Biology 1sec STUDENT 2014

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P Q R>- > 2$$6 <!*! "P Q
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P Q !-0 , &+!M-0 /73T-0 /T8T0 /:- 2 2
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X: B> ,2$$ J!( 2 < +>0 2ML6 J>:0 IM J>: X: B> 0
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Chemical basis of life
2 <38= 8= I:> 3 R*!- 5= ;5=( : ) 56 ' F-
& X" '>- > <7>0
& <@ gF `Y& ,2 <38= 1 2 +0* 2 !B <@ gF 2$$ ^! 2(+ V3&
Nucleic 2 0!3 w60 Lipids <0 Proteins <3-00 Carbohydrates <+&!(=
1= 2M!! <@ gF( -0 , 2(+6 <@ gF `Y& !=>- 2 <38= HM0 acids
Biological Macromolecules
.>- : , 2 <38= />&0 /78900 , <8gF `Y& I:- 1! `Y& .>1 #89!( 2M- 28= 2CM>0 2 2ML6 "P J Y& Z+3- 2ML6 Q-0 , N X" '>- > 28= <7>0 1= 2M!! <@ gF #8900
<e> F*0 ,7>0 ,>3>$0 ,ZC0 ,I F>0 ,2E :Xd <+/ "P Q
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(GdGh GQgHdG ) dG FdG LC FdG cdG

Chemical Structure of Organisms Bodies
(Carbohydrates and lipids)
V3/ ;2M+> < !> -\ 2 <38= I:- ' N0 Tissues 2F6 / Organs 5B6 , Systems 1g/M6
Organelles X> Y& 3>- c)0
, 2 !B <@ gM0 2 !B <@ gM !=>- 8=
<+c /3 X: !=>
<+&!(= :Xd 2 <38= 2 !B <@ gF
w60 Proteins <3-00 lipids !&0 Carbohydrates
%!>- 'F 1: <@ gM & Nucleic acids 2 0!3
2M!! <@ gF -0 ,$$ X=L( M0+/0 ,!(=
:Xd 2 !B <@ gF Biological Macromolecules 1=
!(= <+c %!>- U>L ,i60 5
:

! "#$ +$, &' ( ) *
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<+&!(= X: #890 "
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Carbohydrates
Monosaccharides
Disaccharides
Polysaccharides
Lipids
<+&!(:
2 " < =$
283] < =$
1 < =$
<
1= 2M!! <@ g~ 0= 5%gM :(z) T
( )
:
t2 0! w <3-0( < <+&!(:u
<+&!(:
<3-0(
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DNA
RNA
(s) T
,2 0!3 w60 ,<3-00 ,<0 ,<+&!(= X: %> tj X=u

<@ gF X: /3 !=>- > <! "eS <0 &+0( !=>- ,<0 !=>t< <+&!(= 2 0!3 w6 <3-0u 2(+6 1=
" =$
3&" Ax
L
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!&"
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1-!:!
DNA
23-0( 27
!$!0:
1= 2M!! <@ g~ /3 !=>- > <! :(j) T
Biological macromolecules
FGKEG ee
' : Biochemistry 2 ! 5=
2 <38= 5: 2$+( '>/ %Y
IdG LddG jdG
<@ gM !=>- 'F 1: 2 !B <: &

%!>- /M <: `Y& ,/3 F
eS
P
<38= 1 M 2 +0* <: &0 ,!(= T3
2
7 1= 2 ! <@ gF 'E [M

eS <@ gM "-( !=>- &0 ;polymers <!(
Polymerization 1 - 2 [ I Monomers <! - /3
:-
./0 12 32 45 678 9 / 3#;< => ?<#@ (A# -9 / =5
Carbohydrates
GQgHdG
XL-0 Monomers <! - eS <@ gM 1 X=L>- ,1: 2M!!( <@ gM
/ RB> /30 ,tCH2Oun 2 2eT( /3 0 .60 < !L30 < = :<+&!(=
z : s : z 23( ,O F:60 ,H M0+/0 ,C !(= <+c !=>:GQgHdG gCG
!T 2 0 2$$6 +"T <+&!(= >- :(M

B$C -D'2<@
2DM
2 <38= 2DM gN> <+&!(=
N>- :(M E F -D'2<@
'M <+&!(= gN-0 ,L 1+!S <+&!(= <-3 gN> ;/) 2M
<B0 = M!=M 1+!S !0
! :Xd 2N 5gM A $$ != <+&!(= : GF H2 -D'2<@
N
(!-0( 0 2 !N 2L6 B
P M!-0 ,2-3 N +M
:GQgHd jG cdG
@ gF I:> Z$

!C- <73T> `Y& A(0 ,<+&!(= #3T> hI 1 M!:) /C- '> ,/
:Simple sugars :
Monosaccharides 2 " < =$ -0 ,FC 0 5%gM !=> ) 8= /:-
283d < = 5%gM !=> P 2 "6 < = @ gM "- !=> 0 to X=u
tm X=u Disaccharides
CH OH
2
O H
H C
H
C
C
OH H
HO C
C OH
H
OH
!:!~ :(o) T
2 "6 < =
:Monosaccharides ( > - <@I

UgF Y& !=> ,FC 0 5%gM !=>- ,< = ^! F(
M0+/0 F:6 /3 X=( XT> !(= <+c 2$
}:j i0> 2 "6 < = !(= <+c "0 ,23 2C M(
<+c
,Fructose !>:7 ,Glucose !:!F :2 "6 < = 2d
Ribose ! 0 ,Galactose !>:F
:Disaccharides (7J - <@I

283d < = 2d 0 83] =$ 5%gM !=> P 2 "6 < = @ gM >
=$u !>: 5gM0 tI3 =$u !:!M 5%gM !=> 0 tITC =$u Sucrose 0=
5gM0 !:!M 5%gM !=> %Y t =$u Lactose!>: =$0 ,P M- tK:!7
!:!F @ gM !=> %Y tL =$u Maltose !> =$0 ,!>:M
CH2OH
H
H
C OH
OH C
H
!>:
!:!M
O
HOCH2
O
H
H
HO C
C CH2OH
C
OH
OH
283d < = 0= :(m) T
! 'M( g>-0 A7N3 @ gM 0 /0 , 5 (0Y 2(D P ! 2M < =0
:(C -7@ GK +K (M +5L -.
( >M - <@=
!:!F 1: '> 3 2-+&!(= "! 2g>N 2DM 2 <38= XT- <: gN> 28= F(0 2g>N 2DM [M3-0 t +!:!>u N X"
2DM
N>$ 2N % : ) XC>3 I: Y& tATPu <7$!7 ]] !3 "
2N 2 ! < HM K 2g>N
:Complex sugars :
1 < = 2d 0 ,2 "6 < = !=>- Polysaccharides 1 < =$ &
!:!M <@ gM !=> '/3 X:0 ,Glycogen M!=F0 , Cellulose!0 ,Starch L3
@ gM 0 /0 ,5 (0Y 2(D /\( 1C < = g>-0 ,/B( H 1>
,
'I / f0
CH2OH
C
H
C
OH
H
OH
H
C
OH
OH
" =$
2 " < =$ 1 1C{ < = !=>- :(}) T
- : : !
:Lipids
GdG
< !=>-0 ,F:60 ,M0+/0 ,!(= <+c !=>- 1: 2M!!( <@ gM
<! g0 ,Fats !& Xd 2M( < ) 'C3-0 ,2F> <: 1: 2!F
Xd 2C>L <0 ,Phospholipids <!7$!7 Xd 1C <0 ,Waxes ^!L0 ,Oils
:Xd 2MC < Y J0Y-0 ,5 (0Y 2(D /M0 ,Steroids< 0>$
!(= +!: H(+0 , g3
Fatty acid
Ax
3&" z
Ax
Fatty acid 3&" s
Ax
Fatty acid 3&" j
:Gd jG cdG
Fatty acids 23&" w ] "- < !=>-
K( !: !& 0F0 ,Glycerol 0M 0 5%gM0

OH X:0+& <!F ]
: GdG gCG
:(M
B$C -D#
) ,2DM H $ +T <+&!(= '

f7 1> 2DM d: < 1> 2DM
J ) K( 2g>N !& 2DM _N>$ 'F 0 ,<+&!(= 2=
<+&!(=
< @ g~ I:n :(p) T
: GF H2 -D#

2 2 !B "! %m ! < #2L6 I:- '/ +0" /0 ,2 2N I:-
2 !N
: F - gN- > < X- :
<! HM>- /B7(0 ,0 ! %+
RM h0 5Me: < X- : ,1"0 1 :6 /-+ 2M+" -
< 0>$ : <!/: X /3 A0<!0 <-3
~ X7$ 2 <CI < !=- :() T
MC J | :
:GdG J
: 7.@ 3#;< N! # -D# 6$

:Simple lipids
(M=# -D#
HL- 2M+ P - 'C-0 ,<!= H 23& w6 X7- 2M < !=>^!L0 !&0 <! g ) <!= ^!0 23& w6
:Oils <! g
2L 23&" w X7- !=>- 28$ !&" 1+

,Triglycerides 2]d < F -0 0F H
Y73 > 28 +!M ? + Me- > <! g />d 0
tv X=u />: h!> 5 /)
28{ +!M ? + :(v) T
:Fats !&
FGKEG ee
(N <= ?'/ -#A <IF0
!=>- 2S "! / <! g !& #>N-
d:0 ,2C 2I60 1g&F <M!

!& ^! %!>- %!0 <!N
2M+& G>3- > ,2!> !&
%" 1d=( !& `Y& 03-0 2-3 <! g
0>!= 2 ^7-+ )
B
P -0 0F H KL 23&" w X7< M
:Waxes ^!L
OA
:/>d 0 ,X:0+/ 2 " <!: H 2 2@ gM 0 <c 23&" w X7- !=>R>3 2 5 C XC> 2 0T 2S0 <-3 h+0 Me %Y HL
<-3 h+0 Me %Y HL :(zk) T
:Complex lipids ?D5N. -D#

: =0 +!7$!7 X: ) 2 *( F:60 M0+/0 !(= /:- X
Phospholipids <!7$!7
KL- &0 ,2!0 2-3 N 2L M!- < :Phospholipids -D#,I,
Wd 3& A X X- PO4 <7$!7 2!F ,!& <@ gM /:X>( 1C0 2M < [>L- < :Derivative Lipids (5Q. -D#
<!/0 0>!= />d Hydrolysis 8
H
O
Fatty acid
z 3&" Ax
H C O
CH3 H H
O
+
H3 C N C C O P O C H
CH3 H H
H
O
Fatty acid
s 3&" Ax
j
<7$! 2!
@ g~ I:n :(zz) T

<!7$!7
- : : !
- :
(jhdG VMCGh JhdG) dG FdG LC FdG cdG
Chemical Structure of Organism`s Bodies

(Proteins and Nucleic acids)
:

! "#$ +$, &' ( ) *
Proteins
JhdG
X= 2 <38= HF 2:> 23 <3-0 X=L $$

!=> J0= h" ) ! 'N* 8:
P
> 2 ! 28= < <3-0 '/- : -0
/> +>$ X-0 ,1 7:JhdG gCG
/ ; 2 N #8900 I:- <3-0 X <!/0 < g : ,'F
<3-00 ,<3-0 & /E3-0 'F( 2 ! <
<!$!= <!= $$ !=
<3-0y X= @ g~ I:n #T2 0!3 wx60

wx60 <3-0y X: #890 "
2 0!3
236 wx6 X- ( 2D i<3-0y I:-0 > X$$ |
/!3-0
]d0 %!d0 06 I:n .><3-0y (0
<3-0y .>[C> J+ %0 2 *0
!TP
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Protein
Amino acids
polypeptide
primary structure
Secondary structure
Tertiary structure
Quaternary structure
Nucleic acids
Nucleotides
<3-0y 2$$ 1+!T( <!q | 0C0 !q0 <!=3 2= !=>- :(zs) T
-0(
23 wx
>
06 I:n
!d I:n
]d I:n
( I:n
2 0! wx
<-!:!
Jhd jG cdG
283( <0 !=>-0 ,: @ gM 0 / , t<!(u 1C 1: <@ gM <3-0
236 w6 & t<!u
-0( c!
23 wx c
236 wx6 -0y I:- R*! c! :(zj) T
:Amino acids
F:60 M0+/0 !(= <+c !=>- 2 !B <: &0 ,-0 53( <0
2 D 2!F( XT>- !(: 1+c !=>- 236 w6 %> tzo X=u ,M0>30
<!F &0 ,COOH X:!(= 2!F & 2B 2!F0 ,NH2 6 2!F &
A #>N- R X= 2!F0 M0+& 1+c B
P !=> 0 ,36 A 279!
3
H
6 2!
NH2
COOH
X:!(= 2!
2!
2Bx
2!
R
2 D
36 A 2 2eT :(zo) T
,2 >( F(0( /B( H F-- > 236 w6 1+=> <0 <3-0 !=>H 236 w6 6 X:!(= 2!F ( M!- F(0 `Y& %> tzm X=u
"- Y& 2F> 5 N 0 , a 3 A 2!F
H
H
H
H
H
3 Ax z
2 >( 2M(+ H
H
3 Ax s
> 83] I:
2 >( F(0( 236 wx6 F-- :(zm) T
O
H
5 5%gM
10
2!=> -0 2$0 dipeptide > 83] I: '$( 3 B "- G-
-0 !=- 3 U>L 0 Polypeptide > '$( .- 236 w6
<3-0 !=> 2!3>0 M 2$0 <> M ,2/(L> 23 w ( "- '>
2 236 w6 "0 I--0 ^! >SJh HG
.>> <! 2=
N>$
> 236 w6 D(
,<3-0 53( XX: R 2!F "0
3 A
2d 0 236 w6 P ! sk <3-0 53( X

70 0 F 236 w6
d X$ Y\ -0 X$$ !=- ^!3- 1= R*!>0
) E330 ,Val ,Ala a , Gly M :236 w6
a e cCJ
:&"- <> A(
GlyAlaValGlyAlaValGlyAlaValGly
:tzu >
GlyValAlaGlyValAlaGlyValAlaGly
:tsu >
GlyGlyValAlaGlyGlyValAlaGlyGly
:tju >
ValValAlaAlaGlyGlyValValAlaAla
:tou >
^! != HD!>- X&

10 -0 _!0
?c ?<> X:
53 % <> !:
-0 2$
FGKEG ee
'F !6 2 C I->
2N %!$6 FeB X 0
X8! 1: 2=( 'F 7>0
C 2S0
+!- 0 ) %"
J- H3 !6 6 Qc0 ,KM!0
,2F6 ) 2 ! 206 X8!
X" %!$6 FeB
2N
11
:JhdG J
: 372 +KD . N! # -<# 6$R
:H JhH
% ;-0 53 2$$6 <! !=>Albumin !6 -0( :Xd ,FC 236 w6
( QY:0 ,<-3 +0Y(0 h+0 "!M!

:JG JhdG
2 0!3 w6( 2M- 2 0!3 <3-0 /30 % S3( F-- 23 w !=>1e -0(0 ,+!77 %!> 0 , -0( !&0 Casein = :Xd 2 +!77 <3-00 ,
T3 %!> -0( !/
(!M!& ,"! %!> %Y t:0du 2D+

:Levels of protein structure JhdG cJ je
( I:n "
]d I:n M
%!d I:n J
-0y I:- < !> :(z}) T
:primary structure
06 I:n
dhCG cdG
-0 > 2$ 236 w " H(>> -0 06 I:> #T
w6 `Y& X- QY:0 ,236 w6 "0 ^! %!> Y& " 0 ,t z} X=u
-0 Y& I::Secondary structure
Jhd ifdG cdG
23M0+/ F(0 X7( Qc0 ;> 2$ .7> 2C I %!> Y& #T

B(
P /B( 2 C 236 w6 NH2 60 COOH X:!(= >!F (
tJ z}X=u
: Tertiary structure
KdG cdG
<!F ( F(0 G>3 %Y , -0 t'Fu "(6 ]] X=L %!> Y& #T
< !> 1 27>N > X$$ 53d ) %"- > 236 w R 2F
tM z} X=u g K= -0( X= M- 2
: Quaternary structure
YHdG cdG
X$$ F(- G>3 0 , > d: 0 >$ 2!=> <3-0 %!> Y& #T
t" z} X=u B(
P /B( H >
- : : !
12
Nucleic Acids
jhdG VMCG
+!7$!70 !(=0 M0>30 F:60 M0+/ %!>- ,1: 2M!!( <@ gM
tDNA F:6 _!C3 %! %0!3 A0 ,RNA %! %0!3 Au :! /30
2M$!( P F-- ,Nucleotides <-!:!3 - 2$$ <0 2 0!3 w6 !=>0!3 A 0 -!:!3 X=L> 2&- F(0+
:Nucleotides GJcdG
PO4
5
/3 X:0 ,0!3 A 2!= 2$$6 <!

tzp X=u /*! <0 ] #\>
<7$! 2!
C
O
4
=$
C
23M0n 1D
C2
= $$ ! V3& :SI.K <@I HA

2 0!3 w6 I:- X %Y
DeoxyRibose ! + :0 %"
=$ :06 ^!3

DNA I:- X %Y
1-!:!3 I:- :(zp) T
RNA I:- X 0 Ribose ! =$ :d ^!3
2&- 2M(( = 5gF tmu 'D+ !(= 1+Y( XT>- :-,I (
./0
XT>-0 ,T d0 ,U X$+!0 ,C !>0 ,G !F0 ,A 3 "6 :& :(A<L ?D

%0!3 A #>N 0 ,2&- 2M(( = 5gF tzu 'D+ !(= 1+Y( 23M0> 1D X:
K 2!= 23M0>3 !C0 ,$N = ^! .>(
:JGQe NG
DNA , RNA X: 23M0>3 !C ( +D0 tz X=u

!>$
C !>$
!M
!M
3 "
3 "
X$+!
]
RNA
DNA
DNA , RNA X= @ g~ I:n :(z) T
13
FGKEG ee
C <#.@
!3 F 5 XS!
N>$ = K ) M!!3=_!C3 %! %0!3 A
X DNA F:6
Biochips 2 ! -!: [8D+
1g/M H3T [8D `Y&
N>$0
1g/M6 d:
^$ -!:
P
[8D+ >- > 2
23 gN> /-+D : !=
< : !=>$
2 1g/M6
:jhdG VMCG gCG
,DNA %0!3 A <!$!0= I:- X

W ,a ) XM 2]+! <7T XC 0 !&0
<7T +/9) 20 2]+! <! DNA X
2 ! 2ML6 HM 'E3- QY:0 8= 1g
N
,DNA %0!3 A 3 RNA %0!3 A
<3-0 53( 2N KN>>
(!> ) XC>3 ']
'E3- 20 Q-0 ,2]+! <7T +/9) 20
2 ! 2ML6
. : !
14
A``dG
Water
IT :27>N K-( w+6 I:!: 5 L>3

,2*+6 1= RM$ %pk ! 5 Me e0 ,X80
: , %vk ) %}m ( 2 <38= `"!M0 2 i0>-0
1 Z$ 5 > 0 , 'M d] ! X=L
w+6 I:!:
:

! "#$ +$, &' ( ) *
<38= / >- > 5{ _! "
2q
5{ 2 G>3>-
5 @ g~ I:n .>-
[C> J+ %0 2 *0
!T-
P
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`````dG
polar molecule
2*+6 1= RM$ %pk 5{ Me :(zv) T
:AdG gCG
SJh HG
:-0N. (@#T 1A
5 2& g .V5 V+ ,2 <38=
K) S!- Q0
15
! +0"
P 5 %"
> 2 ! < HM
8= X" '>-
MC 5%g~
The molecular structure of water
Ad jdG cdG
>&- >M(+ [ I H M0+& -+Y( O F: 1+c U-+ H2O 5 5%gM !=>
&: IT 0 2 !D F(0 `Y& tsk X=u > "
:AdG OL e
8= I:> ) XS!- 0

