African American Children's Literature

Journal of Negro Education
African American Children's Literature: The First One Hundred Years Author(s): Violet J. Harris Source: The Journal of Negro Education, Vol. 59, No. 4 (Autumn, 1990), pp. 540-555 Published by: Journal of Negro Education Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/2295311 . Accessed: 22/08/2013 09:11
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Children's American African TheFirst OneHundred Literature: Years

of University Research, ofEducational Violet J.Harris, Bureau Illinois-Champaign*
INTRODUCTION
since the have been depictedin generalliterature African Americans pejoraarestereotyped, thedepictions Essentially, century. seventeenth 1973;Sims, 1961;Broderick, 1933;Baker, (Brown, tive,and unauthentic appeared Americans for children first created byAfrican 1982).Literature This literature has neverbeen a central century. in thelate nineteenth thatofAfrican literature Not unlike American ofschooling. component children'sliterature has had a American foradults, African written awareness limited amongreaders; tumultuous past. Thatpastincluded omissionfrom libraries, and distribution; circumscribed publication concriticism. Severalfactors and uninformed school,and bookstores; of factor is theexistence butone important to thisstateofaffairs tribute canons. literary lists ofworks educators, bycritics, perpetuated Canons,orsanctioned students read.For constitute theliterature many and cultural guardians, read "classics"suchas TheTaleof in primary school,students example, That Could(Piper,1954; Engine Rabbit Peter 1902;1989),TheLittle (Potter, school 1941).Elementary (McCloskey, Ducklings for and MakeWay 1980), Prairie Houseon the (Wilder, tendto read classicssuchas Little students Web(White, 1977),and Charlotte's to Terebithia (Paterson, 1953),Bridge from have graduated highschool moststudents 1952;1975).Bythetime Letter a canonwhichincludes TheScarlet willhave readbooksfrom they 1983),LordoftheFlies(Golding,1962),and otherworks (Hawthorne, canons forcultural literary Unfortunately, literacy. deemed necessary ofbooksthatreflect the experiences, tendto includea preponderance ofWhites, and interpretations particuknowledge, values,perspectives, Americans or other Few textswritten by African larlyAnglo-Saxons. exhibit extraoreventhough many aredesignated classics, peopleofcolor a or provide forms, literary expandor reinterpret merit, literary dinary
theprepainvaluable critical during commentary Mason,provided colleague, Jana *My ration ofthismanuscript.
Vol. 59,No. 4 (1990) Education, ofNegro Journal 0 1990, HowardUniversity Copyright
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in mainstream forvoicessilencedor ignored forum literature. The vast ofstudents American majority do notreadAfrican classics suchas Rollof orM. C. Higgins, the Thunder, Hear MyCry (Taylor, 1976), Great (Hamilton, canonsperpetuated in schoolshavebecomea part 1974)becauseliterary tradition. The same cultural that ofa selective have led to the processes traditions have tendedto ignore ofselective thecontribudevelopment Americans to children's literature. tionsofAfrican are to examine, The purposesof thisarticle the historical broadly, for African written ofliterature American children from the development to the present, to discuss possibletrendsin late nineteenth century and to assess thevalue of that children's African American literature, to literacy education.Explanation of and justification literature forthe ofAfrican American children's literature is evident when development inchildren's tradition and thedepictheselective literature one examines thattradition. within tionofAfrican Americans TRADITION INCHILDREN'S LITERATURE THESELECTIVE is a valued cultural Because literature commodity, traditions evolve and value (Williams, arounditsdefinitions, functions, 1961,1977).The whichis indeeda valuableand children's sameholdstruefor literature, valued cultural Children's literature servesthe important commodity. between cultural and socialization roleofmediator children, knowledge, becausechildren's literature has longmaintained by adults.Moreover, itpossessesbothsymbolic roleinsociety, this traditional and realpower. is selective whena tradition whenitsetsup inaccuHowever, or,worse, themeanings and knowledge rateand damaging stereotypes, shapedby becausethey itbecomesignificant ofthe shape individuals' perceptions worldand their rolesin it. in children'sliterature The selectivetradition African regarding with Critic Americans hasbeenreplete Brown stereotypes. Sterling (1933) in American Americans and literature analyzedthe imagesof African that theliterary ofAfrican determined Americans entertained depictions withprevailing Whites and and, whencombined theological arguments data from "scientific" thesocialsciences, provided literary justification institutionalized racism. As Brown for concluded: "[T]heNegrohas met in American withas great literature as he has in American life. injustice ofbooksaboutNegroes Themajority merely stereotype Negrocharacter" identified sevenprevalent (p. 180).Brown ofAfrican stereotypes Americansin literature and in theworksoftheliterary canon:"thecontented "thecomic slave,""thewretched freeman," Negro,""thebrute Negro," "thetragic "thelocal-color mulatto," Negro,"and "theexotic primitive." in children's Eachofthesestereotypes existed as well. For literature instance, ElsieDinsmore (Finley, 1868;1893),a tale of a pious planter's aboundswith contented daughter, slaves,one ofwhomis Elsie'sfaithful AuntChloe. AuntChloeepitomizes "Mammy," endurance, strong reliand loyalty totheslavesystem. giousconvictions, Thefollowing excerpt therelationship betweenAuntChloe and Elsie and the attricaptures butesofthecontented slave:
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[AuntChloe:]My precious pet,mydarlin' chile,yourole mammy lovesyou better dan life; an' didmydarlin de almighty forget Friend datsays,"I havelovedtheewith an everlasting leave thee,norforsake love,an' I willnever thee"?(pp. 64-65)
