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How successful is the resolution of land-use conicts? A comparison
of cases from Switzerland and Romania
Constantina Alina Tudor
a,1
, Ioan Cristian Ioj

a
a,
*
, Ileana Ptru-Stupariu
b
,
Mihai R

azvan Nit

a
a,1
, Anna M. Hersperger
c, 2
a
University of Bucharest, Centre for Environmental Research and Impact Studies, 1 Nicolae B alcescu, 010041 Bucharest, Romania
b
University of Bucharest, Department of Regional Geography and Environment, Centre of Landscape-Territory-Information Systems 1 Nicolae B alcescu,
010041 Bucharest, Romania
c
Swiss Federal Research Institute of Forest, Snow and Landscape (WSL), Land Landscape Dynamics, Zrcherstrasse 111, CH-8903 Birmensdorf, Switzerland
Keywords:
Land use
Sustainability
Equity
Conicts
Switzerland
Romania
a b s t r a c t
Land-use conicts are complex disputes that involve heterogeneous parties as well as environmental and
social impacts that are often difcult to resolve. The measures and denitions of success in land-use
conict resolution still need further research. We investigated four cases of land-use conicts in two
countries, Switzerland (CH) and Romania (RO): a connection between two ski areas (CH), a ski track in a
national park (RO), a residential project in a sensitive natural area (CH) and a residential project in an
area with poor urban facilities and planning (RO). We developed a framework to assess the cases, and
used it to address the following research questions: Howsuccessful is the resolution of land-use conicts
in these four cases? and Which factors contribute to success or failure?. The assessment was based on
criteria and subcriteria related to conict management and conict-solving conditions. To identify the
criteria and subcriteria that contributed most to successful resolution and to rank the cases we used the
Analytic Network Process. Our results showed that Switzerland was more successful in the resolution
process than Romania due to more emphasis on sustainability and equity. The low scores of the
Romanian cases resulted from the poor implementation of spatial plans and poor enforcement of
environmental regulations, little interest in environmental protection and a preference for quick eco-
nomic returns, and little importance attached to public participation in the decision-making process. For
conict-resolution to be successful our ndings indicate that it is important to foster not only economic
aspects but also long-term ecological benets and to take into consideration peoples needs. This study
should help planners as it identies key elements for the successful resolution of land-use conicts to
achieve the best use of land.
2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Introduction
In most countries, current economic developments are corre-
lated with increased land demands and impacts on the environ-
ment. This leads to growing conicts about howland is used (Goetz,
Shortle, & Bergstrom, 2005). Such land-use conicts are fueled by
political and economic interests (Campbell, Gichohi, Mwangi, &
Chege, 2000), competition for natural resources (Vihervaara,
Kumpula, Tanskanen, & Burkhard, 2010), the need for new de-
velopments and urbanization (Saint, Flavell, & Fox, 2009), and
shortcomings in planning practices (AESOP, 2012; Lecourt &
Baudelle, 2004). The cumulative effects of these forces often lead
to complex conict situations which require explicit strategies to
resolve them.
Recent research on land-use conicts (de Groot, 2006;
Henderson, 2005; Sze & Sovacool, 2013; von der Dunk, Grt-
Regamey, Dalang, & Hersperger, 2011) has revealed the
complexity of land use conicts and of the challenges for coping
with them. To ensure the best possible uses of land, especially
peoples expectations (Cotteleer & Peerlings, 2011) and peoples
attitudes towards their neighborhood (Cherubini & Nova, 2004)
should be considered.
Conict resolution is a complex process and many different
aspects need to be taken into account. A number of valuable
* Corresponding author. Tel./fax: 40 2103103872.
E-mail addresses: constantina.tudor@wsl.ch (C.A. Tudor), iojacristian@geo.
unibuc.ro, iojacristian@yahoo.com (I.C. Ioj a), ileanageorgeta@yahoo.com (I. Ptru-
Stupariu), mihairazvan.nita@g.unibuc.ro (M.R. Nit a), anna.hersperger@wsl.ch (A.
M. Hersperger).
1
Tel./fax: 40 2103103872.
2
Tel.: 41 447392560.
Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
Applied Geography
j ournal homepage: www. el sevi er. com/ l ocat e/ apgeog
0143-6228/$ e see front matter 2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.apgeog.2013.12.008
Applied Geography 47 (2014) 125e136
Author's personal copy
handbooks on environmental conict resolution have been devel-
oped the face of the relatively weak government regulation in the
US. These include The Consensus Building Handbook by Susskind and
colleagues (Susskind, McKearnan, & Thomas-Larmer, 1999), Envi-
ronmental Disputes by Crowfoot and Wondolleck (1990) and Con-
tested Lands by Mason (1992). Furthermore, case studies have
explored many specic issues for successful land-use conict res-
olution, e.g. computer-based workshops for conict resolution in
infrastructure development (Timmermans & Beroggi, 2000),
remote sensing and GIS as tools for communicating land-use needs
in northern Sweden (Sandstrm et al., 2003), supporting social
learning processes for adaptive co-management between conict-
ing landscape managers (Leys, 2011), the use of public consulta-
tions for conict resolution regarding landlls (Owusu, Oteng-
Ababio, & Afutu-Kotey, 2012), the contribution of policy regime
changes to conict resolution (Saarikoski, Raitio, &Barry, 2013), and
conict reframing (Asah, Bengston, Wendt, & Nelson, 2012).
