0! ,amily" %=" #<#

)ec6, r2" William" F 0thill (a03 si 0" B<3BB9 slave c mpe0sati 0 t " BB9 ,amily 2y0asty i0 Parlia3 me0t" $=9 (ay r , L 02 0" $@9 0 i0crease , s1!ar 21ties" >;9 master ir 0m 0!er" #>%9 r le , i0 peace treaty , #<;=" ##@ )irmi0!ham" i0 a!e , i021stry" ;>9 !10 tra2e ," B?9 W* I* tra2e ," B?3B=9 e4p rts , &rass ," B=9 slave tra2e a02" B?" B%9 0 a& li3 ti 0" B%9 0 Re, rm )ill" #=%9 pp siti 0 t W* I* m 0 p ly" #@%9 a& liti 0 m veme0t i0" #@<3 @B9 i0terest i0 slave tra2e" #@B )l102cll" )rya0" %< ) lt 0" . h0" $=" $@ ) 1lt 0" (atthe-" #>?" #?;3?<" #=#" #@< )ra/il" slave tra2e" %<" #%>" #<>3<@" #$?9 c tt 0 e4p rts" <#3<?9 )rit3 ish e4p rts t " #=?9 restricti 0s 0 )ritish tra2e -ith" #=B9 s1!ar c1ltivati 0 i0" #%@" #@>3@?9 s1!ar e4p rts t )ritai0" #@#9 s1!ar e43 p rts t E1r pe" #@#9 imp rta3 ti 0 , s1!ar , , r re,i0i0!" #@@" #;=" #;<" #$=3$%9 (a0chester 0 s1!ar ," #@@9 )ra/ilia0 Ass 3 ciati 0 i0 Liverp l" #;?9 +las3 ! - 0 s1!ar ," #;=9 & yc tt , pr 21ce ," #<>3<#9 )ritish tra2e -ith" #<?9 a& liti 0ists 0 imp rtati 0 , s1!ar ," #BB3$# )ri!ht" . h0" 0 W* I* m 0 p ly" #@;9 0 )ritish capital i0 )ra3 /ilia0 slave tra2e" #<?9 0 s1p3

IN'EO ?<=

pressi 0 , slave tra2e" #<= )rist l" tra2e i0 i02e0t1re2 serv3 a0ts" #>" #$9 6i20api0!" 09 .e,3 ,reys7 visitati 0 t " #%3#@9 slave tra2e" =?" ;#9 Lar6s 07s i0vesti3 !ati 0s i0" =@9 pr ,its , slave tra2e i0" =;9 E2m102 )1r6e as represe0tative ," %#9 pr test a!ai0st c l 0ial 21ties 0 slave imp rts" %#9 e0th1siasm ver re3 Decti 0 , Wil&er, rce7s a& li3 ti 0 &ill" %?9 c mmittee , #<B$ t pp se a& liti 0" %B" ;#" #>#9 i0 a!e , tra2e" ;>9 p p1larity , tra2e i0" ;>3;#9 W* I* tra2e" ;>3 ;?9 c1st ms 21ties i0" ;#9 -har,3 a!e 21es i0" ;#9 tria0!1lar tra2e ," ;#9 mem&ers , Parliame0t ass ciate2 -ith W* I*" ;?" <%" $=9 s1!ar re,i0i0! i021stry" <=3<%" <<3<B9 2istilleries i0" <$9 pac tille tra2e" B#9 &rass i021stry i0" B=9 &a06i0! i0" #>#9 0 Re, rm )ill" #=% )ritish +1ia0a" East I02ia0 immi3 !rati 0 t " ?B9 +la2st 0e pla0ta3 ti 0s i0" B$" $=9 a& liti 0 i0" #@>3 @#9 s1!ar pr 21cti 0 i0" #@#" #@=9 p licy , ameli rati 0 i0" #$<3>$9 )1sh Ne!r es i0" ?>?9 ! ver0 r 0 alert0ess , slaves" ?>?9 mis3 c 0cepti 0s , slaves i0" ?>=9 slave rev lts i0" ?>%3@ )r 1!ham" L r2" #B#9 0 a&se0tee pla0ters" B;9 represe0tative , Y r6" # @$9 sp 6esma0 , r - le0 i021stry" #;>9 0 )ritish capital i0 )ra/ilia0 slave tra2e" #<?9 0 P -0all ame02me0t" #B=9 0 slavery i0 I02ia" #B;9 0 e51ali/a3 ti 0 , s1!ar 21ties" #BB9 0 slavery i0 s1!ar &1t 0 t i0 c t3 t 0" #$= )1r6e" E2m102" #<" %#" <= )1r0" W* L*" #=?" #BB

)14t 0" P -ell" %$9 0 !ra21al ema0cipati 0" #B?9 0 P -0all ame02me0t" #B=9 0 slavery i0