Indeed, mostearlyliterary texts whichdepictslavery present it in this manner oras an idyllic institution; fewportray thehorrors ofslavery. Another in children's exampleof a stereotype literature is the comic Negro.African American malesareusually thevictims ofthat stereotype, whereupontheyare depictedas dimwitted children who constantly grin, eat,misunderstand simpledirections, and scratch their heads. For example,in Epaminondas and hisAuntie (Bryant, 1907;1938),the male slave Epaminondas is depicted as inherently stupid:
O' Epaminondas, Epaminondas, youain'tgotthesenseyouwas born with; younever willhave thesenseyouwas bornwith! Now I ain'tgwinetellyouanymorewaysto truck bring home.(p. 14)
Such texts were not aberrations or exceptions, of theywere typical theirtime.Many remainin circulation todayas reprints or theyare availablein libraries. Othercopies are passed down within families as treasured artifacts. For example,a graduatestudent of minerecently refused to sell me her copy of Little Brown Koko (Hunt,1951),a book similar to Epaminondas andhisAuntie, becausetheformer was one ofher books as a childand one whichshe recently favorite sharedwithher own children. theone bookwhich Perhaps cemented stereotyped imagesofAfrican in popularculture Americans is Helen Bannerman's TheStory ofLittle Black Sambo (1899;1923).Formany, primarily Whites, thetitle engenders fondmemories. Whilesome will admittheir embarrassment forliking thestory, a fewstill defend their childhood reactions and admit do they notunderstand thenegative reactions ofAfrican Americans tothestory. Bycontrast, some African Americans conjure up imagesofdiscrimination,name calling,and grotesque of theirrace's physical caricatures features when references to thebook are made. Manyalso remember own acuteembarrassment their whenthestory was read,or they recall their intense angerwhen theythemselves have been referred might to as "Sambo." An examination of the text, the illustrations, particularly ofAfrican demonstrates thevalidity Americans' responses.In some of theeditions, theillustrations show Blackpeople as simian-like or with protruding redlips,extremely eyesand large, darkskin, and,inthecase ofmales,long,gangly arms. Again,one cannotlabel a book such as Little Black Sambo atypical; it is a typical rather, of African depiction. Americans Stereotypes are in all aspectsof American For example,businesses pervasive culture. and "uncle" stereotypes adoptedthe "mammy" to sell pancakes,hot moviessuch as TheBirth cereal,and othercommodities. Further, ofa Nation ofstereotypes, and theliterary (1915)aided in theentrenchment in school textsfromelementary images were reinforced schooling Forexample, Elson(1964)notesthat through university African training. in socialstudies Americans and science are portrayed texts as intellectutoall other inferior racial allyand physically Thevery groups. pervasivein all aspectsoflife ness ofthestereotypes that African Amerisuggests canchildren havedifficulty literature orother cultural artiencountering 542 TheJournal Education ofNegro
facts thatportray themtruthfully. thesociocultural Additionally, milieu and distribution oftheearlyperiodsdid notbode well forthecreation Thosewhodesired tooffer ofauthentic literature. alternative imageshad and processes to battle theinstitutions in thedevelopagainst involved mentofpopularculture.
THE BEGINNINGS OF A NEW TRADITION: 1890-1900
that for literature African Recent research suggests American children did notappearuntilthe1890s(Fraser, 1973;Muse, 1975).Nonetheless, American thatsomeAfrican itis probable or religious, social,fraternal, created literature for children tothisperiod. economic organization prior Quite possibly,those works languishin attics,rare bookstores,or archives. survive Manyextant copiesno longer exist; they onlyas references notedin equallyobscuretexts.For example,in TheHorizon, an earlytwentieth-century periodical publishedby W. E. B. DuBois, an advertisement forAfrican appearedfora periodical American children The YoungSet. However,a searchof periodical entitled catalogsand archival revealsno evidencethatthemagazinewas everpubholdings lished. and contemporary Thus far,earlywriters researchers citethework inthe1890s as thebeginnings ofAfrican ofMrs.A. E. Johnson American children's literature (Penn,1891;Fraser, 1973;Muse, 1975).1 Johnson's first novel,Clarence andCorinne; or,God'sWay(1890)usuallyis citedas in thisgenre.Johnson's workby an African American thefirst writing and moraltracts didactic novelparallelssimilar publishedforchildren in the nineteenth The implicit century. purposeof the novel was not buttopromote toentertain necessarily piety, and obedience, refinement, and convince themofthevirtues ofachieving morality amongchildren statusand sensibility. As in other stablemiddle-class texts ofthistype, of the working the central characters are members poor who achieve and hardwork.Clarence middle-class statusthrough and perseverance Corinneare energetic, intelligent, hopeful,and ambitious.Clarence wantstoattend schooland hisadoring sister hisdesire.Likeother shares andCorinne andheroines, Clarence do notabandontheir heroes dreams. a series of vicissitudes and victories and ultimately They experience their to achieverespect, overcome poverty-stricken beginnings educaand middle-class status. tion,marriage, as thefirst African Despiteitsdesignation American children's novel, is notstrictly for Clarence andCorinne African American children noris it a novelofAfrican strictly American experiences eventhough theauthor was African American. novelfeatures Johnson's Whitecharacters. For whatever reasons,she chose not to portray African American experi-
'I wouldtendtolabelDunbar'sLittle Brown thefirst, Baby though onlytentatively. as Just IolaLeroy (Harper, 1892;1988)previously was believed to be thefirst published novelby an African American womanuntilrecent research uncovered Harriet Wilson'sOurNig (1859; 1983), similar shifting circumstances exist with regard tochildren's literature byand for African Americans.
