WiMAX forum

rf
rf Network
Network engineer™
engineer™
Certification
Certification Boot
Boot Camp
Camp

Ron Bellavich
Ron Olexa

Ó 2005 ®

The WIMAX RF Network Engineer™ certification boot camp is co-authored by:

Ron Olexa, author and consultant. Olexa is author of “Implementing 802.11, 802.16 and 802.20
Wireless Networks: Planning, Troubleshooting and Operations”. Many of the principles taught in
this boot camp are drawn from that text. Olexa is in high demand for consulting on mobile-
network RF engineering for complex networks around the world. Now an independent, his work
history includes employment at LCC.

Ron Bellavich is a 30-year-experienced RF engineer, instructional designer, course author and

instructor. Bellavich has worked literally “across the spectrum”, in applications including all
generations of cellular, fixed, satellite, military, civilian, public, private and municipal networks.

1
 WiMAX
WiMAX rf
rf Design
Design Considerations
Considerations
Co$t

Coverage Complexity

64-QAM

16-QAM
QPSK
BPSK

C/(I+N) Capacity
Traffic
Users Link
Concentrator
R
D

Ó 2005 ®

One principle taught in this class is that network design requires a balancing of the “Five Cs”:
•Coverage
•Carrier to Interference and Noise Ratio
•Complexity
•Cost
•Capacity

Our course runs in a general sequence through these five Cs:

The RF Principles material essentially teaches how to manage Coverage and C/(I+N).
The RF Design for WiMAX material teaches how to manage Complexity and Cost.
And the Capacity and Oversubscription lesson provides an introduction to Capacity
management.

2
 Course
Course outline
outline
1. WiMAX Network Design Options
2. Review of RF Fundamentals
3. Antennas for WiMAX
4. RF Design Considerations for WiMAX
5. Performing a WiMAX Link Budget
6. WiMAX Path Loss Modeling
7. WiMAX Frequency Reuse
8. Timing and Synchronization for WiMAX Networks
9. WiMAX Performance and Coverage
10. WiMAX Modeling Tools
11. Capacity and Oversubscription
Ó 2005 ®

The first lesson is a WiMAX overview, addressing the many variations of the WiMAX standard.
At the completion of this section, we’ll have three lessons on the principles of RF relevant to
WiMAX RF design and deployment.

Lessons 5 through 10 apply the RF Principles to WiMAX Design.

3
 Structure
Structure of
of the
the WiMAX
WiMAX Boot
Boot Camp
Camp

Core
Network
Base
Station
(BS)

Day 1 Day 2 Day 3 Day 4 Morning

Lesson 11:
Lesson 1: Lesson 5: Lesson 9: Capacity and
WiMAX Options WiMAX Link Budget WiMAX Performance Oversubscription
and Coverage Review
Lesson 2: Lesson 6:
RF Basics Review Path Loss Modeling Lesson 10: Day 4 Afternoon:
WiMAX Modeling Tools, Certification Testing
Lesson 3: Lesson 7: with case study Opportunity
Antennas for WiMAX WiMAX Frequency Reuse

Lesson 4: Lesson 8:
RF Design Considerations Timing and Synchronization
for WiMAX Networks

Ó 2005 ®

By noon on Day 4, we will have completed the WiMAX Network Design material, and be ready
for a review and the testing opportunity.

4
 Tools
Tools Used
Used in
in this
this Course
Course
To provide a hands-on learning experience, we will
be employing the following tools in many of the exercises:

Calculator Excel Spreadsheets EDX SignalPro®

The “Analysis Toolpak”

must be activated!

Mastery of the spreadsheet tools is required to pass the certification exam.

Mastery of the other tools is not required.

Ó 2005 ®

The calculator for this course is a TI-30XA. We find it helpful if all students use the same
calculator, unless you are a whiz at the RF engineering already and know your calculator
keystrokes well. With the TI-30, the instructor can teach and demonstrate one set of keystrokes
for performing the case examples.

The accompanying CD has all of the spreadsheets used in this course. Make sure that you have
the Microsoft Excel “Analysis Toolpak” add-in box checked. (Please open Excel, click on Tools
on the main menu, click on Add Ins on the drop-down menu, and select Analysis ToolPak. You
may be prompted to insert your original Excel CD.)

EDX SignalPro is a propagation modeling tool that will be used to build a WiMax system later in
this course.

Mastery of the spreadsheet tools is required to pass the certification exam.

Mastery of the other tools will be helpful, but not required to pass the exam.

5
 Course
Course Objectives
Objectives
At the end of this course, you should be able to:
® Describe major implementation issues for Fixed and Mobile WiMAX
® Estimate system performance based on channel bandwidth, modulation
scheme and Forward Error Correction
® Discuss the benefits of MIMO and Adaptive Arrays for WiMAX
® Perform a WiMAX link budget using equipment specifications
® Describe path impairments for different morphological areas
® Estimate path loss using analytical and empirical models
® Estimate co-channel interference based on frequency re-use factor
® Describe OFDMA techniques for improving C/I for Mobile WiMAX
® Describe the timing options available for WiMAX deployments
® Perform a “Flat-Earth” analysis to evaluate RF design viability
® Perform a WiMAX system layout using a propagation modeling tool
® Describe the concept of oversubscription using traffic engineering rules
Ó 2005 ®

6
 Lesson
Lesson 1:
1:

Wimax Network
Design options

Ó 2005 ®

As a WiMAX Introduction, we like to think of WiMAX as having many “faces”. It was written as a
broad standard that can support point-to-point, point-to-multipoint, and mobile applications.

7
 Lesson
Lesson Objectives
Objectives

At the end of this lesson, you should be able to:

® List typical applications of WiMAX technology
® Match each application to its WiMAX specification,
frequency band, and architecture
® Describe 802.16e mobile WiMAX enhancements
® Compare Mobile Wimax and 3G air interface and
core network

Ó 2005 ®

8
 BROADBAND
BROADBAND WIRELESS
WIRELESS APPLICATIONS
APPLICATIONS

Hotspot
With 802.16 Mobile Station (MS) Residential
Backhaul
Customer

Coffee Shop
Hotspot
Base
Station
(BS)

Multi-tenant
Customers
Base
Station
Wireless
(BS)
Backhaul
WiMAX Backhaul
For Mesh Nodes
Core
Enterprise Network Wired Base
Station
Customer Backhaul
(BS)

Ó 2005 509007
°
®

This figure shows various applications of Broadband Wireless. Although many possible applications (e.g.,
SOHO, home access, and mobile) and configurations (e.g., backhaul, point-to-multipoint and mesh) are
shown in a single network, most real-world deployments may be focused on just one or two applications,
especially at first. For example, a deployment may consist only of a point-to-multipoint (PMP) broadband
wireless access network. Alternatively, a deployment may consist of PMP access and mobile access in the
same network.

In general, broadband wireless refers to any wireless communication or technology with transmission rates
greater than 256 kbps, although that number is somewhat arbitrary. A broadband wireless solution may be
used to replace any wired broadband network, if there is a business justification. In addition, broadband
wireless networks can be used to provide access in areas where no wired infrastructure exists. The
broadband wireless network may also be considered for only mobile access, where a fixed wired
infrastructure exists.