M ' ,
z}k
5
0+g: !g3>$
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F:6 1+c0 tIMDu 5gF 2/F( M!- 5 5%gM
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K 5 5%gM QY ;2M! 28gM 2(/: 23 M0+/0
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tpolar molecule MC 5gFu 5
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.> G- ,P #* (/: JcF-
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,(/= JcF> ^!3( ,+0F 5gF t2$u F: 1+c H ,5 5%gM t2M!u
2M(0 5 2MD X: R3- ,tsz X=u Hydrogen Bond 23M0+/ F(0 Qc \L3 0
1 S!
5 23M0+/
23M0+& 2M(+
+H
+H
H
+
O
H
+
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5{ <@ gM
2M(+
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!= 8: I: 5{ :(sk) T

F:6 1+c0 M0+& -+c
M0+ :\( 5{ 0
Water properties
AdG UGN
:UF V&' ' . ,(C -7@ 3

D.N ?D < XK
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Qc I HM 0 ,
I Y K [M 0 , hI < Y XB 5 >
5 <@ gF 2MC 2M )
P Y\30
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! "!T +!: !=> :Qc d
16
I$u 5 F: JYF 3( ,23L I$ +!= ! t23L IM!u 5 M0+& JYF
( JcF> %!D %!D 5 MD JYM %!D 6 Qc0 ;23L IM!
! "!T ! t23L
=0 5 "!0 i6 d= 2(c) = K 3 Y&0 +!=0
! "!T !
2MD 1" !=- % ;1 <! %!>- IF 5 1" % J0YXd /789!( N
C 2 +0B "! HM 6 ;2 <38= 2&6 2e( 2SN `Y&0
28c 1+!S 'F XC>3- &0 f73> <0 , <3>70 , 236 w60 , !:!F
A 6 <7>: 2 N X" '>- > <7> Xd(0 ,5
:Id jQhdG jG e GfCG jCJ Y IQdG d AG s
AjdG e edG
2I 1&9 : ' 1&9
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17
) <@ gF Q=7- 5 1+D QY( TC

2M ) B
P HM Y&0 , 2$ %0 2M! <!
0 %+0* U !&0 ,5 <@ gF 2MC
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P
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< g X P $3 P !D F$! XF
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Q> W K-@ gM ( 23M0+/ F(0
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3 1: 2DI 5 C7 c) , RS f=0 , 1:
K-+ 2M+" A7N3-
/-+ 2M+" XE- ) 2M 2 <38= ; 2 <38= 2&6 2e( 2SN `Y&0
2F60 N = 8 %!>0 ;27>N 2 ! <(
C 23 2M+" 3 2>(]
R> 0 h X= 5 2 <38= C : , 2>(] /-+ 2M+" 7
/-+ 2M+" XC
1+ <M+" 2 <38= < 0 > & 5 2 2!3 1+ % 2/M 0
M/ w+6 RM$ 1= <= `Y/( 5 "!M0 ! ;w+6 RM$ 1 2$3
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_T>(
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2
: Ad LhdG VfGh dG JdG IOjR o
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RM !7M 0
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<e0 X8! X: \ Qc K\ 1+ 2M+"
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M60
P 5 "> W ;Zo
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F> 30 ,6 ) H7- #N QY(0 ,A7N3 3( ,RM FC `F- != %!@ 7T 2M+"
P 5 != X7$6
2 g$ <M+"o 3 8$
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HM !> X8! 2C( : 5 : ! ; 2 <38= 2&6 2e( 2SN `Y&0
2CI X=L
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+ ` 2 <38= HF 23a 1 !>- Y/(0 , 5 2C( F- 0" !- 2
5 <@ gM ( 23M0+/ F(0 ) 2SN `Y& HM-0 ,<M0
:a FGP OGe OLh dM a iG dG Y AG LQO J }
1+ <M+" ) 1"+ [I3 w>- /) W 2 <38= 1 2&6 2e( 2S `Y&0
28Y "! I( F> <38= `Y&
M 5 =0 6 d: 7T XC7T XC- 1+ <M+ /*- "F( 2 <38= - Qc : !0 ,K
:dG LQO e H bCG IQGM LQO Y AG QH dEG AG feEG p
2M+" XC- 1+ <M+" 3 1: <=(0 +N( ) 5 !>

5 +N ; 2 <38= HM 1 / >- 2SN `Y&0 ,K
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1
g %Y 5 !- +M
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2 <38=
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5 !S0 '&- 2SN `Y&0 ,2*+6 2(cF "!M0 '+ )
w+6 RM$ = /7-+ '+ /8gM 'E ) +F6 +0YM
tso X=u
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Chemical Reactions in Organisms Bodies
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M HM -0 ,2DM !T0 27> 2F6 iS)0 !3 2 +0*
1> <7> `Y& Metabolism A 6 <( <7> `Y&
8= <! ) /7D!- %" 0 ; /M 2 <38=
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(FGdG dG) jCG
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, 53( 2 -0 2M( <@ gM 1C0 1: <@ gM 53( '>
/ 2g>N 28= 2DM _N>$ <@ gF A( 'M-0

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&
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M6
Metabolism
Catabolism
Anabolism
Enzymes
pH
Optimum pH
A 6

53
< g
3M0+ 'D
Xd6 3M0+ 'D
k G
dG :hC
1"!M! 28= F(0 2g>N 2DM - 2

!:!F Xd <@ gF
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dG bW
2DM "6
X7> 5 2
8=
jfEG
2 Activation energy FL3- 2DI ) 28= <7> >/" '>- > <7> 53] 2DM 2N V/>$ 0 , '>- =
2( 8= X7> 0 B Catalyst g7 V3& != IF
Enzymes< g !& g7 Y& ,FL3> 2DI XC-
K( 0 ' g "!M0 ,2DM 28:! <7> V/>$ ts} X=u "
' g "!M0 KML3- 2DI0 ' g "!M0 0" X7> FL3- 2DI ( +D
2 ! 1 X! :Enzymes -. LY
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FL3> 2DI
J |
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FL3> 2DI
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X7> | 2=/>{ 2DM < g ]\- :(s}) T
w6 : " "- ' g !=>

d: 0 2$ /3( !=- 236
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tsp X=u ' g
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0" X7> V+L- / c) ;%6 28= 1 X! H < g K(L><7> 2$ 1" X- / % ;]\>/:/>$ '> 0" 2N 28=
M0+/ ! g:>( / < g ]\>1+ 2M+" 0 tpHu
6 "(6 ]] X=L :(sp) T

< g
%6 1 X! < g g>- j

1"( >N ' g) X= ; TN> 2 2M+(
/ : Substrate ./ 1" / [M 10 27>
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21
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:D ) /:- W < g 'C- d = < g 2$+"
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g6 ' g) Xd 2 < g
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,
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3-0 [L0 , ' g [ 0 %!B 5%gM 0 tZ
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!&0 ," 53( 1+ !&0 ,d: 0 0 Active site g: ' g) X: M!
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D 0
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t2u HD!
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HD! d: K ' g
MM X= :(s) T

0 HD! K ' g
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P!= S t./u 1" H E ' g F- g) X7- % K %> tjk X=u
7 0 FL3 HD! U-+ Y& '> 0 ES t./u 1"0 ' g I:> PC
' g +> 0 X7> G-! !=>-0 ,I:> X> '] , Active site
22
' g I:n
S t.u 1"{
X7> G-!
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E ' g
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:jfEG Y Y KDJ dG eGdG

2M+"0 ,t./u 1" g:-0 ' g g:- :/3 < g X 2$ ]- X! 1 V3&
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:-. LY +.
(
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g UL3
X= UL TD &3 /E > 1+ 2M+"

' g)
k}
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ks
2$ /F- < g 23-0 2M )

2M+"
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k
zk
sk
jk
ok
mk C 1+q
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' g UL0 1+q <M+" ( 2D :(jz) T
' g) X= [( X=L E : , 2 "
JM J
1+ 2M+( `Y& -0 IP L d: &3 != 1+ 2M+"
XF f( <7E3 A(
Optimum Temperature d
2$3 1+ <M+" /
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5!* Qc 7- #:
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23
`Y& 1+ 2M+" 7-+ : F +- ' g UL XC 0

' g UL &3 #C 1+ 2M+" ) XT- ) d 2M+
K M I:> e> I( P -
UL d 2M+ 1+ 2M+" B7N c)

XD &3 != " 1+ 2M+" ) XT ) B
P XC ' g
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% 1 KIL ' g "! % 1 1+ H + 2 =0
GQdG J
2(F- Y70 'S
<M+" w7N ] R*!>
7T XDu ' g 1+
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P
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KM!( ">
1P D
B
X8 : c) " 0
P
2M+" !D 0 < !D p 6 3M0+/ Z6 <c X8! >-0 ,*
p XD6
P
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tjs X=u 3M0+/ 'D
N>$( ! %6 3M0+/
z
zk
zz
zs
zj
zo
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d !37
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pH
zo
fL " C-y Xd{ d !37

3M0+ Z6 ZD #!: A( :(jj) T
24
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N>- 2 + ! #!= `Y& IT 1"
M 0>=6 3M0+/ Z6 ZD /M ,3M0+/ Z 2 C- D
P #!= M-0
tjm X=u 2D" d: P D+
%+ ! ZC :(jo) T

3M0+ Z6 2M+" ZC
Z6 ZC :(jm) T

0n=6 3M0+
tpH meteru
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Optimum Xd6 3M0+/ 'D 0 ,2 TD\( `3 X 3M0+& 'D+ ' g) X=0
P #D!> ) XC ' g UL " 0 K3 XD c)0 ,pH

2M+" X Pepsin ' g) d
2M+" X- < g 'E0 ,2 D pH 2M+" X Trypsin (> ' g) 3( 2B pH
po pH
' g UL
dG cQ
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pH 2M+" 3 < g
po =
n

pH 3M0+ Z6
(n0 Xd6 3M0+ 'D :(j}) T
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25
dGh LddGh dG
:Nanobiopharmaceuticals jfdG jG jhOCG
/-+D .L>: '- D0 ,%L 'F X" 2 ! +0"6 <3-0
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nanobiopharmaceuticals
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z : s : z 23( O F:60
, F:60 M0+/0 !(= <+c !=>- 1: 2M!!( <@ gM :Lipids -D#
J0Y-0 ,5 (0Y 2(D /M0 , 2F> <: 1: 2!F !=>-0
!(= +!: H(+0 g3 Xd 2MC < Y
M0+/0 !(= <+c $$
P !=>- , 1C 1: <@ gM <3-0 :proteins -<#
236 w6 & 283 /-00 ,: @ gM 0 / , F:60
F:60 M0+/ %!>- , 1: 2M!!( <@ gM :Nucleic Acids ( ].>M
%0!3 A0 , RNA! %0!3 A:! /30 ,+!7$!70 !(=0 M0>30
<-!:!3 - 2$$ <0 !=>-0 ,DNA F:6 _!C3 %!
, 2N X" - 28:! < 2!F :Metabolism ^S7&_ +`.a Z M
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/
26
2$ PC- d: "! 53 2M <@ gF

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1D
B
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Cell: Structure and function
3( ,10 2 !=>- 2 <38= A ;1 = X= 2$$6 1! & 2N
zk g !=> d X$ 'F N : " !=> /B(
/F( ) %- / 2M+ M 1eS N 'E0 ,2 tzkkkkkkkkkkkkku ! P 5 Q" N
O 18 `Y& 2 /3 2 okkkk - W( eT d
K C- %Y D! 7 / "- 23 2TTN> N !=- ,<!0 <-3 0
!C-0 ) `C- ( X8$+ 2T X- ,d X$ ,<= `Y&
27T Q3 Q >( ,Q3 >C( 2T> 2B
27>N ^!6 !=-0
B G3 0 T G3 Xd ,2F !=> P N HF>-0
>80 ,IC0 ,3 :Xd 5B 2F6

f73>- 2N 2 <7S 2N 10 <38: 0 2TTN> : 5!$ , N X: V>L-0
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20
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g

=L W( 'D ,2N ^!*! <!

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Q- ' Xd6 X / ,2 Q>$+" G8> _( XF$

| 2TTN> 1g/M0 5B0 2F ) l g r R*!2!q0 2-3 l 1 <38=
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:

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Diversity of cells
:

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Light microscope
2B
2B 2
M /F #* pkk 1y= l 2!3> 2! :(z) T
0n=) J!=$0=
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C /3= 8= 'F( 283( 10 eS & :(F

1 #890 HF(
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X" "!M! :!L X X8$ XC /3= > 2 !I
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g>- ,2B P !=> B(
P /B( H HF>-0 ,2 !I0 2!M$
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Cell theory
jdG jdG
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:(Robert hooke)
MP ( (P !=$0= ^> K) W , N .L>: XB7 K HM %gF) '
1! [I ,ts X=u 1eS <!F I:>- / M! ,7 2MD K( 0
z}}m
1eT 1F 0 1!F7 3- >0 Cellula 23- 2= [>L '$ !&0 t2Nu '$ /3
:(Antonie van Leeuwenhoek)
N>$( 5 7 P 0& : D0 2!=( P eS P 79!: K- B %3!& '
=- 1+C K
z}po
F( /F 23S <$ `Y&
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skk > 56
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0 ,V
V!/3 J!=$0= :(j) T

G3 V!& <(0+ K D %Y '$ :(s) T
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KM>3>$
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:(Theodor Schwann)

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JdG fG
:2: 2F0 2M( 2F ) 2-3 2F6 ^!3>-
:2- ^!6 /30 :Simple tissues

fIM( 2+"
k hCG
dG fCG :
:(Parenchyma)
L( G :(s) T

f0C( h$
<c ,X=L 1 > 0 2 0B( ` G

2 !/> < /3( M!
,20 2CD+ +M
<>$( L G3 %!>2 N %!>- : ! 2 0 2!
0 5B
2@> d: 0 1: 10 1!F 2L
L G3 %" 0 2 i60 5(
" ! g>0 ,8!B 53(
C :Xd , 1 #890
2 !/> 2 0 K : ,L3: 28Ye
:(Collenchyma)
L3!: G :(sv) T

%d: 1]
ddG dG
` G !&0 , G3 L3!=( TC

'E>3 EP e- 2Ee &+M0
,5L A( 2M>
<3 '- G3 Y& 0 ! 1"(
2$3 2! K(:(
:(Sclerenchyma)
L=$ G :(jk) T
fGdG dG
fSEG dG
G !&0 ,IT G3 L=$( TC

Y&
!C 0 ,3F - 1"( +F
2Ee `
200 2(T K(:)0 ,<3 '-0 2 !C>( G3
48
:Complex tissues cdG fCG :k fK
&0 ! ) 'C3-0 ,2S!> 0 28! 2F6 ,<3 2: 2F6 2d
<3 XC3 />7900 ,50 ILN
:(Xylem)
dG f
X: !=> I( 1+ 2LN 20602L( 0 <TD0 20 ILN #\>
$-0 ,2* /+M - ']
(!-0 /3 - N $+ #S /3
,i60 5 / XC>3 2 !I 2$0 20 ) N !>>
;3F 1" X /+M
X: !=> ,<TC 2 +F6 : +> 1 ) 2D <>>3$ ( /!I i0> 0
3F 2CM( /+M 33F-0 tjz X=u
(!-0 /3 7> 10 2 /3
<3 '> 2 *( ,h+06 ) '] h ) +YF i60 5 XC3( ILN >N
:(Phloem)
AdG f
2S7 +F S0 /> ! -0 t $+u /B( h! 2S> 2(e I(6 \L3-
A( XE-0 ,2(!>$ U! X=
(!> / 2( R87S -0 2Cd
2 2DM( 2(e I(6 "0g- ,2C -0 2(e I(6 +0F- 2 N
tjs X=u/>79!(
C
%6 5gM6 ) h+06 8!B 53 2 2F-3 28Ye "! XC3( 5
!C
<3
2C 2
<TD
2( 27S
2( I(
5 G :(js) T
Animal tissues
2L(
20
ILl G :(jz) T
fGdG fCG
: / " > 279! H /3 X:

5> , 2$$ ^! 2(+ ) 2! 2F6 g- =
k hCG
:Epithelial tissues FdG fCG :
G3 !=> 0 , X K7 0F- M- 0 +N 'F RM$ Me- > 2F6 &
2D 2 1" /3( F( ,P - 2CS> N : " 8M
49
:E=7 E
L # +@Q e> E0 (7GM (/=LM =5
:H FW f z
:`0 E0 ,^jj X=a ?D> (5#I V GK

<L 2M( : ,2M7 N 10 2CI # :
28 28!/ <T ! +M0 2 !
2= < 2M( : ,2= N 10 2CI # :
560 1 2M( : ,2 " N 10 2CI # :
%D 5L
8I G
F( %" 8I G
l 2 !
F( 7 8I G
F( = 8I G

2M 28M 2F6 2d :(jj) T
:(e) ce FW f s
:`0 E0 ,^jo X=a -5#I ?D

V GK

7 8I G :(jo) T

#7 T
!=-0 ,A /B( h! 2S> N <CI 1 !=>

F 1L( : ,27 /3 2M 2CM
: 30 ,N0 => (,F0 678 7GM f= g
2B/ 13C 2M( :
!B/ 5Ye0 5 _T>
F 1L( : <(0=0 .7F0 %c6 &!=- > N 2 D0

28!/ 2TC0 2B/ 13C : ,5 2I+ /3M > # 0F> 7 UN )
:Connective tissues edG fCG :k fK

0 2S K 0 28$ !=- D ,2 ! ( 0 23( 1" 2$!e0 P ! 1> !=>:<!F 2]] QY P - 'C- &0 ,tjm X=u 2S
2(T 2M$!> 2M+" ( HF K\( > 0 ,+L>
^!6 d: !& :UCG dG dG z
P
Y& M! 0 /B( H 27>N 'F 5B0 2F F(+ 2$$ K>7900 ,20 1: 2M+"0
C + 0 ,F - ^!3
50
/ I$>
2S 2 ! ( 1" 0c !&0 # +Be0
E 'B :dG dG dG s
'F '- 2$$ K>7900 ,
E
!=
2$$6 K>7900 ,28$ 2 ! ( 1" 0c !&0 ,#0
XL : FYdG dG
dG j
q
2M "!0 <e0
!B/ 5Ye XC
t
u 80
* G
t.0u =&
* G
t'Eu =&
* G
XS
* G
2B 2F6 2d :(jm) T
:Muscular tissues
k
dG fCG :dK
'F D( g >- &0 , 2B .6 0 2B N( G3 Y& .
:2B 2F6 ^! 2]] M!-0 2: 8= = , U0 wC /-+C(
z
:(Smooth muscles) AdG dG
5 2B . :(j}) T
2=& 2B . :(jp) T
+M 1" M!-0 ,2MMN 2 "+) 2B . !=>2 ! 2060 ,2! 2d0 ,2B/ 13C
s
:(Skeletal muscles) dG dG
X=/( 2T> 1" M!-0 ,2MMN 2 "+) 2B . !=>^YF0 ,M0 , -0 FC IC +F( M!-0 ,2MMN 2 "+) 2B . !=>XF-0 ,2B .6 ( F(- > 23 _D6 2C 1+!T( A3 IC
:Nervous tissues dG fCG :k HGQ
2D 2B . :(j) T
2l 'M
2 F 80
1!
+!{
28 <7-
T /~ 27900 53( 10 2T 2l :(jv) T
<] C>$ 2T 2F6 TN>

/S!-0 ,KM+
'F X" : 5!$ , 2
2: 06 XC '] ,:!L X0

)
Y t"e 0 <Bu 2(F>$ 5B ) &
27>N 2ML6 'E3- 20 2F6 `Y& >'F 5B6
! !: : !
-
51
`j``dG dG
Cell Processes
2 ! 2ML6 (
!C- 2 <0 1+ N
2@ <] 2(F>$0 ,]=-0 ,2:0 ,2 Ye-0 ,f73-
K=>- 2M$!( 2 !N < `Y& '>-0 &0 ,2M
Z+ Y& w> .!$0 I:-0 <a i-
5Le
f73> <!M0 2a +T>( i-
%!l
8!B 53 2 <!M ( R*!-
2 !q <0 2ML6 A( 7-
2N
dG dG
2 ! /7890 Z+- / ( 2 2N XE- =

