+=F JK

- ?KAHF @A ? FA I
 I

AH I

AH I HA= AI 2H FEA@=@AI

@K E@A JE ?=?E AI I AH I HA= AI R ? IJEJKOA A E? ?KAHF K? KJ=JEL H@A =@ O ? F AJ  ?E AI GKA IA @A A = ? JE K=?E  + B H = K = = F E=?E A H=@= @A ? K J I @A AH I I A A A J= AI ) I=>AH I =JKH= AI N = {1, 2, 3, . . .} I A JAH I Z = {. . . , 2, 1, 0, 1, 2, . . .} n O I H=?E = AI Q = : n, m Z, m = 0 m

,A

E?E   +KAHF I 7 ? K J K @ J=@ @A @ I FAH=?E

 IA @E?A K ?KAHF ? KJ=JEL IE
? KJ=JEL  KJ=JEL=

AI
+ O

E (K, +) AI K CHKF =>A E=

EE (K \ {0}, ) AI K CHKF O

 AI ?

EEE
 AI @EIJHE>KJEL= ? HAIFA?J =
+ 5A @E?A GKA (K, +) AI K CHKF =>A E=
1) 2) 3) 4)

IE F=H= x, y, z K =H>EJH=HE I

x + (y + z ) = (x + y ) + z 0 K : x + 0 = 0 + x = x x, x :x+x =x +x=0 x + y = y + x.

- ! x IA = = A FKAIJ @A x O IA AI?HE>A x ) C= A JA IE =>HALE= x y = xy (K \ {0}, ) ?K F A x, y, z K \ {0} ?K= AIGKEAH=

5) 6) 7) 8) x(yz ) = (xy )z 1 K \ {0} : x 1 = 1 x = x x, x : xx =x x = 1 xy = yx.


+)2 67

 - +7-42

,-

-4 5 +

2 -

JAIA GKA AIJ E F ?EJ A $ GKA 1 = 0 5A = = = x A E LAHI @A x O IA AI?HE>A x1 .E = A JA EEE IEC E ?= GKA F=H= x, y, z K ?K= AIGKEAH=
x(y + z ) = xy + xz.
= @EBAHA ?E= O A ? ?EA JA @A @ I A A A J I x, y K y = 0 IA @A A x ? x y = x + (y ) = xy 1 HAIFA?JEL= A JA y + ? IA?KA ?E= @A = ,A E?E   A J @ ?KAHF K IA ?K F A K = IAHEA @A FH FEA@=@AI GKA I B= E E=HAI A A ? JANJ @A I AH I ) F=HJEH @A =D H= I >AA JA @AHA I A =FA =JEL
? KJ=JEL  = HABAHEH I = I ?KAHF I

2H F IE?E
1) 2) 3) 4)

FH FEA@=@AI

5A= (K, +, ) K ?KAHF

5) 6) 7) 8)

5A ?K F A A J

?AI =I IECKEA JAI

x+y =x+z y =z x+y =xy =0 x + y = 0 y = x (x) = x.

x = 0, xy = xz y = z x = 0, xy = x y = 1 x = 0, xy = 1 y = x1 x = 0, ((x1 )1 = x.

=I FH FEA@=@AI ! % = H = GKA A
2=H= ? F AJ=H A F= FH FEA@=@ IECKEA JA

FKAIJ O A E LAHI @A x I

E? I
IA JEA A =

H= = B= E E=H @A =I AOAI @A ? ?K

2H F IE?E

 ! 5E (K, +, ) AI ?KAHF A J ?AI F=H= x, y K =H>EJH=HE I

1) 2) 3) 4) 0x=0 x = 0, y = 0 xy = 0 (x)y = x(y ) = xy (x)(y ) = xy.

,A

IJH=?E

- A ?=I @A 

x 0 = x(0 + 0) = x 0 + x 0 x 0 = 0.
2=H=  IE x = 0 O BKAIA xy = 0 HAIK J=H = y = 0 ? )IE EI IA JEA A =I HA =?E AI JH= IKFKAIJ

xy + (x)y = 0,
@A @ @A IA @A@K?A ! 2=H= "

xy + x(y ) = 0

(x)(y ) = x(y ) = (xy )) = xy.

5ECKEA @

@=

I = IECKEA JA @A

E?E

@A H@A J J=



-4 5 4-) -5 24 21-,),-5

,A

HA =?E

E?E

 " 7 ? K J K J J= A JA H@A =@ AI =GK

< GKA ?K F A =I FH FEA@=@AI

GKA F IAA K = >EA

E ,=@ I x, y K IA I=JEIB=?A I x<y >EA x = y >EA y < x

K = @A =I IECKEA JAI FH FEA@=@AI

EE 6H= IEJEL= x < y  y < z E F E?= x < z

-I D=>EJK= @A J=H x y IE x < y x = y )IE EI y > x A y x IA KI= E @EIJE J= A JA F=H= HAFHAIA J=H x < y x y HAIFA?JEL= A JA -I J= >E D=>EJK= E JH @K?EH = HA =?E @A H@A A = B H = x y JH= @A E?E ? =LA F=H= ?=H=?JAHE =H I AH I HA= AI AI = @A ?KAHF H@A =@

,A

E?E  # 7 ?KAHF (K, +, ) @ J=@ @A K = HA =?E @A H@A J J=

< IA @E?A K
?KAHF H@A =@  IE IA ?K F A =I IECKEA JAI FH FEA@=@AI @A ? F=JE>E E@=@
 x > 0, y > 0 xy > 0

 y < z x + y < x + z
5E K AI K ?KAHF H@A =@ O x K A J ?AI >EA x > 0 x = 0 x < 0 - A FHE AH ?=I IA @E?A GKA x AI F IEJEL EA JH=I x AC=JEL IEC E ?= x < 0 5A @A J= F H K + = I A A A J I F IEJEL I @A K = @A E?E  # @E?A GKA A H@A AI E L=HE= JA F H JH=I =?E AI  O GKA K + AI E L=HE= JA BHA JA = FH @K?J 

2H F IE?E
 K
+

$

AI E L=HE= JA BHA JA = = IK =
=@ = JH=L I @A A A ?KAHF K IJ I IA @E?A GKA I H@A =@ I I

 x<y yx>0
-I J= >E D=>EJK= E JH @K?EH = ?E @A ?KAHF H@A I A A A J I F IEJEL I - AIJA A B GKA FHE AH IA @EIJE CKA GKE AI I I A A A J I F IEJEL I K + 7 = LA ? ?E@ I y > x IE y x K + LAH  JH=I FH FEA@=@AI @A I ?KAHF =I IECKEA JAI

2H F IE?E

%
?AI x < 0 EA JH=I x < 0 x > 0 ?AI y < z xy < xz

 5E x > 0 A J 5E x > 0 A J ! - ?= >E

x < 0 O y < z E F E?= xy > xz

" 5E x = 0 HAIK J= x2 > 0 - F=HJE?K =H 1 > 0 ,A IJH=?E 2=H= FH >=H  IE x > 0 HAIK J= x + (x) > x KAC x < 0 =I @A I IA FHKA>= ECK= - AH?E?E   2=H= p N FHE ?KAHF H@A =@ ? IK H@A
IA @AIEC = F H Zp A ?KAHF Z/pZ =JKH= -I Zp K

"

+)2 67

 - +7-42

,-

-4 5 +

2 -

>IAHL=?E

AI  
H@A =@ F @A I? IE@AH=H = E OA??E
n)

= 5E K AI K ?KAHF

I:

N n

K I (n) = n 1 := 1+ +1.

1@A JE ?= @ I (N) ? N IA @A@K?A GKA J @ ?KAHF H@A =@ ? JEA A = I p H=?E = AI Q - ABA?J Q IA >JEA A ? Q = { : p, q Z, q = 0} EA JH=I q Z = {p : p N} {0} > - =I FH FEA@=@AI EIJ=@=I D=IJ= =D H= @A I ?KAHF I H@A =@ I IA >IAHL= E CK = ?=H=?JAH JE?= AIFA?E= GKA FAH EJ= @EIJE CKEH Q @A R -IJ= AI = IA = @A E@A JE@=@ @A = FH FEA@=@ @A ? JE KE@=@ ? F AJEJK@ GKA FHAIA J= I = ? JE K=?E JEL 5ECKA =D H= @ I ?E AI D=>EJK= AI @A I ? K J I H@A =@ I - ?= E ?= H@A =@ D=?A HABAHA ?E= = = ,A E?E  " ?B 

E?E  & + J=I 5A= K K ? K J H@A =@ E K 5A @E?A GKA b K AI K = ? J= IKFAHE H @A E IE x b F=H= ?=@= x E ,A = AH= IE JHE?= IA @A A ? J=
E BAHE H
5E E =@ EJA ? J= IKFAHE H IA @E?A =? J=@ IKFAHE H A JA

,A

,A

E?E  ' 5KFHA I 5A= E K K H@A =@ = J @ A A A J c K GKA ?K F = =I FH FEA@=@AI

5E b < c A J ?AI b AI ? J= IKFAHE H @A E

5A = = IKFHA

@A E

 c AI ? J= IKFAHE H @A E
2K@EAH= D=>AH A A A J I c ? J= AI FH FEA@=@AI 5E K J= c ANEIJA AI F H  A?AI=HE= A JA E? -IJ IKCEAHA = J=?E sup E = ?E @A
 IA E JH @K?A @A = AH= IE JHE?=

,A

E?E   7 ? K J H@A =@ K F IAA = FH FEA@=@ @A IKFHA HAFA?JEL= A JA  IE J @ ? K J E K =? J=@ IKFAHE H A JA E BA HE H A JA =@ EJA IKFHA  
5A ?K F A = IECKEA JA FH FEA@=@ ?B 

6A HA =   5E K ?
A J ?AI J= >E

K J ?K F A = @A

H@A =@ K F IAA = FH FEA@=@ @A IKFHA

- FH ?AI CA JE? GKA AL= @A N = Q ? IEIJA A EH @ J= @ @A FKAIJ I A E LAHI I = I A A A J I @A N ,AI@A AIJA FK J @A LEIJ= Q AIJ E>HA @A @ABA?J I IE A >=HC IA JEA A = IECKEA JA FH FEA@=@

2H F IE?E

  - ? K J {x Q : x2 < 2} EA JH=I {y Q : y 2 > 2} J= F ? F IAA A Q

=@ EJA IKFHA



-4 5 4-) -5 24 21-,),-5

-IJ E F ?EJ A = FH F IE?E GKA AI F IE> A D= =H F H JH= F=HJA IA @A KAIJH= @A = AH= @EHA?J=

2 A Q DA?D GKA

- AH?E?E  p GKA = 2 @ q

2H >=H GKA @A p, q I

ANEIJA x Q J= GKA x2 = 2 ) J= F=HAI IE K J A= A JA

IKF

C=IA

- GKA K ?KAHF H@A =@ K F IA= = FH FEA@=@ @A IKFHA GKEAHA @A?EH GKA K AI A ?EAHJ= B H =
? JE K  AI @A?EH FHAIA J=
IKH=I 6 F CE?= A JA D=> = @ AIJ IEC E ?= GKA AI ?AHH=@ BHA JA = F=I = EJA IE GKEAHA GKA AI
? F AJ  - AIJA IA JE@ Q AI @ABA?JK I O = H= @A ? IJHKEH R AI = @A = F E=H Q F=H= E ? KEH A K = A L JKH= J F CE?= A JA ?AHH=@=

,A

E?E  ! 5A @E?A GKA K ?KAHF HA= AI IE R F IAA = FH FEA@=@ @A IKFHA

H@A =@ R AI K ?KAHF @A

AH I

7 FH > A = =JKH= AI A @A = ANEIJA ?E= @A K ?KAHF @A AH I HA= AI ?KAIJE GKA = = AI @A IEC :1: IA ? ?=? A
FH > A = @A ? JE K    / += J H O 4 ,A@A E @ @EAH A &%$ FHKA>=I @EIJE J=I @A = ANEIJA ?E= @A K J= ?KAHF = F=HJEH @A I AH I H=?E = AI Q - FHE AH = JH=L I @A =I IK?AIE AI @A +=K?DO A IACK @ F H A@E @A =I =I @A E =@=I
? H J=@KH=I @A AH I H=?E = AI 6= AI ? IJHK??E AI BKAH I FHE AH I BHKJ I F H ?EAHJ >=IJ= JA ? JH LAHJE@ I A IK JEA F F H @A?EH HAL K?E =HE I GKA =F HJ = = =JA JE?= @A JE ?K=HJ @A :1: = HA?E AIJHA =@= JA H = @A ? K J I ,=LE@ 0E >AHJ A FHAIJECE I =JA =JE? = A @K@ A ?= E ?=H @A
F=H= I  A KAL AI?A =HE GKA @E?D= JA H = FH FE?E A = =JA JE?= ?B  I ?KF= I @A J= AI ? IJHK??E AI @A R FAH I HAIK J=@ I >JA E@ I I AGKEL= A JAI F HGKA J @ I I ?KAHF I @A AH I HA= AI ? E ?E @A  @K E@A JE ?=?E AI = >=IA @A AIJ= = H =?E H=@E?= A GKA J @ ?KAHF H@A =@ ? JEA A K = ? FE= @A I AH I H=?E = AI Q  >IAHL=?E  

6A HA =  " 5A= R K ?KAHF @A

AH I HA= AI - J

?AI

E 2H FEA@=@ )HGKE A@E= = ,=@ x > 0 F=H= J @ y R ANEIJA n N J= GKA nx > y - F=HJE?K =H ANEIJA K E? m Z J= GKA (m 1)x y < mx EE ,A IE@=@ @A Q ,=@ I x < y ANEIJA q Q J= GKA x < q < y >IAHL=?E  6 @ AIF=?E JHE? (X, d) IA FKA@A ? F AJ=H = JH (Y, d) @A IKAHJA GKA X Y A K IA JE@ = FHA?EI=H - FH ?AI  A H F E?= @A = ? IJHK??E @A += J H @A R E@A JE ?= I A A A J I @A Y ? =I IK?AIE AI @A +=K?DO @A X = FH FEA@=@ FHA?A@A JA AIJ=> A?A GKA J @ ?KAHF @A AH I HA= AI IA E@A JE ?= ? =I IK?AIE AI @A +=K?DO @A
IKI AH I H=?E = AI - ABA?J EE = H = GKA J @ x R AI A EJA @A K = IK?AIE @A AH I H=?E = AI -I F H A GKA J @ I I ?KAHF I @A AH I HA= AI I EI HB I - ? IA?KA ?E= = F=HJEH @A =D H= D=> =HA I @A
K I ?KAHF  @A AH I HA= AI GKA @AIEC =HA I F H R

+)2 67

 - +7-42

,-

-4 5 +

2 -

,A

IJH=?E

@A 6A HA =  " E 5KF

EA @ y > 0 IE BKAIA

nx y
F=H= J @ n ANEIJEH = K IKFHA

c @A {nx}nN ? c x < mx

GKA

F=H= = C

m N ,A =D c < (m + 1)x GKA y x > 0 IA JEA A @A E GKA yx> 1 , n

AI F IE> A

EE +

F=H= = C

nN?

GKA

x<x+
)IE EI

1 < y. n

IA IECKA = ANEIJA ?E= @A m1 , m2 N @A IKAHJA GKA

nx < m1 ,
AI @A?EH

nx < m2 ,

m2 < nx < m1 .
2 H EJK@ ANEIJA K E? m Z J= GKA

m 1 nx < m,
? GKA = IACK @= = H =?E @A E GKA@= FH >=@= EA JH=I

m1 m x< . n n
,A =D IA ? ? KOA

x<

m 1 x + < y. n n

= E@A= F=H= FH >=H EE AI FHE AH= A JA AIJE =H F H @ABA?J 1 1 = @EIJ= ?E= y x ? ,AIFK I IA E@A x J = @ ? K E@=@ n n - FH > A = BK @= A J= @A = ANJH=??E @A H= ?AI I LAH A ?K= GKEAH ?KAHF R @A AH I HA= AI IE =I IA FKA@A HA

>IAHL=?E

!

6A HA =  # 2=H= J @ x R x > 0 ANEIJA K

y n = x.

E? y > 0 J= GKA



-4 5 4-) -5 24 21-,),-5

n n ,A IJH=?E = 7 E?E@=@ -I ? IA?KA ?E= @A GKA y1 < y2 y1 < y2 > -NEIJA ?E= 5A ? IE@AH= A ? K J

E = {t R : tn < x}.
4AIK J= GKA E = FKAI ,A DA?D ) >I HLAIA GKA

1 E. 1 + x1 (1 + z )n > 1 + nz, y = sup E. z > 0.

GKA ANEIJA

C= A JA b = 1 + x AI ? J= IKFAHE H @A E ? I GKA FKA@A IAH

2H >=

yn < x (y + h)n < x.

= BK ?E

F HGKA ANEIJEH = h > 0 ? = ? =LA AIJ A

A@EH A E ?HA A J A

bn ,A DA?D 0 < a < b.

= @ 0<h<1

bn an < nbn1 (b a),

0=O GKA A ACEH h > 0 @A B H = GKA (y + h)n y n < x y n 6 F=H= GKA >=IJ= ? GKA

(y + h)n y n < nh(y + h)n < nh(y + 1)n < x y n , x yn }. n(y + 1)n

h < m n{1,
6= F ? FKA@A IAH F HGKA A ? JH= I h > 0 J= GKA

y n > x, (y h)n > x.

- ABA?J IA JEA A

(y h)n x = y n x (y n (y h)n )
O IA >KI?= 0 < y < h F=H= GKA

y n (y h)n < y n x.
7I= @ = AIJE =?E JA AH HAIK J= y n = x O DA = JAHE H IA JEA A

y n (y h)n < nhy n1

O >=IJ= ? - ? ? KIE

0<h<

yn x . ny n1 I JAH E =@

&

+)2 67

 - +7-42

,-

-4 5 +

2 -

AH I ?

FA I

7 FH > A = BK @= A J= @AI@A I JEA F I @A = =JA JE?= >=>E E?= O ACEF?E= AI A @A = HAI K?E @A A?K=?E AI = CA>H=E?=I ?B  0=O A?K=?E AI = CA>H=E?=I A R GKA ?=HA?A @A I K?E ?

x2 + 1 = 0.

 

GKA D=O - ABA?J = 2H F IE?E  % = H = GKA x = 0 x2 > 0 F H A A A J I A R GKA I=JEIB=C= @E?D= A?K=?E -IJA FH > A = IA HAIKA LA ANJA @EA @ R = K ?KAHF I = F E C GKA E JH @K?E I =D H=

,A

E?E

 $ - ?KAHF C @A I

AH I ?

F A I IA @A

A?

C = {(a, b) : a, b R},

=I FAH=?E

AI
+ O

(a, b) (c, d) = (ac bd, ad + bc).

(a, b) + (c, d) = (a + c, b + d),

5KI A A A J I CA HE?= A JA @AIEC =@ I F H z IA = =

AH I ?

FA I

2H F IE?E

 % (C, +, ) AI K ?KAHF A A GKA

= {(x, 0) : x R}

AI K IK>?KAHF EI

HB = R 5E z = (a, b) A J
z 1 = a2

?AI
.

a b , 2 2 + b a + b2

2H F IE?E

 & -

AH ?

FA
i := (0, 1),

I=JEIB=?A i2 = (1, 0)
- ? K J C @A I AH I ? F A I AI IE K
FH @K?J  -IJ= FHAIA J=?E @A I AH I ? = . /=KII O BKA A IK A J A FHE AH JH=J= @A AH I -I F H J= J K R AIF=?E LA?J HE= @

R2 A @ @A IA D= @A E@ F A I IA @A>A @EHA?J= A JA EA J HECKH I @A AIJ= ? =IA @A F=H= R

z := (, 0) (a, b) = (a, b).

+ I ? F A I {(a, 0) : a R} ? IJEJOA K = ? FE= @A R AI ? IJK >HA AI?HE>EH a A KC=H @A (a, 0) *= AIJ= >IAHL=?E IA JEA A

2H F IE?E

 ' 6 @ ?

FA

z IA AI?HE>A A z = a + bi.

=B H =
 

-4 5 +

2 -

'

5A ? ?A = i ? = K E@=@ E =CE =HE= 5EA @ 1 = (1, 0) HAIK J= GKA i I =I I K?E AI @A = A?K=?E  

,A E?E   2=H= z = (a, b) = a + bi C IA ? HA= A E =CE =HE= @A z O IA @A J=

a= z, b= z.

?A = a, b ?

=I F=HJAI

) A ?

C= A JA IA @AIEC = F H FA ? KC=@ @A z

z = a bi

5ECKA =D H= K = >LEA@=@

2H F IE?E

  ,=@ I z1 , z2 C IA JEA A
z1 = z2 ( z1 = z2 & z1 = z2 ).

)?

JE K=?E

K CHKF @A FH FEA@=@AI > IE?=I

2H F IE?E
 z =z

5A= z, w C A J

?AI

z+w =z +w

! zw = z w z+z zz " z= z= 2 2i # zz R+ z z =0z =0 - AH?E?E  ! 7 F E E @A ? A ?EA JAI ? F A I IA @A A ? p(z ) = n k AI a z @ @A I a C 2HK >AIA GKA AI H= @A p IE O I IE n k k k=0 n k H= @A F E E p (z ) = k=0 a nk z ,A IJH=H =IE EI IECKEA JA E 5E p(z ) JEA A ? A ?EA JAI HA= AI
H= H=  EE 5E p(z ) JEA A ? A ?EA JAI HA= AI O CH=@ E F=H A J H= HA= ?AI =@ EJA = A IK =

,A

E?E

 ! ,=@ I z, w C IA @A A IK FH @K?J AI?= =H ?

z, w = (z w ),

F H

J= J

@K

@A K ?

