1

ENCYLOPIDA GANGS TERRORIST TATTOOS SLANG

BY
MICHAEL E GRAY
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IMAMS, MOSQUES, RADICAL GROUPS & PRISONS
REFERENCE MANUAL
Leaders of 85 percent of the nation's mosques are
involved in terrorist activities, and some have made
irresponsible statements about the Sept. 11, 2001
terrorist attacks, said Rep. Peter King, a Long Island
Republican.
"I don't see any need to be politically correct here -- the
stakes are too high," King said in an interview
broadcast Sunday on WNBC-TV's "News Forum."
The 85 percent figure was drawn from research done
for his recently published novel, "Vale of Tears," about
the World Trade Center attacks, King said.
Muslim groups on Long Island have denounced the
claim, accusing him of fanning anti-Muslim sentiment to
sell books.
King denied that charge. He said leaders of the mosque
in Westbury, N.Y. had tried to pass blame for the
attacks on a Zionist conspiracy and had not cooperated
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with law enforcement officers investigating potential
terrorist activities.
"When I have police telling me the Muslim community is
not coming forward and cooperating, I have a
responsibility to speak out. The Muslim leaders have to
be more responsible and there should be new
leadership," he said.
King said he supported President Bush's use of images
of ground zero in campaign ads.
"Considering all that's gone on over the past two and a
half years since Sept. 11, how it is defining our politics,
diplomacy and foreign policy, the president would be
remiss in not mentioning Sept. 11," King said. "But he's
doing it in an understated way."
When asked about Bush's support for a constitutional
amendment barring gay marriage, King said he was in
favor but urged caution. Individual states should first be
given time to consider the issue and pass laws on their
own, he said.
King, of Seaford, briefly considered challenging
Democratic Sen. Charles Schumer in Schumer's re-
election bid, but later dropped the plan. He is now the
only Republican congressman between Manhasset and
Montauk.
ABU HAMZA AL-MASRI, the radical Muslim cleric facing
extradition to the US, was arrested in jail yesterday on
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suspicion of terrorist activities in Britain. The 47-year-
old former imam of Finsbury Park mosque was arrested
at Belmarsh prison where he is being held during
extradition hearings and moved to the high-security
cells at Paddington Green police station. Police and
Crown Prosecution Service lawyers said that if he were
charged in Britain his trial would take precedence over
any extradition decision and 11 charges posed by the
Americans. Abu Hamza was arrested yesterday under
section 41 of the Terrorism Act 2000 on suspicion of the
commission, preparation or instigation of acts of
terrorism.
It is understood there is no suggestion of any terrorist
plot but he is being questioned about allegations of
acting as a facilitator, which could mean being involved
in raising funds for terrorist groups, supporting and
encouraging people to go abroad to join terrorist
movements. Last night there was speculation that
charges might be brought in Britain because the
Americans are unable to guarantee that Abu Hamza will
not be executed if convicted in the US. He cannot be
extradited to face possible capital punishment...
A spokesman for the Crown Prosecution Service said:
A UK charge would take precedence over the
extradition case. Muddassar Arani, Hamzas solicitor,
was unavailable for comment last night. She was
believed to be with her client at Paddington Green
police station...
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The U.S. government has accused the Al Qaeda
terrorist network, led by Saudi-born Muslim Osama bin
Laden, of carrying out the Sept. 11 terrorist attacks. As
a result of those attacks and bin Laden's call for
Muslims to unite in a holy war against the U.S.,
Americans have taken a greater interest in learning
about the Islamic faith.
In some cases, that interest has led to backlash. Arab-
looking people have been discriminated against, singled
out and profiled in airports, train stations and other
public places as a nervous American public tries to
adjust to its new reality.
But not all Muslims--especially those who are African-
American--have faced that type of backlash.
"I haven't had any Muslims say that they have been
mistreated as a result of this," says Imam Shamsud-Din
Ali of the Philadelphia Masjid, the Arabic word for
mosque.
That's not to say that African-American Muslims have
not been mistreated at all, he adds. Like other blacks,
he says, African-American Muslims often face
discrimination.
"Profiling us is so common we probably can't even tell.
We can't tell if it's because we're Muslims or because
we have different-color skin. We've been treated so
wrong for so long that if they treated us right, we
wouldn't know how to take it."
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Islam has a long history in the black community.
Muslims lived in North and West Africa for centuries
before the Atlantic slave trade began, and some
Africans brought the faith to America with them.
Though many African Muslims were stripped of their
religion during enslavement, Islam became popular
among African-Americans with the rise of a black
nationalist Muslim sect called the Nation of Islam in the
1950s and '60s.
Ptl Phillip W Cardillo
The Harlem Mosque Incident
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The inspector is holding Det. Randy Jurgensen. He
Was struck in the head by airmail. Look at the photo
Of the cop holding his gun in the air after having
Just fired it. He was PO Lucian D'alessio of the
28 Anti-Crime. He was later killed by a drunk driver.
Harlem Mosque Incident 1970's
April 14, 1972, was one of the darkest days in the NYPD
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history. Patrolmen Phil Cardillo and Vito Navarra were
riding in 28 sector George. They were the first RMP to
respond to a '10-13 on the second floor' at
102 West 116 Street.
After arriving and entering the building, which was a
mosque, they questioned about 10 Muslims at the front
desk about the call. Suddenly, the Muslims shouted,
"Allah Akhbar" more Muslims came from rooms, then
the officers were beaten and stomped by numerous
black Muslims.
A minute or two later Patrolmen Vic Padilla and Ivan
Negron of the 25 pct arrived and when also badly
beaten and knocked to the ground. Navarra was able to
crawl to the front door which was then slammed shut by
the Muslims. He told the responding cops, that Cardillo
was still inside. Thru a small window in the front door
Cops could see Cardillo on the floor being kicked by the
surrounding mob. Padilla was down and being stomped
and his gun was taken. Ptl. Negron was being beaten
and he was fighting off numerous hands that were
attempting to rip the gun from his holster.
One of the Muslims, six foot four and 260 pounds, Louis
17X Dupree grabbed Cardillos gun, ripped it from the
holster and fired a round into Cardillo. The cops at the
front door smashed the glass and afraid of hitting the
fallen cops, fired five rounds over the heads of the
Muslims. Padilla, seeing Louis Dupree running with the
gun, fired three rounds. More 10-13's are called.
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The cops broke in the front door. The seventeen
Muslims ran to the basement. Cops flooded through the
door and chased the fleeing Muslims down the stairs.
The cops had them against the wall and began
searching for the missing guns. Cardillo is removed to
St. Lukes hospital. At the same time outside the
mosque, a large crowd of about a thousand locals,
begin to riot.
Cars were overturned, bricks are coming of the roofs,
and cops and media people are being assaulted. While
this is going on, Deputy Chief Inspector William Knapp
arrives, and went into the basement and spoke with
Inspector John Haugh the 28 pct CO. Insp. Haugh had
responded to the
10-13. He told the cops to guard the prisoners.
Knapp called Commissioner Pat Murphy and advised
him of the turmoil inside and outside the mosque. While
Knapp is talking on the phone, he heard shouting. He
turned and saw Louis Farrakhan and Charlie Rangel
leading a large group of Muslims down the basement
stairs. Farrakhan is shouting that all the cops must
leave the temple. Knapp tells Haugh to move to the
street.
Now Deputy Commissioner Ben Ward arrives, with
Farrakhan at his side, he shouts to the superior officers
that the cops immediately leave the mosque. The crime
scene was abandoned. Farrakhan and Rangel are
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shouting to the superior officers "if you stay, there is
nothing we can do to protect you. You'll be overrun.
There'll be rioting. People may be killed." Farrakhan and
Rangel 'promise' that the prisoners would come to the
24 pct. At five o'clock to be questioned. Do you think
anyone showed up?
Phil Cardillo died six days later. Mayor John Lindsay and
Commissioner Pat Murphy did NOT attend the funeral.
A few days after Cardillo was buried. Deputy
Commissioner Ben Ward was quoted in the Amsterdam
news: I believe that my investigation has pointed out, at
least to my satisfaction, that there were some errors
made on the part of the police. For the errors, and for
the consequence of those errors, I apologize to minister
Farrakhan."
~~
The Nation of Islam (NOI)[1]
I. Nation of Islam AT-A-Glance
A. Established in Detroit (1930) by W.D. Fard.
B. Synthesis of four movements: Black Nationalism,
Black Freemasonry, Islam & Christianity.
C. Key Leaders: W.D. Fard, Elijah Muhammad, Malcolm
X, W. Deen Mohammed and Louis Farrakhan.
D. Key beliefs
1. W.D. Fard is Allah (God) in the flesh.
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2. Elijah Muhammad is the Messenger of Allah (Fard).
3. All Blacks are divine and will ascend to worldwide
political supremacy.
4. All Whites are demons and will descend from political
supremacy and be destroyed.
E. Membership: 20,000-50,000 in the U.S., and less than
100,000 worldwide. The influence of NOI among blacks
is far greater than its membership. In 1995, hundreds of
thousands of black men gathered with NOIs leader,
Louis Farrakhan, for the Million-Man-March in
Washington, DC.
II. Historical Development
A. The NOI began in the context of Black Nationalism
during the early twentieth century (1913-1929).
B. Black Nationalism arose in the context of political,
religious and cultural oppression of blacks by whites
(slavery and post-slavery conduct).
C. Two key political and religious forerunners of the NOI
were Marcus Garvey (mainly political) and Noble Drew
Ali (mainly religious).
1. Marcus Garvey (Universal Negro Improvement
Assoc., est. 1914).
a. Directly influenced W.D. Fard and Elijah Muhammad,
and Garveys writings indirectly influenced Malcolm X.
b. Promoted independent black commerce and industry,
and the emigration of all blacks to Africa.
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c. Taught that whites were an inferior race and that
God was black.
d. UNIA grew to become the largest black social
movement in American history with six million dues
paying members in US.
e. Garvey was jailed in 1922 for mail fraud and deported
to Jamaica.
2. Noble Drew Ali (Moorish Science Temple, est. 1913)
a. MST is synthesis of black nationalism, fringe Islam
(including Sufi- Islam), Freemasonry, and Gnosticism.
b. Christianity is the white religion and Islam is the
black religion.
c. Whites are the embodiment of evilSatan.
d. All blacks and olive skinned people are Asiatics
descended from the Moabites (the original race).
e. Islams prophet, Muhammad, was the reincarnation of
Jesus.
f. Ali was the third reincarnation of Islams prophet,
Muhammad.
g. Alis died in 1929.
3. Garveys imprisonment and deportation in 1922, and
Alis death in 1929 left a vacuum of leadership in the
black nationalism movement (Enter W.D. Fard).
D. NOI founded by W.D. Fard (1930).
1. W.D. Fard -- aka Wallace D. Fard, Farrad Mohammad,
F. Mohammad Ali, Professor Ford, Wallace Fard
Muhammad, Wali Farrad.
2. Fards fingerprints and photographs match those of
convicted felon and drug user Wallie D. Ford born in
Portland, Oregon on February 25, 1891, the son of
Hawaiian immigrants.
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3. Fard and the NOI claim that Fard is NOT Wallie D.
Ford, from Portland, Oregon.
4. Fard and the NOI claim the Fard was born in Mecca,
the son of a black father and white mother.
5. Fard was heavily influenced by the black nationalism
of both Garvey and Ali and may have even been a
member of Alis Moorish Science Temple.
6. Fard arrived in Detroit on July 4, 1930 as a silk and
raincoat salesman with a vision for leading the black
nationalism movement.
7. From the summer of 1930 to the summer of 1933,
Fard gathered eight thousand members of the NOI.
8. After several arrests, Fard was ordered by police to
leave Detroit in May 1933. He left Detroit for Chicago,
then disappeared. Fard never made another public
appearance after the summer of 1933.
9. The NOI believes he is still alive, living in
concealment, waiting for the appointed time to re-
appear.
10. Fard led the NOI through his appointed Messenger--
Elijah Muhammad.
E. Elijah Muhammad (1897-1975)
1. Born 1897 in Georgia as Elijah Poole to Mariah and
William Poole, a Baptist minister.
2. Moved from Georgia to Detroit in 1923 and joined
Garveys UNIA and Prince Hall Masonic Lodge (Black
Freemasonry).
3. Rejected Christianity because it supported slavery
and oppression.
4. Met Fard in 1931 and became the Messenger of
Allah (Fard) shortly thereafter.
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5. Claimed that he spoke with Fard-Allah regularly.
6. Led NOI from 1933 (Fards disappearance) to his
death in 1975.
F. Malcolm X (1925-1965)
1. Born 1925 in Nebraska as Malcolm Little to Louise
and Earl Little, a Baptist preacher.
2. Father died, Malcolm housed in foster-care, became a
criminal.
3. Imprisoned for burglary from 1946-1952. Introduced
to NOI teachings while in prison.
4. Met Elijah Muhammad and joined NOI in 1952.
5. Became NOI minister in 1954.
6. Went on Middle East tour of Muslim world in 1959
where he discovered the legal enslavement of Africans
by Muslim Saudis, the lack of racial prejudice in Middle
Eastern Islam, and the failure to recognize W.D. Fard as
Allah.
7. Became NOIs premier apologist for NOI against
Muslim and Christian critics.
8. Became disillusioned with Elijah Muhammad for
moral reasons and was suspended from the NOI by
Elijah in 1963.
9. Made the pilgrimage to Mecca for the Hajj in 1964
and became a Sunni Muslim, rejecting Elijah Muhammad
and the racist teachings of NOI.
10. Founded the Organization for Afro-American Unity
(OAAU) in 1964.
11. Murdered in 1965 by three NOI members.
G. W. Deen Mohammed (aka Warith D. Muhammad)
(1933present).
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1. Seventh son of Elijah Muhammad, the Messenger of
Allah (W.D. Fard).
2. While imprisoned for draft evasion for eighteen
months in 1961-62, he studied traditional Islam and
became convinced that his father (Elijah Muhammad)
was wrong and W.D. Fard was a fraud.
3. He was influenced by the teachings of Malcolm X
who had become a critic of Elijah Muhammad and NOI
teachings by then.
4. His beliefs resulted in a series of suspensions and
reinstatements by his father, but he was reinstated
before his father died.
5. Became NOI leader upon Elijahs death in 1975.
6. Changed several fundamental NOI doctrines and
merged with traditional Islam.
a. W.D. Fard not Allah.
b. Elijah Muhammad not the Messenger of Allah.
c. Blacks not superior to whites.
7. Renamed NOI to the World Community of Islam in
the West (WCIW). The Islamic group now associated
with Imam W. Deen Mohammed is called the American
Muslim Mission.
8. Louis Farrakhan objected to W. Deen Mohammeds
innovations, split with the WCIW, and reinstituted the
NOI in 1978.
H. Louis Farrakhan (1933 present)
1. Born 1933 in Massachusetts as Louis Walcott to Mae
Clark and a man Louis never knew. Mae Clark was West
Indian and Louis father may have been a white man.
2. Raised in an Episcopalian Christian context.
3. Became a Garveyite (UNIA).
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4. Heard Elijah Muhammad speak in 1955, and he
became a member of the NOI Temple in New York that
same year due to the influence of Malcolm X.
5. Malcolm X taught and mentored Farrakhan for two
years until Farrakhan was appointed by Elijah
Muhammad to be the minister of the Boston Temple in
1957.
6. He was a strong defender of Elijah Muhammad
against the criticisms of Malcolm X and W. Deen
Mohammed.
7. In 1965, he was appointed by Elijah Muhammad to be
the minister of the New York Temple #7 after Malcolm
Xs assassination.
8. In 1967, Elijah Muhammad made him the national
spokesman for the NOI.
9. He reinstituted the NOI in 1978 after W. Deen
Mohammed had taken Elijah Muhammads group into
traditional Islam.
10. There is some evidence that suggests that
Farrakhan may be moving away from Fardian Islam and
moving toward traditional Islam, but recent statements
by Farrakhan indicate that he is still loyal to Fardian
Islam (ie. Fard is Allah and Elijah Muhammad is his
messenger).
I. NOI Divisions
1. John Muhammad, Elijah Muhammads brother, claims
that he is the legitimate leader of Fards NOI and Fard
continues to speak through him.
2. Silas Muhammad formed the Lost-Found Nation of
Islam in Atlanta when Elijah Muhammad died.
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3. Hanafi Muslims follow Sunni Islam and broke away
from NOI while Elijah Muhammad was still alive.
4. Clarence 13X broke away from NOI while Elijah
Muhammad was still alive and called his group The
Five Percenters.
5. Solomon founded the United Nation of Islam and
teaches that he himself is Allah in the flesh in the same
way that Fard was Allah in the flesh.
J. Summary of the development of the Nation of Islam
1. In 1930, W.D. Fard founded the NOI and led it till
1933.
2. In 1933, Elijah Muhammad became the Messenger of
Allah (Fard) and led the NOI from 1933 to his death in
1975.
3. W. Deen Mohammed became the leader of the NOI
upon the death of Elijah Muhammad in 1975. He
renamed the NOI the WCIW and rejected Fardian Islam
so as to conform with traditional Islam. W. Deen
Mohammeds group is now called the American Muslim
Mission.
4. In 1978, Louis Farrakhan reinstituted Fardian NOI.
III. NOI Doctrine
A. Revelation and Authority
1. The Bible is a poisoned and corrupt book that is only
true when interpreted properly by W.D. Fard or Elijah
Muhammad. The white-Christian interpretation of the
Bible is false.
2. The Quran is a holy and pure book that comes
directly from God.
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3. Revelation continues with the teachings of W.D. Fard
(Allah) and his Messenger, Elijah Muhammad. The Bible
and even the Quran are secondary next to the current
teachings of W.D. Fard and Elijah Muhammad.
4. A new holy book will be revealed in the future. This
Last Book will be written by W.D. Fard (Allah) and his
Messenger, Elijah Muhammad. This new book will be
the Muslim guide to life in the next dispensation of
black reign.
B. God(s)
1. Finite Monotheism: There is only one God at a time,
and he is finite.
2. God is finite (human) and black.
3. The first God was a manthe original black man, who
created himself out of total darkness. Thus God will
always be, both man and black.
4. There has been a succession of Gods who live about
two hundred years each. W.D. Fard is the latest in a
string of Gods and therefore the Supreme God.
5. The black race is also God collectively.
C. The Divine Nature of the Black Race
1. The black race is descended from the original race of
mankind called the Shabazz people, who are descended
from God himself.
2. Since God is black, blackness is divine.
D. The Demonic Nature of the White Race
1. Six thousand years ago, an evil scientist named
Yakub purposely bred a white race of liars and
murderers for evil purposes. Yakub manipulated the
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gene pool for hundreds of years and murdered dark
infants until he created a lying murdering white-skinned
and blue-eyed people.
2. Yakubs breeding scheme not only produced physical
features of white skin and blue eyes, it also produced
an evil race of demons who would oppress original
black man for a time.
3. For two thousand years, white demons lived as
cavemen in Europe until Moses (a black man) brought
them back to civilization where Allah has allowed them
to rule over creation for four thousand years.
4. Christianity is the white devils religion and therefore
must be as evil as he is. Every black man who is a
Christian has been deceived by the white devil.
5. Black men with white (European) names should
change them to a Muslim name as a sign of unyoking
themselves from the white demon deception.
E. Salvation
1. There is no resurrection of the dead, only a waking-
up to Fardian Islam.
2. There is no eternal life for the just. (Nobody lives
forever, not even God.)
3. Salvation is inward moral righteousness and
separation from the demonic white man and his corrupt
ways.
4. Salvation is the recognition of black divinity, and
deliverance from the oppression of the evil white man.
F. Armageddon
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1. Armageddon is the final battle (jihad) between the
righteous and the unrighteous, between Fardian Islam
(righteous) and Christianity (unrighteous).
2. In the end, W.D. Fard (Allah) will reappear from his
present concealment and lead a jihad against the white
devils.
3. While the original black nation has been asleep,
Allah (Fard) has been preparing for the great jihad.
4. Allah has been building the Mother Plane (Ezekiels
wheel within a wheel). The Mother Plane is a war
machine composed of 1500 flying bombers located
inside a base ship that travels faster than the eye can
see.
5. The Mother Plane will appear soon to annihilate the
entire white race and black Christians (apostates called
Uncle Toms) in America and England.
6. Blacks will be delivered from the destruction of the
Mother Plane if they follow instructions about how to
flee to safety when the Mother Plane appears.
G. The Nation of Islam and Traditional Islam: According
to traditional Islamic scholars and Imams, the doctrines
of the NOI stated above put the NOI outside the scope
of traditional Islam.
[1] Based on Steven Tsoukalas, The Nation of Islam:
Understanding the Black Muslims, (Phillipsburg, New
Jersey: P & R Publishing, 2001).
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Federal Funds Financing Farrakhan Ministry of Hate
The Nation of Islam claims to have created employment
for blacks, to offer inner-city housing residents new
hope, and to emphasize a message of self-reliance, hard
work and clean living. In reality, the Nation of Islam
remains a mirror image of the Ku Klux Klan: preaching a
liturgy in which Jews are bloodsuckers, whites are
devils, and separate states for the races are
imperative. A de facto arm of the group reaps millions in
income from public contracts, animating concern that
taxpayers are subsidizing
a ministry of hate.
The Nation of Islams vaunted security business - hailed
by supporters as a savior of inner-city public housing
projects and an example of the groups good works -
has racked up a passe1 of troubles recently: a major
bankruptcy, substantial Federal and state tax liens, and
bid- and license-related investigations. Meanwhile, as
Congress scrutinizes Federally subsidized contracts
with the NOI, reports of violent incidents have surfaced
in several jurisdictions. In Baltimore, witnesses say
guards fractured a public housing residents skull and,
in Dallas, NO1 guards allegedly kidnapped unruly youths
from a
shopping mall and forced them to run naked through a
gantlet of NO1 men who beat them with belts and
bamboo canes. Nation of Islam officials reject criticism
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of the security companies as the handiwork of some
Jews.2 And to deflect objections to the spectacle of
hate-mongering on the Federal tab, they maintain that
there is no affiliation between these corporate entities
[the security companies] and the Nation of
Islam.3 With current contracts and income to date
totalling more than $19 million, the bulk of it taxpayer
money, the Nation of Islam and its lieutenants who run
the security companies clearly have a large stake in
hanging on to government contracts.
But reasons why the fms should not be able to do so are
rapidly accumulating. When Nation officials think they
are speaking within the family, they acknowledge that
the security corporations operate under the direction
and control of Louis Farrakhan and his lieutenants. The
possibility that public money is being upstreamed to the
Nation of Islam, where it can be used for racist
proselytizing, raises serious questions. Beyond that,
NO1 performance has been found wanting as contracts
in Los Angeles, Philadelphia, Pittsburgh, and
Washington, DC, have been terminated or allowed to
lapse. Two NO1 security companies alone have hired at
least 39 convicted felons as guards.4 And violent
confrontations with police, housing residents, and the
public - which have erupted sporadically for years - are
flaring anew. NO1 companies seem ill-suited to perform
quasi-law enforcement functions.
Nonetheless, the Nation of Islam and the security
companies still have their supporters. A handful may
have mixed motives: at least one of their biggest
boosters - a big-city housing commissioner - appears to
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have had a financial interest in doing business with one
of the firms or its chief.
SEPARATE CORPORATIONS?
Representatives of the security companies insist they
are separate ent.h.ks because they are separately
incorporated, but there is evidence of close ties. Some
corporations share officers, Other supposedly
separate companies advertise their affiliation with the
Washington standard bearer,supplying the credentials
of the Washington company, including reference letters,
as their own. One uses anothers name as a d/b/a. Two
have the same name. Others have similar names. And
the Nation of Islam nearly always speaks of the
corporations collectively.
The companies officers and attorney have strongly
implied that several security companies operate
under corm-non direction and control. Their statements
to the Nation of Islams organ, The Final C&l,
correspondence
with HUD officials, and bids for housing security
contracts are revealing. With rare exception,
The Final Cull names the flagship security company,
N.O.I. Security Agency Inc., in glowing
accounts of Muslim security successes, even in cities
in which separately incorporated firms with different
names are performin, 0 the contracts. For example, The
Final Cull contains no mention of N.O.I.
Security Patrol Services Inc. of Baltimore and no
mention of X-Men Security Inc. in New York pat.rolhg
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housing projects even though these are the firms that
have the contracts.
Some contracts with security companies other than
N.O.I. Security Agency Inc. even use the
Washington standard-bearers name. In Baltimore, for
example, Housing Authority of Baltimore City
contracts name N.O.I. Security Agency Inc. as a
contractor, not N.O.I. Security Patrol Services Inc.
Checks are written to the Nation of Islam Security
Agency, and endorsed likewise.5 The tax identification
number on the contracts is that of the Baltimore
company, NO1 Security Patrol Services Inc., however.
Despite the separate incorporation, The Final Call has
described N.O.I. Security Patrol Services Inc.
as a branch of NO1 Inc. A 1992 article told of a bid on
a housing security contract in Baltimore submitted
by Baltimore F.O.I. Captain Rodney Muhammad, who is
also president of the citys branch of
NO1 Inc. The name Rodney Green appears on N.O.I.
Security Patrol Services articles of incorporation
as president of the company.
This account, and at least one other, also refers to
N.O.I. Security Patrol Services (Baltimore) as
synonymous with N.O.I. Security Agency Inc.
(Washington). The first article continued, NO1 Inc. was
established in 1988 in Washington, DC, under the
banner of the Dope Busters. Today NOI Inc. is
licensed and operates in several cities around the
country.6
A second, more recent article in The Final Call
described how N.O.I. Security Agency Inc. has
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transformed another notorious hell-hole here [in
Baltimore].... In Maryland, N.O.I. Security Agency Inc.
is a d/b/a of N.O.I. Security Patrol Services Inc.,
according to a company official. This article again gave
the Baltimore company the Washington companys
pedigree: N.O.I. Security was established in
Washington, DC, in 1988 under the auspices of the
Dope Busters.
NOIs newspaper has also cited organizers who told
the tabloid that N.O.I. Security Agency Inc.
operates in five states. When this article was
published, four Nation of Islam-affiliated security
companies
- N.O.I. Security Agency Inc., N.O.I. Security Patrol
Services Inc., New Life Self-Development
Company Inc., and X-Men Security Inc. - were operating
in at least four states and the District of
Columbia. The companies had contracts in California,
Maryland, Pennsylvania, and New York. New Life
had just incorporated in Illinois and, as part of a joint
venture, was bidding on a multimillion dollar contract
with the Chicago Housing Authority.
The Baltimore and Washington security companies
share some personnel with the Nation of Islam
and each other. (See chart, The NO1 Security Empire,
below.) The president of N.O.I. Security Patrol
Services is Rodney A. Green, according to the records
of the fums 1991 incorporation with the Secretary
of State of Maryland. As noted, a Rodney Muhammad
was identified as Baltimore FOI Captain and
president of the citys branch of NO1 Inc.
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N.O.I. Security Agency Inc. and N.O.I. Security Patrol
Services Inc. appear to have at least one
3
high-ranking officer in common. The Final Call, again
covering Muslim security services in Baltimore,
identified an Abdul Aquil Muhammad as Mid-Atlantic
[Fruit of Islam] Captain and director of regional
operations for N.O.I. Security. The attorney for N.O.I.
Security Agency, Inc. introduced Abdul Aquil
Muhammad to a Congressional committee on March 2,
1995, as President and CEO of N.O.I. Security
Patrol Services Inc. of Baltimore, Md.8
4
THE NO1 SECURITY EMPIRE
The eight security fms have done business in
Washington, DC, Los Angeles, Chicago, Pittsburgh,
Philadelphia, New York City, Buffalo, Baltimore, Dayton,
and Dallas. The companies present a complex
picture. While all are separately incorporated, almost all
share the same or similar names, or use names
interchangeably; have overlapping officers; or have
subcontracting arrangements with one another. At
least six are under the direct control of senior Nation of
Islam officials. Several NO1 officials use different
names, on different sets of incorporation papers, further
complicating discussion. The chart below sets
out the names of the companies; where they do
business; the names of security company officers; other
names used by the officers; and those officers ranks in
the Nation of Islam.
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27
COMPANY STATE OFFICERS NOI RANK INCOME TO
DATE
NOI SECURITY DC PA WILLIAM
MOHAMMED
AKA WM
MOHAMMED
JOHNSON
SUPREME
CAPTAIN
$6,877,090
AGENCY INC TX PRESIDENT
ABDUL
SHRAIFF
MUHAMMAD
VP/SEC DION
MUHAMMAD
AKA DION
EMORY
FRUIT OF
ISLAM
ASST
UNKNOWN
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DIR
REGIONAL
OPERATIONS
ABDAL AQIAL
MUHAMMAD
CONSULTANT
MUSTAFA
FARRAKHAN
SUPREME
CAPT FOI
NOI SECURITY
AGENCY INC
CA VP WILLIAM
MUHAMMAD
SECT DION
MUHAMMAD
$644,000
NOI SECURITY
PATROL
SERVICES INC
MD ABDUL AQIAL
MUHAMMAD
PRESIDENT
NOI SECURITY
REGINAL
DIRECTOR
$4,600,000
$4,500,000
NOI SECURITY
NY INC
NY PRESIDENT
WM
MUHAMMAD
JOHNSON
AKA ABDUL
SHARIEFF
MUHAMMAD
VP
TREASURE
DION EMORY
AKA DION
MUHAMMAD
SUPREME
CAPTAIN
FRUIT OF
ISLAM
UNKNOWN
FOI SECURITY
AGENCY INC
DC VP WILLIAM
MUHAMMAD
AKA WILLIAM
ABDUL
SHARIEFF
SUPREME
CAPTAIN
FRUIT OF
UNKNOWN
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ABDUL
SHARIEFF
MUHAMMAD
ASSY SEC
DION
MUHAMMAD
ISLAM
NEW LIFE SELF
DEVELOPMENT
CO INC
IL LEONARD
FARRAKHAN
MUHAMMAD
AKA
LEONARD
SEARCY
CHIEF OF
STAFF NOI
$2,334,000
NATION OF
ISLAM
COMMUNITY
SUPPORT GRP
OH MINISTER OF
NOI MOSQUE
REPRESANTIVE
OF
LOUIS
FARRAKHAN
$60,000
X-MEN NY $94,500
TOTAL $19,099,990
Sources: U.S. Department of Housing and Urban
Development, Housing Authority of Baltimore City,
Chicago Housing
Authority, news reports.
Figures do not include revenue from several years work
for the Government of the District cColumbia
(Executive Office
of the Mayor, Office of Cable Television), and for private
companies, including Federal Express in Washington;
shortterm
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30
work at construction sites, and engagements for
concerts and exhibitions at convention centers and
hotels. Nor do
numbers include work for a shopping mall in Dallas, a
black newspaper in Los Angeles, or several privately
owned apartment
buildings in Washington.
Figures include income from both public housing and
rent subsidized privately owned housing. Figures do not
include value of current contracts, except
as indicated.
** Estimated value of current contract.
** Leonard Farrakhan Muhammad has signed
contracts as president of New Life, and has been so
identified by an NO1 attorney. but the individual Iisted
on the companys corporate filings with the state of
Illinois is Franklin D. Searcy, his brother.
5
FLAUNTING TIES
Far from hiding the links among security companies, at
least one has flaunted such ties. New Life
Self-Development Company Inc., an Illinois corporation,
has touted its relatiomhip to N.O.1.
Agency Inc. and the Nation of Islam. In its proposal to
the Chicago Housing Aut.fmity for that citys
Rockwell Gardens complex, New Life boasted that its
[fJounders...are members of the Nation of Islams
60-year-old unarmed security force.... In 1980, at
Mayfair Mansion (sic) in Washington, DC, the Nation
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of Islams unique methods of securing...gained public
attention through an arm of NOI Security Inc.
(commonly known as Dopebusters).... New Lifes
proposal, submitted by its chief, Leonard Farrakhan
Muhammad, is an especially authoritative source,
because of Muhammads position as Farmkhans chief
of staff and son-in-law.
New Lifes reference letters are also instructive. These
include a positive evaluation of the
Washington companys performance on a contract with
the Abbot&ford Homes development in
Philadelphia. They also include references written to
N.O.I. Security Agency, Inc. in Washington, DC,
from clients in Washington. One, signed by J.S.
Bridgforth, Vice President of One Management Inc. in
Washington, DC, addressed to the Chicago Housing
Authority. He wrote to convey his high degree of
confidence in their [City Wide Security/New Life Self-
Development Company] ability..., citing the services
provided to his company through an affiliate agency,
N.O.I. Security Inc....
Finally, New Lifes proposal seems to claim N.O.I.
Security Agency Inc.s work in other cities as
its own. . ..Throughout America in urban cities like Los
Angeles, Washington, DC, Philadelphia, Dallas
and Boston, NLSDCs...demonstration of top security...
has bettered the public housing environment,
Leonard Farrakhan Muhammad asserted. With the
exception of Boston - where the nephew of
Farrakhans East Coast Representative ran a security
firm until he landed in prison for defrauding HUD
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32
- N.O.I. Security Agency Inc. operates in all the cities
named.
A New York security company offers a second example
of ties among NOI-linked companies. XMen
Security Agency was incorporated in New York in
December 1990. It shares a Brooklyn address
with another NOI-linked entity, the Black African
Holocaust Council, which is led by an aide to Khalid
Abdul Muhammad, Farrakhans erstwhile national
spokesman, known for his incendiary, racist rhetoric.
An NO1 contract with an apartment complex in Buffalo
evidences a relationship between X-Men
and N.O.I. Security Agency. The contract is headed
N.O.I. Security Contract No.-. Yet, the contracting
party named is X-Men Security Agency, Inc.
Nonetheless, the body of the contract states, N.O.I.
SECURITY AGENCY INCORPORATED, is willing and able
to perform the services for Contractor in
accordance with the terms of this Agreement.... The
contract is signed by an official of X-Men, however,
not N.O.I. Security Agency.
A third example can be found on the other side of the
country. There is an N.O.I. Security Agency
in California. The company, incorporated in California in
July 1992, lists William Muhammad as its vice
president, Dion Muhammad as its secretary, and a man
with a Los Angeles area address as its president.
(See The NO1 Security Empire.) On its annual reports
to the California Secretary of State, the Los Angeles
N.O.I. Security Agency gives the former mailing address
of the Washington company of the same name.
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A fourth indication of the companies ties with one
another comes from their attorney. During an
investigation early this year, HUD officials wrote to the
Nation-linked firms requesting certain information.
Abdul Arif Muhammad, as General Counsel for N.O.I.
Security Agency Inc., responded to HUDs
letter to another firm, N.O.I. Security Patrol Services
Inc. Writing on N.O.I. Security Agency IN.
(Washington, DC) letterhead, Muhammad noted, ... the
security firms located in Washington, DC, and
Chicago, Illinois, received the exact questionnaire (sic)
as the one submitted to N.O.I. Security Patrol
Services Inc. (Baltimore). Each client received an
offer to provide the information directly to HUD in
Washington. Muhammad concluded, ... we have
accepted this offer and will prepare our responses....
(Emphasis added.)
6
At the March 2, 1995, hearings before the House
Banking Committee Subcommittee on Oversight,
the heads of all the security companies were present.
Only Abdul Arif Muhammad and Leonard
Farrakhan Muhammad testified. The former introduced
himself as General Counsel for N.O.I. Security
Agency Inc. and for the purposes of these proceedings
counsel to New Life Self-Development Inc. of
Chicago and X-Man (sic) Security Inc. of New York, and
introduced Leonard Farrakhan Muhammad as
President and CEO of New Life. Leonard Farrakhan
Muhammad is Louis Farrakhans son-in-law as
well as Nation of Islam chief of staff.
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Although Abdul Arif Muhammad testified that there is
no affiliation between these corporate entities
and the Nation of Islam,l and Leonard Farrakhan
Muhammad told the committee the Chicago-based
company is autonomous of the Nation of Islam, they
were joined at the hearings by Minister Abdul
Alim Muhammad, National Spokesman for the Hon.
Louis Farrakhan, and Minister Don Muhammad,
East Coast Regional Representative for the Hon. Louis
Farrakhan, as Abdul Arif Muhammad introduced
them. Neither Abdul Alim Muhammad nor Don
Muhammad are listed as officers of any of the
security companies on their articles of incorporation
and annual reports obtained by ADL.12
Nor is this the only occasion on which NOIs big guns
have played a role in the activities of security
companies over which they ostensibly have no
authority. Leonard Muhammad, who is based in
Chicago, where he is the Nation of Islams chief of staff,
apparently came to Washington to troubleshoot
N.O.I. Security Agency Inc.s vexed relationship with
the Metropolitan Police Department. The Final
Cull described two 1992 meetings which Leonard F.
Muhammad, chief of staff for the Nation of Islam,
and N.O.I. Security Agency officials had with the police
chief, aimed at lessening tensions between the
companys guards and District police? That the NOIs
chief of staff apparently acted on behalf of the
security company, when he is not an official of the
company - his name does not appear as an officer,
director, or incorporator of N.O.I. Security Agency Inc.
in the fms Articles of Incorporation or annual
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reports reviewed by ADL - appears to contradict
attorney Abdul Arif Muhammads statement to
Congress that there is no affiliation between these
companies and the Nation of Islam.
Indeed, a reference letter for N.O.I. Security
underscores the relationship. The 1991 letter of praise
was written by Black Expo USA to Ernest Brooks, who
was secretary of the security company in 1990
and 1991. The letter is addressed to Brooks as
Representative, NO1 Security Agency Inc., at a South
Stony Island Avenue address in Chicago.15 This is the
address of the Nation of Islams main mosque,
Mosque Maryam, and the NOIs Muhammad University of
Islam, incorporated to provide [ilndoctrination
of students into the principles of Islam as taught by the
Honorable Elijah Muhammad.6 A sign in front
of the mosque proclaims it the National Center of
Louis Farrakhan. The security company, however, is
headquartered in Washington, DC, and does not appear
to have an office or business in the windy city.
Moreover, advertisements for N.O.I. Security Agency
Inc. give a Chicago telephone number for the
company, in addition to its Washington number. But
there is no directory listing for N.O.I. Security in
Chicago, and The Find Cull contains no mention of the
company doing business there.
In his Nation of Islam capacity as Supreme Captain -
chief of the NOIs Fruit of Islam security
cadre - however, the security companys president,
William Muhammad, is based in Chicago. In fact,
the Chicago telephone number in N.O.I. Security
Agencys ad is answered, Supreme Captains office.*
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NATION OF ISLAM DIRECTION AND CONTROL
OF SECURITY COMPANIES
While on paper the security companies are separate
corporate entities, the firms appear thoroughly
intertwined with the Nation of Islam itself, sharing
officers, direction and control. Nation of Islam off&
cials themselves have implied that Farrakhan and his
lieutenants exert controlling influence over the
companies, and that income may be upstreamed to
Louis Farrakhan. The president of N.O.I. Security has
denounced critics of the firm as people who are
seeking to deny fmancial benefits...to Minister
FaKakhan*
N.O.I. Security Agency Inc.s secretary and its attorney
have acknowledged that Farrakhan and his
lieutenants exert controlling influence - the power to
direct policy, influence decisions, and select directors
and officers - over the company. The companys
secretary, Dion Muhammad (a.k.a. Dion Emory)
reportedly extolled the guidance of the Honorable
Louis Farrakhan, the discipline of the Nation of Islam,
the direction of Supreme Captain Abdul Sharrieff
Muhammad,* according to The Find Call. The title
Supreme Captain refers to the chief of the Nation of
Islams Fruit of Islam security force.
In a similar vein, an N.O.I. Security Agency Inc. attorney
characterized the firm as associated with
the Nation of Islam under the guidance and direction of
the Honorable Minister Louis Farrakhan, in a
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suit filed last year against the Metropolitan Police
Department of Washington, DC, in Superior Court for
the District of Columbia.
Nation of Islam officials assertions of guidance,
discipline, and direction conflict with the
Congressional testimony of attorney Abdul Arif
Muhammad. At the HUD oversight hearings in March
1995, attorney Muhammad asserted that there is no
affiliation between these corporate entities and the
Nation of Islam.
The references to guidance, discipline, and
direction* are underscored, however, by the
account of a public official who has described the
procedure he followed in order to contract with one of
the NO1 security companies. The chairman of the
Chicago Housing Authority told the Chicago Tribune
that it was necessary for him to obtain Farm&ans
approval for proposed security contracts between the
housing authority and New Life. Farrakhans approval
was also necessary for a separate, private business
deal the housing chairman negotiated simultaneously
with yet another NOI-linked company, also headed
by Leonard F. Muhammad. (In addition to his roles as
New Life president and NO1 chief of staff,
Muhammad heads other NOI-linked businesses and is
Farrakhans son-in-law.) The housing authority
chairman discussed both public and private deals
during the same meetings with Farrakhan and Leonard
Farrakhan Muhammad?
U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development
Secretary Henry Cisneros announced in May
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1995 that HUDs Inspector General would investigate
whether the relationship constituted a conflict of
interest for the CHA chairman.20
New Lifes contracts have expired. HUD, which recently
took over the CHA, will not extend the
contracts, but will rebid them instead, Secretary
Cisneros disclosed in an August 1995 letter to
Representative Peter King of the Oversight
Subcommittee.
8
OFFICERS AND DIRECTORS SERVE IN DUAL
CAPACITIES
A widely recognized indicator of control is the presence
of the same officers serving different entities
in dual capacities. Several Nation of Islam officials in
important supervisory roles wear a second hat
as officials of corresponding rank in the security
companies. For example: William Muhammad,
President of N.O.I. Security Agency Inc., is the
Supreme Captain of the Nation of Islams Fruit of
Islam
security corps. He sometimes uses the names Abdul
Sharrieff Muhammad and William Johnson
Muhammad.
A Chicago telephone number displayed in N.O.I.
Security Agency ads in the Nation of Islams
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tabloid spotlights William/Abdul Sharrieff Muhammads
double role. The line is answered, Supreme
Captains office - Williarn/Abdul Sharrieff Muhammads
Nation of Islam post. A caller who asked
where to write the Supreme Captain about retaining
security services, mentioning The Final Call ad, was
given the South Stony Island address of the Nation of
Islams main mosque and National Center. Thus,
the security company - ostensibly separate from the
Nation of Islam - solicits business both at its corporate
headquarters in Washington, DC, and at Nation of Islam
headquarters in Chicago.
Additional examples of officers serving in dual
capacities include local Fruit of Islam captains in
at least two cities, Baltimore and Los Angeles, who also
head the local N.O.I. Security Agency operation,
according to The Final Call.
In a third example, William/Abdul Sharrieff Muhammads
deputy in the NOIs Fruit of Islam,
Assistant Supreme Captain Mustapha Farrakhan,21 is
an N.O.I. Security Agency Inc. consultant. He is
shown standing shoulder to shoulder with WillianYAbdul
Sharrieff Muhammad in the security companys
promotional flyers. Mustapha Farrakhan is one of Louis
Farrakhans sons.
Leonard Farrakhan Muhammad provides yet a fourth
case of NO1 officers doubling as officers of
the NOIs private security companies. He is President
and C.E.O., New Life Self-Development Inc.,
according to the testimony of the companys counsel,
Abdul Arif Muhammad at the March 1995 House
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oversight hearings. As noted, he is also the Nation of
Islams Chief of Staff, Louis Farrakhans son-inlaw,
and heads several other Nation of Islam-linked
businesses.
Actually, Leonard F. Muhammads relationship to New
Life is somewhat unclear. He is sometimes
described as the owner of New Life. But while he has
signed contracts to provide security services at
Chicago public housing projects as president of New
Life, that status is not reflected in corporate
records filed with the Illinois Secretary of States office.
Leonard Muhammad is not listed as an officer
or director of New Life, according to New Lifes articles
of incorporation and annual reports to the
Illinois Secretary of State. The president, secretary, and
registered agent of New Life is Franklin D.
Seamy. Searcy is the brother of Leonard F. Muhammad,
who also uses the name Leonard C. Seamy. At
the House oversight hearings in March, Muhammad
himself shied from the title president, instead calling
himself principal of New Life.
Additional details link New Life to the Nation of Islam.
New Life shares a South Side Chicago
address and a fax number with additional businesses
run by Muhammad and other Farrakhan family
members. These include Kamal Muhammad, who is the
Nations National Secretary and a Farrakhan sonin-
law, and Leonard F. Muhammads wife Donna,
Farrakhans daughter. One of the businesses at the
South Wabash Avenue address is POWER, a personal
products line launched by Farrakhan in 1985 with
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a $5 million interest-free loan from Libyan strongman
Muammar Gadhafi. Another concern is Nationway
Ventures International Group which marketed POWER
products. Nationway Ventures International
Group succeeded Nationway Ventures International Ltd.
(NVIL) in 1993 after the former racked up more
than $100,000 in tax debts to the IRS, and other bills.
The fax transmittal tags on material New Life submitted
to the Chicago Housing Authority read:
N.V.I.L. (POWER). (Apparently the name on the fax
machine refers to the first Nationways Ventures
International, Nationways Ventures International
Limited, and was not changed to the successor firms
9
name, Nationways Ventures International Group, after
Muhammad signed the debt-ridden company over
to a liquidation service - as the IRS was about to seize
its bank accounts.)22
Another link between New Life and the NO1 is evident
in the fact that the resumes of two members
of Muhammads Nation of Islam staff were submitted to
the Chicago Housing Authority, apparently as
evidence of New Lifes qualification for the security
venture. The resumes of the NO1 employees noted
that they worked in the office of the NOIs Chief of Staff
- Leonard Farrakhan Muhammad.
10
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PARALLELS BETWEEN FRUIT OF ISLAM STRUCTURE
AND N.O.I. SECURITY AGENCY
In another example of Nation of Islam officials doubling
as security company of-f&rq t,hex me
Fruit of Islam (FOI) captains who also head the local
branch of N.O.I. Security Agency Inc. in their
jesdictions.
The Fruit of Islam is an integral part of the Nation of
Islam. It is a corps composed of male
members, who receive martial arts training - We have a
military structure that we train our men into,
William/Abdul Sharrieff Muhammad told The Final Call in
199223 - act as bodyguards for Farmkhan
and other senior Nation of Islam officials, provide
security at mosques, and perform SOme internal
security
and disciplinary functions.
In at least two cities, Baltimore and Los Angeles, local
Fruit of Islam captains also head the local
N.O.I. Security Agency Inc. operation, according to
accounts in The Final Call.
The Muslim group has also used the names
interchangeably. The Final Call, in an article on N.O.I.
Security Agencys pursuit of contracts in Los Angeles,
wrote, Only the strong, no-nonsense presence of
the FOI can deter the rampant crime and drug
infestation, many residents believe.25
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Advertisements for N.O.I. Security Agency Inc. even list
a telephone number containing the Fruit
of Islam acronym. The Chicago-area number ends -
4FOI. (The number is ex-directory.) The ads in The
Final Call also list a more mundane Washington, DC,
number.
The Fruit of Islam name has cropped up elsewhere.
N.O.I. Security, Agency Inc., the NOIs
Washington standard-bearer, appears to have replaced
another District of Columbia corporation, F.O.I.
Security Corporation Inc., on at least one contract.
According to F.O.I. Securitys 1991 annual report (its
most recent), filed with the District of Columbia, its vice
president is William Muhammad - chief of the
NOls Fruit of Islam (FOI) corps, and president of N.O.I.
Security Agency Inc. - and its treasurer is
Timothy Harrison. Timothy Harrison was N.O.I.
Securitys vice president until 1994; he remains
director.
According to the contract contained in records
submitted by HUD to the House Banking
Committee, Subcommittee on Oversight, F.O.I. Security
obtained a contract to patrol Mayfair Mansions
in the District in June 1990. The contract is signed by
William Muhammad as President of F.O.I. Security
Corp. and Timothy Harrison as Secretary. N.O.I.
Security apparently replaced F.O.I. Security Corp. at
Mayfair at an unknown point since June 1990. (HUDs
materials show N.O.I. Security as the current contractor
with Mayfair, but its submission to Congress does not
include a contract to which N.O.I. Security
is a party.)
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In another twist, the senior general partner of
Kenilworth Associates Ltd., which owns Mayfair
Mansions, is the president of F.O.I. Security
Corporation. Records on file with the District of
Columbia
show that Arthur M. Reynolds holds both titles. Thus,
the security company of which Reynolds is president
contracted with the partnership of which Reynolds was
senior general partner to provide security
services at public expense. At some point, N.O.I.
Security, which shares some of the same officers with
F.O.I. Security, took over the job.
Perhaps coincidentally, Reynolds is one of N.O.I.
Securitys biggest fans. N.O.I. Security uses a
quote Reynolds gave Ebony magazine praising the
Muslim firm in the companys glossy, full-color
promotional
flyer. Reynolds told the magazine, Credit the Muslims,
they have done a tremendous job,
according to the flyer. And the property manager for
Mayfair, Paula Singleton, whose reference letter
praising N.O.I. Securitys work at Mayfair was attached
to the companys written testimony before
Congress, was secretary of F.O.I. Security, and a
director, according to the companys first annual report,
for 1989.
11
FOI CAPTAINS WEAR SECOND HATS AS N.O.I.
SECURITY CHIEFS
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The parallel roles played by Fruit of Islam captains as
N.O.I. Security Agency Inc. chiefs - especially
the role of FOI Supreme Captain William
Muhammad/Abdul Sharrieff Muhammad as founder and
President of N.O.I. Security Agency Inc. - are
significant.
The N.O.I. Security Agency was created in Washington,
DC, in 1990, apparently to replace the volunteer
anti-drug patrols by Fruit of Islam members -
colloquially known as Dopebusters - with a
for-profit entity. In a 1992 interview with William
Muhammad, The Final Call notes that N.O.I. Security
Agency Inc. was [i]nitially called the Dopebusters. It
goes on to state that in the late 198Os, William
Muhammad, then Fruit of Islam captain for Washington,
DC, organized the FOI into the Dopebusters
patrols at Minister Farrakhans instruction?
No less a personage than William/Abdul Sharrieff
Muhammad also appears to fuse N.O.I. Security
Agency Inc. with the Nation of Islams Fruit of Islam
corps - both of which he heads. In the security
companys promotional flyer, submitted to the House
oversight subcommittee in March 1995 as an exhibit,
Muhammad noted that the fum has secured Minister
Louis Farrakhan at various national and international
venues for over a decade.... (Emphasis added.)27
But N.O.I. Security Agency Inc. has only existed for five
years - it was incorporated in March
1995 - not ten. Even the Fruit of Islams Dope Busters,
out of which N.O.I. Security Agency Inc. was
formed, only began their volunteer patrols in 1988 -
eight years ago. The Final Calf makes no reference
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to the security company having guarded Farrakhan, nor
any reference to the company having performed
services abroad.
The Fruit of Islam, however, has guarded Farrakhan.
William/Abdul Sharrieff Muhammad thus
treats N.O.I. Security and the Fruit of Islam as
synonymous. He claims tasks performed by the Nation
of
Islams in-house security arm, the Fruit of Islam, as
accomplishments of the for-profit security company,
N.O.I. Security Agency Inc.
The Nation of Islam-linked security firms appear in large
part to form a structure not only paralleling
that of the Nation of Islams Fruit of Islam, but
controlled by the same persons. In large measure, the
Nation of Islams flagship security company seems to
be the for-profit incarnation of the Nation of
Islams Fruit of Islam security corps.
The Nation of Islam controls its Fruit of Islam corps,
and the Fruit of Islams chief and another
Farmkhan lieutenant control virtually all the security
companies.
12
LOUIS FARRAKHANS CONTROL OF THE NATION OF
ISLAM
One of the elements of proof of control is the power to
select directors and officers.28 Louis
Farrakhan has the power to make appointments within
the Nation of Islam. He also has the power to discipline
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and remove officers. In February 1994, for example, the
Muslim leader announced that he had
dismissed Khalid Abdul Muhammad as his national
spokesman and as a Nation of Islam minister, after
Muhammads race-baiting remarks at New Jerseys
Kean College sparked a national furor. Earlier, in the
late 198Os, it was Farrakhan who wrote to the Federal
judge in Atlanta who was to sentence Khalid Abdul
Muhammad for a fraud conviction, seeking leniency and
promising that he, Farrakhan, would punish
Muhammad?
In another illustration of Farrakhans pervasive role,
Nation of Islam officials style themselves The
Honorable Louis Farrakhans representative or
spokesman. NO1 attorney Abdul Arif Muhammad
introduced the two luminaries who showed the Nation
of Islam flag at the House oversight hearings,
Abdul Alim Muhammad and Don Muhammad, as
National Spokesman for the Hon. Louis Farrakhan
and East Coast Regional Representative for the Hon.
Louis Farrakhan, respectively.W
The perception by Nation of Islam officials that they are
instruments of Louis Farrakhan is reflected
on the local level as well. Ministers of local mosques
style themselves Local Representative of the
Honorable Louis Farrakhan and the Nation of Islam.
The minister of the NO1 mosque in Dayton, OH,
for example, used that honorific in a letter to the
Dayton Metropolitan Housing Authority seeking a
contract
for the Nation of Islam Community Support Group, a
local company, which he also heads. (The
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company got the contract.)
Being a member of the Nation of Islam is not like being
a member of the Republican or Democrat
Parties. The Nation is a tightly disciplined, hierarchical
organization; members are subject to party discipline.
By all indications, Farrakhan controls the Nation of
Islam. As shown, the Nation of Islam exercises
controlling influence over N.O.I. Security Agency Inc.,
and either directly or through that company
controls virtually all the supposedly independent
security companies.
13
UPSTREAMING PUBLIC FUNDS FROM NO1 SECURITY
AGENCY INC. TO THE NATION OF ISLAM
The Nation of Islam official who heads N.O.I. Security
Agency Inc. as well as the NOIs Fruit of
Islam security corps has implied that proceeds of the
firms contracts benefit Louis Farrakhan and his
organization financially. In a 1992 interview with The
Final CaZZW, ill.iam/Abdul Sharrieff Muhammad
told the house organ that there was negative media
coverage of the security frnn because [slome people,
particularly some Jews, dont want any financial
benefits to come to Minister Farmkhan.
Muhammad continued, So they tell this lie that the
Minister hates Jews and that were anti-Semitic.
Thats a cover to keep us from establishing an
economic base.31
More recently, NO1 guards at the Ocean Towers project
in Brooklyn, NY, distributed leaflets which
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may reflect a rank and file perception that the security
contracts are a source of income for the Nation of
Islam itself. The flyers, distributed in late 1994, assert
that then-Nation of Islam minister KhaIid Abdul
Muhammads hate-laced 1993 speech at Kean College -
Jews are bloodsuckers, the Pope is a nogood
cracker, whites in South Africa should be murdered,
dug up, and murdered again2 - had so
offended some ministeries (sic) of the Jewish
Community that ther (sic) has been a National
Campaign to distroy, (sic) the financial base of N.O.1 by
attacking, and disrupting the security contracts.
33
14
MINISTRY OF HATE
The likelihood that Louis Farrakhan ultimately controls
NO1 security companies which receive public
funds aggravates concern that the taxpayer is funding a
ministry of hate. Some defenders of the contracts
have argued that Farrakhan and the NO1 are not
bigoted, but are unfairly blamed for the racist rants
of Farrakhans erstwhile national spokesman, Khalid
Abdul Muhammad.
The Nation of Islams core doctrine and Farrakhans
own bigoted ravings put the lie to that claim.
It is an NO1 article of faith that whites are a devil race -
a doctrine propounded since founder W.D.
Fards day. And the NOIs catechism, What Muslims
Believe, calls for a separate black state.
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Despite an occasional tactical flirtation with tolerance,
Farrakhan himself continues to voice raw
hatred. And while the articulate, telegenic Muslim
leader ably dissembles this bigotry in television
interviews,
his record demolishes such sophistry.
Farrakhan reserves special vitriol for Jews. In a March
19, 1995, speech from the rostrum of the
NOIs main mosque, Mosque Maryam in Chicago,
Farrakhan warned Jews:
...I know youre plotting against us, but I want to tell
you what my God is poised to do
for you.... I want you to look at the national calamities
that our God will bring against his evil
nation.
Master Farad Muhammad [the NOIs founder].... He is
the God of Israel.... Our God cant
wait for you to make your move.... He dares you to
touch me. Come on, if you want to die....
All of these wicked ones who have given Judaism a bad
name, they are the members of the
synagogue of Satan.... I warn you in the name of Allah,
leave us alone. Your time is just about up.
In the same speech, the Muslim leader asserted:
International bankers financed Hitler and poor Jews
died while big Jews were at the root
of what you call the Holocaust.
. ..Little Jews died while big Jews made money. Little
Jews [were] being turned into soap
while big Jews washed themselves with it. Jews [were]
playing violin, Jews [were] playing
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music, while other Jews [were] marching into the gas
chambers. We wasnt there.
. ..The Rothschilds would finance both sides of all the
European wars. They always wanted to
get their hands on the Central Bank of America. And
they finally did.... Congress passed into
law the Federal Reserve Act.
. ..How did the rich make Americas debt grow? The
easiest way to get money is to start a
war.... The moment the international bankers took
control of the money by taking control of
the...Federal Reserve, a war broke out in Europe and
the British sent Lord Weissman to
America to encourage Americas involvement in the
war. The Germans didnt start any war
with America.
. ..The root of communism and the root of capitalism is
from the same group of people. They
[international bankers] started both philosophies, they
financed both philosophies....
. ..ADL [the Anti-Defamation League]...are the
watchdogs for the international bankers. They
are the watchdogs for the secret government that
manipulates presidents and Congress....
Almost all of your black congres+:nen are honorary
citizens, members of the Knesset. Did you
know that? Most senators, black and white, honorary
members of the Knesset....
After Khalid Abdul Muhammads race-baiting remarks at
Kean College touched off a national
fuestorm of criticism in early 1994, Farrakhan called a
press conference in Washington to announce
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Khalids suspension from his duties. Farrakhan carefully
condemned the manner but not the truths of
Muhammads speech.
What were those truths? In his verbal rampage at
Kean College Khalid said the following:
A white imposter Arab and a white imposter
Jew...[are] the blood suckers of the black nation....
You see everybody always talk about Hitler
exterminating six million Jews. Thats right.
15
But dont nobody ever ask what did they do to Hitler? .
..[T]hey supplanted, they usurped...,
They...undermined the very fabric of society....
Hitler...was wickedly great.... But hey are
wickedly great, too, brother.
...[W]e kill everything white that aint right...in South
Africa. We kill the women, we kill
the children, we kill the babies. We kill the blind, we kill
the crippled...we kill em all.
. ..Goddamit. and when you get through killing em all,
go to the goddam graveyard and kill
em, goddam, again. Cause they didnt die hard
enough.
Go to the Vatican in Rome, when the old, no-good
Pope, you know that cracker. Somebody
need to raise that dress up and see whats really under
there.
Khalid was reinstated as an NO1 minister in July 1995.
Indeed, Khalids truths reflect Farmkhans
own gutter snipings. From his podium at the NOIs 1994
Saviours Day convention in Chicago,
Farrakhan excoriated whites:
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Your history is written in the blood of the human
family. It comes out of you like a web
comes out of a spider.
Murder and lying comes easy for white people.... Your
history is shedding the blood of all
human beings and you came in lying to us, deceiving us,
then killing us.
A few months later, he asserted that whites are
fomenting black-on-black violence in order to get
body parts for transplant.
When rich whites need a kidney or a heart, they say,
get us a nigger! When youre killing
each other, they cant wait for you to die. Youve
become good for ~arts.~
The Muslim leaders words were in keeping with his
earlier statements:
Its because you are wicked and you fear in the
sickness of your mind that you must control
everybody because everybody is inferior and only white
people have a right to rule. I say
youre sick and you need a doctor or you need to be
buried.35
It is an act of mercy to white people that we end your
world....36
Farrakhans remarks came after a decade of similar
statements:
Suppose a Jew would kill Farrakhan...there are
blacks that would kill until their soul was
satisfied if anything happened to Louis Farrakhan...if
America moves on me, God will move
on America. Try it and see.37
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Who controls black arts? Who eontrols black sports
figures? Who controls black intellectuals,
black politicians . ..? . ..When I talk to the Jews, I am
talking to a segment of that quorum
that holds my people in their grip.
You cant say never again to God, because when He
puts you in the oven, never again
dont mean a thing.
[Jews are] sucking the blood of the black
community.40
The NO1 are equal-opportunity bigots. In a breathtaking
insult to Catholics, a Final Call CO~UIM,
Ministers message unmasks imposters, suggested
that the Pope is the anti-Christ:
...Does [the Pope] really represent Christ, or does he
represent that originator and organizer
of organized crime on this earth? . ..Who represents
Christ: Pope John Paul II or the
Honorable Louis Farrakhan? Will Christ himself finally
distinguish him who is genuine from
him, who is the imposter (anti-Christ)? (Phrase anti-
Christ in original.)
16
A LOVE GROUP, NOT A HATE GROUP
Some supporters of the NO1 firms public contracts
have attempted to sidestep the bigotry issue,
asserting that since the security firms are independent
of the Muslim organization, they are untainted.
That the firms independence is fictional should by now
be clear. There are indications, moreover, that
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some of the finms themselves may indeed be tainted
with racism and anti-Semitism.
Nation of Islam offrcers who head security firms insist
the Nation itself is not a hate group. Leonard
F. Muhammad, the Nations chief of staff and head of
the Chicago-based security company, told the
March 1995 Congressional oversight panel, I think in
our case, Congressman, this is not a situation
where you are funding a hate group. You are actually
funding a love group.
A supervisor at the NOIs Baltimore security fum
provided an example of that love. On payday
he told the 30 guards gathered in the office, The
paychecks will be late today, according to U.S. News
&World Report. 42 Somebody tapped into the computer
system, and it was the Jews. The Jews put a virus
in our computer.
NO1 guards have also sold or given copies of The Final
CaZZ to residents at at least six sites around
the country, according to field interviews conducted by
U.S. Department of Housing and Urban
Development staff at subsidized housing developments
employing NO1 firms.43 The Final CuZZ is replete
with anti-Semitic and racist claptrap and conspiracy
theory. (It is unclear whether all the guards were on
duty when they distributed the NO1 organ, but it
appears from the field interviews and news reports that
residents perceived the individuals selling papers to be
guards, not rank-and-file members of the NOI.)
According to HUDs materials, that activity ceased after
housing authorities objected.
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That employees of the NO1 security firms have
distributed materials tainted with race-hatred
undermines
the firms pious assertions that they are not themselves
bigoted.
17
PROSELYTIZING
In public housing projects where the Nations
companies provide security, residents and some non-
Mush guatds have alleged that the NO1 guards use their
posts to seek converts. Allegations concern
activity in Baltimore, New York, and Philadelphia.
Religious activity at the -payers' expense may vialate
the Establishment Clause of the First Amendment,
breaching the separation of church and state.
In Baltimore, eight current or former NO1 guards told
U.S. News &World Report in September 1994
that guards and supervisors have sold tenants copies of
the NOI newspaper, me Final Call, which promotes
Muslim doctrine, distributed free tickets to Farrakhan
appearances, and have gat,kred small groups
of young tenants to urge them to join the NOI.
Recruiting new members for the NOI, avowedly a
religious group, constitutes proselytizing, as does
sale or dissemination of The Final Call, which contains
religious material promoting the tenets of the
NOIs brand of Muslim belief.
According to HUD field interviews with public housing
residents, NOI personnel have sold religious
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materials door-to-door in a Pittsburgh complex, invited
residents to the NOI mosque there and in
Dayton, Ohio, and sold or distributed The Final Calf in
six locations around the country. In most cases,
residents told field interviewers the activity had
ceased?
In Brooklyn, NY, the State Department of Housing and
Community Renewal decided not to permit
a management company to renew a $361,446
emergency contract with N.O.I. Security Agency Inc.,
after
it received complaints that the guards were selling The
Final Call from the security booth. The booth
boasted a large poster promoting a rally by NO1 chief
Louis Farrakhan, and was decorated inside with a
photo of Farrakhan surrounded by Fruit of Islam
security guards. The guards, apparently a dedicated lot,
also sold fish, which the NO1 urges followers to eat for
good health, and vials of various oils, such as
those sold in some Nation of Islam bookstores.
Brother James 14X, who reportedly runs the X-Men
Security Corp. crew at the project (N.O.I.
Securitys sub-contractor), denied that the guards
engaged in converting tenants to the NOIs beliefs, but
acknowledged that the security force sought to have
the tenants recognize God as the center of their
lives. The contract is for business. But I consider myself
a missionary. And my business is the mission of
raising black people from their mentally dead state to
positive thinking.
Seeking converts is known, in NO1 parlance, as fishing
for the dead.a
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In Philadelphia, three residents of the HUD-subsidized
Abbotsford project filed a class action suit
against the director of N.O.I. Security, the U.S.
Department of Housing and Urban Development, and the
Philadelphia housing authority, et al., alleging, inter
alia, that NO1 security staff have held numerous
religious instruction classes for children and
distributed religious literature. The suit was later
withdrawn.
NO1 Securitys contract at Abbotsford was not renewed
last year. The tenant board voted against
renewal, its president told U.S. News.49
And in Washington, DC, Lt. Lowell Duckett of the
Metropolitan Police Department, described by
the Los Angeles Times as a Nation of Islam supporter,
attributed a decline in drug dealing in a
Washington, DC, housing project to the Nation of Islam
and its teachings. The group offers classes, counseling,
religious studies, and training, Duckett told the Times?
Finally, William Muhammad himself has boasted that
N.O.I. Security Agency Inc. does not limit
itself to security functions. NO1 Security is a wholistic
(sic) program. We dont just deal with security,
the important program is our social program, he told
The Final CaZZ. And New Lifes Leonard Farmkhan
Muhammad told a Congressional subcommittee in 1994,
A focus on security only can be appropriately
compared to attempting to walk on one leg. Testifying
before the Subcommittee on Housing and
Community Development of the House Committee on
Banking, Finance, and Urban Affairs, Muhammad
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called the N.O.I.-linked security companies security
and social service companies.5
18
MANHOOD AND WOMANHOOD TRAINING:
A COVER FOR PROSELYTIZING?
Manhood and Womanhood Training classes appear to
be among those social programs. These
classes, which appear to be a vehicle for proselytizing,
are written into N.O.I. Security Agency service
agreements and contracts in Dayton, OH, Los Angeles,
Philadelphia, and Pittsburgh.sz
A New York ZImes reporter who attended a Manhood
Training class at the Nation of Islams
Harlem mosque described the program as a pilot
program aimed at nonmembers.... Manhood Training
is part lecture, part paramilitary drilling and part group
therapy and catharsis for inner city blues. It is
also a seamless dissemination of the basic tenets of
Nation of Islam philosophy, including handouts
detailing the 26 restricted laws of Islam, (emphasis
added). The reporter noted, The Muslims...asked
participants to fill out detailed background forms, a
request reminiscent of Mr. Farrakhans speech at the
armory when he asked his audience of more than
10,000 men to fill out index cards with their names,
addresses and Social Security numbers. Military drill
was included in the Manhood Training curriculum.
For example, as the men marched in place...and yelled
in cadence - One! Iwo! Three! Four! - [the
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instructor] would help keep time by shouting out the
names of Islamic holy men.s3 Participants were also
encouraged to make donations.
The Manhood Training offered at the mosque could
differ from the Manhood Training offered at
inner city housing projects. But complaints that NO1
housing guards are holding religion classes, distributing
religious literature, and urging young residents to join
the organization suggest this is exactly what
is meant where the term Manhood Training appears in
service agreements.
Where Manhood Training is written into NO1 security
contracts, the taxpayer is in effect subsidizing
religious proselytizing.
Proselytizing may extend to programs other than
Manhood and Womanhood training. In another
example, the contract obtained by the Nation of Islam
Community Support Group in Dayton, OH, provides
for self-esteem development in addition to manhood and
womanhood training, as part of a Federal
Drug Elimination Grant Program. A senior Dayton
housing official instructed the N.O.I. group not to
distribute
a self-esteem study guide the group produced because
it contained religious references, according
to the March 1995 Congressional testimony of then-HUD
Assistant Secretary Roberta Achtenberg. An
employee of the NOI group refused to supply HUD with
a copy of the study guide, Assistant Secretary
Achtenberg testified.-
19
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CONDONED VIGILANTISM: USE OF EXCESSIVE FORCE
N.O.I. Security companies have been dogged by
incidents of excessive force and intimidation -
what a veteran police sergeant termed condoned
vigilantism5s -
have themselves been intimidated by gangs and drug
dealers.
and by allegations that some guards
For example, a Los Angeles (Venice) management
company terminated its contract with N.O.I.
Security (California) in late 1993 because of evidence of
rampant drug dealing in the gumis presence.%
The activity was captured in more than 75 still photos,
and on police surveillance tapes showing guards
watching drug sales. The police also complained that
the guards sometimes were quick to let fleeing
suspects
into the buildings, but were slow to allow pursuing
police to enter? Police officials told The New
York Times they believed the N.O.I. guards had been
intimidated by the Shoreline Crips, a gang.
Similar concerns have been raised in Chicago, where, in
July 1994, armed gang members forced
unarmed New Life Self-Development Co. guards out of
two high-rise buildings at the Rockwell Gardens
complex, detaining two guards for an hour? A month
earlier, after gang warfare sent bullets flying
through Rockwell, the complexs maintenance manager
told housing authority police that the feedback
he was getting was that the Muslim guards were
hassling CHA personnel more than the gang members
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62
and drug dealers, according to the Chicago Tribune. 59
B y fall 1994, according to CHA files, conditions
had deteriorated so badly that from October 17 to 27
the New Life guards were removed from Rockwell
in an attempt to restore relative calm.
Back East, N.O.I. Security Agency Inc. lost its contract
to guard Washington, DCs Clifton Terrace
in 1994 after an accumulation of incidents in which
residents and police alleged the N.O.I. guards used
excessive physical force against residents. According
to Sgt. Lou Cannon, who worked in Clifton Terrace
and is president of the Washington Fraternal Order of
Police, We had to arrest several security officers
who went way over the line with physical restraint.@
In a July 1995 interview Sgt. Cannon said that N.O.I.
guards rarely notify the police of an incident,
preferring to handle it themselves. But the guards are
more aggressive [than necessary] - they tend to
aggravate the situation rather than resolve the
situation. Sometimes what should have been a simple
situation
turned into a dangerous affair because of the
escalation.
Sgt. Cannon criticized N.O.I. Securitys methods at
housing projects in Washington. [Theyve
used] tactics - if Id done them Id be up on charges for
excessive force and brutality. If law enforcement
tried to use those tactics, wedve been fued from our
jobs and lucky if we didnt go to jail.
Sometimes the guards strong-arm tactics have been
turned on police. In July 1995, a Nation of
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Islam security guard was convicted in DC Superior
Court of assaulting a police officer during a 1993 fracas
at the Paradise Manor complex in Northeast
Washington. Police had responded to a confrontation
between residents and guards at the complex. While a
police officer was trying to arrest one NOI guard,
a second guard intervened, kicked the officer in the
jaw, and attempted to seize the officers gun. At the
trial, the NO1 guard claimed that he had tripped and
kicked the officer accidentally. The police officers
jaw was broken in two places. The defense did not
explain how attempting to take the officers gun fit
into the accidental scenario.6
The use of strong-arm tactics by NO1 guards has
surfaced elsewhere. In a March 1995 brawl outside
a Baltimore public housing high-rise, four NOI guards
wielding flashlights beat a man unconscious,
fracturing his skull, according to multiple eyewitness
accounts. Baltimore City Police arrested the NO1
guards after four eyewitnesses identified them as the
individuals who chased the victim, beat and kicked
him, until onlookers pulled the guards away, police
reports in Maryland District Court records show. The
injured man had been part of a large group trying to
gain entry to the complex. The guards had detained
him, but he fled in the confusion after gunshots rang
out. A Baltimore grand jury indicted one of the NO1
guards in late August 1995 on two sets of charges of
attempted murder, assault, assault with intent to
murder,
and use of a deadly weapon, according to the Baltimore
States Attorneys Office. The second set of
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20
charges relates to a second victim. The other guards
were not charged.
Security guards at housing projects in Washington,
DC,62 and Brooklyn, NYJ have also assaulted
news reporters and cameramen.
N.O.I. Security Agency Inc. contracts in Los Angeles,
Philadelphia, Pittsburgh and Washington,
DC, have been terminated or allowed to lapse because
of poor performance.M At the Federally subsidized
Abbotsford Homes in Philadelphia, the tenant board
president told U.S. News and World Report that the
tenant association voted against renewing its contract
with N.O.I. Security because it believed the companys
service had declined?
21
HIRING FORMER GANG MEMBERS
Public housing residents in Chicago raised an outcry
when New Life reportedly hired former gag
members as security guards last year. Tenants said
they doubted such people could be trustedti
Defending a goal which may be more consistent with
social work than providing security, Leonard
Farrakhan Muhammad told the Chicago Sun-IFmes that
hiring gang members was a way of gehg them
to leave gang life behind. When the paper asked
whether he risked violence by h.irhg members of rival
gangs, Muhammad suggested his policy had been
approved by the gangs. Were not worried, he told
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the paper. What were doing over here has been
embraced by all of the different organi~tions.67
Muhammad also implied that hiring gang members is
acceptable as long as they put New Lifes interests
ahead of their gangs. If you work for US, you cant hold
out your gang as your identification. You wear
an ID that says youre a security officer for New Life,
and wed better fmd you representing that fist and
foremost, or you wont be working for US.~
In mid-June 1994, after gang warfare flared, sending
bullets pinging off Rockwells walls, gang
members sought New Lifes participation in brokering a
truce. New Life officials served as mediators at
a meeting of rival gang members, according to a report
in the CHAs files.@
The CHAs files contain a letter written two weeks later
from a housing official to Leonard F.
Muhammad reiterat[ing] its position on the
employment of known gang members. The CHA
anticipates
that you will make a reasonable inquiry into whether an
applicant is a current gang member. If the
individual acknowledges membership in a gang, the
Authority does not want that individual assigned to
our properties. 7o
Five months later, in November 1994, Muhammad
informed the CHA that the company was requiring
employees to complete a questionnaire on membership
in organizations. The categories were: civic
gqw political organizations, religious orders, labor
organizations, and youth organizations
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(gangs). A note warns, As an employee, I understand,
membership in gangs is against Chicago Housing
Authority regulations and policy. And such membership
is cause for immediate terminations (sic). The
idea that gang members would own up to gang
membership - grounds for termination - may display
touching faith in their honesty. .
In fact, however, the Nation of Islam has demonstrated
that it has a more realistic view of gangs.
The Muslim group has had more than a decade of
relationships with violent outlaw street gangs from
which to learn. Its gang ties have ranged from an
association of many years with the El Rukns in Chicago
to Khalid Abdul Muhammads contacts with the Crips in
Los Angeles, where the NO1 fielded God
Squads to seek converts among gang members in the
1980s. Khalid paid Faces of Death Crips to perform
security for him during an appearance on Donahue in
1994.
The Rukns, once the countrys largest, most violent
black criminal syndicate, terrorized Chicagos
South Side for nearly a generation. Many soldiers and
lieutenants went to prison for murder, drug trafficking,
and extortion. Even lengthy prison sentences did not
deter some gang leaders. From his prison
cell in the mid- 198Os, the Rukns chieftain, Jeff Fort,
directed a scheme for his lieutenants to collect millions
of dollars from Libya in return for bringing down a
civilian airliner and other acts of terrorism.72
Police scotched the plan before it could be
implemented. A Federal jury convicted Fort in 1987; he
was
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sentenced to 80 years in prison.
The Rukns appear to have made contact with the
Libyans at one of several conferences of terrorists
and militants attended by Nation of Islam
representatives in Tripoli.73
R&ns have been among the honored guests at
numerous Nation of Islam Saviours Day conventions,
according to the convention programs and NO1
publications.
Law enforcement sources have told reporters that the
NO1 recruited Rukns in the early 1980s and
Rukns have trained members of the Nations Fruit of
Islam security wing in martial aits and weapons.74
But such recruiting is likely to have been minimal. By
the mid-1980s the police had penetrated the Rukns,
22
and were methodically decimating the gangs ranks
with the aid of cooperating gang members. The
gangs well-marked trail of brutal crime, with police
officers following closely, would have made Rukn
soldiers unattractive prospects for recruitment for
Farrakhan, with his message of clean living.
Law enforcement sources have also said that NOI
figures attended a Chicago gang summit* in the
mid-1980s, aimed at reapportioning territories. There
the El Rukn called for an end to black-on-black violence.
75 In the last two years Farrakhan has played out
similar scenes with other gangs in cities across the
country, where he has been a featured speaker at
latter-day gang summits.
At least one member of New Lifes team in Chicago may
have had fusthand experience of what a
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w% - the Rukns parent, in fact - can do. New Lifes
proposal to the Chicago Housing Authority contains
the resume of the president of Citywide Detective
Agency, the Chicago company on which New Life
apparently piggybacked for licensing purposes.76 The
resume indicates that Citywides chief was a security
supervisor and security chief for a South Side Chicago
community group whose job training program
was taken over by gang members. His resume shows
that Citywides president worked for The Woodlawn
Organization from 1968 to 197 1. In 1967, Woodlawn
obtained $1 million in Federal funds to run job
training centers for gang members. Members of the
Blackstone Rangers gang obtained staff positions in
the jobs program, The gang took over two training
centers, claimed salaries for work never done, forged
attendance records and paychecks and forcibly
extracted kickbacks from other gang members. By 1973
the gangs chief, Jeff Fort, and several generals had
been convicted of stealing funds to purchase drugs
and weapons. It was after Fort left prison that he
restyled his followers the El R&n, and went on to a
career of drug trafficking and conspiring to commit
terrorism for Libya.
Although in the last two years the Nation of Islam has
claimed a role in what have been billed as
peace talks among warring gang factions - talks
characterized by police gang experts as negotiations
to divvy drug-trafficking turf - Farrakhan has not shied
from elaborating a less benign vision of the
street thugs. In the mid- 1980s the NO1 chief predicted
gangs would play a very important role in a coming
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race war in America. He described gang members as
born to settle the score.*
23
QUICK RESORT TO VIOLENCE BY NATION OF ISLAM
SECURITY FORCES
Since the mid-1980s, Nation of Islam security cadres
have built a record of quick resort to violence
in confrontations with police officers, patrons and
residents of facilities they are responsible for guarding,
and in unprovoked incidents involving peaceful
demonstrators at Farrakhan appearances. Guards
have also reacted violently to a television reporter and
cameraman who were filming their actions in
Washington, and a news photographer who was taking
a picture of a guard in New York City.
24
VIOLENT INCIDENTS INVOLVING NO1 GUARDS
Incidents from assault to murder and alleged
aggravated kidnapping animate concerns that NOI
guards may endanger some of the very people they are
hired to protect.
Four Nation of Islam guards and the NOIs Dallas
minister allegedly kidnapped two unruly youths
from a Dallas shopping mall in June 1995, held them for
four hours and beat them repeatedly. The boys
told police that they were forced to strip naked and
made to run a gantlet of 50 NOI members who struck
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them with belts and bamboo canes. The guards
suspected the boys of stealing a cash register from a
store.
When police attempted to arrest the four guards,
approximately 50 NO1 members confronted the
officers, initially preventing them from taking the men
into custody. The guards were charged with aggravated
kidnapping in the June 13, 1995, incident. One of the
guards acknowledged, They were whipped
because they did wrong. They broke in here. Therefore,
they were disciplined, he told The New York
Tl?imes.
The Dallas mall, envisioned by its owner as an
opportunity for black economic development, is the
site of a Nation of Islam mosque and several NO1
businesses.79 The NO1 guards first took the youths to
the NOIs offices, adjacent to the groups mosque,
where they were questioned and beaten, and then
brought them to a larger room. There they ran the
gantlet of approximately 50 men who beat them again,
according to a police spokesmanBo
The NOIs Dallas minister was charged in the initial
beating. Before he was arrested, the minister
addressed a rally to support the guards, the Nation of
Islam Four, as defenders dubbed them. God
knows well how to raise our children, he said. Since
the white man is not God, why listen to him?81
A Dallas County grand jury declined to indict the five
NO1 men. Neither of the victims, whose parents
have reportedly filed a civil suit against the guards,
were asked to testify before the grand jury,
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according to the boys parents. The sole witness was a
police off?cer.*2
A few months earlier, in a March 1995 brawl outside a
Baltimore high-rise, four NO1 guards wielding
flashlights allegedly beat a man unconscious, fracturing
his skull. The man was taken to the Maryland
Shock Trauma Center in serious condition. He had been
part of a group trying to gain unauthorized entry
to the building. According to police complaints on file in
Baltimore District Court, eyewitnesses told
police they saw the guards chase the victim, kick and
beat him in the face with flashlights until residents
pulled them off the unconscious man.
The guards were arrested. Two of the four had faced
criminal charges before. One had been fired by
the Baltimore Police Department in 1990 after he was
convicted of beating a teenage car theft suspect
with a 15-inch police flashlight in an alley. He was off
duty at the time. The other guard had been charged
with beating a woman and threatening her with a knife,
but the charges were dropped in 1990.8
In late August 1995, a Baltimore grand jury indicted the
cashiered police officer/NO1 guard on
charges including attempted murder and assault. The
grand jury handed down a second set of indictments
in connection with a second victim. The other men were
not charged.
According to a 1994 U.S. Department of Housing and
Urban Development investigation of the
Baltimore Housing Authority, the Maryland State Police
denied licenses to 29 NO1 guards, nearly half of
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the Baltimce complement, because they had been
convicted of felonies.
The practice of hiring convicted criminals as guards is
not limited to the NOIs Baltimore company.
Ten out of 30 NO1 guards in Chicago checked by the
Chicago Tribune have recent felony recordP
- a violation of state regulations barring convicted
felons from working as security guards. According
to the newspaper, one guard had been convicted three
times for selling heroin. Two of the convictions
were as recent as August 1994. Another was convicted
of possession of cocaine, a felony, and a misdemeanor
firearms charge, both in 1994. A third was caught with
43 bags of crack cocaine that he was selling
to a juvenile, and was convicted, also in 1994?
These felons are part of a force patrolling violent, drug-
infested housing projects.
25
In 1991, authorities in LOS Angeles refused to license
several security guards whose names were
submitted by the NO1 company because the men had
criminal records.*7
On another front, guards have allegedly assaulted
members of the news media covering the NOI
firms activities. At a Coney Island development in
Brooklyn, NY, in February 1995 a security guard
roughed up a [New York] Post photographer when he
tried to take the mans picture.... The guard
grabbed the photog around the neck and threw him to
the ground, according to the newspaper.@
Even before the NOI spun off housing patrols by its Fruit
of Islam security arm into a for-profit
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enterprise, the Fruit had a record of violence and
confrontation. Security-related incidents involving the
FOI (which, as described, overlaps with the security
companies) include murder and alleged assault and
battery.
In November 1991, two FOI guards were sentenced to
20 years to life without parole for murder
after they shot and killed a patron at a club in
Inglewood, CA, where they were working as security
guards a year earlier. The patron had referred to the
women in the club as bitches, to which the guards
took exception. One of the guards charged was the
supervisor of the security team on the night of the
murder. According to the court record, witnesses in the
case were threatened. One of the guards had prior
felony convictions for robbery and resisting arrest.
At a Pittsburgh housing project in July 1991, a Nation of
Islam security supervisor was arrested and
charged with firebombing an apartment in retaliation for
the beating of a Nation of Islam security guard
at the project. When the authorities attempted to arrest
the alleged arsonist, who had been pointed out by
witnesses, NO1 guards surrounded him, initially
preventing the arrest.89 After numerous
postponements,
the case was dropped when a witness failed to appear.
At the Mayfair Mansions project in the District of
Columbia in April 1988, Fruit of Islam security
guards beat an alleged drug dealer, and attacked a
news cameraman filming the incident. One security
guard tried to remove the tape from the news camera. A
reporter for the local NBC-affiliate, who came
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to his cameramans aid, received hospital treatment for
minor facial injuries. One NO1 guard was arrested
and charged with assault and theft? Seeking to
extricate the media from the resulting flap, the reporter
and the cameraman did not press charges.91
At the University of the District of Columbia in March
1988, two students protesting Louis
Farrakhans appearance at the school said they were
assaulted by several Nation of Islam security people.
The students said the guards hit and kicked them and
tore up their signs. One received hospital treatment
for a concussion.92
Also in a university setting, at a 1990 event at Yale Law
School, a security guard accompanying
Abdul Alim Muhammad, who runs the Nation of Islams
Abundant Life AIDS clinic, reportedly
approached a student holding a sign captioned, Anti-
Semitism Doesnt Only Hurt Jews, tore the sign
out of the students hands and threatened, Next time,
Ill break your neck.93
The record of verbal confrontation spinning out of
control has a pedigree nearly 10 years old. After
Farrakhan delivered a controversial speech at Madison
Square Garden in 1985, and left the arena, an
unknown number of his security guards brawled with a
small group of stagehands as the latter were
removing chairs from the stage while some female
followers of Farrakhan were still on stage. One Garden
worker was treated at the hospital for head lacerations
and released. A spokesman for the Muslim group
said, the sisters were apparently in a danger zone and
that the stagehands had used abusive language
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against them?
26
CLASHES WITH POLICE
The Nation of Islam itself is characterized by a culture
of hostility toward legitimate law enforcement
authorities, with whom there have been several violent
clashes resulting in arrests. In 1994, in a fracas
at the NOIs Harlem mosque, eight police offkers were
beaten, ones gun and anothers radio were
taken, after they responded to an apparently spurious
9 11 emergency call. According to news reports,
as the ftrst pair of offkers ascended a staircase in the
building, approximately a dozen men poured down
upon them from above, sending the offkers tumbling
down, struggling to hold onto their radios and
weapons. 9s After an injured officer pointed out one of
his alleged assailants, The New York Times reported,
officers at the scene observed people from the mosque
talking to the man, who then disappeared.%
The Patrolmens Benevolent Association, which
represents the New York Police Department officers,
filed a lawsuit against the Nation of Islam for the
injuries to PBA members.
Last years incident was a reprise of a fatal clash two
decades earlier.
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A similar confrontation at the same mosque in 1972 left
one police officer dead and four others
wounded. According to press accounts, shots were
fired from both inside and outside the building during
the incident. Nonetheless, Farrakhan characterized it
as a premeditated attack by the police.97
Other clashes with police have left officers injured and
one NO1 member dead. In February 1994 a
Richmond County, GA, jury convicted two Nation of
Islam members of felony obstruction of an Augusta
police officer. In a scuffle with four Nation of Islam
defendants, the female officer was thrown to the
ground, suffering a fractured vertebra and a separated
shoulder. She was investigating a 911 call that the
men were impeding traffic. In the scuffle, the men
disarmed the officer and threw her gun into a sewer.9R
Members of the NOIs Fruit of Islam have also clashed
with police in Washington, DC, (1993, 1988)
and police and sheriffs deputies in two separate
incidents in Los Angeles City and County (1990) - one
with fatal results - after routine traffic stops spiralled
into physical confrontation?
27
FARRAKHAN: BLACKS SHOULD HAVE A MIND TO
KILL
Louis Farrakhan and other NO1 leaders have stoked this
atmosphere of overheated suspicion and
hostility with incendiary rhetoric. Far&&an has
defended rapper Ice Ts cop killer lyrics, asserting,
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blacks should not only have the heart to die, they
should have a mind to kill.
And after Farrakhan returned from a trip to a 1986
gathering of terrorists and militants in Libya,
then-Farrakhan spokesman Khalid Abdul Muhammad
threatened that if Farrakhan were ever harmed,
NO1 members would walk up to the car where your
police officers are taking a break and blow their
damn brains out.@)
In 1987, a Federal court in Atlanta heard testimony that
Khalid Abdul Muhammad, convicted of
social security fraud, had attempted to suborn a
follower to give perjured testimony about his scheme.
According to an FBI agents account of conversations
with Muhammads followers, Muhammad said
after his arrest that FBI agents should be dismembered
and informants beheaded. Muhammad had been
NO1 Minister of Defense and Supreme Captain,
according to the groups tabloid. In those posts, he
performed security and disciplinary functions and led
the Fruit of Islam in patrols of housing projects in
Chicago in a forerunner of the NOIs security patrols
elsewhere. Despite Farrakhans written assurance
to the judge that the NO1 chief would discipline
Muhammad, when Muhammad was released from prison
Farrakhan made him his national spokesman.
Farrakhans own ruminations are laced with conspiracy
theories in which law enforcement authorities
figure. In his famous UFO speech, Farrakhan
recounted being beamed aboard a UFO and taken to
a mother ship to meet the late Elijah Muhammad, who
imparted assorted wisdom. Based on this
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epiphany, the NO1 leader said he had learned that the
Bush Administration had met to plan a war against
the black people of America, the Nation of Islam and
Louis Farrakhan...under the guise of a war against
drug sellers, drug users, gangs and violence....*o*
In a paroxysm of paranoia, Farrakhan asserted that
much gang activity is fomented, manipulated,
and kept alive by outside forces from within the white
community and ofttimes by the very police
themselves....
He said many young blacks are recruited by corrupt
police to sell drugs to our people and
are killed if they violate police instructions by hit
squads from within the police departments. The
source of these revelations? This is what we are
learning from so-called gang leaders throughout the
country.1o2
Nation of Islam officials have also made excuses for
lawless behavior. The most egregious example
is then-national assistant Khalid Abdul Muhammads
praise for the Los Angeles riots. According to
the Los Angeles Times, Muhammad said, When white
people did the same thing...it was called the
Boston Tea Party. All of you are invited to the Los
Angeles tea party.
28
WE ARE THE HEZBOLLAH OF AMERICA
The Nation of Islam has flirted with terrorist regimes,
from Libya and Iraq to The Sudan for more
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than a decade. The romance raises the specter of
publicly funded security firms - their quasi-law
enforcement role cloaked in the official authority of the
U.S. government - whose leaders hobnob with
HAMAS and Hezbollah.
The NOIs links to Libya are well known. Briefly, the
Muslim group has obtained substantial funds
from Gadhafi, notably a $5 million loan, which
Farrakhan said he used to start up the Nations POWER
personal products line. lo3L ibya also channeled funds
via BCCI (Canada) to a Libyan intelligence front in
Washington to finance trips to Tripoli by the NO1 and
American radicals, according to a Canadian
parliamentary
investigation and a prosecution by the U.S. Attorneys
Office in northern Virgi&.*w
Farrakhans Foreign Minister and other minions have
attended gatherings of international terrorist outfits,
militants, and other American radical groups in Tripoli
and Benghazilo Farmkhan himself and his
Foreign Minister have traveled to Tripoli for meetings
with the Libyan strongman, whom The Final
Call dubbed the TRUE HERO of liberation struggle,
notably on the anniversary of the U.S. air raid on
Tripoli. At least one gathering attended by Farrakhan -
in violation of a travel ban imposed on
Americans by President Reagan after Libya was linked
to terrorist attacks in Europe - offered training
seminars on weapons and explosives. The Libyans
also paid $250,000 in travel and other expenses to
stage a pro-Gadhafi demonstration in Lafayette Park,
lo7 across from the White House, in which the Nation
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of Islam played a leading role.
Farrakhans contacts with other outlaw states are less
well known. The NO1 leader visited Khartoum
in 1994, where he met with Gen. Omar Hassan Ahmed
al-Bashir, the Sudanese head of state and Dr.
Hassan Abdullah al-Turabi, who heads The Sudans
ruling party, and is the power behind the throne.
Farrakhans party included his chief of staff, Leonard
Farrakhan Muhammad, who heads the New Life
Self-Development security company in Chicago, and
Farrakhans son, Assistant Supreme Captain
Mustapha Farrakhan, who is a consultant to N.O.I.
Security Agency Inc. in Washington? The younger
Farrakhan is also deputy to N.O.I. Security Agency
president William/Abdul Sharrieff Muhammad, in the
latters role as Supreme Captain of the Fruit of Islam.
Under Turabis sway, The Sudan has become a launch
pad for Islamist terrorism, which threatens
Egypt, Algeria, Tunisia and other Muslim (but non-
Islamist) regimes, and which reached American
shores with the 1993 bombing of the World Trade
Center. Bankrolled by Iran, The Sudan has provided
safe haven for accused terrorists, training at camps
staffed by Pasdaran (Iranian Red Guards Corps)
instructors, and other services, while it pursues a
bloody civil war against Christians and animists in the
countrys mineral-rich south.log
Terrorist groups of all stripes - Shiite, Sunni, and
secular - maintain representatives in Khartoum,
including HAMAS, Hezbollah, the Palestinian Islamic
Jihad, and the Abu Nidal organization.*o Until
recently, The Sudan sheltered Carlos The Jackal.
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Sheikh Umar Abdel-Rahman, who is on trial in New York
for his alleged role in a conspiracy to
bomb the New York-New Jersey commuter tunnels, the
United Nations, the George Washington Bridge,
and the Federal Building in Manhattan lived in Khartoum
after bein< expelled by Egypt. After Rahman
left Khartoum for the United States, Turabi maintained
contact with the blind cleric, meeting with him on
a 1992 visit to New York, according to Egyptian press
reports. Several defendants in the conspiracy case
are Sudanese. One of the schemes masterminds - a
Sudanese who pleaded guilty and implicated all but
one of the other defendents - told a government
informant that high level contacts at the Sudanese
mission
to the U.N. would provide a vehicle with diplomatic
tags, which the accused plotters could use to
enter the underground garage and blow up the U.N.
building, according to the transcript of the taped
conversation
introduced at the 1995 World Trade Center II trial.
Farrakhan lieutenants have attended at least two
conferences in Khartoum graced by a Whos Who
29
of international terrorism. The Nation of Islams
Foreign Minister,* Abdul Al&ar Muhammad,
participated
in meetings of the Popular Arab Islamic Conference
(PAIC) organization, a Tu.rabi vehicle for promoting
cooperation among Sunni, Shiite, and secular militants
and terrorists. There he and other NQI
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members have rubbed shoulders with ranking figures
from some of the worlds bloodiest terrorist groups
and regimes. Representatives from Hezbollah, HAMAS,
and the Palestinian Islamic Jihad attended the
PAIC, according to Jeune Afrique. The gathering
attracted mullahs from Iran and Afghanistan; delegates
from Syria, Kashmir, the Jamaa al-Islamiyya (Islamic
Group) of Egypt, whose imam is Umar Abdel-
Rahman, and whose armed wing has murdered Western
tourists and Egyptian government officials; the
Islamic Salvation Front (FIS) of Algeria, whose Armed
Islamic Group has murdered journalists, govemment
officials, and Westerners, and is suspected of
involvement in the hijacking of an Air France jet in
December 1994; the outlawed Islamist extremist An
Nahda of Tunisia; the Abu Nidal organization; the
Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine (PFLP);
Democratic Front for the Liberation of Palestine
(DFLP); and the Popular Front for the Liberation of
Palestine - General Command (PFLP-GC); according
to other news reports and The Final Call.
Turabi told the gathering that they must oppose the
enemies of Islam in the West with all their
strength, and drive fear into their hearts, according to a
clip of the proceedings broadcast by the Canadian
Broadcasting Companys The Fifth Estate program.
The crowd chanted, America must be destroyed,
and Death to the Jews.
A column carried in The Final Call said the 1993 PAIC
gathering saluted...the reconstruction of
Iraq which was savagely destroyed by the U.S. and its
allies, rejected Western claims of Libyan
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complicity in the bombing of Pan Am 103 over
Lockerbie, Scotland, and demanded the release of all
prisoners unless their guilt has been proven. This
includes Sheikh Umar Abdel-Rahman, the blind cleric
held in U.S. jail for allegedly masterminding the World
Trade Center bombing.
Earlier this year, Abdul Akbar Muhammad, the
International Representative of the Nation of Islam
and Brother Louis Farrakhan, delivered a statement to
the 1995 PAIC on Farrakhans behalf. Islam is
the only force left in the world that threatens world
dominance by the international bankers and the
governments
and systems which they manipulate, Farrakhans
statement read.*12
Abdul Akbar Muhammad also told the delegates to the
1995 PAIC conference that the Muslim
world must stand against the onslaught coming from
the West. He said, The American government is
using the power of its dollars and propaganda against
Islam, and gave as an example what he termed
buying a witness in the Rahman conspiracy trial in
New York.3
No shrinking violet, Muhammad used the 1995 PAIC
meeting to make new friends. When he met
Sheikh Naim Qassem of Hezbollah after a news
conference at a Khartoum hotel, Muhammed found a
translator to convey his greetings. Tell the Sheikh we
are the Hezbollah of America, the smiling
Muhammad ordered. 11
30
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84
CONCLUSION
Through contracts to guard Federally assisted housing
projects, the American taxpayer is subsidizing
a de facto arm of a group distinguished by bigotry and
racial separatism, along with hostility to the
police and praise for riots; a group proud of hobnobbing
with terrorists abroad and outlaw street gangs at
home.
The Nation of Islam teaches bigotry and racial
separatism and seeks a separate black state. Its
doctrine
that whites are a devil race has been an article of faith
since founder W.D. Fards day. More recent
declarations from Farrakhans lips include: murder and
lying comes easy for white people; Your
[whites] history is written in the blood of the human
family. It comes out of you like the web comes out
of a spider;1s Jews are sucking the blood of the
black community;116 Theyre plotting against us even
as we speak ;I You cant say never again to God,
because when He puts you in the oven, never again
dont mean a thing; the government is pursuing a war
against the black people of America...under the
guise of a war against drug sellers, drug users, gangs
and violence.*
Assertions that the companies are not affiliated with
the Nation of Islam fly in the face of the evidence
of deep ties. The issue is control, not separate
incorporation. Nation of Islam officials serve as officers
of the security companies. NO1 representatives
themselves describe intimate relationships among the
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NO1 and the security firms. By their own admission, the
companies operate under the guidance and
direction of the Honorable Minister Louis Farrakhan.19
The fact these firms perform a quasi-law enforcement
function at public housing projects clothes
the guards actions in the official authority of
government. This renders the guards abuse of their
authority
- beating private citizens and assaulting police officers -
not only condoned vigilantism, but vigilantism
on the taxpayers tab.
The public would never stand for hiring a security firm
run by Ku Klux Klan leaders. The widespread
public tolerance of NO1 security reflects a patronizing
view that racism, bigotry, and violence,
when practiced by blacks, are somehow permissible.
31
NOTES
1. Allen R. Myerson, Black Muslim Guards Are Accused
of Flogging 4 Boys at a Dallas Mall, The New York
Times,
June 16,1995. Nora Lopez and Todd Bensman, 4
security guards held in beating of youths at mall, The
Dallas Morning
News, June 14,1995.
2. The proper handling of Gods men: Supreme Captain
sets true example for Black manhood,* The Final Call,
April 20,
1992.
3. Prepared testimony of Abdul Arif Muhammad, counsel
for N.O.I. Security Agency, Inc., et al., submitted to the
U.S.
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86
House of Representatives, Banking Committee,
Subcommittee on Oversight, March 2, 1995.
4. James Popkin, Propagandists or saviors? How guard
firms tied to the Nation of Islam operate, U.S. News &
World
Report, September 12, 1994. David Jackson and William
Gaines, The Business of Security, The Chicago
Tribune,
March 13, 1995.
5. Cancelled checks obtained from Baltimore housing
authority.
6. Lamont X. Curry, NO1 Security Inc.: Making the
difference in the community; Muslims aid elderly, The
Final Cull,
April 20, 1992.
7. Curry, Muslims bring peace to another housing
project,** Ibid., August 25, 1993.
8. Some NO1 officials have not only adopted Muslim
names upon joining the organization, but have changed
their Muslim
names afterwards, e.g. William Johnson
Muhammad/William Muhammad/Abdul Sharrieff
Muhammad, who uses several
names contemporaneously.
9. N.O.I. Security Agency Inc. does not appkar to
operate in Boston. However, a company owned by Eric
Straughter, the
nephew of Farrakhans East Coast Representative and
Boston Nation of Islam Minister Don Muhammad,
provided security
to 40 Boston developments. Straughter Associates lost
its state license and special Boston Police powers after
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87
Straughter and two associates were indicted February
4, 1994, on fraud charges. Earlier this year a jury
convicted the three
of mail fraud, falsifying invoices to the Federal
government, aiding and abetting and conspiracy. The
jury found that they
collected more than $1 million for no-show patrols.
(Judy Rakowsky, Jury Finds Firm Cheated on Public
Housing
Security, The Boston Globe, April 4, 1995.) This may be
the work to which New Life was referring in its Chicago
proposal.
10. Prepared testimony of Abdul Alim Muhammad, p. 9.
11. Testimony of Leonard F. Muhammad, House Banking
Committee, Subcommittee on Oversight, March 2, 1995.
Notes
from C-Span videotape.
12. In the District of Columbia, Maryland, New York,
Pennsylvania, Illinois, California, and Texas.
13. Richard Muhammad, Community, police, Muslims
form united front, The Final Cull, June 29, 1992.
14. N.O.I. Security Agency Inc. Articles of Incorporation,
District of Columbia. Ernest X. Brooks was secretary of
N.O.I.
Security in 1990 and 1991. Brooks was also a director
of a Chicago entertainment company, whose co-
directors were Fruit
of Islam Chief and N.O.I. Security president William
Muhammad, and Far&harts son Mustapha. The
company, formed
in 1992, was dissolved by the State of Illinois the
following year.
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15. November 18, 1991, letter, attached to prepared
testimony of Abdul Arif Muhammad, House Banking
Committee,
Subcommittee on Oversight hearing, March 2, 1995.
16. Articles of Incorporation, State of Illinois.
17. Williarn/Abdul Shanieff Muhammad, NO1 Fruit of
Islam Supreme Captain and N.O.I. Security Agency Inc.
president,
in The proper handling of Gods men: Supreme Captain
sets true example for Black manhood, The Final Call,
April 20,1992.
18. The full text, a paraphrase of remarks made by Dion
Muhammad, identified as Vice President and Executive
Director
of N.O.I. Security, is: [T]he growth and success of the
company is based on the guidance of the Honorable
Louis
Farrakhan, the discipline of the Nation of Islam, the
direction of Supreme Captain Abdul Sharrieff
Muhammad. (Curry,
Muslims bring peace....)
19. David Jackson and William Gaines, Nation-linked
guards earn tenant distrust,* Chicago Tribune, March
13, 1995.
20. David Jackson and William Gaines, HUD probing
Nation of Islam firms, CHA boss, Chicago Tribune, May
17.1995.
21 .Clevelands winning TEAM moves The Find Call,
The Final Call, November 30, 1994.
22. David Jackson and William Gaines, The power and
the money: Farrakhan prospers as ventures flounder,
The
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Chicago Tribune, March 12, 1995. According to the
Tribune, the first company accumulated more than
$15,000 in unpaid
32
judgments and $93,000 in unpaid withholding taxes.
Leonard F. Muhammad then liquidated the company as
the IRS was
about to seize its accounts.
23. The proper handling of Gods men: Supreme
Captain sets true example for Black manhood, The
Final Cull, April
20, 1992.
24. See Steven Barboza, American Jihad: Zslam Afrer
Malcolm X, (New York: Image Books/Doubleday, 1994).
25. Curry, Muslims aid elderly, The Final Cull, April 20,
1992.
26. The proper handling of Gods men: Supreme
Captain sets true example for Black manhood, The
Final Cull, April
20, 1992.
27. Dear Customer letter From Our President signed,
Abdul Sharrieff Muhammad,* in flyer.
28. Control means the power to exercise controlling
influence over management or policies of a company.
Even latent
power is sufficient to establish control. Koppers United
Co. v. Securities and Exchunge Commission, 138 E2d
577
(1943). The U.S. Court of Appeals for the D.C. Circuit
also uses susceptibility to domination.* See American
Gus and
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Electric Co. v. Securities and Exchange Commission,
134 F. 2d 633, cert. denied, 319 U.S. 763 (1943).
29. Transcript of sentencing hearing, U.S. v. Harold
Moore Vunn, A/K/A Dr. Abdul Muhammad, A/WA Khalid
Abdul
Muhummud, U.S. District Court for the Northern District
of Georgia, Atlanta, February 19, 1987. Before he went
to
prison, Muhammad was Supreme Captain of the Fruit of
Islam. Farrakhan replaced Muhammad when the latter
was incarcerated.
Upon his release, however, Muhammad became
Farrakhans national assistant or national
spokesman,
depending on the reference.
30. C-Span videotape of hearings. Prepared remarks of
Abdul Arif Muhammad.
31. The proper handling of Gods men: Supreme
Captain sets true example for Black manhood, The
Final Cull, April
20, 1992.
32. Transcript.
33. Attached to prepared testimony of New York State
Assemblyman Jules Polonetsky, House Banking
Committee,
Subcommittee on Oversight, March 2, 1995.
34. Speech, University of Toledo, Toledo, Ohio, April 30,
1994.
35. Speech, Washington, D.C., Convention Center, July
22, 1985.
36. Farrakhan, March 1985, in The Washington Post,
March 14, 1985.
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91
37. Interview, Chicago Sun-Times, July 18, 1993.
38. Interview, Chicago Sun-Times, July 19, 1993. -
39. Speech, Madison Square Garden, October 7, 1989.
40. Speech, Michigan State University, February 18,
1990.
41. Ministers message unmasks imposters, The Final
Cull, May 4, 1992.
42. James Popkin, op. cit.
43. Summaries given to House Banking Committee
Subcommittee on Oversight staff.
44. James Popkin, Propagandists or saviors. 3 How
guard firms tied to the Nation of Islam operate,** U.S.
News & World
Report, September 12, 1992.
45. The NO1 creed differs sharply from orthodox Islam.
For example, where orthodox Muslims believe that
Muhammad
was the last prophet, the Nation of Islam believes its
own Elijah Muhammad was the last prophet, an
assertion orthodox
Muslims consider heresy. The NOI also believes that
whites were created in a laboratory exercise by a mad
black scientist.
46. Summaries provided by HUD to House Banking
Committee Subcommittee on Oversight.
47. Lawrence Cohler, Farmkhans X-Men Excised:
Missionizing by Nation of Islam security force spurs
state to take
action at Brooklyn housing project, * The Jewish Week
(New York), October 14, 1994.
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92
48. In Steven Barboza, American Jihud: Zslum Afrer
Malcolm X (New York: Image Books/Doubleday, 1994),
pgs. 86,97.
49. James Popkin, Propagandists or saviors. 3 How
guard firms tied to the Nation of Islam operate, U.S.
News & World
Report, September 12, 1994.
50. Shawn Doherty, Black Muslim - HUD Security Pact
in Doubt, * The Los Angeles Rimes, January 15, 1992.
5 1. Transcript, p. 177.
52. J. Kenneth Evans, Westgate Village violence
abates, Pittsburgh Post Gazette, July 27, 1991.
33
53. Michael Marriott, Manhood Training at the
Mosque: Hope, Discipline, Defiance, 27re New York
T~S, March 5, 1994.
54. Achtenberg testimony, p. 6.
55. Interview, Sgt. LOU Cannon, President, Fraternal
Order of Police, Lodge No. 1, and Sergeant,
Metropolitan Police
Department, Washington, D.C., Third District, July 11,
1995.
56. Ken Ellingwood, Farrakhan Organization Guard
Detail Removed. Housing: Managers say a security
patrol Ifi& to
the Nation of Islam failed to deter drug dealing and
other crime at low-income apartment buildings in
Ve&e, 77~ ~20s
Angeles limes, Sept. 16, 1993.
57. Ibid.
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58. Phillip J. OConnor and Clarence Lang, Gangs Drive
Off Muslim Guards, Chicago Sun-fimes, July 22,1994;
Flynn
McRoberts, Gunless CHA guards held at gunpoint,
unharmed, Chicago Tribune, July 22, 1994.
59. David Jackson and William Gaines, Nation-linked
guards earn tenant distrust, Chicago Tnbune, March
13, 1994.
60. Ibid.
61. Ex-Guard Convicted in Assault Case, The
Washington Post, July 15, 1995.
62. Patrice Gaines-Carter and Sari Horwitz, Drug Patrol
Turns Violent: Muslims Beat Man in NE Narcotics
Ma&t,
The Washington Post, April 19, 1988.
63. Eric Stirgus, Tenants happy as long as guards do
the job, sidebar to Gregg Bimbaum, State housing
boss cracks
down on Nation of Islam security firms, New York Post,
February 9, 1995.
64. Materials submitted by U.S. Department of Housing
and Urban Development to House Banking Committee
Subcommittee on Oversight, March 2, 1995; Ken
Ellingwood, Farrakhan Organization Guard Detail
Removed. Housing:
Managers say a security patrol linked to the Nation of
Islam failed to deter drug dealing and other crime at
low-income
apartment buildings in Venice, The Los Angeles Times,
September 16, 1993. James Popkin, Propagandists or
saviors?
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94
How guard firms tied to the Nation of Islam operate,
U.S. News & World Reporr, September 12, 1994; David
Jackson
and William Gaines, Nation-linked guards earn tenant
distrust, Chicago Tribune, March 13, 1995.
65. James Popkin, op. cit.
66. Maudlyne Ihejirika, Rockwells Crime Down, But
Residents Still Worry, Chicago Sun-Times, January 20.
1995.
67. Maudlyne Iherjirika, Muslims Believe Jobs will
Reform Youth: Some Rockwell Residents Wary of Hiring
Rivals,
Chicago Sun-Times, May 3 1, 1994.
68. Ibid.
69. The Catalyst of the Outbreak of Violence;* see
also Flynn Roberts, Guarded optimism at Rockwell,
Chicago
Tribune, July 6, 1994.
70. Letter from Robert D. Whittfield, Chief Operating
Officer, the Chicago Housing Authority, to Leonard
Muhammad,
City Wide Security, Inc., c/o New Life Self Development
Co., June 29, 1994.
71. Andrea Ford, 7 Injured in Police-Muslim Street
Brawl, The Los Angeles Emes, January 4, 1990;
Douglas Century,
Gang Stacks Donahue: Hired to Cheer Khalid,
Forward, May 27, 1994.
72. Mira L. Boland, Wishful Thinking Spurs Efforts to
Co-Opt Gangs, The Wall Street Journal, August 6, 1992;
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95
Adrienne Dell, Fort gets 80-year term, fine, Chicago
Sun-limes, December 30, 1987; 5 in Gang Guilty of Plan
to
Commit Terrorism for Libya, The Washington Post,
November 25, 1987.
73. Sharon Cohen, Alleged Libyan terrorist link is latest
charge against El Rukns, (Associated Press)
Milwaukee
Journal, October 11, 1987.
74. Jerry Seper, Street toughs core of possible terror
network in U.S., The Washington Times, August 11,
1986.
75. An Army Rises from the Jails, the Streets, Insight,
November 11, 1985.
76. When New Life first bid on contracts with the
Chicago Housing Authority in 1993, it did not have a
state license. The
company arranged with Citywide Detective Agency,
which had a license, to be a licensed agency or
branch off'ce" of
Citywide, according to the Cl-IA files.
77. Mira L. Boland, Wishful Thinking Spurs Effort to Co-
Opt Gangs, The Wall Street Journal, August 6, 1992.
78. An Army Rises..., Insight, November 11, 1985.
79. 4 Nation of Islam members held in beating, caning
of youths, The Dallas Morning News, June 14, 1995.
80. John Yearwood, 5th man arrested in youths
beatings: Nation of Islams local leader charged, The
Dallas Morning
News, June 22, 1995.
34
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96
8 1. J. Lynn Lunsford, Rally extols Nation of Islam
Four, The Dallas Morning News, June 19, 1995.
82. Guards at Mall Escape Flogging Indictment, The
New York Rimes, June 28, 1995.
83. Peter Hermann, New questions arise about NOI,
The Baltimore Sun, March 28, 1995.
84. Housing Authority of Baltimore City Public Housing
Activities, Audit Report, Office of the Inspector
General, U.S.
Department of Housing and Urban Development,
September 23, 1994,94-PH-201-1016.
85. David Jackson and William Gaines, Nation-linked
security !%ms earn tenant distrust, Chicago T&tuze, h-
&x-& 13.1995.
86. Ibid.
87. Marilyn Martinez, NO1 Security Hits Permit,
Funding Snag: Will Delay Patrol of Venice Dwelling, The
Outlook
(Santa Monica), September 24, 1991.
88. Eric Stirgus, Tenants happy as long as guards do
the job, New York Post, February 9, 1995.
89. J. Kenneth Evans, Westgate Village violence
abates, Pittsburgh Post Gazette, July 27, 1991.
90. The alleged drug dealer, who was apparently armed,
was also charged with assaulting the guards. Patrice
Gaines-
Carter and Sari Horowitz, Drug Patrol Turns Violent:
Muslims Beat Man in NE Narcotics Market, The
Washington Post,
April 19, 1988.
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97
91. Patrice Gaines-Carter and Sari Horowitz, Drug
Patrol Turns Violent: Muslims Beat Man in NE Narcotics
Market,
The Washington Post, April 19, 1988.
92. Patrick Boyle, At UDC, Farrakhan mostly calm,
The Washington Times, March 14, 1988. Complaints
filed with
University of the District of Columbia Office of
Protective Services and the Metropolitan Police
Department (Washington,
D.C.), March 11, 1988.
93. Josh Lauring, 200 Protest Speech by Nation of
Islam Leader, Yule Daily News, February 14, 1990.
94. George James, Brawl Followed Farrakhan Talk;
Stagehand Hurt: Muslim Group in Fight with Garden
Workers, The
New York Times, October 10, 1985; UPI, $5 1 mil suit
filed against Farrakhan, Newark Star-Ledger, October
26, 1985.
95. Ralph Blumenthal, Police and the Mosque:
Aftermath of a Hoax: Questions Remain on a Harlem
Fracas, The New7
York Times, January 16, 1994. After one of the injured
officers pointed out one of his alleged assailants, The
New York
7imes reported, officers at the scene said they
observed people from the mosque talking to the man,
who then disappeared.
96. Ibid.
97. After the New York Police Department described the
original call as a vicious hoax, terming the incident a
tragic
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98
mistake, Farrakhan suggested it was premeditated.
The Muslim leader said the first two policemen on the
scene
charg[ed] into our temple like criminals and they were
treated like criminals.... Muslims are peaceful people
without
weapons but we fight to the death when we are
attacked. The police, he said, ran past our man on the
desk and rushed
up the stairs to the second floor, an action Farrakhan
termed disrespectful and provocative. (Patrolman,
31, Shot in
Harlem Mosque, Dies of His Wounds, The New York
Times, April 21, 1972; First Name Unknown] Pace,
Muslim
Disputes Police on Incident in Temple, The New York
Times, April 20, 1972; George Goodman, Jr., Muslim
Minister
Assails Police Action, The New. York Times, April 16,
1972.)
98. Toni J. Heinzl, Two convicted in police clash: One
other Nation of Islam defendant acquitted; mistrial
declared for
another, The Augusta Chronicle, February 4, 1994. The
defendants argued self-defense. One of the defendants
testified
that he and a co-defendant disarmed the officer as she
reached for her gun, but the officer said she was trying
to get her
CAP stun pepper spray.
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99
99. Marc Lacey, Muslim Group Protests at Sheriffs
Department, Los Angeles limes, February 25, 1990;
Andrea Ford,
7 Injured in Police-Muslim Brawl, Los Angeles Times,
January 4, 1990; Darryl Elwood Owens, Muslims, police
square-off in red light district, The Washington Afro-
American, September 3, 1988.
100. Warren Strobel, Farmkhan aide threatens to kill
whites in the streets, The Washington fimes, April 21,
1986.
101. A Final Warning! The Final Cull, November 30,
1989.
102. Ibid.
103. Edward D. Sargent, $5 Million Qaddafi Loan to Go
to Toiletry Firm: Farrakhan Says Company Will Hire
Blacks,
The Washington Post, May 4, 1985.
104. James Ring Adams, Libya Cash Financing Hate in
U.S.: Canadian Testimony Cites BCCI Bankroll,*
Forward,
December 20, 1991; Caryle Murphy, U.S. Alleges Plot
by Libyans; Col. North Said to Be Target, The
Washington Post,
July 21, 1988.
105. Ted Agms and Jerry Seper, Qadda5 lends aid as
Muslims gear for national battle, The Washington
Tvnes, November 6,1985.
35
106. Warren Strobel, Farrakhan aide threatens to kill
whites in the streets,* The Washington Ems, April 21,
1986.
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100
107. James Ring Adams, Libya Cash Financing Hate in
U.S.: Canadian Testimony Cites BCCI Bankroll,
Forward,
December 20, 1991; Caryle Murphy, FBI Testifies
Suspects Are Libyan Spies: Assassination Plot Alleged
in Va. Court,
The Wushington Post, July 23, 1988.
108. Afula Judah, Farrakhan sets Saviors Day in
Ghana: Nation of Islam leader meets African heads of
state, The
Chicago Defender, June 25, 1994.
109. There have also been persistent allegations that
The Sudan condones chattel slavery of blacks from the
south,
although slavery is formally outlawed in The Sudan,
according to the U.S. State Department. Child victims
interviewed
by The London Observer report being kidnapped,
branded, forced to adopt Muslim names and convert to
Islam. (Shyam
Bhatia (London Observer), Southern Sudans kids
vanish into slavery: Arab traders strip young of names,
faiths, The
Washington Times, April 27,1995.) The Nation of Islam
has strenuously defended The Sudan against these
charges, claiming
to discern a Jewish hand behind the accusations. (E.g.,
James Muhammad, Editor, Nothing but lies: President
of
Sudan responds to terrorism, slavery charges, The
Finul Cull, April 26, 1995.)
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101
110. Kim Murphy, Islamic Militants Build Power Base in
Sudan: The Regime Vows to Export Beliefs, Worrying Its
More
Secular Arab Neighbors and the West, Los Angeles
Times, April 6, 1992.
111. Ali Badhdadi, Muslims unite in Sudan, The Find
Cull, January 19, 1994.
112. James Muhammad, Islamic conference stands
against Western attack, urges dialogue, The Final Call,
April 26, 1995.
113. Muslim Leaders See Conspiracy, AP Newswire,
April 1995.
114. Dominic Evans, Sudan offers armed Islamists rare
chance to meet, Reuters, Khartoum, April 3, 1995.
115. Louis Farmkhan, Saviours Day Speech, Chicago,
February 27, 1994.
116. Louis Farrkhan, Michigan State University,
February 18, 1990.
117. Louis Farrakhan, Speech at 369th Regiment
Armory in New York, January 24, 1994.
118. A Final Warning I The Final Cull, November 30,
1989.
119. NO1 Security, Inc., et al. v. The District of
Columbia, Chief Fred Thomas [Metropolitan Police
Department], et al.,
Superior Court of the District of Columbia, Civil Division.
Filed October 11, 1994.
36
Anti-Defamation League of Bnai Brith
NATIONAL OFFICE
823 United Nations Plaza, New York, NY 10017 . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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One Securltles Centre, 3490 Piedmont Road N.E. (Suite
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CHICAGO (Greater Chicag&%consin)
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103
309 West Washington, (Suite 750), Chicago, IL 60606 . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (312) 782-5080
CLEVELAND (Northern Ohio)
505 Terminal Tower, Cleveland, OH 44 113 .. . . . . . . . . .
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COLUMBUS (Ohio/lndiana/Kentucky)
42 East Gay St., (Suite 814), Columbus, OH 43215 . . . . .
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CONNECTICUT
419 Whalley Avenue, New Haven, CT 065 11 . . . . . . . .. .
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12800 Hillcrest Road (Suxe 219), Dallas, TX 75230 . . . . .
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4000 Town Center (Suite 420), Southfield, Ml 48075-
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HOUSTON (Southwest)
4635 Southwest Freeway (Suite 400), Houston, TX
77027 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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10495 Santa Monica Boulevard, Los Angeles, CA 90025
.._.............................................................................,...........
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2 South Bucayne Boulevard (Suite 2650), Miami, FL
33131-1802 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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743 Northfield Avenue, West Orange, NJ 07052 . . . . . . .
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. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (504) 522-9534
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105
NEW YORK CITY (New York City, Westchester,
Rockland, Putnam and Long Island)
823 United Nations Plaza, New York, NY 10017 ... . . . . .
. .. . . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . .. .
. . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . .. . . . .. . . . . . .. . . . .. . . . . . .. . . . . .
. . .. . . . . . . . . .. .....(281825).7 970
NEW YORK STATE
125 Wolf Rd. (Suite 504), Albany, NY 12205 . . . . . . . . . . .
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. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ........... (518) 446-223s
OMAHA (Plains States)
333 South 132 Street, Omaha, NE 68154 . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .............. (402) 333.1303
ORANGE COUNTY
959 South Coast Drive, Costa Mesa, CA 92626 . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (7 14) 979-4733
PALM BEACH COUNTY
The Commerce Center, 324 Datura Street (Suite 223),
West Palm Beach, FL 33401 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . ....................................... (407) 832-7144
PHILADELPHIA (Eastern Pennsylvania/Delaware)
230 South Broad Street, 20th Floor, Philadelphia, PA
19102 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (215) 735-4267
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SAN DIEGO
7851 Mission Center Court (Suite 320), San Diego, CA
92108 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (619) 293-3770
SAN FRANCISCO (Central Pacific)
720 Market Street (Suite 800), San Francisco, CA 94102-
2501 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . (415) 981-350@
SEATIZE (Pacific Northwest)
Plaza 600 Building (Suite 720), 600 Stewart Street,
Seattle, WA 98101 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . (206) 448-5349
ST. LOUfS (Missouri/Southern Illinois)
10926 Schuetz Road, St. Louis, MO 63146 . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ............... (314) 432-6863
VIRGINIA/NORTH CAROLINA
6330 Newtown Rd. (Suite 326), Norfolk, VA 23502 . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (804) 455-9002
OVERSEAS OFFICES
JERUSALEM
30 Krng David Street, Jerusalem, Israel 94101 . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..... 011-972-2-251-171
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CANADA
Cooperative Association with the League for Human
Rights of Canadian Bnai Brith
15 Hove Street (Suite 2 lo), Downsview, Ontario,
Canada, M3H 4Y8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (416) 633-6227
Moorish Science Temple of America
The Moorish Science Temple of America was founded in
1913 as a sect of Islam but incorporates teachings from
Judaism and Christianity, said Aminah Beverly McCloud,
a professor of religious studies at DePaul University in
Chicago who has written about the group.
The Moorish Science Temple of America is a religion
founded in the early 20th century claiming to be a sect
of Islam, but having equal influences in Buddhism,
Christianity, Freemasonry, Gnosticism and Taoism. Its
main tenet was that African Americans were descended
from the Moors and thus were originally Islamic. Its
founder was Noble Drew Ali, the Prophet n Timothy
Drew (1886-1929), whose disciples included Wallace
Fard Muhammad, founder of the Nation of Islam, and
Elijah Muhammad, who was Fard's successor and who
later employed Malcolm X as the mouthpiece of the
Nation.
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Timothy Drew's beginnings
Timothy Drew was born in 1886 in North Carolina. The
accounts of Timothy Drew's childhood are varied, from
him being the son of two former slaves who was
adopted by a tribe of Cherokee Indians, to him being the
son of a Moroccan Muslim father and a Cherokee
mother. He is recorded, perhaps apocryphally, as
saying, When I was born, it turned black dark in the
daytime. The people put their hoes down and came out
of the fields. Allegedly, at the age of 16, he joined a
circus and became a stage magician, befriending a
band of Roma, whom he traveled the world with.
Supposedly during these travels, he met the high priest
of an Egyptian cult of magic. In one version of Drew's
biography, the cult leader saw him as a reincarnation of
the founder of the cult, while in others he considered
him a reincarnation of Jesus Christ.
They trained him in mysticism, and bestowed upon him
a lost version of the Qur'an. This text came to be known
as the Holy Koran of the Moorish Science Temple of
America, and is referred to as the uniting of the Holy
Koran of Mecca. Sometimes the title is shorthanded as
the Circle Seven Koran, because of the design on its
cover, namely a red numeral seven surrounded by a
blue circle broken into four segments. Drew changed
his name to "Noble Drew Ali, the Prophet" and returned
to the United States where he founded the religion in
1913 in Newark, New Jersey.
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The church's teachings
The Koran is held to be a collection of knowledge kept
secret by the peoples of the East, now brought back to
light by the Prophet. As such, Noble Drew Ali did not
claim to be the author of the work, per se, although the
final section of the Koran, Chapters 45-48, are in his
proverbial hand. The Koran is in three major sections.
Chapters 2-19 contain the lost history of Jesus as a
child and young man, His travels and teachings in
Palestine, Egypt, Europe, and India. The ministry of
John the Baptist also figures heavily in this section. The
most probable source for this material is the Aquarian
Gospel of Jesus Christ, although the man credited with
this work, Levi H. Dowling, as in the case of Noble Drew
Ali, did not claim authorship, but rather suggests that it
is a revealed, pre-existing text. The second major
section of the Koran, Chapters 20-44, seems to be
derived from the Rosicrucian text Unto Thee I Grant,
and consists largely of discussions of various aspects
of the human condition. The third and final section,
apparently penned by Noble Drew Ali, himself, contains
a collection of non-traditional histories of Asiatic
peoples and the founding of Christianity, as well as an
overview of the mission and intent of the Science
Temple. In addition to these three sections, Chapter 1
serves as a sort of Creation story, a discussion of the
fundamental nature of humans, how we came into
being, and what our relationship to God is. This chapter
is a slightly revised section from the introduction to
Levi H. Dowling's text rather than from the "Aquarian
Gospel." There is also a quick epilogue between
Chapters 19 and 20, summing up the events portrayed
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in the first section as the story of the lives of Jesus and
John the Baptist.
A major theme of the Moorish Science Temple is
teaching or returning nationality to members of the
Asiatic Nation of North America. The Science Temple
was an early proponent of the Black Power movement
in America, although Marcus Garvey is celebrated by
the Science Temple as the Forerunner of the Prophet.
The temple's doctrine was that of racial tolerance and
equality, and the structure of the religion theoretically
embraced all races. Drew taught that Moors were
"Asiatic", that there are only two races on the planet,
Europeans and Asiatics. The peoples of Asia, Africa,
and the Pacific, as well as Latin Americans, and
indigenous peoples of the Americas are all considered
Asiatic in Science Temple teachings. Drew taught that
Europeans represent the "Lower Self" (Satan), and were
driven out of Mecca by the Asiatic Moslems. Drew said
that the empowerment of the Moorish people could only
be found through an acceptance of Islam, although the
Moorish Science Temple's definition of Islam was very
different from the conventional one, and was more of a
theosophistic combination of many religions, including
Buddhism and indigenous religions. The theology of the
church was lenient and inconsistent, if not non-
existent, although there were consistent themes of
universal love and pride.
Doctrine of the temple was unconventional, including
stories about Christ and Apollo battling, and the Greek
Gods watching over his tomb before his resurrection, as
well as teachings such as that Morocco was in fact the
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promised land of the Bible and Koran and that
descendents of Sub-Saharan Africans should be referred
to as "Moors" or "Moorish Americans" instead of
Negroes, Blacks, or today, African-Americans.
The church's practices
The Moorish Science temple was founded on a teaching
of the Moors as a blueprint of Freemasonry, and
included a modified version of the Masonic lodge
charter. The church's standards of behaviour was
loosely derived from those of Islam, although not
rigorously, and critics of the church accused it of
antinomianism.
Members of the Temple wore fezes, (including Drew,
who wore a Cherokee feather in his) and often added
the suffixes "-Bey" or "-El" to their names to signify
their Moorish heritage, and could earn initiate titles
such as Deacon, Exilarch, and Papessa. The ushers of
the Temple wore black fezzes and were known as
"Muftis", and the leader of a particular temple was
known as a "Sheik", "Sheikess", or "Governor".
Followers of the temple refused to fight in World War I
and due to pressure from the inhabitants of New Jersey
they moved to Chicago, where Drew began to make
more impassioned speeches, urging Moors to reject the
European labels such as "black" and "colored" and for
Americans of all races to reject hate and embrace love.
He believed that Chicago would become a second
Mecca, and the temple began selling folk remedies
(such as Moorish Tea) and issuing members of the
church membership cards authorizing them as
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"Moslems" and declaring that they are citizens of the
United States.
The Science Temple after the death of Noble Drew Ali
The church suffered scrutiny and possibly harassment
by Chicago police. A member of the Temple, Claude
Green El, splintered off, declaring himself Grand Sheik,
taking a number of members of the original temple, but
was later stabbed by unknown parties. Drew was
arrested and beaten by police, and released on bond
pending an indictment. He died shortly afterward in
1929, apparently due to injuries received at the hands
of the police, although the exact circumstances of his
death are unknown. He was never brought up on
charges for any involvement in the stabbing of Claude
Green El.
The Moorish Science Temple lived on after Drew Alis
death, but splits among the Temple adherents widened.
Three factions eventually formed, all led by close
associates of the Prophet. Bro C. Kirkman-Bey, the
Prophets translator and confidant, became the head of
what would eventually be the largest group, and which
currently has legal claim to the name Moorish Science
Temple of America, Inc. Another faction developed into
the so-called Reincarnated Temples, led by the
Prophets former chauffeur Bro. J. Givens El, who
thereafter called himself Noble Drew Ali,
Reincarnated. Givens El, and the brothers Richardson
Dingle El and Timothy Dingle El who succeeded him,
taught that the Prophethood of Noble Drew Ali remained
intact and passed on to them at the death of each
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before them, similar to the succession of authority from
father to son or grandson in Shia Ismaili Islam. From
the work of the Dingle El brothers came the Noble Order
of Moorish Sufis in Baltimore. Founded by the former
Grand Mufti Rafi Sharif Bey on July 7, 1957, this group
later lead to the founding of the Moorish Orthodox
Church and the Moorish League. A third faction was
begun by Bro. E. Mealy El and is still in existence, but
with probably the fewest adherents out of the three.
During World War II, the Science Temple (specifically
the Kirkman-Bey faction) got the attention of the FBI,
who falsely suspected the Moors of collaborating with
the Japanese. No doubt doctrines and prophecies that
the world order would one day invert and put the
Asiatics of the world back in charge, as was, the
Temple taught, the original order of things, sounded
woefully suspicious to the anti-Japanese mindset of the
times. The FBI created a file on the organization which
grew to 3,117 pages, but produced no evidence of any
connection or even much sympathy between the Empire
of Japan and the Temple.
Although it continues to this day, the MST is
overshadowed historically by The Nation of Islam,
begun by W.D. Fard, as mentioned above. Over time
some Science Temple members have converted to
either traditional Islam or the Nation of Islam. These
MST to NOI converts include one Dr. Rashid, who
eventually gained infamy by his links to Al-Qaeda. The
number of people who consider themselves to be
members of the Science Temple or other, later Moorish
groups, has apparently remained steady, if somewhat
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small, over the decades since the inevitable decline in
membership after the death of the Prophet. As with the
Nation of Islam, a major source of converts to the
Science Temple has been the often disgruntled and
uneducated African American populations incarcerated
in federal and state penitentiaries. The so-called
Kirkman-Bey body of the MST, currently administered
by Bro. R. Jones-Bey, Grand Sheik and Moderator, and
Sister S. Dunbar-Bey, Assistant Grand Sheikess, has
been particularly successful in the prisons.
Moorish Science has had a heavy influence upon
spiritualist anarchism via Hakim Bey, as well as through
various subsequent religious movements, such as the
Nation of Gods and Earths, Dwight York's Nuwaubian
movement, and the Moorish Orthodox Church.
Hakim Bey and the "Moorish Orthodox Church" has
done much to introduce the history of the Temple to the
general public. Some Moors have claimed that their
writings have done some irreversible damage to
scholarship. This has yet to be proven using the original
writings of Prophet Noble Drew Ali.
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THE BLACK PANTHER PARTY AND THE BLACK
LIBERATION ARMY ARE CLOSELY ASSOCIATED WITH
THE NATION OF ISLAM.
In October of 1966, in Oakland California, Huey Newton
and Bobby Seale founded the Black Panther Party for
Self-Defense. The Panthers practiced militant self-
defense of minority communities against the U.S.
government, and fought to establish revolutionary
socialism through mass organizing and community
based programs. The party was one of the first
organizations in U.S. history to militantly struggle for
ethnic minority and working class emancipation a
party whose agenda was the revolutionary
establishment of real economic, social, and political
equality across gender and color lines.
The Ten-Point Program
1. We Want Freedom. We Want
Power To Determine
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The Destiny Of Our Black
Community.
We believe that Black
people will not be free
until we are able to
determine our destiny.
2. We Want Full Employment For Our
People.
We believe that the
federal government is
responsible and
obligated to give every
man employment or a
guaranteed income. We
believe that if the White
American businessmen
will not give full
employment, then the
means of production
should be taken from the
businessmen and placed
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in the community so that
the people of the
community can organize
and employ all of its
people and give a high
standard of living.
3. We Want An End To The Robbery
By The Capitalists Of Our Black
Community.
We believe that this
racist government has
robbed us, and now we
are demanding the
overdue debt of forty
acres and two mules.
Forty acres and two
mules were promised
100 years ago as
restitution for slave
labor and mass murder
of Black people. We will
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accept the payment in
currency which will be
distributed to our many
communities. The
Germans are now aiding
the Jews in Israel for the
genocide of the Jewish
people. The Germans
murdered six million
Jews. The American
racist has taken part in
the slaughter of over
fifty million Black
people; therefore, we
feel that this is a modest
demand that we make.
4. We Want Decent Housing Fit For
The Shelter Of Human Beings.
We believe that if the
White Landlords will not
give decent housing to
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our Black community,
then the housing and the
land should be made into
cooperatives so that our
community, with
government aid, can
build and make decent
housing for its people.
5. We Want Education For Our People
That Exposes
The True Nature Of This Decadent
American Society.
We Want Education That Teaches
Us Our True History
And Our Role In The Present-Day
Society.
We believe in an
educational system that
will give to our people a
knowledge of self. If a
man does not have
knowledge of himself
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and his position in
society and the world,
then he has little chance
to relate to anything
else.
6. We Want All Black Men To Be
Exempt From Military Service.
We believe that Black
people should not be
forced to fight in the
military service to
defend a racist
government that does
not protect us. We will
not fight and kill other
people of color in the
world who, like Black
people, are being
victimized by the White
racist government of
America. We will protect
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ourselves from the force
and violence of the
racist police and the
racist military, by
whatever means
necessary.
7. We Want An Immediate End To
Police Brutality And Murder Of
Black People.
We believe we can end
police brutality in our
Black community by
organizing Black self-
defense groups that are
dedicated to defending
our Black community
from racist police
oppression and brutality.
The Second Amendment
to the Constitution of the
United States gives a
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right to bear arms. We
therefore believe that all
Black people should arm
themselves for self-
defense.
8. We Want Freedom For All Black
Men
Held In Federal, State, County And
City Prisons And Jails.
We believe that all Black
people should be
released from the many
jails and prisons
because they have not
received a fair and
impartial trial.
9. We Want All Black People When
Brought To Trial To Be Tried In
Court By A Jury Of Their Peer
Group Or People From Their Black
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Communities, As Defined By The
Constitution Of The United States.
We believe that the
courts should follow the
United States
Constitution so that
Black people will receive
fair trials. The
Fourteenth Amendment
of the U.S. Constitution
gives a man a right to be
tried by his peer group. A
peer is a person from a
similar economic, social,
religious, geographical,
environmental, historical
and racial background.
To do this the court will
be forced to select a jury
from the Black
community from which
the Black defendant
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came. We have been,
and are being, tried by
all-White juries that have
no understanding of the
"average reasoning man"
of the Black community.
10. We Want Land, Bread,
Housing, Education,
Clothing, Justice And Peace.
When, in the course of
human events, it
becomes necessary for
one people to dissolve
the political bands which
have connected them
with another, and to
assume, among the
powers of the earth, the
separate and equal
station to which the
laws of nature and
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nature's God entitle
them, a decent respect
of the opinions of
mankind requires that
they should declare the
causes which impel
them to the separation.
We hold these truths to be self-evident,
that all men are created equal; that they
are endowed by their Creator with certain
inalienable rights; that among these are
life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness.
That, to secure these rights, governments
are instituted among men, deriving their
just powers from the consent of the
governed; that, whenever any form of
government becomes destructive of
these ends, it is the right of the people to
alter or abolish it, and to institute a new
government, laying its foundation on such
principles, and organizing its powers in
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such form, as to them shall seem most
likely to effect their safety and
happiness. Prudence, indeed, will dictate
that governments long established should
not be changed for light and transient
causes; and, accordingly, all experience
hath shown that mankind are more
disposed to suffer, while evils are
sufferable, than to right themselves by
abolishing the forms to which they are
accustomed. But, when a long train of
abuses and usurpations, pursuing
invariably the same object, evinces a
design to reduce them under absolute
despotism, it is their right, it is their duty,
to throw off such government, and to
provide new guards for their future
security.
Rules of the Black Panther Party
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Every member of the Black Panther Party throughout
this country of racist America must abide by these rules
as functional members of this party. Central Committee
members, Central Staffs, and Local Staffs, including all
captains subordinated to either national, state, and
local leadership of the Black Panther Party will enforce
these rules. Length of suspension or other disciplinary
action necessary for violation of these rules will depend
on national decisions by national, state or state area,
and local committees and staffs where said rule or
rules of the Black Panther Party were violated. Every
member of the party must know these verbatim by
heart. And apply them daily. Each member must report
any violation of these rules to their leadership or they
are counter-revolutionary and are also subjected to
suspension by the Black Panther Party. The rules are:
1. No party member can have
narcotics or weed in his possession
while doing party work.
2. Any part member found shooting
narcotics will be expelled from this
party.
3. No party member can be drunk
while doing daily party work.
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4. No party member will violate rules
relating to office work, general
meetings of the Black Panther Party,
and meetings of the Black Panther
Party anywhere.
5. No party member will use, point, or
fire a weapon of any kind
unnecessarily or accidentally at
anyone.
6. No party member can join any other
army force, other than the Black
Liberation Army.
7. No party member can have a
weapon in his possession while
drunk or loaded off narcotics or
weed.
8. No party member will commit any
crimes against other party members
or black people at all, and cannot
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steal or take from the people, not
even a needle or a piece of thread.
9. When arrested Black Panther
members will give only name,
address, and will sign nothing. Legal
first aid must be understood by all
Party members.
10. The Ten-Point Program and
platform of the Black Panther Party
must be known and understood by
each Party member.
11. Party Communications must be
National and Local.
12. The 10-10-10-program should be
known by all members and also
understood by all members.
13. All Finance officers will operate
under the jurisdiction of the Ministry
of Finance.
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14. Each person will submit a report of
daily work.
15. Each Sub-Section Leaders, Section
Leaders, and Lieutenants, Captains
must submit Daily reports of work.
16. All Panthers must learn to operate
and service weapons correctly.
17. All Leaders who expel a member
must submit this information to the
Editor of the Newspaper, so that it
will be published in the paper and
will be known by all chapters and
branches.
18. Political Education Classes are
mandatory for general membership.
19. Only office personnel assigned to
respective offices each day should
be there. All others are to sell
papers and do Political work out in
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the community, including Captain,
Section Leaders, etc.
20. Communications--all chapters
must submit weekly reports in
writing to the National
Headquarters.
21. All Branches must implement First
Aid and/or Medical Cadres.
22. All Chapters, Branches, and
components of the Black Panther
Party must submit a monthly
Financial Report to the Ministry of
Finance, and also the Central
Committee.
23. Everyone in a leadership position
must read no less than two hours
per day to keep abreast of the
changing political situation.
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24. No chapter or branch shall accept
grants, poverty funds, money or any
other aid from any government
agency without contacting the
National Headquarters.
25. All chapters must adhere to the
policy and the ideology laid down by
the Central Committee of the Black
Panther Party.
26. All Branches must submit weekly
reports in writing to their respective
Chapters.
8 Points of Attention
1. Speak politely.
2. Pay fairly for what you buy.
3. Return everything you borrow.
4. Pay for anything you damage.
5. Do not hit or swear at people.
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6. Do not damage property or crops of
the poor, oppressed masses.
7. Do not take liberties with women.
8. If we ever have to take captives do
not ill-treat them.
3 Main Rules of Discipline
1. Obey orders in all your actions.
2. Do not take a single needle or piece
of thread from the poor and
oppressed masses.
3. Turn in everything captured from
the attacking enemy.
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Original six Black
Panthers
(November, 1966)
Top left to right:
Elbert "Big Man"
Howard; Huey P.
Newton (Defense
Minister), Sherman
Forte, Bobby Seale
(Chairman).
Bottom: Reggie
Forte and Little
Bobby Hutton
(Treasurer).
Black Panther Theory: The practices of the
late Malcolm X were deeply rooted in the
theoretical foundations of the Black Panther
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Party. Malcolm had represented both a
militant revolutionary, with the dignity and
self-respect to stand up and fight to win
equality for all oppressed minorities; while
also being an outstanding role model,
someone who sought to bring about positive
social services; something the Black Panthers
would take to new heights. The Panthers
followed Malcolm's belief of international
working class unity across the spectrum of
color and gender, and thus united with various
minority and white revolutionary groups. From
the tenets of Maoism they set the role of their
Party as the vanguard of the revolution and
worked to establish a united front, while from
Marxism they addressed the capitalist
economic system, embraced the theory of
dialectical materialism, and represented the
need for all workers to forcefully take over the
means of production.
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Black Panther History: On April 25th, 1967,
the first issue of The Black Panther, the
party's official news organ, goes into
distribution. In the following month, the party
marches on the California state capital fully
armed, in protest of the state's attempt to
outlaw carrying loaded weapons in public.
Bobby Seale reads a statement of protest;
while the police respond by immediately
arresting him and all 30 armed Panthers. This
early act of political repression kindles the
fires to the burning resistance movement in
the United States; soon initiating minority
workers to take up arms and form new
Panther chapters outside the state.
> > The Black Panther:
In October of 1967, the police arrest the Defense
Minister of the Panthers, Huey Newton, for killing an
Oakland cop. Panther Eldridge Cleaver begins the
movement to "Free Huey", a struggle the Panthers
would devote a great deal of their attention to in the
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coming years, while the party spreads its roots further
into the political spectrum, forming coalitions with
various revolutionary parties.
Stokely Carmichael, the former
chairman of the Student
Nonviolent Coordinating
Committee (SNCC) and a
nationally known proponent of
Black Power, is recruited into
the party through this struggle,
and soon becomes the party's Prime Minister in
February, 1968. Carmichael is adamantly against
allowing whites into the black liberation movement,
explaining whites cannot relate to the black experience
and have an intimidating effect on blacks; a position
that stirs opposition within the Panthers. Carmichael
explains: "Whites who come into the black community
with ideas of change seem to want to absolve the
power structure of its responsibility for what it is doing,
and say that change can only come through black unity,
which is the worst kind of paternalism..... If we are to
proceed toward true liberation, we must cut ourselves
off from white people..... [otherwise] we will find
ourselves entwined in the tentacles of the white power
complex that controls this country."
> > Stokely Carmichael: The Basis of Black Power
In the beginning of 1968, after selling Mao's Red Book
to university students in order to buy shotguns, the
Party makes the book required reading. Meanwhile, the
FBI, under J. Edgar Hoover, begins a program called
COINTELPRO (counterintelligence program) to break up
the spreading unity of revolutionary groups that had
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begun solidifying through the work and examaple of the
Panthers the Peace and Freedom Party, Brown
Berets, Students for a Democratic Society, the SNCC,
SCLC, Poor People's March, Cesar Chavez and others in
the farm labor movement, the American Indian
Movement, Young Puerto Rican Brothers, the Young
Lords and many others. To destroy the party, the FBI
begins with a program of surgical assassinations
killing leading members of the party who they know
cannot be otherwise subverted. Following these mass
killings would be a series of arrests, followed by a
program of psychological warfare, designed to split the
party both politically and morally through the use of
espionage, provocatures, and chemical warfare.
> > Watered down examples of FBI investigations,
provided by the FBI: [off-site links]
> > The Winston Salem (N.C.) Black Panthers (2,895
pages)
> > Communist infiltration of the SNCC in 1964 (2,887
pages)
> > Cesar Chavez and United Farm Workers
Communist Affiliations in 1965 (2,021 pages)
U.S. Police Terror and Repression
On April 6, 1968, in West Oakland, Bobby Hutton, 17
years old, is shot dead by Oakland
police. In a 90 minute gun battle, an
unarmed Bobby Hutton is shot ten
times dead, after his house is set
ablaze and he is forced to run out into a
fire of bullets. Just two days earlier,
Martin Luther King is assasinated, after
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he had begun rethinking his own doctrines of non-
violence, and started to build ties with radical unions.
Two months later on the day of Bobby's death, Robert
Kennedy, widely recognised in the minority
commmunity as one of the only politicians in the US
"sympathetic" to the civil rights movement, is also
assasinated.
In January, 1969, The first Panther's
Free Breakfast for School Children
Program is initiated at St.
Augustine's Church in Oakland. By
the end of the year, the Panthers set
up kitchens in cities across the
nation, feeding over 10,000 children
every day before they went to
school.
> > The Black Panther: To Feed
Our Children
A few months later, J. Edgar Hoover publicly states that
the Panthers are the "greatest threat to the internal
security of the country".
In Chicago, the outstanding leader of the Panthers
local, Fred Hampton, leads five different breakfast
programs on the West Side, helps create a free medical
center, and initiates a door to door program of health
services which test for sickle cell anemia, and
encourage blood drives for the Cook County Hospital.
The Chicago party also begins reaching out to local
gangs to clean up their acts, get them away from crime
and bring them into the class war. The Parties efforts
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meet wide success, and Hampton's audiences and
organised contingent
grow by the day. On
December 4th, at 4:00
a.m. in the morning,
thanks to information
from an FBI informant ,
Chicago police raid the
Panthers' Chicago
apartment, murdering
Fred Hampton while he sleeps in bed. He is shot twice
in the head, once in the arm and shoulder; while three
other people sleeping in the same bed escape
unharmed. Mark Clark, sleeping in the living room chair,
is also murdered while asleep. Hampton's wife, carrying
child for 8 months, is also shot, but survives. Four
panthers sleeping in the apartment are wounded, while
one other escapes injury . Fred Hampton was 21 years
old when he was executed, Mark was 17 years old.
According to the findings of the federal grand jury,
Ninety bullets were fired inside the apartment. 1 came
from a Panther Mark who slept with a shotgun in
his hand. All surviving Panther members were arrested
for "attempted murder of the police and aggravated
assault". Not a single cop spent a moment in jail for the
executions.
> > Fred Hampton: I am ... a Revolutionary
In the summer of 1969, the alliance between the
Panthers and SNCC begins ripping apart. One of the
main points of dispute is the inclusion of whites in the
struggle for minority liberation, a dispute which is
pushed into an open gun fight at the University of
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California in Los Angeles against the group US, led by
Maulana Karenga, which leaves two Panthers dead. In
September, in the government's court house, Huey
Newton is convicted of voluntary manslaughter and
sentenced to 2 to 15 years in prison; by 1970 the
conviction is appealed and overturned on procedural
errors. On November 24, 1968, Kathleen and Eldridge
Cleaver flee the US, visit Cuba and Paris, and eventually
settle in Algeria. Earlier in the year Cleaver published
his famous book Soul on Ice. By the end of the year, the
party has swelled from 400 members to over 5,000
members in 45 chapters and branches, with a
newspaper circulation of 100,000 copies.
In 1969 Seale is indicted in Chicago for protesting
during the Democratic national convention of last year.
The court refuses to allow Seale to choose a lawyer. As
Seale repeatedly stands up during the show trial
insisting that he is being denied his constitutional right
to counsel, the judge orders him bound and gagged. He
is convicted on 16 counts of contempt and sentenced to
four years in prison. While in jail he would be charged
again for killing a cop in years past, a trial that would
end in 1971 with a hung jury.
In March, 1970, Bobby Seale publishes Seize The Time
while still being held in prison, the story of the Panthers
and Huey Newton. On April 2, 1970, in New York, 21
Panthers are charged with plotting to assassinate
police officers and blow up buildings. On May 22nd,
Eight members, including Ericka Huggins, are arrested
on a variety of conspiracy and murder charges in New
Haven, Connecticut. Meanwhile, Chief of staff David
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Hilliard is on trial for threatening President Richard
Nixon. The party does little to separate its legal and
illegal aspects, and is thus always and everywhere
under attack by the government. In 1971, the Panther's
newspaper circulation reaches 250,000.
On Huey Newton's release from prison, he devotes more
effort to further develop the Panther's socialist survival
programs in black communities; programs that provided
free breakfasts for children, established free medical
clinics, helped the homeless find housing, and gave
away free clothing and food.
FBI forgery, provacation, & chemical war
In March, 1970, the FBI begins to soe seeds of
factionalism in the Black Panthers, in part by forging
letters to members. Eldridge Cleaver is one of their
main targets living in exile in Algiers they gradually
convince him with a steady stream of misinformation
that the BPP leadership is trying to remove him from
power. Cleaver recieved stacks of forgered FBI letters
from supposed party members, criticising Netwon's
leadership, and asking for Cleaver to take control. An
example of such a forged letter, written using the name
of Connie Matthews, Newton's personal secretary:
I know you have not been told what
has been happening lately.... Things
around headquarters are dreadfully
disorganized with the comrade
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commander not making proper
decisions. The newspaper is in a
shambles. No one knows who is in
charge. The foreign department gets
no support. Brothers and sisters are
accused of all sorts of things...
I am disturbed because I, myself,
do not know which way to turn.... If
only you were here to inject some
strength into the movement, or to
give some advice. One of two steps
must be taken soon and both are
drastic. We must either get rid of the
supreme commander or get rid of the
disloyal members... Huey is really all
we have right now and we can't let
him down, reglardless of how poorly
he is acting, unless you feel
otherwise.
Cleaver receives similarly forged letters across the
spectrum, from groups outside the Panthers, to
Panthers themselves, from rank and file members to
Elbert "Big Man" Howard, editor of the Black Panther.
The split comes when Newton goes onto a T.V. talk
show for an interview, with Cleaver on the phone in
Algiers. Cleaver expresses his absolute disdain for what
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has happened to the party, demands that David Hilliard
(Chief of Staff) be removed, and even attacks the
breakfast program as reformist. Cleaver is expelled
from the Central Committee, and starts up his own
Black Liberation Army. In 1973, Seale runs for mayor of
Oakland. Though he receives 40 percent of the vote, he
is defeated.
The destroyed remnants of the party leadership
With such great struggles, seeing the party being ripped
apart by factions and internal hatred, Huey, like many
members, becomes disillusioned. He no longer wants to
lead the party, though so many expect and demand
otherwise, while he spins into a spiral of self-doubt. He
becomes heavily dependent on cocaine, heroin, and
others. It is not clear this was his own doing, and very
probable the work of the FBI. Huey remarked in one of
his public speeches in the 1980s, where he would often
have spurts of his brilliant clarity but then become
entirely incoherent and rambling, that he was killing
himself by reactionary suicide, through the vices of
drug addiction. On August 22, 1989, Newton is shot
dead on the streets of Oakland in a drug dispute.
Bobby Seale resigns from the party; while Elaine Brown
takes the lead in continuing the Panther community
programs. In the fall of 1975, Eldridge and Kathleen
Cleaver return from exile as born-again Christians. In
1979, all charges against Cleaver are dropped after he
bargains with the state and pleads guilty to assault in a
1968 shoot out with the cops. He is put on five years
probation. In the dimming years of his life, Cleaver
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assimilates a political outlook similar to Martin Luther
King, engages in various business ventures, and
becomes heavily addicted to cocaine.
By the beginning of the 1980s, attacks on the party and
internal degradation and divisions, cause the party to
fall apart. The leadership of the party had been
absolutely smashed; its rank and file constantly
terrorized by the police. Many remaining Panthers were
hunted down and killed in the following years,
imprisoned on trumped charges (Mumia Abu-Jamal,
Sundiata Acoli, among many others), or forced to flee
the United States (Assata Shakur, and others).
As Cleaver would later explain in an interview a year
before his death: "As it was [the U.S. government]
chopped off the head [of the Black liberation
movement] and left the body there armed. That's why
all these young bloods are out there now, they've got
the rhetoric but are without the political direction... and
they've got the guns."
Conveniently Forgotten Facts
Back in 1969 a group of Black Panthers decided that a
fellow black panther named Alex Rackley needed to die.
Rackley was suspected of disloyalty. Rackley was first
tied to a chair. Once safely immobilized, his friends
tortured him for hours by, among other things, pouring
boiling water on him.
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When they got tired of torturing Rackley, Black Panther
member Warren Kimbro took Rackley outside and put a
bullet in his head.
Rackley's body was later found floating in a river about
25 miles north of New Haven, Connecticut.
Perhaps at this point you're curious as to what
happened to these Black Panthers?
In 1977, that's only eight years later, only one of the
killers was still in jail.
The shooter, Warren Kimbro, managed to get a
scholarship to Harvard and became good friends with
none other than Al Gore. He later became an assistant
dean at an Eastern Connecticut State College. Isn't that
something? As a '60s radical you can pump a bullet into
someone's head and a few years later, in the same
state, you can become an assistant college dean! Only
in America!
Erica Huggins was the woman who served the Panthers
by boiling the water for Mr. Rackley's torture Some
years later Ms. Huggins was elected to a California
School Board.
How in the world do you think these killers got off so
easy?
Maybe it was in some part due to the efforts of two
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people who came to the defense of the Panthers. These
two people actually went so far as to shut down Yale
University with demonstrations in defense of the
accused Black Panthers during their trial. One of these
people was none other than Bill Lan Lee.
Mr. Lee, or Mr. Lan Lee, as the case may be, isn't a
college dean.
He isn't a member of a California School Board. He is
now head of the United States Justice Department's
Civil Rights Division, appointed by none other than Bill
Clinton.
O.K., so who was the other Panther defender? Is this
other notable Panther defender now a school board
member? Is this other Panther apologist now an
assistant college dean? No, neither!
The other Panther defender was, like Lee, a radical law
student at Yale University at the time. She is now
known as the "smartest woman in the world." She is
none other than the Democratic senator from the State
of New York---- our former First Lady, the incredible
Hillary Rodham Clinton.
And now, as Paul Harvey said; "You know the rest of the
story."
This deserves the widest possible press.
Also remember it when she runs for President.
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Black Liberation Army
Logo of the Black Liberation Army
The Black Liberation Army (BLA) was an underground,
black nationalist-Marxist organization that operated in
the United States from 1971 to 1981. Comprised largely
of former Black Panthers, the organization's program
was one of "armed struggle" and its stated goal was to
"take up arms for the liberation and self-determination
of black people in the United States."
[1]
To this end,
members carried out a series of bombings, robberies
(what participants termed "expropriations") and prison
breaks.
Formation
The Black Liberation Army was founded by Eldridge
Cleaver after his expulsion from the Black Panther
Party's Central Committee. A fallout was made
inevitable between Cleaver and other Panther leaders
after he publically criticized the BPP, among other
things accusing Panther social programs of being
reformist rather than revolutionary.
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The newly formed BLA believed that "the character of
reformism is based on unprincipled class collaboration
with our enemy"
[2]
and asserted the following
principles:
1. That we are anti-capitalist, anti-imperialist, anti-
racist, and anti-sexist.
2. That we must of necessity strive for the
abolishment of these systems and for the
institution of Socialistic relationships in which
Black people have total and absolute control over
their own destiny as a people.
3. That in order to abolish our systems of
oppression, we must utilize the science of class
struggle, develop this science as it relates to our
unique national condition.
Theory
With the dissolution of the Black Panther Party as a
result of internal sectarianism and external oppression
(see COINTELPRO), many activists were faced with
reality of the criminalization of the Black Power
movement, including long prison sentences and
murders of key Black Panthers, among them Fred
Hampton, at the hands of the state. This reality
convinced many former party members of the
inevitability of an underground existence, including the
assumption that a new period of violent repression was
at hand.
BLA activists operated under the assumption that only
through covert means, including but not limited to
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violent acts, could the movement be continued until
such a time when an above ground existence was
possible. In this sense, the BLA's reasoning approached
that of the Weather Underground.
Activities
According to a Justice Department report on BLA
activity, the Black Liberation Army was suspected of
involvement in over 60 incidents of violence between
1970 and 1976.
[3]
The Fraternal Order of Police blames
the BLA for the murders of 13 police officers.
[4]
In one high-profile incident, Assata Shakur, Zayd Shakur
and Sundiata Acoli opened fire on state troopers in New
Jersey after being pulled over for a broken taillight.
Zayd Shakur and state trooper Werner Foerster were
both killed during the exchange. Following her capture,
Shakur was tried in six different criminal trials.
According to Shakur she was beaten and tortured
during her incarceration in a number of different federal
and state prisons. The charges ranged from kidnapping
to assault and battery to bank robbery. Shakur was
found guilty of the murder of both Foerster and her
companion Zayd Shakur but escaped prison in 1979 and
eventually relocated to Cuba.
The BLA was active in the US until at least 1981 when a
Brinks truck robbery, conducted with support from
Weather Underground members Kathy Boudin and David
Gilbert, left two guards and a police officer dead.
Boudin and Gilbert, along with several BLA members,
were subsequently arrested.
[5]
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Following the collapse of the BLA, some members
(including Ashanti Alston and Kuwasi Balagoon)
became outspoken proponents of anarchism. Balagoon
died in prison of an AIDS-related disease in 1986.
BLA members who remain in prison (as of January
2006), include:
Sundiata Acoli, convicted (along with Assata
Shakur) of the murder of a New Jersey state
trooper in 1973 Joann Cheistmard was also
involved in this crime. She is currently believed to
be in Cuba where she was granted aslym by Fidel
Castro. I was personally involved in this case when
she was housed on Rikers Island.
Herman Bell and Jalil Muntaqim, convicted of the
murder of two police officers in 1971. I was
personally involved in this case when she was
housed on Rikers Island.
Joseph Bowen
Robert Seth Hayes, convicted of the murder of a
NYC Transit Police Officer. I was personally
involved in this case when she was housed on
Rikers Island.
Sekou Kambui, convicted of two murders in
Alabama
Ojore N. Lutalo, convicted following a shootout
with a drug dealer
Abdul Majid (black-nationalist), convicted of the
murder of a police officer in 1981
Sekou Odinga, convicted of six counts of
attempted murder in 1981
Kojo Bomani Sababu, convicted of bank robbery
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Kamau Sadiki, convicted of the murder of an
Atlanta police officer in 1971
Russel "Maroon" Shoatz, convicted of the murder of
a police officer in 1972
References
1. MIPT Terrorism Knowledge Base. [6]
2. The BLA Coordinating Committee, Message to
the Black Movement: A Political Statement from
the Black Underground. [7]
3. Blast from the Past, 1979. [8]
4. New York State FOP, New York State Fraternal
Order of Police Criticizes Judge's Decision on the
release of Kathy Boudin. [9]
5. CourtTV Crime Library, Ambush: The Brinks
Robbery of 1981. [10]
Jamaat ulFuqra
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Formation
Jamaat ul-Fuqra (JF) or "community of the
impoverished", a terrorist outfit operating in Pakistan
and North America, was formed by a Pakistani cleric,
Sheikh Mubarak Ali Gilani, in New York in 1980, on his
first visit to the US. Mubarak Gilani's intention in
forming the outfit was to 'purify' Islam through violence.
Ideology, Leadership and Structure
The JF, in its early phase, sought to counter what is
perceived as excessive Western influence on Islam. It
also concluded that violence was a significant aspect in
its quest to purify Islam. In its ideological moorings, the
Fuqra regards as enemies of Islam all those who do not
follow the tenets of Islam as laid out in the Koran,
including those Muslims who they consider as heretics
as well as non-Muslims. One of Gilanis works published
by the Quranic Open University in the US and seized in
a 1991-investigation instructed his cadres that their
foremost duty was to wage Jehad against the
oppressors of Muslims. Members of the group are
described as Islamist extremists with much hatred
toward their enemies.
The JF is loosely structured with certain elements
working openly through social service organisations to
recruit members, raise money, organise activities and
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carry out propaganda. Individuals selected to live on JF
premises agree to abide by the law and discipline of the
Jamaat ul-Fuqra. Investigations by the Colorado
Attorney General's Office in the 1980s indicated that
the JF was composed of approximately 30 different
'Jamaats' or communities, more or less mobile in
nature. Most of these 'Jamaats' are reportedly existent
even today along with what investigators discerned to
be several covert paramilitary training compounds, one
of which had been located in a mountainous area near
Buena Vista, Colorado prior to the Colorado
prosecutions in the mid-1990s.
Within 10 years of its formation, Fuqra's communes in
the US attracted many Muslim converts-including some
of those recruited in prisons. The JF is said to comprise
of some 1,000 to 3,000 members in the US. Secrecy is
the hallmark of the outfit and cadres are reportedly well
versed in the use of aliases. The Fuqras structure is
well concealed behind front outfits and consists of a
network of safe houses and cells. Furthermore, the JF
founder as well as cadres consistently maintain that it
does not exist. JF members occasionally travel abroad
for paramilitary and survivalist training under Gilani's
supervision.
Sheikh Mubarak Ali Gilani, who also calls himself the
sixth Sultan Ul Faqr, is the chief of JF.
Jamaat ul-Fuqra is headquartered in Hancock, New
York.
Areas of Activity and Influence
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Although Gilani, the reclusive chief of Fuqra resides in
Lahore, Pakistan, most JF cells are located in North
America. Fuqra members have purchased isolated rural
properties in North America to live as a community,
practice their faith, and insulate themselves from
Western culture. The group has set up and funded rural
communes that the US authorities allege are linked to
murder, bombings and other felonies throughout the US
and Canada. Currently, there are half a dozen Fuqra
residential compounds in rural hamlets across the US
sheltering hundreds of cadres, some of who have
reportedly trained in the use of weapons and explosives
in Pakistan.
Muslims of the Americas, a tax-exempt group
established in the US in 1980 by Gilani, operates
communes of primarily black, American-born Muslims in
many states in the US, including in Binghamton in New
York, Badger in California, York in South California and
Red House in Virginia. JF is reportedly linked through
court documents to the Muslims of Americas. There is
also a road in the name of Sheikh Gilani in the vicinity
of Virginia. The cult houses between 100 and 200
people, many of them women and children in about 20
huge trailers. There is also a Virginia newspaper, the
Islamic Post, founded by Sheikh Gilani.
Linkages and Incidents
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Jamaat al-Fuqra, also described as a cult, is currently
the focus of a probe by US authorities for charges
ranging from links with terrorist groups to laundering
money into Pakistan.
In the 1980s, they carried out various terrorist acts,
including numerous fire-bombings across the United
States. JFs early targets in North America were ethnic
Indians and targets linked to various Indian sects. In
July 1983, Stephen Paul Paster, a front ranking JF
member, was responsible for planting a pipe bomb at a
Portland hotel owned by followers of the Bhagwan
Rajneesh cult. After his arrest in Colorado, Paster
served four years of a 20-year prison sentence for the
bombing. He was suspected but not charged in two
other bombings in Seattle in 1984 - the bombings of the
Vedanta Society temple and the Integral Yoga Society
building. Currently, Paster is reported to be based in
Lahore, Pakistan, from where, intelligence sources say,
he provides explosives training to Fuqra cadres.
After the Portland bombing, two Fuqra cadres allegedly
killed Mozaffar Ahmad, a leader of the minority
Ahmadiyyah sect in Canton, Michigan. Both the
suspects reportedly perished in a fire they had set at
the Ahmadiyyah mosque in nearby Detroit. The JF is
also reported to have been involved in the killing of
three Indians on August 1, 1984 in a suburb of Tacoma,
Washington. Besides, the JF is suspected to be involved
in a series of fire bombings of Hindu and Hare Krishna
temples in Seattle, Denver, Philadelphia and Kansas
City.
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US officials in 1989, during a search of a storage locker
in Colorado Springs, recovered a large cache of
armaments and documents with multiple links to the
JF. Among the arms recovered were handguns, semi-
automatic firearms, explosives, pipe bombs, bomb
components and several bombs. Some of the seized
documents described the activities and code of the
"Muhammad Commandos of Sector 5," who were
reportedly involved in arms training and intelligence
gathering. The documents, including maps and lists,
contained details of potential JF targets and victims in
Los Angeles, Arizona and Coloradooil and gas
installations and electrical facilities, US. Air Force
Academy and other military sites, people in 12 US
states and Canada with Jewish or Hindu-sounding
names. Various JF publications were seized during this
search. Titles of some of the publications seized
included "Guerrilla Warfare", "Counter Guerrilla
Operations", "Understanding Amateur Radio", and "Fair
Weather Flying," and "Basic Blueprint Reading and
Sketching."
In 1991, JFs plans to bomb an Indian cinema and a
Hindu temple near Toronto were unsuccessful. Five JF
cadres were arrested at the Niagara Falls border
crossing after US Customs agents searched their cars
and found visual evidence and plans of the interiors of
the targets and a description of time bombs. A
Canadian jury convicted three American JF cadres of
conspiracy to commit mischief and endanger life. A
fourth suspect, who had come to Canada from Pakistan
shortly before the planned bombing, fled to Pakistan
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after his colleagues' arrest, according to evidence
presented at the trial.
In the 1990s, JF was more often than not operating
under the guise of two front groups, Muslims of the
Americas and Quranic Open University. The latter
portrayed itself as a religious and charitable
educational institution dedicated to studying the Quran.
Gilani has reportedly admitted to receiving hundreds of
thousands of dollars a year in donations from America.
A large segment of JF members have been convicted of
criminal acts, including murder and fraud. With the US
State Department outlawing Fuqra and listing it as one
of the proscribed groups in its annual reports, the
activities of the outfit decreased relatively. The JF
supports various terrorist groups operating in Pakistan
and in the Indian State of Jammu and Kashmir. Sheikh
Gilani has linkages with Islamist terrorist groups like
the Hamas and Hezbollah. Although dormant in terms of
real activity, JF has an active link with the terrorist
groups in Pakistan and provides both moral and
material assistance to these groups.
JF cadres are suspects in at least 10 unsolved
assassinations and 17 firebombing cases between 1979
and 1990.
In 1993 Fuqra members in Colorado were convicted of
participating in a conspiracy resulting in the killing of a
Muslim religious figure in Arizona.
One of the persons convicted in the World Trade Center
bombing in 1993 was Clement Rodney Hampton-el, a
Fuqra member. JF was linked in a Congressional
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testimony to the planning of the 1993 World Trade
Center bombing.
Gilani is now in Pakistani custody for the abduction of
US journalist Daniel Pearl. Official sources in Pakistan
have indicated that Daniel Pearl was attempting to
meet Gilani in the days before he disappeared in
Karachi. Pakistani police arrested Gilani in Rawalpindi
on January 30, 2002 and shifted him to Karachi for
questioning. Although he denied any link to the
abduction, police also detained several of his
colleagues. Consequent to his arrest, he reportedly told
his interrogators that he had links with the Pakistani
intelligence agencies.
A media report has indicated that the JF is also being
probed for links with Richard Reid, a Briton, accused of
trying to use explosives in his shoes to blow up a Paris-
to-Miami jetliner on December 22, 2001.
A house in Virginia believed to be linked to the JF was
raided by police in December 2001 and two persons
were arrested for illegally purchasing guns.
Three suspected US-based JF members have been
arrested on weapons charges in the year 2001,
including two following the September 11 multiple
terrorist attacks. Vicente Rafael Pierre, a 44-year-old
native of Brooklyn and his wife Traci Upshur, both JF
cadres, were arrested on gun charges and convicted on
November 30, 2001. Pierre's Virginia compound, near
the Red House Commune, is reported to have served as
a JF base.
A money laundering scheme run by the Red House
Commune is reportedly similar to a Colorado operation
that was shut down in 1993. Colorado law enforcement
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agencies convicted five JF cadres for defrauding the
Colorado government of approximately $350,000
through bogus workers compensation claims.
Prosecuting agencies have indicated that the amount
had been laundered through Professional Security
International (PSI), a JF security firm, and Muslims of
the Americas. A portion of the funds was tracked
through PSI to JF couriers who traveled to Pakistan.
The PSI reportedly enabled JF cadres to obtain federal
licenses to buy weapons. The Fuqra is also suspected
of having two more security firms located in New York.
The Fuqra also reportedly has various broad schemes to
take government entitlement money and utilise it to
fund terrorist activities. The commune in Colorado is
spread across 101 acres and police recovered bombs,
weapons and plans for terrorist attacks in a raid in the
year 1993. Two other communes in New York and
California have shooting ranges. The 1,800-acre
settlement in the Sierra Mountains in California also
reportedly has an airstrip.
In a February 22, 2002 interview, Gilani said his
contribution to the Kashmir cause since 1947 and to
the Afghan Jehad were on record. In the same
interview, Gilani claimed that both the governments of
Pakistan and Pakistan occupied Kashmir (PoK) had
requested him to mobilise his university students to
project the cause of Kashmir in the US through the
media by holding rallies and informing the public. To
this end, he claimed that the Kashmir-American
Friendship Society was formed in 1993.
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Gilani is currently under investigation for his alleged
links to the al Qaeda terror network of Osama bin Laden
and for money laundering from the US into Pakistan and
vice versa. The US Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI)
is investigating connections between a small black
Muslim community in California's Sierra Nevada valley,
called Baladullah and the JF. The FBI reportedly looked
into Baladullah, a community of 30 Muslim families,
while investigating into JFs activities at a remote
Virginia settlement, where one person was convicted in
November 2001 on charges of federal firearms
violations.
Probe finds terrorists in U S training for war'
Neighbors of Muslim encampment fear retaliation if
they report to police
The Pakistani terrorist group
Jamaat ul Fuqra is using Islamic
schools in the United States as
training facilities, confirms a joint
investigative report by an
intelligence think tank and an
independent reporter.
A covert visit to an encampment in
the Catskill Mountains near
Hancock, N.Y., called "Islamberg"
found neighboring residents deeply
concerned about military-style
training taking place there but frustrated by the lack of
attention from federal authorities, said the report by the
Entrance to
Hancock, N.Y.,
encampment
(Courtesy
Northeast
Intelligence
Network)
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Northeast Intelligence Network, which worked with an
Internet blogger, "CP," to publish an interim report.
The neighbors interviewed, who asked not to be
identified, said they feared retaliation if they were to
make a report to law enforcement officials.
"We see children small children run around over there
when they should be in school," one neighbor said. "We
hear bursts of gunfire all of the time, and we know that
there is military-like training going on there. Those
people are armed and dangerous."
The resident said his household gets "nothing but
menacing looks from the people who go in and out of
the camp, and sometimes they yell at us to mind our
own business when we are just driving by."
"We don't even dare to slow down when we drive by,"
the resident said. "They own this mountain and they
know it, and there is nothing we can do about it but
move, and we can't even do that. Who wants to buy
property next to that?"
Jamaat ul-Fuqra, or "community of the impoverished,"
was formed by Pakistani cleric Sheikh Mubarak Ali
Gilani in New York in 1980. Gilani, who refers to himself
as "the sixth Sultan Ul Faqr," has stated his objective is
to "purify" Islam through violence.
Gilani also is the founder of a village in South Carolina
called "Holy Islamville."
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The encampment in Hancock, N.Y., is run by a front for
Jamaat ul-Fuqra called Muslims of the Americas Inc.,
which operates a school known as the International
Quranic Open University Inc.
The facility is on 70 acres of
remote land on the western edge of
the Catskill Mountains, about 40
miles southeast of Binghamton,
N.Y. A sign at the entrance
identifies the place as "Islamberg."
The other side of the sign says
"International Quranic Open
University" and "Muslims of the
Americas Inc."
Every one of the neighboring
residents interviewed expressed
disappointment and additional concern that federal law
enforcement is not investigating the activities, the
report said.
"These people need to be investigated," a resident said.
"They are training for war, either for war here in this
country or against our troops. Who in the h--- is allowing
this stuff to happen right here in our own backyard, and
why?"
Headquarters in the USA
Though primarily based in Lahore, Pakistan, Jamaat ul-
Fuqra has operational headquarters in the U.S.
Entrance to
Hancock, N.Y.,
encampment
(Courtesy
Northeast
Intelligence
Network)
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The group seeks to counter "excessive Western
influence on Islam" through any means necessary,
publicly embracing the ideology that violence is a
significant part of its quest to purify Islam. The enemies
of Islam, the group says, are all non-Muslims and any
Muslim who does not follow the tenets of
fundamentalist Islam as detailed in the Quran.
Jamaat ul-Fuqra openly recruits through various social
service organizations in the U.S., including the prison
system. Members live in compounds where they agree
to abide by the laws of Jamaat ul-Fuqra, which are
considered to be above local, state and federal
authority.
According to the report, there appear to be more than
two dozen "Jamaats," or private communities, loosely
connected and scattered throughout the U.S. with an
estimated 5,000 members.
Guard shack at
Hancock, N.Y.,
encampment
(Courtesy
Northeast
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An investigation of the group by the
Colorado Attorney General's office
in the early 1980s found several of
the communities operate covert paramilitary training
compounds, including one in a mountainous area near
Buena Vista, Colo.
Muslims of the Americas Inc., a tax-exempt
organization formed in 1980 by Gilani, has been directly
linked by court documents to Jamaat ul-Fuqra. The
organization operates communes of primarily black,
American-born Muslims throughout the U.S. The
investigation confirmed members commonly use aliases
and intentional spelling variations of their names and
routinely deny the existence of Jamaat ul-Fuqra.
Members have been known to go to Pakistan for
paramilitary training, but the investigation found
evidence the U.S. encampments offer such training so
members don't need to risk traveling abroad amid
increased scrutiny following the 9-11 attacks.
The report says Jamaat ul-Fuqra members have
"purchased isolated rural properties in North America to
live as a community, practice their faith, and insulate
themselves from Western culture. The group has
established rural encampments that U.S. authorities
allege are linked to murder, bombings and other
felonies throughout North America."
U.S. authorities have probed the group for charges
ranging from links to al-Qaida to laundering and
funneling money into Pakistan for terrorist activities.
Intelligence
Network)
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The organization supports various terrorist groups
operating in Pakistan and Kashmir, and Gilani himself is
linked directly to Hamas and Hezbollah. Throughout the
1980s, JF was responsible for a number of terrorist acts
across the United States, including numerous fire-
bombings.
Gilani was at one time in Pakistani custody for the
abduction of American journalist Daniel Pearl.
Intelligence sources have determined Pearl was
attempting to meet with Gilani in the days before he
disappeared in Karachi. Intelligence sources also
suggest a link between Jamaat ul Fuqra and Richard
Reid, the infamous "shoe bomber" who attempted to
ignite explosives aboard a Paris-to-Miami passenger
flight Dec. 22, 2001.
Field investigation
Douglas J. Hagmann, director of the Northeast
Intelligence Network and multi-state licensed private
investigator, and others conducted their covert field
investigation Feb. 8 and 9 at the Hancock encampment
connected to the terrorist group.
Primary access to the compound is an unmarked road
labeled on county and state maps as "Moslem Road"
Two structures with capacities of up to 100 each
appear to be used for religious training, education and
meeting purposes, according to local sources.
Investigators found a weapons firing range that is not
visible from the road or any other publicly accessible
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vantage position. It appeared to have been recently
used.
Near the eastern perimeter of the property on a
hillside appears to be a military-style training area,
including ropes hung from tree limbs, an obstacle
course, wooden fences for scaling and other items and
structures one would expect to find in a "boot-camp"
setting. The area also appeared to have been used
recently.
The report noted the property is near the Cannonsville
Reservoir and Watershed Area, one of several water
supply sources servicing New York City and adjacent
areas.
The investigators noted men appeared to be designated
to provide security for the compound, with some posted
at guard shacks.
"Although no activity of extreme significance was
observed (the presence of armed sentries guarding the
perimeter of the compound excluded) during this period
of surveillance, it was obvious that measures to insure
that the activities taking place at this location were
well insulated from public view," the report said.
Investigators interviewed six area residents, who each
requested anonymity for the report, and found them to
be consistent. The report summarized the information:
The encampment has been in operation for at least
20 years and appears to maintain a steady level of
occupancy. Each source confirmed the existence
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of at least one armed guard at the main entrance,
especially during "special events" that result in a
significant number of visitors by vehicle. The
events appear to be meetings or religious services
held within the compound.
Nearly every weekend, sound of gunfire can be
heard from the camp. According to one neighbor
who stated he's a combat veteran of the Vietnam
War, some of the weapons obviously are
"automatic" and large-caliber. On at least two
occasions last summer, area residents heard small
explosions.
The occupants won't allow anyone not affiliated
with their organization to enter the encampment.
All of the residents stated they've never observed a
marked law enforcement vehicle enter the
compound at any time.
Visitors to the compound are numerous and
frequent. All visitors appear to be black males
operating late model vehicles, mostly SUVs, and
many possess license plates from Michigan, Ohio,
South Carolina and Tennessee.
At least once each week, private deliveries of
unknown items are made to the camp by unmarked
box-style trucks. The trucks, usually at the
compound for two to three hours at a time, are
operated by black males or men who appear to be
of Middle Eastern origin.
Men of Middle Eastern origin appear to be "frequent
guests" of the encampment, many in traditional
Islamic attire. Some appear to stay at the
encampment for three to four days or longer.
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During the visits, activity and security at the
compound is heightened noticeably.
The report also says it found that a number of the
residents of the compound work for the New York State
Thruway, as tollbooth operators in the New York City
area or are employed at a nearby center that processes
credit card transactions and maintains vital confidential
financial records.
The report concludes additional investigation by law
enforcement authorities is required.
"The appropriate action must be taken now to insure
the safety and security of the United States, or it is
certain that we will be forced to deal with the
consequences. "
Today, about 30 percent of the estimated 6 million
Muslims in America are African-American, according to
"The Mosque in America: a National Portrait," a report
prepared by the Council on American-Islamic Relations.
And many of the approximately 1,200 American
mosques are in inner-city neighborhoods where blacks
worship.
It's not uncommon to see male Muslims in black
communities wearing skull caps called kufis, while
female Muslims wear the hijab--a loose-fitting garment
that is accompanied by a head covering.
African-American Muslims are not seen as an oddity in
America. That's partly why black Muslims have not
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experienced widespread backlash in the wake of the
terrorist attacks.
But even though black Muslims have not been widely
targeted, they have taken issue with the way their
religion has been portrayed.
In an Oct. 21 statement, a group called Majlis
Ash'Shura--a consultative body of Imams, Masjid and
Islamic organizations from Philadelphia and the
Delaware Valley--took exception to the use of the word
"Muslim" to describe terrorists.
"The United States and its media should stop using
religious labels to identify Muslims who are fighting
against what they perceived as oppression and
injustices. The Irish Republican Army is not called the
Catholic Irish Republican Army in the press and Timothy
McVeigh was not called a Catholic terrorist."
Shamsud-Din Ali, a spokesman for Majlis Ash'Shura,
says his organization is against terrorism wherever it
occurs. But Ali is careful to point out that there has
always been terrorism in America--especially against
blacks.
"African-Americans are acquainted first-hand with
terrorism," he says. "We probably have suffered the
worst kind of terrorism anybody can suffer. We have
been seized upon and treated with terrible disrespect.
We've been threatened, our children have been killed in
churches, people have been hung on trees."
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That reality, says Ali, has fueled distrust concerning the
current war on terrorism, not only in the Muslim
community, but in the African-American community as a
whole. "There's probably a lot going on that we don't
know about. Not just foreign policy, but local policy.
When our people suffered those things, it was local
policy that allowed that to happen, not foreign policy."
Ali's organization has called for the U.S. government to
stop the bombing in Afghanistan because the Afghan
people did not bomb the United States. The
organization has also said "the United States should
find a diplomatic or other solution to this situation."
"I am against terrorist acts, against injustice against
anybody," says Ali. "I don't care what color. I don't think
people should be denied the right to live and to raise
their children. I'll stand for that and even die for that. To
give blind allegiance to this foolishness, I would not
subscribe to that."
Whatever else has resulted from the terrorist attacks,
says Kenny Gamble, a Muslim community activist and
former owner of Philly International Records, the events
of Sept. 11 have brought about change in America.
"It's a terrible thing that happened," Gamble says. "But
out of it comes a world that is looking to God for
answers. That has to be good for the whole of humanity
because everyone is looking to God for help."
Ku Klux Klan the bases for white supremacy groups
.
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Members of the second Ku Klux Klan at a rally in 1922.
"Ku Klux Klan" is the name of a number of past and
present fraternal organizations in the United States that
have advocated white supremacy and anti-Semitism;
and in the past century, anti-Catholicism, and nativism.
The Klan's first incarnation was in 1866. Founded by
veterans of the Confederate Army, its main purpose was
to resist Congressional Reconstruction, and it focused
as much on intimidating "carpetbaggers" and
"scalawags" as on putting down the freed slaves. It
quickly adopted violent methods, and was involved in a
wave of 1,300 murders of Republican voters in 1868. A
rapid reaction set in, with the Klan's leadership
disowning it, and Southern elites seeing the Klan as an
excuse for federal troops to continue their activities in
the South. The organization was in decline from 1868 to
1870, and was destroyed in the early 1870s by
President Ulysses S. Grant's vigorous action under the
Civil Rights Act of 1871 (also known as the Ku Klux
Klan Act).
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William Joseph Simmons founded the second Ku Klux
Klan in 1915.
The founding in 1915 of a second distinct group using
the same name was inspired by the newfound power of
the modern mass media, via the film The Birth of a
Nation and inflammatory and anti-Semitic newspaper
accounts surrounding the trial and lynching of accused
murderer Leo Frank. The second KKK was a formal
membership organization, with a national and state
structure, that paid thousands of men to organize local
chapters all over the country. Millions joined and at its
peak in the 1920s the organization included about 15%
of the nation's eligible population.
[1]
The second KKK
typically preached Racism, anti-Catholicism, nativism,
and anti-Semitism and some local groups took part in
lynchings and other violent activities. Its popularity fell
during the Great Depression, and membership fell again
during World War II, due to scandals resulting from
prominent members' crimes and support of the Nazis.
Today, the third KKK, with operations in separated
small local units, is considered an extreme hate group.
The third KKK has been disowned by all mainstream
media and political and religious leaders.
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The name "Ku Klux Klan" has since been used by many
different unrelated groups, including many who opposed
the Civil Rights Act and desegregation in the 1960s.
Today, dozens of organizations with chapters across
the United States and other countries use all or part of
the name in their titles, but their total membership is
estimated to be only a few thousand.
The first Klan
A cartoon threatening that the KKK would lynch
carpetbaggers, Tuscaloosa, Alabama, Independent
Monitor, 1868.
Creation
The original Ku Klux Klan was created after the end of
the American Civil War on December 24, 1865, by six
educated, middle-class Confederate veterans
[2]
who
were bored with postwar Pulaski, Tennessee. The name
was constructed by combining the Greek "kyklos"
(circle) with "clan."
[3]
It was at first a humorous social
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club centering on practical jokes and hazing rituals.
[4]
From 1866 to 1867, the Klan began breaking up black
prayer meetings and invading black homes at night to
steal firearms. Some of these activities may have been
modeled on previous Tennessee vigilante groups such
as the Yellow Jackets and Redcaps.
A political cartoon depicting the KKK and the
Democratic party as continuations of the Confederacy.
In an 1867 meeting in Nashville an effort was made to
create a hierarchical organization with local chapters
reporting to county leaders, counties reporting to
districts, districts reporting to state, and states
reporting to a national headquarters. The proposals, in
a document called the "Prescript," were written by
George Gordon, a former Confederate brigadier general.
The Prescript included inspirational language about the
goals of the Klan along with a list of questions to be
asked of applicants for membership, which confirmed
the focus on resisting Reconstruction and the
Republican Party. The applicant was to be asked
whether he was a Republican, a Union Army veteran, or
a member of the Loyal League; whether he was
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"opposed to Negro equality both social and political;"
and whether he was in favor of "a white man's
government," "maintaining the constitutional rights of
the South," "the reenfranchisement and emancipation
of the white men of the South, and the restitution of the
Southern people to all their rights," and "the inalienable
right of self-preservation of the people against the
exercise of arbitrary and unlicensed power."
Despite the work that came out of the 1867 meeting,
the Prescript was never accepted by any of the local
units. They continued to operate autonomously, and
there never were county, district or state headquarters.
Nathan Bedford Forrest
According to one oral report, Gordon went to former
slave trader and Confederate General Nathan Bedford
Forrest in Memphis and told him about the new
organization, to which Forrest replied, "That's a good
thing; that's a damn good thing. We can use that to
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keep the niggers in their place."
[5]
A few weeks later,
Forrest was selected as Grand Wizard, the Klan's
national leader. In later interviews, though, Forrest
denied the leadership role and he never had any
effective control over the Klan cells.
Activities
The Klan sought to control the political and social
status of the freed slaves. Specifically, it attempted to
curb black education, economic advancement, voting
rights, and the right to bear arms. However, the Klan's
focus was not limited to African Americans; Southern
Republicans also became the target of vicious
intimidation tactics, and a wave of 1,300 murders of
Republican voters in 1868, was primarily a political
purge rather than a racial conflict.
[6]
The violence
achieved its purpose. For example, in the April, 1868
Georgia gubernatorial election, Columbia County cast
1222 votes for Democrat Rufus Bullock, but in the
November presidential election, the county cast only
one vote for Republican candidate Ulysses Grant.
[7]
Klan outrages were often targeted at schoolteachers
and operatives of the federal Freedmen's Bureau. Black
members of the Loyal Leagues were also the frequent
targets of Klan raids. In a typical episode in Mississippi,
according to the Congressional inquiry
[8]
One of these teachers (Miss Allen of Illinois), whose
school was at Cotton Gin Port in Monroe County, was
visited ... between one and two o'clock at night in
March, 1871, by about fifty men mounted and disguised.
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Each man wore a long white robe and his face was
covered by a loose mask with scarlet stripes. She was
ordered to get up and dress which she did at once and
then admitted to her room the captain and lieutenant
who in addition to the usual disguise had long horns on
their heads and a sort of device in front. The lieutenant
had a pistol in his hand and he and the captain sat
down while eight or ten men stood inside the door and
the porch was full. They treated her "gentlemanly and
quietly" but complained of the heavy school-tax, said
she must stop teaching and go away and warned her
that they never gave a second notice. She heeded the
warning and left the county.
An 1868 proclamation by Gordon
[9]
demonstrates
several of the issues surrounding the Klan's violent
activities.
Many blacks were veterans of the Union Army, and
were armed. From the beginning, one of the
original Klan's strongest focuses was on
confiscating firearms from Blacks. In the
proclamation, Gordon warned that the Klan had
been "fired into three times," and that if the blacks
"make war upon us they must abide by the awful
retribution that will follow."
Gordon also stated that the Klan was a peaceful
organization. Such claims were common ways for
the Klan to attempt to protect itself from
prosecution.
Gordon warned that some people had been
carrying out violent acts in the name of the Klan. It
was true that many people who had not been
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formally inducted into the Klan found the Klan's
uniform to be a convenient way to hide their
identities when carrying out acts of violence.
However, it was also convenient for the higher
levels of the organization to disclaim responsibility
for such acts, and the secretive, decentralized
nature of the Klan made membership fuzzy rather
than clear-cut.
By this time, only two years after the Klan's creation,
its activity was already beginning to decrease
[10]
and, as
Gordon's proclamation shows, to become less political
and more simply a way of avoiding prosecution for
violence. Many influential southern Democrats were
beginning to see it as a liability, an excuse for the
federal government to retain its power over the
South.
[11]
Georgian B.H. Hill went so far as to claim "that
some of these outrages were actually perpetrated by
the political friends of the parties slain."
[12]
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Three Ku Klux Klan members arrested in Tishomingo
County, Mississippi, September 1871, for the attempted
murder of an entire family.
In an 1868 newspaper interview,
[13]
Forrest boasted that
the Klan was a nationwide organization of 550,000 men,
and that although he himself was not a member, he was
"in sympathy" and would "cooperate" with them, and
could himself muster 40,000 Klansmen with five days'
notice. He stated that the Klan did not see blacks as its
enemy so much the Loyal Leagues, Republican state
governments like Tennessee governor Brownlow's, and
other carpetbaggers and scalawags. There was an
element of truth to this claim, since the Klan did go
after white members of these groups, especially the
schoolteachers brought south by the Freedmen's
Bureau, many of whom had before the war been
abolitionists or active in the underground railroad. Many
white southerners believed, for example, that blacks
were voting for the Republican party only because they
had been hoodwinked by the Loyal Leagues. Black
members of the Loyal Leagues were also the frequent
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targets of Klan raids. One Alabama newspaper editor
declared that "The League is nothing more than a
nigger Ku Klux Klan."
[14]
Decline and suppression
The first Klan was never well organized. As a secret or
"invisible" group, it had no membership rosters, no
dues, no newspapers, no spokesmen, no chapters, no
local officers, no state or national officials. Its
popularity came from its reputation, which was greatly
enhanced by its outlandish costumes and its wild and
threatening theatricality. As historian Elaine Frantz
Parsons discovered
[15]
:
"Lifting the Klan mask revealed a chaotic multitude of
antiblack vigilante groups, disgruntled poor white
farmers, wartime guerrilla bands, displaced Democratic
politicians, illegal whiskey distillers, coercive moral
reformers, bored young men, sadists, rapists, white
workmen fearful of black competition, employers trying
to enforce labor discipline, common thieves, neighbors
with decades-old grudges, and even a few freedmen and
white Republicans who allied with Democratic whites
or had criminal agendas of their own. Indeed, all they
had in common, besides being overwhelmingly white,
southern, and Democratic, was that they called
themselves, or were called, Klansmen."
As has been previously stated, Forrest's national
organization had little control over the local Klans,
which were highly autonomous. One Klan official
complained that his own "so-called 'Chief'-ship was
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purely nominal, I having not the least authority over the
reckless young country boys who were most active in
'night-riding,' whipping, etc., all of which was outside of
the intent and constitution of the Klan..." Forrest
ordered the Klan to disband in 1869, stating that it was
"being perverted from its original honorable and
patriotic purposes, becoming injurious instead of
subservient to the public peace."
[16]
Due to the national
organization's lack of control, this proclamation was
more a symptom of the Klan's decline than a cause of
it. Historian Stanley Horn writes that "generally
speaking, the Klan's end was more in the form of
spotty, slow, and gradual disintegration than a formal
and decisive disbandment."
[17]
A reporter in Georgia
wrote in January 1870 that "A true statement of the
case is not that the Ku Klux are an organized band of
licensed criminals, but that men who commit crimes
call themselves Ku Klux."
[18]
Gov. William Holden of North Carolina attempted to use
the state militia against the Klan, and was voted out of
office.
Although the Klan was being used more and more often
as a mask for nonpolitical crimes, state and local
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governments seldom acted against it. In lynching
cases, whites were almost never indicted by all-white
coroner's juries, and even when there was an
indictment, all-white trial juries were extremely unlikely
to vote for conviction. In many states, there were fears
that the use of black militiamen would ignite a race
war.
[19]
When Republican governor Holden of North
Carolina called out the militia against the Klan in 1870,
the result was a backlash that lost him the upcoming
election.
[20]
Meanwhile, many Democrats at the national level were
questioning whether the Klan even existed, or was a
creation of nervous Republican governors in the
South.
[21]
In January 1871, Pennsylvania Republican
senator John Scott convened a committee which took
testimony from 52 witnesses about Klan atrocities.
Many Southern states had already passed anti-Klan
legislation, and in February former Union general
Benjamin Franklin Butler of Massachusetts (who was
widely reviled by Southern whites) introduced federal
legislation modeled on it.
[22]
The tide was turned in favor
of the bill by the governor of South Carolina's appeal for
federal troops, and by reports of a riot and massacre in
a Meridian, Mississippi, courthouse, which a black state
representative escaped only by taking to the woods.
[23]
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Benjamin Franklin Butler wrote the 1871 Klan Act.
In 1871 President Ulysses S. Grant signed Butler's
legislation, the Ku Klux Klan Act, which was used along
with the 1870 Force Act to enforce the civil rights
provisions of the constitution. Under the Klan Act,
federal troops were used rather than state militias, and
Klansmen were prosecuted in federal court, where
juries were often predominantly black.
[24]
Hundreds of
Klan members were fined or imprisoned, and habeas
corpus was suspended in nine counties in South
Carolina. These efforts were so successful that the
Klan was destroyed in South Carolina
[25]
and decimated
throughout the rest of the country, where it had already
been in decline for several years. Prosecutions were led
by Attorney General Amos Tappan Ackerman. The
tapering off of the federal government's actions under
the Klan Act, ca. 187174, went along with the final
extinction of the Klan,
[26]
although in some areas similar
activities, including intimidation and murder of black
voters, continued under the auspices of local
organizations such the White League, Red Shirts, saber
clubs, and rifle clubs.
[27]
Even though the Klan no longer
existed, it had achieved many of its goals, such as
denying voting rights to Southern blacks.
In 1882, long after the end of the
first Klan, the Supreme Court ruled
in United States vs. Harris that the Klan Act was
partially unconstitutional, saying that Congress's power
under the fourteenth amendment did not extend to
private conspiracies.
[28]
However, the Force Act and the
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Klan Act have been invoked in later civil rights
conflicts, including the 1964 murders of Chaney,
Goodman, and Schwerner
[29]
; the 1965 murder of Viola
Liuzzo;
[30]
and Bray vs. Alexandria Women's Health
Clinic, 1991, which became an issue in the 2005 debate
on the confirmation of John G. Roberts, Jr.'s nomination
to the Supreme Court.
[31]
The second Klan
Creation
Movie poster for The Birth of a Nation.
The founding of the second Ku Klux Klan in 1915
demonstrated the newfound power of modern mass
media. The year saw three closely related events:
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The film The Birth of a Nation was released,
mythologizing and glorifying the first Klan.
Leo Frank, a Jewish man accused of the rape and
murder of a young white girl named Mary Phagan,
was lynched against a backdrop of media frenzy.
The second Ku Klux Klan was founded with a new
anti-immigrant and anti-Semitic agenda. The bulk
of the founders were from an organization calling
itself the Knights of Mary Phagan, and the new
organization emulated the fictionalized version of
the original Klan presented in The Birth of a Nation.
An illustration from The Clansman: "Take dat f'um yo
equal"
D. W. Griffith's The Birth of a Nation glorified the
original Klan, which was now a fading memory.
Griffith's film was based on the book and play The
Clansman and the book The Leopard's Spots, both by
Thomas Dixon who said his purpose was "to
revolutionize northern sentiment by a presentation of
history that would transform every man in my audience
into a good Democrat!" The film created a nationwide
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craze for the Klan. At a preview in Los Angeles, actors
dressed as Klansmen were hired to ride by as a
promotional stunt, and real-life members of the newly
reorganized Klan rode up and down the street at its
later official premiere in Atlanta. In some cases,
enthusiastic southern audiences fired their guns into
the screen.
[32]
The film's popularity and influence were
enhanced by a widely reported endorsement of its
factual accuracy by historian and U.S. President
Woodrow Wilson (see below, under Political Influence)
as a favor to an old friend. Much of the modern Klan's
iconography, including the standardized white costume
and the burning cross, are imitations of the film, whose
imagery was itself based on Dixon's romanticized
concept of old Scotland rather than on the
Reconstruction Klan.
A quote from Woodrow Wilson used in the film.
The Birth of a Nation includes extensive quotations
from Woodrow Wilson's History of the American
People,
[33]
e.g., "The white men were roused by a mere
instinct of self-preservation ... until at last there had
sprung into existence a great Ku Klux Klan, a veritable
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empire of the South, to protect the Southern country."
Wilson, on seeing the film in a special White House
screening on February 18, 1915, exclaimed, "It is like
writing history with lightning, and my only regret is that
it is all so terribly true."
[34]
Wilson's family had
sympathized with the Confederacy during the Civil War,
and cared for wounded Confederate soldiers at a
church. When he was a young man, his party had
vigorously opposed Reconstruction, and as president he
resegregated the federal government for the first time
since Reconstruction. Given the film's strong
Democratic partisan message and Wilson's documented
views on race and the Klan, it is not unreasonable to
interpret the statement as supporting the Klan, and the
word "regret" as referring to the film's depiction of
Radical Republican Reconstruction. Later
correspondence with the film's director, D.W. Griffith,
confirms Wilson's enthusiasm about the film. Wilson's
remarks were widely reported and immediately became
controversial. Wilson tried to remain aloof from the
controversy, but finally, on April 30, he issued a non-
denial denial.
[35]
His endorsement of the film greatly
enhanced its popularity and influence, and helped
Griffith to defend it against legal attack by the NAACP;
the film, in turn, was a major factor leading to the
creation of the second Klan in the same year.
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The lynching of Leo Frank.
In the same year, an important event in the
coalescence of the second Klan was the lynching of
Leo Frank, a Jewish factory manager. In
sensationalistic newspaper accounts, Frank was
accused of fantastic sexual crimes and of the murder of
a Mary Phagan, a girl employed at his factory. He was
convicted of murder after a questionable trial in Georgia
(the judge asked that Frank and his counsel not be
present when the verdict was announced due to the
violent mob of people surrounding the court house). His
appeals failed (Supreme Court Justice Oliver Wendell
Holmes dissented, condemning the intimidation of the
jury as failing to provide due process of law). The
governor then commuted his sentence to life
imprisonment, but a mob calling itself the Knights of
Mary Phagan kidnapped Frank from the prison farm and
lynched him. Ironically, much of the evidence in the
murder actually pointed to the factory's black janitor,
Jim Conley, who the prosecution claimed only helped
Frank to dispose of the body.
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The huge confederate memorial at Stone Mountain, site
of the founding of the second Klan. Work was begun in
1923 with funding mainly from the Klan, and was
completed in 1970.
For many southerners who believed Frank to be guilty,
there was a strong resonance between the Frank trial
and The Birth of a Nation, because they saw an analogy
between Mary Phagan and the film's character Flora, a
young virgin who throws herself off a cliff to avoid being
raped by the black character Gus, described as "a
renegade, a product of the vicious doctrines spread by
the carpetbaggers."
The Frank trial was used skillfully by Georgia politician
and publisher Thomas E. Watson, the editor for The
Jeffersonian magazine at the time and later a leader in
the reorganization of the Klan who was later elected to
the U.S. Senate. The new Klan was inaugurated in 1915
at a mountaintop meeting led by William J. Simmons
and attended by aging members of the original Klan,
along with members of the Knights of Mary Phagan.
Simmons found inspiration for this second Klan in the
original Klan's "Prescripts," written in 1867 by George
Gordon (a former Confederate brigadier general) in an
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attempt to give the original Klan a sense of national
organization.
[36]
The Prescript states as the Klan's
purposes:
[37]
First: To protect the weak, the innocent, and the
defenseless from the indignities, wrongs and
outrages of the lawless, the violent and the brutal;
to relieve the injured and oppressed; to succor the
suffering and unfortunate, and especially the
widows and orphans of the Confederate soldiers.
Second: To protect and defend the Constitution of
the United States ...
Third: To aid and assist in the execution of all
constitutional laws, and to protect the people from
unlawful seizure, and from trial except by their
peers in conformity with the laws of the land.
Membership
Historians in recent years have obtained membership
rosters of some local units and matched the names
against city directory and local records to create
statistical profiles of the membership. Big city
newspapers were unanimously hostile and often
ridiculed the Klansmen as ignorant farmers. Detailed
analysis from Indiana
[38]
shows the stereotype was
false:
Indiana's Klansmen represented a wide cross section of
society: they were not disproportionately urban or rural,
nor were they significantly more or less likely than
other members of society to be from the working class,
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middle class, or professional ranks. Klansmen were
Protestants, of course, but they cannot be described
exclusively or even predominately as fundamentalists.
In reality, their religious affiliations mirrored the whole
of white Protestant society, including those who did not
belong to any church.
The Klan was successful in recruiting throughout the
country and in Canada, but the membership turned over
rapidly, and since the Klan was a secret society, it is
difficult to determine accurate membership numbers.
This Klan was operated as a profit-making venture by
its leaders, and participated in the boom in fraternal
organizations at the time. Organizers signed up
hundreds of new members, who paid initiation fees and
bought KKK costumes. The organizer kept half the
money and sent the rest to state or national officials.
When the organizer was done with an area, he
organized a huge rally, often with burning crosses and
perhaps a ceremonial presentation of a Bible to a local
Protestant minister. He left town with all the money.
The local units operated like many fraternal
organizations, occasionally bringing in speakers. The
state and national officials had little or no control over
the locals and rarely or never attempted to forge them
into political activist groups.
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Activities
The burning cross is a symbol used by the Klan to
create terror. Cross burning is said to have been
introduced by William J. Simmons, the founder of the
second Klan in 1915.
In keeping with its origins in the Leo Frank lynching, the
reorganized Klan had a new anti-Jewish, anti-Catholic,
and anti-immigrant slant. This was consistent with the
new Klan's greater success at recruiting in the U.S.
Midwest than in the South. As in the Nazi party's
propaganda in Germany, recruiters made effective use
of the idea that prospective members' problems were
caused by Blacks or by Jewish bankers, or by other
such groups.
In the 1920s and 1930s a faction of the Klan called the
Black Legion was very active in the Midwestern U.S.
Rather than wearing white robes, the Legion wore black
uniforms reminiscent of pirates. The Black Legion was
the most violent and zealous faction of the Klan, and
were notable for targeting and assassinating
communists and socialists.
This Klan was operated as a profit-making venture by
its leaders, and participated in the boom in fraternal
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organizations at the time. It differed from the first Klan.
The first Klan was Democratic and Southern, but this
Klan, while it still boasted members from the
Democratic Party, was to a greater degree Republican
and was influential throughout the United States, with
major political influence on politicians in several states.
Sheet music to "We Are All Loyal Klansmen," 1923.
Political influence
The second Ku Klux Klan rose to great prominence and
spread from the South into the Midwest region and
Northern states and even into Canada. At its peak, Klan
membership exceeded 4 million and comprised 20% of
the adult white male population in many broad
geographic regions, as high as 40% in some areas. Most
of the membership resided in Midwestern states.
Through sympathetic elected officials, the KKK
controlled the governments of Tennessee, Indiana,
Oklahoma, and Oregon in addition to some of the
Southern legislatures. Klan influence was particularly
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strong in Indiana, where Republican Klansman Edward
Jackson was elected governor in 1924, and the entire
apparatus of state government was riddled with
Klansmen. In another well-known example from the
same year, the Klan decided to make Anaheim,
California, into a model Klan city; it secretly took over
the city council, but was voted out in a special recall
election.
Klansmen in Anaheim, California, 1924.
Klan delegates played a significant role at the
pathsetting 1924 Democratic National Convention in
New York City, often called the "Klanbake Convention"
as a result. The convention initially pitted Klan-backed
candidate William McAdoo against New York Governor
Al Smith, who drew the opposition of the group because
of his Catholic faith. After days of stalemates and
rioting, both candidates withdrew in favor of a
compromise. Klan delegates defeated a Democratic
Party platform plank that would have condemned their
organization. On July 4, 1924, thousands of Klansmen
converged on a nearby field in New Jersey where they
participated in cross burnings, burned effigies of Smith,
and celebrated their defeat of the platform plank.
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There is also evidence that in certain states, such as
Alabama, the KKK was not a mere hate group and
showed a genuine desire for political and social
reform.
[39]
Because of the elite conservative political
structure in Alabama, the state's Klansmen were among
the foremost advocates of better public schools,
effective prohibition enforcement, expanded road
construction, and other "progressive" political
measures. In many ways these progressive politics
goals, which benefited ordinary and lower class white
people in the state, were the result of the Klan offering
these same people their first chance to install their own
political champions into office.
[40]
By 1925 the Klan was a powerful political force in the
state, as powerful figures like J. Thomas Heflin, David
Bibb Graves, and Hugo Black manipulated the KKK
membership against the power of the "Big Mule"
industrialists and Black Belt planters who had long
dominated the state. Black was elected Senator in 1926
and became a leading supported of the New Deal.
Appointed to the Supreme Court in 1937, revelation that
he was a former Klansman shocked the country but he
stayed on the Court. In 1926 Bibb Graves, a former
chapter head, won the governor's office with KKK
members' support. He led one of the most progressive
administrations in the state's history, pushing for
increased education funding, better public health, new
highway construction, and pro-labor legislation.
Howerver, as a result of these political victories, KKK
vigilantes---thinking they enjoyed governmental
protection--launched a wave of physical terror across
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Alabama in 1927, targeting both blacks and whites. The
Klan not only targeted people for violating racial norms
but also for perceived moral lapses. In Birmingham, the
Klan raided local brothels and roadhouses. In Troy,
Alabama, the Klan reported to parents the names of
teenagers they caught making out in cars. One local
Klan group even "kidnapped a white divorcee and
stripped her to her waist, tied her to a tree, and
whipped her savagely."
[41]
The conservative elite
counterattacked. Grover C. Hall, Sr., editor of the
Montgomery Advertiser, began a series of editorials and
articles attacking the Klan for their "racial and religious
intolerance." Hall ended up winning a Pulitzer Prize for
his crusade.
[42]
Other newspapers also kept up a steady,
loud attack on the Klan as violent and un-American.
Sheriffs cracked down on Klan violence. The
counterattack worked; the state voted for Catholic Al
Smith for president in 1928, and the Klan's official
membership in Alabama plunged to under six thousand
by 1930.
At the peak of the Klan's political power, a number of
highly notable political figures in the U.S. and Canada
joined the Klan or flirted with membership. The list
includes two Supreme Court justices and, according to
evidence which is in some cases contested, possibly
two presidents.
Main article: Notable Ku Klux Klan members in
national politics
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D.C. Stephenson's prison mugshot, 1926
Decline
The second Klan collapsed partly as a result of the
backlash to their actions and partly as a result of a
scandal involving Republican David Stephenson, the
Grand Dragon of Indiana and fourteen other states, who
was convicted of the rape and murder of Madge
Oberholtzer in a sensational trial (she was bitten so
many times that one man who saw her described her
condition as having been "chewed by a cannibal").
According to historian Leonard Moore, at the heart of
the backlash to the Klan's actions and the resulting
scandals was a leadership failure which caused the
organization's collapse:
[43]
Stephenson and the other salesmen and office seekers
who maneuvered for control of Indiana's Invisible
Empire lacked both the ability and the desire to use the
political system to carry out the Klan's stated goals.
They were disinterested in, or perhaps even unaware of,
grass roots concerns within the movement. For them,
the Klan had been nothing more than a means for
gaining wealth and power. These marginal men had
risen to the top of the hooded order because, until it
became a political force, the Klan had never required
strong, dedicated leadership. More established and
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experienced politicians who endorsed the Klan --even
those who did not but felt pressure to pursue some of
the interests of their Klan constituents -- also
accomplished little. Factionalism created one barrier,
but many politicians had supported the Klan simply out
of expedience. When charges of crime and corruption
began to taint the movement, those concerned about
their political futures had even less reason to work on
the Klan's behalf.
As a result of these scandals, the Klan fell out of public
favor in the 1930s and withdrew from political activity.
Grand Wizard Hiram Evans sold the organization in 1939
to James Colescott, an Indiana veterinarian, and
Samuel Green, an Atlanta obstetrician, but they were
unable to staunch the exodus of members. The Klan's
image was further damaged by Colescott's association
with Nazi-sympathizer organizations, the Klan's
involvement with the 1943 Detroit Race Riot, and
efforts to disrupt the American war effort during World
War II. In 1944 the IRS filed a lien for $685,000 in back
taxes against the Klan, and Colescott was forced to
dissolve the organization in 1944.
The name Ku Klux Klan then began to be used by a
number of independent groups. The following table
shows the decline in the Klan's estimated membership
over time.
[44]
(The years given in the table represent
approximate time periods.)
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Ku Klux Klan members march down Pennsylvania
Avenue in Washington, D.C., in 1928.
year membership
1920 4,000,000
1930 30,000
1970 2,000
2000 3,000
Folklorist and author Stetson Kennedy infiltrated the
Klan after World War II and provided information on the
Klan to media and law enforecement agencies. He also
provided Klan information, including secret code words,
to the writers of the Superman radio program, resulting
in a series of four episodes in which Superman took on
the KKK. Kennedy intended to strip away the Klan's
mystique and the trivialization of the Klan's rituals and
code words likely did have a negative impact on Klan
recruiting and membership.
[45]
Kennedy eventually
wrote a book based on his experiences, which became
a bestseller during the 1950s and further damaged the
Klan.
[46]
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Anthony and Viola Liuzzo, 1949.
]
Later Ku Klux Klans
After World War II, the Klan's victims began to fight
back. In a 1958 North Carolina incident, the Klan burned
crosses at the homes of two Lumbee Native Americans
who had associated with white people, and then held a
nighttime rally nearby, only to find themselves
surrounded by hundreds of armed Lumbees. Gunfire was
exchanged, and the Klan was routed.
[47]
A new focus of the postwar Klan was to resist the civil
rights movement of the 1960s. In 1963, two Klan
members carried out the bombing of a church in
Alabama that had been used as a meeting place for civil
rights organizers. Four young girls were killed, and
outrage over the bombing helped to build momentum for
the passage of the Civil Rights Act of 1964. The Klan
used threats, intimidation, and murder to disrupt voter
registration drives in the South, and to prevent
registered black voters from voting. The Klan was
involved in the 1964 murders of civil rights workers
Chaney, Goodman, and Schwerner in Mississippi, and
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also murdered Viola Liuzzo, a Southern-raised white
mother of five who was visiting the South from her
home in Detroit to attend a civil rights march.
Violence at a Klan march in Mobile, Alabama, 1977.
In 1964, the FBI's COINTELPRO program began
attempts to infiltrate and disrupt the Klan. COINTELPRO
occupied a curiously ambiguous position in the civil
rights movement, since it used its tactics of infiltration,
disinformation, and violence against violent far-left and
far-right groups such as the Klan and the Weathermen,
but simultaneously against peaceful organizations such
as Martin Luther King, Jr.'s Southern Christian
Leadership Conference. This ambivalence was shown
dramatically in the case of the murder of Liuzzo, who
was shot on the road by four Klansmen in a car, of
whom one was an FBI informant. After she was
murdered, the FBI spread false rumors that she was a
communist, and that she had abandoned her children in
order to have sex with black civil rights workers.
Regardless of the FBI's ambivalence, Jerry Thompson, a
newspaper reporter who infiltrated the Klan in 1979,
reported that COINTELPRO's efforts had been highly
successful in disrupting the Klan; rival Klan factions
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both accused each other's leaders of being FBI
informants, and one leader, Bill Wilkinson of the
Invisible Empire, Knights of the Ku Klux Klan, was in
fact later revealed to have been working for the FBI.
[48]
Once the century-long struggle over black voting rights
in the South had ended, the Klans shifted their focus to
other issues, including affirmative action, immigration,
and especially busing ordered by the courts in order to
desegregate schools. In 1971, Klansmen used bombs to
destroy ten school buses in Pontiac, Michigan, and
charismatic Klansman David Duke was active in South
Boston during the school busing crisis of 1974. Duke
also made efforts to update its image, urging Klansmen
to "get out of the cow pasture and into hotel meeting
rooms." Duke was leader of the Knights of the Ku Klux
Klan from 1974 until he resigned from the Klan in 1978.
In 1980, he formed the National Association for the
Advancement of White People, a far-right white
nationalist political organization. He was elected to the
Louisiana State House of Representatives in 1989 as a
Republican, even though the party threw its support to
a different Republican candidate.
An inflammatory cartoon that was used as evidence in
the civil trial resulting from Michael Donald's murder.
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In this period, resistance to the Klan became more
common. Thompson reported that in his brief
membership in the Klan, his truck was shot at, he was
yelled at by black children, and a Klan rally that he
attended turned into a riot when black soldiers on an
adjacent military base taunted the Klansmen. Attempts
by the Klan to march were often met with
counterprotests, and violence sometimes ensued.
The lynching of Michael Donald, 1981.
Vulnerability to lawsuits has encouraged the trend
away from central organization, as when, for example,
the lynching of Michael Donald in 1981 led to a civil suit
that bankrupted one Klan group, the United Klans of
America
[49]
. Thompson related how many Klan leaders
who appeared indifferent to the threat of arrest showed
great concern about a series of multimillion-dollar
lawsuits brought against them as individuals by the
Southern Poverty Law Center as a result of a shootout
between Klansmen and a group of African Americans,
and curtailed their activities in order to conserve money
for defense against the suits. Lawsuits were also used
as tools by the Klan, however, and the paperback
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publication of Thompson's book was canceled because
of a libel suit brought by the Klan.
Klan activity has also been diverted into other racist
groups and movements, such as Christian Identity, neo-
Nazi groups, and racist subgroups of the skinheads.
Knights of the Ku Klux Klan
"Knights of the Ku Klux Klan" has been part of the title
of at least ten organizations patterned on the original
KKK. The most prominent of these was the Knights of
the Ku Klux Klan, Inc., which was founded in November
1915 by William J. Simmons and disbanded in 1944 by
James Colescott. At its peak this fraternal organisation
had around three to five million members.
In 2005 the Knights of the Ku Klux Klan (Knights Party)
is headed by National Director Pastor Thom Robb, and
based in Harrison, Arkansas. It is the biggest Klan
organization in America today. The sixth era Klan
continues to be a racist group.
Robb's group in the past produced such Klan stars as
David Duke, but it is now continuing a long, slow
decline. In 1991 Thom Robb said that he foresaw
imminent respectability for the Klan: "You take Exxon.
They had an identity thing to overcome after that oil
spill. Well, the Klan has an image problem to overcome,
also."
The Ku Klux Klan today
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Although often still discussed in contemporary
American politics as representing the quintessential
"fringe" end of the far-right spectrum, today the group
only exists in the form of a number of very isolated,
scattered "supporters" that probably do not number
more than a few thousand. In a 2002 report on
"Extremism in America", the Jewish Anti-Defamation
League wrote "Today, there is no such thing as the Ku
Klux Klan. Fragmentation, decentralization and decline
have continued unabated." However, they also noted
that the "need for justification runs deep in the
disaffected and is unlikely to disappear, regardless of
how low the Klan's fortunes eventually sink."
Today the only known former member of the Klan to
hold a Federal office in the United States is Senator
Robert Byrd, who says he "deeply regrets" joining the
Klan over half a century ago, when he was about 24
years old. There are currently no known members of the
Klan who also hold a Federal office.
Some of the larger KKK organizations currently in
operation include:
Church of the American Knights of the Ku Klux
Klan
[50]
Imperial Klans of America
Knights of the White Kamelia
There is a vast number of smaller organizations.
[51]
As of 2005, there were an estimated 3,000 Klan
members, divided among 158 chapters of a variety of
splinter organizations, about two-thirds of which were
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in former Confederate states. The other third are
primarily in the Midwest region.
[52][53][54]
The ACLU has provided legal support to various factions
of the KKK in defense of their First Amendment rights
to hold public rallies, parades, and marches, and their
right to field political candidates.
In a July 2005 incident, a Hispanic man's house was
burned down in Hamilton, Ohio, after accusations that
he sexually assaulted a nine-year-old white girl. Klan
members in Klan robes showed up afterward to
distribute pamphlets.
Ku Klux Klan vocabulary
Membership in the Klan is secret, and the Klan, like
many fraternal organizations, has signs members can
use to recognize one another. A member may use the
acronym AYAK (Are you a Klansman?) in conversation
to surreptitiously identify himself to another potential
member. The response AKIA (A Klansman I am)
completes the greeting.
Throughout its varied history, the Klan has coined many
words
[55]
beginning with "KL" including:
Klabee: treasurers
Kleagle: recruiter
Klecktoken: initiation fee
Kligrapp: secretary
Klonvocation: gathering
Kloran: ritual book
Kloreroe: delegate
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Kludd: chaplain
See also
Jim Crow laws
Silent Brotherhood
Neo-Nazism
History of the United States (1865-1918)
Wide Awakes
Knights of the Golden Circle
American Protective Association
Ku Klux Klan regalia and insignia
Notes
1. According to the 1920 census, the population of
white males 18 years and older was about 31
million, but many of these men would have been
ineligible for membership because they were
immigrants, Jews, or Roman Catholics. Klan
membership peaked at about 4-5 million:
http://www.aaregistry.com/african_american_histor
y/2207/The_Ku_Klux_Klan_a_brief__biography,
retrieved August 26, 2005.
2. Horn, 1939, p. 9. The founders were John C.
Lester, John B. Kennedy, James R. Crowe, Frank O.
McCord, Richard R. Reed, and J. Calvin Jones.
3. Horn, 1939, p. 11, states that Reed proposed
"kkAo" ("kyklos") and Kennedy added "clan."
Wade, 1987, p. 33 says Kennedy came up with both
words, but Crowe suggested transforming "kkAo"
into "kuklux."
4. Wade, 1987.
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209
5. Horn, 1939. Horn casts doubt on some other
aspects of the story.
6. data compiled from
http://users.bestweb.net/~rg/lynching_century.htm,
retrieved June 26, 2005
7.
http://www.georgiaencyclopedia.org/nge/Article.jsp
?id=h-694, retrieved August 26, 2005.
8. History of the United States from the Compromise
of 1850 to the McKinley-Bryan Campaign of 1896.
Volume: 7. by James Ford Rhodes, 1920, pages
157-8
9. Horn, 1939.
10. Horn, 1939, p. 375.
11. Wade, 1987, p. 102.
12. Horn, 1939, p. 375.
13. Cincinnati 'Commercial', August 28, 1868,
quoted in Wade, 1987. Full text of the interview on
wikisource.
14. Horn, 1939, p. 27.
15. Parsons, Elaine Frantz, "Midnight Rangers:
Costume and Performance in the Reconstruction-
Era Ku Klux Klan." The Journal of American History
92.3, 2005, page 816
16. quotes from Wade, 1987.
17. Horn, 1939, p. 360.
18. Horn, 1939, p. 362.
19.
http://www.pbs.org/wnet/jimcrow/stories_events_en
force.html, retrieved August 11, 2005.
20. Wade, 1987, p. 85.
21. Wade, 1987.
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22. Horn, 1939, p. 373.
23. Wade, 1987, p. 88.
24.
http://www.pbs.org/wnet/jimcrow/stories_events_en
force.html, retrieved August 11, 2005.
25. Wade, 1987, p. 102.
26. Wade, 1987, p. 109, writes that by ca. 1871-
4, "For many, the lapse of the enforcement acts
was justified since their reason for being --- the Ku-
Klux Klan --- had been effectively smashed as a
result of the dramatic showdown in South
Carolina." Klan "costumes or regalia" had
disappeared by the early 1870's (Wade, p. 109).
That the Klan was entirely nonexistent for a period
of decades is shown by the fact that in 1915,
Simmons's refounding of the Klan was attended by
only two aging "former Reconstruction Klansmen"
(Wade, p. 144). Horn, a very sympathetic Southern
historian of the first Klan, was careful in an oral
interview to distinguish it from the later "spurious
Ku Klux organization which was in ill-reputeand,
of course, had no connection whatsoever with the
Klan of Reconstruction days."
http://www.lib.duke.edu/forest/Research/ohisrch.ht
ml, retrieved August 11, 2005. A PBS web page
(retrieved August 12, 2005) states that "By 1872,
the Klan as an organization was broken."
27. Wade, 1987, pp. 109-110.
28.
http://www.yale.edu/lawweb/jbalkin/opeds/historyle
sson1.pdf (PDF), retrieved August 12, 2005.
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211
29. http://faculty.smu.edu/dsimon/Change-
CivRts2.html, retrieved August 15, 2005.
30.
http://www.spartacus.schoolnet.co.uk/USAliuzzo.ht
m, retrieved August 15, 2005.
31. New York Times, August 12, 2005, p. A14.
32. Dray, 2002.
33.
http://www.geocities.com/emruf5/birthofanation.ht
ml, retrieved July 7, 2005.
34. Dray, 2002, p. 198. The comment was
relayed to the press by Griffith and widely reported,
and in subsequent correspondence, Wilson
discussed Griffith's filmmaking in a highly positive
tone, without challenging the veracity of the
statement.
35. Wade, 1987, p. 137.
36. The Ku Klux Klan and Related American
Racialist and Antisemitic Organizations: A History
and Analysis by Chester L Quarles, Page 219. The
second Klan's constitution and preamble, reprinted
in Quarles book, states that the second Klan was
indebted to the original Klan's Prescripts.
37. The quote is from the 1868 Revised Precept,
from Horn, 1939.
38. Moore, Leonard J. Citizen Klansmen: The Ku
Klux Klan in Indiana, 1921-1928 (Chapel Hill: U of
North Carolina Press, 1991)
39. Feldman ,Glenn. Politics, Society, and the
Klan in Alabama, 1915-1949. University of Alabama
Press, Tuscaloosa, AL, 1999.
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212
40. Rogers, William; Ward, Robert; Atkins, Leah;
and Flynt, Wayne. Alabama: The History of a Deep
South State. University of Alabama Press,
Tuscaloosa, AL, 1994. Pages 437 and 442.
41. Rogers et al. Pages 432-433.
42. Rogers et al. Page 433.
43. * Moore, Leonard J. Citizen Klansmen: The
Ku Klux Klan in Indiana, 1921-1928 Chapel Hill: U
of North Carolina Press, 1991, page 186.
44.
http://www.aaregistry.com/african_american_histor
y/2207/The_Ku_Klux_Klan_a_brief__biography,
http://www.africanamericans.com/KuKluxKlan.htm,
http://www.adl.org/hate-patrol/kkk.asp,
http://www.georgiaencyclopedia.org/nge/Article.jsp
?id=h-2730, all retrieved August 26, 2005.
45. Richard von Busack, Superman Versus the
KKK on the MetroActive site, accessed April 11,
2006
46. The Klan Unmasked by Stetson Kennedy,
University Press of Florida, 1990.
47. Ingalls, 1979;
http://www.lib.unc.edu/ncc/ref/nchistory/jan2005/jan
05.html, retrieved June 26, 2005.
48. Thompson, 1982.
49.
http://www.spartacus.schoolnet.co.uk/USAkkk.htm,
retrieved June 26, 2005.
50.
http://www.adl.org/backgrounders/american_knight
s_kkk.asp, retrieved June 26, 2005.
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213
51. http://stop-the-hate.org/klanbody.html,
retrieved June 26, 2005.
52. Southern Poverty Law Center. Active U.S.
Hate Groups in 2004. Intelligence Report. Retrieved
April 5, 2005 from
http://www.splcenter.org/intel/map/hate.jsp.
53.
http://www.adl.org/backgrounders/american_knight
s_kkk.asp, retrieved June 26, 2005.
54. http://www.adl.org/hate-patrol/kkk.asp,
retrieved August 26, 2005.
55. Axelrod, 1997, p. 160
References
Axelrod, Alan. The International Encyclopedia of
Secret Societies & Fraternal Orders, New York:
Facts on FIle, 1997.
Dray, Philip. At the Hands of Persons Unknown: The
Lynching of Black America, New York: Random
House, 2002.
Feldman ,Glenn. Politics, Society, and the Klan in
Alabama, 1915-1949. University of Alabama Press,
Tuscaloosa, AL, 1999.
Hamby, Alonzo L. Man of the People: A Life of Harry
S. Truman, New York: Oxford University Press,
1995.
Horn, Stanley F. Invisible Empire: The Story of the
Ku Klux Klan, 1866-1871, Patterson Smith
Publishing Corporation: Montclair, NJ, 1939.
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214
Horn, born in 1889, was a Southern historian who
was sympathetic to the first Klan, which, in a 1976
oral interview [1], he was careful to distinguish
from the later "spurious Ku Klux organization
which was in ill-reputeand, of course, had no
connection whatsoever with the Klan of
Reconstruction days."
Ingalls, Robert P. Hoods: The Story of the Ku Klux
Klan, New York: G.P. Putnam's Sons, 1979.
Levitt, Stephen D. and Stephen J. Dubner.
Freakonomics: A Rogue Economist Explores the
Hidden Side of Everything. New York: William
Morrow (2005).
McCullough, David. Truman. New York: Simon &
Schuster, 1992.
Moore, Leonard J. Citizen Klansmen: The Ku Klux
Klan in Indiana, 1921-1928 Chapel Hill: U of North
Carolina Press, 1991.
Newton, Michael, and Judy Ann Newton. The Ku
Klux Klan: An Encyclopedia. New York & London:
Garland Publishing, 1991.
Parsons, Elaine Frantz, "Midnight Rangers:
Costume and Performance in the Reconstruction-
Era Ku Klux Klan." The Journal of American History
92.3 (2005): 811-36.
Rhodes, James Ford. History of the United States
from the Compromise of 1850 to the McKinley-
Bryan Campaign of 1896. Volume: 7. (1920) Winner
of the Putitzer Prize.
Rogers, William; Ward, Robert; Atkins, Leah; and
Flynt, Wayne. Alabama: The History of a Deep
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215
South State. University of Alabama Press,
Tuscaloosa, AL, 1994.
Steinberg. Man From Missouri. New York: Van Rees
Press, 1962.
Thompson, Jerry. My Life in the Klan, Rutledge Hill
Press, Inc., 513 Third Avenue South, Nashville,
Tennessee 37210. Originally published in 1982 by
G.P. Putnam's Sons, ISBN 0399126953.
Truman, Margaret. Harry S. Truman. New York:
William Morrow and Co. (1973).
Wade, Wyn Craig. The Fiery Cross: The Ku Klux
Klan in America. New York: Simon and Schuster
(1987).
An unsympathetic account of both Klans, with a
dedication to "my Kentucky grandmother ... a
fierce and steadfast Radical Republican from the
wane of Reconstruction until her death nearly a
century later."
Further reading
Kathleen M. Blee, Women of the Klan, University of
California Press, 1992, ISBN 0520078764
External links
The History of the Original Ku Klux Klan - by an
anonymous author sympathetic to the original Klan
The Southern Poverty Law Center Report
The ADL on the KKK
Spartacus Education about the KKK
MIPT Terrorist Knowledge Base for the KKK
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In 1999, South Carolina town defines the KKK as
terrorist
A long interview with Stanley F. Horn, author of
Invisible Empire: The Story of the Ku Klux Klan,
1866-1871.
Full text of the Klan Act of 1871 (simplified version)
Ku Klux Klan in the Reconstruction Era (New
Georgia Encyclopedia)
Ku Klux Klan in the Twentieth Century (New
Georgia Encyclopedia)
Skinhead
Skinheads, named after their shaven heads, are
members of a subculture that originated in Britain in the
1960s, where they were closely tied to the Rude Boys of
the West Indies and the Mods of the UK.
Skinhead with scooter
Categories
There are several different types of skinheads, and
three main political categories:
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Traditional skinheads (Trads, Trojan Skinheads) -
They identify with the original skinhead movement
(The Spirit of 69) in terms of music, style, culture
and working class pride. Unlike the other
categories, traditionalist skinheads do not regard
attitudes toward racism as central to the
subculture.
SHARP (Skinheads Against Racial Prejudice) -
Aggressively anti-racist and usually political, often
left wing. The moniker "SHARP skinheads" is
commonly used for all outspoken anti-racist
skinheads, even if they aren't members of a SHARP
organization. Anti-racist skins also include RASH
(Red and Anarchist Skinheads), Redskins, and
Anarcho-Skinheads.
White Power skins and Nazi-Skinheads - Racialist
and highly political, generally extreme right wing.
Despite the common moniker, many Nazi skins
have no connection to the original skinhead culture
in terms of style or interests. SHARPs and
traditional skinheads sometimes refer to them as
Boneheads.
These categories are descriptive, not definitive. There
are many skinheads who don't fit in any of these
categories. The usefulness of these terms is to explain
the dominant forces of skinhead social structure.
History
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English Skinheads in late 1960s
In the early 1960s, Britain saw a continuation of the
entrenched class system, which offered most working
class people substandard educational, housing and
economic opportunities. However, Britain was also
experiencing a post-war economic boom, which led to
an increase in disposable income among many young
people. Some of those youths invested in new fashions
popularized by American soul groups, British RnB
bands, certain movie actors, and Carnaby Street
clothing merchants. These were the Mods, a youth
subculture noted for its consumerism and devotion to
style, music and scooters. Mods of lesser means made
do with practical styles that suited their lifestyle and/or
employment circumstances - steel-toe boots, straight-
legged denim jeans, button-down shirts and braces
(suspenders in the USA). When possible, their limited
funds were spent on smart outfits worn in the evenings
to dancehalls, where they enjoyed ska, reggae, and
rocksteady beats.
Around 1965, a schism developed between the
"peacock" mods, who always wore the latest expensive
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clothes, and the "hard" mods (also known as "gang"
mods), who were identified by their shorter hair and
working-class image. Also known as "lemonheads" and
"peanuts", these hard mods were commonly known as
skinheads by about 1968. The shorter hair may have
come about for practical reasons, since long hair can
be a liability in industrial jobs and a disadvantage in
streetfights. An alternate explanation is that skinheads
cut their hair short in defiance of the more bourgeois
hippie culture popular at the time. In addition to
retaining many mod influences, early skinheads were
greatly interested in Jamaican Rude Boy style and
culture, especially Reggae and Ska music.
Skinhead culture exploded in 1969 to the extent that
even the rock band Slade temporarily adopted the look.
By the 1970s, the skinhead subculture started to fade,
and some of the original skins dropped into new
categories, such as the "Suede-heads" (defined by the
ability to manipulate one's hair with a comb),
"Smoothies" (often with hairstyles down to shoulder
length), and "Bootboys" (associated with gangs and
hooliganism). Some fashions returned to the mod roots,
reintroducing the wearing of brogues or loafers, suits,
and the slacks-and-sweater look.
In the mid-1970s, the skinhead movement was reborn
after the introduction of Punk Rock. Skinheads with
even shorter hair and less emphasis on style grew in
numbers and grabbed the attention of the media, as a
result of hooliganism during football matches,
sometimes to the point of rioting. These Skinheads
wore bigger boots(14-20 eyelet), tighter pants, and
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220
bleachers. Later on though, the style was mainly
reverted back to the original mod inspired dress rather
than the punk style.
Skinheads also gained a great deal of media attention
after some of them were recruited by far right political
parties like the National Front. The party's position
against blacks and Asians appealed to some working
class skinheads who blamed immigrants for economic
and social problems. Racist violence in England dates
back a couple of hundred years, and certainly was not
introduced by the skinhead subculture. In the late
1960s and 1970s, much racist violence was directed
towards Pakistani immigrants, derisively called "Pakis".
In the 1970s however, racist violence was more
identified with organized racist groups such as the
National Front, and some racist hooligans adopted the
skinhead image. This led to the public's common
misconception that all skinheads are neo-Nazis. In the
meantime, the skinhead subculture had spread beyond
The UK and Europe.
In an attempt to counter this negative stereotype, some
anti-racist skinhead organizations were formed. In the
USA, Skinheads Against Racial Prejudice (SHARP)
started in 1987, and Anti-Racist Action (ARA) began in
1988. SHARP then spread to the UK and beyond, and
other less political skinheads also spoke out against
neo-Nazis and in support of traditional skinhead culture.
Two examples are the Glasgow Spy Kids in Scotland,
and the publishers of the Hard As Nails zine in England.
The Skinhead sub culture has since spread around the
world, and there are many different kinds of skinheads.
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Style
Tops:
Men: fitted Ben Sherman, Fred Perry, Brutus,
Jaytex, Arnold Palmer or other brands of button-up
or polo shirts; Lonsdale shirts or sweatshirts; V-
neck sweaters; cardigan sweaters; sweater vests;
T-shirts; fitted blazers.
Women: Same as men, with addition of dress suits,
comprised of a length jacket and matching short
skirt.
Suits:
Traditional skinheads are known to wear tailored
suits to events such as soul dances or ska
concerts. Skinheads are particularly known to
favour tonic suits (also known as shark-skin suits),
so named for the shiny material.
Coats:
MA-1 type Flight Jackets (popular brands include
Warrior and Alpha) in black or sage green; blue
denim jackets (Levi or Wrangler); Harrington
jackets; Monkey jackets; Crombie-style overcoats;
sheepskin 3/4 length coats; Donkey jackets.
Bottoms:
Men: Blue Levi's or Wrangler jeans, straight leg
with rolled cuffs (turn-ups) to show off the boots,
often with the seam cut off and sewn to give a
neater, flatter turn-up, and "properly" fitted; Sta-
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Prest flat-fronted slacks and other trousers;
bleachers (jeans splattered with household bleach
to resemble camouflage trousers) popular among
punk-influenced Oi! skins; combat trousers, popular
among Oi! skins and scooter boys.
Women: Same jeans and trousers as men, but also
skirts and stockings. Some skingirls wear fishnet
stockings and mini-skirts, but that was introduced
with the skinhead revival, not in the 1960s.
Footwear:
Men: Boots, originally regular army or workboots,
then Dr. Martens (Docs or DMs) and later brogues
and loafers. Grinders and other brand boots have
now become popular, partly because Dr. Martens
boots are no longer made in England. During the
'60s, steel-toe boots were often referred to as
"bovver boots" - thought to derive from the
Cockney pronunciation of "bother".
Women: Docs, Monkey boots or loafers.
Hats: Trilby hats; pork pie hats; scally caps (Benny in
the UK); "flat caps" (driver's caps).
Braces: No more than inch in width (In some areas,
wider braces are considered to identify one as either
white power or a wanna-be.
Hair:
Men: Originally, between a 2 and 4 grade clipguard
(short, but not bald); beginning in the late '70s,
typically shaved close with no greater than a
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number 2 guard. Now some skinheads clip their
hair with no guard, and some even shave it with a
razor. This started with the introduction of the Oi!
scene. Many skinheads sport sideburns of various
styles, usually neatly trimmed.
Women: Skinhead girls commonly wear a "Chelsea"
shaved on top with fringes grown out in the back,
sides and front; also known as a feathercut. Some
females in the skinhead subculture just have
normal hairstyles, and others have chosen to shave
their hair just like male skinheads.
Laces and braces
Some skinheads, particularly highly political ones,
attach significance to the color of their laces, braces,
and (less commonly) flight jackets, using them to
advertise their beliefs and affiliations. The particular
colors used vary regionally and locally, however, so
only skinheads in the same area are likely to interpret
them accurately.
The "braces and laces game" has largely fallen into
disuse, particularly among Traditionalist skinheads,
who are more likely to choose their colors for fashion
purposes. Additionally, in many areas laces must be
'laddered'arranged with the outside laces horizontal
and parallel, resembling a ladderto be considered of
any significance.
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Music
Oi! Oi! Music
Originally, the subculture was associated with the ska
and reggae music of musicians like Desmond Dekker,
Laurel Aitken, Symarip and Joe the Boss. The link
between skinheads and reggae led to the sub-genre
known as skinhead reggae.
Other types of music popular amongst early skinheads
were Motown, Northern Soul, Rocksteady,and mod RnB.
Suedeheads of the '70s were also known to listen to
British glam rock bands like The Sweet and Mott the
Hoople.
The most popular music for the late '70s Skinhead was
Two-Tone, named after a Coventry-based record label
that featured such bands as The Specials, Madness,
and The Selecter. Two-Tone was the musical
integration of Ska, Rocksteady and punk rock. The label
scored many top 20 hits, and eventually a number one.
During this time (1979 - 1981), skinheads were a
common sight on the UK highstreets.
In the '70s and early '80's Oi! became accepted by
skinheads and punks. Oi! continues to be one of the
most popular genres among skinheads. Musically, Oi!
combines elements of punk rock, football chants, pub
rock and '70s British glam rock. Some forefathers of Oi!
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were Sham 69, Cock Sparrer and Menace. The term Oi!
as a musical term is said to come from the band
Cockney Rejects and journalist Garry Bushell, who
championed the genre in Sounds magazine. Well-known
Oi! bands of the late '70s and early '80s include Angelic
Upstarts , Blitz, Last Resort, Combat 84 and 4-Skins.
Not exclusively a skinhead genre, many Oi! bands
included both skins, punks and people who fit in neither
category, who were sometimes called herberts.
U.S. Oi! began in the '80s with bands such as the
Bruisers (the singer is now in Dropkick Murphys), Anti-
Heros (who sued the makers of American History X for
wrongful use of their logo), and Iron Cross (whose
singer Sab Grey is said to be of Jewish descent).
American skinheads have also accepted hardcore punk,
with bands such as Warzone, Agnostic Front, and Cro-
mags. Current American Oi! bands are generally closer
musically to hardcore than to early British street-punk.
White power skins have a separate musical culture
known as Rock Against Communism, which features
bands such as Skrewdriver, Brutal Attack and Bound for
Glory.
]
Glossary of terms
3i's or 3-eyes, 8i's (8-eyes) etc.
Leather shoes or boots, having the given number of
eyelets for laces on either side. Other common
numbers are 10, 12, 14, 18, and 20.
Bleachers
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Blue jeans treated with household bleach to create
a camouflage-like pattern. They were popular
among punk rock-influenced Oi! skins in the '70s
and '80s.
Bonehead
A derisive term used by Traditional and anti-racist
skinheads for a neo-Nazi skinhead. Also used in the
UK as a derogatory term for scruffy punk-
influenced skinheads.
Boot party
[US] Euphemism for a skinhead-style fight
(involving kicking), especially where one side
outnumbers the other.
Bovver boy
[Europe] A skinhead who regularly or frequently
seeks out enemies to beat down. The enemies are
generally members of rival football (soccer) team
supporters or members of other youth subcultures.
Bovver is a Cockney slang word literally meaning
"bother".
Braces
A fashion accessory for holding up one's trousers,
consisting of a pair of elasticized bands which go
over the shoulders and fasten to the trousers
(usually in the form of a clip in the case of jeans) in
the front and back. Although in the US these are
commonly called suspenders, skinheads usually
use the British term.
Chelsea
1. Traditionally, a female skinhead. Also called a
"skinhead girl" or "skingirl".
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2. The traditional haircut of a female skinhead,
consisting of short hair on the crown, sides
and back with a longer fringe in the front and
on the neck. Also known as a feathercut.
Crucified Skinhead
An icon depicting a skinhead suspended from a
cross and often seen on a T-shirt or patch, or as a
tattoo. It symbolizes the hardships of the skinhead
lifestyle (such as being vilified as a racist whether
one is or is not) and makes a statement about
one's commitment to the lifestyle.
Fence-walker
A derisive term used by political skinheads for
those who refuse to take sides, or who will
associate with opposing groups.
Skank
A dance style associated with ska music.
A Short History of the Lives of
The Twelve Imams
The Messenger of Allah said:"There will be Twelve Imams
of the Muslims."
[Bukhari v.9 #329]
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Ali ibn Abu Talib al-Murtadha
The First Imam & Father of Imams
Amir al-mu'minln Ali (upon whom be peace) was the son of
Abu Talib, the Shaykh of the Banu Hashim. Abu Talib was
the uncle and guardian of the Holy Prophet (sawas) and
the person who had brought the Prophet (sawas) to his
house and raised him like his own son. After the Prophet
(sawas) was chosen for his prophetic mission, Abu Talib
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continued to support him and repelled from him the evil
that came from the infidels among the Arabs and
especially the Quraysh.
According to well-known traditional accounts Ali was born
ten years before the commencement of the prophetic
mission of the Prophet (sawas). When six years old, as a
result of famine in and around Mecca, he was requested
by the Prophet (sawas) to leave his father's house and
come to the house of his cousin, the Prophet (sawas).
There he was placed directly under the guardianship and
custody of the Holy Prophet (sawas).
A few years later, when the Prophet (sawas) was endowed
with the Divine gift of prophecy and for the first time
received the Divine revelation in the cave of Hira', as he
left the cave to return to town and his own house he met
Ali on the way. He told him what had happened and Ali
accepted the new faith. Again in a gathering when the
Holy Prophet (sawas) had brought his relatives together
and invited them to accept his religion, he said the first
person to accept his call would be his vicegerent and
inheritor and deputy. The only person to rise from his
place and accept the faith was Ali and the Prophet
(sawas) accepted his declaration of faith. Therefore Ali
was the first man in Islam to accept the faith and is the
first among the followers of the Prophet (sawas) to have
never worshipped other than the One God.
Ali was always in the company of the Prophet (sawas)
until the Prophet (sawas) migrated from Mecca to Medina.
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On the night of the migration to Medina (hijrah) when the
infidels had surrounded the house of the Prophet (sawas)
and were determined to invade the house at the end of the
night and cut him to pieces while he was in bed, Ali slept
in place of the Prophet (sawas) while the Prophet (sawas)
left the house and set out for Medina. After the departure
of the Prophet (sawas), according to his wish Ali gave
back to the people the trusts and charges that they had
left with the Prophet (sawas). Then he went to Medina
with his mother, the daughter of the Prophet (sawas), and
two other women.
In Medina also Ali was constantly in the company of the
Prophet (sawas) in private and in public. The Prophet
(sawas) gave Fatimah, his beloved daughter from
Khadijah, to Ali as his wife and when the Prophet (sawas)
was creating bonds of brotherhood among his companions
he selected Ali as his brother.
Ali was present in all the wars in which the Prophet
(sawas) participated, except the battle of Tabuk when he
was ordered to stay in Medina in place of the Prophet
(sawas). He did not retreat in any battle nor did he turn his
face away from any enemy. He never disobeyed the
Prophet (sawas), so that the Prophet (sawas) said, "Ali is
never separated from the Truth nor the Truth from Ali."
On the day of the death of the Prophet (sawas), Ali was
thirty-three years old. Although he was foremost in
religious virtues and the most outstanding among the
companions of the Prophet (sawas), he was pushed aside
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from the caliphate on the claim that he was too young and
that he had many enemies among the people because of
the blood of the polytheists he had spilled in the wars
fought alongside the Prophet (sawas). Therefore Ali was
almost completely cut off from public affairs. He retreated
to his house where he began to train competent
individuals in the Divine sciences and in this way he
passed the twenty-five years of the caliphate of the first
three caliphs who succeeded the Prophet (sawas). When
the third caliph was killed, people gave their allegiance to
him and he was chosen as caliph.
During his caliphate of nearly four years and nine months,
Ali followed the way of the Prophet (sawas) and gave his
caliphate the form of a spiritual movement and renewal
and began many different types of reforms. Naturally,
these reforms were against the interests of certain
parties that sought their own benefit. As a result, a group
of the companions (foremost among whom were Talhah
and Zubayr, who also gained the support of A'ishah, and
especially Mu'awiyah) made a pretext of the death of the
third caliph to raise their heads in opposition and began to
revolt and rebel against Ali.
In order to quell the civil strife and sedition, Ali fought a
war near Basra, known as the "Battle of the Camel,"
against Talhah and Zubayr in which Ummul Mu'mineen
A'ishah, was also involved. He fought another war against
Mu'awiyah on the border of Iraq and Syria which lasted for
a year and a half and is famous as the "Battle of Siffin."
He also fought against the Khawarij at Nahrawan, in a
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battle known as the "Battle of Nahrawan." Therefore,
most of the days of Ali's caliphate were spent in
overcoming internal opposition. Finally, in the morning of
the 19th of Ramadan in the year 40 A.H., while praying in
the mosque of Kufa, he was wounded by one of the
Khawarij and died as a martyr during the night of the 21st
of Ramadan.
According to the testimony of friend and foe alike, Ali had
no shortcomings from the point of view of human
perfection. And in the Islamic virtues he was a perfect
example of the upbringing and training given by the
Prophet (sawas). The discussions that have taken place
concerning his personality and the books written on this
subject by Shi'ites, Sunnis and members of other religions,
as well as the simply curious outside any distinct religious
bodies, are hardly equalled in the case of any other
personality in history.
In science and knowledge Ali was the most learned of the
companions of the Prophet (sawas), and of Muslims in
general. In his learned discourses he was the first in Islam
to open the door for logical demonstration and proof and
to discuss the "divine sciences" or metaphysics (ma'arif-i
ilahlyah). He spoke concerning the esoteric aspect of the
Quran and devised Arabic grammar in order to preserve
the Quran's form of expression. He was the most eloquent
Arab in speech (as has been mentioned in the first part of
this book).
The courage of Ali was proverbial. In all the wars in which
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he participated during the lifetime of the Prophet (sawas),
and also afterward, he never displayed fear or anxiety.
Although in many battles such as those of Uhud, Hunayn,
Khaybar and Khandaq the aides to the Prophet (sawas)
and the Muslim army trembled in fear or dispersed and
fled, he never turned his back to the enemy. Never did a
warrior or soldier engage Ali in battle and come out of it
alive. Yet, with full chivalry he would never slay a weak
enemy nor pursue those who fled. He would not engage in
surprise attacks or in turning streams of water upon the
enemy. It has been definitively established historically
that in the Battle of Khaybar in the attack against the fort
he reached the ring of the door and with sudden motion
tore off the door and cast it away. Also on the day when
Mecca was conquered the Prophet (sawas) ordered the
idols to be broken. The idol "Hubal" was the largest idol in
Mecca, a giant stone statue placed on the top of the
Ka'bah. Following the command of the Prophet (sawas),
Ali placed his feet on the Prophet (sawas)'s shoulders,
climbed to the top of the Ka'bah, pulled "Hubal" from its
place and cast it down.
Ali was also without equal in religious asceticism and the
worship of God. In answer to some who had complained of
Ali's anger toward them, the Prophet (sawas) said, "Do not
reproach Ali for he is in a state of Divine ecstasy and
bewilderment.
" Abu Darda'', one of the companions, one day saw the
body of Ali in one of the palm plantations of Medina laying
on the ground as stiff as wood. He went to Ali's house to
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inform his noble wife, the daughter of the Prophet
(sawas), and to express his condolences. The daughter of
the Prophet (sawas) said, "My cousin (Ali) has not died.
Rather, in fear of God he has fainted. This condition
overcomes him often." There are many stories told of Ali's
kindness to the lowly, compassion for the needy and the
poor, and generosity and munificence toward those in
misery and poverty. Ali spent all that he earned to help
the poor and the needy, and himself lived in the strictest
and simplest manner. Ali loved agriculture and spent
much of his time digging wells, planting trees and
cultivating fields. But all the fields that he cultivated or
wells that he built he gave in endowment (waqf) to the
poor. His endowments, known as the "alms of Ali," had the
noteworthy income of twenty-four thousand gold dinars
toward the end of his life.
Hasan ibn Ali al-Mujtaba
The Second Imam
Imam Hasan Mujtaba--upon whom be peace--was the
second Imam. He and his brother Imam Husayn were the
two sons of Amir al-mu'minin Ali and Hadrat Fatimah, the
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daughter of the Prophet (sawas). Many times the Prophet
(sawas) had said, "Hasan and Husayn are my children."
Because of these same words Ali would say to his other
children, "You are my children and Hasan and Husayn are
the children of the Prophet (sawas)."
Imam Hasan was born in the year 3 A.H. in Medina and
shared in the life of the Prophet (sawas) for somewhat
over seven years, growing up during that time under his
loving care. After the death of the Prophet (sawas) which
was no more than three, or according to some, six months
earlier than the death of Hadrat Fatimah, Hasan was
placed directly under the care of his noble father. After
the death of his father, through Divine Command and
according to the will of his father, Imam Hasan became
Imam; he also occupied the outward function of caliph for
about six months, during which time he administered the
affairs of the Muslims. During that time Mu'awiyah, who
was a bitter enemy of Ali and his family and had fought for
years with the ambition of capturing the caliphate, first on
the pretext of avenging the death of the third caliph and
finally with an open claim to the caliphate, marched his
army into Iraq, the seat of Imam Hasan's caliphate. War
ensued during which Mu'awiyah gradually subverted the
generals and commanders of Imam Hasan's army with
large sums of money and deceiving promises until the
army rebelled against Imam Hasan. Finally, the Imam was
forced to make peace and to yield the caliphate to
Mu'awiyah, provided it would again return to Imam Hasan,
after Mu'awiyah's death and the Imam's household and
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partisans would be protected in every way.
In this way Mu'awiyah captured the Islamic caliphate and
entered Iraq. In a public speech he officially made null and
void all the peace conditions and in every way possible
placed the severest pressure upon the members of the
Household of the Prophet (sawas) and the Shi'ah. During
all the ten years of his Imamate, Imam Hasan lived in
conditions of extreme hardship and under persecution,
with no security even in his own house. In the year 50 A.H.
he was poisoned and martyred by one of his own
household who, as has been accounted by historians, had
been motivated by Mu'awiyah.
In human perfection Imam Hasan was reminiscent of his
father and a perfect example of his noble grandfather. In
fact, as long as the Prophet (sawas) was alive, he and his
brother were always in the company of the Prophet
(sawas) who even sometimes would carry them on his
shoulders. Both Sunni and Shi'ite sources have
transmitted this saying of the Holy Prophet (sawas)
concerning Hasan and Husayn: "These two children of
mine are Imams whether they stand up or sit down"
(allusion to whether they occupy the external function of
caliphate or not). Also there are many traditions of the
Holy Prophet (sawas) and Ali concerning the fact that
Imam Hasan would gain the function of Imamate after his
noble father.
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Hussein ibn Ali al-Shaheed
The Third Imam
Imam Husayn (Sayyid al-Shuhada', "the lord among
martyrs"), the second child of Ali and Fatimah, was born in
the year 4 A.H. and after the martyrdom of his brother,
Imam Hasan Mujtaba, became Imam through Divine
Command and his brother's will.
Imam Husayn was Imam for a period of ten years, all but
the last six months coinciding with the caliphate of
Mu'awiyah. Imam Husayn lived under the most difficult
outward conditions of suppression and persecution. This
was due to the fact that, first of all, religious laws and
regulations had lost much of their weight and credit, and
the edicts of the Umayyad government had gained
complete authority and power. Secondly, Mu'awiyah and
his aides made use of every possible means to put aside
and move out of the way the Household of the Prophet
(sawas) and the Shi'ah, and thus obliterate the name of Ali
and his family. And above all, Mu'awiyah wanted to
strengthen the basis of the caliphate of his son, Yazid,
who because of his lack of principles and scruples was
opposed by a large group of Muslims. Therefore, in order
to quell all opposition, Mu'awiyah had undertaken newer
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and more severe measures. By force and necessity Imam
Husayn had to endure these days and to tolerate every
kind of mental and spiritual agony and affliction from
Mu'awiyah and his aides,until in the middle of the year 60
A.H. Mu'awiyah died and his son Yazid took his place.
Paying allegiance (bay'ah) was an old Arab practice which
was carried out in important matters such as that of
kingship and governorship. Those who were ruled, and
especially the well known among them, would give their
hand in alleging, agreement and obedience to their king or
prince and in this way would show their support for his
actions. Disagreement after allegiance was considered as
disgrace and dishonour for a people and it was like
breaking an agreement after having signed it officially, it
was considered as a definite crime. Following the
example of the Holy Prophet (sawas), people believed that
allegiance, when given by free will and not through force,
carried authority and weight.
Mu'awiyah had asked the well-known among the people to
give their allegiance to Yazid, but had not imposed this
request upon Imam Husayn. He had especially told Yazid
in his last will that if Husayn refused to pay allegiance he
should pass over it in silence and overlook the matter, for
he had understood correctly the disastrous consequences
which would follow if the issue were to be pressed. But
because of his egoism and recklessness, Yazid neglected
his father's advice and immediately after the death of his
father ordered the governor of Medina either to force a
pledge of allegiance from Imam Husayn or send his head
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to Damascus.
After the governor of Medina informed Imam Husayn of
this demand, the Imam, in order to think over the
question, asked for a delay and overnight started with his
family toward Mecca. He sought refuge in the sanctuary of
God which in Islam is the official place of refuge and
security. This event occurred toward the end of the month
of Rajab and the beginning of Sha'ban of 60 A.H. For
nearly four months Imam Husayn stayed in Mecca in
refuge. This news spread throughout the Islamic world. On
the one hand many people who were tired of the iniquities
of Mu'awiyah's rule and were even more dissatisfied when
Yazid became caliph, corresponded with Imam Husayn
and expressed their sympathy for him. On the other hand
a flood of letters began to flow, especially from Iraq and
particularly the city of Kufa, inviting the Imam to go to
Iraq and accept the leadership of the populace there with
the aim of beginning an uprising to overcome injustice and
iniquity. Naturally such a situation was dangerous for
Yazid.
The stay of Imam Husayn in Mecca continued until the
season for pilgrimage when Muslims from all over the
world poured in groups into Mecca in order to perform the
rites of the hajj. The Imam discovered that some of the
followers of Yazid had entered Mecca as pilgrims (hajjis)
with the mission to kill the Imam during the rites of hajj
with the arms they carried under their special pilgrimage
dress (ihram). The Imam shortened the pilgrimage rites
and decided to leave. Amidst the vast crowd of people he
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stood up and in a short speech announced that he was
setting out for Iraq. In this short speech he also declared
that he would be martyred and asked Muslims to help him
in attaining the goal he had in view and to offer their lives
in the path of God. The next day he set out with his family
and a group of his companions for Iraq.
Imam Husayn was determined not to give his allegiance to
Yazid and knew full well that he would be killed. He was
aware that his death was inevitable in the face of the
awesome military power of the Umayyads, supported as it
was by corruption in certain sectors, spiritual decline, and
lack of will power among the people, especially in Iraq.
Some of the outstanding people of Mecca stood in the way
of Imam Husayn and warned him of the danger of the
move he was making. But he answered that he refused to
pay allegiance and give his approval to a government of
injustice and tyranny. He added that he knew that
wherever he turned or went he would be killed. He would
leave Mecca in order to preserve the respect for the
house of God and not allow this respect to be destroyed
by having his blood spilled there. While on the way to Kufa
and still a few days' journey away from the city, he
received news that the followers of Yazid in Kufa had put
to death the representative of the Imam in that city and
also one of the Imam's determined supporters who was a
well-known man in Kufa. Their feet had been tied and they
had been dragged through the streets. The city and its
surroundings were placed under strict observation and
countless soldiers of the enemy were awaiting him, There
was no way open to him but to march ahead and to face
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death. It was-here that the Imam expressed his definitive
determination to go ahead and be martyred; and so he
continued on his journey.
Approximately seventy kilometres from Kufa, in a desert
named Kerbala, the Imam and his entourage were
surrounded by the army of Yazid. For eight days they
stayed in this spot during which the circle narrowed and
the number of the enemy's army increased. Finally the
Imam, with his household and a small numbers of
companions were encircled by an army of thirty thousand
soldiers. During these days the Imam fortified his position
and made a final selection of his companions. At night he
called his companions and during a short speech stated
that there was nothing ahead but death and martyrdom.
He added that since the enemy was concerned only with
his person he would free them from all obligations so that
anyone who wished could escape in the darkness of the
night and save his life. Then he ordered the lights to be
turned out and most of his companions, who had joined
him for their own advantage, dispersed. Only a handful of
those who loved the truth--about forty of his close aides--
and some of the Banu Hashim remained.
Once again the Imam assembled those who were left and
put them to a test. He addressed his companions and
Hashimite relatives, saying again that the enemy was
concerned only with his person. Each could benefit from
the darkness of the night and escape the danger. But this
time the faithful companions of the Imam answered each
in his own way that they would not deviate for a moment
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from the path of truth of which the Imam was the leader
and would never leave him alone. They said they would
defend his household to the last drop of their blood and as
long as they could carry a sword.
On the ninth day of the month the last challenge to
choose between "allegiance or war" was made by the
enemy to the Imam. The Imam asked for a delay in order
to worship overnight and became determined to enter
battle on the next day.
On the tenth day of Muharram of the year 61/680 the Imam
lined up before the enemy with his small band of
followers, less than ninety persons consisting of forty of
his companions, thirty some members of the army of the
enemy that j joined him during the night and day of war,
and his Hashimite family of children, brothers, nephews,
nieces and cousins. That day they fought from morning
until their final breath, the Imam, the young Hashimites
and the companions were all martyred. Among those
killed were two children of Imam Hasan, who were only
thirteen and eleven years old; and a five-year-old child and
a suckling baby of Imam Husayn.
The army of the enemy, after ending the war, plundered
the haram of the Imam and burned his tents. They
decapitated the bodies of the martyrs, denuded them and
threw them to the ground without burial. Then they moved
the members of the haram, all of whom were helpless
women and girls, along with the heads of the martyrs, to
Kufa. Among the prisoners there were three male
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members: a twenty-two year old son of Imam Husayn who
was very ill and unable to move, namely Ali ibn Husayn,
the fourth Imam; his four year old son, Muhammad ibn Ali,
who became the fifth Imam; and finally Hasan Muthanna,
the son of the second Imam who was also the son-in-law
of Imam Husayn and who, having been wounded during
the war, lay among the dead. They found him near death
and through the intercession of one of the generals did
not cut off his head. Rather, they took him with the
prisoners to Kufa and from there to Damascus before
Yazid. The event of Kerbala, the capture of the women
and children of the Household of the Prophet (sawas),
their being taken as prisoners from town to town and the
speeches made by the daughter of Ali; Zaynab, and the
fourth Imam who were among the prisoners, disgraced the
Umayyads. Such abuse of the Household of the Prophet
(sawas) annulled the propaganda which Mu'awiyah had
carried out for years. The matter reached such
proportions that Yazid in public disowned and condemned
the actions of his agents.
The event of Kerbala was a major factor in the overthrow
of Umayyad rule although its effect was delayed. It also
strengthened the roots of The Followers of Ahlu Bayt.
Among its immediate results were the revolts and
rebellions combined with bloody wars which continued for
twelve years. Among those who were instrumental in the
death of the Imam not one was able to escape revenge
and punishment. Anyone who studies closely the history
of the life of Imam Husayn and Yazid and the conditions
that prevailed at that time, and analyses this chapter of
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Islamic history, will have no doubt that in those
circumstances there was no choice before Imam Husayn
but to be killed. Swearing allegiance to Yazid would have
meant publicly showing contempt for Islam, something
which was not possible for the Imam, for Yazid not only
showed no respect for Islam and its injunctions but also
made a public demonstration of impudently, treading
under foot its basis and its laws. Those before him, even if
they opposed religious injunctions, always did so in the
guise of religion, and at least formally respected religion.
They took pride in being companions of the Holy Prophet
(sawas) and the other religious figures in whom people
believed. From this it can be concluded that the claim of
some interpreters of these events is false when they say
that the two brothers, Hasan and Husayn, had two
different tastes and that one chose the way of peace and
the other the way of war, so that one brother made peace
with Mu'awiyah although he had an army of forty thousand
while the other went to war against Yazid with an army of
forty. For we see that this same Imam Husayn, who
refused to pay allegiance to Yazid for one day, lived for
ten years under the rule of Mu'awiyah, in the same manner
as his brother who also had endured for ten years under
Mu'awiyah, without opposing him.
It must be said in truth that if Imam Hasan or Imam
Husayn had fought Mu'awiyah they would have been killed
without there being the least benefit for Islam. Their
deaths would have had no effect before the righteous
appearing policy of Mu'awiyah, a competent politician
who emphasised his being a companion of the Holy
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Prophet (sawas), the "scribe of the revelation," and "uncle
of the faithful" and who used every stratagem possible to
preserve a religious guise for his rule. Moreover, with his
ability to set the stage to accomplish his desires he could
have had them killed by their own people and then
assumed a state of mourning and sought to revenge their
blood, just as he sought to give the impression that he
was avenging the killing of the third caliph.
Ali ibn Husayn al-Zayn al-'Abedin
The Fourth Imam
Imam Sajjad (Ali ibn Husayn entitled Zayn al-'abedin and
Sajjad) was the son of the third Imam and his wife, the
queen among women, the daughter of Yazdigird the king
of Persia. He was the only son of Imam Husayn to survive,
for his other three brothers Ali Akbar, aged twenty-five,
five year old Ja'far and Ali Asghar (or 'Abdallah) who was
a suckling baby were martyred during the event of
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Kerbala.
The Imam had also accompanied his father on the journey
that terminated fatally in Kerbala, but because of severe
illness and the inability to carry arms or participate in
fighting he was prevented from taking part in the holy war
and being martyred. So he was sent with the womenfolk
to Damascus. After spending a period in imprisonment he
was sent with honour to Medina because Yazid wanted to
conciliate public opinion. But for a second time, by the
order of the Umayyad caliph, 'Abd al-Malik, he was
chained and sent from Medina to Damascus and then
again returned to Medina.
The fourth Imam, upon returning to Medina, retired from
public life completely, closed the door of his house to
strangers and spent his time in worship. He was in
contact only with the elite among the Shi'ites such as Abu
Hamzah Thumali, Abu Khalid Kabuli and the like. The elite
disseminated among the Shi'ah the religious sciences
they learned from the Imam. In this way The Followers of
Ahlu Bayt spread considerably and showed its effects
during the Imamate of the fifth Imam. Among the works of
the fourth Imam is a book called Sahifa al-Sajjadiyah. It
consists of fifty-seven prayers concerning the most
sublime Divine sciences and is known as "The Psalm of
the Household of the Prophet (sawas)."
The fourth Imam died (according to some Shi'ite traditions
poisoned by Walid ibn 'Abd al-Malik through the instigation
of the Umayyad caliph Hisham) in 95/712 after thirty-five
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years of Imamate.
Muhammad ibn Ali al-Baqir
The Fifth Imam
Imam Muhammad ibn Ali Baqir (the word Baqir meaning he
who cuts and dissects, a title given to him by the Prophet
(sawas)) was the son of the fourth Imam and was born in
67/675. He was present at the event of Kerbala when he
was four years old. After his father, through Divine
Command and the decree of those who went before him,
he became Imam.
In the year 114/732 he died, according to some Shi'ite
traditions poisoned by Ibrahim ibn Walid ibn 'Abdallah, the
nephew of Hisham, the Umayyad caliph. During the
Imamate of the fifth Imam, as a result of the injustice of
the Umayyads, revolts and wars broke out in some corner
of the Islamic world every day. Moreover, there were
disputes within the Umayyad family itself which kept the
caliphate busy and to a certain extent left the members of
the Household of the Prophet (sawas) alone. From the
other side, the tragedy of Kerbala and the oppression
suffered by the Household of the Prophet (sawas) of which
the fourth Imam was the most noteworthy embodiment
had attracted many Muslims to the Imams. These factors
combined to make it possible for people and especially
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the Shi'ites to go in great numbers to Medina and to come
into the presence of the fifth Imam.
Possibilities for disseminating truths about Islam and the
sciences of the Household of the Prophet (sawas), which
had never existed for the Imams before him, were
presented to the fifth Imam. The proof of this fact is the
innumerable traditions recounted from the fifth Imam and
the large number of illustrious men of science and Shi'ite
scholars who were trained by him in different Islamic
sciences. These names are listed in books of biographies
of famous man in time.
Ja'far ibn Muhammad Al-Sadiq
The Sixth Imam
Imam Ja'far ibn Muhammad Al-Sadiq, the son of the fifth
Imam, was born in 83/702. He died in 148/785 according to
Shi'ite tradition, poisoned and martyred through the
intrigue of the Abbasid caliph Mansur. After the death of
his father he became Imam by Divine Command and
decree of those who came before him.
During the Imamate of the sixth Imam greater possibilities
and a more favourable climate existed for him to
propagate religious teachings. This came about as a
result of revolts in Islamic lands, especially the uprising of
the Muswaddah to overthrow the Umayyad caliphate, and
the bloody wars which finally led to the fall and extinction
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of the Umayyads. The greater opportunities for Shi'ite
teachings were also a result of the favourable ground the
fifth Imam had prepared during the twenty years of his
Imamate through the propagation of the true teachings of
Islam and the sciences of the Household of the Prophet
(sawas).
The Imam took advantage of the occasion to propagate
the religious sciences until the very end of his Imamate,
which was contemporary with the end of the Umayad, and
beginning of the Abbasid caliphates. He instructed many
scholars in different fields of the intellectual and
transmitted sciences, such as Zararah, Muhammad ibn
Muslim, Mu'min Taqi, Hisham ibn Hakam, Aban ibn
Taghlib, Hisham ibn Salim, Hurayz, Hisham Kalbi
Nassabah, and Jabir ibn Hayyan, the alchemist. Even
some important Sunni scholars such as Sufyan Thawri,
Abu Hanifah, the founder of the Hanafi school of law, Qadi.
l Sukuni, Qadi Abu'l-Bakhtari, and others, had the honour
of being his students. It is said that his classes and
sessions of instruction produced four thousand scholars
of hadith and other sciences. The number of traditions
preserved from the fifth and sixth Imams is more than all
the hadith that have been recorded from the Prophet
(sawas) and the other ten Imams combined.
Towards the end of his life the Imam was subjected to
severe restrictions by the Abbasid caliph Mansur, who
ordered such torture and merciless killing of many of the
descendants of the Prophet (sawas) who were Shi'ite that
his actions even surpassed the cruelty and heedlessness
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of the Umayyads. On his order they were arrested in
groups, some thrown into deep and dark prisons and
tortured until they died, while others were beheaded or
buried alive or placed at the base of or between walls of
buildings, and walls were constructed over them.
Hisham, the Umayyad caliph, had ordered the sixth Imam
to be arrested and brought to Damascus. Later, the Imam
was arrested by Saffah., the Abbasid caliph, and brought
to Iraq. Finally, Mansur had him arrested again and
brought to Samarrah where he had the Imam kept under
supervision, was in every way harsh and discourteous to
him, and several times thought of killing him. Eventually
the Imam was allowed-to return to Medina where he spent
the rest of his life in hid-ing, until he was poisoned and
martyred through the intrigue of Mansur.
Upon hearing the news of the imam's martyrdom, Mansur
wrote to the governor of Medina instructing him to go to
the house of the Imam on the pretext of expressing his
condolences to the family, to ask for the Imam's will and
testament and read it. Whoever was chosen by the Imam
as his inheritor and successor should be beheaded on the
spot. Of course the aim of Mansur was to put an end to
the whole question of the Imamate and to Shi'ite
aspirations. When the governor of Medina following
orders, read the last will and testament. He learnt that the
Imam had chosen four people rather than one to
administer his last will and testament: the caliph himself,
the governor of Medina, 'Abdallah Aftah., the Imam's older
son and Musa, his younger son. In this way the plot of
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Mansur failed.
Musa ibn Ja'far Kazim
The Seventh Imam
Imam Musa ibn Ja'far Kazim, the son of the sixth Imam,
was born in 128/744 and was poisoned and martyred in
prison in 183/799. He became Imam after the death of his
father, through Divine Command and the decree of his
forefathers.
The seventh Imam was a contemporary of the Abbasid
caliphs, Mansur, Hadi, Mahdi and Harun. He lived in very
difficult times and in hiding, until finally Harun went on
the Hajj. In Medina, he had the Imam arrested while
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praying in the Mosque of the Prophet (sawas). He was
chained and imprisoned, then taken from Medina to Basra
and from Basra to Baghdad where for years he was
transferred from one prison to another. Finally he died in
Baghdad in the Sindi ibn Shahak prison through poisoning
and was buried in the cemetery of the Quraysh which is
now located in the city of Kazimayn.
Ali ibn Musa al-Ridha
The Eight Imam
Imam Rida (Ali ibn Musa) was the son of the seventh Imam
and according to well known accounts was born in
148/765 and died in 203/817.
The eighth Imam reached the Imamate, after the death of
his father, through Divine Command and the decree of his
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forefathers. The period of his Imamate coincided with the
caliphate of Harun and then his sons Amin and Ma'mun.
After the death of his father, Ma'mun fell into conflict with
his brother Amin which led to bloody wars and finally the
assassination of Amin, after which Ma'mun became
caliph. Until that day the policy of the Abbasid caliphate
toward the Shi'ites had been increasingly harsh and cruel.
Every once in a while one of the supporters of Ali ('alawis)
would revolt, causing bloody wars and rebellions which
were of great difficulty and consequence for the
caliphate. The Shi'ite Imams would not co-operate with
those who carried out these rebellions and would not
interfere with their affairs. The Shi'ites of that day, who
comprised a considerable population, continued to
consider the Imams as their religious leaders to whom
obedience was obligatory and believed in them as the real
caliphs of the Holy Prophet (sawas). They considered the
caliphate to be far from the sacred authority of their
Imams, for the caliphate had come to seem more like the
courts of the Persian kings and Roman emperors and was
being run by a group of people more interested in worldly
rule than in the strict application of religious principles.
. The continuation of such a situation was dangerous for
the structure of the caliphate and was a serious threat to
it. Ma'mun thought of finding a new solution for these
difficulties which the seventy-year old policy of his
Abbasid predecessors had not been able to solve. To
accomplish this end he chose the eighth Imam as his
successor, hoping in this way to overcome two
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difficulties; first of all to prevent the descendants of the
Prophet (sawas) from rebelling against the government
since they would be involved in the government
themselves; and secondly, to cause the people to lose
their spiritual belief and inner attachment to the Imams.
This would be accomplished by having the Imams become
engrossed in worldly matters and the politics of the
caliphate itself, which had always been considered by the
Shi'ites to be evil and impure. In this way their religious
organisation would crumble and they would no longer
present any dangers to the caliphate. Obviously, after
accomplishing these ends, the removal of the Imam would
present no difficulties to the Abbasids.
In order to have this decision put into effect, Ma'mun
asked the Imam to come to Marw from Medina. Once he
had arrived there, Ma'mun offered him first the caliphate
and then the succession to the caliphate. The Imam made
his apologies and turned down the proposal, but he was
finally induced to accept the successorship, with the
condition that he would not interfere in governmental
affairs or in the appointment or dismissal of government
agents. This event occurred in 200/814.
Soon Ma'mun realised that he had committed an error, for
there was a rapid spread of The Followers of Ahlu Bayt.
Increasing growth in the peoples attachment to the Imam,
even from the army and government agents. Ma'mun
sought to find a remedy for this difficulty and eventually
had the Imam poisoned and martyred. The Imam was
buried in the city of Tus in Iran, which is now called
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Mashhad.
Ma'mun displayed great interest in having works on the
intelectual sciences translated into Arabic. He organised
gatherings in which scholars of different religions and
sects assembled and carried out scientific and scholarly
debates. The eighth Imam also participated in these
assemblies and joined in the discussions with scholars of
other religions. Many of these debates are recorded in the
collections of Shi'ite hadiths.
Muhammad ibn Ali Taqi
The Ninth Imam
Imam Muhammad (ibn Ali) Taqi (sometimes called Jawad
and Ibn al-Rida) was the son of the eighth Imam. He was
born in 196/809 in Medina and according to Shi'ite
traditions was martyred in 220/835, poisoned by his wife,
the daughter of Ma'mun, at the instigation of the Abbasid
caliph Mu'tasim. He was buried next to his grandfather,
the seventh Imam, in Kazimayn. He became Imam after
the death of his father through Divine Command and by
the decree of his forefathers.
At the time of the death of his father he was in Medina.
Ma'mun called him to Baghdad which was then the capital
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of the caliphate and outwardly showed him much
kindness. He even gave the Imam his daughter in
marriage and kept him in Baghdad. In reality he wanted to
keep a close watch upon the Imam from both outside and
within his own household. The Imam spent some time in
Baghdad and then with the consent of Ma'mum set out for
Medina where he remained until Ma'mun's death.
When Mu'tasim became the caliph he called the Imam
back to Baghdad and, as we have seen, through the
Imam's wife had him poisoned and killed.
Ali ibn Muhammad Naqi
The Tenth Imam
Imam Ali ibn Muhammad Naqi (sometimes referred to by
the title of Hadi), was the son of the ninth Imam. He was
born in 212/ 827 in Medina and according to Shi'ite
accounts was martyred through poisoning by Mu'tazz the
Abbasid caliph, in 254/868.
The tenth Imam was a contemporary of seven of the
Abbasid caliphs: Ma'mun, Mu'tasim, Wathiq, Mutawakkil,
Muntasir, Musta'm and Mu'tazz. It was during the rule of
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Mu'tasim in 220/835 that his noble father died through
poisoning in Baghdad. At that time Ali ibn Muhammad
Naqi was in Medina. There he became the Imam through
Divine Command and the decree of the Imams before him.
He stayed in Medina teaching religious sciences until the
time of Mutawakkil. In 243/857, as a result of certain false
charges, Mutawakkil ordered one of his government
officials to invite the Imam from Medina to Samarrah
which was then the capital. He himself wrote the Imam a
letter full of kindness and courtesy asking him to come to
the capital where they could meet.
Upon arrival in Samarrah the Imam was also shown
certain outward courtesy and respect. Yet at the same
time Mutawakkil tried by all possible means to trouble and
dishonour him. Many times he called the Imam to his
presence with the aim of killing or disgracing him and had
his house searched.
In his enmity toward the Household of the Prophet
(sawas) Mutawakkil had no equal among the Abbasid
caliphs. He was especially opposed to Ali, whom he
cursed openly. He even ordered a clown to ridicule Ali at
voluptuous banquets. In the year 237/850 he ordered the
mausoleum of Imam Husayn in Kerbala and many of the
houses around it to be torn down to the ground. Then
water was turned upon the tomb of the Imam. He ordered
the ground of the tomb to be ploughed and cultivated so
that any trace of the tomb would be forgotten.
During the life of Mutawakkil the condition of life of the
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descendants of Ali in the Hijaz had reached such a pitiful
state that their womenfolk had no veils with which to
cover themselves. Many of them had only one old veil
which they wore at the time of the daily prayers.
Pressures of a similar kind were put on the descendants
of Ali who lived in Egypt. The tenth Imam accepted in
patience the tortures and afflictions of the Abbasid caliph
Mutawakkil until the caliph died and was followed by
Muntasir, Musta'in and finally Mu'tazz, whose intrigue led
to the Imam being poisoned and martyred.
Hasan ibn Ali 'Askari
The Eleventh Imam
Imam Hasan ibn Ali 'Askari, the son of the tenth Imam,
was born in 232/845 and according to some Shi'ite
sources was poioned and killed in 260/872 through the
instigation of the Abbasid caliph Mu'tamid. The eleventh
Imam gained the Imamate, after the death of his noble
father, through Divine Command and through the decree
of the previous Imams.
During the seven years of his Imamate, due to untold
restrictions placed upon him by the caliphate, he lived in
hiding and dissimulation (taqiyah). He did not have any
social contact with even the common people among the
Shi'ite population. Only the elite of the Shi'ah were able to
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see him. Even so, he spent most of his time in prison.
There was extreme repression at that time because the
Shi'ite population had reached a considerable level in both
numbers and power. Everyone knew that the Shi'ah
believed in the Imamate, and the identity of the Shi'ite
Imams was also known. Therefore, the caliphate kept the
Imams under its close supervision more than ever before.
It tried through every possible means and through secret
plans to remove and destroy them. Also, the caliphate had
come to know that the elite among the Shi'ah believed
that the eleventh Imam, according to traditions cited by
him as well as his forefathers, would have a son who was
the promised Mahdi. The coming of the Mahdi had been
foretold in authenticated hadiths of the Prophet (sawas) in
both Sunni and Shi'ite sources. For this reason the
eleventh Imam, more than other Imams, was kept under
close watch by the caliphate. The caliph of the time had
decided definitely to put an end to the Imamate in The
Followers of Ahlu Bayt through every possible means and
to close the door to the Imamate once and for all.
Therefore, as soon as the news of the illness of the
eleventh Imam reached Mu'tamid. he sent a Physician and
a few of his trusted agents and judges to the house of the
Imam to be with him and observe his condition and the
situation within his house at all times. After the death of
the Imam, they had the house investigated and all his
female slaves examined by the midwife. For two years the
secret agents of the caliph searched for the successor of
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the Imam until they lost all hope.
The eleventh Imam was buried in his house in Samarrah
next to his noble father. Here it should be remembered
that during their lifetimes the Imams trained many
hundreds of scholars of religion and hadith, and it is these
scholars who have transmitted to us information about
the Imams. In order not to prolong the matter, the list of
their names and works and their biographies have not
been included here.
Muhammad ibn Hasan al-Mahdi
The Twelfth Imam
The promised Mahdi, who is usually mentioned by his title
of Imam-i 'Asr (the Imam of the "Period") and Sahib al-
Zaman (the Lord of the Age), is the son of the eleventh
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Imam. His name is the same as that of the Holy Prophet
(sawas). He was born in Samarrah in 256/868 and until
260/872 when his father was martyred, lived under his
father's care and tutelage. He was hidden from public
view and only a few of the elite among the Shi'ah were
able to meet him. After the martyrdom of his father he
became Imam and by Divine Command went into
occultation (ghaybat). Thereafter he appeared only to his
deputies (na'ib) and even then only in exceptional
circumstances.
The Imam chose as a special deputy for a time Uthman
ibn Sa'id 'Umari, one of the companions of his father and
grandfather who was his confidant and trusted friend.
Through his deputy the Imam would answer the demands
and questions of the Shi'ah. After Uthman ibn Sa'id, his
son Muhammad ibn Uthman Umari was appointed the
deputy of the Imam. After the death of Muhammad ibn
Uthman, Abu'l Qasim Husayn ibn Ruh Nawbakhti was the
special deputy, and after his death Ali ibn Muhammad
Simmari was chosen for this task.
A few days before the death of Ali ibn Muhammad Simmari
in 329/939 an order was issued by the Imam stating that in
six days Ali ibn Muhammad Simmari would die. Henceforth
the special deputation of the Imam would come to an end
and the major occultation (ghaybat-i kubra) would begin
and would continue until the day God grants permission to
the Imam to manifest himself. The occultation of the
twelfth Imam is, therefore, divided into two parts: the
first, the minor occultation (ghaybat-i-sughra) which
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began in 260/872 and ended in 329/939, lasting about
seventy years; the second, the major occultation which
commenced in 329/939 and will continue as long as God
wills it. In a hadith upon whose authenticity everyone
agrees, the Holy Prophet (sawas) has said, "If there were
to remain in the life of the world but one day, Allah would
prolong that day until He sends in it a man from my
community and my household. His name will be the same
as my name. He will fill the earth with-equity and justice
as it was filled with oppression and tyranny.''
On the Appearance of the Mahdi
In the discussion on prophecy and the Imamate it was
indicated that as a result of the law of general guidance
which governs all of creation, man is of necessity
endowed with the power of receiving revelation through
prophecy, which directs him toward the perfection of the
human norm and the well-being of the human species.
Obviously, if this perfection and happiness were not
possible for man, whose life possesses a social aspect,
the very fact that he is endowed with this power would be
meaningless and futile. But there is no futility in creation.
In other words, ever since he has inhabited the earth, man
has had the wish to lead a social life filled with happiness
in its true sense and has striven toward this end. If such a
wish were not to have an objective existence it would
never have been imprinted upon man's inner nature, in the
same way that if there were no food there would have
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been no hunger. Or if there were to be no water there
would be no thirst and if there were to be no reproduction
there would have been no sexual attraction between the
sexes. Therefore, by reason of inner necessity and
determination, the future will see a day when human
society will be replete with justice and when all will live in
peace and tranquillity, when human beings will be fully
possessed of virtue and perfection. The establishment of
such a condition will occur through human hands but with
Divine succour. And the leader of such a society, who will
be the saviour of man, is called in the language of the
hadith, the Mahdi.
In the different religions that govern the world such as
Hinduism, Buddhism, Judaism, Christianity,
Zoroastrianism and Islam there are references to a person
who will come as the saviour of mankind. These religions
have usually given happy tidings of his coming, although
there are naturally certain differences in detail that can
be discerned when these teachings are compared
carefully. The hadith of the Holy Prophet (sawas) upon
which all Muslims agree, "The Mahdi is of my progeny,"
refers to this same truth. There are numerous hadiths
cited in Sunni and Shi'ite sources from the Holy Prophet
(sawas) and the Imams concerning the appearance of the
Mahdi, such as that he is of the progeny of the Prophet
(sawas) and that his appearance will enable human
society to reach true perfection and the full realisation of
spiritual life. In addition, there are numerous other
traditions concerning the fact that the Mahdi is the son of
the eleventh Imam, Hasan al-'Askari. They agree that after
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being born and undergoing a long occultation the Mahdi
will appear again, filling with justice the world that has
been corrupted by injustice and iniquity.
As an example, Ali ibn Musa al-Rida (the eighth Imam) has
said, in the course of a hadith, "The Imam after me is my
son, Muhammad, and after him his son Ali, and after Ali
his son, Hasan, and after Hasan his son H. Hujjat al-Qa'im,
who is awaited during his occultation and obeyed during
his manifestation. If there remain from the life of the
world but a single day, Allah will extend that day until he
becomes manifest, and fill the world with justice in the
same way that it had been filled with iniquity. But when?
As for news of the 'hour,' verily my father told me, having
heard it from his father who heard it from his father who
heard it from his ancestors who heard it from Ali, that it
was asked of the Holy Prophet (sawas), 'Oh Prophet
(sawas) of God, when will the "support" (qa'im) who is
from thy family appear?' He said, 'His case is like that of
the Hour (of the Resurrection). "He alone will manifest it
at its proper time. It is heavy in the heavens and the
earth. It cometh not to you save unawares" (Quran, VII,
187).102
Saqr ibn Abi Dulaf said, "I heard from Abu Ja'far
Muhammad ibn Ali al-Rida [the ninth Imam] who said, 'The
Imam after me is my son, Ali; his command is my
command; his word is my word; to obey him is to obey me.
The Imam after him is his son, Hasan. His command is the
command of his father; his word is the word of his father;
to obey him is to obey his father.' After these words the
Imam remained silent. I said to him, 'Oh son of the
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Prophet (sawas), you will be the Imam after Hasan?' The
Imam cried hard, then said, 'Verily after Hasan his son is
the awaited Imam who is "al-qa'im bi'l-haqq" (He who is
supported by the Truth).' "
Musa ibn Ja'far Baghdadi said, "I heard from the Imam
Abu Muhammad al-Hasan ibn Ali [the eleventh Imam] who
said, 'I see that after me differences will appear among
you concerning the Imam after me. Whoso accepts the
Imams after the Prophet (sawas) of God but denies my son
is like the person who accepts all the prophets but denies
the prophethood of Muhammad, the Prophet (sawas) of
God, upon whom be peace and blessing. And whoso
denies [Muhammad] the Prophet (sawas) of God is like
one who has denied all the prophets of God, for to obey
the last of us is like obeying the first and to deny the last
of us is like denying the first. But beware ! Verily for my
son there is an occultation during which all people will fall
into doubt except those whom Allah protects.''
The opponents of The Followers of Ahlu Bayt protest that
according to the beliefs of this school the Hidden Imam
should by now be nearly twelve centuries old, whereas
this is impossible for any human being. In answer it must
be said that the protest is based only on the unlikelihood
of such an occurrence, not its impossibility. Of course
such a long lifetime or a life of a longer period is unlikely.
But those who study the hadiths of the Holy Prophet
(sawas) and the Imams will see that they refer to this life
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as one possessing miraculous qualities.
Miracles are certainly not impossible nor can they be
negated through scientific arguments. It can never be
proved that the causes and agents that are functioning in
the world are solely those that we see and know and that
other causes which we do not know or whose effects and
actions we have not seen nor understood do not exist. It
is in this way possible that in one or several members of
mankind there can be operating certain causes and
agents which bestow upon them a very long life of a
thousand or several thousand years. Medicine has not
even lost hope of discovering a way to achieve very long
life spans. In any case such protests from "peoples of the
Book" such as Jews, Christians and Muslims are most
strange for they accept the miracles of the prophets of
God according to their own sacred scriptures.
. The opponents of The Followers of Ahlu Bayt also protest
that, they considers the Imam necessary in order to
expound the injunctions and verities of religion and to
guide the people, the occultation of the Imam is the
negation of this very purpose, for an Imam in occultation
who cannot be reached by mankind cannot be in any way
beneficial or effective. The opponents say that if God wills
to bring forth an Imam to reform mankind He is able to
create him at the necessary moment and does not need to
create him thousands of years earlier. In answer it must
be said that such people have not really understood the
meaning of the Imam, for in the discussion on the
Imamate it became clear that the duty of the Imam is not
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only the formal explanation of the religious sciences and
exoteric guidance of the people. In the same way that he
has the duty of guiding men outwardly, the Imam also
bears the function of walayat and the esoteric guidance of
men. It is he who directs man's spiritual life and orients
the inner aspect of human action toward God: Clearly, his
physical presence or absence has no effect in this matter.
The Imam watches over men inwardly and is in
communion with the soul and spirit of men even if he be
hidden from their physical eyes. His existence is always
necessary even if the time has not as yet arrived for his
outward appearance and the universal reconstruction that
he is to bring about.
Ghaibat-us-Sughra
Ghaibat-us-Sughra means the minor concealment. Its
period was about 70 years. It began in 260 A.H. when
Imam al-Mahdi (a.s) first went into concealment, and
ended in 328 A.H.
During Ghaibut-us-Sughra, the Imam appointed some
agents to represent him and the people. The Imam had
four agents. After the death of the fourth agent, the Imam
went into major concealment (Ghaibut-ul-Kubra). This was
on the 10th Shawal 329 A.H.
The Signs Heralding the Reappearance of Imam al-Mahdi
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(a.s)
Prophet Muhammed (s.a.w.) has said: "Even if the entire
duration of the worlds existence has already been
exhausted and only one day is left before Doomsday, Allah
will expand that day to such length of time as to
accommodate the kingdom of a person from my Ahlul-Bayt
who will be called by name. He will fill out the earth with
and justice as it will have been full of injustice and
tyranny (by then)"
From this Hadith, it is clear to every Muslim that the
twelfth Imam will reappear when this world is full of sins
and injustice.
There are many signs mentioned by the Masumeen (a.s)
on the reappearance of the 12th Imam. It is reported in
Biharul Anwar that after the last pilgrimage the Prophet
made, the Holy Prophet (s.a.w.) stood near the Kaaba, and
called his people to listen to him. The Prophet said: listen
to me carefully so that you transmit these words of mine
to those who are absent today. The Prophet began, My
people, a time will come when kings and rulers will be
tyrannical. The Prophet also said that the payment of
Zakat will be stopped.
According to the Masumeen (a.s), Muslim countries will
seek aid from non Muslim countries. This is already
evident in a number of Muslim countries. Another
prediction that is come true is that 60 impostors will
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claim to be Prophets. By their attractiveness, their
persuasion, and their personality, they will misguide the
people. 58 false Prophets have already emerged since the
days of the Prophet (s.a.w.). We have only two more to
witness.
It is reported in Qayamat-e-Sughra citing Oqdatud-Durr
that Hazrat Amir (A.S) has said that the Mahdi will not
appear until one-third of the world population will die by
being killed and one-third will die as a result of epidemics.
The Last Signs Heralding the Appearance of Imam al-
Mahdi (a.s)
There is a Hadith from Imam Muhammed Baqir (a.s) that
for three or seven consecutive days, one will see reddish
yellow fire raging in the East.
Sufiani will emerge in Palestine, where he will start a
revolt in the month of Rajab. He will be an
uncompassionate rebel and his rule will last for eight
consecutive months. He will conquer and rule Egypt for
four consecutive months. Sufiani will conquer Tunisia,
Algeria, Morocco, Jordan, and Syria. Sufiani has been
specifically described by Aimma A.S. as an ugly, blistered,
green-eyed, cross-eyed person who will be an enemy of
the friends of the Ahlul-Bait. Imam Ali (a.s) has said that
Sufianis hatred of the devotees of the Ahlul-Bait will be
such that any person named Ali, Fatema, Hassan,
Hussein, Zainab, Ruquaiya will be arrested and beheaded
straight away without further investigations. Sufiani will
rip the Mimber of the Holy Prophet (s.a.w.). The holy house
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of the Prophet which contains his grave will be pulled and
used as a stable. Horses will be tied in that Holy place.
Sufiani will then decide to attack Makka. His purpose
would be to demolish the Holy Kaaba and kill the entire
population of Makka. Sufianis army will set out via
Baghdad but, as Allah would have it, when they get
between Medina and Makka, in the desert of Baida,
suddenly one night they will hear a voice from the sky
which will say, O Baida eat up the entire army of Sufiani.
It is said that the entire army numbering 100,000 persons
will be swallowed up by the earth, except for two. The
two who will be spared will suddenly encounter an angel.
He will slap both of them turning their faces right round,
looking behind instead of front. And that will be the time
when Imam al-Mahdi (a.s) will already have reappeared in
Makka. The Imam will establish his authority in the Holy
Mosque at Makka in the Haram. The angel will then order
one of them calling him Bashir. O Bashir, go straight to
Makka, into the Haram and inform the Imam that Sufianis
army has been swallowed up by the land. The other called
Nazir will be ordered to go to Sufiani and tell him that the
Imam has already appeared. He should proceed straight to
Makka and declare allegiance to him.
Sufiani will prepare to attack the Imam but will not have
enough courage. The Imam will catch Sufiani in Jerusalem
and will kill him.
Imam Ali (a.s) has said that nine definite signs will
precede the emergence of Hazrat Mahdi (a.s). These nine
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signs are:
Dajaal will emerge. A loud voice will be heard from the
sky. Sufiani will appear and wage a fierce war. The army
of Sufiani will be swallowed by a sudden opening of the
land between Makka and Medina in the desert of Baida. A
revered wise saint will be murdered in Makka. (This saint
is to be a Hashimite descent.) A Seyyid descendant of
Imam Hassan (a.s) will emerge with his army. The army of
Seyyid-e-Hassan and an image of a man will appear in the
sky opposite the sun. There will be two eclipses in the
holy month of Ramadhan contrary to the normal order and
calculation and the eclipse of the moon. On three
occasions a loud voice from the sky will be heard in the
holy month of Ramadhan.
The Reappearance
Hazrat Isa (Jesus), Hazrat Khizr, Hazrat Ilias, and Hazrat
Idris (a.s) will give allegiance to the Imam when he re-
appears. Also Jibrael will announce 313 companions of
the Imam. These 313 companions will be people of
eminent piety, great knowledge and absolutely steadfast
in their determination and faith towards the Imam.
Another 1000 people will be in the army of the Imam.
These people will fight battles and kill enemies like Dajal,
who will appear from India. Dajal will have the musical
tunes with him. Then the Imam will lead the prayers,
Hazrat Isa (a.s) will be behind him.
Let us all pray to Almighty Allah for the reappearance of
Imam al-Mahdi (a.s).
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Amin.
The Legacy of Jihad
The leaders of the free world have taken pains since
late 2001 to explain that Islam is a religion of peace.
But in this far-ranging, 759-page collection of Muslim
and non-Muslim eyewitness accounts, scholarly Muslim
theological treatises and superb historical surveys, it
appears that Islam has actually practiced a grisly jihad
campaign against non-Muslims from its earliest days, in
the hope of satisfying the Prophet Mohammed's end
goal: forcing the one true faith upon the entire world.
The somber tone of this monumental work -- graced in
its midsection by a chronological summary of the first
500 years of Muslim conquests, including color-coded
maps and Islamic art -- is set by the cover, a 19
th
century-Islamic painting entitled The Prophet, Ali and
the Companions at the massacre of the prisoners of the
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Jewish tribe of Beni Kuraizah. As its name suggests,
the art depicts the slaughter of 600 to 900 Jewish men,
who were led on Mohammed's orders to the market of
Medina, where they were beheaded and their corpses
buried in trenches dug for that purpose. Their wives and
children were then enslaved.
After viewing these accounts, histories and art works, it
is hard to continue to believe that radical Islamists are
in fact all that radical. Rather, in the most logical way,
this collection shows that September 11 was not an
aberration, but that Islam at its core seems a faith bent
upon the conquest and subjugation of non-Muslims.
Indeed, as many commentators here suggest, when one
group of Muslims assumes responsibility for jihad
warfare -- the only righteous kind of war, in the Islamic
view -- the rest of the umma (Muslim community) is
relieved of this fard, or religious duty. Thus, if radical
Muslims believe they act on behalf of all Islamdom,
Islamic traditions also confirm that they do.
Bostom opens with a 124-page survey of jihad
conquests and the imposition of dhimmitude -- the
sociopolitical subjugation of indigenous non-Muslim
peoples vanquished by jihad campaigns. The essay is
the book's longest section and serves as an excellent
guidepost for readers to determine which parts might
most interest them.
Beginning in the time of Mohammed himself, Bostom
refers readers to the early 20
th
century work of the late
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Columbia University professor Arthur Jeffrey, who
belittled as the sheerest sophistry attempts in some
modern circles to explain away all the Prophet's
warlike expeditions as defensive wars or to interpret
the doctrine of Jihad as merely a bloodless striving in
missionary zeal for the spread of Islam.... The early
Arabic sources quite plainly and frankly describe the
expeditions as military expeditions, and it would never
have occurred to anyone at that day to interpret them
as anything else....
But it is not just on the say-so of Western scholars that
Bostom concludes, in the words of Mordechai Nisan,
that the praxis of Islam was by the 1990s to extend
the Muslim presence and role into the heart of Western
civilization, after having constituted within the Muslim
lands themselves a formidable strategic world
position.
His arguments rest on the words, works and deeds of
Muslims themselves. America would benefit if our
leaders would pay close attention to Bostom's
conclusions and the works on which they are based.
According to Maliki jurist Ibn Abi Zayd al Qayrawani (d.
996), Jihad is a Divine institution. Its performance by
certain individuals may dispense others from it. We
Malikis maintain that it is preferable not to begin
hostilities with the enemy before having invited the
latter to embrace the religion of Allah except where the
enemy attacks first. They have either the alternative of
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converting to Islam or paying the poll tax (jizya), short
of which war is declared against them.
Hanbali jurist Ibn Tamiyyah (d. 1328) also supports the
jihad: Since lawful warfare is essentially jihad and
since its aim is that the religion is God's entirely and
God's word is uppermost, therefore according to all
Muslims, those who stand in the way of this aim must
be fought.
The Hidayah of Hanafi Shaikh Burdanuddin Ali of
Marghinan (d. 1196) intones,
It is not lawful to make war upon any people who have
never before been called to the faith, without previously
requiring them to embrace it, because the Prophet so
instructed his commanders, directing them to call
infidels to the faith, and also because the people will
hence perceive that they are attacked for the sake of
religion, and not for the sake of taking their property, or
making slaves of their children, and on this
consideration it is possible that they may be induced to
agree to the call, in order to save themselves from the
trouble of war....
The Shaafi jurist al-Mawardi (d. 1058) writes in the
Laws of Islamic Governance,
The mushrikun [infidels] of Dar al-Harb (the arena of
battle) are of two types: First, those whom the call of
Islam has reached, but they have refused it and taken
up arms. The amir of the army has the option of fighting
them... in accordance with what he judges to be in the
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best interest of the Muslims and the most harmful to
the mushrikun.... Second, those whom the invitation to
Islam has not reached, although such persons are few
nowadays since Allah has made manifest the call of his
Messenger...it is forbidden to begin an attack before
explaining the invitation to Islam to them, informing
them of the miracles of the Prophet and making plain
the proofs so as to encourage acceptance on their part;
if they still refuse to accept after this, war is waged
against them and they are treated as those whom the
call has reached.
And Maliki jurist and philosopher Ibn Khaldun (d. 1406),
so often quoted as a peaceful, likewise adopts a
warlike tone: In the Muslim community, the holy war is
a religious duty, because of the universalism of the
[Muslim] mission and [the obligation to] convert
everybody to Islam by persuasion or by force.... The
other religious groups did not have a universal mission,
and the holy war was not a religious duty for them, save
only for purposes of defense....Islam is under obligation
to gain power over other nations.
In addition to this far-reaching opening summary, the
book provides the juridicial texts, historical accounts,
scholarly analyses and eyewitness excerpts elucidating
the jihad rationale as formulated by Muslim sources and
highlighting the global consequences of that philosophy
for more than 13 centuries.
In part two, for example, Bostom collects many jihadist
teachings in the Qur'an, such as Qur'an chapter 9, verse
29: Fight those who believe not in Allah nor the last
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day, nor hold that forbidden which hath been forbidden
by Allah and his apostle, nor acknowledge the religion
of truth even if they are the people of the book, until
they pay the Jizya with willing submission, and fell
themselves subdued. These Qur'anic teachings fill two
pages of text.
But Bostom does not stop there. He devotes his third
chapter to the classical and modern teachings of
Qur'anic commentators on Chapter 9, verse 29, some
such as Al-Suyuti (d. 1505 CE), appearing in English
here for the first time. Al-Suyuti writes:
Fight those who don't believe in God nor in the Last Day
[Unless they believe in the Prophet God bless him and
grant him peace] nor hold what is forbidden that which
God and His emissary have forbidden [e.g. Wine] nor
embrace the true faith [which is firm and abrogates
other faiths, i.e., the Islamic religion] from among [for
distinguishing] those who were given the Book [i.e., the
Jews and Christians] until they give the head-tax [i.e.,
the annual taxes imposed on them] (l'an yadinl) humbly
submissive, and obedient to Islam's rule.
Also commenting on the Qur'anic chapter 9, verse 29
are al-Zamakshari (d. 1144), al Tabari (d. 923), al-
Beidawi (d. 1286), Ibn Kathir (d. 1373), Sayyid Qutb (d.
1966) and al-Azhar, al-Muntakhab Fii Tafsir al-Qur'aan
al-Kariim, 1985. Let no one say that Bostom has taken
these teachings out of context, for the classical and
contemporary commentators interpret this passage of
the Qur'an in precisely the same way as it appears.
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In chapter four, the last in section two, Bostom focuses
on jihad in the Hadith, with commentary from Sahih
Bukhari and Sahih Muslim, as translated by the Muslim
Students' Association of the University of Southern
California.
In Bostom's third, 110-page section, classical Muslim
theologians and jurists opine on jihad. These writings
span the entire history of Islam, beginning with 8
th
century commentators and continuing to 20
th
century
contemporaries. Bostom has gleaned writings of Malik
B. Anas (d. 795) from the Muwata, for example,
Averroes (d. 1198) from the Bidayat al-Mudjtahid, Ibn
Khaldun (d. 1406) from The Muqaddimah, as well as a
1915 Ottoman Fatwa.
Here, too, Bostom includes several works translated
into English for the first time. For example, the
renowned Sufi master al-Ghazali (d. 1111) writes, One
must go on jihad (i.e. Warlike razzias or raids) at least
once a year... one may use a catapult against them
[non-Muslims] when they are in a fortress, even if
among them are women and children. One may set fire
to them and drown them. The marriages of slaves, al-
Ghazali continues, are automatically revoked. One may
cut down their trees.... One must destroy their useless
books. This belies the all-too-common notion that
Sufism is peaceful.
Similarly, Ibn Qudama (d. 1223), writes, Legal war
(jihad) is an obligatory social duty (fard-kifaya); when
one group of Muslims guarantees that it is being carried
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out in a satisfactory manner, the others are exempted.
Almost everywhere, the author is belligerent. It is
permitted to surprise the infidels under cover of night,
to bombard them with mangonels [an engine that hurls
missiles] and to attack them without declaring battle
(du'a).
Al-Hilli (d. 1277), likewise, writes on the traditions
concerning the tax on certain infidels, who have not
been enslaved or murdered. The Persian scholar
Muhammad al-Amili (d. 1621) has been translated from
Farsi concerning Jihad holy war: Islamic holy war
against followers of other religions, such as Jews, is
required unless they convert to Islam or pay the poll
tax.
Concerning the jihad warfare in India, Ziauddin Barani
(d. 1357) writes in the Fatawa-i Janandari,
The Muslim king will not be able to establish the honour
of theism (tauhid) and the supremacy of the Islam
unless he strives with all his courage to overthrown
infidelity and to slaughter its leaders (imams), who in
India are the Brahmans. He should make a firm resolve
to overpower, capture, enslave and degrade the
infidels. All the strength and power of the king and holy
warriors of Islam should be concentrated in holy
campaigns and holy wars; and they should risk
themselves in the enterprise so that the true Faith may
uproot false creeds and then it will look as if these false
creeds had never existed because they have been
deprived of their glamour.
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Bostom turns next, in his 117-page Part 4, to ten Jihad
overviews by important 20
th
century scholars. Clement
Huart writes on the law of war, Nicolas P. Agnides on
the classification of persons under Islamic law (which
appeared in Mohammeden Theories of Finance from
Columbia University Press in 1916) and John Ralph
Willis on the jihad ideology of enslavement. Several of
these works appear for the first time in English.
These writings are no easier to dismiss than the
classical Islamic works themselves, for the modern
historians also rely heavily on classical jurists and
commentators, as indicated in a bevy of footnotes
gracing the final pages of each essay. Fagnan's Jihad
or Holy War According to the Malikite School,
published in Algiers in 1908, rests for example on the
work of Sidi Khalil (d. 1365-1366), as elucidated by
several Muslim commentaries. Edmond Fagnan writes,
The holy war conducted each year on the most
dangerous front, even if there is risk of an attack by
bandits, constitutes, just like the visit of the Ka'ba..., a
duty of showing solidarity, which is incumbent upon
every free male who has attained the age of puberty
and is of sound mind and body....
In the case of a sudden invasion, holy war becomes
a personal duty, even for a woman or for the neighbors
[of the believers who are being attacked] if they (i.e.
The latter) are too weak, as well as for those who hold
the title of imam.
According to Roger Arnaldez, whose essay Holy War
According to Ibn Hazm of Cordova was published in a
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French collection in 1962, what interests this
Andalusian classicist about the past is a privileged
moment of history at which the law eternally intended
by God was revealed in universal and definitive
formulations. Despite the most obvious evidence, the
commandments given to the Prophet are not, in his
view, relative to the Prophet's time.... These
commandments, rather, are valid as such for all times.
W.R. W. Gardner's essay, Jihad appeared in the 1912
edition of the acclaimed scholarly journal, Moslem
World. He observes,
The question of what jihad is cannot be settled by
reference alone to the etymology of the word
jihad....The Koran plainly teaches in many
passages,..the duty of fighting for the Faith or 'in the
way of God,' by using the world qatala, and El
Zamakhshary, commenting on 2.186,7, says, 'Fighting in
the way of God is jihad for the glorifying of his word and
the strengthening of the Religion.' And whatever may
be the etymological meaning of the word jihad, there
can be no gainsaying the fact that it is sometimes used
in the Koran in the sense of warlike actions, a warfare
for the sake of the Faith. And when one asks what the
teaching of Mohammedanism is concerning jihad, the
word is employed in this latter sense.
After presenting a 500-year chronology and maps,
Bostom moves on to his final three sections -- on jihad
campaigns in the Near East, Europe, Asia Minor and on
the Indian subcontinent; jihad slavery and Muslim and
non-Muslim chronicles and eyewitness accounts of
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jihad campaigns. These in many ways outshine
everything that the editor presented earlier, for here, he
clearly elucidates the ravages of jihad campaigns as
experienced by their victims.
The sixth section, on Jihad campaigns, begins with an
essay by Demetrios Constantelos, which collects
eyewitness accounts of Greek Christian and other early
observers of jihad. Damascus fell in 635, Jerusalem in
638, the same year as Antioch, and in 646 Alexandria
became an Arab possession. The coastal areas of
Palestine, Cyprus, Egypt and Syria swiftly followed.
Sophronios of Jerusalem describes the sword of the
Saracens as beastly and barbarous...filled with every
diabolic savagery.
Clearly, the Arab conquest was very violent as well as
decisive. Constantelos reports on Sophronios:
advancing Saracens left behind them a train of
destruction and havoc, with bloodshed everywhere and
abandoned human bodies devoured by the wild beasts
of Palestine's deserts. He writes of the 'villainous and
God-hating Saracens,' who run through places and
capture cities, who reap or destroy the crops of the
fields, who burn down towns and set churches on fire,
who attack monasteries and defeat Byzantine armies,
winning one victory after another. John of Nikiu in
about 700 C.E., likewise described the terrors of the
Arabic Muslims. The Islamic conquest put to the sword
all that surrendered, and they spared none, whether old
men, babes or women.
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But that was only in the beginning. Bloodletting
continued on every continent the Muslims touched.
Aram Ter-Ghevondian describes the Armenian rebellion
of 703, as related by such sources as Ibn-al-Athir and a
10
th
century Arab author named Muhammad ibn-
Abdullah-ibn-Aasam-al-Kufi as well as Byzantine
historian Theophanes. In one instance in about 705, the
Muslim leader Muhammad massacred, enslaved and
wrote a letter to the nobility (Ashraf) who are called
freemen (ahrar), gave guarantees and promised to give
honors. Hence they gathered in their churches...and he
ordered to encircle the churches with fire-wood, closed
the doors on them and burnt all of them.
C.E. Dufourcq describes The Days of Razzia and
invasion in a 1978 chapter that first appeared in a
French collection on daily life in medieval Europe under
Arab domination (another, now in English for the first
time). After dominating Iberia, the Arabs transversed
the Pyrenees and ravaged lands north of the foothills. In
Aragon's Segre Valley, squadrons explored the Ariege
River. Before 720 they attacked Narbonne, from which
they carried off church riches and many slaves. They
were driven back from Toulouse in 721 but in 725
attacked Carcassone. Other targets included the Rhone
Valley, Nimes, and Viviers (a place still called Les
Sarasins), Macon and Chalon, and Autun (which has
never been able to return to its former state since that
destruction), Dijon and Langres. By 731, the Arabs
were 100 kilometers from Paris. They burned all the
Bordeaux churches in 732. Fortunately, Charles Martel
stopped them not far from Poitiers.
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But in 734 or 735 in the Mediterranean, Dufourcq
continues, they attacked Arles and Avignon. From
Provence and Italy, sailors attacked Ostia on the Tiber,
and pillaged the basilicas of Saint Peter and Saint Paul.
Marseilles was devastated in 838 and again in 848 and
920. From 857 on, the Roman seaboard was attacked
annually. In Syracuse in 878, the Church of the Holy
Savior was filled with women, children, the elderly, the
sick, the clerics -- all of them massacred. In 934 or 935,
Arabs slaughtered all the men in Genoa and loaded the
city's treasures onto their ships.
Terrorizing inhabitants was a tool of their trade: As the
17
th
century Algerian historian al-Maqqari noted, Allah
thus instilled such fear among the infidels that they did
not dare to go and fight the conquerors; they only
approached them as suppliants to beg for peace.
The Muslim invasion of India was similarly cruel,
according to K.S. Lal. Throughout more than 500 years
in the Indian subcontinent, Muslim invaders killed an
estimated 70 million, slaughtering as many as 500,000
to 600,000 at a time. They also took countless millions
of slaves, who were transported to Iran, Afghanistan
and later to Europe.
In the Balkans, the people suffered equal savagery,
according to a 1956 essay by Dimitar Angelov, also in
English for the first time. The campaigns of Mourad II
(1421-1451) and his successor Mahomet II (1451-1481)
in Serbia, Bosnia, Albania, and the Byzantine princedom
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of the Peloponnisos, were particularly devastating. In
1459, invaders destroyed the entire harvest and leveled
the fortified towns. In 1466, the Albanians were forced
to retreat and fight from inaccessible regions; whole
cities were again ruined. Plundering, arson and
repeated attacks reduced the rich agricultural region to
wilderness. Famines and epidemics ensued.
All this is to say nothing of the incessant slave-taking
and the brutal devshirme tribute; Balkan families were
forced to pay a tax in the form of their eldest or most
able sons. Bostom devotes 60 pages to slavery alone.
Then we come to the eyewitness accounts, which fill
five chapters and nearly eighty pages. According to an
1148 account by Solomon Cohen, for example, the
Almohads swept through Tlemcen in the Maghren,
killing all those in it. All the cities in North Africa were
taken: One hundred thousand persons were killed in
Fez on that occasion and 120,000 in Marakesh.....Large
areas between Seville and Tortosa [in Spain] had
likewise fallen into Almohad hands.
Likewise, a 13
th
century Hindu account called the
Kahandade Prabandha tells of the invasion of extensive
regions, including Malwa, Gujarat, Ranthamnhor,
Siwana, Jalor, Devagiri, Warangal, Ma'bar and
Ramesvaram. In Bhinmal,
Orders were issued clear and terrible: 'The soldiers
shall march into the town spreading terror everywhere!
Cut down the Brahmanas, wherever they may be--
performing homa or milking cows! Kill the cowseven
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those which are pregnant or with newly born calves!'
The Turks ransacked Bhinmal and captured everybody
in the sleepy town. Thereafter, Fori Malik gleefully set
fire to the town in a wanton display of force and
meanness.
As Ibn Warraq notes in the forward, Dr. Bostom is the
first scholar to have had translated from Arabic into
English the works of al-Bayadawi, al-Suyuti, al-
Zamakhshari and al-Tabari, as well as works by Sufi
master al-Ghazali, Shiites al-Hilli and al-Amili. He also
includes representatives from the four schools of Sunni
jurisprudence: Averroes and Ibn Khaldun (Maliki), Ibn
Taymiya and Ibn Qudama (Hanbali), Shaybani (Hanafi),
and al-Mawardi (Shaafi).
Warraq wonders, Why did it take a non-specialist such
as Dr. Bostom, a scholar from another discipline --
clinical epidemiology and randomized clinical trials in
medicine -- to discover and have translated for the first
time this primary and secondary source material?
Ibn Warraq continues: As Bernard Lewis points out in
his important essay, Pro-Islamic Jews, The golden
age of equal rights [in Spain] was a myth.... The myth
was invented by Jews in nineteenth century Europe as
a reproach to Christians. There are those, he says, who
contend that while Dr. Bostom may be right to expose
history hitherto simply denied, this was not the right
historical moment to express it. But, as Isaiah Berlin
once wrote, an ideologue is someone prepared to
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suppress what he suspects to be true. This disposition
to suppress the truth has engendered much evil.
Bostom's work attempts to set straight the historical
record. Let us hope that Bostom's monumental
survey is read in every corner of U.S. and European
government, as well as by the masses who wish to
learn the truth on Islamic doctrines
Islam is the fastest growing religion
behind bars in North America and
Britain. Converts say that it gives them
a sense of identity and pride.
Abdullah Rashid: "I learned to flip my
whole situation from a negative to a
positive. Wherein you realize that
nothing is ever as bad as you think it is.
I look forward to coming to the mosque
everyday. There are brothers here who are positive,
who are doing things and we feed off each other."
Abdullah Rashid is a prisoner in a New York State
maximum security prison. He says his newfound faith
means that he is no longer alone and feel protected by
his fellow Muslim inmates.
Some 200,000
Muslims
practice their
faith inside
U.S. prisons.
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Abdullah Rashid: Theres safety in numbers. There are
a lot of rival gangsa lot of stabbings. The lone wolf
gets eaten up.
In the United States there are more than 200,000
Muslim inmates. Many are black converts searching for
an alternative to Christianity which they rejected as the
'slave-masters faith'.
These inmates are following a path made famous by
Malcolm Little, a drug pusher and pimp, who went to jail
for theft in the 1940's.
Little left prison as Malcolm X, a follower of a tiny black
movement called The Nation of Islam. Within a decade
he transformed it into a radical political force with
30,000 followers. Malcolm X was assassinated by the
members of the Nation of Islam but his death didn't stop
the rise of the religion he championed.
BLACKS IN
PRISON
African-
Americans
comprise
13% of the
U.S.
population,
30% of
people
arrested,
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In the 1960's boxer Cassius Clay gave
the movement celebrity status when he
changed his name to Mohammed Ali and
joined The Nation of Islam. Then he
defied his country by refusing to fight in
Vietnam and was given a suspended jail
sentence. Islam was on its way to
becoming the religion of protest.
In 1995 hundreds of thousands of African Americans
converged on Washington to listen to Nation of Islam
leader Louis Farrakhan. A year later he provoked U.S.
authorities by taking his fiery message abroad to Iran,
Iraq and Libya.
What had become a homegrown religious rebellion was
now being heard around the world.
Saudi Arabia's Muslim clerics were anxious to promote
Wahhabism, an intolerant, anti-Western form of Islam.
They had financial connections to Saudi Arabia's ruling
family and made sure Imams in the U.S. got plenty of
money to spread their message as well.
49% of those
in prison,
according to
a 2000 report
by Human
Rights
Watch.
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Stephan Schwartz: "They have turned
Islam in prisons into little Saudi Arabias,
in which they can exercise total
ideological control, ostracize dissidents
and threaten and intimidate people."
Author Stephan Schwartz and others
have warned that America's prisons
could become a breeding ground for
terrorist organizations. The now
infamous 'shoe bomber' Richard Reid
(read more) converted to Islam while he
was in jail.
However converting to Islam has been a positive
experience for many inmates like Kevin Culmer (read
more) and authorities are now taking steps to ensure
that the message that is heard in prisons is a positive
one.
Imprisoned terrorists still advocating terror
1993 World Trade Center bombers write letters
exhorting jihad
It was 12:18 p.m. on Feb. 26, 1993, lunchtime, when the
van exploded. The massive bomb rattled the World
Trade Center, leaving a giant crater in the underground
Stephan
Schwartz
warns about
the dark side
of Islam in his
book, The
Two Faces of
Islam.
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garage. Six people were killed, and more than 1,000
were wounded.
At the time, it was the worst act of terrorism ever
committed on American soil. Three Islamic extremists
were among those convicted, each sentenced to more
than 100 years in prison.
Former prosecutor Andy McCarthy convicted others
involved in the attack.
"It's difficult to imagine people who are more evil or
inclined to do more mass homicide," says McCarthy.
So the men were sent to America's most secure federal
prisons, eventually ending up at Supermax in Colorado,
supposedly unable to do further harm.
Or so we thought. Letters and articles obtained by NBC
News show that while behind bars, the 1993 bombers
continued their terrorist activities. They wrote letters to
other suspected terrorists and brazenly praised Osama
bin Laden in Arabic newspapers.
According to confidential Spanish court documents
obtained by NBC, at least 14 letters went back and
forth between the World Trade Center bombers and a
Spanish terror cell.
In February 2003, bomber Mohammed Salameh writes:
"Oh God! Make us live with happiness, make us die as
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martyrs, may we be united on the Day of Judgment."
The recipient, Mohamed Achraf, later allegedly led a
plot to blow up the National Justice Building in Madrid
and is awaiting trial.
In July 2002, a letter Salameh sent from prison is
published in the Al-Quds newspaper, proclaiming
"Osama Bin Laden is my hero of this generation."
"He was exhorting acts of terrorism and helping recruit
would-be terrorists for the jihad," says McCarthy, "from
inside an American prison."
The letters to the bombers spoke of the need to
"terminate the infidels" and said, "The Muslims don't
have any option other than jihad."
Among those corresponding is a man charged with
recruiting suicide operatives in Spain. Spanish officials
accuse him of using letters to and from the U.S.
bombers as a recruiting tool.
All this while the Bureau of Prisons reassured the public
that terrorists were under control.
"We have been managing inmates with ties to terrorism
for over a decade by confining them in secure
conditions and monitoring their communications
closely," said Harley Lappin, the Bureau of Prisons
director, in October 2003.
Today, federal prison officials refuse to comment
directly on what other law enforcement officials call a
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horrible lapse, saying only that inmates' letters are
"monitored" and "inspected."
So how did this happen? Federal officials tell NBC that
the Justice Department failed to restrict
communications to and from the three bombers
because key officials didn't consider them all that
dangerous.
Michael Macko lost his father, Bill, in the trade center
bombing and attended the 12th anniversary memorial
on Feb. 26.
"If they are encouraging acts of terrorism
internationally, how do we know they're not
encouraging acts of terrorism right here on U.S. soil?"
asks Macko.
That's just one of the many questions now being
scrutinized by the Justice Department.
From inside Americas most secure prisons, 1993 World
Trade Center bomber Mohamed Salameh wrote letters
to a Spanish terror cell and to Arabic newspapers
praising Osama bin Laden and suicide bombers, saying,
"Anyone who rises up against American arrogance and
tyranny and causes the Americans fear and trembling
also are heroes. He openly signed off "ADX
penitentiary in Colorado" known as "Supermax."
"Those who allowed this lapse to take place should
really be fired from the Bureau of Prisons," says Sen.
Charles Schumer, D-N.Y.
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Alberto Gonzales, the new attorney general, told
Congress Tuesday at an appropriations hearing that
he's trying to find out what happened.
"There is an investigation ongoing about this matter,"
said Gonzales. "I would prefer not to say much more
than that."
"There really needs to be a major looking at this by the
administration and by the head of the Bureau of Prisons
to make sure this does not happen again," argued Rep.
Frank Wolf, R-Va., at the same hearing.
Prison officials say all communications at Supermax are
monitored closely.
A Justice Department official says Salameh was "a low
level guy," not under any special restrictions, and that
his letters encouraging violence were deemed "generic
stuff" and "no cause for concern."
But a former federal prosecutor says these letters are
dangerous and help recruit terrorists.
"That they are permitted to communicate and aid and
abet the current terrorist networks affiliated with al-
Qaida is something that is just intolerable," says former
U.S. attorney Mary Jo White.
Other convicted terrorists are under greater
restrictions.
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Ramzi Yousef, mastermind of the first World Trade
Center bombing, has not been allowed to communicate
with anyone other than his lawyer for 10 years. The
"Blind Sheikh" Omar Abdul Rahman can
communicate only with his wife and his lawyer. Yet,
NBC News found a prison letter, purportedly written by
Rahman in January, posted on an Islamist Web site. In
it, he urges Muslims to rise up against the aggressors
code for Americans.
NBC news has learned that Spanish intelligence notified
the CIA last fall about the bombers' letters, and the CIA
told the FBI. Yet, there is no indication that any
additional security measures have been imposed.
Rise of Islam in jails a risk?
When you're in prison there's lots of time to think about
God.
Salvation for the sinners has a timeless appeal. And so
religion remains an enduring jailhouse phenomenon,
where detained criminals are free to embrace penance,
piety and prayer.
Witness: "Islam Behind Bars" (CBC, 8 p.m. tonight) is a
one-hour documentary that explores "the fastest
growing religion in Western jails." It does this by
focusing on prisoners who have become Muslims.
We begin with Kevin Culmer, a man who robbed Toronto
banks in the mid-'90s to support a cocaine addiction.
After receiving an 18-year sentence in Kingston's
Joyceville Institution, Culmer had a catharsis.
"I said to myself one evening, I said, you know, `You
have to find a better way of living. You have to find a
more complete way of life.'"
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Culmer was fascinated by Muslim inmates in his midst,
whom he describes as "humble" and "at peace." He was
soon reciting verses from the Koran, modifying his diet
and hewing to other religious teachings.
"I felt a moment of clarity with respect to my search for
a way of life," he tells cameras.
This sense of identity and belonging, echoed by other
inmates, is a recurring theme in tonight's documentary.
But in this post-9/11 era, the narrative soon veers
toward a less sanguine discussion: Are prisons breeding
grounds for extremism? Are they incubators for
terrorism?
Warith Deen Umar, an imam formerly with the National
Association of Muslim Chaplains, says, "Osama bin
Laden probably will go down in history as a hero to
Muslims."
He later adds, "You will probably find people not just
in prisons who cheered. You will find people all over
the world who cheered at the black eye that America
got."
It's this sort of execrable rhetoric euphemistically
called "fiery" in the film that concerns authorities in
the United States, Canada and Britain.
In America, which has the world's largest per-capita
prison population, nearly half of the country's two
million inmates are black. And, according to the film,
nearly a third of these people have embraced Islam.
American prisoners began converting to Islam in the
1940s, seeing it as a religion of political and cultural
protest. In 1946, Malcolm Little, a petty criminal, was
sentenced to 10 years for robbery.
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He would soon renounce his Christianity as a religion of
slave owners, change his name to Malcolm X, and turn
a small religious group the Nation of Islam into a
radical political force with 30,000 devoted followers.
Ali Mustafa, an ex-convict who now works as a barber
in Harlem, is also featured in "Islam Behind Bars."
On the subject of the 9/11 terrorist attacks, he makes
this observation: "(America goes) all over the world
doing what they want to different countries. Don't you
think that when you're just constantly beating on
people that eventually somebody is going to come beat
on you?"
Moral equivalence? Anti-Americanism? Shrewd foreign
policy analysis? You decide. But this much is clear: It
will take more than God to fix the mess we're in.
The film suggests Islamic clerics in Saudi Arabia
especially those who practise such fundamentalist
mutations as Wahhabism or Salafism are spreading
their philosophy into Western prisons. But aside from
quoting Stephen Schwartz, the author The Two Faces
Of Islam, a lack of empirical evidence makes the
discussion mostly speculative. At times, it even smacks
of fear-mongering.
To illustrate the danger posed by some prison converts,
a considerable amount of time is devoted to Richard
Reid, the infamous "shoe bomber" who attempted to
detonate plastic explosives on an American Airlines
flight in December of 2001.
To clarify the obvious, the narrator later says: "For
every potential Islamic terrorist in jail, there are
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countless Muslim converts who feel that Islam is no
threat to anyone."
Well, that's good to know.
As "the war on terror" continues, and from the Abu
Ghraib scandal to the bleak realities of Guantanamo
Bay, the issue of "Islam" and "prison" will only spark a
new round of heated polarized debates.
It would be interesting to look at the effects of
privatization within the American prison system. To
explore the issue of faith-based prisons, which George
W. Bush firmly supports. It would also be interesting to
study the recidivism rates of prisoners who have
undergone religious conversions.
"Islam Behind Bars" is relatively engaging but,
ultimately, the questions raised are too complicated to
be tackled in a one-hour film, especially one that tends
to emulsify and homogenize an entire religion.
Prisons have always attracted religious groups. These
people understand a universal truth: People who have
nothing to lose and nowhere to turn will eventually look
for God.
U.S. Prisons Becoming Islam Battleground
It's Friday on Rikers Island, time for weekly worship for
nearly a quarter of the city jail's 14,000 inmates.
The men, Muslims, file quietly into a classroom of white
cinderblock that serves as their mosque. Incense burns
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to chase away a sour smell from the hall, as the
inmates sit quietly on sheets stamped ''Department of
Corrections'' covering the linoleum floor.
Imam Menelik Muhammad is delivering the day's
sermon. As he stands beneath a Quranic prayer on the
wall facing Mecca, he urges the prisoners to reform.
''You will not be considered a Muslim,'' he admonishes,
''unless people are considered safe from your hands and
your tongue.''
Across the United States, tens of thousands of Muslims
are practicing their faith behind bars. Islam is most
likely to win American converts there, according to U.S.
Muslim leaders, and the religion has for decades been a
regular part of prison culture.
But the Sept. 11, 2001, attacks have brought new
scrutiny to Muslim inmates, many of whom are black
men focused on surviving incarceration. While prison
chaplains of various denominations argue that Islam
offers a spiritual path to rehabilitation, others say it has
the potential to turn felons into terrorists. The FBI calls
prisons ''fertile ground for extremists.''
The reality is harder to read: Those on opposing sides
have such divergent views they seem irreconcilable.
Who's right matters not only for national security, but
for the development of American Islam itself, which is
struggling to be accepted alongside the major faiths in
the United States.
Ever since the 2002 arrest of Jose Padilla, a felon and
American Muslim convert who authorities say planned a
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''dirty bomb'' radiological attack after he left jail, law
enforcement officials, politicians and even a few
evangelical leaders have warned that Muslim inmates
are ripe for terrorist recruitment.
Sen. Charles Schumer, a New York Democrat, has said:
''Wahhabi influence is inculcating them with the same
kind of militant ideas that drove the 9/11 hijackers to
kill thousands of Americans.'' Wahhabism is a strict
form of Islam practiced in Saudi Arabia, which was
home to 15 of the 19 hijackers.
Chuck Colson, founder of the evangelical Prison
Fellowship Ministries and a Nixon administration
official, predicted that ''radical Islamists will use
prisons, packed with angry and resentful men,'' to
avenge Islam.
''Prisons continue to be fertile ground for extremists
who exploit both a prisoner's conversion to Islam while
still in prison, as well as their socio-economic status
and placement in the community upon their release,''
FBI director Robert Mueller said Feb. 16 to the U.S.
Senate Intelligence Committee.
Prison chaplains and others, however, say such
warnings are dangerously ignorant.
In interviews with The Associated Press, chaplains,
prison volunteers, correctional officials, inmates and
former inmates all insisted that there was no evidence
of terrorist recruitment by Muslims in their prisons --
although banned pamphlets and books sometimes slip
in.
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Chaplains describe the typical inmate convert as a
poor, black American upset about racism, not Mideast
politics; someone who turned to Islam to cope with
imprisonment. When they get out, these men are so
overwhelmed by alcoholism or poverty that the crimes
they are most likely to commit are the ones that landed
them in jail to begin with, chaplains say.
''They don't care about Osama bin Laden,'' said Imam
Talib Abdur Rashid, who worked for years as a chaplain
in New York state's prison system. ''They have their
own beefs that have nothing to do with shariah (Islamic
law), the Taliban or Wahhabism, and everything to do
with slavery, segregation and the history of U.S.
racism.''
In other parts of the world, such as England and France,
there is growing concern about militants trying to
recruit inmates, which in turn is fueling fear about
American prisons. Historically, radicals have
consistently tried to gain followers behind bars.
But if extreme teachings are reaching U.S. prisoners,
experts say small-time operators acting alone are more
likely to be responsible than an underground movement
or someone in the ranks of professional chaplains.
Just defining the scope of the Islamic presence behind
bars in the United States is tricky.
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Though on the federal level they comprise about 6
percent of roughly 150,000 inmates, there are no
nationwide statistics on Muslims in state prisons.
Experts believe the largest numbers in state prisons
can be found in New York, where Muslims comprise
roughly 18 percent of the 63,700 inmates; Pennsylvania,
where the figure is about 18 percent out of 41,100; and
California, where state officials don't tally religious
affiliation but the figure could easily be in the
thousands.
The bottom line is that the percentage of American
Muslims in prison is almost certainly higher than it is in
the general population, where the number of Muslims
could be as high as 6 million, or roughly 2 percent.
Islam took hold in prison in the 1940s, through the
Nation of Islam. Leaders of the religious movement,
which mixes Muslim traditions with black nationalism,
were imprisoned for refusing to fight in World War II
and, as a result, their teaching spread behind bars.
Among their most famous prison recruits was Malcolm
X.
Another boom came two decades later, when Muslim
inmates sued prison administrators, accusing them of
violating religious freedoms. The inmates won, and
transformed jailhouse practice of all faiths.
Starting in the 1980s, get-tough sentencing laws filled
jails with a disproportionate number of blacks, leading
to another spike in conversion. But by this time, many
blacks who once belonged to the Nation of Islam had
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embraced orthodox Islam instead -- and that is what the
majority of inmates practice today.
Or, at least they say they do.
Some inmates become Muslim in name only, either to
seek protection from prison gangs, enjoy privileges like
holiday meals, or escape the monotony of prison life
through classes and weekly worship. Mika'il DeVeaux, a
Muslim convert who spent 25 years in New York prisons
for murder, encountered inmates who converted but
had little or no understanding of the religion. One
inmate, he recalled, thought converting would allow
him to circumvent prison rules and wear a hat that
looked like a turban.
But for some prisoners, the change is authentic, and
correctional officials say Islamic observance actually
helps them maintain prison security.
Said Anthony Windle, who converted to Islam at Rikers
Island while awaiting trial on a drug conspiracy charge:
''The more you learn, the harder it is for somebody to
feed you untruths and lead you in the wrong direction.''
Duval Rafq, who was convicted of rape and became
Muslim two years into his Connecticut prison sentence,
said converting led him to accept responsibility for his
crime. Released five years ago, he worships at Masjid
Al-Islam in New Haven, and works while attending night
school for heating and refrigeration repair.
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''My behavior all of a sudden changed and other
people's attitude and behavior toward me changed,''
Rafq said.
Despite such success stories, some lawmakers and
analysts remain convinced that radical Muslim
chaplains, prison volunteers and Muslim prison
outreach organizations are escaping notice of law
enforcement -- and they note that just one militant
inmate could create enormous risk.
The Institute of Islamic Information & Education, based
in Chicago, was one example cited at a 2003 Senate
Judiciary Committee hearing on terrorist recruitment in
prisons and the military.
The traditionalist institute sends books on Islam to
prison chaplains and says it responds to more than
3,000 letters from inmates annually, inquiring about
Muslim dietary laws and teachings.
But its founder, Amir Ali, also runs another Web site.
In those postings, he calls al-Qaida leader bin Laden a
''true Muslim'' who wouldn't hurt anyone and contends
Hollywood producers fabricated the videotapes that
have been broadcast over the last few years of bin
Laden threatening more violence.
Ali, who left Pakistan for the United States four
decades ago to earn a doctorate, says Israel committed
the Sept. 11 attacks to force changes in U.S.
immigration laws so that fewer Muslims would be
admitted. He has posted the names of Jews with links
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to the Bush administration as evidence of Israeli
manipulation and referred readers to the Web site of
David Duke, who has led several white supremacist
groups, to back up Ali's argument that Jews control the
media.
As startling as his opinions are, it's unclear what
danger they pose inside prisons, because the breadth of
Ali's reach to inmates cannot be measured.
Despite attracting the Senate's attention, several
Christian, Jewish and Muslim chaplains around the
country said in interviews that they had never heard of
Ali or his institute.
Inmates are barred from using the Internet, and Ali's
books and pamphlets -- like all material sent to prisons -
- are vetted by chaplains and correctional officials.
Literature that could agitate prisoners is prohibited, but
officials also concede that banned publications
sometimes get through. In the New York state system,
some inmates who are among the tiny minority of Shiite
Muslims behind bars said in lawsuits that Sunni
chaplains handed out literature condemning them.
Ali, in a phone interview, insists he keeps his political
views separate from his religious outreach, which at
one time was partially funded by a Saudi Arabian
organization.
''As a citizen of this country, I believe I have a right to
my views,'' said Ali, adding he's never been contacted
by the FBI. ''There's nothing secret about it. None of
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this material goes to prison and none of this material
goes to anybody except those who visit this Web site.''
The Islamic Correctional Reunion Association, a one-
man operation based in Tinley Park, Ill., was also cited
as a potential source of radical thinking in the same
Senate hearing.
Mohammad Firdausi, a retired Illinois prison chaplain
who still works directly with state inmates, has been
sending prisoners pamphlets on Islam since founding
the organization in 1979. Samples that he sent to AP
primarily explained basic Muslim teachings.
However, they also included a pamphlet from the Al-
Huda Islamic Center in Georgia, whose literature has
been banned in some state prisons. The pamphlet's
authors condemn terrorism, but write that ''sometimes
violence is a human response of oppressed people as it
happens in Palestine.''
''Although this is wrong, this is the only way for them to
attract attention,'' the pamphlet's authors said.
Firdausi, a native of India who emigrated for graduate
work, said in a telephone interview he opposes violence
and supports interfaith dialogue, but believes Muslims
have the right to defend themselves if they are under
attack in places like Israel and Kashmir. Asked about
bin Laden, he said, ''I don't think he even exists.''
''We have so much advanced technology and with all
this power we cannot find this person? That is hard to
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understand,'' said Firdausi, who said an FBI agent
visited him twice after Sept. 11, but nothing came of it.
Paul Rogers, president of the American Correctional
Chaplains Association, an interfaith group, had not
heard of either organization, but said self-styled
missionaries of all faiths commonly set up one-person
outreach efforts consisting of only a Web site or post
office box.
Many are either on an ''ego trip'' or trying to bilk money
from prisoners, he said. He discovered one such group
that offered inmates free Qurans, then charged them
$15 to be kept on a mailing list.
Another issue is the background of chaplains who have
face-to-face contact with inmates.
Since Islam has no central authority or the equivalent
of a major seminary in the United States, Rogers said
most prison officials turn to local Muslim leaders to
evaluate these outreach organizations and chaplain
candidates.
In New York state prisons, which are separate from
city-run Rikers Island, some say those safeguards
failed.
Imam Warith Deen Umar, who worked for nearly two
decades as leader of the Muslim chaplaincy program for
New York state before retiring in 2000, expressed
support for the Sept. 11 attacks in a 2003 interview
with The Wall Street Journal. The newspaper found two
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other New York prison chaplains had made similar
comments.
Umar, who said he was misquoted and insisted he did
not support the hijackings, was subsequently banned
from New York prisons and lost a contract for
chaplaincy work in federal prison.
Some chaplains insisted Umar should not be seen as
typical of prison imams. Before becoming a chaplain,
Umar, a one-time Nation of Islam leader, spent two
years in prison on a weapons possession charge related
to an alleged conspiracy to kill police, and was hired at
a time when former convicts were allowed to hold the
job. But ex-convicts have been barred from the
chaplaincy for about two decades. Umar weapon
charge was for possession of explosive device with
intent to use. Umar also had a vast juvenile record from
Chicago were he was born and raised. At the time of his
arrest he was part of the Black Panthers a known
radical organization which supported violence. The
majority of Black Panthers who were sentenced to
prison time converted to Islam.
The secrecy surrounding terrorist investigations makes
it hard to know whether the government has found new
evidence of radicalization among prison converts.
In September 2003, FBI supervisory special agent
Andrew Black told a conference for correctional
officers in Ohio that there have been no documented
cases of U.S. inmates joining al-Qaida in prison. Asked
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if that was still the case now, an FBI spokesman in
Washington said the agency could not comment.
Meanwhile, 10 full-time Muslim chaplains in federal
prisons told Justice Department investigators in a
report last year that they had witnessed no attempts by
al-Qaida or other terror groups to radicalize inmates.
Gary Friedman, a lay chaplain and chairman of Jewish
Prisoner Services International, said irresponsible
politicians and religious leaders have trumped up the
idea of a Muslim threat behind bars to score points with
voters or promote conservative Christianity.
''It's a crusade,'' Friedman said. Neither Colson nor
Schumer would comment.
A related, and some say even bigger, challenge for law
enforcement is monitoring inmates when they get out.
Padilla, who has not been charged, turned to radical
Islam after he was released, federal agents said.
The same occurred with Richard Reid, who was
convicted of attempting to blow up a trans-Atlantic
flight with explosives in his shoes. He was a prison
convert in England who became involved with militants
after he was freed.
In the United States, chaplains say a culture change in
prison makes the spread of extremism less likely.
Back in the 1970s, many Muslim inmates were veterans
of black nationalist movements who felt a connection
with Third World anti-colonial struggles and antipathy
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toward U.S. government policies. Many linked their
plight with that of the Palestinians.
Jimmy Jones, a Muslim who worked for about 25 years
as a chaplain in a New Haven jail and still counsels
inmates, said that way of thinking is no longer the
norm. Jones said he heard a couple of young inmates
cheer the Sept. 11 attacks, but he contended their
response came from ''adolescent bitterness'' about
being incarcerated.
''I think people are confusing what people say with
what people might do. The younger inmates don't know
anything about the Third World or about Egypt or the
Middle East. They're not making those kind of
connections,'' said Jones, a professor of world religion
at Manhattanville College. ''Al-Qaida would have more
success recruiting at a college than in prison.''
SCHUMER: GROWING INFLUENCE OF WAHHABI ISLAM
OVER MILITARY AND PRISONS POSE THREAT
Schumer testimony for Senate Judiciary Subcommittee
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Hearing on Terrorism, Technology and Homeland
Security
Mr. Chairman, I want to thank you for holding this
hearing and for permitting me to testify. The issue were
addressing today is tremendously important in our
effort to protect America from future terrorist attacks
and its a credit to you and this Subcommittee that
youve convened this hearing.
Since the Wahhabi presence in the United States is a
foreboding one that has potentially harmful and far
reaching consequences for our nations mosques,
schools, prisons and even our military, these hearings
could not come at a more opportune moment.
Before I begin, however, let me be absolutely clear:
Islam is an admirable and peaceful faith that embraces
tolerance, morality and charity. Most of the Muslim
world follows these tenets. Unfortunately, the
increasingly influential and radical Wahhabi ideology
distorts this message by preaching hate, violence, and
intolerance toward the moderate Muslim and Judeo-
Christian world.
Al Qaeda and the 9/11 terrorists were the products of
Wahhabism hateful and intolerant systems of belief.
Over the past year, my office has been tracking
Wahhabi activities in the US and around the world and
has uncovered some disturbing information.
Wahhabism is an extremist, exclusionary form of Islam
that not only denigrates other faiths but also
marginalizes peaceful followers of Islam like the Shia
and moderate Sunnis.
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The roots of Wahhabism can be found in Saudi Arabia,
where the governing regime has made an ugly deal with
that nations radical Muslim clerics. The Saudis give the
Wahhabis protection and support in exchange for the
Wahhabis promising not to undermine the Saudi royal
family. Its nothing short of a deal with the devil.
The Wahabbis get to preach the hate and extremism
that form core tenets of Wahhabism, without
consequence. More importantly, they are allowed to
recruit disciples who pose a tremendous threat to
Americans everywhere.
I have written letter after letter to the Saudi Arabian
government asking it to denounce the Wahhabi
teachings of its madrassahs, or religious schools, which
preach extremism, and to stop funding them. Im sure
everyone will be shocked to hear that thus far, I have
not received any response from them indicating a
change in policy.
As the Saudis turn a blind eye, the Wahhabi machine is
becoming well-financed, politically powerful, difficult to
prosecute and making dramatic inroads here in the US.
Let me give you an example of how Wahhabism has
wreaked havoc in my own backyard.
For 20 years, the New York State Department of
Corrections employed Warith Deen Umar as one of its
chaplains, eventually appointing him Administrative
Chaplain of the New York Department of Correctional
Services. He also served time for attempted murder of a
police officer, and possession of explosives with intent
to use.
A strict believer in Wahhabi Islam, Umar was
responsible for the hiring and firing of all chaplains in
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the New York State prison system, exercising complete
control over personnel matters. But last year, Mr. Umar
was banned from ever again entering a New York State
prison after he incited prisoners against America,
specifically preaching to inmates that the 9/11
hijackers should be remembered as martyrs.
Many of the clerics Umar hired during his tenure all
Sunni all practicing Wahhabi Islam have reportedly
echoed his sentiments in sermons before many of New
York States 13,000 Muslim inmates as well as
impeding their freedom of religion by denying these
prisoners access to materials used by more moderate
forms of Islam. While it is not surprising that Umar
would have hired clerics who shared his beliefs, I am
terribly worried that his minions may have exposed
members of New Yorks prison population to his
extremist and toxic anti-American views.
More than preaching hate, these clerics seem to be
actively opposing the US government. In March, federal
prosecutors in New York indicted a chaplain at the
Auburn Correctional Facility for sending millions of
dollars to organizations in Iraq in violation of US
sanctions. He has since pleaded guilty to the offense.
When my office researched further, we discovered that
New Yorks prisons were not the only ones that had
been penetrated by Wahhabi zealotry.
The US Federal Bureau of Prisons uses two groups to
select imams who minister to Muslim inmates: the
Graduate School of Islamic and Social Sciences (GSISS)
whose offices were right across the river in northern
Virginia, and the Islamic Society of North America
(ISNA). As experts appearing later today can testify,
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both of these groups appear to have disturbing
connections to Wahhabism and terrorism and are
funded by the Saudi Arabian government.
The GSISS is under investigation as part of U.S.
Customs' operation Green Quest for its possible role in
helping to funnel $20 million to terrorists through
offshore financial institutions. Meanwhile, a number of
ISNA board members appear to have checkered pasts.
One member, Siraj Wahhaj, was named as an unindicted
co-conspirator in the WTC '93 bombings. Another board
member, Bassam Osman, was previously the director of
the Quranic Literary Institute, an Oak Lawn, Illinois
organization that had $1.4 million in assets seized by
the Justice Department in June 1998 on the grounds
that it was used to support Hamas terrorist activities.
To make matters worse, the GSISS, as well as another
Wahhabi-influenced organization that is under
investigation by Green Quest the American Muslim
Foundation are the sole organizations credentialed to
advise the Pentagon on who to choose to serve as
imams to the 4,000 patriotic and valiant Muslim soldiers
in the US military.
While the potential Wahhabi influence in the US armed
forces is not well documented, these organizations
have succeeded in ensuring that militant Wahhabism is
THE ONLY form of Islam that is preached to the 12,000
Muslims in federal prisons. The imams flood the prisons
with anti-American, pro-bin Laden videos, literature and
sermon tapes. They destroy literature sent to prisons by
more moderate Shia and Sunni organizations, and
prevent imams that follow these traditions from
speaking to prisoners. In addition, non-Wahhabi Muslim
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prisoners who seek to practice their religion often
receive death threats from Wahhabi prisoners who have
been instructed by Wahhabi imams.
The point of prison is to rehabilitate violent prisoners.
Instead, the Wahhabi influence is inculcating them with
the same kind of militant ideas that drove the 9/11
hijackers to kill thousands of Americans. Mr. Chairman,
this is a dangerous situation that is essentially being
ignored.
Despite this evidence, the Federal Bureau of Prisons
and the Pentagon continue to allow these Wahhabi
organizations under federal terrorist investigation to
serve as their sole religious advisors when it comes to
Islam. In an effort to end this practice, I have written to
the Inspectors General of the Department of Justice
and the Department of Defense, both of whom have
responded to tell me that they are looking into the
matter.
However, Mr. Chairman, their efforts are only a first
step towards revealing the full picture of the Wahhabi
presence in America. And please make no mistake, we
need to develop that full picture if we are to prevent
these extremist teachings from taking hold in this
country. Now more than ever I am convinced that the
process to counter this hateful ideology begins and
ends with Saudi Arabia. The Saudis can and should stop
the terrorist financing that goes on within their borders.
The Saudis can and should track down and arrest
terrorists that hide out in their country.
But if they truly want to stop the violence that led to
9/11 and to the recent attacks in Riyadh going beyond
simple band-aid action they must repudiate the
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Wahhabi extremism that is the source of this violence.
This means shutting down the extremist madrassahs,
purging the hate-filled textbooks that populate Saudi
schools, and putting an end to the extremist Wahhabi
preaching that takes place in their mosques. If the
Saudis do not end the funding and teaching of
extremism, the cycle of terrorist violence wracking the
globe will never end.
In addition, our government specifically the Defense
Department and the Federal Bureau of Prisons must
do a better job of connecting the dots between the
organizations with which they do business and Wahhabi
activists ultimately eliminating their influence. Have
we not learned anything since 9/11?
Mr. Chairman, by holding these hearings, youre doing
your part to show that we have youre doing whats
necessary to ensure that we dont look back after the
next terrorist attack and ask, why did we not stop it
when we had the chance?
My worry is that the Saudis and many in this
Administration are not heeding the warning signs. My
worry is that by not heeding these signs, we are once
again letting those who hate freedom recruit disciples
in our country who may potentially do us harm.
My fear is that if we dont wake up and take action now,
those influenced by Wahhabisms extremist ideology
will harm us in as of yet unimaginable ways.
Leader of a Brooklyn Mosque Shifted From Jail Chaplain
Post
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Leader of a Brooklyn Mosque Shifted From Jail
Chaplain Post
Shortly after a Yemeni cleric who described himself
as a spiritual adviser
to Osama bin Laden was arrested on charges of
using a Brooklyn mosque to
funnel millions of dollars to Al Qaeda, the city's
Department of
Correction reassigned a leader of the mosque who
is also a chaplain at
Rikers Island.
A department spokesman said the chaplain, Amin
Awad, has been "put into a administrative capacity" and
can no longer deliver sermons or offer
spiritual counseling to prisoners. The spokesman,
Thomas Antenen, said the
department continues to pay Mr. Awad's $38,900-a-
year salary while he
works in its ministerial services office, which
oversees the 22 other
full-time chaplains at Rikers. Newsday first reported
Mr. Award's
reassignment yesterday.
Mr. Awad is an official of Al Farooq mosque on
Atlantic Avenue in Boerum
Hill. The Yemeni cleric, Mohammed Al Hasan al-
Moayad, was arrested in
Germany and boasted that he had personally
delivered $20 million to Mr.
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bin Laden. In court papers, the Justice Department
suggested that Mr.
Moayad had collected about $10,000 at the mosque.
"When this information regarding the mosque came
to light, it caused us to
take a look at the situation here," Mr. Antenen said.
"We just wanted to
satisfy ourselves that his ministerial activities with
the inmates are
appropriate."
He said he did not know how soon the department
would complete its review
of Mr. Awad's work at Rikers, where he was
assigned to a
medium-to-high-security jail that houses 1,250
inmates awaiting
sentencing. The department notified Mr. Awad on
March 7 that he could no
longer be in contact with inmates in an official
capacity. Mr. Antenen
said that Mr. Awad's work with inmates was being
handled by other
chaplains while he is on administrative duty.
TOP JAIL IMAM IN HATE TIRADE
The head of Islamic chaplains in the New York City
Department of Correction said in a recent speech that
the "greatest terrorists in the world occupy the White
House," Jews control the media, and Muslims are being
tortured in Manhattan jails.
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The outlandish remarks were made by one of the city's
most prominent Islamic leaders, Imam Umar Abdul-Jalil,
the executive director of ministerial services for the
city Department of Correction. He spoke at a
conference of Islamic leaders in Tucson, Ariz., and was
secretly recorded by the counterterrorism organization
The Investigative Project.
The recordings capture Abdul-Jalil - speaking at two
separate symposiums on Islam in America held by the
Muslim Students Association on April 15 and 16 last
year - making incendiary charges and espousing
extremist views.
Abdul-Jalil, 56, who is also imam of the Masjid Sabur
mosque in Harlem, initially denied making the
comments - but later admitted to The Post that the tape
was most likely accurate and said his words are being
"taken out of context."
At one conference session, Abdul-Jalil charged that
Muslims jailed after the 9/11 attacks were being
tortured in Manhattan, according to the tape.
"They [some Muslim inmates] are not charged with
anything, they are not entitled to any rights, they are
interrogated. Some of them are literally tortured and we
found this in the Metropolitan Correctional Facility in
Manhattan. But they literally are torturing people,"
Abdul-Jalil said.
Abdul-Jalil also accused the Bush administration of
being terrorists, according to the tape.
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"We have terrorists defining who a terrorist is, but
because they have the weight of legitimacy, they get
away with it . . . We know that the greatest terrorists in
the world occupy the White House, without a doubt," he
said.
At another session, Abdul-Jalil urged American Muslims
to stop allowing "the Zionists of the media to dictate
what Islam is to us" and said Muslims must be
"compassionate with each other" and "hard against the
kufr [unbeliever]."
Abdul-Jalil, a Bronx resident who said he converted to
Islam while at Attica prison(same time that Umar was
there) in 1970, participated in interfaith reconciliation
efforts after 9/11. He recently took part in an
educational ceremony with Gov. Pataki on Martin
Luther King Day.
"His comments betray an effort to instill hatred of the
United States as the enemy of Islam by making a series
of false allegations portraying the U.S. as an evil
country," said anti-terror expert Steve Emerson,
director of The Investigative Project.
"This is a man who is supposed to be spreading words
of reconciliation and moderation as head Islamic
chaplain - not inciting followers to believe that the U.S.
government and 'Zionists' are plotting a conspiracy of
persecution against Muslims," Emerson added.
In two telephone interviews with The Post while
ministering to inmates of Rikers Island yesterday,
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Abdul-Jalil insisted that he was not promoting
extremism.
He said he was "offended, as an African-American, that
someone would have the audacity to question my
citizenship" and love of his country.
Abdul-Jalil is the latest Muslim chaplain working for city
and state agencies to come under fire.
Last year, the city Fire Department forced Imam Intikab
Habib to resign as chaplain for publicly doubting that al
Qaeda hijackers brought down the World Trade Center
towers and suggesting there was a broader
"conspiracy." The head Muslim chaplain for NYC
Correction Awad was suspended because he was the
Imam at the Al Farqu mosque in Brooklyn which was
linked to the 1993 WTC bombing
Three years ago, Pataki fired Imam Warith Deen Umar,
the former chief Muslim chaplain for the state prison
system, after it was reported he was expressing
support for the 9/11 terrorists.
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INSPECTOR GENERAL INVESTIGATION FEDERAL
PRISONS
A REVIEW OF THE BUREAU OF PRISONS SELECTION
OF
MUSLIM RELIGIOUS SERVICES PROVIDERS
I. INTRODUCTION
This report describes the Office of the Inspector
Generals (OIG)
review of the Federal Bureau of Prisons (BOP) policies
and procedures for
the selection of individuals who provide Islamic
religious services to
federal inmates. On March 10, 2003, Senator Charles
Schumer wrote a
letter to the OIG requesting that we examine the BOPs
process for
selecting Muslim chaplains based on concerns that the
BOP relies solely
on two Islamic groups to endorse its Muslim chaplains,
the Islamic
Society of North America (ISNA) and the Graduate
School of Islamic and
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Social Sciences (GSISS) Both are supported by Saudi
Arabia.
Schumer noted that the ISNA and the GSISS
allegedly are connected to terrorism and promote
Wahhabism, which
some consider an exclusionary and extreme form of
Islam. In addition to
Senator Schumer, Senators Jon Kyl and Dianne
Feinstein expressed
similar concerns and asked the OIG to examine these
issues as they
relate to the BOP.
In response to these requests, we reviewed the
recruitment,
endorsement, selection, and supervision of Muslim
chaplains and other
Muslim religious services providers who work with BOP
inmates. We
also examined the roles the ISNA, the GSISS, and other
organizations
have in the endorsement of chaplain candidates.
During this review, the OIG interviewed the BOPs ten
Muslim
chaplains, the BOP detailee to the Federal Bureau of
Investigations (FBI)
National Joint Terrorism Task Force (NJTTF), and
officials at BOP
Headquarters who are responsible for religious services
providers,
including the Chief of the Chaplaincy Services Branch
and the Senior
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Deputy Assistant Director (SDAD) of the Correctional
Programs Division.
We also interviewed FBI counterterrorism officials and
representatives of
the U.S. Commission on International Religious
Freedom at the U.S.
Department of State (Commission).
In addition, we visited low, medium, and high security
BOP
institutions, where we interviewed prison officials,
examined the
chaplaincy programs, and observed Muslim religious
services. These
facilities included the Federal Correctional Institution
(FCI) in Fort Dix,
New Jersey; the FCI in Fairton, New Jersey; the United
States
Penitentiary (USP) in Allenwood, Pennsylvania; and the
USP in
Lewisburg, Pennsylvania. We also met with analysts
specializing in
Middle East affairs at the Congressional Research
Service, including the
author of the December 2003 report, The Islamic
Traditions of
Wahhabism and Salafiyya, and representatives of the
Department of
Defense (DOD) OIG regarding its examination of the
DODs chaplaincy
selection process.
This report describes the results of our review. It first
provides a
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brief background on Islam, Wahhabism, and the BOPs
provision of
religious services to inmates. It then describes the
BOPs selection of
Muslim chaplains and other religious services providers,
including their
recruitment, application process, and security
screening. We next
discuss BOP endorsing organizations, their
relationships with the BOP,
and the steps the BOP and FBI have taken to assess
whether these
organizations are extremist or affiliated with terrorists.
The report then
examines issues related to the supervision of religious
services providers
once they are allowed into BOP correctional
institutions. Finally, the
report provides our analysis and recommendations.
In sum, our review revealed deficiencies in how the
BOP selects
and supervises Muslim religious services providers.
These problems
include:
the BOP typically does not examine the doctrinal
beliefs of
applicants for religious service positions to determine
whether
those beliefs are inconsistent with BOP security
policies;
the BOP and the FBI have not adequately exchanged
information
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regarding the BOPs Muslim endorsing organizations;
because the BOP currently has no national Islamic
organizations
willing or able to provide endorsements for its Muslim
chaplain
candidates, the BOPs hiring of new Muslim chaplains is
effectively
frozen, resulting in a shortage of Muslim chaplains
within the
BOP;1
the BOP does not effectively use the expertise of its
current Muslim
chaplains to screen, recruit, and supervise Muslim
religious service
providers;
1 With regard to the ISNA and the GSISS, the BOP
currently is not accepting
endorsements from the ISNA, and the GSISS has never
provided endorsements to the
BOP. Our review did not independently examine these
organizations sources of funding
or whether they have terrorism-related connections.
This type of counterterrorism
review would be conducted by the FBI. However, the
OIG has prepared a classified
addendum to this report that provides more information
about organizations and
individuals that were determined by the FBI to be of
interest. This classified
addendum has been given to members of Congress and
BOP officials.
2
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once contractors and certain volunteers gain access
to BOP
facilities, ample opportunity exists for them to deliver
inappropriate
and extremist messages without supervision from BOP
staff
members;
BOP inmates often lead Islamic religious services,
subject only to
intermittent supervision from BOP staff members, which
enhances
the likelihood that inappropriate content can be
delivered to
inmates; and
within the BOPs chapels, significant variations exist
in the level of
supervision provided by correctional officers.
II. BACKGROUND
A. Islam
Islam is a monotheistic faith that arose in the early 7th
century in
the Arabian city of Mecca. Adherents of the Islamic
faith are called
Muslims and follow the teachings of Muhammad ibn
Abdallah. Although
the origins of Islam were in the Middle East, today the
majority of
Muslims are not Middle Eastern.
Over time, divergent interpretations of Islam evolved
and led to the
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development of differing Islamic sects and doctrines.
The current major
Islamic denominations include Sunni Islam, constituting
approximately
85 percent of all Muslims; Shiite Islam, practiced
largely in Iraq and Iran;
and Sufism, a mystical form of Sunni Islam. There is
no ecclesiastical
hierarchy in Islam to resolve disputes between sects or
determine whose
teaching is accurate.
Wahhabism is a form of Sunni Islam. It is practiced all
over the
world and is the predominant religion in Saudi Arabia.
Wahhabism has
many connotations and means different things to
different people. It
generally refers to a movement that seeks to purify the
Islamic religion of
any innovations or practices that deviate from the 7th
century teachings
of the Prophet Muhammad, as interpreted by
Muhammad ibn Abd
al-Wahhab, who lived in the 18th century in Saudi
Arabia, Iraq, and
Iran.2
Most Muslims who adhere to Wahhabism refer to
themselves as
Salafis, meaning Unitarians, because al-Wahhab
emphasized the
transcendental unity of God. The term Salafi literally
means one who
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2 See Febe Armanios, The Islamic Traditions of
Wahhabism and Salafiyya,
Congressional Research Service, Dec. 22, 2003, at 1.
3
follows the Prophet Muhammad and his companions,
and also can be
used to describe all Muslims, not just Wahhabis.
According to one
Islamic scholar, [w]ahhabism, in its present form, is a
particular
orientation within Salafism. . . . It is fair to say that all
puritanical groups
in the Muslim world are Salafi in orientation but not
necessarily
Wahhabi.3
Fifteen of the 19 September 11 hijackers were from
Saudi Arabia,
and all of them are believed to have been Wahhabis. In
the United
States, Wahhabism has been equated with radicalism
and terrorism in
some newspaper articles, books, and public discourse.
For instance, in
his 2002 book, The Two Faces of Islam, journalist
Stephen Schwartz
wrote that, Wahhabism exalts and promotes death in
every element of
its existence: the suicide of its adherents, mass murder
as a weapon
against civilization, and above all the suffocation of the
mercy embodied
in Islam.4
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However, not all experts agree that Wahhabism and
Salafism
are inherently synonymous with violence, terrorism, or
radicalism. For
example, FBI counterterrorism officials told us that
Wahhabism is not
inherently violent or terroristic, but has been
manipulated for violent or
terroristic ends. In addition, representatives from the
Commission noted
to us that many Wahhabis/Salafis throughout the world
are doctrinally
rigid, but peaceful.
The BOPs ten Muslim chaplains, representatives from
the
Commission, and counterterrorism experts at the FBI
also stated that
radical Islam can be found in many different sects of
Islam, not just in
Wahhabism/Salafism. Several of the Muslim chaplains
said that
prominent Wahhabis have publicly condemned
terrorism, suicide
bombers, and Usama Bin Laden. Similarly,
representatives from the
Commission said that Islamic extremism is not so much
the result of a
particular doctrine as it is the result of an individuals
school of learning
or associations with groups that espouse hate,
extremism, and violence.
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In addition, FBI counterterrorism experts and
representatives from the
Commission stated that other Islamic sects, such as
extreme Shiite
Islam, could be just as radical and as much of a
terrorism threat as
extreme Wahhabism/Salafism.
3 See Khaled M. Abou El Fadl, And God Knows the
Soldiers: The Authoritative
and Authoritarian in Islamic Discourses 5 n. 5 (2001).
4 See Stephen Schwartz, The Two Faces of Islam 180
(2002).
4
B. Islam in Federal Prisons
1. Number of Muslim Inmates, Chaplains, Contractors
and Volunteers
The BOP houses approximately 150,000 inmates in 105
BOP
facilities nationwide.5 According to the Chief of the
BOPs Chaplaincy
Services Branch, approximately 9,000 inmates, or about
6 percent of the
inmate population, seek Islamic religious services.
While Muslim
inmates are not required to report which sect of Islam
they identify with,
inmate self-reporting indicates that Muslim inmates
generally can be
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classified into four groups: Sunni, Shiite, Nation of
Islam, and Moor
Science Temple of America. Approximately 85 percent
of BOP inmates
who identify themselves as Muslim are Sunni or Nation
of Islam. In
contrast, less than 1 percent of the Muslim inmates
many of whom are
from Middle Eastern countries are Shiite. The Nation
of Islam is a
U.S.-based group that follows the teachings of Elijah
Muhammad. The
Moor Science Temple of America is a very small group
and, according to
the SDAD of the BOPs Correctional Programs Division,
not very active in
BOP institutions.
