Physical Geography

Structure of the Earth

Crust
Continental Crust
Made of older and less dense rocks e.g. granite
Most abundant minerals in continental crust are silicone and aluminium
A new name was created for this crust ( sial)
35 70Km thick and mostly over 1500 million years old.
Oceanic Crust:
Made up of younger rocks e.g basalt
More dense than continental crust
Most abundant minerals in continental crust are silicone and magnesium
A new name was created for this crust ( Sima)
6 10Km thick and has an average age of 200 million years.
Plate tectonics
Alfred Wegener published a theory in 1912 to explain why the Earth looked like a giant jigsaw
Pangea: All of the land mass on the earth was once joined together to form 1 super continent and over
millions of years it broke up
Evidence of Continental Drift
Fossils of a small reptile were only found in South Africa and Brazil. Separated by the Atlantic ocean
Rocks in South Africa are almost identical in age and form.
Coal has been found in Antartic but it only forms under warm, wet conditions. It is the same in England
Logical Solution: Continents must have been in a different place when these event took place
Plate Movement
1. Heating, Expansion of magma, density decreases
2. Magma spreads, combining with rigid upper mantle, friction caused at crust
3. Plate movement occurs friction forces lateral plate movement
Rules of Plate Tectonics
Continental crust is less dense than oceanic crust
Oceanic crust is constantly being formed and destroyed:
Continental crust can carry on beyond the edges of the land
Plates can overlap there can never be gaps between plates
The amount of new crust being formed is the same amount that is being destroyed
Plate movement is very slow
Constructive Plate Boundary ( Divergent)
They are formed where plates are moving apart
New crust is created
Magma Rises due to convection currents
Plates are forced apart magma rises through a vent and then cools to form solid rock
Known as sea floor spreading
Mid Atlantic ridge runs from the arctic ocean past southern tip of South Africa
Speed varies but it moves about 2.5 cm a year
Iceland lies on this ridge and becomes wider each year
Proof of sea floor spreading: Age of rocks increases as you move away from ridge




Destructive Plate Boundary ( Convergent)
Subduction: Oceanic crust is more dense than continental crust. When the two meet the oceanic crust sinks
Subduting plate melts back into the mantle. As it is less dense than the mantle magma tries to rise
Magma can force its way through continental crust forms volcanoes
Continental crust: Buckles under the pressure to form fold mountains
Where plates subduct: Deep ocean trenches can form
Earthquakes: common as friction builds up due to pressure under subduction zones
Volcanic Activity
Where does it happen
Constructive plate boundaries e.g. Iceland
Destructive plate boundaries
Hot spots where areas of super heated magma rise through the crust
What Causes eruption
Magma gathers in a magma chamber underneath plate boundary
Pressure builds in chamber as the gases expand
Increased pressure forces crust to split creating fissures
As gases explode magma explodes upwards erupting onto surface as lava
Types of Lava
Acidic lava ( Aa)
Has a high silica content ( <70%)
This makes lava viscous (Thick)
Holds in gases until pressure causes explosive eruptions
Creates steep volcanic cones which lie dormant for many years then violently erupt.
Basic lava ( Pahoehoe)
Has a low silica content ( <55%)
Runny and fast flowing
Releases gases frequently forming bubbling eruptions
Forms gently sloping volcanoes
Eruptions can last for many years & travel long distances
Pillow lava
Forms when lava erupts through fissures under the sea
Lava cools instantly on contact with water
Forms round blobs on the sea floor that appear as rocks
Continues to bulge and grow as lava explodes
Materials ejected during a Volcanic Eruption
Lava
Ash and Dust
Gas Sulphur dioxide, carbon dioxide
Pyroclatic Material:
Semi molten rock particles
Volcanic bombs
Pyroclastic clouds hot clouds of lava, ash and dust
Tumbes down the mountain at 160 km/h
Temperatures reach 2000 c
Immediate death on contact



Features of Volcanic Activity
Intrusive features
Formed within the crust
Molten rock is called magma
Batholith solidified magma chamber
Sill horizontal magma layer
Dyke vertical magma layer
Laccolith magma pushes rocks upwards
Lapolith magma pushes rock downwards
Extrusive features
Formed above the earths crust
Volcanic cone / mountain
Vent formed at destructive boundaries
Fissure formed at constructive boundaries
Pyroclasts materials ejected from a volcano
Effects of Volcanic Activity
Negative Effects
Loss of life as people are killed from pyroclastic clouds, lava bombs, dust etc.
Destruction of property and land as lava destroys anything it touches
Lahar / mudflow from melting snow mixed with ash and dust
Environmental damage such as Greenhouse gases with can affect temperature and ash/dust can block
out solar energy
Disruption to services as ash clouds can lead to airport closures
Positive Effects
Soils volcanic activity creates fertile soils e.g. laterite
Geothermal energy as hot magma can be harnessed to provide hot water for homes
Creation of land as volcanic activity is essential for creating the land
Tourism Volcanic activity has been tourists attractions for years
Predicting Volcanic Activity
Scientists monitor volcanoes for any change that may indicate an eruption
Seismographs are used to record any earth tremors as moving magma can cause medium earthquakes
Historical patterns. Many volcanoes have repeat cycle of erupting. Can be used to predict future eruptions
Gas Emissions as Increased levels of CO2 and SO2 indicate increased activity inside a volcano
Temperatures - Soil and temperatures in the area may slowly increase as magma rises closer to the surface
Laser monitoring Volcanic mountains are monitored for changes in shape
All of the methods are speculative as eruptions are complex