I02ia" #B@3B;9 0 e51ali/ati 0 , s1!ar 21ties" #BB9 0 imp rtati 0 , )ra/ilia0 s1!ar" #$#9 0 ema03 cipati 0" #$#3$?9 0 s1ppressi 0 , slave tra2e" #$?9 s 0 ," #$= vCa0a2a" a sec1re a02 certai0 i03 vestme0t" %9 V ltaire 0" ##%9 )ritish ac51isiti 0 ," ##%3#@9 c mpare2 -ith +re0a2a" ##%9 'israeli 0" #%% Ca00i0!" +e r!e" attit12e t West I02ia0s" $@3$;9 0 i02epe02e0ce , Lati0 America" #=?9 repre3 se0tative , Liverp l" #;?9 0 )ra/ilia0 tra2e" #<>3<# Capitalism" )ritish" attac6 0 W*I* system" #=;9 attac6 0 m 0 p ly" #=$9 pp se2 t c l 0ies" #%?3%@9 0 verpr 21cti 0 , s1!ar i0 West I02ies" #@?9 pp se2 t W* I* m 0 p ly" #@%3;B9 pp se2 t s1ppressi 0 , slave tra2e" #;$3<<9 attit12e t W* I* slavery" #;$ Carlyle" Th mas" #$@3$; Castlerea!h" L r2" #B$ Chatham" Earl ," 0 )ritish slave tra2e" %>9 0 c l 0ial ma01,ac3 t1res" @;9 attit12e t West I03 2ia0s" $@9 i0,l1e0ce , )ec6, r2 0" $@" ##@9 0 mai0la02 tra2e -ith , rei!0 W* I*" ##< Chil2" Sir . siah" 0 emi!rati 0" # ;9 0 val1e , la& r i0 W* L" @?9 0 Ne- E0!la02" #>$ Chi0a" ?>" #=#9 Chi0ese i0 C1&a" ?$9 )ritish e4p rts t " #=?" #=% Ch1rch" the" a02 slavery" %?3%% Clapham" .* H*" #?<" #?$ Clapham Sect" #B#" #B; Clar6s 0" Th mas" 0 si/e ,

?<% IN'EO

slave ships" =@9 0 tra0sp rtati 0 , slaves" =@9 0 rise , Liverp l" ;=9 0 America0 Rev l1ti 0" #?%9 praise2 &y W r2s- rth" #=;" #$@9 Fre0ch tra0slati 0s , - r6s ," #%<9 0 m rtality , -hite sail rs i0 slave tra2e" #;;9 h1ma0itaria0ism ," #<$9 0 East I02ia s1!ar" #B@9 se0t t Ai43la3 Chapelle" #B$9 0 slave3!r -0 pr 21ce" #$% Clay" William" #;@" #;< C &&ett" William" #==" #@@ C &2e0" Richar2" 0 c l 0ies" #%?3 %=9 sp 6esma0 , r - le0 i021s3 try" # ;>3; # 9 0 W* I* m 0 p ly" #;>3;#9 0 slave3!r -0 s1!ar" # ;>3; # 9 0 s1ppressi 0 , slave tra2e" #<= C 2ri0!t 0" Christ pher" le!acy t S ciety , r the Pr pa!ati 0 , the + spel" %?9 slave pla0tati 0s ," 9 &e51est t All S 1ls C l3 le!e" $>9 2esce02a0t i0 Parlia3 me0t" $= C leri2!e" Sam1el" #$@ C l 0ial O,,ice" #=$" #%=3%%" #@=" # B> C l1m&1s" Christ pher" =" B" $ C mpa0y , (ercha0ts tra2i0! t A,rica" =?9 E2m102 )1r6e 0" %#9 L1a6ers i0" %=9 c tt 0 ma013 ,act1rers as mem&ers ," <> C mpa0y , R yal A2ve0t1rers tra2i0! t A,rica" i0c rp rati 0" =>3=#9 s1perse2e2 &y R yal A,3 rica0 C mpa0y" =#9 r yal pa3 tr 0a!e ," =$" %B C 0victs" $" ##9 )e0Dami0 Fra06li0 0" #?9 i0 A1stralia" #?9 (erivale 0" #?9 i0 Vir!i0ia" #?9 i0 W* I*" #?9 a,ter ema0cipati 0 i0 W* I*" ? < I% #