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to writea "color-blind" novel,yetthe ences. Perhapsshe was trying of milieuof hertimemayhave dictated thepresentation sociocultural White characters. African Amerifor thedesignation offirst candidate A moresuitable Dunbar'sLittle Brown Baby, a collecbookis Paul Laurence can children's in 1895.The poetry is generally of published tionofdialect poemsfirst for butdifficult children becauseoftheorthographic reading goodquality of the dialect.An excerpt from theworkdemonstrates representation needed to recite thetitle poem: facility thelinguistic
babywifspa'klin' eyes Little brown Come to yo' pappyan' seton his knee. Whatyou been doin',suh-makin' san' pies? Look at datbib-you's ez du'tyez me. (p. 3)
Dunbar'sdialect does notresemble theinaccurate language To hiscredit, in other suchas Page's TwoLittle stories (1888;1932). Confederates evident is humorous, On thewhole,Dunbar'spoetry nonreligious, nonpolitical, withmundanetopics.The collection concerned seems and generally ofAfrican American folk culture thanan attempt morean appreciation in an overt racialpride,solidarity, oruplift or inspire manner. to garner with itscomical and whimsituations poetry, Forsome,Dunbar'sdialect tothestereotype ofthecomic harkens Negro.Forothers, sicalcharacters, of, or at least a homageto, African Babyis a celebration Little Brown and a subtlecelebration ofracialpride. folkculture American and motifs in theAfrican to discussthemes Arguably, one hesitates ofthenineteenth century forthesimple children's literature American and motifs somethemes fact that Nevertheless, qualify.2 onlytwoworks in both.Forexample, love offamily, perseverance, appearconsistently goodness, and kindnessare emphasized. Simple pleasures such as thanelaborate, and picnicsrather expensive activities, dances,church Clarence andCorinne, activities are thosedeemedto bring joy. However, didacticism does not radiatethe a textin whichreligious dominates, Brown toneofLittle ebullient Baby. socializabooks bothhave entertainment, Dunbar'sand Johnson's thatvalue extent and aesthetic value;yet,to a certain tion,educational, whichthebookswerepubwas limited periodduring by thehistorical children that time were ofAfrican American lished.The majority during intheir because thetexts fewcouldhaveencountered schooling illiterate; and typeof were placed on the funding, curricula, majorstrictures African for Americans 1988).Giventhe (Anderson, schooling provided itis and thesecular nature ofhisworks, he enjoyed immense popularity toDunbar's American children wereintroduced that moreAfrican likely and Dunbar'sworksare notable as bothJohnson's work.Nevertheless, tradition. The expansionof that of an alternative literary antecedents and came as moreAfrican Americans becameliterate occurred tradition of schooling. element as an important to view literature
& Hill, 1989)arguethatThejoy, (Muse, 1973;Vaughn-Roberson 2Someresearchers for workcreated thefirst in the 1880s,couldbe designated by Mrs.Johnson published thisperiod. during children African American
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Education ofNegro TheJournal
TRADITION: 1900-1920s AN EMERGENT ofthenewliterary The expansion tradition awaitedthedevelopment middleclasswhichdemandedculturofan educatedAfrican American for African literature American children. of allyauthentic Enhancement also necessitated theemergence ofan educatedgroup thenew tradition in writing as a vocationor avocation. It also of persons interested ofAfrican American dependedon thefurther development publishers and changesin attitudes Thesenecessary amongWhite publishers. preIncomparison theearly 1900s. conditions totheprevious emerged during floodof texts period,a veritable appeared.Some were readers(books suchas Floyd's Flowers used for literacy instruction) (Floyd, 1905)and The Path & Ovington, weretraditional works Upward (Pritchard 1920).Others offiction. thisperiod canbe labeledopposiManyofthetexts published during thatis, theyare worksthatcontradict tionaltexts; a theme,motif, or Forinstance, White a White stereotype. radical Mary Ovington, whowas Association for associated with theNational theAdvancement ofColored ofyears,wrotetwo significant People (NAACP) fora number oppositionaltexts:Hazel (1913) and Zeke(1931). Her books were published an enterprise of theNAACP, and by The CrisisPublishing Company, in The Crisis,the NAACP's official advertised and in The publication, for Brownies' a periodical children Book, published byDuBoisin 1920and 1921. Hazel detailsthe activities of a middle-class African American child and kind.Hazel, the protagonist, who is pretty, intelligent, cultured, fewracialstrictures experiences growing up in Boston.She does not until she visits hergrandmother in rural racialprejudice Alaencounter hergrandmother's she handlesitin bama;however, following wisdom, manner and decidesto dedicateherlifeto theeradication a thoughtful Zeke focuses on rural African in the ofprejudice. Americans Bycontrast, Alabamawhorisestomiddle-class South.Zeke is a poorboyfrom status after a Tuskegee-like and respectability school.A fewof the attending from HazelappearinZeke characters as therefined (i. e., Hazel reappears who aids Zeke and motivates coloredbenefactress himto achieve). ofan emerging As forerunners tradition, Hazeland Zeke provide more of African Americans authentic but theyalso contain a few depictions thanothers. some morepositive For example,colorism is stereotypes, an aspectofHazel.WhileHazel is depicted as light skinned withstraight as a "pickaninny":dark hair, her best friendCharityis portrayed and poor. Refinement, skinned, plain,mischievous, restraint, beauty, and moderation are embodiedwithinthe character most resembling and indolence, and physical Whites; passion,lackofrestraint, plainness within are embodied thedarker character. As Brown (1933)argues,this was quiteextensive in American dichotomous as stereotype literature, ofnovelsfeaturing evidenced mulattoes. by thenumber "tragic" to provide American Nonetheless, Ovington African attempted childrenwithtruthful cultural images,entertain them,imbuethemwith racialpride,and inform themof the achievements of their race. Like earlier she often includeddidactic in her asides and vignettes writers,
