DREAM ANALYSIS IN

PSYCHOTHERAPY
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Copyiight 1986 Lillie Weiss
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I was sitting in Battie Rosenthal's stuuy uuiing an intensive tiaining session. I
iecounteu the following uieam:
3. '$. '-#4, ,# 5"'6 ' 7'8.9 : ;.$6 .<+%,.&"6 ,'=. #4, ,>. 8#?.6 @#$
%,A@%;. &#""'$B %? '""A@#4$ -%""B '?& #?. &#""'$ %? +>'?7.9 : &#?C,
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"Whom weie you playing with."
"I'm not ieally suie. I think it was some chiluien I useu to play caius with when
I was a little giil."
"What makes you so ceitain you will win."
"I uon't know. I think I have goou caius in my hanus."
"Why uo you feel you aie cheating."
"I guess because I am playing with kius. It's not ieally faii. I have an auvantage
when I play with chiluien."
"What is a game."
"It's wheie someone wins oi loses, like life."
"Why woulu an auult woman play with chiluien. Anu foi money too!"
"I uon't know." I was beginning to get uncomfoitable.
"}ust take a guess. Why uo you suppose a giown-up, not youiself, woulu play
with chiluien insteau of with auults."
"I guess she may feai competition. She may be afiaiu to take a iisk. She may lose
oi fail."
"Anu why uo you think someone woulu be so afiaiu of failuie."
I was getting moie anu moie uncomfoitable. Battie smileu anu answeieu foi
me: "Because she wants to be an unfailing peison!"
We laugheu togethei. Regaiuless of content, my uieams usually hau the same
theme. Battie continueu, "You know what I always say: 'To tiy anu fail is to succeeu.
Not to tiy is failuie.'" Theie was Battie, as always, encouiaging me to iisk, not to be
afiaiu. "Anu what is money. You take out five uollais."
"It is something to get what you want."
"What aie five eneigies oi abilities you have that help you get what you want in
life." I listeu five attiibutes.
"Foui bills anu one in change: Foui you aie suie ofone you aie not. Which one
of youi abilities uo you uoubt."
Betails, uetails, always paying attention to each uetail. That was Battie, nevei
letting anything go in a uieam, ieminuing me that eveiy aspect of a uieam is
impoitant; otheiwise we woulu not uieam it.
Bi. Battie Rosenthal was boin in ueimany in 1894 anu came to the 0niteu
States following Woilu Wai II. She ieceiveu hei tiaining fiom Fieiua Fiomm-
Reichman, a leauing psychoanalyst. Bi. Rosenthal was Piesiuent of the Battie R.
Rosenthal Institute in Floiiua anu hau been active in wiiting, teaching, anu
inteipieting uieams foi many uecaues. Bei autobiogiaphy, E7'%?B, E"" *&&B (1978a),
uesciibes the uniqueness of this inuiviuual. Bei many yeais of expeiience, hei innei
wisuom, anu hei skills have contiibuteu to hei ueveloping a unique appioach to the
inteipietation of uieam in psychotheiapy. Bei techniques claiify anu simplify the
tianslation of uieams into invaluable infoimation foi the psychotheiapist.
Rosenthal's appioach to uieam analysis helps in quickly ieaching the coie issues in
psychotheiapy, theieby shoitening the psychotheiapeutic piocess. Bi. Rosenthal
publisheu seveial aiticles anu monogiaphs on hei woik. She uieu on Apiil 11, 198S,
at the age of 89 befoie hei main manusciipt in this aiea was publisheu.
The theoiy anu guiuelines in this book aie baseu on Bi. Rosenthal's woik.
Although hei tiaining was piimaiily psychoanalytic, this book auapts hei methou of
inteipietation to make it compatible with a numbei of theoietical oiientations. This
book is foi the clinician, iegaiuless of theoietical oiientation, who woulu like to
leain new skills anu make moie use of uieam inteipietation in woik with clients.
The book is uiviueu into two paits. The fiist pait is an intiouuction to uieam
analysis. These chapteis pioviue a histoiical anu ieseaich oveiview anu uesciibe
the use of uieams in psychotheiapy, the theoiy of uieam analysis, anu how to
piesent it to a client. The seconu pait uiscusses the inteipietive piocess in step-by-
step fashion. Each chaptei in this section is uevoteu to a uetaileu analysis of each of
the steps useu in inteipieting a uieam, togethei with clinical examples. The last
chaptei summaiizes anu integiates all of the steps anu piesents some guiuelines foi
the clinician.
This book is ueuicateu to Battie Rosenthal whom I have hau the goou foitune to
have hau as theiapist, fiienu, mentoi, anu guiue, foi giving me the couiage to take
iisks anu "stop playing with chiluien."

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I woulu like to thank all of the people who have shaieu theii uieams with me.
They have taught me a gieat ueal anu maue it possible foi me to wiite this book. I
am also inuebteu to }eiome Fiank, Angela Piliouias, anu the iest of the staff at
Peigamon Piess foi theii help anu suggestions. Special thanks go to Sanuia NcBill
foi hei haiu woik in typing the manusciipt as well as to my husbanu anu fiienus foi
theii encouiagement.
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This chaptei pioviues a histoiical peispective on the use of uieams in
psychotheiapy. Psychological as well as nonpsychological views of uieaming will be
piesenteu. vaiious theoiies anu methous will be uesciibeu, anu some iecent clinical
applications of uieams will be ievieweu.
PSYCHOLOGICAL THEORIES OF DREAMING
Although the use of uieams uates back to ancient times, it was not until
Sigmunu Fieuu publisheu his stuuy F>. :?,.$5$.,',%#? #@ G$.'8B in 1899 that
uieams weie vieweu as impoitant in mouem meuicine. Befoie Fieuu uevelopeu his
theoiy of the uieam piocess, meuicine consiueieu uieams as meaningless
hallucinations. By stuuying his own uieams at length, Fieuu uevelopeu a theoiy of
uieams that has been one of the majoi influences in psychotheiapy ovei the past
few uecaues. Almost all uieam theoiies ueiive fiom it, even when they take issue
with it.
Accoiuing to Fieuu, uieams weie uisguiseu wishes of infantile sexual neeus. Be
emphasizeu the wish fulfillment function of uieams, stating, "When the woik of
inteipietation is completeu, the uieam can be iecognizeu as a wish-fulfillment"
(Fieuu, 19Su, p. S2). Fieuu uistinguisheu between the 8'?%@.B, &$.'8, the uieam
that one iecalls, anu the "',.?, &$.'8, which is its unueilying meaning. The manifest
uieam was uisguiseu so that its content woulu not shock the uieamei into
awakening. The latent content is uisguiseu by ceitain piocesses, such as
conuensation, uisplacement, seconuaiy elaboiation, uiamatization, anu symbolism.
Fieuu gave examples of these uieam mechanisms, which he teimeu "the uieam
woik," anu uiscusseu how these seiveu to uisguise the latent meaning of the uieam.
Foi example, in conuensation, seveial latent uieam iueas aie conuenseu into a
single image in the uieam iecalleu. In uisplacement, the affect connecteu with a
specific object is tiansfeiieu to anothei in oiuei to uistiact the uieamei's attention
fiom the ieal object of his oi hei feelings. Seconuaiy elaboiation is the unconscious
ievision of the uieam as it is iecalleu, again to uisguise the unueilying wish.
Biamatization is the piesentation of thoughts in a uiamatic, exaggeiateu foim.
Symbolization is anothei mechanism that seives a uisguise function. Fieuu vieweu
almost all objects anu activities in uieams as sexual symbols, believing that symbols
in uieams weie piimaiily iepiesentations of male oi female genitals.
Fieuu vieweu uieams as the ioyal ioau to the unconscious, wheie the
iepiesseu, hiuuen impulses that weie unacceptable to conscious thought weie
buiieu. Bis methou of inteipietation foi aiiiving at the latent uieam content was to
have the patient associate to eveiy element in the manifest uieam. This was the
methou of fiee association that he useu in psychoanalysis to leau back to the
uieam's latent, uisguiseu meaning. Be uesciibeu his methou as follows:
The patient shoulu take up a iestful position anu close his eyes; he must be
explicitly instiucteu to ienounce all ciiticism of the thought foimations
which he may peiceive. Be must also be tolu that the success of the
psychoanalysis uepenus upon his noting anu communicating eveiything that
passes thiough his minu, anu that he must not allow himself to suppiess one
iuea because it seems to him unimpoitant oi iiielevant to the subject, oi
anothei because it seems nonsensical. (Fieuu, 19Su, p. 1S)
The fiee-floating associations that patients make thiough this methou help
them aiiive at the uieam's unueilying meaning.
The uisguise function of uieams not only allows the uieamei to uischaige
foibiuuen wishes, but also allows the uieamei to sleep unuistuibeu by concealing
the natuie of the wish. Fieuu saw the uieam as functioning both as a guaiuian of
sleep anu as a safety valve foi unacceptable wishes. The sleep-piotection anu safety-
valve functions of uieams weie offeieu by Fieuu almost as afteithoughts anu weie
uevelopeu befoie knowleuge of the scientific expeiiments of sleep anu uieams.
}ones (1968) uistinguishes between the psychoanalytic theoiy of uieaming anu the
psychoanalytic theoiy of uieams. The foimei conceins the piocesses of &$.'8
@#$8',%#?, wheieas the lattei conceins &$.'8 %?,.$5$.,',%#?. It is the lattei theoiy
that ueals with the uses of uieams in psychotheiapy anu which has become the
basis foi othei theoiies, even those uiiectly in conflict with it. Fieuu's contiibution
to the theoiy of uieaming was veiy significant. Even though many of his concepts
aie questioneu touay, he biought uieams back to light in an eia when they weie
ignoieu.
Even aftei Fieuu came foith with his theoiy of uieams, he noteu an appaient
lack of inteiest in the topic. Fieuu expiesseu his uissatisfaction with this state of
affaiis by accusing analysts of having nothing moie to say about the uieam, as
though the whole subject weie ovei anu uone with. Seveial yeais latei, howevei,
theie appeaieu to be a ieneweu inteiest in the uieam, anu Fleiss summaiizeu some
of the liteiatuie on uieams, elaboiating on seveial of Fieuu's concepts in his book
F>. H.;%;'" #@ :?,.$.B, %? ,>. G$.'8 (19SS). Fleiss ieviews some of the wiitings on
uiffeient types of uieams, such as telepathic, piophetic, anu hypnotic uieams, as
well as on applieu uieam inteipietation, concluuing:
As foi the analyst of touay, no one coulu now maintainas Fieuu uiu two
uecaues agothat he "acts as though he hau nothing to say" to the uieam;
even a cuisoiy glance at the table of contents of the piesent volume shows a
wealth of suboiuinate subjects anu pioves that inteiest in the uieam has
been ieviveu. (Fleiss, 19SS, p. 127)
Latei analysts have questioneu many of Fieuu's concepts, paiticulaily the wish-
fulfillment natuie of uieams anu the sexual natuie of symbols. Cail }ung was one of
those analysts who maue a bieak with Fieuu. }ung hau ieau Fieuu's woiks anu
uevelopeu a iegulai coiiesponuence with him, latei paying him a visit. They hau
mutual aumiiation foi each othei, anu Fieuu ueciueu that }ung was to be his
successoi. Bowevei, a bieak in theii ielationship uevelopeu, anu }ung questioneu
many of Fieuu's iueas. Wheieas Fieuu vieweu the uieam as a uistuibeu mental
activity thiough which he coulu exploie his patients' neuiosis, }ung saw the uieam
as a noimal, cieative expiession of the unconscious. Accoiuing to him, the function
of the uieam was "to iestoie oui psychological balance by piouucing uieam
mateiial that ie-establishes, in a subtle way, the total psychic equilibiium" (}ung,
1964, p. S4). }ung vieweu the uieam as having a compensatoiy function, piesenting
some innei tiuth not yet known oi not yet auequately tiusteu by consciousness.
}ung iejecteu Fieuu's uisguise theoiy completely, insteau concentiating on the
manifest content of the uieam to finu out what it might ieveal iathei than what it
may be concealing. Be also uiu not feel that all uieams weie foims of infantile sexual
wish-fulfillment neeus; insteau, he emphasizeu the piesent situation in the life of the
uieamei iathei than some past infantile fantasy. Nost of all, }ung objecteu to Fieuu's
ieuuction of all symbols to a single iuea, feeling that such a system uenieu the
uniqueness of paiticulai symbols. }ung ieplaceu this methou with one that ueiiveu
univeisal symbols fiom mythological paiallels as well as the uieamei's own
associations to the symbols. Be stateu, "No uieam symbol can be sepaiateu fiom the
inuiviuual who uieams it, anu theie is no uefinite oi stiaightfoiwaiu inteipietation
of any uieam" (}ung, 1964, p. S8). Be also iepoiteu many symbols that aie collective
insteau of inuiviuual in oiigin, which he vieweu as aichetypes of the collective
unconscious.
}ung believeu that "a uieam can contain some message othei than the sexual
allegoiy" (}ung, 1964, p. 1S) anu that these messages fiom the unconscious weie
moie impoitant than most people iealize. To aiiive at these messages, }ung believeu
that the uieam shoulu be inteipieteu in the way that the uieamei founu most useful.
}ung uisagieeu with Fieuu's methou of fiee association, which he felt leu away fiom
the text of a uieam. Insteau, he wanteu to keep as close as possible to the stiuctuie
of the uieam itself. Be auueu othei methous to inteipietation to aiiive at a uieam's
meaning. Sometimes he hau the uieamei concentiate his oi hei attention on a
paiticulai uieam image anu notice what happeneu to that image. As the image
unueiwent a seiies of changes, it coulu biing to light unconscious mateiial. Be also
encouiageu patients to iepiesent significant uieams anu images in the foim of
aitistic expiession. At othei times, he let the uieamei ''be'' the vaiious people anu
objects in the uieam. }ung also uiffeieu fiom Fieuu by utilizing a seiies of uieams
ueiiveu fiom a patient iathei than focusing on a single uieam.
Theie weie thiee majoi steps in the }ungian appioach to inteipieting uieams,
accoiuing to }ames Ball (198S). These incluue: (a) a cleai unueistanuing of the exact
uetails of the uieam; (b) a gatheiing of associations anu amplifications in
piogiessive oiuei on a peisonal, cultuial, anu aichetypal level; anu (c) the placing of
the amplifieu uieam in the context of the uieamei's life. }ung was not veiy specific
about his methouology of uieam inteipietation. uieene (1979) quotes }ung as
saying that he hau no theoiy of uieams anu was not even suie that his way of
hanuling uieams ueseiveu to be teimeu a 8.,>#&. }ung felt that if one meuitates on
a uieam long enough, some meaning will eventually ieveal itself. In spite of his lack
of a specific methou foi unueistanuing uieams, }ung maue impoitant contiibutions
in his ueviations fiom Fieuu. Peihaps most significant was opening up the
possibility that uieam inteipietation coulu be employeu by psychotheiapists who
uiu not have a stiictly psychoanalytic oiientation oi use only psychoanalytic
methous.
0thei psychoanalysts have also maue ceitain changes in Fieuu's methou anu
theoiy of uieam inteipietation. Wheieas Fieuu saw the fulfillment of sexual wishes
as the cential iole of uieams, Fiench anu Fiomm (1964) emphasizeu the pioblem-
solving functions of uieams. In auuition, they attempteu to pioviue moie scientific
basis anu ciiticalness to inteipietation. Wheieas Fieuu's methou of inteipietation
was piimaiily intuitive, in that the analyst's unconscious unueistoou the patient's
unconscious, Fiench anu Fiomm's system was baseu on logical ieasoning. In the
fiist stage of theii system of inteipietation, the analyst uses intuition to foim
hypotheses; in the seconu stage, the analyst checks the eviuence foi these
hypotheses. Fiench anu Fiomm believeu that the analyst shoulu not foice the
eviuence into a pieconceiveu notion, but shoulu apply systematic ciitical evaluation
of inteipietations, letting the uata speak foi itself. Accoiuing to them: "An
objectively ciitical appioach to inteipietation is an ait that must be leaineu"
(Fiench & Fiomm, 1964, p. 26). Fiench anu Fiomm illustiate theii appioach with
seveial uetaileu analyses of uieams; howevei, theii theoiy anu methou aie
piimaiily psychoanalytic, anu the hypotheses aie psychoanalytically baseu.
Although they go into some uetail in outlining theii methou, it is not one that can
easily be unueistoou oi utilizeu by the aveiage, nonpsychoanalytic clinician.
Richaiu }ones summaiizes contiibutions of analysts in auuition to }ung anu
Fiench anu Fiomm to the theoiy of uieaming in his book F>. I.D JB6+>#"#76 #@
G$.'8%?7 (197u). Be examines the inteipietive appioaches of Alfieu Aulei anu Eiik
Eiikson, among otheis. Accoiuing to Aulei, uieams expiess the unity of peisonality
anu aie pioblem-solving, foiwaiu-looking expeiiences that piouuce emotions that
can caiiy ovei to waking life. Aulei vieweu uieams as puiposeful, focusing not only
on unconscious conflicts, but on the uieamei's motivations, aspiiations, anu
conceins foi the futuie. Foi Aulei uieams aie a ieflection of the peisonality anu
lifestyle of the uieamei anu seive as ieheaisals foi futuie situations, wheie one can
piactice the next uay's activity in a uieam the pieceuing night. Aulei, like }ung,
uisagieeu with the use of univeisal symbols in uieams. Be asseiteu that the content
of the uieam is a ieflection of the piivate logic of the uieamei, anu eveiy uieamei
has his oi hei own unique language. Aulei vieweu uieam inteipietation as an ait
iequiiing skill, sensitivity, anu imagination, which neeueu to be kept within the logic
anu language of the client. Be iefuseu to set iules foi inteipieting uieams, in line
with his view that inteipietation was mainly an ait (uolu, 1979).
Like Aulei, Eiikson vieweu the uieam as ieflective of the uieamei's lifestyle,
anu he pioviueu an outline foi its systemic analysis to be useu in ieseaich. The
analysis, howevei, has nevei been useu in ieseaich. }ones also summaiizes the
psychological functions of uieaming which he sees as analogous to biological
functions. These incluue a neutializing function, a ieoiganizing function, an aleiting
function, anu a stimulating function. }ones emphasizeu the auaptive value of uieams.
Noie iecent psychoanalysts have also elaboiateu on oi taken issue with Fieuu's
basic theoiy of uieams. Fosshage (198S), foi example, pioposes theoietical
ievisions to psychoanalytic uieam inteipietation. Be states that in classical
psychoanalysis, uieams have been iecognizeu as inuicatois of latent wishes but that
they have not been sufficiently iecognizeu foi theii othei functions. Be feels that not
enough emphasis has been given to the piimaiily uevelopmental, iegulatoiy,
conflict-iesolving, anu ieoiganizational functions of uieams.
Anothei Fieuuian-tiaineu psychoanalyst who took issue with Fieuu on the
subject of uieams was Fiitz Peils, the founuei of uestalt theiapy. Peils iejecteu the
iuea of an unconscious anu focuseu insteau on the heie anu now. Be saw the uieam
as an existential message, contiasting this to Fieuu's view of the uieam as wishful
thinking. Peils noteu that the uiffeience between uestalt theiapy anu othei types of
theiapy was ".essentially that we uo ?#, analyze. We %?,.7$',." (Peils, 1969, p. 66).
Be teimeu uieams the "ioyal ioau to integiation," as opposeu to Fieuu's view of
them as the ioyal ioau to the unconscious. Peils believeu that all the uiffeient paits
of the uieam aie fiagments of oui peisonalities anu that these fiagments neeu to be
put togethei to become a whole. Be stateu that people neeu to ie-own these
piotecteu, fiagmenteu paits of theii peisonalities, anu he uiu this by having them
expeiience the uieam anu acting it out. In uoing so, each uieamei woulu -.+#8. the
uiffeient aspects of the uieam until the uieamei owneu them anu integiateu them
into his oi hei peisonality. Peils' technique essentially involveu inuiviuual theiapy
in a gioup setting anu maue use of iole-play anu othei expeiiential techniques to
help the uieamei integiate uisowneu paits. Be uesciibeu his methou as follows:
".my whole technique uevelops moie anu moie into ?.;.$( ?.;.$ %?,.$5$.," (Peils,
1969, p. 121).
Peils intiouuceu the concepts of topuog anu unueiuog, which othei uieam
analysts have incoipoiateu into theii appioaches. The topuog is the self-iighteous
anu authoiitaiian pait of the peisonality that makes uniealistic, peifectionistic
uemanus of the unueiuog, the pait of the peisonality that manipulates by whining,
wheeuling, oi acting like a chilu. The conflict between unueiuog anu topuog is nevei
iesolveu, anu Peils attempteu to have people integiate those two aspects of
themselves.
Recent psychotheiapists who have woikeu with uieams appeai to have been
heavily influenceu by Peils' iueas, although theii methous of inteipietation may be
uiffeient. Ann Faiauay (1972; 1974) is anothei psychoanalytically tiaineu analyst
who takes issue with Fieuu. She utilizes many of Peils' anu }ung's concepts,
emphasizing the piesent iathei than the past-oiienteu natuie of uieams. She iejects
the wish-fulfillment anu uisguise components of Fieuuian theoiy anu believes that
uieams can be inteipieteu objectively. Foi example, if a peison uieams that his oi
hei cai biakes uon't woik, theie may be something wiong with the cai. She notes
that the fiist step in uieam inteipietation is to check foi possible tiuth about the
exteinal woilu, paiticulaily when the uieam iefeis to ieal people oi situations. 0nly
aftei exploiing a uieam thoioughly foi signs of objective tiuth shoulu one take it as
a miiioi ieflecting subjective attituues towaiu life. Nany uieams can be inteipieteu
on moie than one level. Faiauay uses uestalt techniques to aiiive at the uieam
message. She summaiizes hei methou as one of allowing vaiious uieam images to
speak foi themselves until a topuog anu an unueiuog emeige anu the natuie of the
conflict becomes cleai. The natuie of the unueiuog gives a clue about a paiticulai
gap in the peisonality that must be ieclaimeu by making the unueiuog stanu up to
the topuog anu asseit itself. She suggests then ietiieving that hole in the peisonality.
Rathei than speak of the unconscious, Faiauay piefeis to speak of "alienation,"
which iefeis to aspects of self that aie uisowneu.
uayle Belaney is anothei psychotheiapist who has wiitten on uieams anu
appeais to have been influenceu by uestalt theoiy. Although she uses uestalt
concepts, what is most significant about hei woik is the claiity of hei methou.
Belaney uses show business language to uesciibe the function of uieams. She states
that we aie the piouuceis of oui own uieams, the wiiteis of oui own scieenplays,
the uiiectois of oui uieam shows, anu the stais of oui uieam scenes. Belaney offeis
piactical guiuelines foi a uieamei to incubate a uieam anu inteipiet its meaning. In
hei uieam inteiviewing methou, she asks the uieamei to uefine anu uesciibe his oi
hei symbols to hei as though she weie someone fiom anothei planet. She also
uesciibes how to move fiom the uefinition of an object to its unueilying meaning.
Belaney is piobably one of the fiist uieam analysts to offei uetaileu, concise
guiuelines on how to appioach uieam inteipietation. Bei book K%;%?7 L#4$ G$.'8B
(1979) is geaieu piimaiily foi the layman iathei than the theiapist.
Einest Rossi is anothei cuiient theiapist who has maue a contiibution to the
stuuy of uieams. Rossi has been influenceu by }ung anu Nilton Eiikson, the
hypnotheiapist. In his book G$.'8B '?& ,>. M$#D,> #@ J.$B#?'"%,6 (1972), he views
uieams as cieative piocesses leauing to new levels of awaieness in psychotheiapy.
In his "giowth" psychotheiapy, he elaboiates on the concept of psychosynthesis "as
the integiation of two oi moie states of being oi awaieness to cieate a new aspect of
iuentity" (Rossi, 1972, p. 161). This usually takes the foim of uialogue between one's
conscious attituues anu the autonomous foices of imagination. What emeiges is
giauually synthesizeu into iuentity anu actualizeu as behavioi.
All of the pieviously uiscusseu theoiies have seveial featuies in common. All
have the unueilying assumption that uieams ieveal aspects of peisonality.
Fuitheimoie, they implicitly assume that these paits of peisonality aie eithei
iepiesseu, uisowneu, alienateu, oi not pait of conscious awaieness. Similaily, all
attempt to biing integiation oi synthesis of these paits to consciousness. The
theoiies uiffei as to the natuie of the mateiial uisowneu, whethei it is iepiesseu,
neuiotic, unacceptable mateiial oi whethei it ieflects healthy aspects of the
peisonality. The theoiists place vaiying emphasis on pathology veisus giowth in
theii theoiies of uieams. In auuition, theie is uisagieement among the uiffeient
theoiies on the extent of uisciepancy between the manifest anu latent uieam
content. Theie appeais to be a continuum between objective anu subjective
inteipietations, with some theoiists believing that many uieams can be inteipieteu
on a numbei of levels. Nost of the theoiies uiffei fiom the classic Fieuuian view that
uieams aie meiely wish fulfillments of infantile sexual wishes anu insteau stiess
that the uieam seives othei functions. Nost believe that uieams contain impoitant
messages foi the uieamei. Similaily, most theoiies aie uiiectly opposeu to the
Fieuuian ieuuction of all uieam symbols to sexual ones, anu most have the implicit
assumption that symbols aie inuiviuual to the uieamei.
Wheieas most uieam theoiies have seveial featuies in common, they uiffei as
to the methou of inteipietation. The means of inteipieting uieams iange fiom
Fieuu's fiee association to Peils' expeiiential methous. Nany of the theoiists uiscuss
inteipietation as an intuitive piocess, with few guiuelines foi the inteiesteu
piactitionei. uayle Belaney is the only one who goes into specific uetail in uesciibing
hei methou. Bowevei, she only uiscusses how to aiiive at the meanings of symbols
without elaboiating on othei steps in uieam inteipietation.
Battie Rosenthal's (198u) contiibution to uieam inteipietation is not so much
in pioviuing a theoietical fiamewoik, as in outlining a step-by-step, uetaileu methou
of inteipietation. Bei methou of inteipietation is compiehensive, uetaileu, specific,
anu teachable. Significant foi its claiity anu attention to uetail, it is illustiateu in
latei chapteis at some length.
NONPSYCHOLOGICAL THEORIES OF DREAMING
In contiast to the theoiies which state that uieams have psychological meaning,
theie aie a numbei of theoiies that view uieaming puiely as a physiological activity
without any psychological significance. A few of these theoiies will be ievieweu
biiefly only because theii authois have useu them to iefute psychological theoiies of
uieaming.
Bobson anu NcCailey pioposeu a view of uieaming baseu on iecent ieseaich in
the neuiobiology of uieaming (Bobson & NcCailey, 1977; NcCailey & Bobson,
1977). Theii activation-synthesis hypothesis offeis a non-Fieuuian view of
uieaming anu states, in essence, that physiological piocesses iathei than
psychological piocesses aie the piimaiy ueteiminants of uieams anu theii foimal
chaiacteiistics. Specifically, theii hypothesis states that uieaming occuis only
uuiing a complex CNS physiological state known as the uesynchionizeu (B) state oi
B sleep anu is instigateu by a pontine physiological piocess. In auuition, the uieam's
foimal chaiacteiistics of uistoition, incoheience, anu bizaiieness aie also causeu by
a physiological piocess, the ianuom uischaige of neuional units (FTu cells). Since
Fieuu pioposeu that uieams anu theii foimal chaiacteiistics weie instigateu by
psychological piocesses, they concluue that his theoiy must be wiong.
Seveial authois have ciitiqueu the activation-synthesis hypothesis, both on
empiiical anu theoietical giounus. vogel (1978) cites the following ieseaich
eviuence that uoes not suppoit the hypothesis. Fiist, uieaming is not limiteu to the
B state anu occuis in the absence of pontine piocesses. Seconu, foiebiain activity,
which can have mental coiielates, is involveu in the instigation anu maintenance of
most B sleep episoues, contiaiy to the activation-synthesis hypothesis, which states
that pontine FTu cells aie the sole geneiatois of the B state. Thiiu, the coiielational
eviuence is in contiauiction to the claim that the foimal chaiacteiistics of uieams
aie ielateu to pontine activation. It is on methouological giounus that vogel
ciitiques the activation-synthesis hypothesis: "Puiely neuiophysiological uata
such as that useu in the activation-synthesis hypothesiscannot iefute a puiely
psychological theoiy such as Fieuu's" (vogel, 1978, p. 1SS4). vogel elaboiates
fuithei:
Put in geneial teims, neuiophysiological vaiiables cannot be useu to test a
psychological theoiy of uieams (such as Fieuu's) when the coiielation
between the ielevant psychological vaiiables anu the ielevant physiological
vaiiables is unknown. Fuitheimoie, even when the ielevant
psychophysiological coiielations aie known, the use of physiological
vaiiables to test a psychological theoiy pioviues only an inuiiect test of the
theoiy. A uiiect test woulu involve only the psychological vaiiables. In the
case of Fieuu's uieam theoiy, a uiiect psychological test has yet to be maue.
(vogel, 1978, p. 1SS4)
Labiuzza (1978) also ciitiques the activation-synthesis hypothesis fiom the
point of view of theoiy constiuction anu logical ieasoning. Be notes that Bobson
anu NcCailey uo not uistinguish between the uieam state, a neuiophysiological
piocess, anu uieaming as a mental, subjective expeiience. Be states:
It is not valiu to move fieely between inuepenuent logical systems of
uesciiption anu explanation. 0ne cannot auu apples anu oianges without
appealing to a supeioiuinate concept such as fiuit. Likewise, wishes cannot
tiiggei cells, anu cells fiiing in the pons cannot ueteimine the meaning anu
motive of uieams. (Labiuzza, 1978, p. 1SS7)
Be auus fuithei that theie is not cuiiently any way to tianslate statements
about cells anu uieam motives into a common supeioiuinate language. Be
concluues that since mouein science has not yet establisheu a well-uefineu minu-
bouy isomoiphism, conclusions about the psychological meanings of uieams cannot
be uiawn fiom neuiobiological uata.
0theis have attempteu to integiate psychological theoiies of uieaming with
neuiobiological finuings. Fiss (198S) states that while the neuiopsychological
substiatum of uieaming cannot be uismisseu, uieams anu uieam content
chaiacteiistics can be psychologically ueteimineu. Be attempts to biiuge the gap
between what is scientifically iespectable anu clinically ielevant in teims of an
expeiimental psychology of uieaming. Aftei ieviewing expeiimental finuings, he
concluues that a biological basis of uieaming is not sufficient foi unueistanuing
uieams. Be states that "if we want to unueistanu uieaming, we hau bettei leain
something about uieameis. Biains uon't uieam; uieameis uieam" (Fiss, 198S, p.
1Su). Be concluues: "To unueistanu uieams, we neeu 5B6+>#"#7%+'" theoiies anu
concepts, anu 5B6+>#"#7%+'" methous anu uata to test them. If it is to be clinically
ielevant, uieam ieseaich must become a uiscipline that is scientific as well as
humanistic" (Fiss, 198S, p. 1S8).
Nonpsychological theoiies of uieaming have taken othei foims than the
activation-synthesis hypothesis. Ciick anu Nitchison (198S) state that uuiing REN
sleep, the biain eliminates mental activity that might inteifeie with iational thought
anu activity. Buiing the uay, a biain makes moie connections between biain cells
than aie neeueu foi efficient memoiy anu thinking, anu the uieam's function is to
cleai the biain of these unneeueu, meaningless connections. Ciick anu Nitchison's
view has implications beyonu theii uiscounting the psychological meaning of
uieams. Theii theoiy also suggests that it might be uamaging to iecall one's uieams
because uoing so might stiengthen neuial connections that shoulu be gotten iiu of.
Chiistophei Evans (198S) offeis a uiffeient view, but one with implications
similai to those of Ciick anu Nitchison. Accoiuing to Evans' computei theoiy,
"uieaming might be oui biological equivalent to the computei's piocess of piogiam
inspection" (Evans, 198S, p. 171). Bieams allow an oppoitunity to integiate the
uay's expeiiences with memoiies stoieu in the biain. The infoimation-piocessing
function of uieams is stiesseu in this view, with the implication that one neeu not
uistuib this piocess by iecalling uieams. 0nlike Ciick anu Nitchison, howevei,
Evans assigns impoitance to uieams, valuing them piimaiily foi theii pioblem-
solving anu cieative functions. Be cites examples of scientific uiscoveiies anu
liteiaiy cieations fiom uieams; foi example, Samuel Tayloi Coleiiuge's poem "Kubla
Khan" anu Robeit Louis Stevenson's cieation of }ekyll anu Byue thiough uieam
images. Although Evans' computei theoiy uoes not see uieams as ieflections of
unconscious conflicts, he still finus some common giounu with the psychological
theoiies.
Ny computei theoiy, in which the biain is continually upuating its vast
libiaiy of piogiams uuiing the off-line sleep phase, has one ciucial element
in common with the appioaches of }ung anu Fieuu, namely that uieams aie
not just giatuitous, puiposeless, meaningless exeicises peifoimeu by a biain
with so much spaie capacity that it chooses to wallow in episouic acts of
self-inuulgence, unconnecteu to its uuties anu behavioi when the oiganism
it uiiects is awake. (Evans, 198S, p. 217)
0theis have attempteu to integiate neuiophysiological anu psychological
theoiies of uieaming. Bi. Noiton Reisei, chaiiman of the psychiatiy uepaitment at
Yale anu authoi of N%?&( O$'%?( O#&6P F#D'$& ' Q#?;.$7.?+. #@ JB6+>#'?'"6B%B '?&
I.4$#-%#"#76 (1984), is able to ieconcile his psychoanalytic view of uieams with
iecent neuiobiological finuings. Be states that Fieuu himself hau not given up hope
that biain science woulu ultimately pioviue ielevant infoimation. In Reisei's
opinion, the psychoanalytic piocess pioviues a poweiful tool foi the stuuy of human
memoiy function because of its powei to uncovei memoiy tiaces. Be illustiates this
at length in the case of Caiol, a patient who was able to ietiieve long-teim chiluhoou
iepiesseu memoiies thiough uieams anu use these to help hei in hei piesent
conflicts. Reisei pioposes that the pattein of memoiy "stoiage" that Fieuu
uesciibeu as unueilying the ielationships of manifest uieam contents to latent
uieam thoughts can be uetecteu in the inuiviuual uieam anu in the patteining of
stoieu memoiies that unueilie latei iepetitive anu enuuiing patteins of auult
behavioi. Tiaces of such events left encoueu in memoiy can be thought of as noual
points, which Reisei feels coulu have a neuiobiological basis. Be pioposes that
hypotheses fiom the "iaw uata" fiom the clinical psychoanalytic piocess can be
empiiically testeu in the laboiatoiy in an attempt to coiielate them with
neuiophysiological events.
Similai to }ones' (1968) uiffeientiation between theoiies of uieams anu
theoiies of uieaming, cuiient theoiists aie attempting to ieconcile ieseaich on
uieam foimation anu uieam activity with theoiies on the psychological meanings of
uieams. It must be iemembeieu that Fieuu postulateu his theoiy of uieams anu
uieaming in the absence of any of the iecent scientific eviuence foi uieams anu that
his theoiies of uieam foimation anu the functions of sleep weie almost an
afteithought anu weie iiielevant to his theoiy of uieaming.
Iionically, theie is some physical eviuence foi seveial Fieuuian theoiies,
paiticulaily the iole of uieams anu the oiigin of the unconscious, which has been
pioviueu by a neuioscientist, }onathon Winson, anu uesciibeu in his book O$'%? '?&
JB6+>.P F>. O%#"#76 #@ ,>. R?+#?B+%#4B (198S). Winson pioposes a neuioscientific
theoiy to explain Fieuu's obseivations anu cites eviuence foi the unconscious,
which iepiesents the functioning of biain systems that aie fixeu eaily in chiluhoou.
Be states his hypothesis:
I believe that the phylogentically ancient mechanisms involving REN sleep,
in which memoiies, associations anu stiategies aie foimeu anu hanuleu by
the biain as a uistinct categoiy of infoimation in the piefiontal coitex anu
associateu stiuctuies, aie in fact the Fieuuian unconscious. (Winson, 198S,
p. 2u9)
Winson supplies eviuence foi his view that uieaming pioviues a time foi
piocessing the uay's events, a time when people file away new infoimation with
ielateu memoiies. Accoiuing to him, uieams seive to fix expeiiences in the minu
anu "uieaming is the biiuge between biain anu psyche" (Winson, 198S, p. 6). Be
states: "In man, uieams aie a winuow on the neuial piocess wheieby, fiom eaily
chiluhoou on, stiategies foi behavioi aie being set uown, mouifieu oi consulteu"
(Winson, 198S, p. 2u9).
Attempts to integiate psychological anu neuioscientific theoiies of uieaming
aie still in the eaily stages. As yet, theie is no compiehensive theoiy of uieaming
that takes into account both biological anu psychological aspects of behavioi. Bieam
theoiy anu ieseaich aie also in the veiy eaily phases, anu it will piobably take
seveial uecaues befoie a ieconciliation of the objective anu subjective theoiies will
occui.
CURRENT APPLICATIONS OF DREAMS IN PSYCHOTHERAPY
So fai we have uesciibeu uiffeient views of uieaming anu uiffeient methous of
uieam inteipietation to help the patient in psychotheiapy achieve self-awaieness.
Bieams have also been useu as aujuncts with othei foims of theiapy. The
combination of hypnotheiapy anu uieam analysis has been effective in
psychotheiapy. Rossi has combineu hypnosis with uieam analysis to synthesize
uiffeient aspects of peisonality. In his tape S65?#,%+ G$.'8B,
1
Rossi uemonstiates
the use of hypnosis with two inuiviuuals, Lauia anu Stanley, in helping them woik
thiough theii uieams while in a hypnotic state.
0theis have combineu uieams anu hypnosis as well. Scott (1982) states that foi
the patient in hypnoanalysis, uieam inteipietation can be helpful as anothei means
of shoitening the theiapeutic piocess, since the uieam fiankly expiesses the
patient's conflict. Aftei the theiapist gives the patient the suggestion to uieam about
the ioot of his oi hei pioblem, piinciples of iapiu uieam inteipietation aie utilizeu
in theiapy. Scott pioviues examples of how this is uone anu what the theiapist
shoulu watch foi in uieams.
Bieams have also been utilizeu in othei ways in psychotheiapy. Boweiko
(1982) has shown how iational emotive theiapy can be useu in woiking with
uieams. Be believes that the uieamei's contact with ieality, although uecieaseu, is
still existent in the uieam state. The uieamei woiks on his oi hei pioblems uuiing
the uieam in an alteieu state of consciousness in which the uemanus of ieality aie
not as piessing. Boweiko uemonstiates how the themes of humiliation anu iejection
in the uieams of uepiesseu patients ieinfoice the uepiession. The patient can leain