C tt 0" c tt 0 !i0" ?>" <?" #?%" #?B" #@@9 Ne!r Slavery a02" ?=9

s1perse2e2 - l" ;B" #=>9 tech3 0 l !ical cha0!es i0" ;B9 tria0!13 lar tra2e a02" ;B3<=9 ma01,ac3 t1rers , a02 slave tra2e" <>9 La0cashire c tt 0 i0terest" $<9 e4pa0si 0 ," #>;" #?<3?$" #=?9 pp siti 0 , ma01,act1rers t W* I* m 0 p ly" #@%3@<9 imp rts ,r m America" #;? C 1pla02" Re!i0al2" %@" #<B" #BB" ?ii0 C -per" William" %@" %$ Cr m-ell" Oliver" tra0sp rtati 0 , Irish pris 0ers" #=9 0 ac51isi3 ti 0 , .amaica" #>B9 0 NeE0!la02" #>$ Cr pper" .ames" c 0tr versy -ith +la2st 0e" $>9 arra0!eme0ts 0 slavery" #B;3B< C1&a" <9 t &acc i021stry i0 c m3 pare2 -ith Vir!i0ia" ? r 9 America0 capital i0" ?;9 -hite la& r i0 t 3 &acc i021stry" ?<9 Chi0ese la3 & r" ?$9 Haitia0 la& r" ?$9 )ritish W* I* la& r" ?$9 )ritish cc1pa3 ti 0" ==" ##%9 slave tra2e" %<9 )ritish rest rati 0 ," ##%3#@9 re3 stricti 0s 0 )ritish tra2e -ith" #=B9 s1!ar pr 21cti 0" #%@" #%$3 @?9 )ritish s1!ar imp rts ,r m" #@#9 s1!ar e4p rts t E1r pe" #@?9 !r -th , s1!ar pla0tati 0s" 7@i3@ ? C10li,,e" ,amily" %<3%B Uave0a0t" Charles" 0 m 0 p ly i0 slave tra2e" =#9 0 val1e , la& r i0 W* I*" @?9 0 )ritish tra2e i0 seve0tee0th ce0t1ry" @=9 0 c l 0ies" @@9 0 s1!ar re,i0i0! i0 c l 0ies" <;9 0 -ealth , West I02ia0s" B;9 0 N rther0 mai0la02 c l 0ies" ##> 'eclarati 0 , I02epe02e0ce" #><"

IN'EO ?<@

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c 00ecti 0 -ith slavery" #;?9 c tt 0 imp rts ," #;?9 ,ree tra2e se0time0ts i0" #;?3;=9 )ra/ilia0 slave tra2e a02" #<? Ll y2 ,amily G&a06i0!H" #@< Ll y27s Gi0s1ra0ceH" #>%3@ L 02 0" 6i20api0! i0" 09 slave tra2e a02" =?9 pr test a!ai0st c 3 l 0ial 21ties 0 slave imp rts" %#9 W* I* ' c6s ," ;>9 - le0 i021stry ," ;;3;<9 s1!ar re,i0i0! i0" <%" <<9 !10 tra2e i0" B?9 &a063 i0! i0" #>#9 0 ,ree tra2e" #=B9 pp siti 0 t W* I* m 0 p ly" #@%9 0 i02epe02e0ce , S 1th America" #<# L 0! ,amily" B$9 0 c st , s1!ar pla0tati 0s" ?@9 )eest 0 L 0!" B$9 E2-ar2 L 0!" hist ria0 , .a3 maica" B$9 L r2 Far0& r 1!h" B$9 steam e0!i0e a02" #>=9 pr ,its , s1!ar pla0tati 0s ," #?? L 1is OIV" =$

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, s1!ar pr 21cti 0" #@>3@# (erca0tilism" ,av re2 emi!rati 0" #>9 pp se2 t emi!rati 0" #@3#;9 0 2a0!er , c l 0ial ma01,ac3 t1res ,r m i0tr 21cti 0 , -hite serva0ts" #B9 pr p sal t ma013 ,act1re 2imity i0 )ar&a2 s a02" ?%9 0 slave tra2e t , rei!0 c l 0ies" ==9 0 East I02ia tra2e" =<9 rival merca0tilisms" %>9 e,,ect , 2isc very , America 0" @#9 0 tria0!1lar tra2e" @@9 0 W* I* c l 0ies" @@N9 0 c l 0ial system" @@3@;9 Navi!ati 0 La-s a02" @;3 @<" #==9 0 - le0 i021stry" @<" ;<9 str1!!le a!ai0st laisse/ ,aire" @<9 0 ,isheries" @$9 &a0 0 s1!ar re,i0i0! i0 c l 0ies" <@3<;9 i0 Fra0ce" <;9 e,,ect , America0 Rev l1ti 0 0" $;" #><9 stim13 late2 I021strial Rev l1ti 0" $B3 #>@9 &ra6e 0 ec m 0ic pr !3 ress" #>;3<" O ==i A2am Smith 0" #><9 attit12e , t N rther0 mai0la02 c l 0ies" #>>3##9 a sys3 tem" h -ever &a2" 0 9 0 mai03

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P rt1!al" claime2 -0ership , C l1m&1sN 2isc veries" =9 -0er3 ship , )ra/il" =9 immi!ra0ts i0 W* I*" ?<9 Asie0t a02" =$9 slave tra2e" =$ P stleth-ayt" (alachi" 0 2a0!er , ma01,act1ri0! i0 c l 0ies ,r m -hite serva0ts" #B9 0 m 3 0 p ly i0 slave tra2e" =#9 0 a& liti 0 , slave tra2e" %$3@>9 0 slave tra2e" @#3@?9 0 c l 3 0ies" @@9 0 mai0la02 tra2e -ith , rei!0 W* I*" ##;3#< Price" +re0,ell" ?#3?? Privy C 10cil C mmittee , #<BB" <>9 0 )ritish slave tra2e t , rei!0 c l 0ies" =%9 0 c sts , s1!ar pr 21cti 0" #%@3%; Pr tecti 0" Palmerst 0 0" #=$9 103 s 102" #=$9 pr tecti 0ists 0" #%>9 West I02ia0s 0" #%# P1ert Ric " ?#" ?;3?<