Therefore, the suitability and success of broadband wireless in a particular market segment or application
depends on a variety of factors such as the market demand and technical and business rationale.

The figure also shows some key components of a broadband wireless system that will be discussed in
detail later. A Base Station, commonly referred to as BS in 802.16 or BTS (Base Transceiver Station) in the
literature, is the central component of a broadband wireless system. The BS serves as a layer 2 distribution
point for other wireless devices operating in the same layer 2. The BS typically has at least one additional
network interface, which may be wired or wireless, to connect to the core network.

There are many types of wireless devices that connect to a BS. In fixed wireless system, the devices are
referred to as SS (Subscriber Station) in 802.16, or CPE (Customer Premises Equipment) in the literature.
If the wireless devices are mobile, they are referred to as MSS (Mobile Subscriber Stations) in 802.16, or
simply handsets or mobile terminals in the literature.

In mesh networks, the mesh nodes connected to a BS may be referred to as repeater nodes, relay nodes
or simply mesh nodes.

9
 802.16:
802.16: Lots
Lots of
of choices
choices
Modulation Schemes:
® BPSK
Operating Frequencies: ® QPSK
® 10 – 66 GHz ® 16-QAM
® 2 – 11 GHz ® 64-QAM

Duplex Techniques:
® FDD
® TDD
Operating Bandwidths:
® 1.25 MHz ® Half - Duplex
® 3.5 MHz
® 5 MHz
® 7 MHz
® 8.75 MHz (WiBro)
® 10 MHz Physical Layers:
® 14 MHz ® Single Carrier
® 20 MHz ® 256 OFDM
® 25 MHz ® 2048 OFDMA
® 28 MHz ® Scalable OFDMA

Ó 2005 ®

10
 THE
THE WiMAX
WiMAX STANDARD
STANDARD
TWO
TWO SEPARATE
SEPARATE STANDARDS,
STANDARDS, REALLY
REALLY

® 802.16-2004:
w Started with one option for 10-66 GHz
point-to-point links
w Added 2-11 GHz Standard for non-line-
of-sight
® 802.16e-2005: Mobility Amendment

Ó 2005 ®

WiMAX is based on the IEEE 802.16 standard. There are three major releases of the 802.16
standard, and the next several slides will compare and contrast them.

11
 W
WiiMAX
MAX 10-
10- 66
66 GH
GHzz

® This was the original WiMAX standard (802.16)

® Envisioned a point-to-multipoint, high capacity metro
area microwave system
w Specified a Single-carrier
w Specified Quadrature Amplitude Modulation
w Line-of-Sight (LOS) only
w Point-to-Point and Point-to-Multi-Point
w High Capacity: Supports up to 270 Mbps
w 25 to 28-MHz-wide channel

Ó 2005 ®

WiMAX was first introduced as a high-capacity metro area microwave system.

If our theme is the “Many Faces” of WiMAX, this first “face” is one of line-of-sight
systems only. It’s certainly not the type of WiMAX we see frequently now.

In USA, this is the only spectrum licensed for multipoint operation. Majority of
spectrum owned by First Avenue Networks and IDT.

12
 W
WiiMAX
MAX 2-11
2-11 GH
GHzz
® An expansion of the original WiMAX specification
(802.16a and later 802.16d)
® Added operation for Non-Line-of-Sight paths using lower
frequencies
w Uses Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing
w Operates in Non-Line-of-Sight (NLOS) paths
w Indoor or outdoor CPE
w Supports up to 70 Mbps
w Channel bandwidth of 5+ MHz
w TDD timing supports paths to 30 Miles (50 Km)
w Propagation at these frequencies will limit
coverage to a few kilometers
Ó 2005 ®

The second face of WiMAX is a lot more familiar. OFDM allows non-Line-of-Sight propagation,
which is required for the residential service that is the most common mass-market service.

13
 Coverage vs. Capacity
Coverage vs. Capacity

® While the WiMAX spec supports 70 Mbps

maximum capacity and 30 mile (50 Km) range,
these are maximum capabilities that can not be
simultaneously met!
w 30 mile range is a timing limit for TDD
w 70 Mbps is based on maximum channel size,
and maximum modulation

TDD = Time Division Duplex Ó 2005 ®

30 mile range is the timing limit of the WiMAX TDD frame. It has nothing to do with the
actual achievable coverage

70 Mbps is based on maximum channel size, and maximum modulation (64QAM), which
would not be achievable at 30 miles

14
 MOBILE
MOBILE W
WiiMAX
MAX

® Optimized for narrow (5 to 10 MHz) channels

® Optimized for robust error-free operation
w Trades off capacity for coverage quality
® Uses spectrum below 5 GHz
w Most commonly 2.3, 2.5 or 3.5 GHz
w Requires a large number of base stations with
overlapping coverage
w Considered to be an alternative to 3G or 4G
cellular standards

Ó 2005 ®

The final “Face” of WiMAX is mobile WiMAX. In the US, Mobile WiMAX will be deployed by
Clearwire and Sprint Nextel. It is expected to be the dominant form of WiMAX worldwide, but
products won’t be certifiable by the WIMAX Forum until 2007.

The Non-Line-of-Sight Point-to-Multipoint implementations of “fixed” WiMAX (802.16d) do

support significant portability (the ability to move from location A to location B and have
broadband service at both sites). However, they usually don’t support broadband service while
in transit at vehicular speeds. 802.16e was designed to support that true mobility.

The radio interface of 802.16e is not backward compatible with the earlier versions of WiMAX.

15
 New
New MAC
MAC MANAGEMENT
MANAGEMENT
MESSAGES
MESSAGES from
from 802.16e
802.16e
Additional MAC management messages for mobility:
w Sleep request/response
w Traffic indication and neighbor advertisement
w Scanning interval allocation request/response
w BS Handover (HO) request/response
w MS Handover request/indication
w Scanning result report and BS broadcast paging
w Power control mode change request/response

Ó 2005 ®

16
 Mobile
Mobile Wimax
Wimax and
and cellular
cellular
AIR
AIR INTERFACE
INTERFACE COMPARISON
COMPARISON
Cellular Operating Channel Modulation Duplex
Reuse
Technology Frequencies Bandwidth Schemes Techniques

900 MHz, Frequency

GSM/GPRS 200 KHz GMSK/8-PSK FDD
1900 MHz 4/12
CDMA2000 900 MHz,
1.25 MHz PN Code QPSK FDD
1x-RTT 1900 MHz
QPSK,
CDMA2000 900 MHz,
1.25 MHz PN Code 8-PSK, FDD
1x-EV-DO 1900 MHz
16-QAM
1.25 MHz,
3.5 MHz, Frequency, BPSK,
2.3 GHz, 5 MHz, Potential
Mobile QPSK, FDD,
2.5 GHz, 7 MHz, for reuse
WiMAX 16-QAM TDD
3.5 GHz 8.75 MHz, factor of
1/3 or 1/1 64-QAM
10 MHz,
20 MHz

Ó 2005 ®

This table is presented to illustrate the complexities of Mobile WiMAX relative to GSM/GPRS and
CDMA2000. It is not presented as a comprehensive comparison of 3G and WiMAX.

