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The Damage
Main cables:
During the collapse, the main
suspension cables were thrown
violently side to side, twisted,
and tossed 100 feet into the air.
They slipped from their positions
in the cable saddles atop each
tower. And, they fell hard on the
View from below the deck at approach spans. On the north
buckled steel beams WSDOT cable at mid-span, where the
cable band loosened, it broke
more than 350 wires. Other
wires were severely stressed
and distorted. The main cables
were a total loss, but salvage
was undertaken. Their only value
was as scrap metal.
Suspender cables:
The violent collapse broke many
suspender cables. Some were
lost, some severely damaged,
M3-5 Sagging east side span GHM,
Bashford 2795 and some undamaged. Their
only value now was as scrap
metal.
Towers:
The main towers (West Tower, #4; and East Tower, #5), including the bracing struts, were
twisted and bent. Stress beyond the elastic limit of the metal resulted in buckling and permanent
distortion. Their only value now was as scrap metal.
Deck-Floor System:
Not surprisingly, the concrete and steel of the center span that now lay on the bottom of the
Narrows was deemed a total loss. The remainder of the broken concrete on the side spans
needed removal. The floor system had sections that were bent and overstressed. Their only
value now was as scrap metal.
Side Spans:
The loss of the center section, followed by the dropping of the side spans, caused substantial
damage. The events stressed and distorted the plate girders and floor beams. Some buckled
beyond repair.
Piers:
Both the West Pier (#4) and the East Pier (#5) sustained no damage. The collapse of the center
span caused partial sheering of rivets that attached the towers to the tops of the piers.
Anchorages:
The anchorages for the main cables were undamaged. For building a replacement bridge,
removal of part of the concrete would be necessary in order to spin the new main cables.
Exactly where were Galloping Gertie's remains later that day? Weird Fact
(2) the solid plate girder and deck acted like an aerofoil, creating "drag" and "lift;"
(3) aerodynamic forces were little understood, and engineers needed to test suspension bridge
designs using models in a wind tunnel.
"The fundamental weakness" of the Tacoma Narrows Bridge, said a summary article
published in Engineering News Record, was its "great flexibility, vertically and in torsion."
Several factors contributed to the excessive flexibility: The deck was too light. The deck was too
shallow at 8 feet (a 1/350 ratio with the center span). The side spans were too long, compared
with the length of the center span. The cables were anchored at too great a distance from the
side spans. The width of the deck was extremely narrow compared with its center span length,
an unprecedented ratio of 1 to 72.
The pivotal event in the bridge's collapse, said the Board, was the change from vertical
waves to the destructive twisting, torsional motion. This event was associated with the slippage
of the cable band on the north cable at mid-span. Normally, the main cables are of equal length
where the mid-span cable band attaches them to the deck. When the band slipped, the north
cable became separated into two segments of unequal length. The imbalance translated quickly
to the thin, flexible plate girders, which twisted easily. Once the unbalanced motion began,
progressive failure followed.
The investigation Board's most significant finding was simple and obvious: the engineering
community must study and better understand aerodynamics in designing long suspension
bridges.
Meanwhile, Professor F. B. Farquharson continued wind tunnel tests. He concluded that the
"cumulative effected of undampened rhythmic forces" had produced "intense resonant
oscillation." In other words, the bridge's lightness, combined with an accumulation of wind
pressure on the 8-foot solid plate girder and deck, caused the bridge to fail.
Leon Moisseiff, who was contacted immediately after the failure, said he was "completely at a
loss to explain the collapse." Moisseiff visited the ruined bridge one week later, touring under
the watchful eye of Clark Eldridge. Moisseiff's design, while pushing beyond the boundaries of
engineering practice, fully met the requirements of accepted theory at the time.
End of an Era
The collapse of Galloping Gertie on November 7, 1940 revealed the limitations of the
"deflection theory." Now, engineers no longer believed that suspension bridges needed to be
stiffened only against the stress of moving vehicles and the "minor" effect of wind.
The failure of the Tacoma Narrows Bridge effectively ended Moisseiff's career. More
importantly, it abruptly ended an entire generation of bridge engineering theory and practice,
and the trend in designing increasingly flexible, light, and slender suspension spans.