For getting beyond conict, recent developments in planning
theory focus on the power of collaborative decision making. A
number of inuential books drive this development. Innes and
Booher (2010) outline a theory of collaborative rationality and
illustrate the actual dynamics of deliberation in order to demon-
strate how collaborative reality really works. Healey (2006) pro-
poses a new framework for planning which is rooted in the
institutional realities of today. Forester (2013) advocates facilitative
leadership to turn conict into consensus.
Successful resolution of land-use conicts is crucial in spatial
planning in the context of approving policies and plans as well as in
individual planning decisions. In the context of this paper, suc-
cessful conict resolution is characterized by public participation in
the decision-making process, mutual acceptance of the decision
and absence of subsequent conicts on the same issue. In order to
contribute to the growing literature on procedural and institutional
characteristics of collaborative decision making, we investigated
what factors contribute to the successful resolutions of land-use
conicts by comparing cases of such conicts in two different
countries with similar heterogeneous geographic landscapes but
with very different economic, political and administrative and
histories of planning (Table 1a, b). The comparison should provide
useful insights for practitioners and planners to help them improve
the use of land and learn fromthe experiences other countries have
had in resolving common forms of land-use conict. The study
should also be a contribution to theory building in the eld of
conict resolution.
The two countries we selected for comparison are Switzerland
located in Western Europe and Romania, located in Central Europe.
While Switzerland is a federal state with fairly independent
administrative units and a well-developed economy, Romania has a
communist past and a currently emerging economy. Although
Switzerland is generally thought to have a good system of spatial
planning (ARE, 2008), this does not mean it has no land-use con-
icts that create tensions nor that such conicts are always suc-
cessfully resolved. Compared with other European countries, Swiss
spatial planning system generally functions well, which makes it
interesting to analyze to nd out why the system is so successful.
In Romania, in contrast, the spatial planning system is not al-
ways appropriate for complex issues under todays socio-economic
conditions (Ianos, Sirodoev, & Pascariu, 2012). It is therefore a
challenge to implement a planning process successfully, and
developing appropriate plans and regulations involves a long and
bureaucratic process (Petrisor, 2010). This has led to planners and
local authorities becoming increasingly kind, and sometimes
allowing land to be used without ensuring that the desired (or
proposed) use is compatible with adjacent land use.
Framework for the analysis of land-use conict resolution
We propose a framework to analyze land-use conicts and the
success of the resolution process in the cases we studied, drawing
on work of Beck (2004), Sze and Sovacool (2013) and Orr, Emerson,
and Keyes (2008) (Fig. 1). The criterion consentaneity, which refers
to an agreement among involved actors is at the top because
reaching a nal agreement in the resolution process can be an
important indicator of success when the agreements are able to last
for a long time and to promote more economic efciency or
ecological protection of landscapes. In a hierarchy of criteria used to
measure success in land-use conicts resolution, reaching an
agreement (unanimously or not) should be considered the rst
criterion (Beck, 2004), because it may bring benecial implication
for economy, society or environmental protection. We also applied
the four criteria of Sze and Sovacool (2013): efciency, equity,
sustainability and compatibility, which can be used by practitioners
to assess land-use conicts. Efciency refers to how the proposed
project through the use of land and natural resources contribute to
economic benets and social well-being. Equity refers to the degree
of equality in inuence of actors in the decision-making process. In
this criterion the informal and formal actions of actors either to
express concerns about the conicting situations or to build trust
are assessed. Sustainability refers to the procedures used to address
resource preservation and the current and long-termimpacts of the
conict situations on environmental and socio-cultural character-
istics. Compatibility refers to how suitable the location of the
project is in regard to existing land-use regulations and how
properly the land is used according to its productivity potential. The
criterias positions in the framework are the same in the evalua-
tions of all four cases. We then selected as subcriteria aspects
related to the process and outcome quality and specied them in
terms of economic and environmental sustainability, economic and
social efciency as well as legal feasibility. These aspects are all
essential for an efcient performance of the process. We also used
subcriteria from the framework of Orr et al. (2008), which is
practice-based, general and exible, and therefore adaptable to our
cases. It is especially useful for analyzing differences and similar-
ities in processes of land-use conict resolution that were
Table 1a
Switzerland and Romania compared in terms of surface area, population density and
rural areas.
Surface
in km
2
Inhabitants per
km
2
of the total
area (2010)
Rural areas e % of the total area
Switzerland 41 285 195.6 60% mountainous, 31% forest, 37%
agricultural,
Romania 238 391 93.18 31% mountainous, 27% forest, 61%
agricultural
Sources (Eurostat, 2010; INSSE, 2011; VLP-ASPAN, 2012).
Table 1b
Switzerland and Romania compared in terms GDP growth, planning laws and
planning levels.
Growth in the
GDP per
inhabitant,
in % e 2010
Planning law Planning system
levels
Switzerland 3.1 Federal law on spatial
planning adopted in
1979 (Petitpierre, 2012)
Federal e cantonal e
regional e communal
Romania 1 Law on spatial planning
implemented in 2001
(Puscasu, 2009)
National e county e
local
Sources (Eurostat, 2010; INSSE, 2011; VLP-ASPAN, 2012).
C.A. Tudor et al. / Applied Geography 47 (2014) 125e136 126
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successful. We included the aspects related to actors involvement
and collaboration and the stability of the nal agreement. The
selected criteria and subcriteria provide a valuable basis for
developing a comprehensive model of the process of land-use
conict resolution, starting from the initial assessment of the
project to the post-evaluation of its performance and successful
outcomes.