The BOP provides Muslim inmates with religious
services through
BOP chaplains, contractors, and volunteers. Since 2001,
10 BOP
chaplains, or a little more than 4 percent of the BOPs
total chaplains,
are Muslim. According to the BOP, it currently is
experiencing a critical
shortage of Muslim chaplains. The Chief of the
Chaplaincy Services
Branch said a critical shortage of chaplains exists when
there is 1
chaplain of a certain faith for every 700 inmates of that
faith BOP-wide.
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Currently, there is 1 Muslim chaplain for every 900
Muslim inmates.
When a Muslim chaplain is not available in a prison,
Muslim inmates
religious services are provided by Muslim volunteers,
contractors, or
inmates.
Muslim contractors are compensated by the BOP to
provide
certain Islamic services to inmates. Volunteers are not
compensated by
the BOP and are classified into two groups: Level 1 and
Level 2
volunteers. Level 1 volunteers are authorized to enter a
particular BOP
institution less than four times a year and must be
supervised by a BOP
staff member at all times. Level 2 volunteers have
greater access to
institutions and, according to the BOP, need only be
supervised
intermittently because they have completed more
thorough background
investigations than Level 1 volunteers. As of September
6, 2003, there
were 56 Muslim contractors and 108 Muslim Level 2
volunteers
5 These numbers do not include contract facilities or
halfway houses, which are
responsible for providing religious services to the BOP
inmates housed there.
5
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throughout the BOP. BOP officials could not provide us
with the
number of Level 1 volunteers.
2. Radical Islam in Prisons
Radicalization of Islamic inmates is not a recent
phenomenon.6
Prison systems throughout the world have been and
continue to be
breeding grounds for radicalism, recruiting grounds for
extremist
movements, and facilities for the planning and training
of radical
activities.7 For example, radicalization has been a
serious concern for
decades in France, where more than half of the
penitentiary inmates are
Muslim. According to some accounts, thousands of
French inmates have
been indoctrinated in the principles of a holy war
against the Western
powers and the Jews who manipulate them, in the
words of one
pamphlet circulating in French prisons.8 It also has
been reported that
radicalized inmates have built an extensive and highly
organized
terrorist university in French prisons by using
smuggled tapes, books,
and pamphlets to spread anti-Western and anti-Semitic
messages.9
Concerns regarding the radicalization of Muslim
inmates in prisons
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were heightened after former inmates Richard Reid and
Jose Padilla were
arrested for allegedly attempting to commit terrorist
acts against the
United States. Reid, convicted for attempting to blow
up an American
Airlines flight from Paris to Miami with explosives in his
shoes, had
converted to Islam in a British prison and left the prison
with radical
leanings. British officials suspect he was radicalized in
part by extreme
Islamic clerics who visited and preached at the prison.
Jose Padilla,
arrested for attempting to detonate a dirty bomb in the
United States,
converted to Islam after serving time in a Broward
County, Florida, jail
where authorities suspect his Islamic radicalization
began.
6 Radicalization is distinguishable from terrorist
recruiting. In this report, we
use radicalization to mean the process by which
inmates who do not invite or plan
overt terrorist acts adopt extreme views, including
beliefs that violent measures need to
be taken for political or religious purposes. Terrorist
recruitment, on the other hand,
is used to mean the solicitation of individuals to commit
terrorist acts or engage in
behavior for a terrorism purpose. These definitions are
derived in part from definitions
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provided to us by the BOP detailee to the FBIs NJTTF.
7 See Gregory R. Copley, The Intelligence and
Management Challenge: Handling
Radical, Terrorist and Politicized Prisoners, Defense
and Foreign Affairs Strategic Policy,
Jan. 2002, at 10.
8 See, e.g., Frank Viviano, French Prisons: Extremist
Training Grounds,
San Francisco Chron., Nov. 1 2001, at A4.
9 Id.
6
According to the FBI, it is likely that terrorist groups
such as
al-Qaeda will attempt to radicalize and recruit inmates
in the United
States.10 FBI counterterrorism officials stated that
inmates are logical
targets for terrorist recruitment because they may be
predisposed to
violence, feel disenfranchised from society, desire
power and influence,
seek revenge against those who incarcerated them, be
hostile towards
authority and the United States, or cling to a radical or
extremist Islamic
family. In addition, prisons have large populations of
non-Arab Muslim
inmates who are increasingly valuable for terrorism
recruitment, since
they may not receive the same level of scrutiny as
Middle Eastern
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Muslims. Moreover, an FBI counterterrorism analyst told
us that the
immense wealth associated with extreme
Wahhabism/Salafism makes
the religion appealing to inmates who are seeking
financial support and
assistance after they leave prison.
Inmates can be radicalized in many ways, including
through the
delivery of anti-U.S. sermons, exposure to other radical
inmates, or the
distribution of extremist literature. According to an
Ohio state
correctional official, radicalization has led some
inmates in state prisons
to become members of terrorist groups, including the
Islamic-militant
group Hizballah and the Irish Republican Army.11 While
radicalization
does not necessarily lead inmates to join terrorist
organizations, it can,
upon their release, lead them to attend and serve in
radical mosques or
obtain religious education overseas in locations that
provide further
opportunities for radicalization and terrorist
recruitment.
The SDAD of the BOPs Correctional Programs Division
said that
he does not believe there is widespread terrorist
radicalization or
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recruiting occurring in BOP facilities, but he recognized
that many
inmates are vulnerable to radicalization and terrorist
recruitment. FBI
counterterrorism officials stated that they believe some
BOP inmates are
being radicalized because they are leaving BOP
facilities with extreme
Islamist views. While these officials said they were
unsure precisely how
radicalization is occurring, they believe that some
Muslim contractors
and volunteers are radicalizing inmates in prisons in the
United States.
The ten BOP Muslim chaplains we interviewed said they
have not
witnessed inmates being radicalized by contractors or
volunteers. The
BOP staff and managers we interviewed also asserted
that staff
10 John S. Pistole, Assistant Director of the FBI
Counterterrorism Division,
Statement for the Record Before the Subcommittee on
Terrorism, Technology, and
Homeland Security of the Senate Judiciary Committee
(October 14, 2003).
11 See statements by Phil Vermillion, the security
threat group investigator for
Ohios state prison system, reported by The Associated
Press, FBI Agent Warns Prison
Officials of Al Qaeda Recruitment (Sept. 20, 2003).
7
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chaplains, contractors, and volunteers were not the
cause of inmate
radicalization. The BOP staff said they were confident
that if a chaplain,
contractor, or volunteer was delivering inappropriate
messages, the
prison would soon learn about it and the individual
would be removed
from his or her position.
The BOP Muslim chaplains stated that some inmates
are
radicalized in prison by other inmates. Numerous other
BOP staff
members also told us that the real threat of
radicalization comes from
inmates, not chaplains, contractors, or volunteers. One
Muslim chaplain
stated that at his prison some Islamic extremist
inmates told other
inmates that if they were going to convert to Islam,
they had to overthrow
the government because Muslims arent cowards.
Other chaplains told
us that convicted terrorists from the 1993 World Trade
Center bombing
were put into their prisons general population where
they radicalized
inmates and told them that terrorism was part of Islam.
Another
chaplain said that he has observed some inmates from
foreign countries
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politicize Islam and radicalize inmates, who in turn
radicalize more
inmates when they transfer to other prisons.
In addition to terrorist radicalization and recruitment,
the Muslim
chaplains noted a version of Islam they call Prison
Islam. They
explained that Prison Islam, which is unique to the
prison environment,
results when inmates follow Islam without direction or
analysis inmates
distort Islam to encompass prison values such as gangs
and loyalty to
other inmates. The chaplains said they frequently have
to oppose Prison
Islam in their institutions because it threatens prison
security.
The Muslim chaplains said that Prison Islam especially
thrives in
institutions that do not have a staff chaplain,
contractor, or volunteer to
lead inmates Islamic services such as the Juma prayer,
which is the
obligatory, group prayer held midday on Fridays.
According to the
Muslim chaplains, in these institutions Muslim inmates
often lead Juma
services, and inmates who promote Prison Islam or
engage in
radicalization have the opportunity to teach and lead
other inmates
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without the countervailing influence of a mainstream
Muslim chaplain,
contractor, or volunteer. In fact, the growth of Islamic
radicalism in
French prisons has been attributed in part to the control
that inmates
exercise over most of the institutions religious
practices.12
The BOP provides official guidance to institutions
chaplains
regarding inmate-led services. The BOPs Technical
Resource Manual
014.01, issued in June 1995, states that:
12 See Frank Viviano, French Prisons: Extremist
Training Grounds, San Francisco
Chron., Nov. 1 2001, at A4.
8
Normally inmates are not permitted to lead religious
programs. When an inmate faith group meets which is
different from the Chaplains own, and when there is no
community representative available to lead the group
on a
volunteer or contractual basis, inmates may conduct or
lead these programs only under the supervision of the
Chaplain. This supervision entails eye contact with the
group and at least periodic presence in the program
area
by the Chaplain.13
While BOP officials acknowledged to us that religious
services led
by inmates are a security concern, they said that the
lack of Muslim
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chaplains, contractors, and volunteers makes inmate-
led services a
necessity in some BOP facilities. The Chief of the
Chaplaincy Services
Branch suggested that the BOP could reduce concerns
about inmate-led
services by having inmates read sermons written by
one of the BOP
Muslim chaplains or by a Muslim outside of the prison
and screened by
the chaplaincy.
With respect to Wahhabism/Salafism, the BOP chaplains
said they
believed that any chaplain, contractor, or volunteer who
identified
himself as a Wahhabi/Salafi would be too narrow-
minded and sectarian
to be able to teach in a pluralistic, prison
environment.14 They also said
that strict Wahhabism would not survive in prisons
because it is too
exclusionary to appeal to the inmates.15 In addition,
they stated that
pure Wahhabism poses a security threat to the prisons
because it does
not tolerate religious pluralism.
C. Provision of Religious Services in the BOP
1. Chaplaincy Services Branch
The BOP Central Office is composed of eight divisions.
One of the
divisions, the Correctional Programs Division, is
responsible for security
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13 Technical Reference Manuals provide guidelines,
optional assistance, best
practices, and how-to information that may be needed
or useful to accomplish the
objectives or requirements of Program Statements.
They are not directives or policy,
but technical and instructional in nature.
14 The chaplains clarified that because Wahhabi
means different things to
different people, a person who is labeled by others as a
Wahhabi might not be narrowminded
and sectarian. However, they agreed that if a Muslim
identifies himself as a
Wahhabi, then he would hold views contrary to the
BOPs position of religious
pluralism.
15 The chaplains stated that inmates who identify
themselves as Wahhabis or
Salafis generally espouse Prison Islam rather than true
Wahhabism or Salafism.
9
and custody issues, providing services to inmates, and
developing policy
in these areas.16 The Correctional Programs Division
coordinates
inmates religious services through the Chaplaincy
Services Branch.
According to the Chief of the Chaplaincy Services
Branch, the provision
of religious services to inmates is required by law to
accommodate
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inmates free exercise of religion. She stated that
religious services are
essential to the security and orderly running of BOP
institutions because
it provides inmates with direction, guidance, and a
sense of purpose, and
helps them to be productive, disciplined, and compliant.
The Chaplaincy Services Branch is required to provide
opportunities for inmates to pursue individual religious
beliefs and
practices in accordance with law, federal regulations,
and BOP policy.
The Chaplaincy Services Branchs central office is
located at BOP
Headquarters. It provides staffing, training, policy,
procedures, and
technical assistance to regional and field chaplains.
However, it does not
supervise regional or field chaplains and has only
advisory authority over
BOP regional and field decisions, except when governed
by BOP policy,
procedures, or reference manuals.
The BOP has one Regional Chaplain in each of its six
regions. The
regional chaplains oversee one to five chaplains in each
facility in their
regions. Within each institution, a supervisory chaplain
manages the
institutions chaplaincy staff. As of March 5, 2004, there
were
approximately 240 chaplains BOP-wide.
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Under prevailing federal case law, inmates are not
entitled to a
chaplain of their faith group, denomination, or sect.17
As a result, all
BOP chaplains, regardless of their own faiths, are
expected to minister to
inmates of all faith traditions, including those who have
no faith
tradition. The Chief of the Chaplaincy Services Branch
stated that
chaplains must be willing to accommodate the free
exercise of religion for
all inmates, which means they must respect,
appreciate, and understand
the faith traditions of the inmates, and they must
actively provide
inmates opportunities to mature spiritually within their
own faith
traditions.
Chaplains are supposed to plan, direct, and supervise
all aspects
of the institutions religious programs and have access
to all areas of the
institutions to minister to inmates and staff. They are
responsible for
leading worship services, providing religious education,
offering pastoral
counseling, conducting crisis intervention, supervising
religious services
16 An organization chart of the BOP is attached to this
report as Appendix A.
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17 See Cruz v. Beto, 405 U.S. 319, 322 n. 2 (1972); Weir
v. Nix, 114 F.3d 817,
820 (8th Cir. 1997); Blair-Bey v. Nix, 963 F.2d 162, 163-
64 (8th Cir. 1992).
10
and meetings, enabling faith groups to observe holy
days and other
religious practices, and accommodating the legitimate
religious needs of
inmates.
In addition, chaplains oversee religious contractors and
volunteers.
Contractors and volunteers are brought into institutions
to perform a
specific religious service or function, such as a worship
service, group
prayer, scripture study, or religious lecture.
BOP staff repeatedly emphasized to us that the
provision of
religious services in its institutions is important to the
maintenance of
security in the facility. For example, according to a
lieutenant at the FCI
in Fort Dix, New Jersey, which has the largest inmate
population of any
BOP facility, the religious services department
absolutely plays an
important role in maintaining security. A BOP chaplain
also stated to
us that religious services diffuse a lot of frustrations
and anxieties and
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angers; it provides inmates with internal controls that
otherwise they
would not have.
2. Duties Performed by Muslim Chaplains,
Contractors, and Volunteers
Muslim chaplains are responsible for providing faith-
specific
services for Muslim inmates, including Koranic studies,
holy day
observances, and presiding at Juma prayer. Muslim
chaplains also are
responsible for pastoral counseling and administrative
duties. While
they are not required to perform sacraments, rituals, or
worship services
for other faith groups, they are required to counsel
inmates of all faiths
and supervise the contractors, volunteers, or inmates
who lead the
religious services for other faith groups. See BOPs
Position Description:
Chaplain and BOP Program Statements 3939.07 and
5360.08.
Muslim contractors also lead Koranic studies, preside
at Juma
prayers, and provide counseling to Muslim inmates. The
contractors
provide services on a per session basis. They can
offer sessions on a
weekly basis or as infrequently as once a quarter,
depending on the
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needs of the institution. Inmates must register in
advance to participate
in the contractor-led sessions. Contractors do not have
general access to
inmates and cannot leave the area to which they are
assigned without
notifying a staff member.
Muslim volunteers offer many of the same services as
contractors,
but they are not paid and are not required to come into
the institution for
a certain number of sessions. Volunteers services
include providing
occasional seminars, presiding over Juma prayers,
leading Koranic
studies or scholastic discussions, and serving as guest
speakers for
11
Ramadan or other religious observances. As with
contractors, inmates
must register in advance to participate in the sessions
offered by
volunteers. Volunteers do not have general access to
inmates and
cannot leave the area to which they are assigned
without being escorted
or notifying a staff member, depending on whether they
are Level 1 or
Level 2 volunteers.18
According to the Chief of the Chaplaincy Services
Branch, Muslim
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chaplains, contractors, and volunteers all are
responsible for presenting
the basic, mainstream principles of Islam and
correcting misinformed or
misled Muslim inmates. They also are responsible for
ensuring the
security of the institution, which includes addressing
and countering
Prison Islam and inmates radicalization efforts. One of
the BOP Muslim
chaplains we interviewed asserted that contractors and
volunteers have a
stabilizing effect on Muslim inmates because they bring
fresh opinions
and societal experiences into the institutions, and
inmates do not see
them as part of the police like they see the chaplains.
He said that
fewer contractors and volunteers in the prisons make
inmates feel more
isolated and alienated, and leads to the germination of
unsophisticated
Islam, including radicalization and Prison Islam. Other
chaplains also
said that volunteers and contractors help to control
radicalization,
prevent misconceptions about Islam, and keep inmates
from delivering
their own sermons, taking their own interpretations of
Islam, and
controlling religious activities.
D. BOP Policies Regarding the Provision of Religious
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Services
The BOP has implemented various policies and
procedures
regarding religious practices, activities, and services in
its institutions.
These policies and procedures apply to all religious
chaplains,
contractors, and volunteers, regardless of faith.
According to the Chief of
the Chaplaincy Services Branch, the policies and
procedures are
intended to guarantee inmates free exercise of religion
while ensuring
the security of the institutions. She said that Muslim
chaplains are
supposed to minister to inmates of all faiths and
accommodate all
Islamic denominations, and that all Islamic religious
services providers
are prohibited from endorsing one sect over others,
teaching sect-specific
doctrine, or imposing their own ideas on the inmates.
18 As described on page 5, the difference between
Level 1 and
Level 2 volunteers
is that Level 1 volunteers are authorized to enter a
particular BOP institution less than
four times a year and must be supervised by a BOP staff
member at all times, while
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Level 2 volunteers have greater access to institutions
and, according to BOP personnel,
need only be supervised intermittently.
12
The SDAD of the Correctional Programs Division stated
that
inmates are allowed to practice religions with extreme
doctrinal views as
long as their religious teachings do not violate the law
or BOP policy.
According to the SDAD, the main security policy guiding
the provision of
religious services in the BOP is that religious groups
and religious
services providers cannot: 1) advocate violence; 2)
make statements
against the United States, including statements that
support or condone
terrorism; or 3) discriminate against other inmates or
exclude them from
their services, whether based on race, religion, or other
discriminatory
factors. See BOP Program Statements 3420.09,
3730.04, and 5360.08.
In addition to these restrictions, BOP Program
Statement (P.S.)
5360.08, Religious Beliefs and Practices, explicitly
prohibits the following
religious practices and activities:
Proselytizing,
Profanity;
Consumption of alcohol;
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Paramilitary exercises;
Self-defense training;
Animal sacrifice;
Casting of spells or curses;
Nudity;
Sexual acts;
Self-Mutilation;
Use or display of weapons;
Ingestion of illegal substances; and
Encryption.
The SDAD said that if a groups practices or doctrine
violate any of
these policies or procedures, the group is banned from
BOP facilities.
Similarly, if a religious services provider violates any of
these policies or
procedures, the BOP will consider dismissing the
provider from the BOP.
III. SELECTION OF MUSLIM CHAPLAINS,
CONTRACTORS, AND
VOLUNTEERS
A. How Personnel Needs Are Identified
According to the BOP, personnel needs for all religious
services
providers, including Muslim chaplains, contractors, and
volunteers, are
identified based on what institutions need to
accommodate inmates
religious beliefs and practices, as allowed under the
First Amendment,
the Religious Freedom Restoration Act (RFRA), the
Code of Federal
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Regulations, other Public Laws, and BOP policy.
13
The need for BOP chaplains also is determined in part
by the
chaplain-inmate ratio BOP-wide. Because BOP
chaplains are hired to
accommodate the religious beliefs and practices of all
inmates, the BOP
considers qualified applicants of all faiths for all
chaplain vacancies.
However, when there is a critical shortage of chaplains
of a certain
religion, the Chief of the Chaplaincy Services Branch
said that the BOP is
more likely to select qualified chaplain candidates of
that religion rather
than candidates of other religions. Moreover, whenever
possible, the
BOP does not place chaplains of the same faith in the
same institution.
See BOPs Qualifications and Job Requirements for
Chaplaincy.
The BOP does not attempt to match chaplains of
particular
denominations or sects to particular institutions. For
example, even if a
particular prison has a large Sufi Muslim inmate
population, the BOP
does not attempt to place a Sufi Muslim chaplain in that
prison.
According to the Chief of the Chaplaincy Services
Branch, matching
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chaplains denominations or sects to those of the
inmates requires the
BOP to discriminate in hiring based on candidates
religion and doctrinal
beliefs. Currently, the BOP does not require chaplain
candidates to
report their denominations or sects because the BOP
considers it
irrelevant to job performance. In addition, according to
the Chief of the
Chaplaincy Services Branch, denomination or sect
matching would
potentially undermine the BOPs expectation that
chaplains minister
pluralistically, focus on the basic principles of their
faiths, and not
impose their denominations or sects doctrinal beliefs
on inmates. Under
prevailing case law, the BOPs refusal to provide a
religious leader for
every sect in a prison does not violate the inmates
constitutional right to
the free exercise of religion.19
Chaplain vacancies are determined by each institution,
but the
BOP does not hire chaplains for specific sites. For
example, the BOP
does not announce a chaplain vacancy in the USP in
Atlanta, Georgia.
Instead, it hires chaplains and then places them where
needed
throughout the BOP.
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By contrast, contractors and volunteers are recruited
and selected
by individual institutions to address the particular
needs of inmates in
that institution. The BOP attempts to accommodate
inmates religious
needs by providing them sessions with a contractor or
volunteer of that
faith. For example, a prison with a large Shiite Muslim
population can
determine it needs a Shiite contractor or volunteer,
rather than a Muslim
contractor or volunteer from another sect. However,
this is not currently
19 See Cruz, 405 U.S. at 322 n. 2; Weir, 114 F.3d 817;
Blair-Bey, 963 F.2d at
163-64.
14
being done in the BOP partly because, according to the
Chief of the
Chaplaincy Services Branch, the BOP has difficulty
determining the
denominations or sects of inmates.
B. How Candidates Are Recruited and Selected
1. Recruitment
The BOP does not advertise for chaplaincy positions by
specific
faith groups. Instead, BOP chaplain vacancies are
announced
continuously on the BOP website, the U.S. Office of
Personnel
Management (OPM) website, and websites such as
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http://www.usajobs.com. The BOP also advertises
chaplaincy vacancies
with religious organizations and recruits at job fairs,
theology speaking
engagements, and conferences. Some chaplain
candidates have applied
to work for the BOP after serving as contractors in the
institutions.
Our review determined that each of the current BOP
Muslim
chaplains was recruited or referred by another BOP
Muslim chaplain.
According to the Chief of the Chaplaincy Services
Branch, Muslim
chaplains are the BOPs most effective and reliable
resource for recruiting
qualified Muslim chaplain candidates. However, the
BOP Muslim
chaplains we interviewed stated that because BOP
management had not
adjusted the chaplains schedules to account for
recruiting
responsibilities, they were unable to dedicate time to
recruiting new
chaplain candidates even though they wanted to.
In addition to recruiting other chaplains, BOP Muslim
chaplains
have recruited Muslim contractors and volunteers.
Muslim contractors
also are recruited through the BOP website, Muslim
organizations
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websites, the governments contracting website
(www.fedbizopps.gov),
and newspaper advertisements. Similarly, chaplains
and volunteer
coordinators recruit Muslim volunteers locally. The
Chief of the
Chaplaincy Services Branch said that when an
institution determines
that it needs a Muslim contractor or volunteer, it often
will contact a
local mosque or Islamic center for recommendations.
One Muslim
chaplain said that this was the best way to find
qualified, reliable
contractors and volunteers. The Chief of the Chaplaincy
Services Branch
also said that BOP staff might contact another BOP
prison with a strong
Muslim religious program to seek assistance from
chaplains, contractors,
or volunteers in that program.
According to the Chief of the Chaplaincy Services
Branch, the BOP
has had difficulty meeting institutions demand for
Muslim chaplains, in
part because it is difficult to find candidates who meet
all the personal,
15
academic, and professional requirements to be a
chaplain.20 As a result,
the BOP currently has three Muslim chaplains less than
it needs to
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overcome its critical shortage of Muslim chaplains.21
The Chief of the Chaplaincy Services Branch also stated
that the
BOP does not have enough Muslim contractors and
volunteers to provide
Islamic services for all Muslim inmates. According to
BOP officials, there
are several reasons why the BOP has had difficulty
recruiting and
maintaining Muslim contractors and volunteers. First,
the remote
locations of many BOP institutions makes it difficult for
contractors and
volunteers to get to those institutions. Second, the BOP
does not have a
program or strategy for recruiting Muslim contractors
and volunteers.
The BOP Muslim chaplains suggested that the BOP
should make a
greater effort to reach out to Muslim organizations and
communities to
develop local contacts and encourage Muslims to serve
in BOP
institutions. They said that currently the Chief of the
Chaplaincy
Services Branch is the only person in the BOP who is
reaching out to
Muslims. Third, according to the BOP Muslim chaplains,
the BOP does
not provide its Muslim chaplains adequate time to
recruit contractors
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and volunteers, even though they have strong
connections to the Muslim
community. Fourth, one Muslim chaplain noted that the
BOP does not
provide volunteers incentives to work in the prisons,
such as
reimbursement for gasoline when they visit rural
facilities. Fifth,
according to the Muslim chaplains, recruitment of
Muslim volunteers has
slowed after the September 11 terrorist attacks
because Muslims fear
they will be scrutinized or investigated if they become
involved with the
government. Sixth, according to the Chief of the
Chaplaincy Services
Branch, the Islamic community does not have the
programs or precedent
for prison ministry in the United States that other
religions have.
Recruitment difficulties present a special problem
because the BOP
needs many Muslim contractors and volunteers to lead
Juma prayers
and other Islamic services that must occur at the same
time on the same
days (i.e., Juma prayers must be held shortly after
12:30 p.m. on
Fridays). One chaplain, contractor, or volunteer can
only provide these
services in person to one group of inmates at the
appointed time. For
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example, in an institution that has four facilities, a
Muslim chaplain,
contractor, or volunteer is needed in each facility at the
same time on
Fridays to provide Juma prayer. If there is only one
chaplain, contractor,
20 These requirements are discussed below in section
III (B)(2), Application
Process.
21 The BOP has determined a critical shortage of
chaplains exists when there is 1
chaplain of a certain faith for every 700 inmates of that
faith BOP-wide. Using this
standard, the BOP needs 13 Muslim chaplains to
eliminate its critical shortage.
Currently, it has only ten Muslim chaplains and
approximately 9,000 Muslim inmates.
16
or volunteer available, inmates in three of the facilities
either will lead
themselves in the prayer or will not receive the prayer
service that day.
This shortage of Muslim chaplains, contractors, and
volunteers means
inmates are left to lead and direct each other in Islam,
which may affect
prison security because extremist inmates could use
these services to
radicalize and recruit other inmates.
2. Application Process
a. Muslim Chaplains
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In order to be considered for a chaplain position in the
BOP,
candidates must meet certain personal and
professional requirements.22
First, the applicant must be a citizen or resident of the
United States or a country that has diplomatic relations
or treaties with
the United States. Second, the applicant ordinarily must
be younger
than 37 to be appointed to a BOP position. However, the
Department of
Justice (DOJ) has waived this age requirement for
Muslim chaplain
applicants because of the critical shortage of Muslim
chaplains in the
BOP. See 5 U.S.C. 3307. Third, applicants must
provide adequate
documentation of their religious and ministerial role
within their religious
community. This documentation is required in lieu of
formal ordination
or recognition by ecclesiastical institutes, which do not
exist in Islam.
Fourth, applicants must pass a physical examination
and Physical
Abilities Test, which are designed to measure the
physical requirements
necessary to perform essential functions in a
correctional setting. Fifth,
applicants must report the professional, civic, and
religious organizations
in which they hold membership.
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With respect to professional requirements, applicants
must have
earned a bachelors degree from an accredited college
with at least 120
hours of instruction. In addition, applicants must have a
Master of
Divinity degree from an accredited residential seminary
or theology
school, or have successfully completed 90 semester
hours of graduate
study that include: 1) 20 semester hours of pastoral
ministry; 2) 20
semester hours of theology, ethics, or philosophy of
religion; 3) 20
semester hours of religious history or world religions
(which demonstrate
22 The BOPs table depicting the application and
security screening requirements
for chaplains, contractors, and volunteers is attached
as Appendix B.
17
an understanding of religious pluralism); and 4) 20
semester hours of
religious writings or language study.23
In addition to these academic requirements, applicants
must have
at least two years of full-time pastoral experience in a
ministry setting
after they have completed their academic preparation.
They also must
sign a Candidate Certification and Authorization form
certifying that
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they will minister to inmates of other faiths.
Finally, an applicant must provide three personal
references,
recommendations from previous employers, and an
endorsement from a
national organization that has completed the paperwork
required by the
BOP to endorse chaplain applicants (endorsing
organization). The
applicant must have been associated with the
endorsing organization for
at least two years prior to the endorsement. The
endorsement must
attest to the applicants suitability for correctional
ministry, verify the
applicants ability to minister in a pluralistic
environment to inmates of
all faiths, support the applicants candidacy, and
provide assurance that
the applicant has no past or present legal or moral
barrier to being a
religious leader.
Obtaining an endorsement from a national Islamic
organization
presents special challenges for Muslims because,
unlike other religions,
there is no national Islamic decision-making body to
recognize official
Islamic religious leaders or authorize them to minister
to others. The
BOP Muslim chaplains explained that in Muslim
countries the
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government, not organizations, endorses religious
leaders. They said
that Muslims in the United States have created national
organizations to
unify and represent them, such as the Islamic Assembly
of North
America, the Islamic Circle of North America, and the
ISNA. However,
the chaplains noted that these organizations are not as
large, organized,
or established like other religions organizations, such
as the Catholic
Church or the Southern Baptists, and several of the
organizations have
received scrutiny for allegedly advocating radical
beliefs or supporting
terrorism.
At this time, the ISNA is the only Islamic organization
that has
completed the paperwork required by the BOP to
endorse chaplain
applicants. Other organizations can apply to be
endorsers for Muslim
chaplains, but none has submitted the requisite
paperwork. However,
the BOP has not hired a Muslim chaplain since 2001,
and in 2003 it
stopped accepting ISNA-endorsed chaplain candidates
until the FBI
23 The GSISS offers an academic program that fulfills
the BOPs educational
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requirements for graduate study in Islam. The GSISS is
discussed below in section IV,
Endorsing Organizations.
18
provides the BOP with any information on the ISNA.24
This has resulted
in a freeze on hiring Muslim chaplains. The GSISS never
has endorsed a
Muslim chaplain, contractor, or volunteer for the
BOP.25
Despite the difficulties in obtaining national
endorsements from
Islamic organizations, the BOP requires Muslim
chaplain candidates to
provide a national endorser like all other chaplain
candidates. Most of
the BOPs Muslim chaplains told us they supported the
requirement for a
national endorser because, they said, it has led to the
hiring of highcaliber
chaplains and it is an effective way for the government
to further
screen candidates. However, a few of the chaplains
believed that the
BOP should require local endorsers instead of national
endorsers
because some national organizations have been
discredited, and national
organizations do not know chaplain candidates as well
as local
organizations do. This issue is discussed further in
section IV(A), Role of
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Endorsers for Staff, Contractors, and Volunteers.
Once the chaplain candidate has completed the
application packet,
obtained all required recommendations, and received a
national
endorsement, the applicant sends the application to the
central office of
the Chaplaincy Services Branch. Only applicants with
complete
application packets are considered for chaplaincy
vacancies.
b. Muslim Contractors
When a BOP institution determines it needs a religious
contractor,
it completes a Determination of Need form indicating
the purpose of the
contract, description of service required, special
qualifications necessary,
estimated cost of services, and an explanation for why
the existing
chaplains cannot perform the services. Based on the
Determination of
Need, the BOP advertises for contractors and issues a
Statement of Work
(SOW). Contractors apply for advertised positions by
submitting
proposals for services based on the requests in the
SOW.
In order to be eligible for a contractor position,
applicants must
have resided in the United States for three of the past
five years and be a
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citizen or resident of the United States or a country that
has diplomatic
relations or treaties with the United States. If a
contractor is a foreign
national, the BOP does not grant the contractor access
to BOP
24 The ISNA is discussed in more detail in section IV,
Endorsing Organizations.
The BOP has stopped accepting endorsements from all
Islamic organizations until it
receives information on those organizations from the
FBI and determines whether to
continue using those organizations as endorsers.
25 The GSISS is discussed in more detail in section IV,
Endorsing
Organizations.
19
computers. Contractors also must demonstrate that
they have the
knowledge of their religion and ministry experience
necessary to
adequately provide the services requested. As with
chaplain candidates,
contractor applicants must provide adequate
documentation of their
religious and ministerial role within their religious
community.
In addition, contractor applicants must have a letter of
endorsement from a local religious organization or
clergy member that
verifies the applicant is authorized to perform the
services requested.
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Generally contractors do not receive endorsements
from national
organizations like the ISNA, but approximately five
Muslim BOP
contractors or volunteers have been endorsed by the
ISNA. The GSISS
never has endorsed a Muslim BOP contractor.
Unlike chaplain candidates, contractor applicants are
not asked to
report the professional, civic, and religious
organizations in which they
hold membership. They also are not required to have
particular
academic credentials or pastoral experience. However,
local BOP
institutions often impose these requirements on their
own. For example,
a February 2003 SOW issued by the FCI in Victorville,
California,
required applicants to have a minimum of three years of
documented,
continuous, full-time experience as an Islamic minister
and a
Baccalaureate Degree from an accredited college or
university, with a
major in some form of religious studies.
Contractors submit their proposals directly to the
institutions
requesting contractor assistance. The facilitys Human
Resource
Management and Business Office staff determine which
proposal is
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selected.
c. Muslim Volunteers
Muslims interested in volunteering in the BOP apply
directly to
specific institutions, generally through a volunteer
coordinator. Muslim
volunteers must provide a letter of endorsement from a
local Islamic
organization or clergy member that verifies the
volunteer is authorized to
perform the services requested. According to the Chief
of the Chaplaincy
Services Branch, volunteers must also have verifiable
religious
credentials, but no specific academic training is
required. The ISNA has
endorsed approximately five of the BOPs Muslim
volunteers or
contractors, but the GSISS has not endorsed any.
20
3. Security Screening
a. Muslim Chaplains
In order to be selected as a BOP chaplain, candidates
must pass a
criminal history check, which includes a fingerprint
check, local law
enforcement checks for the past five years, and a
record check through
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the FBIs National Crime Information Center (NCIC).
Candidates also
must pass a drug screening urinalysis and provide the
contact
information for their employers for the past five years.
In addition, the
OPM contracts with the U.S. Investigations Services
(USIS) to conduct
full investigative background checks on chaplain
candidates. These
investigations are supposed to be completed within 120
days from the
date scheduled. Subsequent reinvestigations of
chaplains are supposed
to be conducted by the OPM every five years. These
security screening
requirements are standard for most federal government
employees.
The OPM/USISs background investigation examines,
among other
things, the chaplain candidates loyalty to the United
States, contacts
with foreign countries, and any previous criminal
activity. According to
the Chief of the Chaplaincy Services Branch, the
investigations do not
specifically examine the candidates past sermons or
performance in
religious settings to determine whether they have given
radical messages
or made radical statements.
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The BOP has experienced problems obtaining timely
closure of
investigations from the OPM/USIS for all of its
employees. In June 2002,
the BOPs Security and Background Investigation
Section wrote a formal
letter to the OPM regarding delinquent cases, and the
OPM responded by
implementing a plan to address the backlog of cases.
The BOP informed
us that since it took these steps, the OPM
investigations are being closed
quicker. However, the BOP said that the OPM still has
some cases open
until after new employees one-year probationary period
has expired,
making it more difficult for the BOP to dismiss
personnel whose
background investigations develop derogatory
information.
Despite the OPMs delays in conducting background
investigations,
the BOPs SDAD of the Correctional Programs Division
said he is not
aware of any concerns or problems with the results or
quality of the OPM
investigations. In addition, while OPM delays might
affect the
background investigations of future Muslim chaplains,
the current
Muslim chaplains background investigations already
have been
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completed.
In addition to background investigations, chaplain
candidates also
receive a pre-employment screening interview and a
panel interview. The
21
pre-employment screening interview is conducted by a
Human Resources
specialist and covers the candidates employment
history, financial
history, criminal history, driving record, and any
dishonest conduct or
excessive use of force. A representative from Human
Resources, a
Regional Chaplain, and at least one other manager
conduct the panel
interview. While the panel interview is more in-depth
than the
pre-employment screening interview, the questions are
standard (the
Civil Service Questionnaire) and do not typically explore
candidates
doctrinal beliefs.
Although some of the BOP Muslim chaplains said they
were asked
doctrine-related questions in their interviews, most said
they were not.
However, many of the chaplains said that they were
recruited by people
in the BOP who already knew their doctrinal beliefs.
The Muslim
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chaplains told us they believed there should be some
process to discern a
candidates doctrinal beliefs, whether formally (through
the interview) or
informally (by checking with staff familiar with the
candidate), for
security purposes. For example, they stated that the
BOP should know if
a Muslim candidate identifies himself as a
Wahhabi/Salafi or identifies
himself with a particular school of thought rather than
with Islam in
general because, in their view, these individuals would
not be willing or
able to minister effectively to inmates of all faiths or of
other Islamic
sects.
Currently, the BOPs policy is not to ask chaplain
candidates what
they believe or require them to provide a statement of
faith. Rather, the
BOP relies on the certification of national endorsers
that the candidates
are mainstream Muslims and capable of teaching in
BOP institutions.
The Chief of the Chaplaincy Services Branch expressed
concern to us
that asking such questions or requiring a statement of
faith would place
the government in the position of approving or
disapproving of a persons
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religion. She also said there would be no way to ensure
the candidate
answered questions truthfully. Furthermore, she stated
that, in her
view, candidates doctrinal beliefs are secondary to
what they will commit
to do in the job.26
In addition to not asking Muslim chaplain candidates
about their
religious beliefs, the BOP does not require a Muslim or
other persons
knowledgeable of Islam to participate in chaplain
candidates interviews.
However, eight of the ten Muslim chaplains said they
were interviewed by
a Muslim. Some were interviewed by a BOP regional
official who was
Muslim, and one chaplain said he was interviewed by
another BOP
26 The OIGs analysis of whether the BOP legally can
screen chaplains doctrinal
beliefs is contained in section VI, OIG Analysis.
22
Muslim chaplain. The Muslim chaplains believed that
the interview
process is not effective if candidates are not
interviewed by a Muslim.
In response to questions about Muslim chaplain
candidates being
interviewed by a person knowledgeable of Islam, the
Chief of the
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Chaplaincy Services Branch suggested that the BOP
could create an
interfaith advisory board composed of chaplains of
many faiths, including
Islam, to interview all of the BOPs chaplain candidates,
regardless of
faith.
The only method the BOP currently uses to screen
chaplain
candidates doctrinal beliefs is the Candidate
Certification and
Authorization, which the candidates sign pledging that
they will minister
to inmates of all faiths. The Chief of the Chaplaincy
Services Branch said
that Muslims with extreme Islamic views, like extreme
Wahhabis/Salafis,
would not be willing to sign this statement, unless they
were attempting
to infiltrate the prisons by misrepresenting their beliefs.
The BOP also does not ask candidates whether they
have received
funds from foreign governments. The Chief of the
Chaplaincy Services
Branch noted that chaplains are not currently asked
this, even though
candidates for other, higher-ranking federal positions
are. She believed
chaplains and chaplain candidates should be asked
questions such as,
Have you accepted gifts or funds from any foreign
government? by the
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BOP or the OPM.
Finally, as discussed previously, the BOP requires
chaplain
candidates to report their foreign travel. The SDAD of
the Correctional. Does this travel to radical Islamic
countries forbid them from the position?
Programs Division said the BOP is interested in
verifying chaplains
foreign travel and soon will be able to use the State
Departments
databases for this purpose. The Chief of the Chaplaincy
Services Branch
said that the BOP would not hire chaplain applicants
who lie about their
foreign travel. In addition, she said that the BOP will not
hire a chaplain
candidate who has spent a significant amount of time in
a country that
does not have diplomatic relations or treaties with the
United States, but
she did not define how much time was significant
enough to preclude
hiring.27 She said that because Saudi Arabia has
diplomatic relations
with the United States, she did not believe Muslim
chaplain candidates
who have studied in Saudi Arabia should be excluded
from BOP
positions. She also noted that Saudi Arabia is the
religious center of
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Islam and offers many professional schools that can
prepare Muslims for
ministry. Saudi Arabia teaches radical Islamic views.
27 As noted earlier, chaplain and contractor candidates
must have resided in the
United States for three of the past five years.
23
b. Muslim Contractors
In order to be selected as a BOP contractor, candidates
must pass
a criminal history check, which includes a fingerprint
check, inquiries
with local law enforcement, and a records check
through the FBIs NCIC.
Candidates also must pass a drug screening urinalysis
and provide
contact information for their employers for the past five
years. According
to the Chief of the Chaplaincy Services Branch, the BOP
began in
October 2003 to inquire about contractor applicants
educational
background, countries visited, and naturalization
numbers (if
applicable). As with chaplains, the Chief of the
Chaplaincy Services
Branch said that the BOP would not hire applicants who
have spent a
significant amount of time in a country that does not
have diplomatic
relations or treaties with the United States.
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According to BOP officials, contractor candidates are
interviewed
by the program manager at the institution in which they
will work.
These interviews are not standardized, and they also
are not as in-depth
as the interviews of chaplain candidates.
As with chaplains, the BOP does not screen
contractors doctrinal
beliefs or require that they provide a statement of faith.
For example, the
BOP does not use contractors interviews to determine
what candidates
believe or whether their beliefs could compromise
security or violate BOP
policies.
In addition to not screening contractors doctrinal
beliefs, the BOP
does not ask contractors to report the professional,
civic, and religious
organizations in which they hold membership or
whether they have
received funds from foreign governments. The BOP also
does not require
contractors to submit lesson plans to the chaplains or
an outline of what
they intend to cover during their services. The Chief of
the Chaplaincy
Services Branch said that the contractors SOW and
proposal describe
the number of sessions needed and what service the
contractor would
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provide.
The BOP Muslim chaplains we interviewed said that the
BOP does
not consult them regarding the hiring of Muslim
contractors or ask them
to interview contractor applicants. The chaplains said
they have
witnessed some Muslim contractors bring distorted
Islam into the
prisons, which causes problems for the BOP. They said
that the BOP
does not select contractors based on doctrinal beliefs
or lesson plans, but
mostly on who offers the services for the cheapest
cost. As a result, they
said, the BOP has hired contractors who have taught
things that pose a
security threat to the institutions.
24
In addition, the BOP does not require chaplains at
prisons hiring
Muslim contractors to gather information from the local
community on
contractor applicants. The Chief of the Chaplaincy
Services Branch told
the OIG that if chaplains had time, she thought it would
be beneficial for
them to examine applicants activities and reputations
in their
communities and religious congregations before hiring
them.
c. Muslim Volunteers
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In order to be selected as a BOP Muslim volunteer
(Level 1 or
Level 2), applicants must pass a criminal history check,
which includes a
fingerprint check, inquiries with local law enforcement,
and a record
check through the FBIs NCIC. Applicants also must
disclose their
country of citizenship. In addition, according to the
Chief of the
Chaplaincy Services Branch, the BOP began in October
2003 to inquire
about volunteer applicants educational background,
countries visited,
and naturalization number (if applicable). She said this
information is
used to further screen out potentially radical
individuals. For example,
the BOP will not accept volunteers who have spent a
significant amount
of time in a country that does not have diplomatic
relations or treaties
with the United States.
Unlike chaplains and contractors, volunteers are not
required to
pass a drug screening urinalysis or provide contact
information for their
employers for the past five years. They also are not
asked to report the
professional, civic, and religious organizations in which
they hold
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membership or whether they have received funds from
foreign
governments.
Ex-offenders are eligible to serve as volunteers, but are
subject to
more stringent security requirements. In addition to the
standard
volunteer security requirements, ex-offenders must
have no arrests for
three or more years after their release, must submit to
a background
check in which they provide and verify their current
employment or
academic status, and cannot be placed in a prison that
houses inmates
who have separation orders against them. In addition,
ex-offenders are
prohibited from entering protective custody units and
must be escorted
at all times.
Level 2 volunteers must be interviewed prior to working
with
inmates, but Level 1 volunteers are not interviewed.
The prisons
program manager conducts brief interviews for Level 2
volunteers at the
local prison.
The BOP does not screen volunteers doctrinal beliefs
or require
they provide a statement of faith. The BOP also does
not consult the
25
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BOP Muslim chaplains regarding the screening of
Muslim volunteers or
ask chaplains to gather information from the local
community on
volunteer applicants. The Chief of the Chaplaincy
Services Branch told
the OIG that she believed it would be beneficial for
chaplains to examine
volunteers activities and reputations in their
communities and religious
congregations.
d. Security Screening Through the FBI
The FBI recently began providing additional information
to the BOP
on contractors and volunteers that may not be available
during an NCIC
check. This could include open investigations,
terrorism-related
connections, or other information that did not result in
an arrest or
conviction.
1. National Joint Terrorism Task Force
All communications between the FBI and the BOP about
the
radicalization of inmates are now channeled through
the National Joint
Terrorism Task Force (NJTTF) in FBI Headquarters.28
The BOP detailee
to the NJTTF is the project manager for the NJTTFs
Correctional
Intelligence Initiative (CII), described below, and serves
as the conduit for
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the flow of information between the FBI and the BOP on
counterterrorism
issues. For example, he said he exchanges information
with FBI
intelligence analysts, searches FBI databases for
information relevant to
BOP security, and assists in implementing initiatives for
the purpose of
detecting and deterring inmate radicalization in the
BOP. Almost all
information between the FBI and the BOP regarding the
radicalization of
inmates is channeled through this BOP detailee to the
NJTTF. However,
the SDAD of the Correctional Programs Division
informed us that he
occasionally has spoken with unit chiefs at the FBI and
the
Counterterrorism Divisions Deputy Assistant Director
for Operational
Support about the radicalization of inmates.
During our review, we found that the exchange of
information
between the FBI and the BOP on issues concerning the
BOPs selection of
Muslim religious services providers has not been
entirely effective. We
28 The NJTTF was formed in July 2002 to allow for the
direct exchange of
information among approximately 30 participating
federal agencies. These agencies
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include, among others, the Central Intelligence Agency,
the DOD, the Internal Revenue
Service, the Department of Homeland Security, and the
BOP. According to the FBI,
NJTTF members receive all intelligence and other
information that their FBI
counterparts receive. The primary purpose of the NJTTF
is to collect terrorism
information and intelligence and disseminate it to the
FBIs 56 local Joint Terrorism
Task Forces (JTTF), various terrorism units within the
FBI, and partner agencies.
NJTTF members support the FBIs counterterrorism
mission by sharing their respective
agencies information and resources with the FBI and
other NJTTF participants.
26
learned that the FBI had information about certain
Islamic endorsing
organizations potential terrorism connections, but
when we interviewed
senior BOP officials and the BOP detailee to the NJTTF
in July and
August 2003, they did not know about the FBI
information or the extent
of the FBIs concerns about these organizations. This
indicated that
despite the BOP detailees queries in FBI databases and
discussions with
various FBI counterterrorism analysts, he was not
obtaining information
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critical to the BOPs assessment of these endorsing
organizations.
Moreover, the detailees work was not part of a larger
coordinated effort
with the FBI to respond to the issues concerning the
BOPs selection of
Muslim religious services providers.29 The BOP detailee
explained in
August 2003 that he had not contacted the
Counterterrorism Division at
the FBI in an organized way and instead simply had
conversations on
a spot-individual basis with FBI analysts.30
In addition, we learned that BOP and FBI officials did
not meet to
discuss concerns about the BOPs selection of Muslim
chaplains,
contractors, and volunteers until December 16, 2003,
after significant
congressional and media attention arose about these
issues. On that
day, we conducted a follow-up interview of the SDAD of
the Correctional
Programs Division. He said that shortly before our
interview, he had met
for the first time with the Unit Chief of the NJTTF to
discuss the BOPs
selection process for religious services providers. Until
that meeting,
which the Unit Chief of the NJTTF described as an
annual meeting at
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which BOP and NJTTF representatives discussed issues
of mutual
interest, essentially all of the FBIs and BOPs
communications about
issues pertaining to the selection of religious services
providers were
exchanged solely through the BOP detailee to the
NJTTF.
2. The Correctional Intelligence Initiative
The CII is led by the BOP detailee to the NJTTF. The
purpose of
the CII is to prevent potential acts of terrorism by
inmates in the
United States. The CII has four subprojects: 1) general
intelligence,
29 The scope of this review is limited to the selection
of Muslim religious services
providers, and does not include an examination of the
entire CII program and its
recruiting in custody subproject.
30 Shortly after congressional inquiries regarding
concerns about Islamic
endorsing organizations, the BOP detailee began to
gather information from the FBI on
a few of the endorsing organizations he knew were of
concern to Congress. He
conducted several test searches of these groups for the
purpose of determining what
information the FBI had on them and whether this
information indicated the BOP
should not use them to endorse chaplain candidates. He
also had informal
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conversations with analysts in the FBIs
Counterterrorism Division regarding their
knowledge about Wahhabism, Salafism, the ISNA, and
the GSISS. According to the
detailee, his research was non-directed and executed
just on my own.
27
2) recruiting in custody, 3) development of inmate
sources on terrorism
matters, and 4) inmates calling persons of concern.
The CIIs recruiting in custody subproject focuses
specifically on
detecting and deterring the radicalization or
recruitment of inmates by
extremist organizations or individuals who come into
the prisons to
provide services directly to the inmates. This includes
all services,
religious or otherwise, and all people, including staff,
contractors, and
volunteers.
According to the SDAD of the BOPs Correctional
Programs
Division, all contractors and volunteers were managed
and screened by
local prisons until April 2003. Until that time, their
security screening
did not include any checks with the FBI beyond
fingerprint and NCIC
checks. However, in April 2003, BOP Headquarters
began working with
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the NJTTF to conduct further security checks on BOP
contractors and
volunteers. The BOP created a database of the names
of all its
contractors and volunteers and submitted the names to
the FBIs Name
Check Unit for a security threat assessment.
Through this and other projects under the recruiting in
custody
subproject, the FBI has identified some BOP
contractors or volunteers of
interest who it suspects could be recruiting or
radicalizing inmates.31
According to the BOP detailee to the NJTTF, of
interest means that
there is an indication that the person is connected,
directly or indirectly,
to individuals or a group of concern to the FBIs
Counterterrorism
Division. He said that while the FBI may suspect these
individuals to be
a security threat, the information is not always
conclusive and may
require further investigation or research.
The SDAD of the Correctional Programs Division said
that the BOP
analyzes the information obtained by the FBI on the
contractors and
volunteers identified as of interest to determine
whether to recommend
that they be dismissed. He said that a contractor or
volunteer will be
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dismissed based on any credible evidence that the
person has potential
ties to any terrorist-affiliated organizations or
individuals; advocates
racism or violence; or has made anti-U.S. statements or
supports such
statements. He also said that the BOP maintains a
database of its
decisions on these cases to assist in making decisions
on future cases.
He further stated that the BOP plans to screen new
contractors and
Level 2 volunteers names through the FBI before hiring
them.
31 According to the FBI, none of the BOPs chaplains,
Muslim or otherwise, is of
interest. In addition, the BOP never has dismissed a
Muslim chaplain for
inappropriate work-related conduct or teachings.
28
Ultimately, the BOPs success in identifying and
dismissing staff,
contractors, and volunteers who are radicalizing and
recruiting inmates
for terrorist acts depends in part on the FBI developing
and documenting
sufficient, accurate, and credible information to support
a decision to
dismiss an individual. This further underscores the
importance for
improving the FBI-BOP information flow process.
3. The Joint Intelligence Coordinating
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Council (JICC)
On February 24, 2004, the Attorney General announced
the
initiation of the Joint Intelligence Coordinating Council
(JICC). The JICC
will include personnel from key DOJ agencies, including
the FBI, Drug
Enforcement Administration, and the BOP. According to
a press release
from the Attorney Generals office, the purpose of the
JICC is to improve
counterterrorism intelligence collection, analysis, and
information
sharing within the DOJ. While the creation of the JICC
may improve
information sharing between the FBI and the BOP on
issues of inmate
radicalization, the JICC is not yet operational and the
actual effect of the
JICC on the FBI-BOP information flow is not clear.
IV. ENDORSING ORGANIZATIONS
A. Role of Endorsers for Staff, Contractors, and
Volunteers
The BOP uses local and national endorsements to help
determine
that chaplain, contractor, and volunteer applicants are
qualified and able
to provide appropriate religious services in a prison
setting. The roles for
local and national endorsers differ in many respects.
Contractors and volunteers require only local
endorsements that
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are supposed to attest to a persons good standing in
the organization.
These endorsements authorize the person to work in
the local BOP
facility on behalf of the organization. According to the
Chief of the
Chaplaincy Services Branch, the endorsement serves to
verify the
legitimacy and qualifications of the contractor or
volunteer. However, the
BOP does not contact the endorser to discuss the
candidate or the basis
for the endorsement, or maintain any kind of
relationship with local
endorsing organizations.
National endorsements are required for chaplain
candidates.
National endorsements are supposed to signify that the
chaplain
candidates are mature in their religion; can provide
religious services in a
pluralistic environment; represent the national
organization in the
provision of religious services; and have no legal, moral,
or ecclesiastical
barrier to serving as chaplains. According to the Chief
of the Chaplaincy
29
Services Branch, the national endorsement also is
supposed to attest
that the candidate has mainstream religious beliefs and
is qualified and
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capable to teach in BOP institutions.
The BOP requires chaplain candidates to obtain a
national
endorsement from an organization like the ISNA rather
than a local
endorsement because they provide services for many
different kinds of
inmates at facilities across the nation. In contrast, the
BOP requires
contractors and volunteers to obtain only a local
endorsement because
they work at a single, local facility with inmates of their
faith group.
The Chief of the Chaplaincy Services Branch stated that
before
1995 the BOP required Muslim chaplains to provide only
a local
endorsement, just like volunteers and contractors.
However, because it
was difficult for chaplains to maintain relationships
with local
organizations when they were assigned to prisons in
other states, the
BOP decided to move to a national endorsement
requirement for chaplain
candidates. To maintain the relationships between the
endorsing
organizations and the chaplains, the BOP encourages
national endorsers
to visit chaplains in their facilities and authorizes
chaplains to take
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administrative leave to attend endorsers annual
conferences or spiritual
retreats.
The Chief of the Chaplaincy Services Branch said that
the national
endorsement is intended to hold chaplains accountable,
keep them
rooted in their faith, and help them maintain contacts
with their faith
communities. The endorsement is an affirmation that
the candidate will
be performing a valid ministry consistent with the faith
groups beliefs
and has presented evidence of having the education,
experience, and
skills necessary to perform that ministry in a
correctional setting.
The Chief of the Chaplaincy Services Branch
acknowledged,
however, that national endorsing organizations likely
would not know
candidates as well as a local endorsing organization
would. But she said
that it is safer and more effective to require national
endorsements for
chaplain candidates than local endorsements. She
asserted that radical
local organizations could go undetected much easier
than national
organizations. She also said that national endorsers
have more
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experience working with chaplains and have more
resources to assist
them in their work. Furthermore, she said the BOP
builds relationships
with the national endorsers because it can more easily
work with a
consistent group of people over time. Through these
relationships, she
said, the BOP is able to obtain greater support for its
chaplains and
further ensure that the organizations are mainstream,
understand the
BOPs mission, and share the BOPs values. For
example, the BOP has
asked endorsers to report any language or conduct that
indicates a staff
30
member, contractor, or volunteer is promoting a
message that is contrary
to the BOPs policies.
B. Qualification to be an Endorser
The Chief of the Chaplaincy Services Branch said that
the religious
legitimacy of the endorsement provided by a particular
organization or
mosque is based on its reputation. She said if the BOP
had any
suspicion that an organization or mosque was radical,
the BOP would
not rely on its endorsements. Before October 2003, the
BOP relied on
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information known to the general public or reported in
newspapers to
know whether a mosque or organization was radical.
She said that the
BOP evaluated the integrity of a mosque or organization
based on the
conduct of the staff members, contractors, and
volunteers it had
previously endorsed.
Prior to this review, if the BOP had no reason to be
concerned
about a local organization, the organizations
endorsement of a
contractor or volunteer applicant was accepted without
any further
qualification requirements or security screening
procedures. Security
screening steps taken since initiation of our review are
discussed below
in section IV (E), The FBIs Assessment of Endorsing
Organizations.
Before a national group is allowed to endorse chaplain
applicants,
it must complete the paperwork required by the BOP to
verify the
organizations religious legitimacy. Such organizations
must provide the
BOP a statement of their beliefs and practices, proof of
their tax-exempt
status (501(c)(3)), an endorsement for their candidate,
and a completed
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application form.32 The form asks endorsers how they
select candidates,
what criteria they use to determine whether candidates
are qualified as
professional ministers, and how the candidates receive
the official
endorsement of the organization. Since December 2003,
the BOP also
has started requiring national endorsing organizations
to submit an
additional form certifying that their organization does
not promote
separatism, terrorism, or violence.
Currently, the ISNA is the only national organization
that has
submitted all paperwork required by the BOP to be a
national endorser
for Muslim chaplains. However, the BOP recently
stopped accepting
ISNA-endorsed Muslim candidates, effectively ceasing
the hiring of
32 The Chief of the Chaplaincy Services Branch told the
OIG that the BOP does
not use 501(c)(3) information for purposes other than to
establish that the endorsing
group is recognized by the Internal Revenue Service as
a religious organization.
31
Muslim chaplains.33 The BOPs decision to stop
accepting ISNA-endorsed
chaplains is discussed further below under IV (D), ISNA
and GSISS
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Endorsements of BOP Religious Services Providers.
The BOP has encouraged other Islamic organizations to
apply to be
endorsers for Muslim chaplains, including the Islamic
Supreme Council
of America (a moderate Sufi organization). However, the
BOP normally
does not seek endorsers for chaplains. Instead,
chaplain candidates
identify which organization will provide their
endorsement and if the
organization has not completed the paperwork required
by the BOP to be
a national endorser, the BOP will send it an endorser
application packet.
We found no evidence indicating that the BOP excludes
non-Wahhabist
organizations from endorsing Muslim chaplain
candidates. According to
the Chief of the Chaplaincy Services Branch, Muslim
chaplain candidates
recently identified two moderate Muslim organizations
as endorsers, but
neither of them has completed the requisite paperwork.
The Chief of the Chaplaincy Services Branch asserted
that there
are special problems posed by requiring Muslim
chaplain candidates to
obtain a national endorsement: 1) the non-hierarchical
structure of
Islam does not lend itself naturally to the existence of
national Islamic
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organizations; 2) very few Islamic national
organizations have been
established in the United States; 3) many of these
organizations have
fallen into disrepute; and 4) the BOP is not presently
accepting
endorsements from the ISNA and other Muslim
endorsing organizations.
She added that despite her reluctance to rely on local
endorsements for
chaplains, she would consider permitting local
endorsements for Muslim
chaplains if the candidate cannot identify a national
organization that
will complete the paperwork required by the BOP to be
an official BOP
endorser.
C. Background of the ISNA and the GSISS
Founded in 1981 and located in Plainfield, Indiana, the
ISNA is the
oldest national Islamic organization in the United
States. According to
the ISNAs website, the ISNA is an association of
Muslim organizations
and individuals that provides a common platform for
uniting Islamic
communities nationwide; presenting Islam; developing
educational,
social, and outreach programs; and fostering good
relations with other
religious communities and civic organizations. The
ISNAs stated mission
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is to be an exemplary and unifying Islamic organization
in North America
33 The BOP has stopped accepting endorsements from
all Islamic organizations
until it receives information on those organizations from
the FBI and determines
whether to continue using those organizations as
endorsers.
32
that contributes to the betterment of the Muslim
community and society
at large.
The ISNA is operated by an executive council of nine
officers,
including the president, two vice presidents, a former
president, and five
regional representatives. The president, two vice
presidents, and former
president also serve on the ISNAs Board of Directors.
The ISNAs Board
of Directors is composed of 22 individuals, including
leaders of various
Islamic organizations, ISNA chapter presidents, and
members at large.
The Chief of the Chaplaincy Services Branch said that
she has
worked with the ISNA since the 1980s when the BOP
hired its first
Muslim chaplains. She stated that originally the federal
government
sought the ISNAs assistance with locating qualified,
trustworthy Muslim
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chaplains; the ISNA did not approach the federal
government to perform
this role.
The Chief of the Chaplaincy Services Branch asserted
that the
ISNA is a moderate, mainstream, non-Wahhabist,
Islamic organization
that encompasses Muslims from several Islamic sects.
She said that the
ISNAs president participated in inter-faith prayer
services following the
September 11 terrorist attacks. She said that the ISNA
is funded by its
member mosques and does not receive Saudi funding.
She recounted a
time when the BOP approached the ISNA with concerns
about a
particular Muslim contractor, and the ISNA informed the
BOP that the
individual was not teaching Islam appropriately and
that he did not
represent the organizations views.
The GSISS was founded in 1985 by a group of Islamic
scholars.
Due to the death of a significant contributor to the
program, the GSISS
did not begin enrolling students until 1996. The GSISS,
located in
Leesburg, Virginia, was the first Muslim-governed,
campus-based
institution of Islamic graduate studies in the United
States. As of March
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2004, 11 students were enrolled at the GSISS and 13
professors made up
the GSISSs faculty. The president of the GSISS is Taha
Jabir Alalwani.
The GSISS offers two degrees, the Masters of Arts in
Islamic Studies and
the Masters of Religious Practice, which is a 90-credit
hour professional
degree that trains Muslim chaplains. One of the GSISSs
stated
objectives is to serve as a bridge between cultures by
offering a classical
Islamic education framed within the North American
experience.
The GSISS is one of the few Islamic graduate programs
in the
United States available to BOP Muslim chaplain
applicants to obtain
their requisite academic credentials. However, only one
of the ten
current BOP Muslim chaplains has attended the GSISS.
33
The Chief of the Chaplaincy Services Branch said she
has
maintained a relationship with the GSISS since 1996. In
her opinion,
the GSISS is a mainstream, Islamic organization that
has not
demonstrated any tendency toward extremism.
Following the
September 11 attacks, the president of the GSISS
issued a fatwa, or
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official Islamic legal opinion, supporting American
Muslims who serve in
the United States military, combat terrorism, and bring
terrorists to
justice.
The BOP has an ongoing relationship with both the ISNA
and the
GSISS. For example, in June 2002 the Chief of the
Chaplaincy Services
Branch delivered a commencement address at the
GSISSs graduation
ceremony. She also attended the ISNA national
conference in the
summer of 2003 and spoke on one of its panels. In
October 2003, the
ISNA Director came to Washington, D.C., and met with
the Chief of the
Chaplaincy Services Branch and the SDAD of the
Correctional Programs
Division to discuss the goals and mission of the ISNA.
Following the September 11 terrorist attacks, both the
ISNA and
the GSISS were scrutinized for their possible
connections to terrorist
groups. For example, according to an affidavit in
support of an
application for a search warrant that was publicly
released by the
U.S. Attorneys Office for the Eastern District of
Virginia, the GSISS and
some of its affiliated entities have been under federal
investigation by the
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Department since December 2001 for providing material
support to
terrorists, laundering money, and evading taxes. As of
March 15, 2004,
the GSISS was still under investigation for supporting
terrorism.
In addition, several ISNA board members have been
accused of
supporting or having ties to terrorism. One member,
Siraj Wahhaj, was
named by U.S. Attorney Mary Jo White as one of the
unindicted persons
who may be alleged as co-conspirators in the 1993
World Trade Center
bombing. Wahhaj also has been accused of urging his
followers to
overturn the U.S. system of government and set up an
Islamic
dictatorship. Another ISNA board member, Bassam
Osman, is Chairman
of the North American Islamic Trust (NAIT), which
allegedly owns the
Islamic Academy of Florida (IAF) and many other
Islamic organizations.
In a federal indictment handed down in February 2003,
the IAF was
accused of raising funds and providing support for the
terrorist
organization Palestinian Islamic Jihad.
The ten BOP Muslim chaplains said that Muslims
established the
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ISNA to accommodate the American custom of having
large, unified,
religious organizations to represent a faith group. They
said that their
experience indicates that the ISNA is a moderate group
and it was
surprising that the ISNA was suspected of being radical
and having ties
34
to terrorist organizations. They expressed concern that
if the ISNA has
fallen into disrepute, then Muslims have to start all over
and build
another national Islamic organization. However, they
were concerned
that other Islamic organizations would suffer the same
fate that the ISNA
has, mostly because, they said, the hospitable, familial
nature of Islam
means that radical Muslims can easily become part of
such
organizations, unbeknownst to the organizations, and
mainstream
Muslims can innocently become affiliated with the
wrong people or
groups. The ten chaplains also said they believed the
GSISS was a
mainstream organization and that the GSISS trained
Muslims from
various Islamic sects.
D. ISNA and GSISS Endorsements of BOP Religious
Services
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Providers
The ISNAs and the GSISSs relationship to the BOP
came under
scrutiny after a February 2003 Wall Street Journal
article reported that a
BOP Muslim contractor defended the September 11
terrorist attacks and
supported terrorism in statements he made at an event
outside a prison.
The contractor, Warith Deen Umar, attended the GSISS
but was not
endorsed by the GSISS or the ISNA. He is the founder
and president of
the National Association of Muslim Chaplains and
served as the chief
Muslim chaplain of the New York State prison system,
where he was
employed for about 25 years. After he retired from the
New York State
prison system in 2000, he became a Muslim contractor
at the FCI in
Otisville, New York.
In February 2003, the Wall Street Journal quoted Umar
as stating
at a public event, Even Muslims who say they are
against terrorism
secretly admired and applaud [the September 11
hijackers]. The article
also reported that Umar believed black inmates who
converted to Islam
in prison were logical recruits for committing future
terrorist attacks
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against the United States. Around the same time,
Umars contract was
terminated for the convenience of the government,
according to a letter
the BOP sent Umar. One of the BOP Muslim chaplains
told us that he
knew Umar in a professional setting several years
before Umar joined the
BOP, and if asked he would have informed the BOP that
Umar did not
hold mainstream Islam values had he known at the time
of Umars
application that the BOP was considering hiring him as
a contractor.
This incident drew attention to the BOPs process for
selecting
Muslim religious services providers. Shortly after the
Wall Street Journal
article was published, Senator Schumer wrote a letter
to the OIG
expressing concern that the BOP was relying solely on
the ISNA and the
GSISS to endorse its Muslim chaplains. His letter
precipitated this
review.
35
The ISNA has provided endorsements for the BOP from
1987 to
2001, but the GSISS never has. Three of the BOPs ten
Muslim
chaplains were endorsed by the ISNA. The remaining
seven were
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endorsed by other organizations. Before 1995, the BOP
required Muslim
chaplains to provide only a local endorsement, just like
volunteers and
contractors. As a result, six of the chaplains were
endorsed by local
organizations such as the Fox Valley Islamic Society,
the Islamic Society
of New Jersey, and the Islamic Society of Greater
Charlotte. The seventh
chaplain, hired in 1998, was endorsed by a national
organization, the
American Muslim Council (AMC). Because the AMC has
not complied
with the BOPs more recent requirements for official
recognition as a
national endorser, it is not currently allowed to endorse
Muslim
chaplains. In addition, approximately five Muslim
volunteers and
contractors have been endorsed by the ISNA. However,
volunteers and
contractors generally receive endorsements from local
organizations, not
a national group such as the ISNA.
The BOP has not hired a Muslim chaplain since 2001.
The Chief of
the Chaplaincy Services Branch stated that around the
summer of 2003
the BOP stopped accepting ISNA-endorsed chaplain
candidates. She said
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that the BOP would not accept ISNA-endorsed
candidates until the FBI
determined that the organization was not radical and
does not have ties
to terrorism.34 Since the ISNA currently is the only
Islamic national
organization that has submitted all paperwork required
by the BOP to
endorse chaplains, and chaplain candidates must
receive an
endorsement from a national organization that has
submitted the
requisite paperwork, the BOPs non-acceptance of
ISNA-endorsed
candidates effectively has resulted in a freeze on hiring
Muslim
chaplains. According to the Chief of the Chaplaincy
Services Branch, for
example, one qualified Muslim chaplain has submitted
his application to
the BOP, but because he was endorsed by the ISNA the
BOP will not hire
him at this time.
This freeze on hiring Muslim chaplains implicates prison
security
and presents counterterrorism concerns. Without a
sufficient number of
Muslim chaplains on staff, inmates are, according to the
Chief of the
Chaplaincy Services Branch and the ten BOP Muslim
chaplains, much
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more likely to lead their own religious services, distort
Islam, advocate
Prison Islam, and espouse extremist beliefs.
34 By contrast, the FBI told us that it would not provide
the BOP an assessment
of whether an endorsing organization is radical.
Instead, it said it would share the
information it has on the organization so that the BOP
can draw its own conclusions
about whether to use the organization as an endorser.
36
E. The FBIs Assessment of Endorsing Organizations
The FBI potentially could provide the BOP with
information that
would help the BOP determine whether there is a
reason to be suspicious
about an endorsing organization. However, the BOP did
not screen
Islamic organizations through the FBI prior to the time
this review began.
In addition, as described above, our review found that
FBI information
about organizations radicalism or connections to
terrorism has not been
shared effectively with the BOP. As a result, the BOP
did not have
information from the FBI on the ISNA or the GSISS when
public concerns
surfaced about those organizations alleged terrorism
connections. For
example, when we interviewed the SDAD of the
Correctional Programs
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Division in July 2003, four months after the BOP
received Senator
Schumers letter expressing concern about the ISNA
and the GSISS, he
informed us that the BOP never had requested or seen
any intelligence
from the FBI on the ISNA or the GSISS.
In October 2003, after the OIG began conducting this
review, the
BOP formally requested information and a threat
assessment from the
FBI on all 82 Muslim national and local endorsing
organizations used by
the BOP, including the ISNA.35 The GSISS was not
included in this
request because it has not endorsed any chaplains,
contractors, or
volunteers for the BOP. According to the SDAD of the
Correctional
Programs Division and the BOP detailee to the NJTTF,
the purpose of the
request was to assist the NJTTF and the BOP in
determining if
derogatory information indicated an Islamic
organization should not be
used as an endorsing organization for Muslim chaplains,
contractors, or
volunteers. Prior to this request, the BOP had not asked
for information
from the FBI on whether the ISNA or other endorsing
organizations posed
a security threat to the BOP.
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In mid-December 2003, the FBI finished screening the
82 Muslim
endorsing organizations. The FBI determined that some
of the
organizations were of interest, although most of them
were not.36
According to the BOP detailee to the NJTTF, of
interest means that
there is an indication that the organization is
connected, directly or
indirectly, to individuals or a group of concern to the
FBIs
Counterterrorism Division. He said that while the FBI
may suspect these
organizations to be a security threat, the information is
not always
conclusive and may require further investigation or
research.
35 The endorsing organizations of other faith groups
have not been examined.
36 The classified addendum to this report provides
more information about
organizations and individuals that were determined to
be of interest.
37
The FBI indicated that several of the other
organizations of interest
required further research by the FBI because there was
not enough
information to determine whether they have ties to
terrorist groups, are
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radical, or should continue to be used by the BOP.
According to the BOP
detailee to the NJTTF, if the FBIs information about an
organization is
derogatory, the FBI will further examine all Muslim
chaplains,
contractors, and volunteers who have connections with
that group.
According to the Unit Chief of the FBIs
Counterterrorism Division
Domestic Sunni Analytical Unit, as of April 13, 2004,
detailed
information from the FBIs review still had not been
provided to the BOP.
He said that the Counterterrorism Division was awaiting
legal clearance
to release the information contained in the review.
According to the
initial request issued to the FBI field divisions, when
this information
was provided to the BOP, it would be only advisory in
nature and would
not constitute a formal recommendation from the FBI.
Rather, once the
BOP receives the information, it would use the
information to make its
own judgments about the organizations after consulting
with the FBI.
The BOP also said it will determine whether it should
discontinue
receiving endorsements from any of the organizations.
According to
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senior BOP officials, if the FBI does not have any
concerns or significant
derogatory information about an organization, the BOP
will consider the
organizations application to be an endorsing
organization. If the FBI has
an investigation of or compelling derogatory information
about an
organization, the BOP will not continue to accept
applicants who are
endorsed by that organization until it is cleared by the
FBI.
The SDAD of the BOPs Correctional Programs Division
was unable
to define what the BOP would consider to be
significant or compelling
derogatory information. He said the BOP has to make
this determination
on a case-by-case basis, and it cannot begin making
such determinations
until it received information from the FBI. He also said
that if the FBIs
information is inconclusive or ambiguous, the BOP
would examine each
organization on a case-by-case basis to determine
whether to continue
accepting endorsements from that organization. If the
BOP decided to
continue accepting endorsements from such an
organization, it would
subject the organization and its endorsed applicants to
increased levels
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of security monitoring until the FBI reaches a
conclusion about it.
According to the SDAD of the Correctional Programs
Division, if a
future Muslim chaplain, contractor, or volunteer
applicant is endorsed by
an organization that has not yet been vetted through
the FBI, the BOP
plans to have the FBI process the organizations name
through FBI
databases before it allows the chaplain, contractor, or
volunteer
applicant to have access to inmates.
38
V. SUPERVISION OF RELIGIOUS SERVICES ACTIVITIES
AND
PROVIDERS
Supervision within BOP facilities is a further check to
ensure that
chaplains, contractors, or volunteers espousing radical
beliefs are not
permitted to influence the inmate population. An
effective supervision
program also can indicate whether the BOPs personnel
selection process
is successfully screening out individuals who pose a
security risk in the
prison environment. In addition, rigorous inmate
supervision also can
detect, deter, and prevent terrorist recruitment and
radicalization.
A. Overview
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Religious activities in BOP facilities are supposed to
occur under
the supervision of chaplaincy staff and typically occur
in dedicated space
referred to as the chapel. The chapels we observed
during this review
typically included one or two areas for worship
services, offices for
chaplaincy staff, a library, and several classrooms.
These spaces were
enclosed and generally were not amenable to
supervision (visual and
auditory) by one person of more than two rooms at a
time. In some
facilities, the Psychological Services Department
shared space with the
chaplaincy.
The chapel is one of the few areas in BOP facilities
where large
numbers of inmates are permitted to meet as a group
and to converse.
Services typically occur on Friday through Sunday.
Classes are common
in the evenings during the week and last one to two
hours each. At the
facilities we visited, from two to six religious activities
were scheduled
concurrently each weekday evening. To accommodate
the demand for
evening activities, BOP chaplains must work evening
hours twice a week.
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As with other religious groups, Muslim groups usually
gather in
the chapel two times each week: once for a worship
service and once for
a study lesson. The BOP staff members we interviewed
all believed that
the presence of an Islamic radical in this environment
would pose a
threat to institutional security and that supervision
practices needed to
be adequate to detect such persons.
The BOP does not have specific policies that address
oversight of
religious activities. The BOP P.S. concerning Religious
Beliefs and
Practices provides simply that [a]ll institution
chaplains are employed
to . . . supervise institution religious activities. See
BOP P.S. 5360.08.
Although responsibilities of some BOP employees who
interact with
chaplaincy staff members are described in the P.S.
(e.g., food service
staff, employees who make work assignments), the
obligations of
correctional officers in support of chaplains are not
identified. As
39
described below, the lack of policy guidance allows for
significant
variations in the way that religious activities are
supervised at BOP
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facilities.
B. BOP Supervision and Intelligence Gathering Methods
The BOP employs a number of methods to oversee
religious
activities, including staff observation, electronic
monitoring, and physical
inspections. As described to us during our fieldwork,
the primary
responsibility for observing and supervising worship
services and
religious classes in the chapel rests with the staff
chaplains.
According to BOP officials at Headquarters and in the
field, the
supervision of contractors, volunteers, and inmates who
lead services
and classes in the chapel is intermittent.37 BOP staff
members are not
required to be in the same room continuously with
religious service
providers and, instead, observe them only periodically.
The frequency of
staff observations varied at the facilities we visited. At
one institution,
the supervisory chaplain stated that his staff must
perform a walk
around every hour, while another chaplain stated that
this task must be
performed every 30 minutes to an hour. At another
facility, the
supervisory chaplain said that chaplains must check on
religious
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services providers every 15 minutes but was unsure if
this requirement
was embodied in a written policy.
During our fieldwork, we observed significant
differences in the
level of supervision that correctional officers provided
to religious services
and meetings differences that could not be explained
by institution
security level. At one prison, the captain of the
correctional officers
explained that the chaplains are responsible for
monitoring activities in
the chapel and that the only time he would send an
officer to assist with
supervision is when one of the chaplains is absent. A
captain at a
different institution explained that the correctional
officers visit the
chapel sometimes, but most often they rely on the
chaplains to provide
supervision. A lieutenant at a third facility explained
that any good
lieutenant working any shift will not rely on chaplains to
watch all the
inmates and that it is important for the custodial staff
to make a
presence in the chapel because it acts as a deterrent to
misconduct. One
Muslim chaplain also told us that, based on his
experiences, the level of
supervision over chapel activities varies by institution.
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Moreover, it was apparent to us that at certain facilities
the
supervising correctional officers and the associate
warden who oversees
chaplaincy services were not familiar with chapel
activities. For example,
37 This does not include Level 1 volunteers who must
be escorted at all times.
40
at one institution the captain of the correctional
officers told us that
Islamic services are conducted entirely in English and
both the captain
and associate warden stated categorically that inmates
were not allowed
to lead services. When we observed the chapel,
however, an inmate was
leading a service in one of the classrooms and Arabic
was spoken
periodically throughout the Muslim worship service.
Several BOP staff members stated that the
effectiveness of
supervision by correctional officers could be enhanced
with additional
training. One associate warden said that he was not
confident that
correctional officers could detect radical religious
messages (not a whole
lot of folks are in tune with that kind of stuff), and a
captain explained
that if his staff had more training on Islam they would
be better able to
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detect inappropriate messages.
In addition to direct staff observation, the BOP relies
upon cameras
to monitor activities in some chapel service areas and
classrooms. At the
four facilities we visited, a camera was present in the
worship areas at
two facilities, and in two classrooms at another facility.
One associate
warden told us that the use of cameras had
significantly reduced inmate
fighting and strongly deterred inmates from
inappropriate conduct. One
Muslim chaplain told us that there should be more
cameras in the
chapel, and a supervisory chaplain stated that cameras
should be placed
in the classrooms.
While the BOP has video cameras in some worship
areas and
chapel classrooms, however, it does not rely upon audio
monitoring for
routine supervision of religious services in its facilities.
Audio monitoring
is not currently employed in any BOP chapels to
evaluate the messages
that religious services providers deliver to inmates.
Some correctional
officers said that the ability to listen in on worship
services and
classroom instruction would benefit security and would
be a deterrent to
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the expression of radical messages.
Physical inspections also are a component of security
procedures
in the chapel. One lieutenant explained that the chapel
is routinely
checked for contraband, and inmates are pat-searched
as they enter and
exit the chapel for services and classes. Reading
materials that are
delivered to the chapel library also are screened by the
chaplaincy staff.
Several of the institutions we visited, however, did not
have an inventory
of the books currently available to the inmates, and
none of the library
collections had been re-screened since the September
11 terrorist
attacks. We were told by one Muslim chaplain that not
all religious
materials that come into BOP institutions are being
screened by the
BOPs chaplains. We found that inmates are allowed to
order books,
which are delivered to them directly from the institution
mailroom unless
41
the mailroom screener first routes the material to the
chaplains for
review.
The BOP collects intelligence and security information
from a
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variety of sources, including staff, inmate informants,
and other law
enforcement agencies. Nearly every BOP staff member
we interviewed
believed that if a Muslim radical infiltrated a BOP
facility and began
expressing his views, an inmate would report the
conduct. According to
one lieutenant, inmates are knocking down our doors
to tell us things.
Another lieutenant told us that he had inmate
informants in virtually
every known group of inmates in the institution.
Intelligence on inmates
also is generated by the BOPs Sacramento Intelligence
Unit, which
distributes a weekly bulletin to BOP facilities. Captains
at several of the
BOP institutions we visited further said that their
emergency
preparedness coordinators had contacts with the local
JTTF. A captain
at one facility stated that he believed that a member of
his intelligence
staff should be a member of the JTTF because
information sharing is a
paramount concern.
C. Inmate-Led Services
Some staff members we interviewed stated that they
were troubled
by the practice of allowing inmates to lead religious
services. According
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to one chaplain, inmates look for things to control and
the chapel is a
good place to do that. One associate warden told us
that allowing an
inmate to lead a service would put the inmate on a
pedestal, elevating
the inmates stature, which could lead to security
problems. At one
facility where inmates were leading the Muslim
services, the chaplain
could not describe how the inmates were selected for
their position,
whether by vote of the inmates, self-appointment, or
otherwise.
VI. OIG ANALYSIS
Based on our review, we concluded that the BOPs
selection
process needs improvement to further protect the BOP
from hiring
religious services providers who could pose security
threats. We found
that the BOP made some improvements after we
initiated this review, but
we believe additional changes are necessary to address
deficiencies in the
BOPs selection and supervision of religious service
providers.
With regard to chaplains, the BOP requires Muslim
chaplain
candidates to obtain graduate school accreditation in
Islam, have two
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years of full-time pastoral experience, provide three
personal references,
supply recommendations from previous employers,
receive an
endorsement from an Islamic national organization,
have a
pre-employment screening interview and a panel
interview, and undergo
42
a criminal history check, drug screening urinalysis, and
background
investigation. These requirements appear to have
identified appropriate
chaplain candidates. According to the Chief of the
Chaplaincy Services
Branch, none of the BOPs Muslim chaplains has been of
concern to the
FBI or caused problems for the BOP.
With regard to contractors, the BOP requires applicants
to provide
documentation of their religious and ministerial role
within the Islamic
community, obtain an endorsement from a local Islamic
organization,
provide contact information for their employers for the
past five years, be
interviewed by the institutions program manager, and
undergo a
criminal history check and drug screening urinalysis.
Volunteers are
required to obtain an endorsement from a local Islamic
organization,
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provide verifiable religious credentials, undergo a
criminal history check,
and be interviewed by the institutions program
manager if they are
Level 2 volunteers. Unlike the Muslim chaplains, a few
of the BOPs
Muslim contractors or volunteers, such as Warith Deen
Umar, have been
of concern to the FBI or been dismissed from the BOP
for inappropriate
behavior such as making extremist statements and
appearing to give
preferential treatment to inmates.
With regard to endorsing organizations, before the OIG
initiated
this review, the BOP required national endorsers to
provide a statement
of their beliefs and practices, proof of their tax-exempt
status, an
endorsement for their candidate, and a completed
application form that
asked endorsers how they select candidates, what
criteria they use to
determine which candidates are qualified as
professional ministers, and
how the candidate will receive the official endorsement
of the
organization. However, the BOP did not check with the
FBI for
information on these organizations.
After the OIG initiated this review in March 2003, the
BOP began
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requiring national endorsing organizations to submit an
additional form
certifying that their organizations do not promote
separatism, terrorism,
or violence. In addition, in April 2003 the BOP began to
seek assistance
from the FBI with screening out potentially extremist
contractors and
volunteers. In October 2003, the BOP began to seek
assistance from the
FBI with screening out endorsing organizations that
may be attempting
to infiltrate the BOP to radicalize or recruit inmates for
terrorist acts.
According to the SDAD of the Correctional Programs
Division, the BOP
intends to continue screening new national and local
Muslim endorsing
organizations through the FBI, as well as the names of
all new
contractors and Level 2 volunteers, regardless of faith.
The BOP also
plans to wait until it receives the FBIs results from
these screenings
before it grants applicants access to BOP institutions.
43
In addition, the BOP and FBI have taken steps to
improve their
information sharing. For example, the BOP has made
formal requests to
the FBI for information and assessments on
contractors, volunteers, and
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endorsing organizations, and a senior official from the
BOP met in
December 2003 with a senior official from the FBI to
discuss concerns
about the BOPs selection of Muslim chaplains,
contractors, and
volunteers.
While the BOP has taken several steps towards
improving its
selection process, we believe additional changes are
necessary to address
deficiencies in the BOPs selection and supervision of
religious service
providers.
For example, the BOP still does not screen doctrinal
beliefs of
chaplains, contractors, or volunteers. BOP officials
expressed some
concern to the OIG that such screening would not be
legally permissible.
According to the BOPs General Counsel, the BOP Office
of General
Counsel (OGC) has not thoroughly analyzed this legal
issue, but it
believes screening chaplain, contractor, or volunteer
applicants on the
basis of their beliefs rather than their actions or
statements may violate
Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 or the First
Amendment.
We believe, based on our review of the case law, that
the BOP
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legally may screen all chaplain candidates by asking
them questions
about their beliefs. The responses to these questions
can provide
important information for the BOP to determine whether
the candidates
pose a security threat. Pursuant to the Religious
Freedom Restoration
Act (RFRA), the BOP may substantially burden a
persons exercise of
religion if the BOPs actions are the least restrictive
means of furthering
a compelling state interest.38 Many courts have
determined that a
correctional institutions maintenance of security,
safety, and orderliness
qualifies as a compelling interest.39 Moreover, prison
officials are
entitled to take action based on potential threats to
institution security or
38 Religious Freedom Restoration Act, 42 U.S.C.
2000bb (2000). The RFRA
standard for burdening an individuals free exercise of
religion in a prison context is
more stringent than the constitutional standard. Under
the U.S. Constitution, the BOP
may impinge on a persons exercise of religion if the
BOPs actions are reasonably
related to legitimate penological interests. See OLone
v. Estate of Shabazz, 482 U.S.
342, 349 (1987). Therefore, if the BOPs screening of
applicants religious beliefs meets
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the RFRA standard, it would likely meet the
constitutional standard as well.
39 See Hines v. South Carolina Dept of Corrections, 148
F.3d 353, 358 (4th Cir.
1998); Mack v. OLeary, 80 F.3d 1175, 1180 (7th Cir.),
cert. granted, judgment vacated
on other grounds, 522 U.S. 801 (1997); Winburn v.
Bologna, 979 F. Supp. 531, 535
(W.D. Mich. 1997); Woods v. Evatt, 876 F. Supp. 756, 769
(D.S.C. 1995). Cf. Bell v.
Wolfish, 441 U.S. 520, 546-547 (1979); Kikumura v.
Hurley, 242 F.3d 950, 962 (10th
Cir. 2001).
44
the anticipation of security problems,40 and are
accorded deference in
creating regulations and policies directed at the
maintenance of prison
safety and security.41 Therefore, we believe that the
law allows the BOP,
for security purposes, to ascertain from chaplain,
contractor, and
volunteer applicants information to determine whether
their religious
beliefs include: 1) endorsement of violence, 2) support
of terrorism or
other anti-U.S. activities, or 3) discrimination against
other inmates or
exclusion of other inmates from their services, whether
based on race,
religion, or other discriminatory factors.
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Thus, we believe, based upon our initial review, that
screening
religious services applicants beliefs is legally
permissible. We encourage
the BOPs OGC, in conjunction with DOJ attorneys, to
carefully evaluate
this legal issue. It is critical for the security of federal
prisons that the
BOP determine whether religious services providers
support violence;
terrorism; anti-U.S. activities; or discrimination or
exclusion of other
inmates, whether based on race, religion, or other
discriminatory factors,
before they are allowed access to inmates.
In addition to not screening religious services providers
doctrinal
beliefs, the BOP does not request assistance from the
BOP Muslim
chaplains in recruiting or screening chaplains,
contractors, and
volunteers. However, we believe that the Muslim
chaplains are a
valuable resource within the BOP for preventing inmate
radicalization
and can assist with the recruitment and selection of
Muslims who have
mainstream Islamic beliefs. No other group of BOP
employees has as
much expertise and experience with Islam as the
chaplains. The Muslim
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chaplains stated that they would be able to discern
whether a Muslim
chaplain, contractor, or volunteer candidate was an
Islamic extremist in
part by knowing who his teachers were and what
mosques he has
attended. However, the BOP currently does not request
this kind of
information from applicants or discuss it with the
chaplains to determine
whether there is a problem with the candidates views.
The chaplains
suggested that the BOP could have them review Muslim
candidates
application forms, references, and endorsement letters.
They said that
based on this information, they could flag any concerns
with the
applicants and suggest questions that BOP interviewers
could ask them.
40 Whitley v. Albers, 475 U.S. 312, 323 (1986); Hewitt v.
Helms, 459 U.S. 460,
474 (1983); Jones v. North Carolina Prisoners Labor
Union, Inc., 433 U.S. 119, 132-
133 n.9 (1977); Procunier v. Martinez, 416 U.S. 396, 405
(1974); Butler-Bey v. Frey,
811 F.2d 449, 451 (8th Cir. 1987).
41 OLone, 482 U.S. at 353; Bell, 441 U.S. at 547;
Hamilton v. Schriro, 74 F.3d
1545, 1556 (8th Cir. 1996).
45
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Moreover, the BOP does not encourage its chaplains to
seek
information from their local communities on individuals
who have
applied to be religious contractors and volunteers in
their institutions.
To the extent chaplains are able to obtain this type of
information on
religious contractor and volunteer applicants,
regardless of faith, it would
assist the BOP in identifying and screening out
individuals with
extremist views.
The BOP also has not developed a recruitment strategy
specifically
focused on identifying and hiring qualified Muslim
chaplains and
contractors, and recruiting Muslim volunteers. While
there are many
factors affecting the BOPs ability to successfully
recruit Muslim religious
services providers, one of the main reasons the BOP is
experiencing a
critical shortage of Muslim chaplains and a deficiency
of Muslim
contractors and volunteers is that it does not have an
official program or
strategy specifically focused on recruiting Muslim
religious services
providers. The BOP needs to develop such a strategy
and increase the
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number of Muslim religious services providers in its
institutions in order
to accommodate sufficiently the religious needs of
Muslim inmates and
further protect institutions from Prison Islam and
inmates radicalization
efforts. The lack of Muslim religious services providers
in the BOP gives
inmates more opportunities to radicalize other inmates
by leading
religious services.
Moreover, the BOP has not developed alternative
endorsement
policies for Muslim chaplains now that it is not
accepting ISNA-endorsed
candidates. This has resulted in a hiring freeze on
Muslim chaplains,
which contributes to the BOPs critical shortage of
Muslim chaplains.
While the Chief of the Chaplaincy Services Branch said
she would
consider accepting endorsements from local
organizations for Muslim
chaplains, the BOP has not developed a policy
prescribing when local
endorsements will be accepted in lieu of national
endorsements. Hiring
more Muslim chaplains to meet the religious needs of
Muslim inmates is
essential to deterring radicalization and Prison Islam.
The BOP also does not require Muslim chaplains,
contractors, or
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Level 2 volunteers to be interviewed by anyone
knowledgeable about
Islam. Interviewers who are unfamiliar with Islam and
radical beliefs
within Islam are unlikely to be able to discern whether
a Muslim
candidate poses a security threat.
In addition, the BOP does not require an in-depth panel
interview
for contractors and volunteers. The Chief of the
Chaplaincy Services
Branch asserted that because of the extensive contact
contractors and
volunteers have with inmates, she supports requiring
contractor and
Level 2 volunteer applicants to be interviewed more
thoroughly by a
46
panel consisting of a chaplain, a security officer, and a
human resources
official from the BOP institution where the applicants
will work.42
Moreover, the BOPs Muslim chaplains suggested that
Muslim contractor
applicants be asked questions that would explore how
they would handle
hypothetical correctional scenarios and discuss their
motivation for
working in the prisons. We believe the BOP will be able
to screen
contractors and volunteers more adequately if they are
given more
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thorough interviews such as the panel interviews given
to chaplain
candidates.
The BOP does not ask whether chaplains, contractors,
or
volunteers have received funds from foreign
governments. In addition, it
does not verify chaplains foreign travel or ask
contractors or volunteers
to report the professional, civic, and religious
organizations in which they
hold membership. This information could help the BOP
better determine
whether applicants have extremist beliefs or pose a
security threat to
institutions.
As of April 13, 2004, the FBI still had not shared with
the BOP the
information it has on Muslim endorsing organizations.
We were told that
the FBI is awaiting legal clearance to release to the
BOP the classified
and sensitive information it has gathered on the
organizations. As a
result, the BOP has not yet been able to make
assessments of its
endorsing organizations or decide whether to continue
using them.
The BOP and the FBI continue to exchange almost all
information
regarding the radicalization of inmates through the BOP
detailee to the
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NJTTF. We found that this process is flawed because
the BOP has not
received critical information from the FBI about
endorsing organizations
possible connections to terrorism. The BOP detailee
has many NJTTF
responsibilities and may not be able to serve effectively
as the sole
conduit for the FBI-BOP information-flow.43 Other
agencies such as the
Secret Service and the Immigration and Customs
Enforcement assign
permanent liaisons to the FBI, in addition to their
detailees on the
NJTTF, to assist in exchanging information.
With regard to BOP supervision practices, our
examination
revealed that the BOP relies on various methods to
oversee its religious
42 In comments to a draft of this report, the Chief of the
Chaplaincy Services
Branch clarified that she does not believe it is
necessary to conduct panel interviews of
religious services contractors and volunteers who
average four to eight hours in a BOP
institution per month and have very limited contact with
inmates.
43 The OIG is conducting a separate evaluation that is
examining the NJTTF and
expects to issue a report later this year that addresses
various aspects of the NJTTFs
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operations, including information sharing and training
for NJTTF detailees.
47
services providers and inmates, including direct staff
supervision and
electronic monitoring, but significant gaps remain.
Once an individual is
allowed entry to a BOP institution and therefore has a
platform to
instruct inmates or to lead them in worship, ample
opportunity exists for
them to deliver inappropriate messages without the
direct oversight of
BOP personnel. With few exceptions, contractors,
unescorted volunteers,
and inmates who lead services are subject only to
intermittent
supervision. Service areas and chapel classrooms
frequently lack
cameras, and audio monitoring currently is not
employed. Our fieldwork
also identified significant differences in the level of
supervision or
observation of them by chaplains or correctional
officers, and that BOP
staff did not always understand the frequency with
which they were
supposed to observe religious services providers.
Supervisory
correctional officers and BOP managers further advised
us that many
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correctional officers are not familiar with Islam, and
that this lack of
knowledge may limit their ability to recognize radical
Islamist messages
that are inappropriate in BOP facilities.
BOP staff members were consistent in their views that
the most
significant radicalization threat comes from the inmates
and not from
chaplains, contractors, and volunteers. Many of the BOP
staff we
interviewed also emphasized that allowing inmates to
lead services posed
security risks, and in one institution we were told the
practice was
prohibited for security reasons.44 Although BOP staff
acknowledged the
importance of a rigorous selection process for religious
services
providers, they repeatedly told us that they had not
encountered
significant problems with chaplains, volunteers, and
contractors, and
that if such persons were Islamic radicals they would
be identified
quickly because of inmate reporting and other detection
methods.45
We believe that the BOP should evaluate the feasibility
of having
correctional officers provide intermittent supervision of
all religious
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activities to supplement the supervision provided by
chaplaincy staff. As
a further means to enhance supervision of religious
services, the BOP
should evaluate the cost, legality, and feasibility of
expanding video or
audio monitoring of all worship areas and chapel
classrooms. To better
44 As explained above, however, we observed an
inmate leading a service at this
institution.
45 We note that in the case of former BOP contractor
Warith Deen Umar,
described above, BOP staff observed Umar repeatedly
give sermons that violated BOP
security policies but failed to terminate his contract.
Several of his Contractor Progress
Reports explain that he disparages Judaism and
Christianity and that his sermons
are sometimes not appropriate; has been spoken to.
Despite this conduct, the same
Reports provide him with Good or Excellent marks
for the Quality of
Goods/Services rendered.
48
ensure that correctional officers are familiar with Islam
and can
recognize radical Islamist messages that are
inappropriate in BOP
facilities, the BOP also should provide training on Islam
and
radicalization to its correctional officers.
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Another significant problem identified by BOP staff was
the
practice of allowing inmates to lead religious services.
Many BOP
officials and employees said they do not believe that it
is appropriate for
inmates to assume leadership positions in BOP
facilities, including the
position of surrogate chaplain. We agree. Too many
opportunities for
abuse of this practice exist. We think that the BOP
should restrict the
use of inmates to lead religious services. For example,
in facilities where
inmates presently are leading services, the BOP should
evaluate the
feasibility of providing Internet video feeds to chapel
areas for Juma
prayer by a BOP Muslim chaplain.
In addition, the BOP does not require inmate-led
religious services
to be monitored constantly by a staff member. Rather,
staff must
supervise inmate-led services only intermittently, like
services led by
contractors or Level 2 volunteers. As a result, inmates
have the
opportunity to deliver radical messages during religious
services
undetected by BOP staff. Staff supervision at inmate-led
services is
essential to deterring and preventing inmate radicalism.
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The BOP does not require contractors to submit to the
chaplains
lesson plans or an outline of what they intend to cover
during services.
The Chief of the Chaplaincy Services Branch expressed
concern that
making contractors submit their lesson plans for
approval would deter
people from working for the BOP. However, she said
that the SOW for
religious contractors could include the themes and
topics on which
contractors are to focus and list the specific things
contractors are not
allowed to say as part of their messages (i.e., advocate
violence, make
statements against the United States, or make
exclusionary statements).
Our discussions with the BOPs Muslim chaplains
revealed that
they are discouraged from assisting non-Muslim
chaplains in other
facilities with supervision issues related to the practice
of Islam,
including problems concerning radicalization. We
believe this is a
serious error and that the BOP could better use the
expertise of its
Muslim chaplains. Few other BOP employees have the
degree of
knowledge and experience with Islam to advise BOP
staff members
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adequately on matters related to Islamic radicalization.
For example, to
improve supervision practices in facilities that do not
have a Muslim
chaplain, the BOP could encourage staff members from
those facilities to
consult with the Muslim chaplains at other facilities to
address potential
or actual radicalization problems.
49
Our fieldwork also revealed that supervision of chapel
libraries is
not as thorough as it should be. None of the chaplains
at the facilities
that we visited was able to produce an inventory of the
books and videos
available to the inmates, and it did not appear that
these materials had
been evaluated after the terrorist attacks of September
11. We
recommend that the BOP undertake an inventory of
chapel books and
videos to confirm that they are permissible under BOP
security policies.
The BOP also should consider maintaining a central
registry of
acceptable material to prevent duplication of effort
when reviewing these
materials.
Lastly, we found that not all of the BOP facilities we
visited were
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working closely with the local JTTF. BOP facilities
should be fully
integrated into local counterterrorism initiatives. We
recommend that all
BOP facilities maintain at least a liaison with their local
JTTF.
VII. OIG RECOMMENDATIONS
We believe the BOP can and should improve its process
for
selecting, screening, and supervising Muslim religious
services providers.
We therefore offer a series of recommendations to
address the issues we
examined in our review.
A. Screening of Religious Services Providers
1. The BOP should screen all religious services
providers
doctrinal beliefs. Currently the BOP does not screen
religious services providers religious and doctrinal
beliefs.
Instead, it relies on the candidates endorsements to
certify
that they will minister to inmates of all faiths and
provide
appropriate religious services in a prison setting.
However, it
is essential to the security of the BOP that candidates
who
have extreme views and who pose a security threat not
be
allowed into the prisons.
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We recommend the BOP take steps to examine all
chaplains,
religious contractors, and religious volunteers
doctrinal
beliefs to screen out anyone who poses a threat to
security.
For example, the BOP could ask chaplains, contractors,
and
Level 2 volunteers doctrinal questions in their
interviews and
require them to submit a statement of faith with their
applications. We recommend that the BOP OGC
examine
this issue to determine what screening procedures are
legally
permissible. The BOPs screening of candidates
religious
and doctrinal beliefs should be for security purposes
only,
50
not to assess the purity of candidates views or serve
as an
approval or endorsement of their religious beliefs. The
BOP
also should develop a list of criteria to use when
screening
individuals. At the least, this list should include:
1) endorsement of violence, 2) support of terrorism or
other
anti-U.S. activities, and 3) discrimination against other
inmates or exclusion of other inmates from religious
services,
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whether based on race, religion, or other discriminatory
factors. In addition, the BOP should consider requesting
that OPMs background investigations examine
chaplains
past statements and conduct in religious communities.
2. The BOP should require all chaplain, religious
contractor,
and religious Level 2 volunteer applicants to be
interviewed by at least one individual knowledgeable of
the applicants religion. This individual could be a BOP
chaplain, BOP official, or member of an interfaith
chaplain
advisory board created by the BOP for the purpose of
interviewing chaplain candidates. However, if the BOP
creates an interfaith chaplain advisory board, members
of
the board must be screened sufficiently to ensure they
do
not hold views contrary to BOP policy, including
advocating
violence, supporting terrorism, or discriminating against
people of certain races or religions.
3. The BOP should require panel interviews for all
religious
contractors and Level 2 volunteers. Because of the
extensive contact contractors and volunteers have with
inmates, we recommend the BOP require contractor
and
Level 2 volunteer applicants to be interviewed
thoroughly by
a panel consisting of a chaplain, a security officer, and
a
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human resources official from the BOP institution where
the
applicants will work. The BOP likely will be able to
screen
contractors and volunteers more adequately if they are
given
more thorough interviews such as the panel interviews
given
to chaplain candidates.
4. The BOP should implement further security screening
requirements for religious services providers. The BOP
should ask chaplains and religious contractors whether
they
have ever received funds from foreign governments.
The BOP
should ask contractors and Level 2 volunteers to report
the
professional, civic, and religious organizations in which
they
hold membership. In addition, the BOP should verify
chaplains foreign travel to determine whether they
have
51
spent a significant amount of time in a country that
does not
have diplomatic relations or treaties with the United
States.
5. The BOP should encourage chaplains to seek
information
about contractor and volunteer applicants from their
local communities. We recommend that the BOP
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encourage chaplains at institutions hiring contractors
and
volunteers to seek information from their local
communities
about individuals applying to be religious services
contractors or volunteers.
B. FBI-BOP Information Flow
6. The BOP should take steps to improve and increase
the
information flow between the BOP and the FBI. Our
review indicated that the information flow between the
FBI
and the BOP regarding the radicalization and
recruitment of
inmates needs improvement. While the recent creation
of
the Joint Intelligence Coordinating Council (JICC) might
help
improve FBI-BOP information sharing on inmate
radicalization issues, we believe that additional steps
need to
be taken to further improve information flow. We
recommend that the BOP not rely exclusively on the
BOP
detailee to the NJTTF or the creation of the JICC for
this
information flow, but consider assigning a liaison to the
FBI,
like other agencies do, to improve the exchange of
information about the radicalization and recruitment of
inmates. In addition, we recommend that BOP officials
meet
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periodically with FBI officials regarding joint efforts to
prevent the radicalization of inmates.
C. Reliance on Staff Muslim Chaplains
7. The BOP should more effectively use the expertise of
its
current Muslim chaplains to screen, recruit, and
supervise Muslim religious services providers. The BOP
should utilize its Muslim chaplains more effectively by
having them review the applications, references, and
endorsements of potential Muslim chaplains,
contractors,
and volunteers. We also recommend the BOP consider
having at least one Muslim chaplain serve on the
interview
panel for Muslim chaplain candidates.
52
D. Recruiting Muslim Religious Services Providers
8. The BOP should develop a strategy specifically
targeted
towards recruiting Muslim religious services providers.
Currently the BOP does not have enough Muslim
chaplains,
contractors, and volunteers compared to the size of its
Muslim inmate population. As a result, inmates are
leading
religious services, which presents prison security and
national security concerns. Recruiting qualified Muslim
religious services providers could reduce inmate-led
services,
Prison Islam, and radicalization. We recommend that
the
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BOP develop a strategy specifically for recruiting
Muslim
chaplains, contractors, and volunteers. For this
strategy, the
BOP should consider having BOP personnel reach out
more
to Muslim communities or enabling Muslim chaplains to
spend part of their work hours recruiting.
E. Endorsements
9. The BOP should consider implementing alternative
endorsement requirements for Muslim chaplains.
Presently the BOP is experiencing a hiring freeze on
Muslim
chaplains because it will not accept endorsements from
any
Islamic organizations until it receives information on
those
organizations from the FBI. In addition, no other
national
organization besides the ISNA is authorized to endorse
Muslim chaplains. Moreover, the BOP will not hire
chaplains who have endorsements from national
organizations about which the FBI has derogatory
information. We recommend the BOP consider
developing
alternative endorsing requirements for Muslim
chaplains,
such as permitting endorsements from local or regional
organizations in specific situations.
F. Supervision
10. The BOP should evaluate the feasibility of having
correctional officers provide intermittent supervision to
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all chapels to supplement the supervision provided by
chaplaincy staff. As a further means to enhance
supervision of religious services, the BOP should
evaluate the cost, legality, and feasibility of audio and
video monitoring to include all worship areas and
chapel
classrooms. With few exceptions, individuals who lead
religious services in BOP facilities are subject to only
limited
supervision. As a result, once contractors and
volunteers
53
gain access to BOP facilities, ample opportunity exists
for
them to deliver inappropriate messages without direct
supervision from BOP staff members. Our fieldwork
identified significant differences in the level of support
provided to chaplains by correctional officers. We also
observed that video coverage of BOP chapels varies by
institution, and that audio monitoring is not employed.
We
believe that the BOP should evaluate options to make
chapel
supervision more thorough and consistent Bureau-wide.
11. The BOP should limit and more closely supervise
inmateled
religious services. Inmates are radicalized primarily by
other inmates. We do not believe that it is appropriate
for
inmates to assume leadership positions in BOP
facilities,
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including the position of surrogate chaplain. We
recommend
that the BOP take steps to reduce inmate-led religious
services. For example, in facilities where inmates
presently
are leading Juma services, the BOP should evaluate the
alternative of providing Internet video feeds to chapel
areas
for Juma prayer by a BOP Muslim chaplain. The BOP
also
should consider requiring inmate-led services to be
monitored by staff constantly rather than intermittently.
12. The BOP should provide its staff with training on
Islam.
Supervisory correctional officers and BOP managers
advised
us that many correctional officers are not familiar with
Islam, and that this lack of knowledge may limit their
ability
to recognize radical Islamist messages that are
inappropriate
in BOP facilities. At a minimum, we believe that the
BOP
should provide basic training to its staff members who
supervise Muslim religious services so that they will be
familiar with accepted prayer and service rituals,
understand
Islamic terminology, and recognize messages that
violate
BOP security policy.
13. To improve supervision practices in facilities that
do not
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have a Muslim chaplain, the BOP should encourage
staff
members from those facilities to consult with the BOP
Muslim chaplains to address potential or actual
radicalization problems. Our review found that the BOP
is
not fully using the expertise of its staff Muslim
chaplains.
These individuals have knowledge and abilities that can
and
should be used to assist the BOP to address radical
influences.
54
14. The BOP should include in contractors SOWs the
themes and topics on which they should focus. The BOP
should provide contractors guidance on what they are
to
teach during religious services by including topics and
themes to be discussed with inmates in contractors
SOWs.
The SOWs also should include specific things
contractors
are not allowed to say as part of their messages, such
as
statements that support violence, denigrate the United
States, or disparage other inmates or other faith
groups.
15. The BOP should conduct an inventory of chapel
books
and videos and re-screen them to confirm that they are
permissible under BOP security policies. The BOP
should consider maintaining a central registry of
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acceptable material to prevent duplication of effort
when reviewing these materials. Of the institutions we
visited, several did not have an inventory of the books
currently available to the inmates, and none of the
collections had been re-screened since the September
11
terrorist attacks.
16. BOP facilities should maintain a liaison with their
local
JTTF. BOP facilities should be fully integrated into local
counterterrorism initiatives. Our review revealed that
not all
BOP facilities are working closely with their local JTTF.
VIII. CONCLUSION
Religious services providers are in a unique position to
influence
the beliefs and conduct of inmates. The presence of
extremist chaplains,
contractors, or volunteers in the BOPs correctional
facilities can pose a
threat to institutional security and could implicate
national security if
inmates are encouraged to commit terrorist acts
against the
United States. For this reason, it is imperative that the
BOP has in place
sound screening and supervision practices that will
identify persons who
seek to disrupt the order of its institutions or to inflict
harm on the
United States through terrorism.
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We recognize that the BOP has made significant
improvements
since our review was initiated in March 2003 to better
screen extremist
religious services providers. However, our review found
that while the
BOP has not identified widespread problems with
inmate radicalization
and terrorist recruiting, chaplaincy services in the BOP
remain
vulnerable to infiltration by religious extremists, and
supervision
practices in BOP chapels need strengthening. For
example, the BOP
currently does not screen religious services providers
doctrinal beliefs to
55
determine whether the providers pose a security threat.
Moreover, once
granted access to an institution, the providers typically
have ample
opportunity to deliver messages without supervision
from BOP staff. The
BOP also does not effectively use the expertise of its
current Muslim
chaplains to screen, recruit, and supervise Muslim
religious services
providers. In addition, the BOP has not developed a
recruiting strategy
or alternative endorsement requirements to end its
shortage of Muslim
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chaplains. Furthermore, the FBI and the BOP have not
effectively
exchanged information about endorsing organizations
possible
connections to terrorism. In our view, these and other
practices
identified in this report create unnecessary risks to
prison and national
security.
This report includes a series of recommendations that
address the
deficiencies we identified during our review. We believe
that the BOP
needs to carefully evaluate and implement these
recommendations to
improve its selection and supervision of religious
services providers.
56
Terrorism: Growing Wahhabi Influence in the United
States
Although the subject of Saudi-funded Wahhabi
extremism and its ties to terrorism will be familiar to
FrontPage Magazine readers, Capitol Hill is finally
beginning to take notice. Senator Jon Kyl, R-AZ, chaired
hearings on "Terrorism: Growing Wahhabi Influence in
the United States" last Thursday, June 26, before the
U.S. Senate Subcommittee on Terrorism, Technology
and Homeland Security. We reproduce the testimony of
thee witnesses before that subcommittee: Alex Alexiev
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of the Center for Security Policy, Stephen Schwartz of
the Foundation for the Defense of Democracies, and
Larry Mefford of the FBI's Counterterrorism Divsion. The
committee also heard expert testimony from David
Aufhauser, General Counsel for the U.S. Treasury
Department. - The Editors.
1) Testimony by Alex Alexiev - Senior Fellow, Center for
Security Policy
As we near the second anniversary of 9/11, the U.S. war
on terrorism has scored some impressive successes.
After denying Afghanistan as a base of operations to Al
Qaeda in the fall of 2001, the United States has been
able to neutralize a number of its high-ranking
operatives and disrupt its operations. The removal of
the brutal dictatorship of Saddam Hussein in Operation
Iraqi Freedom has precluded that rogue regime from
developing and using weapons of mass destruction or
supplying them to fellow-terrorists. On the domestic
front, significant strides have been made in shoring up
homeland security and no serious terrorist incident has
taken place on American soil since 9/11. Despite these
very positive developments, it would be highly
premature to claim that we're close to winning the war.
Indeed, recent terrorist attacks in Riyadh and
Casablanca, as well as the putative conspiracy to blow-
up Brooklyn Bridge, have shown unmistakably that
terrorist networks and groups retain considerable
ability to wreak havoc.
This is the case because while the United States has
been successful in inflicting strategic defeats on state
sponsors of terrorism, such as Afghanistan and Iraq, it
has not applied the same decisive strategic approach in
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dealing with the phenomenon of Islamic extremism,
which is both the root cause and basic support
structure of the terrorist phenomenon exemplified by Al
Qaeda and others. It is worth reminding ourselves here,
that Al Qaeda is not the cause, but rather the symptom
of the malignancy called Islamic extremism and that
even if we are able to defeat Al Qaeda totally,
somebody else will almost certainly continue in its
footsteps, as long as the underlying malignancy lives
on.
1
Thus, most of the measures taken to defeat Islamic
terrorism to date have been essentially tactical in
nature and therefore of transitory effect. We have, for
instance, attempted to block financial inflows to the
terrorist networks, but have avoided taking a critical
look into the real magnitude and nature of terrorist
finances, especially with respect to the evidence of
state sponsorship. The result is that despite some $117
million of frozen assets, the terrorists do not appear to
be lacking in funds at all.
2
We have attempted to come
to terms with the psychology behind the terrorists'
murderous fury, yet refuse to examine systematically,
let alone do something about, the effect and
implications of daily indoctrination of hundreds of
thousands if not millions of Muslims around the world
into a hate-driven cult of violence. Similarly, we have
tried and often succeeded in disrupting the terrorists'
tactical organizational structures and communications
networks, but have paid scant attention to the huge
world-wide infrastructure of radical Islam which breeds
and nourishes violence.
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Yet, without a critical consideration of these realities
and the formulation of a forceful strategic response
based on it, it is unlikely that we'll make lasting
progress in the war on terror. It is thus necessary to
briefly examine the key factors that have made and
sustained Islamic extremism as a daunting challenge to
our liberal democratic order.
The Ideology of Extremism
It is difficult, indeed, impossible to successfully defeat
a violent ideological movement, such as radical Islam,
without understanding the ideology motivating it. And
there has been no lack of scholarly attention to the
subject from both the liberal Western and the Muslim
perspective recently.
3
Nonetheless, it is worth
encapsulating the main doctrinal tenets of Islamic
extremism here because they are regularly and
consciously obfuscated by the extremists themselves
and continue to be misunderstood.
Islamic extremism as an ideology is hardly new with the
first movement that resembles today's phenomenon,
known as the Kharijites, appearing shortly after the
birth of Islam in the 7th century. Later it was
expounded on by various Islamic scholars, such as Ibn
Taymiiya in the 13th century, but it did not become
institutionalized until the mid-18th century when the
theories promulgated by the radical cleric Muhammad
ibn Abd al-Wahhab were accepted and imposed as the
state religion of his realm by the founder of the House
of Saud. Wahhabism, as this creed got to be known, like
most other extremist movements before it, believed
that traditional Islamic virtues and beliefs have been
corrupted and preached a return to the ostensibly pure
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Islam of the time of the Prophet and his companions.
4
In
reality, Wahhab's extreme doctrines contradicted and
stood on their head major tenets of traditional Islam
and in a real sense represent an outright falsification of
the Muslim faith.
5
To name just one egregious example, a key postulate of
Wahhab's teaching asserts that Muslims who do not
believe in his doctrines are ipso facto non-believers and
apostates against whom violence and Jihad were not
only permissible, but obligatory. This postulate alone
transgresses against two fundamental tenets of the
Quran - that invoking Jihad against fellow-Muslims is
prohibited and that a Muslim's profession of faith should
be taken at face value until God judges his/hers
sincerity at judgment day. This extreme reactionary
creed was then used as the religious justification for
military conquest and violence against Muslim
neighbors of the House of Saud. Already in 1746, just
two years after Wahhabism became Saud's religion, the
new Saudi-Wahhabi state proclaimed Jihad against all
neighboring Muslim tribes that refused to subscribe to
it. Indeed, well into the 1920s the history of the House
of Saud is replete with violent campaigns to force other
Muslims to submit politically and theologically, violating
yet another fundamental Quranic principle that
prohibits the use of compulsion in religion.
Today, the Wahhabi ideology continues to be
characterized by a set of doctrinal beliefs and behavior
prescriptions that are often inimical to the values and
interests of the vast majority of Muslims in the world to
say nothing about those of non-Muslims. Non-Wahhabi
Sunni Muslims (syncretic Muslims, Sufis, Barelvis,
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Bahai, Ahmadis, etc) are still considered illegitimate, at
best, while the Shia religion is particularly despised as
a "Jewish conspiracy" against Islam.
6
The Wahhabis
continue to believe and preach violence and Jihad as a
pillar of Islamic virtue, rigid conformism of religious
practice, institutionalized oppression of women,
wholesale rejection of modernity, secularism and
democracy as antithetical to Islam and militant
proselytism. This jihadist ideology par excellence, is by
and large, also the worldview of radical Islam and it is
not at all an exaggeration to argue that Wahhabism has
become the prototype ideology of all extremist and
terrorist groups, even those that despise the House of
Saud.
How did this obscurantist, pseudo-Islamic creed
manage to become the dominant idiom not only among
the extremists but increasingly the Islamic
establishment? The short answer is money and an
acute legitimacy crisis in the Muslim world in the last
quarter of the 20th century.
Regarding the latter, the progressive, centuries-long,
gradual decline of Islam as a dominant force and
civilization reached its nadir in 1924, when Mustafa
Kemal (Ataturk) simultaneously did away with the
Caliphate and the Ottoman Empire by overnight
transforming the latter into a secular Turkish republic.
The unceremonious discarding of the symbol of the
Muslim community (ummah), coupled with the
establishment of European colonial rule over much of
the Muslim world gave rise to revivalist movements and
ideologies seeking to come to terms with Islam's
predicament and efforts to restore it to previous glories.
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Beginning with the Muslim Brotherhood of Hassan el-
Banna in 1928, followed by the movements founded by
Islamist ideologues like Abul ala Maududi, Sayyid Qutb
and the extremist Deobandi creed in South Asia, radical
Islam established a strong presence in the Muslim
world in the second half of the 20th century. Then in the
1970s and 1980s Islamic terrorist groups (Al Jihad and
Gamaa Islamiya in Egypt, Front for National Salvation
(FIS) in Algeria etc.) began appearing in the Middle East
and South Asia, especially after the beginning of the
Soviet war in Afghanistan. While none of these groups
and movements were 100% Wahhabi originally, their
ideological differences were insignificant.
7
As these movements were violently suppressed in
places like Egypt and Algeria, the Saudis were quickly
able to co-opt them by providing sanctuary and financial
assistance to their members in both Saudi Arabia and
outside of it. Thus, the economic and logistical
dependence of many of these extremists on the Saudis,
coupled with the ongoing radicalization of Wahhabism
itself, created a highly synergistic relationship between
the practitioners of terror and their Wahhabi supporters
and paymasters despite the fact that many practicing
jihadists like Osama bin Laden resented the Saudi
regime.
While this ideological affinity between the Wahhabis
and modern day radical Islam is undoubtedly of key
import, it was vast amounts of money more than
anything else that made Wahhabism the chief enabler
and dominant influence of the Islamist phenomenon.
Financing Radical Islam
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Saudi financing of Islamic extremism plays such a huge
role in its emergence as a global phenomenon that a
proper understanding of it is impossible without coming
to terms with its dimensions. Simply put, without the
exorbitant sums of Saudi money spent on supporting
extremist networks and activities, the terrorist threat
we are facing today would be nowhere as acute as it is.
While the Wahhabis have always been sympathetic to
Sunni Muslim extremists and evidence exists that they
have supported such people financially as early as a
century ago,
8
the real Saudi offensive to spread
Wahhabism aggressively and support kindred extremist
groups world-wide began in the mid-1970s, when the
kingdom reaped an incredible financial windfall with
rocketing oil prices after Riaydh's imposition of an oil
embargo in 1973.
9
"It was only when oil revenues began
to generate real wealth," says a government
publication, that "the kingdom could fulfill its ambitions
of spreading the word of Islam to every corner of the
world."
10
There are no published Western estimates of the
numbers involved, which, in itself, is evidence of our
failure to address this key issue, but even the
occasional tidbits provided by official Saudi sources,
indicate a campaign of unprecedented magnitude.
Between 1975 and 1987, the Saudis admit to having
spent $48 billion or $4 billion per year on "overseas
development aid," a figure which by the end of 2002
grew to over $70 billion (281 billion Saudi rials).
11
These
sums are reported to be Saudi state aid and almost
certainly do not include private donations which are
also distributed by state-controlled charities. Such
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staggering amounts contrast starkly with the $5 million
in terrorist accounts the Saudis claim to have frozen
since 9/11. In another comparison, it is instructive to
put these figures side by side with the $1 billion per
year said to have been spent by the Soviet Union on
external propaganda at the peak of Moscow's power in
the 1970s.
Though it is claimed that this is "development aid" it is
clear from the Saudi media and government statements
alike that the vast majority of these funds support
"Islamic activities", rather than real developmental
projects. For example, a report on the yearly activities
of the Al Haramain Foundation described as "keen on
spreading the proper Islamic culture" are listed as
follows: "it printed 13 million (Islamic) books, launched
six internet sites, employed more than 3000 callers
(proselytizers), founded 1100 mosques, schools and
cultural Islamic centers and posted more than 350,000
letters of call (invitations to convert to Islam)" while the
International Islamic Relief Organization (IIRO), another
key "charity," completed 3800 mosques, spent $45
million for Islamic education and employed 6000
proselytizers.
12
Both of these organizations have been
implicated in terrorist activities by U.S. authorities and
both operate directly out of Saudi embassies in all
countries in which they do not have their own offices.
The Saudi money is spent according to a carefully
designed plan to enhance Wahhabi influence and
control at the expense of mainstream Muslims. In
Muslim countries, much of the aid goes to fund religious
madrassas that teach little more than hatred of the
infidels, while producing barely literate Jihadi cadres.
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There are now tens of thousands of these madrassas
run by the Wahhabis' Deobandi allies in South Asia and
also throughout Southeastern Asia. In Pakistan alone,
foreign funding of these madrassas, most of which
comes from Saudi Arabia, is estimated at no less than
$350 million per year.
13
The Saudis also directly support
terrorist activities in places like Pakistan, Afghanistan,
the Philippines, Indonesia, Chechnya, Bosnia and, as
noticed above, most of the large Saudi foundations have
been implicated in such involvement.
It needs to be emphasized here that contrary to Saudi
claims that charities such as Al Haramain, the Muslim
World League (MWL), the World Assembly of Muslim
Youth (WAMY) and the International Islamic Relief
Organization (IIRO) are independent and non-
governmental, there is conclusive evidence from Saudi
sources that they are tightly controlled by the
government and more often than not run by government
officials. It is also the case that as early as 1993, the
kingdom passed a law stipulating that all donations to
Muslim charities must be collected in a fund controlled
by a Saudi Prince.
14
Early on in the Wahhabi ideological campaign, the
penetration of the Muslim communities in non-Muslim
Western societies was made a key priority. The
objective pursued there was slightly different and
aimed to assure Wahhabi dominance in the local Muslim
establishments by taking over or building new Wahhabi
mosques, Islamic centers and educational institutions,
including endowing Islamic chairs at various
universities.
15
Taking over a mosque, of course, means
more than just the ability to impose the Wahhabi
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version of Islam. The imam and the leadership of the
mosque are also responsible for the collection of zakat
(the 2 % yearly tithe Muslims must donate), which
gives them the ability to contribute these funds to
extremist organizations. Most Pakistani mosques in the
United Kingdom, for instance, have reportedly been
taken over by the Wahhabi/Deobandi group even though
their members belong primarily to the moderate Barelvi
creed. As a result, millions of their donations are said to
be supporting terrorist groups in Pakistan.
16
While nobody knows for sure how much the Saudis have
spent on getting a foothold in non-Muslim regions and
especially in Western Europe and North America, the
sums are clearly huge. According to official information,
the Saudis have built over 1500 mosques, 210 Islamic
centers, 202 Islamic colleges and 2000 schools for
educating Muslims in non-Muslim countries. Most of
these institutions continue to be on the Saudi payroll
for substantial yearly donations assuring that Wahhabi
control is not likely to weaken any time soon.
17
What have the Saudis been able to buy with this
unprecedented Islamic largesse? Quite a bit it would
seem. For starters, the Wahhabi creed which is
practiced by no more than 20 million people around the
world, or less than 2% of the Muslim population, has
become a dominant factor in the international Islamic
establishment through an elaborate network of front
organizations and charities, as well as in a great
number of national establishments, including the United
States. In just one example, the venerable Al Azhar
mosque and university in Cairo, which not too long ago
was a paragon of Islamic moderation has been taken
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over by the Wahhabis and spews extremist propaganda
on a regular basis. Two of their recent fatwas make it a
religious duty for Muslims to acquire nuclear weapons
to fight the infidels and justify suicide attacks against
American troops in Iraq.
18
The Wahhabi project has
contributed immeasurably to the Islamic radicalization
and destabilization in a number of countries and
continues to do so. Pakistan, for instance, an important
U.S. ally, is facing the gradual talibanization of two of
its key provinces under Wahhabi/Deobandi auspices and
the prospect of large-scale sectarian strife and turmoil.
Riyadh-financed extremist networks exist presently
around the world providing terrorist groups and
individuals with a protective environment and support
and even the recent terrorist incidents in Saudi Arabia
itself do not seem likely to bring about meaningful
change.
Already Saudi officials have stated that they do not
intend to either change their anti-Western curriculum or
stop their "charitable" activities. Yet the evidence of
conscious Saudi subversion of our societies and values
as partly detailed above is so overwhelming that to
tolerate it further would be unconscionable. Failure to
confront it now will assure that we will not win the war
on terror anytime soon.
ENDNOTES for Alexiev:
1
For an example of an extremist Islamic organization
that could easily succeed Al Qaeda and is already
operating internationally see Ariel Cohen, Hizb ut-
Tahrir: An Emerging Threat to U.S. Interests in Central
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Asia, Backgrounder #1656, The Heritage Foundation,
June 2003.
2
This becomes easier to understand when we're told
recently that a single mosque in Brooklyn has been able
to transfer $20 million to Al Qaeda.
3
For a critique of radical Islam as exemplified by
Wahhabism from the point of view of traditional Muslim
scholarship see Hamid Algar, Wahhabism: A Critical
Essay, Islamic Publications International, New York
2002. Recent book-length Western studies include Dore
Gold, Hatred's Kingdom, Regnery Publishing, Wash.
D.C., 2003 and Stephen Schwartz, The Two Faces of
Islam, Doubleday, New York 2002.
4
The Wahhabis themselves despise the term and never
use it since they believe and claim that theirs is in fact
the only true Islam.
1
To the extent that Wahhabism contradicts some of the
fundamental tenets of Islam it is misleading to call it
fundamentalist as many observers routinely do.
5
For instance, the establishment of an Islamic state
based on Sharia'a in Iran under Ayatollah Khomeini was
seen as a real threat to Saudi/Wahhabi interests, rather
than a victory for Islam, and treated with unmitigated
hostility by Riyadh.
6
For example, while many of these movements
considered the Muslim political leadership of their
countries illegitimate and urged and conspired in its
violent overthrow, most, though not all, of the Wahhabis
supported the House of Saud.
7
The Islamist ideologue Rashid Rida was one of the
first of those in 1909. See Apgar, op.cit.
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8
Saudi oil revenues jumped from $1 billion in 1970 to
$116 billion in 1980.
9
Ain Al-Yaqeen, March 27, 2002.
10
See Saudi Aid to the Developing World, Nov. 2002, in
www.saudinf.com/main/1102.htm and statement by Dr.
Ibrahim Al-Assaf, Saudi Minister of Finance and National
Economy as reported by Saudia Online, Jan.2, 2003
(www.saudia-
online.com/news2003/newsjan03/news2.shtml.) 96% of
these aid amounts are said to be grants.
11
Ain-Al-Yaqeen, (Saudi government-controlled
newspaper), December 8, 2000.
12
For details on Saudi funding of the madrassas see
Alex Alexiev, The Pakistani Time Bomb, Commentary,
March 2003
13
See www.saudhouse.com/salman_bin_abdul_aziz.htm
14
The typical modus operandi in taking over a mosque
or similar institution follows approximately the
following pattern: Saudi representatives offer a
community to subsidize the building of a new mosque,
which usually includes an Islamic school and a
community center. After completion of the project an
annual maintenance subsidy is offered making the
community dependent on Saudi largess in perpetuity.
Saudi chosen board members are installed, a Wahhabi
imam (prayer leader) and free wahhabi literature are
brought in and the curriculum changed in accordance
with Wahhabi precepts. Visiting speakers of extremist
views are then regularly invited to lead Friday night
prayers and further radicalize the members. The most
promising candidates are selected for further religious
education and indoctrination in Saudi Arabia to be sent
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back as Wahhabi missionaries as the circle is
completed.
15
International Crisis Group (ICG) Report, "Pakistan:
Madrassas, Extremism and the Military," Asia Report
#36, July 29, 2002, p. 16
16
Although information on this aspect is rather scarce,
figures provided from time to time in the Saudi media
indicate yearly payments to Islamic centers in the
range of $1.5 million to $7 million.
17
See Suicide Attacks Permitted: Al Azhar, Dawn, April
6, 2003 (www.dawn.com/2003/04/06int10.htm)
Testimony of Stephen Schwartz - director, Islam and
Democracy Program at the Foundation for the Defense
of Democracies.
Chairman Kyl, other distinguished members of the
subcommittee, thank you for your invitation to appear
here today.
I come before this body to describe how adherents of
Wahhabism, the most extreme, separatist, and violent
form of Islam, and the official sect in the kingdom of
Saudi Arabia, have come to dominate Islam in the U.S.
Islam is a fairly new participant at the "big table" of
American religions. The Muslim community only
became a significant element in our country's life in the
1980s. Most "born Muslims," as opposed to those who
"converted" a term Muslims avoid, preferring "new
Muslims" had historically been immigrants from
Pakistan and India who followed traditional, peaceful,
mainstream Islam.
With the growth of the Islamic community in America,
there was no "Islamic establishment" in the U.S. in
contrast with Britain, France, and Germany, the main
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Western countries with significant Islamic minorities.
Historically, traditional scholars have been a buffer
against extremism in Islam, and for various sociological
and demographic reasons, American Islam lacked a
stratum of such scholars. The Wahhabi ideological
structure in Saudi Arabia perceived this as an
opportunity to fill a gap to gain dominance over an
Islamic community in the West with immense potential
for political and social influence.
But the goals of this operation, which was largely
successful, were multiple.
First, to control a significant group of Muslim believers.
Second, to use the Muslim community in the U.S. to
pressure U.S. government and media, in the formulation
of policy and in perceptions about Islam. This has
included liaison meetings, "sensitivity" sessions and
other public activities with high-level administration
officials, including the FBI director, that we have seen
since September 11.
Third, to advance the overall Wahhabi agenda of "jihad
against the world" an extremist campaign to impose
the Wahhabi dispensation on the global Islamic
community, as well as to confront the other religions.
This effort has included the establishment in the U.S. of
a base for funding, recruitment, and strategic/tactical
support of terror operations in the U.S. and abroad.
Wahhabi-Saudi policy has always been two-faced: that
is, at the same time as the Wahhabis preach hostility
and violence against non-Wahhabi Muslims, they
maintain a policy of alliance with Western military
powers first Britain, then the U.S. and France to
assure their control over the Arabian Peninsula.
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At the present time, Shia and other non-Wahhabi Muslim
community leaders estimate that 80 percent of
American mosques are under Wahhabi control. This
does not mean 80 percent of American Muslims support
Wahhabism, although the main Wahhabi ideological
agency in America, the so-called Council on American
Islamic Relations (CAIR) has claimed that some 70
percent of American Muslims want Wahhabi teaching in
their mosques.
1
This is a claim we consider unfounded.
Rather, Wahhabi control over mosques means control of
property, buildings, appointment of imams, training of
imams, content of preaching including faxing of
Friday sermons from Riyadh, Saudi Arabia and of
literature distributed in mosques and mosque
bookstores, notices on bulletin boards, and
organizational solicitation. Similar influence extends to
prison and military chaplaincies, Islamic elementary
and secondary schools (academies), college campus
activity, endowment of academic chairs and programs
in Middle East studies, and most notoriously, charities
ostensibly helping Muslims abroad, many of which have
been linked to or designated as sponsors of terrorism.
The main organizations that have carried out this
campaign are the Islamic Society of North America
(ISNA), which originated in the Muslim Students'
Association of the U.S. and Canada (MSA), and CAIR.
Support activities have been provided by the American
Muslim Council (AMC), the American Muslim Alliance
(AMA), the Muslim American Society (MAS), the
Graduate School of Islamic and Social Sciences, its
sister body the International Institute of Islamic
Thought, and a number of related groups that I have
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called "the Wahhabi lobby." ISNA operates at least 324
mosques in the U.S. through the North American Islamic
Trust (NAIT). These groups operate as an interlocking
directorate.
Both ISNA and CAIR, in particular, maintain open and
close relations with the Saudi government a unique
situation, in that no other foreign government directly
uses religion as a cover for its political activities in the
U.S. For example, notwithstanding support by the
American Jewish community for the state of Israel, the
government of Israel does not intervene in synagogue
life or the activities of rabbinical or related religious
bodies in America.
According to saudiembassy.net, the official website of
the Saudi government, CAIR received $250,000 from the
Jeddah-based Islamic Development Bank, an official
Saudi financial institution, in 1999, for the purchase of
land in Washington, D.C., to construct a headquarters
facility.
2
In a particularly disturbing case, the Islamic
Development Bank also granted US$295,000 to the
Masjid Bilal Islamic Center, for the construction of the
Bilal Islamic Primary and Secondary School in
California, in 1999.
3
Hassan Akbar, an American Muslim
presently charged with a fatal attack on his fellow
soldiers in Kuwait during the Iraq intervention, was
affiliated with this institution.
In addition, the previously mentioned official website of
the Saudi government reported a donation in 1995 of $4
million for the construction of a mosque complex in Los
Angeles, named for Ibn Taymiyyah, a historic Islamic
figure considered the forerunner of Wahhabism.
4
(It
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should be noted that Ibn Taymiyyah is viewed as a
marginal, extremist, ideological personality by many
traditional Muslims. In the wake of the Riyadh bombings
of 2003, the figure of Ibn Taymiyyah symbolized, in
Saudi public discourse, the inner rot of the regime. An
article in the reformist daily al-Watan was headlined,
"Who is More Important? The Nation or Ibn Taymiyyah"?
Soon after it appeared, Jamal Khashoggi, editor of al-
Watan and former deputy editor of Arab News, was
dismissed from his post.)
The same official Saudi website reported a donation of
$6 million, also in 1995, for a mosque in Cincinnati,
Ohio.
5
The website further stated, in 2000, "In the
United States, the Kingdom has contributed to the
establishment of the Islamic Center in Washington DC;
the Omer Bin Al-Khattab Mosque in western Los
Angeles, the Los Angeles Islamic Center, and the
Fresno Mosque in California; the Islamic Center in
Denver, Colorado; the Islamic center in Harrison, New
York City; and the Islamic Center in Northern Virginia."
6
How much money, in total, is involved in this effort? If
we accept a low figure of control, i.e. NAIT ownership
of 27 percent of 1,200 mosques, stated by CAIR and
cited by Mary Jacoby and Graham Brink in the St.
Petersburg Times,
7
we have some 324 mosques.
If we assume a relatively low average of expenditures,
e.g. $.5 million per mosque, we arrive at $162 million.
But given that Saudi official sources show $6 million in
Cincinnati and $4 million in Los Angeles, we should
probably raise the average to $1 million per mosque,
resulting in $324 million as a minimum.
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Our view is that the number of mosques under Wahhabi
control actually totals at least 600 out of the official
total of 1,200, while, as noted, Shia community leaders
endorse the figure of 80 percent Wahhabi control. But
we also offer a number of 4-6,000 mosques overall,
including small and diverse congregations of many
kinds.
A radical critic of Wahhabism stated some years ago
that $25m had been spent on Islamic Centers in the
U.S. by the Saudi authorities. This now seems a low
figure. Another anti-extremist Islamic figure has
estimated Saudi expenses in the U.S., over 30 years,
and including schools and free books as well as
mosques, near a billion dollars.
It should also be noted that Wahhabi mosques in the
U.S. work in close coordination with the Muslim World
League (MWL) and the World Assembly of Muslim Youth
(WAMY), Saudi state entities identified as participants
in the funding of al Qaeda.
Wahhabi ideological control within Saudi Arabia is
based on the historic compact of intermarriage
between the family of the sect's originator, Ibn Abd al-
Wahhab, and the family of the founding ruler, Ibn Saud.
To this day, these families divide governance of the
kingdom, with the descendants of Ibn al-Wahhab,
known as ahl al-Shaykh, responsible for religious life,
and the Saudi royal family, or ahl al-Saud, running the
state. The two families also continue to marry their
descendants to one another. The supreme religious
leader of Saudi Arabia is a member of the family of Ibn
al-Wahhab. The state appoints a minister of religious
affairs who controls such bodies as MWL and WAMY,
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and upon leaving his ministerial post he becomes head
of MWL.
The official Saudi-embassy website reported exactly
one year ago, on June 26, 2002, "The delegation of the
Muslim World League (MWL) that is on a world tour
promoting goodwill arrived in New York yesterday, and
visited the Islamic Center there." The same website
later reported, on July 8, 2002, "During a visit on Friday
evening to the headquarters of the Council on American
Islamic Relations (CAIR) [Secretary-General of the MWL
Dr. Abdullah bin Abdulmohsin Al-Turki] advocated
coordination among Muslim organizations in the United
States. Expressing MWL's readiness to offer assistance
in the promotion and coordination of Islamic works, he
announced plans to set up a commission for this
purpose. The MWL delegation also visited the Islamic
Center in Washington DC and was briefed on its
activities by its director Dr. Abdullah bin Mohammad
Fowaj."
8
In a related matter, on June 22, 2003, in a letter to the
New York Post, James Zogby, president of the Arab
American Institute, a civic lobbying organization, stated
that his attendance at a press conference of WAMY in
Riyadh, Saudi Arabia, had been organized by the U.S.
embassy in the kingdom. If this is true, it is extremely
alarming. The U.S. embassy should not act as a
supporter of WAMY, which, as documented by FDD and
the Saudi Institute,
9
teaches that Shia Muslims,
including even the followers of Ayatollah Khomeini, are
Jewish agents.
This is comparable to Nazi claims that Jewish business
owners were Communists, or Slobodan Miloevic's
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charge, in the media of ex-Yugoslavia, that Tito was an
agent of the Vatican. The aim is to derange people, to
separate them from reality completely, in preparation
for massacres. We fear that official Saudi anxiety their
large and restive Shia minority, aggravated by Saudi
resentment over the emergence of a protodemocratic
regime in Iraq led by Shias, and consolidation of popular
sovereignty in Shia Iran, may lead the Saudi regime to
treat Shias as a convenient scapegoat, making them
victims of a wholesale atrocity. The history of
Wahhabism is filled with mass murder of Shia Muslims.
There is clearly a problem of Wahhabi/Saudi extremist
influence in American Islam. The time is now to face
the problem squarely and find ways to enable and
support traditional, mainstream American Muslims in
taking their community back from these extremists,
while employing law enforcement to interdict the
growth of Wahhabism and its financial support by the
Saudis. If we fail to do this, Wahhabi extremism
continues to endanger the whole world Muslims and
non-Muslims alike.
ENDNOTES for Schwartz:
1
Council on American Islamic Relations, The Mosque in
America: A National Portrait, A Report from the Mosque
Study Project, April 26, 2001.
2
Saudi Embassy Press Archive, August 15, 1999.
3
Islamic Development Bank; also, "IDB Allocates $202
Mln to Finance Islamic Development Ventures," Arabic
News, 1/25/2000.
4
Saudi Embassy Press Archive, July 8, 1995.
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5
Saudi Embassy Press Archive, November 10, 1995.
6
Saudi Embassy Press Archive, March 5, 2000.
7
"Saudi Form of Islam Wars With Moderates," St.
Petersburg Times, March 11, 2003.
8
Saudi Embassy Press Archive.
9
Ali al-Ahmed and Stephen Schwartz, "Saudis Spread
Hate Speech in U.S," Foundation for the Defense of
Democracies, Washington, copublished with Saudi
Institute.
Testimony of Larry Mefford - Assistant Director of the
FBI's Counterterrorism Division
Good afternoon, Senator Kyl and other members of the
Subcommittee. Thank you for inviting me here today to
testify regarding the state of the terrorist threat to the
United States. The Subcommittee's work in this area is
an important part of improving the security of our
Nation. The Federal Bureau of Investigation greatly
appreciates your leadership, and that of your
colleagues in other committees dealing with the
security of our country. I would like to briefly discuss
for the Subcommittee the FBI's assessment of the
current threats facing the United States.
First, let me emphasize the commitment of the FBI to
investigating and disrupting terrorist activity both in
this country and against U.S. interests overseas. There
is no more important mission within the FBI. We are
dedicating tremendous resources to this effort and will
continue to do so as long as the threat exists.
Since September 11, 2001, the FBI has investigated
more than 4,000 terrorist threats to the U.S. and the
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number of active FBI investigations into potential
terrorist activity has quadrupled . Working with our
partners in local and state law enforcement and with
the U.S. Intelligence community, we have also
disrupted terrorist activities in over 35 instances inside
the United States since September 11, 2001. These
include both domestic and international terrorism
matters and consist of a variety of preventive actions,
including arrests, seizure of funds, and disruption of
recruiting and training efforts. No threat or investigative
lead goes unanswered today. At headquarters, in our
field offices, and through our offices overseas, we run
every lead to ground until we either find evidence of
terrorist activity, which we pursue, or determine that
the information is not substantiated. While we have
disrupted terrorist plots since 9/11, we remain
constantly vigilant as a result of the ongoing nature of
the threat. The greatest danger to our safety and
security comes not from what we know and can
prevent, but from what we do not know.
We know this: The Al Qaeda terrorist network remains
the most serious threat to U.S. interests both here and
overseas. That network includes groups committed to
the "international jihad movement, and it has
demonstrated the ability to survive setbacks. Since
September 11, 2001, we believe that Al Qaeda has been
involved in at least twelve terrorist attacks against the
United States and our allies around the world. This fact
requires that we continue to work closely with our
partners to fight Al-Qaeda in all its forms both here and
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overseas.
On March 1, 2003, counterterrorism forces in Pakistan
captured Al Qaeda operational commander Khalid
Shaikh Mohammed and financier Mustafa Ahmed al-
Hawsawi. In early 2002, another high ranking Al Qaeda
operational commander, Mohamed Atef, was killed in a
U.S. bombing raid. Many more suspected Al Qaeda
operatives have been arrested in the United States and
abroad.
Despite these strikes against the leadership of Al
Qaeda, it remains a potent, highly capable and
extremely dangerous terrorist network -- the number
one terrorist threat to the U.S. today. The very recent
attacks in Riyadh, Saudi Arabia and in Casablanca,
Morocco -- which we believe to be either sponsored or
inspired by Al Qaeda clearly demonstrate that
network's continued ability to kill and injure innocent,
unsuspecting victims.
In Riyadh on May 12, 2003, the simultaneous strikes on
three foreign compounds were carried out by 12 to 15
individuals, nine of whom were suicide bombers. The
overall death toll rose to 34, including at least seven
Americans and the nine attackers. Nearly 200 people
were wounded. Forty of those were Americans.
In Casablanca on May 16, 2003, as many as 12 suicide
bombers orchestrated the simultaneous bombing of 5
targets. A targeted Jewish center was closed and
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unoccupied when one of the bombs was detonated. The
deadliest attack occurred inside a Spanish restaurant
where 19 were killed. Outside one targeted hotel, a
security guard and a bellboy scuffled with bombers
intent on entering the hotel. They prevented them from
entering but lost their lives, along with those of their
terrorist attackers, when the bombs were detonated
outside. The terrorists even targeted a Jewish
cemetery.
We know that the Al Qaeda network maintains a
presence in dozens of countries around the world,
including the United States. Audiotaped messages
released in early October 2002 from Usama bin Laden
and his senior deputy, Ayman al-Zawahiri, urged
renewed attacks on U.S. and Western interests.
Intelligence analysis indicates that subsequent attacks
against Western targets may have been carried out in
response to these audiotaped appeals that were
broadcast on the al-Jazeera network beginning on
October 6, 2002.
Two subsequent audiotapes attributed to bin Laden,
released on February 11 and February 14, 2003, linked a
call for terrorist attacks against Western targets with
the pending war in Iraq. In the latter of these
audiotaped messages, bin Laden appeared to express
his desire to die in an attack against the United States.
The most recent audio tape attributed to bin Laden,
released on April 9, 2003, urged jihadists to carry out
suicide attacks against those countries supporting the
war in Iraq. And while individual suicide attacks have
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the potential to cause significant destruction and loss
of life, we remain concerned about Al Qaedas ability to
mount simultaneous and large-scale terrorist attacks.
While large-scale, coordinated attacks remain an Al
Qaeda objective, disruptions to the networks command
and logistics structures during the past 20 months
increase the possibility that operatives will attempt to
carry out smaller scale, random attacks, as evidenced
by Richard Reids failed attempt to detonate a shoe-
bomb on board a trans-Atlantic flight in December 2001.
Such attacks, particularly against softer or lightly
secured targets, may be easier to execute and less
likely to require centralized control. We remain vigilant
to the ability and willingness of individual terrorists,
acting on their own in the name of "jihad", to carry out
random acts of terror wherever and whenever they can.
We also know that jihadists tend to focus on returning
to "unfinished projects, such as the destruction of the
World Trade Center and attacks on U.S. Navy vessels.
Consequently, a continuing threat exists to high profile
targets previously selected by Al Qaeda. These include
high profile government buildings, and encompass the
possibility of more terrorist attacks on major U.S. cities
and infrastructures. While we know that Al Qaeda has
focused on attacks that have economic impact, we
believe that its goals still include the infliction of mass
casualties.
As I mentioned earlier, we have made significant
progress in disrupting terrorist activities and planning;
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and this includes Islamic extremist activities within the
United States. For example:
Between October 3, 2002, and May 2, 2003, six men
and one woman were indicted in Portland, Oregon, for
conspiracy to levy war against the United States,
conspiracy to provide material support and resources to
a terrorist organization, and conspiracy to contribute
services to Al Qaeda and the Taliban. Six of the
individuals have been arrested. The seventh remains at
large.
On September 13, 2002, five members of a suspected
Al Qaeda cell were arrested in Lackawanna, New York.
They were charged with providing, attempting to
provide, and conspiring to provide material support and
resources to a designated foreign terrorist
organization. In addition, a sixth member was rendered
to the United States from Bahrain in mid-September
2002, pursuant to an arrest warrant, and was charged
with providing material support to Al-Qaeda.
FBI information indicates that in the spring and
summer of 2001, these subjects attended religious
Tablighi Jamaat training in Pakistan. They also
attended an Al Qaeda training camp in Afghanistan
where they received training in mountain climbing, and
were instructed in the use of firearms, including assault
rifles, handguns, and long range rifles. During their
training, Usama bin Laden visited the camp and gave a
speech to all of the trainees. At the guest houses where
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members stayed, some received lectures on jihad and
justification for using suicide as an operational tactic.
All six defendants have pled guilty to providing
material support to Al Qaeda.
On December 22, 2001, Richard C. Reid was arrested
after flight attendants on American Airlines Flight 63
observed him attempting to ignite an improvised
explosive in his sneakers while onboard the Paris-to-
Miami flight. Aided by passengers, the attendants
overpowered and subdued Reid. The flight was diverted
to Logan International Airport in Boston,
Massachusetts. Reid, who was traveling on a valid
British passport, was indicted on eight counts,
including placing an explosive device on an aircraft and
attempted murder.
FBI investigation has determined that the explosives
in Reid's shoes, if detonated in certain areas of the
passenger cabin, could have blown a hole in the
fuselage of the aircraft.
Reid's indictment charged that he, too, trained in
camps operated by Al-Qaeda. Investigators continue to
work to determine the extent of Reid's possible links to
others in this plot.
On October 4, 2002, Reid pled guilty to all of the
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counts against him. On January 30, 2003, he was
sentenced to life in prison.
On December 11, 2001, Zacarias Moussaoui was
indicted in the Eastern District of Virginia for his
alleged role in the September 11, 2001 attacks on the
World Trade Center and Pentagon. Moussaoui is
charged with six counts, including conspiracy to
commit an act of terrorism transcending national
boundaries and conspiracy to use a weapon of mass
destruction. He is awaiting trial.
Last week, the Attorney General announced the guilty
plea of Imyan Faris, an Ohio truck driver, who -- as a key
operative for Al Qaeda -- conspired to provide, and did in
fact provide, material support to a terrorist
organization. We believe he was tasked by Al Qaeda to
assist in the identification of possible terrorist targets
inside the United States and provided other logistical
support to that organization.
On Monday of this week, Ali Saleh Kahlah al-Marri,
was designated an enemy combatant and transferred to
the control of the Department of Defense. Al-Marri is a
Qatari national who was initially arrested on a material
witness warrant following the September 11 attacks.
He was subsequently indicted for credit card fraud and
making false statements. Recent information from an Al
Qaeda detainee identified Al-Marri as an Al Qaeda
"sleeper" operative who was tasked with providing
support to newly arriving Al Qaeda operatives inside the
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U.S. Two separate Al Qaeda detainees have confirmed
that Al-Marri has been to Al Qaeda's Farook camp in
Afghanistan where he pledged his service to bin Laden.
The decision to designate Al-Marri as an enemy
combatant has disrupted his involvement in terrorist
planning and taken another Al Qaeda operative out of
action.
The FBI is also actively looking for suspected Al
Qaeda operative Adnan G. El Shukrijumah. El
Shukrijumah has been identified by detainees as a key
Al Qaeda operative who was sent to the United States
to plan and carry out acts of terrorism against the U.S.
El Shukrijumah was in the United States prior to
September 11th and his current whereabouts are
unknown. The FBI has put out a "be on the look out"
alert to law enforcement both inside the U.S. and
overseas to locate and interview him regarding these
reports.
Additionally, the FBI has aggressively pursued the
individuals and networks that provide financing for
terrorism worldwide. Since September 11, 2001, our
Terrorist Financing Operations Section (TFOS) has been
involved in the financial investigations of over 3,195
individuals and groups suspected in financially
supporting terrorist organizations. The FBI has also
worked closely with the Treasury Department in
developing targets for designation and blocking orders.
This has resulted in the terrorist designation of some
250 individuals or entities by Executive Order, and the
blocking or freezing of approximately $124.5 million in
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assets since September 11, 2001.
As was said at the outset, finding and rooting out Al
Qaeda members and adherents, once they have entered
the U.S., is our most serious intelligence and law
enforcement challenge. In addition to our focus on
identifying individuals directly involved in launching
terrorist attacks, we are also very concerned with
identifying and locating persons engaged in terrorist
support activities, such as fund raising, recruiting,
training and other logistical responsibilities. This is very
important since these individuals are vital to the
operations of terrorist networks. We also remain deeply
concerned about Al Qaedas efforts to recruit U.S.
citizens to support its terrorist goals and, perhaps, to
carry out attacks on American soil.
Al Qaeda is not our only concern. We know that many
Islamic extremists are tied to terrorist activities.
Islamic Shiite extremists, represented by such groups
as Hizballah, have been launching terrorist attacks
against the U.S. and its allies for more than twenty
years. Islamic Sunni extremism, spearheaded by Al
Qaeda, but which also includes HAMAS and other
groups, continue to inflict casualties on innocent
people worldwide. Hizballah and HAMAS in particular,
also maintain a sizable presence in the U.S. While the
activities of these U.S. cells have not involved actual
attacks within the United States, we know that
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Hizballah and HAMAS have been involved in activities
that support terrorism, such as fund-raising, recruiting
and spreading propaganda inside our country. Since
they have been responsible for the deaths of Americans
and our allies overseas, we continue to be concerned
about their activities.
In conclusion, the United States faces threats from a
wide range of international terrorist groups, although
we assess Al Qaeda to be the greatest threat today.
Their potential attacks could be large-scale, or smaller
and more isolated. Since our understanding of terrorist
groups and the underlying philosophy behind these
movements continue to develop, the FBI's assessment
of the overall threat continues to evolve. We remain,
however, concerned about Al Qaeda's efforts to launch
another major attack inside the U.S. Consequently, we
continually work with the U.S. intelligence community
and our foreign partners to assess Al Qaeda's intentions
and capabilities, including their use of weapons of mass
destruction in future attack scenarios.
That is why we remain as focused as we are on
detecting and preventing terrorism. We will not stray
from this purpose and will work closely with State and
Local law enforcement and other federal agencies to
improve our preventive capabilities. We sincerely
appreciate your guidance and support as we carry out
our mission.
I would be happy to answer any questions you may have
to the extent I am able.
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GROUPS OPERATING WITHIN THE US BORDERS AND
RELATED COURT CASES
1ST MECHANICAL KANSAS MILITIA
Aliases: 7th Division Constitutional Militia, Kansas
Militia, Southern Kansas Regional Militia
Base of Operation: United States
Founding Philosophy: The 1st Mechanical Kansas Militia
was a small militia group known almost solely for its
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connection to a foiled plot to attack a 4th of July
celebration at Fort Hood, Texas.
Led by Bradley Glover, a somewhat unstable but
charismatic conspiracy theorist, the groups ideology
was similar to that of other militia and so-called
Patriot organizations. To that end, the group was
staunchly anti-government and driven by conspiracies
and paranoia. However, by openly advocating war
against the United States government and being
convinced that Chinese Communist troops were being
trained on American soil, the 1st Mechanical Kansas
Militia under Glovers leadership was considered to be
one of the more extremist groups in the militia
movement.
The group, which claimed to have 1,000 members (this
claim is extremely dubious), was represented at the 3rd
Continental Congress in 1996, a gathering of various
militia movements. However, Glover and several other
attendees found the Congress to be moderate and soon
splintered off to plan violent action against the U.S.
government.
This splinter group (which was unnamed and had no
other members from the 1st Mechanical) met several
times in 1997 with attendees including Kevin and Terry
Hobeck from Ohio, Ronald Griesacker from the Republic
of Texas militia group, and Merlon "Butch" Lingenfelter,
Jr, a former UFO cult member. Also in attendance at
these meetings were two undercover FBI agents,
tasked with monitoring the group.
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During these meetings, Glover and the other attendees
hatched a plan to attack a 4th of July celebration at
Fort Hood. Thanks to the FBI infiltration and a year-long
investigation by the Missouri State Highway Patrol, the
operation was foiled. Glover was sentenced to five
years in jail for his role in the plot.
It is not clear whether the 1st Mechanical Kansas
Militia played any role in the Fort Hood plot beyond
Glovers involvement. In fact, it is somewhat possible
that the 1st Mechanical never even existed beyond
Glovers imagination. At various times, Glover claimed
to be a commander of various groups with names such
as the Southern Kansas Regional Militia and the 7th
Division Constitutional Militia. Along with the 1st
Mechanical, these group names are most likely aliases
for the same outfit, and have not been heard of since
Glovers capture.
Current Goals: The 1st Mechanical Kansas Militia has
not been directly responsible for any terrorist incidents,
and only gained notoriety due to the actions of its
leader. The group has not been heard from since 1997
and is likely defunct.
Legal Cases
USA v. Bradley P. Glover: 97-CR-10128-WEB
USA v. Karen Dyson: 97-CR-26-WCL
USA v. Michael L. Mackey: 97-CR-10112
USA v. Michael Leonard Dorsett et al: 97-CR-112-ALL
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USA v. Ronald A.A. Griesacker: 98-CR-10022-JTM
USA v. Thomas J. Newman et al: 97-CR-270-DBS
Further Reference
"Patriot Profile #5: The Private War of Bradley Glover,"
Mark Pitcavage, 01/01/1997, The Militia Watchdog
"," Mark Pitcavage, 09/04/1997, The Militia Watchdog
"Undercover police were at militia meeting, Cracking
the Fort Hood," Cara Tanamachi, 10/17/1998, Austin
American-Statesman
"Militia not Chilled by Bombing Backlash: Oklahoma
Blast is Added to List of Conspiracy Theories," Judy L.
Thomas, 10/05/1997, Times-Picayune (New Orleans,
LA)
3RD CONTINENTAL CONGRESS
Base of Operation: United States
Founding Philosophy: The 3rd Continental Congress was
a loose alliance of militia and patriot groups in the
United States. More a term for a meeting, rather than an
actual terrorist group, several members and
participants of 3rd Continental Congresses have been
indicted on charges relating to terrorism. Like most so-
called Patriot organizations, the 3rd Continental
Congress was staunchly opposed to the United States
government, which it views as corrupt and oppressive.
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The name "3rd Continental Congress" is a reference to
the legislative bodies of the 13 colonies which would
eventually declare their independence from Great
Britain.
The 3rd Continental Congress first met in October 1996
in Kansas City, Missouri. According to news estimates,
delegates from as many as 11 states attended the
conference, including members of the Republic of
Texas, the Michigan Militia, and the 1st Mechanical KS
Militia. In April 1997, the Congress met again with an
estimated 200 members present. Among those
attendees were two undercover FBI agents.
During the 1997 Congress, several extremist attendees
split off from the main group and discussed the violent
overthrow of the U.S. government. This unnamed group
of individuals met several times in 1997 with attendees
including Kevin and Terry Hobeck from Ohio, Bradley
Glover and Michael Dorsett from the 1st Mechanical KS
Militia, Ronald Griesacker from the Republic of Texas,
and the two FBI agents who had attended the 1997
Congress. From this infiltration, the FBI was able to foil
a July 4th attack on Fort Hood mainly planned by Glover
and Dorsett, and was able to uncover a huge cache of
weapons held by the Hobecks. All members of this
splinter group were eventually rounded up on weapons
charges and were sentenced to various jail terms.
Current Goals: After the April 1997 meeting and
subsequent FBI operation against the splinter faction,
the 3rd Continental Congress faded away. In 2003, a
man named William Flatt who called himself a "major
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general" with the Indiana Militia Corps issued a call for
a revival of the Congress. Despite numerous postings on
many militia and patriot websites, Flatts call received
little interest and the 3rd Continental Congress has
essentially remained inactive.
In 2004, the 3rd Continental Congress launched a new
website. While the site addresses common militia
themes and arguments, there is no indication of any
future action by the group.
Legal Cases
USA v. Bradley P. Glover: 97-CR-10128-WEB
USA v. Kevin Leroy Hobeck et al: 97-CR-252-DBS
USA v. Merlon Lingenfelter et al: 97-CR-59-C-1
USA v. Michael Leonard Dorsett et al: 97-CR-112-ALL
USA v. Ronald A.A. Griesacker: 98-CR-10022-JTM
USA v. Thomas J. Newman et al: 97-CR-270-DBS
Further Reference
"Militias Hold a Congress, and Not a Gun Is Seen," Jo
Thomas, 11/01/1996, Kansas City Journal
"Smaller militia groups are seen as big threat; Seven
arrested ," Michelle Kay, 07/19/1997, Austin American-
Statesman
"Patriot Profile #5: The Private War of Bradley Glover,"
Mark Pitcavage, 01/01/1997, The Militia Watchdog
"," Mark Pitcavage, 09/04/1997, The Militia Watchdog
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"The Quiet Retooling of the Militia Movement," Anti-
Defamation League, 09/07/2004
AL-FUQRA
Aliases: Community of the Impoverished, Jamaat al-
Fuqra, Muslims of the Americas, Quranic Open
University
Base of Operation: Canada; Pakistan; United States
Founding Philosophy: Al-Fuqra, or Jamaat al-Fuqra, is a
shadowy Muslim religious cult with bases in North
America and ties to Pakistan. The group was founded in
1980 by Pakistani cleric Sheikh Mubarak Ali Jilani
Hashemi. Even though Jilani lives in Lahore, Pakistan,
he established al-Fuqra on a trip to the United States as
a means for participants to reject the ills of modern
society and strive to live in a pure Islamic community.
Translated, Jamaat al-Fuqra, means community of the
impoverished.
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Since the early 1980s, members have been linked to
numerous small attacks, including bombings, murders,
and hate crimes in several regions of the United States.
The organization is reported to have more than 1,000
members living in closed compounds in rural areas of
New York, California, South Carolina, Virginia, Colorado,
and Canada. It is suspected that their headquarters is
located in Hancock, New York. Membership is primarily
composed of African-American Muslim converts. Al-
Fuqra members are known for reclusive behavior and
secrecyincluding the use of forged identities for travel
abroad to Pakistan for religious and terrorist training. In
fact, aspects of the groups behavior, particularly the
use of remote compounds and extensive weapons
training, is similar to that of right-wing U.S. survivalist
groups.
It is difficult to gauge the likelihood that al-Fuqra, as a
group, supports and motivates its members to commit
terrorist acts. Since the group does not claim
responsibility for attacks committed by its members, it
is possible that the majority of al-Fuqra members reject
such acts, and solely choose to join a closed
community separated from the outside worldalbeit
one that utilizes aliases and weapons training to
maintain its separation. But if many of its activities are
benign, at least some of its members have used
violence to further the groups aims, which include
purifying Islam and spreading Islamic extremism by
attacking other religious institutions.
The first terrorist attack conclusively linked to al-Fuqra
was the July 1983 fire-bombing of a hotel owned by an
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Indian guru in Portland, Oregon. Al-Fuqra member
Stephen Paul Paster was eventually convicted of the
attack. Paster, a suspect in several other bombings,
served four years of twenty-year sentence, and,
according to reports, is now living in Pakistan training
militants in the use of explosives.
Like the Portland attack, other bombings attributed to
al-Fuqra targeted religious institutions. Hare Krishna
temples in Philadelphia and Denver were bombed in
1984. Sikh Vendanta Societies were targeted in Seattle
and Kansas City that same summer. Other attacks have
been carried out against Laotian temples, Hindu
religious institutions, and individuals of South Asian
descent. Several reported al-Fuqra attacks were
conducted against other Muslims, such as the
assassination of Ahmadiyya sect leader Dr. Mozaffar
Ahmad in Michigan in 1983 and attacks on Islamic
cultural centers in Tempe, Arizona (1982), Quincy,
Massachusetts (1990), and San Diego, California (1991).
Further hard evidence of links to terrorism were
discovered when an al-Fuqra storage locker was raided
in Colorado in 1989. Police found pipe bombs,
explosives and other bomb components, forged
documents, and various small arms.
The groups terrorist activities declined in the 1990s,
though there were two high profile incidents. An al-
Fuqra member, Clement Rodney Hampton-el, was
convicted in the 1993 bombing of the World Trade
Center in New York, though his co-conspirators were
affiliated with other terrorist groups. Two other group
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members were convicted of conspiracy to murder in the
killing of an Arizona cleric.
Al-Fuqra made headlines more recently when links were
reported to both shoe-bomber Richard Reid and the
murder of Wall Street Journal reporter Daniel Pearl in
Pakistan in 2002. Militants linked to al-Fuqra were
initially suspected in Pearls murder because he was
trying to meet with Sheikh Jilani when he was
abducted. Jilani was arrested soon after Pearls
disappearance and held as a prime suspect, but was
released and never charged. Al-Fuqra was mentioned in
the Richard Reid case because Reid allegedly visited
either Jilani or his followers in Pakistan to receive
spiritual guidance, despite not being an actual member.
Current Goals: Since 2000, some al-Fuqra members
have been arrested on weapons charges, but no further
bombings or assassinations have been attributed to the
group. Some reports alleged that Washington sniper
John Allen Muhammad was a member, but evidence has
never surfaced confirming that allegation. Al-Fuqra
maintains several compounds throughout the United
States, continuing to embody seclusion and secrecy,
but violence linked to the group has waned. Two front
organizations, Muslims of the Americas, and the
Quranic Open University, have been attributed to al-
Fuqra.
Al-Fuqra has faced increased scrutiny following the
terrorist attacks on 9/11. The group has been linked to
terrorist groups operating in Pakistan and Kashmir,
while Sheikh Jilani is currently under investigation for
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possible ties to al-Qaeda. Regardless of suspected ties
however, al-Fuqras history of violent attacks,
reputation for secrecy, and continued weapons training,
all allude to their capability for conducting terrorist
attacks in the future.
Legal Cases
USA v. Bilal Adullah Ben Benu: 01-CR-70082
USA V. BILAL ADULLAH BEN BENU: 01-CR-70082
Synopsis: In September 1994, Bilal Abdullah Ben Benu
pleaded guilty to a Maryland misdemeanor for
possession of crack cocaine, punishable by up to four
years in prison. He was sentenced to 90 days
suspended and 19 months of probation.
On December 28, 1998 in Virginia, Benu, allegedly a
member of Al-Fuqra, purchased a 9 mm pistol from a
licensed dealer of firearms. When answering an ATF
form as to whether he had been convicted of a crime
punishable by imprisonment for a term exceeding one
year, Benu answered, "No."
On September 18, 2001, a 3 count indictment was filed
charging violations of 18 USC 922 and 924; felon in
possession of a firearm.
On April 18, 1998, Benu filed a motion and was granted
a change in venue from Virginia's Roanoke Division to
the Lynchburg Division due to the local media calling
Benu's Muslim community a terrorist organization.
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On May 14, 2002, Benu filed a motion for the dismissal
of charges arguing he was convicted of a misdemeanor
in Maryland, therefore, he did not lose his right to
possess a firearm. The United States government
argued the misdemeanor had a maximum term of
imprisonment greater than one year making it a felony
and Benu should not be able to possess a firearm.
On November 18, 2002, the judge ruled in favor of Benu
and the case was dismissed.
Further Reference
"Secretive Muslim Group Linked to Anti-Hindu
Violence," 01/21/1994, India Times
"Al-Fuqra: Holy Warriors of Terrorism," Jewish Anti
Defamation League, 01/01/1993, ADL
"Sheikh Gilani's American Disciples," Mira L. Boland,
03/18/2002, The Weekly Standard
"The Odd Ordeal of Daniel Pearl," Unmesh Kher,
02/11/2002, Time
"Virginia Muslim Enclave Seen as Threat--Or
Threatened," Maria Glod, 10/07/2001, The Washington
Post
AL-FUQRA
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"Secretive Muslim Group Linked to Anti-Hindu
Violence," India Times
"Al-Fuqra: Holy Warriors of Terrorism," Jewish Anti
Defamation League, ADL
"Sheikh Gilani's American Disciples," Mira L. Boland,
The Weekly Standard
"The Odd Ordeal of Daniel Pearl," Unmesh Kher, Time
"Virginia Muslim Enclave Seen as Threat--Or
Threatened," Maria Glod, The Washington Post
"Jamaat-ul-Fuqra, Terrorist Group of Pakistan," South
Asia Terrorism Portal
"Pearl's Murder; Crackdown on Militant Groups
"Cosmetic"," Sattar Zangijo, Sindhi Daily (Pakistan)
AL QAEDA
Mothertongue Name:
'.'_--
Aliases: Al Qaida, Qaidat al-Jihad, The Base
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Base of Operation: Afghanistan; Albania; Algeria;
Australia; Austria; Azerbaijan; Bahrain; Bangladesh;
Belgium; Bosnia; Egypt; Eritrea; FRY (Kosovo); France;
Germany; India; Iran; Ireland; Italy; Jordan; Kenya;
Lebanon; Libya; Malaysia; Mauritania; Netherlands;
Pakistan; Philippines; Qatar; Russia; Saudi Arabia;
Somalia; South Africa; Sudan; Switzerland; Tajikistan;
Tanzania; Tunisia; Turkey; Uganda; United Arab
Emirates; United Kingdom; United States; Uzbekistan;
Yemen
Founding Philosophy: Al-Qaeda (The Base in English)
is a radical Sunni Muslim organization led by Usama bin
Laden. In addition to its own members, al-Qaedas
network includes groups operating in as many as 65
countries throughout the world.
Bin Laden's first mentor was Dr. Abdullah Azzam, a
Palestinian who became one of the leaders of the anti-
Soviet jihad in Afghanistan. After education in Saudi
Arabia, Bin Laden, who comes from a wealthy Saudi
family, became involved in the funding and recruitment
of Arab volunteers fighting the Soviets in Afghanistan
and eventually came into contact with Azzams
organization. Bin Laden formed al-Qaeda in the late
1980s in order to organize the recruitment, funding and
organization of these Afghan Arab mujahideen. When
the Soviets withdrew, Bin Laden used his contacts and
resources from the anti-Soviet struggle to turn al-
Qaedas focus toward his new perceived enemies of
Islam in the West. The group changed its base of
operations, principally due to government pressure,
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from Afghanistan to Saudi Arabia to Sudan and finally
back to Afghanistan.
Al-Qaedas philosophy is one of defensive jihad. Using
this philosophy, bin Laden encourages each Muslim to
take it upon them self to fight what it perceives as
attacks on Muslims across the world. As an extension
of this view, the group aims to overthrow 'un-Islamic
regimes' that they believe oppress their Muslim citizens
and replace them with genuine Islamic governments, to
expel US soldiers and Western influences from the holy
territories of the Gulf and Iraq, and to capture
Jerusalem as a Muslim city.
Al-Qaeda allies with and supports terrorist groups
throughout the world that further these goals. These
include groups fighting Muslim governments with
allegedly apostate rulers (Egypt, Algeria, post-2002
Afghanistan and Saudi Arabia), groups fighting regimes
perceived to oppress their Muslim citizens (Kosovo,
India, Russia and Indonesia), and groups fighting to
establish their own Islamic state (Palestine, Chechnya,
Dagestan and Mindanao).
Al-Qaeda supports these groups in two ways, both by
training group members in its camps and by sending its
own members to help these groups in their struggles
around the world. Training for its own members and for
members of allied groups has focused on insurgent
warfare in addition to the classic terrorist techniques
that are usually associated with the group. Some
experts even believe that the ratio of insurgent fighters
to terrorists in al-Qaedas camps may be 15 to 1.
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American military officials have described the majority
of those training in al-Qaedas camps as irregular
ground combatants. Fighters such as these engaged
U.S. troops at Shai-e-Kowt and Tora Bora in
Afghanistan.
Throughout the 90s, al-Qaeda provided its affiliated
groups with financing and training primarily through its
bases in Sudan and Afghanistan. Some 10,000 recruits
are thought to have passed through the training camps
there. Most of al-Qaeda's members are veterans of
insurgencies and terrorist campaigns in Afghanistan,
Tajikistan, Bosnia-Herzegovina, Kashmir, Mindanao,
Chechnya, Lebanon, Nagorno-Karabakh, Algeria, and
Egypt.
Bin Ladens and al-Qaedas hatred of the United States
fits into this strategy of defensive jihad. Support for al-
Qaeda throughout the Muslim world has been garnered
by the portrayal of the United States as a direct threat
to and enemy of Islam. Under this view, the United
States is engaged in attacks on Muslims through its
stationing of troops in holy Muslim territories of the Gulf
and Iraq, its support of Israel, India, Russia and the
Philippines, and its invasion and subsequent occupation
of Iraq and Afghanistan. In addition to the September
11th attacks on the World Trade Center and the
Pentagon, al-Qaedas anti-American attacks include the
1998 embassy bombings in Africa and the 2000 attack
on the USS Cole in Yemen.
Current Goals: The largest groups of al-Qaeda
operatives remain in Afghanistan and Pakistan. While
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Operation Enduring Freedom in 2001 and 2002 ended
the Talibans rule in Kabul and official Afghani
government support for al-Qaeda, as well as destroying
a large portion of its training camp infrastructure, the
group remains a dangerous force and imminent threat
to stability within Afghanistan.
Outside Afghanistan, al-Qaedas jihad also continues.
The al-Qaeda-linked attacks in Madrid showed that the
group sees as a legitimate target any nation supporting
American efforts in Iraq. Muslim insurgencies in which
al-Qaeda members or groups trained in al-Qaedas
camps operate continue in the Philippines, Indonesia,
Chechnya and Kashmir. Al-Qaeda activity in Saudi
Arabia, targeted against both the Saudi regime and
American forces, is also on the rise, and recent reports
also show al-Qaedas ongoing efforts to establish
contacts in southern Lebanon and the Occupied
Territories. The terrorist group of Abu Musab al-Zarqawi
is acting as al-Qaedas local affiliate in Iraq and
presents a dangerous threat to Iraqi and coalition
troops. Al-Qaeda, in any form, remains a dangerous
threat to peace and stability throughout the world.
Legal Cases
01-CR-191
USA v. Jamal Warrayat: 90-CR-587
USA v. Larken B. Phillips: 03-CR-039
USA v. Liban Hussein et al: 01-CR-10423
USA v. Mamdouh Salim: 01-CR-02
USA v. Mohamed Odeh et al: 98-CR-1049
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USA v. Mokhtar Haouari et al: 00-CR-00015
USA v. Richard Reid: 02-CR-10013
USA v. Wadih El Hage et al: 98-CR-1023
USA v. Zacarias Moussaoui: 01-CR-455
Further Reference
"Bin Laden's Command Structure," 9/14/2003, BBC,
(BBC.com)
"Hunting Bin Laden," Lowell Bergman et al, 4/1/1999,
PBS and the NYT, (PBS.org)
Report of the Security Council Committee Established
Pursuant to Resolution 1267 (1999) Concerning Al-
Qaida and the Taliban and Associated Individuals and
Entities, 12/26/2002, United Nations, (New York)
The Age of Sacred Terror, Daniel Benjamin and Steve
Simon, 2002, Random House, (New York)
"Al Qaeda Urges Fresh Attacks," 5/21/2003, BBC,
(BBC.com)
AL-QAEDA
"Bin Laden's Command Structure," 9/14/2003, BBC,
(BBC.com)
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506
"Hunting Bin Laden," Lowell Bergman et al, 4/1/1999,
PBS and the NYT, (PBS.org)
Report of the Security Council Committee Established
Pursuant to Resolution 1267 (1999) Concerning Al-Qaida
and the Taliban and Associated Individuals and Entities,
12/26/2002, United Nations, (New York)
The Age of Sacred Terror, Daniel Benjamin and Steve
Simon, 2002, Random House, (New York)
"Al Qaeda Urges Fresh Attacks," 5/21/2003, BBC,
(BBC.com)
"Pakistani Official: Al Qaeda Suspect Killed,"
Associated Press
"Terrorism Intelligence Brief - Al Qaeda in Saudi Arabia:
Right on Schedule," Stratfor
"Rewards for Justice: Profile: Fahd Mohammed Ahmed
Al-Quso," Rewards for Justice, (Washington, DC)
"Rewards for Justice: Profile: Jamal Mohammad Al-
Badawi," Rewards for Justice, (Washington, DC)
"Rewards for Justice: Profile: Habis Abdulla al-Saoub,"
Rewards for Justice, (Washington, DC)
The bombs that shook Nairobi & Dar : a story of pain
and betrayal / Obwogo Subiri., Obwogo Subiri, 1999.,
Obwogo & Family Publishers, (Nairobi, Kenya)
The endless Jihad : the Mujahidin, the Taliban and Bin
Laden / Shaul Shay., Shaul Shay, c2002., International
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507
Policy Institute for Counter-Terrorism, Interdisciplinary
Center Herzliya, (Herzliya, Israel )
Relentless pursuit : the DSS and the manhunt for the al-
Qaeda terrorists / Samuel M. Katz., Samuel M. Katz,
c2002., Forge/Tom Doherty Associates, (New York )
Through our enemies' eyes : Osama bin Laden, radical
Islam, and the future of America / Anonymous., c2002.,
Brassey's, (Washington, D.C. )
The Al Qaeda network : an overview of organizational
structure, operational patterns and trends, and likely
venues for future attacks / E.M. Preisser, Jay L. Brown.,
E. M. Preisser, ( The National Conference on Homeland
Security, 2002.)
Inside Al Qaeda : global network of terror / Rohan
Gunaratna., Rohan Gunaratna, c2002., Columbia
University Press, (New York )
In the name of Osama bin Laden : global terrorism & the
bin Laden brotherhood / Roland Jacquard ; Samia
Serageldin, consulting editor ; George Holoch,
translator., Roland Jacquard, 2002., Duke University
Press, (Durham, N.C. )
My jihad : the true story of an American mujahid's
amazing journey from Usama Bin Laden's training
camps to counterterrorism with the FBI and CIA / Aukai
Collins., Aukai Collins, c2002., Lyons Press, (Guilford,
Conn. )
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508
The mad messiah : Osama Bin Laden and the seeds of
terror / by Mantoshe Singh Devji., Mantoshe Singh Devji,
2002., Inkwell Productions, (Scottsdale, Ariz. )
After September 11 : New York and the world / Reuters.,
c2003., Prentice Hall, (Upper Saddle, NJ )
Inside 9-11 : what really happened / by the reporters,
writers and editors of Der Spiegel magazine ; translated
from the German by Paul De Angelis and Elisabeth
Kaestner ; with contributions from Margot Dembo and
Christopher Sultan., c2002., St. Martin's Press, (New
York )
At ground zero : young reporters who were there tell
their stories / edited by Chris Bull and Sam Erman.,
c2002., Thunder's Mouth Press, (New York, N.Y. )
Among the heroes : United Flight 93 and the passengers
and crew who fought back / Jere Longman., Jere
Longman, c2002., HarperCollins, (New York, N.Y. )
New York September 11 / by Magnum photographers ;
introduction by David Halberstam., 2001., PowerHouse
Books, (New York )
9-11 / by Noam Chomsky., Noam Chomsky, c2002.,
Seven Stories Press, (New York )
"Web Site: Al Qaeda Carried Out Saudi Bombing,"
Caroline Faraj, 11/12/2003, cnn, (Cnn.com)
"Who Is Osama Bin Laden," 9/18/2001, BBC, (BBC.com)
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509
Holy war, Inc. : inside the secret world of Osama bin
Laden / Peter L. Bergen., Peter L. Bergen, 2001., Free
Press, (New York )
Understanding September 11 / Craig Calhoun, Paul
Price, and Ashley Timmer, editors., 2002., New Press :
Distributed by W.W. Norton, (New York )
Countering al Qaeda : an appreciation of the situation
and suggestions for strategy / Brian Michael Jenkins.,
Brian Michael Jenkins, 2002., RAND, (Santa Monica, CA
)
The spirit of terrorism and requiem for the Twin Towers
/ Jean Baudrillard ; translated by Chris Turner., Jean
Baudrillard, 2002., Verso, (London )
Afterwords : stories and reports from 9/11 and beyond /
compiled by the editors of Salon.com., c2002.,
Washington Square Press, (New York )
Al Qaeda : brotherhood of terror / Paul L. Williams., Paul
L. Williams, c2002., Alpha, ([Parsippany, NJ?] )
Above hallowed ground : a photographic record of
September 11, 2001 / by photographers of the New York
City Police Department ; edited by Christopher Sweet.,
2002., Viking Studio, (New York, NY )
Faces of Ground Zero : portraits of the heroes of
September 11, 2001 / photographs by Joe McNally., Joe
McNally, c2002., Little, Brown, (Boston )
The al-Qaeda threat : an analytical guide to al-Qaeda's
tactics & targets / Ben Venzke and Aimee Ibrahim., Ben
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N. Venzke and Aimee Ibrahim, c2003., Tempest
Publishing, (Alexandria, VA )
The Al-Qaeda documents., c2002-, Tempest Pub. &
IntelCenter, ([Alexandria, Va.] )
The attack on America, September 11, 2001 / William
Dudley, book editor., c2002., Greenhaven Press, (San
Diego, Calif. )
Al Qaeda's operational center of gravity : as hard to find
as the terrorists themselves? / by Michael J. Mallory.,
Charles W. Mitchell, 2002., U.S. Naval War College,
(Newport, RI )
The cell : inside the 9/11 plot, and why the FBI and CIA
failed to stop it / John Miller and Michael Stone, with
Chris Mitchell., John Miller, 2002., Thorndike Press,
(Waterville, Me. )
9-11 : Terror in America / by David Bresnahan ;
[foreword by Ben Kinchlow]., David M. Bresnahan,
2001., Windsor House, (Waxahachie, Tex. )
Al-Qaeda : in search of the terror network that
threatens the world / Jane Corbin., Jane Corbin, c2002.,
Thunder Mouth Press/Nation Books, (New York )
The politics of terror : the U.S. response to 9/11 / edited
by William Crotty., c2004., Northeastern University
Press, (Boston )
Media representations of September 11 / edited by
Steven Chermak, Frankie Y. Bailey, and Michelle
Brown., 2003., Praeger, (Westport, Conn. )
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Osama bin Laden : a psychological and political portrait
/ by Anthony J. Dennis., Anthony J. Dennis, c2002.,
Wyndham Hall Press, (Lima, Ohio.)
The road to al-Qaeda : the story of Bin Laden's right-
hand man / Montasser al-Zayy'at ; introduction by
Ibrahim Abu-Rabi ; translated by Ahmed Fekry ; edited
by Sara Nimis., Muntasir Zayyat, 2004., Pluto Press,
(London ; Sterling, Va. )
11 September and its aftermath : the geopolitics of
terror / editor Stanley D. Brunn., 2004., Frank Cass,
(London ; Portland, OR )
11 September 2001 : war, terror, and judgement /
editors, Bulent Gokay, R.B.J. Walker., 2003., Frank
Cass, (Portland, OR )
Al Qaeda's Great Escape : the military and the media on
terror's trail / Philip Smucker., Philip Smucker, c2004.,
Brassey's, (Washington, D.C. )
The 9/11 Commission report : final report of the National
Commission on Terrorist Attacks Upon the United
States., [2004], W.W. Norton, (New York )
What does al-Qaeda want? : unedited communiques /
with commentary by Robert O. Marlin IV., c2004., North
Atlantic Books ; [s.l.] : Distributed to the book trade by
Publishers Group West, (Berkeley, Calif. )
Perspectives on 9/11 / edited by Yassin El-Ayouty ;
assisted by Gerald J. Galgan, Francis J. Greene, and
Edward Wesley., 2004., Praeger, (Westport, Conn. )
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512
Osama's revenge : the next 9-11 : what the media and
the government haven't told you / Paul L. Williams., Paul
L. Williams, c2004., Prometheus Books, (Amherst, NY )
"U.S. Hunt for 'Pen Jihadist' Ends," Robert Windrem,
NBC News
Imperial Hubris: Why the West is Losing the War on
Terror, Anonymous, Brassey's, Inc., (Washington, DC)
"Wanted: Mustafa Setmariam Nasar," Rewards for
Justice
"Bush: Pakistan Arrest 'Critical Victory'," Katherine
Shrader, Associated Press
"Transcript: Combatant Status Review for Khalid Sheikh
Mohammed," United States Department of Defense
History and September 11th / edited by Joanne
Meyerowitz., 2003., Temple University Press,
(Philadelphia )
Bin Laden : behind the mask of the terrorist / Adam
Robinson., Adam Robinson, 2002., Arcade : Distributed
by AOL Time Warner Book Group, (New York )
Bin Laden, Islam, and America's new 'war on terrorism' /
As'ad. AbuKhalil., As`ad AbuKhalil, 2002., Seven Stories
Press, (New York )
Al-Qaeda : casting a shadow of terror / Jason Burke.,
Jason Burke, 2003., I.B. Tauris, (London ; New York )
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09/11 8:48 AM : documenting America's greatest
tragedy / edited by BlueEar.com: Global Writing Worth
Reading with the faculty and students of the New York
University Department of Journalism., 2001.,
BookSurge.com, ([Charleston, SC] )
The Base : in search of Al-Qaeda, the terror network
that shook the world / Jane Corbin., Jane Corbin, 2002.,
Simon & Schuster, (London )
Losing Bin Laden : how Bill Clinton's failures unleashed
global terror / Richard Miniter., Richard Miniter, c2003.,
Regnery Pub., (Washington, D.C. )
After 9/11 / Nathan Lyons ; with an introduction by
Marvin Bell and an afterword by Richard Benson and
Jock Reynolds., Nathan Lyons, 2003., London : Yale
University Press, (New Haven, Conn. )
Masterminds of terror : the truth behind the most
devastating terrorist attack the world has ever seen /
Yusri Fouda and Nick Fielding., Yusri Fawdah, 2003.,
Arcade Pub., (New York )
"Al-Qaeda and Western Islam / Javier Jordan ; Luisa
Boix.," Javier Jordan, 2004., Frank Cass & Co., (London,
England )
"Sayyid Qutb's influence on the 11 September attacks /
John C. Zimmerman.," John C. Zimmerman, 2004., Frank
Cass & Co., (London, England )
"Jihadi strategic studies : the alleged Al Qaida policy
study preceding the Madrid bombings / Lia Brynjar ;
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514
Thomas Hegghammer.," Brynjar Lia, 2004., Taylor &
Francis, (Champlain, NY )
"Al Qaeda and the innovative firm : demythologizing the
network / Brad McAllister.," Brad McAllister, 2004.,
Taylor & Francis, (Champlain, NY )
"From Ocalan to Al Qaida : the continuing terrorist
threat in Turkey / Lawrence E. Cline.," Lawrence E.
Cline, 2004., Taylor & Francis, (Champlain, NY )
"Militant recruitment in Pakistan : implications for Al
Qaeda and other organizations / C. Christine Fair.," C.
Christine Fair, 2004., Taylor & Francis, (Philadelphia, PA
)
"The changing face of Al Qaeda and the global war on
terrorism / Bruce Hoffman.," Bruce Hoffman, 2004.,
Taylor & Francis, (Philadelphia, PA )
"Al Qaida recruitment trends in Kenya and Tanzania /
William Rosenau.," William Rosenau, 2005., Taylor &
Francis, (Philadelphia, PA )
"Al-Qaeda and the nature of religious terrorism / Mark
Sedgwick.," Mark Sedgwick, 2005., Taylor & Francis,
(Philadelphia, PA. )
"Al Qaeda : a different diagnosis / Xavier Raufer.,"
Xavier Raufer, 2003., Taylor & Francis, (Champlain, NY )
"Breaking al Qaeda cells : mathematical analysis of
counterterrorism operations (a guide for risk
assessment and decision making) / Jonathan David
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Farley.," Jonathan David Farley, 2003., Taylor & Francis,
(Champlain, NY )
"Al Qaeda, trends in terrorism, and future potentialities
: an assessment / Bruce Hoffman.," Bruce Hoffman,
2003., Taylor & Francis, (Champlain, NY )
"Looking for the pattern : Al Qaeda in Southeast Asia -
the genealogy of a terror network / David Martin Jones,
Michael L.R. Smith, Mark Weeding.," David Martin
Jones, 2003., Taylor & Francis, (Champlain, NY )
"Material support : the United States v. the Lackawanna
Six / Ravi Satkalmi," Ravi Satkalmi, 2005., Taylor &
Francis, (Champlain, NY )
"Osama bin Laden and guerrilla war / Don D. Chipman.,"
Don D. Chipman, 2003., Taylor & Francis, (Champlain,
NY )
"Al Qaeda as a dune organization : toward a typology of
Islamic terrorist organizations / Shaul Mishal, Maoz
Rosenthal.," Shaul Mishal, 2005., Taylor & Francis,
(Champlain, NY )
The new jackals : Ramzi Yousef, Osama Bin Laden and
the future of terrorism / Simon Reeve., Simon Reeve,
c1999., Northeastern University Press, (Boston )
"Al-Qaeda: The Many Faces of an Islamist Extremist
Threat," Report of the House Permanent Select
Committee on Intelligence
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102 minutes : the untold story of the fight to survive
inside the Twin Towers / Jim Dwyer and Kevin Flynn.,
Jim Dwyer, 2005., Times Books, (New York )
The interrogators : inside the secret war against Al
Qaeda / Chris Mackey and Greg Miller., Chris Mackey,
c2004., Little, Brown, (New York )
Bin Laden : the man who declared war on America /
Yossef Bodansky., Yossef Bodansky, c2001., Forum,
(Rocklin, Calif. )
Aum Shinrikyo, al Qaeda, and the Kinshasa reactor :
implications of three case studies for combating
nuclear terrorism / Sara Daly, John Parachini, William
Rosenau., Sara A. Daly, 2005., RAND Corp., (Santa
Monica, CA )
"Religion's role in the terrorist attack of September 11,
2001 / Michael E. Nielsen.," Michael E. Neilson, [2005],
Transaction Publishers, (New Brunswick, N.J. )
"On terrorism's trail : how the FBI unraveled the Africa
Embassy bombings / by David E. Kaplan ; Stefan
Lovgren.," David E. Kaplan, 1999., Centers for Disease
Control and Prevention, (Atlanta, GA )
"Blueprint for terror : an ex-CIA case officer discovers
Usama bin Ladin's bomb-making guide- a book the
agency didn't know existed / by Reuel Marc Gerecht.,"
Reuel Marc Gerecht, (Talk Magazine, 2000.)
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"Al-Qaida's links to Iranian security services / Yael
Shahar.," Yael Shahar, 2003., The Interdisciplinary
Center, (Herzliya, Israel )
"Osama bin Laden : why he hates us / by David Plotz.,"
David Plotz, 2001., The Oklahoma Observer, (Oklahoma
City, OK )
"The leadership secrets of Osama bin Laden : the
terrorist as CEO / Bruce Hoffman.," Bruce Hoffman, (
Atlantic Monthly, 2003.)
"Ayman Muhammad Rabi' Al-Zawahiri : the making of an
arch-terrorist / Nimrod Raphaeli.," Nimrod Raphaeli,
2002., Frank Cass & Co., (London, England )
"Osama bin Laden and al Qaeda," U.S. Department of
State, Office of International Information Programs
"Al-Qaida: Dead or captured," MSNBC
"Pakistan questions al-Qaeda suspect," BBC News
"Full Text: Bin Laden's 'Letter to America'," Guardian
Unlimited
"'Text' of Al-Zarqawi Message Threatening More
Attacks," Federation of American Scientists
Patterns of Global Terrorism: 1998, U.S. Department of
State
"The Shoe Bomber's World," Michael Elliot, Time
"Who is Richard Reid?," BBC News
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"Exchange between Reid, judge follows life sentence,"
CNN
"Country Reports on Terrorism 2005," U.S. Department
of State
Patterns of Global Terrorism: 2000, U.S. Department of
State
Patterns of Global Terrorism: 2001, U.S. Department of
State
Patterns of Global Terrorism: 2003, US Department of
State
Patterns of Global Terrorism: 2002, U.S. Department of
State
"Declaration of War: Against the Americans Occupying
the Land of the Two Holy Places," Osama Bin Laden
"Fatwa: Jihad Against Jews and Crusaders," Osama Bin
Laden
"Interview with Osama bin Laden," ABC News
"Warning to America," Osama bin Laden
"Statement Against Crusaders and the UN," Osama bin
Laden
"Osama Claims He Has Nukes," Hamid Mir, Global
Policy Forum
"Under the Shadow of Spears," Sulaiman Abu Ghaith
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519
"America Must Leave the Lands of Islam," Ayman al-
Zawahiri
"Message from Osama bin Laden," Osama bin Laden,
BBC
"Interview with Mujahid Usamah Bin Ladin," Nida'ul
Islam
AMERICAN FRONT
Base of Operation: United States
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Founding Philosophy: American Front (AF) is a skinhead
group that was founded by Bob Heick around 1990.
According to some sources, the group was founded in
Portland, Oregon, while other sources locate AF's roots
in San Francisco, California. Within a few years, AF had
spread across the northwest and beyond. AF members
have been arrested in Napa, San Francisco,
Sacramento, Pennsylvania, Florida, Maryland and
Washington. Heick, a high school dropout, first
encountered racist skinhead culture in Britain in 1984.
At the time, the racist organization National Front was
winning a war with anti-racist skinheads for control of
the British skinhead movement. When Heick returned to
the United States, he launched his own skinhead
organization, American Front. Membership in American
Front is by application only, and the application implies
that if a member betrays the organization, the
punishment is "death by crucifixion [sic]."
(www.cgiaonline.org) This is a common attitude among
skinheads, who are most brutal toward those who try to
leave the movement. (Ridgeway, 185)
AF members have committed heinous crimes. In 1991,
police offers searching a Beaverton, Oregon residence
from which AF members had been evicted found a "hit
list" of Portland police officers who were to be targeted.
In California and Washington during July of 1993, there
was a series of bombings targeting public meeting
places for blacks, gays and Jews in California and
Washington. American Front members Wayne Paul
Wooten, Jeremiah Gordon Knesal and Mark Kowaalski
were convicted of committing two of those attacks: the
bombing of the Elite Tavern (a gay club) on July 22, and
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the bombing of an NAACP meeting hall on July 20.
According to U.S. Attorney Mike Yamaguchi, Wooten,
Knesal and Kowaalski were part of a larger conspiracy
to incite race war. (Espinosa, 8/14/93) The bombings
seem to have been timed to coincide with the
sentencing of the police officers convicted in the
Rodney King case, presumably to take advantage of
heightened racial tension connected with the case.
Current Goals: American Front's new leader is James
Porazzo. Porazzo moved AF to Harrison, Arkansas, and
made it the most explicitly Third Positionist group in
America. The idea behind "Third Position" philosophy is
to unify the extreme right and extreme left in their fight
against the global capitalist system. Third Positionists
are both socialist and racist. Porazzo advocates
"socialist revolution in a racialist context," explaining
"We propose a workable, realistic alternative, and that
is Seperatism! White autonomy, Black autonomy, Brown
autonomy and death to the current twisted system....
The only other obvious route would be an eventual
winner take all race war: I don't think anyone with any
sense would want that.... [L]et me make it clear that
American Front would rather fight the REAL ENEMY --
the system. [The system we must fight is] the
dictatorship of the dollar. [The forces of global
capitalism are controlled by] the Zionists and the Race
that spawned them...a filthy, evil people the world
would be better without. [Charging interest] is a filthy
Jewish practice." (Porazzo, qtd in "Neither Left Nor
Right")
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522
Legal Cases
USA v. Jeremiah Gordon Knesal et al: 93-CR-20070-
ALL
USA v. Jeremiah Gordon Knesal: 93-CR-20135-JW
USA v. Wayne Paul Wooten: 93-CR-20136-ALL
Further Reference
"Investigators: Arrests Foiled Mass Terrorism; White
Supremacist Link Reported," Espinosa, Suzanne and
Benjamin Pimintel, 08/14/1993, The Times-Picayune,
(New Orleans, LA)
"Three Accused in NAACP Bombing Had Violent Past,"
Eng, James, 08/01/1993, The Associated Press
"FBI Links Racists to Terror Plan," Taylor, Michael and
Kevin Leary, 07/31/1999, The San Francisco Chronicle,
(San Francisco)
"Racists Aim for Down-And-Out Loggers," Shukovsky,
Paul, 06/04/1991, Seattle Post-Intelligencer, (Seattle)
"Neither Left Nor Right," Southern Poverty Law Center,
(Montgomery, AL)
TERRORIST GROUP: AMERICAN FRONT
"Investigators: Arrests Foiled Mass Terrorism; White
Supremacist Link Reported," Espinosa, Suzanne and
Benjamin Pimintel, The Times-Picayune, (New Orleans,
LA)
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"Three Accused in NAACP Bombing Had Violent Past,"
Eng, James, The Associated Press
"FBI Links Racists to Terror Plan," Taylor, Michael and
Kevin Leary, The San Francisco Chronicle, (San
Francisco)
"Racists Aim for Down-And-Out Loggers," Shukovsky,
Paul, Seattle Post-Intelligencer, (Seattle)
"Neither Left Nor Right," Southern Poverty Law Center,
(Montgomery, AL)
ANIMAL LIBERATION FRONT (ALF)
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Base of Operation: Canada; United Kingdom; United
States
Founding Philosophy: The original Animal Liberation
Front (ALF) formed in England in 1976, splintering off
from the Hunt Saboteurs Association (HSA) to form a
more militant organization. The FBI claims that the
American branch of the ALF began its operations in the
late 1970s, but the group became more high profile in
1982, and then made the FBI's domestic terrorism list in
1987 with a multi-million dollar arson at a veterinary lab
in California. ALF carries out direct action against
animal abuse in the form of rescuing animals and
causing financial loss to animal exploiters, usually
through the damage and destruction of property.
Because ALF actions are against the law, activists
work anonymously, either in small groups or
individually, and they do not have any centralized
organization or coordination. The Animal Liberation
Front consists of small autonomous groups of people all
over the world who carry out direct action according to
the ALF guidelines. Any group of people who are
vegetarians or vegans and who carry out actions
according to ALF guidelines have the right to regard
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525
themselves as part of the ALF, according to their
website and other materials.
Similar to activities in the United Kingdom and Canada,
the American ALF has attacked medical and scientific
research laboratories, butcher shops, and retail furriers.
The organization has claimed credit for the theft of
research animals and the destruction of research
equipment and records, as well as acts of vandalism
and arson. In August of 2003, ALF activists claimed
responsibility for the release of 10,000 mink from a
mink farm in Washington State. In North America and
the United Kingdom, most militant members of the ALF
are young and from middle-class backgrounds.
Current Goals: The ALF's short-term aim is to save as
many animals as possible and directly disrupt the
practice of animal abuse. Their long-term aim is to end
all animal suffering by forcing animal abuse companies
out of business. The organization claims to be
nonviolent and activists are encouraged to take
precautions not to harm any animal (human or
otherwise).
ALF goals according to their website are as follows: 1.
To liberate animals from places of abuse, i.e.
laboratories, factory farms, fur farms, etc., and place
them in good homes where they may live out their
natural lives, free from suffering. 2. To inflict economic
damage to those who profit from the misery and
exploitation of animals. 3. To reveal the horror and
atrocities committed against animals behind locked
doors, by performing non-violent direct actions and
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liberations. 4. To take all necessary precautions against
harming any animal, human and non-human.
Legal Cases
USA v. Allison Lance Watson: 04-CR-066
USA v. Rodney Adam Coronado: 93-CR-116-RAE
Further Reference
"Single Issue Terrorism," Dr. G.D. (Tim) Smith, Winter
1998, Canadian Security Intelligence Service,
(Canadian Security Intelligence Service Commentary
Series)
Free the animals!: the untold story of the Animal
Liberation Front and its founder, Valerie. , Ingrid
Newkirk, 1992, Noble Press, (Chicago, IL)
"Militant Activism and the Issue of Animal Rights," Dr.
G.D. (Tim) Smith, 4/1/1992, Canadian Security
Intelligence Service, (Canadian Security Intelligence
Service Commentary Series)
"Statement of James F. Jarboe, Domestic Terrorism
Section Chief, Counterterrorism division Federal
Bureau of Investigation ," 2/12/2002, (Before the House
Resources Committee, Subcommittee on Forests and
Forest Health.)
"Animal rights and violent protest ," Rachel Monaghan,
1997, Frank Cass & Co., (London, England)
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527
TERRORIST GROUP: ANIMAL LIBERATION FRONT (ALF)
"Single Issue Terrorism," Dr. G.D. (Tim) Smith, Winter
1998, Canadian Security Intelligence Service, (Canadian
Security Intelligence Service Commentary Series)
Free the animals!: the untold story of the Animal
Liberation Front and its founder, Valerie. , Ingrid
Newkirk, 1992, Noble Press, (Chicago, IL)
"Militant Activism and the Issue of Animal Rights," Dr.
G.D. (Tim) Smith, 4/1/1992, Canadian Security
Intelligence Service, (Canadian Security Intelligence
Service Commentary Series)
"Statement of James F. Jarboe, Domestic Terrorism
Section Chief, Counterterrorism division Federal Bureau
of Investigation ," 2/12/2002, (Before the House
Resources Committee, Subcommittee on Forests and
Forest Health.)
"Animal rights and violent protest ," Rachel Monaghan,
1997, Frank Cass & Co., (London, England)
"The Mean Green," Brian McCombie, 9/23/2000,
Shepherd Express Metro: Milwaukee's Weekly
Newspaper
"Terrorism in the name of animal rights / Rachel
Monaghan.," Rachel Monaghan, 1999., Frank Cass &
Co., (London, England )
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ARIZONA PATRIOTS (AP)
Base of Operation: United States
Founding Philosophy: The Arizona Patriots were a
loosely organized group of patriots that subscribe to
Posse Comitatus and Christian Identity ideology. The
Patriots were white supremacist anti-Semites who
sought to overthrow the American government. They
began as paper terrorists, clogging the court system
with bogus lawsuits. In the mid-1980s, however, the
Patriots began planning more violent attacks on the
government.
Current Goals: In 1984, the Arizona Patriots issued a
document threatening to indict all Arizona public
officials before a "patriot" grand jury unless they retired
within 30 days. In 1986, the FBI ended a two-year
undercover investigation of the group with the arrest of
10 members. The suspects were charged with plotting
to bomb the Simon Wiesenthal Center, the LA office of
the FBI, two offices of the Jewish Defense League, and
a Utah IRS office. They were also planning to rob an
armored car in Nevada. Their plans for the robbery were
extraordinarily complex, which is typical for the
paramilitary radical right. The Patriots were going to
use arrows with exploding tips, homemade mortars, and
sleeping gas to attack the van, and they planned to
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detonate a bomb at the Hoover Dam just before the
robbery in order to distract police. These crimes were
inspired by The Turner Diaries, the same racist novel on
which both Timothy McVeigh and The Order modeled
their heinous crimes. The Arizona Patriots were
essentially destroyed by the imprisonment of six of its
members for involvement in the 1986 conspiracy, but
there is some indication that the group may be
resurfacing.
Legal Cases
USA v. David Gumaer et al: 86-CR-354
USA v. Foster Thomas Hoover: 86-CR-338-TUC
USA v. J.R. Hagen et al: 86-CR-292-TUC
USA v. Patrick Schlecht et al: 86-CR-336-PCT
USA v. Rita Schlecht: 86-CR-337-PHX
Further Reference
"Godfather of Arizona's Militiamen," Perry, Tony,
05/21/1995, Los Angeles Times, (Los Angeles)
"Right Wing Group Accused of Bank Robbery Plot,"
Knudson, Thomas J., 12/17/1986, New York Times,
(New York)
Religion and the racist right : the origins of the
Christian Identity movement / Michael Barkun.,
Michael Barkun, c1997., University of North Carolina
Press, (Chapel Hill)
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ARMED FORCES OF NATIONAL LIBERATION
Mothertongue Name:
Fuerzas Armadas de Liberacion Nacional (FALN)
Aliases: Fuerzas Armadas de Liberacion Nacional
Puertoriquena
Base of Operation: Puerto Rico; United States
Founding Philosophy: The Armed Forces of National
Liberation (FALN) is a Puerto Rican terrorist
organization responsible for numerous attacks on
continental U.S. soil. FALN, one of several Puerto Rican
nationalist terrorist groups, set itself apart by
repeatedly attacking U.S. citizens and facilities for
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roughly a decade. By utilizing terrorists based in both
Puerto Rico and the Unites States, FALN was able to
attacks targets in Puerto Rico, New York, and Chicago.
FALN is a terrorist organization committed to full Puerto
Rican independence from the United States. The group
was primarily active from 1974 to 1985, and directly
caused the deaths of five people, dozens of injuries, and
several million dollars worth of damages to facilities. In
one if its most brazen statements, FALN threatened to
attack nuclear facilities in 1980, which would have
made FALN the first terrorist organization to engage in
a nuclear attack. Fortunately, FALN never followed
through on its threatened nuclear assault.
Current Goals: Since 1985, FALN has been largely
inactive. On September 7, 1999, U.S. President William
Jefferson Clinton granted clemency to twelve
imprisoned FALN members. In a 1998 referendum
regarding Puerto Rico's status, only two and a half
percent of Puerto Ricans voted for independence. Due
to the lack of interest in Puerto Rican independence, a
resurgence of FALN does not seem likely in the near
term.
Legal Cases
USA v. Alejandrina Torres et al: 83-CR-494
USA v. Carlos Rodriguez-Rodriguez: 84-CR-169
USA v. Luz M. Berrios et al: 85-H-50-20
USA v. Oscar Lopez et al: 86-CR-513-WTH
Further Reference
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"Clemency for the Faln: A Flawed Decision?,"
09/21/1999, Findings of the Committee on Government
Reform, U.S. House of Representatives
"Threats to U.S. National Security," Louis J. Freeh,
01/28/1998, Senate Select Committee on Intelligence,
(Washington, D. C.)
"Armed Forces of Puerto Rican National Liberation
Profile," 12/12/1999, Federation of American Scientists
ARMENIAN REVOLUTIONARY ARMY
Base of Operation: United States
Founding Philosophy: The Armenian Revolutionary Army
was formed to increase awareness of the Armenian
genocide and further the cause of Armenian
independence. In 1915, Turkey (then the center of the
Ottoman Empire) attempted to eliminate systematically
the sizable Armenian minority living within its borders;
estimates of the final death toll range anywhere
between a few hundred thousand to upwards of two
million people. The anger of the Armenian people, both
in Armenia and abroad, only grew with time. Turkey
added fuel to the fire by refusing to acknowledge the
scope of the killings or apologize publicly for them. By
1970, some were prepared to use terrorist violence to
garner attention for their cause. Unlike some of the
other Armenian terrorist organizations, such as ASALA,
the ARA was not known to be influenced by Marxist-
Leninist thought or affiliated with foreign Marxist-
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Leninist organizations. Its platform was purely
nationalistic, calling for the establishment of an
independent Armenian state (preferably on Turkish
territory) and the public recognition of the Armenian
genocide by Turkey. Some Armenians hoped that, as
the Holocaust had generated international support for
the founding of Israel, increasing awareness of the
Armenian genocide (brought on by terrorist acts) might
help them gain an independent homeland.
Current Goals: The first attack claimed by the ARA took
place in 1970, when a library in Lisbon, Portugal was
bombed. However, the next act of ARA violence did not
take place until 1983, when a Turkish Embassy attache
was gunned down in Brussels, causing some to
question whether the 1970 bombing was perpetrated by
a completely different Armenian Revolutionary Army.
The 1983 date is misleading because the ARA was
operating from 1978-1982 under the name "Justice
Commandoes for the Armenian Genocide" (JCAG). JCAG
bombed a number of Turkish targets (businesses,
diplomatic cites, airline counters) in the US and Europe
and promptly disappeared just as the ARA was born.
However, this disappearance still does not shed much
light on the question of whether or not the 1970 ARA
and the 1978 JCAG shared members. With the collapse
of the Soviet Union, Armenia has become an
independent, sovereign state, fulfilling the major
objective of most of the terrorists. Former terrorists
now find themselves in the government or the military
(or perhaps fighting the Azerbaijanis in the contested
province of Nagorno-Kabakh), rather than conducting a
campaign of international violence from the shadows.
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The last act of ARA terrorism took place in 1985, and no
further activity is expected.
ARMY OF GOD
Base of Operation: United States
Founding Philosophy: The Army of God is an
underground network of terrorists who believe that the
use of violence is an appropriate tool for fighting
against abortion. An excerpt from the Army of God
Manual says that the Army of God "is a real Army, and
God is the General and Commander-in-Chief. The
soldiers, however, do not usually communicate with one
another. Very few have ever met each other. And when
they do, each is usually unaware of the other's soldier
status. That is why the Feds will never stop this Army.
Never. And we have not yet even begun to fight." Pastor
Michael Bray is the Chaplain of the Army of God. He
hosts the annual "White Rose Banquet" honoring those
imprisoned for anti-abortion violence. He also wrote the
book "A Time to Kill," which provides a biblical
justification for the use of violence against abortion
providers. Bray has served time in jail for bombing
abortion clinics. Bray's daughter is named after a
murderer of an abortion doctor.
The Army of God manual is a "how to" for abortion clinic
violence. It details methods for blockading entrances,
attacking with butyric acid, arson, bomb making, and
other illegal activities. The manual contains anti-
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abortion language as well as anti-government and anti-
gay/lesbian language. The manual begins with a
declaration of war on the abortion industry and
continues, "Our Most Dread Sovereign Lord God
requires that whosoever sheds man's blood, by man
shall his blood be shed. Not out of hatred of you, but out
of love for the persons you exterminate, we are forced
to take arms against you. Our life for yours - a simple
equation....You shall not be tortured at our hands.
Vengeance belongs to God only. However, execution is
rarely gentle."
Several Army of God members have been involved in
highly publicized incidents of terrorism. Eric Robert
Rudolph was charged with the Atlanta Olympic
bombing, as well as the bombings of an abortion clinic
and a gay bar in Atlanta. Secondary bombs, designed to
detonate after emergency service personnel arrived at
the scene, were planted at both the abortion clinic and
the gay bar. Another Army of God member, James Kopp,
was convicted in the fatal shooting of clinic doctor Dr.
Barnett Slepian in 1998. Kopp is believed to be
connected with a half dozen other similar shootings
that took place between 1994 and 1997. Clayton
Waagner, the man who has claimed responsibility for
sending over 550 anthrax threat letters to clinics in
2001, signed many of his threat letters with the name
Army of God. He also posted threats to kill 42
individuals working at abortion clinics on the Army of
God website.
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Current Goals: Recent reports have noted the Army's
increased anti-gay rhetoric and worry that this may be a
precursor to attacks on gays and lesbians.
Further Reference
"Investigators probe Rudolph's missing years,"
5/31/2003, CNN, (CNN.com)
"Atlanta Olympic Bombing Suspect Arrested," Mike
Brooks et al, 5/31/2003, CNN, (CNN.com)
"Brand New War for the Army of God," Frederick
Clarkson , 2/19/2002, Salon.com, (Salon.com)
"Eric Robert Rudolph: Loner and survivalist: Bombing
Suspect Had Few Ties to society," 6/3/2003, CNN,
(CNN.com)
"FBI to Release 'Army of God' Bomb Letters," 6/8/1997,
CNN, (CNN.com)
ARYAN NATIONS (AN)
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Base of Operation: United States
Founding Philosophy: Aryan Nations (AN) is an umbrella
group for factions of the Klan and other right-wing
extremists. Aryan Nations founder Richard Butler
dubbed Aryan Nation's headquarters in Hayden Lake,
Idaho, the "international headquarters of the White
race," (ADL, 245), and the white supremacist
community seems to agree. The RAND Institute
describes Aryan Nations as the "first truly nationwide
terrorist network."
Aryan Nations advocates Christian Identity, white
supremacy, and neo-Nazism. Its goal is to form "a
national racial state. We shall have it at whatever price
is necessary. Just as our forefathers purchased their
freedom in blood so must we. We will have to kill the
bastards." (Butler, quoted in ADL, 244)
Until Aryan Nations lost its Hayden Lake property in
2000, the compound was the site of regular white
supremacist festivals known as the World Congress of
Aryan Nations. The festivals trained attendees in urban
terrorism and guerilla warfare and gave prominent
white supremacists a chance to network. The group ran
an "Aryan Nations Academy" in the early 1980s to teach
young people the principles of white nationalism. The
group has been reaching out to prisoners with a
message of white supremacy since 1979.
Current Goals: During the 1990s, Aryan Nations suffered
from internal struggles, and several key leaders
departed. In September of 2000, a jury awarded Victoria
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and Jason Keenan $6.3 million in damages because the
two had been chased and shot at by Aryan Nations
guards outside the Idaho compound. Butler and Aryan
Nations were bankrupted, and the Idaho compound was
seized. The group has currently splintered into three
factions: one headed by Butler (since deceased), one
located in Pennsylvania and led by August Kreis and
Charles Juba, and a group calling itself The Church of
the Sons of YHVH/Legion of Saints (Church of the Sons
of Yahweh), led by Ray Redfeairn (since deceased) and
Morris Gulett.
Legal Cases
USA v. Buford Furrow: 99-CR-838
USA v. Robert Edward Miles et al: 87-CR-20008
USA v. Robert J. Winslow et al: 90-CR-033-N-HLR
USA v. Walter Wolfgang Droege: 84-CR-C-301-NE
Further Reference
"Diaries': Racist Fantasy, or Primer for War of Hate?,"
Harrison, Eric, 2/18/1990, Los Angeles Times, (Los
Angeles)
"Racial Armageddon," Richard Hensley, 09/19/2004,
Highlands Today, (Highlands, Florida)
Mein Kampf / Adolf Hitler; translated by Ralph
Manheim., Adolf Hitler, 1999., Houghton Mifflin,
(Boston )
Religion and the racist right : the origins of the
Christian Identity movement / Michael Barkun.,
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Michael Barkun, c1997., University of North Carolina
Press, (Chapel Hill)
The racist mind : portraits of American Neo-Nazis and
Klansmen / Raphael S. Ezekiel., Raphael S. Ezekiel,
c1995., Penguin Books, 1996, (New York, N.Y., U.S.A. )
ARYAN REPUBLICAN ARMY (ARA)
Aliases: Aryan Resistance Army
Base of Operation: United States
Founding Philosophy:
The Aryan Republican Army (ARA) was a militant group
of Aryan Nations members and Christian Identity
followers who committed 22 bank robberies in the
Midwest during 1994 and 1995. They were one of many
cells of violent racists that adopted the "leaderless
resistance" structure advocated by KKK leader Louis
Beam. They were, by some accounts, the most
paramilitary and radical neo-Nazi group in the U.S.
during their two-year robbing spree.
The ARA was named after the Irish Republican Army,
and claims to have adopted its tactics and goals from
the IRA. It is clear, however, that the ARA was a far
more extreme group than its Irish role model. The ARA's
goals were nothing less than the overthrow of the U.S.
government, the extermination of Jews, and the
establishment of an Aryan state in North America.
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Members were required to read The Turner Diaries, a
white supremacist fantasy novel that served as the
inspiration for both Timothy McVeigh and The Order.
Their main base of operations was Elohim City, an
Oklahoma haven for militant racists. Timothy McVeigh
called Elohim City two weeks before the bombing, and
the possibility of a connection between McVeigh and
the ARA is the subject of volumes of speculation by
militia-watchers and conspiracy theorists.
The ARA's primary activities were robbing banks and
stockpiling weapons and ammunition. During a typical
bank robbery, an ARA member would enter with a pipe
bomb and a pistol and threaten to kill both employees
and customers of the bank. ARA members seem to have
had a sick sense of whimsy. They often committed
robberies in costume, dressed as Santa Claus, the
Easter Bunny, ATF or FBI agents, and Middle Eastern
men. Part of the proceeds from the robberies were used
to fund "White Terror Productions," a racist record label
that recorded a CD dedicated to Sam and Vicki Weaver
(who were killed at Ruby Ridge) and Richard Wayne
Snell (a racist militant who was executed on the day of
the Oklahoma City bombing for his role in an earlier plot
to bomb the Alfred P. Murrah building.
Current Goals: The FBI was not actually aware of the
existence of the ARA until one of its members was
apprehended, since the group had not claimed
responsibility for any of its robberies. When Richard Lee
Guthrie was arrested in January of 1996 as a suspect in
one of the 22 robberies that the ARA had committed, he
told police about the ARA and gave them the location of
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four of his accomplices. Police then arrested Pete
Langaan, Mark Thomas, Scott Stedeford, and Kevin
McCarthy. Mike Brescia was arrested a year later.
Guthrie hanged himself in his cell soon after fingering
his associates. The other five members of ARA were all
sent to prison for their crimes.
No further crimes have been connected with members
of the Aryan Republican Army, and, as far as authorities
know, the group ceased to exist when its six known
members were arrested. According to Mike Reynolds of
the Southern Poverty Law Center, however, it is likely
that associates of the group remain at large. "These
people had a support system. They had safe-houses and
very good false documents. They were clearly preparing
for something beyond bank robberies."
Legal Cases
USA v. Mark Williams Thomas et al: 97-CR-51-RLB
Further Reference
"The Aryan Republican Army," Macko, Steve,
04/24/1996, EmergencyNet NEWS Service
Mein Kampf / Adolf Hitler; translated by Ralph
Manheim., Adolf Hitler, 1999., Houghton Mifflin,
(Boston )
Religion and the racist right : the origins of the
Christian Identity movement / Michael Barkun.,
Michael Barkun, c1997., University of North Carolina
Press, (Chapel Hill)
The racist mind : portraits of American Neo-Nazis and
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Klansmen / Raphael S. Ezekiel., Raphael S. Ezekiel,
c1995., Penguin Books, 1996, (New York, N.Y., U.S.A. )
Mark Thomas : recruiter for the armies of hate /
prepared by Andrew Berish., Andrew Berish, c1997.,
Anti-Defamation League, ([S.l.] )
TERRORIST GROUP: ARYAN REPUBLICAN ARMY (ARA)
"The Aryan Republican Army," Macko, Steve,
EmergencyNet NEWS Service
Mein Kampf / Adolf Hitler; translated by Ralph
Manheim., Adolf Hitler, 1999., Houghton Mifflin, (Boston
)
Religion and the racist right : the origins of the
Christian Identity movement / Michael Barkun., Michael
Barkun, c1997., University of North Carolina Press,
(Chapel Hill)
The racist mind : portraits of American Neo-Nazis and
Klansmen / Raphael S. Ezekiel., Raphael S. Ezekiel,
c1995., Penguin Books, 1996, (New York, N.Y., U.S.A. )
Mark Thomas : recruiter for the armies of hate /
prepared by Andrew Berish., Andrew Berish, c1997.,
Anti-Defamation League, ([S.l.] )
American SNAFU : The Aryan Republican Army Profile
AUM SHINRIKYO / ALEPH
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Mothertongue Name:
Aum Shinrikyo (AUM)
Aliases: Aum Shinsen no Kai, Aum Supreme Truth
Base of Operation: Australia; Germany; Indonesia;
Japan; Russia; Taiwan; United States
Founding Philosophy: Aum Shinrikyo (Supreme Truth) is
a Japanese cult founded in 1984. The groups original
name was Aum Shinsen no Kai (Group of Gods/Supreme
Beings), but it was changed to Aum Shinrikyo in 1989.
Its leader, Shoko Asahara, was a charismatic and
partially blind guru whose world-view evolved from an
advocacy of esoteric mysticism to apocalyptic nihilism,
which encouraged his followers to confront the
Japanese establishment. His teachings involved a
unique amalgam of Buddhism, Hinduism, Christianity,
and New Age thought, with some elements also taken
from Nostradamus prophecies and even science fiction.
Asahara claimed to have many supernatural powers and
believed that he had attained enlightenment.
The cult started as a small group composed of Asahara
and fifteen of his followers, and they focused on
esoteric yoga. Within very little time however, Aums
numbers swelled, thanks to the charismatic leaders
frequent lecture tours and travels abroad. Aum
Shinrikyo actively recruited among professionals and
students from Japans top universities. The cult also
enlisted over 300 scientists with degrees in
biochemistry, medicine, genetic engineering and
biology. At its peak, Aum had 10,000 members in Japan,
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with 35,000 in Russia. Aum also had offices in the U.S.,
Germany and Taiwan.
Aum Shinrikyo amassed a considerable amount of
wealth over the years. Japanese police concluded the
group owned over $1 billion in assets, the majority of
which was obtained through membership fees, the sale
of its literature, donations, tests, advanced courses and
numerous businesses the organization ran. From here
Aum moved onto the chemical, import-export, software
developing and mining sectors, to name a few.
Initially, Asahara preached meditation, introspection
and non violence. In the late 1980s, he decided that
Aum should run for office in the 1990 Japanese
parliamentary elections. Despite Aums campaigning,
none of its members were elected. Because of this,
Asahara was enraged and accused the Japanese
government of rigging the elections. It was around this
time that he started justifying murder on spiritual
grounds. These ideas coalesced into a proper doctrine
called 'poa' deeply influenced by Tantra Vajiriyana.
Asahara became increasingly paranoid and started to
tell his followers about an approaching nuclear
apocalypse, a war between Japan and the U.S. The cult
began to assemble its own militia and reorganized its
leadership structure as a shadow government. This
cabinet had ministries in charge of different areas such
as Science and Technology, Intelligence, and
Construction. Asahara reserved for himself the title of
Supreme Leader. The group was now fully poised to
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commit violent terrorist attacks in order to hasten the
coming Apocalypse.
In June 1993, the cult attempted to release anthrax
spores from its mid-rise Tokyo office
building/laboratory. The attack failed as the group
unknowingly using a non-lethal vaccine strain of
Anthrax, and was thus ineffective.
In June 1994, Aum conducted a sarin gas attack in
Matsumoto city, killing seven people and injuring 144
others. The targets were three judges sitting on a panel
hearing a lawsuit over a real-estate dispute in which
Aum Shinrikyo was the defendant. None of the judges
died in the attack. Unfortunately, the authorities did not
identify the terrorist nature of the action until after
Aums most infamous deed; the Tokyo subway attack.
In March 1995, Aum assaulted Tokyo's subway, in an
attempt to stop a police investigation into Aums
activities. The cultists released sarin nerve gas, killing
twelve people and injuring over 5,000 others. The
attack was conducted at peak Monday morning rush
hour. After the attack, Japanese police discovered that
Aum Shinrikyo had accumulated hundreds of tons of
chemicals in order to make enough sarin gas to kill
millions of people. The production was conducted at the
Satyan 7 facility in the Kamikuishiki complex, outside
of Tokyo, near Mt. Fuji. The complex was designed to
produce thousands of kilograms a year.
In the months following the subway attack the
Japanese Metropolitan Police arrested Asahara and the
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main leaders of the sect Asahara was put on trial where
he pleaded not guilty to all charges, claiming that his
followers acted without his knowledge. Nevertheless,
he was sentenced to death, although Asaharas
attorneys appealed. Other Aum leaders received death
sentences while some received life sentences. Many
members have sought appeals, but Japanese courts
have rejected most.
Oddly enough, and despite the scale of Aums activities,
the Japanese government did not outlaw Aum
Shinrikyo. In 1997, a legal panel decided that its
depleted membership and the public abandonment of its
ambitions meant that Aum was not dangerous anymore.
Enough suspicion remained however, to pass a special
law that enabled Japanese authorities to monitor Aum
activities for the following three years. This has been
extended at the end of each period 3 year, with the last
extension occurring in January 2006.
Current Goals: After Asaharas imprisonment and
subsequent trial, Fumihiro Joyu, former Aum
spokesman, became the new head of the organization.
It was under his leadership that Aum changed its name
to Aleph in 2000. Aleph has now about 1,500 members.
Since 2000, Aleph has moved to distance itself from
Aums goals and doctrine. It redefined Asahara as
founder rather than Supreme Leader and forbid the
use of poa. It has apologized for its past acts of
terrorism and paid reparation to the victims of the
Tokyo underground sarin attack.
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However, Alephs new direction has not been embraced
by all of Aums followers. Fissions between group
members have begun to appear, with one faction led by
Joyu and another by Tatsuko Muraoka and Asaharas
biological children. Muraokas faction reportedly follows
Asaharas original teachings and continues to support
the groups incarcerated former leader. It has been
widely reported that the tensions have continued and it
seems that a permanent split is imminent.
The group has not been directly involved in any terrorist
violence since 1995. However, In 2000 Aleph members
were discovered gathering sensitive information on
nuclear power plants. The cult hacked into classified
computer networks to obtain information about nuclear
facilities in Russia, Ukraine, China, South Korea,
Taiwan, and Japan. Also, in 2000, Russian Aum
followers were allegedly planning on conducting a
series of attacks against Japanese child care facilities,
to try to gain Asaharas release. The Japanese Aleph
Headquarters has denied any connection with this plan.
Currently, Aleph is once again seeking contributions,
selling publications to members, organizing seminars,
conducting training and selling computers. Authorities
report approximately 1,650 people in Japan and 300 in
Russia still believe in Asahara's teachings. The cult
holds 50 seminars a month for current and potential
members. Aleph has offices all over Japan, including
Tokyo, and, reportedly maintains approximately 100
safe houses throughout the country. It has been
reported that at least 700 members are monk-like
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devotees and that mind control techniques are still part
of Alephs activities.
Shoko Asaharas attorneys appealed his death
sentence; a decision is expected shortly.
Further Reference
"Convicted Aum Figure's Appeal Nixed," 02/07/2003,
The Japan Times Online
Terrorism: assassins to zealots/ Sean Kendall
Anderson, Stephen Sloan, Sean Kendall Anderson and
Stephen Sloan, 01/01/2003, The Scarecrow Press, Inc.,
(Lanham, Maryland)
Aum Shinrikyo : Japan's unholy sect / by Rei Kimura.,
Rei Kimura, c2002., GreatUNpublished, (Catskill, N.Y. )
Holy terror : Armageddon in Tokyo / by D.W. Brackett.,
D. W. Brackett, 1996., Weatherhill, (New York )
Underground / Haruki Murakami ; translated from the
Japanese by Alfred Birnbaum and Philip Gabriel.,
Haruki Murakami, 2001., Vintage International, (New
York )
AUM SHINRIKYO / ALEPH
"Convicted Aum Figure's Appeal Nixed," The Japan
Times Online
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Terrorism: assassins to zealots/ Sean Kendall Anderson,
Stephen Sloan, Sean Kendall Anderson and Stephen
Sloan, 1/1/2003, The Scarecrow Press, Inc., (Lanham,
Maryland)
Aum Shinrikyo : Japan's unholy sect / by Rei Kimura.,
Rei Kimura, c2002., GreatUNpublished, (Catskill, N.Y. )
Holy terror : Armageddon in Tokyo / by D.W. Brackett.,
D. W. Brackett, 1996., Weatherhill, (New York )
Underground / Haruki Murakami ; translated from the
Japanese by Alfred Birnbaum and Philip Gabriel., Haruki
Murakami, 2001., Vintage International, (New York )
Aum Shinrikyo and Japanese youth / Daniel A. Metraux.,
Daniel Alfred Metraux, c1999., University Press of
America, (Lanham, Md. )
Religious violence in contemporary Japan : the case of
Aum Shinrikyo / Ian Reader., Ian Reader, c2000.,
University of Hawaii Press, (Honolulu )
Chemical terrorism : horrors in Tokyo subway and
Matsumoto City / Anthony T. Tu., Anthony T. Tu, c2002.,
Alaken, (Fort Collins, Colo. )
Destroying the world to save it : Aum Shinriky'o,
apocalyptic violence, and the new global terrorism /
Robert Jay Lifton., Robert Jay Lifton, 1999., Henry Holt
and Co., (New York )
The cult at the end of the world : the terrifying story of
the Aum doomsday cult, from the subways of Tokyo to
the nuclear arsenals of Russia / David E. Kaplan &
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550
Andrew Marshall., David E. Kaplan, c1996., Crown
Publishers, (New York )
Religion and social crisis in Japan : understanding
Japanese society through the Aum affair / edited by
Robert J. Kisala and Mark R. Mullins., 2001., Palgrave,
(Basingstoke, Hampshire, England ; New York )
"Aum Shinri Kyo (Supreme Truth)," B.A. Robinson,
Ontario Consultants on Religious Tolerance
"It Gassed the Toyko Subway, Microwaves its Enemies
and Tortured its Members. So Why is the Aum Cult
Thriving ?," Andrew Marshall, The Guardian, (London)
"Terrorism: Q&A - Aum Shinrikyo," Council on Foreign
Relations
"Japan Cult Trial," Amy Bickers, Voice of America,
(Tokyo)
Patterns of Global Terrorism: 1997, U.S. Department of
State
Aum Shinrikyo, al Qaeda, and the Kinshasa reactor :
implications of three case studies for combating
nuclear terrorism / Sara Daly, John Parachini, William
Rosenau., Sara A. Daly, 2005., RAND Corp., (Santa
Monica, CA )
"Aum Shinrikyo : once and future threat? / Kyle B.
Olson.," Kyle B. Olson, 1999., Centers for Disease
Control and Prevention, (Atlanta, GA )
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"Aum Shinrikyo's efforts to produce biological weapons
: a case study in the serial propagation of
misinformation / Milton Leitenberg.," Milton Leitenberg,
1999., Frank Cass & Co., (London, England )
"Religion and violence in Japan today : a chronological
and doctrinal analysis of Aum Shinrikyo / Manabu
Watanabe.," Manabu Watanabe, 1998., Frank Cass &
Co., (London, England )
Patterns of Global Terrorism: 1998, U.S. Department of
State
"Country Reports on Terrorism 2005," U.S. Department
of State
Patterns of Global Terrorism: 2000, U.S. Department of
State
Patterns of Global Terrorism: 2001, U.S. Department of
State
Patterns of Global Terrorism: 1999, U.S. Department of
State
Patterns of Global Terrorism: 2002, U.S. Department of
State
Patterns of Global Terrorism: 1996 , U.S. Department of
State
BLACK LIBERATION ARMY
Aliases: Afro-American Liberation Army
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Base of Operation: United States
Founding Philosophy: The Black Liberation Army was a
militant splinter group of the Black Panther Party.
Breaking away from the Black Panthers in the late
1960s, the stated philosophy of the BLA was to take up
arms for the liberation and self-determination of black
people in the United States.
In the 1970s the BLA was responsible for numerous
domestic criminal acts, including bank and armored car
robberies. In one of their more famous exploits,
members of the BLA freed fellow BLA member Joanne
Chesimard from prison where she was serving a life
sentence for the murder of a state trooper. Chesimard
fled to Cuba, where she is still living, and the US
government has offered a reward of $1 million dollars
for her capture. Members of the BLA were also charged
in various terrorist plots including a plan to firebomb
department stores in New York. In 1981, four members
of the BLA were convicted for various charges including
murder and armed robbery in a failed heist of a Brinks
armored car, which left one guard and two police
officers dead. On March 25, 1984, a man claiming to be
"Lieutenant Spartacus" of the "Black Liberation Army,"
hijacked a Piedmont airlines jet with 58 passengers on
board. The plane flew to Cuba where Lieutenant
Spartacus found asylum.
Current Goals: By the mid 1980s, with many of their
members in jail or in exile, the BLA ceased to exist.
Further Reference
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"A Short History of the Black Liberation Army," Terror
Behind Bars
"Reward Increased to $1 million on Escaped,
Convicted Killer Joanne Chesimard," US States News,
05/02/2005, US Fed News
"40 Years for Defendant in Brink's Case," Paul Moses,
02/15/1984, Associated Press
BLACK PANTHERS
Aliases: Black Panther Party for Self-Defense
Base of Operation: United States
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Founding Philosophy: The Black Panther Party was
formed in October 1966 in Oakland, California. The
organization, formed by Huey Percy Newton and Bobby
Seale, supported black nationalism in the United States
and criticized the U.S. as a racist, capitalist state. The
Black Panthers believed that the United States
government and economic structure systematically
oppressed black people. Thus, the Black Panthers Ten
Points, which detailed the groups beliefs and
objectives, demanded freedom for all imprisoned
blacks, exemption of black people from military service,
and full employment of the black population. The Ten
Points also reflect the groups leanings towards
communism.
While the Black Panthers always advocated self-
defense (in fact, the groups original name was the
Black Panther Party for Self-Defense), the group
stepped up its aggressive tactics following the April
1968 assassination of Martin Luther King, Jr. The Black
Panthers did not subscribe to Kings belief in non-
violent protest, and began to arm their group members
and provide military training. The Black Panthers gained
support from some Americans due to their
confrontational approach, as well as their programs for
lower-class people such as the Free Breakfast for
Children program. Beyond the Black Panthers
militaristic speech, certain group members had criminal
records and had even jumped bail. This situation led to
a series of confrontations with police, wherein both
police officers and Black Panthers were killed. The
police confrontations and internal fractionalization
severely limited the Black Panthers' operational
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capabilities. In the late 1960s and early 1970s, the
Black Panthers leadership fled the country or went into
hiding within the U.S. There were a series of high-profile
airline hijackings; Black Panthers forced planes to
Cuba, Algeria and North Korea, where they requested
political asylum.
Current Goals: The Black Panthers had approximately
2,000 members in 1970, spread out throughout the
United States. However, due to efforts by law
enforcement and internal Black Panther rivalries, the
groups leadership had either been captured or killed, or
was in hiding or had fled the United States entirely by
the early 1970s. By 1972, the Black Panthers was no
longer operational. Some former Black Panthers
members then joined the terrorist organization, Black
Liberation Army. The New Black Panthers, formed in the
1990s, is not associated with the Black Panther Party of
the 1960s-1970s.
Further Reference
Terrorism: assassins to zealots/ Sean Kendall
Anderson, Stephen Sloan, Sean Kendall Anderson and
Stephen Sloan, 01/01/2003, The Scarecrow Press, Inc.,
(Lanham, Maryland)
"Huey Newton Profile," Federal Bureau of Investigation
(FBI)
BLACK REVOLUTIONARY ASSAULT TEAM
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Base of Operation: United States
Founding Philosophy: The Black Revolutionary Assault
Team conducted only three terrorist attacks in its brief
history. Although it never publicly elucidated its full
ideology, statements made in their claims of
responsibility shed light on the groups political
orientation, which appears to be leftist or Marxist.
Their attack on the South African consulate was made
as a protest against South Africas apartheid regime. In
their attack on the Zairean mission to the United
Nations, they claim to oppose Zaires refusal to allow
our freedom fighters access to Angola. Angola, at the
time, was in the midst of a struggle between various
anti-colonial liberation movements and the Portuguese
colonial regime, as well as fighting among the liberation
movements. Zaire supported the FNLA, while the Soviet
Union and Zaires Marxist neighbor Congo-Brazzaville
supported the MPLA. Zaires leader was Joseph Mobutu,
a strongly pro-West and anti-Communist figure who
denied MPLA rebels transit rights to travel to Angola
from their bases in Congo-Brazzaville. It is unknown
whether any true links existed between the MPLA and
the Black Revolutionary Assault Team. The groups
attack on Malawis U.N. mission remains a mystery.
Current Goals: The Black Revolutionary Assault Team
has not claimed an attack since 1971 and is presumed
to be inactive.
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Further Reference
"Zaire: Involvement in Angolan Civil War ," 01/01/1993,
The Library of Congress, Library of Congress Country
Studies
CAMBODIAN FREEDOM FIGHTERS (CFF)
Mothertongue Name:
Cholana Kantoap Serei Cheat Kampouchea
Base of Operation: Cambodia; United States
Founding Philosophy: The Cambodian Freedom Fighters
(CFF) are a militant organization based in Long Beach,
California that are dedicated to the overthrow of
Cambodia's government. The group cites corruption,
mismanagement, and perpetuation of inequality as
some of the faults of the current regime, led by Prime
Minister Hun Sen. CFF's leader is a middle-aged
Cambodian-American accountant named Chhun Yasith.
From his home in California, Yasith directs a network-in-
place that stretches across Northeastern Cambodia and
over the Thai border. Its members include Cambodian-
Americans based in Thailand and the US, as well as
former soldiers from the Khmer Rouge and Royal
Cambodian Armed Forces. The group reportedly has
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nineteen brigades of unknown size, each led by a
commander. In 1998, a world conference of all these
commanders was held in Thailand to elect a board of
directors. While the prospect of a terrorist group led by
an accountant provoked smirks initially, the increasing
violence of CFF activities has convinced Hun Sen's
administration that the group represents a serious
security threat.
The group's "coming out" occurred in November 2000,
when seventy CFF militiamen led a coordinated attack
on government buildings in Phnom Penh, killing at least
eight people and causing significant damage to the
facilities. One year later, the group exploded grenades
near six government buildings. Luckily there were no
fatalities. Cambodian President Hun Sen issued a
warrant for the arrest of Chhun Yasith after the 2000
attack, but he has been unable to persuade the United
States, which does not have an extradition treaty with
Cambodia, to give him up.
Current Goals: Since 2001, the CFF has been inactive.
The events of September 11, 2001, and the subsequent
announcement of a US-led global war on terrorism, has
made it difficult for the US to turn a blind eye to Chunn
Yasith's activities. Although Yasith remains in the
country, his ability to stay here has been made
conditional on the cessation of his involvement with all
terrorism. No further attacks are expected.
COALITION TO SAVE THE PRESERVES (CSP)
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Base of Operation: United States
Founding Philosophy: The Coalition to Save the
Preserves (CSP) was the name used by Mark Warren
Sands as a front for his arsons in the cities of Tucson
and Phoenix in Arizona. In an anonymous interview with
the Phoenix New Times, Sands claimed that the group
was made up of young mountain bikers opposed to the
spread of housing development into natural preserves in
Arizona, and referred to the prominent ecoterrorist
group Earth Liberation Front (ELF) as its kindred
spirits. It appears, however, that he was the lone
arsonist, and acted out of personal, not environmental
motives.
Current Goals: Authorities have arrested Mark Warren
Sands in conjunction with the serial arsons, claiming
that he was the man interviewed in the Phoenix New
Times. Sands was caught when defacing a sign in the
preserve where many of the arsons occurred, and police
used DNA evidence to link him to the claims of
responsibility, in the name of CSP, sent to area
newspapers. Sands pleaded guilty to a number of
charges against him, receiving 15-20 years in prison.
Further Reference
"An Exclusive Interview with the Preserves Arsoninst,"
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James Hibberd, 01/25/2001, Phoenix New Times
"Trumped-Up Ecoterrorism: An Arsonist's Tale," James
Hibberd, 02/12/2002, The New York Times
COLORADO 1ST LIGHT INFANTRY
Base of Operation: United States
Founding Philosophy: The Colorado 1st Light Infantry
was a group of three men who formed an amateurish
Patriot militia outfit in the mid 1990s in an apparent
response to the 1993 Branch Davidian compound siege
in Waco, Texas.
The group was led by Ronald D. Cole, who had spent
time with Waco survivors and had at one time fancied
himself a successor to David Koresh, the Branch
Davidian cult leader. The other two members were
Wally Kennett, a former member of the Branch
Davidians, and Kevin Terry.
Paranoid and staunchly anti-government, the Colorado
1st Light Infantry was a typical small American militia
group. Despite the fact that Colorado 1st Light Infantry
had not committed any terrorist attacks, the three
members were convinced that the U.S. government was
watching them, and maintained a heavily armed and
fortified compound in rural Colorado.
In 1997, Cole moved to Denver where the trial of
Timothy McVeigh, the Oklahoma City bomber, was
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taking place. Cole was a constant fixture outside the
courthouse, protesting in support of McVeigh. Coles
presence at the trial eventually provoked an
investigation from the FBI, and in May of that year, his
house was raided. Authorities found a huge cache of
weapons and explosives; Cole, Kennett, and Terry were
all arrested on weapons charges and were sentenced to
short prison terms.
Current Goals: The arrest of the sole members of the
Colorado 1st Light Infantry effectively ended the
groups existence. While these men have subsequently
been released from jail, the group has not resurfaced
and its former members have stayed out of trouble.
Legal Cases
USA v. Ronald D. Cole et al: 97-CR-162-DBS
Further Reference
"False Patriots," Southern Poverty Law Center,
01/01/2001
"Apocalypse Soon," Alex Heard, 01/01/1999, Wired
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Magazine
COVENANT SWORD AND ARM OF THE LORD (CSA)
Base of Operation: United States
Founding Philosophy: The Covenant, Sword and Arm of
the Lord (CSA) was a Christian Identity survivalist group
founded by James Ellison. Ellison, a former minister, ran
a Christian retreat on his property, located near the
Missouri-Arkansas border. In 1978 Ellison had a vision
of the race war that he believed would soon engulf
America, and he transformed his retreat into a white
supremacist paramilitary training camp dedicated to
the principles of Christian Identity. According to Ellison,
the CSA would be an "Ark for God's people" during the
coming race war. By God's people, Ellison meant white
Christians. Jews, he told his followers, were not really
God's chosen people, but rather a demonic and inferior
race.
CSA recruited at gun shows, where they invited people
to sign up for CSA's "Endtime Overcomer Survival
Training School." Students who attended CSA training
were trained in weapons usage, urban warfare,
wilderness survival, and "Christian martial arts." CSA
also made money at gun shows by selling homemade
machine guns, silencers, and explosives. The
organization's other source of cash was theft. Ellison
encouraged his disciples to steal, citing the Israelites
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plundering of the Philistine's tents after David killed
Goliath as Biblical justification.
Current Goals: Beginning in 1983, the CSA embarked on
a crime spree that included the firebombing of an
Indiana synagogue, an arson attack on a Missouri
church, and the attempted bombing of a Chicago gas
pipeline. On April 19, 1985, 300 federal officers
surrounded the CSA compound and demanded that the
100 or so heavily armed residents surrender. After a
tense four days of negotiations, the CSA peacefully
surrendered. Inside the compound, authorities found
homemade landmines, U.S. Army anti-tank rockets, and
a large supply of cyanide that the CSA was apparently
planning to use to poison the water supply of an
unspecified city. Eight of the captured leaders and
members, including Ellison, were convicted and
imprisoned, effectively destroying the group.
Legal Cases
USA v. James D. Ellison et al: 85-CR-20006
USA v. James D. Ellison et al: 85-CR-20015
USA v. James D. Ellison et al: 85-CR-20016
USA v. James D. Ellison et al: 85-CR-20017
USA v. James Sallington: 85-CR-20010
USA v. Robert Edward Miles et al: 87-CR-20008
USA v. Robert Smalley et al: 85-CR-20007
USA v. Steve Scott: 85-CR-20014
Further Reference
The Nizkor Project: Paranoia as Patriotism
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Religion and the racist right : the origins of the
Christian Identity movement / Michael Barkun.,
Michael Barkun, c1997., University of North Carolina
Press, (Chapel Hill)
The terrorist next door : the militia movement and the
radical right / Daniel Levitas., Daniel Levitas, 2002.,
Thomas Dunne Books/St. Martin's Press, (New York )
CROATIAN FREEDOM FIGHTERS (CFF)
Base of Operation: United States
Founding Philosophy: The Croatian Freedom Fighters
(CFF) were dedicated to gaining Croatian freedom from
Yugoslavia and the eventual destruction of the
Yugoslavian state. Mostly through bombings, the group
terrorized Yugoslavian business and financial interests
in the United States, as well as American citizens of
Yugoslavian descent. Members of the group were also
implicated in the bombing of the Statue of Liberty in
1980, although many other groups also claimed this
attack, notably the Puerto Rican terrorist group Armed
Forces of National Liberation (FALN).
CFF's most famous attack came in 1976, when they
hijacked a TWA Airliner en route from LaGuardia to
Chicago, demanding the release of Croatian prisoners
and the distribution of Croatian-independence
propaganda in both France and the United States. The
terrorists, led by Zvonko Busic, eventually surrendered
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to French authorities and were tried and convicted in
the United States.
Current Goals: In 1987, Zvonko Busic escaped from his
prison cell in Otisville, NY, but was quickly
apprehended 2 days later after being caught sleeping
behind a building in Otisville, NY, 40 miles away. The
Croatian Freedom Fighters have not been heard from
since then.
Further Reference
"News Excerpt: Escaped Terrorist Captured,"
04/18/1987, United Press International
"A Chronology of F.A.L.N. Activities in the United
States," Latino Studies Department, 01/01/1997,
Indiana University, Latino Studies Resources
(Bloomington, IN)
EARTH LIBERATION FRONT (ELF)
Base of Operation: Canada; United Kingdom; United
States
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Founding Philosophy: The Earth Liberation Front (ELF) is
an international underground organization consisting of
autonomous groups of people who carry out direct
action according to the ELF guidelines. It was founded
in 1992 in Brighton, England by Earth First! members
who refused to abandon criminal acts as a tactic when
others wished to move Earth First! into the mainstream.
The group jumped to North America in the mid-90's.
Historically, the group has concentrated efforts on the
timber industry and animal rights issues. More recent
actions indicate that some ELF factions are also
targeting suburban sprawl, with New York a hotspot for
this type of activity. Within the past year, a number of
under-construction condominiums and luxury homes
have been set on fire by ELF operatives. Subsequent
press releases describe an "an unbounded war on urban
sprawl", adding that "we will not tolerate the
destruction of our island" and "if you build it we will
burn it." There is not a centralized organization or
membership to speak of in the ELF, so individuals or
cells are driven only by their personal decisions to carry
out actions.
Current Goals: According to the ELF website, which
guides individual member's actions, "Any direct action
to halt the destruction of the environment and adhering
to the strict nonviolence guidelines, listed below, can
be considered an ELF action. Economic sabotage and
property destruction fall within these guidelines."
1) To inflict economic damage on those profiting from
the destruction and exploitation of the natural
environment; 2) To reveal and educate the public on the
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atrocities committed against the earth and all species
that populate it; and 3) To take all necessary
precautions against harming any animal, human and
non-human.
The ELF advocates "monkeywrenching," a euphemism
for acts of sabotage and property destruction against
industries and other entities perceived to be damaging
to the natural environment. "Monkeywrenching"
includes tree spiking, arson, sabotage of logging or
construction equipment, and other types of property
destruction. Economic damage is often accomplished
via acts of vandalism, ranging from breaking windows
and gumming locks to setting fires and damaging
equipment. Public education is typically achieved by
means of anonymous press releases following acts of
sabotage. Spray paint is also used to communicate
messages and to claim responsibility at the site of
sabotage.
Legal Cases
03-CR-302
04-CR-279
USA v. Angela M. Cesario: 02-CR-270
USA v. Hargit Singh Gill: 03-CR-474
USA v. Jacob D.B. Sherman et al: 02-CR-440
Further Reference
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"Insurrection Rising: The Earth Liberation Front ,"
MediaJihad.com
"Single Issue Terrorism," Dr. G.D. (Tim) Smith, Winter
1998, Canadian Security Intelligence Service,
(Canadian Security Intelligence Service Commentary
Series)
"Violence and the Environment: The Case of 'Earth
First!' ," Martha F. Lee, Autumn 1995, Journal of
Terrorism and Political Violence, (London)
"The Mean Green," Brian McCombie, 9/23/2000,
Shepherd Express Metro: Milwaukee's Weekly
Newspaper
"Eco-terrorism sweeps the American west / Bryan
Denson and James Long.," Bryan Denson, (The
Oregonian, 1999.)
EARTH LIBERATION FRONT (ELF)
"Insurrection Rising: The Earth Liberation Front ,"
MediaJihad.com
"Single Issue Terrorism," Dr. G.D. (Tim) Smith, Winter
1998, Canadian Security Intelligence Service, (Canadian
Security Intelligence Service Commentary Series)
"Violence and the Environment: The Case of 'Earth
First!' ," Martha F. Lee, Autumn 1995, Journal of
Terrorism and Political Violence, (London)
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"The Mean Green," Brian McCombie, 9/23/2000,
Shepherd Express Metro: Milwaukee's Weekly
Newspaper
"Eco-terrorism sweeps the American west / Bryan
Denson and James Long.," Bryan Denson, (The
Oregonian, 1999.)
"Religion, violence and radical environmentalism : from
Earth First! to the unabomber to the Earth Liberation
Front / Bron Taylor.," Bron Raymond Taylor, 1998., Frank
Cass & Co., (London, England )
EL RUKN
Aliases: Black P Stones, Blackstone Rangers, The
Cornerstone, The Foundation
Base of Operation: United States
Founding Philosophy: El Rukn was formed in 1965 by
Jeff Fort, a gang leader in Chicago, Illinois. Originally
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named the Rangers, this exclusively black gang later
changed its name to the Blackstone Rangers and later
to the Black P. Stones. During its height, the Black P.
Stones are believed to have had roughly 5,000
members, the majority coming from other gangs in
Chicago that were integrated into the Stones. After
serving four years in prison, Fort returned to Chicago
and renamed the gang, El Rukn (a reference to the
Arabic word for the cornerstone of the Kaaba, an
Islamic shrine in Mecca), as a result of his conversion
to Islam while incarcerated. Consequently, the gang
became Muslim and decreased its membership to a
group of 250-300 hardcore members. El Rukns
headquarters, an abandoned theatre, were converted
into a mosque where weekly prayer services were held.
Despite its conversion to Islam, the gang still
participated in petty crimes and drug dealing, leaving
some to speculate the groups members were Muslims
in name only.
For the majority of its history, El Rukn has been
classified as a street gang, engaging in petty crime,
drug dealing, and fighting rival gangs. However, in 1985,
the El Rukn gang reached out to the Libyan government
and negotiated a deal: in exchange for $2.5 million and
the possibility of asylum in Tripoli, the El Rukns would
unleash a massive terrorist and urban warfare
campaign in the United States, targeting police
stations, army bases, government offices, and an
airliner. The groups motivations for contacting Libya
and using terrorist tactics are still unclear although one
can assume monetary incentives were paramount, as
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was the opportunity to destroy a system in which they
had grown up impoverished and disenfranchised.
Beginning in September of 1986, key El Rukn members,
including Jeff Fort, were convicted of conspiring to
transport explosives and commit violent acts in the
United States on behalf or at the direction of
representative of the Government of Libya and also
were charged with receiving and possessing firearms
and weapons, including hand grenades, fully automatic
weapons, and anti-tank weapons. El Rukn members
became infamous as their convictions were the first
instance in U.S. history where American citizens had
been found guilty of planning terrorist acts on behalf of
a foreign government in return for money. Libyan
officials denied any involvement with the gang,
although Reico Cranshaw and Leon McAnderson
traveled to Libya with tickets paid for by Libya. In total,
65 members of El Rukn were indicted and key members
Jeff Fort, Reico Cranshaw, Alan Knox, and Leon
McAnderson are still serving prison sentences.
Current Goals: There have been several claims that the
gang still exists in Chicago today, in smaller numbers,
although they have changed the name back to Black P.
Stone Nation and reverted to committing only petty
crimes. Jeff Fort allegedly still issues decrees to the
gangs leadership though the degree to which they are
followed or even acknowledged is unclear. Although
gang members will engage in violent activities in the
future, given their current size, status, and
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preoccupation with gang activity, El Rukn is no longer a
group that uses terrorist tactics.
Legal Cases
USA v. Tramell Davis et al: 86-CR-572
EVAN MECHAM ECO TERRORIST INTERNATIONAL
CONSPIRACY (EMETIC)
Base of Operation: United States
Founding Philosophy: In November of 1987, Fairfield
Snow Bowl received a letter signed by the previously
unknown group Evan Mecham Eco-terrorist
International Conspiracy (EMETIC) informing them that
their chairlifts had been sabotaged. Shutting down for
the weekend and repairing the chairlifts cost the resort
over $80,000. EMETIC targeted the resort because they
object to the development of wilderness by ski resorts,
and because this particular resort was leasing land
considered sacred by Indians.
Between 1986 and 1989, EMETIC was tied to several
acts of sabotage against facilities that they considered
environmentally damaging, most often ski resorts and
nuclear power plants. EMETIC's name, which is also a
word that describes substances that induce vomiting, is
a derogatory reference to Evan Mecham. Mecham owns
a car dealership and was once governor of Arizona.
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Current Goals: In 1989, the FBI ended a three-year
undercover investigation of the group by arresting four
EMETIC members who were about to cut power lines
feeding the Central Arizona Project, an irrigation plan
vehemently opposed by conservationists. EMETIC had
been planning to attack four nuclear facilities: two in
Arizona and one each in California and Colorado. The
arrest and conviction of EMETIC's four known members
effectively destroyed the group.
Dave Foreman, the founder of Earth First!, was arrested
along with the four conspirators because he had
donated $100 in Earth First! funds to EMETIC. Foreman
and his supporters allege that he did not support
EMETIC's plans, and undercover FBI agents pressured
him to make the donation.
Legal Cases
USA v. Mark Leslie Davis et al: 89-CR-192-PHX
Further Reference
"The Threat of Eco-Terrorism," James F. Jarboe,
02/12/2002, The Federal Bureau of Investigation
"Sabotaging the Saboteurs," Michael Lacey,
05/29/1991, Phoenix New Times
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FOURTH REICH SKINHEADS
Base of Operation: United States
Founding Philosophy: In July of 1993, the FBI arrested
eight members of the Fourth Reich Skinheads. The
group's members had been plotting to attack several
racially symbolic targets in Los Angeles, including the
First African Methodist Episcopal Church. They were
also planning to assassinate Rodney King, Louis
Farrakhan, and Al Sharpton. They had already bombed
several houses in Lakewood and Paramount and
attacked the Temple Beth Synagogue in Westminster.
The group's purpose was to provoke a reaction from the
African American and Jewish communities, which they
hoped would be violent enough to begin a race war. The
Fourth Reich Skinheads were members of the World
Church of the Creator, a racist group in Florida that
encouraged its members to fight a "racial holy war" (or
RAHOWA) against "mud" races.
Fourth Reich Skinheads, like most skinhead groups,
were a loosely organized network of young white
people, most of whom were male. According to some
estimates, the group may have had as many as 50
members, while others believe it may have been as few
as 18. Police investigated the possibility that Fourth
Reich Skinheads were tied with some of the other
skinhead terrorists that were active on the west coast
that summer, such as Jeremiah Gordon Knesal of the
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American Front. No evidence of any organizational
structure connecting the various skinhead groups was
found.
Current Goals: Fourth Reich Skinheads has ceased to
exist as an organization for two reasons. First, five of
its members, including group leader Christopher Daniel
Fisher, were sent to prison for their involvement in the
plot. Second, thirteen members were required to
participate in "Operation Grow Hair," a program
designed by the U.S. district attorney to challenge the
group's racist views. Participants in the program met
with their intended targets, members of the First AME
Church and Holocaust survivors. The speakers
discussed and debated the skinheads' bigoted beliefs,
and organizers believe the program was a success.
"Operation Grow Hair" has become a model for dealing
with skinhead groups.
Legal Cases
USA v. Carl Daniel Boese: 93-CR-677-WMB
USA v. Christopher Fisher: 93-CR-697-WMB
Further Reference
"Guilty Plea in Skinhead Weapon Case," Mark Platte,
12/07/1993, Los Angeles Times
Florida Gang Investigators Association
Mein Kampf / Adolf Hitler; translated by Ralph
Manheim., Adolf Hitler, 1999., Houghton Mifflin,
(Boston )
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FREE VIETNAM REVOLUTIONARY GROUP
Base of Operation: Philippines; United States; Vietnam
Founding Philosophy: The Free Vietnam Revolutionary
Group is a small terrorist group dedicated to ridding
Vietnam of communism. The group has employed the
only strategy that would presumably lead to the
toppling of Vietnam's government; namely the group
targets Vietnamese embassies. Thus far, the terrorist
group has been accused of attempted embassy attacks
in Bangkok and Manila.
The Free Vietnam Revolutionary Group has been
repeatedly linked to the Government of Free Vietnam
Movement. In fact, the Free Vietnam Revolutionary
Group has been described as the armed wing of the
Government of Free Vietnam Movement. The
Government of Free Vietnam is based in the United
States and also aims to rid Vietnam of communism.
Following the arrest of two alleged terrorists of the Free
Vietnam Revolutionary Group in connection to
attempted bombings in Bangkok and Manila, the
Government of Free Vietnam Movement (GFVM)
announced that the individuals were in fact members of
GFVM as well. While admitting to consorting with
accused terrorists, the GFVM denies charges that their
members are actually guilty of terrorism. The
Government of Free Vietnam claimed that the accused
individuals were simply in Manila to assist Vietnamese
refugees.
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Current Goals: The Free Vietnam Revolutionary Group
has demonstrated limited operational strength. Three of
the group's members were arrested and charged with
unlawful manufacture or possession of explosives. The
group's membership beyond these three individuals is
not known.
Further Reference
"Thai, Vietnam cabinets to meet," Piyanart Srivalo,
02/13/2004, The Nation (Thailand)
"Killer Instincts, Vietnamese American arrested in
alleged plot to bomb embassy," Oliver Teves,
09/13/2001, AP
"Explosion Averted, Prosecutors file criminal charges
against three in bomb plot," Oliver Teves, 09/20/2001,
AP
"FBI Calls on Philippines to Act Against Vietnam
Terrorist Group," 11/14/2001, BusinessWorld Internet
Edition, (Manila)
"Arrest made in embassy bombing try ," 10/14/2001,
Associated Press, (Costa Mesa, California)
FREE VIETNAM REVOLUTIONARY GROUP
"Thai, Vietnam cabinets to meet," Piyanart Srivalo, The
Nation (Thailand)
"Killer Instincts, Vietnamese American arrested in
alleged plot to bomb embassy," Oliver Teves, AP
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"Explosion Averted, Prosecutors file criminal charges
against three in bomb plot," Oliver Teves, AP
"FBI Calls on Philippines to Act Against Vietnam
Terrorist Group," BusinessWorld Internet Edition,
(Manila)
"Arrest made in embassy bombing try ," Associated
Press, (Costa Mesa, California)
"Four arrested over Vietnamese embassy bomb plot in
Philippines ," AFP, (Manila)
"Philippine hunt for more alleged Vietnamese embassy
bombers," Radio Australia
FREEMEN (BASED IN WA)
Base of Operation: United States
Founding Philosophy: The Freemen was a Washington-
based militant group that was most active in the mid-
1990s. Little is known of their founding principles, but
the Freemen most likely shared similar views of their
militia contemporaries concerning the decimation of
the federal government and stockpiling weapons.
Despite the name likeness, there does not appear to be
any linkages with the Montana Freemen, notoriously
known for an 81 day stand-off with the FBI in 1996.
On July 27, 1996, four members of the Freemen were
arrested by federal law enforcement officers for
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conspiracy and possession of weapons and explosives.
John Lloyd Kirk and his wife Judy Kirk, Tracy Brown,
and William Smith allegedly met with members of the
Washington State Militia to discuss the manufacturing
of pipe bombs as well as possible bombing targets. The
charges for Judy Kirk and Tracy Brown were dropped,
but John Lloyd Kirk was found guilty of possession of
an unregistered destructive device and was sentenced
to forty six months in a federal prison followed by three
years supervised release.
Current Goals: The Freemen are now inactive. The
attention brought to them and other groups during the
1990s served to curb the once rapid growth of right-
wing U.S. militant groups. Since the likelihood of arrest
became greater, only the most hard core militants
remained committed to their ideologies while most
other members opted out of the lifestyle.
Legal Cases
USA v. Ion Mindreci: 04-CR-20067
USA v. John Irvin Pitner et al: 96-CR-500-JCC
USA v. Roger Leigh Oehler: 02-CR-0151
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HAMMERSKIN NATION
Base of Operation: United States
Founding Philosophy: "Hammerskin Nation is the most
violent, best organized neo-Nazi skinhead group in the
U.S," according to the ADL. Hammerskin Nation is an
umbrella organization for local skinhead groups.
Although the group is primarily an American
organization, there have also been Hammerskin
chapters in Canada, England, France, the Netherlands,
Spain, Switzerland, Australia, New Zealand, and
Germany.
Hammerskin Nation is notable for the care with which it
selects its members. Aspiring Hammerskins are
required to prove their allegiance to the group during a
probation period that can last as long as two years.
Most Hammerskins (and skinheads in general) are
disillusioned, unhappy young men who find the extreme
structure and exclusivity of the organization
comforting. "They are looking for answers and a way
out," an editorial in Hammerskin Press explained. "Kids
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grow up without any form of self-identity. They are
given two chances, either go with the "norm" of
multiculturalism and race mixing or be deemed an
outcast, a minority." (ADL, 283)
The organization has close ties to the racist rock
scene, and was, in fact, inspired by a music video: Pink
Floyd"s The Wall. The main character in The Wall, Pink,
is a mentally unstable, substance-abusing rock star
who joins the fascist movement. Hammerskin Nation,
apparently oblivious to the fact that Pink Floyd did not
intend the video to be an endorsement of fascism, took
its name from Pink's symbol, two crossed hammers.
Racist rock has become one of Hammerskin Nation's
main sources of income and recruiting. Panzerfaust
Records, a Hammerskin label, advertises itself as
"Music for the Discriminating Racist." (ADL, 287)
Hammerskins also organize racist music festivals,
including annual "Hammerfests."
The first Hammerskin chapter to bludgeon its way into
the national spotlight was the Confederate
Hammerskins of Dallas. In summer of 1988, five
Hammerskins were arrested for chasing and attacking
African Americans and Hispanics who tried to enter the
Robert E. Lee Park in Dallas. Since then, Hammerskins
have been linked to numerous brutal attacks and
murders in multiple states.
Current Goals: Hammerskin Nation appears to be
struggling. The group is facing a lawsuit filed by Randy
Bowen, a California man who was attacked by six
Hammerskins in March of 1999. Hammerskin Press
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ceased publication in 2000, probably because of
internal conflict within the organization. Attendance at
annual Hammerfests has declined. The organization is
definitely, however, still an active threat to minorities,
and some factions, like the splinter group, Outlaw
Hammerskins, are growing stronger.
Further Reference
Mein Kampf / Adolf Hitler; translated by Ralph
Manheim., Adolf Hitler, 1999., Houghton Mifflin,
(Boston )
The racist mind : portraits of American Neo-Nazis and
Klansmen / Raphael S. Ezekiel., Raphael S. Ezekiel,
c1995., Penguin Books, 1996, (New York, N.Y., U.S.A. )
HECTOR RIOBE BRIGADE
Base of Operation: Haiti; United States
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Founding Philosophy: The Hector Riobe Brigade was a
group of Haitian exiles who were responsible for
several bombings in Haiti in the early 1980s. Vehement
opponents of the Jean-Claude Duvalier regime, the
group was said to be based in Miami, and made up of
approximately 15 individuals.
Named after a young man killed by Haitis secret police
after a coup attempt, the Hector Riobe Brigade first
emerged in August 1982 when they mounted a shooting
attack and leaflet bombing on the presidential palace.
In January 1983, the group claimed responsibility for a
car bombing that killed four people, also very near to
the palace. The group made headlines again a month
later when they threatened Pope John Paul II, after he
announced he would visit Haiti. In a communiqu, the
brigade warned that they would not hesitate to
compromise the security of the Pope if his visit to Haiti
is put to the service of the Duvalier family. In March of
that year, the group claimed responsibility for the
bombing of a government newspaper and an auto
agency connected to the Duvalier family.
Aside from hating the autocratic Duvalier regime, the
Hector Riobe Brigade never elucidated a specific
ideology behind their attacks. The groups actions had
little impact on Duvaliers grip on the country, and only
spurred a greater crackdown on dissent in Haitian
society. In fact, the Hector Riobe Brigade was never
really supported by the Haitian people, as the
perpetrators of the attacks were exiles living in the
United States, and not current residents of Haiti. In
September 1984, five alleged members of the group
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were arrested and sentenced to life imprisonment with
hard labor for their role in the 1983 car bombing. The
trial was non-jury.
Current Goals: The Hector Riobe Brigade had a brief
period of activity in the early 1980s, but has not been
responsible for any terrorist incidents since that time.
With the overthrow of the Duvalier regime in 1986, the
group most likely ceased all activity.
Further Reference
"Haitian Exiles' Bombs Create No Echoes," Edward
Cody, 03/20/1983, Washington Post
"Five Sentenced to life in prison for terrorist
bombings," Art Candell, 09/21/1984, AP
"Haiti/Bomb," Intelligence Research Ltd, 01/07/1983
"HAITI: Exiles scare the palace," Intelligence
Research Ltd., 08/20/1982
"HAITI: Pope's visit ties regime's hands," Intelligence
Research Ltd., 02/25/1983
INDEPENDENT ARMED REVOLUTIONARY MOVEMENT
(MIRA)
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Mothertongue Name:
Movimiento Independentista Revolucionario Armado
(MIRA)
Base of Operation: Cuba; Puerto Rico; United States
Founding Philosophy: The Independent Armed
Revolutionary Movement, commonly referenced by its
Spanish acronym MIRA, was a terrorist organization
devoted to full independence for Puerto Rico. While
MIRA was initially formed in 1967, it did not initiate its
terrorist campaign until early 1969. MIRA was one of
the first modern Puerto Rican terrorist organizations,
which would plague the United States and Puerto Rico
from the 1960s through the 1980s, and to a lesser
extent, are still present today.
MIRA was founded by the infamous Puerto Rican
terrorist Filiberto Ojeda Rios. In the late 1960s, Ojeda
Rios and his fellow MIRA terrorists received training,
arms, and ammunition from Cuba. Between early 1969
and the early 1970s, MIRA coordinated a bombing
campaign, much of which occurred in and around New
York City. Among other attacks, MIRA bombed a police
station, General Electrics corporate headquarters,
several New Jersey grocery stores, and a bank.
However, police broke up MIRA in the early 70s,
arresting several group members, including MIRA
founder Filiberto Ojeda Rios. Soon after his arrest,
Ojeda Rios jumped bail. Ojeda would later play
prominent roles in two other terrorist organizations,
both of which were also devoted to Puerto Rican
independence, the Armed Forces of National Liberation
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(FALN) and the Macheteros. Ojeda was arrested again
in 1985, this time in Puerto Rico, but jumped bail, again.
Current Goals: The Independent Armed Revolutionary
Movement has not been active sine the early 1970s.
Legal Cases
USA v. Luz M. Berrios et al: 85-H-50-20
Further Reference
"Puerto Rican Terrorists Also Threaten Reagan
Assassination," Daniel James, 12/19/1981, Latino
Studies Resources, Indian University
"Filiberto Ojeda Rios Profile," FBIs Most Wanted
ISLAMIC SALVATION FRONT
Mothertongue Name:
-_ '._--- '.'.'- ..''-
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Aliases: Armee Islamique du Salut (AIS), Army of
Islamic Salvation, Front Islamique du Salut, Islamic
Salvation Army
Base of Operation: Algeria; Germany; United States
Founding Philosophy: The Islamic Salvation Front (FIS)
was initially created as a network of small, informal
mosque groups. After Algerian constitutional reforms
allowed the creation of political parties for the first
time, the FIS filed for legal recognition and was
certified as a political party in September 1989. The
group won more than 50% of the votes during municipal
elections in June 1990. In March 1991, a new electoral
law proposed expanding the number of seats in
Parliament from 295 to 542, clearly favoring regions in
which the Front de Liberation Nationale (FLN), "the
main Algerian political party," had strong support. In
response, the FIS called for a general strike, which over
several days, lead to escalating violence between
militants and the security forces, and an eventual
imposition of martial law. The threat of jihad against
the army prompted them to arrest Abassi al Madani and
his second-in-command, Ahmed Belhadj, on charges of
conspiracy against the state. An additional 700 or so
Islamists were soon taken into custody, joining some
2300 others already imprisoned.
When elections were held in December 1991, the FIS
again surprised the secular parties by winning 44% of
the Parliamentary seats (188 of 430 contested seats),
while the FLN won only 15. Of the remaining 199 seats
to be decided in the second round of elections (the
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588
second round decides those seats in which no
candidate received a clear majority of the votes during
the first round), the FIS was the leading party for 144
(i.e., although they did not receive more than 50% of the
votes in that constituency, they still received more
votes than their opponents in the first round). Fearing
an Islamist takeover of the government, the Army
canceled the second round of elections scheduled for
January 1992, removed the President from office,
appointed a five-member High Council of State, made
the FIS illegal and arrested many of its leaders.
Although FIS leadership initially remained ambiguous
about the use of violence by its followers, imprisoned
deputy leader Belhadj endorsed the armed struggle and
indicated unity with an explicitly violent group,
Abdelkader Chebouti's Mouvement Islamique Arme
(MIA) in January of 1993. A breakdown in an attempted
dialogue between the regime and the FIS in late 1993
led a number of senior FIS leaders to defect to the more
extreme Groupe Islamique Armee. To counter the
influence of the GIA, the FIS officially created an armed
wing in July of 1994, the Arme Islamiques du Salut
(AIS), although this name had been used since 1993 to
refer to the variety of armed groups loyal to the FIS.
Although the FIS distanced itself from the GIA's civilian
massacres, a January 1995 car bomb at the police
headquarters in Algiers killed forty-two people and
injured 286. In September of 1997, the FIS declared a
ceasefire and in July of 1999, a new Algerian
government formed an accord with the FIS and issued
an amnesty for several thousand AIS guerrillas. FIS
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leaders Abassi Madani and Ali Belhadj were released
from prison in 2003.
Current Goals: The AIS is no longer considered to be an
active insurgent group. A unilateral ceasefire was
declared in September 1997. A 16-point plan issued
after the first round of voting in 1991 declared the
group's intention to expand sharia law to all areas of
public and private life in Algeria, including in particular,
women's dress and work. The group also declared its
intent to reform government at all levels.
Further Reference
The Islamist Challenge in Algeria: A Political History,
Michael Willis, 01/01/1996, New York University Press,
(Washington Square, New York)
"Algerian Islamic Leader Under House Arrest,"
09/01/1997, CNN, (Atlanta, GA)
"Islamic Salvation Movement (FIS)/Islamic Liberation
Army (AIS) Profile," 10/03/1998, Federation of
American Scientists, (Washington, D.C.)
"Insurgency, Legitimacy and Intervention in Algeria,"
Peter St. John, 01/01/1996, Canadian Security
Intelligence Service, Commentary No. 65 (Canada)
"Abassi Madani and Ali Benhadj v. Algeria," Working
Group on Arbitrary Detention, University of Minnesota,
12/03/2001
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JEWISH DEFENSE LEAGUE (JDL)
Base of Operation: United States
Founding Philosophy: The Jewish Defense League (JDL)
was an active terrorist organization based in the U.S.
and active for roughly two decades. Shortly after its
1968 founding in New York City, the group would
unleash a terrorist offensive in the United States. JDL
was the second-most active group in the U.S. during its
existence. Only the Puerto Rican separatist group,
Armed Forces of National Liberation, was a larger
terrorist threat at that time.
The Jewish Defense League began as a vigilante group
in New York City, committed to protecting the orthodox
Jewish population throughout the city and particularly
in Brooklyn. Within a year of the JDLs founding, the
group moved beyond mere protection and initiated
aggressive terrorist actions. The group began with the
burglary of the Palestine Liberation Organizations UN
mission, as well as attacks against Soviet institutions.
Throughout the groups terrorist campaign, JDL
repeatedly targeted Soviet institutions, but would also
target facilities of any government that was believed
anti-Semitic. In 1985, JDL moved beyond attacks
against institutions and began to directly target
individuals for assassination. While JDL was founded by
Rabbi Meir Kahane, Kahane left the U.S. shortly after
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591
the groups formation. In 1971, Kahane emigrated to
Israel and founded the Kach party. Despite his absence
during most of the groups terrorist campaign, Rabbi
Kahane remained the groups official leader until 1985.
The assassination of Alex Odeh, director of the Arab-
American Anti-Discrimination Committee (ADC), finally
prompted Meir Kahane to officially step down as JDLs
leader.
Current Goals: The Jewish Defense League was dealt a
significant blow in 1987 upon the conviction of several
group members. Today, JDL is not actively engaged in
terrorist actions. Two JDL members, however, were
arrested in 2001 for their plot to bomb the office of a
Lebanese-American Congressman from Orange County
California and a mosque in Culver City California.
Former JDL leader Irving Rubin committed suicide in
prison while awaiting trial and West Coast Coordinator
Earl Krugel pleaded guilty to the plot in 2003. In
September 2005, Krugel was sentenced to 20 years in
jail for his role in the plot. Two months later he was
killed in prison by unknown assailants.
Legal Cases
USA v. Irving David Rubin et al: 02-CR-39
Further Reference
"JDL Defendant Tells Bomb Plot Story," 02/05/2003, AP
Terrorism: assassins to zealots/ Sean Kendall
Anderson, Stephen Sloan, Sean Kendall Anderson and
Stephen Sloan, 01/01/2003, The Scarecrow Press, Inc.,
(Lanham, Maryland)
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Extremism in the name of religion : the violent record
of the Kahane movement and its offshoots., 1995.,
Anti-Defamation League, (New York, NY )
Meir Kahane : in his own words / [prepared by the
Research and Evaluation Department], 1985., Anti-
Defamation League of B'nai B'rith, (New York, NY )
International Terrorism in 1976, Central Intelligence
Agency
JUSTICE COMMANDOS FOR THE ARMENIAN GENOCIDE
Base of Operation: Lebanon; United States
Founding Philosophy: The Justice Commandos for the
Armenian Genocide (JCAG) was founded in 1975. The
group was dedicated to establishing an independent
Armenian state. They also focused on their belief that
Turkey (then, the Ottoman Empire) was responsible for
genocide against the Armenian people in 1915. The
Ottoman Empire, in 1915, expelled vast numbers of
Armenians from its territory of what is now Turkey.
Many crossed over into what later became the Soviet
Republic of Armenia, while the majority formed
communities abroad, the largest of which is in the
United States. Unlike other anti-Turkish Armenian
groups, the JCAG relied on private funding mainly from
Armenian communities around the world not from
states opposing Turkey. Turkish sources claim that the
JCAG was a creation of the Tashnak Party / Armenian
Revolutionary Federation (ARF), an Armenian political
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party exiled from the Soviet Union and committed to the
reunification of a non-Communist Armenia.
The focus of the JCAG was solely on Turkey. The
majority of its actions were against Turkish diplomatic
personnel and targets, although attacks also occurred
on Turkish commercial and tourism interests. Turkish
diplomats were assassinated in Los Angeles and
Boston, while embassies and Turkish Airlines offices
were attacked both in the United States and Europe.
The JCAG remained sensitive to public opinion and did
not target or ever harm non-Turkish interests, as
opposed to the other principal Armenian terrorist group
operating in the United States at the time, the Armenian
Secret Army for the Liberation of Armenia (ASALA).
Current Goals: The JCAGs terrorist activities in the
United States officially ended in 1983, after which
nothing was heard from the group going by that name.
However, most analysts agree that a new Armenian
terrorist group that began operating at that time, the
Armenian Revolutionary Army (ARA), was simply the
JCAG with a new name. Although the last attack by the
ARA in North America was in 1985, Turkey claims that
Armenian terrorism still represents a threat against
Turkish diplomatic targets abroad, and has encouraged
foreign governments to take action against possible
threats.
Recent developments suggest that the JCAG/ARA has
reconstituted itself with a new focus, Azerbaijan, which
is now involved in a conflict with Armenia over
Nagorno-Karabakh. Nagorno-Karabakh is a region of
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Azerbaijan populated by ethnic Armenians where the
government of Armenia has supported separatist
movements. The ARA has reportedly formed cells in
order to attack Azerbaijani diplomatic corps in South
America and the states of the former Soviet Union.
Further Reference
"Sassounian Gets Life With Parole for Assassination in
Sentencing Deal," Lorelei Laird, 10/21/2002,
Metropolitan News-Enterprise Online
"Armenian Terrorist Groups Said to be Planning
Actions Against Azerbaijani Diplomats," 12/18/2002,
Zerkalo (translated from Russian), (Baku, Azerbaijan)
"Turkey's Delegate Writes to UN About Continuing
'Armenian Terrorism' Threat," 05/14/2001, Anatolia,
(Ankara, Turkey)
"The Tashnak Terrorist Organization," 01/01/2004,
Republic of Turkey, Ministry of Culture
Patterns of International Terrorism: 1982, U.S.
Department of State
JUSTICE COMMANDOS FOR THE ARMENIAN GENOCIDE
"Sassounian Gets Life With Parole for Assassination in
Sentencing Deal," Lorelei Laird, Metropolitan News-
Enterprise Online
"Armenian Terrorist Groups Said to be Planning Actions
Against Azerbaijani Diplomats," Zerkalo (translated
from Russian), (Baku, Azerbaijan)
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"Turkey's Delegate Writes to UN About Continuing
'Armenian Terrorism' Threat," Anatolia, (Ankara,
Turkey)
"The Tashnak Terrorist Organization," Republic of
Turkey, Ministry of Culture
Patterns of International Terrorism: 1982, U.S.
Department of State
"Azerbaijan Profile," CIA World Factbook, Central
Intelligence Agency
"Armenian Lobby Collects Donations for Release of
Arikan Assassin," Turkish Daily News, (Ankara, Turkey)
Patterns of Global Terrorism: 1987, U.S. Department of
KU KLUX KLAN (KKK)
Aliases: American Knights of the Ku Klux Klan, Imperial
Klans of America, Knights of the White Kamelia
Base of Operation: United States
Founding Philosophy: The KKK is America's oldest and
most infamous racist organization. The Klan has
historically targeted any minority group that competes
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economically with lower-class whites, including Jews,
African-Americans, homosexuals, Catholics, anti-
Prohibitionists, and drug dealers. The Klan was born
during Reconstruction, the federal government's post-
Civil War attempt to dismantle the racist structure of
southern society, and from the 1860s to the present the
group has been motivated by the feeling that its
members' way of life is under attack. Klan members
often attempt to defend their lifestyle with violence and
terrorist intimidation. The modern Klan's ideology
closely resembles that of other racist groups in
America. The Klan believes in the teachings of Christian
Identity and the existence of a worldwide Jewish
conspiracy.
Current Goals: According to the Anti-Defamation
League, "Today, there is no such thing as the Ku Klux
Klan." (ADL, 338) The modern Klan has fragmented into
multiple small, squabbling factions. Young white
supremacists consider the Klan to be antiquated and
ineffectual. There are three national umbrella groups
(Imperial Klans of America, American Knights of the Ku
Klux Klan, and Knights of the White Kamelia), but most
Klan groups are independent of these national
organizations. Some factions of the Klan have tried to
broaden their appeal by softening their racist rhetoric
with euphemisms and taking part in community service
programs like Adopt-A-Highway.
Legal Cases
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USA v. Edward Taylor, Jr. et al: 97-CR-72-ALL
USA v. Harry Zarkos: 02-CR-00263
USA v. Robert Edward Miles et al: 87-CR-20008
USA v. Walter Wolfgang Droege: 84-CR-C-301-NE
Further Reference
"Keystone' Klan plot described; Bomb conspirators
talked tough, acted like bumblers," Vozzella, Laura,
1/24/1998, Fort Worth Star-Telegram, (Fort Worth,
Texas)
"Klanswoman sentenced to 15 years in bombing-and-
robbery plot," Vozzella, Laura, 1/30/1998, Fort Worth
Star-Telegram, (Fort Worth, Texas)
American extremists : militias, supremacists,
Klansmen, Communists & others / John George & Laird
Wilcox., John George, 1996., Prometheus Books,
(Amherst, N.Y. )
Nazis, Communists, Klansmen, and others on the
fringe : political extremism in America / John George &
Laird Wilcox., John George, 1992., Prometheus Books,
(Buffalo, N.Y. )
Religion and the racist right : the origins of the
Christian Identity movement / Michael Barkun.,
Michael Barkun, c1997., University of North Carolina
Press, (Chapel Hill)
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598
KU KLUX KLAN (KKK)
"Keystone' Klan plot described; Bomb conspirators
talked tough, acted like bumblers," Vozzella, Laura,
1/24/1998, Fort Worth Star-Telegram, (Fort Worth,
Texas)
"Klanswoman sentenced to 15 years in bombing-and-
robbery plot," Vozzella, Laura, 1/30/1998, Fort Worth
Star-Telegram, (Fort Worth, Texas)
American extremists : militias, supremacists,
Klansmen, Communists & others / John George & Laird
Wilcox., John George, 1996., Prometheus Books,
(Amherst, N.Y. )
Nazis, Communists, Klansmen, and others on the fringe
: political extremism in America / John George & Laird
Wilcox., John George, 1992., Prometheus Books,
(Buffalo, N.Y. )
Religion and the racist right : the origins of the
Christian Identity movement / Michael Barkun., Michael
Barkun, c1997., University of North Carolina Press,
(Chapel Hill)
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The racist mind : portraits of American Neo-Nazis and
Klansmen / Raphael S. Ezekiel., Raphael S. Ezekiel,
c1995., Penguin Books, 1996, (New York, N.Y., U.S.A. )
Blood in the face : the Ku Klux Klan, Aryan Nations,
Nazi skinheads and the rise of a new white culture / by
James Ridgeway., James Ridgeway, c1995., Thunder's
Mouth Press, (New York )
"The appeal and behavior of the Ku Klux Klan in object
relations perspective / Steven E. Salmony.," Steven E.
Salmony, 1988., Crane, Russak & Co., (New York )
MILITAS UNITED STATES
Statistical data categorized by regions is provided
below. The total numbers of groups that have
committed a terrorist attack in a particular region are
listed for further analysis.
A detailed list of terrorist groups by country can be
obtained by clicking on the region or the total number
of groups below. From the country list, users can
access profiles of those groups listed in blue font. Click
on the group name to view its profile page.
Groups
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1st Mechanical Kansas Militia
3rd Continental Congress
American Front
Animal Liberation Front (ALF)
Arizona Patriots (AP)
Armed Forces of National Liberation
Armenian Revolutionary Army
Armenian Revolutionary Federation (ARF)
Army of God
Aryan Nations (AN)
Aryan Republican Army (ARA)
Aum Shinrikyo / Aleph
Black Liberation Army
Black Panthers
Black Revolutionary Assault Team
Cambodian Freedom Fighters
Cambodian Freedom Fighters (CFF)
Coalition to Save the Preserves (CSP)
Colorado 1st Light Infantry
Covenant Sword and Arm of the Lord (CSA)
Croatian Freedom Fighters (CFF)
Earth Liberation Front (ELF)
El Rukn
Evan Mecham Eco-Terrorist International Conspiracy
(EMETIC)
Fourth Reich Skinheads
Free Vietnam Revolutionary Group
Freemen (based in WA)
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Hammerskin Nation
Hector Riobe Brigade
Independent Armed Revolutionary Movement (MIRA)
Islamic Salvation Front
Jewish Defense League (JDL)
Justice Commandos for the Armenian Genocide
Ku Klux Klan (KKK)
Mara Salvatruchas
May 19 Communist Order
Montana Freemen
Mountaineer Militia
Nation of Yahweh
New Order
Oklahoma Constitutional Militia
Omega-7
Order II
Order, The
Patriots Council
Phineas Priests
Provisional Party of Communists
Puerto Rican Resistance Movement
Republic of New Africa
Republic of Texas (RoT)
Revolutionary Action Party
Revolutionary Cells Animal Liberation Brigade
Revolutionary Force Seven
San Joaquin County Militia
San Joaquin Militia
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Secret Army Organization
Secret Organization Zero
Sheriff's Posse Comitatus
Southeast States Alliance
Southern California IRA
Stop Huntingdon Animal Cruelty (SHAC)
United Freedom Front (UFF)
Up the IRS, INC.
Washington State Militia
Weather Underground Organization (WUO) /
Weathermen
White Order of Thule
White Patriot Party (WPP)
World United Formosans for Independence
Yanikian Commandos
Yemen Islamic Jihad
Young Cubans
al-Fuqra
al-Qaeda
MARA SALVATRUCHAS
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Aliases: MS-13
Base of Operation: Canada; El Salvador; Guatemala;
Honduras; Mexico; United States
Founding Philosophy: Mara Salvatruchas (MS or MS-13)
is a violent criminal group founded by El Salvadoran
immigrants in Los Angeles in 1980. For most of its
history the group has functioned like a street gang
engaging in deadly spats with rival gangs, participating
in petty crime and narcotics dealing, and maintaining
local turf both in major cities and in prisons. The gangs
original purpose was to protect El Salvadorans from
other Los Angeles gangs. Though its roots may be in the
Salvadoran community, Mara Salvatruchas has
expanded to include members from other Central
American countries. In addition to changing its
composition, the gang may also be expanding its
tactics. Some of its more recent actions fit the profile
of terrorism rather than traditional gang activity.
MS differs from most gangs in its vast size and
international presence. Estimates vary, but most
sources agree that there are more than 50,000
members of Mara Salvatruchas worldwideperhaps
many more. Furthermore, Mara members are found in
large groups from the streets of American cities to the
countryside of Central America to the jails and prisons
of both. The groups large prison presence allows it to
use incarceration to improve organization and
recruitment. Compounding matters, many MS members
detained in the United States are deported rather than
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imprisoned, a process which feeds the gang population
in Central America.
The expanded MS presence in Central America has led
to significant new violence in countries trying to
recover from legacies of political conflict. Honduras, El
Salvador, and Guatemala have murder rates many times
that of the U.S., and some estimates suggest that Mara
Salvatruchas and its arch-rival, MS-18, are responsible
for as much as half of the violent crime in those
countries. One incident in December 2004 had all the
components of a terrorist attack: MS members stopped
a bus and opened fire with automatic weapons, killing
28 people and wounding many more. The attackers left
a note claiming the incident in the name of the
Cinchoneros Popular Liberation Movement, a former
terrorist group that has not been active since 1991. The
Honduran government blames MS. The random attack
may have been a threat to a rival gang or an attack
designed to discredit the governments anti-gang
efforts.
Current Goals: The future of Mara Salvatruchas is
difficult to predict. The main thrust of the groups
activities will remain traditional, profit-driven gang
activity and narco-trafficking, but the group has so
many members that the activities of various units will
inevitably vary. It is impossible to rule out further
terrorism, particularly in Central America. Governments
in Guatemala, Honduras, and El Salvador have stepped
up their actions against the gang, but eliminating it may
prove impossible.
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Whatever the group's plans, the unprecedented
manpower and geographic dispersal of MS make it a
serious threat. The group has the resources to wage
full-scale insurgent campaignsof the type not seen
since the 1980sin Honduras, Guatemala, and El
Salvador. It must be mentioned, however, that the
groups standard activities do not suggest that any anti-
government insurgency is brewing. Still, it could
emerge if the crackdowns on the group spark full-scale
retaliation.
MS could also wreak havoc in other ways. Rumors have
persisted of contact between MS members and an al-
Qaeda associate. MS is experienced in alien smuggling,
which could prove useful to al-Qaeda members trying to
enter the United States. If cooperation between al-
Qaeda and MS ever blossomed, the potential for
terrorist attacks in the United States could be
frightening. However, it must be mentioned that these
rumors have not been substantiated, and that some U.S.
security officials explicitly deny them.
Further Reference
"Honduran Sees Massacre as Warning," 12/27/2004,
The Los Angeles Times
"Criminal Gangs in the Americas," 01/05/2006, The
Economist
"Mara Salvatrucha Gang in San Salvador," Fiscal Study
"The International Reach of the Mara Salvatrucha,"
Mandalit del Barco, 03/17/2005, NPR
"Combating El Salvador's Gangs," Claire Marshall,
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03/20/2004, BBC
MARA SALVATRUCHAS
"Honduran Sees Massacre as Warning," The Los
Angeles Times
"Criminal Gangs in the Americas," The Economist
"Mara Salvatrucha Gang in San Salvador," Fiscal Study
"The International Reach of the Mara Salvatrucha,"
Mandalit del Barco, NPR
"Combating El Salvador's Gangs," Claire Marshall, BBC
"Mara Salvatrucha," Al Valdez, National Alliance of
Gang Investigators
"Gang Raid Kills 12 in Guatemala," CNN
"Gang Will Target Minuteman Vigil on Mexico Border,"
Jerry Seper, Washington Times
MAY 19 COMMUNIST ORDER
Aliases: Armed Resistance Unit, May 19 Communist
Coalition, Red Guerrilla Resistance, Resistance
Conspiracy , Revolutionary Fighting Group
Base of Operation: United States
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Founding Philosophy: The May 19th Communist Order
(May 19th) was a front for the Revolutionary Armed
Task Force (RATF), a coalition of Weather Underground
and Black Liberation Army members who robbed banks
in order to finance their radical leftist agenda. May 19th
kept a network of safe houses for the RATF and forged
alliances with other leftist organizations such as FALN,
the New Afrikan Freedom Fighters, and the Palestine
Liberation Organization. May 19th can also be
considered a cell of the RATF.
The group's name refers to the day on which both
Malcolm X & Ho Chi Minh were born. May 19th members
were radically anti-racist, anti-imperialist, and pacifist.
They believed that the United States government was
controlled by a military-industrial alliance and that U.S.
government policy is racist, imperialistic and morally
abhorrent. Many May 19th members had a history of
radical activism stretching back to the 1960s. Several
of May 19th's leaders were members of Students for a
Democratic Society.
Between 1983 and 1985, May 19th committed at least
eight bombings in the New York and D.C. metropolitan
areas. The most infamous of these attacks was the
November 1983 bombing of the U.S. Capitol. The goal of
this violent campaign was to change public opinion by
drawing attention to allegedly immoral actions of the
United States government. May 19th claimed
responsibility for bombs in letters to news outlets. The
bombings caused no deaths or injuries, but the group's
manifestos claimed that might have changed. "We
purposely aimed our attack at the institutions of
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imperialist rule rather than at individual members of the
ruling class and government. We did not choose to kill
any of them this time. But their lives are not sacred..."
(Ostrow, 5/12/98)
Current Goals: During 1985 and 1986, all known
members of May 19th were arrested, with the exception
of Elizabeth Duke. The suspects were individually tried
and convicted of various crimes including robbery,
possession of illegal weapons and explosives, and
forgery. Marilyn Buck, Laura Whitehorn and Linda Evans
were also convicted of orchestrating the bombing
campaign. They accepted a plea bargain on the
condition that the prosecution drop the bombing
charges against Rosenberg, Blunk, and Berkman (all
already serving jail time on related charges). These
convictions effectively destroyed the group. Imprisoned
members of May 19th are considered political prisoners
by many on the extreme left.
Legal Cases
USA v. Laura Whitehorn et al: 88-CR-0145
USA v. Linda Sue Evans: 85-CR-0450
USA v. Linda Sue Evans: 85-CR-337
USA v. Susan Lisa Rosenberg et al: 84-CR-360
Further Reference
"Seven Charged With Bombing Capitol, Other
Buildings," ROWLEY, James, 05/11/1988, The
Associated Press
"Political Prisoners: Guilty Until Proven Innocent," Day,
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Susie, 02/28/1989, Sojourner: The Women's Forum
"Radicals Agree to Plead Guilty to Bombing Charges,"
Rowley, James, 09/06/1990, The Associated Press
"Kunstler Says Case Is Political Effort to Silence
Dissent," Rowley, James, 06/24/1998, The Associated
Press
Terrorism: assassins to zealots/ Sean Kendall
Anderson, Stephen Sloan, Sean Kendall Anderson and
Stephen Sloan, 01/01/2003, The Scarecrow Press, Inc.,
(Lanham, Maryland)
MONTANA FREEMEN
Base of Operation: United States
Founding Philosophy: The Montana Freemen were a
group of farmers and shysters who practiced Posse
Comitatus theories of common law and sovereign
citizenship. The Montana Freemen refused to recognize
the authority of the federal government and asserted
their own right as "sovereign citizens" to print money
and issue arrest warrants.
Current Goals: In September of 1995, two Freemen cells
merged near Justus, Montana. Local tax protest leaders
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Leroy Schweitzer, Rodney Skurdal, and Daniel Peterson
moved in with the Clark family. Schweitzer and Skurdal
were infamous for teaching classes on how to pass
fraudulent checks and file bogus liens. Earlier that year,
the Clark family, who owed $1.8 million in mortgage
payments and taxes, had convened a "common law
court" and issued warrants threatening the life of the
local sheriff and the county judge. When the two groups
joined forces, they renamed the Clarks' farm, their base
of operations, "Justus Township." They continued to
threaten local authorities and teach seminars on how to
execute classic Posse Comitatus scams.
Local law enforcement realized they would have to
confront the Freemen, but Justus's sheriff didn't have
the manpower to ensure that the confrontation went
smoothly. The FBI, suffering from what the press
dubbed "Weaver Fever" (the fear that a confrontation
with militants would go as badly as the Ruby Ridge
standoff had) was also reluctant to get involved. Local
residents began to resent the apparent impunity with
which the Freemen were flouting federal authority. "Call
the IRS and ask them why they haven't seized their
property," a local car dealer insisted. "Why do they get
special treatment? I think the federal government has a
responsibility to the people who are paying
taxes."(quoted in Pitcavage, 10)
Finally, on March 25, 1996, the FBI arrested Leroy
Schweitzer and Daniel Peterson, and demanded the
dozen or so Freemen for whom they had arrest warrants
leave Justus Township. The Freemen refused, and a
standoff which was to last 81 days begun.
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The FBI was determined not to make the same
mistakes that were made at Ruby Ridge. The standoff
was managed by the FBI's Critical Incident Response
Group, which implemented lessons learned during the
Ruby Ridge confrontation. Agents wore civilian clothes
instead of camouflage and drove civilian vehicles
instead of armored cars. Federal officials made
repeated, televised pleas to the Freemen to surrender
peacefully. Instead of surrounding the Clark ranch, FBI
agents merely stopped and questioned anyone who
tried to enter or leave. Finally, the FBI notified
paramilitary groups across the country before arresting
a single Freeman, which pre-empted conspiracy
theories and actually won the support of some militias.
Several prominent figures in the militia community,
such as the attorneys of Randy Weaver and families
who died at Waco, actually served as negotiators in
attempts to end the standoff.
At first, the Freemen showed no signs of willingness to
compromise and deliberately made unreasonable
demands to stall negotiations. For example, they
insisted at one point that they would only negotiate if
Supreme Court nominee Robert Bork acted as a
mediator. The also issued a press release declaring
independence from the "de facto corporate prostitute
also known as the United States." (CNN.com) The
standoff dragged on for weeks, then months, without
any sign of a breakthrough. On day 71, the FBI cut
power to the Freemen Ranch. Finally, on June 13, 1996,
the remaining members of the Freemen surrendered
peacefully, and the FBI arrested those for whom it had
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warrants, effectively ending the existence of the
Montana Freemen.
Legal Cases
USA v. Casey Clark: 97-CR-98-BLG
USA v. Ebert William Stanton: 98-CR-61-BLG
USA v. Karen Dyson: 97-CR-26-WCL
USA v. Leroy Michael Schweitzer et al: 95-CR-117-JCC
USA v. Ronald A.A. Griesacker: 98-CR-10022-JTM
USA v. Steven Charles Hance et al: 96-CR-47-BLG
MOUNTAINEER MILITIA
Base of Operation: United States
Founding Philosophy: The Mountaineer Militia is a right-
wing militia group based in West Virginia which, in the
mid-1990s, plotted to blow up federal buildings during
an inevitable moment of confrontation with the federal
government. The leader of the Mountaineer Militia,
Floyd Raymond Looker, became a vocal defendant of
militias on a national scale before being arrested for
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organizing a plot against an FBI building in West
Virginia.
Initially, Looker and members of his militia were
focused on protecting their constitutional rights. "Our
common belief is that the U.S. government already has
taken away many of our constitutional rights," Looker
said. "And without the Constitution, we the people have
nothing to protect ourselves against a government run
amok, other than our guns." However, over time, Looker
became more and more paranoid and radical. He
became convinced that the government was dedicated
to stripping Americans of their rights and staging a full
takeover of the country, putting dissenters in
concentration camps.
Like many militiamen, Looker believed that there would
come a moment where they would be forced to face off
with the government to protect their rights as citizens.
Unlike most militiamen, Looker planned extensively for
this moment. The main portion of his plan was the
destruction of the Federal Bureau of Investigation
Criminal Identification Center in Clarksburg, West
Virginia, a fingerprinting facility. Looker believed the
government was using this facility to spy on all
Americans, so he began plotting to blow it up. He and
members of his group obtained blueprints of the
building and began to stockpile an impressive amount
of explosives both made and acquired.
As Looker became increasingly convinced of the evil of
the federal government, he became less willing to wait
until the moment of confrontation to do harm. Instead,
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when approached by a FBI agent posing as a middle
man wanting to sell explosives or intelligence to
terrorists from the Middle East, Looker jumped at the
opportunity. He saw it as a way to make money while
ensuring that his plan would be put to action.
With the help of an FBI informant within the group, the
FBI built a solid case against a number of members of
the Mountaineer Militia, including Looker. The agent
posing as the middle man completed the purchase of
the blueprints; Looker was arrested immediately after
on charges of conspiring to provide material support
and resources with the intent to use them in the
preparation for committing an injury or depredation
against the FBI fingerprinting facility; conspiring to
manufacture and deal in explosive materials; and
transporting explosives across state lines. Looker was
sentenced to 18 years in prison in 1997.
Six other militiamen were also arrested on charges of
conspiracy and transportation of explosives across
state lines. Four were convicted or pled guilty, and two
were acquitted. One of the men was named James
Johnson, sharing the name of well-known Ohio militia
leader James J.J. Johnson. This had led to the
incorrect linkage of the Mountaineer Militia and J.J.
Johnsons Ohio Unorganized Militia. There is, in fact, no
connection between the groups.
The federal government has insisted that it did not
investigate or arrest any of these men because of their
associations with militia groups, which are entirely
legal. Instead, they were arrested for plotting to destroy
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a federal building. Department of Justice officials have
said there is no distinction in the law for a group
plotting to destroy a federal building in response to
some perceived injustice or attack.
Current Goals: Militia presence and membership
dropped significantly in West Virginia after the 1996
arrests. It is believed that by 2004, however, interest
was beginning to resurface. This does not necessarily
indicate an increased likelihood of terrorist activity or
plots. Most militia members deny any interest in violent
action but are committed to defending their
constitutional rights, especially the right to bear arms.
Legal Cases
USA v. Floyd Raymond Looker et al: 96-CR-40-FPS
USA v. Floyd Raymond Looker et al: 96-CR-41-FPS
USA v. Floyd Raymond Looker et al: 96-CR-42-FPS
USA v. Terrell P. Coon et al: 96-CR-43-FPS
Further Reference
"The Mountaineer Militia's Long, Slippery Slope," Anti-
Defamation League's Militia Watchdog, 10/21/1996
"Domestic Sources of Terrorism in the U.S.," Michael
J. Whidden, 05/01/2001
"False Patriots," Southern Poverty Law Center,
01/01/2005
"Hearing Testimony: Threats to U.S. National Security
," Louis J. Freeh, FBI Director '93-'01, 01/28/1998
"Domestic Terrorism: The Enemy From Within," Ben
Johnson, Jewish Defense League, 06/06/2006
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MOUNTAINEER MILITIA
"The Mountaineer Militia's Long, Slippery Slope," Anti-
Defamation League's Militia Watchdog
"Domestic Sources of Terrorism in the U.S.," Michael J.
Whidden
"False Patriots," Southern Poverty Law Center
"Hearing Testimony: Threats to U.S. National Security ,"
Louis J. Freeh, FBI Director '93-'01
"Domestic Terrorism: The Enemy From Within," Ben
Johnson, Jewish Defense League
"Terrorism in the United States: 1997," U.S. Dept. of
Justice, Federal Bureau of Investigation
NATION OF YAHWEH
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Aliases: Yahweh
Base of Operation: United States
Founding Philosophy: The Nation of Yahweh is a cult
which believes that blacks are the true Jews and that
their leader, Yahweh ben Yahweh, is the messiah. The
Nation of Yahweh was the subject of an FBI terrorism
investigation in the late 1980s that looked into the
groups financial practices and links to multiple
murders in the Miami area.
Founded by Yahweh ben Yahweh, born Hulon Mitchell,
Jr., the Nation of Yahweh had a relatively large
following in the Miami area in the early to mid-1980s.
Many local leaders praised the group for revitalizing
poor, black neighborhoods and preaching hard work and
ambition in black communities. While not a terrorist
group by traditional definition, the group quickly
morphed from a black power, religious cult to a
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dysfunctional, violent community. According to many
former cult members, Yahweh ben Yahweh began
sleeping with women of all ages within the group and,
soon after, began dispatching members of his inner
circle to kill those who had left the cult and random
white devils.
While the FBI and local officials were never able to
conclusively prove the link in court, at least 15 murders
in the Miami area between 1981 and 1986 are
associated with the Nation of Yahweh. Several
Yahwehs were convicted of the murders, but
prosecutors were unable to prove that the murders
were issued by the groups leader.
Testimony given by several former cult members,
however, indicates that the murders were committed at
the direct order of Yahweh ben Yahweh, who advocated
the murder of all his enemies, namely white people
and former followers who turned against him as the
tone and practices of the cult became sinister. The first
murder linked to the group was that of Aston Green, a
Yahweh member who had left the cult but continued to
visit friends in the community. On one of his visits, he
was brutally beaten by members of Yahweh ben
Yahwehs inner circle. After the beating, he was taken
to a remote location and beheaded. The killers then
reportedly brought Greens head back to Yahweh, who
praised them for their accomplishment.
Several more murders followed all of former cult
members believed to be talking to the police about life
inside the Yahweh community. As Yahweh ben Yahweh
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become increasingly paranoid, those still within the
group but believed to be disloyal to him were killed.
Leonard Dupree was one such victim and testimony
shows that Yahweh ben Yahweh forced every member
of the group, regardless of age or gender, to take part in
the beating murder in order to ensure that all were
guilty and none would talk.
Finally, Yahweh ben Yahweh formed a group called The
Brotherhood, responsible for violently keeping order
within the community. In order to become a member of
The Brotherhood, young men had to kill a white devil
and bring a body part back to Yahweh ben Yahweh. One
member alone admitted to killing seven people, saying
he was fueled by Yahweh ben Yahwehs praise.
Authorities are unsure how many murders in the Miami
area in the mid-1980s can be attributed to members and
future members of the Brotherhood, who were told they
were fighting the war against the nonbelievers by
attacking random white people. Despite escaping
murder convictions, Yahweh ben Yahweh was
convicted of racketeering charges and sentenced to 18
years in prison. He was released in 2001 after serving
11 years. He must now have written permission from a
federal probation officer to have any contact with
members of his cult.
Current Goals: Since their leaders imprisonment, the
members of the Nation of Yahweh have attempted to
remake their image, focusing on the religious aspects
of the cult and insisting they are neither racist nor
violent. Their primary area of operation has shifted from
the Miami area to Montreal, which they call the New
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Promised Land. A 2001 Yahweh meeting in Montreal
attracted up to 1,000 members.
The group continues to emphasize that they are a
nation of believers at war with nonbelievers but insist it
is a war of words, not of violent action. They still
consider Yahweh ben Yahweh to be their leader and the
messiah, despite his absenteeism.
Legal Cases
USA v. Robert Louise Beasley, Jr. et al: 90-CR-868-NCR
Further Reference
"Profile Report of the Nation of Yahweh," New
Religious Movements, 07/25/2001
"Yahwehs work Web to polish image," Meg Laughlin,
Miami Herald, 08/24/2001
"Cult Leader Released From Prison," The Associated
Press, 09/26/2001
"Followers of Yahweh reemerge in Canada," The Miami
Herald, 10/15/2001
"Yahweh ben Yahweh Cult," CourtTV Crime Library,
01/01/2005
NEW ORDER
Base of Operation: United States
Founding Philosophy: The New Order was a terrorist
organization operating in Illinois modeled after Robert
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J. Matthews white supremacist group, the Order.
Demmos McGiffen, former Grand Dragon of the Knights
of the Ku Klux Klan (KKK), formed the organization in
May 1997 after determining that the KKK was too
wimpy. McGiffen is believed to have been heavily
influenced by the Turner Diaries, a racist novel written
by William Turner in 1978, and McGiffens idol, Robert J.
Matthews.
The New Order planned to ignite a race war through
bombings, assassinations, and water supply poisonings.
Members of the group selected several targets to bomb
including: the Anti-Defamation League headquarters in
New York (a Jewish anti-bigotry organization), the
Southern Poverty Law Center in Montgomery, Alabama
(a civil rights law firm), and the Simon Wiesenthal
Center headquarters in Los Angeles (an international
Jewish human rights organization). Morris Dees, one of
the founders of the Southern Poverty Law Center, and a
federal judge were selected as assassination targets.
The group planned to finance their terrorist activities
through bank and armored car robberies.
Dennis McGiffen and two other members, Wallace
Weicherding and Ralph Bock, were arrested on February
23, 1998 before they were able to conduct any attacks.
Two other members, Glenn Lowtharp and Karl Schave,
were also later arrested. These five individuals were
believed to be the only members of the organization and
all were ultimately convicted and sentenced to various
prison terms. During their trial, both McGiffen and
Weicherding maintained that their terrorist plans were
only drunken ramblings. Although these five known
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members were previously members of the KKK and
Aryan Nations, no known relationship existed between
the New Order and these two other more-established
racist organizations.
Current Goals: The New Order has never committed an
attack in its history and has not been mentioned
publicly in recent years, despite the fact that its
indicted members have all been released from prison
after serving their sentences. It seems likely that the
group is inactive. Still, other violent white supremacist
groups modeled after Robert J. Matthews The Order,
are likely to conduct violent activities against Jews and
other racial minorities in the future as they continue
their attempts to ignite a race war.
Legal Cases
USA v. Daniel Rick: 98-CR-40042-WLB
USA v. Dennis Michael McGiffen et al: 98-CR-30035
USA v. Karl Chadwick Schave: 98-CR-40011-ALL
Further Reference
""Sixth Man in Anti-SPLC Plot Faces Trial","
Intelligence Report, 01/01/1998, Southern Poverty Law
Center
""Hate-Group Informer is Targeted on Internet","
Charles Bosworth Jr., 09/14/1998, St. Louis Post-
Dispatch (Missouri)
""They're Back: A fresh batch of extremist ex-cons hits
the streets"," Camille Jackson, 01/01/2004, Southern
Poverty Law Center, Intelligence Report
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OKLAHOMA CONSTITUTIONAL MILITIA
Aliases: Universal Church of God
Base of Operation: United States
Founding Philosophy: The Oklahoma Constitutional
Militia was a small, anti-government, anti-Semitic group
whose only planned attack was foiled by an FBI
informer. They believed that the New World Order
existed and posed a direct and immediate threat to
them. Militia leader Willie Ray Lampley expected Russia
to invade the United States through Mexico during his
lifetime, and he encouraged his followers to stockpile
supplies and arms in preparation for the invasion. The
Militia's members were all followers of the racist
teachings of Christian Identity, and the group was also
known as the Universal Church of God. Lampley visited
Elohim City, a compound at which the leaders of
American white supremacy networked and discussed
their shared beliefs.
The militia formed in 1994, when Lampley and Larry
Wayne Crow met and forged a friendship based on their
shared religious views. The two soon began to attend
militia meetings, and published religious pamphlets.
Lampley believed he was a prophet, and Crow, who
testified for the prosecution at Lampley's trial, claims
that Lampley thought it was his duty to act on God's
alleged condemnation of supposedly sinful people such
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as homosexuals, abortion doctors, and civil rights
activists.
Current Goals: Lampley, Crow, Lampley's wife Cicilia,
and John Dare Baird were arrested in November of 1995
for conspiring to bomb several targets including gay
bars, abortion clinics, and civil rights groups such as
the Southern Poverty Law Center and the Anti-
Defamation League. Authorities found the supplies for
an ammonium nitrate bomb in the Lampleys' home in
Vernon, Oklahoma. Crow, who claims he had left the
group, negotiated a plea bargain with the prosecution
and testified against the other three group members.
Lampley and his co-defendants claimed that they'd
been entrapped by FBI agent Richard Schrum. Lampley
insisted that it had been Schrum's idea to build the
bomb. Cecilia Lampley, John Baird and Willie Ray
Lampley were all convicted of conspiring to construct a
homemade bomb. Willie Ray Lampley was also
convicted on two additional counts. The Oklahoma
Constitutional Militia ceased to exist after the arrest
and trial of its only known members.
Legal Cases
USA v. Willie Ray Lampley et al: 95-CR-63-FHS
Further Reference
Religion and the racist right : the origins of the
Christian Identity movement / Michael Barkun.,
Michael Barkun, c1997., University of North Carolina
Press, (Chapel Hill)
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OMEGA 7
Aliases: Omega 7
Base of Operation: United States
Founding Philosophy: Omega-7 was a violently anti-
Castro Cuban group active from 1974 to 1983. The
name Omega-7 comes from the group of seven
revolutionaries who launched the group. Membership
never rose above 20, but the group was financially
supported by the Cuban exile community in Miami, New
York and New Jersey. Their short-term goal was to
harass the Castro regime, and their long-term goal was
to raise and train an army of Cuban exiles to forcibly
oust Castro. Omega-7 committed 18 major terrorist
attacks, including the assassination of a Cuban
diplomat to the UN on December 9, 1980. The group's
members had combat training and experience (some
participated in the failed Bay of Pigs invasion), and their
attacks were well planned and flawlessly executed.
Their primary targets were Cuban diplomatic and
business interests and pro-Castro Cubans within the
United States.
Current Goals: During the early 1980s, the Cuban exile
community lost faith in efforts to overthrow Castro.
Omega-7 turned to drug trafficking to raise funds. In
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1982, six key Omega-7 leaders were arrested. The
following year saw the arrest of Eduardo Arocena, the
group's founder and leader. Arocena's arrest, and the
revelation during his trial that he had been working as
an FBI informant, effectively destroyed Omega-7.
Legal Cases
USA v. Eduardo Arocena: 83-CR-0821
USA v. Eduardo Losado Fernandez: 84-CR-0134
USA v. Jose V. Lopez: 84-CR-0880
USA v. Pedro C. Remon: 84-CR-0282
USA v. Pedro Remon et al: 85-CR-0830
Further Reference
CUBAN INFORMATION ARCHIVES
Terrorism: assassins to zealots/ Sean Kendall
Anderson, Stephen Sloan, Sean Kendall Anderson and
Stephen Sloan, 01/01/2003, The Scarecrow Press, Inc.,
(Lanham, Maryland)
ORDER II
Base of Operation: United States
Founding Philosophy: The Order II, otherwise known as
the Bruder Schweigen (Silent Brotherhood) Strike Force
II, was a terrorist organization modeled after Robert J.
Matthews white supremacist group, the Order, and
influenced by the Turner Diaries, a racist novel written
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by William Turner in 1978. Although strongly inspired by
Matthews group, the Order II is not believed to be a
faction of the Order or to share members. David Dorr is
believed to be the groups founder and leader.
Like many white supremacist groups operating in the
United States, the Order II planned to start a racial war
with the ultimate goal of establishing an all-white state.
Members of the organization are believed to have met
through the Church of Jesus Christ Christian, run by
Richard Butler (the founder of Aryan Nations), where
they attended services and meetings at its former
compound in Hayden Lake, Idaho. As a result of their
association with Aryan Nations, group members are
believed to be followers of the Christian Identity, a
radical, Eurocentric interpretation of Christianity that
maintains white Europeans are the true Chosen people.
Dorr was the security chief for the Church. Dorr, his
wife Deborah, Edward and Olive Hawley, and Robert
Pires are the only known members of the Order II.
The group is believed to be responsible for the death of
Kenneth Shray, a man accused by the group of being a
police informant, as well as seven bombings in Idaho.
Shray was shot to death in August 1986. Members of
the Order II bombed the residence of Father William
Wassmuth, a Catholic priest who is head of the anti-
racist Kootenai County Task Force on Human Relations,
on September 16, 1986. Wassmuth had recently help
stage an anti-racist demonstration in July. On
September 29, 1986, the group planted four bombs
throughout the resort town of Coeur dAlene, Idaho at a
federal building, a restaurant, a retail complex and a
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military recruiting office in order to create a diversion
that would enable them to rob two local banks and the
nearby Army National Guard armory. The robberies
never occurred and only three of the bombs detonated.
No causalties were reported. A week after the
bombings, FBI agents arrested Pires, reportedly after
learning of a hit list with the names of FBI agents,
federal judges, and community leaders and the
development of increasingly violent attacks. The Dorrs
and Hawleys were arrested shortly after Pires
surrender.
Current Goals: The Order II has not been responsible for
any recent attacks nor has the group been mentioned
publicly since the trials of its five members. Given their
incarcerations and recent paroles, the splintering of the
Aryan Nations, and the crackdown on white
supremacist violence in recent years, it is unlikely that
members of the Order II will conduct violent activities
in the future.
Legal Cases
USA v. Bruce Carroll Pierce et al: 85-CR-001M
USA v. Bruce Carroll Pierce et al: 85-CR-476
USA v. David Lane et al : 87-CR-114
USA v. David R. Dorr et al: 88-CR-30004
USA v. Frank Scutari: 85-CR-0291
USA v. Mark Frank Jones et al: 85-CR-0010W
USA v. Mark Frank Jones: 85-CR-HM-00080-S
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USA v. Richard Joseph Scutari: 86-CR-116M
USA v. Robert Edward Miles et al: 87-CR-20008
USA v. Ronald A. King et al: 85-CE-0102
Further Reference
"White-supremacist Couple Pleads Guilty in Federal
Court," Nadine Epstein, 02/05/1987, Christian Science
Monitor
""FBI Agent: Supremacists Plotted To Kill Federal
Officials"," Karen McGrath, 10/09/1986, Associated
Press
""ManTiedto White Supremacists Faces Charges In
Idaho Bombings"," The New York Times , 10/07/1986
PATRIOTS COUNCIL
Aliases: Minnesota Patriot Council
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Base of Operation: United States
Founding Philosophy: Founded in 1970 by Colonel (Ret.)
Frank Nelson, USAF, the Patriots Council was a right-
wing anti-government group that operated in central
Minnesota. Reportedly, some of its members were also
influenced by the radical right Christian Identity
ideology, though the groups main focus was on the US
tax system, which members claimed was indicative of
the governments general overbearing and tyrannical
nature. Hence, the Patriots Council did not
acknowledge government authority above the county
level. In fact, members of the group that faced trial
unsuccessfully requested that they be tried under a
separate court whose legitimacy they recognized as
well. In its history, the group had not successfully
committed any attacks, and some members met only to
discuss and protest taxes and government intrusion
into their personal affairs. However, the Patriots
Council had extremist elements as well. These
members discussed bombing buildings and killing
federal officials as methods to subvert the
governments power and authority.
The Patriots Council was most famous for an early-
1990s plot to unleash attacks against federal officials
and government targets using the biological toxin ricin,
approximately six thousand times more powerful than
cyanide. Patriots Council members Doug Baker, LeRoy
Wheeler, Dennis Henderson, and Richard Oelrich
ordered a ricin starter-kit from an advertisement in a
right-wing magazine. From the castor beans included in
the kit, the men were able to extract .7 grams of ricin
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before the plot was foiled. According to officials, this
amount of ricin, if deployed correctly, was capable of
killing more than one hundred people. With the help of
an FBI informant inside the organization, the four men
were arrested and charged with possession of a deadly
biological substance, representing the first people to be
charged and convicted under the Biological Weapons
Anti-Terrorism Act of 1989. It appears that this plot was
more an independent effort of four extreme individuals
rather than an attack planned with the knowledge and
consent of the Patriots Council.
Current Goals: Since the arrest of four of its members
following the ricin plot, the Patriots Council has not
publicly surfaced again. Even during its heyday, the
Patriots Council committed no successful attacks and
only fringe members of the organization intended to
cause physical damage to the US government. It is
assumed that moderate members distanced themselves
from the group, which has now been forever associated
with plotting biological terrorist attacks, and that
extreme members left the group once the FBI was able
to successfully penetrate the organization.
Legal Cases
USA v. Dennis Brett Henderson et al: 95-CR-85-PAM
USA v. Leroy Charles Wheeler et al: 94-CR-92-RGR
Further Reference
Secret Agents: The Menace of Emerging Infections,
Madeline Drexler, 01/01/2003, Joseph Henry Press
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"Chronology of Incidents Involving Ricin," CNS WMD
Terrorism Research Project, 02/03/2004
""Terrorism's next wave"," David E. Kaplan, Douglas
Pasternak, Gordon Witkin, 11/17/1997, U.S. News &
World Report
"Ricin: Technical Background and Potential Role in
Terrorism," Congressional Research Service,
02/04/2004
"Anthrax and Mass-Casualty Terrorism: What is the
Bioterrorist Threat after Septebmer 11th?," Jason
Pate, 01/01/2001, Monterey Institute of International
Studies
PATRIOTS COUNCIL
Secret Agents: The Menace of Emerging Infections,
Madeline Drexler, Joseph Henry Press
"Chronology of Incidents Involving Ricin," CNS WMD
Terrorism Research Project
""Terrorism's next wave"," David E. Kaplan, Douglas
Pasternak, Gordon Witkin, U.S. News & World Report
"Ricin: Technical Background and Potential Role in
Terrorism," Congressional Research Service
"Anthrax and Mass-Casualty Terrorism: What is the
Bioterrorist Threat after Septebmer 11th?," Jason Pate,
Monterey Institute of International Studies
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"Beyond Anthrax: Extremism and the Bioterrorism
Threat," Anti-Defamation League
" Anti-terrorism: how far?," National Review
PHINEAS PRIESTS
Aliases: Phineas Priesthood
Base of Operation: United States
Founding Philosophy: Phineas Priests are members of a
terrorist organization operating inside the United
States. The group derives its name and convictions
from the Biblical story of a priest named Phineas who,
by slaying an Israelite and his 'heathen' wife, saved the
people of Israel from a plague from God. Phineas Priests
are described as Christian white supremacists who are
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strongly anti-Semitic, anti-racial mixing (as was the
original Phineas), and anti-abortion. Members following
its ideology desire a Christian-only, white-only state in
North America.
Similar to other white supremacist organizations in the
United States, the Priesthood operates in extreme
secrecy and believes in 'leaderless resistance,' tactics
that ensure members escape detection and the
organization is protected from infiltration. Although
individual action is paramount, Priests desire to ignite a
racial revolution, rather than merely gain members for
the organization. As a result of the secrecy employed, it
is difficult to determine exactly when the group was
formed or obtain an accurate accounting of its
membership and supporters. In part, this is because,
unlike other supremacist or extremist organizations in
the United States, the Phineas Priests is not a
membership organization in the traditional sense: there
are no meetings, rallies or newsletters. Rather,
extremists become 'members' when they commit
'Phineas acts,' any violent activity against 'non-whites.'
The Priesthood is commonly referred to as a terrorist,
paramilitary arm of Christian Identity, a radical,
Eurocentric interpretation of Christianity that maintains
white Europeans are the true Chosen people. The
Phineas Priesthood cross and the inscription '25:6', the
chapter and verse in the Book of Numbers telling the
Phineas story, are Priesthood symbols often present at
the meetings and rallies of Christian Identity, Aryan
Nations, and other white-supremacist, extremist
organizations.
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As a group, the Phineas Priests has not conducted any
major attacks. However, individuals professing to be
Phineas Priesthood members have engaged in terrorist
activities such as bombing, robbery, murder and arson.
Convicted bank robbers and bombers, Charles Harrison
Barbee, Verne Jay Merrell, Robert Sherman Berry, and
Brian Edward Ratigan, are several self-professed
members of the Phineas Priesthood. Operating as
individuals or in small groups of two or three
individuals, Priests carry out attacks targeting Jews,
racially-mixed individuals, non-white ethnicities,
abortion clinics and their personnel, banks, and the
government, whom they view as being run by Jews and
other 'undesirables.'
Current Goals: As the organization has no formal
infrastructure, Priests can attack indiscriminately
without orders, another benefit of leaderless
resistance. Attacks against various targets continue to
be conducted; violence from both the organization and
its followers is expected to continue in the future.
Legal Cases
USA v. Brian Edward Ratigan: 97-CR-66-WFN
USA v. Charles Harrison Barbee: 96-CR-258-WFN
USA v. Robert Sherman Berry: 96-CR-259-WFN
USA v. Verne Jay Merrell: 96-CR-257-WFN
Further Reference
The Bible: Numbers 25
"Killers for God: The Phineas Priesthood," David
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Lethbridge , 01/01/1998
"Thoughts on the Phineas Priesthood," Stephen Van
Eck, Think!, Fall 1997
"A Violent Priesthood (The Phineas Priesthood),"
09/08/1999, Christian Century
The Anti-Defamation League
PUERTO RICAN RESISTANCE MOVEMENT
Base of Operation: Puerto Rico; United States
Founding Philosophy: The Puerto Rican Resistance
Movement terrorized New York City for a three-day
period in May 1981. One of the bombings killed a 20-
year old man at Kennedy Airport. Other bombings shut
down Penn Station. The little information known about
the group is principally gleaned from the group's
handful of bombing and attempted bombing attacks, all
of which occurred in New York. Due to its choice of
name, the group was most likely one of several terrorist
organizations seeking full Puerto Rican independence
from the United States.
In one of the claims of responsibility, the anonymous
caller made a reference to FALN (another Puerto Rican
terrorist group) members imprisoned near Chicago.
Current Goals: The Puerto Rican Resistance Movement
has been inactive since 1981.
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Further Reference
A Preliminary Study of Sabotage and Terrorism as
transportation Risk Factors Associated with the
Proposed Yucca Mountain High-Level Nuclear Facility,
James David Ballard, 01/01/1998, Nevada Agency for
Nuclear Projects
Terrorism in the United States: 1999, 01/01/1999,
Counterterrorism Division, Federal Bureau of
Investigation
"Two More Bombs Found on East Side," Robert
McFadden, 05/19/1981, New York Times
"Nation reels in new face of war," Ron French,
09/12/2001, The Detroit News
REPUBLIC OF NEW AFRICA
Base of Operation: United States
Founding Philosophy: Republic of New Africa (RNA) is a
movement which began in 1968 as a result of a Detroit
conference of militant African American nationalists.
Two brothers, Milton and Richard Henry, founded the
RNA and changed their names to Gaidi Obadele and
Imari Abubakari Obadele respectively. Imari Obadele
then became president of RNA.
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RNA was the first group to seriously demand
reparations for American slavery prior to the civil war.
The group demanded control of Louisiana, Mississippi,
Alabama, Georgia, and South Carolina. These states
would constitute the Republic of New Africa, which
would make cooperative economics and community
self-sufficiency central to its economic model. RNA also
demanded $400 billion dollars from the government as
reparations. RNAs message particularly resonated with
students at Tougaloo College in Jackson, Mississippi.
Tougaloo college papers were often used as a way of
disseminating the RNAs statements.
RNA was involved in a small number of shootouts with
police and FBI agents. Three people who hijacked a
TWA flight in 1971 claimed to be members of RNA. The
groups militancy led FBI officials to raid RNA bases. A
1971 raid in Jackson, Mississippi led to the death of one
policeman and the arrest of Imari Obadele for murder of
the police officer. Six other prominent RNA members
were arrested. The groups militant activities decreased
in the following years and Obadele focused on
establishing a political movement after his release from
prison in 1980.
RNA is now a non-militant organization which views
itself as a provisional government for the Republic of
New Africa. Its leaders aim to hold a plebiscite for
African-Americans to gauge support for self-
determination. The group claims to have more than
10,000 members but, lacking any registry of RNA
members, such claims are highly dubious.
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Current Goals: RNA is currently a political organization
still attempting to achieve an independent nation in 5
American southern states. The group's radical militancy
has abated and there is no indication that it will
perform terrorist acts in the future.
Further Reference
"Black Reparations Times," 01/01/2003, Vol. 1, Issue 1
"Support for the RNA," John Brown, 11/27/1972, The
Encounter
"Republic of New Africa," Nicholas Kimble, 01/01/2004,
Mississippi Freedom Movement
"Republic of New Africa," Absolute Astronomy
Encyclopedia
"Republic of New Africa," Absolute Astronomy
Encyclopedia
REPUBLIC OF TEXAS (ROT)
Aliases: Provisional Government of the
Republic of Texas
Base of Operation: United States
Founding Philosophy: The Republic of Texas (RoT) is a
group of people who believe that the United States
never legally annexed the state of Texas and that
Texas is therefore an independent nation. In 1995, the
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RoT declared the state of Texas to be an independent
Republic, and RoT "citizens" have been behaving as if
that were the case ever since. RoT members believe
that they are not legally bound to obey the federal
government or the state government of Texas, and they
resent both for taking away their freedoms. The RoT is
part of the common law movement. (The common law
movement declares that its members are exempt from
the laws of the United States, and cite pseudo-legal
theories that justify their illegal activities, which
typically involve issuing phony legal documents such as
liens and money orders.) RoT also teaches its members
to practice redemption (a complicated set of bank fraud
techniques, morally justified in the eyes of its
practitioners by elaborate conspiracy theories) and
paper terrorism (using fraudulent legal documents and
filings to harass the government). They do not consider
the money orders or comptroller's warrants they issue
to be fraudulent, because they believe the United
States government has no legal authority to print
money, let alone the legal authority to forbid the
Republic of Texas from printing its own money.
Current Goals: In 1996, the RoT split into three factions:
one led by David Johnson (later replaced by Jesse
Enloe), one led by Archie Lowe (later replaced by Daniel
Miller) and one led by Rick McLaren. Two of the three
factions have been involved in terrorist activity. In the
spring of 1997, several RoT members led by McLaren
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stormed the house of Joe and Margaret Ann Rowe, who
they held for 12 hours as "prisoners of war." McLaren
demanded the release of two RoT members (Ann Turner
and Robert Scheidt) in exchange for his hostages, but
he eventually released them in exchange for Scheidt
alone. McLaren's wife, Evelyn, convinced him to
surrender peacefully after a week-long standoff with
police. McLaren and five of his followers (Evelyn
McLaren, Richard "White Eagle" Otto, Greg Paulson,
Karen Paulson, and Richard Keyes) were sent to prison
following the incident, which effectively destroyed the
McLaren faction of the RoT.
The other terrorist act committed by the RoT involved
members of three Jesse Enloe's faction, Jack Abbot
Grebe Jr. and Johnie Wise. (Oliver Dan Emigh was tried
as a co-conspirator, but acquitted.) Grebe and Wise
were convicted in 1998 of threatening to assassinate
several government officials, including President
Clinton. Their plan was to build a cigarette lighter that
would shoot cactus thorns dipped in biological agents
such as anthrax, rabies, botulism, and AIDS. The
conviction was largely based on evidence provided by
undercover FBI informant John L. Cain. Cain, a
computer consultant, was approached by Grebe and
Wise, who wanted him to help them send threatening e-
mail messages to government officials. Cain contacted
the FBI, and collaborated with the agency by secretly
taping meetings he had in his trailer with Grebe and
Wise.
Many members of the Republic of Texas were upset by
and openly critical of the criminal activities of McLaren,
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Grebe and Wise (although all three are listed as
prisoners of war on the group's website). The group
appears to have decreased in size and become more
moderate since the late 90s . Chris Berlet, senior
analyst at Political Research Associates, a Boston
group that monitors the far right, says the group is no
longer a threat to anyone. (Bragg, 11/5/2001) The RoT
has demonstrated a willingness to support the
government it despises, albeit in ways that government
officials don't necessarily approve of. After September
11, its members drilled in preparation for assisting the
government during a terrorist attack. The RoT has also
been organizing border patrols to collect and forcibly
deport Mexican immigrants illegally crossing the
border, despite the fact that the INS strongly
discourages private citizens from patrolling the border.
President Daniel Miller told the Boston Globe, "The
American people are our brothers...We extend a helping
hand." (Kennedy, 9/25/2001) Despite its increased
cooperation with the state and federal government, the
RoT remains committed to its vision of Texas as an
independent nation.
Legal Cases
USA v. Jack Abbot Grebe, Jr. et al: 98-CR-415-ALL
Further Reference
"Jury selection under way for ROT members accused
of bio-weapons plot," Madeline Baro, 10/5/1998,
Associated Press State & Local Wire, (New York)
"Republic of Texas: some help that we don't need,"
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Bud Kennedy, 9/5/2001, Fort Worth Star-Telegram,
(Fort Worth, Texas)
"Seperatists, DPS settle into standoff," Evan Moore,
4/29/1997, Houston Chronicle, (Houston, Texas)
"Beyond Redemption: The latest multi-million dollar
scam in the world of antigovernment zealots is taking
off across the nation.," Intelligence Report Staff,
Southern Poverty Law Center
Apocalypse pretty soon: travels in end-time America,
Alex Heard, 1999, W.W. Norton, (New York)
REPUBLIC OF TEXAS (ROT)
"Jury selection under way for ROT members accused of
bio-weapons plot," Madeline Baro, 10/5/1998,
Associated Press State & Local Wire, (New York)
"Republic of Texas: some help that we don't need," Bud
Kennedy, 9/5/2001, Fort Worth Star-Telegram, (Fort
Worth, Texas)
"Seperatists, DPS settle into standoff," Evan Moore,
4/29/1997, Houston Chronicle, (Houston, Texas)
"Beyond Redemption: The latest multi-million dollar
scam in the world of antigovernment zealots is taking
off across the nation.," Intelligence Report Staff,
Southern Poverty Law Center
Apocalypse pretty soon: travels in end-time America,
Alex Heard, 1999, W.W. Norton, (New York)
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Harvest of Rage: why Oklahoma City is only the
beginning, Joel Dyer, 1997, Westview Press, (Boulder,
Colo)
"McLaren rarely seen since late '96," Thomas G. Watts,
4/28/1997, Dallas Morning News, (Dallas, Texas)
"McLaren signs a deal but armed pair flees," Thaddeis
Herrick, 5/4/1997, Houston Chronicle, (Houston)
"Meanwhile, Back at the Ranch?.Or, The Militia is Alive
and Well and Living in the Hill Country," Ilse Bailey,
May/June 1995, Texas Prosecutor
"Militia steps up its 'preparedness'," Roy Bragg,
11/5/2001, San Antonio Express-News, (San Antonio,
Texas)
"Texas Militants Plan to Patrol Border Area," John
MacCormack, 12/8/2000, The San Francisco Chronicle,
(San Francisco, California)
REVOLUTIONARY ACTION PARTY
Base of Operation: United States
Founding Philosophy: On August 29, 1970 the
Revolutionary Action Party detonated a bomb in the
Portuguese Embassy to the US, and a second bomb in
the Rhodesian Information office, both located in
Washington, D.C. The group was previously unknown
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and although the Secret Service took the threat
seriously enough to place agents at these two
locations, the group never initiated any further action.
The Revolutionary Action Party attacked these
locations in protest of American support for the
apartheid regime in South Africa.
Current Goals: Revolutionary Action Party is no longer
active.
REVOLUTIONARY CELLS ANIMAL LIBERATION
BRIGADE
Base of Operation: United States
Founding Philosophy: The Revolutionary Cells-Animal
Liberation Brigade is an unusually violent animal-rights
terrorist movement. The group has claimed
responsibility for two bombings in 2003. One bombing
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occurred in August 2003 on the grounds of Chiron, an
Emeryville-based biotechnology firm. The other bombing
occurred a month later when the Revolutionary Cells-
Animal Liberation Brigade planted a nail bomb at the
headquarters of the Shaklee Corporation, which
manufactures health foods, vitamins and cosmetics.
Both groups were targeted for their association with
Huntingdon Life Sciences, an animal-testing contractor.
The Revolutionary Cells-Animal Liberation Brigade is an
unusual group because its tactics are more violent than
those employed by other animal-rights extremists. In an
e-mail message following the Shaklee bombing, the
group specifically threatens certain individuals in
particularly menacing ways. The group also claims that
its attacks will grow larger and larger until either
Huntingdon Life Sciences is shut down or American
cities lie in rubble.
The Revolutionary Cells-Animal Liberation Brigade also
claims to be a front for a diverse number of groups and
claims to be an international coalition fighing injustice.
The groups e-mail voices its solidarity with a disparate
group of international terrorists. Yet despite such
claims, Revolutionary Cells-Animal Liberation Brigade is
undoubtedly a small terrorist group concerned with
animal rights and with a penchant for hyperbole and
casting about pretensions of power and importance.
Current Goals: Considering the group's failure to follow
up a threat of an imminent increase in its activities
following the Shaklee bombings, it is safe to say that
the Revolutionary Cells Animal Liberation Brigade lacks
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the means to continue its terrorist activity. The prime
suspect in the Emeryville bombings, Daniel Andreas San
Diego, has been identified and is currently hiding from
law enforcement officials. It is highly likely that this is a
significant blow to the Revolutionary Cells Animal
Liberation Brigade's ability to conduct further attacks
Further Reference
"Anonymous E-Mail," Revolutionary Cells-Animal
Liberation Brigade, 01/01/2003
"Attacks from Animal and Environmental Activists
More Brazen, Destructive ," Dana Hall, 10/04/2003, San
Jose Mercury News
REVOLUTIONARY FORCE SEVEN
Base of Operation: United States
Founding Philosophy: Both the origin and political
orientation of Revolutionary Force Seven remain
unknown. The group was evidently formed solely for the
purpose of carrying out four attacks, all on June 2,
1970, against various Latin American embassies in
Washington, DC.
Historical context can shed some light on the group.
The four nations whose embassies were attacked
Argentina, The Dominican Republic, Uruguay and Haiti
were all Cold War allies of the United States and all
ruled by right-wing military dictatorships at points in
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their history. The exact philosophy of Revolutionary
Force Seven is unknown, but two likely possibilities are
that the group was comprised of Latin Americans
opposed to their own governments and to the American
presence there, or the group was comprised of United
States citizens.
Current Goals: Revolutionary Force Seven is presumed
to be inactive.
SAN JOAQUIN MILITIA
Aliases: San Joaquin County Militia
Base of Operation: United States
Founding Philosophy: The San Joaquin Militia was a
right-wing militant group that was active in California
during the late 1990s. Their primary goal was to incite
civil unrest and uprisings against the federal
government. They believed this could be accomplished
by causing a major disturbance that would force the
government to declare martial law. In 1999, the group
planned to detonate bombs at a Sacramento propane
storage facility in hopes to generate a governmental
response as well as capitalize on anticipated Y2K fears.
The attack was thwarted by the FBI through information
obtained from an informant. Officials stated that a
successful detonation of the two 12 million gallon tanks
would have likely killed thousands of people.
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Three militia members were indicted as a result of
investigations into the bombing plot. Kevin Ray
Patterson and Charles Dennis Kiles were both
convicted for conspiracy and sentenced to 21 years and
22 years in prison, respectively. Donald Rudolph, former
leader of the San Joaquin Militia, was convicted and
received a reduced sentence of five years after
cooperating with prosecutors to testify against
Patterson and Kiles.
Current Goals: No information is available regarding the
San Joaquin Militia after the convictions of Rudolph,
Patterson, and Kiles. Since the actual size of the group
was expected to be quite small, the militia most likely
disbanded after the arrests of their members.
Legal Cases
USA v. Donald Rudolph: 99-CR-8
USA v. Kevin Patterson et al: 99-CR-551
USA v. Kevin Patterson: 99-CR-552
Further Reference
"US Terror Group Plots Since 1995," United States
Action
"Terror From the Right," 01/01/2005, Southern Poverty
Law Center
"Would-Be Militia Bombers Sentenced," 09/25/2002,
Anti-Defamation League
"LNG Facilities in Urban Areas," Richard A. Clark,
01/01/2005, Good Harbor Consulting, LLC.
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SECRET ARMY ORGANIZATION
Base of Operation: United States
Founding Philosophy: The Secret Army Organization
(SAO), a right-wing militant group based in San Diego,
was active from 1969 to 1972. They targeted individuals
and groups who spoke out against the Vietnam War,
especially those who organized public demonstrations
and distributed anti-war literature. SAOs two leaders,
Howard B. Godfrey and Jerry Lynn Davis, were former
members of the Minutemen, a 1960s militant group.
SAO was most active in San Diego, with over thirty
members and four cells, but the actual organization
reportedly reached as far as the mid-west. No
information is available regarding the total size of the
group.
On April 19th, 1972, SAO member William Yakopec
smuggled a bomb into the Guild Theater in San Diego
and hid it in a ventilation shaft. The bomb detonated
shortly after he left, causing moderate damage, but no
injuries to theater patrons. Yakopecs motive for
attacking the Guild Theater remains unclear.
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In 1975, the ACLU submitted a report to the Senate
Intelligence Committee alleging that the SAO was
directed and funded by the FBI in order to suppress
anti-war sentiment and curb criticisms of the Nixon
White House. The report also stated that the SAO
planned to kidnap and murder protestors of the 1972
Republican National Convention, which was to be held
in San Diego before being relocated to Miami Beach. An
assassination attempt of Dr. Peter Bohmer, professor at
San Diego State University, and Paula Tharp, reporter
for the San Diego Street Journal, brought about the
arrests of several SAO members who later acknowledge
an FBI connection. During the investigation, the gun
used in the assassination attempt was found in the
home of FBI agent Steven Christiansen, who was
subsequently identified as a SAO contact. In 1973,
Godfrey, testifying as an FBI informant, claimed he
received up to $20,000 in weapons and a $250 per
month income from the FBI to recruit new SAO
members and provide information to agents. He also
testified to the criminal acts of several SAO operatives,
including fellow leader Jerry Lynn Davis. Official
statements from the FBI claimed no involvement with
the SAO, and no agents were prosecuted.
Current Goals: The SAO became inactive after the
assassination case drew much public attention to the
groups operations. The testimony of Godfrey against
SAO members resulted in prison terms for a significant
portion of the San Diego group. Of course, if the SAO
was actually FBI-run, the notoriety drawn to the case
would have been the impetus to dissolve the group.
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Further Reference
"Cointelpro: The Untold American Story," Paul Wolf,
01/01/2001
"The Republican Convention Disaster," David Helvarg,
04/26/2000
"The Use of Informants in FBI Domestic Intelligence
Operations," Select Committee to Study Governmental
Operations, 04/23/1976
"Information Bank Abstracts," Everett R. Holles,
06/27/1975, The New York Times
SECRET ORGANIZATION ZERO
Aliases: Group Zero, Zero
Base of Operation: United States
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Founding Philosophy: Secret Organization Zero is the
organization involved in the assassinations of Jose
Elias de Torriente, Ricardo Morales Navarrete, and
Rolando Mansferrer. The group would place dark sheets
of paper with their victims initials and a symbol of a
zero on the scene of the assassination. Secret
Organization Zero dedicated itself to the liberation of
Cuba from Fidel Castros rule and appeared to be
focused on killing the leaders of rival anti-Castro
groups. The group is highly secretive and its existence
was fleeting as it is likely a temporary name employed
by a faction of the Cuban mafia for the purposes of
carrying out its assassinations.
However, what little evidence there is indicates that
the man behind Secret Organization Zero was Orlando
Bosch, an infamous Cuban terrorist who fought to bring
down Fidel Castro. Navarrete was an informant who
testified against Bosch. Torriente was the head of a
rival group, the National Front for the Liberation of Cuba
(FLNC) and a letter released after his death accused
him of being insufficiently dedicated to bringing down
Fidel Castro. Mansferrer was similarly believed to be a
detriment to the anti-Castro cause as he was at the
head of 30th of November, an anti-Castro organization
that was quickly proving ineffective. All of these facts
increase the plausibility of the claim that Bosch, a rabid
anti-Castro militarist, was attempting to consolidate
control over anti-Castro forces in Miami. The F.B.I.,
although it did not reach any conclusions, viewed
Guillermo Novo as the prime suspect in the murder of
Mansferrer. Novo was a close associate of Bosch.
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Current Goals: Secret Organization Zero is no longer
active.
Further Reference
"Little Havana's Reign of Terror," Dick Russell,
10/29/1976, New Times
SHERIFFS POSSE COMITATUS
Base of Operation: United States
Founding Philosophy: The Posse Comitatus movement
was founded in the late 1960s. Some experts credit
Henry L. Beach of Portland, Oregon as the group's
founder. Beach was a member of William Dudley
Pelley's Silver Shirts, a group modeled on the Black
Shirts and Brown Shirts of fascist Europe. Some
experts, however, believe that William Gale, a Christian
Identity minister, is the true founder of the Posse
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Comitatus movement. Gale's influential writings helped
to spread Posse ideology across the Midwest.
The Posse Comitatus is a loose association of people
who share the same beliefs, a blend of Christian
Identity, tax protest, Sovereign Citizen ideology, and
common law activism. Posse Comitatus followers
believe that the sheriff is the highest legitimate
government authority, and that the federal government
has no rightful power over American citizens. Therefore,
the posse argues, judges, the I.R.S., and the F.B.I. are
constantly violating the rights of Americans
everywhere. The sheriff (according to Posse adherents)
can form a posse of citizens to enforce the law, and if
he fails to do so, then the citizenry may forcibly replace
him.
The Posse hates non-whites as much as it hates the
government. Racism provides a convenient explanation
for the federal government's alleged abuses of power.
Posse members believe, for example, that the Federal
Reserve is an illegal "private monopoly" that prints
money unconstitutionally, and that it does so because it
is controlled by the international Zionist conspiracy.
(Ridgeway, 129) Posse followers are generally Christian
Identity followers as well. "Yahweh our father is at
work setting the stage for the final act against the
Christ-murdering Jews and their father, Satan," Posse
leader James Wickstrom once said. (ibid, 131) Klan
leader and presidential candidate David Duke said, "We
[the Ku Klux Klan] work with Posses wherever we can."
(ibid, 135)
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Current Goals: Posse members were actively engaged
in a variety of criminal activities during the 70s and 80s.
Thomas Stockheimer, chairman of the Wisconsin Posse,
was convicted of assaulting an I.R.S. agent in 1974.
Since that date, numerous Posse members have been
convicted of tax evasion, weapons possession, and
trying to pass counterfeit bills. Posse members forcibly
prevented the confiscation of farms whose owners had
defaulted on their debts and issued "indictments"
against judges who they claimed had violated their
rights by forcing them to follow federal laws. In 1983,
police killed Posse leader Gordon Kahl in a shootout
after Kahl had evaded police custody for several
months. Kahl is a martyred hero in the eyes of Posse
movement and the extremist right as a whole.
For over a decade, the Posse Comitatus movement was
extremely strong. In 1975, the FBI opened an
investigation of the group after a Posse member
threatened the life of Nelson Rockefeller. They
estimated the group's membership at between 12 and
15 thousand, with ten times that number of
sympathizers. Posse leader James Wickstrom ran for
Wisconsin state senate in 1980 and received 16,000
votes. In the early 1980s, some experts estimated that
one third of the sheriffs departments in Kansas and
Nebraska were sympathetic to the Posse.
In the late 1980s, the popularity of the Posse ideology
declined dramatically. Posse leader James Wickstrom
attempted to bring the Posse back to life in the 1990s,
although he emphasized the racist aspects of the
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Posse's ideology to the near-exclusion of the rest of the
group's principles.
Legal Cases
USA v. Harry L. Mott et al: 6-CR-84-125
USA v. Wilhelm Ernst Schmitt et al: 6-CR-84-124
Further Reference
Religion and the racist right : the origins of the
Christian Identity movement / Michael Barkun.,
Michael Barkun, c1997., University of North Carolina
Press, (Chapel Hill)
Blood in the face : the Ku Klux Klan, Aryan Nations,
Nazi skinheads and the rise of a new white culture / by
James Ridgeway., James Ridgeway, c1995., Thunder's
Mouth Press, (New York )
The terrorist next door : the militia movement and the
radical right / Daniel Levitas., Daniel Levitas, 2002.,
SOUTHEAST STATES ALLIANCE
Base of Operation: United States
Founding Philosophy: The Southeast States Alliance
(SSA) was an umbrella organization that formed in 1997
to unite several militias in Florida, Georgia, South
Carolina, Alabama, and other southern states. Their
goal was to create social and political chaos in order to
force the U.S. Government to declare martial law. Once
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this was achieved, the SSA believed it would be
possible to incite a popular uprising to overthrow the
federal government.
Little is known of the SSAs structure other than the
fact that it was led by Donald Beauregard, former leader
of the Florida-based 77th Regiment Militia. From 1997 to
1999, Beauregard sought to attack government offices
and infrastructure located in the southeast. His most
elaborate plan involved breaking into a National Guard
armory in order to steal explosives that could later be
used to destroy electrical towers in the Atlanta area as
well as the Clearwater nuclear power plant near Tampa.
The attack was never carried out however, due to close
monitoring by an undercover Florida police officer who
had infiltrated the group. Beauregard was eventually
arrested and charged with multiple counts of
conspiracy to commit an offense against the United
States. In 2000, he pleaded guilty to lesser counts of
conspiracy and was sentenced to five years in prison.
Current Goals: The SSA is now inactive. During the brief
period of their organization, they were not responsible
for any violent acts. Beauregards arrest, along with
nationwide investigations of militant groups following
the Atlanta Olympics and Oklahoma City bombings,
most likely influenced the vast majority of SSA
members to leave the group.
Legal Cases
USA v. Donald Beauregard: 99-CR-410
Further Reference
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"Intelligence Report," 07/28/2000, Southern Poverty
Law Center
"Plan to Steal Weapons, Attack Infrastructure, and Kill
Law Enforcement Officers," 01/01/1999, FBI, Terrorism
in the United States, 1999
"Florida Militia Leader Sentenced," Pat Leisner,
07/28/2000, Associated Press
"Accused militia leader indicted on conspiracy,
terrorist and firearms charges," 12/08/1999, St.
Petersburg Times
"Hickory Farms manager led double life, authorities
say," Leanora Minai, 12/10/1999, St. Petersburg Times
SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA IRA
Base of Operation: United States
Founding Philosophy: On January 28, 1994, a group
calling themselves the Southern California IRA
claimed responsibility for placing three grenades
outside British-owned businesses in San Diego,
California. The grenades did not explode and were later
determined to be unarmed "practice grenades". Each
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grenade contained a note which apparently decried the
longstanding US policy of denying US travel visas to
Sinn Fein (the IRAs political wing) President Gerry
Adams.
Oddly enough, the US was on the verge of approving a
visit by Adams at the time of the grenade hoax. In fact,
the incident threw a wrench in Adams plans, and he
was required to apologize and condemn the attack
before he was eventually granted his visa.
Given that the IRA has had no past history of violent
action in the US, and that the attack had the exact
opposite effect of its supposed intention, some
speculate that the Southern California IRA never
existed and was simply a British plot. This has never
been proven to be the case, although the British
government did strongly oppose the granting of a visa
to Adams. In any case, all US officials involved with the
incident were issued a gag order, and the true identity
of the Southern California IRA remains unknown.
Current Goals: The Southern California IRA is inactive.
Further Reference
"Bomb Scares Baffle in San Diego," Brian Rohan,
02/15/1994, Irish Voice
"Clinton Approves Visa For IRA Chief," Barry Schweid,
01/31/1994, AP
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STOP HUNTINGDON ANIMAL CRUELTY (SHAC)
Base of Operation: Germany; Italy; Netherlands; United
Kingdom; United States
Founding Philosophy: Stop Huntingdon Animal Cruelty
(SHAC) is an animal-rights group that came into formal
existence in late 1999 in response to a documentary
televised in the United Kingdom in 1998. In the
program, workers at Huntingdon Life Sciences (HLS), a
pharmaceutical and chemical research firm in England,
were filmed abusing and mistreating animals.
Immediately following the airing of the documentary,
HLS acknowledged that mistakes were made, and fired
several employees in an attempt to rectify the
problems. However, many animal rights activists felt
that HLS actions were inexcusable. This resulted in the
formation of SHAC by British activists Greg Avery,
Heather James, and Natasha Dellemagne. The groups
goal is to shut down all HLS offices. In 2002, the
company moved its headquarters to New Jersey,
although it still retains its offices in England. SHAC
anticipated the move to the United States, and the
group set up offices inside the U.S. to continue its
activities, with American Kevin Kjonaas as its leader.
Through its website, SHAC encourages activists to
contact local activists in their area and contribute to
protests through demonstrations, phone calls, and
emails to HLS and other current targets. SHAC has
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identified these other targets as customers, suppliers,
and financial supporters of HLS. While the groups
website explicitly states that SHAC does not
encourage or incite illegal activity, its supporters
have harassed employees of HLS, and companies
associated with HLS, through letters and
demonstrations, sometimes threatening to assassinate
and emplace bombs at businesses and the homes of
targeted employees. In February 2001, HLS Managing
Director Brian Cass was attacked outside of his home in
England by three men wielding pickaxe handles. The
attack left Cass with a three-inch head wound. When a
neighbor sought to intervene in the attack, he was
sprayed with CS gas, a common riot control agent used
by police. One of the attackers, David Blenkinsop, was
later arrested and jailed for three years beginning in
late 2001.
Because of its common cause, SHAC is believed to have
connections with the Animal Liberation Front (ALF) and
the Revolutionary Cells Animal Liberation Brigade.
SHACs website in the past has praised attacks on
businesses with links to HLS. In July 2002, SHAC
activists targeted Marsh Inc., an insurance firm who
conducted business with HLS. Smoke bombs were
emplaced in two of the firms offices in high rise
buildings in Seattle, causing workers to evacuate.
Marsh Inc. later ended its association with HLS
because of these attacks.
Current Goals: SHAC remains committed to its cause of
closing HLS indefinitely. In the past, the SHAC has been
able to obtain personal information about HLS
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employees, as well as employees from companies
associated with HLS. This information, which includes
home addresses, license plate numbers, and social
security numbers, has been posted on SHAC websites
to encourage activists to conduct protests outside
residences and send mail to the targets.
However, in early March 2006, SHAC USA and six of its
members were convicted of terrorism and Internet
stalking by a federal jury in New Jersey. Among the
members convicted was the groups president, Kjonaas
(sentenced to six years), and director, Lauren Gazzola
(sentenced to four years and three months). The group
began their sentences in November 2006. SHACs new
president, Pam Ferdin, acknowledged that the
convictions would likely dissolve the U.S.-based wing,
but she claimed that the broader animal rights
campaign would continue. As a result, SHAC is likely to
be a minimal threat in the U.S. but remain a moderate
threat in the U.K.
Further Reference
"Animal Passions," Maryann Bird, 12/07/2003, Time
Magazine
"Three Violent Activists Jailed," BBC News, 03/06/2007
"Jail for Lab Boss Attacker," BBC News, 08/16/2001
"Six Animal Rights Advocates Are Convicted of
Terrorism," David Kocieniewski, Nate Schweber,
03/03/2006, New York Times
"Animal Welfare Thugs Funded Via US Charity," Daniel
Foggo, 12/01/2001, The Telegraph
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STOP HUNTINGDON ANIMAL CRUELTY (SHAC)
"Animal Passions," Maryann Bird, Time Magazine
"Three Violent Activists Jailed," BBC News
"Jail for Lab Boss Attacker," BBC News
"Six Animal Rights Advocates Are Convicted of
Terrorism," David Kocieniewski, Nate Schweber, New
York Times
"Animal Welfare Thugs Funded Via US Charity," Daniel
Foggo, The Telegraph
"Ecoterrorism: Extremism in the Animal Rights and
Environmentalist Movements," Anti-Defamation League
"Indictment of Members of SHAC," United States
Department of Justice
"Militant Animal Rights Group, Six Members Convicted
in Campaign to Terrorize Company, Employees and
Others," United States Attorney's Office, District of New
Jersey, United States Department of Justice
ORDER THE
Aliases: Bruders Schweiden, The Silent Brotherhood,
White American Bastion
Base of Operation: United States
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Founding Philosophy: The Order was a faction of Aryan
Nations active between 1982 and 1984. They were
perhaps the most successful criminal organization ever
to emerge from the American white supremacist
movement, and they continue to be idolized by the
racist community today.
The Order was founded by Bob Matthews, a former
member of the John Birch Society and a leading
member of National Alliance, a white supremacist group
founded by William Pierce. Pierce, a physics professor
and former publicist for the American Nazi Party, is best
known as the author of The Turner Diaries. The Turner
Diaries is a fantasy about right-wing white supremacist
revolution spearheaded by a group called "The Order."
The book is extremely popular among the extremist
right: Timothy McVeigh had a copy with him when he
was arrested. Bob Matthews found The Turner Diaries
inspiring. In 1982 Matthews suggested to his friend
Bruce Pierce, whom he met through the Christian
Identity group Aryan Nations, that they form a group
modeled on "The Order." Bruce Pierce later testified
that Matthews "hoped for a natural disaster, economic
failure of the U.S. government, a major race war, or
anything that would disrupt society in America so that
he would be able to gather up his army of men and
strike against the system, that being the U.S.
government. Bob Matthews's intent was to destroy
those instruments standing in the way of Aryans having
a homeland for the white race." (Ridgeway 109-111)
The Order tried at first to fund the revolution legally.
The group bid on and won a trail-clearing contract, but
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found the work frustrating and difficult, and soon turned
to robbery. Their first crime was the April 1983 robbery
of a Spokane porn shop, from which they netted $369.
The Order began to print counterfeit money at the Aryan
Nations compound, but Pierce was arrested when he
tried to use the bills. Their counterfeiting operation
soon, however, grew more sophisticated and profitable,
as did their robberies. In December of 1983 Matthews
robbed a Seattle Citibank with a note, and walked out
with $29,500. The group began attacking armored cars
in March of 1984. Their most successful operation was
the robbery of a Brinks armored car carrying $3.6
million. A Brinks employee sympathetic to The Order
gave the group information about the car's route, and
twelve Order members ambushed the car in a California
redwood forest on July 19, 1984. The group spent some
of the money (on weapons, military training, and a ski
condo, among other things) and distributed the rest of it
to other militant white groups.
The Order's crimes were not limited to larceny. Bruce
Pierce bombed a Boise synagogue, although he did little
damage. Order member Walter West was murdered
when Bob Matthews began to suspect him of talking
about the group to outsiders. In June of 1984, David
Lane and Bruce Pierce gunned down Jewish radio host
Alan Berg outside his home in Denver. Berg had argued
with Order members who phoned in to his talk show,
and by all accounts (including, apparently, the vengeful
Order members themselves) had gotten the better of
them.
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Current Goals: The police got the break they needed
when Robert Matthews dropped his pistol during a
robbery. The police traced the gun, which led them to
Order member Tom Martinez, who agreed to work as an
undercover informant. With Martinez's help, the police
arrested 24 order members. Thirteen of the suspects
pled guilty and testified at trial. The Order members
who did stand trial were convicted of racketeering and
in some cases, murder charges, and they received
sentences ranging from 40 years to life in prison. Robert
Matthews was not a participant in the trial, however.
Matthews was killed in a shootout with police in
December of 1984.
Several members of The Order, including Richard
Scutari, Bruce Pierce, David Lane, and Ardie McBrearty,
were defendents in the 1988 trial of 13 white
supremacist leaders who were charged with plotting to
overthrow the government. All 13 defendents were
acquitted.
Legal Cases
USA v. Bruce Carroll Pierce et al: 85-CR-001M
USA v. Bruce Carroll Pierce et al: 85-CR-476
USA v. David Lane et al : 87-CR-114
USA v. Frank Scutari: 85-CR-0291
USA v. Mark Frank Jones et al: 85-CR-0010W
USA v. Mark Frank Jones: 85-CR-HM-00080-S
USA v. Richard Joseph Scutari: 86-CR-116M
USA v. Robert Edward Miles et al: 87-CR-20008
USA v. Ronald A. King et al: 85-CE-0102
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Further Reference
"13 White Supremacists Acquitted," 9/9/1988, Facts on
File World News Digest, (New York)
Mein Kampf / Adolf Hitler; translated by Ralph
Manheim., Adolf Hitler, 1999., Houghton Mifflin,
(Boston )
Religion and the racist right : the origins of the
Christian Identity movement / Michael Barkun.,
Michael Barkun, c1997., University of North Carolina
Press, (Chapel Hill)
Blood in the face : the Ku Klux Klan, Aryan Nations,
Nazi skinheads and the rise of a new white culture / by
James Ridgeway., James Ridgeway, c1995., Thunder's
Mouth Press, (New York )
In God's country : the patriot movement and the
Pacific Northwest / David A. Neiwert., David A.
Neiwert, c1999., Washington State University Press,
(Pullman, Wash. )
UNITED FREEDOM FRONT (UFF)
Aliases: Armed Resistance Unit, Guerrilla Resistance
Movement , Revolutionary Fighting Group, Sam
Melville/Jonathan Jackson group
Base of Operation: United States
Founding Philosophy: The United Freedom Front (UFF)
was an American terrorist group responsible for a string
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of terrorist attacks, as well as purely criminal acts, in
the late 1970s and 1980s.
Originally named the Sam Melville/Jonathan Jackson
group, the UFF was founded in 1974 by two Vietnam
veterans, Raymond Luc Levasseur and Thomas
Manning. The two met in prison, where Levasseur was
serving a sentence for drug dealing, and Manning for
robbery. After their release, the two incorporated other
members in to the UFF, mostly family members and
close friends.
The UFF was a left-wing organization that strongly
opposed US foreign policy in Central America, as well
as South African apartheid. Self-defined as a
revolutionary group, members of the UFF saw
themselves as a fighting back against perceived
American imperialism.
From 1975 to 1984 the group committed several bank
robberies and bombing attacks in the northeastern
United States, including a November 1983 bombing of
the United States Capitol building, and a September
1984 bombing at the South African Consulate in New
York. In addition, the UFF attacked the offices of Union
Carbide (the chemical company responsible for the
Bhopal disaster) and several other corporate targets. In
all of the bombing attacks, callers from the UFF gave
warning, and casualties were avoided. However,
Manning and Richard Williams, another UFF member,
were responsible for the 1981 murder of a New Jersey
State Trooper, the groups lone inflicted casualty.
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On November 4th, 1984, FBI agents apprehended
Levasseur and his wife, Patricia Gros, near Deerfield,
Ohio. The remaining members of UFF were captured
shortly after. In March 1986, seven members of the UFF,
including Levasseur and Manning, were convicted on
conspiracy charges related to the bombings, and
sentenced to lengthy jail terms. Levasseur was
released from prison in November, 2004, but other
members, such as Manning and Williams, remain in
prison.
Current Goals: The United Freedom Front has not been
responsible for a terrorist incident since 1984, and
despite the release of its leader, Raymond Luc
Levasseur, the group will most likely remain inactive.
Legal Cases
USA v. Patricia Gros: 84-CR-0222
USA v. Raymond Luc Levasseur et al: 86-CR-180
Further Reference
"Group Hit Other Targets, FBI Believes," Ronald
Kessler, 11/09/1983, Washington Post
"Case-Study of US Domestic Terrorism: United
Freedom Front," Phillip Jenkins
"After 13 Bombings, FBI Says Terrorists Remain a
Mystery," Rick Hampson, 09/27/1984, AP
UP THE IRS INC.
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Base of Operation: United States
Founding Philosophy: Up the IRS, Inc. was the name of
a group, founded by Dean Harvey Hicks in the mid
1980s, that was responsible for several terrorist
bombings against the Internal Revenue Service (IRS) in
California.
As Hicks was the groups sole member, Up the IRS, Inc.
was a way for him to anonymously claim responsibility
for his attacks, as well as to show his disapproval of
the IRS. Hicks violence was in response to an Internal
Revenue Service (IRS) 1981 audit in which he was fined
$8,500 in back taxes. In addition, Hicks apparently had
become incensed after an IRS employee years earlier
had been rude to him over the telephone and had
''laughed'' at him. During the time of the bombings,
Hicks behavior had described by his neighbors as
erratic and he had allegedly threatened to shoot both
a census taker and meter reader on separate
occasions. All utility meters were moved outside his
barbed wire-topped fence after the incident.