,F F$! "! A( XT- / Y ;KM0 X:
2@u F F$! ) 2F-3 < 73 +>$( N>-0
5Le ) <"> `Y& '>- = 2M( t2M+N
3" ,0 2N )0 "! K=- %Y !/ ,%!N
:5>
( "! "-0 C> />M$!( '> > < &
?2N 5L /( F F$!0 2N
?"> Y& 'E3- 5Le Y& +0" !&
Selectively 2 +> 2 c73 2 SN(

%!N 5Le g >
3( ,permeable
:
]0 50 F:6:
" ! A(

1=
<@ gF:
% " !0 ,K /3= !(=
'F Xd X! 1 Qc > 0 /3= i60

M) = 2N 5L M g:> h 0 />30 ,"!
:2- < 2N 5L "! XC <a
`````dG
Passive transport
Active transport
Diffusion
Osmosis
Facilitated transport
Bulk movement
Exocytosis
Endocytosis
Respiration
Photosynthesis
XC3
FL3 XC3
+L>
2 !$6
{ XC3
>= XC3
%!l
%!l "
%!l f73>
8!B 53
52
k G
:Passive transport dG dG :hC
:2> < 'B 0 2DI 2N Q/>- 0" 2N 5L "! 2: !&
J
:Diffusion
2 l X" ) <@ g~

>3 :(ok) T
<@ g~
X"
J
g:- %0> ,0
P
l
/M+0
2
c)
+
<@ g~
c :HD!g:- :
?2l X"
&g:- XD
2 l
QfG
<c 2CM3 2 N 5L <@ gF V !&

g:- %0> > A7N3 g:- <c 2CM3 ) g:F:6 "- Qc d0 5Le M <@ gF
M+N0 F$! ( !(= : ] 0
f73> 2 53] 2N
:Osmosis jRSCG
"! g:XD6
IF 2 N 5L tK 28Y " ! 0" u 5 +L> &
P
.0 28Y "! g:! 1+ 2 N
(!>$
6 IF ) 28Y
P
t2 N X"u
(!> ( g:> h7 I(0 ,K( 28Y " ! 0 5 I:
2 !$6( 2 N ) 0 5 V>
t2 N +u 2 N( F F$!0
2 N )0 5 C> 2M+N 2@ X g:- ]\- .> Q3=
g:> 27>N 2 X(
F G8> R*!
%Y , toz X=u
C7-u g:n ! | 2l

t?=3-0 /8 2l
u g:n "> ! | 2l

/> | 2l XE-0 5{ XC>3
t2M
2l hg>-u g:n A7N3 ! | 2l

t5 /ST> 2F>
| 5{ 2: ` 5q

< : X 27>N{ <g:n %!$6 ]\> :(oz) T
?d <q `Y& 2 X:
!: : !
:Facilitated transport
Xq XC3 W ,{ XC3 2 :(os) T

/ 2l + <@ gM 3-0y
dG dG
0 XD 2M$!( 2N 5L "! <@ gM C> !&

2N Y- 0" ,K7 5Le <3-0( F$0 X
g:> +3 I( '> W ,tos X=u 2DI % /C3
'F )
!:!F C> :Qc d
:Active transport dG dG :k fK
% ; 2N 5L /-g:- +3 * <! 6 0 1= <@ gF C> 2 !&
2DM
N>$( , g:6 IF ) g:XD6 IF
P
P
53
2T 2N , N X" <! 6 g:- 2E %: 2& FL3 XC30
<B3 C>( R
!$-!0
! "!T <! g:- '=>- ,d X$ ,2B0
,2-3 2N 23( 6 QY:0 2 <B3 C>0 , 2B N wC 2 2T
'( , 2(> <3 2 Ye i6 <! _T> +0YF =- FL3 XC3 2
2(>( &g:- +YF N( <! 6 `Y& g:j
2l X"
2l +
3-0( X
'Fq : 5%gM
ATP
V/>$ H 2l 5Le( 23-0y XD!3 g:- <+3 * <! 60 1= <@ gF FL3 XC3 2 :(oj) T
X=L( d <!Ml 1!M X: #S ATP I: 2DI
:Bulk Movement
k
dG dG hCG dG dG :dK
,2 N 
, %!N XC3 ^!3 Y&
"M 0 2 $ , /M+ ) 2 N X" " ! `Y& C c) %!N 5Le
2 $ /" ) 2 N + " ! `Y& C c)0 ,too X=u Exocytosis %!N
tom X=u Endocytosis %!N "
2l +
s
j
(!>
%!l " :(om) T
2l +
(!>
%!l :(oo) T
<T !
- , <T ! 2 N 7- '] , K '>> 2 N 5L `F-(
(!> V> , F!M
1!F7 0 f= KL P!=
, 1" ( F 2 N 5L 5gM 3d3 , %!N " 2
$ 2S 2C M `Y/( 2 "! : c)
(!> X" ) f= Y& XC>3 ']
/!
pinocytosis %!N JL( 2 $ 28$ : )0 ,phagocytosis 2( 2
54
Photosynthesis
FdG AdG
C <-3 /N>- > 2DM !>( 5BN <-3 /
!C- > 2 &
<>$ X" 8!B 53 2 '>-0 &0 ]=-0 !0 2 Ye- 27>N 2 ! #89!(
to} X=u 28: 2DI ) 28!B 2DM X !- / '> , > 5BN
:
fL 5!* 2DM _3>D( -0 ,t5BN <>$ 1"!M!u F X" F:6 % ) 5 <@ gM M 2DM `Y& 5gM
N>$ '] ,X 0+!= S 2M$!(
0>$ ) I&Y M0+/ , <-3 h+0 + F:6 T> 0 M0+/0
ATP I: 1+!S 2T> 2DM 5gF gN 0 <>$
:
]0 M0+/ % F( ATP I: 2gN 2DM /

N>-0 ,0> !:!F =$ !=> !(= :
G>3 %Y F:6 o
8!B 53 2 53]
X" C M0+ 2D+!
5l <>$
5 1>$(
2DM <-3
N>- z
2(
C fL 28!B
8!B 53
5!* 2DI 5gM

N> j
<>$ | 2T>{ fL
) 5{ <@ gM ML 5l
M0+ 0 F:6
fL 28!B 2DM >r s
5l <>$ 2M$!(
<3 N( 1"!M!{
F:
: ]
!(= 2DI C>{ 5g~
N> m
F( <>$ | fL 5!*
<@ gM H M0+ <@ gM
!:!~ !=> !(= : ]
!:!~( 2DM g> QY(0
8!B 53 2 :(o}) T
55

()
:
+
Respiration and energy release bdG jJh idG dG

=0 ,K 2g>N 2DM !T !:!F 2! N0 2-3 N
N>F( <@ gM ) !:!F <@ gM 'M- 0" 2DM `Y& !T N `Y/ =
2!F K K7 - = %Y %!N f73>( 2 `Y& .-0 !:!F 1: [ I
h K 2g>N 2DM - XM 2N X" !:!F 5%gM / w> > 28= <7>
!:!M
<@ gM
1eS
2DI
5
2DI
F:
+!:!>
!(= : ]
7 3> 06 2 { :(op) T
, +!:!>{ |
2 d 2 { ,2DM
2 D <
[M3-0
(!> |
f
:

2DM 1 : <
:
[M3-0
FGKEG ee
%!N f73> 2 HM 2 <38= HM
53 2 - 3( ,<D06
"!M0 <-3 8!B
fL 5!*
5 ) !:!F <@ gM =- '> %!N f73> 53]

: gN- > 2DM [M3-0 ,!(= : ]0
8:
I
tATPu <7$!7
]]
!3 "
:Jee NG
2 53] !:!F 1: 2 >- X& R*0 ,tA 6u 8Ye Xd> Q>$+"
Q>(M) 53( 2

& 2 f73>
- : !
56
dGh LddGh dG
:Stem cells YdG jdG
N ^! ^! % !=- 1+C / N P ! V3& dP 5 #L>:

< [ 0 Qc0 , 2 F N0 2T N0 = 0 
X 53] N `Y& !=>-0 ,Stem cells 2YF N & N `Y& ,>N 1" 2@(
!C 5I60 5 K0 ,3F !=> 1=
2T> w6 1: K!F /
/N>$ (0 1" > N `Y&
N>$ :Xd
KB M> KYM ^+ 0 ,w6 A(
0 ,IC * 2(!M IC 3 !T
P
Qc 0 , = * !/ Y/ Z =3 )
w6
!3 1={ X{ | 3~
:Cell fractionation jdG FdG
'> > 2d <3C> %) & 2 !N 28gF> 23C, G3 2!= 27>N N ^! X: 2$+ /N>$
B> 0 , N 0 ^!3 2!= 27>N 
- > 2 ! < 2$+ 2 *( ,< g: 1=
2N X"
2 [8 %g: "I /M
%g: "M 1g/M

N>$ 2 !N 28gF> 23C- >-0
<$ 3 2N "P > 27>N
Ultracentrifuge
57
SSCG dG
HF 2$$6 279! 1! & 2N 3 2 E :Cell Theory ( F ( <
0 1"73 !=- D , 2 <38= HM !=>HM \L3- ;2F>
;2 <38=
XD 1"!M! : N

'E /3 Ie 0 ,%0! 5Le( 2]+! /-" U- > 2 N :Prokaryote ? ( (F
2 !N -0 ,%0! 5Le( 2]+! /-" U- > 2 N :Eukaryote ? (55> (F
2 !N 3 !=> G :Parenchyma .QL<# f=
2 !/>0 , L3: 28Ye " ! g>0 ,8!B 53(
C :Xd 1 #890 %" 0 ,23( <
2E e /+M0 ,5L A( 2M> ` !=-
G :Collenchyma S.Q@ f=
3F 1" ( 1M e 0 'E>3 X=L(
2 2F6 2 0 K-0 <3 2 !C>(
!C G :Sclerenchyma .QL<@Ii f=
<] K +N 'F RM$ M e G :Epithelial Tissue 7GI f=L
X K3M 0 ,<(0=0 .7F0 1+: 2M+N
( 0 23( 1" 1"!M!0 P ! 1> ` !=- G :Connective Tissue 4\ f=L
2S 0 2S K 0 28$ 2 !
!&0 , 2B .6 0 2B N( ` .- G :Muscular Tissue j
f=L
U0 wC K-+C( 'F D( g >
06 XC0 ,2
<] C>$ ` TN>G :Nervous Tissue #$
f=L
2:
M P!= %!N
C 28!>$ 2 /E I:- :Chromosome 4I0<;
0>3$ %g: 5gM 3 P T> -0: /3 X:
/-g:- +3 f=( <! 6 0 1= <@ gF C> 2 :Active Transport FQ +5
2 N 5L
g:- <c 2CM3 2 N 5L <@ gF V- :Diffusion QLi
g:- <c 2CM3 )
5Le M <@ gF g:- %0> > A7N3
g:XD6u
5 g:6 IF 2 N 5L 5 +L> :Osmosis ( d.IM
P
P
IF ) t28Y " !
t28Y " ! g:6u 5 g:XD6
P
P
58
fdG dG ge jN

:
+

+
59
dG QGJ
Inheritance of Traits
!6 #>N

P Q0 20 , 2 "+0 , 5B0 , 23(0 , 5D+ P! Q
`Y& X: -\- 7S0 , h+0 , B ? + <c 23 g T %0 "!$0 ,3(0 ,C
? 53(6 ) 5( <7T `Y& XC>3- #: ? 2 <38= 3 !6
F 2 E3( G>3- !6 `Y& 5 < K(+F- 3 5M) XD D
P 8 "C> :
G>3$ ,h+ ? + 0c 0 7S ? + 0c & : 0e( ( F/> C> = , !6
B ? + <c <0e( Qc
<7T +!-
!/7 e- ,<3M /-0 <!$!0= .L>: (0 0
+!/E( 3> RS0 , XM ) XM 2]+! <7T C> 'E3- <a0 !C HBN- S0
'E Y&0 ,53(6 ]+! XN( 3> Qc " 0 ,2D" d: 2F-3 " 6 2]+! <7T
53( 2]+! w6 C> I3F> 0g XD 2M <S!7 2&
:<!

2
0
g
2=L

!

W( 'D ,<7
7T +!- ^!*! <

:J Y& %!TC 1"7>$ Q [C> =
<!{ +"T H$!>0 W0 2 E30 2 2$+ ( Q>D0 'E
Q- ' Xd6 X / ,2 Q>$+" G8> _( XF$

3~ f3M | 23~ <!$!0= +0" i1]\>{0 f3~( 2M-{ 2]+! <7T A( :Y f3~( 1"{0
| 1cL 2!$!0= <q A( ( gr
<> 0( 3> 2N>{ hM A( :Y53(6 | 2]+0
2(S I3F> 0g XD 2M <S!7 2 +C 2]+! w6(
A( +!- 7- | ]+! I3 XF$
N>2]+! <7T
:

! "#$ %# &' ( ) *
2]+! 2!$!0= 2 E3 i !$!0= M "!TC{ "

2q <38= A( | <!$!0= " "
U-+ 3 i +!( "!TC{ "
<3~ X X- ]\- <3~ X X> 2d :Y <3~ A( X 2@ .0E ]\- i |
X8T +!- 27: i Z! X +!- 27: i-
2 ]
<3
2 ]
KGQdG edGh eSehdG

Chromosomes and genetic information
2]+! <7T C> 27: X !I Y3 W

<7T .>0 K(L> J$0 ,2>> M6
2]+!
2]+! <! 5 #L>: L C 2 ( 0
2]+! <7T +!/9 ) %"- > <!$!0= X2 <38= HF( 2SN
<38= HF 2 X: 1! X" <!$!0= M! X: 2]> 0 M!- <!$!0= `Y&0 ,2
X$30 2 F N
:

! "#$ +$, &' ( ) *
2!$!0= 2 E3 i-
~0
!$!0= ( 2D R*!-
| !$!0= M( "!TC{ "

A( | <!$!0= " "
2q <38=
:Y !$!0= M ( +C-
| d !$!0= M0
U-+ 3 i-
+!( "!TC{ "
Z =3 X: <!$!0= R*! > X=L

5B
0
`````dG
Chromosome
Z =3
2$ =3( 2 <!$!0:
!$!0=
2!$!0= 2 E3
Chromosomal theory
Gene
~
Karyotype
!$!0= M
Crossing over
+!
5B

5B(
" 2 <!$!0:
<!$!0=0 27>N{ l :(z) T
62
Karyotype
FGKEG ee
<!$!0= M! &"0 2]> 0
2M+" 8=
KF 0 KD+
eSehdG RdG
1+!S R*0 !=- 3 <!$!0= !T- 33=

0 ) /73T-0 & - '> '] , J!=$0= /
= Qc 5M) X/>0 , 3- /F I I--0 ,2]>
27>N !\( <!$!0= ! /D-0 /F I 3- <!$!0= I-karyotype !$!0= M
: : !
d0 :c X= !$!0= M R*!- 2> =6

:OMh M
d6 !$!0= M :(j) T
:Y !$!0= M :(s) T
?d60 :Y X= !$!0= M <!$!0= 0 " ':

?d !$!0= M0 :Y !$!0= M ( h7
:Number of chromosomes eSehdG OGYCG

! ^!3 " 6 (] K ) , ^! 2 <38= <!$!0= " #>N
Homologous 2]> <!$!0= >!F Somatic cells 2 F N %!>-0
2!F 283] N `Y& [M 0 t
6 +! 0 J6 +! &u chromosomes
L iC J!0 2 !3 <!u Gametes L6 %!>- 3( ,Diploid Cells t2nu 2eT
/ % ;2 F N( 1"!M! <!$!0= " #T t2d L - 3( ,t0 sju
!$!0: o} 3 2 M 2 X: 1! %!>-
FC P !$!0: sj t2B !u W GL0 t%!3 !u :Y
63
-0 ,tsju 'D+ ) tzu 'D+ /F I 3- 2]> 0 <!$!0= I--
0g Xd 3( Somatic chromosomes 2 F <!$!0=( ss 'D+ ) z 'D+ 06
<!$!0= 0 !/ , I-> Y/ HBN 0g Y&0 ,23F <!$!0= sj 'D+
tsju 'D+ X 0 <!$!0= 2 / I- K3=0 ,'F H(
!$!0= M :Y !$!0= M #>N
0 !/ ,23F <!$!0= 0 d
,to X=u tXYu :Y X]> <!$!0:
0g( 0 tXXu d6 X]> <!$!0: 00
2]+! <! X K6 ;23F <!$!0=
f3F >( 2SN
tXYu 23~ <!$!0= 0 :(o) T
HF d60 :Y X: % <!$!0= " <]

> & <!$!0= X" %L f3F "
`0 <7S "- > 2]+! <! X%6 2 <38=
:2 <38= A( <eT " > 0F Xd

2 <38= A( <!$!0= " :(z) hL

o
+!
o}

os
RC
js
2MM
z}
XT
j
1/
o
IM
!$0+
zo
5
p
I=
s}
27B
o
>
?0F Y& <( KF3>- = %Y
64
Chromosomal theory
eSehdG jdG
zvks
2!$!0= 2 E3 f$ ) Bovri % !(0 Suton !-$ : XS!:2> 2$$6 UC3 /-+!( = >0
FGKEG ee
( V3& ) 5 XS! M # k }k
L0 2]] 1"!M!
,<!$!0= M0
P
2= 2!F .-0
%L
!3F '$( <3F
0 X= 2 F N <!$!0= M!-

t2nu 2]>
<!$!0= " #T tL6u 23F N %!>-
0 XT73- W ,tg>u %!
C 2F> tnu
> 0> >!F ) 2]> <!$!0=
<!$!0=
L6 KC> 3 C>

P:!$ <!$!0= 0 X: Q
M <!$!0= M0g " "! JT 3
<3F <@ X D !
!$!0=0 ,<!$!0= <3F HC-
:dGh eSehdG
<3F DNA 5%gM X 0 ,-00 DNA %0!3 A
!$!0= !=>
- 283( <0 !=> DNA D0 ,2 <38= 2]+! <7T 20
27S +!/9 0 -0 17 Xd- <-!:!3 H(>- F #\> <-!:!
23
:eSehdG jf AV a e fGb J
2"> <7T 0 +!- R*! X(C X=L

:5 <
F1
" FC %gC ! +!/E V7-

? 06 XF
F2
2]+! X! g !D :(m) T
?d XF " ( P ! +!/9 2
2! <3F g3- %!