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novels,and they contain frank discussions aboutlynching and negative racial attitudes. Quiteclearly, Ovington created herworkspecifically for African American children. She tried toapprise them ofthesociocultural realities they facedand attempted tooffer them a modelofsocialinteraction.The valueofOvington's works is apparent: herbookswereamong thefewalternatives tothestereotyped imagesofAfrican and Americans, theyrepresent thecontinued ofan emergent development tradition. Refinement and expansion ofthenew tradition in the1920sevolved from theworkofW. E. B. DuBois. As evidenced in his powerful essays in TheSoulsofBlack Folk(1903;1961))and DuskofDawn (1940;1975), DuBoislonghelda specialinterest in children. In therealm ofchildren's DuBois's mostimportant literature, contribution was the formation of theDuBoisand DillPublishing with Company G. Dill. DuBois Augustus and Dillwereresponsible for three endeavors: The Brownies' Book and the publication oftwobiographies, Elizabeth Ross Haynes's Unsung Heroes (1921)and Julia A Child's Henderson's Story ofDunbar (1921). TheBrownies' Book deservesspecialnotebecauseit was thepremier for periodical African American children untiltheappearance ofEbony, in the1960s. Underthedirection Jr.! ofDuBoisand literary editor Jessie R. Fauset,TheBrownies' Book becamea beaconofhope,featuring fiction, folktales, biographies, poetry, drama,news pieces, and fivemonthly columnsdesignedto inform, educate,and politicize children and their parents and to showcasetheachievements ofpeople ofcolor.Through TheBrownies' DuBois and Fausetsought Book, to achievesevengoals:to "makecolored children realizethat being'colored'is a normal, beautiful to inform thing"; themoftheachievements oftheir race;to teachthem a code of honor;to entertain them;to providethemwitha modelfor with toinstill interacting inhomeand family; Whites; pride and toinspire themtowardracialuplift and sacrifice. The attainment of thesegoals, DuBois believed,would resultin the creation of a personality Harris (1987a, 1987b)refers to as "refined coloredyouth"-young African American of the "race men" and "race women" of the counterparts ofthetwentieth early years Suchyoungsters century. revered education, exhibited and racial personal and werecommitted pride, toracial solidarity and uplift. Several letters in TheBrownies' published Book from young readers areevidence that somechildren assimilated themagazine's goals:
I think coloredpeople are themostwonderful peoplein theworldand whenI'm a towrite aboutit,too,so that man,I'mgoing allpeoplewillknowtheterrible struggles we've had. I don'tpayanyattention anymoreto thediscouraging I see in the things newspapers. Something just tellsme we are no worsethananybody else. (1920, October; p. 308)
Similarly, Haynes soughtto inform African American children of their race'sachievements, toinspire racial and toimbue heryoung pride, readerswitha specific view. In the 22 biographies ideological of now
3The Brownies' Book generally hasbeendesignated thefirst periodical for African American children created byAfrican Americans (see Kelly, 1984), butFraser (1973)arguesthat The Joy is thefirst. A comprehensive examination ofTheBrownies' Book is found in Harris (1987a).
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well-known Frederick persons, amongthem Douglass,Harriet Tubman, and Paul Cuffee, Alexander she introduced Pushkin, children toAfrican Americans rarely depictedin the school textsof her day. As Haynes in theIntroduction writes to Unsung Heroes:
in "UnsungHeroes,"telling Thisstory and theother stories ofthevictories in spite ofthehardships and struggles ofNegroes whomtheworldhas failed to singabout, I am grown, have so inspired me, even after thatI pass themon to you, mylittle aheadofyoube so inspired friends.. Mayyouwith all ofyour years bythem that you willsucceedin spiteofall odds. . . (unnumbered pages)
DuBois, his editors,and authorsquite unabashedly to attempted withan ideologythatwas quite radicalin children's imbue children literature. Theirexplicit appeals forracialsolidarity, pride,and uplift, and their authentic ofAfrican representations American lifecontrasted withtheimagesin general sharply children's literature. The successof DuBois and his associates, is difficult At least to determine. however, TheBrownies' received Book 5,000subscribers monthly; however, 12,000 subscribers were needed to sustaincontinuouspublication(Harris, ofcopiesofHaynes'sand Henderson's 1987a).The number bookssold It is quiteconceivable is as yetundetermined. thatthe imprimatur of withthe NAACP, bothconsidered DuBois and his association radical in reducedsales and distribution. theperiod,resulted during Nonetheread the textsand the magazine,and it is quite less, some children probable thatthedesiredeffects wereachieved. and literature The bold objectives developedby DuBois and others intheperiodthat further wererefined followed the1920s.Somechanges and advances occurred between1930and 1940whichsuggestedthat African American children's literature would have a morepromising Evidenceforthatassertion is foundin the numbers future. of books thepublication ofbooksbymajorWhite published, and the publishers, in journalsor guidesdirected appearanceofmanytitles to librarians.