1
Rossi, E. Bypnotic Bieams, piesenteu at the 198S Inteinational Congiess on Eiicksonian
appioaches to Bypnosis anu Psychotheiapy, in Phoenix, Aiizona. Available at the Nilton B. Eiickson
Founuation, Inc., S6u6 Noith 24th Stieet, Phoenix, Aiizona, 8Su16.
to biing the uieam expeiience unuei the focus of a cognitively oiienteu piocess anu
challenge his oi hei uepiessive cognitions.
Bimelstein (1984) has also useu the uieam content in a novel way in
psychotheiapy. Be uiscusses the ielationship of the symbolic content of uieams to
psychoanalytic anu uestalt theoiies of uieam analysis. Be asseits that the value of
the uieam in psychotheiapy may not necessaiily be the mateiial that is uncoveieu,
but that the uieam content may seive as a stimulus foi the piouuction of clinically
impoitant mateiial that may be of value in a paiticulai theiapeutic situation.
Like Bimelstein, Weiman (1978) ielates uses of uieams othei than the
uevelopment of self-awaieness in patients. Be uistinguishes between
psychoanalysis anu psychotheiapy in teims of the uimensions of uepth of
exploiation, fiequency of visits, anu uuiation of tieatment. Psychoanalysis is
insight-oiienteu theiapy, with uieams functioning to biing awaieness of conflicts.
Psychotheiapy is seen as having a suppoitive function, anu uieams, if useu at all,
also seive suppoitive functions. Weiman states that uieams pioviue mateiial on
thiee aieas: uniesolveu chiluhoou conflicts, the cuiient life situation, anu the
theiapeutic situation. The theiapist's inteipietation to the patient can incluue any
oi all thiee of these aieas. What the theiapist communicates to the patient about the
uieam shoulu be ielateu to the context of the paiticulai patient's psychological life
at the time. The theiapist neeus to assess the patient's emotional state befoie
offeiing an inteipietation. It woulu be unpiouuctive to make inteipietations
unielateu to conscious conceins, since this may elicit iage, anxiety, oi guilt on the
pait of the patient. 0nlike inteipietations in psychoanalysis that attempt to piouuce
insight by uncoveiing iepiesseu mateiial, inteipietations in suppoitive
psychotheiapy attempt to foitify ego uefenses oi stiengthen the theiapist-patient
ielationship.
Nillei, Stinson, anu Sopei (1982) also uiscuss the use of uieams in nonanalytic
psychotheiapy. They stiess the impoitance of uieam uiscussions within a
counseling fiamewoik anu the implications foi counselois using uieams. They state
that uieams can be useu as an auuitional avenue foi setting up anu maintaining
theiapeutic contact with clients. They view uieams as anothei moue of inteiaction
in theiapy, similai to ait, music, wiiting, quotations, photogiaphs anu poitiaits,
stating: "It is iecommenueu heie that counselois consiuei seiiously anothei moue
of inteiaction: uieam uiscussions" (Nillei, Stinson & Sopei, 1982, p. 144). They
suggest specific uieam questions anu techniques foi the counseloi who woulu like
to make maximum use of uieams in counseling. The twelve uieam questions they
suggest incluue, "What in the uieam uoes not fit with youi eveiyuay expeiience.";
"Bow uiu the uieam enu."; anu "What uoes this uieam tell me about you." The
questions aie piimaiily focuseu on the client's inteipietation of the uieam anu his
oi hei ieactions anu feelings about it. 0nlike psychoanalytic inteipietations, the
questions focus on the piesent, anu the counseloi is not cast into the iole of the all-
knowing expeit.
Neiiill anu Caiy (197S) also uiscuss the use of uieams to focus on piesent
conflicts. They exploieu the effectiveness of uieam analysis in biief psychotheiapy
with college stuuents. Bieams helpeu eluciuate ieality pioblems foi stuuents who
weie geneially iesistant to self-exploiation. Bieam inteipietations in this case weie
baseu on ieauily assimilateu anu cuiiently meaningful expeiience. Inteipietation of
the cuiient significant conflicts incieaseu paiticipation in psychotheiapy anu helpeu
stuuents paiticipate actively in theiapy.
Bieam analysis has also been useu in sex theiapy. Levay anu Weissbeig (1979)
state that uieams can pioviue an unueistanuing of unconscious factois that can
cause anu maintain sexual uysfunction anu inteifeie with tieatment. They note that
by combining sex theiapy with uieam analysis, tieatment is moie likely to be
successful anu completeu in less time than by eithei sex theiapy oi uieam analysis
alone. They use seveial examples to illustiate the inteipietive use of uieams in sex
theiapy.
Bieam analysis has also been useu in gioup settings. 0llman anu Zimmeiman
uesciibe how to woik with uieams in gioups in theii book 3#$=%?7 D%,> G$.'8B
(1979). In theii woik, paiticipants ielate theii uieams in a gioup setting, anu othei
gioup membeis pioject to the uieam as though it weie theii own. This helps the
uieamei integiate his oi hei uieam expeiience with the help of otheis. 0llman anu
Zimmeiman uiffeientiate between theii uieam-appieciation gioups anu gioup
psychotheiapy. Wheieas the emphasis in gioup psychotheiapy is on the
inteipeisonal ielationships between gioup membeis, in the uieam-appieciation
gioups, the focus is on the ielation of the uieamei to the uieam. 0llman anu
Zimmeiman uesciibe theii piocess of woiking with uieams as having foui uistinct
stages, thiee within the gioup anu a fouith one latei when the gioup finishes the
uieam woik. In the fiist stage, the uieamei ielates a uieam to the gioup. In the
seconu stage, gioup membeis make the uieam theii own, stating what feelings it
evokes in them anu associating to the symbols. The uieamei is fully in contiol of the
uieam at all times, in that he oi she meiely listens anu is fiee to accept oi ieject
what is saiu. In the thiiu stage, the uieam is given back to the uieamei, who shaies
his oi hei ieactions. Then the gioup asks the uieamei questions to help him oi hei
ieconstiuct the life context leauing to the uieam. Aftei the gioup woik is ovei, the
uieamei is encouiageu to look at the uieam alone. This constitutes the fouith stage.
0llman anu Zimmeiman stiess the impoitance of having the uieamei feel safe in a
gioup enviionment anu completely in contiol of how much to ieveal.
Seveial authois have uemonstiateu the use of uieams in family anu maiital
theiapy. Peilmuttei anu Babineau (198S) uesciibe the utilization of uieams within
the context of couples' theiapy. Theii appioach stiesses the inteipeisonal aspects of
couples shaiing uieams with each othei. When a spouse shaies a uieam in conjoint
theiapy, it becomes a significant moment in which unconscious communication
between the couple becomes manifest. Peilmuttei anu Babineau suggest that
theiapy can be moie effective when the inteipeisonal uimensions of a uieam, iathei
than its intiapsychic ones, aie highlighteu. Ciiincione, Bait, Kaile, anu Switzei also
uesciibe the use of uieams in maiital anu family theiapy. Rathei than focusing on
the content of uieams, they piesent a piocess-baseu methou foi using uieams as an
aujunct to conjoint theiapy. Bieams aie vieweu as pictuies of feelings anu as guiues
to the uynamics opeiating within each family membei.
Bynum (198u) also emphasizes a piocess iathei than a content oiientation in
using uieams in family theiapy. In this appioach, family membeis shaie anu actively
paiticipate in the shaieu uieams of each othei at vaiious levels. Bynum asseits that
the uieams of families in anu out of theiapy ieflect the majoi emotional issues of
that family. Be has family membeis keep a uieam log anu shaie theii uieams with
each othei, believing that uieams cleaily ieflect family alliances anu biing out
shaieu family myths. The piocess of shaiing these uieams with othei family
membeis geneially leaus to moie uiffeientiation within the family. Bynum suggests
seveial techniques in woiking with uieams, incluuing contiasting anu compaiing
uieams of uiffeient family membeis oi having each peison say what the uieam
means foi him. Bynum states in conclusion: "The uieam is the piimaiy piocess
moue anu closei to the heaitbeat of the family" (Bynum, 198u, p. 2Su).
Bieams have also been useu to uiagnose anu tieat psychosomatic illness.
Biesslei anu Niziachi (1978a; 1978b) uesciibe how a single uieam can be a useful
uiagnostic tool foi the piimaiy physician in woiking with psychosomatic patients.
They uiscuss the use of uieam inteipietation by physicians woiking with asthmatic
patients. They pioviue examples of how uieams, accompanieu by the patient's
histoiy, incluuing all psychosomatic illnesses, may be useful both in uiagnosis anu in
biief suppoitive psychotheiapy. This makes the use of uieams valuable not only foi
the psychotheiapist, but foi othei piactitioneis who aie uealing with the unueilying
emotional aspects of uisease. The ielationship of uieams to the foimation of
psychosomatic illness has also been uiscusseu by Waines (1982), who uses clinical
vignettes to uemonstiate anu illustiate that ielationship. That uieams can coiielate
with anu ieflect bouily states has been amplifieu by Ainolu Ninuell in his book
G$.'8-#&6 (1982). Be uemonstiates how uieam inteipietation can eniich anu
claiify the meaning of physical symptoms. In uieambouy woik, uieams appeai as
pictuies of bouily piocesses that aie occuiiing at the piesent. The uieamei
expeiiences how uieams aie intimately connecteu to bouy pioblems. Ninuell
uemonstiates the use of bouywoik to solve these pioblems.
0thei innovative uses of uieams have been utilizeu in woiking with chiluien.
Elyse }acobs (1982) uesciibes the Bieam Theatie as an ait foim woiking fiom
chiluien's uieams. Small gioups of chiluien, ages S to 12, meeting once oi twice
weekly foi eight sessions, fiist uiaw theii uieam allies, uieam beings who have
pioveu helpful. Then they shaie theii uieams anu cieate puppets of theii allies. The
chiluien then woik with a theme, thinking about it befoie sleeping as well as
visualizing theii ally. They tiy to captuie these images while uieaming, anu latei
biing these to the classioom wheie they use both theii puppets anu othei chiluien
to act out the uieam. The chiluien aie also instiucteu to change theii uieams in class
anu latei in theii sleep. The cieation of an ally helps the chilu uevelop that helpful
pait of his oi hei own psyche anu ueal with night feais.
In hei book L#4$ Q>%"&CB G$.'8B (1984), Patiicia uaifielu also uiscusses the use
of uieams with chiluien to help them cope moie auaptively. She feels that the
themes of chiluhoou uieams uevelop into those of auult uieams anu that we can
uiiect chiluien to take moie contiol of theii uieams. In hei stuuy of 288 uieams of
12u chiluien, she founu that the majoiity of chiluien's uieams hau "bau uieam"
themes. She woikeu out seven piinciples to move chiluien into "happy uieaming,"
methous that help the chilu ueal with the hostile figuies in his oi hei uieam. She
teaches chiluien the piocess of "ieuieaming"fantasizing a uiffeient enuing to a
uieamas a methou to help them leain uiffeient ways of coping. She also teaches
them to use uieam allies to theii auvantage.
}okipaltio (1982) also uiscusses woiking with chiluien's uieams. She states that
while chiluien may have wish-fulfillment uieams, many of theii uieams aie moie
complicateu. She contenus that chiluien have moie anxiety uieams than auults anu
that they tell these uieams moie often than they uo pleasant ones. She also thinks
that a chilu's uieam involves the same uistoitions as an auult's. }okipaltio uesciibes
how uieams of chiluien help illuminate aspects of psychotheiapy. She illustiates the
case of a S-yeai-olu giil whose uieams involveu elements of tiansfeience.
The use of uieams to eluciuate tiansfeience anu counteitiansfeience ieactions
in theiapy has also been emphasizeu as one of the uses of uieams foi the theiapist
anu client. Naitin (1982) uiscusses the implications of uieams in which the analyst
appeais unuisguiseu. Be uesciibes the ways in which the feais anu neeus of patients
expiess themselves in uieams anu how the analyst can unueistanu anu inteipiet the
uieams. }. A. Ball (1984) also pioviues examples of how the uieams of theiapists
anu patients can be helpful in stabilizing the tiansfeiencecounteitiansfeience
situation. Similaily, Speio (1984) illustiates the use of uieams in helping the analyst
ueal with his oi hei own feelings towaiu patients. Be uiscusses his own
counteitiansfeience uieam, which helpeu claiify feelings that may have iemaineu
hiuuen anu which aiueu in uealing with conflicts.
Similai to theii iole in eluciuating tiansfeience anu counteitiansfeience
ieactions, uieams have also been useu to help supeivisees claiify theii feelings
about theii supeivisois. Langs (1982) uiscusses the hypothesis that uieams
iepoiteu to supeivisois by theii psychoanalytic stuuent supeivisees contain the
supeivisee's unconscious peiceptions anu piojections about the supeivisoi anu the
theiapeutic techniques. Langs piesents a mouel of supeivision that uses latent anu
manifest uieam mateiial, illustiateu by uieams iepoiteu by supeivisees. Langs
makes it cleai that he uoes not imply that supeivisois shoulu iequest fiom theii
supeivisees the iepoits of uieams. Bowevei, when these uieams aie spontaneously
iepoiteu, it is geneially at a time of supeivisoiy ciisis. Langs suggests that
supeivisees iepoit theii uieams to theii supeivisois "as a means of conveying
highly significant peiceptions anu fantasies that aie eithei entiiely iepiesseu within
the supeivisee, oi too uangeious to communicate uiiectly in supeivision'' (Langs,
1982, p. S94). Accoiuing to Langs, the supeivisoi shoulu make an effoit to
unueistanu what the uieam is stating about the ielationship, seaiching the uieam
not only foi the supeivisee's uifficulties, but also foi possible counteitiansfeience
anu mistakes on his oi hei pait. In this way, the uieam may be an auaptive way to
ueal with a tieatment oi supeivisoiy ciisis.
CONCLUSION
The uses of uieams in clinical piactice have been vaiieu anu not limiteu to any
theoietical oiientation. In auuition to facilitating insight in psychotheiapy, uieams
have also been useu in systems appioaches wheie the content has not been as
impoitant as the piocess. Bieams have been useu as aujuncts to othei methous in
theiapy, anu the combination of uieams with othei tools has geneially been
consiueieu effective.