C
M M0
<!$!0= "!- JT 30 L6 ) <!$!0= 0
P
XF P 23>0 18 >7T /E-0 zkk 23( 06 XF 18 27T /E-
z : j 23( d
65
P
y y s s
Y Y S S
y s
Y S
! M 8$ Y +0Y 7S6 ! M

8$ S +0Y f6 X=L M0 ,y B6
s F X=L M
F1
Y y S s
P
Y y S s
Y
s
06 XF " ( >7T +!/9 I

? d XF " 0
/=0 +0Y ! <3M HC- X&

!$!0:
,K7
!$!0=
?7>N
? L6 <3F H !- <>
Y y S s
> <7T M0 +!- X(C X=L 7

+0Y X=0 ! :Xd ,K(+F- 3 /$+"
5 <
<!$!0= 2! <3F H !-

HC M X: 6 ;
P !- != L6
XC>
!$!0:
F2
< | +0Y f0 ! +!- :(}) T
5
!u -8 >7T X- 06 XF "

zkk 23( tf6 X=L0 ,7S6
z : j : j : v 23( !=- d XF "
KGQdG QdGh dG JQG

Linkage of genes and crossing over
!$0+ 1 <!$!0: :(p) T
2$+" 3
zvzz
TMorgan M+! Z!-
V3& t2/:7 2((cu !$0+ 1L <7T +! 0 2(+ %!$ M!- 3( ,<3F <@ 1
X
!$!0: X: `3 Y&0 tp X=u <!$!0=
,10 1!: P +!- <3F `Y&0 ,<3F "P
R*! %Y 2]+! X! H !> !D #N Y&0
P !- <3F ^!-0 <!$!0= 2C> M!- <3F
P!D f d 3 !D % ;C>
66
1!D 0 ,
!$!0= f7 &"!M! HM /B( <3F `Y& U-+ M+! w>

!$!0= 1+0F> <3F ( 2 #D!>- <3F ( U-+
: dG H JQG GfCG
3~ X !I %"+
3~ 2g> "!$
<3F `Y& ( 2 <3F ( U-+ #D!>

:U-+ ! M! 0 ,<eT
: dG JQG
P
<
2 !I 2 "+
3~
G
F2
! M 8$ G 'F %" ! M

23M6 M 8$ L 2 !M 23M6 M0 g "!$6
l 2g>N
G g
L l
G g
L l
P
G G
L L
i3F !I0 'F ! <3M HC- X&

?7>N !$!0:
, K7
!$!0=
G g
L l
g
l
G
L
> <7T M0 +!- X(C X=L 7

! Xd !$0+ 1L K(+F- M+! /$+"
i3F !I0 'F
g
l
G
L
G
F1
g g
l l
G G
L L
G g
L l
G g
L l
2 "+ <
3~ 2 !I
? L6 <3F H !- <>

g
l
G
L
" 0 06 XF " ( >7T +!/9 I

?d XF
g g
l l
5"!$ <
3~ 2g>
!$0+ 1 |
> U-+ :() T
H !> !D I L6 <3F H !- '>
!$!0= 2! <3F XC>3- X( ;<3F

10 2]+0 27S /\: +!- % ;10 2]+0 1!:
2M-
!$!0= f7 2! <3F C-
/B( M 2 D <3F `Y& : c) )
2]+! <7T +!- <] >(0 , <3F +!- <] ) %"
> U-+
: dG Z JQG
0n= /F{ +! :(v) T
67
2! <3F C- 2]+! < A(

">-0 ,/B( XT73- D X( ;8"
P 2M-
!$!0= f7
%Y +! 2F> K E3
!$!0= % <3M H
) %" ,L6 !=-0 %!
C 53]
53(6 ( 1 M <7S +!/9
:Crossing over
KGQdG QdG
%!
C 06 %/> +!M +! 1&9 #B<!$!0=
G
G
L
L
g
g
l
l
G
G
L
L
g
g
l
l
G
G
L
l
g
g
L
l
(
IT>
+!0
T7
<!$!0=
2 !( 2MM
<MM
2 +!
t1 Mu
2 !( 2MM
+! 2 <!M :(zk) T
:hCG idG QdG a
0 X: /E W Tetrad ( !=-0 ,/B( 2]> <!$!0= 0 J+C>-
<-0: H(+ P!= <!$!0=
= / [M d: 0 2MC X]> <!$!0= 0 2 <-0= #>-
= &3 D [I3 `Y&0 Chiasma
]+! +!( Qc . 0 ,2]> <!$!0= 0g 2 <-0= 5gM ">-
Crossing over
:hCG dfG QdG a
<!$!0= >!F ) +! 0 ( 2]> <!$!0= 0 XT73:dG dfG QdG a
/ !- '> 0 ,2 !3( <!$!0: / [M 0 ,/B( >-0 <-0= XT73 8!L L6
: : !
68
' > <-0= 3( ,1 M <!$!0: +! /( > <-0= L0 K !( <!$!0: %!>- L 3 !=$ QY(0 , 2 !( <!$!0: - +! /(
1 M <!$!0: %!>2]+! <7T e- K3 G>3 <!$!0= <3F
- U-+ +! QY0
( +! 0 _ ""g 0 ,
!$!0= <3F ( 2 #D!>- ,1" I3(

!$!0= <3F `Y& ( 2 <" :
!$!0= <3F
:QdG gCG
#=> & ! ^!3 " ( 2]+! <7T ^!3> ) +! 1&9 %"&+!M-0 /- +>$0 2@ .09 H
:dG FGdG
<!$!0= <3F HD! - !3=- ]+! +! I3 5 2$+"
2eT F8N '$( .
- : !
69
dG a NGJ
The interaction of genes
X: )
z}k
Gregor Mendel 3 +!F M XS!0 18$ !=- D <3F 0 0 / '=> 2]+0 27S
CP 0 +!- <7T d: ( 5 - C0 ,23>
]\> < /30 ,23 <7T / [I0 ,3 !C
<3F X X>( / 2]+! <7T +!/9
2=> <3F 1"
:<3F X X- 2d
2> <3F
S e cJ
2 +!!6 <7T '$ K [M 2(C> <7T 0 X:
27T X & ,C " F/- 3 23 <7T 2
( FC 18 27T /E- : ,23> 27T X 0 ,18
z : j 23( 23>0 18 P >7T /E- 3( ,06 XF "
2> 1" '$ ]+! M Y& [M 0 ,d XF
:

! "#$ +$, &' ( ) *
<3~ X X- ]\- -
<3~ X X> 2d :Y-
1"
7-
2=>{ <3~ 7-
2>{ <3~ 7-
|
X8T +!- i-
H(+ )
X8T 'C- f$ R*!-
<!

2T ^! "
2(+6
X8T ( +C-
Z! X +!- 27: i-
A( +!- 2]+0 f$ X
<7T
A( X 2@ .0E ]\- i-
<3~
`````dG
k G
Lack of dominance IOdG GfG :hC
g>- +&6 X I < +& ! 2]+0 2$+" X(C X=L R*! 0 ,7C0 A(60 6 :& ! 2]d(
X X I < F/X a < H tRRu 5 +&
P
tWWu 5B( +&
P
Complete dominance
2> 1"
Lack of dominance
1"

Complementary genes 2=>{ <3~
Lethal genes
2>{ <3~
Blood groups
X8T
Antigens
hT> <!
Antibodies
1"B{
M6
Rhesus Factor tRhu
Z! X
? 06 XF <- +& !

? XF Y& " 6 2> 23F M
70
5x +&
5B( +&
P
RR
WW
F1
? d XF <- +&6 ! +!/9 2

? 3 !D H G8>3 `Y& [7>- X&
27D +&
RW
F2
5x +&
+&
RR
RW 27D
+&
5B( +&
RW 27D
WW
5B( +&
+&
5x +&
%sm
%mk 27D
%sm
z
:
s
:
z
X I < +& ! +!- :(zz) T
FGKEG ee
! !& K! zo
!
,
( ^>
[ !
! Y&0
%03 ' "
Karl > +:
#L>= Landsteiner

X8T
M0
X8T 0M :(s) hL
23~
3F I:> 2T7

AO
BO
AA
BB
AB
OO
71
06 XF <- ( -Y RC> 5M) 3

! 27S +!- <> & ,&+0Y( ^+0
? d XF <- +&6
A
B
AB
O
! 27S tzz X=u ]+! X> RB>

/3 % "! <3F 0 / '=> +&6
W <3F X X- 2F> Y&0 ,
27T +/9) ] (C> 3F M X= !=
1 F
3F M %/E M
1"
2
fEG a dG Fa QGJ
Inheritance of blood groups in humans:
) L ^! HM % 2>(]
<!= '+
XC < #D!>-0 ,

X8T !7>N '/
Z! X ^!0 2T7 ^!
<3F ^! 2]]
X8T 27S '=>
%!$ "7 /3 ,tAlleles <6u X8( <3F `Y/ g 0 ,tX8 "-u FC 0 0
<3F 0g Y& M! 0 ,A B O .6(
L HM % H$> <!$!0= 0
:dG Fd KGQdG dG
: & 2]+! U 2]] (
X8T HF-
<3F X8( 2]] /

X8T 27S : +7D# DN
FC 0 0 /3 "7 IT0 A B O :&
X8 `Y&
tOu M tBuM0 tAuM X: "! : (0 ?I
& 1 M 2T +/9) P :>L X( tBu M0 tAuM ( 1"$ M!- : ?I 4DNL
AB 2T
O
2T
P
AB
2T
OO
AB
K" 2T XM+ 0g- R*! X(C FMN

:tOu /" 2T 1 tABu
? 53( 2D!>
X8T
G
? 53(6 (
X8T 2
? %
" X8T7 <> M!- X&
F1
AO
BO
X8T7 ]+! X> :(zs) T
A X8T H(+ )
X8T 'C- >
M!- > "! ! B AB O

: &

X8T7 8= 'C> 0M :(j) hL
M6 <! 2T7

1"B hT>
a
A
anti-b
b
B
anti-a
AB
------- a - b
anti-a
------O
anti-b
:dG Fd FdG dG
: Antigens dG Gde
:! &0 ,5

RM$ M!- "!
b <!0 ,a <!
: Antibodies IOG LCG
:! &0 ,
( M!- <! 1"B "!
antib <"B0 ,antia <"B
JM J
/3 X: 2C ! M+ ( ^3-
2T :0 ,tOu K" 2T X7I I
2M0
" 2T :0 ,tOu M X:
"
d XM 2M0
" 2T 0 tAu 06 XM
X7M Y& I [ M % ,tABu
2]+0 f$ Qc ?K
2(+6
X8T ( +D ,tju 0M
: dG Fa gCG
7I6 I0 1!(6 - <3 A
d- 0 73-
X8T u CC '/8(
tI3
" 6 (
XC < -
+!M> 2$+"0 2 L < #3T- <$+"

N>-
:dG f Y
B 0
P Antigens 1! "! "!M0 I( "
E [ 0 27>N X8T7 (
XC =
Antibodies 1"B
M6 "!M0
72
:27>N X8T7 (

XC <> tou 0M R*!
XC
E :(o) hL
XC
E :(zj) T
B
AB
AB
A
B
AB
O
tXC>u C>
tMu ^>
?c ?
XC> / [M > 2T7
?c ?
M / [M > 2T7
:2(+6
X8T7( 2SN <! A( > 0F N
X8T :(m) hL
2T XC>-
2T M-
A,O
A , AB
antib
AO
AA
B,O
B , AB
antia
BO
BB
X8T7 HM
AB
a b
AB
AB
X8T7 HM
antia antib
OO
antib
antia
tu
t+u
t+u
tu
:dG a f jJ
P , 1"B
M /(C 0 <! /
X8T 2T X:
d
<7> 0 ,antia & / 1"B
M /(C a <!
=
dN- 00 1"B
M60 <! ( '>- >
2T7 ^! :dG a f j GN
0
t+u
tu
73
t+u
antia
1"B
M6 ! : "!M0
g
2T >
:antib
H*00 K>T - " NL

" 23 I$ '>
27E 2MM 2
-MD
1MD antib 0 06

1MD
tu
2T ^! :(zo) T
1"B
M6 <! 3F I:> 2T7
antia
HB
2d
: & <> 2(+ M!- : 2F>3
X8T :(m) hL
2>
2T 2d
1MD
tu dN-

A
t+u dNB
t+u dNAB
tu dN-

O
06
1MD
t+u dNtu dN-

t+u dNtu dN-

z
s
j
o
0F Y& G8> Q0 Q8 H ?D

JM J
:dG f W
XC <
:tXC>u C> / w> >

XC3( 2M- IN A( M!
2L+ :Xd w K /E-0 K>T ^!3 I$3
" K XC3 3
<D"
E>
, 2D+ , f73> [* ,+T
a ,^S ,'F
1 !( P />3-0 ,
Fe* w7N , IC
J/> w I Z07 Xd C> ) 2$0 %0 C> =
AIDS Z0 B 0
P B =
2 <38= `! :\> <S!7 2!F )
HBN QY
C>
K>$3 QY:0 <$07 :Xd w
:Rhesus Factor (Rh)
SjdG eY
2 *( Z! X <!( .- 5

RM$ hT> <! ^! M!
! 0 ,L m ! 5" M!- <! `Y& ,
X8T7( 2SN hT> <! )
^!3 Y& '/8" ! Y _N6 tRh+ug( / g 0 ,Z! X IM!(
tRhu g( / g 0 Z! X I( ! ,L %zm ! !d 0 ,hT> <!
<!$!0= 0 0 / ,<3F 0 2]] Z! X <! 2]+0 '=>
!=- ) %" d: 0 2]d <3F 0 8$ M % "!M0
tRh+u Z! X IM! "7 RT 0 ,Z! X <!
23> K-3M HM !=- tRhu Z! X I$ "7 3(
:SjdG eY gCG
5x
" 2 :(zm) T
XC < XD Z! X - 7)

IF
1"B
M !=- 2@3 IN I3F> 0g XD B 0
5
=- I- Z! X <!
74
:IOdGh G a Rh SjdG eY QhO

FGKEG ee
X <! 7L>:
1 06 Z!

( X 3
zvok
1"C ^!3

2$ Z!
Z! + - "0C
<! `Y& [I Y0
Z! X '$
' X" 3F :0 tRhu 1 tRh+u XM+ 0g- c)
&/M K3 1"! 3 K
( F>N 3F
" 5P gM tRh+u
X( 2SN hT> <! 1"B
M > 3

6 c ,
6
" 1"B
M6 C-0 ,Z!
06 X !=- > 1"B
M6 tRh+u 3M
X> ,tz} X=u 2L [ I 3F
" )
6
" XC>3D 1" \( K>(S)0 3F
" =- 1"B
M6
K-! ) %"Y& .L>: 2 K7 IF %Y 8D! 5M
ps XT
6 5M( != 06 X7M 1"0 XD .>
2$

"C X7M 2 D!
1"0 X:
Rh
M
1"B
Rh+
1"B{
M6 C> :(z}) T
2L{ y d 3~
" )
6
"

6
( M> >
2: =>(
!C XT Y&
23 /M W>- XD Qc0 ,tRh+u %!>- >0 X7M
1"B
M !=>
6
Complementary genes
+!&g 2( < :(zp) T
edG dG :k fK
+/9 /3( V>L- <3M &
W +!- '=> W ,2]+! 27T
#D!> 0 ,<3F M0 27T `Y&
M "!M0 18 27T +!/9
,M0g : XD6 0 8$
18 <3F 0 % J
27T +!/9
) %"$ &: 0
23> 2(C 27T /E-0 ,18
%gC ! Xd W ,+!&g 2( < +& ! 27S +!- 2=> <3F 2d
tzp X=u 23> 27T A(6 ! Xd 3( 18 27T
/ g 0 18 <3F 7>N M0 / '=> +!&g 2( < +&6 ! 27S
a ,b ( / g 23> <3F0 A ,B (
75
5B( +&
P
AA bb
G
Ab
5B( +&
aa BB
?06 XF <- +& !

aB
Y& " 6 2> 23F M

?XF
Aa Bb
F1
2 gD +&
2 gD +&
P
F2
>$ F/- R*! X(C X=L

5B( +&
X /3 X: +!&g 2( <-
P
!
2 gD +&
Aa Bb
G
AB
Ab
Aa Bb
aB
ab
AB
AA BB AA Bb Aa BB Aa Bb
Ab
AA Bb AA bb Aa Bb Aa bb
aB
Aa BB Aa Bb aa BB aa Bb
ab
Aa Bb Aa bb
5B( +&
p
aa Bb
aa bb
2 gD +&
v
<- ( -Y RC> 5M) 3

& ,&+0Y( ^+0 06 XF
+&6 ! 27S +!- <>
?d XF <-
<- +&6 ! +!/9 2
?d XF
! X= 27>N 23F M I>:
A(6 +&6 !0 %gC +&6
d 3 !D H G8>3 `Y& [7>- X&
?t2]+! X! H !>u
+!&g 2( +& ! +!- :(z) T
+&
X- +!&g 2( <- F/- 3
P
2 gD +&
06 XF F> P 5B(
J e W
P
5B( +&0
2 gD +&
G>3- d XF 0 zkk 23(
P
P
f$ R*0
p : v 23(
23F0 2 /E M 2]+0
2( < +& ! 27T
<3F/> 2F-3 +!&g
: 2>
Aabb
aaBb
AaBb
aabb
2( <- +& t18 27Tu %gC ! +!/9 )

: 6 ;d: 0 0 X: 8$ M ^>M > +!&g
W ,gC +&6 ! >) :+L 8 3F
,%gC ! !=- ] ' g) >) /3 X: '=>
2 `Y& = W ,<3F X X=- Y&0
23> 27T /3 X: X !( 18 27T !T
,z : j : j : v !=- t2]+! X! H !> !Du 23 <7T 2 d XF 2

p : v !=- t2=> <3Fu 23 <7T 2 d XF 2
76
dG dG :k dK
Lethal genes
A( XM- K I-> 8= +*

I- t2Cu 2]> 1+!T( M!- 3 <3F A(
P
<3F `Y& [M 0 , 27>N X 8= <! ) %" 2 ! <
2-C 0 2> <3F '$
:.' -/ E0 E
L (.. -/ =5
+C(6 0! 2$ @7 7S6 L ! M /30 : 18 2> <3F
!7M K> 1+Y < X 0+!= J M /30 :23> 2> <3F
:GdG T d U KGQh
d0 :c F/- X(C X=L R*!
2 = ,F& 7S 0c /3 X: ,@7
z : s G-3 XF
P
Yy
? XF Y& " 6 2> 23F M
G
F1
YY
Yy
@
57S
<!r 2C
' |
3 !D H G8>3 `Y& #>N- c

?t2]+! X! gu 06
Yy
yy
? G-3 XF @ D7 2
57S @ 2 "+ @

s
:
z
@7 ! +!- :(zv) T
77
? G-3 XF @ !
Yy
0 "!M0 ) 2C3 57T @7 <! HM

<! I>- 2C 2 18 <3F
! Xd- 2> @7 `Y&0 ,' X" @7
w Y& 2]+0 '> 0 ,G-3 XF " sm
3F I:> K3F& 5(a
J e W
:IQdG f a ahQdG Z U KGQh
7I6 A( M!
!7M K>( . ]+0 w
23> K-3M : ! <! I
1 XM+ 0 2F> ,taau
27T `Y& F& /3 X:
2+ '] , -c C1+Y <- A( RC- 3

P
2 <+" A( ! ! /3 2F-3 J!
<!-0 ,X(Y- '] ,1TD 1>7 !3- t! 5B(u X 0+!=
2C 1+!T( M! 3> M I(
:2> <> IM '] X(C ]+! X> Z+"

1+c <
1+c <
Cc
Cc
P
G
F1
? /-!0 <+" `Y& !(Y V -

c
CC
Cc
Cc
cc
( X 0+!= 2N <+" 2

? G-3 XF <-
%pm 5l <+"

%sm 5B <+"
1+Y < | X 0+!= 27S +!- :(sk) T
D7 I3F- = #: VE 2/M0

<+" HM !T0 1+Y <-
? ! 5B
A( P 3> <3F 0 ^>M %"
> X 0+!= 1" !=-
) 1+Y <+"(
B
P 20 &0 ,B6 /! <-3 I=8!B 53 2
- 28!B 2DM _T>
dG H a Y dG hdG KCJ
A( >] 2d ! ,% X! %\( / ]\> <3F 0d= C>
w>0 ,F:6 C0 ,5!/ <]! :Xd 8=( 2M X!( / ]\> <3F
]- > X! `Y& 2$+"0 ,1+ 2M+"0 ,5!B :Xd 2@ X! ) 2 *( , <
X! `Y& \L3- D > IN I3F- <3F X
:AGG JdG a ahQdG U QX Y AdG Z KCJ
0 RC J! 2!F 3>$

2!F0 ,2E 1F !7 +0Y(
<+" %+ H ,B = 2] %

1
E>( >!F
?>!F >: <+" !
?G3>- c ? Qc 7-
!=- 0 F >
RC < <+"( ! 5!B ]\- :(sz) T
X ) 5BN <-3 X 0+!=
J 3 ,F ]\- /E = 5!B
5!B H*0 ! > X 0+!= !=- <3 gF X 0+!= +!/E I F
?B6 !( 2 I= h+0 !-
7- (
5!B "!M0 |
5!B J |
: : !
-
78
KGQdG VGeCGh dG KGQdG
Genetic inheritance and genetic diseases
,X !I Y3 L d: "0 ' f3F - X9

> d
:c
P /33M ^! 20 & 1 1= 90
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Xe :(s) T
;Xe 0 !F > % ^!3 RMT [M 0

XM >)0 0g> 1+C / f " /6 Qc0
^!3 f7 M
//L- "P G>3-0 ,/3( 0g>-0 ,2/(L> 2M!! +! <7S / " 6 2!F :^!3
t2C u KT !=-0
Naming of living organisms
dG FdG J
2MC ;2M+ 5$6 / [M 0 ,w+6 <@(0 ^C( .>( ! 8= 5$6 ">P d
,f!- 2$!MD -0 ,3 23( -0 , +!$ K( -0 , != 1!M: -
#>N- 1! 2 5$ hI 5 ( 2M </9 QY ,1/( 2( 2e .-0
w+6 ^C(0 <@( .>(
95
(7` (.=
E K [I <38= 2> P E 2=L `Y& Ie> Z!3 i>D
!& 06 '$ K != 0 , 8: X= 83] '$( K 7>= 0 ,23- 2e( I>= Binomial system
t I !& d '$0 , : .( 0 Genus s/ '$
5$6 `Y& I>=- [7- D0 1eS .\( I>= 0 Species
/ gP F /3 X: - H*! 0 ,28 23- .0( 2
tj X=uFelis domesticus /$ 2MC &
Felis
FGKEG ee
domesticus
Genus
Species
23- 2e( 2MD = Felis
23- 2e( 2g3{ = domesticus
<c /-: ) 2 2e: 23- 2e +> I HM
/( > M! 2 D 2e /!: ) 2 *(, 1T>N

e- 0 # - %6 2* XD /F
2g3{ 2MC '$ :(j) T
Taxonomic hierarchy
d edG dG
d:0 "P XD <38: 'B- /3 2!F X: 2 <38= #3T> < !> H$ M!: & <!F `Y&0 to X=u, /C- > 2!F <7T P:>
:Kingdom
dG
IL "P XL-

2={
2!q
:Phylum
dG
#8!M "P XL-

2
<q
:Class
FdG
I- "P XL-
:Order JdG
< d 278I
<8 "P XL-
! <:a 2-+

< +!3 28
FMC f3M
:Family FdG
Z3M6 "P XL-
:Genus
dG
^!6 "P XL
2g3{ 2MC
2g3{ 2MC 73T> H*! R*! :(o) T
96
:Species dG
K7 ^!3 IT X >)0 0g> 1+C / " ^!3 !=>
Xd , >>> >!F X: F$!>- % <!F M!- &:c [( < !> 2 *(
278M -0 ,2L -
Dichotomous key dG dG
?2 S K-M0 D 8: ^! 2 <"+ c) X7- c
2 F !=- D 2C M `Y& =0 ,I>= %) 8= Y& 1+!S W- (+
J>=( 1+!S K != (+ 0 ,1+!T #>N ! K 8= Y& (+0 ,6 A(
2 <38= .> '/- 73T> i>7 !N> P 56 5
8: # >
N> "!C- ,0 2- .S06 2$ 1+ 73T> i>70
`Y& RT- 2$0 8TN( W( 73T> i>7 'T- '> 0 K 23(
!
,1!M X: 73T> i>7 < !> 3C- : 2S!T d:0 P - d: 8TN
#S0 ) XT- ,.M 2 / 0 , 8= 8T Z$ 7S0 +> Q3=
2N 83d 73T> i>7 tm X=u R*! /) >3 > 2!F 0 8= '$ ) V"!C
t ,27 ,w! ,J(Y ,X3u :<L ^!
23M6 2
X3
J(Y
2*!
27
TD XM+
'F
<L
0 0
23M6
!I XM+
'F
23M <c
1Me 23M
2S #(
M0
23M6
2 723M

<q A 83d 73T> i>7{ R*! FM :(m) T

: : !
97
dG Fd jdG dG
Modern classification of living organisms
E
zpkk
Carolus Linnaeus Z!3 +: ' H*0
:& FC >= 2 <38= #3S %Y %C> #3T>
2-3 2=0 2! 2=
1" 0,M!! F 2N> 2 <3C> +!M- H
H*!( ,
zv}v
Robert H Whittaker => '
D ,.+
W #3T>
E3( $ ,2 <38= #3T> M
E
:Q f ) 2 <38= K 'D Modern classification
!&0 ,t!0 ,<30 ,< M70 ,<8M0 ,<8u
F$! K .+>
E3
Kingdom Monera
:

! "#$ +$, &' ( ) *
<38= #3T- <0 A( i-
2q
W q #3T>
E i-
fl Q 1g{ 8Tl i-
2q <38=
Q{ >3- > 2q <38= 2d :Y-
< M70 ,<8M0 ,<8
<-30
5!* | 2q <38= A( #3T-
W q #3T>
2q <38= #3T- | 5 "!/M +C-
/ .>0
2q <38= [ | [l 2E +C-
2!3>{
FGdG e (1)
:2> 8TN( <8 2= g> 10 2 /M !=> <38:
<> 0 1"7 ?-
>= 0 ! %!N &+M !N
:Xd 28Le 2(!> 
<>$0
`````dG
Monera
Protista
Fungi
Plantae
Animalia
Nonvascular plants
Vascular plants
Ferns
Gymnospermae
Angiospermae
<8 2=
<8M 2=
< M7 2=
<3 2=
!q 2=
280 <-
280 <-
<
+0Y 1
+0Y 1Me
+N /( F 2]+! /-" ) c) ;1" 1! %!-