OF THETRADITION: 1930-1940 STRENGTHENING
tothestrengthening Whilemanypeoplecontributed ofthetradition, of Carter G. Woodsondeservespecialrecognition. the literary efforts Woodsonand theauthors he published created materials whichfurther nurtured expandedthe tradition by DuBois and his associates.Woodis as influential son's legacy,at least in children's as thatof literature, DuBois.He established Weekandfounded NegroHistory theAssociated for Publishers and theAssociation theStudyofNegroLifeand History. endeavors continue to have direct These three on theeducainfluences American children and on theliterature tionofAfrican created for them. In his TheMis-Education Woodsonarticulated a philosophy ofthe Negro, to DuBois's, arguingthatthe educationAfrican of educationsimilar in hisdayhad notbeen devisedfor, received Americans nordid itserve Americans. to the benefit Woodson claimed,that of, African Rather, was suitedmainly forthepurposeofmaintaining education thelowly Americans. To ameliorate caste statusof African thoseconditions, he contended thatAfrican American needed to undergoa comschooling innewtexts, newpedagogical pletemetamorphosis resulting techniques, new purposesand goals,and a new kindof teacher unfettered by the The Journal ofNegro Education
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Woodson hypotheof racistideology.Consequently, internalization American in themolding ofAfrican sized, thosechangeswould result thinking, in critical skillful advancement, individual educatedfor youth race. oftheir to theadvancement committed and personally the Associated through Woodson achievedsome of his objectives of folklore number publisheda significant This enterprise Publishers. and historiesexplicitly anthologies, poetry biographies, collections, In African (1928), Myths and emancipate. entertain, designedto educate, African authentic with children toprovide Woodsonsought example, for byHelenWhitofpoetry anthologies thepublication Similarly, folktales. of theactivities depicted D. Schackleford (which byJane ingand a reader American that African ensured family) American African a middle-class Dolittle Doctor thanThe Story of choices other wouldhaveliterary children Koko. Brown 1948)or Little (Lofting, continAs evidenceofWoodson'ssuccesses,Associated Publishers first publishedin the ues to exist.Duringthe 1970smanyof thetitles as a resultof increaseddemand for 1930swere reissued,mostlikely lackofavailability and thegeneral literature American African authentic Literature published Whitepublishers. from of this typeof literature thegainsachievedby Woodson,buta subtle maintained subsequently literachildren's as African American occurred in toneand ideology shift mass acceptance. greater turegarnered
THE SHIFT TO ASSIMILATION: 1940-1970
of this forthe literature no one personwas responsible Certainly, an extensive bodyofworkovertwo created butArnaBontemps period, children's American whichno doubthelpedpropelAfrican generations as the couldbe characterized Bontemps intothemainstream. literature His literature. children's American of African "father" contemporary histories, anthologies, poetry body of work-16 novels,biographies, American children's ofAfrican theacceptance and folktales-represents and thecontinued and readers expanpublishers literature amongWhite and children. Popo Bontemps's American African for sionoftheliterature in print for Hughes,remained withpoetLangston (1932),written Fifina intoseveral languages(Nicholas, morethan20 yearsand was translated SlipGolden anthology edited,thepoetry Bontemps text 1980).Another and by well-regarded pers(1941),is notablebecause it includespoetry LangsClaudeMcKay, Countee Cullen, poetssuchas Dunbar, renowned deviatesfrom Golden Slippers WeldonJohnson. tonHughes,and James format bynotemphasizing anthology children's poetry theconventional for written orpoetry especially traditional poeticforms, didactic poetry, otherwork,was pubMoreover, it,likemostof Bontemps's children. butby a major American company publishing lishednotby an African White publisher. to emulate models forchildren literary of providing The tradition aboutthedearth concern whoearly with expressed Bontemps, continued 1975).Bonchildren American (Alexander, forAfrican of biographies sixcollective bywriting considerably thesituation altered himself temps Washington ofGeorge and individualbiographiesincludingTheStory Education TheJournal ofNegro
548
Freeman Carver (1954)and Frederick Douglass: Slave,Fighter, (1959).Bonis notableas well. In addition to his collaboration with temps'sfiction withillustrator and authorJackConroyon Hughes, he collaborated booksfor children. Thesebooksareimportant several picture becauseof within them areWhite. their genre(talltales)and becausethecharacters a tone,albeita subtleone, celebrating Additionally, theworking class runsthroughout and the working-class perspective the books. In his books such as Lonesome noteworthy singularly composedfiction, Boy (1955; 1987) and You Can't Pet a Possum (1934),Bontemps celebrates and languagepatterns. folkculture African American Aside from its workis significant becauseitrepresents the literary quality, Bontemps's children's literature American intothemainstream integration ofAfrican racialthemes to themoresubtleuse of from as well as theshift explicit ofAfrican