From March 1986 to 1991, in six separate incidents --
including two initial strikes targeting the Chet Holifield
Federal Building in Laguna Niguel -- Hicks fired
homemade mortar rounds at buildings housing IRS
offices or tied pipe bombs to nearby power poles. In one
case, Hicks exploded a car bomb in an underground
garage of the IRS facility in Los Angeles. Around
February 22, 1990, Hicks parked a truck, loaded with
approximately 2,000 pounds of explosives composed of
Ammonium Nitrate fuel oil, outside a building housing
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IRS offices. Timers launched homemade mortars from
the vehicle, igniting it. Firefighters were able to
extinguish the fire before the fuel exploded. Hicks had
attacked this building on two previous occasions.
These attacks were designed to terrorize IRS
employees in retribution and became increasingly
violent and sophisticated. In addition, the majority of
the attacks either took place on or the explosive
devices were placed on Mondays, indicating that
maximum harm was intended. Despite this, no personal
injuries occurred as a result of the bombings, and only
material damage was reported. Hicks claimed
responsibility through a note, signed by Up the IRS, Inc.
to the editor of the Fresno Bee, a local newspaper, for
the April 1, 1991 bombing. He was arrested on July
11,1991 at his residence in Costa Mesa, California. No
known relationship between Up the IRS, Inc. and other
terrorist or political groups exists.
Current Goals: Hicks is currently serving twenty years
in prison for the bombings conducted by Up the IRS,
Inc. after confessing to all bomb attacks during his
August 1991 trial. As its founder and sole member is
currently incapacitated, no further violence is expected
from Up the IRS, Inc in the future.
Legal Cases
USA v. Dean Hicks: 91-CR-652-LEW
USA v. Dean Hicks: 91-CR-842-LEW
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Further Reference
"Pre-Incident Indicators of Terrorist Incidents: The
Identification of Behavorial, Georgraphical, and
Temporal Patterns of Preparatory Conduct," National
Criminal Justice Reference Service, 01/01/2006
"Engineer Pleads Guilty to Bombing IRS Office," Linda
Deutsch, 08/14/1991, The Associated Press
"USA v. Hicks, Criminal Complaint 91-1221M,"
07/10/1991, United States District Court
WASHINGTON STATE MILITIA
Base of Operation: United States
Founding Philosophy: The Washington State Militia was
a right-wing militant group active in the U.S. during the
1990s. They were believed to have chapters throughout
the state of Washington, with their largest
concentration in Yakima. Estimates of their size were
well into the hundreds. The leader of the Washington
State Militia was John Pitner, a self-styled patriot that
many considered too consumed with paranoia and
intellectually unfit to lead the group in any serious
campaigns. Their founding philosophy, like most U.S.
based militias during that time, was that responsible
citizens need to take up arms against and protect
themselves from a government that is ineffective and
harmful to society. The deep-seeded distrust for
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government also fueled ideas of conspiracy theories
that gave groups like the Washington State Militia a
further sense of legitimacy.
On July 27, 1996, the FBI and Bellingham, Washington
Police arrested Pitner and seven other suspected
members for possession of pipe bombs and other
explosives. In later testimony, Washington State Militia
members stated they, along with members of another
Washington-based militant group called the Freemen,
planned to bomb various targets, including a radio
tower, a bridge, and a train tunnel while a train was
inside. Stockpiles of weapons were allegedly stashed in
mountain hideouts. During the arrests, authorities
seized two fully automatic machine guns the suspects
had made in expectation of a showdown with law
enforcement authorities. All those arrested were
charged with conspiracy to possess and manufacture
illegal firearms and destructive devices.
In 1997, the eight arrested Washington State Militia
members were convicted on various counts of weapons
possession and transfer and assaulting federal officers.
Sentences ranged from probation to four years in
prison, with fines up to $6,000.
Current Goals: The Washington State Militia is currently
inactive. Concerns over militia involvement in the 1995
Oklahoma City and 1996 Atlanta Olympics bombings led
to a nation-wide effort by law enforcement to limit the
threat of right-wing militant groups. The investigation
and prosecution of groups like the Washington State
Militia successfully dismantled the leadership and
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influence of many militias. Most remaining members
chose to renounce their affiliation in lieu of facing strict
legal penalties and conflict with federal law
enforcement
Legal Cases
USA v. John Irvin Pitner et al: 96-CR-500-JCC
Further Reference
Lone Patriot: The Short Career of An American
Militiaman, Jane Kramer, 06/04/2002, Pantheon
"Washington State Militia," Andrew White, 04/24/1997,
Pioneer Newspaper
"The Militia Movement," Law Enforcement Agency
Resource Network, 01/01/2005, Anti-Defamation
League
"11 Guilty In Militia Trial -- Conspiracy Counts End In
Mistrial," Charles E. Brown, 02/28/1997, The Seattle
Times
"Terrorism in the United States 1996,"
Counterterrorism Threat Assessment and Warning
Unit, 01/01/1996, MIPT
WEATHER UNDERGROUND ORGANIZATION (WUO) /
WEATHERMEN
Aliases: Action Faction
Base of Operation: United States
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Founding Philosophy: The Weathermen grew out of the
anti-Vietnam War movement in the late 1960s. The first
mention of the Weathermen occurred in the June 1969
issue of the Students for a Democratic Society (SDS)
newsletter. SDS was a student-run organization that
was committed to protesting the Vietnam War. The
SDS, however, had not utilized violent means to protest
the war. In addition, SDS expressly identified
themselves as non-communists. In the June 1969 SDS
newsletter, a group calling itself the Action Faction
published an essay detailing their ideological beliefs.
The essay ended with a quote from Bob Dylan, You
dont need a weatherman to know which way the wind
blows. The quote would give rise to the term
Weathermen, which would be assigned to followers of
the June 1969 ideological essay. At the 1969 SDS
National Convention (Chicago, June 18-22), the Action
Front/Weathermen took control of SDS, effectively
ending the SDSs existence as a student protest group.
Within months of the Weathermens formation, the
group began planning its terrorist activities. In October
1969, the Weathermen orchestrated the Days of Rage
or national Action. During the Days of Rage,
Weathermen rioted in the streets, destroying public
property, and detonating an explosive at the Haymarket
police statue. In December 1969, Weathermen bombed
police vehicles to protest the murders of two Black
Panther leaders.
In late December 1969, the Weathermen hold a meeting
in Flint, Michigan, where the group decides to go
underground and thereafter commit clandestine
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terrorist attacks within the United States. At this point,
the group changes their name to the Weather
Underground Organization (WUO). While attempting to
build explosives, a WUO cell blew up themselves and
their Greenwich Village townhouse in March 1970. Later
that same month, a WUO cell is discovered in Chicago
along with a cache of weapons. The Chicago bust
severely curtailed WUOs operational capabilities in
Chicago. In another notable criminal act, WUOP
members assisted in the prison break-out of Timothy
Leary on September 12, 1970. By this time, WUO had
moved beyond amorphous leftist beliefs and was now
supporting communist goals. Several members of the
group had traveled to Cuba, where they allegedly met
with representatives of the communist governments of
Cuba and North Vietnam. In addition, WUO member
Linda Sue Evans had traveled to North Vietnam in
August 1969.
When the WUO went underground, a group called the
Prairie Fire Organizing Committee (PFOC) operated in
conjunction with WUO, but remained in the U.S. society.
Tensions between PFOC and WUO, as well as the
inherent isolation associated with the underground
status of WUO would eventually lead to the groups self-
implosion in 1977.
Current Goals: The Weather Underground Organization
(WUO)/Weathermen is no longer active.
Further Reference
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"Weather Underground Organization (Weatherman)
Profile," Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI)
The Weather Underground [Documentary], Sam Green,
Free History Project
WHITE ORDER OF THULE
Base of Operation: United States
Founding Philosophy: The White Order of the Thule is a
terrorist organization operating in the United States
that derives its name from the ancient Greek word
Thule, which represents the place of origin of the Aryan
race. The group is believed to have been founded in the
1990s by Nathan Pett and headquartered in Deer Park,
Washington. Nathan Pett worked at a tattoo parlor in
Spokane, Washington and denied the groups existence.
The White Order gained notable popularity among white
supremacists in prisons throughout the United States.
Members of the White Order believed in the superiority
of the Aryan race as represented by Norse, Viking and
other ancient Nordic cultures and sought to establish
an all-white nation in North America. Unlike other white
supremacy groups in the United States, the White Order
of the Thule rejected the Christian Identity theology and
instead practiced a pagan religion known as racist
Odinism, named after the Norse god Odin. Odinism,
when practiced by white supremacists, rejects what
they see as Jewish-influenced Christianity and instead
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focuses on the embrace of an indigenous faith rooted
in pre-Christian Anglo-Saxon warrior cultures and the
oneness of the Aryan race with nature. Members are
required to study the works of German philosopher
Friedrich Nietzsche, Adolf Hitler and other radical
authors. Two publications were produced by the White
Order of Thule, Crossing the Abyss and Fenris Wolf.
Members of the organization, especially Nathan Pett,
were said to idolize Bob Mathews, a slain leader of the
Order, a faction of Aryan Nations. However, there is no
known relationship between the two organizations.
As an organization, White Order of Thule never carried
out any terrorist attacks. However, one of its most
publicized members, Leo Felton, and his accomplice
Erica Grace, are currently serving prison sentences for
plotting to ignite a racial war by bombing Jewish and
black landmarks in Boston, Massachusetts. The
couples plot was uncovered after they were arrested
on April 19, 2001 by an off-duty police officer after
attempting to pay with a counterfeit $20 bill at a Boston
Dunkin Donuts. Felton was sentenced to 22 years in
prison and Grace, 5 years.
Current Goals: After an alleged betrayal by a White
Order member, the group announced in the Summer
2000 issue of Crossing the Abyss that it was disbanding
and would cease publication of the magazine. Members
were encouraged to write for Fenris Wolf, published
independently by White Order members in the
Northwest. However, Fenris Wolf has since ceased
publication as well.
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In 2001, Nathan Pett was beaten after an apparent road
rage incident and suffered severe head injuries. It has
been reported that he has left the neo-Nazi movement.
To that end, White Order of Thule is considered to be a
defunct organization within the neo-Nazi community,
although former members have been active on the
internet to some extent. In total, the group is inactive,
although there is a great deal of admiration for the
group amongst current neo-Nazis, leaving the door open
for a possible resumption of the groups activities in the
future.
Legal Cases
USA v. Erica Chase et al: 01-CR-10198
USA v. Seif, Malek Mohamed: 01-CR-977
Further Reference
"Ex-Aryan Nations member in prison; Man who once
ran Spokane tattoo parlor to serve eight years on
weapons charge ," Spokesman Review (Spokane, WA),
10/24/2001
"The Black Supremacist," Paul Tough, 05/25/2003, The
New York Times
"Racist Pagans Identified," Bill Morlin, Spokane
Spokesman-Review, 03/12/2000, The Rick Ross
Institute for the Study of Destructive Cults,
Controvesial Groups and Movements
""White Order of Thule"," Anti-Defamation League
"Hate Thy Neighbor," Gretchen Voss, 01/01/2002,
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Boston Magazine
WHITE PATRIOT PARTY (WPP)
Base of Operation: United States
Founding Philosophy: The White Patriot Party (WPP) was
a paramilitary, Christian Identity faction of the Ku Klux
Klan founded by Glenn Miller in 1980. WPP was
extremely racist: they supported apartheid, and set up
hotlines featuring telephone recordings of a black man
being lynched. WPP won considerable support in North
Carolina by blaming the bad economic climate for
farmers on international Jewish bankers. Some
estimates put the WPP's peak membership at 3000.
Miller's goal was "southern independence. The creation
of an all-white nation within the one million square
miles of mother Dixie. We have no hope for Jew York
City or San Fran-sissy-co and other areas that are
dominated by Jews, perverts, and communists and non-
white minorities and rectum-loving queers." (Miller,
quoted in Ridgeway, 119)
The Order gave some of the $3.6 million they stole to
Miller and the WPP. Miller was subpoenaed to testify at
The Order trial because Order member Bruce Pierce
said that Miller received $300,000 from the Order. Miller
testified that he had received $200,000.
Current Goals: The White Patriot Party was shut down
by Morris Dees and the Southern Poverty Law Center
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(SPLC). Dees, an outspoken advocate for civil rights,
became a target of the Klan after a 1981 confrontation
with Louisiana grand dragon Louis Beam. Dees
persuaded a court to issue an injunction protecting
Vietnamese shrimpers who were being terrorized by the
Louisiana Klan. Beam was so enraged that he
challenged Dees to a duel. Dees was harassed by Beam
and his associates, including Miller, for the next several
years. Eventually the SPLC hacked into the WPP's
computer network and discovered evidence that the
group was planning to assassinate Dees. Based on this
evidence, a judge issued an injunction forbidding Miller
and the WPP from engaging in paramilitary activity.
Miller violated this injunction and was convicted of
threatening Dees. As part of a deal he struck with the
government, Miller testified at the 1988 trial of 13 white
supremacist leaders. He is now loathed as a traitor by
much of the extreme right.
Legal Cases
USA v. Frazier Glenn Miller: 87-CR-32-01-5
USA v. Robert Eugene Jackson et al: 87-CR-57-01-5
USA v. Stephen Samuel Miller et al: 87-CR-2-3
Further Reference
"Supremacist group sought money from Syria,"
3/11/1988, United Press International, (Washington,
DC)
Religion and the racist right : the origins of the
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Christian Identity movement / Michael Barkun.,
Michael Barkun, c1997., University of North Carolina
Press, (Chapel Hill)
Blood in the face : the Ku Klux Klan, Aryan Nations,
Nazi skinheads and the rise of a new white culture / by
James Ridgeway., James Ridgeway, c1995., Thunder's
Mouth Press, (New York )
WORLD UNITED FORMOSANS FOR INDEPENDENCE
Base of Operation: Japan; Taiwan; United States
Founding Philosophy: The World United Formosans for
Independence (WUFI), formed in 1970, seeks to
establish an independent and democratic Republic of
Taiwan. WUFI is primarily comprised of international
Taiwanese students, and are most active in the U.S.
and Japan. They believe that Taiwan should be granted
sovereignty from China as well as given access to
United Nations membership.
Even though there is evidence that WUFI is not a
terrorist organization, statements made by members
around the time of the groups inception alluded to their
considerations of using violence to achieve their goals.
In 1970, WUFIs president, T. Chai, stated that in order
to overthrow Taiwans government, the group will
chiefly employ diplomatic tactics, but is willing to
resort to violence.
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On April 24th, 1970, WUFI advocate and possible
member, (Peter) Huang Wen-hsiung, attempted to
assassinate the Republic of China Vice Premier Chiang
Ching-kuo in New York. Chiangs party, the Kuomintang
(KMT), favored eventual re-unification with Mainland
China, and thus was the main opposition of pro-
independence groups. Chiang was not injured in the
attempt, and Huang managed to flee the scene. In 1996,
he traveled back to Taiwan after 26 years in exile,
taking advantage of a statute of limitations on his
charge. Taiwan had since abandoned its authoritarian
system for a multi-party democracy. Upon returning,
pro-independence activists labeled Wen-Hsiung a hero,
allowing him to become chairman of the Taiwan Human
Rights Association and founder of the Human Rights
Advocacy Alliance.
Current Goals: The assassination attempt appears to be
the only incident that potentially links WUFI with
terrorist acts. The evidence suggests that WUFI has not
engaged in any subversive or terrorist activity since
1970, and the groups website specifically states their
peaceful intentions to further the independence of
Taiwan. WUFI remains an active, international
movement in drawing awareness to the issue of
Taiwanese sovereignty
Further Reference
"Information Bank Abstracts ," New York Times,
04/21/1970
"New York City / Formosa / Assassination Attempt,"
04/24/1970, Vanderbilt University
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"Taiwan's DPP Part II: The Opposition Develops and
Becomes a Party," Jerome F. Keating, 09/30/2004
"In Depth Taiwan: Political Violence," 03/19/2004, CBS
News
"From Russia to Taiwan: Remembering Chiang Ching
kuo,"
WORLD UNITED FORMOSANS FOR INDEPENDENCE
"Information Bank Abstracts ," New York Times
"New York City / Formosa / Assassination Attempt,"
Vanderbilt University
"Taiwan's DPP Part II: The Opposition Develops and
Becomes a Party," Jerome F. Keating
"In Depth Taiwan: Political Violence," CBS News
"From Russia to Taiwan: Remembering Chiang Ching
kuo,"
"World United Formasans for Independence,"
YANIKIAN COMMANDOS
Base of Operation: United States
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Founding Philosophy: The Yanikian Commandos were
an Armenian group named after Gourgen Yanikian, a
fellow Armenian who was convicted of murder and
sentenced to life in prison in 1973. The group sought to
attack Turkish targets in the U.S. in hopes to gain
Yanikians release from prison.
Yanikian, a U.S. citizen, was responsible for the
murders of Mehmet Baydar and Bahadir Demir, both
Turkish diplomats working in the U.S. On January 27th,
1973, Baydar and Demir agreed to meet with Yanikian
in Los Angeles for what was supposed to be a friendly
lunch. Upon arrival, however, Yanikian shot both
diplomats. Later that year, the 78 year old Yanikian was
convicted and sentenced to life in prison. He was later
paroled in 1984, but died shortly after his release.
Yanikians crime is attributed to the long-standing
Turkish-Armenian dispute regarding the extent of
genocidal motives by the Turks against Armenians
during World War I.
Gourgen Yanikian was viewed as a hero by Armenian
extremists, which resulted in several groups forming in
his honor. The Yanikian Commandos claimed an attack
on the Turkish Information Office in New York on
October 26th, 1973 when a smoke bomb was sent
through the mail along with a letter demanding
Yanikians release. The bomb however, was not
detonated and no damage occurred.
Current Goals: The failed 1973 attack was the only
mention of the Yanikian Commandos in the U.S. In 1975,
a group of the same name, along with the Armenian
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Secret Army for the Liberation of Armenia (ASALA),
claimed a bombing of the Turkish Information and
Travel Bureau in Beirut. However, since ASALAs base
of operation was Lebanon, they were most likely
responsible for the planning and operation of the
attack. With the release and subsequent death of
Gourgen Yanikian, the Yanikian Commandos disbanded.
Former members choosing to remain active probably
joined one of several Armenian nationalist groups.
Further Reference
"Information Bank Abstracts," 07/03/1973, The New
York Times
"Armenian Atrocities and Terrorism," ATAA
"Turkish Diplomats Killed by Armenian Terrorists,"
Armenian Store, 01/01/2001
"Turkish Ordeal," 06/08/1984, The New York Times
YEMEN ISLAMIC JIHAD
Aliases: Islamic Jihad
Base of Operation: Afghanistan; Libya; United Kingdom;
United States; Yemen
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Founding Philosophy: Yemen Islamic Jihad is composed
of Yemenis, Egyptians, Algerians, Saudis and other
Afghan war veterans who followed Tariq al-Fasdli back
to Yemen after the war to help President Ali Abdullah
Saleh defeat the socialists of South Yemen in 1994. Al-
Fasdli and several other leaders immediately joined the
triumphant government, but the new government's
failure to incorporate the hundreds of Islamic Jihad
fighters into the Yemeni army left them to pursue their
militant Islamist aims. Nevertheless, the group enjoys
de facto support from political elites at many levels of
Yemen's government, enforcing their own brand of
Sharia in the South.
Yemen Islamic Jihad has also taken on foreign targets.
In 1992, U.S. troops headed for Somalia were targeted
in two hotel bombings during their stayover in Yemen
and in 1993 Egyptian authorities blamed Yemen Islamic
Jihad for an attempted assassination of the Egyptian
Prime Minister. The government of Yemen continued to
turn a blind eye until the attempted assassination of
Egypt's president Hosni Mubarak in 1995 by Yemeni-
based militants.
Tariq al-Fasdli met Osama bin Laden during his years in
Afghanistan and Yemen Islamic Jihad is closely
affiliated with, and substantially funded by, Al Qaeda. In
2000 the two groups, along with the Aden-Abyan
Islamic Army, were implicated in the bombing of the
USS Cole. The group is based in Yemen, but is believed
to have militant wings in Palestine, Afghanistan, the US
and the UK.
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Current Goals: The goals of Yemen Islamic Jihad
include the establishment of Sharia law in Yemen, the
support of the Palestinian struggle against Israel, an
end to western intervention in the Middle East
(including the removal of foreign military, commercial,
and civilian presences from Yemen, Saudi Arabia, and
elsewhere in the Middle East), and combat against the
`enemies' of Islam, namely, Israel, the United States,
and the West in general.
Further Reference
"Links to Osama bin Laden and Islamic Jihad," Anti-
Defamation League?s Terrorism Update, 01/01/1999,
Anti-Defamation League, Summer (Washington DC)
Dudley Knox Library, Naval Postgraduate School
Knights Under the Prophet's Banner, Ayman al-
Zawahiri, 01/01/2001, Al-Sharq Al-Awsat , (London)
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INTERNATIONAL TERRORIST SYMBOLS DATABASE
Symbols serve several purposes for terrorist groups.
Appearing on flags, communiqus, the Internet and as
graffiti, they announce a groups identity and purpose,
deepen its sense of unity, appeal to the like-minded and
frighten those to whom the group is opposed .
Each symbol is an arrangement of visual information
drawn from the culture in which the group operates.
The information has been arranged in order to convey,
in a dramatic manner, ideas about the groups founding,
ideology, aims and methods. It is important to bear in
mind that the elements in a symbol, taken by
themselves, often have no innate connection to
terrorism or political and religious radicalism.
Most of the Islamic group symbols include a Koran, for
instance. Depending on the symbol, the Muslim holy
book denotes one or more of the following similar,
though not identical ideas: that its teachings are the
reason for the groups existence; that group members
are especially pious; that the group views its actions as
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a religious duty; that the entire world should follow
Islam; that the Koran justifies killing and conquest.
The elements of a symbol provide telling details about
the group they represent. Flags and maps underscore
nationalist aspirations. A sword, unlike a rifle,
emphasizes historical Islam as well as violence. In
grasping these details, our understanding of these
groups becomes more vivid and specific.
Al Aksa
Martyrs
Brigade (1)
Al Aksa Martyrs
Brigade (2)
Al Qaeda
Organization
for Holy War
in Iraq
Democratic
Front for the
Liberation of
Palestine
Hamas (1) Hamas (2) Hamas (3) Hezbollah
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Islamic
Palestine
Block, An-
Najah
Students Cell
Kahane
Movement (1)
Kahane
Movement (2)
Kurdistan
Workers
Party (1)
Kurdistan
Workers Party
(2)
Lashkar-e-Taiba
Liberation
Tigers of
Tamil Eelam
(1)
Liberation
Tigers of
Tamil Eelam
(2)
Muslim
Brotherhood(1)
Muslim
Brotherhood(2)
Palestinian
Islamic Jihad
Palestinian
Liberation
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Front
Palestinian
National and
Islamic Forces
Popular Front
for the Liberation
of Palestine (1)
Popular Front
for the
Liberation
of Palestine
(2)
Popular Front
for the
Liberation of
Palestine -
General
Command (1)
Popular Front
for the
Liberation of
Palestine -
General
Command (2)
Salafist Group for
Call and Combat
(GSPC)
TERRORIST ORGANIATION SYMBOLS
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Description A picture of the Al Aksa Mosque is at
center. Beginning below the mosque two elongated
Palestinian flags wrap around the entire image. Above
the dome of the mosque two black rifles cross; a green
grenade is nestled between the tips of the rifles. A
Koranic inscription above the rifles says: "Fight them,
and Allah will punish them by your hands, cover them
with shame, help you (to victory) over them, heal the
breasts of Believers." At bottom, below the flags, the
Arabic says "Al Aksa Martyrs Brigades."
Explanation: The Al Aksa Mosque - the group's
namesake - symbolizes the organization's Palestinian
nationalism. The Koranic verse stresses an Islamic
influence as well as the group's commitment to armed
struggle - as do the black rifles and green grenade. The
elongated flags also reflect Palestinian nationalism.
Name Variations
Palestinian National Liberation Movement Al Aksa
Martyrs Brigades
Overview
The Al Aksa Martyrs Brigades was formed as the
military arm of Yasser Arafat's political party, Fatah,
shortly after the outbreak of the second intifada in
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September 2000. Financed in part by the Palestinian
Authority, it has conducted some of the conflict's
deadliest and most destructive attacks on Israeli
civilians, and was designated a foreign terrorist
organization by the U.S. in 2002. Like Fatah, it is a
secular organization whose ideology - although colored
by Islam - is centered on Palestinian nationalism.
Several of its leaders were killed or arrested during the
second intifada, but the organization remains a major
force. Its operation has become more decentralized,
with actions conducted by local cells throughout the
territories.
Focus of Operations
West Bank, Gaza, Israel
Major Attacks
January 5, 2003: Claimed responsibility for twin
suicide bombings in downtown Tel Aviv.23 killed,
100 injured.
March 9, 2002: Claimed responsibility for suicide
bombing in a Jerusalem caf. 11 killed, over 50
wounded.
January, 27 2002: Dispatched first female suicide
bomber, who detonated twenty pounds of
explosives in central Jerusalem, killing 1 and
injuring over 100.
Leaders
Marwan Barghouti (serving five consecutive life
terms in Israel for terrorist activity)
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Ideology
Secular Palestinian nationalism
Goals
Establishment of a Palestinian state through armed
uprising.
Methods
Suicide bombings, paramilitary operations against
civilian and military targets.
Sponsors
Iran, Hezbollah, the Palestinian Authority - although
since 2002 the PA has distanced itself from the
brigades.
U.S.-Related Activities
Designated by the U.S. as a Foreign Terrorist
Organization.
Description: A shield is superimposed across the Arabic
word "Fatah." On the shield, two fists clutch rifles; the
"arms" leading to the fists are represented by
Palestinian flags. Between and above the rifles is a
green map of Israel and the territories. Red script
across the map says "storm."
The word "Al Fatah" appears under a grenade at the
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bottom of the shield. On the black relief below the
shield Arabic script says "Palestinian National
Liberation Movement." Below that, black lettering
declares "revolution until victory."
Explanation: This busy emblem - which is also used by
the mainstream Fatah political party - emphasizes the
militancy of the Al Aksa Martyrs Brigades. The rifles,
fists, grenade and phrases like "revolution until victory"
reinforce the theme. The colors - black, green, red and
white - represent Palestinian nationalism, as do the
Palestinian flags.
Name Variations
Palestinian National Liberation Movement Al Aksa
Martyrs Brigades
Overview
The Al Aksa Martyrs Brigades was formed as the
military arm of Yasser Arafat's political party, Fatah,
shortly after the outbreak of the second intifada in
September 2000. Financed in part by the Palestinian
Authority, it has conducted some of the conflict's
deadliest and most destructive attacks on Israeli
civilians, and was designated a foreign terrorist
organization by the U.S. in 2002. Like Fatah, it is a
secular organization whose ideology - although colored
by Islam - is centered on Palestinian nationalism.
Several of its leaders were killed or arrested during the
second intifada, but the organization remains a major
force. Its operation has become more decentralized,
with actions conducted by local cells throughout the
territories.
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Focus of Operations
West Bank, Gaza, Israel
Major Attacks
January 5, 2003: Claimed responsibility for twin
suicide bombings in downtown Tel Aviv.23 killed,
100 injured.
March 9, 2002: Claimed responsibility for suicide
bombing in a Jerusalem caf. 11 killed, over 50
wounded.
January, 27 2002: Dispatched first female suicide
bomber, who detonated twenty pounds of
explosives in central Jerusalem, killing 1 and
injuring over 100.
Leaders
Marwan Barghouti (serving five consecutive life
terms in Israel for terrorist activity)
Ideology
Secular Palestinian nationalism
Goals
Establishment of a Palestinian state through armed
uprising.
Methods
Suicide bombings, paramilitary operations against
civilian and military targets.
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Sponsors
Iran, Hezbollah, the Palestinian Authority --although
since 2002 the PA has distanced itself from the
brigades.
U.S.-Related Activities
Designated by the U.S. as a Foreign Terrorist
Organization.
Al Qaeda Organization for Holy War in Iraq
(Jama'at al-Tawhid Wa al-Jihad)
Description: A gray globe is set against a black
background. An open Koran, facing up, is superimposed
on the globe; a rifle, fist (with index finger extended)
and black flag rise from the book. Yellow lettering at
bottom says "Monotheism and Jihad."
Explanation: A black background (in flags and symbols)
often represents the goal of restoring the Islamic
caliphate - a united Muslim empire. It also evokes death
and militancy. The globe evokes the organization's
worldwide ambitions, while the Koran signifies a
foundation in Islam. The rifle, fist and flag, symbols of
militancy, rise from that base. The lettering spells the
group's name ("Monotheism and Jihad" in English).
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Name Variations
Al Qaeda Organization for Holy War in Iraq (formerly
Jama'at al-Tawhid Wa al-Jihad)
Overview
Abu Musab al-Zarqawi and his followers are known for
their extreme brutality and spectacular attacks.
Zarqawi previously ran terrorist training camps in
Afghanistan and was a senior member of the Kurdish
terrorist group Ansar al-Islam. Immediately after the fall
of Saddam Hussein, he formed al-Tawhid Wa al-Jihad
with the immediate goal of ending the American
occupation of Iraq by killing American forces and their
Iraqi supporters.
The group has been responsible for some of the most
deadly terrorist attacks in Iraq, often targeting Iraqi
police recruits and government officials. It has targeted
Shiites in an attempt to destabilize relations between
Iraq's Sunni and Shiite populations, and it has also
beheaded foreigners, including American Nick Berg. In
October 2004, Zarqawi publicly allied himself with
Osama Bin Laden and renamed his organization the Al
Qaeda Organization for Holy War in Iraq. It is considered
the most dangerous terrorist organization in the
country, and Zarqawi's stature among Islamic terrorists
is now rivaled only by Bin Laden.
Focus of Operations
Iraq
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Major Attacks
February 28, 2005: Suicide car bombing in Hilla. At
least 122 killed and 147 wounded.
October 24, 2004: Ambush of Iraqi police recruits
at false checkpoint. 49 killed.
April/May 2004: Beheaded Nick Berg.
May 17, 2004: Suicide car bomb killed Governing
Council President Izzedin Salim.
Aug 19, 2003: Truck bombing at U.N. headquarters
in Baghdad. 22 killed, including Sergio Vieira de
Mello, U.N. High Commissioner for Human Rights.
Leaders
Abu Musab al-Zarqawi (in Iraq)
Ideology
Militant Islamic Fundamentalism
Goals
Ending the U.S. occupation of Iraq.
Restoring the Islamic caliphate.
Methods
Suicide bombing, car bombing, roadside bombing,
paramilitary operations against civilian and military
targets.
Sponsors
Osama Bin Laden, who designated Zarqawi Al Qaeda's
"emir," or leader, in Iraq.
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U.S.-Related Activities
Targets U.S. soldiers and civilians in Iraq.
Zarqawi provided funding for the assassination of
U.S. diplomat Laurence Foley in Amman, Jordan in
2002.
Designated by the U.S. as a Foreign Terrorist
Organization.
Democratic Front for the Liberation of Palestine
Description: A black map of Israel and the territories,
framed by two olive branches, is superimposed on a
five-pointed red star inside a black-bordered circle.
Arabic script running along the lower half of the circle
says "The Democratic Front for the Liberation of
Palestine."
Explanation: The five-pointed red star refers to the
group's Marxist-Leninism (the DFLP was supported by
both the Soviet Union and Cuba before the fall of
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Communism). The map within the star speaks to the
DFLP's intention to overthrow Israel through a
revolution of working class Palestinians. The olive
branches which frame the map represent victory.
Name Variations
The Democratic Front for the Liberation of Palestine
(DFLP)
Overview
Formed in 1969 by Naif Hawatmah as an offshoot of the
Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine, the DFLP
holds that Palestinian national goals can be achieved
only through a revolution of the lower classes. Unlike
most other Palestinian terrorist organizations, the DFLP
does not call for expulsion of Jews from the region; it
advocates instead the creation of a bi-national
democratic state west of the Jordan River. It has
carried out terrorist attacks against Israelis to achieve
this objective, however, including a siege on a school in
Maalot that killed 27 people, including 21
schoolchildren held as hostages. While critical of the
PLO's purported moderation, the DFLP largely refrained
from terrorist attacks during the 1990s; Hawatmah even
shook the hand of Israeli President Ezer Weizmann at
the funeral of Jordan's King Hussein in 1999. During the
second Intifada, however, the group resumed its
terrorist attacks against Israelis.
Focus of Operations
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West Bank, Gaza, Israel, Syria, Lebanon
Major Attacks
June 20, 2002: Attack on West Bank settlement of
Itamar: 5 killed, 4 wounded.
May 15, 1974: Attack on Israeli schoolhouse in
Maalot: 27 people killed, including 21 school
children, 134 injured.
Leaders
Ibrahim Abu Hijleh (arrested by Israel in 2002)
Naif Hawatmah (in Amman)
Ideology
Formerly Communism, but primarily secular and
nationalist since the fall of the Soviet Union.
Methods
Paramilitary operations, border raids against civilian
and military targets.
Goals
Creation of a Palestinian state by popular uprising.
Sponsors
Syria
U.S.-Related Activities
None known
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Salafist Group for Call and Combat GSPC)
Description: This oval-shaped symbol is centered
around an open Koran. The writing on the Koran says,
"The command rests with none but Allah." The Koran
appears to stand on a gray brick wall; the sky is
turquoise above the wall and the sun (with seven rays)
peers over the Koran. A white path below the Koran
bears script that reads, "Al Sunna" (the teachings of
Muhammad).
A sword and an AK-47 rifle bracket the Koran. A
billowing green flag attached to the rifle - framing the
sun and the Koran - is inscribed with the Muslim
declaration of faith. A lower banner in mustard and
orange reads, "The Salafist Group for Call and Combat."
Two olive branches link to a yellow-green band around
the top of the symbol that says, "And fight them on until
there is no more tumult or oppression, and there prevail
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justice and faith in Allah."
Explanation: The Koran signifies the group's devotion
and symbolizes the belief that Islam is at the center of
life. The framing of the Koran; the green flag above and
white path below it; and also the yellow band at the top
all reinforce the centrality of Muhammad's teachings. In
addition, the sun represents the wisdom and
righteousness that emanate from the Koran. The sword
and the rifle, symbols of ancient and modern militancy,
represent the organization's commitment to jihad. The
olive branches symbolize victory, as do the dark yellow
and orange banners.
Name Variations
Salafist Group for Call and Combat
Groupe Salafiste pour la Predication et le Combat
(GSPC)
Overview
The Salafist Group for Call and Combat (GSPC are the
initials for the group's French name) was formed in
1998 as an outgrowth of the once-powerful and
extremely violent Groupe Islamique Arme (GIA), whose
popularity drastically declined following a series of
massacres in which it killed thousands of Algerian
civilians. Repudiating the organization's brutal tactics,
a former leader, Hassan Hattab, created the GSPC.
Hattab declared that the new group would refrain from
attacking civilians. Largely due to this policy, the GSPC
quickly rose to prominence in Algeria's rural areas,
where most of its support is located. Although the GSPC
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has not wholly avoided non-combatants, it has eclipsed
the GIA as the most deadly terrorist organization in
Algeria.
The group is now closely allied with Al Qaeda, from
which it receives material and financial support. It
repeatedly attacks the Algerian military and also
kidnaps Western tourists in an effort to weaken and
ultimately overthrow the Algerian government,
replacing it with Islamic rule based on a "pure"
interpretation of the Koran.
Focus of Operations
Algeria, Chad, Mali, Mauritania, Niger
Major Attacks
April 8, 2005: Ambushed five cars at a false
roadblock. 14 dead, 1 injured.
February 12, 2004: Ambush of Algerian paramilitary
officers. 7 killed, 3 injured.
November 23, 2002: Ambush of a group of Algerian
soldiers. 9 dead, 12 wounded.
Leaders
Founder: Mokhtar Belmokhtar (in Algeria)
Former Leader: Hassan Hattab
Current Leader: Abu Musab Abdelouadoud
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Ideology
Militant Islamic Fundamentalism
Goals
Establishing theocracy in Algeria, the Middle East,
ultimately worldwide.
Methods
Bombings, kidnappings, paramilitary operations against
civilian and military targets.
Sponsors
The Algerian government has accused Iran and Sudan
of funding the GSPC.
U.S.-Related Activities
On August 28, 2002, five members of the group
were indicted in the U.S. on charges of providing
material support and resources to terrorists.
In September of 2001, Dutch authorities foild the
group's plan to bomb U.S. embassy in Paris.
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Following the September 11th terrorist attacks on
the U.S., the GSPC issued a public statement
supporting Osama bin Laden's "jihad" against
America.
Designated by the U.S. as a Foreign Terrorist
Organization.
Hamas
Description: Two Palestinian flags form a circular frame
around the Al Aksa Mosque in the center. On the flags,
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in Arabic, is the Islamic declaration of faith: the right
flag translates as "There is no God but God" and the left
translates as "Muhammad is His prophet." Beneath
crossed swords is the word "Palestine." The full name
of the group appears on the white banner at the bottom.
At the top, center, there is a map of Israel and the
territories in white.
Explanation: The Al Aksa Mosque is the third holiest
shrine in Islam, and is regarded by Muslims as the spot
from which Muhammad ascended to heaven. The image
evokes Hamas's nationalist and religious aims, as do
the Palestinian flags imprinted with Islam's declaration
of faith. The crossed swords evoke jihad (holy war) and
represent Hamas's dedication to violent struggle; they
are also meant to allude to the emblem of the Muslim
Brotherhood. The map of Israel and the territories is a
symbol of Hamas's desire to rule the entirety of Israel.
Name Variations
Hamas is an Arabic acronym for "'Harakat al-
Muqawamah al-Islamiyya" (The Islamic Resistance
Movement . The word Hamas also means "zeal" in
Arabic.
"The Izzedine al-Qassam Brigades is Hamas's
military wing. (Izzedine al-Qassam was a militant
Muslim in early 20th century Palestine who was
killed in 1935.)
Overview
Hamas was founded in 1987 by Palestinian members of
the Muslim Brotherhood in Gaza and the West Bank.
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Hamas considers violent jihad against Israel to be a
religious obligation and advances its ideology through
the preaching of affiliated clerics across the West Bank
and Gaza. Since 1993 the group has carried out more
than 350 attacks - many of them suicide bombings -
against civilians in Israeli shopping malls, cafes and
passenger buses and against military targets. Funded
by Islamic charities, Iran, Palestinian expatriates and
private donors in Saudi Arabia and the Gulf States,
Hamas is politically active in Gaza and runs extensive
social welfare programs there and in the West Bank -
ensuring the group's popularity on "the street."
Focus of Operations
West Bank, Gaza, Israel, Syria
Major Attacks
September 9, 2003: Suicide bombing at Tzrifin
hitchhiking post: 8 killed, 30 wounded.
March 27, 2002: Suicide bombing at the Park Hotel
in Netanya on Passover: 30 killed, 140 injured (al-
Qassam Brigades).
August 9, 2001: Suicide bombing at Sbarro pizzeria
in Jerusalem: 15 killed, 130 injured.
June 1, 2001: Suicide bombing at Dolphinarium
nightclub in Tel-Aviv: 21 killed, 120 injured.
Leaders
Former spiritual leader: Sheikh Ahmed Yassin
(killed)
Former leader: Abdel Aziz al-Rantisi (killed)
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Political Bureau Chief: Khalid Mishaal (in
Damascus)
Deputy Political Bureau Chief: Mousa Abu Marzook
Ideology
Militant Islamic fundamentalism
Goals
Destruction of Israel
Establishment of an Islamic state "over every inch
of Palestine"
Methods
Suicide bombings and paramilitary operations against
civilian and military targets.
Sponsors
Syria. Hamas also receives funding from private donors
and organizations within Saudi Arabia, Iran and various
Gulf states.
U.S.-Related Activities
April 2005, three brothers from a Dallas suburb
were convicted in the U.S. of supporting terrorism
by funneling money to Hamas leader Mousa Abu
Marzook.
In November 2004, Mohammad Salah, a U.S. citizen
and Hamas operative, was found liable for the
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death of U.S. citizen David Boim, who was killed in
a terror attack in the West Bank. Earlier, in August
2004, Salah was indicted in the U.S. for allegedly
funneling money to Hamas.
In July 2004, members of the Holy Land Foundation
(HLF), some of whom are U.S. citizens, were
indicted in the U.S. for fundraising to support
Hamas's terrorist activities. On December 4, 2001,
HLF was declared a Specially Designated Global
Terrorist Entity by the U.S. government.
In 2004, federal authorities convicted four brothers
who ran a Texas computer company on numerous
counts of money laundering, illegal shipments of
computer equipment to Syria and Libya (both
designated by U.S. as state sponsors of terror) and
financial dealings with Hamas leader Mousa Abu
Marzook.
In February 2002, a U.S. District Court ordered Iran
to pay $183 million to the family of Ira Weinstein,
an American citizen killed in a 1996 suicide bus
bombing for which Hamas claimed responsibility.
Designated by the U.S. as a Foreign Terrorist
Organization.
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Harkat ul Mujahideen
Flag used by Harakat-ul-Mujahideen
Harkat-ul-Mujahideen (Arabic _=- '._'--; abbreviated
HUM) is a Pakistani Islamic militant group. It was
established in 1985 initially opposing the Soviet
presence in Afghanistan. The founders of the group had
splintered from Harkat-ul-Jihad-al-Islami.
It claims to be a Jihadi organisation "with the prime
objective of providing awareness with regard to Jihad".
It is an anti-Hindu organisation.
[1]
In 1989, at the end of Soviet-Afghan war, the group
entered Kashmiri politics by use of militants under the
leadership of Sajjad Afghani. In 1993 the group merged
with Harkat-ul-Jehad-al-Islami to form Harkat-ul-Ansar.
Immediately following the merger India arrested three
senior members: Nasrullah Mansur Langaryal, chief of
the former Harkat-ul Mujahideen in November 1993;
Maulana Masood Azhar, General Secretary in February
1994, and Sajjad Afghani (Sajjad Sajid) in the same
month in Srinagar.
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Organizations listed as
terrorist groups by India
Northeastern India
National Socialist
Council of Nagaland-
Isak-Muivah (NSCN-IM)
Naga National Council-
Federal (NNC-F)
National Council of
Nagaland-Khaplang
United Liberation Front
of Asom
People's Liberation Army
Kanglei Yawol Kanna
Lup (KYKL)
Zomi Revolutionary
Front
North India
Khalistan Liberation
Force
Khalistan Commando
Force
Communist Party of
India (Maoist)
Bhindranwale Tiger
Force of Khalistan
Kashmir
Lashkar-e-Toiba
Jaish-e-Mohammed
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As a response the group
carried out several
kidnappings in an attempt
to free their leaders, all of
which failed. Linked to the
Kashmiri terrorist group al-
Faran that kidnapped five
Western tourists in Kashmir
in July 1995; one, Hans
Christian Ostr, was killed
in August 1995 and the
other four reportedly were
killed in December of the
same year. In 1997 the group renamed itself to the
original Harkat-ul-Mujahideen, in a response to the
United States defining Harkat-ul-Ansar as terrorist
organization. In 1999 Sajjad was killed during a
jailbreak which lead to the hijacking, by the group, of
Indian Airlines Flight 814 in December, which caused
the release of Maulana Masood Azhar, Ahmed Omar
Saeed Sheikh and Mushtaq Ahmed Zargar. Azhar did
not, however, return to the HUM, choosing instead to
form the Jaish-e-Mohammed (JEM), a rival terrorist
group expressing a more radical line than the HUM. The
group has since not committed any major incidents. The
group again came to the attention of the US after the
9/11 terrorist attacks, leading President George W. Bush
to ban the group on September 25, 2001.
Long-time leader of the group, Fazlur Rehman Khalil, in
mid-February 2000 stepped down as HUM emir, turning
the reins over to the popular Kashmiri commander and
Hizbul Mujahideen
Harkat-ul-Mujahideen
Farzandan-e-Milat
United Jihad Council
Al-Qaeda
Central India
People's war group
Balbir militias
Naxals
Ranvir Sena
v d e
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his second-in-command, Farooq Kashmiri. Khalil
assumed the position of HUM Secretary General.
HUM is thought to have several thousand armed
supporters located in Pakistani Kashmir, and India's
southern Kashmir and Doda regions. It uses light and
heavy machineguns, assault rifles, mortars, explosives,
and rockets. HUM has lost some of its membership due
to defections to the JEM.
The group is based in Muzaffarabad, Rawalpindi, and
several other towns in Pakistan and Afghanistan, but
members conduct insurgent and militant activities
primarily in Kashmir.
On October 10, 2005, Britain's Home Office banned HUM
and fourteen other terrorist groups from operating in
the United Kingdom. Under Britain's Terrorism Act
2000, being a member of a HUM is punished by a 10-
year prison term.
The HUM owned the domain name
harkatulmujahideen.org until late in 2001, when the
ownership lapsed. In March 2002 a US freelance
journalist, Brian McWilliams, purchased the domain
name and created a website at this address. He has
stated that his reasons were to see what kind of
response he would get from international or otherwise
unfocused jihadis, and indeed, he has stated he
received numerous emails from individuals all over the
world who were eager to engage in terrorism and
violent struggle. McWilliams also has stated that he
wanted to see what kind of response he would receive
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from the individuals who purport to monitor and report
on terrorist websites.
In February 2003, after the release of the Slammer
worm virus, Computerworld magazine reported that the
HUM website--McWilliams' site--was the origin of the
global computer attack. McWilliams went public with
what he termed his experiment, and what many others
called a deliberate and highly unethical hoax. The
controversy has died down somewhat in the past three
years, but the personal enmity created over this issue
remains, and can be read at length in numerous venues.
The McWilliams version of the HUM website remains up
to this day, apparently unaltered from its appearance in
early 2003. Full details of McWilliams' ownership of the
domain name remain available through WHOIS at
Network Solutions.
References
Information about the group on South Asia
Terrorism Portal
External links
McWilliams version of the HUM website
Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harkat-ul-
Mujahideen"
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Hizb ut Tahrir
The neutrality of this article is
disputed.
Please see the discussion on the talk
page.
Hizb ut-Tahrir's logo
Hizb ut-Tahrir (Arabic: ; English: Party of
Liberation) is a Sunni Islamist political party whose goal
is to establish a pan-Islamic caliphate. Sheikh
Taqiuddin al-Nabhani, a judge from Jerusalem, founded
the organization in 1953.
Hizb ut-Tahrir is dedicated to what it sees as the
political unity of Muslims through the re-establishment
of the caliphate, the removal of what it sees as neo-
colonialist western control of the Islamic world, and a
return to government based on Islamic law. In
accordance with that the party has called for "an end to
US interventions, energy inspired wars, puppet (Muslim)
governments and western values forced by the barrel of
a gun
[1]
Members have called suicide bombings in Israel
"legitimate" acts of "martyrdom,"
[2]
It believes "Israel is
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founded upon a land that was taken by force, after its
people were driven out
[3]
" and that the only solution is a
caliphate that "will provide stability and security to all
the people of the region, Muslims and Non-Muslims"
[4]
Contents
[hide]
1 Aims
2 Methods
3 Timeline
4 Policies
o 4.1 Women
o 4.2 Non-Muslims
o 4.3 Law
o 4.4 Economy
o 4.5 Defence
5 Controversy over anti-Semitism
o 5.1 Response
6 Position on terrorism
7 Hizb ut-Tahrir by region
o 7.1 In the West
o 7.2 Russia and The Central Asian Republics
o 7.3 South and South East Asia
o 7.4 Africa and the Arab world
8 Prominent members
9 See also
10 Notes
11 Further reading
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Aims
The stated aim of Hizb ut-Tahrir is to unite all Muslim
nations in a single federal Islamic state or caliphate,
which will be ruled by an elected caliph. According to
the BBC, the group "professes non-violence and calls
for the return in Muslim majority countries to the
caliphate which oversaw the so-called golden age of
Islam before European imperialism colonized the Middle
East."
[5]
HT says that the Western world's concept of
freedom does not exist in Islam;
[6]
and that Islamic law
will be applied making it theocratic, which HT says is
superior to capitalism and communism
[6]
although they
reject the concept of a clergy in Islam. They claim the
caliphate would "wrest the reins of initiative away from
other states and nations" and become the dominant
hegemony in the world, before Islam, ultimately, wins
over the world.
[7]
] Methods
Hizb ut-Tahrir has set out a three-stage plan of action to
achieve its goals:
1. Establish a community of HuT members who work
together in the same way as the companions of
Muhammad. Members should accept the goals and
methods of the organization as their own and be
ready to work to fulfill these goals.
[8]
2. Build public opinion among the Muslim masses for
the caliphate and the other Islamic concepts that
will lead to a revival of Islamic thought.
[8]
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3. Once public opinion is achieved in a target Muslim
country through debate and persuasion, the group
hopes to obtain support from army generals,
leaders, and other influential figures or bodies to
facilitate the change of the government. The
government would be replaced by one that
implements Islam "generally and
comprehensively", carrying Islamic thought to
people throughout the world.
[8]
Dosym Satpayev, director of the Assessment Risks
Group, a Kazakh think tank based in Almaty,
Kazakhstan, said HuT
"plans its development in three stages... First they
convert new members. Secondly, they establish a
network of secret cells, and finally, they try to infiltrate
the government to work to legalize their party and its
aims."
[9]
Kyrgyz Hizb ut-Tahrir members campaigned
unsuccessfully for an affiliated candidate in
Kyrgyzstan's national presidential election in July
2005,
[9]
, but have participated in municipal elections
where their followers have won in a number of regions
[10]
Timeline
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This is a partial annotated timeline of HuT actions
relating to their adopted method to fulfil the party's
original raison d'etre
[11]
by assuming authority and
implementing Islamic law.
Year Snapshot of Status
1953 Party inception & Starting Point in Jerusalem.
1956
Party yet to decide how it would assume
authority
[12]
1960
Interaction Stage begins in Jordan, and society
is unresponsive. Party revises its method.
[13]
1961
Party adopts the method of seeking support
from the influential faction(s) to assume power.
[14]
1964
Party announces that society in Jordan had
responded positively to its call, forcing it to
attempt to take power in Jordan.
[15]
1968/69
Party allegedly involved in two (failed) coup
attempts in Jordan and Syria.
[16]
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1974
Party allegedly involved in (failed) coup attempt
in Egypt.
[17]
1977
Party founder and leader Taqiuddin al-Nabhani
dies in Lebanon, succeeded by Abd al-Qadim
Zallum, a Palestinian cleric.
[18]
1978
Party acknowledges that the Muslims had
reached a state of total surrender and despair
and was not responding to anything.
Party acknowledges that this had caused the
level of activity to decline almost to standstill,
mainly due to misconceptions.
[19]
1998
Party indicates that the Caliphate is now the
wish of all the Muslims.
[20]
2003
Party leader Abd al-Qadim Zallum dies in
Lebanon, succeeded (earlier that year) by Ata
Khalil Abu-Rashta, a Palestinian civil
engineer.
[21] [22]
Policies
Women
Hizb ut-Tahrir, unlike some traditionalist movements in
the Muslim world, advocates women's suffrage or right
to vote, the right of women to choose a partner freely,
right to seek employment, have custody of children
after divorce, and run in elections. However women
would be barred from the ruling positions of caliph,
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Chief Justice (lit judge of the 'Court of Unjust Acts'),
provincial governor or mayor. Article 109 of the party's
draft constitution outlines segregation of the sexes in
public institutions and during sporting events. Muslim
women would be required to dress in accordance with
khimar and jilbab
[23]
, but not necessarily with the niqab
favoured by more fundamentalist movements (images of
women's section:
[24]
) although they defend the right of
women to choose the wearing of a niqab.
[25]
Non-Muslims
In HuT's draft constitution for an Islamic state,
executive positions of ruling, such as the position of
caliph, are reserved for Muslims. Hizb ut-Tahrir has
argued that Muslims have a special responsibility to
respect the rights of non-Muslims. Although non-
Muslims may be members of the Peoples' Assembly,
article 103 says that non-Muslims' fixed membership of
the Peoples' Assembly is for "voicing of complaints in
respect to unjust acts performed by the rulers or the
misapplication of [Islamic law] upon them," but not for
initiating Islamic law. They may participate in the
indirect method in the election of the caliph, via elected
representatives. They argue:
"The rights of Jews and other non-Muslims are
enshrined within statuary Islamic Law (Sharia). These
were laid down by the Prophet Muhammad (SAW) when
he established the first Islamic State in Medina in the
7th century. He (SAW) said, "Whoever harms a dhimmi
(non-Muslim citizen) has harmed me." Under subsequent
caliphs, these rights were protected. During the reign of
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the second caliph - Umar bin al-Khattab, some Muslims
stole a piece of land belonging to a Jew and then
constructed a mosque upon it. This clearly violated the
rights of the Jew, so Umar ordered the demolition of the
mosque and the restoration of the land to the Jew.
"Non-Muslims in the khilafah (caliphate) will have
established channels to air any grievances or denial of
their rights. All citizens will be empowered with the
right to speak out where necessary. Non-Muslims will
enjoy an elevated status with respect and tolerance
shown to their beliefs and places of worships. The
Khilafah will look after the needs and protect the rights
of all its citizens-Muslim, Jews and Christians."
[26]
The above statement indicates a distinction between
statutory Islamic law, and non-statutory Islamic law
regarding the rights of non-Muslims.
Law
The draft constitution argues that "there is no such
thing as a clergy in Islam", that "every Muslim has the
right to perform ijtihad" (personal exertion to derive
Islamic rules), and that "every thing or object is
permitted, unless there is an evidence of prohibition" in
the Qur'an. It is incumbent on Muslims to implement the
hudud law, divinely ordained capital punishment for
certain crimes. HuT's constitution states that "every
individual is innocent until proven guilty", "no person
shall be punished without a court sentence" and that
"torture is absolutely forbidden and whoever inflicts
torture on anyone shall be punished." Article 7 of the
constitution institutes capital punishment for ridda (see
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ridda article for various definitions). It maintains that
under the caliphate, "Arabic is the language of Islam
and the sole language of the state." The only sources of
legislation to be considered divine & statutory, and
therefore to be accepted without debate, according to
Article 12, are those based upon fair interpretations of
the Qur'an, the Sunnah, the consensus of the Sahaba,
and legitimate analogies (Qiyas).
Article 186 of the draft constitution states: "The State
is forbidden to belong to any organisation that is based
on something other than Islam or which applies non-
Islamic rules". They also view the UN, the World Bank,
and the IMF and the Arab League as contradicting
Islamic law and being oppressive to the developing
world. Article 185 of the draft constitution states: "It is
permitted to conclude good neighbouring, economic,
commercial, financial, cultural and armistice treaties."
Economy
The draft constitution also details an economic system
which allows private enterprise, but reserves public
ownership of utilities, public transport, energy
resources such as oil, health care, and unused farm
land, similar to Socialism. It also specifies a return to
the 'Gold Standard', rather than pegging to the euro or
USD.
Defence
Article 56 of the draft constitution of the proposed state
describes conscription as a compulsory individual duty,
for all citizens. Muslim males past the age of 15 would
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be obliged to undergo military conscription on the basis
of this being a collective duty.
Controversy over anti-Semitism
In an article entitled "The Muslim Ummah will never
submit to the Jews", Hizb ut-Tahrir stated on its
website six years ago:
...they insist on expelling more and more of the people
of Palestine so that they can bring in more of the
world's Jews. They are demolishing homes,
confiscating land and property, imprisoning people,
torturing them, breaking their bones and killing
them...They violate agreements and are disloyal to the
treaties they have signed. They violate the airspace and
waters of Lebanon every day and with their arms they
bomb its cities and villages. They have occupied the
lands of Lebanon, Syria and Palestine, and they
increase daily in their provocation and defiance to all
the Arabs and Muslims.... In origin, no one likes the
Jews except the Jews. Even they themselves rarely like
each other. He (in the Quran) said: "You would think
they were united, but their hearts are divided" [TMQ
59:14] The American people do not like the Jews nor do
the Europeans, because the Jews by their very nature
do not like anyone else. Rather they look at other
people as wild animals which have to be tamed to serve
them. So, how can we imagine it being possible for any
Arab or Muslim to like the Jews whose character is
such? ... Know that the Jews and their usurping state in
Palestine will, by the Help and Mercy of Allah, be
destroyed "until the stones and trees will say: O
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Muslim, O Slave of Allah. Here is a Jew behind me so
come and kill him."
[27]
In October 2002 a court in Denmark handed down a 60-
day suspended sentence to Fadi Abdelatif, Hizb ut-
Tahrir's spokesman in Denmark, after he was found
guilty of distributing racist propaganda. The title of a
leaflet he distributed was a quote from the Quran: "And
Kill Them Wherever You Find Them, and turn them out
from where they have turned you out."
[28]
The leaflet
continued: "The Jews are a people of slander ... a
treacherous people ... they fabricate lies and twist
words from their right context."
In January 2003, Hizb ut-Tahrir was banned in Germany
from public activity on charges of spreading antisemitic
propaganda and of being "hate preachers." Membership
of the party is still permitted. German Interior Minister
Otto Schily ruled that the group was "spreading hate
and violence," and had called for the killing of Jews.
[29]
The charges originate from a conference at the
Technical University of Berlin, organized by a student
society allegedly affiliated with Hizb ut-Tahrir. The
furore was caused because the conference was
attended by members of the neo-nazi National
Democratic Party of Germany (NPD) sparking fears
about an alliance between neo-Nazi groups and
Islamists. Schily banned Hizb ut-Tahrir three months
later for going "against the concept of international
understanding" contained in the German constitution, a
charge that has been used in the past against neo-Nazi
groups. The High Court in Germany threw out a case to
ban the NPD because a large percentage of the NPD's
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inner circle were undercover agents or informants of
the German secret services, so the court found it
impossible to decide which moves by the party were
based on genuine party decisions and which were
controlled by the secret services in an attempt to
further justify a ban. (see NDP 2003 banning attempt)
In July 2005 Dilpazier Aslam, a 27-year-old British
Muslim and trainee journalist with The Guardian lost his
position with the newspaper when it discovered he was
a member of Hizb ut-Tahrir. Citing the anti-Semitic
statement discovered on the party's website, Guardian
executives decided that membership of Hizb ut-Tahrir
was not compatible with membership of the
newspaper's trainee scheme. Aslam refused to leave
the group, saying he was not an antisemite and did not
consider Hizb ut-Tahrir's website to be antisemitic.
[30]
After allegations that party members had spread
antisemitic propaganda, in 2004 the British National
Union of Students imposed a No Platform order.
[31]
The
party then resumed recruiting at British universities
under the name "Stop Islamophobia."
[32]
However, at a recent NUS Policy conference, motion
804, the conference believed that;
24. A motion passed at 2004s NUS annual
conference falsely accused the Islamic political
party Hizb ut-Tahrir (HT) of being racist and
extremist. During the debate at conference, HT
was wrongly accused of organising an event to
celebrate the attacks in New York.
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26. Contrary to allegations of sexism and racism,
HT has members from both sexes and different
races and who came from Christian, Hindu, Sikh,
Jewish and Atheist backgrounds.
...Conference resolved:
25. To remove Hizb ut-Tahrir from NUSs no
platform policy.
[33]
Response
In response, Hizb ut-Tahrir stated:
We reject decisively the charge of anti-Semitism
because Islam is a message directed to all humankind.
However, at the same time we decisively reject Zionism
represented in the form of Israel, and Hizb ut-Tahrir, like
the majority of other Muslim organizations, is opposed
to the continued occupation of Palestine by the Israeli
State. The state of Israel is founded upon a land that it
took by force, after it drove out its people, both Muslim
and Christian. This is injustice, which we will never
accept from an Islamic perspective, regardless of the
race of the perpetrators. In Palestine, Islam is in
conflict with Israelis not in their capacity as Jews
who historically had lived alongside Muslims in peace
and security for centuries but in their capacity as
occupiers and aggressors.
On August 15, 2005 British executive committee
member Abdul-Wahid explained why the material had
disappeared from the party's websites:
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[S]ome who do challenge our political views often
resort to partial understandings of individual texts that
are detached from context either of the Muslim world
or of global history in general. For example, the war
rhetoric prevalent in Europe fifty years ago was full of
derogatory epithets and proud declarations, but these
are no longer seen as appropriate.
Winston Churchill's "fight them on the
beaches"(speech) is relevant to Normandy in 1944, not
Barbados in 2005; the language of "freedom" used in
campaigns for independence today differs between
Scotland and Aceh. It would be ridiculous to assume
that rhetoric relevant to a population that sees itself
under occupation is symptomatic of the viewpoint of
Muslims generally, and Hizb-ut-Tahrir specifically, on all
issues relating (say) to Jews and Americans. Yet that is
all too often what we see in these so-called challenges
to our political ideas. In fact, the decision to remove
some of our overseas literature from our British website
was a considered response to the legitimate
proposition that people who read it out of its context
might see it as offensive.
[34]
Position on terrorism
HuT issued a leaflet on September 18, 2001 after the
September 11, 2001 attacks on New York stating:
The rules of this Message forbids any aggression
against civilian non-combatants. They forbid killing of
children, the elderly and non-combatant women even in
the battlefield. They forbid the hijacking of civilian
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aeroplanes carrying innocent civilians and forbid the
destruction of homes and offices which contain
innocent civilians. All of these actions are types of
aggression which Islam forbids and Muslims should not
undertake such actions."
[35]
Dr. Imran Waheed, spokesman for Hizb ut-Tahrir, said
after the July 2006 London bombings that he would
"condemn what happened in London only after there is
the promise from Western leaders to condemn what
they have done in Falluja and other parts of Iraq and in
Afghanistan."
[36]
Dr. Abdul-Wahid, British spokesman for the party said
members should report acts of violence or terror to the
police as a religious duty:
"If any Muslim citizen possesses information indicating
an imminent act of violence, then he has an Islamic
duty to prevent this from taking place, even if this
means reporting to the police. Masoods article was the
first time I had ever seen a view to the contrary
presented in the media, and it was sad that he did not
check his facts, and instead made assumptions a
frequent problem when people talk or write about Hizb
ut-Tahrir."
[37]
Global Security has stated that:
"The United States Government is continuing to monitor
Hizb ut-Tahrir. Despite the statements of governments
of the region, the United States has found no clear ties
between Hizb ut-Tahrir and terrorist activity. Hizb ut-
Tahrir has not been proven to have involvement in or
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734
direct links to any recent acts of violence or terrorism.
Nor has it been proven to give financial support to other
groups engaged in terrorism. Because of that, it falls
outside the definitions used by the United States and
others to designate a terrorist group."
[38]
The Groupe Islamique Combattant Marocain or the
Moroccan Islamic Combatant Group, a terrorist
organization affiliated with Al Qaeda, issued a press
release (No.5) with a photocopy of a book written by Al
Qaeda members entitled "Une nouvelle vision des
dbiles et des modrs" or "A New Insight Into Weak
and Moderate (Muslims)" listing HuT's stance against
violence as weak, and accusing it of being moderate,
rather than strictly religious.
[39]
According to a comment in The Times by Ali Hussain,
The National Union of Students (NUS) in the United
Kingdom said Hizb ut-Tahrir members are "supporting
terrorism and publishing material that incites racial
hatred."
[40]
. However, at an NUS Policy conference,
motion 804, the conference believed that;
24. A motion passed at 2004s NUS annual
conference falsely accused the Islamic political
party Hizb ut-Tahrir (HT) of being racist and
extremist. During the debate at conference, HT
was wrongly accused of organising an event to
celebrate the attacks in New York.
25. HT is an intellectual and political entity that
seeks to changes people thoughts through
intelligent discussion and debate.
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26. Contrary to allegations of sexism and racism,
HT has members from both sexes and different
races and who came from Christian, Hindu, Sikh,
Jewish and Atheist backgrounds.
27. HT has condemned the terrorism, which
occurred in New York in 2001, Madrid in 2004 and
London in 2005.
28. This motion, lead to a noticeable rise in
Islamophobia on campus.
29. The NEC rightly opposed the state ban of non-
violent groups such as HT.
30. Government proposals to ban non-violent
Islamist organisations such as Hibz ut-Tahrir (HT),
combined with the failure to address the fascist
BNP reveals the hypocrisy and Islamophobia
behind the anti-terror measures.
31. There is a mass support from a wide range of
organisations against the possible state ban on HT,
including FOSIS, The Muslim Association of Britain,
The Muslim Council of Britain, Respect, Stop the
War Coalitions, Yvonne Ridley and others....
...Conference resolved:
25. To remove Hizb ut-Tahrir from NUSs no
platform policy.
[41]
Hizb ut-Tahrir by region
The Heritage Foundation says the organization is active
in 40 countries with 5,000 to 10,000 "hardcore"
members and tens of thousands of followers.
[42]
It is
proscribed in Russia,
[43]
and in some Muslim countries,
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but is permitted to operate in the more liberal Muslim
nations.
[44]
It had a ban lifted on it by the Lahore High
Court in Pakistan
[45] [46]
, and it survived proposed bans
in Australia and the UK after clearance from the
intelligence services and police.
[47][30]
HuT members have not been elected to any
government. It is therefore impossible to establish with
certainty what its position in terms of international
relations, in practice, would be. However, publications
on HuT's media websites show an anti-Western
sentiment that has been characteristic of most Islamist
movements.
In the West
In August 2006 a Danish court sentenced Fadi Abdelatif,
Hizb ut-Tahrir's spokesman in Denmark, to three months
in prison for threats against the Danish Prime Minister
Anders Fogh Rasmussen. Party officials say the leaflet
distributed by Abdelatif referred to the need to remove
the dictators of the Muslim world who had not
supported the Muslims of Iraq, and that it made no
reference to the Danish prime minister.
[48]
Australia
The party survived a proposed ban in Australia after
clearance from the Australian Security Intelligence
Organisation.
[49]
The party planned it's first Khilafah conference in
Sydney on the 27 January 2007. The planned
conference led to many inaccurate newspaper reports,
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particularly from the big Australian tabloid newspaper
the Herald Sun, that the party was linked to the July
2005 London bombings[14], that it wanted to establish
Islamic law in Australia [15], and that it was banned in
Britain.[16]. Politicians in the opposition party called on
the local and federal governments not to grant visas to
foreign speakers attending, and to re-consider the
policy of not proscribing Hizb ut-Tahrir. The demands
for a ban were rejected by Australian Attorney General
Philip Ruddock, who said he did not have sufficient
evidence.
"I think it's time that Mr Watkins puts up or shuts up in
relation to Hizb ut-Tahrir. If he has evidence that he
believes warrants its proscription he should make it
available to the Commonwealth so it can be
considered."
[50]
Hizb ut-Tahrir members orginially planned to hold the
conference in Bankstown's Town Hall, but the Sydney
council cancelled it.
[51]
Hizb ut-Tahrir secured another
location the next day on 28 January. During the
conference Palestinian Sheikh Issam Amera quoted a
hadith, saying,
"Whoso comes to you while your affairs have been
united under one man, intending to divide your staff or
dissolve your unity, kill him."
[52]
The Herald Sun quoted him as saying, "If you people are
united and a third person comes along and tries to
incite disunity . . . kill him...," "Muslims are not unique in
doing so, as most nations kill those charged with
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treason...," labelling incitement to civil war in a
Caliphate treason. Indonesian head of Hizb ut-Tahrir
Ismail Yusanto said, "If the capital [of the Islamic state]
fell and was occupied by the invading forces, the rest
[of the Caliphate] must be involved in an all-out war
against the occupiers..." He reiterated Hizb ut-Tahrir's
proposed policy on military conscription to defend the
Caliphate with a "Call for all military-aged Muslims to
obtain military training and prepare for jihad."
The Sydney Morning Herald reported that Yusanto was
invited to Canberra to speak at a security conference
by the Federal Government at a conference sponsored
by the Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade (DFAT)
in August 2004. This was organized by the think-tank
The Council for Security Cooperation in the Asia Pacific,
and was opened by Foreign Minister Alexander Downer.
Yusanto was also reported to be a regular guest at the
Australian embassy in Jakarta. A paper reviewing the
2004 conference says Yusanto took part in an
"enlightening discussion" with participants on the issue
of the creation of an Islamic state.[17]
Conference spokesman Washim Doureihi said the work
of Hizb ut-Tahrir was not to change the political nature
of Australia. He said, "It is because of Islam and my
allegiance to Islam that I am responsible for ensuring to
do what I can to protect the safety and security of all
peoples in this country and beyond."[18]
Morris Iemma Premier of New South Wales and MP for
Lakemba, is quoted as saying "This is an organisation
that is basically saying that it wants to declare war on
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Australia, our values and our people." The distinction
between trying to establish a caliphate in the Muslim
world, and not in Australia, according to the Sydney
Morning Herald; "was lost on Mr Iemma, the MP for
Lakemba where the conference was held, and where he
is facing a challenge by Muslim candidates in the state
election." Attorney General Philip Ruddock responded
that the local government of Iemma should "stop
playing politics and if it had any evidence helpful to the
security agencies, it should give it to them."[19]
The Sydney Morning Herald said that,
"Concerns about terrorism, violent crime and
integration have prompted a bidding war between NSW
Labor and the Opposition about who can sound tougher
on Muslims, a theme that is expected to continue until
poll day on March 24."
[20]
A leading Australian Muslim and former chairman of the
Federal Government's Muslim Community Reference
Group, Ameer Ali, has said the government was right to
allow Hizb ut-Tahrir to practice in Australia.[21] Crikey
reported in an article entitled No need to be alarmed
about Hizb ut-Tahrir that the opposition ALP "clearly
wants to look tougher than the government on national
security. But it risks alienating much of its support base
in some Muslim circles by picking on a group many
Muslims regard as harmless."[22]
United Kingdom
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Hizb ut-Tahrir also survived a proposed ban in the UK
after clearance from the intelligence services and
police.
[47]
. After the 7 July 2005 London bombings Tony
Blair announced the British government's intention to
ban the organization under new legislation.
[53]
Hizb ut-
Tahrir spokesman Imran Waheed said, "The move is a
perilous route that is harming community relations and
could lead to civil unrest comparable to that which
affected the black community."
[54]
According to The
Independent Blair "shelved the ban after warnings from
police, intelligence chiefs, and civil liberties groups that
it is a non-violent group, and driving it underground
could backfire."
[55]
According an alleged leaked
government report produced for Tony Blair, quoted in
The Guardian,
[56]
the prime minister was advised that
HT did "not directly advocate violence. Indeed
membership or sympathy with such an organization
does not in any way presuppose a move towards
terrorism." The document added that young people
attracted to terrorism may shy away from Hizb ut-Tahrir
because they do not espouse violence, and would be
seen as only engaged in "pointless pontification and
debate." However, the Guardian went on to report that
the "document does say membership of groups like Hizb
ut-Tahrir 'may indicate ... the possibility of a few of its
members being open to gradual consideration of far
more extremist doctrine'." In November 2005, the
Association of Chief Police Officers (Acpo) opposed the
government's proposal to ban the party, arguing that it
knew of no intelligence to justify proscribing HT.[23]
Mohammed M. Ramadan, a journalist and announcer at
the BBC's Arabic section in London, was a member of
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Hizb ut-Tahrir and opposed to the regime of Colonel
Qadhafi of Libya. He was assassinated on 11 April 1980
by Libyan operatives outside Londons Regents Park
Mosque.[24]
In 2006 it joined the British Stop the War Coalition and
participated in its national demonstration.[25]
Dr. Abdul-Wahid, executive committee member of Hizb
ut-Tahrir, has conceded their past failings, writing on
"Open Democracy" in August 2005: "I welcome much of
the sincere personal advice we have been offered by
Muslims and non-Muslims since Hizb ut-Tahrir hit the
media spotlight in the past few weeks. I have learned
how our message to the Muslim community one whose
context, I truly believe, the community appreciates is
perceived by those outside. I also appreciate that errors
made by immature young men almost a decade ago
have been a factor in making our ideas difficult to
reason with or accept."[26]
In November 2006, the BBC reported that a street gang
in South London, which claimed to be Hizb ut-Tahrir,
encouraged an undercover reporter to rob another gang
to "prove his loyalty". The short documentary ended
with the reporter claiming that the gang maybe a lone
out-of-control group simply influenced by Hizb ut-
Tahrir's notoriety. Dr Abdul Wahid when questioned on
the program condemned the behaviour, asked the BBC
to hand over all material to the police, said he would be
extremely surprised if any of the gang were members of
his organisation, and that if they were, he would have
them removed.
[57]
.
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Fuad Nahdi editor of the British newspaper Q-news said
"The issue of political agency and political action is
important. Muslim youth have to find some channel for
their political rage and anger. But it does not have to be
called rage and anger. If we are talking about the left, it
is called a political opinion. Hizb-ut-Tahrir is one
organisation where Muslim people have found a
political voice. There needs to be a series of options for
people to choose from" [27]
Germany
German police expelled a member of the party from
Germany for alleged ties to one of the hijackers
involved in the September 11, 2001 attacks. However,
German police said the raids and searches in offices
and homes revealed little.
[29]
The German government
then banned it from public activity after a charge of
distributing antisemitic propaganda, a ban that is being
challenged[28] (see above section on Controversy over
anti-semitism).
Russia and The Central Asian Republics
Hizb ut-Tahrir is proscribed in Russia.
[58]
Most of its
members in the former Soviet Union are ethnic
Uzbeks.
[59]
Amnesty has accused the Government of
Uzbekistan of giving Hizb ut-Tahrir members unfair
trials, saying members are convicted on little evidence
and given heavy sentences.
[60]
Craig Murray, former
British ambassador to Uzbekistan, has made many
claims about the Uzbek President Islom Karimov, and
his alleged dictatorial practices, specifically against
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Hizb ut-Tahrir. He alleged that members were tortured
into signing renunciations of their faith, to stop praying
the 5 daily prayers of Islam (Salah), and that 2 members
has who refused to do so;
...had been plunged into a vat of boiling water and had
died both of them as a result. I didnt know that at the
time, I just saw the photographs of this body in this
appalling state; I couldnt work out what could account
for it. I sent it to the pathology department of the
University of Glasgow; there were a lot of photographs.
The chief pathologist of the University of Glasgow, who
is now chief pathologist of the United Kingdom, wrote
that the only explanation for this was immersion in
boiling water.
[61]
South and South East Asia
In Pakistan, Hizb ut-Tahrir was proscribed by Pakistani
President General Musharraf in 2004, although it had
the ban on it lifted[29] after a legal challenge against
it's proscription in the Lahore High Court
[62] [63]
.
Pakistani author Ahmed Rashid writes in Jihad: The
Rise of Militant Islam in Central Asia, that there are
"strong links and cooperation between the rank and
file" of Hizb ut-Tahrir and the Islamic Movement of
Uzbekistan especially when they are from the same
village or town. However, according to Jean-Franois
Mayer of the Swiss Federal Department of Foreign
Affairs; the insinuation that the party will turn violent
and has links with the IMU is inaccurate: the comments
attributed to a member contradicted the partys ideas.
Representatives of Hizb ut-Tahrir report that they have
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repeatedly attempted to contact Ahmed Rashid in order
to make their views known, but say they have not
succeeded. They are even considering writing a
rebuttal of his book
[64]
Africa and the Arab world
Hizb ut-Tahrir is proscribed in many Arab countries, but
is permitted to operate in the more liberal UAE,
Lebanon and Yemen.
[44]
Mohammed M. Ramadan, a Libyan journalist and
announcer at the BBC's Arabic section in London, was a
member of Hizb ut-Tahrir and opposed to the regime of
Colonel Qadhafi. He was assassinated on 11 April 1980
by Libyan operatives outside London's Regent's Park
Mosque. Many members were killed in extrajudicial
detention in Libya during the 1980s [30] and the party
remains a source of opposition to Qadhafi, "criticizing
the paralysis and corruption of the state" and
advocating "a progressive agenda of equitable
redistribution of wealth."[31] Amnesty International
reported in its 2003 Libya report that "five prisoners of
conscience ... who had been imprisoned for almost
three decades for their peaceful involvement with the
prohibited Islamic Liberation Party, Hizb al-Tahrir" were
released, but that hundreds remained in prison.[32]
According to Amnesty, four Muslim Britons and several
Egyptians were tortured in Egypt for suspected
affiliation with Hizb ut-Tahrir.
[65]
Eventually 26 were put
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745
on trial for what many in Egypt considered weak and
obscure charges.[33]
In 1969 when the son of Iraq's highest Shia Ayatollah
Muhsin al-Hakim was arrested and allegedly tortured,
during widespread persecution of Shia, Abd al-Aziz al-
Badri, a Sunni Islamic lawyer (Alim) and local Hizb ut-
Tahrir leader, criticised the regime, and was killed
under torture. A Sunni member of Hizb ut-Tahrir is thus
seen as the first martyr for the rights of Shia in Iraq,
against the old Baathist regime [34]. The party has
called for Sunni, Shia, Arab and Kurdish citizens to
unite in Iraq.[35] Some of the party's prominent
members have been murdered there, the bodies
showing signs of torture.[36] Shias from Shiachat have
speculated that these killings were either the work of
al-Qaida or the Iraqi government.[37] Regarding the
hanging of former president of Iraq Saddam Hussain,
Ismail Yusanto, spokesman of Hizb ut Tahrir in
Indonesia, said: "The punishment should have been
given to Saddam, because Saddam killed many Iraqi
people and also members of Hizb ut Tahrir there," and
that President Bush and Tony Blair "deserved no
better."[38].
In Syria, party members, along with their relatives and
acquaintances, have been subject to repeated
extrajudicial arrest. The Middle East Intelligence
Bulletin (MEIB) issue July 2000 and the Syrian Human
Rights Committee quoted on the United Nations High
Commissioner for Refugees website, in its annual report
of June 2006 reported that the Syrian authorities began
its clampdown on Hizb ut-Tahrir in 1998-1999 with
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hundreds of members being arrested in a nationwide
manhunt led by Air Force Intelligence (Mukhabarat).
The MEIB issue of December 2000 states that
"Representatives of the group have said that 1,200 of
its members were arrested by Syrian security forces in
December 1999 and January 2000." In its 2005 report
Amnesty International stated that in 2004 dozens of
Islamist students and clerics were arrested, many with
links to Hizb ut-Tahrir and tried before military
courts.[39][40]
Throughout 2006 a spate of HuT campaigns and related
arrests took place throughout the Arab world. There
were arrests in Jordan, Morocco, Tunisia, and visible
public activities in the Palestinian territories, Zanzibar,
and Lebanon, enjoying growing support among senior
army staff, government officials, and the
intelligentsia.[41]
The Egyptian government banned Hizb ut-Tahrir in 1974
after an alleged coup attempt.
[66]
Syrian ex-member of Hizb ut-Tahrir, Omar Bakri
notorious for his activity in the UK, claims that a
significant number of members primarily in Jordan split
from the original body of Hizb ut-Tahrir members and
formed another Hizb ut-Tahrir known as 'renegades' or
'HT camp 2'. This led to a further two minor splits of no
significant membership. He attempts to partly attribute
this to himself while simultaneously denying self
aggrandization. [42].
Prominent members
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Shaykh Taqiuddin al-Nabhani (founder)
Shaykh Ahmed Dauor (Jordanian parliamentarian
1955-1957, deceased)
Shaykh Abdul Qadeem Zalloum (second leader,
deceased)
Shaykh Ata Abu-Rashta (current global leader of
Hizb ut-Tahrir)
Jamal Harwood (Chairman of UK Executive
Committee)
Taji Mustafa (Media Representative and UK
Executive Committee member)
Dr Imran Waheed (Media Representative and UK
Executive Committee member)[43]
Dr Nazreen Nawaz (Women's Representative)[44]
Dr Abdul Wahid (GP & UK Executive Committee
member) [45]
Maajid Nawaz (UK Executive Committee member.
Former prisoner of conscience in Egypt)[46]
Shaykh Ali Syed Abul-Hassan (Imam of Masjid as-
Sahaba, Khartoum, Sudan spokesman, deceased)
Mohammad Nafi Abdul-Karim Salih (Jordanian
member, deceased)
Shaykh Mahmoud Abdul-Latif Uweidah - Abu Iyas
(Prominent Jordanian Member)
Shaykh Taleb Awadallah (Palestinian Member from
al-Khalil, Hebron)
Shaykh Yusuf Ba'darani (Lebanese member)
Shaykh Abdul-Aziz Badri (Iraqi member, deceased)
Jalaluddin Patel (a UK leader)
Wassim Dourehi (Australia spokesperson)
Naveed Butt (Pakistan spokesperson)
Imran Yousufzai (Pakistan spokesperson)
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Yilmaz Celik (Turkey spokesperson)
Ayman Qadri (Lebanon spokesperson)
Muhammad Ismail Yusanto (Indonesia
spokesperson)
Shaykh Ibrahim Othman - Abu Khalil (Sudan
spokesperson)
Mohiuddin Ahmed (Bangladesh Chief Coordinator
and Spokesperson)
Farhad Usmanov (Uzbekistan, died in prison)
Abu Talha (USA member)
Dr Mustapha Yousuf (USA member)
Mohammad Hannini (USA member)
See also
Taqiuddin al-Nabhani
Islamism
Sayyid Qutb
Al-Muhajiroun
Dilpazier Aslam
List of political parties in the Palestinian National
Authority
Islam in Indonesia
Islam in Uzbekistan
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o May 2005 unrest in Uzbekistan
UK Islamist demonstration outside Danish
Embassy
Islamic democracy
Notes
1. ^ HT Demonstration to the US Embassy [1]"
2. ^ "Hizb ut Tahrir", BBC News, August 27, 2003.
3. ^ HT article: The Zionist Hatred [2]
4. ^ HT article: Israeli aggression is the root cause of
this disaster [3]
5. ^ Who's Listening to Whom?
6. ^
a b
The Existing Ideologies in the World Hizb ut-
Tahrir Britain
7. ^ Archived copy of HT's UK messages webpage
Hizb ut-Tahrir Britain
8. ^
a b c
Untitled Hizb ut-Tahrir
9. ^
a b
Central Asia's Islamic militancy BBC News
10. ^ "Evolution of political regimes in Central
Asia: ways and opportunities" Ferghana.Ru
Information Agency [4]
11. ^ HuT book, Structuring of a Party, 1953
12. ^ HuT leaflet: 'Caesarean Section', 27 January
1972
13. ^ HuT leaflet: 'Caesarean Section', 27 January
1972
14. ^ HuT leaflet, 'A Style to Win the Ummah and
to Take Its Leadership', 14 December 1980
15. ^ HuT, Answer to a Question about Force, 20
March 1970
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16. ^ Suha Taji-Farouki, A Fundamental Quest
Hizb ut-Tahrir and the Search for the Islamic
Caliphate, pp. 27-29, Grey Seal, London 1996
17. ^ Suha Taji-Farouki, A Fundamental Quest
Hizb ut-Tahrir and the Search for the Islamic
Caliphate, pp. 27-29, Grey Seal, London 1996
18. ^ Al-Waie magazine, issues 234-235,
August/September 2006 (Arabic).[5]
19. ^ HuT leaflet, 'A Letter to the Shebab', 20 July
1978
20. ^ HuT Progress Dossier, 1998
21. ^ Al-Sabeel newspaper, issue 489, p. 9, May 6-
12, 2003 (Arabic).
22. ^ Al-Waie magazine, issue 197, p. 3, August
2003 (Arabic)
23. ^ Re: 'Of course women have a right to
choose. But agreeing to wear a jilbab is no choice
at all' Hizb ut-Tahrir Britain
24. ^ hizb tahrir women Google Images
25. ^ Playing Politics with Communities: A
Response from Dr Nazreen Nawaz Hizb ut-Tahrir
Britain
26. ^ Minorities in the new Middle East of the
Caliphate Hizb ut-Tahrir Britain
27. ^ The Muslim Ummah will never submit to the
Jews Hizb ut-Tahrir
28. ^ Banned groups with roots in UK appeal to
disaffected young Muslims, The Guardian.
29. ^
a b
Lambroschini, Sophie. "Germany: Court
Appeal By Hizb Ut-Tahrir Highlights Balancing Act
Between Actions, Intentions", Radio Free Europe,
October 26, 2004.
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30. ^
a b
"Background: the Guardian and Dilpazier
Aslam", The Guardian, July 22, 2005.
31. ^ "NUS representative addresses government
committee on campus incitement", NUS Online.
32. ^ "'Stealth' Islamists recruit students" The
Sunday Times, 16 October 2005.
33. ^ NUS passed Policy:
http://resource.nusonline.co.uk/media/resource/poli
cy%20passed.doc
34. ^ Hizb-ut-Tahrirs distinction
OpenDemocracy.net
35. ^ Banning non-violent Hizb-ut-Tahrir (HT), is
the real threat to the British way of life Petition
Online
36. ^ For a decade, London thrived as a busy
crossroads of terror The New York Times
37. ^ [6], OpenDemocracy, August 15, 2005.
38. ^ Hizb ut-Tahrir al-Islami (Islamic Party of
Liberation) Global Security
39. ^ La Gazette Du Maroc [7], translated here: [8]
40. ^ 'Stealth' Islamists recruit students The
Times Online
41. ^ NUS passed Policy:
http://resource.nusonline.co.uk/media/resource/poli
cy%20passed.doc
42. ^ Cohen, Ariel. "Hizb ut-Tahrir: An Emerging
Threat to U.S. Interests in Central Asia", The
Heritage Foundation, May 30, 2003.
43. ^ 'Terror' list out; Russia tags two Kuwaiti
groups, Arab Times
44. ^
a b
Hizb-ut-Tahrir's Growing Appeal in the
Arab World Jamestown Foundation
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45. ^ High Court rules ruling that distribution of
pamphlets carrying criticism of the government
does not entail terrorism. [9]
46. ^ High Court cancels detention orders of six
members of Hizb-ut-Tahrir [10]
47. ^
a b
Morris, Nigel. "PM forced to shelve
Islamist group ban", The Independent, July 18,
2006.
48. ^ Russia: Division over Hizb-ut-Tahrir Turkish
Weekly Opinion
49. ^ Islamic group to fight on against banning
moves The Age
50. ^ Aussies called to jihad Herald Sun
51. ^ Council refuses group use of town hall The
Age
52. ^ Narrated in Sahih Muslim)[11] Islamic world
53. ^ Full text: The Prime Minister's statement on
anti-terror measures The Guardian
54. ^ Islamic radicals warn of city riots The
Guardian
55. ^ PM forced to shelve Islamist group ban The
Independent
56. ^ Dodd, Vikram et al. "Islamist clerics face
treason charges", The Guardian, August 8, 2005.
57. ^
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=sVWFLSv5IGY
58. ^ 'Terror' list out; Russia tags two Kuwaiti
groups, Arab Times
59. ^ Hizb ut-Tahrir al-Islami (Islamic Party of
Liberation) Global Security
60. ^ Covering events from January - December
2001 Amnesty International.
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61. ^
http://www.craigmurray.co.uk/archives/2005/02/the_
pathologist.html
62. ^ High Court rules ruling that distribution of
pamphlets carrying criticism of the government
does not entail terrorism. [12]
63. ^ High Court cancels detention orders of six
members of Hizb-ut-Tahrir [13]
64. ^ Hizb ut-Tahrir The Next Al-Qaida, Really ?
PSIO
65. ^ Amnesty international press release
Amnesty International.
66. ^ Muslim girl's brother linked to Islam radicals
British Helsinki Human Rights Group
Further reading
Photo report of Hizb ut-Tahrir street protest in
London, Moonbat Media, August 19, 2006
"BBC Hard Talk interview with Maajid Nawaz", BBC
News 24 Hard Talk with Sarah Montague, April
2006
"al-Jazeera interview with Ian Nisbet and Maajid
Nawaz - Arabic", al-Jazeera interview in Arabic,
March 2006
"Tony Blair and Hizb-ut-Tahrir: 'Muslims under the
bed' Abdul Wahid, openDemocracy.net, August 9,
2005
"The Prime Minister's statement on anti-terror
measures" The Guardian, August 5, 2005
Hizb ut-Tahrir's draft constitution
"Cartoons ignite cultural combat in Denmark",
International Herald Tribune, December 31, 2005
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"Fighting the War of Ideas", Foreign Affairs,
November/December 2005
"Hizb ut Tahrir", BBC Newsnight, August 27, 2003
FAQ about Hizb ut-Tahrir by Khilafah.com
Hizb ut-Tahrir official website in Urdu, German,
English, Russian, Turkish and Arabic languages
Hizb ut-Tahrir website in Arabic and English - open
forum
Hizb ut-Tahrir website in Arabic and English - open
forum
Official Media Office of Hizb ut-Tahrir website
Hizb ut-Tahrir Germany
Hizb ut-Tahrir Pakistan
Hizb ut-Tahrir Bangladesh
Hizb ut-Tahrir Britain
Hizb ut-Tahrir Indonesia
Hizb ut-Tahrir Malaysia
Hizb ut-Tahrir Turkey
Hizb ut-Tahrir Australia
Hizb ut-Tahrir Denmark
Inside Islams political insurgency in Europe
Q&A with Hizb ut-Tahrir spokesman by MSNBC
BBC Hardtalk's Tim Sebastian interview with Hizb
ut-Tahrir spokesman
BBC Hardtalk's Sarah Montague interview with
Maajid Nawaz, who was imprisoned in Egypt for
belonging to the political party
Arabic website
(French) Article describing the autocontradictory
policy of the Central asiatic authorities regarding
Hizb ut-Tharir
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Interview with leader of Hizb ut-Tahrir Britain by
the Jamestown Foundation - PDF Format
Recent interview with IRSN
Interview with Australian Broadcasting Corporation
Recent article in Guardian with interview of female
members
Simon Jones comment, journalist currently based
in Tashkent, Uzbekistan
'The West needs to understand it is inevitable:
Islam is coming back'
Q&A: Hizb ut-Tahrir by BBC
Article in New Statesman
Categories: NPOV disputes | Articles which may contain
original research | Political parties established in 1953 |
Designated terrorist organizations | Hizb ut-Tahrir |
Islam and antisemitism | Islam in Uzbekistan | Muslim
activist organizations |
Hezbollah
Description: The name of the group is spelled in green
letters against a yellow background. A fist rises from
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the letters clutching an AK-47. Below the rifle is a
Koran and a globe. The red script above the rifle says,
"Verily, the Party of God, they are the triumphant ones."
Explanation: The group's name is in green because
green is Islam's traditional color. The Koran denotes
the group's divinely-derived legitimacy and devotion to
Islam, as does the tall "alef" (the letter on which the fist
rests) - which is the first letter of Allah's (God's) name.
The rifle is meant to affirm the group's commitment to
armed struggle. The globe represents Hezbollah's global
ambitions.
Name Variations
Hezbollah (Party of God)
Overview
Hezbollah emerged in 1982 from the Shiite Muslim
population of Southern Lebanon. Armed and trained by
Iran and allowed to operate openly by Syria, Hezbollah
fighters waged a guerilla war against Israeli forces in
Southern Lebanon and carried out terrorist attacks
against Israeli civilians in northern Israel. The
organization's goal is the establishment of an Islamic
state encompassing Lebanon and Israel. It has been
implicated in terrorist actions targeting Americans,
Jews and Israelis around the world.
Hezbollah is a significant social force in Lebanon,
where it operates schools, hospitals and other social
services; additionally, several members of the group's
political wing sit in the Lebanese parliament. The
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organization also runs Al Manar satellite television,
disseminating anti-Semitic and anti-American
programming worldwide and glorifying suicide bombers.
Since Israel's withdrawal from Lebanon in 2000,
Hezbollah's attacks have been relatively limited in
scope, but the organization has increased its presence
in the West Bank and Gaza, providing weapons, training
and funds to Palestinian terrorist groups.
Focus of Operations
Lebanon, Syria, West Bank, Gaza, Israel
Major Attacks
July 18, 1994: Suicide bombing of AMIA Jewish
Center in Argentina: 87 killed, 300 injured.
March 17, 1992: Suicide bombing of Israeli
Embassy in Argentina: 29 killed, over 250 injured.
October 23, 1983: Suicide bombing of the U.S.
Marine barracks in Beirut: 241 marines killed.
Leaders
Founder: Ali Akbar Motashemi
Secretary General: Hasan Nasrallah (in Beirut)
Spiritual leader: Muhammad Hussein Fadlallah
Ideology
Militant Islamic Fundamentalism
Goals
Destruction of Israel
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Establishment of an Islamic state in Lebanon and
over Jerusalem
Methods
Pioneered use of suicide bombings in Mideast. Also
conducts paramilitary operations against civilian and
military targets.
Sponsors
Iran, Syria and Lebanon
U.S.-Related Activities
Prior to September 11, 2001, Hezbollah was
responsible for the deaths of more Americans
around the world than any other terrorist
organization.
On December 17, 2004, the U.S. government
designated Hezbollah's satellite television station,
Al Manar, as a terrorist entity and placed it on the
Terrorism Exclusion List.
According to the FBI, Hezbollah maintains a
network of "sleeper" cells in the United States.
U.S. Deputy Secretary of State Richard Armitage
testified before Congress in September 2002 that
Hezbollah's capability to organize an attack
against U.S. targets was similar to that of Al
Qaeda.
In 2002 the FBI uncovered a Hezbollah cell in
Charlotte, North Carolina. Several operatives were
eventually convicted of raising funds and procuring
dual-use technology - including night-vision
goggles, global positions systems, stun guns,
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naval equipment, nitrogen cutters and laser range
finders - for the group's military wing. The cell's
ringleader, Mohammad Hammoud, was sentenced
to 155 years in prison.
In January 2002 a U.S. federal judge ordered Iran
to pay $42 million to the family of Charles Hegna,
who was executed by Hezbollah terrorists during
the 1984 hijacking of a Kuwait Airlines flight.
On June 25, 1996 Hezbollah terrorists filled a
tanker truck with explosives and detonated it
outside the Khobar Towers housing complex in
Dahrahn, Saudi Arabia. 19 U.S. servicemen were
killed and over 370 Americans and Saudi Arabians
were injured.
Designated by the U.S. as a Foreign Terrorist
Organization.
Islamic Palestine Block An Najah Students Cell
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Description: A green map of Israel and the territories is
partly obscured in the background. A black M-16 rifle is
superimposed over the upper section of the map with a
black flag, attached to the rifle, to the left. To the right,
black lettering translates as "Muslim Palestine Block."
The gun rests on a globe, which in turn rests on the
Koran. Encircling the globe and Koran is a red crescent
with the inscription: "An-Najah National University."
Explanation: Green is the color of Islam: the fact that
both Israel (and the territories) and the globe are in
green signifies the group's desire to Islamize them. The
rifle and the flag are symbols of militancy. The Koran,
upon which the globe rests, is considered the
foundation of the movement. The red crescent
symbolizes Islam.
Name Variations
Islamic Palestine Block, An-Najah Students Cell
Overview
An-Najah University, in the West Bank city of Nablus,
has been a flashpoint in the conflict between Israel and
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Palestinians since at least 1980, when violent anti-
Israel protests led the Israeli military to close the
school intermittently. Today the student council of An-
Najah is known for its advocacy of anti-Israel violence
and its recruitment of Palestinian college students into
terrorist groups. The council, almost completely
controlled by factions loyal to Hamas, Islamic Jihad and
Fatah, glorifies suicide bombings and propagandizes for
jihad against Israel. Hamas has described An-Najah as a
"greenhouse for martyrs."
Focus of Operations
An-Najah University, Nablus (West Bank)
Major Attacks
None known. The group is a recruiter and feeder for
Hamas and many of its members have conducted
suicide bombings, but it does not stage attacks
independently.
Leaders
The student council is comprised of student groups
known to be affiliated with Hamas and Islamic Jihad.
Ideology
Militant Islamic fundamentalism
Goals
Indoctrinating students with anti-Israel propaganda and
recruit them for terrorist organizations, including
Hamas and Palestinian Islamic Jihad.
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Methods
Disseminates propaganda to students that glorifies
suicide bombings and other terrorist activities.
Hosts dramatic, celebratory reenactments and
exhibits of terrorist attacks on Israeli civilians.
Sponsors
Al Ihsan, a charitable society in the West Bank and
Gaza connected both to the Palestinian Authority and
Palestinian Islamic Jihad.
U.S.-Related Activities
None known
Kahane Movement
Description: In a blue circle, a clenched fist in blue is
raised through the middle of a yellow Star of David.
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Explanation: The fist conveys strength, courage and
militancy. The Star of David represents the group's
Jewish identity; the yellow evokes the patch Jews wore
during the Holocaust.
Groups
Kahane Chai
Kach
Jewish Defense League
Overview
The Kahane Movement consists of several extremist
Jewish groups who follow the Jewish nationalist
ideology of the late Rabbi Meir Kahane. In Israel, they
include: the Kach Party, Kahane Chai, the National
Jewish Front and G'dud Haivri (The Jewish Legion); in
the United States: the Jewish Defense League, and the
Jewish Defense Organization. These organizations
advocate militant Jewish nationalism as a means to
protect the Jewish people. In its 35 year history,
Kahane's supporters have demonstrated a pattern of
xenophobia, anti-Arab bigotry and violence in the U.S.
and Israel.
Kahane's assassination in 1990 greatly weakened the
movement, particularly in the U.S. where few followers
remain. The Oslo Peace Process in 1993, however,
galvanized Kahanists in Israel and increased their
violent activities. Since the onset of the second intifada
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in 2000, former Kach and Kahane Chai members have
opposed a negotiated peace with the Palestinians
through physical confrontations and violent means.
Working with other Jewish extremists, such as Revava
and the Temple Mount Faithful, its members have
threatened to revolt against the Israeli government in
response to any Israeli withdrawal from the occupied
territories.
Focus of Operations
Israel and the United States
Major Attacks
March 5, 2002: A homemade time-bomb exploded in
the courtyard of a Palestinian school in the Sur
Bahir neighborhood of East Jerusalem, injuring 24
students and 2 teachers.
November 4, 1995: Yigal Amir, a follower of Meir
Kahane, assassinated Israeli Prime Minister
Yitzhak Rabin.
February 25, 1994: During the Muslim holy month of
Ramadan, Baruch Goldstein opened fire on a group
of Muslim worshippers at the Al-Ibrahimi Mosque in
Hebron, killing 29. As a result of the attack, Israel
banned Kahane Chai, confiscated their weapons
and arrested their leaders
November 1992: Grenade attack in Jerusalem. 1
killed, 8 wounded.
Leaders
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Founder: Rabbi Meir Kahane (assassinated by El
Sayyid Nosair in New York City 11/5/90)
Leader: Binyamin Kahane (deceased)
Leader: Baruch Marzel
Leader: Noam Federman
Ideology
Militant Jewish nationalism
Goals
Ridding Israel, the West Bank and Gaza of Arabs.
Methods
Protests, harassment, shootings, bombings.
Sponsors
None known
U.S.-Related Activities
December 11, 2001: JDL leader Irv Rubin and Earl
Krugel, the group's former West Coast coordinator,
were arrested days before they planned to blow up
the San Clemente offices of Darrell Issa, a
Lebanese-American Republican congressman; the
Muslim Public Affairs Council in Los Angeles; and,
the King Fahd mosque in Culver City, south of
Beverly Hills. Rubin committed suicide while
awaiting trial in November 2002. In September
2005, Krugel was sentenced to 20 years in prison
for his role in the plot.
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American members of Kahane Chai maintain a
base of operations in Brooklyn, NY. This base was
raided by the F.B.I. in January, 2001.
Summer, 1993: Established a training camp in New
York's Catskill Mountains. 120 trainees from the
U.S., Canada, and Britain participated in weapons
drills, instruction in urban warfare,
counterterrorism, fitness instruction, ideological
lectures, and Hebrew lessons.
February 26, 1992: Reportedly responsible for two
small bombs which went off outside the Syrian
Mission to the United Nations
Kahane Chai is designated by the U.S. as a Foreign
Terrorist Organization.
Lashkar e Taiba
Description: A black AK-47 rifle, placed against a yellow
sun in the center, protrudes vertically from an open,
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green Koran. Above the rifle, in black, is a semi-circular
Koranic phrase which translates: "And fight them on
until there is no more tumult or oppression, and there
prevail justice and faith in Allah." These images are set
against a light blue background. Below the Koran is
white lettering against a red background; it bears the
group's original name: Markaz al-Dawa wa al-Irshad (the
Center for Preaching and Guidance).
Explanation: The Koran signifies the centrality of Islam
to Lashkar-e-Taiba's ideology; green is also Islam's
traditional color. The blue background represents
Allah's mercy and the sun symbolizes wisdom and
virtue. The rifle's placement above the Koran, and the
inscription above, denote the organization's belief that
violent jihad will establish a society based on Islamic
precepts. The red on the bottom is a symbol of strength
and violence.
Name Variations
Lashkar-e-Taiba
Jamaat ud-Dawa
Al-Mansoorian
Markaz al-Dawa wa al-Irshad
Army of the Pure
Army of the Righteous
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Overview
Lashkar-e-Taiba (LET), a Pakistani-based Islamic
terrorist organization, seeks to drive out Indian security
forces from the disputed Jammu and Kashmir regions of
South Asia and establish an Islamic caliphate. Various
intelligence services consider LET to be one of the
most dangerous Islamic militant groups operating in
Kashmir. Known for its expertise in suicide bombing
and conventional assault tactics, LET has carried out
many deadly attacks, including a raid on the Indian
Parliament in 2002, which killed 14. Although the
organization stopped claiming responsibility for attacks
after it was ostensibly banned by Pakistan in 2002,
Indian authorities have arrested many LET operatives in
connection with attacks in the region.
The group was founded in the late 1980s with the help
of the Pakistani government (which also opposes the
Indian presence in Kashmir) as the armed wing of the
Markaz al-Dawa wa al-Irshad, an Islamic social welfare
group. LET, which was also inspired by Osama bin
Laden, continues to maintain close ties with Al Qaeda.
Intelligence services have discovered that, before its
camps were destroyed by the United States in 2001, Al
Qaeda frequently hosted and trained LET operatives.
Conversely, since the destruction of those camps, LET
has hosted Al Qaeda trainees and other Islamic
militants, including Shahzad Tanweer, one of the
suicide bombers in the July 7, 2005 London
Underground attack, according to British authorities.
Additionally, senior Al Qaeda leaders, such as Abu
Zubeida have been arrested at LET compounds.
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Focus of Operations
Pakistan, India, Jammu and Kashmir
Major Attacks
October 29, 2005: Three coordinated suicide
bombs in New Delhi during Hindu festival of Diwali
killed at least 63 and wounded over 200.
August 25, 2003: Double bombing in Bombay
(Mumbai) killed 52 and wounded 175.
September 24, 2002: Raid on Akshardam Temple in
Gujarat killed 28 Hindu worshippers.
December 13, 2001: Raid on Indian Parliament
killed at least 14.
Leaders
Leader: Hafiz Muhammad Saeed
Leader: Maulana Abdul Wahid Kashmiri
Co-Founder: Zaki ur Rehman Lakhwi a.k.a. Abdullah
Azam
Ideology
Militant Islamic Fundamentalism
Goals
Establishment of Islamic rule over Jammu, Kashmir and
eventually India
Methods
Suicide bombings, paramilitary operations against
civilian and military targets, mass-executions.
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Sponsors
Formerly Pakistan
U.S.-Related Activities
Designated by the U.S. as a Foreign Terrorist
Organization.
Several American citizens, including members of
the so-called Virginia Jihad Network, were
convicted of training at LET camps in Kashmir and
Pakistan, as well as other related terrorism
charges.
LET operatives have reportedly been recruited for
planned Al Qaeda attacks on American interests
and the organization is believed to have operatives
already in the U.S.
Muslim Brotherhood
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Description: A brown square frames a green circle with
a white perimeter. Two swords cross inside the circle
beneath a red Koran. The cover of the Koran says:
"Truly, it is the Generous Koran." The Arabic beneath
the sword handles translates as "Be prepared."
Explanation: The swords reinforce the group's militancy
and, as traditional weapons, symbolize historic Islam.
They also reinforce the group's commitment to jihad.
The Koran denotes the group's spiritual foundation. The
motto, "Be prepared," is a reference to a Koranic verse
that talks of preparing to fight the enemies of God.
Name Variations
Society of Muslim Brothers
Overview
The Muslim Brotherhood was founded in 1928 by
Hassan al-Banna, an Egyptian seeking to overthrow
Egypt's monarchy, expel western influences and
establish an Islamic theocracy. The Brotherhood has
pursued these goals since its founding through political
activity, ideological influence and acts of violence. The
group became known for its extensive terrorist
operations, including a failed assassination attempt on
Egyptian leader Gamal Abdul Nasser. Its activities led
to violent crackdowns by the governments of Egypt and
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772
Syria; it is banned in those countries and others.
The brotherhood continues to enjoy a large following
throughout the Muslim world. While forced to limit its
violent activity, the group has influenced many terrorist
leaders - including Osama Bin Laden - and its members
have formed several radical and violent organizations.
One of these, Egyptian Islamic Jihad - which was later
absorbed into Al Qaeda - assassinated Egyptian
president Anwar Sadat. Hamas, another spinoff, was
formed by Palestinian members trying to increase the
group's influence in the Israeli conflict. The
organization has praised and encouraged Palestinian
and Iraqi suicide bombers and terrorists.
Focus of Operations
Headquartered in Egypt; satellite groups throughout the
Muslim world
Major Attacks
The Muslim Brotherhood no longer openly conducts
terrorist operations; it is primarily a political
organization that supports terrorism and terrorist
causes. Many of its members, however, have engaged
in terrorist activities and the group has spawned
numerous terrorist groups, such as Hamas and Egyptian
Islamic Jihad.
2002: Suspected in suicide bombing in Grozny.
1979: Suspected in attacking Syrian military
academy in Aleppo. 50 Syrian artillery cadets
killed
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Leaders
Leader: Muhammad Mahdi Akef (in Egypt)
Founder: Hassan al-Banna (assassinated, February
12, 1949)
Ideological influence: Sayyid Qutb (executed by
Egypt)
Ideology
The Muslim Brotherhood's theology is based on the
doctrine of salafiyya: the belief that present-day
Muslims have been corrupted and must return to the
pristine form of Islam practiced at the time of the
Prophet Muhammad. Many Muslim Brotherhood
members preach jihad. The group says: "Allah is our
objective. The Prophet is our leader. Koran is our law.
Jihad is our way. Dying in the way of Allah is our
highest hope."
Goals
Establishing theocracy in Egypt, the Middle East,
ultimately worldwide.
Methods
Preaching, political agitation and advocating terrorism.
The brotherhood participates in elections and attempts
to gain influence through the political process. Although
it is banned in Egypt, members of the brotherhood have
been elected to the legislature there and in Jordan. It
also promotes violence against the U.S. and Israel.
Sponsors
Saudi Arabia
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U.S.-Related Activities
The organization operates a clandestine U.S. chapter in
several states. Several Islamic leaders active in
mosques and national Muslim organizations, as well as
numbers of their followers, are also affiliated with the
Muslim Brotherhood.
National Islamic Front
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Sudan
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Politics and government of
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o Omar Hasan Ahmad al-Bashir
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o Council of States
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The National Islamic Front (Arabic: '._--- '.'.'- '.,-;
transliterated: al-Jabhah al-Islamiyah al-Qawmiyah) is
the political organization that controls Sudan. It
supports the maintenance of an Islamic state run on
sharia and rejects the concept of a secular state. While
its legal front is the political party, the National
Congress, there is little actual distinction between the
two. It is nominally led by President Omar Hassan al-
Bashir. The NIF has shown itself to be both politically
adept and ruthless in its use of violence, in particular in
the internal conflicts of the Second Sudanese Civil War
and the Darfur conflict, as well in the provisioning of
proxy forces such as the Lord's Resistance Army, West
Nile Bank Front and Uganda National Rescue Front II
against Uganda.
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History
Created in the 1960s as an Islamist student group, it
was known as the Islamic Charter Front. From 1964 to
1969 it was headed by Hassan al-Turabi after the
overthrow of the government of President Ibrahim
Abboud. In this period, the ICF managed to eject the
Communist Party from the parliament. It also, perhaps
surprisingly, supported women's right to vote and ran
women candidates. In 1969 the government was
overthrown by General Gaafar al-Nimeiry in a coup
d'tat, after which the members of the Islamic Charter
Front were placed under house arrest or fled the
country. For a 15 year period from this point, the
organization was called the Muslim Brotherhood after
the Muslim Brotherhood of Egypt. In 1979, when Nimeiry
sought an accommodation with the Muslim
Brotherhood, Turabi was invited to become Attorney-
General, a position in which he pushed for the strict
application of sharia in 1983. Throughout the Cold War,
the organization benefitted from the pro-Islamist
support of Saudi Arabia. They gained disproportionate
power over the Sudanese economy through their
dominance of Islamic banking.
It also benefitted from a surge of anti-Communism in
the Nimeiry regime. This is because the Communist
party had been its rival amongst University students.
The Communists and NIF appealed to University
students by being less based on family connections
than the mainstream Sudanese parties.
(source: Francis M. Deng)
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Although Nimeiry called his regime socialist to the end
he turned on the Communists as a threat to his power
and likely as an impediment in gaining aid from the
United States.
In 1985, the leadership of the Muslim Brotherhood was
charged with sedition. This came, in part, because al-
Nimeiry had grown suspicious of their banking power.
This official condemnation of the group proved
temporary though as President Nimeiry had lost support
of the Sudanese people and the military so was
consequently overthrown. An attempt at democracy
followed his overthrow and the organization attempted
to use this to their advantage. In the 1986 elections
their financial strength and backing among university
graduates still gave them only ten percent of the vote
and therefore a third place position. They made up for
this by increasingly gaining support of the military
during a time of civil war. The well educated status of
their leadership, Turabi was one of the best educated
men in Sudan, also gained them prestige. In 1989, the
organization was therefore able to overthrow the
elected government of Prime Minister Sadiq al-Mahdi
with the help of the military. After gaining power, Turabi
renamed the organization the National Islamic Front.
While some NIF leaders, including Turabi, were placed
under house arrest following the coup as part of the
internal power struggle that brought President Omar
Hasan Ahmad al-Bashir to power, they were soon
released. The NIF created the National Congress Party
as a legal cover.
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Once in power the NIF intensified the war against the
South. They also placed Sadiq al-Mahdi in prison.
Intriguingly, though Sadiq is related to Turabi by
marriage, the two had become bitter enemies by the
mid-1980s. The regime also committed what are widely
deemed to have been massive human rights violations
against religious minorities, particularly in the South.
Although not as harshly sexist as Afghanistan's later
Taliban, women in the Sudan could face execution for
adultery even in cases of rape. This was used by
several soldiers in their war against the South. The NIF
also tried to position itself as the world's leading Sunni
Islamist organization. They would, arguably, be the only
Sunni Islamist state before the Taliban (The Gulf states
being monarchies). Although critical of Saddam Hussein
Turabi held an anti-American Islamist conference during
Operation Desert Storm, toward the end of supporting
the Iraqi people in their war. During terrorism expert
Steven Emerson's 1998 testimony before the United
States Senate, he implicated the Sudanese National
Islamic Front as partly responsible for the February
1993 World Trade Center bombing.
[1]
That attack, on
February 26, 1993, occurred on the 2nd anniversary of
the retreat of Iraqi forces from Kuwait, thus ending the
1991 Gulf War.
Beginning in 1991, they also harbored Osama bin Laden
for a time, after the Saudis revoked his citizenship. It is
suspected they hoped he could aid them through his
wealth and construction company. However, eventually
the NIF government deemed him too great a liability
and ejected him.
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Bin Laden had been exiled to Sudan because he had
publicly spoken out against the Saudi government for
basing U.S. troops in Saudi Arabia in order to oppose
Iraq's takeover of Kuwait. So although bin Laden and
the NIF appeared to be on opposite sides of sympathy
for or against the Iraqi invasion of Kuwait, they both
found differing reasons for their greater and common
concern, the presence and involvement of the United
States in that region's conflict.
After more then a decade of civil war a shift may have
begun in Sudan. Starting around 1999 Hassan Turabi's
political clout waned. After the September 11, 2001
attacks the regime made attempts to downplay, in least
on the public international stage, any international
Islamist aspects of the organization. Further Turabi was
imprisoned in 2004 and the regime allowed the
Christian John Garang to be Vice President in a peace
deal. However abuses in Darfur have gained note and
the government is still dominated by high ranking
members of the NIF. What, if any, real change has
occurred is therefore uncertain.
References
1. ^ official prepared statement of Steven Emerson
before the Senate Judiciary Committee's
Subcommittee on Terrorism, Technology, and
Government Information, on February 24, 1998,
Federal Information Systems Corporation, Federal
News Service, as downloaded from the Library of
Congress, 1998, Made available 4/5/98
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External links
National Islamic Front at SudanUpdate.org
Profile: Sudan's Islamist leader, BBC, 14 October
2003
Sudan Emancipation & Preservation Network
(SEPNet)
Palestinian Liberation Front
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Description: Under a five-pointed red star, from left to
right, is a green map of Israel and the territories, an AK-
47 rifle and a crescent. At bottom, in a semi-circle, are
the words "Palestinian Liberation Front."
Explanation: The star symbolizes the group's Marxist-
Leninist beginnings. The green map of Israel denotes
the aim of eliminating what the group believes to be
wrongful rule of Israel. The rifle symbolizes and affirms
a commitment to armed struggle. The combination of
red, green and black echoes the Palestinian flag and
evokes Palestinian nationalism.
Name Variations
Palestine Liberation Front
Overview
The Palestinian Liberation Front was founded by
Muhammad Zaidan (better known as Abu Abbas) and
Talat Yaakub in 1977 when they split from the PFLP -
GC [link] over its support for Syria in the Lebanese civil
war. The group, led by Abu Abbas until he died in
captivity in 2003, is best known to Americans for its
1985 hijacking of the Achille Lauro cruise ship, during
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which the hijackers killed wheelchair-bound Jewish
passenger Leon Klinghoffer. In the late 1980s Abbas
folded the group into the Palestine Liberation
Organization after being elected to the PLO's executive
committee. He renounced violence after the Oslo
Accords, but with the onset of the second Palestinian
intifada resumed terrorist activity - including the murder
of an Israeli teenager and an attempted bombing of a
bus near Haifa. While partly funded by the Palestinian
Authority, the group's major benefactor was Saddam
Hussein; the Iraqi dictator sheltered Abbas in Baghdad
following the Achille Lauro incident and provided the
group with military training and logistical and financial
aid. The PLF continues to operate cells in the West
Bank and Gaza, but Israeli raids and the death of Abbas
have significantly eroded its strength.
Focus of Operations
Israel, Lebanon, Egypt
Major Attacks
October 7, 1985: PLF agents hijacked the Italian-
owned cruise ship Achille Lauro in the
Mediterranean. After holding the crew and
passengers hostage for two days, the terrorists
murdered disabled American passenger Leon
Klinghoffer and threw him overboard.
Leaders
Omar Shibli, aka Abu Ahmed Halab (in Lebanon)
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Muhammad Zaidan, aka Abu Abbas (captured by
U.S. Special Forces in Iraq in April, 2003; died in
custody)
Talat Yaakub (deceased)
Ideology
Formerly Communist, but primarily secular and
nationalist since the fall of the Soviet Union.
Goals
Destruction of Israel
Establishment a Palestinian state
Methods
Paramilitary attacks, hostage-taking against civilian
and military targets.
Sponsors
Libya, Iraq, Palestinian Authority
U.S.-Related Activities
2003: Coalition forces apprehended Abu Abbas in
Iraq.
Designated by the U.S. as a Foreign Terrorist
Organization.
Palestinian Islamic Jihad
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Description: The dome of the Al Aksa Mosque is at the
center. Two rifles extend diagonally from behind the
mosque. Between the rifles, in Arabic, is the phrase
"God is the greatest." The mosque rests on two red fists
extending right and left horizontally. A map of Israel and
the territories, colored in green, is superimposed over
the fists and the Mosque.
Two Arabic phrases circle the image. The phrase at
bottom says "Islamic Jihad Movement in Palestine." At
the top is a Koranic verse: "And those who strive in Our
(cause) - We will certainly guide them to our Paths, For
verily Allah is with those who do right."
Explanation: The symbol vividly uses red, green and
black, the colors of the Palestinian flag. Black: The
rifles behind Al Aksa Mosque are a reference to the
group's militancy; the Mosque is a symbol of Palestinian
nationalism and has powerful religious significance.
Red: The red fists represent the group's commitment to
jihad. Green: The map of Israel, including the territories,
is in green, the color of Islam, denotes PIJ's view that
the land should belong to Muslims.
Name Variations
Islamic Jihad Movement in Palestine
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Overview
Established in Gaza in 1980 by radical members of the
Muslim Brotherhood, Palestinian Islamic Jihad is
dedicated to the violent destruction of Israel and the
unification of the Muslim world under an Islam
"purified" of modern Western elements. Unlike the
larger and better-funded Hamas, Palestinian Islamic
Jihad does not manage social welfare programs; it
concentrates instead on spectacular attacks against
Israeli civilians and military forces, sometimes using
women and children as suicide bombers. In 1995 a
former adjunct professor at the University of South
Florida in Tampa named Ramadan Abdallah Shallah
took over the organization after the assassination of its
previous leader, Fathi Shikaki, and called for Israel's
destruction. Another University of South Florida
professor, Sami Al-Arian, has been indicted for raising
funds for the group.
Focus of Operations
West Bank, Gaza, Israel, Syria, Lebanon
Major Attacks
October 4, 2003: Suicide bombing at Maxim
restaurant in Haifa 22 killed, 60 wounded.
June 5, 2002: Suicide bombing at Meggido junction,
Israel 18 killed, 50 injured.
March 4, 1996: Suicide bombing at Dizengoff
shopping mall in Tel Aviv 13 killed, 75 injured.
Leaders
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Secretary-General: Dr. Ramadan Abdullah Shallah
(in Damascus)
Founder: Fathi Shikaki (killed)
Founder: Abdel Aziz Odeh
Founder: Bashir Musa
Ideology
Militant Islamic Fundamentalism
Goals
Destruction of Israel
Establishment of an Islamic state over all of
Palestine
Methods
Suicide bombings and paramilitary operations against
civilian and military targets.
Sponsors
Iran, Lebanon, Syria.
U.S.-Related Activities
Ramadan Abdullah Shallah, the group's current
leader, and Sami Al-Arian, both former professors
at the University of South Florida, were indicted by
the U.S. in February 2003 for providing material
support to terrorism.
Designated by the U.S. as a Foreign Terrorist
Organization.
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Palestinian National and Islamic Forces
Description: A ring of joined hands encircles a green
map of Israel and the territories. In the perimeter of a
circle around the hands the words "National and Islamic
Forces" appear in both English and Arabic. Palestinian
flags frame the circle, and a small image of the Al Aksa
Mosque appears at the top."
Explanation: The map of Israel and the territories,
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nested in the joined hands, signifies the organization's
aim of ruling that land. The flags symbolize Palestinian
nationalism, as does the Al Aksa Mosque; the mosque
also expresses a religious sentiment. The joined hands
are symbolic of the unity of the different groups that are
part of the organization.
Name Variations
National and Islamic Forces
Overview
The National and Islamic Forces group was formed
shortly after the outbreak of the second intifada in
2000. It is a committee comprised of representatives
from each of the most important Palestinian political
factions, both mainstream and radical, including
Hamas, the PFLP and the PLFP-GC. It was formed with
the authorization of former Palestinian leader Yasser
Arafat and was led by Marwan Barghouti, who was
incarcerated in 2002. The National and Islamic Forces
coordinates the agenda of its members and helps plan
and execute joint terror operations against Israel. While
the group enjoyed significant influence during the
second intifada, it has been less visible since the
election of Mahmoud Abbas in 2005.
Focus of Operations
West Bank, Gaza, Israel
Major Attacks
None known; it facilitates but does not conduct
attacks.
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Leaders
Authorized by Yasser Arafat; led during the second
intifada by Marwan Barghouti.
Ideology
Palestinian nationalism
Goals
Organizing a unified effort among major Palestinian
factions to oppose Israel and coordinate terror attacks.
Methods
Organizes meetings of, and disseminates
information to, member groups.
Organizes and sponsors large demonstrations.
Sponsors
The Palestinian Authority
U.S.-Related Activities
Organizes anti-U.S. demonstrations in the West Bank
and Gaza.
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790
Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine
Description: Inside a white circle which is placed on a
red background - a white arrow points from a red semi-
circle to a red map of Israel and the territories. Below
the arrow, on the right side, is a white dot.
Explanation: The arrow symbolizes the return of
Palestinian refugees. Red symbolizes the group's
Marxist-Leninist heritage.
Name Variations
Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine (PFLP)
Overview
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Founded by George Habash in 1967, the Popular Front
for the Liberation of Palestine combines Marxist-
Leninism and Palestinian nationalism. The group
became affiliated with Yasser Arafat's PLO in 1968, and
during the next decade conducted several spectacular
operations, primarily hijacking international airliners.
The rise of Islamist groups (Hamas, Palestinian Islamic
Jihad) during the first intifada, the collapse of the
Soviet Union and the funding it provided, and the
unfolding of the Oslo peace process marginalized the
PFLP by the early 1990s. It regained influence with the
second intifada in 2000; the organization's leadership
followed new chief Abu Ali Mustafa to the Palestinian
territories, where group members committed suicide
bombings and other attacks, including the
assassination of Israeli tourism minister Rehavam
Zeevi.
The PFLP remains active despite its relatively few
numbers and the fact that its current leader, Ahmed
Saadat, has been held in a PA jail since the killing of
Zeevi.
Focus of Operations
West Bank, Gaza, Israel, Syria, Lebanon
Major Attacks
November 1, 2004: 16 year-old suicide bomber in
Tel-Aviv: 3 dead, 38 wounded.
October 17, 2001: Assassinated Israeli Tourism
Minister Rehavam Ze'evi.
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June 17, 1976: Collaborated with Baader-Meinhof
Gang (a West German terrorist group) to hijack an
Air France passenger plane and land it in Entebbe,
Uganda. Israeli commandos stormed the plane,
killing the terrorists and freeing the hostages: 1
commando killed.
May 30, 1972: PFLP and Japanese Red Army
members opened fire and threw grenades in the
passenger terminal at Lod (now Ben-Gurion)
International Airport: 26 killed, 78 wounded.
Founders/Leaders
Founder: George Habash
Former leader: Abu Ali Mustafa (killed)
Leader: Ahmed Saadat (jailed by the Palestinian
Authority)
Senior member: Maher Taher
Ideology
Marxist-Leninism, Palestinian nationalism
Goals
"Liberating all of Palestine and establishing a
democratic socialist Palestinian state."
Destruction of Israel
Return of the Palestinian refugees
Methods
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Hijackings, assassinations, car bombings, suicide
bombings, paramilitary operations against civilian
and military targets.
Sponsors
Syria, Libya
U.S.-Related Activities
Although the PFLP has no known formal
infrastructure in the U.S. for recruiting or
financing, it is politically supported by U.S.
Palestinian and far-left organizations.
Designated by the U.S. as a Foreign Terrorist
Organization.
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Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam
Description: The yellow head and paws of a roaring
tiger emerge from a black circle against a red
background. The circle is superimposed over two
crossed rifles and is ringed by bullets.
Explanation: The symbol prominently displays three
colors: red, yellow and black. The background is red,
which denotes revolution and social change. The yellow
tiger is an emblem with deep roots in Tamil culture,
representing heroism, militancy and patriotism. It also
signifies the group's goal of self-determination. The
black rifle and bullets underscore a commitment to
violence.
Name Variations
Tamil Tigers
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Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam
Overview
The Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam (LTTE) grew out of
a wider Tamil struggle for independence on Sri Lanka in
the early 1970's. The Tamils, an ethnic group
comprising about one-fifth of the island's population,
fought the ruling Sinhalese in an attempt to govern
traditionally Tamil regions. Officially formed in 1976 by
the militant high-school dropout Velupillai Prabhakaran,
the LTTE began conducting extensive and deadly
terrorist attacks throughout Sri Lanka in 1983. The
group consists of several divisions, including an elite
guerrilla force called the Charles Anthony Regiment and
a highly effective suicide bombing squad known as the
Black Tigers. It also has a political wing, an intelligence
division and a small navy (the Sea Tigers).
The LTTE was a pioneer in the use of suicide bombings,
employing them since 1987, and its suicide bombers are
among the most revered figures in the organization;
they have killed thousands of soldiers and civilians. The
group actively recruits women and youths for suicide
missions, and would-be bombers are treated to the
honor of sharing their last meal with Prabhakaran.
The LTTE has engaged in a long and bloody war against
Sri Lankan military forces, causing tens of thousands of
civilian and military casualties. Since 2002, however,
the group has largely abided by a Norwegian-brokered
cease-fire with the Sri Lankan government.
To read more about LTTE, click to this article on the
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ADL Web site.
Focus of Operations
Sri Lanka, India. The LTTE also has extensive
fundraising and propaganda operations throughout
Europe, Canada and Asia, and often rely on violent
crime to raise funds.
Major Attacks
June 7, 2000: Suicide bomb in Colombo, capital of
Sri Lanka. 20 killed - including C.V. Goonaratne,
Minister for Industrial Development - and at least
50 wounded.
January 31, 1996: Truck bomb at the central bank
in Colombo. 90 killed, 1,400 wounded.
May 21, 1991: Suicide bomb in Madras, India, killed
former Indian Prime Minister Rajiv Gandhi.
March 2, 1991: Suicide bomb killed Sri Lanka
Defense Minister Ranjan Wijeratne and 19 others.
Leadership
Founder: Velupillai Prabhakaran
Chief Negotiator: Anton Balasingham
Ideology
Tamil nationalism
Goals
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Establishing an independent Tamil state.
Methods
Suicide bombings, paramilitary operations against
civilian and military targets
Sponsors
Prior to 1991, the Indian government armed the group.
The LTTE also buys weapons from countries of the
former Soviet Union.
U.S.-Related Activities
Designated by the U.S. as a Foreign Terrorist
Organization.
Sri Lanka Rebels with an air force
Sri Lanka's Tamil Tiger rebels launch air strikes against
government installations, boosting their morale after
last year's losses and taking the renewed conflict to a
dangerous new level.
Commentary by Animesh Roul for ISN Security Watch
(02/05/07)
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In an apparent change of war tactics, Sri Lanka's Tamil
militant group, the Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam
(LTTE), is now resorting to aerial attacks against
government targets, a novel shift in the conflict that
has ravaged the Indian Ocean island nation for three
decades.
In what is regarded as the "Fourth Eelam War," at least
three successful air raids have been carried out by the
LTTE's Tamil Eelam air force (TAF) since 26 March, the
date of the first such attack on the Sri Lankan air force
(SLAF) base at Katunayake. The nighttime raid left
three government soldiers dead and some 17 others
injured.
In the second successful air strike on 24 April, the TAF
inflicted extensive damage to a Sri Lankan army
engineering unit in the Palali military complex, leaving
six soldiers dead and a dozen others wounded.
Once again the TAF returned to strike the Katunayake
air base on 26 April, likely in commemoration of the one
month anniversary of the first successful air strike. The
26 April attempt, however, failed.
Not deterred by the Sri Lankan air force's pledge to
destroy the LTTE's air capability with the deployment of
anti- aircraft artilleries, another air raid was carried out
in the early hours of 29 April, when the TAF bombers
targeted two oil storage facilities that cater to SLAF in
Kolonnawa and Muththuraajawala areas.
In this pre-dawn swoop, fuel facilities belonging to
Indian Oil and the Dutch Shell were targeted
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successively, only hours after the SLAF's air strike in
the town of Kilinochchi - an LTTE stronghold.
The TAF's recent success notwithstanding, government
troops have been engaging the LTTE with retaliatory
mortar strikes in other theaters of conflict in Vavuniya
district, taking the clashes to a dangerous new level.
A day after the second air attack by the TAF, on 25
April, Sri Lankan army troops claimed to have killed at
least 20 Tamil Tigers in gun battles.
Even though the government claimed that the Tiger's
air attacks inflicted little damage, the psychological
advantage the LTTE has won has served to significantly
boost the rebels' morale and could embolden them to
step up attacks.
The recent developments make the LTTE the first
militant group in the world to have an air force.
The LTTE has lost some ground in the renewed conflict,
which began in late July last year, when government
fighter jets targeted rebel camps around Mavilaru
reservoir. Since then, the rebels have suffered several
setbacks largely characterized by the loss of strategic
hotspots like Sampur, Muttur, Amparai and Vakarai,
exposing their genuine weakness against a full fledged
military attrition. The air attacks, though carried out by
a relatively unsophisticated air force, likely represent
the LTTE's attempt to regain some of its credibility lost
with its hallmark guerilla warfare and suicide bombing
tactics.
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Initially it was believed that the TAF did not have first
strike air capability and that its air defenses were
obsolete. However, it is now clear that the rebels have
not only the capability to penetrate SLAF air defenses,
but the capability to attack the heartland and return
safely to their secret air base with impunity as well.
The only possible limitation so far demonstrated is
perhaps the fact that all the LTTE's air raids have been
conducted under the cover of night.
Since 1995, the LTTE has been trying to build an
effective air force with flight-trained Tigers (also know
as Vaanpuligal) under a former Air Canada aeronautical
engineer known as "Sornalingam," and also under the
alias of "Shankar." Before the late March air strike, the
TAF reportedly displayed its air prowess only during the
rebels' martyr's day commemorations.
The TAF, reportedly operating from Vanni and other
secret air strips within rebel strongholds, was believed
to consist only of light propeller planes assembled from
pieces bought from Indonesia by the LTTE's naval wing
and some from a South Africa-based flying club, later
smuggled into LTTE-held territory. Reports suggest that
the TAF now has a couple of Cessna and Czech-built
Zlin Z-143 aircrafts, a Swiss-built Pilatus turbo training
aircraft and possibly a Robinson Astro-44 chopper in its
arsenal, all modified for their purposes.
In comparison, the Sri Lanka air force's strike capability
is tangibly much more powerful than the TAF's with at
least seven Kfir C-2 Interceptors, Shenyang J-7s and
four MiGs deployed in Katunayake air base. This could
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be a plausible reason for the TAF to unleash surprise
night time attacks on the air base only to destroy the
SLAF's intercept capability.
Indeed, the TAF air attacks set a dangerous precedent
in the region where many like minded militant groups
are fighting for their own subversive agendas. The LTTE
is believed to have logistical and other linkages with
the India-based United Liberation Front of Assam
(ULFA) and the left-wing extremist (Maoists) elements
operating in the country.
Fears are growing within security and intelligence
establishments in the subcontinent, especially in India.
If the LTTE can have penetrative air squadrons, others
could follow suit employing similar stealthy methods.
Moreover, there are fears that the LTTE could
eventually attack strategic installations on India's
southern coast, although these fears are remote at
present, given the LTTE's proven reluctance to provide
India to enter the fray.
However, these speculations aside, with the Norwegian
brokered ceasefire in tatters since mid last year, the
island nation is certainly bracing for a more violent
conflict in the months ahead, as the rebels bask in a
new found high.
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ALQAEDA ORGANIZATION IN THE ISLAMIC MAGHREB
http://www.tkb.org/ImageDetail.jsp?id=20
073http://www.tkb.org/ImageDetail.jsp?id
=20073http://www.tkb.org/ImageDetail.js
p?id=20073
Mothertongue Name:
Groupe Salafiste pour la Predication et le
Combat
Aliases: Al-Qaeda Committee in the Islamic Maghreb,
Salafist Group for Call and Combat (GSPC), Salafist
Group for Preaching and Combat
Base of Operation: Algeria; Mali; Mauritania; Niger
Founding Philosophy: The al-Qaeda Organization in the
Islamic Maghreb (formerly known as the Salafist Group
for Call and Combat (GSPC)) is a violent extremist group
based in Algeria. The organization has operated since
1996 and is now the most significant terrorist
movement in Algeria. As the Salafist Group for Call and
Combat, the group broke away from the Armed Islamic
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Group (GIA), which was the primary terrorist entity
during the 1992-2000 insurgency in Algeria. GIA aims to
create an Islamist state in Algeria. While the GSPC
broke away from GIA in 1998, both groups maintain the
objective of overthrowing the secular Algerian
government and establishing an Islamist state in the
country. The word salafi means fundamentalist, and
Salafists believe in a pure interpretation of the Koran.
While not all Salafists are extremists, GSPCs objectives
are rooted in this ideology.
As a result of the long, bloody conflict from 1992-2000,
which cost over 100,000 lives, GIAs support was
relatively weak in Algeria. Using this weakness to its
advantage, GSPC pledged to avoid inflicting civilian
casualties in Algeria. While the group has in fact killed
civilians, the numbers are significantly less than the
casualties of the GIA. Instead, GSPC concentrated on
targeting Algerian government and security forces,
especially those in rural areas. The group has also
pledged to attack Western targets and has been linked
to several foiled attacks against U.S. and European
targets in Western Europe. The GSPC has usurped GIA
as the primary terrorist force in the country, and
because of its minimal attacks against civilians, GSPC
benefits from a larger support network in the country.
According to some reports, GSPC has also been able to
take over many of GIAs contacts with other extremists,
including al-Qaeda allies. GSPC has publicly pledged its
allegiance to many of these terrorist entities, and also
officially pledged its allegiance to al-Qaeda in 2003. In
early September 2006, Ayman al-Zawahiri publicly
approved the merge of al-Qaeda with GSPC. The latter
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officially announced its name change in February 2007
in a public announcement following six near-
simultaneous attacks of police stations in towns east of
Algiers.
Current Goals: The al-Qaeda Organization in the Islamic
Maghreb is based in Northern Africa, specifically
Algeria. However, the group is believed to be
establishing links with groups across Northern Africa,
and it also has links to an external network of
extremists in Western Europe. The group has signaled
its intent to target symbols of Western countries both
inside and outside of Algeria, and it has also
established a network to send North African militants to
Iraq for suicide operations and as foot soldiers. Some
intelligence experts fear the group is moving towards a
global objective, along the lines of al-Qaeda, and may
soon adopt similar tactics to al-Qaeda. Other experts
argue that the Organization does not have the
resources to launch large-scale attacks outside of
Algeria. However, the al-Qaeda Organization in the
Islamic Maghreb still appears dedicated to its primary
objective, the establishment of an Islamist state in
Algeria.
Recent arrests of members of the Organization have
uncovered plans for chemical attacks. In April 2005, a
GSPC member, Kamel Bourgass, was convicted for
conspiracy to cause public nuisance by use of poisons
and/or explosives. Bourgasss recent conviction did not
represent the disruption of a vast terrorist conspiracy
originally portrayed by British authorities, and, amidst a
lack of hard evidence, many feel that the ricin plot was
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an overblown threat. Bourgass was connected with the
London-based GSPC cell led by Abu Doha, a known
associate of Usama bin Laden who has also been linked
with the foiled plot to blow up Los Angeles International
Airport.
Jamaat al Muslimeen
Trinidad and Tobago
This article is part of the series:
Politics and government of
Trinidad and Tobago
The Jamaat al Muslimeen (from Arabic _'_- '..) is a
Muslim organisation within the Republic of Trinidad and
Tobago with a membership of predominantly Afro-
Trinidadians. The appeal of its doctrines to the poor and
displaced classes of society have seen its membership
and popularity increase.
It was the organisation's leader, Imam Yasin Abu Bakr,
who led members of the Jamaat in an attempted coup
d'tat against the elected Government of Trinidad and
Tobago in July 1990. Over a six-day period members of
the government including then-Prime Minister A.N.R.
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Robinson were held hostage at gun point while chaos
and looting broke out in the streets of the capital Port
of Spain.
A court ruling, questioned by many as patently absurd
on the facts, upheld an amnesty agreement obtained
during the incarceration of parliament by the group.
This led to the non-prosecution of its members for this
crime despite the contention that the fact that guns and
force were used to obtain said amnesty constituted
duress. Subsequent to the attempted coup, it aligned
itself publicly first with the United National Congress (in
the run-up to the 1995 General Elections) and later with
the People's National Movement (PNM), the party which
forms the current Government of the Republic of
Trinidad and Tobago.
Before and since those elections, however, present and
past members have been connected or prosecuted for
serious violent crimes. These crimes include drug and
gang related killings and a current spree of kidnappings
for ransom of members of the local upper and middle
class. The organisation's leader is currently being
prosecuted with conspiracy to murder several of the
group's former members who had spoken out publicly
against the Jamaat al Muslimeen and its practices, and
who were suspected of becoming witnesses in legal
proceedings against its members.
Currently they are under surveillance by the local
National Security Agency as well as the United States
Central Intelligence Agency for suspected terrorist
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relations with the Middle East, as are two other Muslim
factions.
Jamaat al Muslimeen coup attempt
External links
Chris Zambelis, "Jamaat al-Muslimeen on Trial in
Trinidad and Tobago," Jamestown Foundation
Terrorism Monitor, Volume 4, Issue 5, March 9,
2006.
Chris Zambelis, "Al-Qaeda's Inroads into the
Caribbean," Jamestown Foundation Terrorism
Monitor, Volume 3, Issue 20, October 21, 2005.
Chris Zambelis, "Radical Islam in Latin America,"
Jamestown Foundation Terrorism Monitor, Volume
3, Issue 23, December 2, 2005.
ADEN ABYAN ISLAMIC ARMY (AAIA)
Mothertongue Name:
Jaysh Adan-Abiyan al-Islami
Aliases: Aden Islamic Army, Army of Mohammed and
the Jaish Adan Al Islami, Islamic Aden Army, Islamic
Army of Aden (IAA), Islamic Army of Aden-Abyan (IAAA),
Jaysh Adan, Muhammed's Army
Base of Operation: Yemen
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Founding Philosophy: The Aden Abyan Islamic Army
(AAIA) emerged publicly in mid-1998 when the group
released a series of communiques that expressed
support for Usama Bin Laden and appealed for the
overthrow of the Yemeni government and operations
against US and other Western interests in Yemen.
Members of the sect adhere to the salafi religious
faction, which is a small Sunni Muslim sect closely
related to the Wahhabism theology practiced widely in
Saudi Arabia. AAIA is suspected of being an offshoot of
the Yemeni Islamic Jihad, a group believed to be funded
by bin Laden. The majority of its members are former
Mujihadeen with experience in Afghanistan. The current
status of the AAIA is unknown. Despite several press
statements attributed to the AAIA and released in 2002,
Yemeni officials claim that the group is operationally
defunct.
Current Goals: The Islamic Army praised the attacks on
US embassies in Tanzania and Kenya in August 1998 as
"an heroic operation carried out by heroes of the jihad."
It also announced its support for Usama bin Ladin
following the Americans' reprisal raid on his camp in
Afghanistan, called on the Yemeni people to kill
Americans and destroy their property. On 8 November
1998, then leader al-Mehdar, called on all members of
the Yemeni parliament and Consultative Council to
resign and demanded that President Ali Abdullah Salih
"surrender" and face trial in accordance with the
shari'a. His hostility towards the Yemeni government
seemed to stem partly from his position as a member of
a minority sect, but also from his view that shari'a law
is not applied properly in Yemen.
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Further Reference
"Yemen and the Aden-Abyan Islamic Army," Sheila
Carapico, 10/18/2000, Middle East Report Online
"The Islamic Army: Abu Hamza and the Supporters of
Shariah ," 3/7/1999, Yemen Gateway
"The Islamic Army: Abu al-Hassan and the Islamic
Army of Aden-Abyan ," 1/1/1999, Yemen Gateway
"The Islamic Army: Who Were the Kidnappers?,"
2/22/1999, Yemen Gateway
Patterns of Global Terrorism: 2002, U.S. Department of
State
TERRORIST GROUP: ADEN ABYAN ISLAMIC ARMY
(AAIA)
"Yemen and the Aden-Abyan Islamic Army," Sheila
Carapico, 10/18/2000, Middle East Report Online
"The Islamic Army: Abu Hamza and the Supporters of
Shariah ," 3/7/1999, Yemen Gateway
"The Islamic Army: Abu al-Hassan and the Islamic Army
of Aden-Abyan ," 1/1/1999, Yemen Gateway
"The Islamic Army: Who Were the Kidnappers?,"
2/22/1999, Yemen Gateway
Patterns of Global Terrorism: 2002, U.S. Department of
State
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"Yemen Executes Leader of Islamist Group ,"
10/17/1999, International Policy Institute for
Counterterrorism
AL ITTIHAAD AL ISLAMI (AIAI)
Aliases: Islamic Union, Islamic Unity
Base of Operation: Ethiopia; Kenya; Somalia
Founding Philosophy: Al-Ittihaad al-Islami (AIAI) is a
fundamentalist organization that seeks to create an
Islamic state in Somalia and Ethiopia. The group has
operated as a terrorist organization primarily in
Somalia, but also in Ethiopia and Kenya. While AIAI was
formed in the late 1980s, it did not become a significant
presence until the early 1990s.
AIAI was originally comprised of several Somali
insurgent groups who aimed to overthrow Somali
dictator Mohammed Siad Barre. After a 22-yead
dictatorship, Siad Barre was eventually ousted in 1991.
Following Barres ouster, AIAI terrorist operations
expanded significantly. The group operated with the
principal objective to establish an Islamic state in
Somalia and Ethiopia. The terrorist organization initially
operated almost exclusively in Somalia. However in the
mid 1990s, AIAI initiated several attacks against
Ethiopian security forces on Ethiopian soil. AIAIs
specific goal with these attacks was to gain control of
the Ogaden region of Ethiopia, which borders with
Somalia. In addition to fomenting Islamic extremism
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within Somalia and Ethiopia, AIAI assisted al-Qaeda in
the 1998 East African embassy bombings. It is
suspected that certain AIAI members maintain ties to
al-Qaeda.
Current Goals: During the 1990s, two significant
developments severely weakened AIAIs terrorist
operations. First, prompted by AIAIs cross-border
terrorist attacks, the Ethiopian military initiated an
assault on the group, which was largely successful and
reduced the operational numbers of AIAI terrorists.
Second, the eastern Somali regions of Bari and Nugaal
and northern Mudug created a semiautonomous state
called Puntland. The self-governing, secular area largely
forced AIAIs elements out of the area. Consequently,
the number of AIAI members dwindled to roughly 2,000
and even those members are now scattered among
many small cells. Partly due to its decreased ability to
conduct terrorist attacks and partly to build political
support for itself, AIAI moved increasingly towards
involvement and sponsorship of Islamic social
programs.
Further Reference
Patterns of Global Terrorism: 2002, U.S. Department of
State
"Country Reports on Terrorism 2005," 04/28/2006, U.S.
Department of State
Patterns of Global Terrorism: 2001, U.S. Department of
State
Patterns of Global Terrorism: 2003, US Department of
State
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ALEX BONCAYAO BRIGADE (ABB)
Aliases: Revolutionary Proletarian Army-Alex Boncayao
Brigade (RPA-ABB)
Base of Operation: Philippines
Founding Philosophy: The Alex Boncayao Brigade (ABB)
was initially created as a faction of a pre-existing
terrorist organization, the New People's Army. The New
People's Army (NPA) was formed in 1969 as the armed
wing of a Filipino communist organization. Since its
inception, the NPA remained committed to the idea that
a worker-peasant alliance manifested through a jungle-
based guerilla movement was the most likely path to
revolutionary victory. In the early 1980s, a faction of the
NPA called the Manila-Rizal committee grew
increasingly vocal in their opposition to this strategy. In
the minds of the Manila-Rizal committee, the NPA
should concentrate more on urban terrorism. In 1984
Felimon "Popoy" Lagman recast the Manila-Rizal
committee as an urban terrorist hit squad. Lagman
named this new group the Alex Boncayao Brigade, in
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memory of a committee member who was killed in the
1970s. Between 1984 and 1991, the Alex Boncayao
Brigade operated as a faction of the larger NPA. Due to
continuing tensions between the NPA and its faction,
the two groups finally severed ties in 1991.
Current Goals: Since 1995, the Alex Boncayao Brigade
has demonstrated decreased adherence to a strictly
communist ideology. Several terrorist incidents in the
late 1990s were apparently initiated as anti-
globalization protests. In December 2000 the Alex
Boncayao Brigade signed a truce with the Filipino
military. Likely due to the ABB's government
negotiations and its conciliatory implications, the NPA
has begun to directly target its former ally. The NPA
and ABB continue to target each others' members.
Further Reference
"In the Spotlight: Alex Boncayao Brigade (ABB),"
Andrew George, 02/06/2004, Center for Defense
Information (CDI)
Patterns of Global Terrorism: 1997, U.S. Department of
State
Patterns of Global Terrorism: 2002, U.S. Department of
State
Patterns of Global Terrorism: 1996 , U.S. Department
of State
"Country Reports on Terrorism 2005," 04/28/2006, U.S.
Department of State
ALEX BONCAYAO BRIGADE (ABB)
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"In the Spotlight: Alex Boncayao Brigade (ABB),"
Andrew George, Center for Defense Information (CDI)
Patterns of Global Terrorism: 1997, U.S. Department of
State
Patterns of Global Terrorism: 2002, U.S. Department of
State
Patterns of Global Terrorism: 1996 , U.S. Department of
State
"Country Reports on Terrorism 2005," U.S. Department
of State
Patterns of Global Terrorism: 1998, U.S. Department of
State
Patterns of Global Terrorism: 2000, U.S. Department of
State
Patterns of Global Terrorism: 2001, U.S. Department of
State
Patterns of Global Terrorism: 1999, U.S. Department of
State
ANARCHIST FACTION
Base of Operation: Greece
Founding Philosophy: The first attack claimed by the
Anarchist Faction was the December 1999 bombing of a
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car belonging to the South Korean embassy. Embassy
car bombings have become something of a specialty for
the Anarchist Faction. Since 1999, the Anarchist
Faction has bombed cars belonging to the Jordanian,
German, Lebanese, and Egyptian embassies, as well as
the car of an Italian diplomat. The Greek police have
concluded that the bombings are not intended to
express opposition to the policies of any one nation.
The organization's focus on diplomats and embassies
probably indicates that, much like other Greek terrorist
groups, the Anarchist Faction is strongly opposed to
globalization and Greece's increasing engagement with
the rest of the world. The Anarchist Faction is also
strongly anti-capitalist. They have claimed
responsibility for attacking a bank branch and a car
dealership, declaring that "capitalists are terrorists and
robbers." (Associated Press, 9/22/2000) The Department
of State described the Anarchist Faction as one of
Greece's two most prolific terrorist groups in 2000, but
the organization has not claimed responsibility for an
attack since September of that year.
Current Goals: The Anarchist Faction's main goal seems
to be to increase visibility for socialist causes and to
express solidarity with other socialists whom they view
as persecuted. The group often "dedicates" an attack to
a particular person. They have bombed in support of
several imprisoned anarchists, including Kostas
Kalaremas, Nikolas Maziotis, and Avraam Lesperoglou.
Anarchist Faction also declared that its March 2000
attack on a German Embassy car was in support of
Nikolas Leonidis, an 18-year-old student shot to death
in Salonika by the Greek police. Many other groups have
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also committed acts of terrorism which they dedicated
to the same individuals. For example the Brass Knuckle
Anarchist Punks, the Anarchist Group of Virona, Last
Generation, and the Angry Brigade have all attacked to
show solidarity with Mikolas Maziotis.
Further Reference
"Arsonists burn German Embassy car; more attacks
promised," 9/18/2000, Associated Press Worldstream,
(New York)
"Arsonists torch car dealership," 9/22/2000,
Associated Press Worldstream, (New York)
"S Korean embassy car torched in Athens,"
12/27/1999, Agence France Presse, (Paris)
"Diplomat's car and school bus burned in Athens
attacks," 1/23/2000, Agence France Presse, (Paris)
"Firebomb explodes at bank; underground group
claims responsibility," 9/12/2000, Associated Press
Worldstream, (New York)
ANARCHIST FACTION
"Arsonists burn German Embassy car; more attacks
promised," 9/18/2000, Associated Press Worldstream,
(New York)
"Arsonists torch car dealership," 9/22/2000, Associated
Press Worldstream, (New York)
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"S Korean embassy car torched in Athens," 12/27/1999,
Agence France Presse, (Paris)
"Diplomat's car and school bus burned in Athens
attacks," 1/23/2000, Agence France Presse, (Paris)
"Firebomb explodes at bank; underground group claims
responsibility," 9/12/2000, Associated Press
Worldstream, (New York)
"Firebombs damage cars; other bombs fail to detonate
outside bank," 1/3/2000, Associated Press Worldstream,
(New York)
"Greek police say attack on attache's car not
specifically against Jordan," 1/4/2000, Al-Dustur',
(Amman)
"Two German embassy cars burnt in Greece,"
3/29/2000, Agence France Presse, (Paris)
ARMY FOR THE LIBERATION OF RWANDA (ALIR)
Mothertongue Name:
Armie pour la libiration du Rwanda (ALIR)
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Aliases: Democratic Front for the Liberation of Rwanda
(FDLR) , Ex-FAR (Armed Forces of Rwanda),
Interahamwe
Base of Operation: Congo, Democratic Republic of the
Founding Philosophy: The Army for the Liberation of
Rwanda (ALIR) was formed following the 1994 genocide
in Rwanda. The events leading up to the terrorist
organizations formation began several decades earlier.
The historical conflict in Rwanda has involved the two
primary ethnic groups in the country, the Hutu and
Tutsi. The Hutu are Rwandas majority ethnic group
with 84% of the population while the Tutsi comprise
approximately 15 percent. In 1959, the Hutus overthrew
the ruling king of Rwanda, an ethnic Tutsi. Following
the takeover, thousands of Tutsis were killed wile
approximately 150,000 fled to neighboring countries.
The children of the Tutsi exiles eventually formed an
insurgent group, the Rwandan Patriotic Front. In 1990
the Rwandan patriotic Front sparked a civil war. The
Hutu regime would eventually commence a genocidal
campaign in April 1994. Approximately 800,000 Tutsis
and moderate Hutus were killed in the genocide. The
Hutu regimes Armed Forces of Rwanda (FAR) and the
governments civilian militia force, the Interahawme,
executed the 1994 genocide. Despite the murderous
campaign, the Tutsi forces eventually usurped the Hutu
regime in July 1994.
Following the defeat of Hutu regime, those who had
carried out the genocide feared retribution from the
new government. Former members of the Armed Forces
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of Rwanda (FAR) and Interahawme fled Rwanda for the
Democratic Republic of Congo (formerly Zaire). In the
Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC), the former
soldiers and militia members formed a terrorist group,
called the Army for the Liberation of Rwanda (ALIR).
ALIRs goals were to overthrow the new Tutsi-operated
government and re-install a Hutu-dominated
government. Some observers also believed that ALIR
aimed to re-initiate the genocide of Tutsis.
Current Goals: In August 1998, Rwanda and Uganda
backed a rebellion against the government of the
Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC). Subsequently,
DRC provided training, arms, and supplies to ALIR in
exchange for ALIRs assistance in countering the
rebellion. ALIR had now secured financial backing to
counter the Rwandan government, one of ALIRs
principal objectives. However, ALIR also targeted
innocent civilians, including the murder of eight foreign
tourists in 1999. In 2001 ALIR was superseded by
another organization, Democratic Front for the
Liberation of Rwanda (FDLR). FDLR has forged alliances
with other Rwandan insurgent groups, including some
non-Hutu organizations. In 2002, Rwandan forces
withdrew form eastern Congo and the DRC government
ceased its financial support of ALIR/FDLR.
Further Reference
"Interahamwe: A spent force?," Helen Vesperini,
07/25/2001
"Rwanda Country Report: April 2004," Country
Information & Policy Unit, Immigration & Nationality
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Directorate Home Office, United Kingdom
"DRC: Gov't and rebels blame each other for grenade
attack," 10/19/2004, UN Office for the Coordination of
Humanitarian Affairs
Patterns of Global Terrorism: 2002, U.S. Department of
State
"Country Reports on Terrorism 2005," 04/28/2006, U.S.
Department of State
ARMY FOR THE LIBERATION OF RWANDA (ALIR)
"Interahamwe: A spent force?," Helen Vesperini
"Rwanda Country Report: April 2004," Country
Information & Policy Unit, Immigration & Nationality
Directorate Home Office, United Kingdom
"DRC: Gov't and rebels blame each other for grenade
attack," UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian
Affairs
Patterns of Global Terrorism: 2002, U.S. Department of
State
"Country Reports on Terrorism 2005," U.S. Department
of State
Patterns of Global Terrorism: 2000, U.S. Department of
State
Patterns of Global Terrorism: 2001, U.S. Department of
State
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Patterns of Global Terrorism: 2003, US Department of
State
BABBAR KHALSA INTERNATIONAL (BKI)
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Base of Operation: India
Founding Philosophy: Babbar Khalsa International (BKI)
is an organization of Sikh separatists associated with a
wave of assassinations and terrorist attacks in the
1980s. The group's primary goal is the establishment of
an independent Sikh country of unspecified size in
northwestern India. Group statements and media
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sources usually refer to this proposed state as
"Khalistan."
BKI formed in the late 1970s and developed branches in
North America and Europe, as well as the Sikh
homeland of northern India. BKI militancy coincided
with a major groundswell of Sikh nationalism in the
early 1980s. Rising militancy and separatism climaxed
in 1984, when Indian Prime Minister Indira Gandhi was
assassinated by her Sikh bodyguards, triggering major
anti-Sikh riots which resulted in nearly 3000 deaths.
The Gandhi assassination was retribution for the
governments assault on militants and civilians holed up
in a Sikh shrine in Amritsar several months before. More
than a thousand Sikhs were killed by Indian troops
during the incident. BKIs most deadly attack occurred
on June 23rd, 1985, when it exploded an Air India flight
off the coast of Ireland. More than three hundred people
were killed. A second bomb killed two Japanese
baggage handlers. By 1993, the Babbar Khalsa faction
had been essentially defeated by police in Punjab
province and elsewhere.
Indian security services, police, and journalists have
taken note of an attempted revival of Babbar Khalsa in
2005. A number of militants have been arrested and
weapons and explosives seized this year. Roughly
seventy members have been incarcerated. One major
attack has occurred: on May 22nd, four group members
detonated two bombs in Delhi movie theaters, killing
one and injuring more than fifty. Eight alleged members,
including chief of India operations Jagtar Singh Harawa,
were arrested several days later. This revival of BKI is
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sometimes attributed to Sikh anger over the results of
the Nanavati Commission, created to investigate
government complicity in the 1984 riots.
Babbar Khalsa is now headed by Wadhawa Singh, who
is reportedly hiding in Pakistan with his chief deputy,
Mehal Singh. India has requested the extradition of both
men. Many Indian officials and commentators accuse
Pakistan, particularly its intelligence service (ISI), of
encouraging and facilitating BKI terrorist activities.
Current Goals: Babbar Khalsa seeks a sovereign state
for Sikhs carved out of northern India. Punjab province
and surrounding majority Sikh regions will serve as the
basis for this state, but BKI does not articulate precise
plans for the geographical, political, economic, or
religious characteristics of its desired Khalistan.
Further Reference
"The Bombing of Air India Flight 182," Michael
McAuliffe and Peter Hadzipetros, 06/23/2005, CBC,
(Canada)
"Babbar Khalsa International," South Asia Terrorism
Portal, SATP
"Weapons Brought In, Human Bombs Raised While
Punjab Slept," Indian Express, 07/25/2005, Financial
Times Information, (India)
"Charge Sheets in Cinema Blast Case," The Hindu,
08/28/2005, Financial Times Information, (India)
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BLACK STAR
Mothertongue Name:
Mavro Asteri
Base of Operation: Greece
Founding Philosophy: During the period between May of
1999 and October of 2002, Black Star was one of the
most active terrorist groups in Greece. They are anti-
American, anti-establishment, and anti-capitalist. The
group has declared itself to be dedicated to "resistance
against the mass organizations of US imperialism and
to their local collaborators." (Morou, October 7, 2002)
They believe that "the only terrorists are the US
imperialist forces, their European allies, and their local
capitalist associates." (FBIS London Bureau, June 22,
2000) Black Star often demands the release of an
imprisoned leftist "hero" (such as Dimitris Koufondinas,
Simeon Seisidis, and Mumia Abu-Jamal) when calling to
claim responsibility for an attacks. The group's favorite
targets are the cars of embassies and diplomats, but
they have also attacked the offices and cars of
international organizations and businesses. One of their
earliest attacks was against the Greek-Israeli
Friendship Association, which may indicate that Black
Star is anti-Israel.
Current Goals: Black Star's campaign of terror can be
divided into two periods. During 1999, they attacked at
least three times, and on all three occasions they used
gas-canister bombs and attacked a building. The
second period began in June of 2000. Between June
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826
and September of that year, Black Star attacked at
least eight times, and on all eight occasions their
chosen technique was setting cars on fire. This change
in the group's methods and the six month period of
inactivity at the beginning of 2000 suggests that the
group may have been going through some kind of
internal struggle or change. The group was inactive
again for more than two years after September of 2000,
but re-emerged in October of 2002 to show solidarity
with Dimitris Koufondinas (a member of the group 17N
who had recently been arrested) by attacking a car with
US license plates.
Further Reference
"One wounded in Athens bomb attack," 11/30/1999,
Agence France Press, (Paris)
"A New Attack by the 'New ELA'," A.K. Mourou,
10/7/2002, Elevtherotipia, (Athens)
"Islamic/Aegean Terrorism Review," FBIS London
Bureau, 6/22/2000, FBIS, (Washington, DC)
"Background of 'Black Star' Terrorists Analyzed,"
Hartmut Fiedler, 5/21/1999, Oesterreich Ein Radio
Network, (Vienna)
"Biltateral Contacts Mark Improving Greek-Israeli
Ties," Ilias Vergitsis, 8/24/1999, Exousia, (Athens)
BLACK STAR
"One wounded in Athens bomb attack," 11/30/1999,
Agence France Press, (Paris)
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"A New Attack by the 'New ELA'," A.K. Mourou,
10/7/2002, Elevtherotipia, (Athens)
"Islamic/Aegean Terrorism Review," FBIS London
Bureau, 6/22/2000, FBIS, (Washington, DC)
"Background of 'Black Star' Terrorists Analyzed,"
Hartmut Fiedler, 5/21/1999, Oesterreich Ein Radio
Network, (Vienna)
"Biltateral Contacts Mark Improving Greek-Israeli Ties,"
Ilias Vergitsis, 8/24/1999, Exousia, (Athens)
"Polish embassy car torched in Athens," Auguts 31,
2000, Agence France Press, (Paris)
COMMUNIST PARTY OF NEPAL-MAOIST (CPN-M)
Base of Operation: India; Nepal
Founding Philosophy: The Communist Party of Nepal-
Maoist (CPN-M) is one of the largest and most potent
Communist insurgent groups in the world. In little over
a decade, the CPN-M has been responsible for hundreds
of attacks on government and civilian targets.
Although Nepal had been an absolute monarchy for
many years, mass demonstrations in 1990 forced then-
King Birendra to institute a constitutional monarchy
and revoke an earlier ban on political parties. In short
order a new constitution was drawn up and
parliamentary elections were scheduled. Among over 20
parties on the ballot, the United People's Front (UPF),
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an umbrella party of the left, ran in the 1991 general
elections. However, the UPF's Maoist wing (the CPN-M)
performed extremely poorly, and was excluded from the
next election in 1994.
With no outlet in electoral politics, the Maoists turned
to insurgency to reach their goal of overthrowing
Nepal's parliamentary democracy and transforming
Nepalese society. Such a "transformation" would likely
include a purge of the nation's elite class, a state
takeover of private industry, and the collectivization of
agriculture.
The CPN-M's strategy and tactics are based on
traditional Maoist guerilla war principles. As part of its
struggle against the current regime, the Maoists have
targeted Nepalese parliamentarians, the Prime Minister,
government ministries, and a number of educational
institutions. International targets have occasionally
been hit as well, largely in an effort to isolate the
government. Two US embassy guards were
assassinated by the Maoists in 2002, allegedly for anti-
Maoist spying activities. Further attacks against
diplomatic targets have been threatened in CPN-M
press releases. Foreign commercial targets are also fair
game for the Maoists, as they demonstrated in three
attacks on Coca-Cola facilities and one attack on a
Pepsi-Cola truck.
Despite a massive effort from the Royal Nepalese Army
(at the behest of current King Gyanendra) to crackdown
on the CPN-M, the group enjoys widespread support and
is believed to control an estimated 70% of the Nepalese
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countryside. The CPN-M have an estimated strength of
10,000-20,000 armed cadres with an arsenal that has
increased in both size and sophistication in recent
years. In addition to receiving funds and support from
expatriate Nepalese living in India, the group funds its
operations through extortion, taxation, and bank
robberies. The group maintains bases in India as well as
Nepal and enjoys support from many Indian insurgent
groups, most notably the United Liberation Front of
Assam and the Communist Party of India-Maoist.
Current Goals: In February 2005, ostensibly due to his
inability to crush the rebels, King Gyanendra issued a
state of emergency and dismissed parliament. Although
this move was done purportedly to defeat the CPI-M,
Gyanendras power-grab seems to have only
strengthened the rebels position. Widespread
opposition to the Kings move amongst the Nepalese
people has lent credence to the rebel movement and
has served to improve ties between the CPI-M and other
legitimate political parties. In April 2006, facing
massive protests, King Gyanendra gave up absolute
power and announced that parliament would re-
assemble.
Presently, the re-birth of parliament seems to have had
a positive effect on the CPI-M. While the group is
enjoying a period of strength and has shown to be
generally resolute in terms of its ideology, the group
has taken steps to embrace the political process in
order to achieve their goal of a Communist state in
Nepal. In late-April the group announced a unilateral
three month ceasefire. Scarcely a week later, the
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interim Nepalese parliament reciprocated by
announcing an indefinite ceasefire of its own.
In November 2006, CPI-M and the Nepalese political
establishment reached a peace deal which would see
the rebels disarming under UN supervision and joining
the Nepalese parliament as the second largest party.
The peace agreement has been hailed as "historic" and
a "landmark" for ending violence in Nepal.
Although this agreement is an extremely positive step,
many in Nepal are skeptical. Until the CPI-M has shown
that it has given up violence permanently, a radical
departure to say the least, the group may continue to
commit large-scale violence against both government
forces and civilians in the near future.
Further Reference
"CPN-M - Leadership, Cadres and Training," P.G.
Rajamohan, Institute for Conflict Management
"Country Studies: Nepal," Library of Congress,
01/01/1993, Library of Congress
"Nepal Terrorist Groups - Communist Party of Nepal-
Maoist," South Asia Terrorism Portal
"Communist Party of Nepal-Maoist (CPN-M)," Jane's
Terrorism and Insurgency Center, 04/20/2006, Jane's
Patterns of Global Terrorism: 2002, U.S. Department of
State
: COMMUNIST PARTY OF NEPAL-MAOIST (CPN-M)
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"CPN-M - Leadership, Cadres and Training," P.G.
Rajamohan, Institute for Conflict Management
"Country Studies: Nepal," Library of Congress, Library of
Congress
"Nepal Terrorist Groups - Communist Party of Nepal-
Maoist," South Asia Terrorism Portal
"Communist Party of Nepal-Maoist (CPN-M)," Jane's
Terrorism and Insurgency Center, Jane's
Patterns of Global Terrorism: 2002, U.S. Department of
State
"Country Reports on Terrorism 2005," U.S. Department
of State
"Nepal peace breakthrough welcomed," BBC News
CONTINUITY IRISH REPUBLICAN ARMY (CIRA)
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Aliases: Continuity Army Council, Continuity IRA, Irish
Continuity Army Council (ICAC)
Base of Operation: Ireland; Northern Ireland (UK);
United Kingdom
Founding Philosophy: The Continuity Irish Republican
Army (Continuity IRA or CIRA) is a small group of hard-
core dissident Irish republicans based in Northern
Ireland and the Republic of Ireland. The CIRA remains
true to the original principles of its founding group, the
Irish Republican Army: it engages in terrorist activity in
the hopes of evicting British military personnel from
Northern Ireland and uniting all geographic areas of
Ireland under Irish rule, severing all fealties to the
United Kingdom. The CIRA remains a determined hold-
out as other republican groups are disarming and
committing fully to peaceful politics. It has completely
rejected the full disarmament of the IRA announced in
the summer of 2005. The CIRA is the armed wing of
Republican Sinn Fein (RSF), a supposedly political
organization which was itself designated a terrorist
organization by the U.S. State Department in July 2004.
The RSF and CIRA emerged in response to the
moderation of the Irish Republican Army and Sinn Fein,
its political wing, during the 1980s and 1990s. The
break centered on the IRAs decision to accept seats
won in Parliamentary elections in the Republic of
Ireland, ending a decades-old policy of abstentionism. A
group of dissidents, who thought the move a tacit
acceptance of the legitimacy of the partition of Ireland
between north and south, broke off and formed
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Republican Sinn Fein. The Continuity Irish Republican
Army was then created as RSFs armed wing. Although
Republican Sinn Fein created the Continuity IRA in
1986, the group did not become an active terrorist
organization until the mid 1990s.
The CIRA has been implicated in a number of attacks in
the past decade. The group is best known for
conducting small bombings, most of them non-lethal,
such as tossed explosives and car bombs. In addition to
bombings, CIRA attacks have included robberies,
kidnappings, hijackings, and assassinations. The CIRA
has also been linked to extortion and other economic
crimes in Belfast.
Current Goals: The CIRA remains committed to armed
struggle to free Northern Ireland from British rule. It is
the only Irish republican group that has not declared a
cease-fire since the 1998 Good Friday Accords. The
group has publicly disavowed the disarmament
undertaken by the IRA in 2005, viewing it as treason. In
February 2006, the CIRA and RSF caused a stir in Dublin
when they led a counter-demonstration against a
Unionist march that sparked rioting. Also in February,
the Independent Monitoring Commission, established in
2004 to monitor paramilitary organizations in Northern
Ireland, reported that a CIRA breakaway faction, calling
itself Oglaigh na hEireann (Volunteers of Ireland), had
emerged although little is known about the splinter
group.
Though the CIRA is small (most estimates place its size
between 20 and 50, while UK justice officials put the
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number at "less than 200"), it is committed to armed
struggle and should be considered dangerous. The
group is a particular threat to peace in Northern Ireland
as the other republican groups strive to maintain a
peace accord and prove that they have disarmed.
Further Reference
Encyclopedia of terrorism/ Harvey W. Kushner , Harvey
W. Kushner, c2003., Sage Publications, (Thousand
Oaks, Calif.)
"New Splinter Republican Groups Identified ,"
Breaking News (Ireland) , 02/01/2006
"Dissidents 'Trying to Kill Peace'," 04/21/2006, The
Financial Times
Patterns of Global Terrorism: 2002, U.S. Department of
State
"Cabbie's Intelligence Better Than Top Brass,"
Michael Doyle, 02/28/2006, The Mirror
CONTINUITY IRISH REPUBLICAN ARMY (CIRA)
Encyclopedia of terrorism/ Harvey W. Kushner , Harvey
W. Kushner, c2003., Sage Publications, (Thousand
Oaks, Calif.)
"New Splinter Republican Groups Identified ," Breaking
News (Ireland)
"Dissidents 'Trying to Kill Peace'," The Financial Times
Patterns of Global Terrorism: 2002, U.S. Department of
State
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835
"Cabbie's Intelligence Better Than Top Brass," Michael
Doyle, The Mirror
"Republican Sinn Fein Banned in U.S.," Sean O'Driscoll,
Belfast Telegraph
"CIRA Eight in Sentence Appeal," Irish News
"Republican Dissidents Still Threat to Ulster Security,
Says Watchdog," Owen Borcott, The Guardian
"RIRA Offshoot Link to Blast," Tom Brady, The Belfast
Telegraph
"Time to Steal a March on the Rebels Without a Pause,"
Irish Independent, (Dublin, Ireland)
"New Republican Splinter Groups Identified," Dan
McGinn, The Press Association
"Gerry Adams and Sinn Fein," PBS
"Country Reports on Terrorism 2005," U.S. Department
of State
Patterns of Global Terrorism: 1998, U.S. Department of
State
Patterns of Global Terrorism: 2000, U.S. Department of
State
Patterns of Global Terrorism: 2001, U.S. Department of
State
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EASTERN TURKISTAN ISLAMIC MOVEMENT (ETIM)
Aliases: Eastern Turkistan Islamic Party (ETIP)
Base of Operation: China
Founding Philosophy: The Eastern Turkistan Islamic
Movement (ETIM) is an Islamist extremist group based
in China's Xinjiang-Uygur Autonomous Region. ETIM is
an ethnic Uygur separatist organization that aims to
create an Islamist state in the Xinjiang province.
The area commonly referred to as Turkistan is
sometimes split into Western Turkistan and Eastern
Turkistan. Western Turkistan was controlled by the
Russian empire and then by the USSR, and so the area
is also referred to as Russian Turkistan. The USSR
treated this area as an autonomous region. Following
the dissolution of the USSR, the region was split among
five new republics, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan,
Turkmenistan, and Uzbekistan. In contrast, Eastern
Turkistan has long been a part of China and is
sometimes referred to as Chinese Turkistan. Today, the
region is officially referred to as the Xinjiang-Uygur
Autonomous Region.
While the Eastern Turkistan Islamic Movement's name
would suggest that the group is interested in creating
an Islamic state exclusively in the Xinjiang province
("Eastern Turkistan"), some analysts have stated that
the group aims to create a new state that would include
portions of Turkey, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Pakistan,
Afghanistan, and Xinjiang. ETIM is not the only terrorist
group committed to an Islamic state in the Turkistan
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837
area; the Islamic Movement of Uzbekistan (IMU) is
another significant terrorist operation pushing for a
theoretical Islamic Turkistan state.
Current Goals: Claims that ETIM has ties to al-Qaeda,
Usama bin Laden, and the Taliban persist. Many
reputable sources debate whether or not al-Qaeda has
provided the group with training and financial
assistance. The US Department of State, in its 2005
report on terrorism, states that ETIM is linked to al-
Qaida and the international jihadist movement and that
al-Qaeda has provided ETIM with training and financial
assistance. Another US government website reports
that one ETIM leader was killed in a raid on al-Qaeda
safehouses in Pakistan. The Chinese government has
been known to exaggerate the connection between
ETIM and al-Qaeda to enlist the support of the United
States in endorsing Chinas social control tactics in
Xinjiang. It is likely that members of ETIM have had
contact with al-Qaeda elements, but no high-level
contacts have been established. As far as the group's
strength is concerned, ETIM has been described as a
small terrorist operation and the group demonstrates
limited allegiance among the ethnic Uygurs of the
Xinjiang province. Furthermore, China shows absolutely
no signs of acquiescing to any of ETIM's terrorist
demands. In fact, the Xinjiang province is important to
China both for its strategic location and its abundant
natural resources.
The Chinese government alleges that ETIM is
comprised of eight major factions, which are committed
to terrorist attacks in the name of an Eastern Turkistan
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Islamic state: Central Asian Uygur Hezbollah
(Kazakhstan), East Turkistan Liberation Organization
(ETLO), Eastern Turkistan International Committee,
Eastern Turkistan Islamic Movement (Afghanistan),
Eastern Turkistan Islamic Resistance Movement
(Turkey), Eastern Turkistan Youth League (Switzerland),
Turkistan Party (Pakistan), and the United Committee of
Uygurs' Organizations (Central Asia). It is unclear
whether or not most of these are actual terrorist
groups, and if so whether or not these are actual
factions of ETIM. ETLO is known to be a terrorist group
that supports ETIMs cause and could possibly be an
ally of ETIMs as well. ETIM has been implicated in
terrorist plots against US interests in the Central Asia
region, including a foiled plot to attack the US Embassy
in Kyrgyzstan.
Further Reference
"Eastern Turkistan Islamic Movement: A Case Study of
a New Terrorist Organization in China," John Z. Wang,
Sage Publications, International Journal of Offender
Therapy and Comparative Criminology, 47(5), 2003
568-584
"China asks Pakistan to investigate Xinjiang terrorists
list," Shaukat Piracha, 01/17/2004, Daily Times
(Pakistan)
"Terrorist Activities Perpetrated by Eastern
Turkistan Organizations and Their Links with Osama
bin Laden and the Taliban (29/11/01) ," 11/29/2001,
Permanent Mission of the Peoples Republic of China
to the UN
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Patterns of Global Terrorism: 2002, U.S. Department of
State
"Country Reports on Terrorism 2005," 04/28/2006, U.S.
Department of State
EASTERN TURKISTAN ISLAMIC MOVEMENT (ETIM)
"Eastern Turkistan Islamic Movement: A Case Study of
a New Terrorist Organization in China," John Z. Wang,
Sage Publications, International Journal of Offender
Therapy and Comparative Criminology, 47(5), 2003 568-
584
"China asks Pakistan to investigate Xinjiang terrorists
list," Shaukat Piracha, Daily Times (Pakistan)
"Terrorist Activities Perpetrated by Eastern Turkistan
Organizations and Their Links with Osama bin Laden
and the Taliban (29/11/01) ," Permanent Mission of the
Peoples Republic of China to the UN
Patterns of Global Terrorism: 2002, U.S. Department of
State
"Country Reports on Terrorism 2005," U.S. Department
of State
East Turkistan Islamic Movement (ETIM)
"China's changing views of terrorism," Tim Luard, BBC
News Online
Patterns of Global Terrorism: 2003, US Department of
State
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FIRST OF OCTOBER ANTIFASCIST RESISTANCE GROUP
(GRAPO)
Mothertongue Name:
Grupo de Resistencia Anti-Fascista Primero de Octubre
(GRAPO)
Base of Operation: Spain
Founding Philosophy: First of October Antifascist
Resistance Group emerged during a transitional period
precipitated by the death of Spain's dictator General
Franco. The group was created as the armed wing of an
illegal political organization, the Communist Party of
Spain-Reconstituted. First of October Antifascist
Resistance Group, also known by its Spanish acronym
GRAPO, was founded with the principal aim of
overthrowing the Spanish government and replacing it
with a Communist state. While its political wing, the
Communist Party of Spain-Reconstituted, favors a
Maoist ideology; GRAPO aims to create a Marxist state
in Spain.
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After General Franco's death in 1975, Spain adopted a
parliamentary democracy. Three years later Spain
transitioned to a parliamentary monarchy. Despite the
government evolution, GRAPO has remained committed
to the creation of a Marxist state. The group has
engaged in terrorist activity to oppose Spain's
membership in NATO. In addition to its attacks against
the Spanish government, GRAPO is intensely anti-U.S.
and has attacked U.S. targets. Specifically, GRAPO
objects to U.S. military bases on Spanish territory.
Current Goals: Following the September 11 attack
against the United States, GRAPO publicly supported
the airplane attacks in New York and Washington, D.C.
GRAPO has appeared increasingly weak over the past
decade. In July 2003, GRAPO's long-time leader was
sentenced to ten years in prison.
Further Reference
"Spanish terror suspects arrested," 11/09/2000, CNN
"Interior Ministry Believes Letter in Which GRAPO
Claims Responsibility for Cordon Kidnapping," Javier
Torrontegui, 07/07/1995, El Pais, (Madrid)
"Spain to ask France to extradite GRAPO leader for
Madrid explosions," 12/25/2002, EFE, (Madrid )
"Spanish leftist militants sentenced in France,"
07/23/2003, EFE, (Madrid)
Patterns of Global Terrorism: 1984, U.S. Department of
State
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FIRST OF OCTOBER ANTIFASCIST RESISTANCE
GROUP (GRAPO)
"Spanish terror suspects arrested," CNN
"Interior Ministry Believes Letter in Which GRAPO
Claims Responsibility for Cordon Kidnapping," Javier
Torrontegui, El Pais, (Madrid)
"Spain to ask France to extradite GRAPO leader for
Madrid explosions," EFE, (Madrid )
"Spanish leftist militants sentenced in France," EFE,
(Madrid)
Patterns of Global Terrorism: 1984, U.S. Department of
State
Patterns of Global Terrorism: 1992, U.S. Department of
State
Patterns of Global Terrorism: 2002, U.S. Department of
State
Patterns of Global Terrorism: 1991, U.S. Department of
State
International Terrorism in 1979, Central Intelligence
Agency
Patterns of Global Terrorism: 1985, U.S. Department of
State
Patterns of Global Terrorism: 1987, U.S. Department of
State
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Patterns of Global Terrorism: 1988, U.S. Department of
State
Patterns of Global Terrorism: 1989, U.S. Department of
State
"Country Reports on Terrorism 2005," U.S. Department
of State
Patterns of Global Terrorism: 2000, U.S. Department of
State
Patterns of Global Terrorism: 2001, U.S. Department of
State
HARAKAT UL JIHAD I ISLAMI (HUJI)
Aliases: Movement of Islamic Holy War
Base of Operation: Kashmir; Pakistan
Founding Philosophy: Harakat ul-Jihad-i-Islami (HUJI) is
an Islamic extremist group, which follows the Sunni
school of Deobandi. Founded in 1980, the group has
shifted the focus of its attacks over the past twenty
years. Initially formed in 1980 in Afghanistan, HUJI and
fellow mujahidin battled Soviet forces during the Soviet-
Afghan war. The Soviet Union eventually withdrew its
forces in 1989. While HUJI remains dedicated to Islamic
goals, it has shifted its focus from Afghanistan to the
region of Jammu and Kashmir.
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HUJI is dedicated to the separation of the disputed
region of Jammu and Kashmir from India. The Jammu
and Kashmir region, in its entirety, would then be
annexed by Pakistan. If this were to happen, Jammu
and Kashmir would be governed by an Islamic state,
namely Pakistan.
Current Goals: Harakat ul-Jihad-i-Islami primarily
targets Indian military forces located in Jammu and
Kashmir. The group ceased it training operations in
Afghanistan following the Talibans fall in 2001. HUJI is
comprised of Pakistanis and foreign Islamists.
Further Reference
South Asia Terrorism Portal
"Arrest of HUJI Leader," B. Raman, 08/08/2004, South
Asia Analysis Group
Patterns of Global Terrorism: 2002, U.S. Department of
State
"Country Reports on Terrorism 2005," 04/28/2006, U.S.
Department of State
Patterns of Global Terrorism: 2001, U.S. Department of
State
ISLAMIC INTERNATIONAL PEACEKEEPING BRIGADE
(IIPB)
Aliases: International Islamic Battalion, International
Islamic Brigade
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Base of Operation: Azerbaijan; Chechnya; Georgia;
Russia; Turkey
Founding Philosophy: In 1998 Chechen guerilla leader
Shamil Basayev and Saudi born commander Ibn al-
Khattab established the Islamic International
Peacekeeping Brigade (IIPB). Membership is primarily
comprised of nationalistic, ethnic Chechen fighters as
well as a contingent of Arabs and other foreign fighters
who adhere to Islamic extremist doctrine (Wahabbism).
Distinct from other Chechen resistance groups, the IIPB
main objective is not only the creation of an
independent Chechen state, but one that is governed by
Islamic fundamentalist law (Sharia). This is attributed
to the influence of the groups commander-in-chief, al-
Khattab, and the influx of Arab mujahideen he brought
with him from Afghanistan. Additionally, al-Khattab
maintained ties with Osama bin Laden and his al-Qaeda
network, which furnished financial, operational, and
military support. Al-Khattab was also able to mobilize
militants from Ingushetia, Ossetia, Georgia, and
Azerbaijan to help in the fight, while his numerous Gulf
and Middle Eastern financial connections proved
invaluable in the proliferation of the radical Chechen
movement.
To aid in achieving its ultimate objective, the IIPB
established training camps in southeastern Chechnya,
which trained unemployed young Chechen men and
Muslims from throughout Russia for a jihad that was far
greater in scope than originally envisioned by
Chechnya's nationalist leadership. The IIPB has also
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been credited with a number of attacks against Russian
assets. In August-September 1999, the IIPB undertook
several incursions into Dagestan, effectively starting
the second Chechen War. Attacks have been directed at
both military and civilian targets, including the
September 1999 apartment bombings in Moscow, the
February 29, 2000 attack on a Russian Airborne Infantry
company and the March 29, 2000, ambush against a
detachment of Russian Special Forces troops. Most
attacks are characterized by the use of explosives to
kill and/or disable Russian forces, so they may be
engaged more successfully by groups of armed
insurgents.
The IIPBs most infamous attack came on October 22,
2002. It was one of three terrorist groups that furnished
personnel to carry out the seizure of the Dubrovka
Theater in Moscow. The suicide attackers took more
than 900 hostages, whom they threatened to kill if the
Russian Government did not meet their demands the
complete withdrawal of Russian security forces from
Chechnya within a weeks time and the recognition of
an independent Chechen state. The standoff ended
three days later, when Russian Special Forces troops
raided the building, killing all terrorists involved. Over
150 civilian hostages were also killed as a result of the
operation.
Current Goals: Similar to most groups operating against
Russian forces in Chechnya, the Islamic International
Peacekeeping Brigade has been characterized by
changes in leadership. Ibn al-Khattab was eventually
killed on the night of March 20, 2002, when a Dagestani
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messenger hired by the Russian state security services,
the FSB, delivered a poisoned letter to him. He was
succeeded by his deputy-commander, Abu al-Walid,
who, along with being a consummate soldier and
carrying out a number of successful attacks against
Russian forces, was an accomplished orator that was
able to rally support from Muslims throughout the
Caucasus. However, he was killed in action in April,
2004, just two years after assuming command of the
group.
Undeterred by the loss of its two most influential
leaders, the Islamic International Peacekeeping Brigade
has remained active under the command of Abu Hafs al-
Urduni and will undoubtedly continue its campaign of
terror to permanently drive Russian forces from
Chechen soil. The group continues to be regarded as a
significant security threat in the region by officials in
Moscow.
Further Reference
Patterns of Global Terrorism: 2002, U.S. Department of
State
"Country Reports on Terrorism 2005," 04/28/2006, U.S.
Department of State
Patterns of Global Terrorism: 2003, US Department of
State
JAMIAT UL MUJAHEDIN (JUM)
Base of Operation: Kashmir; Pakistan
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Founding Philosophy: Jamiat ul-Mujahedin (JuM) is a
terrorist organization dedicated to uniting the areas of
Jammu and Kashmir with Pakistan. The disputed region
of Jammu and Kashmir is a highly militarized area with
government presence from India, Pakistan, and China.
While negotiations between the governments continue,
there are several terrorist entities that operate in the
unresolved region.
Jamiat ul-Mujahedin is singularly devoted to the
annexation of Jammu and Kashmir to Pakistan. The
group does not support negotiations between the
involved countries and has stated that violence is the
only solution to the current dispute. In 1990, JuM broke
off from Hizbul Mujahideen (HM), another terrorist
organization, due to an internal dispute within HM. JuM
attempted to separate itself as Kashmir's "pure"
militant group by supporting itself completely with
Kashmiri people. However, the group was never able to
muster enough support to become a major entity in the
region. Beginning around 1996, JuM was marginalized
both by legitimate government forces and competing
terrorist operations in the area. Due to the loss of
several key leaders, the group became disorganized,
thus weakening its core group of militants. Therefore,
JuM was forced to recruit Pakistanis into the group,
even though this minimized the groups self-appointed
status as the "pure" Kashmiri organization.
Current Goals: Despite Jamiat ul-Mujahedin's inability to
usurp power from Jammu and Kashmirs major terrorist
groups, JuM has maintained significant forces to
continue its terrorist attacks. JuM concentrates its
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operations against Indias military forces in Jammu and
Kashmir.
Further Reference
"Jamiat-ul-Mujahideen Profile," South Asia Terrorism
Portal
"Dissent in Hizbul, commander joins JuM," 10/21/2002,
Hindustan Times
Patterns of Global Terrorism: 2002, U.S. Department of
State
"Country Reports on Terrorism 2005," 04/28/2006, U.S.
Department of State
"Jamiat-ul-Mujahideen Profile," 10/21/2002, Hindustan
Times
JAMIAT UL-MUJAHEDIN (JUM)
"Jamiat-ul-Mujahideen Profile," South Asia Terrorism
Portal
"Dissent in Hizbul, commander joins JuM," Hindustan
Times
Patterns of Global Terrorism: 2002, U.S. Department of
State
"Country Reports on Terrorism 2005," U.S. Department
of State
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"Jamiat-ul-Mujahideen Profile," Hindustan Times
Patterns of Global Terrorism: 2003, US Department of
State
JAPANESE RED ARMY (JRA)
Aliases: Anti-Imperialist International Brigade
Base of Operation: Japan; Lebanon
Founding Philosophy: The Japanese Red Army (JRA)
formed after breaking away from the Red Army Faction,
a military arm of the Japanese Communist League. The
JRA and its predecessor sprang from the vigorous
student protest movements of the 1960s. The JRA
sought to overthrow the Japanese monarchy and bring
about an international communist revolution. They
formed close ties with Palestinian revolutionary
movements through the efforts of the JRA's leader,
Fusako Shigenobu. The group became one of the most
feared and infamous terrorist organizations in the world
during the 1970s by hijacking several commercial
airliners and holding the French embassy in The Hague
hostage. The JRA's bloodiest attack was a 1972 assault
on Tel Aviv's airport, in which three JRA members killed
24 people and wounded 80. In 1975, the JRA embarked
on a successful campaign to free all of its imprisoned
members by taking hostages and using them as
bargaining chips.
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Current Goals: At its peak, the JRA had between 30 or
40 members. In 1981, however, the JRA publicly stated
that it was considering the rejection of violence as a
political tool. In 1983, Shigenobu told the Japanese
press that the group had "left the way of absolute
terror." Despite this, the JRA continued to plan and
execute attacks during the 1980s, although they were
on a much smaller scale than the group's previous
activities. In 1987, the Japanese government began a
successful campaign to locate and arrest the JRA's
leadership with the apprehension of Osamu Maruoka.
Fusako Shigenobu was arrested in November of 2000,
and while imprisoned, she announced, "I will disband
the Japanese Red Army and launch new fights"
(Gallagher, 49-52). Terrorism experts believe
Shigenobu's declaration to be genuine, and the
Department of State removed the JRA from the list of
designated Foreign Terrorist Organizations in 2001.
Legal Cases
USA v. Tsutomu Shirosaki: 91-CR-270
USA v. Yu Kikumura: 88-CR-166
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Further Reference
Patterns of Global Terrorism: 1986, U.S. Department of
State
International Terrorism in 1978, Central Intelligence
Agency
International Terrorism in 1977, Central Intelligence
Agency
Patterns of Global Terrorism: 1997, U.S. Department of
State
Patterns of Global Terrorism: 1995, U.S. Department of
State
JAPANESE RED ARMY (JRA)
Patterns of Global Terrorism: 1986, U.S. Department of
State
International Terrorism in 1978, Central Intelligence
Agency
International Terrorism in 1977, Central Intelligence
Agency
Patterns of Global Terrorism: 1997, U.S. Department of
State
Patterns of Global Terrorism: 1995, U.S. Department of
State
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853
Patterns of Global Terrorism: 1990, U.S. Department of
State
Patterns of Global Terrorism: 1992, U.S. Department of
State
Patterns of Global Terrorism: 2002, U.S. Department of
State
Patterns of Global Terrorism: 1994, U.S. Department of
State
Patterns of Global Terrorism: 1993, U.S. Department of
State
Patterns of Global Terrorism: 1996 , U.S. Department of
State
Patterns of Global Terrorism: 1991, U.S. Department of
State
Patterns of Global Terrorism: 1987, U.S. Department of
State
Patterns of Global Terrorism: 1988, U.S. Department of
State
Patterns of Global Terrorism: 1989, U.S. Department of
State
"Country Reports on Terrorism 2005," U.S. Department
of State
Patterns of Global Terrorism: 1998, U.S. Department of
State
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Patterns of Global Terrorism: 2000, U.S. Department of
State
Patterns of Global Terrorism: 2001, U.S. Department of
State
Patterns of Global Terrorism: 2003, US Department of
State
LORDS RESISTANCE ARMY (LRA)
Base of Operation: Congo, Democratic Republic of the;
Sudan; Uganda
Founding Philosophy: Based in Northern Uganda and
Sudan, the Lord's Resistance Army seeks to destabilize
and overthrow the government of Uganda. Formed in
1992 in an attempt to unify a resistance movement
fractured by the marginalization of the Uganda
Democratic Christian Army, the group promotes a
radical form of Christianity which it wants to make the
foundation of a new Ugandan government. The group,
led by Joseph Kony, has sought to achieve these
objectives primarily through unbridled brutality. Rape,
torture, and murder have become the group's hallmarks
in the almost fifteen years that they have terrorized the
citizens of Northern Uganda. The ranks of the LRA are
filled in large part (approximately 80%) by children, who
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are kidnapped and brainwashed into service with the
group. Human rights NGOs place the number of children
currently fighting with LRA at around 3,000. LRA
members also kidnap children, particularly girls, to
serve as sex slaves; some have even been given as
"gifts" to arms dealers in Sudan.
LRA attacks have been notable for both their brutality
and their pointlessness. Two popular nightspots have
been bombed, a bus full of people was attacked by club-
wielding LRA soldiers who caused 22 fatalities, and an
Italian priest was murdered. Other victims include
World Food Program volunteers, the former President of
Uganda, and mourners at a funeral, who were forced to
cook and eat the body of the deceased. No discernible
political program underlies these attacks aside from
Kony's desire to cause extreme pain and suffering to all
Acholi tribes that do not support the LRA.
In 2002, the Sudanese government reversed its
longstanding policy of support for the LRA and began
cooperating in efforts to eliminate the groups
sanctuaries. Despite this declaration, the LRA
continued to perpetrate its brutal attacks within
Uganda, both in its longstanding operational area in the
north, as well as on targets to the east.
Current Goals: The peace talks, which are taking place
in the southern Sudanese town of Juba, are being
mediated by south-Sudanese Vice-President Riek
Machar. As the process gains momentum and there is
increased participation from LRA leadership, other
government leaders from Sudan, Uganda, and the
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Republic of the Congo are expected to join the talks.
While the LRA leaders believe that coming out of hiding
may result in their arrest on warrants issued by the
International Criminal Court (ICC), government officials
agree that a lasting ceasefire is contingent on the
presence and participation from LRAs top-level.
The struggling peace process gained renewed attention
in November 2006, when Jan Egeland, the UN
Undersecretary-General for Humanitarian Affairs and
Emergency Relief Coordinator, traveled to LRA camps
near Ri-Kwangba along the Sudan-Uganda border.
Egeland and Kony were scheduled to meet, each
bringing their own objectives to the table. Egeland was
particularly interested in obtaining the release of Acholi
women and children abducted by the LRA and held in
the camps, while Kony sought to gain an ally in his case
with the ICC. The actual meeting, despite being cordial,
was brief and did not produce the desired outcomes for
either side. When confronted with the possibility of
releasing the women and children, Kony denied their
existence. However, the fact that the meeting took
place without any problems, as well as generated
publicity by the attendance of a UN official such as
Egeland, creates a positive scenario for the tenuous
peace talks. Additional visits from UN representatives
may be a necessary tactic to foster stability in the
surrounding region.
Further Reference
"Ugandan govt declares 18-day truce with rebels,"
02/04/2005, Mail & Guardian
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"LRA leaders declare ceasefire," 08/04/2006, BBC
"Ugandan rebels said angered over killing of top
commander," 08/13/2006, The New Vision
Patterns of Global Terrorism: 2002, U.S. Department of
State
"Ugandan rebel leader says innocent of war crimes,"
06/28/2006, Reuters
LORD'S RESISTANCE ARMY (LRA)
"Ugandan govt declares 18-day truce with rebels," Mail
& Guardian
"LRA leaders declare ceasefire," BBC
"Ugandan rebels said angered over killing of top
commander," The New Vision
Patterns of Global Terrorism: 2002, U.S. Department of
State
"Ugandan rebel leader says innocent of war crimes,"
Reuters
"Country Reports on Terrorism 2005," U.S. Department
of State
"I Will Use the Ten Commandments to Liberate
Uganda," Sam Farmar, The Times Online
"Ugandan rebel leader denies atrocities, in rare
interview," Agence France-Presse
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Patterns of Global Terrorism: 2001, U.S. Department of
State
Patterns of Global Terrorism: 2003, US Department of
State
LOYALIST VOLUNTEER FORCE (LVF)
Base of Operation: Northern Ireland (UK); United
Kingdom
Founding Philosophy: The Loyalist Volunteer Force
(LVF) is a loyalist terrorist organization fighting to
protect Protestants from armed republican groups, such
as the Real Irish Republican Army (RIRA), and resist
efforts to unite Northern Ireland with the Republic of
Ireland. In February 1997, the LVF publicly emerged as
a splinter group of the loyalist paramilitary Ulster
Volunteer Force (UVF) due to internal disputes.
Billy Wright, the groups founder and first leader (killed
in prison by republican militants in December 1997),
and subsequent LVF members disagreed with the UVFs
participation in the Northern Ireland peace process and
its ceasefire declared in 1994. Tensions within the UVF
reached a boiling point when UVF leaders ordered its
members to abstain from participating in the annual
July 12 parades in 1996. July 12 parades commemorate
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the victory of Protestant Prince William of Oranges
victory over Catholic King James II in the 1690 Battle of
the Boyne and often pass through Catholic
neighborhoods, exacerbating sectarian tensions. UVF
leaders were concerned that the participation of its
members could possibly derail the ongoing and fragile
peace process.
Since its formation, the LVF has engaged in bombings,
killings, and kidnappings in retaliation for attacks on
Protestants by republican groups. However, its attacks
mostly have targeted civilians, often those with no
connections to paramilitary organizations. The LVF has
also been known to attack fellow loyalists, especially
members of its founding group with whom the LVF has
been involved in a feud since its 1997 formation.
Current Goals: In May 1998, the LVF declared a
ceasefire and began to participate in peace
negotiations following the Good Friday Agreement.
However, there have been allegations that the LVF is
solely motivated to participate in order to secure the
early release of its incarcerated members. As part of
the Good Friday Agreement, participants in peace talks
are eligible to gain the early release of their members
currently imprisoned.
Throughout its declared ceasefire, the LVF remained
heavily involved in criminal dealings, especially in
narcotics. In October 2001, due to its continued
participation in criminal and violent activities, the
British government no longer recognized its ceasefire.
However, following a particularly violent summer in the
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LVF/UVF feud, the LVF declared it was standing down in
2005. The Independent Monitoring Commission, the
independent body formed in 2004 to monitor
paramilitary organizations, confirmed that violent
attacks have ceased since the LVF ended its feud with
the UVF, but stated that the LVF remained deeply
entrenched in criminal activities.
Further Reference
Encyclopedia of terrorism/ Harvey W. Kushner , Harvey
W. Kushner, c2003., Sage Publications, (Thousand
Oaks, Calif.)
Encyclopedia of world terrorism , 2003, M.E. Sharpe,
(Armonk, NY)
Patterns of Global Terrorism: 1997, U.S. Department of
State
Patterns of Global Terrorism: 2002, U.S. Department of
State
"Country Reports on Terrorism 2005," 04/28/2006, U.S.
Department of State
LOYALIST VOLUNTEER FORCE (LVF)
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Encyclopedia of terrorism/ Harvey W. Kushner , Harvey
W. Kushner, c2003., Sage Publications, (Thousand
Oaks, Calif.)
Encyclopedia of world terrorism , 2003, M.E. Sharpe,
(Armonk, NY)
Patterns of Global Terrorism: 1997, U.S. Department of
State
Patterns of Global Terrorism: 2002, U.S. Department of
State
"Country Reports on Terrorism 2005," U.S. Department
of State
Patterns of Global Terrorism: 1998, U.S. Department of
State
Patterns of Global Terrorism: 2000, U.S. Department of
State
Patterns of Global Terrorism: 2001, U.S. Department of
State
Patterns of Global Terrorism: 2003, US Department of
State
Patterns of Global Terrorism: 1999, U.S. Department of
State
NEW PEOPLES ARMY (NPA)
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Base of Operation: Philippines
Founding Philosophy: The New People's Army (NPA)
was created as the armed wing of the outlawed
political organization, the Communist Party of the
Philippines, Marxist-Leninist (CPP-ML). From 1969 to
1976, the People's Republic of China provided material
support to the New People's Army. Following the
cessation of China's support, the NPA went through a
five-year period of weakness. By the early 1980s, NPA
had found new funding sources and was rebuilding. The
group remains a significant threat even today.
The NPA tactic is to continue a prolonged armed
conflict that will eventually overthrow the Filipino
government and replace it with a communist/socialist
state. Specifically, NPA employs two primary
strategies. First, the group targets foreign investors and
foreign-owned companies. The NPA aims to entirely
drive out foreign investment with its intimidation
tactics. Additionally, the NPA benefits from this tactic
monetarily through the extortion of the foreign
businesses. The second NPA tactic is targeted
assassinations of Filipino citizens who are critical of
the New People's Army. The group specifically targets
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Filipino politicians, security officials, and members of
the news media. The NPA reasons that these
assassinations will eventually lead to a massive
government repression of the NPA and all societal
sectors. Incited by this theoretical government
repression, the general Filipino populace will then
reject the acting government. More than three decades
after its formation, the New People's Army has not as
yet created a communist state in the Philippines.
Current Goals: The New People's Army engaged in
several rounds of government peace talks in the 1990s.
The peace talks did not successfully halt the NPA's
terrorist activities. Today, the group is considered a
significant threat to the Filipino government.
Further Reference
Terrorism: assassins to zealots/ Sean Kendall
Anderson, Stephen Sloan, Sean Kendall Anderson and
Stephen Sloan, 01/01/2003, The Scarecrow Press, Inc.,
(Lanham, Maryland)
Patterns of Global Terrorism: 1997, U.S. Department of
State
Patterns of Global Terrorism: 1984, U.S. Department of
State
Patterns of Global Terrorism: 1999, U.S. Department of
State
Patterns of Global Terrorism: 1995, U.S. Department of
State
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864
NEW PEOPLE'S ARMY (NPA)
Terrorism: assassins to zealots/ Sean Kendall Anderson,
Stephen Sloan, Sean Kendall Anderson and Stephen
Sloan, 1/1/2003, The Scarecrow Press, Inc., (Lanham,
Maryland)
Patterns of Global Terrorism: 1997, U.S. Department of
State
Patterns of Global Terrorism: 1984, U.S. Department of
State
Patterns of Global Terrorism: 1999, U.S. Department of
State
Patterns of Global Terrorism: 1995, U.S. Department of
State
Patterns of Global Terrorism: 1990, U.S. Department of
State
Patterns of Global Terrorism: 2002, U.S. Department of
State
Patterns of Global Terrorism: 1994, U.S. Department of
State
Patterns of Global Terrorism: 1992, U.S. Department of
State
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Patterns of Global Terrorism: 1993, U.S. Department of
State
Patterns of Global Terrorism: 1996 , U.S. Department of
State
Patterns of Global Terrorism: 1991, U.S. Department of
State
Patterns of Global Terrorism: 1985, U.S. Department of
State
Patterns of Global Terrorism: 1987, U.S. Department of
State
Patterns of Global Terrorism: 1988, U.S. Department of
State
Patterns of Global Terrorism: 1989, U.S. Department of
State
"Country Reports on Terrorism 2005," U.S. Department
of State
Patterns of Global Terrorism: 1986, U.S. Department of
State
Patterns of Global Terrorism: 1998, U.S. Department of
State
Patterns of Global Terrorism: 2000, U.S. Department of
State
Patterns of Global Terrorism: 2001, U.S. Department of
State
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Patterns of Global Terrorism: 2003, US Department of
State
NEW RED BRIGADES COMMUNIST COMBATANT PARTY
Mothertongue Name:
Brigate Rosse/Partitio Comunista Combattente (BR/PCC)
Aliases: Armed Communist Combatants, New Red
Brigades for the Construction of the Fighting
Communist Party, Red Brigades
Base of Operation: Italy
Founding Philosophy: The New Red Brigades is a
splinter group of the Red Brigades, a terrorist group
active in the 1970's and early 1980's. When the Marxist-
Leninist Red Brigades folded in 1984, two successor
groups emerged, the New Red Brigades/Communist
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Combatant Party (BR-PCC) and the New Red
Brigades/Union of Combatant Communists (BR-UCC).
The BR/PCC has unequivocally chosen to follow the
violent Communist path of the Red Brigades.
Specifically, the BR-PCC is opposed to NATO and Italy's
policies on labor and foreign relations.
Current Goals: The New Red Brigades continue to
target high-ranking Italian businessmen and politicians.
These assassinations, coupled with other bombings and
attacks, are ostensibly in pursuit of class struggle. The
BR-PCC also justifies these continuing attacks as blows
against imperialism, specifically as it is represented
within Italian economic policies and the NATO system.
In March 2002, the New Red Brigades assassinated
Marco Biagi, an adviser to the Italian labor minister.
Following the assassination, the New Red Brigades
published a statement claiming responsibility for the
killing. Notably, the statement commends the
perpetrators of the September 11 attacks in the United
States. In their own words, the New Red Brigades
express the "need for the forging of alliances between
anti-imperialistic forces and revolutionary forces in the
regions of Europe, the Mediterranean, and the Middle
East" (BBC News, Red Brigades admit killing).
Further Reference
"After Three Years of Recruitment Here is the New
Map of the Red Brigades [BR]," Claudia Fusani,
3/12/2003, La Repubblica, (Rome, Italy)
"Interior Ministry on Alert Over Risk of New 'Micro-
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Attacks'," Giovanni Bianconi, 3/5/2003, Corriere della
Sera, (Milan, Italy)
"Letter form New Red Brigades," BR-PCC, 3/1/2003,
Caserta 24 Ore, (Italy)
"Red Brigade Member Arrested After Ten Years,"
11/26/2003, RAI News
"Red Brigade Member Bortone Arrested," 11/21/2003,
RAI News
NEW RED BRIGADES/COMMUNIST COMBATANT PARTY
"After Three Years of Recruitment Here is the New Map
of the Red Brigades [BR]," Claudia Fusani, 3/12/2003, La
Repubblica, (Rome, Italy)
"Interior Ministry on Alert Over Risk of New 'Micro-
Attacks'," Giovanni Bianconi, 3/5/2003, Corriere della
Sera, (Milan, Italy)
"Letter form New Red Brigades," BR-PCC, 3/1/2003,
Caserta 24 Ore, (Italy)
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"Red Brigade Member Arrested After Ten Years,"
11/26/2003, RAI News
"Red Brigade Member Bortone Arrested," 11/21/2003,
RAI News
"Red Brigades admit killing," BBC News, Europe
Section, 21 March, 2002, BBC News
"Deadly shoot-out on Italian train," BBC News, Europe
Section, 2 March, 2003, BBC News, World Edition
"Ghosts return to haunt Italy," David Willey , 20 March,
2002, BBC News
"The New Trail Leads to 15 Names. Here is the Network
of Red Brigade Members," Claudia Fusani, 5/17/2003, La
Repubblica, (Rome, Italy)
"Vigna: Leaders of Old Red Brigades Are Behind the
Attacks," Piero Luigi Vigna, 8/8/2002, Tur Stampa
"The Danger of Revenge," Guido Ruotolo, 9/8/2003, La
Stampa, (Turin, Italy)
Patterns of Global Terrorism: 2002, U.S. Department of
State
"Country Reports on Terrorism 2005," U.S. Department
of State
Patterns of Global Terrorism: 2003, US Department of
State
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ORANGE VOLUNTEERS (OV)
Base of Operation: Northern Ireland (UK)
Founding Philosophy: The Orange Volunteers (OV) is a
loyalist paramilitary organization operating primarily in
Northern Ireland. Formed in the early 1970s, the group
is closely associated with the Orange Order, a
Protestant fraternal organization.
As a loyalist organization, the OV support the current
political status of Northern Ireland. They support
Northern Ireland's inclusion as part of the United
Kingdom of Great Britain and reject any efforts to unite
Northern Ireland with the Republic of Ireland. In the
1970s, the OV was the second largest loyalist
organization after the Ulster Defence Association
(UDA). However, the OV was widely believed to have
disbanded by the 1980s.
In July 1998, the OV reemerged, issuing claims of
responsibility for violent attacks in Northern Ireland. It
is believed that the group was resurrected for the
express purpose of destabilizing the peace process and
a political settlement with Irish republicans. The group
is thought to be composed of disgruntled members of
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the UDA and Loyalist Volunteer Force (LVF) who
opposed their groups ceasefires. It is possible that the
name was resurrected without any actual connection to
the Orange Volunteers iteration founded in the early
1970s. Due to its emergence around the same time as
the Red Hand Defenders (RHD), security forces believe
the two groups share the same members. There have
also been several instances where the RHD and OV
have claimed responsibility for the same attack.
In addition to maintaining Northern Irelands ties to the
United Kingdom, the OV believe it to be their self-
appointed duty to protect Northern Ireland's Protestant
population, as well as the Protestant faith as a whole.
To this end, in November 1998, the Orange Volunteers
declared their first objective was to kill the Republican
terrorist members who would be released as part of the
peace process. However, the majority of its attacks
have been pipe bombings, arson attacks, and assaults
targeting Catholic civilian interests such as churches,
residences, and businesses. Due to its selection of
soft targets, there have been accusations that the OV
is merely a cover name utilized by the UDA or LVF,
enabling members to continue conducting attacks while
their organization publicly abide by ceasefires.
Current Goals: A major police operation in October 1999
led to the arrest of several leading members of the OV
and its remaining leadership declared a ceasefire in
September 2000. Despite the declaration, violent
activities continued and the organization issued a
Back to War Statement in February 2001.
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Another ceasefire was declared on December 31, 2001
in an effort to distance the organization from the
narcotics and extortion activities of loyalist groups
such as the UDA. However, in March 2003, the OV
staged a show of strength to threaten to end its
ceasefire if an unsatisfactory peace deal was revealed.
Members of the OV are still considered active, engaging
in the intimidation and assault of Catholics in Northern
Ireland.
Further Reference
Encyclopedia of terrorism/ Harvey W. Kushner , Harvey
W. Kushner, c2003., Sage Publications, (Thousand
Oaks, Calif.)
Patterns of Global Terrorism: 1999, U.S. Department of
State
Patterns of Global Terrorism: 2000, U.S. Department of
State
Patterns of Global Terrorism: 2001, U.S. Department of
State
OVERTHROWN ANARCHIST FACTION
Aliases: Overthrow Anarchist Faction
Base of Operation: Greece
Founding Philosophy: Nothing is known about
Overthrown Anarchist Faction other than the details of
their only attack, and those details do not provide much
insight into the group's structure or ideology. The group
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torched two cars belonging to the German embassy to
protest the "bestiality of the Greek police," (Agence
France Press, 3/29/2000) who had accidentally shot a
young girl in Salonika a few days earlier. Torching cars
is a relatively unsophisticated form of terrorist attack,
which suggests that the group neither experienced nor
highly structured. The fact that the group's choice of
target (the German embassy) is in no way connected
with the event they meant to protest also suggests a
lack of planning and sophistication. This impression of
disorganization is further reinforced by the fact that the
group disappeared after the attack.
Current Goals: Overthrown Anarchist Faction has not
claimed responsibility for an attack since March of
2000, and has presumably ceased to exist.
PEOPLE AGAINST GANGSTERISM AND DRUGS (PAGAD)
Base of Operation: South Africa
Founding Philosophy: People Against Gangsterism and
Drugs (PAGAD) is a South African terrorist organization
that operates in and around Cape Town. The group was
formed in late 1995 to serve as a community-based,
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anti-crime organization. Group members would patrol
their neighborhoods to discourage drug dealers from
operating in those areas. The drug dealers enjoyed tacit
support from corrupt police officers, as well as overt
support from criminal gangs. So by forming a
community group to reduce the number of drug dealers,
the organization was also indirectly taking on powerful
criminal organizations. PAGADs efforts met with some
success. PAGAD enjoyed a certain degree of impunity
from the South African government, which appreciated
the groups fight against crime. Unfortunately, PAGAD
was not satisfied with only defensive community
protection.
PAGAD soon embarked on an aggressive terrorist
campaign, detonating hundreds of bombs throughout
Cape Town between 1996 and 2000. In addition to its
increased vigilantism, the group also integrated
ideological objectives beyond its community-based fight
against drug lords. PAGADs original objective was to
help communities to help themselves. The groups
efforts were especially successful in many Muslim
areas. According to some observers, the Muslim areas
possessed a sense of community and united stance
against drugs that easily lent itself to PAGAD
objectives. PAGAD allied itself with the Islamic group
Qibla. PAGAD reportedly set up two front groups to
carry out certain operations, Muslims Against Global
Oppression (MAGO) and Muslims Against Illegitimate
Leaders. By this point, any tacit support of the South
African government had long dissipated. PAGAD was
clearly no longer a community, anti-crime group. PAGAD
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had become a substantial terrorist entity that
contributed to Cape Towns violent landscape.
PAGAD had adopted a viewpoint far removed form its
original philosophy. The group now viewed the South
African government as a threat to the values of Muslim
communities. PAGADs violent actions grew to include
bombings against South African authorities, moderate
Muslims, synagogues, gay nightclubs, tourist
attractions, and Western-associated restaurants
(Patterns of Global Terrorism 2003). PAGAD and its
allies adopted an anti-Western philosophy that is
reflected in its bombing targets.
Current Goals: Both the South African and United States
governments have officially designated PAGAD as a
terrorist organization. South African police efforts and
court prosecutions severely damaged the group in the
early 2000s. Since 2001, PAGAD has demonstrated a
significantly weakened operational capability.
Further Reference
" Staggie death march leader jailed for 5 years,"
03/26/2002, Independent Online
"Pagad: Vigilantes or terrorists?," 09/13/2000, BBC
News
"PAGAD Blamed for Murder of South African
Magistrate," 09/09/2000, International Policy Institute
for Counter-Terrorism
Patterns of Global Terrorism: 1999, U.S. Department of
State
Patterns of Global Terrorism: 2002, U.S. Department of
C
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State
PEOPLE AGAINST GANGSTERISM AND DRUGS (PAGAD)
" Staggie death march leader jailed for 5 years,"
Independent Online
"Pagad: Vigilantes or terrorists?," BBC News
"PAGAD Blamed for Murder of South African
Magistrate," International Policy Institute for Counter-
Terrorism
Patterns of Global Terrorism: 1999, U.S. Department of
State
Patterns of Global Terrorism: 2002, U.S. Department of
State
"Country Reports on Terrorism 2005," U.S. Department
of State
Patterns of Global Terrorism: 1998, U.S. Department of
State
Patterns of Global Terrorism: 2000, U.S. Department of
State
Patterns of Global Terrorism: 2001, U.S. Department of
State
Patterns of Global Terrorism: 2003, US Department of
State
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RED HAND DEFENDERS (RHD)
Base of Operation: Northern Ireland (UK); United
Kingdom
Founding Philosophy: The Red Hand Defenders (RHD) is
a little known loyalist terrorist organization in Northern
Ireland that is believed to be a cover organization for
members of the Ulster Defence Association (UDA) and
Loyalist Volunteer Force (LVF). The red hand of Ulster,
a symbol commonly associated with Protestants, is
utilized by unionists and loyalists to symbolize the six
counties of Northern Ireland.
First emerging in 1998, the RHD is believed to be used
by larger loyalist groups to enable members to continue
to conduct attacks while their organizations observe
ceasefires. The RHD emerged at the same time as the
Orange Volunteers and is believed to share the same
members. There have also been several instances
where the two organizations claimed responsibility for
the same attack.
Opposed to the Good Friday Agreement, the RHD seeks
to derail the peace process by attacking Catholic
civilians through the use of pipe bombings, arson
attacks, and bomb hoaxes on soft targets such as
residences, businesses, and, notoriously, Catholic
school staff and postal workers in Belfast.
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Current Goals: As a cover name for larger loyalist
groups, the Red Hand Defenders are expected to remain
active in Northern Ireland, committing violent attacks
on Catholic civilians, while the UDA and LVF publicly
commit to ceasefires. Members of the RHD pose a
particular danger to peace in Northern Ireland as their
attacks could ignite sectarian tensions and damage the
peace process.
Further Reference
Encyclopedia of terrorism/ Harvey W. Kushner , Harvey
W. Kushner, c2003., Sage Publications, (Thousand
Oaks, Calif.)
Patterns of Global Terrorism: 1999, U.S. Department of
State
Patterns of Global Terrorism: 2002, U.S. Department of
State
"Country Reports on Terrorism 2005," 04/28/2006, U.S.
Department of State
Patterns of Global Terrorism: 2000, U.S. Department of
State
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RED HAND DEFENDERS (RHD)
Encyclopedia of terrorism/ Harvey W. Kushner , Harvey
W. Kushner, c2003., Sage Publications, (Thousand
Oaks, Calif.)
Patterns of Global Terrorism: 1999, U.S. Department of
State
Patterns of Global Terrorism: 2002, U.S. Department of
State
"Country Reports on Terrorism 2005," U.S. Department
of State
Patterns of Global Terrorism: 2000, U.S. Department of
State
Patterns of Global Terrorism: 2001, U.S. Department of
State
Patterns of Global Terrorism: 2003, US Department of
State
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REVOLUTIONARY PROLETARIAN NUCLEUS
Mothertongue Name:
Nucleo Proletario Rivoluzionario (NPR)
Base of Operation: Italy
Founding Philosophy: The Revolutionary Proletarian
Nucleus (NPR) is a small, Italian terrorist organization.
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What little is known about this group is derived chiefly
from a terrorist manifesto published in 2000, as well as
the group's known affiliations with other Italian
terrorists. The name, "Revolutionary Proletarian
Nucleus," first appeared in connection with an attack
on the Milan offices of the Italian Confederation of
Trade Unions (CISL). Following this attack, an open
letter was sent to various newspaper offices in Milan.
The 10-page letter claimed responsibility for the attack
under the signed name, Revolutionary Proletarian
Nucleus.
The NPR identifies itself with the ideology originally
espoused by the Red Brigades. In essence, the Red
Brigades and NPR have attempted to use murder to
propagate an upheaval of Italian society in the name of
Communism. The group identifies itself with Marxist-
Leninist ideology. The Revolutionary Proletarian
Nucleus appears to find inspiration in the brutal and
incendiary attacks once used by the Red Brigades. The
attacks target their fellow Italian citizens who happen
to work for the government, private business, or trade
unions. Thus, the NPR claims to protect the interests of
the common citizen by murdering other Italian citizens.
Current Goals: The Revolutionary Proletarian Nucleus is
a small group with limited operational capabilities. They
have been identified as strong allies to the New Red
Brigades, as well as other small Marxist terrorist groups
in Italy. Increasingly, the New Red Brigades is seen as
the key terrorist organization with the smaller terrorist
groups in support roles. In fact, there are some
indications that the NPR has been fully incorporated as
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part of the New Red Brigades. Whether the groups have
merged or are simply strong allies, it is apparent that
the group members remain committed to murder in the
name of Communism.
Further Reference
"More on Firebombs Outside Union Offices," ANSA ,
7/6/2000, FBIS, (Rome, Italy)
"New BR: Lots of Groups, Just One Scheme," Da. B.,
1/14/2003, Il Sole-24 Ore , (Milan, Italy)
"After Three Years of Recruitment Here is the New
Map of the Red Brigades [BR]," Claudia Fusani,
3/12/2003, La Repubblica, (Rome, Italy)
"An Attack Born of the D'Antona Murder," Guido
Ruotolo, 7/7/2000, Tur Stampa
"Italian Commentary Outlines Possible Red Brigade
Support in 'Irregular' Groups," Giuseppe D'Avanzo,
10/25/2003, La Repubblica , (Rome, Italy)
REVOLUTIONARY PROLETARIAN NUCLEUS
"More on Firebombs Outside Union Offices," ANSA ,
7/6/2000, FBIS, (Rome, Italy)
"New BR: Lots of Groups, Just One Scheme," Da. B.,
1/14/2003, Il Sole-24 Ore , (Milan, Italy)
"After Three Years of Recruitment Here is the New Map
of the Red Brigades [BR]," Claudia Fusani, 3/12/2003, La
Repubblica, (Rome, Italy)
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"An Attack Born of the D'Antona Murder," Guido
Ruotolo, 7/7/2000, Tur Stampa
"Italian Commentary Outlines Possible Red Brigade
Support in 'Irregular' Groups," Giuseppe D'Avanzo,
10/25/2003, La Repubblica , (Rome, Italy)
"Economic Press Roundup," ANSA , 7/7/2000, FBIS,
(Rome, Italy)
"The New Trail Leads to 15 Names. Here is the Network
of Red Brigade Members," Claudia Fusani, 5/17/2003, La
Repubblica, (Rome, Italy)
"Vigna: Leaders of Old Red Brigades Are Behind the
Attacks," Piero Luigi Vigna, 8/8/2002, Tur Stampa
"The Carabinieri's Report: This Is How Aspiring
Terrorists Offer Themselves to the New BR -- A Galaxy
of Acronyms and Groups Seeking To Emulate the
Tradition of the Seventies," Fiorenza Sarzanini,
12/20/2000, Corriere della Sera , (Milan, Italy)
REVOLUTIONARY UNITED FRONT (RUF)
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Base of Operation: Liberia; Sierra Leone
Founding Philosophy: Many years of corrupt rule under
the dictatorship of Siaka Stevens produced widespread
desperation in Sierra Leone. The Revolutionary United
Front (RUF) formed out of this desperation, yet its
murderous tactics have long since overshadowed its
founding ideologies. The groups formation began
between 1987 and 1988, when a group of 25-50 Sierra
Leoneans traveled to Libya and received training under
the Qadaffi regime. One of these men, Foday Sankoh,
formed the RUF in 1991, committed to peace, by any
means necessary, but not committed to becoming
victims of peace, according to the groups manifesto.
The RUFs first hostile acts occurred in 1991 with
attacks on villages near the Liberia-Sierra Leone
border, aimed at toppling the regime headed by Joseph
Momoh. The RUF was receiving support from Liberian
warlord Charles Taylor, and originally based its raids
from Liberian territory.
Brutal, inhumane tactics became the groups
trademark. Civilians were often a target, either
slaughtered by the hundreds or left with their hands or
limbs cut off. The RUF also became notorious for its use
of child soldiers, many of whom it kidnapped and
conscripted, often forcing the children to inject cocaine
before sending them off to fight. The RUF continued to
fight the multiple successive governments of Sierra
Leone through the 1990s and, with support from Charles
Taylor, intermittently occupied the diamond-producing
areas of Sierra Leone, contributing to the blood
diamond trade of West Africa.
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Current Goals: The RUF began to suffer major setbacks
when Executive Outcomes (EO), a private security firm
hired by the Sierra Leonean government, pushed the
rebel group back from the capital, Freetown. After this,
RUF announced a cease-fire and accepted peace talks
with President Kabbah. The RUF continued its attacks
during the peace negotiations, and eventually came out
in a much stronger position after their implementation,
with a more legitimate face in the government.
Disregarding the peace agreement, and encouraged by
the subsequent absence of EO from the capital, the RUF
again attacked Freetown in February 1998 and was
beaten back by a contingent of West-African ECOMOG
[Monitoring Group for Economic Community of West
African States (ECOWAS)] peacekeepers. They then
began a renewed campaign of terror throughout the
interior of Sierra Leone, which they named Operation
No Living Thing. Civilian casualties numbered in the
thousands, and brought about a UN peacekeeping force.
A British intervention in 2000, securing the country for
UN supervision, finally set the stage for peace.
Disarmament of RUF rebels began in May 2001, and the
war was officially declared over in January 2002,
essentially the end of the RUF. Foday Sankoh died in
prison in July 2003 while awaiting trial on charges of
war crimes.
Further Reference
Para-military Groups: Revolutionary United Front (RUF)
Timeline: Sierra Leone
Footpaths to Democracy: Toward a New Sierra Leone
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"Brutal Child Army Grows Up," BBC, 05/10/2000
Patterns of Global Terrorism: 2002, U.S. Department of
State
REVOLUTIONARY UNITED FRONT (RUF)
Para-military Groups: Revolutionary United Front (RUF)
Timeline: Sierra Leone
Footpaths to Democracy: Toward a New Sierra Leone
"Brutal Child Army Grows Up," BBC
Patterns of Global Terrorism: 2002, U.S. Department of
State
Patterns of Global Terrorism: 2000, U.S. Department of
State
Patterns of Global Terrorism: 2001, U.S. Department of
State
RIYAD US SALIHEYN MARTYRS BRIGADE
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Aliases: Riyadh-as-Saliheen, Riyadus-Salikhin
Reconnaissance and Sabotage Battalion of Chechen
Martyrs
Base of Operation: Chechnya; Russia
Founding Philosophy: The Riyad us-Saliheyn Martyrs
Brigade is a relatively young terrorist organization,
dedicated to the creation of an independent Islamic
republic in Chechnya (and other primarily Muslim parts
of Russia such as Dagestan, Kabardino-Balkaria,
Ingushetia, Ossetia and Tataria). The group, whose
name translates to "requirements for getting into
paradise," espouses radical Islamic doctrine
(Wahabbism), and is believed to have strong ties to Al-
Qaeda. However, most experts agree that the primary
inspiration behind Riyad's activities is a desire for the
independence of "Chechen lands," rather than religious
zealotry. Before his death in July 2006, Riyad was led
by the rebel commander, Shamil Basayev, who briefly
served as President of Chechnya. Riyad is believed to
be descended from two other Chechen terrorist
organizations led by Basayev, the Special Purpose
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Islamic Regiment (SPIR) and the International Islamic
Brigade (IIB). It has even been suggested that Riyad is
simply the result of the marriage of these two groups
Current Goals: Riyad terrorists have intensified their
attacks in recent years, claiming responsibility for
some of the worst terrorist incidents in Russia's history.
Their first attack, in December of 2002, destroyed the
headquarters of the pro-Russian Chechen government,
killing 72 and injuring 280 people. According to
Basayev, the perpetrators of the attack were an
ordinary Chechen father and his two teenage children.
In August of 2003, a similar attack was made on
Russian territory, but this time the target was a hospital
housing both civilian and military patients. The attack
resulted in the death of 52, while injuring 72.
The group has also used "Black Widow" suicide
bombers to carry out attacks, such as the August 2004
airline and subway bombings. As long as the Russians
press their claims in Chechnya and as long as Chechens
are willing to give their life to resist control from
Moscow, the Riyad us-Saliheyn Martyrs' brigade will
most likely remain in business. While the death of
Shamil Basayev in July 2006 is seen as a large setback
for the brigades, the group remains an active security
threat in the region.
Further Reference
"Bassaev lettr et sanguinaire," Natalie Nougayrde,
02/16/2005, Le Monde, (France)
"Terrorism Strikes Russia: Summary of the Attacks
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from August 24 to September 3, 2004," Billy Alfono,
01/01/2004, Overseas Security Advisory Council
"Shamil Basayev: Chechen Warlord," Tom de Waal,
09/30/1999, BBC News
Patterns of Global Terrorism: 2002, U.S. Department of
State
"Country Reports on Terrorism 2005," 04/28/2006, U.S.
Department of State
SPECIAL PURPOSE ISLAMIC REGIMENT (SPIR)
Mothertongue Name:
nonx cnequansnou qenu ucnamcxuu
Base of Operation: Chechnya; Georgia; Russia
Founding Philosophy: The Special Purpose Islamic
Regiment (SPIR) was formed by Arbi Barayev during the
inter-war years (1996-1999) of the Russo-Chechen
conflict. The groups primary objective is the liberation
of Chechnya and the formation of an independent
Chechen state. To achieve this goal, Barayev forged
alliances with other prominent Chechen resistance
organizations as well as foreign Islamic groups. After
the start of the second Russo-Chechen War in 1999,
SPIR greatly expanded its operations and became a
significant force against Russian federal forces.
It was also at this time that the first Islamic militants
began entering Chechnya to take up the cause against
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the Russian infidel. These mujahideen offered
connections to terrorist financers beyond Russias
borders. However, the Islamic fighters held larger
aspirations than creating a Chechen state; they
promoted a more radical strain of Islam and a desire to
install a fundamentalist Islamic republic governed by
Sharia law in Chechnya. Yet conventional wisdom holds
that Chechen terrorists, such as Arbi Barayev, tolerated
the religious zealotry in order to take advantage of the
funding and fighters provided by Islamic terrorist
organizations.
As the conflict continued, many observers noted that
SPIR and other groups were actually integrating Islamic
goals into their primary objectives, alongside Chechen
independence. According to press reports, this was due
to Amir al-Khattab, who in 1995 arrived in Chechnya
from Saudi Arabia to fund separatism from Moscow and
to champion Wahhabism, and Osama bin Ladens shared
desire to create one Muslim nation in the Caucasus
under fundamentalist rule. Subsequently, millions of
dollars per month were funneled into the region to fund
this initiative, and shortly thereafter, Chechens began
receiving terror training in Afghanistan as well as
indoctrination of the Wahhabi creed at various learning
centers throughout Chechnya. Some reports suggest
as many as 1,000 recruits passed through these centers
during this time. However, while Chechnya boasts a
primarily Muslim population, the populace has
demonstrated little allegiance to radical Islam.
Ultimately, Chechen terrorist groups, including the
SPIR, continue to stress that their primary objective is
an independent Chechen state.
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SPIRs most infamous attack came on October 22, 2002.
It was one of three terrorist groups affiliated with the
Chechen insurgency that furnished personnel to carry
out the seizure of the Dubrovka Theater in Moscow. The
suicide attackers took more than 900 hostages, whom
they threatened to kill if the Russian Government did
not meet their demands the complete withdrawal of
Russian security forces from Chechnya within a weeks
time and the recognition of an independent Chechen
state. The standoff ended three days later, when
Russian Special Forces troops raided the building,
killing all terrorists involved. Over 150 civilian hostages
were also killed as a result of the operation.
Current Goals: Changes in leadership have become
characteristic for the SPIR. After Barayevs death in
2001, his nephew, Movsar Suleimanov, took control.
Suleimanov, who changed his last name to Barayev in
emulation of his uncle, played a role in the Dubrovka
Theater seizure and was subsequently killed during its
raid. Following his death, Khamzat Tazabayev took
control of the organization. He commanded several
successful raids on Russian security forces stationed in
Chechnya, but was eventually killed on February 23,
2004, according to a pro-Chechen resistance website.
The subsequent two years were defined by short-lived
leadership, as the next three commanders were killed
in action before they could initiate any operation(s) of
consequence.
A new commander of the SPIR was recently appointed,
according to sources inside the SPIR headquarters. The
charismatic Amir Kazbek now heads the organization,
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and despite having seven different commanders in as
many years, the SPIR shows no signs of abating its
terror campaign to drive Russian forces from Chechen
territory. The group will undoubtedly continue attacks
against Russian security services in the near term to
ultimately achieve a liberated Chechnya in the long
term. The SPIRs two most recent attacks came on July
10, 2006, when a small group of fighters attacked a
Russian Interior Ministry post in the Chechen capitol,
burning all police files and exacting casualties on
Russian guards; and the second took place August 2,
2006, when a group of SPIR rebels attacked and killed
five Chechen police, who they deemed Russian
sympathizers. No SPIR casualties were reported in
either incident.
Additionally, the SPIR has been able to mobilize support
from Ingushetia, Ossetia, Georgia, and Azerbaijan to
help in the fight against Russia, further destabilizing the
Caucasus and straining Moscows resources. The
Kremlin continues to regard the SPIR as a considerable
threat to the region. Under the leadership of Kazbek,
SPIR operatives will continue to target Russian forces
as well as Chechens who collaborate with Russia.
Further Reference
"In the Spotlight: The Special Purpose Islamic
Regiment," Armond Caglar, 03/02/2003, Center for
Defense Information
"Kavkaz Center,"
"Center for Defense Information," Center for Defense
Information, 05/02/2003
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Patterns of Global Terrorism: 2002, U.S. Department of
State
"Country Reports on Terrorism 2005," 04/28/2006, U.S.
Department of State
SPECIAL PURPOSE ISLAMIC REGIMENT (SPIR)
"In the Spotlight: The Special Purpose Islamic
Regiment," Armond Caglar, Center for Defense
Information
"Kavkaz Center,"
"Center for Defense Information," Center for Defense
Information
Patterns of Global Terrorism: 2002, U.S. Department of
State
"Country Reports on Terrorism 2005," U.S. Department
of State
Patterns of Global Terrorism: 2003, US Department of
State
TUNISIAN COMBATANT GROUP (TCG)
Mothertongue Name:
Jama'a Combattante Tunisienne (JCT)
Aliases: Groupe Combattant Tunisien, Tunisian Combat
Group, Tunisian Islamic Fighting Group
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Base of Operation: Afghanistan
Founding Philosophy: The Tunisian Combatant Group
(TCG) is a terrorist entity dedicated to the creation of
an Islamic state in Tunisia. The group is loosely
organized and operates in small cells throughout
Afghanistan and Western Europe. In addition to
targeting Tunisian interests, TCG also attacks Western
targets, including those of the United States.
TCG is nominally committed to a fairly specific
objective, namely the creation of an Islamic state in
Tunisia. However, TCG members have been linked to al-
Qaeda and radical Islamist network in Western Europe
that supports al-Qaeda and other terrorist operations.
The Tunisian Combatant Group has assisted in
recruiting, logistics, and the falsification of documents
for the jihadist network in Europe. In addition to its ties
to al-Qaeda, TCG members are also associated with the
Salafist Group for Preaching and Combat (GSPC).
Current Goals: In December 2001, TCGs co-founder was
arrested in Belgium for providing falsified documents to
terrorists. In 2002, an Italian court sentenced several
Tunisian Combatant Group members. These were the
first convictions of al-Qaeda associates in Europe
following the September 11, 2001 attacks.
Further Reference
"Bombings suspect has terror link," Giles Tremlett and
Jon Henley, 03/16/2004
"An Overview of International Terrorist Organizations,"
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895
Committee on International Relations House of
Representatives, One Hundred Eighth Congress, First
Session
Patterns of Global Terrorism: 2002, U.S. Department of
State
"Hunt Is On for Middle Managers of Terrorism ,"
Sebastian Rotella and David Zucchino, 12/23/2001,
Tribune Interactive
"Country Reports on Terrorism 2005," 04/28/2006, U.S.
Department of State
TUNISIAN COMBATANT GROUP (TCG)
"Bombings suspect has terror link," Giles Tremlett and
Jon Henley
"An Overview of International Terrorist Organizations,"
Committee on International Relations House of
Representatives, One Hundred Eighth Congress, First
Session
Patterns of Global Terrorism: 2002, U.S. Department of
State
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896
"Hunt Is On for Middle Managers of Terrorism ,"
Sebastian Rotella and David Zucchino, Tribune
Interactive
"Country Reports on Terrorism 2005," U.S. Department
of State
Patterns of Global Terrorism: 2001, U.S. Department of
State
Patterns of Global Terrorism: 2003, US Department of
State
TURKISH HEZBOLLAH
Base of Operation: Turkey
Founding Philosophy: Turkish Hezbollah was founded in
southeastern Turkey during the early 1980's. Its goal
was the establishment of a Sunni Muslim theocracy in
Turkey, which they attempted to achieve by
overthrowing Turkey's secular regime. Despite the
common name, Turkish Hezbollah is unrelated to the
Iranian-sponsored Lebanese Hezbollah. It is suspected
that Turkish Hezbollah has also received Iranian
funding and support, as Iran sought to spread its
revolutionary Islamic ideology into Turkey. Initially,
Turkish Hezbollah members trained with members of
the Kurdistan Workers Party (PKK), Turkeys main rebel
Turkish group. A rivalry soon developed, and Turkish
Hezbollah soon focused the bulk of its attacks on the
PKK, which it accused of anti-Muslim activities. Turkish
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897
Hezbollah also focused on spreading its Islamic
theology through Turkey through bookstores and
publishing houses. Because the Turkish government's
main counterterrorism efforts at this time were directed
against the PKK, some accuse the government of
supporting and funding Turkish Hezbollah as a proxy, a
charge they deny. Regardless of official government
complicity, their focus on combating PKK allowed
Turkish Hezbollah to act without fear of government
reprisal. Charges of connections to the Turkish
government are furthered by the fact that from its
founding until 2000, Turkish Hezbollah was not involved
in any violent confrontation with Turkish police or
security forces.
Current Goals: Turkish Hezbollahs situation greatly
changed in the mid 1990s, as PKKs threat to Turkey
waned, culminating in a 1999 truce. With the
governments focus away from PKK, Turkish Hezbollah
arose as a target for the Turkish government, who
began to arrest its members. The lack of PKK as a
serious adversary also caused Turkish Hezbollah to
change its focus, and in the mid-1990s it began to
target secular academics and journalists, feminists and
religious Muslims who did not support its goal of
establishing an Islamic state in Turkey. Full-scale
operations against the group by the Turkish government
began in 2000, resulting in the deaths of hundreds of
militants throughout southeastern Turkey. Turkish
police, investigating the fraudulent use of a kidnapped
businessmans credit card, were led to small house in
the city of Beykoz, where a shootout ensued and the
groups leader, Huseyin Velioglu, was killed. Also
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898
captured in the raid were chief lieutenants Edip Gumus
and Cemal Tutar. This raid, which yielded a wealth of
information on the group and led to the capture of other
key members, is seen as the beginning of the end of
Turkish Hezbollah. Many of its remaining members have
escaped to Iran and Iraq. However, involvement of
Turkish Hezbollah is suspected in the 2003 bombings of
synagogues and British targets, although the links are
unclear at this point.
Further Reference
"Murder on the Bosporous," Aslr Aydrntaba,
01/01/2000, Middle East Forum, Middle East Quarterly
"The Defeat of Turkish Hizballah as a Model for
Counter-Terrorism Strategy ," John T. Nugent, Jr.,
01/01/2004, Middle East Review of International Affairs
(Israel)
"Turkish Hezbollah: 'No state links' ," BBC, 01/23/2000,
BBC, BBC News Europe
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899
In the Spotlight: Turkish Hezbollah
Patterns of Global Terrorism: 2002, U.S. Department of
State
TURKISH HEZBOLLAH
"Murder on the Bosporous," Aslr Aydrntaba, Middle
East Forum, Middle East Quarterly
"The Defeat of Turkish Hizballah as a Model for Counter-
Terrorism Strategy ," John T. Nugent, Jr., Middle East
Review of International Affairs (Israel)
"Turkish Hezbollah: 'No state links' ," BBC, BBC, BBC
News Europe
In the Spotlight: Turkish Hezbollah
Patterns of Global Terrorism: 2002, U.S. Department of
State
"Country Reports on Terrorism 2005," U.S. Department
of State
Patterns of Global Terrorism: 2001, U.S. Department of
State
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900
ULSTER DEFENCE ASSOCIATION ULSTER FREEDOM
FIGHTERS
Aliases: UDA
Base of Operation: Northern Ireland (UK); United
Kingdom
Founding Philosophy: The Ulster Defence Association is
the largest loyalist paramilitary organization in Northern
Ireland, boasting a membership of 40,000 during its
peak. As a loyalist organization, the UDA is opposed to
the unification of Northern Ireland and the Republic of
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901
Ireland and desires that the six counties of Northern
Ireland remain part of the United Kingdom.
The UDA was formed in the early 1970s in response to
the Irish Republican Army's (IRA) violent resurgence in
Northern Ireland. Small, neighborhood-based local
groups, with the express intent of protecting
Protestants from republican attacks, began to form. In
1971, the UDA was established as an umbrella
organization for many of these local groups. The group
is closely connected to the Ulster Freedom Fighters
(UFF), utilizing the UFF as a covert terrorist
organization from the 1970s until the early 1990s.
Through this deception, the UDA was able to maintain a
legal status in Northern Ireland until 1991. However, the
two groups have effectively merged into one
organization. The UDAs retention of its status as a
legal organization lead many republicans to cite it as an
example of the collusion between loyalist organizations
and British security forces and Northern Ireland police
forces.
Although formed to protect Protestants from Republican
terrorist attacks, the vast majority of attacks
conducted by the UDA have been retaliatory killings
targeting Catholic civilians or rival loyalists. The
majority of the attacks committed by the UDA have
been small-scale, individual murders as opposed to
bombings or other large-scale tactics preferred by other
terrorist groups in Northern Ireland. Operations are
conducted by one of the organizations six largely
independent brigades.
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Due in part to its cooperation with the Loyalist
Volunteer Force (LVF), the UDA became embroiled in a
feud with the LVFs founding group, the Ulster Volunteer
Force (UVF), beginning in 2000. In addition, the UDA has
been weakened by violent internal feuding, leading to
reports of brigades breaking away from the
organization. However, the North Belfast brigade
declared in August 2006 that it has since reunited with
the UDA.
Current Goals: Beginning in October 1994, the UDA has
declared numerous ceasefires, often as a result of
similar declarations made by republican organizations,
namely the IRA. However, members of the UDA
remained active through the use of cover names such
as the Red Hand Defenders (RHD) and Orange
Volunteers (OV). Due to its continued feuding, both
internally and with other loyalist organizations, and its
utilization of cover names, the British government
stated in October 2001 that it no longer recognized a
UDA ceasefire.
Plagued by internecine feuds and heavy involvement in
organized crime and drug trafficking, the UDA
announced in November 2005 that its leadership was
reconsidering the groups future due to the standing
down of the IRA and the LVF. Since its announcement,
the UDA has engaged in internal cleansing, forcefully
expelling controversial members and their supporters
from the organization and, often, Northern Ireland
entirely. Despite these efforts, the Independent
Monitoring Commission, established in 2004 to monitor
paramilitary organizations in Northern Ireland,
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903
announced in April 2006 that the UDA continues to
engage in paramilitary and criminal activities,
especially drug trafficking and extortion.
Further Reference
"Loyalists in Northern Ireland: Further Thoughts on
'Pro-State Terror'," Steve Bruce, Winter 1993,
"Terrorism and Political Violence," Vol. 5, No. 4 (Frank
Cass Publishers)
"Irish Experiences and Perspectives," Dermot Walsh,
6/25/1905, "Confronting Terrorism" (Kluwer Law
International), (The Hague, Netherlands)
Terrorism: assassins to zealots/ Sean Kendall
Anderson, Stephen Sloan, Sean Kendall Anderson and
Stephen Sloan, 01/01/2003, The Scarecrow Press, Inc.,
(Lanham, Maryland)
Encyclopedia of terrorism/ Harvey W. Kushner , Harvey
W. Kushner, c2003., Sage Publications, (Thousand
Oaks, Calif.)
"The problems of 'pro-state' terrorism : loyalist
paramilitaries in Northern Ireland.," Steve Bruce,
1992., Frank Cass & Co., (London, England )
ULSTER DEFENCE ASSOCIATION/ULSTER FREEDOM
FIGHTERS
"Loyalists in Northern Ireland: Further Thoughts on 'Pro-
State Terror'," Steve Bruce, Winter 1993, "Terrorism and
Political Violence," Vol. 5, No. 4 (Frank Cass Publishers)
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904
"Irish Experiences and Perspectives," Dermot Walsh,
6/25/1905, "Confronting Terrorism" (Kluwer Law
International), (The Hague, Netherlands)
Terrorism: assassins to zealots/ Sean Kendall Anderson,
Stephen Sloan, Sean Kendall Anderson and Stephen
Sloan, 1/1/2003, The Scarecrow Press, Inc., (Lanham,
Maryland)
Encyclopedia of terrorism/ Harvey W. Kushner , Harvey
W. Kushner, c2003., Sage Publications, (Thousand
Oaks, Calif.)
"The problems of 'pro-state' terrorism : loyalist
paramilitaries in Northern Ireland.," Steve Bruce, 1992.,
Frank Cass & Co., (London, England )
"Gray's Allies Switch to UVF; Spice Boys' Move Sparks
Unease," David Gordon, The Belfast Telegraph, (Belfast,
Northern Ireland)
Encyclopedia of world terrorism , 2003, M.E. Sharpe,
(Armonk, NY)
"Resurgence of a terrorist organisation - part 1 : the
UDA, a case study / Jim Cusack and Max Taylor.," Jim
Cusack, 1993., Frank Cass & Co., (London, England )
Patterns of Global Terrorism: 2002, U.S. Department of
State
"Country Reports on Terrorism 2005," U.S. Department
of State
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905
Patterns of Global Terrorism: 2001, U.S. Department of
State
Patterns of Global Terrorism: 2003, US Department of
State
ULSTER VOLUNTEER FORCE (UVF)
Base of Operation: Northern Ireland (UK); United
Kingdom
Founding Philosophy: The Ulster Volunteer Force (UVF)
is a loyalist paramilitary organization dedicated to
maintaining Northern Irelands ties with the United
Kingdom. Loyalist organizations in Northern Ireland
oppose the unification of the six counties of Northern
Ireland with the 26 counties of the Republic of Ireland.
The UVF, as it exists today, was formed in 1966 to
combat the threat of republican paramilitary
organizations such as the Irish Republican Army (IRA).
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906
However, their inception was rooted in a unionist militia
formed by Edward Carson during the early 1910s and
1920s whose name and symbols were appropriated in
1966. This original organization sought to prevent the
creation of an autonomous Ireland and therefore was
dedicated to maintaining Irelands ties with the United
Kingdom. The original UVF was disbanded shortly after
the creation of the Republic of Ireland.
Throughout its history, the UVF has conducted a
multitude of operations, including: bombings,
assassinations, kidnappings, and hijackings. These
attacks usually targeted Catholic civilians, republican
paramilitaries, and rival loyalists, all of whom were
located in Northern Ireland. However, beginning in the
1970s, the UVF expanded its terrorist bombing
campaign to include Catholic civilian targets in the
Republic of Ireland, often in retaliation for attacks by
the IRA or other republican groups. A particularly
violent group of UVF members, named the Shankill
Butchers, is thought to be personally responsible for the
kidnap, torture, and murder of over 30 Catholic civilians
in Northern Ireland.
In October 1994, as part of the Combined Loyalist
Military Command, the UVF declared a ceasefire in
response to the IRAs ceasefire, However, numerous
members were opposed to the ceasefire and
participation in the peace process, which led to their
separation from the UVF to form splinter groups such as
the Loyalist Volunteer Force (LVF). It is also possible
that former UVF members remained active through the
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907
use of cover names like the South Londonderry
Volunteers.
The UVF has been consistently challenged by rival
groups like the LVF and the Ulster Defence Association
(UDA), where years of fighting has only recently tapered
off. In addition to instability caused by fighting with
these groups, the UVF has been weakened by internal
feuding, the use of police informants within the group,
and the arrests of leading members. The group has also
become heavily involved in organized crime and drug
trafficking, resulting in waning public support.
Current Goals: In September 2005, as a result of
continued paramilitary activities and violent feuding
with other loyalists, the British government announced
that it no longer recognized the 1994 UVF ceasefire.
Recently, the groups leadership has attempted to
distance the UVF from criminal activities, although their
success is debatable. The Independent Monitoring
Commission, formed in 2004 to monitor paramilitary
organizations in Northern Ireland, stated in its April
2006 report that the UVF remained an active and violent
paramilitary organization. In May 2007, the group
declared that the "IRA's war is over" and as such, it
would halt all terrorist activity. Whether or not this
represents a step forward in resolving the conflict in
Northern Ireland remains to be seen.
Further Reference
"Irish Experiences and Perspectives," Dermot Walsh,
6/25/1905, "Confronting Terrorism" (Kluwer Law
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908
International), (The Hague, Netherlands)
Terrorism: assassins to zealots/ Sean Kendall
Anderson, Stephen Sloan, Sean Kendall Anderson and
Stephen Sloan, 01/01/2003, The Scarecrow Press, Inc.,
(Lanham, Maryland)
Encyclopedia of terrorism/ Harvey W. Kushner , Harvey
W. Kushner, c2003., Sage Publications, (Thousand
Oaks, Calif.)
"Who's who in Northern ireland," Ros Taylor,
1/28/1999, The Guardian, (UK)
"Gray's Allies Switch to UVF; Spice Boys' Move Sparks
Unease," David Gordon, 04/14/2005, The Belfast
Telegraph, (Belfast, Northern Ireland)
ULSTER VOLUNTEER FORCE (UVF)
"Irish Experiences and Perspectives," Dermot Walsh,
6/25/1905, "Confronting Terrorism" (Kluwer Law
International), (The Hague, Netherlands)
Terrorism: assassins to zealots/ Sean Kendall Anderson,
Stephen Sloan, Sean Kendall Anderson and Stephen
Sloan, 1/1/2003, The Scarecrow Press, Inc., (Lanham,
Maryland)
Encyclopedia of terrorism/ Harvey W. Kushner , Harvey
W. Kushner, c2003., Sage Publications, (Thousand
Oaks, Calif.)
"Who's who in Northern ireland," Ros Taylor, 1/28/1999,
The Guardian, (UK)
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909
"Gray's Allies Switch to UVF; Spice Boys' Move Sparks
Unease," David Gordon, The Belfast Telegraph, (Belfast,
Northern Ireland)
Encyclopedia of world terrorism , 2003, M.E. Sharpe,
(Armonk, NY)
"Country Reports on Terrorism 2005," U.S. Department
of State
AL-BADR
Aliases: Al Badar, Al-Badhr Mujahidin
Base of Operation: Pakistan
Founding Philosophy: Al-Badr is the name of an Islamist
militant group with several distinct iterations operating
in different countries in the South Asian region.
Al-Badr first emerged in 1971 and was reportedly
formed by Pakistan's Inter-Services Intelligence (ISI).
The group was accused of participating in the massacre
of 10,000 ethnic Bengali intellectuals in East Pakistan
(now Bangladesh) during the Pakistani Civil War. After
the war ended, al-Badr essentially disappeared for the
next two decades.
A group bearing the same name reappeared in the late
1980s in Afghanistan, operating as part of Hizb-e-Islami,
the party of former Afghan Prime Minister Gulbuddin
Hekmatyar. Hizb-e-Islami was the most radical among
the seven parties that made up the anti-Soviet Afghan
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910
mujihadeen as well as a key ally of Pakistan's Inter-
Services Intelligence (ISI). In 1989, the ISI helped al-
Badr become a new organization under the leadership
of Ahsan Dar, the leader of Hizbul Mujahideen (HM). It is
unknown if the Afghan version of al-Badr had any ties to
the groups first iteration. The battle of Badr was a
famous victory in the history of early Islam and is often
invoked by militants throughout the Islamic world.
The name al-Badr reemerged for a third time in 1998 as
a smaller group under the leadership of a Pakistani
Kashmiri known as Lukmaan. The stated goal of this
new iteration of al-Badr is the strengthening of the
Kashmiri freedom struggle and to liberate Kashmir and
merge it with Pakistan. The current leaders and
members are made up of Pakistanis that received
training in Afghanistan and Waziristan and have now
begun jihad in Kashmir. The present chief commander
of al-Badr is Bakht Zamin (Khan), a staunch militant
opposed to any cessation in violence in Kashmir. Of the
approximately three hundred suspec
ted members of al-Badr one-third are estimated to be
foreign born mercenaries. One of only two groups in the
region to use suicide squads, al-Badr has traditionally
utilized explosives and suicide squads to carry out
attacks against the Indian military and politicians in
both Kashmir and India. However, in recent years the
group has suffered operational setbacks as an
increasing number of al-Badr militants have been killed
while attempting to cross from Pakistan into Kashmir.
In 2005 alone nine top al-Badr commanders were either
captured or killed by Indian security forces.
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Al-Badr is viewed as one the more hard-line terrorist
organizations operating in Kashmir and Jammu. In the
past they have killed women for being enrolled in
college, posted notices about womens place in Muslim
society with threats of violence for disobedience,
attacked news sources that they viewed as
inappropriate, and most recently threatened to bomb
cable outlets for their content. This stance is also seen
in the current sit-in by chief Zamin to protest
negotiations to end violence in Kashmir. The group has
stated that Pakistan needs to concentrate upon
strengthening jihad instead of wasting further time
seeking a negotiated settlement.
Al-Badr has found it increasingly difficult to raise funds
and many of its training camps have been closed.
However, some Indian intelligence officials believe that
Pakistans ISI is still feeding funds and logistical
support to the group. In addition, Indian intelligence
services are currently investigating links between al-
Badr and al-Qaeda.
Current Goals: Despite the recent increase in effective
raids by Indian forces and an apparent decrease in
operational capability, al-Badr appears to be
regrouping. This entails the need to shore up group
resources, establish new training camps, and evaluate
their personnel options. Al-Badr is still pursuing their
goals of an Indian-free Kashmir that will become part of
Pakistan, the spread of Islam over South Asia, and the
strict adherence to Islamic doctrine and law. The
organization will continue to attempt disruption of any
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negotiations between India and Pakistan, as well as
attack sources of corrupt Western influences.
Further Reference
"Pakistan Terrorist Groups: Al-Badr," Institute for
Conflict Management, 08/22/2003, South Asia
Terrorism Portal, (New Delhi, India)
Patterns of Global Terrorism: 2002, U.S. Department of
State
"Country Reports on Terrorism 2005," 04/28/2006, U.S.
Department of State
IRISH NATIONAL LIBERATION ARMY (INLA)
Aliases: Catholic Reaction Force (CRF), People's
Liberation Army (PLA), People's Republican Army (PRA)
Base of Operation: Ireland; Northern Ireland (UK);
United Kingdom
Founding Philosophy: The Irish National Liberation Army
(INLA) is a republican paramilitary organization
operating in Northern Ireland. Founded by Seamus
Costello on December 8, 1974, the INLA is the armed
wing of the Irish Republican Socialist Party (IRSP) and a
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913
splinter group of the Official Irish Republican Army
(Official IRA).
The Official IRA, with its Marxist-inspired ideology,
emerged in 1969 following the split of the Irish
Republican Army (IRA) into the Official and Provisional
factions. In 1972, following a series of politically
damaging attacks against civilians, the Official IRA
declared a ceasefire and announced its intention to join
the political process. Repubican dissents, desiring a
continuation of the armed struggle against the British
presence in Northern Ireland, broke away from the
organization and formed the INLA in 1974.
As a paramilitary organization in Northern Ireland, the
INLA espouses a unique ideology of militant
republicanism coupled with a Marxist-Leninist political
and social approach. The organization fights to unite all
32 counties of Ireland under an independent communist
Irish state. Currently six counties in Northern Ireland
remain part of the United Kingdom and 26 counties
comprise the Republic of Ireland.
Members of the INLA have conducted attacks against
British security forces, Northern Irelands police forces,
Protestants (civilians and paramilitaries), and rival
republicans through the use of bombings,
assassinations, and armed attacks. The groups most
publicized attack occurred in May 1979 when it claimed
responsible for the assassination of Airey Neave, a
prominent member of the British Parliament and close
political supporter of Margaret Thatcher. Airey Neave
was killed by a car bomb shortly before the 1979
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election that resulted in the selection of Margaret
Thatcher as prime minister. In 1997, three imprisoned
members of the INLA assassinated Billy King Rat
Wright, the Loyalist Volunteer Force (LVF) leader also
ensconced in Maze prison.
Shortly after its formation, the INLA was engaged in a
bitter feud with its founding group, the Official IRA,
which sought to destroy the faction. In the 1980s, the
INLA was almost torn apart by factionalism, intra-
republican rivalries, criminality, and arrests. One such
rivalry involved an armed group composed of former
INLA members, the Irish Peoples Liberation
Organization, that attempted to annihilate the INLA in
1987.
Current Goals: On August 22, 1998, the INLA declared a
ceasefire although it remains opposed to the Good
Friday Agreement. Its ceasefire was declared just days
after the 1998 Omagh bombing in Northern Ireland.
Although the attack was attributed to another
republican terrorist group, the Real IRA, the INLA has
been implicated as providing supplies for the bombing,
including transportation vehicles.
While the INLA has not conduct any recent terrorist
attacks, the group remains heavily involved in
organized crime and narcotics trafficking and has not
disarmed its membership. Several security sources
have alleged that INLA members remain active through
the use of cover names such as the Catholic Reaction
Force (CRF) and Peoples Republican Army. Despite its
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915
ceasefire, the INLA continues to pose a threat to
Northern Ireland and its fragile peace process.
Further Reference
"Irish Experiences and Perspectives," Dermot Walsh,
6/25/1905, "Confronting Terrorism" (Kluwer Law
International), (The Hague, Netherlands)
Terrorism: assassins to zealots/ Sean Kendall
Anderson, Stephen Sloan, Sean Kendall Anderson and
Stephen Sloan, 01/01/2003, The Scarecrow Press, Inc.,
(Lanham, Maryland)
Encyclopedia of terrorism/ Harvey W. Kushner , Harvey
W. Kushner, c2003., Sage Publications, (Thousand
Oaks, Calif.)
Encyclopedia of world terrorism , 2003, M.E. Sharpe,
(Armonk, NY)
Patterns of International Terrorism: 1982, U.S.
Department of State
IRISH NATIONAL LIBERATION ARMY (INLA)
"Irish Experiences and Perspectives," Dermot Walsh,
6/25/1905, "Confronting Terrorism" (Kluwer Law
International), (The Hague, Netherlands)
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916
Terrorism: assassins to zealots/ Sean Kendall Anderson,
Stephen Sloan, Sean Kendall Anderson and Stephen
Sloan, 1/1/2003, The Scarecrow Press, Inc., (Lanham,
Maryland)
Encyclopedia of terrorism/ Harvey W. Kushner , Harvey
W. Kushner, c2003., Sage Publications, (Thousand
Oaks, Calif.)
Encyclopedia of world terrorism , 2003, M.E. Sharpe,
(Armonk, NY)
Patterns of International Terrorism: 1982, U.S.
Department of State
International Terrorism in 1979, Central Intelligence
Agency
"Country Reports on Terrorism 2005," U.S. Department
of State
Patterns of Global Terrorism: 1983, U.S. Department of
State
IRISH REPUBLICAN ARMY 1(IRA)
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917
Aliases: Provisional Irish Republican Army (PIRA),
Provos
Base of Operation: Ireland; Northern Ireland (UK);
United Kingdom
Founding Philosophy: Founded over eighty years ago,
the Irish Republican Army (IRA) is arguably the longest-
operating terrorist organization in Western Europe.
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918
Despite its longevity, the group remains committed to
its founding goal, an Ireland fully independent of Great
Britain. Ireland was ruled by Great Britain from the 18th
century until 1921. Between 1919 and 1921, Irish
separatists engaged in a violent guerilla war on British
forces within Ireland. By 1921, the Irish separatists, led
by the political party Sinn Fein, had reached an
agreement with the United Kingdom called the Anglo-
Irish Treaty. With the signing of the treaty, the UK
agreed to grant full independence to the southern 26
counties of Ireland while retaining sovereignty over the
remaining six northern counties which would soon be
known as Northern Ireland.
Following the signing of the Anglo-Irish Treaty, a civil
war erupted in Ireland between pro-treaty and anti-
treaty factions. While the acceptance of the treaty was
ratified by referendum, there was a large minority that
continued to find the creation of Northern Ireland an
unacceptable compromise. In 1922, the IRA was
founded by members of the anti-treaty faction who had
participated in the guerrilla war against the British, lost
the civil war and continued to refuse to recognize the
legitimacy of the Republic of Ireland or Northern
Ireland.
In 1969, the commencement of the almost thirty-year
period collectively known as the Troubles, the IRA
split into two rival factions, the Official and Provisional
IRA. The Official IRA, with its Marxist-oriented ideology,
was opposed to an armed campaign against the British
and would later declare an indefinite ceasefire in 1972.
Although there have been recent accusations of
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919
criminal involvement, the Official IRA is not active in a
military capacity. Hard-line members of the IRA,
espousing the traditional republican ideology and
opposed to the Official IRAs leftist leanings, formed the
Provisional IRA in order to escalate the armed
campaign against the British troop presence in
Northern Ireland and protect Catholic civilians. After
1972 ceasefire declared by the Official IRA, the
Provisional IRA became the de facto IRA, desiring the
removal of British troops and the unification of Northern
Ireland and the Republic of Ireland.
The IRA seeks to unite all 32 counties into one Irish
state, independent of Great Britain. Due to their
opposition to the 1921 Anglo-Irish Treaty, the IRA does
not recognize the legitimacy of the governments of both
Ireland and Northern Ireland although these views have
been moderated in recent years. Bombings (particularly
car bombs), assassinations, kidnappings, punishment
beatings, extortion, smuggling and robberies have been
conducted by the organization in Northern Ireland,
Ireland, and mainland Great Britain. Although its
primary targets have been the British military and
police in Northern Ireland, the IRA has also carried out
operations against Protestants (paramilitaries and
civilians) and British government officials, police and
civilians in mainland Great Britain and Europe.
Advanced warning for bombing attacks was
occasionally given in order to minimize civilian
causalities. After several instances of damaging police
informant infiltrations, the IRA reorganized itself into
small cells, called Active Service Units, under the
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leadership of the Army Council, to maintain operational
security.
Current Goals: In August 1994, the IRA declared a
cease-fire. While the cease-fire briefly broke down in
1996, negotiations resumed in the summer of 1997
following the election of Tony Blair as prime minister.
The cease-fire culminated in the watershed moment of
the Good Friday Agreement in 1998. In the Good Friday
Accords, the IRA made a drastic shift in their policy and
agreed to work towards a united Ireland only in
peaceful terms. From the signing of the Accords on
April 12, 1998 through the end of the year, many held
out the possibility that the IRA had finally given up its
terrorist tactics. However, while the IRA had
theoretically agreed that a peaceful solution was the
only option; their actions demonstrated that violence
was still a viable option. Members continue to engage
in criminal activities such as smuggling and robbery.
Violent splinter groups, such as the Real IRA and
Continuity IRA, were formed in opposition to the IRAs
participation in a ceasefire and the peace process,
heightening sectarian tensions. Despite temporary
setbacks, negotiations continued, and in 2001, the IRA
announced that it would begin to disarm. Furthermore,
in July 2002 the IRA issued a public apology to the
civilian victims of its attacks. Despite these promises,
it was not until July 2005 that the IRA formally ordered
an end to their armed campaign, pledging to use non-
violent means to achieve their goals. In September of
that year, an independent commission set up to oversee
the disarmament process, the Independent Monitoring
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921
Commission, reported that the IRA had in fact scrapped
their arsenal. This is seen as a major step by the group
in upholding their pledge to abstain from violence.
Some believe that the efforts the IRA has taken in
recent years demonstrate its real commitment to peace
and an end to its terrorist activity. Although
disarmament is a huge step forward, it remains to be
seen if the IRA's non-violence pledge will be backed up
with further action, and whether the organization has
permanently committed to leave terrorism behind. The
continued presence of loyalist paramilitary
organizations, violent Republican splinter groups, and
sectarian tensions have the potential to drag the IRA
back into terrorism.
Legal Cases
USA v. Anthony Gerard Brannigan et al: 92-CR-587-
TUC-JMR
USA v. James Barr: 84-CR-00272
USA v. James Joseph Smyth: 92-CR-242
USA v. James Joseph Smyth: 92-XR-152
USA v. Joseph P. Murray, Jr. et al: 86-CR-118
USA v. Joseph P. Murray, Jr. et al: 87-CR-181
USA v. Joseph P. Murray, Jr. et al: 87-CR-225
USA v. Kevin Barry John Artt: 92-CR-243
USA v. Kevin Barry Jon Artt: 92-XR-151
USA v. Kevin McKinley et al: 90-CR-8005-JAG
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USA v. Noel Murphy et al: 86-CR-184
USA v. Paul Brennan: 93-XR-32
USA v. Richard Clark Johnson et al: 89-CR-221-MA
USA v. Terrence Damien Kirby: 94-XR-86
Further Reference
"IRA New Year Statement," Irish Republican Army,
1/7/1999
"IRA Statement on Disarmament," Irish Republican
Army, Oct. 23, 2001
"Irish Decleration of Independence," Dail Eireann,
1/21/1919
"Irish Experiences and Perspectives," Dermot Walsh,
6/25/1905, "Confronting Terrorism" (Kluwer Law
International), (The Hague, Netherlands)
Terrorism: assassins to zealots/ Sean Kendall
Anderson, Stephen Sloan, Sean Kendall Anderson and
Stephen Sloan, 01/01/2003, The Scarecrow Press, Inc.,
(Lanham, Maryland)
IRISH REPUBLICAN ARMY (IRA)
"IRA New Year Statement," Irish Republican Army,
1/7/1999
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"IRA Statement on Disarmament," Irish Republican
Army, Oct. 23, 2001
"Irish Decleration of Independence," Dail Eireann,
1/21/1919
"Irish Experiences and Perspectives," Dermot Walsh,
6/25/1905, "Confronting Terrorism" (Kluwer Law
International), (The Hague, Netherlands)
Terrorism: assassins to zealots/ Sean Kendall Anderson,
Stephen Sloan, Sean Kendall Anderson and Stephen
Sloan, 1/1/2003, The Scarecrow Press, Inc., (Lanham,
Maryland)
The Irish troubles : a generation of violence, 1967-1992 /
J. Bowyer Bell., J. Bowyer Bell, 1993., St. Martin's
Press, (New York )
Encyclopedia of terrorism/ Harvey W. Kushner , Harvey
W. Kushner, c2003., Sage Publications, (Thousand
Oaks, Calif.)
The Irish terrorism experience / edited by Yonah
Alexander and Alan O'Day., c1991., Dartmouth,
(Aldershot, Hants, England ; Brookfield, Vt., USA )
Ireland's terrorist dilemma / edited by Yonah Alexander,
Alan O'Day., 1986., M. Nijhoff ; Hingham, MA, USA :
Distributors for the U.S. and Canada, Kluwer Academic,
(Dordrecht, The Netherlands ; Boston )
Ireland's terrorist trauma : interdisciplinary
perspectives / edited by Yonah Alexander, Alan O'Day.,
1989., St. Martin's Press, (New York )
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924
Armed struggle : the history of the IRA / Richard
English., Richard English, 2003., Oxford University
Press, (New York )
The secret army : a history of the IRA, 1915-1970 / J.
Bowyer Bell., J. Bowyer Bell, 1972., Sphere, (London )
"The Provisional IRA : a case study / C.J.M. Drake.," C.
J. M. Drake, 1991., Frank Cass & Co., (London, England )
"Terroristic murder in Northern Ireland : who is killed
and why? / Robert M. Pockrass.," Robert M. Pockrass,
1987., Crane, Russak & Co., (New York )
"IRA Withdraws Offer to Disarm But Will Honor Truce,"
AP
"Profile: Gerry Adams," BBC
Encyclopedia of world terrorism , 2003, M.E. Sharpe,
(Armonk, NY)
The financing of terror : behind the PLO, IRA, Red
Brigades, and M-19 stand the paymasters : how the
groups that are terrorizing the world get the money to
do it / James Adams., James Adams, c1986., Simon and
Schuster, (New York )
Patterns of International Terrorism: 1982, U.S.
Department of State
"The right to self-determination in Ireland and the
justification of IRA violence / Leslie Macfarlane.," Leslie
Macfarlane, 1990., Frank Cass & Co., (London, England )
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925
IRISH REPUBLICAN ARMY (IRA)
Patterns of Global Terrorism: 1986, U.S. Department of
State
The IRA, 1968-2000 : analysis of a secret army / J.
Bowyer Bell., J. Bowyer Bell, 2000., Frank Cass,
(London ; Portland, OR )
"Politics and propaganda of the Provisional IRA /
Maurice Tugwell.," Maurice Tugwell, 1981., Crane,
Russak & Co., (New York )
"IRA leadership problems / Edgar O'Ballance.," Edgar
O'Ballance, 1981., Crane, Russak & Co., (New York )
"Don't confuse me with the facts : more on the Irish
Republican Army and sectarianism / Robert W. White.,"
Robert W. White, 1998., Frank Cass & Co., (London,
England )
"The Irish Republican Army : an assessment of
sectarianism / Robert W. White.," Robert W. White,
1997., Frank Cass & Co., (London, England )
Patterns of Global Terrorism: 1997, U.S. Department of
State
Patterns of Global Terrorism: 2002, U.S. Department of
State
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Patterns of Global Terrorism: 1993, U.S. Department of
State
Patterns of Global Terrorism: 1996 , U.S. Department of
State
International Terrorism in 1979, Central Intelligence
Agency
Patterns of International Terrorism: 1981, U.S.
Department of State
Patterns of Global Terrorism: 1985, U.S. Department of
State
Patterns of Global Terrorism: 1987, U.S. Department of
State
Patterns of Global Terrorism: 1988, U.S. Department of
State
Patterns of Global Terrorism: 1989, U.S. Department of
State
Patterns of International Terrorism: 1980, Central
Intelligence Agency
"Country Reports on Terrorism 2005," U.S. Department
of State
Patterns of Global Terrorism: 1983, U.S. Department of
State
Patterns of Global Terrorism: 1998, U.S. Department of
State
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IRISH REPUBLICAN ARMY (IRA)
Patterns of Global Terrorism: 2000, U.S. Department of
State
Patterns of Global Terrorism: 2001, U.S. Department of
State
Patterns of Global Terrorism: 2003, US Department of
State
Patterns of Global Terrorism: 1999, U.S. Department of
State
ISLAMIC GREAT EASTERN RAIDERS FRONT
Mothertongue Name:
Islami Buyuk Dogu Akincilar Cephesi (IBDA-C)
Aliases: Front Islamique des Combattants du Grand
Orient, IBDA-C
Base of Operation: Turkey
Founding Philosophy: Established in the 1970s by Salih
Mirzabeyoglu, the Islamic Great Eastern Raiders Front,
known by the acronym IBDA-C, is an Islamist terrorist
organization operating in Turkey. While the group's
early activities appeared limited to anti-Turkey
demonstrations, the IBDA-C has emerged as an
increasingly violent organization. The group's
philosophy appears to be based on an obscure Islamic
revivalist movement founded by Necip Fazil Kisakurek,
a Turkish poet and thinker. This philosophy stresses the
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importance of the "Great Orient," a vaguely defined
system of thought that seeks to establish an Islamic
state based on uncorrupted Islamic ideals. The IBDA-C
uses leftist slogans throughout its publications,
possibly indicating that its ideology is leftist as well as
Islamic. Unlike other Turkish Islamist groups, the IBDA-
C does not have any connections to Iran or Iranian
revolutionary thought.
The IBDA-C's activities have consistently been directed
against Turkey and the West. The group rejects the
legitimacy of the Turkish government and seeks to use
violence to destabilize the regime. Like other Islamist
groups, the IBDA-C is also virulently anti-Western, anti-
Semitic, and anti-Christian. The group is reportedly
highly decentralized, consisting of cells that organize
themselves and conduct operations autonomously, a
structure which provides greater operational security
for both the organization and individual cells. Civilian
targets are typically attacked through the use of
Molotov cocktails, sabotage, and bombings.
In the past, the IBDA-C has cooperated with various
opposition elements in Turkey attempting to destabilize
Turkeys unique democratic Islamic political structure.
The organization also recently boasted of an affiliation
with al-Qaeda. One of the IBDA-Cs most publicized
attacks occurred in the eastern city of Sivas, when
group members firebombed a hotel on July 2, 1993,
killing 37 people. Turkish police, however, believe the
organization has also claimed responsibility for attacks
orchestrated by other terrorist groups in order to
elevate its image.
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Current Goals: Since the 1990s, the IBDA-C has become
increasingly violent. The Turkish government has
cracked down on the IBDA-C, arresting hundreds of
members in the past several years. In 1998, the IBDA-
C's leader, Salih Mirzabeyoglu, was arrested by Turkish
authorities. Mirzabeyoglu has denied being the leader of
the IBDA-C, insisting that the group he heads is merely
one of ideas and not an "armed organization." While the
crackdown by Turkish authorities has curbed some of
the IBDA-C's activities, imprisoned members have
staged riots in detainment facilities throughout Turkey.
The Turkish governments latest crackdown on IBDA-C,
code-named Operation Mould, commenced on May 24,
2006 and resulted in the arrest of 18 suspected
members of the IBDA-C. Despite counterterror
successes such as these, the IBDA-C is still considered
an active threat by the Turkish government.
Further Reference
"Islamic Terrorist Activities in Turkey in the 1990s,"
Ely Karmon , 12/15/1998, International Policy Institute
for Counter-Terrorism
"Great East Islamic Raiders Front,"
http://www.teror.gen.tr
"IBDA-C responsible for four bomb explosions in
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Istanbul ," 2/11/2000, Turkish Daily News
"IBDA-C riot at Metris Prison," 1/26/2000, Turkish Daily
News
"Terrorism Answers: Turkey," Council on Foreign
Relations
ISLAMIC GREAT EASTERN RAIDERS FRONT
"Islamic Terrorist Activities in Turkey in the 1990s," Ely
Karmon , 12/15/1998, International Policy Institute for
Counter-Terrorism
"Great East Islamic Raiders Front,"
http://www.teror.gen.tr
"IBDA-C responsible for four bomb explosions in
Istanbul ," 2/11/2000, Turkish Daily News
"IBDA-C riot at Metris Prison," 1/26/2000, Turkish Daily
News
"Terrorism Answers: Turkey," Council on Foreign
Relations
"Death Penalty for Mirzabeyoglu," Neu-Isenburg Ozgur
Politika (Turkey)
"Islam and the Left: Islamic Great East Raiders-Front,"
Jan Pacal, Turkish Daily News
"IBDA/C in Prison," Salih Aydin, Istanbul Sabah
"The Great East Islamic Raiders Front (IBDA-C)," Yoni
Fighel, Institute for Counter-Terrorism (Israel)
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"Country Reports on Terrorism 2005," U.S. Department
of State
KUMPULAN MUJAHIDIN MALAYSIA (KMM)
Base of Operation: Indonesia; Malaysia; Philippines
Founding Philosophy: Kumpulan Mujahidin Malaysia
(KMM) is an Islamic group based in Malaysia,
specifically in the Malaysian states of Perak, Johor,
Kedah, Selangor, Terengganu and Kelantan, as well as
the federal territory of Wilayah Persukutuan. KMM is
dedicated to overthrowing the current Malaysian
government and then creating an Islamic state in its
place. The group, however, does not limit its planned
Islamic state to Malaysia, but also aims to include
Indonesia and the southern Philippines, thus creating a
pan-Southeast Asian Islamic state.
Many of KMM's members have trained in terrorist
camps in Afghanistan, and certain members fought in
the Soviet-Afghan war. KMM has forged ties with other
extremist Islamic groups in the region, including
Jemaah Islamiyah (JI) and Laskar Jihad. Jemaah
Islamiyah's leaders Abu Bakar Bashir and Riduan bin
Isomoddin, aka Hambali, allegedly advise and assist
KMM leaders.
Current Goals: The Malaysian government, utilizing the
Internal Security Act (ISA), has detained dozens of KMM
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members. Also through the ISA, KMM's alleged leader is
currently being held by the Malaysian government. KMM
members have allegedly been involved in
assassinations, bombings, robberies, and planning
terrorist attacks on foreigners. Due to KMM's alliance
with Indonesian terrorist groups, KMM members have
also been involved in terrorist attacks against
Christians in Indonesia.
Further Reference
"What's happened? ," 04/29/2004, AsiaWeek.com
MILNET: Terrorist Group Profiles
"SE Asia's terror crackdown," 01/11/2002, CNN.com
Patterns of Global Terrorism: 2002, U.S. Department of
State
"Country Reports on Terrorism 2005," 04/28/2006, U.S.
Department of State
KUMPULAN MUJAHIDIN MALAYSIA (KMM)
"What's happened? ," AsiaWeek.com
MILNET: Terrorist Group Profiles
"SE Asia's terror crackdown," CNN.com
Patterns of Global Terrorism: 2002, U.S. Department of
State
"Country Reports on Terrorism 2005," U.S. Department
of State
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"In the Spotlight: Laskar Jihad," Reyko Huang, Center
for Defense Information
Patterns of Global Terrorism: 2001, U.S. Department of
State
UNITED LIBERATION FRONT OF ASSAM (ULFA)
Aliases: United Liberation Front of Asom
Base of Operation: India
Founding Philosophy: The United Liberation Front of
Assam (ULFA) is a terrorist organization operating in
Indias Assam region. The group was formed on April 7,
1979 and remains active to this date. ULFA was formed
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with the dual goal of establishing Assam as a separate
country, independent of India, while also establishing a
socialist government to rule the Assam country. Over
two decades after ULFAs founding, Assam has neither
broken away from India nor established a socialist
government. This is not to say that ULFA has had no
effect on the region in the last two decades.
While ULFA was formed in 1979, the group did not
commence significant activities until 1986. In 1986,
ULFA aggressively raised money via extortion and
established relationships with two other non-state
entities, Kachin Independence Army (KIA), Nationalist
Socialist Council of Nagaland (NSCN). Even more
significantly, ULFA was able to gain some support
within the ruling party in Assam, Assam Gana Parishad
(AGP). ULFA even had supporters within the police
departments of Assam. Because of ULFAs increased
visibility, the Indian government outlawed the group in
1986 and declared Assam a troubled area.
ULFAs membership is predominantly from the Assam
region, specifically the northern districts. There are
other insurgent groups that have a stronger
membership base in the southern areas of Assam. ULFA
has forged working relationships with some of the other
insurgent groups in the region.
Current Goals: From the early 1990s on, the United
Liberation Front of Assam has continually increased its
terrorist activities. The group assassinates political
opponents, attacks police and other security forces,
blasts railroad tracks, and attacks other infrastructure
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facilities. The Indian military undertook operations to
counter ULFAs terrorist attacks, leading to the arrests
and deaths of hundreds of ULFA members. The
governments response, combined with backlash from
Assam civilians regarding the increasingly violent
actions of ULFA, reduced the groups membership for a
time. Still, the group is estimated at several thousand
members and continued terrorist attacks are expected.
Further Reference
"The 14 Spokes Of A Revolution," 10/20/2003,
OutlookIndia.com
"United Liberation Front of Asom (ULFA) - Terrorist
Group of Assam," South Asia Terrorism Portal (SATP)
"United Liberation Front of Assam (ULFA) Profile,"
Bobby Sarangthem
"Country Reports on Terrorism 2005," 04/28/2006, U.S.
Department of State
Justice and Development Party (Turkey)
Adalet ve Kalkrnma Partisi
Justice and Development Party
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Leader Recep Tayyip
Erdogan
Founded August 14, 2001
Headquarters No. 202 Balgat
Ankara, Turkey
Political
Ideology
conservative
European
Affiliation
European People's
Party (observer)
International
Affiliation
none
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Colours Orange, White
Website AK Parti
See also Constitution of
Turkey
Turkish Politics
Turkish Parliament
Turkish Government
Turkish President
Political parties
Elections
The Justice and Development Party (Turkish: Adalet ve
Kalkrnma Partisi or AKP, or AK Parti
[1]
) is a right-wing,
conservative Turkish political party. It is often qualified
as a "moderate Muslim" party, emulating Christian
Democrats parties.
Contents
[hide]
1 Brief background
2 History
3 Other information
4 References
5 See also
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6 External links
Brief background
The AKP portrays itself as a moderate, right-wing
conservative party. It won a victory in the 2002 general
elections, despite capturing barely a third of the
popular vote, and its leader, former Istanbul mayor
Recep Tayyip Erdogan, is currently the Prime Minister
of Turkey.
History
The Justice and Development Party emerged from the
members of the Welfare Party, which briefly led a
coalition government in Turkey in 1996. In 2000 the
Welfare Party was broken up by the military for
allegedly threatening the secular nature of the Republic
of Turkey according to the military officials. A faction of
moderate conservative members within the old Welfare
Party, known as Yenilikiler, or in English, Reformist
formed the Justice and Development Party on August
14, 2001, in an attempt to ground moderate
conservative politics in a secular democratic
framework. Recep Tayyip Erdogan, the leader of the
AKP, stated that "AKP is not a political party with a
religious axis." when the party was founded.
After some initial stumbling, notably when Erdogan was
temporarily blocked from taking up the Prime
Ministership, the AKP has found its feet. It survived the
crisis over the 2003 invasion of Iraq despite a massive
back bench rebellion by the opposition Republican
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People's Party in parliament, which prevented the
government from allowing the United States to launch a
Northern offensive in Iraq from Turkish territory. It also
prevented sending Turkish troops to Iraqa move the
AKP supported. The government has greatly increased
Turkish chances of being given a date for membership
of the European Union, notably by giving strong support
to the ultimately doomed Annan Plan aimed at resolving
the Cyprus conflict. It has undertaken significant
structural reforms and its policy achievements have
seen rapid growth and an end to Turkey's three decade
long period of hyperinflationinflation had fallen to
8.8% by June 2004. Influential business publications,
the Economist and the Financial Times, consider the AK
Party's government the most successful in Turkey in
decades.
[citations needed]
In the local elections of 2004, the AKP won an
unprecedented 34% of the valid votes (and support of
%27 of total electors), making inroads against the
secular nationalist Republican People's Party (CHP) on
the South and West Coasts, and against Social
Democratic People's Party (Turkey) which is supported
by some Kurds in the Southeast of Turkey.
In January 2005, the AKP was admitted as an observer
member in the European People's Party (EPP), the
conservative party of the EU. It is likely to become a full
member of the EPP if Turkey is admitted to the EU. If
the EU eventually rejects Turkey for membership,
however, many fear that the AKP could again split
between its reformist and conservative factions,
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heralding another period of instability in Turkish
politics.
Other information
The AKP draws particular support from the rural
peasantry, and the children of rural peasants who have
migrated to the major cities in millions. Despite placing
itself on the right-wing of the political spectrum, it has
implemented strong social programmes for the urban
and rural poor, particularly at municipal level. In this it
perhaps seeks to emulate, in Islamic form, the Christian
Democratic/Christian Social tradition of Northwestern
Europe, as exemplified by such parties as the CDU/CSU
in Germany.
The party's logo is an incandescent light bulb,
symbolizes light, electrical illumination and translucent
government.
[2]
On domestic policy, the party is right-
wing, and conservative.
References
1. ^ The former of the two abbreviations is the official
one, while the latter is mostly preferred by its
supporters; since the word "ak" in Turkish means
"white, clean, or unblemished" and therefore gives
a positive impression about the party.
2. ^ http://www.akparti.org
See also
Turkey
Politics of Turkey
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Political Islam
List of political parties in Turkey
Abdullah Gl
Recep Tayyip Erdogan
Republican People's Party (Turkey)
External links
Justice and Development Party official website
(Turkish)
European People's Party official website
v d e
Peoples Mujahedin of Iran
MKO redirects here. For the Nigerian politician, see
Moshood Kashimawo Olawale Abiola.
MKO Logo
The People's Mujahedin of Iran (PMOI, also MEK, MKO)
(Persian: '' _'-- _. '' sazmaan-e mujahedin-e
khalq-e Iran) is a militant political party that advocates
overthrowing the government in the Islamic Republic of
Iran and replacing it with a democratic elected
government.
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PMOI is designated as a terrorist organization by the
United States, Canada, European Union, and Iran.
[1][2]
Although the European Court of Justice has overturned
this designation in December 2006,
[3]
the Council of the
EU declared on 30 January 2007 that it would maintain
the organization on the blacklist.
[4][5]
(See: #Designation
as a terrorist organization)
PMOI claims that it is the main organization in the
National Council of Resistance of Iran (NCRI), an
"umbrella coalition". However this claim has been
criticised by the FBI,
[6]
and individuals including Michael
Axworthy, a senior public servant in the United
Kingdom
[7]
that believe NCRI is merely a front group for
the PMOI. The PMOI's armed wing is called the National
Liberation Army of Iran (NLA). The Iranian government
officially refers to the organization as the Monafeqin
(i.e., "Hypocrites").
[8]
PMOI and NCRI were the first
entities that revealed Iran's clandestine nuclear
activities in 2002, which has turned to be a major
concern of the intenational community today.
Contents
[hide]
1 Other names
2 Membership
3 History
o 3.1 Ideology: before and after the 1979 Iranian
Revolution
o 3.2 Repression under the Islamic government
o 3.3 Relations with France in the mid-1980s
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o 3.4 Relations with Iraq under Saddam Hussein
and the Iranian government
o 3.5 After the 2003 invasion of Iraq
o 3.6 2003 French raid
o 3.7 A "bargaining chip" between Tehran and
Washington?
o 3.8 Alleged MKO activity in Iran
4 Designation as a terrorist organization
5 Alleged human rights abuses
6 Videotape of Massoud Rajavi's secret meeting
with Saddam Hussein
7 See also
8 References
9 External links
o 9.1 Official Mujahedin-e Khalq websites
Other names
The People's Mujahedin of Iran is known by a variety of
names including
Monafiqeen-e-Khalq (MKO) - the Iranian
government consistently refers to the People's
Mujahedin with this name, meaning "traitors of the
people".
Mojahedin-e-Khalq Organization (MEK)
The National Liberation Army of Iran
(Disputed) National Council of Resistance of Iran
(NCRI) - the PMOI is the founding member of a wide
coalition of organizations called the NCRI, while
others including the FBI claim that the NCRI is
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either an "alias" for or a front group for the
PMOI.
[6][7]
Note: the MKO alias is often used when the PMOI is
referenced in the media, or by national governments
around the world. The term MKO and PMOI are
therefore interchangeable throughout this article.
Membership
The PMOI claims to have a 30,000 50,000 strong
armed guerrilla force, based in Iraq, but a membership
of between 3,000 4,000 is considered more likely.
[9]
In
2005 the US think-tank, Council on Foreign Relations,
believed that the PMOI had 10,000 members, one-third
to one-half of whom were fighters. The think-tank
claims PMOI membership has dwindled, the
organization has had little success attracting new
recruits.
[10]
According to a 2003 article by the New York
Times, the PMOI would be composed of 5,000 many
of them female fighters based in Iraq.
[11]
A recent
census of Ashraf, where the aging population is
"fighters" is located, has a little more than 3500
member with less than 900 women there.
History
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MKO leader meeting with Saddam Hussein
The People's Mojahedin Organization of Iran was
founded by middle-class students at Tehran University,
Mohammad Hanifnejad, Saied Mohsen and Ali-Asghar
Badizadegan in 1965. The PMOI opposed the rule of
Shah Mohammad Reza Pahlavi because it considered it
corrupt and oppressive. In its first five years, the group
primarily engaged in ideological work, combining both
fundamentalist interpretations of Islam and Marxist
philosophy. Before carrying out any military operations
against the Shah's regime, a raid by the Shah's secret
police, SAVAK, arrested the entire leadership and 90
percent of its cadres. All but one of its leaders were
executed. Other members remained incarcerated for
many years, with the last group, including Massoud
Rajavi, being released just before Khomeini arrived in
Tehran in January 1979. The PMOI conducted anti-
Western attacks prior to the Islamic Revolution. Since
then, it has conducted militant attacks against the
interests of the cleric-dominated governmental system
in Iran and abroad. According to the presentation of the
MEK by the Foreign Affairs group of the Australian
Parliament, the group has been accused of conducting
several assassinations of U.S. military personnel and
civilians working in Iran during the 1970s and of having
actively supported the U.S. embassy takover in Tehran
in 1979.
[12]
Ideology: before and after the 1979 Iranian Revolution
The Mojahedins Ideology is based on progressive
interpretation of Islam, according to which elections
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and public suffrage are the sole indicators of political
legitimacy. According to their publications the Word of
God and Islam is meaningless without freedom and
respect for individual volition and choice. According to
their interpretation of Islam the Quran says the most
important characteristic distinguishing man from
animals is his free will. It is on this basis that human
beings are held accountable. Without freedom, no
society can develop or progress There has been an
impression that the MKO's ideology is based on a
syncretic amalgamation of Marxist and Islamic
ideas,and that the MKO was subject to a number of
rapid ideological shifts and has developed a strong
sense of veneration for its leading couple, Masoud
Rajavi and Maryam Rajavi, which some have described
as a personality cult. Although its leaders presents
themselves as Muslims, the MKO describes itself as a
secular organization: "The National Council of
Resistance believes in the separation of Church and
State."
[13]
According to the U.S. Department of State' presentation
of the MKO, the philosophy of the MKO is a combination
of Marxism, Nationalism and Islam.
[14]
In more recent years under the guidance of Maryam
Rajavi the organisation has adopted strong feminist
principles. Women have now assumed the most senior
positions of responsibility within the ranks of the MKO
and although women make up only a third of fighters,
two-thirds of its commanders are women. Rajavi
ultimately believes that women should enjoy equal
rights with men.
[15]
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To bring the opposition to the Iranian government under
one umbrella organization, the PMOI formed the
National Council of Resistance of Iran (NCRI). The MKO
claims that in the past 25 years, the NCRI has evolved
into a 540-member parliament-in-exile, with a specific
platform that emphasizes free elections, gender
equality and equal rights for ethnic and religious
minorities. The MKO claims that it also advocates a
free-market economy and supported peace in the
Middle East. The FBI claims that the NCRI "is not a
separate organization, but is instead, and has been, an
integral part of the MKO at all relevant times" and that
the NCRI is "the political branch" of the MKO, rather
than vice versa. Although the PMOI is today the main
organization of the NCRI, the latter previously hosted
other organizations, such as the Kurdistan Democratic
Party of Iran.
[6]
Repression under the Islamic government
After playing a key role in the 1979 Iranian Revolution
because of its Muslim identity and the ability to
mobilize hundreds of thousands of workers, students,
and most importantly, many younger army officers, the
PMOI emerged as the largest opposition group in the
country.
[citation needed]
Its daily publication, Mojahed, had a
circulation of 600,000 copies.
[citation needed]
The newly
established regime of Ayatollah Khomeini in Iran began
to feel threatened by the PMOI militant activities and
started to launch a fierce campaign to crush it.
Hundreds of PMOI supporters and members were killed
from 1979 to 1981, and some 3,000 were arrested [4].
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Ultimately, the organization called for a massive
demonstration on June 20, 1981, to protest against the
new leadership under the banner of Islam. Khomeini
ordered the guards to open fire on the protesters.
Hundreds were killed and many more wounded.
[citation
needed]
That night, hundreds were summarily executed in
Evin Prison and elsewhere, some without their
identities ever being established. This was considered
one of the most severe human-rights violations in the
history of the Islamic Republic.
In 28 June 1981, two years after the Islamic Revolution
of Iran, the MKO detonated bombs in the headquarters
of the now-dissolved Islamic Republic Party. Around 70
high ranking officials, including Chief Justice
Mohammad Beheshti, cabinet members, and members
of parliament, were killed.
[16]
. Two months later, the
MKO detonated another bomb in the office of the
president, killing President Rajai and Premier
Mohammad Javad Bahonar. These are considered the
most important attacks in the history of the MKO
against the Iranian government.
Eventually, PMOI relocated to France, where it operated
until 1986, date of the problems arising between Paris
and Tehran concerning the Eurodif nuclear stake and
the French hostages crisis in Lebanon. From then on,
the PMOI resided in Iraq, protected by Saddam Hussein
who was at war with Tehran since 1981.
Between 1,400 to 30,000 political prisoners from the
MKO, and also from the Tudeh Party of Iran,
[17]
were
assassinated during the 1988 massacre of Iranian
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prisoners, following Mersad.
[18]
.
[19][20][21][22]
Dissident
Ayatollah Montazeri has written in his memoirs that this
massacre, deemed a crime against humanity, was
ordered by Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini and carried out
by several high-ranking members of Iran's current
government. Ahmad Khomeini, whom Montazeri
accused of collaboration in the killings, has died
mysteriously during the Chain Murders of Iran.
Relations with France in the mid-1980s
In 1986, after then French Prime Minister Jacques
Chirac struck a deal with Tehran for the release of
French hostages held prisoners by the Hezbollah in
Lebanon, PMOI was forced to leave France and
relocated in Iraq. Investigative journalist Dominique
Lorentz has related the 1986 capture of French
hostages to an alleged blackmail of France by Tehran
concerning the nuclear program
[23]
Relations with Iraq under Saddam Hussein and the
Iranian government
The MKO transferred its headquarters to Iraq in 1986.
According to the US State Department, the MKO
received all of its military support and most of its
financial assistance from Saddam's regime until the
2003 Invasion of Iraq. But the MKO denies these
accusations and insists that it had always remained
independent of Iraq. The MKO also has used front
organizations to solicit contributions from expatriate
Iranian communities.
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Near the end of the 1980-1988 war with Iran, Baghdad
armed the MKO with military equipment and sent it into
action against Iranian forces. The MKO's decision to
move its headquarters to Iraq in the middle of the war,
caused the MKO to lose most of its supporters in Iran,
regardless of their views towards the Iranian
government.
[24]
The National Iranian American Council
(NIAC), which receives funds from the National
Endowment for Democracy, claims that "as a result [of
their alliance with Saddam Hussein during the war],
they are viewed as traitors by the overwhelming
majority of Iranians and Iranian Americans.".
[25]
A report
by the Foreign Affairs group of the Australian
Parliament states "[The MKO] is believed to have lost
much of its popular support within Iran since siding
with Iraq".
[26]
The MKO claims it has always maintained
its independence from its Iraqi host and denies "siding
with Iraq" during the Iran-Iraq War.
[citation needed]
According to presentations of the MKO by the U.S.
Department of State and the Foreign Affairs group of
the Australian Parliament, the MKO are accused of
having assisted the Iraqi Republican Guard in
suppressing the Kurdish and Shiite uprisings in Iraq
after the 1991 Persian Gulf War.
[12]
Maryam Rajavi, who
assumed the leadership role of the MKO after a series
of years as co-leader alongside her husband Massoud
Rajavi, had the following to say during a moral-boosting
speech to an audience of MKO troops: "Take the Kurds
under your tanks, and save your bullets for the Iranian
Revolutionary Guards."
[11]
This has been formally denied
by the PMOI.
[citation needed]
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In the following years the MKO conducted several
assassinations of political and military figures of the
Islamic Republic, including deputy chief of the Iranian
Armed Forces General Staff, Brigadier General Ali
Sayyaad Shirazi, who was assassinated on the
doorsteps of his house on April 10, 1999.
After the 2003 invasion of Iraq
Main article: Monafiqeen-e-Khalq Surrender (2003)
After the 2003 invasion of Iraq, MEK camps were
bombed by coalition forces because of its alliance with
Saddam Hussein. On April 15th, the leaders of the MEK
entered into a ceasefire agreement with the coalition
after the attack. On May 11th, 2003 the US launched
simultaneous surprise attacks on MEK compounds
across Iraq.
[27][28][29]
Each compound surrendered without
hostilities. In the operation, the US reportedly captured
6,000 MEK fighters and over 2,000 pieces of military
equipment.
[30][31]
After a four-month investigation by several US
agencies, including the State Department, only a
handful of charges under U.S. criminal law were brought
against MEK members, all American citizens. The MEK
aka PMOI remains listed as a Foreign Terrorist
Organization (FTO) by the Department of State. [5]
Secretary of Defense Donald Rumsfeld declared MEK
personnel in Ashraf protected persons under the Fourth
Geneva Convention. They are currently under the guard
of US Military. Defectors from this group are housed
separately in a refugee camp within Camp Ashraf, and
protected by the Bulgarian Army. [6] [7]
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2003 French raid
Further information: Irano-French relations
In June 2003 French police raided the Mujahedin's
properties, including its base in Auvers-sur-Oise, under
the orders of anti-terrorist magistrate Jean-Louis
Bruguire, after suspicions that it was trying to shift its
base of operations there. 160 suspected MKO members
were then arrested, 40 went into a hunger strike to
protest against the repression, and ten immolated
themselves in various European capitals in protestation
against the raids. French Interior Minister Nicolas
Sarkozy (UMP) declared that the MKO "recently wanted
to make France its support base, notably after the
intervention in Iraq," while Pierre de Bousquet de
Florian, head of France's domestic intelligence service,
claimed that the group was "transforming its Val d'Oise
centre [near Paris] ... into an international terrorist
base".
[32]
US Senator Sam Brownback, Republican of Kansas and
chairman of the Foreign Relations subcommittee on
South Asia, then accused the French of doing "the
Iranian government's dirty work". Along with other MPs,
he wrote a letter of protest to President Jacques
Chirac, while longtime PMOI supporters such as Sheila
Jackson-Lee, Democrat of Texas, criticized Maryam
Radjavi's arrest.
[11]
However, the MKO members were quickly released. The
French action against the NCRI have been accused of
being parts of negotiation between Paris and Tehran,
concerning the nuclear program and maybe also some
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business deals. The MKO claims that after three years,
there is nothing in the files that would implicate the
NCRI and Mrs. Rajavi in any wrong doing and the case
has essentially died.
A "bargaining chip" between Tehran and Washington?
The same year that the French police raided the PMOI's
properties in France, Tehran attempted to negotiate
with Washington DC, proposing to withdraw military
backing for Hamas and Hezbollah as well as give open
access to their nuclear facilities in return for Western
action in disbanding the PMOI, which was revealed by
Newsnight, a BBC current affairs programme, in 2007.
The BBC uncovered a letter written after the invasion of
Iraq in 2003 where Tehran made this offer
[33][34]
The
proposition was done in a secret letter given to
Washington through Switzerland's help. According to
the BBC and to what had been understood by the US
State Department, the letter had received authorization
from the highest levels of the Iranian government.
According to Lawrence Wilkerson, former chief of staff
of State secretary Colin Powell, interviewed by the BBC,
the State Dept would first have positively considered
the offer. But it would ultimately have been rejected by
the office of Vice-President Dick Cheney.
[35]
Alleged MKO activity in Iran
In 2006 news reports linked the PMOI with US threats
to attack Iran, specifically use of the PMOI to "prepare
the battlefield" for US military action against Iran.
[36]
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According to the news organisation Rawstory, an
intelligence official said that following the invasion of
Iraq, We [the US] disarmed [the MKO] of major
weapons, but not small arms. US Secretary of Defense
Donald Rumsfeld was pushing to use them as a military
special ops team, but there was infighting between
Rumsfeld's camp and then National Security Advisor
Condoleezza Rice, but she was able to fight them off for
a while.
According to another intelligence source, the policy
infighting ended last year when Rumsfeld, under
pressure from US Vice President Dick Cheney, came up
with a plan to convert the MKO by having them simply
quit their organization." These guys are nuts, the
intelligence source said. "Stephen Cambone (Under
Secretary of Defense for Intelligence) and those guys
made MKO members swear an oath to democracy and
resign from the MKO and then our guys incorporated
them into their unit and trained them [for action in
Iran]. A UN source close to the United Nations Security
Council, again according to Rawstory, said in April 2006
that "the clandestine war had been going on for roughly
a year".
[36]
Kucinich asks Bush about alleged US support for armed
insurgency in Iran
According to a former Iranian ambassador and an
intelligence correspondent of the UPI news agency,
"The Iranian accusations are true, but it is being done
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on such a small scale - a series of pinpricks - it would
seem to have no strategic value at all."
[37]
Designation as a terrorist organization
PMOI is designated as a terrorist organization by the
United States since 1997, Canada, and Iran.
[1][2]
According to Wall Street Journal
[38]
"senior diplomats in
the Clinton administration say the PMOI figured
prominently as a bargaining chip in a bridge-building
effort with Tehran." The PMOI is also on the European
Union's blacklist of terrorist organizations, which lists
28 organizations, since 2002.
[39]
The enlistments
included: Foreign Terrorist Organization by the United
States in 1997 under the Immigration and Nationality
Act, and again in 2001 pursuant to section 1(b) of
Executive Order 13224 on terrorist financing; as well as
by the European Union (EU) in 2002.
[40]
Its bank
accounts were frozen in 2002 after the September 11,
2001 attacks and a call by the EU to block terrorist
organizations' funding. However, the European Court of
Justice has overturned this in December 2006 and has
criticized the lack of "transparency" with which the
blacklist is composed.
[41]
However, the Council of the
EU declared on 30 January 2007 that it would maintain
the organization on the blacklist.
[42][43]
EU-freezing of funds was lifted on December 12 2006 by
the European Court of First Instance.
[44]
In 2003 the US
State Department included the NCRI on the blacklist,
under Executive Order 13224.
[45]
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According to a 2003 article by the New York Times, the
US 1997 inscription of the group on the terrorist
blacklist was done as "a goodwill gesture toward Iran's
newly elected reform-minded president, Mohammad
Khatami" (succeeded in 2005 by more conservative
Mahmoud Ahmadinejad).
[11]
In 2002, 150 members of the
United States Congress signed a letter calling for the
lifting of this designation. The MEK have also tried to
have the designation removed through several court
cases in the U.S. The MEK has now lost three appeals
(1999, 2001 and 2003) to the US government to be
removed from the list of Foreign Terrorist
Organizations, and its terrorist status was reaffirmed
each time. The MEK has continued to protest worldwide
against its listing, with the overt support of some US
political figures.
[12][46]
Another key source of support for the MKO has included
members of the U.S. Congress, including Rep. Tom
Tancredo (R-CO), Rep. Ileana Ros-Lehtinen (R-FL.), Rep.
Edolphus Towns (D-NY), Rep. Gary Ackerman (D-NY),
Rep. Lincoln Diaz-Balart (R-FL) and Rep. Sheila Jackson
Lee (D-TX),
[47]
and former Attorney General John
Ashcroft, "who became involved with the MKO while a
Republican senator from Missouri."
[48]
In 2000, 200 U.S.
Congress members signed a statement endorsing the
organization's cause.
[49]
PMOI operatives were and are legally or at least well
tolerated active in Germany, Denmark and many other
countries of the European Union. The NCRI maintained
an Information Office in Washington DC, USA until
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August 2002, when US Secretary of State Colin Powell
issued an order to shut down the offices.
[50]
In April 2007, CNN reported that the US military and the
International Committee of the Red Cross was
continuing to protect the group, with the US army
regularly escorting MEK supply runs between Baghdad
and its base, Camp Ashraf.
[51]
Alleged human rights abuses
In May 2005, Human Rights Watch reported the PMOI
were running prison camps within Iraq and were
committing severe human rights violations.
[52]
In July 2005 a delegation from a group known as
Friends of a Free Iran (FOFI) visited Camp Ashraf for 5
days and interviewed 19 people. A heretofore unknown
group, the "visitors" entered Iraq illegally and kept their
visit to Ashraf secret from the Multi-National Forces
who guard Ashraf. As a result, this alleged visit cannot
be confirm through Iraqi or MNF-I sources and remains
heresay. The delegation did not interview any of the
individuals who originally gave testimonies to Human
Rights Watch.
[53]
As a result of these interviews FOFI
issued a 132 page document on September 21, 2005
claiming the alleged abuses did not occur and calling
for the People's Mujahedin of Iran to be removed from
the list of terrorist organisations.
[54]
Prompted by the FOFI document Human Rights Watch
re-interviewed all 12 of the original witnesses,
conducting private and personal interviews lasting
several hours with each of them in Germany and the
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Netherlands, where the witnesses now live. All of the
witnesses recounted in extensive detail their
experiences inside the MKO camps from the 1991-2003
period, and how MKO officials subjected them to
various forms of physical and psychological abuses
once they made known their wishes to leave the
organization.
[53]
A 2005 Human Rights Watch (HRW) 28-page report,
titled "No Exit:Human Rights Abuses Inside the
Mojahedin Khalq Camps",
[55]
described the PMOI as a
cult held under the tight control of Maryam Rajavi. The
report prompted a response by the PMOI and friendly
MEPs (European MPs), who published a counter-report
in September 2005.
[54]
They underlined that HRW had
"relied only on 12 hours interviews with 12 suspicious
individuals," and claimed that "a delegation of MEPs
visited Camp Ashraf in Iraq" and "conducted impromptu
inspections of the sites of alleged abuses." First Vice-
President of the European Parliament, Alejo Vidal-
Quadras Roca (PP), thus introduced the report:
We came to the conclusion that HRW report was
procedurally flawed and substantively inaccurate.
Moreover, in the course of our study we became aware
of an elaborate and complex misinformation campaign
by Iran's Ministry of Intelligence and Security (MOIS)
against PMOI.
[54]
So far no link has been established between Human
Rights Watch and Iran's Ministry of Intelligence and
Security.
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Videotape of Massoud Rajavi's secret meeting with
Saddam Hussein
Saddam Hussein used to secretly tape everything and
this videotape was captured by the Americans after
they took control of Saddam's possessions. The tape
was later "leaked out" as evidence of Saddam's
connections to terrorist groups.
The video in Realaudio format.
The video in Windows Media Player format.
See also
1988 Massacre of Iranian Prisoners
Arms sales to Iraq 1973-1990
Iran-Iraq War
Massoud Rajavi
Maryam Rajavi
Camp Ashraf
Masoud Banisadr
MEK Compound (Fallujah, Iraq)
Richard Perle
Saddam's Trial and Iran-Iraq War
References
1. ^
a b
(2005) "COUNCIL COMMON POSITION
2005/847/CFSP". Official Journal of the European
Union L 314.
2. ^
a b
Foreign Terrorist Organizations (FTOs). US
Department of State (2005). Retrieved on 2006-09-
22.
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lic
k
t
o
b
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y
N
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C
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k
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N
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W
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o
m
960
3. ^ Terrorisme: la justice europenne appelle l'UE
justifier sa liste noire, Radio France International,
December 12, 2006 (French)
4. ^ EUs Ministers of Economic and Financial Affairs
Council violates the verdict by the European Court,
NCRI website, February 1, 2007.
5. ^ European Council is not above the law, NCRI
website, February 2, 2007
6. ^
a b c
DC Court of Appeals Rules Against NCRI
Petition for Review of "Foreign Terrorist
Organization" Designation, July 9, 2004, United
States Court of Appeals, District of Columbia
7. ^
a b
Kliger, Rachelle (January 11, 2006).
Resistance group claims evidence of Iranian bomb
ambitions. The Media Line. Retrieved on 2006-12-
28.
8. ^ Secret memo says Irans new president fired
coups de grace. Iran Focus (2006). Retrieved on
2006-12-06.
9. ^ Nigel Brew (2003). Behind the Mujahideen-e-
Khalq (MeK) (pdf). Research Note No. 43, 16 June
2003. Department of the Parliamentary Library
(Australia). Retrieved on 2006-09-05.
10. ^ Mujahadeen-e-Khalq (Iranian rebels). Council
on Foreign relations (2005). Retrieved on 2006-09-
05.
11. ^
a b c d
Rubin, Elizabeth, New York Times. The
Cult of Rajavi. Retrieved on 2006-04-21. (English)
12. ^
a b c
"Behind the MEK - see section
"Background"", Parliament of Australia, June
2003.
13. ^ National Council of Resistance of Iran
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961
14. ^ Office of the Coordinator for
Counterterrorism (2006). Chapter 5 -- Country
Reports: Middle East and North Africa Overview
(html). Country Reports on Terrorism. U.S.
Department of State. Retrieved on 2006-09-05.
15. ^ [1]
16. ^ Cooperative Research
17. ^ Iranian party demands end to repression
18. ^ 1988 massacre
19. ^ 1988 massacre
20. ^ Memories of a slaughter in Iran
21. ^ Nasrin Alavi (2005), We Are Iran.
22. ^ Khomeini fatwa 'led to killing of 30,000 in
Iran', The Telegraph, February 2, 2001
23. ^ Lorentz, Dominique and Carr-Brown, David,
La Rpublique atomique ("The Atomic Republic"),
diffused on November 14, 2001 on Arte TV
24. ^
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3TYC6LGNCE8&
mode=related&search=
25. ^ "NIAC Action Alert - (to read the letter to the
House of Representatives ntat the quote is taken
from, you have to enter a U.S. ZIP code on the
page)", National Iranian American Council, March
2006.
26. ^ "Behind the MKO - see section "Activities
and Tactics"", Parliament of Australia, June 2003.
27. ^ Labeled terrorist group turns over weapons
to U.S. ; Members of MEK -- backed by Saddam
Hussein -- also agree to be interviewed by
intelligence officials.; Eric Slater / The Los Angeles
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962
Times. The Grand Rapids Press. Grand Rapids,
Mich.: May 12, 2003. pg. A.3
28. ^ U.S. gets Iranian rebels in Iraq to disarm;
[Chicago Final Edition] EA Torriero, Tribune staff
reporter Tribune news services contributed to this
report. Chicago Tribune. Chicago, Ill.: May 11,
2003. pg. 8
29. ^ Agreement disbands Iranian exile force;
[Final Edition] Milwaukee Journal Sentinel.
Milwaukee, Wis.: May 11, 2003. pg. 14.A
30. ^ Armed Iranian exiles surrender ; 6,000-
member unit accepts U.S. terms; JOHN SULLIVAN,
Knight Ridder Newspapers. The Record. Bergen
County, N.J.: May 11, 2003. pg. A.17
31. ^ US DOD: DoD News Briefing M2 Presswire.
Coventry: Jun 19, 2003. pg. 1
32. ^ "France investigates Iran exiles", BBC News,
June 22, 2003.
33. ^ BBC Newsnight article
34. ^ Youtube video
35. ^ Report: Cheney Rejected Iran Concessions.
Guardian Unlimited (18 January 2007). Retrieved
on 2007-01-20.
36. ^
a b
On Cheney, Rumsfeld order, US
outsourcing special ops, intelligence to Iraq terror
group, intelligence officials say
37. ^ Tehran insider tells of US black ops, Asia
Times, April 25, 2006
38. ^ Andrew Higgins and Jay Solomon, Iranian
Imbroglio Gives New Boost To Odd Exile Group,
Wall Street Journal, 2006-11-29.
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963
39. ^ Dfense des Moudjahidines du peuple, Yves
Bonnet, former director of the French RG
intelligence agency (French)
40. ^ Council Decision, Council of the European
Union, December 21, 2005
41. ^ Terrorisme: la justice europenne appelle
l'UE justifier sa liste noire, Radio France
International, December 12, 2006 (French)
42. ^ EUs Ministers of Economic and Financial
Affairs Council violates the verdict by the
European Court, NCRI website, February 1, 2007.
43. ^ European Council is not above the law, NCRI
website, February 2, 2007
44. ^ [2]
45. ^ US State Dept press statement by Tom
Casey, Acting Spokesman, August 15, 2003
46. ^ [3]{{United States Court of Appeals for the
District of Columbia Circuit Argued April 2, 2004
Decided July 9, 2004,No. 01-1480: National Council
of Resistance of Iran v. Dpartment of State}}
47. ^ Sam Dealey, "Iran terrorist group finds
support on Hill" The Hill (2 April 2003).
48. ^ Michael Isikoff, "Ashcroft's Baghdad
Connection: Why the attorney general and others in
Washington have backed a terror group with ties to
Iraq," Newsweek (26 September 2002).
49. ^ Michael Isikoff and Mark Hosenball, "Shades
of Gray," Newsweek (17 October 2004).
50. ^ Lorimer, Doug (2006). IRAN: US relies on
terrorists for nuke 'intelligence. Green Left
Weekly, February 22, 2006.. Green Left Weekly.
Retrieved on 2006-05-01.
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964
51. ^ Ware, Michael (2007). U.S. protects Iranian
opposition group in Iraq. CNN website, April 6,
2007.. CNN. Retrieved on 2007-04-06.
52. ^ "Human Rights Abuses in the MKO camps",
Human Rights Watch, May 2005.
53. ^
a b
Statement on Responses to Human Rights
Watch Report on Abuses by the Mojahedin-e Khalq
Organization (MKO). Human Rights Watch (2003).
Retrieved on 2006-08-29.
54. ^
a b c
People's Mojahedin of Iran - Mission
report. Friends of Free Iran - European Parliament
(2005). Retrieved on 2006-08-29.
55. ^ 2005 report from Human Rights Watch
External links
Video of BBC Newsnight MKO program, Jan 2007 -
Youtube
Information on Mujahedin-e Khalg (MEK/MKO/NCR)
(Persian)News and Information on Mujahedin-e
Khalg (MEK/MKO/NCR
U.S. Department of State: MEK Profile
National Iranian American Council's report on the
MKO (2006)
Short article on the MEK/MKO
Profile of MEK/MKO
Israeli MOSSAD and Mujahedin-e Khalg
The MEK propaganda machine
Why the U.S. granted 'protected' status to Iranian
terrorists
Behind the Mujahideen-e-Khalq from Australian
government
Info on MKO from GlobalSecurity
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965
Article on the MKO on Iranian.com
'Autopsy' of the group's political drift
People's Mojahedin of Iran - Mission Report
Harry Dunphy. U.S. ordered the closure of two
offices of the Mujahedin-e Khalq, The Associated
Press, August 15 2003.
Notes on Mujahedin-e Khalq/MEK By Barry
O'Connell
Mujahedin-e Khalgh at the crossroads by Bill Samii
U.S. lists MEK's Alireza Jafarzadeh under the
Foreign Agents Registration Act, [PDF-60KB]
Terrorist organization profiles from the ICT
database
Notes on Mujahedin-e Khalq return to Iran
Mujahedin-e Khalq training camp
Justin Raimondo. Richard Perle supports the
Mujahedin-e Khalq, Antiwar.com, January 28 2004.
John Stanton. Iran Policy Committee (IPC):
Pentagon mouthpiece, Israeli ally, MEK supporter,
Online Journal, May 21 2005.
U.S. Congress's support for Mujahedin-e Khalq,
openDemocracy, July 15 2005.
John Diamond. Secret U.S. military campaigns in
the Middle East through 'proxies', USA Today,
February 14 2006.
Larisa Alexandrovna. U.S. outsourcing special ops
to terror group, Raw Story, April 13 2006.
Larisa Alexandrovna. U.S. Defense Department
using Mujahedin-e Khalgh to conduct operations in
Iran, Raw Story, April 20 2006.
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Official Mujahedin-e Khalq websites
Website of the Mujahedin-e Khalq (MEK/MKO)
Website of the National Council for Resistance
(NCR)
National Council of Resistance of Iran - Foreign Affairs
Committee
AFRICAN NATIONAL CONGRESS (SOUTH AFRICA)
Aliases: South African Native National Congress (ANC's
name from 1912-1923)
Base of Operation: South Africa
Founding Philosophy: The African National Congress
(ANC) is an influential organization in South Africa.
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Founded in 1912, it was one of the primary forces that
pressed for racial equality in South Africa. After nearly
50 years of nonviolent protest, the ANC adopted
terrorist tactics in the early 1960s. ANC terrorism would
continue until the group was legalized in 1990.
Following the groups legalization, ANC and its famous
jailed member Nelson Mandela pushed for the final
abolishment of apartheid. Today, ANC is a legal political
party and current South African President Thabo Mbeki
is an ANC politician.
On January 8, 1912, the African National Congress was
established to protest rampant racial discrimination
and to advocate for legal reforms establishing racial
equality. Black South Africans had curtailed rights in
the workplace, were restricted from living in certain
areas, and suffered from a host of other discriminatory
policies. The ANC was a moderate organization, which
pushed from racial equality but also publicly supported
British rule of South Africa. ANC members traveled to
Britain twice in the 1910s, requesting equal rights in
South Africa. However, the British government replied
that the issues were internal to South Africa and would
have to be resolved by the South African government.
In 1943, a segment of ANC members broke off and
formed their own organization, the Congress Youth
League (CYL). CYL criticized the ANC leadership as
excessively passive, and the CYL was determined to
more aggressively pursue racial equality. CYL organized
public rallies, strikes, and other forms of civil
disobedience but did not engage in terrorism. During
this time, South Africa moved beyond racial inequality
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968
to the official sanction of apartheid. The CYL eventually
rejoined the ANC, and several CYL members, including
Nelson Mandela, were elected to ANC leadership
positions. Due to the ANCs successful outreach in the
1950s, the South African government retaliated,
banning the group and arresting its leaders. In 1961,
nearly fifty years after its formation, ANC imitated
terrorist attacks against government facilities. The ANC
formed a military wing, Umkhonto we Sizwe (aka MK or
Spear of the Nation), to lead its terrorist attacks. ANC
and Umkhonto directed their terrorist attacks against
facilities and did not directly target people. Police raids
and arrests eradicated Umkhonto by 1964. Resistance
to apartheid continued throughout the 1960s, 70s and
80s. The ANC was implicated in several terrorist
incidents in the 1980s that targeted international
corporations with facilities in South Africa.
Current Goals: The African National Congress was
legalized in 1990 and no longer engages in terrorist
activities. Today, it is a prominent political party in
South Africa.
Further Reference
"A Country Study: South Africa," Rita M. Byrnes,
Federal Research Division, Library of Congress , May
1996
Patterns of Global Terrorism: 1986, U.S. Department of
State
Patterns of Global Terrorism: 1984, U.S. Department of
State
Patterns of Global Terrorism: 1985, U.S. Department of
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969
State
Patterns of Global Terrorism: 1987, U.S. Department of
State
AFRICAN NATIONAL CONGRESS (SOUTH AFRICA)
"A Country Study: South Africa," Rita M. Byrnes, Federal
Research Division, Library of Congress , May 1996
Patterns of Global Terrorism: 1986, U.S. Department of
State
Patterns of Global Terrorism: 1984, U.S. Department of
State
Patterns of Global Terrorism: 1985, U.S. Department of
State
Patterns of Global Terrorism: 1987, U.S. Department of
State
Patterns of Global Terrorism: 1988, U.S. Department of
State
Patterns of Global Terrorism: 1989, U.S. Department of
State
ARMENIAN SECRET ARMY FOR THE LIBERATION OF
ARMENIA (ASALA)
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970
Mothertongue Name:
Hayastani Azatagrut'yan Hay Gaghtni Banak
Base of Operation: Armenia; Lebanon
Founding Philosophy: The Armenian Secret Army for the
Liberation of Armenia (ASALA) was the most well-
known, well-organized, and prolific of the Armenian
terrorist groups of the 1970's and 1980's. Founded in
1975 by Hagop Hagopian and Hagop Tarakciyan, ASALA
operated mainly out of bases in Beirut. ASALA's primary
objective was to increase awareness of the Armenian
genocide and further the cause of Armenian
independence. In 1915, Turkey (then the center of the
Ottoman Empire) attempted to eliminate systematically
the sizable Armenian minority living within its borders;
estimates of the final death toll range anywhere
between a few hundred thousand to upwards of two
million people. The anger of the Armenian people, both
in Armenia and abroad, only grew with time. Turkey
added fuel to the fire by refusing to acknowledge the
scope of the killings or apologize publicly for them.
Some Armenians hoped that, as the Holocaust had
generated international support for the founding of
Israel, increasing awareness of the Armenian genocide
(brought on by terrorist acts) might help them gain an
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971
independent homeland. In addition to its nationalist
mission, ASALA also promoted Marxism-Leninism and
allied with other international terrorist groups with
similar leanings, including the Irish Republican Army,
Italian Red Brigades, and Kurdistan Workers Party.
Current Goals: Between 1975 and 1985, the ASALA
claimed responsibility for more than fifty attacks, a
number that goes up by ten or so if the actions of
ASALA splinter groups are included. Most ASALA and
ASALA-affiliated acts of terrorism were aimed at
Turkish diplomats or Turkish interests in the Middle
East and Europe. After a bombing at Paris' Orly Airport
in 1983, the group began to split into competing
factions and eventually disappeared altogether. No
major act of international terrorism was committed by
ASALA between 1985 and 1997, but in the latter year,
the Turkish Embassy in Brussels was bombed and a
man called authorities claiming that the ASALA was
responsible. However, experts doubt the veracity of this
claim, and no further ASALA activity is expected. With
the collapse of the Soviet Union, Armenia has become
an independent, sovereign state, thereby fulfilling the
major objective of most of the terrorists. Former
terrorists now find themselves in the government or the
military (or perhaps fighting the Azerbaijanis in the
contested province of Nagorno-Kabakh), rather than
conducting a campaign of international violence from
the shadows.
Further Reference
Patterns of Global Terrorism: 1986, U.S. Department of
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972
State
Patterns of International Terrorism: 1982, U.S.
Department of State
"Monte Melkonian : Armenian revolutionary leader /
Joseph E. Vorbach.," Joseph E. Vorbach, 1994., Frank
Cass & Co., (London, England )
Patterns of Global Terrorism: 1984, U.S. Department of
State
Patterns of Global Terrorism: 1990, U.S. Department of
State
ARMENIAN SECRET ARMY FOR THE LIBERATION OF
ARMENIA (ASALA)
Patterns of Global Terrorism: 1986, U.S. Department of
State
Patterns of International Terrorism: 1982, U.S.
Department of State
"Monte Melkonian : Armenian revolutionary leader /
Joseph E. Vorbach.," Joseph E. Vorbach, 1994., Frank
Cass & Co., (London, England )
Patterns of Global Terrorism: 1984, U.S. Department of
State
Patterns of Global Terrorism: 1990, U.S. Department of
State
Patterns of Global Terrorism: 1992, U.S. Department of
State
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973
Patterns of Global Terrorism: 1994, U.S. Department of
State
Patterns of Global Terrorism: 1993, U.S. Department of
State
Patterns of Global Terrorism: 1991, U.S. Department of
State
Patterns of International Terrorism: 1981, U.S.
Department of State
Patterns of Global Terrorism: 1983, U.S. Department of
State
Patterns of Global Terrorism: 1987, U.S. Department of
State
Patterns of Global Terrorism: 1988, U.S. Department of
State
Patterns of Global Terrorism: 1989, U.S. Department of
State
Patterns of International Terrorism: 1980, Central
Intelligence Agency
BLACK WIDOWS
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974
Mothertongue Name:
Hepnme Bpom
Aliases: Chyornyye Vdovy
Base of Operation: Chechnya; Russia
Founding Philosophy: The Black Widows are female
suicide bombers, usually of Chechen origin, many of
whom lost husbands in the Chechen wars against
Russia. In the Russian media, the term has been applied
to any female suicide bomber regardless of ethnicity, as
fears have increased of ethnic Russians converting to
Islam and joining terrorist groups. Although some see
the Black Widows as more of an overall phenomenon
rather than an organized group, some attacks have
been claimed by an entity calling itself the Black
Widows Brigade.
The first known Black Widow was Khava Barayeva,
who blew herself up at a Russian military base in
Chechnya in June 2000. An alert was issued to Russian
security services in early 2004 for a woman popularly
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referred to as Black Fatima, who was thought to be
one of the principal recruiters of suicide bombers inside
Russia. Many Chechen widows have been convinced by
separatists that they have become burdens and that the
loss of their husband was a punishment for their sins,
leaving suicide bombing as their last resort. Some claim
that potential suicide bombers are drugged and coerced
into action and that extensive brainwashing techniques
have been used on these women.
Current Goals: Leaders of the Chechen resistance
movement have been split on the issue of the Black
Widows. Recently deceased political leader Aslan
Maskhadov, who had been acting as Chechen President,
had disavowed connections to the Black Widows,
although this claim was denied by Russian security
officials. Warlord Shamil Basayev, the man responsible
for the 2002 Dubrovka Theater siege and the Beslan
school massacre, has supported their actions, and has
claimed to have personally trained 50 Black Widows.
Violence in the Caucasus region and the threat of
suicide bombings continue to plague the region.
Reports indicate that hundreds have died in these
female suicide attacks, including approximately 150 in
the summer of 2003 alone. The Black Widows will
undoubtedly continue to gain recruits as the reservoir
of widowed Chechen women grows commensurate to
the death of rebel Chechen fighters. Officials in Moscow
widely regard them as an active threat to peace and
security in the region.
Further Reference
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"Cult of Reluctant Killers," Kim Murphy, 02/04/2004,
Los Angeles Times, (Los Angeles, CA)
"Analysis: Main Russian TV Programs Feature
Programs on Female Suicide Bombers," 02/25/2005,
FBIS
ERITREAN LIBERATION FRONT (ELF)
Base of Operation: Eritrea; Ethiopia
Founding Philosophy: The Eritrean Liberation Front
(ELF) was formed by a group of Eritrean students and
intellectuals in Cairo, Egypt in July 1960. The Eritrean
Liberation Front's primary objective was
straightforward, to secure Eritrean independence from
Ethiopia. Between 1885 and 1952, Eritrea was governed
by Italy and Great Britain, successively. In 1952, the
United Nations federated Eritrea with neighboring
Ethiopia. While Eritrea gained some measures of
autonomy, the resolution stopped short of creating an
independent Eritrean republic.
The Eritrean Liberation Front (ELF) began offensive
actions against the Ethiopian government in 1961.
While the group initially displayed characteristics of a
Muslim movement and later flirted with Marxism, the
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ELF was first and foremost a nationalist group working
for Eritrean independence. The ELF was the primary
nationalist movement from 1960 to 1970. However in
1970, an internal ELF dispute led to the creation of a
splinter organization, the Eritrean People's Liberation
Front (EPLF). Following the split, the EPLF would usurp
the ELF as the primary insurgent group.
Current Goals: In 1991 EPLF troops defeated Ethiopian
troops in Eritrea. The EPLF then created a provisional
government of Eritrea. In a 1993 Eritrean referendum,
the Eritrean people voted for the creation of a fully
independent Eritrea. The current president of Eritrea
was once a member of the Eritrean Liberation Front.
Eritrean president Isaias Afewerki joined the ELF in
1966. In 1970 he co-founded the Eritrean People's
Liberation Forces.
Further Reference
"Eritrean War of Independence 1961-1993,"
12/16/2000, OnWar.com
"The Fertile Womb," Taher Indoul, 09/01/2001,
Awate.com
"Background Note: Eritrea," Bureau of African Affairs,
01/01/2004, U.S. Department of State.
"Eritrea Country Profile," General Board of Global
Ministries, United Methodist Church
FlashPoints
ERITREAN LIBERATION FRONT (ELF)
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"Eritrean War of Independence 1961-1993," OnWar.com
"The Fertile Womb," Taher Indoul, Awate.com
"Background Note: Eritrea," Bureau of African Affairs,
U.S. Department of State.
"Eritrea Country Profile," General Board of Global
Ministries, United Methodist Church
FlashPoints
"Country profile: Eritrea," BBC News
ERITREAN PEOPLES LIBERATION FRONT
Base of Operation: Eritrea; Ethiopia
Founding Philosophy: Eritrean People's Liberation Front
(EPLF), frequently misidentified as the Ethiopian
Peoples Liberation Front, was a separatist group which
fought for Eritreas independence from Ethiopia from
the 1970s until 1990, when Eritrea achieved sovereign
status.
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The EPLF was formed after a schism with the Eritrean
Liberation Front (ELF) in the early 1970s. The
predominantly Christian EPLF split from the largely
Muslim ELF due to religious and political
disagreements. Far more leftist than the ELF, the EPLF
replaced the ELF as the primary rebel group in Ethiopia
by the 1980s. The EPLF was generally considered to be
a Marxist organization, though leaders refused to
identify themselves with Marxism throughout much of
the war with Ethiopia. The EPLF long regarded the
United States as an imperialist influence and enemy
due to U.S. cooperation with Ethiopia.
Over several decades, the EPLF became regarded as
one of the most well-organized guerilla groups in Africa.
The group recruited from within the Eritrean region and
trained each soldier for nine months before sending
them to fight. International civil rights organizations
occasionally made claims that the EPLF was forcing
Eritreans to enter the army, a charge the group
vehemently denies. Through involuntary conscription or
not, the EPLF, with the rival ELF, formed a rebel force of
over 30,000 soldiers. The Ethiopian government
designated 25,000 troops to fight the Eritrean rebels.
International observers were impressed by the EPLFs
emergence as a well-disciplined army and their ability
to maintain strength without outside support. The EPLF
was largely armed with abandoned or stolen weapons
from the Ethiopian Army.
While fighting was consistent for more than 30 years,
one incident in particular fueled international outrage at
the group. The EPLF attacked a convoy of 16 U.N. and
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seven Catholic Relief Services trucks carrying food on
October 20, 1987, burning all of the food. The EPLF
claimed responsibility for the attack, saying they had
found bombs and ammunition in the convoy. The U.S.
and other international sources condemned the attack,
insisting there were no weapons present and accusing
the EPLF of using hunger as a weapon in its war with
the Ethiopian government.
The EPLF was also accused at various points of
carrying out random assassination campaigns against
Eritreans they believed were cooperating with or
helping the Ethiopian government. The EPLF said all
those killed were tried in their absence and warned
many times to stop their crimes.
In 1990, the EPLF expelled the last of the Ethiopian
troops from Eritrea, forming an interim government and
holding a U.N.-supervised referendum on independence.
The leader of the EPLF became the first president of
Eritrea and the EPLF became the single ruling party.
The group eventually renamed itself the Peoples Front
for Democracy and Justice.
Current Goals: The Marxist Peoples Front for
Democracy and Justice remains the only legal political
party in Eritrea. The new Eritrean government has
drafted a constitution but it has yet to be ratified.
Parliamentary and presidential elections have been
postponed indefinitely. As a terrorist group, the former
Eritrean People's Liberation Front is inactive.
Further Reference
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"Ethiopia and rebels accused of abuses," The Times,
London, 04/30/1991
"Struggle Ends with a Free Eritrea," Ethnic News
Watch, 04/28/1993
"AP News Special," The Associated Press, 06/01/1977
"U.S. Condemns Rebel Attack In Ethiopia," The
Washington Post, 10/27/1987
"ETHIOPIA AGAIN IN GRIP OF CYCLE OF WAR AND
FAMINE," Asahi News Service, 03/28/1988
ERITREAN PEOPLE'S LIBERATION FRONT
"Ethiopia and rebels accused of abuses," The Times,
London
"Struggle Ends with a Free Eritrea," Ethnic News Watch
"AP News Special," The Associated Press
"U.S. Condemns Rebel Attack In Ethiopia," The
Washington Post
"ETHIOPIA AGAIN IN GRIP OF CYCLE OF WAR AND
FAMINE," Asahi News Service
"U.S. Must Not Step Into Ethiopia's Quagmire," The New
York Times
ETHIOPIAN PEOPLES REVOLUTIONARY ARMY
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Base of Operation: Ethiopia; Sudan
Founding Philosophy: The Ethiopian Peoples
Revolutionary Army (EPRA) was the armed wing of the
Ethiopian Peoples Revolutionary Party (EPRP). The
EPRP was formed in 1972, initially as an anti-monarchy
group, calling itself the first political party in the
country. Ethiopias political scene changed
fundamentally soon after this, with the overthrowing of
Emperor Kaile Sellasie in 1974 and the rapid takeover
of power by a military regime (the Derg). The EPRP,
however, still remained on the outside of the Ethiopian
political spectrum and was eventually banned by the
Derg. The group was initially founded on leftist
principles, although its current political and economic
platforms have moderated and now advocate a
democratic republic and a market economy.
The groups armed wing, the EPRA, was formed in 1976
and was primarily active in the Tigray and Gondar
regions, where it fought both the Ethiopian military and
other opposition groups, primarily the Tigray Peoples
Liberation Front (TPLF). Actions against the EPRP/EPRA
by the Ethiopian government were deemed the Red
Terror. The combined effects of this two-front war
devastated the group nearly to the point of elimination,
and it was forced to move its base of operations into
Sudan by the mid-1980s. The EPRA effectively ceased
to exist as a military entity at this time.
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Current Goals: Although not part of the current
government, the EPRP remains an active political
organization and operates under the Coalition of
Ethiopian Democratic Forces (CODEF). The
EPRA/EPRPs long-time rival, the TPLF, is now Ethiopias
dominant political organization.
Further Reference
"Ethiopia," 01/01/1991, Library of Congress, Library of
Congress Country Studies
"Ethiopia - Political Parties and Leaders," 01/01/2005,
CIA World Factbook
TUPAMARO REVOLUTIONARY MOVEMENT JANUARY 23
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Mothertongue Name:
Movimiento Tupamaro de Venezuela - 23 de Enero
Aliases: Tupamaro Revolutionary Front, Tupamaros
Base of Operation: Venezuela
Founding Philosophy: The Tupamaro Revolutionary
Movement is a terrorist organization currently operating
in Caracas, Venezuela. The group is based in a working-
class Caracas neighborhood, the 23 January District.
The group first emerged in 1998 as a self-styled
neighborhood vigilante group. The Tupamaro
Revolutionary Movement took it upon itself to
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exterminate alleged criminals in the 23 January
neighborhood.
Since its emergence, the Tupamaro Revolutionary
Movement has demonstrated a penchant for extreme
leftist beliefs, as well as support for current Venezuelan
President Hugo Chavez. The terrorists have expressly
criticized the Venezuelan Chambers of Commerce,
owners of private schools, and "oligarchs." For their
purposes, the Tupamaro Revolutionary Movement
defines oligarchs as commercial bank officials, former
Venezuelan foreign ministers, the Military Institutional
Front, and the Construction Chamber. The terrorists
have also criticized Venezuela's National Assembly. The
Tupamaro Revolutionary Movement maintains public
support for President Chavez.
Current Goals: In July 2003, representatives of the
Tupamaro Revolutionary Movement claimed that they
had ceased to cover their faces in public. The
statement generally attempted to give credibility to the
group. Moreover, by issuing this statement; the group
distanced itself from reports of terrorism against oil
companies. The group rejected reports that their
members (wearing masks) were engaged in terrorist
activities in Venezuela's oil fields. On October 10, 2003,
Tupamaro leader Jose Pinto expressed his solidarity of
belief with the deceased leftist revolutionary Che
Guevara.
Further Reference
"Interview with Jose Pinto of the Tupamaro
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Movement," 10/10/2003, Radio Latinoamerica
"Tupamaros Propose Dissolving AN," 07/28/2003, El
Nacional , (Caracas, Venezuela)
"Tupamaros Planted Bomb Across Magistrates Office,"
Sandra Guerrero, 05/10/2001, El Nacional, (Caracas,
Venezuela)
"Tupamaros Blame PM For Recent Murders in 23
January ," 02/16/2003, Panorama, (Maracaibo,
Venezuela)
"Chavez's Bolivarian Circles in South Florida," Andrea
Elliott, 03/07/2003, Miami Herald
TUPAMARO REVOLUTIONARY MOVEMENT - JANUARY
23
"Interview with Jose Pinto of the Tupamaro Movement,"
Radio Latinoamerica
"Tupamaros Propose Dissolving AN," El Nacional ,
(Caracas, Venezuela)
"Tupamaros Planted Bomb Across Magistrates Office,"
Sandra Guerrero, El Nacional, (Caracas, Venezuela)
"Tupamaros Blame PM For Recent Murders in 23
January ," Panorama, (Maracaibo, Venezuela)
"Chavez's Bolivarian Circles in South Florida," Andrea
Elliott, Miami Herald
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"MAS Deputy Links MVR to Spain's ETA," Globovision
Television , (Caracas, Venezuela)
"Disip Defuse Explosive Device in Publishing House," El
Nacional, (Caracas, Venezuela)
"Tupamaro Front Kills 1 in Caracas," NOTIMEX, (Mexico
City)
Patterns of Global Terrorism: 2000, U.S. Department of
State
FARABUNDO MARTI NATIONAL LIBERATION FRONT
Mothertongue Name:
Frente Farabundo Mart para la Liberacin Nacional
(FMLN)
Aliases: Frente Farabundo Marti de Liberacion Nacional-
Frente Democratico Revolucionario (FMLN-FDR)
Base of Operation: El Salvador
Founding Philosophy: The Farabundo Marti National
Liberation Front (FMLN) was a Marxist-Leninist
insurgency movement operationally active in El
Salvador from 1980 to 1992. The goal of the FMLN was
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to overthrow the military dictatorship that had ruled El
Salvador since 1930 and replace it with a Communist
government. The group was named after Farabundo
Marti, a Salvadoran Communist revolutionary that led
an unsuccessful and brutally-repressed revolt in 1932,
during the height of El Salvadors economic and social
depression.
In 1980, the FMLN was formed as an umbrella group
representing the common interests of the five main
leftist organizations of El Salvador: the Central
American Workers' Revolutionary Party (PRTC), the
People's Revolutionary Army (ERP), the Farabundo Marti
Popular Liberation Forces (FPL), the Armed Forces of
National Resistance (FARN), and the Communist Party
of the Armed Forces of Liberation (FAL). The FMLN
served to pool the limited resources of these groups
and coordinate the strategies and tactics of the
Communist insurgency in El Salvador.
The FMLN was organized into a political wing
responsible for propaganda and public diplomacy and a
military wing responsible for armed operations. Initially,
the FMLN developed a three-pronged strategy. First,
they sought to secure their rural support base. Second,
they conducted raids against government forces and
economic infrastructure to de-legitimize the regime.
Finally, they waged a propaganda war in urban areas
with the aim of inciting a popular uprising against the
government.
Politically-inspired by Communists the world over and
financially-supported by the Communist regimes of
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Castro and the Nicaraguan Sandinistas, the FMLN
conducted two relatively-conventional offensives in
1982 that were unsuccessful due to limited resources,
an easily-disrupted supply chain exacerbated by
communication difficulties, and internal disputes over
command authority and strategy. After resolving some
of these issues with a new influx of communications
equipment and American-made weapons purchased on
the black market and supplied by Nicaragua, the FMLN
reached the height of its strength in 1983, numbering up
to 12,000 members at one point. The FMLN embarked
on what was to be its final conventional offensive in
September 1983, escalating the scale and intensity of
warfare in comparison to previous engagements. Still,
the FMLN was not able to win decisively.
After the US provided military aid to the government of
El Salvador, the FMLN was forced to shift strategies
and wage fully-asymmetrical warfare. The whole
movement trimmed its size, reorganized into smaller
units more conducive to guerrilla warfare, and moved
into urban areas, especially San Salvador. In the last
half of the 1980s, the FMLN employed terrorist tactics
such as kidnappings, arson, and bombings to
destabilize the regime. Due to the substantial influence
that American financial support had on strengthening El
Salvadors counterinsurgency prowess, US assets in El
Salvador also became targets during this time. Notably,
four US Marine security guards were massacred at a
roadside caf in June 1985.
Current Goals: Thought it exhibited a great deal of
organizational flexibility, the FMLN was dealt a death
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blow when the US decided to support the Salvadoran
government. Still, politically-inspired violence, no longer
in the form of direct engagement, continued until 1989.
On December 31, 1991, the FMLN reached a peace
settlement with the Salvadoran government that
allowed the FMLN to participate in political affairs. In
exchange, the government cracked down on the
notorious right-wing death squads that were
responsible for a majority of the human rights violations
that occurred during El Salvadors civil war. Today, the
FMLN is one of the two main political parties in El
Salvador and can no longer be considered a terrorist
organization.
Further Reference
Terrorism: assassins to zealots/ Sean Kendall
Anderson, Stephen Sloan, Sean Kendall Anderson and
Stephen Sloan, 01/01/2003, The Scarecrow Press, Inc.,
(Lanham, Maryland)
Encyclopedia of terrorism/ Harvey W. Kushner , Harvey
W. Kushner, c2003., Sage Publications, (Thousand
Oaks, Calif.)
"Farabundo Marti National Liberation Front Profile,"
08/08/1998, Federation of American Scientists
El Salvador - Left-Wing Extremism
Revolutionary movements in Latin America : El
Salvador's FMLN & Peru's Shining Path / Cynthia
McClintock., Cynthia McClintock, 1998., United States
Institute of Peace Press, (Washington, D.C. )
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991
FARABUNDO MARTI NATIONAL LIBERATION FRONT
Terrorism: assassins to zealots/ Sean Kendall Anderson,
Stephen Sloan, Sean Kendall Anderson and Stephen
Sloan, 1/1/2003, The Scarecrow Press, Inc., (Lanham,
Maryland)
Encyclopedia of terrorism/ Harvey W. Kushner , Harvey
W. Kushner, c2003., Sage Publications, (Thousand
Oaks, Calif.)
"Farabundo Marti National Liberation Front Profile,"
Federation of American Scientists
El Salvador - Left-Wing Extremism
Revolutionary movements in Latin America : El
Salvador's FMLN & Peru's Shining Path / Cynthia
McClintock., Cynthia McClintock, 1998., United States
Institute of Peace Press, (Washington, D.C. )
Patterns of Global Terrorism: 1984, U.S. Department of
State
Patterns of Global Terrorism: 1990, U.S. Department of
State
Patterns of Global Terrorism: 1992, U.S. Department of
State
Patterns of Global Terrorism: 1991, U.S. Department of
State
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Patterns of Global Terrorism: 1983, U.S. Department of
State
Patterns of Global Terrorism: 1985, U.S. Department of
State
Patterns of Global Terrorism: 1988, U.S. Department of
State
Patterns of Global Terrorism: 1989, U.S. Department of
State
FRONT FOR THE LIBERATION OF THE CABINDA
ENCLAVE RENEWED
Mothertongue Name:
Frente de Liberao do Enclave de Cabinda-Renovada
(FLEC-R)
Aliases: FLEC-Renewed, FLEC/Renovada
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Base of Operation: Angola
Founding Philosophy: The Front for the Liberation of the
Cabinda Enclave (FLEC) was founded in 1963. FLEC is a
nationalist movement devoted to the creation of an
independent state of Cabinda. Today, Cabinda is a
province within the state of Angola. Shortly after its
founding, FLEC divided into three principle factions:
"Front for the Liberation of the Cabinda Enclave -
Renewed," "FLEC - Forces Amardas de Cabinda," and
"Frente Democratica de Cabinda." These separate
factions (some might say splinter groups) contain their
own military wings to complement their political goals.
The FLEC-R, with the support of some Cabindans, make
three arguments for independence from Angola. The
first argument is geographic. Cabinda and Angola are
non-contiguous. A thin strip of land belonging to the
Democratic Republic of the Congo separates Cabinda
from Angola. Second, some historical documents imply
that Portugal, Angola's former colonizer, regarded
Angola and Cabinda as separate states. Finally, and
most importantly, Cabinda produces 60% of Angola's
total oil output of approximately 700,000 barrels per
day. Angola's oil accounts for 90% of its total export
earnings, so the financial argument for Cabindan
independence is strong. The Cabindan oil industry,
however, is not sympathetic to the FLEC-R, due to the
group's practice of kidnapping oil executives. It is hard
to imagine how FLEC-R could control an oil-based
economy after a history of targeting individuals and
companies in the oil industry.
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Current Goals: Today, FLEC-R's primary goals are
unclear. In October 2001, long-time FLEC-R leader Jose
Tiburcio claimed that he was abandoning armed
struggle. The response of other members of the FLEC-R
to this development is unknown.
FRONT FOR THE LIBERATION OF THE CABINDA
ENCLAVE
Mothertongue Name:
Frente de Liberao do Enclave de Cabinda (FLEC)
Base of Operation: Angola
Founding Philosophy: The Front for the Liberation of the
Cabinda Enclave (FLEC) was founded in 1963. FLEC is a
nationalist movement devoted to the creation of an
independent state of Cabinda. Today, Cabinda is a
province within the state of Angola. Shortly after its
founding, FLEC divided into three principle factions:
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"Front for the Liberation of the Cabinda Enclave -
Renewed," "FLEC - Forces Amardas de Cabinda," and
"Frente Democratica de Cabinda." These separate
factions (some might say splinter groups) contain their
own military wings to complement their political goals.
The FLEC-R, with the support of some Cabindans, make
three arguments for independence from Angola. The
first argument is geographic. Cabinda and Angola are
non-contiguous. A thin strip of land belonging to the
Democratic Republic of the Congo separates Cabinda
from Angola. Second, some historical documents imply
that Portugal, Angola's former colonizer, regarded
Angola and Cabinda as separate states. Finally, and
most importantly, Cabinda produces 60% of Angola's
total oil output of approximately 700,000 barrels per
day. Angola's oil accounts for 90% of its total export
earnings, so the financial argument for Cabindan
independence is strong. The Cabindan oil industry,
however, is not sympathetic to the FLEC-R, due to the
group's practice of kidnapping oil executives. It is hard
to imagine how FLEC-R could control an oil-based
economy after a history of targeting individuals and
companies in the oil industry.
Current Goals: The Front for the Liberation of the
Cabinda Enclave has always been deeply divided. In
many ways, FLEC is comprised of several factions that
operate independently of each other. The three main
factions are "Front for the Liberation of the Cabinda
Enclave - Renewed (FLEC-R)," "Front for the Liberation
of the Cabinda Enclave - Forces Amardas de Cabinda
(FLEC-FAC)," and "Frente Democratica de Cabinda
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(FDC)." All three main factions have military wings. In
addition to the groups mentioned, there are several less
important FLEC factions operating today. These include
FLEC/Original, UNCL, UNALEC, and FLEC/Lubota.
The Front for the Liberation of the Cabinda Enclave
continues to push for the independence of Cabinda.
Certain FLEC divisions, primarily FLEC-R, FLEC-FAC, and
FDC, often resort to violence and kidnapping. Their
primary victims are the employees of foreign companies
that operate in Cabinda.
GROUP OF POPULAR COMBATANTS (GPC)
Mothertongue Name:
Grupo de Combatientes Populares
Aliases: Group of People's Fighters, Group of Popular
Combatants, People's Combatant Group
Base of Operation: Ecuador
Founding Philosophy: The People's Fighters Group was
originally formed as the military branch of Ecuador's
Marxist-Leninist Communist Party (PCMLE). It is clear
that the GCP is an active terrorist group, which
maintains its Communist foundation. The group has
criticized several specific Ecuadorian government
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policies. The GCP typically leaves pamphlets with their
bombing attacks. These pamphlets offer a range of
excuses for the group's terrorist activity.
The attached pamphlets have criticized current
Ecuadorian President Lucio Gutierrez's economic
policies. Justifications also include protest of Plan
Colombia, protest of Colombian president Alvaro Uribe
who supported Plan Colombia, protest of Ecuadorian
oligarchs and traitors, and protest against imperialist
government policies. The group has also engaged in
terrorist activity in memory of the death of Che
Guevara.
Current Goals: News reports from October 2003
indicate that the People's Fighters Group is based in the
city of Cuenca. However, the group has demonstrated
the ability to attack targets throughout Ecuador. From
all indications, the People's Fighters Group remains
committed to undermining the current Ecuadorian
government. At its core, the GCP is a terrorist
organization intent on disrupting economic and
government policies which are inconsistent with
Communist beliefs.
Further Reference
"FARC Reportedly Trains Youths in Ecuador,"
01/05/2002, El Espectador , (Bogota, Colombia)
"Intelligence Departments Investigate Rebel Group
Members," 12/03/1998, El Universo , (Guayaquil,
Ecuador)
"Police Renders Report on Hurtado Murder Case,"
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03/02/1999, El Universo , (Guayaquil, Ecuador)
"Slain Ecuadorian Deputy Said To Have Been FARC
Liaison," 02/20/1999, El Tiempo , (Bogota, Colombia)
"Pamphlets Announce 'Social Explosion' Nearing,"
05/01/2000, CRE Satelital , (Guayaquil, Colombia)
GROUP OF POPULAR COMBATANTS (GPC)
"FARC Reportedly Trains Youths in Ecuador," El
Espectador , (Bogota, Colombia)
"Intelligence Departments Investigate Rebel Group
Members," El Universo , (Guayaquil, Ecuador)
"Police Renders Report on Hurtado Murder Case," El
Universo , (Guayaquil, Ecuador)
"Slain Ecuadorian Deputy Said To Have Been FARC
Liaison," El Tiempo , (Bogota, Colombia)
"Pamphlets Announce 'Social Explosion' Nearing," CRE
Satelital , (Guayaquil, Colombia)
"People's Fighters Claim Responsibility for Propaganda
Bomb Against Plan Colombia," CRE Satelital ,
(Guayaquil, Colombia)
"Three Pamphlet Bombs Explode in Quito, Including One
Outside US Embassy," CRE Satelital , (Guayaquil,
Colombia)
"Pamphlet Bomb Explodes in Guayaquil; No Casualties,
GCP Blamed," CRE Satelital , (Guayaquil, Colombia)
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GUATEMALAN NATIONAL REVOLUTIONARY UNITY
(URNG)
Mothertongue Name:
Unidad Revolucionaria Nacional Gautemalteca
Base of Operation: Guatemala
Founding Philosophy: Guatemalan National
Revolutionary Unity, known by its Spanish acronym,
URNG (Unidad Revolucionaria Nacional Guatemalteca),
was an umbrella organization of leftist insurgent groups
formed in 1982. URNG became the public face of
Guatemalas long-running insurgency, organizing the
operations of its members and eventually taking the
lead in conducting peace negotiations. The
negotiations, begun in 1987, finally brought an end to
civil war in 1996. Since the conclusion of the peace
process, the URNG and its member organizations have
renounced violence. URNG is now a legal political party.
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Guatemalas civil war was a long and bloody affair. Left-
wing guerrillas began fighting the countrys
conservative military governments in the early 1960s.
The rebels drew support from the countrys rural poor
and disaffected indigenous peoples, as well as from
urban intellectuals. The various insurgent groups relied
on ambushes and raids against government security
forces and the military, as well as bombings and
assassinations. Foreigners, especially diplomats, and
foreign businesses were also targeted. The government
responded with clandestine and semi-official death
squadsshadowy organizations reputedly supported
by the police or military that targeted prominent leftists
for abduction and murder. The Guatemalan military took
the war to the countryside, conducting counter-
insurgent sweeps in remote villages.
From the 1960s, four main groups dominated
Guatemalas leftist insurgency: the Guatemalan Labor
Party, the Guerrilla Army of the Poor, the Rebel Armed
Forces, and the Revolutionary Organization of Armed
People. It was these four groups that formed the URNG
in 1982 (though some sources put the founding date as
early as 1979).
URNGs member organizations maintained their
individual leadership structures and personnel rolls.
They also conducted many of their own attacks. The
URNG functioned as an umbrella organization governed
by a committee of the leaders of its factions. The URNG
organization was occasionally implicated in small
attacks, but its primary purpose was to serve as a
public and negotiating front for its united members. The
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group is best known for conducting nearly a decade of
peace negotiations with the Guatemalan government on
behalf of its member groups. As a result of the
negotiations, the civil war ended in 1996.
Current Goals: Since the end of civil war in Guatemala,
the URNG has participated in a disarmament,
demobilization and reintegration process as part of a
UN-sponsored peace accord. It now operates as a
peaceful political party. The URNG is now part of the
New Nation Alliance bloc.
Further Reference
"Guatemala Civil War 1960-1996," Global Security
"Non-state Actors in Colombia, Guatemala and
Nicaragua," Sarah Sensamaust, 01/01/2004, James
Madison University, Mine Action Information Center
"Guatemala: Political Parties and Leaders," CIA,
02/10/2005, CIA World Factbook
"Guatemala: Government-Rebel Contacts Begin in
Spain," 10/03/1987, BBC
"Guatemala Army Clashes with Guerrilla Forces in
North-west," 06/24/1990, BBC
GUATEMALAN NATIONAL REVOLUTIONARY UNITY
(URNG)
"Guatemala Civil War 1960-1996," Global Security
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"Non-state Actors in Colombia, Guatemala and
Nicaragua," Sarah Sensamaust, James Madison
University, Mine Action Information Center
"Guatemala: Political Parties and Leaders," CIA, CIA
World Factbook
"Guatemala: Government-Rebel Contacts Begin in
Spain," BBC
"Guatemala Army Clashes with Guerrilla Forces in
North-west," BBC
"Army Says UNRG Rebels Have Blown Up San Juan
Bridge," BBC
"Forgotten 30-year War in U.S. Backyard," Richard
Hottelet, The Christian Science Monitor
"Former Leader of URNG Army of the Poor Dies,"
Central American News
"Guatemala: Gaspar Ilom Returns," Center for
International Policy, Central America Update
"Ex-Rebels Do Not Win Votes in Latin America," John
Authers and Sara Silver, The Financial Times, (London)
"Colorful Characters in the Running for Guatemalan Hot
Seat," Sara Silver, The Financial Times, (London)
"Program Summary: Guatemala City TGV-TV Radio-
Television," Guatemala City TGV-TV
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ISLAMIC SALVATION FRONT
Mothertongue Name:
-_ '._--- '.'.'- ..''-
Aliases: Armee Islamique du Salut (AIS), Army of
Islamic Salvation, Front Islamique du Salut, Islamic
Salvation Army
Base of Operation: Algeria; Germany; United States
Founding Philosophy: The Islamic Salvation Front (FIS)
was initially created as a network of small, informal
mosque groups. After Algerian constitutional reforms
allowed the creation of political parties for the first
time, the FIS filed for legal recognition and was
certified as a political party in September 1989. The
group won more than 50% of the votes during municipal
elections in June 1990. In March 1991, a new electoral
law proposed expanding the number of seats in
Parliament from 295 to 542, clearly favoring regions in
which the Front de Liberation Nationale (FLN), "the
main Algerian political party," had strong support. In
response, the FIS called for a general strike, which over
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several days, lead to escalating violence between
militants and the security forces, and an eventual
imposition of martial law. The threat of jihad against
the army prompted them to arrest Abassi al Madani and
his second-in-command, Ahmed Belhadj, on charges of
conspiracy against the state. An additional 700 or so
Islamists were soon taken into custody, joining some
2300 others already imprisoned.
When elections were held in December 1991, the FIS
again surprised the secular parties by winning 44% of
the Parliamentary seats (188 of 430 contested seats),
while the FLN won only 15. Of the remaining 199 seats
to be decided in the second round of elections (the
second round decides those seats in which no
candidate received a clear majority of the votes during
the first round), the FIS was the leading party for 144
(i.e., although they did not receive more than 50% of the
votes in that constituency, they still received more
votes than their opponents in the first round). Fearing
an Islamist takeover of the government, the Army
canceled the second round of elections scheduled for
January 1992, removed the President from office,
appointed a five-member High Council of State, made
the FIS illegal and arrested many of its leaders.
Although FIS leadership initially remained ambiguous
about the use of violence by its followers, imprisoned
deputy leader Belhadj endorsed the armed struggle and
indicated unity with an explicitly violent group,
Abdelkader Chebouti's Mouvement Islamique Arme
(MIA) in January of 1993. A breakdown in an attempted
dialogue between the regime and the FIS in late 1993
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led a number of senior FIS leaders to defect to the more
extreme Groupe Islamique Armee. To counter the
influence of the GIA, the FIS officially created an armed
wing in July of 1994, the Arme Islamiques du Salut
(AIS), although this name had been used since 1993 to
refer to the variety of armed groups loyal to the FIS.
Although the FIS distanced itself from the GIA's civilian
massacres, a January 1995 car bomb at the police
headquarters in Algiers killed forty-two people and
injured 286. In September of 1997, the FIS declared a
ceasefire and in July of 1999, a new Algerian
government formed an accord with the FIS and issued
an amnesty for several thousand AIS guerrillas. FIS
leaders Abassi Madani and Ali Belhadj were released
from prison in 2003.
Current Goals: The AIS is no longer considered to be an
active insurgent group. A unilateral ceasefire was
declared in September 1997. A 16-point plan issued
after the first round of voting in 1991 declared the
group's intention to expand sharia law to all areas of
public and private life in Algeria, including in particular,
women's dress and work. The group also declared its
intent to reform government at all levels.
Further Reference
The Islamist Challenge in Algeria: A Political History,
Michael Willis, 01/01/1996, New York University Press,
(Washington Square, New York)
"Algerian Islamic Leader Under House Arrest,"
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09/01/1997, CNN, (Atlanta, GA)
"Islamic Salvation Movement (FIS)/Islamic Liberation
Army (AIS) Profile," 10/03/1998, Federation of
American Scientists, (Washington, D.C.)
"Insurgency, Legitimacy and Intervention in Algeria,"
Peter St. John, 01/01/1996, Canadian Security
Intelligence Service, Commentary No. 65 (Canada)
"Abassi Madani and Ali Benhadj v. Algeria," Working
Group on Arbitrary Detention, University of Minnesota,
12/03/2001
KAKUROKYO
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Mothertongue Name:
Kakurokyo-Ha
Aliases: Association of Revolutionary Workers,
Revolutionary Workers' Council
Base of Operation: Japan
Founding Philosophy: Kakurokyo is one of
approximately 50 "New Left" groups operating in Japan
today. The majority of New Left organizations were
formed between 1955 and 1966, following the 1955
decision of the Japanese Communist party to abandon
violent tactics. Some members of the communist
community chose to start new groups that remained
committed to illegal terrorist actions.
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The heyday of New Left groups is long gone, yet certain
groups such as Kakurokyo continue to espouse
violence. In 1970, the New Left groups counted 70,000
supporters of their cause. By 2003, that number has
dwindled to 10,000. Despite its dwindling support base,
hard-line members of Kakurokyo continue their terrorist
actions. Kakurokyo has violently attacked the Asia
Pacific Economic Council (APEC), Group of Seven (G-7),
Japanese Defense Agency, and the Japanese police.
Kakurokyo strongly opposes the dispatch of the
Japanese Self Defense Force to Iraq. Typically,
Kakurokyo commits its activities legally. But the group
will revert to violent terrorist actions, specifically
bombings that target government facilities. In
particular, Kakurokyo targets US bases in Japan,
including bases at Yokota and Atsugi.
Not to be confused with the separate terrorist
organization "Revolutionary Army (Kakumeigun),"
Chukakuha and Kakurokyo have their own unofficial
detached forces also called Revolutionary Army
(Kakumeigun).
Current Goals: According to a former public security
official, "the authorities no longer view the New Left
groups as a threat to society." In fact, many of the New
Left's violent actions are now directed at themselves.
Group members within the movement often target
members of rival groups. A former New Left terrorist
who has now left the movement summed up the
inherent problem with the remaining terrorist groups;
"the New Left camp inherited the darkest side of
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communism." ("Leftist groups struggle with violence
tag," Hiroshi Matsubara)
Further Reference
"Extremists behind explosion near US base in Japan,"
AFP, 11/20/2002, Daily Times, Pakistan
"`Rockets' fired at Defense Agency," 02/19/2004, Asahi
Shimbun
"Leftist groups struggle with violence tag," Hiroshi
Matsubara, 10/16/2002, The Japan Times Online
Patterns of Global Terrorism: 1995, U.S. Department of
State
KOSOVO LIBERATION ARMY (KLA)
Mothertongue Name:
Ushtria Clirimtare E Koseves (UCK)
Base of Operation: Macedonia, The Republic of; Serbia
and Montenegro
Founding Philosophy: The Kosovo Liberation Army (KLA)
formed in Macedonia in 1992 with the goal of uniting
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the ethnic Albanian populations of Albania, Kosovo, and
Macedonia into a "Greater Albania." Their name
recognized that the province of Kosovo, officially part of
the new nation of Serbia, was their most important and
difficult target. The KLA was not based on a single
rigid, hierarchical structure, but instead operated in
dispersed cells. These cells did wear uniforms and
maintain some form of chain of command, however. The
group remained basically unknown until 1995, when it
began carrying out small arms and sabotage attacks
against Serbian Police outposts in Kosovo. The KLA
also conducted vicious reprisal attacks against
Kosovars accused of cooperating with the Serbians.
The escalating violence forced the Serbian government
to respond, but their response was, by almost any
standard, far too aggressive; many innocent men,
women, and children died as a result.
As the Serbian crackdown against the KLA grew
increasingly brutal, the group's ranks swelled. An
organization that began 1998 with no more than 500
members was estimated to be 12,000 to 20,000 strong
by the beginning of 1999. When the US-led coalition
attacked Serbia in defense of the Kosovars in January
1999, the appearance of imminent victory drew even
more ethnic Albanians to the KLA flag. The KLA militias
played a critical role in the coalition victory, forcing
Serbian forces out into the open where American and
allied airpower could punish them. Since the end of the
war in Kosovo, questions have surfaced about the
worthiness of the KLA as a US ally. Accusations of ties
to drug-running, foreign terrorism, and organized crime
have surfaced, and the UN occupation force has had
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some difficulty convincing the KLA to lay down its
weapons. The point may be moot however, as the de
facto autonomy now enjoyed by the Albanians in post-
war Kosovo has decreased the urgency of the KLA
cause. No terrorist attacks have been claimed by the
KLA since the beginning of the war, but isolated
reprisals against the handful of Serbs remaining in
Kosovo have continued.
Current Goals: The goal of establishing a Greater
Albania has been dropped by all but the "hard core" of
the KLA. The group has not engaged in a recognized act
of terrorism since before the 1999 war, and no future
attacks are likely unless the Serbian government
attempts to reassert its authority over the province.
Further Reference
"The Kosovo Liberation Army and the Future of
Kosovo," James H. Anderson and James Phillips,
05/13/1999, Heritage Foundation, Heritage Foundation
(Washington, DC)
NationMaster.com Online Encyclopedia
MACHETEROS
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Mothertongue Name:
Ejercito Popular de Boricua (EPB)
Aliases: EPB Movimiento Popular Revolucionario ,
Machete Wielders, Popular Army of Boricua
Base of Operation: Puerto Rico
Founding Philosophy: The Macheteros issued their first
communique on August 24, 1978. In the letter, the
group protested the deaths of two Puerto Rican
independency advocates by Puerto Rican police
officers. In addition to the written protest, the newly
formed group physically retaliated against the Puerto
Rican police force. The Macheteros first recorded
terrorist action was the murder of a Puerto Rican police
officer.
The Macheteros is a terrorist group committed to full
Puerto Rican independence from the United States.
While the group has shown activity in the continental
U.S., the group is based in Puerto Rico. Furthermore,
the majority of its attacks have occurred in Puerto Rico.
The Macheteros believe that the U.S. is illegally
occupying Puerto Rican lands. The group's terrorist
activities are particularly aimed at U.S. military
installations and personnel. In addition, the group has a
history of attacking Puerto Rican police officers.