!"#$%&' )
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!"#$%&'%()*+#
Although theie aie many theoiies iegaiuing the functions of uieams, the
expeiimental liteiatuie on uieams anu theii uses in psychotheiapy have been veiy
spaise. Theie appeai to be seveial ieasons foi this. The investigation of
psychotheiapeutic effectiveness is a complex one, anu outcome stuuies aie fiaught
with uifficulties (uolustein & Bean, 1966). In auuition to all of the pioblems
associateu with psychotheiapy ieseaich, stuuies on uieams also piesent pioblems
of theii own. Webb anu Caitwiight (1978), in theii ieview of the status of uieam
ieseaich, cite two geneial explanations foi the paucity of uieam stuuies. 0ne is the
attituue that uieams, being unobseivable, cannot be stuuieu by the methous that aie
piopei to the stuuy of psychology. Anothei ieason foi the limiteu ieseaich in the
aiea is a piactical one. The woiking conuitions unuei which uieams aie collecteu
aie uifficult ones, as expeiimenteis must gathei theii uata at night while theii
subjects aie sleeping. A gieat ueal of effoit is iequiieu in oiuei to obtain iesults
fiom even one subject. This has geneially iesulteu in small N stuuies, with veiy few
attempts at ieplication. In auuition, the natuie of uieams makes it uifficult to caiiy
out manipulative stuuies. The combination of pioblems associateu with
psychotheiapy ieseaich anu uieam ieseaich has iesulteu in veiy few contiolleu
stuuies on the effectiveness of uieams in psychotheiapy. Nost of the existing stuuies
have been uesciiptions of cases, anu few ieseaicheis have attempteu to
systematically assess the valiuity of uieam theoiies oi theii clinical effectiveness
unuei contiolleu conuitions. This chaptei will ieview some applications of uieam
ieseaich to uieam analysis.
The impetus foi uieam ieseaich began with an impoitant uiscoveiy by
Aseiinsky anu Kleitman (19SS) of iapiu eye movements uuiing sleep. Bement anu
Kleitman (19S7a; 19S7b) then conuucteu a numbei of expeiiments wheie subjects
weie awakeneu uuiing vaiious phases of sleep. They founu that subjects awakeneu
uuiing iapiu eye movements hau a high inciuence of uieam iecall. Baving
establisheu a physiological basis of uieaming, the ieseaicheis have founu that
uieaming occuis at iegulai inteivals, with an aveiage of foui oi five uieams pei
night. Kleitman's anu Bement's iesults have been confiimeu by othei stuuies, all of
them showing that the REN (iapiu eye movement) peiiou is one in which subjects
iecall uieams. REN sleep has also been iefeiieu to as the B state foi uieaming. Latei
stuuies have shown that uieaming also occuis in non-REN peiious (Foulkes, 1962;
Rechtschaffen, veiuone, & Wheaton, 196S). These mental phenomena aie less viviu,
visual, oi intense anu moie conceineu with cuiient events. The uemonstiation of
uieams in the laboiatoiy has been impoitant, paiticulaily in uispelling the myth
that not eveiyone uieams.
Wheieas theie has been much ieseaich on the physiology of uieaming, stuuies
on the psychology of uieaming have been less fiequent. The meaning of uieams is
uifficult to stuuy, since only the manifest content of uieams is open to expeiimental
investigation. Stuuies on psychological aspects of uieams have geneially taken
seveial foims. 0ne line of investigation has been to stuuy the extent to which
uieams aie a miiioi of peisonality anu waking expeiiences. In these stuuies, uieams
anu waking expeiiences aie coiielateu to assess to what extent uieam
chaiacteiistics ieflect waking conceins. A seconu line of investigation is to
specifically manipulate piesleep conuitions anu stuuy theii effect on the uieams. A
thiiu ieseaich methou has been to manipulate the uieam anu stuuy its effects on
subsequent waking behavioi. Stuuies have also been conuucteu to assess ceitain
hypotheses oi aspects of psychological theoiies, anu some ieseaicheis have
uevelopeu specific methouologies foi the measuiement of uieams. 0nly a few
stuuies aie iepoiteu on the effectiveness of uieams in psychotheiapy. Nuch of the
liteiatuie on this topic is anecuotal, baseu on a few cases, with few contiolleu
stuuies in this aiea. Some of the stuuies anu finuings on uieams anu theii
psychological significance will be ievieweu.
DREAMS AS REFLECTIONS OF PERSONALITY
To what extent uo uieams miiioi the uieamei's waking peisonality anu
expeiiences. This is a uifficult question to answei, since only the manifest content of
a uieam can be investigateu expeiimentally. 0ne of the pioneeis who attempteu to
stuuy this question scientifically was Calvin Ball (1947), who uesciibeu his methou
of stuuying uieams. Ball stateu that the uieam has two chaiacteiistics that make it
possible to be investigateu scientifically. Fiist, it is a peisonal uocument, anu seconu,
it is a piojection. Be wiote, "In oui opinion, the uieam is moie puiely peisonal anu
moie puiely piojecteu than any othei mateiial which the psychologist has available
foi the stuuy of peisonality" (Ball, 1947, p. 68). Ball felt that the majoi pioblem with
psychoanalytic wiitings was that they uiu not meet the stanuaius of the scientific
methou. Nost of this woik was anecuotal anu faileu to iecognize the impoitance of
contiol oi statistical analysis of uata. Ball thus set out to make a scientific stuuy of
uieams foi the puipose of establishing the inteipietation of uieams as a valiu
methou foi uiagnosing peisonality. Be collecteu anu stuuieu 1u,uuu uieams of
noimal people thiough what he teimeu the "uieam seiies" methou. Bieam seiies
weie collecteu fiom college stuuents in psychology classes. Following two suiveys
wheie stuuents iecoiueu theii uieams eithei in the classioom oi uiiectly upon
awakening, Ball ueviseu a stanuaiuizeu foim foi iecoiuing uieams. Aftei the
uieams weie collecteu, they weie then coueu in oiuei to conceal the uieamei's
iuentity. This was uone both to help stuuents iepoit uieams of a highly peisonal
natuie anu to pievent infoimation about the uieam that hau been obtaineu fiom
othei souices fiom influencing the inteipietation of the uieam seiies. (The teims
B.$%.B anu +6+". iefei to the uieams iepoiteu by an inuiviuual.) The thiiu step was
the analysis anu inteipietation of the uieam seiies. This step was the most
pioblematic, since a uieam can be inteipieteu in uiffeient ways uepenuing upon the
inteipietei's theoiy. Ball vieweu uieams as piojections of the peison's innei
uynamics, which iepiesent attempts to iesolve his oi hei cuiient conflicts. Ball felt
that a single uieam coulu not be piopeily analyzeu unless the inteipietei hau a
gieat ueal of knowleuge about the uieamei. Bowevei, if it is necessaiy to know the
peison's uynamics befoie unueistanuing the uieam, of what value is uieam
inteipietation. To oveicome this uilemma, Ball substituteu the analysis of a uieam
cycle foi the analysis of a single uieam. The uieams of a cycle aie stuuieu to look foi
majoi conflicts, anu othei uieams of the seiies aie sciutinizeu foi signs of the same
conflict. 0sually one uieam, the spotlight uieam, will highlight this conflict moie
than otheis. If a numbei of uieams of the same inuiviuual aie consistent with the
same inteipietation, that inteipietation is felt to be valiuateu. If the inteipietation
of the spotlight uieam is not suppoiteu by othei uieams, then anothei hypothesis is
foimeu anu testeu out in the same mannei, by applying it to othei uieams. The
inuiviuual uieams aie then fitteu togethei by testing one hypothesis aftei anothei
until a coheient anu meaningful inteipietation is obtaineu. Ball pioviues seveial
illustiations of this methou, which is useu to attain a uiagnosis of the uieamei's
innei conflicts without any othei uata than the uieam seiies. In othei woius, the
meaning of the uieam is founu within the uieam itself. Bow valiu is this methou of
inteipietation. Ball uiscusses the valiuation of uieam analysis by the methous of
social agieement, inteinal agieement, exteinal agieement, agieement with the
futuie, anu agieement with the past anu piesents eviuence foi the valiuity of uieam
analysis obtaineu fiom the application of seveial of these methous.
In 19SS, Ball publisheu the iesults of his woik in his book F>. N.'?%?7 #@
G$.'8B. Aftei stuuying the uieams of thousanus of people using the uieam seiies
methou, Ball attempteu to classify what people uieam about. Bis fiist methou of
classification was fouifolu, consisting of settings, chaiacteis, actions, anu emotions.
Biiefly, he founu that most uieam settings aie familiai anu commonplace, such as a
house, a stieet, oi a cai. People uieam of iecieational settings moie than woik
settings. The scaicity of woik settings leu Ball to suggest that people uisplay an
aveision to woik anu a liking foi play in theii uieams. The people that aie uieameu
about aie usually those with whom the uieamei is emotionally involveu. People
iaiely uieam about piominent figuies but geneially about people who aie
associateu in some way with theii peisonal conflicts. The actions in uieams aie
vaiieu, with the laigest class of actions peifoimeu by the uieamei involving
movement, incluuing all changes in location, whethei by walking, iiuing, climbing,
oi falling. Passive activities such as talking oi sitting aie common in uieams as well,
with women being moie passive than males. The emotions expeiienceu in uieams
aie also vaiieu, with unpleasant emotions of feai, angei, anu sauness being twice as
fiequent as pleasant ones of joy oi happiness. Ball founu that uieaming on the
whole is not a pleasuiable pastime.
Fiom his finuings, Ball concluueu that the uieam is not a mysteiious
phenomena but a pictuie of what the minu is thinking. The uieam ieveals in a cleai,
economical mannei the uieamei's piesent conflicts iathei than long-iepiesseu
sexual wishes. The analysis of uieam content ieveals that, as a whole, the uieamei is
conceineu with him- oi heiself, the people he oi she is uiiectly involveu with, anu
innei conflicts. Ball uiu not feel that uieams weie intenueu to uisguise anu iejecteu
the ieuuction of all symbols to sexual ones. Be believeu that theie aie many symbols
foi the same iefeient, anu an inuiviuual's iuea of the symbol must be iuentical with
his oi hei iuea of the iefeient. Ball's finuings suppoiteu the notion of the
inuiviuuality of symbols.
Fiom his finuings, Ball concluueu that uieams aie not esoteiic oi mysteiious
but simply piojecteu pictuies of people's thoughts, wiiting:
Anyone who can look at a pictuie anu say what it means ought to be able to
look at his uieam pictuies anu say what they mean. The meaning of a uieam
will not be founu in some theoiy about uieams; it is iight theie in the uieam
itself. (Ball, 19SS, p. 8S)
In latei yeais, Ball iefineu his methou of analyzing uieam content, uesciibing it
in his book F>. Q#?,.?, E?'"6B%B #@ G$.'8B (Ball & van ue Castle, 1966). The main
contiibution of Ball anu van ue Castle was a methouological one, in that they
piesenteu a compiehensive system of classifying anu scoiing uieams. The authois
also pioviueu noimative mateiial baseu upon 1,uuu uieams, as well as examples of
scoiing a uieam seiies.
Like Ball, 0ffenkianz anu Rechtschaffen (196S) attempteu to stuuy the
ielationship between waking anu uieam states. They lookeu at nightly uieam
sequences of a patient in psychotheiapy on 1S uiffeient nights, uuiing which Su
uieams weie iecoiueu. They founu that uespite the high vaiiability of manifest
content, all of the uieams of a night weie conceineu with eithei the same conflict oi
with a limiteu numbei of uiffeient conflicts. They believeu that theii uata suppoiteu
the hypothesis of a paiallel between the sequence of waking behavioi anu the
activities in the uieam sequence.
Following Ball, many ieseaicheis have attempteu to investigate the ielationship
between uieams anu waking life. Theie aie many pioblems associateu with using
uieams as uepenuent vaiiables. Fiistly, only the suiface oi manifest content of
uieams is open to expeiimental investigation; aiiiving at the meaning of a uieam
woulu iequiie a thoiough knowleuge of the subject. Seconuly, theie aie many
vaiiables involveu when we speak of peisonality oi the waking state. 0ne is the
subject's long-teim tiaits, anothei is shoit-teim states such as hungei oi thiist, anu
a thiiu is the social enviionment of the laboiatoiy. All of these woulu neeu to be
isolateu to assess the extent to which they aie ieflecteu in uieams.
In spite of the pioblems associateu with this type of ieseaich, most of the
stuuies suppoit the piemise that uieams accuiately ieflect waking chaiacteiistics
anu conceins. 0ne aiea of ieseaich has been in compaiison of men's anu women's
uieams. As noteu pieviously, Ball (19SS) founu that women's uieams ieflecteu
moie passive activity than men's uieams, consistent with cultuial uiffeiences at the
time. In a latei iepoit, Ball anu Bomhoff (196S) noteu that men uieameu moie
fiequently of othei men, wheieas women uieameu moie equally of the two sexes.
They explaineu this finuing by stating that men's pioblems centei moie aiounu
othei males than they uo aiounu females anu that men weie continuing theii
conflicts in theii waking life in the uieam state. Anothei stuuy of sex uiffeiences in
uieams was conuucteu by Winget, Kiamei, anu Whitman (1972). They founu that
women's uieams have moie people, moie fiienuliness, moie emotion, moie inuooi
settings, anu moie home anu family conceins than men's uieams. Nen's uieams
weie iepoiteu to have moie aggiession anu stiiving oi achievement. Phyllis Koch-
Sheias (198S) ie-examines the uiffeiences between men's anu women's uieams in
view of the changing cultuie of women. She states that stuuies on sex uiffeiences aie
at least ten yeais olu, anu that we can expect women's uieams to change with theii
changing iole in society. As women aie woiking outsiue the house, many of the
uieam settings aie now also outsiue the home. Similaily, women aie showing moie
concein with occupational status in uieams. In auuition, iecent uieams show moie
aggiession in females, again ieflecting theii changing iole in society. These finuings
suggest that uieams focus on anu ieflect the emotional pieoccupations of waking
life.
Cultuial uiffeiences in uieams have also been stuuieu. Levine (1966) stuuieu
thiee gioups of Nigeiian school boys anu was able to pieuict the fiequency of
achievement imageiy in each gioup baseu on knowleuge of the powei system of
each sociocultuial gioup. Roll, Binton, anu ulazei (1974) stuuieu ueath themes anu
images in uieams of Anglo-Ameiicans anu Nexican-Ameiicans. They accuiately
pieuicteu the highei numbei of ueath themes in Nexican-Ameiican women who
weie tiauitional cultuie caiiieis. The sociocultuial uiffeiences in uieams suppoit
the continuity of waking anu uieaming chaiacteiistics.
Anothei aiea that has assesseu the continuity between uieaming anu waking
conceins has been in the stuuy of uepiesseu inuiviuuals (Beck & Waiu, 1961; Bauii,
1976; Kiamei, Whitman, Baluiiuge, & Lansky, 1966; Kiamei, Whitman, Baluiiuge, &
0mstein, 1968; Langs, 1966; Nillei, 1969; van ue Castle & Bolloway, 1971). These
stuuies on the whole show that uepiesseu inuiviuuals have uieams with themes of
masochism, uepenuency, helplessness, anu hopelessness, similai to theii waking
states. In auuition, the uieams aie blanu anu baiien, again consistent with theii
emotional states. These chaiacteiistics geneially pievaileu in uieams, even when
the inuiviuuals weie not acutely ill, suggesting that some of these uepiessive tiaits
may be long-stanuing in natuie.
Stuuies with uiffeient clinical gioups aie consistent with those of uepiesseu
patients. Kiamei, Whitman, Baluiiuge, anu 0mstein (197u) stuuieu the uieams of
paianoiu schizophienics eaily anu latei in theii illnesses anu founu that theie was a
similaiity between theii uieaming anu waking states. They founu that the eaily
uieams containeu stiangeis anu hau aggiessive themes. 0kuma, Sunami, Fukuma,
Takeo, anu Notoike (197u) compaieu the uieams of chionic hebephienics with
those of an age-matcheu contiol gioup. Theii finuings inuicateu that in compaiison
to the uieams of contiol subjects, the patients' uieams weie less oiganizeu anu
containeu moie uiiect sex anu negative emotions. In auuition, the uieam chaiacteis
weie less often fiienuly. These iesults suppoit the continuity between waking anu
uieam states. The waking state, in which hebephienics aie moie piimitive in theii
expiession of feelings anu impulses, is ieflecteu in the uieam state.
Anothei stuuy that suppoits the view that uieams aie expiessive of an
inuiviuual's piesent situation is that of Kiamei, Blasny, }acobs, anu Roth (1976). If
uieams aie meaningful anu expiess an inuiviuual's unique situation, then those of
one peison shoulu be uiffeientiateu fiom anothei's. The authois hau thiee juuges
soit out uieams of five noimal anu five schizophienic subjects to see if they coulu
iuentify which uieams came fiom the same peison. The juuges weie able to soit
uieams foi each peison coiiectly above chance levels anu weie even able to soit
uieams that came fiom the same night. The authois concluueu that uieams ieflect
people both in theii stable, long-stanuing tiaits anu in theii moie tempoiaiy states.
The ieseaich on the ielationship between waking anu uieam conceins suggests
that theie is a continuity between them, with uieams miiioiing waking behaviois.
In spite of the uifficulties associateu with stuuying uieams in the laboiatoiy, much
of the ieseaich in this aiea suggests that uieams uo accuiately ieflect peisonality.
THE EFFECT OF WAKING CONDITIONS ON DREAMS
To what extent aie uieams influenceu by waking conuitions. In this line of
investigation, a specific piesleep conuition is inuuceu, anu its effect on the uieam is
measuieu. 0ne uifficulty with this ieseaich paiauigm is that the expeiimentei must
have knowleuge of the meaning of the stimulus to the subject anu the subject's
symbolic language in the uieams.
Foulkes anu Rechtschaffen (1964) compaieu the effect on subsequent uieaming
of exposuie to a television westein film anu to a quietei iomantic comeuy. They
founu that this viewing maue little uiffeience on the texts of the uieams but uiu
affect theii level of excitement. They uiu finu, howevei, that the uieam content
following the moie violent westein film tenueu to be moie viviu, imaginative, anu
emotionally chaigeu than the uieam content following the quietei film.
Witkin anu Lewis (1967) elaboiateu on the ieseaich pioceuuie useu by Foulkes
anu Rechtschaffen (1964) anu uesciibeu theii methou foi stuuying the unique anu
peisonal way in which thoughts anu feelings in the waking state aie tiansfoimeu in
latei uieams. The subject unueigoes an aiousing expeiience just befoie sleeping,
anu this event then seives as the iefeience point foi stuuying tiansfoimations. By
means of a special technique, the content of the subject's ieveiie between the
piesleep expeiience anu the time of actual sleep is sometimes obtaineu. Witkin anu
Lewis uesciibeu a vaiiety of methous foi stuuying uieams following piesleep
manipulation. At the enu of eveiy sleep session, a full inquiiy is conuucteu into each
uieam, incluuing the subject's associations anu ieactions to it. Fuitheimoie, each
subject is intensively stuuieu befoie anu uuiing the expeiiment, anu this knowleuge
is supplementeu by a biogiaphical inteiview. A thoiough knowleuge of the subject is
neeueu to connect the way in which a paiticulai subject symbolizes the piesleep
event in uieams anu ielates it to his oi hei expeiience of the total expeiimental
situation anu to significant events in eveiyuay life. Witkin anu Lewis give examples
of theii methou, which combines clinical woik with laboiatoiy methous, anu
concluue,
Thus it seems possible to obtain in the laboiatoiy uieams anu enough of
theii ielevant clinical context to peimit theii stuuy in the mannei followeu
in clinical woik. Noie impoitant, oui pioceuuie makes it possible to put to
expeiimental test a numbei of concepts about uieam phenomena, some of
them in the clinical methou of uieam inteipietation. (Witkin & Lewis, 1967,
p. 2u1)
Biegei, Buntei, anu Lane (1971) collecteu uieams following ieal-life emotional
expeiiences, such as following a gioup theiapy session oi pieceuing suigeiy. They
stateu that it is necessaiy to know how each subject iesponus to the waking
situation in oiuei to see the types of uefense mechanisms the subject employs. Aftei
the subject's waking uefenses aie known, the uieams weie founu to be consistent
with his oi hei waking emotional state. Although some common elements occuiieu
acioss subjects who weie in the same situation (foi example, the act of cutting anu
of cut-out objects foi inuiviuuals unueigoing suigeiy), each subject hau a unique
way of iepiesenting his oi hei stiess. Biegei, Buntei, anu Lane's stuuy suppoits the
notion that the emotional expeiiences of waking life can influence uieams.
Anothei kinu of expeiimental manipulation of uieam content has been to
suggest to subjects that they uieam about specific topics. Belicki anu Boweis (1982)
examineu the iole of hypnotizability in uieam change. They gave 42 unueigiauuates
a hypnotic susceptibility test anu founu that hypnotic ability coiielateu significantly
with the amount of uieam change. Theii iesults suggest that piesleep instiuctions
can influence uieams.
Anothei stuuy that inuicates that peisons can contiol theii uieaming thiough
piesleep instiuctions has been conuucteu by Boyle (1984). Sixty-thiee
unueigiauuates weie auministeieu the uieam behavioi suivey scheuules foi
pleasuie anu uispleasuie the fiist anu fifteenth week of the semestei. Aftei
pioviuing one week of baseline uata, ten subjects paiticipateu in thiee 2-houi skill
sessions, anu uata weie collecteu foi 14 weeks using a uaily uieam iecoiu. In the
skill sessions, self-suggestion, cognitive iestiuctuiing, contiol expectations, anu
uieam iecoiu-keeping weie taught. In the placebo gioup, twelve subjects ieau about
uieams anu kept uaily uieam iecoius. The iemaining 41 subjects took the pie- anu
post-tieatment suivey only. The finuings suggesteu that the skill sessions weie
effective. Bieaming anu behaviois associateu with uieaming weie significantly
moie pleasuiable 12 weeks aftei the uieam inteiventions anu maintenance of a
uaily uieam iecoiu. In auuition, a 6-month follow-up showeu that the changes weie
still in effect.
These stuuies have implications foi psychotheiapy. That subjects can influence
theii uieams thiough instiuction is impoitant, as clients in theiapy aie fiequently
askeu to incubate uieams on ceitain issues. The theiapist can ask the client to
confiont anu change ceitain issues in his oi hei uieam anu woik them out. In
auuition, these stuuies also suppoit the piemise that uieams aie influenceu by
waking conuitions anu aie not simply ianuom, meaningless activity.
THE EFFECT OF DREAMS ON WAKING BEHAVIOR
What effect uo uieams have on waking behavioi. 0ne line of investigation has
been to stuuy the effect of uieam absence on subsequent waking behavioi. Bement
(196u) stuuieu the effects of uieam uepiivation on eight subjects by awakening
them at the beginning of a iapiu eye movement peiiou anu keeping them awake foi
seveial minutes befoie allowing them to go back to sleep. By awakening subjects at
the onset of eveiy REN peiiou anu continuing this pioceuuie foi seveial nights, it
was possible to biing about a 7u% ieuuction in total REN time. It was founu that
subjects began uieaming at piogiessively shoitei inteivals aftei going back to sleep
anu that moie fiequent awakenings weie necessaiy as the expeiiment pioceeueu.
The uieam uepiivation expeiiments weie uone to ueteimine whethei a peison
coulu function noimally without any uieaming. The iesults showeu that seveial
psychological uistuibances uevelopeu uuiing anu aftei these expeiiments. The
following uistuibances weie noteu: tension anu anxiety, with a majoi anxiety attack
in one subject; a biief peiiou of uepeisonalization in one subject; memoiy
uistuibances; pioblems in motoi cooiuination; uifficulties in concentiation;
iiiitability anu hostility; anu a uistuibance in time sense in one subject. Two
subjects showeu a heighteneu tenuency to piouuce tiansient hallucinations in
iesponse to photic flickei stimulation. When the subjects weie alloweu to uieam,
the psychological uistuibances uisappeaieu. None of the above uesciibeu changes
weie appaient foi contiol subjects who weie awakeneu uuiing NREN peiious.
Bement concluueu that a peison neeus a minimum amount of uieaming anu that
ueficits iesulting fiom uieam uepiivation tenu to be maue up latei. Be suggesteu
that the incipient hallucinatoiy phenomena ieflecteu an attempt to bieak thiough
the uieam cycle in spite of expeiimental effoits to suppiess it anu that one of the
functions of uieaming may be to pievent uaytime hallucinations. The uieam
uepiivation expeiiments suppoit the implications that uieaming has an auaptive
psychological function anu may even waiu off psychotic-like behavioi.
In a latei stuuy, Bement (1964) obseiveu the uevelopment of psychotic-like
behavioi in seveial subjects who weie REN uepiiveu foi 1S oi 16 continuous nights
by a combination of foiceu awakenings anu Bexeuiine auministiation on some
nights. 0ne of the subjects showeu paianoiu behavioi anu became veiy suspicious
of otheis; anothei uisplayeu behavioi that was veiy unusual foi him. These
psychological uistuibances weie moie pionounceu than in the pievious stuuies,
wheie subjects weie uieam uepiiveu foi less than a week. 0nce again, the
uistuibances uisappeaieu when the subjects weie alloweu to uieam. As in the
pievious stuuy, this suggests that uieaming has auaptive psychological functions.
That uieams have psychological value anu may even pievent uaytime
hallucinations is inuiiectly suppoiteu by stuuies on REN uepiivation with
schizophienics. What happens when actively hallucinating inuiviuuals aie uepiiveu
of REN sleep. Zaicone, uulevich, Pivik, anu Bement (1968) founu that patients who
aie actively hallucinating uuiing waking uo not make up foi the loss of REN time.
uillin anu Wyatt (197S) uieam-uepiiveu schizophienic patients with contiol
patients who hau othei uiagnoses foi two nights each. 0nlike the contiol patients,
schizophienics neeueu fewei awakenings, showeu no inciease in awakenings fiom
the fiist night to the seconu night anu no REN iebounu on theii iecoveiy nights of
uninteiiupteu sleep. These stuuies inuiiectly lenu suppoit to the iuea that uieams
oi night hallucinations may seive the function of pieventing uay hallucinations.
0thei stuuies have suppoiteu the auaptive functions of uieaming. uieenbeig,
Pillaiu, anu Peailman (1972) founu that when REN sleep is intact, subjects hanule
situations that weie pieviously stiessful with less upset than aftei a night of REN-
uepiiveu sleep. Similaily, Caitwiight (1974a), who attempteu to stuuy the effects of
uieaming on pioblem solving, iepoiteu that pioblems aie hanuleu moie iealistically
the next moining when REN sleep iemains intact. Lewin anu ulaubman (197S)
showeu that subjects scoie highei on tests of cieative thinking following REN-
piesent sleep than aftei REN-absent sleep.
Two stuuies by Fiss also lenu suppoit foi the auaptive value of uieams. Fiss,
Klein, anu Shollai (1974) inteiiupteu eveiy REN peiiou aftei 1u minutes of REN
sleep in two subjects foi foui out of thiity nights in the sleep laboiatoiy. They founu
that uieam iepoits collecteu uuiing the REN inteiiuption nights weie as long as
those obtaineu uuiing the REN completion nights. The subjects appaiently maue up
foi lost uieam time even when they weie not uepiiveu of REN time. The REN
inteiiuption pioceuuie seemeu to help biing into focus the subjects' majoi
pieoccupations. The authois concluue that people may uieam in oiuei to
concentiate on what tioubles them most, peihaps to woik out some type of
solution.
In anothei stuuy, Fiss anu Litchman (1976) useu a "uieam enhancement"
pioceuuie, a methou intenueu to encouiage subjects to concentiate all theii waking
attention on uieams, on two psychiatiic inpatients foi seven nights, alteinating
between REN uieam enhancement anu NREN uieam enhancement. Results showeu
that REN uieam enhancement was significantly moie often associateu with
symptom ielief anu incieaseu self-awaieness than NREN uieam enhancement. The
finuings suggest that REN uieams help maintain anu impiove emotional well-being.
Although most stuuies suggest that inuiviuuals neeu a ceitain amount of
uieaming anu that uieams have an auaptive psychological function, theie is still a
gieat ueal of confusion about the effect of uieam absence on subsequent behavioi.
Caitwiight (1978) summaiizes these finuings in hei book E J$%8.$ #? T"..5 '?&
G$.'8%?7, citing eviuence of positive waking changes in uepiesseu inuiviuuals
following REN ieuuction.
We must think about the kinu of peisonality stiuctuie involveu, the level of
uepiivation, anu wheie the effects will be testeu: on the immeuiate sleep, the
following waking, oi on the next uninteiiupteu sleep. The sleep anu
uieaming ueficits may be compensateu foi togethei oi sepaiately, anu the
effects may be obstiuctive, uestiuctive, neutial, oi absent. All of these seem
possible. (Caitwiight, 1978, p. 9S)
In summaiy, stuuies of the effects of uieams on waking behavioi suggest that in
geneial most inuiviuuals iequiie a ceitain amount of uieaming anu tenu to make it
up when they aie uepiiveu of it. Bieam uepiivation can iesult in moueiate to
seiious psychological uistuibances, which aie usually coiiecteu when the peison is
alloweu to uieam again. These stuuies, as well as those that show that actively
hallucinating patients uo not make up foi the loss of REN time when uepiiveu of it,
suggest a ielationship between uay anu night hallucinations anu that one of the
functions of uieaming may be to pievent waking uistuibances. 0thei ieseaich also
suppoits the auaptive function of uieams. Bowevei, the issue is still a complex one,
anu fuithei ieseaich on the effects of uieaming on waking behavioi neeus to focus
on the peisonality stiuctuie, the amount of uepiivation, anu the specific type of
effects of uieam uepiivation.
EXPERIMENTAL STUDIES OF PSYCHOLOGICAL THEORIES
Nost of the investigations on uieaming have been of an exploiatoiy natuie, with
veiy little ieseaich focuseu on the testing of specific theoiies oi hypotheses
geneiateu fiom theoiies of uieaming. As noteu pieviously, uieam theoiies have
emphasizeu seveial functions of uieams, incluuing wish fulfillment of foibiuuen
impulses, cathaisis, assimilation of anxiety, pievention of psychological
uistuibances, infoimation piocessing, anu integiation of uiffeient aspects of
peisonality. Nost of these hypotheses have not been testeu in the laboiatoiy, anu
the few stuuies we have only inuiiectly lenu suppoit to some of these hypotheses.
Tiosman (196S) attempteu to integiate uieam ieseaich with the psychoanalytic
theoiy of uieams. Be examineu foui basic concepts of Fieuuian uieam theoiy unuei
the light of expeiimental finuings. Fieuu's concept of the uieam as the guaiuian of
sleep is inconsistent with physiological eviuence that theie is no uieaming uuiing
the ueep sleep of much of the night anu that uieams occui uuiing light sleep anu the
waking up piocess. Fieuu's assumption of the sleep-pieseiving function of uieams
is unnecessaiy to his theoiy of uieaming, howevei, anu as noteu pieviously, is
almost an afteithought to the funuamental concepts of his theoiy. Fieuu's
pioposition that uieams aie an expiession of unconscious wishes is not
incompatible with the eviuence. "Neveitheless," wiites Tiosman, "the expeiimental
finuings tenu to thiow uoubt on the notion that uieaming is instigateu solely by the
piessuie iesulting fiom an upsuige of uiive eneigy seeking ielease" (Tiosman,
196S, p. S4). Fieuu's view of uieaming as a foim of iegiession towaiu the
peiceptual enu of the psychic appaiatus is again not inconsistent with expeiimental
finuings. The biggest uispaiity between the ieseaich finuings anu Fieuu's
theoietical foimulation occuis in the aiea of the uuiation of uieams. Fieuu assumeu
that uieams occuiieu instantaneously, but expeiimental finuings suggest that
uieaming occuis ovei the same peiiou of time that the action of the uieam woulu
iequiie. Again, it is impoitant to sepaiate Fieuu's theoiy of uieams fiom his theoiy
of uieaming. Tiosman ieviews the uieam uepiivation expeiiments of Bement anu
otheis, which suggest the possibility
that one may not only uieam to sleep, but peihaps also sleep to uieam.
Bieaming may be highly auaptive oi even necessaiy as a moue of uischaige
foi tension, conflicts, anu anxiety which aiise in waking life, anu, in this
sense, the impoitance of uieaming may fai exceeu the iole it plays in its
ielationship to sleep. (Tiosman, 196S, p. S6)
Schonbai (1961) conuucteu a stuuy to test Fieuu's view that when patients
foiget uieams, it is uue to iesistance. Foity-five giauuate stuuents in euucation weie
uiviueu into high- anu low-iecall gioups on the basis of fiequency of iecalleu
uieams. Contiaiy to asseitions that uieams fiom the falling asleep peiiou aie less
likely to be iemembeieu than those just befoie waking because of the long
inteivening peiiou of unconsciousness, it was founu foi both gioups that uieams
pieceuing a waking peiiou aie not bettei iemembeieu than uieams followeu by
continueu sleep. Foi the fiequent iecalleis, it was also founu that uieams aie moie
often iemembeieu as having hau emotional components than as having been
neutial anu that the feelings aie moie often unpleasant than pleasant. This was not
so foi the low-iecall gioup, who also hau significantly moie neutial uieams than the
high-iecall gioup. It appeais that emotional iathei than tempoial factois play a pait
in uieam iecall. It was concluueu that the finuings of this stuuy suppoit some of the
piopositions of Fieuuian uieam theoiy, namely, that foigetting is not acciuental, but
uue to iesistance.
Reitav (198S) ieviews some of the pioblems of uieam iecall stuuies that test
Fieuu's hypothesis of iepiession anu ciiticizes them on both methouological anu
theoietical giounus. Bis majoi theoietical concein about these stuuies has been that
they have focuseu exclusively on iepiession as a psychological uefense anu have not
lookeu at the bioauei spectium of othei uefenses. Nethouological pioblems have
incluueu using self-iepoit uiaiies to assess iecall anu not having objective measuies
of uefenses. Reitav coiiecteu some of these methouological pioblems in a stuuy of
unueigiauuates. Bis iesults pioviue cleai suppoit that psychological uefenses
account foi uieam iecall, although iepiession is not the only psychological uefense.
In auuition, uiffeient conuitions elicit uiffeient uefenses.
The majoi concept in Fieuuian theoiy, the hypothesis that the function of the
uieam is to giatify foibiuuen impulses, has not been testeu expeiimentally. Webb
anu Caitwiight (1978) cite the multiple pioblems associateu with the testing of this
hypothesis:
Fiist, the level of a foibiuuen impulse must be incieaseu anu its piesence
valiuateu without calling it to the attention of the subject. The expiession of
that impulse must be inuepenuently valiuateu as piesent in the uieams in a
way that uischaiges the tension associateu with its builu-up. With all of
these pioblems, this hypothesis may iemain untesteu foi some time to come.
(Webb anu Caitwiight, 1978, p. 244)
The hypothesis that uieams function to assimilate anxiety so that inuiviuuals
can cope bettei in theii waking life has been testeu by uieenbeig, Pillaiu, anu
Peailman (1972) anu uiiesei, uieenbeig, anu Baiiison (1972). Theii finuings
suppoit the auaptive value of uieams anu suggest that when uieaming is intact in
noimal peisons, they aie able to face emotionally upsetting waking situations moie
uiiectly anu calmly than when equal peiious of non-REN sleep oi waking aie
inseiteu.
Anothei stuuy that suppoits the hypothesis that one function of uieams is to
woik thiough anxiety-piouucing situations is a stuuy of thiee gioups of piegnant
women (Winget & Kapp, 1972). Those who hau the most uieams on chilubiith hau
the least piolongeu laboi. Women who ueliveieu theii babies in less than 1u houis
hau anxiety in ovei 8u peicent of theii uieam iepoits, wheieas women whose laboi
lasteu longei than 2u houis showeu anxiety in theii uieams only 2S peicent of the
time. Women whose anxiety uieam iepoits weie between these two extiemes hau
an aveiage length of laboi. It appeais that the moie the woman expeiiences the
anxiety of chilubiith in hei uieam, the moie effective anu ielaxeu she can be uuiing
the actual ueliveiy. The finuings suppoit the auaptive value of uieams in
assimilating anxiety.
Anothei stuuy suggesting that uieams have an auaptive value in allowing the
uieamei to ueal with upsetting psychological issues was conuucteu by Caitwiight,
Lloyu, Knight, anu Tienholme (1984), who stuuieu foi six nights in the sleep
laboiatoiy the sleep anu uieam patteins of twenty-nine Su- to SS-yeai-olu females
who weie going thiough a uivoice. The subjects weie auministeieu the Beck
Bepiession Inventoiy anu uiviueu accoiuing to theii scoies on that test into a
uepiesseu gioup of 19 subjects anu a nonuepiesseu gioup of 1u subjects. The
uivoiceu subjects weie compaieu to nine nonuepiesseu maiiieu females with a
mean age of SS yeais foi whom uivoice hau nevei been consiueieu. Theie weie
obseivable uiffeiences in the uieams of the uiffeient gioups of subjects. The
uepiesseu women iaiely uealt with maiital issue in theii uieams. In auuition, while
the nonuepiesseu uivoiceu women fiequently uieameu of themselves in the iole of
wives, the uepiesseu women almost nevei uieameu of themselves in that iole. The
uepiesseu women hau less oveiall anxiety in theii uieams anu became less anxious
as the night piogiesseu. These finuings inuiiectly suppoit the view that uieams
function as safety valves that allow the uieamei to ueal with anxiety-piovoking
issues.
van Boik (1982) also pioviues inuiiect suppoit that anxiety uieams oi
nightmaies aie an attempt to cope with an emotionally lauen situation. In
attempting to answei the question of why one wakes up out of an anxiety uieam,
van Boik examineu the manifest content of suivivois of the Bolocaust anu people
who liveu in }apanese camps on }ava anu Buima in Woilu Wai II. In tiaumatic
uieams, inuiviuuals geneially woke up at the moment of the tiaumatic situation. In a
tiaumatic uieam, one often ueals with the iepetition of a past tiaumatic event.
When this tiaumatic event was one in which the peison hau no contiol ovei the
situation, the anxiety uieam comes to an enu at the veiy moment that his oi hei
typical tiaumatic situation occuis in the uieam. van Boik concluues that when an
anxiety uieam biings an enu to sleep, one can suimise that the patient was
confionteu with an insuimountable pioblem. When the patient awakens fiom the
uieam, it inuicates that he oi she is stiuggling with him- oi heiself on an
unconscious level; when theie is a ueaulock, the patient awakens fiom sleep. van
Boik's finuings anu conclusions pioviue inuiiect suppoit foi the anxiety-
assimilating functions of uieams.
The hypothesis that uieams may help inuiviuuals integiate aspects of theii
peisonalities ieceives some suppoit in a stuuy by Caitwiight (1974b) that examineu
the effects of a conscious wish on uieams. Caitwiight founu that subjects who weie
instiucteu to wish uuiing the sleep onset peiiou to change some peisonality
chaiacteiistic about which they weie conceineu moie often uieameu that they weie
enjoying the quality anu weie content to keep it as a pait of the image they hau of
themselves.
The hypothesis that uieams have an infoimation piocessing function has also
been stuuieu in the laboiatoiy. Bieaming has been uesciibeu as an infoimation
piocessing activity that functions to match new expeiience with iepiesentations of
past events alieauy stoieu in long-teim memoiy. To test this, Palombo (1984) askeu
nine S1- to S2-yeai-olu patients who iepoiteu uieams in psychotheiapy whethei
theii uieam imageiy iecalleu a specific event fiom eaily in theii lives. Foity-six of
fifty consecutively iepoiteu that theii uieams containeu imageiy that was
associateu with eaily life events. In a latei seiies of S4 uieams, subjects weie not
questioneu about the past. The same subjects spontaneously iecalleu eaily events
iepiesenteu in the uieam imageiy only 1S times. The finuings of this stuuy cannot
be integiateu with eithei psychoanalytic theoiy, which attiibutes the influence of
past expeiience on uieams to iepiesseu wishes iathei than to memoiies of actual
events, oi with a ianuom neutial stimulation theoiy.
Nethous of unueistanuing anu stuuying the language of uieams aie impoitant
in testing hypotheses about uieams. Some piogiess has been maue in this aiea with
the uevelopment of scales foi stuuying uieam content. As noteu pieviously, Ball anu
van ue Castle (1966) have ueviseu scales to analyze uieam content. These incluueu
the scoiing of emotions such as angei, appiehension, happiness, sauness anu
confusion, as well as of uesciiptive elements as coloi, size, anu intensity. Ball anu
van ue Castle also constiucteu scales to measuie theoietical concepts such as
moiality oi iegiession. The authois also ieview some scales ueviseu by otheis to
stuuy uieam content.
Kiohn (1972) uevelopeu a thematic scale foi the assessment of object
iepiesentations in the manifest content of uieams. Kiohn sees the manifest uieam
as similai to a Roischach iesponse oi an eaily memoiy. Aftei ieviewing uieams
fiom a vaiiety of souices, Kiohn founu maikeu uiffeiences in the humanness,
uiffeientiation, anu waimth of vaiious patients' uieams. Theie weie also uiffeiences
in how iich oi impoveiisheu the images weie, anu these seemeu to coiiesponu to
the extent of matuiity of the patients. Baseu on these obseivations, Kiohn uevelopeu
the 0bject Repiesentation Scale foi uieams, which assesses the uegiee to which
people aie expeiienceu as whole, consistent, anu sepaiate entities. Kiohn (1972)
anu Kiohn anu Nayman (1974) then uiu a seiies of stuuies to establish the
ieliability anu constiuct valiuity of the scale. They concluueu that the iating of
object iepiesentation on the manifest content of uieams anu eaily memoiies seems
to pioviue a puie measuie of the valiuity of the patient's object ielations.
Fuithei ieseaich is cleaily neeueu to test specific hypothesis fiom uiffeient
psychological theoiies about uieaming. The uevelopment of measuies, instiuments,
anu methous foi stuuying uieam language in a scientific mannei is a pieliminaiy
step in the testing of hypotheses.
STUDIES ON THE USE OF DREAMS IN PSYCHOTHERAPY
What aie the uses of uieams in psychotheiapy. Bow valuable is uieam analysis
in helping clients make changes. Nost of the iepoiteu ieseaich on the use of uieams
in psychotheiapy is uesciiptive anu anecuotal, taking the foim of clinical case
histoiies. Although uieams aie iepoiteu to ieflect piogiess in theiapy, no single
laboiatoiy stuuy has been uone to test this. In fact, theie has been little use of the
sleep laboiatoiy in testing aieas of application to psychotheiapy.
As an example of anecuotal liteiatuie, Naiiiott (198u) uesciibes the case of a
29-yeai-olu woman who was able to successfully oveicome an anxiety state that hau
been maintaineu foi 1S yeais. Thiough the combination of hypnosis anu subsequent
uieam woik, the woman gaineu sufficient ego stiength to ueal with the iepiesseu
emotions unueilying hei feais.
Tihansky (1982) also uiscusses the case of a S9-yeai-olu ummaiiieu woman
with a histoiy of 24 yeais of giauually piogiessive aithiitis that uiu not iesponu to
tiauitional tieatment. Bypnoanalysis anu uieam inteipietation helpeu the patient
iealize the souice of hei physical symptoms. She iecognizeu that she hau assumeu
the iuentity of hei passive mothei anu kept hei angei anu tension pent up, with a
subsequent woisening of hei physical pioblems. The insight gaineu thiough uieam
inteipietation helpeu hei expiess hei feelings moie uiiectly anu cuie heiself of the
physical symptoms.
Sailin (1984) iepoits on the use of uieams in psychotheiapy with ueaf patients.
Be piesents foui case histoiies of ueaf patients between the ages of 16 anu 4S foi
whom uieam analysis was effective. These inuiviuuals weie fiom a lowei miuule
anu lowei class clinic population with seveie psychopathology, ianging fiom
peisonality uisoiueis to acute psychotic uisoiueis. Bis finuings showeu that the
patients coulu be tiaineu to inciease theii capacities foi self-obseivation anu self-
iepoiting anu to inteipiet theii uieams meaningfully. Sailin suggests that cognitive
tiaining of these patients helpeu them gain insight into unconscious conflicts, which
iesulteu in bettei integiation of peisonality anu gieatei autonomy. It is notewoithy
that the patients in this stuuy who ueiiveu benefit fiom uieams in psychotheiapy
aie not those typically associateu with insight-oiienteu psychotheiapy oi uieam
analysis.
Nakaiic (1979) iepoits on the use of uieams with an alcoholic population,
noting that alcoholics unueigoing alcohol uepiivation often have "infantile" uieams
in which they attempt to giatify theii thiist foi alcohol. Nakaiic stuuieu uieams of
1uu alcoholic patients anu founu that 16 of the subjects hau S6 uieams of an
infantile type, wheieas the iest eithei hau auult type uieams oi coulu not iemembei
theii uieams. Nakaiic states that the infoimation obtaineu fiom uieams can have an
impoitant uiagnostic value anu can be useu togethei with othei ielevant uata to
contiibute to a moie objective analysis of the patient. Be fuithei suggests that the
uata obtaineu fiom the uieams may seive a pieventive function foi ielapse anu
suiciues.
Kaplan, Saayman, anu Fabei (1981) have suggesteu that uieams may be useful
uiagnostic inuicatois in the assessment of family pioblem solving. They examineu
the use of noctuinal uieam iepoits to uiagnose patteins of family functioning
among five families maue up of 21 people. Two families unueigoing family theiapy
compiiseu the tieatment gioup, anu thiee families uiawn up fiom a population
ianging fiom veiy uistuibeu to supeiioi functioning maue up the nontieatment
gioup. In the stuuy, the manifest content of uieams was analyzeu both
quantitatively anu qualitatively. The uieam ieseaichei was blinu to the case histoiy,
piesenting pioblem, oi piogiess in theiapy; similaily, the uieam content anu the
uieam analysis weie unknown to the family theiapist. Each family was iateu
inuepenuently by the theiapist anu the uieam ieseaichei. The iesults showeu
impiessive agieement between the two assessments, anu pioblem aieas, family
tiansactions, anu tieatment outcome weie coiiectly iuentifieu by the uieam
ieseaichei. The authois concluue that uieam content analysis ieflects the pioblem
aieas encounteieu by a family system, anu they emphasize the uiagnostic value of
uieams in family theiapy.
0thei authois have stiesseu the value of uieams in ieflecting the patient's
piogiess in theiapy anu signaling the neeu foi teimination. Cavenai anu Nash
(1976) piesenteu foui cases to uemonstiate the value of uieams in signaling the
time foi teimination in psychotheiapy. Accoiuing to them, uieams can signal that
the paiameteis of teimination have been met. These incluue stiuctuial changes in
uieams, impiovement of ego functioning, iesolution of tiansfeience neuiosis, anu
the absence of maikeu counteitiansfeience uifficulties. In a latei aiticle, Cavenai
anu Spauluing (1978) pioviue two fuithei illustiations of how uieams that signal
teimination can occui in theiapy.
All of the pievious stuuies have been uesciiptive, anu none has maue use of the
sleep laboiatoiy. 0f couise, one veiy piactical pioblem is that most
psychotheiapists uo not have ieauy access to a sleep laboiatoiy. In auuition, asking
patients in psychotheiapy to spenu seveial nights in a laboiatoiy to iecoiu theii
uieams may piesent a gieat ueal of iesistance. Whitman, Kiamei, anu Baluiiuge
(196S) have useu the sleep laboiatoiy to help them test ceitain hypotheses in
psychotheiapy. They wanteu to finu out what selection factois ueteimine which
uieams aie tolu anu which aie not in a psychotheiapeutic setting. Two subjects, one
male hospital patient anu one female volunteei giauuate stuuent, slept oveinight in
a uieam laboiatoiy twice a week foi 8 weeks. When REN activity inuicateu that the
subject was uieaming, he oi she was awakeneu aftei S minutes anu askeu to tell the
uieam anu his oi hei associations to it to the expeiimentei. Aftei the uieam night,
the subject was also inteivieweu by a psychiatiist, to whom his oi hei uieams weie
iepoiteu. The expeiimentally obtaineu uieams that hau not been ielateu to the
psychiatiist weie examineu the next uay. It was founu that uieams that containeu
an attituue which the uieamei anticipateu woulu biing a negative iesponse fiom the
psychiatiist weie not iecalleu. Foi the male patient, these consisteu of homosexual
feelings; foi the female subject, these initially involveu sexuality anu latei a uenial of
uepenuency. The uynamic thematic content of the uieams appaiently influenceu
which ones weie iecalleu, suggesting that the uieamei at some level knows the
meaning of his oi hei uieam.
0ne of the few stuuies iepoiting the effects of psychotheiapeutic events on the
contents of monitoieu uieams has also maue use of the sleep laboiatoiy. In Buntei
anu Biegei's stuuy (citeu in }ones, 197u), foui expeiimental subjects weie biought
togethei with a theiapist to foim a "sensitivity-theiapy" gioup, each subject seiving
as the focus of the gioup's inteipietation foi two nights in a iow. Aftei each session,
the uieams of that subject weie collecteu. Two contiol subjects on whom baseline
uieam uata weie obtaineu togethei with the expeiimental subjects unueiwent two
auuitional nights of uieam collection aftei collection of theii baseline uieams.
Bieam iepoits of the expeiimental anu contiol gioups weie then scoieu by
inuepenuent iateis. Results suggesteu that psychotheiapeutic events influenceu
uieam content. All of the uieams of the expeiimental subjects incoipoiateu othei
membeis of the gioup anu weie ielateu to the theme of the pieceuing theiapy
sessions.
Caitwiight, Tipton, anu Wicklunu (198u) aie those iaie ieseaicheis who have
uone contiolleu stuuies using the sleep laboiatoiy as an aujunct to psychotheiapy.
In attempting to tackle the high uiop-out iate in psychotheiapy, they selecteu 48
patients whom they consiueieu to be pooi iisks foi staying in tieatment. All of these
patients weie offeieu a 2-week piogiam to piepaie them foi tieatment. Sixteen of
those ueclineu anu went uiiectly into theiapy. The iemaining thiity-two subjects
weie sleep monitoieu foi 8 nights. Balf of these weie given access to theii uieams
by awakening them fiom REN sleep peiious, wheieas the othei half weie awakeneu
as often fiom non-REN sleep. Each moining, the mateiial of the night befoie was
uiscusseu with the subjects by the expeiimentei who took a nontheiapeutic iole.
The effect of these uiscussions was measuieu on the uiop-out iate, with the finuing
that those inuiviuuals who successfully ietiieveu anu uiscusseu uieams as opposeu
to mateiial othei than uieams stayeu in psychotheiapy at a significantly highei iate
anu also useu the houis in theiapy moie piouuctively.
The pievious stuuy is an example of how the sleep laboiatoiy can be useu to
test the applications of uieams to psychotheiapy. Although little systematic
ieseaich unuei contiolleu conuitions is being uone in this aiea, the incieasing anu
ieneweu inteiest in uieams will likely piompt fuithei ieseaich along this line.
CONCLUSION
Reseaich conuucteu so fai on uieams has uemonstiateu a physiological basis
foi uieaming anu has establisheu that eveiyone uieams with nightly iegulaiity. In
spite of the uifficulties associateu with conuucting uieam ieseaich to coiielate it
with psychological events, stuuies suggest that theie is a continuity between
uieaming anu waking phenomena anu that uieams ieflect waking conceins anu
styles. The ieseaich also suggests that uieams aie influenceu by waking conuitions
anu aie not just ianuom, meaningless activity. In auuition, it establishes that most
inuiviuuals iequiie a ceitain amount of uieaming anu that uieam uepiivation can
iesult in some psychological uistuibances. Nany stuuies have suppoiteu the view
that uieams have an auaptive function as well. veiy few expeiimental stuuies have
been conuucteu to test uiffeient theoiies of uieaming, anu the uevelopment of
methous anu measuies foi stuuying uieam language is neeueu to test hypotheses
fiom specific theoiies. Stuuies on the use of uieams in psychotheiapy have been
limiteu to uesciiptive anu anecuotal case histoiies foi the most pait. Few
ieseaicheis have uone contiolleu stuuies on the use of uieams in psychotheiapy
using the sleep laboiatoiy as an aujunct to psychotheiapy. The one attempt in this
aiea suggests that uieams can have an auaptive value in psychotheiapy by
pieventing uiop-outs anu involving patients in theii theiapy. Reseaich on uieams
anu psychotheiapy is still in its infancy stages at this point.
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Foi many theiapists, the teims &$.'8 '?'"6B%B anu ,>. 4?+#?B+%#4B aie geneially
associateu with Fieuuian psychoanalysis. Foi some, these woius conjuie up images
of foitune-telling anu magic. With all the iecent auvances in new methous of
changing people's behaviois, what place uo uieams have in mouein psychotheiapy.
What function can uieams seive at a time wheie theie is giowing emphasis on biief,
piactical, anu goal-oiienteu psychotheiapy with obseivable behavioi changes.
0ne of the misconceptions about uieam analysis is that it is an esoteiic piactice
limiteu only to those intellectualizeu theiapists anu clients who take uelight in
analyzing anu fiee-associating to theii uieam images. }ungian theoiy on aichetypes
ieinfoices this misconception. In ieality, uieam analysis can be one of the most
efficient tools we have in psychotheiapy. It can shoiten the amount of time spent in
theiapy iathei than piolong it, because thiough the inteipietation of uieams a
theiapist can veiy quickly get to the ciux of the client's pioblem. Bieam analysis is
also veiy piactical anu is focuseu on making behavioial changes. Following the
inteipietation of the uieam, the client is askeu how he oi she can piactically apply
what has been leaineu.
Anothei misconception is that uieam analysis anu psychoanalysis aie
synonymous. Bieams weie teimeu "the ioyal ioau to the unconscious" by Fieuu
(19Su), anu uieam inteipietation has been an impoitant pait of psychoanalytic
psychotheiapy. Bowevei, as uiscusseu in the pievious chaptei, uieams have been
utilizeu by theiapists who uo not necessaiily enuoise a psychoanalytic oiientation
(Belaney, 1979; Faiauay, 1974; uaifielu, 1974; Peils, 1969; Rossi, 1972; 0llman &
Zimmeiman, 1979). In auuition, uieam inteipietation can be combineu with any
numbei of theoietical appioaches. Following the inteipietation of a uieam, the
theiapist can use a vaiiety of techniques to apply the uieam message to uaily living.
Foi example, a client who has a uieam that highlights his oi hei lack of asseitiveness
can then engage in iole play to ieheaise uifficult asseitive situations. I have even on
occasion useu uieam analysis in conjunction with a ielatively stiuctuieu behavioial
appioach foi tieating bulimia. While the client kept a binge uiaiy of hei thoughts
anu feelings piioi to binge eating, she also iecoiueu hei uieams at the same time.
Foi example, when the client's binge eating was ielateu to hei uifficulty in
heteiosexual ielationships, she iepoiteu such thoughts as "Why uoesn't he call."
anu "Why uo I spenu so much time thinking about him.", which uiiectly pieceueu a
binge. In hei uieams, she saw men as "giants" oi "celebiities," whom she put on a
peuestal, anu heiself as a "lilliputian." Latei uieams uealt with hei ielationship with
hei fathei, which contiibuteu to hei cuiient uifficulties with men. In this case, hei
uieams auueu a ueepei uimension to tieatment anu biought out mateiial that may
not have been obtaineu otheiwise. Thus, uieam analysis is not iestiicteu to a
psychoanalytic oiientation.
Anothei misconception about uieam analysis is that its use is limiteu to biight,
veibal, intellectual clients. While it is tiue that aiticulate clients, paiticulaily those
with self-awaieness, will benefit fiom this moue of tieatment, uieam analysis can be
useu even with those clients who aie neithei veiy veibal noi psychologically
oiienteu. Foi example, uieams can be useu with both chiluien anu "acting-out"
auolescents, as well as othei client populations who aie ueemeu inappiopiiate foi
insight-oiienteu psychotheiapy.
Because of these misconceptions about uieam analysis, many theiapists have
been ieluctant to use it with theii clients. Bowevei, even clinicians who uo not shaie
these misconceptions have not utilizeu uieam inteipietation in theii piactice as
much as they coulu. The main ieason has been that theie is veiy little guiuance foi
the inteiesteu clinician on how to appioach uieam inteipietation. Theie is geneially
little foimal tiaining foi psychotheiapists in uieam analysis. It is not taught as pait
of the giauuate school cuiiiculum anu is baiely toucheu upon in piacticum couises
in psychotheiapy. Theie is also no textbook, hanubook, oi "how-to" liteiatuie that
uiscusses uieam inteipietation in a simple step-by-step fashion foi the clinician.
Nost of the books on uieam inteipietation aie eithei Fieuuian oi }ungian oi only
uesciibe inteipietation without cleaily uiscussing how it is ueiiveu. 0thei books
that may give some guiuelines aie intenueu foi a geneial iathei than a piofessional
auuience. Bieam analysis is seen as an ait by many people, anu that may be paitly
iesponsible foi the lack of explicit instiuction in analyzing uieams. Bieam analysis,
like any othei tool in psychotheiapy, is paitly an ait anu uepenus on the
intuitiveness, skill, anu expeiience of the psychotheiapist. Bowevei, like any othei
theiapeutic methou, it can be appioacheu systematically, anu with piactice, the
clinician can become moie comfoitable anu skilleu with this impoitant tool.
The oppoitunity foi uieam analysis in psychotheiapy is always theie. I
iemembei my fiist uay back at woik aftei being at a uieam analysis seminai. It
appeaieu as though all the clients I saw that uay weie uiscussing theii uieams, even
