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1.1,QIHUHQ úLUD LRQDPHQW

Într-R DFFHS LXQH SRSXODU  – SH FkW GH IDFLO  úL GH VXJHVWLY  SH
DWkWGHSX LQULJXURDV –, logica este FDUDFWHUL]DW GUHSWúWLLQ DJkQGLULL

corecte, presupunându-VH F  SULQFLSDOD GDF  QX VLQJXUD HL XWLOLWDWH

FRQVW  vQ IDSWXO F  QH vQYD  FXP V  JkQGLP IHULQGX-ne de erori. Ce-i

GUHSW VWXGLXO ORJLFLL DU SXWHD úL DU WUHEXL V  QH RIHUH EHQHILFLXO XQHL

gândiri mai riguroase, cevQDLQWHD] PDLVLJXUVSUHDIODUHDXQRUDGHY UXUL

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SX LQWU V WXULGHILQLWRULLDOHDFHVWXLGRPHQLXWHRUHWLF –DúDFXPIDSWXOF 

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VXQWWU V WXULGHILQLWRULLDOHFXUHQWXOXLHOHFWULF

ÌQ HOHJHUHD ORJLFLL FD úWLLQ  D gândirii corecte induce presu-

SR]L LD JUHúLW  F  DGHY UXULOH ORJLFLL V DU ED]D FXPYD SH FRQVHQVXO úL SH
-
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îndemnându-QH SDUF  V  DVRFLHP úWLLQ D ORJLFLL FX JUDPDWLFD 1XPDL F 

aceast  DSDUHQW  vQUXGLUH HVWH LQH[LVWHQW  5HJXOLOH GH PRUIRORJLH úL
VLQWD[  SH FDUH OH HQXQ  JUDPDWLFD VXQW YDODELOH vQWUXFkW FODULILF  úLVLV-

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VDXF µ9RLWUHEXL LV PDLvQY D L¶F µ7XHúWL mai superior¶RULF µ1X

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ideile exprimate într-R IRUP  JUDPDWLFDO  HURQDW  SRW IL SHUWLQHQWH

3ULQFLSLXOORJLFDOLGHQWLW LLSURSULHW LOHLPSOLFD LHLPDWHULDOHVDXOHJLOH

VLORJLVPXOXL GH SLOG  VXQW vQV  YDODELOH QX SHQWUX F  PDMRULWDWHD

RDPHQLORU OH FXQRVF úL OH DSOLF  HIHFWLY vQ PRG ul lor de gândire, ci
vQWUXFkW VH VXV LQ SULQ GHPRQVWUD LL ULJXURDVH FDUH LQ H[FOXVLY GH

FRQVWUXF LD XQRU VLVWHPH GH HQWLW L úL UHOD LL SXU LGHDOH
– WRW DúD FXP
teoremele lui Thales, Pitagora VDX)HUPDWV VSXQHPELQRPXOOXL1HZWRQ
sau geometriile neeucOLGLHQH QX VH vQWHPHLD]  SH FXQRDúWHUHD úL
VXV LQHUHD ORU GH F WUH PDMRULWDWHD LQGLYL]LORU FL QXPDL SH DUJXPHQWHOH

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H[SOLFD UD LXQHD SULQWU R GHVFULHUH QDWXUDOLVW  D SUDFWLFLORU OLPEDMXOXL

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GH]Y OXLH SULQFLSLLOHJkQGLULLVDXQHLQGLF GHSLOG FHYD GHVSUHQDWXUD

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HVWH R JUDPDWLF  FL IDSWXOXL F  J

ramatica se supune logicii. Un ‘limbaj’
în care modus ponensQXDUILRLQIHUHQ YDOLG VDXvQFDUHLGHQWLWDWHDQX
1
DUILWUDQ]LWLY Q-ar putea fi folosit pentru a exprima nici un fel de idei.“

/RJLFLHQLL GH DVW ]L UHVSLQJ vQ HOHJHUHD ORJLFLL FD úWLLQ  D

JkQGLULL FRUHFWH úL SHQWUX F  gândirea HVWH R DFWLYLWDWH SVLKLF  GHRVHELW

GH FRPSOH[  FDUH VH GHVI úRDU  vQ PLQ LOH RDPHQLORU DYkQG GH ILHFDUH

GDW  R LQDOLHQDELO  QRW  VXELHFWLY  SULQ FDUH LQGLYL]LL VH GHRVHEHVF PDL

PXOWVDXPDLSX LQXQXOGHDOWXO* ândirea este un obiect de studiu pentru

psihologie, úWLLQ  H[SHULPHQWDO  FDUH XUP UHúWH V  GHWHUPLQH SULQ

REVHUYD LH P VXUDUH FRPSDUDUH VLPXODUH PRGHODUH HWF FHHD FH de

UHJXO sau vQ PRG RELúQXLW GHFXUJH vQ PRG µQRUPDO¶ vQ PLQ LOH
oamenilor, sinteti]kQG úL LQIRUPD LLOH H[WUHP GH GLYHUVLILFDWH SH FDUH OH
IXUQL]HD]  GLVFLSOLQH SUHFXP FLEHUQHWLFD WHRULD LQIRUPD LHL QHXUR-

IL]LRORJLDúLDOWHOH

ÌQUXGLW PXOWPDLvQGHDSURDSHFXPDWHPDWLFD decât cu psihologia

sau gramatica, logica QXHVWHRúWLLQ H[SHULPHQWDO , F FLHDQXGHVFULHúL
QX H[SOLF  PRGXO FRQFUHW vQ FDUH RDPHQLL GH WRW IHOXO JkQGHVF HIHFWLY

îndrumându-LFXVIDWXULúLUHFRPDQG ULSHFDUHHLVXQWOLEHULV OHXUPH]H

sau nu, cu rezultate ierarhizabile pe diferite VFDOH GH SHUIRUPDQ 
NeinteresaW GHFRQ LQXWXODFWHORUGHJkQGLUHLQGLIHUHQW ID GHVHQVXOúL
YDORDUHD LQIRUPD LRQDO  D ©LGHLORUª ORJLFD VWXGLD]  VWUXFWXUL GH UHOD LL
QHFHVDUH vQWUH HQWLW L LGHDOH DEVWUDFWH – VWUXFWXUL GH SURJUHVLY 

generalitate, izomorfe nu numai cu actele cogniWLYH FL úL FX QHQXP UDWH
VLVWHPHQDWXUDOHVDXDUWLILFLDOHGLQOXPHDIHQRPHQDO 

,DW  GH FH O VkQG JkQGLUHDvQ VHDPDSVLKRORJLORUúLYRUELUHDFRUHFW

vQ VHDPD ILORORJLORU YRP VSXQH F  ORJLFD VWXGLD]  GLQ SXQFW GH YHGHUH

. ÌQ HOHJem prin LQIHUHQ orice extragere sau

IRUPDO LQIHUHQ HOH YDOLGH

derivare dintr-una sau mai multeSURSR]L LLGDWHQXPLWHSUHPLVHDXQHL noi

SURSR]L LL QXPLW  concluzie. Cu alte cuvinte, fiind reunite n premise,

printr-R LQIHUHQ  FRUHFW  GLQ SXQFW GH YHGHUH ORJLF HVWH SRVLELO  VDu
QHFHVDU  DILUPDUHD XQHL DQXPLWH FRQFOX]LL FDUH VH GHVSULQGH VDX UH]XOW 

GLQSUHPLVHOHGDWHúLDFFHSWDWH –LQGLIHUHQWFkWGHPXO LVDXFkWGHSX LQL

DUILLQGLYL]LLFDSDELOLV HIHFWXH]HPLQWDOGHVSULQGHUHDFRQFOX]LHLFRUHFWH

úL LQGLIHUHQW FkW GH PDUH VD u de mic ar fi efortul intelectual necesar

SHQWUX vQ HOHJHUHD PHFDQLVPXOXL ORJLF SULQ FDUH FRQFOX]LD GHULY  GLQ

SUHPLVHOHVDOH6SXQH3HLUFHÄ1XVHSXQHFkWXúLGHSX LQSUREOHPDGDF 

DWXQFL FkQG PLQWHD QRDVWU  DFFHSW  SUHPLVHOH VLP LP LPEROGXO V 

accept P úL FRQFOX]LD (VWH DGHY UDW F  GLQ ILUH UD LRQ P vQ JHQHUDO

FRUHFW $FHVWD HVWH vQV  XQ DFFLGHQW FRQFOX]LD DGHY UDW  DU U PkQH

DGHY UDW úLGDF QXDPVLP LQLFLXQLPEROGGHDRDFFHSWDLDUFHDIDOV 

DUU PkQHIDOV FKLDUGDF QXDPSXWHDUH]LVWDSRU nirii de a crede în ea.“2

,DW FkWHYDH[HPSOHGHLQIHUHQ HHOHPHQWDUH

'DW ILLQGSUHPLVDµx = 10’, putem infera concluzia ‘x = 5’.

(2) Din premisa ‘x2 ¶UH]XOW SULQLQIHUHQ µx = 4 sau
x = (–4)’.
(3) )LLQG GDWH GUHSWHOH D E úL F SUHFXP úL UHOD LD GH
SDUDOHOLVP GLQ SUHPLVHOH µD __ E¶ úL µE __ F¶ UH]XOW 

concluzia: ‘(a) || (c)’.