Current Goals: While the Macheteros are based in
Puerto Rico, a bank robbery in the United States
precipitated a severe blow to the terrorist group. In
September 1983, the Macheteros stole more than $7
million from a Wells Fargo bank in West Hartford,
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Connecticut. While the Macheteros escaped with the
majority of the stolen money, enough evidence was
gathered from the bank investigation to arrest several
key Macheteros leaders.
Despite the successful conviction of several
Macheteros leaders in the early 1990s, the Macheteros
have engaged in terrorist attacks since the arrests.
Legal Cases
USA v. Luz M. Berrios et al: 85-H-50-20
USA v. Ramon Torres-Gonzalez et al: 90-CR-370-CCC
USA v. Victor Manuel Gerena et al: 85-CR-H-50-20
Further Reference
"Filiberto Ojeda Rios Profile," America's Most Wanted
News
Terrorism: assassins to zealots/ Sean Kendall
Anderson, Stephen Sloan, Sean Kendall Anderson and
Stephen Sloan, 01/01/2003, The Scarecrow Press, Inc.,
(Lanham, Maryland)
Encyclopedia of terrorism/ Harvey W. Kushner , Harvey
W. Kushner, c2003., Sage Publications, (Thousand
Oaks, Calif.)
"Boricua Popular Army Profile," 04/04/2004, Wikipedia
"Victor Manuel Gerena Profile," America's Most
Wanted
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MANUEL RODRIGUEZ PATRIOTIC FRONT
Mothertongue Name:
El Frente Patriotico Manuel Rodriguez (FPMR)
Aliases: Manuel Rodriguez Patriotic Front - Dissidents
(FPMR-D)
Base of Operation: Chile
Founding Philosophy: In 1983, the Chilean Communist
Party, a political organization, created an armed wing to
carry out terrorist attacks against the ruling Chilean
government. The newly formed terrorist group was
called the Manuel Rodriguez Patriotic Front. The Manuel
Rodriguez Patriotic Front, also known by its Spanish
acronym FPMR, was formed with the express goal of
overthrowing the Chilean dictator Augusto Pinochet. In
September 1986, the FPMR led a full-front assault on a
Pinochet motorcade. While the assassination attempt
failed, five of Pinochet's guards were killed.
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1015
At its height, the FPMR was estimated to have between
500 and 1,000 members. However, the original FPMR
has ceased to exist. The fall of Pinochet's regime and a
return to democracy in 1989 essentially resolved the
group's goal of removing Pinochet. The FPMR's political
partner, the Chilean Communist Party, debated the
legitimacy of sponsoring a terrorist organization in a
post-Pinochet Chile. Out of the debate emerged two
factions of the FPMR, the FPMR Party and the FPMR-
Dissidents. The FPMR Party put down its arms, but the
FPMR-D continued to engage in terrorism.
Current Goals: The FPMR-D justified their continuation
of terrorism as a protest of the lack of prosecution
against members of the Pinochet administration. In
addition, the FPMR-Dissidents strove to discredit the
Chilean Armed Forces. Following multiple arrests of
FPMR-D's leaders in the 1990s, the group is no longer an
active terrorist threat.
Further Reference
Terrorism: assassins to zealots/ Sean Kendall
Anderson, Stephen Sloan, Sean Kendall Anderson and
Stephen Sloan, 01/01/2003, The Scarecrow Press, Inc.,
(Lanham, Maryland)
Foreign Military Studies Office
"Bomb Attack at Sanitation Company Injures Three,"
10/09/1996, Madrid EFE, (Santiago, Chile)
"Chile: Police Find Arms Cache, Communist Party
Documents," Hector Rojas Marchini, 08/22/2002, La
Tercera de la Hora, (Santiago, Chile )
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1016
"Chilean Intelligence Focusing on Tri-Border Area,"
Ester Levinsky, 06/30/2002, El Mercurio, (Santiago,
Chile)
MANUEL RODRIGUEZ PATRIOTIC FRONT
Terrorism: assassins to zealots/ Sean Kendall Anderson,
Stephen Sloan, Sean Kendall Anderson and Stephen
Sloan, 1/1/2003, The Scarecrow Press, Inc., (Lanham,
Maryland)
Foreign Military Studies Office
"Bomb Attack at Sanitation Company Injures Three,"
Madrid EFE, (Santiago, Chile)
"Chile: Police Find Arms Cache, Communist Party
Documents," Hector Rojas Marchini, La Tercera de la
Hora, (Santiago, Chile )
"Chilean Intelligence Focusing on Tri-Border Area,"
Ester Levinsky, El Mercurio, (Santiago, Chile)
"FPMR Blamed for Attacks After Contreras'
Imprisonment," EFE, (Madrid)
"FPMR Members Attack Prison Police School; Two
Killed," EFE, (Madrid )
Patterns of Global Terrorism: 1986, U.S. Department of
State
Patterns of Global Terrorism: 1997, U.S. Department of
State
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1017
Patterns of Global Terrorism: 1984, U.S. Department of
State
Patterns of Global Terrorism: 1999, U.S. Department of
State
Patterns of Global Terrorism: 1995, U.S. Department of
State
Patterns of Global Terrorism: 1990, U.S. Department of
State
Patterns of Global Terrorism: 1992, U.S. Department of
State
Patterns of Global Terrorism: 1994, U.S. Department of
State
Patterns of Global Terrorism: 1993, U.S. Department of
State
Patterns of Global Terrorism: 1996 , U.S. Department of
State
Patterns of Global Terrorism: 1991, U.S. Department of
State
"Sheehan's Senate Testimony on Terrorism Commission
Report," Washington File, U.S. State Department
Patterns of Global Terrorism: 1985, U.S. Department of
State
MANUEL RODRIGUEZ PATRIOTIC FRONT
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Patterns of Global Terrorism: 1987, U.S. Department of
State
Patterns of Global Terrorism: 1988, U.S. Department of
State
Patterns of Global Terrorism: 1989, U.S. Department of
State
Patterns of Global Terrorism: 1998, U.S. Department of
State
MONTONEROS
Mothertongue Name:
Movimiento Peronista Montonero
Aliases: Montonero Peronist Movement
Base of Operation: Argentina
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1019
Founding Philosophy: The Montonero Peronist
Movement, or Montoneros, originally formed to promote
the policies of the exiled Argentinean dictator Juan
Domingo Peron. From 1970 to 1973, the Montoneros
advocated Peron's populist and protectionist economic
policies. Ironically, the Montoneros and Peron had a
better working relationship prior to his return from
exile. Upon Peron's return to Argentina in 1973, the
Montoneros grew impatient as Peron increasingly sided
with the more rightist elements of the Peronist
movement. The tension between the ideologically
opposed elements of Peron's supporters erupted on
June 20, 1973, the scheduled date for Peron's
triumphant homecoming ceremony. Instead, an armed
clash erupted between the Montoneros and the rightist
Peron supporters, leaving 13 dead. Following this
incident, Juan Peron remained committed to his more
rightist policies.
In early 1974, several Montoneros members were
arrested and charged with planning Peron's
assassination. Unsurprisingly, Juan Peron publicly
divorced himself from the Montoneros in May 1974.
Following Juan Peron's death in July 1974, his third
wife and vice-president Isabel Martinez de Peron took
over the Argentine presidency. Thereafter, the
Montoneros commenced a full-scale assault against the
Isabel Peron's administration. In addition to targeting
the Argentine government, the Montoneros targeted
U.S. firms and employees in an effort to halt foreign
investment and involvement in the Argentine economy.
Finally in 1975, prompted by the actions of the
Montoneros and other terrorist groups; the Argentine
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1020
military initiated a major crack-down on all terrorist
elements.
Current Goals: Between 1975 and 1979, the Montoneros
were effectively eliminated. The Montoneros founder,
Mario Firmenich, fled Argentina in late 1977. With the
death of Firmenich's replacement, Horacio Mendizabal,
in 1979; the Montoneros were no longer a significant
terrorist threat. In 1981, Mario Firmenich asked all
remaining Montoneros terrorists to disarm and cease
any terrorist activities.
Further Reference
Terrorism: assassins to zealots/ Sean Kendall
Anderson, Stephen Sloan, Sean Kendall Anderson and
Stephen Sloan, 01/01/2003, The Scarecrow Press, Inc.,
(Lanham, Maryland)
MOVEMENT OF THE REVOLUTIONARY LEFT
Mothertongue Name:
Movimiento de la Izquierda Revolucionaria (MIR)
Base of Operation: Chile
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1021
Founding Philosophy: The Movement of the
Revolutionary Left was a Chilean terrorist organization
active from the mid-1960s through the mid-1990s.
Throughout this time, the political landscape shifted
dramatically more than once. A notable characteristic
of the Movement of the Revolutionary Left, also known
by its Spanish acronym MIR, was its continuing use of
terrorism regardless of the political administration in
power. During the years of MIR's existence, Chile was
alternately ruled by a leftist political administration, a
rightist dictatorship, and a moderate government. While
MIR consistently professed the goal of establishing a
communist Chile, the group also maintained a one-track
mind regarding criminal and terrorist activities.
The Movement of the Revolutionary Left was founded by
leftist students at the University of Concepcion in 1965.
Two years later, the group began its terrorist and
criminal activities. That same year the group professed
its adherence to Castroism, after which Cuba began
sending financial assistance to MIR. The Chilean
political climate shifted dramatically five years after
MIR's founding.
In 1970, Salvador Allende was elected president of
Chile. During his presidency, Allende granted amnesty
to a number of communist/socialist organizations.
Despite ample opportunity to participate legally in the
political process, MIR continued its terrorist attacks
during Allende's presidency. MIR claimed that terrorist
actions would convince Allende that political
participation for socialist organizations was not
enough, and thereby prompt Allende to create a Marxist
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1022
state in Chile. MIR could not have been more wrong.
MIR's policy of actively terrorizing Chilean civilians
while enjoying the amnesty of Allende's government
created the appearance that Allende was an active
supporter of Communist terrorism. President Allende
was overthrown in 1973 by a military coup.
Current Goals: Predictably, the Movement of the
Revolutionary Left continued to engage in terrorism
during Pinochet's regime. Even after democracy was
restored to Chile, MIR was actively engaged in
terrorism. Beyond MIR's self-professed communist
ideology, the group has shown little understanding of
any political nuance. MIR demonstrated the willingness
to engage continuously in illegal activities despite
fundamental shifts in Chile's political landscape. In the
1980s, Cuba withdrew support for the Movement of the
Revolutionary Left. The group has been largely inactive
since 1995.
Further Reference
Terrorism: assassins to zealots/ Sean Kendall
Anderson, Stephen Sloan, Sean Kendall Anderson and
Stephen Sloan, 01/01/2003, The Scarecrow Press, Inc.,
(Lanham, Maryland)
Global Security
"Daily Interviews New Leader of Movement of
Revolutionary Left," Alfredo Barra, 12/08/1996, La
Tercera de la Hora, (Santiago, Chile )
Patterns of Global Terrorism: 1986, U.S. Department of
State
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1023
Patterns of Global Terrorism: 1987, U.S. Department of
State
MOVEMENT OF THE REVOLUTIONARY LEFT
Terrorism: assassins to zealots/ Sean Kendall Anderson,
Stephen Sloan, Sean Kendall Anderson and Stephen
Sloan, 1/1/2003, The Scarecrow Press, Inc., (Lanham,
Maryland)
Global Security
"Daily Interviews New Leader of Movement of
Revolutionary Left," Alfredo Barra, La Tercera de la
Hora, (Santiago, Chile )
Patterns of Global Terrorism: 1986, U.S. Department of
State
Patterns of Global Terrorism: 1987, U.S. Department of
State
Patterns of Global Terrorism: 1988, U.S. Department of
State
Patterns of Global Terrorism: 1989, U.S. Department of
State
MOZAMBIQUE NATIONAL RESISTANCE MOVEMENT
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1024
Mothertongue Name:
Resistencia Nacional Mocambicana (RENAMO)
Base of Operation: Mozambique; Rhodesia; South Africa
Founding Philosophy: The Mozambican National
Resistance (Resistencia Nacional Mocambicana
RENAMO) was formed in 1976 by the Rhodesian
military. Rhodesias white minority government feared
that the regime in newly independent Mozambique
(Front for the Liberation of Mozambique FRELIMO)
would support rebels fighting to overthrow the
Rhodesian regime. To pre-empt this possible
interference, Rhodesia created RENAMO to operate
against the Mozambique-based rebels FRELIMO. The
Rhodesians created RENAMO out of disenchanted ex-
FRELIMO members, opponents of the Marxist FRELIMO
regime, and former soldiers of the former Portuguese
colonial army. Most members were Ndau speakers from
the East-Central provinces of Mozambique.
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1025
RENAMOs sponsorship changed in 1980 with
Zimbabwean independence. South Africa took control of
the group and used it to destabilize Mozambique,
essentially a punishment for the FRELIMO regimes
support of the African National Congress (ANC). In line
with apartheid South Africas aim of destabilizing
frontline states, RENAMO focused its attacks on
communications and trade infrastructure of
Mozambique and Zimbabwe, including railways,
pipelines and roads. Forced to reconsider its support for
the ANC due to the brutal tactics of RENAMO,
Mozambican President Samora Michel signed the
Nkomati Accord of 1984 with South Africa, which
pledged to end Mozambican support for the ANC in
return for an end to South African support for RENAMO.
South African commitment to the accord was
questionable, however, and violence continued.
Current Goals: Despite a drop in support from South
Africa, RENAMOs reign of terror continued throughout
the 1980s, reportedly killing at least 100,000 and
creating at least 1,000,000 refugees. Particularly hard
hit were Mozambiques railways, for which the
government had to bring in foreign troops to protect
from RENAMO attacks. The combination of these
attacks, the governments failed Marxist policies, and
natural disasters led to Mozambiques economic and
social deterioration. These pressures on the
Mozambique government led to governmental reform
and the expansion of the political process to other
parties. RENAMOs armed insurgency against the
FRELIMO regime officially came to an end on October
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1026
4th, 1992, when the two groups signed a peace accord,
formally ending the civil war.
Despite continuing disagreements over the
implementation of the peace accord and the integration
of RENAMO into the Mozambican political process, the
disarmament of RENAMO progressed in the early 1990s
with the help of the United Nations, and thousands of
its fighters were integrated into the Mozambican Armed
Forces. RENAMO finally participated in nationwide
elections in 1994, gaining 37.7 percent of the vote and
maintaining a generally regional base of support in the
North and Central regions. Despite periodic complaints
of violent voter fraud and intimidation, RENAMO
appears to have successfully transformed into solely a
political organization.
Further Reference
South Africa Mozambique Insurgency 1976-1992
Mozambican National Resistance
Mozambique: Human Rights Developments
"The So-Called "Mozambique National Resistance"
(MNR)," Paul Fauvet and Alves Gomes, Agencia de
Informacao de Mozambique, Supplement to AIM
Information Bulletin no.69 (Mozambique)
Country Profiles: Mozambique History
MOZAMBIQUE NATIONAL RESISTANCE MOVEMENT
South Africa Mozambique Insurgency 1976-1992
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1027
Mozambican National Resistance
Mozambique: Human Rights Developments
"The So-Called "Mozambique National Resistance"
(MNR)," Paul Fauvet and Alves Gomes, Agencia de
Informacao de Mozambique, Supplement to AIM
Information Bulletin no.69 (Mozambique)
Country Profiles: Mozambique History
Patterns of Global Terrorism: 1990, U.S. Department of
State
Patterns of Global Terrorism: 1992, U.S. Department of
State
Patterns of Global Terrorism: 1991, U.S. Department of
State
Patterns of Global Terrorism: 1986, U.S. Department of
State
Patterns of Global Terrorism: 1985, U.S. Department of
State
Patterns of Global Terrorism: 1987, U.S. Department of
State
Patterns of Global Terrorism: 1988, U.S. Department of
State
Patterns of Global Terrorism: 1989, U.S. Department of
State
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1028
NATIONAL FRONT FOR THE LIBERATION OF
KURDISTAN
Aliases: Democratic Peoples Unions, Kurdistan National
Liberation Front (ERNK)
Base of Operation: France; Greece; Russia
Founding Philosophy: Founded at the Third Congress of
the Kurdistan Workers Party (PKK) in 1985, the National
Front for the Liberation of Kurdistan (ERNK) is the
public relations branch of the PKK. It issues political
statements on behalf of the PKK, warns local residents
before attacks, and distributes propaganda pamphlets.
As an offshoot of the PKK, the ERNK also advocates the
independence of Kurdish-dominated territories in
Southeastern Turkey and the creation of a Marxist
Kurdistan. The group is largely funded by financial
contributions from the Kurdish diaspora community,
and its operating directive is restricted to legal
activities.
The ERNK operates in exile, with a decentralized
structure that is divided by geographic region. The
European division, under the leadership of Abdurrahman
Cadirli, issues the greatest volume of statements and is
considered to be the dominant branch. Mahir Valat is
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1029
the ERNK head in the former Soviet Bloc countries, and
Rojhat Laser is the ERNK representative in the Balkans.
In 2000, it was announced that the ERNKs name would
be changed to the Democratic Peoples Unions.
However, many sources still reference the ERNK by its
original moniker.
The ENRK generally acts in support of terrorism, rather
than carries out attacks itself, though ENRK statements
sometimes accompany attacks. In 1988, for example, a
letter signed by the ERNK was found on the body of a
murdered German diplomat in Paris. Though the ERNK
may have written the letter, which demanded
compensation for money allegedly taken from Kurdish
institutions during searches conducted in 1987, it is
unlikely that core ERNK elements committed the
murder, as their activities are strictly legal in nature.
On occasion, the mainstream media has been known
not to differentiate between the PKK and its ERNK
wing, which leads to confusion when protests and
terrorist actions committed by the PKK are attributed
to the ERNK.
Current Goals: Though the ERNK rarely, if ever,
commits armed attacks, its actions support PKK
terrorist operations. The ERNK is considered to be very
active in this role.
Further Reference
Bulletins 179
Ernk (Fronte Nazionale di Liberazione del Kurdistan)
Embleme PKK/KADEK/KONGRA-GEL und wichtiger
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1030
Teilorganisationen
"URGENT - PKK threatens to extend war against
Turkey," Agence France Presse , 02/18/1999
"German tourists kidnapped in Turkey will be freed:
Kurdish group," Agence France Presse, 08/06/1991
NATIONAL FRONT FOR THE LIBERATION OF
KURDISTAN
Bulletins 179
Ernk (Fronte Nazionale di Liberazione del Kurdistan)
Embleme PKK/KADEK/KONGRA-GEL und wichtiger
Teilorganisationen
"URGENT - PKK threatens to extend war against
Turkey," Agence France Presse
"German tourists kidnapped in Turkey will be freed:
Kurdish group," Agence France Presse
"AUSTRIA: KURDS PROTEST EUROPEAN
COLLABORATION WITH ANKARA," Inter Press Service
"Foreign News Briefs," United Press International
"Ocalan verdict could spark renewed conflict: Kurdish
party," Agence France Presse
"Philippines enforces tight security for president's visit
," BBC Summary of World Broadcasts
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1031
"Ocalan transited Russia after leaving Italy: Kurds,"
Agence France Presse
"Turkey to ask for extradition of Kurdish militant,"
Agence France Presse
"German prosecutor indicts suspected Kurdish
activist," BBC Monitoring Europe - Political
"Kurdish congress peace efforts questioned," BBC
Summary of World Broadcasts
"Liberation Front of Kurdistan holds meeting in Athens -
CTV reports," BBC Summary of World Broadcasts
NATIONAL FRONT FOR THE LIBERATION OF ANGOLA
(FNLA)
Mothertongue Name:
Frente Nacional de Libertao de Angola
Aliases: Democratic Party of Angola , Military Council of
Angolan Resistance (COMIRA), National Liberation
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1032
Front of Angola, Union of the Populations of Angola
(UPA)
Base of Operation: Angola; Congo, Democratic Republic
of the
Founding Philosophy: The National Front for the
Liberation of Angola (FNLA) was an Angolan national
liberation movement that participated in the struggle
for power following Angolas independence in 1974. The
original mission of the FNLA, officially formed under the
leadership of Holden Roberto after the Union of the
People of Angola merged with the Democratic Party of
Angola in 1962, was to restore the home of the ethnic
Bakongo people in northern Angola and southern Zaire,
known as the Kongo Kingdom. It follows that the
FNLAs current political base comes mostly from this
region. After a 1974 coup detat installed a military
government in Portugal, three separate liberation
movements were given control of Angola, and, shortly
thereafter, a bitter ideological civil war ensued between
the FNLA, allied with an FNLA splinter group known as
the National Union for the Total Independence of
Angola (UNITA), and the dominant Popular Movement
for the Liberation of Angola (MPLA).
Evidence suggests that despite substantial funding
from countries like the United States and China, the
FNLA played a minor role in Angolas post-colonial civil
war. UNITA, with the backing of South African forces
and American financing, gradually rose to become the
only significant opposition group strong enough to
challenge the Luanda-based government controlled by
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1033
the MPLA. After briefly establishing a second capital in
Huambo with UNITA, the influence of the FNLA quickly
waned when Zaire withdrew its support of FNLA rebels
in 1978 and effectively eliminated the groups base of
power and safe haven across the border. The following
year, Roberto was exiled to Paris, and a new but still
ineffectual group, the Military Council of Angolan
Resistance (COMIRA), was formed by ex-FNLA guerrillas
and quickly disbanded. In 1984, 1,500 FNLA fighters and
20,000 civilian supporters surrendered, prompting
Roberto to accept the MPLAs amnesty agreement,
effectively shutting down the militant arm of the FNLA.
Current Goals: The FNLAs last known (and only
reported) terrorist attack occurred in 1990, when it
claimed responsibility for a suitcase bomb that
exploded in a Luanda International Airport VIP lounge,
causing no fatalities or injuries. Military ineffectiveness
during the civil war, deterioration of the FNLAs
traditional support base, internal factionalism, and
corruption have all contributed to the rapid
marginalization of the political arm of the FNLA, which
received just 2.4% of the vote (5 seats out of 220) in the
last National Assembly election. Never seen as a better
military organization than a political one, it seems that
the FNLAs days as a true terrorist group are over,
though it remains active in the Angolan political scene.
Further Reference
"Angola: Battling for Birth," Robin Wright, Christian
Science Monitor, 12/12/1975
Angola National Liberation 1961-1974
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1034
Angola - Erstwhile Opposition - FLEC and the FNLA
Elections in Angola
"Angola - 1975 to 1980s" from Killing Hope: US Military
and CIA Interventions Since World War II, William
Blum, 01/01/2003, Common Courage Press
NATIONAL FRONT FOR THE LIBERATION OF ANGOLA
(FNLA)
"Angola: Battling for Birth," Robin Wright, Christian
Science Monitor
Angola National Liberation 1961-1974
Angola - Erstwhile Opposition - FLEC and the FNLA
Elections in Angola
"Angola - 1975 to 1980s" from Killing Hope: US Military
and CIA Interventions Since World War II, William Blum,
Common Courage Press
"Men at War: Angola's Liberation Leaders," Robin
Wright, Christian Science Monitor
OGADEN NATIONAL LIBERATION FRONT (ONLF)
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1035
Mothertongue Name:
Javhadda Waddaniga Xoreynta Ogaddeenya
Base of Operation: Ethiopia; Somalia
Founding Philosophy: Founded in 1984, the Ogaden
National Liberation Front (ONLF) is an active insurgent
group in eastern Ethiopia that seeks to establish an
independent state for the Somali people in the Ogaden
region of the Horn of Africa. Its members are largely
drawn from the Ogaden and Darood ethnic groups,
whose traditional lands stretch from eastern Ethiopia to
central Somalia.
The ONLF accuses the Ethiopian government of
widespread human rights abuses in the Ogaden,
including illegally confiscating private property,
interfering with relief work, and wrongfully
expropriating international aid destined for the region.
As such, they counter government influence in the
region by staging ambushes and guerrilla-style raids on
government forces. The ONLF is also known to kidnap
foreign workers thought to be agents of the Ethiopian
government or supporters of the regime in Addis Ababa.
In the late 1980s, the ONLF grew to be the most
dangerous insurgent group in Ethiopia, and it is widely
believed that the group is directly responsible for the
deaths of thousands of government troops. The
abundance of religious and clan-affiliated regional
terrorist groups makes it difficult to substantiate claims
of responsibility for terror attacks committed in the
area.
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1036
The ONLF was known to conduct joint operations with
the Oromo Liberation Front (OLF), which represented a
different clan whose indigenous territories lie in the
western portion of the Ogaden. The OLF, once the
dominant anti-Ethiopian force in the region, has seen its
power dwindle significantly with the ascent of the ONLF
and has been content to ally with the ONLF and other
groups to fight the Ethiopian regime. In 2000, the OLF
and ONLF joined with four other groups to form the
United Liberation Front of Oromiya, which is thought to
have existed in name only, as attacks continued to be
unilaterally claimed by the ONLF.
It is suspected that the ONLF has bases in Somalia, and
the Ethiopian government accuses neighboring Eritrea
of providing the ONLF with equipment and training. Ties
between the ONLF and al-Qaeda have never been
substantiated, though it is suspected that the Ethiopian
government spread rumors to that effect to attract
international assistance and attention.
Although the ONLF claims that its military actions are
only undertaken by a separate military wing, the
Ogaden National Liberation Army (ONLA), there is no
proof that a formal separation exists between the two
entities. Most attacks attributed to Ogaden insurgents
are not claimed by the ONLA but rather by the ONLF
through its propaganda mouthpiece, Radio Free
Somaliweyn (Greater Somalia).
Current Goals: In June 2004, sources reported that the
ONLF was discontinuing its violent campaign in the
Ogaden. However, attacks on Ethiopian government
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1037
troops continued. Efforts at peace failed again in July
2005, and in May 2006 the ONLF joined several political
parties to form the Alliance for Freedom and Democracy
(AFD), a coalition seeking to address the conflict in the
Ogaden region through consultations with the Ethiopian
Peoples Revolutionary Democratic Front (EPRDF),
Ethiopias ruling party. The EPRDF has yet to respond to
the overtures of the AFD, and until substantive talks
occur, the ONLF-led insurgency is expected to continue.
Further Reference
"Somalia--Paper Says Ogaden Rebels To Release
Austrian," Qaran Mogadishu, 04/09/1998
"Somalia--Ogaden Front Issues Statement on Ethiopia,
Eritrea," Mogadishu Ayaamaha, 07/11/1998
"Ethiopian Rebel Group Reports Clashes With Army,"
Asmara Voice of the Broad Masses of Eritrea in
Tigrinya, 04/08/1999
"Rebels Reportedly Kill Over 500 Ethiopian Soldiers,"
Asmara Voice of the Broad Masses of Eritrea in
Tigrinya, 07/19/1999
"Ethiopia: Ogaden rebel group welcomes formation of
new Oromo rebel alliance," Radio Freedom Voice of
the Ogadeni People, 10/17/2000
OGADEN NATIONAL LIBERATION FRONT (ONLF)
"Somalia--Paper Says Ogaden Rebels To Release
Austrian," Qaran Mogadishu
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1038
"Somalia--Ogaden Front Issues Statement on Ethiopia,
Eritrea," Mogadishu Ayaamaha
"Ethiopian Rebel Group Reports Clashes With Army,"
Asmara Voice of the Broad Masses of Eritrea in Tigrinya
"Rebels Reportedly Kill Over 500 Ethiopian Soldiers,"
Asmara Voice of the Broad Masses of Eritrea in Tigrinya
"Ethiopia: Ogaden rebel group welcomes formation of
new Oromo rebel alliance," Radio Freedom Voice of the
Ogadeni People
"Somalia: Ethiopian opposition groups reportedly
getting bases in Puntland," Yamayska
"Somalia: ONLF Troops Arrive From Ethiopia To Support
Puntland Against Somaliland," Hargeysa Haatuf News
"Ethiopian ONLF rebel movement "on the verge of being
OROMO LIBERATION FRONT (OLF)
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1039
Base of Operation: Ethiopia; Somalia
Founding Philosophy: The Oromo Liberation Front is an
ethnic separatist guerrilla group operating in the horn of
Africa. Their goal is to carve out a separate state within
the current borders of Ethiopia as a homeland for the
Oromo people, currently estimated to make up some
40% of Ethiopia's population. The "homeland" presently
claimed by the OLF would occupy more than half of
Ethiopia's current territory, including the capital, Addis
Ababa. The group formed in 1973 to fight for Oromo self-
determination, driven in part by the repressive
practices employed against Oromo separatists by the
Abyssinian leadership in Addis Ababa. Although a more
moderate Tigrean regime took power in 1991, the OLF
has continued its terrorist campaign, signaling that
nothing short of an Oromo state will bring about an end
to the violence. Parties from the neighboring countries
of Somalia and Eritrea are suspected of supporting the
OLF in an effort to weaken Ethiopia.
Current Goals: OLF elements have killed 28 people in
two separate terrorist attacks since 2000. The first, in
March of 2000, occurred when a truck from neighboring
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1040
Kenya drove over a landmine that had been set by the
OLF, although it was probably intended for an Ethiopian
target. The more recent attack involved a small
explosive detonated at the Ethiopian Railway
Commission in the Southeastern town of Daire Dawa.
Each attack killed 14 people. Since the 2000 landmine
disaster, the Ethiopian government has been on an
aggressive campaign to eliminate the OLF and has
recently scored successes against the organization,
including mass arrests and the liquidation of key
leaders. The OLF has not conducted a major terrorist
attack since 2002, but it is not possible to estimate the
likelihood of future attacks since no comprehensive
peace arrangement or ceasefire is in place.
Further Reference
History Guy
"Ethiopia says Oromo rebels crushed," 08/19/1999,
BBC News Online
POPULAR LIBERATION ARMY
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1041
Mothertongue Name:
Ejrcito Popular de Liberacin (EPL)
Base of Operation: Colombia
Founding Philosophy: The Popular Liberation Army grew
out of the Colombian Communist movement of the
1960s. In 1967, the Marxist-Leninist Communist Party
(ML-CP) broke off from the larger communist political
party, the Colombian Communist Party. Dissatisfied
with the political chaos of 1960's Colombia, the ML-CP
augmented its political organization with an armed wing
in 1967. The new group soon embarked on terrorist
activities under the name People's Liberation Army.
Both the ML-CP and EPL advocated the Maoist ideology
of sparking a national socialist revolution by beginning
in the countryside. Efforts to indoctrinate the peasantry
largely failed and the EPL never reached the size of
larger Colombian terrorist insurgencies such as the
FARC and ELN. In an effort to expand their support
base, the EPL abandoned strict Maoism in 1980. The
group continued, however, to work toward the goal of
overthrowing the democratically elected Colombian
government and replacing it with a communist state.
Furthermore, the EPL continued to pursue these
insurrectionist goals through terrorist activities.
Current Goals: The EPL was one of the principal groups
that pushed for a peace accord with the Colombian
government in the early 1980s. With the signing of the
peace accord in 1984, the EPL attempted to join
mainstream Colombian politics. Their efforts were
blocked, however, by the newly formed right-wing
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1042
paramilitary groups, such as the ACCU. In an effort to
derail the efforts to grant the politicization of the EPL,
the right-wing paramilitary groups attacked political
representatives of the EPL. The peace accord soon
unraveled as other leftist groups, the paramilitaries,
and the Colombian Army continued their attacks on one
another.
Following the failure of the peace accord, the EPL
attempted to rejoin the violent fray involving the
guerillas and Colombian security forces, but this
attempt proved futile. The EPL essentially disbanded in
1991, when it signed a truce with the Colombian
government, although a breakaway faction operating
under the same name refused to accept the truce. This
breakaway faction continues to operate today, despite
the arrest of its co-founder and principal leader,
Francisco Caraballo, in 1994.
Further Reference
"Semana Profiles Life Under FARC-AUC Rule,"
6/12/1999, Semana, (Santa Fe de Bogota)
"Colombian Rebel Leader Arrested," 4/3/2003, ACAN-
EFE, (Panama City)
"Commander Caraballo Says EPL Wants to Join Peace
Process," 9/22/1998, NOTIMEX, (Mexico City)
"Death of Subversive Leader Signals End of EPL,"
1/31/2000, Semana, (Santa Fe de Bogota)
"ELN Kidnaps Baby Boy of EPL Female Guerilla in
Santander Department," 2/24/2003, Vanguardia
Liberal, (Bucaramanga)
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POPULAR LIBERATION ARMY
"Semana Profiles Life Under FARC-AUC Rule,"
6/12/1999, Semana, (Santa Fe de Bogota)
"Colombian Rebel Leader Arrested," 4/3/2003, ACAN-
EFE, (Panama City)
"Commander Caraballo Says EPL Wants to Join Peace
Process," 9/22/1998, NOTIMEX, (Mexico City)
"Death of Subversive Leader Signals End of EPL,"
1/31/2000, Semana, (Santa Fe de Bogota)
"ELN Kidnaps Baby Boy of EPL Female Guerilla in
Santander Department," 2/24/2003, Vanguardia Liberal,
(Bucaramanga)
Encyclopedia of terrorism/ Harvey W. Kushner , Harvey
W. Kushner, c2003., Sage Publications, (Thousand
Oaks, Calif.)
"Tirofijo' Opens Up," 1/18/1999, Semana, (Santa Fe de
Bogota)
"Young Man Forced to Join EPL in Hacari," 2/19/2003,
Vanguardia Liberal, (Bucaramanga)
"Police Arrest EPL Leader Transporting Coca Paste in
Norte de Santander," 7/12/2003, Vanguardia Liberal,
(Bucaramanga)
Patterns of Global Terrorism: 1987, U.S. Department of
State
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Patterns of Global Terrorism: 1988, U.S. Department of
State
Patterns of Global Terrorism: 1989, U.S. Department of
State
POPULAR REVOLUTIONARY ARMY
Mothertongue Name:
Ejrcito Popular Revolucionario
Base of Operation: Mexico
Founding Philosophy: The Popular Revolutionary Army
(EPR Ejercito Popular Revolucionario) was a Mexican
guerrilla organization supporting armed struggle against
the countrys government. The group first appeared
with a series of coordinated attacks on police outfits in
six Mexican states in the summer of 1996. More than a
dozen people were killed. Though EPR splintered in
2000, several successor organizations have continued
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1045
to conduct sporadic, small-scale attacks in Mexicos
south ever since.
Formed as a merger of 14 smaller groups, EPRs primary
aim was to overthrow the government of Mexico. In its
first public statement, which came on June 28th, 1996
at a memorial service for 17 citizens killed by police in
Guerrero state, the group claimed that the Mexican
government was anti-popular and anti-democratic.
They pledged armed struggle to establish a government
representative of the people, denouncing Mexicos
wealthy and the foreign capital interests dominating
the country. The group published many of its
statements through a political arm called the Partido
Democratico Popular Revolucionario (PDPR), or the
Democratic Popular Revolutionary Party in English.
The groups ideology is congruent with that of many
popular movements and guerrilla groups in Latin
America. EPR expressed some Marxist ideas, but its
professed program is better understood in the context
of Latin American populism. In both Central and South
America, political leaders and armed, anti-government
rebels have fought for the interests of rural villagers
against perceived economic oppression by the wealthy
classes and foreign businesses, who own most of the
land and natural resources. Like these groups, the EPR
preached that foreign corporations pillage Mexico at
the expense of the countrys campesinos, or villagers.
Group members were active mainly in the states of
Guerrero, Oaxaca, and Chiapas and generally limited
their targets to government forces or assets.
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Current Goals: Internal squabbling eventually caused a
splintering of the EPR in 2000. Former members created
the Insurgent Peoples Revolutionary Army,
Revolutionary Armed Forces of the People, and other
small groups. Several other groups with similar agendas
are still active in Mexicos southern regions, though
their footprints are small.
Newly elected Mexican President Vicente Fox offered
the EPR an amnesty in December 2000 as part of an
effort to calm down the insurgency in southern Mexico.
The group has continued to issue public statements,
including condemnations of the 9/11 attacks and the
U.S.-led war in Iraq, and there have been recent
allegations that the group is reemerging. Mexican
police officials contend the group played a role in the
2006 mass protests in Oaxaca and a November 2006
bombing in Mexico City. Due to numerous claims of
responsibility for the bombing, it remains unclear which
group was the actual culprit. Given the continued
economic and political tensions in Mexico, it remains a
possibility that the EPR could engage in future, small-
scale attacks.
Further Reference
"Drugs, Rebellion, and Mexico's Militarization," Joe
Cummings, Mexico Connect
"Mexico: Zapatistas Aren't the Only Armed Group
Ready for Action," Diego Cevallos, 07/12/2005,
IPS/Inter-Press Service
"Trouble in Mexico," Steve Macko, 09/02/1996,
Emergency Net News Service
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Popular Revolutionary Army-Democratic Popular
Revolutionary Party website
"Information Campaign of EPR, Mexico," 07/02/1998
POPULAR REVOLUTIONARY ARMY
"Drugs, Rebellion, and Mexico's Militarization," Joe
Cummings, Mexico Connect
"Mexico: Zapatistas Aren't the Only Armed Group Ready
for Action," Diego Cevallos, IPS/Inter-Press Service
"Trouble in Mexico," Steve Macko, Emergency Net
News Service
Popular Revolutionary Army-Democratic Popular
Revolutionary Party website
"Information Campaign of EPR, Mexico,"
"PDPR/EPR," Federation of American Scientists
REBEL ARMED FORCES
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Mothertongue Name:
Fuerzas Armadas Rebeldes (FAR)
Aliases: November 13th Movement of the Rebel Armed
Forces
Base of Operation: Guatemala
Founding Philosophy: The Rebel Armed Forces was a
left-wing insurgent group that actively combated the
Guatemalan government for more than three decades.
Known by its Spanish acronym FAR, the Rebel Armed
Forces was formed in 1962 by junior officers of the
Guatemalan military. The founders had previously led
an unsuccessful coup attempt against the conservative
Guatemalan government; they created the FAR to
continue their anti-government attacks. Like other
leftist groups in Guatemala and around the region, FAR
drew much of its membership and support from the
countrys rural poor and disaffected indigenous peoples.
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FAR was one of four main rebel groups fighting
successive conservative governments in a vicious civil
war. The group fought insurgent battles against
government forces, relying especially on ambushes,
raids, arson, and sabotage, as well as targeted
foreigners and foreign business interests. FAR
assassinated several foreign diplomats over the course
of its history, including U.S. Ambassador John Gordon
Mein during a kidnap attempt in August 1968 and the
West German ambassador to Guatemala two years
later. The group also kidnapped foreigners, attacked
economic development projects, and harassed oil
exploration companies. FAR was particularly active in
Peten province.
In 1982, the group joined forces with Guatemalas other
three main left-wing terrorist groups to form
Guatemalan National Revolutionary Unity (UNRG). This
umbrella group served as the face of the left-wing
insurgency until a peace agreement in 1996. Though
individual groups maintained their leadership
structures, the groups coordinated some of their
attacks under the UNRG. While the FAR maintained an
independent identity, including members and attacks
solely attributed to it, the URNG became the focal point
of the lefts military and political fights with the
government. When peace talks began in 1987, the
UNRG served as the principle negotiating body.
Current Goals: After three decades of terrorist
insurgency, the Guatemalan conflict finally ended in
1996. URNG and each of its members, including the
FAR, agreed to cease violent actions against the
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1050
Guatemalan government, foreign entities, and
Guatemalan citizens. Julio Cesar Macias, also known as
Cesar Montes, one of the founders of FAR, publicly
apologized for crimes committed by his group in 1998.
Today, the URNG operates as a legal political party.
FAR is no longer involved in terrorism.
Further Reference
Terrorism: assassins to zealots/ Sean Kendall
Anderson, Stephen Sloan, Sean Kendall Anderson and
Stephen Sloan, 01/01/2003, The Scarecrow Press, Inc.,
(Lanham, Maryland)
Report on the Situation of Human Rights in the
Republic of Guatemala, 10/05/1983, Inter-American
Commission on Human Rights, Organization of
American States
"Military Intelligence Officer Testifies in Bamaca
Case," 05/22/1995, NOTIMEX , (Mexico City )
"Guatemalan Government, Rebels Meet Formally for
the First Time," Edward Cody, 10/08/1987, The
Washington Post
"Guatemala's Insurgency Will Be Tough Test for
Region's Peace Plan," Chris Norton, 09/23/1987, The
Christian Science Monitor
REBEL ARMED FORCES
Terrorism: assassins to zealots/ Sean Kendall Anderson,
Stephen Sloan, Sean Kendall Anderson and Stephen
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1051
Sloan, 1/1/2003, The Scarecrow Press, Inc., (Lanham,
Maryland)
Report on the Situation of Human Rights in the Republic
of Guatemala, Inter-American Commission on Human
Rights, Organization of American States
"Military Intelligence Officer Testifies in Bamaca Case,"
NOTIMEX , (Mexico City )
"Guatemalan Government, Rebels Meet Formally for the
First Time," Edward Cody, The Washington Post
"Guatemala's Insurgency Will Be Tough Test for
Region's Peace Plan," Chris Norton, The Christian
Science Monitor
"Guatemala's 4 Main Rebel Groups Join Forces," The
New York Times
"Holistic Healing," The Economist
"Guatemalan Commander Who Founded Rebel Armed
Forces Apologizes," The Miami Herald
"Guatemala: 37 year war comes to end," Gabriel Torres
REVOLUTIONARY ARMED FORCES OF THE PEOPLE
(FARP)
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1052
Mothertongue Name:
Fuerzas Armadas Revolucionarias del Pueblo (FARP)
Base of Operation: Mexico
Founding Philosophy: The Revolutionary Armed Forces
of the People, known by its Spanish acronym FARP,
emerged in February 2000 as a splinter group of the
Popular Revolutionary Army (EPR). Citing political,
ideological, and strategic differences, FARP is believed
to have split from the EPR as early as June 1999. FARP
follows its founding groups Marxist-oriented ideology,
staunching opposing the neo-liberal economic policies
of the Mexican government and globalization and its
link to the United States. Group members seek to
establish a popular democratic republic complete with
a new constitution and a more conservative economic
system.
One of the groups most publicized attacks occurred
when homemade incendiary devices exploded at three
Banamex bank branches shortly after the bank was
acquired by the U.S. company, Citigroup, in 2001. As the
devices were engineered to garner media attention
rather than inflict injury, only one minor injury was
reported. FARP claimed responsibility by spray-painting
its initials at two of the branches. The group has also
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1053
launched attacks on the Mexican government and
police forces and as part of the umbrella organization,
the Group of Guerilla Combatants of Jose Maria Morelos
y Pavon (CGNJMMP).
Current Goals: No recent attacks have been claimed by
FARP. However, the group continues to issue
communiqus and should be considered active and
capable of future attacks given the continued economic
and political tension in southern Mexico.
Further Reference
"Mexico: Banks Bombed to Protest Taxpayer Bail Out,"
08/14/2001, Associated Press
"Bomb Explodes at BBVA-Bancomer Bank Branch; No
Injuries," 08/29/2001, EFE, (Madrid)
"Organized Crime and Terrorist Activity in Mexico:
1999-2002 ," Ramon J. Miro and Glenn E. Curtis,
01/01/2003, Library of Congress
"Mexico: Five FARP Members Arrested for Banamex
Bombs," 08/14/2001, Mexico City NOTIMEX, (Mexico)
"Mexico: Three Homemade Bombs Found in Banamex
Branches," 08/09/2001, Mexico City NOTIMEX,
(Mexico)
RUSSIAN NATIONAL BOLSHEVIST PARTY
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1054
Mothertongue Name:
Haquonan-Bonsmeuczcxan napzun (HBD)
Base of Operation: Estonia; Kyrgyzstan; Latvia;
Moldova; Russia
Founding Philosophy: The Russian National Bolshevist
Party (NBP) is an organization of anti-globalists and
Russian nationalists founded in 1993 by writer Eduard
Limonov. The group has branches across Russia and in
other countries of the former Soviet Union. The NBP
opposes capitalism, globalization and the U.S., as well
as Russian President Vladimir Putin, whom they accuse
of attacking democracy in Russia and running a police
state. The NBP is also linked to anti-Semitism. The
group participates in frequent rallies and
demonstrations against Putin, U.S. President George W.
Bush and globalization. The NBP also rallies for specific
Russian causes, such as visa-free travel to the exclave
of Kaliningrad, the re-instatement of direct election of
governors, and in support of pensioners opposed to
government reforms.
The specifics of NBP's political agenda are unclear. The
group demands liberty, justice, and revolution, but has
not laid out an organized platform. NBP draws much of
its imagery from Nazism. The National Bolshevist Party
seems to combine elements of fascism, particularly
nationalism, with socialism. In that sense, NBP fits into
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1055
a wider collection of disaffected groups unhappy with
the new Russia, as well as a worldwide anti-
globalization and anti-capitalist movement.
The NBP aspires to some political legitimacy. It has
applied for political party status on more than one
occasion. Eduard Limonov recently joined a multi-party
coalition advocating the State Duma candidacy of jailed
oligarch Mikhail Khodorkovsky. Much of NBP's agitation
concerns limits on political freedom in Russia.
Over the past decade, the NBP has been associated
with a number of minor terrorist incidents. Police
believe that group members were behind a bombing
outside a synagogue in the Latvian capital of Riga in
April 1998. Several members were arrested in 2001
while buying automatic rifles.
Most NDP incidents are common vandalism. Group
members are known for throwing food products at
political leaders, including several OSCE diplomats in
Moldova in 2004. In March 2002, a vandal spray-painted
a party slogan on the Estonian Embassy in Moscow. In
December 2004, 39 group members were arrested after
storming the public communications office of the
Presidential Administration near the Kremlin and rioting
inside the building. This was the second storming of a
public office by the NBP in six months. The group's
website also features photos of a small-arms attack in
Moscow in the summer of 2005.
Current Goals: The NBP is not an organized, dangerous
terrorist group. Though the group has many members
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1056
across Russia, its primary activities are protests and
the distribution of leaflets and a serial, Limonka. Some
of the group's members have been connected to
terrorist attacks, but these reflect the looseness of the
organization, not an organized, party-wide campaign of
violence. The NBP has some terrorist members, but it is
not a terrorist organization.
The NBP will remain active in Russia and in the major
cities of the former Soviet Union for the foreseeable
future. The group will continue to protest Putin's
program and attract those left behind in post-
communist Russia. Some small-scale violence and
hooliganism associated with the group is also likely to
persist. However, their violent actions are not likely to
proceed beyond isolated, minor incidents.
Further Reference
"Public Opinion: Eduard Limonov and the National-
Bolshevik Party," A. Petrova, 05/26/2005, Public
Opinion Foundation
"Abel in Place of Limonov," Nadezhda Andreeva,
Moscow Times , (Moscow, Russia)
"National Bolsheviks: The Party of 'Direct Action',"
Viktor Yasmann, 05/02/2005, Radio Free Europe
RUSSIAN NATIONAL UNITY
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1057
Mothertongue Name:
Russkoe Natsionalnoe Edinstvo(RNE)/PYCCKOE
HAHOHARBHOE EQHHCTBO
Base of Operation: Estonia; Latvia; Lithuania; Russia;
Ukraine
Founding Philosophy: Russian National Unity is both a
nationalist political party and an extremist paramilitary
organization. The RNU's slogan, "Russia for the
Russians," says much about its goals, which include the
ethnic cleansing of the "motherland" and a vastly
increased public role for the Russian Orthodox Church.
The RNU, or Barkashovites as they are sometimes
known, are virulently opposed to the presence of both
Jews and Caucasian minorities in the Russian
motherland, whom they propose deporting to Israel and
"Turkish lands", respectively. With black uniforms,
raised arm salutes, and a red swastika flag as its logo,
the RNU eagerly invites comparison to the Nazi Party in
its early days under Adolf Hitler.
Aleksandr Barkashov founded the RNU in 1990, and in
1993 he participated in the hardliners' siege of the
Russian parliament. Granted amnesty for his role in the
attempted revolution, Barkashov returned to overseeing
his rapidly growing organization. The lives of ordinary
Russians were extraordinarily difficult during the 1990's
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1058
and, as is so often the case, many were eager to blame
their woes on Jews and foreigners. At its late nineties
peak, Russian authorities estimated that the
organization had around 100,000 members. Chapters in
the Baltic Republics (especially Estonia) and Ukraine
were among the most active, seeking the cleansing of
their territory and reunification with the Russian
Federation.
As disturbing as the RNU's goals are, it is their
willingness to pursue those goals through force that
has proved most alarming to officials in Moscow.
Beatings of Jews and foreigners happened sporadically
where RNU elements were active. In May of 1998, the
RNU claimed responsibility for a bombing at a Moscow
synagogue that injured three people. RNU elements,
such as the "Russian Knights," train extensively in
paramilitary tactics, including the use of weapons and
explosives, both of which have been found stockpiled at
RNU compounds. In the run-up to his failed attempt at
the Russian presidency in 2000, Barkashov repeatedly
hinted that his followers were willing to use violence to
seize power if democratic means proved unsuccessful.
However, Barkashov was expelled from Russia in
September of 2000, and the RNU has split into factions
with no central leadership. In March 2001, the Latvian
RNU ran in municipal elections but won no seats.
Further Reference
Russian Fascism: Traditions, Tendencies, Movements,
Stephen D. Shenfield, 01/01/2001, M.E. Sharpe,
(Armonk, NY and London, UK)
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"Russian Extremists Train New Generation," Dave
Montgomery, 11/12/1998, Philadelphia Inquirer,
(Philadelphia)
NCSJ
SANDINISTAS
Mothertongue Name:
Frente Sandinista de Liberacion Nacional (FSLN)
Aliases: Sandinista National Liberation Front
Base of Operation: Nicaragua
Founding Philosophy: The Sandinistas is an anomaly
among terrorist organizations. The group began as a
terrorist guerrilla organization devoted to Marxist-
Leninist beliefs. Partly because of its adherence to
communist ideology, the Sandinistas received
assistance from its Western Hemisphere neighbor,
Cuba. In addition, Costa Rica and the terrorist
organization, the Popular Front for the Liberation of
Palestine (PFLP), were supportive of the Sandinistas.
The Sandinistas existed from 1960 to 1979 as a state-
sponsored terrorist organization. During this time, the
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group carried out numerous terrorist activities against
the ruling Somoza regime in Nicaragua.
The Sandinistas' primary goal was to overthrow the
Somoza regime and replace it with a communist
government. Taking advantage of public unrest and
massive demonstrations against the dictatorial Somoza
regime, the Sandinistas successfully ousted the
Somoza regime in 1978-79. The Sandinistas ruled
Nicaragua until democratic elections forced them out in
1990. During their rule, the Sandinistas re-shaped their
terrorist cells into their own party-controlled standing
army. As of 1979, the Sandinistas ceased to exist as a
terrorist organization. However, the Sandinistas
remained a terrorist threat; only now they were the
state sponsors of terrorism abroad.
Current Goals: In 1990, the Sandinistas lost the general
election for the Nicaraguan presidency. The Sandinista
regime was over but the group did not disappear. The
Sandinistas retained control of their own army and
maintain a substantial political presence even today.
Terrorist activities have been perpetrated since 1990 by
people wearing Sandinista uniforms. In addition,
terrorist organizations have formed with pro-Sandinista
views. The relationship between the Sandinista political
party and these terrorists is not fully known.
Nevertheless, government officials have accused the
Sandinistas of using terrorists to influence election
results.
Further Reference
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Breaking faith : the Sandinista revolution and its
impact on freedom and Christian faith in Nicaragua /
Humberto Belli., Humberto Belli, 1985., Published by
Crossway Books for the Puebla Institute,
(Westchester, Ill. )
SOUTHERN SUDAN INDEPENDENCE MOVEMENT (SSIM)
Aliases: Movement of Riak Machar, Southern Sudan
Independence Army, Southern Sudan Independence
Movement/Army (SSIM/A), Sudan Peoples Liberation
Army United (SPLA United)
Base of Operation: Sudan
Founding Philosophy: The Southern Sudan
Independence Movement (SSIM) was a militant rebel
army in southern Sudan opposed to the Khartoum
government, which is perceived to favor the minority
northern Arab Muslim population over the southern
Sudanese animist/Christian people. SSIM fighters were
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mainly of Nuer descent and came from the oil-rich
region of the Upper Nile. This organization focused on
conducting combat operations against the Sudanese
military, though at times it resorted to terrorist tactics
against non-combatant targets, as seen in its 1995
kidnapping of 12 Medicins Sans Frontieres (MSF)
workers.
Originally called the SPLM/A-United, the SSIM was
created by Dr. Riak Machar in August 1991 when it split
from John Garangs mainly ethnic-Dinka Sudan Peoples
Liberation Army (SPLA) over philosophical differences.
As their names would suggest, the SPLA envisioned a
unified and democratic Sudan as their goal, whereas
the SSIM faction was willing to secede from Sudan if
the government would not meet their demands for equal
treatment. Ironically, it was the SSIM that would merge
with government forces in April 1996, when Khartoum
and six rebel groups from the south, including the SSIM,
signed a peace agreement. In April 1997, the agreement
was formalized in the Sudan Peace Agreement, which
created the United Democratic Salvation Front (UDSF),
a political body that served to merge elements of the
militant groups into the government and internal
security forces of the state. The military wing of this
body, used to patrol Southern Sudan on behalf of the
government, was called the Southern Sudan Defense
Forces (SSDF) and was led by Machar. In August 1997,
the Khartoum government appointed Machar to the
Presidency of the Coordinating Council of the Southern
States and Assistant of the President of the Republic, a
cabinet-level position.
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Current Goals: The SSIM never recovered from Machars
decision to integrate into the government, and for all
intents and purposes, became inactive after it merged
into the SSDF, though some ex-SSIM fighters have since
merged into both anti- and pro-government forces in
Southern Sudan.
Further Reference
CIA World Factbook: Sudan
PROSPECTS FOR PEACE IN SUDAN BRIEFING
Sudan SPLM leadership Bio-data and profiled
Chronology for Southerners in Sudan
Unity of Purpose: A prerequisite for Southern
Sudanese
SOUTHERN SUDAN INDEPENDENCE MOVEMENT (SSIM)
CIA World Factbook: Sudan
PROSPECTS FOR PEACE IN SUDAN BRIEFING
Sudan SPLM leadership Bio-data and profiled
Chronology for Southerners in Sudan
Unity of Purpose: A prerequisite for Southern Sudanese
Sudan Conflict Database
Who's Who: Significant People and Organisations
"The Civil War," Human Rights Watch
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Report Of Investigation No 64: Illegal Taxation of
Civilians In Rubkona, Karsana and Bentiu
'Sudan: A future without War?'- IRIN Web Special on the
prospects of peace in Sudan
"Sudanese Opposition Leader Al-Mahdi Accuses US of
Planning To Expand Civil War," Opensource.gov
TUPAC AMARU REVOLUTIONARY MOVEMENT
Mothertongue Name:
Movimiento Revolucionario Tupac Amaru (MRTA)
Base of Operation: Peru
Founding Philosophy: The Tupac Amaru Revolutionary
Movement (MRTA) is based on Marxist-Leninist
revolutionary theory. The group was founded with two
primary goals. First, MRTA is dedicated to overthrowing
the current Peruvian government and replacing it with a
Marxist state. Second, the group aims to expel the U.S.
commercial and diplomatic presence from Peru. The
Tupac Amaru Revolutionary Movement takes great
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pride in the fact that it is an organization of the people,
and strives to connect with peasants, students, and
members of trade unions.
The MRTA is the second-largest Marxist guerrilla
movement in recent Peruvian history, following the
Shining Path. While the Shining Path is characterized by
an isolationist and elite terrorist leadership, MRTA has
attempted to foster relationships with the Peruvian
peasantry and other socialist groups. The MRTA's
economic vision, enacted in a few small areas that
were once controlled by the group, is that of a mixed
economy based on communal planning.
Current Goals: The MRTA has not conducted a
significant terrorist attack since the 1997 attack on the
Japanese Embassy in Lima, Peru. Today, it appears that
the MRTA is most concerned with achieving the release
of imprisoned MRTA members, some of whom are being
held in Bolivia.
Further Reference
"An Interview With Lori Berenson," CBS News, Oct. 17,
2000, CBS Broadcasting Inc.
"Peru Rebel Leader Polay of Tupac Amaru Faces
Civilian Trial," 12/06/2004, Bloomberg
"Peruvian Guerrillas Fight New Battle in Court; Ruling
May Free Shining Path Rebels, Rekindle Fading Maoist
Insurgency," Scott Wilson, 3/23/2003, The Washington
Post, (Washington, DC)
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"Tupac Amaru Revolutionary Movement (MRTA):
Leadership," International Policy Institute for Counter-
Terrorism, Israel
Patterns of Global Terrorism: 2000, U.S. Department of
State
TUPAC AMARU REVOLUTIONARY MOVEMENT
"An Interview With Lori Berenson," CBS News, Oct. 17,
2000, CBS Broadcasting Inc.
"Peru Rebel Leader Polay of Tupac Amaru Faces
Civilian Trial," Bloomberg
"Peruvian Guerrillas Fight New Battle in Court; Ruling
May Free Shining Path Rebels, Rekindle Fading Maoist
Insurgency," Scott Wilson, 3/23/2003, The Washington
Post, (Washington, DC)
"Tupac Amaru Revolutionary Movement (MRTA):
Leadership," International Policy Institute for Counter-
Terrorism, Israel
Patterns of Global Terrorism: 2000, U.S. Department of
State
Patterns of Global Terrorism: 2001, U.S. Department of
State
Patterns of Global Terrorism: 2003, US Department of
State
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Patterns of Global Terrorism: 1999, U.S. Department of
State
Patterns of Global Terrorism: 1990, U.S. Department of
State
Patterns of Global Terrorism: 1994, U.S. Department of
State
Patterns of Global Terrorism: 1992, U.S. Department of
State
Patterns of Global Terrorism: 1993, U.S. Department of
State
Patterns of Global Terrorism: 1995, U.S. Department of
State
Patterns of Global Terrorism: 2002, U.S. Department of
State
Patterns of Global Terrorism: 1996 , U.S. Department of
State
Patterns of Global Terrorism: 1991, U.S. Department of
State
Patterns of Global Terrorism: 1998, U.S. Department of
State
"Country Reports on Terrorism 2005," U.S. Department
of State
Patterns of Global Terrorism: 1997, U.S. Department of
State
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Patterns of Global Terrorism: 1986, U.S. Department of
State
TUPAC AMARU REVOLUTIONARY MOVEMENT
Patterns of Global Terrorism: 1987, U.S. Department of
State
Patterns of Global Terrorism: 1988, U.S. Department of
State
Patterns of Global Terrorism: 1989, U.S. Department of
State
TUPAMAROS
Mothertongue Name:
Movimiento de Liberacion Nacional (MLN)
Aliases: National Liberation Movement
Base of Operation: Uruguay
Founding Philosophy: The Tupamaros began its terrorist
operations under the name, National Liberation
Movement. Three years after it commenced its criminal
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and terrorist activities, the group took the name
Tupamaros. Like the Tupac Amaru Revolutionary
Movement in Peru and the Tupamaro Revolutionary
Movement in Venezuela, the organization named itself
in honor of Jose Condorcanqui, an 18th century
Peruvian who called himself Tupac Amaru and claimed
to be an Incan descendent. The Incan descendent claim
is dubious, and Jose Condorcanqui took the name
Tupac Amaru from a 16th Century Incan king.
Regardless of the legitimacy of Jose Condorcanqui's
Incan heritage, it is certain that Jose Condorcanqui led
a 1780 failed revolt against Spanish rule. He was
captured and executed in 1782.
In the spirit of anti-imperialism, the Marxist-leaning
Uruguayan Tupamaros criticized foreign investors in
Uruguay, especially those from U.S. and Brazil. The
group targeted diplomats and diplomatic facilities of
both countries. In addition, the Tupamaros criticized
the corruption of Uruguayan government officials. In the
early 1970s, the Tupamaros adopted the inherently
flawed strategy of offensive actions against Uruguayan
security forces. The Uruguayan military responded in
force and by the end of 1973 the Tupamaros had been
eliminated as a sizable terrorist threat. Following the
Tupamaros elimination, the Uruguayan military went on
to rule the country for the next twelve years.
Current Goals: When Uruguay finally returned to civilian
rule in 1985, a general amnesty was declared. Upon
their release from jail, a group of Tupamaros members
re-constituted themselves as a legal political party.
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Further Reference
Terrorism: assassins to zealots/ Sean Kendall
Anderson, Stephen Sloan, Sean Kendall Anderson and
Stephen Sloan, 01/01/2003, The Scarecrow Press, Inc.,
(Lanham, Maryland)
"Jurisprudence Documents," International Covenant
on Civil and Political Rights
UNITA
Mothertongue Name:
Unio Nacional para a Independncia Total de Angola
Aliases: National Union for the Total Independence of
Angola
Base of Operation: Angola
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Founding Philosophy: The National Union for the Total
Independence of Angola (UNITA) was a rebel group
formed in 1966 to fight for Angolan independence from
Portugal. The group"s leader, Jonas Savimbi, had
studied Maoist ideology and tactics in China, and these
formed the basis of his political and organizational
doctrines. When Angolan independence was achieved in
1975, a struggle for power broke out among the various
militias that had fought Portuguese rule. The Marxist
Leninists of the Popular Movement for the Liberation of
Angola (MPLA) emerged as the strongest politico-
military organization in the new nation, and its
members quickly took the highest posts in the
government and the army. Savimbi, who had turned
down an offer to join the MPLA in 1966, declared war on
the new regime on August 1, 1975. UNITA was defeated
by the MPLA in the ensuing civil war but retained
control of the Southeastern portion of the country,
populated largely by peasants of the Ovimbundu ethnic
group. From its headquarters in Jamba, Savimbi
pursued a two-pronged strategy, educating the peasant
population to "elevate their political consciousness," on
the one hand and conducting a bloody guerilla
campaign against the MPLA on the other. Although
Savimbi was an avowed Maoist, he received a good deal
of support throughout the eighties and early nineties
from Western and pro-Western African governments,
who detested the Soviet-backed MPLA. This support
was not to last long after the end of the Cold War,
however, as UNITA turned to terrorist attacks against
foreign interests in Angola. Between 1998 and 2001,
despite claiming to support then-ongoing peace
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negotiations, UNITA forces attacked Russian aid
workers, a Canadian-owned diamond mine, a Land
Rover owned by an Australian mining company, as well
as a number of MPLA targets. The violence did not end
until February 2002, when Jonas Savimbi was shot dead
by members of the Angolan Army.
Current Goals: Since Savimbi's death, UNITA has fallen
apart as a political and a military force. In November
2002, UNITA forces agreed to turn in their arms and join
the government as a legitimate political party. The
United Nations and the United States government have
subsequently lifted sanctions on UNITA in recognition
of their transformation. Although Angola's problems are
still numerous, UNITA terrorism is no longer one of
them.
Further Reference
"Angola: Emergence of UNITA," Library of Congress,
Country Studies (Washington, DC)
Patterns of Global Terrorism: 1984, U.S. Department of
State
Patterns of Global Terrorism: 1986, U.S. Department of
State
Patterns of Global Terrorism: 1985, U.S. Department of
State
UNITED POPULAR ACTION MOVEMENT
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Mothertongue Name:
Movimiento de Accin Popular Unitaria (MAPU)
Base of Operation: Chile
Founding Philosophy: The United Popular Action
Movement (Movimiento de Accin Popular Unitaria -
MAPU), which had earlier broken off from the Christian
Democratic Party, was a Chilean leftist political party of
the 1960s and 1970s. In 1970, a large coalition of leftist
parties, the MAPU included, formed under the name
Unidad Popular (UP) and their candidate, Salvador
Allende. Allende was elected president but soon
overthrown by a military coup, leading to widespread
resentment on the left.
Current Goals: Sources claim that the MAPU was only a
political organization and that terrorist attacks claimed
under its name were the work of one of the two
principal groups dedicated to armed struggle that broke
off from it. These two include the Movimiento de Accin
Popular Unitaria - Lautaro (MAPU-L) and the Lautaro
Youth Movement (Movimiento Juvenil Lautaro - MJL).
Regardless of the exact nature of the relationships
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1074
between these groups, the MAPU is no longer a
significant factor in Chilean politics and its splinter
organizations do not present an armed threat to the
Chilean government.
Further Reference
Encyclopedia of terrorism/ Harvey W. Kushner , Harvey
W. Kushner, c2003., Sage Publications, (Thousand
Oaks, Calif.)
"Presidentes de Chile - Salvador Allende Gossens:
1908-1973," Icarito La Tercera, (Chile)
WORLD UNITED FORMOSANS FOR INDEPENDENCE
Base of Operation: Japan; Taiwan; United States
Founding Philosophy: The World United Formosans for
Independence (WUFI), formed in 1970, seeks to
establish an independent and democratic Republic of
Taiwan. WUFI is primarily comprised of international
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1075
Taiwanese students, and are most active in the U.S.
and Japan. They believe that Taiwan should be granted
sovereignty from China as well as given access to
United Nations membership.
Even though there is evidence that WUFI is not a
terrorist organization, statements made by members
around the time of the groups inception alluded to their
considerations of using violence to achieve their goals.
In 1970, WUFIs president, T. Chai, stated that in order
to overthrow Taiwans government, the group will
chiefly employ diplomatic tactics, but is willing to
resort to violence.
On April 24th, 1970, WUFI advocate and possible
member, (Peter) Huang Wen-hsiung, attempted to
assassinate the Republic of China Vice Premier Chiang
Ching-kuo in New York. Chiangs party, the Kuomintang
(KMT), favored eventual re-unification with Mainland
China, and thus was the main opposition of pro-
independence groups. Chiang was not injured in the
attempt, and Huang managed to flee the scene. In 1996,
he traveled back to Taiwan after 26 years in exile,
taking advantage of a statute of limitations on his
charge. Taiwan had since abandoned its authoritarian
system for a multi-party democracy. Upon returning,
pro-independence activists labeled Wen-Hsiung a hero,
allowing him to become chairman of the Taiwan Human
Rights Association and founder of the Human Rights
Advocacy Alliance.
Current Goals: The assassination attempt appears to be
the only incident that potentially links WUFI with
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1076
terrorist acts. The evidence suggests that WUFI has not
engaged in any subversive or terrorist activity since
1970, and the groups website specifically states their
peaceful intentions to further the independence of
Taiwan. WUFI remains an active, international
movement in drawing awareness to the issue of
Taiwanese sovereignty
Further Reference
"Information Bank Abstracts ," New York Times,
04/21/1970
"New York City / Formosa / Assassination Attempt,"
04/24/1970, Vanderbilt University
"Taiwan's DPP Part II: The Opposition Develops and
Becomes a Party," Jerome F. Keating, 09/30/2004
"In Depth Taiwan: Political Violence," 03/19/2004, CBS
News
"From Russia to Taiwan: Remembering Chiang Ching
kuo,"
WORLD UNITED FORMOSANS FOR INDEPENDENCE
"Information Bank Abstracts ," New York Times
"New York City / Formosa / Assassination Attempt,"
Vanderbilt University
"Taiwan's DPP Part II: The Opposition Develops and
Becomes a Party," Jerome F. Keating
"In Depth Taiwan: Political Violence," CBS News
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"From Russia to Taiwan: Remembering Chiang Ching
kuo,"
"World United Formasans for Independence,"
ZIMBABWE AFRICAN NATIONALIST UNION (ZANU)
Base of Operation: Mozambique; Rhodesia; Zimbabwe
Founding Philosophy: The Zimbabwe African Nationalist
Union (ZANU) is Zimbabwes most powerful nationalist
organization and now forms the basis for the ruling
party in Harare, the ZANU-PF. It has been led since the
1960s by Robert Mugabe, Zimbabwes current Executive
President. The ZANU began as a group opposed to
British colonial rule. As colonialism in Africa was
ending in the 1960s, the UK refused to grand
independence to Zimbabwe (then called Rhodesia)
under the minority regime of Ian Smith. This prompted
Smith to unilaterally declare independence in 1965.
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After Smiths UDI, the nationalist struggle in
Zimbabwes main actors were Mugabes ZANU and the
Zimbabwe African Peoples Union (ZAPU) of Joshua
Nkomo. The ZANU received economic and military aid
from China and espoused some socialist principles, but
their orientation was always primarily nationalist. The
ZANU and ZAPU fought both each other and the
Rhodesian government. In addition to conducting
guerilla warfare, the ZANU also targeted civilians and
foreign missionaries. The group operated mainly out of
guerilla bases in FRELIMO-controlled areas of
Mozambique.
The Civil War finally ended after British-mediated talks
in 1980, leading to Mugabes election as Prime Minister.
Despite including Nkomo in his cabinet, Mugabes ZANU
and the ZAPU fought intermittently until 1987 when
they merged their parties to form the ZANU-PF
(Zimbabwe African National Union Patriotic Front).
Current Goals: Mugabe, whose title is now Executive
President after changing the constitution in 1987,
remains Zimbabwes ruler. The ZANU-PF has been
accused of widespread electoral fraud, voter
intimidation and lack of respect for civil rights, and
Zimbabwe has increasingly been faced with
international isolation. Particularly controversial was
Mugabes alleged support in 2000 of groups of squatters
that violently took over white-owned farms.
The ZANU-PF received the majority of votes in March
2005 parliamentary elections that were claimed to be
rigged by Zimbabwes main opposition group, the
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Movement for Democratic Change (MDC). Despite its
lack of respect for democracy and human rights,
however, the ZANU/ZANU-PF is no longer engaged in
terrorist activity or guerilla warfare.
Further Reference
"ZANU-PF: History," 01/01/2004, The Zimbabwe African
Nationalist Union - Patriotic Front, (Harare, Zimbabwe)
"Timeline: Zimbabwe," 04/02/2005, BBC
HATE GROUPS SYMBOLS
Symbols are the most powerful communication tools
that have ever existed. Because they have the ability to
convey so much meaning, intent and significance in
such a compact, immediately recognizable form, the
effect that they have is tremendous. One need only
reflect on the reverence or passion that symbols
ranging from the American flag to the Star of David to
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the Christian cross to the Red Cross can evoke to be
able to understand exactly how powerful a symbol can
be.
Unfortunately, symbols can convey negative
connotations as well as positive. Some symbols are
meant to convey feelings of hate or anger, or meant to
instill in those who see the symbols feelings of fear and
insecurity. Hate symbols, for instance, can be found
scrawled on the outside walls of synagogues, churches
and schools; tattooed on the bodies of white
supremacists; or displayed on jewelry or clothing.
These symbols give extremists a sense of power and
belonging, as well as a quick way of identifying others
who share their beliefs. This database provides an
overview of many such symbols frequently used by neo-
Nazis, the Ku Klux Klan, racist skinheads, racist prison
gangs and other hate or extremist groups or
movements.
Users of this database should keep in mind, however,
that few symbols ever represent just one idea or are
used exclusively by one group. For example, the
Confederate Flag is a symbol that is frequently used by
white supremacists but which also has been used by
people and groups that are not racist. To some it may
signify pride in one's heritage but to others it suggests
slavery or white supremacy. Similarly, other symbols in
this database may be significant to groups or
individuals who are not extreme or racist. The
descriptions here point out significant multiple
meanings but may not be able to relay every single
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1081
possible meaning of a particular symbol. For this
reason, all of the symbols depicted here must be
evaluated in the context in which they are used.
GRAPHIC SYMBOLS
NUMBER SYMBOLS
14 (words) 88 14/88
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5(words) 311 33/6
666 83 100%
4/19 4/20 28
18 23
RACIST ACRONYMS
RAHOWA ZOG/JOG
SWP WPWW
CI UAO
DOC Unsere Ehre Heisst Treue
ORION KIGY
ROA
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General Racist Symbols
A wide spectrum of racist groups, from neo-Nazis to the
Klan to white power-oriented skinheads, use these
symbols interchangeably. They are instantly
recognizable by those who employ them and serve as a
common language for them to communicate their ideas.
Most represent some aspect of what they consider
"Aryan" culture or "white pride."
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Neo-Nazi Symbols
The groups that use neo-Nazi symbols generally idolize
Adolf Hitler and idealize the National Socialist ideology
he and his party promoted and acted on in Germany in
the 1930s and 1940s. Symbols that were employed in
Nazi Germany, such as the swastika and SS bolts,
feature prominently in the current neo-Nazi repertoire.
Skinhead Symbols
Both racist and non-racist skinheads use specific
symbols to identify themselves with their own
subculture, and to help them feel that they are part of a
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1085
self-recognized community. Some of these symbols
focus on the traditional "look" of skinheads; others
glorify the violent culture often associated with
skinheads. Still others are specific logos of the white
supremacist groups many neo-Nazi skinheads join.
Group Symbols
Many extremist organizations spreading their racist and
anti-Semitic hate-filled propaganda want to distinguish
their individual group from others with a similar
ideology. They create their own logo, which usually
consists of racist and neo-Nazi symbols. These logos
become part of the group's calling card and can be
found on their publications and fliers.
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Prison Tattoos
Although many people entering the prison population
are affiliated with the hate movement before their
incarceration, prisoners from different ethnic
backgrounds often join racist gangs once inside the
penal system. They join these groups not only because
they adhere to the gang's racist ideology, but also for
protection and as a way to participate in criminal
activity within the prison. These inmates' tattoos offer
important information about gang affiliation, personal
history and criminal activity.
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The Importance of Understanding These Symbols
It is important for community groups, schools, religious
institutions and law enforcement agencies to recognize
these symbols and what they mean. Through knowledge
of hate symbols, teachers and community leaders may
be able to identify hate group members in their
neighborhoods who try to recruit young people to their
cause via publications, fliers, music and the Internet.
Teachers and community leaders may also be able to
identify individuals who are involved in racist and anti-
Semitic incidents. Likewise, law enforcement officials
with knowledge of hate symbols may be able to classify
graffiti on churches, synagogues, or schools as hate
crimes because of their association with racist or anti-
Semitic ideology.
Being able to identify and understand these symbols
also allows teachers, law enforcement and others in
the community to be vigilant against haters who use
them to intimidate and frighten others.
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Celtic Cross
Symbol Type General Racist Symbol
Also Known As "Odins Cross"
Traditional Use/Origins The symbol for the Celts of
ancient Ireland and Scotland;
also used as a Christian
symbol
Hate Group/Extremist
Organization
Neo-Nazis, White Supremacists
Extremist Meaning or
Representation
International white pride
Background/History This is one of the most popular
symbols for neo-Nazis and
white supremacists. First
popularized by the Ku Klux
Klan, the symbol was later
adopted by the National Front
in England and other racists
such as Don Black on his Web
site, Stormfront, and the racist
band Skrewdriver to represent
international "white pride." It is
also known as Odins Cross. It
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1089
is important to note that the
Celtic Cross is used widely
today in many mainstream and
cultural contexts. No one
should assume that a Celtic
Cross, divorced from other
trappings of extremism,
automatically denotes use as a
hate symbol.
ADL Links to Related
Information
Stormfront symbol
Othala Rune
Nazi Germany glorified an idealized "Aryan/Norse"
heritage, consequently extremists have appropriated
many symbols from pre-Christian Europe for their own
uses. They give such symbols a racist significance,
even though the symbols did not originally have such
meaning and are often used by nonracists today,
especially practitioners of modern pagan religions
Symbol Type General Racist Symbol
Neo-Nazi Symbol
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1090
Also Known As Norse Rune
Traditional Use/Origins The Rune expresses faith in
the pagan religion of Odinism
and was originally a symbol of
the Vikings
Hate Group/Extremist
Organization
Neo-Nazis, White Supremacists
Extremist Meaning or
Representation
Aryan heritage and cultural
pride
Background/History While not by nature a racist
religion, Odinism is popular
among white supremacists
because its Old Norse origins
are seen as representative of
Aryan heritage and cultural
pride. The symbol was common
within Norse and ancient
Germanic cultures and was
later adopted by the Nazis for
this reason. There are many
variations of this symbol.
Confederate Flag
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1091
Symbol Type General Racist Symbol
Also Known As N.A.
Traditional Use/Origins Civil War/Old South
Hate Group/Extremist
Organization
White Supremacists
Extremist Meaning or
Representation
White southern pride
Background/History Although the flag is seen by
some Southerners simply as a
symbol of Southern pride, it is
often used by racists to
represent white domination of
African-Americans. The flag
remains a subject of
controversy because some
Southern states still fly the flag
from public buildings or
incorporate it into their state
flags design. The flag is also
used by racists as an
alternative to the American
flag, which they consider to be
an emblem of what they
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1092
describe as the Jewish-
controlled government.
Aryan Fist
Symbol Type General Racist Symbol
Also Known As White power fist
Traditional Use/Origins The Aryan Fist symbol is a
twist on the fist representing
the Black power movement
and the battle against racial
oppression.
Hate Group/Extremist
Organization
White Supremacists
Extremist Meaning or
Representation
White power
Background/History The Aryan fist is a symbol of
white power used by hate
groups who promote their
racist agenda as white pride
activism. Note: the laurel
wreath appearing in the above
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1093
graphic illustrating the "Aryan
fist" is actually not a racist
symbol itself, but rather a
separate common skinhead
symbol stemming from the logo
of a line of British clothing that
became popular among
skinheads. It is the white fist
itself that is the symbol of
intolerance.
NLR or Nazi Low Riders
Symbol Type Prison Tattoo
Symbol Description The initials "NLR" (Nazi Low
Riders) combined with Nazi
symbols and icons, including
eagles, swastikas and skulls,
provide the backdrop for this
tattoo.
Also Known As N/A
Traditional Use/Origins N/A
Hate Group/Extremist Nazi Low Riders (NLR)
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1094
Organization
Extremist Meaning or
Representation
See below
Background/History This street and prison gang,
whose origins date back to the
late 1970s in the California
Youth Authority, has ties to the
Aryan Brotherhood. It exploded
in membership in the 1990s.
The state prison system
currently recognizes the NLR
as a criminal gang, which
affects their treatment within
correction facilities. Members
of the gang are involved in the
drug trade and white
supremacist ideology is a
strong part of the gangs
character.
ADL Links to Related
Information
From the Prisons to the
Streets: The Nazi Low Riders
Swastika/Nazi Party Flag
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1095
Symbol Type Neo-Nazi Symbol
Also Known As N/A
Traditional Use/Origins When shown in a
counterclockwise direction, an
ancient religious symbol that
represented a sign of good
luck.
Hate Group/Extremist
Organization
Neo-Nazis, Racist Skinheads,
White Supremacists
Extremist Meaning or
Representation
Emblem of various neo-Nazi
groups
Background/History The swastika was adopted by
Germanys Nazi Party. Prior to
the Nazis co-opting this
symbol, it was known as a
good luck symbol and was
used by various religious
groups. Hitler made the Nazi
swastika unique to his party by
reversing the normal direction
of the symbol so that it
appeared to spin clockwise.
Today, it is widely used, in
various incarnations, by neo-
Nazis, racist skinheads and
other white supremacist
groups.
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Eagle atop Swastika
Symbol Type Neo-Nazi Symbol
Also Known As Formal symbol of Adolph
Hitlers Third Reich
Traditional Use/Origins The eagle on its own
represents power and strength
Hate Group/Extremist
Organization
Neo-Nazis
Extremist Meaning or
Representation
Neo-Nazi groups, particularly
those that do not have a
unique logo, often use the
symbol.
Background/History The Nazi Party began using
this symbol in the 1930s to
represent the power and
strength of the party.
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1097
Thunder/Lightning Bolts
Symbol Type Neo-Nazi Symbol
Also Known As SS Bolts
Traditional Use/Origins Nazi symbol signifying the
Schutzstaffel (SS), Heinrich
Himmlers police forces, whose
members ranged from agents
of the Gestapo to soldiers of
the Waffen SS to the guards at
concentration and death
camps.
Hate Group/Extremist
Organization
Neo-Nazis, Racist Skinheads
Extremist Meaning or
Representation
See Below
Background/History The symbol is frequently seen
in neo-Nazi tattoos and graffiti
and characterizes the beliefs
of neo-Nazis and racist
skinheads violence, anti-
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1098
Semitism, white supremacy
and fascism.
Skull and Crossbones
Symbol Type Neo-Nazi Symbol
Also Known As "Deaths Head" or Totenkopf
Traditional Use/Origins Symbol of the Nazi
Schutzstaffel (SS)
Hate Group/Extremist
Organization
Neo-Nazis, Racist Skinheads
Extremist Meaning or
Representation
Shows allegiance to the white
supremacist movement
Background/History The "Deaths Head" was the
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symbol of the SS-
Totenkopfverbande (one of the
original three branches of the
SS, along with the Algemeine
SS and the Waffen SS), whose
purpose was to guard the
concentration camps. Most of
the original members of this
organization were later
transferred into and became
the core of a Waffen SS
division, the Deaths Head
Division. The symbol is most
often seen as a tattoo, which
sometimes indicates that its
wearer has murdered one of
the movements enemies (e.g.,
a Jew or other minority).
Nazi Swastika with Iron Cross
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Symbol Type Neo-Nazi Symbol
Also Known As N/A
Traditional Use/Origins The Iron Cross (without the
swastika) was a medal that
originated during the
Napoleonic Wars and became
one of the worlds most easily
recognized military
decorations.
Hate Group/Extremist
Organization
Neo-Nazis
Extremist Meaning or
Representation
Demonstrates a belief in
National Socialism
Background/History Adolph Hitler renewed use of
the Iron Cross in 1939 and
superimposed the Nazi
swastika in its center.
Following the fall of the Third
Reich, the symbol became
strictly prohibited in post-war
Germany. Today, the symbol is
often displayed by neo-Nazi
groups, especially as jewelry
(e.g., pendants). The Iron Cross
without the swastika is also
frequently used as a hate
symbol in the same manner as
the Nazi-era Iron Cross. It is
sometimes used for shock
effect as it conjures up images
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of Nazi Germany and its
military without being
explicitly Nazi itself. In this
guise, it is often displayed on
clothing and accessories.
Triskele
Symbol Type Neo-Nazi Symbol
Skinhead Symbol
Symbol Description Three "sevens" (or "curved"
sevens) spiraling from a
common center.
Also Known As Triskelion, Three-Bladed
Swastika, "Flowering Power"
Traditional Use/Origins The triskele is an ancient
symbol used widely in pre-
Christian Europe. One version
of the triskele, with three
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1102
human legs, has been used in
the coat of arms for the Isle of
Man and the Kingdom of
Naples. An abstracted triskele
appears on the seal of the
United States Department of
Transportation. The version of
the triskele that looks like
three linked sevens has a high
degree of association with
white supremacy, but other
versions do not and are most
often used in a non-racist
context. They may frequently
be seen in Celtic jewelry,
artwork, and in other similar
contexts.
Hate Group/Extremist
Organization
Neo-Nazis, racist skinheads
(especially those associated
with the group Blood &
Honour); AWB Afrikaner
Resistance
Extremist Meaning or
Representation
White supremacy; association
with the swastika and Nazi
Germany.
Background/History Essentially a variation on the
swastika, and popular for that
reason, the triskele was a
symbol occasionally used by
the Nazi regime, most notably
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as the insignia for a Waffen SS
division composed of Belgian
volunteers. After World War II,
the "Three Sevens" version of
the triskele was popularized by
white supremacists in Europe
and South Africa. One South
African group, the AWB
(Afrikaner Resistance
Movement), used it as its flag,
claiming that the three sevens
symbolized supremacy over the
devil (frequently represented
by "666"). The symbol is also
used as part of the logo of the
international racist skinhead
group, Blood & Honour.
Boot Symbols
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Symbol Type Skinhead Symbol
Also Known As N/A
Traditional Use/Origins N/A
Hate Group/Extremist
Organization
Racist and Non-Racist
Skinheads
Extremist Meaning or
Representation
Skinhead culture, also
associated with skinhead
violence
Background/History Until recently, skinheads could
be identified by their colored
shoelaces and Doc Martens
boots, often made with steel
tips and used as "weapons" to
kick people in fights. Although
many skinheads wear other
kinds of shoes, this brand of
boots, popularized several
years ago, is still the most
typical and traditional. The
term "boot party" was coined
to refer to a gathering at which
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skinheads usually commit acts
of violence together.
ADL Links to Related
Information
Neo-Nazi Skinheads
Hammerskin
Symbol Type Skinhead Symbol
Also Known As N/A
Traditional Use/Origins N/A
Hate Group/Extremist
Organization
Hammerskin Nation
Extremist Meaning or
Representation
N/A
Background/History This is the name of a specific
neo-Nazi skinhead
organization. The many local
Hammerskin chapters in the
U.S. and abroad are united by
an ideology that focuses on
white pride and white power
music. Crossed hammers are
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the basic component in the
groups symbol, which is
adapted and localized for each
chapter. The hammers are
often placed on a background
that represents the area where
the chapter is located, such as
a national flag. HFFH stands
for "Hammerskins forever,
forever Hammerskins."
ADL Links to Related
Information
More About Hamerskins
Neo-Nazi Skinheads
Crucified Skinhead
Symbol Type Skinhead Symbol
Also Known As N/A
Traditional Use/Origins Skinhead on the "Warrior Rune"
(which shows commitment to
the Armed Struggle) is a
takeoff on Jesus Christ on the
Cross.
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Hate Group/Extremist
Organization
Neo-Nazis, Racist and Non-
Racist Skinheads
Extremist Meaning or
Representation
See Below
Background/History This symbol is one of the older,
more traditional skinhead
symbols. Both neo-Nazi and
anti-racist skinheads use the
symbol to symbolize the plight
of the working class. They also
have used it as a threatening
message to one another.
SHARPs (SkinHeads Against
Racial Prejudice) have
distributed literature
containing the symbol in order
to express the difficulties they
confront when they are
confused with neo-Nazi
skinheads. In some cases,
when used as a tattoo, it can
also signify that an individual
has either served time in
prison or committed a murder.
ADL Links to Related
Information
Neo-Nazi Skinheads
Neo-Nazi Skinhead Threat
Chelsea
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Symbol Type Skinhead Symbol
Also Known As Female Skinhead
Traditional Use/Origins See Below
Hate Group/Extremist
Organization
Skinheads, both racist and non-
racist
Extremist Meaning or
Representation
Female Skinhead
Background/History Chelsea is the image of the
typical, traditional look for a
female skinhead or skinhead
associate. She wears her hair
shaved on top with the hair
that frames her face grown
long. Chelsea originally
referred to the girlfriend of a
skinhead but has since come
to refer to female skinheads in
their own right.
ADL Links to Related
Information
Extremist Women on the
Web
Neo-Nazi Skinheads
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"Skin" Fist
Symbol Type Skinhead Symbol
Also Known As N/A
Traditional Use/Origins N/A
Hate Group/Extremist
Organization
Racist Skinhead
Extremist Meaning or
Representation
Skinhead Aggression
Background/History Alludes to the Aryan or White
Power Fist. The letters "S-K-I-
N" tattooed on the fingers is
currently popular among racist
skinheads.
ADL Links to Related
Information
Neo-Nazi Skinheads
Neo-Nazi Skinhead Threat
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W.A.R. Skins
Symbol Type Skinhead Symbol
Also Known As N/A
Traditional Use/Origins N/A
Hate Group/Extremist
Organization
WAR (White Aryan Resistance)
Extremist Meaning or
Representation
N/A
Background/History These skinheads are members
of WAR, Tom Metzgers white
supremacist organization.
Chapters of WAR Skins are
found throughout the U.S., but
they are most concentrated on
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the West Coast.
ADL Links to Related
Information
Neo-Nazi Skinheads
Neo-Nazi Skinhead Threat
W.A.R. (White Aryan
Resistance) symbol
American Front
Symbol Type Racist/Extremist Group
Symbol Description Letters "AF" integrated into a
Celtic Cross
Also Known As N/A
Traditional Use/Origins N/A
Hate Group/Extremist
Organization
American Front (AF)
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Extremist Meaning or
Representation
See below
Background/History Led by National Chairman
James Porrazzo, and based in
Harrison, Arkansas, American
Front espouses many ideals
that are central to Communism
in its purest form, but the
group is also anti-Semitic and
believes in racial separatism.
American Front aspires to
"secure National Freedom and
Social Justice for the White
people of North America" and
defeat the forces of the "New
World Order" and "International
Capitalists." American Front is
one of the groups that
subscribe to the "Third
Position," a synthesis of
totalitarian left and right ideas
that may include open appeals
to violence and revolutionary
rhetoric.
American Nazi Party
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Symbol Type Racist/Extremist Group
Symbol Description Red Flag with Swastika in
Center headed by the banner
"American Nazi Party"
Also Known As N/A
Traditional Use/Origins Variation of Adolph Hitlers
Third Reich flag
Hate Group/Extremist
Organization
American Nazi Party (ANP)
Extremist Meaning or
Representation
See below
Background/History Formerly known as the
European American Education
Association, the group is led by
Rocky Suhayda and based in
Eastpointe, Michigan. The ANP
claims to be dedicated to the
preservation of the White Race,
the Aryan Republic, and
Western-European cultural
heritage.
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Aryan Nations
Symbol Type Racist/Extremist Group
Symbol Description A Crown Topping a Two-Edged
Sword Through the "Revolving
Resurrection Cross" on the
Face of a Shield
Also Known As N/A
Traditional Use/Origins N/A
Hate Group/Extremist
Organization
Aryan Nations
Extremist Meaning or
Representation
See Below
Background/History A neo-Nazi, Christian Identity
organization led by Richard
Butler and based in Hayden
Lake, Idaho. Aryan Nations is
also known as the Church of
Jesus Christ Christian.
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Christian Identity is a racist
religion that teaches that
whites ("Aryans") are
descended from the Lost
Tribes of Israel and are thus
Gods chosen people; also that
Jews are descendants of Satan
and non-whites are soulless
"mud peoples."
ADL Links to Related
Information
Aryan Nations/Church of
Jesus Christ Christian
Christian Identity
Christian Identity on the
Web
CI: Racist Acronym
Hammerskins
Symbol Type Racist/Extremist Group
Symbol Description Two crossed hammers set on
various backgrounds
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Also Known As N/A
Traditional Use/Origins N/A
Hate Group/Extremist
Organization
Hammerskins, Hammerskin
Nation
Extremist Meaning or
Representation
See Below
Background/History With local chapters scattered
worldwide, Hammerskins
maintain they represent the
working class of the white
racialist movement and often
advocate using violence to
achieve their goals.
Hammerskins and other
skinhead groups are devotees
of "white power" music
ADL Links to Related
Information
More About Hammerskins
Ku Klux Klan (KKK)
Symbol Type Racist/Extremist Group
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Symbol Description A cross in a circle with the
"blood drop" in the center
Also Known As N/A
Traditional Use/Origins N/A
Hate Group/Extremist
Organization
Ku Klux Klan (KKK)
Extremist Meaning or
Representation
See Below
Background/History According to the Klan, the
blood drop represents the
blood shed by Jesus Christ as
a sacrifice for the White Aryan
Race. The KKK originated as a
secret society organized in the
South after the American Civil
War to reassert white
supremacy through terrorism
and intimidation.
ADL Links to Related
Information
Ku Klux Klan On the Internet
Ku Klux Klan: A Brief History
National Alliance
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Symbol Type Racist/Extremist Group
Symbol Description "Life Rune" surrounded by a
band of ivy on each side
Also Known As "Yggdrasil" (a symbol in Norse
Mythology)
Traditional Use/Origins The "Life Rune" was a
character from the Runic
Alphabet which signified life,
creation, birth, rebirth and
renewal. The "Life Rune"
symbol was also used by the
Nazis on the graves of SS
soldiers signifying the soldiers
date of birth (while the "Death
Rune," an upside-down "Life
Rune," was used to signify date
of death).
Hate Group/Extremist
Organization
National Alliance
Extremist Meaning or
Representation
See below
Background/History Racists also employ the "Life
Rune" to denote "Giver of Life"
in relation to women in the
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white supremacist movement.
The National Alliance is a neo-
Nazi organization led by
William Pierce and is based
near Hillsboro, West Virginia. It
is the largest and most active
neo-Nazi organization in the
United States.
ADL Links to Related
Information
Explosion of Hate: The Growing
Danger of the National Alliance
NAAWP
Symbol Type Racist/Extremist Group
Symbol Description Tiger surrounded by the
Groups Name
Also Known As N/A
Traditional Use/Origins N/A
Hate Group/Extremist
Organization
National Association for the
Advancement of White People
(NAAWP)
Extremist Meaning or N/A
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1120
Representation
Background/History This is a self-proclaimed civil
rights organization for white
people founded by former Klan
leader David Duke and
currently led by Ray Thomas in
Tampa, Florida.
ADL Links to Related
Information
David Duke
The Nationalist Movement
Symbol Type Racist/Extremist Group
Symbol Description Crosstar
Also Known As Hungarian Arrow-Cross; Victory
Flag; Battle Flag
Traditional Use/Origins This symbol originated in
Hungary in the 1930s as the
symbol of the leading
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Hungarian fascist political
party, the Arrow Cross party,
led by Ferenc Szalasi. The
Arrow Cross party lasted until
the end of World War II in 1945.
Subsequently, the symbol
came to be used by other
racist and anti-Semitic groups.
Hate Group/Extremist
Organization
The Nationalist Movement
Extremist Meaning or
Representation
See Below
Background/History The Crosstar, in red, white and
blue, is the official symbol of
this white supremacist, anti-
immigrant, anti-gay
organization. The group
operates out of Mississippi and
its current "first officer" of
record is Richard Barrett.
National Socialist Movement
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Symbol Type Racist/Extremist Group
Symbol Description The letters 'NSM'
superimposed on a swastika.
The swastika itself overlays a
patch shape with colors and
images from the Nazi and U.S.
flags in it.
Also Known As N/A
Traditional Use/Origins N/A
Hate Group/Extremist
Organization
National Socialist Movement
(NSM)
Extremist Meaning or
Representation
The black and red on the patch
come from the similar colors
on the flag of Nazi Germany,
while the stars and stripes
signifies the U.S. flag.
Background/History With contact points throughout
the United States, the NSM, led
by Jeff Schoep in Minneapolis,
Minnesota, is a virulently racist
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and anti-Semitic neo-Nazi
group.
ADL Links to Related
Information
The National Socialist
Movement
The Order
Symbol Type Racist/Extremist Group
Symbol Description "Hail The Order" positioned
above an axe and a "Bruder
Schweigen" crest and banner
with the proclamation "Thou
Art My Battle Axe and Weapons
of War"
Also Known As N/A
Traditional Use/Origins N/A
Hate Group/Extremist
Organization
The Order (Bruder Schweigen
or Silent Brotherhood)
Extremist Meaning or
Representation
N/A
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Background/History The Order was a white
supremacist terrorist
organization, founded by
Robert Mathews in 1983, that
committed bank robberies, the
bombing of a synagogue and
the murder of a radio talk-show
host. The group lives on
through its imprisoned
members who continue to
propagandize from their cells
and influence other members
of the white supremacist
movement.
ADL Links to Related
Information
The Order: An ADL
Backgrounder
Number Symbol: 14(words)
Posse Comitatus
Symbol Type Racist/Extremist Group
Symbol Description Sheriffs Star with a noose,
sword and book in the center
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and the words "Sheriffs Posse
Comitatus" written across the
top
Also Known As N/A
Traditional Use/Origins Sheriffs Badge
Hate Group/Extremist
Organization
Posse Comitatus
Extremist Meaning or
Representation
See Below
Background/History The Posse Comitatus was an
anti-government movement
active in the 1970s and 1980s,
many of whose leaders were
Christian Identity adherents,
and whose ideology formed the
basis of later groups such as
the Montana Freemen. The
Posse died away in the late
1980s but former Posse leader
James Wickstrom restarted it
in the 1990s solely as a white
supremacist group, shedding
most of the Posses
pseudolegal theories.
ADL Links to Related
Information
Christian Identity
CI: Racist Acronym
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Stormfront
Symbol Type Racist/Extremist Group
Symbol Description Celtic Cross Surrounded by the
Phrase "White Pride World
Wide"
Also Known As "Odins Cross"
Traditional Use/Origins Symbol First Used by the
National Front in England
Hate Group/Extremist
Organization
Stormfront
Extremist Meaning or
Representation
International White Pride
Background/History Stormfront is a Web site
created by Don Black, out of
West Palm Beach, Florida. One
of the first hate sites on the
Internet, it is still widely
accessed and has links to hate
groups all over the world.
ADL Links to Related
Information
Celtic Cross Symbol
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WAR
Symbol Type Racist/Extremist Group
Symbol Description A skull, with a patch over one
eye, and crossbones headed by
the banner "WAR"
Also Known As N/A
Traditional Use/Origins The Skull and Crossbones is a
symbol of death once used by
pirates and now used as a
warning label on poisons.
Hate Group/Extremist
Organization
White Aryan Resistance (WAR)
Extremist Meaning or
Representation
White Separatism
Background/History WAR is a neo-Nazi, skinhead
organization that espouses
white separatism and hatred
towards Jews and other
minorities. W.A.R., led by Tom
Metzger, is based in Fallbrook,
California.
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ADL Links to Related
Information
W.A.R. Skins symbol
Tom Metzger/White Aryan
Resistance
Creativity Movement
(formerly World Church of the Creator)
Symbol Type Racist/Extremist Group
Symbol Description A "W" representing the white
race and a crown and halo
above signifying the groups
belief in the elite and sacred
nature of the white race.
Also Known As N/A
Traditional Use/Origins N/A
Hate Group/Extremist
Organization
Creativity Movement
(formerly World Church of the
Creator)
Extremist Meaning or White Supremacy
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Representation
Background/History The white supremacist
organization led by Matthew
Hale and based in East Peoria,
Illinois defines itself as a
religion established for the
"survival, expansion, and
advancement of [the] White
Race exclusively."
ADL Links to Related
Information
Extremism in America:
Creativity Movement
Elbow Web
Symbol Type Prison Tattoo
Also Known As Spider Web Tattoo
Traditional Use/Origins N/A
Hate Group/Extremist Racist Convicts
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Organization
Extremist Meaning or
Representation
See below
Background/History The spider web design tattoo is
often found on the arms or
under the arms of racists who
have spent time in jail. In some
places, one apparently "earns"
this tattoo by killing a minority.
However, non-extremists may
sometimes sport this tattoo as
well, unaware of its other
symbology, simply because
they like the design.
Three Leaf Clover or Shamrock
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Symbol Type Prison Tattoo
Also Known As Three Leaf Clover with "AB"
(Aryan Brotherhood)
Traditional Use/Origins The three-leaf clover (or
shamrock) symbolizes Irish
heritage
Hate Group/Extremist
Organization
Aryan Brotherhood
Extremist Meaning or
Representation
Pride in Irish or Gaelic Roots,
Aryan Pride
Background/History The Aryan Brotherhood (AB) is
a white supremacist prison
gang. The letters "AB" or the
number "666" (representing
Satan) can often be found
written on the leaves of the
clover.
ADL Links to Related
Information
Dangerous Convictions:
Extremist Recruitment in
America's Prisons
Other Aryan Brotherhood
Tattoos
666: Satanic Number Symbol
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AB (Aryan Brotherhood)Tattoo
Symbol Type Prison Tattoo
Also Known As N/A
Traditional Use/Origins N/A
Hate Group/Extremist
Organization
Aryan Brotherhood (AB)
Extremist Meaning or
Representation
See below
Background/History The letters "AB" represent
Aryan Brotherhood, a prison
gang that originated in 1967 in
the California Department of
Corrections at San Quentin.
Many members display white
supremacist ideology, but they
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1133
are first and foremost a
criminal gang involved in the
methamphetamine trade. AB
has also spawned other white
gangs in the prison system.
Sometimes, AB tattoos will
identify a members state of
origin. Several common
nicknames for AB members are
Alice, Alice Baker, Tip & Brand
and, the Brand.
ADL Links to Related
Information
Dangerous Convictions:
Extremist Recruitment in
America's Prisons
Other Aryan Brotherhood
Tattoos
BGF (Black Guerrilla Family)
Symbol Type Prison Tattoo
Symbol Description The initials "BGF" (Black
Guerilla Family) combined with
cross sabers, shotguns and
black dragons taking over
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prison towers provide the
backdrop for this tattoo.
Also Known As N/A
Traditional Use/Origins N/A
Hate Group/Extremist
Organization
Black Guerilla Family (BGF)
Extremist Meaning or
Representation
See below
Background/History This gang was started at San
Quentin State Prison in
California in 1966 by former
Black Panther, George L.
Jackson. The gang has a
strong political ideology that
promotes Black revolution and
the overthrow of the
government.
RAC
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Symbol Type Racist Acronym
Symbol Description When not used as a standalone
acronym, RAC is often
accompanied by a skull
superimposed on a hammer-
and-sickle.
Also Known As Rock Against Communism
Traditional Use/Origins N/A.
Hate Group/Extremist
Organization
Racist Skinheads; Neo-Nazis;
White Power Music Bands
Extremist Meaning or
Representation
RAC is most commonly used to
describe the genre of white
power/neo-Nazi hate music
popular among racist
skinheads and others in Europe
and North America. Despite its
name, RAC more often than not
contains no references to
Communism at all, but focuses
on racism and anti-Semitism.
Background/History In the 1980s, rock promoters in
Great Britain put on a series of
"Rock Against Racism"
concerts. In response, various
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white supremacist bands, led
by Ian Stuart and Skrewdriver,
held "Rock Against
Communism" concerts. The
term eventually became used
to describe the style of music,
and later still came to be used
as a general term for white
power music. Many prefer RAC
over other names used to
describe such music, such as
"hatecore," because the
acronym does not make
explicit the music's racist
nature.
ADL Links to Related
Information
N/A.
Hangman's Noose
Symbol Type General Racist Symbol
Symbol Description A depiction of a hangman's
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noose, or of a hanging.
Also Known As N/A
Traditional Use/Origins The noose has been used as a
threatening symbol in a variety
of contexts.
Hate Group/Extremist
Organization
White supremacists.
Extremist Meaning or
Representation
See below.
Background/History The hangman's noose has
come to be one of the most
powerful visual symbols
directed against African-
Americans, comparable in the
emotions that it evokes to that
of the swastika for Jews. Its
origins are connected to the
history of lynching in America,
particularly in the South after
the Civil War, when violence or
threat of violence replaced
slavery as one of the main
forms of social control that
whites used on African-
Americans. The noose quickly
became associated with the
first Ku Klux Klan. In the early
twentieth century, when the
rise of the second Ku Klux
Klan coincided with the height
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of lynching incidents (most of
the victims of which were
African-American), the noose
became cemented as a key
hate symbol targeting African-
Americans. The noose may
appear as a drawing or
rendering, but also quite
common is the use of actual
nooses to intimidate or harass
African-Americans-for example,
by leaving one at someone's
home or at their workplace.
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ORION
Symbol Type Racist Acronym
Also Known As Our Race is Our Nation
Traditional Use/Origins N/A
Hate Group/Extremist
Organization
White supremacists; neo-Nazis;
racist skinheads.
Extremist Meaning or
Representation
"Our Race Is Our Nation" is a
racist slogan that emphasizes
that racial ties are paramount
to all else. Within the United
States, for example, a white
supremacist might use it to
suggest that he or she owes
allegiance to his or her race,
rather than to the United
States itself. White
supremacists in other
countries may use it similarly.
In an international context, it
can be used to suggest that all
white people, whether from
Europe or the United States or
elsewhere, are one "nation,"
opposed and superior to all
other races.
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Background/History The slogan "Our Race Is Our
Nation" is used by a variety of
groups. Christian Identity
adherents like it because it is
compatible with their belief
that white people are
descended from the ancient
tribes of the Kingdom of Israel.
There is even an Identity Ku
Klan Klan group, based in
Alabama, known as the "Orion
Knights of the Ku Klux Klan." It
is also used among neo-Nazis
and racist skinheads. The
Canadian white supremacist
group Heritage Front adopted
the slogan as its official motto.
ADL Links to Related
Information
N/A
White Revolution
Symbol Type Racist/Extremist Group
Symbol Description Upside down/inverted "V" on an
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orange background
Also Known As Lambda
Traditional Use/Origins The Greek letter lambda was
used on ancient Spartan
shields. Since then, it has
sometimes been used as a
symbol of Greek pride. Since
around 1970, it has also been
used frequently as a symbol of
gay pride around the world.
Hate Group/Extremist
Organization
White Revolution
Extremist Meaning or
Representation
White Revolution leader Billy
Roper claimed to have picked
the image because of the
Spartan defense at
Thermopylae against the
Persians, which is supposed to
signify the defense of Europe
against "nonwhite hordes."
Background/History White Revolution is a relatively
small neo-Nazi/white
supremacist organization
headquartered in Arkansas,
created by Billy Roper after
leaving the neo-Nazi National
Alliance.
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1142
Blood & Honour
Symbol Type Racist/Extremist Group
Symbol Description The words "blood" and
"honour" on a white and red
background, separated by a
triskele
Also Known As N/A
Traditional Use/Origins N/A
Hate Group/Extremist
Organization
Blood & Honour
Extremist Meaning or
Representation
See below
Background/History Blood & Honour is an
international neo-Nazi/racist
skinhead group started by
British white supremacist and
singer Ian Stuart. It has
chapters around the world,
primarily in Europe, but does
have members in the United
States. It is associated with
the more explicitly violent
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group Combat-18. It is
sometimes represented by the
letters B and H, the number 28,
or the German equivalent, "Blut
und Ehre."
Pitbull
Symbol Type Skinhead Symbol
Symbol Description A pitbull (or sometimes a
rottweiler or bulldog)
Also Known As N/A
Traditional Use/Origins The pitbull has traditionally
been used as a skinhead
symbol, probably because of
its reputation as a "fighting"
dog
Hate Group/Extremist
Organization
Racist skinhead groups
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Extremist Meaning or
Representation
See below
Background/History Racist skinheads appropriated
the image of the pitbull from
the skinhead subculture. One
racist skinhead group, the
Keystone State Skinheads,
even uses it as part of their
logo.
Fiery Cross
Symbol Type Racist/Extremist Group
Symbol Description Burning Christian cross, often
with image of Klansman
standing in front of it
Also Known As Burning Cross
Traditional Use/Origins None
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Hate Group/Extremist
Organization
Ku Klux Klan
Extremist Meaning or
Representation
See below
Background/History Cross-burnings (called "cross-
lightings" by Klansmen) have
long been a traditional symbol
for the Ku Klux Klan, used both
in Klan rituals and in attempts
to intimidate and terrorize
victims of the Klan. Cross-
burnings originated with the
rebirth of the Ku Klux Klan in
1915 and have been around
ever since.
Imperial German Flag
Symbol Type Neo-Nazi Symbol
Also Known As Imperial War Ensign,
Reichskriegsflagge
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Traditional Use/Origins One of the flags used by the
German Empire (1871-1918)
Hate Group/Extremist
Organization
Neo-Nazis
Extremist Meaning or
Representation
See below
Background/History After the swastika became
banned in Germany and other
European countries, some neo-
Nazis in Germany have taken
to displaying an older flag,
taken from Imperial Germany,
as a substitute. It never
originally had any racist or
anti-Semitic meaning, but is
used by some white
supremacists as a stand-in for
the Nazi flag. Although more
common in Germany, this
usage can also be found in the
United States.
Tyr Rune
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Disclaimer: Nazi Germany glorified an idealized
"Aryan/Norse" heritage, consequently extremists have
appropriated many symbols from pre-Christian Europe
for their own uses. They give such symbols a racist
significance, even though the symbols did not originally
have such meaning and are often used by nonracists
today, especially practitioners of modern pagan
religions
Symbol Type Neo-Nazi Symbol
General Racist Symbol
Symbol Description Upward pointing arrow
Also Known As Teiwaz, tiewaz
Traditional Use/Origins The Tyr rune, named after the
Norse god Tyr, was the name
of an ancient runic symbol. Tyr
was a god of warfare and
battle.
Hate Group/Extremist
Organization
Neo-Nazis, Racist Skinheads
Extremist Meaning or See below
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1148
Representation
Background/History The Tyr rune was appropriated
by the Nazi Party in Germany
and used as a symbol for the
leadership schools
(Reichsfhrerschulen) of
Hitler's brownshirts, the
Sturmabteilung. Since then,
neo-Nazis and white
supremacists have continued
to use the Tyr rune. Along with
the Life rune, it is one of the
more common runic symbols
appropriated by white
supremacists. Nonracist
pagans may also use this
symbol, so it should be judged
only in context.
Valknot
Disclaimer: Nazi Germany glorified an idealized
"Aryan/Norse" heritage, consequently extremists have
appropriated many symbols from pre-Christian Europe
for their own uses. They give such symbols a racist
significance, even though the symbols did not originally
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1149
have such meaning and are often used by nonracists
today, especially practitioners of modern pagan
religions religions
Symbol Type Neo-Nazi Symbol
General Racist Symbol
Symbol Description Three interlocking triangles
Also Known As Valknut, valknutr, Hrungnir's
Heart
Traditional Use/Origins The Valknot, or "knot of the
slain," often represented the
afterlife in old Norse carvings
and designs. It is often
considered a symbol of Odin.
Hate Group/Extremist
Organization
Neo-Nazis, Racist Skinheads
Extremist Meaning or
Representation
See below
Background/History Some white supremacists,
generally racist Odinists, have
appropriated the Valknot to
use as a racist symbol.
Typically they use it as a sign
to indicate a willingness to
give their life to Odin, generally
in battle. Nonracist pagans
may also use this symbol, so it
should be carefully examined
in context.
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Life Rune
Disclaimer: Nazi Germany glorified an idealized
"Aryan/Norse" heritage, consequently extremists have
appropriated many symbols from pre-Christian Europe
for their own uses. They give such symbols a racist
significance, even though the symbols did not originally
have such meaning and are often used by nonracists
today, especially practitioners of modern pagan
religions
Symbol Type Neo-Nazi Symbol
General Racist Symbol
Symbol Description Vertical line branching at top
into three smaller lines
Also Known As Elhaz rune, Algis rune
Traditional Use/Origins Literally "elk," the elhaz rune in
pre-Christian Europe had
meanings related to stags or
hunting, as well as honor,
nobility, or protection.
Hate Group/Extremist Neo-Nazis, Racist Skinheads
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1151
Organization
Extremist Meaning or
Representation
Often called the "life rune"
(from the German lebenrune), it
was the symbol of the SS's
Lebensborn project (see
below). To white supremacists,
it signifies the future of the
white race.
Background/History The ancient runic symbol was
adopted in the 1930s by the
SS's Lebensborn project, which
encouraged SS troopers to
have children out of wedlock
with "Aryan" mothers and
which kidnapped children of
Aryan appearance from the
countries of occupied Europe
to raise as Germans. The neo-
Nazi National Alliance adopted
this symbol as part of their
logo.
Crossed Grenades
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Symbol Type Neo-Nazi Symbol
General Racist Symbol
Symbol Description Two crossed World War II-era
German "potato-masher" hand
grenades
Also Known As Dirlewanger emblem
Traditional Use/Origins The emblem of the
"Dirlewanger Brigade" in World
War II.
Hate Group/Extremist
Organization
Neo-Nazis, Racist Skinheads
Extremist Meaning or
Representation
Signifies the SS unit most
commonly known as the
"Dirlewanger Brigade" (also the
36th SS Division); may also
signify the racist band
"Dirlewanger."
Background/History Oskar Dirlewanger (1895-1945)
was an SS brigade commander
involved in anti-partisan
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1153
actions in World War II, as well
as the suppression of the 1944
uprising of the Polish Home
Army in Warsaw. Even among
the Waffen SS, his unit was
known for cruelty and
atrocities. As a result,
Dirlewanger is looked up to by
modern day neo-Nazis.
Volksfront
Symbol Type Racist/Extremist Group
Symbol Description A red circle containing the
letters "V" and "F" and an
image of a life rune
Also Known As N/A
Traditional Use/Origins N/A
Hate Group/Extremist
Organization
Volksfront
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1154
Extremist Meaning or
Representation
The life rune is typically used
by white supremacists to
signify the future of the white
race.
Background/History Volksfront is a neo-Nazi group
headquartered in Oregon and
based primarily in the Pacific
Northwest. Many of its
members are racist skinheads.
New Black Panther Party Logo
Symbol Type Hate group symbol
Symbol Description Drawing of a leaping black
panther superimposed over a
green Africa on a red circle.
Also Known As N/A
Traditional Use/Origins N/A
Hate Group/Extremist
Organization
New Black Panther Party for
Self-Defense
Extremist Meaning or
Representation
See below
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1155
Background/History The New Black Panther Party
(NBPP) takes its name from the
original Black Panther Party, a
radical left-wing group active
in the 1960s and 1970s (former
members of which have
denounced the NBPP). Groups
calling themselves the "New
Black Panthers" started
forming in the early 1990s, but
gained publicity and
organization after Khallid
Muhammad, ejected from the
Nation of Islam, became their
leader and spokesman. Since
the late 1990s, the group has
expanded its presence to a
number of states. Its ideology
is a mix of black nationalism,
Pan-Africanism, and anti-white
and anti-Semitic bigotry. Malik
Shabazz, based in Washington,
D.C., has led the group since
Muhammad's death in 2001.
ADL Links to Related
Information
New Black Panther Party for
Self-Defense
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1156
Peckerwood
Symbol Type Skinhead Symbol
Symbol Description There are many variations of
this symbol but it generally
consists of a woodpecker head
complete with long beak. More
elaborate versions may attach
clothes or headgear to the
woodpecker; they may also
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1157
include the body of the bird.
Often the symbol will include
the letters PW or APW, which
stand for Peckerwood and
American Peckerwood,
respectively. The symbol
sometimes is drawn to
resemble the Woody
Woodpecker cartoon
character.
Also Known As Wood
Traditional Use/Origins N/A
Hate Group/Extremist
Organization
Racist skinheads
Extremist Meaning or
Representation
See below
Background/History Southern blacks used
"peckerwood" as a derogatory
term to describe poor and/or
rural Southern whites. A
dictionary of African-American
slang explains that the term
"peckerwood" had its origins in
the word "woodpecker." Blacks
saw blackbirds as a symbol of
themselves and the
contrasting redheaded
woodpecker as a
representation of whites.
Eventually, the word
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1158
"woodpecker" was inverted to
become "peckerwood" in an
attempt to hide the meaning
and origin of the term. Later,
peckerwood came to be used
in the North as well, as a
general description for white
people.
At some point, peckerwood
evolved into a term used to
describe white prison inmates.
In prison slang, a peckerwood
or "wood" was a white inmate
who was willing to fight to
avoid being raped or robbed.
Over time, white inmates
appropriated the term
peckerwood and made it a
source of pride.
Currently, the term
peckerwood is used to refer
both to white youths with loose
ties to white power gangs in
and out of prison, as well as to
actual skinhead gangs who
have incorporated
"peckerwood" into their name.
The various Peckerwood gangs
appear to be concentrated
largely in California, where
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1159
they participate in the
methamphetamine trade and
have ties to other white
supremacist gangs such as the
Nazi Low Riders. Peckerwood
gang members have been
charged with a variety of
crimes ranging from dealing
drugs to attempted murder.
Many gang members sport
Peckerwood tattoos to display
their affiliations.
Swastika Variants
Symbol Type neo-Nazi, white supremacist
Symbol Description Various; the most typical
involve a swastika-derived
image or other white
supremacist symbol on a white
and red background.
Also Known As N/A
Traditional Use/Origins N/A
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Hate Group/Extremist
Organization
Various
Extremist Meaning or
Representation
See below
Background/History Neo-Nazis around the world
have created many variations
on the flags of Nazi Germany
over the years, often because
Nazi flags themselves are
banned in a number of
countries. Some variations
involve modifying the swastika
to some degree, while others
replace the swastika with an
alternate white supremacist
symbol such as various runes
used in Nazi Germany
(especially the Wolfsangel,
Odal, and Life runes). The flags
shown here are just a sampling
of the many neo-Nazi flags that
have emerged around the
globe, from Europe to Asia to
the Americas. Though
generally arising from abroad,
these flags can sometimes
also be found in the United
States or on American white
supremacist Web sites.
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1161
The Five Percenters
Symbol Type Group Symbol
Symbol Description The number seven
superimposed over a star and
crescent image, itself
superimposed on a sun image.
Also Known As "Universal Flag of Islam"
Traditional Use/Origins None; although the star and
crescent are traditional Islamic
symbols.
Hate Group/Extremist
Organization
Five Percenters; also known as
Five Percent Nation and the
Nation of Gods and Earths.
Extremist Meaning or
Representation
The five-pointed star
symbolizes knowledge and
children; the crescent moon
symbolizes wisdom and black
women; the number seven
symbolizes Allah because it is
allegedly the mathematical
terminology for the creator of
the universe (and the seventh
letter of the alphabet, G,
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1162
stands for God); the white
background symbolizes the
deceptions and lies practiced
by white people; the sun
symbolizes truth and light; the
points around the sun are the
symbol of the universe
Background/History Clarence Smith (also known as
Father Allah) a former Nation
of Islam (NOI) member,
founded the Five Percenters in
New York City in 1964 after he
was expelled from the NOI for
disagreeing with some of the
group's teachings. The Five
Percenters, a loosely knit
organization, derives its name
from the belief that only five
percent of the population is
righteous. Five Percenters do
not consider their beliefs a
religion but follow
nontraditional variants of
Islam. Some Five Percenters
profess their beliefs through
rap and hip-hop music. Five
Percenters believe that blacks
are the original people of
Earth, that they founded all
civilization, and that in fact the
"blackman" is god. They also
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1163
believe that whites have
deceived the whole world,
causing it to honor and worship
false gods and idols.
Skrewdriver
Symbol Type Skinhead; neo-Nazi
Also Known As The band's name,
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1164
"Skrewdriver," is often
displayed with a large scripted
"S" combined with other
symbols frequently used by
white supremacists, such as
an eagle or the Aryan fist.
Traditional Use/Origins N/A
Hate Group/Extremist
Organization
Skrewdriver; white
supremacists
Extremist Meaning or
Representation
See below
Background/History The white power band
Skrewdriver and its now
deceased leader Ian Stuart
(Donaldson) are legendary
within the white supremacist
and racist skinhead
movements. Although the band
fell apart after Stuart's death in
1993, many white
supremacists and racist
skinheads pay tribute to
Skrewdriver by sporting
Skrewdriver tattoos and by
wearing Skrewdriver pins,
patches, or clothing.
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1165
Sturmabteilung (SA)
Symbol Type neo-Nazi
Symbol Description Stylized letters "S" and "A"
combined within a circle. The
"S" is similar to a lightning bolt
with an arrow on the bottom.
Also Known As Brownshirts, Stormtroopers
Traditional Use/Origins This symbol was an emblem
used by Hitler's Brownshirts,
the Sturmabteilung (SA), which
were paramilitary formations
used by Hitler to intimidate
political opponents before and
after his rise to power in
Germany.
Hate Group/Extremist
Organization
white supremacists, neo-Nazis
Extremist Meaning or
Representation
See below
Background/History When some European
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1166
governments began banning
the display of Nazi or neo-Nazi
symbology such as the
swastika or SS lightning bolts,
many neo-Nazis turned to less
well known symbols from Nazi
Germany. Even when banned,
such symbols are still far less
recognizable than swastikas,
and thus are more discreet
symbols of white supremacy
(this is also true for countries
that do not ban such symbols,
such as the United States).
One of the most common is the
symbol of the Sturmabteilung
(or SA; the English equivalent
would be "stormtroopers"),
often called the Brownshirts. In
the 1920s, the SA was often
the most visible manifestation
of the Nazi Party. It was the
Party's paramilitary wing,
composed of thugs and ruffians
who engaged in streetfighting
against political opponents and
in violence and harassment
against Jews. It declined after
1934, when its leaders were
murdered at Hitler's orders and
it was largely supplanted by
the SS.
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1167
Fourth Reich
Symbol Type Racist Skinhead
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1168
Symbol Description The number "4" and the letter
"R" joined together
Also Known As N/A
Traditional Use/Origins N/A
Hate Group/Extremist
Organization
Fourth Reich Skins
Extremist Meaning or
Representation
See below
Background/History The term "Fourth Reich" is an
allusion to Hitler's Third Reich
and to the goal of establishing
a society ruled by National
Socialist ideology. A California-
based neo-Nazi skinhead gang
active in the early 1990s
adopted the name "Fourth
Reich Skins," but appears to
have largely disbanded after
leaders in the gang were
arrested and convicted in 1993
for conspiring to commit
bombings and murders. In more
recent years, Fourth Reich
Skins have been active in
Arizona. Gang members or
affiliates may sport tattoos
with the words "Fourth Reich"
or the symbol representing the
words. In addition, non-
associated white supremacists
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1169
may sometimes use "Fourth
Reich" symbology as well.
Phineas Priest
Symbol Type Group Symbol
Symbol Description Letter "P" with line drawn
through it
Also Known As N/A
Traditional Use/Origins N/A
Hate Group/Extremist
Organization
Phineas Priesthood
Extremist Meaning or
Representation
See below
Background/History The Phineas Priesthood is not
a membership organization.
Certain extremists have
claimed to be "Phineas Priests"
after committing violent acts
against people they consider to
be breaking "Biblical Law,"
including interracial couples,
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1170
abortion providers, and
homosexuals. Most people who
have declared themselves
Phineas Priests are adherents
of Christian Identity, a racist
and anti-Semitic religion.
Christian Identity teaches that
white people are descended
from the Lost Tribes of Israel
and are thus God's chosen
people, that Jews are
descendents of Satan, and that
non-whites are soulless "mud
people." The concept of the
Phineas Priesthood comes
from a 1990 book by white
supremacist and Christian
Identity follower Richard Kelly
Hoskins, Vigilantes of
Christendom: The Story of the
Phineas Priesthood. In the
book, Hoskins describes a
continuous priesthood of
"avengers" who, throughout
the centuries, have committed
violent acts in order to defend
racial purity and "God's Law."
According to Hoskins, these
avengers have been inspired
by, and thus take their name
from, an Old Testament figure
Phinehas who, in order to
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1171
protect the purity of the
Israelites and keep them from
harm, killed a fellow Israelite
that had taken up with a
foreign woman. The extremists
who have asserted that they
are Phineas Priests have
committed crimes ranging from
murders to bombings to bank
robberies.
Wolfsangel
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1172
Symbol Type Neo-Nazi Symbol
Symbol Description It resembles to some degree a
backwards letter "Z": a
straight line (horizontal or
vertical) with sharp hooks on
each end and a short line
intersecting it in the middle.
Also Known As Wolf's Hook, Dopplehaken
Traditional Use/Origins The Wolfsangel is an ancient
runic symbol that was believed
to be able to ward off wolves.
Historically, it appeared in
Germany in many places,
ranging from guidestones on
the sides of roads to heraldic
use in the coats of arms of
various towns; there is even a
German city called Wolfsangel.
Hate Group/Extremist
Organization
Neo-Nazis
Extremist Meaning or
Representation
See below
Background/History Along with many other runic
symbols, the Wolfsangel was
adopted by the Waffen-SS
during the Nazi era in Germany.
It appeared as part of the
divisional insignia of several
Waffen-SS units, including the
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1173
notorious 2nd SS "Das Reich"
Panzer Division. As a result, it
became a symbol of choice for
neo-Nazis in Europe and the
United States. The Aryan
Nations logo is derived from
the Wolfsangel; the symbol
was also used by European
groups such as the Jungen
(Youth)
Vinlanders Social Club
Symbol Type Racist/Extremist Group
Symbol Description Laurel wreath on top of shield
filled with red, white and blue
bars.
Also Known As
Traditional Use/Origins The logo combines several
symbols familiar to neo-Nazis.
The laurel wreath is a
traditional skinhead symbol
because it is used as a logo by
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1174
a company that makes clothing
popular with skinheads. The
shield emblem is derived from
Waffen SS unit symbol
emblems.
Hate Group/Extremist
Organization
Vinlanders Social Club
Extremist Meaning or
Representation
See below
Background/History The Vinlanders Social Club is a
hardcore racist skinhead group
whose members, some of
whom also belong to other
racist skinhead groups, are
active primarily in the Midwest
and Arizona, although there are
members in other states as
well.
United Nuwaubian Nation of Moors Logo
Symbol Type Racist/Extremist Group
Symbol Description An ankh in a six-pointed star,
above a crescent,
superimposed over a black,
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1175
red, and green flag.
Also Known As
Traditional Use/Origins None for the flag as a whole,
although the symbols
superimposed on the flag have
many different traditional
meanings
Hate Group/Extremist
Organization
United Nuwaubian Nation of
Moors (aka Yamassee Native
American Moors)
Extremist Meaning or
Representation
Nuwaubians say the six-
pointed star represents the
Sun, the crescent represents
the moon, and the ankh
represents the key to eternal
life. They claim that the black,
red, and green flag is the
traditional flag of the original
Moors.
Background/History The Nuwaubian Nation is a
religious sect started by
Malachi York that mixes a wide
variety of New Age,
Afrocentric, and other beliefs.
It is also a black supremacist
religion, believing, among other
things, that blacks (Melanin-
ites) are superior to whites
(Canaanites), who were
created to be warrior slaves. It
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1176
has a number of connections to
the anti-government sovereign
citizen movement.
NUMBER SYMBOLS
14 (words)
Symbol Type Number Symbol
Also Known As N/A
Traditional Use/Origins Number
Hate Group/Extremist
Organization
White Supremacist
Extremist Meaning or
Representation
"We must secure the existence
of our people and a future for
white children."
Background/History This numeral represents the
phrase "14 words," the number
of words in an expression that
has become the battle cry and
rallying slogan for the white
supremacist movement: "We
must secure the existence of
our people and a future for
white children." This
expression was coined by the
now imprisoned David Lane, a
long-time racist and member of
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1177
The Order, a far-right
revolutionary group based in
the Northwest, that was
responsible for a number of
bank robberies, the bombing of
a synagogue and the murder of
Denver radio talk-show host
Alan Berg in the 1980s.
ADL Links to Related
Information
The Order symbol
88
Symbol Type Number Symbol
Also Known As N/A
Traditional Use/Origins Number
Hate Group/Extremist
Organization
Neo-Nazis
Extremist Meaning or
Representation
See below
Background/History The eighth letter of the
alphabet is "H." Eight two
times signifies "HH, "
shorthand for the Nazi
greeting, "Heil Hitler." 88 is
often found on hate group
flyers, in both the greetings
and closing comments of
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1178
letters written by neo-Nazis,
and in e-mail addresses.
14/88
Symbol Type Number Symbol
Also Known As N/A
Traditional Use/Origins Numbers
Hate Group/Extremist
Organization
White Supremacists, Neo-Nazis
Extremist Meaning or
Representation
See below
Background/History Often, the two numbers are
used in conjunction to indicate
a belief both in the ideology of
National Socialism and the
validity of the "14 words." This
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1179
symbol can often be found at
the close of a letter.
ADL Links to Related
Information
Number Symbol: 14(words)
Number Symbol: 88
5 (words)
Symbol Type Number Symbol
Also Known As N/A
Traditional Use/Origins Number
Hate Group/Extremist
Organization
White Supremacists
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1180
Extremist Meaning or
Representation
"I have nothing to say."
Background/History This numeral represents the
expression,"5 words," which
signifies, "I have nothing to
say." Alex Curtis, a San Diego-
based white supremacist who
coined the phrase, believes
that white racists in the United
States should use the five
words to demonstrate a "code
of silence" and to help avoid
prosecution by law
enforcement.
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1181
311
Symbol Type Number Symbol
Also Known As N/A
Traditional Use/Origins Number
Hate Group/Extremist
Organization
Ku Klux Klan (KKK)
Extremist Meaning or
Representation
KKK
Background/History The eleventh letter of the
alphabet is the letter "K"; thus
3 times 11 equals "KKK," or Ku
Klux Klan. 311 is sometimes
used as a greeting to
demonstrate membership in
the KKK or simply sympathy
with the Klan and its ideology.
There is also a popular rock
band with the name "311"
which is not at all hate-
oriented.
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1182
33/6
Symbol Type Number Symbol
Also Known As N/A
Traditional Use/Origins Numbers
Hate Group/Extremist
Organization
Ku Klux Klan (KKK)
Extremist Meaning or
Representation
See below
Background/History Thirty-three is 3 times 11.
Since the eleventh letter of the
alphabet is K, three Ks signify
KKK or Ku Klux Klan. The "6"
signifies the sixth or current
era of the Klan. 33/6 is also
used as a greeting by Klan
members.
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1183
666
Symbol Type Number Symbol
Also Known As N/A
Traditional Use/Origins This numeral signifies the anti-
Christ or Satan and is also
known as the "Mark of the
Beast" in the Book of
Revelations.
Hate Group/Extremist
Organization
White Supremacists, various
fringe groups
Extremist Meaning or
Representation
See below
Background/History According to certain
interpretations of the Christian
Bible, this is the mark that
Satan gives to his allies so that
they can avoid the punishment
meted out to Christians who
refuse to abandon their faith
during the Tribulation. This
symbol is also used to
symbolize Satan or evil.
ADL Links to Related
Information
Aryan Brotherhood Clover
Tattoo
83
Symbol Type Number Symbol
C
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1184
Also Known As N/A
Traditional Use/Origins Number
Hate Group/Extremist
Organization
Racist "Christians"
Extremist Meaning or
Representation
"Heil Christ"
Background/History The eighth letter of the
alphabet is H and the third
letter is C, thus 83 stands for
"Heil Christ," a greeting used
by racist organizations that
consider themselves also to be
Christian.
100%
Symbol Type Number Symbol
C
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1185
Also Known As N/A
Traditional Use/Origins Percentage
Hate Group/Extremist
Organization
White Supremacists
Extremist Meaning or
Representation
Pure Aryan
Background/History This is an expression of an
individuals pure Aryan or white
roots. It is common among
white supremacists. It is also a
statement by white
supremacists on the need for a
pure, white race that is
uncorrupted by interracial
relationships.
4/19
Symbol Type Number Symbol
Also Known As N/A
Traditional Use/Origins Date
Hate Group/Extremist
Organization
Anti-Government Racists
Extremist Meaning or
Representation
See below
Background/History The anniversary date of two
events: the confrontation
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1186
between Federal agents and
the Branch Davidians in Waco,
Texas in 1993, and the 1995
Oklahoma City bombing carried
out by Timothy McVeigh. This
date is sometimes used as a
tattoo by anti-government
racists.
4/20
Symbol Type Number Symbol
Also Known As N/A
Traditional Use/Origins Date
Hate Group/Extremist
Organization
Neo-Nazis
Extremist Meaning or
Representation
See below
Background/History The anniversary of Adolf
Hitlers birthday is also used as
a tattoo by racists and neo-
Nazis, to affirm their belief in
the ideals of National
Socialism. A common but very
different meaning for "4/20" (or
"4:20" or "420") is as a slang
term associated with smoking
marijuana.
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1187
28
Symbol Type Number Symbol
Symbol Description N/A
Also Known As N/A
Traditional Use/Origins N/A
Hate Group/Extremist
Organization
Blood & Honour
Extremist Meaning or
Representation
The number stands for the
name "Blood & Honour"
because B is the 2nd letter of
the alphabet and H is the 8th
letter.
Background/History Blood & Honour is an
international neo-Nazi/racist
skinhead group started by
British white supremacist and
singer Ian Stuart. It has
chapters around the world,
primarily in Europe, but does
have members in the United
States.
18
Symbol Type Number Symbol
Also Known As N/A
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Traditional Use/Origins Number
Hate Group/Extremist
Organization
neo-Nazi
Extremist Meaning or
Representation
Adolf Hitler
Background/History The first letter of the alphabet
is A; the eighth letter of the
alphabet is H. Thus, 1 plus 8, or
18, equals AH, an abbreviation
for Adolf Hitler. Neo-Nazis use
18 in tattoos. The number is
also used by Combat 18, a
violent British neo-Nazi group
that chose its name in honor of
Adolf Hitler.
23
Symbol Type Number Symbol
Also Known As N/A
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1189
Traditional Use/Origins Number
Hate Group/Extremist
Organization
White Supremacist
Extremist Meaning or
Representation
See below
Background/History The 23rd letter of the alphabet
is W. Therefore, white
supremacists and racist
skinheads use 23 in tattoos to
represent "W," as an
abbreviation for the word
"white."
RACIST ACROYMS
RAHOWA
Symbol Type Racist Acronym
Also Known As Racial Holy War
Traditional Use/Origins N/A
Hate Group/Extremist
Organization
White Supremacists, World
Church of the Creator
Extremist Meaning or
Representation
Racial Holy War
Background/History The expression "Racial Holy
War," signifies the battle that
white supremacists believe
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will pit the white race against
minorities and Jews and lead
to Aryan rule over the world.
ZOG/JOG
Symbol Type Racist Acronym
Also Known As Zionist-Occupied
Government/Jewish-Occupied
Government
Traditional Use/Origins N/A
Hate Group/Extremist
Organization
White Supremacists, Anti-
Government Extremists
Extremist Meaning or
Representation
See below
Background/History These terms refer to the belief
that the Jews occupy and
control the government, as
well as the media. The letters
often appear in a circle with a
slash over it.
SWP
Symbol Type Racist Acronym
Also Known As Supreme White Power
Traditional Use/Origins N/A
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1191
Hate Group/Extremist
Organization
White Supremacists
Extremist Meaning or
Representation
See below
Background/History This is a common acronym
used by racists to signify
Supreme White Power, the
ideological basis of white
supremacists belief system.
WPWW
Symbol Type Racist Acronym
Also Known As White Pride World Wide
Traditional Use/Origins N/A
Hate Group/Extremist
Organization
White Supremacists
Extremist Meaning or
Representation
See below
Background/History This common acronym
signifies White Pride World
Wide. It is used as a greeting
by white supremacists to show
pride in the white race around
the world.
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CI
Symbol Type Racist Acronym
Also Known As Christian Identity
Traditional Use/Origins N/A
Hate Group/Extremist
Organization
Christian Identity
Extremist Meaning or
Representation
See below
Background/History These letters stand for
Christian Identity, which holds
that white Europeansnot
Jewsare the real Biblical
"Chosen People," that the
white race is inherently
superior, that Blacks and other
nonwhite races are soulless
"mud peoples" on the same
level as animals, and that Jews
are descendants of Satan.
ADL Links to Related
Information
Christian Identity
Christian Identity on the
Web
UAO
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1193
Symbol Type Racist Acronym
Also Known As United As One
Traditional Use/Origins N/A
Hate Group/Extremist
Organization
White Supremacists
Extremist Meaning or
Representation
See below
Background/History United As One is a short
greeting used by racists to
signify the need to unite for a
common causethe
preservation of the white race.
DOC
Symbol Type Racist Skinhead Symbol
Also Known As Disciples of Christ
Traditional Use/Origins Name of a fictional neo-Nazi
skinhead gang appearing in the
movie "American History X." In
the film, members of the gang
have "DOC" tattooed on their
bodies. (see below for non-
racist use of the term)
Hate Group/Extremist
Organization
Racist Skinheads
Extremist Meaning or See below
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1194
Representation
Background/History DOC (Disciples of Christ) refers
to a fictional racist skinhead
gang in the movie, "American
History X." Now, some racist
skinheads actually tattoo
themselves with the acronym
DOC, paying homage to the
gang in the movie.
The term "Disciples of Christ"
also has many non-extremist
uses. For example, the
Disciples of Christ (D.O.C.),
also known as the Christian
Church, is the name of a non-
racist mainstream Protestant
religious sect founded in the
early 19th century in the
United States. In addition,
Disciples of Christ (D.O.C.) is
the name of a non-racist
Christian-oriented hip-hop R&B
band.
Unsere Ehre Heisst Treue
Symbol Type neo-Nazi Symbol
Also Known As English translation: "Our Honor
is Loyalty"
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1195
Traditional Use/Origins Slogan of Hitler's Waffen-SS
troops
Hate Group/Extremist
Organization
Neo-Nazis, White
Supremacists, Racist
Skinheads
Extremist Meaning or
Representation
See below
Background/History "Unsere Ehre Heisst Treue"
was the slogan of Hitler's
Waffen-SS troops during World
War II, and can still be found
on banners at meetings of
former Waffen-SS units. Today,
it is used by neo-Nazis in the
original German or its English
translation, "Our Honor is
Loyalty," to demonstrate
allegiance to the white
supremacist movement. Neo-
Nazi skinheads also have
tattooed the slogan on their
bodies. Some white
supremacist groups use the
slogan as a tag line in their
publications to express
solidarity with others in the
white power movement. The
expression was also used by
Ernest Windholz, a member of
the far-right Austrian Freedom
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1196
Party, during a 2000 ceremony
honoring activists from that
party.
ORION
Symbol Type Racist Acronym
Also Known As Our Race is Our Nation
Traditional Use/Origins N/A
Hate Group/Extremist
Organization
White supremacists; neo-Nazis;
racist skinheads.
Extremist Meaning or
Representation
"Our Race Is Our Nation" is a
racist slogan that emphasizes
that racial ties are paramount
to all else. Within the United
States, for example, a white
supremacist might use it to
suggest that he or she owes
allegiance to his or her race,
rather than to the United
States itself. White
supremacists in other
countries may use it similarly.
In an international context, it
can be used to suggest that all
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1197
white people, whether from
Europe or the United States or
elsewhere, are one "nation,"
opposed and superior to all
other races.
Background/History The slogan "Our Race Is Our
Nation" is used by a variety of
groups. Christian Identity
adherents like it because it is
compatible with their belief
that white people are
descended from the ancient
tribes of the Kingdom of Israel.
There is even an Identity Ku
Klan Klan group, based in
Alabama, known as the "Orion
Knights of the Ku Klux Klan." It
is also used among neo-Nazis
and racist skinheads. The
Canadian white supremacist
group Heritage Front adopted
the slogan as its official motto.
ADL Links to Related
Information
N/A
KIGY
Symbol Type Racist Acronym
Symbol Description N/A.
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1198
Also Known As Klansman, I Greet You
Traditional Use/Origins N/A.
Hate Group/Extremist
Organization
Ku Klux Klan
Extremist Meaning or
Representation
KIGY is commonly used as
shorthand to indicate
membership/affiliation with the
Ku Klux Klan. It is used
primarily as a salutation, but
often forms the basis for e-mail
addresses, Web page
addresses, and more.
Background/History KIGY appears to have
originated with the revival of
the Ku Klux Klan after 1915
and became a widely used
Klan acronym (along with two
others that have survived:
AKIA for "A Klansman I Am"
and AYAK for "Are You a
Klansman"). Although the
Second Ku Klux Klan did not
survive, much of its
terminology and many of its
rituals did, and later Klan
groups freely used them.
ROA
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1199
Symbol Type Racist Acronym
Also Known As Race Over All
Traditional Use/Origins none
Hate Group/Extremist
Organization
Volksfront, other neo-Nazis
Extremist Meaning or
Representation
See below
Background/History Race Over All is a white
supremacist slogan
popularized by the neo-Nazi
group Volksfront, which uses it
as their slogan. It is often
used, in its acronym form
(ROA), as a salutation or
greeting on on-line message
forums or social networking
communities.
WHITE POWER MUSIC
White Power Music
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1200
"White power" music is the focal
point for many racist skinheads
seeking a common culture. These
skinheads, from the U.S. and
abroad, attend concerts where
white power bands belt out songs
that attack and dehumanize
Blacks, Jews and other
minorities. The names of these
bands -- Extreme Hatred, Angry
Aryans, and Aggravated Assault --
reveal the hostile ideology that
drives them. These bands create
their own logos and proudly
display them on CDs that glorify
violence against minorities, in
particular Jews.
White power "Oi!" music really
has had a notable presence in the
United States only since the mid-
1980s. It was born out of a
skinhead and punk music
subculture that made its way into
this country from Great Britain in
the mid-1970s. At first quite raw
in its quality and promotion, the
white power music scene has
evolved into a well-marketed tool
to tap into alienated and often
violent youth in the United States,
Europe and other countries. Hate
groups have been successful in
Examples
of White
Power
Music CD
Covers
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1201
using white power music to
recruit these young people into
the white supremacist movement
by giving them a sense of power
and belonging. The lyrics are
angry and vicious, the authors
directing their wrath against
Jews and non-whites -- the people
they blame for society's ills and
the failings in their own lives.
White power band members are
typically covered with tattoos
ranging from various neo-Nazi
symbols to other more general
racist symbols and slogans.
Resistance Records, Panzerfaust
Records, Tri-State Terror and
Imperium Records are some of
the better-known labels that
currently sell this particularly
odious music through their
publications and on their Web
sites. Skrewdriver, Blue Eyed
Devils, Bound for Glory, Rahowa,
Extreme Hatred, Angry Aryans,
Aggravated Assault, Nordic
Thunder, Blood and Honour,
Brutal Attack, Berserkr and Max
Resist are some of the better-
known white power bands. It is
obvious from several of these
groups' record covers on this
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1202
page, they go out of their way to
be violent and shocking both in
their illustrations and in their
titles.
About the Symbols
Neo-Nazis, racist skinheads, white supremacists
and others in the hate movement use symbols like
swastikas, "SS" thunderbolts, runes and group
logos to intimidate individuals and communities.
Hate symbols are more than just "signs"
demonstrating racist, anti-Semitic and anti-
Christian attitudes and beliefs -- these symbols are
meant to instill a sense of fear and insecurity. One
finds hate symbols scrawled on the outside walls of
synagogues, churches and schools; depicted on
fliers and literature distributed in communities;
tattooed on the bodies of white supremacists, or
proudly displayed as jewelry or on clothing. These
symbols give haters a sense of power and
belonging, and a quick way of identifying with
others who share their ideology. They offer a visual
vocabulary that is used by a variety of extremists
including the Ku Klux Klan, the neo-Nazi National
Alliance and such Identity groups
1
as Aryan Nations
and the Posse Comitatus.
The ADL database contains symbols used by neo-
Nazis, the Ku Klux Klan, racist skinheads,
established hate groups, white supremacists and
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1203
racist prison gangs. Not surprisingly, there is some
degree of overlap among symbols used by these
various groups.
1
Identity groups believe that white Europeans, not
Jews, are the real Biblical "Chosen People," that
Jews are the children of Satan, that the white race
is inherently superior to others and that Blacks and
other non-whites are "mud people" without a soul.
Gang Tattoos: Bloods
Lower left forearm, the
word "Crab" upside
down. Crab being the
disrespect term for
Crips. The "A" is
replaced by a 5 pointed
star.
Blood clothing, note the
red shoe laces in his
right shoe and the
Chicago Blackhawks
jersey. In Minnesota
most blood sets
represent to the right
since Vice Lords wear
similar colors and
represent to the left.
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1204
Blood clothing, note the
right pant leg pulled up
representing to the right.
RBD for Red Blood
Dragons, left forearm,
old english script.
RBD for Red Blood
Dragons, left forearm,
with "Blood" underneath
it.
"Blood" on right hand,
one of the same parties
that had the RBD tattoo.
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1205
CRIPS
Gang Tattoos: The Crips
Right chest,
"WS", West Side,
in this case a
WS Tre-57 Crip.
Left chest,
nickname,
"Jess-C-James".
Crips may
frequently
include "C" in
street names.
Upper left arm,
W/S RAC 120,
West Side
Raymond
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1206
Avenue Crip,
120th St. Most
Crips in
Minnesota
represent to the
left as the
Gangster
Disciples
represent to the
right.
Typical Crip
colors. This
Gangsta is
Crippin "L.A.
Style," meaning
he is
representing to
the right. Note
the right pant
leg rolled up.
Crips that
represent to the
left are Crippin
Minnesota style.
Oriental Loks
are affliated
with the Crips.
Note the Old
English Gothic
script tattoos.
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1207
Oriental Loks
are affliated
with the Crips.
Note the Old
English Gothic
script tattoos.
Oriental Loks
are affliated
with the Crips.
Note the Old
English Gothic
script tattoos.
GANGSTER DISCIPLES FOLK NATION
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1208
Gang Tattoos: Gangster Disciples and Folks
Right forearm, 6
pointed star.
Right upper arm, 6
pointed star with
pitchfork up to the right
and cane down to the
left.
Upper right arm, 6
pointed star with
pitchforks up and canes
down. Large "G" in the
center, numbers
correspond to letters in
the alphabet.
"Til Da World Blo", with
pitchfork up.
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1209
Street name "J-bone"
with a 6 for GD.
6 pointed star on left
hand, with pitch fork.
Tattoo from a GD. Skull
with a top hat to
disrespect Vice Lords.
Broken 5 pointed star.
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1210
Right forearm, large GD
with pitchfork up and
cross down, "people".
IGD brand over "people"
tattoos.
Soulja refers to Soldier
in the BGDN.
Rabbit facing right with
the right ear bent and
the 6 pointed star
shows this as a 2-6er
Folks gang tattoo.
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1211
VICE LORDS PEOPLE NATION
Gang Tattoos: Vice Lords and People
Right chest, 5
pointed star
with a number
"5" in center.
Above the star
the words, "All
is one." Left
chest, bunny
head with
nickname
above.
Close up of
picture above.
VL shaved into
left eye brow
and a 5 point
star under left
eye.
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1212
Street name
and tattoo from
Cobra.
Right hand,
bunny head and
Old English
"COB." COB is a
"People"
affiliated gang
like the Vice
Lords.
Right wrist,
"COB".
HISPANIC GANGS
Gang Tattoos: Hispanic Gangs
"JORGE" in old
English Gothic script,
common to gang
related tattoos.
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1213
5 pointed crown over
heart, black rose for
no love. Photo
courtesy of Ellie.
Left wrist, 5 pointed
star with nickname
above it.
Left shoulder, 5
pointed Crown of
Hispanic Gangs.
Above that is the
"Smile Now" face.
Right shoulder, "Cry
Later" face.
Left chest, King with
5 pointed crown.
Below that, the letters
"LK" with a 5 pointed
star to the left of it.
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1214
The "1" and "8" were
on the right and left
legs of an "18th
street" gang member.
Picture courtesy of
M.Riley.
The Latino Gang
members frequently
tattoo the County they
are from on their
body. The star above
the "u" in county is
representative of
spending time in OC
Jail. Picture courtesy
of M.Riley.
The RIP Manny was a
dedication to a dead
homeboy. Picture
courtesy of M.Riley.
The "Santana" is the
spanish pronunciation
of "Santa Ana". Santa
Ana is the largest city
in Orange County and
has the most gangs
and gang members.
Picture courtesy of
M.Riley.
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1215
This is the "WLA"
tattoo from the same
18th street gang
member denoting
West Los Angeles.
The LA gang members
frequently were LA
Dodger baseball caps
and tattoo themselves
in the style of the "LA"
Dodgers logo. Picture
courtesy of M.Riley.
FORENIC ASPECTS OF TATTOOS
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1216
Forensic Aspects of Tattoos
In forensic pathology, tattoos may give specific
identifying clues as to the social status, personality,
religious affiliations, associations with organizations,
sexual orientation, criminal behavior, or drug use of an
individual.
IDENTIFICATION:
o Name
o Initials
o Social security number
o POW
o Concentration camp #
SOCIAL STATUS:
o Homemade vs. professional tattoos
o Simple vs. elaborate designs
o Fraternity tattoos
o Tribal or clan membership
o (The more tattoos, the higher the rank [Samoa])
BACKGROUND:
o Interests
o Harley-Davidson tattoos
o Gambling
o The macho image
o Women
RELIGIOUS AFFILIATIONS:
o Cuban refugees/Marielitos: Afro-Caribbean cults
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1217
o Hexagon tattoos (union of opposites) - Occult
Also folk nation gang members - crips
ORGANIZATIONAL ASSOCIATIONS:
o Military service
o Flags
o Eagles
o Ships
o Patriotic symbols
CRIMINAL BEHAVIOR:
o Jailhouse tattoos
o Pachuco
handweb tattoos (Marielitos)
heart with "madre" = executioner
falling star = kidnapper
trident = enforcer
five dots = pickpockets/delinquent behavior
DRUG ADDICTION:
o Soft or hard core drug users
o Antisocial phrases:
"born to lose"
"love to hate"
"I dont believe in friends"
o Injection sites
o Cockroaches and spiders
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1218
SEXUAL ORIENTATION:
o Female prostitutes:
"4" = four letter street word for sexual intercourse
(located inside breast cleavage, medial aspect of knee, or
first handweb.)
o Suprapubic tattoos:
"keep off the grass"
"pay as you enter"
"the love nest"
"admission $0.50"
"to hell with housework"
BI-SEXUALS:
o ? left ring finger
o ACDC
LESBIANS:
o 4 dots on each finger = born to love women
o another womans name
o bulldog on biceps
MALE HOMOSEXUALS:
o buttock tattoo (passive homosexual)
"for men only"
"open all night"
"pay as you enter"
a lovers name
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1219
ship propellers
twin screws
o back tattoos
foxes running down the spine disappearing into the
anus
a cat chasing a mouse down into the anus
o penis
coiled snake often denoting an active homosexual
o fingers
"love" denoting unattached homosexual vs. true love
tattoos
o misc. sexual tattoos
exhibitionist genital tattoos
seductive or pornographic tattoos
MISCELLANEOUS:
o Magical/superstitious
o Decorative/accomplishments
o Souvenir
o Fake (adhesive) tattoos
o Body piercing/branding
ILLEGIBLE OR FADING TATTOOS:
These can be visualized by:
o high contrast photography
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1220
o computer image enhancement
o infrared photography
o heat application and wiping off detached skin
YAKUZA (Japanese Mafia):
o encourage members to have full body tattoos
SKINHEADS:
o will usually have the tattoo "88" on their body. The
number 8 stands for the 8th letter of the alphabet,
which is "H." Double 8 to the skinhead stands for
"Hell Hitler."
ASIAN GANGS:
o theatrical masks
o very ornate ships, boats and junks (symbolizing
departure to freedom)
o eagles, panthers, serpents (courage and power;
meant to intimidate)
o 3 dots arranged in a triangle (symbolizes "my crazy
life")
o 4 Ts (representing Vietnamese words for love,
money, prison sometimes a 5th T signifying the word
for "revenge")
o 5 dots arranged as they would be on a dice cube (the
middle c the gang member and the other surrounding
dots symbolizing friends to the north, south, east and
west of him)
o gang initials (AB/Asian Boys, CLB/Cool Lover Bays,
NJB/Nator NCA/Ninja Clan Assassins etc)
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1221
Markings may also be burned into the members flesh
with cigarettes or hot coins to indicate the members
"toughness or willingness to engage in criminal
activities." Generally the more burn marks a member has,
the higher in the gang he is. To defeat law enforcement
observations, theses burns may be camouflaged by
tattoos.
MISCELLANIOUS TATTOOS
Gang Tattoos: Signs of Belonging and the Transience of
Signs
Nothing symbolizes gang members' commitment to
their gangs more forcefully than the gang tattoo. These
symbols proclaim the individual's allegiance to the
group in a way that is both permanent and deeply
personal-being written on the body itself. But in recent
years, thanks to a combination of social and
technological changes, the significance and the
permanence of gang tattoos are both being challenged.
As a result, it appears that the power of these signifiers
has begun to erode.
Tattoos are thought to have existed since the beginning
of mankind. The oldest tattoo ever found was on a man
frozen in a glacier near Austria who was believed to
have died in approximately 4000 B.C. Although it's not
known whether the frozen Austrian was a criminal, for
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1222
most of recorded history tattoos have been associated
with unlawful behavior and the underworld.
The early Romans tattooed slaves and criminals as a
means of identification.
During the years 300-600 C.E. in Japan, criminals were
sometimes tattooed as punishment for their crimes.
Criminals in the Mediterranean region in the third
century C.E. were often tattooed or branded with
symbols indicating the crimes they committed;
sometimes the victim's name was even emblazoned on
the criminal's forehead.
But while society has often imposed tattoos in order to
identify the tattooed as criminals, many people have
also embraced these stigmatizing marks. Being an
outlaw can be a source of pride as well as shame. Gang
members in particular take pride in branding
themselves as outside of the boundaries of
conventional society. Until recently, tattooing was
restricted to stigmatized members of society, including
gang members, carnival workers and prisoners-
categories that often overlapped. It is significant,
however, that tattoos were not imposed on these
groups, but chosen by them as a means of self-
identification and, often, a symbol of belonging.
Tattoos have long been a means of identifying oneself
with a group or culture. Gangs were one of the first
groups to use tattoos as a means of denoting identity
and affinity, but groups as diverse as the military,
sports teams, and even the popular country group The
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1223
Dixie Chicks have used matching tattoos as a visible
sign of the members' bond with one another.
For gang members, however, tattoos are a way of both
asserting membership in the gang and flaunting their
lack of membership in straight society. For this reason,
street gang members will often get tattoos on their
hands and faces so as to permanently bar them from
being a part of normal society. The larger and more
prominent the tattoo, the harder it is to hide, the more
impressive it is to other gang members. For this reason,
two of the most widespread gang tattoos are often
found on the most visible parts of the body: the hands
and the face. For example, 18th Street gang member
Sergio Ochoa tattooed the numbers "187" (the
California Penal Code section which refers to murder)
above his eye after being convicted of a 1990 killing of
a rival gang member. A common tattoo among Hispanic
gang members from many different gangs is the
pachuco cross tattooed on the hand between the thumb
and index finger. Alternatively, the same area is often
embellished with three dots in a pyramid shape, a
symbol that stands for "mi vida loca," "my crazy life."
Southeast Asian gangsters have adopted the same
tattoo of the three dots, defining its meaning as "To O
Can Gica," or "I care for nothing." In Cuban prisons the
same tattoo declares that the wearer's criminal
aptitude is in larceny.
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1224
Figure 1 The pachuco cross is the simplest gang tattoo,
and one of the most pervasive. It consists of a small
cross with three lines or dots above it.
Figure 2 Three dots representing, "mi vida loca," or "my
crazy life," and is commonly tattooed on the hands or
face.
The social impact of such visible tattoos made many
professional tattooists uneasy about providing them. In
his book, Bad Boys and Tough Tattoos: A Social History
of the Tattoo With Gangs, Sailors, and Street-Corner
Punks 1950-1965, tattoo artist Samuel M. Steward says,
"Ethical tattoo artists did nor work on hands or faces,
unless someone wanted a pachuco cross covered or
had some other tattoo that had to be concealed. I
wouldn't tattoo the hand but many unscrupulous
jaggers up the street would. From the moment a person
got a hand tattooed, his life was enormously
complicated. Such tattoos could not be removed from
ordinary surgical methods as others can "
The most common tattoo among gangsters of all
nationalities is one that denotes the gang that they are
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1225
in. This is seen as the mark of lifelong membership. The
gang ethos of "blood in, blood out"-the idea that the
prospective member must kill someone as the price of
admission to the gang and cannot leave except by dying
himself-is embodied in the tattoo as a sign of
permanent belonging to the gang. Indeed, in some
gangs the gang tattoo must be earned by completing a
serious mission or hit for the gang.
Often gang tattoos will simply say the name of the gang
that the wearer is in, usually in Old English lettering or
script. Often the gang name will be slightly disguised by
giving it an assigned number. For example, the
Nortenos will often use 14, X4, XIV (all denoting the
14th letter of the alphabet, N) in their tattoos. Surenos
affiliated with the Mexican Mafia (La eMe) use the
number 13, X3, and XIII (for M, the 13th letter of the
alphabet). The Vice Lords of Chicago are often
recognizable by their tattoos of the number 312, which
is the Chicago area code. The 18th Street gang of Los
Angeles, not surprisingly, uses the number 18.
(Incidentally, they will sometimes beat their
prospective members for 18 seconds as a way to "jump
them in.")
Gangs also find other ways to identify themselves
without using their full gang names. The Nortenos use
the Spanish word for "fourteen," "catorce." The Surenos
(Sureno means "southerner," for Southern California)
sometimes use the Aztec language, Nahuatl, in their
tattoos. "Kan," for example, means "South," and
"Kanpol" means "Southerner." They will also use Aztec
numerology to denote the number 13.
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1226
Figure 3 The Aztec number meaning "13" is sometimes
used in tattoos by Surenos.
In addition to advertising gang membership, tattoos can
tell other details about the bearer, including rank in the
gang and number of "hits" or other services performed
on the gang's behalf. Which side of the body the tattoo
is on also carries significance. Tattoos can also tell
more personal details about gang members' lives, such
as memorials to deceased loved ones, the names and
birthdates of their children, what country or region they
are from, and how many of their loved ones have died
while they were incarcerated. A common tattoo among
gang members is a small teardrop below the eye.
Although some take this symbol to mean that the
bearer has killed someone, others use it to show that
someone close to the bearer has died, especially if this
occurred while the tattooed individual was
incarcerated.
Tattoos are also used to express gang members' often
fatalist philosophy of life. One popular tattoo among
Hispanic gangsters is a depiction of the smiling and
crying comedy and tragedy masks, meaning, "play now
and pay later," or "my happy life, my sad life." Clock
faces are also found within the intricate artwork that
can make up a gangster's tattoos. If the clock has no
hands, it symbolizes doing time in prison. The hands
can be on specific numbers to signify the gang alliance;
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1227
for example, a Norteno might be emblazoned with a
clock face with one hand on the one, and the other on
the four to signify "14." Tombstones are also common.
Many gang members will get one tombstone tattooed
for each year that they are incarcerated. The
tombstones are inscribed with the year of freedom that
was lost. Tombstones with "R.I.P." and a date show the
loss of a loved one. Often these tattoos are reserved for
fellow gang members who were killed in gang related
violence. A tattoo of a cell window through which one
can see the sun or birds flying signify that the bearer is
waiting to get out of prison. A similar Russian prison
gang tattoo depicts birds flying in the sun rising over
the ocean's horizon, meaning, "I was born free and
should again be free."
For gangs, the use of tattoos as a means of group
identification can be a life or death matter. Nowhere is
that more true than in the case of gangs within penal
institutions, a world in which tattoos can be particularly
important.
Upon being sent to prison, many people who were not
previously members of gangs quickly find that their
survival "on the inside" depends on their membership in
a prison gang. "Certain tattoos inspire fear and respect
and give the wearer an abrasive edge," says Douglas
Kent Hall in his book, Prison Tattoos. "In prison, that
edge becomes reason enough for acquiring them.
Inmates take risks for security. A few well-chosen
motorcycle gang tattoos might make life in tough
cellblocks a lot safer and easier. On the other hand, a
convict caught wearing gang tattoos fraudulently may
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suffer serious disgraces and even get himself killed."
Because of the high percentage of prisoners who are in
gangs, much of the tattoo work done inside prisons
should be considered gang tattoos.
Street gangs often have factions inside of prisons, and
in fact many street gangs, such as the Surenos,
Nortenos, and Aryan Brotherhood, have their roots in
prison gangs. But while street gangs allow for diversity,
prison gangs tend to be race-based. Street gangs
generally revolve around a specific neighborhood or
turf, so their racial makeup reflects that of their
neighborhood. Of course the neighborhoods in which
they are based are often segregated, leading to same-
race gangs, but the focus of the gang is not primarily
racial. Gangs inside prisons, by contrast, are sharply
divided along racial lines and are often race-based in
nature, such as the Mexican Mafia, Aryan Warriors, and
Black Guerrilla Family.
As a result, whereas street gangs' tattoos are
commonly neighborhood- or turf-affiliated, gang tattoos
made in prison are often as race-based as the gangs
they represent.
For example, many of the black prison gangs, such as
the Black Guerrilla Family and its spin-off, 415, also
known as the Kumi African Nation, use symbols of
Africa-including pictures of the continent itself-in their
tattoos. For example, a popular tattoo among members
of the Kumi African Nation depicts a yero, or African
Warrior, rising up out of an outline of the continent of
Africa. In his left hand he holds a machine gun, and in
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his right he holds a flag bearing the numbers 415. These
images reflect the African orientation of both the Black
Guerrilla Family and the Kumi African Nation, which
both encourage their members to learn Mau Mau history
and words drawn from the Swahili language, which they
use to communicate with each other in ways that will
not be accessible to outsiders.
Two of the strongest Hispanic prison gangs-The
Mexican Mafia (La eMe), and MRU- Mi Raza Unida (My
United People)-use a symbol drawn from the Mexican
flag, the snake and eagle as their emblem, and will
usually incorporate this into their tattoos. The founder
of MRU, Ernest Mercado, was allegedly killed outside of
prison by a member of the Mexican Mafia for adopting
the same snake and eagle symbol that the Mexican
Mafia used and believed they had exclusive rights to.
Many Hispanic gangsters are also tattooed with Aztec
imagery, such as the popular image of an Aztec warrior
carrying an unconscious maiden. This reflects their
vision of their heritage; by the same token, some
members of the Mexican Mafia have actually learned
the Aztec language, Nahuatl, as a means to
communicate privately with one another.
Within prisons, white gangs have a prominence that
they do not enjoy on the outside. Because of their
minority status within the penal system, many whites
who would not otherwise consider gang membership or
devote themselves to the "white race" feel compelled
to join a gang for their own safety. Under those
circumstances, visible identification as a member of the
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protecting gang in the form of a tattoo becomes an
important way to guarantee personal safety.
The first white prison gangs emerged during the 1950s
in the California prison system, a development that
eventually led to the formation of the Aryan
Brotherhood-one of the most famous and brutal prison
gangs.
Figure 4 A common tattoo of the Aryan Brotherhood
incorporates a shamrock, "666" (the "mark of the
beast") and the letters "AB."
Many white gangs use Irish, Viking and German
symbolism in their tattoos, regardless of the gang
members' actual pedigree. The Aryan Brotherhood's
common tattoos feature shamrocks, Nazi emblems such
as swastikas and "SS" lightning bolts, Viking heads, and
the slogan "Sinn Fein," which in Gaelic means, "we
stand alone."
The importance of gang tattoos in prisons can be
gauged by the trouble prisoners are willing to go to in
order to get these signifiers permanently etched onto
their skin, for getting a tattoo in prison can be a long
and arduous process. Because of the health risks
associated with unsanitary tattooing (such as the
spread of disease via shared needles and far-from-
sanitary inks), most prisons have banned the practice
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and are vigilant in preventing inmates from getting new
tattoos while incarcerated. Nevertheless, prison
tattooists and their customers manage to find a way to
flout these regulations.
Tattoos in prison are done one of two ways. First is the
freehand method. Using India ink or ink derived from
"soot created by burning plastic eating utensils mixed
with Prell shampoo and water," the tattoo is applied
using a needle or piece of sharp wire in small dots.
These tattoos are noticeably crude and can often
appear childish. More ambitious prison practitioners are
able to attain very professional-looking results using
tattoo machines made out of, for example, a Walkman
motor, a hollowed out pen, a guitar string or wire from a
lighter, and a battery. These bits of everyday junk can
be put together to create tattoos that are the equal of
many high-quality commercial efforts.
During the tattooing process, however, both the
tattooist and the recipient are under constant threat of
being caught in the act by prison guards. If their activity
is discovered while the tattoo is being created, or even
if they are merely caught with tattooing tools, they face
the likely prospect of being put in lockdown and losing
all their privileges, and the tattooing paraphernalia will
almost certainly be confiscated. The tremendous risk
involved means that getting a detailed tattoo is a badge
of pride for inmates. So great is the prestige of prison
tattoos that gang members outside of prison will often
use the same methods that inmates use rather than go
to professional tattoo parlors. These homemade tattoos
can be just as detailed and intricate as professional
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ones, even though the tools are often improvised. If
tattoos show the street gang member's pride in his or
her "outlaw" status, in prison a gang member's tattoos
offer proof that he or she has flouted the rules and
gotten away with it.
Today the role of tattoos is now facing a different kind
of challenge: the adoption of tattoos as a standard
accessory by large portions of mainstream society.
True, few middle-class rebels have gone so far as to get
facial tattoos, or tattoos on their hands-practices long
common amongst gang members. But although gang
members try to use tattoos to separate themselves
from mainstream society, the effect that gang tattoos
have had on the hipper strata of the middle class is
undeniable. Teenagers who may have no idea of these
symbols' original meaning are now wearing tattoos that
were originally worn by gang members as badges of
honor.
A case in point is the spider web tattooed on one's
elbow. Among gang members, this tattoo was a code,
readable by other gangsters in prison and on the
outside, showing that the bearer had served serious
time in the penitentiary. In some parts of the country
the same tattoo meant that the wearer had killed a
member of a minority group. In fact, James Burmeister
was convicted in 1995 of killing a black couple, an act
he committed solely because he wanted to wear the
spider web tattoo that was popular among members of
the Aryan Brotherhood. But while this tattoo holds
powerful and specific significance for gang members, to
the middle class that has co-opted the symbol it has no
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meaning beyond the idea that it is simply "cool." Thus
Robert Van Winkle (formerly famous as the rapper
Vanilla Ice) and Lars Frederiksen of the band Rancid
both sport spiderweb tattoos. In a 1996 episode of
Melrose Place, one of the characters gets drunk before
going to tattoo parlor and wakes up the next day with a
huge spider web tattooed on his elbow.
The spider web may be the most common prison tattoo
to be assimilated by the middle class, but it is not the
only one. People who have no affiliations to or interest
in gangs have had themselves tattooed with Old English
script on their chests, backs and arms, a style that
used to be exclusive to gang members. These non-gang-
member tattoo wearers believe they can imbibe the
"gangsta" aura without having to lead a gangster life.
Thus Dody Lira, a highly tattooed but law-abiding 25-
year-old from Dallas, Texas, is proud to have several
tattoos that are in the same style as gang tattoos,
including a large tattoo of his own last name on the
outside of his left calf in Old English lettering. "They
have influenced me, by planting a symbolic badge that
can be worn for everyone to see, for the rest of my life,"
he explained. "It all ties in with symbolism-they all
stand for something; it's universally known." But he
acknowledges that there are some gang tattoos he
would not adopt, saying, "You see a dude with 187 on
his forearm, he's probably a killer." Still, he sees no
conflict between staying within the bounds of polite
society while sporting gang-style tattoos. "Yuppies also
drive Harleys," he explains. "That doesn't mean that
they are beer drinking, wife smacking bikers."
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Research has yet to be done on the effects of this
middle-class enthusiasm for gang-style tattoo art, but it
seems likely that tattoos may be losing their cachet as
symbols of outlawry. It is even more probable that at
least some gang members have started shying away
from getting obvious gang-related tattoos in recent
years because of the increased attention that law
enforcement agencies are paying to tattoos as signs of
gang membership.
Public demand for police crackdowns against gangs has
given law enforcement new powers against suspected
gang members and therefore drawn greater attention to
signifiers of gang membership, particularly tattoos. With
the advent of special sentencing provisions that provide
harsher punishment for crimes that are gang-related,
law enforcement has a vested interest in being able to
recognize and prove gang membership.
Thus police in some states, including California and
Florida, have started keeping detailed databases
detailing particular gang tattoos as a means of
identifying gang members. When suspected gang
members are arrested or incarcerated, police will often
take photographic evidence of specific tattoos and
include that in the prisoners' permanent record, tagging
them as gangbangers for the duration of their prison
time and beyond.
In California, one of the nation's most comprehensive
and severe juvenile justice laws was passed in March
2000 in the hopes of curbing juvenile crime. Proposition
21 allows youths as young as 14 to be prosecuted as
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adults and serve felony prison sentences for crimes
deemed to be gang-related, even if they are otherwise
relatively minor crimes, such as graffiti. The proposition
also allows juvenile records that were previously
confidential to be opened in the case of gang members,
and allows gang-related nonviolent crimes to be eligible
as "strikes" under California's "three strikes" law. As
wish sex-offender laws, it requires gang members to
register as such in city and statewide databases. Most
severely, it makes juveniles eligible to receive the
death sentence for certain gang-related offenses.
Although the California law is the most punitive of this
new breed of anti-gang juvenile justice laws, the Violent
and Repeat Juvenile Offender Accountability and
Rehabilitation Act of 1999 passed by the U.S. Senate
encourages other states to pass similar laws. While
these laws do not specify how a suspect's gang
membership is to be proved, local law enforcement
personnel have come up with a variety of methods for
accomplishing this-and gang-related tattoos are
regarded by police as a key indicator.
Some agencies use a point system, giving various
weights to different criteria for determining gang
membership. Whether a suspect uses gang hand signs,
how he or she dresses, whether he or she appears in
group photos with known gang members, whether he or
she engages in writing gang-related graffiti-these are
typical of the criteria used to evaluate whether
someone is in a gang. Other than an open verbal
declaration of gang membership, the indicator that is
given the highest point value-that is regarded as the
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most damning evidence of being a member-is a gang
tattoo.
Thus the very things that make tattoos appealing as
signifiers of gang membership-their visibility and
permanence-are also the factors that make them
appealing to law enforcement as a way of identifying
and punishing gang members.
This in turn has begun to challenge the permanence of
tattoos. The increased interest in tattooing among the
middle class has also spurred development of new
techniques for removing tattoos. What was once
permanent is now less so, although removing a tattoo is
still a major undertaking. This has affected gang
members as well as movie stars. There are now many
popular community initiatives to provide free or low-
cost tattoo removal to former gang members.
Proponents of these plans say that youth in
rehabilitation programs who have their gang tattoos
removed are more likely to stay out of the gangs and off
drugs. It also allows adults who had previously been
barred the work force because of highly visible tattoos
to support themselves and their families after removal
of the stigmatizing gang insignia. Most of these plans
ask that the recipients of the services pay for them by
performing community service of some sort, rather than
paying for the procedure, which can cost as much as
$7,000 otherwise.
Dr. Tolbert Wilkinson, a Texas-based doctor, works with
one of these programs contends that they are highly
effective. He sites a survey conducted by the Bandera
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Police Department, which found that 95 percent of
former gang members who had submitted to having
their gang tattoos removed "are now drug-free and
employed. "
A 14-year-old who has his gang's name tattooed across
his forehead is committing himself to a lifetime of
identification not only with a specific gang, but with the
outlaw life. "Sometimes it makes [other people] afraid if
they see these things [gang tattoos], and they don't
know what to make of them," says Jim Foley, a
physician who works with another de-tattooing
program, the Minnesota-based "Getting Out." "And the
kids have changed. They want to get rid of the mark,
the tattoo, that's the stigma of the past."
Like many commitments, the commitment to a gang
can fade. Now thanks to plastic surgery techniques, so
can a gang tattoo.
Bibliography
Andros, Phil & Steward, Samuel M.
Bad Boys and Tough Tattoos: A Social History of the
Tattoo With Gangs, Sailors and Street-Corner Punks,
1950-1965. Harrington Park Press, 2001.
Combs, M.
Interview, 8 Dec. 2001.
Fielder, Donna.
Unmarked for Life: Gang Members Say Goodbye to
Tattoos. Denton Record-Chronicle. 10 Mar. 1999 WWW
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Gonzalez-Campoy, Rebecca and Gasparoli, Tom.
Getting Rid of the Tattoo Makes Getting Out of the Gang
Easier For Kids Who Want a New Life. Originally from
For Kid's Sake Radio. Oct 1998 WWW
Hall, Douglas Kent.
Prison Tattoos . St. Martin's Press, 1997.
Holden, Larry.
Ruling the Country Roost Country Weekly 6 July 2001.
Levins, Hoag.
The Changing Cultural Status of Tattoo Art. 12 Nov.
2001 WWW
Lira, Dody.
Interview, 14 Dec. 2001.
Matthews, Diane & Ruzicka, Kerri.
Proposition 21: Juvenile Crime. California Initiative
Review, McGeorge School of Law. March 2000. WWW
Rudman, Lisa.
Suspect Generation: The Criminalization of Youth.
Making Contact, National Radio Project. 9 Feb, 2000.
Transcript, WWW
Schorr, Melissa.
A Fresh Start: New Method may Help Gang Members
Remove Tattoos. ABC News. 17 Oct. 2000. WWW
Templeton, Robin.
No Power Like the Youth. PeaceWork. April, 2000. WWW
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Valentine, Bill & Schober, Robert.
Gangs and Their Tattoos : Identifying Gangbangers on
the Street and in Prison.
Paladin Press, 2000
Unknown.
The Resource Room-Gang Training: Gang Tattoos. 12
Nov. 2001 WWW
Unknown.
Discovery Channel & The Museum of Natural History
present The Human Canvas, 12 Nov. 2001 WWW
Unknown.
The History of Tattooing. 12 Nov. 2001 WWW
Unknown.
Anti-Defamation League present Hate on Display: A
Visual Database of Extremist Symbols, Logos and
Tattoos. 12 Nov. 2001 WWW
Unknown.
S.C. Upholds Death Sentence, Rejecting Contention
That Joining It With Another Case Was Prejudicial.
Metropolitan News Enterprise 7 Aug, 2001 WWW
Unknown.
Ex-paratrooper Found Guilty of Murder. ArmyLink News,
Army News Service. 28 Feb. 1997. WWW
Unknown.
Their Crazy Life. Flagpole Magazine Online. 23 Sept.
1998. WWW
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van den Hoonaard, Cheryl.
Written on the Body: The evolution of tattoos from the
criminal freak, to mainstream culture. 12 Nov. 2001
WWW
Whitley, Ken.
Tattoos: Recognition and Interpretation. 12 Nov. 2001
WWW
Miscellaneous Gang Tattoos
These 3 dots are a
common gang
tattoo found almost
anywhere on the
body. It means, "My
Crazy Life."
Nickname "Sno".
Tattoos may
frequently reveal
subjects nickname.
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Old English Gothic
script is common in
gang related
tattoos.
Ankle, smile now /
cry later. A pair of
theater faces that
help show a
mentality common
with many gang
members. The
tattoo itself may not
necessarily be gang
related.
YAKUZA TATTOOS
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People Nation and Folk Nation Sets
Overview
In the last section, the major Chicago-based alliances,
their histories, characteristics, and identifiers were
examined. The People Nation and Folk Nation are not
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gangs - they are alliances under which gangs are
aligned.
A simple comparison might be the National and
American baseball leagues. The National League is not
a team - it is the alliance under which teams like the LA
Dodgers and Atlanta Braves are aligned. The American
League is the alliance under which the Baltimore
Orioles and New York Yankees are aligned.
Here we will focus on the individual gangs or "sets" as
they are called. Notice the similarity in the set
identifiers and the respective alliance identifiers.
For example, the People Nation's five-point star can be
found in several People Nation set symbols.
Similarly, the pitchfork is found in most Folk Nation set
emblems and graffiti.
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People Nation Sets
Some of the major People Nation sets are listed below.
Latin Kings
Vicelords
Spanish Lords
El Rukns
Bishops
Gaylords
Latin Counts
Kents
The Latin Kings will be highlighted in this section. They
are the oldest and largest Hispanic-led street gang in
Chicago. Other major People Nation sets and their
identifiers are illustrated later.
Latin Kings
Also known as LK, Almighty Latin King Nation (ALKN),
Almighty Latin Charter Nation (ALCN).
Gender Makeup: Male and Female
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1246
Racial Makeup: Multiracial
Current estimates regarding active Latin Kings
members within the city of Chicago run as high as
25,000. A 1995 Florida assessment estimates 286 Latin
King members in the state. As of the 3
rd
Quarter 1997,
the Department of Corrections has 166 inmates/offender
members.
Members have actually traveled to locations to assist in
the formation of new Latin King
factions or chapters. Intelligence
indicates the main factions in
Chicago, Connecticut,
Massachusetts, and New York
communicate with each other when
expanding their operations to other
cities.
Jurisdictions with identified Latin King chapters
include:
Arizona
California
Chicago
Connecticut
Florida
Ohio
Massachusetts
Michigan
Minnesota
New York
Puerto Rico
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1247
Texas
Wisconsin
The Connecticut faction of the LK identify themselves
as the Almighty Latin Charter Nation (ALCN).
In the 1980's, the Latin Kings began
Florida operations in Miami. Chapters
have also been identified in:
Tampa
Pinellas Park
West Palm Beach
Ft. Lauderdale
Orlando
Other smaller cities throughout the state
Characteristics:
Latin Kings are generally well structured and
organized.
They have a strict and detailed charter or
constitution.
Their motto is "Once a King, always a King."
They have an "all for one" mentality.
Internal discipline is a high priority.
Violations may result in documented suspension,
termination, physical assault, or death.
Most Latin King factions accept females.
Their main focus is to control drug trafficking and
internal gang discipline, both within the prison and
community.
Members commemorate the January 6 as "Kings
Holy Day," and the first week in March as "Kings
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1248
Week". This celebration normally includes the
consumption of alcohol and drugs.
Identifiers/Symbols: Symbols for the
Latin King include these:
LK, ALKN, LKN, ALCN
Lion(s)
Sun
Diamond
Cross
Figure of a king's head known as
the "master"
Five-pointed castle
Five-point crown
The number 5
All symbols consistent with the
People Nation
Colors: Black and Gold or Black and Yellow
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1249
A series of unique hand signs are also
used by the group.
Enemies/Rivals: Generally, all groups
who align themselves with the Folk
Nation are considered rivals of the Latin
Kings. Some factions of Latin King from
Chicago are rivals of LK factions in
Connecticut.
Allies: Generally all groups who align
themselves with the People Nation are
considered allies of the Latin Kings. The
most prominent being the Vicelords.
Other People Nation Groups of Interest
With small modifications, most of the People Nation
identifiers are shared by all their aligned groups.
Some add their initials to People Nation identifiers to
indicate which set they are. Examples include "VL"
(Vicelords) added to a star and "LK" (Latin Kings) added
to a crown to identify which set they are. Some of the
major People Nation Sets are:
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1250
Black P-Stones
Formed by Jeff Fort.
One of the original Chicago gangs.
Identifiers/symbols:
five-point star
pyramids
eye
crescents
initials "BPS"
El Rukns (also called "Moorish Science
Temple")
Emerged from the Black P-Stone
Nation.
Identifiers/symbols:
pyramid
eye
five-point star
crescent moon
other People Nation Symbols
Vicelords
Identifiers/symbols:
five-pointed star
top hat and cane
rabbit head
pyramid
crescent moon
the letters "VL"
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1251
other People Nation symbols
Spanish Lords
Identifiers/symbols:
the initials "SL"
crosses
People Nation symbols
Bishops
Identifiers/symbols:
a bishop's bust
crosses
other People Nation symbols
Other People Nation Groups of Interest
Gaylords
Identifiers/symbols:
the initials "GL"
crosses
People Nation symbols
Latin Counts
Identifiers/symbols:
5-point star
crescent
knights helmet (unique to
Latin Counts)
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1252
other People Nation symbols
Kents
Identifiers/symbols:
the word "Kent"
People Nation symbols
Folk Nation Sets
Some of the major Folk Nation sets are:
Black Gangster
Disciples
Black Disciples
Gangster Disciples
Imperial Gangsters
La Raza
Spanish Cobras
Latin Disciples
Maniac Latin Disciples
Simon City Royals
Spanish Gangster
Disciples
Two Sixers
International Posse
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1253
Latin Eagles
Once again, note that these sets often use their names
or letter initials along with Folk Nation symbols to
identify themselves. In addition, they frequently draw
symbols that are disrespectful to People Nation sets
such as upside-down crowns and upside-down number
5s.
Black Gangster Disciples
Identifiers/symbols:
six-point star
the letters "BGD"
raised pitchforks
Black Disciples
Identifiers/symbols:
six-point star
the letters "BD"
crossed pitchforks
heart with wings
Gangster Disciples
Identifiers/symbols:
six-point star
initials "GD"
initials "BOS" or "BOSS (Brothers of
the Struggle or Brothers of the
Strong Struggle)
the number 6
C
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1254
raised pitchforks
Imperial Gangsters
Identifiers/symbols:
crown with rounded edges
initials "IG"
raised pitchforks
La Raza
Identifiers/symbols:
initials "LR"
Folk Nation symbols
Spanish Cobras
Identifiers/symbols:
the cobra
raised pitchforks
initials "SC"
Latin Eagles
Identifiers/symbols:
eagle in flight
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lic
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O
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!
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1255
eagle's head
Folk Nation symbols
Latin Disciples
Identifiers/symbols:
heart with horns and devil's tail
raised pitchforks
Folk Nation Sets
Maniac Latin Disciples
Identifiers/symbols:
six-point star
initials "LD" or "MLD"
raised pitchfork(s)
Simon City Royals
Identifiers/symbols:
six pointed star
the word "Royals"
pitchforks
Spanish Gangster Disciples
Identifiers/symbols:
cross
the words "Spanish Gangster
Disciples"
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lic
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1256
Folk Nation symbols
Two Sixers
Identifiers/symbols:
dice with "6" on one die and "2"
on the other
initials "TS"
rabbit head
Folk Nation symbols
International Posse (INP)
Identifiers/symbols:
six-point star
the letters "INP"
pitchforks
the number 6
heart with wings
Notre Dame logo
Multiracial
Originated in South Dade County,
Florida to protect against Latin
Kings and joined Folk Nation
later.
Claim chapters in:
California
Detroit
Ft. Lauderdale
Miami
New York
Orlando
Puerto Rico
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1257
Texas
West Palm Beach
Los Angeles-based Gangs Bloods and Crips
Overview
The Los Angeles (LA)-based Bloods and Crips are
probably the most widely recognized gangs in America
due to the media exposure received in the 1980's.
These groups have migrated throughout the country and
are seen in most states and their prison populations.
There are literally hundreds of sets or individual gangs
under the main Blood and Crip names. They are no
longer racially specific.
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In Florida, the presence of the
Chicago-based Folk Nation and
People Nation is so prevalent, that
the Crips and Bloods have
developed allies under these
alliances. Bloods traditionally align
themselves with the People Nation
and Crips with the Folk Nation. This alignment may vary
for local jurisdictions due to competition for drug
territory or violence against one another.
These alignments are often
communicated in their
graffiti.
There are, however,
areas of the country
where Crips and Folk
groups such as the
Black Gangster
Disciples are in competition for the
drug trade and thus, are rivals. This is illustrated in
their graffiti by use of the "eight ball." If the "eight ball"
is drawn or displayed intact, then the sets are aligned.
If it is cracked or drawn through, there is dissension
among the groups. The "eight ball" is significant
because when you bring the hand sign for the Crips and
the 'pitchfork' hand sign together it forms an 8-ball.
Crip Handsign
Crip Tattooing
Eight ball tattoo.
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Facts - Bloods
Originated in South California to
defend against the Crips
Generally align with People Nation
sets
Identifiers/symbols:
the color red
red bandannas or rags
the word "Piru" (the original
Blood gang)
crossed out "C" in words as
disrespect for Crips
other disrespectful anti-Crip
graffiti
Facts - Crips
Originated in Los Angeles in
the late 60s
Migrated throughout the
United States
Generally align with Folk
Nation sets
Extremely violent
Multiracial
Identifiers/symbols:
the color blue
blue bandannas and
rags
use the letter "c" in
place of "b" in writing
in disrespect for Bloods
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1260
calling each other
"Cuzz"
calling themselves
"Blood Killas" (BK)
wearing British Knight
(BK) tennis shoes
Major Prison Gangs
There are six major prison gangs that are recognized
nationally for their participation in organized crime and
violence. They have no known official affiliation with
other alliances.
Each group is represented in Florida's prison system
population; however some are not readily recognizable.
The six major prison gangs currently are:
1. Neta
2. Aryan Brotherhood
3. Black Guerrilla Family
4. Mexican Mafia
5. La Nuestra Familia
6. Texas Syndicate
Although their numbers are small in Florida prisons, if
left unmonitored they could easily develop into highly
predatory groups as they have in states with
comparable inmate populations. The largest prison
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gangs in the Florida Department of
Corrections are Neta and Aryan
Brotherhood.
Neta
Gender Makeup: Male
Racial Makeup: Puerto Rican-American/ Hispanic
Origin: an inmate established The Neta in 1970 in Rio
Pedras Prison, Puerto Rico. It was formed to stop the
violence between inmates housed in the Rio Pedras
Prison.
Characteristics:
They use the facade of a cultural organization.
They are establishing ties to street gangs.
Members are strongly patriotic and have
associated themselves with a revolutionary Puerto
Rican group called the Los Macheteros
Their philosophy is "independence for the island"
or "Puerto Rico."
They see themselves as oppressed people who are
unwillingly to be governed by the United States.
Members are required to procure 20 perspective
recruits.
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1262
Any disrespect shown to an individual Neta
member is looked upon as disrespect to the group
and is usually dealt with violently.
Neta members come together in observance of
their fallen members on the 30
th
of
each month.
Identifiers/Symbols:
Their colors are red, white, and
blue. There is also evidence that
black is sometimes substituted for blue.
Members usually wear beads in these colors, but
also will wear clothing such as bandannas,
handkerchiefs sticking out of their pockets, white
tops, black shorts, etc., in these colors.
Probationary members wear all white beads until
they are considered loyal; then, they can wear
black beads among the white, plus one red one.
Members usually display the Puerto Rican flag and
are known to carry Neta identification cards.
The Neta emblem is a heart pierced by two
crossing Puerto Rican flags with a shackled right
hand with the middle and index fingers crossed.
Members salute each other by holding the crossed
fingers of their right hand over
their heart. This hand signal has
the meaning "N" in sign
language; it also means
togetherness and unity.
Enemies/Rivals:
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1263
Latin Kings
Los Solidos
Neta members are secretive and will not freely admit
membership. This group is much more challenging to
identify and validate than other gangs.
Propensity for Disruptive Behavior:
A classic Neta tactic is to keep a low profile while
other Hispanic groups draw attention to
themselves.
They have quietly entrenched themselves in the
drug trade and extortion, and have performed "hits"
for other STGs.
Neta is actively recruiting members in our
correctional facilities.
Neta's growth should be closely monitored in
prisons and they should never be taken lightly.
Neta is dangerous to staff and inmates. Drug activity,
extortion, and gang-related violence are
what they do and they do it violently. They
like to carry semiautomatic and fully
automatic weapons. Neta members are
not deterred by police and will not
hesitate to attack or to kill one if they feel
it is necessary.
Aryan Brotherhood (AB)
Gender Makeup: Male
Racial Makeup: White
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1264
Origin: Originated in 1967 in the San Quentin State
Prison, California Department of Corrections.
Characteristics:
Unaffiliated splinter groups sometimes use the
name of their state along with the name "Aryan
Brotherhood" (e.g., Aryan Brotherhood of Texas).
Members display many white supremacist, neo-nazi
characteristics and ideology, but often state their
goals as simply "getting high and getting over," or
making their stay in the prison as comfortable as
possible.
Members are ordinarily apolitical. Most are in
custody for crimes such as
robbery.
Identifiers/Symbols:
Shamrock clover leaf
Initials "AB"
Swastikas
Double lighting bolts
The numbers "666"
Known to use Gaelic (old Irish)
symbols as a method of coding communications
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1265
Aryan Brotherhood groups from other states often
accompany the symbols mentioned above with the
name of the state
Enemies/Rivals:
The AB maintains a working relationship with the
Mexican Mafia (EME) and therefore opposes the EME's
long-time enemy, the La Nuestra Familia (NF).
The Aryan Brotherhood has traditionally nurtured a
deep hatred toward black individuals and members of
black groups/gangs, such as the:
Black Guerrilla Family (BGF)
Crips
Bloods
El Rukns
Allies:
Maintains a working relationship with the Mexican
Mafia (EME).
Is known to give moral support to black groups in
an effort to encourage possible prison
disturbances.
Utilizes black associates to buy and sell drugs to
elements of the black prison population.
Compatibles with most motorcycle gangs; many
members were former "Bikers."
Compatible with most white supremacy groups.
This often leads to confusion in distinguishing AB
members from other white supremacist groups,
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1266
particularly when making identification by
their tattoos or symbols.
"Copy cat" Aryan Brotherhood groups are generally
tolerated by true members. However, federal and
California ABs do not consider them to be
legitimate and may threaten violence if AB tattoos
are not burned or cut off.
Actively cooperates with the Dirty White Boys, an
Anglo spin-off gang of the Texas Syndicate. Similar
cooperation has been observed with the Silent
Brotherhood.
Recruitment/Initiation:
Membership in the AB has traditionally come from
white male inmates.
Lifelong allegiance is a requirement.
A "Blood in, blood out" oath must be taken.
Often a "hit" or significant act of violence is
required before full membership is earned.
Candidacy for membership may last a
year or more.
Propensity for Disruptive Behavior:
Aryan Brotherhood is not readily
recognizable; however, receipt of
inmates on interstate compact and the current
membership in groups with white supremacy
ideology lend to the threat of an organizing AB
within our facilities.
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1267
Main activities of the AB are centered on drug
trafficking, extortion, pressure rackets, and
internal discipline.
Prison activities include introduction of
contraband, distribution of drugs, and getting past
facility rules and regulations.
Traditionally, targets have been non-gang inmates
and internal discipline.
From 1975 to 1985, members committed 40
homicides in California prisons and local jails, as
well as 13 homicides in the community.
From 1978 to 1992, AB members, suspects, and
associates in the federal system were involved in
26 homicides, 3 of which involved staff victims.
Once released from custody, AB members are actively
expected to continue to assist or "score" for the
members remaining in prison.
Major Prison Gangs
(continued)
Black Guerrilla Family (BGF)
Gender Makeup: Male
Racial Makeup: Black
Origin: Founded in 1966 at San Quentin State Prison,
California by former Black Panther member George L.
Jackson.
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1268
Characteristics:
The BGF is the most politically oriented of the
major prison gangs.
They were formed as a Marxist/Maoist/Leninist
revolutionary organization with these goals:
Eradicate racism
Struggle to maintain dignity in prison
Overthrow the United States government
The group is extremely antigovernment and anti-
official. This mentality is often depicted in their
symbolism.
BGF has a very strict death oath that requires a life
pledge of loyalty to the group.
Identifiers/symbols:
Antigovernment/anti-official mentality is often
depicted in conjunction with the initials BGF.
Cross sabers and shotgun
Black dragon overtaking a prison or prison tower
Enemies/Rivals:
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1269
Aryan Brotherhood
Texas Syndicate
Aryan Brotherhood of Texas
Mexican Mafia
Allies:
Has a very active working relationship with La
Nuestra Familia.
Other allies
Black Liberation Army
Symbionese Liberation Army
Weather Underground
black street gangs
Black street gangs are often utilized by the BGF
and their members are heavily recruited into the
BGF. These include:
Crips
Bloods
El Rukns
Black Gangster Disciples
other black street gangs
Recruitment/Initiation:
Membership in the BGF has traditionally come from
black male inmates.
Lifelong allegiance is a requirement and a death
oath must be taken.
Black street gang members are often recruited into
the BGF upon imprisonment.
Propensity for Disruptive Behavior:
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1270
The BGF is not readily
recognizable in the Florida
Department of Corrections;
however the history of the group
and documented acts of
violence in other jurisdictions warrants their
certification as a Security Threat Group.
Receipt of inmates on interstate compact lend to
the potential threat of an organizing BGF within our
facilities.
The antigovernment, anti-official mentality promoted by
the group poses a serious threat to corrections and law
enforcement personnel who represent the government
and the law.
Mexican Mafia
Gender Makeup: Male
Racial Makeup: Mexican-American/Hispanic
Origin: The Mexican Mafia (EME) was formed in the late
50s at Duel Vocational Center, a youthful offender
facility in California, from an urban Los Angeles street
gang.
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Characteristics:
EME's philosophy centers on ethnic solidarity and
control of drug trafficking.
EME is the Federal Bureau of Prisons' most active
gang, in terms of incident frequency rather than
severity.
Ordinarily, each prison has a separate leadership.
Identifiers/Symbols:
Initials "EME."
The Mexican flag symbols such as the eagle with a
snake in conjunction with the initials "EME."
A single hand print, usually black in color.
The EME symbol of eternal war.
Initials 'MM' or 'M.'
Many intelligence personnel and officers confuse the
EME with the Mexikanemi from Texas. Great care
should be taken in evaluating these distinct groups.
Some believe the Mexikanemi share identical tattoos
and symbols with EME, but there are subtle differences
to be taken into account when attempting to associate
membership.
Enemies/Rivals:
The La Nuestra Familia is the EME's chief rival. They
are said to have a "kill on sight relationship," which has
resulted in Federal Bureau of Prisons adopting an
absolute separation of confirmed members. Other rivals
include:
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1272
Northern Structure
Arizona's New Mexican Mafia
Black Guerrilla Family
black street gangs
Allies:
The EME has a very active working relationship with the
Aryan Brotherhood. Other allies include:
Arizona's Old Mexican Mafia
Mexikanemi
New Mexico Syndicate
urban Latino street gangs.
The EME often provides protection for imprisoned La
Costa Nostra members.
Recruitment/Initiation:
Members are Mexican-American/Hispanic male
inmates.
The wives, girlfriends, and relatives of the EME are
held in extremely high regard due to their support
of drug transactions, financial activities, and mail-
forwarding operations.
The EME is generally considered a "blood in, blood
out" organization.
Propensity for Disruptive Behavior:
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1273
EME is not readily recognizable
in the Florida Department of
Corrections; however the history
of the group and documented
acts of violence in other
jurisdictions warrants STG
certification.
Receipt of inmates on interstate compact and the
current membership in groups with Hispanic/Latino
supremacy ideology and Latino street gangs lend
to the threat.
The main activities of the EME are centered around
drug trafficking, extortion, pressure rackets, and
internal discipline.
The EME uses killing as a means of discipline or gaining
respect. EME killings are extremely gruesome and
calculated to establish fear and intimidation.
La Nuestra Familia
Gender Makeup: Male
Racial Makeup: Mexican-American/ Hispanic
Origin: The La Nuestra Familia (NF) originated in
Soledad prison in California in the mid 60s. It was
established to protect younger, rural, Mexican-
American inmates from other inmates.
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Characteristics:
The NF was originally formed for protection
purposes from the Mexican Mafia (EME).
The cultural and social differences between urban
and rural Mexican Americans developed into a
deep hatred between the EME and NF.
The struggle to gain power over other groups
evolved into the NF's participation in criminal
activities in an effort to control the introduction of
contraband into the facilities.
There are separate organizational chains for street
and prison segments.
Identifiers/Symbols:
La Nuestra Familia members are known to wear
identifying red rags (as does the Northern
Structure).
NF members favor larger tattoos, often on the
entire back.
Symbols include the initials NF, LNF, ENE, and F.
The number 14 for "N," the 14th letter in the
alphabet stands for Norte or Northern California.
A sombrero with a dagger is a symbol commonly
used by NF members.
Enemies/Rivals:
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The Mexican Mafia is the chief rival. Other rivals
include:
Texas Syndicate
Mexikanemi
F-14s
Aryan Brotherhood
Allies:
The NFs have an uneasy working relationship with
the Black Guerrilla Family that is driven by their
sharing of common enemies.
The Northern Structure, a spin-off subsidiary prison
gang, is believed to have formed to direct the
attention of officials away from the NF.
Recruitment/Initiation:
Membership consists traditionally of Mexican-
American/Hispanic male inmates.
Lifelong allegiance is a requirement and a "blood
in, blood out" oath must be taken.
Membership appears to extend beyond prison.
Propensity for Disruptive Behavior:
The NF is not readily recognizable in the Florida
Department of Corrections; however the history of
the group and documented acts of violence in other
jurisdictions warrants their STG certification.
Receipt of inmates on interstate compact and the
current membership in groups with Hispanic and
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1276
Latino supremacy ideology lend to
the threat of an organizing NF within
our facilities.
Their main activities are drug
trafficking, extortion, pressure
rackets, and internal discipline.
Once released from custody NF members are expected
to actively continue to assist or "score" for the
members remaining in prison. Failure to do so can
cause a member to fall in great disfavor with other
members.
Texas Syndicate (TS)
Gender Makeup: Male
Racial Makeup: Mexican-American/ Hispanic
Origin: The TS originated in Folsom prison, in California
in the early 70s.
It was established in direct response to the other
California prison gangs (notably the Aryan
Brotherhood and Mexican Mafia), which were
attempting to prey on native Texas inmates.
Characteristics:
Membership is rising nationally due to recruitment.
The TS now accepts members from Latin American
countries such as Columbia, Cuba, and Mexico.
They have made attempts to recruit in the Florida
Department of Corrections.
A TS member is called a "Carnal."
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A group of members is called
"Carnales."
A TS recruit is called a "Cardinal."
The institutional leader is called the
"Chairman."
Identifiers/Symbols:
They have tattoos with a "TS" located somewhere
in the design; sometimes requires close scrutiny.
The tattoos are generally located on the back of
the right forearm, but they have also been found on
the outside calf areas, neck, and chest.
Enemies/Rivals:
Aryan Brotherhood
La Nuestra Familia
Mexican Mafia
Mexikanemi
Mandingo Warriors
Allies:
The TS has developed associations with
the Texas Mafia and Dirty White Boys.
Propensity for Disruptive Behavior:
There is some representation in the
Florida Department of Corrections.
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The TS has been found to be recruiting.
The history of the group and documented acts of
violence in other jurisdictions warrant their
certification as a Security Threat Group.
Receipt of inmates on interstate compact and the
current membership in groups with Hispanic and
Latino supremacy ideology lend to the threat of an
organizing TS within our facilities.
The main activities of the TS are centered around
drug trafficking, extortion, pressure rackets, and
internal discipline.
Gangs in Florida
Every state and major city in the United States is
plagued with local, loosely structured, street gangs that
are mainly motivated by drug sales. Historically,
disruptive incidents in our prisons have been based on
the geographic origins of the inmates involved (e.g.,
Miami gang inmates vs. Tampa gang inmates).
These local groups form based on common interests
and a sense of loyalty to individuals from their city,
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1279
neighborhood, street, or housing complex. They adopt
generic names such as Players, Posse, Crew, Mafia,
Gang, and Bad Boys and attach their particular street or
avenue name to it.
Although they are loosely structured and tend to
conduct their illegal activities in a specific location,
they are extremely violent and develop bitter blood
rivalries.
Often the group evolves, and adopts an alliance with a
national street gang such as the Bloods, Crips, or
Chicago-based Folk Nation and People Nation sets and
use their symbols and identifiers. This graduation in
gang involvement often occurs in county jails, prisons,
and juvenile facilities.
This increases the importance of tracking the
development of gang membership while inmates are in
custody. Tracking enables DC to notify local law
enforcement of new members or of any changes in a
member's affiliation.
Hundreds of these local gangs have been identified in
every city from Pensacola to the Florida Keys. This
includes small rural towns, upper middle-class
neighborhoods, schools, and other areas where we tend
to deny gang existence.
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Here is a list of gangs security threat groups have been
encountered within the Department of Corrections:
Security Threat Groups In Florida
10th Street Thugs Miami
112 Avenue Boys Miami
12 Nation Street Gang Miami
18th Street Gang Multiple Cities/Counties
205th Street Players Miami
2-1 Jacksonville
22 Ave. Players Dade
23rd Street Boys Ft. Pierce
25 Street Folk St. Petersburg
299 Street Boys Miami
29th Street Players Miami
2nd Street Fellows Miami
35th Street Players Miami
39th Ave North Boys Clearwater
3-D Kings Sunrise
4 Avenue Players Leon
56 Ave Players Miami
6 Street Mob Broward
69 Folk Pensacola
773 Boys Quincy
8 Ball Posse Sarasota
98 Posse Ft. Pierce
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American Nazi Party Multiple Cities/Counties
Apopka Boys Apopka
Asian Bloods Multiple Cities/Counties
Army of Light Hendry CI
Aryan Brotherhood Prisons
Aryan Nations Multiple Cities/Counties
Asian Gangsters Pinellas
Baby Demons Miami
B-Boys Pinellas City
Bad Boys Hillsborough
Basin Street Rat Pack Tallahassee
Bellaire Boys Clearwater
Black Angels Wimauma
Black Gangster Disciples Multiple Cities/Counties
Black Guerilla Family Multiple Cities/Counties
Black Hawks Hillsborough
Black United Soldiers Tallahassee
Blackheart Miami
Bloods Multiple Cities/Counties
Blue Arrows West Palm Beach
Broadview Mob Broward
Carol City Lynch Mob Carol City
Carver Shores Boys Orlando
City Of Chaires Posse Tallahassee
Cloud Nine Ft. Lauderdale
Criminal Minded Posse Lake Worth
Crips Multiple Cities/Counties
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1282
Crips
Crypt Disciples Pensacola
Danger Zone Palatka
Davie Boys Broward
Death Squad Pompano Beach
Devil Boys Tampa
Dixie Court Players Okeechobee
Dixie Playboys Ft. Lauderdale
Dog Pound Gangsters Polataka
Dogg Pound Miami
Dover Locos Plant City
Down By Law Palm Beach
Du Rag Posse Palm Beach
Eastside Bradenton
Eastside Locos Manatee
Eastside Posse Orlando
Eau Gallie Posse Eau Gallie
Ebony Kings Jacksonville
El Rukn Multiple Cities/Counties
Ex-Legion Broward
Familia Multiple Cities/Counties
Five Percenters Multiple Cities/Counties
Flip Side Posse FL State Prison
Flipside Lake Wales
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Folk Disciples-Chap 6 Orlando
Folk Nation Multiple Cities/Counties
Fort Pierce Boyz Fort Pierce
Fountain Head Posse Melbourne
Fourth World Mafia Pompano Beach
G.O.D.S. MG Multiple Cities/Counties
Gang Colors Miami
Gang Of 14 Jacksonville
Gangster Disciples Multiple Cities/Counties
Gaylords Coral Springs
Ghost Gangster Disciples Lake County
Grand Theft Auto Hillsborough
Grateful Dead MG Multiple Cities/Counties
Hell's Angels Multiple Cities/Counties
Hollywood Criminals Hollywood
Holton St. Boys Leon
Imperial Gangsters Multiple Cities/Counties
Imperial GD Multiple Cities/Counties
Inner Circle Assassins Pompano Beach
Insane Cobras Okaloosa CI
Insane Gangster Disciples Multiple Cities/Counties
Int. Gangster Association Orlando
International Posse Multiple Cities/Counties
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International Posse
Jackson Height Posse Tampa
Jacksonville City Boys Jacksonville
Jamaican Posse South Florida
Jamestown Project Gang St. Petersburg
Joe Louis Street Posse Tallahassee
Junkyard Jits Ft. Pierce
King Garden Boys Miami
Ku Klux Klan Multiple Cities/Counties
La Cruz Hollywood
La Familia Tampa
La Raza South Florida
La Vida Sunrise
Lake Bradford Boys Leon
Latino Bad Boys Miami
Latin Counts Multiple Cities/Counties
Latin Disciples Multiple Cities/Counties
Latin Eagles Multiple Cities/Counties
Latin Folk Miami
Latin Force Multiple Cities/Counties
Latin Gangster Disciples Multiple Cities/Counties
Latin Kings Multiple Cities/Counties
Latin Thug Posse Palm Beach
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1285
Legion Hollywood
Legion of Doom Miami
Longwood Lost Boys Longwood
Lynch Mob Palm Beach
Mafia Boys Miami
Maniac GD Miami
Maniac Latin Disciples Multiple Cities/Counties
Miami Boyz Miami
Mickey Cobras Lee County
Money Kings Ft. Myers
Most Powerful Nation Davie
MS 13 Multiple Cities/Counties
N.S.W.W.P. Multiple Cities/Counties
Nasty Boys Titusville
Neta Orlando
Neta
Niggers From Lackawanna Jacksonville
Night Hawks Jacksonville
Northside Nation Broward/Miami
Northside White Boyz Ft. Myers
Opa Locka Boys Opa Locka
Outlaws Multiple Cities/Counties
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P Stone Nation Multiple Cities/Counties
Pagans Multiple Cities/Counties
Parson's Gang West Palm Beach
P-Dogs Tampa
Peckerwoods Jacksonville
People In Control Tampa
People Nation Multiple Cities/Counties
Pine Manor Posse Ft. Myers
Pompano Bloopers Pompano
Pompano Boys Tampa
Port Of Tampa Gang Tampa
Project Boys Quincy
Quincy Jaw Jackers Quincy
Red Revolutionary Militia Washington CI
Righteous Gangster Disciples Tampa
Rockbrook Boys Tallahassee
Rollin 20's Crips Panama City, Tallahassee
Romans Of Fowler Ave Tampa
Rude Boys Ft. Pierce
Second Power Kendall
Shower Posse Jacksonville
Side by Side Boys Miami
Simon City Royals Multiple Cities/Counties
Skidrow Pompano Beach
Skie Row Pompano
Skinhead (Racist) Multiple Cities/Counties
Skullheads Miami
Solidos Multiple Cities/Counties
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Southside Neighborhood Gp Tallahassee
Spanish Cobras Miami
Spanish Gangsters Multiple Cities/Counties
Spanish Law Boyton Beach
Spanish Lords Multiple Cities/Counties
Stoners Lake Wales
Street Action Posse Miami
Sureno 13 Multiple Cities/Counties
Sur XIII Multiple Cities/Counties
T.N.S. Dade
Tampa Boyz Tampa
Tampa Posse Tampa
T-Dogs Titusville
Terror Of Dome Immokalee
Texas Syndicate Prison
The Konneticut Kids Miami
The Unforgiven Prison
Thug Life Pensacola
Thunder Cats Palm Beach
Town & Country Villains Tampa
Tre Duce Folk Pensacola
Tres D Tampa
Truman Arms Posse Pensacola
Twin Colts Okeechobee
Unforgiven Multiple Cities/Counties
United Kings Multiple Cities/Counties
Us Niggers Love Violence Ft. Lauderdale
Vados Locos Miami
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Venice Shoreline Crips Lee County
Vice Lords Multiple Cities/Counties
Victory Park Zoe Pound Miami
VIP Tampa
W/B-Boys Clearwater
Warlocks MG Multiple Cities/Counties
West Side Crips Lake Wales
Westside Boys Hialeah
Westside Duce Tampa
Westside Folk Disciples Lee County
Westside Gangsters Deerfield
Westside Locos Bradenton
Westside Mafia Jacksonville
White Aryan Resistance Multiple Cities/Counties
White Aryan Resistance
White Fence Coral Springs
White Pride Kissimmee
Worldwide Folk Multiple Cities/Counties
Y.L.O. Dade
Young Bloods Ft. Walton Beach
Young Folk Hillsborough
Young Gun Tallahassee
Young Riders Webster
Zoe Pound Miami
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Zoo Nigger Multiple Cities/Counties
Zulus Multiple Cities/Counties
SUICIDE BOMBERS/ IMPROVISED EXPLOSIVED
DEVICES
BY
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MICHAEL E GRAY
INDEX
CHAPTER 1 SUICIDE BOMBING
CHAPTER 2 HISTORY OF SUICIDE
BOMBINGS
CHAPTER 3 PROFILE OF SUICIDE
BOMBERS
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CHAPTER 4 ISLAMIC VIEWS SUICIDE
BOMBINGS
CHAPTER 5 USAGE AND RELATED
TERMS
CHAPTER 6 SUICIDE BOMBING
INCIDENTS 2000-2004
CHAPTER 7 SUICIDE WEAPONS
CHAPTER 8 TERRORIST VIEWS
CHAPTER 9 WORLD WIDE TERRORIST
GROUPS
CHAPTER 10 TERRORISM DEFINED
CHAPTER 11 WHAT IS A TERRORIST
CHAPTER 12 HISTORY AND CAUSE OF
TERRORISM
CHAPTER 13 EXAMPLES OF TERRORISM
CHAPTER 14 EMERGENCY
PREPARDENESS
CHAPTER 15 GLOBAL TRENDS OF
TERRORISM
CHAPTER 16 ASYMMETRIC WARFARE
CHAPTER 17 ASSASSINATIONS
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CHAPTER 18 IMPROVISED EXPLOSIVE
DEVICES
CHAPTER 19 SUICIDE BOMBS
CHAPTER 20 IED FIRING DEVICES
CHAPTER 21 IEDS IRAQ
CHAPTER 22 DAISY CHAIN MUNITIONS
CHAPTER 23 SIGNIFICANT ACTIVITIES
CHAPTER 24 ORIGIN OF MILITARY
MINES PART 1
CHAPTER 25 ORIGIN OF MILITARY
MINES PART 2
CHAPTER 26 LANDMINES
CHAPTER 27 PURSUIT DETERENT
MUNITIONS
CHAPTER 28 SELF HEALING MINE
FIELDS
CHAPTER 29 VOLCANO MINE
DISPENSER
CHAPTER 30 SELF HEALING MINEFIELDS
ANTI TANK
CHAPTER 31 MISCELLANEOUS
EXPLOSIVES USED AS IED
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CHAPTER 32 CELLS PHONES USED AS
DETONATORS
CHAPTER 33 IED SAFETY RULES
CHAPTER 34 NVESTIGATING BOMBING
INCIDENTS
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Chapter 1
A suicide bombing is a bomb attack on people or
property, committed by a person who knows the
explosion will cause his or her own death (see suicide,
suicide weapons). Suicide bombing is a kind of tactic
typically employed by extremely committed military or
paramilitary groups that are at a disadvantage to their
target. This term came into popular usage in the
Western media in the Second World War to describe the
actions of Japanese kamikaze pilots who caused the
maximum damage by flying their aircraft into targets. In
more recent times, the term is most often used in
describing attacks by Muslim jihadists.
Overview
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Bus after suicide bombing, Haifa
Suicide bombings have taken various forms.
History shows numerous examples of soldiers and
others that have resorted to suicide attacks out of
sudden desperation, to prevent capture or to relieve a
pinned-down unit, often by simply detonating a grenade
or other explosive device while holding it near enemy
troops.
During the Crusades, the Knights Templar destroyed
one of their own ships, killing 140 Christians in order to
kill ten times as many Muslims. Another early example
of suicide bombing occurred during the Belgian
Revolution, when the Dutch Lt. Jan van Speijk
detonated his own ship in the harbor of Antwerp to
prevent being captured by Belgians. In World War II,
kamikaze pilots acted as human missiles, flying their
planes, heavily loaded with explosives, directly into
enemy warships. Following World War II, Viet Minh
"death volunteers" were used against the French
colonial army.
In the Middle East, hundreds of suicide bombings have
been undertaken in the last few decades, primarily by
Arab men and youths. Multiple Palestinian militant
groups have sent specially trained suicide bombers to
kill Israelis.
The bombers strap themselves with powerful
explosives (often mixed with shrapnel and rat
poisoning) and seek out a civilian target (often cafs or
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city buses crowded with people at rush hour) or a
military target (for example, soldiers waiting for
transport at roadside). By seeking enclosed locations, a
successful explosion usually kills a number of people.
The Tamil Tigers are another prolific example, and have
committed more than 240 suicide bombings since 1980
[1] (http://www.spur.asn.au/News_2003_July_27.htm).
Their victims included former Indian PM Rajiv Gandhi
and many prominent Lankan leaders.
Often there is a religious element involved, besides
other motives such as politics or blackmail: many
suicide bombers believe that they will attain an
otherworldly reward for their sacrifice. Those who send
suicide bombers on missions cultivate the belief that
suicide bombers are martyrs. Palestinian television has
aired a number of music videos and announcements
that promote eternal reward for children who seek
"martyrdom"
[2] (http://www.pmw.org.il/tv%20part1.html).
Besides the religious aspect, there is also a simple
cost-benefit analysis that motivates suicide bombing. Al
Qaeda leader Ayman al-Zawahiri expresses this view
clearly: "The method of martyrdom operation [is] the
most successful way of inflicting damage against the
opponent and the least costly to the mujahidin in terms
of casualties" [3]
(http://www.fas.org/irp/world/para/ayman_bk.html). The
economic benefits were also considered by kamikaze
pilots, who saved on fuel by ruling out the return
journey.
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Military historians classify suicide bombing as a form of
armed violence, belonging to the tactics of asymmetric
warfare -- suicide bombings are only common when one
side in a violent conflict lacks the means for effective,
conventional attacks. However in the situation of many
suicide bombings, the attacks are carried out against
civilians rather than military targets, depriving the
tactic of any legitimacy in the eyes of many.
Bombings
Suicide bombing usually (but not always) targets poorly-
guarded nonmilitary facilities and personnel. It can be
either a military tactic, a political one, or a mixture of
the two. It may qualify as terrorism where the intention
is to kill, maim or terrorise a predominantly civilian
target population, or fall within the definition of an act
of war where it is committed against a military target
under war conditions.
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Explosive vest of a Palestinian suicide bomber,
captured by the Israeli Police.
As a political tactic, suicide bombings send a message
of impassioned opposition to enemy forces (that the
bomber is willing to die for his or her cause) and a
message of desperate recklessness to third parties
(that the bomber feels the justice of the cause so
strongly that he would rather die than submit and that
he is giving little thought to the danger). However, it
may backfire, as suicide bombings ignite rage and
hatred and undermine the belief in the humanity of the
side performing them.
When used against civilian targets, suicide bombing
usually causes fear in the target population greater
than that caused by other forms of terrorism, as the
fact that the bomber intends to die makes deterrence
almost impossible. Though use against civilian targets
have differing effects on their goals (see reaction
below). Some economists suggest that this tactic goes
beyond symbolism and is actually a response to COM
modified, controlled, or devalued lives, as the suicide
bombers apparently consider family prestige and
financial compensation from the community to
compensate for their own lives.
The doctrine of asymmetric warfare views suicide
bombing in terms of an imbalance of power. Groups
with little significant power resort to suicide bombing
as a response to actions or policies of a group with
great power. Groups which have significant power have
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no need to resort to suicide bombing to achieve their
aims: in consequence suicide bombing is
overwhelmingly used by guerrilla, and other irregular
fighting forces. Among many such groups, there are
religious overtones: bombers and their supporters may
believe that their sacrifice will be rewarded in an
afterlife. Suicide bombers often believe, correctly or
incorrectly, that their actions are in accordance with
moral or social standards because they are aimed at
fighting unjust acts.
Chapter 2
History
The concept of self-sacrifice has long been a part of
war. From the earliest days of honoring fallen soldiers
as heroes, those who sacrificed themselves to further a
political, moral, or cultural ideology have been and still
remain highly regarded character archetypes in human
societies. Soldiers who lay down their lives to protect
their comrades are commonly awarded the highest
recognition for courage in battle, while those who
survive combat are honored for their physical and
psychological sacrifice.
However, both conventional (eg. soldiers) and non-
conventional (eg. suicide bombers) combatants often
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commit atrocities and may face military discipline if
they are found to be in breach of the laws of war.
Suicide bombers are more often associated with
attacks on civilian or non-military targets. In recent
times, it has been mainly Islamic suicide bombers who
have been encouraged in this practice by their
commanders.
The act of deliberately destroying oneself to inflict
harm on an enemy is more restricted to modern times
and the era of explosives. The line between the two is
considered by some a matter of subjectivity, as in the
argument that many WWII soldiers killed were "martyrs"
(in the sense that they were to suffer for the sake of a
principle, rather than dying as the penalty for refusing
to renounce a belief) because their life expectancy in
combat was very lowoften averaging only two or three
months.
The ritual act of self-sacrifice during combat appeared
in a large scale at the end of World War II with the
Japanese kamikaze bombers. In these attacks,
airplanes were used as flying bombs. Later in the war,
as Japan became more desperate, this act became
formalized, ritualized, and planes were outfitted with
explosives specific to the task of a suicide mission.
Kamikaze strikes were a weapon of symmetric war
used by the Empire of Japan chiefly against United
States Navy aircraft carriers.
The Japanese Navy also used both one and two man
piloted torpedoes called kaitens on suicide missions.
Although sometimes called midget submarines, these
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1301
were modified versions of the unmanned torpedoes of
the time and should be distinguished from the torpedo-
firing midget submarines used earlier in the war, which
were designed to infiltrate shore defenses and return to
a mother ship after firing their torpedoes. Although
extremely hazardous these midget submarine attacks
were not technically suicide missions. By way of
contrast, while the early kaitens were provided with
escape hatches, there is no evidence that they were
ever used or that the pilots had any intention of using
them. Later kaitens provided no means of escape.
After aiming a two-person kaiten at their target, the two
crew members were to embrace and shoot each other
in the head. Social support for such choices was strong,
due in part to Japanese cultural history, in which
seppuku, honorable suicide, was part of samurai duty. It
was also fostered and indoctrinated by the Imperial
program to persuade, often through coercion (such as
through doping), the Japanese soldiers to commit these
acts.
Guerrilla groups that have employed suicide bombing
include the Viet Minh(used sappers to accomplish this),
Kurdistan Workers Party and the Tamil Tigers. Suicide
bombing has been a particularly popular tactic amongst
some Palestinian groups, including Hamas, Islamic
Jihad, and the Al-Aqsa Martyrs Brigade. Bombers
affiliated with these groups often use so-called "suicide
belts", explosive devices designed to be strapped to the
body under clothing. The manufacture and shipping of
these devices is generally considered a form of support
for terrorism. The first suicide bombing of the modern
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1302
phase of the Israeli-Palestinian conflict was carried out
by a Japanese person. In 1972 Tsuyoshi Okudaira, part
of the Japanese Red Army, deliberately killed himself
and those around him with a grenade in a part of the
Lod Airport Massacre. The term "suicide bombing"
became commonplace after the attack on a United
States Marine barracks in Beirut, Lebanon, in 1983.
The September 11, 2001 Terrorist Attack involved the
hijacking of large fully-fueled passenger jets
(accomplished the same affect as using a missile)
which were deliberately flown into the towers of the
World Trade Center in New York City and the Pentagon,
killing everyone aboard the planes and thousands more
in and around the targeted buildings, thus making it one
of the most destructive suicide attacks in history. The
'September 11' attacks also had a vast economic and
political impact: for the cost of the lives of the 19
hijackers and financial expenditure of around
US$100,000, al-Qaida, the militant Islamist group
responsible for the attacks, effected a trillion-dollar
drop in global markets within one week, and triggered
massive increases in military and security expenditure
in response.
After the U.S.-led invasion of Iraq in 2003, waves of
suicide bombings were carried out. The suicide
bombers attacked United States military targets,
although many civilian targets (eg. Shiite mosques,
international offices of the UN and the Red Cross, Iraqi
men waiting to apply for jobs with the new army and
police force) were also attacked. In the lead up to the
Iraqi parliamentary election, 2005 on January 30, 2005,
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suicide attacks upon civilian and security personnel
involved with the elections increased, and there were
reports of the insurgents co-opting disabled people as
involuntary suicide bombers
[4] (http://www.smh.com.au/news/After-
Saddam/Handicapped-boy-made-into-
bomb/2005/02/01/1107228705132.html).
Suicide bombings have occurred in more than 25
countries: Afghanistan, Algeria, Argentina, China,
Colombia, Croatia, Egypt, India, Indonesia, Iraq, Israel,
Kenya, Kuwait, Lebanon, Morocco, Pakistan, Panama,
the Philippines, Qatar, Russia, Saudi Arabia, Sri Lanka,
Tanzania, Tunisia, Turkey, Uzbekistan, and Yemen.
(Suicide planes were also used in the United States).
Chapter 3
Profile of a bomber
The most common initial reaction to a suicide bomber
is to assume that he (or rarely she) was motivated by
despair, and probably hailed from a poor, neglected
segment of society. In fact, both President George W.
Bush and the Dalai Lama have made this claim.
However, anthropologist Scott Atran found in a 2003
study that this is not a justifiable conclusion. A recently
published paper by Harvard University Professor of
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Public Policy Alberto Abadie "cast[s] doubt on the
widely held belief that terrorism stems from poverty,
finding instead that terrorist violence is related to a
nation's level of political freedom." Quote
(http://www.news.harvard.edu/gazette/2004/11.04/05-
terror.html) Original
Paper (http://ksghome.harvard.edu/~.aabadie.academic.
ksg/povterr.pdf).
In fact, most bombers are educated, many with college
or university experience, and come from middle class
homes. Many do show signs of psychological
imbalance, and often had trouble relating socially as
children. They often find solace in the ritualistic
communion found in extremist circles, which are often
headed by charismatic individuals looking for new
recruits. Social insecurities notwithstanding, many are
concerned for their families. As a result, Israel
demolishes the home of suicide bombers and several
organizations (former Iraqi President Saddam Hussein's
Baathist government and The Palestinian Authority
among them) are known to provide financial
compensation to the families of suicide bombers.
Aspiring Homicide Bomber Talks
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1305
He looks like your average 20-year-old, but this young
Palestinian from Jenin (search) was a member of the
Islamic Jihad with dreams of becoming a homicide
bomber and plans to blow up a bus in Tel Aviv.
Turkouman plotted to disguise himself as an Israeli
teenager, slip into a crowd and do what so many
Palestinian homicide bombers more than 129 to date
have done in the past four-and-a-half years.
When asked in an exclusive FOX News interview
whether the stories about him were true, Turkouman
replied, Yes, thats right. I was going to blow myself
up on a bus in Tel Aviv.
In the interview among tombstones in a local graveyard,
the boyish, clean-cut young man with an easy laugh
said he was willing to kill himself and others because
of the Israeli aggression against our people, the
violence we watch on TV of them killing our children,
assassinating our people.
But the recent ceasefire in the region put Turkoumans
plans on hold.
Members of the Al-Aqsa Martyrs Brigades about a
dozen of whom accompanied Turkouman to the
interview and have been watching him closely
stopped the youth from committing an attack and took
away his bomb belt, which had been given to him by the
Islamic Jihad.
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The brigade doesn't want him to do anything to disrupt
the fragile 3-month-old truce with Israel negotiated by
their President Mahmoud Abbas (search).
FOX News asked Turkouman whether he was glad the
brigade convinced him not to carry out a homicide
bombing. He didnt understand the question, but replied
yes after some members whispered to him.
Turkouman didnt seem able to think for himself. He
barely understood FOXs questions, even in his native
Arabic, and the brigade commanders told him what to
say. He appeared extremely vulnerable to peer
pressure.
But to the Israelis, Turkouman is a ticking bomb and
should be diffused.
In the past, when the Israelis had intelligence about a
bomber, theyd storm his hiding place in the West Bank
(search) to pre-empt the attack.
But the ceasefire has left a vacuum. Control over Jenin
has not yet been handed over to the Palestinian
security forces. They cant carry weapons, making it
difficult for them to make arrests and prevent attacks.
So now the Al Aqsa Martyrs Brigades is keeping a close
eye on Turkouman.
The group, which chose the cemetery for the site of the
interview, is usually in hiding, on the run from the
Israelis. When FOX sat down with members, they were
a bit more relaxed than usual because of the ceasefire
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smoking and chatting in broad daylight though
most predicted they'd eventually break down and go
back to fighting.
Still, the young men admitted that they're exhausted
and just want to sleep in the same place two nights in a
row. The graveyard where they sat with FOX is where
27 of their friends are buried. Most approve of Abbas'
plan to incorporate them into the security forces. They
said they'd accept such an offer, even though it would
mean they'd have to give up their personal weapons as
a result.
When they caught wind of Turkouman's plans to blow
himself up on a bus, they thwarted the scheme and took
away the explosives. Since they didn't have anyone to
turn him over to, they decided to simply keep an eye on
him so that he wouldn't continue with his mission.
But what is particularly troubling is that Turkouman
says he hasnt abandoned his plan of conducting a
homicide bombing if he gets the chance.
If the ceasefire collapses, I will go for it again,
Range of opinions
World leaders usually express resolve to continue on
their previous course of affairs after such attacks.
Leaders around the globe denounce suicide bombings
and sometimes vow not to let such bombings deter
what they see as their efforts to further civilization.
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Suicide bombings in Israel are usually followed by
reprisals. As a successful suicide bomber himself (the
bombers are almost always young men) cannot be
targeted, responses often target the community, family,
or organization he came from. In the West Bank the
armed forces of Israel usually demolish homes that they
claim belong to families whose children have
volunteered for such missions. Since many families
encourage their children to volunteer to such acts given
the expected financial reward from the Palestinian
Authority and other Arab "charity" organizations
(Saddam Hussein was known for paying the equivalent
of $10,000-25,000 to families of suicide bombers, many
of whom live in destitution), the act of demolishing
house provides a disincentive to those who are
motivated by the idea of financial gain for their families.
There are numerous reports in the Israeli press about
families who turned in their children after learning
about a possible suicide bombing attack, fearful their
house would be demolished by the Israel Defense
Forces.
It is sometimes claimed that suicide bombings, notably
those of the Japanese kamikazes, the Palestinian
bombers, and even the September 11, 2001 attacks,
were military failures, and highly counter-productive to
the perpetrators. In the case of the kamikazes, this is
seen as untrue by some. Although the kamikaze attacks
could not stop the Allied advance, they inflicted more
casualties and delayed the fall of Japan for longer than
might have been the case using only the conventional
methods available to the Empire. The kamikaze attacks
did reinforce the resolution of the World War II Allies to
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1309
destroy the Imperial force, and may have had a
significant effect in the decision to use atomic bombs
against Japan. In the case of the September 11th
attacks, the long-term effects remain to be seen, but in
the short-to-medium term, the results were profoundly
negative for Al-Qaeda as well as for the Talibans.
Furthermore, since the September 11 attacks, Western
nations have diverted massive resources towards
stopping similar actions, as well as tightening up
borders, and military actions against various countries
that the US and its allies believe to have been involved
with terrorism.
The Palestinian suicide bombings are, for some
individuals, more challenging to assess. In the Israeli-
Palestinian conflict, there was a steady and continuous
deployment of suicide bombers in 2000 following the
collapse of the Camp David II summit between the PLO
and Israel. In response, Israel mobilized its army in
order to seal off the Gaza Strip and re-occupy the West
Bank, placing it under military rule with the area
patrolled by tanks. The Israelis also began a campaign
of targeted assassinations to terminate militant
Palestinian leaders, using jets and helicopters to deploy
high-precision bombs and missiles.
Most significantly, the suicide missions, having killed
hundreds and maimed thousands of Israelis, are
believed by some to have brought on a move to the
political right, increasing public support for hard-line
policies towards the Palestinians, and a government
headed by the former general, prime minister Ariel
Sharon. In response to the suicide bombings, Sharon's
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1310
government has imposed restrictions on the Palestinian
community, making commerce, travel, schooling, and
other aspects of life difficult for the Palestinians, with
the average Palestinian suffering due to the choices of
the suicide bombers.
Social support by some for this activity remains,
however, as of the calling of a truce at the end of June
2003. This may be due to the economic or social
purpose of the suicide bombing and the bombers'
refusal to accept external judgments on those who
sanction them. The peace plan presently being
discussed may be better from the Palestinians' point of
view than that which existed prior to the 2000 renewal
of conflict. Such attacks have stalled and stopped
peace plans in the past, which continued the Israeli
military presence in the West Bank and Gaza, and
sparked deep mutual hatred and distrust, so these
attacks may be counterproductive. Suicide bombing
may thus "work" as a military tactic (in that it costs
fewer lives than any conventional military tactic or
targeting soldiers rather than civilians) and may or may
not achieve the political objectives sought by the
combatant. However, it is likely to remain a method of
operation employed by Palestinians due in part to their
enormous lack of military power relative to Israel.
Chapter 4
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1311
The Islamist View
The basis for the Islamist view - which is not supported
by all Muslims - is that the individual undertaking a
martyrdom operation is doing what that individual
understands is his/her Islamic duty, and thus regards
their own life, in this world, as but a stage, a path,
toward the next, and eternal, life. That is, such a
martyrdom operation may result in them be rewarded,
by Allah, with Paradise (Jannah). That is, they are
willing to sacrifice their own life in the hope of
becoming a Shaheed, a martyr.
Furthermore, it has been argued that martyrdom
operations are justified according to Islamic law.
[5] (http://abdulhaqq.jeeran.com/ruling.html) [6]
(http://abdulhaqq.jeeran.com/fatwa_sheikh_qaradhawi.h
tml)
Suicide Bombers
Why do they do it, and what does Islam say about their
actions?
"And fight in the way of Allah those who fight you. But
do not transgress limits. Truly Allah loves not the
transgressors."
- Qur'an, Surah Al-Baqarah (2:190)
The dangerous escalation of violence in the world is
disturbing to all people of conscience, from September
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1312
11 to the Middle East battles, and other random acts of
violence perpetrated at innocent civilians.
In the fight against terrorism of all forms, it is important
to understand who or what is our enemy. We can only
fight against this horror if we understand its causes and
motivations. What motivates a person to lash out in
this violent, inhumane way? That is something that all
of us -- mental health professionals, politicians, and
common people -- need to understand, so that we can
address the issues more honestly, prevent more
violence, and find ways to work towards lasting peace.
In Islam, several things are clear:
Suicide is forbidden. "O ye who believe!... [do not]
kill yourselves, for truly Allah has been to you
Most Merciful. If any do that in rancour and
injustice, soon shall We cast him into the Fire..."
(Qur'an 4:29-30).
The taking of life is allowed only by way of justice
(i.e. the death penalty for murder), but even then,
forgiveness is better. "Nor take life - which Allah
has made sacred - except for just cause..."
(17:33).
In pre-Islamic Arabia, retaliation and mass murder
was commonplace. If someone was killed, the
victim's tribe would retaliate against the
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1313
murderer's entire tribe. This practice was directly
forbidden in the Qur'an (2:178-179). Following this
statement of law, the Qur'an says, "After this,
whoever exceeds the limits shall be in grave
chastisement" (2:178). No matter what wrong we
perceive as being done against us, we may not
lash out against an entire population of people.
The Qur'an admonishes those who oppress others
and transgress beyond the bounds of what is right
and just. "The blame is only against those who
oppress men with wrongdoing and insolently
transgress beyond bounds through the
land, defying right and justice. For such there will
be a chastisement grievous (in the
Hereafter)" (42:42).
Harming innocent bystanders, even in times of war,
was forbidden by the Prophet Muhammad (peace
be upon him). This includes women, children,
noncombatant bystanders, and even trees
and crops. Nothing is to be harmed unless the
person or thing is actively engaged in an assault
against Muslims.
The predominant theme in the Qur'an is forgiveness and
peace. Allah (God) is Merciful and Forgiving, and seeks
that in His followers. Indeed, most people who spend
time on a personal level with ordinary Muslims have
found them to be peaceful, honest, hard-working, civic-
minded people.
In the Palestinian territories, those who support suicide
bombing claim that it is merely a tactic of war in
defense of their land and homes. Living under siege,
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1314
and without the superior weaponry of their opponent,
they see it as a heroic act of martyrdom, not suicide. In
Israel, these attacks have usually been perpetrated by
young men (and less often, women) who have lived their
entire lives under humiliating occupation. In their point
of view, it is a final act of resistance, stemming from
desperation.
Please visit the links above to read what Muslim
scholars and Islamic governmental leaders have
recently declared about this subject.
"O ye who believe! Remain steadfast for Allah, bearing
witness to justice. Do not allow your hatred for others
make you swerve to wrongdoing and turn you away
from justice. Be just; that is closer to true piety."
- Qur'an, Surah al-Maidah (5:8)
Chapter 5
Usage and related terms
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1315
The usage of the term "suicide bombing" dates back to
as early as 1947. The Times (London) of April 15, 1947,
page 2, refers to a new pilot less, radio-controlled
rocket missile thus: "Designed originally as a counter-
measure to the Japanese 'suicide-bomber,' it is now a
potent weapon for defense or offence." The quotes are
in the original and suggest that the phrase was an
existing one. An earlier article (Aug 21, 1945, page 6)
refers to a kamikaze plane as a "suicide-bomb."
Nonetheless, in order to assign a more positive or
negative connotation to the act, suicide bombing is
sometimes referred to by different terms. The Arab term
for suicide bombing is "Isshtahad" or "Shahadat,"
whereas the suicide bomber is called a "Shahid" (pl.
"Shuhada"). The original meaning of the word "Shahid"
in Arabic is a person who died in a Jihad in order to
testify his faith in Allah. The term "Shahid" is used
extensively by the Palestinian Authority in part to
overcome the stigma and Islamic strictures against
suicide. This term has been embraced by Hamas, Al-
Aqsa Martyrs' Brigades, a branch of Yasser Arafat's
Fatah, and other Palestinian factions engaging suicide
bombings. Others argue that Palestinians are using the
term "Shahid" for any Palestinians killed during the 4
years of hostilities. (Compare with: Martyrdom
operation)
President George W. Bush attempted to coin the term
"homicide bombing" in April 2002 as a synonym for
"suicide bombing" in order to de-emphasize the self-
sacrificial connotations of suicide bombing and
emphasize that suicide bombers are committing murder
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1316
as well as suicide. The use of the term has not gained
widespread popularity, although the media outlets FOX
News and the New York Post have adopted it.
Iraq Insurgents Using Children, Corpses for Bombs
Classified Report Shows Evolution of Extremists'
Tactics
Mar. 23, 2005 - Iraqi militants this week have suffered
some of the heaviest single-day death tolls in the two-
year insurgency. But ABC News has learned that a
State Department document indicates the insurgency's
tactics are continuing to evolve. These new techniques
include using children to carry explosive devices and
booby-trapping corpses with bombs. This technique is
not really new it was used by various militaries through
out the world. I my experience I have personally seen it
used during my tours of duty in Vietnam.
In three days, U.S. and Iraqi troops have killed at least
128 militants nationwide, and military officials
announced today that 85 insurgents died during a
Tuesday raid in central Iraq.
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1317
But, according to the document, a disturbing new
pattern is developing in the insurgents' use of
improvised explosive devices.
According to the report, "vehicle-borne improvised
explosive devices continue to be the weapon of choice
for terrorists in Iraq who wish to inflict significant
casualties and cause widespread damage." There have
been 600 such attacks from May 2004 to January 2005,
according to the U.S. Army's National Ground
Intelligence Center.
In an effort to bypass standard security
countermeasures, Iraqi militants are beginning to use
service vehicles, such as garbage trucks, to mount
attacks, and are stealing Iraqi national military vehicles
to conduct kidnappings, the document says.
Iraqi militants are increasingly converting seemingly
harmless objects into bombs as well.
At least five IEDs have been placed in mannequins
sometimes dressed as U.S. or Iraqi military personnel,
the report says. Human corpses -- and even dead
animals -- have also been loaded with explosives and
detonated when Iraqi or coalition forces attempt to
remove the bodies.
Militants have also embedded explosive devices in
"watermelons, trees, tree stumps, and on guard rails,"
the report says.
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1318
Cover and Disguise
Insurgent forces have also disguised themselves in an
effort to gain access to areas frequented by U.S. and
allied forces, the report says.
Iraqi extremists reportedly once posed as a soccer
team and played matches adjacent to areas where they
intended to conduct ambushes against multinational
convoys.
Others have acted as "sheep herders to conduct
surveillance activity" and "used children to carry IEDs
into sensitive areas."
Technological Focus
Insurgents also "routinely seek out new and improved
technologies to create more effective IEDs and defeat
security equipment," the document says.
Extremists reportedly have ordered a large number of
remote-controlled toys to deliver and detonate bombs
and have used remote-controlled airplanes for
surveillance purposes.
They also use "garage door openers, cellular and
satellite telephones, car alarms, and keyless entry
systems as remote-controlled detonators for IEDs," the
report says.
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1319
Even more troubling, the document concludes that the
terrorist tactics now used in Iraq may soon become
globalize.
Close Encounter
A military convoy accompanied by an ABC News crew
encountered an IED today while on Baghdad's airport
road. The company commander was informed of what
appeared to be an improvised explosive device 175
yards down the road -- spotted by a member of the Iraqi
army.
The soldiers immediately stopped traffic in both
directions and called for explosives experts.
The Iraqi army was almost immediately suspicious of
the object after a car pulled up to the side of the road,
someone inside threw out what looked like a fire
extinguisher, and the vehicle sped off.
It was, in fact, a fire extinguisher, but it was packed
with plastic explosives.
About an hour after the device was found, a small robot
was sent in so technicians could view the device
remotely. It then dropped an explosives pack on the
device so it could be destroyed in a controlled
environment.
"Within the last month, we've come across
approximately ten IEDs. We hit three of them and found
about seven of them," said Capt. Craig Gibson of the
U.S. Army's 3rd Infantry Division.
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1320
The soldiers considered today a success -- one less
roadside bomb and no injuries.
Militants in Iraq used a handicapped child to serve as a
suicide bomber during a series of attacks aimed at
disrupting Iraq's election day, according to Iraq's
interior minister, Falah al-Naqib. Police who witnessed
one of Sunday's attacks said that the suicide bomber
appeared to suffer from Down's Syndrome. Overall,
there were 38 attacks on Iraq's polling stations during
election day, killing 44 people
Female suicide bombers have become an increasingly
prevalent phenomenon in recent years, particularly as
popular symbols in the Israeli-Palestinian conflict.
Some argue that the increasing prevalence of female
suicide bombers is a sign of the rising status of women
in Arab culture. Some argue that the desire to become a
martyr stems from the marginalization of women in
Arab society.
Though Islam forbids women (and men) to commit
suicide bombings, terrorist organizations (including
fundamentalist Muslim ones) have used women to carry
out suicide bombings because they draw less suspicion
than men and go through less rigorous security checks.
For example: while a man can be checked to see if he's
carrying an explosive belt by simply lifting his shirt,
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1321
ordering a woman to do so contradicts Jewish norms of
modesty and will cause outrage among conservative
Muslims. Israeli security procedures practice is that a
suspected woman is to be checked by a female soldier
in a screened off area.
Recently, Sheikh Ahmed Yassin, the former leader of
Islamist terrorist group Hamas, issued a rule that
allows Muslim women to commit suicide and promised
Hamas will send many female suicide bombers in order
to strike Israelis.
Reactions to this in the Islamic world were ambivalent.
While many hailed the female suicide bomber and urged
full involvement of all in Jihad, some criticized the
cruelty of tearing mothers from their children and
sending them to explode themselves. One Lebanese
reporter mocked Hamas's "manhood" and suggested
that Hamas male terrorists' inability to penetrate Israeli
defenses forced Hamas to use women, which is
derogatory to Hamas according to traditional Arab
values.
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1322
Women Terrorists Force Changed Thinking by Security
Officials
In the wake of the terrorist bombings of
two Russian airliners and a suicide
bombing outside a Moscow subway
station, U.S. officials are insisting on
tighter security for all flights from
Russia to the United States. The three
terrorist attacks are being blamed on
Chechen separatist militants. The
suspected perpetrators were women
and that presents new challenges in the
counter-terrorism campaign.
Chechen militants fighting for an
independent republic have not hesitated
to include women in their operations.
Women took part in the hostage
operation two years ago in a Moscow
theater and in other operations leading up to the recent
spate of suicide bombings.
Analyst Olga Oliker of the Rand Corporation is not
surprised. She says it is another tactic to grab attention
and terrify the general public.
"In some ways it's more terrifying for the public they
are trying to frighten. We're used to profiling potential
AP
Firefighters
extinguish a
burning car
after an
explosion in
front of the
Rizhskaya
subway
station in
Moscow
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terrorists as a certain group of people and that group of
people is generally male. So to also have to look at
women and young girls creates a much bigger
challenge for authorities," she says.
The motivation for Chechen female bombers is not
clear. Ms. Oliker says some, like their male
counterparts, often are caught up in the fervor of a
cause. Some are forced into suicide operations. Others,
who are known as "black widows", are seeking revenge
for the death of a husband, father, brother or son.
Stanley Bedlington is a former CIA senior analyst on
counterterrorism. He says women also are harder to
detect because of ingrained social attitudes toward
women.
"They are chosen because modesty will prevent some
people from searching them so they can slip into the
target area. And therefore in some instances, women
terrorists with explosive belts around them can get
through the security guards," he says.
Some analysts suggest the Chechen terrorists also are
emulating Palestinian militants who have deployed
female bombers to great effect. Amatzia Baram of Haifa
University agrees that the number of female suicide
bombers in the Arab-Israeli conflict have increased.
"It's like something catching, a disease. If many men
are killing themselves this way, eventually some
women will be drawn into it too and become
legitimate," he says.
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Mr. Baram, a respected analyst of political Islam, says
in the past more religiously-oriented militant
organizations like Hamas have been more reluctant to
use female suicide bombers than more secular groups
like Fatah fighters. But, he adds, that is changing.
"Fatah never had any inhibitions. They used women and
usually they found them in a very deep personal
distress or crisis and they used them. Hamas didn't do
it. I think the first time when they sent a young woman,
a mother of three to explode herself at the border
crossing between Gaza and Israel was a few months
ago," he says.
Counter-terrorism expert Bedlington stresses that
female terrorists are not a recent development and
religion is not a factor.
"It's not new at all. If you go back to the heyday of the
secular terrorists who were Marxists, that is the Red
Brigades and the Red Army faction in Germany who
were all Marxists and not at all driven by religious
terrorism, it was more or less the heyday of women
terrorists," he says.
In the Middle East, it was a woman, Layla Khalid, who
carried out one of the first airline hijackings in 1969 to
draw attention to the Palestinian cause. Amatzia Baram
also remembers one of the first suicide bombings in the
1980s was carried out by a woman in Lebanon.
"The first case of suicide bombing that I know of in
Israel or around Israel happened in Lebanon when the
Israeli forces were still there. In 1984 I think when a
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woman member of a very secular Christian Pan-Syrian
party exploded herself and killed a few of the Israeli
soldiers," he says.
Russia expert Olga Oliker says the challenge for
security officials is how to deal with the female factor.
"People aren't used to looking at women as potential
bombers. And you need to train people to pay attention
to girls as well as boys and to see women as potential
attackers," she says.
Ms. Oliker says it will also require a dramatic
psychological shift in the mindset of security forces to
view women now as much as men as a potential
adversary.
Chronology of Suicide Bombings Carried out by
Women
The first suicide attack occurred on April 9, 1985, in
Bater Al Shuf Jezzin when a young woman, Khyadali
Sana who had joined the Party 3 months before, drove a
suicide car which exploded near an IDF convoy, killing
two Israeli soldiers and wounding two others. She
stated that her motive was to avenge the oppressive
enemy. From the Merari database.
In the Security Zone of Ras Al Bayda, on July 9, 1985, a
28 year old woman, Kharib Ibtisam carried on a suicide
attack on an SLA post wounding 2 to 6 Israelis. She
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recorded a videotape, wearing a red hat and dressed in
uniform, in which she asked her parents to forgive her,
and stating her wish to kill as many Jews and their
assistants as she could. From the Merari database.
On September 11, 1985, in Hatzbaya, Lebanon, a suicide
attack was perpetrated by 18 year old Khaierdin Miriam
on an SLA checkpoint, wounding two people. From the
Merari database.
On November 26, 1985, in the Falous village of Jezzin,
in South Lebanon, a suicide attack on a SLA
checkpoint, was conducted by 17-year-old Al Taher
Hamidah. According to estimates, the car was packed
with at least 100Kg of explosives.
On July 17, 1986, in Jezzin Lebanon, a 26-year-old
woman, wounding 7 people, perpetrated a suicide
attack targeting Lebanese agents. Norma Abu Hassan
blew herself up when she saw soldiers searching for
her. From the Merari database.
Another female suicide bombing was recorded in
Lebanon on November 14, 1987. A 37-year-old woman,
Shagir Karima Mahmud, carried an explosive charge
hidden in a bag into AUB Hospital, in Beirut causing the
death of 7 people, and injuring 20. From the Merari
database.
On November 11, 1987, a similar attack was carried out
at Beirut airport, by a 20 year old Sunni woman,
Sahyouni Soraya when the suitcase she was carrying
exploded too early and killed its carrier as well as 6
people and injured 73. In both cases, the charge was
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activated by a remote control, therefore it is possible
that the women did not know their bags contained
explosives. From the Merari Database.
In Turkey
On June 30, 1996, the first female PKK suicide bomber
killed 6 Turkish soldiers, and injured 30 people. The
explosives were strapped to her stomach as if she were
pregnant.
On October 25 of the same year, a 17 year-old PKK
activist launched a suicide bomb attack at the police
headquarters in Adana, killing 5 people and injuring 12.
Laila Kaplan was disguised as a pregnant woman.
Four days later, on October 29, in Sivas, 2 policemen
and one civilian were killed in a suicide attack carried
out by Otas Gular, a 29-year-old woman. The female
PKK activist was dressed as a pregnant woman, and
was accompanied by another member of the group. It
was the third suicide bombing, all three committed by
women, to use the appearance of maternity. Ocalan had
urged his troops to imitate Hamas by becoming human
bombs.
On November 17, 1998, Ozen Fatma, a PKK suicide
bomber killed herself with a bomb strapped to her body
in Yuksekova, outside a police station in southeast
Turkey. She missed her main target, which was a
military convoy. Nevertheless, 6 people were wounded
in the attack.
On December 1
st
, 1998, in a small supermarket
frequented by Turkish soldiers in Lice, a Kurdish woman
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blew herself up in a suicide attack. Fourteen people
were injured.
A woman set a bomb outside an army barracks in East
Turkey on December 24, 1998, killing herself and a
passer-by, and wounding 22 people.
On March 4, 1999, a woman set off a bomb in the main
square of Batman, Turkey. Four people were wounded;
it seems that the bomb blew up prematurely, and the
alleged target was a police station in the square.
On March 27, 1999, a 21 year-old woman, Esma
Yurdakul, killed herself in a suicide attack in Istanbul.
10 people were injured.
On July 5, 1999, Rusen Tabanci, 19, flashed the V for
victory, and detonated the bombs strapped to her body
in Adana, wounding 17 people.
In Chechnya
On June 9, 2000, a young Muslim woman, Hawa
Barayev, drove into a building housing Russian Special
Forces, in Alkhan Kala, killing 27 soldiers. She was
connected to the Chechen rebels who defended her in a
very strong stand on their website. Hawas last words
were: I know what I am doing, paradise has a price,
and I hope this will be the price for Paradise. For the
attack, a man accompanied the young suicide bomber,
but this fact is not often referred to. [83]
According to the English Pravda, on November 29, 2001,
a female suicide bomber, Luisa Gazueva, attempted to
kill Commander Gaidar Gadzhiev in Urus Martan, killing
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2 people, and wounding her target and his bodyguard,
who later died of his wounds. [84] She was the young
widow (in her late twenties) of a former member of an
armed group. The rebels did not associate themselves
with her attack, although she must not have acted
completely alone.
In Israel
On Jan. 27, 2002, a 28-year-old woman walked into a
shopping district on Jerusalem's Jaffa Road and blew
herself up. Wafa Idriss, the perpetrator, killed one man,
and wounded ninety people. She was divorced, without
children, and worked as a paramedic for the Red
Crescent. She lived at the Amari Refugee Camp near
Ramallah. There are some questions about whether it
was really intended, or if the bomb exploded too soon.
The second suicide bombing perpetrated by a woman
occurred on February 27, 2002. 21-year-old Dareen Abu
Aysheh blew herself up at the Israeli Maccabim
roadblock in West Ramallah (West Bank), wounding four
Israelis. She was a student at Al-Najah University in
Nablus, and came from the village of Beit Wazan, in the
West Bank. She went to Hamas to volunteer, but was
turned down. She was single, and her parents said she
was religious.
On March 29, 2002, Ayat Akhras, an 18-year-old girl
blew herself up in a Jerusalem supermarket in Kyriat
Hayovel, killing two Israelis. She had previously taped a
martyr statement. The Al-Aqsa Martyrs Brigades (allied
to Arafats Fatah) claimed responsibility. She was
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engaged to Shali Abu Laban, and came from the
Dehaisha Refugee Camp, near Bethlehem.
On April 12, 2002, Andaleeb Takafka, a 20-year-old girl
from Bethlehem, detonated a belt full of explosives at a
Jerusalem bus stop, killing six Israelis, and injuring
sixty. She was a Tanzim operative from Bethlehem.
Some women were arrested before the intended
attacks, while others refused to carry out the bombings.
These women are Tawriya Hamamra, Arin Ahmed,
Shefaa Alkudsi, and Shiriz Rabi.
On May 30, 2002, Tawriya Hamamra was supposed to
carry out an attack in Jerusalem. She volunteered for
the Al Aqsa Martyrs Brigades, and received an hour of
training. This 25-year-old woman from a village near
Jenin in the West Bank, said in an interview that her
reasons for conducting such an attack were personal,
and not political. She backed out, and was caught
afterwards by the IDF.[85]
The 20 year old Arin Ahmed from Bethlehem, a student
in Business Administration, volunteered to carry out an
attack to avenge the death of her Tanzim fiancee. She
was supposed to commit the bombing in Rishon LeTzion
during the last week of April 2002, along with another
martyr, the 16-year-old Issa Badir, who went through
with his mission, and blew himself up. She changed her
mind and did not carry out her attack. She was arrested
in June 2002 by the IDF.
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A 26 year old divorced mother of a young child, Shefaa
Alkudsi planned to commit a suicide bombing. She was
arrested by the IDF on April 11, 2002.
On June 13, 2002, a 15-year-old girl from Bethlehem
confessed after interrogation by the IDF that the Tanzim
had recruited her through her uncle, for the purpose of
conducting a martyr mission.
On June 14, 2002, Israeli security forces apprehended
two female would-be suicide terrorists. [86]
On July 27, 2002, Umaya Mohammed Danaj, a 28-year-
old woman, was arrested on her way to commit a
suicide bombing in Israel.[87]
Female Suicide Bombers
The past year has been characterized by an
increase in suicide bombings perpetrated by
women. Suicide attacks continued to be
conducted by Chechnyan and Palestinian women, but
also began to be seen in rather unexpected countries
such as Iraq. There was also a thwarted attack in
Morocco. Moreover, an FBI report expressed concern
over the forming of al-Qaeda female units.
Latest attacks
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Chechnya
October 2002 A crowded Moscow theater was
overtaken by about 50 abductors, 18 of them women
dressed in black and wearing explosive belts. This
marked the first time in the history of female suicide
terrorism that such a team was established, signaling a
shift from an individual action to a group structure.[1]
Although large-scale operations occurred in the past,
only an small number of women had assumed the role of
warriors.[2]
May 12, 2003 Two suicide bombersone of them a
womandrove an explosives-laden truck into a
Chechen government compound, killing more than 60
people.
May 14, 2003 During a busy Muslim festival, a female
suicide bomber detonated her explosive belt in an
attempt to kill Chechnyas Moscow-appointed leader,
Akhmad Kadyrov. He survived the attack, but the
explosion claimed 16 lives and left 145 wounded. A
second female suicide bomber killed only herself in a
second blast.
June 5, 2003 A Russian Air Force bus was targeted in
North Ossetia by a female suicide bomber. Seventeen
people died in the attack.
June 20, 2003 In Grozny, a suicide truck bomb
perpetrated by a man and a woman targeted Russian
Government buildings, killing eight, and wounding 25
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people.
July 5, 2003 Two female suicide bombers detonated
their bombs 10 minutes apart at a Moscow suburb open-
air rock festival, killing 14 people, and wounding 60.
Most of the casualties were caused by the second
blast, with the first bomber killing only herself. The
Russian news agency ITAR-Tass reported that another
bomb was discovered at an entrance and defused by
the police. A suspect involved in the bombings is still at
large.
July 10, 2003 A bomb expert was killed after an
apparent mechanical failure prevented a female suicide
bomber from detonating her bomb at a downtown
Moscow restaurant. The failed attack might be
connected to the afore-mentioned July 5th attacks. The
female bomber, Zarema Muzhikhoyeva, was arrested
and charged with various counts, including terrorism
and premeditated murder. More significantly, her arrest
and interrogation uncovered information on some
elements of the terror group behind the plot. The 22-
year-old woman revealed that her intended target was a
MacDonalds restaurant, but she got lost due to her lack
of familiarity with the city and eventually entered the
closest caf, where she tried to detonate the defective
bomb and was caught.
July 27, 2003 Southeast of Grozny, a female suicide
bomber detonated her explosive charge at a military
base, as the son of Mr. Kadyrov was reviewing troops.
Interfax News Agency reported that security forces
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1334
were searching for another female bomber suspected to
be on a mission to assassinate Kadyrov.
December 5, 2003 A female suicide bomber blew up in a
commuter train in Southern Russia, Killing 42 people
and wounding more than 150. Two or three other
women were involved in the attack.
December 9, 2003 Two female suicide bombers
detonated their charges near the Red Square in the
heart of Moscow, killing 6 people and wounding a
dozen.
Palestinian suicide attacks
May 19, 2003 19-year-old Hiba Daarma blew up at the
entrance to a mall in Afulah, killing 3 civilians and
wounding 83, after being stopped by security guards.
The Al-Aqsa Martyrs Brigades and the Palestinian
Islamic Jihad took responsibility for the attack, marking
the first time the PIJ claimed responsibility for an
attack conducted by a woman.[3]
October 4, 2003 A suicide attack was perpetrated in
Haifa by a 29-year-old female lawyer in Jenin. The PIJ
claimed responsibility for this attack.
Iraq
April 4th 2003 a suicide car bomb attack against
coalition forces was carried out by two women, killing
three soldiers and wounding two civilians. A videotape
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subsequantly aired by the Qatar-based Al Jazeera
network featured the two women, holding the Quran
and a machine gun and expressing their support for
Saddam Hussein. Some reports indicate that one of the
women might have been pregnant.
Turkey
May 21, 2003 A bomb rocked the Crocodile coffee shop
in Ankara frequented by students learning English in
nearby private schools, claiming the life of the female
terrorist. No one claimed responsibility for the blast. It
is still not clear if this was an attempted suicide attack
or whether the woman terrorist detonated it in the
ladies room while hiding, possibly as a result of being
scared off by the presence of a policeman.[4]
Morocco
In the summer of 2003, two teenage girls were arrested
in Rabat and sentenced for terrorism offences.
According to various reports, the two were on their way
to target a liquor store, with some sources suggesting
this was possibly a suicide attack plot. The teenagers
were influenced by a branch of radical Islam advocated
by the Salafi Jihad organization, which has been
continuously gaining in strength in some suburbs.
Terror groups emerging utilization and
justification of women bombers
Terrorist organizations legitimize the use of women as
suicide bombers in two ways: by reference to prevalent
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1336
social norms, and by religious ideology. In a society
that welcomes and encourages female suicide
bombers, religious legitimization in the form of edicts
(fatwas) will further promote an already accepted terror
tactic. Yet if fatwas are issued in a society that does
not approve of such modus operandi, female suicide
bombings are less likely to be promoted.
Palestinian Islamic Jihad
In the early part of 2003, the PIJ announced a strategic
shift to a more liberal attitude towards women by
accepting them as potential suicide bombers. As Col.
(Ret.) Yoni Fighel explains, this shift aimed to upgrade
the PIJs operational capabilities by the introduction of
a new methods to elude Israeli efforts to thwart and
profile suicide attackers.
Accordingly, an active propaganda campaign targeting
Palestinian universities and promoted on the PIJs web
site was launched. An AP translation of some
promotional material included the following statement,
attributed to a man allegedly training female recruits:
Our women are no longer the type of women who cry
or weep. We have martyrdom women now [5]
Further religious legitimization was provided last May,
when leading Egyptian cleric Yusuf al-Qaradawi, Dean
of Islamic Studies at the University of Qatar, issued a
fatwa in response to the female suicide bombing in
Afula, asserting that the act is a form of martyrdom for
the cause of Allah [and] that a woman should go out
for jihad even without the permission of her husband
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Qaradawi notes that terror groups could benefit
because women may do what is impossible for men to
do. Hence, women are then allowed to violate Islamic
teachings, avoid wearing the veil, and be without a
male escort.[6]
It is also notable that Hamas spiritual leader, Sheikh
Yassin, condoned the use of women as suicide bombers
back in February 2002. At the time, Hamas leaders
declared that they had no need of female suicide
bombers, as there were enough male volunteers.
However, in January 2004, Reem Raiyshi, 22, a married
mother of two small children, became the first woman
to carry out a suicide bombing on behalf of Hamas.
According to a report in Yediot Ahronot, Raiyshi was
compelled to perpetrate the terror strike to atone for
having betrayed her husband.
Al-Qaida
In March 2003, the FBI expressed its growing concern
over the possible change of al-Qaedas modus operandi
following reports of increased recruitment of women.[7]
Also of concern was a unit that formed around a female
leader known as Umm Usama (the mother of Usama),
who was reported to be in close contact with Usama
Bin Laden and making extensive use of the Internet to
communicate with her network. According to the
London-based Saudi A-Sharq Al-Awsat, the group was
modeled after and inspired by the successful
integration of women by the Palestinians and Chechens,
raising the specter that at some point in the future the
practice of female suicide martyrdom could also be
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emulated.
Another hint of womens greater involvement in Bin
Ladens group dates back to March 2003, when female
Pakistani neurological expert Aafia Siddiqui was sought
by the FBI for her alleged links to the terror group.[8]
This marked the first time in the aftermath of
September 11th that a warrant for a woman was issued
in the War on Terror.
The social environment of the female suicide bomber
Chechnya
Reports from various human rights organizations point
to the increasing role of women in the economic well
being of the family. While women have been forced by
societal changes to become breadwinners, they have
also sadly adopted other formerly male rolesincluding
that of suicide terrorist.
The Black Widows, women whose husbands were
killed during the war, are recruited because they are
widows and there is no man to protect them anymore. It
is only when they become widows that they turn to
terrorism, but as will be discussed later, the motives for
their involvement are more complex.
Iraq
Out of the numerous attacks launched against coalition
forces and civilians to date, only one was conducted by
women. However, since there is a high number of
readily available male warriors in the country, we can
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assume that at this point there is no need to recruit
female bombers. Hence, no fatwa calling for female
suicide actions was issued in the country thus far.
The Palestinian Authority
In the Palestinian territories we have seen active
promotion of suicide bombers (male and female), which
along with a general climate of martyrdom glorification,
serves to reinforce a culture of suicide. For example, on
August 15, a Palestinian youth summer camp in Gaza
was inaugurated by Fatah members and named after
female suicide bomber Ayyat al-Akhras. This marked
the second time her name was given to a childrens
camp. Moreover, school textbooks inculcate children
with hate and encourage death for jihad. In fact, an
entire industry has developed around the suicide-
bombing trend, which features videotapes and posters
of the shaheed (martyr) and the shaheeda (female
martyr) that are freely distributed and proudly
displayed, as well as martyr medallions which are
traded by school kids the way children in the West
trade baseball or soccer cards.
The motives behind female suicide attacks
The motivation of any suicide bomber, whether male or
female, is often open to some interpretation, as the
motives cannot be established with certainty. Some
factors that come into play include ideological
(religious or nationalist), socio-economic (including a
financial incentive of special stipends handed out to the
families of the bombers), and personal (specific
traumas, desire for revenge, or possible psychological
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predisposition).[9]
In the case of the Palestinian female suicide bomber,
two main factors have to be taken into consideration.
First is the popular religious belief, shared by both
religious and secular Palestinian Muslims, in life after
death.[10] Hence, whatever the main incentive for a
suicide attack, this basic notion needs to be addressed.
Secondly, while Palestinian women have carried
attacks to atone for some infringement of propriety,
the choice of becoming a suicide bomber is a rational
and independent one that a Palestinian woman may
make without any coercion. The Palestinian female
bomber usually has a future and various paths to
choose from, yet she consciously chose to carry out the
suicide attack.
Since these women came from every sphere of
Palestinian society, it is difficult to draw a profile of the
Palestinian female suicide bomber. However, it was
discovered that often the bombers motivation was to
make a statement on behalf of Palestine or Islam,
especially in the case of the religious PIJ. Yet it is
interesting to note that an alleged female supervisor of
a terror camp stated that Suicide bombings have
pulled women out of the boxes created by societythe
box of a weeping, wailing creature always crying for
helpCan anyone say that men are greater patriots
than women?[11] Also notable is the implied notion
that patriotism constitutes a motivation for suicide
attacks as opposed to religious Islamic rhetoric.
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As noted in Messengers of Death: female suicide
bombers, women have channeled the frustration
stemming from their role in society into ruthless
behavior. As highlighted above, instead of being the
weeping and wailing creature the female Palestinian
suicide bomber chooses to become a human bomb,
possibly in order to demonstrate that women too can
express overwhelming patriotism just like their male
counterparts. Yet despite these notions, male terrorists
are not likely to view the situation similarly and will use
females merely because of narrow tactical
considerations, without according them a higher social
status.
In Chechnya, many reports on the actions of the Black
Widows indicated that they have acted out of revenge.
During the October 2002 theater hostage crisis, Al
Jazeera aired a pre-recorded videotape featuring five of
the female suicide bombers expressing their
willingness and readiness to die, and justifying their
acts by claiming that they are avenging their losses.
However, the physiological test results of failed suicide
bomber Muzhikhoyeva, showed traces of drugs, which
may point to a certain degree of coercion. Another
interesting point revealed during the interrogation of
Muzhikhoyeva was the presence of a female recruiter
and trainer; a middle-aged woman referred to as
Lyuba, who might have been involved in several
recent female suicide attacks.[12]
There is also a striking commonality between
Chechnyan and Palestinian female suicide bombers:
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many of these women had family members killed as a
result of involvement in terrorist activities. Thus, it is
often when they were psychologically weaker that
recruiters prey on them as potential suicide bombers.
Col. (Ret.) Yoni Fighel adds: It is well known that
Hamas and the Islamic Jihad use funerals and mourning
booths as a potential platform for recruitment.[13]
These organizations are able to exploit the emotionally
loaded circumstances, when feelings for revenge are
high, for their own ends.[14]
Looking to the future
The use of womenboth Chechnyan and Palestinian
as human bombs as a successful modus operandi will
likely continue to be an inviting option for terror groups
(to a greater extent in Chechnya).[15]
Each Palestinian terror group, whether secular or
religious, goes through an internal debate when it
comes to including women. On the one hand, the use of
women could increase the likelihood of perpetrating a
successful terror attack. Yet on the other hand, the
involvement of women as suicide bombers could lead to
their greater inclusion in terror activity and the
possibility of equality with men. The al Aqsa Martyrs
Brigades, a branch of Arafats secular Fatah, and the
more religious Palestinian Islamic Jihad have decided
to use women, while the Hamas, although officially
accepting female participation, never implemented it.
The potentially gravest and recently emerging threat
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comes in the form of women being utilized by al-Qaida.
This concern has been reinforced by the discovery of
wigs in one of the groups caches in Saudi Arabia. Even
if terrorists did not intend to carry out attacks disguised
as women or using women, the disguise could have
served other purposes, such as surveillance of potential
targets. Furthermore, we have witnessed a trend of
women being more actively involved in bin Ladens
organization, being used as messengers and helping in
various logistical tasks. Other information indicates
that the womens position in the group was upgraded,
as indicated by an Italian warrant for a Tunisian
woman, Bentiwaa Farida Ben Bechir, allegedly active in
recruiting suicide bombers to be sent to Iraq among
other countries. Ben Bechirs whereabouts are
unknown, amid suggestions that she could have left
Europe and gone back to Tunisia.[16]
Conclusions and recommendations
Since terrorists can be very adaptable and are likely to
resort to previously successful modus operandi, such
as the use of women bombers, counter-terrorism
measures have to be adapted and evolve at the same
pace. A good example has been the increased
recruitment of female guards and screeners in Israel,
which enable a stricter security screening of women
without compromising their dignity.
However, the best way to counter suicide bombing,
whether perpetrated by men or women, is to eradicate
the promotion campaign for suicide terrorism. If girls
are presented with positive examples that do not glorify
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violence and death, they are more likely to become
productive and positive adults instead of seeking to
sow destruction and find glory in a martyrs death. But
in a society where death is more highly regarded than
life, a fundamental change must take place first. In
order to eliminate the teaching of hate and promotion of
violence a shift within society triggered by a committed
political leadership is required. The day when posters of
suicide bombers are ripped off the walls of public
spaces could signal the beginning of a new era of hope
and peace. In the meantime, the faces of past suicide
bombers are still there.
Sources: ABC News, AP, AFP, CNN, BBC News, the
English Pravda, Haaretz, Jerusalem Post, Le Monde,
Liberation, ICT website, ITAR-Tass, Interfax News
Agency, qoqaz.net, kavkaz.org, MEMRI, the Moscow
Times, MSNBC News, the Guardian, the Sunday Mail,
the Telegraph, the Time Europe, Radio Free
Europe/Radio Liberty
Notes:
1. Hawa Barayew is commonly recognized as
the first Chechnyan female suicide bomber.
2. Abducting hostages is a common practice by
the Chechen rebels. A large-scale attack
was previously perpetrated in 1995 in
Budennovsk, when a group of rebels seized a
hospital and killed over a hundred people. A
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year later, an entire village of two thousand
people was abducted in Dagestan.
3. Some reports indicated that the womans
original plan was to blow up a city hospital.
4. In April 2003, a McDonalds was targeted by
a bomb in Istanbul, an attack which remains
unclaimed.
5. Report from Mohammed Daraghmeh, for the
AP, 31 May 2003.
6. http://www.ict.org.il/spotlight/det.cfm?id=905
7. The AP, 04/02/2003.
8. The Washington Times, 16/06/ 2003.
9. For the male suicide bomber, there is
another kind of motivation that includes a
sexual element. Men are said to be rewarded
with 72 black eyed virgins upon their arrival
in heavan. Women have no such equivalent,
as a woman is not supposed to be rewarded
sexually.
10. Sheikh Akrama Sabri stated during one of
his sermons: the Muslim loves death and
martyrdom. There is a great difference
between he who loves the hereafter and he
who loves this world MEMRI, N 226, June
8, 2001.
11. Haaretz, 26/05/2003. Article by Arnon
Regular.
12. The Telegraph, 20/07/2003.
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13. According to Israeli sources, female
suicide bomber Jaradat was approached by
the PIJ during the period of mourning for her
brother and her cousin.
14. http://www.ict.org.il/articles/articledet.cfm
?articleid=499
15. Six Palestinian female suicide bombers
were successful in their mission, but many
others were intercepted before.
16. BBC News, 28/11/03.
Two N.Y. Girls Held Over Terror
NEW YORK Two 16-year-old girls from New York City
(search) have been arrested on immigration charges
after federal authorities said they planned to become
suicide bombers, according to a published report.
The teenagers were arrested March 24 and were being
held in a detention center in Leesport, Pa., The New
York Times reported Thursday, citing a government
document provided by a federal agent.
According to the document, the FBI (search) found that
the girls posed "an imminent threat to the security of
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the United States based upon evidence that they plan
to be suicide bombers," the Times said.
The evidence was not described in the document.
Manny Van Pelt, a spokesman for Immigration and
Customs Enforcement (search), a division of the U.S.
Department of Homeland Security, would confirm only
that two juveniles had been arrested on "administrative
immigration violations" and remained in custody.
The girls one from Bangladesh, one from Guinea
were living in the United States illegally, the Times
reported.
Adam Carroll, a community activist with the Islamic
Circle of North America (search), told the Times one of
the girls had been arrested after she stopped attending
public high school in September. Federal immigration
agents investigated her home and discovered an essay
about suicide and Islam on her computer, Carroll said.
The case seemed to be "an investigation that's gotten
out of hand, like a lot of other so-called terror
investigations," Carroll told the newspaper.
In the Israeli-Palestinian conflict, and especially during
the Al-Aqsa Intifada, Palestinian militant and terrorist
organizations have used children to attack Israeli
civilians and soldiers. These groups have also recruited
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children as suicide bombers and sent them to explode
among Israeli civilians in crowded places.
The youngest successful Palestinian suicide bomber
was 16 year old Issa Bdeir, a high school student from
the village of Al Doha, who blew himself up in a park in
Rishon LeZion, killing a teenage boy and an elderly
man.
An unknown bomb maker who specializes in making
miniature explosive devices and placing them in
supermarket products has struck again in Italy, placing
a small bomb inside a "Kinder Surprise" candy
container that normally holds a small hollow chocolate
egg. The yellow egg container containing the bomb,
sans the chocolate egg, was discovered atop a low wall
by a group of schoolchildren in the northeast town of
Treviso. The children began playing with the egg,
tossing it about, when it exploded, but they were
unharmed. The unidentified bomber has been dubbed
the Italian "Unabomber," in reference to the elusive
U.S. bombmaker Ted Kaczynski. The bomber has struck
at various times dating back to 1994, though he had
been silent for a two-year period until the recent
bombing. The bomber's devices have injured and
maimed several people, but so far no one has been
killed. From 1994-1998 the explosive devices consisted
of pipe bombs, some containing shards of iron or glass.
In 2000, the bomber began placing the bombs inside
food and household items, including a jar of Nutella, a
tube of mayonnaise, a candle, a tube of soap bubbles,
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and a tube of tomato puree that exploded when the
woman who purchased the item opened it. The bomber
has placed the devices inside a child's felt-tip pen, in a
church confessional, and in the cistern of a public
toilet.
Overview
While there have been at least nine documented suicide
attacks involving minors between October 2000 and
March 2004 and an Israeli military report on 229 cases
of minors involved in militant activity, the Coalition to
Stop the Use of Child Soldiers (http://www.child-
soldiers.org/), in its 2004 Global Report on the Use of
Child Soldiers (http://www.child-
soldiers.org/resources/global-reports) reported that
"there was no evidence of systematic recruitment of
children by Palestinian armed groups" [1]
(http://www.child-
soldiers.org/document_get.php?id=945), also noting that
this remains a small fraction of the problem in other
conflict zones such as Africa, where there are an
estimated 20,000 children involved in active combat
roles in Sudan alone. Human Rights Watch, in its report
entitled "Child Soldier Use", also reported that "there
was no evidence that the Palestinian Authority (PA)
recruited or used child soldiers." [2]
(http://www.hrw.org/reports/2004/childsoldiers0104/9.ht
m)
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In the al-Aqsa intifada, Palestinian militant groups have
exploited children as "messengers and couriers, and in
some cases as fighters and suicide bombers in attacks
on Israeli soldiers and civilians" [3] (http://www.child-
soldiers.org/document_get.php?id=945). Fatah, Hamas,
Islamic Jihad and the Popular Front for the Liberation of
Palestine (PFLP) have all been implicated in involving
children in this way [4] (http://www.child-
soldiers.org/document_get.php?id=945), though the
issue was only brought to world attention after the
widely televised incident when the mentally
handicapped Palestinian teenager Hussam Abdo was
disarmed in front of television cameras [5]
(http://observer.guardian.co.uk/focus/story/0,,1179562,0
0.html) [6]
(http://www.intelligence.org.il/sp/4_04/images/rd.wmv).
Some commentators have claimed that the Palestinian
Authority, religious clerics, and the Palestinian
education system incite violence by glorifying suicide
bombing and violence through the concepts of
"Shuhada" (martyrs or witnesses in Arabic) and "Jihad".
[7] (http://www.pmw.org.il/tv%20part1.html) However, a
special report commissioned by the US Department of
State and conducted by the Israel/Palestine Center for
Research and Information found that "The overall
orientation of the [Palestinian] curriculum is peaceful
despite the harsh and violent realities on the ground. It
does not openly incite against Israel and the Jews. It
does not openly incite hatred and violence. Religious
and political tolerance is emphasized in a good number
of textbooks and in multiple contexts. "
[8] (http://www.un.org/unrwa/allegations). Other
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commentators have called suicide bombers "an
explosion of decades of despair", claiming that they are
more likely motivated by "living under military siege,
and because so many of their fellow Palestinians have
been maimed and killed" than Islamic fanatacism and
"dreaming of being rewarded with 72 virgins in
Paradise".
The Israel Defense Forces (IDF) claims that many
children are paid by militant groups such as Hamas or
the Al-Aqsa Martyrs' Brigades to throw pipe bombs at
Israeli soldiers, often resulting in severe injuries and
handicaps to the children through premature
detonation. Between September 2000 and March 2004,
"Palestinian non-governmental groups documented the
deaths of 30 children actively involved in organized
military action... Most of the deaths occurred as a result
of accidents with explosives or during armed clashes
with Israeli troops" [9] (http://www.child-
soldiers.org/document_get.php?id=945). According to
Israeli security forces, there have been 229 cases of
minors involved in militant activity.
In an interview with the Kuwaiti newspaper Azzaman
(June 20, 2002), Mahmoud Abbas who would later
serve as Prime Minister (March 2003 - October 2003),
Acting Chairman (November 2004 - January 2005) and
President-Elect (January 2005 - present) of the
Palestinian Authority condemned the practice, saying
that he opposed "that little children go to die", stating
that "[i]t is a horrible thing. At least 40 children in Rafah
became cripples after their hands were blown off by
pipe bombs. They received 5 Shekels [slightly over $1]
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to throw them" (Quoted in the Jordanian newspaper
Alrai) [10]
(http://www.idf.il/hebrew/announcements/2002/june/maz
en.stm) [11]
(http://honestreporting.com/graphics/abumazen.gif).
Some Palestinians and commentators have claimed
that the role that money plays in this is highly doubtful
given the large amount of stone throwing at tanks by
children on their own.
Chapter 6
Incidents since September 2000 and prior to 2004
On April 24, 2002, three children aged 12, 13 and 14
were killed while attempting to infilitate Netzarim
settlement in the Gaza Strip. The three children - Ismail
Abu Nada (12), Anwar Ill Azi Mustafa Hamarna (13) and
Yosef Basem Yosef Zakut (14) - were activists of the
local Islamic youth movement of the Sheikh Raduan
neighbourhood in Gaza. No Palestinian group claimed
responsibility for the attack, but Israeli intelligence
sources attributed it to Hamas. Hamas, however,
denied the charge and condemned the usage of children
in military operations, and asked them to remember
that their lives are precious, and should not be
sacrificed. [12]
(http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/middle_east/1948502.s
tm)
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The data collected by the Israeli Defense Forces (IDF)
regarding the involvement of Palestinian children in
suicide bombings is grim. According to this data:
Since the beginning of violence in the Al-Aqsa
Intifada in 2000, 29 suicide attacks have been
carried out by youth under the age of 18.
Since May 2001, 22 shootings attacks and attacks
using explosive devices were carried out by youth
under the age of 18.
Since the beginning of 2001, more than 40 youths
under the age of 18 were involved in attempted
suicide bombings that were thwarted (of them,
three during 2004). [13]
(http://www.idf.il/newsite/english/031604-1.stm)
Some Palestinian and international human rights
groups, however, point out omissions in the IDF's data.
In particular, since the beginning of the conflict:
The IDF has killed 652 Palestinian children during
the intifada, which began in September 2000.
Defence for Children International's Palestine
Section (DCI/PS) reports that an estimated 10 000
children were wounded during the intifada.
Over 2 000 children had been arrested by June
2003.
Children in IDF custody have reported abuse
(beatings, sleep deprivation, and humiliation such
as being forced to strip naked, derogatory
language, being forced to perform a variety of
demeaning actions, etc''.) and the same level of
treatment as adult Palestinians; allegations that
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have been documented by Amnesty International
and Human Rights Watch.
Incidents in 2004
On March 24, 2004, one week after capturing a bomb in
the bag of 12-year-old Abdullah Quran
[14] (http://www.crimelibrary.com/terrorists_spies/terror
ists/palestinians/) [15]
(http://www.guardian.co.uk/print/0,3858,4892818-
103681,00.html), possibly placed without his knowledge
(some Palestinians have claimed the explosives were
planted by Israelis), Hussam Abdo, a 16-year old
Palestinian who initially claimed he was 14 was
captured in a checkpoint near Nablus wearing an
explosive belt. The young boy was paid by the Tanzim
militia to detonate himself onto the checkpoint. IDF
soldiers, manning the checkpoint, were suspicious of
him and told him to stay away from people. Later, an
EOD team arrived and by using a police-sapper robot,
removed the explosive belt from him. [16]
(http://www1.idf.il/SIP_STORAGE/DOVER/files///1//28131.
jpg)
[17] (http://www.guardian.co.uk/international/story/0,360
4,1170980,00.html). These incidents were both widely
condemned in the Palestinian press, and in the Arab
world in general.
The latest incidents have caused a controversy in the
Palestinian society, with most expressing their dismay
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at the phenomenon. Although all major Palestinian
groups have "publicly disavowed the use of children in
military operations ... those stated policies have not
always been implemented". However, the Israeli
government still claims that the Palestinian Authority
(PA) is inciting children to participate in militant
operations and attacks, alleging that PA television
broadcasts call on children to seek death, and that the
PA condones posters of suicide bombers in the
classrooms. [18] (http://www.pmw.org.il/specrep-
32.html)
Human rights organizations, such as Amnesty
International, strongly condemned the act of using
children to commit attacks.
"Amnesty International has repeatedly condemned
suicide bombings and other attacks against
civilians by Palestinian armed groups as crimes
against humanity. Using children to carry out or
assist in armed attacks of any kind is an
abomination. We call on the Palestinian leadership
to publicly denounce these practices."
"Palestinian armed groups, including Hamas,
Islamic Jihad and al-Aqsa Martyrs's Brigades, must
put an immediate end to the use or involvement of
any kind of children in armed activity." [19]
(http://web.amnesty.org/library/Index/ENGMDE1503
52004)
Despite the harsh condemnation and internal
controversy, Palestinian militant groups such as Al-
Aqsa Martyrs' Brigades and Islamic Jihad, have recently
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1356
used children as militants and suicide bombers. On
March 31, 2004, Raed Khuweir blamed Palestinian
Islamic Jihad for attempting to recruit his younger
brother, aged 15, to commit a suicide attack. He said:
"They crushed my brother. These are dubious
people who tarnish the reputation of the resistance
by making us look like barbarians who exploit
children."
Khuweir claimed that his younger brother was
"brainwashed" by an Islamic Jihad cleric and "call[ed]
on the Palestinian Authority to investigate this affair
and on Islamic Jihad to reveal who these people are
that deceive children, so that [it would be known] they
really belong to the group"
[20] (http://www.heraldsun.news.com.au/common/story_
page/0,5478,9140509%255E1702,00.html). Serveral
weeks after the incident, the IDF arrested Fatah
activists from Nablus, who believed to be behind other
children suicide bombings.
On May 29, 2004, The New York Times reported Israeli
allegations that the al-Aqsa Martyrs' Brigades were
using children to recruit classmates as suicide
bombers. One child, Nasser Awartani, 15 of Nablus
allegedly recruited four of his classmates, one of whom
the Shin Bet report on Awartani claimed was Hussam
Abdo
[21] (http://www.nytimes.com/2004/05/30/international/m
iddleeast/30teen.html).
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On June 16, 2004, two girls - aged 14 and 15 were
arrest by the IDF for plotting a suicide bombing. [22]
(http://www.haaretz.com/hasen/spages/439981.html)
According to IDF statement, the two minors were
recruited by Tanzim (Fatah's armed wing) activists,
guided by Hizbullah.
[23] (http://www1.idf.il/DOVER/site/mainpage.asp?sl=EN
&id=7&docid=32081.EN) On July 3, the Israeli security
forces have thwarted a suicide bombing which should
have been carried by a 16-years-old Muataz Takhsin
Karini. Karini and two of his operators were arrested,
while a 12 kg explosive belt was detonated safely by
Israeli EOD crew.
[24] (http://www.haaretz.co.il/hasite/pages/ShArtPE.jhtm
l?itemNo=446940&contrassID=2&subContrassID=21&sb
SubContrassID=0) On June 5, IDF forces detonated two
explosive belts concealed in schoolbags.
[25] (http://www.maarivintl.com/index.cfm?fuseaction=a
rticle&articleID=9415)[26] (http://news.walla.co.il/?w=//5
66314) On July 14 the Shin Bet arrested in Kfar Maskha
a suicide bomber. The bomber was identified as 17-
year-old Ahmed Bushkar from Nablus.
[27] (http://news.walla.co.il/?w=//571353)
On August 7, 2004, a 15 year-old Palestinian was killed
while trying to launch an anti-tank missile on Rafiah
Yam settlement in the Gaza Strip. The Israeli Defence
Forces returned fire and hit the missile, and he was
apparently was killed by the explosion. Later that day,
in an attempt to sabotage the Israeli Gaza Strip Barrier,
one Palestinian was killed and a 16-year-old teen was
arrested. An IED explosive charge was found nearby.
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1358
[28] (http://www.ynet.co.il/articles/0,7340,L-
2959268,00.html)
On September 23, 2004, a day before Yom Kippur, the
Shin Bet and the Israeli police captured a 15-year-old
suicide bomber and a 7 kg explosive belt in Dir-Hana
village in the Western Galilee. The 15-year-old was a
part of joint terrorist cell of Tanzim and Islamic Jihad
from Yamon village near Jenin. The four were
Palestinians who worked illegally in Israel. The 15-year-
old teenager was paid 1000 Shekels in order to blow
himself up in Afula. [29]
(http://www.haaretz.com/hasen/spages/481217.html) ,
[30]
(http://www.haaretz.co.il/hasite/spages/481214.html)
According to a Shabak report published on September
26, 2004 about 292 Palestinian minors were involved in
terrorism.
[31] (http://www.haaretz.co.il/hasite/pages/ShArt.jhtml?i
temNo=482489&contrassID=1&subContrassID=1&sbSu
bContrassID=0),(DOC,
Hebrew) (http://my.ynet.co.il/pic/news/final/final.doc)
On the fourth quarter of 2004, Nablus is still continue to
be the center for the recruitment of child suicide
bombers:. On September 27, 2004, a 15-year-old
suspected suicide bomber was arrested in Nablus.
[32] (http://news.walla.co.il/?w=//604999). On October
28, Ayub Maaruf, a 16-years old Fatah suicide bomber,
was arrested near Nablus along with his operator. [33]
(http://www.nrg.co.il/online/1/ART/806/648.html)
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1359
On November 1, 16-year-old Aamer Alfar blew himself in
Tel Aviv's Carmel Market, killing 3 Israelis, in a suicide
bombing that was claimed by the Popular Front for the
Liberation of Palestine. Alfar's mother and father
condemned what they saw as the exploitation of their
son:
"God will curse those who recruited Amar. I had
heard the stories about recruiting children in
Nablus but I didn't think they were true... Yes, it is
difficult here for everyone because of the
occupation, and life in Nablus is intolerable, but
children should not be exploited in this way." [34]
(http://www.haaretz.com/hasen/spages/496569.htm
l)
On November 4, a 15-year-old suicide bomber was
arrested in Nablus.
[35] (http://www.maarivintl.com/index.cfm?fuseaction=a
rticle&articleID=11529)
Incidents in 2005
On February 3, Mahmoud Tabouq, a 15 or 16 year-old
Palestinian, was arrested at the Hawara checkpoint
near Nablus carrying a bag containing an explosive belt,
an improvised gun, and 20 bullets. The belt was
detonated safely by a Magav bomb squad.(Haaretz)
(http://www.haaretz.com/hasen/spages/535850.html) ,
(video) (http://www1.idf.il/dover/site/mainpage.asp?sl=E
N&id=7&docid=37529.EN)
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1360
On April 12, a 15-year Palestinian boy, identified as
Hassan Hashash, was caught in Hawara checkpoint,
hiding five pipe bombs under his coat. He tried to ignite
them with a match when the soldiers apprehended him.
Later he was disarmed, and sappers detonated the
bombs safely. Family members of Hashash suggested
that he deilberately carried bombs into IDF checkpoint
in order to be arrested and study for the "Bagrut" final
exams in the Israeli jail.[36]
(http://www.haaretz.com/hasen/spages/564145.html),
[37] (http://www.ynetnews.com/articles/0,7340,L-
3071736,00.html) A week later, another Palestinian
youth (aged 17) caught carrying explosives in Beit Furik
checkpoint. [38]
(http://www.haaretz.com/hasen/spages/568452.html)
On April 27 two Palestinian teenagers, both aged 15
(other souces cite their as 12 and 13), were arrested in
a checkpoint near Jenin after 11 explosive charges
were found on them. One teenager was recruited by the
Palestinian Islamic Jihad and the second by the al-Aqsa
Martyrs' Brigades. The two told interrogators that they
had been acting as couriers for terrorists, but security
forces suspect they planned to get close to the soldier
and then detonate the charges. [39]
(http://www.haaretz.com/hasen/spages/569675.html),
[40] (http://www.nrg.co.il/online/1/ART/927/177.html)
A dead man's switch or dead man's handle is a device
intended to take some action if the human operator
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1361
becomes incapacitated in some way, a form of fail-safe
practice. Because the action is usually to slow down or
stop a vehicle, this is also sometimes known as a dead
man's brake.
For example, most freight elevators and lawn mowers in
some countries use a dead man's switch or a similar
mechanism, causing them to respectively stop closing
the elevator door or shut down if the switch is released.
If a person faints while mowing the lawn, their hands
will relax and the mower will shut off.
A very common use is in a locomotive; for that use, see
dead-man's control.
Software versions of dead man's switches are used
(usually only by technically competent people, and not
many of those) to perform such tasks as notify friends
or delete or encrypt data. The non-event triggering
these can be almost anything, from failing to log in for a
week consecutively, to not responding to an automated
email ping, to a GPS-enabled phone not moving for a
period of time, or even just failing to type the right
magic sequence within a few minutes of the laptop
booting. The motivations vary depending on the
individual needs. Someone in a police state may be
much more concerned about locking up their data
securely (or deleting it) while others may just wish to
alert friends or the authorities by email that something
may be amiss.
Dead man's switch devices have also been used in
suicide bombing, to trigger the explosive if the bomber
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1362
is shot or overpowered. This is a fail-deadly mechanism,
rather than a fail-safe mechanism.
Chapter 7
Suicide weapons.
Suicide weapons are weapons designed to kill
individuals or destroy military targets at the cost of the
user's life. They are typically based on explosives.
Explosives
An explosive is defined
as a material
(chemical or nuclear)
that can be initiated to
undergo very rapid, self-propagating decomposition
that results in the formation of more stable
material, the liberation of heat, or the development
of a sudden pressure effect through the action of
heat on produced or adjacent gases. All of these
outcomes produce energy; a weapon's
effectiveness is measured by the quantity of
energy - or damage potential - it delivers to the
target.
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1363
Modern weapons use both kinetic and potential
energy to achieve maximum lethality. Kinetic
energy systems rely on the conversion of kinetic
energy to work, while potential energy systems
use explosive energy directly in the form of heat
and blast, or by accelerating metal as a shaped
charge, EFP or case fragments to increase their
kinetic energy and damage volume.
Energy may be broadly classified as potential or
kinetic. Potential energy is energy of configuration
or position, or the capacity to perform work. For
example, the relatively unstable chemical bonds
among the atoms that comprise trinitrotoluene
(TNT) possess chemical potential energy. Potential
energy can, under suitable conditions, be
transformed into kinetic energy, which is energy of
motion. When a conventional explosive such as
TNT is detonated, the relatively unstable chemical
bonds are converted into bonds that are more
stable, producing kinetic energy in the form of
blast and thermal energies. This process of
transforming a chemical system's bonds from
lesser to greater stability is exothermic (there is a
net production of energy).
A chemical explosive is a compound or a mixture
of compounds which, when subjected to heat,
impact, friction, or shock, undergoes very rapid,
self-propagating, heat- producing decomposition.
This decomposition produces gases that exert
tremendous pressures as they expand at the high
temperature of the reaction. The work done by an
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1364
explosive depends primarily on the amount of heat
given off during the explosion. The term detonation
indicates that the reaction is moving through the
explosive faster than the speed of sound in the
unreacted explosive; whereas, deflagration
indicates a slower reaction (rapid burning). A high
explosive will detonate; a low explosive will
deflagrate. All commercial explosives except black
powder are high explosives.
A High Explosive (HE) is a compound or mixture
which, when initiated, is capable of sustaining a
detonation shockwave to produce a powerful blast
effect. A detonation is the powerful explosive
effect caused by the propagation of a high-speed
shockwave through a high explosive compound or
mixture. During the process of detonation, the high
explosive is largely decomposed into hot, rapidly
expanding gas.
The most important single property in rating an
explosive is detonation velocity, which may be
expressed for either confined or un-confined
conditions. It is the speed at which the detonation
wave travels through the explosive. Since
explosives in boreholes are confined to some
degree, the confined value is the more significant.
Most manufacturers, however, measure the
detonation velocity in an unconfined column of
explosive 1- i/4 in. in diameter. The detonation
velocity of an explosive is dependent on the
density, ingredients, particle size, charge diameter,
and degree of confinement. Decreased particle
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1365
size, increased charge diameter, and increased
confinement all tend to increase the detonation
velocity. Unconfined velocities are generally 70 to
80 percent of confined velocities.
The confined detonation velocity of commercial
explosives varies from 4,000 to 25,000 fps. With
cartridge explosives the confined velocity is
seldom attained. Some explosives and blasting
agents are sensitive to diameter changes. As
diameter is reduced, the velocity is reduced until
at some critical diameter, propagation is no longer
assured and misfires are likely.
Denser explosives usually give higher detonation
velocities and pressures. A dense explosive may
be desirable for difficult blasting conditions or
where fine fragmentation is required. Low-density
ex-plosives will suffice in easily fragmented or
closely jointed rocks and are preferred for
quarrying coarse material.
Energetic materials are made in two ways. The
first is by physically mixing solid oxidizers and
fuels, a process that, in its basics, has remained
virtually unchanged for centuries. Such a process
results in a composite energetic material such as
black powder. The second process involves
creating a monomolecular energetic material, such
as TNT, in which each molecule contains an
oxidizing component and a fuel component. For the
composites, the total energy can be much greater
than that of monomolecular materials. However,
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1366
the rate at which this energy is released is
relatively slow when compared to the release rate
of monomolecular materials. Monomolecular
materials such as TNT work fast and thus have
greater power than composites, but they have only
moderate energy densities-commonly half those of
composites. Greater energy densities versus
greater powerthat's been the traditional trade-
off.
Ingredients of high explosives are classified as
explosive bases, combustibles, oxygen carriers,
antacids, and absorbents. Some ingredients
perform more than one function. An explosive base
is a solid or liquid which, upon the application of
sufficient heat or shock, decomposes to gases
with an accompanying release of considerable
heat. A combustible combines with excess oxygen
to prevent the formation of nitrogen oxides. An
oxygen carrier assures complete oxidation of the
carbon to prevent the formation of carbon
monoxide. The formation of nitrogen oxides or
carbon monoxide, in addition to being undesirable
from the standpoint of fumes, results in lower heat
of explosion and efficiency than when carbon
dioxide and nitrogen are formed. Antacids increase
stability in storage, and absorb-ents absorb liquid
explosive bases.
Explosives are classified as primary or secondary
based on their susceptibility to initiation. Primary
explosives, which include lead azide and lead
styphnate, are highly susceptible to initiation.
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1367
Primary explosives often are referred to as
initiating explosives because they can be used to
ignite secondary explosives. Secondary explosives,
which include nitroaromatics and nitramines are
much more prevalent at military sites than are
primary explosives. Because they are formulated
to detonate only under specific circumstances,
secondary explosives often are used as main
charge or bolstering explosives.
Secondary explosives can be loosely categorized
into melt-pour explosives, which are based on
nitroaromatics such as TNT, and plastic-bonded
explosives which are based on a binder and
crystalline explosive such as RDX.
Propellants include both rocket and gun
propellants. Most rocket propellants are
composites based on a rubber binder, ammonium
perchlorate oxidizer, and a powdered aluminum
fuel; or composites based on a nitrate esters,
usually nitroglycerine or nitrocellulose and
nitramines. If a binder is used, it usually is an
isocyanate-cured polyester or polyether. Some
propellants also contain combustion modifiers,
such as lead oxide. One group of gun propellants
are called "single base" (principally nitrocellulose),
"double base" (nitrocellulose and nitroglycerine),
or "triple base" (nitrocellulose, nitroglycerine, and
nitroguanidine). Some of the newer, lower
vulnerability gun propellants contain polymer
binders and crystalline nitramines.
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1368
Pyrotechnics include illuminating flares, signaling
flares, colored and white smoke generators,
tracers, incendiary delays, fuses, and photo-flash
compounds. Pyrotechnics usually are composed of
an inorganic oxidizer and metal powder in a binder.
Illuminating flares contain sodium nitrate,
magnesium, and a binder. Signaling flares contain
barium, strontium, or other metal nitrates.
The energetic materials used by the military as
propellants and explosives are mostly organic
compounds containing nitro (NO2) groups. The
three major classes of these energetic materials
are nitroaromatics (e.g., tri-nitrotoluene or TNT),
nitramines (e.g., hexahydro-1,3,5 trinitroazine or
RDX), and nitrate esters (e.g., nitrocellulose and
nitroglycerine).
Since the invention of the cannon, the explosive
fills used to drive lethal mechanisms have been the
subject of ever increasing interest and study.
Traditionally, munitions designers have used such
ex-plosives as Comp-B, TNT, or LX-14, depending
upon the particular application.
During the 1920s and into the 1940s, the Army's
Picatinny Arsenal was instrumental in designing,
modeling and evaluating such high explosive
material as TNT, RDX, and Haleite. This work
greatly influenced battlefield lethality during WWII
where explosives exhibiting a higher brisance, or
shattering effect, than TNT were in great demand.
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1369
The 1960s brought new explosives such as HMX
that was chemically analogous to RDX, but even
more powerful to give soldiers greater lethality
capability. Picatinny laboratories also developed
precision warheads for several missile systems,
including the DRAGON-MAW, a Medium Antiarmor
Weapon.
The Army uses Research Department Explosive
(RDX) and High Melt Explosive (HMX) as basic
explosives for munitions and tactical missiles as
well as propellants for strategic missiles rather
than TNT because of their superior energy.
Most modern explosives are reasonably stable and
require percussive shock or other triggering
devices for detonation. Fortunately, XAC
contamination usually occurs in dilute, aqueous
solutions or in relatively low concentrations in the
soil and present no explosion hazard. Masses of
pure crystalline explosive material have, however,
been encountered in soils associated with
wastewater lagoons, leach pits, burn pits, and
firing ranges. These materials remain hazardous
for long periods of time and great care must be
used during the investigation and remediation
process.
Molecular weights are moderate, of the order of a
few hundreds of grams per mole. Two-dimensional,
molecular structure diagrams of representative
explosives are shown in Figure 2. The molecular
structure, particularly the types and positions of
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1370
subsidiary functional groups, controls
environmental behavior.
All of the common explosives are solid at normal
environmental temperatures and pressures.
Melting point temperatures for explosives solids
are moderate (50-205 0C). Melting points are of
little direct value in predicting environmental fate
and transport, but several parameter estimation
relations for solids incorporate the influence of
molecular crystal bonding by including a term
dependent on the melting point. Melting points are
not available for many of the breakdown products.
Most of the explosives and associated
contaminants have very low volatility, with vapor
pressures estimated to be less than 6 x 10-4 torr.
Henry's law constants (KH) range from 10-4 to 10-
11 atmm-2mole-1. Only those with KH greater
than 10-5 volatilize significantly from aqueous
solution 12. Though explosives compounds may
not be volatile, some of the transformation
products, other key reactants, or products may be
volatile to semivolatile.
Explosives -
Nitroaromatics
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1371
TNT [2,4,6-trinitrotoluene]
2,4,6 Trinitrotoluene (TNT) is an explosive used in
military munitions and in civilian mining and
quarrying activities. TNT was first used on a wide
scale during World War I and is still used today.
The United States military stopped production of
TNT in the mid-1980s.
During production TNT is in the form of a liquid
which is then cooled and washed with water to
form solid flakes in the form of colorless crystals,
though commercial crystals are yellow. The flakes
can be remelted at low temperatures (180 degrees
Fahrenheit) and poured into munitions shells and
casings. TNT was widely used by the military
because of its low melting point and its resistance
to shock or friction which allows it to be handled,
stored, and used with comparative safety.
In order to detonate, TNT must be confined in a
casing or shell and subjected to severe pressures
and/or temperatures (936 degrees Fahrenheit) such
as from a blasting cap or detonator. In fact, U.S.
Army tests on pure TNT show that when struck by
a rifle bullet TNT failed to detonate 96% of the time
and when dropped from an altitude of 4,000 feet
onto concrete, a TNT filled bomb failed to explode
92% of the time.
TNT is one of the most common bulk explosives.
TNT equivalent is a measure of the energy
released from the detonation of a nuclear weapon,
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1372
or from the explosion of a given quantity of
fissionable material, in terms of the amount of TNT
(trinitrotoluene) which could release the same
amount of energy when exploded. The twelve-
kiloton Hiroshima atomic bomb had had a blast
effect alone equivalent to some twenty-five million
pounds of TNTthats million.
2,4,6-Trinitrotoluene (TNT) causes liver damage
and aplastic anemia. Deaths from aplastic anemia
and toxic hepatitis were reported in TNT workers
prior to the 1950s. With improved industrial
practices, there have been few reports of fatalities
or serious health problems related to its use.
Exposures at or below 0.5 mg/m3 have been
reported to cause destruction of red blood cells.
Among some groups of workers, there is a
reduction in average hemoglobin and hematocrit
values. Workers deficient in glucose-6-phosphate
dehydrogenase may be particularly at risk of acute
hemolytic disease. Three such cases occurred
after a latent period of 2 to 4 days and were
characterized by weakness, vertigo, headache,
nausea, paleness, enlarged liver and spleen, dark
urine, decreased hemoglobin levels, and
reticulocytosis. Although no simultaneous
measurements of atmospheric levels were
available, measurement on other occasions
showed exposure levels up to 3.0 mg/m3.
Cataracts are also reportedly produced with
chronic exposures for more than 5 years. The
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1373
opacities did not interfere with visual acuity or
visual fields. The induced cataracts may not
regress once exposure ceases, although
progression is arrested.
The vapor or dust can cause irritation of mucous
membranes resulting in sneezing, cough, and sore
throat. Although intense or prolonged exposure to
TNT may cause some cyanosis, it is not regarded
as a strong producer of methemoglobin. Other
occasional effects include leukocytosis or
leukopenia, peripheral neuritis, muscular pains,
cardiac irregularities, and renal irritation.
Trinitrotoluene is absorbed through skin fairly
rapidly, and reference to airborne levels of vapor or
dust may underestimate total systemic exposure if
skin exposure also occurs. Apparent differences in
dose-response relationships based only on airborne
levels may be explained by differences in skin
contact. TNT causes sensitization dermatitis; the
hands, wrist, and forearms most commonly are
affected, but skin at friction points such as the
collar line, belt line, and ankles also is often
involved. Erythema, papules, and an itchy eczema
can be severe. The skin, hair, and nails of exposed
workers may be stained yellow.
Rats administered 50 mg/kg/day in their diets had
anemia, splenic lesions, and liver and kidney
damage. Hyperplasia and carcinoma of the urinary
bladder also were observed in female rats.
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1374
Historically, control of exposure to TNT has been
accomplished through general safety and hygiene
measures, yet additional, specific measures are
necessary. The Hazard Communication Program,
for example, should instruct workers about the
need for strict personal and shop hygiene, and
about the hazards of the particular operations that
are conducted in that plant. In addition, soap that
contains 5% to 10% potassium sulfite will not only
help remove TNT dust from the skin, suds that turn
red will also indicate any remaining contamination.
Furthermore, respiratory protection equipment
should be selected according to NIOSH guidance,
and should be worn during operations that release
dust, vapor, or fumes.
Before WWII, research suggested that improving
the nutritional status of TNT workers might help
improve their resistance to toxic effects. However,
in a World War II era cohort study, multivitamin
capsules were not shown to be efficacious in
preventing TNT toxicity.
TNT interacts with certain medications - including
isoniazid, phenylbutazone, phenytoin, and
methotrexate. Anyone taking these medications
while working with TNT should be closely followed
by the occupational physician.
Medical Monitoring. The U.S. Army currently
recommends preplacement and periodic
(semiannual) examinations of TNT workers. To
identify workers with higher-than-normal
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1375
sensitivity to TNT toxicity during the first three
months of exposure, monthly hemoglobin, LDH, and
AST should be done.
The ACGIH TLV Committee for Chemical
Substances recommended that the 8-hour TLV for
TNT be lowered from 0.5 mg/m3 to 0.1 mg/m3 on 21
May 1997 after reviewing scientific reports of
human and animal exposure. In some studies,
evidence of liver toxicity, changes in blood cell
production, and cataracts were noted when
exposure levels ranged below 0.5 mg/m3 (the old
ACGIH TLV). TNT workers should never be exposed
to ambient levels of TNT above 0.1 mg/m3 for an 8-
hour time weighted average (TWA) without
appropriate respiratory protection. Based on the
evidence reviewed by the ACGIH, the extra margin
of safety afforded by this lowered TLV is necessary
to protect workers health. Skin absorption has also
been noted to be a significant means of exposure
in several studies. Dermal exposure over an 8 hour
period cannot be readily quantitated at a worksite,
however use of protective clothing to include head
cover and impermeable gloves is essential to
prevent skin absorption of TNT.
DNT (Dinitrotoluene)
TNB (1,3,5-Trinitrobenzene)
The synthetic compound 1,3,5-TNB is used as a
high explosive for commercial mining and military
use, as a narrow-range pH indicator and as an
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1376
agent to vulcanize natural rubber. The compound is
a manufacturing by-product of the explosive, TNT,
and is released to the environment in discharged
wastewater. Additionally, any TNT itself that is
present in the waste stream may be degraded to
1,3,5-TNB by photolysis under certain conditions of
pH and organic matter content. The compound has
a close structural relationship with the most
widely produced military explosive, trinitrotoluene
(TNT), of which it is a manufacturing by-product
and an environmental degradation product.
Explosives - Nitramines
The nitramines are the
most recently
introduced class of
organic nitrate
explosives. The most prominent member of this
class is RDX (research department explosive;
hexahydro-1,3,5-trinitro-1,3,5 triazine, which is also
known as cyclonite); HMX (high melting explosive;
octahydro-1,3,5,7-tetranitro-1,3,5,7 tetrazocine),
nitroguanidine, and tetryl are also significant
nitramines.
In a class of explosives like nitramines, the higher
density, bigger molecules will give more power
because more realizable energy can be packed in
the same space. Bigger molecules using the same
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1377
proportion of elements are more dense because
the formation of covalent bonds makes atoms
come closer together than if they were just pushed
together but from different molecules. HMX is a big
ring molecule, same as RDX but with an extra
CH2NNO2 unit. It has higher density (TMD 1.902)
than RDX, 1.806, its det. vel is 9.11 km/sec vs. 8.70
for RDX. It is considered more powerful.
RDX [Cyclonite - Hexahydro-1,3,5-trinitro-1,3,5-
triazine]
RDX stands for Royal Demolition eXplosive. It is
also known as cyclonite or hexogen. RDX is
currently the most important military high
explosive in the US. Cyclotrimethylenetrinitramine,
C3H6N606 (RDX), is second in strength to
nitroglycerin among common explosive
substances. When compressed to a specific gravity
of 1.70, it has a confined detonation velocity of
about 27,000 fps. RDX is used as an explosive,
usually in mixtures with other explosives, oils, or
waxes. It has a high degree of stability in storage
and is considered the most powerful and brisant of
the military high explosives. RDX is used as a base
charge in detonators and in blasting caps. RDX
forms the base for the following common military
explosives: Composition A, Composition B,
Composition C, HBX, H-6 and Cyclotol. Composition
A consists of RDX melted with wax; in Composition
B, RDX is mixed with TNT; and Composition C
contains RDX blended with a non-explosive
plasticizer. Pure RDX is used in press-loaded
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1378
projectiles. Cast loading is accomplished by
blending RDX with a relatively low melting point
substance.
RDX has both military and civilian applications. As
a military explosive, RDX can be used alone as a
base charge for detonators or mixed with another
explosive such as TNT to form cyclotols, which
produce a bursting charge for aerial bombs, mines,
and torpedoes. Common military uses of RDX have
been as an ingredient in plastic bonded explosives,
or plastic explosives which have been used as
explosive fill in almost all types of munition
compounds. Civilian applications of RDX include
use in fireworks, in demolition blocks, as a heating
fuel for food rations, and as an occasional
rodenticide. Combinations of RDX and HMX,
another explosive, have been the chief ingredients
in approximately 75 products.
RDX is an explosive nitramine compound. It is in
the form of a white powder with a density of 1.806
g/cc. Nitrogen content of 37.84%. The chemical
name for RDX is 1,3,5-trinitro-1,3,5-triazine. The
chemical formula for RDX is C3H6N6O6 and the
molecular weight is 222.117. Its melting point is
205C. RDX has very low solubility in water and has
an extremely low volatility. RDX does not sorb to
soil very strongly and can move into the
groundwater from soil. It can be broken down in air
and water in a few hours, but breaks down more
slowly in soil.
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1379
Although RDX [Royal Demolition Explosive or
Research Department Explosive] was first
prepared in 1899, its explosive properties were not
appreciated until 1920. RDX was used widely
during World War II because petroleum was not
needed as a raw ingredient. During and since World
War II, RDX has become the second-most-widely
used high explosive in the military, exceeded only
by TNT. As with most military explosives, RDX is
rarely used alone; it is widely used as a component
of plastic explosives, detonators, high explosives
in artillery rounds, Claymore mines, and demolition
kits. RDX has limited civilian use as a rat poison.
RDX can cause seizures in humans and animals
when large amounts are inhaled or ingested.
Nausea and vomiting have also been observed. The
effects of long-term (365 days or longer), low-level
exposure on the nervous system are not known. No
other significant health effects have been reported
in humans. Rats and mice that ate RDX for 3
months or more had decreased body weights and
slight liver and kidney damage. It is not known
whether RDX causes birth defects in humans. It did
not cause birth defects in rabbits, but did result in
smaller offspring in rats. It is not known whether
RDX affects reproduction in humans. The EPA has
determined that RDX is a possible human
carcinogen (Class C). In one study, RDX caused
liver tumors in mice that were exposed to it in the
diet. However, carcinogenic effects were not noted
in rat studies and no human data are available.
RDX does not bioaccumulate in fish or in humans.
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1380
RDX has been produced several ways, but the most
common method of manufacture used in the United
States is the continuous Bachmann process. The
Bachmann process involves reacting hexamine
with nitric acid, ammonium nitrate, glacial acetic
acid, and acetic anhydride. The crude product is
filtered and recrystallized to form RDX. The
byproducts of RDX manufacture include nitrogen
oxides, sulfur oxides, acid mists, and unreacted
ingredients. A second process that has been used
to manufacture RDX, the direct nitration of
octahydro-1,3,5,7-tetranitro-1,3,5,7-tetrazocine
(HMX), has not yielded a percentage of RDX as high
as the percentage produced in the Bachmann
process (Army 1978; Merck 1989).
Production of RDX peaked in the 1960s when it
was ranked third in explosive production by volume
in the United States. The average volume of RDX
produced from 1969 to 1971 was 15 million pounds
per month. However, production of RDX decreased
to a yearly total of 16 million pounds for 1984.
RDX is not produced commercially in the United
States. Production in the United States is limited
to Army ammunition plants such as Holston Army
ammunition plant in Kingsport, Tennessee, which
has been operating at 10-20% capacity. Several
Army ammunition plants, such as Louisiana
(Shreveport, Louisiana), Lone Star (Texarkana,
Texas), Iowa (Middletown, Iowa), and Milan (Milan,
Tennessee), also handle and package RDX. Since
the release of RDX is not required to be reported
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1381
under SARA Section 313, there are no data on RDX
in the Toxics Release Inventory (TRI 1993).
Waste-water treatment sludges resulting from the
manufacture of RDX are classified as hazardous
wastes and are subject to EPA regulations.
Munitions such as RDX have been disposed of in
the past by dumping in deep sea water. By-
products of military explosives such as RDX have
also been openly burned in many Army ammunition
plants in the past. There are indications that in
recent years as much as 80% of waste munitions
and propellants have been disposed of by
incineration. Wastes containing RDX have been
incinerated by grinding the explosive wastes with
a flying knife cutter and spraying the ground
material with water to form a slurry. The types of
incineration used to dispose of waste munitions
containing RDX include rotary kiln incineration,
fluidized bed incineration, and pyrolitic
incineration. The primary disadvantage of open
burning or incineration is that explosive
contaminants are often released into the air,
water, and soils.
Soldiers and other workers have been exposed to
RDX during its manufacture, in the field, and
through the contamination of the environment. The
main occupational exposure to RDX during its
manufacture is through the inhalation of fine dust
particles. Ingestion may also be a possible route of
exposure, but it is poorly absorbed through the
dermis.
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1382
The greatest potential for occupational exposure
to RDX occurs at ammunition plants with load,
assemble and pack (LAP) operations, where
workers involved with melt-pouring and
maintenance operations have the greatest
potential for exposures.
In 1962, five cases of convulsions or
unconsciousness or both occurred at an RDX
manufacturing plant in the United States. All five
employees had convulsions during their work shifts
or within a few hours after their shifts were over.
These patients exhibited little or no prodrome, and
the postictal phase lasted up to 24 hours. No
abnormal laboratory or physical findings were
noted.
Troops have also become intoxicated during field
operations from exposure to composition C4
plastic explosive, which contains 91% RDX. These
field exposures occurred because C4 was either
chewed as an intoxicant or used as a fuel for
cooking. Thus, the route of exposure was ingestion
or inhalation. At least 40 American soldiers
experienced convulsions due to RDX ingestion
during the Vietnam War.
After acute exposure by inhalation or ingestion,
there is a latent period of a few hours, followed by
a general sequence of intoxication that begins with
a prodromal period of irritability. Neurological
symptoms predominate and include restlessness
and hyperirritability; headache; weakness;
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1383
dizziness; hyperactive reflexes; nausea and
vomiting; prolonged and recurrent generalized
convulsions; muscle twitching and soreness; and
stupor, delirium, and disorientation.
Clinical findings in acute exposures may also
include fever, tachycardia, hematuria, proteinuria,
azotemia, mild anemia, neutrophilic leukocytosis,
elevated AST, and electroencephalogram (EEG)
abnormalities. These abnormal effects, transient
and unreliable for diagnosis purposes, last at most
a few days. In fact, all physical and laboratory
tests may remain normal, even in the presence of
seizures. EEGs made at the time of convulsions
may show bilateral synchronous spike and wave
complexes (2-3/sec) in the frontal areas with
diffuse slow wave activity; normalization occurs
within 1 to 3 months.
RDX in the wastewater from manufacturing and
loading operations has also contaminated the
environment. Although contamination has
appeared in soil and groundwater near some
ammunition plants, RDX's low solubility in water
has limited its migration in most cases.
Although intensive research with animals has
revealed some effects, few effects of chronic
human exposure to RDX have been reported.
Investigations into the mutagenicity and
carcinogenicity of RDX have yielded conflicting
results. RDX does not appear to be a mutagen,
based on negative results in the Ames tests, the
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1384
dominant lethal test, and the unscheduled
deoxyribonucleic acid synthesis assay. RDX has
not been found to be carcinogenic in gavage
studies performed on rats, but increased
hepatocellular carcinoma and adenoma were noted
in females of one strain of mice. Due to this
finding, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
has classified RDX as a possible human
carcinogen.
Reproductive effects have been noted in rabbits
and rats. A study performed on rabbits showed
teratogenic effects at 2 mg/kg/day (10% of the
dose that caused maternal toxicity). Similarly, a
teratology study performed on pregnant rats
exposed to RDX resulted in offspring with lower
body weights and shorter body lengths than were
found in the control group. These researchers
therefore recommended that human females of
childbearing age be protected from exposure to
RDX.
Despite the low toxicity of RDX, exposure should
be maintained at the lowest levels possible due to
its possible carcinogenicity. General medical
surveillance examinations can be conducted (such
as liver and kidney function tests), but specific
testing for the effects of low level occupational
exposure does not appear to be warranted, given
the absence of abnormal results even in those
patients with RDX-induced seizures. Surveillance
for both males and females should also include a
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1385
screening questionnaire for reproductive history.
Pregnant women should avoid exposure to RDX.
HMX [Octogen - Octahydro-1,3,5,7-tetranitro-1,3,5,7-
tetrazocine ]
High Melting Explosive [HMX] is the highest-energy
solid explosive produced on a large scale in the
United States. It is also known as Octogen and
cyclotetramethylene-tetranitramine, as well as
other names. HMX explodes violently at high
temperatures (534F and above). Because of this
property, HMX is used exclusively for military
purposes to implode fissionable material in nuclear
devices, as a component of plastic-bonded
explosives, as a component of rocket propellant,
and as a high explosive burster charge. The use of
HMX as a propellant and in maximum-performance
explosives is increasing.
HMX is produced by the nitration of hexamine with
ammonium nitrate and nitric acid in an acetic
acid/acetic anhydride solvent at 44C. The raw
materials are mixed in a two-step process and the
product is purified by recrystallization. This is a
modification of the Bachmann Process used to
produce RDX, another explosive. The yield of HMX
is about 55-60%, with RDX as an impurity. RDX
produced by the Bachmann Process usually
contains about 8-12% HMX as an acceptable
byproduct.
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1386
HMX is currently produced at only one facility in
the United States, the Holston Army Ammunition
Plant in Kingsport, Tennessee. The amount of HMX
made and used in the United States at present is
not known, but it is believed to be greater than 30
million pounds [15,000 tons] per year between
1969 and 1971. No estimates of current production
volume were located, but it is estimated that its
use is increasing. Processing may occur at load,
assemble, and pack (LAP) facilities operated by the
military. There were 10 facilities engaged in LAP
operations in the United States in 1976
No information was located regarding import or
export of HMX in the United States. Export of this
chemical is regulated by the U.S. State
Department.
Wastes from explosive manufacturing processes
are classified as hazardous wastes by EPA.
Generators of these wastes must conform to EPA
regulations for treatment, storage, and disposal.
The waste water treatment sludges from
processing of explosives are listed as hazardous
wastes by EPA based only on reactivity. Waste
water treatment may involve filtering through
activated charcoal, photolytic degradation, and
biodegradation. Rotary kiln or fluidized bed
incineration methods are acceptable disposal
methods for HMX-containing wastes. At the
Holston facility, waste waters are generated from
the manufacturing areas and piped to an industrial
water treatment plant on site. Following
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1387
neutralization and nutrient addition, sludge is
aerobically digested and dewatered. It was
estimated that the facility generates a maximum of
3,800 tons (7.6 million pounds) of treated,
dewatered sludge annually. Based on
demonstration by Holston that this sludge is
nonhazardous, the EPA proposed granting a
petition to exclude the sludge from hazardous
waste control. HMX is not listed on the Toxics
Release Inventory (TRI) database, because it is not
a chemical for which companies are required to
report discharges to environmental media.
HMX or octahydro-1,3,5,7-tetranitro-1,3,5,7-
tetrazocine is an explosive polynitramine. The
chemical formula is C4H8N8O8 and molecular
weight is 296.20. It is a colorless solid with a
melting point of 276 to 286C. HMX is made by the
nitration of hexamine with ammonium nitrate and
nitric acid in an acetic acid/acetic anhydride
solvent. A small amount of HMX is also formed in
making cyclotrimethylene-trinitramine (RDX),
another explosive similar in structure to HMX.
It dissolves slightly in water. Only a very small
amount of HMX will evaporate into the air;
however, it can occur in air attached to suspended
particles or dust. The taste and smell of HMX are
not known.
HMX is a manmade chemical and does not occur
naturally in the environment. It is made from other
chemicals known as hexamine, ammonium nitrate,
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1388
nitric acid, and acetic acid. A small amount of HMX
is also formed in making cyclotrimethylene-
trinitramine (RDX), another explosive similar in
structure to HMX.
HMX is only slightly soluble in water. It has low
volatility and thus only a small amount of HMX will
evaporate into the air; however, it can occur in air
attached to suspended particles or dust. In surface
water, HMX does not evaporate or bind to
sediments to any large extent. Sunlight breaks
down most of the HMX in surface water into other
compounds, usually in a matter of days to weeks.
HMX is likely to move from soil into groundwater,
particularly in sandy soils.
Exposure to HMX can occur during the
manufacture and filling of munitions or through the
environmental contamination of groundwater and
soil. HMX, like RDX, is manufactured using the
continuous Bachman process. Although its
solubility in water is very low, HMX can be present
in particulate form in water effluent from
manufacturing, LAP, and demilitarization
operations.
Information on the adverse health effects of HMX
is limited. In one study on humans, no adverse
effects were reported in workers exposed to HMX
in air. However, the concentrations of HMX in the
workplace air were not reported in this study, and
only a small number of workers and effects were
investigated.
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1389
Studies in rats, mice, and rabbits indicate that
HMX may be harmful to the liver and central
nervous system if it is swallowed or contacts the
skin. The lowest dose producing any effects in
animals was 100 milligrams per kilogram of body
weight per day (mg/kg/day) orally and 165
mg/kg/day on the skin. Limited evidence suggests
that even a single exposure to these dose levels
harmed rabbits. The mechanism by which HMX
causes adverse effects on the liver and nervous
system is not understood.
The reproductive and developmental effects of
HMX have not been well studied in humans or
animals. At present, the information needed to
determine if HMX causes cancer is insufficient.
Due to the lack of information, EPA has determined
that HMX is not classifiable as to its human
carcinogenicity.
The data on the effects on human health of
exposure to HMX are very limited. HMX causes
CNS effects similar to those of RDX, but at
considerably higher doses. In one study, volunteers
submitted to patch testing, which produced skin
irritation. Another study of a cohort of 93 workers
at an ammunition plant found no hematological,
hepatic, autoimmune, or renal diseases. However,
the study did not quantify the levels of exposure to
HMX.
HMX exposure has been investigated in several
studies on animals. Overall, the toxicity appears to
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1390
be quite low. HMX is poorly absorbed by ingestion.
When applied to the dermis, it induces mild skin
irritation but not delayed contact sensitization.
Various acute and subchronic neurobehavioral
effects have been reported in rabbits and rodents,
including ataxia, sedation, hyperkinesia, and
convulsions. The chronic effects of HMX that have
been documented through animal studies include
decreased hemoglobin, increased serum alkaline
phosphatase, and decreased albumin. Pathological
changes were also observed in the animals' livers
and kidneys. No data are available concerning the
possible reproductive, developmental, or
carcinogenic effects of HMX.
Tetryl (2,4,6-trinitrophenyl-methylnitramine)
Tetryl is a booster explosive, though the use has
been largely superseded by RDX. Tetryl is sensitive
secondary high explosive used as a booster, a
small charge placed next to the detonator in order
to propagate the detonation into the main charge.
The most toxic ordnance compounds, tetryl and
1,3,5-TNB, are also the most degradable. Therefore
these chemicals are expected to be short-lived in
nature, and environmental impacts would not be
expected in areas that are not currently subject to
chronic inputs of these chemicals. Tetryl
decomposes rapidly in methanol/water solutions,
as well as with heat. All aqueous samples
expected to contain tetryl should be diluted with
acetonitrile prior to filtration and acidified to pH
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1391
<3. All samples expected to contain tetryl should
not be exposed to temperatures above room
temperature. In addition, degradation products of
tetryl appear as a shoulder on the 2,4,6-TNT peak.
Peak heights rather than peak areas should be
used when tetryl is present in concentrations that
are significant relative to the concentration of
2,4,6-TNT.
NQ [Nitroguanidine / Picrate]
Ammonium Picrate (Yellow D / Explosive D)
CL-20 / HNIW
CL-20 is a new nitramine explosive that is 20
percent more powerful that HMX. The trend today
is to explore the possibilities that HNIW can
provide to munitions;from high performance gun
propellants , shaped charges etc. The only
limitation is the cost of its production. Even there
had been practical methods to nitrate the special
reactant (acetyl Isowurtzitane derivatives) with
mixed acid, but the effort of debenzylation of the
condensation products of glyoxal and benzylamine
still requires the expensive palladium catalyst.
Therefore it will take some time before it can
reach the level of comparatively lower cost needed
to make HMX.
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1392
Explosives - Nitrate
esters
NC [Nitrocellulose]
Munitions
manufacturing processes may generate
nitrocellulose (NC) fines. Disposal of these fines is
difficult because of their reactive nature.
Composting has potential to be a safe and cost
effective means of disposal. Open burning is no
longer permitted in several states and is expected
to banned nationally in the future. Open detonation
is also the least acceptable form of disposal
because of uncontrolled pollution by-products. In
its role as the Department of Defense Manager for
conventional munitions, Army must be able to
dispose of Propellants/Explosives/Pyrotechnics
production wastes. In composting, a controlled
biological process, microorganisms convert
biodegradable hazardous material to innocuous,
stabilized by-products, typically at elevated
temperatures between 50 - 55 C. The increased
temperatures result from heat produced by the
microorganisms as they degrade the organic
material in the waste. The NC fines are mixed with
bulking agents and organic amendments, such as
wood chips and animal and vegetable wastes, to
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1393
enhance the porosity of the mixture. Maintaining
moisture content, pH, oxygenation, temperature,
and the carbon-to-nitrogen ratio achieves
maximum degradation efficiency.
NG [Nitroglycerin ]
Nitroglycerin (NG) [Synonyms: 1,2,3-Propanetriol
trinitrate; glycerol trinitrate; nitroglycerol; NG;
trinitroglycerol; NTG; trinitrin] is an oily liquid at
room temperature; colorless in pure form and pale
yellow or brown in commercial form. It is used in
manufacture of dynamite, gunpowder, and rocket
propellants, and as a therapeutic agent primarily to
alleviate angina pectoris.
Nitroglycerin (NG) is a vasodilator and has been
associated with acute episodes of angina pectoris,
myocardial infraction, and sudden death. Workers
engaged in the production or use of dynamite are
potentially exposed to mixed vapors of
nitroglycerin (NG) and ethylene glycol dinitrate
(EGDN). Initial exposure to NG (or NG:EGDN
mixtures) characteristically results in an intense
throbbing headache that begins in the forehead
and moves to the occipital region. Volunteers
developed mild headaches when exposed to
NG:EGDN vapor at concentrations of 0.5mg/m^3 for
25 minutes. It has been suggested that at least
some workers may develop headaches at
concentrations in excess of 0.1 mg/m^3. Other
signs and symptoms associated with initial
exposure include dizziness, nausea, palpitations,
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1394
and decreases in systolic, diastolic, and pulse
pressures. These initial signs and symptoms,
including headache, are indicative of a shift in
blood volume form the central to the peripheral
circulatory system, initiated by dilation of the
blood vessels.
After 2 to 4 days of repeated NG exposure,
tolerance to the vasodilatory activity occurs,
probably as a result of compensatory
vasoconstriction. Tolerance may be lost during
periods without NG exposure, such as weekends
and holidays. Chronic repeated exposures to NG
and NG mixtures also have been associated with
more serious cardiovascular effects, including
angina pectoris and sudden death.
Signs and symptoms of ischemic heart disease
were observed in nine munitions workers involved
in handling a nitroglycerin-cellulose mixture. Within
1 to 4 years of initial exposure, these workers
developed nonexertional chest pain, which was
relieved either by therapeutic nitroglycerin or by
returning to work after the weekend. Coronary
angiography performed in five of the patients
showed no obstructive lesions. In one patient,
observed while in a withdrawal state, coronary
artery spasm was demonstrated and readily
reversed by sublingual nitroglycerin.
Sudden deaths in previously healthy workers have
been reported among those exposed to NG or to
NG: EGDN mixtures. Like the attacks of angina
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1395
pectoris, sudden deaths occurred most frequently
during brief periods away from work, in particular
on Sunday nights or Monday mornings. In most
cases, there were no premonitory signs or
symptoms although some subjects had anginal
episodes during brief periods away from work.
Atherosclerotic plaques, with or without
thrombosis, have been found in the coronary
arteries of workers at autopsy, but their coronary
arteries generally were not occluded to the same
extent as those of unexposed workers who had
died suddenly.
The pathogenesis of the sudden death syndrome
has been postulated to be due to withdrawal of
coronary vasodilators (e.g. NG), resulting in
vasoconstriction with acute hypertension, or with
myocardial ischemia in workers adapted to and
dependent on NG to maintain a minimum level of
coronary flow. A second contributing mechanism
for coronary artery toxicity due to NG may relate to
so-called aging of the vessels due to repeated
dilation. Other theories suggest that sudden deaths
may be related to peripheral vasodilation
consequent to reexposure of NG.
Estimates of exposure levels associated with
sudden death have not been made because
workers typically absorb considerable amounts of
NG through the skin in addition to inhalation.
Employees handling NG should be given personal
protective equipment to prevent the absorption of
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1396
NG through the skin. However, neither natural
rubber nor synthetic rubber gloves, including
neoprene gloves, are impervious to NG. The
wearing of such gloves tends to hold the chemical
in contact with the skin, thus promoting its
absorption. Preferably, cotton-lining gloves should
be worn underneath nitrile gloves and both gloves
changed ever 2-1/2 hours (USAEHA Technical
Guide 24).
More recent studies have suggested that the
effects of long-term workplace exposure to NG
may not be completely reversed after exposure is
terminated. Former workers may be at increased
risk for cardiovascular mortality for months to
years after exposure has ceased.
Individuals with preexisting ischemic heart disease
should not be assigned to work where significant
exposure to NG may occur. Early identification of
cardiovascular disease is the primary goal of
medical surveillance of nitroglycerin workers. A
preplacement examination must be administered
to all new employees occupational histories, a
physical examination, and indicated laboratory
tests, record of their pulse rates. Periodic
examinations should be conducted semiannually,
with the same focus as the preplacement
examination. During the periodic examination, the
physician should be aware that headaches that
occur during work shifts could indicate skin
absorption of nitroglycerin, even if air
concentrations of nitroglycerin are below the PEL.
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1397
Examinations with similar content are necessary
when exposure to nitroglycerin has been
terminated, although surveillance should perhaps
extend beyond employment, due to the latency of
the withdrawal effects. Monitoring should include
pulse, blood pressure, CBC, urinalysis, resting EKG
and lipid profile.
PETN [Pentaerythritol tetranitrate]
Pentaerythritol tetranitrate, C5H8N4012 (PETN),
has a specific gravity of solids of 1.76 and a
confined detonation velocity of over 25,000 fps.
PETN is used as a priming composition in
detonators, a base charge in blasting caps, and a
core load for detonating fuse.
EGDN
Explosives - Compounds
Amatol
Research and
development during
World War I yielded amatol (TNT plus ammonium
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1398
nitrate), an explosive with three times the power of
gunpowder. Amatol consists of TNT and ammonium
nitrate mixed in either 20 /80 or 50 /50 ratios. When
the U.S. entered the war, Amatol was adopted for
loading high explosive shells.
Driven by its liquid propellant engine, the V-2 had a
range of approximately 200 miles. Its warhead
consisted of 2,000 pounds of amatol.
ANFO (Ammonium nitrate- fuel oil)
Blasting agents consist of mixtures of fuels and
oxidizers, none of which are classified as
explosive. Nitrocarbonitrate is a classification
given to a blasting agent under the U. S.
Department of Transportation regulations on
packaging and shipping. A blasting agent consists
of inorganic nitrates and carbonaceous fuels and
may contain additional nonexplosive substances
such as powdered aluminum or ferrosilicon to
increase density. The addition of an explosive
ingredient such as TNT changes the classification
from a blasting agent to an explosive. Blasting
agents may be dry or in slurry forms. Because of
their insensitivity, blasting agents should be
detonated by a primer of high explosive.
Ammonium nitrate- fuel oil (ANFO) has largely
replaced dynamites and gelatins in bench blasting.
Denser slurry blasting agents are supplanting
dynamite and gelatin and dry blasting agents. The
most widely used dry blasting agent is a mixture of
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ammonium nitrate prills (porous grains) and fuel
oil. The fuel oil is not precisely CH2, but this is
sufficiently accurate to characterize the reaction.
The right side of the equation contains only the
desirable gases of detonation, although some CO
and N02 are always formed. Weight proportions of
ingredients for the equation are 94.5 percent
ammonium nitrate and 5.5 percent fuel oil. In
actual practice the proportions are 94 percent and
6 percent to assure an efficient chemical reaction
of the nitrate.
Uniform mixing of oil and ammonium nitrate is
essential to development of full explosive force.
Some blasting agents are premixed and packaged
by the manufacturer. Where not premixed, several
methods of mixing in the field can be employed to
achieve uniformity. The best method, although not
always the most practical one, is by mechanical
tier. A more common and almost as effective
method of mixing is by uniformly soaking prills in
opened bags with 8 to 1O percent of their weight of
oil. After draining for at least a half hour the prills
will have retained about the correct amount of fuel
oil.
Fuel oil can also be poured onto the ammonium
nitrate in approximately the correct proportions as
it is poured into the blasthole. For this purpose,
about i gal of fuel oil for each 100 lb of ammonium
nitrate will equal approximately 6 percent by
weight of oil. The oil can be added after each bag
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or two of prills, and it will disperse relatively
rapidly and uniformly.
Inadequate priming imparts a low initial detonation
velocity to a blasting agent, and the reaction may
die out and cause a misfire. High explosive
boosters are sometimes spaced along the borehole
to as sure propagation throughout the column. In
charge diameters of 6 in. or more, dry blasting
agents attain confined detonation velocities of
more than i2,000 fps, but in a diameter of 1- 1/2 in.,
the velocity is reduced to 60 percent.
Advantages of insensitive dry blasting agents are
their safety, ease of loading, and low price. In the
free-flowing form, they have a great advantage
over cartridge explosives because they completely
fill the borehole. This direct coupling to the walls
assures efficient use of explosive energy.
Ammonium nitrate is water soluble so that in wet
holes, some blasters pump the water from the hole,
insert a plastic sleeve, and load the blasting agent
into the sleeve. Special precautions should be
taken to avoid a possible building up of static
electrical charge, particularly when loading
pneumatically. When properly oxygen- balanced,
the fume qualities of dry blasting agents permit
their use underground. Canned blasting agents,
once widely used, have unlimited water resist-
ance, but lack advantages of loading ease and
direct coupling to the borehole.
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1401
The specific gravity of ANFO varies from 0.75 to
0.95 depending on the particle density and sizes.
Table 3-6 shows how confined detonation velocity
and charge concentration of ANFO vary with
borehole diameter. Pneumatic loading results in
high detonation velocities and higher charge
concentrations, particularly in holes smaller than 3
in. (otherwise such small holes are not usually
recommended for ANFO blasting).
Comp A
Comp A-3 explosives are made from RDX and wax.
Composition B / Comp B
Comp B explosives are made from TNT, RDX, and
wax, such as 59.5 percent RDX, 39.5 percent TNT
and 1 percent wax. Cast Composition B has a
specific gravity of 1.65 and a detonation velocity of
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1402
about 25,000 fps and is used as a primer and
booster for blasting agents.
Factors for Equivalent Weight of
Composition B Explosive Equivalent
Factor
Comp B 1.00
PBXN-109 1.19
Tritonal 1.09
AFX-777 1.47
AFX-757 1.39
PAX-28 1.62
Comp C-4
The plasticized form of RDX, composition C-4,
contains 91% RDX, 2.1% polyisobutylene, 1.6%
motor oil, and 5.3% 2-ethylhexyl sebacate.
DMDNB (2-3 dimethyl, 2-3 dinitrobutane) is a new,
military unique compound used as a tagant in C-4
explosive. Therefore there is no OSHA or ACGIH
standard. However, USACHPPM's Toxicology
Directorate did a study to determine an Army
Exposure Limit. There is no toxicological data for
DMDNB's effects on the human body, but tests
were done on laboratory animals and they showed
a reversible liver hypertrophy in rats that were
exposed to DMDNB. An exposure level was
determined and a one thousand fold safety factor
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1403
was used to lower the Army exposure level to 0.15
mg/m^3. (At this level there are no warning
properties, i.e. smell, taste, etc.)
COMP H-6
Cyclotol
Cyclotol is a TNT-based explosive.
CXM-6
Dynamite
Dynamite was originally a mixture of nitroglycerin
and diato-mite, a porous, inert silica. Today,
straight nitroglycerin dynamite consists of
nitroglycerin, with sodium nitrate, antacid,
carbonaceous fuel, and sometimes sulfur in place
of the inert filler. It is most commonly
manufactured in weight strengths of 20 to 60
percent. Because of the tendency of nitroglycerin
to freeze at low working temperature, another
explosive oil usually replaces part of the
nitroglycerin in a straight dynamite.
Straight dynamite has a high detonation velocity
which gives a shattering action. It resists water
well in the higher grades but poorly in the lower
grades. Straight dynamite generally has poor fume
qualities, and is unsuitable for use underground or
in poorly ventilated spaces. The use of straight
dynamite has declined because of high cost,
sensitivity to shock and friction, and high
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1404
flammability. Ammonia ("extra") dynamites have
replaced straight dynamite in most applications.
Ditching dynamite is a name given to 50 percent
straight dynamite. Its high sensitivity is
advantageous in ditching where sympathetic
detonation eliminates the need for caps or
detonating fuse with individual charges. Sixty
percent straight dynamite is sometimes packaged
in special cartridges for uncle rwater work.
Ammonia dynamites (extra dynamite) are the most
widely used cartridge explosives. An ammonia
dynamite is similar to a straight dpmite except that
ammonium nitrate replaces a portion of the
nitroglycerin and sodium nitrate. High-density
ammonia dynamite is commonly manufactured in
weight strengths of 20 to 60 percent. It is generally
lower in detonation velocity, less dense, better in
fume qualities, and considerably less sensitive to
shock and friction than straight dynamite. Extra
dynamite can be used effectively where the rock is
not extremely hard and water conditions are not
severe. It is widely used in quarrying, stripping,
and in well-ventilated mines for smaller diameter
holes of small blasting operations.
Low-density ammonia dynamite has a weight
strength of approximately 65 percent and a
cartridge strength from 20 to 50 percent. Like a
high-density extra dynamite, it contains a low
proportion of nitro-glycerin and a high proportion of
ammonium nitrate. The different cartridge
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1405
strengths are obtained by varying the density and
grain size of the ingredients. Several
manufacturers produce two series of low-density
ammonia dynamite, a high- and a low-velocity
series. Both series are of lower velocity and
density than high-density extra dynamite. Because
of its slow, heaving action, the low-velocity series
is well suited to blasting soft material such as
clay- shale or where a coarse product such as
riprap is desired. It is well suited for use in
structural excavation blasting in certain rock
types.
Fume qualities and water resistance vary with the
cartridge material. Wrappers sprayed with paraffin
give fair to poor water resistance and fair fume
rating, whereas a paraffin-impregnated wrapper
gives very poor water resistance and a better fume
rating. The explosive has little more water
resistance than that provided by the wrapper. Low-
density extra is the lowest cost cartridge explosive
available. The composition of low-density ammonia
dynamites is similar to that of a 60 percent high-
density extra dynamite with a lower proportion of
nitroglycerin and a higher proportion of ammonium
nitrate.
Gelatin
Blasting gelatin is a rubber-textured explosive
made by adding nitrocellulose (guncotton) to
nitroglycerin. An antacid is added for stability in
storage. Wood meal is usually added to improve
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1406
sensitivity. Blasting gelatin attains a very high
detonation velocity and has excellent water
resistance, but it emits large volumes of noxious
fumes upon detonation. It is the most powerful of
all commercial explosives. Blasting gelatin is also
known as "oil well explosive."
Straight gelatin is a dense, plastic explosive
consisting of nitroglycerin or other explosive oil
gelatinized with. nitrocellulose, an antacid, sodium
nitrate, carbonaceous fuel, and sometimes sulfur.
Since the gelatin tends to coat the other
ingredients, straight gelatin is water-proof. Straight
gelatin is the equivalent of straight dynamite in the
dynamite category and is manufactured in weight
strengths of 20 to 90 percent with corresponding
cartridge strengths of 30 to 80 percent. The
cartridge strength or the weight strength may be
referred to by the manufacturer as the grade of
the gelatin, a term which is confusing. Straight
gelatin has been used in very hard rock or as a
bottom charge in a column of explosives. It has
been replaced in most applications by a more
economical substitute such as ammonia gelatin,
brit higher grades are still used in underwater
blasting and in deep well shooting.
Straight gelatin has two characteristic detonation
velocities, the confined velocity and a much lower
velocity which results from insufficient
confinement, insufficient initiation, or high
hydrostatic, pressure. Extremely high water
pressures may cause a misfire. To overcome this
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1407
disadvantage, high-velocity gelatin has been
developed. High-velocity gelatin is very similar to
straight gelatin except that it is slightly less
dense, more sensitive to detonation, and always
detonates near its rated velocity regardless of
water pressure or degree of confinement. High-
velocity gelatin is particularly useful as a seismic
explosive, and is also used in deep well and
underwater work.
Ammonia gelatin (special gelatin or gelatin extra)
has a portion of the nitroglycerin and sodium
nitrate replaced by ammonium nitrate. Ammonia
gelatin is comparable to a straight gelatin in the
same way that a high-density ammonia dynamite is
comparable to a straight dynamite, and was
developed as a cheaper substitute. Ammonia
gelatin is commonly manufactured in weight
strengths of 30 to 80 percent with corresponding
cartridge strengths of 35 to 72 percent. Compared
with straight gelatin, ammonia gelatin has a
somewhat lower detonation velocity, better fume
qualities, and less water resistance, although it
will fire efficiently even after standing in water for
several days. It is suitable for underground work
because of its good fume rating. The higher
strengths (70 percent or higher) are efficient as
primers for blasting agents.
A semigelatin is comparable to an ammonia gelatin
as a low-density ammonia dynamite is comparable
to a high-density ammonia dynamite. Like low-
density extras, semigelatin has a uniform weight
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1408
strength (60 to 65 percent) with the cartridge
strength varying with the density and grain size of
the ingredients. Its properties fall betieen those of
high- density ammonia dynamite and ammonia
gelatin, and it has great versatility. Semigelatin
can be used to replace ammonia dynamite when
more water resistance is needed. It is cheaper for
wet work than ammonia gelatin, although its water
resistance is not quite as high as that of ammonia
gelatin. Semigelatin has a confined detonation
velocity of 10,000 to 12,000 fps, which, b contrast
to that of most explosives, is not seriously affected
by lack of confinement. Very good fume qualities
permit its use underground. The compositions are
similar to ammonia gelatin with less nitroglycerin
and sodium nitrate and more ammonium nitrate.
H6
HBX [Hexahydro - 1, 3, 5 Trinitro-8-Triazine]
HBX is a form of high explosive made from TNT,
RDX, aluminum, lecithin, and wax. HBX was
developed during WWII that replaced the more
shock-sensitive TORPEX used in depth bombs and
torpedoes. The warhead for the 2.75-inch Mighty
Mouse rocket was filled with HBX (40 percent
RDX, 38 percent TNT, 17 percent aluminum
powder, and 5 percent desensitizers) or
composition B (59 percent RDX, 40 percent TNT,
and 1 percent wax). All Navy warhead filling
activities in the TNT Plant ceased in early The
major longer range improvements resulting were
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1409
the Navy's development of HBX type explosives
together with asphaltic, "hot melt" liners for bombs
and other munitions. The hot melt liners were
developed to coat and eliminate metal-to metal
pinch points. After the Naval Magazine, Port
Chicago, CA accident of 17 July 1944 , HBX and H-
6 explosives were developed that incorporated
wax and other chemicals to desensitize the
explosive and hot melt liners were introduced for
lining bombs and warheads to give some thermal
protection and eliminate potential pinch points
from cracks or fissures in the bomb or warhead
case. Later, plastic-bonded explosives were
developed for increased thermal protection and
fragment impact resistance.
LX-14
LX-17
Only the TATB-based formulations of Livermore's
LX-17 and Los Alamos's PBX 9502 are considered
"insensitive" high explosives (IHE) for nuclear
weapons; others are termed "conventional."
Minol
Octol
The melt-cast explosive Octol is a TNT-based
explosive (70% HMX:30% TNT or 75 percent HMX,
25 percent TNT). Explosives to be stored on Navy
ships must not contain TNT or Octol.
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1410
PE4
PBX
The ideal high-energy explosive must balance
different requirements. HE should be easy to form
into parts but resistant to subsequent deformation
through temperature, pressure, or mechanical
stress. It should be easy to detonate on demand
but difficult to explode accidentally. The explosive
should also be compatible with all the materials it
contacts, and it should retain all its desirable
qualities indefinitely.
No such explosive existed in 1944. While using
what was available to meet wartime demands,
scientists at Los Alamos began to develop a high-
energy, relatively safe, dimensionally stable, and
compositionally uniform explosive. By 1947,
scientists at Los Alamos had created the first
plastic-bonded explosive (PBX), an RDX*-
polystyrene formulation later designated PBX 9205.
Although other PBXs have since been successfully
formulated for a wide range of applications, only a
handful have displayed the combination of
adequate energy content, mechanical properties,
sensitivity, and chemical stability required for
stockpile nuclear weapons. Since the 1960s,
Livermore has been researching and developing
safer HE for Livermore-designed weapons.
The plastic coating that binds the explosive
granules, typically 5 to 20% of each formulation by
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1411
weight, is what gives each PBX its distinctive
characteristics. Pressing a PBX molding powder
converts it into a solid mass, with the polymer
binder providing both mechanical rigidity and
reduced sensitivity to accidental detonation. The
choice of binder affects hardness, safety, and
stability. Too brittle a PBX can sustain damage in
normal handling and succumb to extreme
temperature swings or thermal shocks, while too
soft a PBX may be susceptible to creep and may
lack dimensional stability or strength.
PBXN-7
PBXN-9
Pentolite
Pentolite is a mixture of equal parts of TNT and
PETN. When cast, it has a specific gratity of 1.65
and a confined detonation velocity of 24,000 to
25,000 fps. Cast pentolite is used as a primer and
booster for blasting agents where its high
detonation pressure assures efficient initiation of
the blasting agent.
Semtex H
Slurries
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1412
Slurries, sometimes called water gels, contain
ammonium nitrate partly in aqueous solution.
Depending on the remainder of the ingredients,
slurries can be classified as either blasting agents
or explosives. Slurry blasting agents contain
nonexplosive sensitizers or fuels such as carbon,
sulfur, or aluminum, and are not cap sensitive;
whereas slurry explosives contain cap- sensitive
ingredients such as TNT and the mixture itself may
be cap sensitive. Slurries are thickened and gelled
with a gum, such as guar gum, to give considerable
water resistance.
Since most slurries are not cap sensitive, all
slurries, even those containing TNT, are often
grouped under the term blasting agent. This
grouping is incorrect. A blasting agent, as defined
by the National Fire Protection Association, shall
contain no ingredient that is classified as an
explosive.
Slurry blasting agents require adequate priming
with a high-velocity explosive to attain proper
detonation velocities, and often require boosters of
high explosive spaced along the borehole to as
sure complete detonation. Slurry explosives may or
may not require priming. The detonation velocities
of slurries, between i2,000 and 18,000 fps, vary
with ingredients used, charge diameter, degree of
confinement, and density. The detonation velocity
of a slurry, however, is not as dependent on charge
diameter as that of a dry blasting agent. The
specific gratity varies from I.i to i.6. The
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1413
consistency of most slurries ranges from fluid near
iOOO F to rigid at freezing temperatures, although
some slurries maintain their fluidity even at
freezing temperatures. Slurries consequently give
the same advantageous direct borehole coupling
as dry blasting agents as well as a higher
detonation velocity and a higher density. Thus,
more energy can be loaded into a given volume of
borehole. Saving in costs realized by drilling
smaller holes or using larger burden and spacing
will often more than offset the higher cost per
pound of explosive. Adding powdered aluminum as
a sensitizer to slurries greatly increases the heat
of explosion or the energy release. Aluminized
slurries have been used in extremely hard rock
with excellent results.
A slurry and a dry blasting agent may be used in
the same borehole in "slurry boosting," with the
buk of the charge being dry blasting agent.
Boosters placed at regular intervals may improve
fragmentation. In another application of slurry
boosting, the slurry is placed in a position where
fragmentation is difficult, such as a hard toe or a
zone of hard rock in the burden. The combination
will often give better overall economy than straight
slurry or dry blasting agent.
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1414
Tetrytol
Tetrytol is a mixture of ~70% tetryl (2,4,6-
trinitrophenyl-methylnitramine) and ~30% TNT
(2,4,6-trinitrotoluene. In 1944 the M104 auxiliary
booster was first given to Redstone Arsenal as an
experimental order with instructions to develop a
manufacturing procedure for loading it with
tetrytol. The booster had heretofore been loaded
with tetryl pellets. The tests that Redstone
conducted showed that tetrytol-loaded M104
auxiliary boosters had a greater brisance than the
tetryl-loaded ones but that a heavier booster
charge was required for detonation. Since such a
booster charge was already available, the tetrytol-
loaded auxiliary booster was considered more
satisfactory than the tetryl-loaded one.
TORPEX
TORPEX is an explosive based on trinitrotoluene
(TNT) that gave a greater blast than TNT, but was
more sensitive. It was replaced by HBX or HBX-1
later in WWII. Torpex is RDX/TNT/Aluminum/Wax
desensitizer. It was used in several types of
torpedoes and mines. Due to it sensitivity to bullet
impact, the first weapons loaded were ones for
which there would be the least possibility of rifle
bullet and fragment attack, namely, submarine
delivered mines and torpedoes. The loading
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stations were advised that they must take
adequate care in mixing and loading and in the
handling of the loaded items. It was declared that
the British had been able to handle it without
incident for 2 years and that the risk was worth the
advantage gained in its underwater power.
Tritonal
The GBU-28 contains only six hundred pounds of
Tritonal. The BLU-109/B was an improved 2,000-
pound-class penetrator bomb designed for
attacking the most hardened targets. Its skin was
much harder than that of a standard iron bomb,
consisting of a single-piece, forged warhead casing
of one-inch, high-grade steel. The bomb featured a
550 pound tritonal high-explosive blast warhead
and was always mated with a laser guidance kit to
form a laser-guided bomb. The Tritonal filling of the
BLU-109/B is similar in size to the warhead of the
Mk.48 series torpedo. Explosive (NEW) 535 lbs.
Tritonal in the BLU-109 and 945 lbs. of Tritonal on
the MK 84.
The Munitions Directorates successful completion
of the Miniaturized Munition Technology
Demonstration (MMTD) Program, has provided an
innovative weapon called the Small Smart Bomb.
The miniaturized munition concept includes a
weapon that issix feet long, six inches in diameter,
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and weighs only 250 pounds with approximately
fifty pounds of Tritonal explosive material. The
weapon is effective against a majority of hardened
targets previously vulnerable only to munitions in
the 2,000 pound class. The Air Force Research
Laboratorys Munitions Directorate has set the
baseline for small bomb development by
successfully demonstrating the technology that
will be used to further the development of a 250-
pound class munition. Small Smart Bombs size will
allow future fighter and bomber aircraft to carry
more weapons in their weapons bays.
Polynitrocubane Super Explosives are a family of
new energetics. In FY96, the Army initiated the
synthesis of a more powerful polynitrocubane
explosive. In FY97, the Army scaled up the
polynitrocubane explosive to pound level. In FY98,
scale up the polynitrocubane explosive to pilot
plant quantity and initiate formulation study for
anti-armor warhead (Shaped Charge or explosively
Formed Penetrator) loading. In FY99, conduct
static warhead test using the polynitrocubane
explosive to show increase in energy performance
by up to 25 percent and with comparable
sensitivity to LX-14.
The current winner in the most powerful explosives
debate is heptanitrocubane (HpNC). It has beat out
the theoretically more powerful octanitrocubane
(ONC) in actual tests recently performed. ONC has
only been synthesized in the last year, but it has
been calculated to have the greatest density of any
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explosive we could make. In reality ONC does not
achieve this theoretical density. Since it has
existed for such a short time, researchers
conclude that they simply have yet to find its most
dense crystalline form. The default winner is the
next best thing, HpNC. Further conjecture into
nitro cubane chemistry has hypothesized at the
possibility of polynitrocubane molecules which
could achieve even greater densities.
Insensitive Munition [IM]
In an effort to improve
munitions survivability
and safety, the
Department of Defense
(through the Joint Requirements Oversight Council)
several years ago established a policy requiring all
new munitions be capable of withstanding
accidents, fires, or enemy attack. One method of
addressing this requirement, the use of
Insensitive Munitions (IM), including propellants
and explosives, was mandated. Thus a new class
of IM explosives has been developed over the past
decade. Because these IM formulations differ
somewhat from each other in a variety of ways
(physical properties, explosive output,
manufacturing process and cost, sensitivity and
toxicity, etc.,) the explosive selection process for a
given munition has become more complex. They
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must meet MIL-STD-2105, Hazard Assessment
Tests, Non-Nuclear Munitions.
The US Air Force is developing an insensitive
explosive fill for its general use bombs using a
mixture of trinitrotoluene (TNT) and aluminum.
Since the insensitive fill is not ready to be used in
tactical bombs, and there is no available TNT in
the stockpile, Joint Munitions Command (JMC)
Bombs/Energetics Division awarded an indefinite
delivery/indefinite quantity (IDIQ) contract for
supply of TNT over a 5-year period to Alliant
Ammunition and Powder Co. (AAPC). Virgin TNT
will be supplied from a National Technology
Industrial Base source, reclaimed and OCONUS
TNT. The facility that produces the virgin TNT can
be easily modified to produce other energetic
materials, notably insensitive explosives. The IDIQ
is delivering sufficient quantities of TNT to meet
increased requirements. Partnering with major
contractors has proved beneficial for current
program execution. New partnerships are now
being established with AAPC for TNT and General
Dynamics Tactical and Ordnance Systems for
bombs. Through these partnerships,
communications will be improved, expectations
will be better understood, common goals can be
set, delivery times improved and problems
identified so they can be resolved early on.
AFX-757
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The Joint Air-to-Surface Stand-off Missile (JASSM)
may become the first munition item to obtain
insensitive munition (IM) certification and a 1.2.3
hazard classification. Currently, almost all
munition items are hazard classified 1.1. This
certification and classification reflect
improvements in the munition that greatly reduce
both the threat for accidental initiation of the item
and the severity in case of an inadvertent
initiation. The safety implications and reduced
costs associated withstorage of such IM-compliant
munitions are of significant benefit to boththe US
Air Force and Navy customers.
With full support of the Air Force Research
Laboratory Munitions Directorate's
EnergeticMaterials Branch, the JASSM warhead
and All-Up-Round passed some of the most difficult
tests for obtaining IM certification and a
reducedexplosive hazard classification (1.2.3).
After a disappointing failure of the first JASSM
warhead during sympathetic detonation testing,
engineers from Lockheed Martin asked the
Energetic Materials Branch to analyze the failure.
Drawing on previous experiencein the development
of IM-compliant Mk-82 bombs filled with the newly
developed AFX-645 explosive, the directorate
recommended a non-standard pallet stacking
arrangement. This new stacking arrangement
mitigates the energy transferred during
sympathetic detonation from onemunition to the
next. Lockheed Martin engineers tested this
configuration in a hydrocode studyand confirmed
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1420
that the directorate's suggestions did provide a
significant improvement for survival. Lockheed
Martin further improved this conceptby positioning
the JASSM warheads side by side in a nose-to-
tailconfiguration. The engineers placed the
warhead casings as close aspossible, preventing a
sympathetic detonation from occuring. Lockheed
Martin engineers performed a new test using this
storage configurationand successfully passed the
sympathetic detonation criterion. The directorate
and Lockheed Martin have accomplished all
required IM classification testing. This is a major
milestone since it is the first time amajor Air Force
weapon system has passed all required IM testing.
The Energetic Materials Branch developed AFX-
757, the explosive fill used in JASSM, as a
replacement for tritonal in the Miniature
MunitionTechnology program. Lockheed Martin, the
JASSM contractor, chose AFX-757 for their
warhead because of its increased blast energy
andpotential insensitivity.
Dinitroimidazoles
Dinitroimidazoles are a group of very insensitive
explosives.
MNX-194
MNX-194 in a melt castable, wax binder explosive
fill to replace TNT in Army M107/M795 155 mm
artillery rounds. Munitions Directorate researchers,
funded by the US Army Tank-Automotive and
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1421
Armaments Command/Armament Research,
Development and Engineering Center, developed
MNX-194, a qualified replacement for
Trinitrotoluene (TNT) in both the M107 and M795
155 mm artillery rounds. Directorate researchers
from the High Explosives Research and
Development Facility developed three
compositionally equivalent versions of MNX-194 in
which Cyclotrimethylenetrinitramine (RDX) is the
sole energetic component.
The primary difference between the three versions
is the source and/or pretreatment of the RDX
component. Directorate researchers characterized
all of these novel wax binder explosive
formulations for both small-scale safety and shock
sensitivity, and performance. Their research also
shows RDX is more powerful than TNT in similar
test configurations. Additional characterization
and optimization work is currently under way.
Beyond MNX-194 applications for artillery
hardware, the Air Force is considering this
formulation as a fill for other Air Force
applications. In particular, the directorate is
developing an aluminized version of the MNX-194
binder matrix as a potential candidate replacement
for the TNT-based fill in Mk-series bombs.
The current usage rates and depletion of the
Department of Defense stockpile of TNT is causing
many program managers to revisit formulation
options such as the directorate's bomb fill
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1422
replacement effort. With a melting temperature
similar to that of TNT (~80C) and the ease of
processing this wax binder system, the Air Force
considers MNX-194, or modifications thereof, an
ideal contender for any TNT replacement program.
PAX
Since the mid 1980s, Picatinny has developed over
24 Picatinny Arsenal Explosive (PAX) formulations.
New combinations of energetic "fill" binders and, in
some cases, plasticizers continue to be evaluated
in search of the Army's next generation more
powerful explosive.
One of the most significant challenges to Picatinny
was the development of a new main charge melt-
pour energetic, PAX-21. This new explosive is
designed to be low cost and requires little or no
refacilitization for production or projectile filling. It
contains no TNT and is slightly less toxic than the
Composition-B it replaces. Not only is it safe for
use in production, PAX-21 also exhibits good IM
and thermal stress characteristics and low shock
sensitivity.
PAX-2A was the Army's first high performing IM
(insensitive munition) explosive. It is less sensitive
to initiation by outside stimuli, but retains all the
requisite performance capabilities of the high
explosive that was used in the past. It has matured
through extensive loading, performance testing
and hazard threat analysis testing in various
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1423
current and future warhead configuration of the
Army, Navy, and Air Force munitions systems. This
IM explosive is now considered to be a viable
alternative to current HMX formulations and has
been successfully demonstrated in Hellfire,
Javelin, M830A1, HE-WAM, SADARM, and XM915
Dual Purpose Improved Conventional Munitions
(DPICM) XM80 grenade submunitions.
The vast majority of cannon lunched unitary
warheads use melt pour explosives for cost and
surge capability. Traditional melt pour explosives
have focused on fragmentation capability. A new
family of low cost reduced sensitivity melt pour
explosives based on 2,4-dinitroanisole, RDX or
HMX and AP has been developed in response to
Insensitive Munition [IM] requirements.
Development of Insensitive Munition [IM] melt pour
explosives has been next to none. Picatinny
Arsenal and Thiokol Propulsion developed the first
melt pour explosive (PAX-21) to exhibit IM
properties (currently in production). The PAX-21
success led to increased interest in all areas of IM
melt pour explosives I.e., cost, producibility,
facilitization, etc.
Family of PAX
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1424
PAX-21- Comp B replacement: RDX, DNAN, AP
and trace amounts of MNA (for processability)
currently in production
PAX-24 TNT replacement: DNAN, AP and MNA
PAX-25 Comp B replacement: RDX, DNAN, AP
and MNA (different proportions for RDX, DNAN,
and AP) better performance than PAX-21
PAX-26 - Tritonal replacement: DNAN, Al, AP,
MNA
PAX-28 Unitary warheads: RDX, DNAN, Al, AP,
MNA. An equivalency factor of 1.62 was
determined between Composition B and PAX-28
PAX-40 Octol replacement: HMX, DNAN, MNA
PAX-41 Cyclotol replacement: RDX, DNAN,
MNA
One advantage is the ease of loading of melt pour
explosives into various munition items. Typically
less expensive than pressed explosives to
manufacture, load and facilitization. Increased IM
characteristics without decreasing performance.
Performance and shock sensitivity can be tailored
for a given system based on particle size and the
percentage of ingredients. PAX-40 & 41 exceed
COMP Bs detonation velocity. PAX-40 & 41 are
less shock sensitive than COMP B.
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1425
PBXN-109
TATB (triamino-trinitrobenzene)
One of the most important accomplishments made
by nuclear weapons laboratories' chemists in the
past two decades has been the formulation of
powerful conventional high explosives that are
remarkably insensitive to high temperatures,
shock, and impact. These insensitive high
explosives (IHEs) significantly improve the safety
and survivability of munitions, weapons, and
personnel. The Department of Energy's most
important IHE for use in modern nuclear warheads
is TATB (triamino-trinitrobenzene) because its
resistance to heat and physical shock is greater
than that of any other known material of
comparable energy. The Department of Energy
currently maintains an estimated five-year supply
of TATB for its Stockpile Stewardship and
Management Program, which is designed to ensure
the safety, security, and reliability of the U.S.
nuclear stockpile. The Department of Defense is
also studying the possible use of TATB as an
insensitive booster material, because even with its
safety characteristics, a given amount of that
explosive has more power than an equivalent
volume of TNT.
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1426
In addition to its military uses, TATB has been
proposed for use as a reagent in the manufacturing
of components for liquid crystal computer displays.
There is also interest in employing the explosive in
the civilian sector for deep oil well explorations
where heat-insensitive explosives are required.
Despite its broad potential, the high cost of
manufacturing TATB has limited its use. Several
years ago, TATB produced on an industrial scale in
the U.S. was priced at $90 to $250 per kilogram.
Today it is available to customers outside DOE for
about $200 per kilogram. In response to a need for
a more economical product, chemists at Lawrence
Livermore have developed a flexible and
convenient means of synthesizing TATB as well as
DATB (diamino-trinitrobenzene), a closely related
but less well known IHE developed by the U.S.