FA

z IK
|z | = z z .

H = AK? @A= IA @A

2H F IE?E
|z | = |z |

 " 5A= z, w C A J ?AI

 |z | 0 O |z | = 0 z = 0



+)2 67

 - +7-42

,-

-4 5 +

2 -

! |zw| = |z ||w| " | z | | z | | z | |z | # | z + w | |z | + | w | $ |z w|2 = |z |2 + |w|2 2 z w

= 2H F IE?E  " E JH @K?A = @EIJ= ?E= AK? @A= A C O = FHE ?EF= ? ? KIE AI GKA = J F C = @A C AI = @A R2 ? = H = AK? @A= ,AI@A AIJA FK J @A LEIJ= @= I
EFI B=?J  IA JE@ = J @=I =I F IE> AI ?KAIJE AI @A ? LAHCA ?E= A C IK?AIE AI IAHEAI EJAI ? JE KE@=@ ? F=?E@=@ ? ANE AJ? >IJ= JA @AJ= =HA I = CK I =IFA?J I I =@A = JA

,A

E?E

 # ,=@ I z, w C = @EIJ= ?E= AK? @A= A JHA = > I IA @A A

dist(z, w) = |z w|.

4AFHAIA J=HA

I = > = KI=HA

I J= >E

A J H E

@EI?  =>EAHJ= ?

D(z0 , r) = {z : |z z0 | < r}.

)>HALE=HA

I D = D(0, 1) A @EI? K E@=@ )IE EI

D(z0 , r) = {z : |z z0 | = r}.

@AIEC =H

= BH

JAH= @A D(z0 , r)

>IAHL=?E  " - J @ AIF=?E JHE? IA FKA@A A ACEH K = E E@=@ @A JHE?=I AGKEL= A JAI - IK A J ? IE@AH=HA I JHE?=I = JAH =JEL=I = = AK? @A=

!

- =HCK A J
@E?A GKA = =F E?=?E

5A FHKA>= A A )F

h:
AI I >HAOA?JEL= -I @=@ z = 0 ANEIJA K

D cos + i sen
GKA  !

I IK HAIJHE??E h0 = [0, 2 ) AI >EOA?JEL= O AI F H A E? [0, 2 ) J= GKA

z = |z | cos + i|z | sen ,

GKA AI = HAFHAIA J=?E JHEC JHE?= @A z ? [0, 2 ) 2 H JH= F=HJA h AI 2 FAHE @E?= O = HAIJHE??E h @A h = ?K= GKEAH E JAHL= [, 2 + ) J= >E AI >EOA?JEL= ? GKA D=O K = E?= HAIFHAIA J=?E A = B H =  ! IEA FHA GKA IA HAIJHE = = L=HE=H A K E JAHL= @A CEJK@ J J= 2 @A = B H = [, 2 + ) - JH=I F= =>H=I F=H= z C \ {0} IA JEA A GKA

 ! - )4/7 - 6 =@ R ANEIJA K J @ I I @A @A = B H = F=H= = C E? [, + 2 ) J= GKA  ! IA ?K F A I GKA  ! IA ?K F A I



I R F=H=

A?AI=HE= A JA

= + 2k,

kZ

5AC IA E @E?= A A )F @E?A O JH=I = F HJK = @A E?E @A = BK ?E ANF A ?E= ? F A = ?B +=F JK 111 IA I=JEIB=?A = B H K = @A -K AH

ei = cos + i sen .
3KEA AI FHA AH= AIFAH=H D=IJ= A +=F JK 111 FKA@A KI=H h() A =I FH FEA@=@AI BK @= A J= AI GKA A F A=HA I KC=H @A ei

h(t + s) = h(t)h(s),
IA @A KAIJH= A A =F 2 H J= J AI @E?A O I

h(0) = 1,
? DAHA JAI ? =

h(/2) = i,
J=?E ANF A ?E=  "

z = |z |ei

GKA IA ? ?A ? = HAFHAIA J=?E ANF A ?E= @A z ) I ABA?J I @A FHAIA JA ?KHI I E JAHAI= ? ?AH = @AFA @A ?E= A z @A I @ELAHI I L= HAI @A IA = =@ I A =I HA =?E AI  ! O  " 5A AI ? ?A ? I =HCK A J I @A z 2 @HA I ?KE@=@ A @EBAHA ?E=H I =HCK A J I ? AH I L= HAI @A GKA ?K F A  !  " F=H= K z =@ @A ? ?AF J @A
BK ?E =HCK A J  =@A = J= @ GKA AI F IE> A A ACEH E EJ=I @A J= AI BK ?E AI

E?E  $ 7 =HCK A J @A z C \{0} AI J @ L= H @A GKA @= L= E@A = ?K= GKEAH= @A =I ANFHAIE AI  !  " 4AFHAIA J=HA I F H arg z = E? @A J= AI [0, 2 ) EA JH=I GKA = =HA I =HCK A J FHE ?EF= Arg z = E? (, ]
2=H= K ? F A @=@ z IEA FHA GKA IA D=> A @A =HCK A J I IA A JA @AH z = 0 J @ I IKI =HCK A J I IA FKA@A HAFHAIA J=H A = B H =

,A

{arg z + 2k : k Z}.

2H F IE?E 2H F IE?E

 % ,=@ I z1 , z2 C z1 = z2 IE O I
|z1 | = |z2 | &

IE

arg z1 = arg z2 .

, 1 , 2 A J

?AI

 & 5A= z, z1 , z2 ?

FA I?

=HCK A J I , 1 , 2 O

@K I

 z = ei

1 = 1 ei z z1 1 z1 z2 = 1 2 ei(1 +2 ) = ei(1 2 ) z2 2

+)2 67

 - +7-42

,-

-4 5 +

2 -

! 2=H= n N IA JEA A B H K = @A @

ELHA

z n = n ein = n (cos n + i sen n).

>I HLA GKA AI ?EAHJ GKA arg z1 z2 = arg z1 + arg z2 AI ? HHA?J=I I

arg

arg z2

=I HA =?E

z1 = arg z1 z2 (mod 2 ).

arg z1 z2 = arg z1 + arg z2

(mod 2 ),

arg

z1 = arg z1 arg z2 z2

) I ABA?J I @A =I @A E?E AI GKA IECKA F=H= R h @AIEC = = HA IJHE??E @A h = E JAHL= [, + 2 ) = {th( ) : t 0}  = IA EHHA?J= ?AHH=@= @AI@A 0 = ? @EHA??E h( ) = C \  A F = C
? HJ=@ = =HC @A 

2H F IE?E

 ' 2=H= R IA @A A = BK ?E
arg : C \ {0} z [, + 2 ) z 1 h . |z |

5A I=JEIB=?A A J

?AI =I IECKEA JAI FH FEA@=@AI

z = |z |ei arg z .
 #

 2=H= ?=@= z arg z AI K =HCK A J @A z

 arg AI ? I=

JE K= A EA JH=I AI @EI? arg AI C A ?

(arg )x = x , |z |2

JE K= A ?=@= K

@A

I FK J I @A

(arg )y =

y . |z |2

! arg +2k = arg +2k " 2=H= [0, 2 ) IA JEA A

arg z = arg z arg z + 2 arg z < 2 0 arg z < .

>IAHL=?E  # =I FH FEA@=@AI ! " FAH EJA ANFHAI=H arg A J H E I @A arg - ABA?J J @ IA AI?HE>A = + 2k F=H= K E? [0, 2 ) 2 H J= J arg z + 2k arg z < 2 arg z = arg z + 2(k + 1) 0 arg z < . ,A IJH=?E @A = 2H F IE?E  ' 3KA arg AI ? JE K= A O IA ?K F A = E@A JE@=@  # AI ? IA?KA ?E= @A = @A E?E @A @E?D= BK ?E = @EI? JE KE@=@ A IA H= = =I ANEIJA n h( ) n h( ) |n | = |n | = 1

 ! - )4/7 - 6

!

l m arg (n ) = l m arg (n ) = + 2 5E z z = th( ) = l m tn = l m tn @A @ @A IA ? ? KOA = @EI? JE KE@=@ = HACK =HE@=@ AI I @A E?=@= O HAGKEAHA K H= = EA J
=@ D ? 0=?A I K = ? IJHK??E ANF ?EJ= @A = BK ?E arg z ,A E I Arctag x =
H= = @A = BK ?E =H? J= CA JA GKA J = L= HAI A A E JAHL= [/2, /2] - J ?AI z z 0, z > 0 Arctag z 2 z = 0, z > 0 arg z = Arctag z + z<0 z 3 z = 0, z < 0 2 Arctag z + 2 z > 0, z < 0. z
7 = EIEI ?KE@=@ I HALA = GKA arg z JEA A AI= ANFHAIE O GKA arg z AI C A C \ {0} = FH FEA@=@ ! IECKA @A DA?D @A GKA arg z + 2k AI K =HCK A J @A z A A E JAHL= [ + 2k, + 2(k + 1) ) ) C= A JA A =@ @AHA?D @A " AI K =HCK A J A A E JAHL= [, + 2 )

- AH?E?E  " 2=H= 0 1 < 2 < 2 ? F HA IA =I BK ?E AI argj j = 1, 2 5 K?E arg2 arg1 = 0 F=H= 2 arg2 z < 1 + 2 arg2 arg1 = 2 IE 1 arg z < 2 - AH?E?E  # 5A= 1 , 2 =H>EJH=HE I 0=?EA @ KI @A F HA IA =I BK ?E AI argj j = 1, 2 I L= HAI j ?

0A I A F A=@ A J H E =HCK A J @A z F=H= @AIEC =H K L= H J= GKA ei = z/|z | KAC DA I @A E@ BK ?E AI = (z ) GKA ? JE K=I A

@ E E I AIFA?E= AI =IEC = = ?=@= z A @E?D I @ E E I K L= H GKA AI K =HCK A J @A z -IJ= JE = =?AF?E FKA@A ANJA @AHIA = K = ?E ECAH= A JA I = F E= @A BK ?E =HCK A J

,A E?E  ! 5A= C \ {0} K =>EAHJ ? AN O g C (, R) 5A @E?A GKA (g, ) AI K = @AJAH E =?E  K =

H= = @A = BK ?E =HCK A J A  IE eig(z) = z/|z |
F=H= ?=@= z
+ IA?KA ?E= E A@E=J= @A = ? = IECKEA JA FH FEA@=@ JE KE@=@ O = ? ANE@=@ A = @A E?E AI

2H F IE?E
J ?AI

 ! 5A= (g1 , 1 ), (g2 , 2 ) @AJAH E =?E AI @A =HCK A J g2 = g1 + 2k

F=H= ?EAHJ A JAH k A ?=@= ? F=HJE?K =H g1 , g2 @E AHA A K

A JA ? AN= @A = E JAHIA??E 1 2 JEF A JAH @A 2 IE 1 = 2

"

+)2 67

 - +7-42

,-

-4 5 +

2 -

"

4= ?AI n IE =I
wn = z,
AI @EIJE J=I
arg z +2k n n

2=H= z C = A?K=?E =@ EJA AN=?J= A JA n I K?E

wk =

|z |ei

0 k n 1.

6= AI ANFHAIE AI @A A =I n H= ?AI n IE =I @A z 7I= @ = E@A JE ?=?E @A C ? R2 w0 , . . . , wn1 ? B H = K F C HACK =H @A n =@ I E I?HEJ A = ?EH?K BAHA ?E= @A H=@E n |z | ,A DA?D O @A =?KAH@ = = @A E?E GKA @= I K F ? I =>=

(wk , wk+1 ) =
@ @A F A I wn = w0

2 , n

k = 0 , . . . , n 1,

 ! 5A= fk (z ) fk : C C = BK ?E GKA =IEC = = ?=@= z IK k IE = H= - J ?AI fk AI ? JE K= A C \{x > 0} IEA @ IK ? K J E =CA 2k 2(k + 1) A IA?J H { arg z < } n n >IAHL=?E  $ =I H= ?AI n IE =I FKA@A E @EIJE J= A JA ANFHAI=HIA A@E = JA ?K= GKEAH @AJAH E =?E @A =HCK A J 2 H A A F
k =
n

2H F IE?E

|z |ei

arg z +2k n

0 k n 1. n IE =
BK ?E

- F=HJ ?K =H IA ? ?A ?
H= = FHE ?EF=  @A = H=
F=HJA FHE ?EF=  @A = H= n IE = = = =F E?=?E

f (z ) =

|z |ei

Arg z n

#
,A
?=?E

.K ?E
E?E

AI ?

F A =I
I J= AI BK ?E AI A B H = =>HALE=@= ?

 !! 7 = BK ?E ? F A = f @A L=HE=> A ? F A = AI J @= =F E f : A C C A AI IK @ E E f (A) IK ? K J E =CA

+ BHA?KA ?E= HAFHAIA J=HA w = f (z ) 2 EA @ AI @A?EH u = R2 AI I EI

f (z ) = u + iv
? F A = f AGKEL= A = K = =F E?=?E @A

f v = f J @= BK ?E @A = B H = F : A R2 (x, y )

R2 F (x, y ) = (u(x, y ), v (x, y )).

>IJ= JA O ? H = CA AH= ALEJ=HA I A F IE> A =FA =H = = B H = HA= F @A =I BK ?E AI GKA KI=HA I A A ?KHI -IJ= F JE?= AI F H JH= F=HJA LA J= I= F=H= K?D I @A I ? ?K I GKA =BH J=HA I A AIFA?E= =GKA I A @ @A F H F AH K A A F A FH @K?J @A ? F A I KAC= K F=FA HA AL= JA

 # .7 +1

-5 +

2 - )5

#

-A F I %
 = BK ?E E A= =B

f (z ) = az + b,
 2 E E I
n

a, b C.

p(z ) =
k=0

ank z k = a0 z n + + an ,
AI >E E A= AI

aj C .

! .K ?E

AI JH= IB H =?E

f (z ) =
" .K ?E AI H=?E = AI

az + b , cz + d

a, b, c, d C.

f (z ) =
# 4= =I @A = H=

p(z ) = q (z )

n k k=0 ank z m l l=0 bml z

a0 z n + + an . b0 z m + + bm

n IE = 7I= @ A =HCK A J FHE ?EF=

n

fk (z ) =
- A ?=I @A = H=

|z |ei

Arg z +2k n

k = 0 , . . . , n 1.
@A

?K=@H=@= IJ=I I

f0 (z ) O f1 (z ) = f0 (z ) @

f0 (z ) = = =

|z |eiArg

z/2

|z | (cos Arg z/2 + i sen Arg z/2) |z | |z | + x + i signo y 2|z | |z | + x + i signo y |z | x 2|z | |z | x .

1 = 2

=I BK ?E AI ? F A =I A A A J= AI = @A EH BK ?E AI @A F = A I EI FKA@A E JAHFHAJ=HIA ? JH= IB H =?E AI CA JHE?=I 1 JH @K?E I FHE AH K = @A E?E

,A
?

E?E

 !" ,=@ I z1 , z2 C A
(z1 , z2 ) = arg

CK

HEA J=@ @A z1 = z2 IA @A

z2 [0, 2 ). z1
LA ?E =

KAIJH= @A 2 H @A E?E

E?E

@A

CK

HEA J=@ @E AHA @A = AK? @A= ?

(z1 , z2 ) = arg

z2 = t, z1

$ ?

+)2 67

 - +7-42

,-

-4 5 + E?

2 -

z2 = h(t) = h( t ) @ @A F=H= ?=@= t R t @AIEC = = z1 GKA I=JEIB=?A =I HA =?E AI t = t + 2k O t [0, 2 ) + t = 2 t ,

EA JH=I

AH HA=

IA JEA A GKA

z1 = h(t) = h( t ) HAIK J= GKA z2 (z2 , z1 ) = 2 (z1 , z2 ).

AH= @A AIFAH=H (z2 , z1 ) AI A

FKAIJ  @A (z1 , z2 )

>IAHL=?E
 5A ?

AI  &

FHKA>= GKA

(z1 , z2 ) = arg z2 arg z1

FK@E @ IA HAA F = =H A @E?D= ANFHAIE  (1, z ) = arg z (z, 1) = 2 arg z

(mod 2 ),

arg z F H arg z

,A

CK

E?E

 !# 5A @E?A GKA = =F E?=?E f : C C AI K CEH @A ?A JH z0 [0, 2 ) IE  f (z0 ) = z0  |f (z ) z0 | = |z z0 | O

(z z0 , f (z ) z0 ) = ,

F=H= ?=@= z = z0 - AH?E?E  $ 0= =H = ANFHAIE @A f (z ) A = @A E?E FHA?A@A JA

5A= 1 , 2 @ I ?KHL=I @A ? =IA C 1 F=H= AJHE =@=I F H IA @=I F=H= AJHE = ?E AI j : [a, b] C t j (t) = xj (t)+ iyj (t) j = 1, 2 ? LA?J HAI J= CA JAI A t [a, b] @=@ I F H j (t) = xj (t) + iyj (t) = FH FE= @A E?E @A ?KHL= C 1 HAGKEAHA GKA j (t) = 0 F=H= J @ t [a, b] LAH J= >E A +=F JK 8 5E @ I ?KHL=I C 1 E ?E@A A K FK J z0 IA @A A A CK HEA J=@ @A 1 = 2 A z0 ? (1 (t0,1 ), 2 (t0,2 )), @ @A z0 = j (t0,j ) j = 1, 2 = @AFA @A @A =I F=H= AJHE =?E AI

- AH?E?E  % 5A= j : [c, d] C j = 1, 2 F=H= AJHE =?E AI = JAH =JEL=I @A =I ?KHL=I 1 , 2 AI @A?EH j (s) = j (hj (s)) ? hj : [c, d] [a, b] @A ? =IA C 1 hj (s) = 0 F=H= J @ s [c, d] j = 1, 2 5KF EA @ GKA 1 2 E ?E@A A z0 O GKA t0,j = hj (s0,j ) j = 1, 2 FHK >AIA GKA = @A E?E FHA?A@A JA @A CK @AFA @A @A IE IA KI= =I F=H= AJHE =?E AI j j
= GKA IECKA AI K = ?E E F HJ= JA F=H= = E JAHFHAJ=?E CA JHE?= @A =I BK ?E AI ? F A =I GKA I @AHEL=> AI IAC LAHA I I J=H@A

 # .7 +1

-5 +

2 - )5

%

,A

@A ? =IA C 1 5A @E?A GKA F AI ? B H A IE AI E OA?JEL= A =? >E= IA = K = A E C FK J O F FHAIAHL= A CK HEA J=@ @A =I ?KHL=I E ?E@A JAI AI @A?EH
(u,v ) (x,y )

K = BK ?E

E?E

 !$ 5A= R2 K =>EAHJ O F : R2 F (x, y ) = (u(x, y ), v (x, y ))

(F (1 )), F (2 )) = (1 , 2 ).