(4) Date fiind premisele:
µ7RDWHSDWUXODWHUHOHVXQWSROLJRDQH¶úL

‘Toate romburile sunt patrulatere’,

se poate infera concluzia:
‘Toate romburile sunt poligoane’.
(5) 'DF DPUHPDUFDWXQLQVQHFXQRVFXWFXFDUHQXDPGLVFXWDW

QLPLFGDUFDUHDYHDWHQXOJDOEHQRFKLREOLFLHUDVFXQGúLSXUWDRFKHODUL
SXWHPLQIHUD F UHVSHFWLYXOLQGLYLG WUHEXLH V ILHXQDVLDWLFGLQ([WUHPXO

Orient.
(6) Intrând într-R FDPHU  DS V SH FRPXWDWRU úL QX VH DSULQGH

OXPLQD IDSWXO FD DWDUH FRURERUDW FX QR LXQLOH SH FDUH OH SRVHG GHVSUH

LQVWDOD LLOHHOHFWULFHP IDFV SUHVXSXQF IHQRPHQXOVHGDWRUHD] XQHLD

GLQWUH XUP WRDUHOH FDX]H SRVLELOH QX HVWH FXUHQW vQ UH HD V -a ars
filamentul becului; s-a defectat comutatorul etc.
ÌQO Q XLUHD ORJLF  GLQWUH SUHPLVH úL FRQFOX]LH VH PDL QXPHúWH úL

argument – WHUPHQ SUHIHUDW GH F WUH XQLL ORJLFLHQL vQ ORFXO FHOXL GH

LQIHUHQ  vQWUXFkW HVWH VDX FHO SX LQ SDUH PDL IDPLOLDU7RWXúL

, cei doi
termeni nu sunt, credem noi, pe deplin sinonimi. A argumenta sau a
FRQVWUXL XQ DUJXPHQW vQVHDPQ  FkWHRGDW  D GHULYD GLQ SUHPLVH GDWH úL

DFFHSWDWHRDQXPLW FRQFOX]LH – cu alte cuvinte, a infera; în multe cazuri,

vQV  D DUJXPHQWD vQVHDPQ  D VXV LQH FX DQXPLWH WHPHLXUL R SURSR]L LH

GDW  DO F UHL DGHY U QX HVWH FHUW $OWIHO VSXV D FRQVWUXL XQ DUJXPHQW

SRDWH V  vQVHPQH D GHVFRSHUL DQXPLWH SUHPLVH GLQ FDUH SURSR]L LD GH

VXV LQXW GHULY  ORJLF GUHSW FRQFOX]LD ORU ,DW  FkWHYD H[HPSOH GH

argumente de acest tip:

$ILUPD LDF DULDXQXLFHUFQXSRDWHILvQQLFLXQFD]HJDO FX

DULD XQXL S WUDW IDLPRDVD SUREOHP  FXQRVFXW  vQ LVWRULD PDWHPDWLFLL

GUHSW µFYDGUDWXUD FHUFXOXL¶ QX HVWH FkWXúL GH SX LQ GH OD VLQH HYLGHQW 

'H FH úL FXP V  QH FRQYLQJHP GH DGHY UXO HL" $YHP QHYRLH GH XQ

DUJXPHQW $FHVWD D IRVW IRUPXODW vQ DQXO  GH F WUH PDWHPDWLFLDQXO

Ferdinand Lindemann (1852 -  GXS  FXP XUPHD]  DULD S WUDWXOXL

VHFDOFXOHD]  GXS IRUPXODl2 – latura lDYkQGvQRULFHVLWXD LHROXQJLPH
(valoare numHULF  vQ VLVWHPXO PHWULF ILQLW  DVWIHO vQFkW úL VXSUDID D
S WUDWXOXL HVWH FX QHFHVLWDWH ILQLW  DULD FHUFXOXL VH FDOFXOHD]  GXS 

formula π r2 QXP UXO π ILLQG LUD LRQDO FX XQ QXP U LQILQLW GH ]HFLPDOH
astfel încât aria nici unui cerc nu poate avea o vaORDUH QXPHULF  ILQLW 
'HDLFL UH]XOW FXFHUWLWXGLQHH[DFWSURSR]L LDLQL LDO GHFDUHDFXPVXQWHP

FRQYLQúLSULQWU RDUJXPHQWDUHULJXURDV 
-
(8) 2DPHQLLGHGHPXOW DX IRVW H[WUHP GH FRQWUDULD LDWXQFLFkQG

XQLL µvQ HOHS L¶ – filosofi, matematicieni, astronomi din Antichitate – au

VXV LQXW F  S PkQWXO QX HVWH SODW FL VIHULF VDX µURWXQG¶ DILUPD LH DIODW 

într-XQYLROHQWFRQIOLFWFXHYLGHQ HOHSHUFHSWLYH,DW FHIHOGHDUJXPHQWH

DGXFH GH SLOG  $ULVWRWHO vQ VSULMLQXO DFHVWHL DILUPD LL DWXQFL FkQG R

corabie dispare în larg, la limita orizontului, se pierde din vedere mai

vQWkLFRFDVDXFRUSXOQDYHLúLDELDSHXUP GLVSDUHúLFDWDUJXOFDúLFXP

corabia s-ar scufunda în mare –úLLQYHUVDWXQFLFkQGRFRUDELHVHLYHúWH

din larg mai întâLL VH ] UHúWHFDWDUJXOúLDELDSHXUP DSDUHGLQYDOXULúL
FRFD QDYHL FD úL FXP FRUDELD V-ar ridica din mare; umbra pe care o

SURLHFWHD]  S PkQWXO SH VXSUDID D OXQLL vQ WLPSXO HFOLSVHORU GH OXQ  HVWH

întotGHDXQDFLUFXODU –QLFLRGDW HOLSWLF VDXOLQLDU DúDFXPDUWUHEXLV 

VH vQWkPSOH P FDU GLQ FkQG vQ FkQG GDF  S PkQWXO DU IL DúD FXP V -a
FUH]XWPXOWWLPSXQGLVFSODWvQVIkUúLWFXFkWQHULGLF PODRODWLWXGLQH

PDL vQGHS UWDW  GH (FXDWRU FX DWkW XQJKLXO VXE FDUH VH vQDO  VRDUHOH OD

zenit este mai mic. Toate aceste fapte nu se pot explica altcumva decât
GDF QHUHSUH]HQW PS PkQWXOFDSHXQFRUSFHUHVFGHPDULGLPHQVLXQLúL

GH IRUP  VIHULF  DELD PDL WkU]LX V D DIODW FX FHUWLWXGLQH F  SODQHWD
-
QRDVWU  HVWH XQ JHRLG GH URWD LH DGLF  R VIHU  WXUWLW  OD SROL GLQ FDX]D

IRU HL FHQWULIXJH SH FDUH R GH]YROW  PLúFDUHD GH URWD LH D S PkQWXOXL vQ

jurul axei sale).

 8Q FRSLO SRDWH IL FRQWUDULDW DWXQFL FkQG vL VSXQHP F  GHOILQLL

QX VXQW SHúWL FL PDPLIHUH FD úL QRL RDPHQLL – GHúL SULQ PHGLXO ORU GH
YLD  SULQ IRUP  úL PRG GH ORFRPR LH VH DVHDP Q  L]ELWRU FX SHúWLL

'UHSWDUJXPHQWHYRPIRORVLGHILQL LLOHQR LXQLORUGHSHúWHúLGHPDPLIHU

SUHFXP úL R VHULH GH REVHUYD LL FDUH DWHVW  F  GHOILQLL QX VXQW SHúWL
–
întrucât nu au ‘sânge rece’, nu se înPXO HVF SULQ LFUH úL QX UHVSLU  SULQ
branhii, ci sunt mamifere, deoarece au ‘sânge cald’, nasc pui vii, pe care
vL KU QHVF FX ODSWH úL UHVSLU  SULQ SO PkQL DYkQG GH DFHHD QHYRLH V  VH

ULGLFHGLQFkQGvQFkQGODVXSUDID DDSHLSHQWUXDQXVHVXIRFD

6  UHPDUF P IDSWXO F  vQ H[HPSOHOH  úL  FRQFOX]LD GHFXUJH

nemijlocit dintr-R VLQJXU  SUHPLV  – DúD FXP VH vQWkPSO  úL vQ LQIHUHQ H
de genul:
(10) ùWLLQG F  µ1LFL R SDV UH QX HVWH SDWUXSHG¶ UH]XOW  F  µ1LFL
XQSDWUXSHGQXHVWHSDV UH¶

(11) 'DF DUILDGHY UDWF µ7R LPDJLVWUD LLVXQWLQWHJUL¶I FkQG

DEVWUDF LHGHIDSWXOUHJUHWDELOF vQUHDOLWDWHOXFUXULOHQXVWDXFKLDUDúD

s-DU SXWHD LQIHUD GH DLFL F  µ1LFL XQ RP OLSVLW GH LQWHJULWDWH QX HVWH

magistrat’.
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numesc LQIHUHQ HLPHGLDWHÌQH[HPSOHOHúLFRQFOX]LDUH]XOW GLQ

FkWHGRX  SUHPLVHDF URU FRQVLGHUDUH vPSUHXQ HVWH DEVROXWQHFHVDU úL

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H[WUDJHUHD XQHL FRQFOX]LL QHFHVLW  QX QXPDL GRX , ci n premise,

FRQVLGHUDWH ODRODOW  2UL GH FkWH RUL FRQFOX]LD GHFXUJH GLQ GRX  VDX PDL

multe premise avem de-DIDFHFXLQIHUHQ HPHGLDWHVDXUD LRQDPHQWH .

1.,QGXF LHúLGHGXF LH

'XS PRGXOvQFDUHFRQFOX]LDGHFXUJHGLQSUHPLVHLQIHUHQ HOHVH

împarW vQ GRX  PDUL FDWHJRULL ORJLF necesare sau deductive úL LQIHUHQ H
probabileVDXLQGXFWLYH'HGXF LDúLLQGXF LDVXQWPRGDOLW LIXQGDmental
GLIHULWHGHvQO Q XLUHRUGRQDW DµLGHLORU¶SULQFDUHGLQDQXPLWHSURSR]L LL

GDWH VH RE LQ SURSR]L LL QRL VDX SULQ FDUH DQXPLWH SURSR]L LL LQFHUWH VXQW

vQWHPHLDWHSHDOWHSURSR]L LL GH FDUHVXQWHPVLJXUL 'HRVHELUHDHVHQ LDO 

vQWUHLQGXF LHúLGHGXF LHHVWHXUP WRDUHD

a) ,QIHUHQ HOH LQGXFWLYH ÄDX GRX  FDUDFWHULVWLFL SUHPLVHOH

DGHY UDWH VXV LQ FRQFOX]LD GDU QX R JDUDQWHD]  úL FRQFOX]LD FRQ LQH R

inforPD LHFDUHQX H[LVW vQSUHPLVH³3ÌQLQIHUHQ HOHLQGXFWLYHFRQFOX]LD

nu decurge cu necesitate logLF GLQSUHPLVH – motiv pentru care concluziile
vQWHPHLDWH LQGXFWLY QX VXQW QLFLRGDW  DEVROXW FHUWH FL PDL PXOW VDX mai