17
 3G
3G network
network architecture
architecture
EXAMPLE:
EXAMPLE: CDMA
CDMA 2000
2000
Radio Access Network (RAN) Core Network

Packet-Switched
Domain
HA

Router
BTS IP-in-IP Tunnel
GRE Tunnel
for user data for user data Internet
FA

PDSN
BSC

Other BSC
Circuit-Switched
HLR
Domain
BTS
MSC PSTN

Ó 2005 ®

WiMAX uses Mobile IP within its core network, similar to CDMA2000, but unlike UMTS that uses
GPRS in its core network.

18
Wimax
Wimax network
network architecture
architecture
FIXED,
FIXED, PORTABLE
PORTABLE AND
AND MOBILE
MOBILE OPERATION
OPERATION
Access Services Network (ASN) Connectivity Services Network (CSN)

AAA
BS
FA HA

ASN Internet
Gateway Router

GRE Tunnel
Other for user data
ASN Gateway

BS

Ó 2005 ®

19
 Mobile
Mobile Wimax
Wimax and
and cellular
cellular
CORE
CORE NETWORK
NETWORK COMPARISON
COMPARISON

Data
Cellular Authentication/
Architecture Mobility Evolution
Technology Authorization
Protocol
Circuit Switched Voice, GPRS/ To All-IP
GSM/GPRS HLR/HSS
Packet Switched Data Mobile IP and IMS
CDMA2000 Circuit Switched Voice, To All-IP
Mobile IP HLR/HSS and IMS
1x-RTT Packet Switched Data
CDMA2000 Circuit Switched Voice, To All-IP
Mobile IP HLR/HSS and IMS
1x-EV-DO Packet Switched Data
Mobile Packet Switched AAA Server, To IMS for
Mobile IP
WiMAX Voice and Data RADIUS Services

Ó 2005 ®

GSM and UMTS use GPRS in the core network, but the GGSN (GPRS Gateway Support Node)
can act as a Mobile IP Foreign Agent for network interoperability.

20
current
current OPERATORS
OPERATORS and
and 802.16e
802.16e
THREAT
THREAT OR
OR OPPORTUNITY?
OPPORTUNITY?

w A threat?
w An opportunity for a new or larger
market, if laptops are pre-shipped
Cellular with the 802.16e adapters
Operators w Another radio interface on their
heterogeneous network

w A new business opportunity

Fixed-Wireless w Perhaps, the only protocol they
Operators need for both fixed and mobile

Ó 2005 ® 509223

21
 HANDOVER
HANDOVER
Two additional optional handover methods*:

Macro Diversity Transmit/receive to and

Handover (MDHO) from multiple Base Stations
at the same time

Transmit/receive to and
Fast BS Switching (FBSS) from anchor Base Station,
which may change within
a diversity set

* 1/1 and 1/3 frequency reuse Ó 2005 ® 509232

MDHO; In the downlink two or more base stations may provide synchronized transmission of MS
downlink data such that diversity combining can be performed by the MS. In the uplink, the
transmission from a MS is received by multiple BSs such that selection diversity of the
information received by multiple BSs can be performed.

FBSS: Both MS and BS maintain a list of BSs called Diversity Set, with one of them being
defined as an anchor BS. When operating in FBSS, the MS only communicates with the anchor
BS for both uplink and downlink. Transition from one anchor BS to another or fast switching is
performed without invocation of the regular handover process. Instead a faster anchor update
mechanism is used to switch between BSs.

22
 DUPLEX
DUPLEX SOLUTIONS
SOLUTIONS
FIXED
FIXED AND
AND MOBILE
MOBILE WIMAX
WIMAX

Frequency ® Requires separate frequencies for transmit

Division and receive
Duplex
(FDD) ® Inherently Symmetrical

® Uses a single channel split between the

Time Uplink (CPE to Base) and Downlink (Base
Division to CPE)
Duplex
(TDD) ® Does not require symmetry (Base to CPE often
has more time assigned than CPE to Base)

Ó 2005 ®

WiMAX has lots of flexibility. Another “face” or flexible attribute of WiMAX is its ability to support
both FDD and TDD.

TDD is the more-typical approach. It supports the native asymmetry of data applications quite
well, and it is easier for operators to employ if they do not have paired spectrum.

23
 Duplex
Duplex Techniques
Techniques
F Frequency Division Duplex Time Division Duplex
U
L Downlink Uplink Downlink/Uplink
L Channel
Channel Channel
D
U
P
Paired Carriers
L
E
X
BW BW 2 x BW

FDD: TDD:
H
• Paired spectrum required • Single channel
A • Separation > 50 MHz • Tx at twice the rate,
L Downlink/Uplink • Tx/Rx Simultaneously for half of the time
F Channel • 2x channel BW means
D noise floor increase of 3 dB
U Half Duplex:
P • Single channel
L • Alternating transmission
E BW
X at the data rate

Ó 2005 ®

FDD and TDD both provide full duplex connectivity. They both use the same amount of
spectrum, but in different ways.

FDD requires a minimum distance between carrier pairs. This is required to keep the duplexers
as small as possible. This also makes FDD spectrum typically more expensive than TDD.

TDD allows for less expensive spectrum, even unlicensed spectrum, but the cost is increasing
the power amplifier output by 3 dB. The average power of both techniques is the same, but
since TDD has twice the carrier bandwidth for the same bit rate, the noise floor increase of 3 dB
requires a power increase of 3 dB for similar coverage.

Half-duplex is shown because this is an option within the WiMax standard. Using half duplex
means that the combined U/L and D/L bit rate is cut in half.

24
 wimax
wimax SERVICE-LEVEL
SERVICE-LEVEL SOLUTIONS
SOLUTIONS

Equivalent Service-type WiMax Solution

Data Access or Backbone:

Only 10- 66 GHz systems
100 Mb/s Ethernet
Data Access: w10-66 GHz systems
10 Mb/s Ethernet w 2-11 GHz systems
Digital Subscriber Line
2-11 GHz systems
(DSL) Equivalent

Mobile systems 2.3, 2.5 or 3.5 GHz systems

Ó 2005 ®

WiMAX can address a wide range of applications. However, each application can not be
delivered by all of the WiMAX “faces” or implementations. The highest-bandwidth applications
are provided by the 11-66 GHz initial WiMAX, for example. The DSL-equivalent service is
provided by the 2-11 GHz fixed WiMAX system.

25
 WiMAX
WiMAX FORUM
FORUM CERTIFIED™
CERTIFIED™
PRODUCTS
PRODUCTS
WiMax
Status
Standard
802.16-2001 No WiMAX Profiles exist for this PHY
10 - 66 GHz standard; little interest

802.16-2004 The WiMAX Forum currently lists ten

2 - 11 GHz companies as certified vendors

802.16e-2005 Area of furious activity, but products will

Mobile not be certified until 2007 This Year!

Ó 2005 ®

The WiMAX Forum is a global group of manufacturers and ecosystem members, which provides
the WiMAX Forum Certified™ designation for products that mutually interoperate. The WiMAX
Forum runs several test labs around the world.

The WiMAX Forum certifies products that comply with the 802.16-2004 specification right now,
but in 2007, they are creating test scripts for mobile WIMAX certification.