as race and emphasison theauthentic depiction Americans activities suchas attending they engageintypical picnics, hopping trains and playing withfriends. to thebig city, from an emphasison explicit racialthemesand Overall,thatshift inliterature toa more assimilationist consciousness posture utilizing only withthechangesin the subtleracialundertones probably corresponds and theincreased Americans statusofAfrican that push for integration and his contemporaries, theperiod.Bontemps occurred writers during suchas Jessie Jackson (CallMe Charlie, 1945)and LorenzoGraham (North worksaboutAfrican American Town, 1965)created for chilexperiences of theirworkby Whitepublishers dren of all races. The publication in increased sales to schoolsand libraries as well as increased resulted literature American forchildren's authors. readership by African ofthisperiodis important becausemanyoftheworks The literature fallwithinthe category labeled "social conscience literature" by Sims (1982).4 As Sims notes, the authors of this literature deliberately in non-Afro-Amerito developa "socialconscience-mainly attempted can readers,to encouragethemto develop empathy, and sympathy, and their children forAfro-American tolerance problems" (p. 17). She an ethnocentric, further argues thatthesebooks "were createdfrom non-Afro-American perspective" fits into (p. 18). Some oftheliterature the "meltingpot" books. These books anotherof Sims's categories: all differences ones:skincolorand other "ignore except physical racially The resultis thatthe majority relatedphysicalfeatures. of themare picture books" (p. 33). The guiding the creation principles underlying of such melting universal and pot booksare assimilation, experiences, whichcloak the emphasison cultural integration, principles diversity whichearlier authors and celebrated. acknowledged, highlighted, and melting The socialconscience potbooksservedimportant funcofignorance tions:theamelioration aboutAfrican theporAmericans, as possessing Americans universal ofAfrican valuesand sharing trayal universalexperiences,and the provisionof aestheticexperiences. Although thesebooksweredeemedvitalduring their historical period,
4Anarticle also appearsin thisissue.-ED. by Sims,now RudineSimsBishop,
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American lifeand thecontinued thereality ofAfrican racialdiscriminationand retrenchment oftheerabeliedthebooks'attempts to present a rosier picture. Thisleads onetoquestion whether thecloaking ofcultural in negative differences results or positive consequences. In the periodthatfollowed, severalsociocultural factors led to the of a cadre of writers whose avowed purposesforwriting emergence and illustrating children's booksharkened backto thoseofDuBois and devised by Sims, "culturally Woodson. Another category conscious" of thisemerging and details literature, explainsthe function literature and motifs. themes some ofitsrecurring
CULTURALLYCONSCIOUS LITERATURE:THE 1970S AND BEYOND
consciousliterature, to Sims,comes nearerto Culturally according a bodyofAfro-American literature forchildren. "constituting Theyare ofsuccess, with booksthat thesocialand cultural reflect, varying degrees intheUnited with associated traditions growing up Black States"(p. 49). intent ofthesebooksis "to speakto AfroSimsarguesthattheprimary and their American children about themselves lives" (p. 49). The eleconscious mentsthatdistinguish culturally booksare: majorcharacters "a storytold from the perspective who are Afro-American, of Afroin an Afro-American a setting Americans, community or home, and thecharacters texts whichincludesomemeansofidentifying as Blackcultural traditions and so forth" physical descriptions, language, (p. 49). who have created conscious in The listofwriters culturally literature in all the previous this periodsurpassesthe totalnumberof writers Tom Feelings, Eloise Greenperiods.ThatlistincludesLucilleClifton, SharonBell Mathis,Walter Dean field,Rosa Guy, Virginia Hamilton, Mildred and BrendaWilkinson. It thelateJohn Myers, Steptoe, Taylor, of the 1980ssuch as AngelaJohnson, also includesthe newerwriters CarolThomas, and Camille YarPatricia McKissack, Emily Moore,Joyce have distinguished themselves because their brough.These writers in toneand rangeofcontent African American and worksare decidedly because the literary qualityof the worksequals and, in manycases, ofgeneral children's literature. Someofthewriters thequality surpasses awards such as the Newberyor have receivednumerousprestigious medals. Caldecott havewritten statements abouttheir oftheseauthors aesthetic Several of LangstonHughes's 1926manifesto, "The reminiscent philosophies and theRacialMountain" HamilNegroWriter (Huggins, 1976).Virginia in children's thebestwriter literature ton,arguably today,has written Her viewsare crucial on hercraft. becauseshe has received extensively children's writer moreawardsthananyother (withthepossibleexcepand because she has written in a variety of tionofKatherine Paterson) Hamilton heraesthetic genres.5 (1983)capsulates philosophy thusly:
book written theGreat by an African M. C. Higgins, (1974)was thefirst 5Hamilton's Medal. Thebookalso won theNational BookAwardand American to wintheNewbery literature everto Globe-Horn Book Magazine Award,theonlybookin children's theBoston do so.