SX LQ SUREDELOH 2EVHUYD LD HVWH YDODELO  vQ FD]XO LQGXF LLORU incomplete

FDUHVHED]HD] SHXUP WRUXOPHFDQLVPLQIHUHQ LDODYkQGGHLQYHVWLJDWR

PXO LPH QHQXP UDELO  VH SRW H[DPLQD XQXO FkWH XQXO GRDU R SDUWH GLQ

HOHPHQWHOHHLGDF vQWRDWHFD]XULOHH[DPLQDWHVHFRQVWDW I U H[FHS LL

R DQXPLW  SURSULHWDWH VDX UHOD LH VH JHQHUDOL]HD]  FRQVWD tarea pentru
toate elemeQWHOHPXO LPLLGHIHQRPHQHLQYHVWLJDWHLQFOXVLY acelea care nu au
SXWXW V  ILH H[DPLQDWH GLUHFW vQWUXFkW se presupune F  QX SRW V  DSDU 

H[FHS LL FDUH V  LQILUPH JHQHUDOL]DUHD IRUPXODW  'H FHOH PDL PXOWH RUL

vQV  DFHDVW  SUH]XP LH HVWH PDL GHYUHPH VDX PDL WkU]LX LQILUPDW  úL

FKLDU GDF  vQ XQHOH FD]XUL H[FHS LLOH vQF  QX V -au produs, iar
SUREDELOLWDWHD ORU HVWH LQILP  LPSRVLELOLWDWHD ORU DEVROXW  QX SRDWH IL

SUREDW  SULQ PLMORDFH LQGXFWLYH ,DW  úL H[HPSOXO FODVLF PXOW  YUHPH
HXURSHQLL DX FUH]XW F  µ7RDWH OHEHGHOH VXQW DOEH¶ SHQWUX PRWLYXO GHEXQ

VLP  F  QLFL XQ HXURSHDQ QX Y ]XVH OHEHGH GH DOW  FXORDUH
– SkQ  FkQG
exploratRULLDXGHVFRSHULWvQHPLVIHUDDXVWUDO OHEHGHQHJUH
ÌQWUXFkW DILUP  GHVSUH orice HOHPHQW DO XQHL PXO LPL FHHD FH VH

FXQRDúWHQXPDLGHVSUHuneleGLQHOHPHQWHOHDFHVWHLDLQGXF LDLQFRPSOHW 

QXSRDWHIXUQL]DDGHY UXULFHUWHFLQXPDLGLIHULWHJUDGHGHSUREabilitate,

LDU FRQFOX]LLOH vQWHPHLDWH LQGXFWLY QX GHFXUJ FX QHFHVLWDWH ORJLF  GLQ

premisele lor deoarece sunt mai generale decât acestea; cu alte cuvinte,
FRQFOX]LDXQHLLQIHUHQ HLQGXFWLYHVSXQHPDLPXOWGHFkWFHHDFHVHSRDWH

extrage din premisele asumate.

b) În LQIHUHQ HOH GHGXFWLYH concluzia decurge cu necesitate
ORJLF  GLQ SUHPLVH FX DOWH FXYLQWH ILLQG GDWH úL DFFHSWDWH SUHPLVHOH

FRQFOX]LDUH]XOW GLQHOHQHDS UDW,QIHUHQ HOH – (4) sunt ilustrative în

acest sens. Unul dintre motivele care explLF  DFHDVW  SURSULHWDWH HVWH

DFHOD F  QLFLRGDW  FRQFOX]LD XQHL GHGXF LL QX HVWH PDL JHQHUDO  GHFkW

SUHPLVHOHGLQFDUHGHFXUJHRFRQFOX]LHvQWHPHLDW SULQGHGXF LHH[SULP 

QXPDLFHHDFHUH]XOW GLQFRQVLGHUDUHDvPSUHXQ DSUHPLVHORU

În vreme ce asupra iQIHUHQ HORULQGXFWLYHQXVHSRWIRUPXODGHFkW

XQHOH UHFRPDQG UL PHWRGRORJLFH vQ FDUH VH FRQGHQVHD]  UH]XOWDWHOH úL

H[SHULHQ D DFXPXODWH vQ GHFXUVXO FHUFHW ULORU úWLLQ LILFH vQVXPkQGX -se
FRQVLGHUD LL GH QDWXU  ORJLF  SVLKRORJLF  HSLVWHPRORJLF  LVWRULF ,
ILORVRILF  HWF LQIHUHQ HOH GHGXFWLYH SHUPLW VDX QHFHVLW  FKLDU IRUPX-

ODUHD XQRU UHJXOL úLSULQFLSLL FODUH SUHFLVHúLRUGRQDWHVLVWHPDWLF ,DW  GH

ce logica în sens strict WUHEXLH SULYLW  FD VWXGLX IRUPDO FRQVDFUDW QXPDL
LQIHUHQ HORU GHGXFWLYH VDX PD i pe scurt, ca WHRULH D GHGXF LHLÌQJUDQL H
PDL SX LQ VWULFWH DúD-numita ORJLF  JHQHUDO  DERUGHD]  úL DOWH SUREOHPH

– FXP VXQW FHOH SULYLQG OLPEDMXO FRQFHSWHOH WHRUHWLFH GHILQL LD

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12

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feluri. Sau predicatul B DSDU LQH VXELHFWXOXL A ca ceva ce e cuprins
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14
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punct de vedere strict logic vQV  WHRULD SUDJPDWLVW  VH FRQIUXQW  FX

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IDSWXO F  GRX  SURSR]L LL FRQWUDGLFWRULL SRW IL GHRSRWULY  DGHY UDWH GDF 
VH J VHVF GRL RDPHQL GLIHUL L FDUH V  J VHDVF  ILHFDUH vQ IHOXO V X R

utilitate într-una sau alWDGLQFHOHGRX SURSR]L LL

1.3.2$GHY UXOFDYDORDUHORJLF DSURSR]L LLORU

2GDW  FH DP FRQYHQLW DVXSUD IDSWXOXL F  ORJLFD vQ VHQV VWULFW

HVWH XQ VWXGLX IRUPDO DO LQIHUHQ HORU GHGXFWLYH WUHEXLH V  FODULILF P

URVWXO úL ILQDOLWDWHD DFHVWRUD 2 GHGXF LH ELQH FRQVWUXLW  FDUH vúL

vQGHSOLQHúWH PHQLUHD HVWH DFHHD FDUH QH FRQGXFH OD R FRQFOX]LH vQ PRG

FHUW DGHY UDW  ÌQF  GH OD vQFHSXWXULOH HL ORJLFD D IRVW FRQFHSXW  úL

UHDOL]DW  FD XQ LQVWUXPHQW LQGLVSHQVDELO SHQWUX DIODUHD úL vQWHPHLHUHD

FXQRúWLQ HORU DGHY UDWH – UHVSHFWLY SHQWUX GHSLVWDUHD úL HOLPLQDUHD

RSLQLLORU IDOVH & XWkQG XQ PD[LPXP GH FODULWDWH ORJLFD WUHEXLH V  IDF 

SH FkW SRVLELO DEVWUDF LH GH FRPSOLFD LL úL VXEWLOLW L PHWDIL]LFH GkQG

DGHY UXOXLRVHPQLILFD LHµWHKQLF ¶úLFDDWDUHRSHUD LRQDO 

ÌQFHOHFHXUPHD] YRPFRQVLGHUDF DGHY UXOúLvQRSR]L LHFX

el, falsitatea sunt, din punct de vedere logic úL epistemologic (nu
QHDS UDW PHWDIL]LF VDX WHRORJLF QLúWH SURSULHW L VDX vQVXúLUL FDUH QX

DSDU LQ lucrurilor VDX HQWLW LORU UHDOH , aIODWH vQDIDUDFRQúWLLQ HLQRDVWUH ci
QXPDL FXQRúWLQ HORU VDX LGHLORU QRDVWUH GHVSUH OXFUXUL LGHL H[SULPDWH vQ

SURSR]L LL GHFODUDWLYH VDX DVHU LXQL &X DOWH FXYLQWH PDVD SH FDUH VFULX

FDVD vQ FDUH P  DIOX F U LOH FDUH P  vQFRQMRDU  HWF QX VXQW úL QX
pot fi
QLFLFXPúLQLFLRGDW DGHY UDWH sau false din punct de vedere logic – chiar
GDF vQDPELJXLWDWHDSOLQ GHVXJHVWLLúLVXEvQ HOHVXULDOHOLPELLQDWXUDOH

SXWHP YRUEL FX VHQV GHVSUH R PDV  R FDV  RUL R FDUWH µDGHY UDW ¶ DGLF 

EXQ  GHRVHELW  DSUHFLDELO  HWF 6XE DVSHFWORJLFvQV OXFUXULOHVXQWVDX

nu sunt reale, H[LVW sau QXH[LVW vQPRGHIHFWLY$GHY UDWHVDXIDOVHSRW

ILQXPDLDILUPD LLOHVDXQHJD LLOHFRQVWUXLWHvQWU -un anumit limbaj, despre

lucruri – FHHD FH DP GHQXPLW GUHSW SURSR]L LL GHFODUDWLYH VDX DVHU LXQL
'XS  FXP DP Y ]XW vQ SDUDJUDIXO DQWHULRU QX WRDWH DVHU LXQLOH SRW IL

DGHY UDWHVDXIDOVHvQDFHOHDúLFRQGL LLúLFRQIRUPDFHORUDúLFULWHULL

Vom numi analitice SURSR]L LLOH FDUH VH UHIHU  H[FOXVLY OD

RELHFWH LGHDOHúLOD UDSRUWXULOH GLQWUHHOH$GHY UXOORUGHSLQGHQXPDL GH

FRUHFWLWXGLQHD JkQGLULL ILLQG LQGLIHUHQW ID  GH RULFH IDSW VDX HYHQLPHQW

UHDO FXQRVFXW vQ H[SHULHQ  ÌQ WHUPLQRORJLD NDQWLDQ  SURSR]L LLOH

analitice sunt toate a prioriDGLF SXUFRQFHSWLELOHvQDLQWHúLLQGH pendent

GHRULFHFRQWDFWHPSLULFFXUHDOLWDWHDFXOXPHDµH[WHULRDU ¶JkQGLULL8U -
P WRDUHOHDVHU LXQLVXQWDQDOLWLFH

(1) ‘Toate unghiurile cu laturile în prelungire sunt congruente.’