Navy. The initial phase of this work was funded by
the Department of Defense (U.S. Navy) to explore
the chemical conversion of surplus energetic
materials to higher value products as an
alternative to detonation.
The Lawrence Livermore process--also called the
VNS (vicarious nucleophilic substitution) process--
should be able to produce TATB for less than $90 a
kilogram on an industrial scale in about 40% less
manufacturing time. The process also offers
significant advantages over the current method of
synthesis in environmental friendliness, for
example, by avoiding chlorinated starting
materials.
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1427
TNAZ
TNAZ is a material that is more powerful, but less-
sensitive than HMX. The advent of the new high-
energy explosive CL-20 and TNAZ present the
possibility of increased performance high
explosives with reduced sensitivity.
Insensitive Munitions (IM)
Under their normal
conditions of use, modern
munitions are both
effectivethey provide an
essential military capability and relatively safe
they are very unlikely to explode or burn
spontaneously-despite the fact that they are
composed primarily of very hazardous material.
Under very severe conditions, however, their
dangerous nature comes to light. The energetic
materialshigh explosives, gun propellants, rocket
propellantsthat are found in munitions of all
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1428
types are sensitive to heat and to mechanical
shock, so they may be triggered by fire or by
impact with bullets or fragments. Such secondary
effects are significant: in the Gulf War, for
example, most of the disabling damage to fighting
vehicles was found to be caused by their own
munition payloads, inadvertently triggered by
unwanted stimuli.
A range of energetic materials can be used in low-
risk munitions: explosives and propellants less
vulnerable than their predecessors to both slow
and rapid heating ("cook off") and to impact by
bullets or fragments of exploding shells. For
warheads, efforts concentrate on the replacement
of explosives such as TNT, which is very sensitive
to heat and shock, by more stable plastic-bonded
explosives, which are better able to withstand
adverse condi-tions. For gun propellants, the
single, double and triple-base formulations now in
service can be replaced by others based on
components that are more energetic, but less
sensitive. These new explosives and gun
propellants are made primarily with energetic
crystals such as RDX and HMX, contained in new
energetic binders and plasticizers. Some of these
formulations not only match the performance of
the munitions they replace, they improve on it.
An insensitive munition is one that will not
detonate under any conditions other than its
intended mission to destroy a target. If it is struck
by fragments from an explosion or hit by a bullet, it
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1429
will not detonate. It also will not detonate if it is in
close proximity to a target that is hit. In extreme
temperatures, the missile will only burn (no
detonation or explosion). This increased safety
allows greater numbers of missiles to be
packaged, handled, stored, and transported in
smaller containers. Passing these requirements
addresses higher levels of safety performance and
means the system is safer to operate in any
environment while maintaining its highly lethal
performance. It also allows for cost saving
opportunities for the government.
To reduce the chance of accidental explosions and
fires, the Navy, Air Force, and Army are replacing
existing main charge explosives with new, more
insensitive explosives such as PBXN-103 and
PBXN-109. For safety, the Navy, Air Force, and
Army are replacing present main charge explosives
with insensitive main charge explosives having
critical diameters greater than 1 inch. The critical
diameter for an explosive is the minimum diameter
mass of that explosive that can be detonated
without being heavily confined. Future underwater
and bombfill explosives will have critical diameters
greater than one inch.
Two examples of these insensitive main charge
explosives are PBXW-124 (27% NTO, 20% RDX,
20% aluminum, 20% ammonium perchlorate, and
13% binder by weight) which has a critical
diameter of between 3 and 4 inches, and PBXW-122
(47% NTO, 5% RDX, 15% aluminum, 20%
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1430
ammonium perchlorate, and 13% binder by weight)
which has a critical diameter of 7 inches.
Existing booster explosives and fuses have
insufficient energy output to reliably initiate the
new insensitive main charge explosives.
Increasing the amount of booster explosive will
increase the weapon's sensitivity and the chance
of an accidental detonation. Moreover, the existing
Department of Defense (DOD) inventory of fuses
and booster explosives is very large and cannot be
replaced without considerable cost. What is
needed is an inexpensive method of reliably
initiating the new, more insensitive main charge
explosive while at the same time reducing the
chance of the accidental initiation of a fuse
booster system.
There is a desire to move away from trinitrotoluene
(TNT) based fills since there is no longer a CONUS
producer of TNT in existence. Therefore, it is
desirable to develop General Purpose (GP) bombs
(500 and 2000 pound class), which contain a non-
TNT based high explosive fill that also meets all of
the IM criteria as specified in MIL-STD-2105B.
Reaching a 1.2.3J hazard classification allows for
significantly higher storage densities than the
previous highest classification, which means that
it saves in facility storage, handling, and
transportation expenditures.
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1431
DEPARTMENT OF THE TREASURY
Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco and Firearms
COMMERCE IN EXPLOSIVES
Commerce in Explosives; List of Explosive Materials
Updated: 4/26/02
Pursuant to the provisions of section 841(d) of title 18,
United States Code (U.S.C.), and 27 CFR 55.23, the
Director, Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco and Firearms,
must publish and revise at least annually in the Federal
Register a list of explosives determined to be within the
coverage of 18 U.S.C. chapter 40, Importation,
Manufacture, Distribution, and Storage of Explosive
Materials. This chapter covers not only explosives, but
also blasting agents and detonators, all of which are
defined as explosive materials in section 841(c) of title
18, U.S.C. Accordingly, the following is the 2002 List of
Explosive Materials subject to regulation under 18
U.S.C. chapter 40. It includes both the list of explosives
(including detonators) required to be published in the
Federal Register and blasting agents.
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The list is intended to include any and all mixtures
containing any of the materials on the list. Materials
constituting blasting agents are marked by an asterisk.
While the list is comprehensive, it is not all inclusive.
The fact that an explosive material may not be on the
list does not mean that it is not within the coverage of
the law if it otherwise meets the statutory definitions in
section 841 of title 18, U.S.C. Explosive materials are
listed alphabetically by their common names followed,
where applicable, by chemical names and synonyms in
brackets.
In the 2002 List of Explosive Materials, ATF has added
five terms to the list of explosives, has further defined
two explosive materials, and has made amendments to
two explosive materials to more accurately reference
these materials.
The five additions to the list are as follows:
1. Azide explosives
2. HMTD [hexamethylenetriperoxidediamine]
3. Nitrate explosive mixtures
4. Picrate explosives
5. TATP [triacetonetriperoxide]
We have added these explosive materials to the List
because their primary or common purpose is to function
by explosion. ATF has encountered the criminal use of
some of these materials in improvised devices. ``Nitrate
explosive mixtures'' is intended to be an all-
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1433
encompassing term, including all forms of sodium,
potassium, barium, calcium, and strontium nitrate
explosive mixtures.
The two explosive materials that we have further
defined by including their chemical names are listed as
follows:
1. DIPAM [dipicramide; diaminohexanitrobiphenyl]
2. EDNA [ethylenedinitramine]
The two amendments to previously listed explosive
materials are as follows:
1. ``Nitrates of soda explosive mixtures'' has been
deleted and replaced with ``Sodium nitrate explosive
mixtures'' to reflect current terminology.
2. PBX was previously defined as ``RDX and plasticizer.''
We are changing the definition to reflect that PBX is an
acronym for ``plastic bonded explosive.''
This revised list supersedes the List of Explosive
Materials dated September 14, 1999 (Notice No. 880, 64
FR 49840; correction notice of September 28, 1999, 64
FR 52378) and will be effective on April 26, 2002.
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List of Explosive Materials
A
Acetylides of heavy metals.
Aluminum containing polymeric propellant.
Aluminum ophorite explosive.
Amatex.
Amatol.
Ammonal.
Ammonium nitrate explosive mixtures (cap sensitive).
*Ammonium nitrate explosive mixtures (non-cap
sensitive).
Ammonium perchlorate composite propellant.
Ammonium perchlorate explosive mixtures.
Ammonium picrate [picrate of ammonia, Explosive D].
Ammonium salt lattice with isomorphously substituted
inorganic salts.
*ANFO [ammonium nitrate-fuel oil].
Aromatic nitro-compound explosive mixtures.
Azide explosives.
B
Baranol.
Baratol.
BEAF [1, 2-bis (2, 2-difluoro-2-nitroacetoxyethane)].
Black powder.
Black powder based explosive mixtures.
*Blasting agents, nitro-carbo-nitrates, including non-cap
sensitive slurry and water gel explosives.
Blasting caps.
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Blasting gelatin.
Blasting powder.
BTNEC [bis (trinitroethyl) carbonate].
BTNEN [bis (trinitroethyl) nitramine].
BTTN [1,2,4 butanetriol trinitrate].
Bulk salutes.
Butyl tetryl.
C
Calcium nitrate explosive mixture.
Cellulose hexanitrate explosive mixture.
Chlorate explosive mixtures.
Composition A and variations.
Composition B and variations.
Composition C and variations.
Copper acetylide.
Cyanuric triazide.
Cyclonite [RDX].
Cyclotetramethylenetetranitramine [HMX].
Cyclotol.
Cyclotrimethylenetrinitramine [RDX].
D
DATB [diaminotrinitrobenzene].
DDNP [diazodinitrophenol].
DEGDN [diethyleneglycol dinitrate].
Detonating cord.
Detonators.
Dimethylol dimethyl methane dinitrate composition.
Dinitroethyleneurea.
Dinitroglycerine [glycerol dinitrate].
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1436
Dinitrophenol.
Dinitrophenolates.
Dinitrophenyl hydrazine.
Dinitroresorcinol.
Dinitrotoluene-sodium nitrate explosive mixtures.
DIPAM [dipicramide; diaminohexanitrobiphenyl].
Dipicryl sulfone.
Dipicrylamine.
Display fireworks.
DNPA [2,2-dinitropropyl acrylate].
DNPD [dinitropentano nitrile].
Dynamite.
E
EDDN [ethylene diamine dinitrate].
EDNA [ethylenedinitramine].
Ednatol.
EDNP [ethyl 4,4-dinitropentanoate].
EGDN [ethylene glycol dinitrate].
Erythritol tetranitrate explosives.
Esters of nitro-substituted alcohols.
Ethyl-tetryl.
Explosive conitrates.
Explosive gelatins.
Explosive liquids.
Explosive mixtures containing oxygen-releasing
inorganic salts and hydrocarbons.
Explosive mixtures containing oxygen-releasing
inorganic salts and nitro bodies.
Explosive mixtures containing oxygen-releasing
inorganic salts and water insoluble fuels.
Explosive mixtures containing oxygen-releasing
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1437
inorganic salts and water soluble fuels.
Explosive mixtures containing sensitized nitromethane.
Explosive mixtures containing tetranitromethane
(nitroform).
Explosive nitro compounds of aromatic hydrocarbons.
Explosive organic nitrate mixtures.
Explosive powders.
F
Flash powder.
Fulminate of mercury.
Fulminate of silver.
Fulminating gold.
Fulminating mercury.
Fulminating platinum.
Fulminating silver.
G
Gelatinized nitrocellulose.
Gem-dinitro aliphatic explosive mixtures.
Guanyl nitrosamino guanyl tetrazene.
Guanyl nitrosamino guanylidene hydrazine.
Guncotton.
H
Heavy metal azides.
Hexanite.
Hexanitrodiphenylamine.
Hexanitrostilbene.
Hexogen [RDX].
Hexogene or octogene and a nitrated N-methylaniline.
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1438
Hexolites.
HMTD [hexamethylenetriperoxidediamine].
HMX [cyclo-1,3,5,7-tetramethylene 2,4,6,8-
tetranitramine; Octogen].
Hydrazinium nitrate/hydrazine/aluminum explosive
system.
Hydrazoic acid.
I
Igniter cord.
Igniters.
Initiating tube systems.
K
KDNBF [potassium dinitrobenzo-furoxane].
[[Page 20866]]
L
Lead azide.
Lead mannite.
Lead mononitroresorcinate.
Lead picrate.
Lead salts, explosive.
Lead styphnate [styphnate of lead, lead
trinitroresorcinate].
Liquid nitrated polyol and trimethylolethane.
Liquid oxygen explosives.
M
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1439
Magnesium ophorite explosives.
Mannitol hexanitrate.
MDNP [methyl 4,4-dinitropentanoate].
MEAN [monoethanolamine nitrate].
Mercuric fulminate.
Mercury oxalate.
Mercury tartrate.
Metriol trinitrate.
Minol-2 [40% TNT, 40% ammonium nitrate, 20%
aluminum].
MMAN [monomethylamine nitrate]; methylamine nitrate.
Mononitrotoluene-nitroglycerin mixture.
Monopropellants.
N
NIBTN [nitroisobutametriol trinitrate].
Nitrate explosive mixtures.
Nitrate sensitized with gelled nitroparaffin.
Nitrated carbohydrate explosive.
Nitrated glucoside explosive.
Nitrated polyhydric alcohol explosives.
Nitric acid and a nitro aromatic compound explosive.
Nitric acid and carboxylic fuel explosive.
Nitric acid explosive mixtures.
Nitro aromatic explosive mixtures.
Nitro compounds of furane explosive mixtures.
Nitrocellulose explosive.
Nitroderivative of urea explosive mixture.
Nitrogelatin explosive.
Nitrogen trichloride.
Nitrogen tri-iodide.
Nitroglycerine [NG, RNG, nitro, glyceryl trinitrate,
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1440
trinitroglycerine].
Nitroglycide.
Nitroglycol [ethylene glycol dinitrate, EGDN].
Nitroguanidine explosives.
Nitronium perchlorate propellant mixtures.
Nitroparaffins Explosive Grade and ammonium nitrate
mixtures.
Nitrostarch.
Nitro-substituted carboxylic acids.
Nitrourea.
O
Octogen [HMX].
Octol [75 percent HMX, 25 percent TNT].
Organic amine nitrates.
Organic nitramines.
P
PBX [plastic bonded explosives].
Pellet powder.
Penthrinite composition.
Pentolite.
Perchlorate explosive mixtures.
Peroxide based explosive mixtures.
PETN [nitropentaerythrite, pentaerythrite tetranitrate,
pentaerythritol
tetranitrate].
Picramic acid and its salts.
Picramide.
Picrate explosives.
Picrate of potassium explosive mixtures.
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1441
Picratol.
Picric acid (manufactured as an explosive).
Picryl chloride.
Picryl fluoride.
PLX [95% nitromethane, 5% ethylenediamine].
Polynitro aliphatic compounds.
Polyolpolynitrate-nitrocellulose explosive gels.
Potassium chlorate and lead sulfocyanate explosive.
Potassium nitrate explosive mixtures.
Potassium nitroaminotetrazole.
Pyrotechnic compositions.
PYX [2,6-bis(picrylamino)]-3,5-dinitropyridine.
R
RDX [cyclonite, hexogen, T4, cyclo-1,3,5,-trimethylene-
2,4,6,-trinitramine; hexahydro-1,3,5-trinitro-S-triazine].
S
Safety fuse.
Salts of organic amino sulfonic acid explosive mixture.
Salutes (bulk).
Silver acetylide.
Silver azide.
Silver fulminate.
Silver oxalate explosive mixtures.
Silver styphnate.
Silver tartrate explosive mixtures.
Silver tetrazene.
Slurried explosive mixtures of water, inorganic
oxidizing salt, gelling
agent, fuel, and sensitizer (cap sensitive).
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1442
Smokeless powder.
Sodatol.
Sodium amatol.
Sodium azide explosive mixture.
Sodium dinitro-ortho-cresolate.
Sodium nitrate explosive mixtures.
Sodium nitrate-potassium nitrate explosive mixture.
Sodium picramate.
Special fireworks.
Squibs.
Styphnic acid explosives.
T
Tacot [tetranitro-2,3,5,6-dibenzo- 1,3a,4,6a
tetrazapentalene].
TATB [triaminotrinitrobenzene].
TATP [triacetonetriperoxide].
TEGDN [triethylene glycol dinitrate].
Tetranitrocarbazole.
Tetrazene [tetracene, tetrazine, 1(5-tetrazolyl)-4-guanyl
tetrazene
hydrate].
Tetryl [2,4,6 tetranitro-N-methylaniline].
Tetrytol.
Thickened inorganic oxidizer salt slurried explosive
mixture.
TMETN [trimethylolethane trinitrate].
TNEF [trinitroethyl formal].
TNEOC [trinitroethylorthocarbonate].
TNEOF [trinitroethylorthoformate].
TNT [trinitrotoluene, trotyl, trilite, triton].
Torpex.
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1443
Tridite.
Trimethylol ethyl methane trinitrate composition.
Trimethylolthane trinitrate-nitrocellulose.
Trimonite.
Trinitroanisole.
Trinitrobenzene.
Trinitrobenzoic acid.
Trinitrocresol.
Trinitro-meta-cresol.
Trinitronaphthalene.
Trinitrophenetol.
Trinitrophloroglucinol.
Trinitroresorcinol.
Tritonal.
U
Urea nitrate.
W
Water-bearing explosives having salts of oxidizing acids
and nitrogen bases, sulfates, or sulfamates (cap
sensitive).
Water-in-oil emulsion explosive compositions.
X
Xanthamonas hydrophilic colloid explosive mixture.
FOR FURTHER INFORMATION CONTACT: Chad Yoder,
ATF Specialist, Arson and Explosives Programs
Division, Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco and Firearms, 650
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1444
Massachusetts Avenue, NW., Washington, DC 20226
(202-927-7930).
Signed: April 19, 2002.
Bradley A. Buckles,
Director.
[FR Doc. 02-10324 Filed 4-25-02; 8:45 am]
BILLING CODE 4810-31-P
Explosives & the
Environment
Secondary explosives
(TNT, HMX, and RDX)
have historically been
discussed within the realm of safety related issues
versus an HTRW waste classification perspective.
Explosives-contaminated process waste waters
can be subdivided into two categories: red water
from the manufacture of TNT and pink water which
includes any washwater associated with load,
assemble, and pack operations or with the
demilitarization of munitions involving contact with
finished explosive. Despite their names, red and
pink water cannot be identified by color. Both are
clear when they emerge from their respective
processes and subsequently turn pink, light red,
dark red, or black when exposed to light. The
chemical composition of pink water varies
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1445
depending on the process and explosive operation
from which it is derived; red water has a more
defined chemical composition.
Pinkwater is a wastewater generated in the
production and handling of high explosive
munitions. The principal contaminants in pinkwater
are trinitrotoluene (TNT) and cyclo trimethylene
trinitramine (RDX); they are transferred to water in
washdown operations, and washout and steamout
of old munitions. TNT and RDX are persistent
contaminants that are regulated in discharges from
Army Ammunition Plants. Chemical compounds
such as TNT and RDX are resistant to aerobic
attack because the nitro compounds act as
electron-withdrawing substituents. Other
substituents that cause the same effect are
halogens, such as chlorine, which is often found in
synthetic organic compounds persistent in the
natural environment.
Under ambient environmental conditions,
explosives are highly persistent in soils and
groundwater, exhibiting a resistance to naturally
occurring volatilization, bio-degradation, and
hydrolysis. Where biodegradation of TNT occurs, 2-
AmDNT and 4-AmDNT are the most commonly
identified transformation products. Photochemical
decomposition of TNT to TNB occurs in the
presence of sunlight and water, with TNB being
generally resistant to further photodegradation.
TNB is subject to biotransformation to 3,5-
dinitroaniline, which has been recommended as an
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1446
additional target analyte in EPA Method 8330.
Picrate is a hydrolysis transformation product of
tetryl, and is expected in environmental samples
contaminated with tetryl. Site investigations
indicate that TNT is the least mobile of the
explosives and most frequently occurring soil
contamination problem. RDX and HMX are the most
mobile explosives and present the largest
groundwater contamination problem. TNB, DNTs,
and tetryl are of intermediate mobility and
frequently occur as co-contaminants in soil and
groundwater. Metals are co-contaminants at
facilities where munitions compounds were
handled, particularly at OB/OD sites.
Today, the most common suicide weapons are
antipersonnel bombs carried by a single person. Such
bombs are typically used to carry out terrorist attacks
(suicide bombings are less common, although not
unknown, in conventional warfare). Suicide bombers
strap explosives (often covered with nails, screws, or
other shrapnel and rat poising) to their bodies (or
otherwise carry them) into populated areas and
detonate them. Suicide bombings by Palestine terrorists
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1447
against Israeli civilian targets are frequent occurrences
in the Arab-Israeli conflict.
The Pacific Theater in World War II bore witness to the
Japanese Kamikaze suicide attack pilots. Late in the
war, as the tide turned against Japan, Kamikaze pilots
were deployed to attempt to crash their aircraft into
American ships in the Pacific. The Japanese even
developed specialized aircraft (the Ohka) for the tactic.
(Nazi Germany also developed suicide planes (the
Selbstopfer), although their designs included a feature
for the pilot to escape, and it is unlikely that they ever
saw combat.) A successful Kamikaze attack would both
kill the plane's pilot and sink the target ship. Related
tactics included the Kaiten suicide mini sub, which a
single Japanese pilot would steer into an American
ship.
Kamikaze attacks were mimicked in the September 11,
2001 attacks, in which terrorists destroyed the World
Trade Center and part of The Pentagon by flying
hijacked civilian aircraft into them.
"Islamic terrorism" is a contentious term; many
Muslims, particularly those supporting liberal
movements within Islam do not accept that attacks on
civilians can ever be justified by the Islamic religion.
From this perspective, describing terrorism as "Islamic"
is seen as a slur on Islam. Although "Islamic terrorism"
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1448
is commonly used by Western media to describe the
activity of a wide variety of groups, "Islamist terrorism"
is a more accurate term and would respect the
sensitivities of Muslims.
The term Islamist, though often used generically for any
political or militant group that used Islam as an identity
or ideology, is used by experts in a specific meaning.
Please see Islamism.
Organizations
The most international of these groups, Al-Qaeda, also
has its origins in a particular nationalist struggle;
namely, rebellion against the royal family of Saudi
Arabia. The Saudi regime is perceived as being too
closely associated with American foreign policy,
particularly through granting the United States basing
rights during the first Gulf War. Al-Qaida's ideology is an
extreme form of Islam as a political movement, and
among its ideals are pan-Islamic unity. So thereafter,
the Saudi regime was seen as insufficiently Islamic.
Such a view may seem bewildering to Westerners, who
often cannot imagine anything more 'Islamic' than the
country's Wahhabi interpretation of Islamic law. But to
Al-Qaida in particular, the world is viewed as a struggle
between their extreme Islamist ideology versus a
secular Western ideology. This view of the world has
ironically been strengthened by the War on Terror.
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1449
Chapter 8
Terrorist view
In the view of the terrorists involved, they are defending
Islam against aggression, or otherwise supporting or
spreading it. Modern Islamist terrorist groups are often
inspired by the Muslim Brotherhood. Some Islamist
terrorist groups have employed suicide bombers, in
spite of the comdemnation of suicide by Muslim
religious authorities. These groups refer to suicide
bomber attacks as martyrdom operations and the
suicides are characterized as shohada (plural of
"shahid"). The nature, extent and support for Islamist
terrorism among the general Muslim population is
subject to considerable debate and disagreement
among Westerners.
The members of such groups are more likely to see
themselves as freedom fighters rather than terrorists,
as the political origins of such groups in
Israel/Palestine, Soviet-occupied Afghanistan,
Chechnya and most recently post-Saddam Iraq are
often connected to demands for statehood and
nationalist self-determination.
Other Muslim views
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1450
Abdel Rahman al-Rashed, the general manager of Al-
Arabiya said: "It is a certain fact that not all Muslims
are terrorists, but it is equally certain, and
exceptionally painful, that almost all terrorists are
Muslims."
Muslim scholars in North America in a statement just
after 9/11: "We encourage Muslim medical professionals
and Muslim relief agencies to assist in whatever
possible way with humanitarian and relief efforts both
locally and nationally. Moreover, we urge people of
diverse religious traditions, faith groups and spiritual
expressions, including Christians, Jews, Buddhists,
Hindus and members of other communities, to share
their grief and sorrow together as one family, the
human family."
Historical roots
A medieval precedent of modern Islamist terrorism may
have been the Hashshashin, an Islamic (Nizari) group
from the Middle Ages that sent assassins against
Crusader and Islamic rulers opposing them. Their lair
was the Alamut fortress.
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1451
Verdict of the Qu'ran
The Qur'an, the highest source of authority in Islam,
vehemently denounces the killing of any person who is
not guilty of at least one of two crimes:
"Whosoever killed a person - unless it be for killing a
person or for creating disorder in the land - it shall be
as if he killed all mankind; and whoso saved a life, it
shall be as if he had saved the life of all mankind."
(5:32)
According to this verse of the Qur'an, if one human
being is killed who is
1) Not guilty of murdering another person;
2) Not guilty of causing disorder/strife;
It would be the equivalent to the massacre of the entire
human race, which is an inconceivably barbaric crime,
and a monumental sin. This verse makes it clear and
unequivocal who is a legitimate target, and who is not.
Other possibly relevant Qur'anic statements include:
2.190-1: "Fight in the cause of Allah those who
fight you, but do not transgress limits; for Allah
loveth not transgressors. And slay them wherever
ye catch them, and turn them out from where they
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1452
have turned you out; for tumult and oppression are
worse than slaughter; but fight them not at the
Sacred Mosque, unless they (first) fight you there;
but if they fight you, slay them. Such is the reward
of those who suppress faith."
This verse is traditionally interpreted (eg Ibn Kathir) as
forbidding attacks on non-combatants; see al-Baqara for
further details.
With reference to the Hypocrites (munafiqin), a group at
Madina which are said to have pretended to be Muslims
while secretly supporting their enemies, the Qur'an
says:
[4.89-91] They desire that you should disbelieve as
they have disbelieved, so that you might be (all)
alike; therefore take not from among them friends
until they fly (their homes) in Allah's way; but if
they turn back, then seize them and kill them
wherever you find them, and take not from among
them a friend or a helper. Except those who reach
a people between whom and you there is an
alliance, or who come to you, their hearts shrinking
from fighting you or fighting their own people; and
if Allah had pleased, He would have given them
power over you, so that they should have certainly
fought you; therefore if they withdraw from you and
do not fight you and offer you peace, then Allah has
not given you a way against them. You will find
others who desire that they should be safe from
you and secure from their own people; as often as
they are sent back to the mischief they get thrown
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1453
into it headlong; therefore if they do not withdraw
from you, and (do not) offer you peace and restrain
their hands, then seize them and kill them
wherever you find them; and against these We have
given you a clear authority.
Chapter 9
Islamist terrorist groups (according to US)
Abu Sayyaf, Philippines
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1454
Al-Gama'a al-Islamiyya, Egypt also known as The
Islamic Group
al-Qaeda, Worldwide
Armed Islamic Group (GIA), Algeria
Army of Ansar al-Sunna, Iraq
AZF, France
Egyptian Islamic Jihad, Egypt
Great Eastern Islamic Raiders' Front (IBDA-C),
Turkey
Hamas, Gaza Strip and West Bank
Harkat-ul Mujahideen al-Alami, Pakistan
Hizballah, Lebanon
Islamic Movement of Central Asia, Central Asia
Islamic Movement of Uzbekistan, Uzbekistan
Jemaah Islamiyah, Indonesia
Lashkar-e-Toiba, Pakistan
Moro Islamic Liberation Front, Philippines
Moroccan Islamic Combatant Group, Morocco and
Europe
Palestinian Islamic Jihad, Gaza Strip and West
Bank
Tawhid and Jihad , Iraq, led by Abu Musab al-
Zarqawi
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1455
Complete List of Terrorist and Insurgency Groups
Worldwide
Country Group Name Acronym Original Language Name
Afghanistan Harkat-i-Islami
Afghanistan Jamaat e Islami
Afghanistan National Islamic Movement NIM [Jumbish-i-Milli]
Afghanistan Northern Alliance
Afghanistan Taliban Militia
Afghanistan United Islamic Front for the
Salvation of Afghanistan
UIFSA
Algeria Alliance for a Free Kabylie AKAL
Algeria Armed Islamic Group GIA [Groupe Islamique
Armee]
Algeria Belmokhtar Group
Algeria Islamic Salvation Front /
Islamic Salvation Army
FIS/AIS [Front Islamique du
Salut, Armee Islamique
du Salut]
Angola Cabinda Democratic Front FDC [Frente Democratica de
Cabinda]
Angola Cabinda Enclave Liberation
Front - Cabinda Armed
Forces
FLEC-
FAC
[Frente de LEC-Forcas
Armadas Cabindesas]
Angola Cabinda Enclave Liberation FLEC-R [Frente de Libertacao d
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1456
Front - Renovada Enclave de Cabinda
Renovada]
Angola National Union for the
Total Independence of
Angola
UNITA [Union Nacional para a
Independencia Total de
Angola]
Austria Bavarian Liberation Army BLA
Austria People's Extra
Parliamentary Opposition
VAPO
Bahrain Hezbollah-Gulf/Bahrain
Bahrain Islamic Front for the
Liberation of Bahrain
IFLB
Bahrain Movement for the
Liberation of Bahrain
MLB
Bangladesh Shanti Bahini
Belgium Fighting Communist Cells CCC [Cellules Communistes
Combattantes]
Bolivia National Liberation Army -
Bolivia
ELN [Ejrcito de Liberacin
Nacional]
Bolivia Tupac Katari Guerrilla
Army
EGTK [Ejercito Guerrillero
Tupac Katari]
Burundi Forces for the Defense of
Democracy
FDD [Forces pour la Dfense
de la Democratie]
Burundi National Council for the
Defense of Democracy
CNDD [Conseil National pour la
Dfense de la
Dmocratie]
Burundi National Liberation Forces FNL [Forces Nationales de
Libration]
Burundi National Liberation Front Frolina [Front de Libration
Nationale]
Burundi Party for the Liberation of PLPH [Parti pour la Libration
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1457
the Hutu People du Peuple Hutu]
Cambodia Party of Democratic
Kampuchea
[Khmer Rouge]
Canada Front de Liberation du
Quebec
FLQ
Chad Armed Forces for a Federal
Republic
FARF [Forces Armes pour un
Rpublique Fderale]
Chad Chadian National Front FNT [Front Nationale du
Tchad]
Chad Movement for Democracy
and Development
MDD [Mouvement pour la
Dmocratie et la
Dveloppement]
Chad National Awakening
Committee for Peace and
Democracy
CSNPD
Chad National Council for
Rebuilding Chad
CNTR
Chad National Council for
Recovery
CNR
Chad National Front for the
Renewal of Chad
FNTR [Front Nationale pour le
Tchad Renove]
Chad People's Democratic Front PDF [Front du Peuple
Democratique]
Chad Union of Democratic
Forces
UFD [Union des Forces
Dmocratiques]
Chile Lautaro Youth Movement MJL [Movimiento de
Juventud Lautaro]
Chile Manuel Rodriguez Patriotic
Front - Autonomous
FPMR/A [Frente Patritica
Manuel Rodrguez-
Autnomo]
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1458
Chile Manuel Rodriguez Patriotic
Front - Dissidents
FPMR/D [Frente Patritica
Manuel Rodrguez]
Chile Movimento de la Izquierda
Revolucionaria
MIR [Movimento de la
Izquierda
Revolucionaria]
Chile United Popular Action
Movement-Lautaro
MAPU-L [Movimiento de Accin
Popular Unitario-
Lautaro]
China Tibetan Separatists
China Uighur Muslim Separatists
Colombia April 19 Movement M-19 [Movimiento 19 de Abril]
Colombia National Liberation Army -
Colombia
ELN [Ejrcito de Liberacin
Nacional]
Colombia Peasant Self-Defense
Group of Cordoba and
Uraba
ACCU [Peasant Self-Defense
Group of Cordoba and
Uraba]
Colombia Popular Liberation Army EPL [Ejrcito Popular de
Liberacin]
Colombia Revolutionary Armed
Forces of Colombia
FARC [Fuerzas Armadas
Revolucionarias de
Colombia]
Colombia Ricardo Franco Front FRF [Frente Ricardo Franco]
Colombia United Self-Defense Forces
of Colombia
AUC [Autodefensas Unidos de
Colombia]
Comoros Anjouan Island separatists
Cuba April 19 Movement M-19 [Movimiento 19 de Abril]
Cuba Che Guevara Brigade
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1459
Djibouti Front for the Restoration of
Unity and Democracy
FRUD [Front pour la
Restoration d'Unit et
Dmocratie]
Djibouti Front for the Restoration of
Unity and Democracy - Dini
FRUD [Front pour la
Restoration d'Unit et
Dmocratie - Dini]
Dominican
Republic
Anti-Imperialist Patriotic
Union
UPA
Ecuador Alfaro Lives, Damnit! AVC [Alfaro Vive, Carajo!]
Ecuador People's Combatants
Group
GCP [Grupo de Combatante
de Pueblo]
Ecuador Red Sun [Sol Rojo] or [Puka Inti]
Egypt al-Jihad
Egypt Egyptian Islamic Jihad
Group
Egypt Islamic Group IG / GAI [al-Gama'at al-Islamiyya]
Egypt Vanguards of Conquest
El Salvador Farabundo Marti National
Liberation Front
FMLN [Frente Farabundo Marti
de Liberacin Nacional]
Equatorial
Guinea
Movement for the
Autodetermination of the
Island of Bioko
MAIB [Movimiento para la
Auto-determinacin d
la Isla de Bioko]
Eritrea Active Al-Ittihad al-Islami
Eritrea Eritrean Liberation Front ELF
Ethiopia Al-Ittihad al-Islami
France Action Directe AD [Action Directe]
France Corsican National FLNC-
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1460
Liberation Front-Historic
Wing
HW
France Corsican National
Liberation Front-Traditional
Wing
FLNC-
CH
France Kanak Socialist National
Liberation Front
FLNKS [Front de Libration
Nationale Kanak
Socialiste]
Georgia Abkhazia rebels
Georgia Algetian Wolves [Algeti Mglebi]
Georgia Horsemen [Mkhedrioni]
Georgia Internal Opposition
Zviadists
Georgia South Ossetian Rebels
Georgia Ukrainian Self-Defence
Organisation
UNSO
Georgia White Legion
Germany Anti-Imperialist Cell AIZ [Antiimperialistische
Zelle]
Germany June 2
Germany Red Army Faction RAF [Rote Armee Fraktion]
Germany Revolutionary Cells RZ [Revolutionaere Zellen]
Greece Anarchist Street Patrol
Greece Children of November
Greece Conscientious Arsonists
Greece Fighting Guerrilla Formation MAS
Greece Militant Guerilla Formation
Greece New Group of Satanists
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1461
Greece November 17 RO-17 [Epanastaiki Organosi 17
Noembri]
Greece Revolutionary Popular
Struggle
ELA [Epanastikos Laikos
Agonas]
Greece Revolutionary Subversive
Faction - Commando
Unabomber
Guatemala Guatemalan National
Revolutionary Party
URNG [Unidad Revolucionaria
Nacional Guatemalteca]
Guinea-
Bissau
Ansuman Man rebellion
Guyana Guyana National Service
Guyana Guyana People's Militia
Honduras Cinchonero Popular
Liberation Movement
MPL
Honduras Comandos Operativos
Especiales
COES
Honduras Morazanist Patriotic Front FPM
Honduras Popular Revolutionary
Forces Lorenzo Zelaya
FRP-
LZ
[Fuerzas Revolutionnarios
Populares Lorenzo Zelaya]
India Al Faran
India Al Hadid
India Al Jihad
India All India Sikh Students
Federation
India All Tripura Tiger Force ATTF
India Ananda Marg
India Azar Khalistan Babbar
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1462
Khalsa Force
India Babbar Khalsa
India Bodo Liberation Tiger
Force
BLTF
India Bodo Security Force BSF
India Dal Khalsa
India Dashmesh Regiment
India Garo National Front
India Harakat ul-Ansar HUA
India Hizb-ul Mujahideen
India Jamaat-e-Islam
India Jammu and Kashmir
Liberation Front
JKLF
India Khalistan Commando
Force
India Khalistan Liberation Front
India Khalistan Zindabad Force
India Maoist Communist Center MCC
India Muslim Brotherhood
India National Democratic Front
of Bodoland
NDFB
India National Liberation Front
of Tripura
NLFT
India National Socialist Council
of Nagaland
NSCN
India People's War Group PWG
India United Liberation Front of
Assam
ULFA
Indonesia Revolutionary Front for an GPK, [Frente Revolutionaria
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1463
Independent East Timor FRETILIN Timorense de
Libertacao e
Independencia]
Indonesia Gerakin Aceh Merdeka
Indonesia Organisasi Papua Merdek OPM
Iran Al-Harakan al-Islamiya
Iran Ansar-e Hezbollah
Iran Babak Khoramdin
Organisation
BKO
Iran Banner of Kaveh
Iran Democratic Party of
Iranian Kurdistan
DPIK
Iran Democratic Revolutionary
Front for the Liberation of
Arabistan
Iran Fadayan - Majority Faction
Iran Fadayan - Minority Faction
Iran Freedom Movement of Iran FMI
Iran Iran Liberation Front
Iran Kurdish Communist Party
of Iran, Committee of the
Revolutionary Toilers of
Iranian Kordestan
KOMALA [Komala-ye Shoreshgari
ye Zahmat Keshan
Kordestan-e Iran]
Iran Kurdish Democratic Party
of Iran
KDP
Iran Lahkar-iJhangi
Iran Mujahedin-e Khalq
Organization, People's
Mujahedin
MEK/MKO,
PMOI
Iran National Democratic Front
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1464
Iran National Democratic Front
of Hedayatollah Matin-
Daftari
Iran National Front
Iran National Liberation Army
of Iran (Militant wing of
MEK)
NLA
Iran National Resistance
Movement of Iran
Iran Paykar
Iran Tudeh
Iraq Al-Dawa al-Islamiya
Iraq Communist Party militia
Iraq Iranian Democratic Party
of Kurdistan
KDPI
Iraq Islamic Movement of
Kurdistan
IMK
Iraq Kurdistan Democratic
Party
KDP
Iraq Patriotic Union of
Kurdistan
PUK
Iraq Socialist Party militia
Iraq Supreme Council for
Islamic Revolution
Iraq Supreme Council for the
Islamic Resistance in Iraq,
Badr Corps
SCIRI
Iraq Turcoman Front Militia
Israel Abu Nidal Organization ANO
Israel Democratic Front for the DFLP
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1465
Liberation of Palestine
Israel Fatah Uprising
Israel Gush Emunim Underground
Israel Hamas
Israel Islamic Jihad
Israel Kach and Kahane Chai
Israel May 15 Organization
Israel Organization of the Armed
Arab Struggle
OAAS
Israel Palestine Islamic Jihad -
Shiqaqi faction
PIJ
Israel Palestine Liberation Front -
Abu Abbas faction
PLF
Israel Popular Front for the
Liberation of Palestine
PFLP
Israel Popular Front for the
Liberation of Palestine-
General Command
PFLP-GC
Israel Popular Front for the
Liberation of Palestine-
Special Command
PFLP-SC
Israel Popular Struggle Front PSF
Israel Terror Against Terror TNT
Italy Autonomists
Italy Hammer Skinheads Italia
Italy Red Brigades BR [Brigate Rosse]
Italy Third Position [Terza Posizione]
Japan Aum Shinrikyo
C
lic
k
t
o
b
u
y
N
O
W
!
P
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b
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O
W
!
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1466
Japan Blood Revenge Corps of
the Partisan Volunteer
Corps for the
Independence of the
Japanese Race
Sekihotai [Nippon Minzoku
Dokuritsu Giyugun
Betsudo Sekihotai]
Japan Japanese Red Army JRA [Nihon Sekigun]
Japan Kakamaru-ha
Japan Middle Core Faction, or
Nucleus
[Chukaku-Ha]
Japan Sane Thinkers School [Seikijuku]
Jordan Jordanian Muslim
Brotherhood
Kyrgyzstan Independence [Egemen]
Laos Lao Liberation Army LLA
Laos Lao National Liberation
Movement
LNLM
Laos United Lao National
Liberation Front
ULNLF
Lebanon Al Ekhouwan al Muslimin Lebanese
Lebanon Al Gamaat Al Islamiyya Lebanese
Lebanon Al Taqfeer Wal Hijra Lebanese Al Qaeda
Lebanon Army of Palestine Palestinian, Al Qaeda
Lebanon Fatah Palestinian
Lebanon Hamas Palestinian
Lebanon Hezbollah
Lebanon Islamic Jehad Palestinian
Lebanon Islamic Resistance
C
lic
k
t
o
b
u
y
N
O
W
!
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C
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b
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N
O
W
!
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1467
Lebanon Islamic Unification
Movement
MUI Lebanese, Al Qaeda
Lebanon Jamaat Al Noor Lebanese Arm of Usbat
Al Ansar, Al Qaeda
Lebanon Kurdistan Workers Party PKK Kurdish
Lebanon Lebanese Armed
Revolutionary Faction
FARL [Factions Armes
Revolutionnaires
Libanaises]
Lebanon Lebanese Resistance
Detachments
Amal [Afwaj al Muqawamah
al Lubnaniyyah]
Lebanon Popular Front for the
Liberation of Palestine
PFLP Palestinian
Lebanon Usbat Al Ansar Palestinian, Al Qaeda
with ramifications in
Chechnya
Lebanon Usbat Al Nour
Palestinian, Al Qaeda
(sub-group to Usbat Al
Ansar)
Liberia National Patriotic Front of
Liberia
NPFL
Liberia United Front for the
Liberation of Liberia
ULIMO
Liberia United Front for the
Liberation of Liberia-
Johnson
ULIMO-J
Libya Fighting Islamic Group in
Libya
FIGL
Libya Islamic Martyrs Movement
Libya Islamic Movement for
C
lic
k
t
o
b
u
y
N
O
W
!
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C
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1468
Change
Libya Islamic Movement of
Martyrs
Libya Libyan Jihad Movement
Libya Libyan National
Democratic Movement
Libya Libyan National Grouping
Libya Libyan National Salvation
Committee
Libya National Front for the
Salvation of Libya
Macedonia,
FYROM
Macedonian Revolutionary
Organisation - Democratic
Party for Macedonian
National Unity
VMRO-
DPMN
Macedonia,
FYROM
Unikom (ethnic Albanians)
Mali Azaouad Islamic-Arab
Front
FIAA [Front Islamique-
de l'Azaouad]
Mali Azaouad Popular
Liberation Front
FPLA [Front Populaire de
Libration de l'Azaouad]
Mali Azaouad Popular
Movement
MPA [Mouvement Populaire
de l'Azaouad]
Mali Azaouad Revolutionary
Army
ARLA [Frente Armadas
Revolucionarias]
Mali United Azaoud Movements MFUA [Mouvements et Fronts
C
lic
k
t
o
b
u
y
N
O
W
!
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1469
and Fronts Unifis de l'Azaoud]
Mexico Justice Army of the
Defenseless People
[Ejrcito Justicia de los
Indefensos]
Mexico Popular Revolutionary
Army
EPR [Ejrcito Popular
Revolucionaria]
Mexico Zapatista National
Liberation Movement
EZLN [Ejrcito Zapatista de
Liberacion Nacional]
Moldova Popular Front PF
Moldova Republic of Transdniestr
Morocco Popular Front for the
Liberation of Sakiet el
Hamra and Rio de Oro
Polisario [Frente Popular Para la
Liberacin de Sakiet el
Hamra y Rio de Oro]
Mozambique Mozambican National
Resistance
RENAMO [Resistencia Nacional
Mocambicana]
Mozambique National Resistance
Movement
MNR
Myanmar Arakan Rohingya Islamic
Front
ARIF
Myanmar Kachin Democratic Army KDA
Myanmar Kachin Independence
Army
KIA
Myanmar Karen Buddhist
Democracy Army
DKBA
Myanmar Karen National Union /
Karen National Liberation
Army
KNU/KNLA
Myanmar Karenni Army KA
Myanmar Myanmar National MNDAA
C
lic
k
t
o
b
u
y
N
O
W
!
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C
lic
k
t
o
b
u
y
N
O
W
!
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1470
Democratic Alliance Army
Myanmar National Democratic
Alliance Army
NDAA
Myanmar New Democratic Army NDA
Myanmar Rohingya Solidarity
Organization
RSO
Myanmar Shan State Army, or Shan
State Progress Army
SSA/SSPA
Myanmar Shan State Restoration
Council (Mong Tai Army)
Myanmar Shan United Revolutionary
Army (Mong Tai Army)
SURA
Myanmar United Wa State Army UWSA
Nepal United People's Front of
Nepal
[Bhattarai]
Nicaragua Revolutionary Armed
Front
FAR [Frente Armadas
Revolucionarias]
Niger Azaouad Liberation Front FLAA [Front de Libration de
l'Azaouad]
Niger Organisation de la
Resistance
ORA
Niger Revolutionary Liberation
Army of North-Niger
ARLN [Arme Revolutionnaire
de Libration du Nord
Niger]
Niger Saharan Patriotic
Liberation Front
FPLS [Front Patriotique de
Libration du Sah
Pakistan Baluch People's Liberation
Front
BPLF
C
lic
k
t
o
b
u
y
N
O
W
!
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lic
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W
!
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1471
Pakistan Baluch Students'
Organization - Awami
BSO-A
Pakistan Harakat-ul-Ansar
Pakistan Jamaat ul-Fuqra
Pakistan Muhajir Quami Movement -
Haqiqi Faction
MQM-H
Pakistan Muttahidda Quami
Movement - Altaf Faction
MQM
Pakistan Nadeem Commando
Pakistan Popular Front for Armed
Resistance
PFAR
Pakistan Shi'ite Movement of
Pakistan
Pakistan Sipah-i-Sahaba Pakistan SSP
Papua New
Guinea
Bougainville Revolutionary
Army
BRA
Peru Shining Path SL [Sendero Luminoso]
Peru Tupac Amaru
Revolutionary Movement
MRTA [Movimento
Revolucionario Tupac
Amaru]
Philippines Abu Sayyaf Group ASG
Philippines Alex Boncayo Brigade ABB
Philippines Moro Islamic Liberation
Front
MILF
Philippines Moro National Liberation
Front
MNLF
Philippines National Democratic Front NDF
Philippines New People's Army NPA
C
lic
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o
b
u
y
N
O
W
!
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1472
Philippines Revolutionary Proletarian
Army
Portugal Azorean Liberation Front
Portugal Azorean Nationalist
Movement
Portugal Popular Forces of the 25th
of April
FP-25 [Foras Populares do 25
Abril]
Russia Chechen rebels
Russia South Ossetian rebels
Rwanda Interahamwe Militia
Saudi
Arabia
Brethren (Battalions) of the
Faithful
Saudi
Arabia
Fighting Ansar of Allah
Saudi
Arabia
Hezbollah Gulf
Saudi
Arabia
Islamic Jihad in Hejaz
Saudi
Arabia
Islamic Peninsula
Movement for Change -
Jihad Wing
Saudi
Arabia
Islamic Revolutionary
Organization
Saudi
Arabia
Jamaat al-Adala al-Alamiya
Saudi
Arabia
Legion of the Martyr
Abdullah al-Huzaifi
Saudi
Arabia
Movement for Islamic
Change
C
lic
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o
b
u
y
N
O
W
!
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1473
Saudi
Arabia
Tigers of the Gulf
Senegal Movement of Democratic
Forces of Casamance -
Northern Front
MFDC-
FN
[Mouvement des Forces
Dmocratiques de
Casamance - Front Nord]
Senegal Movement of Democratic
Forces of Casamance -
Southern Front
MFDC-
FS
[Mouvement des Forces
Dmocratiques de
Casamance - Front Sud]
Sierra
Leone
Armed Forces
Revolutionary Council
AFRC
Sierra
Leone
Revolutionary United Front RUF
Somalia National Somali Congress
Somalia Rahanwein Resistance
Army
Somalia Somali Democratic Alliance SDA
Somalia Somali Democratic
Association
Somalia Somali National Alliance SNA
Somalia Somali National Front SNF
Somalia Somali National Movement SNM
Somalia Somali Patriotic Movement
Somalia Somalia Democratic Front
Somalia Somalia Salvation
Democratic
Somalia United Somali Congress USC
Somalia United Somali Front USF
C
lic
k
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o
b
u
y
N
O
W
!
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W
!
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1474
South
Africa
Afrikaaner Weestand
Beweeging & Boer Attack
Troops
AWB [Afrikaaner Weestand
Beweeging]
Spain Basque Fatherland and
Liberty
ETA [Euzkadi Ta Askatasuna]
Spain Iraultza
Spain October First Anti-Fascist
Resistance Group
GRAPO [Grupo de Resistencia
Antifascista Primero de
Octubre]
Spain Those of the North [Iparretarrak]
Sri Lanka Janatha Vimukthi
Peramuna
JVP
Sri Lanka Liberation Tigers of Tamil
Eelam
LTTE
Sudan Fatah wing
Sudan Forces of Unity
Sudan Legitimate Command
Sudan National Democratic
Alliance
NDA
Sudan Southern Sudan
Independence Movement
SSIM
Sudan Sudan Alliance Forces SAF
Sudan Sudan People's Liberation
Army
SPLA
Sudan Umma Liberation Army
Syria Syrian Muslim Brotherhood
Tajikistan Islamic Renaissance Party IRP
C
lic
k
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o
b
u
y
N
O
W
!
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1475
Tajikistan People's Democratic Army
Tajikistan Popular Front
Tajikistan Tajik opposition
Thailand Pattani United Liberation
Organization
PULO
Tunisia Hizb el Nahda
Tunisia Islamic Liberation Party
Tunisia Islamic Tendency Party
Tunisia Islamic Tunisian Front FIT [Front Islamique
Tunisien]
Turkey Armenian Liberation Army ALA
Turkey Armenian Secret Army for
the Liberation of Armenia
ASALA
Turkey Grey Wolves (Idealists)
Turkey Justice Commandos of the
Armenian Genocide
JCAG
Turkey Kurdistan Workers Party PKK [Partiya Karkaren
Kurdistan]
Turkey National Liberation Front of
Kurdistan
ERNK [Eniya Rizgariya Netewa
Kurdistan]
Turkey People's Liberation Army of
Kurdistan
ARGK
Turkey Revolutionary Communists'
Union of Turkey
TYKB
Turkey Revolutionary People's
Liberation Party/Front, or
DHKP/C,
Dev Sol
[Devrimci Halk Kurtulus
Partisi / Cephesi]
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O
W
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1476
Revolutionary Left (formerly
Devrimci Sol)
Uganda Allied Democratic Forces ADF
Uganda Lord's Resistance Army LRA
Uganda Uganda National Rescue
Front II
UNRF II
Uganda West Nile Bank Front WNBF
United
Kingdom
Continuity Army Council CAC
United
Kingdom
Continuity Irish Republic
Army
CIRA
United
Kingdom
Irish National Liberation
Army
INLA
United
Kingdom
Irish Republican Army IRA
United
Kingdom
Loyalist Volunteer Force LVF
United
Kingdom
Red Hand Commandos
United
Kingdom
Ulster Defense Association UDA
United
Kingdom
Ulster Freedom Fighters UFF
United
Kingdom
Ulster Volunteer Force UVF
United
States
Armed Commandos for
National Liberation
United
States
Armed Forces of National
Liberation
FALN [Fuerzas Armadas de
Liberacion Nacional]
United Armed Forces of Popular
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1477
States Resistance
United
States
Army of God
United
States
Aryan Nations AN
United
States
Guerrilla Forces of
Liberation
United
States
Los Macheteros [Los Macheteros]
United
States
Militia Groups
United
States
Mountaineer Militia
United
States
Organization of Volunteers
for the Puerto Rican
Revolution
United
States
People's Revolutionary
Commandos
Uruguay National Liberation
Movement (Tupamaros)
MLN [Movimento de
Liberacion Nacional
(Tupamaros)]
Venezuela Red Flag BR [Bandera Roja]
Venezuela United Revolutionary Front
Vietnam United Front for the
Liberation of Oppressed
Races
FULRO
Western
Sahara
Popular Front for the
Liberation of Sakiet el
Hamra and Rio de Oro
Polisario [Frente Popular Para la
Liberacion de Sakiet el
Hamra y Rio de Oro]
Yemen Yemeni Tribesmen
C
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N
O
W
!
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1478
Yugoslavia Beli Orlovi
Yugoslavia Kosovo Liberation Army UK/KLA [Ushtria lirimtare
Kosovs]
Yugoslavia Kosovo Republic Armed
Forces
FARK
Yugoslavia Liberation Army of Kosova LAK
Yugoslavia National Movement for the
Liberation of Kosovo
Yugoslavia Srpska Dobrovoljacka
Garda (SDG) Srpska Garda
Yugoslavia Srpski Cetnicki Pokret
Zambia Black Mamba
Zimbabwe Chimwenje
Chapter 10
Terrorism is a controversial term with multiple
definitions. One definition means a violent action
targetting civilians exclusively. Another definition is the
use or threatened use of violence for the purpose of
creating fear in order to achieve a political, religious, or
ideological goal. Under the second definition, the
targets of terrorist acts can be anyone, including
civilians, government officials, military personnel, or
people serving the interests of governments.
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1479
Through intimidation or by instilling fear, terrorism can
be used as a form of blackmail to apply pressure on
governments for goals the terrorists could not achieve
by direct violence alone. Civilians are usually held to be
"innocent" victims of terrorist violence if they are
unarmed and not in uniform when it occurs. Intentional
violence against civilians (noncombatants) is the type
of action most widely condemned as "terrorism".
Guerrilla warfare is often confused with terrorism as a
small force attempts to achieve large goals using
organized acts of violence against a larger force. But in
contrast to terrorism, these acts are against military
targets, and civilian targets are minimized to increase
public support. For this reason, it is generally
considered to be a military strategy rather than
terrorism.
Overview
Who is a terrorist?
Acts of terrorism can be perpetrated by individuals,
groups, or states, as an alternative to an open
declaration of war. They are often carried out by groups
who otherwise feel powerless. Groups that sponsor or
engage in the use of terrorist tactics tend to use more
neutral or positive terms to describe their own actions,
C
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1480
such as freedom fighters, patriots, or paramilitaries; the
targets of their activity are more likely to use negative
terms like terrorism. According to one view, the
difference in terminology is completely subjective: One
person's terrorist is another person's freedom fighter.
The opposing view is that the two terms are distinct,
and that an individual can be a terrorist, a freedom
fighter, or both simultaneously.
Controversial definitions
On the surface, the popular definition of 'terrorism'
represents a shift from previous means of defining an
enemy, that is, from territorial or cultural disputes over
ideology or religion, to the open acts of violence against
the public. Many people dispute this definition however
as ideological and simplistic, arguing instead that
'terrorism' is simply another in a long lists of enemy
terms that underneath any current conflict lies the
same materialistic and ethnocentric reasons of which
most past wars were based. The use of the terms
terrorism and terrorist are politically weighted, and are
often used for a polarizing effect, where 'terrorism'
becomes simply a relativist term for the violence
committed by an enemy, from the point of view of the
attacked. Because of the political nature of some
struggles, 'terrorism' can become identified as simply
any violence committed against established
institutions.
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1481
State combatants
The violence, i.e., terrorism, committed by state
combatants is also considered more acceptable than
that of the 'terrorist,' who by definition refuses to follow
the self-serving laws of war, and hence cannot share in
the acceptance given to establishment violence. Thus
the term is impossible to apply by its rational definition
states who engage in warfare often do so outside of
the laws of war and often carry out violence against
civilian populations, yet rarely receive the label of
'terrorist.' The common public distinction between state
violence and terrorism is based on a perception that
terrorism targets noncombatants as a consistent policy,
and therefore more irrational than state violence, which
is assumed to be more considerate of human life, or at
least does not consistently pursue unarmed civilian
targets with the same zeal.
History does not always bear this out, however, and
language reflects this: few would question that
deliberate attacks on civilian refugee columns and
camps is an attempt to induce terror in the enemy
population and is therefore a terrorist act. As such the
most accurate definition of "terrorism" must be based
in its abstract nature as a term for characterizing the
violence of an enemy as conforming to an immoral code
of conduct.
No concern for civilian life or safety
A common characteristic of terrorism is that its
perpetrators may take shelter behind the local
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1482
population (either sympathetic to their cause,
indifferent, or under duress) in an attempt to impede
opposing state forces from retaliating. The prospect of
high civilian casualties often blocks large-scale (or as
state forces would claim, efficient) responses in such
situations. If civilian casualties damage the state's
public image and earn publicity to the terrorist cause,
this can be thought as an objective indication of which
side is exploiting civilian deaths and which side is
impaired by them.
In this case, a finer definition will distinguish between
attacks on civilian population as a primary target, in
contrast to civilian casualties resulting from an attack
on terrorists who intentionally retreat and live among a
largely noncombatant community (as opposed to
terrorists who choose to operate from jungles, deserts
and other uninhabited areas). See also collateral
damage.
Whether the primary "intention" of an attack was to
harm civilians or not may seem difficult to ascertain,
but in reality, many actions can define a criminal act as
non-terrorism: If the attackers make at least some
attempt to reduce civilian casualties, such as by using
precision-guided munitions rather than weapons
designed to cause maximum area damage; if civilians in
the target zone are forcefully removed prior to the
attack, or warned and allowed reasonable time to
evacuate; if the attackers target the "system" rather
than its civilian inhabitants. These actions show some
concern of the attackers to civilian casualties, while
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attacks that lack them are more easily defined as
terrorism.
For example, the Zionist organization Irgun (considered
by the British to be terrorist) preceded many (but not
all) of its attacks with warnings to the British
occupation authorities in the British Mandate of
Palestine, as in the 1946 King David Hotel bombing. The
Basque ETA group is also known for pre-emptive
warnings. By contrast, groups who use suicide bombing
attacks against civilians (such as Hamas, al-Qaida and
the al-Aqsa Martyrs' Brigades) rely on the element of
surprise in order to maximize casualties, and therefore
never issue warnings.
Terrorist groups sometimes arrange for secondary
devices to go off at a slightly later time in order to kill
emergency response personnel attempting to attend to
the dead and wounded. Repeated or suspected use of
secondary devices can also delay emergency response
out of concern that such devices may exist. Examples
include a (failed) cyanide gas device that was meant to
explode shortly after the February 26, 1993 World Trade
Center bombing, and a second car bomb that detonated
20 minutes after the December 1, 2001 Ben Yehuda
bombing by Hamas in Jerusalem.
"Lone wolf" attacks on civilians
Law enforcement agencies such as the FBI have
identified a pattern of "lone wolf" terrorism resulting in
unannounced attacks on civilians. These individuals
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appear to operate independently, but only become
terrorists due to early indoctrination, training, and
support by organized groups. They function under the
tacit approval of the group, and protect it by operating
alone. This stands in contrast to more "conventional"
terrorist operations carried out by groups following a
more or less consistent chain of command: not only
indoctrinating, but also logistically supporting and
ordering their operatives to perform attacks.
The radical Christian extremist Eric Robert Rudolph,
who launched a series of attacks against civilians in
the American South, is often cited as a "lone wolf," as
is the Oklahoma City bomber Timothy McVeigh. Both
had ties to reactionary groups, then distanced
themselves from those groups before executing their
attacks.
In February 1994, not long after the Oslo peace accords
between Israel and the PLO were signed, an Israeli
extremist named Baruch Goldstein opened fire without
warning inside the Cave of Patriarchs in Hebron, killing
29 people. Goldstein had previously been associated
with a terrorist group inspired by the racist doctrines of
Meir Kahane.
See independent terrorist actor for further information
about "lone wolf" terrorists.
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Chapter 11
Derivation of the word "terrorist"
A terrorist' is, strictly speaking, one who is personally
involved in an act of terrorism. The term "terrorism"
comes from the French 18th century word terrorisme
(under their government's Reign of Terror), based on the
Latin language verbs terrere (to tremble) and deterrere
(to frighten from). The use of the term "terrorist" has
had broader applications however, ranging in
application from disgruntled citizens to common
political dissidents. The term "eco-terrorist" for
example was coined to apply to those who damage or
destroy property as a symbolic act of resisting
economic trends and policy that impact the
environment negatively.
Definition
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Main article: Definitions of terrorism
Many definitions of terrorism exist, from various
locations within the political spectrum. Most definitions
of terrorism recognize and explain four primary criteria,
these being the target, the objective, the motive, and
the legitimacy of the action.
In November, 2004, a UN panel described terrorism as:
"Any action intended to cause death or serious bodily
harm to civilians, non-combatants when the purpose of
such act, by its nature or context, is to intimidate a
population or compel a government or an international
organization to do or to abstain from doing any act."
Chapter 12
History and causes
In the 1st century, Zealots conducted a fierce and
unrelenting terror campaign against the Roman
occupiers of the eastern Mediterranean. The Zealots
enlisted sicarii to strike down rich Jewish collaborators
and others who were friendly to the Romans.
In the 11th century, the radical Islamic sect known as
the Assassins employed systematic murder for a cause
they believed to be righteous. For two centuries, they
resisted efforts to suppress their religious beliefs and
developed ritualized murder into a fine art taught
through generations. Political aims were achieved
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through the power of intimidation. Similarly, the
Christian warriors of the Crusades pursued political
aims by means of genocidal assaults on Muslim civilian
populations.
During the French Revolution (1789 - 1799), the most
severe period of the rule of the Committee of Public
Safety (1793 - 1795) was labelled "The Terror" (1793 -
1794) and described Jacobin extensive use of death
penalty by guillotine. Some argue that this period is an
example of state terrorism. Certainly, it induced fear
and outrage not only in the domestic population of
France, but also throughout the European aristocracy.
This period is the first known use of the term
"terrorism".
By the mid-19th century, Russian intelligentsia grew
impatient with the slow pace of Tsarist reforms, and
sought instead to transform peasant discontent into
open revolution. Anarchists like Mikhail Bakunin
maintained that progress was impossible without
destruction. Their objective was nothing less than
complete destruction of the state. Anything that
contributed to this goal was regarded as moral. With
the development of sufficiently powerful, stable, and
affordable explosives, the gap closed between the
firepower of the state and the means available to
dissidents. Organized into secret societies like the
People's Will, Russian terrorists launched a campaign of
terror against the state that climaxed in 1881 when
Tsar Alexander II of Russia was assassinated. Also, a
revolutionary Irish-American group called the Fenian
Brotherhood planted explosive devices around the city
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of London in particular and the British mainland in
general in the mid 1800's, in protest to the British
occupation of Ireland. This is often seen as the first act
of 'republican Terrorism'
Today, modern weapons technology has made it
possible for a "super-empowered angry man" (Thomas
Friedman) to cause a large amount of destruction by
himself or with only a few conspirators. It can be, and
has been, conducted by small as well as large
organizations.
Some believe that individuals or groups resort to
terrorism when other avenues for change, including
economics, protest, public appeal, and organized
warfare, hold no hope of success (also see rioting).
Therefore some argue that one approach to reduce
terrorism is to ensure that where there is a population
feeling oppressed, some avenue of problem resolution
is kept open, even if the population in question is in the
minority.
Others, for example the American intellectual Noam
Chomsky, believe that terrorism is typically sponsored
by governments through the organisation, funding or
training of death squads and similar paramilitary
groups, often under the banner of counter-terrorism. In
his view the causes of terrorism include attempts to
gain or consolidate power either by instilling fear in the
population to be controlled, or by stimulating another
group into becoming a hardened foe, thereby setting up
a polarizing us-versus-them paradigm (also see
nationalism and fascism). (Nicaragua v. United States is
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often cited by Chomsky as an example). Iranian support
of the Hizbullah in Lebanon is also relevant in this
context.
In the absence of state funding, terrorists often rely on
organized crime to fund their activities. This can
include kidnapping, drug trafficking, or robbery. But
terrorists have also found many more legitimate
sources of revenue. Osama bin Laden, for example,
invested millions in terrorism that his family made in
the construction industry building luxury castles for
those making their money from selling the country's oil.
The diamond industry emerged early in the twenty-first
century as an important new source of funding for
terrorism, and Islamist terrorist groups in particular
have been very effective at procuring funding through a
system of charitable contributions.
It should be noted that social psychologists,
evolutionary psychologists, and sociologists who have
studied ethnoreligious conflicts via controlled
experimentation have a very different view of the
etiology of terrorist violence. For them, terrorism is
almost invariably the result of an interaction between
genetic and environmental variables. Terrorists are
most easily created when a person with a genetic
predisposition to violence and to unquestioning
acceptance of authority comes into contact with an
ideology that dehumanizes another group of people.
Given sufficiently strong ideological indoctrination
(known in common parlance as brainwashing ), a large
segment of virtually any group of people will engage in
acts of violence against civilians. Examples of this
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behavior include the Holocaust and the widespread
mass-murders that have occurred in recent years in
Sudan.
Terrorists often seek to demoralize and paralyze their
enemy with fear. This sometimes works, but it can also
stiffen the enemy's resolve.
In general, retribution against terrorists can result in
escalating tit-for-tat violence. It is often felt that if the
consequences of engaging in terrorism are not swift
and punitive, the deterrent to other terrorist groups is
diminished.
Terrorism relies heavily on surprise. Terrorist attacks
can trigger sudden transitions into conflict or war.
Frequently, after a terrorist attack, a number of
unassociated groups may claim responsibility for the
action; this may be considered "free publicity" for the
organization's aims or plans. Because of its anonymous
and sometimes self-sacrificial nature, it is not
uncommon for the reasons behind the terrorist action to
remain unknown or murky for a considerable period.
The existing order within countries or internationally
depends on compromises and agreements between
various groups and interests that were made to resolve
past conflicts. Over time, these arrangements become
less relevant to the current situation. Some terrorist
acts seem calculated to disrupt the existing order and
provoke conflicts in the expectation that it will lead to
a new order more favorable to their interests. Some
people considered to be terrorists, or supporters of
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1491
terrorist actions, at some point in their lives have gone
on to become dedicated peace activists (Uri Avnery),
respected statesmen (Yitzhak Shamir) and even Nobel
Peace Prize laureates (Nelson Mandela, Yasser Arafat).
This illustrates the plasticity of the term.
Chapter 13
Examples of terrorism
"International Terrorist Incidents, 2000" by the US
Department of State
The following incidents have been described as
domestic and international terrorism: the Oklahoma
City bombing in the USA (April 19, 1995); the Omagh
bombing in Northern Ireland (August 15, 1998); the
September 11, 2001 attacks in New York, and
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Washington DC, USA; the Munich Massacre of Israeli
Olympic athletes in 1972; the Bali bombing in October
2002, the destruction of Pan Am Flight 103 over
Lockerbie, Scotland on December 21, 1988, attack on
Indian Parliament (December 13, 2001) and the
Centennial Olympic Park bombing in 1996. See List of
terrorist incidents for more examples.
The deadliest attack ever committed, not known to
have been sponsored by a state and described as
terrorism was the September 11, 2001 attacks on the
World Trade Center in New York and the Pentagon, in
Arlington County, Virginia. So far as is known, the
deadliest attack planned but not executed was
Operation Bojinka, which aimed to murder Pope John
Paul II and blow up 11 airliners. The plot was aborted
after an apartment fire in Manila, Philippines on January
5, 1995 exposed the operation to police. The militants
who were planning it were just over two weeks away
from implementing their plot.
Since 1968, the U.S. State Department has tallied
deaths due to terrorism. In 1985, it counted 816 deaths,
the highest annual toll until then. The deaths decreased
over the years, then rose to 3,295 in 2001, most as a
result of the September 11, 2001 attacks. In 2003, more
than 1,000 people died as a result of terrorist acts.
Many of these deaths resulted from suicide bombings in
Chechnya, Iraq, India and Israel. It does not tally
victims of state terrorism.
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Chapter 14
Emergency preparedness
Acts of terrorism typically cause a significant number of
civilian casualties. To protect against such attacks,
there is a need for increased vigilance on the part of
governments. Examples include more thorough
inspection of baggage in airports.
Preparing for terrorism includes the construction of
hospitals with a large surge capacity, as well as of
alternative care facilities to handle a huge influx of
patients and displaced persons. In order to reduce the
spread of infection, decontamination during a release of
chemical or biological agents is an important element
of emergency planning.
Another important issue to maintain a quick first
response force, which can be called instantly whenever
there is an alert and react quickly to thwart terrorist
attack (before a strike) and to threat wounded (after a
strike). Such quick response force needs to include
paramedics, rescue forces, firefighters and counter-
terror fighters.
In Israel, Magen David Adom and ZAKA are usually the
first to arrive to a scene of a bombing and attend the
wounded. Counter-terror units such as YAMAM and
LOTAR Eilat are on constant alert and have rapid deploy
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capablity. The Israeli Police and The Frontier Guard can
seal an area with roadblocks and checkpoint in
response to alert on terrorist group on the way to
attack.
In the USA, local polices established similar teams,
with EOD experts, paramedic and counter-terror
fighters, based on the SWAT teams.
Chapter 15
Global Trends
Data from the US Department of State shows that, since
the late 1980s, there has been a decline in the number
of international terrorist attacks. Data from the
Terrorism Knowledge base show a similar decline since
the early 1980s.
The major decline in international terrorist attacks was
in Western Europe. On the other hand, Asia experienced
an increase in international terrorist attacks. Other
regions experienced less consistent patterns over time.
From 1991 to 2003, there was a consistent increase in
the number of casualties from international terrorist
attacks in Asia, but few other consistent trends in
casualties from international terrorist attacks. Three
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different regions had, in three different years, a few
attacks with a large number of casualties.
On the other hand, data from the MIPT Terrorism
Knowledge Base show that since the mid to late 1990's
there has been a large increase in the number of total
terrorist incidences, injuries and fatalities. Most of this
increase is due to an increase in domestic terrorism
Chapter 16
Asymmetric warfare
Asymmetric warfare is a military term to describe
warfare in which the two belligerents are mismatched
in their military capabilities or accustomed methods of
engagement such that the militarily diasadvantaged
power must press its special advantages or effectively
exploit its enemy's particular weaknesses if they are to
have any hope of prevailing.
Concepts
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Tactical basis
The tactical success of asymmetric warfare is
dependent on at least one of two assumptions:
If the inferior power is in a position of self-defense;
i.e., under attack or occupation, it may be possible
to use unconventional tactics, such as hit-and-run
and selective battles where the superior power is
weaker, as an effective means of harassment
without violating the Laws of war. Variations of
this tactic succeeded for the North Vietnamese
and its allied forces in the Vietnam war, in that the
local forces did not win the war by a
straightforward defeat of the US forces, but rather
tired out the superior power. Similar tactics
worked for the American colonists in the American
revolutionary war and the Soviet partisans against
German occupation on the Eastern Front during
World War II. It should be noted, however, that in
these cases, traditional battles were also fought in
addition to guerilla tactics.
If the inferior power is in an aggressive position,
however, and/or turns to tactics prohibited by the
laws of war (jus in bello), its success depends on
the superior power's refraining from like tactics.
For example, the Law of land warfare prohibits the
use of a flag of truce or clearly marked medical
vehicles as cover for an attack or ambush, but an
asymmetric combatant using this prohibited tactic
depends on the superior power's honoring the
corresponding rules prohibiting attacking those
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displaying a flag of truce or a medical vehicle.
Similarly, laws of warfare prohibit combatants from
using civilian settlements, populations or facilities
as military bases, but when an inferior power uses
this tactic, it depends on the superior power
respecting the law that they are violating, and not
attacking that civilian target.
The use of terrain in asymmetric warfare
Terrain can be used as a force multiplier by the weaker
force and as a force inhibitor against the stronger force.
Guerrilla warfare can be classified into two main
categories: urban guerrilla warfare and rural guerrilla
warfare. In both cases, guerrillas rely on a friendly
population to provide supplies and intelligence.
"The guerrillas must move amongst the people as a
fish swims in the sea."
- Mao Tse-Tung.
Rural guerrillas prefer to operate in regions providing
plenty of cover and concealment, especially heavily
forested and mountainous areas. Urban guerrillas,
rather than melting into the mountains and jungles,
blend into the population and are dependent on a
support base among the people.
"The contour of the land is an aid to the army;
sizing up opponents to determine victory,
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assessing dangers and distances..." ... "...those
who do battle without knowing these will lose."
-Sun Tzu, The Art of War
For a detailed description of the advantages for the
weaker force in the use of built up areas when engaging
asymmetric warfare see the article on urban warfare.
War by proxy
Where asymmetric warfare is carried out (generally
covertly) by allegedly non-governmental actors who are
connected to or sympathetic to a particular nation's
(the "state actor's") interest, it may be deemed war by
proxy. This is typically done to give deniability to the
state actor. The deniability can be important to keep
the state actor from being tainted by the actions, to
allow the state actor to negotiate in apparent good faith
by claiming they are not responsible for the actions of
parties who are merely sympathizers, or to avoid being
accused of belligerent actions or war crimes.
Asymmetric warfare and terrorism
Asymmetric warfare is not synonymous with terrorism.
Rather, terrorism is sometimes used as a tactic by the
weaker side in an asymmetric conflict. Terrorism is
sometimes called asymmetric warfare by advocates for
partisans using terrorist methods to avoid the
pejorative connotations of the word; likewise,
occupying powers often label partisans "terrorists" as
part of propaganda campaigns to maintain support in
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1499
the occupying power's home country, and to win over
the occupied people so as to cut off the partisans'
principal support base. This is the root of the phrase
"One man's terrorist is another man's freedom fighter"
Not the end of conventional war
This is section is a mess and needs a clean up with
a split between theory and examples.
Throughout the 20th century, for small scale conflicts,
armies relied increasingly on tactics of the guerilla, spy,
saboteur, provocateur, double agent, even terrorist and
assassin. This underscored that the advantages of
having no tactical unit organization were greater than
the control such units provide:
"Therefore when you induce others to construct a
formation while you yourself are formless, then you
are concentrated while the opponent is divided...
Therefore the consummation of forming an army is
to arrive at formlessness. When you have no form,
undercover espionage cannot find out anything,
intelligence cannot form a strategy."
- Sun Tzu The Art of War
(Alternately: "The pinnacle of military deployment
approaches the formless. When it is formless, the
deepest spy cannot discern it, nor the wise make plans
against it.")
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Nonetheless, large scale conflicts remain the province
of tightly organized armies, as evidenced most recently,
in the 1991 Gulf War and the 2003 invasion of Iraq.
However, the 2003 invasion of Iraq campaign has now
moved into an asymmetric warfare phase as US alliance
and coalition forces battle an insurgency by Iraqi and
foreign militants. See 2003 Occupation of Iraq
Morality of Asymmetric Warfare
In the classic rules of war, in particular in many of the
Christian theological systems, asymmetric warfare is
completely moral in and of itself, all other rules of war
being obeyed. This entails:
Civilians cannot be attacked (thus terrorism is
outlawed)
The war is a properly declared war, with an
accountable authority on both sides who can also
put an end to the war
Examples of asymmetric warfare
Pre-20th century asymmetric warfare
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Mythos
The biblical story of David and Goliath -- in which David
slew Goliath with "five smooth stones" hurled from a
sling -- is often cited as the inspiration for the triumph
of the weak and the oppressed over the strong and the
mighty. David's victory also symbolized the triumph of
the new and advanced versus the old and outdated; his
superior planning, skill, and knowledge, defeated
Goliath's dependence on overt force, intimidation, and
heavy weapons.
Hannibal
Hannibal attacked Roman forces on the Italian
peninsula with a small military force, bolstered by loose
alliances. He successfully used raids and threats to
survive a Roman force that at times consisted of as
many as 23 Legions, with another 15 Legions and two
Consuls retained in Italy to thwart Hannibal. This
expensive response almost bankrupted the Roman
Republic.[1] (http://www.militaryconflict.org/17%20Reso
urces)
20th century asymmetric warfare
Cold War
The end of World War II established the two most
powerful victors, the United States of America and the
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Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (Soviet Union) as
the two dominant world superpowers.
Cold War examples of proxy wars
An example of war by proxy was East Germany's covert
support for the Red Army Faction (RAF) which was
active from 1968 and carried out a succession of
terrorist attacks in West Germany during the 1970s and
to a lesser extent in the 1980s. After German
reunification in 1990, it was discovered that the RAF
had received financial and logistic support from the
Stasi, the security and intelligence organization of East
Germany. It had also given several RAF terrorists
shelter and new identities. It had not been in the
interests of either the RAF or the East Germans to be
seen as co-operating. The apologists for the RAF argued
that they were striving for a true socialist (communist)
society not the sort that existed in Eastern Europe. The
East German government were involved in Ostpolitik,
and it was not in its interest to be caught overtly aiding
a terrorist organisation operating in West Germany. For
more details see the History of Germany since 1945.
The war between the mujahadeen and the Red Army
during Soviet invasion of Afghanistan was a classic
asymmetric war. The aid given by US to the
mujahadeen during the war was only covert at the
tactical level, the Reagan Administration was only too
pleased to be able to tell the world that it was helping
the freedom-loving people of Afghanistan. Of all the
proxy wars fought by the USA against the USSR during
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the Cold War this was the most cost effective and
politically successful, as it was the USSR's most
humiliating military defeat, and that defeat was a
contributing factor to the implosion of Soviet
communism.
Post Cold War
In the rivalry that arose during the Cold War, small
powers, especially those described as composing the
Third World were able to seek protection from one
power or the other, or play the powers against each
other, to try to achieve parochial goals.
After the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991, powers
that had been client states of the Soviet Union, states
that were able to gain aid and support from the United
States as "bulwarks" against Soviet power, and states
that had successfully played the superpowers against
each other found themselves with fewer options to defy
US influence or extract material advantages from either
of the former rivals.
Additionally, substantial powers that had been
secondary to the two former superpowers, especially
the nations of the European Union and the People's
Republic of China have seen an opportunity to become
the counterbalancing superpower to the United States.
These and other motivations have led to a great deal of
interest in ways to oppose these superpowers, nearly
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always using alternative tactics from those to which
these powers have become accustomed.
21st century
21st century military buildup
Asymmetric warfare has also had a direct influence on
the modern countries' strategic buildup. Before the
collapse of the Soviet Union, the leading military
buildup strategy was mainly armored army vs. army
combats (composed primarily of armored tanks and
artillery) where the leading methodology was the
western's quality vs. the eastern's quantity.
The collapse of the Soviet Union caused a paradigm
shift in which the eastern countries couldn't rely on a
strong supremacy to back them up. Today the strategic
buildup in the West is mainly composed of strong hi-
tech military components (focused more on air
superiority and advanced long-ranged weapons and less
on tanks and APCs) while the East relies more on
guerilla tactics (small ground commando-like units) and
extending current existing military platforms instead of
buying new ones.
Al-Qaida
In the last two decades of the 20th century along with
the globalisation of the world economy and to a lesser
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extent a world popular culture, came a new
phenomenon, a new organisation which was not
organised tribally, regionally or nationally but
internationally under the banner of an international
muslim jihad. It was in these decades that emerged the
multi-national presence of Al-Qaida, accused of carrying
out the September 11, 2001 attacks in the United
States and many other terrorist attacks worldwide. The
organization had been (and may still be) headquartered
in Afghanistan, but has members and operatives in
many countries. The argument is proposed that this
prevents an aggrieved nation from launching a military
attack within a nation harboring Al-Qaida members
since such a nation can argue that Al-Qaida might be
within its borders but is an independent organization
which the government does not support, whether or not
the government sympathizes with their cause. The
counter-argument is that Al-Qaida members and other
international terror groups do not exist in "disembodied
space" or in international territory (i.e., the open seas,
as pirates were claimed to do) but within the borders of
a sovereign state, which is responsible to capture or
expel members of such groups, or to allow aggrieved
nations to attack them.
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Chapter 17
Assassination
Assassin redirects here. For other meanings of the
word, see Assassin (disambiguation)
Jack Ruby murdered the alleged assassin, Lee Harvey
Oswald, in a very public manner.
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In its most common use, assassination has come to
mean the murder of an important person, although the
term really refers to murder via stealth. An assassin
one who carries out the assassination is usually
motivated by ideological or political reasons. Other
motivations may be money in the case of a hitman;
opposition to a person's beliefs or belief systems in the
case of a fanatic; orders from a government that are
often carried about by a subversive agent such as a
spy; or loyalty to a competing leader or group.
Assassination, like companion terms such as terrorism
and freedom fighter, is often considered to be a loaded
term. The definition of assassination is generally much
clearer than the others. Most assassins appear
comfortable enough with their deed to describe it as
such publicly, whereas few call themselves terrorists.
Etymology
The term originally referred to a heretical Islamic order
known as the Hashshashin. The word means "those
who use hashish (cannabis resin)" in Arabic because,
according to Crusader histories, that group used to
ingest hashish before carrying out military or
assassination operations, in order to be fearless. The
group, known as the Nizari Ismailis, was a Shia order
who believed in the notion of the hidden imam and was
organized as a secret underground political order,
which infiltrated areas under the control of Seljuk
Turks. In 1090 the sect captured a castle called Alamut
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1508
in the mountains of Northern Iran. This sect was said to
carry out assassinations of the enemies of the order, or
Muslim rulers they believed to be impious. The earliest
known record of the word in English (dating from the
early 17th century) refers to this sect rather than its
more general modern sense. Similar words had earlier
appeared in French and Italian.
Benjamin of Tudela provided the first western account
of the sect. Marco Polo's ellaborate account is probably
fictionalized in part. He said that recruits were
promised Paradise in return for dying in action. They
were drugged, often with materials such as hashish
(although some suggest opium and wine instead, all
being, nonetheless, condemned by Islamic religious
authorities and interpretations of the time) then spirited
away to a garden stocked with attractive and compliant
women and fountains of wine. At this time, they were
awakened and it was explained to them that such was
their reward for the deed, convincing them that their
leader, Hassan-i-Sabah, could open the gates to
Paradise. The name assassin is derived from either
hasishin for the supposed influence of their attacks and
disregard for their own lives in the process, or
hassansin for their leader. All this history, however, is
tenous, as it relies entirely on crusader-authored
histories which have been traditionally very unreliable
for information about native cultures.
Nowadays is known that "hashishinnya" was an
offensive term used to depict this cult by his Muslim
and Mongolian detractor; the extreme zeal of Nizarites
and the very cold preparation to murder makes very
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1509
unlikely they ever used drugs, while there is evidence
that one of the first Hassan's son was sentenced to
death by his father only for drinking some drop of wine.
Moreover, despite many unlikely legends, they usually
died along with their target (a tale tells of a mother
being sad knowing his son survived a "mission"), as far
as it is known they only used dagger (no other weapons,
poison or whatever fictional records make them use)
and it seems like they killed only five occidental people
during the Crusade time.
An attempt was made to assassinate Pope John Paul II
in 1981. He was shot and injured, and thereafter
appeared in public in a custom-built "Popemobile"
featuring bulletproof glass.
Definition problems
Unlike some topics, notably terrorism, wherein there is
a substantial grey area and often bitter controversy
between which specific instances qualify or even what
standards should be used, the "common sense"
classification of assassination stated at the outset of
this article seems to stand with few objections.
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However, this does open larger issues concerning
interpretation, notably regarding attempted killings by
those with other motives is it an assassination simply
if the person is a major leader or public figure
espousing a cause, or only if the assassin's reason for
the attack is due to that person's status as a figurehead
for a particular issue?
Notable instances in which this definitive problem
might come into effect include the assassination
attempt against United States President Ronald Reagan
by John Hinckley, who was determined subsequently to
have serious psychological problems and publicly
stated his intent was to get the attention of actress
Jodie Foster rather than make any political statement.
The killing of former Beatle John Lennon would raise
the same problem despite his outspokenness on
many liberal political issues, the killer does not seem to
have been more than an unstable fan (although it may
be of note that the word is derived from fanatic). The
use of the term "assassination" to describe Lennon's
murder is a matter of some additional debate, since
Lennon was primarily an entertainment, not a political
figure, and it could be argued that describing his killing
as an assassination is no more appropriate than, for
example, using the term to describe the murders of
singers Selena Quintanilla or Marvin Gaye. In another
example, although conspiracy theorists suggest the
apparent suicide of Marilyn Monroe might have been a
politically motivated murder, the term "assassination"
is rarely, if ever, used in this context. The attempt on
the life of President Gerald Ford by a member of Charles
Manson's cult could be the same; while it might perhaps
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1511
be considered part and parcel of the anti-government,
neo-fascist ideology to which Manson and his group
adhered, Lynette "Squeaky" Fromme, the assassin, was
not widely considered legally competent in her
judgment at the time (although she was later tried and
convicted). Were these killings, assuming success, to
be classified as murders or assassinations? The issue is
further complicated by the fact that while Lennon was
likely as outspoken politically as Reagan and Ford, and
certainly as famous, Reagan and Ford were elected
officials at the time, possibly requiring different criteria
for Lennon's case.
One can take one of three positions (note that this
consideration is of necessity strictly based upon
language, not law): that the killing of someone only for
political, moral, or ideological reasons constitutes an
assassination (hence neither Reagan nor Lennon were
the victims of assassins' attacks, while Ford was), that
the killing of someone serving in politics or public office
counts (thus Reagan's and Ford's attackers were would-
be assassins, while Lennon's killer was not), or that
anyone with a significant level of political involvement
would be an assassination victim in the event of their
murder (in which case all three instances would be
assassinations or attempts).
While it must be acknowledged that attempting to read
a person's thoughts is both imperfect and somewhat
antithetical to the nature of such an issue, for the
purposes of this article, the first, most conservative
definition is taken. Although it is likely that the second
is the most popular, the first is technically the most
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1512
correct, and the third is generally considered to be too
general in application. Therefore, all assassinations or
attempts mentioned in the article will strictly follow the
guidelines outlined at the outset to prevent confusion.
Assassination as a political tool
Some would argue that assassination is one of the
oldest tools of power politics, dating back to the
earliest governments of the world Philip II of
Macedon, the father of Alexander the Great, met his end
this way. It is a fact, however, that by the rise of Rome
assassination had become a commonly-accepted tool
towards the end not only of improving one's own
position, but to influence policy the killing of Julius
Caesar being a notable example, though many
Emperors met such an end. In whatever case, there
seems to have not been a good deal of moral
indignation at the practice amongst the political circles
of the time, save, naturally, by the affected.
As the Middle Ages came about from the fall of the
Roman Empire, the moral and ethical dimensions of
what was before a simple political tool began to take
shape. Although in that period intentional regicide was
an extremely rare occurrence, the situation changed
dramatically with the Renaissance when the ideas of
tyrannomachy (i.e. killing of a King when his rule
becomes tyrannical) re-emerged and gained
recognition. Many a head of state of the time fell at the
hands of an assassin, such as Henri III and Henry IV of
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1513
France. There were notable detractors, however; Abd-
ul-Mejid of the Ottoman Empire refused to put to death
plotters against his life during his reign.
As the world moved into the present day and the stakes
in political clashes of will continued to grow to a global
scale, the number of assassinations concurrently
multiplied. In Russia alone, five emperors were
assassinated within less than 200 years - Ivan VI, Peter
III, Paul I, Alexander II and Nicholas II. The most
notable assassination victim within early U.S. history
was President Abraham Lincoln. Three other U.S.
Presidents have been assassinated including James
Garfield, William McKinley, and John F. Kennedy. An
assassination plot against Jefferson Davis, known as
the Dahlgren Affair, may have been initiated during the
American Civil War. In Europe the assassination of
Archduke Franz Ferdinand triggered World War I.
However, the 20th century likely marks the first time
nation-states began training assassins to be
specifically used against so-called enemies of the state.
During World War II, for example, MI6 trained a group of
Czechoslovakian operatives to kill the Nazi general
Reinhard Heydrich (who did later perish by their
efforts), and repeated attempts were made by both the
British MI6, the American Office of Strategic Services
(later the Central Intelligence Agency) and the Soviet
SMERSH to kill Adolf Hitler.
The Cold War saw a dramatic increase in the number of
political assassinations, likely in large part due to the
ideological polarization of most of the First and Second
worlds, whose adherents were more than willing to both
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1514
justify and finance such killings. During the Kennedy
era Fidel Castro narrowly escaped death on several
occasions at the hands of the CIA (a function of the
agency's "executive action" program) and CIA-backed
rebels (there are accounts that exploding clams and
poisoned shoes were employed); some allege that
Salvador Allende of Chile was another example, though
specific proof is lacking. At the same time, the KGB
made creative use of assassination to deal with high-
profile defectors such as Georgi Markov, and Israel's
Mossad made use of such tactics to eliminate
Palestinian guerrillas, politicians and revolutionaries,
though some Israelis argue that the targeted often
crossed the line between one or another or were even
all three.
Most major powers were not long in repudiating such
tactics, for example during the presidency of Gerald
Ford in the United States in 1976 (Executive Order
12333). Many allege, however, that this is merely a
smoke screen for political and moral benefit and that
the covert and illegal training of assassins by major
intelligence agencies continue, such as at the School of
the Americas run by the United States. In fact, the
debate over the use of such tactics is not closed by any
means; many accuse Russia of continuing to practice it
in Chechnya and against Chechens abroad, as well as
Israel in Palestine and against Palestinians abroad (as
well as those Mossad deems a threat to Israeli national
security, as in the aftermath of the Munich Massacre)
and Palestinians and other Arab nations against Jews in
Israel and abroad.
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1515
Proponents of assassination as a political tool point out
that it can be a very effective and inexpensive way to
prevent loss of life. Opponents of assassination bring up
a number of objections. The first is that assassination is
essentially the death penalty stripped of the normal
judicial safeguards that limit its use. Second, opponents
of assassination question its effectiveness. Most
conventional military and political organizations are
robust so that the death of the leader would not cause
them to collapse. Furthermore, using assassination
against a terrorist or guerilla organization may result in
the complete elimination of the known leaders of that
organization, but create a set of unknown leaders who
cannot then be located. Finally, assassination makes a
negotiation of surrender impossible. Near the end of
World War II, for example, Allied forces made specific
efforts not to target the political and military leadership
of the Axis Powers specifically so that there would be
someone to authorize a surrender.
Assassination for money
Individually, too, people have often found reasons to
arrange the deaths of others through paid
intermediaries. One who kills with no political motive or
group loyalty who kills only for money is known as a
hitman or contract killer. Note that by the definition
accepted above, while such a killer is not, strictly
speaking, an assassin, if the killing is ordered and
financed towards a political end, then that killing must
rightly be termed an assassination, and the hit man an
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assassin by extension (in the same way that a
Manchurian Candidate-style killer would be an assassin
because, though they have been brainwashed to kill and
have therefore no political aims, those that
brainwashed them do have such aims, and if the killing
can be termed an assassination, the killer must be an
assassin).
Entire organizations have sometimes specialized in
assassination as one of their services, to be gained for
the right price. Besides the original hashshashin, the
ninja clans of Japan were rumored to perform
assassinations though it can be pointed out that
most of what was ever known about the ninja was
rumor and hearsay. In the United States, Murder
Incorporated, an organization partnered to the Mafia,
was formed for the sole purpose of performing
assassinations for organized crime. In Russia, the vary
(thieves), their version of the Mafia, are often known to
provide assassinations for the right price, as well as
engaging in it themselves for their own purposes.
Assassination as military doctrine
While assassination for military purposes has long been
espoused Sun Tzu argued for such in The Art of War,
as did Machiavelli in his The Prince many modern
analysts hold the belief that today such a system would
not be of any significant use in a strategic way. In
medieval times, for instance, an army and even a nation
might be based upon and around a particularly strong,
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canny or charismatic leader, whose loss could paralyze
the ability of both to make war. However, in modern
warfare a soldier's mindset is generally considered to
surround ideals far more than specific leaders.
Theoretically, while the death of a soldier's leader
would (and does) have a detrimental effect on morale,
the comfort of the cause for which they fight is far more
sustainable than such supposedly-transitive loyalty to a
single person.
Also, assassinating a military leader runs the risk of
eliminating a later advocate of peace, as many would
argue that military leaders, seeing the face of warfare
and bearing a clearer sense of the war effort's effects,
have more sagacity on the subject. Not only that, but
worse, there is a high chance such a killing will be
treated as not only reinforcing evidence of the
opponents' moral bankruptcy, but also martyr the
leader, rallying still others to an enemy cause and
hardening the enemies' resolve to fight and resist
entreaties to peace (indeed, the death in battle of
Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden, while not an
assassination, led directly to the Catholic defeat at
Ltzen as the infuriated Swedes rallied behind their
fallen leader). Such an effect can be extremely
detrimental to a group or state, but supporters might
argue in return that when faced with a particularly
brilliant leader, there is no choice but to take the
chance and, essentially, hope for a more mediocre
successor (one might use the example of the many
attempts to kill the Athenian Alcibiades during the
Peloponnesian War, the American shooting down of
Admiral Isoroku Yamamoto during World War II, or
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arguably Henri IV of France). Also, they might note that
in a time-sensitive situation, such a killing could be
useful if only to briefly buy time for a more permanent
and effective plan to be set into motion or stall an army
as reinforcements rush to the area.
There are a number of examples from World War II, the
last total war, which show how assassination can be
used as an effective military tool both at a tactical and
strategic level. The American's perception that
Skorzeny's commandos were trying to assassinate
Eisenhower during the Battle of the Bulge shows that
military assassination, or the threat of it, if well timed
can be a very effective tactical move. In an interview
with the New York Times Skorzeny denied that he had
ever intended to assassinate Eisenhower and could
prove it. (Page 155, Commando Extraordinary, by
Charles Foley). There is also a mention in the same
book (Page 35) of a British commando raid to "capture"
Rommel. If he had been removed from the board, then
that might well have had strategic effects. The British,
too, decided not to try to assassinate Admiral Wilhelm
Canaris, head of the Abwehr (German military
intelligence), because to do so might have improved the
service.
Moral issues
Moral equivalence is also important when examining
the use of assassination. Opponents of what one
American officer called "trial, judgment and execution
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by intelligence" argue that no state deliberately
training, hiring, sanctioning or harboring an assassin
could hope to justify it in such a way that would satisfy
its allies and neighbors, much less the affected nations
(even though many might use the tactic themselves). In
democracies this issue is particularly crucial; much of
the impetus for engaging in military action in such
states is the motivation of perceived righteousness
fighting a brutal enemy, an opinion that is undermined if
one's nation is actively and openly engaged in killings
outside the laws of war. Many would argue that the
negative morale effects alone would outweigh any
possible benefits.
Supporters of assassination as a policy reply, however,
that often the killing of one problematic figure can
spare countless lives and years or even decades of
warfare. An example often cited is the question of what
might have come to pass had Adolf Hitler been
assassinated in 1935. Countless millions, the argument
goes, would have been spared had only such
intervention been taken. However, it could be argued
that Adolf Hitler was just one man in a Nazi Party of
hundreds, and his successor may be just as brutal (not
to mention vengeful). Furthermore, it can be argued that
this logic would not only justify killing Hitler in 1935 but
also killing baby Adolf in his crib.
However, the widespread attention paid to deeds by
dictators such as Saddam Hussein and Idi Amin is seen
by many as another persuasive argument towards the
necessity of eliminating such individuals. The
increasing specter of terrorism, too, often leads many
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to question why, if it is "us or them," there should be
any delay in taking such action (an opponent would
likely be quick to reply, however, that such an action
alone leads to the loss of moral equivalence, proving
their above argument, although a likely counter could
be that moral equivalence is of little use to either a
terrorist or one of their dead victims).
Techniques
It's entirely likely that the first strategy used by a
political or religious killer was a remarkably simple one:
find the leader and stab or bludgeon them to death with
whatever weapons were available. This would likely
have occurred only in close-knit groups where security
was not thought needed, such as amongst nomadic or
early sedentary peoples in Mesopotamia where
disagreements would be solved with vigilantism
(however it's important to note that information from
this far back is very sketchy and debatable in nature).
As civilization took root, however, any leaders in groups
began to have more and more a position of importance,
and they would become more detached from the groups
they ruled. For the first time, subterfuge would become
a major factor in engaging in assassination.
From ancient times, then, through to the medieval
period, as the rate of technology was slow so, too,
would be the changes in assassins' tactics. Infiltration
was now the name of the game, and commonly a would-
be killer would attempt to gain access to an official or
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person's guard or staff and utilize a variety of methods
for exterminating them, be it the same close-contact
stabbing or smothering or a more advanced method,
such as using poison to induce death. This, however,
must be distinguished from efforts by a person or group
to remove a person in order to replace them in the
power structure; for more on this, see coup d'tat.
With the advent of gunpowder and far more effective
ranged weaponry, however, bodyguards were no longer
enough to hold back determined killers, who no longer
needed to directly engage or even subvert the guard to
kill the leader in question; it could be done from a great
distance in a crowded square or even at a church, as
with the Pazzi Conspiracy, for example. Often, muskets
or rifles might be used to take down a leader from a
rooftop, at greater distance, dramatically increasing the
chances for survival of an assassin. Also, explosives
became increasingly en vogue for deeds requiring a
larger touch; for an example of this, see the article on
the Gunpowder Plot to blow up Parliament on the state
opening.
In whatever case, it is interesting to note that just
because more modern methods of killing became
available does not mean older ones were replaced;
indeed, in nations like India killings by knife or sword
remain quite popular, as they do in sub-Saharan Africa
(for example, with the machete). In fact, since the
development of gunpowder each region of the world
seems to have its preferred methods of contract
murder; besides those mentioned, explosives are quite
popular in not only the Middle East but in most of
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Europe as well, save Northern Europe where shootings
become more common, whereas in the Americas
assassinations are almost exclusively performed by
gunshot. One can make various cases for any of these,
including range, detestability; conceal ability, likelihood
of kill, etc.
As the Renaissance gave way to the Industrial
Revolution, assassination became more and more
sophisticated, right up to today. Explosives, especially
the car bomb, became far more common, and grenades
and landmines were not unheard of either, especially in
the Middle East and Balkans (the initial attempt on
Archduke Franz Ferdinand's life was with a grenade; he
was on his way to visit an aide injured in the first attack
when his driver stopped to ask directions and he and
his wife were shot). Also, rocket-propelled grenades
became an especially useful tool, given the popularity
of armored cars discussed below. Today, any manner of
different techniques for the elimination of an enemy
popular or not might be utilized; the sky, as it were, is
the limit. Another common option is using a sniper rifle.
The only difference is that assassins and their deeds
are far more public than ever before, owing not only to
mass media but also far better security and control over
access.
Counter-measures
It would not be a large stretch to say that, in addition to
terrorism, politician assassination is one of the biggest
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threats to any modern state and its government. As
such, the measures to which a leader goes to avoid
professional killers ranges from what an average person
would consider to be farcical to the paranoid to the
downright bizarre. Many would argue, though, that such
measures are a lot more effective than they first
appear, and that in the world of a new threat seemingly
each week, no security is too much.
One of the earliest forms of defense against assassins
is without doubt the bodyguard. Essentially, the
bodyguard functions as a counter-assassin, attempting
to neutralize the killer before they can make contact
with or inflict harm upon the "principal", or
protected/targeted official. This function was often
executed by the leader's most loyal warriors, and was
extremely effective throughout most of early human
history, to the point where a direct assassination had to
be replaced with carefully-planned subterfuge, such as
poison (which was answered by the food taster such as
the Beefeaters protecting the English monarchs), and
even then such methods were often thwarted. Notable
examples of bodyguards would include the Roman
Praetorian Guard or the Ottoman janissaries
although, in both cases, it should be noted that the
protectors often became assassins themselves,
exploiting their power to make the head of state a
virtual hostage at their whim or eliminating threatening
leaders altogether. Indeed, assassinations both then
and today are most often effective when they have the
support, tacit or open, of other powerful figures. Today,
however, such a situation rarely comes to pass; the
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British Special Branch and American Secret Service are
noted as well-trained and apolitical protective forces.
The race was on with the Middle Ages between leaders
and assassins as gunpowder became predominant,
each in turn trying to develop stronger and better
checks against the increasing abilities of the other. One
of the first reactions was to simply increase the guard,
creating what at times might seem a small army trailing
every leader; another was to begin clearing large areas
whenever a leader was present, to the point where
entire sections of a city might be shut down. Heads of
state began to cease taking their armies onto the field
personally around this time as well, although this was
likely as much due to the increasing skills required for
generalship and division of power within the
government as it was for safety concerns.
As the 20th century dawned, the prevalence of
assassins and their capabilities skyrocketed, and so did
measures to protect against them. For the first time,
armored cars or armored limousines were put into
service for safer transport, with modern versions
rendering them virtually invulnerable to small arms fire.
Bulletproof vests were also commissioned, although
these are often not worn (or worn unobtrusively) for the
benefit of public perception, although some, such as
former mayor of Cleveland, Ohio and presidential
candidate Dennis Kucinich, were nonetheless
compelled to do so. Access to famous persons, too,
became more and more restrictive; potential visitors
would be forced through dozens of different checks and
double-checks before being granted access to the
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official in question, and as communication became
better and information technology more prevalent, it
has become next-to-impossible for a would-be killer of
declared antigovernment or anarchist political
affiliation to get close enough to the personage at work
to effect an attempt on his or her life, especially given
the common use of metal and bomb detectors. As such,
in this century and for the foreseeable future, most
assassinations will be committed either during a public
performance or during transport, both due to weaker
security and security lapses, such as with US President
John F. Kennedy or as part of coups d'etat where
security is either overwhelmed or completely removed,
such as with Salvador Allende or Patrice Lumumba.
Some of the wilder and arguably stranger methods used
for protection by famous people of both today and
yesterday have evoked many reactions from different
people, some resenting the separation from their
officials or major figures, some comforted by the
security and some lamenting the state of society that
such measures are necessary. One example might be
traveling in a car protected by a bubble of clear
bulletproof glass, such as the Popemobile of Pope John
Paul II (built following an extremist's attempt at his
life). Frederick William I of Prussia had an entire
command of soldiers above two meters of height, and
would reportedly go to great lengths to obtain more.
Many leaders, such as Josef Stalin or the Argentinian
junta were so possessed by paranoia that they
executed their opponents en masse, with the death toll
ranging from hundreds to millions. Still others go into
seclusion, rarely heard from or seen in public
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afterwards, such as writer Salman Rushdie or eccentric
inventor Howard Hughes, though it is more likely that
Hughes was concerned about germs than about
assassination. A more exotic form of protection is the
use of a body double. A body double in this case is a
person who is built similar to the person he is expected
to protect and made up to look like him. The body
double then takes the place of the person in high risk
situations. Fidel Castro, Adolf Hitler and Saddam
Hussein are known to have used body doubles.
It is important to note that, in the final analysis, it is
thought by many that if a person or group is committed
beyond reason or concerns for self-preservation
towards the removal of a certain person or leader from
not only their position but this plane of existence, then
their success is inevitable. Some of the most notable
examples of such committed people would be the ninja
of Japan or suicide bombers when used against a
leader or official. Often, such people or groups would
operate without concern for their own life in order to
gain the slimmest chance of eliminating their mark.
Certain leaders, notably Abraham Lincoln, were thought
to have wrestled with this supposed inevitability during
difficult times (with some, like Lincoln, later falling
victim to it). In the end, however, any counter-measures
to a trained or simply zealous killer will be attempts to
resist them as best as possible with whatever means
are available.
Source for conspiracy theories
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Assassinations are a classic subject of conspiracy
theories. The assassination of a prominent figure is a
singular event which can dramatically change the
course of public affairs. Those drawn to conspiracy
theory are led to ask, in the aftermath of an
assassination, Who benefited from this death? Though
some assassinations are committed by lone individuals,
and many others by aboveboard governments (such as
that of Leon Trotsky), and other assassinations are
committed as the result of a provable conspiracy, there
have been several assassinations whose purposes and
evidence remain mysterious in the public eye and
suspicious to most people.
Best-known among assassination conspiracy theories in
the United States are those dealing with a rash of
seemingly politically motivated deaths in the 1960s,
notably those of U.S. President John F. Kennedy,
Senator Robert F. Kennedy, and civil rights leaders
Martin Luther King Jr. and Malcolm X.
Investigations and scientific testing and recreations
into the circumstances of John F. Kennedy's death have
not settled the question of who killed him. That U.S.
public opinion considers this still to be an open issue is
suggested by three polls in 2003. An ABC News random
telephone poll found that just 32% (plus or minus 3%) of
Americans believe that Lee Harvey Oswald acted alone
in the assassination of John F. Kennedy, while 68% do
not believe Oswald acted alone. [1]
(http://abcnews.go.com/images/pdf/937a1JFKAssassina
tion.pdf) The "Discovery Channel" poll (sampling
method not given) reveals that only 21% believe Oswald
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acted alone, while 79% do not believe Oswald acted
alone.
[2] (http://poll.discovery.com/servlet/viewsflash?jfk=6&c
md=tally&pollid=jfk&results=data%2Fdsc%2Fpackage%
2Fjfk.results.html&submit.x=51&submit.y=6) The
"History Channel" poll (self-selected responses) details
that only 17% of respondents believe that Lee Harvey
Oswald acted alone in the assassination of John F.
Kennedy, while 83% do not believe Oswald acted alone.
[3]
(http://www.historychannel.com/jfk/jfk_poll_results.jsp)
It should, however, be noted that opinion polls of this
type are often subject to selection and response biases.
Similar theories have arisen around the assassination of
Beatle John Lennon and the attempted assassination of
U.S. President Ronald Reagan. In recent years
conspiracy theories about the death of Diana, Princess
of Wales have made headlines.
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Chapter 18
Improvised Explosive Devices (IEDs) / Booby Traps
IED Overview
An IED can be almost anything with any type of material
and initiator. It is a homemade device that is designed
to cause death or injury by using explosives alone or in
combination with toxic chemicals, biological toxins, or
radiological material. IEDs can be produced in varying
sizes, functioning methods, containers, and delivery
methods. IEDs can utilize commercial or military
explosives, homemade explosives, or military ordnance
and ordnance components.
They are unique in nature because the IED builder has
had to improvise with the materials at hand. Designed
to defeat a specific target or type of target, they
generally become more difficult to detect and protect
against as they become more sophisticated.
IEDs fall into three types of categories:
Package Type IED
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Vehicle-Borne IEDs (VBIEDs)
Suicide Bomb IED
Though they can vary widely in shape and form, IEDs
share a common set of components and consist of the
following:
An initiation system or fuse;
Explosive fill;
A detonator;
A power supply for the detonator; and
A container.
Improvised devices are characterized by varying
employment techniques. In most of the techniques
shown below, an unexploded ordnance (UXO) can easily
be engineered to replace a mine or explosive device
using one of the several following techniques:
Coupling. Coupling is a method of linking one mine
or explosive device to another, usually with detonating
cord. When the first device is detonated, it also
detonates the linked explosive. This technique is often
used to defeat countermine equipment, such as mine
rollers
Rolling. The roller will pass over the initial, unfuzed
device and set off the second fuzed device. This in turn
detonates the overpassed device underneath the
clearing vehicle. When the linked devices are
directional fragmentation mines, they can create a
large, lethal engagement area.
Boosting. Buried mines, UXOs, or other explosive
devices are stacked on top of one another. The device
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buried deepest from the surface is fuzed. Fuzing only
the deepest ordnance helps mask no- and low-metal
explosive hazards placed near the surface. This
reduces the probability of detection by metal detectors,
and it increases the force of the blast.
Sensitizing antitank (AT) mines. On some
nonmetallic AT mines, the pressure plate is cracked
and the spring is removed to reduce the pressure
required to initiate the mine. Similarly, the pressure
plate can be removed from metallic AT mines to create
the same effect. A pressurefuzed AP mine can be
placed on the top of an AT mine, thus creating a very
large AP mine as an alternative method.
Daisy chaining. AP mines may be used in daisy
chains linked with other explosive hazards. Enemy
forces may link the mines together with trip wire or
detonating cord. When the initial mine is detonated, the
other mines may detonate. This may also create large,
lethal engagement areas.
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Booby traps and IEDs are similar to mines in that they
are designed to kill or incapacitate personnel. They are
also emplaced to avoid detection and improve
effectiveness. Most are victim-activated, but some may
involve remote or command detonation architectures.
The use of booby traps is limited only by the
imagination of the adversary. Booby traps are victim-
activated devices intended to create casualties and
terror and may or may not be found in areas of tactical
significance.
Booby traps:
Are usually explosive in nature.
Are usually activated when an unsuspecting
person disturbs an apparently harmless object performs
a presumably safe act; for example, souvenir hunting.
Are designed to kill or incapacitate.
Cause unexpected random casualties and damage.
Create an attitude of uncertainty and suspicion, in
effect lowering morale and inducing a degree of caution
that restricts or slows movement.
Threaten force protection.
Assume that all mines are booby-trapped.
IED Incident Vs. Non-IED Incident
IED Incidents:
Hand grenade with pin pulled, placed in a small
glass with glass filled mortar or plastic of paris.
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120-mm HE mortar with hole drilled in shipping cap
with an electric blasting cap inserted (placed in a
sandbag). Suicide vestleather-look sleeveless
waistcoat with explosives and ball bearing sewn into
the interior.
A thrown block of TNT with a grenade fuze inside
Non IED Incidents:
A hand grenade thrown into a building or dropped
from a bridge.
A rocket-propelled grenade (RPG) fired at a vehicle
from the manufactured launcher. An RPG fired from an
improvised launcher (while the launcher is improvised,
the round was fired as intended without modification).
A landmine placed in the roadway using the
manufactured fuze to initiate it as designed.
Survivability
A study of the Soviet/Afghan war has proven extremely
useful in addressing medical issues associated with
mine strikes. Throughout the course of that war, 30 to
40 percent of trauma cases treated by Soviet medical
personnel were caused by mine strikes. Necessarily,
the Soviets adopted measures to improve force
protection, gained a greater understanding of the
effects of a mine strike on the body, improved casualty
evacuation techniques, and implemented measures to
plan for medical contingencies at the lowest level.
Some simple mine countermeasures that increase mine
strike survivability include
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1534
Training (refresher) in first aid.
Training in mine awareness.
Wearing flak jackets.
Sandbagging the vehicle floors using fine
aggregates because large particles become missiles.
Riding on top of armored vehicles when the
tactical situation permits.
Leaving vehicle hatches cracked with the latch pin
in place to permit dispersion of the concussive effects
of a mine blast.
Disseminating information through intelligence
channels and/or the mine information coordination cell.
Injuries sustained during a mine strike are caused by
the pressure wave of the primary blast, the penetrating
and non-penetrating wounds of the secondary blast, and
the injuries associated with being thrown some
distance. The combat medic or lifesaver must be aware
of multiple wounds and combination wounds that
usually result from a mine strike and must know how to
thoroughly treat the patient. Additionally, treatment of
shock becomes important, especially since 86.5
percent of Soviet mine strike victims went into shock.
Fifteen percent of shock cases were irreversible, and
the victim died in a short period of time.
Package-Type Improvised Explosive Devices (IEDs)
Concealed Mortar/Artillery Projectiles
The enemy in Iraq has used IEDs consisting of mortar
and artillery projectiles as the explosive device. The
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1535
most common explosives used are military munitions,
usually 122 mm or greater mortar/tank/artillery.
The use and characteristics of these have included the
following:
Thrown from overpasses.
Thrown in front of approaching vehicles from
roadside.
Usually thrown by maleswho are not always
adults.
Emplaced in potholes (covered with dirt).
Emplaced along MSRs and alternate supply routes
(targeting vehicles).
Employed along unimproved roads (targeting
patrols).
Employed with 120-mm and larger artillery or
mortar projectiles.
Found alone or in groups.
IEDs behind which are placed cinder blocks or
piles of sand to direct blast into the kill zone.
Command detonatedeither by wire or remote
device.
Time-delay triggered IEDs. IEDs that can be
detonated by cordless phone from a car (allows for
mobile firing platform and prevents tracing or
triangulation).
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1536
Modified Conventional Munitions
The examples below are all IEDs that have been
recovered in Iraq.
Anti-Tank Mine encased
in
concrete and command
detonated via remote
control
Improvised Off-Route
Antitank Mine
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1537
500lbs bomb rigged as
IED
Artillery shells rigged as IEDs
Artillery shell-based IEDs hidden in bags along roads
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1538
Artillery shell-based IED hidden in
plaster made to look like a concrete block
Other
Vehicle Borne IEDs (VBIEDs)
Vehicle borne IEDs (VBIEDs) are devices that use a
vehicle as the package or container of the device.
These IEDs come in all shapes, colors, and sizes which
vary by the type of vehicles available small sedans to
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1539
large cargo trucks. There have even been instances of
what appeared to be generators, donkey drawn carts,
and ambulances used to attempt attacks on Coalition
Forces and the New Iraqi Government.
Larger vehicles enable larger amounts of explosive that
can be used, resulting in a greater effect. Functioning of
devices can vary within the same methods as the
package types and can have the same common
characteristics or indicators as other IEDs.
VBIEDs have increasingly used larger amounts of
explosives, and the explosive charge has ranged
anywhere from 100lbs to well over 1000 pounds. The
explosive charge has included items such as mortar
rounds, rocket motors, rocket warheads, PE4
explosives, and artillery rounds.
Functioning of devices can vary within the same
methods as the package types and can have the same
common characteristics or indicators as other IEDs
A growing technique in VBIED attacks in Iraq has
involved the use of multiple vehicles. In such instances,
the lead vehicle is used as a decoy or barrier buster.
Once stopped or neutralized and with coalition forces
starting to move to inspect or detain the main VBIED
comes crashing though and into the crowd before
detonating; thus resulting in an increase of the casualty
ratio.
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1540
Chapter 19
Suicide Bombs
A suicide bomber brings a singularly difficult threat for
soldiers. The aim of the terrorist is not to commit
suicide, but to kill or injure as many other soldiers and
civilians as possible.
A person-borne suicide bomb usually employs a high-
explosive/fragmentary effect and uses a command
detonation firing system, some sort of switch or button
the person activates by hand.
Explosives with fragmentation can be contained in a
vest, belt, or clothing that is specifically modified to
carry this material concealed. Vehicle-borne suicide
bombs employ the same methods and characteristics of
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1541
other package or vehicle bombs using a command
detonation firing system.
In instances where the suspect is determined to be a
suicide bomber, deadly force is normally the only
response option. In such cases, forces should be
prepared for and expect a detonation. Soldiers
responding to such events should shoot from a
protected position at as great a distance as possible.
Chapter 20
Improvised Explosive Devices (IEDs) / Booby Traps
Firing Devices
In low-intensity, stability and support operations and
counterterrorism conflicts, there may be high
incidences of improvised devices and booby traps. It is
impossible to provide a complete list of firing devices
(FDs) and improvised demolition materiel that can be
used. Most improvised traps are variations of those
described below. Some IEDs can be victim-activated.
Improvised electric FDs. An electric FD requires a
current to pass between two contacts. The ways in
which this can be achieved are unlimited. Booby
traps/IEDs utilizing electrical components are limited by
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1542
having to use a power source. In most cases, the power
source will be a battery. The life of this type of booby
trap is limited to the life of the battery.
Non-electric FDs. Most non-electric FDs are based
on pressure, pressure release, or trip wire actuation.
Improvised FDs are usually of the shear pin or pin
removal type.
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1543
Improvised Explosive Devices (IEDs) / Booby Traps
Indicators
By definition, booby traps are disguised or well-hidden,
victim-activated devices. The initiating object is going
to be fairly obvious, as it is the object that the enemy
hopes a soldier will interfere with in order to set off the
trap. Booby traps rely on an unwary or distracted
soldier touching or pulling a physical object (such as a
war souvenir) or provide a too-easy access or simple
solution to a problem (such as leaving only one door
open in an otherwise secure building).
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1544
In an operational environment where booby traps have
been used, soldiers must be trained to constantly
question why things are positioned where they are or
why the enemy might have left obvious routes open.
The enemy will watch reactions and procedures
executed when moving through an area. They will be
looking for natural behavior and weaknesses in
soldiers' drills. For example, in Vietnam, the Vietcong
(VC) noticed soldiers liked to kick empty soda cans that
were lying on the ground. It was not long before the US
troops found that the VC were leaving explosive
devices in empty cans lying alongside regular patrol
routes. The devices were activated when the cans were
kicked.
Many of the booby trap indicators mirror those of mines.
These include areas where the locals do not enter, such
as abandoned buildings and attractive items that are
usually left alone.
Electrical wires, batteries, booby traps, and store
items (clothes pegs, mouse traps, steel tubes, and
springs).
Isolated boxes and containers along routes.
Abandoned vehicles, military equipment, weapons,
uniforms, and papers.
Trip wires, string, and cables.
Disturbed soil and sand.
Dust.
Footprint trails that stop suddenly.
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1545
Buildings are excellent sites for booby trap warfare. If
unsecured buildings have to be entered and occupied,
assume that they are booby-trapped. Likely targets are
restrictive areas like doorways, windows, and areas of
approach that are typically used. These are likely
targets because people will have to move through
them. These areas are likely to be booby-trapped.
Teams must develop alternate ways of entering the
building where the enemy is unlikely to have set traps.
Once inside, hallways, interior doorways, staircases,
and floors provide restricted access and are again
prime sites. Any remaining furniture or household
objects will have to be cleared prior to use.
The search and clearance of buildings, caves,
abandoned vehicles, or any suspect area is a
specialized skill that requires expert knowledge of
booby trap types and functions. The clearance
procedures are also highly complex, requiring skilled
soldiers and specialized equipment and training. The
task of booby trap clearance and disposal is an
explosive ordnance disposal (EOD) mission. If booby
traps are located, EOD personnel should be tasked for
clearance and disposal support.
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1546
In all cases, the minimum number of soldiers with the
largest tactically acceptable spacing should be
engaged in clearance operations to reduce collateral
casualties. If operations require troops to enter suspect
buildings without EOD support, the guidelines outlined
below should be adopted.
Chapter 21
Improvised Explosive Devices (IEDs) - Iraq
Iraq is one of the most heavily mined nations in the
world. As of early 2003, it was estimated that there
were over 10 million mines already in the ground8
million antipersonnel (AP) and 2 million antitank (AT),
with Iraq both a producer and exporter of AP mines.
Iraq is considered one of the most mine-infested
nations in the world. Iraq emplaced minefields for three
main purposes:
To protect its borders during the lengthy war with
Iran (1980 through 1988).
To ward off invasion during the Gulf War (1990
through 1991).
To subdue the Kurdish population in northern Iraq.
Northern Iraqs mine and unexploded ordnance (UXO)
problems date back to the end of World War II, but
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1547
mines were not heavily used in this region until the
1960s and 1970s. During this period, the central Iraqi
government attempted to subdue Kurdish demands for
autonomy through the use of mine warfare.
Starting with the Iran-Iraq War onwards, the Iraqi
military has been involved in three major wars. From
1983 to 1988, the Iran/Iraq War was characterized by
large-scale attacks against entrenched, heavily
fortified, and mined positions on both sides of the
border. Both countries used mines extensively along
their common border. Additionally, Iraq used mines
extensively in the northern regions of the country to
curtail internal dissident activities.
During this period, Iraqi soldiers gained extensive
knowledge and experience in the use of booby traps
and improvised explosive devices (IEDs).
During the Gulf War, coalition forces encountered
significant numbers of booby traps and IEDs. Most of
these devices were located in numerous bunker
complexes.
In northern Iraq, the Iraqi military routinely booby
trapped 5-gallon cans of napalm to harass and
intimidate the Kurdish population. Another common
booby trap encountered involved daisy chaining the
Valmara 69 antipersonnel (AP) fragmentation mine.
Use of booby traps Iraq has been similar to that in
Israel where they have inflicted casualties and
provoked terror among United States (US) and coalition
forces.
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1548
The proficiency of attacks in Iraq increased along with
frequency with many of attacks directed toward
interdicting convoys. As a good number of Iraq
highways are extensive and modern, with four- to eight-
lane paved roads in portions of the country. Extensive
use of traffic circles is widespread. Coalition forces use
these improved roadways for high-speed movement
with many route options. As a result, IEDs pose the
greatest threats to convoys. Unfortunately, the
coalition traffic pattern analysis is relatively easy to
predict, increasing vulnerability to enemy attacks.
There are many bridges and overpasses which are
also possible chokepoints. Built-up or vegetated
medians divide most roadways. Many IEDs have been
placed in these median strips, some placed under
girders. Meals, ready-to-eat (MRE) boxes, soda cans,
manholes, tunnels burrowed under roads, cement-
encased bomb projectiles, and even dead animal
carcasses have been used by the insurgents to conceal
IEDs.
As of late 2003, 40 to 60 percent of all attacks began
with an IED. Some of these attacks included direct fire
attacks immediately following the detonation of the
device. However, more and more IEDs were
subsequently being used as a stand-alone means to
engage a convoy.
Some of the IEDs have been remotely detonated using
relatively simple, readily available low-technology
devices, such as garage door openers, car alarms, key
fobs, door bells, toy car remotes, FRS and GMRS two-
way radios, cellular telephones and pagers which
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1549
enable radio frequency command detonation. Therefore,
this implies that observation of the target area probably
requires line-of-sight observation points in many cases.
However, the adaptation of using radios, cell phones
and other remote control devices has given the enemy
the standoff ability to watch forces from a distance and
not be compromised.
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1550
Location of IEDs, UXOs and unexploded sub-munitions
along the Ar Ramadi-Baghdad corridor
As of mid-May 2004
When conducting a tactical convoy, soldiers need to:
Quickly identify potential ambush sites that may
coincide with locations of IED and avoid the area.
Quickly move away from the IED and/or ambush kill
zone.
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1551
Keep a standoff distance of at least 300 meters
(radio or cell phone transmission within 300 meters may
cause detonation).
Look for potential secondary devices in what may
seem like the best possible location to occupy or along
an alternate route.
Enemy forces in Iraq have used the following TTPs
when employing IEDs:
Using command-detonated devices, both hardwired
and radio controlled.
Using mortar rounds, artillery projectiles, and other
explosive-filled ordnance as the explosive device.
Using locally purchased battery-powered doorbell
devices to remotely initiate IEDs.
Using speaker and similar type wiring to connect
the explosive device to the hide position.
Using hide positions that most likely have line of
sight to the kill zone (whether a building or abandoned
vehicle) and an easy escape route.
Camouflaging IEDs in bags of various types to
resemble garbage along roadways, burying these
devices in the roadbed or median, placing them under
the paving stones on walkways along the road, and
covering them with rocks.
Using decoy devices (bait devices) out in the
open to slow or stop convoys in the kill zone of the
actual device that is hidden along the route of travel.
Throwing devices from the road side or from
overpasses. Devices are swung down on ropes
measured to ensure they strike the vehicles
windshield.
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Personnel seen throwing IEDs have been males of
all ages.
Using the carcasses of dead animals have been
used to hide IEDs.
Placing the devices during darkness and
detonating them between 0600 and 1200.
Chapter 22
Daisy-Chain Munitions
A "daisy chain" of munitions is two or more explosive
devices wired together so that a single signal will
detonate all the munitions at the same time.
In the picture above, from Baghdad, the disabled bus
(the green box in the photograph) is believed to be
positioned to cause traffic to slow down and therefore
increase the time the U.S. convoy or vehicles must be
in the kill zone. In this example, the IED was not
completed when it was discovered. The wire from the
daisy chain to the detonator was missing. Notice that in
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this example there are several possible hide sites. The
enemy could have been positioned in one of the several
buildings at the top of the photograph.
These IED arrays typically comprise three to five
medium-caliber (100 mm plus) artillery, mortar, or tank
projectiles and, in some cases, multiple-rocket-launcher
rocket warheads buried several meters apart in the
center of the road or alongside the road. The shells are
primed with blasting caps and connected with
detonating cord or electric wire leading to a detonator.
The IED array is typically set up for radio- or wire-
command detonation.
Mitigating The Effects of "Daisy Chain" IEDS
Since the lethal area of buried "daisy chain" IEDs
typically extends for several tens of meters,
maintaining maximum tactically acceptable vehicle
spacing can ensure that, at most, only a single vehicle
is caught in the lethal area of the IED.
Drivers must be especially vigilant at minor road
obstacles such as river fords, rough patches, and
washouts where vehicles in a column often bunch up.
Leaders and drivers must be adept at spotting
dangerous areas and chokepoints where ambush is
more likely as well as indicators of a daisy chain IED
ambush.
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These include successive, regularly spaced
patches of recently disturbed soil in the middle or to
the side of the road; stretches of roadside vegetation or
piles of debris that seem out of place; or salvageable
metal or wood left by the side of the road.
Normal counter-ambush techniques, such as
varying vehicle speeds while in convoy and, if attacked,
refusing to stop in an ambush zone are also valuable.
Like any other potential mine ambush, vehicle
crews should also be wary upon entering areas where
local villagers are inexplicably absent and be on the
lookout for likely "kill zone markers" and suspicious
movement by possible "scout" vehicles trailing or
passing the convoy in either direction.
Chapter 23
Significant Activities (SIGACTS)
The charts below depict significant insurgent activities
reported throughout Iraq. Significant activities
(SIGACTS) include reported attacks using improvised
explosive devices (IED), vehicle-borne improvised
explosive devices (VBIED), mortars, rocket propelled
grenades (RPG), and improvised rockets. This does not
include small arms fire, hand grenade attacks, and
other hostile activities.
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The bar-chart below shows Defense Intelligence Agency
(DIA) data showing trends in enemy initiated attacks
against the coalition, its Iraqi partners, and
infrastructure, with the latest data for February 2005.
These charts includes those actions affecting Coalition
operations reported and documented through Coalition
Joint Task Force-7.
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The blue line indicates daily totals, while the red line
indicates the seven-day centered moving average,
which smoothes the trend. Small surges cause daily
variances in number of attacks this week, but the
overall trend is an increase of hostile actions since the
peak of the Fallujah and al-Sadr sedition.
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Improvised Explosive Devices (IEDs) / Booby Traps
References
TC 20-32-5 Commander's Reference Guide: Land
Mine and Explosive Hazards (Iraq)
1st Infantry Division Soldiers Handbook To Iraq 1st
Infantry Division November 2003 [PDF 3.66 Mb]
Iraq Purple Book - Operational Support Guide for
Joint Service EOD for Iraq Area of Operations
NAVEODTECHDIV November 1, 2002
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CALL Handbook 03-33: Convoy Leader Training
Handbook Center for Army Lessons Learned November
2003 -- The purpose of this handbook is to provide a
quick-reference TTP guide for convoy commanders and
their subordinates on how to train for and conduct
tactical convoy operations on the asymmetric
battlefield in support of Operation IRAQI FREEDOM.
[PDF 1.68 Mb]
Convoy Leader Training Handbook: Revision I 32nd
Transportation Group KUWAIT 8 August 2003 -- The
purpose of this handbook is to provide a field guide for
convoy leaders conducting long haul operations in
support of Operation Iraqi Freedom. The focus is on
planning, preparing and executing operations to counter
level I and II threat. [PDF 388 Kb] [MSWord Version 871
Kb]
DoD Joint Task Force Making Progress Against IED
Threat AFPS 18 Apr 2005
IED class improves Soldiers safety Army News
2005
Chapter 24
The Origins of Military Mines: Part I
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Innovations in mine warfare have come from a variety
of sources throughout history, and it is often engineers
on the ground who gain the critical insights required for
the next leap forward. Mine and countermine
technologies and techniques have evolved over the past
3,000 years and continue to evolve in the typical
measure/countermeasure/counter-countermeasure
cycle seen for other weapons. Part I of this article
traces that evolution from the first underground mines
through the antipersonnel mines and booby traps used
during World War II.
Early Mining
Commercial underground mining first began in the
Bronze Age when surface deposits of minerals and
gems were exhausted, forcing miners to follow ore
veins deeper into the earth by digging vertical shafts
and horizontal drifts. The earliest identified
underground mines, dating from 7000 B.C., were copper
mines in Anatolia, now part of Turkey. Egyptians began
to mine copper and turquoise in Sinai around 3400 B.C.
The following Iron Age began among the Hittites, who
mined iron ore between 1900 and 1400 B.C. They used
this revolutionary material to make superior weapons
that greatly facilitated the conquest of their neighbors.
Early in the Bronze Age, walled cities began to appear
in the Middle East to protect against raiders and other
attackers. Jericho, on the west bank of the Jordan
River, just north of the Dead Sea, is the oldest known
walled city (dating from approximately 8000 B.C.). The
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walls at Jericho were about 7 meters high and 4 meters
thick and were surrounded by a moat 9 meters wide and
3 meters deep.
1
Later, protective walls developed into
huge affairs. Under Nebuchadrezzar II (around 600 B.C.)
the walls at Babylon increased to a thickness of about
26 meters.
2
Early military mining techniques were developed in
response to these walled cities and probably were
devised by impressed civilian miners at the behest of
conquerors. Before military mining, attackers' options
were limited to blockading a city (starving them out),
scaling the walls, breaching the walls with a battering
ram (which began in Egypt about 2000 B.C.), or by
stratagem (such as the Trojan Horse). Although the
stone-throwing engine of war was first developed by the
Phoenicians, the catapult was one of the first effective
missile engines. It was developed for battering down
town walls during the reign of Phillip II of Macedonia,
the father of Alexander the Great.
3
In the third century
B.C., the great military engineer Archimedes built a
missile engine that could hurl a 173-pound stone about
200 meters. Engineers took their name from these
"ingenious" devices.
4
Mechanical stone-throwing
engines remained in action as late as the Siege of
Rhodes in 1480
5
and Cortez' conquest of Mexico
(around 1520). In fact, improvised grenade-throwing
catapults were used in close combat situations during
both world wars.
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Early Military Mines
The Assyrian Army organized the first known "corps of
engineers" during the time of Ashurnasirpal II (about
850 B.C.). These elite specialists operated siege and
bridge trains and provided mobility support for chariots.
They were the first soldiers equipped with advanced
iron pioneer tools and are credited with the first known
use of offensive mine warfare. This occurred about 880
B.C. when engineer soldiers drove tunnels (mines)
under or through walls and fortifications
6
to gain access
to fortified areas or to create a breach large enough for
a full-scale attack. These engineers excavated a
chamber under the wall and braced the ceiling with
timber supports. The supports were then burned,
causing the chamber and the structure above it to
collapse. Attacking soldiers then assaulted through the
breach.
Among the many successful mines throughout history
are those used by Alexander the Great and his engineer
Diades at the sieges of Halicarnassus (334 B.C.) and
Gaza (332 B.C.)
7
and Julius Caesar and his engineer
Mamurra during the siege of Marseilles in 49 B.C.
8
Although effective mining and other combat engineering
skills were critical to the military successes of both of
these great captains, the skills frequently are neglected
by historians.
Early Obstacles
An early example of a reinforcing obstacle intended for
use on a battlefield, as opposed to during a siege,
occurred around 330 B.C. during the time of Alexander
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the Great. The Greeks were aware of a new invention
called caltrops, which could be scattered in front of
their battle lines to disrupt the terrifying attacks of the
massive Persian war elephants.
9
Caltrops are devices
with four metal points arranged so that when three are
on the ground, the fourth projects upward as a hazard
to animal hooves or tires. Caltrops were used as
recently as the Korean Conflict, when the U.S. Air Force
dropped them on Chinese convoys to puncture tires.
The U.S. also dropped them on the Ho Chi Minh trail
during the Vietnam War.
During the siege of Alesia in 52 B.C., Julius Caesar's
engineers directed the emplacement of a complex
obstacle 100 meters deep. It was a combination of
towers, palisades, ditches, abatis, and caltrops to slow
the attacking Gauls, so that Roman missile engines
could more effectively engage them. These obstacles
gave Caesar time to successfully deploy reserve forces
to threatened areas along his 13-mile perimeter.
10
Another early obstacle is the abatis, emplaced by
English longbow men to protect against mounted
French knights at the Battles of Crecy (1346) and
Agincourt (1415).
11
Black Powder
Although the origin of black powder is uncertain, it
probably was developed by Chinese alchemists seeking
an "elixir of immortality" during the T'ang Dynasty
around 850 A.D. It was used against the invading
Mongols of Ghenghis Khan in 1209.
12
Black powder
apparently remained an oddity, for although it terrified
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those unfamiliar with it, the Chinese did not
successfully integrate it into an effective weapon. It
apparently impressed the Mongols, who carried black
powder with them during their reign of conquest and
introduced it to Europeans at the disastrous Battles of
Liegnitz and Sajo River in April 1241.
13
The advent of
black powder in Europe marked the beginning of
modern artillery, when it was fired from mechanical
missile engines used by military engineers of Medieval
Europe. In fact, the term gunner may be a variant of
"gynour," a form of engineer.
14
Serpentine powder, the
earliest form of black powder, was a dust that burned
slowly and gave low bore pressure. A method of
"corning" powder into larger grains to increase
performance was developed about 1450.
15
Explosive Mines
The ability to manufacture and detonate black powder
occurred in Europe in the 14th century and resulted in
the next major improvements in military mining.
Tunnel Mines
The surprise and effectiveness of tunnel mines was
significantly increased by exploding large charges of
black powder at the end of galleries driven under
fortifications. The first recorded use of such a mine in
Europe was in 1403, during a war between Pisa and
Florence, when the Florentines exploded a charge in a
forgotten passage in the walls surrounding Pisa.
16
One
of the individuals involved with these early explosive
mines was a military engineer named Leonardo Da
Vinci, who was working for Ludovico, the Duke of
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Sforza, around 1500.
17
However, for a long time black
powder was a scarce and expensive commodity,
18
so
the less spectacular method of burning out the timber
supports beneath the walls continued for some time.
19
The slow evolution of the cannon eventually forced the
high castle walls of the Middle Ages to be replaced by
low-walled bastioned fortresses, finally making this
method of mining completely obsolete.
In his work on siege warfare (published in 1740),
Sebastien Le Prestre de Vauban (French Marshal, 1630-
1707) codified principles of military mining that
remained valid well into the 19th century.
20
Vauban, in
what could be considered the first scientifically based
demolitions manual, described a method of charge
calculation and placement based on characteristics of
the target fortress and the desired effect. He defined
these mines by the depth and size of the charge:
For depths less than 3 meters, it was called a
fougasse (or contact mine).
For depths greater than 3 meters, it was called a
mine.
When used as a "countermine" against an enemy
mine, it was called a camouflet.
When intended to destroy an entire fortification
(using 2,500 kilograms of powder or more), it was called
pressure balls (globes de compression).
According to Vauban's tables, explosive charges for
mining could range up to 12,200 kilograms. The purpose
of mines was not only to cause destruction but also--
with the rocks and soil ejected--to form an earthen
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ramp that assault troops could use to gain immediate
access to the breach. Because the demolition often
came as a surprise to defending forces, it frequently
caused panic and confusion among them.
Tunnel mines were very time consuming to employ.
Typically about 18 miners and 36 unskilled workmen
were employed in three 8-hour shifts to construct an
assault mine. Military mining during a siege could last
30 days or more, and specialists were required for the
job. During the Middle Ages, coal miners were hired.
Formal mining units were not formed until standing
armies were raised by the absolute monarchs of the
17th century--1673 in France, 1683 in Austria, 1742 in
Prussia, and 1772 in Britain (the Company of Soldier
Artificers). Their work demanded courage and special
caution--lack of oxygen and possible flooding were
hazards.
Against the bastioned fortresses of Vauban's time,
mining normally began as soon as sappers (military
specialists in attack and defense of fortifications)
completed the last parallel in front of the glacis of a
fortress or fortified town. Then besieging miners dug
galleries about 1.25 meters high and 1 meter wide and
lined them with wood. Once they reached the site
selected for the explosion, they dug the blast hole
perpendicular to the previous direction of the gallery.
Then they filled the mine chamber with the amount of
black powder determined by the siege engineer.
To ignite the mine, they fed an ignition "sausage" out of
the mine chamber. This sausage was a tube made of
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linen and filled with granulated black powder that led
back to the point of ignition (mine herd). The ignition
sausage, a predecessor of the modern time fuse, was
normally laid in a 6-centimeter-wide wooden duct and
covered with a board to protect it from moisture or
other damage. The gallery was finally tamped with sod
or earth, over a length of 6 to 10 meters. At the
appointed time, the miner ignited the powder in the
ignition sausage with an ignition sponge and then
retreated quickly before the sponge burned to the
powder.
Immediately after the explosion, the besiegers could
assault the fortress or extend their sap trenches into
the crater and reinforce them with gabions. If
necessary, additional mines were used to destroy the
palisades of the covered passage and the supporting
walls of the counterscarp or scarp, thus facilitating
entry into the fortress.
While working in tunnels, miners looked for listening
tunnels and countermines of the defender. Attackers
tried to deceive the defender's listening posts by
constructing phony "noise" galleries, where they
intentionally produced a lot of noise.
21
Military engineers incorporated the latest technologies
from civilian mining as they became available, including
more efficient explosives: nitrocellulose in 1845
(Christian Schoenbein, Germany), dynamite in 1866
(Alfred Nobel, Sweden), picric acid in 1871, and TNT in
1902 (C. Hausermann, Germany).
22
Other improvements
included electric (galvanic) ignition (1850s)
23
and
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forced-air ven-tilation systems. During World War I, both
sides employed new mechanical tunnel-boring
machines developed for commercial coal mining, as
well as traditional techniques.
24
Tunnel mining has continued sporadically into the
modern era and was used by Napoleon at Acre (1799),
the Crimean War (Sevastopol),
25
General Grant's men in
the American Civil War (Vicksburg
26
and Petersburg
27
),
the Russo-Japanese War (Port Arthur
28
), World War I
(Western Front
29
and the Isonzo Front
30
), World War II
(Russian Front
31
), and the French-Indochina War (Dien
Bien Phu
32
). Most recently, the Peruvians used tunnel
mines to liberate hostages held in the Japanese
ambassador's residence in Lima. The North Koreans
may use them in the future--some of their tunnels have
been discovered under the demilitarized zone (DMZ) and
more are suspected.
Fougasse
33
Frederick the Great, King of Prussia, stated that
"Fougasses formed into a T-like mine, in order to blow
up the same place three times, can be added to the
entrenchments. Their use is admirable; nothing fortifies
a position so strongly nor does more to ward off
attackers."
34
These fougasses were simple black
powder devices first developed for defending
permanent fortifications. They were intended to
detonate in the face of an enemy assault. A black
powder charge was placed in a chamber excavated in
the face of a fortification (firing horizontally) or in front
of it (firing vertically). The chamber was then packed
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with a quantity of fragments, normally rocks or scrap
iron and called a stone fougasse, or filled with
explosive artillery shells and called a shell fougasse. If
properly emplaced, a horizontally fired fougasse
functioned as a crude claymore mine, while the shell
fougasse could function like a bounding antipersonnel
(AP) mine or a simple fragmenting mine. Fougasses
were command-detonated by manually igniting a
powder train from a protected position at the
appropriate time. Fougasses had several defects: they
were vulnerable to the elements--even moderate
dampness rendered them inoperative--and were difficult
to detonate at the optimum time. However, in the right
circumstances, fougasses caused heavy casualties, as
occurred during the sieges of Ciudad Rodrigo, Badajoz,
and Santander in the Duke of Wellington's Peninsular
Campaign of the Napoleonic Wars.
Fougasses were employed by one of George
Washington's engineers, Francois de Fleury (of de
Fleury Medal fame), in October 1777 against the
Hessians at Fort Mercer, New Jersey, on the east bank
of the Delaware River.
35
During the War of 1812, an
American ammunition chest accidentally exploded
during a British attack on Fort Erie, Canada. This
caused the attack to collapse, and the fear of additional
fougasses prevented further British attacks.
36
(The only
engineer unit in the American Army during this war--the
Company of Sappers, Miners and Bombardiers--fought in
this battle). During the Mexican-American War of 1845,
the Mexicans attempted to employ fougasses on the
approaches to Chapultepec.
37
Stone fougasses are still
employed occasionally by irregular forces, such as the
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Viet Cong, Central American guerillas,
38
and Bosnians,
39
who lack access to modern land mines.
Self-Contained Mines
Military engineers in China employed the first self-
contained explosive AP mines against Kublai Khan's
Mongol invaders in 1277. Manufactured in many shapes
and sizes, these mines could be command-detonated or
activated with either a pressure device (probably based
on a match) or a pull-firing device (a forerunner of the
flintlock mechanism).
40
However, they were seldom
used and were largely forgotten by the time Western
explorers arrived in the Orient.
Introduction of the European flintlock in 1547 led to the
first target-activated AP mine in the West. This
fladdermine, developed by Samuel Zimmermann of
Augsburg in 1573, consisted of one or more pounds of
black powder buried at a shallow depth in the glacis of
a fortress. It was actuated by stepping on it or by
tripping a wire along the ground that released a
flintlock igniter to fire the main charge. Like the
fougasse, these devices were highly vulnerable to
dampness and required frequent maintenance. They
were used mainly around fixed fortifications.
41
Fladdermines were used against Frederick the Great
during the Siege of Schweidnitz in 1758 and by the
Germans during the Franco-Prussian War in 1870-
1871.
42
Although the Chinese first introduced explosive shells
(as opposed to solid shot) in about 1221, they were
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unreliable and were used mainly with mortars.
Reintroduction of explosive shells in the West in the
1700s, combined with the invention of the percussion
cap by Reverend Alexander Forsythe of Scotland in
1814,
43
made possible the next important step in the
development of reliable mines by greatly improving
their resistance to moisture. Confederate soldiers under
General Gabriel Raines improvised the first of this type
of AP mine from artillery shells at Redoubt No. 4 near
Yorktown, Virginia, during the campaign of 1862.
44
After
several casualties, these were cleared by two
companies from the 50th New York Volunteer Engineer
Regiment.
45
By the end of the Civil War, the
Confederates had emplaced thousands of land
torpedoes around Richmond, Charleston, Mobile,
Savannah, and Wilmington, which produced hundreds of
casualties (see table). Robert E. Lee, John Mosby, and
J.E.B. Stuart all advocated the use of AP mines.
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Land torpedoes were also used against Sherman in
Mississippi, by General Raines on roads into Augusta,
and by General Wheeler on the roads into Savannah and
Pocotaglio. A coal torpedo (a type of boobytrap with an
irregular sheet-iron case filled with black powder and
painted black) was used to destroy General Butler's
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headquarters steamer Greyhound, and coal torpedoes
were implicated in the sinkings of the Chenango and
the Sultana. Union troops of I Company, 3rd U.S.
Colored Troops, also used torpedoes near Savannah.
Five of the torpedoes designed by General Raines were
found near Mobile, Alabama, in 1960.
The British employed mines during the Boer War in 1901
to protect railroads and deny fording sites to the
enemy.
46
In the Siege of Port Arthur during the Russo-
Japanese War of 1904, the Japanese tried to breach
Russian mines with volunteer suicide squads that were
to force a passage by sacrificing their own bodies. Upon
approaching the minefield, the volunteers found that
heavy rains had exposed many of the mines.
47
Between the Civil War and World War I, powerful
military explosives were introduced that significantly
increased the mines' lethality. Black powder shells of
the Civil War period burst into only two to five
fragments, while those of the Franco-Prussian War burst
into 20 to 30 fragments. By World War I, a 3-inch high-
explosive shell produced about 1,000 high-velocity
fragments.
48
The German tretmine (step-on mine), the next high-
explosive mine to appear, went into limited production
before World War I. Lieutenant Ernst Junger of the 73rd
Hanoverian Fusilier Regiment described German
improvised mines this way: "These hotheads are forever
puzzling out the possible ways of ... making the ground
in front of the trench murderous with explosive
machines. Perhaps they cut a narrow passage through
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the wire in front of their posts in order to entice an
enemy patrol, by this bait of an easy way through,
straight up to their rifles."
49
The United States also had a fairly advanced concept of
landmine warfare, as stated in Engineer Field Manual,
Parts I-VII, in 1918.
50
However, all the World War I
combatants relied heavily on artillery and machine guns
and seldom used AP mines. It was not until the Second
World War that AP mines reached full maturity, and they
have been an important facet of almost every conflict
since.
Fragmenting AP Mines
Even though modern, self-contained fragmenting AP
mines have been employed in the West in relatively
small numbers since the American Civil War, they did
not appear in significant numbers until World War II. At
that time, three types of fragmenting AP mines
emerged: bounding mines, the predecessors of the M16
"Bouncing Betty"; directional mines, the predecessors
to the M18 Claymore; and simple fragmenting mines,
like the Soviet POMZ-2 stake mine.
Bounding AP Mines. An 1859 U.S. military engineering
manual by General Halleck includes the design for an
improvised command-detonated bounding AP mine
called a shell fougasse.
51
However, modern
manufactured examples of this type did not make their
combat debut until early in World War II, when French
patrols on the Siegfried Line began to take unexplained
casualties. These casualties were attributed to a
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device the French dubbed "the silent soldier," the
famous German "S" mine introduced during the 1930s.
52
These mines were commonly called "Bouncing Bettys."
Directional AP Mines. These mines descended from an
early directional type of stone fougasse used in Europe.
Under the guidance of physicists Franz Rudolf Tomanek
and Hubertn Schardin, the Germans developed a
directional AP mine, called a trench mine, late in World
War II. The French fielded a directional AP mine in 1947,
but it was the Americans who refined it in response to
the human-wave attacks of Chinese Communist forces
during the Korean Conflict in the early 1950s. The new
mine was developed and placed in production in 1953,
too late to see combat in Korea. Called the M18
Claymore after a famous type of Scottish broadsword, it
first saw combat in Vietnam in 1961.
53
Simple Fragmenting AP Mines. Stake-mounted,
fragmenting AP mines were introduced in the Russo-
Finnish War of 1939, when badly outnumbered Finns
improvised them from grenades. When the Finns fought
the Russians to a standstill along the Mannerheim Line
in November 1939, this setback forced the Russians to
conduct the first mounted breach of a mined, complex
obstacle. In preparation for a deliberate breach, the
Russians improvised roller tanks and flamethrower
tanks and conducted extensive rehearsals.
54
The stake
mine that emerged from World War II is still used today
without significant changes to its design.
55
The best-
known example is the Soviet-made POMZ-2 mine.
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Blast AP Mines
Blast AP mines descended from the vertical fougasse
and large underground mines that were dug under
fortified positions and then detonated. It is unclear
which mine is the first modern "toe-popper" blast AP
mine, but the Soviet-made PMK-40
56
and the British-
made "Ointment Box"
57
mine are good candidates.
Chemical Mines
The British-developed Livens Projector was first em-
ployed in 1917 and is arguably the first chemical mine.
58
The Germans also developed and employed what the
Allies dubbed the "Yperite Mine" in 1918. It used a
delayed action demolition charge containing mustard
agent ("Yperite") to deny bunkers that were being
abandoned during a withdrawal.
59
The first modern
chemical mine, the Spruh-buchse 37 (Bounding Gas
Mine 37), was developed and produced by Germany
during World War II and normally had a mustard-agent
fill. It was never used in combat.
60
Except for the
introduction of nerve-agent fills, the design of chemical
mines has not changed significantly since the Second
World War.
Flame Mines
"Liquid Fire" and "Greek Fire" have existed since
classical times. However, the first reported flame mine
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was improvised by Confederate soldiers near
Charleston in 1864, possibly from shells containing
Greek Fire, which the Union fired into the city and that
failed to function.
61
During World War II, the Russians
used a trip-wire-activated static flamethrower at the
Battle of Kursk.
62
These devices were quickly copied by
the Germans and used in the Atlantic Wall.
63
The British
also employed improvised flame mines during the First
Battle of El Alamein in 1942.
64
The United States
developed the first modern flame mine, the XM-55, for
use in Vietnam. It was a pressure- or trip-wire-activated
bounding mine.
65
There are no indications that it was
ever used in combat. Improvised flame mines,
sometimes called flame fougasse, are still occasionally
used in combat.
Booby traps
The first explosive booby traps were employed by the
Chinese against the Mongols in 1277.
66
They first
appeared in the West during the Seminole War of
1840.
67
During the Civil War, Confederate soldiers
employed a variety of these devices--including pull-
firing devices, timer-rundown fuses, and coal or wood
"torpedoes" that detonated when burned in a boiler.
Booby traps reached full maturity during World War II,
when reliable German mechanical anti-handling devices
were introduced, and have been used in almost every
conflict since.
Conclusion
During the 20th century, the antipersonnel mine evolved
into a highly effective weapon and combat multiplier. It
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proved to have great utility for protecting out-numbered
American soldiers against dismounted attacks, as
shown in Anzio and Korea. The innovations that made
this mine possible came from a variety of sources,
including the ingenuity of combat engineers.
Part II of this article begins with antivehicle mines, first
used around 120 B.C., and continues through
countermines, sea mines, and antiaircraft mines being
used or developed today.
Endnotes
1
Ancient Inventions, by Peter James and Nick Thorpe,
Ballantine Books, New York, page 200.
2
A History of Fortification, From 3000 BC to AD 1700, by
Sidney Toy, Heineman, London, 1966, page 2.
3
The Generalship of Alexander the Great, by J.F.C.
Fuller, Rutgers University Press, New Brunswick, N. J.,
1960, page 45.
4
Origins, A Short Etymological Dictionary of Modern
English, by Eric Partridge, the Macmillan Company, New
York, 1966, page 251.
5
OP CIT, A History of Fortification, From 3000 BC to AD
1700, page 256.
6
The Art of Warfare in Biblical Lands, Volume 1, by
Yigael Yadin, McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York,
page 317. Note however, that the earliest mention of
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engineer soldiers is attributed to the Hittites as early as
1600 BC. Also, the early Hittite capital Boghazkoy had
predug tunnels to allow for defensive sorties against
any prospective besiegers. See The Hittites, by O. R.
Gurney, Penquin Books.
7
OP CIT, The Generalship of Alexander the Great, pages
200-218.
8
War Commentaries of Caesar, by Julius Caesar,
translated by Rex Warner, The New American Library,
1960, pages 259-266.
9
Warfare in Antiquity, The History of the Art of War,
Volume 1, By Hans Delbruck, translates by Walter
Renfroe, University of Nebraska Press, Lincoln,
Nebraska, 1990 edition, page 212. See also "Weaponry,"
by Robert W. Reid, Military History Magazine, August
1998, page 20.
10
OP CIT, War Commentaries of Caesar, page 173.
11
The Face of Battle, by John Keegan, Penquin Books,
1976, pages 90-91.
12
The Genius of China, by Robert Temple, Simon and
Schuster, New York, 1986, page 224.
13
"Mongol Invasion of Europe," by Erik Hildinger, Military
History Magazine, June 1997, page 44.
14
OP CIT, Origins, A Short Etymological Dictionary of
Modern English, page 271.
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k
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!
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15
The Complete Illustrated Encyclopedia of the World's
Firearms, by Ian V. Hogg, A & W Publishers, New York,
page 8.
16
Mine/Countermine Operations at the Company Level,
FM 20-32, Department of Doctrine and Training
Development, US Army Engineer School, Fort Belvoir,
Virginia, 30 September 1976, page 133.
17
Engineers of the Renaissance, by Bertrand Gille, The
MIT Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts, page 124-125.
18
A History of Artillery, by Ian V. Hogg, Hamlyn, New
York, pages 23-24. The entire English inventory was
only 84 pounds of powder in 1370.
19
As portrayed during the siege of Harfleur (1415) in
Shakespeare's play "Henry V."
20
A Manual of Siegecraft and Fortification, Sebatien de
Vauban, translated by George Rothrock, The University
of Michigan Press, 1968.
21
"Siege," by Gert Bode, International Military and
Defense Encyclopedia, Volume 5, Brassey's Inc.,
Washington, D.C., 1993, page 2421.
22
Military Explosives, TM 9-1300-214, Department of the
Army, September 1984, pages 2-4 to 2-8.
23
Although Count Volta invented his "voltic pile" battery
in 1800, it's potential utility was only slowly recognized.
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24
War Underground, The Tunnellers of the Great War, by
Alexander Barrie, Tom Donovan, London, England,
pages 196-206.
25
An Elementary Course of Military Engineering. Part I.
Comprising Field Fortification, Military Mining, and
Siege Operations, By D. H. Mahan, Wiley & Son, New
York, New York, 1867, pages 172-177.
26
"Engineer Operations During the Vicksburg
Campaign," by Robert Puckett, AD-A255-141, Ft
Leavenworth, KS, 1992, pages 124-132.
27
The Siege of Petersburg, by Joseph P. Cullen, Eastern
Acorn Press, 1970, pages 17-23. The mine exploded by
Federal troops under the Confederate earthwork at
Elliot's Salient at Petersburg, Virginia, on 30 July 1864
was 510 feet long, charged with 8,000 pounds of
powder and produced a crater 9 meters (30ft) deep, 18
meters (60ft) wide, and 52 meters (170ft) long. The
subsequent Federal assault, however, was unable to
exploit the temporary advantage gained by the
explosion and the surprise. A work force reaching over
400 men at times completed the mine in slightly over a
month.
28
The History of Fortification, by Ian Hogg, St. Martin's
Press, New York, pages 185-189.
29
OP CIT, War Underground, The Tunnellers of the Great
War, pages 243-261. On 7 June 1917 British engineers
fired nineteen mines with 430 tons of Ammonal at a
depth of 40 meters at Wytschaete Salient south of
Ypres, destroying three German battalions.
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30
On 13 March 1918, Austrian engineers blew up part of
Mount Pasubio, which was occupied by the Italians,
using 50,000 kilograms (55tons) of explosives killing
485 men.
31
Small Unit Actions During the German Campaign in
Russia, CMH Pub 104-22, Center of Military History,
Washington, D.C., Facsimile edition 1988, pages 165-
168). The "Blitzkrieg" oriented German Army of WWII
maintained special "Minier Pioniere" units throughout
the war (Pioniere, Entwicklung einer Deutschen
Waffengattung, by Dietrich Petter, Wehr und Wissen
Verlagsgesellschaft MBH, Darmstadt, Germany, 1963,
page 245). The British and Canadians are retained this
type of unit during WWII.
32
Hell in a Very Small Place, by Bernard Fall, J.B.
Lippincott Company, 1966, pages 384-386.
33
Not to be confused with the improvised flame mine
that US Army engineers occasionally employ and call a
"fougasse."
34
Frederick the Great, On the Art of War, by Frederick II,
edited and translated by Jay Luvaas, copyright 1966,
The Free Press, New York, page 288.
35
Engineers of Independence, A Documentary History of
the Army Engineers in the American Revolution, 1775-
1783, by Paul K. Walker, Historical Division, Office of
the Chief of Engineers, Washington, D.C., page 158-159
36
Campaigns of the War of 1812-15 Against Great
Britain, Sketched and Critised; with Brief Biographies of
C
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the American Engineers, by MG George Cullum, James
Miller, New York, 1879, pages 237-250.
37
The War with Mexico, by Donald Chidsey, Crown
Publishers, New York, pages 161-163.
38
Ayudas de Instruccion Contra Minas, Trampas Y
Artefactos Explosivos, Guatemalan Corps of Engineers,
undated, page 60.
39
Engineer, Contingency Handbook (former Yugoslavia),
US Army Engineer School, Ft Leonard Wood, Missouri,
July 1993, page 1-32.
40
OP CIT, The Genius of China, page 235-237.
41
"Mine Warfare, Land," by Ulrich Kreuzfeld,
International Military and Defence Encyclopedia,
Volume 4, Brassey's Inc., Washington, D. C., 1993,
pages 1756-1757.
42
OP CIT, Pioniere, Entwicklung einer Deutschen
Waffengattung, pages 36 and 118.
43
The Illustrated Encyclopedia of 19th Century Firearms,
by Major F. Myatt, Cresent Books, New York, page 18.
44
Lee's Lieutenant's, Volume 1, Douglas Southall
Freeman, 1942, pages 268-269. See also Southern
Historical Society Papers, Volume III, January to June
1877, Broadfoot Publishing Company, 1990 edition,
pages 38-39. The shells used were ordinary 8- or 10-inch
mortar or columbiad shells.
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45
Bridge Building in Wartime, Colonel Wesley Brainerd's
Memoir of the 50th New York Volunteer Engineers,
edited by Ed Malles, University of Tennessee Press,
Knoxville, Tennessee, 1997, page 65.
46
"The Royal Engineers Journal," December 1, 1903,
page 267.
47
The Short Victorious War, The Russo-Japanese
Conflict, 1904-5, by David Walder, Harper & Row, New
York, page 102.
48
The Evolution of Weapons and Warfare, by T. N. Dupuy,
Bobbs-Merrill Company, Indianapolis, 1980, page 213.
49
The Storm of Steel, From the Diary of a German Storm-
troop Officer on the Western Front, by Ernst Junger,
Howard Fertig, New York, 1993 edition, page 43.
50
Engineer Field Manual, Parts I-VII, Professional Papers
of the Corps of Engineers, US Army, No.29, Fifth Edition
(corrected to December 31, 1917), Government Printing
Office, Washington, 1918, page 422.
51
Elements of Military Art and Science; or, Course of
Instruction in Strategy, Fortification, Tactics of Battle
&c, by H. Wager Halleck, D. Appleton & Company, New
York, New York, 1859, page 363. Note however, that
this type probably predates this work and in fact, it may
be shell fougasses that were emplaced by the Mexicans
at Chapultepec, but the available descriptions are not
clear.
C
lic
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C
lic
k
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b
u
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N
O
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!
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1584
52
Engineers in Battle, by Paul W. Thompson, Military
Service Publishing Company, Harrisburg, Pennsylvania,
1942, pages 64-71, translation of an article in
Vierteljahreshefte fur Pioniere, 3rd Quarter, 1940.
53
Claymore Mines, Their History and Development, by
Larry Grupp, Paladin Press, Boulder, Colorado, 1993.
54
The Winter War, The Russo-Finnish Conflict, 1939-40,
by Eloise Engle and Lauri Paananen, Charles Scribner's
Sons, New York.
55
Eastern Europe, World War II, Landmine and
Countermine Warfare, Engineer Agency for Resources
Inventories, Washington, D.C., August 1973, page 155.
56
Soviet Mine Warfare Equipment, TM 5-223A,
Department of the Army, Washington, D.C., August
1951, page 129.
57
British, French and Italian Mine Warfare Equipment,
TM 5-223D, Department of the Army, Washington, D.C.,
May 1952, page 61.
58
Chemical Warfare in World War I: The American
Experience, 1917-1918, by Charles Heller, Leavenworth
Papers No. 10, Combat Studies Institute, Ft
Leavenworth, Kansas, September 1984, page 20-21.
59
"Report on an Yperite Mine," Report No. Z-741, by A.
Kling, Municipal Chemical Laboratory, Paris, France, 3
December 1918, DTIC # AD499336.
C
lic
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o
b
u
y
N
O
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C
lic
k
t
o
b
u
y
N
O
W
!
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1585
60
German Mine Warfare Equipment, TM 5-223C,
Department of the Army, Washington, D.C., March 1952,
page 146.
61
Infernal Machines, The Story of Confederate
Submarine and Mine Warfare, by Milton F. Perry,
Louisiana State University Press, 1965, page 166.
62
The History of the Panzerkorps Grossdeutschland,
Volume 2, by Helmuth Spaeter, J. J. Fedorowicz
Publishing, Winnipeg, Canada, 1995 edition, page 121.
63
OP CIT, Eastern Europe, World War II, Landmine and
Countermine Warfare, pages 387-399. For an example of
their use in the Atlantic Wall, see "Defenses of the
Normandy Peninsula," by Sherwood Smith, The Military
Engineer, Vol. XXXVII, No. 2, page 50.
64
Report from the 3rd Reconnaissance Battalion, 21st
Panzer Division, dated 26 July 1942, Captured German
Records, National Archives, T-313, Roll 431, Frame
8723884.
65
Vietnam, 1964-1969, Landmine and Countermine
Warfare, Engineer Agency for Resources Inventories,
Washington, D.C., June 1972, page 47.
66
OP CIT, Ancient Inventions, page 207.
67
Southern Historical Society Papers, Volume X,
January to December 1882, Broadfoot Publishing
Company, 1990, pages 257-260.
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C
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1586
Chapter 25
The Origins of Military Mines: Part II
Part II of this series traces the origins of antivehicle
mines and countermine equipment. Though it may seem
odd, the explosive antivehicle mine predates the
appearance of the tank by more than 50 years! The
continuous evolution of these weapons is driven by the
defender's need to economize his forces while
protecting them from attack. This, in turn, drives the
development of the countermine equipment that
attackers must have to successfully retain their
mobility.
Antivehicle Mines
One of the earliest antivehicle "mines" was described
by military engineer Philo of Byzantium around 120 B.C.,
when he recommended that "in front of the advanced
walls (of a city) empty earthenware jars should be
buried. These are placed in an upright position with
their mouths upward, stopped up with seaweed or
imperishable grass, and covered with earth. Troops may
then pass over the jars with impunity, (but) the engines
and timber towers brought up by the enemy will sink
into them."
1
Another early example occurred during the
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1587
Roman siege of Jerusalem in 70 A.D., when Jewish
Zealots dug a tunnel mine under one of the besieger's
four massive siege engines (powerful battering rams on
wheels), resulting in its destruction and a three-day
delay in the battle.
2
During the American Civil War,
Confederate soldiers developed and employed pressure-
fuzed railroad mines that destroyed at least two heavily
loaded trains in Tennessee.
3
To counteract the railroad
mines, the Union Army improvised the first mine-
clearing roller, a flatcar pushed slowly in front of a
locomotive to detonate any mines ahead of it.
4
Table 1. Origin of Mobility Equipment
Equipment
First
Prototype
First
Production
First Combat
Use
Bangalore
torpedo
U.K.,
1912
U.K., Western
Front, WWI
Tank mine
roller
U.K.,
1918
U.S.S.R. U.S.S.R.,
Tank mine
plow
France
U.K.
U.K, Sword
Beach, WWII
Electronic
mine
detector
France
Germany,
Polish
Campaign,
1939
Vehicle-
mounted
electronic
mine
detector
France,
Pre-WWII
U.S. U.S.
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C
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k
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N
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1588
Flail U.K.,
1942
U.K., 1943 U.K., 2d El
Alamein,
1942
(24
prototypes
were used in
this battle.)
Remote-
control
breaching
France Germany,
1940
Germany,
Sevastopol,
1942
Demolition
snake
Canada U.S., Anzio,
May 1944
Projected line
charge
U.K.,
1944
U.K., 1944 U.K., Calais,
September
1944
Mine-
resistant
wheeled
vehicle
U.K.,
1941
Sweden,
1940s
U.K., North
Africa, 1941
Scatterable
mine-clearing
system
France,
1980s
Israel
Full-width
mine rake
U.S., 1990 U.S., 1990 U.S., Gulf
War, 1991
Antitrack (Pressure-Fuzed) Mines
German pioniere (combat engineers) improvised the
first antitank (AT) mines during World War I in response
to another innovation in combat engineering--a British-
made tank developed in September 1916 by Lieutenant
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1589
Colonel E. D. Swinton, Royal Engineers (RE). Initially,
the Germans buried standard artillery and mortar shells
with a sensitive fuze pointed up. They also employed
command-detonated mines, which are forerunners of
full-width-attack AT mines. Later in World War I, the
Germans improvised many types of mines, including a
wooden box mine that measured approximately 14 by
16 by 2 inches and weighed about 12 pounds. Twenty
200-gram blocks of explosive were placed in each box,
which was normally buried about 10 inches deep.
Detonation was initiated by a hand grenade placed
inside and against one wall of the box so that the
primer passed through the wall. The mines functioned
by pressure as tanks passed over them or by command
detonation. Electric blasting caps, which first appeared
in 1900, greatly facilitated command detonation.
5
During World War I, Germans scattered their AT mines
at random or in locally created patterns to reinforce
wire obstacles and AT ditches in front of trench lines.
6
The Germans began to manufacture standard AT mines
in 1916 and produced nearly three million before the
Armistice of 1918. Regrettably, no information on the
characteristics of these factory-produced mines has
come to light. German AT mines accounted for a
significant portion of allied tank losses, including about
15 percent of U.S. tank casualties, during the battles of
St. Mihiel, Catalet-Bony, Selle, and Meuse/Argonne.
7
The
British also improvised AT mines during World War I.
Two varieties have been identified: one based on a pipe
bomb and the other on a bombard shell.
8
In 1929, the
Germans introduced the Tellermine 29, the first in a
series of modern pressure-fused AT mines. This series
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1590
formed the basis for many of the AT mines used to date,
including the U.S. M15.
Antihull (Full-Width-Attack) Mines
The Russian AKS, a tilt-rod-actuated blast AT mine that
appeared on the Russian front during World War II, was
probably the first true full-width AT mine. However, the
Germans developed the first modern full-width-attack
mine toward the end of World War II. Called the Hohl-
Sprung Mine 4672, it employed a tilt-rod fuze and
shaped-charge kill mechanism.
9
Although 59,000 of this
mine were produced, there are no reports that it was
ever used in combat.
10
Nevertheless, it represented a
significant improvement in mine technology. The French
probably were first to field a modern full-width-attack
mine when the Model 1948 entered service in 1948.
Another important advance in the evolution of the full-
width AT mine was the Russian development of
influence fusing, both seismic (VZ-1) and magnetic,
during World War II.
11
This combination of a shaped
charge with a full-width-attack fuse has proven
extremely effective. Its greater coverage enables
emplacing units to get the same obstacle effect with
significantly fewer mines per kilometer of front.
Additionally, this type of mine often produces a K-kill
(catastrophic kill), with fatalities to crew members of
all vehicles, including tanks and other tracked vehicles.
This lethality definitely decreases the willingness of
combat vehicle crews to "bull through" a mined area.
C
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1591
Side-Attack Mines. The advent of shoulder-fired AT
weapons, beginning with the U.S. bazooka in 1942, led
to the development of side-attack AT mines. First
employed by the Germans and Soviets during World War
II, these mines were based on the Panzerfaust.
12
The
early Soviet-made LMG reportedly is still being used by
North Korea.
13
This type of mine is difficult to employ
due to its large size and because it must be emplaced
aboveground.
Wide-Area Mines. The predecessor of the wide-area
landmine--one that sends ammunition toward its target
without human guidance--is the Russian "dog mine" of
World War II.
14
Advanced wide-area mines are now
emerging in Western Europe and the United States.
15
Mine-Emplacement Systems
The Italian AR-4 Thermos Bomb (also called Anti-
personnel (AP) Bomb Manzolini) was one of the first
scatter able mine-laying systems used in combat.
Scattered by aircraft, it was used fairly extensively in
North Africa from 1940 to 1942).
16
Another early scatter
able mine was the German SD-2B Schmetterling
(butterfly). It was used effectively against the Poles in
September 1939. Both types employed antidisturbance
and time-delay fuzing. The Germans also developed a
cluster-bomb version of the SD-2 that had airburst or
impact fusing. An aircraft-dropped bomb container
could carry 24 Thermos bombs as a submunition. The
Schmetterling could be carried as sub munitions in the
following cluster-bomb containers: AB 23 (23 SD-2s),
the AB 250-3 (108 SD-2s), the Mk 500 (6 SD-2s), and the
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AB 24t (24 SD-2s),
17
In addition to Poland, the
Schmetterling was used in France, North Africa, Italy,
England, and Russia.
18
It could be dropped by one of 15
Luftwaffe groups equipped with specially modified
aircraft (Ju-88s, Do-17s, Me-109s, or Ju-87s).
19
The U.S.
Air Force copied this mine, called it the M-83, and used
it against Germany and later in Korea
20
and Vietnam.
21
In Germany, Krupp developed (but did not field) the first
mechanical mine planter, which was towed behind a
Tiger tank.
22
The U.S. Marine Corps developed the first
air-scatterable AT mine--the Douglas Model 31 from
1952 to 1958. The first one to enter production (in 1975)
appears to be the U.S.-made UH-1 helicopter-mounted
M-56 system, which used the M-34 AT mine.
23
Table 2. Origin of Countermobility Equipment
Mine/Fuze
Type
First
Prototype
First
Production
First
Combat
Use
Tunnel
mining
Assyria,
~1000 BC
Caltrops Greece, 330
BC
Explosive
tunnel mines
Florence,
1403
Self-
contained
AP mine
China, 1277 China, 1277 China, 1277
Electric
command-
detonated
France,
1858
France,
Sevastopol,
1858
C
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O
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!
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C
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k
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b
u
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N
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!
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1593
mine
Blast AT
Mine
Germany,
1917
Germany,
1918
Germany,
Western
Front, 1917
Bounding AP
mine
U.S., 1859 Germany,
1930s
Germany,
West Wall,
1939
Chemical
mine
U.K. Germany,
WWII
Flame mine Confederac
y, 18641
U.S.S.R.,
1943
U.S.S.R.,
Kursk, 1943
Mechanical
booby traps
China, 1277 Confederac
y, 18641
China, 1277
Side-attack
AT mine
Germany,
1943
U.S.S.R.,
1943
Germany,
Eastern
Front, 1943
Full-width-
attack AT
mine
Germany,
1945
France,
1948
Fixed-wing
aircraft-
scattered AP
mine
Germany,
1930s
Germany,
1930s
Germany,
Polish
Campaign,
1939
Fixed-wing
aircraft-
scattered AT
mine
U.S. U.S., 1960s U.S.,
Southeast
Asia, 1960s
Helicopter-
scattered AP
mine
U.S.,
Vietnam
U.S.S.R.,
1970s
U.S.S.R.,
Afghanistan
, 1980s
C
lic
k
t
o
b
u
y
N
O
W
!
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C
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1594
Helicopter-
scattered AT
mine
U.S., 1970s U.S., 1975 USSR,
Afghanistan
, 1980s
Tube
artillery-
scattered
mines
U.S., 1970s U.S., 1970s U.S., Gulf
War, 1991
Rocket
artillery-
scattered
mines
U.S.S.R.,
1970s
U.S.S.R.,
Afghanistan
, 1980s
Vehicle-
scattered
mines
U.S., 1970s
Manpack-
scattered
mines
U.S., 1990s
Radio-
controlled
mines
U.S.S.R.,
1941
U.S.S.R.,
1942
Tilt-rod fuze U.S.S.R.,
1941
U.S.S.R.,
1941
Daisy-
chained
mines
Finland,
1939
Finland,
1939
Coupled
mines
Germany,
1942
Germany,
WWII
Germany,
North
Africa, 1942
Boosted
mines
Germany,
1942
Germany,
North
C
lic
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N
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C
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1595
Africa, 1942
Breakwire
fuze
U.S., 1960s U.S.S.R.,
Afghanistan
Tripwire
fuze
Germany,
1573
Germany,
1939
Germany,
1500s (?)
Railroad
mine
Confederac
y, 18621
Germany,
WWII
Confederac
y, Civil War,
18621
Electronic
boobytrap
Yugoslavia,
1980s
Yugoslavia,
1990s
Low-metal
mine
Finland,
1939
Finland ,
1939
Influence
fuze
U.S.S.R.,
WWII
U.S.S.R.,
WWII
Antihandling
devices
Germany,
1930s
Germany,
WWII
Mechanical
mine planter
Germany,
WWII
U.S.S.R.,
post-WWII
Blast-
hardened
mines
Italy, 1980s Mujahideen,
Afghanistan
, 1980s
Antihelicopt
er mine
Viet Cong,
Vietnam
War
Viet Cong,
Vietnam
War
Integral
electronic
antihandling
device
Italy, 1980
C
lic
k
t
o
b
u
y
N
O
W
!
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C
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k
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1596
Countermines
The original countermines were tunnels dug by
besieged defenders to disrupt enemy mining efforts. A
countermine was successful when an enemy tunnel
was intercepted. Inevitably, a confused, close-quarters
fight in the dark followed, as the two sides fought to
control the tunnel.
24
One example of this occurred
during the siege of Barca about 510 B.C. "The Persians
excavated underground tunnels that reached the walls.
Among the Barcaeans there was a skilled worker in
brass who took a brazen shield and, carrying it round
within the wall, applied it here and there at places
where he thought the workings might be. Where there
were no mines the shield was silent, but at places near
mining operations the shield made a vibrating sound. By
countermining at these points, the Barcaeans broke
into the enemy's works and slew the men they found
there."
25
Explosive Countermines. The first identified use of an
explosive countermine was during the siege of Belgrade
in 1433, when John Vrano used black powder in a
countermine against the Turks.
26
In this application, the
intent was to dig close to the enemy's mine gallery and
emplace and detonate a charge that would collapse the
tunnel and kill the miners. This type of explosive
countermine was used up to World War I.
27
During the
Thirty Years War in central Europe (1618-1648), some
defenders released poisonous antimony gas into
tunnels to kill miners.
28
C
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Manual Breaching. The first deliberate breach of a
minefield was by Colonel Serrel's 1st New York
Volunteer Engineers at Fort Wagner, South Carolina, in
August and September 1863 during the Civil War. Union
sappers literally dug their way through the minefield
using traditional siege warfare techniques.
29
Mine Plows, Rakes, and Detectors. In 1918, the French
developed the first plow-equipped tank, which was
based on a Renault FT-17 tank.
30
However, plow tanks
were not used in combat until D-Day in 1944, when the
British 79th Armored Division employed a "Bullshorn"
plow on a Churchill tank at Sword Beach.
31
Modern
versions used by most countries, including the United
States, are based on an Israeli design. The highly
successful full-width mine rake was first developed and
used by the United States during Operation Desert
Storm.
The Germans, French, Russians, and Italians entered
World War II with metallic mine detectors, but
information on the details of their origin is lacking.
32
During the interwar years, the French developed the
first vehicle-mounted electronic mine detector on an R-
35 tank.
33
Bangalore Torpedo. Captain McClintock--an engineer
officer in the Bengal, Bombay, and Madras Sappers and
Miners--invented the Bangalore torpedo in 1912. Its
purpose was to counter problems caused by the rise of
barbed-wire obstacles during the Boer War (1899-1902)
and the Russo-Japanese War (1904-1905). The torpedo,
which took its name from Bangalore, India, where it
C
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was developed, was originally a 5.5-meter length of pipe
filled with 27.2 kilograms of dynamite.
34
Early in World
War II, the torpedo was found to effectively clear a path
through minefields, and it remains a standard item in
most armies. In 1944, the United States began
experimentation for a supplemental system that would
use a bullet-trap rifle grenade or small rocket to deploy
a length of detonating cord,
35
but these devices have
not been generally accepted. A more likely successor is
the U.S. Antipersonnel Obstacle-Breaching System
(APOBS), which is based on the Israeli-developed
POMINS.
36
Mine Rollers and Assault Bridges. At the end of World
War I, the British developed a tank-mounted mine roller
as a countermeasure against German AT mines. Major
Martel (RE) explored the possibility of producing mine
rollers and assault bridges that could be used by
armored vehicles. Martel was assisted by Major Inglis
from the Engineer-in-Chief's branch at general
headquarters. Inglis, an engineering professor at
Cambridge, had designed a prefabricated tubular mobile
bridge to carry tanks across a clear span of 100 feet.
Three special tank battalions, one commanded by
Martel, were formed at Christ-church in Hampshire,
England, in 1918. Each battalion had Mk V tanks
designed to accept either mine rollers or to push/pull
mobile bridges. Although the armistice came before the
units were operational, Martel continued trials with the
one remaining unit, called the Experimental Bridging
Company, which was transitioned to the civilian-
controlled Experimental Bridging Establishment in
1925.
37
The mine roller was first used in combat in
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1940, when the Russians used it to help breach
Finland's Mannerheim Line.
38
The highly successful
Russian Mugalev roller, which first saw action in 1942,
was developed based on this experience.
39
Most rollers
currently used by former Warsaw Pact countries, Israel,
and the United States are patterned after the Mugalev
roller.
40
Snake. The demolition "Snake" was first developed by
Major MacLean, a Canadian combat engineer from the
11th Field Company, in October 1941. Originally
nicknamed the "Worthington Wiggler" after F. F.
Worthington, commander of the 1st Canadian Tank
Brigade, it was basically an oversized bangalore
torpedo. The Snake consisted of sections of 3-inch
diameter pipe loaded with explosives, which could be
coupled together in lengths up to 400 feet and pushed
as a unit across a minefield ahead of a tank. The
subsequent detonation would clear a path through the
field. The Snake was demonstrated successfully in
February and March 1942.
41
Although the U.S. Army was
equipped with a small number of them during the
campaign in North Africa, the Snake was first used in
combat by the U.S. 1st Armored Division on 23 May
1944 during the breakout from the Anzio Beachhead.
42
Mine-Clearing Line Charge. A British-made, rocket-
deployed, flexible line charge called the "Conger" was
developed to overcome the shortcomings of the Snake.
The Conger was the first modern mine-clearing line
charge. Consisting of 330 yards of specially woven 2-
inch diameter flexible hose, it was launched across a
minefield by a 5-inch rocket. After the hose was
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1600
deployed, it was filled with 2,500 pounds of a
nitroglycerine-based liquid explosive known as 822C.
Because it was so dangerous, the Conger was used in
combat only once by the British 79th Armored Division
during the battle for Calais on 25 September 1944.
43
Modern mine-clearing line charges like the U.S. M58
MICLIC and the British Giant Viper evolved from this
device.
44
Mine-Clearing Flail. Lieutenant Colonel Colman, a South
African engineer, got the idea for a mine-clearing flail
when he saw a tracked vehicle drive by with a length of
wire wrapped around its sprockets. The wire hit the
ground hard with each revolution of the sprockets.
Colman's idea was developed by Field Marshal
Montgomery's 8th Army in the general headquarters
workshops in August 1942. Twenty-four of these flails,
called "Scorpions," were first used in combat during
several British breaching efforts in the Second Battle of
El Alamein.
45
Eventually, the British consolidated the
flail and many other specialized armored vehicles in the
famous 79th Armored Division. Commanded by General
Hobart, RE, this division--known as Hobart's Funnies--
was probably the most advanced combat engineering
organization ever de-veloped.
46
Modern descendants of
the Scorpion are in service in England and are the
forerunner of the jointly developed German and Israeli
Keiler system.
47
Remote-Controlled Breaching Vehicles. The first
prototype, remote-controlled breaching vehicles for
cutting wire obstacles were developed in Germany and
France during World War I.
48
The Germans were the first
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to produce and deploy remote-controlled minefield
breaching vehicles by using both an expendable charge-
carrying vehicle (the "Goliath") and a nonexpendable
vehicle (the B-IV) that was intended to drop its charge
and withdraw before the charge detonated. Although
these vehicles were used with some success at
Sevastopol in 1942 and Kursk in 1943, they were
generally considered failures.
49
Sea Mines
The Chinese first employed sea mines in the 14th
century. The oldest known European design for a sea
mine was presented by Ralph Rabbards to Queen
Elizabeth I in 1574.
50
In the West, the first known
employment of sea mines occurred in 1777 when
Captain David Bushnell, an American Continental Army
engineer, attacked British ships on the Delaware River
with floating mines. He also made the first submarine
attack in the history of warfare and commanded the
Company of Sappers and Miners that stormed Redoubt
10 at Yorktown.
51
Robert Fulton and Samuel Colt both
experimented with sea mines in the early 1800s but lost
interest when their efforts were not well received by
any government. The term "torpedo" was first applied to
Fulton's submarine engine. Floating mines were used by
the Russians during the Crimean War in 1855 and at
Canton, China, in 1857-58.
52
Their first significant
employment, however, occurred during the American
Civil War, where they were responsible for most of the
Union ships sunk.
53
Antiaircraft Mines
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1602
This type of mine is still emerging from the
technological shadows. The first improvised
antihelicopter mines appeared during the Vietnam War
and were used by the Viet Cong on potential landing
zones.
54
During the Cold War, the Russians developed
an antiaircraft mine based on their surface-to-air (SA)-
7/14 missile for use by their special-purpose forces
(SPETZNAZ) against NATO airbases.
55
In the 1990s,
Britain and the United States had developmental
programs for producing "smart" antihelicopter mines
that could be deployed to engage low-flying helicopters,
but these have been cancelled.
56
However, a Russian
company is looking for partners to help fund the
development and fielding of the "Temp 20," an
antihelicopter mine with a lethal range of 200 meters.
57
Some of the technologies being developed for the
Ballistic Missile Defense Office could even be
considered orbiting space mines.
Conclusion
This series of articles has explored the origins of
military mines and the ingenuity of the engineers who
drove their development. (See Engineer, July 1998, for
Part I.) The evolution of these necessary but
unglamorous weapons will continue.
Antiaircraft/antihelicopter mines and possibly
antisatellite "mines" will almost certainly appear in the
future. So far, history has shown that whenever a new
means of movement appears in the attacker's
repertoire, the military engineer responds with a
defensive countermeasure.
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1603
Major Schneck, a professional engineer, is the Assistant
Division Engineer, 29th Light Infantry Division (Virginia
Army National Guard), and a senior project engineer in
the Countermine Division, Night Vision and Electronic
Sensors Directorate, Fort Belvoir, Virginia. A veteran of
both the Gulf War and Somalia, he has published
numerous papers on mine warfare. Major Schneck is a
graduate of the Command and General Staff College and
holds a master's degree in mechanical engineering from
Catholic University.
Endnotes
1
A History of Fortification, From 3000 BC to AD 1700, by
Sidney Toy, Heineman, London, 1966, page 31.
2
Ibid. pages 151-156.
3
The Sinking of the USS Cairo, by John C. Wideman,
University Press of Mississippi, 1993, page 51.
4
Reminiscences of General Herman Haupt, by Herman
Haupt, Arno Press, 1981 edition, page 49.
5
The Fighting Tanks Since 1916, by Ralph Jones,
George Rarey, and Robert Icks, The National Publishing
Company, Washington, D.C., 1933, page 262. See also
FM 20-32 (1976), page 133.
6
"Destruction of Enemy Traps and Mines," by J. Frank
Barber. Military Engineer, September-October, 1924,
pages 374-377.
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7
Ibid. pages 47, & 106-114, also see Treat 'em Rough!
The Birth of American Armor,1917-20, by Dale E. Wilson,
Presidio, 1989, pages 117, 170, 182, 196, and 204.
8
Mine/Countermine Operations at the Company Level,
FM 20-32, Department of Doctrine and Training
Development, US Army Engineer School, Fort Belvoir,
Virginia, 30 September 1976, page 133.
9
German Mine Warfare Equipment, TM 5-223C, March
1952, pages 118-122. See also pages 89-94.
10
Deutsche Landminen, 1935-1945, by Wolfgang
Fleischer, Waffen-Arsenal, Band 164, Podzun-Pallas-
Verlag,1997, pages 12 and 43.
11
Soviet Mine Warfare Equipment, TM 5-223A,
Department of the Army, August 1951, pages 45-52 and
83-89.
12
Ibid. pages 113-116.
13
North Korean People's Army Handbook, FC 100-2-99,
Battle Command Training Program, April 1992, page 10-
36.
14
Soviet Mine Warfare Equipment, TM 5-223A,
Department of the Army, Washington, D.C., August
1951, pages 62-63.
15
Jane's Military Vehicles and Logistics, 1991-1992,
edited by Christopher Foss and Terry Gander, Jane's
Defence Data, Great Britain, 1991, pages 199-200 and
"Smart Mines Join the Fray," Armed Forces Journal,
August 1992, page 14.
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1605
16
North Africa, 1940-1943, Landmine and Countermine
Warfare, Engineer Agency for Resources Inventories,
Washington, D.C., June 1972, pages 15, 20, 30, 50, and
51.
17
Italian and French Explosive Ordnance, TM 9-1985-6,
Departments of the Army and the Air Force, March
1953, pages 3, 25, 59-60. And German Explosive
Ordnance (Bombs, Fuzes, Rockets, Land Mines,
Grenades, and Igniters), TM 9-1985-2, Departments of
the Army and the Air Force, Washington, D.C., March
1953, page 34.
18
OP CIT, North Africa, 1940-1943, Landmine and
Countermine Warfare, page 15. Luftwaffe Handbook,
1939-1945, by Alfred Price, Charles Scribner's Sons,
New York, New York, 1997, page 42. Unexploded Bomb,
A History of Bomb Disposal, by Arthur Hartley, W. W.
Norton & Company, New York, 1958, pages 132-134,
159-165, and 213.
19
German Air Force Operations in Support of the Army,
by General der Flieger and. D. Paul Deichmann, USAF
Historical Studies: No. 163, USAF Historical Division
Research Studies Institute Air University, Arno Press,
New York, June 1972, pages 43-44.
20
The 1st Cavalry Division and Their 8th Engineers in
Korea, edited by Frank Armstrong, Bull Run of Vermont,
South Burlington, Vermont, 1993, page 180.
21
Viet Cong Boobytraps, Mines, and Mine Warfare
Techniques, TC 5-31, Headquarters, Department of the
Army, December 1969, page 2-11.
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22
German Mine Warfare Equipment, TM 5-223C,
Department of the Army, Washington, D.C., March 1952,
page 10. The device proved "impractical." See also a
video titled "Great Fighting Machines of WWII." The first
fielded mechanical mine planter was probably Russian.
23
OP CIT, Jane's Military Vehicles and Logistics, 1991-
1992, pages 217-218.
24
Medieval Warfare, by Terrence Wise, Hastings House
Publishers, New York, 1976, pages 168-169.
25
OP CIT, A History of Fortification, page 23.
26
Ibid. pages 99-100.
27
War Underground, The Tunnellers of the Great War, by
Alexander Barrie, Tom Donovan, London, England,
pages 196-206.
28
European Weapons and Warfare, 1618-1648, by
Eduard Wagner,Octopus Publishing, page 222.
29
Infernal Machines, The Story of Confederate
Submarine and Mine Warfare, by Milton F. Perry,
Louisiana State University Press, 1965, pages 58-60.
30
Encyclopedia of Tanks, by Duncan Crow and Robert
Icks, Chartwell Books, page 135 and 164.
31
The Story of the 79th Armoured Division, privately
published, June 1945, page 45.
32
"Mine and Countermine in Recent History, 1914-
1970," by Russel Stolfi, BRL Report 1582, Ballistic
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Research Laboratories, Aberdeen Proving Grounds,
Maryland, April 1972, page 21.
33
OP CIT, Encyclopedia of Tanks, page 31.
34
Royal Engineers, by Derek Boyd, Leo Cooper Ltd.,
London, 1975, page 72.
35
Western Europe, World War II, Landmine and
Countermine Warfare, Engineer Agency for Resources
Inventories, Washington, D.C., July 1973, page 205.
36
OP CIT, Jane's Military Vehicles and Logistics, 1991-
1992, pages 235 and 249.
37
OP CIT, Royal Engineers, pages 75-76.
38
The Winter War, The Russo-Finnish Conflict, 1939-40,
by Eloise Engle and Lauri Paananen, Charles Scribner's
Sons, New York, page 77.
39
Soviet Tanks and Combat Vehicles of World War Two,
by Steven Zaloga and James Grandsen, Arms and
Armour Press, London, pages 62, 81, 84, 85, 190, & 191.
See also, Bagration 1944, The Destruction of Army
Group Centre, by Steven Zaloga, pages 33, 34, and 49.
40
OP CIT, Jane's Military Vehicles and Logistics, 1991-
1992, pages 234, 235, 238, and 240.
41
History of the Corps of Royal Canadian Engineers,
Volume II, 1936-1946, by A. J. Kerry and W. A. McDill,
The Military Engineers Association of Canada, Ottawa,
1966, page 99. However, it is possible that the Germans
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1608
were first, see German Mine Warfare Equipment, pages
215-216.
42
Cassino to the Alps, The Mediterranean Theater of
Operations, by Ernest Fisher, Center of Military History,
US Army, Washington, D.C., 1977, 120-128.
43
OP CIT, The Story of the 79th Armored Division, page
136.
44
OP CIT, Jane's Military Vehicles and Logistics, 1991-
1992, pages 238, 242, 247, & 248.
45
Taming the Landmine, by Peter Stiff, Galago
Publishing, Alberton, South Africa, 1986, pages 23-28.
Alternatively, the Russians may have been first, see
Soviet Tanks and Combat Vehicles of World War Two,
page 62.
46
Vanguard of Victory, The 79th Armored Division, by
David Fletcher, Her Majesty's Stationery Office, London,
1984.
47
OP CIT, Jane's Military Vehicles and Logistics, 1991-
1992, page 232.
48
OP CIT, Encyclopedia of Tanks, pages 133 and 143.
49
German Remote-Control Tank Units 1940-1943, by
Markus Jaugitz, Schiffer Military, Atglen, Pennsylvania.
These devices are arguably related to the much older
concept of a "fire ship" from naval warfare.
50
The Genius of China, by Robert Temple, Simon and
Schuster, New York, 1986, page 237.
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1609
51
Engineers of Independence, A Documentary History of
the Army Engineers in the American Revolution, 1775-
1783, by Paul K. Walker, Historical Division, Office of
the Chief of Engineers, Washington, D.C., page 185.
52
Torpedoes: Their Invention and Use, From the First
Application to the Art of War to the Present Time, by W.
R. King, Washington, 1866, page 34-86.
53
OP CIT, Infernal Machines, The Story of Confederate
Submarine and Mine Warfare, page 4.
54
OP CIT, TC 5-31, pages 4-14 and 4-15.
55
On Air Defense, by James D. Crabtree, Praeger,
Westport, Connecticut, 1994, pages 183-184.
56
OP CIT, Jane's Military Vehicles and Logistics, 1991-
1992, page 198 and "Anti-Helicopter Mine" Brochure,
Ferranti International, undated.
57
"Russia Unveils Anti-Helicopter Mine Project," Jane's
International Defense Review, 1/1998, page 16.
Chapter 26
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1610
Landmines
A landmine is an explosive device that is designed to
destroy or damage equipment or personnel. Equipment
targets include ground vehicles, boats, and aircraft. A
mine is detonated by the action of its target, the
passage of time, or controlled means.
There are two types of land-based mines-- anti-tank (AT)
and anti-personnel (AP).
AT mines are designed to immobilize or destroy
vehicles and their occupants. An AT mine produces a
mobility kill (M-Kill) or a catastrophic kill (K-Kill). An M-
Kill destroys one or more of the vehicle's vital drive
components (for example, breaks a track on a tank) and
immobilizes the target. An M-Kill does not always
destroy the weapon system and the crew; they may
continue to function. In a K-Kill, the weapon system
and/or the crew is destroyed.
AP mines can kill or incapacitate their victims. The
mines commit medical resources, degrade unit morale,
and damage non-armored vehicles. Some types of AP
mines may break or damage the track on armored
vehicles.
Before World War II, countries began developing mines
to counter the effectiveness of tanks, the trench-
busting vehicles that altered how land wars were
fought. By the end of the war, roughly 300 million
mines, each filled with powerful, lightweight
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1611
trinitrotoluene (TNT), were used to destroy enemy
tanks. The biggest drawback of the mines, however,
was that opposing forces could easily swoop in before
they detonated and use them against the tanks of the
very same army that positioned them there first. To
counter this phenomenon, countries began encircling
their anti-tank mines with anti-personnel minesthe
type of mines still used today by poor countries. Today,
despite advances in mine-detecting technology, the
United States government is still searching for more
accurate methods in locating visible and buried enemy
mines.
US mine warfare has undergone a remarkable transition
in the last 30 years. The U.S. inventory of old-fashioned
"dumb" mines has been significantly reduced and their
use restricted. The most modern mines in the US
inventory all possess self-destruct or self-neutralization
features, they cease to function at predetermined
times. These mines lose the ability to inflict casualties
once their military utility on the battlefield is gone.
Mines are intended to produce an obstacle effect on
enemy maneuver and reduce his options for courses of
action when he attacks. Unlike other obstacles,
however, mines can inflict casualties, just as other
weapons of war do.
New, smaller, lightweight, more lethal mines are now
providing the capability for rapid emplacement of self-
destructing anti-armor (AT) and AT/antipersonnel (AP)
minefields by a variety of delivery modes. These range
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form from manual emplacement to launchers on
vehicles and both rotary and fixed-wing aircraft.
Even more radical changes are coming in mines that
are capable of sensing the direction and type of threat.
These mines will also be able to be turned on and off,
employing their own electronic countermeasures to
ensure survivability against enemy countermine
operations.
Land mines cause about 26,000 casualties worldwide
every year. Although most of these casualties are the
result of the indiscriminate and irresponsible use of
mines, they have caused antipersonnel (AP) mines to be
severely stigmatized by the international community. As
a leader of the "responsible" international community,
the United States has chosen to pursue the regulation
of AP mines. In setting a standard that we hope others
will follow, the President announced a significant
change in US policy for AP mines on 16 May 1996. The
US unilaterally undertook not to use, and to place in
inactive stockpile status with the intent to demilitarize
by the end of 1999, all non-self-destructing AP mines
not needed to train personnel engaged in demining and
countermine operations, and to defend the United
States and its allies from armed aggression that
crosses the Korean Demilitarized Zone.
The US views the security situation on the Korean
Peninsula as a unique case and in the negotiation of
this agreement will protect the right to use AP mines
there until alternatives become available or the risk of
aggression has been removed. This policy eliminated
C
lic
k
t
o
b
u
y
N
O
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!
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cu-trac
k
.c
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C
lic
k
t
o
b
u
y
N
O
W
!
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1613
the use of M14 blast AP mines and M16 bounding
fragmentation mines outside the Republic of Korea. It
did not affect the use of self-destructing mines or
command-detonated weapons (M18 claymore).
The use of antipersonnel landmines (APL) can be traced
to World War II when they were developed for use in
antitank (AT) minefields to discourage foot soldiers
from disabling AT mines. Unfortunately, even when
used according to the generally accepted doctrine of
marking and recording, these non self-destructing APL
continued to pose hazards long after the end of the
conflict. Although the U.S. has since adopted self-
destructing and self-deactivating landmines, the
increased cost has limited their use to only NATO allies
and a few other countries. Because the bulk of the
mines still in use around the world are neither self-
deactivating nor self-destructing, the humanitarian
consequence of deploying these mines has led to an
effort to achieve a global ban on APL.
In response to this effort, Presidential Decision
Directive (PDD) 48 announced a new APL policy. The
Directive allowed the U.S. to keep its mixed antitank
(AT), self-destructing mine systems and directed the
Department of Defense to develop and field alternatives
to pure APL systems throughout the armed forces. The
APL Alternatives program began as a two-track
approach. A second directive, PDD 64, provided
additional direction for mixed systems and added a
third track to the program.
C
lic
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C
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k
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b
u
y
N
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1614
Track 1 RADAM is an effort to redesign, repackage, and
retrofit our current mixed (antitank and antipersonnel)
scatterable artillery-delivered mines into a single round
to be called the Remote Area Denial Artillery Munition
(RADAM). Track 1 NSD-A is involved with development
and implementation of non-self destructing alternative
(NSD-A) to meet the requirements currently met by our
antipersonnel landmines. Track 2 is a Defense
Advanced Research Projects Agency effort to
investigate innovative maneuver denial approaches that
may take advantage of advanced technologies. Track 3
explores a wide range of materiel and operational
concepts as alternatives to AP sub munitions within
mixed systems and to all mixed systems.
This three-track approach to develop antipersonnel
landmine alternatives is on going. The goal is to enable
the U.S. to be in a position to sign the Ottawa
Convention banning APLs if suitable alternatives can be
identified and fielded.
Landmines
C
lic
k
t
o
b
u
y
N
O
W
!
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.d
o
cu-trac
k
.c
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m
C
lic
k
t
o
b
u
y
N
O
W
!
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1615
Scatterable Anti-Personnel [AP] mine characteristics
MI
NE
DE
LI
VE
RY
SY
ST
EM
AR
MIN
G
ME
CH
ANI
SM
S
A
F
E
A
R
M
T
I
M
E
FU
ZI
N
G
WA
RH
EA
D
A
H
D
SE
LF-
DE
ST
RU
CT
TI
ME
EX
PL
OSI
VE
WE
IG
HT
(lb)
MI
N
E
W
EI
G
H
T
(lb
)
M
72
15
5m
m
art
ille
ry
(A
DA
M)
1-G
forc
e
2-
spi
n
4
5
s
e
c
2
m
i
n
Tri
pw
ire
Bo
un
din
g
Fra
gm
ent
2
0
%
48
hr
21
gra
ms
1.
2
M
67
15
5m
m
art
ille
ry
(A
DA
1-G
forc
e
2-
spi
n
4
5
s
e
c
2
m
i
Tri
pw
ire
Bo
un
din
g
Fra
gm
ent
2
0
%
4
hr
21
gra
ms
1.
2
C
lic
k
t
o
b
u
y
N
O
W
!
P
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F-XChan
g
e
w
w
w
.d
o
cu-trac
k
.c
o
m
C
lic
k
t
o
b
u
y
N
O
W
!
P
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cu-trac
k
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1616
M) n
BL
U
92
/B
US
AF
(G
ato
r)
1-
bor
e
pin
2-
ele
ctri
c
2
m
i
n
Tri
pw
ire
Bla
st
Fra
gm
ent
1
0
0
%
4
hr
48
hr
15
da
ys
1.2
1 lb
3.
2
M
77
K
O2
2
MO
PM
S
1-
bor
e
pin
2-
ele
ctri
c
2
m
i
n
Tri
pw
ire
Bla
st
Fra
gm
ent
1
0
0
%
4
hr
(re
cy
cle
upt
o 3
tim
es)
1.2
1 lb
3.
2
Vo
lc
an
o
Gr
ou
nd
/
Air
1-
bor
e
pin
2-
ele
ctri
c
2
m
i
n
Tri
pw
ire
Bla
st
Fra
gm
ent
1
0
0
%
4
hr
48
hr
15
da
ys
1.2
1 lb
3.
2
Scatterable Anti-Tank [AT] mine characteristics
MI
NE
DE
LI
VE
RY
AR
MIN
G
ME
S
A
F
E
FU
ZI
N
G
WA
RH
EA
D
A
H
D
SE
LF-
DE
ST
EX
PL
OSI
VE
MI
N
E
W
MI
NE
S
PE
C
lic
k
t
o
b
u
y
N
O
W
!
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g
e
w
w
w
.d
o
cu-trac
k
.c
o
m
C
lic
k
t
o
b
u
y
N
O
W
!
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1617
SY
ST
EM
CH
ANI
SM
A
R
M
T
I
M
E
RU
CT
TI
ME
WE
IG
HT
(lb)
EI
G
H
T
(lb
)
R
5T
ON
DU
MP
M
73
15
5m
m
art
ille
ry
(R
AA
M)
1-G
forc
e
2-
spi
n
4
5
s
e
c
2
m
i
n
Ma
gn
eti
c
M-
S
pla
te
2
0
%
48
hr
1.3 3.
8
9
pe
r
M7
18
pr
oje
cti
le
M
70
15
5m
m
art
ille
ry
(R
AA
M)
1-G
forc
e
2-
spi
n
4
5
s
e
c
2
m
i
n
Ma
gn
eti
c
M-
S
pla
te
2
0
%
4
hr
1.3 3.
8
9
pe
r
M7
41
pr
oje
cti
le
BL
U\
91
/B
US
AF
(G
ato
r)
1-
bor
e
pin
2-
2
m
i
n
Ma
gn
eti
c
M-
S
pla
te
N
o
4hr
48
hr
15
da
1.3 3.
8
N/
A
C
lic
k
t
o
b
u
y
N
O
W
!
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e
w
w
w
.d
o
cu-trac
k
.c
o
m
C
lic
k
t
o
b
u
y
N
O
W
!
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e
w
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w
.d
o
cu-trac
k
.c
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m
1618
ele
ctri
c
ys
M
76
MO
PM
S
1-
bor
e
pin
2-
ele
ctri
c
2
m
i
n
Ma
gn
eti
c
M-
S
pla
te
N
o
4
hr
(re
cy
cle
up
to
3
tim
es)
1.3 3.
8
30
mo
dul
es
(5
10
mi
ne
s)
Vo
lc
an
o
Gr
ou
nd/
Air
1-
bor
e
pin
2-
ele
ctri
c
2
m
i
n
Ma
gn
eti
c
M-
S
pla
te
N
o
4hr
48
hr
15
da
ys
1.3 3.
8
16
0
ca
nis
ter
s
(8
00
mi
ne
s)
Refence FM 20-32, page 6-4
Landmines
C
lic
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b
u
y
N
O
W
!
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k
.c
o
m
C
lic
k
t
o
b
u
y
N
O
W
!
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1619
References
FM 20-32 MINE/COUNTERMINE OPERATIONS 29
MAY 1998
FM 20-32 MINE/COUNTERMINE OPERATIONS basic
manual with Change 1, 30 June 1999, Change 2, 22
August 2001, and Change 3, 1 October 2002.
Iraq Purple Book - Landmines NAVEODTECHDIV
November 1, 2002 [PDF 10 Mb]
Iraq Purple Book - Scatterables NAVEODTECHDIV
November 1, 2002 [PDF 4.39 Mb]
MILITARY OPERATIONS: Information on U.S. Use of
Land Mines in the Persian Gulf War, September 2002,
(GAO-02-1003) [PDF 9.2 Mb]
The Origins of Military Mines: Part I By Major
William C. Schneck Engineer Bulletin July 1998
The Origins of Military Mines: Part II By Major
William C. Schneck Engineer Bulletin November 1998
Family of Scatterable Mines - FASCAM
The family of scatterable mines adds new dimension to
mine warfare, providing the maneuver commander with
a rapid, flexible means of delaying, harassing,
paralyzing, canalizing, or wearing down the enemy
forces in both offensive and defensive operations.
Mines can force the enemy into kill zones, change their
direction of attack, spend time in clearing operations,
or take evasive actions. FASCAM presents an array of
air and FA-delivered scatter able mines available to
C
lic
k
t
o
b
u
y
N
O
W
!
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cu-trac
k
.c
o
m
C
lic
k
t
o
b
u
y
N
O
W
!
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1620
maneuver force commanders. The systems- GATOR
(USAF Delivered), VOLCANO (ground or air delivered),
ADAM/RAAM (artillery delivered) and MOPMS (Modular
Pack Mine System) have special considerations such as
planning time, availability, survivability of system and
logistical requirements.
Scatterable mine systems enable the tactical
commanders to emplace minefields in enemy held
terrain, contaminated territory, or in others areas where
it is not possible to emplace conventional minefields.
They are designed to be delivered or dispensed
remotely by aircraft, artillery, or by ground dispenser.
Minefields are laid without a clear pattern. All FASCAM
mines have a active life cycle and self-destruct (SD)
time after their active life has expired. The duration of
the active life varies from 4 hours to 15 days depending
on the system. FASCAM minefields are planned by the
commander's staff engineer in concert with the
commander's intent and systems available. The staff
engineer determines location, size, time and density of
the minefields. He coordinates with appropriate staff
officers to ensure systems are available at the time and
location for placement.
CAPABILITIES.
Faster response. Units can place scatter able mines
faster than conventional mines, so they provide the
commander with greater flexibility, and allow reaction
to changing in situations. The use of scatter able mines
can allow the commander to maintain or regain the
C
lic
k
t
o
b
u
y
N
O
W
!
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e
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w
w
.d
o
cu-trac
k
.c
o
m
C
lic
k
t
o
b
u
y
N
O
W
!
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1621
initiative by allowing units to act faster than the enemy.
This also helps preserve scarce mine resources.
Remote emplacement. Scatterable mines are remotely
placed. This enhances battlefield agility and allows the
maneuver commander to rapidly place mines to best
exploit enemy weaknesses. Commanders can use
scatter able mines as a situational obstacle; as a
reserve obstacle emplacement capability; and to
directly attack enemy formations through disrupt, fix,
turn, and block. Modern fusing, sensing, and anti-
disturbance devices allow scatter able mines to better
defeat enemy attempts to reduce the minefield.
Increased tactical flexibility. After allowing enough
time for the minefield to self-destruct, the minefield is
cleared, and the commander can move through an area
that was previously denied to enemy or friendly forces.
In many cases, the self-destruct period may be set at
only a few hours. This feature allows for effective
counterattacks to the enemys flanks and rear areas.
Efficiency. There are a variety of ways to deliver and
place scatter able mines. Methods include delivery by
fixed-wing aircraft, helicopters, artillery, or ground
vehicles. They satisfy the high-mobility requirements of
modern warfare. Scatterable mines are much smaller
and lighter than conventional mines and require less
manpower, equipment and tonnage to place.
Increased lethality. Scatterable AT mines use a self-
forging fragmentation (SFF) created from a two-sided
Miznay-Shardin (M-S) plate charge to produce a full-
C
lic
k
t
o
b
u
y
N
O
W
!
P
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e
w
w
w
.d
o
cu-trac
k
.c
o
m
C
lic
k
t
o
b
u
y
N
O
W
!
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1622
width kill. In simple terms, a metal plate is formed into
a super-dense molten rock that punches a hole in the
belly of the tank. This produces an M-Kill against the
vehicle engine, track, or drive train; a firepower kill
against the vehicle weapon system; or a K-Kill in which
the on-board sets off ammunition, which kills or
incapacitates the crew. The scatter able AT mine can
kill any tank in the world. In order to form the SFF; the
mine requires a standoff between the vehicle and the
target. Mines must also be nearly perpendicular to the
target (lying on either side). The two- sided design of
the M-S plate allows the mine to successfully attack the
target while lying on either side. Trip wires actuate
scatter able AP mines and utilize a blast/fragmentation-
type kill mechanism.
LIMITATIONS.
Extensive coordination. Scatter able mines are very
dynamic weapon systems and require great care to
ensure proper coordination with higher, adjacent, and
subordinate units. Brigades must notify all affected
units of the location and duration of scatter able
minefields in order to prevent friendly casualties.
Recording and reporting procedures for scatter able
mines exist to help minimize this problem.
Proliferation of targets. Some commanders may regard
scatter able mines as an easy solution to tactical
problems. Commander must carefully evaluated, and
prioritize tactical requests. Indiscriminate use of
scatter able mines results in rapid depletion of a units
C
lic
k
t
o
b
u
y
N
O
W
!
P
D
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g
e
w
w
w
.d
o
cu-trac
k
.c
o
m
C
lic
k
t
o
b
u
y
N
O
W
!
P
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e
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w
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o
cu-trac
k
.c
o
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1623
basic load. Controlled supply rates (CSRs) will probably
be a constraint in all theaters.
Visibility. Scatter able mines are very effective, even
though they lie exposed on the surface of the ground
because they are relatively small and have natural
colorings. Using scatter able mines in conjunction with
fires and obscurants increases their effectiveness and
strains the enemys command and control.
Accuracy. Units cannot lay scatter able mines with the
same accuracy as conventional mines; however, their
self-destruct capability eliminates the need for
recovering them. Remotely delivered scatter able mine
systems are as accurate as conventional artillery or
tactical aircraft-delivered munitions.
Orientation. 5 to 15 percent of scatter able mines will
come to rest on their edge. If there is mud or snow
more than 10 centimeters deep, mines will be in the
higher percentile. Classified lethality data provides for
10 percent of scatter able mines to rest on their edge.
When employing the area denial artillery munitions
(ADAM) and the remote antiarmor mine (RAAM) in over
10 centimeters of snow, units should use high-angle fire
and increase the number of mines. Using AP mines in
snow may be less effective because it hinders the
deployment of trip wires. Melting snow may also cause
mines to change position and activate anti-disturbance
features.
C
lic
k
t
o
b
u
y
N
O
W
!
P
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g
e
w
w
w
.d
o
cu-trac
k
.c
o
m
C
lic
k
t
o
b
u
y
N
O
W
!
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1624
Antipersonnel Mines
There are two general categories of AP SCATMINEs--
wedge-shaped and cylindrical .
C
lic
k
t
o
b
u
y
N
O
W
!
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e
w
w
w
.d
o
cu-trac
k
.c
o
m
C
lic
k
t
o
b
u
y
N
O
W
!
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1625
AP SCATMINEs
Characteristics of AP SCATMINEs
Mi
ne
Deli
ver
y
Sys
tem
D
O
DI
C
Ar
mi
ng
Ti
m
e
F
u
s
e
Wa
rhe
ad
A
H
D
V
SD
Ti
me
Ex
plo
siv
e
Wei
ght
Mi
ne
W
ei
gh
t
Nu
mb
er
of
Min
es
M6
7
155
-
mm
arti
ller
D
50
2
45
se
c
2
mi
T
ri
p
w
ir
Bo
un
din
g
fra
2
0
%
4
hr
21
g
Co
mp
A5
54
0
g
36
per
M7
31
pro
C
lic
k
t
o
b
u
y
N
O
W
!
P
D
F-XChan
g
e
w
w
w
.d
o
cu-trac
k
.c
o
m
C
lic
k
t
o
b
u
y
N
O
W
!
P
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e
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1626
y
(AD
AM)
n e g jec
tile
M7
2
155
-
mm
arti
ller
y
(AD
AM)
D
50
1
45
se
c
2
mi
n
T
ri
p
w
ir
e
Bo
un
din
g
fra
g
2
0
%
48
hr
21
g
Co
mp
A5
54
0
g
36
per
M6
92
pro
jec
tile
M7
4
Flip
per
K
15
1
45
mi
n
T
ri
p
w
ir
e
Bla
st
fra
g
2
0
%
5
da
ys
15
da
ys
540
g
Co
mp
B4
1.
44
kg
5
per
sle
eve
BL
U
92/
B
US
AF
(Ga
tor)
K
29
1
K
29
2
K
29
3
2
mi
n
T
ri
p
w
ir
e
Bla
st
fra
g
1
0
0
%
4
hr
48
hr
15
da
ys
540
g
Co
mp
B4
1.
44
kg
22
per
CB
U
89/
B
dis
pen
ser
M7
7
MO
PM
S
K
02
2
2
mi
n
T
ri
p
w
ir
Bla
st
fra
g
0
%
4
hr
(re
cy
cle
540
g
Co
mp
B4
1.
44
kg
4
per
M1
31
dis
C
lic
k
t
o
b
u
y
N
O
W
!
P
D
F-XChan
g
e
w
w
w
.d
o
cu-trac
k
.c
o
m
C
lic
k
t
o
b
u
y
N
O
W
!
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D
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g
e
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o
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k
.c
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m
1627
e up
to
3
ti
me
s)
pen
ser
Vo
lca
no
Gro
und
/air
K
04
5
4
mi
n
T
ri
p
w
ir
e
Bla
st
fra
g
0
%
4
hr
48
hr
15
da
ys
540
g
Co
mp
B4
1.
44
kg
1
per
M8
7
can
ist
er
The M67 and M72 AP SCATMINEs are wedge-shaped
and dispensed from an ADAM projectile, which is a
special 155-millimeter artillery munition. Each mine
weighs 540 grams and is 7 centimeters high.
The M74, BLU 92/B, M77, and Volcano AP SCATMINEs
are all cylindrical in shape. They are 6 centimeters high
and 12 centimeters in diameter. Cylindrical AP
SCATMINEs kill enemy soldiers through the combined
effects of blast and fragmentation. Each mine contains
540 grams of composition B4 as its main charge. The
charge detonates upon actuation and shatters the
mine's metal casing to produce shrapnel. Shrapnel is
propelled upward and outward from the mine and
produces fatal casualties to a distance of 15 meters.
Each mine has eight trip wires (four on the top and four
on the bottom) that deploy after ground impact up to 12
meters from the mine. Trip wires are similar in
C
lic
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lic
k
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b
u
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1628
appearance to very fine thread; they are olive-drab
green in color and weighted at the free end. A tension
of 405 grams applied to one trip wire is enough to
create a break in the electrical circuit and cause the
mine to detonate.
ANTITANK MINES
All AT SCATMINEs have similar functional
characteristics. They are cylindrical in shape, weigh
approximately 1.8 kilograms, contain 585 grams of
cyclonite (RDX) explosive as the main charge, and have
a magnetically induced fuse. The characteristics of
each AT SCATMINE are summarized in Table 3-2.
AT SCATMINE
Characteristics of AT SCATMINEs
Mi
ne
Del
iver
y
D
O
DI
Ar
mi
ng
Fu
se
Wa
rh
ea
A
H
D
SD
Ti
m
Ex
plo
siv
Mi
ne
W
Nu
mb
er
C
lic
k
t
o
b
u
y
N
O
W
!
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g
e
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o
cu-trac
k
.c
o
m
C
lic
k
t
o
b
u
y
N
O
W
!
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1629
Sys
te
m
C Ti
m
e
d e e
We
igh
t
ei
gh
t
of
Min
es
M7
3
155
-
mm
arti
ller
y
(RA
AM
)
D
5
0
3
45
se
c
2
mi
n
Ma
gn
eti
c
M-
S
pla
te
2
0
%
48
hr
58
5 g
RD
X
1.
7
kg
9
per
M7
18
pro
jec
tile
M7
0
155
-
mm
arti
ller
y
(RA
AM
)
D
5
0
9
45
se
c
2
mi
n
Ma
gn
eti
c
M-
S
pla
te
2
0
%
4
hr
58
5 g
RD
X
1.
7
kg
9
per
M7
41
pro
jec
tile
M7
5
Flip
per
K
1
8
4
45
mi
n
Ma
gn
eti
c
M-
S
pla
te
2
0
%
5
da
ys
15
da
ys
58
5 g
RD
X
1.
7
kg
5
per
sle
eve
BL
U
91/
US
AF
(Ga
K
2
9
2
mi
n
Ma
gn
eti
M-
S
pla
N
A
4
hr
48
58
5 g
RD
1.
7
kg
72
per
CB
C
lic
k
t
o
b
u
y
N
O
W
!
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g
e
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.d
o
cu-trac
k
.c
o
m
C
lic
k
t
o
b
u
y
N
O
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!
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1630
B tor) 1
K
2
9
2
K
2
9
3
c te hr
15
da
ys
X U
89/
B
dis
pe
nse
r
M7
6
MO
PM
S
K
0
2
2
2
mi
n
Ma
gn
eti
c
M-
S
pla
te
N
A
4
hr
(re
cy
cl
e
up
to
3
ti
m
es
)
58
5 g
RD
X
1.
7
kg
17
per
M1
31
dis
pe
nse
r
Vo
lc
an
o
Gro
und
/air
K
0
4
5
2
mi
n
30
se
c
Ma
gn
eti
c
M-
S
pla
te
N
A
4
hr
48
hr
15
da
ys
58
5 g
RD
X
1.
7
kg
5
per
M8
7
ca
nis
ter;
6
per
M8
C
lic
k
t
o
b
u
y
N
O
W
!
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e
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cu-trac
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.c
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lic
k
t
o
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u
y
N
O
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1631
7A
1
ca
nis
ter
AT SCATMINEs are designed to produce a K-Kill (kill the
crew of the vehicle) instead of an M-Kill. They produce
a kill by using an SFF warhead (created from a two-
sided M-S plate). The warhead penetrates the vehicle's
belly armor, and spalling metal from the vehicle
(created by the mine blast or secondary explosions)
kills occupants instantly. Even though the crew is
killed, the drive train may be undamaged and the
vehicle may continue to move. On enemy tanks with
autoloaders, the detonation of rounds in the belly-
mounted ammunition carousel is very likely. The mine
may not achieve a kill when the track of an armored
vehicle runs directly over it.
All mines have a safe-arm time from (45 seconds to 2
minutes). When mines fail to arm they will self-destruct
immediately. SD times are not exact, mines actually
self-destruct in a window between 80 to 100 percent of
their SD time ie. mines with a 4 hour SD time will start
to SD in 3 hours 12 minutes. If a mine fails to SD it
should be treated as UXO.
Short duration <24 hour SD time
Long duration >24 hour SD time
Reference FM 20-32, page 7-1
C
lic
k
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o
b
u
y
N
O
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cu-trac
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.c
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m
C
lic
k
t
o
b
u
y
N
O
W
!
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1632
FASCAM QUICK REFERENCE
TYPE ARM SHORT LONG
ADAM/RAAM 2 MIN/45 SEC 4 HR 48 HR
VOLCANO 2 MIN 4 HR 48 HR/15D
MOPMS 2 MIN 4 HR REC 15 D
GATOR 2 MIN 4 HR 48 HR/15 D
TYPE DENSITY SIZE SFTY ZN
ADAM/RAAM .001, .002,
.004
200 X
200
1400 X
1400
.001, .002,
.004
400 X
400
1500 X
1500
VOLCANO
(GND)
0.01 1195 X
170
235 ALL
SIDES
(AIR) 0.0067 1000 X
150
235 ALL
SIDES
MOPMS 0.01 35 - 180
DEG
235 ALL
SIDES
GATOR 0.003 650 X
200
275 ALL
SIDES
Two types of minefields can be developed with
FASCAM--planned minefield and target of opportunity
minefields.
Planned minefields begin with the development of the
scheme of maneuver and then the barrier and/or
obstacle plan by the G3 and/or S3 and engineer. Before
deciding on the employment of ADAM and/or RAAMS,
the FSCOORD is brought into the planning process to
C
lic
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b
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y
N
O
W
!
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lic
k
t
o
b
u
y
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!
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1633
provide guidance on the availability of FA mines and
delivery units.
Minefields employed against targets of opportunity
(unplanned) must be emplaced immediately because of
the tactical nature of the targets. They are requested
through the fire support channels at any level. Once the
maneuver brigade or division commander has approved
the use of FA mines, they can be emplaced
appropriately. Normally, targets of opportunity are used
when the delivery of the mines can be observed.
Aimpoints for target of opportunity minefields can be
computed as in a planned minefield. However, this will
be time-consuming and may not meet the demands of
the tactical situation. Therefore, it is recommended
that units establish an SOP for a "standard minefield" to
fire when the tactical situation requires an immediate
minefield. For example, the unit SOP may be for a 400 x
400 minefield, high angle, medium density, with two
aimpoints. The SOP will allow FSOs to determine the
number of target of opportunity minefields that are
available for the maneuver commander. This
determination is based on the unit's FASCAM unit basic
load (UBL).
FASCAM employment is based on a concept known as
planning modules. The planning module for RAAMS low
angle is 200 meters x 200 meters. The planning module
for RAAMS high angle and for ADAM low or high angle is
400 meters x 400 meters. This does not mean that the
minefield planner cannot request a minefield that is
larger than the planning module. In any FASCAM
minefield, the requesting agency defines the minefield
C
lic
k
t
o
b
u
y
N
O
W
!
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e
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.d
o
cu-trac
k
.c
o
m
C
lic
k
t
o
b
u
y
N
O
W
!
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1634
size in terms of the length, width, and attitude. The
length of the minefield is always the longest axis. The
concept of the planning modules is based on the
minefield width. In other words, the width of all
minefields must be in multiples of the planning module
defined above. The FDO will use the length, width, and
planning module to determine the number of linear
sheafs required to establish the required minefield. The
linear sheafs will evenly divide each module and will be
parallel to the long axis (length) of the minefield.
C
lic
k
t
o
b
u
y
N
O
W
!
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e
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w
.d
o
cu-trac
k
.c
o
m
C
lic
k
t
o
b
u
y
N
O
W
!
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e
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.c
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1635
C
lic
k
t
o
b
u
y
N
O
W
!
P
D
F-XChan
g
e
w
w
w
.d
o
cu-trac
k
.c
o
m
C
lic
k
t
o
b
u
y
N
O
W
!
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1636
A density of .001 means that there will be
approximately one mine every 1,000 square meters. In
other words, there will be one mine in every 32- x 32
meter area. These density numbers are used for
planning purposes only. Dispersion of the projectiles in
the target area will dictate the actual pattern of mines.
EMPLOYMENT
MULTIPLE OFFENSIVE/DEFENSIVE ROLES
DOES NOT REQUIRE COMMITTING GROUND/AIR UNITS
FOR EMPLOYMENT
DESIGNED FOR FLEXIBLE RESPONSE
TIME AND ROUNDS REQUIRED TO EMPLOY LIMIT USE
LIMITED BY RANGE TO AIRLAND BATTLE DOCTRINE
NECESSARY TO PLOT SAFETY ZONE
DURATION AND NET/NLT EMPLACEMENT
EMPLACEMENT
REQUESTED THROUGH NORMAL ARTILLERY SUPPORT
CHANNELS
CLOSE COORDINATION BETWEEN G3/S3, ENGINEER,
AND FSCOORD REQUIRED
ENGINEER RESPONSIBILITIES:
*RECOMMENDS LOCATION, SIZE, TYPE, TGT, EFFECT,
AND DURATION
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lic
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C
lic
k
t
o
b
u
y
N
O
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!
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1637
*CONDUCTS COORDINATION WITH G3/S3 AND FSE FOR
NET/NLT EMPLACEMENT AND DENSITY
*PLOTS SAFETY ZONE ON MANEUVER COMMANDERS
MAP
FSCOORD RESPONSIBILITIES:
*NUMBER OF ROUNDS FOR REQUIRED DENSITY
*TIME REQUIRED TO EMPLACED
*NUMBER AND LOCATION OF AIM POINTS
*ADVISES ENGINEER OF FEASIBILITY OF PLAN AND
TECHNICAL ASPECTS
*ISSUE SCATMINWARN AND SCATMINREP
Reference FM 20-32, pages 6-8 to 6-11
ADAM/RAAM
C
lic
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t
o
b
u
y
N
O
W
!
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m
C
lic
k
t
o
b
u
y
N
O
W
!
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1638
The safety zone includes the area where stray mines
could possibly land. This is the area where the
commander must preclude any friendly forces from
maneuvering during the minefields life cycle. If an AT
mine, oriented on its side, self-destructs, the
explosively formed penetrator can theoretically travel
2,000 feet or 640 meters. This is the maximum fragment
hazard zone. However, the chances of being struck are
negligible at this distance. Tests indicate that
acceptable risk for maneuver is the distance over 235
meters from the outer edges of the minefields safety
zone. This fragment hazard zone is also associated with
the Gator and MOPMS AT mines. When the MOPMS is
used for protective minefield missions, commanders
must be made aware of the fragment hazard.
System Safety Zone Frag Hazard Zone
C
lic
k
t
o
b
u
y
N
O
W
!
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e
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o
cu-trac
k
.c
o
m
C
lic
k
t
o
b
u
y
N
O
W
!
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1639
ADAM/RAAM 500 -1,500
meters from
aim pt(s).
Depends on the
delivery source.
Add 235 meters
to the outside
dimensions of the
safety zone.
Gator 925 x 475 from
aim pt(s).
1,395 x 945
meters from aim
pt(s).
Grnd
Volcano
Air Volcano
1,150 x 160
meters from
centerline.
1,150 x 200
meters from
centerline.
235 meters from
start/stop pt(s)
and centerlines.
MOPMS 55 meters to
front,
50 meters to
side, and 20
meters to rear
of dispenser.
Add 235 meters
to the safety
zones
dimensions.
Safety Zones for ADAM/RAAM:
PROJECTILE
AND
TRAJECTORY
RANGE
(KM)
MET +
VE/TRANSFER
TECHNIQUE
OBSERVER
ADJUST
C
lic
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t
o
b
u
y
N
O
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!
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C
lic
k
t
o
b
u
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N
O
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!
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1640
TECHNIQUE
RAAMS 4 500 X 500 500 X 500
LOW ANGLE 7 550 X 550 500 X 500
10 700 X 700 550 X 550
12 850 X 850 550 X 550
14 1000 X 1000 650 X 650
16 1050 X 1050 650 X 650
17.5 1200 X 1200 650 X 650
ADAM 4 700 X 700 700 X 700
LOW ANGLE 7 750 X 750 700 X 700
10 850 X 850 750 X 750
12 1050 X 1050 750 X 750
14 1200 X 1200 850 X 850
16 1250 X 1250 850 X 850
17.5 1400 X 1400 850 X 850
RAAMS &
ADAM
4 750 X 750 700 X 700
HIGH ANGLE 7 900 X 900 700 X 700
10 1050 X 1050 750 X 750
12 1200 X 1200 750 X 750
14 1400 X 1400 850 X 850
16 1500 X 1500 850 X 850
17.5 1400 X 1400 850 X 850
C
lic
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t
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b
u
y
N
O
W
!
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lic
k
t
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b
u
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N
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!
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1641
SCATMINE SD windows
SD
Time
SD Window Begins
4 hours 3 hours 12 minutes
48
hours
38 hours 24 minutes
5 days 4 days
15 days 12 days
SCATMINE Emplacement authority
System
Characteristics
Emplacement Authority
Ground- or artillery-
delivered, with SD
time greater than
48 hours (long
duration)
The corps commander may delegate
emplacement authority to division level, who
may further delegate it to brigade level.
Ground- or artillery-
delivered, with SD
time of 48 hours or
less (short
duration)
The corps commander may delegate
emplacement authority to division level, who
may further delegate it to brigade level, who
may further delegate it to TF level.
Aircraft-delivered
(Gator), regardless
of SD time
Emplacement authority is normally at corps,
theater, or army command level, depending
on who has air-tasking authority.
Helicopter- Emplacement authority is normally delegated
C
lic
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!
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1642
delivered
(Volcano),
regardless of SD
time
no lower than the commander who has
command authority over the emplacing
aircraft.
MOPMS, when used
strictly for a
protective
minefield
Emplacement authority is usually granted to
the company, team, or base commander.
Commanders at higher levels restrict MOPMS
use only as necessary to support their
operations.
SCATMINE Coordination responsibilities
Element Responsibilities
G3/S3 with
Engineer
FSCOORD/ALO
Plan and coordinate the minefield location, size,
composition, density, SD time, safety zone, and
emplacement time
Designate and brief the emplacing unit
Incorporate the minefield and the safety zone into
the obstacle plan
Receive and forward the scatter able minefield
report and record
Disseminate information concerning the minefield
in the SCATMINWARN to adjacent and subordinate
units prior to laying
Post operation maps with the minefield location,
safety zone, and DTG of the SD time; and
disseminate the SCATMINWARN 1 hour prior to
initiation of the SD sequence
Emplacing
Unit
Calculate the logistical requirements
Calculate the safety zone
Emplace the minefield
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lic
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O
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C
lic
k
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b
u
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N
O
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1643
Report the amount of ammunition expended
Prepare and forward the scatter able minefield
report and record to the authorizing commander
via appropriate channels
Maneuver
Units
Be aware of the calculated safety-zone boundary
and advise subunits of its location
RAAM and ADAM minefield density and size
Obstacl
e
Effect
RAAM ADAM Width
(meter
s)
Depth
(meter
s)
Area
1
Linea
r2
Area
1
Linea
r2
Disru
pt
0.00
1
0.2 0.00
05
0.1 200 200
Turn 0.00
2
0.8 0.00
1
0.4 400 400
Fix 0.00
2
0.4 0.00
05
0.1 200 200
Block 0.00
4
0.6 0.00
2
0.8 400 400
1Area density = mines per square meter
2Linear density = mines per meter
SCATMINE Safety and fragment hazard zones
System Safety Zone Fragment Hazard Zone
ADAM/RAAM 500 to 1,500 meters
from aim point(s)
235 meters from the
outside dimensions of
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lic
k
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m
1644
(depends on delivery
factors)
the safety zone
Gator 925 x 475 meters
from aim point(s)
1,395 x 945 meters from
aim point(s)
Ground
Volcano
1,150 x 160 meters 235 meters from start
and stop points and the
centerline
Air Volcano 1,315 x 200 meters 235 meters from start
and stop points and the
centerline
Flipper 20 meters from start
and stop points; 60
meters from
centerlines
235 meters from the
outside dimensions of
the safety zone
MOPMS See page 3-28 for
specific placement.
235 meters from the
outside dimensions of
the safety zone
Air Volcano minefield data
Type of
Minefield
Depth
(m)
Frontage
of
Minefield
(m)
Number
of
Strips
Canisters
per Strip
Total
Canisters
Minefields
per
Aircraft
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1645
Disrupt 120 278 1 40
(20 each
side)
40 4
Fix 120 278 1 40
(20 each
side)
40 4
Turn 320 557 1 80
(40 each
side)
160 1
Block 320 557 1 80
(40 each
side)
160 1
M14 / M16 Anti-Personnel (AP) Mines
Anti-Personnel (AP) mines can kill or incapacitate their
victims. They can be fused by pressure, wire, or
command detonation and contain a blast, bounding-
fragmentation, or direct-fragmentation warhead.
DESCRIPTION:
The M14 is a non-metallic, blast-type AP mine
consisting of a main charge of tetryl (1 ounce). The
mine is cylindrical in shape, 2-3/16 inches in diameter
and 1-9/16 inches high weighing approximately 3-1/2
pounds. The M14 is not designed to kill, but to
incapacitate. The M14 AP mine has been modified by
gluing a metal washer to the bottom of the mine. The
modification was directed to improve the detestability
of the mine. Unmodified mines are not authorized for
use by US forces.
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1646
The M16A2 is a cylindrical, steel bodied, bounding A
pers mine which is designed to wound or kill by
fragmentation. The mine resembles a large tin can, it
has a crimped upper edge and a threaded fuse cavity
offset from center on top of the body. A tubular pronged
fuse (M605 pull/pressure) is screwed into the cavity and
the mine is ready for use. Pull of 1.5 kg on a tripwire or
pressure of 3.5 kg on one of three prongs on top of the
M605 actuates the mine. When actuated the mine
bounds approximately 1.5 meters into the air and
explodes, scattering fragmentation to a radius of 30
meters. The mine has an emplaced life expectancy
(70% chance of functioning as designed) of 8 years in
temperate zones with clay soil and up to 12 years in a
tropical environment. The M16 series of bounding mines
can be located visually or with metal detectors under
most field conditions. The M16A2 is the latest of the
M16 series bounding mines which have been developed
since the 1950's. Earlier versions include the M16 and
M16A1 which are heavier and have the fuse cavity
centered on top. The basic concept for bounding mines
was first used by the Germans in WWII and has been
widely copied.
The M16 is a bounding fragmentation type mine
consisting of a mine fuse, a propelling charge and a
projectile in a sheet metal case. The mine is
approximately 4 inches in diameter, 7-5/8 inches in
height with the fuse installed, and weighs 7-7/8 pounds.
Pressure of between 8 and 20 pounds acting on one or
more of the three prongs of the fuse, or pull of between
3 and 10 pounds on a tripwire attached to the release,
will activate the mine. The principal difference between
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1647
the M16, M16A1, and M16A2 versions are in the
construction of the detonators and boosters. The
casualty radius is 27 meters for the M16 and M16A1 and
30 meters for the M16A2. A pressure of 3.6 to 9
kilograms applied on one or more of the three prongs of
the M605 fuse or a pull of 1.4 to 4.5 kilograms on the
trip wire will activate the mine.
STATUS: The M14 was fielded in the early 1950s and
last procured in 1974. The M16 and M18 were fielded in
the early 1960s. Sufficient mine assets are available to
support requirements. There are no plans to purchase
additional quantities of these AP mines.
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1648
EMPLOYMENT CONCEPT: The M14 and M16 AP mines
are used with other natural and artificial obstacles to
increase obstacle effectiveness. They are also
employed in standard-pattern minefields to protect
against breaching of anti-tank (AT) mines or by
themselves to defeat and demoralize dismounted
personnel. They are employed to block the most likely
enemy approaches, protect a flank or keep the enemy
from key terrain.
BASIS OF ISSUE: AP mines are Class V item of issue.
Combat and Combat Support units may be authorized a
basic load of AP mines contingent upon their mission.
Combat Engineer units will draw from pre-stock points
or Ammunition Transfer Points as needed for the
development and execution of the obstacle plan.
TRAINING/PERSONNEL: Initial training is taught at all
Combat and Combat Support Schools. Inert practice
mines are used to teach the required skills of
emplacing, recognizing and removing mines. Soldiers
maintain mine laying proficiency through unit training
utilizing Soldier's Manual standards.
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1649
Characteristics: M-14
Present Status: Fielded
Arming: Manual
Safe Arm Time: N/A
Fusing: Pressure
Warhead: Blast
Sensing Width: Point
Anti-Handling Device: No
Self-Destruct: No
Explosive Weight: 1 oz
Mine Weight: 3.3 oz
Mines Per 5T Dump: 6,480
REMARKS: Last procured FY74
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1650
Characteristics: M-16A1
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1651
Present Status: Fielded
Arming: Manual
Safe Arm Time: N/A
Fusing: Pressure; Tripwire
Warhead: Bounding
Sensing Width: Point
Anti-Handling Device: Yes
Self-Destruct: No
Explosive Weight: 1 lb
Mine Weight: 8 lb
Mines Per 5T Dump: 673
REMARKS: Primary AP mine
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1652
M15, M19 and M21 Anti-Tank (AT) Mines
The M15 AT Mine is 13-1/8 inches in diameter, 4-7/8
inches high, and weighs 30 pounds with 22 pounds of
high explosives. The mine is a track-breaker and is
activated by 350 pounds of pressure.
The M19 is a square shaped, plastic bodied AT mine
which is designed to damage or destroy vehicles by
blast effect. The top of the mine has a stepped
appearance and a large circular pressure plate. Radial
strengthening ribs surround an arming dial which is
centered on top of the pressure plate. The M19 has a
rope carrying handle attached to the side and two anti-
disturbance fuse wells, one on the side and one on the
bottom. The M19 is waterproof and it can be laid
underwater.
The M19 AT mine is housed in a square, plastic case
and holds 9.45 kilograms of Composition B (HE charge).
It consists of an M606 integral pressure fuse and two
secondary fuse wells--one in the side and one in the
bottom. The fuse body contains a pressure plate, a
Belleville spring, a setting knob, a step plate, a firing-
pin assembly, and a detonator. The mine is activated by
400 pounds of pressure and is a track breaker. When
the M19 is employed, it is difficult to detect because of
its plastic construction. The mine has low metal
content (3 g) and it is difficult to locate using metal
detectors under most field conditions but it can be
defeated by blast overpressure from explosive
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1653
clearance systems such as the Giant Viper and MICLIC.
The M19 is also license produced in Chile, South Korea
and Turkey.
The M21 is a circular, steel bodied, AT mine which is
designed to damage or destroy vehicles by a
penetrating effect. The bottom of the mine is crimped to
the upper mine body. An adjustable cloth carrying
handle is attached to the side of the mine body and a
large filler plug is positioned between the handle
connection points. A booster well is centered on the
bottom. The mine has a small diameter fuse cavity and
a stamped radial pattern centered on top . The mine is
almost always fitted with an M607 tilt rod fuse which
can be detected visually, the mine is also detectable
using metal detectors. Height of the mine w/o the fuse
is 102mm. Other fuses available include the M612
pneumatic fuse and the M609 influence fuse. When the
tilt rod or pneumatic fuses are used the M21 can be
defeated by blast overpressure clearance devices such
as the Giant Viper and MICLIC."
The M21 AT Mine is 9 inches in diameter and 4-1/2
inches high. It weighs a total of 17 pounds with 11
pounds of high explosives. The mine is activated by 4
pounds of pressure against a 21 inch long extension rod
or, without rod, by 290 pounds of vertical pressure on
top of the M607 fuse. It uses a Miznay-Schardin plate for
direct-energy warhead a kill mechanism providing belly
kill and track breaking capability. The M21 produces a
kill against heavy tanks, unless the mine is activated
under the track. It can be buried with a tilt rod, or it can
be surface-laid with or without a tilt rod. If the M21 is
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1654
surface-laid with a tilt rod, it must be staked to prevent
it from being knocked over and causing the warhead to
be directed away from the target. The M21 is not
compatible with any mechanical mine-dispensing
system.
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1655
STATUS: The M15, M19 and M21 AT mines were last
procured in FY52, FY58 and FY62 respectively. The
case, fuse well and the explosive charge of the M15
have deteriorated and a rehabilitation program is
underway to upgrade the stockpile. No procurement
actions are pending.
EMPLOYMENT CONCEPT: AT mines are employed in
protective, tactical, point and interdiction minefields.
They can be buried by hand or mechanically or can be
surface-emplaced. Only the M15 AT mine can be
emplaced with the M57 Anti-Tank Mine Dispensing
System. An accurate record of the number of mines laid
and their exact location is maintained. The
responsibility for authorizing the employment of the
mines is vested in the commander whose area is
directly affected by the mines.
BASIS OF ISSUE: AT mines are Class V items of issue.
Combat and Combat Support units may be authorized a
basic load of AT mines contingent upon their mission.
Combat Engineer units will draw from pre-stock points
or Ammunition Transfer Points as needed for the
development and execution of the obstacle plan.
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1656
TRAINING/PERSONNEL: Initial training is taught at all
Combat and Combat Support Schools. Inert practice
mines are used to teach the required skills of
emplacing, recognizing and removing mines. Soldiers
maintain mine laying proficiency through unit training,
utilizing Soldier's Manual standards.
Characteristics: M-15
Present Status: Fielded
Arming: Manual
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1657
Safe Arm Time: N/A
Fusing: Pressure
Warhead: Blast
Sensing Width: Track
Anti-Handling Device: Yes
Self-Destruct: No
Explosive Weight: 22 lb
Mine Weight: 30lb
Mines Per 5T Dump: 90
REMARKS: Influence pursued; Last fuse upgrade
FY52
Characteristics: M-19
Present Status: Fielded
Arming: Manual
Safe Arm Time: N/A
Fusing: Pressure
Warhead: Blast
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1658
Sensing Width: Track
Anti-Handling Device: Yes
Self-Destruct: No
Explosive Weight: 21 lb
Mine Weight: 28 lb
Mines Per 5T Dump: 196
REMARKS: Last procured FY58
Characteristics: M-21
Present Status: Fielded
Arming: Manual
Safe Arm Time: N/A
Fusing: Tilt Rod
Warhead: Shape Charge
Sensing Width: Vehicle
Anti-Handling Device: Yes
Self-Destruct: No
Explosive Weight: 11 lb
Mine Weight: 17 lb
Mines Per 5T Dump: 192
REMARKS: Last procured FY62
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1659
M18 Claymore
The M18 Claymore, a directional fragmentation mine, is
8-1/2 inches long, 1-3/8 inches wide, 3-1/4 inches high,
and weighs 3-1/2 pounds. The mine contains 700 steel
spheres (10.5 grains) and 1-1/2 pound layer of
composition C-4 explosive and is initiated by a No. 2
electric blasting cap. The M18 command-detonated
mine may be employed with obstacles or on the
approaches, forward edges, flanks and rear edges of
protective minefields as close-in protection against a
dismounted Infantry attack.
The Claymore projects a fan-shaped pattern of steel
balls in a 60-degree horizontal arc, at a maximum height
of 2 meters, and covers a casualty radius of 100 meters.
The optimum effective range (the range at which the
most desirable balance is achieved between lethality
and area coverage) is 50 meters. The forward danger
radius for friendly forces is 250 meters. The back blast
area is unsafe in unprotected areas 16 meters to the
rear and sides of the munitions. Friendly personnel
within 100 meters to the rear and sides of the munitions
should be in a covered position to be safe from
secondary missiles.
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1660
Characteristics: M-18A1 (Claymore)
Present Status: Fielded
Arming: Manual
Safe Arm Time: N/A
Fusing: Command
Warhead: Directional Fragmentation
Sensing Width: N/A
Anti-Handling Device: No
Self-Destruct: No
Explosive Weight: 1.5 lb
Mine Weight: 3.5 lb
Mines Per 5T Dump: 1,782
REMARKS:
The M18A1 mine is primarily a defensive weapon. It
may be employed to a limited extent in certain phases
of offensive operations. The M18A1 has the same basic
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1661
capabilities as antipersonnel mines and can be used in
most situations where other types of antipersonnel
mines are employed. In addition, the M18A1 has the
capability of being sighted directionally to provide
fragmentation over a specific area and does not
necessarily rely upon chance detonation by the enemy.
The M18A1 is adaptable for covering the ranges
between maximum hand grenade throwing distance and
the minimum safe distance of mortar and artillery
supporting fires.
The M18 antipersonnel mine is an earlier model of the
M18A1 antipersonnel mine. The M18 antipersonnel mine
comes in two versions--with or without a peep-sight;
otherwise, both versions are identical. The mine is a
curved, rectangular, plastic case and contains a layer
of composition C3 explosive. It has a fragmentation
face of rectangular steel fragments. The front face
containing the steel fragments is designed to produce a
fan-shaped spray which can be aimed at a prescribed
target area. The electrical firing device issued with the
M18 CLAYMORE is not safe. Due to its construction, it
may cause premature detonation of the mine. Whenever
possible, the battery holder (firing device) issued with
the M18 mine should be replaced by a standard M57
firing device if the battery holder is used, both firing
wires should be connected to one terminal until the
desired moment of detonation.
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1662
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1663
M67 / M72 Area Denial Anti-personnel Mine (ADAM)
M692 long-destruct
M731 short-destruct
Area Denial Anti-personnel Mine (ADAM) mines are
delivered by 155mm howitzer. ADAM should not be
planned on hard surface roads or airfields as the mines
will shatter or break when hitting asphalt or concrete.
ADAM is an antipersonnel mine activated by deployed
trip lines. There are 36 wedge-shaped mines contained
in the 155-mm projectile. Minefield density can be
selectively determined by altering the number of rounds
applied. There are currently three densities: low,
medium, and high. The mines are expelled from the
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1664
projectile (approximately 600 meters) over the
designated target. Shortly after ground impact, up to
seven trip line sensors are released out to a maximum
length of 20 feet. The detonators are armed to fiction in
the event of any small disturbance. The ADAM mine has
lethality out to 15 feet. Self-destruct times are 4 hours
for short self-destruct (M731) and 48 hours for long self-
destruct (M692).
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1665
M70 / M73 Remote Anti-Armor Munitions (RAAM)
M718 long-destruct
M741 short-destruct
Remote Anti-Armor Munitions (RAAM) mines are
delivered by 155mm howitzer. RAAM should not be
planned on hard surface roads or airfields as the mines
will shatter or break when hitting asphalt or concrete.
RAAMS is effective against armored vehicles. The
mines are expelled from the rear of the projectile over
the target. After ground impact and roll, the mine is
armed and ready to detonate upon sensing a proper
armored vehicle signature (electromagnetic). A
percentage of the nine RAAMS mines are equipped with
an antidisturbance device. RAAMS is highly effective
when used in conjunction with the ADAM mine, which
helps prevent neutralization by enemy ground troops.
There are nine RAAMS mines per 155-mm projectile.
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Minefield densities and self-destruct times are the same
as ADAM (M741 short-destruct, M718 long-destruct).
M76 Scatter able Anti-Tank [AT] mine
M76 AT SCATMINEs are cylindrical in shape, weigh
approximately 1.8 kilograms, contain 585 grams of
cyclonite (RDX) explosive as the main charge, and have
a magnetically induced fuse
M76 AT SCATMINES are delivered using the M131
Modular Pack Mine System (MOPMS)
AT SCATMINEs are designed to produce a K-Kill (kill the
crew of the vehicle) instead of an M-Kill. They produce
a kill by using an SFF warhead (created from a two-
sided M-S plate). The warhead penetrates the vehicle's
belly armor, and spalling metal from the vehicle
(created by the mine blast or secondary explosions)
kills occupants instantly. Even though the crew is
killed, the drive train may be undamaged and the
vehicle may continue to move. On enemy tanks with
autoloaders, the detonation of rounds in the belly-
mounted ammunition carousel is very likely. The mine
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may not achieve a kill when the track of an armored
vehicle runs directly over it.
The magnetic fuse is designed to detonate as the
magnetic field changes over the mine. The warhead is
bidirectional, meaning that it can fire from the top or
the bottom. While anti-handling devices (AHDs) are built
into 20 percent of M70, M73, and M75 mines, the M76
mines do not have AHDs. They can however detonate
when moved, because the mine may sense a significant
change from its original orientation.
Due to their small size, the reduced explosive, and the
possibility of landing with an improper orientation (on
their side or at an angle), AT SCATMINEs have less
chance of destroying a vehicle than a conventional full-
width AT mine. An armored vehicle will not always be
destroyed after an encounter with an AT SCATMINE.
Further, the effectiveness of SCATMINEs in water
obstacles is reduced even more, because 5 centimeters
of water prevents the formation of the M-S slug.
Although the blast wave is accentuated by underwater
placement (attacking hatches and covers), mining of
banks and approaches is recommended instead.
Though all SCATMINEs have a similar life cycle,
specific times vary based on the SD time and the
dispensing system. For safety reasons, SCATMINEs
must receive two arming signals at launch. One signal
is usually physical (spin, acceleration, or unstacking),
and the other is electronic. This same electronic signal
activates the mine's SD time. Mines start their safe-
separation countdown (arming time) when they receive
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arming signals. This allows the mines to come to rest
after dispensing and allows the mine dispenser to exit
the area safely. Mines are armed after the arming time
expires. The first step in arming is a self-test to ensure
proper circuitry. Approximately 0.5 percent of mines fail
the self-test and self-destruct immediately. After the
self-test, mines remain active until their SD time
expires or until they are encountered. Mines actually
self-destruct at 80 to 100 percent of their SD time. The
time period from when the mines begin to self-destruct
and when they finish is called the SD window. No mines
should remain active after the SD time has been
reached. The probability of a live mine existing past its
SD time is 1 in 10,000. Any mines found after the SD
time must be treated as unexploded ordnance (UXO).
The SD time for the M76 is 4 hours (recyclable up to 3
times). As such, M76 mines actually start self-
destructing at 3 hours and 12 minutes. When the 4-hour
SD time is reached, no unexploded mines should exist.
M77 Scatter able Anti-Personnel [AP] mine
The M77 AP SCATMINEs are cylindrical in shape. They
are 6 centimeters high and 12 centimeters in diameter.
M77 AP SCATMINES are delivered using the M131
Modular Pack Mine System (MOPMS)
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Cylindrical AP SCATMINEs kill enemy soldiers through
the combined effects of blast and fragmentation. Each
mine contains 540 grams of composition B4 as its main
charge. The charge detonates upon actuation and
shatters the mine's metal casing to produce shrapnel.
Shrapnel is propelled upward and outward from the
mine and produces fatal casualties to a distance of 15
meters.
Each mine has eight trip wires (four on the top and four
on the bottom) that deploy after ground impact up to 12
meters from the mine. Trip wires are similar in
appearance to very fine thread; they are olive-drab
green in color and weighted at the free end. A tension
of 405 grams applied to one trip wire is enough to
create a break in the electrical circuit and cause the
mine to detonate.
Though all SCATMINEs have a similar life cycle,
specific times vary based on the SD time and the
dispensing system. For safety reasons, SCATMINEs
must receive two arming signals at launch. One signal
is usually physical (spin, acceleration, or unstacking),
and the other is electronic. This same electronic signal
activates the mine's SD time. Mines start their safe-
separation countdown (arming time) when they receive
arming signals. This allows the mines to come to rest
after dispensing and allows the mine dispenser to exit
the area safely. Mines are armed after the arming time
expires. The first step in arming is a self-test to ensure
proper circuitry. Approximately 0.5 percent of mines fail
the self-test and self-destruct immediately. After the
self-test, mines remain active until their SD time
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expires or until they are encountered. Mines actually
self-destruct at 80 to 100 percent of their SD time. The
time period from when the mines begin to self-destruct
and when they finish is called the SD window. No mines
should remain active after the SD time has been
reached. The probability of a live mine existing past its
SD time is 1 in 10,000. Any mines found after the SD
time must be treated as unexploded ordnance (UXO).
The SD time for the M77 is 4 hours (recyclable up to 3
times). As such, M77 mines actually start self-
destructing at 3 hours and 12 minutes. When the 4-hour
SD time is reached, no unexploded mines should exist.
Chapter 27
M86 Pursuit Deterrent Munitions (PDM)
DESCRIPTION: PDM is a manually-activated Area Denial
Artillery Munition (ADAM) with a hand grenade-type
release firing mechanism. It deploys up to seven trip
wires and possesses the ADAM self-destruct
capabilities. For safety purposes, arming will occur one
minute after the firing mechanism is released.
DESCRIPTION: The Pursuit Deterrent Munitions is the
first munitions designed especially for Special Forces,
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by the SWCS Directorate of Combat Developments. SF
unites operating in hostile territory take every
precaution to prevent discovery or confrontation with
the enemy. But if discovery does occur, the need to
break contact with the enemy is critical- otherwise
there is often no chance of extraction, re-supply or
accomplishing the mission. Current munitions to
protect withdrawals are slow and hazardous to
emplace. The use of these munitions requires units to
record their position, since they do not have a self-
destruct mechanism and will remain in place.
DESCRIPTION: Only 3 1/2 inches height and
approximately three inches in diameter, the PDM
weighs one pound and can easily be thrown or
emplaced by hand. The PDM i sslefdestructing : it will
detonate automatically after a predetermined period of
time.
DESCRIPTION: Several activated PDMs dropped behind
withdrawing SF elements would create an obstacle: The
pursuing enemy forces would either take casualties,
stop and breach the mined area or divert their route.
Any of these options would give the SF unite time to
break contact.
DESCRIPTION: Powered by a build-in battery, the PDM is
activated by pulling a pin and removing an arming strap.
Once activated the PDM automatically deploys sever
20-foot trip wires. the PDM can be triggered by
disturbing these wires, by its anti-tampering mechanism
or by the expiration of its self-destruction time. When
triggered, a small preliminary charge throws the main
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charge to approximately shoulder-height before it
explodes.
DESCRIPTION: The M86 pursuit-deterrent munitions (
PDM) (Figure 4-1) is wedge-shaped and is similar in
configuration and functioning to the ADAM. The PDM is
a manually activated mine. It has an arming time of 25
seconds and can deploy up to seven trip wires. Once
the PDM is armed, disturbing it or any of its trip wires
will initiate the munitions. The munitions contains a
liquid propellant that rests under a kill mechanism and
propels upward approximately 2.5 meters. The kill
mechanism detonates in the air and propels fragments
in all directions. If the munitions is not disturbed, it will
self-destruct in 4 hours. The PDM is used as a deterrent
by special-operations forces (SOF) and in operations
where units may be pursued by an enemy force.
STATUS: This system was fielded in 2QFY91.
EMPLOYMENT CONCEPT: This munitions is employed
primarily by Special Operations Forces to support hit-
and-run, ambush, harassing, and urban warfare
missions. PDM is also employed by Infantry, Light
Combat Engineers, and Rangers where mission
warrants the use of this device.
BASIS OF ISSUE: The PDM is issued as a Class V item of
ammunition.
TRAINING/PERSONNEL: A training support package for
PDM is being developed. Since PDM is used mostly by
Special Forces personnel, extensive training is not
required.
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Sources and Resources
FM-20-32 Mine/Countermine Operations 1998
Special Warfare - Fall 1989 Vol 2 No.4
M93 HORNET [Family of Wide Area Munitions - WAM ]
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The WAM (Wide Area Munitions) is
a smart, autonomous top attack
anti-tank/anti-vehicle munitions,
designed to defeat armored
combat vehicles from a standoff
distance. The WAM utilizes
acoustic and seismic sensors in its
ground platform to detect, track,
and classify potential targets, and then launches an
infrared detecting submunition or "sublet" over the top
of the selected target. Once the sublet detects the
target, it fires an explosively formed penetrator (EFP) to
defeat the target. Target vehicles include, but are not
limited to, tanks (e.g., T-72, and T-80), breachers (e.g.,
KMT-4/5), and lightly armored tracked vehicles (e.g.,
BMP, 152-mm SPH, and BMD). The variant currently in
LRIP is designated as the Hand Emplaced WAM (HE-
WAM). It is designed to be carried and emplaced by one
person, to have a standoff lethal radius of 100 meters,
360 degrees around, and to be fully autonomous from
final arming to target engagement. The WAM, when
fielded, will provide considerable precision engagement
force for the Army in the Joint Vision 2010 scenario.
Increased funding for Stryker and Future Combat
Systems (FCS) came as a result of Army decisions in
2002 to terminate or restructure some 48 systems in
the FY 04-09 Program Objective Memorandum (POM)
long-term spending plan. Among the systems
terminated were: United Defenses Crusader self-
propelled howitzer and the A3 upgrade for the Bradley
Fighting vehicle, GDs M1A2 Abrams System
Enhancement Program, Lockheed Martins Army
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Tactical Missile System Block II and the associated pre-
planned product improvement version of Northrop
Grummans Brilliant Anti-armor (BAT) munitions,
Raytheons Stinger missile and Improved Target
Acquisition System, and Textrons Wide Area Mine.
Army ACAT II Program
15,259 systems
Total program cost (TY$) $800M
Average unit cost (TY$) $52.4K
Full-rate production: 3QFY98
Prime Contractor
Textron Defense Systems
DESCRIPTION: The Hornet is being developed in four
sequential phases: 1) basic hand emplaced (HE-Hornet),
2) HE-Hornet product improved (HE-Hornet PIP#1) with
remote control on/off/on and redeploy capabilities, 3)
HE-Hornet PIP #2 with improved performance capability
including the ability to engage wheeled vehicles and
improved countermeasure resistance, and 4) a deep
attack version (DA-Hornet, delivered by rocket, missile
or fixed wing aircraft). The Hornet, common to all
variants, has standoff detection and engagement
capability. It attacks targets from the top at ranges of
up to 100 meters and provides a mobility kill. The basic
HE-Hornet engages tracked armored vehicles, and may
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be armed manually or by the M71 MOPMS Remote
Control Unit (RCU). The HE-Hornet PIP #1 will be
remotely controlled by the CIRCE RCU, and can be
recovered and redeployed prior to initial arming.
Wide Area Munitions consists of three major
subsystems:
a communications module,
a ground platform module, and
a smart submunition/warhead (sublet) module.
Once deployed, the WAM uprights itself and
autonomously searches for a target vehicle. WAM uses
acoustic and seismic sensors to locate, identify and
track armored targets. When a firing solution is
satisfied, the WAM launches a sublet in a trajectory
over the target. The sublet uses a passive infrared
sensor to detect the target and fires an Explosively
Formed Penetrator (EFP) at the vulnerable area. In
addition, the WAM has a command destruct capability
for easy battlefield cleanup.
STATUS:The Hornet program began in 1986 with a
Department of the Army message. A required
operational capability document was approved in 1990
that outlined a prioritized, three-phased WAM
development plan: (1) deep-attack, (2) hand-emplaced,
and (3) Volcano-emplaced. With the collapse of the
Soviet Union and the rise in importance of early-entry
operations, the priority was changed to (1) hand-
emplaced, (2) hand-emplaced with two-way
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communication and redeployability, and (3) deep-
attack.
Initially, contracts were awarded to two contractors.
Alliant Techsystems' WAM prototype was based on the
sense and destroy armor (SADARM) artillery warhead.
Textron Defense Systems' prototype was based on their
U.S. Air Force extended-range anti-armor munitions
proto-type. Textron won a 1990 competition and is now
the sole contractor.
The basic HE-Hornet's first unit equipped (FUE) date
was scheduled for 4QFY98. The HE-Hornet PIP #1 is in
Engineering & Manufacturing Development; its FUE is
scheduled for 2QFY01. The initial operational capability
quantity for HE-Hornet and HE-Hornet PIP #1 will be
reached 4QFY99 and 2QFY02, respectively.
Units will receive Individual and Collective Trainers.
Actual live munitions delivered to ammunition storage
facility. The Wide Area Munitions (WAM) Training Device
detects, discriminates, and engages designated targets
up to 100 meters away on the training battlefield. The
simulation consists of placing "dummy" WAMs on the
battlefield for visual realism and to input the WAM
minefield information on the controlling computer
system. The computer operator enters the size, shape
and number of WAMs on the system based on the
battlefield scenario. Whenever a tracked vehicle
approaches within 100 meters of the "dummy"
minefield, the vehicle sends a signal to the controlling
computer system . Then the system automatically
determines the probability of a "kill." The result may be
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a catrostophic kill, mobility kill or no kill. If there is a
kill, the system alerts the vehicle of the type of kill so
the vehicle operator acts accordingly. The WAM
Training Device provides a realistic training
environment and is an integral part of the Combat
Training Center (CTC) battlefield scenario.
EMPLOYMENT CONCEPT: Hornet can be used in
offensive and defensive operations and in both tactical
and operational level role. In the close battle, HE-
Hornet will be emplaced by combat Engineers,
maneuver forces under Engineer supervision, and at
extended ranges by Special Operations Forces and
Rangers. Hornet gauntlets, a series of randomly spaced
clusters of 3-6 Hornets, will be employed along high-
speed avenues of approach to disrupt and attrite the
enemy. Hornet area disruption obstacles, consisting of
20 Hornets employed in an "X" pattern across a grid
square, will disrupt and attrite the enemy as he moves
cross country prior to the start of the direct fire battle.
When employed deep, Hornet will disrupt a threat
commander's operational tempo by attacking his follow-
on forces, logistics and C2, by denying key terrain such
as approaches to bridges/river crossing sites, and by
selectively attacking high-value targets, such as
Tactical Ballistic Missile (TBM) launchers.
BASIS OF ISSUE: Hornet is a Class V item.
TRAINING/PERSONNEL: USAES will provide training on
the employment of Hornet. Individual and collective
trainers are being procured to train operator tasks and
for force-on-force training.
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1679
The WAM Required Operational Capability (ROC)
document was initially prepared as a stand-alone
document for the HE-WAM version, with possible future
variants proposed as Pre-Planned Product
Improvements (P3I). The Army rewrote the ROC as a
"Family of WAM" ROC for three variants: hand-
emplaced, volcano-delivered, and deep attack WAM.
The ROC for the Family of WAM was approved on March
14, 1990. The Family of WAM has since been designated
as an ACAT II program. Only the HE-WAM version has
been developed, and was approved for LRIP in
September 1996 with a full-rate production decision
(MS-III) planned for June 1998.
The final LFT activity took place at Yuma Proving
Ground in September 1997 when six tactical WAM's
with live warheads were fired at passing T-72 Soviet
main battle tanks. Although three of the sublets hit
their targets, only one caused substantial damage to
the target. The three hit locations did not appear to
conform to earlier expectations about WAM's aimpoint
distribution against tank targets. Therefore, in early
1998, the hit points from the live firings at Yuma (and
the aim points from the camera-equipped WAM shots at
all test locations) will be compared to the data base
from 1995 captive flight testing to assess the validity of
previous aim point expectations. Of the three sublets
that missed their targets, one fired on a target well
beyond its capable engagement range and another fired
in the wrong direction. Both of these far misses
occurred during gusty wind conditions.
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1680
WAM's explosively formed penetrate has demonstrated
the ability to perforate substantial areas of potential
threat armor targets and to cause loss of mobility or
firepower after perforation. Concerns remain about the
hit point distribution and WAM's ability to function
properly under windy conditions. A manufacturing
challenge for the defense contractor of the warhead is
that the EFP liner, which is made of Tantalum, has been
known to be difficult to be machined reliably.
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1681
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Advanced Hornet
The Advanced Hornet will be an enhanced version of
the Hornet currently fielded. It will provide the soldier
with an ability to control munitions and munitions
fields, and obtain reports of individual munitions status.
Its components will include a two-way command and
control (C2) system, and a removable battery pack for
redeploy ability.
The C2 system consists of a Hand-held Terminal Unit
(HTU), a Harris RF5800V man pack radio and a
communications module, which is contained within the
Hornet. This feature will replace the Hornet's one-way
communications links. Advanced Hornet will also
provide enhanced lethality through the use of an
improved warhead and sensor, and improved
algorithms.
As battlefields change, the Advanced Hornet's redeploy
command will allow the munitions to be retrieved, reset
and redeployed in alternate locations prior to arming.
After arming, the munitions may be remotely controlled
to attack vehicles in the same autonomous manner as
the basic Hornet, send intelligence reports to the
soldier's platoon via the HTU, self-destruct or disable
the arming circuits to allow friendly forces to pass
through.
References
The Hornet: A Wide-Area Munitions, by Major
Gregory Fields, Engineer pages 17-20, April 1996
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1683
M131 Modular Pack Mine System (MOPMS)
DESCRIPTION: The MOPMS is a man-portable anti-tank
(AT) and anti-personnel (AP) mine system. The M131
module weighs approximately 165 pounds and contains
a mix of 17 M78 AT and four M77 AP mines. This module
is stored, shipped and emplaced without any
modification to the container. The MOPMS module may
be initiated by hardwire or radio control. The hardwire
capability uses currently available wire and electrical
firing devices. The M71 hand-held radio control unit
(RCU) allows one individual to control as many as 15
groups of MOPMS modules from a remote location. The
AT mine has a magnetic influence fuse and a Miznay-
Schardin kill mechanism. The AP mines deploy four
tripwires upon ejection which initiate a fragmenting kill
mechanism. Both the AP and AT mines contain a radio
frequency receiver which allows the mines to be
remotely-controlled (recycle self-destruct time and
command destruct) with the RCU once the mines are
dispensed. The factory set self-destruct time is four
hours.
STATUS: MOPMS fielding is in progress. The U.S. Army
Engineer School was the first unit equipped on 6 March
92.
EMPLOYMENT CONCEPT: The MOPMS will be employed
to close lanes and gaps in minefields, at chokepoints,
to reinforce obstacles, to emplace point minefields and
for protective mining. Infantry, Armor, Engineer and
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1684
other units with a protective mining mission will employ
MOPMS in support of their tactical missions in all areas
of the battlefield. If the mines are not dispensed from
the MOPMS module, they may be recovered and reused.
A M71 remote control unit (RCU) or an electronic
initiating device, such as the M34 hand-blasting
machine connected to the container by field wire,
dispenses mines on command. Once dispensed, mines
cannot be recovered or reused. Operators can disarm
and recover the container for later use, if mines are not
dispensed. The RCU can recycle the 4-hour self-
destruct time of the mines three times, for a total
duration of 16 hours (4 hours after initial launch and
three 4-hour recycles). This feature makes it possible to
keep the minefield in place for longer periods, if
necessary. The RC can also self-destruct mines on
command. It allows a unit to counterattack or withdraw
through the minefield, as necessary, rather than wait
until the self-destruct time has expired. The RCU can
control up to 15 containers or groups of containers via
separate pulse-coded frequencies, out to 300 to 1,000
meters. Coded frequencies defeat threat electronic
counter-measures directed against the system. The
M34 50-cap blasting machine can detonate one MOPMS
at a maximum range of 3,000 meters. (Internal
resistance decreases the maximum range by 400
meters for each additional MOPMS connected in series).
When controlled by direct wire, MOPMS dispensers
cannot be command-detonated, and the self-destruct
time cannot be recycled.
BASIS OF ISSUE: MOPMS will be a Class V item of issue
and will be issued to those units that are authorized a
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1685
basic load of mines. It will be substituted for
conventional mines currently in a unit's basic load. The
M71 RCU will be a TOE item, issued to Engineer
Companies (four RCUs each), Armor, Infantry and
Cavalry Companies (two RCUs each), and other
selected companies with a protective mining mission
(one RCU each).
TRAINING/PERSONNEL: U.S. Army Combat and Combat
Support Schools will provide training during basic and
advanced courses of instruction on MOPMS
employment. At the unit level, training will be primarily
conducted using the M136 Training Dispenser and M71
RCU.
GENERAL
7 dispensing tubes, 21 mines total (17 AT, 4 AP)
4 hour self destruct time(SD), recycle up to three times
(16 hours)
Mines start to SD at 3 hrs, 12 min (80% of SD time); all
mines SD by 4 hrs.
Mines are propelled 35 meters to the front and sidess
Mines dispensed by M71 Remote Control Unit (RCU),
M32 blasting machine, M34 blasting machine, or M57
Claymore firing device
Man portable, four man carry, 163 lbs (73 kg) suit case-
shaped mine dispenser
EMPLOYMENT
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1686
Coverage of small critical targets
Mission employment:
*Close lane
*Deliberate protective minefield (cases emplaced, not
dispensed)
*Nuisance minefield
*Ambushes and booby traps
*Tactical minefield with Fix or Disrupt intents
*In support of MOUT Operations
EMPLACEMENT
Issued as standard Class V munitions and drawn from
ASP
Site selection, achieving optimum effect
Dispensers are arranged in patterns to achieve
necessary frontage, depth, and density
RCU unit can control up to 15 dispensers out to 1
kilometer, can SD all mines on command and recycle
the SD time three times
Recycled mines will start to SD 12 hrs, 48 min; all mines
will have SD by 16 hrs
Mines must be recycled every 3 hrs and 12 min or some
will SD before 4 hrs
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1687
Dispensers controlled by blasting machine cannot be
recycled mines or command detonated
Establish trigger points for closing lanes
Reference FM 20-32, pages 6-31 to 6-34
MOPMS DISRUPT MINEFIELD PATTERN
MOPMS FIX MINEFIELD PATTERN
Reference FM 20-32, page 6-34
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1688
SINGLE MOPMS SAFETY BOX
Reference FM 20-32, page 6-32
References
FM 20-32 MINE/COUNTERMINE OPERATIONS 29
MAY 1998
FM 20-32 MINE/COUNTERMINE OPERATIONS basic
manual with Change 1, 30 June 1999, Change 2, 22
August 2001, and Change 3, 1 October 2002.
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1689
M1023 Remote Area Denial Artillery Munitions (RADAM)
The Remote Area Denial Artillery Munitions (RADAM) is
a repackaging of seven Remote Anti-Armor Mines
(RAAM) and five Area Denial Artillery Munitions (ADAM)
into a single 155mm artillery projectile. The munitions
will have preset self-destruct times of either 4 hours or
48 hours. The combination of both antitank and
antipersonnel munitions into a single artillery round
results in a better dispersion of munitions on the ground
and a more effective minefield. Firing only one type of
round also reduces the logistics burden and the number
of aiming points for the firing units.
The Area Denial Artillery Munitions (ADAM)/ Remote
Anti- Armor Mine (RAAM) Upgrade was renamed the
Remote Area Denial Artillery Munitions (RADAM). Items
that received type classification approval during fiscal
year 2001 included the M1023 Remote Area Denial
Artillery Munitions; M1024/M1025/M1026
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1690
Non-Self-Destructing Anti-Personnel Landmine
Alternatives (NSD-A)
The Non-Self Destruct Alternative is designed to
replace non-self destructing 'dumb' M16 antipersonnel
landmines. Under current policy, the M16 mine is only
used on the Korean peninsula. The NSD-A is hand
emplaced, contains an integral intrusion detector, and
features radio frequency control. It may be command
destructed and has a re-settable self-destruct time. If
recovered prior to self-destructing, it may be reused.
The NSD-A is compatible with the Tactical Internet.
The hand emplaced, Non Self Destruct Alternative (NSD-
A) will consist of three main hardware items; a hand
emplaced munitions, a repeater and a controller. All
concepts require a man-in-the-loop for system
operation. The munitions will consist of a sensor, a
communications package to transmit detection back to
the man-in-the-loop and receive fire commands, and a
final effects mechanism which can be lethal, non-lethal,
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1691
or a combination. A repeater will be included when
tactical operations require a greater separation
between the munitions field and the man-in-the-loop or
require non-line-of-sight communications. The man-in-
the-loop performing munitions field over watch would
operate a controller console. Through the controller,
the operator would be provided alerts signals when an
intruder was detected by the munitions. The operator
would then verify the hostile intrusion and would send a
fire command to the munitions. The controller would
have additional features such as command destruct but
would not have the capability to turn the system off and
on.
The NSD-A relies on the man-in-the-loop concept to
eliminate indiscriminate engagement of the lethal
mechanism. With this feature, a soldier or Marine
makes a conscious decision to engage a target with a
lethal mechanism. This prevents fratricide and
addresses the humanitarian concerns of non-
combatants entering a mined area.
The Non-Self-Destructing Anti-Personnel Landmine
Alternatives (NSD-A) program was put on hold in
September 2000 after the Army selected the ATK-
Textron joint venture to design and produce the
munitions. A few months later, the outgoing Clinton
administration deferred all land mine issues to its
successor and work had been frozen since.
Textron Systems and Alliant Techsystems have joined
forces to create "Spider" -- a weapon system designed
to provide force protection and serve as a humanitarian
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1692
alternative for anti-personnel land mines. On 31 October
2002 the joint venture between ATK Integrated
Defense, Plymouth, Minn., an operating company of ATK
(Alliant Techsystems,, and Textron Systems,
Wilmington, Mass., a subsidiary of Textron Inc., was
awarded a $53.8 million development contract to jointly
complete development of a hand-emplaced munitions
system that will serve as an alternative to or
replacement for current non-self-destructing anti-
personnel landmines.
The system will allow the soldier/Marine to remotely
monitor/control, fire, or deactivate individual munitions
within the munitions field. This enhanced capability will
also minimize injuries to friendly troops and non-
combatants during hostilities and following a conflict.
The work will be performed under the U.S. Army's Non-
Self Destruct Alternative (NSDA) program. The NSDA
program is a key element of the Army's Anti-Personnel
Landmine Alternatives (APL-A) initiative.
The 50-50 joint venture will work with the U.S. Army
Armament Research, Development, and Engineering
Center (ARDEC) and Project Manager, Close Combat
Systems at Picatinny Arsenal, N.J., to develop an NSDA
system that will include "man-in-the-loop" operation and
"off-on-off " munitions controls. Type classification of
the system is expected in 2005.
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1693
Chapter 28
Self-Healing Minefield
The Self-Healing Minefield is an antitank landmine
system that does not rely on antipersonnel landmines
for dismounted breach protection. Instead the Self-
Healing Minefield employs a novel breach response
mechanism that can determine both mounted and
dismounted enemy assaults on the minefield and
respond to maintain obstacle integrity. Contrary to the
current mixed minefield systems (Volcano,
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1694
RAAM/ADAM, and Gator) which require antipersonnel
landmines co-located with an antitank minefield to
complicate dismounted breaching of the antitank
minefield, the Self-Healing Minefield employs
intelligent, mobile antitank mines alone to defeat all
enemy breaching.
The Self-Healing Minefield system is designed to
achieve an increased resistance to dismounted and
mounted breaching by adding a novel dimension to the
minefield. Instead of a static complex obstacle, the
Self-Healing Minefield is an intelligent, dynamic
obstacle that responds to an enemy breaching attempt
by physically reorganizing. The Self-Healing Minefield
consists of surface scattered antitank mines that can
detect an enemy attack of the minefield and respond
autonomously, by having a fraction of the mines move
to heal the breach. Since the minefield is no longer a
static obstacle, an open breach cannot be maintained.
The Self-Healing Minefield forces the enemy to attack
the minefield and deplete the antitank mines
surrounding the breaching lane by either repeated
assaults or a wide area breach/clearance. In either case
the enemy has increased their exposure to covering
fires when compared to the current mixed system
minefield. An ongoing modeling effort indicates that a
self-healing minefield will provide greatly increased
military effectiveness of the obstacle.
Los Alamos National Laboratory has developed a model
warhead for the antitank mines in the Self-Healing
Minefield (SHM). The DARPA concept of the Self-Healing
Minefield requires that the mines to move to fill gaps
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1695
when it is determined necessary by collective
processing of sensor information communicated
amongst the mines. The application of advanced
technology in the mine required by the mobility and
communication systems justifies the application of
advanced technology for the warhead to minimize, or at
least reduce, the warhead allowances necessary. The
SHM model warhead has, to date, met or exceeded
initial performance requirements (fielded capability)
while maintaining attractive volume and weight
characteristics. The positive design and testing results,
combined with the existence of sophisticated on-board
electronics, suggests that it is possible to enhance the
capability of the warhead system. Such enhanced
capability is quantified by increased vehicle kill
probability given an encounter. Liberal use of embedded
initiation points controls detonation wave propagation.
The control is applied to improve the efficiency of the
coupling of the explosive to the liner, as do inert wave
shapers, and to open a multimode pathway to address
track defeat or the defeat of other vehicles
The SHM uses radio links as the primary mode of
communication between mines. Following network
setup, each node transmits periodic signals to indicate
its status to the rest of the network. The absence of
expected transmissions from one or more mines is one
of the main indicators used to identify and locate
breach attempts. Remaining mines use their radio links
to inform more distant mines of the breach attempt, and
to coordinate the response. The SHM may also
communicate with a remote controller via a reach-back
option.
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1696
Mine-to-mine radio links are short range. Their low
transmit power, wide-beam antennas, and low antenna
height, make them susceptible to jamming by an
attacker. The SHM has a multi-layered response to
jamming. If radio jamming is successful, the network
can maintain connectivity at lower data rates via
acoustic links. If acoustic links are jammed, the
network enters the autonomous response mode, which
will maintain minefield integrity for several more hours.
However, minefield integrity during repeated breach
attempts will be maintained longest if radio
communications are available. The SHM radio network
uses spread-spectrum communication techniques, with
robust protocols and reconfigurable networks, to
minimize jamming sensitivity. Lincoln Laboratory is
looking at improvements to the SHM waveform and SHM
receivers, to provide even more robust radio links.
A jamming threat model has been developed based on
the state-of-the-art in radio electronics and deployment
strategies ranging from a large, truck-borne mobile
jammed, to a large number of small "distributed"
jammers scattered over the minefield. The threat model
includes "smart-jamming" techniques such as frequency
following, time following, and focused attacks on
network control data. The threat model is used to
evaluate the effectiveness of different measures that
can be taken to improve network robustness. Measures
under consideration include increased processing gain,
adaptive modulation, increased waveform
randomization, adaptive frequency hopping, time-
domain interference cancellation, and adaptive array
processing. Large distributed antenna arrays are being
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1697
investigated for reach-back/reach-forward
communications. Each array consists of multiple mines
with coordinated transmission and receiver processing
via the SHM network. Arrays have the ability to
implement beam forming and directional interference
cancellation.
The Self-Healing Minefield program is a 3-year effort
focused on the development and demonstration of the
key enabling technologies necessary in a mobile,
intelligent, networked anti-vehicle mine system. The
program plan establishes a two-phased approach where
the first 2 years focus on the subsystem development
and a small-scale integrated test. The second phase is
focused on refinement of the technologies and scaling
to a tactically significant field text. The program
completed Phase I in March 2002 and is aggressively
pursuing the overall program objectives in Phase II.
Upon completion of Phase II the Self-Healing Minefield
will be positioned to transition to the U.S. Army for
continued development.
Chapter 29
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1698
Volcano Mine Dispenser
The Volcano Mine Dispenser provides soldiers with a
scatter able mine capability delivered by helicopter or
ground vehicle. The Volcano dispenser contains 960
anti-tank/anti-personnel mines and is capable of rapidly
laying a minefield 1100 meters long by 120 meters
wide. In addition, the mines have a timed self-destruct
capability.
The VOLCANO system can be configured as both a
heliborne and ground delivered mine system. The M139
mine dispenser, with various adapter kits, is capable of
being mounted on UH-60 helicopters and a variety of
ground vehicles. The dispenser racks accept and
launch mines from the M87 mine canisters which
contain five GATOR anti-tank (AT) and one anti-
personnel (AP) mine each.
STATUS: The ground mounted VOLCANO systems are
currently being fielded. The Air VOLCANO contract was
recently awarded to Brunswick Corp. Air VOLCANO
production started Jan 95 and completed Jul 95. First
Unit Equipped (FUE) date was Aug 95.
EMPLOYMENT CONCEPT: VOLCANO will be employed
offensively and defensively to delay enemy movement,
isolate the battlefield and reinforce friendly fires.
VOLCANO will become the standard helicopter mine
dispensing system and will replace the M56 system.
VOLCANO will be a principal scatter able mine delivery
system for light forces, and will replace Ground
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1699
Emplaced Mine Scattering System (GEMSS) in heavy
forces.
The operator uses the dispenser control unit (DCU) to
electrically control the dispensing operation from within
the carrier vehicle. The DCU provides controls for the
arming sequence and the delivery speed selection. It
also sets mine self-destruct times. The DCU allows the
operator to start and stop mine dispensing at any time.
A counter on the DCU indicates the number of canisters
remaining on each side of the carrier. An explosive
propelling charge dispenses from their canisters. For
ground vehicles, mines are dispensed 25 to 60 meters
from the vehicle at ground speeds of 5 to 55 mphs. For
aircraft, mines are dispensed 35 to 70 meters from the
line of flight. The aircraft flies at a minimum altitude of
5 feet, at speeds of 20 to 120 knots. It can deliver up to
960 mines (160 canisters) per sortie. The Volcano uses
the host vehicle as a power source. Attaching the
system to the vehicle does not significantly degrade its
mobility. Except for the mounting hardware, there is
total system commonality between air and ground
Volcano systems.
The ground Volcano allows for placement of large
minefields in depth. Combat engineer units normally
employ the ground Volcano. The primary use of
mounted dispensers is to emplace tactical minefields
oriented on enemy forces in support of maneuver
operations and friendly AT fires. The system is
vulnerable to direct and indirect fires, so units must
protect it when close to the FLOT. It is an ideal
obstacle reserve, employed when the enemy reaches a
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1700
decision point that indicates future movement. With this
asset, units can place obstacles on avenues the enemy
is using, leaving other avenues open for friendly
movement.
Air VOLCANO dispenses its full payload in 17 seconds
at 120 knots.
BASIS OF ISSUE: The VOLCANO mine dispenser will be
issued to selected Assault Helicopter Companies at
three per company (only one company per
Division/Corps/Armored Cavalry Regiment). VOLCANO
will be issued at two per Combat Engineer Company in
ERI, Airborne and Light.
TRAINING/PERSONNEL: The M88 Practice Mine Canister
(which expels six inert mines) and the M89 inert
training canister are the VOLCANO training devices.
VOLCANO operation requires no special skills; and a
designated rather than dedicated operator will be used.
Resident training will be for familiarization only. Semi-
annual operator refreshers are expected to be sufficient
to maintain proficiency.
Volcano (Light)
The Volcano (Light) is designed to lay a minefield about
900 feet long and over 110 feet wide," Sullivan said.
"It's attached to a HMMWV to allow more mobility,
rather than the larger Volcano, which is attached to a
five-ton truck. This will allow it to go into tight spaces
to support the light fighter."
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A Volcano has 20 blue, two-foot long metal cylinders,
each containing five anti-tank mines and one anti-
personnel mine. Once the mines hit the ground, trip
wires spring out of each to prevent safe enemy passage
to the light fighter's doorstep.
The primary user of the Volcano operates the system
from where the back seat in a HMMWV would be. Once
the canisters are armed, the press of a button expels
the mines over the perimeter.
GENERAL
Ground and Air Delivery Systems (5-ton, M548 Cargo,
UH-60)
Each Mine Canister has 5 AT and 1 AP mines
Three Field Selectable SD Times (4 hrs/ 48 hrs/15 days)
UH -60A can deliver 960 mines(160 canisters) per sortie
5 - ton and M548 can hold 160 canisters ( four racks
each holding 40 canisters)
Uses Host Vehicle as a power source
Same system is used on both ground and air except for
mounting
Each Light Engineer Battalion is authorized three
Each Aviation Brigade is authorized three
EMPLOYMENT
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Provide capability to rapidly emplace large minefields
under varying conditions
Quickly attached to aerial and ground vehicles Missions
included:
Tactical Minefields, Reinforce existing obstacles, Close
lanes gap and defile, Protect flank, Deny enemy ADA
site
Excellent Reserve Obstacle
EMPLACEMENT
Average AT and AP linear density of 0.72 and 0.14
mines/meter
Site layout extremely important:
*Mine field limits are premarked fencing emplaced 80
meters from centerline, 40 meters from start/stop
points
*Fence is emplaced prior to dispensing if situation
permits
*Must be marked before turning over to adjacent unit or
maneuver unit
Special considerations for air delivery:
*More rapid delivery = less accuracy
*Use positive control techniques: visual ID, time lapse,
# of canisters fired, Doplar guidance and permission
coordination
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*End points must be visually marked for pilot
*Emplaced in friendly area must be marked by fence
100m from centerline, 100m from start/stop points
Safety zone is 640 meters from boundary of minefield
VOLCANO
DEPT
H
FRONT
GROUN
D
FRON
T
AIR
# OF
MINES
(AT/AP
)
#
MINEFIEL
D
PER 5
TON
DISRUP
T
120 277 278 200/40 4
FIX 120 277 278 200/40 4
TURN 320 555 557 800/16
0
1
BLOCK 320 555 557 800/16 1
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0
Ground/Air Volcano
Disrupt and Fix Minefields
Ground/Air Volcano
Turn and Block Minefields
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1705
Chapter 30
Overview
The Self-Healing Minefield is an antitank landmine
system that does not rely on antipersonnel landmines
for dismounted breach protection. Instead the Self-
Healing Minefield employs a novel breach response
mechanism that can determine both mounted and
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1706
dismounted enemy assaults on the minefield and
respond to maintain obstacle integrity. Contrary to the
current mixed minefield systems (Volcano,
RAAM/ADAM, and Gator) which require antipersonnel
landmines co-located with an antitank minefield to
complicate dismounted breaching of the antitank
minefield, the Self-Healing Minefield employs
intelligent, mobile antitank mines alone to defeat all
enemy breaching.
Concept
The Self-Healing Minefield system is designed to
achieve an increased resistance to dismounted and
mounted breaching by adding a novel dimension to the
minefield. Instead of a static complex obstacle, the
Self-Healing Minefield is an intelligent, dynamic
obstacle that responds to an enemy breaching attempt
by physically reorganizing. The Self-Healing Minefield
consists of surface scattered antitank mines that can
detect an enemy attack of the minefield and respond
autonomously, by having a fraction of the mines move
to heal the breach. Since the minefield is no longer a
static obstacle, an open breach cannot be maintained.
The Self-Healing Minefield forces the enemy to attack
the minefield and deplete the antitank mines
surrounding the breaching lane by either repeated
assaults or a wide area breach/clearance. In either case
the enemy has increased their exposure to covering
fires when compared to the current mixed system
minefield. An ongoing modeling effort indicates that a
self-healing minefield will provide greatly increased
military effectiveness of the obstacle.
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1707
Prototype System Performance
In order to achieve the level of robustness necessary to
defeat or substantially complicate an enemy breach
attempt, the mines within the prototype Self-Healing
Minefield will be designed to:
Autonomously identify and respond to an enemy
attack within 10 seconds of a breach attempt or
vulnerability in the minefield.
Resist multiple breach attempts.
Be mobile in all environmental conditions and
terrain where enemy tanks can operate.
Rapidly assemble a scalable communication
network and self-geolocate in 5-15 minutes.
Have a robust mine-to-mine communication
resistant to enemy countermeasures.
Provide a compact multi-hopping system.
Be of two sided mobility or single sided mobility
with self-righting.
Provide directional control and repeatability.
Have a Non-GPS based geolocation with 1 meter
location accuracy.
Maintain or reduce overall volume as compared to
currently fielded scatter able anti-vehicle mines.
Technology Focuses
To achieve this level of performance, DARPA is focusing
the development of the Self-Healing Minefield on the
following enabling subsystems: individual impulse-
based mine mobility concepts; low power mine-to-mine
communication methods that can determine each mine
location; healing algorithms/ behaviors that are robust
against a variety of enemy breaching tactics; and a
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1708
compact warhead that maintains minefield
effectiveness given the reduced volume available. This
development will culminate in the demonstration of
Self-Healing Minefield concepts, in tactical scenarios,
including urban terrain and a large scale minefield with
at least 50 concept mines operating in a one-half
hectare test area.
Teams
Three teams are engaged in research and development
of the key enabling technologies for the Self-Healing
Minefield. The development of mine mobility, mine-to-
mine communications, and minefield behaviorsalong
with the integration of these technologies into small
numbers of anti-vehicle landmine-sized prototypesis
each team's main focus. Successful prototype systems
will continue research and development, expanding the
number of prototypes built to permit for larger system
testing to demonstrate scalability and operations in
tactically significant terrain and scenarios. Although
these prototype systems will not contain warheads,
they will show the development pathway to a final
design containing all enabling technologies and a
warhead.
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1709
Additionally, single component technologies necessary
to assure a robust Self-Healing Minefield are under
development. These include an alternative mobility
approach and investigation of the use of 3-axis
magnetic measurement for improved sensing of the
vehicle during overpass.
Technical Support
Several organizations currently provide technical
support to the Self-Healing Minefield program. This
support assures that the Self-Healing Minefield program
addresses all significant technical, operational, and
testing issues to facilitate technology transition
opportunities to the U.S. military.
Evolution & Success
The Self-Healing Minefield program is a 3-year effort
focused on the development and demonstration of the
key enabling technologies necessary in a mobile,
intelligent, networked anti-vehicle mine system. The
program plan establishes a two-phased approach where
the first 2 years focus on the subsystem development
and a small-scale integrated test. The second phase is
focused on refinement of the technologies and scaling
to a tactically significant field text. The program
completed Phase I in March 2002 and is aggressively
pursuing the overall program objectives in Phase II.
Upon completion of Phase II the Self-Healing Minefield
will be positioned to transition to the U.S. Army for
continued development.
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1710
Chapter 31
Miscellaneous Explosives Used As Improvised
Explosive Devices (IEDS)
Photo: Courtesy of the U.S. Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco,
and Firearms
It is NOT the intent of this website to assist, in any
way, those that would engage in violent or dangerous
acts. The above pictures are provided to assist
emergency responders in identifying potentially deadly
devices. These items, and many others of more
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1711
sophisticated design -- have been used to build
improvised explosive devices (IEDS) -- and to carry out
criminal and terrorist acts.
Known or suspected explosives, of any type, should be
handled ONLY by qualified Explosives Ordinance
Disposal (EOD) or Bomb Squad personnel. In the event
you discover any of the devices pictures above,
1. EVACUATE THE AREA...
2. DO NOT TOUCH OR MOVE THE DEVICE...
3. IMMEDIATELY contact the nearest police agency and
notify them that you believe you have found an
explosive device...REQUEST ASSISTANCE...
Chapter 32
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1712
Improvised Explosive Cell Phone - Up Close
filed under Cellphones : Nokia
The ringer is attached to the
explosive trigger and the word on the street is that a
GSM jammer would shut these things down pretty
easily. We talked about this a few months ago, but this
is an interesting close-up shot of one in the field.
Cell phones jury-rigged to
detonate bombs
From Baghdad to Madrid,
bombs triggered by mobile phones have become as
ubiquitous in the terrorist's arsenal as cell phones in
the pockets of businessmen.
"It's not rocket science," says John Pike of
Globalsecurity.org, a Washington think tank. "Cell-
phone detonators are pretty straightforward
tradecraft."
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1713
One of the unexploded bombs retrieved by Spanish
police in Madrid - 10 exploded and two were found and
detonated by bomb disposal experts - was typical. The
ringer of the phone was wired to two detonating caps,
an operation that experts say is delicate and requires
training, but can be accomplished with common tools
available in any electronics store. The detonators, in
turn, would set off 22 pounds of gelatinous dynamite.
Packed around the explosives, in the sports bag that
concealed it, were nails and screws designed to serve
as a shrapnel. More sophisticated phone bombs also
incorporate timers, but in general, all a bomber needs
do is dial or e-mail the number and let it ring.
The cell-phone detonators originally were cast as
suspicious "trademarks" of Spain's home-grown
terrorist network, ETA. But Pike said such evidence
was "not at all dispositive" because virtually every
terror group has used mobile phone detonators. An
analysis of the bomb, Spanish radio subsequently
reported, indicated that the detonators were copper,
not the aluminum type associated with ETA.
According to Pike, many remote bombs aimed at U.S.
troops in Iraq have been triggered by cell phones. In
addition:
A cell phone was used in the July 2002 bombing at a
cafeteria at Hebrew University in Jerusalem that killed
seven people, including five Americans.
In the Bali bombings in October 2002 that killed 202
people, Jemaah Islamiyah terrorists triggered a bomb in
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1714
a mini-bus outside the Sari Club with a cell-phone
detonator.
Late last year, French police found explosives systems
meant to be cell-phone detonated during raids around
Paris that dismantled a terror group with ties to al-
Qaeda and Chechen rebels.
A car bomb detonated by mobile phone killed 12 people
at Jakarta's Marriott hotel in August 2003.
During searches in Saudi Arabia, cell phones rigged to
detonate bombs were found by investigators of the May
12 bombings that killed 35 people.
Cell-phone bombs have one major weakness, jamming.
With up to a 150-yard range, jammers prevent the
phones from ringing and thus stop the detonation; in
rare cases, they may accidentally ring the phone and
detonate the device prematurely.
The jamming concept originated in Israel in the early
'90s and is currently used by U.S. troops in Iraq. The
United States has tested an air-dropped cell-phone
jammer, WolfPack, that can knock out all cell-phone
traffic in a combat zone. There have also been reports
the U.S. military has gone even further and is testing a
short-range device in Iraq to protect convoys. This
gadget detects cell phones near a convoy, then rings
the number, detonating any potential bomb before the
convoy gets too close.
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1715
Insurgents in Iraq are using cell phones to detonate
roadside bombs and other improvised explosive
devices, according to U.S. officials. In addition, the
henchmen of Al Qaeda Iraq leader Abu Musab Zarqawi
use cell phones to communicate attack plans to one
another, says one top U.S. defense source. Charles
Krohn, an army official who spent time in Baghdad,
explains that terrorists are using multiple cell phones
to deliver attack messages, thus making eavesdropping
difficult. "They would deliver part of the message on
one number and call another number to deliver another
part of the message," said Krohn. Defense sources say
that bomb-makers are incorporating cell phone parts
into the triggering mechanisms of bombs, meaning that
they can use a standard cell phone to call the phone
that has been built into the bomb, causing the bomb to
explode. A CIA report notes that Iraq's Intelligence
Service under Saddam Hussein invented many new
methods and designs for hiding explosives, including
floor mats, belts, vests, briefcases, books, thermoses,
car seats, and facial tissue boxes
The efficiency of cell-phone technology in rebuilding
Iraq has a drawback in that insurgents are using the
hand-held devices to orchestrate attacks and set off
roadside bombs, defense officials say.
A growing network of cellular connections has
proved a boon to contractors, the U.S. military and
average Iraqis in turning the state-run economy into a
free-market business environment.
But insurgents have been able to capitalize on the
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1716
growing availability to create their own mobile
command-and-control centers. Bomb-makers also use
cell phones to remotely set off improvised explosive
devices (IEDs), the roadside devices that have killed
scores of U.S. troops.
Charles Krohn, an Army official in Baghdad from 2003
to 2004, said the insurgents developed an ingenious
way to thwart eavesdropping as they set up meetings
and attacks.
"They would use more than one phone to send a
message," said Mr. Krohn, a visiting professor at the
University of Michigan. "They would deliver part of the
message on one number and call another number to
deliver another part of the message. So if someone was
listening, they would only get part of the message. If
you were concerned about eavesdropping, you would
want to use more than one telephone and there is no
shortage of cell phones in Iraq."
Those in Abu Musab Zarqawi's al Qaeda in Iraq
organization use cell-phone communication to notify
terrorists of attack plans, said one well-placed defense
source.
"I don't know if Zarqawi himself uses a cell phone but
his aides do," the source said.
Virtually all spoken electronic communication in the
country is done via cell or satellite phones, not land
lines. The constant chatter does give the National
Security Agency and specialized commando units
opportunities to intercept conversations. And, the
Associated Press reported last month that Iraqis use a
cell phone's text messaging feature to send tips on
terrorists to trusted security officials.
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1717
But the technology seems to be doing the insurgency
more good than harm.
Sources said insurgents have the know-how to make
one cell phone communicate with a second phone
whose components are built into the bomb's triggering
mechanism.
"We don't quite know how to combat that," the
defense source said.
U.S. troops seized a terrorist-produced video that
shows insurgents in a car that passes an Army convoy
going in the opposite direction, said a Marine officer
who fought in the notorious Al Anbar Province west of
Baghdad. When the convoy reached a certain point, the
men in the vehicle can be seen using a cell phone to
detonate a hidden IED.
"These guys like to film their atrocities," said the
officer, who requested anonymity.
Insurgents use other types of phones. In April, near
the insurgent-heavy town of Latifiyah, an Army convoy
was devastated by a series of IEDs. An investigation
showed that bombs were ignited by satellite phones
activated by another satellite phone, the Marine officer
said.
Senate Armed Services Chairman John Warner,
Virginia Republican, lamented that U.S.
countermeasures are not keeping pace with terrorist
IED making.
"It's almost a leapfrog," he said. "As soon as we get a
system which seems to be producing the effectiveness,
they leapfrog to another technology and keep moving
forward."
There are days when the U.S. command decides for
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security reasons to shut down cell-phone connections
in some sectors. Other times they jam it for hours to
prevent terrorists from coordinating attacks via the
airways.
The importance of cell phones to the insurgents was
illustrated when Marines and Army troops captured the
terrorist-infested city of Fallujah in November.
Marines discovered a network of makeshift IED
factories and among the parts were cell phones and
hand-held radios. Insurgents made the bombs, then
smuggled them out for use in vehicles or as roadside
explosives.
The insurgents' command structure is filled with
Ba'athists who led Saddam's vast and layered security
agencies, including the dreaded intelligence service,
the Mukhabarat.
The CIA's top weapons inspector reported that the
Mukhabarat maintained an extensive research and
development program for all types of IEDs. Defense
sources said the technology has helped terrorists build
better bombs.
In fact, the insurgents have gotten so skilled that
their expertise is being exported to Afghanistan, where
U.S. forces are fighting al Qaeda and Taliban terrorists.
Gen. John Abizaid, the U.S. commander in the
Persian Gulf, said, "It is a problem that requires not just
an American effort but an international effort, because
we see the technology moving, and the tactics and
techniques, moving from Iraq to Pakistan to
Afghanistan."
The CIA report on the Mukhabarat, or Iraqi
Intelligence Service, said its M-21 directorate ran the Al
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Ghafiqi Project to produce a variety of IEDs.
"No one person constructed an entire explosive
device alone," says the report, prepared by a team led
by Charles Duelfer. "The construction process drifted
through the sections of the directorate."
The reported also says: "Al Ghafiqi constantly
invented new designs or methods to conceal
explosives; books, briefcases, belts, vests, thermoses,
car seats, floor mats and facial tissue boxes were all
used to conceal" explosives.
Chapter 33
IMPROVISED EXPLOSIVE DEVICES
SAFETY RULES
o Primary rule: If a suspected device is
encountered, it should not be handled, and the
area should be secured.
o Secondary rule: Always assume that there is
more than one device present, whether it is a
bombing, a threat, or a device that has been
located.
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o Never pick up or disassemble a pipe bomb or
any other IED, even if someone else has.
o The powder in the threads can set it off, or it
may have a timer and/or movement switch.
COMMON IMPROVISED DEVICES:
Pipe bombs are the most
common and readily assembled
device. Once ignited, the
confined filler material
produces heat and gas, and the
nearly instantaneous build-up of
pressure results in the pipe bomb's explosion.
If the pipe bomb is filled with high explosive,
then it is basically a hand grenade, and the
pipe is ripped into many small, very high
velocity fragments at the time of
detonation.
Time bombs are designed to give the
bomber time to get away from the
scene before the bomb detonates.
Molotov Cocktail - Incendiary
destructive device.
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Booby trapped bombs - devices
fired by an unsuspecting person
who disturbs an apparently
harmless object or performs a
presumably safe act.
Salem Detectives Conduct an
Explosive Recognition Class.
Having the components of an
explosive device in your
possession without a Certificate of Possession
for the explosives will constitute the crime of
Possession of a Destructive Device.
JUST BECAUSE IT ISN'T REAL DOESN'T MEAN ITS
NOT A CRIME!
ORS 166.385 Possession of hoax destructive
device. (1) A person commits the crime of
Possession of a Hoax Destructive Device if the
person knowingly places another person in
fear of serious physical injury by:
a. Possessing, manufacturing, selling,
delivering, placing or causing to be
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placed a hoax destructive device; or
b. Sending a hoax destructive device to
another person
Chapter 34
A Guide for Explosion and Bombing Scene Investigation
This chapter is intended as a guide to recommended
practices for the identification, collection, and
preservation of evidence at explosion and bombing
scenes. Jurisdictional, logistical, or legal conditions
may preclude the use of particular procedures
contained here. Not every portion of this document may
be applicable to all explosion and bombing scenes. The
investigator will determine the applicability of these
procedures to a particular incident.
---------------------------
Section A. Procuring Equipment and Tools
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1723
Possessing the proper tools and equipment is key to
any task, and never more so than in emergency
situations such as explosion or bombing scenes.
Because responders and investigators may not know
the details of the situation until arriving at the scene,
prior preparation is vital. Following is a list of
equipment and tools frequently used by the
investigative team at explosion and bombing scenes.
Equipment and tool needs are, for the most part,
determined by the actual scene. The list below may be
used as a planning guide for equipment and tool needs.
Not every item and tool mentioned below will be
applicable for use on every scene.
Safety
--Biohazard materials (i.e., bags, tags, labels).
--First-aid kit.
--Footwear, safety (i.e., protective shoes/boots).
--Glasses, safety.
--Gloves, heavy and disposable (e.g., surgical, latex).
--Helmets, safety/hard hats.
--Kneepads.
--Outerwear, protective (e.g., disposable suits, weather
gear).
--Personnel support items (e.g., food, water, hygiene
items, shelter).
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--Reflective tape.
--Respiratory equipment (e.g., particle masks, breathing
equipment).
General Crime Scene Tools/Equipment
--Barrier tape/perimeter rope.
--Batteries.
--Binoculars.
--Communications equipment (e.g., telephone, two-way
radio).
--Evidence collection kits (e.g., latent print, bodily fluid,
impression, tool mark, trace evidence).
--Flares.
--Flashlights.
--Generators.
--Hand tools (e.g., screwdrivers, crowbars, hammers).
--Knives, utility.
--Lighting, auxiliary.
--Tarps/tents.
--Thermometer.
--Trashcans, large.
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1725
--Tweezers/forceps.
Scene Documentation
--Compass.
--Computer and computer-aided design (CAD) program.
--Consent-to-search forms.
--Drawing equipment (e.g., sketchbooks, pencils).
--Logs (e.g., evidence recovery, photo).
--Measuring equipment (e.g., forensic mapping station,
tape measure, tape wheel).
--Photographic equipment (e.g., 35mm camera, Polaroid
camera, videocamera, digital camera, film, lenses,
tripods).
--Tape recorder and cassettes.
--Writing equipment (e.g., notebooks, pens, permanent
markers).
Evidence Collection
--Bags, new (e.g., sealable, nylon).
--Boxes, corrugated/fiberboard.
--Brushes and brooms.
--Cans, new (e.g., unlined).
--Evidence flags/cones.
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1726
--Evidence placards.
--Evidence tags.
--Evidence sealing tape.
--Gloves (i.e., disposable cotton, disposable latex).
--Grid markers.
--Heat sealer.
--Magnets.
--Outerwear, protective (e.g., disposable suits, shoe
covers).
--Rakes, spades, and shovels.
--Sifters/screens.
--Swabbing kits.
--Trowels.
--Vacuum.
Specialized Equipment
--Aerial survey/photography equipment (e.g., helicopter).
--Chemical test kits and vapor detectors.
--Construction equipment, heavy.
--Extrication/recovery equipment.
--GPS (global positioning system) equipment.
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1727
--Ladders.
--Trace explosives detectors (e.g., sniffers) and/or
detection canines.
Section B. Prioritizing Initial Response Efforts
Note: Safety concerns should be continually addressed
beginning with the initial response effort.
Implementation of the procedures in this section will be
determined by the scene circumstances.
1. Conduct a Preliminary Evaluation of the Scene
Principle: First responders (the first public safety
personnel to arrive at the scene, whether law
enforcement officers, firefighters, or emergency
medical services (EMS) personnel) must assess the
scene quickly yet thoroughly to determine the course of
action to be taken. This assessment should include the
scope of the incident, emergency services required,
safety concerns, and evidentiary considerations.
Procedure: Upon arrival at the scene, first responders
should:
A. Establish a command post/implement an incident
command system (i.e., a point of contact and line of
communication and authority for other public safety
personnel).
B. Request emergency services from bomb technicians,
firefighters, EMS personnel, and law enforcement
officers.
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1728
C. Identify scene hazards, such as structural collapse,
blood-borne pathogens, hazardous chemicals, and
secondary explosive devices.
D. Identify witnesses, victims, and the presence of
evidence.
E. Preserve potentially transient physical evidence
(e.g., evidence present on victims, evidence that may
be compromised by weather conditions).
DANGER: Beware of secondary devices!
The scene may contain secondary explosive devices
designed specifically to kill or maim public safety
responders. Do not touch any suspicious items. If a
suspected secondary device is located, immediately
evacuate the area and contact bomb disposal
personnel.
Summary: Based on the preliminary evaluation, first
responders will initiate an incident command system,
request emergency services, and identify scene
hazards and evidentiary concerns.
2. Exercise Scene Safety
Principle: Safety overrides all other concerns. First
responders must take steps to identify and remove or
mitigate safety hazards that may further threaten
victims, bystanders, and public safety personnel. They
must exercise due caution while performing emergency
operations to avoid injuries to themselves and others.
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Procedure: Following the preliminary evaluation of the
scene, first responders should:
A. Request additional resources and personnel (e.g.,
bomb technicians, building inspectors, representatives
from utility companies, such as gas, water, and
electric) to mitigate identified hazards.
B. Use tools and personal protective equipment
appropriate to the task during all operations.
C. Request and/or conduct a safety sweep of the area
by personnel qualified to identify and evaluate
additional hazards and safety concerns.
D. Mark hazard areas clearly and designate safety
zones to receive victims and evacuees.
Summary: To ensure safety, first responders will take
steps to identify, evaluate, and mitigate scene hazards
and establish safety zones.
3. Administer Lifesaving Efforts
Principle: First responders' primary responsibility is to
rescue living victims and provide treatment for life-
threatening injuries. While performing emergency
operations, they are to preserve evidence and avoid
disturbing areas not directly involved in the rescue
activities, including those areas containing fatalities.
Procedure: After performing a preliminary evaluation
and establishing scene safety, first responders should:
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1730
A. Initiate rescues of severely injured and/or trapped
victims.
B. Evacuate ambulatory victims, perform triage, and
treat life-threatening injuries.
C. Leave fatalities and their surroundings undisturbed.
Removal of fatalities will await authorization.
D. Avoid disturbing areas not directly involved in rescue
activities.
Summary: Lifesaving efforts are first responders'
priority. Additionally, care should be taken not to
disturb areas where rescue activities are not taking
place.
4. Establish Security and Control of thee scene
Principle: First responders will establish control and
restrict scene access to essential personnel, thereby
aiding rescue efforts and scene preservation. First
responders will initiate documentation.
Procedure: To establish security and control, first
responders should:
A. Set up a security perimeter law enforcement
personnel.
B. Restrict access into and out of the scene through the
security perimeter (e.g., control media, bystanders, and
nonessential personnel).
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1731
C. Establish staging areas to ensure that emergency
vehicles have access into the area.
D. Initiate documentation of the scene as soon as
conditions permit (e.g., taking notes, identifying
witnesses, videotaping/photographing bystanders).
Summary: First responders will establish a controlled
security perimeter, designate staging areas, and initiate
documentation. This will set the stage for the
subsequent investigation.
---------------------------
Section C. Evaluating the Scene
Note: At the time the scene is determined to involve a
bombing or other crime, the investigator must address
legal requirements for scene access, search, and
evidence seizure.
1. Define the Investigator Role
Principle: The investigator must coordinate with the
incident commander and first responders to determine
what occurred and to assess the current situation.
Subsequent procedures will vary depending on the
magnitude of the incident.
Procedure: Upon arriving at and prior to entering the
scene, the investigator should:
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1732
A. Identify and introduce himself or herself to the
incident commander.
B. Interview the incident commander and first
responders to evaluate the situation, including safety
concerns, and determine the level of investigative
assistance needed.
C. Conduct a briefing with essential personnel (e.g., law
enforcement, fire, EMS, hazardous materials, and utility
services personnel) to:
--Evaluate initial scene safety to the extent possible
prior to entry.
--Ensure that a search for secondary explosive devices
has been conducted.
Caution: Only bomb disposal personnel should handle
any suspected devices that are located. Take no further
action until the devices have been identified or
rendered safe.
--Ensure that the scene has been secured, that a
perimeter and staging areas for the investigation have
been established, and that all personnel have been
advised of the need to prevent contamination of the
scene.
--Ensure that the chain of custody is initiated for
evidence that may have been previously collected.
D. Assess legal considerations for scene access (e.g.,
exigent circumstances, consent,
administrative/criminal search warrants).
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Summary: The investigator will conduct a briefing to
ensure scene safety and security, while addressing the
issue of secondary devices.
2. Ensure Scene Integrity
Principle: The investigator must ensure the integrity of
the scene by establishing security perimeters and
staging areas, contamination control procedures, and
evidence collection and control procedures.
Procedure: Prior to evidence collection, the investigator
should:
A. Establish procedures to document personnel entering
and exiting the scene.
B. Establish and document procedures to prevent scene
contamination.
C. Establish and document procedures for evidence
collection, control, and chain of custody (see the
sample evidence recovery and chain of custody logs in
appendix A).
Summary: The investigator will establish and document
procedures to protect the integrity of the scene.
3. Conduct the Scene Walkthrough
Principle: The investigator must conduct a walkthrough
to establish scene parameters and acquire an overview
of the incident.
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1734
Procedure: During the scene walkthrough, the
investigator should:
A. Reevaluate scene requirements (e.g., boundaries,
personnel, equipment).
B. Establish an entry and exit path for personnel.
C. Be alert to safety concerns (e.g., structural damage,
secondary devices, unconsumed explosive materials,
failed utilities, hazardous materials) and to the
locations of physical evidence.
D. Ensure preservation and/or collection of transient
evidence.
E. Attempt to locate the seat(s) of the explosion(s).
Summary: The investigator's initial walkthrough will be
an opportunity to identify evidence and the presence of
safety hazards.
4. Secure Required Resources
Principle: Following the walkthrough, the investigator
should meet with available emergency responders and
investigative personnel to determine what resources,
equipment, and additional personnel may be needed.
Procedure: During the course of this meeting, the
investigator should:
A. Assess the nature and scope of the investigation
through information obtained during the walkthrough
and from all available personnel.
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1735
B. Advise personnel of any secondary devices or other
hazards found at the scene.
C. Ensure that one list of victims/potential witnesses is
developed and that their accounts of the incident are
documented.
D. Ensure that required evidence collection equipment,
as well as processing and storage facilities, are
available.
E. Secure required equipment as determined by the
scene conditions, such as light and heavy equipment,
hand tools, specialty equipment, and personal safety
items.
F. Ensure that sufficient utilities and support services
are requested (e.g., electricity, food, trash removal,
sanitary services, other public services, security).
G. Advise emergency responders and the investigation
team of their assignments for scene documentation and
processing.
H. Remind personnel that evidence can take many
forms; it is not limited solely to components of the
device(s).
Summary: The investigator will meet with emergency
responders and investigative personnel in preparation
for scene documentation and processing.
---------------------------
Section D. Documenting the Scene
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1736
1. Develop Written Documentation
Principle: The investigator will prepare written scene
documentation to become part of the permanent
record.
Procedure: The investigator should:
A. Document access to the scene (see the sample
access control log in appendix A).
B. Document activities, noting dates and times,
associated with the incident and the investigation (see
the sample activity log in appendix A).
C. Describe the overall scene in writing, noting physical
and environmental conditions (e.g., odors, weather,
structural conditions) (see the sample narrative
description in appendix A).
D. Diagram and label scene features using sketches,
floor plans, and architectural or engineering drawings.
E. Describe and document the scene with measuring
equipment, which may include surveying equipment,
GPS (global positioning system) technology, or other
available equipment.
Summary: Investigators must prepare written scene
documentation as part of the permanent record of the
incident, which will serve as the foundation for any
incident reconstructions and future proceedings.
2. Photograph/Videotape the Scene
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Principle: The investigator must ensure that
photographic documentation is included in the
permanent scene record. This documentation should be
completed prior to the removal or disturbance of any
items.
Procedure: The investigator should:
A. Record overall views of the scene (e.g., wide angle,
aerial, 360-degree) to spatially relate items within and
to the scene and surrounding area. (A combination of
still photography, video-taping, and other techniques is
most effective.)
B. Consider muting the audio portion of any video
recording unless there is narration.
C. Minimize the presence of scene personnel in
photographs/videos.
D. Consider photographing/videotaping the assembled
crowd.
E. Maintain photo and video logs (see the sample
photographic log in appendix A).
Summary: The investigator will ensure the photographic
documentation of the scene to supplement the written
documentation in preparation for scene reconstruction
efforts and any future proceedings.
3. Locate and Interview Victims and Witnesses
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Principle: The investigator will obtain
victims'/witnesses' identities, statements, and
information concerning their injuries.
Procedure: The investigator should:
A. Identify and locate witnesses (e.g., victims who may
have been transported, employees, first responders,
delivery/service personnel, neighbors, passers-by) and
prioritize interviews.
B. Attempt to obtain all available identifying data
regarding victims/witnesses (e.g., full name, address,
date of birth, work and home telephone numbers) prior
to their departure from the scene.
C. Establish each witness' relationship to or association
with the scene and/or victims.
D. Establish the basis of the witness' knowledge: How
does the witness have knowledge of the incident?
E. Obtain statements from each witness.
F. Document thoroughly victims' injuries and correlate
victims' locations at the time of the incident with the
seat(s) of the explosion(s).
G. Interview the medical examiner/coroner and hospital
emergency personnel regarding fatalities and injuries.
Summary: The investigator must attempt to determine
the locations of all victims and witnesses. Victim and
witness statements and information about their injuries
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1739
may be essential to establishing the nature of the
device and the circumstances of the incident.
---------------------------
Section E. Processing Evidence at the Scene
Note: At the time the scene is determined to involve a
bombing or other crime, the investigator must address
legal requirements for scene access, search, and
evidence seizure.
1. Assemble the Evidence Processing Team
Principle: Effective organization and composition of the
evidence processing team ensure the proper collection
and preservation of evidence.
Procedure: The size of the evidence processing team
depends on the magnitude of the scene, but the
investigator needs to ensure that the following roles
and expertise are addressed:
A. Bomb disposal technician.
B. Evidence custodian.
C. Forensic specialist.
D. Logistics specialist.
E. Medical examiner.
F. Photographer (still, digital, video, etc.).
G. Procurement specialist.
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1740
H. Safety specialist (structural engineer, etc.).
I. Searchers/collectors.
J. Sketch artist.
Summary: Attention to the organization and
composition of the evidence processing team facilitates
effective evidence collection and preservation.
2. Organize Evidence Processing
Principle: Good organization is essential to evidence
collection and preservation. The investigator must
continually evaluate the scene, adapt to changes as
they occur, and brief the team.
Procedure: Before deploying the team, the investigator
should:
A. Review and reevaluate:
--The boundaries of the scene.
--Safety concerns.
--Command post and staging locations.
--Evidence processing and storage locations.
--Personnel and equipment requirements.
--Legal and administrative considerations.
B. Identify the search procedure for the scene.
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1741
C. Ensure that transient physical evidence has been
preserved and collected.
D. Consider onsite explosives detection (e.g., trace
explosives detection, use of canines, chemical tests) by
qualified personnel.
E. Brief the team and review assignments.
Summary: Prior to evidence collection and throughout
the process, the investigator will review the scene,
adapt to changes, and brief the team.
3. Control Contamination
Principle: Preventing contamination protects the
integrity of the scene and other search areas, the
integrity of the evidence for forensic analyses, and the
safety of personnel.
Procedure: The investigator should ensure that
evidence processing personnel:
A. Use clean protective outer garments and equipment
as applicable for each scene.
B. Consider obtaining control samples as applicable
(e.g., evidence containers, swabs of equipment and
personnel).
C. Package collected evidence in a manner that
prevents loss, degradation, or contamination.
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1742
D. Package, store, and transport evidence from different
scenes or searches in separate external containers.
Summary: Proper collection, packaging, transportation,
and storage will minimize contamination and ensure the
integrity of the evidence.
4. Identify, Collect, Preserve, Inventory, Package, and
Transport Evidence
Principle: The search focuses on the discovery of
physical evidence that may establish that a crime was
committed and link elements of the crime to possible
suspects.
Procedure: To maximize the recovery and evaluation of
all types of physical evidence, the investigator should
ensure:
A. The preparation of an evidence recovery log (see the
sample in appendix A) that documents information such
as:
--Item number.
--Description.
--Location found (grid number if used).
--Collector's name.
--Markings (either directly on the item or indirectly on
the package).
--Packaging method.
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1743
--Miscellaneous comments.
B. The identification of evidence by:
--Assigning personnel to designated search areas.
--Initiating scene-specific search pattern(s) and
procedures, including examination of immobile
structures for possible evidence.
--Attempting to determine the method of bomb delivery.
--Establishing the seat(s) of the explosion(s), if present.
--Documenting blast effects (e.g., structural damage,
bent signs, thermal effects, fragmentation).
--Examining the crater, vehicles, structures, etc.
--Documenting the location(s) of victims prior to and
after the explosion.
--Ensuring that victims are examined for bomb
component fragments. Autopsies should include full-
body x-rays.
C. The collection of evidence, including:
--Suspected bomb components and fragments, including
those recovered from victims.
--Suspected materials used in the construction and
transportation of the explosive device(s) (e.g., tape,
batteries, manuals, vehicles).
--Crater material.
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--Residues and other trace evidence (using swabbing
techniques).
--Additional items of evidence (e.g., blood, hair, fiber,
fingerprints, tire tracks, weapons, documents, tools).
--Comparison samples of indigenous materials.
D. That evidence is:
--Photographed.
--Packaged and preserved in containers.
--Labeled (e.g., date, collector's initials, item number,
location).
--Recorded in the evidence recovery log.
--Secured in the designated storage location.
E. The labeling, transportation, and storage of evidence
by:--
--Placing evidence from different locations or searches
in separate external containers.
--Labeling evidence for storage and shipment, including
identification of hazards.
--Arranging for transportation of the evidence.
Summary: Identification, collection, preservation, and
packaging of evidence must be conducted in a manner
that protects the item, minimizes contamination, and
maintains the chain of custody. These steps assist in
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1745
establishing the elements of a possible crime and
provide the basis for thorough, accurate, and objective
investigation and prosecution processes.
---------------------------
Section F. Completing and Recording the Scene
Investigation
1. Ensure That All Investigative Steps Are Documented
Principle: To ensure that the permanent record will be
complete, the investigator should review all
documentation before releasing the scene.
Procedure: The investigator should verify that the
following have been addressed:
A. Documentation of major events and time lines
related to the incident.
B. Personnel access log (see the sample in appendix A).
C. Activity log (see the sample in appendix A).
D. Review of interviews and events.
E. Narrative description of the scene (see the sample in
appendix A).
F. Photo and video logs (see the sample in appendix A).
G. Diagrams, sketches, and evidence mapping.
H. Evidence recovery log (see the sample in appendix
A).
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Summary: By accounting for all investigative steps prior
to leaving the scene, the investigator ensures an
accurate and thorough representation of the scene for
the permanent record.
2. Ensure That Scene Processing Is Complete
Principle: The scene may be released only upon
conclusion of the onsite investigation and a thorough
evidence collection process.
Procedure: The investigator should perform a critical
review of the scene investigation with all personnel, to
include the following actions:
A. Discuss with team members, including those not
present at the scene, preliminary scene findings and
critical issues that arose during the incident.
B. Ensure that all identified evidence is in custody.
C. Recover and inventory equipment.
D. Decontaminate equipment and personnel.
E. Photograph and/or videotape the final condition of
the scene just before it is released.
F. Address legal considerations.
G. Discuss post scene issues (e.g., forensic testing,
insurance inquiries, interview results, criminal
histories).
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1747
H. Communicate and document post scene
responsibilities.
Summary: The investigator will review the scene
investigation to ensure that it is complete and that post
scene issues are addressed.
3. Release the Scene
Principle: The release of the scene must be
documented. The investigator should ensure
communication of known scene-related health and
safety issues to a receiving authority at the time of
release.
Procedure: Upon releasing the scene, the investigator
should:
A. Address public health and safety issues by
performing the following tasks:
--Contacting public utilities.
--Evaluating biological and chemical hazards.
--Evaluating structural integrity issues.
--Assessing environmental issues.
B. Identify a receiving authority for the scene.
C. Ensure disclosure of all known health and safety
issues to a receiving authority.
D. Document the time and date of release, to whom the
scene is being released, and by whom.
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Summary: The investigator will ensure communication
of known health and safety issues to a receiving
authority upon releasing the scene and will document
the release.
4. Submit Reports to the Appropriate National
Databases
Principle: Detailed technical information regarding
explosive devices is collected, integrated, and
disseminated via national databases. These data help
authorities identify the existence of serial bombers, the
sophistication of explosive devices being used, and the
need for uniform procedures and further development of
equipment.
Procedure: The investigator or authorized agency's
administration should submit detailed reports to these
databases:
A. Arson and Explosives National Repository (Bureau of
Alcohol, Tobacco and Firearms).
B. Bomb Data Center (Federal Bureau of Investigation).
C. Uniform Crime Reports, National Incident-Based
Reporting System, and National Fire Incident Reporting
System.
Summary: The investigator contributes to the
compilation of national databases that identify trends in
explosions --and other incidents involving explosives.
Appendix A. Sample Forms (see PDF file)
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1749
Appendix B. Further Reading
Beveridge, A. Forensic Investigation of Explosions.
London: Taylor & Francis Ltd., 1998.
Conkling, J.A. Chemistry of Pyrotechnics and
Explosives. New York: Marcel Dekker, Inc., 1985.
Cook, M.A. The Science of High Explosives. Malabar,
Florida: Robert E. Krieger Publishing Company, 1958,
1985.
Cooper, P.W. Explosives Engineering. New York: Wiley-
VCH, 1997.
Cooper, P.W., and S.R. Kurowski. Introduction to the
Technology of Explosives. New York: Wiley-VCH, 1997.
Davis, T.L. The Chemistry of Powder and Explosives.
Hollywood, California: Angriff Press, 1972.
DeHaan, J.D. Kirk's Fire Investigation. 4th ed.
Indianapolis: Brady Publishing/Prentice Hall, 1997.
Encyclopedia of Explosives and Related Items. Vols. 1-
10. Dover, New Jersey: Picatinny Arsenal, U.S. Army
Armament Research and Development Command, 1960-
83.
Kennedy, P.M., and J. Kennedy. Explosion Investigation
and Analysis: Kennedy on Explosions. Chicago:
Investigations Institute, 1990.
The ISEE Blaster's Handbook. 17th ed. Cleveland:
International Society of Explosives Engineers, 1998.
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1750
Kohler, J., and R. Meyer. Explosives. 4th, revised and
extended ed. New York: Wiley-VCH, 1993.
Military Explosives. U.S. Army and U.S. Air Force
Technical Manual TM 9-1300-214. Washington, D.C.: U.S.
Army, 1967.
National Fire Protection Association. NFPA 921: Guide
for Fire and Explosion Investigations. Quincy,
Massachusetts: National Fire Protection Association.
Urbanski, T. Chemistry and Technology of Explosives.
Vols. 1-4. New York: Pergamon Press, 1983.
Yinon, J., and S. Zitrin. Modern Methods and
Applications in Analysis of Explosives. New York: Wiley-
VCH, 1993.
---------------------------
Appendix C. List of Organizations.
[extremely long list of police agencies omitted]
Appendix D. Investigative and Technical Resources
Depending on jurisdiction, an investigator's initial
points of contact should be his or her State or local fire
marshal's office and/or State police.
Following is a list of resources that may be useful for
further investigative or technical information and
assistance. This list should not be considered all-
inclusive.
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A current list of institutions that can provide training in
explosion/bombing scene investigation is available from
the National Center for Forensic Science.
Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco and Firearms*
Headquarters Enforcement Operations Center
888-ATF-BOMB
202-927-8050
URL: http://www.atf.treas.gov
Arson and Explosives National Repository
800-461-8841
202-927-4590
Arson and Explosives Programs Division
202-927-7930
National Laboratory
301-762-9800
Chemical Transportation Emergency Center
(CHEMTREC [registered trademark])
800-262-8200
URL: http://www.chemtrec.org
Environmental Protection Agency
National Response Center
800-424-8802
URL: http://www.epa.gov
Federal Bureau of Investigation*
Bomb Data Center (pre-blast issues)
202-324-2696
URL: http://www.fbi.gov
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Explosives Unit (post-blast issues)
202-324-4341
Federal Emergency Management Agency
U.S. Fire Administration
202-447-1000
URL: http://www.usfa.fema.gov
Institute of Makers of Explosives
202-429-9280
URL: http://www.ime.org
International Association of Arson Investigators
314-739-4224
URL: http://www.fire-investigators.org
International Association of Bomb Technicians and
Investigators
941-353-6843
URL: http://www.iabti.org
International Society of Explosives Engineers
440-349-4004
URL: http://www.isee.org
National Center for Forensic Science
407-823-6469
URL: http://www.ncfs.ucf.edu
National Fire Protection Association
617-770-3000
URL: http://www.nfpa.org
National Institute of Standards and Technology
Building and Fire Research Laboratory
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301-975-6850
URL: http://www.bfrl.nist.gov
Royal Canadian Mounted Police*
Canadian Bomb Data Center
613-993-7880
URL: http://www.rcmp-grc.gc.ca/
U.S. Chemical Safety and Hazard Investigation Board
202-261-7600
URL: http://www.chemsafety.gov
U.S. Postal Inspection Service*
Forensic/Technical Services Division
703-406-7100
URL: http://www.usps.gov/websites/depart/inspect/
*These are sources for criminal investigative
assistance.
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Muslim Nameing
For those familiar with the European tradition of using
just a forename, optional middle name and surname,
names in the Arab world can seem perplexing, not least
because they can run to enormous length.
However, there is a logical structure to the Arab naming
convention that, once seen, makes it simple to decipher
a person's recent ancestry.
For example...
A man's name is Ali bin Ahmed bin Saleh Al-Fulani.
He is called Ali by his friends and family.
His family name is Al-Fulani
What does bin Ahmed bin Saleh mean? This simply
means that he is the son of Ahmed who is in turn
the son of Saleh.
Bin means son of.
So we have the man's given name, his father's
name and his grandfather's name, plus the family
name.
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1755
As a matter of fact, many Gulf Arabs and Saudis
can give their ancestors' names for at least five or
six generations, and often many more.
Let's look now at the names of the present rulers
of Gulf states.
The ruler of Saudi Arabia is Fahad bin Abdul
Aziz bin Abdul Rahman Al-Sa'ud.
His father's name was Abdul Aziz and his
grandfather's name was Abdul Rahman.
The family name is Al-Sa'ud.
The ruler of Bahrain is Isa bin Salman bin
Hamad Al-Khalifa.
His father's name was Salman and his
grandfather's name was Hamad.
The family name is Al-Khalifa.
The ruler of Oman is Qaboos bin Said bin
Taimur Al-Busaid.
His father's name was Said and his
grandfather's name was Taimur.
The family name is Al-Busaid.
The ruler of Qatar is Hamad bin Khalifa bin
Hamad Al-Thani.
His father's name is Khalifa and his
grandfather's name was Hamad.
The family name is Al-Thani.
What about the The Crown Prince of the UAE?
His name is Khalifa bin Zayed bin Sultan Al-
Nahyan.
His father's name is Zayed and his
grandfather's name was Sultan.
The family name is Al-Nahyan.
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What about womens' names?
Our friend Ali (in the first example above) has a
sister. Her name is Nura bint Ahmed bin Saleh Al-
Fulani.
Bint means daughter of.
She is named Nura, the daughter of Ahmed who is
the son of Saleh.
So we have her given name, her father's name, her
grandfather's name and the family name.
It is interesting to note that when a Saudi or Gulf
Arab woman marries, she does not change her
name. When the above mentioned Nura marries,
her name remains exactly the same. Her children,
however, take their father's name.
In other words, Nura bint Ahmed bin Saleh Al-
Fulani is born with this name and she dies with it.
Let us say she marries a man with the name of
Abdullah bin Mohammed bin Faisal Al-Hijazi.
Their sons are (Name) bin Abdullah bin Mohammed
bin Faisal Al-Hijazi, and their daughters are (Name)
bint Abdullah bin Mohammed bin Faisal Al-Hijazi.
The Arabic language is divided into three groups:
Classical written Arabic (used in the
Koran);
Modern Standard Arabic (MSA, a modern
version of classical
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written Arabic used in newspapers and
textbooks); and
Spoken, colloquial, or dialectic Arabic
The Arabic alphabet consists of 16 characters
which, when
combined with one to three dots placed above,
below, or beside a
character, form 28 signs or letters.
The Arabic alphabet is made up entirely of
consonants ...
Therefore, Mohammed is written in Arabic as
mhmd...
That is why we have so many different spellings of
Mohammad,
Mohamad, Mohammed, Muhammed, etc ...
Arabic words are written and read right to left, top
to bottom.
Arabic numbers are written left to right.
The first three letters of the Arabic alphabet are
alif, baa, and taa.
alif-baa-taa along with alpha beta from ancient
Greek, give you the origins of the english word
alphabet.
Why are there different spellings for certain words?
eg., Koran . Quran
eg., Osama . Ussama
eg., Saddam Hussein . Tsaddam Hussein
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There are two systems of converting Arabic into
English,
known as systems of transliteration
Almost all nouns and the ten forms of verbs are
built around a
stem or root or three consonants called the
triliteral root system
The root s l m means peace Islam, Muslim,
Salaam
The name Mohammad Al-Ghamdi has at least 56
different spellings
And none of those 56 will enable you to identify the
person!
Arabic names must have 4 parts - first name, two
generational names,
and a family, village, or descriptive name ...
Osama bin Laden? Or Ussama bin Mohammad bin
Awad bin Laden
He is known as Ussama, son of Mohammad,
grandson of Awad,
great-grandson of Laden
Abu, Ibn or bin, and Abd. Three key Arabic
names
These words mean Father, Son, and Slave,
respectively:
Abu Ibrahim means Father of Abraham
Ibn Mohammad means Son of Mohammad, and
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Abd Allah or Abdullah means, literally Servant of
God
Classical Middle Eastern names require at least
four components.
These are broken down into six general categories
...
1. Honorific Name (kunya or agronem) - as the
father or mother of.
Often reserved for the eldest son. eg., abu Da'ud
(Father of David)
or Umm Salama (Mother of Salama).
2. Personal Name (ism) - common: Muhammad
(Mohammed),
Ibrahim (Abraham), Hasan, Ahmad. Rarely used
socially, then
only if the person is famous.
3. Descriptive Name (lakab or cognomen) - usually
religious,
relating to nature or some admirable quality the
person has or
would like to have. eg., 'Abd Allah (Servant of
God, often
written Abdullah), Harun Al-Rashid (Aaron the
Rightly-Guided).
4. Patronymic Name (nasab or lineage) - denotes
the pedigree,
as the son or daughter of a certain person. eg.,
ibn 'Umar (son of
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Omar) or commonly spelled "bin" Umar (as in
Osama bin Laden).
Usually limited to three generations.
5. Geographical or Tribal Name (hisba or nisba) -
derived from
the place of residence or birth or origin of the
family by using
the prefix al or el and the suffix i, eg., Yusaf al-
Isfahani (Joseph
of Isfahan) or Ahmed Alghamdi (Ahmed of the
Tribe of Ghamd).
6. Occupational Name or Nickname (laqab) -
derived from a
person's trade or family history, eg., Muhammad
al-Hallaj
(Mohammed the Cotton Weaver) or by a
nickname bestowed
posthumously or during the persons lifetime,
either as an
honorific name or an insult or distinguishing
feature.
A great name using the laqab, or nickname is
Amr ibn Bahr al-Basri al-Jahiz, a famous Muslim
poet.
Known to most simply as al-Jahiz, his name
actually means
Amr, son of Bahr from the Basr region, also known
as
Amr The Google-Eyed!
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One of the first OFAC lists includes the name
Abdullah Ahmed
Abdullah with an alias Abu Mariam.
Mariam is a female name; adding Abu makes the
alias into an
insult, as a man will never be called Father of a
girl. To do so is
to insult the man, implying he is effeminate or
weak
Conclusion
Any reasonable effort to run OFAC and Control
Lists against
customer and transactional databases requires at
least a basic
understanding of the types of names you are
required to search.
General rules for Islamic names and titles:
1. Personal names:
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In most cases the personal name is selected from a
repertoire of Islamic tradition. The names and
epithets of the Prophet, his followers, Biblical figures
who appear in the Koran. Also, compounds using the
names of God are especially popular and widespread
in the Islamic World. Most of these names were in
use in pre-Islamic Arabia. They were popular
because they were thought to bring good luck.
2. Family names:
The origin of an individual is indicated by naming
his father, grandfather and so on in patronymical
sequence. The marginal rules (secondary) that
follow are details as to tribal or clan affiliation,
place of birth and origin or residence, profession of
ancestor and additional nick-names and honorific
which sometimes are also used as personal names.
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General guidelines for personal (first names):
Group # 1:
From the Arabic root (HMD) Praise
Mohamad, Ahmad, Hamid, Mahmoud etc.
These are by far the most common names that are
derived from the Prophet Muhammad.
Group # 2:
Belong to the Companions of the prophet and/or
bring good fortune. These include male and female
names. For males let us consider Hasan, Hussein,
Hassaan which have the Arabic root of (HSN)
meaning good, beautiful. Also Sad, Said,
Masud, which come from the root (SD) luck,
Umar and Amr life, Zaid, Zayed and Yazid from
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the root (ZYD) to grow. Other common names
are Ali (very dear to Shia Muslims), Mustafa (the
Prophets Surname). This group also includes a
number of chivalrous names like Fares (knight),
Asad (lion),Nimir (tiger) and Fahd (leopard). For
females common names are Amina the Prophets
mother. Aisha, Zaynab and Fatima are very popular
because they were names of the Prophet's wives
and daughters.
C. Group # 3:
The names of Biblical figures who are mentioned in
the Koran and are revered as Prophets became
widespread in the Arab World. These are Ibrahim
(Abraham), Ismail (Ishmael), Ishaq (Isaac), Yaqub
(Jacob), Yusuf (Joseph), Musa (Moses), Harun
(Aaron), Daoud (David), Suleyman (Salomon), Isa
(Jesus), Yahya (John the Baptist), and Maryam
(Mary).
D. Group # 4:
This is a distinct category of composed (two part)
names. Again it traces its origins in the Koran and
is connected with the name of god or Allah in
Arabic. According to the Holy Scriptures Allah has
99 beautiful names.
Abd + Allah = AbdAllah (slave of God)
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Abd + el-Rahman = Abd el-Rahman (slave of the
merciful)
Abd + el-Malik = Abd el-Malik (salve of the king)
Abd + el-Kadir = Abd el-Kadir (salve of the
powerful)
Abd + el or al multiplied by 99 different attributes
of God.
The Grammatical explanation for composed names is
the Annexation factor (genitive construction), in
other words you add a noun to a noun for instance,
the buildings entrance. We shall only give a few
examples of such names here:
Saif _ el-din = Saif e-din (sword of religion)
Nour + el-din = Nour e-din (light of religion)
Salah + el-din = Salah e-din (Saladin)
Nasr + Allah = NasrAllah (victory of God)
Khair + Allah = KhairAllah (richness of God)
Saif + Allah = SaifAllah (sword of God)
Group # 5:
Modern Arabic names that are not necessarily from
the Koranic tradition:
Sami, Yaman, Amjad, Majed, Taha etc.
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General Guidelines for construction of last names and
Titles:
1. KUNYA:
Indicates the bearer of the name as father of or
mother of:
ABU = Father of so and so
UMN = Mother of so and so
Originally it contained the name of the eldest son
and or the only son. Later, even people without
children received a Kunya. Sometimes a young
man who had become of age received a Kunya as a
sign of his maturity. It is used in polite and direct
speech among friends and equals and in respectful
reference to someone of special importance (for
example, when an author mentions his or her
teacher).
Examples: The Prophet Mohamad was called Abu-l
Quasim. He was The father of a boy called
Quasim.
2. LAQAB:
Widely used in the Arab and Islamic world, it
suggests a quality, virtue and attribute of the
bearer. It has the function of a nickname.
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Examples:
Abu al barakat (the father of the blessings)
Abu Nidal (the father of struggle)
Abu Amar (Yasser Arafats nom de guerre)
Abu Nuwas (famous Arab poet)
3. NASAB:
In this case the determining factor is the ancestry
lineage through the father and forefathers.
Ibn or bin = son of, but only bin is used in a
genealogy.
Bint = daughter of.
Examples:
The Prophet Mohammads genealogy:
Muhammad bin AbdAllah bin Abd el-Muttalib bin
Hashim.
The prophets daughters genealogy:
Fatimah bint Muhammad bin AbdAllah bin Abd el-
Muttalib.
The word bin or bint is often omitted today except
for Saudi Arabia, Algeria, Marocco and Tunisia.
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Sometimes there is at the end of a chain of names
the name, surname or title of an important
ancestor, which is used for several generations of
his descendants as a family name.
Example: Osama bin Laden, the later being the
founder of the Family.
The use of Ibn is more limited and applies to a one
time important personality in Islamic history such
as:
Ibn Khaldun (famous historian who was the
descendant of an old Spanish-Arab family).
Ibn al-Shihna (after an ancestor who held the post
of chief of police).
Ibn Battuta (famous Arba narrator who traveled the
World).
Ibn Taymiyya (famous radical Islamic preacher).
Ibn Saoud (founder of the kingdom of Saudi Arabia).
4. NISBA:
A name which denotes the clans, the ruling families
of the Arab Bedouin tribes. It also denotes the origin,
place of residence, profession of ancestor. Here, we
shall only mention two main types of family
affiliation.
al + suffix i= family name; al derived from the word
ahl meaning origin or clan affiliation.
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Examples:
A. Relation to location:
Ahmad al-Quorayshi (from the tribe of
Quoraysh).
Hussein al-Baghdadi (origins from the city of
Baghdad).
Mahmoud al-Halabi (from the city of Alepo).
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B. Relation to profession:
Karim al-Haddad (ancestor was a carpenter).
Rachid al-Khatib (ancestor was a preacher).
Bassel al-Baroudi (ancestor was dealing in gun
powder).
These examples do not form a
comprehensive list of Nisba relations.
5. Honorific Islamic titles of rulers:
Amir al-Muminin = Commander of the faithful.
Sheikh = head of a local tribe, religious leader for
Sunnis or the mayor of a city.
Mufti = religious leader for Sunni Muslims, also can
be a synonym of sheikh. The Grand Mufti of the
Republic of Syria or Turkey are good examples
The titles Ayatollah, Hojjatoleslam and Mullah are
not Arabic and come from Persia. They typically
refer to the Shia clergy.
6. KUWAIT:
Emir Jaber Al-ahmad Al-Sabah; Al-Ahmad was the
fathers name and Al-Sabah was the founders
name. In this country the bin of the father is
replaced by al. So it reads Prince Jaber son of
Ahmad of the tribe of Al-Sabah.
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7. YEMEN:
Ali Abd Allah Saleh; Abd Allah was the name of his
father and Saleh was the grandfathers name.
8. LIBYA:
Muammar Al-Qadafi; in this part of the Arab world
local customs vary. In this case Quadafi comes
from the expression Quadaf ad-dam, he who
throws blood.
9. ALGERIA:
Abd el-Aziz Bouteflika; bou comes from abou
meaning father, Taflik is best translated as
splitting or cleavage. In Algeria, many family
names come from the name of the eldest son or
only son of the founder of family.
10. MAURITANIA:
Muawiya Ould Sid Ahmad Taya; ould means son
and is used in this part of the world as bin. Sid
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1772
Ahmad was his fathers name, Sid being a title
meaning my lord or sir. Taya was the founder of
the family.
11. SOUDAN:
Omar al_Bashir; Bashir was the name of the
familys founder.
GANG SLANG REFERENCE MANUAL
BY
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1773
MICHAEL E GRAY
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1774
CHAPTER 1
Street Gang Dynamics
Foreword
A Overview of Gangs
graffiti Interpretation
Return to Main Page
FOREWORD
We will try to address issues of importance to parents,
teachers, counselors, and other interested persons in
attempting to understand the growing menace of street
gangs. Information from many locales across the nation
was utilized in the investigation of America's own
"Guerilla Warfare in the Urban Streets".
Street gangs are very fluid in nature, and while it is
fairly easy to develop intelligence information about
them, many times the information is outdated almost
before it is disseminated to the proper individuals. The
key to gaining knowledge about individual groups is to
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1775
talk directly with persons involved. In order to help
reduce this problem, school authorities, police officials,
government administrators, churches, and the
community as a whole must band together, put aside
our individual differences and prejudices, and work to
make this a better place for us. If not for the adults, we
must create a safe environment for children of this
generation to grow up in. The Centers for Disease
Control in Atlanta has been monitoring the black male
homicide rate for children ages 15 -24 as an epidemic.
The rate has reached unbelievable proportions in the
United States as well as in Pulaski County. In 1993, a
New York Times article stated that Little Rock was one
of a growing number of cities of comparable size
experiencing an incredible escalation in juvenile crime
and homicides. The Times featured the city on a front
page article which stated that Little Rock's homicide
rate per capita equals that of New York City and Los
Angeles. Most of the carnage is being wreaked by and
upon young African American males.
Gangs in one form or another have been around for
hundreds of years. Pirates were probably some of the
original bad gangs. The groups that traditionally come
to mind when one thinks of modern day gangs are the
Crips and the Bloods from California. The origins of the
Crips and Bloods can be traced to the late 60's, and the
gang culture is so ingrained on the west coast that
many families have three and even four generations of
gangsters residing in the same residence. The Crips
were co founded by Tookie Williams who was executed
for homicides that he committed in December of 2005
by the state of California. Depending on whose figures
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you listen to (government officials have a tendency to
downsize the numbers), L.A. gangs number between
800 and 1000, with anywhere from 120,000 to 220,000
members. As of January, 1993, we have identified about
40 named street gangs in Pulaski County with 800 -
1000 identified members. These numbers are often
debated, and depending on whose criteria is used to
decide who is and is not a gangbanger. The figures
could be considerably higher.
It is believed that one of the Little Rock Blood gangs,
the Highland Court Crew, has been in existence in one
form or another since 1984. Graffiti and other
intelligence were noted around 1987. Most other area
gangs formed in the late 80's and early 90's with the
biggest growth year being 1990. Even though we have
identified around forty gangs, almost all of them identify
with the four major gangs from other states. Those are:
1) Crips; 2) Bloods; 3) Folk Nation; and 4) People Nation.
The Crips and Bloods are Los Angeles oriented while
the Folk Nation and People Nation are Chicago
oriented. A more detailed discussion of these groups
will follow. The Black Gangster Disciples (a sub-group
of the Hoovers) appears to be the largest denomination
with the Bloods being the second largest. Some believe
the Disciples and Crips are aligning on the streets as
well as in the prisons, as are the Bloods and Vice-Lords.
Oftentimes, young peripheral or associate gang
members get their first exposure to the gang culture
through various aspects of the media--news shows,
movies, videos, and even through the music of various
artists. Some music and movies tend to glamorize the
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gang lifestyle. Many kids who gravitate to gangs do so
out of a need to belong to something and for the power
that is gained from being in a gang. The society that we
live in makes alternative lifestyles very appealing. I
believe, however, that the need for attention and the
desire to obtain material goods are fast becoming the
motivations driving youngsters to these groups. While
conducting a prison interview with a young man who
was about to spend his eighteenth birthday in the
prison where the most violent inmates are housed for
his part in the robbery and killing of two liquor store
clerks, I was told that in order for this kid to have
stayed away from the violence, a role model should
have intervened with him when he was around four
years old. He went on to say that his life was heavily
influenced by the street dealers and gangsters in his
birthplace of Oakland, California. He eventually ended
up selling crack cocaine on the streets of Little Rock
and made thousands of dollars per week. When asked
what he did with all of the money, he said that he paid
off his family's debt, purchased relatives homes and
clothes, and just generally did what everyone does with
money.
While in prison, these youngsters become exposed to
and indoctrinated into the world of real life gang-
bangers who are truly the hardest of the hard-core.
Then, back to the streets these bangers go with more
"knowledge" than ever could have been gained on the
streets. When they are in prison, many gain rank or
"juice" within their gang because they went to the
"joint". While most kids on the streets are good kids, as
long as society continues in the direction in which we
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are currently drifting, all kids must be considered at
risk.
AN OVERVIEW OF GANGS
Generally, for purposes of this discussion, a gang can
be considered to be a loosely organized group of
individuals who collaborate together for social reasons.
Modern day gangs now collaborate together for anti-
social reasons. Gangs generally have a leader or group
of leaders who issue orders and reap the fruits of the
gang's activities. A gang may also wear their "colors",
wear certain types of clothing, tattoos, brands, or
likewise imprint their gang's name, logo, or other
identifying marks on their bodies. Many gangs also
adopt certain types of hairstyles and communicate
through the use of hand signals and graffiti on walls,
streets, school work, and school property. It must be
understood that it is not illegal to be in a gang and
indeed many adults are currently involved in activities
that meet Webster's definition for a gang. However,
many gangs of today, especially youthful gangs, break
the law to provide funding for gang activities or to
further the gang's reputation on the streets.
Gangs may identify with a large city gang or remain
locally turf oriented. Development of local intelligence
as well as pro-active events are a mandatory part of
dealing with this problem. Schools must develop lines
of communication with law enforcement officials in
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order to track and prevent gang growth and violence
effectively.
Over the last several years in Arkansas, gangs have
made an evolution from being turf and brotherhood
oriented to now being involved in one way or another
with criminal enterprises. Some sell drugs, some steal
cars, some brutalize and rob, and some do all of the
above. Local gang members have stated that out of
town connections many times bring in guns and drugs
from other communities for distribution.
Groups that may have started out as a delinquent band
of neighborhood toughs have now turned into a violent
drug gang, some of whom retain a gang identity for
enforcement, collection, or other reasons. Most gang
members crave power, or "juice" as it is known in gang
slang. Several years ago, a pecking order within a gang
may have been established by flying fists. Now it is
settled by flying lead. Joining a group known to have a
reputation, good or bad, gives a kid looking for a
purpose something to belong to. Participants have said
the mere interaction of members, listening to one
another's problems and sharing the other trials and
tribulations today's teens are faced with are the
drawing card for them to become a banger. Gang
members also claim to enjoy the respect or fear others
exhibit around them. Then they say, the money begins
flowing, and with that comes all of the things
associated with material wealth that is usually beyond
the reach of these adolescents without the criminal
activity of being involved in a gang. All of this is quite a
heady trip for a young kid. Once a kid gets into a gang,
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over and over they are told there is no way out. They
fear serious reprisals from fellow gang members if a
defection is suspected. Some are told they will be killed
if they try to get out. Others are told that they can kill
their mother to earn their way out. You must remember
when dealing with a kid involved in this that our beliefs
must be set aside because the young person's beliefs
are what we are dealing with, and you can bet that they
believe everything the gang tells them.
Sociologists as well as gang members have isolated the
following reasons for joining a street gang:
Identity Discipline
Recognition Love
Belonging Money
Security Safety
Additionally, many kids are intimidated into gangs to
avoid continued harassment. Gangs provide their
members and family members with protection from
other gangs as well as any other perceived threats.
Little Rock gangs have been highly noticeable since
about 1988. Prior to that time, there were neighborhood
gangs of various groups, both black and white, reported
in and around Little Rock. These groups were mainly
social in nature and did not crave the same things our
current batch of gangsters appear to be wanting. The
current gang structure became increasingly visible at a
time that paralleled the introduction of crack cocaine
to the streets. Gang culture is also highly glamorized by
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the media including television, big screen releases, and
powerful, idolized hard-core rap artists who rap about
revolutions and killing. This music is in great demand
by both white and black kids and provides the role
models for many of the dress habits and slang of
today's street culture.
Gangs are nothing new. Many large police departments
on the east coast had gang units at the turn of the
century to monitor the mainly immigrant gangs who
protected their neighborhoods and came together for
social reasons. Gangs as most people think of them
probably began to be recognized by the general public
around the nation with the birth of the Los Angeles
gangs in the early seventies. Gang-like activity has
actually plagued large cities around the nation for
years. In Los Angeles, the average age of a gang
member is around 25 years old while Arkansas gang
members still appear in their teens. Older individuals
sometimes claim gang membership for similar reasons
as teens. Recently, street graffiti was found that
indicated second generation membership in a local
street gang.
Feelings of fear, hatred, bigotry, poverty,
disenfranchisement, and the general breakdown of
social values are also considered motivations for
joining a street group.
Even though we have currently identified about forty
different named gangs in the local area, they all appear
to align with four large major city gangs:
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Crips - L.A. oriented
Bloods - L.A. oriented
Folk Nation - a/k/a Hoovers, BGD's, Shorty Folks,
Shorties-Chicago oriented
People Nation - a/k/a Vice Lords, P Stone Rangers,
Blackstone Rangers,Latin Kings-Chicago oriented
Gangs will sometimes change affiliations. It must
always be remembered that gangs are very fluid in
nature and changes occur almost daily. That again
points to the importance of developing local skill in
monitoring the growth and movement of the groups.
In order to better understand the gang mentality, the
following are considered the "Three R's" of gang
culture:
(1) REPUTATION/REP. This is of critical concern to
"gangbangers" (gang members). A rep extends not only
to each individual, but to the gang as a whole. In some
groups, status (or rank) is gained within the gang by
having the most "juice" based largely on one's
reputation. While being "juiced" is very important, the
manner by which the gang member gains the "juice" is
just as important. Upon interview, many gang members
embellish their past gang activities in an attempt to
impress their conversation partner. Gang members
freely admit crimes and it has been my experience that
most in fact do embellish their stories to enhance their
feeling of power. In many gangs, to become a member,
you must be "jumped in" by members of the gang. This
entails being "beaten down" until the leader calls for it
to end. Afterwards, all gang members hug one another
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to further the "G thing". This action is meant to bond
the members together as a family. Frequently, young
gang members, whether hardcore or associate, will talk
of fellowship and the feeling of sharing and belonging
as their reason for joining a gang.
(2) RESPECT. This is something everyone wants and
some gang members carry their desire for it to the
extreme. Respect is sought for not only the individual,
but also for one's set or gang, family, territory, and
various other things, real or perceived in the mind of
the "gangbanger".
Some gangs require, by written or spoken regulation,
that the gang member must always show disrespect to
rival gang members. (Referred to in gang slang as dis).
If a gang member witnesses a fellow member failing to
dis a rival gang through hand signs, graffiti, or a simple
"mad dog" or stare-down, they can issue a "violation" to
their fellow posse member and he/she can actually be
"beaten down" by their own gang as punishment. After
dis has been issued, if it is witnessed, the third "R" will
become evident.
(3) RETALIATION/REVENGE. It must be understood that
in gang culture, no challenge goes unanswered. Many
times, drive-by shootings and other acts of violence
follow an event perceived as dis. A common occurrence
is a confrontation between a gang set and single rival
"gangbanger." Outnumbered, he departs the area and
returns with his "homeboys" to complete the
confrontation to keep his reputation intact. This may
occur immediately or follow a delay for planning and
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obtaining the necessary equipment to complete the
retaliatory strike. It must also be understood that many
acts of violence are the result of bad drug deals or
infringement on drug territory. Some question the
authenticity of gang rivalry in shootings and other acts
of violence. However, if a group of individuals are
together committing either random or pre- planned
violence, aren't they a gang? If the gang aspect is
learned about, many crimes can be solved through the
use of accurate intelligence gathering techniques by
law enforcement agencies dealing with this problem. In
gangbanging, today's witness is tomorrow's suspect, is
the next day's victim.
CHAPTER 2
GRAFFITI INTERPRETATION
Urban street gang graffiti is the most common way for
gangs to communicate their message. Organized graffiti
is one of the first signs that street gangs are taking
hold in your neighborhood and is also an excellent way
to track gang growth, affiliation, and sometimes even
provides membership information.
Graffiti serves several purposes, all of which is
understood by other "gangbangers," even members of
rival sets. Graffiti has been called the newspaper or
bulletin boards for gangs and communicates many
messages, including challenges, warnings, and
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pronouncements of deeds accomplished or about to
occur. Local authorities should establish procedures to
deal with this public eyesore. This is an area where the
community can band together to show gangs they will
not be tolerated. Graffiti should be removed or painted
over after it is documented and investigated by the
police. Some graffiti is nothing more than "tagging." An
example of this is "Johnny loves Mary". Police
departments and school officials should be sure
someone within their respective departments develops
an expertise in reading and understanding graffiti.
Officials should understand that graffiti also develops
local flavor which must be identified. Some examples of
street gang graffiti found in central Arkansas are as
follows:
This indicates the name
of the gang claiming
this territory, usually a
neighborhood name.
Folks is a reference to
the Folk or Hoover
Nation gang which is
based in Chicago but is
popping up all over the
South. Sometimes these
gang members also are
known as Shorty Folks,
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Shorties, and Black
Gangster
Disciples/BGD's.
These are the individual
gang members' street
names. Names are
usually given based on a
particular trait of the
member.
This is the six-pointed
star which is the symbol
of the Folks. In this
example, they have both
proudly proclaimed their
affiliation and dissed
(issued disrespect) to
the rival Vice Lords by
turning the cane handle
upside down (Vice Lords
use the upright cane in
their graffiti). The Folk
Nation pitchfork is
upright showing
respect. The letters at
the six points of the star
are symbols of the
concepts of the Folk
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Nation: Life, Loyalty,
Love, Wisdom,
Knowledge, and
Understanding.
This is considered gang "knowledge" and is only a small
part of what gang members must learn. In fact, many
gang sets have extensive books, usually handwritten, of
rules and regulations and gang history. These rules
must be memorized. Often, gangs have set meeting
dates and read from their "Book", and discuss gang
business. In a strange sort of way, these meetings
resemble fraternity or civic meetings. Many gang
members have told of being "violated" for not knowing
certain portions of their knowledge when called upon
by a gang leader to recite it.
This is a warning to
Blood gang members,
rivals of the Folks as
well as the Crips.
SLOBS is the "put
down" word used by
Crips and Folks (who
appear to be loosely
aligning) to describe
Blood gang members.
Notice that the B is
crossed out. This is
another "put down" and
warning for Bloods to
stay away. Serious gang
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members will always
write in a fashion to dis
rival gangs. Teachers
should be trained to
note these peculiar
writings and the student
responsible should be
counseled by a person
knowledgeable in gang
affairs. 187 is part of
the California Penal
Code number for
Homicide and 211 is
same for armed robbery.
In many gangs, if
members use the word
Blood or Crip instead of
the dis words, Slob and
Crab, a violation can be
given.
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East Coast represents
LA gang orientation.
"Cuzz" is a term of
endearment used by
Crips to address each
other. Substituting
dollar signs for the S's
indicates that this gang
is selling narcotics.
BK stands for Blood
Killer. Sometimes you
will see CK which of
course is Crip Killer.
Street names, signature
of artists.
Typical Vice Lord
Graffiti--The pyramid
and eye of "Allah". The
IVL stands for Insane
Vice Lords, a Chicago
group. CVL or
Conservative Vice Lord
graffiti is also
sometimes seen. The
drawing is said to
represent the ancient
pyramids and their
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black builders. Note the
number of bricks in the
pyramid--21. This has
significant meaning to a
true People Nation
member. Note the
similarities to some
Muslim symbols. Very
few if any local gang
members have any
connection at all to the
Muslim faith.
Vice Lord marker and
hand sign, sometimes
drawn, sometimes used
as a hand signal. The
five-pointed star is used
by the Vice Lords and
Bloods in the Little
Rock area.
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Put down to rival BGD
six-pointed star saying
the five points of the
Vice Lord star is 5
popping (shooting at)
the BGD six-pointed
star. It should be noted
that in some instances,
numbers will appear
rather than letters in
the drawings or graffiti
of "bangers". Usually,
this is a fairly easy code
to break because gangs
simply use the number
which corresponds to
the place the letter falls
in the alphabet as in:
2.7.4 = B.G.D. = Black
Gangster Disciple
12.12.12 = L.L.L. = Love,
Life, Loyalty
Other gangs use other codes and alphabets which must
be broken locally.
It should be understood that gangs may adopt other
types of graffiti or make up their own. That once again
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illustrates the importance of developing local
intelligence about groups by exercising cooperation
among law enforcement officials, school authorities,
and the general public. Gangs are certainly a
community problem, and the community must galvanize
to properly respond by dealing with those already
involved and offering alternatives to those who accept.
While these illustrate gang activity in the Little Rock
area, many of the same or similar markings will be
found throughout the state and region. Roll call, "RIP",
graffiti for a Little Rock Blood gang member killed in a
shooting was recently found in a small community three
hours away.
While many gang members wear certain types of
clothing, one must be very careful in assuming that a
young person is a "banger" simply because they are
wearing a Colorado Rockies or Los Angeles Raiders cap
or jacket. Much other criteria is required. Some gang
members have said that they joined up because it was
trendy and cool while others are intimidated into joining
for protection. Other kids who exhibit gang style are, in
fact, only "being cool" by dressing the part.
Gang members are not all black. Indeed, one of the
largest street gangs in the Little Rock area has only a
few black members. Several members of this gang were
recently arrested for attempted murder after fire-
bombing a home in an attempt at retaliation. We have
also identified several all female gangs who have their
own reputations that are as ferocious as any of the
male gangs. Male gang members privately have even
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1793
expressed fear of several of the ladies of the female
gangs.
There are also many white teens who are joining hate
groups and various other groups who promote racial
disharmony. These groups appear to be growing in
number and may have organized recruitment efforts
planned for your area. Recently while speaking to a
parent/teacher group, I was told by a mother of her
son's activity burning crosses and wearing white robes
and hoods. When asked why she allowed this activity,
she said she was afraid of her son and would not
intervene. Any activity by or information about these
groups should be passed along to your local police
authorities.
CHAPTER 3
Gang Structure
All gangs have identifiable levels of membership. These
levels of membership indicate status within a gang and
acts as the organizational maintenance systems. There
are actually six levels of gang structure.
1. Leadership:
The leader(s) of a gang determines at what level of
criminal activity the gang will function. Characteristics
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1794
of the leader(s) are reflected in the day to day activities
of the gang. The leader is all powerful.
2. Hard Core:
The hard core gang members are usually the older gang
members, the individuals who are culturally and
criminally enmeshed in the gang and are at risk of being
so for life. Most violent gang activity emanates from the
hard core gang members. Hard core gang members
usually make up about 10% of gang membership.
3. Associate:
The associate gang member has usually made a
personal commitment to the gang culture and is
dedicated to achieving the level of recognition needed
to attain hard core status.
4. Fringe:
The fringe gang member is still able to function outside
of the gang structure and has not made a commitment
to a life in the criminal gang culture. This type of
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1795
member drifts in and out of the gang and seems to lack
direction.
5. Wanna-Bes:
Wanna-bes are not actually gang members. They are
youth who view the gang as an exciting place to be, a
place where they could become "somebody". Wanna-
bes may emulate gang dress, graffiti, hand signs, and
other gang cultural symbols, and they may associate
with known gang members, but they have not yet been
excepted into the gang.
Cliques:
Very seldom is the gang at full strength. Exceptions to
this, of course, would be times of conflict or possibly at
social functions. What is most often seen as "the gang"
is usually a clique from within the larger gang. The
clique is a group of associate, fringe, and often, wanna-
be gang members who gravitate around one or more of
the hard core gang members. This somewhat resembles
a gang within a gang.
Gang Recruitment Techniques
The needs and/or purpose of a gang as well as the
particular situation determines the methods/techniques
that will be used to recruit new members into the gang.
The following categories of gang recruitment are fairly
common, but the sophistication of the gang will
certainly dictate how sophisticated the recruitment
techniques will be implemented.
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1796
Seduction:
For a long time gangs have used this technique to
recruit new members. They create glorified myths about
the gang that are very attractive to young recruits, and
very often these myths become the foundation for
young aspirations. The
most powerful of these trappings, however, are the
promise of money, sex, and glamour. The symbols of the
gang (the graffiti, hand signs, colors, tattoos, etc.)
create a visual attraction for young people, they realize
that with these symbols they are part of something
organized and powerful. Parties are also very useful
ways for recruiters to seduce young people into the
gang. At the party they have fun, get high, and believe
the rhetoric they are bombarded with.
Subterfuge:
Subterfuge is a misrepresentation of what the gang
really is and what it stands for. Recruiters use lies and
schemes to convince the youth that it really isn't a
gang, it's a club or it is really a group of close friends
that have to protect themselves against a powerful
enemy. Another tact taken by recruiters is to identify
latchkey and other kids who may not have a good family
life and convince them that they aren't loved and that
the club is there for them, the "club" will love them.
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1797
Obligation:
Often gang members will do a favor or make a loan of
something to a prospective recmit and demand that
they give loyalty as payback. Often, these favors come
in the form of protection. Girls are sometimes used to
promote that sense of obligation.
Cohersion:
Forced recruitment is an age old technique, used most
often by large gangs in chronic gang cities. This
technique is used most often during times of gang
conflict, or when there is a need to generate dues
money. Cohersion is usually accomplished by threats,
but physical beatings are used as well. There have been
many deaths as a result of individuals refusing to join
the gang. Cohersion can mean that a family member is
threatened as well.
Self Recruitment:
For many reasons, youth will make contact with gang
members and ask to join the gang. The reasons are
many and not always because the individual sees the
gang as glamorous. The reason may be one of
necessity, money, protection etc.. The reasons may be
a combination of all of the trappings mentioned above.
The range of reasons for a youth to join a gang is very
wide and does not always mean that he has joined the
gang openheartedly.
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1798
All of the recruitment strategies listed above can be
elaborated on. Training is available to communities that
can provide valuable information about gang
recruitment and what can be done about it.