-A F I '  6H=I =?E AI = BK ?E K = JH=I =?E @A LA?J H a C

0 JA?E=I 2=H= a > 0 = BK ?E @A H= a ?A JH z = 0 ! /EH I IAC

f (z ) = z + a a C HAFHAIA J=
JA?E= CK

f (z ) = az HAFHAIA J= K = D

= BK ?E f (z ) = ei z ? IJEJKOA K CEH @A ?A JH z = 0 O ? FH >= I =D H= - ABA?J

|w| = |z |,
F=H= w = ei z KAC w @EIJ= EI GKA z @A HECA 2 H JH =@

(z, w) = (z, ei z ) =
GKA E B H = GKA A CK @A z = w AI K CEH @A CH=@ I = HA@A@ H @A HECA A JHA > 0 O < 0 JAIA GKA IE > 0 GKA IEC E ?= GKA DA I @=@ ,A>A >IAHL=HIA = @EBAHA ?E=

(z, ei z ) = 2
O A HAIK J=@ AI ? A - AH?E?E  & " ? IE DK>E IA I CEH=@ = HA@A@ H @A HECA LAH

LE EA J I H CE@ I = BK ?E f (z ) = az + b ? a, b C |a| = 1 FHA @A = I LE EA J I H CE@ I @A F = JH=I =?E AI O CEH I

# 5E a = |a|ei = BK ?E f (z ) = az HAFHAIA J= K CEH IACKE@ @A K = D JA?E= @A H= |a| 2 H J= J = BK ?E f (z ) = az + b a, b ? FHA @A = J @=I =I IA A = =I CEH I JH=I =?E AI O D JA?E=I $ 5E AJH = =NE= = BK ?E ? KC=@ f (z ) = z HAFHAIA J= K = IE AJH = =NE= ? HAIFA?J = A A HA= >I HLAIA GKA AIJ= JH= IB H =?E E LEAHJA = HEA J=?E A A IA JE@ IECKEA JA

( z1 , z 2 ) = 2 (z1 , z2 ) = (z2 , z1 ).
% 1 LAHIE 7 = E LAHIE @A F ?E z w A = GKA w AIJ A |z ||w| = k 2 H J= J

z = 0 O F JA ?E= k > 0 AI = JH= IB H = EI = IA EHHA?J= GKA 0 O z ?K F EA @ w= k . z

&

+)2 67

 - +7-42

,-

-4 5 +

2 -

=I E LAHIE AI JH= IB H = HA?J=I GKA F=I= F H A F A IE EI =I HA?J=I GKA F=I= F H A F A ?EH?K BAHA ?E=I GKA F=I= F H A F ?EH?K BAHA ?E=I GKA F=I= F H A F A HA?J=I GKA F=I= F H A F O ?EH?K BAHA ?E=I GKA F=I= F H A F A ?EH?K BAHA ?E=I GKA J= F ? F=I= F H A F - AH?E?E  ! 2 H JH =@ I E L KJEL=I A A IA JE@ @A =F E?=@=I @ I LA?AI @= KC=H = = E@A JE@=@ >I HLAIA = A JA GKA = BK ?E 1 f (z ) = , z AGKEL= A = =F E?=H K = E LAHI @A H= 1 IACKE@= @A K = IE AJH = =NE= & 6H= IB H =?E AI >E E A= AI T (z ) =

JAHE HAI 5A AIJK@E= A

az + b + cz + d = IECKEA JA IA??E

FHA @A = J @=I =I =

- AH?E?E  & 0 A IA =I A?K=?E AI HA= AI @A = JH= IB H =?E w = ei z FH >= @ GKA @A A K = JH= IB H =?E HJ C = GKA FHAIAHL= = HEA J=?E @A AIF=?E AK? @A R2 + IJEJKOA K CEH @A CH=@ I IAC = JAH E C= AK? @A= - AH?E?E  ' 0 A IA =I BK ?E ?E AI CA JHE?=I = 0 JA?E= @A ?A JH z0 O H= CK

AI GKA HAFHAIA J=
a>0

=I IECKEA JAI JH= IB H =

> /EH @A ?A JH z0 O

? 5E AJH = =NE= ? HAIFA?J = = HA?J= GKA F=I= F H K @EHA??E @A ? F A ei0 @ 1 LAHIE @A F

z0 O F JA ?E= k > 0

FK J z0 O JEA A =

- AH?E?E   2H >=H GKA

za b = 0, a, b C, b = 0,

@A

A = A?K=?E

CA AH= @A K = HA?J= ,A@K?EH GKA

za b = 0, a, b C, b = 0,

J= >E

IJEJKOA = A?K=?E

@A = HA?J= LAH A - AH?E?E

 ? FA=

- AH?E?E   ,A@K?EH = A?K=?E @A K = ?EH?K BAHA ?E= A LAHIE -IJ @EA IA =I ? @E?E AI >= =I GKA
|z |2 + 2 z + d = 0 (d, C) (d, C)

>EA ? IJEJKOA = A?K=?E

|z |2 + 2 z + d = 0

@A K = ?EH?K BAHA ?E= L =IA A - AH?E?E

"

 $ 64) 5. 4 )+1

-5 *1 1 -) -5 1A

6)

'

- AH?E?E   2HK >AIA GKA J @= IA A = = f (z ) = cz + d c, d C JH= IB H = HA?J=I A HA?J=I O ?EH?K BAHA ?E=I A ?EH?K BAHA ?E=I - AH?E?E  ! 2HK >A IA =I FH FEA@=@AI @A =I E LAHIE @ % AI EIJ=@=I A A =F=HJ=

$

6H= IB H =?E
?E@=I ?

AI >E E A= AI 1a
AI @A >EKI -IJ

J=
@A E@=I F H

az + b , a, b, c, d C, cz + d @ @A F=H= >LE=H ?=I I JHELE= AI IA IKF A GKA := ab cd = 0 5E c = 0 JA A I K = IA A = = KAC IE c = 0 f (z ) = f (z ) = f3 f2 f1 (z ),

@A f1 (z ) = cz + d f2 (z ) = 1/z f3 (z ) = a1 z + b1 a1 = c2 b1 = ac1 ? FA @E @A J @=I =I JH= IB H =?E AI = JAHE HAI f =F E?= HA?J=I ?EH BAHA ?E=I A HA?J=I ?EH?K BAHA ?E=I 8AHA I A A +=F JK 18 GKA ? IA?KA ?E= @A = @AHEL=>E E@=@ =I JH= IB H =?E AI >E E A= AI @A A JH= I =?E AI ? B H AI FHAIAHL= @ A CK HEA J=@ A JHA ?KHL=I E ?E@A JAI A - AH?E?E ! IA FH F A K = FHKA>= @EHA?J= @A AIJA DA?D  *= = ? @E?E = 0GKA IEA FHA IKF @HA I A ? K J M @A =I JH= IB H =?E AI >E EA= AI B H = K CHKF 2 H A A F @ + ?K ? B H A

6= >E ? =I BK ?E AI

JH= IB H =?E

f 1 (z ) =

dz c . bz + a

5E @A J= I F H GL2 A CHKF @A =I =JHE?AI ? F A =I A E LAHJE> AI 2 2 = JH= IB H =?E : GL2 M @A E@= F H (A) = f ?

A=

a b c d

AI K D H I @A CHKF I I >HAOA?JEL  )@A I - AHE?E?E & (A) = (B ) IE O I IE A = B F=H= = C C = HAIJHE??E @A = =I =JHE?AI A ? @AJA = 1 AI J @=L = I >HAOA?JEL= - AH?E?E '

+)2 67

 - +7-42

,-

-4 5 +

2 -

%

)F

E?A K = HALEIE

@A JHEC
d dt

AJH =

5A I=>A GKA A FH > A = @A +=K?DO 2 d u + u = 0 dt2 u(t ) = u , u (t0 ) = u0 , 0 0

 $

=@ EJA F=H= t0 , u0 , u0 R =H>EJH=HE I K = E?= I K?E u = u(t) GKA AI @A ? =IA C 2 O AIJ @A E@= A R I= IE u = f (t) AI = I K?E ? HHAIF @EA JA = (t0 , u0 , u0 ) = (0, 1, 0) O u = g (t) AI = I K?E =I ?E=@= = (t0 , u0 , u0 ) = (0, 0, 1) A J ?AI J= I K?E IA FKA@A HAFHAIA J=H A = B H =

u(t) = u0 f (t t0 ) + u0 g (t t0 ).
-IJ=I = H =?E AI I ? IA?KA ?E= E A@E=J= @A = JA H = CA AH= @A A?K=?E AI @EBAHA ?E= AI H@E =HE=I >IJ= JA ? K F ? @A F=?EA ?E= IA FKA@A @=H K = @A IJH=?E @EHA?J= @A =I EI =I = FHE AH= E@A= ? =LA AI GKA J @= I K?E ?K F A

u + u2 = ?

IJ= JA.

,A =D IA IECKA = K E?E@=@ @A I K?E AI @A  $ = K E?E@=@ @E?A = IK LA GKA = ANEIJA ?E= IA HA@K?A = HAI LAH I @ I FH > A =I F=HJE?K =HAI  $ GKA @= KC=H = f (t) O g (t) = I=>AH

u +u=0 u(0) = 1, u (0) = 0

HAIFA?JEL= A JA 2=H= @AJAH E =H g IA >IAHL= GKA

u +u=0 u(0) = 0, u (0) = 1,

g + g 2 = 1,
EA JH=I g (t) IA @A A? = E LAHI= @A = BK ?E
u

 %


G(u) =
0

ds 1 s2
@A F H @A
1

1 < u < 1,
E?E  & A@E= JA HA ANE

A A E JAHL=

/2 t /2 @

:= 2
0

ds . 1 s2

)?

JE K=?E

g IA ANJEA @A = E JAHL= g (t) := g ( t)

/2 t 3/2 /2 t 3/2.

IA J=H =I BK ?E

 7 = E JAHAI= JA E@A= @A>E@= =

AI A JFE?=I ?

=JA JE? HKAC AE I 0 )>A IJA = KI F=H= FHA K = CA AH= E =?E @A =I BK ?E AI ?EH?K =HAI

 % )2

1+- 7 ) 4-8151

,- 641/

-64 )

.E = A JA g IA ANJEA @A = J @ R ? K = BK ?E 2 FAHE @E?= - HAIK J=@ AI K = BK ?E C 2 GKA HAIKA LA  $ F=H= I @=J I t0 = 0 u0 = 0 u0 = 1 7I = @ = A?K=?E IA LA GKA g AI @A ? =IA C O GKA J @=I IKI @AHEL=@=I I=JEIB=?A = EI = A?K=?E @EBAHA ?E= -IJ ? F AJ= = @A IJH=?E = K ?E=@=

2H F IE?E

 !% 5A I=JEIB=?A

=I IECKEA JAI FH FEA@=@AI AI C O 2 FAHE @E?= - F=HJE?K =H

g 2 = 1.

 g ?HA?EA JA A [/2, /2] O @A?HA?EA JA A [/2, 3/2]

f = g g = f F H J= J f J= >E f 2 = 0,

! f 2 + g2 = 1 " f (t) = f (t) g (t) = g (t) # f (t s) = f (t)f (s) g (t)g (s) $ g (t s) = g (t)f (s) f (f )g (s) >IAHL=?E   5A IECKA @A = FH F IE?E ?=I ? IE?=I 2 H A A F
f(
6= >E 2 H JH= F=HJA J @=I =I HA =?E AI JHEC JHE

t) = g (t), 2

g(

t) = f (t). 2

f (t + ) = f (t), f (2t) = f (t)2 g (t)2 ,

g (t + ) = g (t).

g (2t) = 2f (t)g (t).

; =I IK?AIEL= A JA

,A IJH=?E @A = 2H F IE?E  !%  IA IECKA @A = @A E?E >I HLAIA GKA |g (t)| 1 O GKA g = 1 g 2 A [/2, /2] 2=H=  KI= I u = g ? ?= @E@=J = I K?E @A  $ ? (t0 , u0 , u0 ) = (0, 1, 0) = K E?E@=@ @A I K?E AI @A  $ @= u = f 3KA g (/2) = 1 IA @A@K?A @A  & = HA =?E ! O A F=HJE?K =H f (/2) = 0 IA IECKA @A  % 2=H= = FHE AH= @A # >=IJ= >IAHL=H GKA u1 (t) = f (t + s) O u2 (t) = f (t)f (s) g (t)g (s) I I K?E AI @A EI FH > A =  &
4ABHAI?= @ A JA HA = @A 6=O H IA FHKA>= A IECKEA JA HAIK J=@

6A HA =  !&

=I BK ?E

AI f O g I

@A ? =IA C A R

I=
 '

f (t) =

(1)n 2n t , 2n! n=0

g (t) =

(1)n 2n+1 t , (2n + 1)! n=0

F=H= ?=@= t R

+)2 67 - LEHJK@ @A J @

 - +7-42

,-

-4 5 + E?E

2 -

ANFKAIJ IA JEA A = IECKEA JA @A

,A

cos t

E?E

EA JH=I @A

 !'

= BK ?E f (t) IA @AEC =H ? J=HA I g (t) = sen t

= JAH E

C = ? IE?= f (t) =
C=

=I BK ?E AI ? IA O IA IA @A E = BK ?E AI ?EH?K =HAI JAH E GKA IA ANF E?= F HGKA J= AI BK ?E AI F=H= AJHE = A ? H?K D

2H F IE?E

 " 5A @A A = =F E?=?E
h: R t D h(t) := cos t + i sen t.

- J

?AI
h(t + s) = h(t)h(s)

E h I=JEIB=?A F=H= J @ t, s R )@A IE O I EEE L I

h(t) = h(s) kZ

IE t = s + 2k F=H= = C

EE h AI I >HAOA?JEL= = HAIJHE??E = HAIJHE??E @A h = [0, 2 ) AI >EOA?JEL= A H I @A = B H = [, + 2 ) AI >EOA?JEL= A H I @A h = ?K= GKEAH E JAHL= EL h : (0, 2 ) D \ {1} AI K D

LE 2=H= J @ R h : (, + 2 ) D \ {h( )} AI K D

,A IJH=?E E IECKA @A = 2H F IE?E  !% 2 H JH= F=HJA IE h(t) = h(s) AI F HGKA h(t s) = 1 @A @ @A t s = 2k k Z - ?K= J = EE IA= 1 , . . . , 4 = E JAHIA??E @A D ? I ?K=JH ?K=@ H= JAI ?AHH=@ I =I =F E?=?E AI gj : 1 j j = 2, 3, 4 g2 (z ) = iz g3 (z ) = z g4 (z ) = iz @A A D A H I I )IE EI = H = I GKA h : J1 1 J1 = [0, /2] AI K D A H I -IJ E F E?= GKA =I HAIJHE??E AI @A h = I E JAHL= I J1 = [/2, ] J2 = [, 3/2] J3 = [3/2, 2 ] @A A D A H I I I >HA 2 , 3 O 4 HAIFA?JEL= A JA - ABA?J
h(t) = ih(t /2) h(t) = h(t ) h(t) = ih(t 3/2) t J2 t J3 t J4 ,

GKA FHKA>= = IACK @= = H =?E - F=HJE?K =H =I HAIJHE??E AI @A h = I E JAHL= I Jj = Jj \ {bj } j = 1, . . . , 4 bj A ANJHA IKFAHE H @A Jj AI >EOA?JEL= + D = j h(Jj ) AIJ KAIJH= GKA h AI >EOA?JEL= @A [0, 2 ) A D -IJ AI = FHKA>= @A EEE 8= I ? = FHE AH= @A =I = H =?E AI FHA?A@A JAI 6A A I GKA =I BK ?E AI f : J1 = [0, /2] [0, 1] O F : [0, 1] 1 @A E@= x (x, 1 x2 ) I D A H I I + h = F f HAIK J= GKA h : J1 1 JA >E AI K

 % )2

1+- 7 ) 4-8151

,- 641/

-64 )

D A H I .E = A JA EL ? = HAIJHE??E @A h = I E JAHL= I Jj AI K D A H I I >HA IK E =CA IA @AIFHA @A B ?E A JA GKA = HAIJHE??E @A h = (0, 2 ) AI - ABA?J zn z A D \ {1} IEC E ?= GKA zn z A = CK @A I j I= L GKA z Gj Gl A ?KO ?=I A H= = EA J F=H= FH >=H GKA h1 (zn ) h1 (z ) AI IE E =H 2=H= L O LE F A I J = [0, 2 ] T : J + { } J = BK ?E s s P : D D = =F E?=?E z h( )z = HAIJHE??E h @A h = J + { } IA AI?HE>A h = P h T 5EA @ P, T D A H I I IA ? ? KOA L O LE @A B H = E A@E=J= I =@A = JA A A +=F JK 111 E JH @K?EHA I = BK ?E ANF A ?E= ?

ez =
O A JHA JH=I ? I=I J @ z C 7I= @ IECKEA JA FH FEA@=@

zn , n! n=0

HAIK J= @EB ?E FH >=H GKA = IAHEA AI ? LAHCA JA F=H= = BK ?E ANF A ?E= IA FHKA>= L = =I IAHEAI  ' =

2H F IE?E

 " . H K = @A -K AH 5A JEA A

eit = cos t + i sen t,

F=H= ?=@= t R ,A IJH=?E

*=IJ= IKIJEJKEH z = it A = ANFHAIE A IAHEA F=H= ez

+=F JK

+


JE KE@=@ O J F
+ LAHCA ?E= O ?
A A +=F JK

C=A C

JE KE@=@ A C

5A E JH @K

1 = @EIJ= ?E= A C @=@= F H

@EIJ(z1 , z2 ) = |z1 z2 |.

2H F IE?E
(R2 , d2 ) @

 - AIF=?E JHE? (C, d) AI EI @A d2 AI = @EIJ= ?E= AK? @A=

JHE?= A JA D

HB =

= FH F IE?E = H = GKA @AI@A A FK J @A LEIJ= J F CE? C AI A EI > AJ GKA R2 ) CK =I @A =I FH FEA@=@AI GKA IECKA I ? IA?KA ?E= E A@E =J= @A AIJA DA?D 4A? H@A I A F=HJE?K =H GKA

m ax{| z |, | z |} |z | | z | + | z |.

2H F IE?E

5A I=JEIB=?A

=I IECKEA JAI FH FEA@=@AI ?AI

 5E {zn } AI K = IK?AIE

A CA J

l m zn = z

IE O I

IE
l m zn = z l m zn = z.

 {zn } AI @A +=K?DO L =IA = 5A??E +=K?DO ! = IK?A?E {z1 + + zn } AI ? O { z1 + + zn } ?

  IE O I IE

IE { zn } { zn } I I

@A

LAHCA JA IE O I

{ z1 + + zn }

l m z1 + + zn = l m z1 + + zn + i(l m z1 + + zn ).


+)2 67

61 71,), ; 6 2

/)-

" 5E : [a, b] C (t) = 1 (t) + i2 (t) A J ?AI ? 1 , 2 I ? JE K=I A t0 I= IE IA @A A

(t0 ) = l m
h0

JE K= A t0 IE O I

IE

(t0 + h) (t0 ) , h

= @AHEL=@= @A A t0 IKFKAIJ GKA A EJA ANEIJ= A J t0 IE O I IE 1 , 2 I @AHEL=> AI A t0 O

(t0 ) = 1 (t0 ) + i2 (t0 ).

?AI AI @AHEL=> A A

-A F I
 l m
in n+i n

=i

l m z = 0 IE |z | < 1 EA JH=I z n ? LAHCA IE |z | > 1 FKAI l m |z |n = 5E n |z | = 1 O z = 1 = IK?AIE z K ?= AI ? LAHCA JA - ABA?J A AIA ?=I |z n+1 z n | = |z 1|,
O zn FKA@A ?K F EH = ? @E?E @A +=K?DO ,A DA?D IA I=>A I ? I=I @A AIJ= =F=HA JA A JA E BA IEL= IK?AIE >EA A ? K J {z n } AI EJ >EA AI E EJ - FHE AH ?=I GKA@= ?=H=?JAHE =@ F H z = ei ? /2 Q - IACK @ ?=I A A GKA J @ I I L= HAI @A z n I A?AI=HE= A JA @EIJE J I A JHA I  ? HHAIF @A = /2 EHH=?E = O IA FKA@A @A IJH=H GKA {z n } AI @A I= A D J F =I @A E?E C = @A C AI @A EJA O ? JE KE@=@ @A BK ?E =I @AJ= = I F H ? F AJEJK@ AI I ? IA?KA ?E= @A =

=?K K =?E

,A

E?E

! 5A= f : D C C z0 D D A ? @A D IA @E?A GKA

z z 0

K J @A FK J I @A

l m f (z ) =

IE > 0 > 0 J= F=H= ?=@= 0 < |z z0 | < IA ?K F A |f (z ) | <

A =I FH FEA@=@AI D=>EJK= AI @A CA>H= @A EJAI =I A K ?E= HE =@= A JA FAH O= AIJ E F ?EJ=I A = 2H F IE?E  & 7 = FH FEA@=@ ? ?E@= AI = IECKEA JA I F H

2H F IE?E

" 5E f =@ EJA EJA ?K= @ z z0 f AIJ =? J=@= A K A J H HA@K?E@ {0 < |z z0 | < } D @A z0 5E = 0 A J ?AI f IA = K = A K ?EAHJ A J H HA@K?E@ @A z0 ,A
AI ?

E?E

# 5A= f : D C C O IKF C= I GKA D D 5A @E?A GKA f JE K= A z0 IE l m f (z ) = f (z0 ).

z z0

5E f AI ?

JE K= A J @ I

I FK J I @A D IA @EH GKA f AI ?

JE K= A D

 +

8-4/- +1) ; +

61 71,), -

6 FE?= A JA I @ E E I D @A KAIJH=I BK ?E AI ? F A =I f IAH =>EAHJ I =@DAHA ?E=I @A =>EAHJ I =I GKA D D 5E f = u + iv O F = (u, v ) AI = =F E?=?E HA= F : D R2 R2 =I ?E=@= = f HAIK J= >LE GKA

IE O I

2H F IE?E

IE u O v I

$ f AI ? JE K= A z0 IE O I
? JE K=I A z0

IE F AI ?

JE K= A z0 -I @A?EH

AHA?A = FA = @AIJ=?=H GKA

2H F IE?E

GKA IA= = IK?AIE

% f AI ? JE K= A z0 IE O I
zn GKA ?

LAH = = z0

IE f (zn ) f (z0 ) ?K= GKEAH=

+ O= IA @E A BK ?E AI @A L=HE=> A ? F A = ? BHA?KA ?E= HAIK J= @AI=IJH I =FA =H = =I F=HJAI HA= A E =CE =HE= @A f F=H= FH >=H FH FEA@=@AI ) ABA?J I @A = ? JE KE@=@ O ? A A ?=I HA=  HAIK J= @A CH= KJE E@=@ = IECKEA JA FH FEA@=@

2H F IE?E
 f + g AI ?

& 5A= f, g BK ?E AI ?

F A =I ?

JE K=I A z0 - J

?AI

JE K= A z0 F=H= , C =H>EJH=HE I

 f g AI ? JE K= A z0 f ! AI ? JE K= A z0 IE g (z0 ) = 0 g " 5E h AI K = BK ?E ? F A = GKA AI ? f (z ) = h(f (z )) J= >E AI ? JE K= A z0 -A F I

=I BK ?E AI  f (z ) = az + b az + b f (z ) = cz + d ! f (z ) = a0 z n + + an a0 z n + + an " f (z ) = b0 z m + + bm # f (z ) = z $ f ( z ) = |z | I ? JE K=I A IKI @ % f (z ) = arg z AI ? & f (z ) = n z @ @A E E I @A @A E?E

JE K= A w0 = f (z0 ) A J

?AI h

JE K= A C \ = {tei : 0}

z=

|z |eiArg

z/n

@AIEC = = H= = FHE ?EF= @A = H= IE = AI ? JE K= A C \ {x < 0} O EI IK?A@A ? =I HAIJ= JAI n 1 H= =I 5E KI= I arg A = @A E?E A J ?AI =I n H= =I f1 , . . . , fn I ? JE K=I A C\ C\{x > 0} IE JH=>= = I ? arg z 

" 4A? H@A

+)2 67 I GKA ?