GL1a6ers" tra0sp rtati 0 ," #=9 participati 0 i0 slave tra2e" %=3 %%9 petiti 0 , a!ai0st slave tra2e" #?; L1ee0 Eli/a&eth" =$ L1ee0sla02" ??3?= L1ee0 Vict ria" #=;

Ra!at/" L* .*" # BB Ramsay" .ames" 0 )ritish slave tra2e3 t , rei!0 c l 0ies" =%9 0 character , slave tra2ers" %;9 0 val1e , slave tra2e" #%<9 0 m rtality , -hite sail rs i0 the slave tra2e" #;<9 pers 0al e4peri3 e0ce , slavery ," #B>3B# Rath& 0e" William" @B3@$ Ray0al" A&&e" #>@" ##> Re, rm )ill" #==3=%" #@B" ?>$ Ricar2 " .* L ( #=$" #;%" #;B R &i0s 0" )ish p" %? R 20ey" A2miral" %%" #?< R e&1c6" .*" #%% R sc e" William" %$" #>>" #;?

R yal A,rica0 C mpa0y" patr 03 a!e , R yal Family" #;" =$" %B9 create2" =#9 a& liti 0 , m 0 p3 ly , slave tra2e a02" =#3=?9 slaves e4p rte2 &y" =?9 -ar -ith '1tch West I02ia C mpa0y" %>9 - le0 i021stry a02" ;;3;<9 Sam1el T 1chet a02" <>9 ir 0 tra2e a02" B#3B?9 !10 tra2e a02" B? R1m" tria0!1lar tra2e a02" <B3B#9 imp rts i0t )ritai0" <B9 2istil3 leries i0 Ne- E0!la02" <B3B>9 2istilleries i0 )rist l" <$9 2istil3 leries i0 Liverp l" <$9 c mpeti3 ti 0 -ith !i0" <$9 c mpetiti 0 -ith c r0 spirits" B> Oa&a" ?# Sac " .* A*" # B" ?< Sai0t ' mi0!1e" <9 re,i0ers 0" <B9 )ritish evac1ati 0 ," $%9 0eces3 sity , )ritai0 ta6i0! ver" #>=" #%B9 val1e ," # >B9 c mpare2 -ith .amaica" ##=" #??3?=9 s1!ar pr 21cti 0 i0" ##=" #??3?=" #%@3 @>9 ,,ere2 t E0!la02" #%<3%$" ?>>9 e,,ect , slave rev lt 0 price , s1!ar" #;%9 a& liti 0ists

IN'EO ?B#

0 rec 051est ," #B$9 reperc1s3 si 0s , slave rev lt i0" ?>? St* Fitts GSt* Christ pherH" E1r 3 pea0 immi!ra0ts i0" ?B9 2ecli0e , s1!ar pr 21cti 0 i0" #@# St* L1cia" #@# St* (arti0" ?# St* Th mas" ?# St* Vi0ce0t" #@#" #@= St* Vi0ce0t" Earl" %% Sa02ars" . seph" #>@

Sc tla02" attempt t set 1p i02e3 pe02e0t A,rica0 c mpa0y" @;9 Act , U0i 0" @;" ;%" <@ Serva0ts" i02e0t1re2" s1ccess rs , I02ia0 slaves" $9 reas 0s , r" #>9 passi 0 , r i02epe02e0ce ," #>9 tra,,ic i0" #>9 6i20api0! ," #>3##" #%9 :0e-la02ers": 19 tra0sp rta3 ti 0 , Cr m-ell7s Irish pris 03 ers" #=9 tra0sp rtati 0 , Cr m3 -ell7s Sc ttish pris 0ers" #=9 tra0sp rtati 0 , L1a6ers" #=9 tra0sp rtati 0 , ( 0m 1th7s , ll -ers" #=9 tra0sp rtati 0 , .ac &ites" #=9 c 02iti 0s , D 1r3 0ey" #=3#%9 veste2 i0terest i0 system" #%9 .e,,reys7 treatme0t , 6i20apers" #%3#;9 stat1s &ecame pr !ressively - rse" #;3#<9 E0!3 lish se0sitive0ess 0" #<9 'e, e 0" # B9 te02e2 t 2em cratic s ciety" #B9 P stleth-ayt 0" #B9 c mpare2 -ith Ne!r slaves" #B3 #$9 the hist rical &ase , r Ne!r slavery" #$9 climatic the ry , pla0tati 0 a02" ?>3?= Sharp" +ra0ville" %@ She,,iel2" i0 a!e , i021stry" ;>9 W* I* c 00ecti 0s ," #>%9 p3 p siti 0 t W* I* m 0 p ly" #@%9 a& liti 0 m veme0t i0" #@$9 0 East I02ia pr 21ce" #@$9 0 ap3 pre0ticeship" #@$ She,,iel2" L r2" #?#