The Gang as a Criminal Enterprise
Of the many issues that gangs of the 90's have
addressed, in their own fashion, the one that has, and
will continue to have, the most impact on the American
Community, is the expansion of gang enterprise. Not
only is gang enterprise an increasingly acceptable
means of illegal income, it is also another profound
statement of counter-rejection by young people to the
larger society.
According to national statistics, about 95% of hard core
gang members are high school drop-outs. It is said by
these gang members that school cannot prepare them
to survive in this society. Many of the schools they
attend have a "0" academic level. They know that four
years of high school will not prepare them for college,
which means that the job market will not be open to
them on a competitive level. In essence, they have
created a system of education and a system of
employment that is much more responsive to their
needs.
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1799
While much attention has been given to the association
of street gangs with drugs, there has been little public
discussion of the economics of this association. In the
past, those street gangs that depended upon crime as a
source of income were limited to the traditional
methods of extortion, robbery and burglary as a means
of providing that income. Because of the opportunistic
nature of such crimes, coupled with the risk of personal
injury and/or being sent to jail, many of the gang
members could be lured away from the gang by positive
alternatives such as: a chance to learn a skill and
obtain gainful employment.
The availability of cocaine and the ease with which it
can be converted to "crack" has changed the route
through which the gang obtains its income and as a
direct result, the nature of the gangs response of offers
of positive alternatives. By way of illustration, consider
the following:
On an initial investment of $2,500.00 worth of cocaine
and using two readily available household chemicals,
$10,000.00 worth of "crack" can be produced. In areas
of high demand it is not unusual for a gang to "turn
over" (increase the profit on) its initial investment by a
factor of four. Therefore, the $10,000.00 worth of crack
becomes $40,000.00 by the end of the day.
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1800
Typically the gang will employ one person to collect the
money for the drugs, one person to deliver the drug to
the buyer and two look outs/security men. Their pay can
be as low as $50.00 per day each. Often a percentage is
offered to the team for sales over a certain amount per
day.
If the $200.00 per day cost of the team is deducted, the
profit for the day would be $29,800.00. That's tax free
money and continues seven days a week, three hundred
and sixty five days a year.
In light of these facts, it becomes clearer why gangs
resort to violence in disputes over the best sales areas
and why the mere offer of a job at minimum wage does
not readily deter a youth from this profitable enterprise.
Gang enterprise, justified through the gang system of
values, incorporated into the gang structure, and
embraced by the gang as an acceptable economic
foundation for the gang society, will prove to be a
monumental challenge for communities determined to
eliminate the gang phenomenon.
CHAPTER 4
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1801
From The Coroner's Report
Urban street gang graffiti is the most common way for
gangs to communicate their message. Organized graffiti
is one of the first signs that street gangs are taking hold
in your neighborhood and is also an excellent way to
track gang growth, affiliation, and sometimes even
provides membership information.
Graffiti serves several purposes, all of which is
understood by other "gangbangers," even members of
rival sets. Graffiti has been called the newspaper or
bulletin boards for gangs and communicates many
messages, including challenges, warnings, and
pronouncements of deeds accomplished or about to
occur. Local authorities should establish procedures to
deal with this public eyesore. This is an area where the
community can band together to show gangs they will
not be tolerated. Graffiti should be removed or painted
over after it is documented and investigated by the
police. Some graffiti is nothing more than "tagging." An
example of this is "Johnny loves Mary". Police
departments and school officials should be sure
someone within their respective departments develops
an expertise in reading and understanding graffiti.
Officials should understand that graffiti also develops
local flavor which must be identified. Some examples of
street gang graffiti found in central Arkansas are as
follows:
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1802
This indicates the name of the
gang claiming this territory,
usually a neighborhood name.
Folks is a reference to the Folk or
Hoover Nation gang which is
based in Chicago but is popping
up all over the South. Sometimes
these gang members also are
known as Shorty Folks, Shorties,
and Black Gangster
Disciples/BGD's.
These are the individual gang
members' street names. Names
are usually given based on a
particular trait of the member.
This is the six-pointed star which
is the symbol of the Folks. In this
example, they have both proudly
proclaimed their affiliation and
dissed (issued disrespect) to the
rival Vice Lords by turning the
cane handle upside down (Vice
Lords use the upright cane in their
graffiti). The Folk Nation pitchfork
is upright showing respect. The
letters at the six points of the star
are symbols of the concepts of
the Folk Nation: Life, Loyalty,
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1803
Love, Wisdom, Knowledge, and
Understanding.
This is considered gang "knowledge" and is only a small
part of what gang members must learn. In fact, many
gang sets have extensive books, usually handwritten, of
rules and regulations and gang history. These rules must
be memorized. Often, gangs have set meeting dates and
read from their "Book", and discuss gang business. In a
strange sort of way, these meetings resemble fraternity
or civic meetings. Many gang members have told of
being "violated" for not knowing certain portions of their
knowledge when called upon by a gang leader to recite
it.
This is a warning to Blood gang
members, rivals of the Folks as
well as the Crips. SLOBS is the
"put down" word used by Crips
and Folks (who appear to be
loosely aligning) to describe Blood
gang members. Notice that the B
is crossed out. This is another
"put down" and warning for
Bloods to stay away. Serious gang
members will always write in a
fashion to dis rival gangs.
Teachers should be trained to
note these peculiar writings and
the student responsible should be
counseled by a person
knowledgeable in gang affairs.
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1804
187 is part of the California Penal
Code number for Homicide and
211 is same for armed robbery. In
many gangs, if members use the
word Blood or Crip instead of the
dis words, Slob and Crab, a
violation can be given.
East Coast represents LA gang
orientation. "Cuzz" is a term of
endearment used by Crips to
address each other. Substituting
dollar signs for the S's indicates
that this gang is selling
narcotics.
BK stands for Blood Killer.
Sometimes you will see CK which
of course is Crip Killer.
Street names, signature of
artists.
Typical Vice Lord Graffiti--The
pyramid and eye of "Allah". The
IVL stands for Insane Vice Lords,
a Chicago group. CVL or
Conservative Vice Lord graffiti is
also sometimes seen. The
drawing is said to represent the
ancient pyramids and their black
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1805
builders. Note the number of
bricks in the pyramid--21. This
has significant meaning to a true
People Nation member. Note the
similarities to some Muslim
symbols. Very few if any local
gang members have any
connection at all to the Muslim
faith.
Vice Lord marker and hand sign,
sometimes drawn, sometimes
used as a hand signal. The five-
pointed star is used by the Vice
Lords and Bloods in the Little
Rock area.
Put down to rival BGD six-pointed
star saying the five points of the
Vice Lord star is 5 popping
(shooting at) the BGD six-pointed
star. It should be noted that in
some instances, numbers will
appear rather than letters in the
drawings or graffiti of "bangers".
Usually, this is a fairly easy code
to break because gangs simply
use the number which
corresponds to the place the
letter falls in the alphabet as in:
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1806
2.7.4 = B.G.D. = Black Gangster
Disciple 12.12.12 = L.L.L. = Love,
Life, Loyalty
Other gangs use other codes and alphabets which must
be broken locally.
It should be understood that gangs may adopt other
types of graffiti or make up their own. That once again
illustrates the importance of developing local
intelligence about groups by exercising cooperation
among law enforcement officials, school authorities, and
the general public. Gangs are certainly a community
problem, and the community must galvanize to properly
respond by dealing with those already involved and
offering alternatives to those who accept.
While these illustrate gang activity in the Little Rock
area, many of the same or similar markings will be found
throughout the state and region. Roll call, "RIP", graffiti
for a Little Rock Blood gang member killed in a shooting
was recently found in a small community three hours
away.
While many gang members wear certain types of
clothing, one must be very careful in assuming that a
young person is a "banger" simply because they are
wearing a Colorado Rockies or Los Angeles Raiders cap
or jacket. Much other criteria is required. Some gang
members have said that they joined up because it was
trendy and cool while others are intimidated into joining
for protection. Other kids who exhibit gang style are, in
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1807
fact, only "being cool" by dressing the part.
Gang members are not all black. Indeed, one of the
largest street gangs in the Little Rock area has only a
few black members. Several members of this gang were
recently arrested for attempted murder after fire-
bombing a home in an attempt at retaliation. We have
also identified several all female gangs who have their
own reputations that are as ferocious as any of the male
gangs. Male gang members privately have even
expressed fear of several of the ladies of the female
gangs.
There are also many white teens who are joining hate
groups and various other groups who promote racial
disharmony. These groups appear to be growing in
number and may have organized recruitment efforts
planned for your area. Recently while speaking to a
parent/teacher group, I was told by a mother of her son's
activity burning crosses and wearing white robes and
hoods. When asked why she allowed this activity, she
said she was afraid of her son and would not intervene.
Any activity by or information about these groups should
be passed along to your local police authorities.
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1808
CHAPTER 5
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1809
Identifying Gang Members
Gang Symbols and Communication
Gang members use hand signs, graffiti, jewelry and
tattoos to represent their membership in a gang and to
communicate or "show" their gang affiliation to others.
Each street gang has its own signs, symbols, signals,
dress, and colors, some of which are shared by other
gangs, but all which serve to advertise the gang's
presence. These serve to promote group solidarity and
to identify gang members.
There is no greater humiliation for a street gang than to
have its symbols insulted by rival gangs. If you see
graffiti in which a gang symbol is upside down,
backwards, or crossed out, it is a degradation to that
gang and was most likely done by a rival gang member.
This type of disrespect often results in gang violence.
Graffiti: One of the first indications that gangs are in a
neighborhood is the appearance of graffiti. To the gang
member, graffiti is a marking of territorial boundaries
and serves as a warning and a challenge to rival gangs.
Gangs will place graffiti on any available space (wall,
street signs, restroom walls, etc.). The purpose of
graffiti is to glorify the gang. Any graffiti which is found
should be reported to law enforcement for
documentation and then removed as soon as possible.
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1810
Hand Signs: Hand signs are used by gangs to
communicate gang affiliations and to challenge rival
gang members. This is commonly referred to as
"throwing signs." Occasionally members of one gang
(GANG A) will flash the hand sign of a rival gang (GANG
B) in hopes that a person will respond as a member of
Gang B to reveal their true gang affiliation. This is
known as "false flagging" and normally results in gang
violence directed at the rival gang member.
Tattoos: Tattoos may be viewed as an extension of
graffiti, used to identify the wearer as a member of a
particular gang. Like graffiti, tattoos will usually include
the initials, name or symbols of a particular gang. There
is really no rule as to the size, number, or complexity of
a gang member's tattoos. While some may be done
professionally, most are homemade and a large majority
are received in detention centers. Tattoos may be found
anywhere on the body; People Nation sets will normally
tattoo the left side of the body, while Folk Nation sets
tattoo the right side. Younger gang members often
attempt to conceal their tattoos from family and
authorities.
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1811
National Symbols of Folk and People Gangs
National Symbols of the
Folk Gang
National Symbols of the
People Gang
Symptoms of Gang Involvement
Graffiti on the youth's belongings, such as
notebooks, jackets, clothing or room
Tattoos or ink drawings of gang symbols on skin
Sudden increase in youth's material possessions (If
parent didn't buy it and the youth doesn't work,
how did they get it?)
Consistent wearing of same color combinations,
which also matches friends clothing colors. Also
the consistent wearing of sports team apparel.
Look for writings on the bill of caps or the changing
of colors of the original apparel
Secrecy about activities or time away from home
New and strange friends or associates
Clothing representing specifically to one side,
either right or left, such as hats tilted or pants legs
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1812
rolled up
Major changes in social habits (e.g., low school
grades, lack of interest in school activities, change
of peer groups)
Involvement in drugs: sales, possession, or use
Negative contact with law enforcement
Adopting a street name or moniker
Possession or use of weapons
Wearing bandanas or other similar colored items
CHAPTER 6
COMMUNICATION
JAMICIAN POSSE
j slash k, Becky: When jokingly speaking you
can use j slash k to tell the person you are
kidding.
Example: Your turn to pay. J slash k, Becky.
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1813
J'Cadian: A person of Jamacian decent born in
Canada.
Example: Lisa: Are you Jamacian?
Fitzroy: No, I'm actually J'Cadian.
J-Lo: Butt.
Example: I've got a huge J-Lo from eating all of
these doughnuts.
J.J. McTitty's: Referring to how a woman with
large breasts got them.
Example: She must have visited J.J. McTitty's.
Her hooters are bloody huge!
j/v: (adj) One who is not ready for a serious
relationship. (Ref: Junior Varsity.)
Example: Nate won't admit that we've ever
been on a date. He is so j/v.
jabartism: (int) Exclamation of joy, referring to a
good thing that has happened.
Example: Jabartism! I just got promoted.
jabbaent: (adj) Idle, inactive, lazy, slothful or
sluggish. From Jabba the Hutt of the Star Wars
movie series.
Example: That jabbaent six-year-old should do
some work in the real world.
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1814
jabbaist: (n) Someone who has become one
with the couch. From Jabba the Hutt of the Star
Wars movie series.
Example: Get off the couch and stop being such
a jabbaist, yelled her mother.
jabber: To talk endlessly about nothing.
Example: My mom came over last night and
jabbered for about 2 hours!
jabitzer (tm): A pool (pocket billiards) term. The
foul committed when the cue ball is struck
twice. Specifically when that first little touch is
followed by a reflexive jab at the cue ball. This
is a portmanteau word--that is, a word carrying
two meanings. The stroke is a jabitzer; the
cueist is also a jabitzer. This invented word won
a $25 prize for best new word of the week--
partly because its creator wrote I think it's a
transitive verb. Didn't look like a verb to me.
Example: That was a jabitzer, DeWayne. Ball in
hand.
jabooblescube: A type of lolly that is both
sugary and jelly-like at the same time.
The word originated as an attempt to describe
onomatopoeiacally the taste of them!
Example: On the way to Sydney, can we stop at
the corner shop and get some jabooblescubes?
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1815
jacentary: Just as sedentary comes from the
Latin word for to sit, jacentary is comes from
the Latin word for to lie down, taking the
concept a step further.
Example: She says she lives a sedentary
lifestyle? Jacentary, I'd say.
jack: jack - money, cash,
Example: To buy that car would take some
major jack.
Jack Palance: Jack Palance (Verb)- To
accidentally inhale sharply through both the
nose and mouth at the end of a statement, a la
actor Jack Palance. This is due either to an
oncoming burp or hiccup,or other change of
internal pressure.
Example: So yesterday I fell off of the
toilet.(gasp)...Wow, I just Jack Palanced at the
end of that sentence
Jack(ie) Horner: A busybody, from the nursery
rhyme--one who has to have a thumb in every
one else's pie;
also one who horns in.
Example: Watch what you say in front of her--
she's a compulsive Jackie Horner.
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1816
Jack-o-Lapple: A fruit carved to look like a
Jack-O-Lantern.
Example: Ms. Alavi has a Jack-O-Lapple in her
room.
jackalope: Someone who is acting without
common sense, a dumb person.
(Also Lepus-temperamentalus, the dreaded
pygmy-deer killer-rabitt cross. See
http://www.sudftw.com/jackcon.htm)
Example: What a jackalope! He's hitting on
Matt's girl right in front of Matt. And Matt is
huge!
jackassery: Acting like a complete jackass.
Example: Derek was displaying some quality
jackassery in the bar last night.
jacked: Wholly unacceptable. Used to describe
a practical joke or act of revenge that has gone
too far.
Example: You set his mom on fire? That's hecka
jacked.
jacked: Quite strong, muscular.
Example: Did you see that bouncer, he was
jacked.
jacked: Malfunctioning, not operating properly,
or just plain screwed up.
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1817
Example: Yea, that computer's always crashing;
it's totally jacked.
jackerwhad: To make askew.
Example: I bumped into a door and my glasses
were all jackerwhad on my face.
jackfucker: Someone whose action indicate she
possesses the heinous attributes of both a
jackass and a motherfucker.
Example: You're directly behind a woman in line
at a fast food drive-through who is sorting
through her purse, letting other people get in
front of her, and drastically increasing your
wait. She then drives off without ordering.
Jackfucker!
jackleg: Someone who is a wannabe or who
appears to be a fraudulent in her representation
of herself.
Example: Be wary of jackleg preachers trying to
take money from unsuspecting Christians.
jacknine: Jacknine is a conjunction of the terms
jackass and asinine. Meaning that some one or
something is both jackass and asinine. Can also
be used to descibe a situation.
Example: Chris, you are jacknine! Stop driving
like a maniac!
This whole day was jacknine--first my alarm
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1818
didn't go off, then I was fired, and on top of it all
my wife left me.
Screw it, my alarm didn't go off, but my wife
did! And just because she caught me in bed
with Charlene.
jackoff, jerkoff: Someone who does nothing
productive. A procrastinator or a 45 year-old
living in a parent's basement.
Sometimes hyphenated.
Example: I wish you'd get a job. You're such a
jackoff.
jackol: n., (jak-ol) a loud kiss. (smack!)
Example: Hello honey. I'm home! can you give
me a jackol?
jackrod: Someone whose jackassedness is
extremely, unforgivably pronounced.
Example: Our Hero: What do you mean I can't
enter Canada with my cat today?
Border Guard: To secure the safety of our
citizens, live animals must be quarantined for a
period before entry.
Our Hero: Stupid Canuck, I'm entering, anyway.
Border Guard: Only to the turnaround up ahead.
Go any farther and you'll be arrested, jackrod.
jackson: To change in color gradually; to
mutate, or to desexualize .
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1819
Example: After hiding from the sun and
misusing chemicals for years, I had finally
jacksoned myself.
Jackson Pollock: To vomit profusely--due to the
resemblance to the work of abstract artist
Jackson Pollock.
Example: I drank a fifth of tequila, and then
Jackson Pollock'd all over the rug.
jackson-five: A u-turn.
Example: Pull a jackson five up here and then
take a left.
Jacksons: Twenty dollar bills.
Example: I paid for the clothes with some
Jacksons.
jactaid: Substance found crusted on one's lips
upon awakening after a night of drooling.
Example: He had so much jactaid on his face
that morning, it looked as if a slug had slithered
out of his mouth.
jacudi: Butt.
Example: My jacudi doesn't fit in these pants.
jadoo: A figure of speech used when asking
someone what they did in any
situation.....another words...what did you do?
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1820
Example: Hey Al, jadoo last night.
JAFO: Just Another Fucking Observer.
Paramedic term for all those student ride-
alongs who just want to watch.
Example: Tom and Kurt couldn't figure out why
the new JAFO kept showing up for *their* shift.
jagger: The prickly thorns on certain types of
shrubbery
Example: How many times have I told you to
stay out of the jagger bushes because they tear
your clothes.
Jagger: To throw a wild, flamboyant, violent-
looking tantrum. Possibly while dancing.
Refers to the dances steps (ex. The Rooster)
that Mick Jagger from The Rolling Stones used
to do.
Example: Paul: Hey look at Albert over there on
the dance floor.
Rich: Yeah, he is freakin' out Jagger-style.
jairce: The smell of rain on the wind
Example: You are to me jairce and the wind
rising.
Jake: To be used when you see a completely
gorgeous guy. Comes from Molly Rigwald's be-
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1821
all-end-all crush in _Sixteen Candles_.
Example: He's the dreamiest thing I've ever
seen. He's a Jake if ever there was one.
jake: Completely and utterly boring or lame.
Example: This movie's jake. Let's get out of
here.
jake brake: emergency break on a car
Example: You gonna pull the jake brake to stop
us?
Jaked: to be ripped off by someone without
paybacks
Example: That ho must have jaked my wallet
while I was asleep!
jakes: Police.
Example: Watch out for the jakes.
jakey: To fix something in a lazy or sloppy
manner, rigging something
Example: Using duct tape combined with coat
hangers to fix anything is extremely jakey
Jalexy: In reference to a vast ammount of
space.
Example: Texas is one big jalexy.
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1822
jam: To depart or leave.
Example: Its getting late, I gotta jam soon.
jam (1): To cancel pre-arranged plans close to
or at the very moment the event is to occur.
Other known usages of the verb include (2. jam,
v) to attempt to play instruments in a band-like
fashion when few if none of the performers
actually possess any musical ability
whatsoever. This practice is indigenous to the
parental garage. Continuous Jamming (1. 2.)
activity may result in loss of friends and loss of
hearing.
Example:
jam (the): can be used to ways, as an adjective
and a verb.
Example: this song is my jam this song jams
jam ass: To move with considerable speed.
(From my stepbrother Garrett, who most likely
does come from Salinas, CA. So does the word.)
Example: A. You should have seen us. We were
jamming ass the whole way here.
B. If you visit Paramount's Great America in
Santa Clara, be sure to ask all the ride
operators, Does this ride jam ass?
Especially the ones on foreign exchange from
other countries.
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1823
jamass: Someone who isn't up to partying
Example: A. Let's go to the bar tonight. B.Naw.
A. Jeez, you're a jamass tonight.
jamdealie: Another word to use as substitution
for something for which you can not remember
the name.
Usually used after other generic words have
already been used.
Example: So once you have the thingie talking
to the doohickie,
you need to get them talking to the jamdealie
over here.
James: A person who continually lies even if
she knows the person she is lying to knows she
is lying.
Example: You James!
james blonde: someone acting stupid
Example: He paid $500 for a PDA without e-
mail! What a James Blonde move!
jamjams: Pajamas.
Example: Come here Bart and put on your
jamjams.
jamm-sandwich: Two pieces of bread jammed
together after you discovered you were out of
lunchmeat.
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1824
Example: My two course meal was a jamm-
sandwich.
jamoke: Another word meaning idiot.
Example: Look at that jamoke--he tripped over
his own feet.
jamp: past tense of the word jump
Example: Last week me and the boys jamp
gopher mounds out beyond the cornfeilds.
jampacted: (adj) Combines the senses of
jammed and compacted.
Example: We finally had to leave because it was
gettin' jampacted.
jander: A word used to refer to marijuana.
Example: Let go smoke some jander.
jandle: To leave or finish with something,
especially when your interest in the thing or
peson has dwindled.
Example: This party is getting boring, let's give
it the jandle.
That egg is rotten, you had bettter give it the
jandle.
janglefish, jinglefish: To surf the Internet for
online music.
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1825
Example: Do you janglefish?
Get hooked up with janglefish.
jank: Unlikely occurrence derived form
incredible amounts of luck.
Example: Hitting on a 19 to make 21 was pure
jank.
JANK.: EXTREMELY ANNOYING SLANG,
COMMONLY USED IN TUSCALOOSA, ALABAMA.
I HAVE NEVER HEARD ANYONE SAY THIS
OUTSIDE TUSCALOOSA. TO JANK MEANS TO
ANNOY,TAUNT,IRK,ECT.
Example: WHO YOU JANKIN'?
jankie: Something that is either put together
very poorly and could fall apart at any time.
Something that is a pile of junk
Example: 1. Steve's car is jankie.
2. That house we went into is so jankie I could
have cut my leg off just getting in the door.
3. That is one big jankie job you did on that bike
you put together
jankout: To actively create trouble, turmoil,
thoughtfulness, or depression.
Example: The melancholy episode of _Dawson's
Creek_ gave me a jankout.
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1826
Janky: unsuitable, inadequate, not matching up
to set standards, cheap
Example: The girl was wearing a janky outfit
from Wet Seal.
janky: Intensely repellent or unpleasant (esp. a
person); disgusting in the extreme.
Example: That girl you hooked up with last
night was janky.
janta: People in general, acquaintances
Example: I was at the party around 9ish, but
janta came around 11.
japaneseum: Anything small, electronic, and
Japanese. (Not to be confused with the element
japanesium.)
Example: Sony makes great japaneseum.
Japes: similar to joke
Example: just japesing or you're having a japes
Jar: (Jar) v. To silence someone so completely
they cannot come up with a retort.
Example: Hah! I jarred you.
Jarch: Adjective describing something that is a
bluish-green color.
Example: On rainy days, the tree has a jarchish
color to it.
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1827
jargodleygook: Any number of words of phrases
used by internet scam artists (such as
hucksters bilking venture capitalists) to make
the online product or service they are selling or
promoting sound more technically important
and necessary than it really is or ever could be.
Example: So this product has an on-time
demand for real user interface capabilities
enmeshed with superior networking spaciality.
Just spare me all that jargodleygook, son, and
tell me when this is going to start making
money.
jargon: Word or sentence that doesn't make
sense.
Example: Shut it! You are talking jargon!
Jargon Shock: If someone wants you to anwser
a technical question, and you don't really want
to anwser, you spew technical jargon
at her until she gives up and goes away.
Example: Dumb person: How do we install an
operating system?
Tech guy: To accomplish that we'd have to take
down the server, flash the CMOS, pull the Level
2 Cache,
Zap the P-RAM, and defrag all the hard drives on
IDE busses one and two.
Dumb guy: Ahh! Jargon shock! Run away. Run
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1828
away.
jarhead: *Jock or male athlete, usually in high
school and on the football team. Tend to get
drunk and the only thing they can talk about IS
football.
Example: Did you see that fight in the caf? Jon
and Mike are such jarheads.
jarjarred: To take something perfectly
acceptable as is, and add to it something
unnecessary and annoying.
(adjective) Jarjarred: Having annoying,
superfluous features.
Example: Microsoft Word 2000 is so jarjarred up
I can't write a simple memo anymore.
I really hope George Lucas doesn't jarjar up his
next Star Wars movie.
Jark: Anything that is super amazingly cool, in
an unusual, offbeat sort of way is jark.
Example: That guy CAM is jark.
jark: A mystical half-jar, half-shark creature--
very friendly and crazy.
Example: That man's head resembles a jark.
Jasmine's business: The backyard. When our
dog Jasmine is put out, she's told to go do her
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business. Thus two-year-old Alec thought the
backyard was called Jasmine's business.
Example: Dina: Alec, where's your daddy? Alec:
Jasmine's business.
jason: Derogatory term. Can be used in name-
calling, insult, or other.
Example: John is being a jason.
Jason's Ireland: A midget with the ability to
jump abnormally high or portray extreme
strength is termed as having reached Jason's
Ireland status.
Example: Minime just pole vaulted 40 feet high.
He's gotta have made Jason's Ireland.
jaundiced monkey: Extreme liar, expects you to
believe totally bizarre stuff.
Example: You saw a talking dog? You're a
jaundiced monkey.
Java-ed: A verb that mean you're hyper from
drinking too much coffee
Example: Sorry I can't sit still, I just got java-ed
at starbucks
javules: the tiny granules of coffee bean at the
bottom of the cup when you finish your cup of
coffee
Example: In a desperate attempt to wake up
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before his early morning meeting, Boris
consumed every drop of the espresso, even to
the point of forcing his tongue deep inside the
cup in order to savor every single javule.
jawba: A non-physical matter that is responsible
for a most rancid smell, a smell that transcends
the English language.
Example: Your feet smell like freaking jawba.
jawjacking: To talk. Used by Marine Corps Drill
Instructors in boot camp.
Example: Quit jawjacking, girls.
jawn: A person, a place, or a thing. Generic
word.
Example: Did you see the back on that jawn?...It
was off the hook.
Jawn Blazey: An exceedingly attractive human
female.
Example: Yo, that Jawn Blazey was checkin'
your skillz.
jawsome: Contraction of just awsome.
Example: You won that singing award.
Jawsome!
jaxomlotus: (adj) Carrying a very strong scent of
lotus blossoms, or male pheromones.
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Example: His suit was unusally jaxomlotus,
causing her to gasp for air.
Jaysus jumppin' on a pogo stic: Say this instead
of jeez or jesus or anything like that.
Example: Jaysus jumppin' on a pogo stick! That
looked like it hurt!
jazz: stuff
Example: '...and all that jazz'
jazzed: Excited. Happy.
Example: I'm certainly jazzed about going to the
beach next week.
jazztalc: Talking slurred and losing your balance
after consuming a little too much alcohol.
Example: He`s acting a little funny--must have
been at the jazztalc.
jazzuall: Jazzuall is having a sense of style and
sophistication while still remaining thoroughly
comfortable.
Example: We went to Betatone's martini bar to
soak in some of the jazzuall atmosphere...and to
get loaded.
JBUG: Just Between Us Girls. Indicates highly
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1832
confidential discussion or information.
Example: Listen, this is strictly JBUG. It goes
no farther.
JCR: Jenny Craig Reject. Overweight. Used to
avoid hurting feelings of those within earshot.
Example: This party is full of JCRs, let's get
outa here.
Jean Genies: A young adult feminist.
Example: I'm protesting with the Jean Genies
this weekend.
jean-o-liptus: the too-tight disease that smiles
at you...vertically of course, more prevalent in
the 80's
Example: Check out the stonewash jean-o-
liptus, poor thing.
(Please! It's not camel toe, it's a disease
people.)
jeanius: Someone who is a fashion expert when
it comes to jeans.
Example: My mom is a jeanius.
jeaporsy: A variation on the word jeapordy: such
as to be in a bad state of affairs or in danger.
Example: We suddenly found ourselves in a
state of jeaporsy.
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Jebus: Used to replace the word Jesus.
Originally from the Simpsons.
Example: Sweet Jebus! That's a funny looking
car, or If your up there please save me Jebus
jed: a very regional Canadian dialect of the
saying of the letter j (jay) as in z=zed
Example:
jedi: Describes a trick of extreme skill, or
slickness. From Jedi mind trick.
Example: The way you pulled that tailslide off
the helicopter blade was truly jedi.
jeebs: Basically a synonym for teeth, or the act
of biting someone or something.
History: Originated as part of a cat's name (Mr.
Jeebers) and it somehow evolved or mutated
into a word that desrcibes teeth or biting.
Example: That ice cream made my jeebs hurt.
When he tossed me that quarter it hit me right
in the jeebs. I can't wait to jeeb into that pizza.
Jeepers Cripes!: A term used in disbelief.
Example: Jeepers cripes! How much salt did
you put on this popcorn?
jeet: compressed form of Did you eat?
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1834
Example: Jeet yet? We're set to go.
jeet?: one word question about eating
Example: Hey Bill, jeet? Bill: Naw, I'm not
hungry.
jeet?(jooeet?): Have you eaten yet?
This is new england speak. W
e try to say an entire sentence in one word.
Another example would be lesgo.
Short for Let's leave this place.
Example: We're all meeting at the wildwood
steakhouse--jeet? OR
We are leaving for the movies in ten minutes--
jooeet, you wanna go?
jeetyet: Did you eat yet?
Example: (You're with a friend)...I'm kinda
hungry, jeetyet?
jeevus: Jesus.
Example: Jeevus, what is wrong with you?
jello: A material possession that designates
someone as particularly wealthy and
sophisticated; also, the state of being
particularly wealthy and sophisticated. Gelatin
was discovered in Victorian times, but only the
most wealthy Victorians could afford it. They
were actually more interested in crafting it into
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1835
elaborate molds than in eating it; the more
elaborate the mold, the more sophisticated the
Victorian.
Example: Wow, Sarah, that outfit is really jello!
jelloboy or jellogirl: Person of small mental
prowess. Stalks the internet in search of chat
boards
where he tries to drag people in to pointless
arguments. His contributions serve only as
examples of his low mental capacity. Also know
as a Troll.
Example: I was having a rational argument
online today until this stupid jelloboy reared his
ugly head.
jellybaby: A small, chewy candy available in
many fruity flavors. Extremely useful for getting
out of bad situations. This candy is only carried
by time-travelers.
Example: (To a supervillain): I see fifty years of
hibernation hasn't cured your megalomania.
Have a jellybaby.
jen-debt: 1. Any sum of money owed to you that
will most likely never be paid.
2. A personal loan which is paid back so slowly,
you may forget about it (which, of course, is the
hope of the person who owes it to you).
Example: 1. Jim: Did Mark ever pay back that
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1836
$50 you loaned him? Dan: Oh, hell no. It a jen-
debt now. I'll never see that money.
2. Dave owes me 400 bucks, but he's only paid
me $3 a week for the last 4 months. The jerk
has made it a jen-debt.
jenga: To make a precarious and unnecessary
stack or pile.
Example: Rather than replace the bag and take
the full one out, Andy and his roommates once
again jenga'd the trash.
jennavator: A wild willing girl, incapable of
blushing or being sexually offended. A friend to
all willing to experiment. Sorta' like Jenna
Jameson?
Example: That girl is a real jennavator.
jerichoholic: Hardcore Chris Jericho fan.
Example: Q. Do you like Benoit?
A. No, I'm a big jerichoholic.
Jerk (pull) your chain: To tease or needle
someone just to get a reaction from her. (ED.
Common slang usage.)
Example: Don't take him seriously, he's just
jerking your chain, trying to get you angry.
Jerkfoot: Word used to replace a profanity in an
expression of pain or when you do something
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wrong.
Example: Ah, Jerkfoot!. I just hit my thumb with
the hammer.
jerkier: More than a jerk.
Example: You are more jerkier than I am.
jerkin': Cool, neato, groovy, etc.
Example: Jackie, your orange shoes
are...jerkin'!
jerknoise: Conversation between two people
that those nearby find to be annoying and jerk-
like.
Example: The jerknoise was unbelievable as
they elbowed each other getting to the bargain
bins.
jerkoholic: Someone addicted to behaving like a
jerk.
Example: Chris doesn't need to be drinking so
much. He's already a jerkoholic.
jerkosaurus, jerkosaur: (n) A jerk of immense
proportions. Submitted for Alec by his
grandfather--since Alec is only three years old
and doesn't type that well yet. Probably came
from TV, but has been heard coming only from
Alec.
Example: He's the tyrannosaurus rex of jerks;
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1838
he's a jerkosaurus.
jerkwater: A combination of jerk and backwater. Used to
describe someone or something that is stupid and jerky.
Example: I gotta get out of this jerkwater town.
Used at:
http://www.myentireass.com/forum/1021016933,78386,.shtml
Jerky: A person who drives too slow, or uses
her brakes too much due to tailgating.
Example: Hey, jerky, why don't you get off my
bumper a bit.
Jerry Fargos: The long, wispy hairs on the back
of your neck .
Example: I don't need a haircut, I really just
need to get rid of the Jerry Fargos.
jerry springer mosiac: When a picture is
pixelated to censor it. From
www.exploitationnow.com issue 7.17.2000S
Example: That movie was garbage. It had Jerry
Springer mosaics in all the good scenes.
Jerrytown: Deadheads who don't have anything
to do anymore and show up at other band's
concerts--and do their little whirling fish
disease dance.
Example: Great concerts--until the Jerrytown
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1839
started showing up. People, get some rhythm.
jersey cow: chow - food
Example: I'm starving, I need to get me some
jersey cow.
Jerusalem Cruisers: Any old looking sandal
(such as Birkenstocks) that look like they might
have been worn by Jesus
Example: Hey, you shouldn't step in puddles
with your Jerusalem cruisers
jesan: Term for rabid right-wing Christians,
commonly applied to those whose wardrobe
consists exclusively of
WWJD apparel and whose vehicles are
plastered with Jesus-fish.
Example: Looks like the jesans hardcore
pamphletted my Merkur XR4TI again.
Guess they didn't like the atheist vanity plates.
jesus: a verb used to describe the act of doing
something so effortlessly that it seems to be a
miracle. used most effectively when the jesuser
has no idea how it worked so well. see blink.
Example: how'd you get here so fast through
that traffic? i jesussed myself here.
Jesus-sneakers: sandals or flip-flops.
Example: Hey, who said that you could borrow
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my Jesus-sneakers?
jet: To leave quickly.
Example: OK, time to jet.
Jetset Netpet: An incrowd rich guy or girl that
you meet on the internet.
Example: I don't want a netpet; if I did, he'd
have to be a jetset netpet.
jetto: Extremely cheap, tacky, or half-assed.
Worse than ghetto and ghetmo.
Example: Ames is the ultimate jetto store.
jewbilation: 1. The thrill a Jew feels upon
finding out a favorite celebrity is Jewish.
2. The thrill a Jew feels upon finding other cool
thingss about Jews in the public eye.
Example: I experienced jewbilation when I
discovered Billy Joel was Jewish.
Jewbu: A Jewish Buddhist
Example: Did you see the Jewbu in the shrine
room today? (I'm Jewish and got my MA in
Buddhist Studies, so I heard the term alot) by
the way, it's not derogatory.
jewfro: An afro on a jewish person. very popular
with jewish ultimate frisbee players.
Example: Half of their team was sporting a
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1841
jewfro.
jewish holiday: Days off (usually from school)
when there is no real reason we know of to
have a free day.
Example: Tomorrow we don't have classes. I'm
not sure why. Probably some Jewish holiday.
Jezzarizer: A procrastinator that likes to
manipulate friends into the evil world of lies.
Don't be fooled by their use of big words, they
do this to hypnotise you into believing they
know so much, when really they know so little.
Example:
JF Hair, Head: Just fucked hair. The front is
perfect but the back is a rat's nest.
Example: Q. Aren't you going to comb your hair?
It's looks like JF Hair?
A. Why bother? Who looks at the back of my
head?
jibba: Awesome; sweet; excellent.
Example: Those M&M's were jibba.
Jibba Jabba: Some talk so damn much you just
want slap them. This was mainly used by Mr.T.
Example: She needs to shut up talking all that
Jibba Jabba.
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1842
jibba-jabba: Excessive conversation.
Example: That fool has got to stop that jibba-
jabba!
jick: refers to any substance that is worthless,
such as rotten food
Example: Get that filthy jick out of this house
right now!
jig: To cooperate. | To function properly, as in a
piece of equipment or a computer.
Example: My computer wouldn't jig and save my
manuscript, so I've got to type it all over again.
Jigger: From the latin Do-Jigger Inserted when
you can't remember a word.
Example: Hand me that Jigger.
Jiggerypokery: Jiggerypokery is when you are
trying to insert something into
a hole or something and you have to kind of
tweak it to get it to fit.
It never works the same way twice.
Example: Just put pin A in that hole. Hmm...it
doesn't fit right. Oh well, a little jiggerypokery
and it will go
in just fine.
Jiggusiming: to eat or drink quickly
Example: Whoa, shes jiggusiming that foot long.
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jimjam: a person who is self loving and unaware
of the finer things in life
Example: jimjam is empty
jimmy-arm: To thrash violently in your sleep.
Usually involves whacking your significant
other with an elbow.
Example: That chick jimmy-armed me all night.
jimmy-hoffa-conversion: When something is
handed off or given and magically vanishes
without a trace.
Named after Jimmy Raxasena & Jared Hoffa in
a track relay.
Also refers to Jimmy Hoffa. (Penn. fame)
Example: They pulled a jimmy-hoffa, muttered
Assistant Coach Brisco.
Jing: Money. So named for the sound change
makes in your pocket. If you are out of jing, you
are quiet
Example: Let's hit the ATM so I can grab some
jing
Jing: Used in place of the word hippie.
Example: Who's the jing down the block?
Jinglish: A person born in England of Jamaican
decent.
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Example: Thorald: Are you Jamaican?
Peta-Gae: No, I'm actually Jinglish.
jingophobia: A morbid fear of ostentatious
displays of patriotism.
Example: He had a jingophobic reaction to the
President's speech.
jings: An exclamation of surprise. Originates
from Oor Wullie as chronicled in the Sunday
Post (Uk)
Example: Jings, would you look at the size of
that.
Jings!: Scottish expression of surprise.
Example: Jings! It's you again!
Jinky: Expression of suprise--like wow, geez,
dang.
Example: Big Scary Monster: Boo!
You: Jinky!
jipes: Combination of old classics jeepers! and
yikes! updated for today's modern world.
Best used followed by an exclamation mark and
accompanied with a gasp.
Example: A: The Taliban have declared war on
Australia! B: Jipes!
jipp: a term for sayin you got ripped off or a bad
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1845
deal
Example: Man that cabbie jipped me for 5 bucks
jiraw: Sounds like Ira. Being so extremely tired
that your jaw tires
of holding the weight of your mouth up.
Usually indicated by a slack-jawed look and a
tounge sticking out.
Example: I hadn't slept in 3 days. I was jiraw.
jirkus: A situation which can be compared to a
circus full of performing jerks.
Example: Jane: Let's go hang out at Jerry's
place.
Algernon: I don't want to go to Jerry's. It's a
jirkus.
jitty: A pathway that goes between two houses
and joins two roads. Would tend to be used as a
shortcut between the two roads. Similar to an
alley, but predominantly residential.
Example: Take the jitty--it's quicker than going
round on the roads.
jive turkey: One who sees herself as much
cooler than she actually is.
Often used as an insult. Or just calling someone
crazy.
Example: Did you see what he was wearing.
He's a jive turkey.
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1846
Hey, jive turkey, nice move.
Jiz-tasta-mablasta-ma-rang: Means that nothing
on this earth could possibly compare to this
item, or sensation, or person...etc.
Example: WHOA! that was jiz-tasta-mablasta-
ma-rang! Do it again!
jizmoglobin: An unidentified liquid substance
that appears to have organic as
well as possible alien or arcane properties.
Example: What's that crazy blue glowing slime
stuff on your hand? Ewww, jizmoglobin.
jizz: Word that can be used to describe any
emotion.
Example: I'm feeling quited jizzed at the
moment.
jobacle: An unfortunate situation.
Example: He tripped and fell down the stairs--it
was quite a jobacle.
jobber: Someone who has a low level of skill in
a given area.
Example: That jobber just dropped a perfect
pass.
jobbernowl: A stupid fellow. A blockhead. Not a
neologism, but a good word nonetheless. The
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1847
website given sends out a newsletter; this cool
word was in a recent one.
Example: Only a jobbernowl would quote from
the World Wide Words newsletter without
reproducing the copyright notice...and the
paragraph granting permission to
reproduce...and also getting prior permission for
quoting online on a web page. Wonder if
anyone's ever screwed up on that one?
jobbie: Used for something you can't remember
a name for. Can mean anything you want it to.
Example: Can you place that jobbie right over
there?
jock blocking: When somebody is completly
acting like someone else's shadow and not
leaving that person alone.
Example: I was trying to talk to Daenelle
yesterday, but Janysha was jock blocking her.
jocker: A really bad situation.
Example: I'm in a bit of a jocker here. I'm a
week late on the rent and payday's not till
Friday.
jockfrost: Condition brought about from driving
with a cold drink between your legs. Results in
one very chilly nether area.
Example: This Mt. Dew gave me a bad case of
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1848
jockfrost on the way over here.
jockney: A scotsman who has lived in London
for a long time
Example: Billy came to London from Glasgow in
the seventies, by the nineties, he was a genuine
jockney
jockular: To behave in a brutish fashion. A little
more macho than one would desire.
Example: Josh is so jockular. He is constantly
mauling girls in the cafeteria.
Jocuronomous: Utterly and totally ridiculous
and unbelieveable.
Example: My 300-pound cousin's claim to the
figure skating championship of any arena is
totally jocuronomous.
joe: A fat belly. Sometimes used for a person
where everything else is relatively thin. Comes
from mother kangaroos who carry a baby joey in
their stomach pouch.
Example: Harold's joe is getting bigger.
joe boo: any dim witted person or groups of
such people
Example: Quantum Physics isn't something just
any Joe boo is going to understand. Check out
Joe Boo over there trying to change his tire
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1849
with a toothpick.
joejob: Originally a deception undertaken by
someone named Joe; however, the word is now
receiving more common usage for all
deceptions. Joejobbed: To be deceived by
someone named Joe.
Example: Let's charge her for a new Pentium
but sell her a 286. She'll never know she was
joejobbed.
joey: A pretty girl.
Example: That Samantha sure is a joey.
john alex: a person with two first names for
their name
Example: Tom Fred is an example of a john
alex.
John Blaze: To leave with great speed and
urgency. Usually used when one has forgotten
an important appointment or date.
Example: Sweet mother Mary, look at the time! I
need to John Blaze if I'm going to make it in
time to see Shep.
john deere: To cut someone's grass, steal
someone's girlfriend.
Example: That john deere's taking my girl out
tonight.
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1850
John Woo moment: (n) Dangerous situation
where everything seems to move in slow
motion. Seconds seem to last 10s of seconds.
Example: I had a John Woo moment as the car
spun out of control.
johnandyoko: When two people are so in love
that you'd think that they are one person. This
is how John Lennon and Yoko Ono were.
Example: Jesus, Sally and Jon have spent the
last two months not letting each other of sight.
It's full johnandyoko, y'know?
johnny: Youth allowance payments for
university students.
All welfare payments to needy students are said
to be courtesy of johnny--John Howard,
Prime Minister of Australia.
Example: Adam. Got any coin to go to the
casino with?
Ryan. Yep, johnny came in yesterday, you
beauty.
Johnny Cashew: Someone who is a rabid fan of
classic country music, especially Johnny Cash
and his contemporaries. (Implies that one is
nuts about Johnny Cash) Especially applicable
to punk rock kids who love Mr. Cash.
Example: Josh just bought Live at Fulsom
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1851
Prison on vinyl, he's such a Johnny Cashew.
johnny on the dildo: someone who always
speaks in sexual innuendos
Example: None of the girls like Chris because
he's so johnny on the dildo.
Johnny Po-po: Pronounced as in Edgar Allen
Poe. Also, just Po-po. A policeman. Suzie Po-po
is a police woman.
Example: You'd better stop speeding. Johnny
Po-po is waiting around this curve.
Johnny-no-stars: A man of substandard
intelligence, i.e. the typical adolescent who
works in a burger bar.
The no-stars comes from the badges displaying
stars the staff at fast-food restaurants wear
which show their level of training.
Example: Did you see what Johnny-no-stars did
on the last calculus test? How did he get in the
class? Must have been some affirmative action
sort of thing for the less intelligent.
join the club: Me too. Used used when referring
to something negative. Best if spoken in a semi-
sarcastic tone.
Example: A. I'm so tired today. B. Join the club.
join the cult!: Convincing someone to do
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1852
something
Example: Go to class and join the cult!
jojojinkinjamer('s): You (your).
Example: Let's go to jojojinkinjamer's house.
joker: One who canot be taken seriously and is
often a slacker. Friendly insult.
Example: I can't believe that joker ditched us
like that.
Jones's Mullet: Any guy who drives a large-
engined 80s car, listens to Motley Crue or the
_Rocky_ theme, thinks he knows what women
want, and has a mullet over a foot in length.
Example: Look at that guy in the '86 Camaro,
Jones's Mullet all the way.
jonesin: to yearn for something, a craving
Example: I am jonesin for a cigarette.
jooch: A large and ungainly individual--such as
Manute Bol or Shaquille O'Neal.
Example: Although I'd been tall all my life, I was
nothing compared to the jooches on the college
basketball team.
Jook: Verb meaning to decieve or set a trap for.
Can also be used as noun with appropriate
suffix.
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1853
Example: He jooked Chris out on the play. He
gave him the jook'ems.
jorgin: (v) To take someone to lunch, etc.--then,
at the last possible minute, tell them you don't
have any money and they'll have to buy.
Example: Mary asked me to lunch today, and
I'm sure she's jorgin me again. She does it at
least three times a week. Oh, well, that's what
friends are for--to take advantage of.
jork: A dork and a joke at the same time.
Example: You're a jork.
Jorts: Jean shorts, not including cutoffs.
Example: Since it was so hot out, Justin
decided to wear a pair of jorts instead of jeans.
josh: To joke.
Example: I'm just joshin ya!
jot: Pertaining to anything bad, pathetic,
cheesy, or lame.
Example: That _Pearl Harbor_ film was so jot.
Jota: An expression of joy or relief
Example: Jota! My wife's baby is actually mine.
jourdiaire: To adjust one's coat or jacket collar.
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1854
Possibly from the French actor Louis Jordan
when he was suave.
Example: He should really jourdiaire his jacket.
He looks like a slob.
jourdiare: To adjust one's coat or jacket collar.
Example: Excuse me, you need to jourdiare.
journalism: the belief that what you think is true
becomes true once your write it down
Example: His research paper received an A+
and it's all journalism.
Journicle: A contraction of journal article, used
most when stressed and unable to speak
coherently.
Example: We need to get some journicles from
the library.
Joust: Playful fighting or sparring.
Example: They are not really angry. They are
just jousting with each other.
joust: To attempt, have a go at, to do or do not.
Example: Let's 'ave a joust at that, Bob.
Joute: One who behaves inappropriately or is so
grossly insensitive to his or her environment as
to say or do stupid things.
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1855
Other derivatives: Joutness - Capacity to be a
Joute, or Joute act after the fact.
Joutineo - Periperal joute act resulting from
prime (Joute) act
Jouterria - Collection of Joute acts.
Joute Salitzi - One who can only perfom Joute
acts and nothing but Joute Acts -- One who is
certain to behave in a Joute fashion. King of the
Joutes.
Example: During his speech at the synagogue,
Craig again demonstrated his tendency to be a
joute by remarking on the good qualities and
benefits provided by Adolph Hitler.
Joysey: An abbr. of NEW JERSEY
Example: Later, I'm off to JOYSEY.
jpsoftco: Term for some company that makes
generic, poor quality software.
Example: The Compaq came with Windows and
some games from jpsoftco.
jsssk: Just Kidding. Usually follows an insult
made in jest towards a friend or something
stupid that one may say.
Example: Ernie: (to Bert) You are such a loser.
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1856
Jssk.OR Ernie: I am the greatest basketball
player ever. Jssk.
jub: Used when reading a word or phrase that
cannot be usally spoken in any language,
especially in comic books with phrases such
as!?!
Example: We have to find the orb-!?(spoken as
jub)
jubberlator: One that jubberlates, as:
An electronic or mechanical device for the
performance of physics jubberlation.
A person who operates such a machine or
otherwise makes jubberlations.
A set of mental tables used to aid in
jubberlations.
Example: 1: An expert at jubberlation or at
operating jubberlation machines--reckoner,
figurer, estimator, jubberlator.
2: A small machine for mathematical
jubberlations--jubberlating machine.
jubblies: Beautifully rounded breasts. Not
perfect or fantastic, but nice.
Example: She has lovely jubblies.
jubiss: to figure as in suspect
Example: When Joe called in sick this morning,
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1857
I jubissed that he just wanted a mental health
day.
judas priest: Euphemism for Jesus Christ.
Example: Judas Priest, this stupid computer is
slow.
juggalo: 1.a carny term for jugglers, a
combination of juggler and gigolo. 2.a fan of the
Insane Clown Posse, but more someone who
has his own style and doesn't care what people
think of him/her.
Example: That juggalo just smacked that traffic
cop in the face!
juhybun: 1. A large rodent.
2. Sticky buns.
3. Bad vibes.
Example: 1. Scottley was attacked by a rabid
juhybun.
2. I squeezed the juhybuns to see if they were
ready to eat.
3. Get your juhybuns away from me!
juice: Energy.
Example: I'm all outa juice. I need a break.
juice: gossip
Example: Tell me the juice on him.
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1858
Juice code: Unintelligible, neologic, gibberish,
absurd piece of computer program.
Example: That's real Juice code! or That code is
juicy!
juice-chicken: A term of affection for a spouse
or significant other.
Example: Yo, Brady, your juice-chicken called
again.
juice-isimo: 1. The juiciest 2. Delicious. (From a
Spanish-language Starburst ad campaign in
Southern California.) See Dulce-electrico.
Example: That Minute Maid lemonade is juice-
isimo.
juiced: Adjective used to describe the condition
of feeling better after taking medication.
Implies the notion that the subject is now ready
to to go out,
whereas subject previously did not feel up to it.
Example: I felt like crap, but I had some
Theraflu and now I'm juiced.
juicewell: A great resource of creative juice,
something that will keep you inspired for a
while.
Example: I just saw a juicewell. Gotta go home
and create somethin'.
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1859
jujifruitfulness: An overwhelming artificial
flavour
Example: After eating that box of candy, I was
overwhelmed by jujifruitfulness.
Juju: A general feeling or vibe, usually negative
(bad juju). Can be used in reference to karma,
etc.
Example: I'm getting some bad juju from that
cop. I think he's going to arrest me.
OR
I'm not surprised I broke my arm; I've still got
some bad juju from that time I hacked
pseudodictionary.com.
juke: To twitch uncontrolably. Akin to a seizure
without the tongue swallowing. A juke will
usually begin in the thumb of one hand and
often occurs wile face down on the floor.
Example: Cleatus didnt pull the 720 so he layed
on the ramp and started to juke.
JUKEY: something that is goofy
Example: This deal is jukey.
Julember: Used when someone wants to pin
you down to a particular date when something
will be completed and you don't want to give an
exact date. It is surprising how often people
don't notice right away they've been
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1860
bamboozled.
Example: Your new home should be ready to
move into, some time in late Julember.
julyonaise: old mayonaise way past expiration
date
Example: Phew! This mayonaise is julyonaise.
Jumanji: This word is an accidental
bastardization of too much, often exclaimed
when playing pool after one has overdone the
speed or spin of a shot
Example: I can win the game with this
shot...JUMANJI! I should have used less spin
jumanjiized: Very over-grown or jungle-like.
Example: Our neighbor's lawn is so full of
weeds it's jumanjiized.
jumongo: Code word for expressing the fact
that you can't talk about something now
because a person that it
might offend is within earshot and you can talk
about it later.
Example: Yeah, Mike, do you have any....Whoa,
jumongo.--(Mike knows that you are not asking
him
because your mom just walked in)
jump the shark: The precise moment when you
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1861
know a tv show, rock band, or actor has gone
downhill.
Example: The Brady Bunch jumped the shark
the day Cousin Oliver joined the cast.
Jumping someone elses train: Copying someone
elses style, or just agreeing with what they say
and believe to fit in.
Example: What a jerk. Tom started wearing his
hat backwards like John, just so he would like
him. He is jumping John's train.
jungle juice: A collection of all the alchohol you
can get mixed into a jug when you can't get
enough of one certain kind.
Example: We ran out of hooch, so Ernie and I
made up a batch of jungle juice to go around.
junioritis: The sleep-deprived, zombie-like
disease of a high-school junior who has
overdosed on AP or honors classes and
extracurriculars.
A person with junioritis exhibits characteristic
tendencies such as caffeine dependence, poor
posture, a bleak social life, and basic hatred for
anyone without homework. Used as a noun or
occasionally as an expletive, if said with
enthusiasm.
Example: I was up until three this morning
writing an argumentative essay and studying for
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1862
an AP history exam.
I've got horrible junioritis.
OR Junioritis! Who the heck drank all the Pepsi?
junk: Used to describe anything in this world
bad. The opposite of Jiz-tasta-mablasta-ma-
rang..
Example: That was junk.
junk in the trunk: A large bottom, especially
when the person attached otherwise attractive.
Example: She is pretty cute, but she's got a lot
of junk in the trunk after eating dorm food all
year
junt: A word popularized by 3-6 mafia to mean
an item or thing.
Example: Hell no, not at all. Y'all the type that
make me throw my junt into the wall.
junts: 1. A collection of juices. As in, I am going
to go to the store to buy more junts.
2. Groceries, in general. As in, I am going to go
to the store to buy more junts.
Example: Shoot, we're out of junts. Well, I guess
I am going to go to the store to buy more junts.
jurz: your's
Example: it's jurz
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1863
justafriend: A person that someone is obviously
dating,
which is obvious to every single person in the
world except said victim, er, person.
Example: So, you hanging out with Kristen
tonight? Nope, her justafriend is taking her to
dinner and movies.
Oh.
Justified: People acting or dressing or singing
like Justin Timberlake of 'NSync.
Example: Did you see that girl in the baby blue
bandana? She's justified.
juu: You.
Example: Juu smell like fresh plastic.
Terms using A
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1864
TERMS ORIGIN MEANING
A BILL Street Gang $100
A BUSTER Street Gang Fake or imitation
A SHOT Federal
Prison
A disciplinary report
A WAKE UP Federal
Prison
Refers to the day of an inmates
release
AC Crips Fisk University
AFFA Bikers Angels Forever, Forever Angels
AFFL Bikers Angels Forever, Forever Loaded
AB Aryan
Brotherhood
Aryan Brotherhood
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1865
ABAQUA Santeria A Cuban religion that
combinesAfrican idol worship and
spiritualism; some believers may be
particularly gangerous
ABT ABT Aryan Brotherhood of Texas
ABUSADO Chicano Alert
AC/DC Satanists Anti-Christ/Devils Children; a
lightning bolt may be used between
AC and DC; heavy metal music group
ACAB General Acronym for All Cops Are Bastards
ACADEMY Prison Jail
ACE DUCE Street Gang 12th Street Hoover Crips Gang
ACE KOOL Street Gang Best friend, backup
C WORLD Crips Crips World
ACETISM Satanists Sacrifice of self comforts, finances
and personal effects for the cause
ACEY-
DUCEY
Prison Gang Okay
ACHE Chicano Spanish for the letter H; sometimes
refers to heroin
ACHI Chicano Heroin
AD DET Prison Administrative detention; special
housing away from the general
population for inmates pending
investigation of rule violations,
awaiting transfer, or for protection
AD SEG Prison Administration segregation;
disciplinary housing
ADIDAS Crips All Day I Destroy A Slob (Bloods)
AFFILIATE
MEMBER
Street Gang Gang associate; may wear the
colors, exhibit tattoos and other
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1866
symbols, and flash signsAF
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1867
AFRICAN
FREEDOM
FIGHT
Prison A terrorist group
AGANYU santeria A Yoruba deity syncretized as
(combining its features with those
of St. Christopher
AGITATOR Crips Critic
AGUITADO Chicano Mad; furious
AGUJA Chicano Needle
AH-SHA-LAUM El Rukns/Vice
Lords
Prayer beads
AINT NO
THANG
Street Gang No problem; nothing ti it; simple
AKASHA Satanists A black egg which represents the
fifth element spirit (see Tejas)
AL ALBA LOS
PERROS
Chicano Look out for the cops
AL COLA AB Adjustment center
AL VATO
CHINGARO
Chicano They beat him up; screwed him;
fucked him
ALABBGWANNSanteria The lonely spirit said to be
Elegguas mother
ALAFIA Santeria Blessing; also one of Chicagos
titles
ALICE/ALICE
BAKER
Prison Gang Aryan Brotherhood
ALICE AB Older term for Aryan Brotherhood
ALKN Latin Kings Alimighty Latin Kings Nation
(Chicago)
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1868
ALL IS ONE Street Gang A term used by the Vice Lords
(Chicago)
ALL IS WELL Street Gang A term used by the Disciples
(Chicago)
ALRATO Chicano Later
ALTAR Santanists The table used in rituals; it cab be
in the form of a table, tombstone,
limestone, wood or female,
depending on the coven
AMERICAN
NAZI PARTY
General Nazi movement in the U.S.
AMOR Latin Kings Latin King tattoo; Almighty Men of
Righteousness
ANGEL DUST Street Gang PCP in crystal form
ANGELS
BIBLE
Bikers Harley-Davidson motorcycle
manual; frequently used for their
private weddings and torn up for
the divorce proceedings
ANNETTE
BROOKS
BGF Aryan Brotherhood
ANP General American Nazi Party
APARTMENT BGF Aryan Brotherhood
APAS Satanists A silver cresent which represents
water (see Tejas)
APE Prison Derogatory term for a black mal
APE-
HANGERS
Bikers High-rise handlebars on
motorcycle; derived from the fact
that bikers dangle their arms over
them in ape fashion
APPLES AND
PEARS
AB Stairs
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1869
APPROVED
FOR THE
HOOD
Prison Gang Okayed for the membership in the
Aryan Brotherhood
AQUI Chicano Here
AR804 BGD Chicago rules and regulations
ARTIC Prison Isolation; solitary confinement
ARMAS Chicano Arms; weapons
ARMED
RESISTANCE
UNIT
General A terrorist group
ARTEMIS Satanists Cresent moon; also known as
cybele
ARU General A terrorist group; Armed
Resistance Unit
ARYAN
BROTHER-
HOOD
General White prison gang
AB OF TEXAS General White prison gang
ARYAN
NATIONS
General White supremacist group;
religious order
ASHAN El
Rukns/Vice
Lords
Prayer beads
ASHANTI El Rukns/Vice
Lords
Prayer beads
ASKED FOR
NANCYS
HAND
Prison Gang Put up for mrmbership in the
Nuestra Familia
ATHAME Santanists A dagger or knife used in ritual
ceremony; a regular butcher knife
can be used
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1870
ATTORNEY
GENERAL
Prison Gang The authorities
AUDI 5000 G Street Gang Goodbye; peace
AWETADO Chicano Mad; furious; upset
AZTLAN Mexican Mafia The Acient Aztec lands located in
Mexico
AZTLAN Chicano Occupied Mexico, (California,
New Mexico, Texas, Arizona,
Colorado; the Southwestern U.S.
in general
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1871
Terms using B
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1872
TERM ORIGIN MEANING
B & W Prison Bread and water
B/K Crips Bloods Killer
B/GS Street Gang Young street gang members who
are used as lookouts or runners
B STREET Prison Gang B section, San Quentin
BFFB Bikers Banditos Forever Forever Brothers
BFFP Bikers Brothers Forever Forever Pagan
BTBF Bikers Bikers Together, Bikers Forever
BABALAWO Marielitos Usually a statue of a very old black
man with white hair, eyebrows,
and beard -- typically barefooted
with a divining rod or smoking a
pipe; a wise man who watches
over the house in which he resides;
not to be confused with High Priest
of Santeria
BABALAWOS Marielitos High Priest of Santeria
BABALU-AYE Marielitos African God of poor and sick,
similar to St. Lazarus; one of the
most popular tattoos
BABE Street Gang Girl
BABY RAPER Prison A child molester
BABYLON Jamaican
Posse
The outside world
BACK PACK Bikers Full colors tattooed on members
backpack
BACKING Prison Support or protection provided by
other inmates
BACKS Street Gang Young ladies hips
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1873
BACOSO Marielitos Founder of the Yoruba dynasty and
the holy city of Ile; looks like St.
Christopher
BAG Prison A large quanity of drugs
BAILED ON Street Gang Being talked about badly
BAILEN Chicano Dance (slang), to fight
BALDHEAD Jamaican
Posse
Undesirable outsider
BALE Chicano Not worth anything
BALL AND CHALK AB Walk
BALLER Street Gang Gang member making money (high
roller)
BALLERS Bloods Drug dealer who controls the bulk
of the drug deals and profits; Crips
refer to them as High Rollers
BALLY Bloods Bloods Aways Live Longer Years
BANDERA Chicano Flag; Gang colors
BANDITO NATION Bikers Motorcycle gang
BANGER Street Gang Gang member
BANGING Street Gang Gang activities; fighting or
violence
BAPHOMET Satanists A deity; a goat-headed god with
angelic wings, the breasts of a
female, and with an illuminated
torch between his horns; at on
time was worshiped by the Knights
Templar and later by those who
took part in the black mass
BARGAIN Prison Reduction of an original sentence
BARKLEY HUNT AB Vagina
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1874
BARRIO Chicano A gangs neighborhood or area
BASE FREAK Street Gang Girls who like loud music; dope
fiend
BASE HEAD Street Gang Person hooked on cocaine
BATO Chicano Man; Boy; guy; Chicanos refer to
one another as Bato
BATTLE Street Gang Two crews compete in tagging
contest
BAY BAYS KIDS Street Gang Children of welfare parents
BEAM ME UP Street Gang Person hooked on cocaine; looking
for drugs
BEAST Jamaican
Posse
Police
BEATING THE
GUMS
Prison Talking; screaming; shouting
BEEF Prison Crime; infraction; problem the
convict faces in prison
BEEMER Street Gang BMW vehicle
BEER Bloods Bloods Eliminate Ericketts Roughly
BEES AND HONEY AB Money
BELIAL Satanists The most vicious of all demons;
identified with death and evil; a
demon of destruction
BELITTLE
YOURSELF
Prison Gang Give a false image
BELL Satanists Rung to begin and end rituals
BELTANE Satanists Celtic pre-Christian Spring festival
(May 1); major witch Sabbath; a
fertility festival
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1875
BENZO Street Gang A Mercedes-Benz
BGF BGF Black Guerilla Family
BGD Street Gang Black Gangster Disciples (Chicago)
BGDN BGD Born God Divine Nation; or Black
Gangster Disciple Nation
BIBLE Bikers Harley Davidson repair manual
BIRRA Chicano Beer; drink, referring to alcohol
BITCH Prison A conviction received for being a
habitual criminal; for example, I
got bitched
BITE Street Gang To copy another writers graffiti
style
BITE Jamaican
Posse
Arrest
BITOM Satanists Fire (one of the 4 elements)
BLA General A street gang
BLACK GANGSTER
DISCIPLES
General A street gang
BLACK GUERILLA
FAMILY
BGF A prison gang
BLACK
LIBERATION ARMY
General A terrorist group
BLACK MAGIC Satanists Magic that is used for
desctruction, and hate
BLACK MASS Satanists Ritual performed by Santanists;
communion with Satan, involving
the desecration of sacred objects
used in the Christian communion;
also can include the sacrifice of an
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1876
unbaptized infant
BLACK ON RED
WINGS
Bikers Earned when the wearer performs
oral sex on a menstruating black
woman
BACKGROUND
BLACK VANGUARDGeneral Former name of the Black Guerilla
Family
BLACK WINGS Bikers Earned when the wearer performs
oral sex on a black woman
BLACK WITCH Satanists Practitioner of black magic
BLACK WIDOW Sattanists Mark of death
BLACKS Crips Galdiators
BLADES Prison Sharpened instruments; knives;
shanks; shivs
BLANCA Chicano White (feminine reference)
BLANCO Chicano White (female reference)
BLAST Prison Shoot with a firearm
BLESSED Street Gang Initiated into a gang
BLITZKRIEG AB War
BLOB Street Gang Crips nickname for the Bloods
member
BLOOD Satanists The life force; Satanists believe
that by drinking another persons
or an animals blood confers a
magnified form of that persons or
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1877
animals life force to the Satanists
BLOODS Street Gang Piru/Non-Crips
BLOODS General Los Angeles street gang; sign of
greeting-- generally between two
black gang members; term Bloods
members used to refer to each
other; often used by blacks when
greeting another black
BLOOD-IN, BLOOD-
OUT
Prison To gain admission to some gangs
you must kill someone, and to
resign you must die or you will be
killed by fellow members
BLOODCLOT Jamaican
Posse
Bad; cocksuckers
BLUE WAVE Street Prison Institution staff responding to an
emergency
BLUE Street Gang Usually the Crips gang color
BLUEBIRD Texas
Syndicate
A non-gang member who hand-
carries a message from one gang
member to another (most often
when transferring to another
prison)
BLUEBIRDS AB Defunct San Quentin gang of the
1950s; thought to be the original
membership of the Aryan
Brotherhood
BMG Crips Bloods Murdering Gangster
BO Street Gang Marijuana
BOD OUT Street Gang Under the influence of marijuana
BOBBY G FOSTER BGF Black Guerilla Family
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1878
BOMB Street Gang Prolific painting or marking with
ink
BOMB Crips Mars Bar
BOMB Bloods Lovely
BOMBING Street Gang Elaborate form of tagging; more art
work
BONED OUT Street Gang Quit; chickened out; left
BONNIE FAIR AB Hair
BOOGIE MAN Prison Turnkey; screw
BOOK Street Gang Run; get away; leave
BOOK OF
SHADOWS
Satanists Similiar to a personal diary; kept by
all true Satanists
BOOTY HOLES Street Gang An insult title for the Bounty
Hunters (a Bloods set)
BOOYAH Street Gang Word used to simulate the report of
a shotgun
BORICUNA General A terrorist group
BORICUNA
REVOLUTIONARY
FRONT
General A terrorist group
BORREGO Chicano Sheep; small bag
BOS BGD Brother of Struggle; BGD prison
faction
BOSS BGD Brother of Success
BOSS General Head of a traditional organized
crime family
BOTE Chicano Jail
BOTTLE AND
GLASS
AB Ass
BOTTLE AND
STOPPER
AB Copper
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1879
BOX Federal
Prison
A carton of cigarettes
BOX BGD Bank
BOXCARS Federal
Prison
Refers to closed front, highly
secure cells in a special housing
unit; used for disruptive inmates or
tjose requiring special supervision
or protection
BPSN Street Gang Black P Stone Nation
BRACE & BITS AB Tits
BRAND Prison Gang Member of the Aryan Brotherhood
BREAK Street Gang Run; get away
BREAKDOWN Street Gang Shotgun
BREAK THE
HORSES BACK
Prison Gang Letter carrier caught in the act
BREED BGD A sect of the Black Gangster
Disciples
BRNS Street Gang Tattoo of the Rapid City Street
gang (the Browns) usually found on
the knuckles, hands or arms
BRO Prison Brother
BROAD VICTORIA Prison Gang Victory for the Nuestra Familia
BROADWAY Prison Wide east-west aisle between
cellblocks
BROADWAY Prison Gang The streets; free world; parole
BROS General Term for brothers
BROTHER General Fellow gang member
BROTHES &
SISTERS
AB Whiskers
BROTHERS OF
THE STRUGGLE
Prison Prison affiliate of the BGD
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1880
BROWN Bloods Bloods Rule Our World Now
BROWN PAINT Street Gang Heroin
BROWN WINGS Bikers Earned when the wearer performs
oral sex with a womans anus
BRUJERIA Santeria A Cuban religion based on
witchcraft or voodoo
BUCK WILD Street Gang Act crazy
BUCKET Street Gang Old raggedy car
BUD Street gang Marijunia
BUFF Street Gang Graffiti from walls
BUG JUICE Prison Liquid mixture of sodium luminal
given to disturbed individuals
BULL Bloods Bloods Usually Live Longer
BULLDOGGING Prison Persistently harassing another
inmate to get ones way
BULLDOGS Prison gang F-14 gang; an enemy splinter group
of the Nuestra Familia/Northern
Structure gangs
BULLET Street Gang One year in custody
BULLS Prison Aggressive homosexuals; wolves;
jockers
BUM BEEF Prison A conviction for a crime for which
one is innocent
BUM RAP Prison Unfair or excessive sentence
BUMBACLOT Jamaican
Posse
Motherfucker
BUMPER KIT Street Gang Girls butt
BUMPING Street Gang Something good
BUMPING TITTIES Street Gang Fighting
BUMPY FACE Street Gang Gin
BURN Street Gang To beat the competition
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1881
BUS RIDE Prison Gang Court appearance
BUST A CAP Street Gang Shoot someone
BUSTER Street Gang Young guy trying to be a gang
member; one who doesnt live up
to gang status; fake gang member
BUSTING Street Gang Involved in a violent act, such as
fighting with fist or weapons;
shooting at someone
BUTCHER Prison Captain of the guards
BUTTON Street Gang A capsule of heroin or cocaine
BUTTON PUSHING Prison To be harassed, usually by
corrections officers over minor
matters; being jacked up
BUZZED Street Gang To get high or drunk
BWPS Street Gang Bitches with Problems
BZING Street Gang Street gang (Boyz Inc., from Rapid
City)
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1882
Terms using C
TERM ORIGIN MEANING
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1883
C/ Northern Structure Carnal, NF member,
familiano
C/K Bloods Crips Killer
C/S Chicano Anything you write over or
below what we wrote, goes
back to you twice as bad
C QUEEN Street Gang Female Crips member
CS NF Carnal (Nuestra Familia
Member)
C15 BGD Money
CABOLLAR Chicano To rap
CAC Prison Gang Drugs
CACA Chicano Shit; drugs
CACIQUE Latin Kings Second-in-command in the
Latin Kings; ensures orders
from the gangs leader (see
INCA) are carried out
CAGE Bloods Cents
CALIFAS Texas Syndicate Slang for California
CALIFAS Chicano California
CALIFAS
FACTION
Mexican Mafia California Mexican Mafia
CALMATE CULOChicano Calm down, asshole
CAMARADA Chicano Friend; associate
CAN YOU DIG
IT
Prison Gang Can you understand?
CANDIED
MOLASSES
AB Glasses
CANDLEMAS Satanists A celebration of lengthening
days and the approach of
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1884
Spring
CANDOMBLE Santeria Brazilian version of
Santeria; Santuario
CANDY KISSES AB Misses
CANE Peoples Nation The staff of strength
CANTEEN Crips Vegas
CANTON Chicano Home; house
CANTRIP Satanists A spell cast by a witch
CAP Chicano Spray can nozzle
CAPPO General The boss of bosses in an
organized crime family
CARCANCHA Chicano Car; junker
CARCEL Chicano Jail
CARCOS Chicano Shoes
CARDINAL Texas Syndicate Texas Syndicate recruit
CARGA Chicano Heroin
CARNAL Chicano Brother
CARNAL Texas Syndicate Spanish slang meaning
brother; a single member
of the Texas Syndicate
CARNALA Chicano Sister
CARNALES Texas Syndicate Two or more members of
the Texas Syndicate
CARRUCHA Chicano Car; automobile
CARTA Prison Gang Letter
CASH Skinheads Chicago area Skinheads
CAT AND
MOUSE
AB House
CATCH COLD Prison Gang Get killed
CATEGORY 1 Northern Structure A member/soilder
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1885
CATEGORY 2 Northern Structure A squad leader
CATEGORY 3 Northern Structure A member of the gangs
security section, i.e.;
Overall Security (OAS),
Regimental Security
Department (RSD)
CATORCE Chicano Fourteen (also the number
14)
CATS AND
KITTENS
AB Titties
CATWALK Bikers Drive with front wheel of the
ground; wheelie
CAULDRON Satanists Like a large cup or pot;
medieval witches were said
to stir their magical
concoctions in a cauldron;
the cauldron is a very
sacred object to Satanic
practitioners
CCN Crips Crazy Crips Nation
CCO Street Gang Consolidated Crips
Organization
CDC General California Department of
Corrections
CDR Cuban The Committee for the
Defense of the Revolution; a
Communist secret police
organization similar to the
KGB
CEC BGF Central Executive
Committee for the Black
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1886
Guerilla Family; the
decision- and the rule-
making body of the BGF
CELEBRANT Satanists Presiding priest, Sacrifist
CELEBRANTS Satanists Junior mothers and fathers
CELL Crips Garage
CELL Prison An inmate housing unit
CELLBLOCK Prison Two or more cells, in one
section or block
CELLFRONT Prison Front wall of a cell, usually
barred
CELLMOVE Crips New suit
CENTRAL HIGH
SCHOOL
BGF Mainline
CHAIN Prison A group of new inmates who
arrive at the penitentiary
chained to each other
CHAIN AND
LINK
AB Chink
CHALE Chicano NO
CHALICE Satanists A goblet, which can be
made of glass or metal but
is always silver in color
CHALK FARM AB Arm
CHAMARA Chicano Jacket
CHANATE Chicano Black person
CHANCE Bloods Crabs Have Another Name
Called Ericketts
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1887
CHANGO Marielitos African God of Fire, thunder,
and lightening; depicted as
a young and muscular black
male with a smiling face
adorned with gold breast
plates and gold bracelets
around forearms and biceps;
in Santeria, the patron of
fire, thunder, lightening,
who brings vicctory over
enemies and all difficulties;
syncretized as St. Barbara
CHANSA Chicano Chance
CHANTE Chicano House; home
CHAPTER
CROWN
COUNCIL
Latin Kings Law-making body of the
Latin Kings (Chicago)
CHARLIE Bikers Outlaw motorcycle gang
emblem
CHARLIE
MCNABBS
AB Crabs
CHARM Satanists Chanted or spoken words
used to invoke a spell; an
object said to have
supernatural power
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1888
CHATA Chicano Girls nickname (puffy-
cheeked)
CHATAT Chicano Girls nickname (puffy-
cheeked) or short-nosed
CHAVALA Chicano Girl, sissy
CHAVALITA Chicano Little girl
CHECK IT OUT Street Gang Listen to what I have to say
CHECK IT OUT Jamaican Posse Look over a score or job to
see if the risk is too great
CHECK YOU
OUT
Janaican Posse Come to vist you or a person
CHECKED IN Chicano Gang Initiated into the gang
CHEESE TOAST Street gang An insult title for the East
Coast Crips
CHEESE &
KISSES
AB Misses
CHEESE OUT Street Gang Snitch; give up
CHERRY Prison A fresh-faced, pure, and
immature appearance
CHERRY FLIPS AB Lips
CHICANISMO Chicano State of Chicano
brotherhood
CHICANOS NO
SE RAJAN
Chicano Chicanos have courage,
never give up
CHILE Prison Gang Soledad
CHILL OUT Street Gang Stop it; don;t do that
CHILLIN Street Gang Hanging out
CHILLING Street Gang Relaxing
CHINA WHITE Street Gang Asian herion
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1889
CHINGALO Chicano Fuck him up; beat him up
CHINGARON Chicano Screwed them up
CHINGASOS Chicano Blows; fighting
CHINO Crips Russia
CHIPPING Prison Having sex with other men
when one is in a relationship
with a particular inmate;
usually applied to queens
CHIVA Chicano Herion
CHOLA Chicano Girl involed in gang activity
CHOLO Chiacano Boy involed in gang activity
CHOPPER Bikers Chopped or cut-down
motorcycle; all unnecessary
equipment stripped, with
only the bare essentials and
with handlebars set high
CHOTA Chicano Police
CHOW HALL Crips Drug store
CHUCO Chicano Gang veteran; gangster;
derived from the word
pachuco, meaning a 1940s
gang member
CHUNTAROS Chicano Refering to Mexican
nationals in the U.S.
CHUPAR Chicano Suck; to smoke
CHURCH OF
THE CREATOR
General White supremacists religious
order
CIGARETTE
BURNS
General Found on many Asian gang
members in the following
areas: hands (Filipino);
forearm
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1890
(Vietnamese/Cambodian);
upper arm (Chinese); and
ankles and feet (Asian
females)
CIRCLE Peoples Nation Represents 360 degree, or
the belief that black people
once ruled the world and will
again rule
CIRCLE Satanists Very important among those
involved in black magic; the
circle is their protection
from the forces they conjure
up in their in incantations;
symbol of totality used in
ceremonial magic
CIT BGD Check in time
CITIZEN Bikers A cyclist who belongs to the
AMA, not a 1 percenter
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1891
CIVL Street Gang Cicero Insane Vice Lords
(Chicago)
CLADDAGH RING Street Gang An Irish ring which means
love, loyalty, and
friendship; the Latin
Kings have started
wearing these rings
because of its crowns
CLAIM JUMPERS Prison Gang People of falsely calim to
belong to the Aryan
Brotherhood
CLAP Jamaican Posse Shoot
CLASS Bikers To do something out of
the ordinary; usually an
act which is violent or
shocking to the public
CLAVO Chicano Nail (not slang), used to
mean needle; contraband
(slang)
CLEAN Prison Free from contraband
articles
CLEAN UP HIS ACT Prison Telling an inmate to
behave himself; dropping
a lug on him
CLICA/CLIKA/CLIQUEChicano Gang; age ggroups within
the gang; sub-group of
the major group
CLIQUES WITHIN Street Gang Subgroups within the
gang, usually
THE GANG Street Gang Identified by on the basis
of age, neighborhood
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1892
area, school, or special
skills
CLOSET AND
BROOM
AB Room
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1893
CLUCK Prison Gang A chicken; a person who is
unreliable
CLUCK Street Gang Item traded for rock (crack)
cocaine
CLUCK BUCKETStreet Gang A vehicle temporarily traded
to get some rock cocaine
CLUCK HEAD Street Gang Someone who does rock
(crack)cocaine; coke addict
CLUCKER Street Gang Crack cocaine addict
CO-SIGN IT Prison gang Approve
COCK, FIRST
INCH TO LAST
Prison Gang Punk all the way
CODES Crips History
COKE General Refers to cocaine
COLD SHOT Prison A calculated, heartless
action, carried out with no
regard for others
COLD STORAGE Prison Solitary confinement
COLLARES Santeria Necklaces or elekes; the
first initation of Santeria
COLORES Chicano Colors; red for Nothern
Chicanos, Blue for Southern
Chicanos
COLORS Street Gang Item of clothing which
signifies gang membership
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1894
COLORS Bikers The official uniform of all
outlaw motorcycle gangs; a
sleeveless denim or leather
jacket, with club patch on
the back, and various other
patches, pins, and Nazi
medals attached to the
front; colors belong to the
club, are worn on by male
members, and always are
held sacred by members;
colors are the most prized
possession (along with their
motorcycle) of a biker gang
member, in that it is the
emblem of the club to which
he belongs; although
allowed to possess and wear
colors, they are owned by
the gang and can never be
disrespected
COLUM Street Gang Columbian marijunana
COMBING Street Gang Acts of tagging buses and
walls
COMIDA Chicano Food
COMING OUT
PARTY
Prison Discharge, release
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1895
COOL Bloods Crabs Out of Life
COP Crips Crips Overtaking Peru
(Bloods)
COP-OUT Federal Prison A written request or letter
to a staff member
COPIA Texas Syndicate Copy; reference to the copy
of the Texas Syndicate
tattoo
CORN Jamacian Posse Marjuana
COUNT Prison A tally, taken a number of
times a day, of all inmates
in the prison to insure no
one has escaped
COURTING IN
(COURTED)
Street Gang A process of being initated
into a gang that requires a
new member to fight 2 r
more gang members for 15
to 30 seconds to show he is
not afraid and to defend his
honor
COURTED OUT Street Gang Process of leaving a gang
that requires the departing
member to fight two or
members for 15 to 60
seconds with the object of
surving the encounter
COUSINS NF A term Nuestra Familia
members use to refer to
Northern Structure
members
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1896
COVEN Satanists A formally organized group
of individuals practicing
Satanism or occult worship;
in non-traditional Satanism,
covens will number 13
members, normally when
membership grows to more
than 13, another coven will
be formed; traditional
Satanists in most cases do
not have covens and their
groups can number from
just a few to thousands
CRAB Crips Crips Rule All Bloods
CRABS Bloods Disrespectful way of
addressing Crips
CRACK General Rock cocaine
CRACK QUEEN Street Gang Female crack addict who
will perform illegal acts to
obtain money to buy drugs
CRAGARED
DOWN
Street Gang Low rider-type car; full-
dressed gang banger
CRANK Prison Amphetamines (also known
as speed)
CRANK IT Street Gang Turn up the music real loud
CRASH TRUCK Bikers A van, panel truck, or
converted school bus that
follows the motorcycle gang
runs and picks up broken
down bikes; may also carry
the clubs weapons, drugs,
supplies, and camping gear;
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1897
usually driven by one of the
females
CERAZY FENCE
BOYS
Prison Gang Thinking of escaping
CRESCENT Peoples Nation The splitting of the Black
nation into two parts - west
and east
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1898
CRESENT Satanists The time when the moon is
in its waxing stage; a symbol
of abundant growth as well
as fertility
CREW Street Gang Group of the young men
associated with tagging
CREWS Jamacian Posse Term thought to be used by
Jamacian gangs to refer to
their members
CRIB Crips House; home
CRIPS Crips Crazy Ruthless Insane
People; also thought to be
an acronym for Continuing
Revolution in Process;
chessmen
CRIPPIN Crips A way of walking (as if ones
leg was crippled)
CRIPS Crips California Revolutionaary
International Pistol Sluggers
CRITTER Prison One who plays the female
role in a homosexual prison
relationship
CROAKER Prison A prison medical officer
CROSS Bikers An emblem worn by 1
percenters, either as an
earring, patch, or pin
attached to the colors
CROSSHATCH General A code used to disguise
messages
CROWN
(ROUND)
Street Gang Symbol of gangs aligned
with the Folk Nation
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1899
CROWN
(POINTED)
Street Gang Symbol of gangs aligned
with the Peoples Nation
CROWNS Street Gang Pointed tips- refers to the
Latin Kings; Rounded tips-
refers to Imperial Gangsters
CRUMBS Street Gang Tiny pieces of rock cocaine
CUARTO Chicano Room
CUBE Federal Prison An inmates cubical
CRETE Chicano Gun
CUETIASOS Chicano Shooting
CULERO Chicano Calm down; asshole
Terms using D
TERM ORIGIN MEANING
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1900
D Street Gang An emblem of the Latin Disciple
nation; usually the letter D has a
swastika in the middle
DC BGF Decision,; deciding
DC BLACKS Prison Black inmates from the
Washington, DC, area
DV1 Bloods Dump city
DFFL Bikers Dope Forever, Forever Loaded
DAEMON Satanists From the Greek word daimon;
an evil spirit or demon; belongs at
an intermediate level between
God and people
DAISY ROOTS AB Boots
DANCING Prison Gang Fighting
DANCING
CONTEST
AB Fight with EME
DANCING WITH
EMILY
Prison Gang Fighting with the Mexican Mafia
DAPPER DAN AB Can
DARKNESS Peoples
Nation
The balck majority, not minority,
of the world
DD Street Gang Drug dealer
DEAD
PRESIDENTS
Street Gang U.S. currency; money
DEAN MAN Street Gang Wearing red attire for Bloods
members
DEAD RAG Street Gang Red rag
DEDO Chicano Finger to someone
DEEP Street Gang High in membership numbers
DEF Street Gang Really good (derived form death)
DEFT Street Gang Looking good
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1901
DEMON Satanists To occultists, a non-human spirit;
an angel who rebelled against
God
DEMONSTRATION Street Gang Gang fight
DER TAG Skinheads A German phrase used by
Skinheads, meaning The Day of
Reckoning
DISPENSA Chicano Excuse me (not slang)
DESTROY Bloods Quick draw
DEUCE AND A
HALF
Street Gang .25 caliber automatic handgun
DEUCE AND A
QUARTER
Street Gang Buick 225 vehicle
DEUCE DEUCE Street Gang .22 caliber gun
DEVIL Satanists An accuser or slanderer; Satan;
Lucifer
DEVILS HORNS Street Gang Black Gangster Disciple nation
term for One Nation
DHO Federal
Prison
Disciplinary Hearing Officer
DIABLERIE Satanists One who deals with the devil or
his demons; one who deals in
witchcraft or sorcery
DIAMOND TOOTH AB Older term for the Aryna
Brotherhood
DIAMONDS
BRIGHT
AB Fight
DICKY DIRK AB Shirt
DIME Prison A 10 year- sentence
DIME BAG Prison $10 worth of drugs
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1902
DIME SPEED Street Gang 10-speed bicycle
DIMED Chicano Informed to the man (police)
DING Prison A crazy or highly unpredictable
inmate; ding behavior may be real
or simulated
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1903
DIPPIN Street Gang Being nosey
DIRECTIONS Satanists In Western magic, the four
directions are symbolized in
ritual, representing the elements
of air, fire, and earth
DIRTY WHITE
BOYS
Prison Gang A Texas State prison gang with
ties to the Texas Syndicate
DIS Street Gang No respect; disrespect
DISCIPLE Street Gang Disciple member
DISCIPLE QUEEN Street Gang Disciple gangs female sex object
DISCO Chicano Non-gang member; one into the
disco scene
DISSED OUT Street Gang Given no respect; disrespect
DISSEN Street Gang Being disrespectful
DIVINATION Satanists The attempt to gain knowledge of
people or events by occult means
DO A GHOST Street Gang To leave; leave the scene
DO YOUR OWN
TIME
Prison Do not get involved in various
institution activities; may be
either negative or positive in
meaning
DOC MARTINS Skinheads A brand of boot favored by
Skinheads
DOG Jamacian
Posse
Gun
DOING STUFF Prison Using drugs
DOING A RAMBO Street Gang Attack a person (armed)
DOING A JACK Street Gang Committing a robbery
DON Street Gang An organized crime top
leadership position; a top
leadership in numerous gangs
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1904
DONDE? Chicano Where are you from?; What gang
are you from?
DONDE ERES? Chicano Where are you from?; What gang
are you from?
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1905
DONUTS Street Gang Vice Lord term used to put
down the Disciples
DORAR Chicano To cook; to smoke
DORK Street Gang Nerd
DOUBLE DEUCE Street Gang .22 caliber gun
DOUBLE O/G Street Gang Second generation gangster
DOUBLE TEAM Prison Two officers guarding an inmate
DOWN Street Gang In part of the group or action
DOWN FOR MINE Street Gang Ability to protect ones self
DOWN WITH THE
PROGRAM
Street Gang Cooperating with someone
DOWN WITH THE
SET
Street Gang On the gangs own turf
DOWNED BY
EMILY
Prison Gang Killed by the Mexican Mafia
DR North
Structure
Daily report
DRAG Street Gang Ability to sweet talk girls
DRAGON Street Gang Bad breath
DRAPED Street Gang A person wearing a lot of gold
jewlery
DREAD Jamacian
Posse
Righteous; living by Rastas
commandments; greeting used
when first meeting each other;
may be used upon leaving
DREADLOCKS Jamacian
Posse
Braids worn by most Rastas;
sometimes concealed under a hat
DRESSED DOWN Street Gang Wearing gang-related colors
DRESSER Bikers Large Harley-Davidson motorcyle
with custom trim, saddle bags;
used in bike shows
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1906
DRIVE-BY-
SHOOTING
Street Gang A random shooting, usually a
form of gaining higher respect or
admittance into the gang
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1907
DRIVE ON Prison To verbally harass someone in
order to get what one wants
DROP A DIME Street Gang Snitch; to tell one someone
DROP A DIME ON
THEM
Prison Informing on another person
DROP A LUG ON
HIM
Prison Telling an inmate to behave
himself or clean up his act
DROP SOME DEW Federal
Prison
A procedure where an inmate
provides a urine specimen for
drug tresting
DROPPING THE
FLAG
Street Gang Leaving the gang
DROVE Street Gang Get embarrassed
DRUIDS Satanists Celtic priests
DRY CELL Prison A cell with no toilet or running
water; usually a bare cell where
an inmate is stripped of clothes
and observed because he is
believed to have swallowed drugs,
or to be concealing drugs in his
anus, often after returning from a
visit
DRY SNITCHING Prison Informing within ear or eyeshot of
the person being informed on
DUCKETS Street Gang Money
DUDE Street Gang Male person
DEUCE Street Gang .22 caliber gun
DURA Chicano Hashish
DURAG Street Gang Handkerchief wrapped around
head
DUST Prison Kill
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1908
DUSTED Street Gang Under the influence of PCP
DWB General Dirty White Boys (Texas)
Terms using E
TERM ORIGIN MEANING
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1909
E Street Gang The Latin Eagles (Chicago)
E5 Street Gang Special Force Unit
E7 Street Gang Meeting
EARRINGS Street Gang Left ear shows association with
Vice Lords, Latin Kings, El
Rukins, and thier affiliates; right
ear shows association with the
Disciples, Simon City Royals, and
their affiliates
EARS Satanists Signifies wisdom and spiritual
development
EAST AND WEST AB Vest
EASTLY Street Gang Ugly person
EASY GO Prison Easy prison job
EDDIE Satanists Symbolic iron maiden mascot of
Satanists
EFE NF Term used to identify the
Nuestra Familia
EIGHT BALL Street Gang 1/8-ounce of cocaine; 40-ounce
bottle of Old English 800 Malt
Liquor beer
EIGHT TRAY Street Gang 83
EIGHTBALL Bikers Patch worn on colors; earned by
committing homosexual sodomy
with witnesses present
EL Chicano The (masculine)
EL CONDADO Chicano The county (jail)
EL JALE Chicano The job
EL PASO TIP Texas
Syndicate
Referring to the Texas Syndicate
EL RUKNS Street Gang A black street gang (Chicago)`
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1910
ELEGGUA Marielitos Egg-shaped face with or without
swords sticking in the top of his
head; usually an artifact made
with earth, coconut, and sea
shells, a messenger of the gods
and patron of hospitals, and
public jails; syncretized to St.
Anthony of Padua and the Holy
Infant of Prague; in Santeria, the
messenger of the orishas (saints)
and the guardian of the doors;
without him nothing can be
accomplished
ELEKES Santeria The ritual necklaces of Santeria
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1911
ELEMENTS Satanists In Satanism, there are four:
bitom (fire), Hcoma (water),
exarp (air), and nanta (earth)
ELEVEN-
POINTED
PANCAKE
Street Gang A Vice Lord who became a
Disciple
ELTZEN Satanists The ruler of all spiritsof the north
EME Mexican
Mafia
Stands for the Mexican Mafia
EME Chicano Phonetic for the letter M in
Spanish
EMELY, EMILY Prison Gang Mexican Mafia
EMILY AB EME
ENDS Street Gang Money
ENE Chicano Phonetic for the letter N in
Spanish; written to mean Norte,
meaning Northern California
ENE EFE Chicano Phonetic for the letters NF,
meaning Nuestra Familia
ENE ERE Chicano Phonetic for the letters NR,
meaning Norte Rules; Northern
California rules
ENFORZADOR Latin Kings Enforcer in charge of security for
the entire chapter of the Latin
Kings
EPB Terrorists A terrorist group; the Macheteros
EPT Street Gang El Paso Tip
EQUINOX Satanists When the sun crosses the
equator and night and day are of
equal length (March 21 and
September 22); major
C
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1912
Occult/Satanists feasts or
celebrations take place on these
dates
ERICKETTS Bloods Disrespectful name for Crips
ESCORIA Marielitos A Cuban term for scum, used to
describe those (especially the
criminals and insane) authorized
for the boatlift leaving Mariel
Harbor for the U.S. in the 1980s
ESE Chicano Chicano; Mexicano; Hey, hey,
man!
ESE TE Texas
Syndicate
Spanish slang for the texas
Syndicate
ESE VATO Chicano Hey dude!; Hey man!; that
individual
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1913
ESES Chicano Chicanos
ESSEYS Street Gang Mexicans
ESTE Texas
Syndicate
Texas Syndicate
ESTRALLAS Chicano Spanish for stars; strayaas; levas
EVER WORKED
AT
MCDONALDS?
Prison Gang Have you ever been a member of
the Mexican Mafia?
EVERYTHING IS
EVERYTHING
Street Gang Its all right
EVL Street Gang Executioner for the Vice Lords
EXARP Satanists Air (one of the 4 elements)
EXPECT RAIN
AND THUNDER
Prison Gang Look for trouble with the Mexican
Mafia
EXPTS North
Structure
Excercise points
Terms using F
TERM ORIGIN MEANING
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1914
F-14 Bulldogs The Bulldogs gang; enemy
splinter group of the Nuestra
Familia and Northern
Structure
FTW Bikers Fuck The World; these initials
are found on membership
cards, as tattoos, and as
patches or pins on colors
FADE Street Gang To blend colors
FADED Street Gang Do wrong; treated wrong
FAG General Homosexual
FAIRY Prison A sexual pervert
FALL PARTNER Prison Accomplice in a criminal act;
rap partner
FALN Terrorists A terrorist group; Fuerzas
Armadas Deliberation
Nacional Puertorriquena--
Armed Forces for Puerto
Rican National Liberation
FALSE FLAGGING Street Gang A deliberate gang
misrepresentation in the form
of a hand sign or slogan
FAMILIANO North
Structure
NF member
FAMILY VISIT Crips Show biz
FAR AND NEAR AB Ear
FARMERO Chicano Member of the Nuestra
Familia
FARMERS Prison Gang Nuestra Familia
FARP Terrorists A terrorists group; the Armed
Forces of Popular Resistance
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1915
FAS Street Gang Fast Awesome Strikers
(Honolulu, Hawaii)
FASH TRUCK Bikers Canadian term for crash truck
FAT CAP Street Gang Wide spray nozzle on a spray
can
FATHER TIME Prison Prison court
FEDERATED Street Gang Crips disrespect for the color
red
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1916
FEDERATION OF
BARRIOS
Chicano Chicano gangs; LA areas
JEFE Chicano Father; boss
FELL DOWN Prison Gang Got stabbed
FERRIA Chicano Money; change
FIDDLE & FLUTE AB Suite
FIELDS & WHEAT AB Streets
FIEND Street Gang Crack cocaine user
FIFTY Street Gang Refers to $50 piece of cocaine
FIFTY Chicano Police; from the TV series,
Hawaii 5-0
FILA Chicano Knife
FILE Bloods Tootsie roll
FILERO Chicano Knife
FILTHY FEW Bikers An elite group of Bikers found
within the Hells Angels; the are
the enforcers of discipline; in
order to wear the Filthy Few
tattoo, the biker usually must
have committed murder
FINE FOX Prison Gang Good girlfriend
FINGER WAVE Prison Anal search; the use of the
rubber-gloved finger to probe
an inmates anus for
contraband
FINK Prison Contemptuous term for law
enforcement officer; an
informer
FIRE BGD Where we bury our enemies
FIRING ON
SOMEONE
Street Gang Throwing a punch at someone
or shooting at someone
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1917
FIRME Chicano Good, straight person; fine
FISH Prison A new inmate, especially one
who has never been in prison
before
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1918
FISH COP Prison A new correctional officer
FISH AND SHRIMP AB Pimp
FIVE POINT STAR
(Peoples)
Street Gang Membership signified by
wearing or orienting everything
on the left--hair fade, hand in
left pocket, earring in left ear,
teardrop on left, hat cocked to
the left, bandanna knot on left,
untied shoe, left knee bent
FLACO Chicano A thin person
FLAME Street Gang Eternal life
FLASHING Street Gang Display of hand signals
FLATS Prison The ground floor of the cell
house
FLIP-FLOP Prison To take turns playing the male
and female roles in a
homosexual relationship
FLOATIN Street Gang Driving fast
FLOJO Chicano Lazy
FLOOD Crips Disrespectful name for Bloods
FLOWERS Street Gang Female Cobra Stone (Chicago)
FLUE Street Gang Bloods members name for blue
FLUE RAG Street Gang Blue rag
FLY Street Gang Good looking
FLY COLORS Bikers To ride on a motorcycle
wearing colors
FLYING THE
COLORS
Bikers Representing the gang colors
FMLDN Street Gang Latin Disciple nation emblem
FOLKS Street Gang Affiliated street gangs from the
Chicago area
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1919
FOLKS Street Gang Disciples and their affiliates
(Chicago)
Terms using G
TERM ORIGIN MEANING
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1920
G Street Gang Gangster term for 18-26 year
old members; dark glasses
G-DOWN Street Gang Dress-up
G-MAN Street Gang Another name for a Black
Gangster
G-RIDE Street Gang Gangster ride; stolen car
G-STER Street Gang Short for Gangster
GAFFING Street Gang Stealing; the same as racking
GAFFLED Street Gang Get cheated
GAG AND FRISKEYAB Whiskey
GAGE Street Gang Shotgun
GAME Street Gang Criminal activity
GANG BANG Prison A number of inmates having
been involved in a sexual act
with a single inmate
GANG BANG Street Gang Fighting with rival gangs
GANG BANGER Street Gang Gang member
GANG BANGING Street Gang Gang activity
GANGA Chicano Gang
GANGSTER Street Gang What a black gang member
calls himself
GANJA Jamacian
Posse
Marijuana
GANK Street Gang Pieces of ivory soap; white
cheese; imitation rock cocaine
GANKED Street Gang Misuse a person; do something
wrong
GARA Chicano Rag; gang flag colors
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1921
GARBAGE WAGON Bikers A stock motorcycle with
standard parts intact, loaded
with saddlebags and chrome,
as distinct from a chopper
GAT Street Gang Black gang members reference
to a gun; gun
GATE Jamaican
Posse
House or apartment
GATE Prison Release from prison
GATO Chicano Cat (not slang)
GAUGE Street Gang Shotgun
GAVA/GAVACHOS Chicano Anglos; whites
GEEK Street Gang Someone who is loaded; high
GENERAL
POPULATION
Prison The majority of inmates who
are not in isolation or
segregation
GENERIC Street Gang Substandard graffiti art work
GERMAN BRAND AB Hand
GET DOWN Street Gang Fight
GET DOWN Prison To fight with fists or weapons
GET IN FACE Prison To butt in, or to intrude in,
someones personal affairs
GET JAMMED Street Gang To be accosted
GET SOME GONE Street Gang Get out of my face
GETTIN THE
DIGITS
Street Gang Getting a telephone number
GETTING SHORT Federal
Prison
Getting close to a release date
GETING IN THE
GROOVE
Street Gang Getting things done
GF Northern Guerro Familiano (Guerro
C
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1922
Structure Warrior)
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1923
GHOST Street Gang Disappear
GHOST IT Street Gang Loose it
GIG Street Gang Gathering
GIG Prison Gang Job
GINGER SNAP AB A Japanese person
GIRL Street Gang Cocaine
GIVE ME A BREAK Prison Inmate request that staff give
him a break, usually after being
found to have violated
institution rules; synonymous
with Cut me a skid
GIVIN UP THE
NAPPY DUGOUT
Street Gang A girl who is an inmate
GLASS HOUSE Street Gang 77-78 Chevy; or a 1968
Chevrolet
GLOVE (1) Street Gang Right hand--Disciples, Simon
City Royals, and affiliates; Left
hand--Vice Lords, Latin Kings,
and affiliates
GLOVES Peoples
Nation
Purity
GO DOWN Prison To happen; usually refers to an
untoward or unexpected event;
also to come down
GO ON THE
GREEN CARPET
Prison Appear, aas in prison court
GOD FORBID AB Kid
DOD FORGIVES Bikers The remainderof the phrase is
Outlaws Dont
GOING OVER Street Gang Covering another writers name
GOING TO VISIT Prison Gang Going to be killed
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1924
LUGO
GOING WITH
EMILY
Prison Gang When preceded by a nickname,
it refers to a Nuestra Familia
member who is joining the
Mexican Mafia
GONE Street Gang Ugly
GONG Jamaican
Posse
Gun
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1925
GOOD MONKS Prison Gang Statutory award of good time
which reduces time serve on an
indeterminate, as opposed to
determinate, sentence
GOOD SQUAN Federal
Prison
A group of staff sent in to
control an inmate or group of
inmates
GOOSE AND DUCKAB Fuck
GORDA Chicano Fat girl
GORDO Chicano Fat man
GORRA Chicano Cap (not slang)
GOT INTO TOWN Prison Gang Came into the insitution
GRADE Prison Lesser form of punishment
GRAFFITI Street Gang Territory marker; gang roll call;
if any graffiti is written upside
down, it shows disrespect to
that gang and was written by an
opposing gang
GRAN PODER Marielitos The bust-like face of Christ
GRAVE YARD Street Gang A drug house which is either out
of druigs or has been shut down
by the police
GREEN WINGS Bikers Earned when the wearer
performs oral sex on a
venereally-diseased woman
GRIDE Street Gang A black gang members
reference to a stolen car ( the G
is symbolic of grand theft auto)
GRIFA Chicano Marijuana
GRIMOIRES Satanists A collection of magical spells,
incantations, and rituals; the
C
lic
k
t
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N
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P
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1926
grimoires date back to medievil
periods and sre still used today
in black magic
GROB Street Gang Beer
GROWING
DAISIES
Prison Gang Dead
GUERREROS Santeria The Warriors (Eleggua, Oggun,
Ochosi, and Osun); one of the
most important initiations of
Santeria
GUERROS Prison Gang People
GUMP Street Gang Homosexual
GUN-UP Street Gang Getting ready to fight; usually
boxing
GUN BULL Prison Armed guard
GUNRAIL Crips Seesaw
GUNSELS Prison Aggressive inmates; thugs
C
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C
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1927
GUZANOS Marielitos Worms (see Escoria)
GYM Crips Pool room
Terms using H
TERM ORIGIN MEANING
C
lic
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b
u
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N
O
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P
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C
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!
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1928
H, B, S, Street Gang Hangin, Bangin, and Slangin,
hanging out, gang banging,
and selling dope
HIB Street Gang Holding dope
HACK Prison An officer; prison guard
HACKSAW Crips Hot wheel
HAIRCUTS Street Gang Haircuts may signify
affiliation; for instance, some
Vice Lords on Chicagos west
side have shaved the left side
of their heads into the shape
of an arrow
HAM Prison Gang Negro
HAMBURGER Prison gang Mexican Mafia member; EME
HAMBURGER
POISONING
Prison Gang Stabbing of a Mexican Mafia
member
HAMMER AND
TACK
AB Back
HAMMER AND
TRIGGER
AB Nigger
HAND OF GLORY Satanists The left hand of a person who
has died and which has been
removed from the body,
pickled, embalmed, or
mummified; a candle is then
placed in the palm of the hand
or between the fingers, in
order to protect against evil
spirits
HANDSIGNS Street Gang Gang identity; body language
HANK AND FRANKAB Bank
C
lic
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b
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N
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!
P
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C
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!
P
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1929
HAPPY EASTER AB Keester
HARD-LOOK Chicano Staring at; grounds to fight
over
HARDCORE Street Gang Extreme; the big time
HARDCORE GANG
MEMBER
Street Gang Generally the leaders; most
violent, streetwise,
knowledgeable in legal
matters; usually liked and
respected by outsiders as well
as other gang members
HANDTAIL Bikers Rigid motorcycle frame with
no shock absorbing device on
the rear end
HAT Peoples
Nation
Shelter
HATS Street Gang Tilted to the right--Disciples,
Simon CIty Roylas, and their
affiliates; tilted to the left--
Vice Lords, Latin Kings, and
their affiliates; Civil War-type
(blue)--Disciples, Simon City
Royals, and their affiliates;
Civil War-type (gray)--Vice
Lords and their affiliates--
Vice Lords have been known
to cut off the bottom parts of
the crossed rifles, making a V
out of the top parts
C
lic
k
t
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b
u
y
N
O
W
!
P
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F-XChan
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C
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!
P
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1930
HAVE A HARD ON
FOR
Prison To strongly dislike, for
example, The hard-on judge
had a hard on for him
HAVE HEART Prison To be fearless in a dangerous
situation
HB NS Homebase
HCWC Skinheads Hard-core Windy City
Skinheads
HE SENDS HIS
REGARDS
Prison Gang If theis statement is preceded
by a name and found in an
inappropriate place in a letter,
it means the person named
has been caught with a
weapon and can no longer be
counted on to pay the bills
HES FROM
NOWHERE
Prison Gang Indicating that an individual is
not a member of any gang
HEAD Satanists The powerhouse of the body;
those who practice the black
arts consider the head to be
source of all magical powers,
and for this reason, many
human skulls are found on
alters; many Satanists believe
that by eating the brain, one
can receive powers from the
dead person
HEAD HUNTER Street Gang A female who does sexual acts
for cocaine
HEAD UP Street Gang To start a fight
C
lic
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b
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N
O
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!
P
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C
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!
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1931
HEART Satanists The center of life; practitioners
believe that by eating the
heart of a victim, they can
assume that characteristics
and obtain all of his power
HEAT Bikers Law enforcement officer; the
man
HEAVEN Street Gang Tagging overhead freeway
signs
HEEL AND TOE AB Go
HELLS ANGELS Bikers Largest biker association in
the world
HERB Jamaican
Posse
Marijuana
HERD OF
ELEPHANTS
Federal
Prison
Institution staff responding to
an emergency
HEROINA Chicano Heroin
HG Street Gang Harrison Gents (Chicago)
HIGH ROLLIN Street Gang Making good money; drug
dealing
HIGH ROLLER Crips Drug dealer; usually shot-
callers who control the drug
trafficking of a gang and retain
the bulk of the drug profits
C
lic
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b
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N
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!
P
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F-XChan
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C
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!
P
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1932
HINGO Prison Gang Mushroom
HIPPIE TRIP Prison Gang Not taking care if business
HIT Crips Dice
HIT Street Gang To tag up any surface with
paint or ink
HIT General An ordered homicide
HIT AND MISS AB Piss
HIT THE BRICKS Prison Escape form San Francisco
HIT THE MAIN
STREET
Prison Gang Parole
HOG Bikers Harley-Davidson motorcycle
HOLD Bloods Twilight zone
HOLD THE
UNPAID BILLS
Prison Gang Wait; dont stab this person
HOLDING Prison Possession of either drugs or
a weapon
HOLDING DOWN Street Gang Controlling a turf or area
HOLE Prison Solitary confinement cell
HOLED UP Prison Hidden in a defensive position
HOME BOY Street Gang Fellow gang member
HOMEBOY Street Gang A street-smart and con-wise
person with whom one shares
a similiar background
HOMEBOY Chicano One of the boys from the
neighborhood gang or group; a
fellow gang member
HOMES Street Gang Fellow gang member
HOMIE Prison Gang One of the boys from the
neighborhood
C
lic
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N
O
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!
P
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C
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!
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1933
HOO-RAH Street Gang Loud talking
HOOCH Street Gang An alcoholic drink made by
fermenting a sugary syrup or
liquid and bread
HOOD Street Gang Neighborhood
HOODSTA Street Gang Gangster
HOOK Street Gang Phony or imitation
HOOKING VICS BGD Hooking Vice Lords; showing
disrespect by displaying Vice
Lord Cane symbols upside
down
HOOMA Satanists Water (one of the 4 elements)`
HOOPTEE Street Gang Car or vehicle
HOOPTY Street Gang Car
HORALE Chicano Alright; acknowledgement
HORSE General Refers to heroin
HORSE AND
CARRIAGE
Prison A syringe and hypodermic
needle used for injecting drugs,
also known as an outfit or
works
HOSPITAL Crips Play house
HOT BOX Prison Solitary confinement
HOT CHAIR Prison The object of discussion in a
therapy group; the hot seat
HOUSE Federal
Prison
An inmates cell or quarters
HOW YOU SOUND Street Gang What did you say?
HUBBA Street Gang Rock cocaine
HUERITOS Prison Gang Whites
HUERO Prison Gang Light skin
C
lic
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!
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!
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1934
HUEROS Chicano Anglos
HUEVON Chicano Lazy
HUEVOS Chicano To have a lot of balls, guts,
eggs
HUSTLER Street Gang Not into gangs; strictly out to
make money
HYPED Street Gang Excited or doing well
Terms using I
TERM ORIGIN MEANING
C
lic
k
t
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b
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y
N
O
W
!
P
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F-XChan
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C
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1935
I AINT WITH THAT Street Gang Dont agree with something
I SUPPOSE AB Nose
I & I Jamacian
Posse
I, we, you and me; when a
Rastaman speaks he speaks for
all Rastamen and even for
Rastafari himself
I-94 INS Immigration entry form issued
to all foreigners entering the
United States; most Marielitos
from have an eight-digit number
on their I-94, prefixed with the
letter A
IP MESSENGER Satanists Minister of the lowest rank
IM ABOUT TO GET
STUPID
Street Gang Im about to act violently
IM IN THE HOUSE Street Gang To be present
ITE WACHO Chicano Ill see you later
IBG Bloods Insane Bloods Gang
ICE Street gang Crystal methamphetammine
ICG Street Gang Insane Crips Gang
IDC Federal
Prison
Institution Disciplinary
Committee
IFA Santeria Another name of Orunla, the
owner of La Tabla de Ifa
IG Street Gang Imperial Gangsters (Chicago)
IGNORANT FOOLS Street Gang Derogatory remarks for
Inglewood Family Ganster
Bloods (Chicago)
IIVL Street Gang Imperial Inssane Vice Lords
(Chicago)
IKE AND MIKE AB Spike
C
lic
k
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b
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N
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!
P
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C
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1936
ILLEGAL YARD Street Gang Flood channel; commerical
building
ILLING Street Gang Making mental mistakes
ILY Jamaican
Posse
Marijuana
C
lic
k
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b
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y
N
O
W
!
P
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C
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!
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1937
IMPERIAL
GANGSTERS
Street Gang A black street gang
IN THE MIX Street Gang Involved in gang activity
IN POCKET Street Gang A subject who has drugs ready
to sell
IN A TASTE Prison Gang In a while
INCA Latin Kings Highest ranking officer in the
Latin Kings
INFILTRATOR Crips Dog-face
INFORMATION Crips Library
INFORMER Crips Reporter
INLE Santeria Patron of medicine; syncretized
as St. Raphael
INVESTIGADO Latin Kings Gang officer who handles
investigations of new members
of a chapter
IQSISSIMUS Satanists Highest rank in black magic
and highest order in Satanism;
rarely obtainable during a
lifetime
IREE-ITES Jamaican
Posse
Higher than most righteous
IREE Jamaican
Posse
Most righteous
IRIE Jamaican
Posse
Term used when bidding
someone goodbye
ISC Street Gang Symbol of the Spanish Cobras
(Chicago)
ISOLATION Prison Housed apart from other
prisoners; in most instances, a
synonym for segregation
C
lic
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!
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C
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!
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1938
ITS ON Street Gang To fight; argue
IVORY FLOAT AB Coat
IVORY SOAP Street Gang Imitation rock cocaine; white
cheese; gank
IYA-ORO Santeria Heavenly mother
IYB BGD Insane Young Brothers
(Chicago)
Terms using J
TERM ORIGIN MEANING
C
lic
k
t
o
b
u
y
N
O
W
!
P
D
F-XChan
g
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C
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N
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!
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1939
J BGD (see Hooking Vics)
JACK Prison Prison-made alcoholic drink
JACK Street Gang To commit a holdup for
money or cars, i.e., Ill jack
for a car
JACK AND JILL AB Pills
JACK AND
SCRATCH
AB Match
JACK HORNER AB Corner
JACKED Street Gang Robbed at gunpoint
JACKED UP Prison To be harrassed, usually by
correctional officers over
matters deemed to be
inconsequential; button-
pushing
JACKET Prison An inmates prison file or
reputation
JAH Jamaican
Posse
God
JAILHOUSE
LAWYER
Prison An inmate with no formal legal
training who does legal work
for other inmates
JAILHOUSE
TURNOUT
Prison A previously heterosexual
inmate who takes an overtly
homosexual or female identity
in prison
JAINA Street Gang Girlfriend
JAM UP Prison To put someone in a tight spot
JAMMED Street Gang Confronted
JAMMING YOU Prison Gang Coming on strong (talk or
letter)
C
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N
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!
P
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F-XChan
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C
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1940
JAP-SCRAP Bikers Japanese motorcycles or
foreign-made bikes
JBAKC Terrorists A terrorist group; the John
Brown Anti-Klan Committee
JEFA Chicano Mother
JEFE Chicano Father; boss
C
lic
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b
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N
O
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!
P
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F-XChan
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C
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!
P
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1941
JEFITA Chicano Mother
JEFITO Chicano Father; boss
JIGGERS Street Gang Keeping watch for correctional
officers
JIM JONES Street Gang Marijuana joint laced with
cocaine and dipped in PCP
JIMMY Street Gang Condoms
JIVING Street Gang Attempting to fool someone
JLP Jamaican
Posse
Jamaican Labor Party;
Jamaican neighbor-hoods
where Posse members are
recuited
JOC Jamaican
Posse
Acronym for Jamaican
organized crime
JOCKER Prison An aggressive homosexual;
bulls; wolves; an aggressive
macho inmate who
consistently plays the male
role in a homosexual
relationship
JOE BLAKE AB Steak
JOE SWARTZ AB Shorts
JOINT Prison A prison; the walls; a
marijuana cigarette
JONING Street Gang Talking about someone
JOTA Chicano Lesbian
JOTO Chicano Homosexual
JUDA Chicano Police oath-taker
JUDGE Federal
Prison
Disciplinary Hearing Officer
JUG HEAD Prison A derigatory term for a
C
lic
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N
O
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!
P
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C
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1942
stubborn, unyielding official
JUICE Street Gang PCP
JUICE Chicano Respect
C
lic
k
t
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b
u
y
N
O
W
!
P
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F-XChan
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C
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!
P
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1943
JUICED Street Gang Vehicle has hydraulics to raise
and lower car
JUKE Jamaican
Posse
Holdup
JUMPED IN Street Gang Initiation into a gang
JUMPED OUT Street Gang The process of leaving a gang
which requires the person to
fight 2 or more members for 15
to 60 seconds with the object
of surviving the encounter
JUMPING IN
(JUMPED)
Street Gang Process of being initiated into
a gang which requires the
canidate to fight 2 or more
members for 15 to 30 seconds
to show he is not afraid and to
defend his honor
JUNE AND JULY AB Pie
JUNGLE Prison Recreation yard
JUNGLE Street Gang Black and white together
JUNTA/JUNTE Chicano Meeting
JURA (JUDA) Chicano Police; oath-taker
Terms using K
TERM ORIGIN MEANING
C
lic
k
t
o
b
u
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N
O
W
!
P
D
F-XChan
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e
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C
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k
t
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b
u
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N
O
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!
P
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1944
K-9 OFFICES Bloods Pound
K-SWISS Crips Kill Slobs When I See Slobs
K9 Street Gang Police
KABBALAH Satanists Symbolic explanation of the
origin of the universe; the
relationship of human beings
to the Godhead
KALI Satanists Hindu goddess personifying
the dark and terrifying forces
of nature; black
KANSAS Crips Kill All Nigga Such As Slob
KC Crips King Crips
KC Street Gang Leader and founder of the
Spanish Cobras
KCG Crips Kitchen Crips gang (Watts)
KEISTER STASH Prison Drugs or other contraband
hidden in the anus, usually
inside a rubber balloon
KEY Street Gang Kilo of powder cocaine
KIBBLES AND
BITS
Street Gang Crumbs of cocaine
KICK YOU DOWN Street Gang Give you something; set you
up in drug trade
KICKIN IT Street Gang Taking it easy
KICKING Street Gang Relaxing; killing time
KICKS! Chicano Shoes
KIDS NF Northern Structure members
KILL BGF Marked for death
KILL Street Gang To hit or bomb excessively
KILL Crips Black flag
C
lic
k
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u
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N
O
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!
P
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F-XChan
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C
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t
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u
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N
O
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!
P
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F-XChan
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1945
KILLA Street Gang Killer
KING Street Gang The best with the most
KING RICHARD AB Dick
KING SCREW Prison Warden
KITCHEN Bloods Fat burgers
KITE IN THE WINDStreet Gang A letter in the mail
KITE State Prison A letter or note to either
prison officials or another
individual, mentioning other
inmates or individuals on the
street
KLIKA Chicano Age groups within the gang
KLUCKA Street Gang Dope fiend
KNIFE Crips Hard candy
KNOCKED Street Gang Killed
KNOCKIN THE
BOOTS
Street Gang Having sex<TR VALIGN
L~
L,L,L,W,U,K - Love, Life, Loyalty, Wisdom,
Understanding, Knowledge - used by Folk Nation
LKK - Latin King Killer
LR - La Raza; Spanish term meaning "Race"
Lady in red - My bitch (lady); Bloods
C
lic
k
t
o
b
u
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N
O
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!
P
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F-XChan
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C
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k
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u
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N
O
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!
P
D
F-XChan
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1946
La Eme - Spanish for the letter "M" - Refers to the
Mexican Mafia prison gang
La Trece - Spanish for "the 13"; a reference to Southern
California allegiance
Lame - Boring; pitiful as in "That's a lame excuse."
La Raza - Spanish meaning: Race (ethnicity); has been
adopted as a gang name in some areas
Live hook up - Phone call made from jail or prison to the
outside worLit up - Shot at
Lizard butt - Ugly girl
Loc - Loco; crazy (also lok)
Locs - Dark sun glasses; Folks Nation members
Looking to machine - Seeking sex
Lord Allah - Five Percenters name describing Los
Angeles, CA
Low budget - Cheap girl (date)
C
lic
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N
O
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P
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1947
Terms using M
TERM ORIGIN MEANING
M Mexican
Mafia
Mexican Mafia
MC Bikers Patch on colors
M19CO Terrorists A terrorist group; the May
19th Communists organization
MACHETEROS Terrorists A terrorists group
MACHINE Jamaican
Posse
Machine gun
MACK Street Gang Ability to sweet talk girls
MACKIN Street Gang Getting girls
MACUMBA Santeria Brazillian version of Santeria
MAIN MAN Street Gang Best friend; back-up
MAIN STREET Prison Gang General population
MAINLINE Crips Mid-city
MAINLINE Bloods Drag stop
MAKING A PLAY Prison Going through the motions to
deceive someone, i.e., Im
making a play for the gate
MAIKING BANK Street Gang Making money, usually illegal
MAKING YOUR
BONES
Prison The act of killing upon the
order of a gang in order to
qualify for admission to that
gang
MAMA Bikers A girl available to all club
members, usually sexually
MAN Prison An authority figure like the
warden; a correctional officer
or counselor
C
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1948
MAN WITH A
GRUDGE
AB Judge
MANIFEST Jamaican
Posse
Plan a score or job
MANIGOS Cuban Secret and most dangerous
sect of Abaqua religion of
Cuba, with members who
have no respect for life and
who specialize in child
sacrifice
C
lic
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u
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N
O
W
!
P
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N
O
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1949
MANO Chicano Hand (not slang)
MARANO Chicano Slang word meaning pig, used
in reference to law
enforcement officials
MARICON Chicano Homosexual
MARIEL Cuban A harbor in Cuba where the
1980 boatlift of Cuban
refugees originated
MARIELITO Cuban Anyone who departed the
harbor of Mariel in Cuba to
travel to the U.S. in the 1980s
MARIELITO
BANDITOS
Cuban The criminal element of the
Marielitos found in U.S.
prisons today
MARK Street Gang Prospective gang member
MARRANO Chicano Pig; police officer
MARRIED Prison Gang Membership in the Aryan
Brotherhood
MARRIED Chicano Joined; joined a gang or group`
MARSHALL RAN
ME OUT
Prison Gang Authorities became suspicious
and transferred me
MARTINI GLASS Street Gang Symbolizes celebration
MARTY DRAPER AB Newspaper
MARY MITCHELL BGF Mexican Mafia
MASH IT UP Jamaican
Posse
You handle it
MASSIVES Jamaican
Posse
New term believed used by
Jamaican gangs for their
membership
MAX B Crips Glass house
MAYATE Chicano Black person
C
lic
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b
u
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N
O
W
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lic
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O
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1950
MAYATERO Chicano A person who likes black
women or associates with
blacks
MAYOMBEROS Cuban Practitioners of the religion
Abaqua
C
lic
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u
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O
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!
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lic
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u
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N
O
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!
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1951
MEAT HEAD Prison (see Jug Head)
MECHA Chicano Match
MEETINGS Bloods Fan club
MELBORN PIERS AB Ears
MENSO Chicano Idiot
MESA NF The governing body of the
Nuestra Familia
MESA Chicano Table; the youthful offender
board
METH Mexian Mafia Methamphetamine; a grug
favored by bikers and Texas
Mafia Members
MEXICAN PARDS AB EME
MEXICAN SADDLE
PARDS
Prison Gang Mexican Mafia
MEXICANS Bloods Chipmunks
MILL Federal
Prison
A work assignment in a
Federal Prison Industries
factory
MINCE PIES AB Eyes
MIRA Terrorists A terrorists group; the original
movement which gave birth to
the FALN; Movimeinto
Independencia Revolucion-Ario
Armado
MISSION Street Gang Gang activity ; contract hit;
drive-by shooting
MIX IT UP Prison To fight with fists or weapons
MLD Street Gang Initials of Manic Latin
Disciples gang (Chicago)
MLN Terrorists A terrorists group; the
C
lic
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o
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u
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N
O
W
!
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1952
poliitical arm of FALN
MM Chicano Mexican Mafia; also, Mariano
Maravilla, a neighborhood
gang in Los Angeles
MOS Chicano Mojado; Mexican Nationals;
undocumented
C
lic
k
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o
b
u
y
N
O
W
!
P
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1953
MOAN AND
GROAN
AB Phone
MOBBING Street Gang A quick tag with no art work
involved
MOBILE Street Gang Proper; nice looking
MODID Street Gang Something said wrong
MOJADOS Chicano Referring to Mexican Nationals
in the U.S.
MOLDED Street Gang Embarrassed
MON Jamaican
Posse
man; often added to other
words (Herb-man, I-Man)
MONEY Crips Head light
MONEY Street Gang Person with money
MONEY Bloods PYT
MONIKERS Street Gang Street name; a way to identify
MONKEY SUIT Prison A prison officers uniform
MONO Chicano Movie
MONTE C Street Gang Monte Carlo (vehicle)
MOP AND PAIL AB Jail
MOSA Chicano Pest; fly
MOSCO Chicano Fly; also refers to Mexican
Mafia member
MOTA Chicano Marijuana; hashish
MOTAYIERBA Chicano Marijuana
MOTHER
CHAPTER
Bikers Location of the original
chapter of a gang, i.e.,
Oakland is the mother chapter
for the Hells Angels and
Chicago is the mother chapter
for the Outlaws
C
lic
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O
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1954
MOTHER AND
DAUGHTER
AB Water
MOVED TO THE
BIG TOWN
Prison Gang Next on the list
MOVIDAS Chicano Chicano rules and regulations
MUD DUCK Street Gang Ugly girl
MULE Prison One who smuggles drugs or
other contraband in to the
prison for another inmate
MULETA Texas
Syndicate
Problem or situation
MUMBLY PEGS AB Legs
MUSHAROOM Street Gang An innocent bystander shot in
a drive-by shooting
MUT Street Gang male slut
MY NINE Street Gang 9 mm. gun
Terms using N
TERM ORIGIN MEANING
C
lic
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o
b
u
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O
W
!
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C
lic
k
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u
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O
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1955
N Chicano Norte (Norte Califas)
N/A NS New arrival
N/H Street Gang Neighborhood
NACIONES Cuban Nations of the Abaqua religion
of Cuba
NADA Prison Gang Nothing
NAFF Terrorists A terrorist group; the New
African Freedom Front; New
African Freedom Fighters
NANTA Satanists Earth (One of the 4 elements)
NATAS Satanists Satan spelled backwards--the
As aare often substituted with
a triangle, since that was the
configuation of A in ancient
writing
NATION Satanists A large affiliation of a number
of distinct gangs
NCA Street Gang Tattoo for Ninja Clan Assassins
(Asian gang)
NEAR AND FAR AB Bar
NECROMANCY Satanists Summoning the spirits of the
dead, asking them to forecast
the future or the secrets of the
past
NECROPHILIA Satanists The act of having sexual
intercourse with the dead
NEGROS Chicano Blacks
NEL Chicano No
NELLIE BIE AB Tie
NELSON
FRANKLIN
BGF The Nuestra Familia
C
lic
k
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b
u
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N
O
W
!
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C
lic
k
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u
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N
O
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!
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1956
NEOPHYTE Satanists One who is about to go through
the initiation into a coven
NESTERS Prison Gang The Nuestra Familia
NEW AFRICAN
FRONT
Terrorists A terrorists group; the New
Freedom Front
C
lic
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u
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N
O
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!
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C
lic
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b
u
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N
O
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!
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1957
NF NF The Nuestra Familia
NICK Prison Th steal; racking
NICKEL Prison A 5-year sentence
NICKEL BAG Prison $ 5 worth of drugs
NIKE Bloods Nigga Insane Kill Extremely
NIKES Crips Nigga Is Killing Every Slob
NINJAS Federal
Prison
Members of the Special
Operations response Team
NO BALE Chicano Not worth anything
NO COPEAS Chicano Don;t cop out
NO MEX Crips Rebels
NOMAD Bikers Non-affiliated motorcycle gang
member; wears colors with a
bottom rocker saying Nomad;
used by some clubs as
enforcers; will attend club
meetings and pay dues to
different chapters, depending
on travels
NORTE Northern
Structure
A Northern Stucture term to
describe their affiliation
NORTENO Northern
Structure
A Northern Structure term
used to describe themselves
NORTENO Chicano A Northern Hispanic/Chicano
NOT Street Gang Dont think so
NOT TOO MUCH
LIKE 007
Prison Gang Play it cool
NOW YOU GOING
TO CLOWN
Street Gang Play around; not serious
NS Northern
Structure
The Northern Structure;
believed to be a faction of the
C
lic
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N
O
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!
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1958
Nuestra Familia
NUBITY Satanists Nakedness; regarded by some
Occultist as a sign of ritual
quality and openness; nudity
also is favored by ceremonial
magicians who wish to
dispense with cumbersome
robes; witches who perform
their ceremonies naked are
described as being skyclad
NUT UP Street Gang Angry; mad at somebody
NUTSACK Prison Manliness or courage; scrotum
Terms using O
TERM ORIGIN MEANING
C
lic
k
t
o
b
u
y
N
O
W
!
P
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C
lic
k
t
o
b
u
y
N
O
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!
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1959
O TEMPLI
ORIENTIS
Satanists Arousal of sexual energy
during magical ceremonies;
identifies with gods and
goddesses
O/G Street Gang Original Gangsters or old
gangster; older members (20s
and 30s) of black street gangs
O/A Street Gang Orchestra Albany (Chicago)
OFFO Bikers Outlaws Forever, Forever
Outlaws
OPP Street Gang Others Peoples Property
OAS NS Over All Security
OBA KOSSO Santeria One of Chicagos titles
OBATALA Santeria The father of the orishas,
patron of peace and purity;
syncretized as Our Lady of
Mercy
OC General Organized crime
OCCE HOMO Marielitos The bust-like face of Christ
OCEAN WAVE AB Shave
OCCULT Satanists Hidden, secret or mysterious
OCHOSI Santeria Patron of hunters, one of the
warriors, syncretized as St.
Norbert
ODDUDUA Santeria Obatalas wife, give to him by
Olofi
OFF Prison To kill
OFFO Bikers Outlaws Forever, Forever
Outlaws
OGP Street Gang Original Gangster Posse (Rapid
City, South Dakota)
C
lic
k
t
o
b
u
y
N
O
W
!
P
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C
lic
k
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b
u
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N
O
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!
P
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1960
OH MY DEAR AB Dear
OLD BIRD Street Gang Mother
OLD HAMBURGER
STAND
Prison Gang Place where EME and NF fight
or fought
C
lic
k
t
o
b
u
y
N
O
W
!
P
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C
lic
k
t
o
b
u
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N
O
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!
P
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1961
OLD JUDE Street Gang Father
OLD LADIES Bikers women associated with
motorcycle gangs (may be
attached to a specific member
or the gang in general)
OLOCUN Santeria As aspect of Yemaya, said to
live in the ocean depths
OLODUMARE Santeria God, the creator of the universe
OMEN Satanists A prophetic sign
OMO CHANGO Santeria A son of Chango
ON DECK Street Gang Present
ON THE BRICKS Prison Gang Out of the institution
ON THE CARPET Prison Disciplinary action
ON THE OUTS Street Gang Out of prison or detention; free
ON THE PIPE Street Gang Free-basing cocaine
ON THE REAL Street Gang Honest; truthful
ON THE
STRENGTH
Street Gang based on the facts
ON THR SURFACE
OF THINGS
Prison On top of what is going on
ON MY JOCK Street Gang Under my control
ONE TIME Street Gang police; one police unit is on the
way
ONES AND TWOS AB Shoes
ONETIMER General Policeman who only tells you
once
ONIONS AND
BEETS
AB Sheets
OO BGD Gun
C
lic
k
t
o
b
u
y
N
O
W
!
P
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C
lic
k
t
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b
u
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N
O
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!
P
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1962
OPEN THE LINE Prison Gang Start writing; communicating
OPHELIA PRATT AB Rat (female)
ORALE! Chicano Okay; Stop fooling around!;
Hey, okay, right on!
ORIGINALS Bikers A members first set of colors,
which are never to be cleaned
ORISHA-OKO Santeria patron of agriculture;
syncretized as St. Isidro
Labrador
ORISHA Santeria Saint; one of the deities of the
Yoruba pantheon
ORUNLA Marielitos Legendary owner of the Table
of Ifa, the divination system
used by the Babalowos (high
priests); resembles St. Francis;
resembles a monk removing
Christ from the cross; in
Santeria, the chief diviner of
the Yoruba pantheon, known
also as Ifa and Orunmila
babalawos
ORUNMILA Santeria Another name of Orunla
OSCAR HOCKS AB Socks
OSHUN Santeria A goddess of the Yoruba
pantheon, patron of love,
marriage, and gold; one of
Changos favorite mistresses;
syncretized as Our Lady of La
Caridad del Cobre, patron saint
of Cuba
OTHER Prison Gang Other institutions
C
lic
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t
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N
O
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!
P
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C
lic
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O
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!
P
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1963
APARTMENTS
OTHER SIDE OF
THE LINE
Prison Gang Left in the Nuestra Familia and
joined the Mexican Mafia
OUT OF BOUNDS Federal
Prison
An inmate being in an
unauthorized area
OUT OF POCKET Prison To depart from the rules of fair
play
OUTA POCKET Street Gang Caught unaware
OUTFIT Prison A syringe and hypodermic
needle for injecting drugs; a
works; horse and carriage
OVOP Terrorists A terrorists group; the
Voluntary Organization of
Puerto Rican Revolution
OWL Satanists Among many cultures, this bird
is associated with death and
evil powers
Terms using P
TERM ORIGIN MEANING
C
lic
k
t
o
b
u
y
N
O
W
!
P
D
F-XChan
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e
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C
lic
k
t
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b
u
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N
O
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!
P
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1964
P MESSENGER Satanists Student ministers
PC Crips Medicare
POBOB Bikers Pissed Off Bastards Of
Bloomington; the original gang
that later developed into the
Hells Angels
PPDSPEMFOBBT Bikers Pill Popping Dope Smoking Pussy
Eating Mother Fucken Outlaw
Brothers Biken Together; found
on tattoos, colors and business
cards
PS Street Gang Pachucos gang
PACA Chicano Rat pack; gang assault
PACK YOUR SHIT Prison Putting your property together in
anticipation of being removed
from general population and
being placed in segregation
PACKING Prison Smuggling drugs or other
contraband into prison; carrying
a hidden weapon
PACKING Street Gang Person has a gun in his
possession
PAGANS Satanists Those who practice witchcraft;
they worship nature as well as
several gods
PAL Bollds Pirus Are Linchers
PALERO Cuban An individual initiated in the
mysteries of the cult Palo
PALEROS Cuban Practitioners of the religion
Abaqua
C
lic
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o
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u
y
N
O
W
!
P
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C
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!
P
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1965
PALO Santeria An African cult based on the
beliefs and magical prractices of
the tribe of the Bantus, also
known as Congos
PANT LEG CUFFS Street Gang Disciples--rolled up on the right
side; Vice Lords--rolled up on up
the left side
PAPA DIOS Santeria God the Father
PAPER HANGING Prison Passing bad checks
PARTICIPATE Bikers Aid a member in a fight by
ganging up on the opponent
PASTILLA Chicano Pills (not slang); tablets
PAT DOWN Prison A superficial search technique in
which a correctional officer
passes his or her hands lightly
over an inmates clothed body
C
lic
k
t
o
b
u
y
N
O
W
!
P
D
F-XChan
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C
lic
k
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b
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N
O
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!
P
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1966
PAULA BGF Pig or officer
PAYBACK Prison Vendetta, or retaliation, for a
former wrong
PAYBACK
KILLING
Street Gang A revenge murder, i.e., a Crip
kills a Blood, because a Blood
killed a Crip
PAZ Chicano Peace
PC Prison Protective custody; a seperate
cellblock or housing unit for
inmates who cannot live in the
general population
PE CE Chicano PC (protective custody)
PEACE CUT Street Gang Goodbye; see you later
PEANUT BUTTER Street Gang Crips disrespect for Bloods
PECKERWOOD Prison Usually used by blacks to
describe whites (especially staff)
as assholes
PEDO Chicano Fight; trouble; drunk; pure
bullshit
PEE WEES Street Gang Younger gang members who are
used as lookouts or runners
PELON Chicano Bald; baldy used as a moniker
PENDEJO Chicano Stupid
PENTACLE Satanists Disc-shaped talisman (amulet or
charm)
PENTAGRAM Satanists A five-pointed star that is used in
both white and black magic;
when the star is inverted with
twopoints up, it stands for black
arts and when turned with a
single point up, it symbolizes
C
lic
k
t
o
b
u
y
N
O
W
!
P
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F-XChan
g
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w
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o
cu-trac
k
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!
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1967
white magic; pentagrams also
are worn for protection
PEOPLES Street Gang Vice Lords, Latin Kings, and their
affiliates
PERIPHERAL
MEMBER
Street Gang People who tend to move in and
out of gang membership; may
claim identification, affiliation, or
association with a gang in order
to impress peers or improve
position with peer group
PERROS Chicano Dogs; slang for cops
PFOC Terrorists A terrorist group; the Prairie Fire
Organization Committee
PICTURE OF
THAT SISTER
BGF Piece or weapon
C
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1968
PIECE Street Gang Graffiti art; short for masterpiece
PIECE Street Gang Gun
PIECE BOOK Street Gang A writers sketch book
PIG PEN General A code used to disguise
messages
PIG STICKER Prison A knife
PILDORAS Chicano Pills
PIMPED OUT Street Gang Well-dressed person
PIN Prison An inmate who watches for staff
while another is involved in an
illegal act or rule violation
PINA Chicano Black person (derogatory)
PINCHES Chicano Bastards; chickenshit dudes
PINK LOOK Prison A fresh-faced, pure, immature
appearance; also known as a
cherry
PINNER Prison An inmate who watches for staff
while another inmate is doing
something illegal
PINTA Chicano Penitentiary; prison
PINTO Chicano State prisoner; ex-convict
PIPE HEAD Street Gang Crack addict
PIPIRIN Chicano Food
PIRU Crips Street on which the Bloods
originated; disrespectful acronym
used by Crips--Pussies In Red
Uniforms
PISIOLA Chicano Outfit
PISS AND PUNK Prison Bread and water diet
PISTIAR Chicano To drink
C
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N
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!
P
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!
P
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1969
PISTO Chicano Booze
PIT AB San Quentin special housing unit
PLACA Street Gang Graffiti on structures that
identifies a particular gang and
individual
PLANNING
MARRIAGE
AB Prospective member
PLATTER OF
MEAT
AB Fleet
PLAY ME FOR A
SUCKER
Street Gang Take advantage of
PINK LOOK Prison A fresh-faced, pure, immature
appearance
PLAYBOY BUNNY Street Gang Symbolizes swiftness and
prowess
PLAYED OUT Street Gang Over; no longer used
PLAYER Street Gang Not into gangs; strictly out to
make money; into girls
PLO Street Gang Present location
PLOW THE DEEP AB Sleep
PNP Jamaican
Posse
Peoples National Party; Jamaican
neighborhoods where Jamaican
Posse members are recruited
POBOB Bikers Pissed Off Bastards of
Bloomington; (a suburb of San
Bernadino, California)
POCKETS Street Gang The inside of the pocket is the
gangs colors, to represent
membership
POINT MAN Prison An inmate stationed as a lookout
to warn others of the approach of
C
lic
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b
u
y
N
O
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!
P
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!
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1970
correctional officers, rival
inmates, or other potential
sources of trouble
POISON Prison Crack cocaine
POLICE Crips Mafia
POLICE Prison A prison staff member; usually a
correctional officer
POLVO Chicano Dust (not slang)
C
lic
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b
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y
N
O
W
!
P
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w
w
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k
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O
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!
P
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1971
PONY EXPRESS AB Mail
POOR BOX Prison Gang A box or container full of items
collected by a gang from other
inmates, either by intimidation or
as payment for protection; usually
kept in the leaders cell and the
items are passed out or loaned to
gang members
POPPED Prison Arrested
POPPED A CAR Street Gang Shoot a gun
POR VIDA Chicano For life (not slang)
POSSE Jamaican
Posse
Group of friends; what Jamaican
gangs call their members
POTENCIAS Cuban Powers; a group following the
Abaqua religion
POUND Federal
Prison
The general population;
compound of a prison
PP Street Gang The Party People gang (Chicago)
PP/LRZ Street Gang The Party People gang; the LRZ
shows the gangs very close
alliance the La Raza gang
PRAIRIE FIRE Terrorists A terrorists group; the
Organization Committee
PRES Chicano President
PRIMO Street Gang Marijuana joint laced with
cocaine
PRITHIVI Satanists A yellow square which represents
earth (see Tajas)
C
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!
P
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1972
PROBATE Bikers Synonymous with prospect or
stricker; a person pledging to
become a member of a biker
gang. After completing a
probationary period and being
voted into the gang by 100% vote,
the probate receives his colors or
patch and is accepted as a full
member
PROGRAM Prison To participate in work, school,
vocational training, or a self-help
group
PROPER Street Gang Looks good
PROPHETS Satanists Senior brothers and sisters
PROSPECT Texas
Syndicate
Recruit material
PROSPECT Bikers Synonymous with probate or
stricker, see Probate
C
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k
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b
u
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N
O
W
!
P
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!
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1973
PROVISIONAL
MASTER
Satanists Lieutenants; leaders
PRUNO Prison Prison-made alcoholic drink
PSYCO Street Gang Crazy
PUFER Street Gang Cocaine smoker
PUGGIN Street Gang A fighter; involved in a fight
PULL A TRAIN Bikers For a girl to have sequential
sexual intercourse with each man
in a group, in any way chosen by
the man
PULLING YOU ON Street Gang Make a fool of you
PUNK Street Gang A homosexual; a snitch; an inmate
not generally trusted or accepted
by the population
PUNK Prison Gang An inexperienced criminal; a
young male playing the female
part
PUNTAS Chicano Needle
PUPPY Jamaican
Posse
Gun
PURO CACA Chicano Pure bullshit
PURPLE WINGS Bikers Earned when the wearer performs
oral sex with a dead woman
PUSH AND PULL AB Bull
PUSSYCLOT Jamaican
Posse
Unpleasant
PUT EM IN CHECKStreet Gang Discipline someone
PUT IN A CROSS Prison To be cauight in a situation in
which there appears to be no safe
way out; to be jammed up
PUT IN SOME Street Gang Do a shooting
C
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b
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O
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!
P
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1974
WORK
PUT THAT ON
THE SET
Street Gang Affirm that youre telling the truth
PUTO Chicano Male prostitute; homosexual
PUTO MARK Chicano Symbol for Puto; whore, queer,
homosexual, fag, gay; the lowest
put-down, sufficient to kill a
person; same implications as
crossing out graffiti; an open
challenge
PUTO SNIZZLE Chicano Snitch, informant
PYB BGD Powerful Young Brothers
PYRAMID Peoples
Nation
The three corners of the triangle
represent physical, mental, and
spiritual knowledge
C
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N
O
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!
P
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1975
PYRAMID Street Gang A number of black street gangs
use this symbol, which signifies
where we came from; built by
Allah; each bricks hoping to reach
Allah; each brick is a sign of
strength; the pyramid is also a
shelter, the bricks are the
sacrificed black stones
Terms using Q
TERM ORIGIN MEANING
QUARANTINE Prison Segregation
QUE GACHO Chicano Bummer; bad scene; bad
experience
QUE PASO Chicano What happened? (not slang)
QUEEN Street Gang Female member of a gang
QUEEN Prison A transvestite; also known as
a lady or girl
QUEER Prison A sexual pervert
QUETE Chicano Gun; refers to any firearm
QUICK
DISCHARGE
AB Get killed
Terms using R
TERM ORIGIN MEANING
C
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N
O
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!
P
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!
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1976
RABBIT HEADS Street Gang Vice Lords and Latin Kings--
straight ears; Simon City
Royals--bent ears
RACK Prison Operate a mechanism to
open or close a cell door
RACK Street Gang To steal
RACKING Street Gang Stealing
RAFA Chicano Rule; we rule; we control
RAG Street Gang Gang symbol; color of gang
handkerchief
RAILROAD
STATION
Prison Gang Court
RAIN AND
THUNDER
Prison Gang Trouble with the Mexican
Mafia
RAIN CHECK Prison Parole
RAISE Street Gang To leave
RAJAR Chicano To open up; to squeal
RAMBO GAUGE Street Gang Sawed-off pump shotgun
RAMFLA Chicano Car
RAN UP ON Street Gang To rob in a sneak attack
RANFLA Chicano Car
RANGE Prison Gang Institution; a row or tier of
cells; institution
RANK Chicano To deny ones gang or
neighborhood
RAP PARTNER Prison Accomplice in a criminal
act; fall partner
RAPO Prison An inmate convicted of rape
RAS TAFARI Jamaican
Posse
Haile Selassi, the Lion of
Judah and head of the Ras
Tafarian faith
C
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!
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1977
RAS CLOT Jamaican
Posse
Worse than a bloodclot (see
Bloodclot)
RASBERRY Street Gang Female who takes anything
for sex; male who trades
sex for crack
RAT Prison An informer
RATON Chicano Label for informer; snitch;
rat
RATPACK Prison To gang up on someone
RATTLING JAR AB Car
RAYADO Santeria On who has been cut in
Palo, when the initiate
receives the tribal cuts of
the Bantus on certain parts
of his body
READING &
WRITING
AB Fighting
REAL ESTATE Prison The buying and selling of
bunk space in four-man cells
RECORD SHOP BGF Hospital
RECRUIT Crips Workers
RECRUITING Street Gang Looking for good-looking
girls
RED Street Gang The color with which the
Bloods gang usually
identifies
RED CROSS Bikers earned by committing
homosexual fellatio with
witnessess present
RED EYE Street Gang Hard stare
C
lic
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b
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O
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!
P
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1978
RED RAGS Bloods Adams Family
RELAJE Chicano Snitch
RED WINGS Bikers Earned when the wearer
performs oral sex on a
menstruating white woman
REEFER Prison Marijuana cigarettes ar
marijuana itself
REFIN Chicano Food
C
lic
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b
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y
N
O
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!
P
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C
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!
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1979
REFINAR Chicano To eat
REG NS Regiment
RELATIVE Street Gang Fellow Bloods member
REPUBLIC OF NEW
AFRIKA
Terrorists A terrorists group
RESPONDERS Satanists Person at ritual who states
the natures of Lucifer and
Christ
REYES Street Gang Name for a member of the
Latin Kings gang
RIATA Chicano Outfit
RIDE Street Gang Car
RIDE ON Street Gang To drive to rival
neighborhood for a shooting
RIDE ON
SOMEBODY
General To seek someone out as a
target of some violent act,
usually retribution
RIDERS Prison Gang Bikers
RIDGE RUNNER Prison A woodsman, or hillbilly
RIFA Chicano Rule; rein; we control; we
are the best; marijuana
RIFAMOS Chicano Rule; we rule; control
RIFER Chicano Marijuana; marijuana
cigarette
RIG Street Gang Combination of hypodermic
needle, bottle cap, and a
string of nylon, used to tie
off the arm before injecting
drugs
C
lic
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b
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!
P
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1980
RIGHT HAND PATH Satanists In mysticism and the occult,
the esoteric path associated
with spiritualism
illumination; the path of
light, as distinct from the
left-hand path of darkness,
which equates with evil,
bestiality, and black magic
Righteous Street Gang True, affirimative answer
Righteous Chicano Good Friend
Rings Jamican
Posse
Gun and bullets
C
lic
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b
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N
O
W
!
P
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!
P
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1981
RIP OFF Street Gang Steal; take
RINSE AND SHINE AB Wine
RNA Terrorists A terrorists group; the
Republic of New Afrika
ROAD DOG Street Gang Close friend
ROBINS NF A Nuestra Familia term for
Norhern Structure members
ROCK General Crystallized cocaine; rock
cocaine
ROCK HOUSE Street Gang Place where rock cocaine is
sold
ROCK STAR Street Gang Cocaine prostitute
ROCK AND
BOULDER
AB Shoulder
ROCKBOYS Street Gang Cobrastones; Black P Stones
(Chicago)
ROCKS Street Gang Cobra Stone (Chicago)
RODE ON Street Gang Went to another
neighborhood and attacked
a gang
ROLAS Chicano Records
ROLL-EM Street Gang To assault and rob; robbery
ROL EM UP Street Gang Arrested; forced out of
scene
ROLLIN Street Gang Doing well; have a nice car
ROLLIN GOOD Street Gang Selling drugs
ROO-RAH Street Gang Loud talking
ROOSTER Street Gang Piru
ROOTIN TOOTER AB Fruiter
C
lic
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b
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O
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!
P
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C
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!
P
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1982
ROOTS Jamaican
Posse
Pure Raggae; the most
spiritual music
ROSCO(E) Street Gang Gun; firearm; usually a
handgun
ROSES RED AB Bed
RU Street Gang Piru member
RUCA Chicano Old lady, usually the wife;
gang chick
RUCO Prison Gang Man
RUDEBOYS Jamaican
Posse
Young Ras Tafarians
RUG HEAD Prison Gang Negroes
RUKA Chicano Old lady, usually the wife;
lady; gang chick
RUMBLE Prison Rumor
RUN Bikers A club-sanctioned outing for
a day, weekend, or week, to
a certain location for a
party, camping, or special
event; sometimes with
other chapters or clubs
RUN IT INTO THE
GROUND
Prison Gang Riot; fight
RUNES Satanists A secret language, of which
there are several types
RUNIC Satnaists A code used to disguise
messages
RUNNING STORE Prison An illegal operation,
wherein an inmate sells
other inmates items at
prices often twice as much
C
lic
k
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b
u
y
N
O
W
!
P
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F-XChan
g
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k
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C
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k
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b
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!
P
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1983
as what they cost at the
commissary
RUSH Street Gang Ability to sweet talk girls;
chrome, spoke rims; wheels
RUSHED Street Gang Attacked
Terms using S
TERM ORIGIN MEANING
C
lic
k
t
o
b
u
y
N
O
W
!
P
D
F-XChan
g
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C
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O
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!
P
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1984
S/ Northern
Structure
Security
SORT Federal Prison Special Operations
Response Team
SABBATS Satanists Holy days for Satanists
(each individuals birthfay
is also considered a holy
day for that individual)
SABES QUE ESE? Chicano You know what, man?
SACATE Chicano Marijuana
SACKETT Prison Gang Member of the Aryan
Brotherhood
SAFE HOUSE Street Gang A house where large
amounts of drugs and
money are stored; usually
only select members have
access to the house
SAGGIN Street Gang Wearing pants very low;
gangstering
SALLY PORT Prison A specially designed and
controlled enterance or
exit, using two interlocked
doors and gates
SALT BGF Hacksaw blades
SAMMY DAVIS,
JR.
BGF Boot licking
SAN QUENTIN Crips Georgetown
SANCHO Chicano Wifes boyfriend
C
lic
k
t
o
b
u
y
N
O
W
!
P
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F-XChan
g
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C
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k
t
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b
u
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N
O
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!
P
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1985
SANTA BARBARA Marielitos The most popular Mariel
tattoo; syncretized to the
African God Chango, who
is the patron of fire,
thunder, and lightning;
identifiable by the chalice
in the right hand, sword in
the left, and a crown like a
parapet
SANTERIA Santeria A Latin-American cult
practiced by most
Marielitos and based on
the religious and magical
practices of the Yorubas;
worshipping orishas
syncretized as Catholic
saints
SANTERO Santeria An inmate and practioner
of Santeria
SANTO Santeria A Yoruban orisha,
syncretized as a Catholic
saint
SANTUARIO Santeria Brazillian version of
Santeria
SATIN DISCIPLES Street Gang White Disciple members
(Chicago)
SAVANAS Chicano Spanish for sheets;
whites; Caucasian
C
lic
k
t
o
b
u
y
N
O
W
!
P
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F-XChan
g
e
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k
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C
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k
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b
u
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N
O
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!
P
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1986
SAW Bloods Sucker
SC NS Squad commission;
administration
SCAM Street Gang To acquire illegitimately
SCAM Prison Gang Information
SCANDALOUS Street Gang Deadbeat person; bad
person
SCANK Street Gang Deadbeat person; bad
person
SCHOOL Crips Park
SCHOOL THEM Prison Gang Tell or instruct them
SCR Street Gang Simon City Royals gang
(also the Royal Disciples,
Royal Northside Disciples,
Royal Popes); a white
power organization which
dabbles in Satanism;
tattoo of SCR found on
members (Chicago)
SCRAPPLE Prison Prison food
SCRATCH Street Gang Embarrassed
SCREW Prison A prison officer
SCREWDRIVER Prison A prison official, usually
the captain
SCRIPT Prison Money
SEARCH Bloods Odyssey
SECRETARIO Latin Kings Secretary of a Latin Kings
chapter who is responsible
for distributing literature,
and keeping records of
trials and actions taken by
C
lic
k
t
o
b
u
y
N
O
W
!
P
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F-XChan
g
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w
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w
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k
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C
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k
t
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b
u
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N
O
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!
P
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1987
the Crown Council
SEEN Jamaican PosseDo you see?; Do you
understand?
SEG Federal Prison Disciplinary segregation;
punishment cell
SEGREGATED Prison Confined apart from others
SELDOM SEEN AB Limousine
C
lic
k
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o
b
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N
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W
!
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1988
SELL OUT Street Gang To sell out ones race
SEND Bloods Casper
SEND FLICK OF
YOUR FAMILY
Prison Gang Let me know who the NF
members are
SEPERATE Federal Prison An inmate who is not
allowed to be housed in
the same institution as
another certain inmate
(usually one testified
against the other or they
have a documented,
serious adversarial
relationship)
SERVE Street Gang To sell drugs
SET Street Gang Gang neighborhood; a
member refers to his gang
as a set of a larger nation
of gangs; (see Nation);
sometimes refers to a
neighborhood
SHAKEDOWN Prison Search
SHANK Federal Prison A sharp instrument used
primarily to stab or cut an
inmate
SHEEP Bikers Same as Mama
SHERM(ED) Street Gang PCP
SHINE ON Prison To deceive by ignoring or
not addressing the issue
SHIT Federal Prison A term that could indicate
a knife; to prepare for a
fight or drugs; common
C
lic
k
t
o
b
u
y
N
O
W
!
P
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C
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P
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1989
usage--Im going after my
shit
SHIT STEM Jamaican Posse Society, the system
SHITTER Prison A water closet; a cell
toilet
SHIV State Prison A sharp instrument used
primarily to stab an
inmate
SHOOTER Street Gang Enforcer
SHOOTY Jamaican Posse Shotgun
SHOT Federal Prison A misconduct report
SHOTCALLER Street Gang Person in charge
SIDE BUST Chicano Fight
C
lic
k
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o
b
u
y
N
O
W
!
P
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C
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N
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!
P
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1990
SIEMPRE Chicano Always, forever, (not slang)
SIGNING Street Gang Members identify
themselves by signing with
their hands in gestures
similar to the alphabet for
the deaf
SILVER DEVILS BGD The police
SILVERY MOON AB Spoon
SIMON Chicano Yes
SIMPLE SIMON AB Diamond
SISSY BARS Bikers Bars, often high bars on
the rear of a motorcycle
used as a back rest for a
passenger
SISSY BLADE Federal Prison Refers to a sharpened
instrument made from a
toothbruch handle with a
razor blade melted into it;
used to frighten
unsophisticated inmates
into surrendering personal
property or sexual favors
SISSYS Prison Effeminate homosexuals
SISTERS ALICES
BAKERS
Prison Gang Aryna Brotherhood
SIX-FO OR 6-4 Street Gang 1964 Chevy
SKATE LACES Street Gang Tied up and down the right
side for Disciples; tied up
and down on the left side
for Vice Lords; tied up
halfway on the opposite
C
lic
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b
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N
O
W
!
P
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F-XChan
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C
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!
P
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1991
side denotes putdown to
that gang
SKEEZER Street Gang Ugly girl
SKIN SEARCH Prison An intensive search
technique in which the
inmate must remove all
clothes
SKINNY CAP Street Gang Thin nozzle on a spray can
SKY PLOT AB Chaplain
SKY ROCKET AB Pocket
SKYCLAD Satanists Practicing occult
ceremonies while naked
SL NS Squad leader
SLA Terrorists A terrorists group; the
Symbionese Liberation
Army
C
lic
k
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o
b
u
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N
O
W
!
P
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C
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b
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N
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!
P
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1992
SLAMMER Prison Administrative detention;
segregation; isolation; the
hole
SLANGIN KEYS Street Gang Selling dope
SLANGING Street Gang Selling cocaine on the
street
SLAUSONS Street Gang At one time, the largest
black LA street gang
SLAY AND SLEW AB Jew
SLIMS Street Gang An insult for the Swans (a
Bloods set)
SLING/SLANG Street Gang To sell drugs
SLIP AND SLICK AB Dick
SLIPPIN Street Gang Being careless, not
watching your back
SLIPPING IN
DARK
AB Getting started
SLOB ON THE
KNOB
Street Gang Oral sex
SLOBS Crips Disrespectful way of
addressing a Bloods
member
SM NS Squad member
SMACK Prison Heroin
SMOKE EM Street Gang To kill someone
SMOKED OUT Street Gang Addiction has caused a
loss of muscle; cocaine
user; weak
SMOKER Street Gang A person who smokes
coke
SMOOTH AND AB Stuff
C
lic
k
t
o
b
u
y
N
O
W
!
P
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C
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P
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1993
RUFF
SMU-GJB Terrorists A terrorists group; the Sam
Melville Unit of the George
Jackson Brigade
SMURF Street Gang Leader of the Simon City
Royals (was gunned down)
C
lic
k
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o
b
u
y
N
O
W
!
P
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C
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N
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!
P
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1994
SNAPS Street Gang Money
SNITCH Prison An inforner; fink; rat; stool
pigeon
SNITCH JACKET Prison An inmate labeled as an
informant (as in, to have a
snitch jacket hung on you)
SNITCHED OFF Prison Betrayed by an informer
SNIZZLE Chicano Snitch
SNM Prison Gang Sindicato Nuevo Mexica or
the New Mexico Syndicate;
the New Mexico chapter of
the Mexican Mafia
SNOOVERS Street Gang An insult for the Hoover
Street Crips
SNOW BUNNY Street Gang White girl friend
SO MEX Crips Fender bender
SOFTTIME Prison Easy jail sentence
SOLDADO NS Soldier
SOLDADOS NF Spanish for soldiers; used
by the Nuestra Familia
SOLDIER Chicano What a Spanish gang
member calls himself
SOLEDAD Bloods Dry land
SOLID TEARDROP Street Gang The solid teardrop means
death of a close family
member; some Jamaicans
and Cubans also use the
teardrop
SOLITARY
CONFINEMENT
Prison Housed apart from others in
a single cell
SOP Street Gang Standard operating
C
lic
k
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b
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N
O
W
!
P
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P
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1995
procedure
SOUP COOLERS Prison Big lips
SPACE BASE Street Gang PCP; rock cocaine
SPEAR Bloods Pop
C
lic
k
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b
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y
N
O
W
!
P
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C
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P
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1996
SPEED Prison Amphetamines
SPEED Street Gang Common name for LSD
SPEED BALL Street Gang Combination of herion and
cocaine
SPLIFF Jamaican Posse A joint; one ounce = four
spliffs (pronounced spleef)
SPRAYED Street Gang Shooting multiple bullets at
someone
SPRINGS Street Gang Vehicle
SPRUNG Street Gang A person addicted to coke
SQ NS Squad
SQUAB Street Gang To fight
SQUARE Street Gang Cigarette
SQUARE JOHN Prison One with no prison
experience
SQUENTAR Chicano Leave; split
SQUIRREL Prison A mentally ill inmate
SR Street Gang Status report
SRIW Supremacists Super Race Is White
SS Street Gang Sight and sound
STACK Street Gang To put someone away; save
it (usually money)
STALL IT OUT Street Gang Stop; dont do it
STANK Street Gang Dirty girl
STAR Peoples Nation Symbolizes the eye of Allah
watching over his people
C
lic
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b
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N
O
W
!
P
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C
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!
P
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1997
STAR Street Gang Black Gangster Disciple
reference to Life, Love,
Loyalty, Wisdom,
Knowledge, and
Understanding
STARS Street Gang Six-pointed refers to
Disciples and affiliates; five-
pointed refers to Vice Lords
and El Rukns
STASH Prison Hidden drugs or contraband
STATIC Bikers Trouble or harassment from
law enforcement authorities
or members of other
motocycle clubs
STEEP Jamaican Posse Hot
STEP Jamaican Posse Move on something
STICK Prison To stab
STIFF AND ERECT AB Neck
STONE CUP Prison Considered by inmatesto be
a firm but fair correctional
officer or staff member
STONE DING Prison An inmate who is obviously
insane
STONE INMATE Prison An inmate respected by
other inmates
STOOL PIGEON Prison An informer
STOOLIE Prison Stool pigeon
STORE Prison Inmate store; commissary
STORM AND
STRIFE
AB Wife
STRAIGHT Prison Conventional; law abiding
C
lic
k
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b
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N
O
W
!
P
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P
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1998
STRAIGHT OUT Street Gang Honest; truthfully speaking
STRAIGHT
SHOOTER
Street Gang Metal pipe (usually a car
antenna) used to smoke
crack
STRAPPED Street Gang Armed with a gun
STRAWBERRY Street Gang A female who does sexual
acts for cocaine
STREET BITCH Prison An inmates current
homosexual friend who acts
as a walkie
STREETS Bloods Solid blue
STREETS Prison The free world; outside the
prison
STRIKER Bikers A prospective member;
normally used by Canadian
C
lic
k
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b
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N
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W
!
P
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C
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P
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1999
clubs
STUPID FRESH Street Gang Superlatively good
SUCCUBUS Satanists A female demonic force
who copulates with human
males
SUCK TO THE
BALLS
Bikers Talk or act friendly
towards policeman
SUFFERIN NEED
BUFFERIN
Street Gang Having Problems
SUGAR DADDY Prison Gang The NF leader at any
particular prison
SUN Vice Lords The rising of truth in the
black nation
SUPERMARKET BGF Killed or dead
SUR Chicano South; southern California
SURENO Chicano A southern Hispanic
SURFER Street Gang A non-minority individual,
sometimes involved in
gang activity; a white
individual
SUSANS PAD AB Susanville
SUSANVILLE Crips Ohio State
SWP Skinheads Skinhead White Power or
Supreme White Power
SYNDICATOS Prison Gang Texas Syndicate
C
lic
k
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b
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N
O
W
!
P
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C
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!
P
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2000
Terms which start with the letter T
TERMS ORIGIN MEANING
T/W Northern
Structure
Tier Watch
T AREA Federal Prison The front portion of a prison
cellblock or living unit where
all locations of the unit can be
accessed.
TACO BELL Bloods Take All Crips Out- Bloods
Evenentually Live Longer
TAG Street Gangs A writers signature with
marker or paint
TAGGING Street Gang Subway-type wall writing
TAGGING UP Street Gang Written signature with marker
or paint
TAKE HIM OUT
OF THE BOX
Street Gang To kill someone, usually a
rival gang member
TAKE A FALL Prison To be imprisoned
TALCO Chicano Powder; Cocaine
TALKING FROM
THE HEART
Street Gang Making gang signs while
beating on ones chest
TALKING HEAD Street Gang Argue; want to fight
TALKING
SMACK
Street Gang Aggressive talking
TANGO AND
CASH
Street Gang Fentanyl
TANQUE Chicano Can; jail
TBZ Street Gang Tattoo of Boyz Inc. (a Rapid
City street gang)
C
lic
k
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o
b
u
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N
O
W
!
P
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C
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!
P
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2001
TDC General Texas Department of
Corrections
TEENAGER Street Gang 1/16 of ounce of cocaine
TEETH Jamaican
Posse
Bullets
TEHACHAPI Crips Candy store
TEJANO Texas
Syndicate
Spanish for Texas (not slang)
C
lic
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b
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N
O
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!
P
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C
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!
P
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2002
TEJAS Chicano Spanish for Texas (not slang)
TERONES Chicano Bones; blacks
TESORERO Latin Kings Treasurer of a Latin Kings
chapter
TEXAS
SYNDICATE
Bloods Cowboys
TG Street Gang Tiny gangster
THATS HARD Street Gang Cool
THE BOYZ
INCORPORATED
Street Gang An American Indian gang; TBZ,
Inc.
THE MAN Bikers Police or Law Enforcement
Officier
THE MASTER Street Gang A Tattoo used by the Latin
Kings gang, which appears as
a Kings head with a crown
THEBAN Satanists An alphabet used by Satanic
cults
THESE AND
THOSE
AB Toes
THROW DOWN Street Gang Fight
THROW UP Street Gang A quickly-painted name
THUGS Prison Experienced inmates who are
often aggressive or non-
compliant with staff requests
or directions
THUMPER Street Gang Gun
THUMPERS Prison Inmate-made brass knuckles
TICKET Prison Inmates record or discipline
report
TICKET TO
LUGOS PAD
Prison Gang Slated to be killed
C
lic
k
t
o
b
u
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N
O
W
!
P
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C
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!
P
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2003
TIER Prison Row of cells constructed
above each other
TINTO Chicano Black
C
lic
k
t
o
b
u
y
N
O
W
!
P
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!
P
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2004
TIP Chicano Gang; more often used to refer
to a prison gang
TIP Prison Gang Group or gang
TIP AB Older term used to identify the
Aryan Brotherhood; gang in
general
TIP TOE
THROUGH
YOUR TULIPS
Prison Gang Transfered to your institution
TIT FOR TAT AB Rat
TLM Street Gang Lynchmen (Rapid City, South
Dakota)
TORCH BG To light the way for my nation
TO THE CLUB Street Gang Bad; disrespect; bad position
to be in; doesnt belong; non-
conformist
TOCHES Chicano Whites
TOCIDO Chicano Twisted; to be arrested; busted
TOMBS Prison Gang Any jail or prison
TOMBS FRY AB Tie
TOMMY TOY AB Boy
TONTO Chicano Dummy
TOO HEAVY
FOR PONY
EXPRESS
Prison Gang Have to be smuggled in; letter
with information not to be
seenby staff; cant be put in
regular mail
TOOL Jamaican
Posse
Gun
TORCIDO Chicano Locked up; jailed in prison;
California Youth Authority;
juvenile hall
C
lic
k
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b
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N
O
W
!
P
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C
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!
P
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2005
TORCIDO POR
NADA
Chicano Im busted for nothing
TORE YOUR
DROUSE
Street Gang Have a dispute
TOSS UP Street Gang Girl used for sex
C
lic
k
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o
b
u
y
N
O
W
!
P
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C
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N
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!
P
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2006
TOTAL Chicano All the way
TOUGH TIME Prison Difficult jail sentence
TOY Street Gang Inexerienced or incompetent
writer
TRACK 13 Prison Life sentence
TRACY Crips Havard SState
TRAITOR Crips Shark
TRANS Jamaican
Posse
Car
TRANSFER Crips Rollers
TRAY EIGHT Street Gang .38 caliber gun
TRECE Chicano Thirteen (see SUR, not slang)
TRES Chicano Three (not slang)
TREY EIGHT Street Gang .38 caliber handgun
TRICK Street Gang Sissy
TRICK BAG Street Gang Mislead a person; phoney
TRICKING Prison Prostitution
TRIP Street Gang Too much; something else
TRIPPED Prison Stabbed or stuck; fell down
TRIPPING Street Gang Making mental errors
TRIPPLE O/G Street Gang Third generation gangster
TRUCHA Chicano Be on the look-out; be cautious;
watch out; get with it
C
lic
k
t
o
b
u
y
N
O
W
!
P
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C
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N
O
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!
P
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2007
TS Texas
Syndicate
Texas Syndicate
TSN Street Gang The Six Nation (Chicago)
TT Northern
Structure
Tier tender
TU Chicano You (not slang)
TURF Street Gang The territorial limits of a gang
TURKISH Street Gang Heavy ornamental gold jewelry
TURN OUT Bikers When all members come
together in the case of an
initiation for a new member, or
for a girl to pull a train for the
first time
TURNED OUT Prison Sexually assaulted, usually by
another inmate of the same sex
TURNKEY State Prison A correctional officier
TURN ON
YOUR LOVE
LIGHTS
Prison Gang Keep your eyes open
TVL Street Gang Traveling Vice Lords
TWENTY Street Gang $20 piece of crack
TWENTY
CENTS
Street Gang $20 worth of drugs
TWIST AND
TWIRL
AB Girl
Terms that begin with the letter U
C
lic
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N
O
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!
P
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C
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N
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!
P
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2008
TERM ORIGIN MEANING
U/S Northern
Structure
Unit security
U/C Northern
Structure
Undercover NF member
UBN Street Gang United Bloods Nation
UCG Crips United Crips Gang
UFF Terrorists A terrorist group; the United
Freedom Front
UGS Street Gang Bloods
UN CHINGAL Chicano A lot
UNDER
COVER
Street Gang Plain gang car
UNDERBOSS La Cosa Nostra The second-in-charge of an
organized crime family
UNDERDOGS Prison Inmates
UNDERGRAD Prison Convict
UNIT Street Gang One bag of dope
UNITED
BLOODS
NATION
Street Gang Consortium of Bloods gangs
UNITED
FREEDOM
FRONT
Terrorists A terrorist group
UP FROM
THE
SHOULDER
Street Gang To fight with fist
UP ON IT Street Gang In the know about the drug
scene; has knowledge of the
drug scene; doing well in the
drug business
C
lic
k
t
o
b
u
y
N
O
W
!
P
D
F-XChan
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C
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k
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N
O
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!
P
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2009
UPPERDOGS Prison Officers
UPPERS &
BENEATH
AB Teeth
UTVL Street Gang Undertaker Vice Lords
UVL Street Gang Unknown Vice Lords (Chicago)
UZI Street Gang Any semi-automatic handgun
Terms that begin with the letter V
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2010
TERM ORIGIN MEANING
V STAR L Vice Lords Tattoo found between the thumb
and forefinger of some Vice Lord
Members
VACAVILLE Crips Magic Mountain
VALENTINE Prison Short sentence
VAN GUARDS Bloods Flintstones
VAPORS Street Gang Fumes from free-base smoking
VARRIO Chicano Neighborhood; gang (most of the
time)
VASO Chicano Glass (not slang)
VATO Chicano Man/boy; guy; Chicanos refer to
each other as Vatos
VATO LOCO Chicano Gangster; person whos with it;
crazy dude
VATOS Chicano Guys
VAYU Satanists A blue circle representing air (see
Tejas)
VENDIDOS Chinaco One who has sold out; turncoat;
usually applied to Chicano or
Hispanics working for the
establishment
VESDA Chicano Marijuana; weed
VETERANO Street Gang The oldest of gang members;
veteran; former member
VICKY LOUS Street Gang Disciple put-down for Vice Lords
VIDA LOCA Chicano Crazy life;street life; seen as a
tattoo
VIOLATION Street Gang To break a gang rule and receive
punishment
VISA Chicano Vice president; arm
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2011
VISIT Crips Gong show
VISIT Bloods Fantasy island
VISIT LUGO Prison Gang Killed
VISITING Crips Work shack
VISITING ROOMBloods Dreamland
VIVA Chicano Live; (not slang); used as long live
VL Street Gang Renegade Vice Lords (Chicago)
VLK BGD Vice Lord Killers
VOODOO Satanists A religion involving the practice
of sorcery; participation in rituals
with communication with spirits
Terms that begin with the letter W
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2012
TERM ORIGIN MEANING
WACHA Chicano Look; see here
WACK Street Gang PCP
WACKED Street Gang High on PCP
WACKED Prison High on drugs
WACKY TOBACCY Street Gang Marijuana
WAD UP Street Gang Stoned; high on drugs or
alcohol
WAK Street Gang Substandard or incorrect
graffiti art
WALKIE Prison A specific inmate who closely
associates with another
inmate; one who occupies a
male friend role or a
homosexual role
WALLS Prison Prison; the joint
WALPURGIS Satanists Celtic pre-Christian Spring
Festival (May 1); major witch
Sabbath
WANNABES/WANT
TO
BES/WANTABE
Prison Gangs Those seeking membership in
a gang; often more ruthless
than actual members, since
they are trying to impress the
gang to gain admission
WAR WAGON Bikers Vehicle used to transport the
clubs arsenal during an outing
when trouble is expected from
other clubs
WARRIORS Santeria Eleggus, Oggun, Ochosi, Osun
WASH Street Gang White American Skin Heads
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2013
WATCHA TE Chicano Watch out
WATCHA Chicano Look; see here
WATER Street Gang PCP
WAVE Street Gang Short; close-cropped hair
WERE DOWN
WITH THE SET
Street Gang Mellow; fine; secure; OK
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2014
WEARING THE
BRAND
Prison Wearing the gangs tattoo
WEATHER
UNDER-GROUND
ORGANIZATION
Terrorists A terrorist group; the
Weathermen
WEATHERMEN Terrorist A terrorist group; originated
with the Weather Underground
Organization
WEED Bloods Jaws
WEED General Marijuana
WEEPING WILLOWAB Pillow
WELLS SPRING
COMMUNE
Terrorists A Terrorist group
WETBACKS Prison Gang Nuestra Familia
WHAT IT B LIKE Street Gang Bloods member greeting
WHAT IT C LIKE Street Gang Crips member greeting
WHAT SET YOU
FROM
Street Gang What gang are you a member
of or do you claim to be from
WHATS UP Street Gang A greeting; hellow
WHATS UP G Street Gang Hellow friend
WHERE YOU
FROM
Street Gang Are you a member of a gang?
WHIP AND LASH AB Mustache`
WHIP AND
SPANKET
AB Blanket
WHITE Street Gang Imitation rock cocaine; gunk;
ivory soap
WHITE CROSS Bikers Earned when a person digs
open a grave, removes an
article from the deceased with
witnesses present and wears
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2015
it on his colors
WHITE POWER
FIST
Bikers Patch worn on colors which
displays the gangs racial
ideals and philosophies of
white supremacy
WHITE WINGS Bikers Earned when the wearer
performs oral sex on a white
woman
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2016
WHITES Bloods Smurfs
WILDSTYLE Street Gang Complicated art of interlocking
letters
WILLIAM TELL AB Cell
WINE Bloods Beach
WINGS Bikers An embleem worn by 1
percenters as a pin or patch; a
cloth attached to the colors; all
wing-earning must be
witnessed
WIRE FOR THE
HOMES
Prison Gang Letter
WISH AND HOPE AB Soap
WITCHCRAFT Satanists The practice of the old
religion which focuses on a
goddess in many forms--
Hecate, Aphrodite, Asarte,
Diana
WITSEC Federal
Prison
Witness Security; an inmate
perticipating in the witness
protection program
WKU Peoples Acronym meaning Wisdom,
Knowledge, Understanding;
used by gangs affiliated with
the Peoples Nation, especially
by the Latin Kings, Black P
Stones, and El Rukns
WOLF Prison An aggressive homosexual
WOLF-TICKET Federal
Prison
An inmate bragging about a
skill or possession or perhaps
how tough he is
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2017
WORD Street Gang Thats right; thats true
WORKED IN
FRISCO
Prison Gang Did time at San Quentin
WORKS Prison A syringe and hypoddermic
needle used for injecting drugs;
an outfit; horse and carriage
WORSE OR
BETTER
AB Letter
WR Northern
Structure
Weekly report
WRITER Street Gang Practitioner of the art of graffiti
WSC Terrorists A terrorist group; the Wells
Spring Commune
WUO Terrorists A terrorist group; Weather
Underground Organization; the
Weatherman
Terms that begin with the letter X,Y, & Z
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2018
TERM ORIGIN MEANING
XIV Northern
Structure
A Roman numeral used by
Nuestra Familia and
Northern Structure NF
members as an identifier
(N is the 14th letter of the
alphabet)
Y/P Northern
Structure
Yard Patrol
Y/S Northern
Structure
Yard security
YQUE Chicano So what? (not slang); What
are you going to do about
it?
YA BASTA Chicano Enough
YA STUVO Chicano Its over with; thats it
YARD Jamaican Posse Jamaica, West Indies
YARD Street Gang Area or place where
tagging is done
YARD Crips National City
YARD Prison The recreation yard in a
prison
YARD BIRD Prison Cleanup man assigned to
the prison yard
YARD-OUT Prison The exercise time given
prisoners in segregation
YASTY Jamacian Posse Clothes
YELLOW PAPER Jamacian Posse Counterfeit Canadian $50
bills
YELLOW WINGS Bikers Earned when the wearer
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2019
performs oral sex on an
Asian woman
YEMAYA Santeria Patron of the seas and the
motherhood; mother of 14
of the most important
orishas; including Chango;
syncretized as Our Lady of
Regla
YESCA Chicano Marijuana; weed
YEZA Santeria Tribal marks of the Yoruba
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2020
YGB BGD Young Gifted Brothers
YIERBA Chicano Grass; marijuana; herb
YO Street Gang Hello; hey
YOLKS SHRUNK Prison Gang Group is losing members
and muscle
YORK Jamaican Posse New York City or State
YORUBA Santeria Nigerian tribe whose
myths and rites are the
basis for Santeria
YOU NO SEE Jamaican Posse You dont understand
YOU PLAYED
YOURSELF
Street Gang You did yourself wrong
YUS Jamaican Posse Clothes
ZACATE Chicano Grass; marijuana
ZIPGUN Crips Payday
ZOG Skinheads Zionist Occupational
Government; refers to U.S.
Government specifically,
and authority in general
$ - Power and money
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2021
0-0 - Double ought buck shot (shot
gun)
000 - Blood
001 - Blood love
006 - Silence (used by Black Gangster
Disciples)
013 - Get him; assault someone
(Bloods)
023 - Watch your back (Bloods)
025 - What rank are you (Bloods)
031 - I am Blood
041 - Kill the Crip (Bloods)
13 - 13th letter of the alphabet-"M";
may be used for
marijuana or methamphetamine
13 or XIII or X3 - Symbolizes gangs of
Hispanic heritage
showing allegiance to Southern
California
13 1/2 - Represents: 12 jurors, one
judge, half-ass chance
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2022
14 or XIV or X4 - Used by Hispanic
gangs for Northern
California (14th letter of alphabet - N)
18 - 18th Street Gang
18th Street - Hispanic Los Angeles
street gang - aligned with
Mexican Mafia
100 Proof - The real thing
187 - California penal code for murder ;
may be seen in graffiti as a threat that
someone will be killed i.e. 187 John
Doe; may also be worn as a tattoo
1 AD 7 - See 187 above
211 - California penal code - robbery ;
also Crip term meaning Blood Killer
(2nd and 11th letters of alphabet - B K
212 - NY City telephone area code
(Manhattan); also Blood term
(Tampa, FL) meaning Blood Love
274 - Black Gangster Disciples (2nd,
7th and 4th letters of alphabet) -
B.G.D.)
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2023
2-15-19 - Brothers of Struggle (2nd
15th and 19th letters of alphabet) -
B.O.S.
2-7-4-14 - Code for Black Gangster
Disciples Nation (B.G.D.N.- 2nd, 7th,
4th and 14th letters of alphabet)
23/24 - Inmates on lockup - 23 out of
24 hours each day
24/7 or 247 - Constantly - 24 hours per
day, 7 days a week
26ers - Two Sixers - Chicago street
gang
3 - 3rd letter of alphabet: C - frequently
used by Bloods to replace the letter C
in words to disrespect the Crips i.e.
Bla3k, Mi3key 3obras
3C - 3=trey plus C - forms Spanish
word trece meaning the number 13
3 R's - Respect, Reputation, Revenge
311 - Used by Bloods meaning Crip
Killer (3rd and 11th letters of alphabet
-
C K
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2024
312 - Crip Love - 3rd and 12th letters of
alphabet - C L
360 - Folk Nation - numbers
representing "full circle of knowledge"
360 degrees - A "pure" Black Gangster
Disciple
40's - 40 ounce bottle of malt liquor
410 - Gangster Disciple code for "Folks
in battle"
420 - Gangster Disciple code for
"Disciple trouble" or "Disciples in
trouble"; Also refers to the time of day
"pot" smokers light up; sometimes
seen in graffiti
415's - Gang name taken from the
telephone area code for San
Francisco, CA area
5 - Number symbolic to People Nation
The following slang terms are Blood
terms, used to disrespect Crips and
the Folk Nation
5 BAGGIN 6/ HANGIN
5 FLAGGIN 6/ DRAGGIN
5 POPPIN 6/ DROPPIN
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2025
5 BUCKIN 6/ DUCKIN
5 FLYIN 6/ DIEIN
5 ALIVE 6/ MUST DIE
5 cKlippin 6 DRIPPIN`
5 GUNNIN`6 RUNNIN`
5 PIMPIN` 6 LIMPIN`
5 LEADIN` 6 BLEADIN`
5 in the sky.....6 must die - Revenge; a
People Nation member was killed - a
retaliation against the Folks Nation
will take place
5%, 5%er - Five Percenters
5 Percent - Five Percenters
5 Point Star - Symbolic to the People
Nation
5 Poppin, 6 Droppin - People Nation -
Term used to disrespect gangs in the
Folks Nation; People Nation (5)
members shooting at Folk Nation
(6)members
5-0 - The police
510 - Oakland, CA area code; used by
some to identify the location of their
gang or set
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2026
50/50 - Neutral; non-gang member
5150 - Refers to a California Mental
Health code; may be used to indicate
the mental status of a person. May
also indicate a threat by using the 5th
and 1st letters of the alphabet "E" and
"A" and the slang number for police
"50" to mean Eradicate All Police
6 - Number symbolic to Folk Nation
6-6-2 - MOB; Numbers represent letters
on telephone keypad
6-6-6 - Symbol for Aryan Brotherhood,
Folks and Crips; also satanic cults
6 Point Star (of David) - Symbolic to
gangs within the Folk Nation
6 Poppin, 5 Droppin - Folk Nation -
Term used to disrespect gangs in the
People Nation; Folk Nation (6)
members shooting at People Nation (5)
members
7 - Refers to the 7th letter of the
alphabet "G"; may represent G for
Gangster or G for God (Five
Percenters)
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2027
7-4 - Code for Gangster Disciples (7th
& 4th letters of alphabet) - G.D.
730 - New York State section of law
that deals with mental health
evaluations; used as Bloods code;
describes "crazies"
88 - White Supremacist - Heil Hitler
(8th letter of alphabet - H)
8-Ball - 1/8 ounce of cocaine; alliance
of Crips with the Folk Nation
911 - Warning that police are coming
NUMBERS USED AS TERMS
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2028
TERMS ORIGIN MEANING
$ Street
Gang
Money or Power
006 Black
Gangster
Disciples
(BGD)
Silence
1/4/18 BGD All Due Respect
(ADR)
1 BGD All is One
1-G Street
Gang
The year of new
teaching of King
Shorty and K
Hoover
1 OR A BGD ALLAH
1/1/15 BGD All as one
1/15 BGD As One
1% Bikers The 1% of all
motorcycle riders
who are Outlaws
10 or J BGD Justice
100
PROOF
Street
Gang
The real deal; the
genuine thing
11 0r K BDG Kingdom
Knowledge
12/20/20/3 BGD Love to the club
12 or L BGD Love
Leave
13 Chicano Used by Hispanic
gangs for
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2029
Southern
California
13 General 13th. letter of the
alphabet for
marijuana
13 Bikers Used by Bikers to
denote marijuana
or
methamphetamine
use
13 Chicano Southern
California; Loco;
letter M; Mexican
Mafia
13 Biker Meth
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2030
13 Sur Chicano Southern Califas (Southern
California)
13 1/2 Bikers Jury System
judge, 1/2 chance
14 Chicano Used by Hispanic gangs to
indicate Northern California
14 or N BGD Nation
14- Chicano Norte (Northern California)
14-Norte Chicano Norte Califas (Northern
California)
16/13 BGD Plenty much; pure master
16 or P BGD Power-People
16/16 BGD People Power
16/11 BGD Pure Knowledge
17 or Q BGD Quality
18 or R BGD Right-Righteous
Respect
187 Street Gang Penal code for murder in
California; to kill someone
(usually in graffiti)
19 OR S BGD Self-Savior
Struggle-Star
2 HI Street Gang Used by Black P Stone
Nation and El Rukns;
indicates
to be a street gang and are
more of an organization of
black unity and power
2/15/20/19BGD Brothers of the Struggle
2/4/14 BGD BDN (Black Disciple Nation)
2/7/4/14 BGD BGDN (Black Gangster
C
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2031
Disciple Nation)
2 OR B BGD Be-Born-Brother
20 CENTSStreet Gang $20 worth of cocaine
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2032
20/13 BGD Too much
20 OR T BGD True-Truth-To
(thing)
21/23/19 BGD United we stand
21 OR U BGD Universe-Unity
Understanding
22 OR V BGD Victory
23 OR W BGD Wisdom-With
24-7 Street Gang 24 hours a day, 7 days a
week
25 OR Y BGD Why-You
26 OR Z BGD Zig-Zag-Zig-
Out
3 OR C BGD See-Cobra-Club
360 BGD Knowledge
360
DEGREES
BGD King Strong Nation
4 Street Gang Female
4 OR D BGD Divine-Disciple
Death-Dishoner
410 BGD Wisdom
411 Street Gang Information about somebody
412 BGD Understanding
415S Bloods Wacky racers
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2033
415S Crips Easy walks
430 BGD Roll with no questions asked
4CH Street Gang Four Corner Hustlers; a faction of the
Vice Lords (Chicago)
5 BGD Our left side
5 OR E BGD Equity-Equality
5-POINT
STAR
Peoples Used as identification by gangs of the
Peoples nation, the points stand for
Truth, Peace, Justice, Love and
Freedom
5-0 Street Gang Police
50 Street Gang 1988 Mustang
56 BGD Left Over Right
500 Street Gang BMW
55 BGD Drink
6 OR F BGD Father- Folks
6-POINT Folks Folks identifier
6
POPPIN
5
DROPPIN
Street Gang 6 shooting guns- 5 die
6 Street Gang White
6 BGD Our Nation number; Folks
6006 BGD Fully silent
66 BGD Tac
666 Satanists Mark of the beast
666 Bikers Mark of Satan
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2034
7 OR G BGD God
7/20 BGD Hoover Thang
720 BGD Pure black
and blue
hearts
77 Street Gang Smoke
8 General H. the eighth
letter of the
alphabert;
heroin
8 OR H BGD He/ Her/
Hoover
8-TRACK Street Gang 2 1/2 grams of
cocaine
88 Street Gang Girl or
cocaine
88 White
Supremacist
Heil Hitler
9 Mike Street Gang 9 mm.
handgun
9/12/25/23/21BGD I leave you
with
understanding
Efe - Spanish for letter "F" - refers
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2035
to Nuestra Familia prison gang
E-Ricketts - Enemy; Crips
Easy walkers - Tennis shoes
Eight ball - 1/8 ounce of cocaine
El Rukns - Black street gang
(originally Black P Stone Nation)
Eme - Spanish for letter "M" - refers
to Mexican Mafia priso gang
Emi - Name sometimes used by
Mexikanemi prison gang
Ene Efe - Spanish for letters "N" &
"F"; refers to Nuestra Familia
prison gang
Enforcer - Gang member who
disciplines members for rules
violations
Ese - Hispanic slang - "Hey, man";
"Hey, dude
Ese vato - Hispanic slang - "Hey,
dude"; that person
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2036
Esseys - Black street gang slang
for Hispanics
Everything is everything - It's all
right
Expect Rain/Thunder - Expect
trouble
~F~
FTW - Fuck The World; term
believed to have been originated
by bikers but now commonly used
by others
F-14 Bulldogs - California prison
gang with street gang chapters;
Origin: Fresno, CA (14 represents
Northern CA.)
False Flagging - Flashing a sign or
symbol by a non-gang member
Ferria - Spanish for loose change;
money
Fila - Knife
Five Nine Brims - Blood rules; 59
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2037
Brims-San Diego Blood set
Five Percenters - A group that
teaches that the Black man is God
Flaco - Spanish for "skinny"; used
as nick name
Flag - Gang colors
Flashing - Displaying hand signs
Floatin - Driving fast
Floss - To show off
Flue - Derogatory term for color
"blue"
Flying the flag - Wearing the gang
colors
Folks Nation - An alliance of many
gangs; all gangs of this nation use
symbols or other identifers on the
right side of the body
Foot soldiers - Lowest rank in the
set, crew, etc.
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2038
Four five - 45 caliber semi-
automatic pistol
Free air - Released from jail or
prison
Friday 13th - Attica Prison (NY)
Frog - A girl with no morals (hops
into bed with anyone)
From womb to tomb - Blood 4 Life
Fugly - Extremely ugly
Full gear - Blood colors (red)
~G~
G - Slang for "gangster" - for
members of the Five Percenters,
letter "G" represents a belief that
5%ers are God
G27 - Prison gang formed in Puerto
Rico - has reached U.S. east coast
and may be found in several prison
systems
GD - Gangster Disciples; also
Growth and Development for
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2039
political reasons
GKB - Gangsta Killer Bloods
Gage - Shot gun
G-ride - A stolen vehicle
Game - Criminal activity
Gang bang - To fight with rival
gang members
Gang banger - Gang member
Gang banging - Involved in gang
activity; usually criminal
Gangsta - Term for "gangster"
Ganja - Marijuana
Gauge - Shotgun
G Down - To get dressed up
Gear - Clothing
Get down - Fighting
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2040
Generic - A fake
Get jammed - To be accosted
Get off the gate - Get it on: to start
fighting
Getting Busy - Doing drive-by
shootings, robberies, etc.
Get some gone - Get out of my face
Gettin some digits - Getting
someone's telephone number
Ghetto Star - Drug dealer; A "hood"
celebrity
Ghost - To disappear; get lost
Gig - A gang gathering (party,
dance)
Give him the big picture - meaning
to "hit" someone
Give him a bus ticket home -
meaning to "hit" someone
Ghost Town - Bronx, NY
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2041
G-name - Gang members street
name or monicker
Glass house - A four door
automobile (lots of windows or
ports))
God Body - A name sometimes
used by members of the Five
Percenters when referring to
themselves or another member
Going Off - Acting crazy
Going on line - To join a gang
Got it going on - A successful
person; successful gangster
Graffiti - Signs, symbols, writings,
defining a gang's neighborhood,
turf, or territory
G-ster - Short for gangster
~H~
H8 - Hate; "H" plus eight = hate
HBS - Hanging, Banging, Slanging;
Hanging out, Banging, Selling dope
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2042
HPL - Hermanos de Pistoleros
Latinos - Hispanic prison gang
Ham sandwich - Derogatory term
for Muslims
Hardcore - Extreme; big time
gangster
Hardcore gang member - May be
the leader; usually the most violent
and street wise
Heart - Courage
Hermanos de Pistoleros Latinos -
Hispanic prison gang
He's from no where - No gang
affiliation
High numbers - Large
denominations of money
High rollin - Making money; dealing
in drugs
High roller - Usually the leaders
who control the drug dealing;
those who reap the profits
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2043
Hittin up - Putting up graffiti
Holding down - Controlling turf or
an area
Holding Aces - I'm unarmed; I need
a gun
Holmes - Home boy
Home boy - A fellow gang member
from the same neighborhood
Home grown - Born in the hood; a
brother from the South
Homey - homie From the same
neighborhood; a fellow gang
member
Homos - Derogatory term for etas
Hood - Neighborhood; a gangster
Hood Rat - A Black prostitute on
crack cocaine
Hooked up - Affiliated with a gang
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2044
Hook me up - Set up a deal
Hyna - Girl friend (used by
Hispanics)
IG - Imperial Gangsters street gang
GC - Insane Gangster Crip (west
coast)
INP - International Posse; a
multicultural Florida based gang
Inca - Highest ranking officer in the
Latin Kings
Indios - Spanish for "indian"; used
by Barrio Azteca towards fellow
gang members
Insane Gangster Crips - West coast
set
In the clouds - High on drugs
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2045
In the mix - Gang activity
~J~
J-1 - Penal code for murder in
Kansas
Jacked - Robbed - usually at gun
point
Jacked up - Beaten or assaulted
Jammed - Confronted
Jefe - Spanish for "boss" or "chief"
Jet - To run away
Jive - Used instead of "five" by
Black Gangster Disciples
Jive Percenter - Used by Five
Percenters for someone who does
not truly represent the Five
Percenters
Joto - Spanish for "homosexual"
Juice - Respect
Jumped in - Initiation into a gang
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2046
Jumped out - Process of leaving a
gang; usually requires person to
survive a beating by 2 or more
members
Jumping in - Initiation into gang;
requires person to survive beating
to show no fear and to defend
honor
~K~
KKK - Ku Klux Klan
Keep it moving - Forever represent
(rep) your set
KHMER - Refers to Khmer Rouge, a
Cambodian revolutionary force;
found on Asian gang members as a
tattoo or in graffiti
Kibbles - N - Bits - Crumbs of
cocaine
Kicking it - Taking it easy; relaxing
Kicks - Sneakers
Killa - Killer
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2047
Kite - Illegal written prison
correspondence; a letter
Knocked - Killed
Ku Klux Klan - White supremacists;
Violent history dates to post Civil
War
Kool - Everything's all right; it's
O.K.
~L~
L,L,L,W,U,K - Love, Life, Loyalty,
Wisdom, Understanding,
Knowledge - used by Folk Nation
LKK - Latin King Killer
LR - La Raza; Spanish term
meaning "Race"
Lady in red - My bitch (lady);
Bloods
La Eme - Spanish for the letter "M"
- Refers to the Mexican Mafia
prison gang
La Trece - Spanish for "the 13"; a
reference to Southern California
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2048
allegiance
Lame - Boring; pitiful as in "That's
a lame excuse."
La Raza - Spanish meaning: Race
(ethnicity); has been adopted as a
gang name in some areas
Live hook up - Phone call made
from jail or prison to the outside
worLit up - Shot at
Lizard butt - Ugly girl
Loc - Loco; crazy (also lok)
Locs - Dark sun glasses; Folks
Nation members
Looking to machine - Seeking sex
Lord Allah - Five Percenters name
describing Los Angeles, CA
Low budget - Cheap girl (date)
~M~
MM - Mexican Mafia prison gang
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2049
MMM - Money, Macks, (weapon)
and Murder; money, mayhem, and
murder; sometimes money, making
more money, and murder
MOB - Member Of Bloods; Money
Over Bitches
MOM - Member of Mecca; tattoo
worn by a member of the Five
Percenters
MSB - Money, Sex, Bitches
MS 13 - Mara Salvatrucha (13
represents South)
Make it hot enough - Prepare for
war
Man, The - Police
Maricon - Spanish for
"homosexual"
Mark - A wannabe gang member
Marano - Spanish for "pig"; refers
to corrections or law enforcement
officers
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2050
Married - Joined a street or prison
gang
Mecca - Name describing Harlem,
NY; Also used by Bloods to
disrespect Crips - Murder Every
Crazy Crip Alive
Medina - Five Percenters name
describing Brooklyn, NY
Mission - Contract "hit"; drive by
shooting
Mi vida loca - Spanish for "My crazy
life"; depicts gangs attitude to life
in general
Moniker - Street name; nick name
Morocco - Five Percenters name
describing Seattle, WA
Mota - Spanish slang for marijuana
Mushroom - An innocent by-stander
in a drive-by shooting
My bad - It's my fault; my mistake
My nine - 9 mm semi-automatic
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2051
pistol
~N~
N/H - Neighborhood
NF - Nuestra Familia - Hispanic
prison gang
NLR - Nazi Low Riders - white
supremacist street and prison
gang
NS - Northern Structure - Hispanic
prison gang
NSWP - Neo Supreme White Power
Nation - An alliance or affiliation of
many gangs
Nation of Gods and Earths - Five
Percenters; God represents the
Black man; Earth represents the
Black woman
New Jerusalem - Five Percenters
name describing State New Jersey
eta - Hispanic gang that formed
in prison system in Puerto Rico.
Now a very powerful prison gang
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2052
found mainly in east coast prison
systems
Nickel - A 5-year prison sentence
Nickel Bag - $5 worth of drugs
Nickel Bags - Derogatory term for
Five Percenters
Norte - Spanish for "north"
Norteo/Norte 14 - Spanish
for"northern" or "from the north"
Northern Structure - Hispanic
prison gang
Nosedrops - Drugs; narcotics
Nuestra Familia - Prison gang -
Spanish for "Our Family"
Nuttin but gangster - Keeping it
real
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2053
~O~
OB - Original Banga
OG - Original Gangster; usually the
founder of the set; upper echelon
of leadership in the gang
OPP - Other Peoples Property
OZ - Ounce of drugs
Opposites - Enemies
Original Gangster - A leader;
usually the founder of the set; one
who moved up to the top,
sometimes through attrition
~P~
P's - Pachucos
PV - Por Vida; Spanish for; "for
life"; "always"
Pachucos - Hispanic street gang
formed during the early 1940's;
involved in "Zoot suit" riots in L.A.
Packing - To have a gun on your
person
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2054
Peace out - See you later; goodbye
Peckerwoods - A Caucasian;
cracker (Southern slang)
Peep - Look at; listen up; used by
Five Percenters to describe the
new followers who are learning the
philosophy of the group
Pee wees - Young gang members;
used as runners and look-outs
Pelon - Spanish moniker meaning
"bald" or "baldy"
People Nation - An alliance of
many gangs; gangs within this
nation wear symbols and
identifiers on the left side of the
body
Piru - Los Angeles street where
Bloods originated; nick name for
Bloods
Placa - a gang member's street
name
Player - Gang member
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2055
Played out - Something that is no
longer used
Pop goes the weasel - To kill
someone
PoPo - Police
Ports - Windows of an automobile
Por vida - Spanish for: "for life";
"always"
Posse - Synonymous with gang;
primarily used on East Coast;
Jamaican gang members
Primo - marijuana cigarette laced
with cocaine
Puro 13 - Meaning "Pure 13"; a
reference to Southern California
allegiance
Puta - Spanish for "prostitute"
Put 'em in check - To discipline
someone
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2056
Put in work - Doing an enemy; do a
shooting; a mission
Puto - Spanish for "homosexual"
Puto mark - Crossing out or
disrespecting another gangs
graffiti
~Q~
Que pasa - Spanish for "What's
happening?"
Que paso - Spanish for "What
happened?"<
Queen - Female gang member
~R~
RIP - Rest In Peace; used in graffiti
as a sign of past or futur violence
Rack up - Shop lift in large
quantities
Rag - Gang colors<
Rata - An informant; snitch
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2057
Red Rum - Murder spelled
backwards
Red Zone - Prepare for war; get
ready
Relative - Blood term for homeboys
Ride - Car
Ride on - To go to a rival gangs
neighborhood or turf to fight or do
a drive-by shooting
Rifa, rifamos - Spanish slang
meaning "We rule", "We reign", "We
are the best"
Right Hand Soldier - Term used by
some BGD; meaning 2nd in
command next to Original
Gangster
Rip-off - Steal/take; as in taking
drugs from a dealer
Road Dog - Homie; partner; close
friend
Rockafella - Rock him to sleep; kill
him
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2058
Rock star - Crack cocaine user
Rolled up - Arrested
Rollin one time - 5-0 (police) are
coming
Rooster - Piru (Bloods)
Rosco - Gun (usually a hand gun)
Ruby Red - Girl; woman; lady; bitch
~S~
SLA - Symbionese Liberation Army
SMM - Sex, Money, Murder
STR8 - STR plus 8 = "straight"
SWP - Supreme White Power; also
Salvadorians With Pride
sXe - Symbol representing
"Straight Edgers
Saggin - Wearing pants real low;
gangstering
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2059
Salami's - Derogatory term for
Muslims
Satin Disciples - White (Caucasian)
Disciples gang members
Scarface - New York Bloods
Scary Dudes - Latin Kings
Scrap - Derogatory term used by
Norteo (Northern California) gang
members to describe Sureo
(Southern California) gang
members
Seeing eye nigga - I've got your
back covered
Sell out - To sell out your race;
your set; your gang
Set - Neighborhood gangs; term
used for a gang by members of
street gangs. Many sets are loyal
to the Bloods, Crips, or People or
Folks Nations.
Set tripping - To jump from one
gang to another
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2060
Shank - Home-made prison knife
Shaolin - Reference to Staten
Island (NY)
Shive - Home-made prison knife
Shot caller - Gang member in
charge
Shovel time - Time to kill or bury
someone
Six pack - Police line up of six
individuals
Six popping, five dropping - Folk
shooting, People dropping (dying)
Slanging - Selling cocaine on the
streets
Slipping - Not being alert; not
paying attention
Sleeved - Members arms covered
with tattoos
Slob - Crips derogatory name for
Bloods
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2061
Smoke - To shoot someone
Snow cone - An ice pick (used as a
weapon)
Soflon - Spanish for informant;
snitch; stool pigeon
Soldier - Lower echelon gang
member; performs tasks and
commits crimes as ordered
Stall it out - To stop doing
something; discontinue
Stinger - Prison term: a home-made
electrical device to heat water
Store - Prison commissary
Straight (Str8) - For real; serious
Straight Edgers (sXe) - White
vegetarians who denounce alcohol,
tobacco, and drugs; some prone to
violence
Strapped - To be packing (carrying)
a gun
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2062
Strawberry - A white prostitute on
crack cocaine
Sudan - Five Percenters name
describing Dallas, TX
Sup - What's up
Sur 13 - Sur - Spanish meaning
"south" - 13 indicates allegiance to
Southern California
Surat - Derogatory term for Sureo
Sureo /Sureo 13 - Spanish
meaning "southern" or "from the
south"; 13 synonymous with south
~T~
T4L - Thug 4 Life; Thug For Life
TG - Tiny Gangster (young gang
member)
TS - Texas Syndicate prison gang
TTTT - Tattoo used by Asian gangs;
represents: Tihn (love) Tien
(money), Tu (prison), Toi (crime)
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2063
Take him out of the box - To kill
someone
Tat - Tattoo
Terror Dome - Attica Prison (NY)
Texas Syndicate - Hispanic prison
gang
The torch is lit - Gang hit
Thug Life - Popular graffiti and
tattoo; also: (1) Blood term: I love
my Blood set; (2) Folks Nation
Term - "Traditional Hoover
UnderGround referring to nations
leader Larry Hoover
Thumper - Gun
Tools - corrections term for
weapons
To the curb - Broke; no money or
drugs
Toss up - A girl used for sex
Trece - Spanish meaning "13" -
term used by Hispanics to show
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2064
allegiance to Southern California
Trey eight - 38 caliber pistol
Triple O - Bloods gangster
Turbo - Marijuana cigarette laced
with cocaine
Turf - Gang territory; usually in a
neighborhood
Turning out - Disrupting with
violence
~U~
UBL - Undying Blood Love
UBN - United Blood Nation - an
alliance of Blood sets
Up on it - To know about the drug
scene; doing well
~V~
VL - Vice Lords street gang
Varrio - Spanish meaning
"neighborhood"
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2065
Vato - Spanish meaning "man",
"guy", "dude"
Vato Loco - Spanish meaning
"crazy dude", "gangster"
Veterano - Oldest of the gang
members; veteran; former member
Vice Lords - Chicago's oldest
street gang
Vicky Lou's - Derogatory name for
Vice Lords
Vida Loca - Crazy life
~W~
WAR - White Aryan Resistance
Wave - Short hair cut
Waz up - What's up; what's
happening
West Asia - Five Percenters name
describing San Francisco, CA
Wet 'em up - Rap slang: to make
someone bleed as in stabbed or
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2066
shot
What it B like - Bloods member
greeting
What it C like - Crips member
greeting
Word - O.K.; all right
~X~
X3 - 13; relates to Southern
California Hispanics
X4 - 14; relates to Northern
California Hispanics
XIII - 13; relates to Southern
California Hispanics
XIV - 14; relates to Northern
California Hispanics
XV3 (18) - 18th Street Gang
~Y~
YG - Young Gangster - A new
member
Y Que - Spanish meaning "So
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2067
what?" or "What are you going to
do about it?"
~Z~
Z - Frequently replaces letter "S"
as in Gangstaz, Thugz for life
Zip gun - Home made pistol
AB - Aryan Brotherhood
ABG - Anybody Gets It
ABT - Aryan Brotherhood of Texas
ADR - Used by Latin Kings; Spanish:
Amor de Rey (love to the king)
AKIA - A Klansman I Am (KKK)
AKIGY - A Klansman Is Greeting You
ALKN - Almighty Latin King Nation
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2068
AN - Aryan Nation (use the guise of
religion)
ANP - American Nazi Party
AOK - Always Out Killing
ARM - Aryan Resistance Militia
A Buster - A fake or imitation
A-Town - Atlanta, GA
Academy - Prison or jail
Ace Kool - Best friend; backup
Ad Seg - Administrative Segregation;
prison disciplinary unit
Adidas - Used by Crips; All Day I
Destroy A Slob (Bloods)
AK - Semi-automatic weapon;AK-47
Alice - Aryan Brotherhood
All Is Good - Term used by People
Nation
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2069
All Is One - Term used by Folks Nation
All Is Good - Term used by People
Nation
Almighty Latin King Nation - Hispanic
street gang
Always and forever - Blood for life
Answer up - Bloods; Respect your
superiors orders
Approved For The Hood - Approved for
membership in the Aryan Brotherhood
Aryan Brotherhood of Texas - White
supremacist prison gang
~B~
BP - Brown Pride (Hispanic)
BFL - Blood For Life
BG - Baby gangster; very young
member
BGD - Black Gangster Disciple; also
known as Better Growth and
Development in attempt to improve
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2070
image
BGDN - Black Gangster Disciple
Nation
BGF - Black Guerrilla Family prison
gang
BIH - Burn in hell
BK - Blood Killer - term used by Crips
BKA - Blood Killer Always
BLA - Black Liberation Army - terrorist
group
BMW - Bob Marley Wheels - Used by
Jamaican Posses as a tribute to Bob
Marley - BMW is favorite automobile of
the posses
BNG - Bahala Na Gang - Filipino street
gang
Bomb - Marijuana laced with heroin
BOS - Brothers of Struggle - prison
faction of Gangster Disciples; also
Beat On Sight
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2071
BOSS - Brothers of Steady Struggle
(same as BOS)
BPP - Black Panther Party
BPSN - Black P Stone Nation gang
BTK - Born To Kill; Vietnamese street
gang
BWP's - Bitches With Problems
B Queen - Female member of Bloods
B's Up C's Down - Disrespect of Crips
by Bloods
Baby Gangster - Very young (7-12
years) children, who are used by gang
to act as lookouts, hold drugs, guns,
etc.
Bad Bone - I don't trust him
Baile - To fight (from Spanish verb
meaning to dance)
Baller - A high rolling gang member
(making money)
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2072
Bandera - Spanish for "flag"; refers to
gang colors
Banger - Gang member
Bangin'- Gang fighting or violence;
being in a gang
Barrio (Varrio) - Spanish for
"neighborhood"
Base-head - Person hooked on "coke"
Be down - Loyalty; defends set during
adversity
Beemer - BMW automobile
Benzo - Mercedes Benz automobile
Be Real - Prepare for war
Beggars - Derogatory term used by
Bloods for Muslims
Big Boy - Upper echelon (leader) gang
member
Bitch - Someone who does not show
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2073
respect; a sucker
Blob - Crips derogatory term for
Bloods
Bloods - Black street gang originated
in Los Angeles
Blood In - Initiation - Initiated member
must shed someone's blood; may
include murder
Blood Out - Member's blood spilled to
get out of gang
Blood In-Blood Out - Mexican Mafia
motto; A requirement to join some
gangs - to join, you must kill someone;
your death (natural or by being killed)
is the only way out of the gang
Blood Killer - Term used by Crips
Blow Man - Gang member selected to
shoot or kill someone
Blue Birds - Believed to be the original
name of the Aryan Brotherhood prison
gang
Blunt - A cigar with most tobacco
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2074
removed and replaced with marijuana;
may also be laced with cocaine
Body Shop - Clinton Correctional
Facility (NY); used by Bloods
Boned out - Quit; chickened out; left
Book - To run away or leave
Born Mecca - Five Percenter's name
describing Baltimore, MD
Bote - Jail (Spanish)
Bounce - To go somewhere; to leave
Bowling ball - An automobile painted
with speckled paint
Brace Ya Self - Chill; fall back
Brand - Tattoo
Break - Run; get away
Breakdown - A shotgun
Bro - A brother
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2075
Brother - A fellow gang member
Bud - Marijuana cigarette
Buck - Prison made alcohol; home
brew
Bucket - Old junky car
Bull - Meaning: Bloods Usually Live
Longer
Bullet - One year in custody
Bumble bee - Latin Kings
Bumper kit - A girl's rear end
Burgers - Derogatory term for Latin
Kings
Bust a cap - To shoot at someone
Busted - Shot at someone; to be
arrested
Buster - A fake gang member -
derogatory term for Norteo
Busters, The - The police
~C~
CAT - Crippin' All (the) Time
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2076
CFL - Crip For Life
CK - Crip Killer - term used by Bloods
CVL - Conservative Vice Lords gang
C Queen - Female Crips member
C World - Crips World
C's Up B's Down - Disrespect of
Bloods by Crips
Califas - Hispanic slang for Southern
California
Candy land - Green Haven
Correctional Facility (NY)
Carnal - Hispanic prison/street gang
member; a brother
Carnala - Hispanic female "sister"
Catorce - Spanish for number "14"
Check it out - Listen to what I am
saying
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2077
Checked in - Used by Hispanics;
meaning to be initiated into a gang
Chill out - Stop doing that; cool it;
calm down
Chillin - Hanging out; relaxing
Chill Town - Long Island; Coney Island
Chip dog - Gang member who skims
money, drugs
Chipping - Infrequent or occasional
use of narcotics
Chiva - Slang: Spanish for heroin
Chola - Hispanic girl involved with
gangs
Cholo - Hispanic boy involved with
gangs
Chuco - Derived from "Pachuco"; an
early 1940's Hispanic gang member;
also slang for El Paso, Texas
Clica - Spanish slang for "gang"
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2078
Clique - Synonymous with gang
Cold Storage - Solitary confinement
(prison)
Come with power - Bring your gang; a
gang fight
Contract - An ordered homicide
Colors - Item of clothing worn to
signify gang membership
Cop - To get, to steal
Cop Shop - Police station
Courting in - Initiation process -
fighting 2 or more gang members for a
set number of seconds (usually 15 to
30)
Courting out - Departing member
fights 2 or more gang member for a
set number of seconds (usually 15 to
60)
Cousin - Enemy of Bloods (Crips)
Crab - Derogatory name for Crips -
used by Bloods
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2079
Crank it - Turn the music up loud
Crew - Synonymous with gang
C.R.E.A.M. - Cash Revolves Everyday
Around Me
Crips - Black street gang originating
in Los Angeles
Crip Killer - Term used by Bloods,
Latin Kings
Crippin' - Involved in gang banging-
used by Crips
Cuete - Gun (Spanish)
Curb service - To sell narcotics
(usually crack cocaine) on the street
Cuz, Cuzz - Crips member
Cuzzin - Cripping; being a gangster
~D~</B.< FONT>
DDP - Dominicans Don't Play gang
DK - Disciple Killer
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2080
D Mecca - Five Percenter's name
describing Detroit, MI
DWB - Dirty White Boys prison gang
Da Jungle - Brooklyn, NY
Da Projects - Sing Sing Prison
Damu - Swahili for "Blood"; used by
Bloods
Dawg (dog) - Friendly greeting for
someone
De Corazon - Used by Neta; Spanish
for "From the heart"
Dead Presidents - Currency; money
Dead Rag - Red rag; derrogatory term
used by Crips for the Bloods red
colors
Death Row - New York City
Def - Slang - short for death
Demonstration - Gang fight
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2081
Desert - Five Percenter name
describing Queens, NY
Deuce and a half - 25 caliber semi-
automatic pistol
Dime - 10 year prison sentence; $10
bag of drugs
Dis - Slang for "disrespect"
Disciple Queen - Disciple gang's
female sex object
Dissed Out - Given no respect;
disrespect
Dissin - Disrespecting another person
Divorced - To get out of a gang
Do a ghost - To leave the area
Doing A Rambo - Attack a person
Dog - Gun (used by Jamaican Posses)
Dogging - Mistreating someone
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2082
Dog Pound - East Coast street gang
Doing a jack - Committing a robbery
Don - Next rank under "king"
Donuts - Derogatory term for Black
Gangster Disciples
Double deuce - 22 caliber weapon
Double O.G. - 2nd generation gang
banger
Down - Connected with - as in "He's
down with the set."
Down for the hood - Loyalty to the
neighborhood
Down for mine - Ability to protect
one's self
Down with the set - Everything's fine;
O.K.
Do you want to ride - Tear his ass up
Draped - Wearing a lot of jewelry
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2083
Dressed down - Wearing gang related
colors
Drinking 40's - Drinking 40 ounce
bottles of malt liquor
Drippin - Colors
Drive-by shooting - A planned or a
random shooting; sometimes used as
an initiation for a new member
Dropping the flag - Quitting the gang
Durag - Bandana (handkerchief) worn
on the head; usually the gang colors
Dusted - Killed; high on Angel Dust
Language is ever-changing. This is particularly true in
prisons, where there is the motion of people coming and
going, a culture based on a unique set of
circumstances, and the need to speak in words that
often carry depths of meaning. There are forms of
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2084
expression that can never be fully understood by the
outside world. There are also words that vary from race
to race, prison to prison -- as well as slang that find its
way into prisons from the outside. As a result, this list
will never be complete, and may contain some words
that are obsolete, used in different ways at different
prisons, or simply not spoken at a particular institution.
This dictionary contains words dealing with sex or
violence, matters that are part of prison culture. Many
of the terms relate to specific California procedures --
such as "602s." However, this list has grown to contain
words and phrases from prisons in various states.
Where known, these are identified in parenthesis.
Spanish words similarly are identifed as "Sp."
Please feel free to submit new words to this list or to
let us know about any errors. Due to limited time and
resources, we are able to update this dictionary only
very infrequently. Special thanks to all who have
contributed.
Take the Quiz to find out how much you know about
prison slang and learn where you stand in the prison
system..
Numbers
4 piece A full set of restraints (cuffs, leg irons,
waist, and security cover). (Iowa)
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2085
7-up: A correctional officer is approaching.
Perhaps derived from the word "6-up" which
was originally used to refer to officers coming
at 6:00 a.m. to move homeless people from
park benches.
10-10 Furlough: Death by un-natural causes, as
in "He wronged too many, and got his 10-10
furlough last night"
12:01: Used when a prisoner is discharged. "I
got a 12:01 tonight." (LA)
12/12: To serve the entire sentence without
parole. The end of a penal term.
13 1/2: The sum total of 12 jurors, one judge,
and one half-chance, often featured in tattoos
5-0: Correctional officer. (FL / NC).
38: Masturbation.
114: CDC form documenting reasons for
placing a prisoner in administrative
segregation.
115: A rules violation report (CDC Form 115)
can lead to disciplinary action. It may be
classified as either "administrative" or
"serious."
128: CDC informational chrono, as in Form
128-G.
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2086
187: Marked for death, as in Cal. Penal Code
section 187 (murder).
459: Burglary or intrusive behavior, from Cal.
Penal Code section 459. As in " Don't 459 my
convo."
580: Caution that the authorities are
approaching. Normally hand signed, to alert
others of potential problems. (TX)
602: The prisoner grievance or administrative
appeal process (CDC Form 602). This process
provides three formal levels of review,
beginning institutional levels and progressing
to the Director's review in Sacramento.
Although the appeals process provides a
means to express complaints, there are many
problems with the system and appeals are
frequently "lost" at the informal levels of
review.
6-5: Correctional officer. Used as a warning
when an officer is approaching.
5150: A person needing mental health
treatment, based upon the California Welfare
and Institutions Code section for civil
commitment.. Other states will use different
numbers, such as "730" in New York.
911: Warning that a correctional officer is
coming.
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2087
A - C
AB: Aryan Brotherhood, a white prison gang.
This abbreviation can also refer to the
California Department of Corrections'
administrative bulletins.
AC: Aryan Circle, a white prison gang found in
some states. This designation is not seen in
California. More commonly in California, this
designation would refer to the "Adjustment
Center."
Ace: a puff of a cigarette, as in "Bust me down
with an ace" (NY)
Ace Boon Coon: Best friend
Ace-Duce: Best friend.
Adjustment Center: The A.C., a segregated
control unit. The name was developed during
the prisons adopted language reflecting
treatment of prisoners. In theory, the unit was
to provide an intensive program. In practice,
such units remained (and remain) "the hole." A
landmark case challenging conditions in San
Quentin's Adjustment Center was filed in 1973
and continues to be enforced as a permanent
injunction. Toussaint v. McCarthy
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2088
Ad Seg: Administrative Segregation.
Placement in a controlled unit for the safety
and security of the institution -- including
allegations of gang affiliation, investigation of
a disciplinary offense, or repeated
misconduct. May be referred to as "A-Seg" in
the federal system.
Aggie: A long handled hoe. (In Texas, field
force work squads are referred to as Hoe
squads, usually by their squad number such as
1-hoe,2-hoe.)
Aguas: Spanish word used to warn other
prisoners thant an officer is making the
rounds. Used as a warning in Spanish colonial
times and usedd in Mexico as a warning tgo
be careful. When water was thrown in the
street after being used for cleaning, the
person would cry to warn pedestrians.
Ain't Right: A situation, person, or object of
dubious correctnessas in "Somethin' ain't right
with that Cat-J."
Alphabet: A sentence so long that it cannot be
characterized by numbers. (VA)>
All Day: A life sentence, as in "He's doin' all
day . . ."
All Day and a Night: Life without parole. (MI)
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2089
Ass Betting: Gambling without any funds or
means of paying back one's loses.
Ass Out: A prisoner who has does not have
anything coming or who has disprespected
officers to the point where they do not give
him anything.
Attitude:The display of annoyance, hostility,
contempt, courage, or an unbroken spirit
toward others.
Attitude Adjustment: The need for drugs. Also,
a physical act by officers, including use by
electric shock (taser, stun gun).
ATW Stands for " all the way " . When a
prisoner is finished with his sentence in
Maryland the officer that comes to get him to
take him to be released will announce for him
to "pack it up , ATW." (MD)
AW: Associate Warden. In some western
prisons, this may refer to the Aryan Warrior
gang.
B & B: Bag and Baggage - to leave prison or
jail.
Baby: A weak prisoner used for sex, a "punk."
(FL)
Badge: A correctional officer.
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2090
Bale: Loose-leafed tobacco purchased at a
canteen.
Bam-Bam: The mental health ward or a
prisoner who is a mental health patient.(MI)
Banger: A knife. Also called a burner or a
shank.
Bar: To fear a certain area or restrict one from
an area, such as a cell. As in "You are barred
from this side of the yard."
Bastille by the Bay: San
Quentin, a term coined by
San Francisco columnist Herb
Caen. Also, the title of a
column in the now-defunct
San Quentin News
Beast: Sex offender (England), also called a
"nonce."
Bean Chute: Slot through which food trays are
inserted. Also, slot through which ad seg
prisoners are cuffed prior to leaving cell. (TX)
Beat Your Feet: Order by an officer for a
prisoner to move out of an area. (TX)
Beef: A disciplinary charge, as to "catch a
beef."
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2091
Be Farts and Cell Partners: Beans and franks.
(archiac)
BGF: The Black Guerrilla Family, an African-
American prison gang that originted as a
revolutionary organization influenced by
George Jackson.
Bid: Prison term. Also called "bit."
Big House: Prison.
Big Jab: Lethal injection. Also, "stainless steel
ride," "doctorate in applied chemestry," or the
"needle."
Big Bitch: Convicted under the habitual
criminal act which carries a mandatory life
sentence. See also "Little Bitch." (TX)
Billies: White men.
Bing: Segregation unit. (NY)
Bippy: A small paper cone of cleaning powder
used for scrubbing cells. (TX)
Bird: Someone who is a fool or idiot. Also, a
prisoner sings like a bird (rat). One who
escapes from prison. Young offenders.
(Ontario, Can.)
Birds on the Line: Warning that someone is
listening to a conversation.
Bitch Up: To cry or give in. (NY)
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2092
Blade: A prisonmade weapon, a shank. To
"blade up" is to cut someone up.
Blanket party: Throwing a blanket over a
despised prisoner, so he or she can't identify
an attacker.
Blickey: AIDS, as in "He or she has the
blickey."
Blickum: Generic term used as a substitute for
other words. As in "He got a 72 hour blickum,:
substuting for lockdown. "Jont" may be used
in a similar way.
Blind: Area where correctional officers cannot
see, as in "Let's go to the blind."
Bling Bling: Officers are coming.
Bit: Prison sentence. (IL)
Bitch Up: Chicken out or be a coward. (FL)
Blazed: To be under the influence, high, or
stoned. (Ind.)
Blood In, Blood Out: To enter a prison gang by
committing a stabbling, to leave by being the
victim of a stabbing.
Blow Up the Spot: To let out a secret. To point
out when another prisoner is doing something
against the rules. To make a scene. (NY)
Blue Belly: Correctional Officer (Maine)
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2093
Blues: Prison clothes.
Boarder: A prisoner. (archiac)
Boat: To transfer out of a prison, as in "on a
boat."
Bo-Bos State issued tennis shoes. Shoes that
may be bought through a prison commissary
(FL).
Bolillos: Whites, perhaps from a term for a
large loaf of white bread. (Sp., TX)
Bomb: Paper rolled tightly together that is lit
and used to heat items.
Bonaroo: One's best clothes. "I've got my
bonaroos all ready for my next visit."
Bone: (2) Cigarette. (NY) (2) The dominant
partner in a relationship between prisoners.
Bone Crusher: A particularly large prison
weapon (shank).
Boneyard: Family (conjugal) visiting area.
Boof: Contraband concealed in the rectum.
Also, "boofed." (NY)
Books: Trust fund account, "on the books." All
money received by a prisoner is placed into a
trust account and may be withdrawn for
canteen purchases, special orders, postage,
and other expenses.
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2094
Boot Camp: Military style programs used by
many states for some first time offenders.
Booty Check: Rectal search.
Border Brothers: Mexican nationals.
Boss: An officer -- some say in it is "sorry son
of a bitch" spelled backwards.
Bounce: Move along, get lost. (Iowa)
Bow: Life sentence. (GA)
Bowling Alley Units that have a long and wide
cement walkway. Prisoners walk along the
yellow lines on the side of the walkway, while
officers and staff walk on the inside. (TX)
Box: (1) A carton of cigarettes. (2) Segregation
or SHU, as in "I don't want to do any box
time." (NY) (3) A quarterly package containing
personal items sent from the outside.
BP: Federal grievance forms. Different
numerical designations identify the level of
the grievance.
Brass: High ranking administration.
Brew: Homemade alcohol; "pruno."
Brick: A carton of cigarettes
Bricks: The outside, on the outside, as in "on
the bricks."
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2095
Broadway: The first floor of some
tiers. A wide area where prisoners
come and go -- and occasionally
may be housed if the prison is
particularly crowded.
Buck: Homemade alcohol (Florida).
Buck Horn: Hand rolled cigarette.
Buck Master: One who makes homemade
alcohol. See "pruno."
Buck Rodgers Time: A parole date so far into
the next century, the prisoners cannot
imagine release.
Bug: A crazy person.
Buggin' Out: Going ballastic, losing one's
mind, going totally crazy. (SC)
Bug Nasties: The sack lunch given prisoners.
(AZ)
Bull: Guard.
Bull Dagging: Homosexual activities between
women; taking a homosexual partner. Also,
"Bull Dagger," a macho-acting lesbian. See
"Dagging."(TX)
Bull Dog: A prisoner who uses fear and
intimidation to get something from a weaker
person.
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2096
Bullet: One year prison sentence..such as
"They gave me a bullet."
Bum Beef: To falsely accuse a prisoner of
doing some thing. (OR)
Bum Rap: A bad charge.
Bumpin Ya Gums: Talking Excessively.
Bump It On Down: An Order to get moving.
(TX)
Bunkie: The person with whom a prisoner
shares a double bunk bed.
Burn: (1) Tobacco (England). (2) To write up a
disciplinary report. (archaic)
Burn rubber: Exclamation meaning "Get lost,"
"Leave me alone!"
Burnt Up: To get into trouble or to receive a
disciplinary report.
Bush Pass: An escape or walk-away. (TN)
Bus Therapy: The practice of transferring
prisoners from one institution to another, to
keep them from away from their property,
visits, and other contacts. Particularly used in
the federal system. Also known as "diesel
therapy," "grey goose therapy," or "round
robin."
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2097
Buster: (1) Disrepect referring to the fact that
someone "busted" or swore to a statement
upon something of value in the prison culture
and was found to have lied. (2) A term for
"Northern Mexicans" used by "Southern
Mexicans"
Butched In: Having to perform oral sex for
favors
C-file: The central file. The critical information
maintained on each prisoner.
Cadillac: (1) Coffee with cream & sugar,
smooth, rich and creamy. (2) A fish line. (3) A
cushion job or enjoyable work on the inside.
(4) The best. (5) On officer's term for a vacant
cell.
Cap pealed: Someone's head, as in "I'm gonna
peal his cap"
Calaboose: Prison or jail (archaic).
Call: Time for specified events -- e.g., mail call
or sick call. May be known in some
jurisdictions as a call out.
Camp: CDC minimum security facilities for
firefighting and conservation work.
Canton: One's cell (SP TX).
Cappin': Talking about one's family, relatives,
or girlfriend in a disrespectful way.
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2098
Carnal: Homeboy. Street Language. (Sp.)
Case Disciplinary violation, as in "to catch a
case." (TX) See also "Beef."
Cap: The amount of marijuana that fits into a
chapstick cap.
Catch a Square: To get ready to fight, as
"You'd better catch a square, punk." Derives
from the corners in a boxing ring.
Catch out: To request protective custody.
Move around, leave an area rapidly (TX).
Catcher: Sexually passive or submissive, often
victimized
Cat-J: A prisoner who needs mental health
treatment. Sometimes referred to as a "J-Cat."
Cat Nap: Relatively short sentence.
Cat Walk: Walkway above yard or tier where
officers patrol. Officers in the area, as in "cat
walk front to back."
C.C. Consecutive sentences.
Cell Confinement: Disciplinary detention,
confining prison to cell for 24 hour increments.
(Iowa)
Cell Gangster: One who talks tough locked in
his cell. Then says nothing when out of cell
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2099
(NY). Also known as a "cell warrior" or "cell
soldier." (AK)
Cellie: Cellmate.
Chain: Used when a prisoner is transferred to
another unit or arrives and departs on the bus.
"He left out on the chain yesterday."
Chainin": Used when a prisoner is
transferblack to another unit or arrives and
departs on the bus. "He went chainin this
mornin."
Chalk or Raisin Jack: Home made alcohol, or
pruno. (TX)
Chalking: To run interference with officers
while another prisoner is breaking a rule.
Chapete: A Southern Mexican word used to
disrespect Northern California gang members.
(SP)
Chasing the Dragon: Looking for heroin on the
yard. Also called, "chasing the horse."
Check In: To be placed into protective
custody.
Check Out: To leave protective custody.
Checking: A fight. When it happens in the
fields, it is generally sanctioned by officers.
When it happens in the building, it is generally
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2100
testing to see whether someone new is going
to ride or to be a punk. See Hoe Check. (TX)
Checkin' It: Putting on one's best clothes for a
visit with a prisoner. (NY) Check Off: Someone
who asks for protective custody due to debts,
or because he is scared.
Cheese Eater: An informer.
Chester: Child molester.
Chin Check: To hit someone in the jaw to see
if he will stand up for himself.
Chiva: Heroin (spanish). Also: scam, gow,
stuff, hop.
Choney: A chocolate or candy bar. (BC, Can.)
Chuck: A white prisoner or officer. (MI)
Cho-Cho: An ice cream bar bought in the
canteen (TX).
Cho Mo: Child Molester. (MT)
Chrono: Informational notes by prison officials
documenting classification decisions, minor
disciplinary offenses, medical orders, and just
about everything else that might be recorded
on a prisoner. (CA) Also called "C-note" (UT).
Circuit: Transfers to discourage contact with
others. "Diesel Therapy."
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2101
Clavo: A stash or collection. "He has a huge
clavo of jelly-beans."
Clica: Spanish for gang, also "ganga." Related
verb: cliquear, meaning to cock up or ride with
a gang. (Sp., TX.)
Click: A group of prisoners who use their
combined strength, a clique. When two or
more prisoners attack one prisoner. "Those
prisoners clicked on me." (TX)
Click up: To join a gang.
Clicks: Minutes on the telephone. (NY)
Clipper Pass: A special shaving pass that
allows prisoners with medical conditions to
shave only once a week or to wear short
beards. (TX)
Coffee and a Day: Out in just over a day.
C.O.: Correctional Officer.
Commandos: Prisoners who go to another
prisoners bunk or cell, after lights out, for
sexual reasons. (FL)
Commissary: Money for buying stamps,
toiletries, cigarettes, and other items. The
place to buy it. Also called "canteen."
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2102
Convict: A prisoner with traditional values.
One who has pride and respect, who maintains
integrity, who is not an informant, whose word
is good. A convict is different from an inmate.
Convict Boss: A prisoner given authority in a
prison system. Also, an officer who conducts
his business and does not hassle or instigate
trouble. (TX)
Code 21: Masturbation (TX, from the TDC
offense code).
Cop Out: (1) Form that a prisoner must fill out
requesting action. (FED) (2) To inform on
someone. (3) To place one's self into
protective custody.
Copping Deuces: (1)) To contradict one's self,
(2) To change one's mind, to the sore
displeasure of another.
Corner:"A corner is defined by who a man
hangs out with. That's his corner. Lot's of
times, even a loner is hooked to a certain
corner, so within that you've got `strong
corners,' `weak corners,' etc. Once you know
all the corners, where they are, and what their
guidelines are, then you get an easy feel for
the pulse of a prison." -- Dannie Martin,
Committing Journalism.
Cross Bar Hilton: Prison (archaic).
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2103
Count: The institutional count, repeated at
different times in the day. Everything stops
while prison staff make sure no one is
missing. May be referred to as the "count
time." In the federal system, an unscheduled
count may be referred to as "census count."
Court: Disciplinary hearing. (Ohio)
Cowboy: New officer. Spelled backwards, its
"yobwoc:" young, obnoxious, bastard we often
con." (FL)
Crate: Carton of cigarettes.
Crib: Home on the street. (PA)
Crime of Passion: prisoner serving time on a
sex time.
Crimey: Best friend or co=defendant.
Cut: Area around a prisoner's bunk, considered
to be his territory/area. (GA)
Cut That Knot: Beat up on a prisoner. (TX)
Cutting Up: Suicide.
D-F
D-report: Disciplinary report. (WY)
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2104
D-Seg: Disciplinary Segregation. (FED)
Daddy: A dominant prisoner who protects or
uses a weaker homosexual partner. A
homosexual.
Dagging: Trading out for sodomy. (TX)
Date: The release date. Often used with lifers
to refer to a date set by the Board of Prison
Terms,
Dead: (1) No, as in "That's dead." (2) Deprive
of something. "That officer deaded my rec."
(NY)
Dead mouth: Told by an officer to be remain
silent until told otherwise instructed. (IN).
Debrief: Prisoners who wish to establish that
they are no longer associated with a prison
gang must provide information regarding gang
activities and pass a polygraph examination.
The prisoner must give names and identify
criminal activity. This is the only means
available to a prisoner to establish that they
have left a prison gang and should be released
from segregation. Having become an
informant, the prisoner must rely on the
Department of Corrections to protect them. It
is an extremely dangerous pact. Prisoners
who are wrongfully identified as gang
associates may have nothing to offer in the
debriefing process.
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2105
In Texas, this process may be known as
"Attachment B," referring to the forms filled
out by a prisoner delcaring that he has left a
gang and to request safekeeping.
Deck: Pack of cigarettes. See also "square."
(TX)
Deuce: A two-year sentence.
Deuce Less: The difference between federal
time and local time. (Canada)
Deuces: A squad of correctional officers ,
usally called in to control a riot. "The C.O.'s
just dialed the dueces."
Diddler: Child molester. (CT)
Dig this out: "Check this out."
Digger: The segregation unit. (Scotland).
Diaper sniper: Child molester.
Diesel Therapy: Constant transfers to keep a
prisoner from associating with others or to
discourage particular activity.
Dime: Ten, as in ten years (dime sentence),
ten dollars, ten pounds of weights.
Ding Ding Something that is dead or no-more,
"That thing is ding-ding, shorty." (MD)
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2106
Ding Wing: Where mentally ill prisoners are
housed. A mentally ill prisoner may be called a
"ding."
Dip the Spot: Leave the area.
Dipping in the Kool Aid: Trying to enter a
conversation when a person has no business
doing it.
Director's Rules: The regulations of the
California Department of Corrections, found in
title 15 of the California Code of Regulations.
Dirt Nap: To die.
Dis: Disrespect.
Discharge: Release from prison.
Dog: (1) Homeboy or friend. (2) A prisoner who
gives someone up to the authorities.
(Australia).
Dog Food: Heroin.
Dog House: Lock up.
Dogs: Shoes. Fee. To beat someone up, as in
to "walk the dogs on someone."
Don: Dominant prisoner in a cell.
Donkey Dick: Sliced cold cuts.
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2107
Doo Rag: An archaic term for cloth worn on
the head of a prisoner. See "Wave Cap." (MI>
Doowop: To go through the food line twice.
(GA)
Dope Fiend Move: A sleazy maneuver.
Double Cell: Housing two prisoners in a cell
designed for one.
Down: Locked up, as in "This your first time
down?"
Down Bad: To accuse wrongly, as "You got me
down bad." (LA)
Down Letter: A letter from the parole board
notifying a prisoner that more time must be
served.
Dragon's Tongue: Slice corned beef, boiled to
an unexcelled toughness.
Drama: To cause a disturbance, as "There's
gong to be a little drama." (NY)
Draw: Canteen order.
Dressed Out: To be assaulted with
urine,feces,or any liquid mixture by a prisoner.
See also "gassing."
Drive: To pick on someone to the point of
getting angry. "We drove him about that all
night." (LA)
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2108
Dry Cell: To put a prisoner on dry watch,
without water, when he is suspected of
packing contraband (Maine)
Drop a Dime: To inform on someone. "He
dropped on dime on his bunkie"
Drug Charge: Child molestation; "He's in on a
drug charge, he drug them out of the sandbox.
(Iowa)
Drive Up: New officer or prisoner. Can be used
as in "just drove up." (TX)
Dry Rat: Prisoner who snitches in front of
another person (Maine)
Dry Snitch: (1) prisoners crowding around a
fight that draw the officers' attention. (FL) (2)
a prisoner who talks about something
important to another prisoner in front of an
officer.
Dubbed: Locked. As in "he dubbed the door on
his cell." (Scotland)
Ducat: Prison passes for movement in the
institution. Assignments for jobs, cell
changes, sick-call, and other prison programs.
Trust fund withdrawals for canteen draws.
Ducat to Chapel: To set a man up for a murder
(from a Folsom hit).
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2109
Duck: An officer whoe reveals information to
the prisoners about other officers.
Duff Out: To beat someone up.
Duffy: State issue, flake tobacco once
supplied to California prisoners under the
brand name "Bonanza." Coined after former
San Quentin warden Clinton Duffy. (archaic)
Due Process: In prison, very little process is
due. Under federal constitutional standards,
the prison may not even be required to follow
its own rules.
Dump Truck: A lawyer who makes an easy
deal at the expense of the client
Ear Hustling: Listening to conversations going
on over the tier (eavesdropping).
Eight Ball: (1) A prison click. (2) An eight-year
term.
Elbow (L-Bow): Life sentence.
Elevator Ride Given a beating in an elevator.
(NY)
EME: The Mexican Mafia, a Southern Hispanic
prison gang, based on the spanish
pronunciation of the letter "m."
E.P.R.D.: Earliest Possible Release Date. A
prisoner's release date, assuming that he or
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2110
she earns credits and stays out of trouble.
Computing this date can be difficult since it is
based on a complex formula. The prison's
computation can be reviewed through the
Legal Status Summary Sheet.
Escape Dust: Fog.
Ese: Slang for "guy" or "homie." (TX)
Eyeball: To give a long dispariging look at an
officer.
Family Style: Performing sodomy in the
"missionary" position,
Featherwood: A peckerwood's woman.
Felon Fodder: Human beings subjected to
incarceration.
Fence Parole: Escape.
Figa" Shank. (Sp./MA)
Fifi: An artificial vagina used for masturbation.
Fire on the Line: Officer on the tier or in the
area. Also, "Fire on the Walk" (MT) or "Fire in
the Hole."
Fish: A new prisoner.
Fish Row: Cells where new prisoners are
placed. (MT)
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2111
Firma: When someone or someone is "down"
or "hard." (Sp.)
Fish Line: A line used to pull items from one
cell to another. A "fishing pole" refers to an
item used to facilitate this line, such as a
rolled up newspaper.
Fishing Kit: A small packet of toiletries, such
as deodorant, toothpaste, soap, and a
toothbrush that are issued to new prisoners in
the LA County jail.
Fit: Short for "outfit"--- a home-made
contrivance for injecting drugs intravenously
Five-O: An officer. (MI)
Fix: To be given a favor or served with more
food than other prisoners. As in, "Fix me up."
Flat Time: To serve one's time without parole.
Flat Wig: To slam, or put to the floor with
force. Or, "Flat Weed."(TX)
Flavors: Brand name cigarettes or cigarettes
received from outside the canteen.
Flick Up: Take a photo.
Flip Flop: To alternate in performing acts of
anal sodomy with a partner, indicating
weakness on the part of the dominant
prisoner.
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2112
Flip the Pad: Turn over one's mattress on
assigned days.
Flipping the Script: A person (usually an
officer) that acts one way one day and another
the next. (KY)
Floor Wet: Call to warn others that officers are
coming.
Flop: The time a parole board gives (after
denying parole) before a prisoner will be
eligible for another parole hearing. As in, "The
parole board gave a 10 year flop." (KY)
Fluff: Feminine lesbian.
Food Strike: A group of prisoners that refuse
to go to the dining hall to take food, or go
there and refuse to eat anything. Unlike a
Hunger Strike, prisoners still eat food that was
bought or made by them in the units.
Fogline: When the fog is too thick for staff to
keep a close watch, fogline will be called and
prisoners will be restricted to their cells or
unit.
Foo-foo: Deodorant and after-shave, as in "foo-
foo'ed back."
Fop Fops: To fight with fists.
Ford: "Found On Run Dead." This started
because of a particularly bad doctor named
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2113
Ford. It grew to mean any generally
antagonistic or unhelpful doctor. (TX)
Four Minute Job: Shower.
Front: To act differently when people are in
the area. (TX)
Free Pass: Let off by prison staff without
making a further report.
Free World: The outside. Also mass made
cigarettes - as opposed to hand-rolled.
Fudge Packer: Homosexual. (FL)
Fug: Cigarette.
G-I
Gaffle: To handcuff a prisoner.
Gagged: (1) To be shortchanged. (2) To be
shown someone's penis. (FL)
Galboy: A person who plays a female role in a
homosexual relationship. (old term taken from
1930s Alabama. Aee the Scottsboro Boy
Haywood Patterson.
Gang Jacket: Validated as being a gang
member.
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2114
Gangster: HIV. "Be careful around him. He got
that gangster." See also "Monster."
Gashley: A woman.
Gas House: Public toliet in the cell block
Gassing: Throwing a liquid substance on an
officer from a cell. Also called "dashing."
Gas Up: Used by correctional officers to tell a
prisoner to get moving. Can also be used as a
threat to place a prisoner in lock-up if he or
she does not comply, as in "I'll gas you up."
(NJ)
Gat: Shank. A prison made knife. (IL)
Gate:(1) Cell door. (PA) (2) Release, as in "30
days to the gate."
Gate Money: The small amount of money given
a prisoner upon release.
Gate Time: When the doors to the cell are
opened sothat one can get in or out.
Gated Out: To be released from prison.
Gazer: Correctional officer who watches
prisoners take a shower.
General Population: The mainline. Prisoners
who can mix with other prisoners. Sometimes
simply refered to as the "pop."
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2115
Germs: Cigarettes.
Get Hit: To receive a longer sentence from the
parole board.
Getting Rec: Going to the recreational yard or
harming someone for no reason
Getting Buzzed: Tattooed.
G.I.: Gang investigator. (TX)
GI Approved: Identified as being in a gang, or
that a particular event is gang-sanctified. (TX)
Gigger Out: Warning that there is a guard
coming.
Give A Shot: A disciplinary report or write-up.
Gladiator Fight: Fighting set up for the benefit
of others. A gladiator school may refer to a
facility that engages in this practice.
GNC List: Got Nothing Coming. Prisoners who
have been identified by officers as having
nothing coming to them.
Going to the BOSS: The act of being searched
by staff using the BOSS chair to perform a
body cavity search (NY). Good Lookin' Out:
Thanks a lot.
Good Time: Credits earned toward one's
sentence. In California, good time (one day for
two served) credits are awarded for prisoners
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2116
in certain situations, such as those who are
willing to work but unassigned.
Goof: An insult. A fighting word. A complete
idiot who has no pull in the prison. A child
molester.(Ontario)
Goon Squad: The security squad that handles
special assignments, a task force of officers.
G.P.: General population.
Grapes: Gossip. As in "Give me the grapes on
her."
Green: (1) Money or Marijuana as in "I'm
getting some green." (2) An inexperienced or
young prisoner. A new officer. In some states,
any rank below lieutenant will wear a green
shirt, and the word may be used to refer to
these officers. (3) Prison clothing (NY),
referring to the color of the clothing issued by
the state.
Green Light: To be a target for death.
Greened Down: To wear the green correctional
officer's uniform. (NY)
Greasy: Doing someone wrong, as in "You did
me greasy." (VA)
Grey Bar Hotel: Prison.
Grunts: Commissary food items. (IN)
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2117
Gump: Homosexual. (VA)
Gun: Razor, shank, or other weapon. (NY)
Gunned Down: To have urine, fesces, or other
fluids thrown, see also "gassed."
Gunner: A prisoner who masturbates while
looking at a female correctional officer.
Gunning (verb), or "gunned down." Also
referred to as a "sniper" or "gunslinger."
Gunsel: From the corrupted "gunslinger," a
new prisoner who talks tough. (Fed., archaic)
Hack: A correctional officer.
Handle Up (On) Your Business: Fight. (TX)
Hardrock: Hard, tough prisoners. (archaic)
Hard Time: Serving a sentence the difficult
way.
Hawged: To have everything taken away. As
in, "He hawged you for all your money." (TX)
Hawk: (1) prisoner who watches or stands
guard to notify another prisoner when staff is
approaching. (NC) (2) A prison weapon, also
"shank." (IN)
Head Running: Talking.
Heat: Close surveillance.
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2118
Heat Wave: A prisoner who is under constant
suspicion and brings that attention to those
around him.
Heart: Strong, honorable convictions. "The
dude had a lotta heart."
Heart Check: Assigning a prison gang member
a hazardous "mission" (such as a murder) to
see if he's still down with the gang.
Hemmed Up: To get intro trouble or receive a
disciplinary report.
Herb: A weak prisoner.
High Class: Hepatitis C . As in "She's high
class!"
High Power: High security unit (L.A.. County
Jail). Hit: murder or stabbing.
Hit It: Masturbation or anal sex. (MI)
Hit the Bricks: To be released to the streets.
(MI)
Hit a Lick: (1) Come into a good sum of money.
(2) To masturbate.
Hit in the Neck Lost, hopeless, having no
chance. From the almost always fatal target of
a prison knife attack to the neck. Short
version: "You're hit". (MI)
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2119
Hoe Check: Group beating given to a prisoner
to see if he will stand up for himself. Also
known as "Check" or "Checking". (TX)
Hog: (1) A prisoner who is willing to fight,
who will not back down. (2) To manipulate
another person (boss or prisoner). For
example: a new officers may be told by
veteran officers to go to a pod and call out
your fence cutters for work. "There are
some that really do this...get it, a fence
cutter." (TX)
Hoof: Hiding contraband in the rectum. As in,
"He hoofed it."
Hole: Solitary confinement, segregation,
disciplinary detention cells.
Homeboy: Another prisoner from one's
hometown or neighborhood. Seth Morgan's
book by the same title remains one of the
classic pieces of writing about prisoners and
prison culture. Homie.
Homes:(1) General greeting or expression
used between various prisoners. (2) One's cell.
Prisoners returning to the cell may be "going
home."
Hooped: Hiding contraband in one's rectum.
"He hooped a few pounds of heroin."
Hootch: Homemade (or cellmade) alcohol
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2120
Hook Down: A warning that the officer is
coming
Hoop: To bring in contraband anally.
Hook-up: (1) An officer has lied or made up a
story to get a prisoner in trouble or sent to the
hole. (2) A concoction of items bought from
the commissary, such as tuna, dried soup,
pepper, crackers, etc. (Ohio). (3) To obtain
someone's address and phone number.
Hoosegaw: Prison of jail (archaic)
Hot Meds: Controlled medications, including
psychotropic medication or anti-depressants.
Hot Rail: When a group of prisoners stah a
uard around one particular prisoner and
his/her significant other on visiting time so the
couple can have sexual relations.
Hot Water: Warning that officer is coming.
House: Cell.
House Tossing: An officer who has taken a
prisoner's belongings and tossed them to the
floor, perhaps stepping on them.
Hung Up: A prisoner who tries to kill himself
by hanging in his cell.
Hyna: Girlfriend. (Sp.)
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2121
ICC: Institutional Classification Committee;
Interstate Corrections Compact.
Illing: To act up or to go crazy.
Ink: Tattoos.
Ink Slinger: A prisoner who draws tattoos
(slinging ink) (AZ)
In My Mouth: Some one is listening in on the
conversation. As in "man that hack is all in my
mouth."
Inmate: Just another prisoner. It may be a
derogatory term to refer to a prisoner who
does not have the values of a convict. A new
prisoner who does not know the code of the
prison system.
Inmate Fund: An account where all the
prisoners "official" money is stored and ussed
to by commisary items. The Inmate Welfare
Fund (IWF) is the trust account that is to be
used for the benefit of all prisoners (such as
renting movies, bying new recreational
equipment), and is generally funded through
surcharges applied to various purchases and
activities.
Inside: Behind the walls.
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2122
In The Car: To be in a tight
circle of friends, "You're right
with me, or, whatever I got,
you got." Prisoners who lift
weights together.
In the Hat: Targeted for death.
In the old days when convicts wanted to
kill someone, usually a stool pigeon, they
would make five or six pieces of paper.
Only one paper would have his name on it
and each convict would draw a piece of
paper from a hat or cap. If he got the
paper with the name on it,he had to kill
the victim. The mystery of it was that no
one but the one who drew it knew who
got the job. Dannie Martin, In the Hat.
"It ain't no thing": "I''ll take care of it" or "don't
worry."
Iron Pile: Weights. Also, "pig iron."
IWF: Inmate Welfare Fund.
J-L
Jack: To steal. (LA)
Jack Up: Confrontational "request."
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2123
Jacket: Central File. Label. To be marked as a
snitch, informant, or other identifying label:
"He has a rat jacket."
Jackin' Rec: (1) Wasting time. (El Reno, OK).
(2) Ruining someones recreation time by
causing a disruption
Jack Mack: Canned makarel sold at the
commissary. Sometimes put in a sock to be
used as a weapon. (TX)
Jackrabbit Parole: Escaping after serving a
long sentence. (Can.)
Jail: (1) A county facility for pretrial detainees
or prisoners serving short terms (less than a
year). Distinct from prison. (2) Lock up or
solitary. (TX)
Jailhouse Lawyer: A prisoner who assist
others in filing legal actions. Some are quite
knowledgeable, others know enough to get
themselves or others into trouble. Jailhouse
lawyers are important because most prisoners
have limited access to law libraries, little
legal knowledge, and there are all too few
lawyers able to assist prisoners.
Jailin': (1)Someone who's in the hole (aka in
jail). (2)Wives or girlfriends who visit regularly
- "That's our lifestyle - jailin!"
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2124
"Jailin' was an art from and lifestyle both.
The style was walkin' slow, drinkin'
plenty of water, and doin' your own time;
the art was lightin' cigarettes from wall
sockets, playin' the dozens, cuttin' up
dream jackpots, and slowin' your
metabolism to a crawl, sleepin' twenty-
four hours a day. Forget the streets you
won't see for years. Lettin' your heart
beat the bricks with your body behind
bars was hard time. Acceptin' the
jailhouse as the only reality was easy
time. " -- Seth Morgan, Homeboy.
Jam Up: Ask a prisoner about something.
Jeff: Joke, play
Jigger: (1) Warning of staff approaching. (2)
One who watches while illegal act takes
place. A lookout person. (TX)
Jitterbug Young, juvenile, troublemaker. Or,
"jit." (FL) A prisoner under 21 years-old.
Jody: The anonymous lover taken by a wife or
girlfriend. A prisoner whose wife is cheating
on him. Also "sancho."
Joes: Cigarettes.
JohnnyL A sandwich in a sack, usually served
to prisoners in segregation or lockdown,
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2125
which may be nothing more than stale bread
with a little peanut butter. (TX)
Joint: Prison.
Jolt: A long sentence.
Jones: Drug habit (or any other habit).
Jont: A word that can be used in place of
other words or things. From a misspelling of
the word "joint." Also, "jiont." As in, "I got
framed on that jont."
Joto: Homosexual, punk. (Sp., TX)
Juice Card: Privileges afforded a prisoner
based on an officer's favor. As in, "He's on the
phone again, must have a juice card."
Julip: Prison-made alcohol, fermented juice.
From "mint julip." (TN)
Jug: To verbally harass or provoke, generally
done by an officer with the intention of getting
the prisoner to fight. (TX)
Jump: Homemade alcohol or pruno. (MD)
Jumping Out: Turning to crime.
Jump the Broom: When one prisoner "marries"
another prisoner.
Jump Out Boys: A small team of correctional
officers that drives up to an ouside walk way
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2126
or into a reacreation yard, jumps out of the
vehicle, and snatches up one or more
offenders for a shakedown or interrogation.
Also a small team that quickly enters a cell
house and does the same thing. (IN)
June Bug: A prisoner who is considered to be
a slave or footman for others.
Kamikaze Move: A hit in front of an officer.
Keep It Real: Don't lie.
Keep locked: Locked up for disciplinary
reasons. See also "Red Lock."
Keester: or "Keister." To hide contraband in
the rectum. Prisoners keester money, drugs,
and even shanks. Also, "Keester Bunny," one
who keesters.
Key: Pack of cigarettes. (NY)
Kicking It: (1) Sleeping with someone. (2)
Hanging out with a friend.
Kick Rocks: Go away or leave alone.
Kill: To masturbate, as in "I got a picture of my
bitch in the world I kill to at night." (TX)
Kit: Items for taking drugs.
Kite: Notes or letters. Any message passed to
a prisoner. To "shoot a kite" is to send a
message.
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2127
Kitestringing: Messages or bags of property
sent from cell to cell via homemade string,
thread or twine (FL).
Kitty Kitty: Female officers.
Knick-Knack: Same as "lame."
KOP: Keep on Person. Medications that a
prisoner is allowed to keep with his or her
property, to avoide going to a pill line every
day (TX).
K-9 Corrections officer (canine)
L: Life. As in "25 to L."
Lag: A convict; the oppose of "lop."
Lame: Someone who doesn't fit in with a
certain click. Also, lop, rudipoop, or rumkin.
Laws: Correctional officers. (TX)
Lay-In: (1) A pass or chrono allowing a sick
prisoner not to work. (2) An appointment.
Layng It Down: Robbing anoter person of their
goods. As in "I like those shoes lay it down."
(Ga)
Laying the Track: Having sex.
Lemac: A camel cigarette. Also, "little man"
(archaic).
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2128
Let Me Bounce Your Car: Can I borrow your
radio?
Lettuce: Prisoners who go out to gang rape.
Life + 1: Life without parole. (MT)
Life on the Installment Plan: Serving an
effective life sentence through a series of
lesser terms.
Lifer: A prisoner serving a life sentence.
Limbo: Time in jail before trial.
Line: The mainline, or general population, as in
"on the line."
Little Bitch: A sentence of fifty or more years.
See also "Big Bitch." (TX)
L Note: Life sentence. (VA)
Lockdown: The policy of confining a group of
prisoners or an entire prison to cells. This is
generally done in response to unrest or
emergency -- although some lockdowns are
instituted for extended periods of time.
Lock in the Sock: A lock or other heavy object
that is put in a sock for use as a weapon.
(Can.)
Lock Up Unit: Segregated unit; the adjustment
center; disciplinary detention.
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2129
Long Ride: Doing life.
Loogan: Mentally ill prisoner. (Ontario,
Canada)
LOP: Loss of privileges, a particular kind of
cell restriction. (TX)
Lop: A prisoner held in low regard or
considered stupid. A fool, chump or sucker.
Lope: An envelope for sending letters, often
used as a small unit of exchange. (OR)
Love: "Love is so hard when i just cant touch
or hear your voice i can only see your hand
writing. i wish i can see your face once again,
so much love and hope for your love once
again."
Lugged: To be cuffed and taken to
segregation.
Luv, Luv Being well off. as in. "living luv,luv."
L.W.O.P.: Life Without Possibility of Parole.
("el-wop")
This list is a work in progress and is made possible by
all who have sent contributions. Use our form or email
your submissions. If the entry is from a specific state or
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2130
prison, please be sure to include that information with
your definition.
1995-2003. The material on this page may be copied
for individual and nonprofit institutional use, but may
not be distributed in whole or in part to the general
public, reprinted, or reposted without permission of the
Prison Law Page.
FIELD CONTACTS
How do I conduct a safe and effective interview with a
parolee?
So when did you GATE OUT ?
I GATED last Tuesday from P BAY
.
What was your ISSUE?
I was a PAL with two DIRTY
BOTTLES .
What was the TERM ?
A BULLET
What was the original BEEF ?
I caught a sales beef for 16 months .
8 TO THE GATE ?
Ya , 8 TO THE GATE.
Did ya catch any CHRONOS inside ?
Ya , I caught some 128s and a couple of 115s.
Any AD SEG or SHU time ?
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2131
Ya , one SHU term .
How many points do ya have ?
Im sittin on 53.
Did ya TIP UP inside ?
I got approached , but I didnt TIP.
OK let me see your INK.
Well , just like the title says , What did he say ? Well
get to that later. First , lets talk about the first few
minutes of your contact with a parolee, how to get off
on the right foot and start taking charge.The use of
slang terms can help you do that. The first thing you
have to understand is the type of crook you are dealing
with. Whether he is a dope dealer or a thief , he is first a
parolee. There are two types. The inmate and the
convict. The inmate is usually easy because he is too
busy sniveling to give you any challenging problems.
The convict is a different story.
The convict takes pride in who he is and he is not at all
intimidated by us or who we are or what job assignment
we have. Whether you wear a uniform or a pony tail ,
you are still the MAN. He is used to dealing with us no
matter what form we come in and he is good at what he
does. He is a predator. Hes sitting on the wire , looking
at the field and waiting for lunch to move. He is
confrontational and he is looking to take advantage of
soft spots in your armor. First and foremost , DONT
MAKE IT PERSONAL. Keep it business. Next , start
building some rapport and respect. I dont mean take
him home for Christmas , I mean show him that you
know what you are doing. Also remember that a true
convict has self respect. So if you get out of your unit
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looking like 10 pounds of potatoes in a 5 pound sack
that's exactly how your going to get treated. Hes going
to figure that you dont have any respect for yourself,
why should he.One of the easiest and quickest ways to
establish this rapport and respect is to use slang terms
in your initial questions. Dope dealers use slang and so
do convicts. By using and understanding slang you can
build a rapport and also communicate.
From the beginning you need to find out about the
convicts history. That is where hes been and what hes
done. Keep in mind also that you're dealing with a
person who, on an average, has an 8th grade education.
Dont make the mistake of thinking this makes them
stupid. It just means they are uneducated. So when you
question them about their state prison time, ask the
questions starting from the first time they went to
prison up to the present. Some of the info that you want
to know is ; Where did they do their time , for what type
of crime and what happened to them inside. During this
first phase of the contact start using slang. For
example; If I want to ask a convict about his first time
he went to prison Ill say Where did you go for your
first trip? If I want to know the type of crime Ill say
What was your commitment offense ? And if I want to
know about what went on inside the joint Ill say
something like Did you catch any chronos ?or Did
you catch any 115s or 128s ? These are disciplinary
write ups. 115s being the most serious and commonly
involve violence. If I want to know when he got out I
would say When did you gate out ? If I want to know
when he gets off parole I would ask When do you top
out ? And so on. One of the large points to be made is
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if you at least sound like you know what your talking
about , you will probably get less of a challenge. There
are hundreds of prison slang terms and just like dope
slang they change. Some last and others are not used
as much. Here are some good old standbys that have
survived the test of TIME.
A.B....................................ARYAN BROTHERHOOD
AD SEG..........................ADMINISTRATIVE
SEGREGATION
BEEF...............................WRITE UP OR CRIME
BGF.................................BLACK GUERRILLA FAMILY
PRISON GANG
BULLET.........................1 YEAR PERIOD OF TIME
C/O...................................CORRECTIONAL OFFICER
CHRONO.......................INSTITUTIONAL WRITE-UP
DIRTY BOTTLE..........POSITIVE URINE TEST
DORM.............................HOUSING UNIT
EME.................................MEXICAN MAFIA
G.P...................................GENERAL POPULATION
GATED OUT................RELEASED FROM PRISON
GLEEKA.........................HISPANIC TERM FOR GANG
GREY GOOSE............CDC BUS
GUNS.............................WELL DEVELOPED ARMS
HIT...................................A KILLING
INK...................................TATTOOS
IRON...............................WEIGHTS
ISSUE.............................CRIME
LOPP..............................NEWCOMER
MIX...................................WHAT IS HAPPENING
N.F...................................NUESTRA FAMILIA
PAL..................................PAROLEE AT LARGE
P BAY.............................PELICAN BAY PRISON
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P.O...................................PAROLE OFFICER
P.C...................................PROTECTIVE CUSTODY
PECKERWOOD..........WHITE BOY
PINTA............................JAIL
PRUNO.........................PRISON ALCOHOL
PUNK.............................PERVERT
RIPPED OFF..............FORCIBLE ANAL SEX
ROLLED UP...............ARRESTED OR MOVED
SHANK ........................PRISON MADE KNIFE
SHU..............................SECURITY HOUSING UNIT
SLEEVED....................ARMS COVERED WITH TATTOOS
STAFF..........................CUSTODY PERSONNEL
TERM...........................SENTENCE
TAC / TAT...................TATTOO
TAIL...............................PAROLE
TIER..............................LEVELS OR STORIES IN A
BUILDING
TIPPED UP................AFFILIATED WITH A GROUP
TOPPED OFF............OFF PAROLE
YARD............................OUTDOOR REC AREA
YOKED .........................BUILT UP FROM LIFTING
WEIGHTS
115..................................SERIOUS PRISON WRITE-UP
128..................................LESS SERIOUS WRITE-UP
24 AND 7........................ALL DAY EVERYDAY
602...................................INMATE APPEAL FORM
8 TO THE GATE........1/2 OF A 16 MONTH
TERM.............................CREDIT FOR WORK TIME
O.K. , like I said in the beginning What did he say ?
Go back to the first paragraph and lets find out. So
when did you GATE OUT ( get released ). I GATED ( got
released ) last Tuesday from P BAY ( Pelican Bay State
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Prison ) What was your ISSUE ( crime ) I was a PAL (
parolee at large ) with two DIRTY BOTTLES ( positive
urine for drugs ) What was the TERM ( sentence ) A
BULLET ( one year ) What was the original BEEF ( crime
) I caught a sales beef for 16 months. 8 TO THE GATE (
half time for working ) Ya 8 TO THE GATE. Did you
catch any CHRONOS( institutional write ups ) inside ?
Ya , I caught some 128s ( less serious offenses ) and a
couple of 115s ( most serious offenses ) Any AD SEG (
administrative segregation ) or SHU ( security housing
unit ) time ? Ya , one SHU term. How many points do
you have ? Im sittin on 53. Did ya TIP UP ( affiliate with
a gang or group ) inside ? I got approached , but I didnt
TIP (together in prison ) OK let me see your INK (
tattoos ).
Besides learning a ton about this convict we were able
to show him that we know what we are doing. He starts
to feel a little more comfortable in dealing with us and
we are well on our way to getting the info that we want
from this guy. To get the info we want takes good
interview techniques. You dont interview convicts the
same way you interview other crooks. So thats what
well talk about next time. Until then as usual , be
careful.
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CUBAN EXILE How democratic are they?
The first wave
The Cuban "exiles" which have existed since the
triumph of the revolution in 1959, have always been, as
they are quick to point out victims of the Castro
regime. These poor "victims" have been lurking around
for more than 40 years in Washington getting political
favors, perks and lobbying for their cause. For many
years they have been given easy access to credit and
grants; and have received 100s of millions of dollars of
our tax money to pretty much use as they please -
money which they have used to buy off politicians and
fund campaigns of those who favor their "cause". They
have used this money to buy off politicians as is the
case of NJ Sen. Robert Torricelli, and Indiana Sen.
Burton, with the latter, for example, receiving twice as
much campaign money from the CANF than from his
constituents. Of course a great deal of this money has
gone into the exile's pockets.
Just as Washington has given them more or less a free
reign, so has the U.S. press given them it's full support
and a free reign. It is not uncommon to see on
television a round table on Cuba consisting of exiles
and moderators all puking out the same view points and
lines; shows with very little dialogue and with basically
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little or no dissent ; without exception the deck is
usually stacked against the other side of the coin and in
favor of the exiles. The media constantly portrays Cuba
and it's leaders as evil, while portraying the exile as the
good guys, the decent folks, the poor victims. This in
spite of the media's and Washington's knowledge of the
exile's past dark history of terrorism, graft and
corruption. Let me ask you a simple question when was
the last time you ever saw anything positive on Cuba in
the media?
Even with the positive light given to the Cuban-
American "exile", the real awakening for the American
public as far as the exiles are concerned came with the
Elian saga. For the first time the real exiles were
exposed, their real faces were exposed. Their
recalcitrance, that is their intolerance and belligerence
came into full view of the world. To many and
understandably so, the exile reactionary attitude in this
cut and dry case of universal father child relations and
rights, left a dank stain in the conscience of the
American public. This attitude together with defying
and extremist actions and the constant ranting of the
exiles did not go well with the American public. The
public got tired of the hysterics and the ranting of
Maryislazy as she was called by some. The public was
angered at seeing Lazaro and co. time after time
defying the federal government, they were angered at
seeing Cuban-American Mayor Corollo of Miami
threatening not to enforce the law. In short the public
simply got tired of the circus put on by the so called
"family" and the CANF.
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To understand the mentality of the exiles we must look
at the first wave of Cuban immigrants. The first exodus
of Cuban exiles came about after the triumph of the
revolution on January 1, 1959. This first wave, can be
characterized as the elite and semi elite, those well to
do families and the upper middle class which were
sucking the life out of the average Cuban on the island.
They are the most recalcitrant of the exiles being the
most ferociously anti Communist and pro American of
the groups. Apart from the professional people, the
doctors, the engineers which were in the minority - the
avg. grade in Cuba was 4th grade - the exodus
consisted mainly of Batista's followers, that element
which had plundered Cuba and whose life revolved
around the corruption and decay of the day, they were
the corrupt senators and their sons, the union heads
which had sold out the workers, those high priced
hookers and their pimps, the casino owners and the
gamblers, and those generals and would be generals
who had murdered innocent people, and which with the
victory of the rebel army knew that their time had run
out. They ran out of Cuba, they ran as hyenas run in the
presence of a lion - in this case a caballo, a horse
named Fidel.
This scum found a new home in Miami, where they were
welcomed with open arms, and in the name of freedom
were given the liberty to set up shop, to practice what
they knew best, corruption and graft, to make Miami
what it is today a bankrupt city, a mirror image of
yesterday's Cuba. A city where payoffs and political
scandals are the order of the day, a city where you can
get away with anything, even murder, as long as you
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2140
are Cuban and anti Castro. How did Jorge Mas Canosa
without being a great orator, without being a great
thinker - if you ever heard him speak you would be
amazed - amass a wealth estimated over 100 million
dollars? Was it selling gasoline in a gas station? How
did all those pretty banks in Miami come about? Were
they built on banana profits? You always hear about
the Colombian drug cartel. Did you ever see an article
on the Miami Cuban drug trafficking? Don't you think a
Cuban-American drug cartel exists? But they are
untouchable. The only time I heard about drugs in
Miami was when a Cuban-American was indicted for
transporting 10 tons of cocaine on his boat. The
outcome? He was set free by the Miami courts for
"insufficient" evidence.
This first wave and their spawn are the dominant group
in the "exile" community; they are the top dogs, they
are the ones that unfortunately set U.S. policy against
Cuba; and govern with an iron fist the exile community.
They are the most recalcitrant, the most racist and the
most dangerous in the exile community. They are the
ones, who control the press and the local governments
as is the case of Miami and Union City, NJ ; they set
policies, decide what should be said and who can
speak. They hand out contracts and political favors, as
well as hand out punishment to those who get in the
way of their interest. These people along with the
numerous exile groups, among them terrorist
organizations such as Alpha 66, Omega 7, not only set
policies but make sure that they are enforced. They run
local politics and life in general, like organized crime
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2141
and as such they have been described by some as a
mafia.
God forbid anyone who goes against them on any issue
relating to Cuba. Even a small comment can cause you
harm, as was the case when a member of the Bay of
Pigs, in a Miami reunion in remembrance of those who
lost their life in the invasion got his teeth knocked out
because he suggested also a few seconds of silence for
those Cubans who died on the other side. If someone in
their own ranks can be punched out for an act of
kindness, then this small incident reveals that they are
capable of anything, and they are. Their obsessions
and hatreds is such that it has led them to despicable
acts of terrorism and violence, ranging from
intimidation to outright murder.
The second wave, are those that Cuban immigrants that
came after the wealthy, corrupt first wave - I would say
more or less those who left in the 80's. These were not
as well educated as the first wave people and for the
most part came over for economic reasons, not for
political reasons. This second wave who have little
knowledge of Cuban history and past U.S. Cuban
relations are easily persuaded and led on by the more
savvy and politically corrupt first wave exiles. They are
the ones who week after week go to meetings of exiles
and cough up the little they earn for the "cause". Week
after week the con artists of the exile take them for
every penny they have, with the usual line that the day
is finally coming, that Cuba will once again be
according to their definition "free". Some of these
second wave immigrants live from paycheck to
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2142
paycheck. My family and I with all honesty belonged to
this group. This group thinks that it has political power
but in reality within the "exile" community they have
very little.
Finally, the third wave, or the recent influx of Cuban
immigrants, also came over for economic reasons. This
group tends to be younger and having been born and
raised under the revolution tends not to be so
anticommunist as the other two groups. They are
slightly more opened minded when it comes to U.S. -
Cuba relations; some of them for example, favor a
dialogue with Cuba. Unlike the earlier immigrants,
which because of their hates do not travel to Cuba,
they often travel to Cuba to see their loved ones. Most
of the boat people in this group tend to be in the lower
end of the social scale; they tend to be those who don't
represent the best of Cuban society.
I had the opportunity in 95, on the coast of Havana,
during the mass exodus of boat people to see and to
speak with Cubans who were preparing their rafts to
embark to the US. What was my reaction to this? My
reaction was that the majority of the people leaving
were mostly from the lower end of the social spectrum
of Cuban society. The vulgarity, the choice of words
and vocabulary used by this group of boat people
convinced me of this. Men and women speaking and
shouting obscenities at each other; and their children in
their teens, some of them with tattoos, some of them
puking out vulgarities, convinced me that those leaving
were neither professionals nor the cream of Cuba.
Furthermore, in the Havana neighborhood of my in-laws
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2143
most of those that constructed the rafts and left were
riffraff; those that had criminal records or were
vagrants and/or local burglars.
Another thing that made me aware of the lowlife
element that was leaving Cuba at that time was when I
had an opportunity to speak, through an interpreter, to
a mute. This mute who had worked at odd jobs had left
Cuba illegally, and had been picked up and interned at
the US base in Guantanamo. After a short time he
decided to return to Cuba voluntarily. When I asked him
why he had returned, he made motions which were
indicated fighting and motions like smoking Marihuana
and drug use. They were all confirmed by the
interpreter - who by the way was his brother. In
essence here is someone who could not take the
conditions or what he saw in Guantanamo base, and
decided to return voluntarily. By the way all the
misinformation by the Cuban American Foundation, and
specially the spokesperson Ninoska Perez that the
Cuban govt. takes reprisal, is utterly false as no type of
reprisal was taken against this individual.
Now, I'm not saying that all the boat people who left
Cuba in 95 were delinquents, the worse of society - for
I'm sure that some good people and some professional
people left. What I am saying that most of them were
not the best. Let me ask you the following: why did
uncle Sam revise it's immigration laws at that time?
Why were the laws changed so that any Cuban caught
by the US coast guard would be sent back to Cuba?
Why did the US intern this group in Guantanamo base?
Why didn't uncle Sam welcome them with open arms?
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2144
Don't you think if the majority of the boat people were
professionals, doctors and engineers, they wouldn't
have been welcomed with open arms? I would suspect
that Washington knew exactly what type of people they
were.
I've known a few in this group that came over to taste
"paradise" as they have called it; and because of the
hardship they have had to endure, regretted coming
over. I've known a few that have asked to return. I
know of one who sleeps on the stairs of our building. I
met one who came on a raft in 83 then relocated to
Detroit, where he worked for the automobile industry.
Things were good until he was laid off because of a
slow down in car sales. As he explained it after the
benefits ran out he became desperate and as he put it,
"I started to sell drugs so I could eat."
Finally, I would not hesitate to say that most the last
wave of immigrants, from '90 to the present - with the
exception of the '95 exodus - differ from the other
groups in important issues concerning the island. They
tend to be more flexible on issues concerning US-Cuba
relations, that is, in such matters as the embargo and
family visitations to Cuba. It keeps itself in the closet
politically because they are afraid of harassment by
those in power -the first wave, dominant group. A few
from this group that I have spoken described the other
exile Cubans as "locos" and chusmas - crazies and
vulgar. As one told me, when I have asked why he
didn't express his opinions against the embargo more
freely, "Are you crazy? Those people are nuts." -
referring to Miami Cubans, " As soon as I got to Miami I
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2145
had problems because I had tapes of Silvio Rodriguez
and Pablo Milanes" (Cuban musicians)..."What would
happen if I said something (positive) about Cuba?"
The
tattoos
on
Elmer
Martine
z'
forehea
d and
body
identify
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2146
him
with
one of
Hondura
s'
largest
and
most
brutal
gangs.
But
Martine
z has
rejected
gang
life.
Marked
as an
outcast
and
target
by his
tattoos,
he is
still at
risk.
Theme:
Gangs in Central America
Gang violence is destroying the fabric
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2147
of community life in many parts of
Central America. Trapped in poverty
and despairing of the future, many
young men are drawn to the glamour
and sense of belonging that gangs
seem to promise. What they find
instead is a blood-drenched life of fear.
Is there hope for those who want to
leave the gangs behind? A program
begun by Honduran Mennonites and
supported by MCC shows that even
gang members can find new life.
Gang facts:
Central American countries where
gang problems are worst: El
Salvador, Honduras, Guatemala
Number of gang members in
Honduras: at least 32,000 (out of
population of 6.7 million)
Average age of gang member: 18
Factors in gangs' increase during
the 1990s: weapons left over from
civil wars, rising poverty,
deportations from the U.S. of
those involved with gangs there
Year the Honduran Mennonite
Church's Peace and Justice
program with former gang
members was established: 1998
Challenges former gang members
face: violence from current gang
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members or vigilante "social
cleansing" squads, difficulties
finding a job, reintegrating into
the community
Number of youth who participated
last year: 100
Number of last year's participants
still living: 75
Theme: Gangs in Central America
History of gangs in Central America
Membership in gangs in Central America skyrocketed
during the 1990s, when many of the region's countries
were attempting to recover from long civil wars. Years
of violence had left a thriving weapons market and a
deep sense of mistrust. Those who fled to the United
States didn't escape the conflict; two of today's most
powerful gangs, the Mara Salvatrucha and Calle 18, are
believed to have developed in Los Angeles during the
war years.
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When the United States stepped up deportations of
people with criminal records during the mid-1990s,
young men who had spent most of their lives on the
streets of U.S. cities found fertile ground for gang
activity in their homelands. New economic measures
had slashed social services and plunged many
Hondurans even further into poverty, making the allure
of money from gang dealing in drugs and weapons even
stronger. Neighborhoods and families were devastated
by waves of crime and terror.
Update: Looking for hope
Today, public fear and hostility toward gang members
have reached a fever pitch in Honduras, El Salvador and
Guatemala. Governments are taking a hardline
approach, blaming gangs for nearly all of their
countries' ills. Shadowy "social cleansing" squads --
which, according to a 2002 United Nations report, often
include police officers -- target tattooed youth for death.
This approach will not solve the problem of gangs, say
those involved with the Honduran Mennonite Church's
Peace and Justice gang rehabilitation project, which
MCC supports. In the slums of San Pedro Sula and La
Ceiba, project leaders offer youth who want to leave the
gangs encouragement, Bible studies, soccer leagues
and training in mediation and social skills. To
demonstrate their changed hearts to their communities,
the young men carry out service projects such as
painting over gang graffiti and picking up trash. Thanks
to a donation from a Pennsylvania church, the program
now even owns its own tattoo-removal machine.
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Transformed lives
The Peace and Justice program has been
enthusiastically received by gang members. From 35
participants in 1998 (10 of whom have met violent
deaths), the program last year grew to 100 (75 of whom
survive). In addition to work in neighborhoods, church
members in La Ceiba are also reaching out to young
men in prison. MCC worker Ricardo Torres recalls
running into a former participant in the program's
activities.
"Today I am working in a factory," the young man said.
"I tell my co-workers there that I was once a gang
member, but thanks be to God and some good friends I
have left that behind me. Thanks for paying attention to
me and creating some space for me. God has changed
my life."
Articles
Read the following articles to learn more about gangs in
Central America
Pennsylvania church's donation helps former Honduran
gang members start new lives
by Rachel B. Miller Moreland
People in North America have tattoos removed for
various reasons: that skull and crossbones no longer
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looks as cool as it did 20 years ago; the initials of a
long-gone girlfriend are a reminder of a bad breakup;
the Harley insignia doesn't impress employers. People
in Honduras have tattoos removed because they're a
death brand.
read more...
They offered us glasses of cool water
by Pastor Hector Caballero
We were called by God to reach out to young gang
members, the miserable and despised of society. We
began in the Centros Penales (penal centers, or prisons)
in the city of La Ceiba. The youth in the prisons
connected us with other young men and women in the
neighborhoods and slums and gave us the authority to
assist those on the outside.
read more...
Testimonio por el pastor Hector Caballero
Iglesia Evanglica Menonita Horeb, La Ceiba, Honduras
En septiembre del ao 2002 recibimos el llamado de
Dios para ir a los jvenes mareros y pandilleros,
miserables y despreciado por la sociedad. Comenzamos
en los Centros Penales de la Ciudad de la Ceiba. Los
mismos jvenes de los centros penales nos conectaron
con los dems muchachos en barrios y colonias y nos
dieron la autorizacin para atender a los de afuera.
read more...
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Honduran gang members 'wander' into new life
by Eric Timar - June 22, 2001
SAN PEDRO SULA, Honduras -- After two years of
involvement with a Honduran Mennonite outreach
program, members of the "Wanderers" street gang in
Punta Caliente neighborhood still hang out together --
but now they play soccer and pick up trash rather than
shooting at other gangs and robbing.
Tattoo removal gives new hope to ex-gang members
by Eric Timar - March 9, 2001
CHAMELECON, Honduras -- Marvin, a 21-year-old
Honduran, got two tattoos on his upper right arm three
years ago. This morning, at a clinic in this town outside
San Pedro Sula, he is getting them burned off. He
betrays no pain as the nurse injects him repeatedly with
anesthetic beneath the tattoos and his skin swells.
read more...
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Marked for life?
Gangs in
Honduras.
An explosion of
membership in
violent street
gangs has
devastated
Honduras and
other Central
American
countries. The
tattoos on Elmer
Martinez'
forehead and
body identify him
with the Sureos
13, a sub-group
of one of
Honduras' largest
and most brutal
gangs. But
Martinez has
rejected the
constant
violence and
danger of gang
life. He is among
dozens of former
gang members
finding hope
|1|2|3|4|5|6|7|8|9|10|11
|
12|
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through an MCC-
supported
program
operated by the
Honduran
Mennonite
Church's Peace
and Justice
ministry in the
northwest cities
of San Pedro Sula
and nearby La
Ceiba.
View the Gangs
in Central
America pages.
Photographs by
Paul Jeffrey, a
freelance
photographer
based in
Honduras.
If you would like
to know when a
new photo
gallery is
displayed, put
your e-mail
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address here and
click the button.
GLOSSARY OF DANGEROUS MOTORCYCLE GANGS
&
TERMINOLOGY USED BY DANGEROUS MOTORCYCLE
GANGS
1%ers - The 1% symbol is derived from a statement by
the American Motorcycle Association (AMA) that 99% of
the country's motorcyclists belong to the AMA and are
law-abiding individuals. The 1% symbol has thus
become the mark of the outlaw bike rider and they
display it on their colors, and many have it tattooed on
their person.
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13 - Patch worn on an outlaw member's colors,
symbolizing that the biker either smokes marijuana,
deals in it, or has contactq for methamphe tamine.
666 - Patch worn on an outlaw member's colors, or
tattoo, symbolizing the mark of Satan.
69 - Patch worn on an outlaw member's colors, or
tattoo, symbolizing that the wearer has committed
cunnilingus or fellatio with witnesses present. Having
been in prison.
A.M.A. - American Motorcycle Association. It's
composed of average people who like motorcycles and
the companionship of club activity. They are seldom
intentionally a problem to police and are usually willing
to cooperate with law enforcement. According to the
A.M.A., they constitute 99% of the nation's cyclists.
Citizen - A cyclist who belongs to the A.M.A., not a
member of the 1% club.
Class - To do something out of the ordinary, usually an
act which is violent and/or shocking to the public.
Colors - The official uniform of all outlaw motorcycle
gangs. The colors consist of a sleeveless levi or leather
jacket, with club patch on the back, and various other
patches, pins, and Nazi metals attached to the front.
Colors belong to the club, are worn only by male
members, and are always held sacred by outlaw gang
members.
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Crash Truck - A van, panel truck, or converted school
bus that follows the motorcyclegangs runs, and picks
up broken down bikes. Also known to carry the club's
weapons, drugs, supplies, and camping gear. Usually
driven by one of the females.
Cross - An emblem worn by 1%ers, either as an
earring,.patch or pin attached to the colors.
White cross - Earned when a person digs open a grave,
removes an article from the deceased with witnesses
present, and wears it on his colors.
Red cross - Earned by committing homosexual fellatio
with witnesses present.
Cutie - A female picked up off the street and taken to
the clubhouse or other place for a party. She is the
victim of a gang bang, rape and beating. Later, she is
released with threats on her life and family if she talks
to police.
D.F.F.L. - Dope Forever Forever Loaded
Dresser - Large Harley-davidson motorcycle with
custom trim, saddle bags; used in bike shows.
Eightball - Patch worn on colors, earned by committing
homosexual sodomy with witnesses present.
Fash Truck - Same as crash truck. This term comes
from Canada.
Fly Colors - To ride on a motorcycle wearing colors.
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Free Rider - An individual who shares the same values
and enjoys the same life-style as outlaw gang members
but who prefers to keep a degree of freedom of choice
by not formally belonging to one specific club.
F.T.W. - Standing for "Fuck the World," these intitials
are found on membership cards, as tattoos, and are
patches or pins on colors.
Garbage Wagon - A stock motorcycle with standard
parts intact, loaded with saddle bags and chrome, as
distinct from a chopper.
Hardtail - A rigid motorcycle frame with no shock
absorbing device on the rear.
Heat - Law enforcment officer, also known as The Man.
Hog - Harley-Davidson motorcycle.
Jap-Scrap - Japanese motorcycles or foreign made
bikes.
Knucklehead - A type of Harley-Davidson engine
manufactured prior to 1948, which was characterized
by large nuts on the right * side of engine above the
cylinders. Appearance is somewhat similar to knuckles.
Legal Name - Most outlaw motorcycle club members
have nicknames or club names which are called "Legal
Names" by club members. They are also called "Street
Names."
Loner - See "Free Rider."
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Mama - A girl available to all club members,
usually.sexually.
M.C. - Patch on colors, meaning motorcycle club.
Nomad - They are members of a motorcyle gang and will
wear the club's colors. The bottom rocker will read
"Nomad." In some clubs they are the enforcers. They do
not belong to any one chapter. He will attend club
meetings and pay required dues to different chapters,
depending on his travels.
O.F.F.O. - Outlaws Forever Forever Outlaws
Old Lady - Wife or steady girlfriend of a club member.
originals - A member's first set of colors which are
never to be cleaned.
Participate - To aid a member in a fight by ganging up
on the opponent.
P.O.B.O.B. - Pissed Off Bastards of Blooming ton - the
original gang that later developed into the Hell's Angels.
P.P.D.S.P.E.M.F.O.B.B.T. - "Pill Popping Dope Smoking
Pussy Eating Mother Fucken Outlaw Brothers Biken
Together" found on tattoos, colors, and business cards.
Probate - Club membership hopefuls, who ride with the
gang during their probationary period. After this time a
unanimous vote must be cast by the membership for
acceptance, initiation, and awarding of colors.
Prospect - A prospective member.
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Pull a Train - For a girl to have sexual inter course with
each man in the group, any way he would like it, one
after another.
Run - A club sanctioned outing for a day, weekend, or
week, to a certain location for a party, camping, or
special event. sometimes with other chapters and/or
clubs.
Sheep - Same as "Mama."
Sissy Bars -Bars, often high bars, on the rear of a
motorcycle used as a back-rest for a passenger.
Static - Trouble or harassment from law enforcement
authorities or other members of motorcycle clubs.
Striker - A prospective member; term normally used by
Canadian clubs.
Suck to the Bulls - Talk or act friendly towards
policemen.
The Man - Police or Law Enforcement Officer
Turn Out - When all members come together in the case
of an initiation for a new member, or for a girl to pull a
train for the first time.
War Wagon - A vehicle used to transport the club's
arsenal during an outing when trouble is expected from
other clubs.
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White Power Fist - Patch worn on colors which displays
the gang's racial ideals and philosophies of White
supremacy.
Wings - emblem worn by 1%ers, as a pin or patch (cloth)
attached to the colors. All wing earning must be
witnessed.
Black Wings - Earned when the wearer performs
cunnilinguson a Black woman.
Torture AlQaeda Style
Drawings, tools seized from Iraq safe house in U.S.
military raid
MAY 24--In a recent raid on an al-Qaeda
safe house in Iraq, U.S. military officials recovered an
assortment of crude drawings depicting torture
methods like "blowtorch to the skin" and "eye removal."
Along with the images, which you'll find on the
following pages, soldiers seized various torture
implements, like meat cleavers, whips, and wire
cutters. Photos of those items can be seen here. The
images, which were just declassified by the Department
of Defense, also include a picture of a ramshackle
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Baghdad safe house described as an "al-Qaeda torture
chamber." It was there, during an April 24 raid, that
soldiers found a man suspended from the ceiling by a
chain. According to the military, he had been abducted
from his job and was being beaten daily by his captors.
In a raid earlier this week, Coalition Forces freed five
Iraqis who were found in a padlocked room in Karmah.
The group, which included a boy, were reportedly
beaten with chains, cables, and hoses. Photos showing
injuries sustained by those captives can be found here.
(12 pages)
TSG TV: Our new video venture has nearly 500 clips,
from Mussolini to Puffy
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2174
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2175
GANGS OF BRITAIN
The Inside Story of the Manchester Gangs and one of
the authors of the book Cocky, about British drug baron
Curtis Warren.
THE NURSES and orderlies at Manchester Royal
Infirmary have witnessed a few punch-ups over the
years. But nothing had prepared them for the sight of
two armed gangs chasing each other on mountain bikes
down the hospital corridors. As staff tried bravely to
barricade doors and protect patients, members of the
Gooch Close Gang and the rival Longsight Crew hunted
each other through the wards, the X-ray department
and the fracture clinic. CCTV cameras caught the
thugs, masked in hoods, balaclavas and bandanas,
using hospital trolleys as battering rams to try to reach
parts of the building. The storming of the citys main
hospital, in July last year, followed several incidents
earlier that day. A member of each gang had been taken
to hospital with gunshot wounds, while another
Goochie, Leon Johnson, had been mown down in a hit-
and-run attack. Each was being visited by relatives and
friends when word spread that the others were in the
hospital, and the Longsight thugs phoned for back-up.
"The arrival of the second group caused panic, said
prosecutor Robert Elias at a subsequent trial. Staff,
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2176
patients and visitors fled for their lives." Ten young men
were later jailed for either affray or public order
offences. A hospital should be a sanctuary, said one
exasperated detective, not an arena in which to settle
violent disputes. Yet the fact that such a brazen
display should happen in Manchesters main accident
and emergency hospital came as little surprise. And
twelve months later, in July 2005, they were at it again:
the Gooch and Doddington gangs fighting hand-to-hand
and loosing off gunshots in Manchester city centre at
2.30 on a Wednesday afternoon. The truth is, Britain is
in the midst of a gang epidemic.
As late as five years ago, most British police forces
would deny they had a gang problem. Now it seems
senior officers are almost falling over themselves to
claim my patch is worse than yours. A retiring
Merseyside Chief Constable said Liverpool was unique
for the reach of its criminal gangs, particularly in drug
importation and distribution. The head of
Nottinghamshire Police says his force is reeling with
murders and cannot cope. The Metropolitan Police this
summer identified at least 193 criminal networks in the
capital alone, ranging from international cartels to
undisciplined street crews. So who are these groups,
how numerous are they and where have they come
from? The precise number of gangs in the UK is
unknowable and ever-changing. Compile a chart and its
out of date within a week, as different groups wax and
wane with startling speed. Some researchers also
distinguish between crime firms and street gangs.
The former come together purely to commit crimes,
while the latter may offer social and psychological
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2177
succour and engage in a range of activities as well as
crime.
Everyone agrees, though, that they are here, they are
deadly, and they are growing. When academics from the
University of Glamorgan studied data from interviews
with almost 5,000 arrestees across England and Wales,
they found that 15% had either current or past
experience as gang members. This suggests there may
be 20,000 active gang members across the nation and
thats just among adults aged 17 and over. Of course,
gangs are nothing new in the UK. One particular kind of
mob culture was actually pioneered here: football
hooliganism. Every town with a professional soccer
club has its hoolie firm, but they have tended to be
classed as disorderly thugs rather than criminal
enterprises, even though they are monitored by the
National Criminal Intelligence Service. Some hooligans
entered the rave scene in the late 1980s, as organizers,
ecstasy dealers and security teams, but still the police
viewed them as a rung below the breed of hardcore
gangster that had begun to appear.
The new breed was propelled by the growing
availability of two commodities, drugs and guns.
London and Manchester were the first cities to feel
their heat. The headline-making conflict that saw
Manchester labeled Britains Chicago erupted in the
mid-80s between the volatile armed robbers of
Cheetham Hill, north of the city centre, and the frontline
drug dealers of Moss Side, to the south. It was followed
by an internal war within Moss Side itself, leading to
such pointless killings as the murder of schoolboy Benji
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2178
Stanley. At the time, Manchesters problems were
almost unique but times were changing. In 1991,
Lancashire Chief Constable Brian Johnson told the
Association of Chief Police Officers that murderous
gangs were fighting to control the drugs traffic in
Britain. So powerful were they, and so well armed, that
they threatened to steamroller the specialist police
units tasked with taking them on. His words had the
edge of truth, yet organized crime remained a dirty
phrase in British law enforcement. As a senior Liverpool
detective told one criminologist, We put organized
crime in a box marked, Do not open, too difficult to
handle. Eventually that lid could be held on no longer,
and Pandoras Box blew open. Liverpools mid-90s gang
war between the white clans of inner-city Dingle and
the black lads of Granby was a foretaste of internecine
feuds in several cities. The late 90s saw the arrival of
such lethal weaponry as the MAC-10, a rapid-fire
submachine gun designed for jungle warfare. It soon
became a favorite accessory, supplied from former
Eastern Bloc countries or by unscrupulous gun dealers
who reactivated decommissioned models. One young
gang leader, the wheelchair-bound Julian Bell of the
Longsight Crew, used his 500,000 compensation from
a motorbike accident to buy the guns and body armor to
fight the neighboring Pitt Bull Crew.
The trend in the new millennium is for the more
powerful urban crews to deliberately encroach into
nearby cities. Sheffield is the most glaring example.
The Steel City had a thriving club and drug scene but no
gangland culture. Outside mobs saw easy pickings and
muscled in on drug dealers working alone without
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2179
protection. The recklessly violent Doddington Gang
from Manchester appeared there, as did the St Anns
Crew from Nottingham, one of that citys three main
black gangs. After some of their members were
ambushed in a Sheffield takeaway and taxed of jewelry
and mobile phones, the St Anns lads swore revenge. A
hit squad returned in a convoy of cars with a shotgun
and blasted to death an innocent father-of-seven, 42-
year-old Gerald Smith, as he stood in the doorway of
Donkeymans Afro Caribbean club in Spital Hill. The
tragic irony is that the gang who had mugged the St
Anns men were not locals but members of yet another
outside mob: the infamous Johnson Crew, from
Birmingham. The real background was territorial
control and power of rival gangs of young men in
Midlands cities, said Mr Justice Wakerley, jailing nine
St Anns men for a total of 195 years for Smiths murder.
You were part of a gang that was ready, by the use of
force or firearms, to show your dominance that you
were kings. The killers responded with laughter and
jeers. Several similar murders in Sheffield prompted
South Yorkshire Police to launch Operation Maple. It
became evident that criminal gangs from places such
as Manchester, Nottingham, Birmingham and London
were infiltrating the area by meeting women, becoming
entrenched in society and intimidating the area's own
criminals, said Detective Inspector Andy Bishop.
Robberies, shootings, kidnappings, reports of torture
and even murders became linked with these gangs and
the drugs trade. They identified criminals they saw as
easy targets and it got to the point where the violence
[was] becoming a huge drain on police resources.
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2180
Since Maple began, officers have seized almost 2
million worth of drugs, including crack cocaine, of
heroin, ecstasy and cannabis, and recovered more than
20 guns. One of their biggest successes was the
capture of drug dealer Keisha Williams, aged 23, with
30,000 of crack cocaine. Williams fronted a massive
dealing operation from a subway for a Jamaican drugs
baron believed to be heavily involved in gun crime.
The West Indian involvement has been key to the
spread of gangs in many UK cities. A 2003 report
suggested Jamaican Yardies had invaded Britain at an
alarming rate and their control of the crack trade had
gradually spread north, reaching as far as Aberdeen. Of
43 police forces in England and Wales, 36 reported a
problem with Yardie gangs. Yet despite their almost
insane brutality, the Yardies have not always fared well
against home-grown rivals. In Birmingham, Jamaican
interlopers were faced down by the homeboys of
Handsworth and Lozells: the Burger Bar Boys and the
Johnson Crew. The Burgers and the Johnnies, however,
then turned their guns on each other in a tit-for-tat
spiral, culminating in the tragic killing of Charlene Ellis
and Letisha Shakespeare at a New Years Day party.
Far from cowing the gangs, such high-profile incidents
seem only to heighten their bravado. The Birmingham
gangsters have even made and distributed DVDs of
their exploits. Leeds was relatively free of gang
violence until the murder of towering gangster Clifton
Junior Bryan in 2000. Having survived at least one
previous assassination bid, Bryan was apparently lured
to a house in Manchester with another man, Denis
Wilson, and shot in the head. Their bodies were then
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2181
bundled into the trunk of a car, which was later found
abandoned in the Harehills district of Leeds. Bryans
young acolytes, known as The Youth, or Yout, were
then faced with competition from an influx of Jamaican
drug sellers, The resultant bloodbath led to the
launching Operation Stirrup, which began in 2001 and is
now a permanent police campaign against the gangs.
In London, the term Yardie has become so ubiquitous
as to mean almost any Jamaican, African or black gang.
These include the Cartel Crew in Brixton, the Lock City
Crew and their rival Much Love Crew in Harlesden, the
Spanglers and the Fireblade in north-east London, the
Kinglands Crew and the Hackney Posse in the east, the
Ghetto Boys in Lewisham, and the Peckham Boys and
Younger Peckham Boys. Then there are the Muslim
Boys, the name used by between 50 and 100 members
of several gangs in neighborhoods around Brixton,
Peckham, Lambeth, and Streatham, south London.
Many of them have access to automatic and semi-
automatic weapons and Detective Chief Superintendent
John Coles, who heads Operation Trident, the Scotland
Yard unit that targets gun crime in the black
community, blames them for several murders,
attempted murders, and a series of robberies. They
began using the name Muslim Boys as a macho thing,
Mr Coles told the London Evening Standard. One or two
might have converted to Islam, but it's nothing to do
with religion, or terrorism. As far as I'm concerned
they're the same thugs, engaged in the same crimes,
whatever they can do to make money. Ethnic crime
groups are heavily represented in London, easily the
nations biggest and most cosmopolitan city though it
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2182
should be noted that the Glamorgan University
researchers found most gang members were white.
London Turks and Kurds control much of the heroin
importation to the UK, and occasionally their feuds
break out into open warfare, as in the infamous Battle
of Green Lanes, when 40 men armed with guns, knives
and baseball bats battled outside a social club. By the
time police arrived, 21 men had been injured, one
fatally. It is family controlled and for years it has
remained covert, said a senior Metropolitan Police
officer of the Turkish heroin trade. It is extremely
powerful, controlled more from Istanbul than London.
Outside the major urban centers, gang problems are
less acute, but growing. Youngsters from the flatlands
of East Anglia to the council estates of Paisley are
adopting the street slang, wearing the clothes, selling
drugs and even acquiring guns. The gang leaders are
usually childhood friends, brought up in poor areas,
searching for the elusive quality of respect which in
their world often equates as fear. If the criminal world
is a layer cake, at the bottom are teenage gangs with
members as young as ten, based on housing estates.
Members may then graduate to more serious crime
gangs, stealing high-value cars, snatching jewelry and
watches, dealing wraps of crack and heroin. On the
next level are villains who control large-scale
operations such as drug distribution the so-called ten-
kilo men, and protection rackets on pubs, clubs and
bars. At the very top are the big drug importers and
moneymen: the Turks, the Asians, the Colombians, and
a few indigenous mini-cartels, mainly from London and
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2183
the Home Counties or Liverpool. Some of these crime
groups have political links in their countries of origin.
What know single group has ever done is achieve
representation at every level until now. For some
time, Customs officer have been watching a surge in
the wealth and influence of Asian gangs, particularly
from Pakistan and India. Often fuelled by anti-Western
sentiment, they are smart, savvy and ruthless. They
control the entire heroin supply chain from cultivation
in the Middle east to sale on the streets of the UK, said
one investigator. No other crime group can do that, it
makes them uniquely powerful. And thats frightening.
GANG MAP
NATIONAL
Many foreign gangs are active across the UK. They
include: Chinese Triads (estimated 5,000 nationwide),
engaged in loan sharking, extortion, gambling, fraud;
Snakehead and Vietnamese gangs (350), people
smuggling, extortion; Turkish and Kurdish gangs (500-
1,000), heroin importation, arms; Nigerian and Ghanaian
gangs (1,000), fraud; Balkan and former Eastern Bloc
gangs (unknown), prostitution, drugs, guns, contract
killing (Serbs), smuggling illegal immigrants; former
Communist Bloc - trading in women for vice and
pornography, extortion, importing counterfeit goods.
BIRMINGHAM
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2184
Two black gangs, the Burger Bar Boys and the Johnson
Crew, have waged an on-off war for a decade. Both
grew out of earlier gangs, the Handsworth Nigga Squad
and the Inch High Crew, and bizarrely took their names
from the food outlets where they hung out. They have
forged contacts with outside firms including the PDC in
London, the Gooch in Manchester and others in Bristol
and Swindon New gangs are Badder Bar Boys, the
Champagne Crew and the Rally Close Crew. Members of
Birmingham Citys Zulus football firm control many of
the pub and club doors in the city and are treated with
respect by the younger gang bangers.
BRISTOL
A crack cocaine hotspot. The Aggi crew, who take their
name form the initials of their founder members,
dominated the cities drug trade until key members were
jailed,. When they emerged form prison, they faced
opposition from Yardie posses including Hype Cru, the
Moutain View Posse and the Back to back gang.
Predictably, a spate of shootings and even an attack
qwith giant fireworks followed. Police set up Operation
Atrium to prevent gang warfare and closed down the
Black and White Caf in St Pauls, the most notorious
drug-dealing venue in England. Recently they also shut
crack houses in South Gloucestershire and one in
Somerset. But the murder of enforcer Stephen Henry in
September 2003 indicates that gang conflict in the city
has not gone away.
LONDON
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2185
The capital has multiple layers of gang/organised crime,
from international cartels to school-age street urchins.
Turks and Kurds, many linked to the notorious Baybasin
clan, control heroin importation. They included the
Bombers in Hackney (100 members), the Tottenham
Boys (70), and the Kurdish Bulldogs (70) in Wood Green
Muslim Boys is the name used by between 50 and 100
members of several gangs around Brixton, Peckham,
Lambeth, and Streatham, in south London. Most are in
their late teens or early 20s and belong to the
Stockwell Crew, the South Man Syndicate and Poverty
Driven Children (PDC). At least 20 hardcore members
are in jail. The Peckham Boys are primarily active in
Peckham, Walworth and Camberwell, and in cross-
border disputes. Members are predominately black
males involved in robbery, house burglary, drugs and
disorder. Older members often move into more serious
crimes. Their offshoot, the Young Peckham Boys, were
blamed for the death of 10-year-old Damilola Taylor The
Lock City Crew tend to be foreign born, either African or
Jamaican, while their rival Much Love Crew are local to
north London. White gangs include the tough Canning
Town and Stratford firms in the East End, and the
notorious A Team from north London. Rival Sri Lankan
gangs have recently waged a vicious war in the
Wembley area, while the Southall Sikhs (formerly the
Holy Smokes and Tooti Nung) are active in the heroin
trade.
LUTON
The gradual demise of the Asian Bury Park Youth Posse
left the territory clear for their long-time rivals the Men
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2186
In Gear (MIGs), one of the first multi-racial football
hooligan crews, who number about 100 strong.
MANCHESTER
For two decades the dominant force in the citys
underworld, the Salford Lads are several different firms
linked by long-standing friendships. Up to 100-strong,
they specialize in cannabis and club drugs, protection
rackets and armed robbery. The 60-strong Cheetham
Hillbillies, many of African descent, specialized in
armed robbery, taxing and drugs. Some became multi-
millionaire drug barons. The Gooch, from Moss Side, are
now the strongest of the black or mixed-race gangs.
Their alleged godmother, a woman of 46, was recently
subject to an ASBO. Their Doddington rivals have been
decimated by murders, an internal split, and successful
police operations, including one that rounded up over a
dozen of their street drug dealers.
The Longsight Crew survive despite the recent jailing of
their leader, Julian Bell, while the Pitt Bull Crew, who
split off from the Doddington, were all but wiped out by
the jailing of their entire leadership, including boss
Tommy Pitt, sentenced to life imprisonment for murder.
New groups such as the Young Longsight Soldiers, but
it is the emerging Asian gangs that may dominate the
citys underworld in the future.
LIVERPOOL
Originally run by a small number of powerful families,
the citys organized crime culture is entrepreneurial
rather than territorial. The most famous Merseyside Mr
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2187
Big, Curtis Warren, the Toxteth scally who became
Britains biggest drugs baron, is currently in jail in
Holland, serving a 12-year sentence for masterminding
a 125m shipment. He forged links with major narcotics
suppliers such as the Colombians, as did John Haase,
whose Big Brother Security was a front for his drug and
weapons deals with Turkish godfathers. The city now
has innumerable drug dealing cells with links across
the globe, while the heavies behind the citys door
security industry are in a constant state of tension that
occasionally breaks out in violence. At street level,
police now say there are now at least three young
gangs on Warrens former Toxteth turf, while two young
white gangs have been locked in a deadly conflict in
the Kirkdale area of the city.
LEEDS
The 6ft 5in Clifton Junior Bryan had strong links with
the drug warlords of Manchester and Liverpool, in 2000.
When he and the equally powerful Frank Gatt Birley
died in unrelated incidents, it unleashed a spate of
shootings has hit the city after his death, attributable to
the so-called Yout (Youth) clashing with Yardies for
control of the drugs trade. Left six dead andmore than
twenty injured and led to the deportation of over 200
illegal entrants, mainly from the West Indies, in a police
crackdown called Operation Stirrup. Leeds is also home
of one of Britains few female crime gangs, the
Chapeltown Purse Dippers.
NOTTINGHAM
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Three predominantly black gangs, the Meadows Posse,
the St Anns Crew and the Radford Road Posse, but they
are challenged by white guys from the Bestwood area
Their numbers vary depending on how many are in jail
or on the run at any one time. Robberies and drug
dealing are their stock in trade. They have links with
black gangs in Birmingham, Sheffield and Manchester.
NEWCASTLE AND THE NORTH-EAST
Traditionally the preserve of musclemen and
bodybuilders, the macho culture of the north-east has
been personified by tough families such as the Sayers
and the Conroys (Newcastle), the late Lee Duffy
(Middlesbrough), the Warden Law Gang (Sunderland)
and BOSS the Boys of South Shields and their
offshoot the Youth of South Shields. The north-east
does not have the large ethnic minority gangs of many
other urban areas, nor has it yet fully adopted the gun
culture. Violent gangs like the Stockton Wrecking Crew
and the Gremlins are little more than brawlers
compared to the more organized gangs of other cities.
Major Terrorist Attacks in Israel 10/2001- 1/2007
January 29, 2007: Three people were killed in a
suicide bombing in a bakery in Eilat, the first suicide
bombing in the city. Islamic Jihad claimed
responsibility for the attack.
June 25, 2006: Eliahu Asheri, 18, of Itamar, was
kidnapped by Palestinian terrorists from the Popular
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Resistance Committees while hitchhiking from Betar
Illit, southwest of Bethlehem, to Neveh Tzuf, where he
was studying. His body was found on June 29 in
Ramallah. Israeli Authorities believe Asheri was
murdered by his captors shortly after his kidnapping.
April 17, 2006: Nine people were killed and at least 40
wounded in a suicide bombing near the old central bus
station in Tel Aviv. The blast ripped through Falafel
Rosh Ha'ir, the same restaurant that was hit by an
attack on January 19. The Islamic Jihad and Fatahs Al
Aksa Martyrs Brigades both claimed responsibility for
the attack. The Hamas led PA government defended the
suicide bombing, calling it an act of "self-defense."
Hamas official spokesman Sami Abu Zuhri called the
attack "a natural result of the continued Israeli crimes
against our people".
March 30, 2006: Four people were killed in a suicide
bombing outside Kedumim in the northern West Bank.
The Al-Aksa Martyrs Brigades took responsibility for the
attack.
January 19, 2006: At least 30 people were injured in a
suicide bombing near the old central bus station in
southern Tel Aviv. Islamic Jihad claimed responsibility
for the attack.
December 29, 2005: Three people were killed - two
Palestinian civilians and an Israeli soldier - in a suicide
bombing at a checkpoint near Tulkarm. The suicide
bomber was apparently planning to target one of the
many children's events taking place in Tel Aviv for the
Hanukkah holiday, but was stopped at the checkpoint.
Islamic Jihad claimed responsibility for the attack.
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December 5, 2005: Five people were killed and more
than 50 others injured in a suicide bombing at the
entrance of a shopping mall in Netanya. Islamic Jihad
claimed responsibility for the attack.
October 26, 2005: Six people were killed and 55
wounded in a suicide bombing in an outdoor market in
the town of Hadera. Islamic Jihad claimed
responsibility for the attack.
October 16, 2005: Palestinian gunmen killed three
Israelis and wounded as least 5 others in two separate
drive-by shootings in the West Bank. The Al Aqsa
Martyrs Brigades claimed responsibility for both
attacks.
August 28, 2005: A suicide bombing outside the
Central Bus Station in Beersheba severly injured two
security guards who stopped the bomber from entering
the bus station. Islamic Jihad and Al Aksa Martyrs
Brigades claimed responsibility for the attack.
August 4, 2005: An AWOL Israeli soldier killed four
Israeli Arabs and wounded 12 on a bus in town of
Shfaram. The shooter was killed by a mob that boarded
the bus after the shooting.
July 23, 2005: Two people were killed and three
others wounded in a drive-by shooting near the Kissufim
crossing in the Gaza Strip. Islamic Jihad and Al Aksa
Martyrs Brigades claimed responsibility for the attack.
July 12, 2005: Five people were killed and 90
wounded in a suicide bombing outside of a shopping
mall in Netanya. Islamic Jihad claimed responsibility for
the attack.
June 24, 2005: Two teenagers were killed and three
others wounded in a drive-by shooting near Hebron. The
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Al-Aksa Martyrs Brigade claimed responsibility for the
attack.
February 25, 2005: Five Israelis were killed and 50
other civilians were wounded in a suicide bombing
outside a Tel Aviv nightclub. Islamic Jihad claimed
responsibility for the attack.
January 13, 2005: Six Israelis were killed and five
other civilians were wounded in a double suicide
bombing at the Karni crossing between Israel and the
Gaza Strip. The two suicide bombers used a very large
explosive device to blast through a defensive wall that
separates the Israeli and Palestinian sides at the
crossing. Following the blast, the bombers crossed into
the Israeli side, carrying explosives on their bodies,
which they detonated. Hamas and the Fatah al-Aqsa
Martyrs' Brigades claimed joint responsiblity for the
attack.
January 4, 2005: Two adults were lightly injured when
a mortar shell, fired from Gaza Strip, hit a school bus
near Nissanit. None of the children were wounded.
December 15, 2004: Five motorists, an officer, three
soldiers and a civilian were wounded from gunshots
fired by a terrorist at Israeli vehicles on the Kissufim
road in the Gaza Strip. Palestinian Islamic Jihad and
Fatah claimed joint responsibility for the attack.
November 1, 2004: Three people were killed when a
suicide bomber exploded in Tel Avivs busy Carmel
market. At least 32 were wounded. The Popular Front
for the Liberation of Palestine claimed responsibility.
September 22, 2004: Two police were killed and at
least sixteen people were injured when a suicide
bomber detonated a bag packed with explosives at a
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2192
crowded bus stop in the French Hill neighborhood of
Jerusalem. The Al-Aksa Martyrs Brigade, affiliated with
Yasir Arafats Fatah, claimed responsibility. The slain
police had stopped the 18-year old woman, Zainab Abu
Salem from the Askar refugee camp near the West Bank
city of Nablus, from approaching the bus stop, and she
detonated the explosives.
August 31, 2004: Sixteen people, including a 3 year
old, were killed and about 100 injured when two buses
in Beersheba were attacked within minutes of each
other by suicide bombers. Hamas claimed
responsibility.
July 11, 2004: One woman was killed and 32 people
were injured when a bomb exploded next to a Tel Aviv
bus stop. Fatahs El-Aksa Martyrs Brigades claimed
responsibility for the attack.
June 28, 2004: A Kassam rocket fired by Hamas
terrorists in the Gaza Strip struck near a nursery school
in the northern Negev town of Sderot, killing an Israeli
man and a 4-year old Israeli child.
May 2, 2004: An Israeli woman, in her eighth month of
pregnancy, was shot dead along with her four daughters
when two Palestinian terrorists fired on their car at the
entrance to the Gaza Strip settlement bloc of Gush
Katif. After the car spun off the road after the initial
attack, the terrorists approached the vehicle and shot
the occupants at close range. Fatah and Islamic Jihad
claimed joint responsibility for the attack.
March 14, 2004: Ten people were killed and 16
wounded in a double suicide bombing in the area of the
Ashdod Port. Hamas and Fatah claimed responsibility
for the attack.
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February 22, 2004: A suicide bomber attacked a bus in
the center of Jerusalem, killing 8 people and wounding
70. The Palestinian terrorist group Al Aksa Martyrs
Brigades claimed responsibility.
January 29, 2004: A suicide bomber attacked a bus in
Jerusalem's Rehavia neighborhood, killing 11 people
and wounding 50. The Palestinian terrorist group Al
Aksa Martyrs Brigades claimed responsibility.
January 14, 2004: A female suicide bomber killed four
people and wounded 20 at the Erez Crossing in the Gaza
Strip. Hamas and the Fatah Al Aqsa Martyrs Brigades
claimed responsibility for the attack.
January 13, 2004: An Israeli motorist was shot dead
and three of his passengers were wounded when their
car was fired upon by Palestinian terrorists near
Talmon, west of Ramallah. The Fatah Al Aqsa Martyrs
Brigades claimed responsibility for the attack.
December 25, 2003: A suicide bomber killed four
people and wounded more than 20 in an explosion near
a bus stop at Geha Junction in Petah Tikvah, a suburb
of Tel Aviv. The Popular Front for the Liberation of
Palestine claimed responsibility.
October 15, 2003: Three Americans were killed and
one wounded at the Beit Hanoun junction in the Gaza
Strip when a massive bomb demolished an armor-plated
jeep in a convoy carrying U.S. diplomats and CIA
personnel. Both the militant Islamic Jihad and Hamas
movements denied responsibility for the attack.
October 4, 2003: Islamic Jihad claimed responsibility
for a suicide bombing at the Maxim restaurant in Haifa
killing 20 people and wounding more than 60.
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September 26, 2003: Eyal Yeberbaum, 27, and 7-
month old infant Shaked Avraham were shot dead by a
Palestinian terrorist who knocked on the door of a home
in Negohot, south of Hebron, during a celebratory
Jewish New Year holiday dinner. Islamic Jihad took
responsibility for the attack.
September 9, 2003: Hamas claimed responsibility for
two suicide bombings, the first at an entrance to the
Tzrifin army base near Rishon Lezion and the second at
Caf Hillel in the German colony neighborhood of
Jerusalem, which killed a total of 15 people and
wounded at least 80.
August 19, 2003: Hamas and Islamic Jihad claimed
responsibility for the suicide bombing of a bus in
Jerusalem killing at least 18 people and wounding
nearly 100.
August 12, 2003: Suicide bombers killed two Israelis
and wounded more than a dozen people in two attacks
within a half hour of each other, one at a shopping mall
in the Tel Aviv suburb of Rosh Haayin and the other at
the entrance of the West Bank town of Ariel. The Al
Aqsa Martyrs Brigade claimed responsibility for the
Rosh Haayin bombing and Hamas claimed to have
carried out the Ariel attack.
July 7, 2003: Mazal Afari, 65, of Moshav Kfar Yavetz
was killed in her home and three of her grandchildren
lightly wounded in a suicide bombing. The Jenin-based
cell of Islamic Jihad claimed responsibility for the
attack.
June 20, 2003: An Israeli motorist was shot dead and
three of his passengers were wounded when their car
was fired upon by Palestinian terrorists near Ofra, north
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2195
of Ramallah. Hamas claimed responsibility for the
attack.
June 19, 2003: A suicide bombing in a grocery store in
Sede Terumot in northeastern Israel, south of Beit
Shean, killed the owner of the store. Islamic Jihad
claimed responsibility for the attack.
June 17, 2003: A shooting attack near the Kibbutz
Eyal junction of the Trans-Israel Highway killed a 7-
year-old girl and wounded three members of her family,
including her 3-year-old sister. The Al Aksa Martyrs
Brigades and the Popular Front for the Liberation of
Palestine claimed responsibility.
June 11, 2003: Sixteen people were killed and more
than 80 wounded when a suicide bomber blew up a
Jerusalem city bus during the afternoon rush hour. The
bomber was disguised as an ultra-orthodox Jew. Hamas
claimed responsibility for the attack.
May 19, 2003: A suicide bomber attacked the Shaarei
Amakim shopping center in Afula, in northern Israel,
killing at least four and wounding 15. Islamic Jihad and
Al Aksa Martyrs Brigades both claimed responsibility.
May 19, 2003: A Palestinian suicide bomber on a
bicycle attacked an Israeli checkpoint on the Gaza
Strip, wounding three Israeli soldiers. Hamas claimed
responsibility.
May 18, 2003: Seven people were killed and more than
20 wounded when a suicide bomber blew up a
Jerusalem city bus at the start of the Israeli work week.
The bomber was disguised as an ultra-orthodox Jew.
Soon after, a suicide bomber carrying explosives and
dressed in the garb of an ultra-orthodox Jew was
stopped at a roadblock. The Palestinian detonated his
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2196
explosives, killing only himself. Hamas claimed
responsibility in both attacks.
May 17, 2003: A pregnant Israeli woman and her
husband were killed when a suicide bomber detonated
himself next to them in a public square in Hebron.
Hamas claimed responsibility.
April 30, 2003: Three people were killed and dozens
wounded in a suicide bombing at a beachfront pub in
Tel Aviv. The Fatah Tanzim and Hamas claimed
responsibility for the attack, carried out as a joint
operation.
April 24, 2003: One Israeli was killed and 13 were
wounded in a suicide bombing outside the train station
in Kfar Saba. Groups related to the Fatah Al Aksa
Martyrs Brigades and the Popular Front for the
Liberation of Palestine claimed responsibility for the
attack.
March 30, 2003 - A suicide bombing in the pedestrian
mall entrance of a cafe in Netanya wounded more than
40 people. Islamic Jihad claimed responsibility for the
attack, calling it a gift to the Iraqi people.
March 7, 2003 - Two Israelis were killed and five were
wounded when armed terrorists infiltrated the
community of Kiryat Arba and attacked during Shabbat.
Hamas claimed responsibility for the attack.
March 5, 2003: Sixteen people were killed and more
than 30 wounded when a terrorist detonated a powerful
bomb on a bus en route to Haifa University. Hamas
claimed responsibility for the attack.
January 5, 2003: Twenty two people were killed and
about 120 wounded in a double suicide bombing near
the old Central Bus Station in Tel Aviv. The Al Aqsa
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Martyrs Brigades, Islamic Jihad and Hamas all claimed
responsibility for the attacks.
January 2, 2003 - The charred body of an Israeli from
Menahemiya in the Lower Galilee was found in the
northern Jordan Valley in his burned out car. The Al
Aqsa Martyrs Brigades claimed responsibility.
December 27, 2002 : Terrorists broke into a dining hall
at a yeshiva in Otneil, south of Hebron, and killed 4
students who were working in the yeshiva kitchen, and
injured ten others. Islamic Jihad claimed responsibility.
December 20, 2002 An Israeli rabbi was shot and
killed on the Kissufim corridor road in the Gaza Strip
while driving with his wife and six children to attend a
pre-wedding Sabbath celebration in Afula. Islamic Jihad
claimed responsibility for the attack.
November 28: A suicide car bombing of the Israeli-
owned beachfront Paradise Hotel in Mombasa, Kenya,
killed 3 Israelis and 10 Kenyans, and wounded at least
80 people. Al Qaeda is a main suspect in the attack.
November 28 - Two terrorists opened fire and lobbed
grenades at the Likud polling station in Beit Sheaan,
Israel, killing 6 people and wounding at least 40 people.
Al Aqsa Martyrs Brigades claimed responsibility for the
attack.
November 28: Two surface-to-air missiles narrowly
missed an Israeli airliner as it lifted off from the runway
at Moi International Airport in Kenya.
November 21: Eleven people were killed and 47
injured when a Palestinian suicide bomber exploded on
a bus filled with passengers, including schoolchildren,
in the Kiryat Menahem neighborhood in Jerusalem. The
bus was traveling toward the center of the city during
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the morning rush hour. Hamas claimed responsibility for
the attack.
November 18: An Israeli mother of seven from Kochav
Hashahar was killed Monday in a shooting attack on the
Allon Road, just north of Ramallah. Al Aqsa Martyrs
Brigades claimed responsibility for the attack.
November 15: Twelve Israelis were killed and 15
others wounded in Hebron when Palestinian terrorists
opened fire and threw grenades at a group of Jewish
worshippers and their guards as they were walking
home from Sabbath prayers at the Cave of the
Patriarchs. Islamic Jihad claimed responsibility for the
attacks.
November 10, 2002: Five Israelis were killed,
including two children, at Kibbutz Metzer, near Tulkarm.
The Al Aqsa Martyrs Brigades claimed responsibility for
the attack.
November 7, 2002: Two Israelis were killed when a
Palestinian worker fired on them at the Pe'at Sadeh
settlement in the southern Gaza Strip.
October 27: Two Israeli police officers and a soldier
were killed, and 20 bystanders were wounded in a
suicide bombing at a gas station near the settlement of
Ariel in the West Bank. The two officers and soldier
were killed while trying to prevent the terrorist from
detonating the bomb. Hamas and the Al Aksa Martyrs
Brigades claimed responsibility for the attack.
October 22, 2002: Domazlice -- An old Jewish
cemetery was desecrated in a southwestern Czech
town. Five tombstones were toppled at the cemetery in
Domazlice, 94 miles southwest of Prague, and five
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copper lanterns stolen. Copper plaques with Hebrew
inscriptions were removed from two tombstones.
October 22: At least 14 Israelis were killed and more
than 45 injured when an explosives-laden sport utility
vehicle driven by a Palestinian suicide bomber rammed
a bus near Hadera in northern Israel. Islamic Jihad
claimed responsibility for the attack.
September 19: Six people were killed and 60 wounded
when a terrorist detonated a bomb on one of Tel Aviv's
busiest streets, in a bus opposite the Great Synagogue.
Many of the wounded were in critical or serious
condition. Both Islamic Jihad and Hamas claimed
responsibility for the attack.
September 18: An Israeli police officer was killed, and
three others were wounded, in a suicide bombing at a
bus stop near the Umm al Fahm junction in northern
Israel. Islamic Jihad claimed responsibility for the
attack.
August 10: One Israeli was killed and another was
seriously injured when a Palestinian terrorist infiltrated
Moshav Mechora in the Jordan Valley, and opened fire.
The Fatah al-Aqsa Brigades claimed responsibility for
the attack
August 5: A Palestinian suicide bomber detonated
himself in the vehicle of a resident of Nazareth. The
driver, who tried to flee, was injured in the explosion.
August 5: A husband and his pregnant wife were
killed, and one of their children, aged 3, was injured,
when terrorists opened fire on their car as they were
traveling on the Ramallah-Nablus road in the West
Bank. A Fatah-affilated group claimed responsibility for
the attack
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August 4: Four people were injured - one seriously -
when shots were fired at a bus near the West Bank
town of Tulkarem. In addition, three Israelis were
seriously wounded by a bomb blast while traveling in
vehicle north of Ramallah in the West Bank.
August 4: Two men were killed and 17 wounded when
a Palestinian terrorist opened fire with a pistol shortly
before noon near the Damascus Gate of Jerusalem's Old
City. The Fatah al-Aqsa Brigades claimed responsibility
for the attack.
August 4: Nine people were killed and about 50
wounded in a suicide bombing of an Egged bus at the
Meron junction in northern Israel. Hamas claimed
responsibility for the attack.
July 31: Eight people were killed and 86 injured, 14
seriously, when a bomb went off at the Frank Sinatra
Cafeteria on the Hebrew University Mt. Scopus campus
during the busy lunchtime rush. Israeli authorities
reported that the explosive device had been planted
ahead of time, with the terrorist possibly detonating it
by remote control. Five Americans were among the
dead. Hamas claimed responsibility for the attack.
July 30: Two Israeli brothers from the Israeli
settlement of Tapuah were shot and killed by masked
Palestinian gunmen while delivering diesel fuel to a
neighboring Palestinian village. Al Aqsa Martyrs
Brigades claimed responsibility for the attack.
July 30: Five people suffered light to moderate
injuries in a suicide bombing at a falafel stand on
Hanevi'im Street in central Jerusalem.
July 30: A husband and wife were injured overnight in
the West Bank settlement of Itamar, when a Palestinian
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terrorist entered their bedroom while they were
sleeping, armed with two knives. The terrorist was
killed by security forces.
July 26: Four Israelis were killed, three from one
family, and three were injured in a drive-by shooting
attack near Hebron. The Al-Aqsa Martyrs Brigades
claimed responsibility.
July 25: One Israeli was killed and another injured in a
shooting attack near the West Bank settlement of Alei
Zahav. The Al-Aqsa Martyrs Brigades claimed
responsibility for the attack.
July 21: The driver of an Israeli commuter train was
moderately injured when an explosive device,
detonated by remote control, went off on the tracks
between Rehovot and Yavneh. No passengers were
injured and the train, which was travelling from
Binyamina, near Hadera, to Ashdod in the south, was
not derailed.
July 17: Three people were killed, and 40 more were
injured, six seriously, in a double suicide bombing near
the old central bus station in Tel Aviv. Islamic Jihad
claimed responsibility for the attack
July 16: Seven people were killed and 20 injured,
several seriously, in a terrorist attack on a bus traveling
from Tel Aviv to the West Bank. An explosive charge
was detonated next to the bullet-resistant bus and
three terrorists waiting in ambush opened fire on
passengers who fled the bus in search of safety. The Al
Aksa Martyrs Brigades claimed responsibility for the
attack.
June 30: Four people were lightly injured when a
bomb placed on the railroad tracks went off just after a
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crowded train passed over the spot, just north of the
city of Lod in central Israel.
June 20: Five Israelis, including a mother, three
children and a neighbor who came to aid the family,
were killed, when a Palestinian terrorist entered a home
and opened fire in the West Bank settlement of Itamar.
Two other children and two soldiers were also injured in
the attack. The Popular Front for the Liberation of
Palestine and the Al Aqsa Martyrs Brigades claimed
responsibility for the attack
June 19: Seven people were killed and more than 50
were injured - three of them in critical condition - when
a suicide bomber blew himself up at a crowded bus stop
in Jerusalem's French Hill neighborhood. The Al Aqsa
Martyrs Brigades claimed responsibility for the attack.
June 18: Nineteen people were killed and more than
70 were injured, in a suicide bombing on a bus just
outside of Jerusalem. The bus, which was completely
destroyed, was traveling from Gilo to Jerusalem and
had many students on board. In addition to the bus, at
least two other vehicles were severely damaged in the
attack. Hamas claimed responsibility.
June 11: A 15-year-old Herzliya girl was killed and 15
others were wounded when a Palestinian suicide
bomber set off a pipe bomb at a restaurant in the
coastal city of Herzliya, north of Tel Aviv. No one has
claimed responsibility for the attack.
June 11: Three junior high school youths were injured
in a roadside bombing near Hebron.
June 8: Three Israelis, including a pregnant woman,
were killed, and five were injured when an armed
terrorist inflitrated the community of Carmei Tzur, south
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2203
of Jerusalem. Hamas claimed responsiblity for the
attack.
June 5: Sixteen people were killed and 38 injured - 7
seriously - when a car packed with explosives struck a
bus at the Megiddo junction near Afula, in northern
Israel. The bus, which burst into flames, was
completely destroyed. The militant Palestinian group
Islamic Jihad claimed responsibility for the attack.
May 28: Three yeshiva high school students were
killed and two others wounded in Itamar, a settlement
southeast of Nablus, when a Palestinian gunman
opened fire, before he was shot dead by a security
guard. The Al Aqsa Martyrs Brigades claimed
responsibility.
May 28: An Israeli man was killed in an ambush on the
Ramallah bypass road. The Al Aqsa Martyrs Brigades
claimed responsibility.
May 27: A baby girl and her grandmother were killed
when a suicide bomber detonated himself near an ice
cream parlor outside a shopping mall in Petah Tikva,
near Tel Aviv. The attack injured 40 others, some
seriously. The Al Aksa Martyrs Brigades claimed
responsibility for the attack.
May 23: A suicide bomber, disguised as an Israeli with
his hair dyed blond, killed at least two people and
wounded more than 25 after detonating a powerful
explosive in an outdoor market in Rishon Le Zion. The
Al Aksa Martyrs Brigades, a militant faction of Yasir
Arafat's Fatah movement, claimed responsibility.
May 19: Three Israelis were killed and more than 50
injured in a suicide bombing at an open-air market in
Netanya. A Palestinian disguised as an Israeli soldier
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2204
carried out the attack. Both Hamas and the Popular
Front for the Liberation of Palestine claimed
responsibility. Two of the victims were identified as
Yosef Haviv, 70 and Arkadi Wiselman, 40, both of
Netanya. Wiselman, a chef at the Park Hotel, survived
the Passover bombing on March 27.
May 8: A Palestinian terrorist detonated a suitcase
packed with explosives in a crowded gambling and
billiards club near Tel Aviv, killing at least 15 people
and wounding 58. The attack apparently was timed to
coincide with Prime Minister Ariel Sharon's visit to the
United States, where he met with President George W.
Bush and other administration officials to discuss a new
proposal for ending the conflict.
April 27: Three Palestinian gunmen disguised as
Israeli Army soldiers cut through the perimeter fence of
Adora, a settlement on the West Bank, and entered
several homes, firing on residents in their bedrooms.
Four people, including a 5-year-old girl, were killed in
the attacks. Another seven were injured, including one
seriously. Both Hamas and the Popular Front for the
Liberation of Palestine claimed responsibility.
April 12: At least six people are dead, and more than
60 are reported wounded, in the wake of a Palestinian
suicide bombing in Jerusalem. The terrorist was
attempting to board a bus near Jerusalem's Mahane
Yehuda open-air market when the explosives
detonated. The Fatah Al Aksa Martyrs Brigades
reportedly has taken responsibility for the attack.
April 10: An Egged bus was blown up in a suicide
bombing near Kibbutz Yagur, located close to Haifa,
killing 10 people and wounding 17.
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April 1: An IDF reserve soldier, Sgt.-Maj. Ofir Rot, 22,
of Gan Yoshiya was killed at a roadblock near
Jerusalem's Har Homa neighborhood by a Palestinian
sniper firing from Beit Sahur, near Bethlehem.
April 1: Eight Israelis were wounded in a terrorist
shooting attack at the entrance to Beit El in Samaria.
Two were in critical condition, the other six were in
light to moderate condition.
March 31: A Magen David Adom paramedic was very
seriously injured along with three other people in a
suicide bombing at the emergency medical center in
Efrat, in the Gush Etzion bloc south of Jerusalem.
March 31: Fourteen people were killed and more than
40 injured in a suicide bombing in Haifa, in the Matza
gas station restaurant near a shopping mall. Several of
the injured were in serious to critical condition. Hamas
claimed responsibility for the attack.
March 30: Tomer Mordechai, 19, of Tel Aviv, a police
officer, was killed in Jerusalem, when a Palestinian
suicide bomber heading toward the city center blew
himself up in his car after being stopped at a roadblock.
The Fatah Al Aksa Martyrs Brigades claimed
responsibility for the attack.
March 30: About 30 people were injured, one critically
and five seriously, by a powerful explosion in a cafe on
the corner of Allenby and Bialik streets in Tel Aviv on
Saturday evening. The Fatah Al-Aqsa Martyrs Brigades
claimed responsibility for the attack.
March 29: Two people were killed and more than 20
were injured when a 16-year-old female Palestinian
suicide bomber attacked a Jerusalem supermarket. The
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Al Aqsa Martyrs Brigades claimed responsibility for the
attack.
March 27: Twenty-two people were killed and 140
injured - 20 seriously - in a suicide bombing at the Park
Hotel in the coastal city of Netanya, in the midst of the
Passover holiday seder with 250 guests. Hamas claimed
responsibility for the attack.
March 24: Esther Klieman, 23, of Neve Tzuf, was killed
in a shooting attack northwest of Ramallah while
traveling to work in a reinforced Egged bus.
March 24: Avi Sabag, 24, of Otniel was killed in a
terrorist shooting south of Hebron.
March 20: Seven people, including four soldiers, were
killed and 30 people were wounded in a suicide
bombing of an Egged bus traveling from Tel Aviv to
Nazareth. Two of the injurerd are in critical condition.
Islamic Jihad claimed responsibility for the attack.
March 19: 1st Lt. Tal Zemach, 20, of Kibbutz Hulda,
was killed and three soldiers were injured when
Palestinian terrorists opened fire at the paratroop
training compound in the Jordan Valley. Hamas claimed
responsibility for the attack.
March 19: Two Border Police volunteers were lightly
wounded when terrorists opened fire and threw a
grenade at Moshav Aviezer, south of Beit Shemesh, on
the Israeli side of the Green Line border. The gunmen
were killed by Border Police
March 17: Twenty-five people were lightly injured
when a suicide bomber exploded himself near an Egged
bus at the French Hill junction in northern Jerusalem on
Sunday afternoon. Many of the passengers were high
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2207
school students on their way home from school. The
Islamic Jihad claimed responsibility for the attack.
March 17: Noa Auerbach, 18, of Kfar Sava, was killed
and 16 people were injured when a terrorist opened fire
in the center of Kfar Sava on Sunday. The gunman was
shot and killed by police.
March 12: Eyal Lieberman, 45, of Tzoran in Samaria
was killed and one person was wounded in a shooting
attack on Tuesday morning at the Kiryat Sefer
checkpoint, east of Modi'in.
March 12: Terrorists opened fire, ambushing Israeli
vehicles traveling between Shlomi and Kibbutz Metzuba
near the northern border with Lebanon late Tuesday
morning. Six Israelis were killed and at least 6 others
suffered injuries. Two terrorists were also killed. Israeli
forces are still conducting aerial and land searches for
other members of the terror cell.
March 10: Shots were fired at a bar mitzva celebration
in the coastal city of Ashdod. A 13-year-old boy suffered
moderate-to-serious injuries in the attack. The terrorist
was apprehended when his rifle jammed.
March 10: St.-Sgt. Kobi Eichelboim, 21, of Givatayim
died from wounds suffered in the morning when a
Palestinian gunman disguised as a worker opened fire
at the entrance to Netzarim in the Gaza Strip.
March 9: An infant girl and a 27-year-old man were
killed and about 50 people were injured, several
seriously, when two Palestinians opened fire and threw
grenades at cars and pedestrians in the coastal city of
Netanya, close to the city's boardwalk and hotels. The
terrorists were killed by Israeli border police. The Fatah
Al Aqsa Brigades claimed responsibility for the attack.
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March 9: Eleven people were killed and 54 injured, 10
of them seriously, when a suicide bomber exploded at
in a crowded cafe at the corner of Aza and Ben-Maimon
streets in the Rehavia neighborhood in the center of
Jerusalem. Hamas claimed responsibility for the attack.
March 8: Staff Sargeant Edward Korol, 20, of Ashdod,
the medic of the Golani's Egoz unit, was killed by a
Palestinian sniper in the Tulkarem refugee camp. The
Israel Defense Forces incursion in the Tulkarem camp
led to the discovery of two weapons-making facilities, a
weapons arsenal, and a large quantity of explosive
materials, including 10 Kassam-2 missiles. The 1,300
Palestinian men who turned themselves in were
detained for questioning.
March 7: A suicide bomber blew himself up shortly
after 3:30 P.M. in the lobby of a hotel in the commercial
center on the outskirts of Ariel in Samaria. 15 people
were injured, one seriously. The PFLP claimed
responsibility for the attack.
March 7: Aharon Krogliak of Beit El, Tal Kurtzweil of
Bnei Brak, Asher Marcus of Jerusalem, Eran Pikar of
Jerusalem, and Ariel Zana of Jerusalem, all aged 18,
were killed and 23 people were injured, four seriously,
when a Palestinian gunman penetrated a highschool
that combines religious studies and military training in
the Gush Katif settlement of Atzmona late Thursday
night. Hamas claimed responsibility for the attack.
March 7: A suicide bombing was prevented Thursday
afternoon, when a man carrying an explosive device
was blocked from entering a cafe on Emek Refaim
Street in the German Colony section of Jerusalem.
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March 7: A suicide bomber blew himself up shortly
after 3:30 P.M. Thursday afternoon in the lobby of a
hotel in the commericial center on the outskirts of Ariel
in Samaria. Four injuries have been reported.
March 6: Cpl.(res.) Alexander Nastarenko, 37, of
Netanya was killed when Palestinian gunmen crossed
the fence and ambushed an army jeep on the patrol
road near Kibbutz Nir Oz.
March 6: 1st Lt. Pinhas Cohen, 23, of Jerusalem, was
killed overnight near the southern Gaza town of Khan
Yunis, in the course of anti-terrorist activity following
the rocket attack on Sderot. Another soldier, whose
name has not yet been released, was killed and three
others were wounded when Palestinians attacked them
with gunfire and grenades while on routine patrol along
the border with Egypt
March 5: Palestinians fired two Kassam II rockets at
the city of Sderot shortly before 18:00 PM on Tuesday.
One of the rockets hit a residential building, moderately
wounding a 16-month-old infant. Hamas claimed
responsibility for the attack.
March 5: Police officers Salim Barakat, 33, of Yarka;
Yosef Abey, 52, of Herzliya; and Eli Dahan, 53, of Lod
were killed and over 30 people were wounded in Tel-
Aviv when a Palestinian terrorist opened fire on two
adjacent restaurants shortly after 2:00 AM. The Fatah
Al-Aqsa Martyrs Brigade claimed responsibility for the
attack.
March 5: Devorah Friedman, 45, of Efrat, was killed
and her husband injured Tuesday morning in shooting
attack on the Bethlehem bypass "tunnel road", south of
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Jerusalem. The Fatah Al-Aqsa Martyrs Brigade claimed
responsibility for the attack.
March 5: One person was killed and 5 injured when a
suicide bomber exploded in an Egged No. 823 bus as it
entered the Afula central bus station at 8:30 Tuesday
morning. The Islamic Jihad claimed responsibility for
the attack.
March 2: The bullet-ridden body of Jerusalem police
detective Chief-Supt. Moshe Dayan, 46, of Ma'aleh
Adumim, was discovered Saturday evening next to his
trail motorcycle, near the Mar Saba Monastery in the
Judean Desert. Tanzim claimed responsibility for the
attack.
March 2: Ten people were killed and over 50 were
injured in a suicide bombing at 7 pm on Saturday
evening near a yeshiva in the ultra-Orthodox Beit
Yisrael neighborhood in the center of Jerusalem where
people had gathered for a bar-mitzva celebration. The
terrorist detonated the bomb next to a group of women
waiting with their baby carriages for their husbands to
leave the nearby synagogue. Six children were among
the victims. The Fatah Al-Aqsa Martyrs Brigade took
responsibility for the attack.
March 3: Sgt. Steven Koenigsburg, 19, of Hod
Hasharon was killed and 4 soldiers injured Sunday
morning when a Palestinian gunman opened fire near
the Kissufim crossing in the Gaza Strip. The Islamic
Jihad and Tanzim claimed responsibility for the attack.
March 3: Ten Israelis, including 2 IDF officers and 5
soldiers, were killed and 5 were injured when terrorists
opened fire at 7:00 Sunday morning at an IDF roadblock
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2211
north of Ofra in Samaria. The Fatah Al-Aqsa Martyrs
Brigade claimed responsibility for the attack.
February 25: Palestinian terrorists killed two Israeli
civilians and wounded two others - a pregnant woman
and a small girl - in a shooting attack south of
Jerusalem.
February 22: Valery Ahmir, 59, of Beit Shemesh, was
killed by terrorists in a drive-by shooting on the Atarot-
Givat Ze'ev road north of Jerusalem as he returned
home from work. Fatah claimed responsibility for the
attack.
February 19: Six soldiers were killed and one
wounded in an attack near a roadblock west of
Ramallah. Several terrorists opened fire at soldiers at
the roadblock, including three off-duty soldiers inside a
structure at the roadblock, killing them at point-blank
range. The Fatah al-Aqsa Martyrs Brigades claimed
responsibility for the attack.
February 19: A suicide bomber was prevented from
boarding an Egged bus traveling from Jerusalem to
Tiberias in the Jordan Valley. The terrorist was killed
when, fleeing pursuit, he detonated the charge.
February 18: Ahuva Amergi, 30, of Ganei Tal in Gush
Katif was killed and a 60-year old man was injured
when a Palestinian terrorist opened fire on her car on
Monday evening. Maj. Mor Elraz, 25, of Kiryat Ata and
St.-Sgt. Amir Mansouri, 21, of Kiryat Arba, who came to
their assistance, were killed while trying to intercept
the terrorist. The terrorist was killed when the
explosives he was carrying were detonated. The Fatah
al-Aqsa Martyrs Brigades claimed responsibility.
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February 18: Policeman Ahmed Mazarib, 32, of the
Bedouin village Beit Zarzir in the Galilee, was killed by
a suicide bomber who he had stopped for questioning
on the Ma'ale Adumim-Jerusalem road on Monday
afternoon. The terrorist succeeded in detonating the
bomb in his car. The Fatah al-Aqsa Martyrs Brigades
claimed responsibility.
February 10: A drive-by terrorist shooting at the
entrance to the IDF Southern Command base in Beer
Sheva killed two female soldiers and injured four
others. One of the Palestinian terrorists was killed at
the scene; the second, wearing an explosives belt, fled
in the direction of a nearby school when he was shot
and killed by a soldier and police officer. Hamas
claimed responsibility for the attack.
February 9: A drive-by shooting on the Trans-Samaria
Highway killed a 78 year old woman. Palestinian
gunmen opened fire on the car, apparently from an
ambush, between Ariel and the Tapuah Junction.
February 8: A 25-year-old Israeli woman was stabbed
to death by four Palestinians, ages 14-16, while strolling
with her boyfriend in the Peace Forest, below the
Sherover Promenade in Jerusalem's Armon Hanatziv
neighborhood.
January 27: A suicide bombing in the center of
Jerusalem killed one person and wounded more than
150. The terrorist, armed with more than 10 kilos of
explosives, was apparently a female student from
Nablus.
January 25: A suicide bombing outside a cafe on a
pedestrian mall in Tel Aviv injured 25 people. The
Lebanese television station Al-Manar reported that the
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2213
bomber was an Islamic Jihad activist sent by the
organization's cell in Tulkarm and Israeli security
services are investigating whether the Fatah
organization in Tulkarm and Hezbollah may also have
been involved.
January 22, 2002: A Palestinian terrorist opened fire
with an M-16 assault rifle near a bus stop in downtown
Jerusalem, killing two women and injuring about 40
others. The Fatah Al-Aqsa Brigades claimed
responsibility for the shooting.
January 17, 2002: A Palestinian gunman burst into a
bat mitzvah celebration in a banquet hall in Hadera,
opening fire on the 180 guests with an M-16 assault
rifle, killing 6 people and injuring 35 people. The Fatah
Al-Aqsa Brigades claimed responsibility for the attack.
December 12, 2001: Palestinian gunmen attacked a
No. 189 Dan bus and several passenger cars near the
entrance to the settlement of Emmanuel, killing 10
people and injuring about 30 people.
December 2, 2001: A suicide bombing on a No. 16
Egged bus in Haifa killed 15 people and injured about 40
people. Hamas claimed responsibility for the Haifa
blast, while Hizbullah's radio and television stations
expressed support for the attacks.
December 1, 2001: A double suicide bombing at the
Ben-Yehuda pedestrian mall in Jerusalem at 11:30 p.m.
on a Saturday night killed 11 people, aged 12-21, and
injured 188 people. A car bomb exploded 20 minutes
later. Hamas claimed responsibility for the attack.
November 29, 2001: A suicide bombing of a bus on its
way from Nazareth to Hadera killed three people. Fatah
and Islamic Jihad claimed responsibility for the attack.
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November 27, 2001: Two Palestinian gunmen opened
fire on a crowd of people near the central bus station in
the city of Afula, killing two people. Fatah and Islamic
Jihad claimed responsibility for the attack.
October 28, 2001: Two Palestinian gunmen killed four
Israeli women at a crowded bus stop in the city of
Hadera. Although Islamic Jihad claimed responsibility
for the attack, the two gunmen who carried out the
attack were members of the Palestinian police force.
CARIBBIEAN
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2215
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2216
ANGUILLA
Introduction Anguilla
Background: Colonized by English settlers from
Saint Kitts in 1650, Anguilla was
administered by Great Britain until
the early 19th century, when the
island - against the wishes of the
inhabitants - was incorporated into
a single British dependency, along
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2217
with Saint Kitts and Nevis. Several
attempts at separation failed. In
1971, two years after a revolt,
Anguilla was finally allowed to
secede; this arrangement was
formally recognized in 1980, with
Anguilla becoming a separate
British dependency.
Geography Anguilla
Location: Caribbean, islands between the
Caribbean Sea and North Atlantic
Ocean, east of Puerto Rico
Geographic
coordinates:
18 15 N, 63 10 W
Map
references:
Central America and the Caribbean
Area: total: 102 sq km
land: 102 sq km
water: 0 sq km
Area -
comparative:
about half the size of Washington,
DC
Land
boundaries:
0 km
Coastline: 61 km
Maritime
claims:
territorial sea: 3 nm
exclusive fishing zone: 200 nm
Climate: tropical; moderated by northeast
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2218
trade winds
Terrain: flat and low-lying island of coral and
limestone
Elevation
extremes:
lowest point: Caribbean Sea 0 m
highest point: Crocus Hill 65 m
Natural
resources:
salt, fish, lobster
Land use: arable land: 0%
permanent crops: 0%
other: 100% (mostly rock with
sparse scrub oak, few trees, some
commercial salt ponds) (2005)
Irrigated
land:
NA
Natural
hazards:
frequent hurricanes and other
tropical storms (July to October)
Environment
- current
issues:
supplies of potable water
sometimes cannot meet increasing
demand largely because of poor
distribution system
Geography -
note:
the most northerly of the Leeward
Islands in the Lesser Antilles
People Anguilla
Population: 13,677 (July 2007 est.)
Age
structure:
0-14 years: 22.3% (male 1,546/female
1,502)
15-64 years: 70.8% (male
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2219
4,979/female 4,705)
65 years and over: 6.9% (male
423/female 522) (2007 est.)
Median
age:
total: 31.6 years
male: 31.6 years
female: 31.5 years (2007 est.)
Population
growth
rate:
1.375% (2007 est.)
Birth rate: 13.97 births/1,000 population (2007
est.)
Death rate: 5.34 deaths/1,000 population (2007
est.)
Net
migration
rate:
5.12 migrant(s)/1,000 population
(2007 est.)
Sex ratio: at birth: 1.03 male(s)/female
under 15 years: 1.029 male(s)/female
15-64 years: 1.058 male(s)/female
65 years and over: 0.81
male(s)/female
total population: 1.033
male(s)/female (2007 est.)
Infant
mortality
rate:
total: 19.61 deaths/1,000 live births
male: 25.74 deaths/1,000 live births
female: 13.3 deaths/1,000 live births
(2007 est.)
Life total population: 77.46 years
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2220
expectancy
at birth:
male: 74.53 years
female: 80.49 years (2007 est.)
Total
fertility
rate:
1.72 children born/woman (2007 est.)
HIV/AIDS -
adult
prevalence
rate:
NA
HIV/AIDS -
people
living with
HIV/AIDS:
NA
HIV/AIDS -
deaths:
NA
Nationality: noun: Anguillan(s)
adjective: Anguillan
Ethnic
groups:
black (predominant) 90.1%, mixed,
mulatto 4.6%, white 3.7%, other 1.5%
(2001 Census)
Religions: Anglican 29%, Methodist 23.9%,
other Protestant 30.2%, Roman
Catholic 5.7%, other Christian 1.7%,
other 5.2%, none or unspecified 4.3%
(2001 Census)
Languages: English (official)
Literacy: definition: age 12 and over can read
and write
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2221
total population: 95%
male: 95%
female: 95% (1984 est.)
Government Anguilla
Country name: conventional long form: none
conventional short form: Anguilla
Dependency
status:
overseas territory of the UK
Government
type:
NA
Capital: name: The Valley
geographic coordinates: 18 13 N,
63 04 W
time difference: UTC-4 (1 hour
ahead of Washington, DC during
Standard Time)
Administrative
divisions:
none (overseas territory of the
UK)
Independence: none (overseas territory of the
UK)
National
holiday:
Anguilla Day, 30 May (1967)
Constitution: Anguilla Constitutional Order 1
April 1982; amended 1990
Legal system: based on English common law
Suffrage: 18 years of age; universal
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2222
Executive
branch:
chief of state: Queen ELIZABETH
II (since 6 February 1952);
represented by Governor Andrew
N. GEORGE (since 10 July 2006)
head of government: Chief
Minister Osbourne FLEMING
(since 3 March 2000)
cabinet: Executive Council
appointed by the governor from
among the elected members of
the House of Assembly
elections: none; the monarch is
hereditary; governor appointed by
the monarch; following legislative
elections, the leader of the
majority party or the leader of the
majority coalition is usually
appointed chief minister by the
governor
Legislative
branch:
unicameral House of Assembly (11
seats; 7 members elected by
direct popular vote, 2 ex officio
members, and 2 appointed; to
serve five-year terms)
elections: last held 21 February
2005 (next to be held in 2010)
election results: percent of vote
by party - AUF 38.9%, AUM 19.4%,
ANSA 19.2%, APP 9.5%,
independents 13%; seats by party
- AUF 4, ANSA 2, AUM 1
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2223
Judicial
branch:
High Court (judge provided by
Eastern Caribbean Supreme
Court)
Political
parties and
leaders:
Anguilla United Movement or AUM
[Hubert HUGHES]; The Anguilla
United Front or AUF [Osbourne
FLEMING, Victor BANKS] (a
coalition of the Anguilla
Democratic Party or ADP and the
Anguilla National Alliance or
ANA); Anguilla Progressive Party
or APP [Roy ROGERS]; Anguilla
Strategic Alternative or ANSA
[Edison BAIRD]
Political
pressure
groups and
leaders:
NA
International
organization
participation:
Caricom (associate), CDB, Interpol
(subbureau), OECS (associate),
UPU
Diplomatic
representation
in the US:
none (overseas territory of the
UK)
Diplomatic
representation
from the US:
none (overseas territory of the
UK)
Flag
description:
blue, with the flag of the UK in the
upper hoist-side quadrant and the
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2224
Anguillan coat of arms centered in
the outer half of the flag; the coat
of arms depicts three orange
dolphins in an interlocking
circular design on a white
background with blue wavy water
below
Economy Anguilla
Economy -
overview:
Anguilla has few natural
resources, and the economy
depends heavily on luxury
tourism, offshore banking, lobster
fishing, and remittances from
emigrants. Increased activity in
the tourism industry, which has
spurred the growth of the
construction sector, has
contributed to economic growth.
Anguillan officials have put
substantial effort into developing
the offshore financial sector,
which is small, but growing. In
the medium term, prospects for
the economy will depend largely
on the tourism sector and,
therefore, on revived income
growth in the industrialized
nations as well as on favorable
weather conditions.
GDP $108.9 million (2004 est.)
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2225
(purchasing
power parity):
GDP (official
exchange
rate):
$108.9 million (2004 est.)
GDP - real
growth rate:
10.2% (2004 est.)
GDP - per
capita (PPP):
$8,800 (2004 est.)
GDP -
composition
by sector:
agriculture: 4%
industry: 18%
services: 78% (2002 est.)
Labor force: 6,049 (2001)
Labor force -
by occupation:
agriculture/fishing/forestry/mining
4%, manufacturing 3%,
construction 18%, transportation
and utilities 10%, commerce 36%,
services 29% (2000 est.)
Unemployment
rate:
8% (2002)
Population
below poverty
line:
23% (2002)
Household
income or
consumption
by percentage
share:
lowest 10%: NA%
highest 10%: NA%
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2226
Inflation rate
(consumer
prices):
5.3% (2006 est.)
Budget: revenues: $22.8 million
expenditures: $22.5 million;
including capital expenditures of
$NA (2000 est.)
Agriculture -
products:
small quantities of tobacco,
vegetables; cattle raising
Industries: tourism, boat building, offshore
financial services
Industrial
production
growth rate:
3.1% (1997 est.)
Electricity -
production:
NA kWh
Electricity -
production by
source:
fossil fuel: NA
hydro: NA
nuclear: NA
other: NA
Current
account
balance:
-$42.87 million (2003 est.)
Exports: $14.56 million (2005 est.)
Exports -
commodities:
lobster, fish, livestock, salt,
concrete blocks, rum
Exports - UK, US, Puerto Rico, Saint-Martin
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2227
partners: (2004)
Imports: $129.9 million (2005 est.)
Imports -
commodities:
fuels, foodstuffs, manufactures,
chemicals, trucks, textiles
Imports -
partners:
US, Puerto Rico, UK (2004)
Debt -
external:
$8.8 million (1998)
Economic aid -
recipient:
$9 million (2004 est.)
Currency
(code):
East Caribbean dollar (XCD)
Currency
code:
XCD
Exchange
rates:
East Caribbean dollars per US
dollar - 2.7 (2006), 2.7 (2005), 2.7
(2004), 2.7 (2003), 2.7 (2002)
note: fixed rate since 1976
Fiscal year: 1 April - 31 March
Communications Anguilla
Telephones
- main lines
in use:
6,200 (2002)
Telephones
- mobile
cellular:
1,800 (2002)
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2228
Telephone
system:
general assessment: NA
domestic: modern internal telephone
system
international: country code - 1-264;
microwave radio relay to island of
Saint Martin (Guadeloupe and
Netherlands Antilles)
Radio
broadcast
stations:
AM 2, FM 7, shortwave 0 (2004)
Radios: 3,000 (1997)
Television
broadcast
stations:
1 (1997)
Televisions: 1,000 (1997)
Internet
country
code:
.ai
Internet
hosts:
403 (2006)
Internet
Service
Providers
(ISPs):
16 (2000)
Internet
users:
3,000 (2002)
Transportation Anguilla
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2229
Airports: 3 (2006)
Airports -
with
paved
runways:
total: 1
1,524 to 2,437 m: 1 (2006)
Airports -
with
unpaved
runways:
total: 2
under 914 m: 2 (2006)
Roadways: total: 175 km
paved: 82 km
unpaved: 93 km (2004)
Merchant
marine:
registered in other countries: 1
(Panama 1) (2006)
Ports and
terminals:
Blowing Point, Road Bay
Military Anguilla
Manpower
available
for
military
service:
males age 18-49: 3,614 (2005 est.)
Manpower
fit for
military
service:
males age 18-49: 2,986 (2005 est.)
Manpower
reaching
males age 18-49: 120 (2005 est.)
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2230
military
service
age
annually:
Military -
note:
defense is the responsibility of the UK
Transnational
Issues
Anguilla
Disputes -
international:
none
Illicit drugs: transshipment point for South
American narcotics destined for
the US and Europe
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2231
ANTIGUA
Introduction Antigua and Barbuda
Background: The Siboney were the first to inhabit
the islands of Antigua and Barbuda
in 2400 B.C., but Arawak Indians
populated the islands when
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2232
COLUMBUS landed on his second
voyage in 1493. Early settlements
by the Spanish and French were
succeeded by the English who
formed a colony in 1667. Slavery,
established to run the sugar
plantations on Antigua, was
abolished in 1834. The islands
became an independent state within
the British Commonwealth of
Nations in 1981.
Geography Antigua and Barbuda
Location: Caribbean, islands between the
Caribbean Sea and the North
Atlantic Ocean, east-southeast of
Puerto Rico
Geographic
coordinates:
17 03 N, 61 48 W
Map
references:
Central America and the Caribbean
Area: total: 442.6 sq km (Antigua 280 sq
km; Barbuda 161 sq km)
land: 442.6 sq km
water: 0 sq km
note: includes Redonda, 1.6 sq km
Area -
comparative:
2.5 times the size of Washington,
DC
Land 0 km
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2233
boundaries:
Coastline: 153 km
Maritime
claims:
territorial sea: 12 nm
contiguous zone: 24 nm
exclusive economic zone: 200 nm
continental shelf: 200 nm or to the
edge of the continental margin
Climate: tropical maritime; little seasonal
temperature variation
Terrain: mostly low-lying limestone and
coral islands, with some higher
volcanic areas
Elevation
extremes:
lowest point: Caribbean Sea 0 m
highest point: Boggy Peak 402 m
Natural
resources:
NEGL; pleasant climate fosters
tourism
Land use: arable land: 18.18%
permanent crops: 4.55%
other: 77.27% (2005)
Irrigated
land:
NA
Natural
hazards:
hurricanes and tropical storms (July
to October); periodic droughts
Environment
- current
issues:
water management - a major
concern because of limited natural
fresh water resources - is further
hampered by the clearing of trees
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2234
to increase crop production,
causing rainfall to run off quickly
Environment
-
international
agreements:
party to: Biodiversity, Climate
Change, Climate Change-Kyoto
Protocol, Desertification,
Endangered Species, Environmental
Modification, Hazardous Wastes,
Law of the Sea, Marine Dumping,
Ozone Layer Protection, Ship
Pollution, Wetlands, Whaling
signed, but not ratified: none of the
selected agreements
Geography -
note:
Antigua has a deeply indented
shoreline with many natural harbors
and beaches; Barbuda has a very
large western harbor
People Antigua and Barbuda
Population: 69,481 (July 2007 est.)
Age
structure:
0-14 years: 27.3% (male 9,647/female
9,306)
15-64 years: 69% (male
24,137/female 23,801)
65 years and over: 3.7% (male
965/female 1,625) (2007 est.)
Median
age:
total: 30.3 years
male: 29.8 years
female: 30.8 years (2007 est.)
Population 0.527% (2007 est.)
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2235
growth
rate:
Birth rate: 16.62 births/1,000 population (2007
est.)
Death rate: 5.31 deaths/1,000 population (2007
est.)
Net
migration
rate:
-6.04 migrant(s)/1,000 population
(2007 est.)
Sex ratio: at birth: 1.05 male(s)/female
under 15 years: 1.037 male(s)/female
15-64 years: 1.014 male(s)/female
65 years and over: 0.594
male(s)/female
total population: 1 male(s)/female
(2007 est.)
Infant
mortality
rate:
total: 18.26 deaths/1,000 live births
male: 21.99 deaths/1,000 live births
female: 14.36 deaths/1,000 live births
(2007 est.)
Life
expectancy
at birth:
total population: 72.42 years
male: 70.03 years
female: 74.94 years (2007 est.)
Total
fertility
rate:
2.23 children born/woman (2007 est.)
HIV/AIDS -
adult
NA
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2236
prevalence
rate:
HIV/AIDS -
people
living with
HIV/AIDS:
NA
HIV/AIDS -
deaths:
NA
Nationality: noun: Antiguan(s), Barbudan(s)
adjective: Antiguan, Barbudan
Ethnic
groups:
black 91%, mixed 4.4%, white 1.7%,
other 2.9% (2001 census)
Religions: Anglican 25.7%, Seventh Day
Adventist 12.3%, Pentecostal 10.6%,
Moravian 10.5%, Roman Catholic
10.4%, Methodist 7.9%, Baptist 4.9%,
Church of God 4.5%, other Christian
5.4%, other 2%, none or unspecified
5.8% (2001 census)
Languages: English (official), local dialects
Literacy: definition: age 15 and over has
completed five or more years of
schooling
total population: 85.8%
male: NA%
female: NA% (2003 est.)
Government Antigua and Barbuda
Country name: conventional long form: none
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2237
conventional short form: Antigua
and Barbuda
Government
type:
constitutional parliamentary
democracy
Capital: name: Saint John's
geographic coordinates: 17 06 N,
61 51 W
time difference: UTC-4 (1 hour
ahead of Washington, DC during
Standard Time)
Administrative
divisions:
6 parishes and 2 dependencies*;
Barbuda*, Redonda*, Saint
George, Saint John, Saint Mary,
Saint Paul, Saint Peter, Saint
Philip
Independence: 1 November 1981 (from UK)
National
holiday:
Independence Day (National Day),
1 November (1981)
Constitution: 1 November 1981
Legal system: based on English common law
Suffrage: 18 years of age; universal
Executive
branch:
chief of state: Queen ELIZABETH
II (since 6 February 1952);
represented by Governor General
Sir James B. CARLISLE (since 10
June 1993)
head of government: Prime
Minister Winston Baldwin
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2238
SPENCER (since 24 March 2004)
cabinet: Council of Ministers
appointed by the governor general
on the advice of the prime
minister
elections: none; the monarch is
hereditary; governor general
chosen by the monarch on the
advice of the prime minister;
following legislative elections, the
leader of the majority party or the
leader of the majority coalition is
usually appointed prime minister
by the governor general
Legislative
branch:
bicameral Parliament consists of
the Senate (17 seats; members
appointed by the governor
general) and the House of
Representatives (17 seats;
members are elected by
proportional representation to
serve five-year terms)
elections: House of
Representatives - last held 23
March 2004 (next to be held in
2009)
election results: percent of vote
by party - NA; seats by party - ALP
4, UPP 13
Judicial
branch:
Eastern Caribbean Supreme Court
(based in Saint Lucia; one judge of
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2239
the Supreme Court is a resident of
the islands and presides over the
Court of Summary Jurisdiction);
member Caribbean Court of
Justice
Political
parties and
leaders:
Antigua Labor Party or ALP
[Lester Bryant BIRD]; Barbudans
for a Better Barbuda [Ordrick
SAMUEL]; Barbuda People's
Movement or BPM [Thomas H.