61 71,), ; 6 2

/)-

z IA @AIEC = = H= = FHE ?EF= @A = H= (t0 ) A J

?AI

n AIE = @A

-A F
A t0 ?

! 5A= : [a, b] C @AHEL=> A A t0 ? @AHEL=@=

1 AI @AHEL=> A

(t0 ) . (t0 )2

- ABA?J
h 0

l m

1 1 1 { } h (t0 + h) (t0 ) = l m
h 0

1 (t0 + h) (t0 ) (t0 ) = . (t0 + h)(t0 ) h (t0 )2

= IECKEA JA @A

E?E

=FA =I JA @H HA AL= ?E= @A JH @A FHAIA JA ?KHI

,A

E?E ' 5A= G C =>EAHJ O f = u + iv K = BK ?E ? F A = @A A G 5A @E?A f AI C k A IA JE@ HA= 1 k  IE u, v C k (G)

-A F I
 f (z ) = CH=@ n ? ?EA JAI @ E E I "
n

E@=

z = P (x, y ) + iQ(x, y ) @ @A P, Q I F E E I D C A I @A 2 H J= J f AI C A IA JE@ HA= O J= J F E E I p(z ) ? @A F E E I p(z )/q (z ) I BK ?E AI C A IA JE@ HA= A IKI @A @A E?E  (x, y ) = arg (z ) AI C A IA JE@ HA= A \ O x = y , x2 + y 2 y = x . x2 + y 2

= BK ?E

- F=HJE?K =H

z AI C A C2 \ {z 0}

5AHEAI
,A ,A E?E  = IK?AIE zn AI @A +=K?DO IE F=H= J @ > 0 ANEIJA n N J= GKA |an am | < F=H= n, m n E?E  ,=@= = IK?AIE

zn IA @E?A GKA = IAHEA n=1 zn ? JEA A IK = z IE = IK?AIE Sn = z1 + + zn AI ? LAHCA JA O JEA A = IAHEA AI @ELAHCA JA IE Sn AI ? LAHCA JA

LAHCA O EJA z

= IAHEA ANEIJA n N J= GKA

6A HA =

n=1 zn

AI ?
m

LAHCA JA IE O I

IE F=H= J @ > 0

|
k =n

zk | <
n=1 zn

F=H= m n n - F=HJE?K =H IE

LAHCA A J

?AI l m zn = 0

! +

-:1,),

#
= IAHEA n=1 zn AI ? LAHCA JA IE O I zn I ? LAHCA JAI )@A I

2H F IE?E
n=1

zn O

n=1

!

IE =I IAHEAI

zn =
n=1 n=1 n=1

zn +
n=1

zn .

2H F IE?E
J= >E ?

LAHCA O

" 5E = IAHEA
|

|zn | AI ?

LAHCA JA A J

?AI = IAHEA

n=1 zn

zn |
n=1 n=1

|zn |.

!
,A
?

+
E?E

ANE@=@
= J F C=

I IK>? K J I ? F=?J I O ? AN I @A C I I @A R2 ? KIK= AHA?A = FA = HAI= J=H K = FH FEA@=@ JE @A ? ANE@=@

# ,=@ I z, w C A IAC A J [z, w] @A ANJHA

[z, w] = {tz + (1 t)w : t [0, 1]}.

I z, w IA @A

7 = F EC

= @A a C = b C AI
n = k =1 [zk , wk ],

@ @A zk = wk1 2 k n a = z1 b = wn 5A @E?A A AIJA ?=I GKA ? a? b

- A FHAIA JA ?KHI = =HA I @ E E @A C 5A JEA A = IECKEA JA ?=H=?JAHE =?E HACE

A?J=
AN

G = J @ =>EAHJ ?

2H F IE?E

@A G IA FKA@A ?

$ 7 =>EAHJ G C AI ? AN IE O I
A?J=H A@E= JA K = F EC

IE J @ F=H @A FK J I

= EI = @A IJH=?E FAH EJA FH >=H GKA = F EC = A = FH F IE?E = JAHE H FKA@A A ACEHIA ? J @ I I IAC A J I F=H= A I = K @A I A AI 4A? H@A I =D H= GKA IE D C AI K ? K J ?K= GKEAH= K = ? F A JA ? AN= C @A D AI J @= F=HJA ? AN= =NE = @A D =I ? F A JAI @A D IEA FHA I ?AHH=@=I A D O = B= E E= Ci @A =I ? F A JAI @A D ? B H = K = F=HJE?E @A D 5E D AI =>EAHJ A J ?AI IA FKA@A FH >=H GKA IKI ? F A JAI J= >E I =>EAHJ=I 6 @=I AIJ=I ?KAIJE AI B H = F=HJA @A K ?KHI @A J F C = CA AH= O IA HA?=FEJK = A LAH 

"

+ F=?JE ?=?E AH

@A C 2H OA??E

@A 5JAE

) K?D I ABA?J I ? LEA A E JH @K?EH A FKA@A D=?AH F H @ I L =I 7 = = = JE?= J F

C A FK J @A E EJ -IJ IA CE?= = JH= - IJA JE ?=I

+)2 67

61 71,), ; 6 2

/)I

C
EJAI

IA JH=J= @A = ? F=?JE ?=?E @A ) AN= @H E EJ I A A E EJ GKA =D H= E JH @K?E

@A C A A FHE AH @A I

,A

E?E

% 5A @E?A GKA
l m zn =

IE F=H= J @ M ANEIJA m N J= GKA |zn | > M F=H= J @ n m )

z z 0

C= A JA

l m f (z ) = ,

IE F=H= M > 0 =H>EJH=HE ANEIJA J= GKA |f (z )| > M F=H= 0 < |z z0 | < .E = A JA l m f (z ) = w

z

IE F=H= > 0 =H>EJH=HE ANEIJA M ? |f (z ) w| < F=H= |z | > M 7 = E = @E ?=?E @A AIJA JE ?=I FAH EJA ANJA @AH = @A E?E = ?=I w =
7 = FHE AH= L = F=H= E JH @K?EH A FK J @A E EJ ? IEIJA A E@A JE ?=H ?=@= z C ? =I IK?AIE AI ? F A =I zn J= AI GKA zn z LAH  -IJ= E@A JE ?=?E FHAIAHL= =I FAH=?E AI = CA>H=E?=I @A C - FK J @A E EJ AI F H @A E?E = ? =IA @A =I IK?AIE AI zn ? l m zn = - ?KAHF = F E=@ C ? IEIJA A C {} 5A JEA A =

2H F IE?E

l m wn = w - J

& 5A= zn wn IK?AIE AI ?

?AI

F A =I J= AI GKA l m zn = O

 l m zn + wn = E ? KI IE l m wn =
l m zn wn = IE l m wn = 0 l m wn = E ? KE@ wn ! l m = 0 IE zn = 0 zn wn " l m = IE un = 0 l m un = 0 O w = 0 E ? KOA @ l m wn =  un
=I FH FEA@=@AI FHA?A@A JAI IA E JAHFHAJ= A C ? +w = w = w = 0 w/ = 0 w =  w/0 = w = 0 I IECKEA JAI A A F I A =@= @E AHA @A ?=I @A K = L=HE=> A HA=

-A F I

#  5A= p(z ) = a0 z n + + an E I - J ?AI a 0 b 0 p(z ) l m = 0 z q (z )

q (z ) = b0 z m + + bm F E n=m n<m n > m.

2=H= p(z ), q (z ) ?

A A ?=I = JAHE H q (z0 ) = 0 p(z0 ) = 0 IA JEA A

z z0

l m

p(z ) = . q (z )

" +

2)+61.1+)+1

,- C 24 ;-++1

,- 56-1 -4

0=> A I =D H= @A ? F=?JE ?=?E AI - AIF=?E C AI ? F=?J {D(0, n)} =@ EJA IK>HA?K>HE EA J I EJ I 7 = ? F=?JE ?=?E @A K AIF=?E J F CE ? (X, T ) AI K AIF=?E J F CE? ? F=?J (X , T ) GKA ? JEA A = (X, T ) A A IA JE@ IECKEA JA ANEIJA h : X X ? JE K= A E OA?JEL= J= GKA h(X ) AI D A HB X O h(X ) = X 5E X \ h(X ) = {x1 , . . . , xn } IA @E?A GKA X IA D= ? F=?JE ?=@ JH=I = =@E?E @A K AH EJ @A FK J I =I ? F=?JE ?= ?E AI F H =@E?E @A K I FK J HALEIJA F=HJE?K =H E JAH I 5A I=>A GKA J @ AIF=?E 0=KI@ H X ?= A JA ? F=?J =@ EJA K = E?= ? F=?JE ?=?E X F H K I FK J @A E =@=
? F=?JE ?=?E @A ) AN= @H  5A ? IJHKOA =I 2HE AH X = X {P } @ @A P AI K A A A J @A X F H A A F P = (0, 0, 1) A A ?=I @A C ) J= P IA A = = A
FK J @A E EJ  = J F C = T A X IA >JEA A @A = @A X = JA EA @ IA J H I @A I FK J I @A X O J = @ {(X \ K ) {} : K X ? F=?J } ? >=IA @A A J H I @A

2H F IE?E

' 5A= (X, T ) ?= A JA ? F=?J O T2 - J ?AI A AIF=?E (X , T ) AI ? F=?J T2 O = E ? KIE h(x) = x h : X X ?K F A =I FH FEA@=@AI @A ? F=?JE ?=?E IA = =@=I I =HHE>=

,A IJH=?E - ABA?J X AI T2 F HGKA IE x = P O K AI A J H ? F=?J @A x X \ K AI A J @A P )IE EI IE G =>EAHJ A X G = G \ P AI =>EAHJ A X 5E =@A I P G J = @ G = G \ P HAIK J= GKA X \ G = X \ G O X \ G K F=H= = C ? F=?J - ABA?J (X \ K ) {P } G F=H= = C ? F=?J K X 2 H J= J X \ G AI ? F=?J A X IE G AI =>EAHJ O P G 2H >= I GKA X AI ? F=?J 5E {Gi } HA?K>HA X P Gi0 F=H= = C i0 )I {Gi = Gi \ {P } : i = i0 } HA?K>HA X \ Gi0 GKA AI ? F=?J 6 = @ A ? HHAIF @EA JA IK>HA?K>HE EA J {G11 , . . . , GiN } HAIK J= GKA {Gi0 , G11 , . . . , GiN } J= >E HA?K>HA X
- A ?=I @A C A AIF=?E ? F=?J HAIK J= JA IA = = = AIBAH= @A 4EA = O IA @A J= C ) @EBAHA ?E= @A = HA?J= HA= R GKA =@ EJA ? F=?JE ?=?E AI F H =@E?E @A K FK O F H =@E?E @A @ I FK J I AI ? IA?KA ?E= @A K JA HA = @A , =CE '$# GKA = E?= ? F=?JE ?=?E T2  @A C F H  =@E?E @A K AH EJ @A FK J I AI = @A ) AN= @H = IECKEA JA FH FEA@=@ AI E A@E=J=

2H F IE?E  7 = IK?AIE zn A C IE O I IE zn @A =?KAH@ = = ,A E?E  % ) C= A JA l mzz0 f (z ) = A C IE O I IE l mzz0 f (z ) = @A =?KAH@ ? = ,A E?E  % EI IK?A@A ? A ?=I l mz f (z ) = w
>IAHL=?E AI $ = =I =F E?=?E AI >E E A= AI
f (z ) = az + b , cz + d
F H K AH

+ I FHA?EIE =CE ?=H=?JAHE = =I ? F=?JE ?=?E AI 0=KI@ H EJ @A FK J I @A AIF=?E I ? F=?J I GKA J= >E I 0=KI@ H

&

+)2 67

61 71,), ; 6 2

/)-

c = 0 @A A D A H I I @A C \ {d/c} A C \ {a/c} 6= AI =F E?=?E AI @A C *=IJ= D=?AH f = f A IA ANJEA @A A B H = E?= = D A H I If CO ( c ) = , () = a . f f d c +K= @ K = =F E?=?E >E E A= f IA >IAHLA A C IKF @HA I GKA IA D=  ABA?JK=@ AIJ= ANJA IE O I HABAHEHA I = A = ? f  KI=HA I f
> - A ?=I @A IA A = =I c = 0

f (z ) = az + b,
= ANJA IE

? f

() = IEIJA A D=?AH f

3KA = ? F=?JE ?=?E @A C IA = = = AIBAH= @A 4EA = IA @A>A = = 2 3 IECKEA JA FH FEA@=@ ) S2 = {x R2 : x2 1 + x2 + x3 = 1} O N = (0, 0, 1) S2 @AIEC = A F HJA @A S2 ) H = GKA S 2 AI K = ? F=?JE ?=?E @A C F H K I FK J O F H J= J D= @A IAH D A HB= = C

6A HA =

= =F E?=?E
T : S2 \ N P = (, , ) C , z = x + iy + i , 1

@A

E@= ?
T (P ) =

, 1 1

AI K D

H I

B H A ?

E LAHI h : C S2 \ N @A
.

E@ F H

h(z ) =

2y |z |2 1 2x , , |z |2 + 1 |z |2 + 1 |z |2 + 1 T IA = = = FH OA??E

>IAHL=?E

= =F E?=?E

@A 5JAE AH

6A HA =
,A IJH=?E J = @

C AI D
= =F E?=?E

HB = S2
h : C S 2 \ {N } IA ANJEA @A = H : C S 2 H () = N.
JE K= A - ABA?J

3KA H AI K D A H I IA IECKA @A GKA H AI ? K = >=IA @A A J H I @A N AI

{U = {x3 > r} S 2 : r < 1}.

+

H 1 (U ) = {z : |z | >

1+r } {}, 1r

AI K A J H @A H AI ? JE K= A )D H= H AI ? JE K= O >EOA?JEL= H AI =@A I ?AHH=@= C C ?AHH=@ E F E?= C ? F=?J O H (C ) AI ?AHH=@ A S 2 F HGKA AI ? F=?J 2 H J= J H AI K D A H I

" +

2)+61.1+)+1

,- C 24 ;-++1

,- 56-1 -4

'

= IECKEA JA FH FEA@=@ D=> = @A ?EH?K BAHA ?E=I A S2 O @A HA?J=I O ?EH?K BAHA ?E=I A C 7 = ?EH?K BAHA ?E= C A S2 AI = E JAHIA??E @A K F = ? S2 -IJ ? E ?E@A ? A ? K J @A FK J I {x S2 : |x x0 | = r} ? x0 S2 - ABA?J

|x|2 = 1 |x x0 |2 = r2 ,

|x|2 = 1 2 x, x0 = r2 |x0 |2 1,
E = K AHE@E= IE AI

O JEA A 2 x, x0 = r2 |x0 |2 1 F H A?K=?E 5E A HECA O O N FAHJA A?A = C IA @A F=H= A = F = x, y C IA = = K F=H= A

>IAHL=?E & =I HA?J=I r @A C IA ? F AJ= ? A FK J ?K= @ IA =I >IAHL= A C -IJ FAH EJA @=H K JH=J= EA J K E ?=@ = =I FH FEA@=@AI @A HAIJ @A ?=F JK 1 2 H A A F = FH FEA@=@
f (z ) = JH= IB H = HA?J=I GKA F=I= F H z = 0 z A HA?J=I r GKA J= >E F=I= F H z = 0 IA FHKA>= A C = =@EA @ = =I HA?J=I - ABA?J f (0) AI A FK J @A r EA JH=I = E =CA f () @A FK J @A r AI A FK J z = 0 @A r 1 5E E =H A JA f (z ) = JH= IB H = K = ?EH?K BAHA ?E= C GKA F=I= F H z = 0 z A K = HA?J= FKAI = 0 C A =IEC = A FK J @A r az + b + I CA AH= E@=@ f (z ) = c = 0 JH= IB H = HA?J=I ?EH?K BAH cz + d d A ?E=I GKA F=I= F H z = A HA?J=I GKA ? JEA A = = f (z ) )F E?= c a HA?J=I r GKA F=I= F H z A ?EH?K BAHA ?E=I GKA F=I= F H w = O c ?EH?K BAHA ?E=I GKA F=I= F H z A ?EH?K BAHA ?E=I *= AIJA ? LA E J @=I =I HA?J=I ? F=HJA A FK J -IJA DA?D IA D=?A F=JA JA ?K= @ FH OA?J= I =I HA?J=I @A C A S 2 A@E= JA H J= AI FH OA??E AI I =I ?EH?K BAHA ?E=I @A S 2 GKA F=I= F H A F HJA N

6A HA =

! T JH= IB H = ?EH?K BAHA ?E=I @A S2 GKA F=I= F H N A ?EH?K BAHA ?E=I @A C O ?EH?K BAHA ?E=I @A S2 GKA F=I= F H N A HA?J=I @A C 4A? FH ?= A JA h JH= IB H = ?EH?K BAHA ?E=I @A C A ?EH?K BAHA ?E=I @A S2 O HA?J=I @A C A ?EH?K BAHA ?E=I @A S2 GKA F=I= F H N
5E A + B + C = D AI A F = GKA @A A C A S2 T (C ) JEA A

,A IJH=?E A?K=?E

(C D)|z |2 + 2Ax + 2By = D + C.

JAIA GKA N IE O I IE C = D = = H =?E AI @A JA HA = I =D H= ALE@A JAI 2=H= @A IJH=H A HA? FH ? J = I C1 C K = ?EH?K BAHA ?E= O JHAI FK J I A, B, C C1 5E A , B , C S2 I IKI E CA AI I F=I= K F = F H J= AI FK J I O C AI = ?EH?K BAHA ?E= GKA @AJAH E = A S2 )D H= T (C ) AI K = ?EH?K BAHA ?E= GKA ? JEA A = A, B, C KAC T (C ) = C1 2 H J= J h(C1 ) = C



+)2 67

61 71,), ; 6 2

/)E?E

5E r AI K = HA?J= @A C r O N @AJAH E = K F = (S2 \ {N }) K = ?EH?K BAHA ?E= F H N

O h(r) AI F H @A

/H=?E=I = = FH OA??E @A 5JAE AH IA FKA@A @ J=H = C @A K = @AI?HE>A IK J F C = ) I=>AH

JHE?= GKA

dc (z1 , z2 ) = |h(z1 ) h(z2 )|

z1 , z2 C \ {},

dc (z, ) = |h(z ) N |.

5A = = = dc = JHE?= ? H@= = | | AI = @EIJ= ?E= AK? @A= @A R3  2=H= ?= ?K =H = IA JEA A GKA IE P, P S2 A J ?AI

|P P |2 = 2{1 }.
,A =D

dc (z1 , z2 ) =

2|z1 z2 | |z1 |2 + 1 |z2 |2 + 1 2

z1 , z2 C \ {}, .

dc (z, ) =

|z |2 + 1

1 F=H= z = 0, z = z g (0) = g () = 0 AI K D A H I = =F E?=?E g E @K?A A S2 = =F E?=?E g : S2 S2 @A E@= F H g (P ) = (H g H 1 )(P ) = h(g (T (P ))) 3K =F E?=?E AI g

- AH?E?E

 ;= IA I=>A GKA g : C C @A

E@= ?

- AH?E?E

I FK J I @A S2 FKA@A ANFHAI=HIA A
= cos cos , = cos sen ,

=B H =
= sen ,

0 < 2  =

CEJK@ /2 /2  = =JEJK@ 2HK >AIA GKA

T (, , ) = tag i + e . 4 2

- AH?E?E

! 2HK >AIA GKA dc (z, ) = l mz1 dc (z, z1 )

6H= IB H =?E
IF H

AI >E E A= AI 2a

J=

,AIEC =

M = {f (z ) =
A ?

az + b : a, b, c, d C, cz + d
AI >E E A= AI

ad bc = 0}

K J @A =I JH= IB H =?E az + b +K= @ f = Oc=0 cz + d

z

l m f (z ) =

a , c

z d/c

l m f (z ) = .

# 64) 5. 4 )+1

-5 *1 1 -) -5 2A

6)



O ? O= IA @E f ? IJEJKOA K D A H I @A C ?K= @ IA @A A f () = a/c f (d/c) = - A ?=I @A =I IA A = =I f = az + b IA @A A f () = 2 H J= J A GKA IECKA ? IE@AH=HA I IEA FHA = J @=I =I =F E?=?E AI >E E A= AI f M ANJA @E@=I = =F E?=?E AI @A C A C 0=> = I =D H= @A I FK J I I A C @A K = f M 5E c = 0 f () = EA JH=I z C AI K FK J IE

az + b = z (cz + d).
2 H J= J f F IAA K @ I FK J I I A C @A DA?D A C 2 H JH= F=HJA AI FK J @A f IE O I IE c = 0 - JH F IE> A FK J I= @H = @A HAI LAH (d a)z = b. 5E d = a A FK J

b da 5E d = a FAH b = 0 D=O I FK J I I .E = A JA IE d = a O b = 0 KAIJH= =F E?=?E

=@E?E = AI z =

f (z ) =
AI = E@A JE@=@ GKA JEA A = J @ I 0A I @A IJH=@ F H J= J

az =z d
FK J I I

I FK J I @A C ? IECKEA JA

E@A JE@=@ f (z ) = z
2=H= ?