26
 W
WiiMax
Max FUTURE
FUTURE EVOLUTION
EVOLUTION
LOOKING
LOOKING BRIGHT
BRIGHT

® Developing countries and rural areas may use

WiMAX instead of wired DSL-like communications
® Developed countries: The future rests with the
decisions of existing spectrum owners
w Embrace fixed or mobile WiMAX for lower costs
or
w Choose other 4G solutions
® Rapid adoption and falling costs are key to WiMAX
success
Ó 2005 ®

27
 Fixed
Fixed wimax
wimax networks
networks
CURRENT
CURRENT WORLDWIDE
WORLDWIDE DEPLOYMENTS*
DEPLOYMENTS*

Region Trial Deployed Commercial

Asia-Pacific 19 10 5
Western Europe 10 5 5
Eastern Europe 4 7 7
Latin America 5 6 4
Africa 5 6 1
North America 6 2 0
Middle East 4 3 0

* Source: The Wall Street Journal, Nov 27, 2006 Ó 2005 ®

28
 WiMAX
WiMAX Forum
Forum profiles
profiles
FIRST
FIRST ROUND
ROUND
Frequency Channelization
Carriers Duplexing
Band (MHz) (MHz)
3.5
TDD
7.0
3400 - 3600 256–level
3.5
OFDM FDD
7.0
5725 - 5850 TDD 10

® Only for Point-to-Multipoint Systems

® Profiles were chosen with both North American and European regulatory and
channelization constraints in mind
® 3.5 GHz is a licensed band around most of the world
® 5.8 GHz is license-exempt in the United States, but not in all regulatory domains
® The profiles specify a Time Division Multiple Access uplink, with the option of
Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexed Access

Ó 2005 ®
TDD – Time Division Duplex FDD – Frequency Division Duplex

So WiMAX has many “faces” and a lot of flexibility. The WiMAX Forum issues “profiles” as a
way to coalesce the industry around a more-narrow set of options.

Here are the first set of WiMAX Forum profiles. Most of the WIMAX activity to date has been
implementation of the 3.5 GHz, TDD option with 3.5 and 7 MHz channels.

29
 Initial
Initial WiMAX
WiMAX Forum
Forum
MOBILE
MOBILE PROFILES
PROFILES

Frequency Band (GHz) Channel Sizes (MHz)

2.3 - 2.4 8.75 (WiBro), 5, 10
2.305 – 2.320
3.5, 5, 10
2.345 – 2.360
2.469 – 2.69 5, 10

3.3 – 3.4 5, 7, 10

3.4 – 3.8 5, 7, 10

509025
Ó 2005 ®

Here are the proposed Mobile WiMAX profiles that the WiMAX Forum’s Certification and
Marketing Working Groups considered at the July 2006 meeting.

30
 802.16e
802.16e ADOPTION
ADOPTION FORECAST
FORECAST

2008-2010 Commercial releases

Issues:
® Pace of infrastructure construction
® Availability of cost effective and
2007 power-efficient handsets
® Backward compatibility concerns with
fixed 802.16

2007 Early handsets, handhelds, and laptops

802.16e Chipsets available

2006 compatibility testing

Ó 2005 ® 509225

Student Notes:

31
EQUIPMENT
EQUIPMENT AND
AND MANUFACTURERS
MANUFACTURERS

Types of equipment:
® Base station
® Customer Premise Equipment (CPE)
w Internal mount
w In computer (PCMCIA)
w Desktop (USB or Ethernet)
w External mount
w Rooftop

Ó 2005 ®

We’ll talk about base stations and subscriber equipment throughout the course.

32
 Two
Two W
WiiMAX
MAX Chip
Chip Implementations
Implementations

System on a Chip (SoC) Software Defined Radio (SDR)

Less expensive up front Less expensive to upgrade

More expensive to upgrade More expensive up front

Chips: Intel, Fujitsu, Motorola Chips: Sequans, Picochip

Equipment: Aperto, Alvarion Equipment: Airspan, Navini

Must be combined with radio

Radio programmed in software
chip

Ó 2005 ®

Chip vendors are following two different paths for design of WiMAX chipsets.

The System on a Chip approach offers low-cost silicon that implements one specific design.

The Software Defined Radio approach is designed for flexibility. A general-purpose

microprocessor is programmed with the implementation of one or more radio designs. That
general-purpose microprocessor may be re-programmed as the technology evolves, or as an
operator chooses to implement new services. Some of the software-defined-radio vendors claim
upgradeability to mobile WIMAX.

That completes our introduction to WiMAX, and prepares us for network design discussions.

33
 Lesson 2:

Review of RF
Fundamentals

Ó 2005 ®

The next four lessons cover RF fundamentals. They are designed for students who do not work
in RF on a daily basis, but need the tutorial lessons to prepare for the WiMAX Network
Designer™ certification exam.

34
 Lesson
Lesson Objectives
Objectives

At the end of this lesson, you should be able to:

® Calculate power levels in dBm and Watts
® Discuss the application of decibels (dB) and when
they should not be used
® Apply Nyquist and Shannon observations to
calculation of the bandwidth of channels
® Detail WiMAX’s adaptive modulation and coding
® Approximate the bit rate of a channel given bandwidth,
modulation scheme and FEC overhead

Ó 2005 ®

35
 Information
Information Transfer
Transfer
General
Medium
Source Sink

Wireless
external noise
Air Interface
Transmitter Receiver

distortion attenuation interference

internal noise

Ó 2005 ®

The wireless medium is the most hostile environment for the transport of digital information. All
of the factors list must be considered when designing a wireless link. Even when these factors
are considered strong techniques for handling bit errors must be employed. The added overhead
reduces the maximum throughput of a channel in order to improve error performance.

36
 Wireless
Wireless Link
Link Reference
Reference points
points

Transmitter Output Transmission Line Tx Antenna Output

Wireless Medium
Tx output power
Effective Isotropic Radiated Power (EIRP)

Isotropic Receive Level (IRL)

Rx Threshold

Receiver Input Transmission Line Rx Antenna Input

Ó 2005 ®

The EIRP is the signal power level (typically stated in dBm) at the transmit antenna output. The
IRL is the signal power level (typically stated in dBm) at the input to the receive antenna. The
difference between the EIRP and the IRL is the loss over the wireless medium. This loss is
typically referred to as the Path Loss.
There are actually two types of IRLs:
1. Required IRL—the minimum IRL that must be seen at the receive antenna in order to
provide the minimum level of performance
2. Actual IRL—the IRL that is actually seen at the receive antenna input

37
 Wireless
Wireless Link
Link Considerations
Considerations
Output Power
• Watts, Milliwatts
Gain (directivity)
• dBm, dBW
Loss @ Oper. Freq. • dBi
TX • dB/length • dBd
Information Antenna
Modulator Amp Xmission Line
Source
Loss (dB)
• Operating Freq. (MHz, GHz)
• Operating Frequency (MHz, GHz) L • Distance (km, miles)
• Bandwidth (KHz, MHz) I • Environment
• Signaling Rate (Ksps, Msps)
N Time Dispersion (μsec, nsec)
• Modulation (X-PSK, X-QAM)
• Error Correction Overhead
K • Bandwidth (KHz, MHz)
• Fading (selective, flat)
• Inter-symbol interference
RX
Information
Demodulator Amp Xmission Line Antenna
Sink
Loss @ Oper. Freq. Gain (directivity)
Sensitivity* • dB/length • dBi
• Gain (dB)
• Threshold (dBm) • NFdB • dBd
• NFdB
• C/N (dB)
• C/I+N (dB)
• Eb/N0 (dB)

* Based on specific modulation technique @ 10-6 BER

Ó 2005 ®

The point of this slide is to introduce much of the vocabulary that we’ll understand by the end of
today. This slide also allows the instructor to survey the class for existing understanding.