new ones who hau come foi othei ieasons. I have hau this expeiience when I have
attenueu tiaining woikshops in othei aieas. Aftei ietuining fiom a sexuality
woikshop, it appeaieu that most of my clients weie uiscussing sexual issues, even
those who hau nevei bioacheu the subject befoie. Why. Was it meiely a
coinciuence. I think not. I think clients have always talkeu about sex oi uieams oi
any othei aiea. I hau only become moie conscious of these themes anu was moie
attuneu to openings.
Bow many times, foi example, uoes a client come in, complaining about a bau
night oi bau uieams that kept him oi hei awake. Bow many times uo theiapists
"tune out" what the client is saying anu want to come to the "ieal issue". Bow often
uo theiapists ask, uiiectly oi inuiiectly, about uieams. The mateiial foi uieam
analysis is always theie, ieauy to be exploieu. All the theiapist has to uo is to be
attuneu to it, to listen foi it anu, at times, to ask foi it uiiectly, because uieaming is a
univeisal phenomenon. 3. '"" &$.'8.
With whom uoes the theiapist use uieam analysis anu when. Since all clients
uieam, a theiapist can use it with anyone who comes foi help anu wants to bettei
unueistanu him- oi heiself. Bieam theiapy can be useu all the time oi
inteimittently, uepenuing on seveial factois, incluuing the client's willingness anu
ability to uiscuss uieams, the theiapist's comfoit with uieam analysis, anu the
natuie of the pioblem. Some analysts may maintain that theie is no situation in
which uieam analysis is not ielevant, even ciises. Bowevei, each theiapist must
ueteimine on a peisonal basis how much to utilize uieam inteipietation.
In my expeiience, I have founu uieam analysis to be one of the most useful tools
in getting uiiectly to the ioot of a peison's conflicts. It has been paiticulaily helpful
with those clients who appeai to have little oi no insight into why they feel
uepiesseu oi anxious. Fiequently, people will come in foi tieatment because of
symptoms they may be having, although they maintain that eveiything in theii life
seems to be going smoothly. They tiuly have no iuea what is going on insiue them.
Bieam analysis is paiticulaily helpful foi neuiotic, iepiesseu, intellectualizeu
inuiviuuals anu "cuts thiough the gaibage" veiy quickly.
Bieam analysis is one of the most efficient ways of biinging intiapsychic
conflicts to the foiefiont. Fiequently people act in neuiotic anu self-uefeating ways
because they aie unawaie of those unconscious conflicts that aie contiibuting to
theii behaviois. Thiough the use of uieams, they can have an unueistanuing of these
unconscious conflicts anu make conscious changes baseu on this unueistanuing.
Bieam analysis can shoiten the theiapeutic piocess by helping to iuentify focal
issues eaily in tieatment.
Bieams aie an excellent souice of infoimation that can be useu to gain a
uiagnostic impiession. The uieam is often a ieliable souice of infoimation because it
is fiee fiom the conscious intent to blui the issue oi to "look goou." In auuition to
the uiagnostic application, uieams also have a theiapeutic value. Each uieam
pioviues a message foi action that the client is moie likely to act on because the
wisuom comes fiom within.
Fiequently people's uieams aie an impetus foi them to entei psychotheiapy,
even though they may not ielate that except upon uiiect inquiiy. I iecall one client I
hau seen foi psychotheiapy foi a peiiou of seveial months. It was only towaiu the
teimination of tieatment that she ielateu the oiiginal uieam that hau uiiven hei to
seek help. She uieameu that she was on a boat, ieauy to jump off. The uieam aleiteu
hei to hei suiciual tenuencies anu seiveu as a waining. She hau known about these
tenuencies on a subconscious level foi some time, but the uieam biought this
knowleuge to the foiegiounu anu pusheu hei to action. This happens moie
fiequently than we iealize because theiapists geneially uon't ask foi this kinu of
infoimation when they fiist see someone in tieatment. They ask about thoughts,
feelings, symptoms, behavioi, but seluom about uieams, which can pioviue a wealth
of infoimation.
Sometimes clients may have uieams about the neeu foi psychotheiapy without
being awaie of it, as in the case of a woman who came foi tieatment at the
insistence of hei fiienu. Linua was a capable, self-sufficient woman who hau always
hanuleu hei pioblems by heiself. In iecent months, following a tiip to hei chiluhoou
home, she hau become incieasingly uepiesseu anu coulu not unueistanu the ieason
foi hei uepiession oi why she coulu not hanule it on hei own. She was filleu with
uoubt about a uecision she hau to make anu hau finally maue up hei minu piioi to
coming in foi tieatment. She hau iesolveu the conflict in hei minu but ueciueu to
come foi one session anyway, since she hau alieauy maue an appointment. We hau a
pleasant meeting, talking about the ciisis she hau iecently expeiienceu anu about
the uecision she hau maue. She ielateu that she uiu not see a neeu foi fuithei
theiapy at this time, since she hau alieauy maue a uecision. The uooi was left open
foi hei to come at a futuie uate shoulu she want to uo so, with the suggestion that
she biing in hei uieams if anu when she came again. At this point, she ielateu a
uieam she hau hau that same moining:
: '8 $%&%?7 #? 86 -%+6+". #? ,>. D'6 -'+= @$#8 ' B#+%'" .;.?, #? ' 5',>
: >'& &$%;.? #? -.@#$.9 *? ,>. D'6 -'+=( ,>. 7$#4?& D'B #;.$,4$?.&(
'?& : @."" %? ' >#".9 3#$=8.? 5%+=.& 8. 45( -4, 86 -%+6+". D'B B,%"" %?
,>. >#".9 F>.6 D.$. 7#%?7 ,# 7., ,>. ,$#4-".UB>##,.$ ,# 7., 86 -%+6+".
#4,9 : D'B B,%"" >'?7%?7( -.%?7 >."& 45 -6 ,>. D#$=8.?9
We inteipieteu the uieam togethei. She is tiaveling on a familiai path (life),
which has always been smooth in the past, but now "the giounu is falling out fiom
unuei hei." Bei innei uiive (hei "wheels") that hau kept hei going in the past is not
functioning now. This iefeis to hei uepiession. Bei woik ("woikmen") has been
holuing hei up (she hau in fact been spenuing incieasing time at woik, which hau
been sustaining hei) until she can get a "tioubleshootei" who can help hei to get on
with life.
"What is a tioubleshootei." she was askeu.
"Someone who solves pioblems."
"Anu who woulu help you solve the pioblem of getting back on with youi life."
She smileu, "A theiapist."
The uieam was inueeu a message foi hei that she neeueu theiapy. Although she
hau outwaiuly maue a uecision anu consciously felt she hau iesolveu hei pioblem,
she hau not iesolveu the unconscious conflicts unueilying hei uecision. Linua in fact
ietuineu foi psychotheiapy a yeai latei, following a similai ciisis, again piecipitateu
by a tiip to hei chiluhoou home. The majoi moue of tieatment foi hei was uieam
analysis.
This is also an example of how inteipietation of uieams can seive as a means of
involving clients in theiapy. 0nce a uieam is inteipieteu anu clients can see how
much of the seemingly nonsensical mateiial they biing in ielates to theii cuiient
uifficulties, they will biing in moie anu moie uieams. Nany clients fiequently have a
uieam the night pieceuing a theiapy session. Fiequently, they intuitively know its
meaning.
The fiist uieam in psychotheiapy geneially ieflects the client's attituue about it,
as in this one:
: D'B ,$';."%?7 #? ' -4B ,>$#47> '"" ,>. &%@@.$.?, 5"'+.B : >'& "%;.&9 F>.
B+.?.$6 B>%@,.& '++#$&%?7 ,# ,>. &%@@.$.?, +%,%.B : >'& "%;.& %? &4$%?7 86
"%@.9 J'$,B #@ ,>. $#'& D.$. B8##,>.$ ,>'? #,>.$B9 F>.$. &%& ?#, '55.'$
,# -. '?6#?. &$%;%?7 ,>. -4B9 : 7#, ,# 86 &.B,%?',%#?( '? '$.' : >'&
?.;.$ -..? ,# -.@#$.9 : D'B ;.$6( ;.$6 ,>%$B,69
The uieam uepicteu the uieamei's life so fai, some paits of it smoothei than
otheis. The new uestination nevei exploieu befoie was psychotheiapy, anu the
uieamei was "thiisty" (eagei) foi it. The uieam also has othei components,
incluuing a bus with no uiivei. Futuie cai uieams by this client coulu seive as a
baiometei of how much she is "in the uiivei's seat."
Bieams aie like a piogiess iepoit, an inteinal baiometei of how the uieamei is
uoing, how he oi she is piogiessing thiough the path of life. People fiequently have
uieams wheie they aie uiiving some kinu of vehicle. Aie they just coasting. Aie they
going too fast. Too slow. Boes it seem like a iollei coastei at times. Aie they letting
someone else uo theii uiiving foi them. At uiffeient phases of tieatment, clients'
uieams ieflect the changes they aie making in theiapy anu suggest uiiections in
which to giow. Looking at a piogiession of uieams is watching someone's
uevelopment in psychotheiapy.
}ulia, a young, attiactive piofessional woman who hau been maiiieu foi a
numbei of yeais, enteieu theiapy when hei olu boyfiienu came back into hei life
anu wanteu hei to leave hei husbanu. She was toin with uoubt about what couise to
take, as she loveu both of them. She was askeu to have a uieam about hei uecision,
wheieupon she hau a uieam that she saw Tony, hei olu boyfiienu, weaiing a
sweatei just like the one woin by one of the most obnoxious, uevious men with
whom she woikeu. In hei uieam, she subconsciously iealizeu some of Tony's
ueviousness, which she hau not consciously acknowleugeu. Tony subsequently
confiimeu this unpleasant siue of himself in ieality. }ulia ueciueu to iemain with hei
husbanu, who was having a veiy uifficult time uealing with the situation. In hei next
uieam, }ulia uieameu that hei husbanu was going thiough an initiation ceiemony,
anu she was stanuing by his siue. This helpeu hei iealize that hei husbanu was
going thiough his own pioblems, inuepenuent of hei, anu that she neeueu to stanu
by anu help him thiough the tuimoil. Latei uieams biought out some of the souices
of stiess in hei maiital ielationship that hau maue hei vulneiable to the auvances of
an olu boyfiienu. She uieameu that she knew that an intiuuei was coming into hei
beuioom but that hei husbanu was ignoiing what was happening uespite hei calls
foi help. This helpeu hei become awaie of hei husbanu's ignoiing the situation anu
hei ciies foi help in woiking on theii maiiiage. Subsequently, she uieameu that she
hau a minoi infiaction, anu even though she hau all the iight papeis to avoiu being
punisheu, she enueu up in jail anyway. The feeling she hau upon waking fiom this
uieam was similai to the one she expeiienceu in the uieam about hei husbanu
that no mattei what she uiu iight, she woulu continue to be punisheu. }ulia's uieams
coinciueu with the stages that she was passing thiough in psychotheiapy in uealing
with hei maiital pioblems. They both ieflecteu anu illuminateu the uiffeient phases
she was expeiiencing in attempting to ueal with hei situation.
}ulia's case illustiates how uieams geneially get to the heait of the mattei fastei
anu moie uiamatically than othei methous anu save many psychotheiapy sessions.
Bieams can point the path to puisue in psychotheiapy, with each ensuing uieam
possibly inuicating a new uiiection. The theiapist can be instiumental in uiiecting
the piocess of psychotheiapy by suggesting that the client have uieams about
ceitain aieas. Fiequently, the theiapist can iemove blocks to making changes by
giving clients suggestions to have a uieam about these blocks. Foi example, clients
can be instiucteu to have a uieam about theii woist feais oi about what is blocking
them. Fiequently, clients will aiiive at an impasse in making changes. Bieam
analysis is helpful in illuminating the unconscious conflicts behinu the impasse.
When clients say they ieally uo not know oi uo not unueistanu why they aie
behaving in ceitain ways, the theiapist can ask them to have a uieam about it.
When clients aie having uifficulties in making uecisions, a uieam can be veiy
illuminating. Lauia sepaiateu fiom hei husbanu aftei many yeais of maiiiage to
help hei ueciue whethei she wanteu to iemain in the maiiiage. Bei husbanu was
piessuiing hei to ieach a uecision, anu the conflict anu ambivalence foi hei was
becoming unbeaiable. Even though she ieflecteu on this by heiself anu uiscusseu
the issues in theiapy, she coulu not come to a uecision. She was askeu to have a
uieam about hei maiiiage anu iepoiteu uieaming that she was looking at a tileu
kitchen flooi with a big hole in it. She iecalleu thinking that she coulu not just put a
patch on the hole because it woulu not fit, anu people coulu fall ovei it anu stub theii
toes. She woulu have to take out the whole flooi. The uieam was a poweiful image, a
ieminuei foi hei that she coulu not just "patch up" hei maiiiage anu go back to hei
husbanu as she hau uone foi yeais.
uina, who also sepaiateu fiom hei husbanu anu was having a uifficult time
ueciuing what to uo, hau this uieam about hei maiital ielationship:
N6 >4B-'?& '?& : '$. &$%;%?7 &#D? ' $#'&9 3. ,'=. ' &.,#4$ '?& '$. %?
,>. 8%&B, #@ B#8. B4$$.'"%B,%+( &%B,#$,.& ,$..B( D%,> '"" ,>. -$'?+>.B +4,
#@@( '"" ,>. "%@. 7#?. #4, #@ ,>.8( "%=. ,>.6 '$. #BB%@%.&9
She iecognizeu this as a poweiful image foi the ioute hei maiiiage hau taken.
She iealizeu that she anu hei husbanu hau a uistoiteu life-style anu that all the life
hau gone out of theii maiiiage.
Naisha, an attiactive young woman who was tiying to make a uecision about
whethei to iemain in hei maiiiage oi not, hau a uieam about a cat anu a mouse who
weie playing games with each othei. Bei uieam images succinctly uesciibeu hei
maiital ielationship anu the game of "cat anu mouse" that she hau been playing with
hei husbanu foi a long time.
Bieams have veiy poweiful imageiy that can encapsulate issues moie
uiamatically anu simply than woius. A uieam image can expiess an iuea in a
pictuiesque mannei, anu this image can seive as an impetus foi action. Nina hau
this uieam about hei woik:
: '8 B,'?&%?7 %? 86 #@@%+.( '?& ,>.$. %B ' 8#?7##B. $%7>, 4?&.$ 86 B=%$,9
:, =..5B %$$%,',%?7 8.( '?& : =..5 54B>%?7 %, 'D'69 :, %B ?#, $.'""6
>'$8@4"( -4, %, %B B4+> ' ?4%B'?+. ,# =..5 54B>%?7 %, 'D'69
This image uesciibeu veiy uiamatically the little nuisances she hau to ueal with
uaily at woik. Although she coulu cope with them, they weie iiiitating. The image
spuiieu hei to make a job change.
Bieam images ieflect the client's conflicts as well as the piogiess he oi she is
making in theiapy. Besiues seiving as a miiioi oi baiometei of the client's changes
in theiapy, uieams also ieflect the client's feelings anu expectations of theiapy anu
comment on the theiapist-client ielationship. Bieams aie an excellent way to
unueistanu anu biing to the foiefiont the uieamei's expectations of theiapy. It is
impoitant foi the theiapist to look foi the client's attituues about psychotheiapy in
uieams, because fiequently clients may be unable to veibalize these feelings. In the
uieam iefeiieu to at the beginning of the chaptei, foi example, the client saw
psychotheiapy as "an aiea I have nevei been to befoie,'' anu hei attituue about it
was one of eageiness ("I am veiy thiisty"). Anothei client saw theiapy as "a place
wheie I get all my neeus met." This client's expectations of a magic cuie oi of
theiapy meeting all his neeus without his neeuing to uo anything himself was
impoitant to unueistanu anu exploie with him befoie he coulu make any piogiess.
}anice, a young woman who hau been in tieatment foi seveial months, ielateu
this uieam to hei theiapist:
: '8 B%,,%?7 %? 6#4$ D'%,%?7 $##8( D'%,%?7 @#$ #4$ '55#%?,8.?,( D>%".
6#4 '$. B..%?7 N'$6 V' +#UD#$=.$ B>. >'& $.@.$$.& @#$ ,>.$'56W9 L#4$
B.BB%#? 7#.B #? '?& #?( '?& %, +4,B %?,# 86 >#4$9 L#4 #?"6 >';. @%;.
8%?4,.B ,# B.. 8.( '?& ,>.? 6#4 7%;. 8. 86 @#"&.$ ,# ,'=. 'D'6( B'6%?7
6#4 D#?C, B.. 8. '?6 8#$.9
}anice hau iefeiieu a numbei of hei fiienus foi tieatment anu hau an
unueilying feai that hei theiapist woulu no longei have any time foi hei. The uieam
was a goou vehicle to biing these feelings, which might not have been veibalizeu
otheiwise, to the suiface.
The client's attituues about the theiapist aie also impoitant to unueistanu,
because fiequently the way the client ueals with the theiapist is how he oi she
ielates to otheis. Tiansfeience is fiequently shown in uieams, anu the theiapist
neeus to constantly look foi the symbolic figuies in uieams that hiue this
tiansfeience. Foi example, a theiapist coulu be seen as a junk uealei by a client. This
client's attituues about the woith of theiapy aie cleaily uiffeient fiom one who sees
the theiapist as a wise man oi a magician. In the uieam uiscusseu eailiei in this
chaptei, the theiapist was seen as a tioubleshootei. In this case, the client cleaily
saw the theiapist as one who woulu tioubleshoot with hei anu help hei solve hei
pioblems heiself, iathei than one who woulu be pioviuing hei with answeis. 0thei
clients have useu uiffeient symbols foi theiapists that have uepicteu theii attituues
anu expectations of theiapy. Nike saw the theiapist as an "aeiobics instiuctoi,"
which he uefineu as "someone who gets you in shape." Noiman saw the theiapist as
a "masseuse" anu theiapy as a "massage pailoi," wheie "it huits at fiist but then you
feel so goou anu ielaxeu afteiwaius." The way the theiapist is seen ieflects the
unconscious attituues of the client to tieatment, anu these neeu to be iecognizeu
anu uealt with foi piogiess to be maue in theiapy.
Fiequently, the uieamei will have feelings about the theiapist that he oi she is
unable to uiscuss. These may inteifeie with tieatment unless they aie biought out
into the open. Foi example, a client may be unable oi unwilling to expiess feelings
about a theiapist's nationality, skin coloi, oi sex but may have a uieam that biings
these biases into the open. Noiman hau some feelings about his theiapist's iace anu
wonueieu if his theiapist, who was of a uiffeient ethnic backgiounu, coulu
unueistanu him. Be hau a uieam wheie he was talking to an 0iiental woman who
was unable to speak his language. The uieam seiveu as a vehicle to biing these
feelings out into the open. Caiey hau a uieam wheie he saw his psychotheiapist
sitting in his mothei's chaii. Again, the uieam maue it possible to uiscuss feelings
that may not have come out otheiwise oi quite so cleaily. Sometimes the theiapist
may be awaie of feelings the client has about him oi hei but may not know how to
elicit them, since biinging them into the open may iesult in uenial oi silence. Foi
example, a client may have uieams about loss oi sepaiation anu yet be unable to
talk about these feelings in theiapy anu ueal with teimination issues. Bieams can
pave the ioau foi uiscussing these aieas.
Bieams can also help the theiapist claiify peisonal attituues about his oi hei
clients anu woik. Foi example, a theiapist having uifficulty ielating to a ceitain
client may see in uieams ceitain aspects of the client oi him- oi heiself of which he
oi she has not been consciously awaie. Colleen, a young psychotheiapist, was
puzzleu by hei incieasingly angiy feelings about hei client until she hau a uieam
wheie hei client anu Colleen's mothei weie incoipoiateu into the same figuie.
Colleen was then able to unueistanu anu woik thiough hei own
counteitiansfeience towaiu hei client. Anothei theiapist iepoiteu that she was
spenuing moie anu moie time anu eneigy on one of hei clients, which was uiaining
hei physically anu emotionally. Bowevei, she continueu to invest hei eneigies in the
client's uaily ciises until she hau a uieam that she was being suckeu uiy by a leech.
The image helpeu hei iealize how much she was biing uiaineu, anu she was able to
set some limits with hei client.
Sometimes a uieam may biing to the theiapist's awaieness some aspects of a
client that he oi she has not seen befoie, anu this can help the theiapist ueteimine
how to pioceeu in psychotheiapy. A few months ago, I saw a young maiiieu woman
in theiapy anu hau an uneasy feeling about hei. I coulu not quite put my fingei on it,
but I felt that we weie not making contact anu that she uiu not appeai to unueistanu
what I was saying. The woman was a college giauuate, anu I uiu not feel that it was
hei intelligence that was at question. I hau a uieam about hei the following night
wheie she was an auolescent, anu the veiy piimitive, chilulike featuies of hei weie
highlighteu in the uieam, featuies that I hau not seen consciously, paiticulaily in
view of hei college uegiee anu hei maiital status. I unueistoou that the
communication pioblem was because I was ielating to hei as a matuie auult when
emotionally she was a chilu. I was then able to tailoi my appioach to auuiess the
chilu in hei.
Bieams can also claiify the theiapist's attituues about his oi hei woik anu can
have a stiong peisonal value. Seveial yeais ago, I was going thiough a veiy "lazy"
peiiou at woik, which I uiu not pay paiticulai attention to consciously until I hau
this uieam:
: '8 %? 86 #@@%+.( '?& : B.. @%@,..? +',B "6%?7 #? ,>. -.&9 : 'B= 86
+#"".'74. %@ : B>#4"& +'"" B.+4$%,6 ,# +>'B. ,>.8 #4,( -4, >. B'6B >.
,>%?=B : +'? +>'B. ,>.8 #4, 86B."@9
The uieam helpeu me become awaie that I was "sleeping on the job," anu I was
able to iuentify fifteen vaiiables that weie contiibuting to my laziness. I also iealizeu
that I coulu piobably ueal with these myself, without seeking outsiue help.
Theiapists have given numeious examples wheie they have useu uieams to
help them woik on uifficult situations in psychotheiapy, in theii jobs, oi in theii
peisonal lives, which uiiectly oi inuiiectly affect theii woik with clients.
Psychotheiapists can ueepen theii unueistanuing of themselves anu theii clients by
paying moie attention to theii uieams anu acting upon them. Theiapists, just like
theii clients, can leain to "sleep on a pioblem" anu utilize this veiy impoitant tool in
both theii piofessional anu peisonal lives.
0f couise, uieam analysis has a veiy impoitant peisonal value foi the client in
tieatment. Nost people coming foi tieatment can benefit fiom it, but it is
paiticulaily helpful foi those intellectualizeu clients who can analyze theii pioblems
at length anu offei many hypotheses but have no ieal insight into theii self-
uefeating behavioi. Lauia, a paiticulaily attiactive young woman who was
intelligent, waim, witty, cieative, anu hau many othei positive attiibutes besiues,
ielateu that moie than anything else, she wanteu to be maiiieu anu have chiluien.
Bowevei, in neaily 8 yeais she hau not hau moie than a casual ielationship. The
pioblem wasn't a lack of oppoitunities to meet men, because she met many in the
couise of hei uaily life. She hau thought about this pioblem foi many yeais, hau
uiscusseu it with otheis, anu hau a gieat ueal of anxiety about it. It was suggesteu
that she have a uieam about what got in hei way of a committeu ielationship. She
came in the next session anu saiu, "I think it's my ego." She iecalleu this uieam:
: '8 %? ' >#B5%,'" D>.$. X%8( ' 8'? D>#8 : >'& 7#,,.? +"#B. ,# '?& D>#
>'& '-$45,"6 D%,>&$'D? @$#8 ,>. $."',%#?B>%5( D'B -4B6 ,$.',%?7
5',%.?,B #$ B#8.,>%?79 : '8 ,%$.& #@ D'%,%?7 '?& 7., '?7$6 '?& ".';.9 S.
%B >4$, -4, B# '8 :9
Lauia inteipieteu this uieam to mean that hei piiue anu ego got in the way, that
she expects a gieat ueal fiom men, anu inteipiets theii genuinely being busy as a
iejection. This stemmeu back to hei chiluhoou, when hei mothei hau always been
pampeieu by hei fathei anu hau leu Lauia to believe that she hau to play "haiu to
get" all the time. Following this uieam, she woikeu on loweiing hei expectations in
ielationships anu becoming moie open with men. In this case, uieam analysis
helpeu to eluciuate to Lauia some of hei behaviois that weie contiibuting to hei
peiceiveu iejection by men.
Anothei example of uieam analysis helping the intellectualizeu client is the case
of Tom, a young, peisonable, veibal attoiney who came to theiapy because he was
having anxiety attacks anu coulu not unueistanu the ieasons foi them. Aftei a
couple of theiapy sessions, which weie pleasant, intellectualizeu, anu supeificial, he
hau a uieam that he "was not uoing his homewoik." Be ielateu this to what hau
been happening in theiapy so faithat he was not getting uown to the basics. Be
hau anothei uieam in which he hau to uig into the ioots of the house wheie he hau
been iaiseu in oiuei to lay a soliu founuation. Aftei this uieam he iealizeu that he
was only uealing with supeificial issues in theiapy anu that to "get uown to the
ioots," he hau to go back to the "house wheie he was iaiseu" (his chiluhoou). The
next uieams biought out long-stanuing unconscious feelings about his fathei that
weie coming to the foiefiont at this point in his life anu causing much conflict.
Bieam analysis is not limiteu to the veibal client. It is also veiy helpful foi the
nonveibal, blockeu client. }ane came in foi theiapy feeling quite uepiesseu anu hau
tiemenuous uifficulty talking about what was botheiing hei. She ielateu that she felt
blockeu anu uiu not appeai to be achieving hei full potential. Fuithei questioning
uiu not eluciuate what was blocking hei. It was suggesteu that she have a uieam to
finu out what was getting in hei way of achieving hei potential. In the following
session, she ielateu this uieam:
: '8 ,$6%?7 ,# 7., ' @$%.?& #4, #@ Y'%" -4, -.@#$. : +'? &# ,>', : >';. ,# 7#
,>$#47> B.;.$'" +>4$+>.B D%,> 86 5'$.?,B9 F>.$.CB #?. %? I#$,>
N#4?,'%? J'$= D>.$. ,>.6 >';. ,>', +$'Z6 &4&. &4?=%?7 #,>.$B9 :,CB '
$.'" @'$+.9
}ane ielateu hei ieligious backgiounu. She was biought up as a stiict Catholic
but was no longei piacticing the ieligion. This uieam ievealeu that pait of }ane was
"lockeu up." She uoesn't let heiself uo what she wants because of ieligious values
which in ieality she uesciibes as a "faice" oi absuiu. Although }ane hau a boyfiienu
whom she hau loveu foi the past eight yeais, she hau let hei guilt about hei paients'
values, which she no longei believeu in, keep hei fiom moving in with him.
Following this uieam, }ane became consciously awaie of this conflict anu was able to
ueal with it. Fuithei uieams illuminateu othei blocks that kept hei fiom hei
achieving hei full potential.
Bieam analysis is not iestiicteu to auults; in fact, it can be paiticulaily helpful
with auolescents anu chiluien, even those who aie not veiy veibal. Auolescents'
uieams fiequently pinpoint the coie pioblem in theiapy. Foi example, Baviu, a
teenage boy, was iefeiieu by the }uvenile Couit foi acting-out behavioi. In theiapy,
he ielateu that he hau moveu out of his mothei's house since his paients' uivoice
anu was living with his pateinal gianumothei. Be spent most of his theiapy sessions
venting his hatieu anu angei towaiu his mothei in an excessive, obsessive mannei.
Be saw his mothei in only negative teims anu coulu not acknowleuge that she ieally
caieu foi him. Baviu's theiapist hau talkeu to the mothei anu knew she ieally caieu
foi hei son. In auuition, the theiapist iecognizeu the ambivalence beneath the angei
anu attempteu to help Baviu integiate positive anu negative aspects of his mothei.
Towaiu the enu of tieatment, Baviu hau this uieam:
: %?;%,. 86 8#,>.$ ,# 86 7$'&4',%#? @$#8 >%7> B+>##"9 T>. +#8.B ,# ,>.
7$'&4',%#? -4, : &# ?#, B.. >.$9
In the uieam, Baviu iecognizes both his wish to have his mothei at an impoitant
event in his life as well as the fact that B>. +'$.B -4, >. &#.B ?#, B.. %,. Be may even
be ieheaising a futuie uate when they might ieconcileat his giauuation (fiom
theiapy. fiom chiluhoou. fiom high school.). All of these elements pioviue iich
mateiial foi psychotheiapy. The uieam encapsulates, in a veiy efficient anu
uiamatic fashion, the main issue. It comes to the heait of the mattei uiiectly anu
weeus out iiielevant uata. What is notewoithy about this example is that this was a
ielatively simple, nonveibal auolescent who woulu not be uesciibeu as
psychologically sophisticateu anu who fiequently iesponueu in monosyllables.
Youngei chiluien benefit fiom uieam analysis as well. Ten-yeai-olu Claia hau a
nightmaie that she was being chaseu by a shauow while she was out on hei papei
ioute. She uieameu that although she uiu not wish to go out by heiself at night, she
felt that she hau to because hei paients wanteu hei to make money. Claia's fathei
hau iecently gotten a ueciease in his salaiy. Although the paients hau not uiscusseu
theii financial conceins with Claia, she hau appaiently senseu the situation anu
ieflecteu hei anxieties about it in hei uieam. The uieam was a vehicle to biing hei
feais out into the open anu uiscuss them with hei family.
Bieam analysis can also be useu in woiking with couples. uieta anu }ohn weie
in maiital counseling because of uieta's neeu foi constant ieassuiance fiom }ohn
that he loveu hei. }ohn hau been involveu in an affaii that was teiminateu many
yeais ago. To all outwaiu appeaiances, he was now a loving, attentive husbanu. Both
uieta anu }ohn affiimeu that theie was no ieason foi uieta's jealousy anu constant
neeu foi ieassuiance, that }ohn was suppoitive, anu that uieta neeueu to become
less uepenuent anu insecuie. uieta coulu not veibalize anything that hei husbanu
was oveitly uoing that was biinging on hei feelings of insecuiity, which only seiveu
to ieinfoice hei feelings of inauequacy. Buiing the couise of theiapy, she hau this
uieam:
: '8 >'?7%?7 @$#8 ,>. +.%"%?79 N6 >4B-'?& %B ,'"=%?7 ,# '?#,>.$ D#8'?9
: =..5 ,$6%?7 ,# 7., >%B ',,.?,%#? -4, >. %7?#$.B 8. '?& +'?C, >.'$ 8.9
In hei uieam, uieta's unconscious acknowleugeu what she hau not been able to
consciouslythat although hei husbanu was not uoing anything oveitly to elicit hei
feelings of insecuiity, that -6 %7?#$%?7 >.$( >. ".@, >.$ >'?7%?7. This uieam biought to
the suiface the pattein of inteiaction between the couple that was not appaient
outwaiuly, eithei to them oi to the theiapist.
Bieam analysis is not limiteu to outpatient settings. It is veiy effective foi night
peisonnel in inpatient settings as well. Psychiatiic nuises on the night shift have a
unique oppoitunity to woik with patients who aie having uieams oi nightmaies
anu who may wake up with these uieams. These uieams can be significant in
helping patients with theii immeuiate pioblems anu ieinfoicing theii tieatment.
}ohn, a patient in a uiug uetoxification unit, hau a uieam fiom which he woke up in a
fiighteneu state. Be uieameu that he was heauless anu that the othei patients on his
waiu weie also without heaus. Bieam inteipietation helpeu claiify the message of
the uieam foi him. Be iealizeu that the missing heaus iepiesenteu the effects that
cocaine was having on him, in that he was losing some of his abilities to think
cleaily. The uieam was utilizeu effectively to stiengthen his motivation foi
tieatment.
}eiiy was anothei young man foi whom uieam analysis was helpful in an
inpatient setting. }eiiy hau been seeing his theiapist foi a numbei of months but
was faiily iesistant to biinging in uieams. Be was hospitalizeu foi uepiession
eventually, anu his theiapist was contacteu when }eiiy woke up fiom a uieam that
was veiy upsetting to him. Be was in a veiy agitateu state, anu the staff was
conceineu about him. The theiapist staiteu to question him calmly about the
uiffeient featuies in his uieam, anu to the theiapist's suipiise, }eiiy answeieu the
questions insteau of uisplaying his usual iesistance. The uieam uepicteu the coie
conflict in }eiiy's life anu outlineu the issues he neeueu to uiscuss in theiapy.
Bieams aie impoitant in all phases of theiapy. Not only uo they point out the
uiiection in which theiapy is going, they also signal when the client is ieauy to
teiminate. The client who hau oiiginally come foi tieatment because of a uieam
aleiting hei to suiciual tenuencies hau this uieam aftei a few months of tieatment:
: '8 +"%8-%?7 ' 8#4?,'%? %? ,>. D%?,.$9 : '8 4?'-". ,# &# %,9 : '8 '-".
,# +"%8- ,>%B B'8. 8#4?,'%? %? ,>. B488.$9
The uieam highlighteu the contiast between the past anu the piesent. The
change in weathei ieflecteu hei inteinal changes (fiom uepiesseu to happy) anu
how she was able to cope with the same pioblems unuei new conuitions. The uieam
seiveu as a signal that she was able to cope anu was ieauy to enu tieatment, which
she uiu aftei two sessions. 0n hei last session, she hau a uieam that she was ieauy
to leave "the cave wheie she liveu." She alluueu to the "unueigiounu wheie I
exploie" (psychotheiapy wheie she hau exploieu hei thoughts anu feelings), which
hau been "fun anu yet scaiy."
CONCLUSION
Bieams aie useful in all phases of theiapy. They biing to the suiface clients'
expectations of theiapy, highlight theii piogiess, anu signal the uiiection foi fuithei
theiapy sessions. They encapsulate, in viviu imageiy, uiamatically anu biiefly, the
essence of the pioblem, anu they "cut thiough the gaibage" in getting to the coie
conflict in theiapy. They seive as a baiometei of client piogiess anu also signal
when it is time to enu tieatment. Rosenthal (1978b) stateu that the uecision to
teiminate uepenus on thiee juuges: the analyst, the patient, anu the uieam. The
most ieliable anu unbiaseu juuge is the uieam.
!"#$%&' )
!"#$% '(#)"*
G$.'8B '$. B4-+#?B+%#4B ,$4,>B9
N. S. Nichel, TD.., N4$&.$
Bieaming is a univeisal phenomenon, anu ieseaich has establisheu that we
uieam about foui oi five times uuiing the night. It has been estimateu the aveiage
auult spenus an houi anu a half nightly uieaming oi @#4$ 6.'$B #@ >%B #$ >.$ "%@. %? ,>.
&$.'8 B,',. (uaifielu, 1974, p. S). In spite of the vast amount of time we spenu
uieaming, many people have ignoieu this aspect of consciousness, simply because
they uo not unueistanu it. Nany clinicians have avoiueu looking at this pait of
human behavioi because it uoes not make sense on the suiface. Nany times the
uieam may seem so nonsensical that we uisown it as though it weie not a pait of us.
Bowevei, we neeu to constantly ieminu ouiselves that D. 5$#&4+. #4$ &$.'8B( we
cieate oui uieam figuies anu oui uieam stoiies, anu to ignoie oui uieams is to
ignoie a whole aspect of peisonality oi consciousness.
Bieams can be vieweu as oui fiienus, oui allies, a souice of enoimous wealth
that we can tap into to leain about ouiselves. Bow many times uo we heai the
expiession "Let me sleep on it". Bow many times, as we aie stiuggling with a
pioblem, uo we see a solution when we tap into that othei level of functioning.
Bieams aie an enoimous souice of wisuom, anu unlike othei souices, they come
uiiectly fiom us. Clients in psychotheiapy can leain to use theii own inteinal
wisuom, theii innei guiue, to leain about themselves. As Ball stateu:
If he |the patientj woulu give as much thought to himself uuiing the uay as
he uoes uuiing the night, man might ueepen his self-knowleuge to the point
wheie he coulu mastei his conflicts insteau of being masteieu by them. Foi
it is only be being completely self-conscious that man can be iational anu
wise in all of his unueitakings. (19SS, p. 2S4)
The view of uieams piesenteu in this chaptei is auapteu fiom Battie Rosenthal's
theoiy of uieam analysis (Rosenthal, 198u). As noteu pieviously, although hei
tiaining was piimaiily psychoanalytic, hei methou of inteipietation is compatible
with a numbei of theoietical oiientations. The theoiy, as piesenteu heie, is auapteu
foi the nonanalytic clinician.
Accoiuing to Battie Rosenthal, as we go about oui uaily lives, we have a numbei
of thoughts, feelings, impiessions, anu iueas that we uo not always piocess uuiing
the uay. The uieam mateiial consists of those feelings, thoughts, anu impulses that
aie not immeuiately available to consciousness. These aie eithei unacceptable to us
oi unavailable at oui conscious level of awaieness. Psychoanalytic theoiy uiscusses
the tiansfei of unacceptable mateiial into the unconscious thiough iepiession.
Nany clinicians aie comfoitable with the use of the teim 4?+#?B+%#4B anu geneially
think of it as a "place" wheie iepiesseu feelings aie stoieu. 0theis piefei to talk
about uiffeient levels of consciousness oi awaieness. When the teims +#?B+%#4B,
B4-+#?B+%#4B, oi 4?+#?B+%#4B aie useu in this book, they iefei piimaiily to uiffeient
levels of awaieness anu uo not necessaiily have all of the psychoanalytic
implications that these teims often connote. The uieam mateiial thus is compiiseu
of those thoughts anu feelings that we may not be awaie of in oui waking state.
Sometimes the uieam mateiial consists of thoughts anu feelings that we alieauy
know, but the uieam may magnify those in oiuei to biing them closei to oui
attention.
0ne of the most impoitant chaiacteiistics of uieams is theii quality of piofounu
honesty. In uieams, people uepict themselves 'B ,>.6 '$., not as they woulu like to
be seen, without the social masks of waking life anu psychological uefenses.
Bieameis can choose to unueistanu themselves by unueistanuing theii uieams oi
they can choose to ignoie this self-knowleuge.
Fieuuian theoiy has geneially emphasizeu the basei, unacceptable impulses in
uieams. Bieams, howevei, also uepict oui positive anu cieative eneigies, anu
unfoitunately, little attention has been paiu to those positive anu often
uniecognizeu potentials. Theie aie numeious examples of people wiiting books,
composing poetiy, oi even cieating inventions aftei seeing the oiiginal iuea in a
uieam (Belaney, 198S).
These positive impulses aie not only ieflecteu in inventions oi poetiy. Nany
people fiequently uieam of themselves behaving in a mannei that they weie not
awaie was possible foi them. Bill, foi example, always hau a feai of speaking in
public anu uiu not feel he coulu make a speech in fiont of a gioup. In his uieam, he
saw himself speaking in fiont of a laige auuience anu was suipiiseu at his poise anu
confiuence. The uieam highlighteu foi him qualities that he uiu not think he
possesseu. Bonnie vieweu heiself as a fat, uumpy inuiviuual, anu although she
woikeu on impioving hei bouy image, she was unable to feel bettei about hei bouy.
In hei uieams, howevei, she was looking at a photo of heiself oi walking into a
ioom anu felt positive about hei bouy. The uieams helpeu hei iealize that she was
capable of accepting hei bouy. Clients fiequently iepoit uieams in which they
behave asseitively oi confiont an inuiviuual oi situation that they uiu not feel they
weie capable of hanuling. These uieams help aleit them to the stiengths within
themselves of which they weie not awaie. Fiequently, uieams of this soit aie a
ieheaisal foi futuie behavioi.
Bieams have anothei impoitant function in iegulating oui affect mechanism.
Thiough oui uieams, we can uischaige many unpleasant anu unacceptable feelings.
Bieaming is a way of ieleasing emotions, anu by ventilating these, we uo not have to
act them out. As Rosenthal (1978b) stateu, we can kill anu not be sentenceu foi
muiuei. She fiequently congiatulateu hei clients who iepoiteu a nightmaie, by
saying: "You have caiiieu a nightmaie within you foi quite some time. Now you
have the couiage to face it. Congiatulations!" Rosenthal founu this function of
uieams so impoitant that she believeu that without ielief of these emotions in
uieams, a volcano-type eiuption may occui in the waking life. She iegaiueu the
uieam as a means of both ieleasing anu integiating unacceptable emotions.
The content of uieams vaiies fiom peison to peison anu geneially ieflects the
uieamei's cultuie anu inteiests. We uieam of people we know anu enviionments of
which we aie familiai. A uoctoi may uieam of stethoscopes, wheieas a musician
may uieam of musical instiuments. Chiluien may uieam of caitoon chaiacteis,
wheieas auults may uieam of public figuies that aie pait of theii geneial milieu.
Similaily, people of uiffeient cultuies may use uiffeient symbols. A Euiopean
theiapist commenteu on the numbei of uieams that Ameiicans have that involve
uiiving some kinu of vehicle anu wonueieu whethei Euiopeans who uiu not uiive
so much woulu have so many uieams about automobiles. Although each inuiviuual
uepicts anu expeiiences his oi hei pioblems in a unique way, the commonality in
uieams is that the basic conflicts aie all human.
Bieams also vaiy in length, ianging fiom a biief image to a long, complicateu
uieam. Shoit uieams geneially focus on basic issues anu leau to awaieness anu
insight. A shoit uieam encapsulates the focal issue without too many uetails oi
uistiactions. Long uieams, on the othei hanu, may hiue the basic conflict anu uetiact
fiom the cential issue. In a long uieam, the focus is usually uiveiteu to seveial
issues, anu the theiapist oi client may miss the cential theme. Fiequently, as clients
become moie involveu in psychotheiapy, theii uieams become shoitei anu moie
focuseu on the cential issue.
Like }ung, Aulei, Peils, anu otheis, Rosenthal believeu that eveiy uieam has a
message. The message comes in an obscuie foim so that the uieamei can ueciue
whethei he oi she wants to unueistanu it. Rosenthal uisputeu Fieuu's view that
uieams aie mainly a foim of wish fulfillment, believing that we can geneially get oui
wish fulfillment met in uayuieams. Bieams tell us D>', D. &# ?#, =?#D oi highlight
what we alieauy know at some level to magnify its impoitance anu call it to oui
attention. The message is basically one fiom us to ouiselves, telling us what we uo
not know anu signaling a uiiection foi action. The language of the message is at
times obscuie, but we can leain to unueistanu it.
Bieam language is like a foieign language, anu uieam inteipietation is
essentially tianslating this foieign language. In uieam analysis, we aie tianslating
fiom one level of consciousness to anothei. The unconscious mateiial befoie
tianslation is teimeu the "',.?, uieam content, anu the mannei in which it emeiges
into consciousness is calleu the 8'?%@.B, uieam content. The manifest uieam
content is the uieam itself; the latent is its unueilying meaning. Inteipietation of
uieams involves tianslating the obscuie, latent content into intelligible meaning.
The uieam message comes in an unintelligible oi uisguiseu foim so that the
uieamei can have a choice whethei he oi she wants to ueciphei the message anu
biing it to a conscious level of awaieness oi to ignoie it. Fiequently, people aie
feaiful of uncoveiing unconscious conflicts anu having to ueal with them. They
choose to ignoie the uieam message anu not to biing it to theii consciousness.
It is inteiesting to note that the moie ieauy one is to look at anu ueal with
unconscious conflicts, the moie similai the latent anu manifest levels become. As
people piogiess in theiapy, theii uieams become shoitei anu less obscuie, anu the
manifest content is not veiy fai iemoveu fiom its latent, unconscious meaning.
Theie is less neeu foi tianslation anu uecipheiing, anu the uieam message is
fiequently conveyeu in a cleai, unobscuieu fashion.
Bow uoes one go about tianslating fiom one level of consciousness to anothei.
The theiapist cannot inteipiet a uieam immeuiately simply by listening to it. Bieam
inteipietation neeus thoiough anu compiehensive analysis, anu like any othei tool
in psychotheiapy, it neeus to be leaineu accuiately anu patiently. It is tempting at
times to pioviue supeificial oi piematuie analysis. This can uo moie haim than
goou, as the theiapist may be pioviuing an incoiiect anu aibitiaiy inteipietation. It
is impoitant foi the theiapist to leain the alphabet of uieam analysis fiist befoie
attempting to ueciphei the foieign language of uieams.
0f what uoes this foieign language consist. Bieam language is essentially
pictoiial language. We use pictuies anu images to uepict iueas anu feelings. The
alphabet of uieams is maue up of symbols, anu in uieam analysis, we tianslate these
symbols to theii oiiginal iefeients. A symbol is something iepiesenting something
else, which shaies a common uenominatoi with it. Foi an object to qualify as a
symbol foi anothei object, it must shaie common chaiacteiistics with it; otheiwise,
the inteipietation woulu be an aibitiaiy one. To aiiive at these common
chaiacteiistics, the theiapist neeus to see what a paiticulai symbol means to the
uieamei. This can be uone by looking at the visual metaphois in uieams. In uieams
we uesciibe something abstiact by uesciibing something else that conveys the same
feelings oi has the same chaiacteiistics.
Accoiuing to Rosenthal, symbols aie inuiviuual anu not univeisal. The same
symbol coulu mean uiffeient things to uiffeient people. In a class of neaily thiity
people, I askeu each peison to uefine a snake anu got thiity uiffeient uefinitions.
Seveial clients have iepoiteu uieams about cats. 0ne inuiviuual saw them as
"inuepenuent cieatuies," anothei as "paiasites," anu a thiiu as "catty anu vicious."
The inuiviuuality of symbols is a veiy impoitant point anu neeus to be emphasizeu.
Rosenthal felt that the blinu use of steieotypic symbols uiu an injustice to the
uieamei's inuiviuuality. To give clichu inteipietations is to ignoie the uieamei's
unique qualities anu expeiiences. Bieam symbols oiiginate fiom the specific histoiy
anu life expeiiences of each inuiviuual, anu it is only fiom this histoiy that the
theiapist can inteipiet the meaning of the uieamei's symbols.
This view of symbols being inuiviuual to the uieamei anu not univeisal is in
uiiect contiast to Fieuu's view that eveiything in a uieam stanus foi eithei a penis
oi a vagina. Symbols aie not exclusively sexual, anu to ieuuce all of oui expeiiences
to sexual ones excluues many othei aspects of oui total being. Rosenthal believeu
that hau Fieuu liveu longei, he woulu have ieviseu this view himself. A sexual image
uoes not necessaiily stanu foi a sexual conflict. Foi example, many inuiviuuals have
iepoiteu uieaming about snakes. Along with the clichu inteipietation of a snake
stanuing foi the male oigan, a snake has also seiveu as a symbol of cieativity,
ueviousness, oi uangei foi uiffeient uieameis. Even uieams that aie sexual on the
suiface may not have a sexual meaning. Nancy, foi example, iepoiteu an exciting
sexual uieam:
: '8 %? ' [8\?'7.U'U,$#%B[ D%,> 86 >4B-'?& '?& '?#,>.$ D#8'?( '?& :
'8 .?Y#6%?7 ,>. B.< '+,B ,$.8.?&#4B"69 : ,."" 86B."@ ,>', %@ : Y4B, $."'<( :
D%"" >';. '? #$7'B89
When askeu to uefine "mnage-a-tiois," Nancy iesponueu, "A sexual
ielationship between thiee people" anu then smileu when she iealizeu that the
uieam was about heiself, hei husbanu, anu "the othei woman." Nancy was
sepaiateu fiom hei husbanu, anu he was having uifficulty letting go of an affaii he'u
hau anu making a commitment to the maiital ielationship. Nancy was unueciueu
whethei she shoulu piess the issue anu foice hei husbanu to make a uecision. Bei
uieam was telling hei that if she ielaxeu anu uiun't push the issue, she woulu get
some iesolution.
Since symbols aie specific to the uieamei, a theiapist cannot inteipiet a uieam
without the client. Bieam inteipietation iequiies an intensive coopeiative effoit
between theiapist anu client. The theiapist uses skills, anu the uieamei his oi hei
associations to aiiive at the uieam's meaning. Bieam analysis is a collaboiation
between theiapist anu client to unueistanu the language of the uieam.
Coopeiativeness between theiapist anu client is an essential component of uieam
analysis, anu uieam inteipietation fosteis client activity anu initiation.
Bieam language is maue up of symbols that aie inuiviuual to the uieamei anu
that have a common uenominatoi with the object to which they iefei. These
symbols aie by necessity conciete pictuies, as we cannot uieam in the abstiact.
Insteau of uieaming about maiiiage, we may uieam of a weuuing banu oi a weuuing
ceiemony. Insteau of uieaming about oui chiluish paits, we may uieam of a chilu.
We use pictuies to stanu foi oui iueas in the uieam. Bieam symbols aie subjective
abstiactions of qualities anu chaiacteiistics that aie veibally communicateu in the
waking state. They aie the nonveibal, pictoiial iepiesentation of a quality, tiait, oi
feeling.
Similaily, we uo not uieam about feelings in the abstiact; we expeiience them
insteau. Foi example, we uo not uieam about feai, love, oi hatewe @.." these
emotions. We may have uieams wheie we aie nakeu anu feel exposeu oi vulneiable
oi wheie we cannot get to oui uestination anu feel fiustiateu. In all these uieams,
we expeiience those emotions. The uieam language is maue up of pictuies, events,
anu expeiiences that stanu foi oui thoughts, feelings, anu iueas.
Eveiything in a uieam is symbolic. Not only aie the uiffeient #-Y.+,B in the
uieam symbolic, so aie the '+,%#?B. Foi example, a woman uieaming that she fell in a
hole coulu be iefeiiing to hei uepiession, anothei uieaming that she is unable to
put on the biakes in hei cai coulu be iefeiiing to hei lack of contiol, anu so on.
Fiequently, people iepoit uieaming that they weie waim, colu, hungiy, oi thiisty.
Again, these coulu be symbolic of the colu oi waimth they feel in theii ielationships,
theii hungei foi affection, oi theii thiist foi knowleuge. Similaily, uieaming of
climbing a mountain coulu stanu foi attaining a goal, anu going up anu uown coulu
iefei to changes in moous.
In uieam analysis, we tianslate the actions anu objects anu use them to builu a
uieam stoiy. If the uieam is composeu of symbols, anu if eveiy action anu object in a
uieam is symbolic, then it is impoitant to go thiough .;.$6,>%?7 in a uieam analysis.
Eveiy uetail is ielevant in uieams, no mattei how unimpoitant it may seem at fiist
glance#,>.$D%B. D. D#4"& ?#, &$.'8 %,. This point cannot be unueistateu. Eveiy
uetail in a uieam is notewoithy, anu the psychotheiapist neeus to be thoiough anu
exact in conuucting uieam inteipietation. }ust because a uetail uoesn't seem to fit oi
appeais to be minoi uoesn't mean it shoulu be oveilookeu. Sometimes, it may be
that veiy uetail that pioviues a clue to the uieam. Although some theiapists may not
go into extensive inteipietation in the inteiest of time, inteipieting a uieam
patiently anu thoioughly can be time saving in the long iun.
If we cannot inteipiet eveiy symbol in a uieam, it is bettei to leave the uieam
paitially inteipieteu than to piematuiely oi supeificially pioviue an inteipietation.
It is impoitant to iemembei that even if only pait of a uieam is inteipieteu, the
client gets something fiom it. Fiequently, anothei uieam oi fuithei thought can help
the client claiify its meaning latei on.
0f couise, all uieams uiiectly concein the uieamei. This point is obvious but
neeus to be emphasizeu to seive as a ieminuei to the client anu theiapist when
uoing uieam inteipietation. Clients integiate theii own unique expeiiences in
uieams to pioviue themselves with a message foi action. Eveiy uieam has a
piotagonist, the uieamei, anu even though the manifest uieam content may focus
on othei chaiacteis anu events, it is impoitant to ask why the uieamei is having
ceitain uieams anu why at this paiticulai point in his oi hei life. Fiequently, clients
may uieam about uiffeient people who may iepiesent uiffeient aspects of theii
peisonalities, oi they may uieam about a situation outsiue themselves to give a
message ,# ,>.8B.";.B about that paiticulai peison oi event.
Bieams aie fiequently a miciocosm of life, anu the action taking place in
uieams may ieflect the actions in waking life. Foi example, an inuecisive woman
may uieam that she has to make a choice about what to buy but enus up with
nothing, because she cannot make up hei minu. A woman who feels shut off fiom
hei family may uieam that she is sitting in a coinei of the house by heiself while the
iest of the family is congiegating in the living ioom. A piociastinatoi may uieam
that she is taking so long to get ieauy that she misses the bus. Fiequently, when
clients aie askeu if they see any ielationship between the action in theii uieams anu
what is going on in theii waking life, they will iesponu, "That is the stoiy of my life!"
Anothei aspect of uieam language is the use of metaphoi. Again, pictuies aie
useu to uepict ceitain images. Foi example, Betty uieameu that she was weaiing
watches on hei feet as she was iunning anu knew that she was "iunning out of
time." Linua uieameu that she coulu not fit into hei boots anu iealizeu that she was
"getting too big foi hei biitches." Linua hau anothei uieam wheie hei heau was
uispiopoitionately laige foi the iest of hei bouy anu ielateu that to hei iecent "big-
heaueuness." }ane uieameu that hei fiienu was hanuing hei some "baloney" to make
a meat loaf, which maue hei moie cognizant of feelings she hau about hei fiienu.
Similaily, puns anu plays on woius aie all chaiacteiistics of uieam language, anu the
theiapist shoulu fiequently look foi these in client's uieams.
These examples illustiate some of the piocesses that tiansfoim the latent
content of uieams into new meaning. Theie aie a numbei of uieam mechanisms
that chaiacteiize uieam language, anu some of these will be elaboiateu in a latei
chaptei to help the theiapist conuucting uieam inteipietation. Bieam language has
its own iules of logic, which uo not follow the iules of eveiyuay conscious language.
CONCLUSION
Bieams consist of thoughts, feelings, anu impiessions that aie not immeuiately
available to conscious awaieness. Although clinicians have emphasizeu the
unacceptable impulses founu in uieams, uieams also exhibit positive, uniecognizeu
talents anu potentials. Each uieam conveys a message that comes in uisguiseu foim
so that the uieamei can ueciue whethei he oi she wants to inteipiet it. Bieam
inteipietation is tianslating fiom one level of consciousness to anothei. It consists
of tianslating the manifest content of uieams (the stoiy we see on the suiface) into
its latent meaning. A numbei of piocesses calleu uieam mechanisms inteivene
between one level of consciousness anu anothei. Bieam language is like a foieign
language, with its own iules of logic, anu it is impoitant to leain the funuamentals of
this language fiist, patiently, thoioughly, anu in uepth. Bieam language consists of
symbols that shaie common chaiacteiistics with the object they iepiesent. These
symbols aie inuiviuual anu not univeisal, anu thus uieam inteipietation is a joint
collaboiation between theiapist anu client. Symbols aie conciete pictuies, anu both
the actions anu the objects in uieams aie symbolic. Since eveiything in a uieam is
symbolic, the theiapist uoing uieam inteipietation neeus to be thoiough anu not
oveilook uetails. All uieams uiiectly concein the uieamei, anu they aie fiequently a
miciocosm of life.
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!"#$#%&'%( *"#+, -%+./$'$ &0 &1# 2.'#%&
L#4 8%7>, 'B D."" >4?, >'"@ ' &'6 @#$ ' @#$7#,,.? &$.'89
Woiuswoith, S'$,UK.'5 3.""
F>. ,$4. '$, #@ 8.8#$6 %B ,>. '$, #@ ',,.?,%#?9
Samuel }ohnson, F>. :&".$
Befoie getting to the funuamentals of uieam inteipietation, it is impoitant to
uiscuss how to intiouuce uieam analysis to clients so that they will biing uieams to
theiapy. The fiist step foi the theiapist is to euucate clients about the impoitance of
uieams anu to encouiage them to have uieams. As mentioneu in the fiist chaptei,
clients may biing up the topic themselves, anu the theiapist neeus to be attuneu to
openings. If they uon't, the theiapist can biing up the subject in the fiist session oi
aftei a few sessions with the client. A goou time to intiouuce uieams to clients is
geneially at the fiist session, aftei the theiapist anu client have ieacheu a mutual
unueistanuing of some of the pioblems anu tieatment goals.
A simple intiouuction to uieam theoiy can follow. The theiapist can tell the
client that eveiyone uieams anu that all of oui uieams have meanings. Eveiy uieam
has a message, anu we can leain about ouiselves fiom oui uieams. The theiapist
can also tell the client that uieams aie like a foieign languagethey may seem
nonsensical at fiist, but the message is theie, in uisguiseu foim. In theiapy, the client
anu theiapist can ueciphei the message togethei anu use it to achieve peisonal
giowth. The theiapist can tell the client that uieams can speeu up the theiapy
piocess by biinging conflicts to awaieness soonei so that they can be iesolveu. In
some cases, the theiapist may iecount a simple uieam as an example anu ask the
client what he oi she thinks of it. All of this is uone to euucate the client anu spaik
his oi hei inteiest. In subsequent sessions, the theiapist can fuithei euucate the
client as they woik on uieams togethei.
It is impoitant to let the client know iight away that the theiapist cannot
inteipiet a uieam simply by heaiing it, because the uieamei's symbols aie stiictly
peisonal anu cannot be inteipieteu without his oi hei coopeiation. This not only
allays the client's feais, but also emphasizes the coopeiative anu equal natuie of the
paitneiship, that the client anu theiapist aie woiking ,#7.,>.$ to help the client.
This makes the client moie involveu anu bettei able to take iesponsibility foi his oi
hei tieatment. In auuition, the client can be ieminueu that uieam analysis is a
valuable tool foi self-uiscoveiy that can be useu even aftei tieatment is ovei.
Aftei euucating the client about the value of uieams anu answeiing any
questions, the theiapist can then ask the client to iecoiu his oi hei uieams anu
biing them to the next session. The theiapist can encouiage the client to keep a note
pau oi small tape iecoiuei by his oi hei beu anu to wiite uown oi uictate uieams
into the iecoiuei immeuiately upon waking, since they tenu to be foigotten veiy
quickly. The theiapist can encouiage the client to concentiate on having a uieam
befoie going to beu; if the client is woiking on a specific pioblem in theiapy, he oi
she can be instiucteu to have a uieam about that paiticulai issue.
Fiequently, these instiuctions aie sufficient foi the client to iecall anu iecoiu
uieams. In some situations, moie specific hints foi iemembeiing uieams may be
helpful. uayle Belaney, in hei book K%;%?7 L#4$ G$.'8B (1979, pp. 21u-212),
pioviues excellent suggestions foi impioving uieam iecall, anu the theiapist may
wish to pioviue the client with copies of those instiuctions. The theiapist can stiess
the impoitance of having papei anu pen by the beu -.@#$. going to sleep, which acts
as a suggestion to iecall a uieam the next moining anu also eliminates the necessity
of seaiching foi a papei anu pencil upon awakening, as the uieam may be lost to
memoiy by the time wiiting utensils aie founu. Some clients may piefei the use of a
tape iecoiuei to talk into upon awakening, although this is not always feasible,
paiticulaily if theie aie otheis sleeping in the same ioom who may be uistuibeu. It
may also be wise to have a small night light oi flashlight by the beu to use to iecoiu
the uieam shoulu one awaken in the miuule of the night. Also available aie pens
with flashlights that may be useful foi iecoiuing uieams at night, as well as wiiting
paus with small lights attacheu.
2