2H F IE?E

"

E?= f M ?

I @A @ I FK J I

I A C AI =

IJHKEH =F E?=?E

AI >E E A= AI AI E F HJ= JA = IECKEA JA FH FEA@=@

2H F IE?E

J I ANEIJA =

# ,=@ I z1 , z2 , z3 C @EIJE J I O w1 , w2 , w3 C @EIJE

I K = f A M J= GKA f (zi ) = wi i = 1, 2, 3
?AI f 1 g JEA A JHAI

,A IJH=?E 5E f, g M ?K F A f (zi ) = g (zi ) A J FK J I I O D= @A IAH = E@A JE@=@

7 = ? IA?KA ?E= E F HJ= JA AI GKA IA HAGKEAHA JHAI ? @E?E AI F=H= @A JAH E =H K A A A J f M 2=H= AIJK@E=H FH FEA@=@AI =@E?E = AI @A f M E JH @K?E I = H= @ >A (z1 , z2 , z3 , z4 ) @A ?K=JH FK J I @EIJE J I zi @A C IJ= IA @A A ?

(z1 , z2 , z3 , z4 ) =
?K= @ I zj C H= @ > A A @A

z1 z3 z2 z4 . z1 z4 z2 z3

EA JH=I GKA IE K @A I zi = IA J = ? L= H @A = EJA @A (z1 , z2 , z3 , z4 ) ?K= @ zi 2 H A A F

(, z2 , z3 , z4 ) =
) CK =I LA?AI =>HALE=HA I (z1 , z2 , z3 , z4 ) ?

z2 z4 . z2 z3 (zi )

 = =F E?=?E

+)2 67

61 71,), ; 6 2

/)-

S (z ) = (z, z1 , z2 , z3 )

=>HALE=@ S (z ) = (z, zi ) AI A A A A J @A M GKA =IEC = = z1 , z2 , z3 C = JH =@= 1, 0,

2H F IE?E
F=H= J @ z C

$ 5E f M O z1 , z2 , z3 I

FK J I @EIJE J I @A C A J

?AI
 

(z, zi ) = (f (z ), f (zi ))

,A IJH=?E = = I S1 (w) = (w, f (zi )) O S (z ) = (z, zi ) O I AL= I HFHAI= @A GKA S1 f O S =IEC = I EI I L= HAI = I FK J I zi

I =

7 FH > A = FA @EA JA AI D= =H = f M GKA ?K F A f (zi ) = wi F=H= @ I JH =@=I zi O wi @A FK J I @EIJE J I 5E S O S1 I =I =F E?=?E AI FHA?A@A JAI = 1 I K?E AI ALE@A JA A JA f (z ) = S1 (S (z )) - = FH ?JE?= w = f (z ) IA ?= ?K = @AIFA = @ w A = A?K=?E

(w, wi ) = (z, zi ).
;= DA I LEIJ GKA HA?J=I O ?EH?K BAHA ?E=I @A C I IE = E =CA @A ?EH?K BAHA ?E=I A S2 F H = FH OA??E @A 5JAE AH ,A DA?D =I HA?J=I I =I ?EH?K BAHA ?E=I @A S2 GKA F=I= F H A F HJA N S2 2 H J= J A J H E ?EH?K BAHA ?E= J= >E =>=H?=H A GKA IECKA = =I HA?J=I @A C HA?J=I @A C = =I GKA IA D= = =@E@ A FK J 

2H F IE?E

?EH?K BAHA ?E= IE O I

% +K=JH FK J I @EIJE J I zj 1 j 4 @A C O=?A A K

IE
(zj ) R {}.

,A IJH=?E - ABA?J IE S (z ) = (z, z2 , z3 , z4 ) I=>A I GKA S 1 (R {}) AI K = ?EH?K BAHA ?E= C E ? KOA @ A ?=I @A K = HA?J= @A C  FKAI S 1 M )I z1 C K J ? I JH I JHAI FK J I 4A? FH ?= A JA IE B H = I = ?EH?K BAHA ?E= C GKA F=I= F H z2 , z3 , z4 S =F E?= AIJA JHEF AJA A 1, 0, O = E =CA @A C AI R {} 5E F H DEF JAIEI z1 C A J ?AI S (z1 ) = (zj ) R >IAHL=?E ' 5A= C = ?EH?K BAHA ?E= @A C GKA F=I= F H I FK J I z1 , z2 , z3 C -I ? IA?KA ?E= @A = FH FEA@=@ GKA
(z, z1 , z2 , z3 ) > 0
HAFHAIA J= I FK J I @A K = @A =I ? F A JAI ? AN=I @A C \ C EA JH=I

(z, z1 , z2 , z3 ) < 0
?=H=?JAHE = I FK J I @A = JH= ? F A JA @A C \ C 5E C AI K = HA?J= / C O FAHJA A?A = K = @A =I @ I ? = = ? F A JA ANJAHE H =GKA = = = GKA FAHJA A?A F A JAI 5A

# 64) 5. 4 )+1

-5 *1 1 -) -5 2A

6)

!

z3 z2 z1
.ECKH=  HEA J=?E = {z2 , z1 , z3 }

z3 z2 z1
AI AGKEL= A JAI = {z1 , z2 , z3 } O HEA J=?E AI AGKEL= A JAI

2H F IE?E

& 5A= f M C = ?EH?K BAHA ?E= GKA F=I= F H z1 , z2 , z3 C IK E =CA F H f - J ?AI f JH= IB H = =I ? F A JAI C1 , C2 @A C \ C A =I ? F A JAI C1 , C2 @A C \ C
>IAHL=?E AI K D A
 = FH FEA@=@ AI ? H I A C IA?KA ?E= E A@E=J= @A DA?D @A GKA f IA AI?HE>A

,A

IJH=?E

5E C AI K = ?EH?K BAHA ?E= IK A?K=?E

(z, z1 , z2 , z3 ) =
5E C1 AI F H A A F A JA (z, wj ) > 0 - =I ? HEA J=?E IJHK??E =? AI ? F

(f (z ), w1 , w2 , w3 )
A JA BK ?E

wj = f (zj ).
?AI f (C1 ) AI = ? ?E F @A

(z, zj ) > 0 A J

AI >E E A= AI AI E F HJ= JA =

,A

E?E ' ,=@= K = ?EH?K BAHA ?E= C K = HEA J=?E ? IEIJA A K JHEF AJA H@A =@ {z1 , z2 , z3 } @A FK J I @A C - =@ @AHA?D C+ HAIFA?JEL= A JA E GKEAH@ C  @A C HA =JEL = {z1 , z2 , z3 } ? IEIJA A = ? F A JA @A C \ C ?=H=JAHE =@= F H
(z, zj ) > 0 ( (z, zj ) < 0).

5A @E?A GKA JH= HEA J=?E @AHA?D I ? E ?E@A

{z1 , z2 , z3 } @A C AGKEL= A = = = JAHE H IE IKI =@ I

=I HEA J=?E AI ?= >E= IE IA E JAH?= >E= @ I zj A JHA I - F=HJE?K =H I E L=HE= JAI BHA JA = FAH KJ=?E AI ?EH?K =HAI O {z1 , z2 , z3 } {z2 , z3 , z1 } {z3 , z1 , z2 } HAFHAIA J= = EI = HEA J=?E = HEA J=?E {z1 , z2 , z3 } FKA@A E@A JE ?=HIA ? A IA JE@ @A HA? HHE@ @A C ?K= @ IA L= @A z1 = z3 F=I= @ F H z2 - = .ECKH=   IA @= K = E =CA CA JHE?=

2H F IE?E

! 5A= {z1 , z2 , z3 } K = HEA J=?E @A C - J ?AI {z2 , z1 , z3 } {z1 , z3 , z2 } O {z3 , z2 , z1 } ? IJEJKOA HEA J=?E AI @A C @EIJE J=I @A {z1 , z2 , z3 }

"

+)2 67

61 71,), ; 6 2

/)-

,A

IJH=?E

-I ?

IA?KA ?E= @A =I E@A JE@=@AI

(z, z2 , z1 , z3 ) = 1 (z, z1 , z2 , z3 )
O

(z, z1 , z3 , z2 ) =

1 . (z, z1 , z2 , z3 )

6A HA =

! 5A= C K = ?EH?K BAHA ?E= {z1 , z2 , z3 } C C I ? HHAIF @EA JAI =@ I @A C O f K = =F E?=?E >E E A= 5E C = f (C ) wi = f (zi ) O IA ? IE@AH= A C = HEA J=?E @A E@= F H {w1 , w2 , w3 } A J ?AI f (C ) = C O f (C+ ) = C+
IJH=?E
+ IA?KA ?E= @EHA?J= @A = 2H F IE?E  $

,A ?

2H F IE?E

! 5A= C = HA?J= z = a + bt a, b C t R 2=H= zj = a + tj b t1 < t2 < t3 - J ?AI A =@ E GKEAH@ @A C ? HAIFA?J = {z1 , z2 , z3 } AI

( za ) > 0, b

AI @A?EH A IA EF = GKA GKA@= = = E GKEAH@= @A C ?K= @ IA HA? HHA A IA JE@ ?HA?EA JA @A =?KAH@ = b ) C= A JA IE C AI z = z0 +reis zj = z0 +reisj ? 0 s1 < s2 < s3 < 2 O IA ? IE@AH= A C = HEA J=?E {z1 , z2 , z3 } A J ?AI A =@ E GKEAH@ C AI = ? F A JA =? J=@= @A C \ C AI @A?EH = HACE GKA GKA@= =
=  E GKEAH@= ?K= @ IA HA? HHA C A IA JE@ F IEJEL 

$
8=

- JA HA = BK @= A J= @A
I = FH >=H ?

CA>H=
E ? FA

J @ I A A A J= AI GKA J @ F E

p(z ) = a0 z n + + an
=@ EJA K = H= A C = FHKA>= IA BH=??E =A I IECKEA JAI A =I

A =

!! ,=@ I K F A I J= AI GKA

F E

E ?

FA

p(z ) O z0 C ANEIJA
n

b1 , . . . , bn

p(z ) = p(z0 ) + b1 (z z0 ) + + bn (z z0 )n =
l=0

anl z l .

I=
bk =

1 k!

n l=k

l! l k anl z0 . (l k )!

$ - 6- 4- ) .7 ,) - 6) ,-

/-*4)

#

A =

!" 5E p(z ) AI K F E

E ?
z

FA

l m p(z ) = .

A =

!# 5A= p(z ) K F E

E ?

FA
z C

- J

?AI ANEIJA z C J= GKA

|p(z )| = nf |p(z )|.

.E = A JA

A = !$  A = @A @) A >AHJ 5A= p(z ) K F E J= GKA p(z0 ) = 0 -NEIJA A J ?AI h C J= GKA

|p(z0 + h)| < |p(z0 )|.

E ?

FA

O z0 C

6A HA =
=@ EJA =

!% 6A HA = BK @= A J= @A
I K = H=

CA>H= 6 @ F E E

E ?

FA
@A

,A IJH=?E 2 H A A =  !# |p(z )| = ?= = A A = @A @) A >AHJ JEA A GKA IAH K = H= @A p

A K z GKEA

+=F JK

5AHEAI @A F JA ?E=I .K ?E = = JE?=I

AI

- AIJK@E @A =I BK ?E AI @A K = L=HE=> A ? F A = IA FKA@A => H@=H @AI@A @ I FJE?=I E @AFA @EA JAI GKA = = F IJHA HAIK J= IAH AGKEL= A JAI 7 = = @A 9AEAHIJH=II >=I=@= A = JA H = @A =I IAHEAI @A F JA ?E=I JH= IKIJA J=@= A = HAFHAIA J=?E E JACH=  = E JACH= @A +=K?DO @A =I BK ?E AI HACK =HAI O GKA IA @A>A AIA ?E= A JA = 4EA = O +=K?DO - AIJA ?=F JK I L= I = ?KF=H @A JH=J= EA J @A 9AEAHIJH=II HA AC= @ A A B GKA @A +=K?DO O 4EA = F=H= I @ I IECKEA JAI ?=F JK I

!
BK ?E

2HA E E =HAI
E?E
AI

,A

!  5A= D K =>EAHJ @A C O fn : D C C K = IK?AIE

@A

= = IK?AIE fn ? LAHCA K EB H A A JA = K = BK ?E f : D C C IE F=H= J @ > 0 ANEIJA n GKA I @AFA @A @A J= GKA |fn (z ) f (z )| F=H= n n O J @ z D > fn I=JEIB=?A = ? @E?E @A +=K?DO K EB H A A JA A D IE F=H= J @ > 0 ANEIJA n GKA I @AFA @A @A J= GKA |fn (z ) fm (z )| F=H= n, m n O J @ zD
D IE O I

2H F IE?E 2H F IE?E

! 7 = IK?AIE fn : D C C ? LAHCA K EB H A A JA A IE I=JEIB=?A = ? @E?E @A +=K?DO K EB H A A JA A D

! ! 5A= fn K = IK?AIE @A BK ?E AI GKA ? LAHCA K EB H A A JA = K = BK ?E f A D 5E J @=I =I fn I ? JE K=I A z0 D A J ?AI f AI ? JE K= A z0 - F=HJE?K =H IE J @=I =I fn C (D, C) A J ?AI f C (D, C)

- AH?E?E !  5A= D C K =>EAHJ z0 D fn : D \{z0 } C K = IK?AIE @A BK ?E AI GKA ? LAHCA K EB H A A JA A D \{z0 } = K = BK ?E f 5KF C= I



+)2 67

! .7 +1

-5 ) ) 61+)5

=@A

I GKA F=H= ?=@= n ANEIJA

z z 0

l m fn (z ) = ln .

- J

?AI I
z z 0

= -NEIJA l = l m ln > -NEIJA l mzz0 f (z ) O =@A

l m f (z ) = l.

- JH=I F= =>H=I A F=I = A = IK?AIE @A BK ?E AI

z z 0

EJA ?K= @ z z0 FAH KJ= ?

A F=I =

EJA

l m {l m fn } = l m{ l m fn }.
z z 0

- IECKEA JA HAIK J=@ AI ? =LA F=H=

I > AJEL I @A ?=F JK

6A HA = ! " 6A HA =

@A 9AEAHIJH=II 5A= fn C (D, C) K = IK?AIE @A BK ?E AI J= AI GKA |fn (z )| Mn F=H= z D @ @A = IAHEA n=1 Mn AI ? LAHCA JA - J ?AI = IAHEA n=1 fn ? LAHCA K EB H A A JA A D O F H ? IECKEA JA = BK ?E

f (z ) =
n=1

fn (z )

AI ?

JE K= A D 2H >=H GKA
nz n AI ? JE K= A |z | < 1 1 AI ? JE K= A { z 0} n=1 2 n +z
I =I @A E?E AI @A EJA IKFAHE H A E BAHE H
n=1

- AH?E?E ! = f (z ) = > f (z ) =

4A?=FEJK =

,A

E?E ! # 5E an AI K = IK?AIE E BAHE H lim an lim an IA @A A ?

@A

AH I HA= AI

EJAI IKFAHE H A

= lim an = nf nN {supkn ak } > lim an = supnN { nf kn ak }

5EA FHA ANEIJA I EJAI IKFAHE H > A A JA FKA@= L= AH E BAHE H @A K = IK?AIE =K GKA F IE

2H F IE?E

! $ 5A= L = lim an - J ?AI

IE F=H= ?=@= > 0 ANEIJA n J= GKA an < L + F=H= = < L < IE O I J @ n EA JH=I ANEIJA E EJ I n J= AI GKA an > L > L = IE O I IE F=H= ?=@= M ANEIJA E EJ I n J= AI GKA an > M

5-41-5 ,- 2 6- +1)5

? L = IE O I n nM

IE F=H= ?=@= M ANEIJA nM J= GKA an < M F=H= J @

>IAHL=?E !  5A @E?A GKA l AI K L= H @A =C AH=?E @A an IE AI A EJA @A = CK = IK>IK?AIE IKO= an = FH FEA@=@ GKA IECKA HA =?E = I EJAI IKFAHE HAI ? I L= HAI @A =C AH=?E JAIA GKA lim an O lim an I L= HAI @A =C AH=?E @A = IK?AIE

2H F IE?E

! % -NEIJA IK>IK?AIE AI an an @A K = IK?AIE

l m an = lim an l m an = lim an .

an J= AI GKA

I=

IE an

AI ?K= GKEAH IK>IK?AIE

m an lim an l

LAHCA JA @A an A J
lim an .

?AI IA JEA A

AI =JKH=

= IK?AIE

an ?

LAHCA = l IE O I

IE

lim an = lim an ,

IEA @ l A L= H ?

@A J= AI

EJAI

!
,A E?E

5AHEAI @A F JA ?E=I
! & 7 = IAHEA B H =  @A F JA ?E=I @A z a IA @A A ?

an (z a) .
n=0

@ @A an , a C 2 H IE F E?E@=@ J = I a = 0 A GKA IECKA C [[z ]] @AI EC = A ? K J @A =I IAHEAI B H = AI @A F JA ?E=I @A z C[z ] @AIEC = I F E E I ? F A I A z  A A GKA IA @A A =I FAH=?E AI = 5K =

an z n +
n=0 n=0

bn z n :=
n=0

an + bn z n .

> 2H @K?J F H K AI?= =H c C

c
n=0

an z n :=
n=0

can z n .

? 2H @K?J @A +=K?DO

n

an z n
n=0 n=0

bn z n

:=
n=0

cn z n
EHIA ?

cn =
k=0

ak bnk .
=

 = IAHEA @A F JA ?E=I FKA@A J= >E

@A

K = IAHEA BK ?E

"

+)2 67

! .7 +1

-5 ) ) 61+)5

-I K A AH?E?E IA ?E FH >=H GKA C[[z ]] AI K = CA>H= ? KJ=JEL= ? A A A J K E@=@ O IE @ELEI HAI @A ?AH I ?KF= I =D H= @A FH > A = @A = ? LAHCA ?E= @A =I IAHEAI @A F JA ?E=I @A z a -I >LE= = ? LAHCA ?E= = a0 @A = IAHEA A z = a

an (z a) >EA ? LAHCA I = A JA A z = a >EA ? LAHCA F=H= J @ z C >EA ANEIJA > 0 J= GKA = IAHEA ? LAHCA A z IE |z a| < O @ELAHCA IE |z a| > I = A I @ I JE I ?=I I = IAHEA ? LAHCA =>I KJ= A JA A C HAIFA?JEL= A JA A D(a, ) E ? KI K EB H A A JA A ?=@= ? F=?J K C HAIFA?JEL= A JA K D(a, )

2H F IE?E

! ' 7 = IAHEA @A F JA ?E=I

n=0

,A IJH=?E 5KF C= I GKA = IAHEA ? z1 C HAIK J= A J ?AI GKA

LAHCA A z0 = a O @ELAHCA A = C

|an ||z0 a|n M,

F=H= J @ n 5A JEA A A J ?AI GKA

|an ||z a|n M

O = IAHEA ? =I GKA

|z a | |z0 a|

LAHCA =>I KJ= A JA F=H= J @ z J= GKA |z a| < |z0 a| 4AIK J=

= sup{|z a| :
n=0

an (z a) ?

LAHCA},

?K F A |z0 a| |z1 a| O = IAHEA @ELAHCA F=H= |z a| > = FH F IE?E @E?A GKA A ? K J @A ? LAHCA ?E= @A K = IAHEA @A F JA ?E=I n an (z a) ?K= @ AI JHELE= AI @A?EH {a} J @ A F = ? F A C ? IEIJA A K @EI? =>EAHJ D(a, ) K J ? = CK I FK J I GKE I J @ I GKE I E CK  @A = ?EH?K BAHA ?E= |z a| =
n=0

,A

IA @A A ? A F=H= J @ z C

E?E

!  - H=@E @A ? LAHCA ?E= 0 @A K = IAHEA @A F JA ?E=I

= AH = 0 IE I ? LAHCA A z = a = IE ? A JA A L= H @A = 2H F IE?E LAHCA

>IAHL=?E ! 5A @AIFHA @A @A = FH F IE?E FHA?A@A JA GKA IE > 0 = IAHEA n A K = BK ?E ? JE K= A A ? H?K D(a, ) n=0 an (z a) @A -A F I !!
z n AI = 1 n z > - H=@E @A ? LAHCA ?E= @A n=0 AI = n! ? - H=@E @A ? LAHCA ?E= @A n=0 n!z n AI = 0
= - H=@E @A = IAHEA = =JA JE?= I >IAGKE= A = CK I ?=IE AI ? HAIK J=@ I
HA@ @ I O A GKA IECKA AI IE @K@= K @A A I 5A HA? CA HECE = A JA = = JAIEI @A 0=@= =H@ &$# '$!
n=0

5-41-5 ,- 2 6- +1)5

6A HA = !  0=@= =H@ &'  - H=@E @A ? LAHCA ?E= 0 @A =

IAHEA
n=0

an (z a) IA ANFHAI= A =

I IECKEA JAI J H E
1
n

{lim

|an |}

! 