(2) ‘2ULFHQXP UQDWXUDOHVWHSDUVDXLPSDU¶
(3) ‘'DF  GRX  P ULPL $ úL % VXQW ILHFDUH HJDO  FX R D WUHLD
P ULPH&DWXQFL$ %¶

(4) ‘Toate mamiferele sunt vivipare.’

$GHY UXO DFHVWRU SURSR]L LL VWDELOLW H[FOXVLY SULQ H[HUFL LXO

gândirii, HVWH DQDOLWLF GHRDUHFH HO GHFXUJH QXPDL GLQ DQXPLWH SURSULHW L
ale unor idei acceSWDWH I U  GHPRQVWUD LH FD QHvQGRLHOQLFH ILH GDWRULW 
µHYLGHQ HL¶ORULQWXLWLYHILHSULQFRQYHQ LHVDXSULQGHILQL LH3URSR]L LLOH

DQDOLWLFH QX QH IXUQL]HD]  LQIRUPD LL GHVSUH OXPH úL QX H[WLQG FXQRú -
WLQ HOH QRDVWUH GHRDUHFH HOH H[WUDJ QXPDL úL H[SOLFLWHD]  SURSULHW L úL

UHOD LLSHFDUHLGHLOHµSULPLWLYH¶VDX µRULJLQDUH¶ OHFRQ LQ vQ PRGLPSOLFLW

'LQ GHILQL LD S WUDWXOXL GH H[HPSOX FD µURPE FX XQ XQJKL GUHSW¶

GHFXUJH QXPDL SULQ DQDOL]D FRQFHSWHORU SURSR]L LD µ7RDWH XQJKLXULOH

S WUDWXOXL VXQW FRQJUXHQWH¶ ÌQ VFKLPE SURSR]L LD µ7ULXQJKLXO GUHSWXQ -

JKLF$%& DUH WRDWH XQJKLXULOH DVFX LWH¶ HVWH DQDOLWLF IDOV  GHRDUHFH SULQ

GHILQL LHWULXQJKLXOGUHSWXQJKLFDUHXQXQJKLGUHSW

Vom numi sintetice SURSR]L LLOH FDUH VH UHIHU  OD RELHFWH

SURSULHW L UHOD LL HYHQLPHQWH UHDOH $VWIHO GH SURSR]L LL VXQW DGHY UDWH

GDF  UHOD LD GLQWUH FRPSRQHQWHOH SURSR]L LHL FRUHVSXQGH XQHL VW UL GH

IDSW FRQWURODELO  úL YHULILFDELO  vQ H[SHULHQ  'LQ DFHVW PRWLY

SURSR]L LLOH GH DFHVW JHQ VH PDL QXPHVF úL factuale, având – în
WHUPLQRORJLD NDQWLDQ  – un caracter a posteriori, întrucât nu putem
DILUPD VDX QHJD FHYD GHFkW GXS  R FRQVWDWDUH HPSLULF  FH QH IXUQL]HD] 

DQXPLWH LQIRUPD LL GHVSUH VW ULOH GH IDSW GLQ OXPH 6XQW IDFWXDOH

SURSR]L LLGHJHQXO

(5) ‘3ORX ¶vQORFXOSúi la momentul t)

(6) ‘Aluminiul este inoxidabil.’
(7) ‘6WUDGD&UkQJXOXLP VRDU P¶
(8) ‘Mercurul este mai greu decât aurul.’
(9) ‘Ion e fratele lui Mihai.’
 3URSR]L LLOH VLQWHWLFH VDX IDFWXDOH IXUQL]HD]  LQIRUPD LL GHVSUH

lume,O UJLQGVIHUDFXQRúWLQ HORUQRDVWUHGHRDUHFHDVRFLD] LGHLvQWUHFDUH

QX VH SRW VWDELOL FRQH[LXQL DQDOLWLFH 'DW ILLQG IDSWXO F  QLFL XQD GLQWUH

S U LOH XQHL DVWIHO GH SURSR]L LL QX OH SUHVXSXQH ORJLF SH FHOHODOWH

DVRFLHUHD GLQWUH HOH VH ED]HD]  SH FHOH FRQVWDWDWH vQ H[SHULHQ  3URSR -
]L LDµ2PXOHVWHRILLQ UD LRQDO ¶HVWHDQDOLWLFDGHY UDW SHQWUXF LGHHD

VDX FRQFHSWXO GH RP LPSOLF  UD LRQDOLWDWHD vQV  SURSR]L LD µ2PXO este
LQIOXHQ DW QHJDWLY GH H[SOR]LLOH VRODUH úL GH ID]HOH OXQLL¶ HVWH IDFWXDO 

DGHY UXOVDXIDOVLWDWHD ei bazându-VHSHIUHFYHQ DVWDWLVWLF DFD]XULORUFH

FRQILUP  VDX LQILUP  UHOD LD HQXQ DW  QLFLFXP GLQ FRQFHSWXO GH XPDQL -
WDWH QX VH SRDWH GHULYD R FRQVHFLQ  GHGXFWLY  vQ OHJ WXU  FX H[SOR]LLOH

VRODUHúLID]HOHOXQLLVDXLQYHUV

) U  D LQWUD vQ GHWDOLLOH QXPHURDVH úL GLILFLOH DOH GLVWLQF LHL

GLQWUH DQDOLWLF úL VLQWHWLF vQ SURFHVXO FXQRDúWHULL WUHEXLH V  SUHFL] P F 

ORJLFD QX vúL SURSXQH VWDELOLUHD úL YHULILFDUHD DGHY UXOXL VDX IDOVLW LL

SURSR]L LLORU FD DWDUH DFHDVW  PLVLXQH UHYLQH GLIHULWHORU GRPH nii ale
úWLLQ HL /RJLFD vúL SURSXQH V  FHUFHWH]H IRUPHOH VDX WLSXULOH GH LQIHUHQ H

valide, D F URU XWLOL]DUH HVWH XQD GLQWUH FRQGL LLOH FDUH DVLJXU  DGHY UXO

ideilor noastre.

1.9DOLGLWDWHDFDSURSULHWDWHORJLF DLQIHUHQ HORU

'DF  DGHY UXO úL IDOVLWDWHD VXQW SURSULHW L DOH SURSR]L LLORU

declarative, validitatea VDX FRUHFWLWXGLQHD IRUPDO  UHVSHFWLY LQYDOLGL -

WDWHD ORJLF  VXQW SURSULHW L DOH LQIHUHQ HORU FD vQO Q XLUL GH SURSR]L LL

Robert Blanché VSXQH F  ÄQX WUHEXLH V  VH FRQIXQGH validitatea unui

UD LRQDPHQW cu DGHY UXO SURSR]L LLORU FDUH vO FRPSXQ³ GkQG GRX 

exemple în acest sens: (i) ‘Orice triunghi este trilater, deci orice trilater
este triunghi’; (ii) ‘Orice triunghi este patrulater, deci unele patrulatere
VXQWWULXQJKLXUL¶Ä2FOLS GHUHIOHF LHYDDU WDF SULPDLQIHUHQ QXHVWH

YDOLG  GHúL FHOH GRX  SURSR]L LL VXQW DGHY UDWH úL F  FHD GH -a doua este
YDOLG GHúLFHOHGRX SURSR]L LLVXQWIDOVH³
18

)LHDVHU LXQLOH

µ2ULFHDQLPDOFXS USHSLHSWLXEHúWHPDQHOHOH¶
 (11) ‘Vacile nebuQHDXS USHSLHSW¶

'LQDFHVWHGRX SURSR]L LLSXWHPLQIHUDFRQFOX]LD

(12) ‘Vacile nebune iubesc manelele.’

6H SRDWH RELHFWD F  SUHPLVHOH VXQW DLXULWH GDF  QX GH -a dreptul
IDOVH úL F  vQWUHJXO UD LRQDPHQW HVWH VWXSLG ùL WRWXúL UD LRQDPHQWXO HVWH

coreFW GLQ SXQFW GH YHGHUH IRUPDO GDF  DGPLWHP SUHPLVHOH DGHY UXO

FRQFOX]LHL GHFXUJH GLQ HOH VDX HVWH IRUPDO LPSOLFDW GH SULPHOH GRX 

SURSR]L LL

6  DQDOL] P XQ H[HPSOX PDL SX LQ EL]DU )RORVLQG DFHHDúL

VFKHP LQIHUHQ LDO YRPOXDSUHPLVHOH

‘Numerele naturDOHFDUHVHGLYLGQXPDLFXúLFXHOHvQVHOHVXQW
numere prime.’
µVHGLYLGHQXPDLFXúLFXHOvQVXúL¶

'HFLµHVWHQXP USULP¶

ÌQFHFRQGL LLHVWHDGHY UDW FRQFOX]LDDFHVWXLUD LRQDPHQW"

a) 0DL vQWkL HVWH QHFHVDU FD SUHPLVHOH V  ILH DGHY rate; aceasta
este FRQGL LD PDWHULDO  QXPLW  DVWIHO vQWUXFkW HVWH FHULQ D FD UD LRQD
-
PHQWXOV H[WUDJ FRQFOX]LDGLQSUHPLVHvQWHPHLDWHFHHDFHSUHVXSXQHFD