We don’t explain every term on the slide at this point of the class, but it gives us a basis for
discussion and for the information that follows.

38
 Basic
Basic References
References
Engineering Notation RF Spectrum
10n PREFIX EHF 30 GHz to 300 GHz
1012 Tera 802.16-2001
SHF 3 GHz to 30 GHz
109 Giga
Increase

802.16-2004
802.16e-2005
106 Mega UHF 300 MHz to 3 GHz
103 Kilo (or k)
VHF 30 MHz to 300 MHz
10-3 milli
HF 3 MHz to 30 MHz
Decrease

10-6 micro(m) Not relevant

10-9 nano to WiMAX
MF 300 KHz to 3 MHz
10-12 pico
LF 30 KHz to 300 KHz

VLF 3 KHz to 30 KHz

Ó 2005 ®

Due to its propagation characteristics, the mid-to-upper portion of the UHF spectrum (700 MHz
to 3 GHz) is preferred for Non-Line-of-Sight (NLOS) radio. The low end of the SHF spectrum
can still be employed for NLOS, but as the frequency increases above 6 GHz, Line-of-Sight
(LOS) becomes the major propagation mode. Frequencies at the mid to upper end of the EHF
spectrum begin to take on the propagation characteristics of light.

39
 Bits,
Bits, Bauds*
Bauds* and
and Bandwidth
Bandwidth
HARRY
HARRY NYQUIST
NYQUIST

“Certain Topics in Telegraph Transmission Theory” -- 1928

This paper addressed the relationship between the number of current

values sent per second and the bandwidth (N) required for recovering
the information. It was determined that all sinusoidal components
greater than N (the fundamental) were “redundant” and that at a
sample rate of 2N current values per second, all information could be
recovered.

Today, this relationship is stated as a ratio of signaling rate (Baud rate)

to bandwidth—at baseband: 2 Baud/Hz

* Emille Baudot, inventor of TDM Ó 2005 ®

40
 The
The Fundamental
Fundamental Frequency
Frequency

When Harry Nyquist developed his rule for minimum

required bandwidth for information transfer, his
limiting factor was “inter-symbol interference”. In other
words, he asked this question: “What is the minimum
amount of bandwidth that will still allow for recovery
of the distinct signaling states?”
The Answer: 1 Hz per 2 Signaling States.
signaling
state
t
r
a
n
s
i
t
1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1
i
o
n
transition
time
Ó 2005
°
®

It is important to remember that Harry Nyquist was describing the minimum amount of bandwidth
required for recovery of baseband information. When applying the Nyquist rule to modulated
data, the Nyquist rate is 1 Hz per signaling state. This is due to the sidebands generated when
modulating digital data on an RF carrier. This 1 Hz per Baud also assumes a “brick wall filter”, a
perfect filter, is used to filter out all of the higher frequency components of the digital data.
Although this filter does not actually exist, modern filter implementations come very close.

In calculations of bandwidth for various channel sizes in this course, we will assume a factor of 1
baud per hertz for modulated data.

41
 Capacity
Capacity and
and Noise
Noise
CLAUDE
CLAUDE SHANNON
SHANNON
“The Mathematical Theory of Communications” -- 1948

Claude Shannon considered channel capacity as a function of the

number of signaling states that could represent bits in a band-
limited channel. Shannon’s Rule states a corollary between the S/N
ratio (SNR) and the maximum number of signaling states possible for
relatively error-free transmission. Shannon did not stipulate the
expected error rate or the error correction techniques that would
allow for attaining his “Limit”. Thanks Claude!

( )
Example:

C = BW × log2 1 + S N
S/N = 12 dB (16:1)
BW = 2.4 KHz

Where: C = 2400 × log 2 (1 + 16 )

C = Channel capacity in bps
BW = Bandwidth of channel in Hz = 2400 × 4 = 9600 bps
S/N = Linear signal to noise power ratio--not stated in dBs
Ó 2005 ®

42
 Before
Before Going
Going Further
Further
AA QUICK
QUICK DECIBEL
DECIBEL REVIEW
REVIEW
Number = Power of Ten = Base 10 LOG = Gain (dB)
1,000,000 106 6 60 dB
1,000 103 3 30 dB
0.0001 10-4 -4 -40 dB
0.000001 10-6 -6 -60 dB

æ Power Out ö æ Power In ö

Loss dB = 10 × log10 ç
GaindB = 10 × log10 ç ÷ ÷
è Power In ø è Power Out ø

Examples:
Amplifier Input = 10 mW æ 10 W ö æ 10 ö
Gain = 10 × log10 ç ÷ = 10 × log10 ç ÷ = 30 dB
Amplifier Output = 10 W è 10m W ø è 0.01 ø

Transmitter Output = 100 W æ 25 W ö æ 25 ö

Gain = 10 × log 10 ç ÷ = 10 × log10 ç ÷ = -6 dB
Antenna Input = 25 W è 100 W ø è 100 ø
Ó 2005 ®

The system of Base 10 logarithms (log10) is referred to as the system of common logarithms.

Uses of Logarithms:
Multiplication of numbers—addition of logarithms
Division of numbers—subtraction of logarithms
Raising to a power—multiplication of the logarithms

Gain is a statement of an increase, loss is a statement of a decrease.

It is common to use a negative sign when referring to negative gains (losses), but a value of
-10 dB gain means a negative gain of 10 dB, not a loss of -10 dB!! This implies a negative loss
which is actually a gain.

43
 Decibel
Decibel Reference
Reference Levels
Levels
dBm = Decibels Relative to 1 mW
dBW = Decibels Relative to 1 W
dBc = Decibels Relative to a Carrier
dBi = Decibels Relative to an Isotropic Source
dBd = Decibels Relative to a Dipole antenna

æ Power ö
Decibel Reference = 10 × log10 ç ÷
è Reference ø
Examples:
Power Level = 25W æ 25W ö æ 25 ö
Absolute Power Level = 10 × log10 ç ÷ = 10 × log10 ç ÷ = 44 dBm
Reference Level = 1mW è 1mW ø è .001 ø

Carrier Level = 500W æ .05mW ö æ .00005 ö

Level Below Carrier = 10 × log10 ç ÷ = 10 × log10 ç ÷ = -70 dBc
Spurious Level = .05mW è 500W ø è 500 ø

Ó 2005 ®

44
 Exercise:
Exercise: Decibels
Decibels
1. Convert the following: dBm vs. dBW
a. 400 mW ____ 26 dBm
+40 dBm +10 dBW
b. 0.0004 μW ____ -64 dBm
c. 14 dBm ____25.1 mW
d. 7 dBW ____37 dBm +30 dBm +0 dBW

e. 250 mW ____ - 6 dBW

+20 dBm -10 dBW

2. Determine the gains (in dB) for the following:

+10 dBm -20 dBW
a. Output 10 milliwatts
Input 10 Watts - 30 dB
______
+0 dBm -30 dBW
b. Output 50 W
Input 400 mW 21 dB
______

Ó 2005
°
®

Instructions:
Use your calculator to solve for the unknown value and fill in the blanks.