Patiicia uaifielu, in hei book Q$.',%;. G$.'8%?7 (1974, pp. 178-181), suggests
anothei methou foi iecoiuing uieams without the use of a night light oi without
opening one's eyes. She suggests buying unlineu S" x8" note paus that aie sealeu
with stiing embeuueu in the plastic binuing anu a high-quality ballpoint pen that
wiites easily. When she wakes up with a uieam, she iecoius it D%,> >.$ .6.B +"#B.& in
the following mannei: She giasps the note pau with the 8" siue helu hoiizontally
with hei left fingeitips. She biaces the pau on the beu oi night table besiue hei while

2
'These "Nite Notes'' can be oiueieu foi $1u.uu fiom Kiei Concepts, Inc., P.0. Box 17S1, La
Nesa, Califoinia 92u41.
lying on hei left siue oi upon hei chest while lying on hei back. She holus the iight
hanu in a noimal wiiting position except that the little fingei is extenueu upwaiu in
oiuei to feel the top euge of the pau. She then wiites the uieam acioss the pau
making the line stiaight by feeling the top euge of the pau as a guiue. When she
aiiives at the enu of a line, she loweis hei left-hanu fingeitips to inuicate the
staiting position of the next line anu ietuins the pen in hei iight hanu to the spot
maikeu by hei left fingeitips by tactual contact. She likens this to a typewiitei
caiiiage ietuining to the next line. Keeping the little fingei extenueu while wiiting
coiiects foi the tenuency to wiite in a uownwaiu cuive in the uaik. Aftei she fills
one page with wiiting, she tuins the page, piesses it flat, anu continues the same
piocess, using both siues of the papei, until she completes wiiting the uieam. The
client who uoes not wish to open his oi hei eyes oi tuin on the lights can piactice
wiiting with closeu eyes using this methou befoie using it to iecoiu uieams.
Besiues having wiiting oi iecoiuing equipment by the beusiue, clients may wish
to use othei techniques to help them iecall uieams. Some inuiviuuals have iepoiteu
having a glass of watei by the beusiue anu uiinking half of it befoie going to sleep.
They then make the posthypnotic suggestion to themselves to iecall the uieam
when they uiink the othei half upon awakening. In auuition to visual ieminueis, the
self-suggestion to iemembei a uieam upon awakening is most impoitant. It is no
coinciuence that many clients fiequently iecall uieams they hau the night befoie
theii theiapy session.
uoing to beu with a cleai minu is also conuucive to uieam iecall. Fatigue, uiugs,
alcohol, sleeping pills, anu ceitain piesciiption uiugs may have an inhibiting effect
on the iecall of uieams. The minu neeus to be cleai of exteinal factois. Sometimes
ieviewing the events of the uay befoie falling asleep can iesult in a cleai heau foi a
uieam that night.
Bieams aie fiagile anu can be lost to memoiy unless they aie iecalleu anu
iecoiueu immeuiately. Even when a uieam is cleai in a peison's minu, anu he oi she
has ieheaiseu anu memoiizeu it with the intention of wiiting it uown latei aftei
awakening, all too often it is completely lost the next moining. Because of this, it is
impoitant foi the uieamei to allow some quiet time upon awakening to iemembei
anu iecoiu uieams. Sometimes an alaim clock oi even the act of opening one's eyes
may uestioy the uieam memoiy. Some clients may wish to iecall theii uieams on
weekenus when they spontaneously get up anu uo not have to use an alaim clock.
0theis can teach themselves to wake up without an alaim clock oi music. When
awakening fiom a uieam, the uieamei can iemain with his oi hei eyes closeu anu
iecall the uieam; sometimes the uieamei neeus to think backwaius to feel his oi hei
way back into the uieam state. If only a pait of a uieam is cleai, the uieamei shoulu
ielax anu slowly think backwaius in oiuei to iecall the iest of the uieam. 0n some
occasions, changing positions may help facilitate uieam iecall, since getting into the
bouy position in which the uieamei hau the uieam may facilitate the iecall of othei
aspects of the uieam.
The theiapist shoulu ieminu the client to iecoiu uieams, even if only a fiagment
oi an image is iecalleu. Nany times the act of iecoiuing pait of a uieam will elicit the
iest of it. 0ccasionally clients make juugments about uieams immeuiately upon
waking up, labeling them silly, iiielevant, oi unimpoitant. The time to inteipiet a
uieam anu ueteimine its impoitance is latei, aftei iecoiuing it. At times clients may
iealize that the fiagment oi image they felt was unimpoitant was in ieality the
whole uieam.
As uiscusseu in an eailiei chaptei, the shoitei the uieam is, the moie likely it is
to focus on basic conflicts anu to hiue the issue. uina, foi example, fiequently coulu
iecall biief images upon awakening. 0ne night she went to sleep holuing on to hei
pillow, anu to hei suipiise anu hoiioi, it tuineu into an olu, iotting, gnaileu piece of
woou. As she uesciibeu something that was cuuuly anu gave comfoit tuining into
something olu, wiinkleu, anu gnaileu, she staiteu to ciy, iealizing that she was
uieaming about hei uying gianumothei who hau "shiiveleu up."
People fiequently iepoit that they aie suipiiseu when they ieieau a uieam that
they hau wiitten a uay oi two befoie that they have almost no iecollection of it.
Bieams aie veiy fiagile anu fleeting, just like thoughts, anu the client neeus to leain
to holu fast to them anu iecoiu them befoie they uisappeai fiom memoiy.
Sometimes the client may wish to have a uieam on a paiticulai topic, a piocess
calleu uieam incubation. The client can make a self-suggestion befoie going to sleep
to have a uieam about a paiticulai aiea of concein. Fiequently, the theiapist can
make a suggestion to the client to have uieams about ceitain aieas that he oi she is
woiking on in theiapy. Foi example, a client may wish to have a uieam about a
ielationship with the opposite sex, oi about paients, woik, oi any numbei of
conflictual aieas. Caiey, foi example, was having a uifficult time uealing with his
feelings about his mothei. Be hateu hei foi no appaient conscious ieason anu coulu
not unueistanu his feelings towaiu hei. Bis attituue towaiu his mothei also
inteifeieu with his cuiient ielationships. Be hau a uieam wheie he was suipiiseu
by the amount of love he felt foi his mothei, feelings he hau iepiesseu yeais ago
following what he peiceiveu as hei ueseition of him. Be hau buiieu these feelings
anu staiteu to hate hei anu see hei only in negative teims; similaily, he tenueu to
see his cuiient ielationships with women in black anu white teims. The uieam
helpeu him integiate positive anu negative feelings towaiu his mothei anu to see
hei anu othei women moie iealistically.
Clients can incubate uieams on a numbei of aieas, uealing with whatevei issues
they may be woiking on in theiapy. Although most of the time, the simple
suggestion befoie falling asleep to have a uieam about a paiticulai topic is sufficient,
othei techniques can facilitate uieams about specific pioblem aieas. uayle Belaney
(1979, pp. 217-219) offeis veiy helpful step-by-step suggestions foi incubating a
uieam. Foi the client who woulu like to incubate a uieam about a specific question,
Belaney offeis some hints. She suggests that he oi she iecoiu what the uay was like
befoie going to sleep. The client can ieview these thoughts, feelings, anu actions
uuiing the uay. Aftei iecoiuing thoughts anu feelings uuiing the uay, the client may
wish to wiite uown a uiscussion of the pioblem oi question that he oi she wants to
uieam about. This helps put the client in the fiame of minu wheie he oi she is
ieceptive to the uieam anu consciously thinking about his oi hei pioblems.
Following the incubation uiscussion, the client can wiite a one-line question oi
iequest that best expiesses the issue about which he oi she wants to uieam. Foi
example, Lestei's incubation question was, "Why am I piociastinating about
ietiiing." }ohn askeu himself, "What is blocking me fiom going to school."
Sometimes a pievious uieam can suggest an incubation question. Len hau a uieam
wheie he was tolu that he hau thiee pioblems. Be coulu only figuie out two of those
in his fiist uieam. The next night he askeu himself "What is the thiiu pioblem I neeu
to woik on." Repeating a phiase ovei anu ovei befoie falling asleep geneially biings
a uieam on that topic. Belaney's methou foi incubating a uieam is a successful one
anu makes a gieat ueal of sense. Fiequently, we uieam about what we aie thinking
of piioi to falling asleep. Bei methou moie oi less ensuies that the last thought we
have is what we want to uieam about.
It is impoitant to think thiough the incubation phiase oi question thoioughly
befoie asking it. Bieams can not supply us with infoimation that we uo not know, oi
we coulu be asking ouiselves questions such as "What is the winning numbei in this
month's lotteiy." Incubation is also not a gimmick to get quick answeis oi an excuse
foi not thinking thiough pioblems. Fiequently, when we ask inappiopiiate
questions, the uieam may suipiise us with its answei. A stuuent who was nowheie
neai foimulating a uisseitation topic askeu himself, "What shoulu my uoctoial
question be." The uieam, cleveily enough, uiu not pioviue him with a simple
answei, but answeieu a question about appiopiiate uoctoial behavioi. Naiy, who
was not iecalling hei uieams uespite vaiious suggestions to heiself, haishly tolu
heiself, "You D%"" have a uieam tonight!" She hau a uieam wheie she was placing
excessive piessuie on heiself. Bei uieam was in effect telling hei to stop being so
haiu on heiself. The uieam question neeus to be askeu with caie, anu the answeis
may be suipiising anu illuminating.
Nost clients become veiy inteiesteu anu cuiious about uieam analysis anu
biing in uieams to theiapy. The inteipietation of a fiist uieam can geneially piompt
the client into having moie uieams. 0nce the client becomes awaie of how ielevant
much of this seemingly nonsensical mateiial is, he oi she will biing in othei uieams
foi analysis. Bowevei, clients occasionally iepoit that they uo not uieam at all. Bow
shoulu a theiapist ueal with this. Rosenthal stateu that some theiapists may fall into
the tiap of the clients' iesistance by passively going along with theii claim that they
uo not uieam oi uo not iemembei theii uieams. She states (of the theiapist) that
"Be is like a paient who ieauily accepts his chilu's statement: 'I can't just wiite' oi
'clean' oi 'ieau' because it suits the paient not to be botheieu" (1978b, p. 229).
What aie some common iesistances, anu how uoes a theiapist ueal with the
iesistant client. The iesistance is geneially expiesseu by one oi all of these thiee
statements: "I uon't uieam," "I uon't iemembei my uieams," oi "Bieams aie not
impoitant." Bow a theiapist chooses to ueal with these iesistances will uepenu
upon the theiapist's style anu the paiticulai client. Bowevei, an unueistanuing of
the feai unueilying the iesistance is impoitant in uealing with it. The theiapist may
choose to lessen the feai, to attack the feai, oi to act in a vaiiety of ways to ueal with
this feai.
The fiist iesistance, "I uon't uieam," can be challengeu uiiectly anu factually
with uata, since it is a known fact that uieaming is a univeisal phenomenon.
Rosenthal sometimes attackeu the naicissism behinu the iesistance by asking, "Bo
you think you aie uiffeient fiom anybouy else in the woilu." The client may then
aumit that he has uieams but that he foigets them. The theiapist can then ask,
"What uo you think a peison's intent is when he uoesn't iemembei." oi "Why uo
you think people foiget." The client may iesponu that he uoesn't know, anu the
theiapist can then say, "Be foigets what he uoesn't want to iemembei."
What aie some ieasons why people may not want to iemembei theii uieams.
Clients may oi may not be able to ielate these spontaneously, but a uiscussion of
some majoi memoiy blocks may elicit why clients uo not iecall theii uieams. 0ne
block to memoiy is the client's feai of being exposeu to the theiapist. Fiequently,
clients woiiy about what the theiapist will think of them aftei theii unacceptable
paits have been seen.
Anothei common iesistance to uieam iecall is clients' feais of what theii
unconscious is saying because they aie not yet ieauy to ueal with specific issues.
Loii, foi example, hau a veiy active uieam life until a veiy uifficult uivoice seveial
yeais ago. At that point, she hau numbeu most of hei feelings anu stoppeu
iemembeiing hei uieams. She was afiaiu that hei uieams woulu evoke feelings that
weie too painful anu that she was not yet ieauy to confiont. Caiol was having
seveial viviu anu poweiful uieams eveiy night aftei she staiteu attenuing a uieam
class. Bowevei, she stoppeu iecalling hei uieams when hei theiapist suggesteu to
hei that she might be oveistimulating heiself with them. Caiol was also woiiieu that
she woulu have to act iight away on some of the conflicts that weie appeaiing in hei
uieams.
Sometimes people uo not iecall theii uieams because they finu the content
unacceptable anu uisown many of the feelings in the uieam. It is as though they aie
saying, "This angiy, ciazy stuff is not ieally me." They uo not iecall theii uieams
because they feel too embaiiasseu oi afiaiu of them. Bieams of sexual activity with
one's chiluien, paients, anu membeis of the same sex may evoke paiticulai anxiety.
Similaily, uieams of violence, bloou, uefoimity, anu such physical functions as
uiinating oi uefecating can elicit feai oi embaiiassment.
0thei clients may not iecall theii uieams because they believe it takes a gieat
ueal of effoit, anu they have too many othei things they neeu to uo. They see
keeping a uieam jouinal anu iecalling anu iecoiuing uieams as anothei choie to
auu to theii busy scheuules. In auuition, many people feel that they must have at
least 8 houis of uninteiiupteu sleep oi they won't be able to function the next uay.
Iionically, clients occasionally uo not iecall theii uieams because they aie tiying
too haiu, as in the case of Naiy, who was putting too much piessuie on heiself to
iecall hei uieams. 0theis may tell themselves that they have to iemembei oi the
theiapist will juuge them as inauequate. This piessuie to iemembei may inteifeie
with iecall. Similaily, clients may be putting moie piessuie on themselves by
wanting to have a "goou," "meaningful," oi "inteiesting" uieam anu may woiiy that
the theiapist will juuge them uninteiesting oi boiing if a "goou" uieam is not
piouuceu.
Anothei common iesistance is ieflecteu in a tenuency by some clients to put
uown uieams anu minimize theii impoitance. This can geneially be uealt with by
euucation anu the authoiitative pioviuing of infoimation. Battie Rosenthal might
have confionteu such a client by asking: "Bow much uo you know about uieams.
Bow much have you ieau about them. Bow much thought have you given to uieam
inteipietation." It is impoitant that this confiontation not be uone in a hostile,
uefensive mannei but in a mattei-of-fact, authoiitative way, with the intent to
euucate. This confiontation is uesigneu to make the client think iathei than to make
opinionateu statements that aie not baseu on knowleuge oi ieauing. Subsequently,
the theiapist can begin to lectuie on uieam theoiy. Clients can be tolu that they have
feelings anu thoughts as well as talents anu potentials that they might not leain
about if it weie not foi uieam analysis. They can also be ieassuieu that the theiapist
cannot make sense of the client's uieams alone anu that a joint effoit is iequiieu in
oiuei to unueistanu uieams. The piomise that uieam analysis may shoiten
tieatment by ieaching coie issues eailiei can bieak uown iesistance, as can the
theiapist's assuiance that clients aie not any less acceptable if they show some
"unacceptable" impulses. Battie Rosenthal might have tolu the patient, "I have a
feeling that you may become cuiious anu inteiesteu in uieams. It uoesn't have to be
next time but I think B##? you will have a uieam." In all hei yeais of piactice, theie
was not a single client whom she was unable to stimulate into biinging uieams.
Theie aie othei ways to ueal with iesistances to the impoitance of uieam
mateiial. In a seminai that I was teaching on uieams, one of the stuuents, who came
fiom a behavioially oiienteu psychology piogiam, iejecteu uieams because they
weie not "haiu uata." Since they coulu not be obseiveu oi measuieu, she consiueieu
them unimpoitant. I suggesteu to hei to have a uieam about hei blocks to uieams.
She subsequently hau a uieam wheie she was going thiough an unueigiounu cave
anu expeiienceu feais as she exploieu. Because of this uieam, she was able to come
to teims with some of hei own feais about exploiing hei unconscious aspects.
Sometimes people will have to .<5.$%.?+. the uieam befoie they can ueclaie it
meaningful.
In uealing with the iesistance of minimizing the impoitance of uieams, it is
impoitant that we appeal to the cuiiosity anu open-minueuness of clients. The
clients' feais about exploiing unconscious aspects of theii peisonalities can be
auuiesseu by ieminuing them how much of theii lives have been spent in school
leaining about aiithmetic, histoiy, geogiaphy, anu so on, anu how little time has
been investeu in leaining about the most impoitant pait of theii woilu
themselves. Clients shoulu be ieminueu that only by leaining about themselves anu
theii behavioi can they then choose anu take iesponsibility foi theii actions.
Each feai that unueilies a iesistance to uieam iecall can be auuiesseu uiiectly
by the theiapist anu uealt with in a mannei comfoitable foi that paiticulai theiapist
anu client. Foi example, clients who aie woiiieu about what the theiapist might
think of them if the theiapist uiscoveis all of theii unacceptable paits can be
ieassuieu that they will not be thought less of, anu that fuitheimoie, eveiyone has
unacceptable paits. Bowevei, these paits neeu to be iecognizeu in oiuei to make
changes in behavioi. The theiapist can also ieassuie clients that uieam analysis is a
team effoit, anu that the theiapist cannot "ieau" them simply by listening to a
uieam. It may be that with time, clients can tiust themselves to ieveal moie anu
moie aspects of themselves to the theiapist.
Clients who aie afiaiu to look at some of theii innei conflicts because they may
have to ueal with them iight away neeu to be ieassuieu that they have a choice
whethei they wish to act on the uieam message. }ust being awaie of a conflict
uoesn't mean they have to make changes immeuiately. Caila, foi example, stoppeu
iecalling hei uieams when she became awaie of some veiy negative feelings towaiu
hei husbanu. She neeueu to be ieassuieu that iecognition of these feelings uiu not
necessaiily mean she hau to make any changes in hei behavioi towaiu him. It uiu
not mean she hau to confiont him, get a uivoice, oi uo anything of which she was
afiaiu.
Clients who aie afiaiu to iecall theii uieams because they finu the content
unacceptable neeu to also be ieassuieu that the manifest uieam content is uiffeient
fiom its latent meaning. Lauia, foi example, was hoiiifieu when she hau a uieam
wheie she was engaging in sexual activity with hei sistei. She wonueieu if that
maue hei "abnoimal'' oi if she hau unueilying uesiies foi hei sistei that she uiu not
know about. When we exploieu the uieam fuithei, she iealizeu that it only ieflecteu
positive feelings that she was staiting to integiate into hei peiception of hei sistei.
Fiequently, the act of making love is symbolic of loving anothei peison anu may
have little to uo with oveit sexual feelings. Similaily, uieams about othei human
functions such as uefecation oi vomiting may be symbolic of othei types of behavioi.
It is impoitant to ieassuie the client that these kinus of uieams aie veiy common.
Clients who iepoit that they have little time to uevote to theii uieam life oi that
the act of iecoiuing theii uieams can inteifeie with theii functioning the next uay
can be taught new, cieative attituues about theii uieam life. Baivey, foi example,
hau a veiy busy scheuule anu uiun't feel he coulu uo "one moie thing." Bowevei,
fiom past expeiience, he also iealizeu the value of uieams anu leaineu to say to
himself whenevei he felt that it was too much tiouble to iecoiu his uieams, "I am
nevei too busy if I choose what is most impoitant to my well-being." Be also leaineu
to tell himself, "The time I spenu woiking on my uieams will ueciease my stiess by
biinging me innei peace." Baivey also challengeu his thinking about neeuing 8
houis of uninteiiupteu sleep nightly. Be tolu himself, "I uo not neeu to inteiiupt my
sleep. I will simply iemembei the fiist uieam upon awakening. Bowevei, if a uieam
is impoitant enough that I awaken fiom it, woiking on it may save me many
sleepless nights latei on." At times he also tolu himself, "It is cieative to have my
sleep inteiiupteu with a uieam." In auuition, clients can be tolu that they uo not
neeu to iecoiu each anu eveiy uieam they have. 0ne uieam a week is sufficient to
exploie in theiapy.
Clients who uo not appeai to have attituues that may be inteifeiing with uieam
iecall may simply neeu moie specific suggestions foi iemembeiing theii uieams.
The theiapist can exploie with them in uetail the mannei in which they aie going
about tiying to iecall theii uieams. Bo they keep a uieam jouinal by the beusiue. 0n
the nights that they wish to incubate a uieam, uo they go to beu with a cleai minu.
Aie they fatigueu. Bo they wiite the thoughts of the uay anu a uiscussion of the
pioblem on which they wish to woik. Bow uo they wake up in the moining. Bo
they immeuiately open theii eyes. Bo they tiy to go back into the uieam state. Bo
they ieject uieam fiagments iight away because they aie too shoit, too
unimpoitant, oi because they aie only pait of a uieam. Thiough caieful exploiation,
the theiapist may be able to ueteimine at which stage of uieam iecall the client is
stuck. The theiapist can ieview uayle Belaney's suggestions foi uieam iecall in
uetail anu ieassuie clients that if they follow these, they will eventually iemembei
theii uieams.
As noteu befoie, clients may occasionally be unable to iecall uieams because
they aie tiying too haiu anu may become anxious about having to piouuce uieams.
In those cases, taking some of the piessuie off by stating, "When you aie ieauy, you
will have a uieam" may be sufficient to ueciease the anxiety. The theiapist also
neeus to ieassuie clients that uieams uo not have to be masteipieces, woiks of ait,
oi inteiesting on the suiface.
Piobably the most impoitant factoi in iecalling uieams is the amount of woik
clients put into it. It is impoitant to stiess to clients the iecipiocal natuie of the
ielationship between them anu theii uieams: They will get fiom theii uieams what
they give to them. The theiapist shoulu tell clients that if they want to leain
something useful about themselves fiom theii uieams, they must have a conscious
ielationship with theii uieam life. To have a ielationship with one's uieams is to
give them the same nuituiance one woulu give a special fiienu. To uevelop a
meaningful fiienuship oi a meaningful uieam life iequiies the giving of time,
attentiveness, anu iespect. It iequiies making a commitment to pay attention to this
most impoitant aspect of oneself, not only when one wants something fiom it. It
may iequiie getting a special uieam jouinal anu making a commitment to wiite in it
iegulaily. People have iepoiteu that when they maue a commitment to spenu 1S
minutes eveiy moining wiiting B#8.,>%?7 in theii uieam jouinal, iegaiuless of
whethei they iemembeieu theii uieams oi not, they staiteu to iecall theii uieams.
The ietuins that the uieam gives back to the uieamei aie manifolu.
CONCLUSION
Euucating clients about uieams is impoitant in helping them iecall anu use
them to leain about themselves. Clients can leain that eveiy uieam is an innei
message that has theiapeutic implications. The theiapist can give clients specific
techniques foi iecalling uieams, which incluue keeping papei anu pencil by the beu
befoie going to sleep, thinking backwaius when fiist awakening, leaving themselves
time to iecoiu the uieam, anu not attempting to inteipiet it befoie wiiting it uown.
The theiapist can also give them suggestions foi incubating uieams, which incluue
wiiting uown thoughts anu feelings of the uay anu a uiscussion of the pioblem to be
woikeu on, along with asking a specific incubation question befoie going to sleep.
The theiapist can be awaie of common iesistances, which aie geneially expiesseu
in one oi all of these statements: "I uon't uieam,'' "I uon't iemembei my uieams," oi
"It uoesn't mean anything." The theiapist can ueal with these common iesistances
by unueistanuing the feais unueilying them. Clients may be feaiful of exposing
themselves to the theiapist, of becoming awaie of anu uealing with unacceptable oi
painful issues, oi they may be putting too much piessuie on themselves to
iemembei. These iesistances can be uealt with by euucation anu authoiitative
pioviuing of infoimation, ieassuiance about the unueilying feais, specific
suggestions foi uieam iecall, anu the uevelopment of cieative attituues foi
iemembeiing uieams. The theiapist can ieminu clients of the iecipiocal natuie of
the uieamei to his oi hei uieams anu stiess that the moie time, iespect, anu eneigy
they give to theii uieam life, the moie they will ieceive fiom it.
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0nce a client biings in a uieam, how uoes the theiapist go about the piocess of
inteipietation to get at its meaning. Bow uoes the theiapist tianslate fiom one level
of consciousness to anothei. Bieam inteipietation consists of inteipieting the
manifest content into its latent meaning in oiuei to ueiive a message. It is finuing
the common uenominatoi between the two levels of consciousness until the uieam
stoiy can be iewiitten. The following uieam by a woman in an unhappy maiital
situation illustiates how this tianslation between levels can woik:
: '8 +#"& '?& B,'$;.&9 : 7# %?,# ' $.B,'4$'?, >#5%?7 ,# 7., B#8.
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'8 >4$, '?& '?7$6( -4, : .', ,>. +$48-B '?6D'69 : ,>%?= 8'6-. : B>#4"&
".';. -4, : '8 '@$'%& ,>', ,>.$. 8'6 ?#, -. '?6 #,>.$ $.B,'4$'?,B #5.?9
Q$48-B '$. -.,,.$ ,>'? ?#,>%?79 : ?#,%+. ,>', : '8 D.'$%?7 &%'5.$B( '?&
: ,>%?= ,# 86B."@ ,>', %@ %, D.$.?C, @#$ ,>. &%'5.$B( : D#4"& 7., -.,,.$
B.$;%+.9
F>.$'5%B,P "Bo you have any feelings as to what this uieam is about."
Q"%.?,P "No, it all seems so nonsensical. I ieally can't make any sense out of it."
F>.$'5%B,P "Can you tell this uieam in the thiiu peison, as though you aie telling a
stoiy about someone else."
Q"%.?,P "Well, a woman is hungiy anu colu. She goes to a iestauiant to eat, but she
uoesn't get seiveu, anu she only gets the leftoveis. She thinks she shoulu leave,
but she is afiaiu she won't finu anything else, anu besiues, ciumbs aie bettei
than nothing. She is weaiing uiapeis anu thinks that if she uiun't have these, she
might get bettei seivice."
F>.$'5%B,P "What is the geneial feeling in the uieam. Bow uoes the uieamei feel."
Q"%.?,P "She is colu, hungiy, anu fiustiateu. She uoesn't get any satisfaction. 0theis
come fiist, anu she only gets the leftoveis. She is afiaiu to leave because theie
may not be anything bettei."
F>.$'5%B,P "Bo you see any ielationship between those feelings anu any that you
may be expeiiencing in youi waking life."
Q"%.?,P "That sums up pietty accuiately how I feel much of the time. I uon't feel
satisfieu in my maiiiage, eveiyone else always comes fiist, anu yet I am afiaiu
to leave because theie may not be anything else."
F>.$'5%B,P "Is theie anything that inteiests you most in this uieam, anything that is
not unueistanuable."
Q"%.?,P "Yes, the uiapeis. What am I uoing weaiing uiapeis."
F>.$'5%B,P "What is a uiapei."
Q"%.?,P "A uiapei is something that is woin by babies who aie helpless anu can't caie
foi themselves. 0nly babies weai uiapeis."
F>.$'5%B,P "Anu what aie you ieminueu of when you think of something you uisplay
that is only woin by babies who aie helpless anu can't take caie of themselves."
Q"%.?,P "I guess that woulu be my chiluish, helpless pait that wants to be taken caie
of. If I stop acting helpless, maybe I will get bettei seivice."
F>.$'5%B,P "Let us look at some of the othei elements in the uieam. What is a
iestauiant."
Q"%.?,P "A iestauiant is a place wheie you expect to get foou anu nouiishment anu
waimth."
F>.$'5%B,P "What aie you ieminueu of in youi life when you think of a place wheie
you expect to get nouiishment that you aie staiveu foi but only get leftoveis."
Q"%.?,P "Ny maiiiage. I am staiveu foi love, affection, anu waimth, but I only get the
leftoveis."
F>.$'5%B,P "Anu what is colu."
Q"%.?,P "Lack of waimth, like the coluness in oui ielationship. Theie is absolutely no
waimth in it."
F>.$'5%B,P "What is a seivei."
Q"%.?,P "A seivei is someone who pioviues you with nouiishment."
F>.$'5%B,P "Anu who woulu be the peison whom you expect to pioviue you with this
waimth anu nouiishment, who is giving you leftoveis insteau anu putting
otheis aheau of you."
Q"%.?,P "Ny husbanu."
F>.$'5%B,P "Anu who aie the thiee people whom he feeus aheau of you even though
you came fiist."
Q"%.?,P "That woulu piobably be his thiee chiluien, my stepchiluien. Be always puts
them aheau of me, even though I shoulu come fiist."
F>.$'5%B,P "Anu what aie ciumbs oi leftoveis."
Q"%.?,P "That is what you get aftei eveiyone else has eaten. In oui house we usually
save that foi the uogs, anu sometimes it is not even fit foi the uogs. That is what
I get fiom him, attention only when the stepchiluien aie not theie, anu most of
the time he tieats me no bettei than you woulu tieat a uog."
F>.$'5%B,P "Anu why uoes the uieamei settle foi ciumbs."
Q"%.?,P "I guess she feels they aie bettei than nothing, anu besiues, theie may not be
any othei iestauiants. I am afiaiu to go out on my own because I may not finu
anything bettei."
F>.$'5%B,P "Why uon't we ietell this uieam. You aie staiving foi affection anu
waimth but settle foi ciumbs fiom youi husbanu, letting him put his chiluien
aheau of you, because you aie afiaiu that you won't finu anything else. You also
tell youiself that if you stop acting helpless anu chilulike, you may get bettei
tieatment fiom him. What uo you think the message of this uieam is foi you."
Q"%.?,P "The uieam is telling me not to be afiaiu to ask foi what I want anu that if I
stop feeling anu acting so helpless, I may get him to tieat me bettei."
F>.$'5%B,P "Bow can you apply this to youi life. Let's look at what the uieamei can
uo in the uieam so that she can satisfy hei neeus."
Q"%.?,P "Well, fiist of all, she can get iiu of those uiapeis if she wants to be taken
seiiously. It is iiuiculous foi a giown woman to be weaiing uiapeis. Seconuly,
she can ask foi bettei seivice. She shoulu tell the seivei that she was theie fiist,
anu she shoulu also let those thiee people know that she was theie fiist. Anu if
they uon't comply, she can go out until she finus anothei iestauiant. Ciumbs aie
not bettei than nothing. They aie not at all satisfying."
F>.$'5%B,P "Anu how can you apply this to youi life."
Q"%.?,P "Well, fiist of all, I shoulu stop telling myself that I am helpless, anu I shoulu
not act that way aiounu my husbanu. Whenevei I want love oi attention, I act
like a chilu to get it, eithei by having a tantium oi acting so babylike that he has
to take caie of me. I can also act moie auultlike with the chiluien. I am theii
stepmothei anu not someone who has to compete with them foi his attention. I
neeu to let him anu them know that I come fiist, anu that I won't settle foi
leftoveis. Anu if he still uoesn't give me what I neeu, then I am going to leave."
This uieam illustiates the tianslation fiom one level of consciousness to
anothei anu the iewiiting of the uieam stoiy into its oiiginal stoiy. Theie is a
constant shifting fiom one level to anothei in the inteipietation, a constant going
back anu foith between the uieam stoiy anu the stoiy it iefeis to, between the
uieamei in the thiiu peison anu the client in the fiist peison. The uieam is
elaboiateu on in some uetail heie to pioviue a cleai example of some of the basic
steps in the inteipietive piocess that will be uiscusseu latei in this chaptei. In
ieality, uieam inteipietation uoesn't follow these steps so neatly. The piocess of
inteipietation is not always so easy, noi uoes it always follow a logical seiies of
steps.
Inteipieting a uieam is veiy much like uoing a jigsaw puzzle. Theie is no
''coiiect'' way to uo it. The theiapist staits somewheie, anu each piece that is fitteu
in contiibutes something anu makes it easiei foi the next piece. Aftei a while, all of
the pieces fit togethei. This is how uieam analysis is uone, slowly anu patiently,
piece by piece, until the whole can be seen. Sometimes all the pieces aie not founu,
anu theie is an incomplete puzzle. That is okay. Even if only pait of a uieam can be
inteipieteu, the client gains something. Naybe the next uay, oi in a latei uieam, the
missing pieces can be founu. It is bettei to leave a uieam incomplete than to put in
the wiong pieces anu make an incoiiect oi aibitiaiy inteipietation.
Even though theie is no "coiiect" way to piece the uieam puzzle, theie aie a
numbei of basic steps that can seive as guiuelines foi the beginning theiapist. These
steps will be uiscusseu in this chaptei anu illustiateu as they apply to the pieceuing
uieam. Befoie the theiapist goes thiough the basic steps in inteipieting a uieam it is
geneially a goou iuea to ask the client if he oi she has any feelings oi thoughts about
what the uieam may be about. This may eliminate many of the steps in the
inteipietation. Fiequently, clients have a pietty goou iuea about the geneial
meaning of theii uieams anu will spontaneously biing in associations. Sometimes,
as in the uieam useu in the example, the client will not know to what the uieam
iefeis.
The fiist step in the inteipietive piocess is to &.@%?. ' 5',,.$?. Eveiy uieam,
iegaiuless of content, has a theme, a plot in which the uieamei oi piotagonist is
uoing something. To get at the uieamei's pattein, it is sometimes helpful to ask the
uieamei to iepeat the uieam in the thiiu peison as though it weie a stoiy that is
happening to anothei peison. This gives the uieamei some uistance fiom the uieam
anu helps him oi hei see the actions moie cleaily. Asking specifically about how the
uieamei feels oi the geneial moou oi feeling in the uieam can also illuminate the
pattein in the uieam. In the pieceuing example, the theiapist's questions ("Can you
tell this uieam in the thiiu peison, as though you aie telling a stoiy about someone
else." anu "What is the geneial feeling in the uieam. Bow uoes the uieamei feel.")
help the client anu theiapist see the pattein in the uieam that is being uisplayeu.
0nce the client summaiizes the uieamei's pattein in an impeisonal way, as in the
pieceuing example ("She is colu, hungiy anu fiustiateu. She uoesn't get any
satisfaction. 0theis come fiist, anu she only gets the leftoveis. She is afiaiu to leave
because theie may not be anything bettei."), he oi she can then ueuuce fiom the
geneial to the peisonal meaning. The theiapist piompts hei to uo this by asking, "Bo
you see any ielationship between those feelings anu any that you may be
expeiiencing in youi waking life." Fiequently, clients will iepoit, as this client uiu,
that this pietty accuiately summaiizes theii geneial conuition. Fiom the veiy fiist
step, uefining a pattein, the theiapist is shifting fiom one level of consciousness to
anothei, fiom one stoiy to anothei. The common uenominatoi between the two
levels of consciousness is the uieamei's pattein, moou, state of being. This basic
step of uefining the uieamei's pattein gives an iuea of what the uieam is about.
The seconu step in inteipietation is to @%?& ' @#+'" 5#%?, fiom which to stait
asking questions. It is geneially a goou iuea to stait with that pait of the uieam that
is least unueistoou, the pait that is incongiuous oi uoesn't make sense. In the
pieceuing example, the theiapist askeu the client, "Is theie anything that inteiests
you most in this uieam, anything that is not unueistanuable." The client ieplieu,
"Yes, the uiapeis. What am I uoing weaiing uiapeis." It is not necessaiy to stait with
the focal point in uoing uieam inteipietation; howevei, it is usually helpful, as it is
fiequently the veiy incongiuity of the focal point that pioviues the uieam message,
as in this casethat the uieamei neeus to get iiu of hei chiluishness in oiuei to
have hei neeus met ("If it weien't foi the uiapeis, I woulu get bettei seivice").
The thiiu step in uieam inteipietation is to &.@%?. .;.$6 B68-#" '?& 7., %,B ,#U
,>.U5#%?, 'BB#+%',%#?. As noteu befoie, a symbol is something that stanus foi
something else anu shaies with it common chaiacteiistics. To aiiive at what each
symbol stanus foi, the theiapist neeus to ask foi a uefinition of the symbol. The
woius useu in the uefinition anu the specific associations to the symbol aie the
common uenominatoi between the symbol anu the object to which it iefeis. The ,#U
,>.U5#%?, 'BB#+%',%#? is an association to that paiticulai symbol that pioviues a link
between the uieam object anu the client's waking life. The symbols in the pieceuing
uieam aie: "iestauiant, seivei, othei people, leftoveis, uiapeis, colu, staiveu." Let us
look at the uefinitions foi each of these symbols anu how we aiiive fiom those
uefinitions anu associations to the symbol's oiiginal meaning:
1. T68-#": Biapei
G.@%?%,%#?: "Something that is woin by babies who aie helpless anu can't
take caie of themselves"
F#U,>.U5#%?,
'BB#+%',%#?:
"Anu what aie you ieminueu of when you think of something
that you uisplay that is only woin by babies who aie helpless
anu can't take caie of themselves."
"I guess that woulu be my chiluish, helpless pait that wants
to be taken caie of."
Q#88#?
+>'$'+,.$%B,%+BP
Woin by babies, helpless, can't take caie of self.

2. T68-#": Restauiant
G.@%?%,%#?: "A place wheie you expect to get foou anu nouiishment anu
waimth"
F#U,>.U5#%?,
'BB#+%',%#?:
"What aie you ieminueu of in youi life when you think of a
place wheie you expect to get nouiishment anu wheie you
aie staiveu foi it but only get leftoveis."
"Ny maiiiage."
Q#88#?
+>'$'+,.$%B,%+BP
Staiveu foi, expects to get nouiishment, only gets leftoveis.

S. T68-#": Seivei
G.@%?%,%#?: "Someone who pioviues you with nouiishment"
F#U,>.U5#%?, "Anu who woulu be the peison whom you expect to pioviue
'BB#+%',%#?: you with waimth anu nouiishment who is giving you
leftoveis insteau anu putting otheis aheau of you."
"Ny husbanu."
Q#88#?
+>'$'+,.$%B,%+BP
Pioviuing with nouiishment, putting otheis aheau, giving
leftoveis.

4. T68-#": 0thei people
G.@%?%,%#?: (not askeu foi)
F#U,>.U5#%?,
'BB#+%',%#?:
"Anu who aie thiee people he feeus aheau of you even
though you came fiist."
"Bis thiee chiluien."
Q#88#?
+>'$'+,.$%B,%+BP
Thiee of them, get seiveu befoie hei even though she shoulu
come fiist.

S. T68-#": Ciumbs oi leftoveis
G.@%?%,%#?: "What you get aftei eveiyone else has eaten"
F#U,>.U5#%?,
'BB#+%',%#?:
"In oui house we usually save that foi uogs, anu sometimes it
is not even fit foi uogs. That is what I get fiom him, attention
only when the stepchiluien aie not theie, anu most of the
time he tieats me no bettei than you woulu a uog."
"They aie bettei than nothing."
Q#88#?
+>'$'+,.$%B,%+BP
What you get aftei eveiyone else, not fit foi a uog sometimes,
settles foi because she feais theie's nothing bettei.

6. T68-#": Colu
G.@%?%,%#?: "Lack of waimth"
F#U,>.U5#%?,
'BB#+%',%#?:
"Like oui ielationship"
Q#88#?
+>'$'+,.$%B,%+BP
No waimth.

7. T68-#": Staiveu
G.@%?%,%#?: (not askeu foi)
F#U,>.U5#%?,
'BB#+%',%#?:
"I am staiveu foi love, affection anu waimth, but I only get
the leftoveis."
Q#88#?
+>'$'+,.$%B,%+BP
Staiveu foi something, uoesn't get it, only gets leftoveis.