µPDWHULDOXO¶ VDX FRQ LQXWXO GLQ FDUH VH DOF WXLHúWH UD LRQDPHQWXO V  ILH

QR LXQL FODUH úL SUHPLVH vQ PRG VLJXU DGHY UDWH ÌQ H[HPSOXO GHPDLVXV

WUHEXLH V  YHULILF P SULQ FDOFXO DSOLFkQG UHJXOLOH GH GLYL]LELOLWDWH GDF 

QXP UXOHVWHvQWU DGHY UGLYL]LELOQXPDLFXúLFXHOvQVXúL

-
E $ GRXD FRQGL LH FHD IRUPDO  FHUH FD LQIHUHQ D GHGXFWLY  V 

ILH YDOLG FRQFOX]LDWUHEXLHV GHFXUJ FXQHFHVLWDWHORJLF GLQSUHPLVH

ÌQH[HPSOXODQDOL]DWYDOLGLWDWHDLQIHUHQ HLHVWHLQWXLWLYHYLGHQW 

'H UHJXO  FRQFOX]LD XQHL LQIHUHQ H HVWH DGHY UDW  GDF  VXQW

îndeplinite ambeleFRQGL LL– dar nu întotdeauna.)LHUD LRQDPHQWXO

7RDWHvQRW WRDUHOHVXQWSHúWL (fals)
%DOHQHOHVXQWvQRW WRDUH DGHY UDW

%DOHQHOHVXQWSHúWL (fals)
3ULPD SUHPLV  HVWH IDOV  úL GDWRULW  DFHVWXL IDSW H IDOV  úL

FRQFOX]LDGHúL DIRVWGHGXV SULQWU RVFKHP LQIHUHQ LDO YDOLG ÌQ

- acest
FD] VFKHPD GH GHGXF LH IXQF LRQHD]  FRUHFW GDU µWUDQVSRUW ¶ IDOVXO GLQ

SULPD SUHPLV  vQ FRQFOX]LH FX DOWH FXYLQWH µPDWHULDOXO¶ GLQ FDUH V -a
DOF WXLW UD LRQDPHQWXO QX HVWH EXQ 8QHRUL vQV  GLQ SUHPLVH IDOVH VH
SRDWH RE LQH vQ PRG accidental sau artificios R FRQFOX]LH DGHY UDW  6 

DSOLF PDFHHDúLVFKHP LQIHUHQ LDO FRUHFW VDXYDOLG 

7R LURPkQLLVXQWSRH L (fals)
Lucian Blaga a fost român DGHY UDW

Deci, Lucian Blaga a fost poet DGHY UDW

sau
Toate numerele divizibile cu 3 sunt pare (fals)
14 este divizibil cu 3 (fals)
'HFLHVWHQXP USDU DGHY UDW

5HPDUF P IDSWXO VXUSULQ] WRU F  DGHY UXO SUHPLVHORU QX HVWH R

FRQGL LH sine qua non SHQWUX GHGXF LD XQRU FRQFOX]LL DGHY UDWH FRQWUDU
EXQXOXL VLP  DGHY UXO UH]XOW  GLQ RULFH IHO GH Sremise – fie acestea
DGHY UDWH VDX IDOVH &H VH SRDWH VSXQH GHVSUH YDOLGLWDWHD VDX FRUHF-

WLWXGLQHD IRUPDO  D UD LRQDPHQWHORU" )LH R VFKHP  LQIHUHQ LDO  YDOLG  GH

DOW FRQVWUXF LHORJLF GHDVHPHQHDGHRFDPGDW LQWXLWLYHYLGHQW 

'DF DSULQGEHFXOvQFDPHU HVWHOXPLQ DGHY UDW

Am aprins becul DGHY UDW

'HFLvQFDPHU HVWHOXPLQ DGHY UDW

3UHVXSXQkQG F  SUHPLVHOH VXQW DGHY UDWH SULQWU R LQIHUHQ

- 

YDOLG  DP RE LQXW R FRQFOX]LH DGHY UDW  vQ PRG FHUW úL FDUH QX PDL

QHFHVLW DILYHULILFDW vQH[SHULHQ GHRDUHFHFRQFRUGDQ DHLFXVWDUHDGH

IDSWHVWHJDUDQWDW SULQUHVSHFWDUHDFHORUGRX FRQGL LLGHYDOLGLWDWH – atât

FHD PDWHULDO  F FL DPEHOH SUHPLVH VXQW DGHY UDWH FkW úL FHD IRUPDO 

GHRDUHFH VFKHPD LQIHUHQ LDO  HVWH YDOLG  6  DOF WXLP LQIHUHQ D vQWU -o
RUGLQHGLIHULW 

'DF DSULQGEHFXOvQFDPHU HVWHOXPLQ DGHY UDW

Nu aprind becul DGHY UDW

'HFLvQFDPHU QXHVWHOXPLQ ?

3UHVXSXQkQG F  SUHPLVHOH VXQW DGHY UDWH FRQFOX]LD – aparent

DGHY UDW  – QX HVWH FRUHFW vQWHPHLDW  (VWH SUHPDWXUV DU W PDLFLvQFH
FRQVW YLFLXOGHIRUP DOLQIHUHQ HLGDULQWXLWLYQHSXWHPGDVHDPDF vQ

FDPHU  SRDWH IL OXPLQ  FKLDU úL FX EHFXO VWLQV SHQWUX F  QH DIO P vQ

WLPSXO ]LOHL 'LQ DFHOHDúL PRWLYH VHVL] P F  úL XUP WRUXO UD LRQDPHQW

este incorect:

'DF DSULQGEHFXOvQFDPHU HVWHOXPLQ DGHY UDW

ÌQFDPHU HVWHOXPLQ DGHY UDW

Am aprins becul ?
&RQVWDW PGHDFHDVW GDW F QHUHVSHFWDUHDFRQGL LHLIRUPDOHGH

YDOLGLWDWH D VFKHPHORU LQIHUHQ LDOH HVWH R FRQGL LH sine qua non pentru
DGHY UXO FHUW DO FRQFOX]LHL RUL GH FkWH RUL VH FRPLWH R HURDUH vQ

FRQVWUXF LD IRUPDO  DXQXLUD LRQDPHQWFKLDU GDF VH SRUQHúWHGHOD FHOH

PDL VROLGH SUHPLVH FRQFOX]LD HVWH IDOV  RUL vQ FHO PDL EXQ FD]

vQGRLHOQLF  vQWUXFkW GRDU XQHRUL VH vQWkPSO  FD IDSWHOH V  FRLQFLG  FX

UH]XOWDWXOXQHLGHGXF LLLQFR
recte.
Putem sesiza acum mai bine în ce sens logica este un instrument
HVHQ LDO SHQWUX GHVFRSHULUHD úL GHPRQVWUDUHD DGHY UXOXL QX SULQ

YHULILFDUHD HPSLULF  D SURSR]L LLORU IDFWXDOH FL SULQ GHGXF LD ULJXURDV  D

XQRU SURSR]L LL QHFXQRVFXWH VDX LQFHUWH GLQ SURSR]L LL FXQRVFXWH VDX

SUHVXSXVH FDDGHY UDWHJDUDQ LDGHFHUWLWXGLQHDDGHY UXOXLSURSR]L LLORU

GHULYDWHILLQGYDOLGLWDWHDIRUPDO DLQIHUHQ HORUHIHFWXDWH

ÌQO Q XLULOH GH UD LRQDPHQWH GHGXFWLYH FDUH VDWLVIDF DWkW FRQGL LD

PDWHULDO  FkW úL SH FHD IRUPDO  GH YDOLGLWDWH VH QXPHVF GHPRQVWUD LL –
logica vQ VHQV VWULFW ILLQG vQ FHD PDL VXPDU  GHILQL LH SRVLELO  studiul
IRUPDODOGHPRQVWUD LHL.

1.4 Principiile logice

&D WHRULH IRUPDO  D GHPRQVWUD LHL ORJLFD vQ HOHJH vQDLQWHD

RULF UHL DOWH UHIOHF LL úWLLQ LILFH VDX ILORVRILFH F  RULFH µVLVWHP GH LGHL¶

FXSULQGH XQ QXP U ILQLW GH SURSR]L LL úL F  vQWU

-un anumit sistem, nu
toate propo]L LLOH GLQ DOF WXLUHD OXL SRW IL GHPRQVWUDWH & FL GDF 
demonstrD LD vQVHDPQ  GHULYDUHD ORJLF FRUHFW  D XQHL FRQFOX]LL GLQ
SUHPLVH vQ PRG FHUW DGHY UDWH DU WUHEXL V  vPSLQJHP SURFHVXO
GHPRQVWUDWLY OD LQILQLW DYkQG PHUHX GH VXV LQXW SUHPLVHOH XQXL

UD LRQDPHQW SULQ DOWH UD LRQDPHQWH úL WRW DúD vQWU R UHJUHVLXQH I U 

- de
VIkUúLWFHHDFHHVWHFXQHSXWLQ 

'HPRQVWUD LD WUHEXLH V  vQFHDS  FX DQXPLWH ©SURSR]L LL SULPLWLYHª

GH DO F URU DGHY U VXQWHP FRQYLQúL VDX vO DFFHSW P I U  GHPRQVWUD LH –
ILH F  HVWH YRUED GH FRQVWDW UL IDFWXDOH FH úL DX WHPHLXO vQ H[SHULHQ D
-
percepWLY  LPHGLDW  µ= SDGD HVWH DOE ¶ µ$XUXO HVWH JDOEHQ¶ µ&HUXO H

VHQLQ¶ HWF ILH F  DYHP GH D IDFH FX µHYLGHQ H¶ UD LRQDOH DO F URU WHPHL
-
HVWH DSDUHQWD QHSXWLQ  D JkQGLULL QRDVWUH GH D OH UHVSLQJH VDX JkQGL

DOWFXPYDµ'DF $ >%úL%> C, atunci A > &¶VDXµ'RX P ULPL;úL<

ILHFDUH HJDO  FX R D WUHLD P ULPH = VXQW HJDOH vQWUH HOH¶ HWF $OWHRUL

SURSR]L LLOHSULPLWLYHVHGDXSULQGHILQL LHµ7ULXQJKLXOHVWHSROLJRQXOFX

WUHL ODWXUL¶ µ1XPLP PDPLIHU RULFH YHUWHEUDW FDUH QDúWH SXL YLL úL -i
KU QHúWHFXODSWH¶úDPG

ÌQ DIDU  GH DFHVWH SURSR]L LL SULPitive, acceptate ca premise

adeY UDWH I U  V  IL IRVW DUJXPHQWDWH GHPRQVWUD LD vQV úL VH FRQVWUXLHúWH
pe baza câtorva ‘reguli primitive¶DF URUDFFHSWDUHHVWHDEVROXWQHFHVDU 
pentru precizarea uQRU FRQGL LL VDX FULWHULL GH YDOLGLWDWH LQIHUHQ LDO  ÌQ
ORJLFD WUDGL LRQDO  VDX FODVLF  DX IRVW FRQVDFUDWH FkWHYD UHJXOL

fundamentale ale gândirii corecte, numite cel mai adesea principii logice.