Shippi0! i021stry" stim1late2 &y tria0!1lar tra2e" @<3@B9 0 m 3 0 p ly , slave tra2e" @$9 03 a& liti 0" @$9 a0cillary tra2es" @$9 i0terest i0 slave tra2e" #;<9 i0terest i0 ,ree tra2e i0 s1!ar" #;<9 Navi!ati 0 La-s a02" #;<3 ;B Sierra Le 0e" %=" #%@" #;=" #<$ Si0!ap re" #=#"3 #@#" #;< Slave c mpe0sati 0" t )ish p , E4eter" %=9 t Earl St* Vi0ce0t"

%%9 t )aillie ,amily" ;?9 t (iles ,amily" <%3<@9 t )ec6, r2 ,am3 ily" BB9 t Hi&&ert ,amily" BB9 t +la2st 0e ,amily" $>9 t + 1l3 &1r0" $%9 t Earl , )alcarres" $%9 t (arryat ,amily" #>@9 p3 p siti 0 , She,,iel2 t " #@$9 s1!ar re,i0eries 0" #;@ Slavery" 0ecessary t preve0t 2is3 persi 0 , la& r" @9 imp rta0ce , as a0 ec 0 mic i0stit1ti 0" @9 e4pe0sive0ess" @3;" <" #@=9 a2va03 ta!es a02 2isa2va0ta!es ," ;9 s il e4ha1sti 0 a02" <" ##=9 e43 pa0si 0 0ecessary" <9 racism a02" <3?$9 I02ia0 slavery" <3$9 i0e,,i3 cie0cy , I02ia0 slave" $9 ec 3 0 mic ri!i0 , Ne!r slavery" # ;" #>3?$9 climatic the ry ," re3 Decte2" ?>3?=9 s1!ar" c tt 0" t 3 &acc a02" ?=9 s1pp rte2 &y Ch1rch" %?3%%9 i0 E0!la02" %%3 %@9 la- , slave pr 21cti 0" ##=" #%@" #@>3@#9 (a0chester 0" #@;9 i0 I02ia" #B%3B;9 cha0!e2 attit12e t -ar2s" #$%3$;9 p licy , ame3 li rati 0" #$<3?>#9 attit12e , slaves t " ?>#3B Slave tra2e" Ne!r " 2ema02e2 &y slavery" =>9 )ritish , rei!0 p licy a02" =>9 Sir . h0 Ha-6i0s7 e43 pe2iti 0" =>" =$9 m 0 p ly i0" =>3=?9 v l1me , )ritish" =?" ==9

?B? IN'EO

t , rei!0 c l 0ies i0 W* I*" ==3 =%9 Asie0t " ==" %>9 m rtality , slaves" =%3=@9 pr ,its ," =@3=<9 p p1larity i0 Liverp l" =<" ;?3 ;%9 re51ire2 2iscrimi0ati 0" =<3 =B9 ris6s ," =B9 r yal patr 0a!e ," # ;" =$" %B9 )ritish + ver03 me0t7s attit12e t " %>9 str1!!le , r Asie0t " %>9 )ritish + ver03 me0t7s attit12e t c l 0ial 21ties 0" %>3%#" %;9 i0s1ra0ce c m3 pa0ies a02" %;" #>%3@9 character , me0 e0!a!e2 i0" %;3%B9 a !reat e21cati 0" %<9 h1ma0itaria0ism , me0 e0!a!e2 i0" %<3%B9 pr tests

a!ai0st i0 ei!htee0th ce0t1ry" %B3%$9 2e,e0ce , i0 ei!htee0th ce0t1ry" %$3@>9 William W 2 0" @#9 P s2eth-ayt 0" @#9 im3 p rta0ce t W* I* ," @?9 mer3 cha0t mari0e a02" @B9 - le0 i021stry a02" ;;3;<9 (a0chester7s i0terest i0" ;B3<=9 r1m m i <B3B>9 2evel pme0t , &a06s a02" $B3 #>#9 e,,ect , America0 Rev l13 ti 0 0" #?=3?%9 L r2 N rth 0 a& liti 0 ," #?;9 L1a6er peti3 ti 0 a!ai0st" #?;9 West I02ia0s 2ema02 re0e-al ," #%#9 Pitt 0" #%;9 attempt at i0ter0ati 0al a& liti 0 ," #%;3%<9 )ritish a& li3 ti 0 ," #%$3@>9 W* I* pla0ters s1pp rt a& liti 0 ," #%$3@>9 a& liti 0 m veme0t i0 (a0ches3 ter" #@@9 a& liti 0 m veme0t i0 )irmi0!ham" #@<3@B9 )irmi0!ham 0" #@B9 m rtality , -hite sail rs i0" #;;3;<9 ship -0ersN i03 terest i0" #;<9 )ritish attempts t sec1re a& liti 0 , &y Spai0 a02 P rt1!al" #;$9 )ritish capital i0" #<#3<?9 )ritish p licy , s1ppres3 si 0 ," #<#3<;9 )ritish ! 2s i0" #<?9 a& liti 0ists 0 s1ppressi0!" #$=3$%9 +ast 03(arti0 0" ?>$

