1 Errors:

1.1 Round off Errors:

1.1.1 Exercises: Write down the absolute and relative errors that occur when numbers, 31/13, 
√1001, √999, e-5 and sin(1) are rounded off to specified number of decimal places or significant
digits.

Rounded Absolute Relative Rounded Absolute Relative

x Exact Value
to 2 d.p. error error to 3 d.p. error error
31/13 2.384615385 2.38 0.00461538 0.001939237 2.385 0.000384615 0.000161264
 3.141592654
√1001 31.63858404
e-5 0.006737947
sin(1) 0.841470985

Rounded Absolute Relative Rounded Absolute Relative

x Exact Value
to 4 s.d. error error to 4 s.d. error error
31/13 2.384615385 2.385 0.00038462 0.000161264 2.3846 1.53846E-05 6.45165E-06

 3.141592654 3.142 0.00040735 0.000129646 3.1416 7.34641E-06 2.33843E-06

√1001 31.63858404
e-5 0.006737947
sin(1) 0.841470985

1.2 Propagated errors: Let y  f ( x ) be a real valued function continuously differentiable near a
point x  x 0 and let f ( x 0 )  y 0 . Suppose, we want to evaluate an approximate value for y 0 , by

substituting an approximate value x1  x 0   x for x . The error y  f ( x 0   x )  f ( x ) is

called the propagated error. By Taylor’s theorem, there exists a constant  such that

y  f () x . Therefore, if f ( x )  M ,  x , then an error bound is given by y  M x .

1.2.1 Exercises: Determine the maximum error predicted and the actual error that occur when
an expression y  f ( x 0 ) is evaluated by substituting rounded off values for x 0 .

Max. error actual error

f(x) x0 x1 δx y0= f(x0) y1= f(x1)
predicted (M δx) |δy| = |y1-y0|
cos(ξ) δx < δx
sin(x) 31/13 2.385 0.000385 0.686727 0.686448 0.000279
<0.000385
2
 2x δx < 7 δx
x 3.142 0.000407 9.869604 9.872164 < 0.002849
0.002560

1/(1+x) 1001 31.639

ex -4.9999 -5