To decide which case is the most successful case according to the
criteria/subcriteria, we used the Analytic Network Process (ANP)
because it is suitable for dealing with a multi-criteria decision
problem. This method is frequently used to assess specic problems
according to different criteria to support the decision-making
process involved in picking the best locations for particular facil-
ities (Aragones-Beltran, Pastor-Ferrando, Garcia-Garcia, & Pascual-
Agullo, 2010), in selecting the best solution for energy provision
(Atmaca & Basar, 2012) and in choosing the Best Available Tech-
niques (BAT) for pollution control (Giner-Santonja, Aragones-
Beltran, & Nicls-Ferragut, 2012).
Materials and methods
Case selection
We screened potential cases for our study of land-use conicts,
focusing on conicts where a nal agreement had been reached.
The cases we selected involve conicts confronting many countries
today to do with: nature conservation (Vihervaara et al., 2010),
residential development (Pacione, 2013) or infrastructure for
tourism (Chrenka & Ira, 2011). For Switzerland, we chose: (1) the
construction of a connection between two ski areas where the
number of over-night stays had been decreasing, located in areas of
interest for landscape and wildlife conservation; and (2) a resi-
dential development in an ecologically valuable area. For Romania,
we selected: (1) the construction of a ski track in an area designated
as a full protection zone in a national park, and (2) the development
of a residential project in an area with poor urban facilities. The
cases related to ski infrastructure are located in mountains and
tourist areas of high ecological and landscape value. The two resi-
dential projects are located in peri-urban areas of low elevations
(less than 420 m in the case from Switzerland, respectively less
than 72 m in the case from Romania) and close to important eco-
nomic centers.
Case analysis
To understand the cases better, we consulted with experts from
both countries and discussed the cases with the people who were
involved in the resolution process (Yin, 2003). For more in-depth
study, we also collected relevant documents including: media re-
leases and development plans, and visited the areas. We considered
visiting the case study areas as being essential to examine aspects
of landscape conditions and permanency of the agreement. Visiting
the site of the CH case study of ski infrastructure enabled us to
observe how advanced the project was in terms of construction.
Regarding the RO case study of ski infrastructure the eld visits
played a key role in having the opportunity to discuss with people
who were involved in the resolution process. By visiting the sites of
the cases related to the residential projects in both countries we
could observe how the nal agreement was implemented over
years. We found in the CHcase study that the nal decision taken in
1983 (not to build the residential project and to convert the area
into agricultural zone) was still implemented today. In the RO case
study the site visit enabled us to determine that the rules agreed
upon in the nal compromise were not implemented.
Case evaluation
Using the Analytic Network Process (ANP) developed by Thomas
Saaty (Saaty, 2001) and Super Decisions software 2.2.3 (Super
Decision Software, 2012), we were able to determine the most
successful conict resolution process. We constructed a simple
network model in the ANP using the framework described in 1.1
(Fig. 2) where the rst level represents the main goal of the deci-
sion, the following two levels the criteria and subcriteria used in the
assessment, and the last level the four cases to be assessed on the
basis of criteria and subcriteria. We subjectively assessed which
criteria and subcriteria were the most important according to
Saatys 9-point scale for making such assessments. Our subjective
assessments used to weight each element in the network were
based on observed patterns of potential choices revealed in the
discussions with persons involved in the conict resolution pro-
cess. The only case study where we could not have direct discus-
sions with the relevant persons was the Swiss residential project,
because of the date when conict was ending (1984). In this case
our assessments were inuenced by the information gained mostly
from the analysis of newspaper articles, the interviews made by a
PhD student (Gennaio, 2008) and site visits. We considered the
criteria/subcriteria with the highest scores as showing the best
performance in the conict resolution process.
We used pairwise comparison to weight each element in the
network to nd out which elements have more inuence on other
elements of the network. The results of the pairwise comparisons
were then calculated as priority values. We selected the con-
sentaneity criterion as the element on which the four criteria
(efciency, equity, sustainability, compatibility) have a
considerable inuence, because reaching a nal agreement
Fig. 1. The framework with selected criteria and subcriteria for the evaluation of land-use conict resolution process (Beck, 2004; Orr et al., 2008; Sze & Sovacool, 2013).
C.A. Tudor et al. / Applied Geography 47 (2014) 125e136 127
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depends on how these four criteria are approached in the conict
resolution process. The questions we addressed in the pairwise
comparisons were: (1) given a pair of criteria (e.g. efciency and
equity), how much more does a member of the pair (e.g. ef-
ciency) inuence the success of a conict resolution process in
respect to the parent element (consentaneity) than the other
member in the pair (e.g. equity)?; (2) which criterion/subcriterion
was more prominent in each conict resolution process?; (3) which
is the most successful case study with respect to each criterion and
subcriterion?; (4) which is the most important subcriterion for each
criterion?; and (5) in which case study was each criterion and
subcriterion more prominent when the cases were compared?
After performing the pairwise comparisons for each situation
derived from the questions, the Super Decision program calculated
the unweighted supermatrix which includes all the resulting pri-
ority eigenvectors (Table 2).
The Super Decisions program ranks the most successful cases
according to all the previous comparisons and priority values
(Table 3). The evaluation of the four cases is subjective and other
experts may assess the criteria and subcriteria used in the frame-
work differently.
Case 1: ski connection Arosa e Lenzerheide, Switzerland
The rst case refers to the idea of connecting the two ski areas of
Arosa and Lenzerheide (Fig. 3, Table 4).
In terms of consentaneity, the nal decision was a compromise
between Mountain Wilderness (a small non-governmental orga-
nization for the protection of the Alps) and the project investor in
2012. The investor did not want to take the conict to Court, and
preferred to engage in discussion with the opponents and hold
small meetings. This led to a nal compromise where Mountain
Wilderness proposed a package of requirements for withdrawing
their opposition to the project and living with its construction
(Table 5).