Othmar Amman said of the collapse of the 1940 Narrows Bridge, "Regrettable as the Tacoma
Narrows Bridge failure and other recent experiences are, they
have given us invaluable information and have brought us
closer to the safe and economical design of suspension
bridges against wind action."
(2) The twisting bridge deck caused the wind flow separation to increase. This formed a vortex,
or swirling wind force, which further lifted and twisted the deck.
(3) The deck structure resisted this lifting and twisting. It had a natural tendency to return to its
previous position. As it returned, its speed and direction matched the lifting force. In other
words, it moved " in phase" with the vortex. Then, the wind reinforced that motion. This
produced a "lock-on" event.
4. But, the external force of the wind alone was not sufficient to cause the severe twisting that
led the Narrows Bridge to fail.
5. Now the deck movement went into "torsional flutter."
"Torsional flutter" is a complex mechanism. "Flutter" is a self-induced harmonic vibration
pattern. This instability can grow to very large vibrations.
It was critical that the two types of instability, vortex shedding and torsional flutter, both
occurred at relatively low wind speeds. Usually, vortex shedding occurs at relatively low wind
speeds, like 25 to 35 mph, and torsional flutter at high wind speeds, like 100 mph. Because of
Gertie's design, and relatively weak resistance to torsional forces, from the vortex shedding
instability the bridge went right into "torsional flutter."
Now the bridge was beyond its natural ability to "damp out" the motion. Once the twisting
movements began, they controlled the vortex forces. The torsional motion began small and built
upon its own self-induced energy.
In other words, Galloping Gertie's twisting induced more twisting, then greater and greater
twisting.
This increased beyond the bridge structure's strength to resist. Failure resulted.
What if . . . ?
Sometimes it is fun and worthwhile to ask the question, "What if . . . ?," about important
historical events. Here's one with an answer that may surprise you.
What if Clark Eldridge's original design for the 1940 Tacoma Narrows Bridge had been built,
instead of Leon Moisseiff's? Would it have blown down on November 7, 1940 like Galloping
Gertie?
Eldridge's design; elevation detail, May 23, 1938 WSA, WSDOT records
Answer: The bridge would still be there. That's the opinion of leading bridge engineers who
have carefully studied Eldridge's design, with its 25-foot deep stiffening truss.
"I believe without a doubt," said one senior structural engineer, "that the bridge would have been
aerodynamically stable for the wind speeds that destroyed Galloping Gertie."
Brooklyn 3,460'
The Parts
Illustration of basic suspension bridge part
A suspension bridge does just what the name implies. The deck, or roadway, is suspended by
large cables that are secured at each end and pass over the tops of high towers.
The basic parts of a typical suspension bridge fall into two categories, "superstructure" and
"substructure." The superstructure (super = above) is composed of a deck (or roadway, or
girder), two towers, and the main suspension cables. The substructure (sub = below) is
composed of the piers (caissons, or tower foundations) in the middle of the span that support
the towers, and the anchorages (anchors) for the cables at each end of the bridge.
The deck, or girder, is where we drive or walk. It is continuous and may be a truss, or a box
girder, or a plate girder.
Large anchors, or anchorages, at both ends of the bridge act as counter
weights that hold the ends of the main cables. The anchorages are normally
either a mass of concrete or solid rock. In the anchorage, the cables splay
into separate strands to distribute the tension load evenly and safely.
The main cables stretch from one anchor over the tops of the tower and
attach to the opposite anchorage. The cables are compacted strands of
parallel wires carried back and forth across the water. At the anchorage,
each cable strand wraps around a strand shoe. Each strand shoe connects
to an eye-bar. The eye-bars are firmly cemented in the anchorage.
At the top of the towers each cable passes over a cable saddle. At the
cable saddle the cable transfers the load from the cables to the tower.
The main cables are attached to the deck by suspender cables. These
are sometimes also called "suspender ropes" and "hanger cables."
In a suspension bridge, the main cables suspend the deck (girder, Illustration of tower
and cable saddle
roadway). Most of the bridge's weight (and any vehicles on the bridge) is
suspended from the cables. The cables are held up only by the towers, which
means that the towers support a tremendous weight (load).