%0! 5L
: & >7>N >!F <8 #3T-
98
FGKEG ee
:Archaebacteria jdG jdG
:Nanobacteria ( L <@#

/F i0> M KCD" >=(
#> ,>! skksk (
I:- &+> W 5
= M X= 0 2 +!(
X" 5F( >= `Y& !3- 1
53] /= e> 0 , 2 2N
20C d: !=-0 ,!3 X
2 HM>-0 2 " >=
'F
E3 /7
F- 2 F ^0+" !=-0 (
!d XS!- D0 2E7: /(
!& >= ^!3 Y&
<!T !=- 8+ I$
J/>0 L IT-0 =
->$0
2 0: >=(
:Xd ,2 e 2$C .0E <c <@ ? /E

<@0 ,F:6 2N <@0 , 1+ ` H(3
2CC >= 2!F `Y& #>N-0 2! 2
%!N +F0 %!N 5Le I:-
:Eubacteria dG jdG
P $0 +L>

1L>3 ^!6 d= 2!F `Y& 'BP
/B( ` 0 2( 0 5!/ ,w+6 <@( HF(
0 Cyanobacteria 2D+g 5BN >= Xd ,2 Ye> -c
2 Ye> -c A0 ,t} X=u V!>$!3 />d
,2!3> = /0 ,83d +ML( 3M >= ]=>-0
tp X=u 0g0 , %!T ,%0= /3
2 !T >=(
20g >=(
2CCq >= 2!3> = :(p) T
V!>$!3 :(}) T
: : !
Kingdom Protista
FdG e (2)
K /B(0 I:> 1C /) W ,<!0 <-3 #>N- ,1!3 2CC <38:
<>$(0 %! +M
: 0 3.' NTR ?D
-N7GM 6$
:Protozoa fGdG dhCG T
0 1"7 ?-0 ; 2I *+60 20 2(Y `( ?- ; 2N 10 2 /F <!
&0 ;w6 / P <! 0 <-3 X7M> /B(0 2L /B( ;<>
: 2: 2$0 I #8!I H(+ ) #3T-0 3M0 3M ]=>-
99
:Sarcodina
dG FW
6 />d ,Pseudopodia 2(c=

D6( .- 'F 2>D <"> 2M$!( V>t X=u Amoeba
:Ciliophora HdG FW
tv X=u Paramecium

! />d ,'F F- > Cilia J&6 2M$!( V>
(!>$
2BC> 1!F
Jg
2BC> 1!F
J&
1!
1!
1eS
!y :(v) T
2(c:
D
1: 1!
6 :() T
:Flagellata
U!$
WdG FW
!$! > />d ,Flagella U!$6 2M$!( V>

!3 w( KT-0 X7M>- > tzk X=u Trypanosoma
!$! n :(zk) T
:Sporozoa
FGKEG ee
w !& :4 ]<0
+L> 2$! 2 + [I3
2((c 2 [ I XC>3- >0
- 2C 6 1+C 23I0
X7I XC3(
!C- W , - NL JT ,!$! >
^T0 ge h0 (
G ' c)0 , Y/0 #B0
2(S />3- I$3 D!
<! &!> 2(!e(
eKG FW
,Spores ']F - +!I

G>3-0 ,2: 2$0 / f
P
, X7M> %Y Plasmodium
! "! />d
+ w( KT 0
s
:Euglenophyta LdG T
10 2 <38: &0 ,Euglena 3M! 2L `Y& 'B53 2(
!C-0 , 5B <>$( %!>-0 ,2N
U!$6( V>-0 ,8!B
23 2C(
1!
<>$(
5
U!$
3M! :(zk) T
100
:Chrysophyta gdG ddG T
%!> MM K +F( g>- >0 ,Diatoms <!- / [M 0 ,2N 10 /E
2 <!0 V$6 5Ye /
<!- X=L-0 tzz X=u= 1"
+T
P
%6
FGKEG ee
:Red tide <.>M D.
- 2I 1&9 6
<M0 + `
!( ` !>- W
(P !T Qc != 0 ,6
HM-0 V$6 .a h!73(
28/ 1" g 1&E `Y&
U!$6 283] IM "
3 ,tDinophlagellatesu
/( !>-0 ,2@ " ` RT`Y& ]=>-0 ,28Ye "!
"! 7-0 ,2&+ 2( <38=
V$6 <! ) %"- 2$
:Pyrrophyta jQdG ddG T
> 2-3 <8/ :

P 5P gM IM `Y& X=L/8!> I( P! I>=-0 , <M0 +( ?283] IM Xd- X 0+!= S IF( S
V>-0 ;2L `Y& 2!F : Dinophlagellates U!$6
tzs X=u I!$ 2M$!( &"
U!$6 283] II :(zs) T
<!- " :(zz) T
: : !
Kingdom Fungi
jdG e (3)
:2> 8TN( < M7 g>-
N /E0 ,2N 0 /B( ,1!3 2CC <38: < M7

>= /:- X 2 ! +M /0 ,2:>
Mycelium %M7 ge( P HF>- ,Hyphae <7/( .- U! !=>-
'> /B(0 ,X7M> /B(0 ,2 Ye> 2-c
']F >( 3M &]=- ) 2 *( 3M /E ]=>
101
: 3.' E0 4= s.K '<J@ r - <M, 6$
2E q
2!]~
!]M X
M7 ge
+0YM `
,2C 2 M7 U!N

X"
G>3']F0
gN 7 M :Xd !
%Y Rhizopus nigricans
,gN "!$6 7 I

N> ' g) K3 N> 0
F 23S
jdG b
LhGdG
Zygomycota
gl 7 M :(zj) T
Xd 2N 0 /B(

/B(0 ,1N M
2 M U! 0c N
&0 , 2* gM!( 2C
Z: X" ']F G>3
!3 M :/30 2!]M
"B G>3 %Y Penicillium
3( .0 %!
!3 M
jdG b
bdG
Ascomycota
1l M
2Dg < M7 2d :(zo) T
2D
2* gM!
h$
%M7 ge
!=>- = ,2C /I!

F!S I:- X" /]M
? M Xd t2Du X=L
Je
5Ye: K! A(
N>

jdG b
jjRdG
Basidiomycota
Je ? M :(zm) T
102
Kingdom Plantae
dG e (4)
X +!= 1" & %!>-0 ,2 !$ +F( g>- 1!3 2CC <38: & <-3
P 3M ]=> /E0 ,5BN <>$( .- I:: ) 'C- 2-3 2= #3T> 5 'E %
5BN0 ,230 ,5 IM XL-0 2D IM
< g XL-0 280 <-3 %
28! <-3 OA
:bGdG ddG -CG

AGdG ddG T
Rhodophyta:
.e( 2=$> U! !=>- 2 ( JL
< IM `Y& %!>-0 ,&
!7! II />d 5 S
tz} X=uPolysiphonia
!7! II :(z}) T
:Phaeophyta dG ddG T
f:!7 II :(zp) T
& N(0 27> 0 2M( U! !=>- 2 ( JL

Fucus f:!7 II />d 23( S <
tzp X=u
:Chlorophyta AGdG ddG T
Z!0= II Xd 2N 0 /B( 5B <>$( IM `Y& %!>Spirogyra M0$6 II Xd N A0 ,tz X=u Chlamydomonas
X=L 20g <>$( ` %!>-0 ,27> U! X= Y %Y tzv X=u
M0 II :(zv) T
103
Z!0= II :(z) T
:FYhdG JdG -
:Phylum Bryophyta jRGdG T
[M 0 ,5Ye 0 5 XC 2TTN> 280 2F %!>- > <-3 2L `Y& 'B!3 1: 2M+( 2(!I ) >- 2*+ <- &0 ,Nonvascular plants 280 <-3 /
! 5B 'F 1eS <- &0 2E :60 2I *+6( ?- / QY0 ,]=>0
,Riccia L < Xd ,w+6 RM$ RM3 /30 ,+0YM ` - d> < Xtsk X=u Funaria +!7 < Xd ,'8C /30
+!7 <
L <
2 g <- :(sk) T
:FYdG JdG -`L

:PhylumTracheophyta FYdG T
i60 5 XC3 2TTN> 280 2F %!>- > <-3 2L `Y& 'B/ [M '] 0 ,t5u 8!B 53 2 2!=> 2 !B "! XC0 ,tILNu
:#8!I ] ) 2L `Y& 'C-0 Vascular plants 28! <-3
:Ferns
<3 2L + 2D+0 :(sz) T

M!7
NdG FW z
0 K F /3 XC0 2L /E I:> 2M( <-

+( +M d=-0 ,2E0 2I [I3 ?-0 ,+F
DP +0 X- : ,+0YM0 h+00 C$ / 2E 2I "!0
0 +&
!=- ,2L +
M!- > ']F( ]=>-0 ,+0Y(
P
P
M!7 < />d 0 ,/D+06 7 RM KS I:tsz X=u
: : !
:Gymnospermae or Conifers
(!3T < :(ss) T
WhG hCG QhdG IGe FW
F +N X-0 ,+&

!=- ,<F /3 XC0 +F /E
P
2 () 2M( h+00 %] . / f +0Y( /0 , 2d F +N0 1:Y
tss X=u Pinus (!3T < />d 0 ,X=L
104
:Angiospermae or Flowring plants
2 &g <-3 0 +0Y 1Me 278I s
!>- +&
!=- ,+0YM0 h+00 C$ / ;2*+ <-
P
) <-3 `Y& #3T-0 tsj X=u ;/" +0Y %!- +] )
>C7 <0c ,Monocotyledons 1! 2C7 <0c :>!F
Dicotyledons
t!lu %& < 1] :(sj) T
: : !
>8 >!F ( < > ) XS!> Q- > 0F

N>$
2 &g <-3
:>C7 <0c <-30 1! 2C7 <0c <-3 273T> <7T :^qa BDA
+YF
h
+&6
h+06
+0Y
1! 2C7 <0c
Monocotyledons
>C7 <0c
Dicotyledons
Dicotyledons
>C7 <0c
Monocotyledons
1! 2C7 <0c
1+Y( >C M!-

1+Y( 10 2C M!-
= h- <c /D+0
%!> h- <c h+06
/-7B0 2$ 0 2(+ F X: 2 &g 5gM6
/-7B 0 ] F X: 2 &g 5gM6
2C 2- h( 28! 2F6
g
h( 1d 28! 2F6
g
2 -0 &+0YM
27 &+0YM
C- "+! MC !7 2 : />d ! +T XT 1+Y RC />d
&0
&0 [g0 XN3
Kingdom Animalia
GdG e (5)
/ = XC3>0 2: 1+C / ; N 1 1!3 2CC 2 <38:

3M ]=> /E0 ,2M 2@( 2M+N <] 2 2(F>$ 1+C
Wd XT7 XT7>( 2= `Y& 03- '>$
. : !
105
GdG e
Kingdom Animalia
C- 2M+ P - I 2- ) ! 2= 5 #3T

'] 0 ,%C "! %!>- IL `Y& A( 'F 23(
/M %!> A0 ,Invertebrates < +C Vertebrates < +C -0 ,%C "!
SEG hCG edG T
:

! "#$ +$, &' ( ) *
28 IL 1g{ <7T "
<!
2={ >3- > 2q <38= 2d :Y-
!q
5!* | 2q <38= A( #3T-
W q #3T>
2E { 1+0 ! () ` !=-
%!q ^!3>
2q <38= [ | [l 2E +C-
2!3>{
Phylum Porifera or Sponges:

2:> I:> 2M( 28 <! & :<F37$
+!NT 2>d ?+ /E ? 0
/3 XD "0 , <M0
2(Y ` ?
!=- C 'F = ^!3>-
X=L 2 +0+D 0 2(!
+M K0 .!F 'F
J!Cd d= %!
# !F- R>7 0 ,<( <F37$ .- QY0 ,<!3C0
2/ !7 - 2 ! 1: 2>7( +N 'F
G37$ ! :(so) T
X]> 2 /M0 ; <> 0 %" M!-
`````dG
Porifera
Cnidaria
Platyhelminthes
Nematoda
Annelida
Arthropoda
Mollusca
Echinodermata
Chordata
<{
<$
2M7{
2!M$
2Cq
<T7{
< !
<:! ~
<q
/: 0 , .6 0 <= !L X=/( ' 'F +M

'>( 3M 0 , L6( 3M ]=>- 3 /E
"F>0
tso X=u G37$ ! />d
106
, 2 Ye> 2-c 0 , N 1" > /!= 2:> / '+ <!: <F37$ #3T-
2TTN>
N XC 'B-0
, 2 ! +M / f0
:Phylum Cnidaria SdG T
<> 0 %" ?-0 ; %( /E ; 28 <!

80g( U '7 0 ,% 8! # !F> # !F- %!> 'F0 Z+ / M!
Tentacles f!
- <">0
^ Cnidocytes 2$ /3 2M+N %!- ,>F >CI 'E>3- 'F
`Y& " ""g 0 ,tsm X=u f87 "MS0 f73
f! N
2$ 2
F
<= !
2
2 !
f!
+ !
f87 "MS | 2$ l

N>$ :(sm) T
> ,2 Y>e " 6 &0 <! 06 ," 6 I /E <$ 1 1+0" 53]
2!@ " 6 &0 <0 d0 ,3F ]=> 1 #890 HF(
!C ts} X=u 2:> !=- P > ,3F ]=>
f!
{ 8! # !F>
f!
I!(
0
<$ 1 1+0" | %0{ +!M0 ! +!M :(s}) T
107
2 0 " 6 /- "! /B(0 , 2! " 6 %!$ /- /E <$ A(
3] ( HF /B(0
:#8!I 2]] ) <$ 2 'C-
:Hydrozoa
GQdG FW
/3 XC0 , <> ? %( /E0 ,<! /- 1+0" Ie <!
tsp X=u +/ ! Xd JY 5( ? 0 "7
:Scyphozoa fdG FW
,<M0 +( ?- 2 ( <! &0 ,0 +!I /- 1> 'E BC- <!
ts X=u X 3D ! />d 0
:Anthozoa jgdG fGG FW
/>d 0 2 ( /M0 2-3 +&6 KL- /M0 , 2 0 +!I / M! <!
2M IL != M0 ,tsv X=u 3 [8C
3 [C :(sv) T
X 3D :(s) T
+ :(sp) T
<! 20 2=L W( 'D ,2M JL <! g
:Phylum Platyhelminthes dG GjdG T
< >3>$ 00 , `Y& ,2M7 2!F tjk X=Lu ( /E
/3( 2:>L
?2M7 ( `Y& - c
2M 1"0"
$+/ 1"0"
+ 1"0"
2M7{ 27> ^! :(jk) T
108
:(u v7$F2 Flatworms (CM,. D D .

Z+ /0 ,2M7
M <c "
M X]- <c0 <CI ] 2!= /M
2L /3 XC0 , 38: 7I /E
f3F XT73 /3 XC0 3 />
:67I oGJ (#NQ V&' =5
:Turbellaria
jQHdG FW
1"0" />d 0 ,2D <>>3$ /!I0 ;JY 5( /E ? , 2L 1 "
+
:Trematoda
GOJdG FW
" />d 0 , 1M *

I-0 ,<! `0 27M> "
P
$+/
:Cestoda GOdG FW
7P *0 0 2 ! <(M* I-0 ,<!0 5 X" 27M> ?- "
2M L />d 0 ,+> 1 K!I XT D0 ,X=L M 'F0 ,Pg&0
:Phylum Nematoda fGSCG GjdG T
:2- 8TN( ,Roundworms 2!M$6 0 2MN g> D ) %/F /F i0>-0 ,HMC 'C 0 M I( !M$ 'F
> K!I
M X]- <c0 <CI ] 2!= /M
L0 '7 :>> <c 2B& 13D /
f3F 10
/B(0 , M 0 5( 2L /B( ;<@ HF( ?-
<30 !0 X7M>
Z+=$ 1"0" :(jz) T
109
+7 "0 ,tjz X=u Z+=$ " />d
FGKEG ee
" - ,2MN ^! w Y& I :Elephantiasis X7 5"
`Y& ?-0 $a 1+D 28!>$ [I3 $$

P 1"!M! , +7
,2" <L [ I w Y& XC>3 0 2 070 2 ! 206
+7 " 17 " w>- D ,1 L 2(S < 0 w! 2 SN(
,28& 1+!T( 2(T 'F 5gM 7> I-0 ,2 07 206 X" X8! +0
X(C X=L( R*0 !& :
:Phylum Annelida dG GjdG T
X-0 ,2(> X" h7 ?- > w+6 "

Segmented 2C 28 2d Xd- ,/>(!T 1" 0 /> !/:2- 8TN( 2!F `Y& g>-0 ,Worms
w+6 1"0" :(js) T
, 23M 2(> 0 2(Y ` 0 + `( 2L 1 /E

M+ X7M> /3 XC0
SJh HG
%) X=L( 2*! 1"0 XdM [( -0 ,2C
N>$ Leeches
0 > 2=
2M I>=
W 2>=(
`Y/ 2M 2&6

2! V! /3 d=(0 , <C ) 2C /M

2: &- F(
3 /3 XC0 f3F 10 /B(
: !
!:
LQCG e T
Phylum Arthropoda:
:(u v7$F2 (#NQ V&' .
1 X- XC " ) 'C 'F
1 /3 X: !=> > 80g 0
2: 2T7 HMD
/Me [I3 1 ) XC 'F 'C3
M+ X=&
I
%y~
< C 278I 2d :(jj) T
:#8!I H(+ 2L `Y& 'B:Crustacea jdG FW
80g / ; 23>: 1LC( 'F Me 0 ,tM0 +T$u >CM3 'F !=>
110
,
,
,
! "#$ %& '
!( )

*+-- .#/ 012 +3%#
/ &
I1 )5
:6!78
:Arachnida
B#

H;

B#
I !78 :(-J) T
%9(18
/ ;M =5
#3
;'?)
.@%8 A08 %8 6
,+ M

,#
B
8 6
B(;

C@D ,5
E9F ;M= 6G

H%;
I
6!78 ,!(
*+-J .#/
:Insecta
FGKEG ee

M

# ) ,E9F 19 M=

#
'
!( )
B19
9 )

. `; aF ,=5!
)=5 E%K #
b .)
9 ! 3 , =5
! cU@ U;
19
*QRD ePf B19
gVh .# F=
[

Z
dG FW
GG FW
A0 6
; M %9K C8% '
L =; =5

M)

A0 , %?12 N 9F
@0 , '?)!
.@%D A08 OPO 6
;
.)
QR8 S 'G ) IT 9N '
; &@D
,'
U)
HV
'G ) 6 A0 IT3 8
W
HV
6!78 ,6
B(;

*5
B
.&
.)
K(

*+-X .#/
.=
.&R

UY V

B\] I !78 :(-X) T
:Myriapoda
LQCG IOe FW
939
6
, .;^
9 '
L =; QV@ C8% #3 =5

*+-_ .#/ JJ `8 6!78 , 6
B(;
,.@%D
JJ `8 :(-_) T
111
:Phylum Mollusca jNdG T
:( v7$F2 (#NQ V&' .

w+6 /3 XC0 ,JY 5( /B(0 ,R 5( /E ?

C 2:
N> B 5gM K0 ,HMC 'C ,!+ 'F
1* 0 28 !=- D0 ,2" 0 ,2M+ !=- D 2: .S %!>-
A Ie D0 tZ 5B X u
0 "!M! Z
, <>7 0 7 , 3$6 P !7S X , KL !B < ! 'E M!
2 Ye>
N> 0
3 /3 XC0 f3F 10 /
: /& #8!I 1 ) < ! #3T:Gastropoda edG FW
20g 2 S / / ,/M - 1"!M!

C "> [g3- > < ! &
2( ? A0 ,'N( f73> 0 5( ? /3 A0 ,10 2MD !=>HD!C :/>d ,2M( 28+ 2M$!( f73> 0
Bivalvia YGG GP FW
28 278M `Y& <38: HM0 ,T7> T !=>- 2 S < ! `Y& Q>-0

R(0
,+ :/>d ,'N( f73>-0
Cephalopoda eSCGdG FW
U!M6 />d ,'F D( P( Z( M!- f! 1 )

C 5gM / +!>
+ 0
U!M6
+{
2D!D
< ! 2 2d :(jp) T
112
:Phylum Echinodermata dG cT T
:( v7$F2 (#NQ V&' .

'F +F( 2: R87S0 V! /3 0 ; IS " X=& K0 ; HMD ) 'C 'F
2(!6
D6
2/ <:- "!M!( g >-
- <T(
^+c /3 A != D0 ; X=L F 0 !M$ 0 >
!= D 'F
P
^+c6 0 V!6 0 2(!6
D6 2M$!( V>-
L6( 3M0 ; "F>( 3M ]=>-0 ; f3F 10
'7 K HC %Y IF , M <c F <:! 'E
M\ , 7 0 .I / f
IF X(C IF0 , 7 RM

: /& #8!I 1 ) F <:! #3T:Asteroidea
dG FW
'F Xd ,%g: _D

E >- d: 0 ^+c f <c <!
Sea Star
:Echinoidea dG ab FW
2 +C3 1" 3$ f / ,V>0

2 ,V!\( 1Me /M ,^+c / f <!
Sea Urchin Y73D Xd ,

M B0 >7> X=L
:Holothuroidea
dG jQN FW
+ Xd g>N /=&0 ,^+c / M!- 0 ,23 2 !I

M <c <!
Sea Cucumber
+
Y73D
~ <:! 2 2d :(j) T
113
'F
:J g
<C i - 5,

< d0 +!M Xd ,< +C7 A(
d: /M 1+ 2M+" e>-
QY ;2@ 1+ 2M+" e- H
1+ 2" <! / [M
+
<0c 0 Endotherms
5Ye 2DI
N>- <! `Y&
2>(] /M 1+ 2M+" >
#0g0 <80 V$6
2M+" 1e> <! >
2M+" 'E3- HM>- > % ;1+
2@ P - e>- / ,/M 1+
,/3 /-+ >-0 ,/( 2M
<! 2!F `Y& -0
<0c 0 Ectotherms 1+ 2M+
"+

:Phylum Chordata dG T
g>-0 ; 2! 2= <! D+ 2L `Y& 'B2 /E />/F( =& I:- "!M!( 2L `Y& <! 23M
) !> 0 ,! 1 2I C D %/E X
1 2L `Y& #3T-0 < 'E %C "!
< +C7 2 /&0 ,tI -u <
:Sub-phylum Vertebrata jQdG T
H0233F 2 < +C7 % %/E X /E

Vertebral %C7 "!( %/E K > 3F !
Spinal cord :!L X 0 F %Y column
!=> 0 , " X=& "!M0 B
P < +C7 V>L) 2 *( ,.I60 2g60 2FF0 %C7 "!
2 ! 206 X" %F
"0 , <F ID "!M0
"!0 F:6( 'F 5B HM %Ye 2Ce 1+0"
28Ye
:67I ?D
- 5, 6$
:Agnatha
"0g0 , HC KL %8" ' / ; V!= 0( V$

3$6 (
# / M!- 0 ; Q ] KL H + 'M /
0B /=&0 ;2M0
y :(jv) T
;1= V$6( / [ I [T>- <7I &

V$6 `Y& ' ?/3-0 ,3$6( /7 d- W
" KL %Y LN /(
tjv X=u lampreys % V$ />d
:Chondrichthyes
0B /=& ;2 ( V$

Z> &- 3$6 .!7S 1 =7( "0g0 ,HD! 3M( '7
3$6 KL- +!LC( Me 'F0 ;2M0 # /
114
,!L 5Me( 1Me 2!LN /-> ,!7M 28!& <d /M X( M!-
" RC>0 ,2T73 Z3M60
tok X=u %0 C Q$ />d
2=$
C 2=$
2 0e V$6 278I 2d :(ok) T
:Osteichthyes
2(Y 0 2 ` ?- V$

M!-0 ; 2M00 2 " #g( "0g 'F0 ;'F 2C( HC / 0 ;E /=&
!7M0
! 1 28!& 2d 'F X"
!L 5Me( 1Me 2!LN /-> ; 2E +!LC( Me /M
M+ RC>0 2T73 Z3M6
toz X=u %+!0 , M />d
M 2=$
+! 2=$
2E V$6 278I 2d :(oz) T
FGKEG ee
JC( MC- 3: c) :^"7B [C
$ Q ,2+ !C
<!T Y& +T ^"7B [C
0g> '$! ^"7B +!:c
2
- JYM ./(
+S :Y => 0 0g>
P :- K:> E
P <!T Y&
Ie 0 ,<!T f: S
I:> Y&
115
:Amphibia
"+
<0c <!
% II+ M / ;H(S6 2$ ,.I6 2(+
+!I6 ,5( /B( HB- ;M+ RC>0 ,XT73 f3F
?- 2 +!I6 ,'N( f73>-0 5 ?- 233F
F0 <8( %!F 5!/ f73>-0 2((
tos X=u +30 ,27B />d
27B
+3
<8y 278I 27> ^! :(os) T
:Reptilia
"+
<0c <!
2$ 27* / I0 ,.I6 2(+ &0 ;X c ,^YM ,[3 ,Z+ : [I3 H(+ 'F !=>
#g( V>> .I6
3- D0 ; D IN( HS X: />3 0 ,H(S6
2D R87S ) 6 A( 2 *( ;2=$ 2D # KMe-0 .M F
>8( %!F 5!/ f73>-
2 M 0 2: 1LD c B(
P HB-0 ," RC>0 ,2T73 Z3M6
toj X=u i>0 ,d0 ,170 ,_0 ,5(0 ,2 />d
ir
2$
#0g 278I 27> ^! :(oj) T
5(
: : !
:Aves
+
<0c <!
,M N> 3F +!> /3 6 ,.I 2(+ /0 ;? ( 1Me
M6
0 [> 0 w+6 2:
N>-0 ,2D IN( 1"0g H(S 2(+ /3 X= 7N0
Z> 0
!
V- > 2 !C 2 +T 2B C 2E0 ,! 277 2 !F
E
M 53] 23M6
53] 5!/ 2 *) <= N: >- 28!& Z: %!>- /M0 ,<8( f73>M
116
K D- B(

P HB-0 ," RC>0 2T73 Z3M6
too X=u
30 , T0 , +!30 ,+!CT0 ,F0 , M0 ,
/>d
2
CS
+!7T
+!M 278I 27> ^! :(oo) T
:Mammalia
+
<0c <!
L( Me F0 ,M(0 +S0 [30 Z+ /M !=>-
.7 0 ! 0 IN 0 9\( 1"0g H(S6 2$ .I 2(+ /
/E0 ," RC>0 ,2T73 Z3M60 ,tZ0* J HI!Du 23 > 3$\( g>-
&+eS /3 H*- P3 7- 5] /]0 ,1"!0
<8( f73>-
:t#8!I -u <7@ !I ] < d 278I #3T-
G jdG jW
Eutheria (G)
dG jdG jW
Metatheria
dhCG jdG jW
Prototheria
, !=> 2>= +eS

P
+eS
- ,2L < ] /M X7$\( _ f: X"
6 /E7P
P3 &+eS
6 H*- ,!3 2>= %Ye>- W ,&! X>= > M
/8] 1"!M! 5]6 2*(
f= Y& X" M X7$
B(
P HB- /3=0 ,- < ]
+eT H*-
60 ;K D-0
"e M X %Y
/3 N HF 2> /0 ;2 d
A0 0 !
2CC < d XL /$+ -\ ,<!
X3 X:au X3 Y73D />d

tF +C3u 5 0 ,t:!L
t0+F=u e3= ! />d
0+F= :(o}) T
117
5{ :(om) T
:2- I- /3 ,I-+ 1 2CC < d 27@ !I #3T-

2d
^+{
Y73C
! +q
2-
A0 3$6 ' /B( 3$6 2

FC 26 23$ C
= ^+
Edentata
2 !> 2 !D IN /
73C
3
8TN
/3$ >-0 ,<L %Ye>- <L 2:a

UC X= =7 26
Insectivora
2 7 AC
3 $6
Z0B0 ,2( 2 !I J /
Id I8Y
23I 2B 27N0 1" 26
FC I=
2 !> 1" 2 !D IN /
H$
! 2:a
Carnivora
IL 2:a <!

<!
XN t2]] 0 0u %" " /
2
2L! ;D /3 X= ,H(S6
H(S6 2 "
M 27=> 'F 1: /3$0
-N

M
Perissodactyla
<!
g
36
IL 2:a <!
2
ge 2 +g
#e 0 H(S6 M0 " /

H(S6 2M0
D /3 HS) X:
X(
Artiodactyla
2 +g
7 <!
<!q
?- 2N* 28 <!

<M0 +
) +!> 6 M
.I6 -0
! # "F
27N
>8( %!F 5!/ f73>H*-0 -0 ,2T73 Z3M6
&+eS
2C X Y 20
<-! 2-+
Cetacea
118
c~
^!( +\7
cF
JF3
I+6
Q7 X: HI!C 0 /
7 Q70 %!
X6 KL- 1" HI!C
1eS c60 X !I X Y
Q7 HI!C M0 /
7 Q7 0 00 %!
2 !I c60 TD X Y
w+!C
Rodentia
<+6
Lagomorpha
I+6
7N
7l
6
;23M6 1+!> 26 / I

d H(S M>$ W
) 'F F >0 , fN
H(S6 `Y& (
X 53] $$
P FL3-
X !I B
!I /
. !=> > ! >3 !3-
X7 (3(
Chiroptera
<!
2!IN
Proboscidea
X7
"C
<7N
+! "C M0 / ,< d D+
/(0 ,H(S6 2$ .I6

+!e
H(S6 D( (
%gL +!M> T /F0 :
Z33
2D ^!6
<8
Primates
- : : !
119
HTM (C -7@ v7$K E2 1./ 3L e> ,<@ 6$ 1jFi -7@ ZN2 c'
h-L <# ,-D <, ,-I<, -7@ V&' (`0 E0 ,(C <w
Viruses
ShdG
560 2 <38= ( XS! 2C Xd- <$07

/( M! 0 ,2 ! I:- % Q>- / ,2
,1> 1+!S /E-0 ,1! 0 %! 5L 0
(!>$
27B 2N + 2 ! 2 %\(
C HM>- 0
RNA 0 DNA %0!3 A %!>- / Qc H0
27B 2N X" /73( ]=>-0 #B>- HM>-0
M+ .
(:
RNA %0! Ax
g!76 Z0 I:- :(op) T
I= 5"
f( Z0
.0 RNA 0 DNA %0! A Z07 I:>

top X=u Capsid (:
3-0(
0 ,t>! jkksku M 'F 1eS <$07
0>= /F ) /> + =
F /3 ,to X=u /= <$07 >-
/30 ,KM06 1">0 ,%0=0 !0 BC:
M C
Z07
>= 'D
Z0
2Tq
Q !{ hM
<$07 2!3> = :(o) T
X" ) ]=>- W ,X7M> 2 +M) <$07

N + ,tX8u 8= 27B N
]=> /-+D C7> 27B
2 <38: Z0 X= ,2TTN> <38: <$07

/3= <3 'M/- > <$07 ,/M/ <38= `Y& X" 1" 0 X( ,23
IT- /3= = IT- > <$070 ,! 0 2M/
Viroids
GjhdG
2I !=>- / ,<$07 I:> 2I( d: t(\<.0 +0

u 2 <D!N
3-0 5Me /3 Ie 0 tx0 u 2M0"g 1+!S RNA %0!3 A 1TD 2C
<$07 (=( .00 %0!3 A( F
120
H3T /( A 6 KM!- W KM/- %Y 8= 2(T 2N 1! X" ) < 07 X-0
2ge <+ w Xd <-3 w6 < 07 I-0 ,1 M < 0
, 2M +L> 2$0 < 07 !=- D0 &0 +N +] >/( w0 , fIM
0 K3 #L= HM> ' &M!- t<$07 Xdu X8 X-0 - /!= =0
> 2 e 2@* < 07 +L> 27: 1 !> <! , :Y( M !&
Prions
fjdG
0 , FC -0 I:>- / , < 07 P :- F( 2 <D!N <!
+L> 1+C / Qc ' 0 , 2 0!3 w6 2]+0 1" 2 %!>) !- W %g: T &/M *
P / I-0 , /( 2(T <38= 2F
JT 8= <! ) %" , (e Xd J!Cd( 2@ 2F37$) 2>:
C !3F( .0 w( />(S) I-0 ,
360 ! <! ( 2(S L>3-0
C !3M w w H /* K(L>- T *( IT- <! :
03- c) ) <5# A w <! ( C> 2=) 2d (6 >] D0
0 X>$ c) > 0 f$!0 M+!/ Xd 2(T +C(6
! <F>3
> d '0 2(T +C(6 2TN> 2! <F>3 A( /:- X > 2 0"6
w 2B 1> !I ) Y& HM D0 , <! `Y& C>
121
dGh LddGh dG
:dG FdG J a jdG dG
DNA X <3C- %)
<38= #3T- X806 5 <$+" <>

.>0 K(L> KM0 > 2=L <+C 2
<@ Y3u Qc ( 5 KF- D0 27>N <38= (
<M+" - Z$ <38= #3T- ) t3
t2 +!M> <Du /3( 2(C0 2T
- Z$ +C R L> ' F '/](
I:> </(L> ) 2 *( , 2 L> </(L>
2=/ I:> </(L> +> <Y W ,2M
B
P 33F +!M> 2$+" ) 2 *( , 2I I:>: "e0
+!M>( QY:0 , 0>= J!=$0= ^>( %/F 7 <3C- +!M>(0

6 `Y& 0
- / "> = 1 M f$\( 5 2 <" 2 <M+( 8:! X> <3CZ3M ( </(L> 2$+ 2d 2 <$+ <> D0 <38= ( 2(C0 2T <M+"
2 0 23C> 1!3( "!M! DNA %0!3 A( 2SN 2 (6 <38=
A 0"g F L <>:!3 H(>-0 I-- - / '> >0 , DNA A <(>>(
d: <38= : DNA F L( <>:!3 I-- K(L> " : K ) 5 XS!- D0 DNA
2(D0 2S
:AMG Y a jM acG
X 3D
<N>$ d: : X "3D0 <F37$ 2S
!& 2P ] t X "3D 2SN(u <$0

<F37$
XS!- C 2800 28= <3T /N>$
1 M <: .L>: ) !d
2 ! <" B: 10
XS!-0 <F37$ ^! A( I <"B0
2
! 2>
2I <N>$ ) B
P !d
0 /8 _3>D X "3D A( /N> > XL
'
d
K ) ,dP 2 ! 23C> ^!3 Y&
1 M 2 0" !M- (6 `Y& G>3 X> ,2 e
122
SSCG dG
2 <38= 73T>
/ %!> :Kingdom (@..
#8!I 2!F !=> 0 2= <!F : Xd 73T- %!> :Phylum (#NQ
"P G>3-0 /3( 0g>-0 ,2/(L> 2M!! +! <7S / " 6 K!F :Species t
t2C u 2T !=-0 //L
N> "!C- 0 2- .S06 2$ :Dichotomous key 7` ,$ y,.

! 8: ^! # >
0 ! %!N &+M !N 0 ,1!3 20 2N 10 <38: :Monera -7D#
28Le 2(!> =
2 ! +M K /3 A ; I:> 1C ; 1!3 2CC <38: :Protista -N7GM
N /3 XC0 ,2N 0 /E0 ,<>$(0
2M+( 2(!I ) >-0 ,280 2F %!>- 2*+ <- :Bryophyta - dC
]=>0 !3 1:
2I [I3 ?-0 ,280 2F %!>- I:> 2M( <- :Ferns -=K<=
']F( ]=>-0 ,2E0
%! X]> ' 'M / ,I:> 2M( 28 <! :Porifera or Sponges -0=.
<!3C0 J!Cd d=
2$ N( 1"0g0 X]- <c /M 28 <! :Cnidaria -NIG
1 X- XC " ) 2C /M <! 2!F :Arthropoda -$,.
2: 2T7 HMD 1 /3 X: !=> > 80g 0
,f %M G3( Me !+ 'F( g>- <! 2!F :Mollusca - K<
2" 0 2M+ !=- D ,2 2: 2 S 7
;IS " X=& 0c 'F( g>- <! 2!F :Echinodermata D/ -;T
'F +F( 2: R87S0 V! /3 0
2 /E />/F( =& I:- "!M!( />3M g>- <! 2!F :Chordata -#C
%/E X
2 "!0 K <38= 8T ( /T8T HF- <38: :Viruses -I<,
123
dG FdG J e
2d
2-+
278I -
278I
!
<(/
!$! >
<I!
! "!
<!]F
<!-
U!$6 283] IM
gN 7 M
!3 M ,1N M
Je ? M
!7! II
f:!7 II
5BN IM
Z!0= II

M0$ II
M!7
<
(!3T
+0Y 1
t< (!3Tu
2C7 <0c
1!
>C7 <0c
<3
< g
+!7 ,L
<8!
+0Y 1Me
t2 &g <-3u
<
G37$
+/
<+/
X 3D
<F37
<$
+(>
$+/
"!- >
2M L 1"0
"!>
2M7
!
2 &g <!
+
1"0" ,Z+=$ 1"0"

+7
< M7
<3M!
2&Y IM
2 +3 IM
< M7
2M0g>
2Dg < M7
2 < M7
5 IM
23 IM
3M!
M ,3 [8C
2! <06
<8M
<
2=
<8
6
MC ,2 ,!7
2
2 C >=
2CC >=
1 ^! ,V!>$!3
>=
,+T ,XT ,RC

1+Y
2 -

2!M$6
124
2d
2-+
278I -
278I
2 -
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< LC
,w! ,J(Y
,X3 ,+!ST
"F ,<7
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<=3
XM+6 1">
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<C3M
R( ,+
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+ ,U!M6
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!F
Y73D
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+
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<:!
F
2= V$6
2 0Be V$6
2E V$6
<8
!
#0g
+!M
20 < ]
2: < ]
3$6 2
<L 2:a
< +C7
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2 <!
H(S6 2 "
2 <!
H(S6 2M0
<-!
2CC < ]
70 ,<!
,F ,^!( ,+\7
w+!C
JF3
I+6
<+6
7N
<7N
X7 2!IN <!
, +!e ,"C
,Z33 ,%gL
<8

125
<T7
XM+6
<L
oo

,2 +g ,g ,
36
X( ,ge
2=
2C
M [ ,w+6 1"0"
%
% 2=$ ,C 2=$
%+! ,M
+3 ,27B
,2 ,d ,5(
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CT ,
,
3
X3 X:a ,5
:!L
0F=
= ,^+
Y73C
,I8Y ,3 ,$6
H$ ,FC ,I=
, ,XN
-N ,2L!
2
< d
<
LddG QdG
Biological Evolution
Y/ ?&3- %6 27>N <@ 0 Q>@( ?- > 2 <38= ) E3- 3
B
P > K3=0 ,2=L 8TN FC T>C ^!3> Y&0 27>N /! X8/ ^!3>
+!/9 27: W( 5 XeL C ?K>& 0 ^!3> Y& J$ I:> )
+!/9 2E - IT :0 , 23$ + o} XD 2*+6 1= 5!L 3 w+6 1
& : <+S > w+6 56 /( < > X0 1
RT> %6 2 <38= X: <7S e-0 1 M 2 <38: +!/90 2 <38: 57> )
J Y& .> .!$0 ,M!! +!M> 0 X" 2@ <e> H 7P =- d:
`7- > <0 K]0 '- > &!L0 M!! +!M>
!/7
< !
2
0 2
g
=L

!
W( 'D ,

<
M!! +!M> ^!*!

:J Y& %!TC 1"7>$ Q [C> =
<!{ +"T H$!>0 W0 2 E30 2 2$+ ( Q>D0 'E
Q- ' Xd6 X / ,2 Q>$+" G8> _( XF$

| ]+! g- 7q y3 0 "+& U0 i2~
_ g 2q <38= | ^!3> 1" #: i/8C(
wC 1eT <!F{ w- J$ :Y2q <38= | +!M> 2" A( w2q <38= ^! A( ( 2 +!M> <D R*!
M0"=
N>$(
<38= +!M-0 w+6 1q 1\L | [l 2E +C2q
:

! "#$ %# &' ( ) *
w+6 1q 1\L < E iM!! +!M>( "!TC{ "
^! 5!L | g0 M JN> +0" R*!1 M
| f 3>0 17M0 ]+! .F X: +0" R*!+!M>
3T JN>0 M JN> ( +C| "!M!{ #=>0 ^!3> 3 +!M> R*!2q <38=
&+!
<38= 1\L
:
gQJ dBGh dG FdG ICf

Origin of living organisms and
mechanisms of their evolution
%Y ! I:!= w+6 I:!: > 3>D0 >
<38= 1 ^! K ?-0 ,1 X! X: K !>
V3&0 , .0 1 XS 3>D0 >0 ,2
<!= !& 06 `F- , 1 XS - &F-
,5B7 w+6 ) S0 1 /3 <\L > 2 !B
5 C> 0 , w+6 <\L 1 ) L `F-0
'] , >= & w+6 RM$ +!/9
2 <38= 0
P
<38= a > 0 , %6 2 <38= +!/9 !w+6 RM$ +!/9
P
> 2"6 ?<+!M- #: ?w+6 1 <\L #:
?+!M> 0 d-
:

! "#$ +$, &' ( ) *
w+6 1q 1\L < E i-
+!M>( "!TC{ "
| g0 M JN> +0" R*!-
1 M ^! 5!L
JN>0 M JN> ( +C-
3T
]+! .F X: +0" R*!-
+!M> | f 3>0 17M0
#=>0 ^!3> 3 +!M> R*!-
2q <38= | "!M!{
7q y3 0 %"+& U0 i-
2~ | ]+! g-
2q <38= | ^!3> 1" #: i-
/8C( _ g
1eT <!F{ w- J$ :Y-
wC
IdG ICf jf
Life origin theories
0 = X: >
5 K W %Y XE$
RM$ 2 <38= <\L #: ,1 XS X:

w+6 1 XS 7> <0 1 Y( C0 ?w+6
: /3
:Special creation theory
UdG dG jf
RM$ 27>N 2 <38= X: 2 E3 `Y& w>7' 2 <38= `Y& 0 ,2 /-+!S C w+6
> e- % / >
`````dG
Evolutionary tree
Natural selection
Artificial selection
Mutation
Genetic equilibrium
Genetic drift
Variation
Adaptation
Isolation
Extinction
+!M> 1F
M JN>
3T JN>
17M
]+! g-
]+! .F
t >u ^!3>
#=>
g
wC
?2 E3 `Y& Q +
128
:Spontaneous generation theory JGdG ddG jf