Concerning efciency, the ski connection between these two
areas has economic benets because for both municipalities, Arosa
andLenzerheide, ski tourismis the maineconomic activity. Inrecent
years the number of tourists staying overnight in Arosa has fallen by
75% and in Lenzerheide by 28%. The project is intended to revitalize
ski tourism in both areas and provide jobs. Arosa can accommodate
many guests but only has small ski slopes, while Lenzerheide has
fewer beds but large ski areas. The ski connection would allow the
marketing of the two ski areas together and improve the attrac-
tiveness of both regions. The two ski areas together formthe largest
ski resort in Canton Graubnden and are among the top 10 in
Switzerland. Their reputations are enhanced with the new ski
connection, the area will be transformed into one of the most
famous ski resorts in Switzerland and Europe. The economic ben-
ets are expected to be high and jobs in tourism to increase.
Regarding equity, opposition to the project has been raised since
2005, when the Social Democratic Party of Churwalden (Lenzer-
heides neighboring municipality) collected signatures and sub-
mitted a petition against the project. In 2008, 84% of the electorate
in Arosa voted in favor of the realization of the ski connection, while
in Lenzerheide only 41% were in favor.
After the voting results, the investor company tried to convince
voters to support the ski connection. Their goal was to build trust by
adopting four principles in communication: competence, modesty,
popularity and honesty. They engaged in discussions with hoteliers,
representatives of the municipalities and tourism, the senior citi-
zens, and farmers.
At the second round of voting in 2011, the same percent of
Arosa electorate voted in favor of new connection while in
Fig. 2. Relationships between the network elements.
C.A. Tudor et al. / Applied Geography 47 (2014) 125e136 128
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Lenzerheide 58% voted in favor of it. This change in Lenzerheide
residents opinion is due to the fact that the investor company
succeeded in building up trust among the local inhabitants. The
company tried to gain support with an attractive publicity
campaign involving presentations about the proposed ski
connection, brochures, a well-designed homepage, yers, meet-
ings to which farmers wives were invited as well as small gifts: a
rose (A Rosa) for the older people and a drinks coupon for the
residents of Lenzerheide at the restaurant on the Weisshorn-Arosa
(central station).
In terms of sustainability, after the second vote in 2011 when the
project was accepted by both municipalities, an environmental
impact assessment of the project was conducted. No major potential
environmental problems wererevealed. The largesupport proposed
tobe placedinthe rst planhalfwaybetweenthe two peaks (Hrnli-
Urdenfrggli) was scrapped after much discussion as it was thought
to represent a threat for nature and landscape protection. Another
discussion point was potential trafc congestion. To facilitate public
access to the ski connection area, public transport and additional
parking spaces had been proposed. The ski connection was consid-
ered crucial for the sustainable development of tourism in Canton
Graubnden because it involved minimal impacts on nature and
landscape andwas thought tohave great potential for improving the
regional and national network of tourist infrastructure.
Regarding compatibility, the area was originally designated in
the cantonal structure plan as landscape protection area. In the
2003 general revision of the plan, part of the area has been
reclassied as a recreation area with fewer restrictions on such
projects. This change came about because by that time the need
for tourism-based economic development, and specically for
connected ski resorts, was widely accepted in the Canton Grau-
bnden and because the reclassication concerned only a small
part of the Urdern Tli. The Federal council then approved the
cantonal zoning plan with a proposed ski connection between
Arosa and Lenzerheide (on 19 September 2003). This provided the
basis for changing the zoning plans of the municipalities. A coor-
dination process with all stakeholders started in 2007 to adjust the
cantonal structure planning and the land-use plans to include the
ski connection in an overall plan and to decide on compensatory
measures in order to achieve benets for nature and landscape (e.g.
reforestation, expansion of conservation zones). In 2008 after
Lenzerheides electorate rejected the project, it was temporarily
suspended. The following year the coordination process was
resumed with a revised proposal for the ski connection, and in 2011
the relevant cantonal departments as well as NGOs and munici-
palities involved in the coordination process were invited to
comment on revisions to the cantonal and regional structural plan.
From seven cantonal departments four had no comments (De-
partments of Energy and Transport; Non-motorized trafc; Eco-
nomic Development and Tourism; as well as Agriculture and
Geoinformation). The others three departments (Departments of
Hunting and Fishing; Nature and Environment; and Forestry), the
NGOs ProNatura, Swiss Foundation for Landscape Conservation
and Swiss Alpine Club as well as the Tschiertschen-Praden mu-
nicipality expressed their concerns over the legal status, manage-
ment, and location of wildlife rest areas, and landscape protection
measures in the Farur Tal (Hartmann, Sauter, ARE-GR, & STWAG fr
Raumplanung, 2011). Subsequently, wildlife rest areas were
adjusted and two smaller landscape protection areas were delin-
eated in the Farur Tal and in Sanaspans.
Table 2
Unweighted supermatrix for the four case studies, ve criteria and ten subcriteria.