3ULQFLSLXOLGHQWLW LL

ÌQFHDPDLVLPSO úLLQWXLWLY IRUPXODUHSULQFLSLXOLGHQWLW LLFHUH

FD vQ WRDW  GHVI úXUDUHD XQHL DUJXPHQW UL WHUPHQLL úL SURSR]L LLOH

vQO Q XLWH GHPRQVWUDWLY V  QX úL PRGLILFH vQ HOHVXO úL YDORDUHD ORJLF 

-
2GDW  FH DP LQWURGXV vQ GLVFXUV SURSR]L LD µ&DSUD YHFLQXOXL H PDL JUDV 

GHFkW D PHD¶ RUL GH FkWH RUL YRP PDL YRUEL vQ FRQWLQXDUH GHVSUH µFDSU ¶

YRP vQ HOHJH SULQ DFHVW FXYkQW QXPDL DQLPDOXO QX DOWFHYD – capra de la
WU VXU  SH FDUH VW  YL]LWLXO FDSUD GH W LDW OHPQH MRFXO µGH -a capra’ sau
vreun nume propriu – LDU SURSR]L LD HQXQ DW  FD DGHY UDW  R YRP

FRQVLGHUD QXPDL DGHY UDW  RUL GH FkWH RUL YRP UHYHQL DVXSUD HL

HQXQ kQG -o din nou.

Într-R IRUPXODUH GHVWXO GH DSUR[LPDWLY  FX VHQVXUL PDL GHJUDE 

RQWRORJLFH GHFkW VWULFW ORJLFH $ULVWRWHO GHILQHúWH LGHQWLWDWHD DVWIHO

„IdeQWLF vQ VLQH VH ]LFH GHVSUH OXFUXULOH D F URU PDWHULH H XQD ILH FD

VSHFLHILHFDQXP UFkWúLGHVSUHDFHOHDDF URUVXEVWDQ HXQD'HDLFL

UHLHVHOLPSHGH F LGHQWLWDWHDHVWHXQIHOGHXQLWDWHRXQLWDWHGHH[LVWHQ 

D XQHL SOXUDOLW L VDX DFHHD FDUH UH]XOW  GLQ FRQVLGHUDUHD PDL PXOWRU

OXFUXUL FD XQXO FD DWXQFL FkQGVSXQHP F XQ OXFUX H LGHQWLF FXVLQHFD]

vQFDUHDFHODúLOXFUXHVRFRWLWFDGRX OXFUXUL³
19

&HO FDUH D IRUPXODW FX SUHFL]LH SULQFLSLXO LGHQWLW LL D IRVW

Leibniz. În Noi eseuri asupra intelectului omenesc, el spune: „Fiecare

OXFUX HVWH FHHD FH HVWH ùL vQ DWkWHD H[HPSOH FkWH YUH L $ HVWH $ % HVWH

%9RLILFHHDFHYRLIL$PVFULVFHHDFHDPVFULVùLQLPLFvQYHUVXULFD

úL vQ SUR]  HVWH QLPLF VDX SX LQ OXFUX 'UHSWXQJKLXO HFKLODWHUDO DFHDVW 

ILJXU  HVWH XQ GUHSWXQJKL 1RQ -A este non-$ 'DF  $ HVWH QRQ -B,
XUPHD] F $HVWHQRQ -B...“20
3ULYLW  VXSHUILFLDO IRUPXOD µ$ HVWH $¶ SULQ FDUH VH H[SULP 

SULQFLSLXO LGHQWLW LL SDUH XQ WUXLVP WRWDO LUHOHYDQW $EVROXWL]DUHD OXL

PHWDIL]LF L -aFRQGXVSHHOHD LL3DUPHQLGH úL=HQRQ ODRVWUDQLHILORsofie

D LPRELOLW LL vQ FDUH GLYHUVLWDWHD úL GHYHQLUHD OXFUXULORU VXQW GRDU

DSDUHQ H vQúHO WRDUH DOH VLP XULORU vQWUXFkW )LLQ D HVWH )LLQ  vQ FDUH QX

VH SRDWH FRQFHSH GLIHUHQ D úL WUHFHUHD GH OD R VWDUH OD DOWD DGLF  GH OD

1HILLQ  OD )LLQ  úL LQYHUV ,DU DEVROXWL]DUHD ORJLF  D SULQFLSLXOXL

LGHQWLW LL vO IDFH SH $QWLVWHQH V  VXV LQ  F  QXPDL WDXWRORJLLOH VXQW

întemeiate; res de re non predicatur – nu se poate spune un lucru despre

alt lucru, nu se poate atribui unui subiect nici un predicat diferit de
DFHVWD *UHúLP GDF  VSXQHP µ2PXO HVWH EXQ¶ DYHP YRLH V  VXV LQHP

QXPDLF µRPXOHVWHRP¶úLµEXQXOHVWHEXQ¶

&D UHJXO  SH FDUH VH ED]HD]  FRQVWUXF LD XQHL GHPRQVWUD LL vQV 

SULQFLSLXOLGHQWLW LLLPSXQHRFHULQ REOLJDWRULHGHFODULWDWHúLFRHUHQ ,

D F UHL vQF OFDUH DQXOHD]  YDOLGLWDWHD RULF UHL GHVI úXU UL DUJX mentative,
GXFkQGODFRPLWHUHDXQRUVRILVPHúLSDUDORJLVPH

'LQFROR GH VHPQLILFD LD µWHKQLF ¶ D XQHL UHJXOL IRUPDOH FX

caracter tautologic, principiul ‘A este A’ SUHFL]HD]  F  $ FDUH SRDWH IL

XQ RELHFW UHDO R QR LXQH VDX R SURSR]L LH HVWH HO vQVXúL QHSXWkQG IL

WRWRGDW  úL DOWFHYD 3HWUH %RWH]DWX DUDW  F  ÄYHUEXO µ este’ are în acest
FRQWH[W XQ vQ HOHV GHRVHELW QX H[SULP  QLFL SRVHVLD XQHL vQVXúLUL GH

exemplu, ‘omul este bun¶ QLFL DSDUWHQHQ D OD R FODV  GH H[HPSOX
‘%XFXUHúWL HVWH R PHWURSRO ’), nici incluziunea subclasei într-R FODV  GH
exemplu, ‘balenele sunt mamifere¶ QLFL SXU úL VLPSOX H[LVWHQ D GH
exemplu, ‘este cald’) úL QLFL FKLDU RSHUD LD GH LGHQWLILFDUH GH H[HPSOX
‘%XFXUHúWL HVWH FDSLWDOD 5RPkQLHL’). Pare paradoxal, dar principiul
LGHQWLW LL QX VH UHIHU  OD VLPSOD UHOD LH GH LGHQWLWDWH GLQWUH RELHFWH VDX

QR LXQLFLHQXQ FHYDSURIXQGSHUVLVWHQ DVXEVWDQ HLDHVHQ HLOXFUXOXL ,

GLQFROR GH YLFLVLWXGLQLOH DFFLGHQWHORU 2PXO HVWH RP úL QX DOWFHYD

obiectul indicat de termenul ‘om’ este omulúLQXDOW ILLQ VDXOXFUX³

21

1.4.2 Principiul non-FRQWUDGLF LHL

ÌQ OXPHD IHQRPHQDO  GH RELHFWH úL SURFHVH SH FDUH OH VHVL] P

HPSLULF FRQWUDGLF LD HVWH DQWDJRQLVPXO GLQWUH DQXPLWH HQWLW L IRU H

HQHUJLL VDX SURSULHW L FDUH VH H[FOXG vQWUH HOH RUL WLQG V  VH DQLKLOH]H

UHFLSURF/DQLYHOXOXQHLIRORVLULHOHPHQWDUHDOLPEDMXOXLúLDJkQGLULLSDU

neînGRLHOQLFH RSR]L LL WUDQúDQWH DEVROXWH GH JHQXO GDF µ

X este alb’ nu
SRDWHILWRWRGDW úLQHJUXYHUGHDOEDVWUXHWFGDF µ%UDúRYXOHVWHODQRUG

GH%XFXUHúWL¶DWXQFLQXVHSRDWHDGPLWHvQDFHODúLWLPSF RUDúXOGHVXE

7kPSDHVWHúLODVXGGHFDSLWDOD5RPkQLHLúDPG

/D R SULYLUH PDL DWHQW  VH FRQVWDW  F  în realitate HVWH SRVLELO 

FKLDUQHFHVDU FkWHRGDW FRH[LVWHQ DvQDFHHDúLHQWLWDWHDXQRUSURFHVHúL

UHOD LLFRQWUDGLFWRULL RULFHQXDQ GH JULHVWHXQDPHVWHFGHDOEúLQHJUX

PHWDEROLVPXO HVWH RSR]L LD GLQDPLF  GLQWUH DVLPLOD LH úL GH]DVLPLOD LH

YLD D SVLKLF  HVWH SULQWUH DOWHOH R HFKLOLEUDUH SHUPDQHQW  vQWUH H[FLWD LH

úL LQKLEL LH vQ RULFH PDJQHW FRH[LVW  vQ PRG QHFHVDU SROXO QRUG úL SROXO

VXG HWF ÌQ ILORVRILH JkQGLUHD GLDOHFWLF  – vQFHSXW  GH +HUDFOLW Socrate
VDX 3ODWRQvQ$QWLFKLWDWHúLvQFXQXQDW GHPRQX mentalul sistem hegelian
– IDFH GLQ QDWXUD FRQWUDGLFWRULH D RULF UXL OXFUX VDX SURFHV XQ SULQFLSLX

IXQGDPHQWDO SULQ FDUH VH H[SOLF  SHUPDQHQWD SUHIDFHUH úL GHYHQLUH D

lumii reale.
În domeniul ideal SH FDUH vO VWXGLD]  ORJLFD FRQWUDGLF LD HVWH XQ

UDSRUW vQWUH GRX  SURSR]L LL GLQWUH FDUH XQD DILUP  FHHD FH RSXVD HL

FRQWUDGLFWRULH QHDJ  3URSR]L LD µ2PXO HVWH R ILLQ  UD LRQDO ¶ – din care
DU WUHEXL V  IDFHP XQ SRVWXODW DO ORJLFLL – HVWH FRQWUD]LV  GH SURSR]L LD
FRQIRUP F UHLD µ2PXO QX HVWH R ILLQ  UD LRQDO ¶ FHHD FH GLQ S FDWH VH

DGHYHUHúWHPXOWPDLGHVGHFkWQHSODFHV RUHFXQRDúWHP

Principiul logic al non-FRQWUDGLF LHL VDX DO FRQWUDGLF LHL H[FOXVH

VH ED]HD]  SH SUHVXSR]L LD F  R SURSR]L LH R
arecare nu poate fi decât
DGHY UDW  VDX IDOV  úL VXV LQH F  QX SXWHP DGPLWH F  XQD úL DFHHDúL

SURSR]L LH HVWH vQ DFHODúL WLPS úL SULYLW  vQ DFHODúL FRQWH[W WRWRGDW 

DGHY UDW  úL IDOV  &X DOWH FXYLQWH R DILUPD LH úL QHJD LD HL QX SRW IL

DGHY UDWH vQ DFHODúL WLPS IRUPXOD FDUH H[SULP  DFHDVW  UHJXO 

funGDPHQWDO DORJLFLLILLQGµ(VWHH[FOXV$úLQRQ -A’.