FRANK]; Barbuda People's
Movement for Change [Arthur
NIBBS]; United Progressive Party
or UPP [Baldwin SPENCER] (a
coalition of three parties - Antigua
Caribbean Liberation Movement or
ACLM, Progressive Labor
Movement or PLM, United
National Democratic Party or
UNDP)
Political
pressure
groups and
leaders:
Antigua Trades and Labor Union
or ATLU [William ROBINSON];
People's Democratic Movement or
PDM [Hugh MARSHALL]
International
organization
participation:
ACP, C, Caricom, CDB, FAO, G-77,
IBRD, ICAO, ICCt, ICRM, IFAD, IFC,
IFRCS, ILO, IMF, IMO, Interpol,
IOC, ISO (subscriber), ITU, ITUC,
MIGA, NAM, OAS, OECS, OPANAL,
OPCW, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO,
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2240
UPU, WCL, WFTU, WHO, WIPO,
WMO, WTO
Diplomatic
representation
in the US:
chief of mission: Ambassador
Deborah Mae LOVELL
chancery: 3216 New Mexico
Avenue NW, Washington, DC
20016
telephone: [1] (202) 362-5122
FAX: [1] (202) 362-5225
consulate(s) general: Miami
Diplomatic
representation
from the US:
the US does not have an embassy
in Antigua and Barbuda; the US
Ambassador to Barbados is
accredited to Antigua and
Barbuda
Flag
description:
red, with an inverted isosceles
triangle based on the top edge of
the flag; the triangle contains
three horizontal bands of black
(top), light blue, and white, with a
yellow rising sun in the black
band
Economy Antigua and Barbuda
Economy -
overview:
Tourism continues to dominate
the economy, accounting for more
than half of GDP. Weak tourist
arrival numbers since early 2000
have slowed the economy and
pressed the government into a
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2241
tight fiscal corner. The dual-island
nation's agricultural production is
focused on the domestic market
and constrained by a limited
water supply and a labor shortage
stemming from the lure of higher
wages in tourism and
construction. Manufacturing
comprises enclave-type assembly
for export with major products
being bedding, handicrafts, and
electronic components. Prospects
for economic growth in the
medium term will continue to
depend on income growth in the
industrialized world, especially in
the US, which accounts for
slightly more than one-third of
tourist arrivals.
GDP
(purchasing
power parity):
$750 million (2002 est.)
GDP (official
exchange
rate):
$905 million (2005 est.)
GDP - real
growth rate:
3.8% (2005 est.)
GDP - per
capita (PPP):
$10,900 (2005 est.)
GDP - agriculture: 3.8%
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2242
composition
by sector:
industry: 22%
services: 74.3% (2002 est.)
Labor force: 30,000 (1991 est.)
Labor force -
by occupation:
agriculture: 7%
industry: 11%
services: 82% (1983)
Unemployment
rate:
11% (2001 est.)
Population
below poverty
line:
NA%
Household
income or
consumption
by percentage
share:
lowest 10%: NA%
highest 10%: NA%
Inflation rate
(consumer
prices):
0.9% (2005 est.)
Budget: revenues: $123.7 million
expenditures: $145.9 million;
including capital expenditures of
$NA (2000 est.)
Agriculture -
products:
cotton, fruits, vegetables,
bananas, coconuts, cucumbers,
mangoes, sugarcane; livestock
Industries: tourism, construction, light
manufacturing (clothing, alcohol,
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2243
household appliances)
Industrial
production
growth rate:
NA%
Electricity -
production:
105 million kWh (2004)
Electricity -
production by
source:
fossil fuel: 100%
hydro: 0%
nuclear: 0%
other: 0% (2001)
Electricity -
consumption:
97.65 million kWh (2004)
Electricity -
exports:
0 kWh (2004)
Electricity -
imports:
0 kWh (2004)
Oil -
production:
0 bbl/day (2004)
Oil -
consumption:
3,800 bbl/day (2004 est.)
Oil - exports: NA bbl/day
Oil - imports: NA bbl/day
Natural gas -
production:
0 cu m (2004 est.)
Natural gas -
consumption:
0 cu m (2004 est.)
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Current
account
balance:
-$83.4 million (2004)
Exports: $46.81 million (2004 est.)
Exports -
commodities:
petroleum products 48%,
manufactures 23%, machinery
and transport equipment 17%,
food and live animals 4%, other
8%
Exports -
partners:
Spain 34%, Germany 20.7%, Italy
7.7%, Singapore 5.8%, UK 4.9%
(2005)
Imports: $378 million (2004 est.)
Imports -
commodities:
food and live animals, machinery
and transport equipment,
manufactures, chemicals, oil
Imports -
partners:
US 21.1%, China 16.4%, Germany
13.3%, Singapore 12.7%, Spain
6.5% (2005)
Debt -
external:
$427.3 million; note - data are for
public external debt, not total
external debt (2000)
Economic aid -
recipient:
$1.65 million (2004)
Currency
(code):
East Caribbean dollar (XCD)
Currency XCD
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2245
code:
Exchange
rates:
East Caribbean dollars per US
dollar - 2.7 (2006), 2.7 (2005), 2.7
(2004), 2.7 (2003), 2.7 (2002)
note: fixed rate since 1976
Fiscal year: 1 April - 31 March
Communications Antigua and Barbuda
Telephones
- main lines
in use:
38,000 (2004)
Telephones
- mobile
cellular:
54,000 (2004)
Telephone
system:
general assessment: NA
domestic: good automatic telephone
system
international: country code - 1-268;
coaxial submarine cable - 1; satellite
earth station - 2; tropospheric
scatter to Saba (Netherlands
Antilles) and Guadeloupe
Radio
broadcast
stations:
AM 4, FM 2, shortwave 0 (1998)
Radios: 36,000 (1997)
Television
broadcast
stations:
2 (1997)
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2246
Televisions: 31,000 (1997)
Internet
country
code:
.ag
Internet
hosts:
2,231 (2006)
Internet
Service
Providers
(ISPs):
16 (2000)
Internet
users:
20,000 (2005)
Transportation Antigua and Barbuda
Airports: 3 (2006)
Airports -
with
paved
runways:
total: 2
2,438 to 3,047 m: 1
under 914 m: 1 (2006)
Airports -
with
unpaved
runways:
total: 1
under 914 m: 1 (2006)
Roadways: total: 1,165 km
paved: 384 km
unpaved: 781 km (2002)
Merchant
marine:
total: 1,011 ships (1000 GRT or over)
7,452,503 GRT/9,783,309 DWT
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2247
by type: bulk carrier 40, cargo 596,
chemical tanker 7, container 321,
liquefied gas 11, passenger/cargo 2,
petroleum tanker 1, refrigerated cargo
12, roll on/roll off 21
foreign-owned: 984 (Australia 1,
Bangladesh 4, Belgium 4, Colombia 2,
Denmark 14, Estonia 12, France 1,
Germany 858, Iceland 8, Isle of Man 2,
Latvia 5, Lebanon 1, Lithuania 3,
Netherlands 14, Norway 11, NZ 1,
Poland 3, Russia 6, Singapore 1,
Slovenia 6, Switzerland 4, Turkey 8,
UK 7, US 7, Vietnam 1) (2006)
Ports and
terminals:
Saint John's
Military Antigua and Barbuda
Military
branches:
Royal Antigua and Barbuda Defense
Force (2006)
Military
service age
and
obligation:
18 years of age (est.); no conscript
military service (2001)
Manpower
available for
military
service:
males age 18-49: 18,952
females age 18-49: 18,360 (2005
est.)
Manpower fit
for military
males age 18-49: 14,859
females age 18-49: 14,947 (2005
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service: est.)
Manpower
reaching
military
service age
annually:
males age 18-49: 507
females age 18-49: 494 (2005 est.)
Military
expenditures
- percent of
GDP:
NA (2006)
Transnational
Issues
Antigua and Barbuda
Disputes -
international:
none
Illicit drugs: considered a minor transshipment
point for narcotics bound for the US
and Europe; more significant as an
offshore financial center
ARUBA
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2249
Introduction Aruba
Background: Discovered and claimed for Spain in
1499, Aruba was acquired by the
Dutch in 1636. The island's economy
has been dominated by three main
industries. A 19th century gold rush
was followed by prosperity brought
on by the opening in 1924 of an oil
refinery. The last decades of the
20th century saw a boom in the
tourism industry. Aruba seceded
from the Netherlands Antilles in
1986 and became a separate,
autonomous member of the
Kingdom of the Netherlands.
Movement toward full independence
was halted at Aruba's request in
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1990.
Geography Aruba
Location: Caribbean, island in the Caribbean
Sea, north of Venezuela
Geographic
coordinates:
12 30 N, 69 58 W
Map
references:
Central America and the Caribbean
Area: total: 193 sq km
land: 193 sq km
water: 0 sq km
Area -
comparative:
slightly larger than Washington, DC
Land
boundaries:
0 km
Coastline: 68.5 km
Maritime
claims:
territorial sea: 12 nm
Climate: tropical marine; little seasonal
temperature variation
Terrain: flat with a few hills; scant
vegetation
Elevation
extremes:
lowest point: Caribbean Sea 0 m
highest point: Mount Jamanota 188
m
Natural NEGL; white sandy beaches
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2251
resources:
Land use: arable land: 10.53%
permanent crops: 0%
other: 89.47% (2005)
Irrigated
land:
0.01 sq km (1998 est.)
Natural
hazards:
lies outside the Caribbean
hurricane belt
Environment
- current
issues:
NA
Geography -
note:
a flat, riverless island renowned for
its white sand beaches; its tropical
climate is moderated by constant
trade winds from the Atlantic
Ocean; the temperature is almost
constant at about 27 degrees
Celsius (81 degrees Fahrenheit)
People Aruba
Population: 100,018
note: estimate based on a revision of
the base population, fertility, and
mortality numbers, as well as a
revision of 1985-1999 migration
estimates from outmigration to
inmigration, which is assumed to
continue into the future; the new
results are consistent with the 2000
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2252
census (July 2007 est.)
Age
structure:
0-14 years: 19.7% (male 9,943/female
9,761)
15-64 years: 70.2% (male
33,553/female 36,661)
65 years and over: 10.1% (male
4,046/female 6,054) (2007 est.)
Median
age:
total: 37.3 years
male: 35.5 years
female: 39 years (2007 est.)
Population
growth
rate:
1.522% (2007 est.)
Birth rate: 12.83 births/1,000 population (2007
est.)
Death rate: 7.61 deaths/1,000 population (2007
est.)
Net
migration
rate:
10 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2007
est.)
Sex ratio: at birth: 1.02 male(s)/female
under 15 years: 1.019 male(s)/female
15-64 years: 0.915 male(s)/female
65 years and over: 0.668
male(s)/female
total population: 0.906
male(s)/female (2007 est.)
Infant total: 14.75 deaths/1,000 live births
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mortality
rate:
male: 19.59 deaths/1,000 live births
female: 9.81 deaths/1,000 live births
(2007 est.)
Life
expectancy
at birth:
total population: 74.83 years
male: 71.8 years
female: 77.91 years (2007 est.)
Total
fertility
rate:
1.85 children born/woman (2007 est.)
HIV/AIDS -
adult
prevalence
rate:
NA
HIV/AIDS -
people
living with
HIV/AIDS:
NA
HIV/AIDS -
deaths:
NA
Nationality: noun: Aruban(s)
adjective: Aruban; Dutch
Ethnic
groups:
mixed white/Caribbean Amerindian
80%, other 20%
Religions: Roman Catholic 82%, Protestant 8%,
other (includes Hindu, Muslim,
Confucian, Jewish) 10%
Languages: Papiamento (a Spanish-Portuguese-
Dutch-English dialect) 66.3%,
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2254
Spanish 12.6%, English (widely
spoken) 7.7%, Dutch (official) 5.8%,
other 2.2%, unspecified or unknown
5.3% (2000 census)
Literacy: definition: NA
total population: 97.3%
male: 97.5%
female: 97.1% (2000 census)
Government Aruba
Country name: conventional long form: none
conventional short form: Aruba
Dependency
status:
member country of the Kingdom
of the Netherlands; full autonomy
in internal affairs obtained in 1986
upon separation from the
Netherlands Antilles; Dutch
Government responsible for
defense and foreign affairs
Government
type:
parliamentary democracy
Capital: name: Oranjestad
geographic coordinates: 12 33 N,
70 06 W
time difference: UTC-4 (1 hour
ahead of Washington, DC during
Standard Time)
Administrative
divisions:
none (part of the Kingdom of the
Netherlands)
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Independence: none (part of the Kingdom of the
Netherlands)
National
holiday:
Flag Day, 18 March (1976)
Constitution: 1 January 1986
Legal system: based on Dutch civil law system,
with some English common law
influence
Suffrage: 18 years of age; universal
Executive
branch:
chief of state: Queen BEATRIX of
the Netherlands (since 30 April
1980); represented by Governor
General Fredis REFUNJOL (since
11 May 2004)
head of government: Prime
Minister Nelson O. ODUBER (since
30 October 2001)
cabinet: Council of Ministers
elected by the Staten
elections: the monarch is
hereditary; governor general
appointed for a six-year term by
the monarch; prime minister and
deputy prime minister elected by
the Staten for four-year terms;
election last held in 2005 (next to
be held by 2009)
election results: Nelson O.
ODUBER elected prime minister;
percent of legislative vote - NA
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Legislative
branch:
unicameral Legislature or Staten
(21 seats; members elected by
direct popular vote to serve four-
year terms)
elections: last held 23 September
2005 (next to be held in 2009)
election results: percent of vote
by party - MEP 43%, AVP 32%,
MPA 7%, RED 7%, PDR 6%, OLA
4%, PPA 2%; seats by party - MEP
11, AVP 8, MPA 1, RED 1
Judicial
branch:
Common Court of Justice of Aruba
(judges are appointed by the
monarch)
Political
parties and
leaders:
Aliansa/Aruban Social Movement
or MSA [Robert WEVER]; Aruban
Liberal Organization or OLA
[Glenbert CROES]; Aruban
Patriotic Movement or MPA
[Monica ARENDS-KOCK]; Aruban
Patriotic Party or PPA [Benny
NISBET]; Aruban People's Party or
AVP [Mike EMAN]; People's
Electoral Movement Party or MEP
[Nelson O. ODUBER]; Real
Democracy or PDR [Andin
BIKKER]; RED [Rudy LAMPE];
Workers Political Platform or PTT
[Gregorio WOLFF]
Political NA
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2257
pressure
groups and
leaders:
International
organization
participation:
ILO, IMF, Interpol, IOC, ITUC,
UNESCO (associate), UNWTO
(associate), UPU, WCL, WMO
Diplomatic
representation
in the US:
none (represented by the Kingdom
of the Netherlands); note - Mr.
Henry BAARH, Minister
Plenipotentiary for Aruba at the
Embassy of the Kingdom of the
Netherlands
Diplomatic
representation
from the US:
the US does not have an embassy
in Aruba; the Consul General to
Netherlands Antilles is accredited
to Aruba
Flag
description:
blue, with two narrow, horizontal,
yellow stripes across the lower
portion and a red, four-pointed
star outlined in white in the upper
hoist-side corner
Economy Aruba
Economy -
overview:
Tourism is the mainstay of the
small, open Aruban economy, with
offshore banking and oil refining
and storage also important. The
rapid growth of the tourism sector
over the last decade has resulted
in a substantial expansion of
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2258
other activities. Over 1.5 million
tourists per year visit Aruba, with
75% of those from the US.
Construction continues to boom,
with hotel capacity five times the
1985 level. In addition, the
country's oil refinery reopened in
1993, providing a major source of
employment, foreign exchange
earnings, and growth. Tourist
arrivals have rebounded strongly
following a dip after the 11
September 2001 attacks. The
island experiences only a brief
low season, and hotel occupancy
in 2004 averaged 80%, compared
to 68% throughout the rest of the
Caribbean. The government has
made cutting the budget and
trade deficits a high priority.
GDP
(purchasing
power parity):
$2.258 billion (2005 est.)
GDP (official
exchange
rate):
$2.258 billion (2005 est.)
GDP - real
growth rate:
2.4% (2005 est.)
GDP - per
capita (PPP):
$21,800 (2004 est.)
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2259
GDP -
composition
by sector:
agriculture: 0.4%
industry: 33.3%
services: 66.3% (2002 est.)
Labor force: 41,500 (2004 est.)
Labor force -
by occupation:
agriculture: NA%
industry: NA%
services: NA%
note: most employment is in
wholesale and retail trade and
repair, followed by hotels and
restaurants; oil refining
Unemployment
rate:
6.9% (2005 est.)
Population
below poverty
line:
NA%
Household
income or
consumption
by percentage
share:
lowest 10%: NA%
highest 10%: NA%
Inflation rate
(consumer
prices):
3.4% (2005)
Budget: revenues: $507.9 million
expenditures: $577.9 million;
including capital expenditures of
$NA (2005 est.)
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Public debt: 46.3% of GDP (2005)
Agriculture -
products:
aloes; livestock; fish
Industries: tourism, transshipment facilities,
oil refining
Industrial
production
growth rate:
NA%
Electricity -
production:
770 million kWh (2004)
Electricity -
production by
source:
fossil fuel: 100%
hydro: 0%
nuclear: 0%
other: 0% (2001)
Electricity -
consumption:
716.1 million kWh (2004)
Electricity -
exports:
0 kWh (2004)
Electricity -
imports:
0 kWh (2004)
Oil -
production:
2,363 bbl/day (2004)
Oil -
consumption:
7,000 bbl/day (2004 est.)
Oil - exports: NA bbl/day
Oil - imports: NA bbl/day
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Natural gas -
production:
0 cu m (2004 est.)
Natural gas -
consumption:
0 cu m (2004 est.)
Exports: $80 million f.o.b.; note - includes
oil reexports (2004 est.)
Exports -
commodities:
live animals and animal products,
art and collectibles, machinery
and electrical equipment,
transport equipment
Exports -
partners:
Netherlands 33.5%, Panama
16.7%, Colombia 11.9%, US
11.3%, Venezuela 10.1%,
Netherlands Antilles 9% (2005)
Imports: $875 million f.o.b. (2004 est.)
Imports -
commodities:
machinery and electrical
equipment, crude oil for refining
and reexport, chemicals;
foodstuffs
Imports -
partners:
US 55.9%, Netherlands 12.9%, UK
3.8% (2005)
Debt -
external:
$478.6 million (2005 est.)
Economic aid -
recipient:
$11.3 million (2004)
Currency
(code):
Aruban guilder/florin (AWG)
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Currency
code:
AWG
Exchange
rates:
Aruban guilders/florins per US
dollar - 1.79 (2006), 1.79 (2005),
1.79 (2004), 1.79 (2003), 1.79
(2002)
Fiscal year: calendar year
Communications Aruba
Telephones
- main lines
in use:
37,100 (2002)
Telephones
- mobile
cellular:
98,400 (2004)
Telephone
system:
general assessment: modern fully
automatic telecommunications
system
domestic: increased competition
through privatization; 3 wireless
service providers are now licensed
international: country code - 297; 1
submarine cable to Sint Maarten
(Netherlands Antilles); extensive
interisland microwave radio relay
links
Radio
broadcast
stations:
AM 2, FM 16, shortwave 0 (2004)
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2263
Radios: 50,000 (1997)
Television
broadcast
stations:
1 (1997)
Televisions: 20,000 (1997)
Internet
country
code:
.aw
Internet
hosts:
11,548 (2006)
Internet
Service
Providers
(ISPs):
NA
Internet
users:
24,000 (2002)
Transportation Aruba
Airports: 1 (2006)
Airports -
with
paved
runways:
total: 1
2,438 to 3,047 m: 1 (2006)
Roadways: total: 800 km
paved: 513 km
unpaved: 287 km
Ports and
terminals:
Barcadera, Oranjestad, Sint Nicolaas
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2264
Military Aruba
Military
branches:
no regular indigenous military forces;
Royal Netherlands Navy and Marines,
Coast Guard
Manpower
available
for
military
service:
males age 18-49: 16,278 (2005 est.)
Manpower
fit for
military
service:
males age 18-49: 13,219 (2005 est.)
Manpower
reaching
military
service
age
annually:
males age 18-49: 520 (2005 est.)
Military -
note:
defense is the responsibility of the
Kingdom of the Netherlands
Transnational
Issues
Aruba
Disputes -
international:
none
Illicit drugs: transit point for US- and Europe-
bound narcotics with some
accompanying money-laundering
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2265
activity; relatively high percentage
of population consumes cocaine
BAHAMAS
Introduction Bahamas, The
Background: Lucayan Indians inhabited the
islands when Christopher
COLUMBUS first set foot in the New
World on San Salvador in 1492.
British settlement of the islands
began in 1647; the islands became a
colony in 1783. Since attaining
independence from the UK in 1973,
The Bahamas have prospered
through tourism and international
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2266
banking and investment
management. Because of its
geography, the country is a major
transshipment point for illegal
drugs, particularly shipments to the
US and Europe, and its territory is
used for smuggling illegal migrants
into the US.
Geography Bahamas, The
Location: Caribbean, chain of islands in the
North Atlantic Ocean, southeast of
Florida, northeast of Cuba
Geographic
coordinates:
24 15 N, 76 00 W
Map
references:
Central America and the Caribbean
Area: total: 13,940 sq km
land: 10,070 sq km
water: 3,870 sq km
Area -
comparative:
slightly smaller than Connecticut
Land
boundaries:
0 km
Coastline: 3,542 km
Maritime
claims:
territorial sea: 12 nm
exclusive economic zone: 200 nm
Climate: tropical marine; moderated by
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2267
warm waters of Gulf Stream
Terrain: long, flat coral formations with
some low rounded hills
Elevation
extremes:
lowest point: Atlantic Ocean 0 m
highest point: Mount Alvernia, on
Cat Island 63 m
Natural
resources:
salt, aragonite, timber, arable land
Land use: arable land: 0.58%
permanent crops: 0.29%
other: 99.13% (2005)
Irrigated
land:
10 sq km (2003)
Natural
hazards:
hurricanes and other tropical
storms cause extensive flood and
wind damage
Environment
- current
issues:
coral reef decay; solid waste
disposal
Environment
-
international
agreements:
party to: Biodiversity, Climate
Change, Climate Change-Kyoto
Protocol, Desertification,
Endangered Species, Hazardous
Wastes, Law of the Sea, Ozone
Layer Protection, Ship Pollution,
Wetlands
signed, but not ratified: none of the
selected agreements
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2268
Geography -
note:
strategic location adjacent to US
and Cuba; extensive island chain of
which 30 are inhabited
People Bahamas, The
Population: 305,655
note: estimates for this country
explicitly take into account the
effects of excess mortality due to
AIDS; this can result in lower life
expectancy, higher infant mortality
and death rates, lower population
and growth rates, and changes in the
distribution of population by age and
sex than would otherwise be
expected (July 2007 est.)
Age
structure:
0-14 years: 27% (male 41,268/female
41,186)
15-64 years: 66.5% (male
99,961/female 103,230)
65 years and over: 6.5% (male
8,176/female 11,834) (2007 est.)
Median
age:
total: 28.1 years
male: 27.3 years
female: 28.9 years (2007 est.)
Population
growth
rate:
0.602% (2007 est.)
Birth rate: 17.3 births/1,000 population (2007
est.)
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2269
Death rate: 9.13 deaths/1,000 population (2007
est.)
Net
migration
rate:
-2.15 migrant(s)/1,000 population
(2007 est.)
Sex ratio: at birth: 1.02 male(s)/female
under 15 years: 1.002 male(s)/female
15-64 years: 0.968 male(s)/female
65 years and over: 0.691
male(s)/female
total population: 0.956
male(s)/female (2007 est.)
Infant
mortality
rate:
total: 24.17 deaths/1,000 live births
male: 29.58 deaths/1,000 live births
female: 18.65 deaths/1,000 live births
(2007 est.)
Life
expectancy
at birth:
total population: 65.66 years
male: 62.37 years
female: 69.02 years (2007 est.)
Total
fertility
rate:
2.15 children born/woman (2007 est.)
HIV/AIDS -
adult
prevalence
rate:
3% (2003 est.)
HIV/AIDS -
people
living with
5,600 (2003 est.)
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HIV/AIDS:
HIV/AIDS -
deaths:
less than 200 (2003 est.)
Nationality: noun: Bahamian(s)
adjective: Bahamian
Ethnic
groups:
black 85%, white 12%, Asian and
Hispanic 3%
Religions: Baptist 35.4%, Anglican 15.1%,
Roman Catholic 13.5%, Pentecostal
8.1%, Church of God 4.8%, Methodist
4.2%, other Christian 15.2%, none or
unspecified 2.9%, other 0.8% (2000
census)
Languages: English (official), Creole (among
Haitian immigrants)
Literacy: definition: age 15 and over can read
and write
total population: 95.6%
male: 94.7%
female: 96.5% (2003 est.)
Government Bahamas, The
Country name: conventional long form:
Commonwealth of The Bahamas
conventional short form: The
Bahamas
Government
type:
constitutional parliamentary
democracy
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2271
Capital: name: Nassau
geographic coordinates: 25 05 N,
77 21 W
time difference: UTC-5 (same time
as Washington, DC during
Standard Time)
daylight saving time: +1hr, begins
second Sunday in March; ends
first Sunday in November
Administrative
divisions:
21 districts; Acklins and Crooked
Islands, Bimini, Cat Island,
Exuma, Freeport, Fresh Creek,
Governor's Harbour, Green Turtle
Cay, Harbour Island, High Rock,
Inagua, Kemps Bay, Long Island,
Marsh Harbour, Mayaguana, New
Providence, Nichollstown and
Berry Islands, Ragged Island,
Rock Sound, Sandy Point, San
Salvador and Rum Cay
Independence: 10 July 1973 (from UK)
National
holiday:
Independence Day, 10 July (1973)
Constitution: 10 July 1973
Legal system: based on English common law
Suffrage: 18 years of age; universal
Executive
branch:
chief of state: Queen ELIZABETH
II (since 6 February 1952);
represented by Governor General
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2272
Arthur D. HANNA (since 1
February 2006)
head of government: Prime
Minister Hubert A. INGRAHAM
(since 4 May 2007)
cabinet: Cabinet appointed by the
governor general on the prime
minister's recommendation
elections: none; the monarch is
hereditary; governor general
appointed by the monarch;
following legislative elections, the
leader of the majority party or the
leader of the majority coalition is
usually appointed prime minister
by the governor general; the prime
minister recommends the deputy
prime minister
Legislative
branch:
bicameral Parliament consists of
the Senate (16 seats; members
appointed by the governor general
upon the advice of the prime
minister and the opposition leader
to serve five-year terms) and the
House of Assembly (41 seats;
members elected by direct
popular vote to serve five-year
terms); the government may
dissolve the Parliament and call
elections at any time
elections: last held 2 May 2007
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2273
(next to be called by May 2012)
election results: percent of vote
by party - FNM 49.86%, PLP
47.02%; seats by party - FNM 23,
PLP 18
Judicial
branch:
Privy Council (London); Courts of
Appeal; Supreme (lower) Court;
magistrates courts
Political
parties and
leaders:
Free National Movement or FNM
[Hubert INGRAHAM]; Progressive
Liberal Party or PLP [Perry
CHRISTIE]
Political
pressure
groups and
leaders:
NA
International
organization
participation:
ACP, C, Caricom, CDB, FAO, G-77,
IADB, IBRD, ICAO, ICCt
(signatory), ICFTU, ICRM, IFC,
IFRCS, ILO, IMF, IMO, Interpol,
IOC, IOM, ITU, MIGA, NAM, OAS,
OPANAL, OPCW (signatory), UN,
UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO,
UNWTO, UPU, WCO, WHO, WIPO,
WMO, WTO (observer)
Diplomatic
representation
in the US:
chief of mission: vacant
chancery: 2220 Massachusetts
Avenue NW, Washington, DC
20008
telephone: [1] (202) 319-2660
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FAX: [1] (202) 319-2668
consulate(s) general: Miami, New
York
Diplomatic
representation
from the US:
chief of mission: Ambassador
John D. ROOD
embassy: 42 Queen Street,
Nassau
mailing address: local or express
mail address: P. O. Box N-8197,
Nassau; US Department of State,
3370 Nassau Place, Washington,
DC 20521-3370
telephone: [1] (242) 322-1181,
356-3229 (after hours)
FAX: [1] (242) 356-0222
Flag
description:
three equal horizontal bands of
aquamarine (top), gold, and
aquamarine, with a black
equilateral triangle based on the
hoist side
Economy Bahamas, The
Economy -
overview:
The Bahamas is a stable,
developing nation with an
economy heavily dependent on
tourism and offshore banking.
Tourism together with tourism-
driven construction and
manufacturing accounts for
approximately 60% of GDP and
directly or indirectly employs half
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of the archipelago's labor force.
Steady growth in tourism receipts
and a boom in construction of
new hotels, resorts, and
residences had led to solid GDP
growth in recent years, but the
slowdown in the US economy and
the attacks of 11 September 2001
held back growth in these sectors
in 2001-03. The current
government has presided over a
period of economic recovery and
an upturn in large-scale private
sector investments in tourism.
Financial services constitute the
second-most important sector of
the Bahamian economy,
accounting for about 15% of GDP.
However, since December 2000,
when the government enacted
new regulations on the financial
sector, many international
businesses have left The
Bahamas. Manufacturing and
agriculture together contribute
approximately a tenth of GDP and
show little growth, despite
government incentives aimed at
those sectors. Overall growth
prospects in the short run rest
heavily on the fortunes of the
tourism sector, which depends on
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growth in the US, the source of
more than 80% of the visitors.
GDP
(purchasing
power parity):
$6.556 billion (2006 est.)
GDP (official
exchange
rate):
$6.159 billion (2006 est.)
GDP - real
growth rate:
4% (2006 est.)
GDP - per
capita (PPP):
$21,600 (2006 est.)
GDP -
composition
by sector:
agriculture: 3%
industry: 7%
services: 90% (2001 est.)
Labor force: 176,300 (2004)
Labor force -
by occupation:
agriculture 5%, industry 5%,
tourism 50%, other services 40%
(2005 est.)
Unemployment
rate:
10.2% (2005 est.)
Population
below poverty
line:
9.3% (2004)
Household
income or
consumption
lowest 10%: NA%
highest 10%: 27% (2000)
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by percentage
share:
Inflation rate
(consumer
prices):
1.2% (2004)
Budget: revenues: $1.03 billion
expenditures: $1.03 billion;
including capital expenditures of
$130 million (FY04/05)
Agriculture -
products:
citrus, vegetables; poultry
Industries: tourism, banking, cement, oil
transshipment, salt, rum,
aragonite, pharmaceuticals,
spiral-welded steel pipe
Industrial
production
growth rate:
NA%
Electricity -
production:
1.795 billion kWh (2004)
Electricity -
production by
source:
fossil fuel: 100%
hydro: 0%
nuclear: 0%
other: 0% (2001)
Electricity -
consumption:
1.669 billion kWh (2004)
Electricity -
exports:
0 kWh (2004)
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Electricity -
imports:
0 kWh (2004)
Oil -
production:
0 bbl/day (2004)
Oil -
consumption:
27,000 bbl/day (2004 est.)
Oil - exports: transshipments of 29,000 bbl/day
(2003)
Oil - imports: NA bbl/day
Natural gas -
production:
0 cu m (2004 est.)
Natural gas -
consumption:
0 cu m (2004 est.)
Exports: $451 million (2005 est.)
Exports -
commodities:
mineral products and salt, animal
products, rum, chemicals, fruit
and vegetables
Exports -
partners:
Spain 31.8%, US 30%, Poland 9%,
Germany 5.4% (2005)
Imports: $2.16 billion (2005 est.)
Imports -
commodities:
machinery and transport
equipment, manufactures,
chemicals, mineral fuels; food and
live animals
Imports -
partners:
US 21.2%, South Korea 19%,
Brazil 17.8%, Spain 7.3%,
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2279
Germany 5% (2005)
Debt -
external:
$342.6 million (2004 est.)
Economic aid -
recipient:
$5 million (2004)
Currency
(code):
Bahamian dollar (BSD)
Currency
code:
BSD
Exchange
rates:
Bahamian dollars per US dollar - 1
(2006), 1 (2005), 1 (2004), 1
(2003), 1 (2002)
Fiscal year: 1 July - 30 June
Communications Bahamas, The
Telephones
- main lines
in use:
139,900 (2004)
Telephones
- mobile
cellular:
186,000 (2004)
Telephone
system:
general assessment: modern
facilities
domestic: totally automatic system;
highly developed
international: country code - 1-242;
tropospheric scatter and submarine
cable to Florida; 3 coaxial submarine
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cables; satellite earth station - 2
(2005)
Radio
broadcast
stations:
AM 3, FM 5, shortwave 0 (2006)
Radios: 215,000 (1997)
Television
broadcast
stations:
2 (2006)
Televisions: 67,000 (1997)
Internet
country
code:
.bs
Internet
hosts:
591 (2006)
Internet
Service
Providers
(ISPs):
19 (2000)
Internet
users:
93,000 (2005)
Transportation Bahamas, The
Airports: 64 (2006)
Airports -
with
paved
runways:
total: 29
over 3,047 m: 2
2,438 to 3,047 m: 3
1,524 to 2,437 m: 14
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2281
914 to 1,523 m: 9
under 914 m: 1 (2006)
Airports -
with
unpaved
runways:
total: 35
1,524 to 2,437 m: 3
914 to 1,523 m: 10
under 914 m: 22 (2006)
Heliports: 1 (2006)
Roadways: total: 2,693 km
paved: 1,546 km
unpaved: 1,147 km (1999)
Merchant
marine:
total: 1,177 ships (1000 GRT or over)
37,743,270 GRT/50,918,747 DWT
by type: barge carrier 1, bulk carrier
253, cargo 250, chemical tanker 64,
container 79, liquefied gas 35,
livestock carrier 2, passenger 115,
passenger/cargo 34, petroleum tanker
175, refrigerated cargo 114, roll
on/roll off 20, specialized tanker 5,
vehicle carrier 30
foreign-owned: 1,093 (Angola 5,
Australia 2, Belgium 13, Canada 18,
China 3, Cuba 1, Cyprus 13, Denmark
59, Estonia 1, Finland 8, France 37,
Germany 22, Greece 232, Hong Kong
8, Iceland 1, India 1, Indonesia 4,
Ireland 2, Israel 1, Italy 5, Japan 51,
Jordan 2, Kenya 1, Latvia 1, Malaysia
12, Monaco 17, Montenegro 2,
Netherlands 24, Nigeria 2, Norway
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2282
259, Philippines 1, Poland 15, Reunion
1, Russia 6, Saudi Arabia 12,
Singapore 12, Slovenia 1, Spain 12,
Sweden 6, Switzerland 2, Thailand 1,
Turkey 8, UAE 16, UK 69, Uruguay 2,
US 121, Venezuela 1)
registered in other countries: 4
(Barbados 1, Liberia 1, Panama 2)
(2006)
Ports and
terminals:
Freeport, Nassau, South Riding Point
Military Bahamas, The
Military
branches:
Royal Bahamian Defense Force:
Marines, Air Wing (2006)
Military
service age
and
obligation:
18 years of age (est.); no
conscription (2001)
Manpower
available for
military
service:
males age 18-49: 73,121 (2005 est.)
Manpower fit
for military
service:
males age 18-49: 44,309 (2005 est.)
Manpower
reaching
military
males age 18-49: 2,804 (2005 est.)
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service age
annually:
Military
expenditures
- percent of
GDP:
0.5% (2006)
Transnational
Issues
Bahamas, The
Disputes -
international:
disagrees with the US on the
alignment of a potential maritime
boundary; continues to monitor and
interdict drug dealers and Haitian
refugees in Bahamian waters
Illicit drugs: transshipment point for cocaine
and marijuana bound for US and
Europe; offshore financial center
BARBADOS
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Introduction Barbados
Background: The island was uninhabited when
first settled by the British in 1627.
Slaves worked the sugar plantations
established on the island until 1834
when slavery was abolished. The
economy remained heavily
dependent on sugar, rum, and
molasses production through most
of the 20th century. The gradual
introduction of social and political
reforms in the 1940s and 1950s led
to complete independence from the
UK in 1966. In the 1990s, tourism
and manufacturing surpassed the
sugar industry in economic
importance.
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Geography Barbados
Location: Caribbean, island in the North
Atlantic Ocean, northeast of
Venezuela
Geographic
coordinates:
13 10 N, 59 32 W
Map
references:
Central America and the Caribbean
Area: total: 431 sq km
land: 431 sq km
water: 0 sq km
Area -
comparative:
2.5 times the size of Washington,
DC
Land
boundaries:
0 km
Coastline: 97 km
Maritime
claims:
territorial sea: 12 nm
exclusive economic zone: 200 nm
Climate: tropical; rainy season (June to
October)
Terrain: relatively flat; rises gently to
central highland region
Elevation
extremes:
lowest point: Atlantic Ocean 0 m
highest point: Mount Hillaby 336 m
Natural
resources:
petroleum, fish, natural gas
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Land use: arable land: 37.21%
permanent crops: 2.33%
other: 60.46% (2005)
Irrigated
land:
50 sq km (2003)
Natural
hazards:
infrequent hurricanes; periodic
landslides
Environment
- current
issues:
pollution of coastal waters from
waste disposal by ships; soil
erosion; illegal solid waste disposal
threatens contamination of aquifers
Environment
-
international
agreements:
party to: Biodiversity, Climate
Change, Climate Change-Kyoto
Protocol, Desertification,
Endangered Species, Hazardous
Wastes, Law of the Sea, Marine
Dumping, Ozone Layer Protection,
Ship Pollution, Wetlands
signed, but not ratified: none of the
selected agreements
Geography -
note:
easternmost Caribbean island
People Barbados
Population: 280,946 (July 2007 est.)
Age
structure:
0-14 years: 19.7% (male
27,659/female 27,573)
15-64 years: 71.4% (male
98,633/female 102,020)
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65 years and over: 8.9% (male
9,662/female 15,399) (2007 est.)
Median
age:
total: 35 years
male: 33.8 years
female: 36 years (2007 est.)
Population
growth
rate:
0.369% (2007 est.)
Birth rate: 12.61 births/1,000 population (2007
est.)
Death rate: 8.61 deaths/1,000 population (2007
est.)
Net
migration
rate:
-0.31 migrant(s)/1,000 population
(2007 est.)
Sex ratio: at birth: 1.01 male(s)/female
under 15 years: 1.003 male(s)/female
15-64 years: 0.967 male(s)/female
65 years and over: 0.627
male(s)/female
total population: 0.938
male(s)/female (2007 est.)
Infant
mortality
rate:
total: 11.55 deaths/1,000 live births
male: 12.88 deaths/1,000 live births
female: 10.19 deaths/1,000 live births
(2007 est.)
Life
expectancy
total population: 73 years
male: 71.02 years
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at birth: female: 75.01 years (2007 est.)
Total
fertility
rate:
1.65 children born/woman (2007 est.)
HIV/AIDS -
adult
prevalence
rate:
1.5%; (2003 est.)
HIV/AIDS -
people
living with
HIV/AIDS:
2,500 (2003 est.)
HIV/AIDS -
deaths:
less than 200 (2003 est.)
Nationality: noun: Barbadian(s) or Bajan
(colloquial)
adjective: Barbadian or Bajan
(colloquial)
Ethnic
groups:
black 90%, white 4%, Asian and
mixed 6%
Religions: Protestant 67% (Anglican 40%,
Pentecostal 8%, Methodist 7%, other
12%), Roman Catholic 4%, none 17%,
other 12%
Languages: English
Literacy: definition: age 15 and over has ever
attended school
total population: 99.7%
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male: 99.7%
female: 99.7% (2002 est.)
Government Barbados
Country name: conventional long form: none
conventional short form: Barbados
Government
type:
parliamentary democracy
Capital: name: Bridgetown
geographic coordinates: 13 06 N,
59 37 W
time difference: UTC-4 (1 hour
ahead of Washington, DC during
Standard Time)
Administrative
divisions:
11 parishes and 1 city*;
Bridgetown*, Christ Church, Saint
Andrew, Saint George, Saint
James, Saint John, Saint Joseph,
Saint Lucy, Saint Michael, Saint
Peter, Saint Philip, Saint Thomas
Independence: 30 November 1966 (from UK)
National
holiday:
Independence Day, 30 November
(1966)
Constitution: 30 November 1966
Legal system: English common law; no judicial
review of legislative acts; accepts
compulsory ICJ jurisdiction, with
reservations
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Suffrage: 18 years of age; universal
Executive
branch:
chief of state: Queen ELIZABETH
II (since 6 February 1952);
represented by Governor General
Sir Clifford Straughn HUSBANDS
(since 1 June 1996)
head of government: Prime
Minister Owen Seymour ARTHUR
(since 7 September 1994); Deputy
Prime Minister Mia MOTTLEY
(since 26 May 2003)
cabinet: Cabinet appointed by the
governor general on the advice of
the prime minister
elections: none; the monarch is
hereditary; governor general
appointed by the monarch;
following legislative elections, the
leader of the majority party or the
leader of the majority coalition is
usually appointed prime minister
by the governor general; the prime
minister recommends the deputy
prime minister
Legislative
branch:
bicameral Parliament consists of
the Senate (21 seats; members
appointed by the governor
general) and the House of
Assembly (30 seats; members are
elected by direct popular vote to
serve five-year terms)
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2291
elections: House of Assembly -
last held 21 May 2003 (next to be
held by May 2008)
election results: House of
Assembly - percent of vote by
party - NA; seats by party - BLP
23, DLP 7
Judicial
branch:
Supreme Court of Judicature
(judges are appointed by the
Service Commissions for the
Judicial and Legal Services);
Caribbean Court of Justice is the
highest court of appeal
Political
parties and
leaders:
Barbados Labor Party or BLP
[Owen ARTHUR]; Democratic
Labor Party or DLP [David
THOMPSON]; People's
Empowerment Party or PEP [David
COMISSIONG]
Political
pressure
groups and
leaders:
Barbados Secondary Teachers'
Union or BSTU [Patrick FROST];
Barbados Union of Teachers or
BUT [Herbert GITTENS]; Congress
of Trade Unions and Staff
Associations of Barbados or
CTUSAB, which includes the BWU,
NUPW, BUT, and BSTU [Leroy
TROTMAN]; Barbados Workers
Union or BWU [Leroy TROTMAN];
Clement Payne Labor Union [David
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2292
COMISSIONG]; National Union of
Public Workers [Joseph
GODDARD]
International
organization
participation:
ACP, C, Caricom, CDB, FAO, G-77,
IADB, IBRD, ICAO, ICCt, ICRM,
IDA, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, ILO, IMF,
IMO, Interpol, IOC, ISO, ITU, ITUC,
LAES, MIGA, NAM, OAS, OPANAL,
UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO,
UPU, WCO, WFTU, WHO, WIPO,
WMO, WTO
Diplomatic
representation
in the US:
chief of mission: Ambassador
Michael Ian KING
chancery: 2144 Wyoming Avenue
NW, Washington, DC 20008
telephone: [1] (202) 939-9200
FAX: [1] (202) 332-7467
consulate(s) general: Miami, New
York
consulate(s): Los Angeles
Diplomatic
representation
from the US:
chief of mission: Ambassador
Mary M. OURISMAN
embassy: U.S. Embassy, Wildey
Business Park, Wildey, St. Michael
mailing address: P. O. Box 302,
Bridgetown; CMR 1014, APO AA
34055
telephone: [1] (246) 436-4950
FAX: [1] (246) 429-5246, 429-3379
Flag three equal vertical bands of blue
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2293
description: (hoist side), gold, and blue with
the head of a black trident
centered on the gold band; the
trident head represents
independence and a break with
the past (the colonial coat of arms
contained a complete trident)
Economy Barbados
Economy -
overview:
Historically, the Barbadian
economy had been dependent on
sugarcane cultivation and related
activities, but production in
recent years has diversified into
light industry and tourism.
Offshore finance and information
services are important foreign
exchange earners. The
government continues its efforts
to reduce unemployment, to
encourage direct foreign
investment, and to privatize
remaining state-owned
enterprises. The economy
contracted in 2002-03 mainly due
to a decline in tourism. Growth
was positive in 2005-06, as
economic conditions in the US
and Europe moderately improved.
GDP
(purchasing
$5.146 billion (2006 est.)
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2294
power parity):
GDP (official
exchange
rate):
$3.142 billion (2006 est.)
GDP - real
growth rate:
3.5% (2006 est.)
GDP - per
capita (PPP):
$18,400 (2006 est.)
GDP -
composition
by sector:
agriculture: 6%
industry: 16%
services: 78% (2000 est.)
Labor force: 128,500 (2001 est.)
Labor force -
by occupation:
agriculture: 10%
industry: 15%
services: 75% (1996 est.)
Unemployment
rate:
10.7% (2003 est.)
Population
below poverty
line:
NA%
Household
income or
consumption
by percentage
share:
lowest 10%: NA%
highest 10%: NA%
Inflation rate
(consumer
-0.5% (2003 est.)
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2295
prices):
Budget: revenues: $847 million (including
grants)
expenditures: $886 million;
including capital expenditures of
$NA (2000 est.)
Agriculture -
products:
sugarcane, vegetables, cotton
Industries: tourism, sugar, light
manufacturing, component
assembly for export
Industrial
production
growth rate:
-3.2% (2000 est.)
Electricity -
production:
896 million kWh (2004)
Electricity -
production by
source:
fossil fuel: 100%
hydro: 0%
nuclear: 0%
other: 0% (2001)
Electricity -
consumption:
833.3 million kWh (2004)
Electricity -
exports:
0 kWh (2004)
Electricity -
imports:
0 kWh (2004)
Oil - 1,000 bbl/day (2004)
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2296
production:
Oil -
consumption:
11,000 bbl/day (2004 est.)
Oil - exports: NA bbl/day
Oil - imports: NA bbl/day
Oil - proved
reserves:
1.254 million bbl (1 January 2002)
Natural gas -
production:
29.17 million cu m (2004 est.)
Natural gas -
consumption:
29.17 million cu m (2004 est.)
Natural gas -
exports:
0 cu m (2004 est.)
Natural gas -
imports:
0 cu m (2004 est.)
Natural gas -
proved
reserves:
141.6 million cu m (1 January
2005 est.)
Exports: $209 million (2004 est.)
Exports -
commodities:
sugar and molasses, rum, other
foods and beverages, chemicals,
electrical components
Exports -
partners:
US 18.6%, Trinidad and Tobago
15%, UK 12.1%, Saint Lucia 8.4%,
Jamaica 7.9%, Grenada 4.6%,
Saint Vincent and the Grenadines
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2297
4.6% (2005)
Imports: $1.476 billion (2004 est.)
Imports -
commodities:
consumer goods, machinery,
foodstuffs, construction
materials, chemicals, fuel,
electrical components
Imports -
partners:
US 37.2%, Trinidad and Tobago
22.1%, UK 5.5%, Japan 5.2%
(2005)
Debt -
external:
$668 million (2003)
Economic aid -
recipient:
$9.1 million (1995)
Currency
(code):
Barbadian dollar (BBD)
Currency
code:
BBD
Exchange
rates:
Barbadian dollars per US dollar - 2
(2006), 2 (2005), 2 (2004), 2
(2003), 2 (2002)
Fiscal year: 1 April - 31 March
Communications Barbados
Telephones
- main lines
in use:
134,900 (2005)
Telephones 206,200 (2005)
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2298
- mobile
cellular:
Telephone
system:
general assessment: NA
domestic: island-wide automatic
telephone system
international: country code - 1-246;
satellite earth stations - 1 (Intelsat -
Atlantic Ocean); tropospheric scatter
to Trinidad and Saint Lucia
Radio
broadcast
stations:
AM 2, FM 6, shortwave 0 (2004)
Radios: 237,000 (1997)
Television
broadcast
stations:
1 (plus 2 cable channels) (2004)
Televisions: 76,000 (1997)
Internet
country
code:
.bb
Internet
hosts:
282 (2006)
Internet
Service
Providers
(ISPs):
19 (2000)
Internet
users:
160,000 (2005)
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2299
Transportation Barbados
Airports: 1 (2006)
Airports -
with
paved
runways:
total: 1
over 3,047 m: 1 (2006)
Roadways: total: 1,600 km
paved: 1,600 km (2004)
Merchant
marine:
total: 58 ships (1000 GRT or over)
433,390 GRT/664,998 DWT
by type: bulk carrier 11, cargo 32,
chemical tanker 7, passenger 1,
passenger/cargo 1, petroleum tanker
3, roll on/roll off 2, specialized tanker
1
foreign-owned: 57 (Bahamas, The 1,
Canada 8, Greece 11, Lebanon 1,
Monaco 1, Norway 29, UAE 1, UK 5)
registered in other countries: 1 (Saint
Vincent and the Grenadines 1) (2006)
Ports and
terminals:
Bridgetown
Military Barbados
Military
branches:
Royal Barbados Defense Force:
Troops Command, Barbados Coast
Guard (2007)
Military
service age
18 years of age for voluntary
military service; volunteers at
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2300
and
obligation:
earlier age with parental consent;
no conscription (2001)
Manpower
available for
military
service:
males age 18-49: 71,524
females age 18-49: 72,302 (2005
est.)
Manpower fit
for military
service:
males age 18-49: 54,510
females age 18-49: 54,889 (2005
est.)
Military
expenditures
- percent of
GDP:
0.5% (2006 est.)
Military -
note:
the Royal Barbados Defense Force
includes a land-based Troop
Command and a small Coast Guard;
the primary role of the land element
is to defend the island against
external aggression; the Command
consists of a single, part-time
battalion with a small regular cadre
that is deployed throughout the
island; it increasingly supports the
police in patrolling the coastline to
prevent smuggling and other illicit
activities (2005)
Transnational
Issues
Barbados
Disputes - in April 2006, the Permanent Court
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2301
international: of Arbitration issued a decision that
delimited a maritime boundary with
Trinidad and Tobago and compelled
Barbados to enter a fishing
agreement limiting Barbadian
fishermen's catches of flying fish in
Trinidad and Tobago's exclusive
economic zone; in 2005, Barbados
and Trinidad and Tobago agreed to
compulsory international
arbitration under UNCLOS
challenging whether the northern
limit of Trinidad and Tobago's and
Venezuela's maritime boundary
extends into Barbadian waters;
joins other Caribbean states to
counter Venezuela's claim that
Aves Island sustains human
habitation, a criterion under the UN
Convention on the Law of the Sea
(UNCLOS), which permits
Venezuela to extend its
EEZ/continental shelf over a large
portion of the eastern Caribbean
Sea
Illicit drugs: one of many Caribbean
transshipment points for narcotics
bound for Europe and the US;
offshore financial center
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2302
BELIZE
Introduction Belize
Background: Belize was the site of several Mayan
city states until their decline at the
end of the first millennium A.D. The
British and Spanish disputed the
region in the 17th and 18th
centuries; it formally became the
colony of British Honduras in 1854.
Territorial disputes between the UK
and Guatemala delayed the
independence of Belize until 1981.
Guatemala refused to recognize the
new nation until 1992. Tourism has
become the mainstay of the
economy. Current concerns include
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2303
an unsustainable foreign debt, high
unemployment, growing involvement
in the South American drug trade,
growing urban crime, and increasing
incidences of HIV/AIDS.
Geography Belize
Location: Central America, bordering the
Caribbean Sea, between Guatemala
and Mexico
Geographic
coordinates:
17 15 N, 88 45 W
Map
references:
Central America and the Caribbean
Area: total: 22,966 sq km
land: 22,806 sq km
water: 160 sq km
Area -
comparative:
slightly smaller than Massachusetts
Land
boundaries:
total: 516 km
border countries: Guatemala 266
km, Mexico 250 km
Coastline: 386 km
Maritime
claims:
territorial sea: 12 nm in the north, 3
nm in the south; note - from the
mouth of the Sarstoon River to
Ranguana Cay, Belize's territorial
sea is 3 nm; according to Belize's
Maritime Areas Act, 1992, the
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2304
purpose of this limitation is to
provide a framework for negotiating
a definitive agreement on territorial
differences with Guatemala
exclusive economic zone: 200 nm
Climate: tropical; very hot and humid; rainy
season (May to November); dry
season (February to May)
Terrain: flat, swampy coastal plain; low
mountains in south
Elevation
extremes:
lowest point: Caribbean Sea 0 m
highest point: Victoria Peak 1,160
m
Natural
resources:
arable land potential, timber, fish,
hydropower
Land use: arable land: 3.05%
permanent crops: 1.39%
other: 95.56% (2005)
Irrigated
land:
30 sq km (2003)
Natural
hazards:
frequent, devastating hurricanes
(June to November) and coastal
flooding (especially in south)
Environment
- current
issues:
deforestation; water pollution from
sewage, industrial effluents,
agricultural runoff; solid and
sewage waste disposal
Environment party to: Biodiversity, Climate
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2305
-
international
agreements:
Change, Climate Change-Kyoto
Protocol, Desertification,
Endangered Species, Hazardous
Wastes, Law of the Sea, Ozone
Layer Protection, Ship Pollution,
Wetlands, Whaling
signed, but not ratified: none of the
selected agreements
Geography -
note:
only country in Central America
without a coastline on the North
Pacific Ocean
People Belize
Population: 294,385 (July 2007 est.)
Age
structure:
0-14 years: 38.9% (male
58,459/female 56,183)
15-64 years: 57.5% (male
85,686/female 83,717)
65 years and over: 3.5% (male
4,979/female 5,361) (2007 est.)
Median
age:
total: 19.9 years
male: 19.7 years
female: 20 years (2007 est.)
Population
growth
rate:
2.258% (2007 est.)
Birth rate: 28.34 births/1,000 population (2007
est.)
Death rate: 5.76 deaths/1,000 population (2007
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2306
est.)
Net
migration
rate:
0 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2007
est.)
Sex ratio: at birth: 1.05 male(s)/female
under 15 years: 1.041 male(s)/female
15-64 years: 1.024 male(s)/female
65 years and over: 0.929
male(s)/female
total population: 1.027
male(s)/female (2007 est.)
Infant
mortality
rate:
total: 24.38 deaths/1,000 live births
male: 27.43 deaths/1,000 live births
female: 21.17 deaths/1,000 live births
(2007 est.)
Life
expectancy
at birth:
total population: 68.25 years
male: 66.44 years
female: 70.16 years (2007 est.)
Total
fertility
rate:
3.52 children born/woman (2007 est.)
HIV/AIDS -
adult
prevalence
rate:
2.4% (2003 est.)
HIV/AIDS -
people
living with
HIV/AIDS:
3,600 (2003 est.)
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2307
HIV/AIDS -
deaths:
less than 200 (2003 est.)
Nationality: noun: Belizean(s)
adjective: Belizean
Ethnic
groups:
mestizo 48.7%, Creole 24.9%, Maya
10.6%, Garifuna 6.1%, other 9.7%
Religions: Roman Catholic 49.6%, Protestant
27% (Pentecostal 7.4%, Anglican
5.3%, Seventh-Day Adventist 5.2%,
Mennonite 4.1%, Methodist 3.5%,
Jehovah's Witnesses 1.5%), other
14%, none 9.4% (2000)
Languages: Spanish 46%, Creole 32.9%, Mayan
dialects 8.9%, English 3.9% (official),
Garifuna 3.4% (Carib), German 3.3%,
other 1.4%, unknown 0.2% (2000
census)
Literacy: definition: age 15 and over can read
and write
total population: 76.9%
male: 76.7%
female: 77.1% (2000 census)
Government Belize
Country name: conventional long form: none
conventional short form: Belize
former: British Honduras
Government
type:
parliamentary democracy
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2308
Capital: name: Belmopan
geographic coordinates: 17 15 N,
88 46 W
time difference: UTC-6 (1 hour
behind Washington, DC during
Standard Time)
Administrative
divisions:
6 districts; Belize, Cayo, Corozal,
Orange Walk, Stann Creek, Toledo
Independence: 21 September 1981 (from UK)
National
holiday:
Independence Day, 21 September
(1981)
Constitution: 21 September 1981
Legal system: English law
Suffrage: 18 years of age; universal
Executive
branch:
chief of state: Queen ELIZABETH
II (since 6 February 1952);
represented by Governor General
Sir Colville YOUNG, Sr. (since 17
November 1993)
head of government: Prime
Minister Said Wilbert MUSA (since
28 August 1998); Deputy Prime
Minister Vildo MARIN (since 5
June 2007)
cabinet: Cabinet appointed by the
governor general on the advice of
the prime minister
elections: none; the monarch is
hereditary; governor general
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2309
appointed by the monarch;
following legislative elections, the
leader of the majority party or the
leader of the majority coalition is
usually appointed prime minister
by the governor general; prime
minister recommends the deputy
prime minister
Legislative
branch:
bicameral National Assembly
consists of the Senate (12 seats;
members appointed by the
governor general - 6 on the advice
of the prime minister, 3 on the
advice of the leader of the
opposition, and 1 each on the
advice of the Belize Council of
Churches and Evangelical
Association of Churches, the
Belize Chamber of Commerce and
Industry and the Belize Better
Business Bureau, and the National
Trade Union Congress and the
Civil Society Steering Committee;
to serve five-year terms) and the
House of Representatives (29
seats; members are elected by
direct popular vote to serve five-
year terms); note - number of
seats will increase to 31 next
election
elections: House of
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2310
Representatives - last held 5
March 2003 (next to be held in
March 2008)
election results: percent of vote
by party - NA; seats by party - PUP
21, UDP 8
Judicial
branch:
Supreme Court (the chief justice
is appointed by the governor
general on the advice of the prime
minister)
Political
parties and
leaders:
National Alliance for Belizean
Rights or NABR; National Reform
Party or NRP [Cornelius DUECK];
People's United Party or PUP [Said
MUSA]; United Democratic Party
or UDP [Dean BARROW]; Vision
Inspired by the People or VIP
[Paul MORGAN]; We the People
Reform Movement [Hipolito
BAUTISTA]
Political
pressure
groups and
leaders:
Society for the Promotion of
Education and Research or SPEAR
[Gustavo PERERA]; Association of
Concerned Belizeans or ACB
[David VASQUEZ]; National Trade
Union Congress of Belize or
NTUC/B [Rene GOMEZ]
International
organization
participation:
ACP, C, Caricom, CDB, FAO, G-77,
IADB, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, ICCt,
ICRM, IDA, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, ILO,
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2311
IMF, IMO, Interpol, IOC, IOM, ITU,
ITUC, LAES, MIGA, NAM, OAS,
OPANAL, OPCW, PCA, UN,
UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, UPU,
WCL, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WTO
Diplomatic
representation
in the US:
chief of mission: Ambassador Lisa
M. SHOMAN
chancery: 2535 Massachusetts
Avenue NW, Washington, DC
20008
telephone: [1] (202) 332-9636
FAX: [1] (202) 332-6888
consulate(s) general: Los Angeles
Diplomatic
representation
from the US:
chief of mission: Ambassador
Robert J. DIETER
embassy: Floral Park Road,
Belmopan City, Cayo District
mailing address: 3050 Belize
Place, Washington DC 20521-3050
telephone: [501] 822-4011
FAX: [501] 822-4012
Flag
description:
blue with a narrow red stripe
along the top and the bottom
edges; centered is a large white
disk bearing the coat of arms; the
coat of arms features a shield
flanked by two workers in front of
a mahogany tree with the related
motto SUB UMBRA FLOREO (I
Flourish in the Shade) on a scroll
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2312
at the bottom, all encircled by a
green garland
Economy Belize
Economy -
overview:
In this small, essentially private-
enterprise economy tourism is the
number one foreign exchange
earner followed by exports of
marine products, citrus, cane
sugar, bananas, and garments.
The government's expansionary
monetary and fiscal policies,
initiated in September 1998, led
to sturdy GDP growth averaging
nearly 4% in 1999-2006. Major
concerns continue to be the
sizable trade deficit and
unsustainable foreign debt. The
government in 2006 announced it
would seek a restructuring of its
sovereign debt and has been
negotiating with international
creditors to find an acceptable
formula for doing so. A key short-
term objective remains the
reduction of poverty with the help
of international donors.
GDP
(purchasing
power parity):
$2.307 billion (2006 est.)
GDP (official $1.141 billion (2006 est.)
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2313
exchange
rate):
GDP - real
growth rate:
3.5% (2006 est.)
GDP - per
capita (PPP):
$8,400 (2006 est.)
GDP -
composition
by sector:
agriculture: 22.5%
industry: 14.8%
services: 62.6% (2006 est.)
Labor force: 113,000
note: shortage of skilled labor and
all types of technical personnel
(2006 est.)
Labor force -
by occupation:
agriculture: 22.5%
industry: 15.2%
services: 62.3% (2005 est.)
Unemployment
rate:
9.4% (2006)
Population
below poverty
line:
33.5% (2002 est.)
Household
income or
consumption
by percentage
share:
lowest 10%: NA%
highest 10%: NA%
Inflation rate
(consumer
4.5% (2006 est.)
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2314
prices):
Investment
(gross fixed):
18.2% of GDP (2006 est.)
Budget: revenues: $302.5 million
expenditures: $357.5 million;
including capital expenditures of
$70 million (2006 est.)
Agriculture -
products:
bananas, cacao, citrus, sugar;
fish, cultured shrimp; lumber;
garments
Industries: garment production, food
processing, tourism, construction,
oil
Industrial
production
growth rate:
4.6% (1999)
Electricity -
production:
175 million kWh (2004)
Electricity -
production by
source:
fossil fuel: 59.9%
hydro: 40.1%
nuclear: 0%
other: 0% (2001)
Electricity -
consumption:
162.8 million kWh (2004)
Electricity -
exports:
0 kWh (2004)
Electricity - 0 kWh (2004)
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2315
imports:
Oil -
production:
2,413 bbl/day (2006)
Oil -
consumption:
3,000 bbl/day (2006 est.)
Oil - exports: 1,960 bbl/day (2006)
Oil - imports: NA bbl/day
Natural gas -
production:
0 cu m (2004 est.)
Natural gas -
consumption:
0 cu m (2004 est.)
Current
account
balance:
-$173.4 million (2006 est.)
Exports: $359.5 million f.o.b. (2006 est.)
Exports -
commodities:
sugar, bananas, citrus, clothing,
fish products, molasses, wood
Exports -
partners:
US 31%, UK 25.3%, France 4.9%,
Jamaica 4% (2005)
Imports: $543 million f.o.b. (2006 est.)
Imports -
commodities:
machinery and transport
equipment, manufactured goods;
fuels, chemicals,
pharmaceuticals; food,
beverages, tobacco
Imports - US 31%, Mexico 11.6%, Russia
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2316
partners: 8.8%, Cuba 6%, Guatemala 5.6%,
China 4.6%, Spain 4.5% (2005)
Reserves of
foreign
exchange and
gold:
$78.96 million (2006 est.)
Debt -
external:
$1.2 billion (June 2005 est.)
Economic aid -
recipient:
$NA
Currency
(code):
Belizean dollar (BZD)
Currency
code:
BZD
Exchange
rates:
Belizean dollars per US dollar - 2
(2006), 2 (2005), 2 (2004), 2
(2003), 2 (2002)
Fiscal year: 1 April - 31 March
Communications Belize
Telephones
- main lines
in use:
33,300 (2005)
Telephones
- mobile
cellular:
93,100 (2005)
Telephone
system:
general assessment: above-average
system
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2317
domestic: trunk network depends
primarily on microwave radio relay
international: country code - 501;
satellite earth station - 8 (Intelsat - 2,
unknown - 6) (2005)
Radio
broadcast
stations:
AM 1, FM 16, shortwave 0 (2006)
Radios: 133,000 (1997)
Television
broadcast
stations:
5 (2006)
Televisions: 41,000 (1997)
Internet
country
code:
.bz
Internet
hosts:
3,905 (2006)
Internet
Service
Providers
(ISPs):
2 (2000)
Internet
users:
35,000 (2005)
Transportation Belize
Airports: 43 (2006)
Airports - total: 5
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2318
with paved
runways:
1,524 to 2,437 m: 1
914 to 1,523 m: 2
under 914 m: 2 (2006)
Airports -
with
unpaved
runways:
total: 38
2,438 to 3,047 m: 1
914 to 1,523 m: 11
under 914 m: 26 (2006)
Roadways: total: 2,872 km
paved: 488 km
unpaved: 2,384 km (1999)
Waterways: 825 km (navigable only by small
craft) (2007)
Merchant
marine:
total: 285 ships (1000 GRT or over)
985,464 GRT/1,322,629 DWT
by type: bulk carrier 36, cargo 203,
chemical tanker 7, container 4,
passenger/cargo 3, petroleum tanker
13, refrigerated cargo 12, roll on/roll
off 6, specialized tanker 1
foreign-owned: 225 (China 103,
Croatia 1, Cyprus 2, Estonia 3,
Germany 3, Greece 2, Hong Kong 8,
Iceland 2, Indonesia 2, Italy 4, Japan
2, North Korea 2, South Korea 4,
Latvia 6, Lithuania 1, Malaysia 1,
Mexico 1, Norway 2, Poland 2, Russia
36, Singapore 6, Spain 3, Switzerland
1, Turkey 11, UAE 5, Ukraine 7, US 5)
(2006)
Ports and Belize City, Big Creek
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2319
terminals:
Military Belize
Military
branches:
Belize Defense Force (BDF): Army,
Maritime Wing, Air Wing, and
Volunteer Guard
Military
service age
and
obligation:
18 years of age for voluntary
military service; laws allow for
conscription only if volunteers are
insufficient; conscription has never
been implemented; volunteers
typically outnumber available
positions by 3:1 (2001)
Manpower
available for
military
service:
males age 18-49: 61,201
females age 18-49: 60,048 (2005
est.)
Manpower fit
for military
service:
males age 18-49: 44,238
females age 18-49: 43,633 (2005
est.)
Manpower
reaching
military
service age
annually:
males age 18-49: 3,213
females age 18-49: 3,100 (2005 est.)
Military
expenditures
- percent of
GDP:
1.4% (2006)
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2320
Transnational
Issues
Belize
Disputes -
international:
annual ministerial meetings under
the OAS-initiated Agreement on the
Framework for Negotiations and
Confidence Building Measures
continue to address Guatemalan
land and maritime claims in Belize
and Caribbean Sea; the Line of
Adjacency created under the 2002
Differendum serves in lieu of the
contiguous international boundary
to control squatting in the sparsely
inhabited rain forests of Belize's
border region; Honduras claims
Belizean-administered Sapodilla
Cays in its constitution but agreed
to a joint ecological park under the
Differendum
Trafficking in
persons:
current situation: Belize is a
source, transit, and destination
country for men, women, and
children trafficked for the purposes
of labor and sexual exploitation;
women and girls are trafficked
mainly from Central America, and
exploited in prostitution; children
are trafficked to Belize for labor
exploitation; Belize's largely
unmonitored borders with
Guatemala, Honduras, and Mexico
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2321
facilitate the movement of illegal
migrants who are vulnerable to
traffickers; girls are trafficked
within the country for sexual
exploitation, sometimes with the
consent and complicity of their
close relatives; there are
unconfirmed reports that Indian
and Chinese migrants are trafficked
for involuntary servitude in homes
and shops
tier rating: Tier 3 - Belize has failed
to show evidence of significant law
enforcement or victim protection
efforts
Illicit drugs: transshipment point for cocaine;
small-scale illicit producer of
cannabis, primarily for local
consumption; money-laundering
activity related to narcotics
trafficking and offshore sector
BRITISH VIRIGIN ISLANDS
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2322
Introduction British Virgin Islands
Background: First inhabited by Arawak and later
by Carib Indians, the Virgin Islands
were settled by the Dutch in 1648
and then annexed by the English in
1672. The islands were part of the
British colony of the Leeward
Islands from 1872-1960; they were
granted autonomy in 1967. The
economy is closely tied to the larger
and more populous US Virgin Islands
to the west; the US dollar is the
legal currency.
Geography British Virgin Islands
Location: Caribbean, between the Caribbean
Sea and the North Atlantic Ocean,
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2323
east of Puerto Rico
Geographic
coordinates:
18 30 N, 64 30 W
Map
references:
Central America and the Caribbean
Area: total: 153 sq km
land: 153 sq km
water: 0 sq km
note: comprised of 16 inhabited and
more than 20 uninhabited islands;
includes the islands of Tortola,
Anegada, Virgin Gorda, Jost van
Dyke
Area -
comparative:
about 0.9 times the size of
Washington, DC
Land
boundaries:
0 km
Coastline: 80 km
Maritime
claims:
territorial sea: 3 nm
exclusive fishing zone: 200 nm
Climate: subtropical; humid; temperatures
moderated by trade winds
Terrain: coral islands relatively flat; volcanic
islands steep, hilly
Elevation
extremes:
lowest point: Caribbean Sea 0 m
highest point: Mount Sage 521 m
Natural NEGL
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2324
resources:
Land use: arable land: 20%
permanent crops: 6.67%
other: 73.33% (2005)
Irrigated
land:
NA
Natural
hazards:
hurricanes and tropical storms (July
to October)
Environment
- current
issues:
limited natural fresh water
resources (except for a few
seasonal streams and springs on
Tortola, most of the islands' water
supply comes from wells and
rainwater catchments)
Geography -
note:
strong ties to nearby US Virgin
Islands and Puerto Rico
People British Virgin Islands
Population: 23,552 (July 2007 est.)
Age
structure:
0-14 years: 20.2% (male 2,410/female
2,337)
15-64 years: 74.5% (male
9,004/female 8,534)
65 years and over: 5.4% (male
665/female 602) (2007 est.)
Median
age:
total: 31.7 years
male: 31.9 years
female: 31.5 years (2007 est.)
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2325
Population
growth
rate:
1.923% (2007 est.)
Birth rate: 14.82 births/1,000 population (2007
est.)
Death rate: 4.42 deaths/1,000 population (2007
est.)
Net
migration
rate:
8.83 migrant(s)/1,000 population
(2007 est.)
Sex ratio: at birth: 1.05 male(s)/female
under 15 years: 1.031 male(s)/female
15-64 years: 1.055 male(s)/female
65 years and over: 1.105
male(s)/female
total population: 1.053
male(s)/female (2007 est.)
Infant
mortality
rate:
total: 16.13 deaths/1,000 live births
male: 18.82 deaths/1,000 live births
female: 13.29 deaths/1,000 live births
(2007 est.)
Life
expectancy
at birth:
total population: 76.86 years
male: 75.71 years
female: 78.07 years (2007 est.)
Total
fertility
rate:
1.72 children born/woman (2007 est.)
HIV/AIDS - NA
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2326
adult
prevalence
rate:
HIV/AIDS -
people
living with
HIV/AIDS:
NA
HIV/AIDS -
deaths:
NA
Nationality: noun: British Virgin Islander(s)
adjective: British Virgin Islander
Ethnic
groups:
black 83%, other 17% (includes
white, Indian, Asian and mixed)
Religions: Protestant 86% (Methodist 33%,
Anglican 17%, Church of God 9%,
Seventh-Day Adventist 6%, Baptist
4%, Jehovah's Witnesses 2%, other
15%), Roman Catholic 10%, other 2%,
none 2% (1991)
Languages: English (official)
Literacy: definition: age 15 and over can read
and write
total population: 97.8% (1991 est.)
male: NA%
female: NA%
Government British Virgin Islands
Country name: conventional long form: none
conventional short form: British
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2327
Virgin Islands
abbreviation: BVI
Dependency
status:
overseas territory of the UK;
internal self-governing
Government
type:
NA
Capital: name: Road Town
geographic coordinates: 18 27 N,
64 37 W
time difference: UTC-4 (1 hour
ahead of Washington, DC during
Standard Time)
Administrative
divisions:
none (overseas territory of the
UK)
Independence: none (overseas territory of the
UK)
National
holiday:
Territory Day, 1 July (1956)
Constitution: 1 June 1977, amended in 2000
Legal system: English law
Suffrage: 18 years of age; universal
Executive
branch:
chief of state: Queen ELIZABETH
II (since 6 February 1952);
represented by Governor David
PEAREY (since 18 April 2006)
head of government: Chief
Minister Dr. Orlando D. SMITH
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2328
(since 17 June 2003)
cabinet: Executive Council
appointed by the governor from
members of the Legislative
Council
elections: none; the monarch is
hereditary; governor appointed by
the monarch; following legislative
elections, the leader of the
majority party or the leader of the
majority coalition is usually
appointed chief minister by the
governor
Legislative
branch:
unicameral Legislative Council (13
seats; members are elected by
direct popular vote, 1 member
from each of nine electoral
districts, 4 at-large members; to
serve four-year terms)
elections: last held 16 May 2003
(next to be held in 2007)
election results: percent of vote
by party - NA; seats by party - NDP
8, VIP 5
Judicial
branch:
Eastern Caribbean Supreme Court,
consisting of the High Court of
Justice and the Court of Appeal
(one judge of the Supreme Court
is a resident of the islands and
presides over the High Court);
Magistrate's Court; Juvenile
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2329
Court; Court of Summary
Jurisdiction
Political
parties and
leaders:
Concerned Citizens Movement or
CCM [Ethlyn SMITH]; National
Democratic Party or NDP [Orlando
SMITH]; United Party or UP
[Gregory MADURO]; Virgin Islands
Party or VIP [Ralph T. O'NEAL]
Political
pressure
groups and
leaders:
NA
International
organization
participation:
Caricom (associate), CDB, Interpol
(subbureau), IOC, OECS
(associate), UNESCO (associate),
UPU
Diplomatic
representation
in the US:
none (overseas territory of the
UK)
Diplomatic
representation
from the US:
none (overseas territory of the
UK)
Flag
description:
blue, with the flag of the UK in the
upper hoist-side quadrant and the
Virgin Islander coat of arms
centered in the outer half of the
flag; the coat of arms depicts a
woman flanked on either side by a
vertical column of six oil lamps
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2330
above a scroll bearing the Latin
word VIGILATE (Be Watchful)
Economy British Virgin Islands
Economy -
overview:
The economy, one of the most
stable and prosperous in the
Caribbean, is highly dependent on
tourism, generating an estimated
45% of the national income. An
estimated 820,000 tourists,
mainly from the US, visited the
islands in 2005. In the mid-1980s,
the government began offering
offshore registration to
companies wishing to incorporate
in the islands, and incorporation
fees now generate substantial
revenues. Roughly 400,000
companies were on the offshore
registry by yearend 2000. The
adoption of a comprehensive
insurance law in late 1994, which
provides a blanket of
confidentiality with regulated
statutory gateways for
investigation of criminal offenses,
made the British Virgin Islands
even more attractive to
international business. Livestock
raising is the most important
agricultural activity; poor soils
limit the islands' ability to meet
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2331
domestic food requirements.
Because of traditionally close
links with the US Virgin Islands,
the British Virgin Islands has used
the US dollar as its currency
since 1959.
GDP
(purchasing
power parity):
$853.4 million (2004 est.)
GDP (official
exchange
rate):
$839.7 million (2003)
GDP - real
growth rate:
1% (2002 est.)
GDP - per
capita (PPP):
$38,500 (2004 est.)
GDP -
composition
by sector:
agriculture: 1.8%
industry: 6.2%
services: 92% (1996 est.)
Labor force: 12,770 (2004)
Labor force -
by occupation:
agriculture: 0.6%
industry: 40%
services: 59.4% (2005)
Unemployment
rate:
3.6% (1997)
Population
below poverty
line:
NA%
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2332
Household
income or
consumption
by percentage
share:
lowest 10%: NA%
highest 10%: NA%
Inflation rate
(consumer
prices):
2% (2005)
Budget: revenues: $204.7 million
expenditures: $180.4 million;
including capital expenditures of
$33.8 million (2004)
Agriculture -
products:
fruits, vegetables; livestock,
poultry; fish
Industries: tourism, light industry,
construction, rum, concrete
block, offshore financial center
Industrial
production
growth rate:
NA%
Electricity -
production:
42 million kWh (2004)
Electricity -
production by
source:
fossil fuel: 100%
hydro: 0%
nuclear: 0%
other: 0% (2001)
Electricity -
consumption:
39.06 million kWh (2004)
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2333
Electricity -
exports:
0 kWh (2004)
Electricity -
imports:
0 kWh (2004)
Oil -
production:
0 bbl/day (2004)
Oil -
consumption:
480 bbl/day (2004 est.)
Oil - exports: NA bbl/day
Oil - imports: NA bbl/day
Natural gas -
production:
0 cu m (2004 est.)
Natural gas -
consumption:
0 cu m (2004 est.)
Current
account
balance:
$134.3 million (1999)
Exports: $25.3 million (2002)
Exports -
commodities:
rum, fresh fish, fruits, animals;
gravel, sand
Exports -
partners:
Virgin Islands (US), Puerto Rico,
US (2004)
Imports: $187 million (2002 est.)
Imports -
commodities:
building materials, automobiles,
foodstuffs, machinery
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2334
Imports -
partners:
Virgin Islands (US), Puerto Rico,
US (2004)
Debt -
external:
$36.1 million (1997)
Economic aid -
recipient:
$NA
Currency
(code):
US dollar (USD)
Currency
code:
USD
Exchange
rates:
the US dollar is used
Fiscal year: 1 April - 31 March
Communications British Virgin Islands
Telephones
- main lines
in use:
11,700 (2002)
Telephones
- mobile
cellular:
8,000 (2002)
Telephone
system:
general assessment: worldwide
telephone service
domestic: NA
international: country code - 1-284;
submarine cable to Bermuda
Radio
broadcast
AM 1, FM 5, shortwave 0 (2004)
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2335
stations:
Radios: 9,000 (1997)
Television
broadcast
stations:
1 (plus 1 cable company) (1997)
Televisions: 4,000 (1997)
Internet
country
code:
.vg
Internet
hosts:
525 (2006)
Internet
Service
Providers
(ISPs):
16 (2000)
Internet
users:
4,000 (2002)
Transportation British Virgin Islands
Airports: 3 (2006)
Airports -
with
paved
runways:
total: 2
914 to 1,523 m: 1
under 914 m: 1 (2006)
Airports -
with
unpaved
runways:
total: 1
914 to 1,523 m: 1 (2006)
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2336
Roadways: total: 177 km
paved: 177 km (2002)
Merchant
marine:
registered in other countries: 1 (North
Korea 1) (2006)
Ports and
terminals:
Road Town
Military British Virgin Islands
Manpower
available
for
military
service:
males age 18-49: 6,410 (2005 est.)
Manpower
fit for
military
service:
males age 18-49: 5,295 (2005 est.)
Manpower
reaching
military
service
age
annually:
males age 18-49: 201 (2005 est.)
Military -
note:
defense is the responsibility of the UK
Transnational
Issues
British Virgin Islands
Disputes -
international:
none
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2337
Illicit drugs: transshipment point for South
American narcotics destined for
the US and Europe; large offshore
financial center makes it
vulnerable to money laundering
CAYMAN ISLANDS
Introduction Cayman Islands
Background: The Cayman Islands were colonized
from Jamaica by the British during
the 18th and 19th centuries, and
were administered by Jamaica after
1863. In 1959, the islands became a
territory within the Federation of the
West Indies, but when the
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2338
Federation dissolved in 1962, the
Cayman Islands chose to remain a
British dependency.
Geography Cayman Islands
Location: Caribbean, three island (Grand
Cayman, Cayman Brac, Little
Cayman) group in Caribbean Sea,
240 km south of Cuba and 268 km
northwest of Jamaica
Geographic
coordinates:
19 30 N, 80 30 W
Map
references:
Central America and the Caribbean
Area: total: 262 sq km
land: 262 sq km
water: 0 sq km
Area -
comparative:
1.5 times the size of Washington,
DC
Land
boundaries:
0 km
Coastline: 160 km
Maritime
claims:
territorial sea: 12 nm
exclusive fishing zone: 200 nm
Climate: tropical marine; warm, rainy
summers (May to October) and cool,
relatively dry winters (November to
April)
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2339
Terrain: low-lying limestone base
surrounded by coral reefs
Elevation
extremes:
lowest point: Caribbean Sea 0 m
highest point: The Bluff (Cayman
Brac) 43 m
Natural
resources:
fish, climate and beaches that
foster tourism
Land use: arable land: 3.85%
permanent crops: 0%
other: 96.15% (2005)
Irrigated
land:
NA
Natural
hazards:
hurricanes (July to November)
Environment
- current
issues:
no natural fresh water resources;
drinking water supplies must be
met by rainwater catchments
Geography -
note:
important location between Cuba
and Central America
People Cayman Islands
Population: 46,600
note: most of the population lives on
Grand Cayman (July 2007 est.)
Age
structure:
0-14 years: 20.3% (male 4,746/female
4,730)
15-64 years: 71% (male
16,135/female 16,964)
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2340
65 years and over: 8.6% (male
1,892/female 2,133) (2007 est.)
Median
age:
total: 37.5 years
male: 37.1 years
female: 37.9 years (2007 est.)
Population
growth
rate:
2.496% (2007 est.)
Birth rate: 12.6 births/1,000 population (2007
est.)
Death rate: 4.98 deaths/1,000 population (2007
est.)
Net
migration
rate:
17.34 migrant(s)/1,000 population
note: major destination for Cubans
trying to migrate to the US (2007
est.)
Sex ratio: at birth: 1.02 male(s)/female
under 15 years: 1.003 male(s)/female
15-64 years: 0.951 male(s)/female
65 years and over: 0.887
male(s)/female
total population: 0.956
male(s)/female (2007 est.)
Infant
mortality
rate:
total: 7.8 deaths/1,000 live births
male: 8.94 deaths/1,000 live births
female: 6.65 deaths/1,000 live births
(2007 est.)
Life total population: 80.2 years
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2341
expectancy
at birth:
male: 77.57 years
female: 82.87 years (2007 est.)
Total
fertility
rate:
1.89 children born/woman (2007 est.)
HIV/AIDS -
adult
prevalence
rate:
NA
HIV/AIDS -
people
living with
HIV/AIDS:
NA
HIV/AIDS -
deaths:
NA
Nationality: noun: Caymanian(s)
adjective: Caymanian
Ethnic
groups:
mixed 40%, white 20%, black 20%,
expatriates of various ethnic groups
20%
Religions: United Church (Presbyterian and
Congregational), Anglican, Baptist,
Church of God, other Protestant,
Roman Catholic
Languages: English
Literacy: definition: age 15 and over has ever
attended school
total population: 98%
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2342
male: 98%
female: 98% (1970 est.)
Government Cayman Islands
Country name: conventional long form: none
conventional short form: Cayman
Islands
Dependency
status:
overseas territory of the UK
Government
type:
British crown colony
Capital: name: George Town (on Grand
Cayman)
geographic coordinates: 19 20 N,
81 23 W
time difference: UTC-5 (same time
as Washington, DC during
Standard Time)
Administrative
divisions:
8 districts; Creek, Eastern,
Midland, South Town, Spot Bay,
Stake Bay, West End, Western
Independence: none (overseas territory of the
UK)
National
holiday:
Constitution Day, first Monday in
July
Constitution: 1959; revised 1962, 1972, and
1994
Legal system: British common law and local
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2343
statutes
Suffrage: 18 years of age; universal
Executive
branch:
chief of state: Queen ELIZABETH
II (since 6 February 1952);
represented by Governor Stuart
JACK (since 23 November 2005)
head of government: Leader of
Government Business Kurt
TIBBETTS (since 18 May 2005)
cabinet: Executive Council (three
members appointed by the
governor, four members elected
by the Legislative Assembly)
elections: none; the monarch is
hereditary; the governor is
appointed by the monarch;
following legislative elections, the
leader of the majority party or
coalition is appointed by the
governor Leader of Government
Business
Legislative
branch:
unicameral Legislative Assembly
(18 seats; 3 appointed members
from the Executive Council and 15
elected by popular vote; to serve
four-year terms)
elections: last held 11 May 2005
(next to be held in 2009)
election results: percent of vote
by party - NA; seats by party - PPM
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2344
9, UDP 5, independent 1
Judicial
branch:
Summary Court; Grand Court;
Cayman Islands Court of Appeal
Political
parties and
leaders:
United Democratic Party or UDP
[McKeeva BUSH]; People's
Progressive Movement or PPM
[Kurt TIBBETTS]; note - no
national teams (loose groupings of
political organizations) were
formed for the 2000 elections
Political
pressure
groups and
leaders:
NA
International
organization
participation:
Caricom (associate), CDB, Interpol
(subbureau), IOC, UNESCO
(associate), UPU
Diplomatic
representation
in the US:
none (overseas territory of the
UK)
Diplomatic
representation
from the US:
none (overseas territory of the
UK)
Flag
description:
blue, with the flag of the UK in the
upper hoist-side quadrant and the
Caymanian coat of arms centered
on the outer half of the flag; the
coat of arms includes a pineapple
and turtle above a shield with
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2345
three stars (representing the
three islands) and a scroll at the
bottom bearing the motto HE
HATH FOUNDED IT UPON THE
SEAS
Economy Cayman Islands
Economy -
overview:
With no direct taxation, the
islands are a thriving offshore
financial center. More than 68,000
companies were registered in the
Cayman Islands as of 2003,
including almost 500 banks, 800
insurers, and 5,000 mutual funds.
A stock exchange was opened in
1997. Tourism is also a mainstay,
accounting for about 70% of GDP
and 75% of foreign currency
earnings. The tourist industry is
aimed at the luxury market and
caters mainly to visitors from
North America. Total tourist
arrivals exceeded 2.1 million in
2003, with about half from the US.
About 90% of the islands' food
and consumer goods must be
imported. The Caymanians enjoy
one of the highest outputs per
capita and one of the highest
standards of living in the world.
GDP $1.939 billion (2004 est.)
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2346
(purchasing
power parity):
GDP (official
exchange
rate):
NA
GDP - real
growth rate:
0.9% (2004 est.)
GDP - per
capita (PPP):
$43,800 (2004 est.)
GDP -
composition
by sector:
agriculture: 1.4%
industry: 3.2%
services: 95.4% (1994 est.)
Labor force: 23,450 (2004)
Labor force -
by occupation:
agriculture: 1.4%
industry: 12.6%
services: 86% (1995)
Unemployment
rate:
4.4% (2004)
Population
below poverty
line:
NA%
Household
income or
consumption
by percentage
share:
lowest 10%: NA%
highest 10%: NA%
Inflation rate 4.4% (2004)
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2347
(consumer
prices):
Budget: revenues: $423.8 million
expenditures: $392.6 million;
including capital expenditures of
$NA (2004)
Agriculture -
products:
vegetables, fruit; livestock; turtle
farming
Industries: tourism, banking, insurance and
finance, construction,
construction materials, furniture
Industrial
production
growth rate:
NA%
Electricity -
production:
400 million kWh (2004)
Electricity -
production by
source:
fossil fuel: 100%
hydro: 0%
nuclear: 0%
other: 0% (2001)
Electricity -
consumption:
372 million kWh (2004)
Electricity -
exports:
0 kWh (2004)
Electricity -
imports:
0 kWh (2004)
Oil - 0 bbl/day (2004)
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2348
production:
Oil -
consumption:
2,600 bbl/day (2004 est.)
Oil - exports: NA bbl/day
Oil - imports: NA bbl/day
Natural gas -
production:
0 cu m (2004 est.)
Natural gas -
consumption:
0 cu m (2004 est.)
Exports: $2.52 million (2004)
Exports -
commodities:
turtle products, manufactured
consumer goods
Exports -
partners:
mostly US (2004)
Imports: $866.9 million (2004)
Imports -
commodities:
foodstuffs, manufactured goods
Imports -
partners:
US, Netherlands Antilles, Japan
(2004)
Debt -
external:
$70 million (1996)
Economic aid -
recipient:
$390,000 (2004)
Currency
(code):
Caymanian dollar (KYD)
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2349
Currency
code:
KYD
Exchange
rates:
Caymanian dollars per US dollar -
0.8496 (2006)
Fiscal year: 1 April - 31 March
Communications Cayman Islands
Telephones
- main lines
in use:
38,000 (2002)
Telephones
- mobile
cellular:
17,000 (2002)
Telephone
system:
general assessment: reasonably
good system
domestic: liberalization of telecom
market in 2003 reflected in falling
prices and improving services
international: country code - 1-345; 2
submarine fiber optic cables (Maya-
1, Cayman-Jamaica); satellite earth
station - 1 Intelsat (Atlantic Ocean)
Radio
broadcast
stations:
AM 1, FM 4, shortwave 0 (2004)
Radios: 36,000 (1997)
Television
broadcast
stations:
4 with cable system (2004)
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2350
Televisions: 7,000 (1997)
Internet
country
code:
.ky
Internet
hosts:
8,611 (2006)
Internet
Service
Providers
(ISPs):
16 (2000)
Internet
users:
9,909 (2003)
Transportation Cayman Islands
Airports: 3 (2006)
Airports -
with
paved
runways:
total: 2
1,524 to 2,437 m: 2 (2006)
Airports -
with
unpaved
runways:
total: 1
914 to 1,523 m: 1 (2006)
Roadways: total: 785 km
paved: 785 km (2002)
Merchant
marine:
total: 132 ships (1000 GRT or over)
2,746,290 GRT/4,366,790 DWT
by type: bulk carrier 32, cargo 14,
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2351
chemical tanker 42, liquefied gas 1,
passenger 1, petroleum tanker 14,
refrigerated cargo 23, roll on/roll off 3,
specialized tanker 1, vehicle carrier 1
foreign-owned: 130 (Denmark 5,
Germany 13, Greece 21, Italy 12,
Japan 1, Malaysia 1, Netherlands 4,
Norway 2, Philippines 1, Singapore 10,
Sweden 9, UK 10, US 41) (2006)
Ports and
terminals:
Cayman Brac, George Town
Military Cayman Islands
Military
branches:
no regular military forces; Royal
Cayman Islands Police Force
Manpower
available
for
military
service:
males age 18-49: 10,703 (2005 est.)
Manpower
fit for
military
service:
males age 18-49: 8,600 (2005 est.)
Manpower
reaching
military
service
age
annually:
males age 18-49: 257 (2005 est.)
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2352
Military -
note:
defense is the responsibility of the UK
Transnational
Issues
Cayman Islands
Disputes -
international:
none
Illicit drugs: offshore financial center;
vulnerable to drug transshipment to
the US and Europe
COLOMBIA
Introduction Colombia
Background: Colombia was one of the three
countries that emerged from the
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2353
collapse of Gran Colombia in 1830
(the others are Ecuador and
Venezuela). A 40-year conflict
between government forces and
anti-government insurgent groups
and illegal paramilitary groups - both
heavily funded by the drug trade -
escalated during the 1990s. The
insurgents lack the military or
popular support necessary to
overthrow the government, and
violence has been decreasing since
about 2002, but insurgents continue
attacks against civilians and large
swaths of the countryside are under
guerrilla influence. More than 32,000
former paramilitaries had
demobilized by the end of 2006 and
the United Self Defense Forces of
Colombia (AUC) as a formal
organization had largely ceased to
function. Still, some renegades
continued to engage in criminal
activities. The Colombian
Government has stepped up efforts
to reassert government control
throughout the country, and now
has a presence in every one of its
municipalities. However,
neighboring countries worry about
the violence spilling over their
borders.
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2354
Geography Colombia
Location: Northern South America, bordering
the Caribbean Sea, between
Panama and Venezuela, and
bordering the North Pacific Ocean,
between Ecuador and Panama
Geographic
coordinates:
4 00 N, 72 00 W
Map
references:
South America
Area: total: 1,138,910 sq km
land: 1,038,700 sq km
water: 100,210 sq km
note: includes Isla de Malpelo,
Roncador Cay, and Serrana Bank
Area -
comparative:
slightly less than twice the size of
Texas
Land
boundaries:
total: 6,309 km
border countries: Brazil 1,644 km,
Ecuador 590 km, Panama 225 km,
Peru 1,800 km, Venezuela 2,050 km
Coastline: 3,208 km (Caribbean Sea 1,760 km,
North Pacific Ocean 1,448 km)
Maritime
claims:
territorial sea: 12 nm
exclusive economic zone: 200 nm
continental shelf: 200-m depth or to
the depth of exploitation
Climate: tropical along coast and eastern
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2355
plains; cooler in highlands
Terrain: flat coastal lowlands, central
highlands, high Andes Mountains,
eastern lowland plains
Elevation
extremes:
lowest point: Pacific Ocean 0 m
highest point: Pico Cristobal Colon
5,775 m
note: nearby Pico Simon Bolivar
also has the same elevation
Natural
resources:
petroleum, natural gas, coal, iron
ore, nickel, gold, copper, emeralds,
hydropower
Land use: arable land: 2.01%
permanent crops: 1.37%
other: 96.62% (2005)
Irrigated
land:
9,000 sq km (2003)
Natural
hazards:
highlands subject to volcanic
eruptions; occasional earthquakes;
periodic droughts
Environment
- current
issues:
deforestation; soil and water quality
damage from overuse of pesticides;
air pollution, especially in Bogota,
from vehicle emissions
Environment
-
international
agreements:
party to: Antarctic Treaty,
Biodiversity, Climate Change,
Climate Change-Kyoto Protocol,
Desertification, Endangered
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2356
Species, Hazardous Wastes, Marine
Life Conservation, Ozone Layer
Protection, Ship Pollution, Tropical
Timber 83, Tropical Timber 94,
Wetlands
signed, but not ratified: Law of the
Sea
Geography -
note:
only South American country with
coastlines on both the North Pacific
Ocean and Caribbean Sea
People Colombia
Population: 44,379,598 (July 2007 est.)
Age
structure:
0-14 years: 29.8% (male
6,696,471/female 6,539,612)
15-64 years: 64.8% (male
14,012,140/female 14,732,874)
65 years and over: 5.4% (male
1,042,645/female 1,355,856) (2007
est.)
Median
age:
total: 26.6 years
male: 25.6 years
female: 27.5 years (2007 est.)
Population
growth
rate:
1.433% (2007 est.)
Birth rate: 20.16 births/1,000 population (2007
est.)
Death rate: 5.54 deaths/1,000 population (2007
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2357
est.)
Net
migration
rate:
-0.29 migrant(s)/1,000 population
(2007 est.)
Sex ratio: at birth: 1.03 male(s)/female
under 15 years: 1.024 male(s)/female
15-64 years: 0.951 male(s)/female
65 years and over: 0.769
male(s)/female
total population: 0.961
male(s)/female (2007 est.)
Infant
mortality
rate:
total: 20.13 deaths/1,000 live births
male: 23.86 deaths/1,000 live births
female: 16.28 deaths/1,000 live births
(2007 est.)
Life
expectancy
at birth:
total population: 72.27 years
male: 68.44 years
female: 76.24 years (2007 est.)
Total
fertility
rate:
2.51 children born/woman (2007 est.)
HIV/AIDS -
adult
prevalence
rate:
0.7% (2003 est.)
HIV/AIDS -
people
living with
HIV/AIDS:
190,000 (2003 est.)
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2358
HIV/AIDS -
deaths:
3,600 (2003 est.)
Nationality: noun: Colombian(s)
adjective: Colombian
Ethnic
groups:
mestizo 58%, white 20%, mulatto
14%, black 4%, mixed black-
Amerindian 3%, Amerindian 1%
Religions: Roman Catholic 90%, other 10%
Languages: Spanish
Literacy: definition: age 15 and over can read
and write
total population: 92.8%
male: 92.9%
female: 92.7% (2004 est.)
Government Colombia
Country name: conventional long form: Republic
of Colombia
conventional short form: Colombia
local long form: Republica de
Colombia
local short form: Colombia
Government
type:
republic; executive branch
dominates government structure
Capital: name: Bogota
geographic coordinates: 4 36 N,
74 05 W
time difference: UTC-5 (same time
as Washington, DC during
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2359
Standard Time)
Administrative
divisions:
32 departments (departamentos,
singular - departamento) and 1
capital district* (distrito capital);
Amazonas, Antioquia, Arauca,
Atlantico, Bogota*, Bolivar,
Boyaca, Caldas, Caqueta,
Casanare, Cauca, Cesar, Choco,
Cordoba, Cundinamarca, Guainia,
Guaviare, Huila, La Guajira,
Magdalena, Meta, Narino, Norte
de Santander, Putumayo, Quindio,
Risaralda, San Andres y
Providencia, Santander, Sucre,
Tolima, Valle del Cauca, Vaupes,
Vichada
Independence: 20 July 1810 (from Spain)
National
holiday:
Independence Day, 20 July (1810)
Constitution: 5 July 1991; amended many times
Legal system: based on Spanish law; a new
criminal code modeled after US
procedures was enacted into law
in 2004 and is gradually being
implemented; judicial review of
executive and legislative acts
Suffrage: 18 years of age; universal
Executive
branch:
chief of state: President Alvaro
URIBE Velez (since 7 August
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2360
2002); Vice President Francisco
SANTOS (since 7 August 2002);
note - the president is both the
chief of state and head of
government
head of government: President
Alvaro URIBE Velez (since 7
August 2002); Vice President
Francisco SANTOS (since 7
August 2002)
cabinet: Cabinet consists of a
coalition of the three largest
parties that supported President
URIBE's reelection - the PSUN,
PC, and CR - and independents
elections: president and vice
president elected by popular vote
for a four-year term (eligible for a
second term); election last held
28 May 2006 (next to be held in
May 2010)
election results: President Alvaro
URIBE Velez reelected president;
percent of vote - Alvaro URIBE
Velez 62%, Carlos GAVIRIA Diaz
22%, Horacio SERPA Uribe 12%,
other 4%
Legislative
branch:
bicameral Congress or Congreso
consists of the Senate or Senado
(102 seats; members are elected
by popular vote to serve four-year
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2361
terms) and the House of
Representatives or Camara de
Representantes (166 seats;
members are elected by popular
vote to serve four-year terms)
elections: Senate - last held 12
March 2006 (next to be held in
March 2010); House of
Representatives - last held 12
March 2006 (next to be held in
March 2010)
election results: Senate - percent
of vote by party - NA; seats by
party - PSUN 20, PC 18, PL 18, CR
15, PDI 10, other parties 21;
House of Representatives -
percent of vote by party - NA;
seats by party - PL 35, PSUN 33,
PC 29, CR 20, PDA 8, other parties
41
Judicial
branch:
four roughly coequal, supreme
judicial organs; Supreme Court of
Justice or Corte Suprema de
Justicia (highest court of criminal
law; judges are selected by their
peers from the nominees of the
Superior Judicial Council for
eight-year terms); Council of State
(highest court of administrative
law; judges are selected from the
nominees of the Superior Judicial
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2362
Council for eight-year terms);
Constitutional Court (guards
integrity and supremacy of the
constitution; rules on
constitutionality of laws,
amendments to the constitution,
and international treaties);
Superior Judicial Council
(administers and disciplines the
civilian judiciary; resolves
jurisdictional conflicts arising
between other courts; members
are elected by three sister courts
and Congress for eight-year
terms)
Political
parties and
leaders:
Colombian Conservative Party or
PC [Julio MANZUR Abdala];
Alternative Democratic Pole or
PDA [Carlos GAVIRIA Diaz];
Liberal Party or PL [Cesar
GAVIRIA Trujillo]; Social National
Unity Party or PSUN [Carlos
GARCIA Orjuela]; Radical Change
or CR [German VARGAS Lleras]
note: Colombia has 15 formally
recognized political parties, and
numerous unofficial parties that
did not meet the vote threshold in
the March 2006 legislative
elections required for recognition
Political two largest insurgent groups
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2363
pressure
groups and
leaders:
active in Colombia - Revolutionary
Armed Forces of Colombia or
FARC and National Liberation
Army or ELN
International
organization
participation:
BCIE, CAN, CDB, CSN, FAO, G-3,
G-15, G-24, G-77, IADB, IAEA,
IBRD, ICAO, ICC, ICCt, ICRM, IDA,
IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, IHO, ILO, IMF,
IMO, Interpol, IOC, IOM, IPU, ISO,
ITU, ITUC, LAES, LAIA, Mercosur
(associate), MIGA, NAM, OAS,
OPANAL, OPCW, PCA, RG, UN,
UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNHCR,
UNIDO, UNWTO, UPU, WCL, WCO,
WFTU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WTO
Diplomatic
representation
in the US:
chief of mission: Ambassador
Carolina BARCO Isakson
chancery: 2118 Leroy Place NW,
Washington, DC 20008
telephone: [1] (202) 387-8338
FAX: [1] (202) 232-8643
consulate(s) general: Atlanta,
Boston, Chicago, Houston, Los
Angeles, Miami, New York, San
Francisco, San Juan (Puerto Rico),
Washington, DC
Diplomatic
representation
from the US:
chief of mission: Ambassador
William B. WOOD
embassy: Calle 22D-BIS, numbers
47-51, Apartado Aereo 3831
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2364
mailing address: Carrera 45 #22D-
45, Bogota, D.C., APO AA 34038
telephone: [57] (1) 315-0811
FAX: [57] (1) 315-2197
Flag
description:
three horizontal bands of yellow
(top, double-width), blue, and red;
similar to the flag of Ecuador,
which is longer and bears the
Ecuadorian coat of arms
superimposed in the center
Economy Colombia
Economy -
overview:
Colombia's economy has
experienced positive growth over
the past three years despite a
serious armed conflict. The
economy continues to improve in
part because of austere
government budgets, focused
efforts to reduce public debt
levels, an export-oriented growth
strategy, an improved security
situation in the country, and high
commodity prices. Ongoing
economic problems facing
President URIBE range from
reforming the pension system to
reducing high unemployment, and
to achieving congressional
passage of a fiscal transfers
reform; furthermore, new
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exploration is needed to offset
declining oil production. However,
the government's economic
policy, democratic security
strategy, and the signing of a free
trade agreement with the US have
engendered a growing sense of
confidence in the economy,
particularly within the business
sector.
GDP
(purchasing
power parity):
$374.4 billion (2006 est.)
GDP (official
exchange
rate):
$106.8 billion (2006 est.)
GDP - real
growth rate:
6.8% (2006 est.)
GDP - per
capita (PPP):
$8,600 (2006 est.)
GDP -
composition
by sector:
agriculture: 12%
industry: 35.2%
services: 52.7% (2006 est.)
Labor force: 20.81 million (2006 est.)
Labor force -
by occupation:
agriculture: 22.7%
industry: 18.7%
services: 58.5% (2000 est.)
Unemployment 11.1% (2006 est.)
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rate:
Population
below poverty
line:
49.2% (2005)
Household
income or
consumption
by percentage
share:
lowest 10%: 7.9%
highest 10%: 34.3% (2004)
Distribution of
family income
- Gini index:
53.8 (2005)
Inflation rate
(consumer
prices):
4.3% (2006 est.)
Investment
(gross fixed):
22.8% of GDP (2006 est.)
Budget: revenues: $50.7 billion
expenditures: $52.29 billion;
including capital expenditures of
$NA (2006 est.)
Public debt: 45.3% of GDP (2006 est.)
Agriculture -
products:
coffee, cut flowers, bananas, rice,
tobacco, corn, sugarcane, cocoa
beans, oilseed, vegetables; forest
products; shrimp
Industries: textiles, food processing, oil,
clothing and footwear, beverages,
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2367
chemicals, cement; gold, coal,
emeralds
Industrial
production
growth rate:
5.8% (2006 est.)
Electricity -
production:
46.93 billion kWh (2004)
Electricity -
production by
source:
fossil fuel: 26%
hydro: 72.7%
nuclear: 0%
other: 1.3% (2001)
Electricity -
consumption:
42.01 billion kWh (2004)
Electricity -
exports:
1.682 billion kWh (2004)
Electricity -
imports:
48 million kWh (2004)
Oil -
production:
512,400 bbl/day (2005 est.)
Oil -
consumption:
269,000 bbl/day (2004 est.)
Oil - exports: NA bbl/day
Oil - imports: NA bbl/day
Oil - proved
reserves:
1.282 billion bbl (2006 est.)
Natural gas - 6.18 billion cu m (2004 est.)
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production:
Natural gas -
consumption:
6.18 billion cu m (2004 est.)
Natural gas -
exports:
0 cu m (2004 est.)
Natural gas -
imports:
0 cu m (2004 est.)
Natural gas -
proved
reserves:
114.4 billion cu m (1 January 2005
est.)
Current
account
balance:
-$2.219 billion (2006 est.)
Exports: $24.86 billion f.o.b. (2006 est.)
Exports -
commodities:
petroleum, coffee, coal, nickel,
emeralds, apparel, bananas, cut
flowers
Exports -
partners:
US 41.8%, Venezuela 9.9%,
Ecuador 6.3% (2005)
Imports: $24.33 billion f.o.b. (2006 est.)
Imports -
commodities:
industrial equipment,
transportation equipment,
consumer goods, chemicals,
paper products, fuels, electricity
Imports -
partners:
US 28.5%, Mexico 8.3%, China
7.6%, Brazil 6.5%, Venezuela 5.7%
(2005)
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Reserves of
foreign
exchange and
gold:
$16.5 billion (2006 est.)
Debt -
external:
$37.21 billion (30 June 2006 est.)
Economic aid -
recipient:
$NA
Currency
(code):
Colombian peso (COP)
Currency
code:
COP
Exchange
rates:
Colombian pesos per US dollar -
2,358.6 (2006), 2,320.75 (2005),
2,628.61 (2004), 2,877.65 (2003),
2,504.24 (2002)
Fiscal year: calendar year
Communications Colombia
Telephones
- main lines
in use:
7,678,800 (2005)
Telephones
- mobile
cellular:
21.85 million (2005)
Telephone
system:
general assessment: modern system
in many respects
domestic: nationwide microwave
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2370
radio relay system; domestic
satellite system with 41 earth
stations; fiber-optic network linking
50 cities
international: country code - 57;
satellite earth stations - 6 Intelsat, 1
Inmarsat; 3 fully digitalized
international switching centers; 8
submarine cables
Radio
broadcast
stations:
AM 454, FM 34, shortwave 27 (1999)
Radios: 21 million (1997)
Television
broadcast
stations:
60 (1997)
Televisions: 4.59 million (1997)
Internet
country
code:
.co
Internet
hosts:
581,877 (2006)
Internet
Service
Providers
(ISPs):
18 (2000)
Internet
users:
4.739 million (2005)
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2371
Transportation Colombia
Airports: 984 (2006)
Airports -
with paved
runways:
total: 101
over 3,047 m: 2
2,438 to 3,047 m: 9
1,524 to 2,437 m: 38
914 to 1,523 m: 40
under 914 m: 12 (2006)
Airports -
with
unpaved
runways:
total: 883
over 3,047 m: 1
1,524 to 2,437 m: 35
914 to 1,523 m: 275
under 914 m: 572 (2006)
Heliports: 2 (2006)
Pipelines: gas 4,360 km; oil 6,140 km; refined
products 3,158 km (2006)
Railways: total: 3,304 km
standard gauge: 150 km 1.435-m
gauge
narrow gauge: 3,154 km 0.914-m
gauge (2005)
Roadways: total: 112,988 km
paved: 16,270 km
unpaved: 96,718 km (2004)
Waterways: 18,000 km (2005)
Merchant
marine:
total: 17 ships (1000 GRT or over)
42,413 GRT/58,737 DWT
by type: cargo 13, liquefied gas 1,
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2372
petroleum tanker 3
registered in other countries: 7
(Antigua and Barbuda 2, Panama 5)
(2006)
Ports and
terminals:
Barranquilla, Buenaventura,
Cartagena, Muelles El Bosque, Puerto
Bolivar, Santa Marta, Turbo
Military Colombia
Military
branches:
Army (Ejercito Nacional), National
Navy (Armada Nacional, includes
naval aviation, naval infantry, and
coast guard), Colombian Air Force
(Fuerza Aerea de Colombia, FAC)
(2006)
Military
service age
and
obligation:
18 years of age for compulsory and
voluntary military service; conscript
service obligation - 24 months
(2004)
Manpower
available for
military
service:
males age 18-49: 10,212,456
females age 18-49: 10,561,562
(2005 est.)
Manpower fit
for military
service:
males age 18-49: 6,986,228
females age 18-49: 8,794,465 (2005
est.)
Manpower
reaching
military
males age 18-49: 389,735
females age 18-49: 383,146 (2005
est.)
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2373
service age
annually:
Military
expenditures
- percent of
GDP:
3.4% (2005 est.)
Transnational
Issues
Colombia
Disputes -
international:
memorials and countermemorials
were filed by the parties in
Nicaragua's 1999 and 2001
proceedings against Honduras and
Colombia at the ICJ over the
maritime boundary and territorial
claims in the western Caribbean
Sea - final public hearings are
scheduled for 2007; dispute with
Venezuela over maritime boundary
and Venezuelan-administered Los
Monjes Islands near the Gulf of
Venezuela; Colombian-organized
illegal narcotics, guerrilla, and
paramilitary activities penetrate all
of its neighbors' borders and have
caused over 300,000 persons to
flee the country, mostly into
neighboring states
Refugees
and
internally
IDPs: 1.8-3.8 million (conflict
between government and illegal
armed groups and FARC factions;
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2374
displaced
persons:
drug wars) (2006)
Illicit drugs: illicit producer of coca, opium
poppy, and cannabis; world's
leading coca cultivator with
144,000 hectares in coca
cultivation in 2005, a 26% increase
over 2004, producing a potential of
545 mt of pure cocaine; the world's
largest producer of coca
derivatives; supplies cocaine to
most of the US market and the
great majority of other international
drug markets; in 2005, aerial
eradication dispensed herbicide to
treat over 130,000 hectares but
aggressive replanting on the part of
coca growers means Colombia
remains a key producer; a
significant portion of non-US
narcotics proceeds are either
laundered or invested in Colombia
through the black market peso
exchange; important supplier of
heroin to the US market; opium
poppy cultivation fell 50% between
2003 and 2004 to 2,100 hectares
yielding a potential 3.8 metric tons
of pure heroin, mostly for the US
market; no poppy estimate was
conducted in 2005
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2375
COSTA RICA
Introduction Costa Rica
Background: Although explored by the Spanish
early in the 16th century, initial
attempts at colonizing Costa Rica
proved unsuccessful due to a
combination of factors, including:
disease from mosquito-infested
swamps, brutal heat, resistance by
natives, and pirate raids. It was not
until 1563 that a permanent
settlement of Cartago was
established in the cooler, fertile
central highlands. The area
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2376
remained a colony for some two and
a half centuries. In 1821, Costa Rica
became one of several Central
American provinces that jointly
declared their independence from
Spain. Two years later it joined the
United Provinces of Central
America, but this federation
disintegrated in 1838, at which time
Costa Rica proclaimed its
sovereignty and independence.
Since the late 19th century, only
two brief periods of violence have
marred the country's democratic
development. Although it still
maintains a large agricultural
sector, Costa Rica has expanded its
economy to include strong
technology and tourism industries.
The standard of living is relatively
high. Land ownership is widespread.
Geography Costa Rica
Location: Central America, bordering both the
Caribbean Sea and the North
Pacific Ocean, between Nicaragua
and Panama
Geographic
coordinates:
10 00 N, 84 00 W
Map
references:
Central America and the Caribbean
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Area: total: 51,100 sq km
land: 50,660 sq km
water: 440 sq km
note: includes Isla del Coco
Area -
comparative:
slightly smaller than West Virginia
Land
boundaries:
total: 639 km
border countries: Nicaragua 309
km, Panama 330 km
Coastline: 1,290 km
Maritime
claims:
territorial sea: 12 nm
exclusive economic zone: 200 nm
continental shelf: 200 nm
Climate: tropical and subtropical; dry season
(December to April); rainy season
(May to November); cooler in
highlands
Terrain: coastal plains separated by rugged
mountains including over 100
volcanic cones, of which several
are major volcanoes
Elevation
extremes:
lowest point: Pacific Ocean 0 m
highest point: Cerro Chirripo 3,810
m
Natural
resources:
hydropower
Land use: arable land: 4.4%
permanent crops: 5.87%
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2378
other: 89.73% (2005)
Irrigated
land:
1,080 sq km (2003)
Natural
hazards:
occasional earthquakes, hurricanes
along Atlantic coast; frequent
flooding of lowlands at onset of
rainy season and landslides; active
volcanoes
Environment
- current
issues:
deforestation and land use change,
largely a result of the clearing of
land for cattle ranching and
agriculture; soil erosion; coastal
marine pollution; fisheries
protection; solid waste
management; air pollution
Environment
-
international
agreements:
party to: Biodiversity, Climate
Change, Climate Change-Kyoto
Protocol, Desertification,
Endangered Species, Environmental
Modification, Hazardous Wastes,
Law of the Sea, Marine Dumping,
Ozone Layer Protection, Wetlands,
Whaling
signed, but not ratified: Marine Life
Conservation
Geography -
note:
four volcanoes, two of them active,
rise near the capital of San Jose in
the center of the country; one of the
volcanoes, Irazu, erupted
destructively in 1963-65
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People Costa Rica
Population: 4,133,884 (July 2007 est.)
Age
structure:
0-14 years: 27.8% (male
587,395/female 560,408)
15-64 years: 66.4% (male
1,388,114/female 1,357,157)
65 years and over: 5.8% (male
111,758/female 129,052) (2007 est.)
Median
age:
total: 26.8 years
male: 26.3 years
female: 27.2 years (2007 est.)
Population
growth
rate:
1.412% (2007 est.)
Birth rate: 18.02 births/1,000 population (2007
est.)
Death rate: 4.39 deaths/1,000 population (2007
est.)
Net
migration
rate:
0.48 migrant(s)/1,000 population
(2007 est.)
Sex ratio: at birth: 1.05 male(s)/female
under 15 years: 1.048 male(s)/female
15-64 years: 1.023 male(s)/female
65 years and over: 0.866
male(s)/female
total population: 1.02 male(s)/female
(2007 est.)
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2380
Infant
mortality
rate:
total: 9.45 deaths/1,000 live births
male: 10.32 deaths/1,000 live births
female: 8.53 deaths/1,000 live births
(2007 est.)
Life
expectancy
at birth:
total population: 77.21 years
male: 74.61 years
female: 79.94 years (2007 est.)
Total
fertility
rate:
2.21 children born/woman (2007 est.)
HIV/AIDS -
adult
prevalence
rate:
0.6% (2003 est.)
HIV/AIDS -
people
living with
HIV/AIDS:
12,000 (2003 est.)
HIV/AIDS -
deaths:
900 (2003 est.)
Nationality: noun: Costa Rican(s)
adjective: Costa Rican
Ethnic
groups:
white (including mestizo) 94%, black
3%, Amerindian 1%, Chinese 1%,
other 1%
Religions: Roman Catholic 76.3%, Evangelical
13.7%, Jehovah's Witnesses 1.3%,
other Protestant 0.7%, other 4.8%,
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2381
none 3.2%
Languages: Spanish (official), English
Literacy: definition: age 15 and over can read
and write
total population: 96%
male: 95.9%
female: 96.1% (2003 est.)
Government Costa Rica
Country name: conventional long form: Republic
of Costa Rica
conventional short form: Costa
Rica
local long form: Republica de
Costa Rica
local short form: Costa Rica
Government
type:
democratic republic
Capital: name: San Jose
geographic coordinates: 9 56 N,
84 05 W
time difference: UTC-6 (1 hour
behind Washington, DC during
Standard Time)
Administrative
divisions:
7 provinces (provincias, singular -
provincia); Alajuela, Cartago,
Guanacaste, Heredia, Limon,
Puntarenas, San Jose
Independence: 15 September 1821 (from Spain)
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2382
National
holiday:
Independence Day, 15 September
(1821)
Constitution: 7 November 1949
Legal system: based on Spanish civil law
system; judicial review of
legislative acts in the Supreme
Court; has accepted compulsory
ICJ jurisdiction
Suffrage: 18 years of age; universal and
compulsory
Executive
branch:
chief of state: President Oscar
ARIAS Sanchez (since 8 May
2006); First Vice President Laura
CHINCHILLA (since 8 May 2006);
Second Vice President Kevin
CASAS Zamora (since 8 May
2006); note - the president is both
the chief of state and head of
government
head of government: President
Oscar ARIAS Sanchez (since 8
May 2006); First Vice President
Laura CHINCHILLA (since 8 May
2006); Second Vice President
Kevin CASAS Zamora (since 8 May
2006)
cabinet: Cabinet selected by the
president
elections: president and vice
presidents elected on the same
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2383
ticket by popular vote for a single
four-year term; election last held 5
February 2006 (next to be held in
February 2010)
election results: Oscar ARIAS
Sanchez elected president;
percent of vote - Oscar ARIAS
Sanchez (PLN) 40.9%; Otton
SOLIS (PAC) 39.8%, Otto
GUEVARA Guth (PML) 8%, Ricardo
TOLEDO (PUSC) 3%
Legislative
branch:
unicameral Legislative Assembly
or Asamblea Legislativa (57 seats;
members are elected by direct,
popular vote to serve four-year
terms)
elections: last held 5 February
2006 (next to be held in February
2010)
election results: percent of vote
by party - NA; seats by party - PLN
25, PAC 17, PML 6, PUSC 5, other
4
Judicial
branch:
Supreme Court or Corte Suprema
(22 justices are elected for eight-
year terms by the Legislative
Assembly)
Political
parties and
leaders:
Authentic Member from Heredia
[Jose SALAS]; Citizen Action Party
or PAC [Otton SOLIS]; Costa Rican
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Renovation Party or PRC [Gerardo
Justo OROZCO Alvarez];
Democratic Force Party or PFD
[Vladimir DE LA CRUZ]; General
Union Party or PUGEN [Carlos
Alberto FERNANDEZ Vega];
Homeland First or PP [Juan Jose
VARGAS Fallas]; Independent
Worker Party or PIO [Jose Alberto
CUBERO Carmona]; Libertarian
Movement Party or PML [Otto
GUEVARA Guth]; National
Christian Alliance Party or ANC
[Juan Carlos CHAVEZ Mora];
National Integration Party or PIN
[Walter MUNOZ Cespedes];
National Liberation Party or PLN
[Francisco Antonio PACHECO];
National Patriotic Party or PPN
[Daniel Enrique REYNOLDS
Vargas]; National Restoration
Party or PRN [Carlos AVENDANO];
Nationalist Democratic Alliance or
ADN [Jose Miguel VILLALOBOS
Umana]; Patriotic Union or UP
[Humberto ARCE Salas]; Social
Christian Unity Party or PUSC
[Luis FILMAN]; Union for Change
Party or UPC [Antonio ALVAREZ
Desanti]; United Leftist Coalition
or IU [Humberto VARGAS
Carbonel]
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Political
pressure
groups and
leaders:
Authentic Confederation of
Democratic Workers or CATD
(Communist Party affiliate);
Chamber of Coffee Growers;
Confederated Union of Workers or
CUT (Communist Party affiliate);
Costa Rican Confederation of
Democratic Workers or CCTD
(Liberation Party affiliate); Costa
Rican Exporter's Chamber or
CADEXCO; Costa Rican Solidarity
Movement; Costa Rican Union of
Private Sector Enterprises or
UCCAEP [Rafael CARRILLO];
Federation of Public Service
Workers or FTSP; National
Association for Economic
Development or ANFE; National
Association of Educators or ANDE;
National Association of Public and
Private Employees or ANEP
[Albino VARGAS]; Rerum Novarum
or CTRN (PLN affiliate) [Gilbert
BROWN]
International
organization
participation:
BCIE, CACM, FAO, G-77, IADB,
IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, ICC, ICCt,
ICRM, IDA, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, ILO,
IMF, IMO, Interpol, IOC, IOM, IPU,
ISO, ITU, ITUC, LAES, LAIA
(observer), MIGA, NAM (observer),
OAS, OPANAL, OPCW, PCA, RG,
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UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO,
UNWTO, UPU, WCL, WCO, WFTU,
WHO, WIPO, WMO, WTO
Diplomatic
representation
in the US:
chief of mission: Ambassador
Tomas DUENAS
chancery: 2114 S Street NW,
Washington, DC 20008
telephone: [1] (202) 234-2945
FAX: [1] (202) 265-4795
consulate(s) general: Atlanta,
Chicago, Hammond (temporary
location in Louisiana), Houston,
Los Angeles, Miami, New York,
San Juan (Puerto Rico), Tampa
(temporarily closed), Washington,
DC
consulate(s): San Francisco
Diplomatic
representation
from the US:
chief of mission: Ambassador
Mark LANGDALE
embassy: Calle 120 Avenida O,
Pavas, San Jose
mailing address: APO AA 34020
telephone: [506] 519-2000
FAX: [506] 519-2305
Flag
description:
five horizontal bands of blue (top),
white, red (double width), white,
and blue, with the coat of arms in
a white elliptical disk on the hoist
side of the red band; above the
coat of arms a light blue ribbon
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2387
contains the words, AMERICA
CENTRAL, and just below it near
the top of the coat of arms is a
white ribbon with the words,
REPUBLICA COSTA RICA
Economy Costa Rica
Economy -
overview:
Costa Rica's basically stable
economy depends on tourism,
agriculture, and electronics
exports. Poverty has remained at
roughly 20% for nearly 20 years,
and the strong social safety net
that had been put into place by
the government has eroded due to
increased financial constraints on
government expenditures.
Immigration from Nicaragua has
increasingly become a concern
for the government. The
estimated 300,000-500,000
Nicaraguans estimated to be in
Costa Rica legally and illegally
are an important source of
(mostly unskilled) labor, but also
place heavy demands on the
social welfare system. Foreign
investors remain attracted by the
country's political stability and
high education levels, and tourism
continues to bring in foreign
exchange. The government
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2388
continues to grapple with its large
internal and external deficits and
sizable internal debt. Reducing
inflation remains a difficult
problem because of rising import
prices, labor market rigidities,
and fiscal deficits. The country
also needs to reform its tax
system and its pattern of public
expenditure. The current
administration has made it a
priority to pass the necessary
reforms to implement the US-
Central American Free Trade
Agreement (CAFTA). CAFTA
implementation would result in an
improved investment climate.
GDP
(purchasing
power parity):
$50.89 billion (2006 est.)
GDP (official
exchange
rate):
$21.39 billion (2006 est.)
GDP - real
growth rate:
7.9% (2006 est.)
GDP - per
capita (PPP):
$12,500 (2006 est.)
GDP -
composition
by sector:
agriculture: 8.6%
industry: 31%
services: 60.4% (2006 est.)
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Labor force: 1.866 million
note: this official estimate
excludes Nicaraguans living in
Costa Rica legally and illegally
(2006 est.)
Labor force -
by occupation:
agriculture: 20%
industry: 22%
services: 58% (1999 est.)
Unemployment
rate:
6.6% (2006 est.)
Population
below poverty
line:
18% (2004 est.)
Household
income or
consumption
by percentage
share:
lowest 10%: 1.1%
highest 10%: 36.8% (2002)
Distribution of
family income
- Gini index:
46.5 (2000)
Inflation rate
(consumer
prices):
12.1% (2006 est.)
Investment
(gross fixed):
19.4% of GDP (2006 est.)
Budget: revenues: $3.134 billion
expenditures: $3.475 billion;
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including capital expenditures of
$NA (2006 est.)
Public debt: 53.4% of GDP (2006 est.)
Agriculture -
products:
bananas, pineapples, coffee,
melons, ornamental plants, sugar,
corn, rice, beans, potatoes; beef;
timber
Industries: microprocessors, food
processing, textiles and clothing,
construction materials, fertilizer,
plastic products
Industrial
production
growth rate:
8.4% (2006 est.)
Electricity -
production:
8.4 billion kWh (2004)
Electricity -
production by
source:
fossil fuel: 1.5%
hydro: 81.9%
nuclear: 0%
other: 16.6% (2001)
Electricity -
consumption:
7.574 billion kWh (2004)
Electricity -
exports:
440 million kWh (2004)
Electricity -
imports:
202 million kWh (2004)
Oil - 0 bbl/day (2004)
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2391
production:
Oil -
consumption:
44,000 bbl/day (2004 est.)
Oil - exports: NA bbl/day
Oil - imports: NA bbl/day
Natural gas -
production:
0 cu m (2004 est.)
Natural gas -
consumption:
0 cu m (2004 est.)
Current
account
balance:
-$1.176 billion (2006 est.)
Exports: $7.931 billion (2006 est.)
Exports -
commodities:
bananas, pineapples, coffee,
melons, ornamental plants, sugar;
textiles, electronic components,
medical equipment
Exports -
partners:
US 42.6%, Hong Kong 6.9%,
Netherlands 6.4%, Guatemala
4.2% (2005)
Imports: $10.88 billion (2006 est.)
Imports -
commodities:
raw materials, consumer goods,
capital equipment, petroleum
Imports -
partners:
US 41.3%, Japan 5.6%, Venezuela
4.8%, Mexico 4.8%, Ireland 4.3%,
Brazil 4.2%, China 4.2% (2005)
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2392
Reserves of
foreign
exchange and
gold:
$2.5 billion (2006 est.)
Debt -
external:
$6.42 billion (30 June 2006 est.)
Currency
(code):
Costa Rican colon (CRC)
Currency
code:
CRC
Exchange
rates:
Costa Rican colones per US dollar
- 511.3 (2006), 477.79 (2005),
437.91 (2004), 398.66 (2003),
359.82 (2002)
Fiscal year: calendar year
Communications Costa Rica
Telephones
- main lines
in use:
1.388 million (2005)
Telephones
- mobile
cellular:
1.101 million (2005)
Telephone
system:
general assessment: the parastatal
monopoly provides good domestic
telephone service in terms of
breadth of coverage; restricted
cellular telephone service
domestic: point-to-point and point-to-
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multi-point microwave, fiber-optic,
and coaxial cable link rural areas;
Internet service is available
international: country code - 506;
connected to Central American
Microwave System; satellite earth
stations - 2 Intelsat (Atlantic Ocean);
2 submarine cables (2006)
Radio
broadcast
stations:
AM 65, FM 51, shortwave 19 (2002)
Radios: 980,000 (1997)
Television
broadcast
stations:
20 (plus 43 repeaters) (2002)
Televisions: 525,000 (1997)
Internet
country
code:
.cr
Internet
hosts:
12,751 (2006)
Internet
Service
Providers
(ISPs):
3 (of which only one is legal) (2000)
Internet
users:
1 million (2005)
Transportation Costa Rica
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Airports: 157 (2006)
Airports -
with paved
runways:
total: 32
2,438 to 3,047 m: 2
1,524 to 2,437 m: 2
914 to 1,523 m: 19
under 914 m: 9 (2006)
Airports -
with
unpaved
runways:
total: 125
914 to 1,523 m: 24
under 914 m: 101 (2006)
Pipelines: refined products 242 km (2006)
Railways: total: 278 km
narrow gauge: 278 km 1.067-m gauge
note: none of the railway network is
in use (2007)
Roadways: total: 35,330 km
paved: 8,621 km
unpaved: 26,709 km (2004)
Waterways: 730 km (seasonally navigable by
small craft) (2005)
Merchant
marine:
total: 2 ships (1000 GRT or over)
2,308 GRT/743 DWT
by type: passenger/cargo 2 (2006)
Ports and
terminals:
Caldera, Puerto Limon
Military Costa Rica
Military no regular military forces; Ministry
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branches: of Public Security, Government, and
Police (2006)
Military
service age
and
obligation:
18 years of age (2004)
Manpower
available for
military
service:
males age 18-49: 997,690
females age 18-49: 968,290 (2005
est.)
Manpower fit
for military
service:
males age 18-49: 829,874
females age 18-49: 809,343 (2005
est.)
Manpower
reaching
military
service age
annually:
males age 18-49: 41,097
females age 18-49: 39,243
Military
expenditures
- percent of
GDP:
0.4% (2006)
Transnational
Issues
Costa Rica
Disputes -
international:
in September 2005, Costa Rica took
its case before the ICJ to advocate
the navigation, security, and
commercial rights of Costa Rican
vessels using the Ro San Juan
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over which Nicaragua retains
sovereignty
Refugees
and
internally
displaced
persons:
refugees (country of origin): 9,470
(Colombia) (2006)
Illicit drugs: transshipment country for cocaine
and heroin from South America;
illicit production of cannabis in
remote areas; domestic cocaine
consumption, particularly crack
cocaine, is rising; significant
consumption of amphetamines
DOMINICA
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Introduction Dominica
Background: Dominica was the last of the
Caribbean islands to be colonized by
Europeans due chiefly to the fierce
resistance of the native Caribs.
France ceded possession to Great
Britain in 1763, which made the
island a colony in 1805. In 1980, two
years after independence,
Dominica's fortunes improved when
a corrupt and tyrannical
administration was replaced by that
of Mary Eugenia CHARLES, the first
female prime minister in the
Caribbean, who remained in office
for 15 years. Some 3,000 Carib
Indians still living on Dominica are
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the only pre-Columbian population
remaining in the eastern Caribbean.
Geography Dominica
Location: Caribbean, island between the
Caribbean Sea and the North
Atlantic Ocean, about one-half of
the way from Puerto Rico to
Trinidad and Tobago
Geographic
coordinates:
15 25 N, 61 20 W
Map
references:
Central America and the Caribbean
Area: total: 754 sq km
land: 754 sq km
water: 0 sq km
Area -
comparative:
slightly more than four times the
size of Washington, DC
Land
boundaries:
0 km
Coastline: 148 km
Maritime
claims:
territorial sea: 12 nm
contiguous zone: 24 nm
exclusive economic zone: 200 nm
Climate: tropical; moderated by northeast
trade winds; heavy rainfall
Terrain: rugged mountains of volcanic origin
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Elevation
extremes:
lowest point: Caribbean Sea 0 m
highest point: Morne Diablatins
1,447 m
Natural
resources:
timber, hydropower, arable land
Land use: arable land: 6.67%
permanent crops: 21.33%
other: 72% (2005)
Irrigated
land:
NA
Natural
hazards:
flash floods are a constant threat;
destructive hurricanes can be
expected during the late summer
months
Environment
- current
issues:
NA
Environment
-
international
agreements:
party to: Biodiversity, Climate
Change, Climate Change-Kyoto
Protocol, Desertification,
Endangered Species, Environmental
Modification, Hazardous Wastes,
Law of the Sea, Ozone Layer
Protection, Ship Pollution, Whaling
signed, but not ratified: none of the
selected agreements
Geography -
note:
known as "The Nature Island of the
Caribbean" due to its spectacular,
lush, and varied flora and fauna,
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which are protected by an
extensive natural park system; the
most mountainous of the Lesser
Antilles, its volcanic peaks are
cones of lava craters and include
Boiling Lake, the second-largest,
thermally active lake in the world
People Dominica
Population: 72,386 (July 2007 est.)
Age
structure:
0-14 years: 25.6% (male 9,481/female
9,048)
15-64 years: 64.2% (male
23,822/female 22,656)
65 years and over: 10.2% (male
3,165/female 4,214) (2007 est.)
Median
age:
total: 29.1 years
male: 28.7 years
female: 29.6 years (2007 est.)
Population
growth
rate:
0.184% (2007 est.)
Birth rate: 15.75 births/1,000 population (2007
est.)
Death rate: 8.44 deaths/1,000 population (2007
est.)
Net
migration
rate:
-5.47 migrant(s)/1,000 population
(2007 est.)
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Sex ratio: at birth: 1.05 male(s)/female
under 15 years: 1.048 male(s)/female
15-64 years: 1.051 male(s)/female
65 years and over: 0.751
male(s)/female
total population: 1.015
male(s)/female (2007 est.)
Infant
mortality
rate:
total: 14.61 deaths/1,000 live births
male: 19.68 deaths/1,000 live births
female: 9.29 deaths/1,000 live births
(2007 est.)
Life
expectancy
at birth:
total population: 75.1 years
male: 72.17 years
female: 78.18 years (2007 est.)
Total
fertility
rate:
2.12 children born/woman (2007 est.)
HIV/AIDS -
adult
prevalence
rate:
NA
HIV/AIDS -
people
living with
HIV/AIDS:
NA
HIV/AIDS -
deaths:
NA
Nationality: noun: Dominican(s)
adjective: Dominican
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Ethnic
groups:
black 86.8%, mixed 8.9%, Carib
Amerindian 2.9%, white 0.8%, other
0.7% (2001 census)
Religions: Roman Catholic 61.4%, Seventh Day
Adventist 6%, Pentecostal 5.6%,
Baptist 4.1%, Methodist 3.7%, Church
of God 1.2%, Jehovah's Witnesses
1.2%, other Christian 7.7%,
Rastafarian 1.3%, other or
unspecified 1.6%, none 6.1% (2001
census)
Languages: English (official), French patois
Literacy: definition: age 15 and over has ever
attended school
total population: 94%
male: 94%
female: 94% (2003 est.)
Government Dominica
Country name: conventional long form:
Commonwealth of Dominica
conventional short form: Dominica
Government
type:
parliamentary democracy
Capital: name: Roseau
geographic coordinates: 15 18 N,
61 24 W
time difference: UTC-4 (1 hour
ahead of Washington, DC during
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Standard Time)
Administrative
divisions:
10 parishes; Saint Andrew, Saint
David, Saint George, Saint John,
Saint Joseph, Saint Luke, Saint
Mark, Saint Patrick, Saint Paul,
Saint Peter
Independence: 3 November 1978 (from UK)
National
holiday:
Independence Day, 3 November
(1978)
Constitution: 3 November 1978
Legal system: based on English common law
Suffrage: 18 years of age; universal
Executive
branch:
chief of state: President Nicholas
J. O. LIVERPOOL (since October
2003)
head of government: Prime
Minister Roosevelt SKERRIT
(since 8 January 2004)
cabinet: Cabinet appointed by the
president on the advice of the
prime minister
elections: president elected by
the House of Assembly for a five-
year term; election last held 1
October 2003 (next to be held in
October 2008); prime minister
appointed by the president
election results: Nicholas
LIVERPOOL elected president;
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2404
percent of legislative vote - NA%
Legislative
branch:
unicameral House of Assembly (30
seats; 9 members appointed, 21
elected by popular vote; to serve
five-year terms)
elections: last held 5 May 2005
(next to be held by 5 August
2010); note - tradition dictates
that the election will be held
within five years of the last
election, but technically it is five
years from the first seating of
parliament (12 May 2005) plus a
90-day grace period
election results: percent of vote
by party - DLP 52.1%, UWP 43.6%,
DFP 3.2%, other 1.1%; seats by
party - DLP 12, UWP 8,
independent 1
Judicial
branch:
Eastern Caribbean Supreme Court,
consisting of the Court of Appeal
and the High Court (located in
Saint Lucia; one of the six judges
must reside in Dominica and
preside over the Court of
Summary Jurisdiction)
Political
parties and
leaders:
Dominica Freedom Party or DFP
[Charles SAVARIN]; Dominica
Labor Party or DLP [Roosevelt
SKERRIT]; Dominica United
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2405
Workers Party or UWP [Earl
WILLIAMS]
Political
pressure
groups and
leaders:
Dominica Liberation Movement or
DLM (a small leftist party)
International
organization
participation:
ACCT, ACP, C, Caricom, CDB, FAO,
G-77, IBRD, ICCt, ICRM, IDA, IFAD,
IFC, IFRCS, ILO, IMF, IMO,
Interpol, IOC, ISO (subscriber),
ITU, ITUC, MIGA, NAM, OAS,
OECS, OIF, OPANAL, OPCW, UN,
UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, UPU,
WCL, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WTO
Diplomatic
representation
in the US:
chief of mission: vacant
chancery: 3216 New Mexico
Avenue NW, Washington, DC
20016
telephone: [1] (202) 364-6781
FAX: [1] (202) 364-6791
consulate(s) general: New York
Diplomatic
representation
from the US:
the US does not have an embassy
in Dominica; the US Ambassador
to Barbados is accredited to
Dominica
Flag
description:
green, with a centered cross of
three equal bands - the vertical
part is yellow (hoist side), black,
and white and the horizontal part
is yellow (top), black, and white;
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2406
superimposed in the center of the
cross is a red disk bearing a
sisserou parrot encircled by 10
green, five-pointed stars edged in
yellow; the 10 stars represent the
10 administrative divisions
(parishes)
Economy Dominica
Economy -
overview:
The Dominican economy depends
on agriculture, primarily bananas,
and remains highly vulnerable to
climatic conditions and
international economic
developments. Tourism has
increased as the government
seeks to promote Dominica as an
"ecotourism" destination.
Development of the tourism
industry remains difficult,
however, because of the rugged
coastline, lack of beaches, and
the absence of an international
airport. The government began a
comprehensive restructuring of
the economy in 2003 - including
elimination of price controls,
privatization of the state banana
company, and tax increases - to
address Dominica's economic
crisis and to meet IMF targets. In
order to diversify the island's
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2407
production base, the government
is attempting to develop an
offshore financial sector and is
planning to construct an oil
refinery on the eastern part of the
island.
GDP
(purchasing
power parity):
$384 million (2003 est.)
GDP (official
exchange
rate):
$279 million (2005)
GDP - real
growth rate:
3.1% (2005 est.)
GDP - per
capita (PPP):
$3,800 (2005 est.)
GDP -
composition
by sector:
agriculture: 17.7%
industry: 32.8%
services: 49.5% (2004 est.)
Labor force: 25,000 (1999 est.)
Labor force -
by occupation:
agriculture: 40%
industry: 32%
services: 28%
Unemployment
rate:
23% (2000 est.)
Population
below poverty
line:
30% (2002 est.)
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2408
Household
income or
consumption
by percentage
share:
lowest 10%: NA%
highest 10%: NA%
Inflation rate
(consumer
prices):
-0.1% (2005 est.)
Budget: revenues: $73.9 million
expenditures: $84.4 million;
including capital expenditures of
$NA (2001)
Agriculture -
products:
bananas, citrus, mangoes, root
crops, coconuts, cocoa; forest
and fishery potential not exploited
Industries: soap, coconut oil, tourism, copra,
furniture, cement blocks, shoes
Industrial
production
growth rate:
-10% (1997 est.)
Electricity -
production:
83.88 million kWh (2004)
Electricity -
production by
source:
fossil fuel: 47.1%
hydro: 52.9%
nuclear: 0%
other: 0% (2001)
Electricity -
consumption:
78.01 million kWh (2004)
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2409
Electricity -
exports:
0 kWh (2004)
Electricity -
imports:
0 kWh (2004)
Oil -
production:
0 bbl/day (2004)
Oil -
consumption:
900 bbl/day (2004 est.)
Oil - exports: NA bbl/day
Oil - imports: NA bbl/day
Natural gas -
production:
0 cu m (2004 est.)
Natural gas -
consumption:
0 cu m (2004 est.)
Exports: $74 million f.o.b. (2004 est.)
Exports -
commodities:
bananas, soap, bay oil,
vegetables, grapefruit, oranges
Exports -
partners:
UK 26.8%, Jamaica 10%, South
Korea 8.9%, Antigua and Barbuda
8.7%, Guyana 7.4%, Trinidad and
Tobago 4.8%, US 4% (2005)
Imports: $234 million f.o.b. (2004 est.)
Imports -
commodities:
manufactured goods, machinery
and equipment, food, chemicals
Imports -
partners:
US 25.5%, China 20.5%, Trinidad
and Tobago 12.4%, South Korea
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2410
7.1%, Japan 4.7%, UK 4.4% (2005)
Debt -
external:
$213 million (2004)
Economic aid -
recipient:
$29.2 million (2004 est.)
Currency
(code):
East Caribbean dollar (XCD)
Currency
code:
XCD
Exchange
rates:
East Caribbean dollars per US
dollar - 2.7 (2006), 2.7 (2005), 2.7
(2004), 2.7 (2003), 2.7 (2002)
Fiscal year: 1 July - 30 June
Communications Dominica
Telephones
- main lines
in use:
21,000 (2004)
Telephones
- mobile
cellular:
41,800 (2004)
Telephone
system:
general assessment: NA
domestic: fully automatic network
international: country code - 1-767;
microwave radio relay and SHF
radiotelephone links to Martinique
and Guadeloupe; VHF and UHF
radiotelephone links to Saint Lucia
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2411
Radio
broadcast
stations:
AM 2, FM 4, shortwave 0 (2003)
Radios: 46,000 (1997)
Television
broadcast
stations:
1 (2004)
Televisions: 6,000 (1997)
Internet
country
code:
.dm
Internet
hosts:
263 (2006)
Internet
Service
Providers
(ISPs):
16 (2000)
Internet
users:
20,500 (2005)
Transportation Dominica
Airports: 2 (2006)
Airports -
with
paved
runways:
total: 2
914 to 1,523 m: 2 (2006)
Roadways: total: 780 km
paved: 393 km
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2412
unpaved: 387 km (1999)
Merchant
marine:
total: 48 ships (1000 GRT or over)
634,668 GRT/1,100,558 DWT
by type: bulk carrier 6, cargo 24,
chemical tanker 4, container 2,
petroleum tanker 6, refrigerated cargo
4, roll on/roll off 1, vehicle carrier 1
foreign-owned: 45 (Estonia 11,
Germany 1, Greece 5, Latvia 1,
Norway 1, NZ 4, Russia 2, Saudi
Arabia 3, Singapore 9, Syria 1, Turkey
3, UAE 2, Ukraine 2) (2006)
Ports and
terminals:
Portsmouth, Roseau
Military Dominica
Military
branches:
no regular military forces;
Commonwealth of Dominica Police
Force (includes coast guard) (2006)
Manpower
available for
military
service:
males age 18-49: 18,227 (2005 est.)
Manpower fit
for military
service:
males age 18-49: 15,136 (2005 est.)
Manpower
reaching
military
males age 18-49: 602 (2005 est.)
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2413
service age
annually:
Military
expenditures
- percent of
GDP:
NA (2006)
Transnational
Issues
Dominica
Disputes -
international:
Dominica is the only Caribbean
state to challenge Venezuela's
sovereignty claim over Aves Island
and joins the other island nations in
challenging whether the feature
sustains human habitation, a
criterion under the UN Convention
on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS),
which permits Venezuela to extend
its Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ)
and continental shelf claims over a
large portion of the eastern
Caribbean Sea
Illicit drugs: transshipment point for narcotics
bound for the US and Europe; minor
cannabis producer; anti-money-
laundering enforcement is weak,
making the country particularly
vulnerable to money laundering
DOMINICAN REPUBLIC
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2414
Introduction Dominican Republic
Background: Explored and claimed by
Christopher COLUMBUS on his first
voyage in 1492, the island of
Hispaniola became a springboard for
Spanish conquest of the Caribbean
and the American mainland. In 1697,
Spain recognized French dominion
over the western third of the island,
which in 1804 became Haiti. The
remainder of the island, by then
known as Santo Domingo, sought to
gain its own independence in 1821,
but was conquered and ruled by the
Haitians for 22 years; it finally
attained independence as the
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2415
Dominican Republic in 1844. In
1861, the Dominicans voluntarily
returned to the Spanish Empire, but
two years later they launched a war
that restored independence in 1865.
A legacy of unsettled, mostly non-
representative rule followed, capped
by the dictatorship of Rafael
Leonidas TRUJILLO from 1930-61.
Juan BOSCH was elected president
in 1962, but was deposed in a
military coup in 1963. In 1965, the
United States led an intervention in
the midst of a civil war sparked by
an uprising to restore BOSCH. In
1966, Joaquin BALAGUER defeated
BOSCH in an election to become
president. BALAGUER maintained a
tight grip on power for most of the
next 30 years when international
reaction to flawed elections forced
him to curtail his term in 1996.
Since then, regular competitive
elections have been held in which
opposition candidates have won the
presidency. Former President (1996-
2000) Leonel FERNANDEZ Reyna
won election to a second term in
2004 following a constitutional
amendment allowing presidents to
serve more than one term.
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2416
Geography Dominican Republic
Location: Caribbean, eastern two-thirds of the
island of Hispaniola, between the
Caribbean Sea and the North
Atlantic Ocean, east of Haiti
Geographic
coordinates:
19 00 N, 70 40 W
Map
references:
Central America and the Caribbean
Area: total: 48,730 sq km
land: 48,380 sq km
water: 350 sq km
Area -
comparative:
slightly more than twice the size of
New Hampshire
Land
boundaries:
total: 360 km
border countries: Haiti 360 km
Coastline: 1,288 km
Maritime
claims:
territorial sea: 6 nm
contiguous zone: 24 nm
exclusive economic zone: 200 nm
continental shelf: 200 nm or to the
edge of the continental margin
Climate: tropical maritime; little seasonal
temperature variation; seasonal
variation in rainfall
Terrain: rugged highlands and mountains
with fertile valleys interspersed
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2417
Elevation
extremes:
lowest point: Lago Enriquillo -46 m
highest point: Pico Duarte 3,175 m
Natural
resources:
nickel, bauxite, gold, silver
Land use: arable land: 22.49%
permanent crops: 10.26%
other: 67.25% (2005)
Irrigated
land:
2,750 sq km (2003)
Natural
hazards:
lies in the middle of the hurricane
belt and subject to severe storms
from June to October; occasional
flooding; periodic droughts
Environment
- current
issues:
water shortages; soil eroding into
the sea damages coral reefs;
deforestation
Environment
-
international
agreements:
party to: Biodiversity, Climate
Change, Climate Change-Kyoto
Protocol, Desertification,
Endangered Species, Hazardous
Wastes, Marine Dumping, Marine
Life Conservation, Ozone Layer
Protection, Ship Pollution, Wetlands
signed, but not ratified: Law of the
Sea
Geography -
note:
shares island of Hispaniola with
Haiti
People Dominican Republic
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2418
Population: 9,365,818 (July 2007 est.)
Age
structure:
0-14 years: 32.1% (male
1,532,813/female 1,477,033)
15-64 years: 62.2% (male
2,971,620/female 2,851,207)
65 years and over: 5.7% (male
247,738/female 285,407) (2007 est.)
Median
age:
total: 24.5 years
male: 24.3 years
female: 24.6 years (2007 est.)
Population
growth
rate:
1.5% (2007 est.)
Birth rate: 22.91 births/1,000 population (2007
est.)
Death rate: 5.32 deaths/1,000 population (2007
est.)
Net
migration
rate:
-2.59 migrant(s)/1,000 population
(2007 est.)
Sex ratio: at birth: 1.04 male(s)/female
under 15 years: 1.038 male(s)/female
15-64 years: 1.042 male(s)/female
65 years and over: 0.868
male(s)/female
total population: 1.03 male(s)/female
(2007 est.)
Infant total: 27.94 deaths/1,000 live births
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2419
mortality
rate:
male: 30.05 deaths/1,000 live births
female: 25.75 deaths/1,000 live births
(2007 est.)
Life
expectancy
at birth:
total population: 73.07 years
male: 71.34 years
female: 74.87 years (2007 est.)
Total
fertility
rate:
2.81 children born/woman (2007 est.)
HIV/AIDS -
adult
prevalence
rate:
1.7% (2003 est.)
HIV/AIDS -
people
living with
HIV/AIDS:
88,000 (2003 est.)
HIV/AIDS -
deaths:
7,900 (2003 est.)
Nationality: noun: Dominican(s)
adjective: Dominican
Ethnic
groups:
mixed 73%, white 16%, black 11%
Religions: Roman Catholic 95%, other 5%
Languages: Spanish
Literacy: definition: age 15 and over can read
and write
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2420
total population: 87%
male: 86.8%
female: 87.2% (2002 census)
Government Dominican Republic
Country name: conventional long form:
Dominican Republic
conventional short form: The
Dominican
local long form: Republica
Dominicana
local short form: La Dominicana
Government
type:
democratic republic
Capital: name: Santo Domingo
geographic coordinates: 18 28 N,
69 54 W
time difference: UTC-4 (1 hour
ahead of Washington, DC during
Standard Time)
Administrative
divisions:
31 provinces (provincias, singular
- provincia) and 1 district*
(distrito); Azua, Baoruco,
Barahona, Dajabon, Distrito
Nacional*, Duarte, El Seibo, Elias
Pina, Espaillat, Hato Mayor,
Independencia, La Altagracia, La
Romana, La Vega, Maria Trinidad
Sanchez, Monsenor Nouel, Monte
Cristi, Monte Plata, Pedernales,
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2421
Peravia, Puerto Plata, Salcedo,
Samana, San Cristobal, San Jose
de Ocoa, San Juan, San Pedro de
Macoris, Sanchez Ramirez,
Santiago, Santiago Rodriguez,
Santo Domingo, Valverde
Independence: 27 February 1844 (from Haiti)
National
holiday:
Independence Day, 27 February
(1844)
Constitution: 28 November 1966; amended 25
July 2002
Legal system: based on French civil codes;
Criminal Procedures Code
modified in 2004 to include
important elements of an
accusatory system; accepts
compulsory ICJ jurisdiction
Suffrage: 18 years of age, universal and
compulsory; married persons
regardless of age; note - members
of the armed forces and national
police cannot vote
Executive
branch:
chief of state: President Leonel
FERNANDEZ Reyna (since 16
August 2004); Vice President
Rafael ALBURQUERQUE de Castro
(since 16 August 2004); note - the
president is both the chief of state
and head of government
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2422
head of government: President
Leonel FERNANDEZ Reyna (since
16 August 2004); Vice President
Rafael ALBURQUERQUE de Castro
(since 16 August 2004)
cabinet: Cabinet nominated by the
president
elections: president and vice
president elected on the same
ticket by popular vote for four-
year terms (eligible for a second
consecutive term); election last
held 16 May 2004 (next to be held
in May 2008)
election results: Leonel
FERNANDEZ elected president;
percent of vote - Leonel
FERNANDEZ 57.1%, Rafael
Hipolito MEJIA Dominguez 33.7%,
Eduardo ESTRELLA 8.7%
Legislative
branch:
bicameral National Congress or
Congreso Nacional consists of the
Senate or Senado (32 seats;
members are elected by popular
vote to serve four-year terms) and
the House of Representatives or
Camara de Diputados (178 seats;
members are elected by popular
vote to serve four-year terms)
elections: Senate - last held 16
May 2006 (next to be held in May
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2423
2008); House of Representatives -
last held 16 May 2006 (next to be
held in May 2008)
election results: Senate - percent
of vote by party - NA; seats by
party - PLD 22, PRD 6, PRSC 4;
House of Representatives -
percent of vote by party - NA;
seats by party - PLD 96, PRD 60,
PRSC 22
Judicial
branch:
Supreme Court or Corte Suprema
(judges are appointed by the
National Judicial Council
comprised of the president, the
leaders of both chambers of
congress, the president of the
Supreme Court, and an additional
non-governing party congressional
representative)
Political
parties and
leaders:
Dominican Liberation Party or PLD
[Leonel FERNANDEZ Reyna];
Dominican Revolutionary Party or
PRD [Ramon ALBURQUERQUE];
National Progressive Front
[Vincent CASTILLO, Pelegrin
CASTILLO]; Social Christian
Reformist Party or PRSC [Enrique
ANTUN]
Political
pressure
Citizen Participation Group
(Participacion Ciudadania);
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2424
groups and
leaders:
Collective of Popular
Organizations or COP; Foundation
for Institution-Building and
Justice (FINJUS)
International
organization
participation:
ACP, FAO, G-77, IADB, IAEA, IBRD,
ICAO, ICC, ICCt (signatory), ICRM,
IDA, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, IHO
(suspended), ILO, IMF, IMO,
Interpol, IOC, IOM, IPU, ISO
(correspondent), ITU, ITUC, LAES,
LAIA (observer), MIGA, NAM, OAS,
OPANAL, OPCW (signatory), PCA,
RG, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO,
UNIDO, UNOCI, UNWTO, UPU,
WCL, WCO, WFTU, WHO, WIPO,
WMO, WTO
Diplomatic
representation
in the US:
chief of mission: Ambassador
Flavio Dario ESPINAL Jacobo
chancery: 1715 22nd Street NW,
Washington, DC 20008
telephone: [1] (202) 332-6280
FAX: [1] (202) 265-8057
consulate(s) general: Anchorage,
Boston, Chicago, Mayaguez
(Puerto Rico), Miami, New
Orleans, New York, San
Francisco, San Juan (Puerto Rico)
Diplomatic
representation
from the US:
chief of mission: Ambassador
Hans H. HERTELL
embassy: corner of Calle Cesar
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2425
Nicolas Penson and Calle
Leopoldo Navarro, Santo Domingo
mailing address: Unit 5500, APO
AA 34041-5500
telephone: [1] (809) 221-2171
FAX: [1] (809) 686-7437
Flag
description:
a centered white cross that
extends to the edges divides the
flag into four rectangles - the top
ones are blue (hoist side) and red,
and the bottom ones are red (hoist
side) and blue; a small coat of
arms featuring a shield supported
by an olive branch (left) and a
palm branch (right) is at the
center of the cross; above the
shield a blue ribbon displays the
motto, DIOS, PATRIA, LIBERTAD
(God, Fatherland, Liberty), and
below the shield, REPUBLICA
DOMINICANA appears on a red
ribbon
Economy Dominican Republic
Economy -
overview:
The Dominican Republic is a
Caribbean representative
democracy that enjoyed strong
GDP growth until 2003. Although
the country has long been viewed
primarily as an exporter of sugar,
coffee, and tobacco, in recent
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2426
years the service sector has
overtaken agriculture as the
economy's largest employer due
to growth in tourism and free
trade zones. Growth turned
negative in 2003 with reduced
tourism, a major bank fraud, and
limited growth in the US economy
(the source of about 80% of
export revenues), but recovered
in 2004-06. With the help of strict
fiscal targets agreed in the 2004
renegotiation of an IMF standby
loan, President FERNANDEZ has
stabilized the country's financial
situation. Although the economy
continues to grow at a
respectable rate, high
unemployment and inflation
remain important challenges. The
country suffers from marked
income inequality; the poorest
half of the population receives
less than one-fifth of GNP, while
the richest 10% enjoys nearly
40% of national income. The
Dominican Republic's
development prospects improved
with the ratification of the Central
America-Dominican Republic Free
Trade Agreement (CAFTA-DR) in
September 2005.
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2427
GDP
(purchasing
power parity):
$77.09 billion (2006 est.)
GDP (official
exchange
rate):
$20.55 billion (2006 est.)
GDP - real
growth rate:
10.7% (2006 est.)
GDP - per
capita (PPP):
$8,400 (2006 est.)
GDP -
composition
by sector:
agriculture: 11.2%
industry: 30.6%
services: 58.2% (2005 est.)
Labor force: 3.896 million (2006 est.)
Labor force -
by occupation:
agriculture: 17%
industry: 24.3%
services: 58.7% (1998 est.)
Unemployment
rate:
16% (2006 est.)
Population
below poverty
line:
25%
Household
income or
consumption
by percentage
share:
lowest 10%: 2.1%
highest 10%: 37.9% (1998)
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2428
Distribution of
family income
- Gini index:
47.4 (1998)
Inflation rate
(consumer
prices):
8.2% (2006 est.)
Investment
(gross fixed):
15.5% of GDP (2006 est.)
Budget: revenues: $5.852 billion
expenditures: $5.947 billion;
including capital expenditures of
$1.1 billion (2006 est.)
Public debt: 45.6% of GDP (2006 est.)
Agriculture -
products:
sugarcane, coffee, cotton, cocoa,
tobacco, rice, beans, potatoes,
corn, bananas; cattle, pigs, dairy
products, beef, eggs
Industries: tourism, sugar processing,
ferronickel and gold mining,
textiles, cement, tobacco
Industrial
production
growth rate:
2% (2001 est.)
Electricity -
production:
15.02 billion kWh (2004)
Electricity -
production by
source:
fossil fuel: 92%
hydro: 7.6%
nuclear: 0%
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2429
other: 0.4% (2001)
Electricity -
consumption:
13.96 billion kWh (2004)
Electricity -
exports:
0 kWh (2004)
Electricity -
imports:
0 kWh (2004)
Oil -
production:
12 bbl/day (2004)
Oil -
consumption:
127,000 bbl/day (2004 est.)
Oil - exports: NA bbl/day
Oil - imports: 129,900 bbl/day (2003)
Natural gas -
production:
0 cu m (2004 est.)
Natural gas -
consumption:
130 million cu m (2004 est.)
Natural gas -
imports:
130 million cu m (2004 est.)
Current
account
balance:
-$1.124 billion (2006 est.)
Exports: $6.495 billion f.o.b. (2006 est.)
Exports -
commodities:
ferronickel, sugar, gold, silver,
coffee, cocoa, tobacco, meats,
consumer goods
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2430
Exports -
partners:
US 78.9%, Netherlands 2.4%,
Mexico 1.9% (2005)
Imports: $11.39 billion f.o.b. (2006 est.)
Imports -
commodities:
foodstuffs, petroleum, cotton and
fabrics, chemicals and
pharmaceuticals
Imports -
partners:
US 50%, Colombia 6.2%, Mexico
5.8% (2005)
Reserves of
foreign
exchange and
gold:
$2.106 billion (2006 est.)
Debt -
external:
$8.634 billion (2006 est.)
Economic aid -
recipient:
$571.6 million (2004)
Currency
(code):
Dominican peso (DOP)
Currency
code:
DOP
Exchange
rates:
Dominican pesos per US dollar -
33.406 (2006), 30.409 (2005),
42.12 (2004), 30.831 (2003), 18.61
(2002)
Fiscal year: calendar year
Communications Dominican Republic
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2431
Telephones
- main lines
in use:
894,500 (2005)
Telephones
- mobile
cellular:
3.623 million (2005)
Telephone
system:
general assessment: NA
domestic: relatively efficient system
based on island-wide microwave
radio relay network
international: country code - 1-809; 1
coaxial submarine cable; satellite
earth station - 1 Intelsat (Atlantic
Ocean)
Radio
broadcast
stations:
AM 120, FM 56, shortwave 4 (1998)
Radios: 1.44 million (1997)
Television
broadcast
stations:
25 (2003)
Televisions: 770,000 (1997)
Internet
country
code:
.do
Internet
hosts:
91,895 (2006)
Internet 24 (2000)
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2432
Service
Providers
(ISPs):
Internet
users:
938,300 (2005)
Transportation Dominican Republic
Airports: 33 (2006)
Airports -
with
paved
runways:
total: 14
over 3,047 m: 3
2,438 to 3,047 m: 3
1,524 to 2,437 m: 4
914 to 1,523 m: 3
under 914 m: 1 (2006)
Airports -
with
unpaved
runways:
total: 19
1,524 to 2,437 m: 4
914 to 1,523 m: 5
under 914 m: 10 (2006)
Railways: total: 517 km
standard gauge: 375 km 1.435-m
gauge
narrow gauge: 142 km 0.762-m gauge
note: additional 1,226 km operated by
sugar companies in 1.076 m, 0.889 m,
and 0.762-m gauges (2005)
Roadways: total: 12,600 km
paved: 6,224 km
unpaved: 6,376 km (1999)
Merchant total: 1 ship (1000 GRT or over) 1,587
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2433
marine: GRT/1,165 DWT
by type: cargo 1 (2006)
Ports and
terminals:
Boca Chica, Puerto Plata, Rio Haina,
Santo Domingo
Military Dominican Republic
Military
branches:
Army, Navy, Air Force
Military
service age
and
obligation:
18 years of age for voluntary
military service (2001)
Manpower
available for
military
service:
males age 18-49: 2,133,142
females age 18-49: 2,032,840 (2005
est.)
Manpower fit
for military
service:
males age 18-49: 1,671,493
females age 18-49: 1,536,257 (2005
est.)
Manpower
reaching
military
service age
annually:
males age 18-49: 91,699
females age 18-49: 87,550 (2005
est.)
Military
expenditures
- percent of
GDP:
0.8% (2006)
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2434
Transnational
Issues
Dominican Republic
Disputes -
international:
Haitian migrants cross the porous
border into the Dominican Republic
to find work; illegal migrants from
the Dominican Republic cross the
Mona Passage each year to Puerto
Rico to find better work
Illicit drugs: transshipment point for South
American drugs destined for the US
and Europe; has become a
transshipment point for ecstasy
from the Netherlands and Belgium
destined for US and Canada;
substantial money laundering
activity; Colombian narcotics
traffickers favor the Dominican
Republic for illicit financial
transactions; significant
amphetamine consumption
EL SALVADOR
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2435
Introduction El Salvador
Background: El Salvador achieved independence
from Spain in 1821 and from the
Central American Federation in
1839. A 12-year civil war, which cost
about 75,000 lives, was brought to a
close in 1992 when the government
and leftist rebels signed a treaty
that provided for military and
political reforms.
Geography El Salvador
Location: Central America, bordering the
North Pacific Ocean, between
Guatemala and Honduras
Geographic
coordinates:
13 50 N, 88 55 W
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Map
references:
Central America and the Caribbean
Area: total: 21,040 sq km
land: 20,720 sq km
water: 320 sq km
Area -
comparative:
slightly smaller than Massachusetts
Land
boundaries:
total: 545 km
border countries: Guatemala 203
km, Honduras 342 km
Coastline: 307 km
Maritime
claims:
territorial sea: 12 nm
contiguous zone: 24 nm
exclusive economic zone: 200 nm
Climate: tropical; rainy season (May to
October); dry season (November to
April); tropical on coast; temperate
in uplands
Terrain: mostly mountains with narrow
coastal belt and central plateau
Elevation
extremes:
lowest point: Pacific Ocean 0 m
highest point: Cerro El Pital 2,730 m
Natural
resources:
hydropower, geothermal power,
petroleum, arable land
Land use: arable land: 31.37%
permanent crops: 11.88%
other: 56.75% (2005)
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Irrigated
land:
450 sq km (2003)
Natural
hazards:
known as the Land of Volcanoes;
frequent and sometimes destructive
earthquakes and volcanic activity;
extremely susceptible to hurricanes
Environment
- current
issues:
deforestation; soil erosion; water
pollution; contamination of soils
from disposal of toxic wastes
Environment
-
international
agreements:
party to: Biodiversity, Climate
Change, Climate Change-Kyoto
Protocol, Desertification,
Endangered Species, Hazardous
Wastes, Ozone Layer Protection,
Wetlands
signed, but not ratified: Law of the
Sea
Geography -
note:
smallest Central American country
and only one without a coastline on
Caribbean Sea
People El Salvador
Population: 6,948,073 (July 2007 est.)
Age
structure:
0-14 years: 36.1% (male
1,281,889/female 1,228,478)
15-64 years: 58.7% (male
1,942,674/female 2,134,154)
65 years and over: 5.2% (male
158,276/female 202,602) (2007 est.)
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Median
age:
total: 22 years
male: 20.9 years
female: 23.2 years (2007 est.)
Population
growth
rate:
1.699% (2007 est.)
Birth rate: 26.13 births/1,000 population (2007
est.)
Death rate: 5.6 deaths/1,000 population (2007
est.)
Net
migration
rate:
-3.54 migrant(s)/1,000 population
(2007 est.)
Sex ratio: at birth: 1.05 male(s)/female
under 15 years: 1.043 male(s)/female
15-64 years: 0.91 male(s)/female
65 years and over: 0.781
male(s)/female
total population: 0.949
male(s)/female (2007 est.)
Infant
mortality
rate:
total: 22.88 deaths/1,000 live births
male: 25.76 deaths/1,000 live births
female: 19.86 deaths/1,000 live births
(2007 est.)
Life
expectancy
at birth:
total population: 71.78 years
male: 68.18 years
female: 75.57 years (2007 est.)
Total 3.08 children born/woman (2007 est.)
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fertility
rate:
HIV/AIDS -
adult
prevalence
rate:
0.7% (2003 est.)
HIV/AIDS -
people
living with
HIV/AIDS:
29,000 (2003 est.)
HIV/AIDS -
deaths:
2,200 (2003 est.)
Nationality: noun: Salvadoran(s)
adjective: Salvadoran
Ethnic
groups:
mestizo 90%, white 9%, Amerindian
1%
Religions: Roman Catholic 83%, other 17%
note: there is extensive activity by
Protestant groups throughout the
country; by the end of 1992, there
were an estimated 1 million
Protestant evangelicals in El
Salvador
Languages: Spanish, Nahua (among some
Amerindians)
Literacy: definition: age 10 and over can read
and write
total population: 80.2%
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male: 82.8%
female: 77.7% (2003 est.)
Government El Salvador
Country name: conventional long form: Republic
of El Salvador
conventional short form: El
Salvador
local long form: Republica de El
Salvador
local short form: El Salvador
Government
type:
republic
Capital: name: San Salvador
geographic coordinates: 13 42 N,
89 12 W
time difference: UTC-6 (1 hour
behind Washington, DC during
Standard Time)
Administrative
divisions:
14 departments (departamentos,
singular - departamento);
Ahuachapan, Cabanas,
Chalatenango, Cuscatlan, La
Libertad, La Paz, La Union,
Morazan, San Miguel, San
Salvador, San Vicente, Santa Ana,
Sonsonate, Usulutan
Independence: 15 September 1821 (from Spain)
National Independence Day, 15 September
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holiday: (1821)
Constitution: 20 December 1983
Legal system: based on civil and Roman law
with traces of common law;
judicial review of legislative acts
in the Supreme Court
Suffrage: 18 years of age; universal
Executive
branch:
chief of state: President Elias
Antonio SACA Gonzalez (since 1
June 2004); Vice President Ana
Vilma Albanez DE ESCOBAR
(since 1 June 2004); note - the
president is both the chief of state
and head of government
head of government: President
Elias Antonio SACA Gonzalez
(since 1 June 2004); Vice
President Ana Vilma Albanez DE
ESCOBAR (since 1 June 2004)
cabinet: Council of Ministers
selected by the president
elections: president and vice
president elected on the same
ticket by popular vote for a single
five-year term; election last held
21 March 2004 (next to be held in
March 2009)
election results: Elias Antonio
SACA Gonzalez elected president;
percent of vote - Elias Antonio
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SACA Gonzalez 57.7%, Schafik
HANDAL 35.6%, Hector SILVA
3.9%, other 2.8%
Legislative
branch:
unicameral Legislative Assembly
or Asamblea Legislativa (84 seats;
members are elected by direct,
popular vote to serve three-year
terms)
elections: last held 12 March 2006
(next to be held in March 2009)
election results: percent of vote
by party - NA; seats by party -
ARENA 34, FMLN 32, PCN 10, PDC
6, CD 2
Judicial
branch:
Supreme Court or Corte Suprema
(judges are selected by the
Legislative Assembly)
Political
parties and
leaders:
Christian Democratic Party or PDC
[Rodolfo PARKER]; Democratic
Convergence or CD [Ruben
ZAMORA] (formerly United
Democratic Center or CDU);
Farabundo Marti National
Liberation Front or FMLN
[Medardo GONZALEZ]; National
Conciliation Party or PCN [Ciro
CRUZ ZEPEDA]; National
Republican Alliance or ARENA
[Elias Antonio SACA Gonzalez];
Popular Social Christian Party or
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PPSC [Rene AGUILUZ];
Revolutionary Democratic Front or
FDR [Julio Cesar HERNANDEZ
Carcamo]
Political
pressure
groups and
leaders:
labor organizations - Electrical
Industry Union of El Salvador or
SIES; Federation of the
Construction Industry, Similar
Transport and other activities, or
FESINCONTRANS; National
Confederation of Salvadoran
Workers or CNTS; National Union
of Salvadoran Workers or UNTS;
Port Industry Union of El Salvador
or SIPES; Salvadoran Union of Ex-
Petrolleros and Peasant Workers
or USEPOC; Salvadoran Workers
Central or CTS; Workers Union of
Electrical Corporation or STCEL;
business organizations - National
Association of Small Enterprise or
ANEP; Salvadoran Assembly
Industry Association or ASIC;
Salvadoran Industrial Association
or ASI
International
organization
participation:
BCIE, CACM, FAO, G-77, IADB,
IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, ICC, ICRM, IDA,
IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, ILO, IMF, IMO,
Interpol, IOC, IOM, IPU, ISO
(correspondent), ITU, ITUC, LAES,
MIGA, MINURSO, NAM (observer),
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OAS, OPANAL, OPCW, PCA, RG,
UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO,
UNMIL, UNMIS, UNOCI, UNWTO,
UPU, WCL, WCO, WFTU, WHO,
WIPO, WMO, WTO
Diplomatic
representation
in the US:
chief of mission: Ambassador
Rene Antonio LEON Rodriguez
chancery: 2308 California Street
NW, Washington, DC 20008
telephone: [1] (202) 265-9671
FAX: [1] (202) 234-3834
consulate(s) general: Chicago,
Dallas, Elizabeth (New Jersey),
Houston, Las Vegas, Los Angeles,
Miami, New York (2), Nogales
(Arizona), Santa Ana (California),
San Francisco, Washington, DC
consulate(s): Boston
Diplomatic
representation
from the US:
chief of mission: Ambassador
Charles L. GLAZER
embassy: Final Boulevard Santa
Elena Sur, Antiguo Cuscatlan, La
Libertad, San Salvador
mailing address: Unit 3116, APO
AA 34023
telephone: [503] 2278-4444
FAX: [503] 2278-5522
Flag
description:
three equal horizontal bands of
blue (top), white, and blue with
the national coat of arms
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centered in the white band; the
coat of arms features a round
emblem encircled by the words
REPUBLICA DE EL SALVADOR EN
LA AMERICA CENTRAL; similar to
the flag of Nicaragua, which has a
different coat of arms centered in
the white band - it features a
triangle encircled by the words
REPUBLICA DE NICARAGUA on
top and AMERICA CENTRAL on
the bottom; also similar to the flag
of Honduras, which has five blue
stars arranged in an X pattern
centered in the white band
Economy El Salvador
Economy -
overview:
The smallest country in Central
America, El Salvador has the third
largest economy, but growth has
been minimal in recent years.
Hoping to stimulate the sluggish
economy, the government is
striving to open new export
markets, encourage foreign
investment, and modernize the
tax and healthcare systems.
Implementation in 2006 of the
Central America-Dominican
Republic Free Trade Agreement,
which El Salvador was the first to
ratify, has strengthened an
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already positive export trend. The
trade deficit has been offset by
annual remittances from
Salvadorans living abroad -
equivalent to more than 16% of
GDP - and external aid. With the
adoption of the US dollar as its
currency in 2001, El Salvador has
lost control over monetary policy
and must concentrate on
maintaining a disciplined fiscal
policy. The current government
has pursued economic
diversification, with some
success in promoting textile
production, international port
services, and tourism. It is
committed to opening the
economy to trade and investment,
and has embarked on a wave of
privatizations extending to
telecom, electricity distribution,
banking, and pension funds.
GDP
(purchasing
power parity):
$33.68 billion (2006 est.)
GDP (official
exchange
rate):
$15.16 billion (2006 est.)
GDP - real 4.2% (2006 est.)
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growth rate:
GDP - per
capita (PPP):
$4,900 (2006 est.)
GDP -
composition
by sector:
agriculture: 9.7%
industry: 29.6%
services: 60.7% (2006 est.)
Labor force: 2.856 million (2006 est.)
Labor force -
by occupation:
agriculture: 17.1%
industry: 17.1%
services: 65.8% (2003 est.)
Unemployment
rate:
6% official rate; but the economy
has much underemployment
(2006 est.)
Population
below poverty
line:
35.2% (2005 est.)
Household
income or
consumption
by percentage
share:
lowest 10%: 0.67%
highest 10%: 38.76% (2002)
Distribution of
family income
- Gini index:
52.5 (2001)
Inflation rate
(consumer
prices):
4.9% (2006 est.)
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Investment
(gross fixed):
16.2% of GDP (2006 est.)
Budget: revenues: $2.82 billion
expenditures: $2.94 billion;
including capital expenditures of
$NA (FY07 est.)
Public debt: 42.6% of GDP (2006)
Agriculture -
products:
coffee, sugar, corn, rice, beans,
oilseed, cotton, sorghum; beef,
dairy products; shrimp
Industries: food processing, beverages,
petroleum, chemicals, fertilizer,
textiles, furniture, light metals
Industrial
production
growth rate:
2% (2006 est.)
Electricity -
production:
5.293 billion kWh (2006)
Electricity -
production by
source:
fossil fuel: 44%
hydro: 30.9%
nuclear: 0%
other: 25.1% (2001)
Electricity -
consumption:
5.204 billion kWh (2006)
Electricity -
exports:
95.5 million kWh (2006)
Electricity - 11.2 million kWh (2006)
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imports:
Oil -
production:
0 bbl/day (2004 est.)
Oil -
consumption:
43,000 bbl/day (2004 est.)
Oil - exports: NA bbl/day
Oil - imports: NA bbl/day
Natural gas -
production:
0 cu m (2004 est.)
Natural gas -
consumption:
0 cu m (2004 est.)
Current
account
balance:
-$1.059 billion (2006 est.)
Exports: $3.686 billion (2006 est.)
Exports -
commodities:
offshore assembly exports,
coffee, sugar, shrimp, textiles,
chemicals, electricity
Exports -
partners:
US 61%, Guatemala 12.1%,
Honduras 7.4%, Nicaragua 4.2%
(2005)
Imports: $7.326 billion (2006 est.)
Imports -
commodities:
raw materials, consumer goods,
capital goods, fuels, foodstuffs,
petroleum, electricity
Imports - US 43.4%, Guatemala 8.2%,
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partners: Mexico 7.8% (2005)
Reserves of
foreign
exchange and
gold:
$1.951 billion (2006 est.)
Debt -
external:
$8.841 billion (30 June 2006 est.)
Economic aid -
recipient:
$127.5 million of which, $55
million from US (2005)
Currency
(code):
US dollar (USD)
Currency
code:
USD
Exchange
rates:
the US dollar became El
Salvador's currency in 2001
Fiscal year: calendar year
Communications El Salvador
Telephones
- main lines
in use:
971,500 (2005)
Telephones
- mobile
cellular:
2.412 million (2005)
Telephone
system:
general assessment: NA
domestic: nationwide microwave
radio relay system
international: country code - 503;
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satellite earth station - 1 Intelsat
(Atlantic Ocean); connected to
Central American Microwave System
Radio
broadcast
stations:
AM 52, FM 144, shortwave 0 (2005)
Radios: 2.75 million (1997)
Television
broadcast
stations:
5 (1997)
Televisions: 600,000 (1990)
Internet
country
code:
.sv
Internet
hosts:
4,682 (2006)
Internet
Service
Providers
(ISPs):
4 (2000)
Internet
users:
637,100 (2005)
Transportation El Salvador
Airports: 75 (2006)
Airports -
with paved
runways:
total: 4
over 3,047 m: 1
1,524 to 2,437 m: 1
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914 to 1,523 m: 2 (2006)
Airports -
with
unpaved
runways:
total: 71
1,524 to 2,437 m: 1
914 to 1,523 m: 14
under 914 m: 56 (2006)
Heliports: 1 (2006)
Railways: total: 562 km
narrow gauge: 562 km 0.914-m gauge
note: railways not in operation since
2005 because of disuse and lack of
maintenance due to high costs
(2007)
Roadways: total: 10,886 km
paved: 2,827 km
unpaved: 8,059 km (2000)
Waterways: Rio Lempa partially navigable (2004)
Ports and
terminals:
Acajutla, Puerto Cutuco
Military El Salvador
Military
branches:
Salvadoran Army (ES), Salvadoran
Navy (FNES), Salvadoran Air Force
(Fuerza Aerea Salvadorena, FAS)
(2006)
Military
service age
and
obligation:
18 years of age for compulsory
military service, with 12-month
service obligation; 16 years of age
for volunteers (2002)
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Manpower
available for
military
service:
males age 18-49: 1,391,278
females age 18-49: 1,542,323 (2005
est.)
Manpower fit
for military
service:
males age 18-49: 960,315
females age 18-49: 1,310,466 (2005
est.)
Manpower
reaching
military
service age
annually:
males age 18-49: 70,286
females age 18-49: 69,526 (2005
est.)
Military
expenditures
- percent of
GDP:
5% (2006)
Transnational
Issues
El Salvador
Disputes -
international:
International Court of Justice (ICJ)
ruled on the delimitation of
"bolsones" (disputed areas) along
the El Salvador-Honduras boundary,
in 1992, with final agreement by
the parties in 2006 after an
Organization of American States
(OAS) survey and a further ICJ
ruling in 2003; the 1992 ICJ ruling
advised a tripartite resolution to a
maritime boundary in the Gulf of
Fonseca advocating Honduran
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2454
access to the Pacific; El Salvador
continues to claim tiny Conejo
Island, not identified in the ICJ
decision, off Honduras in the Gulf of
Fonseca
Illicit drugs: transshipment point for cocaine;
small amounts of marijuana
produced for local consumption;
significant use of cocaine
GRENADA
Introduction Grenada
Background: Carib Indians inhabited Grenada
when COLUMBUS discovered the
island in 1498, but it remained
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2455
uncolonized for more than a century.
The French settled Grenada in the
17th century, established sugar
estates, and imported large numbers
of African slaves. Britain took the
island in 1762 and vigorously
expanded sugar production. In the
19th century, cacao eventually
surpassed sugar as the main export
crop; in the 20th century, nutmeg
became the leading export. In 1967,
Britain gave Grenada autonomy over
its internal affairs. Full
independence was attained in 1974
making Grenada one of the smallest
independent countries in the
Western Hemisphere. Grenada was
seized by a Marxist military council
on 19 October 1983. Six days later
the island was invaded by US forces
and those of six other Caribbean
nations, which quickly captured the
ringleaders and their hundreds of
Cuban advisers. Free elections were
reinstituted the following year and
have continued since that time.
Hurricane Ivan struck Grenada in
September of 2004 causing severe
damage.
Geography Grenada
Location: Caribbean, island between the
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2456
Caribbean Sea and Atlantic Ocean,
north of Trinidad and Tobago
Geographic
coordinates:
12 07 N, 61 40 W
Map
references:
Central America and the Caribbean
Area: total: 344 sq km
land: 344 sq km
water: 0 sq km
Area -
comparative:
twice the size of Washington, DC
Land
boundaries:
0 km
Coastline: 121 km
Maritime
claims:
territorial sea: 12 nm
exclusive economic zone: 200 nm
Climate: tropical; tempered by northeast
trade winds
Terrain: volcanic in origin with central
mountains
Elevation
extremes:
lowest point: Caribbean Sea 0 m
highest point: Mount Saint
Catherine 840 m
Natural
resources:
timber, tropical fruit, deepwater
harbors
Land use: arable land: 5.88%
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2457
permanent crops: 29.41%
other: 64.71% (2005)
Irrigated
land:
NA
Natural
hazards:
lies on edge of hurricane belt;
hurricane season lasts from June to
November
Environment
- current
issues:
NA
Environment
-
international
agreements:
party to: Biodiversity, Climate
Change, Climate Change-Kyoto
Protocol, Desertification,
Endangered Species, Law of the
Sea, Ozone Layer Protection,
Whaling
signed, but not ratified: none of the
selected agreements
Geography -
note:
the administration of the islands of
the Grenadines group is divided
between Saint Vincent and the
Grenadines and Grenada
People Grenada
Population: 89,971 (July 2007 est.)
Age
structure:
0-14 years: 32.8% (male
14,876/female 14,641)
15-64 years: 64.1% (male
30,522/female 27,137)
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2458
65 years and over: 3.1% (male
1,353/female 1,442) (2007 est.)
Median
age:
total: 22.1 years
male: 22.6 years
female: 21.6 years (2007 est.)
Population
growth
rate:
0.336% (2007 est.)
Birth rate: 21.87 births/1,000 population (2007
est.)
Death rate: 6.61 deaths/1,000 population (2007
est.)
Net
migration
rate:
-11.9 migrant(s)/1,000 population
(2007 est.)
Sex ratio: at birth: 1 male(s)/female
under 15 years: 1.016 male(s)/female
15-64 years: 1.125 male(s)/female
65 years and over: 0.938
male(s)/female
total population: 1.082
male(s)/female (2007 est.)
Infant
mortality
rate:
total: 13.92 deaths/1,000 live births
male: 13.57 deaths/1,000 live births
female: 14.27 deaths/1,000 live births
(2007 est.)
Life
expectancy
total population: 65.21 years
male: 63.38 years
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2459
at birth: female: 67.05 years (2007 est.)
Total
fertility
rate:
2.3 children born/woman (2007 est.)
HIV/AIDS -
adult
prevalence
rate:
NA
HIV/AIDS -
people
living with
HIV/AIDS:
NA
HIV/AIDS -
deaths:
NA
Nationality: noun: Grenadian(s)
adjective: Grenadian
Ethnic
groups:
black 82%, mixed black and
European 13%, European and East
Indian 5%, and trace of Arawak/Carib
Amerindian
Religions: Roman Catholic 53%, Anglican
13.8%, other Protestant 33.2%
Languages: English (official), French patois
Literacy: definition: age 15 and over can read
and write
total population: 96%
male: NA%
female: NA% (2003 est.)
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2460
Government Grenada
Country name: conventional long form: none
conventional short form: Grenada
Government
type:
parliamentary democracy
Capital: name: Saint George's
geographic coordinates: 12 03 N,
61 45 W
time difference: UTC-4 (1 hour
ahead of Washington, DC during
Standard Time)
Administrative
divisions:
6 parishes and 1 dependency*;
Carriacou and Petite Martinique*,
Saint Andrew, Saint David, Saint
George, Saint John, Saint Mark,
Saint Patrick
Independence: 7 February 1974 (from UK)
National
holiday:
Independence Day, 7 February
(1974)
Constitution: 19 December 1973
Legal system: based on English common law
Suffrage: 18 years of age; universal
Executive
branch:
chief of state: Queen ELIZABETH
II (since 6 February 1952);
represented by Governor General
Daniel WILLIAMS (since 9 August
1996)
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2461
head of government: Prime
Minister Keith MITCHELL (since
22 June 1995)
cabinet: Cabinet appointed by the
governor general on the advice of
the prime minister
elections: none; the monarch is
hereditary; governor general
appointed by the monarch;
following legislative elections, the
leader of the majority party or the
leader of the majority coalition is
usually appointed prime minister
by the governor general
Legislative
branch:
bicameral Parliament consists of
the Senate (13 seats, 10
appointed by the government and
3 by the leader of the opposition)
and the House of Representatives
(15 seats; members are elected by
popular vote to serve five-year
terms)
elections: last held on 27
November 2003 (next to be held
by November 2008)
election results: House of
Representatives - percent of vote
by party - NNP 46.6%, NDC 44.1%,
other 9.3%; seats by party - NNP
8, NDC 7
Judicial Eastern Caribbean Supreme Court,
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2462
branch: consisting of a court of Appeal
and a High Court of Justice (a
High Court judge is assigned to
and resides in Grenada)
Political
parties and
leaders:
Grenada United Labor Party or
GULP [Gloria Payne BANFIELD];
National Democratic Congress or
NDC [Tillman THOMAS]; New
National Party or NNP [Keith
MITCHELL]
Political
pressure
groups and
leaders:
NA
International
organization
participation:
ACP, C, Caricom, CDB, FAO, G-77,
IBRD, ICAO, ICRM, IDA, IFAD, IFC,
IFRCS, ILO, IMF, IMO, Interpol,
IOC, ISO (subscriber), ITU, ITUC,
LAES, MIGA, NAM, OAS, OECS,
OPANAL, OPCW, UN, UNCTAD,
UNESCO, UNIDO, UPU, WHO,
WIPO, WTO
Diplomatic
representation
in the US:
chief of mission: Ambassador
Denis G. ANTOINE
chancery: 1701 New Hampshire
Avenue NW, Washington, DC
20009
telephone: [1] (202) 265-2561
FAX: [1] (202) 265-2468
consulate(s) general: New York
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2463
Diplomatic
representation
from the US:
chief of mission: the US
Ambassador to Barbados is
accredited to Grenada
embassy: Lance-aux-Epines
Stretch, Saint George's
mailing address: P. O. Box 54,
Saint George's
telephone: [1] (473) 444-1173
through 1176
FAX: [1] (473) 444-4820
Flag
description:
a rectangle divided diagonally into
yellow triangles (top and bottom)
and green triangles (hoist side
and outer side), with a red border
around the flag; there are seven
yellow, five-pointed stars with
three centered in the top red
border, three centered in the
bottom red border, and one on a
red disk superimposed at the
center of the flag; there is also a
symbolic nutmeg pod on the hoist-
side triangle (Grenada is the
world's second-largest producer
of nutmeg, after Indonesia); the
seven stars represent the seven
administrative divisions
Economy Grenada
Economy -
overview:
Grenada relies on tourism as its
main source of foreign exchange,
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2464
especially since the construction
of an international airport in 1985.
Strong performances in
construction and manufacturing,
together with the development of
an offshore financial industry,
have also contributed to growth in
national output.
GDP
(purchasing
power parity):
$440 million (2002 est.)
GDP (official
exchange
rate):
$454 million (2005)
GDP - real
growth rate:
0.9% (2005 est.)
GDP - per
capita (PPP):
$3,900 (2005 est.)
GDP -
composition
by sector:
agriculture: 5.4%
industry: 18%
services: 76.6% (2003)
Labor force: 42,300 (1996)
Labor force -
by occupation:
agriculture: 24%
industry: 14%
services: 62% (1999 est.)
Unemployment
rate:
12.5% (2000)
Population 32% (2000)
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2465
below poverty
line:
Household
income or
consumption
by percentage
share:
lowest 10%: NA%
highest 10%: NA%
Inflation rate
(consumer
prices):
3% (2005 est.)
Budget: revenues: $85.8 million
expenditures: $102.1 million;
including capital expenditures of
$28 million (1997)
Agriculture -
products:
bananas, cocoa, nutmeg, mace,
citrus, avocados, root crops,
sugarcane, corn, vegetables
Industries: food and beverages, textiles, light
assembly operations, tourism,
construction
Industrial
production
growth rate:
0.7% (1997 est.)
Electricity -
production:
171.3 million kWh (2004)
Electricity -
production by
source:
fossil fuel: 100%
hydro: 0%
nuclear: 0%
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2466
other: 0% (2001)
Electricity -
consumption:
159.3 million kWh (2004)
Electricity -
exports:
0 kWh (2004)
Electricity -
imports:
0 kWh (2004)
Oil -
production:
0 bbl/day (2004 est.)
Oil -
consumption:
1,800 bbl/day (2004 est.)
Oil - exports: NA bbl/day
Oil - imports: NA bbl/day
Natural gas -
production:
0 cu m (2004 est.)
Natural gas -
consumption:
0 cu m (2004 est.)
Exports: $40 million (2004 est.)
Exports -
commodities:
bananas, cocoa, nutmeg, fruit and
vegetables, clothing, mace
Exports -
partners:
Saint Lucia 12.3%, US 11.4%,
Antigua and Barbuda 8.3%,
Germany 8%, Netherlands 7.9%,
Saint Kitts & Nevis 7.5%,
Dominica 7.5%, UK 6.8%, France
4.2% (2005)
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2467
Imports: $276 million (2004 est.)
Imports -
commodities:
food, manufactured goods,
machinery, chemicals, fuel
Imports -
partners:
Trinidad and Tobago 27.6%, US
26.8%, UK 5.9% (2005)
Debt -
external:
$347 million (2004)
Economic aid -
recipient:
$15.4 million (2004)
Currency
(code):
East Caribbean dollar (XCD)
Currency
code:
XCD
Exchange
rates:
East Caribbean dollars per US
dollar - 2.7 (2006), 2.7 (2005), 2.7
(2004), 2.7 (2003), 2.7 (2002)
Fiscal year: calendar year
Communications Grenada
Telephones
- main lines
in use:
32,700 (2004)
Telephones
- mobile
cellular:
43,300 (2004)
Telephone
system:
general assessment: automatic,
islandwide telephone system
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2468
domestic: interisland VHF and UHF
radiotelephone links
international: country code - 1-473;
new SHF radiotelephone links to
Trinidad and Tobago and Saint
Vincent; VHF and UHF radio links to
Trinidad
Radio
broadcast
stations:
AM 2, FM 13, shortwave 0 (1998)
Radios: 57,000 (1997)
Television
broadcast
stations:
2 (1997)
Televisions: 33,000 (1997)
Internet
country
code:
.gd
Internet
hosts:
17 (2006)
Internet
Service
Providers
(ISPs):
14 (2000)
Internet
users:
19,000 (2005)
Transportation Grenada
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2469
Airports: 3 (2006)
Airports -
with
paved
runways:
total: 3
2,438 to 3,047 m: 1
1,524 to 2,437 m: 1
under 914 m: 1 (2006)
Roadways: total: 1,127 km
paved: 687 km
unpaved: 440 km (1999)
Ports and
terminals:
Saint George's
Military Grenada
Military
branches:
no regular military forces; Royal
Grenada Police Force (includes
Coast Guard) (2007)
Manpower
available for
military
service:
males age 18-49: 24,031 (2005 est.)
Manpower fit
for military
service:
males age 18-49: 17,483 (2005 est.)
Manpower
reaching
military
service age
annually:
males age 18-49: 1,274 (2005 est.)
Military
expenditures
NA
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2470
- percent of
GDP:
Transnational
Issues
Grenada
Disputes -
international:
none
Illicit drugs: small-scale cannabis cultivation;
lesser transshipment point for
marijuana and cocaine to US
GUADELOUPE
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2471
Introduction Guadeloupe
Background: Guadeloupe has been a French
possession since 1635. The island of
Saint Martin is shared with the
Netherlands; its southern portion is
named Sint Maarten and is part of
the Netherlands Antilles and its
northern portion is named Saint-
Martin and is part of Guadeloupe
Geography Guadeloupe
Location: Caribbean, islands between the
Caribbean Sea and the North
Atlantic Ocean, southeast of Puerto
Rico
Geographic
coordinates:
16 15 N, 61 35 W
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2472
Map
references:
Central America and the Caribbean
Area: total: 1,780 sq km
land: 1,706 sq km
water: 74 sq km
note: Guadeloupe is an archipelago
of nine inhabited islands, including
Basse-Terre, Grande-Terre, Marie-
Galante, La Desirade, Iles des
Saintes (2), Saint-Barthelemy, Iles
de la Petite Terre, and Saint-Martin
(French part of the island of Saint
Martin)
Area -
comparative:
10 times the size of Washington, DC
Land
boundaries:
total: 10.2 km
border countries: Netherlands
Antilles (Sint Maarten) 10.2 km
Coastline: 306 km
Maritime
claims:
territorial sea: 12 nm
exclusive economic zone: 200 nm
Climate: subtropical tempered by trade
winds; moderately high humidity
Terrain: Basse-Terre is volcanic in origin
with interior mountains; Grande-
Terre is low limestone formation;
most of the seven other islands are
volcanic in origin
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Elevation
extremes:
lowest point: Caribbean Sea 0 m
highest point: Soufriere 1,484 m
Natural
resources:
cultivable land, beaches and
climate that foster tourism
Land use: arable land: 11.7%
permanent crops: 2.92%
other: 85.38% (2005)
Irrigated
land:
60 sq km (2003)
Natural
hazards:
hurricanes (June to October);
Soufriere de Guadeloupe is an
active volcano
Environment
- current
issues:
NA
Geography -
note:
a narrow channel, the Riviere Salee,
divides Guadeloupe proper into two
islands: the larger, western Basse-
Terre and the smaller, eastern
Grande-Terre
People Guadeloupe
Population: 452,776 (July 2006 est.)
Age
structure:
0-14 years: 23.6% (male
54,725/female 52,348)
15-64 years: 67.1% (male
150,934/female 153,094)
65 years and over: 9.2% (male
17,353/female 24,322) (2006 est.)
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Median
age:
total: 32.2 years
male: 31.3 years
female: 33.2 years (2006 est.)
Population
growth
rate:
0.88% (2006 est.)
Birth rate: 15.05 births/1,000 population (2006
est.)
Death rate: 6.09 deaths/1,000 population (2006
est.)
Net
migration
rate:
-0.15 migrant(s)/1,000 population
(2006 est.)
Sex ratio: at birth: 1.05 male(s)/female
under 15 years: 1.05 male(s)/female
15-64 years: 0.99 male(s)/female
65 years and over: 0.71
male(s)/female
total population: 0.97 male(s)/female
(2006 est.)
Infant
mortality
rate:
total: 8.41 deaths/1,000 live births
male: 9.59 deaths/1,000 live births
female: 7.16 deaths/1,000 live births
(2006 est.)
Life
expectancy
at birth:
total population: 78.06 years
male: 74.91 years
female: 81.37 years (2006 est.)
Total 1.9 children born/woman (2006 est.)
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fertility
rate:
HIV/AIDS -
adult
prevalence
rate:
NA
HIV/AIDS -
people
living with
HIV/AIDS:
NA
HIV/AIDS -
deaths:
NA
Nationality: noun: Guadeloupian(s)
adjective: Guadeloupe
Ethnic
groups:
black or mulatto 90%, white 5%, East
Indian, Lebanese, Chinese less than
5%
Religions: Roman Catholic 95%, Hindu and
pagan African 4%, Protestant 1%
Languages: French (official) 99%, Creole patois
Literacy: definition: age 15 and over can read
and write
total population: 90%
male: 90%
female: 90% (1982 est.)
Government Guadeloupe
Country name: conventional long form:
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Department of Guadeloupe
conventional short form:
Guadeloupe
local long form: Departement de la
Guadeloupe
local short form: Guadeloupe
Dependency
status:
overseas department of France
Government
type:
NA
Capital: name: Basse-Terre
geographic coordinates: 16 00 N,
61 44 W
time difference: UTC-4 (1 hour
ahead of Washington, DC during
Standard Time)
Administrative
divisions:
none (overseas department of
France)
Independence: none (overseas department of
France)
National
holiday:
Bastille Day, 14 July (1789)
Constitution: 4 October 1958 (French
Constitution)
Legal system: French legal system
Suffrage: 18 years of age; universal
Executive chief of state: President Jacques
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branch: CHIRAC of France (since 17 May
1995), represented by Prefect
Jean-Jacques BROT (since 12
June 2006)
head of government: President of
the General Council Jacques
GILLOT (since 26 March 2001);
President of the Regional Council
Victorin LUREL (since 2 April
2004)
cabinet: NA
elections: French president
elected by popular vote for a five-
year term; prefect appointed by
the French president on the
advice of the French Ministry of
Interior; the presidents of the
General and Regional Councils are
elected by the members of those
councils
election results: NA
Legislative
branch:
unicameral General Council or
Conseil General (42 seats;
members are elected by popular
vote to serve six-year terms) and
the unicameral Regional Council
or Conseil Regional (41 seats;
members are elected by popular
vote to serve six-year terms)
elections: General Council - last
held March 2004 (next to be held
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2478
by in 2010); Regional Council - last
held 28 March 2004 (next to be
held in March 2008 to elect half of
the body)
election results: General Council -
percent of vote by party - NA;
seats by party - left-wing
candidates 11, PS 8, RPR 8, PPDG
6, right-wing candidates 5, PCG 3,
UDF 1; Regional Council (second
round) - percent of vote by party -
PS 58.4%, UMP 41.6%; seats by
party - PS 29, UMP 12
note: Guadeloupe elects two
representatives to the French
Senate; elections last held
September 2004 (next to be held
September 2013); percent of vote
by party - NA; seats by party - NA,
Guadeloupe elects four
representatives to the French
National Assembly; elections last
held 9 June-16 June 2002 (next to
be held June 2007); percent of
vote by party - NA; seats by party -
RPR 2, PS 1, different right parties
1
Judicial
branch:
Court of Appeal or Cour d'Appel
with jurisdiction over Guadeloupe,
French Guiana, and Martinique
Political Communist Party of Guadeloupe
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parties and
leaders:
or PCG [Mona CADOCE]; FGPS
[Dominique LARIFLA]; Left Radical
Party or PRG [Flavien FERRANT];
Progressive Democratic Party or
PPDG [Henri BANGOU]; Socialist
Party or PS [Jules OTTO]; Union
for French Democracy or UDF
[Claudine LACAVE]; Union for a
Popular Movement or UMP
(including Rassemblement pour la
Republique or RPR) [Gabrielle
LOUIS-CARABIN]
Political
pressure
groups and
leaders:
Christian Movement for the
Liberation of Guadeloupe or KLPG;
General Federation of Guadeloupe
Workers or CGT-G; General Union
of Guadeloupe Workers or UGTG;
Movement for Independent
Guadeloupe or MPGI; The
Socialist Renewal Movement
International
organization
participation:
WCL, WFTU
Diplomatic
representation
in the US:
none (overseas department of
France)
Diplomatic
representation
from the US:
none (overseas department of
France)
Flag unofficial, local flag based upon
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description: the arms of the city of Pointe-a-
Pitre; the field is divided
horizontally with a narrow, blue
stripe along the top edge charged
with three gold fleurs-de-lis; the
wider, lower portion of the field is
black and charged with green
sugar cane leaves - representing
one of Guadeloupe's main crops -
surmounted by a gold radiant sun
representing the tropical climate;
the only official flag is the
national flag of France
Economy Guadeloupe
Economy -
overview:
This Caribbean economy depends
on agriculture, tourism, light
industry, and services. It also
depends on France for large
subsidies and imports. Tourism is
a key industry, with most tourists
from the US; an increasingly large
number of cruise ships visit the
islands. The traditional sugarcane
crop is slowly being replaced by
other crops, such as bananas
(which now supply about 50% of
export earnings), eggplant, and
flowers. Other vegetables and
root crops are cultivated for local
consumption, although
Guadeloupe is still dependent on
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2481
imported food, mainly from
France. Light industry features
sugar and rum production. Most
manufactured goods and fuel are
imported. Unemployment is
especially high among the young.
Hurricanes periodically devastate
the economy.
GDP
(purchasing
power parity):
$3.513 billion (2003 est.)
GDP (official
exchange
rate):
NA
GDP - real
growth rate:
NA%
GDP - per
capita (PPP):
$7,900 (2003 est.)
GDP -
composition
by sector:
agriculture: 15%
industry: 17%
services: 68% (2002 est.)
Labor force: 191,400 (1999)
Labor force -
by occupation:
agriculture: 15%
industry: 20%
services: 65% (2002)
Unemployment
rate:
26.9% (2003)
Population NA%
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below poverty
line:
Household
income or
consumption
by percentage
share:
lowest 10%: NA%
highest 10%: NA%
Inflation rate
(consumer
prices):
NA%
Budget: revenues: $637.7 million
expenditures: $680.1 million;
including capital expenditures of
$112.5 million (2002)
Agriculture -
products:
bananas, sugarcane, tropical
fruits and vegetables; cattle, pigs,
goats
Industries: construction, cement, rum, sugar,
tourism
Industrial
production
growth rate:
NA%
Electricity -
production:
1.165 billion kWh (2003)
Electricity -
production by
source:
fossil fuel: 100%
hydro: 0%
nuclear: 0%
other: 0% (2001)
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Electricity -
consumption:
1.084 billion kWh (2003)
Electricity -
exports:
0 kWh (2003)
Electricity -
imports:
0 kWh (2003)
Oil -
production:
0 bbl/day (2003 est.)
Oil -
consumption:
13,000 bbl/day (2003 est.)
Oil - exports: NA bbl/day
Oil - imports: NA bbl/day
Natural gas -
production:
0 cu m (2003 est.)
Natural gas -
consumption:
0 cu m (2003 est.)
Exports: $147.8 million f.o.b. (2002)
Exports -
commodities:
bananas, sugar, rum, melons,
spring water
Exports -
partners:
France 60%, Martinique 18%, US
4% (2004)
Imports: $1.766 billion c.i.f. (2002)
Imports -
commodities:
foodstuffs, fuels, vehicles,
clothing and other consumer
goods, construction materials
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Imports -
partners:
France 63%, Germany 4%, US 3%,
Japan 2%, Netherlands Antilles
2% (2004)
Debt -
external:
$NA
Economic aid -
recipient:
$NA; note - substantial annual
French subsidies (2004)
Currency
(code):
euro (EUR)
Currency
code:
EUR
Exchange
rates:
euros per US dollar - 0.8041
(2005), 0.8054 (2004), 0.886
(2003), 1.0626 (2002), 1.1175
j(2001)
Fiscal year: calendar year
Communications Guadeloupe
Telephones
- main lines
in use:
210,000 (2001)
Telephones
- mobile
cellular:
323,500 (2002)
Telephone
system:
general assessment: domestic
facilities inadequate
domestic: NA
international: country code - 590;
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satellite earth station - 1 Intelsat
(Atlantic Ocean); microwave radio
relay to Antigua and Barbuda,
Dominica, and Martinique
Radio
broadcast
stations:
AM 1, FM 17, shortwave 0 (1998)
Radios: 113,000 (1997)
Television
broadcast
stations:
5 (plus several low-power repeaters)
(1997)
Televisions: 118,000 (1997)
Internet
country
code:
.gp
Internet
hosts:
418 (2005)
Internet
Service
Providers
(ISPs):
3 (2000)
Internet
users:
79,000 (2005)
Transportation Guadeloupe
Airports: 9 (2006)
Airports -
with
total: 8
over 3,047 m: 1
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2486
paved
runways:
914 to 1,523 m: 2
under 914 m: 5 (2006)
Airports -
with
unpaved
runways:
total: 1
under 914 m: 1 (2006)
Roadways: total: 947 km (2002)
Ports and
terminals:
Basse-Terre, Gustavia, Pointe-a-Pitre
Military Guadeloupe
Military
branches:
no regular military forces
Manpower
available
for
military
service:
males age 18-49: 112,551 (2005 est.)
Manpower
fit for
military
service:
males age 18-49: 92,834 (2005 est.)
Manpower
reaching
military
service
age
annually:
males age 18-49: 3,364 (2005 est.)
Military - defense is the responsibility of France
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2487
note:
Transnational
Issues
Guadeloupe
Disputes -
international:
none
GUATEMALA
Introduction Guatemala
Background: The Mayan civilization flourished in
Guatemala and surrounding regions
during the first millennium A.D. After
almost three centuries as a Spanish
colony, Guatemala won its
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2488
independence in 1821. During the
second half of the 20th century, it
experienced a variety of military and
civilian governments, as well as a
36-year guerrilla war. In 1996, the
government signed a peace
agreement formally ending the
conflict, which had left more than
100,000 people dead and had
created, by some estimates, some 1
million refugees.
Geography Guatemala
Location: Central America, bordering the
North Pacific Ocean, between El
Salvador and Mexico, and bordering
the Gulf of Honduras (Caribbean
Sea) between Honduras and Belize
Geographic
coordinates:
15 30 N, 90 15 W
Map
references:
Central America and the Caribbean
Area: total: 108,890 sq km
land: 108,430 sq km
water: 460 sq km
Area -
comparative:
slightly smaller than Tennessee
Land
boundaries:
total: 1,687 km
border countries: Belize 266 km, El
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Salvador 203 km, Honduras 256 km,
Mexico 962 km
Coastline: 400 km
Maritime
claims:
territorial sea: 12 nm
exclusive economic zone: 200 nm
continental shelf: 200-m depth or to
the depth of exploitation
Climate: tropical; hot, humid in lowlands;
cooler in highlands
Terrain: mostly mountains with narrow
coastal plains and rolling limestone
plateau
Elevation
extremes:
lowest point: Pacific Ocean 0 m
highest point: Volcan Tajumulco
4,211 m
Natural
resources:
petroleum, nickel, rare woods, fish,
chicle, hydropower
Land use: arable land: 13.22%
permanent crops: 5.6%
other: 81.18% (2005)
Irrigated
land:
1,300 sq km (2003)
Natural
hazards:
numerous volcanoes in mountains,
with occasional violent
earthquakes; Caribbean coast
extremely susceptible to hurricanes
and other tropical storms
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2490
Environment
- current
issues:
deforestation in the Peten
rainforest; soil erosion; water
pollution
Environment
-
international
agreements:
party to: Antarctic Treaty,
Biodiversity, Climate Change,
Climate Change-Kyoto Protocol,
Desertification, Endangered
Species, Environmental
Modification, Hazardous Wastes,
Law of the Sea, Marine Dumping,
Ozone Layer Protection, Ship
Pollution, Wetlands, Whaling
signed, but not ratified: none of the
selected agreements
Geography -
note:
no natural harbors on west coast
People Guatemala
Population: 12,728,111 (July 2007 est.)
Age
structure:
0-14 years: 40.8% (male
2,641,179/female 2,556,397)
15-64 years: 55.5% (male
3,426,376/female 3,642,157)
65 years and over: 3.6% (male
213,801/female 248,201) (2007 est.)
Median
age:
total: 18.9 years
male: 18.3 years
female: 19.5 years (2007 est.)
Population 2.152% (2007 est.)
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2491
growth
rate:
Birth rate: 29.09 births/1,000 population (2007
est.)
Death rate: 5.27 deaths/1,000 population (2007
est.)
Net
migration
rate:
-2.31 migrant(s)/1,000 population
(2007 est.)
Sex ratio: at birth: 1.05 male(s)/female
under 15 years: 1.033 male(s)/female
15-64 years: 0.941 male(s)/female
65 years and over: 0.861
male(s)/female
total population: 0.974
male(s)/female (2007 est.)
Infant
mortality
rate:
total: 29.77 deaths/1,000 live births
male: 32.26 deaths/1,000 live births
female: 27.16 deaths/1,000 live births
(2007 est.)
Life
expectancy
at birth:
total population: 69.69 years
male: 67.94 years
female: 71.52 years (2007 est.)
Total
fertility
rate:
3.7 children born/woman (2007 est.)
HIV/AIDS -
adult
1.1% (2003 est.)
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2492
prevalence
rate:
HIV/AIDS -
people
living with
HIV/AIDS:
78,000 (2003 est.)
HIV/AIDS -
deaths:
5,800 (2003 est.)
Nationality: noun: Guatemalan(s)
adjective: Guatemalan
Ethnic
groups:
Mestizo (mixed Amerindian-Spanish -
in local Spanish called Ladino) and
European 59.4%, K'iche 9.1%,
Kaqchikel 8.4%, Mam 7.9%, Q'eqchi
6.3%, other Mayan 8.6%, indigenous
non-Mayan 0.2%, other 0.1% (2001
census)
Religions: Roman Catholic, Protestant,
indigenous Mayan beliefs
Languages: Spanish 60%, Amerindian languages
40% (23 officially recognized
Amerindian languages, including
Quiche, Cakchiquel, Kekchi, Mam,
Garifuna, and Xinca)
Literacy: definition: age 15 and over can read
and write
total population: 69.1%
male: 75.4%
female: 63.3% (2002 census)
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2493
Government Guatemala
Country name: conventional long form: Republic
of Guatemala
conventional short form:
Guatemala
local long form: Republica de
Guatemala
local short form: Guatemala
Government
type:
constitutional democratic republic
Capital: name: Guatemala
geographic coordinates: 14 38 N,
90 31 W
time difference: UTC-6 (1 hour
behind Washington, DC during
Standard Time)
daylight saving time: +1hr, begins
last Sunday in April; ends last
Friday in September; note - there
is no DST planned for 2007-2009
Administrative
divisions:
22 departments (departamentos,
singular - departamento); Alta
Verapaz, Baja Verapaz,
Chimaltenango, Chiquimula, El
Progreso, Escuintla, Guatemala,
Huehuetenango, Izabal, Jalapa,
Jutiapa, Peten, Quetzaltenango,
Quiche, Retalhuleu,
Sacatepequez, San Marcos, Santa
Rosa, Solola, Suchitepequez,
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Totonicapan, Zacapa
Independence: 15 September 1821 (from Spain)
National
holiday:
Independence Day, 15 September
(1821)
Constitution: 31 May 1985, effective 14 January
1986; note - suspended 25 May
1993 by former President Jorge
SERRANO; reinstated 5 June 1993
following ouster of president;
amended November 1993
Legal system: civil law system; judicial review of
legislative acts; has not accepted
compulsory ICJ jurisdiction
Suffrage: 18 years of age; universal; note -
active duty members of the armed
forces may not vote and are
restricted to their barracks on
election day
Executive
branch:
chief of state: President Oscar
Jose Rafael BERGER Perdomo
(since 14 January 2004); Vice
President Eduardo STEIN Barillas
(since 14 January 2004); note -
the president is both the chief of
state and head of government
head of government: President
Oscar Jose Rafael BERGER
Perdomo (since 14 January 2004);
Vice President Eduardo STEIN
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2495
Barillas (since 14 January 2004)
cabinet: Council of Ministers
appointed by the president
elections: president elected by
popular vote for a four-year term
(may not serve consecutive
terms); election last held 9
November 2003; runoff held 28
December 2003 (next to be held
September 2007)
election results: Oscar BERGER
Perdomo elected president;
percent of vote - Oscar BERGER
Perdomo 54.1%, Alvarado COLOM
45.9%
Legislative
branch:
unicameral Congress of the
Republic or Congreso de la
Republica (158 seats; members
are elected by popular vote to
serve four-year terms)
elections: last held 9 November
2003 (next to be held in
September 2007)
election results: percent of vote
by party - NA; seats by party -
GANA 49, FRG 41, UNE 33, PAN
17, other 18
note: in the 2003 election, the
number of congressional seats
increased from 113 to 158
Judicial Constitutional Court or Corte de
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2496
branch: Constitutcionalidad is
Guatemala's highest court (five
judges are elected for concurrent
five-year terms); Supreme Court of
Justice or Corte Suprema de
Justicia (13 members serve
concurrent five-year terms and
elect a president of the Court
each year from among their
number; the president of the
Supreme Court of Justice also
supervises trial judges around the
country, who are named to five-
year terms)
Political
parties and
leaders:
Authentic Integral Development or
DIA [Edgar DE LEON Sotomayor];
Center of Social Action or CASA
[Eduardo SUGER]; Democracy
Front or FRENTE [Alfonso
CABRERA]; Democratic Union or
UD [Manuel CONDE Orellana];
Encounter for Guatemala or EG
[Nineth MONTENGRO]; Grand
National Alliance or GANA
[Alfredo VILLA]; Guatemalan
Christian Democracy or DCG
[Vinicio CEREZO Arevalo];
Guatemalan National
Revolutionary Unity or URNG
[Hector NUILA]; Guatemalan
Republican Front or FRG [Efrain
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2497
RIOS Montt]; National
Advancement Party or PAN
[Ruben Dario MORALES]; National
Unity for Hope or UNE [Alvaro
COLOM Caballeros]; National Well-
Being or BIEN [Fidel REYES]; New
Nation Alliance or ANN [Pablo
MONSANTO]; Patriot Party or PP
[Ret. Gen. Otto PEREZ Molina];
Progressive Libertarian Party or
PLP [Acisclo VALLADARES];
Reform Movement or MR [Juan
Jose CABRERA Alonso]; Unionista
Party or PU [Fritz GARCIA]; Unity
of National Change or UCN
[Sidney SHAW]; Social Democratic
Party of Guatemala or PSG [Roger
VALENZUELA]
Political
pressure
groups and
leaders:
Agrarian Owners Group or
UNAGRO; Alliance Against
Impunity or AAI; Committee for
Campesino Unity or CUC;
Coordinating Committee of
Agricultural, Commercial,
Industrial, and Financial
Associations or CACIF; Mutual
Support Group or GAM
International
organization
participation:
BCIE, CACM, FAO, G-24, G-77,
IADB, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, ICC,
ICRM, IDA, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, IHO,
ILO, IMF, IMO, Interpol, IOC, IOM,
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2498
IPU, ISO (correspondent), ITU,
ITUC, LAES, LAIA (observer),
MIGA, MINUSTAH, MONUC, NAM,
OAS, ONUB, OPANAL, OPCW, PCA,
RG, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO,
UNIDO, UNMEE, UNMIS, UNOCI,
UNWTO, UPU, WCL, WCO, WFTU,
WHO, WIPO, WMO, WTO
Diplomatic
representation
in the US:
chief of mission: Ambassador
Guillermo CASTILLO
chancery: 2220 R Street NW,
Washington, DC 20008
telephone: [1] (202) 745-4952
FAX: [1] (202) 745-1908
consulate(s) general: Chicago,
Denver, Houston, Los Angeles,
Miami, New York, Providence, San
Francisco
Diplomatic
representation
from the US:
chief of mission: Ambassador
James M. DERHAM
embassy: 7-01 Avenida Reforma,
Zone 10, Guatemala City
mailing address: APO AA 34024
telephone: [502] 2326-4000
FAX: [502] 2326-4654
Flag
description:
three equal vertical bands of light
blue (hoist side), white, and light
blue with the coat of arms
centered in the white band; the
coat of arms includes a green and
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2499
red quetzal (the national bird) and
a scroll bearing the inscription
LIBERTAD 15 DE SEPTIEMBRE DE
1821 (the original date of
independence from Spain) all
superimposed on a pair of crossed
rifles and a pair of crossed swords
and framed by a wreath
Economy Guatemala
Economy -
overview:
Guatemala is the largest and
most populous of the Central
American countries with a GDP
per capita roughly one-half that of
Brazil, Argentina, and Chile. The
agricultural sector accounts for
about one-fourth of GDP, two-
fifths of exports, and half of the
labor force. Coffee, sugar, and
bananas are the main products.
The 1996 signing of peace
accords, which ended 36 years of
civil war, removed a major
obstacle to foreign investment,
and Guatemala since then has
pursued important reforms and
macroeconomic stabilization. On
1 July 2006, the Central American
Free Trade Agreement (CAFTA)
entered in to force between the
US and Guatemala. The
distribution of income remains
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2500
highly unequal with about 56% of
the population below the poverty
line. Other ongoing challenges
include increasing government
revenues, negotiating further
assistance from international
donors, upgrading both
government and private financial
operations, curtailing drug
trafficking, and narrowing the
trade deficit. Remittances from a
large expatriate community that
moved to the United States during
the war have become the primary
source of foreign income,
exceeding the total value of
exports and tourism combined.
GDP
(purchasing
power parity):
$61.38 billion (2006 est.)
GDP (official
exchange
rate):
$35.25 billion (2006 est.)
GDP - real
growth rate:
4.6% (2006 est.)
GDP - per
capita (PPP):
$5,000 (2006 est.)
GDP -
composition
by sector:
agriculture: 22.1%
industry: 19.1%
services: 58.7% (2006 est.)
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2501
Labor force: 5.02 million (2005 est.)
Labor force -
by occupation:
agriculture: 50%
industry: 15%
services: 35% (1999 est.)
Unemployment
rate:
3.2% (2005 est.)
Population
below poverty
line:
56.2% (2004 est.)
Household
income or
consumption
by percentage
share:
lowest 10%: 1.6%
highest 10%: 46% (1998)
Distribution of
family income
- Gini index:
59.9 (2005)
Inflation rate
(consumer
prices):
5.8% (2006)
Investment
(gross fixed):
15.5% of GDP (2006 est.)
Budget: revenues: $3.84 billion
expenditures: $4.431 billion;
including capital expenditures of
$750 million (2006 est.)
Public debt: 18.6% of GDP (2006 est.)
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2502
Agriculture -
products:
sugarcane, corn, bananas, coffee,
beans, cardamom; cattle, sheep,
pigs, chickens
Industries: sugar, textiles and clothing,
furniture, chemicals, petroleum,
metals, rubber, tourism
Industrial
production
growth rate:
3.6% (2006 est.)
Electricity -
production:
7.2 billion kWh (2005)
Electricity -
production by
source:
fossil fuel: 51.9%
hydro: 35.2%
nuclear: 0%
other: 12.9% (2001)
Electricity -
consumption:
6.625 billion kWh (2005)
Electricity -
exports:
335 million kWh (2005)
Electricity -
imports:
23 million kWh (2005)
Oil -
production:
16,370 bbl/day (2006 est.)
Oil -
consumption:
73,510 bbl/day (2006 est.)
Oil - exports: 15,560 bbl/day (2006 est.)
Oil - imports: 72,960 bbl/day (2006 est.)
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2503
Oil - proved
reserves:
263 million bbl (1 January 2002)
Natural gas -
production:
0 cu m (2004 est.)
Natural gas -
consumption:
0 cu m (2004 est.)
Natural gas -
proved
reserves:
3.087 billion cu m (1 January 2005
est.)
Current
account
balance:
-$1.533 billion (2006 est.)
Exports: $3.71 billion f.o.b. (2006 est.)
Exports -
commodities:
coffee, sugar, petroleum, apparel,
bananas, fruits and vegetables,
cardamom
Exports -
partners:
US 50.1%, El Salvador 12.1%,
Honduras 7.3%, Mexico 4% (2005)
Imports: $9.911 billion f.o.b. (2006 est.)
Imports -
commodities:
fuels, machinery and transport
equipment, construction
materials, grain, fertilizers,
electricity
Imports -
partners:
US 38.1%, Mexico 7.6%, El
Salvador 4.8%, South Korea 4.8%,
Panama 4.4% (2005)
Reserves of $4.061 billion (2006 est.)
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2504
foreign
exchange and
gold:
Debt -
external:
$3.908 billion (2006 est.)
Economic aid -
recipient:
$250 million (2000 est.)
Currency
(code):
quetzal (GTQ), US dollar (USD),
others allowed
Currency
code:
GTQ; USD
Exchange
rates:
quetzales per US dollar - 7.6026
(2006), 7.6339 (2005), 7.9465
(2004), 7.9409 (2003), 7.8217
(2002)
Fiscal year: calendar year
Communications Guatemala
Telephones
- main lines
in use:
1.132 million (2004)
Telephones
- mobile
cellular:
3.168 million (2004)
Telephone
system:
general assessment: fairly modern
network centered in the city of
Guatemala
domestic: NA
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2505
international: country code - 502;
connected to Central American
Microwave System; satellite earth
station - 1 Intelsat (Atlantic Ocean)
Radio
broadcast
stations:
AM 130, FM 487, shortwave 15 (2000)
Radios: 835,000 (1997)
Television
broadcast
stations:
26 (plus 27 repeaters) (1997)
Televisions: 1.323 million (1997)
Internet
country
code:
.gt
Internet
hosts:
49,026 (2006)
Internet
Service
Providers
(ISPs):
5 (2000)
Internet
users:
756,000 (2005)
Transportation Guatemala
Airports: 450 (2006)
Airports -
with paved
total: 11
2,438 to 3,047 m: 3
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2506
runways: 1,524 to 2,437 m: 2
914 to 1,523 m: 4
under 914 m: 2 (2006)
Airports -
with
unpaved
runways:
total: 439
2,438 to 3,047 m: 1
1,524 to 2,437 m: 8
914 to 1,523 m: 111
under 914 m: 319 (2006)
Pipelines: oil 480 km (2006)
Railways: total: 886 km
narrow gauge: 886 km 0.914-m gauge
(2005)
Roadways: total: 14,095 km
paved: 4,863 km (includes 75 km of
expressways)
unpaved: 9,232 km (1999)
Waterways: 990 km
note: 260 km navigable year round;
additional 730 km navigable during
high-water season (2004)
Ports and
terminals:
Puerto Quetzal, Santo Tomas de
Castilla
Military Guatemala
Military
branches:
Army, Navy (includes Marines), Air
Force
Military
service age
and
all male citizens between the ages
of 18 and 50 are liable for military
service; conscript service
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2507
obligation: obligation varies from 12 to 24
months (2005)
Manpower
available for
military
service:
males age 18-49: 2,429,033
females age 18-49: 2,503,482 (2005
est.)
Manpower fit
for military
service:
males age 18-49: 1,911,412
females age 18-49: 2,070,806 (2005
est.)
Manpower
reaching
military
service age
annually:
males age 18-49: 134,032
females age 18-49: 130,641 (2005
est.)
Military
expenditures
- percent of
GDP:
0.4% (2006)
Transnational
Issues
Guatemala
Disputes -
international:
annual ministerial meetings under
the OAS-initiated Agreement on the
Framework for Negotiations and
Confidence Building Measures
continue to address Guatemalan
land and maritime claims in Belize
and the Caribbean Sea; the Line of
Adjacency created under the 2002
Differendum serves in lieu of the
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2508
contiguous international boundary
to control squatting in the sparsely
inhabited rain forests of Belize's
border region; Mexico must deal
with thousands of impoverished
Guatemalans and other Central
Americans who cross the porous
border looking for work in Mexico
and the United States
Refugees
and
internally
displaced
persons:
IDPs: undetermined (estimates vary
from none to 1 million displaced
from government's scorched-earth
offensive in 1980s against
indigenous people) (2006)
Illicit drugs: major transit country for cocaine
and heroin; in 2005, cultivated 100
hectares of opium poppy after
reemerging as a potential source of
opium in 2004; potential production
of less than 1 metric ton of pure
heroin; marijuana cultivation for
mostly domestic consumption;
proximity to Mexico makes
Guatemala a major staging area for
drugs (particularly for cocaine);
money laundering is a serious
problem; corruption is a major
problem
GUYANA
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Introduction Guyana
Background: Originally a Dutch colony in the 17th
century, by 1815 Guyana had
become a British possession. The
abolition of slavery led to black
settlement of urban areas and the
importation of indentured servants
from India to work the sugar
plantations. This ethnocultural
divide has persisted and has led to
turbulent politics. Guyana achieved
independence from the UK in 1966,
and since then it has been ruled
mostly by socialist-oriented
governments. In 1992, Cheddi
JAGAN was elected president in
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2510
what is considered the country's
first free and fair election since
independence. After his death five
years later, his wife, Janet JAGAN,
became president but resigned in
1999 due to poor health. Her
successor, Bharrat JAGDEO, was
reelected in 2001 and again in 2006.
Geography Guyana
Location: Northern South America, bordering
the North Atlantic Ocean, between
Suriname and Venezuela
Geographic
coordinates:
5 00 N, 59 00 W
Map
references:
South America
Area: total: 214,970 sq km
land: 196,850 sq km
water: 18,120 sq km
Area -
comparative:
slightly smaller than Idaho
Land
boundaries:
total: 2,949 km
border countries: Brazil 1,606 km,
Suriname 600 km, Venezuela 743
km
Coastline: 459 km
Maritime
claims:
territorial sea: 12 nm
exclusive economic zone: 200 nm
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2511
continental shelf: 200 nm or to the
outer edge of the continental
margin
Climate: tropical; hot, humid, moderated by
northeast trade winds; two rainy
seasons (May to August, November
to January)
Terrain: mostly rolling highlands; low
coastal plain; savanna in south
Elevation
extremes:
lowest point: Atlantic Ocean 0 m
highest point: Mount Roraima 2,835
m
Natural
resources:
bauxite, gold, diamonds, hardwood
timber, shrimp, fish
Land use: arable land: 2.23%
permanent crops: 0.14%
other: 97.63% (2005)
Irrigated
land:
1,500 sq km (2003)
Natural
hazards:
flash floods are a constant threat
during rainy seasons
Environment
- current
issues:
water pollution from sewage and
agricultural and industrial
chemicals; deforestation
Environment
-
international
agreements:
party to: Biodiversity, Climate
Change, Climate Change-Kyoto
Protocol, Desertification,
Endangered Species, Hazardous
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2512
Wastes, Law of the Sea, Ozone
Layer Protection, Ship Pollution,
Tropical Timber 83, Tropical Timber
94
signed, but not ratified: none of the
selected agreements
Geography -
note:
the third-smallest country in South
America after Suriname and
Uruguay; substantial portions of its
western and eastern territories are
claimed by Venezuela and Suriname
respectively
People Guyana
Population: 769,095
note: estimates for this country
explicitly take into account the
effects of excess mortality due to
AIDS; this can result in lower life
expectancy, higher infant mortality
and death rates, lower population
and growth rates, and changes in the
distribution of population by age and
sex than would otherwise be
expected (July 2007 est.)
Age
structure:
0-14 years: 26.1% (male
102,111/female 98,325)
15-64 years: 68.6% (male
266,288/female 261,620)
65 years and over: 5.3% (male
17,308/female 23,443) (2007 est.)
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2513
Median
age:
total: 27.8 years
male: 27.3 years
female: 28.3 years (2007 est.)
Population
growth
rate:
0.234% (2007 est.)
Birth rate: 18.09 births/1,000 population (2007
est.)
Death rate: 8.28 deaths/1,000 population (2007
est.)
Net
migration
rate:
-7.47 migrant(s)/1,000 population
(2007 est.)
Sex ratio: at birth: 1.05 male(s)/female
under 15 years: 1.039 male(s)/female
15-64 years: 1.018 male(s)/female
65 years and over: 0.738
male(s)/female
total population: 1.006
male(s)/female (2007 est.)
Infant
mortality
rate:
total: 31.35 deaths/1,000 live births
male: 34.93 deaths/1,000 live births
female: 27.58 deaths/1,000 live births
(2007 est.)
Life
expectancy
at birth:
total population: 66.17 years
male: 63.52 years
female: 68.95 years (2007 est.)
Total 2.04 children born/woman (2007 est.)
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2514
fertility
rate:
HIV/AIDS -
adult
prevalence
rate:
2.5% (2003 est.)
HIV/AIDS -
people
living with
HIV/AIDS:
11,000 (2003 est.)
HIV/AIDS -
deaths:
1,100 (2003 est.)
Nationality: noun: Guyanese (singular and plural)
adjective: Guyanese
Ethnic
groups:
East Indian 50%, black 36%,
Amerindian 7%, white, Chinese, and
mixed 7%
Religions: Christian 50%, Hindu 35%, Muslim
10%, other 5%
Languages: English, Amerindian dialects, Creole,
Caribbean Hindustani (a dialect of
Hindi), Urdu
Literacy: definition: age 15 and over has ever
attended school
total population: 98.8%
male: 99.1%
female: 98.5% (2003 est.)
Government Guyana
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2515
Country name: conventional long form:
Cooperative Republic of Guyana
conventional short form: Guyana
former: British Guiana
Government
type:
republic
Capital: name: Georgetown
geographic coordinates: 6 48 N,
58 10 W
time difference: UTC-4 (1 hour
ahead of Washington, DC during
Standard Time)
Administrative
divisions:
10 regions; Barima-Waini, Cuyuni-
Mazaruni, Demerara-Mahaica,
East Berbice-Corentyne,
Essequibo Islands-West Demerara,
Mahaica-Berbice, Pomeroon-
Supenaam, Potaro-Siparuni, Upper
Demerara-Berbice, Upper Takutu-
Upper Essequibo
Independence: 26 May 1966 (from UK)
National
holiday:
Republic Day, 23 February (1970)
Constitution: 6 October 1980
Legal system: based on English common law
with certain admixtures of Roman-
Dutch law; has not accepted
compulsory ICJ jurisdiction
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Suffrage: 18 years of age; universal
Executive
branch:
chief of state: President Bharrat
JAGDEO (since 11 August 1999);
note - assumed presidency after
resignation of President Janet
JAGAN and reelected in 2001, and
again in 2006
head of government: Prime
Minister Samuel HINDS (since
October 1992, except for a period
as chief of state after the death of
President Cheddi JAGAN on 6
March 1997)
cabinet: Cabinet of Ministers
appointed by the president,
responsible to the legislature
elections: president elected by
popular vote as leader of a party
list in parliamentary elections,
which must be held at least every
five years (no term limits);
elections last held 28 August 2006
(next to be held by August 2011);
prime minister appointed by the
president
election results: President Bharrat
JAGDEO reelected; percent of
vote 54.6%
Legislative
branch:
unicameral National Assembly (65
seats; members elected by
popular vote, also not more than 4
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2517
non-elected non-voting ministers
and 2 non-elected non-voting
parliamentary secretaries
appointed by the president; to
serve five-year terms)
elections: last held 28 August
2006 (next to be held by August
2011)
election results: percent of vote
by party - PPP/C 54.6%, PNC/R
34%, AFC 8.1%, other 3.3%; seats
by party - PPP/C 36, PNC/R 22, AFC
5, other 2
Judicial
branch:
Supreme Court of Judicature,
consisting of the High Court and
the Judicial Court of Appeal, with
right of final appeal to the
Caribbean Court of Justice
Political
parties and
leaders:
Alliance for Change or AFC
[Raphael TROTMAN and Khemraj
RAMJATTAN]; Guyana Action
Party or GAP [Paul HARDY];
Justice for All Party [C.N.
SHARMA]; People's National
Congress/Reform or PNC/R [Robert
Herman Orlando CORBIN];
People's Progressive Party/Civic
or PPP/C [Bharrat JAGDEO]; Rise,
Organize, and Rebuild or ROAR
[Ravi DEV]; The United Force or
TUF [Manzoor NADIR]; The Unity
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2518
Party [Joey JAGAN]; Vision
Guyana [Peter RAMSAROOP];
Working People's Alliance or WPA
[Rupert ROOPNARAINE]
Political
pressure
groups and
leaders:
Amerindian People's Association;
Guyana Citizens Initiative; Guyana
Bar Association; Guyana Human
Rights Association; Guyana Public
Service Union or GPSU; Private
Sector Commission; Trades Union
Congress
International
organization
participation:
ACP, C, Caricom, CDB, CSN, FAO,
G-77, IADB, IBRD, ICAO, ICCt,
ICRM, IDA, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, ILO,
IMF, IMO, Interpol, IOC, IOM
(observer), ISO (subscriber), ITU,
ITUC, LAES, MIGA, NAM, OAS,
OIC, OPANAL, OPCW, PCA, RG,
UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO,
UPU, WCL, WCO, WFTU, WHO,
WIPO, WMO, WTO
Diplomatic
representation
in the US:
chief of mission: Ambassador
Bayney KARRAN
chancery: 2490 Tracy Place NW,
Washington, DC 20008
telephone: [1] (202) 265-6900
FAX: [1] (202) 232-1297
consulate(s) general: New York
Diplomatic
representation
chief of mission: Ambassador
David M. ROBINSON
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2519
from the US: embassy: 100 Young and Duke
Streets, Kingston, Georgetown
mailing address: P. O. Box 10507,
Georgetown; US Embassy, 3170
Georgetown Place, Washington
DC 20521-3170
telephone: [592] 225-4900 through
4909
FAX: [592] 225-8497
Flag
description:
green, with a red isosceles
triangle (based on the hoist side)
superimposed on a long, yellow
arrowhead; there is a narrow,
black border between the red and
yellow, and a narrow, white
border between the yellow and
the green
Economy Guyana
Economy -
overview:
The Guyanese economy exhibited
moderate economic growth in
2001-02, based on expansion in
the agricultural and mining
sectors, a more favorable
atmosphere for business
initiatives, a more realistic
exchange rate, fairly low inflation,
and the continued support of
international organizations.
Chronic problems include a
shortage of skilled labor and a
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2520
deficient infrastructure. The
government is juggling a sizable
external debt against the urgent
need for expanded public
investment. The Inter-American
Development Bank in November
2006 canceled Guyana's nearly
$400 million debt with the Bank.
The bauxite mining sector should
benefit in the near term from
restructuring and partial
privatization. Export earnings
from agriculture and mining have
fallen sharply, while the import
bill has risen, driven by higher
energy prices. Guyana's entrance
into the Caricom Single Market
and Economy (CSME) in January
2006 will broaden the country's
export market, primarily in the
raw materials sector.
GDP
(purchasing
power parity):
$3.711 billion (2006 est.)
GDP (official
exchange
rate):
$836.7 million (2006 est.)
GDP - real
growth rate:
4.5% (2006 est.)
GDP - per $4,800 (2006 est.)
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capita (PPP):
GDP -
composition
by sector:
agriculture: 35.5%
industry: 19.3%
services: 45.2% (2006 est.)
Labor force: 418,000 (2001 est.)
Labor force -
by occupation:
agriculture: NA%
industry: NA%
services: NA%
Unemployment
rate:
9.1% (understated) (2000)
Population
below poverty
line:
NA%
Household
income or
consumption
by percentage
share:
lowest 10%: NA%
highest 10%: NA%
Inflation rate
(consumer
prices):
6% (2006 est.)
Investment
(gross fixed):
31.5% of GDP (2006 est.)
Budget: revenues: $359.9 million
expenditures: $430.3 million;
including capital expenditures of
$93.4 million (2006 est.)
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Agriculture -
products:
sugarcane, rice, wheat, vegetable
oils; beef, pork, poultry, dairy
products; fish, shrimp
Industries: bauxite, sugar, rice milling,
timber, textiles, gold mining
Industrial
production
growth rate:
NA%
Electricity -
production:
818.8 million kWh (2004)
Electricity -
production by
source:
fossil fuel: 99.4%
hydro: 0.6%
nuclear: 0%
other: 0% (2001)
Electricity -
consumption:
761.5 million kWh (2004)
Electricity -
exports:
0 kWh (2004)
Electricity -
imports:
0 kWh (2004)
Oil -
production:
0 bbl/day (2004 est.)
Oil -
consumption:
11,200 bbl/day (2004 est.)
Oil - exports: NA bbl/day
Oil - imports: NA bbl/day
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2523
Natural gas -
production:
0 cu m (2004 est.)
Natural gas -
consumption:
0 cu m (2004 est.)
Current
account
balance:
-$84.3 million (2006 est.)
Exports: $621.6 million f.o.b. (2006 est.)
Exports -
commodities:
sugar, gold, bauxite, alumina,
rice, shrimp, molasses, rum,
timber
Exports -
partners:
Canada 18.9%, US 18.9%, UK
11.8%, Portugal 8.1%, Jamaica
5.3%, Trinidad and Tobago 4.2%
(2005)
Imports: $706.9 million f.o.b. (2006 est.)
Imports -
commodities:
manufactures, machinery,
petroleum, food
Imports -
partners:
US 26.7%, Trinidad and Tobago
23.9%, Cuba 6.6%, UK 5%, China
4.1% (2005)
Reserves of
foreign
exchange and
gold:
$294.9 million (2006 est.)
Debt -
external:
$1.2 billion (2002)
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2524
Economic aid -
recipient:
$84 million (1995), Heavily
Indebted Poor Country Initiative
(HIPC) $253 million (1997)
Currency
(code):
Guyanese dollar (GYD)
Currency
code:
GYD
Exchange
rates:
Guyanese dollars per US dollar -
200.28 (2006), 200.79 (2005),
198.31 (2004), 193.88 (2003),
190.67 (2002)
Fiscal year: calendar year
Communications Guyana
Telephones
- main lines
in use:
110,100 (2005)
Telephones
- mobile
cellular:
281,400 (2005)
Telephone
system:
general assessment: fair system for
long-distance service
domestic: microwave radio relay
network for trunk lines
international: country code - 592;
tropospheric scatter to Trinidad;
satellite earth station - 1 Intelsat
(Atlantic Ocean)
Radio AM 3, FM 3, shortwave 1 (1998)
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2525
broadcast
stations:
Radios: 420,000 (1997)
Television
broadcast
stations:
3 (1 public station; 2 private stations
which relay US satellite services)
(1997)
Televisions: 46,000 (1997)
Internet
country
code:
.gy
Internet
hosts:
1,046 (2006)
Internet
Service
Providers
(ISPs):
3 (2000)
Internet
users:
160,000 (2005)
Transportation Guyana
Airports: 90 (2006)
Airports -
with paved
runways:
total: 9
1,524 to 2,437 m: 3
under 914 m: 6 (2006)
Airports -
with
unpaved
runways:
total: 81
1,524 to 2,437 m: 2
914 to 1,523 m: 14
under 914 m: 65 (2006)
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Railways: total: 187 km
standard gauge: 139 km 1.435-m
gauge
narrow gauge: 48 km 0.914-m gauge
note: all dedicated to ore transport
(2001 est.)
Roadways: total: 7,970 km
paved: 590 km
unpaved: 7,380 km (1999)
Waterways: Berbice, Demerara, and Essequibo
rivers are navigable by oceangoing
vessels for 150 km, 100 km, and 80
km respectively (2005)
Merchant
marine:
total: 7 ships (1000 GRT or over)
12,461 GRT/15,155 DWT
by type: cargo 5, petroleum tanker 1,
refrigerated cargo 1
foreign-owned: 1 (Germany 1)
registered in other countries: 4 (Saint
Vincent and the Grenadines 3,
unknown 1) (2006)
Ports and
terminals:
Georgetown
Military Guyana
Military
branches:
Guyana Defense Force: Army, Coast
Guard, Air Corps (2006)
Manpower
available for
males age 18-49: 206,098 (2005
est.)
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military
service:
Manpower fit
for military
service:
males age 18-49: 137,964 (2005
est.)
Military
expenditures
- percent of
GDP:
1.8% (2006)
Transnational
Issues
Guyana
Disputes -
international:
all of the area west of the
Essequibo River is claimed by
Venezuela preventing any
discussion of a maritime boundary;
Guyana has expressed its intention
to join Barbados in asserting claims
before UNCLOS that Trinidad and
Tobago's maritime boundary with
Venezuela extends into their
waters; Suriname claims a triangle
of land between the New and
Kutari/Koetari rivers in a historic
dispute over the headwaters of the
Courantyne; Guyana seeks
arbitration under provisions of the
UN Convention on the Law of the
Sea (UNCLOS) to resolve the long-
standing dispute with Suriname
over the axis of the territorial sea
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2528
boundary in potentially oil-rich
waters
Illicit drugs: transshipment point for narcotics
from South America - primarily
Venezuela - to Europe and the US;
producer of cannabis; rising money
laundering related to drug
trafficking and human smuggling
HONDURAS
Introduction Honduras
Background: Once part of Spain's vast empire in
the New World, Honduras became
an independent nation in 1821. After
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2529
two and a half decades of mostly
military rule, a freely elected civilian
government came to power in 1982.
During the 1980s, Honduras proved
a haven for anti-Sandinista contras
fighting the Marxist Nicaraguan
Government and an ally to
Salvadoran Government forces
fighting leftist guerrillas. The
country was devastated by
Hurricane Mitch in 1998, which
killed about 5,600 people and
caused approximately $2 billion in
damage.
Geography Honduras
Location: Central America, bordering the
Caribbean Sea, between Guatemala
and Nicaragua and bordering the
Gulf of Fonseca (North Pacific
Ocean), between El Salvador and
Nicaragua
Geographic
coordinates:
15 00 N, 86 30 W
Map
references:
Central America and the Caribbean
Area: total: 112,090 sq km
land: 111,890 sq km
water: 200 sq km
Area - slightly larger than Tennessee
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comparative:
Land
boundaries:
total: 1,520 km
border countries: Guatemala 256
km, El Salvador 342 km, Nicaragua
922 km
Coastline: 820 km
Maritime
claims:
territorial sea: 12 nm
contiguous zone: 24 nm
exclusive economic zone: 200 nm
continental shelf: natural extension
of territory or to 200 nm
Climate: subtropical in lowlands, temperate
in mountains
Terrain: mostly mountains in interior, narrow
coastal plains
Elevation
extremes:
lowest point: Caribbean Sea 0 m
highest point: Cerro Las Minas
2,870 m
Natural
resources:
timber, gold, silver, copper, lead,
zinc, iron ore, antimony, coal, fish,
hydropower
Land use: arable land: 9.53%
permanent crops: 3.21%
other: 87.26% (2005)
Irrigated
land:
800 sq km (2003)
Natural frequent, but generally mild,
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hazards: earthquakes; extremely susceptible
to damaging hurricanes and floods
along the Caribbean coast
Environment
- current
issues:
urban population expanding;
deforestation results from logging
and the clearing of land for
agricultural purposes; further land
degradation and soil erosion
hastened by uncontrolled
development and improper land use
practices such as farming of
marginal lands; mining activities
polluting Lago de Yojoa (the
country's largest source of fresh
water), as well as several rivers and
streams, with heavy metals
Environment
-
international
agreements:
party to: Biodiversity, Climate
Change, Climate Change-Kyoto
Protocol, Desertification,
Endangered Species, Hazardous
Wastes, Law of the Sea, Marine
Dumping, Ozone Layer Protection,
Ship Pollution, Tropical Timber 83,
Tropical Timber 94, Wetlands
signed, but not ratified: none of the
selected agreements
Geography -
note:
has only a short Pacific coast but a
long Caribbean shoreline, including
the virtually uninhabited eastern
Mosquito Coast
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People Honduras
Population: 7,483,763
note: estimates for this country
explicitly take into account the
effects of excess mortality due to
AIDS; this can result in lower life
expectancy, higher infant mortality
and death rates, lower population
and growth rates, and changes in the
distribution of population by age and
sex than would otherwise be
expected (July 2007 est.)
Age
structure:
0-14 years: 39.3% (male
1,500,949/female 1,439,084)
15-64 years: 57.2% (male
2,142,953/female 2,140,432)
65 years and over: 3.5% (male
117,774/female 142,571) (2007 est.)
Median
age:
total: 19.7 years
male: 19.4 years
female: 20.1 years (2007 est.)
Population
growth
rate:
2.091% (2007 est.)
Birth rate: 27.59 births/1,000 population (2007
est.)
Death rate: 5.32 deaths/1,000 population (2007
est.)
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2533
Net
migration
rate:
-1.36 migrant(s)/1,000 population
(2007 est.)
Sex ratio: at birth: 1.05 male(s)/female
under 15 years: 1.043 male(s)/female
15-64 years: 1.001 male(s)/female
65 years and over: 0.826
male(s)/female
total population: 1.011
male(s)/female (2007 est.)
Infant
mortality
rate:
total: 25.21 deaths/1,000 live births
male: 28.3 deaths/1,000 live births
female: 21.95 deaths/1,000 live births
(2007 est.)
Life
expectancy
at birth:
total population: 69.35 years
male: 67.78 years
female: 70.99 years (2007 est.)
Total
fertility
rate:
3.48 children born/woman (2007 est.)
HIV/AIDS -
adult
prevalence
rate:
1.8% (2003 est.)
HIV/AIDS -
people
living with
HIV/AIDS:
63,000 (2003 est.)
HIV/AIDS - 4,100 (2003 est.)
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2534
deaths:
Nationality: noun: Honduran(s)
adjective: Honduran
Ethnic
groups:
mestizo (mixed Amerindian and
European) 90%, Amerindian 7%,
black 2%, white 1%
Religions: Roman Catholic 97%, Protestant 3%
Languages: Spanish, Amerindian dialects
Literacy: definition: age 15 and over can read
and write
total population: 80%
male: 79.8%
female: 80.2% (2001 census)
Government Honduras
Country name: conventional long form: Republic
of Honduras
conventional short form: Honduras
local long form: Republica de
Honduras
local short form: Honduras
Government
type:
democratic constitutional republic
Capital: name: Tegucigalpa
geographic coordinates: 14 06 N,
87 13 W
time difference: UTC-6 (1 hour
behind Washington, DC during
Standard Time)
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2535
daylight saving time: +1hr, begins
second Sunday in March; ends
first Sunday in November; note -
these dates become effective in
2007
Administrative
divisions:
18 departments (departamentos,
singular - departamento);
Atlantida, Choluteca, Colon,
Comayagua, Copan, Cortes, El
Paraiso, Francisco Morazan,
Gracias a Dios, Intibuca, Islas de
la Bahia, La Paz, Lempira,
Ocotepeque, Olancho, Santa
Barbara, Valle, Yoro
Independence: 15 September 1821 (from Spain)
National
holiday:
Independence Day, 15 September
(1821)
Constitution: 11 January 1982, effective 20
January 1982; amended many
times
Legal system: rooted in Roman and Spanish civil
law with increasing influence of
English common law; recent
judicial reforms include
abandoning Napoleonic legal
codes in favor of the oral
adversarial system; accepts ICJ
jurisdiction, with reservations
Suffrage: 18 years of age; universal and
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2536
compulsory
Executive
branch:
chief of state: President Manuel
ZELAYA Rosales (since 27
January 2006); Vice President
Elvin Ernesto SANTOS Ordonez
(since 27 January 2006); note -
the president is both the chief of
state and head of government
head of government: President
Manuel ZELAYA Rosales (since 27
January 2006); Vice President
Elvin Ernesto SANTOS Ordonez
(since 27 January 2006)
cabinet: Cabinet appointed by
president
elections: president elected by
popular vote for a four-year term;
election last held 27 November
2005 (next to be held in November
2009)
election results: Manuel ZELAYA
Rosales elected president - 49.8%,
Porfirio "Pepe" LOBO Sosa 46.1%,
other 4.1%
Legislative
branch:
unicameral National Congress or
Congreso Nacional (128 seats;
members are elected
proportionally to the number of
votes their party's presidential
candidate receives to serve four-
year terms)
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2537
elections: last held 27 November
2005 (next to be held in November
2009)
election results: percent of vote
by party - NA; seats by party - PL
62, PN 55, PUD 5, PDC 4, PINU 2
Judicial
branch:
Supreme Court of Justice or Corte
Suprema de Justicia (judges are
elected for seven-year terms by
the National Congress)
Political
parties and
leaders:
Christian Democratic Party or PDC
[Felicito AVILA]; Democratic
Unification Party or PUD [Cesar
HAM]; Liberal Party or PL [Patricia
RODAS]; National Innovation and
Unity Party or PINU [Jorge
AQUILAR Paredes]; National Party
of Honduras or PN [Porfirio LOBO]
Political
pressure
groups and
leaders:
Committee for the Defense of
Human Rights in Honduras or
CODEH; Confederation of
Honduran Workers or CTH;
Coordinating Committee of
Popular Organizations or CCOP;
General Workers Confederation or
CGT; Honduran Council of Private
Enterprise or COHEP; National
Association of Honduran
Campesinos or ANACH; National
Union of Campesinos or UNC;
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2538
Popular Bloc or BP; United
Confederation of Honduran
Workers or CUTH
International
organization
participation:
BCIE, CACM, FAO, G-77, IADB,
IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, ICCt, ICRM,
IDA, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, ILO, IMF,
IMO, Interpol, IOC, IOM, ISO
(subscriber), ITU, ITUC, LAES,
LAIA (observer), MIGA, MINURSO,
NAM, OAS, OPANAL, OPCW, PCA,
RG, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO,
UNIDO, UNWTO, UPU, WCL, WCO,
WFTU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WTO
Diplomatic
representation
in the US:
chief of mission: Ambassador
Roberto FLORES Bermudez
chancery: Suite 4-M, 3007 Tilden
Street NW, Washington, DC 20008
telephone: [1] (202) 966-7702
FAX: [1] (202) 966-9751
consulate(s) general: Atlanta,
Chicago, Houston, Los Angeles,
Miami, New Orleans, New York,
Phoenix, San Francisco
honorary consulate(s): Boston,
Detroit, Jacksonville
Diplomatic
representation
from the US:
chief of mission: Ambassador
Charles A. FORD
embassy: Avenida La Paz,
Apartado Postal No. 3453,
Tegucigalpa
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2539
mailing address: American
Embassy, APO AA 34022,
Tegucigalpa
telephone: [504] 236-9320, 238-
5114
FAX: [504] 236-9037
Flag
description:
three equal horizontal bands of
blue (top), white, and blue with
five blue, five-pointed stars
arranged in an X pattern centered
in the white band; the stars
represent the members of the
former Federal Republic of Central
America - Costa Rica, El Salvador,
Guatemala, Honduras, and
Nicaragua; similar to the flag of El
Salvador, which features a round
emblem encircled by the words
REPUBLICA DE EL SALVADOR EN
LA AMERICA CENTRAL centered
in the white band; also similar to
the flag of Nicaragua, which
features a triangle encircled by
the word REPUBLICA DE
NICARAGUA on top and AMERICA
CENTRAL on the bottom, centered
in the white band
Economy Honduras
Economy -
overview:
Honduras, the second poorest
country in Central America and
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one of the poorest countries in
the Western Hemisphere, with an
extraordinarily unequal
distribution of income and
massive unemployment, is
banking on expanded trade under
the US-Central America Free
Trade Agreement (CAFTA) and on
debt relief under the Heavily
Indebted Poor Countries (HIPC)
initiative. The country has met
most of its macroeconomic
targets, and began a three-year
IMF Poverty Reduction and
Growth Facility (PRGF) program in
February 2004. The economy
relies heavily on a narrow range
of exports, notably bananas and
coffee, making it vulnerable to
natural disasters and shifts in
commodity prices, but in recent
years has experienced a rapid
rise in exports of light
manufacturers. Growth remains
dependent on the economy of the
US, its largest trading partner,
and on reduction of the high
crime rate, as a means of
attracting and maintaining
investment.
GDP $22.54 billion (2006 est.)
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2541
(purchasing
power parity):
GDP (official
exchange
rate):
$8.478 billion (2006 est.)
GDP - real
growth rate:
6% (2006 est.)
GDP - per
capita (PPP):
$3,100 (2006 est.)
GDP -
composition
by sector:
agriculture: 13.6%
industry: 31.4%
services: 55% (2006 est.)
Labor force: 2.589 million (2006 est.)
Labor force -
by occupation:
agriculture: 34%
industry: 23%
services: 43% (2003 est.)
Unemployment
rate:
27.9% (2006 est.)
Population
below poverty
line:
53% (1993 est.)
Household
income or
consumption
by percentage
share:
lowest 10%: 0.6%
highest 10%: 42.7% (1998)
Distribution of 55 (1999)
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2542
family income
- Gini index:
Inflation rate
(consumer
prices):
5.7% (2006 est.)
Investment
(gross fixed):
23.7% of GDP (2006 est.)
Budget: revenues: $2.002 billion
expenditures: $2.028 billion;
including capital expenditures of
$106 million (2006 est.)
Public debt: 67.1% of GDP (2006 est.)
Agriculture -
products:
bananas, coffee, citrus; beef;
timber; shrimp
Industries: sugar, coffee, textiles, clothing,
wood products
Industrial
production
growth rate:
7.7% (2003 est.)
Electricity -
production:
4.805 billion kWh (2004)
Electricity -
production by
source:
fossil fuel: 50.2%
hydro: 49.8%
nuclear: 0%
other: 0% (2001)
Electricity -
consumption:
4.824 billion kWh (2004)
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Electricity -
exports:
0 kWh (2004)
Electricity -
imports:
356 million kWh (2004)
Oil -
production:
0 bbl/day (2004 est.)
Oil -
consumption:
37,000 bbl/day (2004 est.)
Oil - exports: NA bbl/day
Oil - imports: NA bbl/day
Natural gas -
production:
0 cu m (2004 est.)
Natural gas -
consumption:
0 cu m (2004 est.)
Current
account
balance:
-$160 million (2006 est.)
Exports: $1.947 billion f.o.b. (2006 est.)
Exports -
commodities:
coffee, shrimp, bananas, gold,
palm oil, fruit, lobster, lumber
Exports -
partners:
US 73.3%, Guatemala 2.9%, El
Salvador 2.9% (2005)
Imports: $4.86 billion f.o.b. (2006 est.)
Imports -
commodities:
machinery and transport
equipment, industrial raw
materials, chemical products,
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2544
fuels, foodstuffs
Imports -
partners:
US 52.6%, Guatemala 6.4%, El
Salvador 4.1% (2005)
Reserves of
foreign
exchange and
gold:
$2.778 billion (2006 est.)
Debt -
external:
$5.587 billion (2006 est.)
Economic aid -
recipient:
$557.8 million (1999)
Currency
(code):
lempira (HNL)
Currency
code:
HNL
Exchange
rates:
lempiras per US dollar - 18.895
(2006), 18.92 (2005), 18.206
(2004), 17.345 (2003), 16.433
(2002)
Fiscal year: calendar year
Communications Honduras
Telephones
- main lines
in use:
494,400 (2005)
Telephones
- mobile
cellular:
1.282 million (2005)
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Telephone
system:
general assessment: inadequate
system
domestic: NA
international: country code - 504;
satellite earth stations - 2 Intelsat
(Atlantic Ocean); connected to
Central American Microwave System
Radio
broadcast
stations:
AM 241, FM 53, shortwave 12 (1998)
Radios: 2.45 million (1997)
Television
broadcast
stations:
11 (plus 17 repeaters) (1997)
Televisions: 570,000 (1997)
Internet
country
code:
.hn
Internet
hosts:
3,973 (2006)
Internet
Service
Providers
(ISPs):
8 (2000)
Internet
users:
223,000 (2005)
Transportation Honduras
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Airports: 116 (2006)
Airports -
with paved
runways:
total: 11
2,438 to 3,047 m: 3
1,524 to 2,437 m: 2
914 to 1,523 m: 3
under 914 m: 3 (2006)
Airports -
with
unpaved
runways:
total: 105
1,524 to 2,437 m: 2
914 to 1,523 m: 19
under 914 m: 84 (2006)
Railways: total: 699 km
narrow gauge: 279 km 1.067-m
gauge; 420 km 0.914-m gauge (2005)
Roadways: total: 13,603 km
paved: 2,775 km
unpaved: 10,828 km (1999)
Waterways: 465 km (most navigable only by small
craft) (2005)
Merchant
marine:
total: 136 ships (1000 GRT or over)
405,984 GRT/557,179 DWT
by type: bulk carrier 11, cargo 61,
chemical tanker 5, container 1,
liquefied gas 1, livestock carrier 1,
passenger 5, passenger/cargo 9,
petroleum tanker 29, refrigerated
cargo 8, roll on/roll off 4, specialized
tanker 1
foreign-owned: 43 (Canada 1, China
3, Egypt 4, Greece 3, Hong Kong 2,
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2547
Israel 1, Japan 4, South Korea 6,
Lebanon 1, Mexico 1, Qatar 1,
Singapore 11, Taiwan 2, Tanzania 1,
US 1, Vietnam 1) (2006)
Ports and
terminals:
Puerto Castilla, Puerto Cortes, San
Lorenzo, Tela
Military Honduras
Military
branches:
Army, Navy (includes Naval
Infantry), Honduran Air Force
(Fuerza Aerea Hondurena, FAH)
(2007)
Military
service age
and
obligation:
18 years of age for voluntary 2 to 3-
year military service (2004)
Manpower
available for
military
service:
males age 18-49: 1,537,232
females age 18-49: 1,515,120 (2005
est.)
Manpower fit
for military
service:
males age 18-49: 1,100,991
females age 18-49: 1,121,649 (2005
est.)
Manpower
reaching
military
service age
annually:
males age 18-49: 82,105
females age 18-49: 78,971 (2005
est.)
Military 0.6% (2006 est.)
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expenditures
- percent of
GDP:
Transnational
Issues
Honduras
Disputes -
international:
International Court of Justice (ICJ)
ruled on the delimitation of
"bolsones" (disputed areas) along
the El Salvador-Honduras border in
1992 with final settlement by the
parties in 2006 after an
Organization of American States
(OAS) survey and a further ICJ
ruling in 2003; the 1992 ICJ ruling
advised a tripartite resolution to a
maritime boundary in the Gulf of
Fonseca with consideration of
Honduran access to the Pacific; El
Salvador continues to claim tiny
Conejo Island, not mentioned in the
ICJ ruling, off Honduras in the Gulf
of Fonseca; Honduras claims the
Belizean-administered Sapodilla
Cays off the coast of Belize in its
constitution, but agreed to a joint
ecological park around the cays
should Guatemala consent to a
maritime corridor in the Caribbean
under the OAS-sponsored 2002
Belize-Guatemala Differendum;
memorials and countermemorials
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2549
were filed by the parties in
Nicaragua's 1999 and 2001
proceedings against Honduras and
Colombia at the ICJ over the
maritime boundary and territorial
claims in the western Caribbean
Sea - final public hearings are
scheduled for 2007
Illicit drugs: transshipment point for drugs and
narcotics; illicit producer of
cannabis, cultivated on small plots
and used principally for local
consumption; corruption is a major
problem; some money-laundering
activity
HAITI
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2550
Introduction Haiti
Background: The native Taino Amerindians - who
inhabited the island of Hispaniola
when it was discovered by
COLUMBUS in 1492 - were virtually
annihilated by Spanish settlers
within 25 years. In the early 17th
century, the French established a
presence on Hispaniola, and in
1697, Spain ceded to the French the
western third of the island, which
later became Haiti. The French
colony, based on forestry and sugar-
related industries, became one of
the wealthiest in the Caribbean, but
only through the heavy importation
of African slaves and considerable
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2551
environmental degradation. In the
late 18th century, Haiti's nearly half
million slaves revolted under
Toussaint L'OUVERTURE. After a
prolonged struggle, Haiti became
the first black republic to declare its
independence in 1804. The poorest
country in the Western Hemisphere,
Haiti has been plagued by political
violence for most of its history. After
an armed rebellion led to the
departure of President Jean-
Bertrand ARISTIDE in February
2004, an interim government took
office to organize new elections
under the auspices of the United
Nations Stabilization Mission in Haiti
(MINUSTAH). Continued violence
and technical delays prompted
repeated postponements, but Haiti
finally did inaugurate a
democratically elected president
and parliament in May of 2006.
Geography Haiti
Location: Caribbean, western one-third of the
island of Hispaniola, between the
Caribbean Sea and the North
Atlantic Ocean, west of the
Dominican Republic
Geographic 19 00 N, 72 25 W
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2552
coordinates:
Map
references:
Central America and the Caribbean
Area: total: 27,750 sq km
land: 27,560 sq km
water: 190 sq km
Area -
comparative:
slightly smaller than Maryland
Land
boundaries:
total: 360 km
border countries: Dominican
Republic 360 km
Coastline: 1,771 km
Maritime
claims:
territorial sea: 12 nm
contiguous zone: 24 nm
exclusive economic zone: 200 nm
continental shelf: to depth of
exploitation
Climate: tropical; semiarid where mountains
in east cut off trade winds
Terrain: mostly rough and mountainous
Elevation
extremes:
lowest point: Caribbean Sea 0 m
highest point: Chaine de la Selle
2,680 m
Natural
resources:
bauxite, copper, calcium carbonate,
gold, marble, hydropower
Land use: arable land: 28.11%
permanent crops: 11.53%
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2553
other: 60.36% (2005)
Irrigated
land:
920 sq km (2003)
Natural
hazards:
lies in the middle of the hurricane
belt and subject to severe storms
from June to October; occasional
flooding and earthquakes; periodic
droughts
Environment
- current
issues:
extensive deforestation (much of
the remaining forested land is being
cleared for agriculture and used as
fuel); soil erosion; inadequate
supplies of potable water
Environment
-
international
agreements:
party to: Biodiversity, Climate
Change, Climate Change-Kyoto
Protocol, Desertification, Law of the
Sea, Marine Dumping, Marine Life
Conservation, Ozone Layer
Protection
signed, but not ratified: Hazardous
Wastes
Geography -
note:
shares island of Hispaniola with
Dominican Republic (western one-
third is Haiti, eastern two-thirds is
the Dominican Republic)
People Haiti
Population: 8,706,497
note: estimates for this country
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2554
explicitly take into account the
effects of excess mortality due to
AIDS; this can result in lower life
expectancy, higher infant mortality
and death rates, lower population
and growth rates, and changes in the
distribution of population by age and
sex than would otherwise be
expected (July 2007 est.)
Age
structure:
0-14 years: 42.1% (male
1,846,175/female 1,817,082)
15-64 years: 54.4% (male
2,313,542/female 2,426,326)
65 years and over: 3.5% (male
134,580/female 168,792) (2007 est.)
Median
age:
total: 18.4 years
male: 17.9 years
female: 18.8 years (2007 est.)
Population
growth
rate:
2.453% (2007 est.)
Birth rate: 35.87 births/1,000 population (2007
est.)
Death rate: 10.4 deaths/1,000 population (2007
est.)
Net
migration
rate:
-0.94 migrant(s)/1,000 population
(2007 est.)
Sex ratio: at birth: 1.03 male(s)/female
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2555
under 15 years: 1.016 male(s)/female
15-64 years: 0.954 male(s)/female
65 years and over: 0.797
male(s)/female
total population: 0.973
male(s)/female (2007 est.)
Infant
mortality
rate:
total: 63.83 deaths/1,000 live births
male: 68.45 deaths/1,000 live births
female: 59.07 deaths/1,000 live births
(2007 est.)
Life
expectancy
at birth:
total population: 57.03 years
male: 55.35 years
female: 58.75 years (2007 est.)
Total
fertility
rate:
4.86 children born/woman (2007 est.)
HIV/AIDS -
adult
prevalence
rate:
5.6% (2003 est.)
HIV/AIDS -
people
living with
HIV/AIDS:
280,000 (2003 est.)
HIV/AIDS -
deaths:
24,000 (2003 est.)
Nationality: noun: Haitian(s)
adjective: Haitian
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2556
Ethnic
groups:
black 95%, mulatto and white 5%
Religions: Roman Catholic 80%, Protestant 16%
(Baptist 10%, Pentecostal 4%,
Adventist 1%, other 1%), none 1%,
other 3%
note: roughly half of the population
practices voodoo
Languages: French (official), Creole (official)
Literacy: definition: age 15 and over can read
and write
total population: 52.9%
male: 54.8%
female: 51.2% (2003 est.)
Government Haiti
Country name: conventional long form: Republic
of Haiti
conventional short form: Haiti
local long form: Republique
d'Haiti/Repiblik d' Ayiti
local short form: Haiti/Ayiti
Government
type:
republic
Capital: name: Port-au-Prince
geographic coordinates: 18 32 N,
72 20 W
time difference: UTC-5 (same time
as Washington, DC during
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2557
Standard Time)
daylight saving time: +1hr, begins
first Sunday in April; ends last
Sunday in October
Administrative
divisions:
10 departments (departements,
singular - departement);
Artibonite, Centre, Grand 'Anse,
Nippes, Nord, Nord-Est, Nord-
Ouest, Ouest, Sud, Sud-Est
Independence: 1 January 1804 (from France)
National
holiday:
Independence Day, 1 January
(1804)
Constitution: approved March 1987; suspended
June 1988 with most articles
reinstated March 1989;
constitutional government ousted
in a military coup in September
1991, although in October 1991,
military government claimed to be
observing the constitution;
returned to constitutional rule in
October 1994; constitution, while
technically in force between 2004-
2006, was not enforced; returned
to constitutional rule in May 2006
Legal system: based on Roman civil law system;
accepts compulsory ICJ
jurisdiction
Suffrage: 18 years of age; universal
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2558
Executive
branch:
chief of state: President Rene
PREVAL (since 14 May 2006)
head of government: Prime
Minister Jacques-Edouard ALEXIS
(since 30 May 2006)
cabinet: Cabinet chosen by the
prime minister in consultation
with the president
elections: president elected by
popular vote for a five-year term
(may not serve consecutive
terms); election last held 7
February 2006 (next to be held in
2010); prime minister appointed
by the president, ratified by the
National Assembly
election results: Rene PREVAL
elected president; percent of vote
- Rene PREVAL 51%
Legislative
branch:
bicameral National Assembly or
Assemblee Nationale consists of
the Senate (30 seats; members
elected by popular vote to serve
six-year terms; one-third elected
every two years) and the Chamber
of Deputies (99 seats; members
are elected by popular vote to
serve four-year terms); note - in
reestablishing the Senate, the
candidate in each department
receiving the most votes in the
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2559
last election serves six years, the
candidate with the second most
votes serves four years, and the
candidate with the third most
votes serves two years
elections: Senate - last held 21
April 2006 with run-off elections
on 3 December 2006 (next regular
election, for one third of seats, to
be held in 2008); Chamber of
Deputies - last held 21 April 2006
with run-off elections on 3
December 2006 (next regular
election to be held in 2010)
election results: Senate - percent
of vote by party - NA; seats by
party - L'ESPWA 11, FUSION 5,
OPL 4, FL 3, LAAA 2, UNCRH 2,
PONT 2, ALYANS 1; Chamber of
Deputies - percent of vote by party
- NA; seats by party - L'ESPWA 23,
FUSION 17, FRN 12, OPL 10,
ALYANS 10, LAAA 5, MPH 3,
MOCHRENA 3, other 10; results
for six other seats contested on 3
December 2006 remain unknown
Judicial
branch:
Supreme Court or Cour de
Cassation
Political
parties and
leaders:
Artibonite in Action or LAAA
[Youri LATORTUE]; Assembly of
Progressive National Democrats
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2560
or RDNP [Leslie MANIGAT];
Convention for Democratic Unity
or KID [Evans PAUL]; Cooperative
Action to Build Haiti or KONBA
[Evans LESCOUFALIR];
Democratic Alliance or ALYANS
[Evans PAUL] (coalition composed
of KID and PPRH); Effort and
Solidarity to Create an Alternative
for the People or ESKAMP [Joseph
JASME]; For Us All or PONT [Jean-
Marie CHERESTAL]; Front for
Hope or L'ESPWA [Rene PREVAL]
(alliance of ESKAMP, PLB, and
grass-roots organizations Grand-
Anse Resistance Committee, the
Central Plateau Peasants' Group,
and Kombit Sudest); Haitian
Christian Democratic Party or
PDCH [Osner FEVRY and Marie-
Denise CLAUDE]; Haitian
Democratic and Reform Movement
or MODEREH [Dany TOUSSAINT
and Pierre Soncon PRINCE];
Heads Together or Tet-Ansanm
[Dr. Gerard BLOT]; Independent
Movement for National
Reconciliation or MIRN [Luc
FLEURINORD]; Justice for Peace
and National Development or
JPDN [Rigaud DUPLAN]; Fanmi
Lavalas or FL [Rudy HERIVEAUX];
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2561
Liberal Party of Haiti or PLH [Gehy
MICHEL]; Merging of Haitian
Social Democratic Parties or
FUSION or FPSDH [Serge GILLES]
(coalition of Ayiti Capable, Haitian
National Revolutionary Party, and
National Congress of Democratic
Movements); Mobilization for
Haiti's Development or MPH
[Samir MOURRA]; Mobilization for
National Development or MDN
[Hubert de RONCERAY];
Movement for National
Reconstruction or MRN [Jean
Henold BUTEAU]; Movement for
the Installation of Democracy in
Haiti or MIDH [Marc BAZIN];
National Christian Union for the
Reconstruction of Haiti or UNCRH
[Marie Claude GERMAIN]; National
Front for the Reconstruction of
Haiti or FRN [Guy PHILIPPE]; New
Christian Movement for a New
Haiti or MOCHRENA [Luc
MESADIEU]; Open the Gate Party
or PLB [Anes LUBIN]; Popular
Party for the Renewal of Haiti or
PPRH [Claude ROMAIN];
Struggling People's Organization
or OPL [Edgard LEBLANC]; Union
of Nationalist and Progressive
Haitians or UNITE [Edouard
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2562
FRANCISQUE]
Political
pressure
groups and
leaders:
Autonomous Organizations of
Haitian Workers or CATH [Fignole
ST-CYR]; Confederation of Haitian
Workers or CTH; Federation of
Workers Trade Unions or FOS;
General Organization of
Independent Haitian Workers
[Patrick NUMAS]; Grand-Anse
Resistance Committee, or
KOREGA; National Popular
Assembly or APN; Papaye
Peasants Movement or MPP
[Chavannes JEAN-BAPTISTE];
Popular Organizations Gathering
Power or PROP; Roman Catholic
Church; Protestant Federation of
Haiti
International
organization
participation:
ACCT, ACP, Caricom, FAO, G-77,
IADB, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, ICCt
(signatory), ICRM, IDA, IFAD, IFC,
IFRCS, ILO, IMF, IMO, Interpol,
IOC, IOM, ITU, ITUC, LAES, MIGA,
NAM, OAS, OIF, OPANAL, OPCW
(signatory), PCA, UN, UNCTAD,
UNESCO, UNIDO, UNWTO, UPU,
WCL, WCO, WFTU, WHO, WIPO,
WMO, WTO
Diplomatic
representation
chief of mission: Ambassador
Raymond JOSEPH
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in the US: chancery: 2311 Massachusetts
Avenue NW, Washington, DC
20008
telephone: [1] (202) 332-4090
FAX: [1] (202) 745-7215
consulate(s) general: Boston,
Chicago, Miami, New York, San
Juan (Puerto Rico)
Diplomatic
representation
from the US:
chief of mission: Ambassador
Janet A. SANDERSON
embassy: 5 Harry S Truman
Boulevard, Bicentenaire-Port-au-
Prince
mailing address: P. O. Box 1761,
Port-au-Prince
telephone: [509] 222-0200
FAX: [509] 223-9038
Flag
description:
two equal horizontal bands of blue
(top) and red with a centered
white rectangle bearing the coat
of arms, which contains a palm
tree flanked by flags and two
cannons above a scroll bearing
the motto L'UNION FAIT LA
FORCE (Union Makes Strength)
Economy Haiti
Economy -
overview:
Haiti is the poorest country in the
Western Hemisphere, with 80% of
the population living under the
poverty line and 54% in abject
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2564
poverty. Two-thirds of all Haitians
depend on the agriculture sector,
mainly small-scale subsistence
farming, and remain vulnerable to
damage from frequent natural
disasters, exacerbated by the
country's widespread
deforestation. A macroeconomic
program developed in 2005 with
the help of the International
Monetary Fund helped the
economy grow 1.8% in 2006, the
highest growth rate since 1999.
Haiti suffers from higher inflation
than similar low-income
countries, a lack of investment,
and a severe trade deficit. In
2005, Haiti paid its arrears to the
World Bank, paving the way for
reengagement with the Bank. The
government relies on formal
international economic
assistance for fiscal
sustainability. In 2006, Haiti held
a successful donors conference in
which the total aid pledged
exceeded Haiti's request.
Remittances are the primary
source of foreign exchange,
equaling nearly a quarter of GDP.
GDP $14.79 billion (2006 est.)
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(purchasing
power parity):
GDP (official
exchange
rate):
$5.964 billion (2006 est.)
GDP - real
growth rate:
2.5% (2006 est.)
GDP - per
capita (PPP):
$1,800 (2006 est.)
GDP -
composition
by sector:
agriculture: 28%
industry: 20%
services: 52% (2004 est.)
Labor force: 3.6 million
note: shortage of skilled labor,
unskilled labor abundant (1995)
Labor force -
by occupation:
agriculture: 66%
industry: 9%
services: 25%
Unemployment
rate:
widespread unemployment and
underemployment; more than two-
thirds of the labor force do not
have formal jobs (2002 est.)
Population
below poverty
line:
80% (2003 est.)
Household
income or
consumption
lowest 10%: NA%
highest 10%: NA%
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2566
by percentage
share:
Inflation rate
(consumer
prices):
14.4% (2006 est.)
Investment
(gross fixed):
27.4% of GDP (2004 est.)
Budget: revenues: $385 million
expenditures: $807.7 million;
including capital expenditures of
$NA (2006 est.)
Agriculture -
products:
coffee, mangoes, sugarcane, rice,
corn, sorghum; wood
Industries: sugar refining, flour milling,
textiles, cement, light assembly
based on imported parts
Industrial
production
growth rate:
NA%
Electricity -
production:
536.2 million kWh (2004)
Electricity -
production by
source:
fossil fuel: 60.3%
hydro: 39.7%
nuclear: 0%
other: 0% (2001)
Electricity -
consumption:
498.6 million kWh (2004)
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2567
Electricity -
exports:
0 kWh (2004)
Electricity -
imports:
0 kWh (2004)
Oil -
production:
0 bbl/day (2004 est.)
Oil -
consumption:
11,600 bbl/day (2004 est.)
Oil - exports: NA bbl/day
Oil - imports: NA bbl/day
Natural gas -
production:
0 cu m (2004 est.)
Natural gas -
consumption:
0 cu m (2004 est.)
Current
account
balance:
-$58.72 million (2006 est.)
Exports: $443.7 million f.o.b. (2006 est.)
Exports -
commodities:
manufactures, coffee, oils, cocoa,
mangoes
Exports -
partners:
US 80.9%, Dominican Republic
6.9%, Canada 4% (2005)
Imports: $1.721 billion f.o.b. (2006 est.)
Imports -
commodities:
food, manufactured goods,
machinery and transport
equipment, fuels, raw materials
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Imports -
partners:
US 48.7%, Netherlands Antilles
11.9%, Brazil 3.3% (2005)
Reserves of
foreign
exchange and
gold:
$123.4 million (2006 est.)
Debt -
external:
$1.309 billion (2006 est.)
Economic aid -
recipient:
$153 million (FY05 est.)
Currency
(code):
gourde (HTG)
Currency
code:
HTG
Exchange
rates:
gourdes per US dollar - 40.232
(2006), 40.449 (2005), 38.352
(2004), 42.367 (2003), 29.251
(2002)
Fiscal year: 1 October - 30 September
Communications Haiti
Telephones
- main lines
in use:
140,000 (2004)
Telephones
- mobile
cellular:
400,000 (2004)
Telephone general assessment: domestic
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2569
system: facilities barely adequate;
international facilities slightly better
domestic: coaxial cable and
microwave radio relay trunk service
international: country code - 509;
satellite earth station - 1 Intelsat
(Atlantic Ocean)
Radio
broadcast
stations:
AM 41, FM 26, shortwave 0 (1999)
Radios: 415,000 (1997)
Television
broadcast
stations:
2 (plus a cable TV service) (1997)
Televisions: 38,000 (1997)
Internet
country
code:
.ht
Internet
hosts:
6 (2006)
Internet
Service
Providers
(ISPs):
3 (2000)
Internet
users:
500,000 (2005)
Transportation Haiti
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2570
Airports: 12 (2006)
Airports -
with
paved
runways:
total: 4
2,438 to 3,047 m: 1
914 to 1,523 m: 3 (2006)
Airports -
with
unpaved
runways:
total: 8
914 to 1,523 m: 1
under 914 m: 7 (2006)
Roadways: total: 4,160 km
paved: 1,011 km
unpaved: 3,149 km (1999)
Ports and
terminals:
Cap-Haitien
Military Haiti
Military
branches:
no regular military forces - small
coast guard; the regular Haitian
Armed Forces (FAdH) - Army, Navy,
and Air Force - have been
demobilized but still exist on paper
unless they are constitutionally
abolished (2007)
Military
service age
and
obligation:
18 years of age for voluntary
recruitment into the police force
(2001)
Manpower
available for
males age 18-49: 1,626,491
females age 18-49: 1,637,657 (2005
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2571
military
service:
est.)
Manpower fit
for military
service:
males age 18-49: 948,320
females age 18-49: 931,972 (2005
est.)
Manpower
reaching
military
service age
annually:
males age 18-49: 98,554
females age 18-49: 97,690 (2005
est.)
Military
expenditures
- percent of
GDP:
0.4% (2006)
Transnational
Issues
Haiti
Disputes -
international:
since 2004, about 8,000
peacekeepers from the UN
Stabilization Mission in Haiti
(MINUSTAH) maintain civil order in
Haiti; despite efforts to control
illegal migration, Haitians cross
into the Dominican Republic and
sail to neighboring countries; Haiti
claims US-administered Navassa
Island
Illicit drugs: Caribbean transshipment point for
cocaine en route to the US and
Europe; substantial bulk cash
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2572
smuggling activity; Colombian
narcotics traffickers favor Haiti for
illicit financial transactions;
pervasive corruption; significant
consumer of cannabis
JAMAICA
Introduction Jamaica
Background: The island - discovered by
Christopher COLUMBUS in 1494 -
was settled by the Spanish early in
the 16th century. The native Taino
Indians, who had inhabited Jamaica
for centuries, were gradually
exterminated, replaced by African
slaves. England seized the island in
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2573
1655 and a plantation economy -
based on sugar, cocoa, and coffee -
was established. The abolition of
slavery in 1834 freed a quarter
million slaves, many of whom
became small farmers. Jamaica
gradually obtained increasing
independence from Britain, and in
1958 it joined other British
Caribbean colonies in forming the
Federation of the West Indies.
Jamaica gained full independence
when it withdrew from the
Federation in 1962. Deteriorating
economic conditions during the
1970s led to recurrent violence as
rival gangs affiliated with the major
political parties evolved into
powerful organized crime networks
involved in international drug
smuggling and money laundering.
The cycle of violence, drugs, and
poverty has served to impoverish
large sectors of the populace.
Nonetheless, many rural and resort
areas remain relatively safe and
contribute substantially to the
economy.
Geography Jamaica
Location: Caribbean, island in the Caribbean
Sea, south of Cuba
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2574
Geographic
coordinates:
18 15 N, 77 30 W
Map
references:
Central America and the Caribbean
Area: total: 10,991 sq km
land: 10,831 sq km
water: 160 sq km
Area -
comparative:
slightly smaller than Connecticut
Land
boundaries:
0 km
Coastline: 1,022 km
Maritime
claims:
measured from claimed
archipelagic straight baselines
territorial sea: 12 nm
contiguous zone: 24 nm
exclusive economic zone: 200 nm
continental shelf: 200 nm or to edge
of the continental margin
Climate: tropical; hot, humid; temperate
interior
Terrain: mostly mountains, with narrow,
discontinuous coastal plain
Elevation
extremes:
lowest point: Caribbean Sea 0 m
highest point: Blue Mountain Peak
2,256 m
Natural bauxite, gypsum, limestone
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resources:
Land use: arable land: 15.83%
permanent crops: 10.01%
other: 74.16% (2005)
Irrigated
land:
250 sq km (2002)
Natural
hazards:
hurricanes (especially July to
November)
Environment
- current
issues:
heavy rates of deforestation;
coastal waters polluted by
industrial waste, sewage, and oil
spills; damage to coral reefs; air
pollution in Kingston results from
vehicle emissions
Environment
-
international
agreements:
party to: Biodiversity, Climate
Change, Climate Change-Kyoto
Protocol, Desertification,
Endangered Species, Hazardous
Wastes, Law of the Sea, Marine
Dumping, Marine Life Conservation,
Ozone Layer Protection, Ship
Pollution, Wetlands
signed, but not ratified: none of the
selected agreements
Geography -
note:
strategic location between Cayman
Trench and Jamaica Channel, the
main sea lanes for the Panama
Canal
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People Jamaica
Population: 2,780,132 (July 2007 est.)
Age
structure:
0-14 years: 32.5% (male
459,968/female 444,963)
15-64 years: 60.1% (male
822,486/female 848,310)
65 years and over: 7.4% (male
91,856/female 112,549) (2007 est.)
Median
age:
total: 23.2 years
male: 22.6 years
female: 23.7 years (2007 est.)
Population
growth
rate:
0.777% (2007 est.)
Birth rate: 20.44 births/1,000 population (2007
est.)
Death rate: 6.59 deaths/1,000 population (2007
est.)
Net
migration
rate:
-6.07 migrant(s)/1,000 population
(2007 est.)
Sex ratio: at birth: 1.05 male(s)/female
under 15 years: 1.034 male(s)/female
15-64 years: 0.97 male(s)/female
65 years and over: 0.816
male(s)/female
total population: 0.978
male(s)/female (2007 est.)
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2577
Infant
mortality
rate:
total: 15.73 deaths/1,000 live births
male: 16.4 deaths/1,000 live births
female: 15.01 deaths/1,000 live births
(2007 est.)
Life
expectancy
at birth:
total population: 73.12 years
male: 71.43 years
female: 74.9 years (2007 est.)
Total
fertility
rate:
2.36 children born/woman (2007 est.)
HIV/AIDS -
adult
prevalence
rate:
1.2% (2003 est.)
HIV/AIDS -
people
living with
HIV/AIDS:
22,000 (2003 est.)
HIV/AIDS -
deaths:
900 (2003 est.)
Nationality: noun: Jamaican(s)
adjective: Jamaican
Ethnic
groups:
black 91.2%, mixed 6.2%, other or
unknown 2.6% (2001 census)
Religions: Protestant 62.5% (Seventh-Day
Adventist 10.8%, Pentecostal 9.5%,
Other Church of God 8.3%, Baptist
7.2%, New Testament Church of God
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6.3%, Church of God in Jamaica
4.8%, Church of God of Prophecy
4.3%, Anglican 3.6%, other Christian
7.7%), Roman Catholic 2.6%, other or
unspecified 14.2%, none 20.9%,
(2001 census)
Languages: English, English patois
Literacy: definition: age 15 and over has ever
attended school
total population: 87.9%
male: 84.1%
female: 91.6% (2003 est.)
Government Jamaica
Country name: conventional long form: none
conventional short form: Jamaica
Government
type:
constitutional parliamentary
democracy
Capital: name: Kingston
geographic coordinates: 18 00 N,
76 48 W
time difference: UTC-5 (same time
as Washington, DC during
Standard Time)
Administrative
divisions:
14 parishes; Clarendon, Hanover,
Kingston, Manchester, Portland,
Saint Andrew, Saint Ann, Saint
Catherine, Saint Elizabeth, Saint
James, Saint Mary, Saint Thomas,
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Trelawny, Westmoreland
note: for local government
purposes, Kingston and Saint
Andrew were amalgamated in
1923 into the present single
corporate body known as the
Kingston and Saint Andrew
Corporation
Independence: 6 August 1962 (from UK)
National
holiday:
Independence Day, 6 August
(1962)
Constitution: 6 August 1962
Legal system: based on English common law;
has not accepted compulsory ICJ
jurisdiction
Suffrage: 18 years of age; universal
Executive
branch:
chief of state: Queen ELIZABETH
II (since 6 February 1952);
represented by Governor General
Kenneth O. HALL (since 15
February 2006)
head of government: Prime
Minister Portia SIMPSON-MILLER
(since 30 March 2006)
cabinet: Cabinet appointed by the
governor general on the advice of
the prime minister
elections: none; the monarch is
hereditary; governor general
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2580
appointed by the monarch on the
recommendation of the prime
minister; following legislative
elections, the leader of the
majority party or the leader of the
majority coalition in the House of
Representatives is appointed
prime minister by the governor
general; the deputy prime minister
is recommended by the prime
minister
Legislative
branch:
bicameral Parliament consists of
the Senate (a 21-member body
appointed by the governor general
on the recommendations of the
prime minister and the leader of
the opposition; ruling party is
allocated 13 seats, and the
opposition is allocated 8 seats)
and the House of Representatives
(60 seats; members are elected by
popular vote to serve five-year
terms)
elections: last held 16 October
2002 (next to be held no later than
October 2007)
election results: percent of vote
by party - PNP 52%, JLP 47.3%;
seats by party - PNP 34, JLP 26
Judicial
branch:
Supreme Court (judges appointed
by the governor general on the
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2581
advice of the prime minister);
Court of Appeal
Political
parties and
leaders:
Jamaica Labor Party or JLP
[Bruce GOLDING]; People's
National Party or PNP [Portia
SIMPSON-MILLER]; National
Democratic Movement or NDM
[Michael WILLIAMS]
Political
pressure
groups and
leaders:
New Beginnings Movement or
NBM; Rastafarians (black
religious/racial cultists, pan-
Africanists)
International
organization
participation:
ACP, C, Caricom, CDB, FAO, G-15,
G-77, IADB, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO,
ICCt (signatory), ICRM, IFAD, IFC,
IFRCS, IHO, ILO, IMF, IMO,
Interpol, IOC, IOM, ISO, ITU, LAES,
MIGA, NAM, OAS, OPANAL, OPCW,
UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO,
UNWTO, UPU, WCO, WFTU, WHO,
WIPO, WMO, WTO
Diplomatic
representation
in the US:
chief of mission: Ambassador
Gordon SHIRLEY
chancery: 1520 New Hampshire
Avenue NW, Washington, DC
20036
telephone: [1] (202) 452-0660
FAX: [1] (202) 452-0081
consulate(s) general: Miami, New
York
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Diplomatic
representation
from the US:
chief of mission: Ambassador
Brenda LaGrange JOHNSON
embassy: 142 Old Hope Road,
Kingston 6
mailing address: P.O. Box 541,
Kingston 5
telephone: [1] (876) 702-6000
FAX: [1] (876) 702-6348
Flag
description:
diagonal yellow cross divides the
flag into four triangles - green (top
and bottom) and black (hoist side
and outer side)
Economy Jamaica
Economy -
overview:
The Jamaican economy is heavily
dependent on services, which
now account for more than 60%
of GDP. The country continues to
derive most of its foreign
exchange from tourism,
remittances, and bauxite/alumina.
Jamaica's economy, already
saddled with a record of sluggish
growth, was hit hard by Hurricane
Ivan in late 2004, but has made a
gradual recovery. The economy
faces serious long-term problems:
high but declining interest rates,
increased foreign competition,
exchange rate instability, a
sizable merchandise trade deficit,
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large-scale unemployment and
underemployment, and a high
debt burden - the result of
government bailouts to ailing
sectors of the economy, most
notably the financial sector in the
mid-to-late 1990s. Following a
strategy begun in 2004, Jamaica
has reduced its public debt to
133.3% of GDP. Inflation also had
declined to 5.8% at the end of
2006. High unemployment
exacerbates the serious crime
problem, including gang violence
fueled by the drug trade. The
government faces the difficult
prospect of having to achieve
fiscal discipline in order to
maintain debt payments while
simultaneously attacking a
serious and growing crime
problem that is hampering
economic growth.
GDP
(purchasing
power parity):
$12.82 billion (2006 est.)
GDP (official
exchange
rate):
$9.23 billion (2006 est.)
GDP - real 2.3% (2006 est.)
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growth rate:
GDP - per
capita (PPP):
$4,600 (2006 est.)
GDP -
composition
by sector:
agriculture: 5.2%
industry: 27.3%
services: 67.5% (2006 est.)
Labor force: 1.1 million (2006 est.)
Labor force -
by occupation:
agriculture: 18.1%
industry: 17.3%
services: 64.6% (2004)
Unemployment
rate:
11.3% (2006 est.)
Population
below poverty
line:
14.8% (2003 est.)
Household
income or
consumption
by percentage
share:
lowest 10%: 2.4%
highest 10%: 30.3% (2000)
Distribution of
family income
- Gini index:
38.1 (2003)
Inflation rate
(consumer
prices):
5.8% (2006 est.)
Investment 30.8% of GDP (2006 est.)
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(gross fixed):
Budget: revenues: $2.85 billion
expenditures: $3.174 billion;
including capital expenditures of
$180.4 million (2006 est.)
Public debt: 133.3% of GDP (2006 est.)
Agriculture -
products:
sugarcane, bananas, coffee,
citrus, yams, ackees, vegetables;
poultry, goats, milk; crustaceans,
mollusks
Industries: tourism, bauxite/alumina, agro
processing, light manufactures,
rum, cement, metal, paper,
chemical products,
telecommunications
Industrial
production
growth rate:
-2% (2000 est.)
Electricity -
production:
6.913 billion kWh (2004)
Electricity -
production by
source:
fossil fuel: 96.8%
hydro: 1.8%
nuclear: 0%
other: 1.4% (2001)
Electricity -
consumption:
6.429 billion kWh (2004)
Electricity -
exports:
0 kWh (2004)
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Electricity -
imports:
0 kWh (2004)
Oil -
production:
0 bbl/day (2004 est.)
Oil -
consumption:
72,080 bbl/day (2004 est.)
Oil - exports: NA bbl/day
Oil - imports: NA bbl/day
Natural gas -
production:
0 cu m (2004 est.)
Natural gas -
consumption:
0 cu m (2004 est.)
Current
account
balance:
-$970 million (2006 est.)
Exports: $2.087 billion f.o.b. (2006 est.)
Exports -
commodities:
alumina, bauxite, sugar, bananas,
rum, coffee, yams, beverages,
chemicals, wearing apparel,
mineral fuels
Exports -
partners:
US 25.8%, Canada 19.3%, UK
10.7%, Netherlands 8.6%, China
7%, Norway 6.4%, Germany 5.6%
(2005)
Imports: $4.682 billion f.o.b. (2006 est.)
Imports - food and other consumer goods,
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2587
commodities: industrial supplies, fuel, parts and
accessories of capital goods,
machinery and transport
equipment, construction
materials
Imports -
partners:
US 41.4%, Trinidad and Tobago
14%, Venezuela 5.5%, Japan 4.6%
(2005)
Reserves of
foreign
exchange and
gold:
$2.317 billion (2006 est.)
Debt -
external:
$7.384 billion (2006 est.)
Economic aid -
recipient:
$254.7 million (2004)
Currency
(code):
Jamaican dollar (JMD)
Currency
code:
JMD
Exchange
rates:
Jamaican dollars per US dollar -
65.768 (2006), 62.51 (2005),
61.197 (2004), 57.741 (2003),
48.416 (2002)
Fiscal year: 1 April - 31 March
Communications Jamaica
Telephones 342,000 (2005)
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2588
- main lines
in use:
Telephones
- mobile
cellular:
2.7 million (2005)
Telephone
system:
general assessment: fully automatic
domestic telephone network
domestic: NA
international: country code - 1-876; 3
coaxial submarine cables; satellite
earth stations - 2 Intelsat (Atlantic
Ocean)
Radio
broadcast
stations:
AM 10, FM 13, shortwave 0 (1998)
Radios: 1.215 million (1997)
Television
broadcast
stations:
7 (1997)
Televisions: 460,000 (1997)
Internet
country
code:
.jm
Internet
hosts:
1,402 (2006)
Internet
Service
Providers
21 (2000)
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2589
(ISPs):
Internet
users:
1.067 million (2005)
Transportation Jamaica
Airports: 35 (2006)
Airports -
with
paved
runways:
total: 11
2,438 to 3,047 m: 2
914 to 1,523 m: 4
under 914 m: 5 (2006)
Airports -
with
unpaved
runways:
total: 24
914 to 1,523 m: 2
under 914 m: 22 (2006)
Railways: total: 272 km
standard gauge: 272 km 1.435-m
gauge
note: 207 of these km belonging to
the Jamaica Railway Corporation had
been in common carrier service until
1992 but are no longer operational; 57
km of the remaining track is privately
owned and used by ALCAN to
transport bauxite (2003)
Roadways: total: 20,996 km
paved: 15,386 km (includes 33 km of
expressways)
unpaved: 5,610 km (2004)
Merchant total: 10 ships (1000 GRT or over)
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marine: 124,323 GRT/184,247 DWT
by type: bulk carrier 5, cargo 2,
petroleum tanker 1, roll on/roll off 2
foreign-owned: 10 (Germany 3, Greece
6, Italy 1) (2006)
Ports and
terminals:
Kingston, Port Esquivel, Port Kaiser,
Port Rhoades, Rocky Point
Military Jamaica
Military
branches:
Jamaica Defense Force: Ground
Forces, Coast Guard, Air Wing
(2007)
Military
service age
and
obligation:
18 years of age for voluntary
military service; younger recruits
may be conscripted with parental
consent (2001)
Manpower
available for
military
service:
males age 18-49: 592,018
females age 18-49: 616,500 (2005
est.)
Manpower fit
for military
service:
males age 18-49: 478,761
females age 18-49: 504,541 (2005
est.)
Manpower
reaching
military
service age
annually:
males age 18-49: 27,923
females age 18-49: 27,889 (2005
est.)
Military 0.6% (2006 est.)
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2591
expenditures
- percent of
GDP:
Transnational
Issues
Jamaica
Disputes -
international:
none
Trafficking in
persons:
current situation: Jamaica is a
source country for men, women,
and children trafficked for the
purposes of sexual exploitation and
labor; information suggests that
women from the Dominican
Republic and Eastern Europe are
also trafficked to Jamaica for
sexual exploitation; women and
children are trafficked internally
from rural to urban and tourist
areas for sexual exploitation; there
may also be trafficking for
domestic servitude and forced
labor
tier rating: Tier 2 Watch List -
Jamaica is placed on the Tier 2
Watch List based on the
determination that it is making
significant efforts to undertake
future action
Illicit drugs: transshipment point for cocaine
from South America to North
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2592
America and Europe; illicit
cultivation and consumption of
cannabis; government has an
active manual cannabis eradication
program; corruption is a major
concern; substantial money-
laundering activity; Colombian
narcotics traffickers favor Jamaica
for illicit financial transactions
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Introduction Martinique
Background: The French began to settle this
island in 1635, overcoming
resistance from the local Carib
inhabitants. In 1660, the suviving
natives were rounded up and
permanently expelled. The island
has subsequently remained a French
possession except for three brief
periods of foreign occupation.
Geography Martinique
Location: Caribbean, island between the
Caribbean Sea and North Atlantic
Ocean, north of Trinidad and
Tobago
Geographic 14 40 N, 61 00 W
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coordinates:
Map
references:
Central America and the Caribbean
Area: total: 1,100 sq km
land: 1,060 sq km
water: 40 sq km
Area -
comparative:
slightly more than six times the size
of Washington, DC
Land
boundaries:
0 km
Coastline: 350 km
Maritime
claims:
territorial sea: 12 nm
exclusive economic zone: 200 nm
Climate: tropical; moderated by trade winds;
rainy season (June to October);
vulnerable to devastating cyclones
(hurricanes) every eight years on
average; average temperature 17.3
degrees C; humid
Terrain: mountainous with indented
coastline; dormant volcano
Elevation
extremes:
lowest point: Caribbean Sea 0 m
highest point: Montagne Pelee
1,397 m
Natural
resources:
coastal scenery and beaches,
cultivable land
Land use: arable land: 9.09%
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permanent crops: 10%
other: 80.91% (2005)
Irrigated
land:
70 sq km (2003)
Natural
hazards:
hurricanes, flooding, and volcanic
activity (an average of one major
natural disaster every five years)
Environment
- current
issues:
NA
Geography -
note:
the island is dominated by Mount
Pelee, which on 8 May 1902 erupted
and completely destroyed the city
of Saint Pierre, killing 30,000
inhabitants
People Martinique
Population: 436,131 (July 2006 est.)
Age
structure:
0-14 years: 22.1% (male
48,988/female 47,525)
15-64 years: 67.3% (male
147,082/female 146,470)
65 years and over: 10.6% (male
20,791/female 25,275) (2006 est.)
Median
age:
total: 34.1 years
male: 33.4 years
female: 34.8 years (2006 est.)
Population
growth
0.72% (2006 est.)
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2596
rate:
Birth rate: 13.74 births/1,000 population (2006
est.)
Death rate: 6.48 deaths/1,000 population (2006
est.)
Net
migration
rate:
-0.03 migrant(s)/1,000 population
(2006 est.)
Sex ratio: at birth: 1.02 male(s)/female
under 15 years: 1.03 male(s)/female
15-64 years: 1 male(s)/female
65 years and over: 0.82
male(s)/female
total population: 0.99 male(s)/female
(2006 est.)
Infant
mortality
rate:
total: 6.95 deaths/1,000 live births
male: 4.68 deaths/1,000 live births
female: 9.27 deaths/1,000 live births
(2006 est.)
Life
expectancy
at birth:
total population: 79.18 years
male: 79.5 years
female: 78.85 years (2006 est.)
Total
fertility
rate:
1.79 children born/woman (2006 est.)
HIV/AIDS -
adult
prevalence
NA
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2597
rate:
HIV/AIDS -
people
living with
HIV/AIDS:
NA
HIV/AIDS -
deaths:
NA
Nationality: noun: Martiniquais (singular and
plural)
adjective: Martiniquais
Ethnic
groups:
African and African-white-Indian
mixture 90%, white 5%, East Indian
and Chinese less than 5%
Religions: Roman Catholic 85%, Protestant
10.5%, Muslim 0.5%, Hindu 0.5%,
other 3.5% (1997)
Languages: French, Creole patois
Literacy: definition: age 15 and over can read
and write
total population: 97.7%
male: 97.4%
female: 98.1% (2003 est.)
Government Martinique
Country name: conventional long form:
Department of Martinique
conventional short form:
Martinique
local long form: Departement de la
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2598
Martinique
local short form: Martinique
Dependency
status:
overseas department of France
Government
type:
NA
Capital: name: Fort-de-France
geographic coordinates: 14 36 N,
61 05 W
time difference: UTC-4 (1 hour
ahead of Washington, DC during
Standard Time)
Administrative
divisions:
none (overseas department of
France)
Independence: none (overseas department of
France)
National
holiday:
Bastille Day, 14 July (1789)
Constitution: 4 October 1958 (French
Constitution)
Legal system: French legal system
Suffrage: 18 years of age; universal
Executive
branch:
chief of state: President Jacques
CHIRAC of France (since 17 May
1995); Prefect Yves DASSONVILLE
(since 14 January 2004); note -
took office 8 February 2004
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2599
head of government: President of
the General Council Claude LISE
(since 22 March 1992); President
of the Regional Council Alfred
MARIE-JEANNE (since NA March
1998)
cabinet: NA
elections: French president
elected by popular vote for a five-
year term; prefect appointed by
the French president on the
advice of the French Ministry of
Interior; the presidents of the
General and Regional Councils are
elected by the members of those
councils for six-year terms
Legislative
branch:
unicameral General Council or
Conseil General (45 seats;
members are elected by popular
vote to serve six-year terms) and
a unicameral Regional Council or
Conseil Regional (41 seats;
members are elected by popular
vote to serve six-year terms)
elections: General Council - last
held March 2000 (next to be held
in 2006); Regional Council - last
held on 28 March 2004 (next to be
held by March 2010)
election results: General Council -
percent of vote by party - NA;
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2600
seats by party - left-wing
candidates 13, PPM 11, RPR 6,
right-wing candidates 5, PCM 3,
UDF 3, PMS 2, independents 2;
note - the PPM won a plurality;
Regional Council (second round) -
percent of vote by party - MIM
53.8%, PPM 30.6%; seats by party
- MIM 28, PPM 9, other 4
note: Martinique elects 2 seats to
the French Senate; elections last
held September 2004 (next to be
held September 2008); results -
percent of vote by party - NA;
seats by party - PPM 1, left-wing
candidate 1; Martinique also
elects 4 seats to the French
National Assembly; elections last
held, first round - 9 June 2002,
second round - 16 June 2002 (next
to be held not later than June
2007); results - percent of vote by
party - NA; seats by party - UMP-
RPR 1, PMS 1, MIM 1, left-wing
candidate 1 (candidacy of the left-
wing candidate was found invalid
by the Constitutional Council; new
elections will be called)
Judicial
branch:
Court of Appeal or Cour d'Appel
Political Martinique Communist Party or
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2601
parties and
leaders:
PCM [Georges ERICHOT];
Martinique Independence
Movement or MIM [Alfred MARIE-
JEANNE]; Martinique Progressive
Party or PPM [Pierre SUEDILE];
Martinique Socialist Party or PMS
[Ernest WAN-AJOUHU]; Movement
of Democrats and Ecologists for a
Sovereign Martinique or Modemas
[Garcin MALSA]; Rally for the
Republic or RPR [Michel
CHARLONE]; Socialist Revolution
Group or GRS [Philippe PIERRE-
CHARLES]; Union for French
Democracy or UDF [Jean MAREN]
Political
pressure
groups and
leaders:
Caribbean Revolutionary Alliance
or ARC; Central Union for
Martinique Workers or CSTM
[Marc PULVAR]; Frantz Fanon
Circle; League of Workers and
Peasants; Proletarian Action
Group or GAP
International
organization
participation:
UPU, WCL, WFTU
Diplomatic
representation
in the US:
none (overseas department of
France)
Diplomatic
representation
none (overseas department of
France)
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2602
from the US:
Flag
description:
unofficial flag, derives from the
civil ensign flown by French
merchant ships and dates to 1766;
a blue field quartered by a white
cross; in the center of each
rectangle is a white, coiled snake
representing the venomous Fer-
de-lance; the flag of France is
used for official occasions
Economy Martinique
Economy -
overview:
The economy is based on
sugarcane, bananas, tourism, and
light industry. Agriculture
accounts for about 6% of GDP and
the small industrial sector for
11%. Sugar production has
declined, with most of the
sugarcane now used for the
production of rum. Banana
exports are increasing, going
mostly to France. The bulk of
meat, vegetable, and grain
requirements must be imported,
contributing to a chronic trade
deficit that requires large annual
transfers of aid from France.
Tourism, which employs more
than 11,000 people, has become
more important than agricultural
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2603
exports as a source of foreign
exchange.
GDP
(purchasing
power parity):
$6.117 billion (2003 est.)
GDP (official
exchange
rate):
NA
GDP - real
growth rate:
NA%
GDP - per
capita (PPP):
$14,400 (2003 est.)
GDP -
composition
by sector:
agriculture: 6%
industry: 11%
services: 83% (1997 est.)
Labor force: 165,900 (1998)
Labor force -
by occupation:
agriculture: 10%
industry: 17%
services: 73% (1997)
Unemployment
rate:
27.2% (1998)
Population
below poverty
line:
NA%
Household
income or
consumption
lowest 10%: NA%
highest 10%: NA%
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2604
by percentage
share:
Inflation rate
(consumer
prices):
3.9% (1990)
Budget: revenues: $317.5 million
expenditures: $317.5 million;
including capital expenditures of
$140 million (1996)
Agriculture -
products:
pineapples, avocados, bananas,
flowers, vegetables, sugarcane
Industries: construction, rum, cement, oil
refining, sugar, tourism
Industrial
production
growth rate:
NA%
Electricity -
production:
1.205 billion kWh (2003)
Electricity -
production by
source:
fossil fuel: 100%
hydro: 0%
nuclear: 0%
other: 0% (2001)
Electricity -
consumption:
1.12 billion kWh (2003)
Electricity -
exports:
0 kWh (2003)
Electricity - 0 kWh (2003)
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2605
imports:
Oil -
production:
0 bbl/day (2003 est.)
Oil -
consumption:
13,800 bbl/day (2003 est.)
Oil - exports: NA bbl/day
Oil - imports: NA bbl/day
Natural gas -
production:
0 cu m (2003 est.)
Natural gas -
consumption:
0 cu m (2003 est.)
Exports: $404.2 million f.o.b. (1997)
Exports -
commodities:
refined petroleum products,
bananas, rum, pineapples
Exports -
partners:
France 45%, Guadeloupe 28%
(2004)
Imports: $2.307 billion c.i.f. (2002)
Imports -
commodities:
petroleum products, crude oil,
foodstuffs, construction
materials, vehicles, clothing and
other consumer goods
Imports -
partners:
France 62%, Venezuela 6%,
Germany 4%, Italy 4%, US 3%
(2004)
Debt -
external:
$180 million (1994)
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2606
Economic aid -
recipient:
$NA; note - substantial annual aid
from France (1998)
Currency
(code):
euro (EUR)
Currency
code:
EUR
Exchange
rates:
euros per US dollar - 0.8041
(2005), 0.8054 (2004), 0.886
(2003), 1.0626 (2002), 1.1175
(2001)
Fiscal year: calendar year
Communications Martinique
Telephones
- main lines
in use:
172,000 (2001)
Telephones
- mobile
cellular:
319,900 (2002)
Telephone
system:
general assessment: domestic
facilities are adequate
domestic: NA
international: country code - 596;
microwave radio relay to
Guadeloupe, Dominica, and Saint
Lucia; satellite earth stations - 2
Intelsat (Atlantic Ocean)
Radio
broadcast
AM 0, FM 14, shortwave 0 (1998)
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2607
stations:
Radios: 82,000 (1997)
Television
broadcast
stations:
11 (plus nine repeaters) (1997)
Televisions: 66,000 (1997)
Internet
country
code:
.mq
Internet
hosts:
70 (2005)
Internet
Service
Providers
(ISPs):
2 (2000)
Internet
users:
107,000 (2005)
Transportation Martinique
Airports: 2 (2006)
Airports -
with
paved
runways:
total: 1
over 3,047 m: 1 (2006)
Airports -
with
unpaved
runways:
total: 1
under 914 m: 1 (2006)
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2608
Roadways: total: 2,105 km (including 261 km of
expressways) (2000)
Ports and
terminals:
Fort-de-France, La Trinite, Marin
Military Martinique
Military
branches:
no regular military forces;
Gendarmerie
Manpower
available
for
military
service:
males age 18-49: 110,536 (2005 est.)
Manpower
fit for
military
service:
males age 18-49: 90,868 (2005 est.)
Manpower
reaching
military
service
age
annually:
males age 18-49: 3,105 (2005 est.)
Military -
note:
defense is the responsibility of France
Transnational
Issues
Martinique
Disputes -
international:
none
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2609
Illicit drugs: transshipment point for cocaine
and marijuana bound for the US and
Europe
MEXICO
Introduction Mexico
Background: The site of advanced Amerindian
civilizations, Mexico came under
Spanish rule for three centuries
before achieving independence
early in the 19th century. A
devaluation of the peso in late 1994
threw Mexico into economic turmoil,
triggering the worst recession in
over half a century. The nation
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2610
continues to make an impressive
recovery. Ongoing economic and
social concerns include low real
wages, underemployment for a large
segment of the population,
inequitable income distribution, and
few advancement opportunities for
the largely Amerindian population in
the impoverished southern states.
The elections held in 2000 marked
the first time since the 1910
Mexican Revolution that an
opposition candidate - Vicente FOX
of the National Action Party (PAN) -
defeated the party in government,
the Institutional Revolutionary Party
(PRI). He was succeeded in 2006 by
another PAN candidate Felipe
CALDERON.
Geography Mexico
Location: Middle America, bordering the
Caribbean Sea and the Gulf of
Mexico, between Belize and the US
and bordering the North Pacific
Ocean, between Guatemala and the
US
Geographic
coordinates:
23 00 N, 102 00 W
Map
references:
North America
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2611
Area: total: 1,972,550 sq km
land: 1,923,040 sq km
water: 49,510 sq km
Area -
comparative:
slightly less than three times the
size of Texas
Land
boundaries:
total: 4,353 km
border countries: Belize 250 km,
Guatemala 962 km, US 3,141 km
Coastline: 9,330 km
Maritime
claims:
territorial sea: 12 nm
contiguous zone: 24 nm
exclusive economic zone: 200 nm
continental shelf: 200 nm or to the
edge of the continental margin
Climate: varies from tropical to desert
Terrain: high, rugged mountains; low coastal
plains; high plateaus; desert
Elevation
extremes:
lowest point: Laguna Salada -10 m
highest point: Volcan Pico de
Orizaba 5,700 m
Natural
resources:
petroleum, silver, copper, gold,
lead, zinc, natural gas, timber
Land use: arable land: 12.66%
permanent crops: 1.28%
other: 86.06% (2005)
Irrigated
land:
63,200 sq km (2003)
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2612
Natural
hazards:
tsunamis along the Pacific coast,
volcanoes and destructive
earthquakes in the center and
south, and hurricanes on the
Pacific, Gulf of Mexico, and
Caribbean coasts
Environment
- current
issues:
scarcity of hazardous waste
disposal facilities; rural to urban
migration; natural fresh water
resources scarce and polluted in
north, inaccessible and poor quality
in center and extreme southeast;
raw sewage and industrial effluents
polluting rivers in urban areas;
deforestation; widespread erosion;
desertification; deteriorating
agricultural lands; serious air and
water pollution in the national
capital and urban centers along US-
Mexico border; land subsidence in
Valley of Mexico caused by
groundwater depletion
note: the government considers the
lack of clean water and
deforestation national security
issues
Environment
-
international
agreements:
party to: Biodiversity, Climate
Change, Climate Change-Kyoto
Protocol, Desertification,
Endangered Species, Hazardous
Wastes, Law of the Sea, Marine
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2613
Dumping, Marine Life Conservation,
Ozone Layer Protection, Ship
Pollution, Wetlands, Whaling
signed, but not ratified: none of the
selected agreements
Geography -
note:
strategic location on southern
border of US; corn (maize), one of
the world's major grain crops, is
thought to have originated in
Mexico
People Mexico
Population: 108,700,891 (July 2007 est.)
Age
structure:
0-14 years: 30.1% (male
16,696,089/female 16,011,563)
15-64 years: 64% (male
33,624,812/female 35,925,372)
65 years and over: 5.9% (male
2,917,563/female 3,525,492) (2007
est.)
Median
age:
total: 25.6 years
male: 24.6 years
female: 26.6 years (2007 est.)
Population
growth
rate:
1.153% (2007 est.)
Birth rate: 20.36 births/1,000 population (2007
est.)
Death rate: 4.76 deaths/1,000 population (2007
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2614
est.)
Net
migration
rate:
-4.08 migrant(s)/1,000 population
(2007 est.)
Sex ratio: at birth: 1.05 male(s)/female
under 15 years: 1.043 male(s)/female
15-64 years: 0.936 male(s)/female
65 years and over: 0.828
male(s)/female
total population: 0.96 male(s)/female
(2007 est.)
Infant
mortality
rate:
total: 19.63 deaths/1,000 live births
male: 21.54 deaths/1,000 live births
female: 17.62 deaths/1,000 live births
(2007 est.)
Life
expectancy
at birth:
total population: 75.63 years
male: 72.84 years
female: 78.56 years (2007 est.)
Total
fertility
rate:
2.39 children born/woman (2007 est.)
HIV/AIDS -
adult
prevalence
rate:
0.3% (2003 est.)
HIV/AIDS -
people
living with
HIV/AIDS:
160,000 (2003 est.)
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2615
HIV/AIDS -
deaths:
5,000 (2003 est.)
Nationality: noun: Mexican(s)
adjective: Mexican
Ethnic
groups:
mestizo (Amerindian-Spanish) 60%,
Amerindian or predominantly
Amerindian 30%, white 9%, other 1%
Religions: Roman Catholic 76.5%, Protestant
6.3% (Pentecostal 1.4%, Jehovah's
Witnesses 1.1%, other 3.8%), other
0.3%, unspecified 13.8%, none 3.1%
(2000 census)
Languages: Spanish, various Mayan, Nahuatl, and
other regional indigenous languages
Literacy: definition: age 15 and over can read
and write
total population: 91%
male: 92.4%
female: 89.6% (2004 est.)
Government Mexico
Country name: conventional long form: United
Mexican States
conventional short form: Mexico
local long form: Estados Unidos
Mexicanos
local short form: Mexico
Government
type:
federal republic
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2616
Capital: name: Mexico (Distrito Federal)
geographic coordinates: 19 24 N,
99 09 W
time difference: UTC-6 (1 hour
behind Washington, DC during
Standard Time)
daylight saving time: +1hr, begins
first Sunday in April; ends last
Sunday in October
note: Mexico is divided into four
time zones
Administrative
divisions:
31 states (estados, singular -
estado) and 1 federal district*
(distrito federal); Aguascalientes,
Baja California, Baja California
Sur, Campeche, Chiapas,
Chihuahua, Coahuila de Zaragoza,
Colima, Distrito Federal*,
Durango, Guanajuato, Guerrero,
Hidalgo, Jalisco, Mexico,
Michoacan de Ocampo, Morelos,
Nayarit, Nuevo Leon, Oaxaca,
Puebla, Queretaro de Arteaga,
Quintana Roo, San Luis Potosi,
Sinaloa, Sonora, Tabasco,
Tamaulipas, Tlaxcala, Veracruz-
Llave, Yucatan, Zacatecas
Independence: 16 September 1810 (declared); 27
September 1821 (recognized by
Spain)
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National
holiday:
Independence Day, 16 September
(1810)
Constitution: 5 February 1917
Legal system: mixture of US constitutional
theory and civil law system;
judicial review of legislative acts;
accepts compulsory ICJ
jurisdiction, with reservations
Suffrage: 18 years of age; universal and
compulsory (but not enforced)
Executive
branch:
chief of state: President Felipe de
Jesus CALDERON Hinojosa (since
1 December 2006); note - the
president is both the chief of state
and head of government
head of government: President
Felipe de Jesus CALDERON
Hinojosa (since 1 December 2006)
cabinet: Cabinet appointed by the
president; note - appointment of
attorney general requires consent
of the Senate
elections: president elected by
popular vote for a single six-year
term; election last held on 2 July
2006 (next to be held 1 July 2012)
election results: Felipe
CALDERON elected president;
percent of vote - Felipe
CALDERON 35.89%, Andres
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2618
Manuel Lopez OBRADOR 35.31%,
Roberto MADRAZO 22.26%, other
6.54%
Legislative
branch:
bicameral National Congress or
Congreso de la Union consists of
the Senate or Camara de
Senadores (128 seats; 96
members are elected by popular
vote to serve six-year terms, and
32 seats are allocated on the
basis of each party's popular vote)
and the Federal Chamber of
Deputies or Camara Federal de
Diputados (500 seats; 300
members are elected by popular
vote; remaining 200 members are
allocated on the basis of each
party's popular vote; to serve
three-year terms)
elections: Senate - last held 2 July
2006 for all of the seats (next to
be held 1 July 2012); Chamber of
Deputies - last held 2 July 2006
(next to be held 5 July 2009)
election results: Senate - percent
of vote by party - NA; seats by
party - PAN 52, PRI 33, PRD 26,
PVEM 6, CD 5, PT 5, independent
1; Chamber of Deputies - percent
of vote by party - NA; seats by
party - PAN 206, PRD 127, PRI
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2619
106, PVEM 17, CD 17, PT 12, other
18
Judicial
branch:
Supreme Court of Justice or
Suprema Corte de Justicia de la
Nacion (justices or ministros are
appointed by the president with
consent of the Senate)
Political
parties and
leaders:
Convergence for Democracy or CD
[Luis MALDONADO Venegas];
Institutional Revolutionary Party
or PRI [Beatriz PAREDES]; Labor
Party or PT [Alberto ANAYA
Gutierrez]; Mexican Green
Ecological Party or PVEM [Jorge
Emilio GONZALEZ Martinez];
National Action Party (Partido
Accion Nacional) or PAN [Manuel
ESPINO Barrientos]; New Alliance
Party (Partido Nueva Alianza) or
PNA [Miguel Angel JIMENEZ
Godinez]; Party of the Democratic
Revolution (Partido de la
Revolucion Democratica) or PRD
[Leonel COTA Montano]; Social
Democratic and Peasant
Alternative Party (Partido
Alternativa Socialdemocrata y
Campesina) or Alternativa
[Alberto BEGNE Guerra]
Political Broad Progressive Front or FAP;
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2620
pressure
groups and
leaders:
Businessmen's Coordinating
Council or CCE; Confederation of
Employers of the Mexican
Republic or COPARMEX;
Confederation of Industrial
Chambers or CONCAMIN;
Confederation of Mexican Workers
or CTM; Confederation of National
Chambers of Commerce or
CONCANACO; Coordinator for
Foreign Trade Business
Organizations or COECE;
Federation of Unions Providing
Goods and Services or FESEBES;
National Chamber of
Transformation Industries or
CANACINTRA; National Peasant
Confederation or CNC; National
Small Business Chamber or
CANACOPE; National Syndicate of
Education Workers or SNTE;
National Union of Workers or UNT;
Popular Assembly of the People of
Oaxaca or APPO; Roman Catholic
Church
International
organization
participation:
APEC, BCIE, BIS, CAN (observer),
CDB, CE (observer), CSN
(observer), EBRD, FAO, G-3, G-6,
G-15, G-24, IADB, IAEA, IBRD,
ICAO, ICC, ICCt, ICRM, IDA, IFAD,
IFC, IFRCS, IHO, ILO, IMF, IMO,
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Interpol, IOC, IOM, IPU, ISO, ITU,
ITUC, LAES, LAIA, NAFTA, NAM
(observer), NEA, OAS, OECD,
OPANAL, OPCW, PCA, RG, UN,
UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNHCR,
UNIDO, UNITAR, UNMOVIC,
UNWTO, UPU, WCL, WCO, WFTU,
WHO, WIPO, WMO, WTO
Diplomatic
representation
in the US:
chief of mission: Ambassador
Arturo SARUKHAN Casamitjana
chancery: 1911 Pennsylvania
Avenue NW, Washington, DC
20006
telephone: [1] (202) 728-1600
FAX: [1] (202) 728-1698
consulate(s) general: Atlanta,
Austin, Boston, Chicago, Dallas,
Denver, El Paso, Houston, Los
Angeles, Miami, New Orleans,
New York, Nogales (Arizona),
Omaha, Orlando, Phoenix,
Sacramento, San Antonio, San
Diego, San Francisco, San Jose,
San Juan (Puerto Rico)
consulate(s): Albuquerque,
Brownsville (Texas), Calexico
(California), Del Rio (Texas),
Detroit, Douglas (Arizona), Eagle
Pass (Texas), Fresno (California),
Indianapolis (Indiana), Kansas
City (Missouri), Laredo (Texas),
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Las Vegas, McAllen (Texas),
Midland (Texas), Oxnard
(California), Philadelphia, Portland
(Oregon), Presidio (Texas),
Raleigh, Saint Paul (Minnesota),
Salt Lake City, San Bernardino,
Santa Ana (California), Seattle,
Tucson, Yuma (Arizona)
Diplomatic
representation
from the US:
chief of mission: Ambassador
Antonio O. GARZA, Jr.
embassy: Paseo de la Reforma
305, Colonia Cuauhtemoc, 06500
Mexico, Distrito Federal
mailing address: P. O. Box 9000,
Brownsville, TX 78520-9000
telephone: [52] (55) 5080-2000
FAX: [52] (55) 5511-9980
consulate(s) general: Ciudad
Juarez, Guadalajara, Monterrey,
Tijuana
consulate(s): Hermosillo,
Matamoros, Merida, Nogales,
Nuevo Laredo
Flag
description:
three equal vertical bands of
green (hoist side), white, and red;
the coat of arms (an eagle
perched on a cactus with a snake
in its beak) is centered in the
white band
Economy Mexico
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Economy -
overview:
Mexico has a free market
economy that recently entered
the trillion dollar class. It
contains a mixture of modern and
outmoded industry and
agriculture, increasingly
dominated by the private sector.
Recent administrations have
expanded competition in
seaports, railroads,
telecommunications, electricity
generation, natural gas
distribution, and airports. Per
capita income is one-fourth that
of the US; income distribution
remains highly unequal. Trade
with the US and Canada has
tripled since the implementation
of NAFTA in 1994. Mexico has 12
free trade agreements with over
40 countries including,
Guatemala, Honduras, El
Salvador, the European Free
Trade Area, and Japan, putting
more than 90% of trade under free
trade agreements. The new Felipe
CALDERON administration that
took office in December 2006
faces many of the same
challenges that former President
FOX tried to tackle, including the
need to upgrade infrastructure,
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2624
modernize the tax system and
labor laws, and allow private
investment in the energy sector.
CALDERON has stated that his
top priorities include reducing
poverty and creating jobs. The
success of his economic agenda
will depend on his ability to
garner support from the
opposition.
GDP
(purchasing
power parity):
$1.149 trillion (2006 est.)
GDP (official
exchange
rate):
$743.5 billion (2006 est.)
GDP - real
growth rate:
4.8% (2006 est.)
GDP - per
capita (PPP):
$10,700 (2006 est.)
GDP -
composition
by sector:
agriculture: 3.9%
industry: 25.7%
services: 70.5% (2006 est.)
Labor force: 38.09 million (2006 est.)
Labor force -
by occupation:
agriculture: 18%
industry: 24%
services: 58% (2003)
Unemployment 3.2% plus underemployment of
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rate: perhaps 25% (2006 est.)
Population
below poverty
line:
40% (2003 est.)
Household
income or
consumption
by percentage
share:
lowest 10%: 1.6%
highest 10%: 35.6% (2002)
Distribution of
family income
- Gini index:
54.6 (2000)
Inflation rate
(consumer
prices):
3.4% (2006 est.)
Investment
(gross fixed):
20% of GDP (2006 est.)
Budget: revenues: $196.5 billion
expenditures: $196.2 billion;
including capital expenditures of
$NA (2006 est.)
Public debt: 20.7% of GDP (2006 est.)
Agriculture -
products:
corn, wheat, soybeans, rice,
beans, cotton, coffee, fruit,
tomatoes; beef, poultry, dairy
products; wood products
Industries: food and beverages, tobacco,
chemicals, iron and steel,
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petroleum, mining, textiles,
clothing, motor vehicles,
consumer durables, tourism
Industrial
production
growth rate:
3.6% (2006 est.)
Electricity -
production:
242.4 billion kWh (2004)
Electricity -
production by
source:
fossil fuel: 78.7%
hydro: 14.2%
nuclear: 4.2%
other: 2.9% (2001)
Electricity -
consumption:
224.6 billion kWh (2004)
Electricity -
exports:
1.203 billion kWh (2004)
Electricity -
imports:
416 million kWh (2004)
Oil -
production:
3.42 million bbl/day (2005 est.)
Oil -
consumption:
1.97 million bbl/day (2004 est.)
Oil - exports: 1.863 million bbl/day (2004)
Oil - imports: 205,000 bbl/day (2004)
Oil - proved
reserves:
12.49 billion bbl (2006 est.)
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Natural gas -
production:
41.47 billion cu m (2004 est.)
Natural gas -
consumption:
50.45 billion cu m (2004 est.)
Natural gas -
exports:
0 cu m (2004 est.)
Natural gas -
imports:
9.831 billion cu m (2004 est.)
Natural gas -
proved
reserves:
420.5 billion cu m (1 January 2005
est.)
Current
account
balance:
-$400.1 million (2006 est.)
Exports: $248.8 billion f.o.b. (2006 est.)
Exports -
commodities:
manufactured goods, oil and oil
products, silver, fruits,
vegetables, coffee, cotton
Exports -
partners:
US 85.7%, Canada 2%, Spain 1.4%
(2005)
Imports: $253.1 billion f.o.b. (2006 est.)
Imports -
commodities:
metalworking machines, steel mill
products, agricultural machinery,
electrical equipment, car parts for
assembly, repair parts for motor
vehicles, aircraft, and aircraft
parts
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2628
Imports -
partners:
US 53.4%, China 8%, Japan 5.9%
(2005)
Reserves of
foreign
exchange and
gold:
$85.01 billion (2006 est.)
Debt -
external:
$178.3 billion (30 June 2006 est.)
Economic aid -
recipient:
$1.166 billion (1995)
Currency
(code):
Mexican peso (MXN)
Currency
code:
MXN
Exchange
rates:
Mexican pesos per US dollar -
10.899 (2006), 10.898 (2005),
11.286 (2004), 10.789 (2003),
9.656 (2002)
Fiscal year: calendar year
Communications Mexico
Telephones
- main lines
in use:
19.512 million (2005)
Telephones
- mobile
cellular:
47.462 million (2005)
Telephone general assessment: low telephone
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system: density with about 18 main lines per
100 persons; privatized in December
1990; the opening to competition in
January 1997 improved prospects for
development, but Telmex remains
dominant
domestic: adequate telephone
service for business and government,
but the population is poorly served;
mobile subscribers far outnumber
fixed-line subscribers; domestic
satellite system with 120 earth
stations; extensive microwave radio
relay network; considerable use of
fiber-optic cable and coaxial cable
international: country code - 52;
satellite earth stations - 32 Intelsat,
2 Solidaridad (giving Mexico
improved access to South America,
Central America, and much of the US
as well as enhancing domestic
communications), 1 Panamsat,
numerous Inmarsat mobile earth
stations; linked to Central American
Microwave System of trunk
connections; high capacity
Columbus-2 fiber-optic submarine
cable with access to the US, Virgin
Islands, Canary Islands, Morocco,
Spain, and Italy (2005)
Radio AM 850, FM 545, shortwave 15 (2003)
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broadcast
stations:
Radios: 31 million (1997)
Television
broadcast
stations:
236 (plus repeaters) (1997)
Televisions: 25.6 million (1997)
Internet
country
code:
.mx
Internet
hosts:
3.427 million (2006)
Internet
Service
Providers
(ISPs):
51 (2000)
Internet
users:
18.622 million (2005)
Transportation Mexico
Airports: 1,839 (2006)
Airports -
with paved
runways:
total: 228
over 3,047 m: 12
2,438 to 3,047 m: 28
1,524 to 2,437 m: 82
914 to 1,523 m: 77
under 914 m: 29 (2006)
Airports - total: 1,611
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with
unpaved
runways:
over 3,047 m: 1
2,438 to 3,047 m: 1
1,524 to 2,437 m: 68
914 to 1,523 m: 460
under 914 m: 1,081 (2006)
Heliports: 1 (2006)
Pipelines: gas 22,705 km; liquid petroleum gas
1,875 km; oil 8,688 km; oil/gas/water
228 km; refined products 6,520 km
(2006)
Railways: total: 17,562 km
standard gauge: 17,562 km 1.435-m
gauge (2005)
Roadways: total: 235,670 km
paved: 116,751 km (includes 6,144
km of expressways)
unpaved: 118,919 km (2004)
Waterways: 2,900 km (navigable rivers and
coastal canals) (2005)
Merchant
marine:
total: 56 ships (1000 GRT or over)
751,607 GRT/1,129,234 DWT
by type: bulk carrier 2, cargo 6,
chemical tanker 6, liquefied gas 4,
passenger/cargo 9, petroleum tanker
25, roll on/roll off 4
foreign-owned: 5 (Denmark 2, France
1, Norway 1, UAE 1)
registered in other countries: 15
(Belize 1, Honduras 1, Liberia 1,
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Panama 5, Portugal 1, Spain 3,
Venezuela 3) (2006)
Ports and
terminals:
Altamira, Manzanillo, Morro Redondo,
Salina Cruz, Tampico, Topolobampo,
Veracruz
Military Mexico
Military
branches:
Secretariat of National Defense
(Secretaria de Defensa Nacional,
Sedena): Army (Ejercito), Mexican
Air Force (Fuerza Aerea Mexicana,
FAM); Secretariat of the Navy
(Secretaria de Marina, Semar):
Mexican Navy (Armada de Mexico,
ARM, includes Naval Air Force
(FAN) and Marines) (2007)
Military
service age
and
obligation:
18 years of age for compulsory
military service, conscript service
obligation - 12 months; 16 years of
age with consent for voluntary
enlistment; conscripts serve only in
the Army; Navy and Air Force
service is all voluntary (2007)
Manpower
available for
military
service:
males age 18-49: 24,488,008
females age 18-49: 26,128,046
(2005 est.)
Manpower fit
for military
service:
males age 18-49: 19,058,337
females age 18-49: 21,966,796
(2005 est.)
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Manpower
reaching
military
service age
annually:
males age 18-49: 1,063,233
females age 18-49: 1,043,816 (2005
est.)
Military
expenditures
- percent of
GDP:
0.5% (2006 est.)
Transnational
Issues
Mexico
Disputes -
international:
abundant rainfall in recent years
along much of the Mexico-US
border region has ameliorated
periodically strained water-sharing
arrangements; the US has
intensified security measures to
monitor and control legal and
illegal personnel, transport, and
commodities across its border with
Mexico; Mexico must deal with
thousands of impoverished
Guatemalans and other Central
Americans who cross the porous
border looking for work in Mexico
and the United States
Refugees
and
internally
displaced
IDPs: 10,000-12,000 (government's
quashing of Zapatista uprising in
1994 in eastern Chiapas Region)
(2006)
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2634
persons:
Trafficking in
persons:
current situation: Mexico is a
source, transit, and destination
country for persons trafficked for
sexual exploitation and labor; while
the vast majority of victims are
Central Americans trafficked along
Mexico's southern border, other
source regions include South
America, the Caribbean, Eastern
Europe, Africa, and Asia; women
and children are trafficked from
rural regions to urban centers and
tourist areas for sexual
exploitation, often through
fraudulent offers of employment or
through threats of physical
violence; the Mexican trafficking
problem is often conflated with
alien smuggling, and frequently the
same criminal networks are
involved; pervasive corruption
among state and local law
enforcement often impedes
investigations
tier rating: Tier 2 Watch List -
Mexico remains on the Tier 2
Watch List for the third consecutive
year based on future commitments
to undertake additional efforts in
prosecution, protection, and
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2635
prevention of trafficking in persons,
and the failure of the government
to provide critical law enforcement
data
Illicit drugs: major drug-producing nation;
cultivation of opium poppy in 2005
amounted to 3,300 hectares
yielding a potential production of 8
metric tons of pure heroin, or 17
metric tons of "black tar" heroin,
the dominant form of Mexican
heroin in the western United
States; marijuana cultivation
decreased 3% to 5,600 hectares in
2005 - just two years after a
decade-high cultivation peak in
2003 - and yielded a potential
production of 10,100 metric tons;
government conducts the largest
independent illicit-crop eradication
program in the world; continues as
the primary transshipment country
for US-bound cocaine from South
America, with an estimated 90% of
annual cocaine movements
towards the US stopping in Mexico;
major drug syndicates control
majority of drug trafficking
throughout the country; producer
and distributor of ecstasy;
significant money-laundering
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2636
center; major supplier of heroin and
largest foreign supplier of
marijuana and methamphetamine
to the US market
MONTSERRAT
Introduction Montserrat
Background: English and Irish colonists from St.
Kitts first settled on Montserrat in
1632; the first African slaves arrived
three decades later. The British and
French fought for possession of the
island for most of the 18th century,
but it finally was confirmed as a
British possession in 1783. The
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2637
island's sugar plantation economy
was converted to small farm
landholdings in the mid 19th
century. Much of this island was
devastated and two-thirds of the
population fled abroad because of
the eruption of the Soufriere Hills
Volcano that began on 18 July 1995.
Montserrat has endured volcanic
activity since, with the last eruption
occurring in July 2003.
Geography Montserrat
Location: Caribbean, island in the Caribbean
Sea, southeast of Puerto Rico
Geographic
coordinates:
16 45 N, 62 12 W
Map
references:
Central America and the Caribbean
Area: total: 102 sq km
land: 102 sq km
water: 0 sq km
Area -
comparative:
about 0.6 times the size of
Washington, DC
Land
boundaries:
0 km
Coastline: 40 km
Maritime
claims:
territorial sea: 3 nm
exclusive fishing zone: 200 nm
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2638
Climate: tropical; little daily or seasonal
temperature variation
Terrain: volcanic island, mostly
mountainous, with small coastal
lowland
Elevation
extremes:
lowest point: Caribbean Sea 0 m
highest point: lava dome in
English's Crater (in the Soufriere
Hills volcanic complex) estimated
at over 930 m (2006)
Natural
resources:
NEGL
Land use: arable land: 20%
permanent crops: 0%
other: 80% (2005)
Irrigated
land:
NA
Natural
hazards:
severe hurricanes (June to
November); volcanic eruptions
(Soufriere Hills volcano has erupted
continuously since 1995)
Environment
- current
issues:
land erosion occurs on slopes that
have been cleared for cultivation
Geography -
note:
the island is entirely volcanic in
origin and comprised of three major
volcanic centers of differing ages
People Montserrat
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2639
Population: 9,538
note: an estimated 8,000 refugees
left the island following the
resumption of volcanic activity in
July 1995; some have returned (July
2007 est.)
Age
structure:
0-14 years: 23.5% (male 1,144/female
1,094)
15-64 years: 65.7% (male
2,989/female 3,281)
65 years and over: 10.8% (male
527/female 503) (2007 est.)
Median
age:
total: 29.3 years
male: 28.9 years
female: 29.7 years (2007 est.)
Population
growth
rate:
1.048% (2007 est.)
Birth rate: 17.51 births/1,000 population (2007
est.)
Death rate: 7.02 deaths/1,000 population (2007
est.)
Net
migration
rate:
0 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2007
est.)
Sex ratio: at birth: 1.05 male(s)/female
under 15 years: 1.046 male(s)/female
15-64 years: 0.911 male(s)/female
65 years and over: 1.048
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2640
male(s)/female
total population: 0.955
male(s)/female (2007 est.)
Infant
mortality
rate:
total: 7.03 deaths/1,000 live births
male: 8.15 deaths/1,000 live births
female: 5.84 deaths/1,000 live births
(2007 est.)
Life
expectancy
at birth:
total population: 79 years
male: 76.8 years
female: 81.31 years (2007 est.)
Total
fertility
rate:
1.77 children born/woman (2007 est.)
HIV/AIDS -
adult
prevalence
rate:
NA
HIV/AIDS -
people
living with
HIV/AIDS:
NA
HIV/AIDS -
deaths:
NA
Nationality: noun: Montserratian(s)
adjective: Montserratian
Ethnic
groups:
black, white
Religions: Anglican, Methodist, Roman Catholic,
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2641
Pentecostal, Seventh-Day Adventist,
other Christian denominations
Languages: English
Literacy: definition: age 15 and over has ever
attended school
total population: 97%
male: 97%
female: 97% (1970 est.)
Government Montserrat
Country name: conventional long form: none
conventional short form:
Montserrat
Dependency
status:
overseas territory of the UK
Government
type:
NA
Capital: name: Plymouth
geographic coordinates: 16 44 N,
62 14 W
time difference: UTC-4 (1 hour
ahead of Washington, DC during
Standard Time)
note: Plymouth was abandoned in
1997 because of volcanic activity;
interim government buildings have
been built at Brades Estate in the
Carr's Bay/Little Bay vicinity at
the northwest end of Montserrat
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2642
Administrative
divisions:
3 parishes; Saint Anthony, Saint
Georges, Saint Peter
Independence: none (overseas territory of the
UK)
National
holiday:
Birthday of Queen ELIZABETH II,
second Saturday in June (1926)
Constitution: effective 19 December 1989
Legal system: English common law and statutory
law
Suffrage: 18 years of age; universal
Executive
branch:
chief of state: Queen ELIZABETH
II (since 6 February 1952);
represented by Governor Deborah
BARNES-JONES (since 10 May
2004)
head of government: Chief
Minister Lowell LEWIS (since 2
June 2006)
cabinet: Executive Council
consists of the governor, the chief
minister, three other ministers,
the attorney general, and the
finance secretary
elections: the monarch is
hereditary; governor appointed by
the monarch; following legislative
elections, the leader of the
majority party usually becomes
chief minister
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2643
Legislative
branch:
unicameral Legislative Council (11
seats, 9 popularly elected;
members serve five-year terms)
note: expanded in 2001 from 7 to
9 elected members with attorney
general and financial secretary
sitting as ex-officio members
elections: last held 31 May 2006
(next to be held by 2011)
election results: percent of vote
by party - MCAP 36.1%, NPLM
29.4%, MDP 24.4%, independents
10.1%; seats by party - MCAP 4,
NPLM 3, MDP 1, independents 1
note: in 2001, the Elections
Commission instituted a single
constituency/voter-at-large
system whereby all eligible voters
cast ballots for all nine seats of
the Legislative Council
Judicial
branch:
Eastern Caribbean Supreme Court
(based in Saint Lucia, one judge of
the Supreme Court is a resident of
the islands and presides over the
High Court)
Political
parties and
leaders:
Montserrat Democratic Party or
MDP [Lowell LEWIS]; Movement
for Change and Prosperity or
MCAP [Roselyn CASSELL-SEALY];
New People's Liberation
Movement or NPLM [John A.
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2644
OSBORNE]
Political
pressure
groups and
leaders:
NA
International
organization
participation:
Caricom, CDB, Interpol
(subbureau), OECS, UPU
Diplomatic
representation
in the US:
none (overseas territory of the
UK)
Diplomatic
representation
from the US:
none (overseas territory of the
UK)
Flag
description:
blue, with the flag of the UK in the
upper hoist-side quadrant and the
Montserratian coat of arms
centered in the outer half of the
flag; the coat of arms features a
woman standing beside a yellow
harp with her arm around a black
cross
Economy Montserrat
Economy -
overview:
Severe volcanic activity, which
began in July 1995, has put a
damper on this small, open
economy. A catastrophic eruption
in June 1997 closed the airports
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2645
and seaports, causing further
economic and social dislocation.
Two-thirds of the 12,000
inhabitants fled the island. Some
began to return in 1998, but lack
of housing limited the number.
The agriculture sector continued
to be affected by the lack of
suitable land for farming and the
destruction of crops. Prospects
for the economy depend largely
on developments in relation to the
volcanic activity and on public
sector construction activity. The
UK has launched a three-year
$122.8 million aid program to help
reconstruct the economy. Half of
the island is expected to remain
uninhabitable for another decade.
GDP
(purchasing
power parity):
$29 million (2002 est.)
GDP (official
exchange
rate):
NA
GDP - real
growth rate:
-1% (2002 est.)
GDP - per
capita (PPP):
$3,400 (2002 est.)
GDP - agriculture: 1.2%
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2646
composition
by sector:
industry: 23.1%
services: 75.7% (1999 est.)
Labor force: 4,521
note: lowered by flight of people
from volcanic activity (2000 est.)
Unemployment
rate:
6% (1998 est.)
Population
below poverty
line:
NA%
Household
income or
consumption
by percentage
share:
lowest 10%: NA%
highest 10%: NA%
Inflation rate
(consumer
prices):
2.6% (2002 est.)
Budget: revenues: $31.4 million
expenditures: $31.6 million;
including capital expenditures of
$8.4 million (1997 est.)
Agriculture -
products:
cabbages, carrots, cucumbers,
tomatoes, onions, peppers;
livestock products
Industries: tourism, rum, textiles, electronic
appliances
Industrial NA%
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2647
production
growth rate:
Electricity -
production:
2 million kWh (2003)
Electricity -
production by
source:
fossil fuel: 100%
hydro: 0%
nuclear: 0%
other: 0% (2001)
Electricity -
consumption:
1.86 million kWh (2003)
Electricity -
exports:
0 kWh (2003)
Electricity -
imports:
0 kWh (2003)
Oil -
production:
0 bbl/day (2003 est.)
Oil -
consumption:
380 bbl/day (2003 est.)
Oil - exports: NA bbl/day
Oil - imports: NA bbl/day
Natural gas -
production:
0 cu m (2004 est.)
Natural gas -
consumption:
0 cu m (2004 est.)
Exports: $700,000 (2001)
Exports - electronic components, plastic
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2648
commodities: bags, apparel; hot peppers, limes,
live plants; cattle
Exports -
partners:
US, Antigua and Barbuda (2004)
Imports: $17 million (2001)
Imports -
commodities:
machinery and transportation
equipment, foodstuffs,
manufactured goods, fuels,
lubricants, and related materials
Imports -
partners:
US, UK, Trinidad and Tobago,
Japan, Canada (2004)
Debt -
external:
$8.9 million (1997)
Economic aid -
recipient:
Country Policy Plan (2001) is a
three-year program for spending
$122.8 million in British budgetary
assistance (2002 est.)
Currency
(code):
East Caribbean dollar (XCD)
Currency
code:
XCD
Exchange
rates:
East Caribbean dollars per US
dollar - 2.7 (2006), 2.7 (2005), 2.7
(2004), 2.7 (2003), 2.7 (2002)
note: fixed rate since 1976
Fiscal year: 1 April - 31 March
Communications Montserrat
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2649
Telephones
- main lines
in use:
NA
Telephones
- mobile
cellular:
70 (1994)
Telephone
system:
general assessment: modern and
fully digitalized
domestic: NA
international: country code - 1-664
Radio
broadcast
stations:
AM 1, FM 2, shortwave 0 (1998)
Radios: 7,000 (1997)
Television
broadcast
stations:
1 (1997)
Televisions: 3,000 (1997)
Internet
country
code:
.ms
Internet
hosts:
386 (2006)
Internet
Service
Providers
(ISPs):
17 (2000)
C
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N
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W
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2650
Internet
users:
NA
Transportation Montserrat
Airports: 2 (2006)
Airports -
with
paved
runways:
total: 2
under 914 m: 2 (2006)
Roadways: total: 227 km
note: volcanic eruptions that began in
1995 destroyed most of the road
system (2003)
Ports and
terminals:
Plymouth
Military Montserrat
Military
branches:
no regular military forces; Royal
Montserrat Police Force (2005)
Manpower
available
for
military
service:
males age 18-49: 2,298 (2005 est.)
Manpower
fit for
military
service:
males age 18-49: 1,899 (2005 est.)
Manpower males age 18-49: 84 (2005 est.)
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2651
reaching
military
service
age
annually:
Military -
note:
defense is the responsibility of the UK
Transnational
Issues
Montserrat
Disputes -
international:
none
Illicit drugs: transshipment point for South
American narcotics destined for
the US and Europe
NETHERLAND ANTILLIES
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2652
Introduction Netherlands Antilles
Background: Once the center of the Caribbean
slave trade, the island of Curacao
was hard hit by the abolition of
slavery in 1863. Its prosperity (and
that of neighboring Aruba) was
restored in the early 20th century
with the construction of oil
refineries to service the newly
discovered Venezuelan oil fields.
The island of Saint Martin is shared
with France; its southern portion is
named Sint Maarten and is part of
the Netherlands Antilles; its
northern portion is called Saint-
Martin and is part of Guadeloupe
(France).
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2653
Geography Netherlands Antilles
Location: Caribbean, two island groups in the
Caribbean Sea - composed of five
islands, Curacao and Bonaire
located off the coast of Venezuela,
and St. Maarten, Saba, and St.
Eustatius lie east of the US Virgin
Islands
Geographic
coordinates:
12 15 N, 68 45 W
Map
references:
Central America and the Caribbean
Area: total: 960 sq km
land: 960 sq km
water: 0 sq km
note: includes Bonaire, Curacao,
Saba, Sint Eustatius, and Sint
Maarten (Dutch part of the island of
Saint Martin)
Area -
comparative:
more than five times the size of
Washington, DC
Land
boundaries:
total: 15 km
border countries: Guadeloupe
(Saint-Martin) 15 km
Coastline: 364 km
Maritime
claims:
territorial sea: 12 nm
exclusive fishing zone: 12 nm
Climate: tropical; ameliorated by northeast
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2654
trade winds
Terrain: generally hilly, volcanic interiors
Elevation
extremes:
lowest point: Caribbean Sea 0 m
highest point: Mount Scenery 862 m
Natural
resources:
phosphates (Curacao only), salt
(Bonaire only)
Land use: arable land: 10%
permanent crops: 0%
other: 90% (2005)
Irrigated
land:
NA
Natural
hazards:
Curacao and Bonaire are south of
Caribbean hurricane belt and are
rarely threatened; Sint Maarten,
Saba, and Sint Eustatius are
subject to hurricanes from July to
October
Environment
- current
issues:
NA
Geography -
note:
the five islands of the Netherlands
Antilles are divided geographically
into the Leeward Islands (northern)
group (Saba, Sint Eustatius, and
Sint Maarten) and the Windward
Islands (southern) group (Bonaire
and Curacao)
People Netherlands Antilles
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2655
Population: 223,652 (July 2007 est.)
Age
structure:
0-14 years: 23.6% (male
27,020/female 25,726)
15-64 years: 67.4% (male
72,449/female 78,259)
65 years and over: 9% (male
8,243/female 11,955) (2007 est.)
Median
age:
total: 33.1 years
male: 31.4 years
female: 34.8 years (2007 est.)
Population
growth
rate:
0.777% (2007 est.)
Birth rate: 14.56 births/1,000 population (2007
est.)
Death rate: 6.39 deaths/1,000 population (2007
est.)
Net
migration
rate:
-0.4 migrant(s)/1,000 population
(2007 est.)
Sex ratio: at birth: 1.05 male(s)/female
under 15 years: 1.05 male(s)/female
15-64 years: 0.926 male(s)/female
65 years and over: 0.69
male(s)/female
total population: 0.929
male(s)/female (2007 est.)
Infant total: 9.63 deaths/1,000 live births
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2656
mortality
rate:
male: 10.33 deaths/1,000 live births
female: 8.9 deaths/1,000 live births
(2007 est.)
Life
expectancy
at birth:
total population: 76.24 years
male: 73.96 years
female: 78.65 years (2007 est.)
Total
fertility
rate:
1.99 children born/woman (2007 est.)
HIV/AIDS -
adult
prevalence
rate:
NA
HIV/AIDS -
people
living with
HIV/AIDS:
NA
HIV/AIDS -
deaths:
NA
Nationality: noun: Dutch Antillean(s)
adjective: Dutch Antillean
Ethnic
groups:
mixed black 85%, other 15%
(includes Carib Amerindian, white,
East Asian)
Religions: Roman Catholic 72%, Pentecostal
4.9%, Protestant 3.5%, Seventh-Day
Adventist 3.1%, Methodist 2.9%,
Jehovah's Witnesses 1.7%, other
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2657
Christian 4.2%, Jewish 1.3%, other or
unspecified 1.2%, none 5.2% (2001
census)
Languages: Papiamento 65.4% (a Spanish-
Portuguese-Dutch-English dialect),
English 15.9% (widely spoken), Dutch
7.3% (official), Spanish 6.1%, Creole
1.6%, other 1.9%, unspecified 1.8%
(2001 census)
Literacy: definition: age 15 and over can read
and write
total population: 96.7%
male: 96.7%
female: 96.8% (2003 est.)
Government Netherlands Antilles
Country name: conventional long form: none
conventional short form:
Netherlands Antilles
local long form: none
local short form: Nederlandse
Antillen
former: Curacao and
Dependencies
Dependency
status:
an autonomous country within the
Kingdom of the Netherlands; full
autonomy in internal affairs
granted in 1954; Dutch
Government responsible for
defense and foreign affairs
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2658
Government
type:
parliamentary
Capital: name: Willemstad (on Curacao)
geographic coordinates: 12 06 N,
68 56 W
time difference: UTC-4 (1 hour
ahead of Washington, DC during
Standard Time)
Administrative
divisions:
none (part of the Kingdom of the
Netherlands)
note: each island has its own
government
Independence: none (part of the Kingdom of the
Netherlands)
National
holiday:
Queen's Day (Birthday of Queen-
Mother JULIANA and accession to
the throne of her oldest daughter
BEATRIX), 30 April (1909 and
1980)
Constitution: 29 December 1954, Statute of the
Realm of the Netherlands, as
amended
Legal system: based on Dutch civil law system
with some English common law
influence
Suffrage: 18 years of age; universal
Executive
branch:
chief of state: Queen BEATRIX of
the Netherlands (since 30 April
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2659
1980); represented by Governor
General Frits GOEDGEDRAG
(since 1 July 2002)
head of government: Prime
Minister Emily de JONGH-ELHAGE
(since 26 March 2006)
cabinet: Council of Ministers
elected by the Staten (legislature)
elections: the monarch is
hereditary; governor general
appointed by the monarch for a
six-year term; following legislative
elections, the leader of the
majority party is usually elected
prime minister by the Staten;
election last held 27 January 2006
(next to be held by 2010)
note: government coalition - PAR,
PNP, DP-St. M, UPB, WIPM Saba,
DP-St. E
Legislative
branch:
unicameral States or Staten (22
seats, Curacao 14, Bonaire 3, St.
Maarten 3, St. Eustatius 1, Saba 1;
members are elected by popular
vote to serve four-year terms)
elections: last held 27 January
2006 (next to be held in 2010)
election results: percent of vote
by party - NA; seats by party - PAR
5, MAN 3, FOL 2, Forsa Korsou 2,
National Alliance 2, PNP 2, UPB 2,
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2660
DP-St. E 1, DP-St. M 1, PDB 1,
WIPM 1
note: the government is a
coalition of several parties
Judicial
branch:
Joint High Court of Justice
(judges appointed by the
monarch)
Political
parties and
leaders:
Bonaire: Democratic Party of
Bonaire or PDB [Jopi ABRAHAM];
Patriotic Union of Bonaire or UPB
[Ramonsito BOOI]
Curacao: Ban Vota [Norbert
GEORGE]; C-93 [Stanley BROWN];
Democratic Party of Curacao or
DP [Errol HERNANDEZ]; E Mayoria
[Aurelio PEDRO]; Forsa Korsou
[Nelson NAVARRO]; Liste Ni'un
Paso Atras [Nelson PIERRE];
Movemiento Patriotiko Korsou
[Reginald LAK]; New Antilles
Movement or MAN [Charles
COOPER]; Partido Akshon Pa
Prosperidat I Seguridat [Sonja
BERKEMEYER]; Partido Laboral
Krusada Popular or PLKP [Errol
COVA]; Party for the Restructured
Antilles or PAR [Emily de JONGH-
ELHAGE]; People's National Party
or PNP [Ersilia DE LANNOOY];
Pidjin [Jasmin PINEDO]; Pueblo
Soberano [Herman WIELS];
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2661
Workers' Liberation Front or FOL
[Anthony GODETT]
Saba: Saba Labor Party [Akilah
LEVENSTONE]; Windward Islands
People's Movement or WIPM [Ray
HASSELL]
Sint Eustatius: Democratic Party
of Sint Eustatius or DP-St. E
[Julian WOODLEY]; Progressive
Labor Party [Clyde VAN PUTTEN];
St. Eustatius Alliance [Ingrid
HOUTMAN-WHITFIELD]
Sint Maarten: Democratic Party of
Sint Maarten or DP-St. M [Sarah
WESCOTT-WILLIAMS]; Freedom
Slate of National Democratic
Party [Theophilus PRIEST];
National Alliance or NA [William
MARLIN]; People's Progressive
Alliance or PPA [Gracita
ARRINDELL]; St. Maarten People's
Party [Johan LEONARD]; United
People's Labor Party [Bienvenido
RICHARDSON]
note: political parties are
indigenous to each island
Political
pressure
groups and
leaders:
Unions (AVBO) and Employers
Association (VBC)
International ILO, IMF, Interpol, IOC, UNESCO
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2662
organization
participation:
(associate), UNWTO (associate),
UPU, WCL, WCO, WMO
Diplomatic
representation
in the US:
none (represented by the Kingdom
of the Netherlands); note - Mr.
Jeffrey CORRION, Minister
Plenipotentiary for Aruba at the
Embassy of the Kingdom of the
Netherlands
Diplomatic
representation
from the US:
chief of mission: Consul General
Robert E. SORENSON
consulate(s) general: J. B.
Gorsiraweg #1, Willemstad,
Curacao
mailing address: P. O. Box 158,
Willemstad, Curacao
telephone: [599] (9) 4613066
FAX: [599] (9) 4616489
Flag
description:
white, with a horizontal blue
stripe in the center superimposed
on a vertical red band, also
centered; five white, five-pointed
stars are arranged in an oval
pattern in the center of the blue
band; the five stars represent the
five main islands of Bonaire,
Curacao, Saba, Sint Eustatius, and
Sint Maarten
Economy Netherlands Antilles
Economy - Tourism, petroleum refining, and
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2663
overview: offshore finance are the
mainstays of this small economy,
which is closely tied to the
outside world. Although GDP has
declined or grown slightly in each
of the past eight years, the
islands enjoy a high per capita
income and a well-developed
infrastructure compared with
other countries in the region.
Most of the oil Netherlands
Antilles imports for its refineries
come from Venezuela. Almost all
consumer and capital goods are
imported, the US and Mexico
being the major suppliers. Poor
soils and inadequate water
supplies hamper the development
of agriculture. Budgetary
problems hamper reform of the
health and pension systems of an
aging population.
GDP
(purchasing
power parity):
$2.8 billion (2004 est.)
GDP (official
exchange
rate):
NA
GDP - real
growth rate:
1% (2004 est.)
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2664
GDP - per
capita (PPP):
$16,000 (2004 est.)
GDP -
composition
by sector:
agriculture: 1%
industry: 15%
services: 84% (2000 est.)
Labor force: 83,600 (2005)
Labor force -
by occupation:
agriculture: 1%
industry: 20%
services: 79% (2005 est.)
Unemployment
rate:
17% (2002 est.)
Population
below poverty
line:
NA%
Household
income or
consumption
by percentage
share:
lowest 10%: NA%
highest 10%: NA%
Inflation rate
(consumer
prices):
2.1% (2003 est.)
Budget: revenues: $757.9 million
expenditures: $949.5 million;
including capital expenditures of
$NA (2004)
Agriculture -
products:
aloes, sorghum, peanuts,
vegetables, tropical fruit
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2665
Industries: tourism (Curacao, Sint Maarten,
and Bonaire), petroleum refining
(Curacao), petroleum
transshipment facilities (Curacao
and Bonaire), light manufacturing
(Curacao)
Industrial
production
growth rate:
NA%
Electricity -
production:
1.005 billion kWh (2004)
Electricity -
production by
source:
fossil fuel: 100%
hydro: 0%
nuclear: 0%
other: 0% (2001)
Electricity -
consumption:
934.7 million kWh (2004)
Electricity -
exports:
0 kWh (2004)
Electricity -
imports:
0 kWh (2004)
Oil -
production:
0 bbl/day (2004 est.)
Oil -
consumption:
70,000 bbl/day (2004 est.)
Oil - exports: NA bbl/day
Oil - imports: NA bbl/day
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2666
Natural gas -
production:
0 cu m (2004 est.)
Natural gas -
consumption:
0 cu m (2004 est.)
Exports: $2.076 billion f.o.b. (2004 est.)
Exports -
commodities:
petroleum products
Exports -
partners:
US 29.4%, Panama 14.4%, Mexico
8.8%, Haiti 5.6%, Venezuela 4.9%,
Bahamas, The 4.4% (2005)
Imports: $4.383 billion f.o.b. (2004 est.)
Imports -
commodities:
crude petroleum, food,
manufactures
Imports -
partners:
Venezuela 50.7%, US 20.7%, Italy
4.8%, Netherlands 4.5% (2005)
Debt -
external:
$2.68 billion (2004)
Economic aid -
recipient:
$21.5 million
note: IMF provided $61 million in
2000, and the Netherlands
continued its support with $40
million (2004)
Currency
(code):
Netherlands Antillean guilder
(ANG)
Currency
code:
ANG
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2667
Exchange
rates:
Netherlands Antillean guilders per
US dollar - 1.79 (2006), 1.79
(2005), 1.79 (2004), 1.79 (2003),
1.79 (2002)
Fiscal year: calendar year
Communications Netherlands Antilles
Telephones
- main lines
in use:
81,000 (2001)
Telephones
- mobile
cellular:
200,000 (2004)
Telephone
system:
general assessment: generally
adequate facilities
domestic: extensive interisland
microwave radio relay links
international: country code - 599;
submarine cables - 2; satellite earth
stations - 2 Intelsat (Atlantic Ocean)
Radio
broadcast
stations:
AM 8, FM 19, shortwave 0 (2003)
Radios: 217,000 (1997)
Television
broadcast
stations:
3 (there is also a cable service,
which supplies programs received
from various US satellite networks
and 4 Venezuelan channels) (2003)
Televisions: 69,000 (1997)
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2668
Internet
country
code:
.an
Internet
hosts:
19,204 (2006)
Internet
Service
Providers
(ISPs):
6
Internet
users:
2,000 (2000)
Transportation Netherlands Antilles
Airports: 5 (2006)
Airports -
with
paved
runways:
total: 5
over 3,047 m: 1
2,438 to 3,047 m: 1
1,524 to 2,437 m: 1
914 to 1,523 m: 1
under 914 m: 1 (2006)
Merchant
marine:
total: 152 ships (1000 GRT or over)
1,289,462 GRT/1,671,649 DWT
by type: barge carrier 3, bulk carrier
13, cargo 68, chemical tanker 3,
container 19, liquefied gas 4,
passenger 2, passenger/cargo 3,
petroleum tanker 2, refrigerated cargo
28, roll on/roll off 4, specialized tanker
3
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2669
foreign-owned: 143 (Belgium 4, Cuba 1,
Denmark 1, Germany 60, Netherlands
54, Norway 5, Sweden 5, Turkey 9, UK
3, US 1)
registered in other countries: 1
(Netherlands 1) (2006)
Ports and
terminals:
Bopec Terminal, Fuik Bay, Kralendijk,
Willemstad
Military Netherlands Antilles
Military
branches:
no regular military forces; National
Guard, Police Force (2005)
Military
service
age and
obligation:
16 years of age for National Guard
recruitment; no conscription (2004)
Manpower
available
for
military
service:
males age 16-49: 54,200
females age 16-49: 56,868 (2005 est.)
Manpower
fit for
military
service:
males age 16-49: 45,273
females age 16-49: 47,166 (2005 est.)
Manpower
reaching
military
service
males age 18-49: 1,720
females age 16-49: 1,657 (2005 est.)
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2670
age
annually:
Military -
note:
defense is the responsibility of the
Kingdom of the Netherlands
Transnational
Issues
Netherlands Antilles
Disputes -
international:
none
Illicit drugs: transshipment point for South
American drugs bound for the US
and Europe; money-laundering
center
NICARAGUA
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Introduction Nicaragua
Background: The Pacific coast of Nicaragua was
settled as a Spanish colony from
Panama in the early 16th century.
Independence from Spain was
declared in 1821 and the country
became an independent republic in
1838. Britain occupied the
Caribbean Coast in the first half of
the 19th century, but gradually
ceded control of the region in
subsequent decades. Violent
opposition to governmental
manipulation and corruption spread
to all classes by 1978 and resulted
in a short-lived civil war that
brought the Marxist Sandinista
guerrillas to power in 1979.
Nicaraguan aid to leftist rebels in El
Salvador caused the US to sponsor
anti-Sandinista contra guerrillas
through much of the 1980s. Free
elections in 1990, 1996, and 2001,
saw the Sandinistas defeated, but
voting in 2006 announced the return
of former Sandinista President
Daniel ORTEGA Saavedra.
Nicaragua's infrastructure and
economy - hard hit by the earlier
civil war and by Hurricane Mitch in
1998 - are slowly being rebuilt.
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Geography Nicaragua
Location: Central America, bordering both the
Caribbean Sea and the North
Pacific Ocean, between Costa Rica
and Honduras
Geographic
coordinates:
13 00 N, 85 00 W
Map
references:
Central America and the Caribbean
Area: total: 129,494 sq km
land: 120,254 sq km
water: 9,240 sq km
Area -
comparative:
slightly smaller than the state of
New York
Land
boundaries:
total: 1,231 km
border countries: Costa Rica 309
km, Honduras 922 km
Coastline: 910 km
Maritime
claims:
territorial sea: 12 nm
contiguous zone: 24 nm
continental shelf: natural
prolongation
Climate: tropical in lowlands, cooler in
highlands
Terrain: extensive Atlantic coastal plains
rising to central interior mountains;
narrow Pacific coastal plain
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2673
interrupted by volcanoes
Elevation
extremes:
lowest point: Pacific Ocean 0 m
highest point: Mogoton 2,438 m
Natural
resources:
gold, silver, copper, tungsten, lead,
zinc, timber, fish
Land use: arable land: 14.81%
permanent crops: 1.82%
other: 83.37% (2005)
Irrigated
land:
610 sq km (2003)
Natural
hazards:
destructive earthquakes,
volcanoes, landslides; extremely
susceptible to hurricanes
Environment
- current
issues:
deforestation; soil erosion; water
pollution
Environment
-
international
agreements:
party to: Biodiversity, Climate
Change, Climate Change-Kyoto
Protocol, Desertification,
Endangered Species, Hazardous
Wastes, Law of the Sea, Ozone
Layer Protection, Ship Pollution,
Wetlands, Whaling
signed, but not ratified:
Environmental Modification
Geography -
note:
largest country in Central America;
contains the largest freshwater
body in Central America, Lago de
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2674
Nicaragua
People Nicaragua
Population: 5,675,356 (July 2007 est.)
Age
structure:
0-14 years: 35.5% (male
1,025,426/female 988,148)
15-64 years: 61.3% (male
1,734,153/female 1,746,574)
65 years and over: 3.2% (male
79,589/female 101,466) (2007 est.)
Median
age:
total: 21.3 years
male: 20.9 years
female: 21.7 years (2007 est.)
Population
growth
rate:
1.855% (2007 est.)
Birth rate: 24.12 births/1,000 population (2007
est.)