Case studies Criteria Subcriteria
1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Case studies Ski infrastructure CH 1 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.30 0.38 0.64 0.50 0.26 0.57 0.26 0.50 0.34 0.64 0.62 0.61 0.36 0.28 0.23
Ski infrastructure RO 2 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.08 0.15 0.09 0.11 0.10 0.11 0.05 0.17 0.22 0.09 0.19 0.18 0.10 0.15 0.13
Residential project CH 3 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.47 0.14 0.21 0.23 0.44 0.24 0.59 0.08 0.08 0.21 0.13 0.12 0.45 0.39 0.44
Residential project RO 4 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.15 0.33 0.07 0.16 0.21 0.08 0.10 0.26 0.36 0.06 0.06 0.09 0.08 0.18 0.20
Criteria Consentaneity 1 0.06 0.42 0.21 0.19 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
Efciency 2 0.10 0.28 0.11 0.39 0.09 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
Equity 3 0.37 0.05 0.15 0.07 0.30 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
Sustainability 4 0.34 0.08 0.44 0.11 0.51 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
Compatibility 5 0.13 0.17 0.09 0.24 0.10 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
Subcriteria Adequate negotiations 1 0.10 0.10 0.09 0.06 0.83 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
Final agreement 2 0.02 0.19 0.13 0.16 0.17 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 1.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
Economic benets 3 0.05 0.27 0.04 0.24 0.00 0.33 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
Social benets 4 0.05 0.03 0.03 0.10 0.00 0.67 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 1.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
Appropriate stakeholders 5 0.13 0.10 0.13 0.12 0.00 0.00 0.80 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
Effective communication 6 0.10 0.06 0.10 0.09 0.00 0.00 0.20 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 1.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
Environmental economic sustainability 7 0.14 0.04 0.15 0.04 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.67 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
Agreement is long-lasting 8 0.13 0.03 0.17 0.03 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.33 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 1.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
Legal feasibility 9 0.14 0.09 0.08 0.08 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.80 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
Compliance with land-use regulations 10 0.14 0.09 0.09 0.08 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.20 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 1.00 0.00
Table 3
Ranking of projects in the super decision program
C.A. Tudor et al. / Applied Geography 47 (2014) 125e136 129
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Fig. 3. Ski connection Arosa e Lenzerheide.
Table 4
Main characteristics of the analyzed projects.
Projects characteristics Conict characteristics
Owner Date project
proposed
Project status
in 2013
Main benets Conict type Main controversy Stakeholders
Ski connection Arosa e Lenzerheide project
The private company of Lenzerheide
owned 40% by community
1970s Implemented Revitalization
of a touristic area
Infrastructure
development
conicts
Nature conservation
and trafc implications
for neighboring
municipalities
Nature protection organizations
(mainly Mountain Wilderness),
the owner, Lenzerheides
inhabitants, the private company
of Arosa (17% owned by the
community), and Arosa
municipality
Ski track project in Ceahlau National Park (CNP)
Both public and private 1976 Ongoing Revitalization of a
touristic area
Infrastructure
development
conicts
Inadequately zoning
of CNP; the proposal of
converting the
classication of the
area, from a full
protection area into a
sustainable development
area
a
The Council of Neamt County;
the members of the Scientic
Council of the CNP, who have an
advisory role but whose approval
is needed for decisions affecting
protected areas of national
interest; local and county
authorities, and a few farmers
Gbeldorf project in Jona
Private owner 1983 Rejected Urban-friendly
development of
the community
Urban
development
conicts
Landscape protection
and public access to the
lakeshore; keep the
landscape free from new
built-up expansion
VSLZ (the organization for the
protection of Zrichs lake
landscape), WWF, SANB (the
organization for nature
conservati on in St Gallen-
Appenzell), OSD (the Ofce for
Spatial Development in
Canton St. Gallen), SDP (social
democratic party), CDP
(Christian democratic party,
LP (liberal party), those living
next to the project area.
Residential project La Vile on the periphery of Bucharest
Private owner 2009e2012 Postponed Improvement of
territorial cohesion
Infrastructure
development
conicts
Lack of urban facilities,
ecological interests and
agricultural value
The Ilfov Directorate of National
Administration Romanian Waters,
the Regional Agency for
Environmental Protection,
Pantelimons local authorities,
the Council of Ilfov County, the
Territorial Inspectorate for Forestry
and Hunting Bucharest-Ilfov, and
several NGOs
a
After the fall of communism (1989), the project was stopped and the natural vegetation recovered. The ski track area was included in 2000 in the CNP which is a protected
area included in the Natura 2000 network and equivalent to the IUCNcategory II (Clius, Teleuca, David, & Morosau, 2012; Rozylowicz, Popescu, Patroescu, & Chisamera, 2011).
The area related to the project was classied as full protection area in 2003 where no building or exploitation of natural resources are permitted according to Romanian
legislation.
C.A. Tudor et al. / Applied Geography 47 (2014) 125e136 130
Author's personal copy
Case 2: ski track in Ceahlau National Park (CNP), Romania
The construction of a 1700 m long ski track was proposed in the
Ceahlau Mountains (Eastern Carpathians) (Fig. 4, Table 4).
Concerning consentaneity, the expected agreement, i.e. changing
the internal zoning of the CNP to include the ski track was reached
after a tense process among stakeholders: the project supporters
(the Council of Neamt County and local and county authorities) and
the project opponents (the members of the Scientic Council of the
CNP) (see Table 4). A process of negotiation started to change the
internal zoningfromfull protectiontosustainable development. The
nal agreement foresawthe inclusion of the area affected by the ski
track inthe sustainable development area. This meant anincrease of
the sustainable development area by 8.13 ha, representing 0.105% of
the CNPs total surface area (CNPAdministration, 2013). In 2013, the
management plan was approved unanimously by the local and
county communities and authorities and CNPs Scientic Council.
This decision may be changed at a later date at the request of the
Ministry of Environment or European Commission because CNPs
SCI and SPA status means it is of European importance.