Xd 2 1" % %!7 X=L(0 ,1\F \L3- = 2 <38= 2 E3 `Y& w>7+YC ?C \L3- @7 \( IN "C>
? c ? 2 E3 `Y& - X&
Id fdG UCG jf
The theory of universal origin of life:
M6 >= Xd ']M X= w+6 ) S0 1 2 E3 `Y& w>7 5B7 P0 <( 1 `3 Y&0 V3 Xd , %6 2 0
? 2 E3 `Y& Q +
:The theory of earth origin of life
Id VQCG UCG jf
A( ( 28: <7- 0 2F> w+6 <\L 1 2 E3 `Y& JS %
: 0 ,!6 ,5 ,M0+/ ,d Xd>-0 w+6 1L>3 : > "!
1C0 M 2@M( <7> `Y& :0 ,!(=
M0+/0 tCH4u d X !-
zvmj
Urey & Miller 0 %+! =- D0
53( <0 &0 23 w ) tCOu !(= : 00 tH2Ou 50 tNH3u !60 tH2u
/ CX(! 1g8M 3 D0 2 !I <>7 2 !D 2(/: <3 "!M0 -0
P
? 2 <38= 1\L $0 1 XS #L= < E3 `Y& F X&
? =7> JD0 2$3 &- > 2 E3

?_N [N 2 E Qc 3- : 2 /-+!T( <\L 2 <38= X&
? e- /(
:Evolution
dG FdG QJ
g 2 !I 1> 2 <38= <7S - 2M+>0 2@M( e- 2 :M
:( z#.
D.N A# M ?<@ M ( < D g. <e> j

) %" 3 % JC60 236 +0( /:56 1 M ^! 1\L I>- 1: < >
,0 D0 /: /E- '0 ,e> 2 <38= ^! " o
K & S > <+!M-0 ,G +>( </9 X(
2 /=
1=7( :Aristotle !M$+

) F F +> !>
C
Mechanisms of evolution
LddG QdG dCG
:Natural Selection dG fG z
t
zs zkvu Charles Darwin 0+" g+L- M '
D
f 1 <>$0 ,
zjz
' ! 1/L K>(
2 <38= ( :
P P !3- +gF A( `+0 0 ,<!3$
Z!M(F +gM &+ > +!M 2S 27>N
0+" :(z) T
W R*0 .>0 ^!3- / +!M `Y& 0+"

X: #=- ) HM +!M D3 .> 0+" 0 &D3 =
M JN> X7( <+!M- D D3 0 5Ye 2I H ^!
-|} -G;{
#$ -G;{
c~Q0 6I
%#} -G;{
. 5Ye ^! H #=> 27> = <c T D3 :(s) T
130
:dG fG J
HM>- > 27B <38= Q/> ,537 X! /! .> 2 <38= w>> 2 !C <38= C-0 ,/-7S W +!> F 27B <38= <!(0 2@ .09 KM!-
, / ) <7T `Y& +!-0 Qc &- <7S K=- ( 2@ .09 '8- HM>X 0 , 2 C ^!6 1 M ^! 5!L ) Qc %" 0 2 !C <7T HF>- g +0 H0
%!D6( 0g> ) d60 :Y X W M JN> 0 1" 3F JN>
! X
27B <7T
3-0 ,G-3 X3 1F <7T +!>- QY(0 RS60
27* " \( 0g>
. : !
:Artificial Selection YdG fG
> g 7 +C( 2$ :(j) T

3T JN>
JM J
F/>( 2 (
!C
( HF ./( 27>N <$
2$ P < <g
2$ 1\L QY( X ,10
+!M- 0 '&- 1 M
JN> 2 <38=
3T
27S % V+"
+!I 0+" J+F- 53]
Qc0 ,&+L> 0 " 6 ( /-" X =
0+" G>3>$0 ,2M0g> " 6 -
,3T JN> KL M JN> 2
X !I D0 ) > K3=0 , G8>3 f7 [C 0
< A( +!/9 ) 3T JN> %" C
`Y& +!M- ) %" X- 2F> 1 F 2!
tj X=u g 7 +C( 2$ Xd <
/*C
0 1 F < `Y& 5C( U0
? XC>
M JN> f= KM! != 3T JN>
2M X! %!$ KM!- 0( %Y
2F> 2@ .0E H #=> +D6 " 6 JN> !& W K!/7( M JN>
+>$0 5C &- > 2]0+! <7T ':dG cQ
<$>7 ( '8 ^T
,/3 X: +!M- $ f870
/C> +!:Y %!D6 +>0
Qc d- #: / +!M- $
? 2d6 A(
:AMCG H adG s
^!6 ( 0 ! ^!3 " ( f 3> X
XL 0 ,M JN> 0 _ 1" 27>N
@ JN>( 0 ,%0\ 0 5Ye XM f 3>
3F JN>( 0 0g> XM f 3> 0
? &+!M- 56 ( f 3> '& #:
131
:Mutation
IdG j
2]+! 27T e- ) %" 2]+! 1" 8F e- & :17M
M JN> +!M> 5 'E %
C ;2 <38= +!M> 6 .:
=- ' 1 M <7S +!/9 ) %" 2]+! 1" I:- e- ) B
P <7M X206 "! <7M Xd-0 , 2$ !=- D0 , 2(F ) !=- D 17M ,XS6 1"!M!
+!M> 0
3F ^!3> 0
^!6 - > <7M Q- ,9P ! P +!M- eP - > <7M 2d
2 ! <"B />0C g t >= :Xdu <(0=
JN> X 0 ,2 <38= ^!3- g- 3M 2 1 M <38: <7M 'F3
% ;1+B <7M JS N>0 / 5C(0 <7M XB +> M
<7M `Y/ 2 2 <38= 2( X M JN>
:Population genetics YdG a KGQdG o

/3( 0g>-0 ," = ?- 56 ^!3 " 6 2!F 2F 2 /E M " 5T) 0 ,2F 3F %!> " 6 `Y& <3M Xd-0 8!L
X" <3F `Y& +L> J 33= 23>
18$ <3F ^! -0 27T 23(
2F `Y/ 3F %!>
Hardy Weinberg Law jGhh iOQg fb
P V3& ) 3 00 %"+& XS!+L> 5C( )
2 /E M QY:0 ,XM ) XM 2F (] M %
P V3& % ;F QY( 2C> 23F0
]+0 g- 2 )
2]+! /T8T <] 0 /8C( X 2F
y3 0
"+&
:' Genetic Equilibrium J i oDC @ U<T (N#I c' x<# ' D;
2]+! <7T HM Xd- B ;:
P 2F 'F != z
2 f7 2F " HM != s
& 0" 27S RS 0g> != > , 8!L 2F " ( 0g> !=
I XC 0 2F &+L> g ,M JN> 2* 2]+! 27T !=- o

2F( 2M 2@ />8
132
% <M " 2F ) M/ 0 23 8T '/ " 2F M/-
1 M <7S +!/9 ) %"- <7I -
53(6 2 0> "P 2 <38= ^! X= 5( G>3-
) *- 0 2F ]+! g- X> , U0L `Y& d: 0 U e- c)
2F +!M- X %Y ]+! .F M `F-
d: 0 U X 0 2F> 2F +!M- :Genetic drift ]+! .F
]+! g- U0
:Variation
(jdG) dG m
/F0 , 1e> 2@ .09 H #=> 2 <38= 2]+! <7T >
: 30 ?DN0 %#IM D> t < E2 E # oDC +>$
! ^!3 " - g ]+0 27>N L6 '> : 3F ]=>
/!3- g ! ^!3 " 6 2]+! <7T "-
1 M <7S G>3 D B(
P /B( ]- /F : <3F X X-
L6 ( ^!3> 1" X %!
C 53] +! 1&9 0
2]+! <7T A( <3M ] +!/9 27>N 2@ X! ]\-
23F0 2eT <7M 0
:Adaptation
dG }
Q>- 2 <38= ,/ " > 279! 8= 'M I:- % 25 !& # =>
'N :Xd ,]=>0 5C0 / ?- > 2@ H
5> /& 2]+! <7T
+!M 23M60 V$6
V$6 | 'l
+!M | 23M6
5C 2q <38= #=> :(o) T
133
:AMCG e IjL GfCG Af a GfG QhO

D( " 6 A( g3- IF , 2 <38= M ^! \L3 = K 5 %
) %" %Y %]=> g( Qc . 0 ,2F " H 0g> H3-0 ,/>!F
+!/9 ) 1> ( %" 0 ,/-3M ] ]+! .F 00 ]+! g-(
2 <38= 1 M ^!
2 %Y eF g 32 E0 ?D D
%#I (/L <J@ BNLi oDC
^!3 f7 " 0g- H3 +0 F Xd 2 eM gM! "!M0
:Extinction
IdG YdG VGfG v

:Extinction VGfG
wC I$ HM 0 ,`+] ) %" 2 <38= ^! " F +> D3> !&
+!T w+6 +!M- S > <e> H #=> /-+D
) 2 <38= A(
2 <38= 1 ^! M>$ 3( ,2@0 23 .0E e- /C 0 27>N
<e> `Y& H #=>- %6
23$ ! }s ! Y3 2D #0g *C :(m) T
:]<5Li %#I
<38= ^!3 = W , 3> 5TD( 0 ,1"0 "+! ^!6 f 3^!6 H f 3> K-+D
a ^! 37 0 ^! !F3 >(0 ,a ^! h!7> 2
%6
d: 0 ) %" %Y .7F 0 Xd 2 <38=( 1+* 23 <e- 0
wC( 1"/ RT-0 ,/ %Ye>- : > <! Q/-0 ,<-3
134
2S6 ^!6 f 3- 1 M 2 <38: ")
2D #0g wC < > <*> !&0 ,w+6( 28B

M
MS
+!S3 Xd
<M #7F- ,<! 8F T , +F 8F HMC Xd <IL
2@ !- , 28
:SA# d

]<5Li J{
M!! !> I( ] K3=0 ,2@ "F> "+! J FC 3 ^!6 wC
@(
E % M!! !> <] ) W ;K-07> <M+( @
E3( I 0 ,/
X> ^!6 " C :0 ,!> >$ ^!6 " " = ,K 2L > ^!6 ">( F-
!>
135
QdG hM dOCG
Evidence of Evolution Occurence
P < E3 d: +!M> 2 E D

D! !D
< 7 2"6 `Y& 0 2 E3 `Y& 2S d- > 2"6 d:
K(L> ,2 ] I:> ,+C R L>0 ,#3T> '0
2@ gF M!!0 ,3F ! X ,M!!7
Fossils
:

! "#$ +$, &' ( ) *
2q <38= | +!M> 2" A( w-
^! A( ( 2 +!M> <D R*!-

M0"=
N>$( 2q <38=
w+6 1q 1\L | [l 2E +C-
2q <38= +!M-0
jdG z
> 2 <38= A( +]a 0 C( 1+ & < 7