Death rate: 4.42 deaths/1,000 population (2007
est.)
Net
migration
rate:
-1.15 migrant(s)/1,000 population
(2007 est.)
Sex ratio: at birth: 1.05 male(s)/female
under 15 years: 1.038 male(s)/female
15-64 years: 0.993 male(s)/female
65 years and over: 0.784
male(s)/female
total population: 1.001
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2675
male(s)/female (2007 est.)
Infant
mortality
rate:
total: 27.14 deaths/1,000 live births
male: 30.45 deaths/1,000 live births
female: 23.67 deaths/1,000 live births
(2007 est.)
Life
expectancy
at birth:
total population: 70.92 years
male: 68.82 years
female: 73.13 years (2007 est.)
Total
fertility
rate:
2.69 children born/woman (2007 est.)
HIV/AIDS -
adult
prevalence
rate:
0.2% (2003 est.)
HIV/AIDS -
people
living with
HIV/AIDS:
6,400 (2003 est.)
HIV/AIDS -
deaths:
less than 500 (2003 est.)
Nationality: noun: Nicaraguan(s)
adjective: Nicaraguan
Ethnic
groups:
mestizo (mixed Amerindian and
white) 69%, white 17%, black 9%,
Amerindian 5%
Religions: Roman Catholic 72.9%, Evangelical
15.1%, Moravian 1.5%, Episcopal
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2676
0.1%, other 1.9%, none 8.5% (1995
census)
Languages: Spanish 97.5% (official), Miskito
1.7%, other 0.8% (1995 census)
note: English and indigenous
languages on Atlantic coast
Literacy: definition: age 15 and over can read
and write
total population: 67.5%
male: 67.2%
female: 67.8% (2003 est.)
Government Nicaragua
Country name: conventional long form: Republic
of Nicaragua
conventional short form:
Nicaragua
local long form: Republica de
Nicaragua
local short form: Nicaragua
Government
type:
republic
Capital: name: Managua
geographic coordinates: 12 09 N,
86 17 W
time difference: UTC-6 (1 hour
behind Washington, DC during
Standard Time)
Administrative 15 departments (departamentos,
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2677
divisions: singular - departamento) and 2
autonomous regions* (regiones
autonomistas, singular - region
autonoma); Atlantico Norte*,
Atlantico Sur*, Boaco, Carazo,
Chinandega, Chontales, Esteli,
Granada, Jinotega, Leon, Madriz,
Managua, Masaya, Matagalpa,
Nueva Segovia, Rio San Juan,
Rivas
Independence: 15 September 1821 (from Spain)
National
holiday:
Independence Day, 15 September
(1821)
Constitution: 9 January 1987; reforms in 1995,
2000, and 2005
Legal system: civil law system; Supreme Court
may review administrative acts;
accepts compulsory ICJ
jurisdiction
Suffrage: 16 years of age; universal
Executive
branch:
chief of state: President Daniel
ORTEGA Saavedra (since 10
January 2007); Vice President
Jaime MORALES Carazo (since 10
January 2007); note - the
president is both chief of state
and head of government
head of government: President
Daniel ORTEGA Saavedra (since
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2678
10 January 2007); Vice President
Jaime MORALES Carazo (since 10
January 2007)
cabinet: Council of Ministers
appointed by the president
elections: president and vice
president elected on the same
ticket by popular vote for a five-
year term (eligible for a second
term so long as it is not
consecutive); election last held 5
November 2006 (next to be held
by November 2011)
election results: Daniel ORTEGA
Saavedra elected president -
38.07%, Eduardo MONTEALEGRE
29%, Jose RIZO 26.21%, Edmundo
JARQUIN 6.44%
Legislative
branch:
unicameral National Assembly or
Asamblea Nacional (92 seats; 90
members are elected by
proportional representation and
party lists to serve five-year
terms; 1 seat for the previous
president, 1 seat for the runner-up
in previous presidential election)
elections: last held 5 November
2006 (next to be held by
November 2011)
election results: percent of vote
by party - NA; seats by party -
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FSLN 38, PLC 25, ALN 23 (22 plus
one for presidential candidate
Eduardo MONTEALEGRE, runner-
up in the 2006 presidential
election), MRS 5, APRE 1
(outgoing President Enrique
BOLANOS)
Judicial
branch:
Supreme Court or Corte Suprema
(16 judges elected for five-year
terms by the National Assembly)
Political
parties and
leaders:
Alliance for the Republic or APRE
[Miguel LOPEZ Baldizon]; Central
American Unionist Party or PUCA
[Blanca ROJAS]; Christian
Alternative Party or AC [Orlando
TARDENCILLA Espinoza];
Conservative Party or PC [Azalia
AVILES Salmeron]; Independent
Liberal Party or PLI [Anibal
MARTINEZ Nunez, Pedro REYES
Vallejos]; Independent Liberal
Party for National Unity or PLIUN
[Carlos GUERRA Gallardo]; Liberal
Constitutional Party or PLC [Jorge
CASTILLO Quant]; Liberal
Salvation Movement or MSL
[Eliseo NUNEZ Hernandez]; New
Liberal Party or PALI [Adolfo
GARCIA Esquivel]; Nicaraguan
Liberal Alliance or ALN [Eduardo
MONTEALEGRE]; Nicaraguan
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2680
Party of the Christian Path or
PCCN [Guillermo OSORNO Molina];
Nicaraguan Resistance Party or
PRN [Salvador TALAVERA];
Sandinista National Liberation
Front or FSLN [Daniel ORTEGA
Saavedra]; Sandinista Renovation
Movement or MRS [Dora Maria
TELLEZ]; Unity Alliance or AU
Political
pressure
groups and
leaders:
National Workers Front or FNT is a
Sandinista umbrella group of eight
labor unions including - Farm
Workers Association or ATC,
Health Workers Federation or
FETASALUD, Heroes and Martyrs
Confederation of Professional
Associations or CONAPRO,
National Association of Educators
of Nicaragua or ANDEN, National
Union of Employees or UNE,
National Union of Farmers and
Ranchers or UNAG, Sandinista
Workers Central or CST, and
Union of Journalists of Nicaragua
or UPN; Permanent Congress of
Workers or CPT is an umbrella
group of four non-Sandinista labor
unions including - Autonomous
Nicaraguan Workers Central or
CTN-A, Confederation of Labor
Unification or CUS, Independent
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2681
General Confederation of Labor or
CGT-I, and Labor Action and Unity
Central or CAUS; Nicaraguan
Workers' Central or CTN is an
independent labor union; Superior
Council of Private Enterprise or
COSEP is a confederation of
business groups
International
organization
participation:
BCIE, CACM, FAO, G-77, IADB,
IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, ICRM, IDA,
IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, ILO, IMF, IMO,
Interpol, IOC, IOM, IPU, ISO
(correspondent), ITU, ITUC, LAES,
LAIA (observer), MIGA, NAM, OAS,
OPANAL, OPCW, PCA, RG, UN,
UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNHCR,
UNIDO, UNWTO, UPU, WCL, WCO,
WHO, WIPO, WMO, WTO
Diplomatic
representation
in the US:
chief of mission: Ambassador
Arturo CRUZ Sequeira, Jr.
chancery: 1627 New Hampshire
Avenue NW, Washington, DC
20009
telephone: [1] (202) 939-6570, [1]
(202) 939-6573
FAX: [1] (202) 939-6545
consulate(s) general: Houston,
Los Angeles, Miami, New York,
San Francisco
Diplomatic chief of mission: Ambassador Paul
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2682
representation
from the US:
A. TRIVELLI
embassy: Kilometer 4.5 Carretera
Sur, Managua
mailing address: P.O. Box 327
telephone: [505] 266-6010
FAX: [505] 266-3861
Flag
description:
three equal horizontal bands of
blue (top), white, and blue with
the national coat of arms
centered in the white band; the
coat of arms features a triangle
encircled by the words
REPUBLICA DE NICARAGUA on
the top and AMERICA CENTRAL
on the bottom; similar to the flag
of El Salvador, which features a
round emblem encircled by the
words REPUBLICA DE EL
SALVADOR EN LA AMERICA
CENTRAL centered in the white
band; also similar to the flag of
Honduras, which has five blue
stars arranged in an X pattern
centered in the white band
Economy Nicaragua
Economy -
overview:
Nicaragua has widespread
underemployment and the third
lowest per capita income in the
Western Hemisphere. Distribution
of income is one of the most
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2683
unequal on the globe. While the
country has progressed toward
macroeconomic stability in the
past few years, GDP annual
growth has been far too low to
meet the country's needs, forcing
the country to rely on
international economic
assistance to meet fiscal and
debt financing obligations.
Nicaragua qualified in early 2004
for some $4.5 billion in foreign
debt reduction under the Heavily
Indebted Poor Countries (HIPC)
initiative and in November 2006
obtained over $800 million in debt
relief from the Inter-American
Development Bank. In October
2005, Nicaragua ratified the US-
Central America Free Trade
Agreement (CAFTA), which will
provide an opportunity for
Nicaragua to attract investment,
create jobs, and deepen
economic development. Energy
shortages, however, are a serious
bottleneck to growth.
GDP
(purchasing
power parity):
$17.33 billion (2006 est.)
GDP (official $4.871 billion (2006 est.)
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2684
exchange
rate):
GDP - real
growth rate:
3.7% (2006 est.)
GDP - per
capita (PPP):
$3,100 (2006 est.)
GDP -
composition
by sector:
agriculture: 17.3%
industry: 25.8%
services: 56.8% (2006 est.)
Labor force: 2.261 million (2006 est.)
Labor force -
by occupation:
agriculture: 29%
industry: 19%
services: 52% (2006 est.)
Unemployment
rate:
3.8% plus underemployment of
46.5% (2006 est.)
Population
below poverty
line:
48% (2005)
Household
income or
consumption
by percentage
share:
lowest 10%: 1.2%
highest 10%: 45% (2001)
Distribution of
family income
- Gini index:
55.1 (2001)
Inflation rate 9.4% (2006 est.)
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2685
(consumer
prices):
Investment
(gross fixed):
29.8% of GDP (2006 est.)
Budget: revenues: $1.1 billion
expenditures: $1.3 billion;
including capital expenditures of
$NA (2006 est.)
Public debt: 82.7% of GDP (2006 est.)
Agriculture -
products:
coffee, bananas, sugarcane,
cotton, rice, corn, tobacco,
sesame, soya, beans; beef, veal,
pork, poultry, dairy products;
shrimp, lobsters
Industries: food processing, chemicals,
machinery and metal products,
textiles, clothing, petroleum
refining and distribution,
beverages, footwear, wood
Industrial
production
growth rate:
2.4% (2005 est.)
Electricity -
production:
2.778 billion kWh (2006)
Electricity -
production by
source:
fossil fuel: 83.9%
hydro: 7.7%
nuclear: 0%
other: 8.4% (2001)
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2686
Electricity -
consumption:
2.929 billion kWh (2006)
Electricity -
exports:
0 kWh (2006)
Electricity -
imports:
69.34 million kWh (2006)
Oil -
production:
14,300 bbl/day (2005 est.)
Oil -
consumption:
25,200 bbl/day (2005 est.)
Oil - exports: 758.9 bbl/day (2004)
Oil - imports: 15,560 bbl/day (2005 est.)
Natural gas -
production:
0 cu m (2004 est.)
Natural gas -
consumption:
0 cu m (2004 est.)
Current
account
balance:
-$883 million (2006 est.)
Exports: $1.714 billion f.o.b.; note -
includes free trade zones (2006
est.)
Exports -
commodities:
coffee, beef, shrimp and lobster,
tobacco, sugar, gold, peanuts
Exports -
partners:
US 34.1%, El Salvador 14.3%,
Honduras 7.9%, Costa Rica 6.1%,
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2687
Guatemala 5.2%, Mexico 5.1%,
Spain 4.2% (2005)
Imports: $3.202 billion f.o.b. (2006 est.)
Imports -
commodities:
consumer goods, machinery and
equipment, raw materials,
petroleum products
Imports -
partners:
US 20.1%, Venezuela 11.9%,
Costa Rica 8.9%, Mexico 8.3%,
Guatemala 7%, El Salvador 5.1%,
Japan 4.5%, Ecuador 4.2% (2005)
Reserves of
foreign
exchange and
gold:
$903.5 million (January 2007 est.)
Debt -
external:
$3.763 billion (2006 est.)
Economic aid -
recipient:
$471 million (2006 est.)
Currency
(code):
gold cordoba (NIO)
Currency
code:
NIO
Exchange
rates:
gold cordobas per US dollar -
17.582 (2006), 16.733 (2005),
15.937 (2004), 15.105 (2003),
14.251 (2002)
Fiscal year: calendar year
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Communications Nicaragua
Telephones
- main lines
in use:
220,900 (2005)
Telephones
- mobile
cellular:
1.119 million (2005)
Telephone
system:
general assessment: inadequate
system being upgraded by foreign
investment
domestic: low-capacity microwave
radio relay and wire system being
expanded; connected to Central
American Microwave System
international: country code - 505;
satellite earth stations - 1
Intersputnik (Atlantic Ocean region)
and 1 Intelsat (Atlantic Ocean)
Radio
broadcast
stations:
AM 63, FM 32, shortwave 1 (1998)
Radios: 1.24 million (1997)
Television
broadcast
stations:
3 (plus 7 repeaters) (1997)
Televisions: 320,000 (1997)
Internet
country
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2689
code:
Internet
hosts:
24,452 (2006)
Internet
Service
Providers
(ISPs):
3 (2000)
Internet
users:
140,000 (2005)
Transportation Nicaragua
Airports: 176 (2006)
Airports -
with paved
runways:
total: 11
2,438 to 3,047 m: 3
1,524 to 2,437 m: 2
914 to 1,523 m: 3
under 914 m: 3 (2006)
Airports -
with
unpaved
runways:
total: 165
1,524 to 2,437 m: 1
914 to 1,523 m: 23
under 914 m: 141 (2006)
Pipelines: oil 54 km (2006)
Railways: total: 6 km
narrow gauge: 6 km 1.067-m gauge
(2005)
Roadways: total: 19,036 km
paved: 2,299 km
unpaved: 16,737 km (2005)
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2690
Waterways: 2,220 km (including lakes Managua
and Nicaragua) (2005)
Ports and
terminals:
Bluefields, Corinto, El Bluff
Military Nicaragua
Military
branches:
Army (includes Navy, Air Force)
(2007)
Military
service age
and
obligation:
17 years of age for voluntary
military service; tour of duty 18-36
months (2007)
Manpower
available for
military
service:
males age 17-49: 1,309,970
females age 17-49: 1,315,186 (2005
est.)
Manpower fit
for military
service:
males age 17-49: 1,051,425
females age 17-49: 1,129,649 (2005
est.)
Manpower
reaching
military
service age
annually:
males age 18-49: 65,170
females age 17-49: 63,133 (2005
est.)
Military
expenditures
- percent of
GDP:
0.6% (2006)
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2691
Transnational
Issues
Nicaragua
Disputes -
international:
memorials and countermemorials
were filed by the parties in
Nicaragua's 1999 and 2001
proceedings against Honduras and
Colombia at the ICJ over the
maritime boundary and territorial
claims in the western Caribbean
Sea, final public hearings are
scheduled for 2007; the 1992 ICJ
ruling for El Salvador and Honduras
advised a tripartite resolution to
establish a maritime boundary in
the Gulf of Fonseca, which
considers Honduran access to the
Pacific; legal dispute over
navigational rights of San Juan
River on border with Costa Rica
Illicit drugs: transshipment point for cocaine
destined for the US and
transshipment point for arms-for-
drugs dealing
PANAMA
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Introduction Panama
Background: Explored and settled by the Spanish
in the 16th century, Panama broke
with Spain in 1821 and joined a
union of Colombia, Venezuela, and
Ecuador - named the Republic of
Gran Colombia. When the latter
dissolved in 1830, Panama remained
part of Colombia. With US backing,
Panama seceded from Colombia in
1903 and promptly signed a treaty
with the US allowing for the
construction of a canal and US
sovereignty over a strip of land on
either side of the structure (the
Panama Canal Zone). The Panama
Canal was built by the US Army
Corps of Engineers between 1904
and 1914. In 1977, an agreement
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2693
was signed for the complete
transfer of the Canal from the US to
Panama by the end of the century.
Certain portions of the Zone and
increasing responsibility over the
Canal were turned over in the
subsequent decades. With US help,
dictator Manuel NORIEGA was
deposed in 1989. The entire Panama
Canal, the area supporting the
Canal, and remaining US military
bases were transferred to Panama
by the end of 1999. In October 2006,
Panamanians approved an ambitious
plan to expand the Canal. The
project, which is to begin in 2007
and could double the Canal's
capacity, is expected to be
completed in 2014-15.
Geography Panama
Location: Central America, bordering both the
Caribbean Sea and the North
Pacific Ocean, between Colombia
and Costa Rica
Geographic
coordinates:
9 00 N, 80 00 W
Map
references:
Central America and the Caribbean
Area: total: 78,200 sq km
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2694
land: 75,990 sq km
water: 2,210 sq km
Area -
comparative:
slightly smaller than South Carolina
Land
boundaries:
total: 555 km
border countries: Colombia 225 km,
Costa Rica 330 km
Coastline: 2,490 km
Maritime
claims:
territorial sea: 12 nm
contiguous zone: 24 nm
exclusive economic zone: 200 nm
or edge of continental margin
Climate: tropical maritime; hot, humid,
cloudy; prolonged rainy season
(May to January), short dry season
(January to May)
Terrain: interior mostly steep, rugged
mountains and dissected, upland
plains; coastal areas largely plains
and rolling hills
Elevation
extremes:
lowest point: Pacific Ocean 0 m
highest point: Volcan Baru 3,475 m
Natural
resources:
copper, mahogany forests, shrimp,
hydropower
Land use: arable land: 7.26%
permanent crops: 1.95%
other: 90.79% (2005)
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2695
Irrigated
land:
430 sq km (2003)
Natural
hazards:
occasional severe storms and
forest fires in the Darien area
Environment
- current
issues:
water pollution from agricultural
runoff threatens fishery resources;
deforestation of tropical rain forest;
land degradation and soil erosion
threatens siltation of Panama
Canal; air pollution in urban areas;
mining threatens natural resources
Environment
-
international
agreements:
party to: Biodiversity, Climate
Change, Climate Change-Kyoto
Protocol, Desertification,
Endangered Species, Hazardous
Wastes, Law of the Sea, Marine
Dumping, Ozone Layer Protection,
Ship Pollution, Tropical Timber 83,
Tropical Timber 94, Wetlands,
Whaling
signed, but not ratified: Marine Life
Conservation
Geography -
note:
strategic location on eastern end of
isthmus forming land bridge
connecting North and South
America; controls Panama Canal
that links North Atlantic Ocean via
Caribbean Sea with North Pacific
Ocean
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2696
People Panama
Population: 3,242,173 (July 2007 est.)
Age
structure:
0-14 years: 30% (male
496,195/female 476,508)
15-64 years: 63.6% (male
1,044,139/female 1,016,805)
65 years and over: 6.4% (male
97,365/female 111,161) (2007 est.)
Median
age:
total: 26.4 years
male: 26 years
female: 26.7 years (2007 est.)
Population
growth
rate:
1.564% (2007 est.)
Birth rate: 21.45 births/1,000 population (2007
est.)
Death rate: 5.44 deaths/1,000 population (2007
est.)
Net
migration
rate:
-0.37 migrant(s)/1,000 population
(2007 est.)
Sex ratio: at birth: 1.05 male(s)/female
under 15 years: 1.041 male(s)/female
15-64 years: 1.027 male(s)/female
65 years and over: 0.876
male(s)/female
total population: 1.021
male(s)/female (2007 est.)
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2697
Infant
mortality
rate:
total: 15.96 deaths/1,000 live births
male: 17.33 deaths/1,000 live births
female: 14.54 deaths/1,000 live births
(2007 est.)
Life
expectancy
at birth:
total population: 75.19 years
male: 72.69 years
female: 77.8 years (2007 est.)
Total
fertility
rate:
2.66 children born/woman (2007 est.)
HIV/AIDS -
adult
prevalence
rate:
0.9% (2003 est.)
HIV/AIDS -
people
living with
HIV/AIDS:
16,000 (2003 est.)
HIV/AIDS -
deaths:
less than 500 (2003 est.)
Nationality: noun: Panamanian(s)
adjective: Panamanian
Ethnic
groups:
mestizo (mixed Amerindian and
white) 70%, Amerindian and mixed
(West Indian) 14%, white 10%,
Amerindian 6%
Religions: Roman Catholic 85%, Protestant 15%
Languages: Spanish (official), English 14%; note -
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2698
many Panamanians bilingual
Literacy: definition: age 15 and over can read
and write
total population: 91.9%
male: 92.5%
female: 91.2% (2000 census)
Government Panama
Country name: conventional long form: Republic
of Panama
conventional short form: Panama
local long form: Republica de
Panama
local short form: Panama
Government
type:
constitutional democracy
Capital: name: Panama
geographic coordinates: 8 58 N,
79 32 W
time difference: UTC-5 (same time
as Washington, DC during
Standard Time)
Administrative
divisions:
9 provinces (provincias, singular -
provincia) and 1 territory*
(comarca); Bocas del Toro,
Chiriqui, Cocle, Colon, Darien,
Herrera, Los Santos, Panama, San
Blas*(Kuna Yala), and Veraguas
Independence: 3 November 1903 (from Colombia;
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2699
became independent from Spain
28 November 1821)
National
holiday:
Independence Day, 3 November
(1903)
Constitution: 11 October 1972; major reforms
adopted 1978, 1983, 1994, and
2004
Legal system: based on civil law system; judicial
review of legislative acts in the
Supreme Court of Justice;
accepts compulsory ICJ
jurisdiction, with reservations
Suffrage: 18 years of age; universal and
compulsory
Executive
branch:
chief of state: President Martin
TORRIJOS Espino (since 1
September 2004); First Vice
President Samuel LEWIS Navarro
(since 1 September 2004); Second
Vice President Ruben
AROSEMENA Valdes (since 1
September 2004); note - the
president is both the chief of state
and head of government
head of government: President
Martin TORRIJOS Espino (since 1
September 2004); First Vice
President Samuel LEWIS Navarro
(since 1 September 2004); Second
Vice President Ruben
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2700
AROSEMENA Valdes (since 1
September 2004)
cabinet: Cabinet appointed by the
president
elections: president and vice
presidents elected on the same
ticket by popular vote for five-year
terms (eligible for two more
terms); election last held 2 May
2004 (next to be held on 3 May
2009); note - beginning in 2009,
Panama will have only one vice
president.
election results: Martin TORRIJOS
Espino elected president; percent
of vote - Martin TORRIJOS Espino
47.5%, Guillermo ENDARA
Galimany 30.6%, Jose Miguel
ALEMAN 17%, Ricardo
MARTINELLI 4.9%
note: government coalition - PRD
(Democratic Revolutionary Party),
PP (Popular Party)
Legislative
branch:
unicameral National Assembly or
Asamblea Nacional (78 seats;
members are elected by popular
vote to serve five-year terms);
note - in 2009, the number of
seats will change to 71
elections: last held 2 May 2004
(next to be held 3 May 2009)
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2701
election results: percent of vote
by party - NA; seats by party - PRD
41, PA 17, PS 9, MOLIRENA 4, CD
3, PLN 3, PP 1
note: legislators from outlying
rural districts are chosen on a
plurality basis while districts
located in more populous towns
and cities elect multiple
legislators by means of a
proportion-based formula
Judicial
branch:
Supreme Court of Justice or Corte
Suprema de Justicia (nine judges
appointed for 10-year terms); five
superior courts; three courts of
appeal
Political
parties and
leaders:
Democratic Change or CD
[Ricardo MARTINELLI];
Democratic Revolutionary Party or
PRD [Hugo GUIRAUD]; Liberal
Party or PLN [Joaquin F. Franco
VASQUEZ]; Nationalist Republican
Liberal Movement or MOLIRENA
[Gisela CHUNG]; Panamenista
Party or PA [Juan Carlos VARELA]
(formerly the Arnulfista Party);
Patriotic Union Party or PUP [Jose
Raul MULINO and Anibal
GALINDO]; Popular Party or PP
[Rene ORILLAC] (formerly
Christian Democratic Party or
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2702
PDC); Solidarity Party or PS
Political
pressure
groups and
leaders:
Chamber of Commerce; National
Civic Crusade; National Council of
Organized Workers or CONATO;
National Council of Private
Enterprise or CONEP; National
Union of Construction and Similar
Workers (SUNTRACS);
Panamanian Association of
Business Executives or APEDE;
Panamanian Industrialists Society
or SIP; Workers Confederation of
the Republic of Panama or CTRP
International
organization
participation:
CAN (observer), CSN (observer),
FAO, G-77, IADB, IAEA, IBRD,
ICAO, ICC, ICCt, ICRM, IDA, IFAD,
IFC, IFRCS, ILO, IMF, IMO,
Interpol, IOC, IOM, IPU, ISO, ITU,
ITUC, LAES, LAIA (observer),
MIGA, NAM, OAS, OPANAL, OPCW,
PCA, RG, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO,
UNIDO, UNWTO, UPU, WCL, WCO,
WFTU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WTO
Diplomatic
representation
in the US:
chief of mission: Ambassador
Federico HUMBERT Arias
chancery: 2862 McGill Terrace
NW, Washington, DC 20008
telephone: [1] (202) 483-1407
FAX: [1] (202) 483-8416
consulate(s) general: Atlanta,
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2703
Houston, Miami, New Orleans,
New York, Philadelphia, San
Francisco, San Juan (Puerto Rico),
Tampa
Diplomatic
representation
from the US:
chief of mission: Ambassador
William A. EATON
embassy: Avenida Balboa and
Calle 37, Apartado Postal 0816-
02561, Zona 5, Panama City 5
mailing address: American
Embassy Panama, Unit 0945, APO
AA 34002
telephone: [507] 207-7000
FAX: [507] 227-1964
Flag
description:
divided into four, equal
rectangles; the top quadrants are
white (hoist side) with a blue five-
pointed star in the center and
plain red; the bottom quadrants
are plain blue (hoist side) and
white with a red five-pointed star
in the center
Economy Panama
Economy -
overview:
Panama's dollarized economy
rests primarily on a well-
developed services sector that
accounts for three-fourths of GDP.
Services include operating the
Panama Canal, banking, the Colon
Free Zone, insurance, container
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2704
ports, flagship registry, and
tourism. A slump in the Colon
Free Zone and agricultural
exports, the global slowdown, and
the withdrawal of US military
forces held back economic
growth in 2000-03; growth picked
up in 2004-06 led by export-
oriented services and a
construction boom stimulated by
tax incentives. The government
has implemented tax reforms, as
well as social security reforms,
and backs regional trade
agreements and development of
tourism. Unemployment remains
high. In October 2006, voters
passed a referendum to expand
the Panama Canal to
accommodate ships that are now
too large to transverse the
transoceanic crossway. Not a
CAFTA signatory, Panama in
December 2006 independently
negotiated a free trade
agreement with the US, which,
when implemented, will help
promote the country's economic
growth.
GDP
(purchasing
$26.04 billion (2006 est.)
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power parity):
GDP (official
exchange
rate):
$16.47 billion (2006 est.)
GDP - real
growth rate:
8.1% (2006 est.)
GDP - per
capita (PPP):
$8,200 (2006 est.)
GDP -
composition
by sector:
agriculture: 7.2%
industry: 16.4%
services: 76.4% (2006 est.)
Labor force: 1.441 million
note: shortage of skilled labor, but
an oversupply of unskilled labor
(2006 est.)
Labor force -
by occupation:
agriculture: 20.8%
industry: 18%
services: 61.2% (1995 est.)
Unemployment
rate:
8.8% (2006 est.)
Population
below poverty
line:
37% (1999 est.)
Household
income or
consumption
by percentage
share:
lowest 10%: 1.2%
highest 10%: 35.7% (1997)
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Distribution of
family income
- Gini index:
56.4 (2000)
Inflation rate
(consumer
prices):
2.6% (2006 est.)
Investment
(gross fixed):
17.5% of GDP (2006 est.)
Budget: revenues: $4.157 billion
expenditures: $4.489 billion;
including capital expenditures of
$471 million (2006 est.)
Public debt: 61.3% of GDP (2006 est.)
Agriculture -
products:
bananas, rice, corn, coffee,
sugarcane, vegetables; livestock;
shrimp
Industries: construction, brewing, cement
and other construction materials,
sugar milling
Industrial
production
growth rate:
3% (2006 est.)
Electricity -
production:
7.545 billion kWh (2004)
Electricity -
production by
source:
fossil fuel: 37%
hydro: 61.3%
nuclear: 0%
other: 1.7% (2001)
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Electricity -
consumption:
6.888 billion kWh (2004)
Electricity -
exports:
207 million kWh (2004)
Electricity -
imports:
78 million kWh (2004)
Oil -
production:
0 bbl/day (2004 est.)
Oil -
consumption:
79,000 bbl/day (2004 est.)
Oil - exports: NA bbl/day
Oil - imports: NA bbl/day
Natural gas -
production:
0 cu m (2004 est.)
Natural gas -
consumption:
0 cu m (2004 est.)
Current
account
balance:
-$467 million (2006 est.)
Exports: $8.087 billion f.o.b.; note -
includes the Colon Free Zone
(2006 est.)
Exports -
commodities:
bananas, shrimp, sugar, coffee,
clothing
Exports -
partners:
US 44.9%, Spain 8.9%, Sweden
5.6%, Netherlands 4.9%, Costa
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Rica 4% (2005)
Imports: $9.365 billion f.o.b. (includes the
Colon Free Zone) (2006 est.)
Imports -
commodities:
capital goods, foodstuffs,
consumer goods, chemicals
Imports -
partners:
US 27.5%, Netherlands Antilles
11.4%, Costa Rica 4.7%, Japan
4.5% (2005)
Reserves of
foreign
exchange and
gold:
$1.236 billion (2006 est.)
Debt -
external:
$9.993 billion (2006 est.)
Economic aid -
recipient:
$197.1 million (1995)
Currency
(code):
balboa (PAB); US dollar (USD)
Currency
code:
PAB; USD
Exchange
rates:
balboas per US dollar - 1 (2006), 1
(2005), 1 (2004), 1 (2003), 1 (2002)
Fiscal year: calendar year
Communications Panama
Telephones
- main lines
440,100 (2005)
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in use:
Telephones
- mobile
cellular:
1.352 million (2005)
Telephone
system:
general assessment: domestic and
international facilities well
developed
domestic: NA
international: country code - 507; 1
coaxial submarine cable; satellite
earth stations - 2 Intelsat (Atlantic
Ocean); connected to the Central
American Microwave System
Radio
broadcast
stations:
AM 101, FM 134, shortwave 0 (1998)
Radios: 815,000 (1997)
Television
broadcast
stations:
38 (including repeaters) (1998)
Televisions: 510,000 (1997)
Internet
country
code:
.pa
Internet
hosts:
7,149 (2006)
Internet
Service
6 (2000)
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Providers
(ISPs):
Internet
users:
300,000 (2005)
Transportation Panama
Airports: 117 (2006)
Airports -
with paved
runways:
total: 53
over 3,047 m: 1
2,438 to 3,047 m: 1
1,524 to 2,437 m: 5
914 to 1,523 m: 18
under 914 m: 28 (2006)
Airports -
with
unpaved
runways:
total: 64
1,524 to 2,437 m: 1
914 to 1,523 m: 10
under 914 m: 53 (2006)
Railways: total: 355 km
standard gauge: 77 km 1.435-m
gauge
narrow gauge: 278 km 0.914-m gauge
(2005)
Roadways: total: 11,643 km
paved: 4,028 km
unpaved: 7,615 km (2000)
Waterways: 800 km (includes 82 km Panama
Canal) (2005)
Merchant
marine:
total: 5,473 ships (1000 GRT or over)
146,511,342 GRT/219,940,567 DWT
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by type: barge carrier 1, bulk carrier
1,776, cargo 992, chemical tanker
476, combination ore/oil 2, container
663, liquefied gas 193, livestock
carrier 7, passenger 49,
passenger/cargo 77, petroleum
tanker 518, refrigerated cargo 299,
roll on/roll off 123, specialized tanker
23, vehicle carrier 274
foreign-owned: 4,922 (Anguilla 1,
Argentina 9, Australia 3, Bahamas,
The 2, Belgium 11, Bermuda 1,
Bulgaria 1, Canada 4, Chile 9, China
420, Colombia 5, Croatia 5, Cuba 11,
Cyprus 14, Denmark 34, Egypt 16,
Estonia 3, France 15, Gabon 1,
Germany 35, Greece 524, Hong Kong
169, India 19, Indonesia 50, Iran 4,
Ireland 2, Israel 6, Italy 15, Japan
2007, Jordan 13, South Korea 291,
Kuwait 2, Latvia 3, Lebanon 2,
Lithuania 5, Malaysia 13, Maldives 1,
Malta 3, Mexico 5, Monaco 9,
Morocco 1, Netherlands 21, Nigeria 7,
Norway 66, Pakistan 3, Peru 15,
Philippines 13, Poland 15, Portugal
10, Qatar 1, Romania 9, Russia 7,
Saudi Arabia 8, Singapore 67, South
Africa 3, Spain 53, Sri Lanka 5, Sudan
1, Sweden 5, Switzerland 226, Syria
18, Taiwan 308, Thailand 9, Trinidad
and Tobago 1, Turkey 42, UAE 105,
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UK 37, Ukraine 8, US 94, Venezuela
14, Vietnam 4, Yemen 3)
registered in other countries: 1
(Venezuela 1) (2006)
Ports and
terminals:
Balboa, Colon, Cristobal
Military Panama
Military
branches:
an amendment to the Constitution
abolished the armed forces, but
there are security forces
(Panamanian Public Forces or PPF
includes the Panamanian National
Police, National Maritime Service,
and National Air Service)
Manpower
available for
military
service:
males age 18-49: 751,065 (2005
est.)
Manpower fit
for military
service:
males age 18-49: 591,604 (2005
est.)
Manpower
reaching
military
service age
annually:
males age 18-49: 29,724
Military
expenditures
1% (2006)
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- percent of
GDP:
Military -
note:
on 10 February 1990, the
government of then President
ENDARA abolished Panama's
military and reformed the security
apparatus by creating the
Panamanian Public Forces; in
October 1994, Panama's Legislative
Assembly approved a constitutional
amendment prohibiting the creation
of a standing military force, but
allowing the temporary
establishment of special police
units to counter acts of "external
aggression"
Transnational
Issues
Panama
Disputes -
international:
organized illegal narcotics
operations in Colombia operate
within the remote border region
with Panama
Illicit drugs: major cocaine transshipment point
and primary money-laundering
center for narcotics revenue;
money-laundering activity is
especially heavy in the Colon Free
Zone; offshore financial center;
negligible signs of coca cultivation;
monitoring of financial transactions
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2714
is improving; official corruption
remains a major problem
PUERTO RICO
Introduction Puerto Rico
Background: Populated for centuries by
aboriginal peoples, the island was
claimed by the Spanish Crown in
1493 following COLUMBUS' second
voyage to the Americas. In 1898,
after 400 years of colonial rule that
saw the indigenous population
nearly exterminated and African
slave labor introduced, Puerto Rico
was ceded to the US as a result of
the Spanish-American War. Puerto
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Ricans were granted US citizenship
in 1917. Popularly-elected governors
have served since 1948. In 1952, a
constitution was enacted providing
for internal self government. In
plebiscites held in 1967, 1993, and
1998, voters chose not to alter the
existing political status.
Geography Puerto Rico
Location: Caribbean, island between the
Caribbean Sea and the North
Atlantic Ocean, east of the
Dominican Republic
Geographic
coordinates:
18 15 N, 66 30 W
Map
references:
Central America and the Caribbean
Area: total: 13,790 sq km
land: 8,870 sq km
water: 4,921 sq km
Area -
comparative:
slightly less than three times the
size of Rhode Island
Land
boundaries:
0 km
Coastline: 501 km
Maritime
claims:
territorial sea: 12 nm
exclusive economic zone: 200 nm
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Climate: tropical marine, mild; little seasonal
temperature variation
Terrain: mostly mountains with coastal plain
belt in north; mountains precipitous
to sea on west coast; sandy
beaches along most coastal areas
Elevation
extremes:
lowest point: Caribbean Sea 0 m
highest point: Cerro de Punta 1,339
m
Natural
resources:
some copper and nickel; potential
for onshore and offshore oil
Land use: arable land: 3.69%
permanent crops: 5.59%
other: 90.72% (2005)
Irrigated
land:
400 sq km (2003)
Natural
hazards:
periodic droughts; hurricanes
Environment
- current
issues:
erosion; occasional drought causing
water shortages
Geography -
note:
important location along the Mona
Passage - a key shipping lane to the
Panama Canal; San Juan is one of
the biggest and best natural
harbors in the Caribbean; many
small rivers and high central
mountains ensure land is well
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2717
watered; south coast relatively dry;
fertile coastal plain belt in north
People Puerto Rico
Population: 3,944,259 (July 2007 est.)
Age
structure:
0-14 years: 21% (male
422,635/female 403,887)
15-64 years: 65.9% (male
1,247,314/female 1,352,139)
65 years and over: 13.1% (male
223,508/female 294,776) (2007 est.)
Median
age:
total: 35.1 years
male: 33.4 years
female: 36.8 years (2007 est.)
Population
growth
rate:
0.393% (2007 est.)
Birth rate: 12.79 births/1,000 population (2007
est.)
Death rate: 7.78 deaths/1,000 population (2007
est.)
Net
migration
rate:
-1.09 migrant(s)/1,000 population
(2007 est.)
Sex ratio: at birth: 1.05 male(s)/female
under 15 years: 1.046 male(s)/female
15-64 years: 0.922 male(s)/female
65 years and over: 0.758
male(s)/female
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total population: 0.923
male(s)/female (2007 est.)
Infant
mortality
rate:
total: 7.81 deaths/1,000 live births
male: 8.71 deaths/1,000 live births
female: 6.86 deaths/1,000 live births
(2007 est.)
Life
expectancy
at birth:
total population: 78.54 years
male: 74.6 years
female: 82.67 years (2007 est.)
Total
fertility
rate:
1.77 children born/woman (2007 est.)
HIV/AIDS -
adult
prevalence
rate:
NA
HIV/AIDS -
people
living with
HIV/AIDS:
7,397 (1997)
HIV/AIDS -
deaths:
NA
Nationality: noun: Puerto Rican(s) (US citizens)
adjective: Puerto Rican
Ethnic
groups:
white (mostly Spanish origin) 80.5%,
black 8%, Amerindian 0.4%, Asian
0.2%, mixed and other 10.9%
Religions: Roman Catholic 85%, Protestant and
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2719
other 15%
Languages: Spanish, English
Literacy: definition: age 15 and over can read
and write
total population: 94.1%
male: 93.9%
female: 94.4% (2002 est.)
Government Puerto Rico
Country name: conventional long form:
Commonwealth of Puerto Rico
conventional short form: Puerto
Rico
Dependency
status:
unincorporated, organized
territory of the US with
commonwealth status; policy
relations between Puerto Rico and
the US conducted under the
jurisdiction of the Office of the
President
Government
type:
commonwealth
Capital: name: San Juan
geographic coordinates: 18 28 N,
66 07 W
time difference: UTC-4 (1 hour
ahead of Washington, DC during
Standard Time)
Administrative none (territory of the US with
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2720
divisions: commonwealth status); there are
no first-order administrative
divisions as defined by the US
Government, but there are 78
municipalities (municipios,
singular - municipio) at the second
order; Adjuntas, Aguada,
Aguadilla, Aguas Buenas,
Aibonito, Anasco, Arecibo, Arroyo,
Barceloneta, Barranquitas,
Bayamon, Cabo Rojo, Caguas,
Camuy, Canovanas, Carolina,
Catano, Cayey, Ceiba, Ciales,
Cidra, Coamo, Comerio, Corozal,
Culebra, Dorado, Fajardo, Florida,
Guanica, Guayama, Guayanilla,
Guaynabo, Gurabo, Hatillo,
Hormigueros, Humacao, Isabela,
Jayuya, Juana Diaz, Juncos,
Lajas, Lares, Las Marias, Las
Piedras, Loiza, Luquillo, Manati,
Maricao, Maunabo, Mayaguez,
Moca, Morovis, Naguabo,
Naranjito, Orocovis, Patillas,
Penuelas, Ponce, Quebradillas,
Rincon, Rio Grande, Sabana
Grande, Salinas, San German, San
Juan, San Lorenzo, San Sebastian,
Santa Isabel, Toa Alta, Toa Baja,
Trujillo Alto, Utuado, Vega Alta,
Vega Baja, Vieques, Villalba,
Yabucoa, Yauco
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Independence: none (territory of the US with
commonwealth status)
National
holiday:
US Independence Day, 4 July
(1776); Puerto Rico Constitution
Day, 25 July (1952)
Constitution: ratified 3 March 1952; approved
by US Congress 3 July 1952;
effective 25 July 1952
Legal system: based on Spanish civil code and
within the US Federal system of
justice
Suffrage: 18 years of age; universal; island
residents are US citizens but do
not vote in US presidential
elections
Executive
branch:
chief of state: President George
W. BUSH of the US (since 20
January 2001); Vice President
Richard B. CHENEY (since 20
January 2001)
head of government: Governor
Anibal ACEVEDO-VILA (since 2
January 2005)
cabinet: Cabinet appointed by the
governor with the consent of the
legislature
elections: under the US
Constitution, residents of
unincorporated territories, such
as Puerto Rico, do not vote in
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2722
elections for US president and
vice president; governor elected
by popular vote for a four-year
term (no term limits); election last
held 2 November 2004 (next to be
held in November 2008)
election results: Anibal ACEVEDO-
VILA elected governor; percent of
vote - 48.4%
Legislative
branch:
bicameral Legislative Assembly
consists of the Senate (at least 27
seats - currently 29; members are
directly elected by popular vote to
serve four-year terms) and the
House of Representatives (51
seats; members are elected by
popular vote to serve four-year
terms)
elections: Senate - last held 2
November 2004 (next to be held
November 2008); House of
Representatives - last held 2
November 2004 (next to be held in
November 2008)
election results: Senate - percent
of vote by party - PNP 43.4%, PPD
40.3%, PIP 9.4%; seats by party -
PNP 17, PPD 9, PIP 1; House of
Representatives - percent of vote
by party - PNP 46.3%, PPD 43.1%,
PIP 9.7%; seats by party - PNP 32,
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PPD 18, PIP 1
note: Puerto Rico elects, by
popular vote, a resident
commissioner to serve a four-year
term as a nonvoting
representative in the US House of
Representatives; aside from not
voting on the House floor, he
enjoys all the rights of a member
of Congress; elections last held 2
November 2004 (next to be held in
November 2008); results - percent
of vote by party - PNP 48.6%,
other 51.4%; seats by party - PNP
1
Judicial
branch:
Supreme Court; Appellate Court;
Court of First Instance composed
of two sections: a Superior Court
and a Municipal Court (justices for
all these courts appointed by the
governor with the consent of the
Senate)
Political
parties and
leaders:
National Democratic Party
[Roberto PRATS]; National
Republican Party of Puerto Rico
[Dr. Tiody FERRE]; New
Progressive Party or PNP [Pedro
ROSSELLO] (pro-US statehood);
Popular Democratic Party or PPD
[Anibal ACEVEDO-VILA] (pro-
commonwealth); Puerto Rican
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Independence Party or PIP [Ruben
BERRIOS Martinez] (pro-
independence)
Political
pressure
groups and
leaders:
Boricua Popular Army or EPB (a
revolutionary group also known as
Los Macheteros); note - the
following radical groups are
considered dormant by Federal
law enforcement: Armed Forces
for National Liberation or FALN,
Armed Forces of Popular
Resistance, Volunteers of the
Puerto Rican Revolution
International
organization
participation:
Interpol (subbureau), IOC, ITUC,
UNWTO (associate), UPU, WCL,
WFTU
Diplomatic
representation
in the US:
none (territory of the US with
commonwealth status)
Diplomatic
representation
from the US:
none (territory of the US with
commonwealth status)
Flag
description:
five equal horizontal bands of red
(top and bottom) alternating with
white; a blue isosceles triangle
based on the hoist side bears a
large, white, five-pointed star in
the center; design initially
influenced by the US flag, but
similar to the Cuban flag, with the
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colors of the bands and triangle
reversed
Economy Puerto Rico
Economy -
overview:
Puerto Rico has one of the most
dynamic economies in the
Caribbean region. A diverse
industrial sector has far
surpassed agriculture as the
primary locus of economic
activity and income. Encouraged
by duty-free access to the US and
by tax incentives, US firms have
invested heavily in Puerto Rico
since the 1950s. US minimum
wage laws apply. Sugar
production has lost out to dairy
production and other livestock
products as the main source of
income in the agricultural sector.
Tourism has traditionally been an
important source of income, with
estimated arrivals of nearly 5
million tourists in 2004. Growth
fell off in 2001-03, largely due to
the slowdown in the US economy,
recovered in 2004-05, but
declined again in 2006.
GDP
(purchasing
power parity):
$75.82 billion (2006 est.)
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GDP (official
exchange
rate):
NA (2006 est.)
GDP - real
growth rate:
0.5% (2006 est.)
GDP - per
capita (PPP):
$19,300 (2006 est.)
GDP -
composition
by sector:
agriculture: 1%
industry: 45%
services: 54% (2002 est.)
Labor force: 1.3 million (2000)
Labor force -
by occupation:
agriculture: 3%
industry: 20%
services: 77% (2000 est.)
Unemployment
rate:
12% (2002)
Population
below poverty
line:
NA%
Household
income or
consumption
by percentage
share:
lowest 10%: NA%
highest 10%: NA%
Inflation rate
(consumer
prices):
6.5% (2003 est.)
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Budget: revenues: $6.7 billion
expenditures: $9.6 billion;
including capital expenditures of
$NA (FY99/00)
Agriculture -
products:
sugarcane, coffee, pineapples,
plantains, bananas; livestock
products, chickens
Industries: pharmaceuticals, electronics,
apparel, food products, tourism
Industrial
production
growth rate:
NA%
Electricity -
production:
24.14 billion kWh (2004)
Electricity -
production by
source:
fossil fuel: 99.2%
hydro: 0.8%
nuclear: 0%
other: 0% (2001)
Electricity -
consumption:
22.45 billion kWh (2004)
Electricity -
exports:
0 kWh (2004)
Electricity -
imports:
0 kWh (2004)
Oil -
production:
721.8 bbl/day (2004 est.)
Oil - 234,000 bbl/day (2004 est.)
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consumption:
Oil - exports: NA bbl/day
Oil - imports: NA bbl/day
Natural gas -
production:
0 cu m (2004 est.)
Natural gas -
consumption:
680 million cu m (2004 est.)
Natural gas -
exports:
0 cu m (2004 est.)
Natural gas -
imports:
680 million cu m (2004 est.)
Exports: $46.9 billion f.o.b. (2001)
Exports -
commodities:
chemicals, electronics, apparel,
canned tuna, rum, beverage
concentrates, medical equipment
Exports -
partners:
US 90.3%, UK 1.6%, Netherlands
1.4%, Dominican Republic 1.4%
(2004)
Imports: $29.1 billion c.i.f. (2001)
Imports -
commodities:
chemicals, machinery and
equipment, clothing, food, fish,
petroleum products
Imports -
partners:
US 55.0%, Ireland 23.7%, Japan
5.4% (2004)
Debt -
external:
$NA
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2729
Economic aid -
recipient:
$NA
Currency
(code):
US dollar (USD)
Currency
code:
USD
Exchange
rates:
the US dollar is used
Fiscal year: 1 July - 30 June
Communications Puerto Rico
Telephones
- main lines
in use:
1.112 million (2004)
Telephones
- mobile
cellular:
2.682 million (2004)
Telephone
system:
general assessment: modern system
integrated with that of the US by
high-capacity submarine cable and
Intelsat with high-speed data
capability
domestic: digital telephone system;
cellular telephone service
international: country code - 1-787,
939; satellite earth station - 1
Intelsat; submarine cable to US
Radio
broadcast
AM 74, FM 53, shortwave 0 (2005)
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stations:
Radios: 2.7 million (1997)
Television
broadcast
stations:
32 (2006)
Televisions: 1.021 million (1997)
Internet
country
code:
.pr
Internet
hosts:
404 (2006)
Internet
Service
Providers
(ISPs):
76 (2000)
Internet
users:
1 million (2005)
Transportation Puerto Rico
Airports: 30 (2006)
Airports -
with
paved
runways:
total: 17
over 3,047 m: 3
1,524 to 2,437 m: 2
914 to 1,523 m: 7
under 914 m: 5 (2006)
Airports -
with
unpaved
total: 13
1,524 to 2,437 m: 1
914 to 1,523 m: 2
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runways: under 914 m: 10 (2006)
Railways: total: 96 km
narrow gauge: 96 km 1.000-m gauge
(2005)
Roadways: total: 25,735 km
paved: 24,353 km (includes 427 km of
expressways)
unpaved: 1,382 km (2005)
Merchant
marine:
total: 3 ships (1000 GRT or over)
77,177 GRT/50,138 DWT
by type: roll on/roll off 3
foreign-owned: 3 (US 3)
registered in other countries: 1 (Saint
Vincent and the Grenadines 1) (2006)
Ports and
terminals:
Las Mareas, Mayaguez, San Juan
Military Puerto Rico
Military
branches:
no regular indigenous military forces;
paramilitary National Guard, Police
Force
Military -
note:
defense is the responsibility of the US
Transnational
Issues
Puerto Rico
Disputes -
international:
increasing numbers of illegal
migrants from the Dominican
Republic cross the Mona Passage
to Puerto Rico each year looking
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2732
for work
ST KEITT NEVIS
Introduction Saint Kitts and Nevis
Background: First settled by the British in 1623,
the islands became an associated
state with full internal autonomy in
1967. The island of Anguilla rebelled
and was allowed to secede in 1971.
Saint Kitts and Nevis achieved
independence in 1983. In 1998, a
vote in Nevis on a referendum to
separate from Saint Kitts fell short
of the two-thirds majority needed.
Nevis continues in its efforts to try
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and separate from Saint Kitts.
Geography Saint Kitts and Nevis
Location: Caribbean, islands in the Caribbean
Sea, about one-third of the way
from Puerto Rico to Trinidad and
Tobago
Geographic
coordinates:
17 20 N, 62 45 W
Map
references:
Central America and the Caribbean
Area: total: 261 sq km (Saint Kitts 168 sq
km; Nevis 93 sq km)
land: 261 sq km
water: 0 sq km
Area -
comparative:
1.5 times the size of Washington,
DC
Land
boundaries:
0 km
Coastline: 135 km
Maritime
claims:
territorial sea: 12 nm
contiguous zone: 24 nm
exclusive economic zone: 200 nm
continental shelf: 200 nm or to the
edge of the continental margin
Climate: tropical, tempered by constant sea
breezes; little seasonal temperature
variation; rainy season (May to
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November)
Terrain: volcanic with mountainous interiors
Elevation
extremes:
lowest point: Caribbean Sea 0 m
highest point: Mount Liamuiga
1,156 m
Natural
resources:
arable land
Land use: arable land: 19.44%
permanent crops: 2.78%
other: 77.78% (2005)
Irrigated
land:
NA
Natural
hazards:
hurricanes (July to October)
Environment
- current
issues:
NA
Environment
-
international
agreements:
party to: Biodiversity, Climate
Change, Desertification,
Endangered Species, Hazardous
Wastes, Law of the Sea, Marine
Dumping, Ozone Layer Protection,
Ship Pollution, Whaling
signed, but not ratified: none of the
selected agreements
Geography -
note:
with coastlines in the shape of a
baseball bat and ball, the two
volcanic islands are separated by a
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2735
three-km-wide channel called The
Narrows; on the southern tip of
long, baseball bat-shaped Saint
Kitts lies the Great Salt Pond; Nevis
Peak sits in the center of its almost
circular namesake island and its
ball shape complements that of its
sister island
People Saint Kitts and Nevis
Population: 39,349 (July 2007 est.)
Age
structure:
0-14 years: 27.2% (male 5,472/female
5,218)
15-64 years: 64.9% (male
12,779/female 12,752)
65 years and over: 7.9% (male
1,300/female 1,828) (2007 est.)
Median
age:
total: 28.1 years
male: 27.4 years
female: 28.8 years (2007 est.)
Population
growth
rate:
0.623% (2007 est.)
Birth rate: 17.89 births/1,000 population (2007
est.)
Death rate: 8.16 deaths/1,000 population (2007
est.)
Net
migration
-3.51 migrant(s)/1,000 population
(2007 est.)
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rate:
Sex ratio: at birth: 1.07 male(s)/female
under 15 years: 1.049 male(s)/female
15-64 years: 1.002 male(s)/female
65 years and over: 0.711
male(s)/female
total population: 0.988
male(s)/female (2007 est.)
Infant
mortality
rate:
total: 13.74 deaths/1,000 live births
male: 15.44 deaths/1,000 live births
female: 11.93 deaths/1,000 live births
(2007 est.)
Life
expectancy
at birth:
total population: 72.66 years
male: 69.81 years
female: 75.69 years (2007 est.)
Total
fertility
rate:
2.29 children born/woman (2007 est.)
HIV/AIDS -
adult
prevalence
rate:
NA
HIV/AIDS -
people
living with
HIV/AIDS:
NA
HIV/AIDS -
deaths:
NA
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2737
Nationality: noun: Kittitian(s), Nevisian(s)
adjective: Kittitian, Nevisian
Ethnic
groups:
predominantly black; some British,
Portuguese, and Lebanese
Religions: Anglican, other Protestant, Roman
Catholic
Languages: English
Literacy: definition: age 15 and over has ever
attended school
total population: 97.8%
male: NA%
female: NA% (2003 est.)
Government Saint Kitts and Nevis
Country name: conventional long form:
Federation of Saint Kitts and
Nevis
conventional short form: Saint
Kitts and Nevis
former: Federation of Saint
Christopher and Nevis
Government
type:
parliamentary democracy
Capital: name: Basseterre
geographic coordinates: 17 18 N,
62 43 W
time difference: UTC-4 (1 hour
ahead of Washington, DC during
Standard Time)
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Administrative
divisions:
14 parishes; Christ Church
Nichola Town, Saint Anne Sandy
Point, Saint George Basseterre,
Saint George Gingerland, Saint
James Windward, Saint John
Capesterre, Saint John Figtree,
Saint Mary Cayon, Saint Paul
Capesterre, Saint Paul
Charlestown, Saint Peter
Basseterre, Saint Thomas
Lowland, Saint Thomas Middle
Island, Trinity Palmetto Point
Independence: 19 September 1983 (from UK)
National
holiday:
Independence Day, 19 September
(1983)
Constitution: 19 September 1983
Legal system: based on English common law
Suffrage: 18 years of age; universal
Executive
branch:
chief of state: Queen ELIZABETH
II (since 6 February 1952);
represented by Governor General
Cuthbert Montraville SEBASTIAN
(since 1 January 1996)
head of government: Prime
Minister Dr. Denzil DOUGLAS
(since 6 July 1995); Deputy Prime
Minister Sam CONDOR (since 6
July 1995)
cabinet: Cabinet appointed by the
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2739
governor general in consultation
with the prime minister
elections: none; the monarch is
hereditary; the governor general is
appointed by the monarch;
following legislative elections, the
leader of the majority party or
leader of a majority coalition is
usually appointed prime minister
by the governor general; deputy
prime minister appointed by the
governor general
Legislative
branch:
unicameral National Assembly (14
seats, 3 appointed and 11
popularly elected from single-
member constituencies; members
serve five-year terms)
elections: last held 25 October
2004 (next to be held by 2009)
election results: percent of vote
by party - NA; seats by party -
SKNLP 7, CCM 2, NRP 1, PAM 1
Judicial
branch:
Eastern Caribbean Supreme Court
(based on Saint Lucia; one judge
of the Supreme Court resides in
Saint Kitts and Nevis)
Political
parties and
leaders:
Concerned Citizens Movement or
CCM [Vance AMORY]; Nevis
Reformation Party or NRP [Joseph
PARRY]; People's Action
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2740
Movement or PAM [Lindsay
GRANT]; Saint Kitts and Nevis
Labor Party or SKNLP [Dr. Denzil
DOUGLAS]
Political
pressure
groups and
leaders:
NA
International
organization
participation:
ACP, C, Caricom, CDB, FAO, G-77,
IBRD, ICAO, ICCt, ICRM, IDA,
IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, ILO, IMF, IMO,
Interpol, IOC, ITU, MIGA, NAM,
OAS, OECS, OPANAL, OPCW, UN,
UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, UPU,
WHO, WIPO, WTO
Diplomatic
representation
in the US:
chief of mission: Ambassador Dr.
Izben Cordinal WILLIAMS
chancery: 3216 New Mexico
Avenue NW, Washington, DC
20016
telephone: [1] (202) 686-2636
FAX: [1] (202) 686-5740
consulate(s) general: New York
Diplomatic
representation
from the US:
the US does not have an embassy
in Saint Kitts and Nevis; the US
Ambassador to Barbados is
accredited to Saint Kitts and
Nevis
Flag
description:
divided diagonally from the lower
hoist side by a broad black band
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bearing two white, five-pointed
stars; the black band is edged in
yellow; the upper triangle is
green, the lower triangle is red
Economy Saint Kitts and Nevis
Economy -
overview:
Sugar was the traditional
mainstay of the Saint Kitts
economy until the 1970s. The
government closed the sugar
industry following the 2005
harvest after decades of losses at
the state-run sugar company. To
compensate, the government has
embarked on a program to
diversify the agricultural sector
and to stimulate other sectors of
the economy. Activities such as
tourism, export-oriented
manufacturing, and offshore
banking have assumed larger
roles in the economy. Tourism
revenues are now the chief
source of the islands' foreign
exchange; about 341,800 tourists
visited Nevis in 2005. Additional
tourist facilities, including a
second cruise ship pier, hotels,
and golf courses are under
construction.
GDP $339 million (2002 est.)
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(purchasing
power parity):
GDP (official
exchange
rate):
$453 million (2005)
GDP - real
growth rate:
4.9% (2005 est.)
GDP - per
capita (PPP):
$8,200 (2005 est.)
GDP -
composition
by sector:
agriculture: 3.5%
industry: 25.8%
services: 70.7% (2001)
Labor force: 18,170 (June 1995)
Unemployment
rate:
4.5% (1997)
Population
below poverty
line:
NA%
Household
income or
consumption
by percentage
share:
lowest 10%: NA%
highest 10%: NA%
Inflation rate
(consumer
prices):
8.7% (2005 est.)
Budget: revenues: $89.7 million
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expenditures: $128.2 million;
including capital expenditures of
$19.5 million (2003 est.)
Agriculture -
products:
sugarcane, rice, yams,
vegetables, bananas; fish
Industries: tourism, cotton, salt, copra,
clothing, footwear, beverages
Industrial
production
growth rate:
NA%
Electricity -
production:
125 million kWh (2004)
Electricity -
production by
source:
fossil fuel: 100%
hydro: 0%
nuclear: 0%
other: 0% (2001)
Electricity -
consumption:
116.3 million kWh (2004)
Electricity -
exports:
0 kWh (2004)
Electricity -
imports:
0 kWh (2004)
Oil -
production:
0 bbl/day (2004 est.)
Oil -
consumption:
800 bbl/day (2004 est.)
Oil - exports: NA bbl/day
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Oil - imports: NA bbl/day
Natural gas -
production:
0 cu m (2004 est.)
Natural gas -
consumption:
0 cu m (2004 est.)
Exports: $70 million (2004 est.)
Exports -
commodities:
machinery, food, electronics,
beverages, tobacco
Exports -
partners:
US 61.3%, Canada 8.1%, UK 5.6%
(2005)
Imports: $405 million (2004 est.)
Imports -
commodities:
machinery, manufactures, food,
fuels
Imports -
partners:
US 46.9%, Trinidad and Tobago
13.7%, UK 5.4%, France 4.5%,
Japan 4.2% (2005)
Debt -
external:
$314 million (2004)
Economic aid -
recipient:
$NA
Currency
(code):
East Caribbean dollar (XCD)
Currency
code:
XCD
Exchange
rates:
East Caribbean dollars per US
dollar - 2.7 (2006), 2.7 (2005), 2.7
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(2004), 2.7 (2003), 2.7 (2002)
Fiscal year: calendar year
Communications Saint Kitts and Nevis
Telephones
- main lines
in use:
25,000 (2004)
Telephones
- mobile
cellular:
10,000 (2004)
Telephone
system:
general assessment: good inter-
island and international connections
domestic: inter-island links via
Eastern Caribbean Fiber Optic cable;
construction of enhanced wireless
infrastructure launched in November
2004
international: country code - 1-869;
international calls are carried by
submarine cable or Intelsat
Radio
broadcast
stations:
AM 3, FM 3, shortwave 0 (2003)
Radios: 28,000 (1997)
Television
broadcast
stations:
1 (plus 3 repeaters) (2003)
Televisions: 10,000 (1997)
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Internet
country
code:
.kn
Internet
hosts:
50 (2006)
Internet
Service
Providers
(ISPs):
16 (2000)
Internet
users:
10,000 (2002)
Transportation Saint Kitts and Nevis
Airports: 2 (2006)
Airports -
with
paved
runways:
total: 2
1,524 to 2,437 m: 1
914 to 1,523 m: 1 (2006)
Railways: total: 50 km
narrow gauge: 50 km 0.762-m gauge
on Saint Kitts to serve sugarcane
plantations during harvest season and
for tourists (2005)
Roadways: total: 320 km
paved: 138 km
unpaved: 182 km (1999 est)
Merchant
marine:
total: 50 ships (1000 GRT or over)
261,556 GRT/381,593 DWT
by type: bulk carrier 1, cargo 36,
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chemical tanker 5, passenger/cargo 2,
petroleum tanker 5, refrigerated cargo
1
foreign-owned: 41 (Greece 1, Monaco
1, Russia 5, Spain 2, Syria 3, Tanzania
1, Turkey 6, UAE 19, Ukraine 3) (2006)
Ports and
terminals:
Basseterre, Charlestown
Military Saint Kitts and Nevis
Military
branches:
Saint Kitts and Nevis Defense Force
(includes Coast Guard), Royal Saint
Kitts and Nevis Police Force
Military
service age
and
obligation:
18 years of age (est.) (2004)
Manpower
available for
military
service:
males age 18-49: 9,196
females age 18-49: 9,236 (2005 est.)
Manpower fit
for military
service:
males age 18-49: 7,119
females age 18-49: 7,645 (2005 est.)
Manpower
reaching
military
service age
annually:
males age 18-49: 357
females age 18-49: 347 (2005 est.)
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2748
Military
expenditures
- percent of
GDP:
NA
Transnational
Issues
Saint Kitts and Nevis
Disputes -
international:
joins other Caribbean states to
counter Venezuela's claim that
Aves Island sustains human
habitation, a criterion under
UNCLOS, which permits Venezuela
to extend its EEZ/continental shelf
over a large portion of the eastern
Caribbean Sea
Illicit drugs: transshipment point for South
American drugs destined for the US
and Europe; some money-
laundering activity
ST LUCIA
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Introduction Saint Lucia
Background: The island, with its fine natural
harbor at Castries, was contested
between England and France
throughout the 17th and early 18th
centuries (changing possession 14
times); it was finally ceded to the
UK in 1814. Even after the abolition
of slavery on its plantations in 1834,
Saint Lucia remained an agricultural
island, dedicated to producing
tropical commodity crops. Self-
government was granted in 1967
and independence in 1979.
Geography Saint Lucia
Location: Caribbean, island between the
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2750
Caribbean Sea and North Atlantic
Ocean, north of Trinidad and
Tobago
Geographic
coordinates:
13 53 N, 60 58 W
Map
references:
Central America and the Caribbean
Area: total: 616 sq km
land: 606 sq km
water: 10 sq km
Area -
comparative:
3.5 times the size of Washington,
DC
Land
boundaries:
0 km
Coastline: 158 km
Maritime
claims:
territorial sea: 12 nm
contiguous zone: 24 nm
exclusive economic zone: 200 nm
continental shelf: 200 nm or to the
edge of the continental margin
Climate: tropical, moderated by northeast
trade winds; dry season January to
April, rainy season May to August
Terrain: volcanic and mountainous with
some broad, fertile valleys
Elevation
extremes:
lowest point: Caribbean Sea 0 m
highest point: Mount Gimie 950 m
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Natural
resources:
forests, sandy beaches, minerals
(pumice), mineral springs,
geothermal potential
Land use: arable land: 6.45%
permanent crops: 22.58%
other: 70.97% (2005)
Irrigated
land:
30 sq km (2003)
Natural
hazards:
hurricanes and volcanic activity
Environment
- current
issues:
deforestation; soil erosion,
particularly in the northern region
Environment
-
international
agreements:
party to: Biodiversity, Climate
Change, Climate Change-Kyoto
Protocol, Desertification,
Endangered Species, Environmental
Modification, Hazardous Wastes,
Law of the Sea, Marine Dumping,
Ozone Layer Protection, Ship
Pollution, Wetlands, Whaling
signed, but not ratified: none of the
selected agreements
Geography -
note:
the twin Pitons (Gros Piton and
Petit Piton), striking cone-shaped
peaks south of Soufriere, are one of
the scenic natural highlights of the
Caribbean
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People Saint Lucia
Population: 170,649 (July 2007 est.)
Age
structure:
0-14 years: 29.4% (male
25,869/female 24,248)
15-64 years: 65.5% (male
55,115/female 56,641)
65 years and over: 5.1% (male
3,200/female 5,576) (2007 est.)
Median
age:
total: 25.6 years
male: 24.8 years
female: 26.5 years (2007 est.)
Population
growth
rate:
1.297% (2007 est.)
Birth rate: 19.28 births/1,000 population (2007
est.)
Death rate: 5.03 deaths/1,000 population (2007
est.)
Net
migration
rate:
-1.28 migrant(s)/1,000 population
(2007 est.)
Sex ratio: at birth: 1.07 male(s)/female
under 15 years: 1.067 male(s)/female
15-64 years: 0.973 male(s)/female
65 years and over: 0.574
male(s)/female
total population: 0.974
male(s)/female (2007 est.)
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2753
Infant
mortality
rate:
total: 12.81 deaths/1,000 live births
male: 13.93 deaths/1,000 live births
female: 11.62 deaths/1,000 live births
(2007 est.)
Life
expectancy
at birth:
total population: 74.08 years
male: 70.53 years
female: 77.88 years (2007 est.)
Total
fertility
rate:
2.15 children born/woman (2007 est.)
HIV/AIDS -
adult
prevalence
rate:
NA
HIV/AIDS -
people
living with
HIV/AIDS:
NA
HIV/AIDS -
deaths:
NA
Nationality: noun: Saint Lucian(s)
adjective: Saint Lucian
Ethnic
groups:
black 82.5%, mixed 11.9%, East
Indian 2.4%, other or unspecified
3.1% (2001 census)
Religions: Roman Catholic 67.5%, Seventh Day
Adventist 8.5%, Pentecostal 5.7%,
Rastafarian 2.1%, Anglican 2%,
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2754
Evangelical 2%, other Christian 5.1%,
other 1.1%, unspecified 1.5%, none
4.5% (2001 census)
Languages: English (official), French patois
Literacy: definition: age 15 and over has ever
attended school
total population: 90.1%
male: 89.5%
female: 90.6% (2001 est.)
Government Saint Lucia
Country name: conventional long form: none
conventional short form: Saint
Lucia
Government
type:
parliamentary democracy
Capital: name: Castries
geographic coordinates: 14 01 N,
61 00 W
time difference: UTC-4 (1 hour
ahead of Washington, DC during
Standard Time)
Administrative
divisions:
11 quarters; Anse-la-Raye,
Castries, Choiseul, Dauphin,
Dennery, Gros-Islet, Laborie,
Micoud, Praslin, Soufriere, Vieux-
Fort
Independence: 22 February 1979 (from UK)
National Independence Day, 22 February
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2755
holiday: (1979)
Constitution: 22 February 1979
Legal system: based on English common law
Suffrage: 18 years of age; universal
Executive
branch:
chief of state: Queen ELIZABETH
II (since 6 February 1952);
represented by Governor General
Dame Pearlette LOUISY (since
September 1997)
head of government: Prime
Minister Sir John COMPTON (since
15 December 2006); note - since 1
May 2007 Stephenson KING has
been acting prime minister while
Sir John COMPTON recovers from
a series of strokes
cabinet: Cabinet appointed by the
governor general on the advice of
the prime minister
elections: none; the monarch is
hereditary; the governor general is
appointed by the monarch;
following legislative elections, the
leader of the majority party or the
leader of a majority coalition is
usually appointed prime minister
by the governor general; deputy
prime minister appointed by the
governor general
Legislative bicameral Parliament consists of
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2756
branch: the Senate (11 seats; six
members appointed on the advice
of the prime minister, three on the
advice of the leader of the
opposition, and two after
consultation with religious,
economic, and social groups) and
the House of Assembly (17 seats;
members are elected by popular
vote to serve five-year terms)
elections: House of Assembly -
last held 11 December 2006 (next
to be held in December 2011)
election results: House of
Assembly - percent of vote by
party - UWP 50%, SLP 46.9%,
other 3.1%; seats by party - UWP
11, SLP 6
Judicial
branch:
Eastern Caribbean Supreme Court
(jurisdiction extends to Anguilla,
Antigua and Barbuda, the British
Virgin Islands, Dominica, Grenada,
Montserrat, Saint Kitts and Nevis,
Saint Lucia, and Saint Vincent and
the Grenadines)
Political
parties and
leaders:
National Alliance or NA [George
ODLUM]; Saint Lucia Freedom
Party or SFP [Martinus
FRANCOIS]; Saint Lucia Labor
Party or SLP [Kenneth ANTHONY];
Sou Tout Apwe Fete Fini or STAFF
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2757
[Christopher HUNTE]; United
Workers Party or UWP [Sir John
COMPTON]
Political
pressure
groups and
leaders:
NA
International
organization
participation:
ACCT, ACP, C, Caricom, CDB, FAO,
G-77, IBRD, ICAO, ICCt (signatory),
ICRM, IDA, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, ILO,
IMF, IMO, Interpol, IOC, ISO, ITU,
ITUC, MIGA, NAM, OAS, OECS,
OIF, OPANAL, OPCW, UN,
UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, UPU,
WCL, WCO, WFTU, WHO, WIPO,
WMO, WTO
Diplomatic
representation
in the US:
chief of mission: Ambassador
Sonia Merlyn JOHNNY
chancery: 3216 New Mexico
Avenue NW, Washington, DC
20016
telephone: [1] (202) 364-6792
through 6795
FAX: [1] (202) 364-6723
consulate(s) general: Miami, New
York
Diplomatic
representation
from the US:
the US does not have an embassy
in Saint Lucia; the US Ambassador
to Barbados is accredited to Saint
Lucia
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2758
Flag
description:
blue, with a gold isosceles
triangle below a black arrowhead;
the upper edges of the arrowhead
have a white border
Economy Saint Lucia
Economy -
overview:
Changes in the EU import
preference regime and the
increased competition from Latin
American bananas have made
economic diversification
increasingly important in Saint
Lucia. The island nation has been
able to attract foreign business
and investment, especially in its
offshore banking and tourism
industries. Tourism is the main
source of foreign exchange, with
more than 700,000 arrivals in
2005. The manufacturing sector is
the most diverse in the Eastern
Caribbean area, and the
government is trying to revitalize
the banana industry. Economic
fundamentals remain solid, even
though unemployment needs to
be cut.
GDP
(purchasing
power parity):
$866 million (2002 est.)
GDP (official $825 million (2005)
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2759
exchange
rate):
GDP - real
growth rate:
5.1% (2005 est.)
GDP - per
capita (PPP):
$4,800 (2005 est.)
GDP -
composition
by sector:
agriculture: 5%
industry: 15%
services: 80% (2005 est.)
Labor force: 43,800 (2001 est.)
Labor force -
by occupation:
agriculture: 21.7%
industry: 24.7%
services: 53.6% (2002 est.)
Unemployment
rate:
20% (2003 est.)
Population
below poverty
line:
NA%
Household
income or
consumption
by percentage
share:
lowest 10%: NA%
highest 10%: NA%
Inflation rate
(consumer
prices):
2.9% (2005 est.)
Budget: revenues: $141.2 million
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expenditures: $146.7 million;
including capital expenditures of
$25.1 million (2000 est.)
Agriculture -
products:
bananas, coconuts, vegetables,
citrus, root crops, cocoa
Industries: clothing, assembly of electronic
components, beverages,
corrugated cardboard boxes,
tourism; lime processing, coconut
processing
Industrial
production
growth rate:
-8.9% (1997 est.)
Electricity -
production:
290 million kWh (2004)
Electricity -
production by
source:
fossil fuel: 100%
hydro: 0%
nuclear: 0%
other: 0% (2001)
Electricity -
consumption:
269.7 million kWh (2004)
Electricity -
exports:
0 kWh (2004)
Electricity -
imports:
0 kWh (2004)
Oil -
production:
0 bbl/day (2004 est.)
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Oil -
consumption:
2,800 bbl/day (2004 est.)
Oil - exports: NA bbl/day
Oil - imports: NA bbl/day
Natural gas -
production:
0 cu m (2004 est.)
Natural gas -
consumption:
0 cu m (2004 est.)
Exports: $82 million (2004 est.)
Exports -
commodities:
bananas 41%, clothing, cocoa,
vegetables, fruits, coconut oil
Exports -
partners:
France 31.4%, US 18.7%, China
18.2%, UK 14% (2005)
Imports: $410 million (2004 est.)
Imports -
commodities:
food 23%, manufactured goods
21%, machinery and
transportation equipment 19%,
chemicals, fuels
Imports -
partners:
US 22.5%, Trinidad and Tobago
14.5%, Netherlands 13.6%,
Argentina 6.6%, Venezuela 5.2%,
UK 5.2%, France 4.5% (2005)
Debt -
external:
$257 million (2004)
Economic aid -
recipient:
$21.5 million (2004)
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Currency
(code):
East Caribbean dollar (XCD)
Currency
code:
XCD
Exchange
rates:
East Caribbean dollars per US
dollar - 2.7 (2006), 2.7 (2005), 2.7
(2004), 2.7 (2003), 2.7 (2002)
Fiscal year: 1 April - 31 March
Communications Saint Lucia
Telephones
- main lines
in use:
51,100 (2002)
Telephones
- mobile
cellular:
93,000 (2004)
Telephone
system:
general assessment: adequate
system
domestic: system is automatically
switched
international: country code - 1-758;
direct microwave radio relay link
with Martinique and Saint Vincent
and the Grenadines; tropospheric
scatter to Barbados; international
calls beyond these countries are
carried by Intelsat from Martinique
Radio
broadcast
AM 2, FM 7, shortwave 0 (2003)
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stations:
Radios: 111,000 (1997)
Television
broadcast
stations:
2 (1 commercial broadcast station
and 1 community antenna television
or CATV channel) (2003)
Televisions: 32,000 (1997)
Internet
country
code:
.lc
Internet
hosts:
21 (2006)
Internet
Service
Providers
(ISPs):
15 (2000)
Internet
users:
55,000 (2005)
Transportation Saint Lucia
Airports: 2 (2006)
Airports -
with
paved
runways:
total: 2
2,438 to 3,047 m: 1
1,524 to 2,437 m: 1 (2006)
Roadways: total: 910 km
paved: 48 km
unpaved: 862 km (2000)
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Ports and
terminals:
Castries, Cul-de-Sac, Vieux-Fort
Military Saint Lucia
Military
branches:
no regular military forces; Royal
Saint Lucia Police Force (includes
Special Service Unit, Coast Guard)
(2007)
Manpower
available for
military
service:
males age 18-49: 42,742 (2005 est.)
Manpower fit
for military
service:
males age 18-49: 33,539 (2005 est.)
Manpower
reaching
military
service age
annually:
males age 18-49: 1,651 (2005 est.)
Military
expenditures
- percent of
GDP:
NA
Transnational
Issues
Saint Lucia
Disputes -
international:
joins other Caribbean states to
counter Venezuela's claim that
Aves Island sustains human
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habitation, a criterion under
UNCLOS, which permits Venezuela
to extend its EEZ/continental shelf
over a large portion of the eastern
Caribbean Sea
Illicit drugs: transit point for South American
drugs destined for the US and
Europe
ST VINCENTS GRENADINES
Introduction Saint Vincent and the Grenadines
Background: Resistance by native Caribs
prevented colonization on St.
Vincent until 1719. Disputed
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between France and the United
Kingdom for most of the 18th
century, the island was ceded to the
latter in 1783. Between 1960 and
1962, Saint Vincent and the
Grenadines was a separate
administrative unit of the Federation
of the West Indies. Autonomy was
granted in 1969 and independence
in 1979.
Geography Saint Vincent and the Grenadines
Location: Caribbean, islands between the
Caribbean Sea and North Atlantic
Ocean, north of Trinidad and
Tobago
Geographic
coordinates:
13 15 N, 61 12 W
Map
references:
Central America and the Caribbean
Area: total: 389 sq km (Saint Vincent 344
sq km)
land: 389 sq km
water: 0 sq km
Area -
comparative:
twice the size of Washington, DC
Land
boundaries:
0 km
Coastline: 84 km
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Maritime
claims:
territorial sea: 12 nm
contiguous zone: 24 nm
exclusive economic zone: 200 nm
continental shelf: 200 nm
Climate: tropical; little seasonal temperature
variation; rainy season (May to
November)
Terrain: volcanic, mountainous
Elevation
extremes:
lowest point: Caribbean Sea 0 m
highest point: La Soufriere 1,234 m
Natural
resources:
hydropower, cropland
Land use: arable land: 17.95%
permanent crops: 17.95%
other: 64.1% (2005)
Irrigated
land:
10 sq km (2003)
Natural
hazards:
hurricanes; Soufriere volcano on
the island of Saint Vincent is a
constant threat
Environment
- current
issues:
pollution of coastal waters and
shorelines from discharges by
pleasure yachts and other effluents;
in some areas, pollution is severe
enough to make swimming
prohibitive
Environment
-
party to: Biodiversity, Climate
Change, Climate Change-Kyoto
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international
agreements:
Protocol, Desertification,
Endangered Species, Environmental
Modification, Hazardous Wastes,
Law of the Sea, Marine Dumping,
Ozone Layer Protection, Ship
Pollution, Whaling
signed, but not ratified: none of the
selected agreements
Geography -
note:
the administration of the islands of
the Grenadines group is divided
between Saint Vincent and the
Grenadines and Grenada; Saint
Vincent and the Grenadines is
comprised of 32 islands and cays
People Saint Vincent and the Grenadines
Population: 118,149 (July 2007 est.)
Age
structure:
0-14 years: 25.9% (male
15,596/female 15,027)
15-64 years: 67.6% (male
41,259/female 38,620)
65 years and over: 6.5% (male
3,358/female 4,289) (2007 est.)
Median
age:
total: 27.4 years
male: 27.3 years
female: 27.6 years (2007 est.)
Population
growth
rate:
0.248% (2007 est.)
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Birth rate: 16.02 births/1,000 population (2007
est.)
Death rate: 5.97 deaths/1,000 population (2007
est.)
Net
migration
rate:
-7.58 migrant(s)/1,000 population
(2007 est.)
Sex ratio: at birth: 1.03 male(s)/female
under 15 years: 1.038 male(s)/female
15-64 years: 1.068 male(s)/female
65 years and over: 0.783
male(s)/female
total population: 1.039
male(s)/female (2007 est.)
Infant
mortality
rate:
total: 14.01 deaths/1,000 live births
male: 15.25 deaths/1,000 live births
female: 12.72 deaths/1,000 live births
(2007 est.)
Life
expectancy
at birth:
total population: 74.09 years
male: 72.21 years
female: 76.04 years (2007 est.)
Total
fertility
rate:
1.81 children born/woman (2007 est.)
HIV/AIDS -
adult
prevalence
rate:
NA
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HIV/AIDS -
people
living with
HIV/AIDS:
NA
HIV/AIDS -
deaths:
NA
Nationality: noun: Saint Vincentian(s) or
Vincentian(s)
adjective: Saint Vincentian or
Vincentian
Ethnic
groups:
black 66%, mixed 19%, East Indian
6%, Carib Amerindian 2%, other 7%
Religions: Anglican 47%, Methodist 28%,
Roman Catholic 13%, other (includes
Hindu, Seventh-Day Adventist, other
Protestant) 12%
Languages: English, French patois
Literacy: definition: age 15 and over has ever
attended school
total population: 96%
male: 96%
female: 96% (1970 est.)
Government Saint Vincent and the Grenadines
Country name: conventional long form: none
conventional short form: Saint
Vincent and the Grenadines
Government
type:
parliamentary democracy
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Capital: name: Kingstown
geographic coordinates: 13 09 N,
61 14 W
time difference: UTC-4 (1 hour
ahead of Washington, DC during
Standard Time)
Administrative
divisions:
6 parishes; Charlotte, Grenadines,
Saint Andrew, Saint David, Saint
George, Saint Patrick
Independence: 27 October 1979 (from UK)
National
holiday:
Independence Day, 27 October
(1979)
Constitution: 27 October 1979
Legal system: based on English common law
Suffrage: 18 years of age; universal
Executive
branch:
chief of state: Queen ELIZABETH
II (since 6 February 1952);
represented by Governor General
Sir Fredrick Nathaniel
BALLANTYNE (since 2 September
2002)
head of government: Prime
Minister Ralph E. GONSALVES
(since 29 March 2001)
cabinet: Cabinet appointed by the
governor general on the advice of
the prime minister
elections: none; the monarch is
hereditary; the governor general is
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2772
appointed by the monarch;
following legislative elections, the
leader of the majority party is
usually appointed prime minister
by the governor general; deputy
prime minister appointed by the
governor general on the advice of
the prime minister
Legislative
branch:
unicameral House of Assembly (21
seats, 15 elected representatives
and six appointed senators;
representatives are elected by
popular vote to serve five-year
terms)
elections: last held 7 December
2005 (next to be held in 2010)
election results: percent of vote
by party - ULP 55.3%, NDP 44.7%;
seats by party - ULP 12, NDP 3
Judicial
branch:
Eastern Caribbean Supreme Court
(based on Saint Lucia; one judge
of the Supreme Court resides in
Saint Vincent and the Grenadines)
Political
parties and
leaders:
New Democratic Party or NDP
[Arnhim EUSTACE]; Unity Labor
Party or ULP [Ralph GONSALVES]
(formed by the coalition of Saint
Vincent Labor Party or SVLP and
the Movement for National Unity
or MNU)
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Political
pressure
groups and
leaders:
NA
International
organization
participation:
ACP, C, Caricom, CDB, FAO, G-77,
IBRD, ICAO, ICCt, ICRM, IDA,
IFAD, IFRCS, ILO, IMF, IMO,
Interpol, IOC, ISO (subscriber),
ITU, ITUC, MIGA, NAM, OAS,
OECS, OPANAL, OPCW, UN,
UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, UPU,
WCL, WFTU, WHO, WIPO, WTO
Diplomatic
representation
in the US:
chief of mission: Ambassador
Ellsworth I. A. JOHN
chancery: 3216 New Mexico
Avenue NW, Washington, DC
20016
telephone: [1] (202) 364-6730
FAX: [1] (202) 364-6736
consulate(s) general: New York
Diplomatic
representation
from the US:
the US does not have an embassy
in Saint Vincent and the
Grenadines; the US Ambassador
to Barbados is accredited to Saint
Vincent and the Grenadines
Flag
description:
three vertical bands of blue (hoist
side), gold (double width), and
green; the gold band bears three
green diamonds arranged in a V
pattern
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Economy Saint Vincent and the Grenadines
Economy -
overview:
Economic growth in this lower-
middle-income country hinges
upon seasonal variations in the
agricultural and tourism sectors.
Tropical storms wiped out
substantial portions of crops in
1994, 1995, and 2002, and
tourism in the Eastern Caribbean
suffered low arrivals in the
immediate aftermath of 11
September 2001. The islands had
more than 160,000 tourist arrivals
in 2005, mostly to the Grenadines.
Saint Vincent is home to a small
offshore banking sector and has
moved to adopt international
regulatory standards. Saint
Vincent is also a producer of
marijuana and is being used as a
transshipment point for illegal
narcotics from South America.
GDP
(purchasing
power parity):
$342 million (2002 est.)
GDP (official
exchange
rate):
$428 million (2005)
GDP - real
growth rate:
4.9% (2005 est.)
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GDP - per
capita (PPP):
$3,600 (2005 est.)
GDP -
composition
by sector:
agriculture: 10%
industry: 26%
services: 64% (2001 est.)
Labor force: 41,680 (1991 est.)
Labor force -
by occupation:
agriculture: 26%
industry: 17%
services: 57% (1980 est.)
Unemployment
rate:
15% (2001 est.)
Population
below poverty
line:
NA%
Household
income or
consumption
by percentage
share:
lowest 10%: NA%
highest 10%: NA%
Inflation rate
(consumer
prices):
1% (2005 est.)
Budget: revenues: $94.6 million
expenditures: $85.8 million;
including capital expenditures of
$NA (2000 est.)
Agriculture -
products:
bananas, coconuts, sweet
potatoes, spices; small numbers
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2776
of cattle, sheep, pigs, goats; fish
Industries: food processing, cement,
furniture, clothing, starch
Industrial
production
growth rate:
-0.9% (1997 est.)
Electricity -
production:
114 million kWh (2004)
Electricity -
production by
source:
fossil fuel: 69.3%
hydro: 30.7%
nuclear: 0%
other: 0% (2001)
Electricity -
consumption:
106 million kWh (2004)
Electricity -
exports:
0 kWh (2004)
Electricity -
imports:
0 kWh (2004)
Oil -
production:
0 bbl/day (2004 est.)
Oil -
consumption:
1,400 bbl/day (2004 est.)
Oil - exports: NA bbl/day
Oil - imports: NA bbl/day
Natural gas -
production:
0 cu m (2004 est.)
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Natural gas -
consumption:
0 cu m (2004 est.)
Exports: $37 million (2004 est.)
Exports -
commodities:
bananas 39%, eddoes and
dasheen (taro), arrowroot starch;
tennis racquets
Exports -
partners:
UK 26.7%, Barbados 12.7%,
Trinidad and Tobago 12.3%, Saint
Lucia 10.9%, US 9.2%, Dominica
7.2%, Grenada 6.8%, Antigua and
Barbuda 6.2% (2005)
Imports: $225 million (2004 est.)
Imports -
commodities:
foodstuffs, machinery and
equipment, chemicals and
fertilizers, minerals and fuels
Imports -
partners:
US 33.3%, Trinidad and Tobago
23.6%, UK 9.4%, Japan 4.2%
(2005)
Debt -
external:
$223 million (2004)
Economic aid -
recipient:
$10.5 million (1995); note - EU
$34.5 million (2004)
Currency
(code):
East Caribbean dollar (XCD)
Currency
code:
XCD
Exchange East Caribbean dollars per US
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rates: dollar - 2.7 (2006), 2.7 (2005), 2.7
(2004), 2.7 (2003), 2.7 (2002)
Fiscal year: calendar year
Communications
Saint Vincent and the
Grenadines
Telephones
- main lines
in use:
22,500 (2005)
Telephones
- mobile
cellular:
70,600 (2005)
Telephone
system:
general assessment: adequate
system
domestic: islandwide, fully automatic
telephone system; VHF/UHF
radiotelephone from Saint Vincent to
the other islands of the Grenadines
international: country code - 1-784;
VHF/UHF radiotelephone from Saint
Vincent to Barbados; new SHF
radiotelephone to Grenada and to
Saint Lucia; access to Intelsat earth
station in Martinique through Saint
Lucia
Radio
broadcast
stations:
AM 1, FM 6, shortwave 0 (2004)
Radios: 77,000 (1997)
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Television
broadcast
stations:
1 (plus 3 repeaters) (2004)
Televisions: 18,000 (1997)
Internet
country
code:
.vc
Internet
hosts:
94 (2006)
Internet
Service
Providers
(ISPs):
15 (2000)
Internet
users:
8,000 (2005)
Transportation Saint Vincent and the Grenadines
Airports: 6 (2006)
Airports -
with
paved
runways:
total: 5
914 to 1,523 m: 4
under 914 m: 1 (2006)
Airports -
with
unpaved
runways:
total: 1
under 914 m: 1 (2006)
Roadways: total: 829 km
paved: 580 km
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unpaved: 249 km (2003)
Merchant
marine:
total: 589 ships (1000 GRT or over)
5,449,699 GRT/8,051,250 DWT
by type: bulk carrier 106, cargo 351,
chemical tanker 5, container 20,
liquefied gas 7, livestock carrier 1,
passenger 5, passenger/cargo 15,
petroleum tanker 18, refrigerated
cargo 38, roll on/roll off 20,
specialized tanker 3
foreign-owned: 529 (Bangladesh 1,
Barbados 1, Belgium 3, Bulgaria 17,
Canada 6, China 103, Croatia 9,
Cyprus 1, Czech Republic 1, Denmark
14, Egypt 3, Estonia 25, France 8,
Germany 8, Greece 82, Guyana 3,
Hong Kong 6, Iceland 10, India 6, Iran
1, Ireland 1, Israel 2, Italy 18, Kenya
2, Latvia 18, Lebanon 4, Lithuania 3,
Monaco 4, Montenegro 2, Netherlands
5, Norway 16, Pakistan 1, Poland 1,
Puerto Rico 1, Romania 1, Russia 29,
Singapore 5, Slovenia 5, Sweden 1,
Switzerland 13, Syria 6, Turkey 25,
UAE 11, UK 13, Ukraine 12, US 21,
Vietnam 1)
registered in other countries: 1
(Comoros 1) (2006)
Ports and
terminals:
Kingstown
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Military Saint Vincent and the Grenadines
Military
branches:
no regular military forces; Royal
Saint Vincent and the Grenadines
Police Force (includes Special
Service Unit), Coast Guard (2005)
Manpower
available for
military
service:
males age 18-49: 31,489 (2005 est.)
Manpower fit
for military
service:
males age 18-49: 25,787 (2005 est.)
Manpower
reaching
military
service age
annually:
males age 18-49: 1,204 (2005 est.)
Military
expenditures
- percent of
GDP:
NA
Transnational
Issues
Saint Vincent and the Grenadines
Disputes -
international:
joins other Caribbean states to
counter Venezuela's claim that
Aves Island sustains human
habitation, a criterion under
UNCLOS, which permits Venezuela
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to extend its EEZ/continental shelf
over a large portion of the eastern
Caribbean Sea
Illicit drugs: transshipment point for South
American drugs destined for the US
and Europe; small-scale cannabis
cultivation
SURINAME
Introduction Suriname
Background: First explored by the Spaniards in
the 16th century and then settled by
the English in the mid-17th century,
Suriname became a Dutch colony in
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1667. With the abolition of slavery in
1863, workers were brought in from
India and Java. Independence from
the Netherlands was granted in
1975. Five years later the civilian
government was replaced by a
military regime that soon declared a
socialist republic. It continued to
exert control through a succession
of nominally civilian administrations
until 1987, when international
pressure finally forced a democratic
election. In 1990, the military
overthrew the civilian leadership,
but a democratically elected
government - a four-party New Front
coalition - returned to power in 1991
and has ruled since, expanding to
eight parties in 2005.
Geography Suriname
Location: Northern South America, bordering
the North Atlantic Ocean, between
French Guiana and Guyana
Geographic
coordinates:
4 00 N, 56 00 W
Map
references:
South America
Area: total: 163,270 sq km
land: 161,470 sq km
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water: 1,800 sq km
Area -
comparative:
slightly larger than Georgia
Land
boundaries:
total: 1,703 km
border countries: Brazil 593 km,
French Guiana 510 km, Guyana 600
km
Coastline: 386 km
Maritime
claims:
territorial sea: 12 nm
exclusive economic zone: 200 nm
Climate: tropical; moderated by trade winds
Terrain: mostly rolling hills; narrow coastal
plain with swamps
Elevation
extremes:
lowest point: unnamed location in
the coastal plain -2 m
highest point: Juliana Top 1,230 m
Natural
resources:
timber, hydropower, fish, kaolin,
shrimp, bauxite, gold, and small
amounts of nickel, copper,
platinum, iron ore
Land use: arable land: 0.36%
permanent crops: 0.06%
other: 99.58% (2005)
Irrigated
land:
510 sq km (2003)
Natural
hazards:
NA
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Environment
- current
issues:
deforestation as timber is cut for
export; pollution of inland
waterways by small-scale mining
activities
Environment
-
international
agreements:
party to: Biodiversity, Climate
Change, Desertification,
Endangered Species, Law of the
Sea, Marine Dumping, Ozone Layer
Protection, Ship Pollution, Tropical
Timber 94, Wetlands, Whaling
signed, but not ratified: none of the
selected agreements
Geography -
note:
smallest independent country on
South American continent; mostly
tropical rain forest; great diversity
of flora and fauna that, for the most
part, is increasingly threatened by
new development; relatively small
population, mostly along the coast
People Suriname
Population: 470,784 (July 2007 est.)
Age
structure:
0-14 years: 28% (male 67,088/female
64,949)
15-64 years: 65.7% (male
154,148/female 155,345)
65 years and over: 6.2% (male
12,726/female 16,528) (2007 est.)
Median
age:
total: 27.1 years
male: 26.7 years
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2786
female: 27.5 years (2007 est.)
Population
growth
rate:
1.103% (2007 est.)
Birth rate: 17.31 births/1,000 population (2007
est.)
Death rate: 5.5 deaths/1,000 population (2007
est.)
Net
migration
rate:
-0.78 migrant(s)/1,000 population
(2007 est.)
Sex ratio: at birth: 1.07 male(s)/female
under 15 years: 1.033 male(s)/female
15-64 years: 0.992 male(s)/female
65 years and over: 0.77
male(s)/female
total population: 0.988
male(s)/female (2007 est.)
Infant
mortality
rate:
total: 20.11 deaths/1,000 live births
male: 23.73 deaths/1,000 live births
female: 16.25 deaths/1,000 live births
(2007 est.)
Life
expectancy
at birth:
total population: 73.23 years
male: 70.52 years
female: 76.12 years (2007 est.)
Total
fertility
rate:
2.03 children born/woman (2007 est.)
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HIV/AIDS -
adult
prevalence
rate:
1.7% (2001 est.)
HIV/AIDS -
people
living with
HIV/AIDS:
5,200 (2001 est.)
HIV/AIDS -
deaths:
less than 500 (2003 est.)
Nationality: noun: Surinamer(s)
adjective: Surinamese
Ethnic
groups:
Hindustani (also known locally as
"East Indians"; their ancestors
emigrated from northern India in the
latter part of the 19th century) 37%,
Creole (mixed white and black) 31%,
Javanese 15%, "Maroons" (their
African ancestors were brought to
the country in the 17th and 18th
centuries as slaves and escaped to
the interior) 10%, Amerindian 2%,
Chinese 2%, white 1%, other 2%
Religions: Hindu 27.4%, Protestant 25.2%
(predominantly Moravian), Roman
Catholic 22.8%, Muslim 19.6%,
indigenous beliefs 5%
Languages: Dutch (official), English (widely
spoken), Sranang Tongo
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(Surinamese, sometimes called Taki-
Taki, is native language of Creoles
and much of the younger population
and is lingua franca among others),
Caribbean Hindustani (a dialect of
Hindi), Javanese
Literacy: definition: age 15 and over can read
and write
total population: 89.6%
male: 92%
female: 87.2% (2004 census)
Government Suriname
Country name: conventional long form: Republic
of Suriname
conventional short form: Suriname
local long form: Republiek
Suriname
local short form: Suriname
former: Netherlands Guiana,
Dutch Guiana
Government
type:
constitutional democracy
Capital: name: Paramaribo
geographic coordinates: 5 50 N,
55 10 W
time difference: UTC-3 (2 hours
ahead of Washington, DC during
Standard Time)
Administrative 10 districts (distrikten, singular -
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divisions: distrikt); Brokopondo,
Commewijne, Coronie, Marowijne,
Nickerie, Para, Paramaribo,
Saramacca, Sipaliwini, Wanica
Independence: 25 November 1975 (from the
Netherlands)
National
holiday:
Independence Day, 25 November
(1975)
Constitution: ratified 30 September 1987;
effective 30 October 1987
Legal system: based on Dutch legal system
incorporating French penal theory;
accepts compulsory ICJ
jurisdiction with reservations
Suffrage: 18 years of age; universal
Executive
branch:
chief of state: President Runaldo
Ronald VENETIAAN (since 12
August 2000); Vice President
Ramdien SARDJOE (since 3
August 2005); note - the president
is both the chief of state and head
of government
head of government: President
Runaldo Ronald VENETIAAN
(since 12 August 2000); Vice
President Ram SARDJOE (since 3
August 2005)
cabinet: Cabinet of Ministers
appointed by the president
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elections: president and vice
president elected by the National
Assembly or, if no presidential or
vice presidential candidate
receives a two-thirds
constitutional majority in the
National Assembly after two
votes, by a simple majority in the
larger United People's Assembly
(893 representatives from the
national, local, and regional
councils), for five-year terms (no
term limits); election last held on
25 May 2005 (next to be held in
2010)
election results: Runaldo Ronald
VENETIAAN reelected president;
percent of vote - Runaldo Ronald
VENETIAAN 62.9%, Rabin
PARMESSAR 35.4%, other 1.7%;
note - after two votes in the
parliament failed to secure a two-
thirds majority for a candidate,
the vote then went to a special
session of the United People's
Assembly on 3 August 2005
Legislative
branch:
unicameral National Assembly or
Nationale Assemblee (51 seats;
members are elected by popular
vote to serve five-year terms)
elections: last held on 25 May
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2791
2005 (next to be held in 2010)
election results: percent of vote
by party - NF 39.7%, NDP 22.2%,
VVV 13.8%, A-Com 7.2%, A-1
5.9%, other 11.2%; seats by party
- NF 23, NDP 15, VVV 5, A-Com 5,
A-1 3
Judicial
branch:
Cantonal Courts and a Court of
Justice as an appellate court
(justices are nominated for life)
Political
parties and
leaders:
Alternative-1 or A-1 (a coalition of
Amazone Party of Suriname or
APS [Kenneth VAN GENDEREN],
Democrats of the 21st Century or
D-21 [Soewarto MOESTADJA],
Nieuw Suriname or NS [Radjen
Nanan PANDAY], Political Wing of
the FAL or PVF [Jiwan SITAL],
Trefpunt 2000 or T-2000 [Arti
JESSURUN]); General Interior
Development Party or ABOP
[Ronnie BRUNSWIJK]; National
Democratic Party or NDP [Desire
BOUTERSE]; New Front for
Democracy and Development or
NF (a coalition which includes A-
Combination or A-Com,
Democratic Alternative 1991 or
DA-91, an independent, business-
oriented party [Winston
JESSURUN], National Party
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2792
Suriname or NPS [Ronald
VENETIAAN], United Reform Party
or VHP [Ramdien SARDJOE],
Pertjaja Luhur or PL [Salam Paul
SOMOHARDJO], Surinamese Labor
Party or SPA [Siegfried GILDS]);
Party for Democracy and
Development in Unity or DOE
[Marten SCHALKWIJK]; People's
Alliance for Progress or VVV (a
coalition of Democratic National
Platform 2000 or DNP-2000 [Jules
WIJDENBOSCH], Grassroots Party
for Renewal and Democracy or
BVD [Tjan GOBARDHAN], Party for
National Unity and Solidarity of
the Highest Order or KTPI [Willy
SOEMITA], Party for Progression,
Justice, and Perseverance or
PPRS [Renee KAIMAN],
Pendawalima or PL [Raymond
SAPOEN]); Progressive Laborers
and Farmers Union or PALU [Jim
HOK]; Progressive Political Party
or PPP [Surinder MUNGRA]; Seeka
[Paul ABENA]; Union of
Progressive Surinamers or UPS
[Sheoradj PANDAY]
Political
pressure
groups and
Association of Indigenous Village
Chiefs [Ricardo PANE];
Association of Saramaccan
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2793
leaders: Authorities or Maroon [Head
Captain WASE]; Women's
Parliament Forum or PVF [Iris
GILLIAD]
International
organization
participation:
ACP, Caricom, CSN, FAO, G-77,
IADB, IBRD, ICAO, ICRM, IDB,
IFAD, IFRCS, IHO (suspended),
ILO, IMF, IMO, Interpol, IOC, IPU,
ITU, ITUC, LAES, MIGA, NAM,
OAS, OIC, OPANAL, OPCW, PCA,
UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO,
UPU, WCL, WHO, WIPO, WMO,
WTO
Diplomatic
representation
in the US:
chief of mission: Ambassador
Jacques Ruben Constantijn
KROSS
chancery: Suite 460, 4301
Connecticut Avenue NW,
Washington, DC 20008
telephone: [1] (202) 244-7488
FAX: [1] (202) 244-5878
consulate(s) general: Miami
Diplomatic
representation
from the US:
chief of mission: Ambassador Lisa
Bobbie SCHREIBER HUGHES
embassy: Dr. Sophie
Redmondstraat 129, Paramaribo
mailing address: US Department
of State, 3390 Paramaribo Place,
Washington, DC, 20521-3390
telephone: [597] 472-900
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2794
FAX: [597] 425-690
Flag
description:
five horizontal bands of green
(top, double width), white, red
(quadruple width), white, and
green (double width); there is a
large, yellow, five-pointed star
centered in the red band
Economy Suriname
Economy -
overview:
The economy is dominated by the
mining industry, which accounts
for more than a third of GDP and
subjects government revenues to
mineral price volatility. The short-
term economic outlook depends
on the government's ability to
control inflation and on the
development of projects in the
bauxite and gold mining sectors.
Suriname's economic prospects
for the medium term will depend
on continued commitment to
responsible monetary and fiscal
policies and to the introduction of
structural reforms to liberalize
markets and promote
competition. The government of
Ronald VENETIAAN, in his first
term, implemented an austerity
program, raised taxes, and
attempted to control spending.
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2795
Economic policies are likely to
remain the same during
VENETIAAN's second term.
Prospects for local onshore oil
production are good as a drilling
program is underway. Offshore oil
drilling was given a boost in 2004
when the State Oil Company
(Staatsolie) signed exploration
agreements with Repsol, Maersk,
and Occidental. Bidding on these
new offshore blocks was
completed in July 2006.
GDP
(purchasing
power parity):
$3.136 billion (2006 est.)
GDP (official
exchange
rate):
$1.398 billion (2006 est.)
GDP - real
growth rate:
5% (2006 est.)
GDP - per
capita (PPP):
$7,100 (2006 est.)
GDP -
composition
by sector:
agriculture: 13%
industry: 22%
services: 65% (2001 est.)
Labor force: 156,700 (2004)
Labor force -
by occupation:
agriculture: 8%
industry: 14%
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services: 78% (2004)
Unemployment
rate:
9.5% (2004)
Population
below poverty
line:
70% (2002 est.)
Household
income or
consumption
by percentage
share:
lowest 10%: NA%
highest 10%: NA%
Inflation rate
(consumer
prices):
9.5% (2005 est.)
Budget: revenues: $392.6 million
expenditures: $425.9 million
(2004)
Agriculture -
products:
paddy rice, bananas, palm
kernels, coconuts, plantains,
peanuts; beef, chickens; shrimp;
forest products
Industries: bauxite and gold mining, alumina
production; oil, lumbering, food
processing, fishing
Industrial
production
growth rate:
6.5% (1994 est.)
Electricity - 1.509 billion kWh (2004)
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production:
Electricity -
production by
source:
fossil fuel: 25.2%
hydro: 74.8%
nuclear: 0%
other: 0% (2001)
Electricity -
consumption:
1.403 billion kWh (2004)
Electricity -
exports:
0 kWh (2004)
Electricity -
imports:
0 kWh (2004)
Oil -
production:
9,462 bbl/day (2004 est.)
Oil -
consumption:
11,200 bbl/day (2004 est.)
Oil - exports: 1,370 bbl/day (2003)
Oil - imports: 1,644 bbl/day (2003)
Oil - proved
reserves:
150 million bbl (2005)
Natural gas -
production:
0 cu m (2004 est.)
Natural gas -
consumption:
0 cu m (2004 est.)
Natural gas -
proved
reserves:
0 cu m (1 January 2005 est.)
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Exports: $881 million f.o.b. (2004 est.)
Exports -
commodities:
alumina, crude oil, lumber, shrimp
and fish, rice, bananas
Exports -
partners:
Norway 24%, US 16.8%, Canada
16.4%, Belgium 9.8%, France
8.1%, UAE 7.5% (2005)
Imports: $750 million f.o.b. (2004 est.)
Imports -
commodities:
capital equipment, petroleum,
foodstuffs, cotton, consumer
goods
Imports -
partners:
US 29.3%, Netherlands 17.5%,
Trinidad and Tobago 12.7%, China
6.5%, Japan 5.2%, Brazil 4.3%
(2005)
Debt -
external:
$504.3 million (2005 est.)
Economic aid -
recipient:
$46 million
note: Netherlands provided $37
million for project and program
assistance, European
Development Fund $4 million,
Belgium $2 million (2003)
Currency
(code):
Surinam dollar (SRD)
Currency
code:
SRG
Exchange Surinamese dollars per US dollar -
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rates: (2006), 2.7317 (2005), 2.7336
(2004), 2.6013 (2003), 2.3468
(2002)
note: during 1998, the exchange
rate splintered into four distinct
rates; in January 1999 the
government floated the guilder,
but subsequently fixed it when
the black-market rate plunged; in
January 2004, the government
replaced the guilder with the
Surinamese dollar, tied to a US
dollar-dominated currency basket
Fiscal year: calendar year
Communications Suriname
Telephones
- main lines
in use:
81,100 (2004)
Telephones
- mobile
cellular:
232,800 (2005)
Telephone
system:
general assessment: international
facilities are good
domestic: microwave radio relay
network
international: country code - 597;
satellite earth stations - 2 Intelsat
(Atlantic Ocean)
Radio AM 4, FM 13, shortwave 1 (1998)
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broadcast
stations:
Radios: 300,000 (1997)
Television
broadcast
stations:
3 (plus 7 repeaters) (2000)
Televisions: 63,000 (1997)
Internet
country
code:
.sr
Internet
hosts:
126 (2006)
Internet
Service
Providers
(ISPs):
2 (2000)
Internet
users:
30,000 (2005)
Transportation Suriname
Airports: 47 (2006)
Airports -
with paved
runways:
total: 5
over 3,047 m: 1
under 914 m: 4 (2006)
Airports -
with
unpaved
runways:
total: 42
1,524 to 2,437 m: 1
914 to 1,523 m: 5
under 914 m: 36 (2006)
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Pipelines: oil 51 km (2006)
Roadways: total: 4,304 km
paved: 1,130 km
unpaved: 3,174 km (2003)
Waterways: 1,200 km (most navigable by ships
with drafts up to 7 m) (2005)
Merchant
marine:
total: 1 ship (1000 GRT or over) 1,078
GRT/1,214 DWT
by type: cargo 1 (2006)
Ports and
terminals:
Paramaribo
Military Suriname
Military
branches:
National Army (includes Naval Wing,
Air Wing) (2007)
Military
service age
and
obligation:
18 years of age (est.); no
conscription
Manpower
available for
military
service:
males age 18-49: 111,582
females age 18-49: 103,769 (2005
est.)
Manpower fit
for military
service:
males age 18-49: 77,793
females age 18-49: 72,943 (2005
est.)
Military
expenditures
0.6% (2006 est.)
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- percent of
GDP:
Transnational
Issues
Suriname
Disputes -
international:
area claimed by French Guiana
between Riviere Litani and Riviere
Marouini (both headwaters of the
Lawa); Suriname claims a triangle
of land between the New and
Kutari/Koetari rivers in a historic
dispute over the headwaters of the
Courantyne; Guyana seeks United
Nations Convention on the Law of
the Sea (UNCLOS) arbitration to
resolve the long-standing dispute
with Suriname over the axis of the
territorial sea boundary in
potentially oil-rich waters
Illicit drugs: growing transshipment point for
South American drugs destined for
Europe via the Netherlands and
Brazil; transshipment point for
arms-for-drugs dealing
TRINDAD TOBAGO
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Introduction Trinidad and Tobago
Background: First colonized by the Spanish, the
islands came under British control in
the early 19th century. The islands'
sugar industry was hurt by the
emancipation of the slaves in 1834.
Manpower was replaced with the
importation of contract laborers
from India between 1845 and 1917,
which boosted sugar production as
well as the cocoa industry. The
discovery of oil on Trinidad in 1910
added another important export.
Independence was attained in 1962.
The country is one of the most
prosperous in the Caribbean thanks
largely to petroleum and natural gas
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2804
production and processing. Tourism,
mostly in Tobago, is targeted for
expansion and is growing.
Geography Trinidad and Tobago
Location: Caribbean, islands between the
Caribbean Sea and the North
Atlantic Ocean, northeast of
Venezuela
Geographic
coordinates:
11 00 N, 61 00 W
Map
references:
Central America and the Caribbean
Area: total: 5,128 sq km
land: 5,128 sq km
water: 0 sq km
Area -
comparative:
slightly smaller than Delaware
Land
boundaries:
0 km
Coastline: 362 km
Maritime
claims:
measured from claimed
archipelagic baselines
territorial sea: 12 nm
contiguous zone: 24 nm
exclusive economic zone: 200 nm
continental shelf: 200 nm or to the
outer edge of the continental
margin
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Climate: tropical; rainy season (June to
December)
Terrain: mostly plains with some hills and
low mountains
Elevation
extremes:
lowest point: Caribbean Sea 0 m
highest point: El Cerro del Aripo 940
m
Natural
resources:
petroleum, natural gas, asphalt
Land use: arable land: 14.62%
permanent crops: 9.16%
other: 76.22% (2005)
Irrigated
land:
40 sq km (2003)
Natural
hazards:
outside usual path of hurricanes
and other tropical storms
Environment
- current
issues:
water pollution from agricultural
chemicals, industrial wastes, and
raw sewage; oil pollution of
beaches; deforestation; soil erosion
Environment
-
international
agreements:
party to: Biodiversity, Climate
Change, Climate Change-Kyoto
Protocol, Desertification,
Endangered Species, Hazardous
Wastes, Law of the Sea, Marine
Dumping, Marine Life Conservation,
Ozone Layer Protection, Ship
Pollution, Tropical Timber 83,
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2806
Tropical Timber 94, Wetlands
signed, but not ratified: none of the
selected agreements
Geography -
note:
Pitch Lake, on Trinidad's
southwestern coast, is the world's
largest natural reservoir of asphalt
People Trinidad and Tobago
Population: 1,056,608 (July 2007 est.)
Age
structure:
0-14 years: 19.5% (male
105,994/female 100,156)
15-64 years: 71.6% (male
397,699/female 358,755)
65 years and over: 8.9% (male
42,039/female 51,965) (2007 est.)
Median
age:
total: 31.8 years
male: 31.3 years
female: 32.3 years (2007 est.)
Population
growth
rate:
-0.883% (2007 est.)
Birth rate: 13.07 births/1,000 population (2007
est.)
Death rate: 10.76 deaths/1,000 population (2007
est.)
Net
migration
rate:
-11.13 migrant(s)/1,000 population
(2007 est.)
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Sex ratio: at birth: 1.05 male(s)/female
under 15 years: 1.058 male(s)/female
15-64 years: 1.109 male(s)/female
65 years and over: 0.809
male(s)/female
total population: 1.068
male(s)/female (2007 est.)
Infant
mortality
rate:
total: 24.33 deaths/1,000 live births
male: 26.15 deaths/1,000 live births
female: 22.43 deaths/1,000 live births
(2007 est.)
Life
expectancy
at birth:
total population: 66.85 years
male: 65.87 years
female: 67.87 years (2007 est.)
Total
fertility
rate:
1.74 children born/woman (2007 est.)
HIV/AIDS -
adult
prevalence
rate:
3.2% (2003 est.)
HIV/AIDS -
people
living with
HIV/AIDS:
29,000 (2003 est.)
HIV/AIDS -
deaths:
1,900 (2003 est.)
Nationality: noun: Trinidadian(s), Tobagonian(s)
adjective: Trinidadian, Tobagonian
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Ethnic
groups:
Indian (South Asian) 40%, African
37.5%, mixed 20.5%, other 1.2%,
unspecified 0.8% (2000 census)
Religions: Roman Catholic 26%, Hindu 22.5%,
Anglican 7.8%, Baptist 7.2%,
Pentecostal 6.8%, Muslim 5.8%,
Seventh Day Adventist 4%, other
Christian 5.8%, other 10.8%,
unspecified 1.4%, none 1.9% (2000
census)
Languages: English (official), Caribbean
Hindustani (a dialect of Hindi),
French, Spanish, Chinese
Literacy: definition: age 15 and over can read
and write
total population: 98.6%
male: 99.1%
female: 98% (2003 est.)
Government Trinidad and Tobago
Country name: conventional long form: Republic
of Trinidad and Tobago
conventional short form: Trinidad
and Tobago
Government
type:
parliamentary democracy
Capital: name: Port-of-Spain
geographic coordinates: 10 39 N,
61 31 W
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2809
time difference: UTC-4 (1 hour
ahead of Washington, DC during
Standard Time)
Administrative
divisions:
9 regional corporations, 2 city
corporations, 3 borough
corporations, 1 ward
regional corporations:
Couva/Tabaquite/Talparo, Diego
Martin, Mayaro/Rio Claro,
Penal/Debe, Princes Town, Sangre
Grande, San Juan/Laventille,
Siparia, Tunapuna/Piarco
city corporations: Port-of-Spain,
San Fernando
borough corporations: Arima,
Chaguanas, Point Fortin
ward: Tobago
Independence: 31 August 1962 (from UK)
National
holiday:
Independence Day, 31 August
(1962)
Constitution: 1 August 1976
Legal system: based on English common law;
judicial review of legislative acts
in the Supreme Court; has not
accepted compulsory ICJ
jurisdiction
Suffrage: 18 years of age; universal
Executive
branch:
chief of state: President George
Maxwell RICHARDS (since 17
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2810
March 2003)
head of government: Prime
Minister Patrick MANNING (since
24 December 2001)
cabinet: Cabinet appointed from
among the members of Parliament
elections: president elected by an
electoral college, which consists
of the members of the Senate and
House of Representatives, for a
five-year term (eligible for a
second term); election last held
on 14 February 2003 (next to be
held by January 2008); the
president usually appoints as
prime minister the leader of the
majority party in the House of
Representatives
election results: George Maxwell
RICHARDS elected president;
percent of electoral college vote -
43%
Legislative
branch:
bicameral Parliament consists of
the Senate (31 seats; 16 members
appointed by the ruling party, nine
by the President, six by the
opposition party to serve a
maximum term of five years) and
the House of Representatives (36
seats; members are elected by
popular vote to serve five-year
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2811
terms)
elections: House of
Representatives - last held on 7
October 2002 (next to be held by
October 2007)
election results: House of
Representatives - percent of vote -
PNM 55.5%, UNC 44.5%; seats by
party - PNM 20, UNC 16
note: Tobago has a unicameral
House of Assembly with 12
members serving four-year terms;
last election held in January 2005;
seats by party - PNM 11, DAC 1
Judicial
branch:
Supreme Court of Judicature
(comprised of the High Court of
Justice and the Court of Appeals;
the chief justice is appointed by
the president after consultation
with the prime minister and the
leader of the opposition; other
justices are appointed by the
president on the advice of the
Judicial and Legal Service
Commission); High Court of
Justice; Caribbean Court of
Appeals member; Court of
Appeals; the highest court of
appeal is the Privy Council in
London
Political Congress of the People [Winston
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2812
parties and
leaders:
DOOKERAN]; Democratic National
Alliance or DNA [Gerald YETMING]
(coalition of NAR, DDPT, MND);
Movement for National
Development or MND [Garvin
NICHOLAS]; National Alliance for
Reconstruction or NAR [Dr.
Carson CHARLES]; People's
National Movement or PNM
[Patrick MANNING]; United
National Congress or UNC
[Basdeo PANDAY]; Democratic
Action Congress or DAC [Hochoy
CHARLES] (only active in Tobago)
Political
pressure
groups and
leaders:
Jamaat-al Muslimeen [Yasin
BAKR]
International
organization
participation:
ACP, C, Caricom, CDB, FAO, G-24,
G-77, IADB, IBRD, ICAO, ICCt,
ICRM, IDA, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, IHO,
ILO, IMF, IMO, Interpol, IOC, ISO,
ITU, ITUC, LAES, MIGA, NAM,
OAS, OPANAL, OPCW, UN,
UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, UPU,
WCL, WCO, WFTU, WHO, WIPO,
WMO, WTO
Diplomatic
representation
in the US:
chief of mission: Ambassador
Marina Annette VALERE
chancery: 1708 Massachusetts
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Avenue NW, Washington, DC
20036
telephone: [1] (202) 467-6490
FAX: [1] (202) 785-3130
consulate(s) general: Miami, New
York
Diplomatic
representation
from the US:
chief of mission: Ambassador Roy
L. AUSTIN
embassy: 15 Queen's Park West,
Port-of-Spain
mailing address: P. O. Box 752,
Port-of-Spain
telephone: [1] (868) 622-6371
through 6376
FAX: [1] (868) 628-5462
Flag
description:
red with a white-edged black
diagonal band from the upper
hoist side to the lower fly side
Economy Trinidad and Tobago
Economy -
overview:
Trinidad and Tobago, the leading
Caribbean producer of oil and gas,
has earned a reputation as an
excellent investment site for
international businesses. Tourism
is a growing sector, although it is
not proportionately as important
as in many other Caribbean
islands. The economy benefits
from a growing trade surplus.
Economic growth in 2006 reached
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12.6% as prices for oil,
petrochemicals, and liquefied
natural gas remained high, and
foreign direct investment
continued to grow to support
expanded capacity in the energy
sector. The government is coping
with a rise in violent crime.
GDP
(purchasing
power parity):
$21.12 billion (2006 est.)
GDP (official
exchange
rate):
$14.9 billion (2006 est.)
GDP - real
growth rate:
11.9% (2006 est.)
GDP - per
capita (PPP):
$19,800 (2006 est.)
GDP -
composition
by sector:
agriculture: 0.7%
industry: 57.7%
services: 41.5% (2006 est.)
Labor force: 618,000 (2006 est.)
Labor force -
by occupation:
agriculture 9.5%, manufacturing,
mining, and quarrying 14%,
construction and utilities 12.4%,
services 64.1% (1997 est.)
Unemployment
rate:
7% (2006 est.)
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Population
below poverty
line:
21% (1992 est.)
Household
income or
consumption
by percentage
share:
lowest 10%: NA%
highest 10%: NA%
Inflation rate
(consumer
prices):
8% (2006 est.)
Investment
(gross fixed):
19.1% of GDP (2006 est.)
Budget: revenues: $6.591 billion
expenditures: $5.649 billion;
including capital expenditures of
$117.3 million (2006 est.)
Public debt: 36.6% of GDP (2006 est.)
Agriculture -
products:
cocoa, rice, citrus, coffee,
vegetables; poultry
Industries: petroleum, chemicals, tourism,
food processing, cement,
beverage, cotton textiles
Industrial
production
growth rate:
17% (2006 est.)
Electricity -
production:
6.049 billion kWh (2004)
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Electricity -
production by
source:
fossil fuel: 99.8%
hydro: 0%
nuclear: 0%
other: 0.2% (2001)
Electricity -
consumption:
5.626 billion kWh (2004)
Electricity -
exports:
0 kWh (2004)
Electricity -
imports:
0 kWh (2004)
Oil -
production:
150,000 bbl/day (2005 est.)
Oil -
consumption:
34,000 bbl/day (2004 est.)
Oil - exports: NA bbl/day
Oil - imports: NA bbl/day
Oil - proved
reserves:
990 million bbl (1 January 2004)
Natural gas -
production:
28.09 billion cu m (2004 est.)
Natural gas -
consumption:
14.15 billion cu m (2004 est.)
Natural gas -
exports:
13.94 billion cu m (2004 est.)
Natural gas -
imports:
0 cu m (2004 est.)
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Natural gas -
proved
reserves:
733 billion cu m (1 January 2005
est.)
Current
account
balance:
$3.259 billion (2006 est.)
Exports: $12.5 billion f.o.b. (2006 est.)
Exports -
commodities:
petroleum and petroleum
products, chemicals, steel
products, fertilizer, sugar, cocoa,
coffee, citrus, flowers
Exports -
partners:
US 68.6%, Jamaica 5.4%,
Barbados 2.9% (2005)
Imports: $8.798 billion f.o.b. (2006 est.)
Imports -
commodities:
machinery, transportation
equipment, manufactured goods,
food, live animals
Imports -
partners:
US 27.2%, Venezuela 13.1%,
Brazil 13.1%, Japan 5.4%, Canada
4.1% (2005)
Reserves of
foreign
exchange and
gold:
$6.888 billion (2006 est.)
Debt -
external:
$2.838 billion (2006 est.)
Economic aid - $24 million (1999 est.)
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recipient:
Currency
(code):
Trinidad and Tobago dollar (TTD)
Currency
code:
TTD
Exchange
rates:
Trinidad and Tobago dollars per
US dollar - 6.3107 (2006), 6.2842
(2005), 6.299 (2004), 6.2951
(2003), 6.2487 (2002)
Fiscal year: 1 October - 30 September
Communications Trinidad and Tobago
Telephones
- main lines
in use:
323,500 (2005)
Telephones
- mobile
cellular:
800,000 (2005)
Telephone
system:
general assessment: excellent
international service; good local
service
domestic: NA
international: country code - 1-868;
satellite earth station - 1 Intelsat
(Atlantic Ocean); tropospheric
scatter to Barbados and Guyana
Radio
broadcast
stations:
AM 4, FM 18, shortwave 0 (2001)
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Radios: 680,000 (1997)
Television
broadcast
stations:
6 (2005)
Televisions: 425,000 (1997)
Internet
country
code:
.tt
Internet
hosts:
30,732 (2006)
Internet
Service
Providers
(ISPs):
17 (2000)
Internet
users:
160,000 (2005)
Transportation Trinidad and Tobago
Airports: 6 (2006)
Airports -
with
paved
runways:
total: 3
over 3,047 m: 1
2,438 to 3,047 m: 1
1,524 to 2,437 m: 1 (2006)
Airports -
with
unpaved
runways:
total: 3
914 to 1,523 m: 1
under 914 m: 2 (2006)
Pipelines: condensate 253 km; gas 1,278 km; oil
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571 km (2006)
Roadways: total: 8,320 km
paved: 4,252 km
unpaved: 4,068 km (1999)
Merchant
marine:
total: 8 ships (1000 GRT or over)
16,760 GRT/7,941 DWT
by type: liquefied gas 1, passenger 2,
passenger/cargo 3, petroleum tanker
2
foreign-owned: 1 (US 1)
registered in other countries: 1
(Panama 1) (2006)
Ports and
terminals:
Pointe-a-Pierre, Point Lisas, Port-of-
Spain
Military Trinidad and Tobago
Military
branches:
Trinidad and Tobago Defense Force:
Ground Force, Coast Guard
(includes air wing) (2004)
Military
service age
and
obligation:
18 years of age for voluntary
military service; no conscription
(2001)
Manpower
available for
military
service:
males age 18-49: 290,715
females age 18-49: 258,410 (2005
est.)
Manpower fit
for military
males age 18-49: 202,958
females age 18-49: 173,797 (2005
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service: est.)
Military
expenditures
- percent of
GDP:
0.3% (2006)
Transnational
Issues
Trinidad and Tobago
Disputes -
international:
in April 2006, the Permanent Court
of Arbitration issued a decision that
delimited a maritime boundary with
Trinidad and Tobago and compelled
Barbados to enter a fishing
agreement that limited Barbadian
fishermen's catches of flying fish in
Trinidad and Tobago's exclusive
economic zone; in 2005, Barbados
and Trinidad and Tobago agreed to
compulsory international
arbitration under UNCLOS
challenging whether the northern
limit of Trinidad and Tobago's and
Venezuela's maritime boundary
extends into Barbadian waters;
Guyana has also expressed its
intention to include itself in the
arbitration as the Trinidad and
Tobago-Venezuela maritime
boundary may extend into its
waters as well
Illicit drugs: transshipment point for South
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American drugs destined for the US
and Europe; producer of cannabis
TURKS CAICOS
Introduction Turks and Caicos Islands
Background: The islands were part of the UK's
Jamaican colony until 1962, when
they assumed the status of a
separate crown colony upon
Jamaica's independence. The
governor of The Bahamas oversaw
affairs from 1965 to 1973. With
Bahamian independence, the islands
received a separate governor in
1973. Although independence was
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2823
agreed upon for 1982, the policy
was reversed and the islands remain
a British overseas territory.
Geography Turks and Caicos Islands
Location: Caribbean, two island groups in the
North Atlantic Ocean, southeast of
The Bahamas, north of Haiti
Geographic
coordinates:
21 45 N, 71 35 W
Map
references:
Central America and the Caribbean
Area: total: 430 sq km
land: 430 sq km
water: 0 sq km
Area -
comparative:
2.5 times the size of Washington,
DC
Land
boundaries:
0 km
Coastline: 389 km
Maritime
claims:
territorial sea: 12 nm
exclusive fishing zone: 200 nm
Climate: tropical; marine; moderated by
trade winds; sunny and relatively
dry
Terrain: low, flat limestone; extensive
marshes and mangrove swamps
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Elevation
extremes:
lowest point: Caribbean Sea 0 m
highest point: Blue Hills 49 m
Natural
resources:
spiny lobster, conch
Land use: arable land: 2.33%
permanent crops: 0%
other: 97.67% (2005)
Irrigated
land:
NA
Natural
hazards:
frequent hurricanes
Environment
- current
issues:
limited natural fresh water
resources, private cisterns collect
rainwater
Geography -
note:
about 40 islands (eight inhabited)
People Turks and Caicos Islands
Population: 21,746 (July 2007 est.)
Age
structure:
0-14 years: 31.3% (male 3,466/female
3,345)
15-64 years: 64.8% (male
7,398/female 6,690)
65 years and over: 3.9% (male
394/female 453) (2007 est.)
Median
age:
total: 27.7 years
male: 28.4 years
female: 26.9 years (2007 est.)
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Population
growth
rate:
2.722% (2007 est.)
Birth rate: 21.48 births/1,000 population (2007
est.)
Death rate: 4.23 deaths/1,000 population (2007
est.)
Net
migration
rate:
9.98 migrant(s)/1,000 population
(2007 est.)
Sex ratio: at birth: 1.05 male(s)/female
under 15 years: 1.036 male(s)/female
15-64 years: 1.106 male(s)/female
65 years and over: 0.87
male(s)/female
total population: 1.073
male(s)/female (2007 est.)
Infant
mortality
rate:
total: 14.7 deaths/1,000 live births
male: 17 deaths/1,000 live births
female: 12.29 deaths/1,000 live births
(2007 est.)
Life
expectancy
at birth:
total population: 74.95 years
male: 72.69 years
female: 77.32 years (2007 est.)
Total
fertility
rate:
3.02 children born/woman (2007 est.)
HIV/AIDS - NA
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adult
prevalence
rate:
HIV/AIDS -
people
living with
HIV/AIDS:
NA
HIV/AIDS -
deaths:
NA
Nationality: noun: none
adjective: none
Ethnic
groups:
black 90%, mixed, European, or
North American 10%
Religions: Baptist 40%, Anglican 18%,
Methodist 16%, Church of God 12%,
other 14% (1990)
Languages: English (official)
Literacy: definition: age 15 and over has ever
attended school
total population: 98%
male: 99%
female: 98% (1970 est.)
People -
note:
destination and transit point for
illegal Haitian immigrants bound for
the Turks and Caicos Islands, The
Bahamas, and the US
Government Turks and Caicos Islands
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Country name: conventional long form: none
conventional short form: Turks
and Caicos Islands
abbreviation: TCI
Dependency
status:
overseas territory of the UK
Government
type:
NA
Capital: name: Grand Turk (Cockburn
Town)
geographic coordinates: 21 28 N,
71 08 W
time difference: UTC-5 (same time
as Washington, DC during
Standard Time)
daylight saving time: +1hr, begins
first Sunday in April; ends last
Sunday in October
Administrative
divisions:
none (overseas territory of the
UK)
Independence: none (overseas territory of the
UK)
National
holiday:
Constitution Day, 30 August
(1976)
Constitution: Turks and Caicos Islands
Constitution Order 2006 (effective
9 August 2006)
Legal system: based on laws of England and
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Wales, with a few adopted from
Jamaica and The Bahamas
Suffrage: 18 years of age; universal
Executive
branch:
chief of state: Queen ELIZABETH
II (since 6 February 1952);
represented by Governor Richard
TAUWHARE (since 11 July 2005)
head of government: Premier
Michael Eugene MISICK (since 15
August 2003); note - the office of
premier was created in the 2006
constitution
cabinet: Cabinet consists of the
governor, the premier, six
ministers appointed by the
governor from among the
members of the House of
Assembly, and the attorney
general
elections: none; the monarch is
hereditary; governor appointed by
the monarch; following legislative
elections, the leader of the
majority party is appointed
premier by the governor
Legislative
branch:
unicameral House of Assembly (21
seats of which 15 are popularly
elected; members serve four-year
terms)
elections: last held 9 February
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2829
2007 (next to be held in 2011)
election results: percent of vote
by party - PNP 60%, PDM 40%;
seats by party - PNP 13, PDM 2
Judicial
branch:
Supreme Court; Court of Appeal
Political
parties and
leaders:
People's Democratic Movement or
PDM [Floyd SEYMOUR];
Progressive National Party or PNP
[Michael Eugene MISICK]
Political
pressure
groups and
leaders:
NA
International
organization
participation:
Caricom (associate), CDB, Interpol
(subbureau), UPU
Diplomatic
representation
in the US:
none (overseas territory of the
UK)
Diplomatic
representation
from the US:
none (overseas territory of the
UK)
Flag
description:
blue, with the flag of the UK in the
upper hoist-side quadrant and the
colonial shield centered on the
outer half of the flag; the shield is
yellow and contains a conch shell,
lobster, and cactus
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Economy Turks and Caicos Islands
Economy -
overview:
The Turks and Caicos economy is
based on tourism, offshore
financial services, and fishing.
Most capital goods and food for
domestic consumption are
imported. The US is the leading
source of tourists, accounting for
more than three-quarters of the
175,000 visitors that arrived in
2004. Major sources of
government revenue also include
fees from offshore financial
activities and customs receipts.
GDP
(purchasing
power parity):
$216 million (2002 est.)
GDP (official
exchange
rate):
NA
GDP - real
growth rate:
4.9% (2000 est.)
GDP - per
capita (PPP):
$11,500 (2002 est.)
GDP -
composition
by sector:
agriculture: NA%
industry: NA%
services: NA%
Labor force: 4,848 (1990 est.)
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Labor force -
by occupation:
note: about 33% in government
and 20% in agriculture and
fishing; significant numbers in
tourism, financial, and other
services
Unemployment
rate:
10% (1997 est.)
Population
below poverty
line:
NA%
Household
income or
consumption
by percentage
share:
lowest 10%: NA%
highest 10%: NA%
Inflation rate
(consumer
prices):
4% (1995)
Budget: revenues: $47 million
expenditures: $33.6 million;
including capital expenditures of
$NA (1997-98 est.)
Agriculture -
products:
corn, beans, cassava (tapioca),
citrus fruits; fish
Industries: tourism, offshore financial
services
Industrial
production
NA%
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2832
growth rate:
Electricity -
production:
7 million kWh (2004)
Electricity -
production by
source:
fossil fuel: 100%
hydro: 0%
nuclear: 0%
other: 0% (2001)
Electricity -
consumption:
6.51 million kWh (2004)
Electricity -
exports:
0 kWh (2004)
Electricity -
imports:
0 kWh (2004)
Oil -
production:
0 bbl/day (2004 est.)
Oil -
consumption:
80 bbl/day (2004 est.)
Oil - exports: NA bbl/day
Oil - imports: NA bbl/day
Natural gas -
production:
0 cu m (2004 est.)
Natural gas -
consumption:
0 cu m (2004 est.)
Exports: $169.2 million (2000)
Exports -
commodities:
lobster, dried and fresh conch,
conch shells
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2833
Exports -
partners:
US, UK (2004)
Imports: $175.6 million (2000)
Imports -
commodities:
food and beverages, tobacco,
clothing, manufactures,
construction materials
Imports -
partners:
US, UK (2004)
Debt -
external:
$NA
Economic aid -
recipient:
$4.1 million (1997)
Currency
(code):
US dollar (USD)
Currency
code:
USD
Exchange
rates:
the US dollar is used
Fiscal year: calendar year
Communications Turks and Caicos Islands
Telephones
- main lines
in use:
5,700 (2002)
Telephones
- mobile
cellular:
1,700 (1999)
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2834
Telephone
system:
general assessment: fully digital
system with international direct
dialing
domestic: full range of services
available; GSM wireless service
available
international: country code - 1-649; 2
submarine cables; satellite earth
station - 1 Intelsat (Atlantic Ocean)
Radio
broadcast
stations:
AM 2, FM 7, shortwave 0 (2003)
Radios: 8,000 (1997)
Television
broadcast
stations:
0 (broadcasts received from The
Bahamas; 2 cable television
networks) (2003)
Televisions: NA
Internet
country
code:
.tc
Internet
hosts:
2,735 (2006)
Internet
Service
Providers
(ISPs):
14 (2000)
Internet
users:
NA
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Transportation Turks and Caicos Islands
Airports: 8 (2006)
Airports -
with
paved
runways:
total: 6
1,524 to 2,437 m: 3
914 to 1,523 m: 1
under 914 m: 2 (2006)
Airports -
with
unpaved
runways:
total: 2
under 914 m: 2 (2006)
Roadways: total: 121 km
paved: 24 km
unpaved: 97 km (2003)
Ports and
terminals:
Grand Turk, Providenciales
Military Turks and Caicos Islands
Military -
note:
defense is the responsibility of the UK
Transnational
Issues
Turks and Caicos Islands
Disputes -
international:
have received Haitians fleeing
economic and civil disorder
Illicit drugs: transshipment point for South
American narcotics destined for
the US and Europe
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2836
VIRGINS ISLANDS
Introduction Virgin Islands
Background: During the 17th century, the
archipelago was divided into two
territorial units, one English and the
other Danish. Sugarcane, produced
by slave labor, drove the islands'
economy during the 18th and early
19th centuries. In 1917, the US
purchased the Danish portion, which
had been in economic decline since
the abolition of slavery in 1848.
Geography Virgin Islands
Location: Caribbean, islands between the
Caribbean Sea and the North
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2837
Atlantic Ocean, east of Puerto Rico
Geographic
coordinates:
18 20 N, 64 50 W
Map
references:
Central America and the Caribbean
Area: total: 1,910 sq km
land: 346 sq km
water: 1,564 sq km
Area -
comparative:
twice the size of Washington, DC
Land
boundaries:
0 km
Coastline: 188 km
Maritime
claims:
territorial sea: 12 nm
exclusive economic zone: 200 nm
Climate: subtropical, tempered by easterly
trade winds, relatively low humidity,
little seasonal temperature
variation; rainy season September
to November
Terrain: mostly hilly to rugged and
mountainous with little level land
Elevation
extremes:
lowest point: Caribbean Sea 0 m
highest point: Crown Mountain 475
m
Natural
resources:
sun, sand, sea, surf
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Land use: arable land: 5.71%
permanent crops: 2.86%
other: 91.43% (2005)
Irrigated
land:
NA
Natural
hazards:
several hurricanes in recent years;
frequent and severe droughts and
floods; occasional earthquakes
Environment
- current
issues:
lack of natural freshwater
resources
Geography -
note:
important location along the
Anegada Passage - a key shipping
lane for the Panama Canal; Saint
Thomas has one of the best natural
deepwater harbors in the Caribbean
People Virgin Islands
Population: 108,448 (July 2007 est.)
Age
structure:
0-14 years: 21.8% (male
11,897/female 11,696)
15-64 years: 66.5% (male
34,204/female 37,911)
65 years and over: 11.7% (male
5,642/female 7,098) (2007 est.)
Median
age:
total: 37.7 years
male: 36.7 years
female: 38.5 years (2007 est.)
Population -0.171% (2007 est.)
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2839
growth
rate:
Birth rate: 13.68 births/1,000 population (2007
est.)
Death rate: 6.59 deaths/1,000 population (2007
est.)
Net
migration
rate:
-8.8 migrant(s)/1,000 population
(2007 est.)
Sex ratio: at birth: 1.06 male(s)/female
under 15 years: 1.017 male(s)/female
15-64 years: 0.902 male(s)/female
65 years and over: 0.795
male(s)/female
total population: 0.912
male(s)/female (2007 est.)
Infant
mortality
rate:
total: 7.69 deaths/1,000 live births
male: 8.75 deaths/1,000 live births
female: 6.58 deaths/1,000 live births
(2007 est.)
Life
expectancy
at birth:
total population: 79.2 years
male: 75.4 years
female: 83.22 years (2007 est.)
Total
fertility
rate:
2.16 children born/woman (2007 est.)
HIV/AIDS -
adult
NA
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2840
prevalence
rate:
HIV/AIDS -
people
living with
HIV/AIDS:
NA
HIV/AIDS -
deaths:
NA
Nationality: noun: Virgin Islander(s) (US citizens)
adjective: Virgin Islander
Ethnic
groups:
black 76.2%, white 13.1%, Asian
1.1%, other 6.1%, mixed 3.5% (2000
census)
Religions: Baptist 42%, Roman Catholic 34%,
Episcopalian 17%, other 7%
Languages: English 74.7%, Spanish or Spanish
Creole 16.8%, French or French
Creole 6.6%, other 1.9% (2000
census)
Literacy: definition: age 15 and over can read
and write
total population: 90-95% est.
male: NA%
female: NA% (2005 est.)
Government Virgin Islands
Country name: conventional long form: United
States Virgin Islands
conventional short form: Virgin
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2841
Islands
former: Danish West Indies
abbreviation: USVI
Dependency
status:
organized, unincorporated
territory of the US with policy
relations between the Virgin
Islands and the US under the
jurisdiction of the Office of Insular
Affairs, US Department of the
Interior
Government
type:
NA
Capital: name: Charlotte Amalie
geographic coordinates: 18 21 N,
64 56 W
time difference: UTC-4 (1 hour
ahead of Washington, DC during
Standard Time)
Administrative
divisions:
none (territory of the US); there
are no first-order administrative
divisions as defined by the US
Government, but there are three
islands at the second order; Saint
Croix, Saint John, Saint Thomas
Independence: none (territory of the US)
National
holiday:
Transfer Day (from Denmark to
the US), 27 March (1917)
Constitution: Revised Organic Act of 22 July
1954
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2842
Legal system: based on US laws
Suffrage: 18 years of age; universal; island
residents are US citizens but do
not vote in US presidential
elections
Executive
branch:
chief of state: President George
W. BUSH of the US (since 20
January 2001); Vice President
Richard B. CHENEY (since 20
January 2001)
head of government: Governor
John DeJONGH (since 1 January
2007)
cabinet: NA
elections: under the US
Constitution, residents of
unincorporated territories, such
as the Virgin Islands, do not vote
in elections for US president and
vice president; governor and
lieutenant governor elected on the
same ticket by popular vote for
four-year terms (eligible for a
second term); election last held 7
and 21 November 2006 (next to be
held November 2010)
election results: John DeJONGH
elected governor; percent of vote -
John DeJONGH 57.3%, Kenneth
MAPP 42.7%
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2843
Legislative
branch:
unicameral Senate (15 seats;
members are elected by popular
vote to serve two-year terms)
elections: last held 7 November
2006 (next to be held November
2008)
election results: percent of vote
by party - NA; seats by party -
Democratic Party 8, ICM 4,
independent 3
note: the Virgin Islands elects one
non-voting representative to the
US House of Representatives;
election last held 7 November
2006 (next to be held November
2008)
Judicial
branch:
US District Court of the Virgin
Islands (under Third Circuit
jurisdiction); Superior Court of the
Virgin Islands (judges appointed
by the governor for 10-year terms)
Political
parties and
leaders:
Democratic Party [Arturo
WATLINGTON]; Independent
Citizens' Movement or ICM [Usie
RICHARDS]; Republican Party
[Gary SPRAUVE]
Political
pressure
groups and
leaders:
NA
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2844
International
organization
participation:
IOC, UPU
Diplomatic
representation
in the US:
none (territory of the US)
Diplomatic
representation
from the US:
none (territory of the US)
Flag
description:
white, with a modified US coat of
arms in the center between the
large blue initials V and I; the coat
of arms shows a yellow eagle
holding an olive branch in one
talon and three arrows in the
other with a superimposed shield
of vertical red and white stripes
below a blue panel
Economy Virgin Islands
Economy -
overview:
Tourism is the primary economic
activity, accounting for 80% of
GDP and employment. The islands
hosted 2.6 million visitors in 2005.
The manufacturing sector
consists of petroleum refining,
textiles, electronics,
pharmaceuticals, and watch
assembly. One of the world's
largest petroleum refineries is at
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2845
Saint Croix. The agricultural
sector is small, with most food
being imported. International
business and financial services
are small but growing
components of the economy. The
islands are vulnerable to
substantial damage from storms.
The government is working to
improve fiscal discipline, to
support construction projects in
the private sector, to expand
tourist facilities, to reduce crime,
and to protect the environment.
GDP
(purchasing
power parity):
$1.577 billion (2004 est.)
GDP (official
exchange
rate):
NA
GDP - real
growth rate:
2% (2002 est.)
GDP - per
capita (PPP):
$14,500 (2004 est.)
GDP -
composition
by sector:
agriculture: 1%
industry: 19%
services: 80% (2003 est.)
Labor force: 43,980 (2004 est.)
Labor force - agriculture: 1%
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2846
by occupation: industry: 19%
services: 80% (2003 est.)
Unemployment
rate:
6.2% (2004)
Population
below poverty
line:
NA%
Household
income or
consumption
by percentage
share:
lowest 10%: NA%
highest 10%: NA%
Inflation rate
(consumer
prices):
2.2% (2003)
Budget: revenues: $NA
expenditures: $NA
Agriculture -
products:
fruit, vegetables, sorghum;
Senepol cattle
Industries: tourism, petroleum refining,
watch assembly, rum distilling,
construction, pharmaceuticals,
textiles, electronics
Industrial
production
growth rate:
NA%
Electricity -
production:
980 million kWh (2004)
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2847
Electricity -
production by
source:
fossil fuel: 100%
hydro: 0%
nuclear: 0%
other: 0% (2001)
Electricity -
consumption:
911.4 million kWh (2004)
Electricity -
exports:
0 kWh (2004)
Electricity -
imports:
0 kWh (2004)
Oil -
production:
17,110 bbl/day (2004 est.)
Oil -
consumption:
115,000 bbl/day (2004 est.)
Oil - exports: NA bbl/day
Oil - imports: NA bbl/day
Natural gas -
production:
0 cu m (2004 est.)
Natural gas -
consumption:
0 cu m (2004 est.)
Exports: $4.234 billion (2001)
Exports -
commodities:
refined petroleum products
Exports -
partners:
US, Puerto Rico (2004)
Imports: $4.609 billion (2001)
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2848
Imports -
commodities:
crude oil, foodstuffs, consumer
goods, building materials
Imports -
partners:
US, Puerto Rico (2004)
Debt -
external:
$NA
Economic aid -
recipient:
$NA
Currency
(code):
US dollar (USD)
Currency
code:
USD
Exchange
rates:
the US dollar is used
Fiscal year: 1 October - 30 September
Communications Virgin Islands
Telephones
- main lines
in use:
70,900 (2004)
Telephones
- mobile
cellular:
64,200 (2004)
Telephone
system:
general assessment: modern system
with total digital switching, uses
fiber-optic cable and microwave
radio relay
domestic: full range of services
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2849
available
international: country code - 1-340; 2
submarine cable connections (Taino
Carib, Americas-1); satellite earth
stations - NA
Radio
broadcast
stations:
AM 6, FM 16, shortwave 0 (2005)
Radios: 107,000 (1997)
Television
broadcast
stations:
5 (2006)
Televisions: 68,000 (1997)
Internet
country
code:
.vi
Internet
hosts:
3,855 (2006)
Internet
Service
Providers
(ISPs):
50 (2000)
Internet
users:
30,000 (2002)
Transportation Virgin Islands
Airports: 2 (2006)
Airports - total: 2
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2850
with
paved
runways:
over 3,047 m: 1
1,524 to 2,437 m: 1 (2006)
Roadways: total: 1,257 km (2004)
Ports and
terminals:
Charlotte Amalie, Limetree Bay
Military Virgin Islands
Military -
note:
defense is the responsibility of the US
Transnational
Issues
Virgin Islands
Disputes -
international:
none
VENEZUELA
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Introduction Venezuela
Background: Venezuela was one of three
countries that emerged from the
collapse of Gran Colombia in 1830
(the others being Ecuador and New
Granada, which became Colombia).
For most of the first half of the 20th
century, Venezuela was ruled by
generally benevolent military
strongmen, who promoted the oil
industry and allowed for some social
reforms. Democratically elected
governments have held sway since
1959. Hugo CHAVEZ, president
since 1999, has promoted a
controversial policy of "democratic
socialism," which purports to
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2852
alleviate social ills while at the
same time attacking globalization
and undermining regional stability.
Current concerns include: a
weakening of democratic
institutions, political polarization, a
politicized military, drug-related
violence along the Colombian
border, increasing internal drug
consumption, overdependence on
the petroleum industry with its price
fluctuations, and irresponsible
mining operations that are
endangering the rain forest and
indigenous peoples.
Geography Venezuela
Location: Northern South America, bordering
the Caribbean Sea and the North
Atlantic Ocean, between Colombia
and Guyana
Geographic
coordinates:
8 00 N, 66 00 W
Map
references:
South America
Area: total: 912,050 sq km
land: 882,050 sq km
water: 30,000 sq km
Area -
comparative:
slightly more than twice the size of
California
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Land
boundaries:
total: 4,993 km
border countries: Brazil 2,200 km,
Colombia 2,050 km, Guyana 743 km
Coastline: 2,800 km
Maritime
claims:
territorial sea: 12 nm
contiguous zone: 15 nm
exclusive economic zone: 200 nm
continental shelf: 200-m depth or to
the depth of exploitation
Climate: tropical; hot, humid; more moderate
in highlands
Terrain: Andes Mountains and Maracaibo
Lowlands in northwest; central
plains (llanos); Guiana Highlands in
southeast
Elevation
extremes:
lowest point: Caribbean Sea 0 m
highest point: Pico Bolivar (La
Columna) 5,007 m
Natural
resources:
petroleum, natural gas, iron ore,
gold, bauxite, other minerals,
hydropower, diamonds
Land use: arable land: 2.85%
permanent crops: 0.88%
other: 96.27% (2005)
Irrigated
land:
5,750 sq km (2003)
Natural
hazards:
subject to floods, rockslides,
mudslides; periodic droughts
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Environment
- current
issues:
sewage pollution of Lago de
Valencia; oil and urban pollution of
Lago de Maracaibo; deforestation;
soil degradation; urban and
industrial pollution, especially along
the Caribbean coast; threat to the
rainforest ecosystem from
irresponsible mining operations
Environment
-
international
agreements:
party to: Antarctic Treaty,
Biodiversity, Climate Change,
Climate Change-Kyoto Protocol,
Desertification, Endangered
Species, Hazardous Wastes, Marine
Life Conservation, Ozone Layer
Protection, Ship Pollution, Tropical
Timber 83, Tropical Timber 94,
Wetlands
signed but not ratified:: none of the
selected agreements
Geography -
note:
on major sea and air routes linking
North and South America; Angel
Falls in the Guiana Highlands is the
world's highest waterfall
People Venezuela
Population: 26,023,528 (July 2007 est.)
Age
structure:
0-14 years: 31.6% (male
4,169,979/female 4,046,170)
15-64 years: 63.4% (male
8,120,661/female 8,369,065)
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2855
65 years and over: 5.1% (male
586,863/female 730,790) (2007 est.)
Median
age:
total: 24.9 years
male: 24.3 years
female: 25.5 years (2007 est.)
Population
growth
rate:
1.486% (2007 est.)
Birth rate: 21.22 births/1,000 population (2007
est.)
Death rate: 5.08 deaths/1,000 population (2007
est.)
Net
migration
rate:
-1.28 migrant(s)/1,000 population
(2007 est.)
Sex ratio: at birth: 1.05 male(s)/female
under 15 years: 1.031 male(s)/female
15-64 years: 0.97 male(s)/female
65 years and over: 0.803
male(s)/female
total population: 0.98 male(s)/female
(2007 est.)
Infant
mortality
rate:
total: 22.52 deaths/1,000 live births
male: 26.14 deaths/1,000 live births
female: 18.72 deaths/1,000 live births
(2007 est.)
Life
expectancy
total population: 73.28 years
male: 70.24 years
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2856
at birth: female: 76.48 years (2007 est.)
Total
fertility
rate:
2.55 children born/woman (2007 est.)
HIV/AIDS -
adult
prevalence
rate:
0.7%; note - no country specific
models provided (2001 est.)
HIV/AIDS -
people
living with
HIV/AIDS:
110,000 (1999 est.)
HIV/AIDS -
deaths:
4,100 (2003 est.)
Nationality: noun: Venezuelan(s)
adjective: Venezuelan
Ethnic
groups:
Spanish, Italian, Portuguese, Arab,
German, African, indigenous people
Religions: nominally Roman Catholic 96%,
Protestant 2%, other 2%
Languages: Spanish (official), numerous
indigenous dialects
Literacy: definition: age 15 and over can read
and write
total population: 93%
male: 93.3%
female: 92.7% (2001 census)
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2857
Government Venezuela
Country name: conventional long form: Bolivarian
Republic of Venezuela
conventional short form:
Venezuela
local long form: Republica
Bolivariana de Venezuela
local short form: Venezuela
Government
type:
federal republic
Capital: name: Caracas
geographic coordinates: 10 30 N,
66 56 W
time difference: UTC-4 (1 hour
ahead of Washington, DC during
Standard Time)
Administrative
divisions:
23 states (estados, singular -
estado), 1 capital district*
(distrito capital), and 1 federal
dependency** (dependencia
federal); Amazonas, Anzoategui,
Apure, Aragua, Barinas, Bolivar,
Carabobo, Cojedes, Delta
Amacuro, Dependencias
Federales**, Distrito Federal*,
Falcon, Guarico, Lara, Merida,
Miranda, Monagas, Nueva Esparta,
Portuguesa, Sucre, Tachira,
Trujillo, Vargas, Yaracuy, Zulia
note: the federal dependency
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consists of 11 federally controlled
island groups with a total of 72
individual islands
Independence: 5 July 1811 (from Spain)
National
holiday:
Independence Day, 5 July (1811)
Constitution: 30 December 1999
Legal system: open, adversarial court system
Suffrage: 18 years of age; universal
Executive
branch:
chief of state: President Hugo
CHAVEZ Frias (since 3 February
1999); Vice President Jorge
RODRIGUEZ Gomez (since 3
January 2007); note - the
president is both the chief of state
and head of government
head of government: President
Hugo CHAVEZ Frias (since 3
February 1999); Vice President
Jorge RODRIGUEZ Gomez (since 3
January 2007)
cabinet: Council of Ministers
appointed by the president
elections: president elected by
popular vote for a six-year term
(eligible for a second term);
election last held 3 December
2006 (next to be held in December
2012)
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2859
note: in 1999, a National
Constituent Assembly drafted a
new constitution that increased
the presidential term to six years;
an election was subsequently held
on 30 July 2000 under the terms
of this constitution
election results: Hugo CHAVEZ
Frias reelected president; percent
of vote - Hugo CHAVEZ Frias
62.9%, Manuel ROSALES 36.9%
Legislative
branch:
unicameral National Assembly or
Asamblea Nacional (167 seats;
members elected by popular vote
to serve five-year terms; three
seats reserved for the indigenous
peoples of Venezuela)
elections: last held 4 December
2005 (next to be held in 2010)
election results: percent of vote
by party - NA; seats by party - pro-
government 167 (MVR 114,
PODEMOS 15, PPT 11, indigenous
2, other 25), opposition 0
Judicial
branch:
Supreme Tribunal of Justice or
Tribuna Suprema de Justicia
(magistrates are elected by the
National Assembly for a single 12-
year term)
Political A New Time or UNT [Manuel
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2860
parties and
leaders:
ROSALES]; Christian Democrats or
COPEI [Cesar PEREZ Vivas];
Democratic Action or AD [Henry
RAMOS Allup]; Fatherland for All
or PPT [Jose ALBORNOZ]; Fifth
Republic Movement or MVR [Hugo
CHAVEZ]; Justice First [Julio
BORGES]; Movement Toward
Socialism or MAS [Hector
MUJICA]; Venezuela Project or PV
[Henrique SALAS Romer]; We Can
or PODEMOS [Ismael GARCIA]
Political
pressure
groups and
leaders:
FEDECAMARAS, a conservative
business group; VECINOS groups;
Venezuelan Confederation of
Workers or CTV (labor
organization dominated by the
Democratic Action)
International
organization
participation:
CAN, CDB, CSN, FAO, G-3, G-15, G-
24, G-77, IADB, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO,
ICC, ICCt, ICRM, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS,
IHO, ILO, IMF, IMO, Interpol, IOC,
IOM, IPU, ISO, ITU, ITUC, LAES,
LAIA, Mercosur, MIGA, NAM, OAS,
OPANAL, OPCW, OPEC, PCA, RG,
UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNHCR,
UNIDO, UNWTO, UPU, WCL, WCO,
WFTU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WTO
Diplomatic
representation
chief of mission: Ambassador
Bernardo ALVAREZ Herrera
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2861
in the US: chancery: 1099 30th Street NW,
Washington, DC 20007
telephone: [1] (202) 342-2214
FAX: [1] (202) 342-6820
consulate(s) general: Boston,
Chicago, Houston, Miami, New
Orleans, New York, San
Francisco, San Juan (Puerto Rico)
Diplomatic
representation
from the US:
chief of mission: Ambassador
William R. BROWNFIELD
embassy: Calle F con Calle
Suapure, Urbanizacion Colinas de
Valle Arriba, Caracas 1080
mailing address: P. O. Box 62291,
Caracas 1060-A; APO AA 34037
telephone: [58] (212) 975-9234,
975-6411
FAX: [58] (212) 975-8991
Flag
description:
three equal horizontal bands of
yellow (top), blue, and red with
the coat of arms on the hoist side
of the yellow band and an arc of
eight white five-pointed stars
centered in the blue band
Economy Venezuela
Economy -
overview:
Venezuela remains highly
dependent on oil revenues, which
account for roughly 90% of export
earnings, more than 50% of the
federal budget revenues, and
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2862
around 30% of GDP. Tax
collection - Venezuela's primary
source of non-oil revenue - is
expected to surpass $23 billion in
2006, exceeding the yearend
collection goal by more than 20%.
A nationwide strike between
December 2002 and February
2003 had far-reaching economic
consequences - real GDP declined
by around 9% in 2002 and 8% in
2003 - but economic output since
then has recovered strongly.
Fueled by higher oil prices, record
government spending helped to
boost GDP growth in 2004 and
2005 to approximately 18% and
11%, respectively. Economic
growth in 2006 reached about 9%.
This spending, combined with
recent minimum wage hikes and
improved access to domestic
credit, has fueled a consumption
boom - car sales in 2006
increased by around 70% - but
has come at the cost of higher
inflation. Despite government
attempts to withdraw liquidity
from the economy, Venezuela's
money supply set a record in June
2006, approximately 70% higher
than the previous year. Imports
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2863
have also jumped significantly.
GDP
(purchasing
power parity):
$186.3 billion (2006 est.)
GDP (official
exchange
rate):
$149.9 billion (2006 est.)
GDP - real
growth rate:
10.3% (2006 est.)
GDP - per
capita (PPP):
$7,200 (2006 est.)
GDP -
composition
by sector:
agriculture: 3.7%
industry: 41%
services: 55.3% (2006 est.)
Labor force: 12.5 million (November 2006 est.)
Labor force -
by occupation:
agriculture: 13%
industry: 23%
services: 64% (1997 est.)
Unemployment
rate:
8.9% (October 2006 est.)
Population
below poverty
line:
37.9% (end 2005 est.)
Household
income or
consumption
by percentage
lowest 10%: 0.8%
highest 10%: 36.5% (1998)
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2864
share:
Distribution of
family income
- Gini index:
49.1 (1998)
Inflation rate
(consumer
prices):
15.8% (2006 est.)
Investment
(gross fixed):
19.8% of GDP (2006 est.)
Budget: revenues: $52.24 billion
expenditures: $52.9 billion;
including capital expenditures of
$2.6 billion (2006 est.)
Public debt: 28.4% of GDP (2006 est.)
Agriculture -
products:
corn, sorghum, sugarcane, rice,
bananas, vegetables, coffee; beef,
pork, milk, eggs; fish
Industries: petroleum, construction
materials, food processing,
textiles; iron ore mining, steel,
aluminum; motor vehicle
assembly
Industrial
production
growth rate:
7% (2006 est.)
Electricity -
production:
93.03 billion kWh (2004)
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2865
Electricity -
production by
source:
fossil fuel: 31.7%
hydro: 68.3%
nuclear: 0%
other: 0% (2001)
Electricity -
consumption:
86.52 billion kWh (2004)
Electricity -
exports:
0 kWh (2004)
Electricity -
imports:
0 kWh (2004)
Oil -
production:
3.081 million bbl/day (2005 est.)
Oil -
consumption:
560,000 bbl/day (2004 est.)
Oil - exports: 2.1 million bbl/day (2004 est.)
Oil - imports: NA bbl/day
Oil - proved
reserves:
75.27 billion bbl (2006 est.)
Natural gas -
production:
27.2 billion cu m (2004 est.)
Natural gas -
consumption:
27.2 billion cu m (2004 est.)
Natural gas -
exports:
0 cu m (2004 est.)
Natural gas -
imports:
0 cu m (2004 est.)
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2866
Natural gas -
proved
reserves:
4.276 trillion cu m (1 January
2005 est.)
Current
account
balance:
$31.82 billion (2006 est.)
Exports: $69.23 billion f.o.b. (2006 est.)
Exports -
commodities:
petroleum, bauxite and aluminum,
steel, chemicals, agricultural
products, basic manufactures
Exports -
partners:
US 50.9%, Netherlands Antilles
7.2%, Canada 2.4% (2005)
Imports: $28.81 billion f.o.b. (2006 est.)
Imports -
commodities:
raw materials, machinery and
equipment, transport equipment,
construction materials
Imports -
partners:
US 31.6%, Colombia 11%, Brazil
9.1%, Mexico 6.9% (2005)
Reserves of
foreign
exchange and
gold:
$35.95 billion (2006 est.)
Debt -
external:
$35.63 billion (2006 est.)
Economic aid -
recipient:
$74 million (2000)
Currency bolivar (VEB)
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2867
(code):
Currency
code:
VEB
Exchange
rates:
bolivares per US dollar - 2,147
(2006), 2,089.8 (2005), 1,891.3
(2004), 1,607 (2003), 1,161 (2002)
Fiscal year: calendar year
Communications Venezuela
Telephones
- main lines
in use:
3.605 million (2005)
Telephones
- mobile
cellular:
12.496 million (2005)
Telephone
system:
general assessment: modern and
expanding
domestic: domestic satellite system
with 3 earth stations; recent
substantial improvement in
telephone service in rural areas;
substantial increase in digitalization
of exchanges and trunk lines;
installation of a national interurban
fiber-optic network capable of digital
multimedia services
international: country code - 58; 3
submarine coaxial cables; satellite
earth stations - 1 Intelsat (Atlantic
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2868
Ocean) and 1 PanAmSat;
participating with Colombia,
Ecuador, Peru, and Bolivia in the
construction of an international fiber-
optic network
Radio
broadcast
stations:
AM 201, FM NA (20 in Caracas),
shortwave 11 (1998)
Radios: 10.75 million (1997)
Television
broadcast
stations:
66 (plus 45 repeaters) (1997)
Televisions: 4.1 million (1997)
Internet
country
code:
.ve
Internet
hosts:
51,968 (2006)
Internet
Service
Providers
(ISPs):
16 (2000)
Internet
users:
3.04 million (2005)
Transportation Venezuela
Airports: 375 (2006)
Airports - total: 129
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2869
with paved
runways:
over 3,047 m: 5
2,438 to 3,047 m: 11
1,524 to 2,437 m: 34
914 to 1,523 m: 60
under 914 m: 19 (2006)
Airports -
with
unpaved
runways:
total: 246
1,524 to 2,437 m: 9
914 to 1,523 m: 90
under 914 m: 147 (2006)
Heliports: 1 (2006)
Pipelines: extra heavy crude oil 992 km; gas
5,369 km; oil 7,607 km; refined
products 1,681 km; unknown
(oil/water) 141 km (2006)
Railways: total: 682 km
standard gauge: 682 km 1.435-m
gauge (2005)
Roadways: total: 96,155 km
paved: 32,308 km
unpaved: 63,847 km (1999)
Waterways: 7,100 km
note: Orinoco River (400 km) and
Lake de Maracaibo navigable by
oceangoing vessels (2005)
Merchant
marine:
total: 56 ships (1000 GRT or over)
824,941 GRT/1,327,924 DWT
by type: bulk carrier 7, cargo 10,
chemical tanker 2, container 1,
liquefied gas 6, passenger/cargo 12,
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2870
petroleum tanker 18
foreign-owned: 13 (Denmark 3,
Greece 3, India 1, Mexico 3, Panama
1, Russia 1, Spain 1)
registered in other countries: 15
(Bahamas 1, Panama 14) (2006)
Ports and
terminals:
Amuay, La Guaira, Maracaibo, Puerto
Cabello, Punta Cardon
Military Venezuela
Military
branches:
National Armed Forces (Fuerzas
Armadas Nacionales or FAN):
Ground Forces or Army (Fuerzas
Terrestres or Ejercito), Naval
Forces (Fuerzas Navales or Armada;
includes Marines, Coast Guard), Air
Force (Fuerzas Aereas or Aviacion),
Armed Forces of Cooperation or
National Guard (Fuerzas Armadas
de Cooperacion or Guardia
Nacional)
Military
service age
and
obligation:
18 years of age for compulsory and
voluntary military service; conscript
service obligation - 30 months; all
citizens of military service age
(between 18 and 50 years old) are
obligated to register for military
service (2007)
Manpower
available for
males age 18-49: 6,236,012
females age 18-49: 6,137,622 (2005
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2871
military
service:
est.)
Manpower fit
for military
service:
males age 18-49: 4,907,947
females age 18-49: 5,151,843 (2005
est.)
Manpower
reaching
military
service age
annually:
males age 18-49: 252,396
females age 18-49: 237,300 (2005
est.)
Military
expenditures
- percent of
GDP:
1.2% (2005 est.)
Transnational
Issues
Venezuela
Disputes -
international:
claims all of the area west of the
Essequibo River in Guyana,
preventing any discussion of a
maritime boundary; Guyana has
expressed its intention to join
Barbados in asserting claims
before the United Nations
Convention on the Law of the Sea
(UNCLOS) that Trinidad and
Tobago's maritime boundary with
Venezuela extends into their
waters; dispute with Colombia over
maritime boundary and Venezuelan-
administered Los Monjes islands
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2872
near the Gulf of Venezuela;
Colombian-organized illegal
narcotics and paramilitary
activities penetrate Venezuela's
shared border region; in 2006, an
estimated 139,000 Colombians
sought protection in 150
communities along the border in
Venezuela; US, France, and the
Netherlands recognize Venezuela's
granting full effect to Aves Island,
thereby claiming a Venezuelan
EEZ/continental shelf extending
over a large portion of the eastern
Caribbean Sea; Dominica, Saint
Kitts and Nevis, Saint Lucia, and
Saint Vincent and the Grenadines
protest Venezuela's full effect
claim
Trafficking in
persons:
current situation: Venezuela is a
source, transit, and destination
country for women and children
trafficked for the purposes of
sexual exploitation and forced
labor; women and children from
Colombia, China, Peru, Ecuador,
and the Dominican Republic are
trafficked to and through Venezuela
and subjected to commercial
sexual exploitation or forced labor;
Venezuelans are trafficked
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2873
internally and to Western Europe,
particularly Spain and the
Netherlands, and to countries in
the Caribbean region for
commercial sexual exploitation;
Venezuela is a transit country for
illegal migrants from other
countries in the region and for
Asian nationals, some of whom are
believed to be trafficking victims
tier rating: Tier 3 - Venezuela does
not fully comply with the minimum
standards for the elimination of
trafficking and is not making
significant efforts to do so
Illicit drugs: small-scale illicit producer of opium
and coca for the processing of
opiates and coca derivatives;
however, large quantities of
cocaine, heroin, and marijuana
transit the country from Colombia
bound for US and Europe;
significant narcotics-related
money-laundering activity,
especially along the border with
Colombia and on Margarita Island;
active eradication program
primarily targeting opium;
increasing signs of drug-related
activities by Colombian insurgents
on border
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2874
-Calendar of Significant Dates--January
JANUARY
00/00/1278
Andorra
Independence Achieved
An agreement between the French Count of Foix
and the Spanish Bishop of
Seo de Urgel in 1278 to recognize each other as co-
princes of the Andorran
Valleys gave the nation what has been its political
and territorial form
to the present day.
01/01/0000
Algeria
New Year's Day
01/01/1901
Australia
Independence Day
01/01/1984
Brunei
Independence Day
Brunei became a sovereign state and resumed full
independence from
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2875
Britain.
01/01/1960
Cameroon
Independence Day
01/01/1993
Czech Republic
U.S. Recognizes Czech Republic
The government of the United States formally
announced full recognition of
the Czech Republic.
01/01/1804
Haiti
Independence Day
The slave revolt that began in 1801 under the
leadership of Pierre
Dominique Toussaint L'ouverture triumphed with the
establishment of an
independent Haiti under Jean-Jacques Dessalines.
01/01/1964
Israel, Middle East
Fatah Day
The Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO) was
founded at a meeting in
Jerusalem.
01/01/1993
Slovak Republic
U.S. Recognition
The government of the United States formally
recognized the Slovak
Republic.
01/01/1956
Sudan
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2876
Independence Day
01/01/1991
Turkey
New Year's Day
January 1, 1991, New Year's Day, is an official
Turkish holiday.
01/01/1962
Western Samoa
Independence Day
01/03/1989
India
Kashmiri Separatist Campaign
Moslem Kashmiri militants began their campaign for
independence from
India.
01/04/1948
Burma
Independence Day
The various groups and regions within British Burma
joined together and
proclaimed the Union of Burma as an independent
republic outside of the
British commonwealth.
01/04/1986
Libya
Two Libyan Planes Shot Down
U.S. war planes shot down two Libyan war planes
over the Gulf of Sidra.
01/05/1956
Laos
Lao Patriotic Front Founded
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2877
The Lao Patriotic Front (LPF) was established by the
Pathet Lao (Communist
Lao faction) under the tutelage of Vietnamese
Communists.
01/06/1963
Colombia
ELN Begins Insurgency
The National Liberation Army (ELN), a leftist
guerrilla organization that
has frequently targeted American interests in the
energy sector, begins
its insurgency.
01/06/1989
India
Indira Gandhi Assassins Hanged
Two of prime minister Indira Gandhi's Sikh
bodyguards were hanged for her
assassination on October 31, 1984.
01/06/1986
Liberia
New Constitution Inaugurated
01/07/1987
Chad
France Bombs Libyan Airfield
A Libyan airfield in northern Chad was bombed by
France.
01/07/1949
Egypt
First Arab-Israeli War Ends
01/07/1994
Egypt
Coptic Christian Christmas
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2878
Coptic Christians in Egypt celebrate Christmas on
January 7. (Note: When
January 7 falls on a Friday, the celebrations may
prompt a violent
response from Islamic militants on their day of
prayer.)
01/07/1949
Israel
First Arab-Israeli War Ends
A cease-fire was signed by the major combatants
ending the first
Arab-Israeli War.
01/07/1939
Japan
Birthday of Chukaku-Ha Leader
Birthday of Chukaku-Ha leader Toru Takagi.
01/07/1989
Japan
Death of Emperor Hirohito
01/07/1949
Jordan
First Arab-Israeli War Ends
01/08/1959
Cuba
Fidel Castro Takes Power
President Fulgencio Batista flew to exile in the
Dominican Republic and
Castro marched into the capital, Havana, on this
date to take power.
01/08/1992
Greece
Pan Am Bomber Convicted
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2879
On January 8, 1992, a Greek court convicted
Palestinian terrorist Mohammad
Rashid of premeditated murder for planting a bomb
on a Pan American
aircraft in August 1982. The bomb exploded as the
plane was about to land
at Honolulu, Hawaii, killing one person and injuring
several others.
Rashid was arrested in Greece in May 1988 as a
result of a tip from the
United States.
01/08/1912
South Africa
Founding of the SANC
The South African National Congress (SANC),
forerunner of the African
National Congress (ANC), was formed to fight for
black political rights.
01/09/1964
Panama
Martyrs' Day
Commemorates anti-American rioting which
resulted in the deaths of four
U.S. soldiers and twenty students at a Panamanian
high school. Panamanians
have demonstrated annually to protest this incident.
01/11/0000
Morocco
National Holiday
Independence manifesto issued by nationalists
during French rule.
01/12/1964
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2880
Tanzania
Zanzibar Revolution Day
The African majority revolted against the Arab
sultan, and a new
government was formed with the Afro-Shirazi party
leader as president.
Marks the establishment of the People's Republic.
01/13/1987
Germany
Arrest of TWA Hijacker
On January 13, 1987, Mohammad Ali Hamadei was
arrested at Frankfurt
Airport. At a trial which began on July 5, 1988,
Hamadei was charged with
the hijacking on June 14, 1985 of TWA Flight 847,
which was en route from
Athens to Rome, and with the murder of a
passenger, U.S. Navy diver Robert
Stethem. Hamadei was found guilty on May 17, 1989
and sentenced to life in
prison.
01/13/1993
Iraq, United Kingdom, United States
Allied Raid On Iraq
U.S. and British planes struck air defense sites in
Iraq's southern
"no-fly" zone.
01/13/1967
Togo
Liberation Day
Lt. Colonel Etienne Eyadema ousted President
Nicholas Grunitzky in a
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2881
military coup.
01/14/1986
Guatemala
Democratic Government Returns
President Vinicio Cerezo and a new congress were
inaugurated, initiating
the first democratically elected civilian government
after fifteen years
of military rule.
01/14/0000
Sri Lanka
Tamil Thai Pongal Day
01/15/1918
Egypt
Birthday of President Nasser
Former Egyptian president Gamel Abd El Nasser
was born.
01/15/1922
Ireland
Founding of Irish Free State
01/15/1991
Tunisia, Middle East
Abu Iyad Assassinated
Abu Iyad, the second-ranking PLO leader, and two
other high-ranking PLO
officials were assassinated by a guard suspected of
working for the Abu
Nidal Organization (ANO).
01/16/1977
Benin
Liberation Day (Martyrs' Day)
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lic
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2882
Commemorates the repulsion of an invasion by
mercenary troops from Gabon.
No longer officially celebrated following the
transition from a
Marxist-Leninist military regime to a civilian
government.
01/16/1979
Iran
The Shah Departed Iran
01/17/1991
Iraq, Kuwait
Allied Air Campaign Begins
The start of hostilities between the multi-national
forces and Iraqi
forces. The beginning of Operation Desert Storm.
01/17/1993
Iraq
U.S. Missile Raid Near Baghdad
The United States carried out a missile strike
against a nuclear
fabrication and reprocessing facility southeast of
Baghdad. The raid came
as a response to Iraq's refusal to allow UN weapons
inspectors to enter
Iraqi airspace through the "no-fly" zone.
01/17/1973
Philippines
Constitution Day
01/18/1993
France, Iraq, United Kingdom, United States
Allies Raid Iraq
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lic
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2883
French, British, and U.S. aircraft carried out raids
against air defense
installations in Iraq's "no-fly" zones.
01/18/1952
Tunisia
Bourguiba Revolution
Also known as Remembrance Day.
01/19/1993
Czech Republic, Slovak Republic
Admission To United Nations
The Czech Republic and the Slovak Republic were
admitted as member states
of the United Nations.
01/20/1973
Guinea-Bissau
National Heroes' Day
Commemorates the assassination of Amilcar Cabral,
founder of the ruling
party.
01/20/1981
Iran
U.S. Embassy Hostages Released
Fifty-two American hostages were released after
444 days in captivity
following an agreement between the U.S. and Iran
arranged by Algeria.
01/20/0000
Laos
Founding of the Armed Forces
01/20/1986
Lesotho
Army Day
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lic
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!
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2884
01/20/0000
Mali
Army Day
01/22/1946
Iran, Iraq, Syria, Turkey, Western Europe
Kurdish Republic Day
01/22/1990
Korea (Republic of)
Founding of the Chonnohyop
The Chonnohyop (National Council of Labor Unions)
was founded as an
alternative to the state-sponsored Federation of
Korean Trade Unions
(FKTU).
01/25/1998
Worldwide
Chinese New Year
01/25/1986
Uganda
NRM-NRA Revolution
The National Resistance Movement-National
Resistance Army (NRM-NRA)
revolution put President Yoweri Museveni in power.
01/26/0000
Australia
Australia Day
National holiday.
01/26/1950
India
Republic Day
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lic
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2885
India's constitution was promulgated and India
became a republic within
the commonwealth. Also called Constitution Day.
01/26/1954
Korea (Republic of)
US/ROK Mutual Security Treaty
Ratification of the U.S. Mutual Security Treaty with
the Republic of
Korea.
01/26/1990
Thailand
Separatists Proclaim State
Separatists in four southern provinces proclaimed
the establishment of the
Islamic State of Langkasuka.
01/26/1978
Tunisia
Black Thursday
Labor riots broke out in Tunis and were violently put
down by government
forces.
01/27/1987
Philippines
Marcos Loyalists Seize Station
Marcos loyalists and mutinous troops tried to seize
military and
communications installations in Manila. A radio-
television station was
held by the mutineers for sixty-one hours before
their surrender, but
Marcos was prevented from returning to the
country.
C
lic
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t
o
b
u
y
N
O
W
!
P
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!
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2886
01/28/1987
Lebanon
U.S. Bars Travel To Lebanon
01/28/1961
Rwanda
Republic Day
Celebrates the proclamation of the Republic. Also
known as Democracy Day.
01/28/1982
Turkey
Turkish Consul General Killed
The Turkish consul general to the U.S. was
assassinated in Los Angeles by
members of a group calling itself the "Justice
Commandos for the Armenian
Genocide."
01/30/1933
Germany, Europe (Region-Wide)
Nazis Come To Power In Germany
01/30/1948
India
Mahatma Gandhi Assassinated
01/30/1991
Iraq
Skirmish at Khafji
Iraqi and multi-national force elements had their
first ground engagement
in the Persian Gulf War.
01/30/1972
United Kingdom
Thirteen Killed By British
C
lic
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O
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2887
On January 30, 1972, "Bloody Sunday," in
Londonderry, Northern Ireland,
thirteen demonstrators were shot to death by
British paratroops during a
civil rights march.
Calender of Significant Dates--February
FEBRUARY
02/01/1984
India
Kashmiri Separatist Executed
Maqbul Butt, a Kashmiri separatist leader, was
executed in India.
02/01/1979
Iran
Khomeini Returns From Exile
Called the beginning of the "Ten Days of Dawn,"
commemorating the ten days
of unrest which ended with Khomeini taking power
on February 11 (the "Day
of Victory").
02/01/0000
Malaysia
City Day In Kuala Lumpur
02/01/1943
Russia
6th Army Surrenders
Germany's 6th Army surrendered to Soviet forces in
Stalingrad.
C
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2888
02/02/1987
Philippines
Aquino Constitution Ratified
The Philippine constitution was ratified by
plebiscite, confirming
President Aquino in office until June 30, 1992.
02/02/1990
South Africa
Legalization of the ANC
President Frederik de Klerk legalized the African
National Congress (ANC)
and dozens of other banned opposition groups.
02/03/1930
Cambodia, Loas, Vietnam
Founding of the ICP
The Indochinese Communist Party (ICP), the origin
of the Communist Party
of Vietnam, the Kampuchean People's Revolutionary
Party, and the Lao
People's Revolutionary Party, was founded.
02/03/1963
Iraq
The Baath Revolution
The Baath Party took power in a popular revolt.
02/03/0000
Mozambique
Heroes' Day
02/03/1989
Paraguay
Stroessner Regime Overthrown
02/03/0000
Sao Tome and Principe
C
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2889
Martyrs of Colonialism Day
02/04/1961
Angola
MPLA Anniversary
Beginning of the Popular Movement for the
Liberation of Angola (MPLA)
struggle for independence from Portugal.
02/04/1979
Iran
Iranian Revolution Begins
Iran's Shiite clerics begin their takeover of the
government.
02/04/1948
Sri Lanka
Independence Day
02/05/1960
Burma
KIA Revolution Day
Kachin Independence Army (KIA) Revolution Day.
02/05/1958
Colombia
ELN Guerrilla Group Founded
Founding of the National Liberation Army (ELN).
02/05/1977
Tanzania
Chama Cha Mapinduzi Formed
The Chama Cha Mapinduzi (Revolutionary Party)
was formed by merging the
Tanganyika African National Union (TANU) and the
Afro-Shirazi Party of
Zanzibar.
02/06/1984
C
lic
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b
u
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N
O
W
!
P
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2890
Lebanon
Fall of West Beirut
West Beirut fell to Muslim militias.
02/06/1840
New Zealand
Waitangi Day (National Day)
Commemorates the annexation of New Zealand by
the United Kingdom through
the Treaty of Waitangi that was signed with the
Maori tribes, establishing
British sovereignty.
02/07/1974
Grenada
Independence Day
02/07/1902
Iran
Ayatollah Khomeini Born
Birth date of the Ayatollah Rudhollah Khomeini.
02/07/1991
United Kingdom
Attack On No. 10 Downing St.
During the morning of February 7, 1991, three
mortar rounds were fired at
No. 10 Downing Street, the London residence of
British prime minister John
Major. A cabinet meeting was in session at the time.
The rounds were ired
from a van parked nearby and caused minimal
damage. Three persons were
injured by glass. The Provisional Irish Republican
Army (PIRA) claimed the
attack.
C
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b
u
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O
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!
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2891
02/08/1963
Iraq
Revolution Day
02/08/1948
North Korea
Army Day
02/09/1992
Algeria
State of Emergency Declared
A state of emergency was declared and legal action
was initiated by the
government of Algeria to ban the Islamic Salvation
Front (FIS). The state
of emergency was to last for 12 months.
02/09/0000
Philippines
Navy Day
02/10/1946
Vietnam
International Youth Day
02/11/0000
Cameroon
Youth Day
02/11/1984
India
Execution of Maqbul Butt
Maqbul Butt, founder of the Jammu-Kashmir
Liberation Front, was hanged in
a New Delhi jail for the 1965 murder of an Indian
intelligence agent in
Kashmir. Militant Moslems have marked the
anniversary of his death with
C
lic
k
t
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b
u
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N
O
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!
P
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2892
sometimes violent demonstrations in Jammu and
Kashmir.
02/11/1979
Iran
Revolution Day
Celebration of the victory of the Islamic Revolution.
02/11/0000
Japan
National Founding Day
Commemorates the beginning of the Japanese
imperial system. Also known as
National Foundation Day.
02/11/0000
Liberia
Armed Forces Day
02/11/1990
South Africa
Nelson Mandela Freed
Nelson Mandela released after twenty-seven years
in South African prisons.
02/12/1947
Burma
Union Day
Celebrates the signing of the Panglong Agreement
and the creation of the
Union of Burma.
02/12/1981
Philippines
Pata Island Massacre
Moro National Liberation Front (MNLF) insurgents
killed 118 government
C
lic
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o
b
u
y
N
O
W
!
P
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C
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2893
troops on Pata Island after persuading them to lay
down their arms.
02/12/1990
Tajikistan
Demonstrators Die In Clashes
Twenty-five persons died as interior ministry troops
fired on
demonstrators massed outside the Tajikistan
Communist Party headquarters
in Dushanbe, the capital of Tajikistan. February 12
now is celebrated as
"Memory Day" and an obelisk was unveiled on
February 12, 1992 to
commemorate the persons who died in February
1990.
02/12/0000
Venezuela
Youth Day
02/13/1975
Cyprus
Founding of Turkish Federated State of Cyprus
The Turkish Federated State of Cyprus was founded.
02/13/1963
Indonesia, Malaysia
Malay Federation Opposed
President Sukarno announced Indonesia's
opposition to the
British-sponsored Federation of Malaysia, initiating
the Era of
Konfrontasi (confrontation) between Indonesia and
Malaysia.
02/14/1989
C
lic
k
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b
u
y
N
O
W
!
P
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w
w
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C
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k
t
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b
u
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N
O
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!
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2894
Iran, United Kingdom
Death Decree On Salman Rushdie
Khomeini announced a death decree on _Satanic
Verses_ author Salman
Rushdie, an Indian national resident in the United
Kingdom.
02/15/1989
Afghanistan
Final Soviet Troop Withdrawal
The second stage of the Soviet troop withdrawal
from Afghanistan was
declared complete by Soviet and Afghan authorities.
02/15/1966
Chile, Colombia
Colombian Rebel Priest's Death
Camilo Torres, a priest who was a leading member
of Colombia's National
Liberation Army (ELN) guerrilla organization, died on
this date.
02/15/1984
Italy
U.S. Diplomat Assassinated
U.S. diplomat Leamon Hunt was assassinated in
Rome by the Red Brigades.
02/15/1942
Japan, Singapore
British Surrender Singapore
British forces in Singapore surrender to the
Japanese army.
02/15/1980
Syria
National Labor Day
C
lic
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b
u
y
N
O
W
!
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!
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2895
02/16/1992
Israel, Lebanon
Death of Abbas Musawi
Hizballah general secretary Abbas Musawi was
killed in an Israeli
helicopter ambush near the village of Jibsheet in
South Lebanon.
02/16/1918
Lithuania
Independence Day
02/16/1942
North Korea
Birthday of Kim Chong Il
Kim Chong Il's birthday is celebrated as one of the
nation's "Four Great
Holidays."
02/17/1979
China, Vietnam
Invasion of Vietnam
Chinese troops invaded the northern provinces of
Vietnam, advancing to the
edge of the Red River delta before stopping and
beginning a phased
withdrawal.
02/17/1905
Philippines
Military Academy Anniversary
02/18/1965
Gambia
Independence Day
Gambia became an independent state within the
British commonwealth.
C
lic
k
t
o
b
u
y
N
O
W
!
P
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w
w
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k
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C
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k
t
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b
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!
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2896
02/18/1986
Portugal
FP-25 Bombs the U.S. Embassy
The Popular Forces of 25 April (FP-25) exploded a
bomb at the U.S. embassy
in Lisbon.
02/19/1980
Egypt, Israel
Israel Sends First Ambassador
02/19/0000
Ethiopia
Martyrs' Day
02/19/0000
Nepal
King Tribhuvan Day
King Tribhuvan and National Democracy Day.
02/20/0000
Burma
Chin National Day
02/20/0000
China (People's Republic of)
Lantern Festival
02/20/1934
Nicaragua
Death of Cesar Augusto Sandino
Sandino, the guerrilla leader who fought U.S.
occupation forces in
Nicaragua from 1927 until they were withdrawn in
1933, was killed on the
orders of General Anastasio Somoza.
02/21/1970
Israel, Switzerland
C
lic
k
t
o
b
u
y
N
O
W
!
P
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g
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w
w
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C
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t
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b
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!
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2897
Swissair Jet Bombed, 47 Die
Suspected members of the PFLP-GC placed a bomb
on a Swissair passenger jet
en route from Zurich to Tel Aviv, resulting in the
death of all 47
passengers.
02/21/1973
Laos
Lao Peace Accord Signed
The Vientiane Agreement established the third
coalition government
consisting of rightist and leftist elements. Vientiane
and Luang Prabang
were declared neutral cities by the accord.
02/21/0000
Peru
Birthday of Haya de la Torre
Victor Raul Haya de la Torre was the founder of the
American Popular
Revolutionary Alliance (APRA), the former ruling
party of Peru. This date
is also celebrated in Peru as the "Day of Fraternity."
02/22/1958
Egypt
Unity Day
02/22/1979
Saint Lucia
Independence Day
02/22/1958
Syria
Unity Day
02/23/0000
C
lic
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t
o
b
u
y
N
O
W
!
P
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!
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2898
Brunei
National Day
02/23/1970
Guyana
Proclamation of the Republic
Guyana proclaimed itself a republic, ending its tie
with the British crown
while remaining a member of the commonwealth.
02/24/1918
Estonia
Independence Day
02/24/1991
Iraq, Kuwait
Ground War Against Iraq Begins
Allied forces launched the ground assault against
Iraqi forces occupying
Kuwait.
02/24/1988
South Africa
Anti-Apartheid Groups Banned
The United Democratic Front (UDF) and other
leading anti-apartheid groups
were effectively banned by the government of South
Africa.
02/25/0000
Dominican Republic
Armed Forces Day
02/25/1948
Kuwait
Independence Day
02/25/1980
Suriname
C
lic
k
t
o
b
u
y
N
O
W
!
P
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F-XChan
g
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w
w
w
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cu-trac
k
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m
C
lic
k
t
o
b
u
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N
O
W
!
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2899
Military Seizes Power
A group of army sergeants and a lieutenant
overthrew the elected
government and established a series of military-
backed regimes. Lt. Col.
Desire Bouterse, the army commander, remains the
leading figure in the
government.
02/26/1988
Korea (Republic of)
Inauguration of No Tae U
02/26/1961
Morocco
King Hassan Assumes Throne
Upon the death of his father, Sultan Mohammed V,
Hassan became king of
Morocco.
02/26/1986
Philippines
The EDSA Revolution
Thousands of people poured into the streets of
Manila to celebrate the
February 25 accession of Corazon Aquino to power
and the departure of
Ferdinand and Imelda Marcos for Hawaii. The name
derives from the initials
of the street in Manila, Epifanio de los Santos
Avenue, where Aquino
supporters stood down the Filipino military who
backed Ferdinand Marcos.
02/27/1980
Colombia
C
lic
k
t
o
b
u
y
N
O
W
!
P
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g
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w
w
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!
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2900
M-19 Seizes U.S. Ambassador
Guerrillas of the April 19 Movement (M-19) seized
the Dominican embassy in
Bogota, holding diplomatic personnel from a number
of countries, including
the U.S. ambassador, as hostages.
02/27/1844
Dominican Republic
Independence Day
02/27/0000
Guadeloupe (French Antilles)
Carnival
02/27/1991
Iraq, Kuwait
Military Operations Suspended
The allied forces in Kuwait and Iraq suspended
military operations against
Iraq.
02/27/0000
Martinique (French Antilles)
Carnival
02/27/1976
Morocco
Polisario Government Founded
The Saharan Democratic Arab Republic (polisario
government-in-exile) was
founded.
02/28/1922
Egypt
UK Declares Egypt Independent
Britain unilaterally declared Egypt independent in
deference to growing
C
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b
u
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O
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!
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2901
nationalism.
02/28/1977
El Salvador
LP-28 Founded
The Popular League of 28 February (LP-28), a leftist
guerrilla group, was
founded.
02/28/1987
France
Lebanese Terrorist Convicted
A French court convicted Lebanese terrorist
Georges Ibrahim Abdallah for
the 1982 killing of an Israeli diplomat. Abdallah was
a principal figure
in the Lebanese Armed Revolutionary Faction
(LARF).
02/28/1987
Lebanon
LARF Leader Sentenced To Life
Georges Ibrahim Abdallah, a principal figure in the
Lebanese Armed
Revolutionary Faction (LARF), was sentenced to life
in prison for murder.
02/28/1948
North Korea
World Communist Manifesto Day
02/28/1986
Sweden
Prime Minister Palme Killed
02/28/1985
United Kingdom
PIRA Kills 9 Police Officers
C
lic
k
t
o
b
u
y
N
O
W
!
P
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t
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2902
Nine members of the Royal Ulster Constabulary
(RUC) were killed in a
mortar attack by the Provisional Irish Republican
Army (PIRA) on the Newry
police station.
[ Home] [Info-War] [Terrorism] Contact the
Terrorism Research Center
Calender of Significant Dates--March
MARCH
03/01/1878
Bulgaria
Independence Day
03/01/1971
Japan
Formation of Japanese Red Army
Terrorist leader Fusako Shigenobu formed the
Japanese Red Army (JRA) in
Beirut, Lebanon.
03/01/1921
Mongolia
Founding of the MPRP
The Mongolian People's Revolutionary Party (MPRP),
the ruling Marxist
party in Mongolia, was founded.
03/01/1973
Sudan
U.S. Diplomats Killed
C
lic
k
t
o
b
u
y
N
O
W
!
P
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C
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t
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b
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P
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2903
U.S. ambassador Cleo Noel and Deputy Chief of
Mission George Moore were
assassinated in Khartoum during the seizure of the
Saudi embassy.
03/02/1980
El Salvador
Archbishop Romero Assassinated
Archbishop Oscar Arnulfo Romero assassinated by a
presumed right wing
death squad. The anniversary has been marked in
succeeding years by
leftist terrorist attacks, including attacks on
American interests.
03/02/1977
Libya
People's State Established
The offical name of Libya was changed to the
"Socialist People's Libyan
Arab Jamahiriya."
03/02/1991
Middle East
Ceasefire Ends Gulf War
Iraq signs ceasefire agreement with Allied forces
ending the Persian Gulf
War.
03/02/1956
Morocco
Independence Day
France and Spain recognized the independence and
sovereignty of Morocco.
03/03/0000
Malawi
C
lic
k
t
o
b
u
y
N
O
W
!
P
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g
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w
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k
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C
lic
k
t
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b
u
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!
P
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2904
Martyrs' Day
03/03/1972
Sudan
Unity Day
Anniversary of the Addis Ababa Accords that ended
the insurgency against
the central government and granted southern Sudan
wide regional autonomy
on internal matters.
03/04/1982
Colombia
Extradition Treaty in Effect
The U.S.-Colombian Extradition Treaty, aimed in
part at drug traffickers,
came into effect. The treaty was later invalidated by
the Colombian
supreme court.
03/04/1991
Union of Soviet Soc. Republics
Baltics Seek Independence
Voters in Estonia and Latvia on March 3, 1991
approved seeking
independence from the Soviet Union. Lithuania's
parliament approved
independence on March 11, 1991. However, Baltic
independence did not
actually come until after the Soviet Union began to
disintegrate following
the collapse on August 21, 1991 of the coup against
president Mikhail
Gorbachev.
03/05/1965
C
lic
k
t
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b
u
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N
O
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!
P
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g
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k
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C
lic
k
t
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b
u
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N
O
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!
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2905
Bahrain
NFLB Was Founded
The National Front for the Liberation of Bahraih
(NFLB) was founded.
03/06/1957
Ghana
Independence Day
Ghana gained independence when the United
Kingdom relinquished control
over the Colony of the Gold Coast and Ashanti, the
Northern Terrritories
Protectorate, and British Togoland.
03/06/1988
United Kingdom
Terrorists Killed in Gibraltar
Three terrorists of the Provisional Irish Republican
Army (PIRA) were
killed when Special Air Service (SAS) personnel
attempted to arrest them
in Gibraltar. The three were part of a PIRA effort to
bomb a British Army
ceremony.
03/08/1989
China (People's Republic of)
Martial Law in Tibet
Martial law was imposed in Tibet by Chinese
authorities following three
days of violent pro-independence protests.
03/08/1946
Syria
Revolution Day
03/08/0000
C
lic
k
t
o
b
u
y
N
O
W
!
P
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k
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C
lic
k
t
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b
u
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N
O
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!
P
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g
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w
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2906
Worldwide
International Women's Day
International Women's Day is celebrated on this
date.
03/09/0000
Belize
Baron Bliss Day
03/09/1968
Egypt
Day of the War Dead
03/09/1983
Serbia-Montenegro
Turkish Ambassador Attacked
Armenian terrorists attacked the Turkish
ambassador, killing one Yugoslav
student and wounding the ambassador and his
driver.
03/10/1979
Iran, Iraq, Syria, Turkey (Kurdish Regions)
Death of Kurdish Leader
Death of Kurdish leader Mullah Mustafa Barzani
03/11/1990
Chile
Return to Civilian Rule
The inauguration of president Patricio Aylwin on this
date marked the
return to democratically elected civilian rule in
Chile following the
Pinochet military regime.
03/11/1966
Indonesia
Suharto Takes Power
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2907
President Sukarno issues the Supersemar Decree,
turning over executive
authority to Major General Suharto and initiating a
new era of rule in
Indonesia.
03/11/1990
Lithuania
Independence From USSR Voted
The Lithuanian parliament declared its
independence from the USSR.
03/11/0000
Swaziland
Commonwealth Day
03/12/0000
Gabon
Renovation Day
Commemorates the founding of the Gabonese
Democratic Party (PDG).
Celebrated as National Day.
03/12/1968
Ghana
National Holiday
03/12/1993
India
Bomb Attack in Bombay
A series of bomb attacks in Bombay left over 250
people dead.
03/12/0000
Lesotho
Moshoeshoe's Day
Celebrates a northern tribal chief who ruled from
1823 to 1870 and
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2908
consolidated various Basotho tribes that had been
scattered earlier by
Zulu and Matabele warriors. During his reign, a
series of wars with South
Africa resulted in the loss of extensive lands.
Moshoeshoe appealed to
Queen Victoria for assistance, and in 1868 the
nation became a british
protectorate.
03/12/1968
Mauritius
Independence Day
Mauritius achieved independence from Britain after
a period of communal
strife brought under control by British troops.
03/12/1992
Mauritius
Declaration of the Republic
The Republic of Maritius was declared on this day
after 24 years of
independence from the British crown. The republic
severed all formal ties
with the United Kingdom.
03/12/1971
Syria
Assad Elected As President
03/12/1880
Turkey
Kemal Ataturk's Birthday
Birthday of Kemal Ataturk, founder of the modern
Turkish state
03/13/1966
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2909
Angola
Founding of UNITA
The National Union for the Total Independence of
Angola (UNITA) was
founded.
03/15/1962
Angola
Founding of the FNLA
The National Front for the Liberation of Angola
(FNLA) was founded.
03/16/1921
Armenia
Soviet-Turkish Border Treaty
Signing of the Soviet-Turkish border treaty that
ended Armenian hopes of
establishing an independent state.
03/16/1988
Iraq
Halabja Chemical Weapons Attack
Iraqi forces used chemical weapons against the
civilian population in the
Kurdish village of Halabja.
03/16/1978
Israel
Israeli Forces Invade Lebanon
03/16/1978
Italy
Premier Aldo Moro Kidnapped
Italian premier Aldo Moro was kidnapped by the Red
Brigades. His body
subsequently was found on May 9, 1978.
03/16/1977
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2910
Lebanon
Kamal Jumblatt Assassinated
03/16/1978
Lebanon
Invasion By Israeli Forces
03/16/1984
Mozambique
Signing of the Nkomati Accord
The governments of Mozambique People's State
established. The offical name
of Libya was changed to the "Socialist People's
Libyan Arab Jamahiriya."
03/16/1921
Turkey
Soviet-Turkish Border Treaty
Signing of the Soviet-Turkish border treaty that
ended Armenian hopes of
establishing an independent state.
03/16/1988
United Kingdom
Milltown Massacre
At the funeral service of the three terrorists killed in
Gibraltar
(3/8/88), a Protestant extremist gunman, Michael
Stone, attacked the
mourners with hand grenades and a pistol, killing
three. His original
intent was to kill IRA leaders Gerry Adams and
Martin McGuiness who were
attending. He was captured and sentenced to life in
prison.
03/17/0000
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2911
Ireland, United Kingdom, United States
St. Patrick's Day
03/18/1962
Algeria
Signing of the Evian Accords
Accords signed by France and the National
Liberation Front (FLN) which
ended a revolt by Algeria against French colonial
rule.
03/18/1968
Philippines
Founding of the MNLF
The Moro National Liberation Front (MNLF) was
founded.
03/19/1992
Iran, Middle East
Jerusalem Day
Day proclaimed by the late Ayatollah Khomeini in
1979 to demand the
"liberation" of Jerusalem. Falls on the last day of
Ramadan.
03/19/1988
United Kingdom
Soldiers Murdered at Funeral
Two British soldiers were dragged from their car by
a mob, beaten, and
then taken to a remote area near Belfast's Milltown
Cemetery and shot
dead. The two had driven their car into an area of a
funeral procession
for a victim of a Protestant gunman who killed three
persons at funeral
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2912
for terrorists.
03/20/1995
Japan
Tokyo Subway Sarin Gas Attack
Aum Shinri Kyo cult deposits two containers
containing Sarin poison gas in
the Tokyo subway system. The incident results in 12
persons killed and up
to 5000 hospitalized. In terms of casualties created,
this is the most
serious terrorist incident of 1995.
03/20/1956
Tunisia
Independence Day
03/21/0000
Iran, Iraq, Syria, Turkey
Kurdish New Year
Kurdish new year celebrated.
03/21/1993
Iran
Persian New Year
03/21/1949
Israel
Palestinian Solidarity Day
Arab Solidarity Day with the Palestinian people
against Israel.
03/21/1990
Namibia
Independence Day
The Constituent Assembly of Namibia voted
unanimously to set March 21 as
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2913
Independence Day for Africa's last colony, in part
because the United
Nations recognizes this date as the "International
Day for the Elimination
of Apartheid."
03/21/1960
South Africa
Sharpeville Massacre
Police shot and killed sixty-nine blacks at a rally in
the township of
Sharpeville, south of Johannesburg.
03/22/1955
Laos
Founding of the LPRP
The Lao People's Revolutionary Party (LPRP), the
state Communist party,
was founded.
03/22/1945
Middle East
Arab League Founded
The Arab League or League of Arab States was
founded. The League has 20
members plus the Palestine Liberation Organization
(PLO).
03/23/1956
Pakistan
Islamic Republic Established
The National Assembly adopted a new constitution
which rejected Pakistan's
status as a dominion and became an "Islamic
Republic" within the
commonwealth. Also known as "Pakistan Day."
C
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2914
03/23/1962
Pakistan
New Constituion Adopted
A new constitution was promulgated by president
Ayub Khan.
03/24/1986
Libya
U.S. Sinks Libyan Patrol Boats
The U.S. Navy forces crossed the "Line of Death" in
the Gulf of Sidra and
engaged Libyan patrol boats. Four Libyan vessels
were sunk or damaged and
an SA-5 radar site was crippled.
03/24/1972
United Kingdom
Northern Ireland Direct Rule
On March 24, 1972, the British government imposed
direct rule on Northern
Ireland.
03/25/0000
Cyprus
Greek Independence Day
03/25/1821
Greece
War of Independence Began
The Greek war of independence against the
Ottoman Empire began. This is
celebrated as a national holiday.
03/25/1932
Iraq
Independence Day
03/25/1921
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2915
Mongolia
Army Day
Celebrates the founding of the Mongolian People's
Revolutionary Army
(MPRA).
03/25/1975
Saudi Arabia
King Faisal Assassinated
King Faisal was assassinated by a deranged
kinsman and was succeeded by
his brother, Prince Khalid.
03/26/1971
Bangladesh
Independence Declared
Bangladesh declares its independence from
Pakistan.
03/26/1979
Egypt, Israel
Egyptian-Israeli Peace Treaty
03/26/1978
Japan
Anti-Narita Struggle Begins
Japanese radical leftists initiated a period of violent
struggle against
New Tokyo International Airport (NTIA) at Narita,
taking over the
airport's control tower. The opening of the airport
subsequently was
postponed.
03/27/1945
Burma
Armed Forces Day
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2916
03/28/1959
China (People's Republic of)
Chinese Depose Dalai Lama
The Chinese deposed the Dalai Lama and installed
the Panchen Lama as a
puppet ruler in Tibet.
03/29/1985
Chile
Day of the Combatants
The anniversary of the deaths of three Communist
party members and
university professors, apparently at the hands of
government agents, is
marked by radicals as a kind of unofficial memorial
to Pinochet-era
terrorists. Bombings and other terrorist attacks
have taken place to
commemorate this date.
03/29/1969
Philippines
New People's Army Founded
Founding of the New People's Army (NPA), the
military arm of the Communist
Party of the Philippines (CPP).
03/30/1976
Israel, Occupied Territories
Land Day
Protests by Israeli Arabs against alleged
expropriation of Arab property.
Violent protests and attacks against Israelis have
taken place on this
day.
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2917
03/31/1959
China (People's Republic of)
Dalai Lama Flees Tibet
Tibetans rebelled against Chinese rule and the Dalai
Lama fled to India.
The Chinese, saying the "agreement" between
Beijing and Lhasa was broken,
subsequently established heavier military control
over Tibet.
03/31/1986
Germany, Federal Republic of
Friendship Association Bombed
The German Arab Friendship Association in West
Berlin was bombed, injuring
seven people. Syria allegedly aided the attack.
03/31/1992
Libya
U.N. Imposes Sanctions
The United Nations Security Council voted to
impose wide sweeping
sanctions on Libya for its refusal to surrender two
suspects in the 1988
bombing of Pan American flight 103. Under the
sanctions, all countries
must bar flights to or from Libya, prohibit any arms
deals, and
significantly reduce the staff of Libyan embassies
and consulates.
03/31/0000
Malta
Freedom Day--National Holiday
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2918
Calender of Significant Dates--April
APRIL
04/01/1915
Armenia
Armenians
April is designated a "Month of Remembrance" to
commemorate the
anniversary of the claim that the government of
Turkey massacred Armenians
in 1915.
04/01/1970
El Salvador
FPL Founded
The Popular Liberation Forces (FPL), a leftist
guerrilla organization.
04/01/1915
Europe (Region-Wide)
Armenians
April is designated a "Month of Remembrance" to
commemorate the
anniversary of the claim that the government of
Turkey massacred Armenians
in 1915.
04/01/1993
India
Top JKLF Leader Assassinated
Unidentified assailants kidnapped and killed one of
India's top heart
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2919
surgeons who was subsequently revealed to be a
leading member of the
militant Jammu and Kashmir Liberation Front
(JKLF). Kashmiri militants
alleged Indian security forces carried out the
assassination, a charge
Indian authorities denied.
04/01/1979
Iran
Islamic Republic Day
Commemorates riots by Islamic fundamentalists in
Isfahan.
04/01/1941
Ukraine, Moldova, And Romania
Fintina Alba Massacre
Thousands of people in northern Bukovina were
heading towards the Romanian
frontier. They were fired on not far from Fintina Alba
village. Hundreds
of people--especially women, children, and old
people--were killed. Most
of those who survived were tortured and deported to
Siberia and
Kazakhstan.
04/01/1973
Philippines
Founding of the NDF
The National Democratic Front (NDF) was founded,
an illegal underground
organization that supports the Communist Party of
the Philippines/New
People's Army (CPP/NPA).
C
lic
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2920
04/01/1915
Turkey
Armenians
April is designated a "Month of Remembrance" to
commemorate the
anniversary of the claim that the government of
Turkey massacred Armenians
in 1915.
04/02/1986
Greece
Bombing Aboard TWA Flight
Four Americans were killed and nine people,
including five Americans, were
injured when a bomb exploded aboard TWA flight
840 as it traveled from
Rome to Athens. The aircraft was able to land safely
at Athens airport.
04/03/1984
Guinea
Second Republic Declared
A military government took power one week after
the sudden death of
president Ahmed Sekou Toure.
04/03/1976
Thailand
PULO Begins Armed Struggle
The Pattani United Liberation Organization (PULO)
initiated its armed
struggle against the royal Thai government with a
series of attacks in the
southern provinces of Thailand.
04/04/1945
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2921
Hungary
Liberation Day
Celebrates the liberation of Hungary from Nazi
control by Soviet troops.
04/04/1979
Pakistan
Ex-President Bhutto Executed
Former president of Pakistan Zulfikar 'ali Bhutto
was executed by the
Pakistani government under President Zia. The
terrorist group Al-Zulfikar,
founded by his two sons, is named after him.
04/04/1960
Senegal
Independence Day
04/04/1947
Syria
Syrian Ba'ath Party Founded
04/05/1976
China (People's Republic of)
Tienanmen Square Incident
A militia force working with police beat to death
dozens of demonstrators
who had gathered in Beijings's Tienanmen Square to
lay wreaths in memory
of the late premier Chou En Lai. The incident
occurred during the
celebration of "Clear Bright" (Qing Ming), an annual
Chinese festival to
honor the dead.
04/05/1986
Germany, Federal Republic of
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2922
Bombing of Le Belle Disco
Le Belle Disco, a nightclub in West Berlin frequented
by U.S. servicemen,
was bombed, killing two American soldiers and one
Turkish woman. Two
hundred others were wounded in the bombing. Libya
was implicated in the
bombing.
04/05/0000
Korea (Republic of)
Arbor Day
04/05/1992
Peru
Fujimori Seizes Extra Powers
On this date, president Alberto Fujimori, with
military cooperation,
closed the congress and courts and set aside
portions of the constitution
in an action that concentrated extraordinary powers
in his hands. The
Organization of American States (OAS) has
demanded that Fujimori restore
the constitution. Opposition parties and leftist
insurgents oppose
Fujimori's takeover.
04/05/1975
Taiwan
Death of Chiang Kai Shek
04/06/1990
Nepal
Pro-Democracy Demonstrations
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lic
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2923
Clashes between police and pro-democracy
demonstrators left 19 people
dead.
04/06/1782
Thailand
Thai Royal Dynasty Founded
Celebrated as Chakri Day, marking the founding of
the ruling Thai royal
dynasty by Rama I.
04/07/1991
Pakistan
Death of Hazrat Ali Marked
Shia Moslems mark the death of Hazrat Ali, fourth
Caliph of Islam.
04/08/1947
Iraq
Iraqi Ba'ath Party Founded
The Iraqi Ba'ath Party was founded in 1947.
04/09/1942
Philippines
Bataan Day
Commemorates the surrender of American forces to
the Japanese.
04/09/0000
Tunisia
Martyr's Day
04/10/1986
Pakistan
Benazir Bhutto's Return
The daughter of former president Bhutto, Benazir
Bhutto, returned from
exile in Europe.
C
lic
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u
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P
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2924
04/10/1993
South Africa
Assassination of Chris Hani
South African Communist Party (SACP) secretary
general and chief of staff
of the SACP armed wing (Umkhonto We Sizwe--
Spear of the Nation--MK)
assassinated by a Polish immigrant, Janusz Walus, a
member of several
right wing groups including the Afrikaner Resistance
Movement and the
White Wolves. Black and white extremists killed
several people in ensuing
political violence.
04/11/1968
Lebanon, Syria, Occupied Territories
PFLP-GC Founded In Syria
The Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine
(PFLP-GC) split from the
PFLP under the leadership of Ahmad Jabril.
04/12/1988
Japan, United States
Arrest of JRA Terrorist
Japanese Red Army (JRA) terrorist Yu Kikumura
was arrested at a rest stop
on the New Jersey turnpike in possession of pipe
bombs on his way to New
York.
04/12/1980
Liberia
Coup Led by Samuel K. Doe
C
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2925
President William Tolbert was overthrown in a coup
led by Sgt. Samuel K.
Doe, who subsequently suspended the constitution
and imposed martial law.
04/13/1699
India
Sikh Religion Founded
The Sikh religion was founded in 1699 by guru
Gobind Singh.
04/13/1975
Lebanon
Fighting In Lebanon Begins
Philange militiamen attack Shia Moslem targets
sparking the first round of
fighting in the Lebanese civil war.
04/14/1949
Israel
Holocaust Memorial Day
04/14/1984
Namibia
Bomb Kills American Diplomat
U.S. diplomat Dennis Keough was killed by a booby
trap bomb.
04/14/1967
Togo
Eyadema Assumes Presidency
04/15/1989
China (People's Republic of)
Death of Hu Yao Bang
The death of Hu Yao Bang set off protests, hunger
strikes, and the
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2926
occupation of Tienanmen Square by pro-democracy
student radicals.
04/15/1982
Egypt
Sadat's Assassins Executed
The assassins of Anwar Sadat were publicly
executed in Cairo.
04/15/1986
Libya
U.S. Bombs Tripoli and Benghazi
U.S. aircraft bombed Tripoli and Benghazi, Libya, in
retaliation for
terrorist attacks against American targets. Several
terrorist operations
commemorating the raid have occurred on this date.
04/15/1992
Libya
Libyan Sanctions Take Effect
United Nations Security Council sanctions,
approved on March 31, 1992.
04/15/0000
Niger
National Day
04/15/1911
North Korea
Birthday of Kim Il Sung
04/15/1986
Sudan
U.S. Embassy Employee Wounded
A U.S. embassy communicator was shot and
wounded while riding home from
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2927
the embassy in Khartoum. The shooting was
believed to be in retaliation
for U.S. air raids on Libya earlier in the day.
04/16/1990
China (People's Republic of)
Lhasa Monks Expelled
Chinese governemt authorities expelled senior
Tibetan Buddhist monks from
temples in Lhasa, further alienating Tibet from
Beijing.
04/16/0000
Denmark
National Holiday
04/16/1991
Iraq
U.S. Troops Enter North Iraq
President George Bush announced that U.S. troops
would enter northern Iraq
to create a safe haven for displaced Kurds around
Zakhu.
04/16/1980
Israel
Palestinian Prisoners Day
Day declared by the PLO for Palestinians held in
Israeli jails.
04/16/1988
Tunisia
Abu Jihad Assassinated
Abu Jihad, commander of the western sector of
Fatah, was assassinated in
his home in Tunis.
04/17/1989
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2928
Burma
United Wa State Army Founded
Elements of the Burma Communist Party (BCP) and
the Wa National Army (WNA)
founded the United Wa State Army (UWSA) in
opposition to drug lord Khun
Sa's Muang Tai Revolutionary Army (MRTA).
04/17/1946
Syria
Independence Day
French forces left Syria and Syria declared its
independence. Also
sometimes called Evacuation Day.
04/17/1992
Turkey
Revenge For 17/4
Turkish police killed 11 suspected Kurdish guerrillas
in a series of raids
in Istanbul. Kurds undertook several terrorist
attacks in 1992 in Germany
and Turkey citing this date.
04/18/1983
Lebanon
Bombing of U.S. Embassy
A car bomb exploded in front of the U.S. embassy in
Beirut, killing
sixty-three people, including seventeen Americans.
More than one hundred
others were wounded. Islamic Jihad claimed
responsibility, calling the
bombing "part of the Islamic revolution." Iran
subsequently denied having
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2929
any role in the attack.
04/18/1980
Zimbabwe
Independence Day
04/19/1980
Colombia
Founding of M-19
The "April 19 Movement (M-19)," formerly a leftist
guerrilla group, has
made peace with the government and become a
legitimate political party.
04/19/1960
Korea (Republic of)
Students' Day
Commemorates student demonstrations that led to
the resignation of
president Syngman Rhee.
04/19/1960
Namibia
Founding of Swapo
04/19/1971
Sierra Leone
Proclamation of the Republic
04/19/1993
United States
End of Branch Davidian Siege After a 51 day siege,
the FBI stormed the
Branch Davidian compound near Waco, Texas.
Eighty-two people died as the
compound went up in flames.
04/19/1995
United States
C
lic
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u
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O
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!
P
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2930
Oklahoma City Bombing
An explosion at the Alfred P. Murrah Federal
Building in downtown Oklahoma
City killed 168 people and injured hundreds of other.
This was the worst
terrorist attack on U.S. soil.
04/20/1980
Algeria
Berber Spring
Berber ethnic protests held in Tizi Ouzou.
04/20/1889
Germany, Federal Republic of
Adolf Hitler's Birthday
Right-wing, neo-Nazi, and skinhead groups celebrate
primarily in Germany;
however, racist and anti-Semetic groups
commemorate Hitler's birth
throughout Europe.
04/20/1993
Israel, Jordan, Lebanon, Syria
Peace Talks Resume
The United States and Russia issued invitations to
Israel, Syria, Jordan,
Lebanon, and the Palestinians to meet in
Washington on April 20, 1993, to
resume peace talks stalled by the Israeli
deportation of 400 suspected
Hamas activists to Lebanon.
04/21/1967
Greece
Military Dictatorship Began
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lic
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b
u
y
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O
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!
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2931
A group of military officers led by George
Papadopoulos seized power in a
coup d'etat and established a military dictatorship
that lasted until July
1974. Young king Constatine II was sent into exile
on December 14, 1967
and Colonel Papadopoulos, as premier, converted
the government to a
republic in 1973 when, as president, he ended
martial law.
04/23/1993
Sri Lanka
Lalith Athulathmudai Killed
Opposition politician Lalith Athulathmudai was
assassintated during an
election rally near Colombo.
04/24/1915
Armenia, Turkey
Armenian "Genocide" Marked
Armenians observe this date as the anniversary of
the 1915 Turkish
"genocide" against Armenians.
04/24/1970
Gambia
Republic Day
04/24/1973
Philippines
Founding of the NDF
The National Democratic Front (NDF), a coalition of
fourteen leftist
groups supporting the Communist Party of the
Philippines (CPP) and the New
C
lic
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b
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O
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2932
People's Army (NPA), was founded in Manila.
04/25/1992
Afghanistan
Rebels Take Kabul
After almost fourteen years of Communist rule,
Soviet occupation, and
civil war, victorious Mujahedden forces regained
control of Kabul.
Fighting between a hold-out faction, Hezb-I-Islami,
and a coalition of
Mujahedeen forces broke out almost immediately.
04/25/1988
Armenia, Greece, Turkey
ASALA Leader Killed In Athens
Hagop Hagopian, leader of the Armenian Secret
Army for the Liberation of
Armenia (ASALA), also known as the Orly Group, 3rd
October Organization,
was shot dead in his home in Athens by two
gunmen. No group claimed
responsibility for his murder.
04/25/0000
Australia, New Zealand
ANZAC Day
04/25/0000
Egypt
Sinai Liberation Day
04/25/1950
Indonesia
Incorporation of Moluccas
The Moluccas archipelago west of New Guinea was
incorporated by Indonesia
C
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b
u
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O
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!
P
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2933
when the Netherlands' colonial rule over the former
Dutch East Indies came
to an end. Moluccans maintain Indonesia illegally
occupies the islands and
claim the Dutch government owes them an
independent homeland. Separatists
under R.S. Soumokil proclaimed independence in
Ambon on the same day.
04/25/1980
Iran
Anniversary of Desert One
The day operations to rescue American hostages
failed in the desert of
Iran due to operational shortfalls and an aircraft
accident. The hostages
remained in captivity for 444 days until released by
the government of
Iran.
04/25/0000
Macao
Portuguese Revolution Day
04/25/1932
North Korea
Korean People's Army Founded
04/25/1967
Swaziland
National Flag Day
Celebrates the establishment of the kingdom.
04/26/1964
Tanzania
United Republic Formed
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N
O
W
!
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2934
Tanganyika united with Zanzibar to form the United
Republic of Tanzania.
This is also known as Union Day.
04/27/1978
Afghanistan
Anniversary of the Revolution
Commemorates the seizure of power by Noor Taraki
and the formation of a
Marxist government.
04/27/1993
Eritrea
Vote for Independence Carries
Eritrea, a segment of northeastern Ethiopia, forced
into union by colonial
powers, ratified in regional referendum today the
decision to become an
independent country named Eritrea. The
government of Ethiopia had asked
their Eritrean allies in the war to oust Mengistu to
wait two years before
deciding to separate. They did and were recognized
by the U.S. on April
27.
04/27/1961
Sierra Leone
Independence Day
Sierra Leone became an independent state within
the British commonwealth.
04/27/1960
Togo
Independence Day
04/28/1965
C
lic
k
t
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b
u
y
N
O
W
!
P
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!
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2935
Dominican Republic
U.S. Marine Intervention
The anniversary of the last U.S. Marine intervention
in the Dominican
Republic is marked by leftist/nationalist groups with
annual protests.
04/28/1937
Iraq
Saddam Hussein's Birthday
04/28/1945
Italy
Mussolini Killed At Lake Como
04/28/1952
Japan
Japan/U.S. Security Treaty
The first Japan/U.S. security treaty was signed.
04/29/1967
Colombia
Founding of the EPL
Popular Liberation Army (EPL)
04/29/1986
India
Militants Seize Golden Temple
Sikh militants seized the Golden Temple of Amritsar
in Punjab and declared
the independent state of Khalistan. Expelled by
government of India forces
the next day.
04/29/1916
Ireland, United Kingdom
Easter Rebellion Dublin
C
lic
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b
u
y
N
O
W
!
P
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2936
Irish nationalists unsuccessfully attempted to throw
off British rule.
Guerrilla warfare followed proclamation of a
republic by the rebels in
1919.
04/29/1901
Japan
Arbor Day
Also known as Green Day, it is celebrated on the
birthday of deceased
emperor Hirohito.
04/29/1992
Sierra Leone
Overthrow of President Momoh
On April 29, 1992 Captain Valentine Strasser
overthrew president Joseph
Momoh in a military coup that drove Momoh into
exile. The proximate cause
of the coup was the poor treatment of the military
involved in a difficult
battle against the Revolutionary United Front (RUF)
in the eastern part of
the country that was two years old at the time of
the coup.
04/30/1980
United Kingdom
Seizure of Iranian Embassy
Iranian Arabs seized the Iranian embassy in London,
taking twenty-six
people hostage. Two hostages were killed on May 5.
Special forces stormed
C
lic
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b
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O
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2937
the embassy, rescuing the remaining hostages and
killing five of the six
terrorists. Much of the embassy was destroyed by
fire.
04/30/1975
Vietnam
Fall of Saigon
The government of South Vietnam collapsed as the
invading North Vietnamese
Army captured Saigon.
Calender of Significant Dates--May
MAY
05/01/0000
Afghanistan
Worker's Day
05/01/0000
Argentina
Labor Day
05/01/0000
Burundi
Labor Day
05/01/1945
Germany, Federal Republic of
Hitler's Suicide Announced
05/01/0000
Guadeloupe (French Antilles)
Labor Day
05/01/1963
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lic
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O
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!
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!
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2938
Indonesia
West Irian Jaya Transferred
Administrative responsibility for West Irian Jaya
was transferred to
Indonesia following an agreement with the
Netherlands.
05/01/0000
Kenya
Labor Day
05/01/0000
Mali
Labor Day
05/01/0000
Martinique (French Antilles)
May Day
05/01/1993
Sri Lanka
President Premadasa Assassinated
A suicide bomber assassinated president
Ranasinghe Premadasa during May
Day celebrations in Colombo.
05/01/1977
Turkey
30 Leftists Killed in Istanbul
More than thirty leftists were killed during clashes
with security forces
in Istanbul.
05/01/0000
Worldwide
May Day
05/02/1945
Germany, Russia
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lic
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N
O
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!
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2939
Berlin Falls to Soviets
05/02/1953
Jordan
Hussein Proclaimed King
05/02/1935
Philippines
Air Force Day
05/03/1947
Japan
Adoption of the Constitution
05/03/0000
Jordan
Armed Forces Day
05/04/1919
China (People's Republic of)
Anti-Government Protests
Thousands of Beijing students protested the seizure
of former German
holdings in China by Japan following China's ill-
treatment at the Paris
peace conference. The protest spawned the May
Fourth Movement, one of the
forerunners of the Chinese Communist Party.
05/04/1986
Japan
Chukaku-Ha Bombs Summit
Chukaku-Ha terrorists fired homemade rockets at
heads of state arriving
for the Tokyo economic summit. There were no
casualties.
05/04/1978
Namibia
C
lic
k
t
o
b
u
y
N
O
W
!
P
D
F-XChan
g
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w
w
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cu-trac
k
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C
lic
k
t
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b
u
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N
O
W
!
P
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2940
Kasinga Day
Commemorates a raid by South African military
forces that left hundreds
dead.
05/04/1988
New Caledonia
French Forces Storm Rebels
French forces stormed the caves on Ouvea where
separatists from the Kanak
Socialist National Liberation Front (FLNKS) were
holding twenty-three
French gendarmes hostage. More than twenty
people were killed in the
fighting.
05/04/1989
New Caledonia
FLNKS Chairman Killed
Kanak Socialist National Liberation Front (FLNKS)
chairman Jean-Marie
Tjibaou and his assistant, Yewewe Yewewe, were
killed by Jubeli Wea and
two others from the United Front for the Liberation
of Caledonia (FULK).
The attack occurred during ceremonies
commemorating the first anniversary
of the 1988 unrest on Ouvea.
05/04/1980
Serbia-Montenegro
Death of Tito
05/05/0544
Bhutan, Cambodia, India, Nepal, Sri Lanka, Thailand
Birth of Buddha
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2941
Buddha was born circa 544 BC.
05/05/1941
Ethiopia
Liberation Day
05/05/1867
Mexico
Mexican Victory Over French
Archduke Maximilian of Austria, who was
established as emperor of Mexico
in1864 by Napolean III of France, was deposed by
Benito Juarez and
executed in 1867.
05/05/1981
United Kingdom
First PIRA Hunger Striker Dies
On May 5, 1981, Bobby Sands became the first
member of the Northern
Ireland terrorist organization PIRA (Provisional Irish
Republican Army) to
die while participating in a hunger strike in prison.
05/06/1915
Lebanon
Martyrs' Day
05/06/1945
Philippines
Corregidor Day
05/06/1915
Syria
Martyrs' Day
05/06/1976
United Arab Emirates
Armed Forces Unification Day
C
lic
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b
u
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N
O
W
!
P
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2942
05/07/1948
Israel
Israeli Independence Day
As observed by Arabs in the occupied territories.
05/07/1992
Thailand
Demonstrations Against Government
On May 7, 1992, massive demonstrations
commenced in Bangkok leading to the
sacking of the military-dominated government and
the appointment of a
prime minister approved by the king to lead the
country on a more
democratic path. The demonstrations by opposition
elements led to an
undetermined number of deaths and injuries when
government forces fired
into crowds.
05/08/0000
Algeria
War Dead Day
05/08/0000
Guadeloupe (French Antilles)
Victory Day
National holiday.
05/08/1985
Spain
Firebombing of American Firms
Molotov cocktails were thrown at offices of Citibank
and Xerox.
05/08/1945
Worldwide
C
lic
k
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b
u
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N
O
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!
P
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2943
Victory in Europe (VE) Day
Germany surrendered in World War II.
05/10/1902
Cuba
Independence Day
Cuba achieved independence as a U.S. protectorate
in 1899. This date marks
the end of U.S. protection.
05/10/0000
Jordan
Arab Resistance Day
Also known as Renaissance Day.
05/13/1981
Italy
Attempt to Kill the Pope
Pope John Paul II was shot and wounded by Mehmet
Ali Agca, a Turkish
fugitive. An American bystander also was wounded
in the attack.
05/13/1969
Malaysia
The Malay Uprising
Fighting between Malays and ethnic Chinese led to
numerous deaths.
05/14/1987
Fiji
First Military Coup
Lt. Col. Siteveni Rabuka took power in a military
coup.
05/14/1948
Israel
First Arab-Israeli War Began
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2944
The first Arab-Israeli war began shortly after the
state of Israel was
proclaimed.
05/14/1948
Israel
State of Israel Proclaimed
The state of Israel was proclaimed as the British
mandate in Palestine
expired. Arab armies launched attacks on Israel
immediately following the
proclamation.
05/14/0000
Malawi
Kamuzu Day
05/14/1811
Paraguay
Independence Day
05/14/1985
Sri Lanka
Separatists Attack Shrine
Tamil separatists killed more than one hundred and
fifty people in an
attack on a Buddhist shrine at Anuradhapura.
05/15/1955
Austria
Austrian State Treaty Signed
Signing of the treaty that would restore all Soviet-
occupied territory and
make Austria a free and independent state.
05/15/1979
Iraq, Israel
15 May Organization Founded
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2945
The Arab 15 May Organization under Muhammad Al-
Umari was founded from the
reminants of Wadi Haddad's Popular Front for the
Liberation of Palestine -
Special Operations Group (PFLP-SOG). The group
was headquartered in
Baghdad until it disbanded in 1984-1985.
05/15/1991
Israel
Palestinian Struggle Day
05/15/1972
Japan
Okinawa Returned to Japan
The island of Okinawa was returned to Japanese
control on May 15 1972.
05/16/1983
Sudan
Founding of the SPLM/SPLA
The Sudanese People's Liberation Movement/Army
(SPLM/SPLA) was founded.
05/17/1989
Germany, Federal Republic of
Conviction of TWA Hijacker
Mohammad Ali Hamadei was convicted by a German
court on May 17, 1989 of
hijacking TWA flight 847 on June 14, 1985, while it
was en route from
Athens to Rome, and of the murder of a passenger,
U.S. Navy diver Robert
Stethem. Hamadei had been arrested in Frankfurt on
January 13, 1987 while
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2946
trying to smuggle explosives into Germany. He was
sentenced to life in
prison.
05/17/1983
Israel
Israeli Troops Leave Lebanon
Israel signed an accord with Lebanon for the
withdrawal of Israeli troops
from most of South Lebanon.
05/17/1814
Norway
Constitution Day
Norway's independence movement adopted a
constitution on May 17, 1814. The
movement was put down by the Swedes.
05/18/1980
Korea (Republic of)
Uprising in Kwangju
A civilian uprising in Kwangju protested the military
rule of president
Chun Doo Hwan. There were major civilian
casualties following an assault
by military units on the protesters.
05/18/1980
Peru
Sendero Rebellion Begins
The Maoist Sendero Luminoso (Shining Path)
guerrilla organization, which
began its armed struggle with an attack on a rural
polling station, has
grown into the largest and most active insurgent
group in the country.
C
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2947
05/18/0000
Uruguay
Army Day
A holiday celebrated with high-level civilian and
military events.
05/19/1928
Cambodia
Pol Pot's Birthdate
Pol Pot, the leader of the Khmer Rouge, was born on
May 19, 1928.
05/19/1949
Taiwan
Imposition of Martial Law
Martial law remained in effect until July of 1987.
05/19/1991
Turkey
Ataturk Holiday
May 19, 1991 will be celebrated as Ataturk Memorial
and Youth and Sports
Day, an official Turkish holiday.
05/19/1890
Vietnam
Birthday of Ho Chi Minh
05/20/1972
Cameroon
National Day
Celebrates the declaration of the republic. Also
known as National Feast
Day.
05/20/1989
China (People's Republic of)
Martial Law in Beijing
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2948
The death of Hu Yao Bang on April 15 set off
protests, hunger strikes, and
the occupation of Tienanmen Square by pro-
democracy student radicals,
which led to the imposition of martial law in Beijing.
05/20/1990
Israel
Gunman Kills Eight Arabs
A lone Israeli gunman killed eight Arab laborers in
Rishon Le Ziyyon,
south of Tel Aviv. Nine workers were injured. The
gunman was identified as
a discharged Israeli soldier.
05/20/1978
Japan
Narita Airport Opened
05/20/1973
Morocco
Polisario Starts Armed Strife
Polisario guerrillas begin their armed struggle
against Morocco in the
western Sahara.
05/20/1927
Saudi Arabia
Independence Day
05/21/0000
Chile
Battle of Iquique
05/21/1991
India
Rajiv Gandi Assassinated
C
lic
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O
W
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2949
Former prime minister Rajiv Gandhi was
assassinated during a campaign
rally in Tamil Nadu State.
05/22/0000
Guadeloupe (French Antilles)
Emancipation Day
05/22/0000
Martinique (French Antilles)
Emancipation Day
05/22/1972
Sri Lanka
Republic Day
Also known as National Heroes' Day.
05/22/1990
Yemen
North and South Yemen Reunited
North and South Yemen signed an agreement
reuniting the country. Declared
as "Yemeni National Day."
05/23/1951
China (People's Republic of)
Tibet Under Chinese Rule
Tibet was "peacefully liberated" when
representatives of the Dalai Lama
signed an agreement with the Beijing government
accepting Chinese rule in
return for a promise of greater autonomy.
05/23/1949
Germany, Federal Republic of
Federal Republic Proclaimed
05/24/0000
Belize
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2950
Commonwealth Day
05/24/1990
Bulgaria
Holiday
Day of the Slavonic Enlighterners Cyril and
Methodius, of Bulgarian
education and culture.
05/24/1822
Ecuador
Independence Day
05/24/1993
Eritrea
Independence Day
The country of Eritrea formally declared
independence today after 30 years
of war and two years of stabilization before
separating from Ethiopia.
05/24/0000
Guadeloupe (French Antilles)
Ascension Day
05/24/0000
Martinique (French Antilles)
Ascension Day
05/24/1984
Philippines
Urban Terrorism Begins
Philippine constabulary chief Tomas Karingal was
shot by five gunmen who
subsequently fled, covering their escape with
smoke grenades. This attack
is generally considered the inauguration of the era
of urban terrorism in
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2951
Manila, and coincides with the formation of the Alex
Boncayao Brigade
(ABB), the urban terrorist or "sparrow" unit of the
Communist Party of the
Philippines (CPP).
05/25/1963
Africa
OAU - Africa Freedom Day
The Organization of African Unity (OAU) was
founded on May 25, 1963. The
day is celebrated as Africa Freedom Day. The OAU
is organized to promote
unity and cooperation among African states.
05/25/1967
Bermuda
Self-Government Achieved
05/25/1946
Jordan
Independence Day
Following the end of the British mandate over
Transjordan (May 22), Jordan
became the independent Hashemite Kingdom of
Transjordan.
05/25/1990
Spain
Sevillano Died (GRAPO Member)
Jose Manuel Sevillano, imprisoned member of
October First Antifascist
Resistance Group (GRAPO) died after a prolonged
hunger strike.
05/27/1964
Colombia
C
lic
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t
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b
u
y
N
O
W
!
P
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2952
Assault on Peasant "Republic"
On this date, government troops attacked the
"independent republic" that
Communist peasant groups had set up at
Marquetalia, Caldas Department.
05/27/1991
Turkey
Constitution Day
May 27, 1991 will be celebrated as Constitution Day,
an official Turkish
holiday.
05/28/1989
Japan
Anti-Narita Struggle Day
05/29/0000
Syria
Internal Security Forces Day
05/30/1961
Dominican Republic
Assassination of Trujillo
Rafael L. Trujillo's assassination ended a thirty-year
personal
dictatorship.
05/30/1972
Israel
JRA Massacre at Lod Airport
Members of the Japanese Red Army (JRA) killed
twenty-six people in a
massacre at Lod Airport.
05/30/1967
Nigeria
Biafra Declares Independence
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O
W
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2953
05/31/1993
Worldwide
The Hajj Begins
The annual pilgrimage in Mecca begins.
05/31/1967
Israel
East Jerusalem Captured by Israel
Israeli troops captured East Jerusalem in the Six-
Day War.
05/31/1162
Mongolia
Birth of Ghengis Khan
The birth of Ghengis Khan, founder of the United
Mongol State, is
celebrated with a festival.
05/31/1910
South Africa
Union Day
Four provinces merged to form the Union of South
Africa.
05/31/1961
South Africa
Establishment of the Republic
Calender of Significant Dates--June
JUNE
06/00/0000
Bahamas
Labor Day
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2954
Holiday is celebrated on the first Friday in June.
06/01/1993
Asia and Pacific
Eid-Ul-Adha
06/01/1972
Cameroon
Proclamation of the Republic
06/01/1993
Europe (Region-Wide)
Eid-Ul-Adha
06/01/1973
Greece
Proclamation of the Republic
The royal family was sent into exile following a
military coup.
06/01/1963
Kenya
Beginning of Self-Rule
Also known as Madaraka Day.
06/01/1976
Lebanon
Syria Enters Lebanon Civil War
During this month, Syria entered the civil war in
Lebanon on the side of
the Christian Phalange and against the Palestinians
and their Moslem
allies. In response, Abu Nidal renamed his terrorist
group, then based in
Iraq, the Black June Organization and began
attacking Syrian targets.
06/01/1987
Lebanon
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lic
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N
O
W
!
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2955
Prime Minister Karami Assassinated
06/01/1993
Middle East
Eid-Ul-Adha
06/01/1976
Syria
Syria Enters Lebanon Civil War
During this month, Syria entered the civil war in
Lebanon on the side of
the Christian Phalange and against the Palestinians
and their Moslem
allies. In response, Abu Nidal renamed his terrorist
group, then based in
Iraq, the Black June Organization and began
attacking Syrian targets.
06/01/1955
Tunisia
Victory Day (National Holiday)
06/01/0000
Western Samoa
National Holiday
06/02/1972
Cameroon
United Republic Proclaimed
06/02/1946
Italy
Establishment of the Republic
06/02/1976
Philippines
Air Force Day
06/03/1989
China (People's Republic of)
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O
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2956
Tienanmen Square Massacre
The Chinese People's Liberation Army (PLA) killed
hundreds (maybe
thousands) of Chinese civilians in the Tienanmen
Square area beginning on
the evening of June 3 and on into June 4 during a
violent crackdown
against student dissidents.
06/03/1989
Iran
Ayatollah Khomeini's Death
The Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini died on this date;
however, Iranians mark
the anniversary on June 4, the date his death was
announced. Khomeini's
funeral was three days later.
06/03/1982
Israel, United Kingdom
Ambassador Wounded In London
Abu Nidal terrorists critically injured the Israeli
ambassador to the
United Kingdom in an attack in London. The
government of Israel used the
incident as a pretext for launching the invasion of
Lebanon in the "Peace
for Galilee" operation.
06/04/0000
Guadeloupe (French Antilles)
Pentecost
06/04/1982
Israel, Lebanon
Israeli Planes Bomb Beirut
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lic
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b
u
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N
O
W
!
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2957
06/04/0000
Martinique (French Antilles)
Pentecost
06/04/1970
Tonga
Independence Proclaimed
06/05/1967
Egypt, Israel, Jordan, Syria
The Six Day War
06/05/1975
Egypt
Suez Canal Reopened
06/05/1963
Iran
Day of Uprising
Commemorates the arrest of the Ayatollah Khomeini
by the shah's police.
Also the Day of Mourning and Revolution Day.
06/05/1977
Seychelles
Liberation Day
Supporters of prime minister Albert Rene overthrew
the government of prime
minister James Mancham. Rene suspended the
constitution, dismissed the
parliament, and ruled by decree until a new
constitution was adopted in
June of 1979.
06/06/1984
India
Troops Storm Amritsar Temple
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lic
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O
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2958
Indian troops stormed the Golden Temple of
Amritsar, killing three hundred
Sikhs in the attack.
06/06/1981
Iraq, Israel
Israeli Jets Hit Iraqi Plant
Israeli warplanes attacked an Iraqi nuclear power
plant near Bagdad.
06/06/1982
Israel, Lebanon
Israeli Invasion of Lebanon
Israel invaded Lebanon.
06/06/0000
Sweden
National Day
06/07/1982
Chad
National Liberation Day
Celebrates the overthrow of Goukouni Oueddei by
Hissene Habre.
06/07/1975
Greece
Revised Constitution Adopted
06/08/1968
Bermuda
Adoption of Constitution
06/08/1967
Middle East
Sa'iqa (Thunderbolt) Founded
The Palestinian terrorist group Sa'iqa (Thunderbolt)
was founded.
06/08/1962
C
lic
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O
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!
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!
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2959
Pakistan
Martial Law Lifted
Martial law, which was imposed in 1958, was lifted
and the National
Assembly convened.
06/08/0000
United Kingdom
Queen's Birthday
06/09/1987
Italy
Attacks on the U.S. Embassy
A car bomb exploded outside the back gate of the
U.S. Embassy in Rome and
rockets were fired at the compound from across the
street. One passerby
was injured in the attacks.
06/09/1965
Oman
Terrorist Attacks Begin
The Popular Front for the Liberation of Oman began
violent attacks.
06/09/1983
South Africa
Three ANC Members Hanged
Three members of the African National Congress
(ANC) were hanged on
charges of terrorism.
06/09/1969
Sudan
South Declares Independence
06/10/1926
Korea (Republic of)
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lic
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2960
Anti-Japanese Demonstrations
Commemorates anti-Japanese demonstrations
during the colonial period, as
well as the beginning of student demonstrations in
1987.
06/10/1926
North Korea
Anti-Japanese Demonstrations
Commemorates anti-Japanese demonstrations
during the colonial period.
06/10/0000
Portugal
National Day
06/11/1970
Libya
U.S. Bases Turned Over
U.S. bases were turned over to Libya. Also known as
Evacuation Day.
06/12/1898
Philippines
Independence Day
The Philippines became independent on July 4,
1946, but changed the
official Independence Day to June 12 in 1962 to
commemorate the
Philippines' declaration of independence from Spain
by General Emilio
Aguinaldo in 1898. This day is now celebrated as
Philippine-American
Friendship Day. Also referred to as the Proclamation
of the Malolos
Republic.
C
lic
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!
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2961
06/12/1986
South Africa
Second State of Emergency
President P.W. Botha declared a nationwide state of
emergency, giving
authorities broad powers to crack down on
opposition groups. More than one
thousand activists were detained in predawn raids,
and more than three
thousand people, mostly blacks, subsequently were
held for varying lengths
of time during the emergency.
06/13/1982
Saudi Arabia
King Fahd Came To Power
King Fahd came to power following the death by a
heart attack of King
Khalid.
06/13/1990
Sri Lanka
LTTE Offensive Launched
The Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam (LTTE)
launched a renewed offensive
against Sri Lankan government forces by storming
at least 24 police
stations in northern and eastern Sri Lanka. Several
hundred police
officers were taken as hostages and a number of
these were later killed.
06/13/1974
Yemen
Al-Hamidi Took Power In A Coup
C
lic
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O
W
!
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2962
06/14/0000
Bermuda
Queen's Birthday
06/14/1949
Burma
Karens Proclaim Own State
Ethnic Karen rebels proclaimed their own separate
state with its capital
at Toungoo.
06/14/1975
El Salvador
FARN Founded
The Armed Forces of National Resistance (FARN), a
leftist guerrilla group.
06/14/1985
Greece, Lebanon, United States
TWA Flight Hijacked To Lebanon
TWA Flight 847 was hijacked from Athens to
Lebanon. The hijackers shot and
killed U.S. Navy diver Robert Stetham in Beirut on
June 16 and dispersed
the remaining passengers throughout the city.
Thirty-nine American
citizens were released on June 30 in Damascus,
Syria.
06/15/1982
Argentina, United Kingdom
Falklands War Ends
Argentina surrendered to the United Kingdom,
ending the Falklands War.
06/15/1960
C
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2963
Japan
U.S.-Japan Security Treaty
The U.S.-Japan Mutual Security Treaty was signed.
06/16/1976
Lebanon
Americans Kidnapped In Beirut
Gunmen in Beirut kidnapped and killed U.S.
Ambassador Maloy, Economic
Officer Waring, and their driver.
06/16/1976
South Africa
Soweto Riots
Thousands of black students demonstrated in
Soweto Township, outside of
Johannesburg, in protest of a requirement that they
be taught in
Afrikaans. Police fatally shot several students,
touching off nationwide
riots and boycotts that lasted more than a year and
claimed the lives of
at least 575 blacks.
06/16/0000
Turkey
Founding of 16 June Group
June 16 is the founding anniversary of the Turkish
leftist terrorist Group
16 June. Until 1987, the group acted under the name
"Partisan Yolu." Since
1987, the group has claimed responsibility for
numerous acts of terrorism,
including the December 1989 firebombing in
Istanbul of the "Hiawatha," a
C
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2964
U.S. Government-owned yacht.
06/17/1944
Iceland
Independence Day
06/18/1953
Egypt
Evacuation Day
The monarchy was abolished and Egypt was
declared a republic following the
coup led by Gamel Abd El Nasser.
06/18/1986
Peru
Canto Grande Prison Massacre
Security forces killed more than two hundred jailed
members of the Sendero
Luminoso (SL) guerrilla organization during a riot at
Lima's Canto Grande
prison. The event is marked by the guerrillas as
"Heroes Day."
06/19/1965
Algeria
President Overthrown by Coup
President Ahmed Ben Bella was overthrown by a
military coup.
06/19/1951
Cambodia
Army-People Solidarity Day
Celebrates the founding of the Cambodian People's
Armed Forces.
06/19/1961
Kuwait
Independence Day
C
lic
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b
u
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N
O
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!
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2965
06/19/1861
Philippines
Birthday of Dr. Jose Rizal
06/19/1951
Cambodia
Army-People Solidarity Day
Celebrates the founding of the Cambodian People's
Armed Forces.
06/19/1961
Kuwait
Independence Day
06/19/1861
Philippines
Birthday of Dr. Jose Rizal
06/20/1960
Senegal
Independence Granted
06/22/1941
Germany, Russia
German Invasion of USSR Begins
German troops invaded the USSR.
06/22/1969
Yemen
Qahtan Al-Shaabi Overthrown
President Qahtan Al-Shaabi was overthrown by the
National Liberation
Front. The name of the country subsequently was
changed to the People's
Democratic Republic of Yemen.
06/23/1985
Canada, India, Japan
Bombing of Air India Flight
C
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O
W
!
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!
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2966
A bomb exploded on an Air India flight over the
North Atlantic following
its departure from Canada, killing all three hundred
twenty-nine
passengers on board. A second bomb exploded at
Narita Airport in Japan,
killing two people. Sikh extremists claimed
responsibility for both
bombings.
06/23/1989
Japan
Okinawa Memorial Day
06/23/0000
Luxembourg
National Holiday
06/23/1993
Middle East
Ashura (10th of Muharam)
Marks the martyrdom of Ali Hussein, the tenth Imam
of Islam. Significant
to Shi'a Moslems. Marked by emotional processions
(involving
self-flagellation) in Shi'a areas.
06/24/0000
Philippines
Manila Day
06/24/0000
Spain
King's Day
06/25/1950
Korea (Republic of)
Korean War Begins
C
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!
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2967
The Korean War began with the North's invasion of
the South.
06/25/1964
Mozambique
Founding of FRELIMO
The Front for the Liberation of Mozambique
(FRELIMO) was founded.
06/25/1975
Mozambique
Independence Day
06/25/1950
North Korea
Korean War Begins
The Korean War began with the North's invasion of
the South.
06/25/1996
Saudi Arabia, United States
Khobar Tower Bombing
The explosion of a fuel truck set off by terrorists
outside the northern
fence of the Khobar Towers complex near King
Abdul Aziz Air Base, Saudi
Arabia, killed 19 U.S. military service members and
injured over 260.
06/26/0000
Chile
Salvador Allende's Birthday
06/26/1960
Madagascar
Independence Day
06/26/1960
Somalia
C
lic
k
t
o
b
u
y
N
O
W
!
P
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g
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w
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C
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b
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!
P
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2968
Independence Day (North)
06/26/1955
South Africa
ANC Adopts Political Platform
06/26/1978
Yemen
Execution of Salim Robea Ali
The Chairman of the Presidential Council, Salim
Robea Ali, was ousted and
executed.
06/27/1977
Djibouti
Independence Day
06/27/1981
Iran
Bombing of the Legislature
The prime minister and seventy others were killed in
the bombing of the
Legislature.
06/27/1993
Iraq, Kuwait, United States
U.S. Missile Strike On Iraq
The United States launched a multiple cruise
missile strike on the site of
the Iraqi intelligence service in Baghdad in
retaliation for an Iraqi plot
to assassinate former U.S. president George Bush
during his visit to
Kuwait in April 1993.
06/27/0000
Qatar
Accession of Emir
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O
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!
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!
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2969
Celebrates the accession to power of Emir Hamad
Bin Khalifa.
06/28/1988
Greece
U.S. Defense Attache Killed
The U.S. Defense Attache, Navy Captain William
Nordeen, was killed in
Athens by a car bomb.
06/28/0000
Iran
Revolutionary Guard's Day
06/29/1976
Seychelles
Independence Day
06/30/1982
Ghana
Judges Murdered By PNDC Agents
Three high court judges were abducted from their
homes and murdered by
agents of the Provisional National Defence Council
(PNDC). The Ghana Bar
Association (GBA) has decided to observe the
anniversary as "Martyrs' Day"
by not appearing in court or practicing law on that
day.
06/30/0000
Guatemala
Soldiers Day
06/30/1997
Hong Kong
Lease On Territories Expires
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2970
The lease with the Chinese on the New Territories
expires. An agreement
between the Chinese and the British signed in
December 1984 declares that
Hong Kong will become a special administrative
region in 1997.
06/30/1989
Sudan
Coup Overthrows Sadiq Mahdi
A group of officers led by General Omar El Bashir
overthrew the government
of Sadiq Mahdi.
06/30/1993
Worldwide
Ashura Celebrations End
06/30/1960
Zaire
Independence Day
Calender of Significant Dates--July
JULY
07/01/1974
Argentina
Death of Juan Peron
Upon his death, Juan Peron was succeeded by his
wife, Isabel Peron, as
president.
07/01/1962
Burundi
C
lic
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b
u
y
N
O
W
!
P
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!
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2971
Independence Day
07/01/1867
Canada
Independence Day
Also known as Dominion Day.
07/01/1921
China (People's Republic of)
Founding of Communist Party
07/01/1960
Ghana
Republic Day
07/01/1971
Indonesia
OPM Declares Independence
The Free Papua Movement (Organisasi Papua
Merdek), which opposed the
integration of Irian Jaya into Indonesia, declared the
territory
independent.
07/01/1962
Rwanda
Independence Day
07/01/1960
Somalia
Independence Day (South)
07/01/1985
Spain
British Airways Offices Bombed
Abu Nidal terrorists bombed a British Airways ticket
office in Madrid,
killing one person and injuring twenty-seven. A TWA
office also was
C
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O
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2972
destroyed. The bombings apparently were in
retaliation against President
Reagan's threat the previous day to strike against
terrorism.
07/02/1993
Egypt, United States
Abdurrahman Surrenders In New York
Sheikh Omar Abdurrahman, the radical Egyptian
cleric, surrendered to U.S.
Justice Department officials in Brooklyn, New York.
07/02/1976
Vietnam
Unification of South and North
The Socialist Republic of Vietnam (SRV) was
proclaimed following the
unification of South and North Vietnam.
07/03/1962
Algeria
France Transfers Sovereignty
07/03/1988
Iran, United States
U.S. Navy Shoots Down Airliner
The USS Vincennes mistakenly shot down an
Iranian airbus airliner over the
Persian Gulf.
07/03/1986
Kuwait
National Assembly Suspended
07/04/1976
Israel, Uganda
Raid On Entebbe Airport
C
lic
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u
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N
O
W
!
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!
P
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2973
The Israeli raid on Entebbe Airport in Uganda freed
one hundred and three
hostages from a hijacked Israeli airliner.
07/04/1946
Philippines
Philippine-U.S. Friendship Day
The Philippines became independent on July 4,
1946, but changed the
official Independence Day to June 12 in 1962 to
commemorate the
Philippines' declaration of independence from Spain
by General Emilio
Aguinaldo in 1898. This day is now celebrated as
Philippine-American
Friendship Day.
07/05/1962
Algeria
Independence Day
Independence from France formally declared.
07/05/1983
Australia
Bombing At Union Carbide
Unknown terrorists detonated a bomb outside of the
Union Carbide factory
in Sydney.
07/05/1991
Bolivia
Tupac Katari Surfaces
The Tupac Katari Guerrilla Army (EGTK) carried out
its first terrorist act
-- blowing up an electric power pylon in the La Paz
suburb of El Alto --
C
lic
k
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b
u
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O
W
!
P
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!
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2974
on this date.
07/05/1975
Cape Verde
Independence Day
07/05/1977
Pakistan
Zia Takes Power In A Coup
Army Chief of Staff Mohammad Zia leads an army
coup to seize power and
becomes Chief Martial Law Administrator.
07/05/1973
Rwanda
Peace and National Unity Day
Celebrates the military taking power under General
Juvenal Habyarimana.
07/05/1811
Venezuela
Independence Day
07/06/1975
Comoros
Independence Declared
07/06/1987
India
Sikhs Attack Hindu Bus Riders
Seventy-two Hindus were killed in an attack by Sikh
militants on a bus in
the Punjab.
07/06/1964
Malawi
Independence Day
07/07/1962
Burma
C
lic
k
t
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b
u
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N
O
W
!
P
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F-XChan
g
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O
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!
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2975
Military Attacks Student Union
The Rangoon student union was blown up following
the shooting of students
by Burmese soldiers. This event is commemorated
annually.
07/07/1973
Equatorial Guinea
National Day
07/07/1987
France
France Severs Ties With Iran
07/07/1947
Korea (Republic of)
Kwangju Cultural Center Opens
The U.S. Information Service established the
American Cultural Center in
Kwangju.
07/07/0000
Lesotho
Family Day
07/07/0000
Serbia-Montenegro
Serbian National Day
07/07/1978
Solomon Islands
Independence Day
07/07/0000
Tanzania
Peasants Day
07/08/1993
Andorra
Council Approves U.N. Entry
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2976
The Security Council approves Andorra's application
became the 184th
member of the United Nations.
07/09/1816
Argentina
Independence Day
07/09/1986
Germany
RAF Assassinates Beckurts
The Red Army Faction (RAF) killed Dr. Karl-Heinz
Beckurts of Siemans
Corporation.
07/10/1973
Bahamas
Independence Day
07/10/1978
Mauritania
Armed Forces Day
Commemorates the end of the Ould Daddah regime
in a bloodless coup. The
constitution was abolished by decree on this date.
07/11/1988
Greece
Attack On The "City of Poros"
Nine people were killed and ninety-eight were
injured in an attack on the
cruise ship "City of Poros."
07/11/1921
Mongolia
People's Revolution Day
Celebrates independence from China.
07/12/1975
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lic
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O
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!
P
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2977
Sao Tome and Principe
Independence Day
07/12/1690
United Kingdom
"Orange Day" Celebrated
The Protestants celebrate "Orange Day" to mark the
1690 victory of William
of Orange's forces over the Catholic King James at
the Battle of the
Boyne. Protestants march in Belfast, Northern
Ireland.
07/13/0000
India
Martyr's Day In Kashmir
Commemorates the deaths of Kashmiri nationalists
during the British raj.
07/14/1789
France
Bastille Day
07/14/1789
French Guiana
Bastille Day
07/14/1974
Greece
End of Military Dictatorship
A military dictatorship, which began in April 1967,
collapsed. Five months
later, in December 1974, a referendum ended the
Greek monarchy and
established a republic.
07/14/1789
Guadeloupe (French Antilles)
C
lic
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t
o
b
u
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N
O
W
!
P
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O
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!
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2978
Bastille Day
07/14/1958
Iraq
Republic Day
Celebrates the coup by General Abdul Karim Qasim
during which King Faysal
II and Prime Minister Nuri As-Said were killed.
07/14/1789
Martinique (French Antilles)
Bastille Day
07/14/1985
Pakistan
Bombing of Pan Am Office
07/14/1789
Saint Martin (French/Dutch)
Bastille Day/Constitution Day
For the French half of the island, which is an
integral part of France,
the most important holiday is July 14,
commemorating the fall of the
Bastille Prison in 1789. For the Dutch half, refer to
the Netherlands
Antilles entry.
07/15/1946
Brunei
Birthday of Sultan Bolkiah
Birthday of Chief of State Sultan Hassanal Bolkiah.
07/15/1948
Burma
Communist Party Founded
Founding of the Burmese Communist Party.
07/15/1974
C
lic
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t
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b
u
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N
O
W
!
P
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F-XChan
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k
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k
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N
O
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!
P
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2979
Cyprus, Greece
Greek Army Officers Stage Coup
Greek officers of the Cypriot National Guard, acting
at the instigation of
the Greek government, overthrew President
Makarios and his government and
established a new government. This prompted the
invasion of Cyprus by
Turkey on July 20, 1974, asserting its right to
protect the Turkish
minority.
07/15/1983
France
Bombing At Orly Airport
Armenian terrorists exploded at bomb at Orly
Airport in Paris.
07/15/1971
Japan
Combined Red Army Established
Ultra-radical factions of the new Left joined forces
as the Combined Red
Army, the predecessor of the Japanese Red Army
(JRA).
07/15/1958
Lebanon
U.S. Marines Sent To Lebanon
U.S. Marines were sent to Lebanon in order to
thwart the overthrow of the
government.
07/16/0000
Bolivia
La Paz City Holiday
C
lic
k
t
o
b
u
y
N
O
W
!
P
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k
t
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b
u
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N
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!
P
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2980
Most government offices are closed.
07/17/1973
Afghanistan
King Zahir Shah Overthrown
Prime Minister Daoud seized power in a military
coup while the king was
out of the country.
07/17/1930
Colombia
Communist Party Founded
07/17/1976
Indonesia
Incorporation of East Timor
The Indonesian government formally announced the
incorporation of
Portuguese East Timor as the twenty-seventh
province of Indonesia, dashing
the hopes of the Fretilin Separatist Movement for
independence.
07/17/1968
Iraq
Baath Party Seizes Power
07/17/0000
Korea (Republic Of)
Constitution Day
07/17/1966
Mauritius
Diego Garcia Removals
Local leftist groups commemorate this date as the
beginning of a process
of removing 1,000 to 2,000 island people from Diego
Garcia, making way for
C
lic
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u
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N
O
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!
P
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2981
a U.S. base on the British island, and relocating
them on Mauritius. The
removals took place in stages between 1966 and
1973. Protests at U.S.,
British, and Mauritian government facilities have
been held over the
years.
07/17/1979
Nicaragua
Somoza Flees
President Anastasio Somoza Debayle resigned and
fled to Miami.
07/17/1988
Pakistan
President Zia Dies In Air Crash
An airplane carrying President Zia Ul-Haq and U.S.
ambassador Arnold
Raphel crashed, killing everyone aboard.
07/18/1985
Pakistan
Shahnawaz Bhutto Dies
Shahnawaz Bhutto, son of executed president
Zulfikar Bhutto and older
brother of Pakistani People's Party leader Benazir
Bhutto, died under
mysterious circumstances in France.
07/18/0000
Spain
Generalissimo Franco's Day
07/18/1830
Uruguay
Adoption of First Constitution
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2982
07/19/1947
Burma
Martyr's Day
Commemorates the assassination of Aung San.
07/19/1979
Chile
Sandinistas Come To Power
The fallen Somoza dictatorship in Nicaragua was
succeeded on this date by
a coalition government dominated by the Sandinista
National Liberation
Front (FSLN).
07/19/1949
Laos
Independence From France
07/19/1982
Lebanon, United States
David Dodge Kidnapped
David Dodge, president of the American University
of Beirut, was
kidnapped. He subsequently was released on July
19, 1983.
07/19/1979
Nicaragua
Sandinista Regime Established
The fallen Somoza dictatorship was succeeded by a
coalition government
dominated by the Sandinista National Liberation
Front (FSLN). The
post-Sandinista government of Violeta Chamorro
has retained this date as a
national holiday marking the fall of the Somozas.
C
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2983
07/20/1810
Colombia
Independence Day
07/20/1974
Cyprus
Turkey Intervenes In Civil War
Citing its obligations under the 1960 Treaty of
Guarantee, the Turkish
government landed military forces on the north
coast of Cyprus following
the July 15 coup launched by elements of the
Cypriot National Guard.
07/20/1974
Greece
Turkey Invades Cyprus
Turkey, responding to a military coup by Greek
officers of the Cypriot
National Guard, which overthrew President
Makarios and his government on
July 15, 1974, asserted its right to protect the
Turkish minority and
invaded Cyprus.
07/20/1985
South Africa
First State of Emergency
07/20/1986
Sri Lanka
Sinhalese Rioting
07/20/1982
United Kingdom
PIRA Bombs In London Kill 11
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2984
Eleven persons were killed on July 20, 1982 in
Regency Park and Hyde Park
in London by bombs planted by the Provisional Irish
Republican Army
(PIRA), a Northern Ireland terrorist organization
which is trying to force
the U.K. out of Northern Ireland so that Ulster can
be united with the
Republic of Ireland.
07/20/1954
Vietnam
Signing of the Geneva Accords
Marked the end of the eight-year war with France
and French colonial rule
in Indochina.
07/21/1831
Belgium
Independence Day
07/21/0000
Botswana
President's Day
07/21/1972
United Kingdom
Eleven Killed By Car Bombs
On July 21, 1972, "Bloody Friday" in Belfast,
Northern Ireland, 11 people
were killed and 130 were injured when the Northern
Ireland terrorist group
Provisional Irish Republican Army (PIRA) detonated
26 car bombs.
07/22/1968
Algeria
C
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2985
El Al Flight Hijacked By PFLP
Members of the Popular Front for the Liberation
Palestine (PFLP) hijacked
an El Al flight en route to Tel Aviv and forced it to
land in Algiers. The
attack marked the first aircraft hijacking by a
Palestinian group. The
hijackers were said to have believed Israeli General
Ariel Sharon was on
the flight. The passengers and crew were detained
by Algeria for six
weeks.
07/22/1968
Israel, Italy
El Al Flight Hijacked By PFLP
Members of the Popular Front for the Liberation
Palestine (PFLP) hijacked
an El Al flight en route to Tel Aviv and forced it to
land in Algiers. The
attack marked the first aircraft hijacking by a
Palestinian group. The
hijackers were said to have believed Israeli General
Ariel Sharon was on
the flight. The passengers and were crew detained
by Algeria for six
weeks.
07/22/1944
Poland
Liberation Day
The Soviet Union installed a Communist-controlled
"Polish Committee of
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2986
National Liberation" in Lublin. The following January
the Soviet Union
recognized this committee as the Polish
government.
07/22/1971
Sudan
Communists Overthrown In Coup
Anti-Communist military elements loyal to Gaafar
Nimeiri led a successful
counter-coup and brought him to power several days
after a coup by the
Sudan Communist Party.
07/23/1988
Burma
Resignation of Ne Win
Ne Win resigned as head of the Burma Socialist
Program Party (BSPP).
07/23/1985
Denmark
Bombing of Airline Office
A bomb at a Northwest Orient ticket office injured
twenty-seven people.
07/23/1952
Egypt
Egyptian Revolution Celebrated
07/23/1974
Greece
Power Turned Over To Civilians
07/23/1970
Oman
Coup Changes Government
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2987
Sultan Qabus Bin Said overthrew his father and took
power.
07/23/1983
Sri Lanka
Widespread Violence Begins
The killing of thirteen Sri Lankan soldiers in an
ambush by Tamil
militants touched off widespread anti-Tamil violence
that left four
hundred Tamils dead and 100,000 homeless.
07/24/1987
Switzerland
Air France Hijacking In Geneva
A Lebanese terrorist was overpowered by the flight
crew during an Air
France hijacking after the murder of a Frenchman
and an assault on a
stewardess.
07/25/1943
Italy
Mussolini Deposed
07/25/1648
Netherlands
Independence Day
07/25/1957
Tunisia
Proclamation of the Republic
07/26/1952
Argentina
Death of Eva Peron
07/26/1953
Chile
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2988
Attack On Moncada Barracks
Fidel Castro led a group of revolutionaries in an
attack on the Moncada
army barracks in Santiago de Cuba. The attack
failed and Castro was
imprisoned for two years before being allowed to go
into exile in Mexico.
Castro slipped back into Cuba in 1956 to begin his
final drive for power.
07/26/0000
Cuba
Day of Solidarity With Cuba
Pro-Cuban front groups in the hemisphere celebrate
this date as a
continental day of solidarity with Cuba and observe
it with declarations,
ceremonies, and marches protesting U.S. policies
toward Cuba. (The date is
also celebrated in Cuba as the anniversary of
Castro's failed attack on
the Moncada barracks.)
07/26/1956
Egypt
Nationalization of Suez Canal
07/26/1847
Liberia
Independence Day
07/26/1965
Maldives
Independence Day
07/27/1955
Austria
C
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2989
Restoration of Sovereignty
The Austrian State Treaty came into effect,
restoring all Soviet-occupied
territory and making Austria a free and independent
state.
07/27/1980
Iran
Death of the Shah of Iran
07/27/1953
Korea (Republic of)
Korean War Armistice Signed
07/27/1953
North Korea
Korean War Armistice Signed
Also known as Korean Victory Day.
07/27/1990
Trinidad and Tobago
Black Muslim Rebellion Begins
A black Muslim sect, the Jamaat Al-Muslimeen,
captured the prime minister
and other officials in an attempt to overthrow the
government. Before the
coup attempt ended on August 1 with the surrender
of the rebels, the
capital, Port of Spain, was heavily damaged by
rioting and looting.
07/28/1989
Israel, Lebanon, Middle East
Shaykh Obeid Seized By Israel
Israeli commandos seized Shaykh Obeid from a
village in southern Lebanon
C
lic
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2990
and detained him in Israel on allegations of
involvement in terrorist
activity on behalf of Hizballah.
07/28/1821
Peru
Independence Day
07/28/1985
Peru
Democratic Transfer of Power
President Alan Garcia Perez succeeded Fernando
Belaunde Terry as
president, the first transfer of power from one
democratically elected
Peruvian president to another in forty years.
07/29/1966
Nigeria
Military Government Overthrown
The Federal Military Government was established
after a coup overthrew the
military government.
07/29/1975
Nigeria
Coup Overthrew the Government
The Federal Military Government was overthrown in
a coup and the Federal
Executive Council was founded.
07/29/1987
Sri Lanka
Indo-Sri Lankan Peace Accords
07/30/1980
Vanuatu
Independence Day
C
lic
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O
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2991
07/31/1978
France, Iraq
Terrorist Seizes Iraqi Embassy
An Al-Fatah terrorist seized the Iraqi embassy in
Paris. As the man
surrendered to police, Iraqi security guards opened
fire, killing a French
policeman and wounding the terrorist. French police
returned the fire,
killing one Iraqi.
07/31/1556
Spain
St. Ignatius Day
St. Ignatius is the patron saint of the Basques.
07/31/1969
Spain
ETA Terrorist Group Founded
The terrorist group Basque Fatherland and Liberty
(ETA) was founded.
Calender of Significant Dates--August
AUGUST
08/01/0000
Angola
Armed Forces Day
08/01/1993
Asia and Pacific
Ashura (10th of Muharam)
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2992
Marks the martydom of Ali Hussein, the tenth Imam
of Islam. Significant to
Shi'a Moslems. Marked by emotional processions
(involving
self-flagellation) in Shi'a areas.
08/01/1960
Benin
Independence Day
08/01/1927
China (People's Republic of)
Army Day
Celebrates the first uprising by the Chinese
Communist Party in Nanchang,
Jiangxi Province, against the nationalist
government of Chiang Kai Shek.
08/01/1993
Europe (Region-Wide)
Ashura (10th of Muharam)
Marks the martydom of Ali Hussein, the tenth Imam
of Islam. Significant to
Shi'a Moslems. Marked by emotional processions
(involving
self-flagellation) in Shi'a areas. 08/01/1987
Saudi Arabia
Iranians Riot In Mecca
Iranian pilgrims rioted in Mecca, resulting in more
than four hundred
deaths.
08/01/1993
Sub-Saharan Africa
Ashura (10th of Muharam)
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2993
Marks the martydom of Ali Hussein, the tenth Imam
of Islam. Significant to
Shi'a Moslems. Marked by emotional processions
(involving
self-flagellation) in Shi'a areas.
08/01/1291
Switzerland
Independence Day
08/01/1993
Worldwide
Ashura (10th of Muharam)
Marks the martydom of Ali Hussein, the tenth Imam
of Islam. Significant to
Shi'a Moslems. Marked by emotional processions
(involving
self-flagellation) in Shi'a areas.
08/02/1990
Iraq, Kuwait
Iraqi Invasion of Kuwait
Iraqi forces invaded Kuwait and seized control of
the country.
08/02/1980
Italy
Bologna Train Station Bombing
Neo-Fascists bombed a train station in Bologna.
08/02/1964
Vietnam
Tonkin Gulf Incident
08/03/0000
Cyprus
Makarios Memorial Day
08/03/1978
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2994
Equatorial Guinea
Military Junta Takes Power
08/03/0000
Malaysia
Malaysian National Day
08/03/1960
Niger
Independence Day
08/04/1983
Burkina Faso
Coup Overthrows the Government
Coup led by Thomas Sankara overthrew the
government.
08/04/1975
Malaysia
JRA Members Seize Embassies
Members of the Japanese Red Army (JRA) seized
the consular sections of the
American and Swedish embassies, taking fifty-two
hostages. The hostages
subsequently were released after five JRA members
were set free in Japan.
08/05/1960
Burkina Faso
Independence Day
08/05/1988
Pakistan
Shiite Leader Assassinated
Arif Hussain Al-Hussaini, a leading Shiite religious
and political leader
in Pakistan, was shot to death in Peshawar.
08/05/1962
C
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2995
South Africa
Arrest of Nelson Mandela
Nelson Mandela was arrested and subsequently
sentenced to life in prison
for sabotage and plotting to overthrow the
government.
08/06/1825
Bolivia
Independence Day
08/06/1962
Jamaica
Independence Day
08/06/1945
Japan
Atomic Bombing of Hiroshima
08/06/1966
United Arab Emirates
Zayed Al-Nayhan Took Power
08/07/0000
Colombia
Battle of Boyaca
08/07/1949
Indonesia
Islamic State Proclaimed
Radical Muslim leader S.M. Kartowuwirjo
proclaimed Darul Islam (Indonesian
Islamic state), igniting a religious insurgency in
West Java that lasted
for fourteen years.
08/07/98
Kenya, Tanzania, United States
Bombings of U.S. Embassies
C
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2996
Near simultaneous bombings occurred at the US
Embassies in Nairobi, Kenya,
and Dar Es Salaam, Tanzania. In Nairobi 291 people
were killed and over
5,000 wounded. Ten people were killed and 77
injured in the bombing at Dar
Es Salaam. US officials believe Usama Bin Ladin's
al-Qaida organization
was responsible for the bombings.
08/07/1982
Turkey
Attack On Ankara Airport
Nine people, including one American, were killed
and more than seventy
were wounded in an attack on the Ankara airport by
the Armenian Secret
Army for the Liberation of Armenia.
08/08/1901
Philippines
Philippine Constabulary Set Up
Celebrated as Philippine Constabulary/Integrated
National Police (PC/INP)
Day.
08/09/1982
France
Attack On Paris Restaurant
Gunmen threw a grenade into a restaurant in Paris
and then opened fire
with automatic weapons, killing six people and
wounding twenty-seven. Two
of the dead and two of the wounded were
Americans. Action Directe claimed,
C
lic
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2997
and then denied, responsibility for the attack.
08/09/1984
India
Head of Indian Security Killed
The head of the Indian security forces that stormed
the Sikh Golden Temple
of Amritsar was assassinated by Sikh terrorists.
08/09/1945
Japan
Atomic Bombing of Nagasaki
08/09/1945
Japan
USSR Declares War On Japan
08/09/1965
Singapore
Independence Day
Celebrates Singapore's secession from Malaysia.
08/10/1987
Greece
U.S. Airmen Hurt In Bombing
Ten members of a U.S. Air Force crew were injured
when a bomb exploded
near the bus in which they were riding. The
November 17 Group subsequently
claimed responsibility for the bombing.
08/11/1960
Chad
Independence Day
08/11/1952
Jordan
Ascension of King Hussein
08/12/1978
C
lic
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N
O
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!
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!
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2998
China (People's Republic of)
Friendship Treaty With Japan
08/12/1983
Ecuador
AVC Guerrilla Group Formed
The leftist terrorist group, Alfaro Vive, Carajo! (AVC)
or Alfaro Lives,
Damn It!, ended its armed struggle in 1991 and
became a legitimate
political party.
08/12/1978
Japan
Friendship Treaty With China
08/12/1689
United Kingdom
Apprentice Boy's March
Protestant commemorative marches mark the day
that apprentice boys locked
the gates of Derry against the forces of James II.
08/13/1960
Central African Republic
Independence Day
08/13/1987
Chad
Chad Routs Libyan Forces
08/13/1927
Cuba, Chile
Fidel Castro's Birthday
08/13/1984
Libya
Temporary Union With Morocco
08/13/1987
C
lic
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N
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!
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!
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2999
Libya
Libyan Forces Routed By Chad
08/13/1984
Morocco
Temporary Union With Libya
08/13/1898
Philippines
U.S. Forces Capture Manila
U.S. forces captured Manila from the Spanish with
the aid of Philippine
insurgents led by General Emilio Aguinaldo.
08/14/1984
Burkina Faso
Name Changed To Burkina Faso
Upper Volta changed its name to Burkina Faso.
08/14/1974
Cyprus
Offensive By Turkish Troops
08/14/1945
Japan
Japan Surrenders to the Allies
08/14/1947
Pakistan
Independence Day
Pakistan became a self-governing dominion within
the British Commonwealth.
08/14/1969
United Kingdom
British Troops To Northern Ireland
In response to communal rioting between Catholics
and Protestants in
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lic
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3000
Northern Ireland, British troops were sent to the
province on August 14,
1969. Initally welcomed by Catholics, the British
troops eventually became
a target of Catholic terrorist groups, mainly the
Provisional Irish
Republican Army (PIRA).
08/15/1971
Bahrain
Independence Day
08/15/1975
Bangladesh
Mujibur Rahman Assassinated
08/15/0000
Burundi
Assumption Day
08/15/1964
Colombia
ELN Begins Armed Struggle
The National Liberation Army (ELN) begins its armed
struggle.
08/15/1960
Congo
Independence Day
Celebrates the overthrow of the Youlou regime.
08/15/0000
Guadeloupe (French Antilles)
Assumption Day
b
India
Independence Day
08/15/1945
C
lic
k
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b
u
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N
O
W
!
P
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g
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w
w
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cu-trac
k
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m
C
lic
k
t
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b
u
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N
O
W
!
P
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3001
Indonesia
Agreement On Irian Jaya
The Netherlands agreed to transfer administration
of Irian Jaya to
Indonesia.
08/15/1975
Indonesia
FRETILIN Begins Insurgency
The Revolutionary Front for East Timor
Independence (FRETILIN) began its
insurgency aimed at gaining independence for the
Portuguese territory.
08/15/1986
Iraq
Turkish Troops Raid Camps
Turkish troops raided Kurdish rebel camps in Iraq.
08/15/1945
Korea (Republic of)
Independence Day
Also known as Liberation Day or Kwang Bok Jul.
08/15/0000
Martinique (French Antilles)
Assumption Day
08/15/1945
Netherlands
Agreement On Irian Jaya
The Netherlands agreed to transfer administration
of Irian Jaya to
Indonesia.
08/15/1945
North Korea
Liberation Day
C
lic
k
t
o
b
u
y
N
O
W
!
P
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F-XChan
g
e
w
w
w
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o
cu-trac
k
.c
o
m
C
lic
k
t
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b
u
y
N
O
W
!
P
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3002
Also known as Independence Day or Kwang Bok Jul.
08/15/1984
Turkey
First PKK Attack On Government
August 15, 1984 is considered to be the first time
that Kurdish Workers
Party (PKK) elements launched an attack against
Turkish government
installations.
08/15/1986
Turkey
Turkish Troops Raid Kurd Camps
Turkish troops raided Kurdish rebel camps in Iraq.
08/16/1960
Cyprus
Independence Day
08/17/1960
Gabon
Independence Day
08/17/1945
Indonesia
Independence Day
Indonesian leaders Soekarno and Mohammed Hatta,
with the acquiescence of
Japanese occupation officials, proclaim the
independence of Indonesia as
World War II ends in the Pacific.
08/18/1987
Sri Lanka
Grenade Attack On Parliament
One legislator was killed in a grenade attack on the
Sri Lankan
C
lic
k
t
o
b
u
y
N
O
W
!
P
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g
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w
w
w
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cu-trac
k
.c
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m
C
lic
k
t
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b
u
y
N
O
W
!
P
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3003
parliament.
08/18/1991
Union of Soviet Socialist Republics
Attempted Coup
Soviet president Mikhail Gorbachev, who was
vacationing in the Crimea, was
held incommunicado while senior Soviet officials
attempted to stage a
coup.
08/19/1919
Afghanistan
Independence Day
Commemorates the signing of the Treaty of
Rawalpindi on August 8, 1919 in
which Britain gave up control of Afhanistan's foreign
policy. Celebrated
by Afghans as Independence Day.
08/19/1986
Afghanistan
Army Day
08/19/1974
Cyprus
U.S. Ambassador Murdered
U.S. Ambassador Roger Davies was killed by a
sniper in Nicosia.
08/19/1981
Libya
U.S. Shoots Down Libyan Jets
U.S. aircraft shot down two Libyan fighters over the
Gulf of Sidra.
08/19/0000
Philippines
C
lic
k
t
o
b
u
y
N
O
W
!
P
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F-XChan
g
e
w
w
w
.d
o
cu-trac
k
.c
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m
C
lic
k
t
o
b
u
y
N
O
W
!
P
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3004
Manuel Quezon Day
Commemorates Manuel Quezon, the first President
of the Commonwealth.
08/19/1991
Russia
August 1991 Coup Suppression
The failed coup attempt which symbolizes the end
of Communism in Russia
and the breakup of the Soviet Union. Huge
demonstrations have occurred in
Moscow to commemorate this event. Both pro- and
anti-government rallies
are held.
08/19/1945
Vietnam
August Revolution
08/20/1955
Algeria
First Offensive Against French
Algerian independence fighters launched their first
armed offensive
against French forces in eastern Algeria.
08/20/1949
Hungary
Adoption of the Constitution
08/20/1947
North Korea
Air Force Day
Commemorates the organization of the DPRK Air
Force in 1947.
08/20/1960
Senegal
C
lic
k
t
o
b
u
y
N
O
W
!
P
D
F-XChan
g
e
w
w
w
.d
o
cu-trac
k
.c
o
m
C
lic
k
t
o
b
u
y
N
O
W
!
P
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w
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cu-trac
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3005
Proclamation of the Republic
The Mali Federation, composed of Senegal and the
French Soudan, broke up
when Senegal seceded and proclaimed itself a
republic.
08/20/1983
South Africa
Creation of the UDF
The United Democratic Front (UDF) was launched to
organize opposition to a
planned three-house parliament that excluded
blacks. The organization
subsequently became the largest legal anti-
apartheid group.
08/21/1968
Czechoslovakia
Invasion By Warsaw Pact Forces
08/21/1983
Philippines
Benigno Aquino Assassinated
08/21/1991
Union of Soviet Socialist Republics
Coup Collapses
The coup carried out against Soviet President
Gorbachev on August 18, 1991
collapsed on August 21 and the coup leaders tried
to flee.
08/22/1978
Kenya
Death of Jomo Kenyatta
08/22/1991
Union of Soviet Socialist Republics
C
lic
k
t
o
b
u
y
N
O
W
!
P
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F-XChan
g
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w
w
w
.d
o
cu-trac
k
.c
o
m
C
lic
k
t
o
b
u
y
N
O
W
!
P
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3006
Gorbachev Reinstated
Soviet President Mikhail Gorbachev was reinstated
as president and he
returned to Moscow on August 22, 1991 following
the collapse of a coup
against him. One of the coup leaders commited
suicide and the others were
arrested.
08/23/1944
Romania
Liberation Day
08/24/0000
Bermuda
Empire Day
08/24/1991
Ukraine
Ukraine Declares Independence
Ukraine declared its independence from the Soviet
Union on August 24, 1991
in the aftermath of the collapse on August 21, 1991
of the coup against
Soviet President Gorbachev.
08/25/1991
Belarus
Byelarus Declares Independence
Byelarus declared its independence from the Soviet
Union on August 25,
1991 in the aftermath of the collapse on August 21,
1991 of the coup
against Soviet President Gorbachev.
08/25/1944
France
C
lic
k
t
o
b
u
y
N
O
W
!
P
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F-XChan
g
e
w
w
w
.d
o
cu-trac
k
.c
o
m
C
lic
k
t
o
b
u
y
N
O
W
!
P
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3007
Liberation Day
Paris liberated by Allied troops.
08/25/1825
Uruguay
Independence Day
08/25/1991
Uzbekistan
Uzbekistan Seeks Independence
Uzbekistan declared on August 25, 1991 that it
planned to seek
independence from the Soviet Union. This move was
taken in the aftermath
of the collapse on August 21 of the coup against
Soviet President
Gorbachev.
08/26/1945
Hong Kong
Liberation Day
08/26/1945
Japan
American Occupation Begins
The six-year American occupation of Japan began
with the landing of U.S.
military forces in Japan.
08/26/1847
Philippines
National Heroes' Day
Commemorates the revolt against the Spanish.
08/26/1930
Philippines
Founding of the PKP
C
lic
k
t
o
b
u
y
N
O
W
!
P
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g
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cu-trac
k
.c
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m
C
lic
k
t
o
b
u
y
N
O
W
!
P
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3008
The Partido Kommunista Ng Pilipinas (PKP) was
founded by Evangelista
Cristo in Manila.
08/27/1982
Canada
Turkish Attache Assassinated
The Turkish military attache was assassinated by
Armenian extremists.
08/27/1979
Ireland
Earl Mountbatten Assassinated
Earl Mountbatten was killed off the coast of Ireland
by an Irish
Republican Army (IRA) bomb planted on his boat.
08/27/1980
Lebanon
U.S. Ambassador Attacked
08/27/1991
Moldova
Moldova Declares Independence
Moldova declared its independence from the Soviet
Union on August 27, 1991
in the aftermath of the collapse on August 21, 1991
of the coup against
Soviet President Gorbachev.
08/27/1966
Namibia
Placed Under U.N. Control
The United Nations canceled the previous League of
Nations mandate which
gave South Africa administrative control of Namibia
in 1920. South Africa
C
lic
k
t
o
b
u
y
N
O
W
!
P
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F-XChan
g
e
w
w
w
.d
o
cu-trac
k
.c
o
m
C
lic
k
t
o
b
u
y
N
O
W
!
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3009
rejected the U.N. resolution, and the South-West
Africa People's
Organization (SWAPO) began its guerrilla war
against South African rule.
08/27/1985
Nigeria
General Babangida Seizes Power
General Ibrahim Babangida seized power,
overthrowing the Buhari regime.
08/27/1987
Philippines
Failed Coup Attempt
Mutinous soldiers began attacks on the presidential
palace in an
unsuccessful bid to overthrow the Aquino
government. On August 28, rebel
military units led by Lieutenant Colonel Gregorio
"Gringo" Honasan
attacked Camp Aguinaldo and television stations in
the metro Manila area.
08/27/1982
Turkey
Attache In Canada Assassinated
The Turkish military attache in Canada was
assassinated by Armenian
extremists.
08/28/1985
Colombia
Death of M-19 Leader
April 19 Movement (M-19) leader Ivan Marino Ospina
was killed in a clash
with government troops.
C
lic
k
t
o
b
u
y
N
O
W
!
P
D
F-XChan
g
e
w
w
w
.d
o
cu-trac
k
.c
o
m
C
lic
k
t
o
b
u
y
N
O
W
!
P
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cu-trac
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3010
08/29/1937
China (People's Republic of)
Non-Aggression Pact With USSR
08/29/1896
Philippines
War Declared Against Spanish
Nationalist leader Andres Bonifacio declared war
against the Spanish
colonial regime in the Philippines.
08/29/1991
Union of Soviet Socialist Republics
Communist Party Banned
The Soviet legislature, the Supreme Soviet, voted on
August 29, 1991 to
ban the Communist Party throughout the Soviet
Union and freeze its assets.
This move came in the aftermath of the coup
against Soviet President
Gorbachev, which collapsed on August 21. Senior
Communist Party officials
were implicated in that coup.
08/30/0000
Cyprus
Turkish Victory Day
08/30/1951
Philippines
Mutual Defense Pact With U.S.
08/30/1991
Turkey
Victory Day
August 30, 1991 will be celebrated as Victory Day,
an official Turkish
C
lic
k
t
o
b
u
y
N
O
W
!
P
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F-XChan
g
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w
w
w
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k
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C
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k
t
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b
u
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N
O
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!
P
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3011
holiday.
08/31/1957
Malaysia
Independence Day
08/31/0000
Philippines
Ramon Magsaysay Day
08/31/1980
Poland
Solidarity Labor Union Formed
08/31/1962
Trinidad and Tobago
Independence Day
Calender of Significant Dates--September
SEPTEMBER
09/00/1964
Malta
Independence Day
09/01/0000
Argentina
Students Day
09/01/1981
Central African Republic
Coup Brings Kolingba To Power
A coup brought the Kolingba regime to power.
09/01/1980
Jordan
Hussein Supports Iraq In War
C
lic
k
t
o
b
u
y
N
O
W
!
P
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F-XChan
g
e
w
w
w
.d
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cu-trac
k
.c
o
m
C
lic
k
t
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b
u
y
N
O
W
!
P
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3012
King Hussein declared Jordanian support for Iraq in
the Iran-Iraq War.
09/01/1980
Jordan
Black September Begins
Jordanian troops drove Palestinian guerrillas out of
Jordan. The Black
September terrorist group took its name from this
policy.
09/01/1983
Korea (Republic of)
KAL Flight 007 Shot Down
Korean Air Lines Flight 007, on a flight from New
York to Seoul, was shot
down by Soviet fighters after straying into Soviet
airspace. All 269
persons aboard were killed.
09/01/1969
Libya
Qadhafi Seizes Power In A Coup
09/01/1939
Poland
Beginning of World War II
The German attack on Poland on September 1, 1939
marked the beginning of
World War II.
09/02/1991
Estonia
U.S. Recognition
President Bush announced on September 2, 1991
that the United States
C
lic
k
t
o
b
u
y
N
O
W
!
P
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F-XChan
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w
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cu-trac
k
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C
lic
k
t
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b
u
y
N
O
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!
P
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3013
recognized the independence of Estonia. This
followed receipt on September
1 of a letter from Soviet President Gorbachev saying
the Soviet Union had
no objection to such action on the part of the United
States. The United
States subsequently established an embassy in
Tallinn, the capital of
Estonia.
09/02/1991
Latvia
U.S. Recognition
President Bush announced on September 2, 1991
that the U.S. recognized the
independence of Latvia. This followed receipt of a
letter on September 1
of a letter from Soviet President Gorbachev saying
the Soviet Union had no
objection to such a move on the part of the United
States. The United
States subsequently established an embassy in
Riga, the capital of Latvia.
09/02/1991
Lithuania
U.S. Recognition
President Bush announced on September 2, 1991
that the United States
recognized the independence of Lithuania. This
followed receipt on
September 1 of a letter from Soviet President
Gorbachev saying the Soviet
C
lic
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t
o
b
u
y
N
O
W
!
P
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F-XChan
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w
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cu-trac
k
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C
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k
t
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b
u
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N
O
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!
P
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3014
Union had no objection to such a move on the part
of the United States.
The United States subsequently established an
embassy in Vilnius, the
capital of Lithuania.
09/02/0000
South Africa
Settler's Day
09/02/1945
Vietnam
Independence Day
Ho Chi Minh proclaimed the Democratic Republic of
Vietnam.
09/03/1987
Burundi
Founding of the Third Republic
09/03/1971
Qatar
Independence Day
09/03/0000
San Marino (Enclave In Italy)
Founding of the Republic
09/03/0000
Tunisia
Memorial Day
09/03/1969
Vietnam
Death of Ho Chi Minh
09/04/1992
Bhutan
Dasain Festival
Hindu festival.
C
lic
k
t
o
b
u
y
N
O
W
!
P
D
F-XChan
g
e
w
w
w
.d
o
cu-trac
k
.c
o
m
C
lic
k
t
o
b
u
y
N
O
W
!
P
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F-XChan
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3015
09/04/1970
Chile
Inauguration of Allende
Salvador Allende was the first president of Chile
elected on a
Marxist-Leninist platform.
09/04/1969
Japan
Founding of Red Army Faction
Radical leftists founded the Sekigunha (Red Army
Faction), predecessor of
the Japanese Red Army (JRA).
09/04/1992
Nepal
Dasain Festival
Hindu festival.
09/04/1992
Sri Lanka
Dasain Festival
Hindu festival.
09/05/1987
Burma
Demonetization of Currency
The demonetization of Burmese currency resulted in
student riots.
09/05/1973
France
Saudi Embassy In Paris Seized
Palestinian terrorists seized the Saudi Arabian
embassy in Paris, taking
five hostages. One hostage was released in France
and the others were
C
lic
k
t
o
b
u
y
N
O
W
!
P
D
F-XChan
g
e
w
w
w
.d
o
cu-trac
k
.c
o
m
C
lic
k
t
o
b
u
y
N
O
W
!
P
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3016
released later in Kuwait.
09/05/1977
Germany
Kidnap and Murder By RAF
Hans-Martin Schleyer, president of the West German
Employer's Association,
was kidnapped and killed in Cologne by Red Army
Faction (RAF) terrorists.
09/05/1986
Pakistan
Abortive Hijacking In Karachi
Twenty-one persons, including two Americans, were
killed in an abortive
hijacking of Pan Am Flight 73 by four Arab gunmen.
09/05/1973
Saudi Arabia
Saudi Embassy In Paris Seized
Palestinian terrorists seized the Saudi Arabian
embassy in Paris, taking
five hostages. One hostage was released in France
and the others were
released later in Kuwait.
09/05/1960
Senegal
Declaration of the Republic
09/06/1972
Germany
Massacre of Israelis In Munich
Palestinian Black September terrorists massacred
Israeli athletes at the
Munich Olympics.
09/06/1972
C
lic
k
t
o
b
u
y
N
O
W
!
P
D
F-XChan
g
e
w
w
w
.d
o
cu-trac
k
.c
o
m
C
lic
k
t
o
b
u
y
N
O
W
!
P
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F-XChan
g
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w
w
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cu-trac
k
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3017
Israel
Massacre of Israelis In Munich
Palestinian Black September terrorists massacred
Israeli athletes at the
Munich Olympics.
09/06/1957
Pakistan
Defense of Pakistan Day
09/06/1968
Swaziland
Independence Day
09/06/1986
Turkey
Worshipers Killed In Istanbul
Twenty-one Jewish worshipers were killed in
Istanbul during an attack on a
synagogue by an Abu Nidal terrorist team.
09/07/1986
Chile
Attempt To Kill Pinochet
Terrorists of the Manuel Rodriguez Patriotic Front
(FPMR) attempted, but
failed, to assassinate President Pinochet in
Santiago.
09/08/1943
Italy
Italy Surrenders To Allies
09/08/1951
Japan
Mutual Security Pact With U.S.
Japan signed the Mutual Security Pact with the
United States, permitting
C
lic
k
t
o
b
u
y
N
O
W
!
P
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F-XChan
g
e
w
w
w
.d
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cu-trac
k
.c
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m
C
lic
k
t
o
b
u
y
N
O
W
!
P
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3018
American troops to remain in the country. The date
is denounced by
leftists.
09/09/1944
Bulgaria
Communist Rule Begins
A Communist-dominated coalition, the Fatherland
Front, seized power from
the coalition government formed to arrange an
armistice with the Allies at
the end of World War II. This is celebrated as a
national holiday.
09/09/1976
China (People's Republic of)
Death of Mao Ze Dong
09/09/1978
Iran
Troops Kill Protesters
The Shah's troops opened fire on protesters in
Tehran, killing several
hundred demonstrators.
09/09/1993
Israel
PLO-Israeli Mutual Recognition
The Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO) and
Israel signed a mutual
recognition agreement.
09/09/1993
Middle East
PLO-Israeli Mutual Recognition
The Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO) and
Israel signed a mutual
C
lic
k
t
o
b
u
y
N
O
W
!
P
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k
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C
lic
k
t
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b
u
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N
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!
P
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3019
recognition agreement.
09/09/1948
North Korea
Independence Day
The Democratic People's Republic of Korea (DPRK)
was proclaimed in
Pyongyang. The holiday also is referred to as
National Foundation Day.
09/09/1993
Occupied Territories
PLO-Israeli Mutual Recognition
The Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO) and
Israel signed a mutual
recognition agreement.
09/09/1993
Worldwide
PLO-Israeli Mutual Recognition
The Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO) and
Israel signed a mutual
recognition agreement.
09/10/0000
Belize
National Day
09/10/1984
Ethiopia
Communist Regime Proclaimed
09/10/1974
Guinea-Bissau
Republic Day
Celebrates independence from Portugal.
09/10/1943
Italy
C
lic
k
t
o
b
u
y
N
O
W
!
P
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g
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w
w
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cu-trac
k
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C
lic
k
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b
u
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N
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!
P
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3020
German Troops Seize Rome
09/10/1992
Tajikistan
Declaration of Independence
President Rakhmon Nabiyev resigned on September
7, 1992 after Islamic
rebels forcefully took control of government. The
Islamic Party was
overturned in a bloody coup in late October 1992.
September 10 is
recognized as the date of Tajikistan's declaration of
independence.
Islamic rebels have continued fighting since early
September 1992.
09/11/1973
Chile
Allende Government Overthrown
A military coup, led by General Augusto Pinochet,
overthrew President
Salvador Allende and established a government by
junta. Allende was killed
in the coup.
09/11/1952
Ethiopia
Return of Eritrea
Eritrea was returned to Ethiopia from Italian and
British control under a
United Nations resolution.
09/11/1917
Philippines
Birthday of Ferdinand Marcos
C
lic
k
t
o
b
u
y
N
O
W
!
P
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g
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w
w
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cu-trac
k
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m
C
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k
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b
u
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N
O
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!
P
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3021
Ferdinand Marcos was born in Sarrat, Ilocos Norte
Province.
09/12/1974
Ethiopia
Haile Selassie Deposed
Haile Selassie was deposed after a prolonged period
of unrest. An
escalating series of mutinies in the armed forces,
demonstrations, and
strikes led to the seizure of state power by the
Armed Forces Coordinating
Committee. This is celebrated as a national holiday.
09/12/1980
Philippines
Nine Manila Buildings Bombed
The April Six Movement bombed nine buildings in
the metro Manila area.
09/12/1977
South Africa
Death of Steve Biko
Steve Biko, founder of the Black Consciousness
Movement, died in police
custody.
09/13/1993
Israel
Israeli-PLO Peace Pact
Israel and the Palestine Liberation Organization
(PLO) signed a peace
agreement in Washington, D.C. outlining a plan for
Palestinian self-rule
in the Israeli-occupied territories.
09/13/1993
C
lic
k
t
o
b
u
y
N
O
W
!
P
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g
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w
w
w
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cu-trac
k
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m
C
lic
k
t
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b
u
y
N
O
W
!
P
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3022
Middle East
Israeli-PLO Peace Pact
Israel and the Palestine Liberation Organization
(PLO) signed a peace
agreement in Washington, D.C. outlining a plan for
Palestinian self-rule
in the Israeli-occupied territories.
09/13/1993
Occupied Territories
Israeli-PLO Peace Pact
Israel and the Palestine Liberation Organization
(PLO) signed a peace
agreement in Washington, D.C. outlining a plan for
Palestinian self-rule
in the Israeli-occupied territories.
09/13/1992
Peru
Guzman Captured
Abimael Guzman, the leader of Sendero Luminoso,
was captured by
anti-terrorist police.
09/14/1986
Korea (Republic of)
Bombing At Kimpo Airport
A bombing at Kimpo Airport in Seoul killed five
people and injured
twenty-nine others. North Korea has been blamed
for the bombing.
09/14/1982
Lebanon
President-Elect Assassinated
President-elect Bashir Gemayel was assassinated.
C
lic
k
t
o
b
u
y
N
O
W
!
P
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w
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cu-trac
k
.c
o
m
C
lic
k
t
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b
u
y
N
O
W
!
P
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3023
09/15/1821
Costa Rica
Independence Day
09/15/1982
Egypt
Seizure of Embassy In Madrid
Black September terrorists seized the Egyptian
embassy in Madrid,
demanding that Egypt renounce the Sinai
Agreement with Israel. The
ambassador signed a renunciation, which was later
dismissed.
09/15/1821
El Salvador
Independence Day
09/15/1986
France
Bombing of Police Headquarters
A bomb exploded inside the main police
headquarters in Paris, killing one
person and wounding fifty-one others.
09/15/1821
Guatemala
Independence Day
09/15/1821
Honduras
Independence Day
Honduras declared its independence from Spain and
joined a federation of
Central American states in 1821. It left the
federation in 1838.
09/15/1982
C
lic
k
t
o
b
u
y
N
O
W
!
P
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F-XChan
g
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w
w
w
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cu-trac
k
.c
o
m
C
lic
k
t
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b
u
y
N
O
W
!
P
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3024
Lebanon
Refugee Camp Massacre
Lebanese Christian Phalangists killed hundreds of
Palestinian refugees in
a camp near Beirut.
09/15/1982
Lebanon
Israel Invades West Beirut
09/15/1821
Nicaragua
Independence Day
Nicaragua declared its independence from Spain as
part of a Central
American federation. Nicaragua became
independent in its own right in
1838.
09/15/1975
Spain
Egyptian Embassy Seized
Black September terrorists seized the Egyptian
embassy in Madrid,
demanding that Egypt renounce the Sinai
Agreement with Israel. The
ambassador signed a renunciation, which was later
dismissed.
09/16/1963
Malaysia
Formation of Malaysia
Malaysia, comprising Malaya, Singapore, Sarawak,
and Sabah (North Borneo)
was formally established.
09/16/1810
C
lic
k
t
o
b
u
y
N
O
W
!
P
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g
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w
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cu-trac
k
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C
lic
k
t
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b
u
y
N
O
W
!
P
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F-XChan
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3025
Mexico
Independence Day
Independence from Spain was declared by Father
Miguel Hidalgo. The War for
Independence continued until 1822, when the
Mexican Republic was
established.
09/16/1975
Papua New Guinea
Independence Day
Achieved independence from the International
Trusteeship system.
09/16/1991
Philippines
U.S. Bases Agreement To End
The Bases Agreement with the United States ended
in accordance with terms
of the Philippine constitution.
09/16/1963
Singapore
Formation of Malaysia
Malaysia, comprised of Malaya, Singapore, Sarawak,
and Sabah (North
Borneo), was formally established.
09/17/0000
Angola
Day of the National Hero
Honors former president Agostinho Neto.
09/17/1978
Egypt
Camp David Accords Signed
09/17/1963
C
lic
k
t
o
b
u
y
N
O
W
!
P
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F-XChan
g
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w
w
w
.d
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cu-trac
k
.c
o
m
C
lic
k
t
o
b
u
y
N
O
W
!
P
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F-XChan
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3026
Indonesia
Era of "Konfrontasi" Begins
The era of "Konfrontasi" began, a period of quasi-
war between Indonesia
and Malaysia.
09/17/1981
Indonesia
President of FRETILIN Killed
The Indonesian army ambushed and killed Jose
Gusmao, president of
FRETILIN.
09/17/1978
Israel
Camp David Accords Signed
09/17/1963
Malaysia
Era of "Konfrontasi" Begins
The era of "Konfrontasi" began, a period of quasi-
war between Indonesia
and Malaysia.
09/17/1980
Nicaragua
Somoza Assassinated
Former president Somoza was assassinated at his
place of exile in
Paraguay.
09/18/1988
Burma
Saw Maung Seizes Power
General Saw Maung seized power in a military coup,
sparking widespread
unrest.
C
lic
k
t
o
b
u
y
N
O
W
!
P
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F-XChan
g
e
w
w
w
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o
cu-trac
k
.c
o
m
C
lic
k
t
o
b
u
y
N
O
W
!
P
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3027
09/18/0000
Burundi
Uprona Victory Day
09/18/1810
Chile
Independence Day
09/18/1993
Poland
Russian Troops Leave Poland
The last 24 former Soviet soldiers stationed in
Poland returned to Russia,
ending a presence which helped fortify Moscow's
military and political
domination for almost half a century.
09/18/1993
Russia
Russian Soldiers Leave Poland
The last 24 former Soviet soldiers stationed in
Poland returned to Russia,
ending a presence which helped fortify Moscow's
military and political
domination for almost half a century.
09/19/1989
Chad
UTA Flight 772 Bombed
UTA Flight 772 was bombed, killing all on board. The
flight originated in
Chad and crashed in Niger.
09/19/0000
Chile
Army Day
09/19/1989
C
lic
k
t
o
b
u
y
N
O
W
!
P
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F-XChan
g
e
w
w
w
.d
o
cu-trac
k
.c
o
m
C
lic
k
t
o
b
u
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N
O
W
!
P
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F-XChan
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3028
France
Bombing of UTA Flight 772
Flight 772 of UTA Airlines was bombed and
destroyed over Niger. All on
board were killed, including a number of French
citizens.
09/19/1980
Iran
Iran-Iraq War Begins
09/19/1980
Iraq
Iran-Iraq War Begins
09/19/1989
Niger
Bombing of UTA Flight 772
UTA Flight 772 from Chad was blown up by bomb
over Niger, killing all on
board.
09/19/1983
Saint Kitts and Nevis
Independence Day
09/20/1979
Central African Republic
Bokassa Overthrown In Coup
Former president Dacko led a successful and
bloodless coup while Bokassa
was out of the country, declaring the Imperial State
apparatus null and
void.
09/20/1949
Germany
FRG Government Established
C
lic
k
t
o
b
u
y
N
O
W
!
P
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g
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k
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C
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k
t
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b
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N
O
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!
P
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3029
The government of the federal government was
established, led by Konrad
Adenauer. The following day, September 21, the
Occupation Statute came
into force, granting full powers of self-government
to the new state.
09/20/1984
Lebanon
Bombing of U.S. Embassy Annex
Fourteen people were killed and seventy were
wounded when a van loaded
with four hundred pounds of explosives drove past
the checkpoint in front
of the U.S. embassy annex in Awkar and exploded.
The driver of the van was
shot and killed by British security guards. Islamic
Jihad claimed
responsibility for the bombing in a call to the media.
09/21/1981
Belize
Independence Day
09/21/0000
Philippines
Thanksgiving Day
09/21/1972
Philippines
Martial Law Proclaimed
Ferdinand Marcos proclaimed martial law.
09/21/1985
Philippines
The Escalante Massacre
C
lic
k
t
o
b
u
y
N
O
W
!
P
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F-XChan
g
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w
w
w
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cu-trac
k
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m
C
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k
t
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b
u
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N
O
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!
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3030
Demonstrators in Escalante, Negros Occidental,
were forcibly dispersed by
authorities, resulting in the deaths of twenty people.
The incident
subsequently was dubbed "The Escalante
Massacre" by the anti-Marcos
opposition.
09/21/0570
Worldwide
Birth of Mohammed
Birth of the founder of Islam.
09/22/1960
Mali
Independence Day
09/23/1907
New Zealand
Dominion Day
09/23/1932
Saudi Arabia
National Holiday
The kingdoms of Nejd and Hejaz were consolidated
into a single kingdom
under King Abu Al-Aziz Saud.
09/23/1983
United Arab Emirates
Bombing of Omani Aircraft
An Omani Gulf aircraft en route from Karachi to Abu
Dhabi was destroyed by
a bomb, killing one hundred and eleven people,
including one American.
09/24/1981
France
C
lic
k
t
o
b
u
y
N
O
W
!
P
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F-XChan
g
e
w
w
w
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o
cu-trac
k
.c
o
m
C
lic
k
t
o
b
u
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N
O
W
!
P
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3031
Storming of Turkish Consulate
Armenian terrorists stormed the Turkish consulate,
killing one guard,
wounding the Vice Consul, and taking several
hostages. The hostages were
released later and the Armenians surrendered.
09/24/1979
Ghana
Inauguration of the Republic
09/24/1973
Guinea-Bissau
Independence Day
09/25/1964
Mozambique
Armed Forces Day
Celebrates the formation of the Front for the
Liberation of Mozambique
(FRELIMO) by anti-Portuguese groups who then
began their armed campaign
against colonial rule. Also known as Revolution Day.
09/26/1907
New Zealand
Dominion Day
Celebrates the declaration of New Zealand as a
dominion of the United
Kingdom.
09/26/1976
Syria
Hostages Taken In Damascus
Abu Nidal terrorists seized the Semiramis Hotel in
Damascus, taking ninety
C
lic
k
t
o
b
u
y
N
O
W
!
P
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F-XChan
g
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w
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cu-trac
k
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C
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k
t
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b
u
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N
O
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3032
hostages. Four hostages and all of the terrorists
were killed in a
subsequent gunfight, and thirty-four hostages were
injured.
09/26/1962
Yemen
Establishment of the Republic
National holiday celebrates the fledgling Yemeni
army's destruction of the
palace of Imam Badr and the subsequent
establishment of the Yemen Arab
Republic.
09/27/1958
Burma
Army Takes Power
The Burmese army took power, with General Ne Win
agreeing to head the new
government.
09/27/1987
Greece
Bombing of U.S. Commissary
09/28/0000
China (People's Republic of)
Birth of Confucius
09/28/1945
Japan
Birthday of JRA Leader
Birthday of Japanese Red Army (JRA) leader Fusako
Shigenobu.
09/28/1989
Philippines
Death of Ferdinand Marcos
C
lic
k
t
o
b
u
y
N
O
W
!
P
D
F-XChan
g
e
w
w
w
.d
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cu-trac
k
.c
o
m
C
lic
k
t
o
b
u
y
N
O
W
!
P
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3033
Ferdinand Marcos died in Honolulu, Hawaii,
following a long illness.
09/28/1961
Syria
Syrian Arab Republic Declared
The Syrian Arab Republic was declared following a
coup d'etat by military
officers.
09/30/0000
Botswana
Botswana Day
09/30/1966
Botswana
Independence Day
09/30/1991
Haiti
Overthrow of Aristide
President Jean-Bertrand Aristide was overthrown by
the military and
replaced by a military-backed government that the
Organization of American
States (OAS) declared illegitimate.
09/30/1992
Philippines
Handing Over of Subic Bay Base
The Subic Bay naval base was returned to the
custody of the Philippine
government on September 30, 1992 with a flag
lowering and raising
ceremony.
C
lic
k
t
o
b
u
y
N
O
W
!
P
D
F-XChan
g
e
w
w
w
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o
cu-trac
k
.c
o
m
C
lic
k
t
o
b
u
y
N
O
W
!
P
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3034
Calender of Significant Dates--October
OCTOBER
10/01/1961
Cameroon
Federal Republic Proclaimed
10/01/1949
China (People's Republic of)
National Day
Celebrates the founding of the Peoples Republic of
China.
10/01/1960
Cyprus
Independence Day
10/01/0000
Indonesia
Pancasila Day
Celebrates the five-point national ideology of the
Indonesian state.
10/01/1985
Israel, Tunisia
Bombing of PLO Headquarters
The Israeli air force bombed the headquarters of the
Palestinian
Liberation Organization (PLO) in Tunis.
10/01/1960
Nigeria
Independence Day
10/02/1958
Guinea
C
lic
k
t
o
b
u
y
N
O
W
!
P
D
F-XChan
g
e
w
w
w
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o
cu-trac
k
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o
m
C
lic
k
t
o
b
u
y
N
O
W
!
P
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3035
Independence Day
10/03/0000
Australia
Labor Day
10/03/0000
Honduras
Birthday of Francisco Morazan
The national hero of Honduras, who was a leader in
the unsuccessful effort
to keep Central America united.
10/04/1966
Lesotho
Independence Day
Moshoeshoe II took the oath of office as king for
life.
10/05/1987
Chile
Lautaro Youth Movement Founded
The leftist terrorist group has commemorated this
anniversary by attacking
Chilean and American targets.
10/05/1988
Chile
Referendum Ends Pinochet Rule
General Pinochet called a referendum to win eight
more years as Chile's
military ruler. When he lost the vote, Pinochet
decided to allow the
restoration of multi-party democracy.
10/05/1921
Liechtenstein
Establishment of the Monarchy
C
lic
k
t
o
b
u
y
N
O
W
!
P
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w
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cu-trac
k
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C
lic
k
t
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b
u
y
N
O
W
!
P
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3036
The Principality of Liechtenstein was established as
a hereditary
constitutional monarchy based on the constitution
of 1921.
10/05/1919
Portugal
Proclamation of the Republic
10/06/1973
Egypt
The Yom Kippur War Begins
10/06/1973
Egypt
Armed Forces Day
10/06/1981
Egypt
Anwar Sadat Assassinated
10/06/1973
Israel
The Yom Kippur War Begins
10/06/1973
Syria
The Yom Kippur War Begins
10/06/1976
Thailand
Overthrow of the Government
Thirty-eight students were killed in Thammasat
during protests against the
return of former president Thanom. The government
was overthrown the same
day.
10/07/1985
Egypt, Italy
C
lic
k
t
o
b
u
y
N
O
W
!
P
D
F-XChan
g
e
w
w
w
.d
o
cu-trac
k
.c
o
m
C
lic
k
t
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b
u
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N
O
W
!
P
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3037
Hijacking of the Achille Lauro
Four Palestinian gunmen hijacked the Italian cruise
ship "Achille Lauro"
off Alexandria, Egypt. While off the Syrian port of
Tartus, the terrorists
killed a wheelchair-bound American. Egypt and Italy
negotiated the return
of the ship and the remaining passengers. U.S.
fighters intercepted an
Egyptian jet carrying the hijackers and forced it
down at a NATO base in
Italy.
10/07/1970
Libya
Fascist Evacuation Day
Celebrates the departure of the last Italian settlers
from Libya. Also
called "Revenge Day."
10/07/1958
Pakistan
Mirza Came To Power In A Coup
President Iskander Mirza, supported by senior
military officers, seized
power and imposed martial law.
10/07/0000
Peru
Communist Party Founded
10/07/1992
Peru
Guzman Sentenced To Life
On October 7, 1992, Abimael Guzman, the founder
and leader of Sendero
C
lic
k
t
o
b
u
y
N
O
W
!
P
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F-XChan
g
e
w
w
w
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cu-trac
k
.c
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m
C
lic
k
t
o
b
u
y
N
O
W
!
P
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3038
Luminoso (Shining Path), was sentenced to life
imprisonment by a military
court.
10/08/1895
Argentina
Juan Peron's Birthday
10/08/1967
Bolivia, Chile, Cuba
Che Guevara's Death
Che Guevara was killed by security forces in
eastern Bolivia while trying,
unsuccessfully, to spark a Cuban-style uprising.
10/08/1987
Colombia
Rebel Umbrella Group Founded
The Simon Bolivar Guerrilla Coordinating Board
(CNG) is an umbrella
organization under which the Revolutionary Armed
Forces of Colombia
(FARC), the National Liberation Army (ELN), and a
dissident faction of the
Popular Liberation Army (EPL) coordinate political
positions and organize
joint terrorist operations.
10/08/1990
Israel
18 Arabs Die At Temple Mount
Eighteen Arabs died during clashes with police at
the Temple Mount
religious site. The Arabs reported feared Jewish
extremists from the
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3039
Temple Mount faithful were planning to attack the
Al-Aqsa and Dome of the
Rock mosque complexes, Islam's third holiest site.
10/08/1982
Poland
Solidarity Union Outlawed
10/09/1983
Burma
Rangoon Bombing by North Korea
North Korean commandos detonated a bomb in
Rangoon during a state visit by
Republic of Korea officials. Twenty-one Burmese
and Korean officials were
killed.
10/09/1970
Cambodia
Cambodian Monarchy Abolished
The country subsequently was named The Khmer
Republic.
10/09/1983
Korea (Republic of)
Officials Killed In Rangoon
North Korean commandos detonated a bomb in
Rangoon during a visit by
Republic of Korea government ministers, killing
twenty-one Burmese and
Korean officials.
10/09/1962
Uganda
Independence Day
10/10/1980
El Salvador
C
lic
k
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o
b
u
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N
O
W
!
P
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!
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3040
FMLN Founded
The Farabundo Marti National Liberation Front
(FMLN), umbrella
organization of the five main leftist guerrilla groups
in El Salvador.
10/10/1970
Fiji
Independence Day
10/10/0000
North Korea
Worker's Party Foundation Day
10/10/0000
South Africa
Kruger Day
Commemorates president Paul Kruger's birthday.
10/10/0000
Taiwan
Double Ten National Day
Anniversary of the revolution leading to the founding
of the Chinese
Republic by Sun Yat Sen.
10/11/1993
Israel
PLO Approves Peace Accord
The Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO) Central
Council approved
chairman Yasser Arafat's peace deal with Israel by
a vote of 63 to 8, with
11 members abstaining or absent.
10/11/1993
Middle East
PLO Approves Peace Accord
C
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3041
The Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO) Central
Council approved
chairman Yasser Arafat's peace accord with Israel
by a vote of 63 to 8,
with 11 members abstaining or absent.
10/11/1972
Panama
Constitution Day
10/11/0000
South Africa
Day of Solidarity
International day of solidarity with South African
political prisoners.
10/12/0000
Argentina
Columbus Day
10/12/1492
Bahamas
Discovery Day
10/12/0000
Chile
Columbus Day
10/12/1965
Chile
MIR Terrorist Group Founded
The Movement of the Revolutionary Left (MIR) was
one of the most active
leftist terrorist groups during the presidency of
Salvador Allende and was
suppressed during the military regime that followed.
It survives as a
political organization.
C
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u
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O
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3042
10/12/1492
Ecuador
Columbus' Arrival In Americas
The anniversary of Columbus' landing is marked by
official celebrations
and protests by Indian communities.
10/12/1968
Equatorial Guinea
Independence Day
10/12/1492
Latin America and Caribbean
Columbus' Landfall In America
Christopher Columbus set foot on American soil for
the first time on San
Salvador (formerly Watling) Island in the Bahamas.
This date may be marked
by celebrations and protests in many countries.
10/12/1957
Malaysia
Treaty of Mutual Defense
The Treaty of Mutual Defense and Mutual
Assistance was signed with the
United Kingdom.
10/12/1492
Panama
Columbus' Landfall In America
Christopher Columbus' landfall on San Salvador
(formerly Watling) Island
in the Bahamas may be marked by celebrations and
protests.
10/12/0000
Spain
C
lic
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b
u
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N
O
W
!
P
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3043
National Holiday
10/12/1984
United Kingdom
Attempt To Kill Prime Minister
The Provisional Irish Republican Army (PIRA)
bombed the Grand Hotel in
Brighton during a Conservative Party conference.
The goal of the attack
was to kill Prime Minister Thatcher. She escaped
unharmed, but four others
died in the attack.
10/13/0000
Belize
Pan-American Day
10/13/1932
Iraq
Independence Day
10/14/1958
Madagascar
Proclamation of the Republic
10/14/1973
Thailand
Overthrow of the Military
The military dictatorship was overthrown and there
was a return to
civilian rule.
10/14/0000
Yemen
National Holiday
10/14/1930
Zaire
Birthday of President Mobutu
C
lic
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O
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3044
10/15/1987
Burkina Faso
Compaore Regime Comes To Power
A coup in Ouagadougou overthrew the Sankara
government, bringing the
Compaore regime to power.
10/15/1989
South Africa
ANC Members Released
President Frederik de Klerk frees six African
National Congress (ANC)
members that had been imprisoned for more than
twenty-five years.
10/15/0000
Tunisia
Evacuation Day
10/16/1978
Holy See, The (The Vatican)
Election of Pope John Paul II
10/16/0000
Syria
Air Force Day
10/17/1945
Argentina
Peron Founds Labor Movement
10/18/1977
Germany, Federal Republic of
RAF Terrorists Commit Suicide
Red Army Faction (RAF) terrorists in a West German
prison committed
suicide.
10/18/1977
C
lic
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t
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b
u
y
N
O
W
!
P
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t
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O
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!
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3045
Germany, Federal Republic of
German Commandos Free Hostages
West German commandos stormed a plane hijacked
by the Popular Front for
the Liberation of Palestine (PFLP), freeing all of the
hostages.
10/18/1981
Greece
PASOK Won National Elections
The Panhellenic Socialist Party (PASOK) led by
Andreas Papandreou won the
national elections.
10/18/1955
Vietnam
Republic Proclaimed by Diem
10/19/0000
China (People's Republic of)
Chung Yeung Festival
10/19/1986
Mozambique
Death of President Machel
President Machel was killed in an airplane crash.
10/19/1977
South Africa
Crackdown On Organizations
The South African government banned eighteen
organizations and the two
largest black newspapers, while also detaining
forty-seven black leaders.
10/20/1977
Greece
Killing of Christos Kasimis
C
lic
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o
b
u
y
N
O
W
!
P
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N
O
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!
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3046
Greek police killed Christos Kasimis, member of the
ELA terrorist group.
10/20/1944
Guatemala
Overthrow of Ubico Regime
An uprising led by progressive army officers
overthrew the regime of
General Jorge Ubico, ushering in ten years of
democratic rule during which
social reforms were adopted.
10/20/1952
Kenya
Kenyatta Day
A state of emergency was declared following the
Mau Mau Rebellion, during
which hundreds of future Kenyan leaders were
arrested. The British were
able to put down the rebellion by the end of 1956.
10/20/1921
Mongolia
Independence Day
10/20/1944
Philippines
Landing of MacArthur In Leyte
U.S. forces under General Douglas MacArthur landed
near Palao on the
island of Leyte, beginning the re-conquest of the
Philippines from the
Japanese. An annual commemorative ceremony is
held at the site of the
landing.
10/20/1958
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lic
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!
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3047
Thailand
Coup In Bangkok
Field Marshal Sarit Thanarat, Supreme Commander
of the Armed Forces,
staged a coup d'etat and established military rule.
10/21/0000
Honduras
Armed Forces Day
10/21/1966
Japan
Work Began On Narita Airport
Ten days of demonstrations usually occur around
this anniversary.
10/21/1966
Japan
International Anti-War Day
Since the end of the Vietnam War, Japanese leftist
groups have used this
day to espouse various anti-war, anti-nuclear, and
anti-security treaty
themes.
10/21/1969
Somalia
Siad Barre Seizes Power
The anniversary of the seizure of power is known as
National Day.
10/22/0000
New Zealand
Labor Day
10/23/1983
Lebanon
U.S. Marines Killed In Beirut
C
lic
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O
W
!
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!
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3048
Islamic Jihad bombings in Beirut killed 254 U.S.
marines and 58 French
paratroopers.
10/24/1956
Egypt
Popular Resistance Day
10/24/1975
France
Turkish Ambassador Killed
The Turkish ambassador and his driver were shot
and killed in Paris by
members of the Armenian Secret Army for the
Liberation of Armenia (ASALA).
10/24/1984
Syria
Relations with the U.K. Broken
10/24/1975
Turkey
Ambassador To France Killed
The Turkish ambassador to France and his driver
were shot and killed in
Paris by members of the Armenian Secret Army for
the Liberation of Armenia
(ASALA).
10/24/1964
Zambia
Independence Day
10/25/1955
Austria
Revolution Day
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N
O
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!
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3049
Celebrates the return of Soviet-administered
properties under the Austrian
State Treaty. All occupation forces were withdrawn
and Austria became free
and independent.
10/25/1983
Grenada
U.S. Invasion of Grenada
With the breakdown of law and order following the
arrest and subsequent
murder of prime minister Maurice Bishop, Grenada's
governor general and
the Organization of Eastern Caribbean States asked
the U.S. for
assistance. The U.S. sent a military force to the
island to restore order
and evacuate endangered American citizens.
10/26/1972
Benin
Military Seized Power
The Benin military seized power in a coup d'etat,
installing Matheiu
Kerekou as chief of state.
10/26/1979
Korea (Republic of)
Assassination of Pak Chung Hee
10/26/1943
Libya
Day of Mourning
Day to commemorate Libyan suffering and the
deportation of Libyans to
Italy during Italian colonial rule.
C
lic
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N
O
W
!
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!
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3050
10/26/0000
Rwanda
Armed Forces Day
10/27/1918
Czechoslovakia
Independence Day
10/27/1979
Saint Vincent and Grenadines
Independence Day
10/28/1492
Cuba
Discovery by Columbus
10/28/1974
Cyprus
Greek Cypriot National Holiday
10/28/1941
Greece
Okhi Day
The third most important holiday (after
Independence Day and Easter
Sunday) in the Greek calendar; commemorates the
Greek rejection of
Mussolini's ultimatum to the Athens government,
which led subsequently to
Italy's invasion of Greece from Albania. The Greeks
held the Italian army
at bay in the mountains of Epirus until military
intervention by the Nazis
in March 1941.
10/28/1987
Philippines
NPA Kills Three Americans
C
lic
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!
P
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3051
New People's Army (NPA) guerrillas killed three
Americans near Clark Air
Base.
10/29/1973
Cyprus
Turkish Cypriot Republic Day
10/29/1956
Egypt
Invasion of the Sinai
Israeli, French, and British forces invaded the Sinai
and seized control
of the Suez Canal following its nationalization by
Egypt.
10/29/1923
Turkey
Turkish National Day
The date commemorates the declaration of Turkey
as a republic by Mustafa
Kemal Ataturk and his inauguration as its first
president.
10/30/1991
Middle East
Peace Talks Begin In Madrid
The first round of Arab-Israeli peace talks began in
Madrid, Spain.
10/31/1984
India
Assassination of Indira Gandhi
Indian prime minister Indira Gandhi was
assassinated by her Sikh
bodyguards. Anti-Sikh rioting following the
assassination resulted in
C
lic
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3052
thousands of Sikh deaths throughout India.
Calender of Significant Dates--November
NOVEMBER
11/01/1954
Algeria
Revolution Day
Commemorates the revolt by indigenous Algerians
in an attempt to gain
rights denied to them under French colonial rule.
11/01/1981
Antigua and Barbuda
Independence Day
11/01/0000
Argentina
Veterans Day
11/01/0000
Bolivia
All Saints Day
11/01/0000
Chile
All Saints Day
11/01/0000
Guadeloupe (French Antilles)
All Saints Day
11/01/0000
Guinea
Armed Forces Day
C
lic
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N
O
W
!
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3053
11/01/0000
Haiti
All Saints Day
Schools, stores, and businesses are closed.
11/01/0000
Martinique (French Antilles)
All Saints Day
11/02/0000
Haiti
All Souls Day
Schools, stores, and businesses are closed.
11/02/1917
Israel, Occupied Territories
Balfour Declaration
Anniversary of the declaration which promised a
Jewish homeland in
Palestine. Demonstrations in the occupied
territories and the Gaza area
have occurred on this date.
11/03/1956
Hungary
Invasion by Soviet Forces
Soviet armed forces invaded Hungary following
Hungarian premier Imre
Nagy's proclamation of Hungarian neutrality.
11/03/1918
Italy
National Unity Day
11/03/1929
Korea (Republic of)
Students' Day
C
lic
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b
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N
O
W
!
P
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C
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!
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3054
Commemorates beginning of student protests
against Japanese rule in
Kwangju.
11/03/1903
Panama
Independence From Colombia
11/04/1964
Iran
Ayatollah Khomeini Exiled
The Ayatollah Khomeini was exiled to Turkey.
11/04/1978
Iran
Student Uprising Against Shah
11/04/1979
Iran
Seizure of American Embassy
The American embassy was seized and sixty-three
people were taken hostage.
11/04/1982
Peru
MRTA Founded
The Tupac Amaru Revolutionary Movement (MRTA)
is a Cuban-inspired Marxist
guerrilla organization.
11/04/1991
Philippines
Imelda Marcos Returns
Imelda Marcos returned on this date from six years
in exile. She was
promptly arrested and charged with multiple fraud
and tax evasion charges
C
lic
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b
u
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N
O
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!
P
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3055
and released on bail.
11/04/1991
Zambia
Peaceful Power Transition
President Kaunda conceded defeat in the first free
elections in years and
transferred power to his successor. This is a
watershed occurrence in
turbulent Africa as democracy movements attempt
to displace regimes of
another stripe.
11/06/1979
Morocco
Green March Day
Moroccan citizens marched into the Spanish
western Sahara claiming areas
vacated by Mauritania, which signed a peace treaty
with the Polisario
movement renouncing all claims on the territory.
11/07/1982
Burkina Faso
Coup Overthrows the Government
11/07/1917
Hungary
October Revolution Day
Celebrates the Bolshevik Revolution in the Soviet
Union.
11/07/1917
Russia
Revolution Day
Great October Socialist Revolution 7-8 November
1917. Considered by
C
lic
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3056
communists as their most sacred day.
11/08/1987
United Kingdom
13 Die In PIRA Bombing
Thirteen people were killed in the Northern Ireland
town of Enniskillen
when the Provisional Irish Republican Army (PIRA)
detonated a bomb during
the town's observance of Remembrance Day.
11/09/1953
Cambodia
Independence Day
France acknowledges the independence of
Cambodia without reservations,
after years of persistent lobbying (and public
posturing) by Prince
Norodom Sihanouk.
11/09/1974
Germany
RAF Terrorist Dies In Prison
Red Army Faction (RAF) terrorist Holger Meins died
in prison during a
hunger strike.
11/10/1977
Philippines
Capture of Jose Maria Sison
Communist Party of the Philippines (CPP) leader
Jose Maria Sison was
captured.
11/10/1938
Turkey
Death of Kemal Ataturk
C
lic
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t
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b
u
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N
O
W
!
P
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k
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C
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t
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N
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!
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3057
11/11/1975
Angola
Independence Day
11/11/1957
Colombia
EPL Declares War On Government
The Popular Liberation Army (EPL), a leftist terrorist
organization, has
since made peace with the government and become
a legitimate political
party. However, a dissident faction continues the
armed struggle against
the government.
11/11/1970
Korea (Republic of)
Death of Labor Martyr
Chon Tae Il, a textile company laborer, burnt himself
to death in protest
against the government crackdown on the free labor
union movement.
11/11/1968
Maldives
Sultanate Abolished
The sultanate was abolished and the republic was
declared.
11/11/1980
Mauritania
Coup Brings Taya To Power
11/11/1965
Zimbabwe
Declaration of Independence
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lic
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O
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cu-trac
k
.c
o
m
C
lic
k
t
o
b
u
y
N
O
W
!
P
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F-XChan
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cu-trac
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3058
Prime minister Ian Smith issued a unilateral
declaration of independence
from the United Kingdom in an attempt to continue
minority rule by white
Rhodesians.
11/12/1918
Austria
Republic Day
11/12/1927
Indonesia
First PKI Rebellion Erupts
The first Indonesian Communist Party (PKI) rebellion
erupted in West Java.
11/12/1991
Indonesia
Over 100 Killed In Dili
In an apparently unprovoked attack Indonesian
troops killed over 100 East
Timorese and at least one New Zealander in a
deadly hail of automatic
weapons fire aimed at a funeral procession. Reports
and video tape
indicated no visible provocation. Two American
print reporters were
severely beaten in the incident. World condemnation
followed the attack in
Dili East Timor.
11/12/1990
Japan
Crowning of Emperor Akihito
C
lic
k
t
o
b
u
y
N
O
W
!
P
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F-XChan
g
e
w
w
w
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o
cu-trac
k
.c
o
m
C
lic
k
t
o
b
u
y
N
O
W
!
P
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cu-trac
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3059
The coronation of the emperor occurred on 12
November amid threats from
youth groups against the imperial succession.
11/12/0000
Taiwan
Birthday of Sun Yat Sen
11/13/1986
Philippines
Rolando Alalia Assassinated
Leftist labor leader Rolando Alalia was assassinated
in Manila.
11/13/1970
Syria
Assad Assumes Power
Minister of defense Hafiz Al-Assad seized power in a
bloodless coup
following the defeat of Syrian forces during the
"Black September"
hostilities with Jordan.
11/14/1935
Jordan
Birthday of King Hussein
11/14/1991
Libya
Pan Am 103 Indictments Issued
The United Kingdom issued indictments against two
Libyans for the bombing
of Pan Am Flight 103 in December 1989.
11/14/1991
United Kingdom
Pan Am 103 Indictments Issued
C
lic
k
t
o
b
u
y
N
O
W
!
P
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F-XChan
g
e
w
w
w
.d
o
cu-trac
k
.c
o
m
C
lic
k
t
o
b
u
y
N
O
W
!
P
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w
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cu-trac
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3060
The United Kingdom issued indictments against two
Libyans for the bombing
of Pan Am Flight 103 in December 1989.
11/15/1889
Brazil
Proclamation of the Republic
11/15/1983
Cyprus
Turkish Cypriot Independence
Turkish Cypriots occupying the northern third of the
island declared
themselves the "Turkish Republic of Northern
Cyprus" (TRNC).
11/15/1983
Greece
U.S. Navy Captain Assassinated
U.S. Navy captain George Tsantes was shot and
killed while on his way to
work in Athens. His chauffeur also died in the
attack. The Greek terrorist
organization "November 17" subsequently took
credit for the killings.
11/15/1988
Occupied Territories
Palestinian State Declared
The Palestine National Congress meeting in Algiers
declared a Palestinian
state on the West Bank and Gaza Strip.
11/17/1986
France
President of Renault Murdered
C
lic
k
t
o
b
u
y
N
O
W
!
P
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F-XChan
g
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w
w
w
.d
o
cu-trac
k
.c
o
m
C
lic
k
t
o
b
u
y
N
O
W
!
P
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3061
Members of the Action Directe (AD) terrorist group
murdered George Besse,
president of Renault.
11/17/1973
Greece
Student Uprising In Athens
An uprising of students at the Athens Polytechnic
University against the
rule of a military junta in Greece took place on this
date. The Greek
terrorist organization "November 17" took its name
from this event.
11/18/1918
Latvia
Independence Day
11/18/1955
Morocco
National Holiday
Sultan Mohammed V was allowed to return to
Morocco and negotiations with
the French for independence began.
11/18/1940
Oman
National Holiday
Sultan Bin-Said's birthday.
11/19/1798
Ireland
Death of Wolfe Tone
Wolfe Tone was the first Irish revolutionary.
11/19/1968
Mali
Liberation Day
C
lic
k
t
o
b
u
y
N
O
W
!
P
D
F-XChan
g
e
w
w
w
.d
o
cu-trac
k
.c
o
m
C
lic
k
t
o
b
u
y
N
O
W
!
P
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w
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3062
A group of officers led by Moussa Traore staged a
bloodless coup and set
up the Military Committee for National Liberation
(CMLN).
11/19/0000
Monaco
National Holiday
11/19/1989
Philippines
Plebiscite On Muslim Autonomy
The plebiscite on Muslim autonomy in Mindinao
resulted in only four
provinces voting to join the Muslim autonomous
region.
11/20/1983
Colombia
Legalization of The M-19
The April 19 Movement (M-19), a leftist terrorist
organization, was
legalized by an amnesty law after the group had
made peace with the
government. The M-19 is now a legitimate political
party.
11/20/1979
Saudi Arabia
Occupation of the Grand Mosque
Approximately five hundred Islamic fundamentalists
occupied the Grand
Mosque.
11/20/1975
Spain
Death of Francisco Franco
C
lic
k
t
o
b
u
y
N
O
W
!
P
D
F-XChan
g
e
w
w
w
.d
o
cu-trac
k
.c
o
m
C
lic
k
t
o
b
u
y
N
O
W
!
P
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F-XChan
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w
w
w
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cu-trac
k
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3063
King Juan Carlos assumed power following the
death of Franco.
11/21/1971
Bangladesh
Armed Forces Day
11/21/1949
Libya
Proclamation Day
Commemorates the United Nations resolution on
Libyan independence.
11/22/1943
Lebanon
Independence Day
11/22/1967
Occupied Territories, Israel
UN Resolution 242 Adopted
UN Security Council Resolution 242 adopted calling
for a separate
Palestinian state.
11/22/1979
Pakistan
U.S. Embassy Attacked
The U.S. embassy in Islamabad was attacked and
burned by Islamic militants
following rumors that the U.S. was involved in the
violent takeover of the
Grand Mosque in Mecca, Saudi Arabia.
11/22/1975
Spain
Juan Carlos Proclaimed King
11/23/1991
Burundi
C
lic
k
t
o
b
u
y
N
O
W
!
P
D
F-XChan
g
e
w
w
w
.d
o
cu-trac
k
.c
o
m
C
lic
k
t
o
b
u
y
N
O
W
!
P
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w
w
w
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cu-trac
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3064
Tutsi Rebels Attack Capital
Tutsi rebels based in Rwanda attacked the capital
of Bujumbura in an
attempt to unseat the government. Hundreds were
killed and indiscriminate
killings were alleged.
11/23/1985
Egypt
Hijacking of Egyptian Jet
An Egyptian jet was hijacked to Malta. Fifty-nine
passengers, including
one American, were killed when Egyptian troops
stormed the plane in Malta
on November 24.
11/23/1985
Malta
Hijacking of Egyptian Jet
An Egyptian jet was hijacked to Malta. Fifty-nine
passengers, including
one American, were killed when Egyptian troops
stormed the plane in Malta
on November 24.
11/23/1986
Philippines
Ramos Blocks Coup Attempt
Chief of Staff Fidel Ramos blocked a coup attempt
by dissatisfied military
officers.
11/24/1954
Sri Lanka
LTTE Founder's Birthday
C
lic
k
t
o
b
u
y
N
O
W
!
P
D
F-XChan
g
e
w
w
w
.d
o
cu-trac
k
.c
o
m
C
lic
k
t
o
b
u
y
N
O
W
!
P
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3065
The founder and leader of the Liberation Tigers of
Tamil Eelam (LTTE) was
born. His birthday is marked by the LTTE as "Heroes
Week," which also
commemorates LTTE members who have died in
battle.
11/24/1965
Zaire
Revolution Day
Commemorates the establishment of the Second
Congolese Republic by General
Joseph Mobutu (now Mobutu Sese Seko) following
his seizure of control of
the government on this date.
11/25/0000
Chile
Birthday of Augusto Pinochet
11/25/1993
Czech Republic
Dissolution of Czechoslovakia
The parliament of Czechoslovakia voted to end the
seventy-four-year-old
federation of the Czech and Slovak states.
11/25/1973
Greece
Military Coup In Athens
Colonel Papadoupolos and his military junta, which
had controlled Greece
since April 1967, were themselves overthrown by a
military coup on
November 25, 1973.
11/25/1974
C
lic
k
t
o
b
u
y
N
O
W
!
P
D
F-XChan
g
e
w
w
w
.d
o
cu-trac
k
.c
o
m
C
lic
k
t
o
b
u
y
N
O
W
!
P
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F-XChan
g
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w
w
w
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o
cu-trac
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3066
Portugal
Failed Leftist Coup Attempt
11/25/1984
Portugal
Mortar Attack On U.S. Embassy
The U.S. embassy was hit by four 60 mm mortar
rounds fired by the popular
forces of 25 April terrorist group.
11/25/1992
Slovak Republic
Dissolution of Czechoslovakia
The parliament of Czechoslovakia voted to dissolve
the
seventy-four-year-old federation of the Czech and
Slovak republics.
11/25/1975
Suriname
Independence Day
11/26/1984
Iraq
Relations With U.S. Restored
11/26/1924
Mongolia
Republic Day
Commemorates the founding of the Mongolian
People's Republic.
11/26/1986
Philippines
Attempted Coup by Juan Enrile
Political and military elements loyal to president
Aquino blocked a coup
attempt by Juan Ponce Enrile.
C
lic
k
t
o
b
u
y
N
O
W
!
P
D
F-XChan
g
e
w
w
w
.d
o
cu-trac
k
.c
o
m
C
lic
k
t
o
b
u
y
N
O
W
!
P
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F-XChan
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w
w
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cu-trac
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3067
11/26/1991
Philippines
Handing Over of Clark Air Base
The U.S. government handed over control of Clark
Air Force Base to the
government of the Philippines on 26 November
1991. The base was severely
damaged by the eruption of Mount Pinatubo. Within
a month the base had
been stripped of all useable material by looters and
guards.
11/27/1991
Togo
Attempted Coup
Soldiers out of control started a coup that was
designed to remove interim
prime minister Koffigoh and insure the continued
power of president
Eyadema and his northern dominated military.
11/27/1978
Turkey
Kurdish Workers Party Founding
November 27, 1978 is considered to be the date on
which the Kurdish
Workers Party (PKK) was founded. PKK guerrillas
may engage in terrorist
attacks in connection with this date.
11/28/1912
Albania
Independence Day
Albania declared its independence from Turkey at
the height of the first
C
lic
k
t
o
b
u
y
N
O
W
!
P
D
F-XChan
g
e
w
w
w
.d
o
cu-trac
k
.c
o
m
C
lic
k
t
o
b
u
y
N
O
W
!
P
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3068
Balkan War.
11/28/1944
Albania
Liberation Day
The communist-led National Liberation Front (NLF)
eliminated other
smaller, non-communist resistance groups and
gained control of the
country.
11/28/1966
Burundi
Proclamation of the Republic
11/28/1958
Chad
Proclamation of the Republic
11/28/1975
Indonesia
East Timor Independence
The Fretilin movement in East Timor declared itself
independent from
Indonesia. Indonesian forces invaded the following
week, defeating
Fretilin forces and declaring East Timor to be
Indonesia's twenty-seventh
province.
11/28/1960
Mauritania
Independence Day
11/28/1821
Panama
Independence From Spain
C
lic
k
t
o
b
u
y
N
O
W
!
P
D
F-XChan
g
e
w
w
w
.d
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cu-trac
k
.c
o
m
C
lic
k
t
o
b
u
y
N
O
W
!
P
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3069
After independence from Spain, Panama was part of
the Republic of Greater
Colombia until 1903.
11/29/1987
Korea (Republic of)
Bombing of KAL Flight 858
Korean Air Lines Flight 858 was blown up over the
Andaman Sea near Burma
by two North Korean agents, killing all 115 persons
aboard.
11/29/1945
Serbia-Montenegro
Republic Day
11/30/1966
Barbados
Independence Day
11/30/1989
Germany, Federal Republic of
Assassination of Herrhausen
Alfred Herrhausen, the head of Deutche Bank AG
and the most influential
businessman in Germany, was assassinated by
terrorists of the Red Army
Faction (RAF) on November 30, 1989 in a Frankfurt
suburb as Herrhausen was
being driven to work. A very sophisticated light-
activated bomb was
detonated as Herrhausen's car drove by. The killing
shook Germany.
11/30/1967
Yemen
Independence Day
C
lic
k
t
o
b
u
y
N
O
W
!
P
D
F-XChan
g
e
w
w
w
.d
o
cu-trac
k
.c
o
m
C
lic
k
t
o
b
u
y
N
O
W
!
P
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3070
South Arabia, including Aden, was declared
independent by the National
Liberation Front (NLF) and was renamed the
People's Republic of South
Yemen.
Calender of Significant Dates--December
DECEMBER
12/01/1958
Central African Republic
National Day
The Central African Republic became an
autonomous republic within the
French community.
12/01/1989
Philippines
Sixth Coup Attempt Begins
The sixth attempt to overthrow the Aquino
government was begun by
disaffected elements of the Armed Forces of the
Philippines (AFP).
12/01/1990
Romania
National Day of Romania
National holiday
12/01/1918
Serbia-Montenegro
Independent State Established
C
lic
k
t
o
b
u
y
N
O
W
!
P
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F-XChan
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w
w
.d
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cu-trac
k
.c
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m
C
lic
k
t
o
b
u
y
N
O
W
!
P
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3071
12/01/1940
Thailand
Thai Communist Party Founded
12/01/1970
Yemen
Declaration of the PDRY
The People's Democratic Republic of Yemen (PDRY)
was declared following
the takeover of the government by a radical wing of
the National
Liberation Front (NLF).
12/02/1991
Kenya
Kanu Votes for Democracy
The Kenyan African National Union (KANU) party,
the only political party
allowed in Kenya for years, has voted to allow a
multiparty democracy in
the country. This follows the direction of President
Moi to co-opt a
rising vocal opposition.
12/02/1975
Laos
Communist Party Seizes Control
The monarchy was abolished and the Lao People's
Democratic Republic was
established. National holiday.
12/02/1983
Spain
Bombing of U.S. Facilities
Basque terrorists bombed eight U.S. facilities in
Spanish Basque territory
C
lic
k
t
o
b
u
y
N
O
W
!
P
D
F-XChan
g
e
w
w
w
.d
o
cu-trac
k
.c
o
m
C
lic
k
t
o
b
u
y
N
O
W
!
P
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F-XChan
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3072
to protest U.S. involvement in Central America.
12/02/1971
United Arab Emirates
Independence Day
The British protective treaty with the Trucial
sheikhdoms ended on
December 1, 1971, and on December 2, six of the
shaikhdoms entered into
the Union of the United Arab Emirates. The seventh
sheikhdom, Ras
Al-Khaimah, joined in early 1972.
12/03/1984
India
Chemical Leak at Bhopal
A chemical leak at Union Carbide's Bhopal plant
resulted in two thousand
deaths and nearly 150,000 injuries.
12/03/1934
Peru
Birthday of Abimael Guzman
Abimael Guzman, also known as "President
Gonzalo," is the founder and
leader of the Sendero Luminoso guerrilla
organization. Guzman's followers
often "celebrate" his birthday by carrying out
attacks or murdering
soldiers, public servants, and municipal authorities.
12/04/1956
Cuba
Revolutionary Armed Forces Day
Revolutionary Armed Forces (FAR) Day, also
Regional Defense Day.
C
lic
k
t
o
b
u
y
N
O
W
!
P
D
F-XChan
g
e
w
w
w
.d
o
cu-trac
k
.c
o
m
C
lic
k
t
o
b
u
y
N
O
W
!
P
D
F-XChan
g
e
w
w
w
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cu-trac
k
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3073
12/04/1976
Indonesia
Free Aceh Movement Formed
Hasan de Tiro formed the Aceh Merdeka (Free Aceh
Movement) in order to
gain independence from Indonesia for Aceh state.
12/04/1984
Iran
Hijacking of Kuwaiti Airliner
Four Islamic Jihad terrorists hijacked a Kuwaiti
airliner bound for
Pakistan from Kuwait and ordered it flown to
Tehran. Two Usaid personnel
were killed during the hijacking, while two others,
another Usaid official
and an American businessman, were tortured during
the ordeal. Iranian
troops stormed the aircraft on December 9, retaking
it from the hijackers.
12/04/1984
Kuwait
Hijacking of Kuwaiti Airliner
Four Islamic Jihad terrorists hijacked a Kuwaiti
airliner bound for
Pakistan from Kuwait and ordered it flown to
Tehran. Two Usaid personnel
were killed during the hijacking, while two others,
another Usaid official
and an American businessman, were tortured during
the ordeal. Iranian
C
lic
k
t
o
b
u
y
N
O
W
!
P
D
F-XChan
g
e
w
w
w
.d
o
cu-trac
k
.c
o
m
C
lic
k
t
o
b
u
y
N
O
W
!
P
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F-XChan
g
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w
w
w
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3074
troops stormed the aircraft on December 9, retaking
it from the hijackers.
12/04/1892
Spain
Birthday of Francisco Franco
12/05/1981
Lebanon
Kamal Jumblatt Assassinated
Lebanese president-elect Kamal Jumblatt was
assassinated.
12/05/1927
Thailand
Birthday of the King
King Bhumibol Adulyadej's birthday is a national
holiday.
12/06/1917
Finland
Independence Day
12/06/1992
India
Untouchable's Leader Dies
Dr. B.R. Ambedkar, revered leader of India's Dalits
(Untouchables), died
and was cremated in Bombay.
12/06/1992
India
Mosque at Ayodhya Destroyed
Hindu extremists destroyed the 16th Century
Moslem mosque at Ayodhya in
India's Uttar Pradesh state. The subsequent rioting
and Moslem-Hindu
C
lic
k
t
o
b
u
y
N
O
W
!
P
D
F-XChan
g
e
w
w
w
.d
o
cu-trac
k
.c
o
m
C
lic
k
t
o
b
u
y
N
O
W
!
P
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w
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3075
clashes that engulfed India, Pakistan, Bangladesh
and other nations
resulted in over 1,000 deaths. Hindus claim the
mosque was built on the
birth site of the hindu god Rama, a claim disputed
by Moslems.
12/06/1822
Mexico
Establishment of the Republic
12/06/1991
Thailand
New Constitution Approved
A new constitution was approved today leaving a
great deal of direct and
indirect power in the hands of the current military
leadership and their
to-be-appointed successors.
12/07/1920
Burma
Burmese Student Uprising
Burmese students led an uprising against British
rule.
12/07/1960
Cote D'Ivoire (Ivory Coast)
Independence Day
12/07/1975
Indonesia
Invasion of East Timor
Indonesian military forces invaded East Timor in
order to suppress the
Fretilin Independence Movement.
12/07/1941
C
lic
k
t
o
b
u
y
N
O
W
!
P
D
F-XChan
g
e
w
w
w
.d
o
cu-trac
k
.c
o
m
C
lic
k
t
o
b
u
y
N
O
W
!
P
D
F-XChan
g
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w
w
w
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o
cu-trac
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3076
Japan, United States
Japanese Attack Pearl Harbor
The Japanese Imperial Navy attacks Pearl Harbor.
12/08/1982
Suriname
Opposition Leaders Executed
Fifteen prominent opponents of the military-backed
regime, including
journalists, lawyers and a trade union leader, were
executed without trial
while in government custody. In response, the
Netherlands and the U.S.
suspended their economic and military assistance
programs in Suriname.
12/09/1987
Israel
Beginning of the Intifada
Date used to mark the beginning of the Intifada or
uprising on the West
Bank and the Gaza Strip.
12/09/1961
Tanzania
Independence of Tanganyika
12/10/0000
Angola
Founding of the MPLA
The Popular Movement for the Liberation of Angola
(MPLA) was founded.
12/10/1991
Burma
Democracy Demo Closes Schools
C
lic
k
t
o
b
u
y
N
O
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3077
Students demonstrated against the authoritarian
government who sent troops
to close the universities and guard the home of the
Nobel prize winner,
Aung San Suu Kyi.
12/10/1959
Namibia
Old Location Day
Commemorates the killing of twelve Namibians by
South African colonial
authorities during a protest against their forced
removal from the old
location to Katutura. Shortly after the incident, Sam
Nujoma and other
Swapo leaders went into exile.
12/11/1990
Bangladesh
President Ershad Ousted
President Ershad was forced to resign after massive
protests against his
government.
12/11/1958
Burkina Faso
Republic Day
No longer celebrated.
12/11/1929
China (People's Republic of)
Baise and Longzhou Uprisings
12/11/1964
Kenya
Republic Day
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3078
Celebrates Kenya's joining the British
Commonwealth one year after its
independence.
12/11/1971
Oman
Armed Forces Day
12/12/1981
Gambia
Confederation With Senegal
12/12/1963
Kenya
Independence Day
Kenya achieved independence from Britain and
joined the Commonwealth one
year later.
12/12/1983
Kuwait
Bombing of Embassies
The U.S. and French embassies were bombed by Al-
Dawa party members.
Similar attacks occurred at a U.S. housing
compound, a Kuwaiti oil
facility, an airline terminal, and a Kuwaiti
government office. Islamic
Jihad claimed reponsibility for the bombings.
12/12/1984
Mauritania
Military Coup in Nouakchott
Chief of Staff Maayouia Ould Sid'Ahmed Taya led a
bloodless coup that
ousted Mohamed Khouna Ould Haidalla, leader of
the Military Committee for
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3079
National Salvation (CMSN). This is also known as
the CMSN Restructuring
Anniversary.
12/12/1991
Nigeria
Federal Capital Moved to Abuja
On 12 December 1991 President Babangida officially
opened the new capital
town of Abuja in central Nigeria. Abuja will serve as
a centralized
federal capital hoping to draw all embassies there
while Lagos remains the
economic capital. Abuja is 500 miles northeast of
Lagos.
12/13/1974
Malta
Republic Day
12/14/1983
Chile
FPMR Terrorist Group Founded
The Manuel Rodriguez Patriotic Front (FPMR), a
leftist terrorist group
that announced its abandonment of armed struggle
in 1991.
12/16/1971
Bahrain
Rulers Accession Day
12/16/1971
Bangladesh
Independence Day
Also known as Victory Day. Bangladesh won
independence from Pakistan.
C
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3080
12/16/1944
Germany, Federal Republic of
Battle of Bulge Begins
12/16/1990
Haiti
Election of President Aristide
Father Jean-Bertrand Aristide was overwhelmingly
chosen as Haiti's first
popularly-elected president on this date.
12/16/1991
Israel, Middle East
UN Zionism Resolution Repealed
The United Nations General Assembly repealed the
1975 resolution which
said Zionism is a form of racism.
12/16/1961
South Africa
ANC's Military Branch Founded
Umkhonto We Sizwe, the military branch of the
African National Congress
(ANC) was founded.
12/16/1983
United Kingdom
PIRA Bombing of Harrod's
Harrod's department store in London was bombed
on December 16, 1983 by the
northern Ireland terrorist organization Provisional
Irish Republican Army
(PIRA). The bombing killed five, including one U.S.
citizen, and injured
ninety-one others.
12/17/1907
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3081
Bhutan
Monarchy Established
Ugyen Wangchuck became Bhutan's first hereditary
king.
12/17/1992
Israel, Lebanon
Hamas Members Deported
More than 400 suspected members of Hamas were
forcibly expelled from
Israel into Lebanon following the kidnap-murder of
an Israeli border
policeman. The expellees were refused entry into
Lebanon and were forced
to camp in the Israeli-controlled security zone in
south Lebanon.
12/17/1981
Italy
Kidnapping of U.S. General
U.S. Army general James Dozier was kidnapped in
Milan by Red Brigade
terrorists. The general subsequently was rescued by
Italian
counterterrorist squads on January 28, 1982 in
Padua. Five Red Brigade
members were captured.
12/17/1920
Namibia
South African Administration
South Africa began administration of South-West
Africa under the terms of
the Covenant of the League of Nations.
12/18/1914
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3082
Egypt
British Protectorate Declared
Britain declared a formal protectorate over Egypt
that lasted until
February 28, 1922, when Britain unilaterally
declared Egypt independent in
deference to growing nationalist sentiment.
12/18/1958
Niger
Republic Day
12/19/0000
Philippines
Armed Forces Day
12/19/1944
Vietnam
Army Day
Celebrates the founding of the Vietnam People's
Army (VPA).
12/20/1989
Panama
U.S. Intervenes in Panama
U.S. military forces intervened in Panama to protect
the 35,000 Americans
residing there and to install a democratically-
elected government.
Panamanian strongman Manuel Noriega surrendered
to U.S. forces on January
3, 1990 after having taken refuge in the papal
nunciature.
12/24/1997
Worldwide
First Day of Hanukkah
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3083
(Festival of Lights) Jewish holiday. (8 days)
12/21/1991
Armenia
Armenia Joins Commonwealth
At a meeting in Alma-Ata, Kazakhstan on December
21, 1991, Armenia joined
with ten other former republics of the Soviet Union
(which ceased to exist
on December 25, 1991) in establishing the
Commonwealth of Independent
States. The Commonwealth is expected to have
military and economic
coordinating functions and will be headquartered in
Mensk, Byelarus.
12/21/1975
Austria
Attack on OPEC Conference
Pro-Palestinian guerrillas attacked an OPEC
conference in Vienna, killing
three people, wounding seven, and taking eighty-
one hostage. Forty-one
Austrian hostages were released in Vienna, while
the rest were taken to
Algeria and released on December 23, 1975.
12/21/1991
Commonwealth of Independent States
Founding of CIS
Eleven of the twelve former republics of the Soviet
Union met in Alma-Ata,
Kazakhstan on December 21, 1991 and founded the
Commonwealth of
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3084
Independent States (CIS), thereby abolishing the
Union of Soviet Socialist
Republics. Founding members were Armenia,
Azerbaijan, Byelarus,
Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Moldova, Russia,
Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, Ukraine
and Uzbekistan.
12/21/1948
Ireland
Proclamation of the Republic
12/21/1973
Israel
Geneva Peace Conference Opens
12/21/1948
Nepal
Independence Day
12/21/1640
Portugal
Independence Day
12/21/1988
United Kingdom, United States
Bombing of Pan Am Flight 103
Pan Am Flight 103, outbound from London for New
York with 259 people
aboard, was destroyed by a bomb on December 21,
1988 while over Lockerbie,
Scotland. All aboard the aircraft were killed as were
eleven persons on
the ground at Lockerbie.
12/22/1920
Burma
National Day
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3085
National Day of the Union of Burma commemorates
a boycott launched against
the Rangoon University Act of the British, which
allowed only the rich and
a handful of anglophiles to receive higher education.
Considered to be the
beginning of the National Education Movement.
12/23/1956
Egypt
Victory Day
Celebrates the withdrawal of British, French and
Israeli forces from Port
Said and the Suez Canal Zone.
12/23/1975
Greece
U.S. Embassy Official Killed
U.S. embassy official Richard Welch was killed
outside of his home in
Athens. The Greek terrorist organization "November
17" subsequently took
credit for his assassination.
12/23/1933
Japan
Birthday of Emperor Akihito
12/23/1976
Philippines
Tripoli Agreement Signed
The Marcos government signed the Tripoli
Agreement, which was to provide
for greater autonomy for Muslim regions of the
Philippines.
12/24/1951
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3086
Libya
Independence Day
12/25/1979
Afghanistan, Russia
Invasion by Soviet Troops
12/25/1991
Commonwealth of Independent States
U.S. Recognition
President Bush formally recognized twelve of the
former Soviet republics
on December 25, 1991, eleven of which are
members of the CIS. President
Bush also indicated that the U.S. would establish as
soon as possible
diplomatic relations with six of the republics but
that diplomatic
relations with the others would only be established
when they met certain
political conditions.
12/25/1978
Cambodia
Fall of Phnom Penh
Khmer Rouge regime toppled from power, as Phnom
Penh falls to invading
Vietnamese forces. Khmer Rouge forces retreat
west, and set up base camps
on the Thai border and in the Cardamon Mountains
to continue resistance
against the Vietnamese.
12/25/1991
Russia
Russia Successor to U.S.S.R.
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3087
Mikhail Gorbachev resigned as president of the
Soviet Union on December
25, 1991 and transferred control of the Soviet
nuclear arsenal to Russian
president Boris Yeltsin. A few hours later, the
United States recognized
Russia as the successor state to the Soviet Union.
These actions marked
the end of the Soviet Union 74 years after the
Bolshevik Revolution.
12/25/1982
Senegal
Casamance Movement Founded
MFDC, the Casamance Separatist Movement, was
founded. Armed attacks by the
group have occurred on this date, to mark the
anniversary of the founding
of the MFDC.
12/25/1991
Union of Soviet Socialist Republics
Gorbachev Resigns as President
Mikhail Gorbachev resigned as the last president of
the Soviet Union on
December 25, 1991 and he transferred control of the
Soviet nuclear weapons
to Russian president Boris Yeltsin. Russia is the
successor state to the
Soviet Union. Although the USSR effectively ceased
to exist on December
25, a group of Supreme Soviet members voted on
December 26 to end the
country.
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3088
12/25/1991
Union of Soviet Socialist Republics
U.S.S.R. Ceases To Exist
Mikhail Gorbachev resigned as president of the
Soviet Union on December
25, 1991 and transferred control of the Soviet
nuclear arsenal to Russian
president Boris Yeltsin. A few hours later, the
United States recognized
Russia as the successor state to the Soviet Union.
These actions marked
the end of the Soviet Union 74 years after the
Bolshevik Revolution.
12/26/1991
Algeria
FIS Wins First Round of Voting
The Islamic Salvation Front (FIS) won the first round
of voting in
Algeria's parliamentary elections. The second round
of elections,
scheduled for January 16, 1992, were cancelled
when Algerian president
Benjedid resigned on January 12, 1992.
12/26/1893
China (People's Republic of)
Birthday of Mao Ze Dong
12/26/1893
Peru
Birthday of Mao Zedong
The birthday of Chinese communist leader Mao
Zedong has been marked by the
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3089
Sendero Luminoso (SL) guerrilla organization by
terrorist attacks.
12/26/1968
Philippines
Founding of the CPP
Founding of the Maoist Communist Party of the
Philippines (CPP) by Jose
Maria Sison.
12/26/0000
Taiwan
Constitution Day
12/26/1991
Union of Soviet Socialist Republics
Legislature Votes Dissolution
Although the Soviet Union effectively ceased to
exist on December 25, 1991
with the resignation of President Gorbachev and his
handing control of the
Soviet nuclear arsenal over to Russian president
Yeltsin, a small group of
members of the Senior Soviet Legislature, the
Supreme Soviet, met on
December 26, 1991 and formally voted the Soviet
Union out of existence.
12/27/1985
Austria
Attack on the Vienna Airport
The Abu Nidal Organization (ANO) attacked the
Vienna airport.
12/27/1949
Indonesia
Transfer of Sovereignty
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3090
Sovereignty was transferred from the Netherlands
following independence.
12/27/1985
Italy
Attack on Rome Airport by ANO
The Abu Nidal Organization (ANO) attacked the
Rome airport.
12/28/1972
Israel, Thailand
Embassy in Bangkok Seized
Black September terrorists took hostages after
seizing the Israeli embassy
in Bangkok. The hostages were released in
exchange for safe conduct.
12/28/0000
Nepal
National Holiday
This holiday celebrates the king's birthday.
12/29/1945
Serbia-Montenegro
Proclamation of the Republic
Commemorates the proclamation of the Federal
People's Republic of
Yugoslavia.
12/30/1896
Philippines
Rizal Day
Commemorates the execution of national hero Jose
Rizal.
12/30/1947
Romania
Republic Proclaimed
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3091
12/31/1969
Congo
Proclamation of the Republic
President Marien Ngouabi proclaimed the People's
Republic of the Congo.
12/31/1981
Ghana
Jerry Rawlings Seizes Power
Flight Lt. Jerry Rawlings and a small group of
soldiers launched a coup
that succeeded, against little opposition, in toppling
President Limann.
12/31/1978
Indonesia
Killing of Fretilin President
Indonesian military forces surrounded and killed
Fretilin President and
Supreme Commander Nicolau Dos Reis Lobato.
12/31/1968
Philippines
Marxist-Leninist Party Founded
The Marxist-Leninist Communist Party of the
Philippines was founded.
12/31/1991
Russia
U.S. Diplomatic Relations
President Bush on December 25, 1991 recognized
the independence of all 12
former Soviet republics and proposed the
establishment of full diplomatic
relations with 6 of them, including Russia. Russian
president Yeltsin
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3092
responded formally and positively on December 31,
1991. Therefore, the
U.S. established formal diplomatic relations with
Russia on that date.
The Islamic Calendar
The Islamic Calendar has 12 months but,
unlike Western calendars, has only 354
days. This is because the Islamic
Calendar (or Hijri Calendar)
follows the movements of
Earth's Moon.
Like much of Islam, the
calendar is based on the Quran and on
personal reflection of the relationship
between Muslims and Allah. Each month
of the Islamic Calendar officially begins when the lunar
crescent is first seen after a new moon. This is not
always an exact time, especially if the skies are cloudy
or overcast. In a sense, the start of each month can be
different for everyone. Many people, however, prefer to
rely on an official announcement by Muslim authorities
as to when each month begins.
Also On This
Site
The Islamic
New Year
Muslim
Holidays
Islam
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3093
The importance of the lunar cresent is also partly the
explanation for why many countries with predominantly
Muslim populations have a crescent shape on their
flags.
The 12 months of the Islamic Calendar, in order are
these:
1. Muharram
2. Safar
3. Rabi' al-awwal
4. Rabi' al-thani
5. Jumada al-awwal
6. Jumada al-thani
7. Rajab
8. Sha'ban
9. Ramadan
10. Shawwal
11. Dhu al-Qi'dah
12. Dhu al-Hijjah
Islam has a few major holidays that Muslims
celebrate throughout the year. Among them
are these:
Eid Al-Adha, the "Feast of Sacrifice";
Isra Me'Raj, the night of journey and
ascenscion;
Ramadan, a monthlong period of fasting;
Eid Al-Fitr, the "Feast of Fast-Breaking";
The Calendar is properly called the Hijri Calendar
because it began with the Hijra, or hegira, Muhammad's
flight from Medina to Mecca, which took place in 622 on
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3094
the Western Calendar. The hegira took place, on
Western Calendars, on July 16.
Western, or Christian, Calendars measure time
beginning with the year 0 A.D. On the Christian
Calendar, A.D. stands for Anno Domini, which means "In
the year of our Lord." The Hijri Calendar has years
marked by A.H., which stands for Anno Hegirae, "In the
Year of the Hijra." The hegira took place in A.H. 1.
So, the year 2005 on the Christian Calendar is A.H. 1426
on the Hijri Calendar. (Remember that the Hijri Calendar
is consistently 11 days shorter than the Christian
Calendar.)
The Hijri Calendar is the official calendar in many
predominantly Muslim countries, most notably Saudi
Arabia. In other countries, Muslims refer to the
Christian Calendar for most dates and consult the Hirji
Calendar only for religious purposes.
The Hijri Calendar was introduced by Umar ibn Al-
Khattab, a follower of Muhammad, in 638.
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