>IAHL=?E ! " + = ANFHAIE   IA @= A J H E I @A EJA IKFAHE H IA HAGKEAHA E CK = ? @E?E ANJH= I >HA I ? A ?EA JAI an @A = IAHEA ,A IJH=?E @A 6A HA = @A 0=@= =H@ )IK E I F=H= =>HALE=H GKA a = 0 2 A I L = lim n |an | O IKF A I GKA 0 L < 2H >= I GKA = IAHEA 1 ? LAHCA =>I KJ= A JA IE > L ,A = @A E?E @A EJA IKFAHE H ANEIJA |z | > 0 O n0 N J= AI GKA
n

|an | <

1 1 < |z | |z |
n

n n0 .

2 H J= J

|an ||z |n <

O = IAHEA ? 5KF - ABA?J A LAHCA =>I KJ= A JA LAHCA ?E=

n n0 , 1 L 1 <L |z |

KAC IE L = 0 = O IE L < IJH= I GKA = IAHEA @ELAHCA IE

 A H=@E @A ?

I =D H= 0 < L O @A @A = @A E?E @A

EJA IKFAHE H IA IECKA GKA

1 < |z |

|an |,

F=H= E EJ I n N -IJ @E?A F H A A F GKA lim |an ||z |n 1 O = IAHEA FKA@A ? LAHCAH 2 H J= J @ELAHCA F=H= J @ z = 0 IE L = @ELAHCA F=H= 1 1 |z | > IE L AI EJ - A FHE AH ?=I = 0 A A IACK @ = FHKA>= L L D= JAH E =@

-A F

! # 5KF

C=

IC

= IAHEA >E

E= IA @A

A?

f (z ) =
n=0

n z n 0

@A

:=

( 1) . . . ( n + 1) , n!

:= 1.

.KA E JH @K?E@= F H AMJ ? E ?E@A @A DA?D ? A L= H (1 + z ) ?K= @ N O AIJK@E=@= A @AJ= A F H )>A 5A @A KAIJH= KI= @ A - AH?E?E L J= >E A - AH?E?E  GKA JEA A H=@E @A ? LAHCA ?E= = K E@=@

+)2 67

! .7 +1

-5 ) ) 61+)5 A JA

= IECKEA JA FH FEA@=@ = H = GKA = IAHEA @A F JA ?E=I >JA E@= B H = JH=I @AHEL=H k LA?AI K = IAHEA @=@= JEA A A EI H=@E GKA = HECE =

2H F IE?E
?

n 5A= n=0 an (z a) K = IAHEA @A F JA ?E=I ? LAHCA ?E= - J ?AI F=H= ?=@= k N = IAHEA

!

H=@E @A

n=k

n! (m + k )! nk m an (z a) = am+k (z a) (n k )! m ! m=0

JEA A H=@E @A ?

LAHCA ?E= = I
n=0

2H F IE?E
?

LAHCA JAI O @A

! ! 5A=

an
n

n=0 bn

IAHEAI ?

F A =I =>I KJ= A JA

cn =
k=0

ak bnk .

- J

?AI = IAHEA

n=0 cn

LAHCA =>I KJ= A JA O

cn =
n=0 n=0

an
n=0 n

bn

.
n

an (z a) n=0 bn (z a) IAHEAI @A F JA ?E=I n ? H=@E I F IEJEL I 1 , 2 - J ?AI =I IAHEAI IK = n=0 (an + bn )(z a) n O FH @K?J n=0 cn (z a) JEA A H=@E @A ? LAHCA ?E= s O p HAIFA?JEL= A JA =O H ECK= GKA m n{1 , 2 } I=JEIB=?E @ IA =I ECK= @=@AI

6A HA = ! " 5A=

n=0

an (z a)
n=0

+
n=0

bn (z a)

=
n=0

(an + bn )(z a)

|z a| < m n{1 , 2 }

an (z a)
n=0

n n=0

bn (z a)

=
n=0

cn (z a)

|z a| < m n{1 , 2 }.

>IAHL=?E

AI ! $
n=0

= 2=H= |z | < IA FKA@A ?= ?K =H = F JA ?E= m IE = @A = IAHEA A HAIK J=@ AI @A KAL JH= IAHEA @A F JA ?E=I - ABA?J
m

an z n O

an z n
n=0

=
n=0

a(m) n z n

! 

@A

m) a( = n j1 ++jm =n

aj1 . . . ajn .

! !

! ! .7 +1

-5 ) ) 61+)5

> 7 ?=I @A E JAH I IA JEA A ?K= @ a0 = 0 = IAHEA

F JA ?E= m IE = ? EA = = F=HJEH @A ANF A JA m  I FHE AH I m 1 J H E I I ?AH  O =@A I A =B H K= I E JAHLEA A ? A ?EA JAI aj ? j n 1 ?K= @ m 2

- AH?E?E ! ! 2HK >AIA GKA A ? A ?EA JA an @A = F JA ?E= m IE = IA FKA@A AI?HE>EH ? m ! 0 m) n a( = a . . . a n n , ! 0 A @ @A = (0 , . . . , n ) ? I j 0 A JAH I ! = 1 ! . . . n ! O = IK = AIJ ANJA @E@= = J @ I I GKA ?K F A
|| := 0 + n = m,

(m)

O =@A

I
1 + 22 + + nn = n.

1 @E?=?E @AB =IA j A = B H K =   ? A AH @A LA?AI GKA =F=HA?A aj A K FH @K?J @=@ aj1 . . . ajn ? j1 + + jm = n

!!

.K ?E

AI = = JE?=I

=I BK ?E AI = = JE?=I ? IJEJK = = E?= ? =IA @A BK ?E AI @A ?KHI A C= @KH= JA A IEC :1: , E =H A ? ?K = JAI @A GKA D O ? ?A I ? ) EIEI 4A= ?KO FK J @A F=HJE@= BKA = E JH @K??E @A = E JACH= @A A>AICKA = ? EA I @A IEC :: 7 = ALE@A ?E= ANF ?EJ= @A A AL=@ AIJ=JKI @A GKA C =>= A = =JA JE?= @A A J ?AI AI A F=FA FHAF @AH= JA GKA @AIA FA = J= AI BK ?E AI A = IA??E @A = EIEI @A = ? A>HA EIJ= @A FH > A =I FH FKAIJ= F H ,=LE@ 0E >AHJ A A + CHAI 1 JAH =?E = @A =JA JE?=I @A '  

,A

E?E ! # 5A= G C K =>EAHJ 5A @E?A GKA K = BK ?E f : G C AI = = JE?= IE F=H= J @ z0 G ANEIJA > 0 O K = IK?AIE ? F A = {an } GKA @AFA @A @A z0 J= AI GKA

f (z ) =
n=0

an (z z0 )

|z z0 | < .

>IAHL=?E ! % -IJ E F ?EJ A = @A E?E GKA f IA HAFHAIA J= A A A J H @A ?=@= FK J F H K = IAHEA @A F JA ?E=I ? H=@E @A ? LAHCA ?E= F IEJEL F H J= J I BK ?E AI ? JE K=I + FH >=HA I A A IECKEA JA ?=F JK GKA @A DA?D I BK ?E AI E EJ= A JA @AHEL=> AI -A F I !&
 7 F E E p(z ) = a0 z n + + an AI = = JE? A C - ABA?J @=@ a C IA FKA@A AI?HE>EH IAC IA LE  ? p(z ) = b0 + b1 (z a) + + bn (z a)n

&  = BK ?E

+)2 67

! .7 +1

-5 ) ) 61+)5 F=H= a C @=@

f (z ) =

1 AI = = JE?= A C \ {1} - ABA?J 1z 1 za 1 1a

1 1 = 1z 1a
JAIA GKA A H=@E @A ? ! .K ?E AI H=?E = AI 5E

1 (z a)n . (1 a)n+1 n=0

JE = IAHEA AI |a 1|

LAHCA ?E= @A IJ=

f (z ) =
AI H=?E ) J=

p(z ) q (z ) f AI = = JE?= A C\{a1 , . . . , al }

= O q (z ) JEA A H= ?AI a1 , . . . , al = BK ?E JAIA GKA

f (z ) = q1 (z ) +

A B C + + + + , 1 (z a1 ) (z a1 ) (z al )l

@ @A =I j I =I K JEF E?E@=@AI @A =I H= ?AI 2=H= @AI=HH =H A IAHEA @A F JA ?E=I @A (z a) @ @A a C \ {a1 , . . . , al } >=IJ= KI=H = E@A= @A =F=HJ=@ 1  ,A DA?D =I BK ?E AI I = = JE?=I F HGKA I F JA ?E=I @A (z a)i BK ?E AI = = JE?=I = IECKEA JA FH F IE?E AIJ=> A?A GKA =I FH FE=I IAHEAI @A F JA ?E=I ? H= @E @A ? LAHCA ?E= F IEJEL @A A BK ?E AI = = JE?=I A IK @EI? ? H?K  @A ? LAHCA ?E= ) = K @A I HAIK J=@ I @A I +=F JK I 18 O 8 @A IJH=HA I A IK A J GKA AIJ J= >E AI ? IA?KA ?E= @A = @AHEL=>E E@=@ @A =I IAHEAI @A F JA ?E=I = GKA IECKA AI >IJ= JA K = FHKA>= @EHA?J= GKA ALEJ= @E?D= @AHEL=>E E@=@

6A HA = ! $ 5A=
LAHCA ?E= - J

an (z a) K = IAHEA @A F JA ?E=I ? ?AI F=H= ?=@= z0 D(a, ) = BK ?E

n=0

H=@E @A ?

f (z ) =
n=0

an (z a)

IA FKA@A HAFHAIA J=H A

=B H =

f (z ) =
n=0

bn (z z0 ) ,

?
bn = m! m am (z0 a)mn am (z0 a)mn = n n !( m n )! m=n m=n

IEA @

= IAHEA ?

LAHCA JA A ?=@= z ?K F EA @ |z z0 | < |z0 a|

! ! .7 +1

-5 ) ) 61+)5

'

= FHKA>= A F A= = CK I HAIK J=@ I > IE? I @A IAHEAI @ > AI 5A= anm K = IK?AIE @ > A @A AH I ? F A I 5A @E?A   GKA = IAHEA @ >A

anm
n,m=0

AI ? LAHCA JA O JEA A IK = s C IE F=H= J @ > 0 ANEIJA n J= GKA F=H= m n{M, N } n

anm s < .
0nN,0mM

2KA@A FH >=HIA GKA IE anm AI K = IK?AIE =JEL I bnm = IAHEA @ > A

@ > A @A

AH I HA= AI

AC

bnm ,
n,m=0

AI ?

LAHCA JA O JEA A IK = s IE O I

IE

s = sup
(n,m)F

bnm

@ @A F N N @A J= K ? K J EJ O A IKFHA IA ANJEA @A = J @=I =I F=HJAI EJ=I F @A N N )IE EI K ?= E JE F=H= AIJ=> A?AH = ? LAHCA ?E= @A IAHEAI @ > AI @A J H E I AC=JEL I AI A @A =I IAHEAI
EJAH=@=I
n=0

bnm
m=0 m=0 n=0

bnm

2=H= IAHEAI @ > AI @A J H E I AC=JEL I = ? LAHCA ?E= AGKEL= A = = @A =I EJAH=@=I O @A DA?D IA JEA A IEA FHA = ECK= @=@ @A L= H + A ?=I @A @ELAHCA ?E= @A = IAHEA

bnm =
n,m=0 n=0 m=0

bnm

=
m=0 n=0

bnm

.E = A JA = IK = s @A K = IAHEA @ > A @A J H E I AC=JEL I n,m=0 bnm IA FKA@A >JA AH ? A EJA @A IK =I EJ=I @A J H E I ? J= GKA A AH J J= @A J H E I IK =@ I =?=>A =>=H?= @ J @ N N - J H E I I FHA?EI I s = l m bnm ,
N (n,m)FN

@ @A FN AI ?K= GKEAH IK?AIE @A F=HJAI FN FN +1 O EJA N =0 FN = N N 5A

2 @ = D=>AHIA A F A=@ = ?E @A GKA = ? LAHCA ?E= AGKEL= A = = ?

EJ=I @A N N ? = FH FEA@=@ I @AJ= AI F H IE F E?E@=@

I HAIJHE?JEL= @A B= E E= IK => A GKA BHA?A = LA J= = LAHCA ?E= =>I KJ= 8 = IA @AJ= AI A



+)2 67

! .7 +1

-5 ) ) 61+)5 LAHCA JA

+ A A ?=I @A IAHEAI IE F AI K = IAHEA @ > A =>I KJ= A JA ? AI J= >E ? LAHCA JA O

|
n,m=0

anm |
n,m=0

|anm |.


= FHKA>= @A IECKEA JA HAIK J=@ IA

EJA F H >HALA@=@ ?B

6A HA = ! % 5A= anm K = IK?AIE

= I GKA = IAHEA

@ > A @A
anm

AH I ?

F A I O IKF

n,m=0

LAHCA =>I KJ= A JA - J ?AI

= 2=H= n0 , m0 =H>EJH=HE I =I IAHEAI F=H?E= AI

anm0
n=0 m=0

an0 m

? >

LAHCA =>I KJ= A JA =I IAHEAI

EJAH=@=I
n=0

anm
m=0 m=0 n=0

anm

LAHCA =>I KJ= A JA =I ECK= @=@AI

? 5A JEA A

anm =
n,m=0 n=0 m=0

anm
,=@ z0 ?

=
m=0 n=0

anm
I

,A

IJH=?E

@A 6A HA =

IE@AH=

I z J= AI GKA

|z z0 | < |z0 a|, A H=@E @A ? = IAHEA

LAHCA ?E= @A = IAHEA +

n

|z z0 | + |z0 a| < IA JEA A GKA n |an ||z z0 |m |z0 a|nm < . m

|an |(|z z0 | + |z0 a|)n =

n=0 n=0 m=0

-IJ GKEAHA @A?EH GKA = IAHEA @ > A

n

n=0 m=0

n an (z z0 )m (z0 a)nm = an (z a)n m n=0

! ! .7 +1

-5 ) ) 61+)5 =KJ HE = = ?= >E=H A

 H@A @A

AI =>I KJ= A JA ? LAHCA JA - 6A HA = IK =?E F=H= JA AH

n

n=0 m=0 m=0 n=m

n an (z z0 )m (z0 a)nm = m

n an (z0 a)nm m

(z z0 )

=
m=0

bm (z z0 )m .

2=H= AIJE =H A J= = @A ? K J @A =I BK ?E AI = = JE?=I A K =>EAHJ G C =@= A H GKA @EIF AH @A HAC =I GKA I FAH EJ= CA AH=H BK ?E AI = = JE?=I = F=HJEH @A BK ?E AI = = JE?=I ? ?E@=I = IECKEA JA FH FEA@=@ AI A A A J=

2H F IE?E

= = JE?=I A G

! & 5A= f, g = = JE?=I A G C =>EAHJ - J ?AI f + g O f g

,A JH @A = I B = @A B=>HE?=H KAL=I BK ?E AI = = JE?=I = F=HJEH @A BK ?E AI ? ?E@=I A HAIK J=@ GKA IECKA J= >E AI =JKH= 5K @A IJH=?E AI I @A E?=@=

2H F IE?E

f (G) A J

! ' 5E f : G C O g : C G, =>EAHJ I I
?AI g f AI = = JE?= A G
5KF A I GKA z0 G f (z0 ) = a0 0A g f IA FKA@A HAFHAIA J=H A = B H =

= = JE?=I O

,A IJH=?E = ? F IE?E

I @A FH >=H GKA

g f (z ) = g (f (z )) =
m=0

cm (z z0 ) ,

IEA @

= IAHEA ?

LAHCA JA F=H= |z z0 | < r 5A I=>A GKA

f (z ) = a0 +
n=1 m=0 bm (w m

an (z z0 )

EA JH=I g (w) = w0 ) ? w0 = a0 A I HAIFA?JEL I ? H?K I @A ? LAHCA ?E= 5E |f (z ) a0 | = |f (z ) w0 | < g g A H=@E @A = IAHEA @A g  F @A I AI?HE>EH
m

g (f (z )) =
m=0

bm (f (z ) w0 )

=
m=0

bm
n=1

an (z z0 )

- E F HJ= JA A = GKA IECKA I C=H= JE = = F IE>E E@=@ @A HA HC= E =H = IAHEA F=H= FHAIAHL= @ = ? LAHCA ?E= I=?=H B=?J H ? =I F JA ?E=I @A z z0 O AI?HE>EH IK = @ A @E?D=I F JA ?E=I

g (f (z )) =
m=0

cm (z z0 ) .

 = FH F IE?E

+)2 67

! .7 +1

-5 ) ) 61+)5

IA IECKA = IK LA @A = IECKEA JA
n=0 n n=0 bn z

A = !  5A=

an z n LAHCA ?E= F IEJEL @A B H = GKA

IAHEAI @A F JA ?E=I ?

H=@E @A

a0 = 0.

- J

?AI = IAHEA IK>IJEJK?E

m

bm
m=0 n=1

an z n

=
n=0

cn z n

JEA A H=@E @A ?

LAHCA ?E= > 0 )@A

g (f (z )) =

cn z n
n=0

@ @A f O g I HAIFA?JEL= A JA ,A

=I BK ?E

AI HAFHAIA J=@=I F H =I IAHEAI

I H=@E I @A ?

an z n O

bn z n

IJH=?E 5E a O b @AIEC = an z n O bn z n IA JEA A GKA

LAHCA ?E= @A =I IAHEAI

g (f (z )) =
m=0

bm (f (z ))m = b0 +
m=1

bm (
n1

an z n )m
= IAHEA EJAH=@=

AIJ >EA @A

E@= ?

J= GKA |f (z )| < b ,E?D= IAHEA AI @A DA?D

b0 +
m=1 (

bm (
n1 (m)

an z )

n m

= b0 +
m=1

bm
n=m

m) n a( n z

F=H= m > 2 F E E I @ @A an 1) = an O I an = an ((ai )1in1 ) I D C A I @A CH=@ m O ? A ?EA JAI A JAH I F IEJEL I A I ai ? 1 i n 1 = ?KAIJE BK @= A J= AI GKA F @A I ?= >E=H A H@A IA IK =?E A = JE = IAHEA F=H= JA AH
m) n a( n z n=m n m) bm a( n n=1 m=1

(m)

b0 +
m=1

bm

= b0 +

zn =
n=0

cn z n ,

@ O

@A

c0 = b0
n

c1 = b1 a1

cn =
m=1

m) bm a( = b1 an + Pn (b2 , . . . , bn ; a1 , . . . , an1 ) n

@ @A Pn AI K F E E E A= A I bk 2 k n @A CH=@ n A 1 j n ?KO I ? A ?EA JAI I A JAH I F IEJEL I

I aj

! " .7 +1

-5 -:2

- +1) ;

/)416 I >=IJ= ?
m) n a( n z n=m

! LAHE ?=H GKA = IAHEA @ > A ! "

2=H= KIJE ?=H A ?= >E @A H@A

b0 +
m=1

bm

AI =>I KJ= A JA ?

LAHCA JA IE

|an ||z | < b .

n=1

- ABA?J

A J= ?=I

= IAHEA @ > A @A J H E
m

I F IEJEL I

b0 +
m=1

|bm |
n=1

|an ||z |

= b0 +
m=1

|bm |
n=m

m) n a ( n |z |

a n

(m)

= an ((|ai |)1in1 ) ?

(m)

LAHCA O

=O H= = = IAHEA 

 FKAI

m) n m) n |bm a( ( n z | |b m | a n |z | .

JAIA GKA

I ? A ?EA JAI a n

(m)

AC=JEL I 2 H J= J

DA

I JAH E =@

!"
,A E?E

.K ?E

AI ANF
z

A ?E= O
ANF

C=HEJ
= IAHEA

!  5A @A A = BK ?E
e =

A ?E= f (z ) = ez ?

zn . n! n=0
A@E= JA K = IAHEA @A F JA ?E=I ?KO I A JAH=I = AIJA JEF @A BK ?E AI

= BK ?E ANF A ?E= IA D= @A E@ H=@E @A ? LAHCA ?E= AI = = =HA

,A

E?E

5A @E?A GKA K = BK ?E

?
an z n

F A = f AI A JAH= IE

f (z ) =
0

@A = IAHEA ?
0

LAHCA A J @ z C =I IECKEA JAI FH FEA@=@AI

2H F IE?E
 e = 1

! ! 5A I=JEIB=?A

 ez1 +z2 = ez1 ez2 ! ez = 0 F=H= J @ z I=

ez 1 = ez

" ez = ex eiy = ex cos y + iex sen y

"

+)2 67 = B H K = @A -K AH @A +=F JK

! .7 +1

-5 ) ) 61+)5

1 AIJ HA? CE@= A "

2H F IE?E

! "

= BK ?E

eiz AI FAHE @E?= @A FAHE @ 2i ez = ez ,

I=

IE O I
IAC

IE z = z + 2ki F=H= k Z
JAIA GKA ez AI = ANJA IE ? F A = @A = BK ?E I=>A I IA HAFHAIA J= A@E= JA A @AI=HH ANF A ?E= HA= = ?K=

ex =

xn , n! n=0

x R.
=IE EI =I BK ?E AI HA= AI AI @A = A?K=?E @EBAHA ?E= y (0) = 1 O y (0) = 1 y (0) = 0 A@E= JA I @AI=HH I A IAHEA

- A =F @E?A @A +=F JK 1 IA E JH @K AH y (x) = sen x O y (x) = cos x ? =I I K?E y +y = 0 GKA I=JEIB=?A =I ? @E?E AI y (0) = 0 >IAHL= I GKA J= AI BK ?E AI IA HAFHAIA J= @A F JA ?E=I @A x

sen x =
n=0

(1)n

x2n+1 (2n + 1)!

cos x =
n=0

(1)n

x2n . 2n!
JHE?=I FA I

= @A E?E GKA IECKA E JH @K?A =I ? HHAIF @EA JAI BK ?E AI JHEC A A A J= AI F H A IE F A FH ?A@E EA J @A =IEC =H A = x L= HAI ?