The steel cables are both strong and flexible. This makes long span suspension bridges
susceptible to wind forces. These days, engineers take special measures to assure stability
("aerodynamic" stability") to minimize vibration and swaying in a suspension bridge under heavy
winds. The 1940 Tacoma Narrows Bridge is the world's most famous example of aerodynamic
instability in a suspension bridge
Salvage of the 1940 Narrows Bridge
After the center span fell into the Tacoma Narrows, the towers, main cables, side spans, and
anchorages remained. The approach spans sustained no damage. The process of dismantling
and salvaging the ruined bridge proved as intricate and dangerous as its construction.
In March 1941 estimates for salvage operations looked gloomy. Experts calculated the scrap
metal value of the towers, deck floor system, and other steel parts at $206,000. It would cost
three times that amount, an estimated $636,000, to dismantle the bridge. Dismantling of the
towers began on September 8, 1941. With the start of World War II in
December that year, hopes rose that a steel shortage would bring a better
price, and perhaps a profit.
That hopeful vision faded. By the end of March 1943 workers had
removed more than 4,000 tons of steel from the towers and 3,000 tons
from the cables and deck. The salvaged metal was sold for scrap during
World War II. In the end, salvage operations lost money. The Toll Bridge
Authority paid nearly $646,661 for the effort. In return for 7,000 tons of
scrap steel the State received a meager $295,726. The net cost for the
operation was $350,933.
Interestingly, the process took about 29 months, roughly the same amount
of time that it would take to build the replacement Narrows Bridge at the
end of the decade.
Engineering Challenges For Gertie's Replacement
• Wind grates:
Three slots of open steel grating 33 inches wide separating all four traffic lanes, and a
strip 19 inches wide along each curb.
(2) between the top chords of the main span and side span stiffening trusses; and
(3) at each tower, where it joins the bottom of the deck truss.
• Ends of the west and east side spans were anchored securely to the ground.
• Cable sag ratio of 1:12. This required the towers to be higher than the 1940 bridge, which
had a sag ratio of 1:10.
Fire, Ice, and Earthquakes
Engineering challenges were not the only difficulties faced by the builders of the 1950 Narrows
Bridge. Some of the reasons that construction took 29 months had to do with several challenges
from "Mother Nature."
On April 13, 1949 an earthquake measuring 7.1 on the Richter scale shook the Puget Sound
region. The trembler caused no damage to the Narrows Bridge's piers or towers, then under
construction.
Weird Fact #16
The severe winter of 1949-50 slowed construction. Engineers already had concerns about
starting cable spinning in the coldest season. That winter proved their worries valid. For six
weeks rain and snow, driven by high winds, lashed the area. Once, ice an inch thick had to be
removed from steel so men could do their jobs. Especially rough was work on the cable
spinning. At times, workers had to use blowtorches to thaw out cable strands for adjustment and
banding. By February 1950 the cable spinning contractor, John A. Roebling Sons Co., was
fighting a 2-month delay.
Who were the engineers and bridge workers who endured these hardships and successfully
met the challenges? You'll find the two main engineers who launched the 1950 Narrows Bridge,
Charles Andrew and Dexter R. Smith. Take a look at a couple of the bridge workers, Earl White
and Joe Gotchy.
Components of the Current Narrows Bridge
Piers
The piers designed by Clark Eldridge for Galloping Gertie
stood ready to handle the new span's towers. The twin steel
legs of each tower were 60 feet apart, center-to-center. The
original pedestals were too narrow for the new towers. They
were also too close to the water. In Gertie's short life, the
tower legs showed signs of salt water corrosion. The new
pedestals were the same width, but taller by 18 feet to keep
the tower legs safe from salt spray. This pushed the height of
the towers on the new span to 58 feet higher than those on the
1940 Narrows Bridge. The additional weight of the
superstructure (1.6 times the load carried by the original piers)
actually was better, more evenly distributed by the greater
width between tower legs. The new design increased the dead
load pressure on the piers by only 6 percent.
Towers
Towers with catwalks, 1949
Tower erection used a "crawler crane," which advanced WSDOT
upward as workers completed each tower leg. The legs of
each tower are vertical. They are made of hollow steel cells,
stacked on top of one another. The cell sections are four columns arranged to form a hollow
core in the center. Each section is 32 feet long and weighs 27 tons. Viewed in cross-section, the
four cells in each leg form a cross shape. To stabilize the towers during construction, temporary
"outriggers" were added until the cables and deck trusses could be completed. When the top
cross bracing was completed, Chicago booms hoisted the 28-
ton cast-steel cable saddles and placed them at the top of
each leg. The cable saddles were secured by 36 bolts.