45
Decibels:
Decibels: Do
Do Them
Them in
in Your
Your Head!
Head!
The 1, 3, 10 Rule for converting between whole
decibels and actual powers without a calculator!

dB Change Increase Decrease

1 dB x 1.25 x 0.8

3 dB x2 x 0.5

10 dB x 10 x 0.1

Example: Try it:

35 dBm = 30 dBm + 3 dB + 3 dB – 1 dB 250 mW
1. Convert 24 dBm to ________
= 1000 mW x 2 x 2 x 0.8 27 dBm
2. Convert 0.5 W to _______
= 4000 mW x 0.8
50 W
3. Convert 47 dBm to ______
= 3200 mW or 3.2 W
Ó 2005
°
®

Instructions:
Try doing decibels in your head, without your calculator! Use the 1, 3, 10 rule to solve for the
unknown values.

46
Decibels:
Decibels: To
To add
add oror not
not toto add
add
THAT
THAT IS
IS THE
THE QUESTION
QUESTION
Power in milliWatts Power in dBm
5,000 mW
Output = ________ 37 dBm
Output = _____

5 mW 7 dBm
X 1000 7,500 mW
Output = _______ 30 dB Output = 38.76
______ dBm
Gain

Combiner Combiner

10 mW 10 dBm 30 dB
X 1000
÷2 Gain
Loss = 3 dB

10,000 mW
Output = ________ 40 dBm
Output = _____

Ó 2005 ®

47
 When
When NOT
NOT to
to add
add Decibels
Decibels ??
A:
A: WHEN
WHEN ACCUMULATING
ACCUMULATING POWER
POWER
B:
B: WHEN
WHEN ADDING
ADDING RATIOS
RATIOS
Accumulating Power Values Adding Ratios

Carrier -84 dBm (4 pW) Carrier

11.23 dB (13.3:1)
C/(I+N) = 11.23 dB

13 dB (20:1)

16 dB (40:1)
I+N -95.23 dBm (0.3 pW) C/(I+N)

Interference -97 dBm (0.2 pW) C/I

Noise -100 dBm (0.1 pW) C/N

Ó 2005 ®

You will need to calculate C/(I+N) for WiMAX network design, and for the certification exam.

Remember!!!
Decibels are added when determining decibel gains or decibel losses.

When ratios must be added, the value in dBs must first be converted to actual power value or
ratio.
Example:
Adding ratios in dB
C/N + C/I: 17 dB + 17 dB = 14 dB (not 34 dB)

Adding power values in dBm

17 dBm + 17 dBm = 20 dBm (not 34 dBm)

48
 Decibels:
Decibels: Adding
Adding Ratios
Ratios and
and
Power
Power Values
Values
Adding Two Power Values
1. Convert to actual values (or ratios) Exercise:
2. Add together Adding ratios (C/N, C/I): 16 dB and 20 dB
3. Convert back to decibels
æ - RatiodB ö
Ratio actual = çç 10 10 ÷
÷
1
Delta Change è ø
æ -16 - 20
ö
0 dB 3 dB 2 0.035
Added = çç 10 10 + 10 10 ÷÷ = ________
è ø
æ 1 ö 14.55
2 dB 2.12 dB 3 RatiodB = 10 × log10 ç ÷ = _______ dB
è 0.035 ø

4 dB 1.45 dB
Combining powers: 22 dBm and 30 dBm

6 dB 0.97 dB æ Value ödB

Value actual = çç 10 10 ÷÷ 1
è ø
8 dB 0.64 dB æ 22 30
ö
2 1158.5
Added = çç 10 10 + 10 10 ÷÷ = ________
è ø
3 ValuedB = 10 × log10 (1158.5 ) = _______
30.64 dBm
10 dB 0.41 dB
Ó 2005
°
®

Overview:
When accumulating actual power levels, you must first change from dBs to the actual values
before adding the power levels together.
An example of adding two power levels: -130 dBm added to -130 dBm = -127 dBm
Notice that the delta of these two values is 0 dB, therefore when the actual (linear) values are
added, the actual power level is double the original value. When adding several power values
together, each dB value must first be converted to the actual value before adding them. Once
the values are summed, they are converted back to decibel form. This approach is used for
adding noise and interference, determining total power out of a combiner and combining C/N
values in a receiver (repeaters).
Remember! Decibels are added when multiplying actual values. Example: A 50 dB amplifier
has a -20 dBm signal input. The output of the amplifier would be
-20 dBm + 50 dB (gain) = +30 dBm.

Instructions:
The formulas are presented for each step. Use the formulas to fill in the blanks.

49
 Back
Back to
to Harry
Harry andand Claude
Claude
RELEVANT
RELEVANT TO
TO WIRELESS
WIRELESS
Harry says,
• Bandwidth is directly related to signaling rate!
• Never modulate a square wave, infinite BW required!
• For maximum spectral efficiency, filter all frequency
components above the fundamental before modulation!

Claude says,
• OK, bandwidth is directly related to signaling rate!
• Multiple information bits can be represented by a
single change in signaling state!
• The S/N ratio limits the number of signaling states
for error-free transmission.

Ó 2005 ®

The Nyquist rule applies to baseband data (DC levels representing binary values). The common
approach for modulating baseband data is to use a bandwidth efficient baseband line code, such
as Non-Return-to-Zero (NRZ), then filter frequency components above the fundamental.
Modulation generates sidebands, doubling the amount of bandwidth required (relative to
baseband). So, consider the Nyquist rule to state a minimum bandwidth requirement of 1 HZ per
Baud when modulated.

50
 Basic
Basic Modulation
Modulation Schemes
Schemes
1 0 1 1 0 0

ASK

FSK

PSK

Ó 2005 ®

Amplitude Shift Keying is bandwidth efficient because required bandwidth is only a function of
the signaling rate. It is not power efficient because in the presence of noise, it becomes difficult
to distinguish between the different levels.
Frequency Shift Keying is power efficient. It is not bandwidth efficient because the required
bandwidth is a function of the signaling rate and the frequencies used to represent binary data.
Phase Shift Keying is both bandwidth efficient and power efficient. The required bandwidth is
only a function of the signaling rate and even in the presence of noise, the difference between
phases is easy to detect.

Greater bandwidth efficiency is attained by combing ASK and PSK schemes. These high level
modulation techniques are called QAM (Quadrature Amplitude Modulation).

51
 BPSK
BPSK vs.
vs. QPSK
QPSK
0 0 0 1 1 0 1 1

Bits

BPSK

QPSK

Ó 2005 ®

Bandwidth efficiency of PSK can be further increased by increasing the number of bits
represented by phase changes. However, the power efficiency will be reduced. QPSK is twice
as bandwidth efficient as BPSK, but less power efficient.