27>N .09 - W T 2 ( XD D
P
+!NT 2!= I$0 /-! ( 3 " '] , 1* .0E
t} X=u 2(!$
`````dG
17> .S0 X:& :(}) T
Fossil
Index fossil
Intermediate links
Mold
Cast
Trace
2 7q
1{ 2 7q
2M$!>{ <Cq
IC
H(M
]6
[( X=L( 1"!M! .S60 X:/ >- X&

? c0 ? < 7
:( <,C E @ U<Q
8= IS X=& "!M0
X> K- I$0+ 1 K-! ( 8= "
136
8= %!B %!> X X %Y I$3 F$! "!M0

P < 7 >-0
!=>( 2M R- ' =0 ,* 2 <38= `Y& "!M0 "
:Xd 7> 2
-) 0" X! "!M0 I( 2 C 2 <38= X= < 7
8= C( X- ) %" %Y 2(!$ +!NT 2 <CM 5 c7
/&!L-0 < 7 'M- ) %" %Y :0 g 0
:Index fossil ITG jG
'] w+ M!!F +> 1TD 23 1> 0 </9 <38= ^!3 2 7 &
<@ 1">0 H$0 eM +L> / :0 <]
?
!7 5T( >q %"0 | >q A( 2 7 "!M! V7- :(p) T
:jG SGQO gCG

dG cQ
:30 -i/. E0 D DN - <,C (I E0 ,=
>3>$ 5 =A 2 C 23 5!M6

> < 7 [I3
/( M!-
2 NT M!!F - z

/( 2! 2 7
+!NS 2 7 7L>: C

& "! 1"+( [I3 2D0
30 ,23$ 1L )
^! f7 /-d( />+C
?- / M0 2 <38=
G3>- c ,2@ " +( P
? Qc
2 <38= +!M- X ' C- j
137
2 C 2@ ' .> s

1 2 7 2 NT <CM 1&B
< 7 &$ W ;2 C 2 eF F8N '$+ m

1= RM eF H !> 3-! e-
<$ <! < 7 M C , 2*+6
' C g 2(0 + H !-
:jdG e eCG
,
! "# :G Fd UCG jdG
$% & '( )# *+* -./ 0 1/2 34 5 67 * "58 0 9: ; <= >?
@ A 1B* CD
4E7 155F* 9:* G $% * HI2 ! "#* ,<J /?
K<L /? G+M$" $%* HI2 :
$ )5O
+M$" HI2 :(L) T
= > 9 :(J) T
5E P9 F 34 MB CR4> GS :IG jdG

K<T( /? +/U VMA W 3B) XR +/A Y Z
: :
:KCGh HdGh ddG

CR4> GS G :(T() T
17 A :(TT) T
,
! "[ 5 \5O P5 5D" M4 R :
K<TT /? % +]O 39 "! 34 17 A G
]O
4E ^ * ,
! "[
4 ; _A :
352 `%A HI2 * ,+/A a+*
4! ; _b ,
55R! c_
K<T' /? +]O
+]O 352
! @$_ 3R
4 ; W :
" +]O 352 P4! 34 G+M$" H"# +_d ,$5
K<Te /? PIW7 352
<_? +M$" H"# +_d :(Te) T
<I? % :(T') T
: :

138
:Fossil record idG dG

A( +!M- XF- ,< 7 2: 2!F
%7 XF Xd 2M!!F +!T <38=
T0 X7
T %7q XF :(zo) T
.$6 T %7 XF R*!

eS : T 06
/ I />3 0 F
P
/ I />3 0 ,fN ]0 H(S 2(+\( 6
<+!M- '] ,H(+ HS6 ]0 H(S 2]d( 7N
/>3- / I S0 ,/F :0 X !I (
! K g=- %Y F$06 &: H(S 2]d(
/>3- .I6 S0 +!M> >$ '] ,F 3
eS S KM 0 HS\(
K ` %Y X=L( RS0 +!M- '] ,w+6
?T %7 XF 2$+" G3>- c
T %7q XF R*! FM :(zm) T
Intermediate
SG dfG jG
:fossils
>>> >78I <7S /T8T HF- < 7 &

8M 2 7 :/>d 0 /3( 2T : >7>N
+!M ( K-7S HF tf:>(!:+6u [> 8M
<38= >78M -& ( 2T : #0g0
? "!M0 Xd +!M <7S d: 8M Y& X 0 ,2
Xd #0g <7S A( B
P X 0 ,23M60 +C30
IN0 ,X Y 2E <C "!M00 ,+C3 3$ "!M0
2M$!> 0 2C> /\( < 7 `Y& .-0 ,23M6
f:n(!:+6 2 7 :(z}) T
139
Taxonomy
dG FdG J s
: n>G (C -7@ 6$ t\. I BGK E0

) 278I D +-0 C ) F 27>N IL R*0 +- M!
P , % 278I
< d( />3-0 <F37$( ! 2= - d
2 <38= I--0 +!M> 1=7( !- 27> 1FL( K 2 <38= I-> Y&
.L>: ) %" Y&0 ,t^07 u C ) t^07 "u F 1FL `Y& ^0
2 <38= X- <
< 7u 2*C3 <38= A( H*!( X> <7 `Y& $ 5 RF
<7S ( /:- HF- , 1S 0 t2C>
: Xd #3T> 2- 278I <7S0 23 278I
- :Archaeopteryx s;<2;M ( <,>
+!M0 #0g ( 1!F7
2 !8 V$6 %) :(zp) T
'N( f73>- : Lung fishes ( 7< c.IM

28 KL ( f73>-0 , V$6 Xd 5
<8 Xd .7F 2 28
:(GLhOdG) QdG IT
R*! z X=L0 ,27>N <!F0 ^!6 ( 2(C 2D +!M> 1F R*!:0 23$ ! j}k Y3 XM+6 2(+ <38= </9 W ,V>L #$ 2D> ^!6
< +C7 X: #$
:2> <> IM '] tz X=u +!M> 1F Z+"
? 23$ ! jkk Y30 23$ ! zmk Y3 </9 > <38=
27B0 T0 u : X: .$ V> /L : %Y g
tR$>0
?+!S3 K wC %Y g
?R$>
+!M JD6 #0g
140
+!I
] <
#0
#0
" <+!S3
R$r
$
#$
#0
(<8
#g 2q 2E V$
#g 2 2E V$
2 0 V$
f:n(!:+
#0
( 3
2+ V$
XM+6 2(+ <38:
t
M0"=u 2q <38= +!M- 1F :(z) T
0 XS / : %+C "! "!M0 X=L( 1"!M! <!F X: V>L-
(&0 ,< +C7 >!F ( 2M$!> 2C: </9 f:>(!:+6 Xd < 7 A
+!M> 2 E :- QY( &0 +!M0 #0g
R-0 ,2:>L .$6 5P ( 2D> <!F0 ^!6 ( 2D +!M> 1F N-
(>27>N ^!6 ( 2(C 2M+" C
! : :
141
Comparative anatomy
FGKEG ee
%Y ' !& :+C R L>
.>0 K(L> 2$+( '>/
2 <38= 5B R L-
27>N
QdG jdG j
0 ,A /B(0 2 <38= ( .>0 K(L- KM0 M!

< +C 0 < +C ) 'C- <! ,/73T- '> Qc Z$
%C7 "! J 0 "!M! P
"!M00 , %!>- 2FM "!M0 < +C7 K(L>-
(!M!/ %!>- 2 !" %!> %Y
279! '8> +!- /( W X=L #>N-0 ,I:> < +C7 .I6 K(L>-
:2> <> IM '] ,< +C7 A( .I R*! %Y > X=L
V$6
#0g
t17u
+!M
t
qu
< d
tu
<8y
t27Bu
< d
t7lu
t! f73( 2*! X=L | 193>{ 5gM6u < +C7 | 26 .I6 +! :(zv) T
?23M ) ? 7N0 +!M 0 ,# ) V$6 .I6 <+!- c

?< +C7 5gM6 `Y& 2+C G>3>- c
279! '8> <+!- /3=0 ,0 XS <\L < +C7 I:> K(L> Y&
/(
!C- >
Vestigial structures
jKCG cGdG o
#89!(
!C- : > 5B6 A( V3& V>L XS < +C7 1\L X
RT- 0 0g- / , D! 2 +0* S 30 ,2 C .$6 2 +0*
t2 ]u 1*
: 2 ]6 I:> 2d
;<-3 "!M! ! 'B/ < g) 7- 2Ee 56 5gM & :( D ?D7
1*0 ,tI+6u JL6 <:a 20 t"!$6u
! <:a 20 / Y
<-3 %Ye> : %Y ' C 2 : / C> 0 ,
142
+T ! /= > ,J=0 XN :Xd < d 'E 2 :l (;<C. -GjN
1*0 <!T
/>3 > <C7 & : ($N$N -<5,

d: X Y !=-0 ,%+C7 "! /(
1* !=-0 , <!
*0
/E .7 5L !& : 0< E,/
P
/> #0g0 +!M !
7F Y& B 0 ,i /- >
! P - > 0 < d
? 7~ :(sk) T
Physiological resemblance
LddG HdG m
: /3 2 ! #89! d: 2 <38= K(L>-

< K '> %Y
(!-0 "!M0 2 <38= HM V>L- : 4dG2<# ?0
2 <38= HM 2]> 1+!T( '>-
/0 53 < XL- > A 6
1!3 1M$ - 2 <38= HM <!MN f73( N

C '> : F 4=5Li
<!$!0= &0 2]> 1+!S 2]+! 1" %!>- >
0 XS <\L 2 <38= HM : %!N

C 00
(!-0 "!M0
1+!S ,2M <B7 N> 2 <38= K(L>- : (A<KY -Gj,
! 2@( I <: 2! #>N- /3=0 23M0> <:
K(0c 2 'N [ I +"L 1+!S 23M0>3 <B7 V$6 N>-

/( F 5
2 = [ I 3!( 1+!S 23M0>3 <B7 < d0 <8 N>-
! 5 K(0c
K6 ; H Q! A 1+!S 23M0>3 <B7 +!M0 #0g N>-
5 (0Y X(D
< 'E3- 20 <!/ f7 7- " "!M0 < +C7 K(L>- : -L0<3
]=>0 !30 'B/ Xd 'F( 2 !
143
Stages of fetal growth
dG f MGe }
t<!F gu 2D - 10 2N( /- - 3M ]=>- > 2 <38= HM
< d0 +!M0 #0g0 <80 V$6 X= 3F ! X H>-
? 27>N #8!M ( < > M!- X& tsz X=u
V$6
<8y
#0g
+!M
< +C7 | 3~ ! X :(sz) T
< d
<> / != W ;2/(L> 2( < d0 +!M0 #0g0 <80 V$6 23M -
g- 29! <e- - !3 +>$ H0 , tM(0 cu -F !=> ID0 2!L
%6 278I X:
/ I+0 FD0 I: Xd < d 2!F 23M ( 2!/( g> Q3= X&
? 06 233F
0 XS P M <+ /\( 7 < d ^! 33F K(L>
Xdu +"L 1+!S t2B X"u 06 X 23M0>3 <B7 +!M 3M N>
N>- !3 2 / 0 ,t<8 Xdu 3!( 1+!S <B7 `Y& N- 1> ( '] , tV$6
Q! A 1+!S /3
Molecular Biology
jdG LddG p
,2]+! 1" #\>- W ,+!M> 2 E H [7>- > 2d 2"6 2@ gF M!! ' >
V>L XS <\L / ,t<-!:!3u 283 <! f7 2 <38= HM
. : !
144
dGh LddGh dG
:dG dG
g( U- 2I &!90 2 <38: / ( 2M 2 % & 2M 2
7 X8$0 '& 2M < >-0 UL 0 2M .0E 2
X-0 ,M!! ^!3>0 2M "+! 2 < `Y& !-0 ,wC( 1"/ ^!6
2 w6 /3 1"7>$ 2 *( ,@ g- 7
&93( g>- > 2M < ( g- > 0 2( T 2 +!/M >-0
$ 20 , 3S0 - - gM0 , Z+ 2 /3 , 2I 2 jk V3/ ,2(N
2E ( X 0" 2N$0 ,[+g 20 ,53$ J!3F(
!M !( 20 ,[ 20 , -:
,i0M 2E ( 2M 20 ,6 2E ( 2M 2 <0 ,53$
,!$ 2E ( D %"0 20 ,$+!( 2E ( f3- 1 gM0 ,XF
!> 20

!7 2E ( 0+D 1(0 %"0 2CM3 20
jdG Y jJ
2 ZD
N>$( 27L>= < 7 + C- '>
Y3 %: 2F* HL !(= .L>: +] D0 ,/ HL !(=
( zvov
"+ 0 = 6 8= 1 06 KN>$
L0
E: 2 !B "! ( ) CP D" P - M
JL60 2M <M!30 <-30
,zo !(= 0 ,!(= HL E !& HL !(=
: 2 d=( w+ %!F .e 2!= 26 XT- 3 G>3 0
+!S3 2 7
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A`MCG

   

 !M-  ) . / 0 &+!M-0 1  2$+ ( 3 !&0 ,2M 

t<  0 <+ &!(= u

t2 0!3  wx60 <3-0y u

2N [D  I:n  :

2!q0 2-3  2F6 ^!3-0 l g r :

2]+!  w60 23~ 2]+!  :

2q <38= W q #3T>  :

'D ,1 8=  Z$6 ^!*!  <! 

   

q 8=  'M /3 !=> >  "!{ "

(GdGh GQgHdG ) dG FdG LC FdG cdG

1=  2M! !  <@ g~  0=  5%gM :(z) T

t2 0! w <3-0( <  <+ &!(:u

,2 0!3  w60 ,<3-0 0 ,<  0 ,<+ &!(=   X:  %> tj X=u 

IdG LddG jdG

<@ gM  !=>- 'F  1: 2 !B <: &

7 1=  2 !  <@ gF  'E  [M

!T 2  0 2$$6 +"T   <+ &!(=  >- :(M 

@ gF  I:>  Z$ 

:Monosaccharides ( > - <@I

:Disaccharides ( 7J - <@I

283d  < =   0=  :(m) T

K( !: !& 0F 0 ,Glycerol 0M 0 5%gM0

 ) ,2DM H $ + T <+ &!(=    '  

: GF H2 -D # 

: 7 . @ 3# ;< N! # -D #  6$

(M =# -D # 

2L  23&" w X7-  !=>- 28$ !&"  1+

28{ +!M  ? + :(v) T

(N <= ?'/ -#A <IF0

 !=>- 2S "! /  <! g   !&  #>N-

 d:0 ,2C  2I60 1g&F  <M! 

  0> !=  2 ^7-+  )

<-3  h+0 Me %Y  HL  :(zk) T

:Complex lipids ?D5N. -D # 

@ g~ I:n  :(zz) T

(jhdG VMCGh JhdG) dG FdG LC FdG cdG

Chemical Structure of Organism`s Bodies

X= 2  <38=  HF 2:>  23  <3-0  X=L $$

<3-0y   X= @ g~ I:n  #T2 0!3  wx60

>  83] I:

2 >( F(0( 236 wx6 F-- :(zm) T

2d 0 236 w6  P ! sk <3-0  53(  X

:&"- <> A(

^! !=  HD!>- X&

 (  Q Y:0 ,<-3  +0Y(0 h+0  "!M! 

:Levels of protein structure JhdG cJ je

(  I:n  "

Jhd ifdG cdG

23M0+ /  F(0  X7( Q c0 ; >   2$ .7>  2C I %!>  Y& #T

/3 X:0 ,0!3  A 2!=  2$$6 < ! 

=   $$ ! V3& :SI.K <@I HA

=$ :06 ^!3 

1 -!:!3  I:- :(zp) T

RNA I:-  X 0 Ribose !   =$ :d  ^!3 

DNA , RNA  X:  23M0>3  !C  ( +D0 tz X=u 

DNA , RNA  X= @ g~ I:n  :(z) T

:jhdG VMCG gCG

,DNA %0!3  A  <!$!0=  I:-  X

IT  :27>N  K-( w+6 I:!:  5  L>3

2*+6 1=  RM$  %pk 5{ Me :(zv) T

The molecular structure of water

!M- ) ./ 0 &+!M-0 1 2$+( 3 !&0 ,2M

t<0 <+&!(=u

t2 0!3 wx60 <3-0yu

2N [D I:n :

2!q0 2-3 2F6 ^!3-0 l g r :

2]+! w60 23~ 2]+! :

2q <38= W q #3T> :

'D ,1 8= Z$6 ^!*! <!

q 8= 'M /3 !=> > "!{ "

1= 2M!! <@ g~ 0= 5%gM :(z) T

t2 0! w <3-0( < <+&!(:u

,2 0!3 w60 ,<3-00 ,<0 ,<+&!(= X: %> tj X=u

<@ gM !=>- 'F 1: 2 !B <: &

7 1= 2 ! <@ gF 'E [M

!T 2 0 2$$6 +"T <+&!(= >- :(M

@ gF I:> Z$

:Monosaccharides ( > - <@I

:Disaccharides (7J - <@I

283d < = 0= :(m) T

K( !: !& 0F0 ,Glycerol 0M 0 5%gM0

) ,2DM H $ +T <+&!(= '

: GF H2 -D#

: 7.@ 3#;< N! # -D# 6$

(M=# -D#

2L 23&" w X7- !=>- 28$ !&" 1+

28{ +!M ? + :(v) T

(N <= ?'/ -#A <IF0

!=>- 2S "! / <! g !& #>N-

d:0 ,2C 2I60 1g&F <M!

0>!= 2 ^7-+ )

<-3 h+0 Me %Y HL :(zk) T

:Complex lipids ?D5N. -D#

@ g~ I:n :(zz) T

X= 2 <38= HF 2:> 23 <3-0 X=L $$

<3-0y X= @ g~ I:n #T2 0!3 wx60

> 83] I:

2 >( F(0( 236 wx6 F-- :(zm) T

2d 0 236 w6 P ! sk <3-0 53( X

:&"- <> A(

^! != HD!>- X&

( QY:0 ,<-3 +0Y(0 h+0 "!M!

( I:n "

23M0+/ F(0 X7( Qc0 ;> 2$ .7> 2C I %!> Y& #T

/3 X:0 ,0!3 A 2!= 2$$6 <!

= $$ ! V3& :SI.K <@I HA

=$ :06 ^!3

1-!:!3 I:- :(zp) T

RNA I:- X 0 Ribose ! =$ :d ^!3

DNA , RNA X: 23M0>3 !C ( +D0 tz X=u

DNA , RNA X= @ g~ I:n :(z) T

,DNA %0!3 A <!$!0= I:- X

IT :27>N K-( w+6 I:!: 5 L>3

2*+6 1= RM$ %pk 5{ Me :(zv) T

8= I:> ) XS!- 0

M0+/ <+c %> tsk X=u

,K 1+0F <@ gF H 5 5%gM X: JcF> 0

23M0+& 2M(+

( 23M0+ F(0 :(sz) T

!= 8: I: 5{ :(sk) T

:UF V&' ' . ,(C -7@ 3

) <@ gF Q=7- 5 1+D QY( TC

"!M0 I( 1 2 + 8TN( 5 g>

1"!M! <8gF Q$- K\( M -!> .

5{ F> 2 g$ <M+" o 3 :(sj) T

w7( ?=3 0 ,1+ 2M+" ^7-+( 5 ">

2M+" XC- 1+ <M+" 3 1: <=(0 +N( ) 5 !>

KNB- 1!C 2M 0( 2 L I(6 ^7-+ 1+D 5

G | 5{ ^7-+ :(so) T

28:!( <7- 2 <38=

/ 0 , 2N X" - 28:! < 2!F

1"!M! 28= F(0 2g>N 2DM - 2

X7> | 2=/>{ 2DM < g ]\- :(s}) T

w6 : " "- ' g !=>

M0+/ ! g:>( / < g ]\>1+ 2M+" 0 tpHu

6 "(6 ]] X=L :(sp) T

%6 1 X! < g g>- j

" XL-0 2M <3-0 !=>- > < g &

0 3-0( & C !=>- > < g &

MM X= :(s) T

' g I:n