$ULVWRWHO HQXQ  SULQFLSLXO QRQ FRQWUDGLF LHL DVWIHO ÄHVWH SHVWH
-
SXWLQ FDXQXLDúLDFHOXLDúLVXELHFWV LVHSRWULYHDVF úLWRWRGDW V QXL

se potriYHDVF  VXE DFHODúL UDSRUW XQXO úL DFHODúL SUHGLFDW >@ $FHVW

SULQFLSLX PDL VSXQH $ULVWRWHO H FHO PDL VLJXU GLQ WRDWH F FL  H SHVWH

SXWLQ  FD XQ RP V -úL SRDW  vQFKLSXL F  XQXO úL DFHODúL OXFUX HVWH úL
22
WRWRGDW  QX HVWH³  ) FkQG GLQ UHVSLQJHU
ea cRQWUDGLF LHL SULQFLSLXO
funGDPHQWDO DO ORJLFLL $ULVWRWHO vL DFRUG  vQ PRG H[SOLFLW R HYLGHQ 
axioPDWLF  precizând F  OHJHD QRQ-FRQWUDGLF LHL QX SRDWH IL GHGXV 
dintr-R DOW  OHJH PDL JHQHUDO  &HO PXOW DILUP  HO DFHVW SULQFLSLX VH
poate sus- LQHSULQtr-RGHPRQVWUD LHLQGLUHFW VDXSULQPHWRGDUHGXFHULLOD
absurd.
/HLEQL] SDUH FkWHRGDW  V  DFRUGH SULRULWDWH LGHQWLW LL

FRQVLGHUkQG F  SULQFLSLXO QRQ FRQWUDGLF LHL

- HVWH IRUPD QHJDWLY  D

DFHVWXLD R GDW  FH XQ OXFUX HVWH FHHD FH HVWH úL DúD FXP HVWH vQWU -o
SURSR]L LH HO QX SRDWH IL WRWRGDW  úL FHHD FH QX HVWH úL DOWIHO GHFkW HVWH

(cum s-DUHQXQ DvQQHJD LDSULPHLSURSR]L LL

&HUW HVWHF  SULQFLSLXOQRQ-FRQWUDGLF LHLDUHRHYLGHQ  VSRQWDQ 

FKLDU úL OD QLYHOXO VLP XOXL FRPXQ 1LPHQL QX DUH QHYRLH GH X
n studiu
sistematic al logicii teoretice pentru a-úL GD LQWXLWLY VHDPDGH IDSWXOF R
GHPRQVWUD LHVDXXQGLVFXUVvQFDUHVHVXV LQSURSR]L LLFRQWUDGLFWRULLVXQW

incorecte, iar concluziile lor inacceptabile. Cu atât mai mult în elaborarea

unor sisteme formale, logico-matematice, excluderea contraGLF LHL VH
LPSXQH FD R SULP  úL HOHPHQWDU  FHULQ  F FL D GHPRQVWUD VDX D

DUJXPHQWD FRUHFW vQVHDPQ  vQ SULPXO UkQG D QX WH FRQWUD]LFH

5HVSHFWDUHD FX VWULFWH H D SULQFLSLXOXL QRQ FRQWUDGLF LHL

- DVLJXU 

consecveQ DORJLF DGHPRQVWUD LHL

 1.3ULQFLSLXOWHU XOXLH[FOXV

3ULQFLSLXO WHU XOXL H[FOXV QX DUH R HYLGHQ  D[LRPDWLF  DúD FXP

SDUH V  ILH FD]XO QRQ FRQWUDGLF LHL HO HVWH PDL GHJUDE  XQ SRVWXODW vQ
-
VHQVXO FODVLF HXFOLGLDQ FDUH GHFUHWHD]  – I U  GHPRQVWUD LH GHúL QX H

FkWXúLGHSX LQHYLGHQW –F QXH[LVW GHFkWGRX YDORULORJLFHµDGHY UDW¶

úLµIDOV¶$OWIHOVSXVRULFHSURSR]L LHHVWHVDXDGHY UDW VDXIDOV DWUHLD

SRVLELOLWDWHILLQGH[FOXV  – tertium non datur.

În vreme ce principiul non-contraGLF LHLVXV LQHF SURSR]L LLOH$
úLQHJD LDHLQRQ-A nu pot fivQDFHODúLWLPSúLVXEDFHODúLUDSRUW ambele

DGHY UDWH XQD GLQ HOH WUHEXLQG V  ILH IDOV  – SULQFLSLXO WHU XOXL H[FOXV

VXV LQH F  GRX  SURSR]L LL FRQWUDGLFWRULL $ úL QRQ-A nu pot fi ambele

falseXQDGLQWUHHOHLQGLIHUHQWFDUHWUHEXLHvQRULFHFD]V ILHDGHY UDW 

În Despre interpretare –XQDGLQWUHOXFU ULOHFHLQWU vQDOF WXLUHD
operei logice a lui AristotelLQWLWXODW GHFRQWLQXDWRULLúLFRPHQWDWRULLV L
Organon – sH VSXQH ÄRULFH DILUPD LH VDX QHJD LH HVWH DGHY UDW  VDX
23
IDOV ³  $ULVWRWHO QX DFRUG  vQV  WHU XOXL H[FOXV YDORDUHD XQXL SULQFLSLX

ORJLF OD IHO GH VWULQJHQW FD úL QRQ FRQWUDGLF LD FRQVLGHUkQG F  DSOLFDUHD
-
regulii tertium non datur HVWH XWLO  QXPDL vQ GHPRQVWUD LD LQGLUHFW 

Ä3ULQFLSLXO F  XQ SUHGLFDW WUHEXLH V  ILH RUL DILUPDW RUL QHJDW GHVSUH XQ

VXELHFW HVWH FHUXW GH GHPRQVWUD LD FDUH XWLOL]HD]  UHGXFHUHD ODLPSR sibil,
GDUúLDWXQFLQXWRWGHDXQDXQLYHUVDO³
24

/D UkQGXO V X /HLEQL] FRQVLGHU  WHU XO H[FOXV PDL GHJUDE  R

completare sau un corolar al non-FRQWUDGLF LHL DWXQFL FkQG VFULH

„Principiul non-FRQWUDGLF LHL HVWH DFHOD F  vQ JHQHUDO R SURSR]L LH HVWH
VDX DGHY UDW  VDX IDOV  FHHD FH FRQ LQH GRX  HQXQ XUL DGHY UDWH XQXO

F  DGHY UXO úL IDOVXO QX VXQW FRPSDWLELOH vQ DFHHDúL SURSR]L LH VDX F  R

SURSR]L LHQXDUSXWHDV ILHDGHY UDW úLIDOV vQDFHODúLWLPSFHO ODOWF 

RSXVXOVDXQHJD LDDGHY UDWXOXLúLIDOVXOXLQXVXQWFRPSDWLELOHVDXF QX

H[LVW PLMORFLXvQWUHDGHY UDWúLIDOVVDXF  nXVHSRDWHFDRSURSR]L LHV 

QXILHQLFLDGHY UDW QLFLIDOV “.25

3ULQFLSLXO WHU XOXL H[FOXV HVWH PDL VODE GHFkW QRQ FRQWUDGLF LD
-
DYkQG R JHQHUDOLWDWH PDL UHVWUkQV  3ULQFLSLXO QRQ FRQWUDGLF LHL FHUH FD
-
SUHGLFDWHOH V  VH H[FOXG  XQXO SH DOWXO GDU QX OLPLWHD]  QXP UXO ORU
'DF  XQ FRUS HVWH DOE DWXQFL HO QX SRDWH IL YHUGH JDOEHQ URúX DO bastru
HWF GDF  XQ PDPLIHU HVWH FDO DWXQFL HO QX SRDWH IL vQ DFHODúL WLPS OXS

XUV JLUDI  F PLO  HWF 'LPSRWULY  SULQFLSLXO WHU XOXL H[FOXV LQWURGXFH R

FRQGL LH VXSOLPHQWDU  vQWUXFkW UHVWUkQJH QXP UXO SUHGL catelor la numai
GRX  – tertium non daturµ8QQXP UQDWXUDOHVWHSDUVDXLPSDU¶µ3LHVHOH

MRFXOXLGHúDKSRWILDOEHVDXQHJUH¶HWF

/RJLFDWUDGL LRQDO V DFRQVWUXLW VSRQWDQ SHSULQFLSLXOELYDOHQ HL

-
potriviW F UXLD SURSR]L LLOH QX SRW DYHD GHFkW XQD VDX DOWD GLQWUH GRX  úL

QXPDLGRX YDORULORJLFHµDGHY UDW¶úLµIDOV¶ –FRQGL LHFDUHIDFHSRVLELO 

UHJXOD WHU XOXL H[FOXV 2U GH PXOWH RUL QH DIO P vQ ID D XQRU SURSR]L LL

F URUD QX OH SXWHP DWULEXL FX FHUWLWXGLQH QXPDL XQD GLQ FHOH GRX  YDORUL

ORJLFH GLQ YDULLPRWLYHSHFDUHQXOHGHWDOLHP DLFL µ$GDP HUDEUXQHWúL

(YDURúFDW ¶µ5RúXHVWHRFXORDUHPDLFDOG GHFkWSRUWRFDOLX¶µÌQFk LYD

ani, cel mult, se va produce un mare cutremur’; ‘Universul este infinit în

VSD LX úL WLPS QHFUHDW úL LQGHVWUXFWLELO¶HWFVXQWGRDUFkWHYDH[HPSOH GH

SURSR]L LL F URUD QX OL VH SRDWH DWULEXL FX FHUWLWXGLQH YDORDUHD ORJLF 

µDGHY UDW¶VDXµIDOV¶SXWHPVSXQHGHVSUHHOHFHOPXOWF VXQWSODX]LELOH

probabile, inteligibile, FUHGLELOH ú D P G /RJLFD PRGHUQ  D HODERUDW
sisteme polivalente, cu n YDORUL ORJLFH vQ FDUH SULQFLSLXO WHU XOXL H[FOXV
VH DSOLF  HYHQWXDO vQ IRUPH JHQHUDOL]DWH úL QHLQWXLWLYH GHPRQVWUDELOH úL

inteligibile numai formal.