52
 Polar
Polar Plots
Plots
(CONSTELLATIONS)
(CONSTELLATIONS)
90
Power

180° 0°
Phase
QPSK
Q
BPSK
270° 10 00

I
1 0

11 01

Ó 2005 ®

In order to illustrate other modulation schemes, it is necessary to show the patterns in the form of
polar plots instead of the waveform drawings. Since more bandwidth efficient modulation
schemes use a combination of phase and amplitude changes to represent a number of bits, the
use of polar plots makes it easier to envision the individual changes.

53
 Some
Some Modulation
Modulation Schemes
Schemes
SPECIFIC
SPECIFIC TO
TO WiMAX
WiMAX
BPSK QPSK
10 00

1 0 Free Distance

11 01

Power h
BW h
16-QAM 64-QAM
1111

Ó 2005 ®

Polar plots of BPSK and QPSK are show for reference. As the number of “points” increases, the
number of bits represented per signaling element increases. Therefore, bandwidth efficiency
increases.
As the number of “points” increases, the difference between them becomes smaller. In order to
discern the difference between signaling points (free distance) in the presence of noise, the
power level must be higher than for constellations with greater free distance. Therefore, power
efficiency decreases.

54
 Modulation
Modulation Techniques
Techniques
and
and Noise
Noise
C/N
C/N ≈≈ 30
30 dB
dB
QPSK 16-QAM
90 90

135 45 135 45

180 0 180 0

225 315 225 315

270 270

1000 points mapped Ó 2005 ®

Noise is manifested in the form of phase and power variations. This means that from one
signaling change to the next, the amount of variation from the proper constellation point
increases as the carrier to noise level decreases. The above illustration shows a 30 dB C/N.
Both of these modulation schemes perform well with this C/N.

The points were generated randomly using a Gaussian distribution. Mapping only 1000 points
means that the hightest BER that can be evaluated is 10-3.

55
 Modulation
Modulation Techniques
Techniques
and
and Noise
Noise
C/N
C/N ≈≈ 15
15 dB
dB
QPSK 16-QAM
90 90

135 45 135 45

180 0 180 0

225 315 225 315

270 270

1000 points mapped Ó 2005 ®

As the C/N degrades, the variations in the constellation point location will have minimal effect on
QPSK. The higher level modulation scheme (16-QAM) will have degraded performance.

56
 Modulation
Modulation Techniques
Techniques
and
and Noise
Noise
C/N
C/N ≈≈ 10
10 dB
dB
QPSK 16-QAM
90 90

135 45 135 45

180 0 180 0

225 315 225 315

270 270

1000 points mapped Ó 2005 ®

Notice that the 16-QAM constellation is unrecoverable by this time. The QPSK constellation
should have a BER better than 10-3, but how much better is not shown.

57
 Modulation
Modulation Techniques
Techniques
and
and Noise
Noise
C/N
C/N ≈≈ 66 dB
dB
QPSK 16-QAM
90 90

135 45 135 45

180 0 180 0

225 315 225 315

270 270

1000 points mapped Ó 2005 ®

The C/N is now at approximately 6 dB. The QPSK constellation appears to have a BER around
10-3.

58
 Fix
Fix Those
Those Bit
Bit Errors
Errors with
with
Convolutional
Convolutional Encoding
Encoding
EXAMPLE:
EXAMPLE: K=3,
K=3, RATE
RATE == 1/2
1/2
0010 K = 3:
Constraint length = 3 shift registers

(7,5) Rate 1/2:

Modulo-2 Addition 1 bit in, 2 coding symbols out
100% Overhead
Data in
10101100
0110 P to S

WiMAX Values:
Modulo-2 Addition K=7
Rate = 3/4, 2/3, 1/2,
5/6*
1110
Ó 2005 ®
* Mobile WiMAX

The greater the depth of the convolutional coder (number of shift registers), the more unique is
the pattern generated. Therefore, the greater the number of errored bits that can be recovered.
This also applies to the amount of overhead— ½ rate provides better error correction than ¾
rate.

59
 Modulation
Modulation and
and Coding
Coding
STATIC
STATIC AND
AND DYNAMIC
DYNAMIC
The BER for a given C/N can be improved by increasing
the FEC coding overhead (adding coding gain) or by
decreasing the number of constellation points.
Static: Dynamic:
• Manually Configured • Based on Conditions
• Pre-WiMax • WiMax

Modulation FEC Rate

64-QAM, 16-QAM, QPSK, BPSK,
BPSK 1/2 WiMAX Modem
3/4 rate 1/2 rate 1/2 rate 1/2 rate
QPSK 2/3 64-QAM, 64-QAM, QPSK, BPSK,
3/4 rate 2/3 rate 3/4 rate 1/2 rate
16-QAM 3/4 Dynamically Adjusted
16-QAM, QPSH, QPSK, BPSK,
64-QAM 7/8 Modulation
3/4 rate 3/4 rate and Coding
1/2 rate 1/2 rate
Based on Link Conditions
1/6-QAM, 16-QAM, QPSK, QPSK,
Modem 1/2 rate 3/4 rate 3/4 rate 1/2 rate

Ó 2005
°
®

Increasing overhead for error correction decreases the data rate, but it can also allow for a more
bandwidth efficient modulation scheme.

60
 WIMAX
WIMAX Bits
Bits per
per Baud
Baud
BASED
BASED ON
ON MODULATION
MODULATION SCHEME
SCHEME AND
AND FEC
FEC RATE
RATE

Modulation Raw Bits FEC Coded Bits

Scheme per Baud Rate per Baud
1/2 0.5
BPSK 1
3/4 0.75
1/2 1
QPSK 2
3/4 1.5
1/2 2
16-QAM 4
3/4 3
1/2 3
64-QAM 6 2/3 4
3/4 4.5

Ó 2005 ®

You will notice that 16-QAM, 3/4 rate and 64-QAM, 1/2 rate have the same bandwidth efficiency.
WiMAX does not employ 64-QAM, 1/2 rate.

61
 Approximating
Approximating the
the Bit
Bit Rate
Rate
BASED
BASED ON
ON BANDWIDTH,
BANDWIDTH, MODULATION
MODULATION AND
AND FEC
FEC
Assumptions:
® A Single carrier
® Nyquist Limit for RF (1 Baud/Hz)
® Filter Roll-off Factor (a) = 0*

Process:
1. Determine Baud rate based on bandwidth
2. Determine raw bit rate based on Baud rate
and modulation scheme
3. Factor FEC overhead to determine data bit rate

* This is a “Brick-wall” filter roll-off. Typical a values range from 0.1 to 1. Ó 2005 ®

62
 Bit
Bit Rate:
Rate: A
A Worked
Worked Example
Example
Example:
Determine the bit rate of a 5 MHz wide carrier using
64-QAM with ¾ rate FEC.

1. Baud rate = Bandwidth = 5 MBaud

2. Raw bit rate = bits/Baud = 6 · 5 Mbaud = 30 Mbps
3. Data bit rate = FEC rate · raw bit rate = 0.75 · 30 Mbps
= 22.5 Mbps bit rate*

* This is not the Throughput seen by a user! Other overhead (guard time,
frame OH, higher layer protocol OH) further reduce actual throughput.