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TheJournal Education ofNegro
I struggle with literary integrity, I wantmybookstobe read.I wantan audience. daily for inthestorytelling, intellectual black cultural integrity, honesty, mydesire simplicity for plots.. .But andthewishfor strong, original characterization, exceptional concepts I don'tsaytomyself, nowI'mgoingtowrite a story, a black whenI sitdowntowrite story. (pp. 12-13)
American writers echo Hamilton's Author/ thoughts. OtherAfrican his opinionson theaesthetic illustrator Tom Feelings(1985)articulates booksas follows: functions ofartin children's and ideological
canaffect andhas theability andart for children tointensify Books arewonderful tools, their ina certain ofreality and stimulate way.They children's perceptions imagination and reinforce self-hatred and stereotypes. can also teachracism (p. 73)
consciousauthors createare not monoThe workstheseculturally Americanexperiences.The lithic;theypresentthe range of African works areculturally and historically in their authentic. imagesportrayed of Blackvernacular Further, many of the writers capturethe orality toinaccurate dialect. Theillustrations in many English without resorting in terms and their oftheir renderofthebooksareextraordinary artistry inphysical variations features Ameriingoftheimmense amongAfrican andBrother from thefolktale Wind cans. An excerpt (1988)demMirandy to bothtruthful and language: thisfidelity onstrates portrayal
comesiding Orlinda "Whogon'be yo' partner?" First thing, up to Mirandy, asking, "He's realspecial."Thensheadded,"I wishyouand tried nottoactexcited. Mirandy don'tbe silly." pages) Ezelluck.Y'allgon'needit.""Me andEzel?Girl, (unnumbered
authors Just theculturally conscious do nothesitate to as important, accurateportrayals of the horrors of the African presenthistorically in theUnitedStates.Although thestories American are not experience in them a sense ofhopelessness, children orinstill designedto frighten American rarely their authors portray aspectsoftheAfrican experience This is especiallytrueforbooks in this literature. seen in children's orracial discrimination. thebooks that category depict slavery Arguably, of resistance";6 thatis, whileaccurately a "storiedtradition represent African historical portraying facts, theydo so in ways thathighlight in Mildred Forexample, searing novelette American resistance. Taylor's an elderly African American setintheSouth,The man, Friendship (1987a), a White Mr. Tom Bee, goes to thelocal storeto purchasetobaccofrom man,John Wallace,whose lifehe had saved severalyearspreviously. Mr. Bee thathe would neverdisrespect himin Wallacehad promised in Wallace'sstore front of Whites.However,in an uglyconfrontation Whites to put Mr. Bee "in his one day,Wallaceis urgedby someother to himas "John." Although place," and he shootsMr. Bee for referring wounded,Mr. Bee vows thathe willnevercall Wallace"Mister."The and pain of the socialdilemmas reality depictedin thistextare rarely literature textsgenerally used in American approachedin children's conscious booksrepresent the schools.Thus,inone sense,theculturally American children's literature. for African Theyprovide ideal standard aesthetic exceptional experiences; theyentertain, educate,and inform; racialpride. and theyengender
of resistance," was first coinedby Susan Cox and 6Thephrase,"storiedtradition manuscript byTaxel(1989). appearedin an unpublished
551
oftheseworks, their fullpotential has notbeen Despitethequality of reasons. Since the 1970s the numberof books met, fora variety American expeorothers aboutAfrican Americans byAfrican published is thatnumber has hoveredaround200 booksper year.Rarely riences unawareofthe Americans remain and, sadly,manyAfrican surpassed, ofthesebooks.Manyofthesebooksneverreachthehandsof existence forsignificant children. Some have been out ofprint American African are timeperiods.Even when the books are available,some teachers hesitant to use thembecause theybelievethatthe books depictonly thattheymight embarrass African American bleak ghettosituations, or maybe ill at ease are notinterested or thatWhitechildren children, as 1990a sixthwiththebooks. However,as Harrisnotes,as recently thather teacher training respondedthatshe was angry gradeteacher she has since made it failedto expose her to thisbody of literature; availableto herstudents. American children's for African does thefuture portend What,then, lookspromising. Several newwriters In someways,thefuture literature? the1980s that African whosework Amerisuggests haveemerged during a viable, one willremain vibrant tradition, albeit can children's literature Fromthebedtime ritual featured story unfairly neglected. thatremains of activities Mama(Johnson, 1989),to theday-to-day in TellMe a Story, in Whose AreYouOn? Side African American related family a middle-class in The oftheissueofcolorism discussion (Moore,1988),and tothefrank a rangeof 1989),thesebookspresent Shimmershine (Yarbrough, Queens ofAfrican Americans. and intimate Theyreadas portrayals experiences children. Via the language, American iftheywere written forAfrican thatthey foods,and otheraspectsand nuancesof culture nicknames, that arefrom the inform their readers thestories they implicitly present, is a naturalness about "the'hood." There American community, African otherthan them-thesebooks do not screammessagesor didacticism and celebration of the affirmation stemfrom those whichinherently also justly criticize To their negaculture. they credit, American African butnotin formulaic fashion. American culture, tiveaspectsofAfrican consciousbooks are can be made thatthe culturally An argument children and forall children American forAfrican specifically essential literary Purvesand Beach (1972)foundthatchildren prefer generally. that related totheir matter they with experiences, works personal subject and to their related personalexperiences, engagemorewithmaterials can identify orwhichcontain that theyseekoutworkswithwhichthey own. Further, reflect their recent research whoseexperiences characters in a withand interest thenotionthatfamiliarity in cognition supports et al., 1984).Arguably, facilitates (Fielding comprehension topicor text among AfricanAmericanchildrenwould reading comprehension tothem weremore materials (Kunjufu, meaningful iftheliteracy improve 1989). 1984;Madhubuti, in ofthemselves children do notsee reflections American IfAfrican oftheir cultural or do notperceive heritage schooltexts anyaffirmation thenit is quite likelythattheywill not read or value in those texts, thelanguages, need tounderstand as much.Children beliefs, schooling children and other chilofothers. White and perspectives waysoflife, Education TheJournal ofNegro
552
drenofcolorneed to read African American literature becausenotions ofcultural pluralism arebecoming more as cultural, important economic, and geographical barriers areeradicated. Thetaskconfronting educators, then,is to provideall children withopportunities to hear,read, write about,and talkabout literature, literature thataffirms especially who theyare.