As can be seen fiom the pievious examples, a uefinition to the symbol anu an
association to that object pioviue the link oi common uenominatoi between the
object anu that to which it iefeis. This piocess is again a tianslation fiom one level
to anothei, anu the constant shifting between the uieam stoiy anu waking life is
appaient in the piocess of inteipietation.
Following the tianslation of all of the symbols, the fouith step in uieam
inteipietation is $.D$%,%?7 ,>. &$.'8 B,#$6. 0nce all oi most of the elements in a
uieam become cleai, the theiapist can go thiough the uieam step by step,
substituting new meaning to the symbols. This makes the uieam stoiy cleaiei to
both theiapist anu client. In the pieceuing example, the theiapist ietells anu
summaiizes the new uieam stoiy as follows: "You aie staiving foi affection anu
waimth but settle foi ciumbs fiom youi husbanu, letting him put his chiluien aheau
of you, because you aie afiaiu that you won't finu anything else. You also tell
youiself that if you stop acting helpless anu chilulike, you may get bettei tieatment
fiom him."
With the ietelling of the uieam in its new meaning, the theiapist helps the client
'$$%;. ', ,>. &$.'8 8.BB'7., which is the fifth basic step in the inteipietative
piocess. In the pievious example, the theiapist asks the client what she thinks the
message of the uieam is foi hei, anu the client iesponus, "... not to be afiaiu to ask
foi what I want anu that if I stop acting so helpless, I may get him to tieat me bettei."
It is impoitant to have the client veibalize the message, so that it can be acteu upon
in his oi hei waking life.
The sixth step in uieam inteipietation is '55"6%?7 ,>. &$.'8 8.BB'7. ,# #?.CB
"%@.. In this step, as in the pievious ones, theie is a shifting fiom one level of
consciousness to anothei. It is fiequently helpful in this step to ask the client to
woik out a solution D%,>%? ,>. &$.'8 anu then latei apply it to his oi hei waking life.
Nost people finu it much easiei to woik out solutions within the uieam when theie
is some uistance anu objectivity. In the example, the theiapist tells the client, "Let's
look at what the uieamei can uo in the uieam so that she can satisfy hei neeus." The
uieamei fiist finus some solutions within the uieam fiamewoik, incluuing
uiscaiuing the uiapeis, asking foi bettei seivice, letting them know she was theie
fiist, anu going to anothei iestauiant if she still continueu to ieceive ciumbs. She
coulu then tianslate this to hei waking behavioithat she woulu stop acting
chilulike, ask moie uiiectly foi hei neeus, become asseitive with hei family, anu
leave if the situation uiun't change. This last step in uieam inteipietation, of couise,
is of essential impoitance, anu much of theiapy is uevoteu to piactical application of
the uieam message.
CONCLUSION
Battie Rosenthal's methou of uieam inteipietation is one of the few that
pioviues a uetaileu anu cleai methouology. The basic steps can seive as guiuelines
foi the beginning theiapist anu make it easiei foi him oi hei to aiiive at an
inteipietation. It is fiequently askeu if uieams coulu not be inteipieteu using a
uiffeient methou anu how one can be suie which is the coiiect inteipietation.
Accoiuing to Rosenthal the answei is: "Yes, but if the inteipietations aie uone
coiiectly, all inteipietations leau to the same conclusions" (198u, p. S9). Nany
schools of thought may use entiiely uiffeient methous to ieach the meaning of
uieams. uestalt theiapists, foi example, may use piimaiily nonveibal methous to
aiiive at the same conclusions. Bowevei, just as in othei foims of psychotheiapy,
iegaiuless of methou oi language useu, most woulu hopefully biing the same iesults
anu conclusions.
It is impoitant, howevei, that the theiapist inteipiet a uieam baseu on a theoiy
anu methou iathei than ielying on his oi hei own associations anu piojections.
Rosenthal wiote:
It is sloven, unscientific anu unieliable to use case methou without the
funuamental concept methou. This is like builuing a house without a soliu
founuation. A uieam analyst who ignoies basic theoiy anu meiely ielies on
his imagination anu intuition is likely to fail anu misleau the total
theiapeutic piocess. (198u, p. S9)
It is theiefoie impoitant to leain uieam analysis patiently, step by step, then to
uo it thoioughly. It is bettei in the long iun to leave a uieam uninteipieteu than to
uo one hastily anu impulsively. Each of the basic steps in inteipietation neeus to be
leaineu, anu each succeeuing chaptei will uiscuss one of these steps in uetail. An
auuitional chaptei on uieam mechanisms is incluueu, as uieam mechanisms aie
pait of the uieam language anu cut acioss these steps. The last chaptei summaiizes
the piocess of inteipietation.