Smith" A2am" 0 pr sperity , 0e- c l 0ies" %9 0 e4pe0sive3 0ess , slave la& r" @3;9 0 im3 p rta0ce , 2isc very , Amer3 ica" @#9 0 pr ,its , s1!ar pla0tati 0s" @=" B@9 Wealth , Nati 0s" #><" #?>" #?%9 0 c 3 l 0ial system" #><" #?>9 0 ,ree tra2e &et-ee0 West I02ies a02 America" #?#9 :i0visi&le ha02: ," #=;9 c mplime0te2 &y Pitt" #=B9 51 te2 &y C &2e0" #%? S ciety , r the Pr pa!ati 0 + spel" %? S 1th A,rica" #%= S 1they" R &ert" %$" #$@ Spai0" I02ia0 slavery i0 c l 0ies" B3$9 c l 0ial p licy a02 -hite immi!ra0ts" ?#" ?<9 Asie0t a02" ==" =$9 sm1!!li0! tra2e t c l 3 , the

0ies" =%9 m 0archy a02 slavCe tra2e" =$ Steam e0!i0e" ,i0a0ce2 &y capital ,r m W* I* tra2e" #>?9 pr !ress ," # >;" #?;3?B" #=#" #@@ Stee0" (ar!1erite" %% Stephe0" .ames" tr1steeship ," #%%" # B>9 0 Pitt" #%B9 0 ma01mis3 si 0s i0 Tri0i2a2" #$$ St1r!e" . seph" #@B" #;#" #$? S1!ar" Ne!r slavery a02" ?=9 2is3 p ssessi 0 , small ,armer &y" ?=3?@9 i0crease , &lac6 p p1la3 ti 0 a02" ?=3?%9 i0crease , -ealth i0 )ar&a2 s a02" ?@9 !r -th , lati,102ia i0 )ar&a2 s a02" ?@9 a capitalist 102erta6i0!" ?@9 a l ttery" =B9 pr ,its ," @=" B@" 0 9 imp rta0ce , t E0!3 la02" @@9 W* I* ' c6s a02 im3 p rts ," ;>9 re,i0i0! i021stry i0 E0!la02" <=3<B9 re,i0i0! i0 pla03 tati 0s" <@3<;9 ir 0 i021stry a02" B?3B=9 &rass i021stry a02" B=3B%9 i0crease , 21ties 0" $;3$<9 i03

IN'EO ?B=

v lve2 m 0 c1lt1re" ##>3##9 s13 peri rity , Fre0ch pr 21cti 0" ##=3#%" #%@3%$9 21ties 0" #?=" #=<3=B9 - rl2 pr 21cti 0" #%@3 @=9 i0 C1&a" #%@" #%$3@?9 i0 )ra3 /il" #%@" #@>3@?9 &eet" #%$3@>9 verpr 21cti 0 i0 W* I*" #%$" #@?9 i0 (a1riti1s" #@#9 2ecli0e , pr 21cti 0 i0 )ritish W* I*" #%$3 @=9 e51ali/ati 0 , 21ties" #@=9 imp rtati 0 , )ra/ilia0 , r re3 ,i0i0!" #@@" #;=9 slave3!r -0" #@;" #;@9 re,i0ers ," #;=3;;9 e51ali/ati 0 , 21ties 0" #;% S1!ar pla0ters" pp se2 t m 0 p3 ly i0 slave tra2e" =#9 clash -ith slave tra2ers" ==3=%" %>3%#9 clash -ith mercha0ts" %>3%#" @@3@<" $?9 pp se2 t m 0 p ly i0 s1!ar

tra2e" @;9 0 ,ree p rts" @;9 clash -ith re,i0ers" <;3<B9 restricti 0 , pr 21cti 0 &y" <;3<B9 clash -ith E0!lish a!ric1lt1ral i0terest" B>" $=" $<9 -ealth ," B@9 pp se2 t i0crease , s1!ar 21ties" $;3$<9 t 0e- settleme0ts" ##=" #%$3@> S1!ar re,i0i0!" i0 +las! -" ;%" <@9 i0 )ritai0" <=3<B9 i0 )rist l" <=3 <%" <<3< B 9 i0 L 02 0" <%" <<9 re3 ,i0ers 0 a& liti 0" <%9 i0 Liver3 p l" <@9 clash , re,i0ers -ith pla0ters" <;3<B9 petiti 0s , re3 ,i0ers" <%" <<" #;%9 re,i0ers 0 hi!h prices , s1!ar" <<9 re,i0ers 0 W* I* m 0 p ly" #;=3;;9 0 East I02ia s1!ar" #;%9 capital i03 vestme0t ," #;@9 0 slave c m3 pe0sati 0" #;@ Sypher" Wylie" %$ # arlet 0 ,amily" %B" #;? :The West I02ia0": B;" $= Th mas" Sir 'al&y" 0 val1e , la& r i0 the W* I*" @=9 0 imp r3 ta0ce , s1!ar t E0!la02" @@