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men:Obsolete, H. (1989). Black Madhubuti, single, dangerous? Chicago: ThirdWorldPress. literature: children's Rebirth ofa neglected Muse,D. (1975).Black genre. Black Scholar, 7, 11-15. Nicholas, C. (Ed.). (1980). Arna Bontemps-Langston Hughesletters, 1925-67.New York:Dodd, Mead. anditseditors. Penn,G. (1891).TheAfro-American press Springfield, MA: Wiley. and thereader. Purves,A. & Beach, R. (1972). Literature Urbana, IL: NationalCouncilofTeachers ofEnglish. Taxel,J. (1989,March).Reclaiming thevoiceofresistance: Thefiction of Mildred at the annual Taylor. Unpublished manuscript presented of the American Educational meeting Research Association, San Francisco, California. andsubstance: incontempoSims,R. (1982).Shadow Afro-American experience rary children's fiction. Urbana,IL: NationalCouncilofTeachersof English. C. & Hill, B. (1989). TheBrownies' and Ebony, Book Vaughn-Roberson, oftheBlackexperience. as a mirror Jr.!: Literature Journal ofNegro Education, 58, 494-510. R. (1961). Thelongrevolution. New York:Oxford Williams, University Press. R. (1977).Marxism andliterature. New York:Oxford Williams, University Press. H. E. (1983;reprint of1859edition). Ournig.New York: Wilson, Vintage Books. Woodson,C. (1933,1969). Themis-education oftheNegro. Washington, Publishers. D.C.: The Associated
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H. (1899;1923).Thestory Black ofLittle Sambo. New York: Bannerman, Harper& Row. A. (1934).Youcan'tpeta possum. New York:Morrow. Bontemps, New York:Harper& Row. Bontemps, A. (1941).Golden slippers. Washington Carver. New York: Bontemps, A. (1954).Thestory ofGeorge & Dunlap. Grosset New York:Beacon. boy. Bontemps, A. (1955,1986).Lonesome Slave, fighter, freeman. New York: Bontemps, A. (1959).Frederick Douglass: Knopf. A. & Hughes,L. (1932).Popo andFifina: Children of Haiti.New Bontemps, York:Macmillan. and hisauntie. S. (1907,1938). Epaminondas Boston:Houghton Bryant, Mifflin. New York:Harper& Row. Caines,J.(1973).Abby. New York:Dodd, Mead. brown Dunbar,P. L. (1895).Little baby. New York:Dodd, Mead. M. (1868,1893).ElsieDinsmore. Finley, GA: Hertel& Jenkins. Floyd,S. (1905).Floyd's flowers. Atlanta, New York:Putnam. W. (1962).Lord Golding, ofthe flies. town. L. (1965).North New York:HarperJunior. Graham,
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the New York:Macmillan. Great. V. (1974).M. C. Higgins, Hamilton, man. Black ofa free and times Thelife V. (1975).Paul Robeson: Hamilton, New York:Harper. New York: landed. time the Martians Beaandthe V. (1983).Willie Hamilton, Greenwillow. letter. New York:Penguin. N. (1983).Thescarlet Hawthorne, New York:DuBois & Dill. heroes. Haynes,E. (1921).Unsung New York:DuBois & Dill. story ofDunbar. J.(1921).A child's Henderson, Colortype. Koko. brown Chicago:American Hunt,B. (1951).Little New York:HarperJunior. J.(1945).Call meCharlie. Jackson, Books. Mama.New York:Orchard A. (1989).Tellmea story, Johnson, BapAmerican andCorrine. Philadelphia: A. E. (1890).Clarence Johnson, Society. tistPublications Dolittle. J.B. LippinPhiladelphia: ofDoctor A. (1948).Thestory Lofting, cott. New York: R. (1941).Make Puffin/Penguin. for way ducklings. McCloskey, New York:Knopf. Wind. andBrother P. Mirandy McKissack, NH: BooksforLibraries. M. (1913,1972).Hazel.Freeport, Ovington, Brace. M. (1931).Zeke.New York:Harcourt Ovington, Scribner's Charles New York: confederates. Page,T. (1888;1932).Twolittle Sons. Books. Crowell Junior New York: toTerebithia. K. (1977).Bridge Paterson, that could. New York:Putnam. engine Piper,W. (1954;1980).Thelittle Warne. London:Fredrick Rabbit. B. (1902,1989).ThetaleofPeter Potter, New York:HarM. (1920).Theupward path. M. & Ovington, Pritchard, Brace& Howe. court, New York: Lee & Lothrop, daughters. beautiful J.(1987).Mufaro's Steptoe, Shephard. hear New York:Bantam. cry. my M. (1976;1984).Rollofthunder, Taylor, New York:Dial Books forYoung Taylor,M. (1987a). Thefriendship. Readers. New York:Dial. M. (1987b).ThegoldCadillac. Taylor, on the New York:HarperJunior. house prairie. L. (1953).Little Wilder, New York: G. P. Putnam's shimmershine queens. C. (1989).The Yarbrough, Sons. Books. New York: web. Harper Junior E. B. (1952;1975).Charlotte's White, D.C.: The Associated Washington, myths. Woodson,C. (1928).African Publishers.
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