In relation to efciency, the suitability of the ski track was
investigated in terms of slope aspect and stability, as well as its
location near the Durau resort. When the ski track was originally
proposed, the Durau resort was a very attractive tourist area and
the ski track was regarded as a way to diversify leisure opportu-
nities. Today the area has been semi-abandoned, with an aging
population. A positive outcome of the resolution process could have
various economic benets. The ski track project is expected to in-
crease the number of tourists in winter, which is traditionally a low
season for tourism, lead to the modernization of bad quality roads
and the reactivation of traditional livestock farming, which de-
pends on good roads.
In terms of the process equity, the negotiations process was
dominated by the Council of Neamt County, which is the main
source of funding for the CNP administration and local councils.
CNPs Scientic Council has always voted against changing the
zoning of the park, claiming that the project threatens plant and
animal species worth protecting. Tensions in the negotiation pro-
cess were primarily between the Scientic Council and the other
stakeholders. Changing the zoning of the park in favor of a ski track
has attracted many petitions from the general public to the Na-
tional Environmental Guard, and to the CNP administration, and
complaints are frequent in the local newspapers. Almost no time
was allowed for involving the locals because people usually do not
participate in these processes and they have no previous experi-
ence or involvement in community planning.
Concerning sustainability, no parts of CNPs management plan
relate to the potential long-termbenets of the ski track. In the plan
a protection zone is located between the ski track and the CNP
boundary. The environmental impact assessment of the project
concluded that the area was suitable for the ski track because it is
located on the external boundary of the CNP, in a spruce forest,
which is quite a common habitat in both the CNP and nationwide.
Legal measures were discussed, especially to prevent rapid building
and it was specied that no new buildings without a direct
connection with the ski infrastructure would be allowed in sus-
tainable development areas. Making the Durau resort more
attractive would lead to more corporate prots, tax revenue and
jobs in the area, as well as the reactivation of economic activities.
Increasing numbers of tourists are already causing problems with
waste disposal, lighting res, illegal camping, creating new paths
and disturbing wildlife. Solving these problems has become more
and more difcult.
Regarding compatibility, before the negotiation process, the ski
track project was not incompliance withthe legal zoning of the park
and was incompatible with the activities allowed in the full pro-
tection area. After the agreement, the local development plans and
forest plans were changed to include the ski track inside the mu-
nicipality. Removingthe corresponding ski trackarea fromthe forest
area was coordinatedwithCNPs management plan. Currently, there
is no controversy over the local land-use regulations.
Case 3: Gbeldorf project in Jona, Switzerland
A housing project with boating facilities (Gbeldorf) was pro-
posed to the Municipal Council of Jona, in Canton St. Gallen, on the
border with Canton Zrich (Fig. 5, Table 4). The plan was to bring
water from the lake to create attractive island houses (Frei, 2004).
In terms of consentaneity, a planning decision was taken in 1984
in the form of a negotiated agreement to transform part of the area
into an agricultural zone and the other part into a zone with single
houses, no water from the lake was diverted into the landscape
because the infrastructure for such buildings already existed.
Concerning efciency, the architects of the original Gbeldorf
project considered it a good investment because it was proposed in
a designated building zone and was in concordance with the plans
of the local authorities (Ist das Gbeldorf Jona ein Monster? (Is
Gbeldorf Jona a monster?), 1982). They thought it tted into the
landscape well because it was planned to introduce more water
into the landscape. Another argument in favor of the project was
that it did not disturb a quiet or natural place because the area was
not isolated and 24 other houses were located nearby. The archi-
tects promoted this project as the best for the area claiming that
another project might not be so well balanced.
In terms of equity, the stakeholders who supported the project
were open to direct discussions with the projects opponents, and
nal decisions took into account their objections. These were about
the planned boating facilities in the project, which were presented
to the public; 12 objections were revised (Gestaltungsplan
Gbeldorf erlassen (The release of Gbeldorf Designplan ), 1983)
and Canton St. Gallen also rejected the building of a boat harbor.
WWF objected that the project could harm the historical landscape
and the cultural heritage. These objections were accepted at the
cantonal level and it was decided not to build the boat harbor (Nein
zum Guberdri Projekt (No to Guberdri project), 1983). Other
objections focused on nature and landscape protection. VSLZ
argued that the area is a sensitive beauty spot in natural equilib-
rium and that only 16% of the shore of Lake Zrich was still unbuilt.
Implementing the project would further decrease this percentage.
Another reason for rejecting the project was to prevent too
many building permits being issued at the same time by the mu-
nicipality, which could lead to disorganized development. The CDP
agreed with VSLZ although initially it had been in favor of the
project. The OSD also rejected the project and together with VSLZ
Table 5
Conditions proposed by mountain wilderness to withdraw their opposition to the
project.
Environmental protection
Expand the conservation zone and preserve new areas of surrounding land,
with the exception of the cable car corridor
More protection of wild animals
Initial structure of the project
Construct no new ski slopes and additional infrastructures in the valley bel-
low the proposed ski connection, but only a direct connection by air between
the two ski areas
Not build other adjacent connections except for the Motta-Urdenfrggli-
Hrnli connection (Fig. 3)
Transportation
Improve public transport in the area
Create transport infrastructure facilities, e.g. parking
C.A. Tudor et al. / Applied Geography 47 (2014) 125e136 131
Author's personal copy
proposed converting the area into an agricultural zone. The
neighboring canton (Canton Zrich) objected to the project because
it owns a similar area next to the project area in an agricultural and
protected zone. The cantonal authorities feared that if the project
went ahead in Canton St. Gallen, it would create a precedent for
building something similar in Canton Zrich (Gennaio, 2008).