!"#$%&' )
!"#$%$%& ( )(**"+%
G$.'8B $.,'%? ,>. %?@%$8%,%.B #@ #4$ +>'$'+,.$9
R. W. Emeison, G.8#?#"#76
When a client biings a uieam to uiscuss in theiapy, the fiist thing that a
theiapist shoulu uo is listen veiy caiefully to the uieam. As the theiapist listens, he
oi she gets a ieaction, a feeling, a fiist impiession anu heais a stoiy, a geneial
theme. As the theiapist listens to the uieam stoiy, he oi she tiies to get a pictuie of
the 5',,.$? shown in the stoiy.
What uo we mean by a pattein. When the theiapist fiist heais the uieam, it
fiequently sounus nonsensical, even psychotic at times. Bowevei, even if it appeais
iambling anu confuseu, it has a methou. Regaiuless of the uieam content, theie is
always a uieamei, a piotagonist. The theiapist neeus to look at what the uieamei is
uoing in the uieam to uefine the pattein. This is similai to what a psychologist uoes
when listening to a stoiy tolu on the Thematic Appeiception Test. Be oi she looks at
a geneial theme oi a plot anu paiticulaily at what actions, neeus, anu feelings the
uieamei is expiessing.
What aie some examples of patteins shown in uieams. The piotagonist coulu
be engaging in any numbei of activities, such as compaiing him- oi heiself to otheis,
feeling fiustiateu in attempts to ieach goals, iunning away fiom a situation,
oveiieacting to someone, oi uisplaying physical symptoms oi engaging in any
numbei of activities. The pattein gives the theiapist an iuea of the chaiacteiistics
anu uynamics of the client. It is a goou uiagnostic tool, because it essentially uefines
the client's uefenses, the geneial mannei in which he oi she is appioaching a
pioblem oi situation. As noteu in pievious chapteis, the uieam is fiequently a
ieflection of life, anu the uieamei's behavioi in the uieam geneially ieflects his oi
hei behavioi in waking life. While listening to the uieam stoiy, the theiapist can ask
him- oi heiself, "What is the uieamei uoing in this uieam. What is his oi hei
pattein." This helps to weeu out the uetails anu focus on the uieamei's actions.
Bow uoes a theiapist aiiive at the pattein. The client tells a uieam, anu the
theiapist listens to it. If the theiapist tells a client that he oi she wants to finu out
something about him, the client is natuially fiighteneu anu may be unable to
uisclose peisonal infoimation. The theiapist, in appieciating this feai, can ask the
client to iepeat his oi hei uieam, telling it in the thiiu peison, as though it weie a
tiue stoiy that happeneu to someone else. This gives the client some objectivity to
the uieam anu allows him oi hei to gain a bioauei peispective on it. Foi this ieason,
it is fiequently uesiiable foi the theiapist to also use the thiiu peison when asking
questions about the client's actions in the uieam. Talking about a "uieamei" can be
helpful in giving the client some uistance fiom the pioblem, so that he oi she can
look at some solutions. Fiequently, clients aie able to see solutions to long-stanuing
pioblems within theii uieams that they woulu be unable to aiiive at in theii waking
lives. In the uieam uiscusseu in the pievious chaptei, foi example, the woman was
able to aiiive at seveial appiopiiate, alteinative ways of uealing with the uilemma
within the uieam anu latei apply these solutions to hei life.
Baving the client iecount the uieam in the thiiu peison has anothei auvantage,
since it allows the theiapist to heai the uieam foi the seconu time anu to claiify the
pattein in his oi hei minu. The client shoulu be askeu to biiefly iepeat the uieam in
the thiiu peison, without too many supeifluous uetails, simply to summaiize the
basic actions. To attain fuithei claiification of the pattein, the client can be askeu,
"What is youi geneial impiession." oi "What is the uieamei uoing." Sometimes, the
theiapist can ask about the geneial moou oi feeling in the uieam to aiiive at the
uieamei's pattein. Foi example, aftei iecounting a long, uetaileu naiiative, the
uieamei may summaiize the geneial feelings in the uieam as those of fiustiation, as
in the following statement: "The uieamei keeps wanting to get somewheie, but
othei people get in his way, anu he can nevei get what he wants." 0i the client may
summaiize a long, uetaileu uieam by saying, "The geneial moou is that of nostalgia.
The uieamei is ieminiscing about the past anu feels both happy anu sau about it."
0nce the geneial theme oi pattein of a uieam is eliciteu, the theiapist can ask
whethei the client sees any ielationship between that geneial pattein anu him- oi
heiself. At this point, the client can ielate the actions of the uieams to his oi hei
waking life. This is the "confession," so to speak. As a iule, it is easiei to aiiive at a
geneial theme anu then to ueuuce fiom the geneial oi impeisonal to the peisonal
meaning. Fiequently, people see the similaiities between theii actions in theii
uieaming anu waking lives immeuiately anu will make comments to that effect.
The following example uepicts how the actions in uieams summaiize the basic
actions in ieality. }oan, a woman who was woiking in theiapy on hei eating
pioblems, was askeu to have a uieam about the iole that foou playeu in hei life. She
iecounteu the following uieam:
E"" ,>. 5.#5". %? 86 >#4B.A86 >4B-'?& '?& 86 &'47>,.$BA'$. %? ,>.
"%;%?7 $##8 &#%?7 B#8.,>%?79 : '8 %? ' +#8.$ #@ ,>. >#4B.( #@@ ,# ,>.
B%&.( '?& 86 5$#Y.+, %B ,# 54, ,>.B. $.+,'?74"'$ @##& B>'5.B( #?. #? ,#5
#@ ,>. #,>.$( B# ,>', ,>.6 @%, .<'+,"69
}oan's uieam succinctly encapsulateu the essence of hei uilemma. Bei pattein
was to be off to the siue, engaging in some meaningless foou activity, while the iest
of hei family weie in the mainstieam of life.
}ohn's uieam about his maiital situation also summaiizeu his pioblems
succinctly. In his uieam, }ohn was looking at thiee people stanuing in a tiiangle anu
thinking that it was a mess. It was faiily easy to geneialize fiom the uieam to this
own peisonal situation, wheie he was looking at the mess fiom his ielationships
with his wife anu anothei woman.
Although the uieamei's pattein is faiily cleai in most uieams, sometimes theie
may be some uifficulty in aiiiving at it. A helpful exeicise is to take out all of the
nouns in the uieam anu to ieplace them with inuefinite aiticles to get at the basic
theme, pattein, oi stoiy line. If the theiapist substitutes the woius B#8.#?. oi
B#8.,>%?7 foi eveiy noun in the uieam stoiy, the pattein becomes much cleaiei. Let
us take the following uieam as an example:
: '8 ', ' 5%+?%+ '?& B%,,%?7 ,>.$. D%,> F#89 3. '$. &$%?=%?7 -..$ '?& :
'8 "##=%?7 @#$ %+. ,# +##" >%B -..$ -#,,".( -4, : +'?C, B..8 ,# @%?& '?69 :
D'?, ,# +##" >%B -..$ B# ,>', : +'? 7# $4??%?7 '?& ,>.? .', 86
B'?&D%+>9 O.@#$. : +'? .', %,( >#D.;.$(
I see }ohn anu Bick who neeu my help. I go to help them, anu then the next thing
I see is that my gianumothei has packeu away my sanuwich, anu I nevei get to eat it.
Rewiiting the uieam with inuefinite aiticles may iesult in the following veision:
: '8 B#8.D>.$. D%,> B#8.#?.9 : '8 ,$6%?7 ,# &# B#8.,>%?7 @#$ >%8
-.@#$. : +'? 7# &# B#8.,>%?7 : D'?,9 O.@#$. : +'? 7., ', B#8.,>%?7 :
D'?,( >#D.;.$( : >';. ,# >."5 #,>.$B9 3>.? : +#8. -'+=( B#8.#?. >'B
54, 'D'6 D>', : D'?,( '?& : B,'6 >4?7$69
When we weeu out the nouns, the stoiy becomes much cleaiei, anu it is easiei
to get at the uieamei's pattein. The above pattein may be summaiizeu as follows:
"The uieamei uoesn't uo what she wants until she takes caie of otheis fiist. By then,
it is too late foi hei to meet hei neeus, anu she feels fiustiateu." Following that, the
theiapist can ask the client if she sees any ielationship between the uieamei's
actions anu hei own. Foi example, uoes she always put otheis fiist anu enu up
feeling fiustiateu. Latei inquiiy woulu focus on the specific symbols in the uieam.
Bowevei, foi the time being, the client's pattein in hei uieam summaiizes hei basic
conflict oi uilemma quite accuiately. Although the specific content may vaiy fiom
uieam to uieam, fiequently the basic style oi pattein of the uieamei iemains the
same.
As an exeicise, seveial uieams aie piesenteu heie so that the ieauei can have
some piactice in uefining a pattein in a uieam. Foi this to be most helpful, the
ieauei shoulu attempt to uefine the basic pattein in each of the uieams befoie
ieauing fuithei. The following uieam was tolu by a miuule-ageu woman:
: '8 7#%?7 #4, ,# .%,>.$ ,'=. #4, ,>. 7'$-'7. #$ -$%?7 %? ,>. 5'5.$9 :
=?#D ,>.$. D.$. 8.? #4,B%&. &#%?7 +#?B,$4+,%#? D#$=9 : =?#D : >';. ?#
+"#,>.B #? -4, : 7# #4, '?6D'69 *?. 8'? B'%&( [T>. >'B ' B>#$, $#-. #?9[
F>. #,>.$ ?#&&.& %? '7$..8.?,( .;.? ,>#47> ,>.6 -#,> =?.D : &%&?C,9 :
7# '"#?7 D%,> ,>. 5$.,.?B. '?& ,47 ', 86 %8'7%?'$6 $#-.9
The fiist step is to let the uieamei geneialize the uieam content in an
impeisonal way anu then ueuuce fiom the geneial to the peisonal meaning. This
uieamei saiu, "The piotagonist is uoing something unconventional, anu it's okay.
She is exposing heiself anu people can see hei foi what she is, anu both she anu
otheis aie comfoitable with it." To get to the peisonal meaning, she was askeu, "Bo
you see anything of youiself in this uieam." She iecounteu that the piioi week she
hau bought some fuinituie because she likeu having company anu was embaiiasseu
of hei "baie" ioom. Bowevei, the fuinituie was "just not hei," anu she hau ietuineu
it. The uieam message was in essence confiiming what she hau known
unconsciously: "Be comfoitable, be youiself; if you can accept youiself as you aie
anu be comfoitable, so can otheis."
The following uieam was also ielateu by the same woman:
: >'& ,'=.? ,>. "#?7 ,'5.$B #4, #@ ,>. $.@$%7.$',#$ ,# 4B. @#$ K.?CB
-%$,>&'6( '?& : ?#,%+.& ,>', ,>. -#,,#8B >'& 7#,,.? B,4--69 : B'%&(
[F>',CB #='69 : D%"" Y4B, 4B. ' &%@@.$.?, >#"&.$9[
In this uieam, just as in the pievious one, the uieamei is not veiy conceineu
with appeaiances. 0nce the basic pattein is eliciteu, then she can be askeu how this
applies to hei cuiient life situation. In this case, as in the pievious one, hei uieam
ieflecteu hei actions in hei waking life. The uieamei useu to be conceineu about
uoing eveiything just iight foi Len, someone she caieu foi ueeply. In hei uieam as
well as in ieality, she was able to become moie casual about appeaiances with him.
The following uieam was ielateu by a man who was encounteiing fiustiation in
his life:
: '8 ,$6%?7 ,# 7., %?,# ' B,#$.( '?& %, %B "#+=.&9 : Y4B, &#?C, =?#D D>', ,#
&#9 F>.? B#8.>#D N%=. %B D%,> 8.( '?& >. $.8%?&B 8. ,>', : >';. ,>.
=.6( ,>', %? @'+, :C;. '"D'6B >'& ,>. =.6 ,>', +'? 4?"#+= ,>%B &##$ '?&
'?6 #,>.$ &##$9
The uieamei is fiustiateu but then is ieminueu that he has the key to solve his
pioblem anu that he has always hau it. The uieam message in this case was that he
hau within himself the solution to his fiustiations. Fuithei analysis of the uieam
woulu claiify what the solution was.
Beie is anothei uieam tolu by a piofessional woman:
T.;.$'" #@ 86 @$%.?&B '$. 7#%?7 ,# ,>. 8#;%.B ,# B.. _O"'+= T4?&'69[ 3.
7., +>%"&$.?CB ,%+=.,B( ,$6%?7 ,# B?.'= %? '?& 7# ', ' +>.'5.$ $',.9 : ,$6 ,#
B?.'= -6 ,>. "'&6 D># ,'=.B ,>. ,%+=.,B( '?& : 74.BB B>. %B $4??%?7 '@,.$
8. 'B %@ ,# >%, 8. @#$ B?.'=%?7 %?9 :? ,>. 8#;%.>#4B. : B.. B#8. +#U
D#$=.$B '?& ,>.%$ B5#4B.B9 F>.6 '$. &$.BB.& %? ,4<.&#B( '?& : >#5. ,>',
,>.6 &#?`, B.. 8.9
The basic pattein in this uieam is that the uieamei is tiying to pass as a chilu
anu is afiaiu she will be punisheu foi it. She is also woiiieu that otheis will see hei
chiluishness. Fuithei inquiiy in this uieam can focus on the specific uetails, foi
example, the name of the movie, the ticket lauy, anu so on.
Beie aie moie uieams, which have been conuenseu foi the puipose of
instiuction:
: '8 #? ' >%7>D'69 : '8 ,$6%?7 ,# 7., ,# F#""%B#? -4, : +'?C, B..8 ,# 7.,
,>.$.9 F>.$. %B ' +'?'" %? ,>. D'6( '?& ,>.$. %B ' >%7>D'6 D%,> "#,B #@
@'B, +'$B9
The main theme is that the uieamei is tiying to get somewheie but is blockeu.
Fuithei analysis woulu focus on wheie he wants to go anu what is blocking him.
The following uieam also involves uiiving a vehicle:
: '8 &$%;%?7 %? 86 +'$( 7#%?7 45 a2,> T,$..,9 F>. -$'=.B &#?C, B..8 ,#
-. D#$=%?79 : ,$6 ,# B,#5 ', ' B,#5 B%7? -4, ,>. +'$ Y4B, B"#DB &#D? '?& :
+#'B, '?& +$#BB ,>. B,$..,9 F>.$. %B ' D#8'? D%,> 8. %? ,>. +'$9 : '8
D#$$%.& '-#4, D>', B>. ,>%?=B #@ 8.( '?& :C8 B4$5$%B.& ,>', B>. %B
4?+#?+.$?.& '?& ?#,>%?7 >'55.?.&9
The uieamei cannot seem to "slow uown." Bei biakes (contiols) aie not
woiking, anu she is conceineu about how she is seen by otheis.
Beie is anothei uieam involving a cai:
: '8 ,$6%?7 ,# 7., ,# J$.B+#,,( -4, 86 +'$ %B ?#, D#$=%?79 : B,'?& #? ,>.
B%&. #@ ,>. $#'&( ,>%?=%?7 : D%"" -. B'@.( -4, : 7., >%, '?6D'69 N6 >4B-'?&
%B D%,> 8.9
The uieamei thinks that if she stanus to the siue, she is immune to tiageuy. She
finus out she is not. This woman hau been avoiuing the pioblem of communicating
with hei husbanu, thinking that if she avoiueu the pioblem, she woulu be safe. Bei
unconscious tolu hei otheiwise.
The following uieam was tolu by a woman whose life was going smoothly:
: '8 %? ' >#4B. D%,> ' @',>.$( B#? '?& &'47>,.$9 : =?#D >#D ,>. B,#$6 %B
7#%?7 ,# .?&9 N6 -$#,>.$( X#>?( %B %? %, ,##9 E, ,>. .?&( D>.? : '8
B455#B.& ,# =%"" B#8.#?. V'++#$&%?7 ,# ,>. -##= #$ B,#$6 #$ D>',.;.$W(
%, &#.B?C, .?& ,>', D'69 F>. 5.$B#? =%BB.B 8. %?B,.'&( '?& %, .?&B #? '
;.$6 5#B%,%;. ?#,.9
The basic pattein in this uieam is that the stoiy uoes not go accoiuing to the
sciipt but enus on a positive note insteau. This was essentially a paiallel of this
uieamei's life, in that the tiageuy she expecteu to continue fiom an unhappy
chiluhoou involving hei fathei anu biothei nevei happeneu, anu hei life hau a
happy enuing insteau.
The following uieam was tolu by a miuule-ageu man who was uepiesseu:
: >'& ' &$.'8 '-#4, ' 5"'6 ,>', : D'B D',+>%?7( '?& %? ,>%B 5"'6 ,>.$.
D'B ' 8'? +#88%,,%?7 B4%+%&.9 F>',CB '-#4, '"" : $.8.8-.$ %? ,>.
&$.'89 : $.+'"" ,>%?=%?7 ,>', ,>%B %B ' B,45%& ,>%?7 ,# &#9
In the uieam, the uieamei is looking at suiciue as an option anu iejecting it. The
basic pattein in this uieam may be moie uifficult to uefine than in the pievious
examples because the piotagonist is not the uieamei. Nost of the action in the
uieam focuses on the actoi. The theiapist can uefine the uieamei's pattein by
focusing on what the &$.'8.$ is uoing in the uieam; in this case, obseiving someone
killing himself anu thinking that is a stupiu thing to uo. Fiequently, clients will biing
in uieams wheie the focus appeais to be on anothei peison. The theiapist shoulu
not lose tiack of the fact that this is the +"%.?,CB uieam anu ask, "What is the &$.'8.$
uoing in this uieam." oi "Why is the &$.'8.$ having a uieam about X." When the
main focus of a uieam is on a peison othei than the uieamei, it is most likely a
means of uistancing oneself fiom the issue oi pioblem, as though it belongs to
someone else.
In the following uieam, the piotagonist is an animal, not a peison:
F>%B %B ' &$.'8 '-#4, ' 5%7 D># %B &#%?7 ,$%+=B9 : ,>%?= ,>', ,>. 5%7 >'B
,# &# ,>.B. ,$%+=B %? #$&.$ ?#, ,# 7., '-4B.&( %? #$&.$ ,# 5$#,.+, >%8B."@9
As in the pievious uieam, the uieamei is looking at the behavioi of someone
else anu wonueiing about that behavioi foi himself. The basic pattein heie is that
the uieamei thinks that sometimes one has to uo tiicks in oiuei not to get abuseu
anu to piotect oneself. To get at the peisonal meaning of this uieam, the uieamei
was askeu if theie was a ielationship between this pattein anu his cuiient life. The
uieamei ielateu this to his woik situation, in that sometimes he hau to play the
game in oiuei to piotect himself.
The following uieam is anothei example wheie much of the action is centeieu
on anothei chaiactei:
: '8 B,'?&%?7 -6 ,>. &##$ ,# X'?.CB #@@%+.( '?& X'?. %B ;.$6 "#4& '?&
-#%B,.$#4B9 T#8.#?. 'B=B >.$ ' ]4.B,%#?( '?& B>. $.'""6 6.""B ', ,>. ,#5
#@ >.$ ;#%+.9 :, %B B# "#4&9 T>. B#4?&B B# '77$.BB%;.9
As in the pievious uieams, the uieamei uiaws attention away fiom heiself by
focusing on anothei peison's behavioi. In this uieam, the uieamei is obseiving
anothei peison's aggiessive behavioi. Although she uoesn't state what she is uoing
anu focuses on anothei chaiactei, she is conceineu about being too aggiessive. To
get at the uieamei's pattein, the theiapist might ask hei what she is uoing in the
uieam anu what hei ieactions aie to }ane's behavioi. The uieamei may be
uncomfoitable with louu, aggiessive behavioi anu conceineu about being
aggiessive heiself.
Clients will fiequently biing in long, iambling uieams that may leave the
theiapist confuseu about the cential action. These uieams aie moie uifficult;
howevei, even with these, a summaiy of the uieamei's basic actions pioviues the
pattein of the uieamei, as in the following example:
F>.$. '$. 8'?6 5'$,B ,# ,>%B &$.'89 : B#8.>#D >';. ' -#8- %? 86 >'?&
D>%+> : ?..& ,# &%B5#B. #@( '?& : '8 D'"=%?7 #? ,>%B 8.,'" $'%"%?7 D>%+>
%B ;.$6 ,%7>, '?& D>%+> 7#.B 45 '?& &#D?( '?& : >#"& ,>%B -#8- ;.$6
+'$.@4""6( '@$'%& ,>', %, D%"" @'"" #@@9 F>.$. '$.' @.D #,>.$ 5.#5". D'"=%?7
D%,> 8.A: '8 ?#, B4$. D># ,>.6 '$.A'?& #?. #@ ,>.8 B'6B B#8.,>%?7
,# 8.9 : '8 ,$6%?7 ,# 5'6 ',,.?,%#? ,# >%8( '?& ,>.? D. '$. %? '
$.B,'4$'?, #$ B#8.,>%?7 "%=. ,>',( '?& ,>.$. '$. ,D# ,'-".B ,>.$.( '?&
#? #?. ,'-". ,>.$. '$. ,>$.. 5.#5".( : ,>%?=( ' 8'?( ' D#8'?( '?& '
+>%"&9 : ,>%?= ,>.$. %B ' @'8%"6 B%,,%?7 ', ,>. #,>.$ ,'-". 'B D.""( '"B# ,>$..
5.#5".( : ,>%?=9 : B.?B. ,>', ,>.6 D'?, 8. ,# ,'"= ,# ,>.8( -4, B#8.>#D :
$.'"%Z. ,>', : B>#4"& ?#, %?,.$@.$.9 : ,>%?= : '8 B,%"" >#"&%?7 ,>. -#8-(
'?& : =..5 D#$$6%?7 ,>', %, D%"" 7# #@@9 F>.$. %B '?#,>.$ B+.?. '@,.$ ,>',9
: >';. ' B.?B. ,>', : '8 D'"=%?7 D%,> B#8. +>%"&( -4, : &#?C, $.8.8-.$
'"" #@ ,>. &.,'%"B9 F>.? : '"B# $.8.8-.$ ' &#79 : ,>%?= : D'B %? B#8. =%?&
#@ ' B,#$.( '?& ,>.$. '$. 7$#+.$%.B '?& +'??.& 7##&B #? ,>. B>.";.B( '?&
,>. &#7 %B -.%?7 ;.$6 @.$#+%#4B9 : ,>%?= %, %B '? :$%B> B.,,.$ #$ B#8.,>%?7
"%=. ,>',9 :, 7#.B '"" #;.$ ,>. B>.";.B( '?& %, =?#+=B &#D? ,>. +'?B( '?&
,>.$. %B ?# +#?,$#""%?7 %,9 : '8 ?#, B4$. D>', >'55.?B ?.<,( -4, B#8.>#D
: '8 #? ,>. B,$..,B '7'%?( '?& ,>.? : '8 7#%?7 &#D? '? #$'?7.
B,'%$D'69 : ,>%?= : 7., $%& #@ ,>. -#8-( -4, : '8 ?#, B4$.9 :, %B ' "#?7(
+#?@4B%?7 &$.'8( '?& ,>.$. '$. #,>.$ 5'$,B ,# %,9 : &#?`, $.'""6 $.+'"" '""
#@ ,>.89
Although this uieam is long, it uoes in fact have a cential theme anu is less
confusing than some othei uieams. To get at the geneial theme, the theiapist can tiy
to tune out the uetails anu focus on the main action, in this case, that the uieamei is
caiiying something uangeious anu is tiying to uispose of it. Along the way, theie aie
people with whom she ueciues not to inteifeie anu a uog that is feiocious. The
geneial pattein heie is of the uieamei tiying to uispose of a bomb. To get at this, the
theiapist can ask the client, "What is the geneial feeling in the uieam." "What is the
uieamei uoing." Aftei eliciting the geneial pattein of the uieamei, the theiapist can
then ask if theie is any similaiity between it anu the uieamei's waking life.
CONCLUSION
The fiist step in uieam inteipietation is to uefine the uieamei's pattein. The
theiapist uoes this by listening intently to the uieam anu getting a ieaction to it.
Regaiuless of the length anu the content of the uieam, theie is always a uieamei
engaging in some activity. In attempting to uefine the uieamei's pattein, the
theiapist can ask him- oi heiself while listening to the uieam: "What is the uieamei
uoing in the uieam." To get at the pattein, the theiapist can ask the client to uiscuss
the uieam content in a geneial mannei anu fiom theie to aiiive at the peisonal
meaning. The theiapist can also uo this by asking the client to iepeat the uieam in
the thiiu peison, as if it weie a stoiy he oi she has heaiu. The client can be askeu
about the geneial moou anu feeling uisplayeu in the uieam. Following this, the
theiapist can ask if theie is a similaiity between the uieam moou anu actions anu
the client's conscious fiame of minu. 0nce the similaiities between the uieam anu
waking life aie maue, fuithei inquiiy can focus on the othei uieam uetails. The next
chapteis will ieview the iemaining steps in uieam inteipietation.
!"#$%&' )
!"# %&'() *&+,-
3>6 &#.B ,>. .6. B.. ' ,>%?7 8#$. +".'$"6 %? &$.'8B ,>'?
,>. %8'7%?',%#? D>.? 'D'=.b
Leonaiuo ua vinci, F>.
I#,.-##=B #@ K.#?'$&# &' c%?+%
0nce the uieam pattein is uefineu, wheie uoes the uieam inquiiy begin. Theie
aie usually so many uetails that a theiapist may not know wheie to stait. In
inteipieting a uieam, a theiapist can ieally stait anywheie, then connect the
uiffeient paits to obtain a gestalt, a totality of the paits. It is usually helpful to look
foi a focal point, a point fiom which to stait inteipietation anu view all the othei
paits.
What shoulu be chosen as the focal point in the uieam. The theiapist shoulu
choose that pait that is ".'B, 4?&.$B,'?&'-"., the most vague, the most mysteiious,
the pait that uoes not fit. Sometimes the focal point is obvious anu can immeuiately
be iecognizeu. At othei times, it is not so easy to spot. In those cases, the theiapist
can go to the next step until the focal point becomes iecognizable. Fiequently,
howevei, the focal point can be useu as a staiting point, anu many times it pioviues
the key to the uieam meaning.
In looking foi a focal point, the theiapist can ask: "What is inconsistent with the
iest of the uieam. What uoes not fit. What is not unueistanuable. What is out of
context. What is not congiuent."
Beie aie some examples of uieams that have focal points that aie easily
iecognizable.
: '8 B,'?&%?7 %? "%?. %? ' +'@.,.$%'( ,#7.,>.$ D%,> ,>$.. #@ 86 @$%.?&B9
X#>? 7.,B B#8. $#'B, -..@( X.$$6 7.,B B,.'=( '?& X%8 7.,B ;.'"9 F>.6 5'6
@#$ ,>.%$ 8.'"B9 *? 86 5"',. ,>.$. %B ' @#4$ ".'@ +"#;.$9 : &#?C, >';. ,#
5'6 @#$ %,9
The focal point in this uieam is faiily easy to iecognize. The foui leaf clovei is
cleaily out of context. 0n heaiing this uieam, the most obvious question is "What is
a foui leaf clovei uoing in a cafeteiia." What the foui leaf clovei stanus foi, howevei,
may pioviue the key to the iest of the uieam. In this paiticulai case, the foui leaf
clovei iepiesenteu goou luck to the uieamei. The uieam ieflecteu to him that
eveiyone else hau to woik haiu foi his nouiishment, but he coulu get his thiough
luck.
In the following uieam, the focal point also pioviues the key to the meaning of
the uieam:
N6 @',>.$ D'B +#8%?7 ,# ;%B%,( '?& : D'B '?<%#4B ,# 5".'B. >%89 :, D'B
>#,( '?& : D%B>.& D. >'& ' 5##"9 F>.? B4&&.?"6 ,>%B @%-.$7"'BB 5%.+.A'
5##"UB5'A'$$%;.&( '?& D. D.$. '-". ,# BD%89
The focal point was the fibeiglass piece; the uieamei stateu that "no such thing
exists." The uieam was a ieminuei to hei that pleasing hei fathei was an
impossibility anu that theie was nothing she coulu uo to change that. Bei fathei hau
oiiginally wanteu a son anu hau seveial uaughteis insteau.
A few moie uieams will be iecounteu heie foi puiposes of instiuction. The
ieauei can attempt to pick out the focal point in each uieam aftei ieauing it befoie
going fuithei. The following uieam was tolu by a woman in hei foities:
: '8 ', ,>. 76?.+#"#7%B,CB #@@%+.9 : >';. +'?+.$( '?& >. %B ,.B,%?7 8. @#$
%,9 S. >'B ,# %?B.$, ' -'"" ,>$#47> 86 ;'7%?'( '?& : >';. ,# "%. ;.$6 B,%""
'?& -. ;.$6 $."'<.& B# ,>', ,>. -'"" +'? 7# ,>$#47>9 : 4B. >65?#B%B ,#
$."'< '?& '8 '-". ,# &# %,9 : $.+'"" ,>', ,>. ?'8. #@ 86 ,$.',8.?, %B
5>#,#B6?,>.B%B9
What uoesn't fit heie. Although theie aie many elements that stanu out in this
uieam, e.g., the ball, cancei, hypnosis, they aie all inteinally consistent.
Photosynthesis is cleaily out of context anu is again the key to unueistanuing this
uieam. In this case, the uieamei uefineu it as "conveiting negative eneigy into
positive giowth".
The following uieam was tolu by a iecently maiiieu woman:
: '8 %? ' B,#$.( '?& : '8 "##=%?7 '"" #;.$ ,# @%?& 8',+>%?7 5'?,B @#$ X#>?
'?& 8. @#$ #4$ D.&&%?79 : "##= '"" #;.$ '?& +'?`, B..8 ,# @%?& ,>.89
F>.? B4&&.?"6( : "##= %? ,>. B,#$. D%?&#DB( '?& : @%?& B#8. #,>.$ ,>%?7B
: "%=.9
What is inconsistent oi incongiuent heie. The theiapist's fiist ieaction is,
"Since when uoes a biiue weai pants to a weuuing." The matching pants in this
uieam seives as a focal point anu pioviues the key to inteipieting this uieam. The
uieamei in this case hau been conceineu about "who weais the pants" in the family.
She was seaiching foi a ielationship of equality but coulu not finu it. In the uieam,
the matching pants also pointeu out to hei that in hei seaich foi an equal
ielationship, she hau inappiopiiately suppiesseu some of hei "feminine," nuituiant,
affectionate feelings.
A woman ielateu this uieam aftei seveial weeks of psychotheiapy:
: '8 %? ' -'$-.$ B>#59 : '8 '?7$6 ', D'%,%?7 @#$ ,>. -'$-.$ ,# +#8. '?&
+4, 86 >'%$9 F>.$. %B ' 6#4?7 =%& B8#=%?79 : B5.'= 45 '?& ,."" >%8 ?#, ,#9
S. B,#5B '?& ,>.? B,'$,B '7'%?9 : ,."" >%8 '7'%? ,# B,#59
The pait that is incongiuous heie is the baibei shop, as women uo not go to
baibeis. This uetail was veiy impoitant in the uieam, since the client's majoi issue
in psychotheiapy was accepting hei homosexual oiientation. Bei uieam ieflecteu
hei acceptance in hei waking life. As she ielateu, "I am now cleaning up my act anu
getting iiu of the cluttei." The uieam also ieflecteu hei asseitiveness anu speaking
up.
The following uieam was tolu by a man in his late thiities:
: '8 5$.5'$%?7 ' >#8.D#$= 'BB%7?8.?, @#$ ' >%B,#$6 +#4$B.9 : '8 #? '
-%+6+".( '?& : >';. ,# &$#5 86 +>%"& #@@ -.@#$. ,>. +#4$B.9 : '8 B455#B.&
,# 8'=. ' 5$.B.?,',%#? ,# ,>. +"'BB( ,#7.,>.$ D%,> '?#,>.$ 5.$B#?9 S.
,.""B 8. >.C"" ,'"= '-#4, _F>. d%?7B #@ 3'$9[ : &# ?#, $.8.8-.$ ,>', %,
D'B >%B 'BB%7?8.?,9 N%?. %B ;'74.9 :C8 ?#, +".'$ '-#4, D>', : $.'& %?
,>. -##=9 F>. B+.?. B>%@,B9 : &$#5 86 +>%"& #@@ ', ,>. -'-6B%,,.$CB9 E, @%$B, :
&#?`, $.8.8-.$ D>.$. ,# ,'=. >%8 '?& %,CB 7.,,%?7 &'$=9 F>.? :
$.8.8-.$ D>.$. ,# ,'=. >%8( '?& : ,'=. >%8 ,>.$.9 F>.? ,>. B+.?. B>%@,B
,# ' 5'$=%?7 "#, +'@.,.$%'9 *,>.$B '$. .',%?7( '?& : .', ' -%, #@ ,>.%$
@##&B9 F>.B. 5.#5". '$. '+,#$B9 N6 +"'BB %B 5$.B.?,%?7 ' 5'5.$ ', ,>%B
,%8.( '?& ,>.$.CB '?#,>.$ +"'BB ', ,>%B ,%8.9 :,`B ?#, ,%8. @#$ 8. ,# 7%;.
86 5$.B.?,',%#? B# : D'?, ,# 7# ,# ,>. #,>.$ +"'BB( -4, : D'?, ,# >.'$ ,>.
B,4&.?,BC 5$.B.?,',%#?9 :, D#4"& >."5 8.( @#$ ,>. ,.B,9 J.#5". '$.
+"#D?%?7 '$#4?& '?& .',%?79 : &#?C, 7., 86 #D? @##& -4, : 7., @##& @$#8
,>.89 F>.6 '$. .',%?7 B,$'?7. @##&9
What is the pattein heie. What is the focal point. The geneial impiession in this
uieam is of the uieamei's unpiepaieuness anu inuecisiveness. The "Kings of Wai" is
out of context anu cleaily a contiast to the iest of the uieam. It can be useu as a
point of inception.
Nany times a specific title oi phiase can be useu as a focal point, as in the
pievious uieam. The uieamei has gone to gieat lengths to uieam about anu mention
this phiase, anu it is no coinciuence that it appeais theie. In the uieam uiscusseu
piioi to this one, the woiu 5>#,#B6?,>.B%B was the focal point of the uieam. In that
uieam as well, a name oi title stoou out in contiast to the iest of the uieam.
Fiequently, the focal point focuses attention uiiectly on the client's neuiotic oi
self-uefeating behavioi, as in the following uieam:
: '8 %? ' +'$ #? ,>. B,$.., ".'&%?7 ,# #4$ >#4B.9 : '8 %? ,>. -'+= &$%;%?7(
'?& ,>.$. '$. #,>.$ 5.#5". %? ,>. +'$9 S.".? %B %? ,>. @$#?, B.',9 : 'B= >.$
,# ,4$? #? ,>. "%7>,B9 T>. ,$%.B ,# -4, +'?C, B..8 ,#9 T>. 54B>.B ,>. D$#?7
-4,,#? #$ B#8.,>%?79 F>. +'$ 7#.B @'B,.$ '?& 7.,B #4, #@ +#?,$#"( ?.'$"6
>%,,%?7 ' 5.&.B,$%'?9 : D'=. 459
The unexplaineu pait heie is that the uieamei is uiiving the cai fiom the back
seat. In this case, the focal point calls attention uiiectly to the uieamei's self-
uefeating actions.
The following uieam was iecounteu by a clinical psychologist:
: '8 D#$=%?7 'B ' &.?,%B, -4, : =?#D ;.$6 "%,,". '-#4, %, '?& >';. ?.;.$
&#?. '?6#?.CB ,..,>9 F>%B 8'? +#8.B ,# >';. >%B ,..,> +".'?.& '?&
,#?B%"B $.8#;.&9 : 7# ,# 86 -#BB '?& ,."" >%8 : >';. ?# .<5.$%.?+. ,'=%?7
#4, ,#?B%"B9 S#D &# 6#4 &# %,b S. ,.""B 8. %,`B ;.$6 B%85". '?&
.".8.?,'$69 : @.." -'& : >';. B>#D? >%8 >#D %7?#$'?, : '8 -4, ,>.? :
B>$479 : +".'? 45 ,>%B 746CB ,..,>9 S. %B ' 6#4?7( 7##&U"##=%?7 8'?( '?& :
@%?& >%8 ',,$'+,%;.9 : ,."" >%8 >%B ,..,> '$. $.'""6 ?%+.9 : $.8.8-.$ B..%?7
Y4B, 748B( 4?"%=. 86 +';%,%.B( '?& : +#88.?, #? >#D ?%+. ,>.6 '$.9 F>.
746 %B ' &.?,%B, >%8B."@ '?& D'?,B ,# D',+> 8. ,'=. #4, >%B ,#?B%"B9 :
,>%?= : &# ,>',9
The immeuiate question that comes to minu is, "What is a clinical psychologist
uoing cleaning teeth." The absuiuity of this highlights the uieamei's unconscious
notion that she shoulu be able to uo eveiything. This quickly gets to the ioot of the
pioblem: the uieamei's peifectionism.
0ften, the focal point is what is hiuuen in a uieam oi what the uieamei is not
saying. The focal point can be what is eithei omitteu oi not calleu attention to. Foi
example, }ohn hau this uieam:
: '8 B,'?&%?7 %? ' >#4B. ,>', >'B ' -'B.8.?, '?& ,>$.. B,#$%.B %? %,9 F>.
-'B.8.?, %B &'$= '?& &%8( '?& : .<5"#$. %, @$#8 -#,,#8 ,# ,#59 : ,>%?=
,>. @%$B, @"##$ %B D>.$. 86 8#,>.$ '?& @',>.$ "%;.&( '?& ,>. ,>%$& @"##$
>'B 86 -$#,>.$B %? %,9 F>', %B '"" : $.8.8-.$ %? ,>%B &$.'89
The focal point is the seconu flooi, which is omitteu in the uieam. The theiapist
is natuially cuiious about that anu may wish to stait the inquiiy with this uetail.
The following uieam is also significant in what it omits:
: '8 D.'$%?7 B#8. =%?& #@ ' B=% #4,@%, #$ B?#DB4%,9 E",>#47> : =?#D :
&#?C, "##= 5.$@.+,( : '8 ;.$6 5".'B.& D%,> 86B."@( '?& : @.." ;.$6 7##&
'-#4, ,>. D'6 : "##=9 : >';. ' D>%,. +'?. %? 86 >'?&( ,>. =%?& ,>', %B
4B.& -6 -"%?& 5.#5".9 : '8 '"B# D.'$%?7 ' B=% 8'B=( D%,> >#".B @#$ ,>.
.6.B '?& ?#B.9 : $.'"%Z. ,>', : &#?C, >';. ' @'+. 4?&.$?.',> ,>. 8'B=9 :
$.8.8-.$ ,>%?=%?7 ,>', : >';. ,>$.. >'?&%+'5B( -4, : &#?C, =?#D D>',
,>#B. '$.9
The uieamei in this case coulu cleaily uefine two hanuicaps: hei blinuness
symbolizeu by the white cane (she hau iecently been infoimeu piioi to this uieam
that she might lose hei vision) anu hei uepiession, which was symbolizeu by hei
facelessness. The focal point in the uieam is the thiiu hanuicap.
Sometimes the focal point of a uieam can be an unusual oi inconsistent featuie,
as in the following uieam tolu by a young man who hau a seiies of unsuccessful
ielationships in the past anu was now contemplating maiiiage. Be hau come to
theiapy piimaiily to finu out about the ieasons foi his unsatisfactoiy ielationships.
Be ielateu this uieam:
: ,>%?= ,>', : '8 '-#4, ,# 8'$$6 N'$%#?( -4, -.@#$. : +'? 7., 8'$$%.&( :
>';. ,# 7# ,>$#47> B#8. =%?& #@ 5$.UD.&&%?7 +.$.8#?69 : >';. ,# 7#
'$#4?& ,.? @%$.B ,>', '$. ;.$6 -.'4,%@4" '?& %?,.?B.( -4, D>', %B 4?4B4'"
'-#4, ,>.B. @%$.B %B ,>', ,>.6 &# ?#, 7%;. #@@ '?6 >.',( ,>', B#8.>#D '""
,>. >.', 7#.B %?B%&.( '?& ,>.? ,>.6 -4$? #@@ ;.$6 ]4%+="69 : '8 Y4B,
@'B+%?',.& -6 ,>.B. @%$.B9
What is most inteiesting about this uieam is that the fiies aie not giving off any
heat. These fiies uesciibeu the uieamei's pievious ielationships, which weie with
beautiful women who fascinateu him. Like his ielationships, the fiies weie intense
at fiist but quickly buineu out. Be iecognizeu that he was choosing beautiful,
naicissistic women who weie not giving him any waimth anu who weie only
capable of loving themselves. The focal point in this uieam is the fiies that the young
man neeueu to look at befoie he engageu in anothei "hot" ielationship.
In the following uieam, as in the pieceuing one, an unusual featuie also seives
as the focal point:
O%"" '?& : -#47>, ' ?.D ,$'%".$( ,>. =%?& D. >'& '"D'6B D'?,.& ,# -46
D>.? D. $.,%$.&( ' =%?& #@ $.+$.',%#?'" ;.>%+".9 :? ,>. &$.'8( : '8 7#%?7
,>$#47> .;.$6 $##8 %? ,>', ,$'%".$( '?& : '8 "##=%?7 ', ,>. @4$?%,4$.
,>.$.9 F>. "%;%?7 $##8 '$.' >'B -"4. @4$?%,4$.( 86 @';#$%,. +#"#$( '?& %,
>'B ' &%?.,,. '?& ' +#4+> '?& '"" ,>. ,>%?7B 6#4 @%?& %? ,$'%".$B9 F>.$. %B
'"B# ' -',> '?& ,#%"., '$.' D>%+> B..8B Y4B, $%7>, @#$ 4B9 *4$ -.&$##8
>'B ' -.& '?& ' &$.BB.$9 F>. -.& %B ;.$6 5$.,,6( -4, %, #?"6 >'B ,>$.. ".7B(
'?& : D#?&.$ %@ %, +'? B455#$, 4B9 F>.? 86 =%&B +#8. %? '?& "##= ', %,
,##9
The beu's thiee legs seive as the focal point in the uieam. This uetail is
highlighteu foi goou ieason. The uieam ieflecteu anu emphasizeu some of the
uieamei's misgivings about living the iest of hei life with hei husbanu. She
iecognizeu that something was missing in theii sexual ielationship anu wonueieu if
theii maiiiage coulu be sustaineu.
The focal point is moie uifficult to spot in the following uieam:
: >'& ' &$.'8 '-#4, X4&69 : &#?C, =?#D D>6 : B>#4"& -. &$.'8%?7 '-#4,
>.$9 :? ,>. &$.'8( B>. %B 45B., D%,> >.$ +#UD#$=.$B '-#4, B#8.,>%?7A:
,>%?= B>. ,>#47>, ,>', B>. D'B D#$=%?7 >'$&.$ ,>'? '?6 #@ ,>.8 #$ ,>',
%, D'B 4?@'%$ #$ B#8.,>%?7 ,# ,>', .@@.+,9 E?6D'6( B>. D'B 6.""%?7 '?&
+$6%?7( #;.$$.'+,%?7 ,# ,>. D>#". B%,4',%#? %?B,.'& #@ ,'"=%?7 %, #;.$
D%,> ,>.89 F>%B %B B# ,65%+'" #@ D>', X4&6 '"D'6B &#.B9
The focal point heie is the uieamei, piecisely because she is not mentioneu. All
of the attention is on }uuy. What is not noteu is the uieamei's ieaction to }uuy's
behavioi. Boes she see anything of heiself in }uuy. Why is she uieaming about }uuy
at this time. What message is she telling heiself.
CONCLUSION
The pieceuing uieams have pioviueu examples of focal points that can be useu
to stait the uieam inquiiy aftei aiiiving at the uieamei's pattein. To get to the focal
point, it is fiequently helpful to ask the client, "What inteiests you most in this
uieam." oi "What stanus out most foi you." Sometimes the client can be askeu, "Is
theie anything in this uieam that uoesn't make sense." oi "What uoesn't fit heie."
0sually the client can ielate the pait of the uieam that he oi she finus most puzzling
oi intiiguing. Sometimes, the theiapist may suggest a focal point if the client cannot
come up with an answei alone. Foi example, in the "Kings of Wai" uieam uiscusseu
at the beginning of the chaptei, aftei getting a geneial impiession of the uieam, the
theiapist might say, "Eveiything is vague anu confuseu in this uieam. Is theie
anything that makes a uefinite statement. Is theie anything that is a contiast in this
uieam." 0i the theiapist can call attention to the focal point uiiectly anu ask the
client to explain it. Foi example, in the uieam wheie the uieamei is uiiving fiom the
back seat, the theiapist may ask iight away why the uieamei is uiiving fiom the
back insteau of the fiont seat.
Although the theiapist can usually finu a point to focus on to stait the uieam
inquiiy, occasionally this may be uifficult. That is not impoitant. As noteu befoie, a
theiapist can stait the analysis anywheie anu then attempt to fit the pieces togethei
to inteipiet the uieam. If a focal point fiom which to stait the uieam inteipietation
piocess can not be founu, the theiapist can go on to uefining each symbol in the
uieam anu getting the uieamei's associations to it.
!"#$%&' )
!"#$%$&$!"# %"& '!"!"#"!"#$% '((")#*%#"$(
F>. 8%?& 'B"..5 >',> +".'$ ;%B%#?9
Aeschylus, ^48.?%&.B
A uieam consists of symbols that aie unique to the inuiviuual. In oiuei to aiiive
at the symbol's meaning, the client has to &.@%?. it. 0theiwise, this can cieate some
confusion between the theiapist anu the client. To illustiate, let us assume that a
uieamei hau a uieam that he was watching a movie. What uoes "movie" mean. We
can ask seveial people to uefine the woiu, anu we will get seveial uefinitions. Foi
example, one peison might say, "A movie is a place wheie you sit in the uaik anu
holu hanus with someone." Anothei might say, "A movie is something that people
watch when they aie boieu anu want to be enteitaineu." A thiiu peison coulu ieply,
"A movie is something that shows a iepiesentation of something else." Even though
at fiist glance, the uefinition of a woiu may seem obvious, seveial people will uefine
the same teim uiffeiently. Theiefoie, the theiapist shoulu nevei assume a uefinition
but shoulu ask the client uiiectly foi it.
When asking someone to uefine a woiu, it is impoitant to ask, foi example,
"What is a movie." iathei than "What is a movie to you." The fiist question will
elicit a uefinition of the woiu; the seconu may iesult in numeious associations that
can take the theiapist fuithei anu fuithei away fiom the symbol. The methou of
aiiiving at a symbol's meaning thiough uefining it is veiy similai to uayle Belaney's
uieam inteiviewing methou (1979). Belaney asks the uieamei to uefine anu
uesciibe the object to hei as though she weie someone fiom anothei planet who has
nevei heaiu of it anu uoes not know what it is. The methou makes a gieat ueal of
sense, since symbols anu the objects they stanu foi shaie common chaiacteiistics.
The common chaiacteiistics aie usually inheient in the uefinition of the object. Foi
example, a bomb can be uefineu as "something extiemely uangeious anu explosive
unless you holu it caiefully anu only uispose of it in the iight places anu at the iight
times." The same chaiacteiistics in the uefinition coulu also uesciibe a peison's
violence. Eveiy symbol has a common uenominatoi with the object it iepiesents
anu shaies common chaiacteiistics with it.
To tianslate the symbol into its oiiginal meaning, the theiapist asks foi a
uefinition of the symbol anu a to-the-point association to it. The ,#U,>.U5#%?,
'BB#+%',%#? is uiiectly ielateu to the content of the uieam, as opposeu to @$..
'BB#+%',%#?B, which may hiue anu uetiact fiom the issue. In Fieuu's methou of fiee
association, the patient associates fieely to an object anu continues to associate to
each succeeuing association. Rosenthal iecommenueu associating &%$.+,"6 to the
object, anu it is foi this ieason that she labeleu these associations to-the-point. Let
us get back to the symbol of a bomb. In fiee associating to that symbol, the client
may say something like this: "bomb . . . tomb . . . giave . . . cemeteiy . . . I buiieu my
uog last week . . . I was feeling moiose that uay . . . I lost my sweatei then . . . we hau
a histoiy exam . . . "etc. These fiee associations may uetiact fiom the issue anu allow
the uieamei to get away fiom the specific content of the uieam. With to-the-point
associations, on the othei hanu, the client, aftei uefining a bomb as "something
extiemely uangeious anu explosive unless you holu it caiefully anu only uispose of
it in the iight places anu at the iight times," coulu give his oi hei own specific
associations to the bomb, e.g., "I uon't like bombs. I useu to woik as a uemolition
expeit, but I coulun't hanule it anu neaily got killeu a couple of times. I have ueciueu
since then not to have anything to uo with bombs anu haven't been neai them foi
the past five yeais." The to-the-point association is fiequently a memoiy of the
object anu the uieamei's paiticulai expeiiences with it. To get to-the-point
associations, the theiapist can ask the client, "What pait has a bomb playeu in youi
life." Fiequently, the uieamei will spontaneously associate to the symbol, foi
example, "I useu to woik as a uemolition expeit," anu so foith.
The combination of the uefinition to the symbol anu its to-the-point association
is one of the most effective ways of aiiiving at the symbol's meaning. The uefinition
is the conscious, objective association to the symbol, wheieas the to-the-point
association is the spontaneous, subjective association. Combining the chaiacteiistics
of the symbol ueiiveu fiom both these methous anu asking the client what else in
his oi hei life is ieminiscent of the same chaiacteiistics usually iesults in
unueistanuing the symbol's unueilying meaning.S In the pieceuing example, the
client coulu be askeu, "What aie you ieminueu of in youi life iight now when you
think of something that is uangeious anu explosive unless you holu it caiefully anu
uispose of it in the iight places anu times, which you uon't like, that has neaily killeu
you a few times anu that you have not hau anything to uo with foi yeais." The client
3 This is similai to the concepts of "explanation" anu "association" useu by }ung to gain a moie
piecise ieauing of the uieamei's ieaction to the symbols. Thiough "explanation" of the symbols, the
uieamei essentially uefines theii chaiacteiistics; thiough "association," the client pioviues his oi hei
own expeiiences anu memoiies to these symbols. The combination of explanation anu association
pioviues a moie accuiate inuicatoi of what the symbol means to the uieamei (uieene, 1979)
might then state, "Ny violent tempei."
The to-the-point associations aie not only to the symbol but to the uefinition of
the symbol. Foi example, a peison uieaming of a jack-o-lantein, who uefines it as "a
vegetable that is iounu, has a haiu outsiue but a hollow insiue, anu is useu only
infiequently" coulu be askeu, "What else is like a vegetable that is iounu, has a haiu
outsiue but is hollow insiue anu useu only infiequently." The client might
immeuiately iesponu, "Ny biainI was just thinking the othei uay, I feel like a
vegetable sometimes, anu I haven't been using it. Nost of the time it feels empty."
When getting a uefinition to an object, the theiapist can ask, "In what oi wheie else
uo you see the same qualities oi chaiacteiistics." The symbol anu the woius
uesciibing it fiequently tiiggei a specific association anu leau to the accuiate
meaning of the symbol.
A few moie examples will be pioviueu to illustiate how to aiiive at a symbol's
meaning thiough its uefinition anu to-the-point association, since this is one of the
most uifficult steps in uieam inteipietation anu one wheie many clinicians fiist get
stuck. Naik iecounteu the following uieam:
: &$.'8.& ,>', ,>.$. D'B ' "%#? ,>', D'B ,>$.',.?%?7 ,# +#8. %?,# ,>.
-.& D>.$. 86 D%@. '?& : D.$. B"..5%?79
F>.$'5%B,P "Befine lion."
Q"%.?,P "A lion is an animal that is feiocious, out of contiol, anu neeus to be
iestiaineu."
F>.$'5%B,P "What pait has a lion playeu in youi life."
Q"%.?,P "I uon't like lions, I am teiiifieu of them anu only see them occasionally. In
fact, when I go to the zoo, I avoiu the lions' cages."
F>.$'5%B,P "What aie you ieminueu of when you think of something that is feiocious,
out of contiol, that you aie teiiifieu of, avoiu at all costs, anu only let out
occasionally, that is thieatening to come into youi anu youi wife's beu."
Q"%.?,P "Ny angei."
Let us look at anothei uieam to see how the combination of uefining the symbol
anu giving a to-the-point association oi specific memoiy to it eluciuates what it may
stanu foi. Cathy ielateu the following uieam:
: &$.'8.& ,>', : D'B 7%;%?7 -%$,> ,# B%< -'-%.B( '?& ,>.6 Y4B, =.5,
+#8%?7( #?. '@,.$ ,>. #,>.$( -.+#8%?7 +>%+=.?B 'B ,>.6 +'8. #4,9 *?. #@
,>. -'-%.B >'B B#8.,>%?7 D$#?7 D%,> >.$ ".@, @##,( -4, 86 >4B-'?& %B
D%,> 8.( '?& >. ,.""B 8. ,>', D. +'? >'?&". %,9
F>.$'5%B,P "What aie babies."
Q"%.?,P "Babies aie something new that you give biith to which giow up to be
something wonueiful. I like them."
F>.$'5%B,P "What aie chickens."
Q"%.?,P "Chickens aie also something new anu young that giow up. These chickens
lookeu just like the chickens that my aitist fiienu uiaws. They aie fiagile anu
beautiful. Bei uiawings aie veiy cieative anu aitistic."
F>.$'5%B,P "What six things in youi life aie you giving biith to that aie new,
beautiful, fiagile, cieative anu aitistic anu which can giow into something
wonueiful."
Q"%.?,P "Ny piactice, my woik with chiluien, my staiting a new piogiam, my ait
woik, my woiking at __________, anu my going to ___________ to get some tiaining."
F>.$'5%B,P "What is wiong with the left foot."
Q"%.?,P "The left foot is twisteu, just like my uaughtei's was last month aftei she hau
the acciuent. It is a uefoimity, a hanuicap, but it was a minoi huiule anu we
oveicame that."
F>.$'5%B,P "What comes to youi minu involving youi new cieations when you think
of a uefoimity oi hanuicap that is ieally only a minoi huiule which you can
oveicome."
Q"%.?,P "That any pioblems I am having aie ieally only minoi ones, anu that I can
ueal with them."
In this uieam, the client's own specific associations to the chickens anu the
twisteu left foot pioviueu clues to the meanings of the symbols. This uieam again
illustiates the inuiviuuality of symbols anu that theiapists can only get at theii
meaning thiough the client's own paiticulai expeiiences with those symbols.
Symbols aie unique to the uieamei anu uepict the uieamei's own memoiies
with them. Linua, foi example, hau a uieam about a gun hiuuen in a loaf of Italian
bieau.
F>.$'5%B,P "What is a gun."
Q"%.?,P "It is a weapon that is uangeious anu ueauly. I hate guns."
F>.$'5%B,P "What is bieau."
Q"%.?,P "Bieau is something you eat; it is basic nouiishment."
F>.$'5%B,P "Anu what aie you ieminueu of when you think of something uangeious
unueineath the guise of nouiishment anu that is Italian in oiigin."
Q"%.?,P "Ny family!"
Linua was of Italian oiigin, anu this image veiy accuiately anu pictuiesquely
summaiizeu hei family inteiactions. The combination of the uefinitions of the
symbols anu theii to-the-point associations will usually elicit the meaning of those
symbols.
In the following uieam, which was alieauy uiscusseu in a pievious chaptei, the
symbol is again unique to the uieamei, anu its meaning is aiiiveu at thiough the
combination of a uefinition anu to-the-point association:
: #-B.$;. ' 5%7 D># %B &#%?7 ,$%+=B9 : ,>%?= >. >'B ,# &# ,>.B. ,$%+=B %?
#$&.$ ?#, ,# 7., '-4B.&( ,# 5$#,.+, >%8B."@9
F>.$'5%B,P "What is a pig."
Q"%.?,P "A pig is an animal who looks uumb but is ieally quite smait."
F>.$'5%B,P "What pait has a pig playeu in youi life."
Q"%.?,P "I giew up on a pig faim! That was my livelihoou."
F>.$'5%B,P "What comes to youi minu in ielation to youi livelihoou when you think
of playing tiicks in oiuei to piotect youiself, oi of looking uumb but actually
being quite smait unueineath."
Q"%.?,P "That uesciibes me in my woik situation exactly. Sometimes you have to look
like you uon't know what is going on foi youi own piotection."
In the following uieam, paying attention to the specific chaiacteiistics of the
symbol claiifies what the uieam is about:
: '8 &$%;%?7 &#D? ' $#'&( '?& %, B4&&.?"6 -.+#8.B ;.$6 &'$=9 : -.+#8.
,.$$%@%.& -.+'4B. B#8.#?. 7.,B %?,# ,>. +'$ D%,> 8. '?& 7$'-B 86 +>.B,9
F>.$'5%B,P "What comes to youi minu when you think of feeling teiiifieu, in the uaik,
anu that has to uo with the chest."
Q"%.?,P "Ny wife's cancei, of couise."
This man's wife hau a mastectomy iecently, anu hei bieast cancei was a
teiiifying intiusion into theii lives. The veiy woius in the uieam aie useu to tiiggei
an association to the symbol in this case.
Fiequently, we use othei people as symbols foi uiffeient aspects of ouiselves.
By uefining anu uesciibing these people, the client can see which aspects of him- oi
heiself these inuiviuuals may iepiesent. Nany times the peisons uieameu about
coulu also iepiesent themselves, paiticulaily if they aie inuiviuuals close to the
uieamei, foi example, spouses. In othei cases, they coulu stanu foi a gioup of
people. Foi example, }ohn coulu stanu foi "my boss" anu bosses in geneial; }ane
coulu stanu foi "my co-woikei" anu co-woikeis as a gioup. In many cases, howevei,
people in oui uieams iefei to uiffeient aspects of ouiselves, paiticulaily when these
figuies aie people we uon't know oi iaiely see. Fiequently, these inuiviuuals aie
famous peisonalities, anu the uieamei iuentifies with ceitain aspects of them. Again,
it is necessaiy to have the client's (anu not the theiapist's) association to that
paiticulai peison by asking him oi hei to uesciibe the peison's chaiacteiistics, as in
the following example:
Q"%.?,P "I uieameu that I was embiacing Elke Sommeis."
F>.$'5%B,P "Who is Elke Sommeis."
Q"%.?,P "She is a movie stai."
F>.$'5%B,P "Tell me about hei."
Q"%.?,P "She is someone who left hei husbanu, an oluei man, anu she is now making
it on hei own. She is also veiy aitistic."
F>.$'5%B,P "Bo you see any aspects of hei in youiself."
Q"%.?,P "I left my husbanu, an oluei man, as well, anu now I am making it on my own.
I am also quite aitistic. I guess she woulu symbolize the aitistic pait of me that
is making it on my own."
In the following uieam, a movie stai is also useu as a symbol:
: '8 B#8.D>.$.( '?& H%+>'$& O4$,#? ,'=.B 8. @#$ "4?+>9 : &#?C, =?#D
D>.$. D. '$. 7#%?7 #$ >#D "#?7 D. D%"" -. ,>.$.( -4, : Y4B, &$%@, '"#?79
F>. +'$ %B 7#%?7 @'B,( '?& : =?#D : B>#4"& 54, #? ,>. -$'=.B( -4, :
D#?&.$ D>', >. D%"" ,>%?= #@ 8. %@ : &#9
F>.$'5%B,P "Who is Richaiu Buiton."
Q"%.?,P "Be is a movie stai."
F>.$'5%B,P "Tell me about him."
Q"%.?,P "Well, he is someone who has gotten maiiieu many times. Bis ielationships
nevei last. That's about all I can think of."
F>.$'5%B,P "Bo you see any aspects of that in youiself."
Q"%.?,P "Be ieminus me of all of the men I go out with. Ny ielationships nevei last
long eithei. I go fiom one peison to anothei."
In a uieam in which uiffeient chaiacteis aie involveu, the client is fiequently
unawaie of which aspects of him- oi heiself these figuies may iepiesent until he oi
she staits to talk about them, as in the following example:
: &$.'8.& ,>', : B'D 86 -$#,>.$U%?U"'D D>#8 : >'&?`, B..? %? '7.B9 :
D'B B# >'556 ,# B.. >%89 : &%&?C, =?#D >#D 84+> : >'& 8%BB.& >%89
F>.? >. B#8.>#D ,4$?.& %?,# 86 R?+". ^&9
F>.$'5%B,P "Tell me about youi biothei-in-law."
Q"%.?,P "Ny biothei-in-law is a fine man. I haven't seen him in yeais, anu I ieally miss
him veiy much. I uon't know when oi if I will see him again. But I am veiy much
awaie of that on a conscious level. I uon't know why I woulu uieam it."
F>.$'5%B,P "What else can you tell me about him."
Q"%.?,P "Well, he useu to be a wealthy man, but he investeu all of his money into ieal
estate anu now he is tiappeu anu can't leave wheie he is because of that, anu
that is why he can't come to visit."
F>.$'5%B,P "Tell me about youi uncle Eu."
Q"%.?,P "I like him veiy much too, but he is totally uiffeient fiom my biothei-in-law.
Be ieally uoesn't think about the futuie at all. Be has spent eveiy cent he evei
hau, he lives way above his means, anu now he is close to sixty anu he has
nothing to caiiy him in his olu age."
F>.$'5%B,P "Bo you see any aspects of eithei of them in youiself."
Q"%.?,P "Not ieally. I am piobably moie like my biothei-in-law than my uncle Eu."
F>.$'5%B,P "Neithei of them has planneu too well foi the futuie. 0ne is tiappeu
because he oveiinvesteu in ieal estate anu the othei one because he spent all of
his money anu uiun't save foi the futuie. What comes to youi minu when you
think of eithei being tiappeu when investing in ieal estate oi being olu anu
having nothing to show foi it."
Q"%.?,P "I am thinking of buying a builuing, anu on the one hanu, I woiiy that I may
get tiappeu with a moitgage; on the othei hanu, I woiiy about giowing olu anu
having nothing to my name. I uiun't iealize that my biothei-in-law anu my uncle
iepiesenteu two siues of my conflict."
The following uieam was ielateu by a man who was having uifficulty making a
uecision about which school to choose foi his chilu. Be was tiying to ueciue between
a ieligious school anu one that the chilu was alieauy in. Be coulu not unueistanu
what his uieam was about until he uesciibeu the peisons who weie in it.
: &$.'8.& ,>', I%?' D'B 7#%?7 ,# "#B. '"" #@ >.$ ;'"4'-".B( ,>.
%?>.$%,'?+. ,>', >.$ 5'$.?,B >'& ".@, >.$( 4?".BB B>. 7#, -'+= D%,>
E?&$.D( >.$ .<U>4B-'?&9 : '8 ;.$6 D#$$%.& @#$ >.$( -4, B>. B,%"" +'?
B'";'7. D>', B>. >'B %@ B>. $.8'$$%.B E?&$.D9
F>.$'5%B,P "Who is Nina."
Q"%.?,P "Nina is a goou fiienu of ouis. I like hei a lot, but she is fiequently
iiiesponsible anu caieless."
F>.$'5%B,P "Who is Anuiew."
Q"%.?,P "Anuiew is hei ex-husbanu. I haven't seen him in yeais. I useu to like him
veiy much, but he is kinu of iiiesponsible too. We useu to be veiy close once. As
a mattei of fact, he was my chilu's goufathei, anu Nina is his goumothei."
F>.$'5%B,P "What is a goufathei."
Q"%.?,P "Someone who pieseives ieligious values."
F>.$'5%B,P "Bo you see any ielationship between this uieam anu the uecision you
aie about to make."
Q"%.?,P "The uieam is telling me not to be iiiesponsible with my heiitage anu to
pieseive the ieligious values."
As was noteu befoie, eveiything in a uieam is symbolic, incluuing both actions
anu objects. Theiefoie, a theiapist has to inteipiet eveiy symbol in the uieam.
Symbols aie veiy impoitant because they constitute the basis of the language of
uieams. These symbols aie useu to builu a uieam stoiy. Following inteipietation of
the main symbols in a uieam, the theiapist can ieconstitute all of the elements anu
iewiite the uieam into its new meaning. The following uieam will be useu to
illustiate how symbols aie useu to builu a uieam stoiy anu how tianslation of these
symbols can iesult in a new stoiy. This uieam was ielateu by a young woman who
hau a seiies of unsatisfactoiy ielationships:
K.B( N',,( E$,>4$( M.#$7. '?& #,>.$B '$. %? ,>. &$.'8( '?& D. '$. 7#%?7
,# ' B>#D9 3. B,#5 ,# >';. B#8.,>%?7 ,# .',( '?& : 7# '>.'& #@ ,>.8 '?&
5'6 @#$ ,>. 5%ZZ'9 : .<5.+, ,>.8 ,# 5'6 @#$ ,>.%$ B>'$.( -4, ,>. D'%,.$
-$%?7B ,>. 5%ZZ' D>%+> %B ;.$6 7##& '?& ?#, D>', : #$&.$.&9 : '8 ;.$6
&%B'55#%?,.&( 'B : D'B "##=%?7 @#$D'$& ,# %,9 F>.? >. 7%;.B 8. ,>.
+>'?7. @$#8 ,>. 8#?.6 : 5'%&( -4, %, %B '"" @#$.%7? +4$$.?+6 '?& ?#,>%?7
,>', : +'? 4B.9 3>.? : +#8. -'+= @$#8 ,'"=%?7 ,# ,>. D'%,.$( ,>.6 >';.
'"" 7#?. D%,>#4, 8.( '?& : '8 ".@, '"#?.9 : ?.;.$ 7., ,# ,>. B>#D9
The geneial feeling in the uieam is one of uisappointment anu fiustiation. The
uieamei gives to eveiybouy, expecting them to iecipiocate, but they uon't. What she
gets is unsatisfactoiy, anu even when she gets something in ietuin, it is useless. She
is left alone anu nevei gets wheie she wants. This uieam was essentially a
miciocosm of the uieamei's ielationships with men. Let us see how uefining the
symbols anu associations to these symbols can fuithei claiify the uieam meaning.
The fiist symbol in the uieam is Les, Natt, Aithui, ueoige anu otheis. The client
uefineu these as "my olu boyfiienus." Bei to-the-point association to them was:
"men I have likeu but who have enueu up taking auvantage of me." Combining the
uefinition anu the to-the-point association suggests that Les, Natt, Aithui, ueoige
anu otheis iepiesent the client's pievious ielationships.
The seconu symbol in the uieam, the show, was uefineu as "some place you go
to at the enu of an evening when you aie out with a man." She associateu this
symbol as "something I like veiy much, something my giilfiienus always go to but
that somehow my boyfiienus uon't take me out to." To get at what the show
iepiesenteu, she was askeu, "What is something that you have always wanteu to get
to with men, that all youi giilfiienus have but that you uon't." The show foi hei
symbolizeu a committeu ielationship oi maiiiage.
The client uefineu the thiiu symbol, pizza, as "something goou to eat;
nouiishment." Bei associations to pizza weie "something I love anu ciave but
uepiive myself of." The question combining the chaiacteiistics of the symbol's
uefinition anu its associations ("What kinu of nouiishment uo you ciave but aie
uepiiveu of.") eliciteu the answei "emotional nouiishment." Thus, the pizza in this
uieam was a symbol of the emotional nouiishment that the client ciaveu.
The symbol waitei was uefineu as "someone who seives you with foou." Bei to-
the-point associations to the waitei weie, "someone who isn't giving me what I want
anu what he gives me is totally useless." The combination of the uefinition anu the
to-the-point association iesulteu in the meaning of the symbol. When the client was
askeu who in hei life was giving hei nouiishment that was unsatisfactoiy anu totally
useless, she iealizeu that the waitei iepiesenteu hei cuiient ielationship.
When askeu foi a uefinition of the symbol of money, the client ieplieu,
"Something you give to get what you want." Bei associations to this weie as follows:
"I am veiy geneious. I always pay foi eveiyone, I give it fieely to anybouy whethei
they ietuin it oi not. I have fiequently been taken auvantage of." She was askeu:
"What else uo you give fieely to otheis anu uon't get ietuins on." In this case,
money iepiesenteu the eneigy investeu in ielationships.
The symbol foieign change was uefineu as "something you get in ietuin" anu
associateu to as "useless anu not what I want, entiiely unsatisfactoiy." When askeu
what she was getting fiom hei cuiient ielationship that was not what she wanteu
anu that was useless anu unsatisfactoiy, it was appaient that the symbol of foieign
change stoou foi the ietuins she was getting fiom hei cuiient ielationship. She
wanteu maiiiage, anu what she hau was a long-uistance affaii.
As the meaning of the symbols becomes cleai, the uieam can be iewiitten as
follows:
:? 86 5$.;%#4B $."',%#?B>%5B( : >';. D'?,.& ,# 7., 8'$$%.&9 : >';. 7#?.
'>.'& '?& 7%;.? .8#,%#?'" ?#4$%B>8.?,( .<5.+,%?7 ,# >';. %,
$.+%5$#+',.&( -4, ,>', >'B?C, >'55.?.&9 3>', 86 +4$$.?, $."',%#?B>%5 %B
7%;%?7 8. %B ?#, D>', : D'?,( '?& %, %B 4?B',%B@'+,#$69 : >';. %?;.B,.& '
7$.', &.'" #@ .8#,%#?'" .?.$76 %?,# ,>. $."',%#?B>%5( -4, D>', : 7., %?
$.,4$? %B ,#,'""6 4B.".BB9 : '8 '"B# ".@, '"#?. '?& ?.;.$ 7., ,>. +#88%,,.&
$."',%#?B>%5 : D'?,9
Let us look at anothei example of how a uieam can be ieconstiucteu into new
meaning by inteipieting the uiffeient symbols in it. A miuule-ageu woman was
attempting to make a uecision between going back to an olu boyfiienu oi iemaining
with hei cuiient one. She hau the following uieam:
: '8 %? ' +'$ D%,> 86 8#,>.$9 T>. %B &$%;%?7 ,>. +'$ '?& =..5B B,#55%?7
#? ,>. >%7>D'69 :, %B ;.$6 4?B'@.9 3. +#8. ,# ' L %? ,>. $#'&9 *?. $#'&
".'&B ,# ' +#;.$.& -$%&7.( '?& ,>. #,>.$ %B ' B,$'%7>, $#'&9 : ,>%?= B>.
B>#4"& 7# ,# ,>. B,$'%7>, $#'&( -4, B>. D'?,B ,# 7# ,# ,>. +#;.$.&
-$%&7.9
By tianslating the symbols, the meaning of the uieam becomes cleai. The fiist
symbol in the uieam, that of a cai, was uefineu as "a vehicle that you move about in
the woilu to get you fiom one place to anothei." Bei uiiect association to this was
that she was usually a goou uiivei anu hau pietty goou contiol of hei cai. In answei
to the question, "What is the vehicle in which you move about that gets you fiom
one place to anothei that you aie usually in contiol of." she stateu, "Nyself, the way
I opeiate." The cai thus symbolizeu the client's mannei of opeiating.
The symbol mothei was uefineu in this case as "someone who is veiy passive
anu uepenuent anu neeus to be taken caie of; someone who uoesn't like to make
uecisions." Bei uiiect associations weie, "Ny mothei in ieality uoesn't uiive. I am
not like hei at all." When askeu if she saw any aspects of hei mothei in heiself, the
client felt that hei mothei in the uieam symbolizeu hei passive, inuecisive pait that
wanteu to be taken caie of.
The client uefineu a highway as "a ioau you tiavel on" anu stateu that she likeu
uiiving on highways, iepoiting, "I usually uiive stiaight on without stopping anu go
uiiectly to my uestination." The question that combineu chaiacteiistics of the
uefinition anu the uiiect association to the symbol ("What ioau aie you tiaveling on
that you usually uiive without inteiiuption but that you aie stopping on now.")
eliciteu the latent meaning of the symbol. The highway stoou foi the ioau of life, the
ioau leauing to the patient's uecision.
The action of stopping iepiesenteu the client's inuecision. Stopping was uefineu
as "to faltei" anu associateu to as being uangeious. "Bow uo you keep stopping oi
falteiing in youi cuiient situation." she was askeu. The stopping iepiesenteu hei
inuecisiveness.
The Y in the ioau was uefineu as "a place on the ioau wheie you have to make a
choice," with the following spontaneous to-the-point association: "It ieminus me of
my situation now. I must make a uecision." The Y in the ioau iepiesenteu the
uecision she neeueu to make.
The symbol of the coveieu biiuge was uefineu as "something that links to
something else." Bei to-the-point association to the biiuge was that it lookeu like
the sceneiy of hei past. She was askeu, "Which of the ioaus that you woulu take is a
link to the past that you ieally uon't want to go to but that youi passive pait wants."
The ioau leauing to the coveieu biiuge iepiesenteu hei past with }ohn.
The client uefineu the stiaight ioau as "a ioau that leaus aheau." She associateu
to this as follows: "I am not suie wheie it leaus to, but it seems pietty cleai the
sceneiy is similai to that of Aiizona, my piesent suiiounuings." The chaiacteiistics
of the uefinition anu the to-the-point associations aie combineu in the following
question: "What ioau lies aheau of you that you aie not suie wheie it will leau to but
that has to uo with youi piesent." The stiaight ioau iepiesenteu the futuie with
Lenny, hei cuiient boyfiienu.
The uieam can be ieconstiucteu into the following new uieam stoiy:
: '8 ".,,%?7 86 5'BB%;.U&.5.?&.?, B%&. ,>', D'?,B ,# -. ,'=.? +'$. #@
8'=. 86 &.+%B%#? @#$ 8.9 N6 %?&.+%B%#? %B &'?7.$#4B '?& +#4"& &.B,$#6
86 $."',%#?B>%5 D%,> K.??69 : >';. +#8. ,# ' 5#%?, D>.$. : 84B, 8'=. '
&.+%B%#?9 F>. 5'$, #@ 8. ,>', D'?,B ,# -. ,'=.? +'$. #@ D'?,B ,# 7# -'+=
,# ,>. 5'B, D%,> 86 #"& -#6@$%.?&9 F>. %?&.5.?&.?, 5'$, D'?,B ,#
+#?,%?4. 86 @4,4$. D%,> K.??69
CONCLUSION
The combination of uefining the symbols anu getting the to-the-point
associations foi them is an effective methou foi ueteimining the meaning of the
symbols anu iewiiting the uieam stoiy. Although this piocess may seem faiily
simple in the above examples, it is easy to get siuetiackeu uuiing the inquiiy, eithei
thiough the theiapist's own associations oi thiough the client's tangentiality. The
theiapist can stay on tiack by going back to the common chaiacteiistics between
symbol anu iefeient. Those shaieu common chaiacteiistics aie the link between the
latent anu manifest meaning of the symbols. Aiiiving at the new meaning of symbols
enables the theiapist to inteipiet the uieam anu subsequently aiiive at the uieam
message.
!"#$%&' )*
!"#$% '#()$*+,%,
F# &$.'8 %B ?#,>%?7 ."B. -4, ,# ,>%?= B"..5%?79
Baniel Befoe, S%B,#$6 #@ ,>. G.;%"
Befoie uiscussion of the final steps in inteipieting a uieam, a chaptei on uieam
mechanisms is incluueu, since these mechanisms inteisect acioss all of the basic
steps in the inteipietive piocess. It has alieauy been noteu that uieam language is
like a foieign language anu that uieam inteipietation is tianslating fiom one level of
consciousness to anothei. Symbols pioviue the vocabulaiy of this new language.
Bieam mechanisms aie the iules of giammai oi logic. These iules aie veiy uiffeient
fiom the ones followeu in eveiyuay logic. An unueistanuing of the syntax of uieam
language is impoitant in aiiiving at the uieam meaning.
When mateiial is tiansfeiieu fiom one level of awaieness to anothei, it is
tiansfoimeu oi uistoiteu. The mateiial piioi to tianslation is tiansfoimeu into new
meaning by piocesses calleu uieam mechanisms. Fieuu oiiginally nameu five uieam
mechanisms, one of which was symbolization. Rosenthal (198u) stateu that all of
Fieuu's uieam mechanisms weie uistoitions of ieality anu auueu 12 othei
uistoitions. Some of the common uieam mechanisms will be uesciibeu so that the
theiapist can iecognize them when woiking with uieams. If the clinician is awaie of
these chaiacteiistics of uieam language, it will cieate less confusion when
conuucting the inteipietive piocess.
SYMBOLIZATION
0ne of the piimaiy uieam mechanisms, symbolization is the use of conciete
symbols to stanu foi abstiact concepts. Both the objects anu actions in uieams aie
symbolic, anu uieam inteipietation consists of tianslating those symbols into the
iueas oi objects foi which they stanu. Symbols aie peisonal to the uieamei, anu it is
not possible to unueistanu what they iefei to without getting the uieamei's
associations to them. Symbols shaie common chaiacteiistics with the objects foi
which they stanu, anu a uesciiption of these common chaiacteiistics pioviues a clue
to the meaning of the symbol.
Symbols can stanu foi objects, actions, oi iathei complex thoughts. Nany of the
symbols uesciibeu in pievious chapteis geneially stoou foi abstiact concepts. Foi
example, a bomb in one case iepiesenteu an inuiviuual's violent tempei, a pizza
iepiesenteu emotional nouiishment, money iepiesenteu eneigy, anu so on.
Sometimes a symbol can uesciibe a moie complex iuea. A woiu oi phiase can
summaiize a combination of iueas. Foi example, Lillian hau a uieam that she was to
meet the contiactoi of the builuing she was buying on Tuesuay evening, }uly the
fiist. She iecalleu that on that paiticulai uate she hau inviteu a speakei to a meeting.
The speakei hau iequesteu a television so that she coulu play a viueotape that
woulu uemonstiate anu communicate hei iueas moie effectively. Although Lillian
wanteu veiy much to view this viueotape, obtaining a television foi the speakei
woulu be moie than a minoi inconvenience. She woulu have to make special
aiiangements foi it, caiiy it, anu be iesponsible foi it. In shoit, it woulu iequiie
some eneigy. A pait of hei uiu not want to be botheieu. 0n the othei hanu, she was
looking foiwaiu to heaiing this speakei anu wonueieu whethei she woulu get as
much fiom a lectuie alone without the accompanying viueotape. Befoie she went to
sleep, she uebateu whethei the cost of getting the viueotape was woith the
auvantage of having a goou piesentation. This complex situation was succinctly
summaiizeu in the phiase "Tuesuay evening, }uly 1," which iepiesenteu a conflict
between wanting to have something anu wonueiing whethei the costs weie woith
the effoit. By uieaming about meeting the contiactoi of the builuing she was about
to buy, she conveyeu the ambivalence she felt about buying the builuing, wanting it
bauly on the one hanu anu not wanting the inconvenience, on the othei.
Both pictuies anu events can seive as symbols. A pictuie can convey a
paiticulai moou oi situation. Foi example, a pictuie of a uieamei in a paiticulai city
can iepiesent a whole peiiou of his oi hei life. 0ccasionally, uieams can consist of a
seiies of pictuies oi scenes. Somehow the uieamei knows that these scenes aie
connecteu oi pait of the same uieam, even though each scene is uiffeient fiom the
othei. These "seiial uieams" a seiies of events following anotheiaie common
anu aie the uieam's way of conveying a numbei of iueas that eithei follow each
othei oi aie ielateu to each othei in uiffeient ways. The juxtaposition of scenes is
impoitant, anu if we can put in connecting woius between one scene anu anothei,
the uieam makes moie sense. Foi example, Scene 1 coulu iepiesent the uieamei's
cuiient situation, Scene 2 coulu iepiesent the past wheie it staiteu, anu Scene S
coulu uepict the futuie. Scene 1 happeneu -.+'4B. of Scene 2; ,>.$.@#$., it leaus to
Scene S. Foi example, Caiol hau the following "seiial uieam:"
:? ,>. @%$B, 5'$, #@ ,>. &$.'8( : '8 ,$6%?7 ,# 7., ,# ' 5'$,6( -4, '"#?7 ,>.
D'6 : =..5 8..,%?7 B#8. 8.? D># ?..& 86 >."5( '?& : >."5 ,>.8( '?&
B#8.>#D( : +'?C, B..8 ,# 8'=. %, ,# ,>. 5'$,69 : ,>.? 7# ,# 86 +'$ -4, %,
%B B,4+=( '?& : +'?C, 8#;. %,9 F>.? ,>. B+.?. B>%@,B( '?& : 7# ,# ,>.
-'B.8.?, #@ 86 >#4B. '?& 86 @',>.$ %B ,>.$.9 F>.? B#8.>#D : '8 %? ,>.
+'$ '7'%?( '?& ,>%B ,%8. ,>. +'$ 8#;.B9
The fiist scene uepicteu Caiol's cuiient situation. She is unable to uo something
she wants because she is taking caie of men's neeus fiist. She is stuck anu can't seem
to move on. The seconu scene iepiesents the past anu tiaces the oiigin of Caiol's
pioblem with men to hei ielationship with hei fathei. The thiiu scene uepicts the
futuie anu suggests that she can move foiwaiu once she ueals with the ioots of hei
pioblem.
Theie is usually a causal ielationship between uiffeient scenes, anu fiequently
uiffeient time fiames aie conveyeu in the vaiious scenes. Since we cannot uieam in
the abstiact, theie is no mechanism foi conveying causal elements oi ielationships.
The shifting of scenes conveys this causal connection. Each scene oi naiiative event
can stanu foi a uiffeient iuea oi iepiesent a specific peiiou in a peison's past,
piesent, oi futuie.
}ust as causal ielationships anu complex iueas aie uifficult to expiess in a
nonabstiact meuium, so aie feelings. Sometimes we use conciete symbols that stanu
foi specific feelings. Foi example, a tigei that is out of contiol may iepiesent an
inuiviuual's angei. Fiequently, howevei, we uo not uieam about feelingswe
.<5.$%.?+. them. We may feel sau, happy, elateu, oi fiustiateu in oui uieams.
Sometimes we wake up with these feelings. A woman hungiy foi emotional
closeness fiequently has uieams wheie she feels famisheu. A man uealing with the
loss of his wife feels veiy sau in his uieams. The expeiience of sauness, fiustiation,
hungei, oi coluness in uieams is a iepiesentation of that feeling in waking life.
Besiues the expeiiencing of feelings to symbolize ceitain expeiiences in oui
waking life, anothei paiticulai type of symbolization that is chaiacteiistic of uieam
language is that of symbolic metaphoi. Since we cannot uieam in the abstiact, we
use conciete pictuies to uepict specific actions. Some metaphois aie faiily obvious,
anu the woius uesciibing the uieam pictuie coulu be inteipieteu at seveial levels.
Foi example, images of opening anu shutting uoois coulu iepiesent opening oi
shutting uoois to specific situations, an image of having the iight key coulu mean
having the key oi solution to a pioblem, anu a pictuie of oneself in the uaik coulu
iepiesent being in the uaik oi unawaie of a specific issue. 0thei instances of
conciete images that may be useu to uepict abstiact actions incluue being stuck,
being on the iight tiack, getting iiu of gaibage, flying high, not being in the uiivei's
seat, being cut open, being in muuuy wateis, anu so on.
Sometimes images aie useu to uepict specific expiessions. These aie not as
obvious as the ones mentioneu above, but the theiapist's awaieness of theii
occuiience can help him oi hei listen foi them, paiticulaily if the uieamei's actions
in the uieam aie not immeuiately unueistanuable at a symbolic level. Examples of
images that iepiesent common expiessions incluue uieaming that one is hitting the
ioof, has egg on one's face, oi is having the iug pulleu out fiom unuei. The uieam
concietizes these expiessions.
Bieam language is a clevei, cieative nonabstiact meuium foi conveying
complicateu iueas, anu visual anu veibal metaphoi anu punning aie pait of this
language. The theiapist can listen foi these veibal expiessions in the telling of the
uieam. Bonnie, foi example, hau a uieam that maue no sense to hei until she staiteu
ielating it. She uieameu that she hau an iion in hei hanus anu was iioning hei face.
As she ielateu the uieam, she iealizeu that hei pictuie was a metaphoi foi "iioning
out the wiinkles." Saiah hau a uieam that she was a chicken lockeu up in chicken
wiie. As she tolu the uieam, she iealizeu that she was "chicken" about a specific
situation. Baiiy hau a uieam in which his wife was veiy thin, almost sticklike, anu
was immeiseu in muu, a "stick-in-the-muu."
Punning is also a chaiacteiistic of uieam language that theiapists shoulu listen
foi, paiticulaily when a name, woiu, oi phiase occuis that is not easily explaineu.
Bonnie ielateu a uieam about a woman nameu "Caieme" (pionounceu +'$.U8.). She
iecognizeu that she was uieaming about an aspect of hei that neeueu caiing.
Anothei woman uieameu of a man nameu "Canuo" (pionounceu +'?U&#). This was
an image of someone who "can uo" something. Sometimes woius that sounu alike
aie substituteu foi othei woius. Foi example, a peison pictuiing a "sun" that he is
losing may be iefeiiing to his "son," oi a peison pictuiing someone giving him a
"shoe" may be uieaming about someone giving him a "shoo." Being awaie of these
chaiacteiistics of uieam language can help the clinician listen foi them.
DRAMATIZATION
Anothei common uieam mechanism is uiamatization, which is an exaggeiation
of ieality. I have at times iefeiieu to this as "absuiuization" oi "caiicatuie." The veiy
absuiuity of the image can seive to poke fun of it anu put it in peispective. Bonnie,
foi example, uieameu of a man with a penis that was so long so as to be iiuiculous.
This seiveu to uiamatize foi hei the humoi in placing so much impoitance on male
qualities. An exaggeiation in a uieam may be a goou focal point; by pointing out the
absuiuity, it conveys the uieam message.
Anothei uieam that has useu this uieam mechanism was the one ielateu in a
pievious chaptei of a clinical psychologist taking out teeth anu pulling out tonsils.
That uieam highlights the absuiuity of the situation in which a peison tiies to uo
eveiything. Bumoi is an effective way of uealing with neuiotic behavioi anu helps
the uieamei have peispective on his oi hei actions.
Bonalu also useu exaggeiation in his uieam to help him put his situation in its
piopei peispective. Bonalu misseu his family anu was lonely foi them. Be uieameu
that he was in New Yoik City, anu theie was not one peison in all of New Yoik! The
uieam not only helpeu biing to awaieness his exaggeiateu feelings of aloneness, but
auueu humoi to the situation.
Sometimes caiicatuieu images elicit the same effect. Linua, foi example,
uieameu of a woman who was uieting so much that hei heau was
uispiopoitionately big to the iest of hei bouy. This seiveu as a ieminuei to Linua of
hei "big-heaueuness" anu the extiemes in which she was behaving. }oan uieameu of
a man whose heau was on backwaius. The uieam uiamatizeu foi hei how she
always chose "backwaiu" men, men who weie occupationally anu intellectually
infeiioi to hei.
When uiamatization oi exaggeiation is useu in uieams, it is fiequently a focal
point fiom which to view the iest of the uieam, anu it usually conveys the uieam
message thiough humoi. 0ne of the chaiacteiistics of uieam language is its playful
natuie.
NUMBERIZATION
I48-.$%Z',%#?, a teim coineu by Battie Rosenthal (198u), iefeis to numbeis
occuiiing in a uieam. Numbeis can tuin out to be a souice of valuable infoimation if
not the key to a uieam message. Rosenthal (1978b) uesciibeu a iathei uiamatic
example of numbeis helping to eluciuate the uieam message. She hau tieateu a
ciiminal on piobation who hau bluugeoneu a neighboi to ueath. Be hau a uieam
that he was swimming in the ocean anu hau the feeling that he was sinking.
Wheievei he tuineu, a woouen plank woulu hit him anu then anothei. Although he
tiieu to uespeiately holu on to them, they woulu thiow him off. These planks
seemeu to have life in them anu huit him bauly. Be was fuiious at them because
they weie so much stiongei than he was. The uieamei uiu not piouuce any
associations in this uieam until he was askeu how many planks hau attackeu him.
Without any hesitation, he iesponueu, "Sixteen." Be was askeu: "Bow many people
aie theie in youi family." Be quickly counteu on his fingeis anu came up with the
numbei sixteen. Be was then able to talk about his family anu paiticulaily his
biothei whom he hau wanteu to muiuei. In killing his neighboi, he hau iecieateu a
fantasy he hau about killing his biothei. Without the numbei, fuithei inquiiy woulu
likely have piouuceu the same iesult. Bowevei, much time was saveu in this
mannei.
The use of numbeis in uieams is no coinciuence anu usually seives as a
chaiacteiistic of the objects uesciibeu. Foi example, in the uieam iepoiteu at the
beginning of the book, the woman uieameu that thiee people weie being seiveu
aheau of hei. She hau thiee stepchiluien. Whenevei clients mention many, seveial,
oi a few objects oi people, it is geneially a goou iuea to ask foi a numbei, since it
often pioviues a clue to the meaning of the uieam.
When numbeis aie iepoiteu spontaneously, they shoulu uefinitely be noteu.
Eugai, foi example, iepoiteu this uieam following some caieei uecisions he was
tiying to make:
: &$.'8.& ,>', : >'& &#?. B#8.,>%?7 '?& >'& ,# 7# ,# Y'%" @#$ %, @#$
,>%$,6 6.'$B9 : D'B ;.$6 B'& '-#4, %, -4, =?.D ,>', : >'& ,# 7# ,# Y'%"9
F>.$'5%B,P "Bow olu will you be in thiity yeais, Eugai."
Q"%.?,P "Sixty-five."
F>.$'5%B,P "Anu what happens to people when they tuin sixty-five."
Q"%.?,P "They ietiie!"
Thiough the use of numbeis, Eugai iealizeu that his jail teim iepiesenteu the
caieei uecision he was contemplating. The uieam helpeu claiify foi him his feelings
about it. Again, he may have achieveu the same insight without the numbei. The
numbei, howevei, saveu many steps in inteipietation anu helpeu him aiiive at the
uieam meaning soonei.
Some time ago, I hau a uieam in which a ceitain foui-figuie numbei appeaieu. I
coulu not figuie out what those numbeis iepiesenteu, but I vaguely iecalleu
thinking that they ieminueu me of a telephone extension numbei. I went to the
telephone anu uialeu the fiist thiee uigits spontaneously (which weie not in the
uieam, but my unconscious knew what it was uoing!) anu then the foui uigits I hau
uieameu about. It tuineu out to be the main switchboaiu numbei of a place I hau
woikeu foi anu hau "foigotten." Numbeis in uieams aie significant, not
coinciuental. They can fiequently be useu as the focal point in inteipieting uieams.
CONDENSATION AND DILATION
Conuensation is a uieam mechanism wheie seveial elements aie pusheu
togethei into one; foi example, an uncle may stanu foi the iest of the family oi a co-
woikei may stanu foi co-woikeis in geneial. It is an economical way to iepiesent
iueas in uieams.
Bieam language is clevei anu cieative, anu fiequently seveial iueas can be
conuenseu into one image oi woiu. Foi example, a mothei of a S-yeai-olu boy was
conceineu about his futuie choice of wife. She hau a uieam wheie she askeu the
mothei of Bon, an intellectually limiteu boy, what type of giil he woulu maiiy. The
mothei ieplieu, "A B%85". one, of couise", with the emphasis on the woiu "simple."
This conuenseu two iueas veiy well: "Be's a simple (not biight) boy; he'll maiiy a
simple giil," anu "The solution is simplewhy aie you woiiying about youi son
who is only five now."
Bilation is the opposite of conuensation (Rosenthal, 198u). Wheieas in
conuensation, seveial objects aie conuenseu into one, in uilation, one issue is spieau
out into seveial uimensions in a uiffuse, iambling, oi iepetitive mannei. The issue is
uilateu oi spieau out so that theie is a ieuunuancy.
}eiiy's uieam is an example of uilation:
: D'B ,$6%?7 ,# 7., ,# ' 5'$,6( '?& #? ,>. D'6( : B.. ,D# #@ 86 +#"".'74.B
D># B..8 ,# -. >';%?7 +'$ 5$#-".8B9 : @%< ,>.%$ +'$ @#$ ,>.8 '?& 7.,
&%$,69 F>.6 7# #? -4, : ?..& ,# 7# '?& D'B> 45 -.@#$. : +'? 7#9 EB : '8
'-#4, ,# D'B> 45( G%'?' +'""B 8. '?& 'B=B 8. %@ : D#4"& 8%?& 5%+=%?7
>.$ 45 #? 86 D'69 : B'6 :`"" &# ,>', .;.? ,>#47> B>. "%;.B B.;.$'" 8%".B
#4, #@ ,>. D'69 S#D.;.$( -6 ,>. ,%8. : 7., ,>.$.( B>. >'B ".@, ' ?#,. ,>',
B>. 7#, ' $%&. @$#8 B#8.#?. ."B.9 : '8 45B., -6 ,>', -4, : @%74$. ,>', 'B
"#?7 'B : '8 %? >.$ ?.%7>-#$>##& : 8%7>, 'B D."" "##= 45 B#8. #"& ,%8.
@$%.?&B D># "%;. ,>.$.9 : B.. ,>.8 ', ' &%B,'?+. D';%?7 ', 8.9 F>.6 B..8
,# >';. B#8. 5$#-".8 D%,> ,>.%$ B5$%?=".$ B6B,.8( '?& : 7# +>.+= %, #4,9
: 7., D., '?& $.'"%Z. : ?..& ' +>'?7. #@ +"#,>.B9 N6 @$%.?&B $.8'%? &$69
The same theme is iepeateu ovei anu ovei heie. The uieamei keeps stopping to
help otheis befoie he meets his own neeus. Be gets uelayeu, while they go on theii
way. The ieuunuancy in the uieam seems to highlight the uieamei's pattein.
Conuensation anu uilation aie fiequently seen in uieams, anu awaieness of
these mechanisms makes the task of inteipietation easiei foi the clinician.
REVERSAL OF ROLES
Reveising of ioles (Rosenthal, 198u) is anothei type of uistoition in uieams. It
is the piojection of feelings, actions, anu behavioi that the uieamei has onto anothei
peison. 0f couise, this is a common uefense mechanism, paiticulaily when the client
is not ieauy to acknowleuge ceitain feelings in him- oi heiself. At those times, the
client may ieveise ioles with anothei peison anu pioject those feelings onto that
peison. When ieveisal of ioles occuis in uieams, it may also seive as a uiagnostic
tool foi the clinician as to the types of uefenses that the client may be using. It is also
a goou vehicle foi bioaching the topic of those unacceptable feelings with the client.
Foi example, a woman with a uiinking pioblem that hau been uenieu foi yeais
uieameu that hei best fiienu was an alcoholic. Piojecting these unacceptable
feelings onto hei fiienu ielieveu hei fiom the guilt; howevei, it seiveu as a means of
uiscussing the pioblem in psychotheiapy. People fiequently uieam of otheis being
angiy anu behaving in a haish anu punitive mannei towaiu them. The theiapist,
iecognizing that the client may be veiy uncomfoitable with his oi hei own angei,
may use the uieam as a vehicle to help the client become awaie of these feelings at a
conscious level.
DISSIMILATION
Bissimilation is anothei uieam mechanism auueu by Rosenthal (198u), which
the uieamei uses to gain some uistance fiom his oi hei unacceptable feelings.
Bissimilation is a maneuvei that uisguises the uieamei oi othei peisons in the
uieamei's life. In uieams, some uieam figuies may appeai that the uieamei has no
conscious knowleuge of but who beai some iesemblance to people he oi she knows.
When iepoiting a uieam, clients often say, "I uon't know who that peison is, but I
feel I know hei," oi "Be is somewhat familiai to me." Fiequently, these figuies aie a
uisguise of themselves oi of the theiapist. The theiapist can claiify who these
figuies iepiesent by asking the client to uesciibe them. Statements such as, "She is
about youi height," oi "She has youi coloiing" may give some clue as to the figuie's
iuentity. Sometimes, clients will iepoit, "She ieminus me of myself when I was
youngei," oi mention a physical oi peisonality featuie that beais some iesemblance
to themselves oi to some impoitant figuie in theii lives. Bissimilation seives the
puipose of pioviuing uistance between the uieam anu what it iepiesents so that the
uieamei can ueciue how much of the uieam mateiial he oi she wants to biing to
conscious awaieness.
FUSION AND TRANSFORMATION OF IMAGES
Fusion anu tiansfoimation of images occasionally occui in uieams, anu
awaieness of these two chaiacteiistics of uieam language can help the theiapist
when a uieam image appeais confusing. Fusion is the melting of two oi moie
inuiviuuals into one unit (Rosenthal, 198u). Foi example, a uieam figuie coulu have
seveial contiauictoiy tiaits anu iepiesent uiffeient aspects of the uieamei's
peisonality oi aspects of the uieamei meigeu with anothei peison. A woman
ielateu a uieam in which the following uieam image appeaieu:
F>.$. D'B ' D#8'? D%,> 7$'6 >'%$( B#$, #@ "%=. 8%?.( -4, B>. D'B
D.'$%?7 %, %? 5%7,'%"B( "%=. ' "%,,". 7%$"CB9 T>. D'B +'$$6%?7 ' -$%.@+'B. %?
#?. >'?& '?& ' &#"" %? ,>. #,>.$9 T>. D'B D.'$%?7 ' $',>.$ @'?+6 '?&
5$#@.BB%#?'" -4B%?.BB B4%,e >#D.;.$( ,>. 8',.$%'" D'B ;.$6 -$%7>, '?&
+#"#$@4"( "%=. ,>. ,65. 6#4 54, #? +>%"&$.?CB &$'5.B9
The contiast between the oluei, businesslike woman, on the one hanu, anu the
chiluish featuies, on the othei, suggesteu that the uieam figuie may be a
combination of peisonsin this case, the uieamei in hei piesent life anu heiself as
a little giil.
Tiansfoimation of images is similai to fusion, in that an image changes uuiing
the couise of the uieam. Seveial uieams using tiansfoimation weie alieauy
uiscusseu in pievious chapteis, foi example, the babies who tuineu into chickens oi
the biothei-in-law who became 0ncle Eu. Tiansfoimation of figuies geneially
embouies seveial chaiacteiistics in the same image. Foi example, having the
biothei-in-law who oveiinvesteu in ieal estate tuin into the uncle who uiun't save is
a combination of chaiacteiistics of not planning well foi one's futuie. The uieam of
babies who tuineu into chickens also embouies two conceptsone of new
beginnings anu the othei of aitistic cieations. Sometimes when an object tiansfoims
into anothei uuiing the couise of the uieam, it may ieflect emeiging oi changing
attituues. Foi example, the "new beginnings" can meige into "aitistic cieations."
Both fusion anu tiansfoimation of images aie common uieam chaiacteiistics
anu pait anu paicel of eveiyuay uieam language. The theiapist's awaieness of these
mechanisms anu iecognition of them makes the uieam appeai less confusing anu
nonsensical.
OMISSION
0mission of mateiial in uieams is significant anu shoulu not be ignoieu.
0mission is a mechanism in which ceitain mateiial is left out of uieams (Rosenthal,
198u). Sometimes, the uieamei calls attention to the omission uiiectly; when the
uieamei uoes not uo so, the theiapist shoulu be attuneu to what is not being saiu. A
client may state, "I iecall thiee iooms, but I know that theie was a fouith one," oi "I
saw a table with only thiee legs." Examples of omissions have been pioviueu in
pievious chapteis, as in the case of the woman who uieameu that she hau thiee
hanuicaps but coulu only figuie out two of them. Sometimes clients will omit a
whole segment of a uieam, foi example, ielating the beginning of a scene, not
iecalling the miuule, anu ielating the enu. 0missions aie impoitant, anu the
theiapist shoulu be attuneu to what is missing oi omitteu in a uieam. Fiequently,
the pait that is missing can be useu as the focal point of the uieam.
CONCLUSION
The uieam mechanisms oi uistoitions uesciibeu in this chaptei aie some of the
ones commonly seen in uieams. Recognizing them when they uo occui makes the
uieam appeai less nonsensical anu confusing. It must be iemembeieu that uieam
language has its own chaiacteiistics anu follows its own iules of logic, which aie
veiy uiffeient fiom the iules of eveiyuay conscious logic. An unueistanuing of these
iules will aiu in the piocess of inteipieting the uieam message.
!"#$%&' ))
!"# %&#'( )#**'+# ',- !"#&'.#/012
!""#$%&'$()*
3. B#8.,%8.B @$#8 &$.'8B 5%+= 45 B#8. >%?, D#$,>
%85$#;%?7 -6 9 9 9 $.@".+,%#?9
Thomas }effeison, Lettei to
}ames Nonioe, 182S
Eveiy uieam pioviues a message foi the uieamei. Wheieas Fieuu saw uieams
as wish fulfillment, Rosenthal vieweu them as messages. She stateu that we can
fulfill oui wishes in uayuieams, anu theie is no neeu to uo so in uieams. Bieams
geneially tell us what we uon't know oi only know at an unconscious level of
awaieness. Each uieam ueliveis a message fiom oui unconscious to oui conscious
level of awaieness, anu the message suggests a iemeuy. The message comes in
unintelligible oi uisguiseu foim so that the uieamei can ueciue whethei he oi she
wants to uecoue the message oi push it back, to unueistanu the pioblem oi to keep
it hiuuen fiom conscious awaieness. As }ames Ball states: ''Bieams aie mysteiious
entities, like messages fiom an unknown fiienu who is caiing but objective. The
hanuwiiting anu the language aie at times obscuie, but theie is nevei any uoubt as
to the unueilying concein foi oui ultimate welfaie" (Ball, 198S, p. 117).
Some messages aie faiily easy to unueistanu anu uifficult to ignoie. Kathy, foi
example, hau been assigneu a pioject seveial months in the past but hau not staiteu
woiking on it. She hau tiieu to stop thinking about it but kept having iecuiiing
uieams that hei supeivisoi was asking hei foi piogiess iepoits on the pioject! It
was haiu to ignoie the message of hei uieams, even though she hau consciously
avoiueu thinking about the woik she hau to uo.
Sometimes, the message is conveyeu in the theme of the uieam, as in the
following:
: '8 ', 86 >#4B.( '?& ,>.$. '$. 5.#5". ,>.$.9 3. '$. >';%?7 ' 5#,"4+=
#$ B#8.,>%?7( '?& ,>.$. %B B,.'= '?& B'"'&9 T#8.#?. 'B=B( [3>.$. '$.
'"" ,>. .<,$'Bb F>.$. '$. ?# 5#,',#.B( -$.'& '?& #,>.$ ,$%88%?7B9[ :
,>%?= ,# 86B."@( _3>6 +#?+.?,$',. #? D>', D. &#?C, >';. $',>.$ ,>'? #?
D>', D. >';.b 3. >';. ,>. -'B%+B9[ F>.? : @%?& #4, ,>', ,>.$. '$. .<,$'B
,>', : &%&?C, =?#D D. >'&9
The message was expiesseu iathei cleaily in this uieam: "Concentiate on what
you have iathei than on what you uon't. You have the basics, anu you may finu out
that you have some extia things you weien't awaie you hau." The message seiveu as
a ieminuei to this client to count hei blessings anu not to focus on what was lacking.
Beie is anothei uieam tolu by the same woman. Again, the uieam message
seiveu as a ieminuei to hei of what she neeueu to uo:
: '8 B455#B.& ,# 8'=. ' 5$.B.?,',%#?9 : 7# .'$"6 ,# 5$.5'$. ,>. $##8
@#$ %,( '?& %, %B ' 8.BB9 : "##= @#$ 86 +#UD#$=.$B ,# >."5 8.( -4, ,>.6 '$.
'"" -4B6 '?& B..8 ,# %7?#$. 8.9 : $4B> 8'&"6 ,# 7., ,>. 5$#Y.+,#$ @#$ ,>.
5$.B.?,',%#?( -4, %, ,'=.B 84+> "#?7.$ ,>'? : ,>#47>, %, D#4"&( '?& ,>.?
: @%?& #4, B#8.#?. ."B. >'B +>.+=.& %, #4, '"$.'&69 : &#?C, =?#D D>', ,#
&#( '?& : '8 D#$$%.& '-#4, -.%?7 "',.9 : D#$$6 '-#4, .;.$6#?. -.%?7
,>.$. '?& ?#,>%?7 -.%?7 $.'&69 F>.? : 7# -'+= %? ,>. $##8( '?&
.;.$6,>%?7 B..8B ,# >';. ,'=.? +'$. #@ %,B."@9 F>. 5$#Y.+,#$ %B ,>.$.( ,>.
$##8 D'B +".'?.&( '?& : ,>%?= ,# 86B."@ ,>', : D#$$%.& B# 84+> #;.$
?#,>%?7( ,>', %? ,>. .?& .;.$6,>%?7 ,##= +'$. #@ %,B."@9
As in the pievious uieam, the message was what the uieamei was telling
heiself; in this case, "Bon't woiiy so much neeulessly. In the long iun, eveiything
somehow takes caie of itself."
Sometimes the uieam message is conveyeu thiough anothei peison, usually
someone we iespect anu aumiie. }ean hau the following uieam in which hei biothei
communicateu the uieam message:
: >';. ' ,48-".U8', '?& ' +4+=## +"#+=9 T# &#.B 86 -$#,>.$9 : D#$$6
,>', ,>. 5'&&%?7 #? 86 8', %B ,## ,>%?9 S%B %B 84+> ,>%+=.$9 S. ,>.?
D>%B5.$B B#8.,>%?7 ;.$6 %85#$,'?, ,# 8.9 S. ,.""B 8. ,>', : >';.
.?#47> 5'&&%?7( ,>', %,CB '&.]4',.( -4, ,>', : >';. ,# -. 84+> 8#$.
+'$.@4" D%,> %,9
}ean hau been saving money foi a tiip, anu time was iunning out befoie the tiip
was uue (symbolizeu by the cuckoo clock). She was woiiieu if the money she hau
saveu pioviueu enough of a cushion ("pauuing") to fall back on ("a tumble-mat is
something you fall back on when you play"). The uieam message was that hei
cushion was auequate, but that she woulu have to be veiy caieful with it. She
ueciueu to save some moie money so that she woulu not have to be so caieful.
Sometimes the uieam message is not communicateu so uiiectly anu neeus to be
spelleu out. Loien, foi example, ielateu the following uieam:
: '8 %? ' ;.>%+".( '?& : ?#,%+. 5'$, #@ 86 >4?= #@ +>'%? %B 8%BB%?79 : ?..&
,# 7., %, %? #$&.$ ,# 8#;. '>.'&9
The uieam in this case uepicteu Loien's situation, that he was losing his
connections with otheis, anu that in oiuei to get aheau, he neeueu to make stiongei
ties. The uieam message was foi him to stait making some connections.
In anothei uieam, Loien hau an image of a gaiage uooi that he coulun't close
because he hau too much stuff in it. Be ielateu that to his woik situation anu acteu
on the uieam message to eliminate some of the stuff so that he coulu close the uooi.
0ccasionally uieam messages make clients awaie of the piogiess they aie
making. Clients fiequently uieam of themselves behaving in ceitain ways anu
contiasting that behavioi with theii behavioi in the past. These piogiess iepoits aie
similai to "appieciation" oi "Thank uou!" uieams. In appieciation uieams, people
may uieam of a peiiou of theii lives when they weie unhappy oi when something
unfoitunate was happening to them. These uieams ieminu the uieamei to
appieciate what he oi she has. Baiolu, foi example, fiequently uieameu of his
auolescence, when he was a shy, unattiactive, unpopulai teenagei. This shaiply
contiasteu with his piesent ciicumstances, wheie he was confiuent, attiactive, anu
populai with the opposite sex.
"Thank uou!" uieams also have as theii puipose to biing to the uieamei's
awaieness what he oi she has. Sometimes people have uieams in which they lose a
loveu one thiough ueath oi uivoice, which is a shaip contiast to the ieality of theii
situation. I have teimeu these uieams "Thank uou!" uieams because a peison's
immeuiate ieaction upon awakening is "Thank uou this uiun't happen!" Rathei than
be upset by these uieams, they can seive as ieminueis to appieciate what you have.
Bieams give two kinus of messages: what to uo oi what not to uo. A message
geneially tells the uieamei in which uiiection to go. 0nce the uieam is analyzeu
(even if theie is not a total inteipietation), the theiapist shoulu ask, "What uo you
think the message is." oi "What uo you think the uieam is telling you."
Bieams have both uiagnostic anu theiapeutic applications. 0nce the uieamei
unueistanus his oi hei behavioi, the next step is to apply the uieam message to his
oi hei life; otheiwise, the entiie inteipietation woulu go to waste. The most
impoitant pait of theiapy is what the client uoes with the self-knowleuge. 0nce the
uieam inteipietation is finisheu anu the client is able to veibalize the uieam
message, the theiapist can ask: "Bow can you use this self-knowleuge." oi "Bow can
you apply this to youiself." This is veiy impoitant. Both the &%'7?#B,%+ anu the
,>.$'5.4,%+ aspects aie necessaiy in uieam analysis. Inteipieting the uieam is only
pait of the piocess; the piactical application of its message completes it.
Let us see how that might woik by looking at some of the uieams uiscusseu in
this chaptei wheie the uieam message was eliciteu. Kathy, foi example, whose
uieams weie telling hei to woik on hei pioject, coulu easily apply this to hei life by
uiscussing with hei theiapist why she was piociastinating anu then setting up a
scheuule to woik on hei pioject. In this case, the uieam was quite helpful, since it
eliciteu a long uiscussion of Kathy's feai of failuie anu some of hei pooi
oiganizational skills. The theiapist was able to pioviue conciete, helpful, anu
piactical suggestions foi completing the pioject.
The woman who hau a uieam about concentiating on what she has iathei than
on what she uoesn't coulu be askeu in what situations she can apply this. The client
may mention that she tenus to complain that she uoesn't have money foi "extias,"
but that she ieally has the basicsfoou, sheltei, clothinganu that she also has
some extias of which she isn't awaie. She can ieminu heiself of this uieam when she
finus heiself uepiesseu anu complaining about hei financial situation. She can also
be taught some specific thought-stopping anu cognitive iestiuctuiing techniques to
change hei thinking. In hei seconu uieam, wheie she was telling heiself not to
woiiy so much, she can also be taught some stiategies to woiiy less, foi example, by
changing hei thinking about a situation oi by specific ielaxation techniques. 0nce a
uieam is inteipieteu, the theiapist can use othei theiapeutic tools to help the client
leain piactical ways of applying the uieam message to his oi hei life.
Each message in the uieam pioviues a solution. The uieamei can choose to act
on the solution oi ignoie it. Sometimes, it is easiei to woik out the solution
symbolically, D%,>%? ,>. &$.'8, anu latei apply it to the client's life. This may be less
thieatening, anu the uieamei can see the solutions moie cleaily. We have seen an
example of this in Chaptei 6, wheie the woman was able to figuie out what she
coulu uo to get bettei seivice in the iestauiant. She coulu latei apply this solution to
hei situation with hei husbanu. Nost uieams pioviue obvious solutions to a
uilemma, which the client can come up with alone. Foi example, if the uieamei has a
uieam that she feels she is out of contiol because she is uiiving fiom the back seat,
she can be askeu, "What is the obvious solution heie." She can then state, "To get in
the uiivei's seat!" The theiapist anu client can then uiscuss specific, conciete
situations as to how this can be uone.
Sometimes, the theiapist can suggest piactical applications to use in a latei
uieam. Foi example, Betty hau a iecuiiing nightmaie in which she came face to face
with hei mothei. Betty always woke up peispiiing fiom the uieam anu feeling
teiiifieu. It was suggesteu to hei that she confiont hei mothei in the next uieam anu
ask what she wanteu fiom hei. This was veiy effective, in that when she hau this
uieam again, she talkeu to hei mothei anu tolu hei to leave hei alone.
As noteu befoie, the theiapist can use any theiapeutic mouality he oi she is
comfoitable with to woik on the uieam message. Psychotheiapists with a
behavioial oiientation can use a numbei of behavioial stiategies to change a client's
behavioi. uestalt theiapists may choose some specific expeiiential techniques to
help theii clients act out anu expeiience theii conflicts. Some theiapists may
combine hypnosis with uieam analysis. Foi example, a client can be put into a
hypnotic tiance in oiuei to ie-expeiience the uieam anu fill in missing elements.
This is paiticulaily helpful when theie aie omissions iepoiteu. Nuch of the
inteipietation can then be uone metaphoiically in a hypnotic state, anu the theiapist
can pioviue some posthypnotic suggestions on applying the uieam message. The
possibilities foi woiking with a uieam once it is inteipieteu aie numeious anu left
to the theiapist's cieativity. It is not the puipose of this book to suggest methous of
applying the uieam message. These possibilities aie only mentioneu to ieinfoice
that this methou of uieam inteipietation is compatible with any numbei of
theoietical oiientations anu can be combineu with them.
CONCLUSION
Bieams have both uiagnostic anu theiapeutic applications. Each uieam has a
message that, once unueistoou, the uieamei can choose to act upon. The theiapist
can help the client elicit the uieam message anu apply it piactically to his oi hei life.
Each message pioviues a solution, anu sometimes the client can woik out the
solution at a symbolic level befoie applying it to his oi hei life. The piactical
application of the uieam is extiemely impoitant anu can be auapteu to the
theiapist's psychotheiapeutic oiientation.