,A

E?E

! # 5A @A A

=I BK ?E
z 2n+1 (2n + 1)!

AI IA

O ? IA

sen z =
n=0

(1)n

cos z =
n=0

(1)n

z 2n . 2n!

2H F IE?E

5A JEA A =@A

! $

=I BK ?E AI sen z O cos z I I =I HA =?E AI

eiz = cos z + i sen z,

FAHE @E?=I @A FAHE @ 2

O
cos z =

eiz + eiz 2

sen z =

eiz eiz . 2i

5A I=JEIB=?A = =O H = @A =I FH FEA@=@AI A A A J= AI @A =I BK ?E AI JHEC JHE?=I GKA IA HA AC= = I FH > A =I 5A I >HA JEA @A =IE EI =I @A E?E AI D=>EJK= AI @A tag z, sec z AJ? - GKA = BK ?E ez IA= FAHE @E?= E F E?= GKA =@ EJA JEF AI = AH=I @A IAH E LAHJE@= -IJ O= IA >IAHL A A ?=I @A = E LAHI= @A z n ,A DA?D IA @= = EI = IEJK=?E A A ?=I @A K = L=HE=> A HA= ? =I BK ?E AI JHEC JHE?=I =H? IA =H? J= CA JA AJ?  =I E LAHI=I @A = BK ?E ANF A ?E= IA @A E =
BK ?E AI C=HEJ  ?KO AIJK@E E@ JE? = @A = BK ?E =HCK A J  E E?E= I =D H=

! " .7 +1

-5 -:2

- +1) ;

/)416

#

,A

E?E

! % 5A @E?A GKA w AI K
I C=HEJ

C=HEJ
I @A z I

@A z IE ew = z

2=H= z = 0 @=@ J @ I

w = w0 + 2ki,

k Z,
IE z = |z |ei I C=HEJ I

@ @A w0 AI K C=HEJ F=HJE?K =H -IFA? ?= A JA @A z I w = log |z | + i + 2ki k Z )D H= >EA I E JAHAI= A C=HEJ ? BK ?E

HA=J= @A L= HAI GKA @AFA @A @A z 5A JH=J= A J ANF A ?E= 7 = ? IA?KA ?E= @A KAIJH AIJK@E @A IECKEA JA FH FEA@=@

@A z O ? K = AH= ?AI @A E LAHJEH = BK ?E = BK ?E =HCK A J AI =

2H F IE?E

! & 2=H= ?=@= R = =F E?E=?E

f : {

f ( z ) = ez

z < + 2 } C \ {0},

AI >EOA?JEL= ?

E LAHI=
f 1 (z ) = log |z | + i arg z.

I=
f 1 : = C \ {tei : t 0} { < z < + 2 },

AI ? ,A

JE K= IJH=?E
= = I G = { z < + 2 } O f AI E OA?JEL= FKAI

ez = ez

x=x

& y y = 2k,
I g (z ) = log |z | +

? GKA y = y 2=H= FH >=H = I >HAOA?JELE@=@ AI?HE>E i arg z ?KO @ E E AI C \ {0} g (C \ {0}) G O

f (g (w)) = w.
,A =D EI I= A GKA f 1 (z ) = g (z )

= BK ?E

f 1 @A = FH F IE?E

IA @A

E =

log z = log |z | + i arg z.

- F=HJE?K =H = A A??E = BK ?E @A G0 = {0 z < 2 } A = FH F IE?E @= KC=H =

log z = log |z | + i arg z,

= FH F IE

GKA AI ? JE K= A = C \ {z 0} 5A = = BK ?E C=HEJ FHE ?EF= = = E LAHI= @A ez ?K= @ A ?E IA J = G = { < z } 5A = HAFHAIA J= F H C z = log |z | + iArg z,

$

+)2 67

! .7 +1

-5 ) ) 61+)5

O @A A K = BK ?E ? JE K= A = C \ {z 0} - C=HEJ FHE ?EF= I=JEIB=?A =I FH FEA@=@AI A A A J= AI C z1 z2 = C z1 + C z2 + 2ki,

C zn = n O C + A A ?=I HA= IA KI= A F JA ?E= @A ANF A JA ? F A

C z + 2ki,

z=

1 n

C z. FHE ?EF= F=H= E JH @K?EH = BK ?E

C=HEJ

z = eLog z ,
=I ? = BK ?E ANF A ?E=

az = ezLog a .
0A I A ? JH=@ E LAHI=I g @A = BK ?E ANF A ?E= GKA I ? JE K=I A ?EAHJ I @ E E I C 2 H A A F g = C z @A E@= A = C \ { z 0} 4AIK J= ALE@A JA GKA IE A F=H (g, ) @A A K = E LAHI= @A = ANF A ?E= A J ?AI = B= E E= (g + 2ki, ) k Z ? FHA @A E EJ=I E LAHI=I @A = ANF A ?E= 5A IKA A KI=H I J H E I
D =
H= =
@AJAH E =?E  @A C=HEJ F=H= HABAHEHIA = J @=I AIJ=I BK ?E AI I CA AH= A JA IA JEA A = IECKEA JA @A E?E

,A

E?E ! ' 5A= G C K =>EAHJ O f C (G, C) 5A @E?A GKA (g, ) C K @ E E O g C (, C) AI K = H= = @A E LAHI= @A f K = @AJAH E =?E @A f 1 IE g () G O f (g (z )) = z. ! #
>IAHL=?E ! ' 5A @AIFHA @A @A   GKA f (G) AI @EB ?E ? FH >=H GKA f : g () AI >EOA?JEL= F H J= J K D A H I @A @ @A IA JEA A GKA g () J= >E AI K @ E E

2H F IE?E
=I @A

! ! 5E (f, ) AI K = @AJAH E =?E @A I @AJAH E =?E AI F IE> AI (h, ) @A C=HEJ

h(z ) = f (z ) + 2ki,

C=HEJ A J ?AI J @=I A I @A = B H =

F=H= = C k Z 2 H JH= F=HJA ANEIJA @AJAH E =?E AI (f, ) @A J= AI GKA ? JA C= K ? H?K FAHB H=@ {z : 0 < |z | < r}
7 = ? IA?KA ?E= E A@E=J= AI GKA J @=I =I @AJAH E =?E C=HEJ A = C \ {z 0} JEA A = B H =

C=HEJ

AI H= =I g @A

gk (z ) = log |z | + iArg z + 2ki,

! " .7 +1 F=H= = C

-5 -:2

- +1) ; = = I

/)416 C=HEJ

% FHE ?EF= = = H= = k = 0

k Z 2HA?EI= A JA

g0 (z ) = log |z | + iArg z.
*= = FJE?= @A =I H= =I @A E LAHI= AIJ @A I GKA ?=H=?JAHE?A @AJAH E =?E AI @A = H= n IE = A K @ E E C \ {0} I =I

2H F IE?E

! ! 5E (f, ) C AI K = H= = @A = H= =I JH=I H= =I @A = H= n IE = A JEA A = B H =

fk (z ) = e
2k n i

n IE = A J

?AI

f (z )

k = 0, 1, . . . , n 1.

I=

E CK = @A J= AI @AJAH E =?E

AI AI J= GKA 0

,A IJH=?E 5E (f, ) O (g, ) I @AJAH E =?E AI f (z )/g (z ) AI ? JE K= A \ {0} GKA IECKA IEA @ K @ E E  O (f (z )/g (z ))n = 1 A @E?D @ E E ABA?J f (z )n = z IEC E ?= GKA f (z ) = 0 IE z = 0 - F=HJE?K =H f /g J = L= HAI A A ? K J @EI?HAJ {1, , . . . , n1 } @A =I H= ?AI n IE =I @A = K E@=@ 2 H J= J f /g AI ? IJ= JA A \ {0} n = JE = = H =?E AI ? IA?KA ?E= @A GKA F H A A F = BK ?E z AI ? JE K= A K J= ? H?K FAHB H=@
+ JE K= I =D H= ? K = EIEI @A = BK ?E IA = BK ?E IA HA= sen x AI >EOA?JEL= @A [ @ I A A 2 , 2 ] I >HA IK E =CA [1, 1] 1 IFEH ? FH >= I GKA sen z AI >EOA?JEL= A = HACE B I >HA IK E =CA C @ @A

B = B {z =
O

+ it : t 0} {z = + it : t 0}, 2 2

< z < }. 2 2 )IE EI sen z AI >EOA?JEL= ?K= @ = HAIJHE CE I = B I >HA IK E =CA := C \ {x2 1} 2H >= I =I = H =?E AI 2HE AH = E OA?JELE@=@ IE z, z B z = z O sen z = sen z A J ?AI eiz eiz = eiz eiz , B = {
+

| z z|

HAIK J= eiz = eiz F H J= J

ei(z+z ) = 1,
@A @ @A z + z = + 2k 5E =I F=HJAI HA= AI I x, x HAIK J= GKA x + x = ) IAH x = x [ I F IE> AI KAC z = z 2 , 2 ] AIJ=I E@A JE@=@AI 2=H= @A IJH=H = I >HAOA?JELE@=@ AI?HE>E I

sen z = w,
F=H= AC=H =

z = i

C {iw

1 w 2 },

&

+)2 67

! .7 +1

-5 ) ) 61+)5

@ @A F H H= AI GKA LA I I =>=  J = I A IEC + @AIEC = @ = ANFHAIE F H g (w) 4AIK J= GKA g (w) B F=H= J @ w C KIJE ?=@ AIJ IA ? ? KOA GKA sen z AI >EOA?JEL= A B ? E LAHI= g (z ) @A E@= A C - = ? FH >=?E @A g (w) B FHE AH IKF A I GKA 1 w 1 ? GKA g (w) = Arg ( 1 w2 + iw) [ , ]. 2 2 5E DK>E H= I A ACE@ A IEC I =HHE>= D=>H = I >JA E@ AIJA HAIK J=@ 2 H JH =@ IE |w| > 1 w J @=L = HA= HAIK J=

g (w) = signo (w)

O log |w + w2 1| HA? HHA (0, ) HAIFA?JEL= A JA (, 0) IE w > 1 w < 1 .E = A JA ? IE@AH= I w = x + iy ? y = 0 O FH >= I GKA {iw
-IJ AGKEL= A =

+ i log |w + 2

w2 1|,

1 1 w2 } = y + 2

|1 w2 | + (1 x2 + y 2 ) > 0.

|1 w2 | + (1 x2 + y 2 ) > 2y 2 , (1 x2 + y 2 )2 + 4x2 y 2 > (1 x2 y 2 )2 , (1 x2 + y 2 )2 (1 x2 y 2 )2 + 4x2 y 2 > 0, 4(1 x2 )y 2 4x2 y 2 > 0 4y 2 > 0,

O =?

FH >=?E

g (C) B GKA@= JAH E =@=

,A
-I ?
=

E?E

!!

= BK ?E

=H? IA

FHE ?EF= IA @A C {iz

A?

Arcsen z = i

1 z 2 }.

JE K= A C \ {w2 1} AI ! 
AI

>IAHL=?E
=I BK ?E

fk (z ) = Arcsen z + 2k,
I H= =I @A E LAHI= @A IA

J = L= HAI A B + 2k A E LEAHJA = IA ?K= @ IJA IA >IAHL= ? @ E E C > 5A I=>A GKA F H J= J = BK ?E

sen( z ) = sen z, g (z ) = Arcsen z,

E LEAHJA = = BK ?E IA EI IK?A@A

GKA J = L= HAI A B + J= >E ? =I BK ?E AI

gk (z ) = Arcsen z + 2k,

k Z.

! " .7 +1

-5 -:2

- +1) ;

/)416

'

- AH?E?E ! " ) = E =H =I JH= IB H =@=I @A =I ?KHL=I ? H@A =@=I

1 = { z = x0 } B 2 = {Imz = y0 } B,

F H

A@E @A = BK ?E

IA

KI= @ F=H= A

= HAFHAIA J=?E

sen z = sen x cosh y + cos x senh y.

2HK >AIA GKA f (C) = C - AH?E?E ! # 2HK >A IA =I IECKEA JAI FH FEA@=@AI = sen(z ) = sen z sen z = sen z @ > sen( + z ) = sen z + ? O=IA GKA sen z ?KO = ?D > @A z = 2k z F=H= K k Z E CK = >= @= B = { < z < }

FKA@A IAH E OA?JEL= A

2H ?A@A I =D H= ? = BK ?E tag z IECKEA @ J @ I IE E =HAI = I @A IA FHE AH >IAHL= @ = BK ?E HA= A ( , ) 5A ? ? KOA GKA = 2 2 BK ?E J= CA JA J= >E AI >EOA?JEL= @A B = B {z = + it : t < 0} 2 {z = + it : t > 0} ? L= HAI A \ {i} O IK HAIJHE??E = B AI I >HA IK 2 ? K J E =CA C \ {i(, 1) i(1, )} - FHE AH KC=H 1 e2iz tag z = i , 1 + e2iz A @ + @A ? e2iz = 1, LA ? F IE?E @A =F E?=?E I GKA = E =CA @A tag z AN? KOA I L= HAI i AI E OA?JEL=I tag z AI E OA?JEL= A B EA JH=I

tag z = i
?

1+u 1u

z=

+ ti 2

u = e2t ,

GKA tag z HA? HHA i(1, ) ?K= @ z = t>0 2 + ti ? 2=H= AIJK@E=H = I >HAOA?JELE@=@ AI?HE>E I tag z = w F=H= ?

? KEH

z = g (w ) =
-I KO IA ?E >EOA?JELE@=@

1 2i

1 + iw 1 iw
GKA ?

.
? KOA = ? FH >=?E @A

LAH GKA g (C \ {i}) B

+=F JK

"

,AHEL=>E E@=@ A C
" ,AHEL=>E E=@
5A

,A E?E "  5A= f : G C C K = BK ?E ? F A = G C =>EAHJ @E?A GKA f AI @AHEL=> A A z0 G ? @AHEL=@= f (z0 ) IE

z z0

l m

f (z ) f (z0 ) f (z0 + h) f (z0 ) = l m = f (z0 ). h 0 z z0 h

2H F IE?E

" 5A= f : G C C K = BK ?E ? F A = @A E@= A G C =>EAHJ @A C 3KA f IA= @AHEL=> A A z0 AGKEL= A = GKA ANEIJ= C J= GKA
f (z ) = f (z0 ) + (z z0 ) + g (z ),
" 

@A g (z ) = o(|z z0 |) ?K= @ z z0 >IAHL=?E

" JH= B H = AGKEL= A JA @A AI?HE>EH = HA =?E   AI F AH

g (z ) = h(z )(z z0 ),
@ @ @A h AI K = BK ?E GKA ?K F A l mzz0 h(z ) = 0 h = o(1) ?K= @ z z0  AI @AHEL=> AI A K A A ?=I @A K =

2 H H= AI GKA IA =? =H= A A +=F K 8 =I BK ?E E E G C IA @A E = BK ?E AI D HB=I A G =I FH FEA@=@AI IECKEA JAI IA FHKA>= AN=?J= A JA ? L=HE=> A HA=

2H F IE?E

" ! 5A= f, g : G C C BK ?E =>EAHJ G C O @AHEL=> AI A z0 G - J ?AI

= f O J= >E
g  AI ?

AI ?

F A =I @A

E@=I A K

JE K= A z0

I=

|f (z ) f (z0 )| L|z z0 |,

IE |z z0 | r F=H= ?EAHJ=I ?

IJ= JAI L r


+)2 67

" ,-418)*1 1,), -

> 2=H= , C = BK ?E

f + g AI @AHEL=> A A z0 ?

(f + g ) (z0 ) = f (z0 ) + g (z0 ).

? 4AC = @A AE> EJ

f g AI @AHEL=> A A z0 O (f g ) (z0 ) = f (z0 )g (z0 ) + f (z0 )g (z0 ).

@ 5KFKAIJ g (z0 ) = 0 = BK ?E
f g
-I J= >E

f AI @AHEL=> A A z0 O g f (z0 )g (z0 ) f (z0 )g (z0 ) . g (z0 )2

(z0 ) =

E F HJ= JA = FH FEA@=@ IECKEA JA

2H F IE?E

" " 4AC = @A = +=@A = 5A= f : G C g : C G, =>EAHJ I @A C f (z0 ) = w0 ? z0 G w0 O f O g @AHEL=> AI A z0 O w0 HAIFA?JEL= A JA - J ?AI g f (z ) = g (f (z )) AI @AHEL=> A A z0 O
(g f ) (z0 ) = g (w0 )f (z0 ) = g (f (z0 ))f (z0 ).

,A

IJH=?E

5A JEA A

g (w) = g (w0 ) + g (w0 )(w w0 ) + g1 (w),

O

f (z ) = f (z0 ) + f (z0 )(z z0 ) + f1 (z ),

? g1 = o(|w w1 |) O f1 = o(|z z0 |) ?K= @ w w0 O z z0 HAIFA?JEL= A JA 2 H IK>IJEJK?E @EHA?J= IA JEA A

g (f (z )) = g (f (z0 )) + g (w0 )f (z0 )(z z0 ) + h(z ),

?

h(z ) = g (w0 )f1 (z ) + g1 (f (z )).

+

h(z ) = o(|z z0 |) ?K= @ z z0 DA

I JAH E =@

-A F " I F E E I O =I BK ?E AI H=?E = AI I @AHEL=> AI A IKI @ E E I @A @A E?E - ? ?K @A IKI @AHEL=@=I AI E@ JE? = @A ?=I HA= FKAI (z n ) = nz n1 .

2H F IE?E

" # 5A= f : G C C K = =F E?=?E @AHEL=> A A G f (z0 ) = 0 O 1 , 2 @ I ?KHL=I C 1 +=F 1 E ?E@A JAI A z0 - J ?AI A CK @A 1 = 2 A z0 ? E ?E@A ? A CK @A 1 = f (1 ) = 2 = f (2 ) A w0 = f (z0 )

"  ,-418)*1 1),

! =I F=H= AJHE =?E AI @A =I

,A IJH=?E 5E i (t) t [a, b] i = 1, 2 I ?KHL=I z0 = i (t0 ) HAIK J=

(1 , 2 ) = arg
GKA AI

2 (t0 ) 1 (t0 )

= arg

f (z0 )2 (t0 ) f (z0 )1 (t0 )

= (1 , 2 ),

GKA IA FHAJA @ = @A

IJH=H

5E K = BK ?E f AI @AHEL=> A A K =>EAHJ G C O IK @AHEL=@= f AI @AHEL=> A A z0 A J ?AI (f ) (z0 ) IA = = = @AHEL=@= IACK @= @A f A z0 O AI?HE>E I f (z0 ) A KC=H @A (f ) (z0 ) ,A = AH= = C= IA E JH @K?A =I @AHEL=@=I @A H@A n 7 = LAH@=@AH=
CA = @A = EIEI ? F A AI = FH FEA@=@ GKA = H = GKA K = BK ?E f GKA AI @AHEL=> A A K =>EAHJ G I=JEIB=?A = GKA IK @AHEL=@= f AI K = BK ?E ? JE K= A G > GKA =@ EJA @AHEL=@=I @A J @ I I H@A AI A G ? GKA AI = = JE?= A G ?B +=F JK 111 6 @=L = J=H@=HA I IKO A AI? =HA?AH J @ AIJ  I E F=?EA JAI FKA@A =?K@EH = I JANJ I ? IE? I @A = =JAHE= F H A A F  = IECKEA JA FH FEA@=@ KAC= K F=FA BK @= A J= A = FHKA>= @A AIJA DA?D

an (z a) K = IAHEA @A F JA ?E=I ? H=@E @A ? LAHCA ?E= > 0 5E HAFHAIA J= I F H D = D(z, a) A ? H?K @A ? LAHCA ?E= O f (z ) = IK = @A = IAHEA A D A J ?AI f =@ EJA @AHEL=@=I @A J @ I I H@A AI O

2H F IE?E

" $ 5A=

f (k) (z ) =
n=k

n(n 1) . . . (n k + 1)an (z a)nk .

- F=HJE?K =H
f (z ) =

1 (n) f (a)(z a)n . n ! n=0

,A IJH=?E @= L= A

6 @ IA HA@K?A = FH >=H GKA f AI @AHEL=> A A D O GKA IK @AHEL=

f (z ) =
n=1

nan (z a)n1 .

+ A IACK @ EA >H F IAA A EI H=@E @A ? LAHCA ?E= GKA = IAHEA @A F=HJE@= IA A FKA@A =F E?=H A HAIK J=@ @A @AHEL=>E E@=@ F=H= JH=I HAFAJEH A FH ?AI k LA?AI AC=H = = ? ? KIE @AIA=@= 0=?EA @ z = a A = IAHEA @AHEL=@= k LA?AI IA >JEA A

k !ak = f (k) (a).