Regarding sustainability, several nature protection organizations
considered the Gbeldorf project harmful for the landscape and
environment because it could: (1) change the groundwater level,
(2) damage neighboring buildings, (3) destroy the lakeshore, (4)
lead to noise and gas emissions from the boats, (5) change the
landscape and the uniqueness of the area, and (6) disturb one of the
last unbuilt parts of the lake. The nal agreement to convert part of
the area into an agricultural zone was considered sustainable
because it would preserve the landscape and guarantee public ac-
cess to the lakeshore. However, this decision meant paying high
compensation to the landowners (more than 15 million Swiss
francs) for part of the area converting into an agricultural zone.
In terms of compatibility, the municipality designated the area as
residential area for single and two-family houses in the land-use
Fig. 4. Internal zoning of CNP and ski track location.
Source http://www.geoportal-mediu.ro/geoportalceahlau/.
C.A. Tudor et al. / Applied Geography 47 (2014) 125e136 132
Author's personal copy
plan of 1968 (Frei, 2004). At that time environmental issues were of
concern to the public. The public approved the plan without major
objections. Only in 1970 VSLZ and ODS proposed converting the
area into an agricultural and protected area. The Municipal Council
did not take this proposal into account when revising the land-use
plans and nothing was changed, so that the Gbeldorf project
remained compatible with the land-use plan. After it was agreed to
convert part of the area into an agricultural zone and the other into
a zone for single houses, the land-use plan of the Jona municipality
were changed accordingly. In the agricultural zone no construction
is allowed, apart from agricultural buildings, and the other part is a
residential area.
Case 4: La Vile residential project on the periphery of Bucharest,
Romania
A residential project was proposed in Pantelimon city on the
outskirts of Bucharest (Fig. 6, Table 4). The area had poor facilities,
with bad quality transport infrastructure, no water supply or
sewage system, frequent power cuts and a high level of insecurity
as buildings were so far apart.
Concerning the consentaneity, a process of negotiations had star-
ted between the project investor, the interested institutions and an
environmental impact assessor to reach an agreement. These nego-
tiations lasted two years and the nal agreement consisted of a
compromise in which the stakeholders originally opposed to the
project agreed to accept it on condition the project investor signed a
document promisingtopayfor water andsewagefacilities inthearea.
In terms of efciency, the residential project was proposed for
this location because the land was vacant and easily accessible from
Bucharest city (about 5 min by car). Moreover, the prices were low
compared to other areas equally close to Bucharest. The project
aimed to organize a well planned residential development in an
area consisting of widely scattered urban settlements. The benets
of this project included: more territorial cohesion, solutions to
sanitation and other housing problems, and newly connected
infrastructure for the municipality. These benets have led to most
stakeholders accepting the project.
Regarding equity, the stakeholders did collaborate, but discus-
sions were sometimes difcult. Meetings were organized at the
Regional Agency for Environmental Protection and the Council of
Ilfov County. Among the participants, only the NGOs requested
some restrictions to the construction in relation to the forest
proximity. They were concerned that the project would have
harmful impact on the forest. The discharge of wastewater into the
forest and the disposal of waste from the existing houses already
contributed to trees dying. Most of the local residents were not
interested in the proposed project because they had been con-
structing their own houses in the same area and had learned to
cope with poor facilities. In terms of sustainability, the project took
into account environmental protection by carrying out an envi-
ronmental impact assessment. This considered measures to protect
water, air and soil quality as well as to control noise. The assess-
ment concluded that the project would not have a signicant
environmental impact and would not use large amounts of natural
resources during construction and operation.
Concerning compatibility, the project conforms with the Zoning
Master Plan (ZMP) approved by the Local Council of Ilfov County in
2005, which species that the area is not agricultural land. The new
approved uses are for residential and holiday houses, and leisure
and commercial services, which are compatible with the develop-
ment promoted by the Pantelimon municipality.
Fig. 5. Location of Gbeldorf.
C.A. Tudor et al. / Applied Geography 47 (2014) 125e136 133
Author's personal copy
Discussion and conclusion
The aim of this study was to nd howsuccessfully the four cases
of land-use conicts could be resolved and which factors contrib-
uted to the success or failure. The planning, institutional, political
and economic systems in the two countries differed greatly, as did
the familiarity of the Swiss and Romanians with public action. The
main causes of the conicts, however, were similar, namely, eco-
nomic interests versus environmental protection. We evaluated the
four cases according to the framework described in Section 1.1 and
found that in all four conicts the nal agreement could not be
easily reached, and its stability and success depended on how all
the selected criteria and subcriteria were handled. The idea of the
ski infrastructure project in Switzerland started to be discussed in
the 1970s but implementing it was a long process. It took the
investor company three years of direct talks with opponents and a
second round of voting to achieve a narrow (58%) majority consent.
The conict resolution process focused on enhancing collaboration
among stakeholders as well as on environmental and economic
sustainability. The projects economic and social efciency was also
seriously considered. The nal compromise was reached after
effective communication between the interested parties and the
project is implemented on the basis of a long-lasting agreement.
The idea of the ski infrastructure project in Romania has started
in 1970s but the negotiation and approval process is ongoing. Even
though the nal decision was approved unanimously (by the local
and county authorities and the members of the Scientic Council of
the CNP) the project still need to be approved by the Ministry of
Environment. The project would have economic benets for the
Durau touristic area but would create a precedent for other building
projects in this attractive area. This weakens its sustainability. Ne-
gotiations with stakeholders took place without rst building up
trust and without involvement of the local public. The nal
agreement made the project compatible with the planning regu-
lations and laws, but did not resolve issues about its location in a
NATURA 2000 site (Ioja et al., 2010). The European Commission
may still intervene to block the project to prevent damage to
protected natural habitats. The project may become a potential
failed experience because of: (1) the interests in having shortly a
management plan with the CNP zoning. The Council of Neamt
County won in 2010 a project related to biodiversity conservation.