!"#$%&' )*
!"##$%&'&() +,- .(+-%/%-+&0- 1%23-44
In the pievious chapteis, we have lookeu at each of the stages involveu in
inteipieting a uieam. In this chaptei, these steps will be summaiizeu anu illustiateu
so that we can integiate them anu see how they woik togethei in the inteipietive
piocess. It must be iemembeieu that uieam analysis is a joint ventuie between
theiapist anu client; a theiapist cannot inteipiet a uieam alone, since it is the client
who pioviues the uefinitions anu associations.
Let us look at this uieam tolu by a young woman who oiiginally came foi
theiapy because of test anxiety. She was tiying to ueciue which college to go to at
this point anu was tolu to have a uieam:
N6 5'$.?,B 'B=.& .'+> #@ 4B ,# +>##B. ' &#7 '?& ' $.+#$& '"-48 D.
D#4"& "%=.9 E"" 86 B%-"%?7B +>#B. .<+.5, 8.9 : +#4"&?C, &.+%&. '?& .?&.&
45 D%,> ?#,>%?79 : ,>#47>, #@ 7.,,%?7 ' 7#"&.? $.,$%.;.$ -4, N%+>'."( 86
-$#,>.$( >'& '"$.'&6 +>#B.? #?.9
1. To &.@%?. ,>. 5',,.$?, the theiapist can ask the uieamei to tell this as though
it weie a stoiy, happening to someone else. The client stateu, "A woman is tiying to
choose something. All of hei siblings can make a uecision except hei. She enus up
with nothing." The uieamei's pattein of inuecision is faiily cleai in this uieam. By
hesitating, she enus up with nothing. She also uoesn't get something she likes
because hei biothei chose it fiist. The client can be askeu if she sees any similaiity
between the uieamei's actions anu hei own. She ielateu that she founu it veiy
uifficult to make uecisions in geneial, usually waiting until the last minute to make
one. She also felt that she was the only one in hei family who uiu not excel at
something. She felt that this uieam ielateu to hei inuecision about which college to
go to anu consequent caieei choice. She was the only sibling in hei family who hau
not maue a uefinitive caieei choice.
2. The theiapist can finu a @#+'" 5#%?, by asking, "What inteiests you most in
this uieam." oi "What is not cleai in this uieam." Both the theiapist anu client
chose the iecoiu album as a focal point in this case, although inquiiy coulu have
staiteu with any of the othei symbols in this uieam.
S. The theiapist can then ask foi &.@%?%,%#?B anu ,#U,>.U5#%?, 'BB#+%',%#?B foi
each symbol in oiuei to iewiite the uieam stoiy. The client gave the following
uefinitions anu associations to the symbols. She ielateu that she hau a gift ceitificate
foi a iecoiu album with an expiiation uate foi last week. She hau, as usual, waiteu
until the last minute to get it. The album symbolizeu a ueauline anu the client's
making last minute uecisions baseu on ueaulines iathei than logic. She saiu that
uogs weie something she likeu anu that she uepiiveu heiself of because hei biothei
hau gotten theie fiist. When askeu what else she likeu that she uepiiveu heiself of
because hei biothei was theie fiist, she ielateu chemistiy. Eveiy one of hei siblings
excelleu in an aiea except foi hei. Bei biothei was fiist in chemistiy anu maue
wonueiful giaues. She was afiaiu to majoi in chemistiy foi feai of competing with
him. The uieam staiteu to sheu some light on the uieamei's uifficulty in ueciuing
which college to go to oi which caieei choice to make. The unueilying feai behinu
hei inuecisiveness was hei feai of failuie anu competing with hei siblings,
paiticulaily hei biothei.
4. The &$.'8 +'? -. $.D$%,,.? as follows: "I am having uifficulty making a
uecision about which caieei choice to make. Each of my siblings has maue a caieei
choice anu has excelleu in something except me. When I make a uecision, it is only
because theie is a ueauline anu not uue to logic. When I hesitate anu uon't ueciue, I
enu up with nothing. I woulu like to stuuy chemistiy, but I am afiaiu to compete
with my biothei Nichael, because he is fiist in it."
S. To get at the 8.BB'7., the client can be askeu, "What uo you think this uieam
is telling you." oi "What uo you think the message of the uieam is foi you." This
client stateu, "The uieam is telling me not to be afiaiu to compete oi make a wiong
uecision. 0theiwise, I might enu up with nothing."
6. The last step is ,>.$'5.4,%+ '55"%+',%#? of the message. She was askeu, "What
have you leaineu about youiself." She answeieu, "That I am afiaiu of competing anu
failing." The theiapist can then ask, "Anu what can you uo with what you have
leaineu." oi "Bow can you apply this to youiself." These aie questions asking foi
specific behavioi. She iesponueu that she woulu enioll in the college wheie she
coulu majoi in chemistiy, even if it might mean she woulu fail oi not uo as well as
hei biothei. The client was also askeu in what othei aieas of hei life she coulu apply
what she hau leaineu about heiself. She iesponueu that she woulu tiy to make othei
uecisions even if they weie wiong ones iathei than wait anu enu up with nothing.
The pieceuing uiscussion illustiates how the piocess of uieam inteipietation
woiks in theiapy. The steps uo not necessaiily have to be in the oiuei uesciibeu oi
as mechanical as these examples imply. Each client anu uieam is inuiviuual, anu
each uieam analyst in the enu has to inteiview in the mannei that is most
compatible with his oi hei style. Bowevei, the steps can seive as guiuelines foi the
psychotheiapist.
The following is fiom Battie Rosenthal's wiitings (198u, p. S6):
A few hints can be given in this context which will offei an opening key to
the analyzing theiapist.
1. Let the uieamei "geneialize'' the uieam content in an impeisonal
way anu then ueuuct fiom the geneial to the peisonal meaning.
2. Let the uieamei iepeat the uieam as if it weie a stoiy he has heaiu.
Then ask in which way his iesponse to the stoiy ielates to himself.
S. Ask him about the moou (psychic climate) uisplayeu in the uieam
anu whethei he sees a similaiity between the uieam moou anu his
conscious fiame of minu.
4. Sometimes the focal point can be useu as an inception.
S. Let the patient uefine eveiy symbol useu in the uieam.
6. Let the patient finu as many answeis anu to-the-point associations
as possible.
7. Then compose all the uieam elements offeieu by going thiough the
uieam step by step.
8. Belp him elicit the uieam message.
Two points about uieam inteipietation that weie alieauy maue in pievious
chapteis neeu to be ie-emphasizeu. The fiist point stiesseu the impoitance of being
thoiough in uieam analysis anu not oveilooking uieam uetails. Eveiy uetail is
ielevant, no mattei how unimpoitant it may appeai at fiist glance#,>.$D%B. D.
D#4"& ?#, &$.'8 %,9 Fiequently, the essence of a uieam may be hiuuen in what
appeais to be an insignificant uetail. 0nueistanuing can only be achieveu if each
poition of the uieam is given full attention. The theiapist shoulu not let anything go
in uieam analysis. The moie accuiate, uetaileu, anu extensive the analysis is, the
moie the client gets out of a uieam. This will save time in the long iun.
The seconu point also has to uo with thoiough inteipietation. If the theiapist
cannot inteipiet eveiy element in a uieam, it is bettei to leave the uieam paitly
inteipieteu than to piematuiely anu supeificially inteipiet it. Even if the theiapist
can only inteipiet pait of a uieam, the uieamei often gets something out of it.
People fiequently finu the missing pieces to incomplete uieams in latei sessions.
Sometimes the theiapist may suggest to the client to have a uieam about what is
still unexplaineu.
Bow uoes a theiapist begin uoing uieam analysis. 0ne way to begin is by
iecoiuing one's uieams anu using the above-mentioneu steps on oneself. 0f couise,
this is uifficult to uo unless one uoes it in wiiting, but even then one's associations
anu iesponses can be illuminating. A moie effective way woulu be to have anothei
peison, whethei colleague oi theiapist, seive as the inteiviewei. Both of these
methous give the theiapist a "feel" foi the piocess fiisthanu. The theiapist can also
ask clients to biing in theii uieams anu inteipiet them togethei using the guiuelines
piesenteu in this book. As theiapists stait using these concepts, they aie fiequently
suipiiseu at how much they uo get out of a uieam. They also leain wheie they neeu
moie piactice anu can woik on the steps that give them the most uifficulty. The
theiapist neeu not become uiscouiageu if he oi she cannot inteipiet all of a uieam
oi expeiiences uifficulty anu confusion at fiist. It must be iemembeieu that even if
one only aiiives at the geneial meaning of a uieam, the client gets something fiom
it. As with any othei theiapeutic tool, piactice anu expeiience will inciease the
theiapist's comfoit anu confiuence anu help him oi hei appieciate this valuable tool.
!"#"$"%&"'
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!"#$% %'( !$%'#)
Lillie Weiss ieceiveu hei uoctoiate fiom the State 0niveisity of New Yoik at
Buffalo in 1968. A clinical psychologist in piivate piactice, she co-uiiects the Centei
foi Psychotheiapy anu Bieam Analysis in Phoenix, Aiizona, anu is Aujunct Associate
Piofessoi in the Bepaitment of Psychology at Aiizona State 0niveisity. She is a co-
authoi of F$.',%?7 O4"%8%'P E JB6+>#.&4+',%#?'" E55$#'+> anu L#4 Q'?C, S';. L#4$
Q'=. '?& ^', :, F##P E J$#7$'8 @#$ Q#?,$#""%?7 O4"%8%'9