,=HA I @ I @A IJH=?E AI @A = @AHEL=>E E@=@ @A f = FHE AH= AI @EHA?J= EA JH=I = IACK @= D=?A KI @A DA?D @A GKA =I IAHEAI @A F JA ?E=I @A A BK ?E AI = = JE?=I A IK @EI? @A ? LAHCA ?E= LAH A 6A HA = @A +=F JK 111

" ) 2HE AH= @A IJH=?E ? 0<r< 2 EA @ f1 (z ) = 2H >=

n=1

+)2 67

" ,-418)*1 1,), -

I GKA f AI @AHEL=> A A ?=@= @EI? D(a, r) IJH= I GKA

nan (z a)n1 @A

f (z ) f (z0 ) f1 (z0 )(z z0 ) = o(|z z0 |),

?K= @ z z0 ) J= AI JE HA? H@=H GKA

n|a|n rn1 < ,

EA JH=I AI?HE>E I
N

f (z ) =
n=0

an (z a) +
n=N +1

an (z a)n = SN (z ) + fN (z ),

O
N

f1 (z ) =
n=1

an (z a)n1 +
n=N +1

nan (z a)n1 = SN (z ) + f1,N (z ).

- J

?AI

f (z ) f (z0 ) f1 (z0 )(z z0 ) = SN (z ) SN (z0 ) SN (z0 )(z z0 ) + fN (z ) fN (z0 ) f1,N (z0 )(z z0 ) = I + II.
JAIA GKA

II = = (z z0 )

an (z a)n (z0 a)n n(z0 a)n1 (z z0 )

N +1

an (z a)n1 + (z a)n2 (z0 a) + (z0 a)n1 n(z0 a)n1 ,

N +1

@A @

@A

|II |

2
N +1

n|an |rn1

|z z0 | <

|z z0 |, 2

F=H= N N 2 H JH= F=HJA J

= @ N = N A I HAIK J=

|I |

|z z0 |, 2
@A

IE |z z0 | < 2 H J= J |f f1 (z0 )z | = |I + II | |z | IE |z | < @ z = z z0 -IJ FHKA>= = @AHEL=>E E@=@ @A f A z0 * 5ACK @= @A IJH=?E AI a1 - ABA?J 2HE AH ? FH >=

I GKA = @AHEL=@= @A f A z = a

f (z ) = f (a) + a1 (z z0 ) + (z a)

2 n=2

an (z a)n2 .

"  ,-418)*1 1), +

f2 (z ) =
n=2

an (z a)n2

AI ? JE K= A D = @AHEL=>E E@=@ IA IECKA @A = AH= E A@E=J= 6 = I =D H= z0 D O HA? H@= I GKA f (z ) IA FKA@A HAFHAIA J=H A B H =

f (z ) =
n=0

bn (z z0 )n ,

@A = IAHEA ?

LAHCA A |z z0 | < |z0 a| b0 = f (z0 ) O

b1 =
n=1

nan (z0 a)n1 ,

LAH A +=F JK 111 2 H J= J f AI @AHEL=> A A z0 O IK @AHEL=@= AI b1 -I AI FHA?EI= A JA GKA JA = I GKA @A IJH=H

>IAHL=?E " ! )?=>= @AHEL=H J H E = J H E GKEAH=

7 =?

I @A FH >=H GKA =I IAHEAI @A F JA ?E=I IA FKA@A A IK ? H?K @A ? LAHCA ?E= J= J=I LA?AI ? IA
AI = IECKEA JA FH FEA@=@

IA?KA ?E= @EHA?J= @A AIJ= FH F IE?E

2H F IE?E
f AI E B H =

" % 5A= f K = BK ?E = = JE?= A K =>EAHJ G C - J ?AI EJ= A JA @AHEL=> A A G O F=H= ?=@= z0 G f IA HAFHAIA J= A =
f (z ) = 1 (n) f (z0 )(z z0 )n . n ! n=0
A @AI=HH @A 6=O H @A f A z0

" 

= ANFHAIE

 IA ?

?A ?

-A F I "" = = BK ?E
f (z ) = ez AI E

EJ= A JA @AHEL=> A A C ? E

@AHEL=@= f (z ) = ez

> =I BK ?E AI f (z ) = cos z O g (z ) = sin z I ? @AHEL=@=I f (z ) = sen z O g (z ) = cos z ? 4= ?AI n IE =I 5A=

f (z ) = 0 k n 1 K = H= = @A = H= @AHEL=> A A z0 O
n

EJ= A JA @AHEL=> AI A C

|z |e

Arg z +2k i n

n IE = O z0 C \ {x 0} - J 1 . nf (z0 )n1

?AI f AI

f (z0 ) =

+)2 67

" ,-418)*1 1,), -

- = IECKEA JA FH FEA@=@ @AIA JAHH= I A

AIGKA AJ  HA= @A K = BK ?E @AHEL=> A 5E f : G C f = u + iv AI K = BK ?E ? F A = O G K =>EAHJ A J ?AI f @A A = EI JEA F = =F E?=?E HA= fR : G R2 R2 @A E@= ? fR (x, y ) = (u, v ) 5A HA?KAH@= GKA K = =F E?=?E F : G R2 R2 AI @EBAHA ?E=> A A (x0 , y0 ) G IE ANEIJA L : R2 R2 E A= J= GKA

F (x, y ) = F (x0 , y0 ) + L(x x0 , y y0 ) + G (x, y ),

" !

@ @A G (x, y ) = o(r) ?K= @ r 0 ? r = |(x x0 , y y0 )| 5E F = (u(x, y ), v (x, y )) = =JHE @A L JEA A = B H = u u x y v v .

y
  IA

= (h1 , h2 ) = HA =?E 7I= @ = J=?E LA?J HE= x 0 = (x0 , y0 ) h AI?HE>A AGKEL= A JA A JA ? ) = F ( + o(|h |), F ( x0 + h x0 ) + Lh | 0 ?K= @ |h

6A HA = " & 5A= f : G C C z0 = x0 + iy0 G fR : G R2 R2

fR = (u, v ) = =F E=?E HA= =I ?E=@= = f =I IECKEA JAI = H =?E AI I AGKEL= A JAI

 f AI @AHEL=> A A z0  fR AI @EBAHA ?E=> A A (x0 , y0 ) O IA I=JEIB=?A A?K=?E AI @A +=K?DO 4EA = 

u = x u = y v y . v x

=I IECKEA JAI HA =?E

AI

- F=HJE?K =H IA JEA A GKA

f (z0 ) = u v v u +i = i . x x y y

,A

IJH=?E

a) b) 5E f AI @AHEL=> A A z0 f (z ) = f (z0 ) + f (z0 )(z z0 ) + g (z ),

? f (z0 ) = + i g = g1 + ig2 = o(|z z0 |) ?K= @ z z0 F (x, y ) = fR (x, y ) = (u, v ) G = (g1 , g2 ) IA JEA A

= = @

F (x, y ) = F (x0 , y0 ) +

x x0 y y0

+ G (x, y ),

"  ,-418)*1 1), O F AI @EBAHA ?E=> A A (x0 , y0 ) ?

ux = vy = , b) a) 5A JEA A F (x, y ) = F (x0 , y0 ) +

@

uy = vx = .

a11 a21

a21 a11

x x0 y y0

+ G (x, y ),
=

@A G (x, y ) = (g1 , g2 ) = o(|(x x0 , y y0 )|) ?K= @ (x, y ) (x0 , y0 ) = @ = a11 + ia12 g (z ) = g1 + ig2 J= ECK= @=@ E F E?=

f (z ) = f (z0 ) + (z z0 ) + g (z ),
O f AI @AHEL=> A A z0 ? @AHEL=@= f (z0 ) = @A fR L= A

>IAHL=?E

" # 5E f AI @AHEL=> A A @AJAH E = JA =? >E=

u (u, v ) x = v (x, y ) x

u y = |f (z0 )|2 . v y

-A F

"$

= BK ?E

C z = log r + i,

? r = |z | = Arg z AI @AHEL=> A A C \ {z 0} FKAI u = log r O v = ?K F A =I A?K=?E AI @A +=K?DO 4EA = )@A I

f (z ) = (log r)x + ix =

x y 1 i 2 = . 2 r r z

) CK =I @A =I FH FEA@=@AI GKA IECKA D=?A KI @A = AIJHK?JKH= HA= @A K = BK ?E @AHEL=> A f

2H F IE?E 2H F IE?E
GKA I J

" ' 5A= f : G C C K = BK ?E @AHEL=> A A K @ J= GKA f = 0 A G - J ?AI f AI ? IJ= JA A G

E E G

"  7 = BK ?E @AHEL=> A A K @ E E G f : G C C = L= HAI HA= AI AI A?AI=HE= A JA ? IJ= JA

2H F IE?E

"  2=H= K = BK ?E @AHEL=> A O ? IJ= JA A K =>EAHJ K ?= AI @AHEL=> A A G 2 H JH =@ IE IA G f : G C C IA JEA A GKA f ( @A A g (z ) = f z ) ? z G = {z : z G} g I AI @AHEL=> A A G

I IECKEA JAI HAIK J=@ I CK=H@= HA =?E ? A JA HA = @A = BK ?E E LAHI= - FHE AH LEA A = @A?EH GKA =I H= =I @A E LAHI= @A BK ?E AI @AHEL=> AI I A =I EI =I @AHEL=> AI - IACK @ = H = GKA =I BK ?E AI ? @AHEL=@= K=I ?= A JA E LAHJE> AI 5AC IA FH >=H A IK A J A A ?= I @A BK ?E AI @A L=HE=> A ? F A = f (z0 ) = 0 I AI ? @E?E IK ?EA JA F=H= = E LAHJE>E E@=@ ?= IE GKA AI J= >E ? @E?E A?AI=HE= F=H= GKA f IA= ?= A JA E OA?JEL= -IJ ? =H= A JA ?KHHA A A ?=I HA= A A F f (x) = x3 A K A J H @A x = 0

&

+)2 67

" ,-418)*1 1,), -

2H F IE?E

"  5A= f : G C C K = BK ?E @AHEL=> A A K =>EAHJ G (g, ) K = H= = @A E LAHI= @A f z0 G 5E w0 = f (z0 ) O f (z0 ) = 0 A J ?AI g AI @AHEL=> A A w0 O 1 g (w0 ) = . f (z0 )
,A IJH=?E
-I?HE>E I w = w0 

g (w) g (w0 ) z z0 , = w w0 f (z ) f (z0 )

@ @A z = g (w) z0 = g (w0 ) *=IJ= A J KI=H = ? JE KE@=@ @A g ?AI J =H EJAI ?K= @ w w0 O

2H F IE?E " ! 5A= f K = BK ?E @AHEL=> A A K =>EAHJ G C z0 G w0 = f (z0 ) O f (z0 ) = 0 -NEIJA A J ?AI A J H I =>EAHJ I U @A z0 V @A w0 J= AI GKA f : U V AI K D A H I f 1 AI @AHEL=> A A V O
(f 1 ) (z ) = 1 . f (f (z ))

,A IJH=?E )F E?= @ A JA HA = @A = BK ?E E LAHI= = fR >JA A I = 1 ANEIJA ?E= @A U, V O GKA fR AI C 1 A V @AI@A A FK J @A LEIJ= HA= + 1 A F=HJE?K =H f AI K D A H I A J ?AI (f 1 , V ) @A A K = H= = @A E LAHI= @A f O DA I JAH E =@ >IAHL=?E " % 2KA@A @=HIA K = FHKA>= KI= @ @EHA?J= A JA = LAHIE HA= 1 @A JA HA = - ABA?J IE = f (z0 ) = @EBAHA ?E= D(fR ) FKA@A ? @E ?=HIA A 1 1 C? = =F E?=?E E A= =I ?E=@= = -IJ IEC E ?= >LE= A JA GKA fR ?K F A =I A?K=?E AI @A +=K?DO 4EA = -A F I "& = 5E (f, ) AI ?K= GKEAH H= = @AJAH E =?E
f (z ) = 1 . z

 @A

C=HEJ

A J

?AI
" "

> 5E (f, ) AI K = H= = @A E LAHI= @A = J= CA JA K = @AJAH E =?E @A = =H? J= CA JA A J ?AI 1 f (z ) = . " # 1 + z2 ? 5E (f, ) AI K = H= = @A E LAHI= @A IA K = @AJAH E =?E @A =H? IA  A J ?AI 1 , f (z ) = 1 z2 @ @A A IEC @AFA @A AIFA? ?= A JA @A ?=@= H= = 5E f (z ) = Arcsen (z ) z = C \ {z 2 1} A IEC AI
I 5E A >=HC F=H= = H= = f (z ) = 3 < z <  A IEC AI >LE= A JA Arcsen z GKA J = L= HAI A 2 2
A I + FKA@A >IAHL=HIA F H E IFA??E @EHA?J= @A ?=I HA= AIJA AI K BA A KAL @AI@A A FK J @A LEIJ= ? F A

"

.7 +1

-5 )4

1+)5

'

@ 5E (g, ) AI K = H= = @A E LAHI= @A f (z ) = z n AI @A?EH K = @AJAH E =?E @A = H= n IE = O IE z0

g (z0 ) = 1 . ng (z0 )n1
I @AI=HH I A

) CK I @A I ? ?K I FHA?A@A JAI I FAH EJA D= =H IAHEA @A = CK =I BK ?E AI + IE@AH= @ GKA

(
AI B ?E ?

C (1 + z )) = ? KEH GKA

1 = 1 z + z 2 + + (1)n z n + , 1+z

C (1 + z ) = ) C= A JA

(1)n
n=0

z n+1 zn = (1)n1 . n + 1 n=1 n

Arctag z = z
JH= ?KAIJE GKA I F = JA= IAHEA @A F JA ?E=I @A = BK ?E

z3 z 2n+1 + (1)n + 3 2n + 1
I A A ?=F JK = JAHE H BKA A @AI=HH A

f (z ) =
) AIJ I ABA?J I IA >IAHL= GKA

1 . (z a)n

(z a)n =

(1)n1 (1)n 1 [(z a)1 ](n1) = a (n 1)! (n 1)!

(n1)

ak z k
k=0

=
k=n1

(1)n a(k+1)

k (k 1) . . . (k n + 2) kn+1 z (n 1)!

=
l=0

(1)n n 1 + l l z. an+l n1
LAHCA ?E= @A =I IAHEAI

,A = I = A?J H = J=HA= @A A ? E F E?=@=I

JH=H

I@

E E I @A ?

"

.K ?E

AI =H

E?=I

5KF C= I GKA f (z ) = u + iv AI @AHEL=> A A K =>EAHJ G C - J ?AI u, v =@ EJA @AHEL=@=I F=H?E= AI @A FHE AH H@A A =I ?K= AI I=JEIB=?A =I ? @E?E AI @A +=K?DO 4EA =

u x = vy

uy = vx .

 5E IA I=JEIB=?A =@A A G A J ?AI

+)2 67

" ,-418)*1 1,), -

I GKA u O v =@ EJA @AHEL=@=I F=H?E= AI @A IACK @

H@A

uxx + uyy = 0,

vxx + vyy = 0.
@A u =

- CHKF uxx + uyy IA HAFHAIA J= ? u O IA = = A =F =?E= A?K=?E u = 0 AI = A?K=?E @A =F =?A

,A
A G

E?E

" " 5A @E?A GKA K = BK ?E

u = 0 ,

u C 2 (G) AI =H

E?= A G IE

5KF EA @ GKA IA AI ?=F= @A B=>HE?=H BK ?E AI =H E?=I u A K @ E E G = FHACK J= =JKH= AI I=>AH IE ANEIJA JH= BK ?E =H E?= v J= GKA f (z ) = u + iv AI @AHEL=> A A G AI @A?EH @A IKAHJA GKA u v I=JEIB=?A =I A?K=?E AI @A +=K?DO 4EA =

,A
?

E?= IA @E?A GKA v C 2 (G) AI =H KC=@= @A v IE f (z ) = u + iv AI @AHEL=> A A G

E?E

" # 5E u C 2 (G) AI =H

E?=

6A HA = " $ 5A= G K =>EAHJ ? LAN A F=HJE?K =H C D(a, r) F=H= a C r > 0 5E u C 2 (G) AI =H E?= A G A J ?AI ANEIJA K = BK ?E =H E?= ? KC=@= v C 2 (G) )@A I J @=I =I F IE> AI BK ?E AI =H E?=I ? K C=@=I @A u A G @E AHA A K = ? IJ= JA
,A IJH=?E + IE@AH= I A ?=I G ? @A CA AH= E@=@ GKA 0 2=H= u @=J DA
vx = P,
LAN @ @A IKF A I IE F H@E@= I @A HAI LAH A v =I A?K=?E AI

vy = Q,

@ @A P = uy Q = ux ) IAH u =H E?= = B H = = P dx + Qdy AI ?AHH=@= O A A = @A 2 E ?=H   E F E?= GKA = dv F=H= = CK = v GKA IA ? FHKA>= E A@E=J= A JA GKA AI =H E?= - AIJA ?=I HAIK J= E A@E=J HAFH @K?EH A =HCK A J @A A = @A 2 E ?=H ? I= GKA D=?A I F H ? F AJEJK@ JAIA GKA I KI= I A DA?D @A GKA G AI AIJHA =@ ? HAIFA?J = z = 0 ,A E I
1

v (x, y ) =
0

{xP (tx, ty ) + yQ(tx, ty )} dt =

P dx + Q dy,

= [0, z ] +
1

FH >=

I GKA vx = P (x, y ) A ABA?J

vx =
0

{P (tx, ty ) + xtPx (tx, ty ) + ytQx (tx, ty )}

1

=
0 1

{P (tx, ty ) + t

d (P (tx, ty ))} dt dt
1

=
0

P (tx, ty ) dt + P (x, y )
0

P (tx, ty ) dt = P (x, y ).

5A FHKA>= ECK=
 -I ?

A JA GKA vy = Q(x, y )

IA?KA ?E= @A I HAIK J=@ I @A ?=F JK IECKEA JA GKA = AH= @AEL=>E E@=@ @A f O= E F E?= GKA u v I @A ? =IA C =I GKA AIJ= ? @E?E IA ?K F A IEA FHA

" ! )2

,1+- 8)41)5 8)41)* -5 "'



>IAHL=?E

= 7 = LA =IACKH=@ GKA = dv v FKA@A @A EHIA = JAH =JEL= A JA ? v (z ) = (z0 ,z) P dx + Qdy @ @A AI ?K= GKEAH ?KHL= C 1 = JH I GKA ? A?J= z0 ? z > F = ? IJHK??E FH ?JE?= @A v FH ?A@A ? A x F=H= JA AH
x

IECKA 2HE AH E JACH=H F H A A

v (x, y ) = (y ) +
x0

P (t, y ) ds.
y

,AIFK I @AHEL=H A y F=H= KI= @ Py = Qx ? ? KEH (y ) = y0 Q(x0 , s) ds 5A FKA@A A FA =H E JACH= @ A y F=H= AC=H CH=?E=I = = = EI HAIK J=@

- A F "  0= =H =I BK ?E AI A JAH=I f ?KO= F=HJA HA= AI u = x3 3xy = BK ?E v = f D= @A ?K F EH

vx = uy = 6xy vy = ux = 3x2 3y 2 ,
@A @ @A E JACH= @ = FHE AH= A?K=?E A x HAIK J=

v = 3x2 y + (y ),
@AHEL= @ ? HAIFA?J = y O KI= @ = IACK @= A?K=?E

(y ) + 3x2 = 3x2 3y 2
2 H J= J =I BK ?E

(y ) = y 3 + C

v = 3x2 y y 3 + C.

AI >KI?=@=I I

f (z ) = z 3 + C,
?

C K =?

IJ= JA ?

FA=

"!

)F @E?A @EBAHA ?E=>E E@=@ @A BK ?E L=HE=I L=HE=> AI ? F A =I

AI @A

5KF C= I GKA f : G Cn Cm G =>EAHJ @A Cn AI K = BK ?E ? F A = f (z ) = (fk (z )) = (f1 (z ), . . . , fm (z )) z = (zj ) = (z1 , . . . , zn ) 5A @E?A GKA f AI @AHEL=> A A z0 IE ANEIJA L : Cn Cm C E A= J= GKA

f (z0 + h) = f (z0 ) + L(h) + g (h),

@ @A g (h) = o(|h|) ?K= @ h 0 A Cn = BK ?E f E @K?A K = =F E?=?E HA=

fR : R2 R2 R2 R2 ,

n)

m)

+)2 67

" ,-418)*1 1,), -

@ @A fR (x1 , y1 , . . . , xn , yn ) = (u1 , v1 , . . . , um , vm ) =I uk , vk I BK ?E AI HA= AI @A (x1 , y1 , . . . , xn , yn ) O IA JEA A GKA fk (z ) = uk (z ) + ivk (z ) ? z = (x1 + iy1 , . . . , xn + iyn ) + K = @A IJH=?E A JAH= A JA IE E =H = = @A 6A HA = IA AIJ=> A?A IE AIBKAH A IECKEA JA HAIK J=@

6A HA = " % 5A= f : G Cn Cm G =>EAHJ

= H =?E AI I AGKEL= A JAI = f AI @EBAHA ?E=> A A z0 > fR AI @EBAHA ?E=> A A IA JE@ HA=  A z0 O =@A 4EA =  uk vk x = y j j u v k k = yj xj F=H= 1 j n 1 k m

z0 G

=I IECKEA JAI

I A?K=?E

AI @A +=K?DO