Th ms 0" .ames" %B3%$ Th ms 0" P 1lett" #;< Th r0t 0 ,amily" #B#" #B; T &acc " c mparis 0 , i0 C1&a a02 Vir!i0ia" ?#9 small ,armi0! i0 )ar&a2 s" ?=9 Ne!r slavery a02" ?=9 Ne!r slavery i0 Vir3 !i0ia a02" ?;9 i021stry i0 +las3 ! -" ;%" <@9 c mpare2 -ith s1!ar" B@ T &a! " #@> T r2esillas" Treaty ," =

T 1chet" Sam1el" <>3<# T 1ssai0t" L7O1vert1re" #$@" ?>?" ?>% Tra0sp rtati 0" ,,e0ces" ##3#?9 c 02iti 0s , D 1r0ey" #=3#%

Tria0!1lar tra2e" r!a0i/ati 0 ," @#3@?9 stim1l1s t )ritish i021s3 try ," @?" ;@3B%" $B3#><9 pr ,its ,r m ,i0a0ce I021strial Rev l13 ti 0" @?" $B3#>@9 stim1late2 ship3 pi0! a02 ship&1il2i0!" @<3@$9 stim1late2 !r -th , seap rt t -0s" ;>3;%9 - le0 i021stry a02" ;@3;B9 c tt 0 ma01,act1re a02" ;B3<=9 s1!ar re,i0i0! a02" <=3<B9 r1m a02" <B3B#9 metall1r!i3 cal i021stries a02" B#3B%" #>?3%9 &a06i0! a02" $B3#>?9 i0s1ra0ce a02" #>%3@ Tri0i2a2" -hite serva0ts" ?%9 East I02ia0 mi!rati 0 t " ?B" $>9 War3 0er ,amily i0" $>9 a& liti 0 i0" #@>3@#9 s1!ar pr 21cti 0 i0" #@#3 @=9 0 p licy , ameli rati 0" #$<3$$9 ,ree pe ple , c l r i0" ?>#9 vi le0ce , pla0ters ," ?>?3=" ?> <W misc 0cepti 0s , slaves i0" ?>=3% T1c6er" . siah" %$ U0ite2 States" tra2e -ith W* I*" #?#3??9 tra0sp rt , s1!ar t E1r pe" #??" #%$9 ,ree tra2e -ith

?B% IN'EO

)ritai0" #?%3?@" #=#3=?9 (erivale 0 ,ree tra2e -ith )ritai0" #?%9 H1s6iss 0 0 ,ree tra2e -ith )ritai0" #?%3?@9 c tt 0 e4p rts t )ritai0" #?B" #=?9 e4p rt , )rit3 ish capital t " #=#9 )ritish im3 p rts , c tt 0 ,r m" #;?9 )ritish ! ver0me0t 0 Civil War i0" #<;3<< Utrecht" Treaty ," %>3%? Vasa" +1stav1s" #@B Vir!i0ia" <9 I02ia0 Slavery" B9 i03 2e0t1re2 serva0ts" #>9 c 0vict la& r" #?9 Ne!r slavery" ?; V ltaire" F* (*" #<" ##% Wa6e,iel2" +i&& 0" %" ;

Walp le" H race" %# War0er ,amily" $> Washi0!t 0" +e r!e" #=" #>< Watt" .ames" #>?" #?;3?<" N@< Wealth #%? We2!, Nati 0s " #><" #?>" #?%" 2" . siah" #<$

Welli0!t 0" '16e ," attit12e t West I02ia0s" $@3$;9 attit12e t Re, rm )ill" #=%9 & yc tt , pr 21ce , slave tra2i0! c 103 tries a02" #;$3<>9 0 s1ppressi 0 , slave tra2e" #<@9 0 slavery i0 I02ia" #B%9 a02 a& liti 0ists" #B$9 0 a& liti 0" #B$ Werte0&a6er" T* .*" #B" ?; Wesley" . h0" #B# West I02ia Ass ciati 0" Liverp l" #>> 9 ,

West I02ia I0terest" clash -ith E0!lish a!ric1lt1ral i0terest" B>" $=" $<9 s cial p siti 0 , i0 E0!3 la02" $#9 p -er , i0 ei!htee0th ce0t1ry" $?3$<9 mem&ers ," i0 Parliame0t" $?3$%" $<9 p -er,1l ,rie02s ," $@3>;9 pp siti 0 t i0crease2 s1!ar 21ties" $;3$<9

&a06i0! c 00ecti 0s ," #>>3?9 i0s1ra0ce c 00ecti 0s ," #>@9 rail-ay c 00ecti 0s ," #>@9 vic3 t ry , -ith re!ar2 t peace treaty , #<;=" ##@9 0 their m 3 0 p ly" #%>3%?9 0 East I02ia s1!ar" #%>9 0 )ra/ilia0 s1!ar" #%>9 0 s1ppressi 0 , slave tra2e" #<@3<; West I02ies" -hite serva0ts i0" ##3 #%9 c 0vict la& r i0" #?9 Irish serva0ts i0" #=9 pr ,its , tra2e -ith" =;3=<9 imp rta0ce , Ne3 !r es t " @?9 val1e , pla0tati 0s i0" @=9 A2am Smith 0 pr ,its ,