One of the requests was to accomplish the management plan of
CNP until September 2013 otherwise the Council should return the
nancing. This management plan had to be unanimously approved;
(2) the unequal inuence of the stakeholders in the negotiation
process where the Council of Neamt County dominated the pro-
cess; and (3) the longstanding process without advancing to
progress.
The nal agreement at Gbeldorf, the residential project in
Switzerland, involved high costs (more than 15 million Swiss
francs) due to compensation that had to be paid to landowners for
converting their land into an agricultural zone. The owners were
compensated with 31 e CHF/m
2
which was quite high for agri-
cultural land. These costs were, however, justied by the added
benet of protecting the lakeshore for future generations. The
project showed howboth nature protection and urbanization could
be sustainably and efciently combined to ensure quality of life and
protect the urban environment (Breuste, Qureshi, & Li, 2013).
In the case of the La Vile residential project in the peri-urban
districts of Bucharest, the negotiation process failed altogether to
convince some local residents to give up their amenity-decient
self-housing projects and participate in the proposed project. The
compromise reached was probably unstable, with success for the
completion of the project being unlikely. The project will have to be
revised because the proposed period for construction was delayed.
The economic situation has dramatically changed and in the
meantime it is likely that, before the investor can start the project,
the Pantelimon municipality will construct the facilities (water,
sewage and so on) necessary for housing in the area. The case of the
La Vile residential project can be an example of failure because it
did not lead to progress: (1) it did not bring new infrastructure for
the municipality; (2) it did not favor collective collaborations, the
local residents did not participate in the resolution process; and (3)
it did not favor efcient management of resources as the existing
Fig. 6. Location of the residential project.
C.A. Tudor et al. / Applied Geography 47 (2014) 125e136 134
Author's personal copy
corruption was capable of bending the planning to support the
conversion of an agricultural land of real good quality to unpro-
ductive to allow such a project.
The analysis with the software used for the Analytic Network
Process model resulted in a hierarchy of the most successful cases
and the most important factors driving this success. The Swiss
projects performed better because of the focus on the equity and
sustainability criteria and on the environmental and economic sus-
tainability and long-lasting agreement subcriteria. These criteria and
subcriteria should be given higher priority in land-use disputes as
they are important in resolving such conicts in a positive way
leading to better use of land (Paoli, 2008).
With the Romanian projects the resolution process was less
successful because of the lack of public involvement as it is still new
for people to participate in the decision-making process (Baba,
Chereches, Mora, & Ticlau, 2009). Thus trust could not be built up
between the stakeholders after the nal agreement for political and
historical reasons (Stringer, Scrieciu, & Reed, 2009). Moreover,
planning issues are still unresolved in Romania as it is a country in
transition (Nita, Ioja, Rozylowicz, Onose, & Tudor, 2013) and the
focus in such projects tends to be more on economic benets than
environmental sustainability. Environmental issue still receives
little attention among the wider public. In Switzerland, public
participation and land use were already being widely discussed in
the 1980s and 1990s (Hersperger, Gennaio Franscini, & Kbler,
2013), whereas in Romania issues to do with spatial planning and
land-use regulations are more difcult to resolve (Ioja, Nita, Vanau,
Onose, & Gavrilidis, 2014; Rusu et al., 2011; Tudor, Ioja, Hersperger,
& Patru-Stupariu, 2013).
The two cases in Romania show how the conditions that may
lead to land-use conicts are still widespread in many countries
today. These include poor implementation of land-use and envi-
ronmental regulations (Halleux, Marcinczak, & van der Krabben,
2012), weak support for conservation (Grodzinska-Jurczak & Cent,
2011), insufcient participation of citizens in decision-making
processes (Owusu et al., 2012), low trust in government author-
ities (Lam & Woo, 2009) as well as the dominance of economic
interests (Kaliampakos, Mavrikos, & Menegaki, 2011; Tan,
Beckmann, van den Berg, & Qu, 2009).
Using the Super Decisions software for the ANP model to
identify the most successful cases of resolving land-use conicts
has proved very useful. Specically, criteria and subcriteria taken
into consideration in pairwise comparisons can be better evaluated
by controlling any inconsistencies. Inconsistencies can then be
corrected by reassigning the evaluations in the pairwise compari-
sons and improving the results.
Of course, our results are subjective and inuenced by our
experience in the eld. The ANP method, used weights and prior-
itizes the elements of the framework described in Section 1.1 and
their relationships, according to subjective judgments. To improve
this, further research should use more direct data obtained through
surveys and deep interviews with key stakeholders.
Our proposed framework and the ANP can potentially be used to
assess other types of conicts involving environmental consider-
ations. They help to identify any inefciency in resolving the con-
icts and not only successful cases. Applying our framework to the
two different systems in Switzerland and Romania helped to
identify both problems and successful approaches in land-use
conict resolution and thus to suggest ways of improving such
resolution processes in the future.
Acknowledgments
This work was supported by a grant from the Romanian Na-
tional Authority for Scientic Research, CNCS e UEFISCDI, project
number PN-II-RU-TE-2011-3-0285 and the Scientic Exchange
Programme NMS-CH, Project number 11.186eSciex-N-4. The au-
thors are sincerely grateful to all participants in this study, to Silvia
Dingwall for the English corrections and to two anonymous re-
viewers for their comments and suggestions on an earlier draft of
this paper.
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