Marea utilitate a principiulXL WHU XOXL H[FOXV FRQVW  GXS  FXP

REVHUY $ULVWRWHOvQIDSWXOF IDFHSRVLELO GHPRQVWUD LDSULQUHGXFHUHOD

DEVXUG ÌQWUXFkW GRX  SURSR]L LL FRQWUDGLFWRULL QX SRW IL DPEHOH IDOVH

UH]XOW  F  SUREkQG IDOVLWDWHD SURSR]L LHL FDUH QHDJ  WH]D GH GHPRQVWUDW –
úL SH FDUH QX R SXWHP DUJXPHQWD GLUHFW – DP GRYHGLW WRWRGDW  F  WH]D

HVWHDGHY UDW 

3ULQFLSLXOUD LXQLLVXILFLHQWH

)RUPXODW GH F WUH /HLEQL] FD SLDWU  XQJKLXODU  D ILORVRILHL VDOH

SULQFLSLXO UD LXQLL VXILFLHQWH QX HVWH SURSULX ]LV R UHJXO  IRUPDO  GH
-
FRQVWUXF LH D LQIHUHQ HORU GHGXFWLYH FRUHFWH FL PDL GHJUDE  R UHJXO 

PHWRGRORJLF GHILQLWRULHSHQWUXVSLULWXOúWLLQ LILF

 /HLEQL] DUH QHYRLH GH HQXQ DUHD DFHVWXL SULQFLSLX GLQ PRPHQWXO

în care a sesizat deosebirea – PHQ LRQDW  DQWHULRU – întrH DGHY UXULOH GH

UD LRQDPHQW DQDOLWLFH QHFHVDUH úL ULJXURV GHPRQVWUDELOH GHGXFWLY úL

DGHY UXULOH GH IDSW FRQWLQJHQWH úL vQWHPHLDWH HPSLULF $GHY UXULOH

UD LRQDOH VH vQWHPHLD]  SH FHOH WUHL SULQF ipii anterioare, între care
fundamental este principiul non-FRQWUDGLF LHL vQ YUHPH FH DGHY UXULOH
IDFWXDOHvúLDXWHPHLXOvQDFHVWDOSDWUXOHDSULQFLSLXDOUD LXQLLVXILciente.

Ä5D LRQDPHQWHOHQRDVWUHVSXQH/HLEQL]vQ Monadologie, sunt întemeiate

pe GRX  PDUL SULQFLSLL SULQFLSLXO FRQWUDGLF LHL, în virtutea F UXLD

socotim fals WRW FH FXSULQGH vQ VLQH R FRQWUDGLF LH úL DGHY UDW ceea ce
HVWH RSXV IDOVXOXL DGLF  vQ FRQWUDGLF LH FX DFHVWD úL SULQFLSLXO UD LXQLL

suficiente vQ YLUWXWHD F UXLD FRQVLGHU P F  QLFL XQ IDSW QX SRDWH IL

DGHY UDW VDX UHDO QLFL R SURSR]L LH YHULGLF  I U  V  H[LVWH XQ WHPHL R

UD LXQH VXILFLHQW  SHQWUX FDUH OXFUXULOH VXQW DúD úL QX DOWIHO GHúL

temeiurile acestea de cele mai multe ori nu ne pot fi cunoscute“.26

ÌQFRQFHS LDOXL/HLEQL]SULQFLSLXOUD LXQLLVXILFLHQWHHVWHVROLGDU

cu o YL]LXQHPHWDIL]LF FHSRVWXOHD] FRQH[LXQHDXQLYHUVDO WRDWHS U LOH

FH DOF WXLHVF 8QLYHUVXO RULFkW GH PLFL – PHUJkQG SkQ  OD IDL moasele
PRQDGH µDWRPLL SVLKLFL¶ FH UHSUH]LQW  VWUDWXO XOWLP HOHPHQWDU vQ

arhitectonica lumii –VHLQWHUFRUHOHD] vQWU -o ‘DUPRQLHSUHVWDELOLW ¶DVWIHO

vQFkW ILHFDUH PRQDG  RJOLQGHúWH WRDWH VFKLPE ULOH GLQ 8QLYHUV úL ILHFH

PRGLILFDUHvQO XQWUXOXQHLPRQDGHVHU VIUkQJHvQWRDWHFHOHODOWH)LHFDUH

HQXQ  WUHEXLH DFFHSWDW QXPDL SH ED]D XQRU WHPHLXUL vQWUXFkW ILHFDUH

eveniment în sfera realului se produce în virtutea unei cauze – pe care

/HLEQL] R H[SOLF  vQWU-R PDQLHU  PHWDIL]LF  FX WRWXO DSDUWH GH FDUH

XOWHULRUVSLULWXOúWLLQ LILFV-DSXWXWGLVSHQVDFXGHVWXO XúXULQ 

'HYHQLQG R UHJXO  GH ED]  vQ PHWRGRORJLD úWLLQ LILF  principiul

UD LXQLL VXILFLHQWH UHVSLQJH vQ HJDO  P VXU  dogmatismul – acceptarea

QHFRQGL LRQDW DXQRUµHYLGHQ H¶VDXµUHYHOD LL¶FHQXPDLH[SULP I U V 

DUJXPHQWH]H QLúWH SUHWLQVH DGHY UXUL DEVROXWH LQIDLOLELOH FkW úL

scepticismul – FDUH SRVWXOHD]  LQFDSDFLWDWHD LUHPHGLDELO  D PLQ LL

RPHQHúWL GH D DYHD YUHR FHUWLWXGLQH vQWHPHLDW  3ULQFLSLXO UD LXQLL

VXILFLHQWH QH FHUH V  UHVSLQJHP DILUPD LLOH QHVXV LQXWH GH QLFL XQ

DUJXPHQW UHOHYDQW GDU QH vQFXUDMHD]  V  QX QH vQGRLP OD QHVIkUúLW GH

DFHOH HQXQ XUL FDUH VXQW vQWHPHLDWH SH DQXPLWH GRYH]L úL SUREH suficient
GH WDUL SHQWUX D QH IXQGDPHQWD FRQYLQJHUHD F  VXQWHP QX QXPDL

VXELHFWLYvQSRVHVLDXQRUDGHY UXULQHvQGRLHOQLFH

'LQSXQFWGHYHGHUHVWULFWORJLFSULQFLSLXOUD LXQLLVXILFLHQWHFHUH

ca orice proSR]L LH GLQWU-XQ VLVWHP GHGXFWLY V  ILH DFFHSWDW  FD WH]  D

VLVWHPXOXL QXPDL GDF  SRDWH IL ULJXURV GHULYDW  LQIHUHQ LDO GLQ SURSR -
]L LLOH SULPLWLYH DSOLFkQGX VH PHUHX DFHOHDúL SX LQH GDU DEVROXW LQIDL
- -
OLELOHUHJXOLGHGHGXF LH

ÌQ OXQJD WUDGL LH D ORJ

icii clasice, aceste patru principii au fost
DXUHRODWH GH R GHPQLWDWH SULYLOHJLDW  IL ind considerate drept pietre
unghiulare ale teoriei logice. Greutatea prinFLSLLORU FDUH SRVWXOHD] 
identitatea, non-FRQWUDGLF LD WHU XO H[FOXV úL UD LXQHD VXILFLHQW  QX poate
ILvQ HOHDV SHGHSOLQGDF QXDYHPvQYHGHUHVSLULWXOILORVRILFvQFDUHV-a

HODERUDW ORJLFD WUDGL LRQDO  $FHDVWD D IRVW VROLGDU  FX FRQYLQJHUHD

proIXQG  D ORJLFLHQLORU FODVLFL F  8QLYHUVXO HVWH R FUHD LH PLQXQDW

DOF WXLW GHSXWHUHDúLYRLQ DXQHL5D LXQLVXSUHPHFHDG UXLWRPXOXLúL

QXPDL OXL SULYLOHJLXO PLQ LLvQ HOHJ WRDUH úLDOJUDLXOXL FDSDELOV  H[SOLFH

úLV RUGRQH]HVLVWHPDWLFVWUXFWXULOHJkQGLULLRPHQHúWLSULYLWHQXGRDUFD

XQMRFDUELWUDUúLFRQYHQ LRQDODOUD LXQLLúLDOOLPELLQRDVWUH , ci ca model

XQLYHUVDO HWHUQ úL LQYDULDQW DO WXWXURU OXFUXULORU FH LQWU  vQ DOF WXLUHD

lumii – JkQG SH FDUH +HJHO vO YD vQ O D OD FHD PDL vQDOW  GHVI úXUDUH

GLDOHFWLF  7RFPDL GH DFHHD SULQFLSLLOH ORJLFLL FODVLFH DYHDX GLQFROR GH

VHPQLILFD LD ORU µWHKQLF ¶ DGkQFL vQ HOHVXUL PHWDIL]LFH FDUH OH SUR iectau
úLvQVIHUDWHPDWLF DVSHFXOD LLORURQWRORJLFH

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