s1!ar c1ltivati 0 i0" @=" B@9 tra2e -ith )ritai0 c mpare2 -ith mai0la02 c l 0ies tra2e" @=3@@9 shippi0! a02" @B9 imp rts , ,ish i0" @$9 L 02 0 2 c6s a02 tra2e -ith" ;>9 )rist l7s tra2e -ith" ;#9 +las! -7s tra2e -ith" ;%9 e4p rts , - l t " ;<3;B9 (a0chester7s tra2e -ith" ;B3<>9 c tt 0 e4p rts ," <#3<=" #?B9 re,i0i0! i0" <@3<;9 r1m tra2e ," <B3B#9 ir 0 e4p rts t " B#3B%" I =i e4p rts , &rass t " B=3B%9 le!acy , pla0tati 0 i0" $?9 pr ,its , tra2e -ith" i0veste2 i0 heavy i021stry" #>?3%9 i0s1r3 a0ce c mpa0ies a02" #>%3@9 im3 p rts ,r m mai0la02 c l 0ies ," # >B9 ec m 0ic relati 0s -ith mai0la02 c l 0ies" #>B3??9 , 2 imp rts ," 0 30" #?#9 m 0 3 c1lt1re i0" HO3II9 pers 0al c 03 tacts -ith N rth America0s" ##?9 Stamp Act i0" #?#9 e,,ects , America0 Rev l1ti 0 i0" #?>3?@9 U0ite2 States tra2e -ith a,ter America0 Rev l1ti 0" #?#3??9 2ecli0e , )ritish tra2e -ith" #=#3=?9 m 0 p ly ," #?;3?<" #==" #=@3%?9 10pr ,ita&le ec 03 my ," #=@3=;" #=B3=$9 c mpeti3

IN'EO ?B@

ti 0 , East I02ia s1!ar" #=<3=B" #@=9 R e&1c6 0" #%%9 2ecli0e , s1!ar pr 21cti 0 i0" #%$3@=9 capitalists 0 m 0 p ly ," #@%3 ;B9 C &&ett 0 m 0 p ly ," #@@9 c tt 0 ma01,act1rers 0 m 0 p ly ," #@%3@<9 )ri!ht 0 pr tecti0! 21ty ," #@;3@<9 & y3 c tt , pr 21ce ," #@$" #B=3B%" #$>9 re,i0ers , s1!ar 0" #;%3;@9 attit12e , pla0ters t -ar2s slavery" #$<3?>#9 ,ree pe ple , c l r i0" ?>#9 attit12e , slaves t -ar2s slavery" ?>#3B9 slave re3 v lts i0" ?>?3B West I02ies GFre0chH" )ritish s1p3 ply , slaves t " ==3=%9 s1!ar re3 ,i0i0! i0" <;9 m lasses i0" B>9 s1peri rity ," ##=3#%" #??3?=9

America0 tra2e -ith" ##@3?>" #??9 s1!ar c1ltivati 0 i0" #%@ Westm rela02" Earl ," %B

West Ri2i0!" #=>" #@%" #;> White,iel2" +e r!e" @" %= Whitehave0" #>= Whitm re" Th mas" #B< Whit0ey" Eli" ?>" #?B Whit- rth" Sir Charles" @=3@@ Wil&er, rce" William" 0 +e r!e Ill7s pp siti 0 t a& liti 0" =$9 attac6e2 &y William IV" =$9 )rist l7s e0th1siasm ver reDec3 ti 0 , a& liti 0 &ill ," %?9 at3

tac6e2 &y Nels 0" %%9 ,ear , H 1se , L r2s" %B9 attac6e2 &y ) s-ell" %$9 e0c 1ra!e2 &y Pitt t sp 0s r a& liti 0" #?=" #B#9 Pitt7s s1pp rt ," #%B9 0 a& li3 ti 0" #@>9 0 a& liti 0 m veme0t i0 (a0chester" #@@9 C &&ett 0" #@@9 represe0tative , Y r6" #@$9 sp 6esma0 , r - le0 i021stry" # ;>9 0 m rtality , -hite sail rs i0 slave tra2e" #;;9 Ca00i0! t 0 )ra/ilia0 tra2e" #<>3<#9 ima!i3 0ary i0tervie- -ith C 1pla02" #<B9 letter , Ramsay t " #B>9 character ," #B#3B?9 0 ema0ci3 pati 0" #B?9 0 P -0all ame023 e0t" #B=9 letter , Liverp l t 0 a& liti 0" #B$9 s 0 ," #$? Wil6i0s 0" . h0" #>;" #?$ Williams 0" .* A*" #> Wi0thr p" + ver0 r" 0 W 2" William" 0 slave tra2e" @#9 0 val1e , la& r i0 W* I*" @=9 0 mai0la02 tra2e -ith , rei!0 W* I*" ##B3#$ W l" tria0!1lar tra2e a02" ;@3;B9 tech0 l !ical cha0!es i0" ;B9

s1perse2e2 &y e4pa0si 0 ," #=#9 e4p rts pp siti 0 t #;>3;#

c tt 0" ;B" #=>9 #=>9 A1stralia0" , t Chi0a" #=%9 W* I* m 0 p ly"

W r2s- rth" William" #=;" #$@