Anchorages
The new bridge had a much bigger cable load, increased from
the original 28 million pounds to 36 million pounds. This
required modification of the anchorages for the 1940 bridge.
The old anchorages, spaced 39 feet apart, were retrofitted for
the new span's 60-foot spacing between cables. The original
structures became the cores of the new, heavier and wider
54,000-ton anchor blocks. The anchorages included 62-foot
long eye-bars, fitted with 26-inch diameter shoes, embedded
into the new concrete.
Cables
Once the towers and cable saddles were in place, spinning
began for the 20-1/4 inch diameter main suspension cables.
Anchorage construction, 1948
Spaced 60 feet apart, each cable contained 19 strands of 458 WSDOT
No.6 gauge wires. The strands looped around the eye-bar
shoes to form a continuous cable from anchorage to
anchorage.
Deck
The 33-foot deep Warren stiffening truss system was
assembled at the bridge site from shop-fabricated
components. Four rolling derricks (2 per tower) moved each
way from the tower. Two riveting crews and traveler operators
worked from the tower piers to the center of the main span,
while two other crews worked from the piers to the shore. First,
workmen placed the top and bottom chords and their diagonal Anchorage view with cable and
bracing. Next, the floor beams were placed between the eye-bars, 1949 Earl White
chords. Then, deck stringers were laid lengthwise on top of the
beams. Finally, crews pinned the members in place, and the
riveting gangs finished the process.
Deck cross-section, Current Narrows Bridge WSA, WSDOT records
The deck measures 46 feet 9 inches (curb-to-curb) for the 4 traffic lanes, plus two sidewalks 2
feet 9 inches wide. Steel reinforcing rods were placed in the roadway. Then, workmen placed
the deck slab, a light-weight concrete 5-3/4 inches thick with a 5/8-inch asphalt riding surface
(used to lessen the load on the piers). The open steel wind grates were installed between
driving lanes and at the curbs.
Suspender Cables and Cable Bands
As each section of the deck was assembled, crews hung the suspender cables. Each set of two
cables, looped over the main cable appears to be four wires. These 1-3/8 inch diameter wire
cables were attached to the deck at 32-foot intervals by zinc "jewels."
Special Features & Motion-Damping Devices
Finally, workmen installed the mechanical motion-damping devices.
Sand blasting and painting
The current Narrows Bridge is painted "Narrows Green." Sub-contractor for the bridge's first
coat of green was H. P. Fisher & Sons Company of Seattle for painting the suspender cables,
cable bands, and various steel parts.
East Anchorage (concrete 185 feet long Deck construction, view from water
anchor block and gallery), level, spring 1950 Earl White
plus approach,
administration buildings and
toll house
by 65 feet, 11 inches
SPAN RATIOS
Width to Length (of Center Girder Depth to Length (of Center
Bridge
Span) Span)
1940 Narrows Bridge 1:72 1:350
Current Narrows Bridge 1:46 1:112
Golden Gate Bridge 1:47 1:168
George Washington
1:33 1:120
Bridge
Bronx-Whitestone Bridge 1:31 1:209
Vortex-Induced vibratrion:
When fixed in a fluid stream. bluff (nonstreamlined) bodies generate detached or separated flow
over substantial parts over their surfaces: that is, the flow lines do not follow the contours of the
body, but brake away at some points. At low Reynolds number, when the separation first
occurs, the flow around the body remains steady. At some critical Reynolds number two thin
layers – often termed the free shear layers—from the lee of the body. These unstable layers
interact nonlinearly with each other in the body wake to produce a regular periodic array of
vortices (concentrations of rotating fluid particles) termed the Strouhal vortices. Such wakes
were symmetrically investigated for circular cylinders by Benard.
These vortex arrays arrange themselves in two rows, with opposite directions of circulation.
each vortex is located opposite the midpoint of the interval between the two vortices in the
opposite row (fig. 2). The beauty of this "vortex street" – often termed the Karman vortex street
– long attracted attention.
The frequency of the shedding vortices over a fixed (restrained) body is often termed the
Strouhal frequency (fs) and follows the relation:
fs.D/U=S
U is the cross-flow velocity.