Ó 2005 ®

The example above provides the best-case (theoretical) bit rate for a 5 MHz WiMAX single
carrier channel. This theoretical case assumes a “brick-wall” filter (a = 0). In a real-world
implementation, the filter roll-off factor would be > 0.

63
 Exercise:
Exercise: Determine
Determine the
the Raw
Raw
Bit
Bit Rate
Rate
The original 802.16 standard (10 to 66 GHz) states the following
single carrier parameters:
• Maximum Channel Bandwidth = 28 MHz
• Filter roll-off factor (a) = 0.25
• Highest Modulation Scheme = 64-QAM
Instructions:
Use the information above and the Baud rate formula
below to determine the raw bit rate of the single carrier
WiMAX solution.

Β
Rs = 134.4 Mbps
Maximum raw* bit rate = ______
1+a
Where:
Rs = Symbol (Baud) rate
B = Channel Bandwidth

* FEC is not considered in calculation. Ó 2005

°
®

Overview:
It is commonly stated the single-carrier WiMax standard can provide 270 Mbps. Given the
values from the standard how is this possible?
The 802.16 standard for 10-66 GHz provides the roll-off factor (a) of 0.25. This refers to the roll-
off of a raised cosine filter. The perfect filter, commonly used when determining the Baud
rate based on the bandwidth, has an a of 0. This is commonly referred to a a “Brick Wall”
Filter. While the “Brick Wall” filter does not actually exist, modern filter a values of < 0.2 are
typical. There is a price to be paid for a low a. Decreasing a reduces occupied bandwidth
of a channel (good news), but increases the sensitivity to timing jitter.

Instructions:
1. Determine the Maximum Baud rate (Rs) using the provided formula and the channel
bandwidth.
2. Multiply the Baud rate (Step 1.) times the bits per Baud for the modulation scheme to
determine the raw bit rate.

64
 Lesson 3:

Antennas for wimax

Ó 2005 ®

65
 Lesson
Lesson Objectives
Objectives

At the end of this lesson, you should be able to:

® Compare the two references for antenna gain
® List three antenna diversity techniques
® Describe the operations of two basic types of
MIMO systems
® Describe the operations of Adaptive Array
Antenna Systems
® Describe the benefits of MIMO and Adaptive
Arrays in a WiMAX deployment

Ó 2005 ®

66
 Electromagnetic
Electromagnetic Waves
Waves

y Determines antenna polarization

E
c
l (wavelength) λ=
Freq (Hz)
c
Freq (Hz) =
λ

x
z Exercise:
1. Wavelength = 0.15 m
H 2000 MHz
Frequency = ________
2. Frequency = 5.8 GHz
0.0517 m
Wavelength = _______

Ó 2005
°
®
c = 3 x 108 meters/sec

As you can see, the E-plane (electric field) and the H-plane (magnetic field) are perpendicular to
each other. When defining an antenna’s polarization, the E-plane is the reference.
The wavelength is a statement of how far the electromagnetic wave propagates during a
complete cycle (360° phase change). Since the wavelength is based on propagation velocity,
the common reference is RF propagation velocity (c) through the air. Notice that the wavelength
and frequency are inversely related. So, as the frequency increases, the wavelength decreases.

67
 A
A Quick
Quick Look
Look at
at Antennas
Antennas
Antenna

Source

Transmission Line
Expanding Wavefront

Ó 2005 ®

An antenna is an intentional radiator of electromagnetic radiation. Many devices radiate

unintentionally, but an antenna is optimized for radiation. The slide illustrates how a source
generates the RF energy, the transmission line contains and transports the energy to the
antenna and the antenna radiates the energy. In its simplest form, an antenna is a transmission
line that has been split apart.

68
General
General Antenna
Antenna Types
Types

® Isotropic Radiator
® Dipole
Single Element
® Folded Dipole
® Aperture
® Yagi
® Collinear Array Multiple Element

® Flat Plate

Ó 2005 ®

69
 Antenna
Antenna Gain
Gain
RELATIVE
RELATIVE TO
TO AA REFERENCE
REFERENCE VALUE
VALUE

Two Reference Values for Antenna Gain:

1. Isotropic Source
· Typically used in the microwave region (above 1 GHz)
· Unit of gain is the dBi (decibels relative to an Isotropic
Source)

2. Dipole Antenna
· Commonly used for Mobile Communications
· Unit of gain is the dBd (decibels relative to a dipole
antenna)
· Provides 2.14 dB of gain over an Isotropic source

Ó 2005 ®

70
 The
The Isotropic
Isotropic Radiator
Radiator
AA REFERENCE
REFERENCE

Definition:
A Source that radiates
equally in all directions

· Creates a spherical wavefront

· Does not actually exist
· Provides a reference for
Antenna Gain: dBi

Ó 2005
°
®
dBi = decibel gain relative to an Isotropic Source

71
 The
The Dipole
Dipole Antenna
Antenna
CHARACTERISTICS
CHARACTERISTICS

® Smallest Self-resonating Antenna

® Typically a Half wavelength long
® Center-fed Antenna l
® Provides 2.14 dBi of gain 2
® Reference for other antennas (dBd)

Ó 2005 ®
dBd = decibel gain relative to a dipole antenna

The dipole antenna is typically used as a reference (dBd) for antennas operating below 1 GHz.
This is not a rule, just a convention. It is always important to know the reference used when
determining antenna gain.

72
 Dipole
Dipole Radiation
Radiation Patterns
Patterns

Elevation

Azimuth

Ó 2005 ®

Assuming a vertically polarized antenna, viewing the antenna from the side (making a vertical
slice through the pattern) shows the elevation pattern. Viewing the antenna from the end point (a
point directly above the antenna) provides a view of the azimuth pattern.

73
 Antenna
Antenna Reciprocity
Reciprocity

Antenna Reciprocity:
The ability of an antenna to transfer energy from the
atmosphere to its receiver with the same efficiency with
which it transfers energy from the transmitter to the
atmosphere.

It is common practice to describe most

antenna characteristics from the point
of view of a transmitting component!
What?

Ó 2005 ®

74
 Diversity
Diversity Techniques
Techniques
IMPROVING
IMPROVING AA SIGNAL
SIGNAL IN
IN AA FADING
FADING ENVIRONMENT
ENVIRONMENT
® Space Diversity: Spatially separating antennas for
reception of a signal over multiple uncorrelated paths
w Switched diversity for LOS links
w Switched or Combining diversity for a NLOS multi-
path environment
® Time Diversity: Transmitting the same data multiple
times, separated in time enough that the channel
fading is de-correlated
® Polarization Diversity: Using Cross-polarized antennas
for reception of a signal that, due to multiple
reflections over uncorrelated paths, arrives having
different polarizations (not to be confused with
Polarization Isolation)
Ó 2005 ®

Whenever multiple copies of an original signal arrive in an uncorrelated manner, diversity gain
can be employed to increase signal reliability and improve C/N performance. Diversity
techniques can be employed individually or in combination.

75
Diversity
Diversity Gain
Gain and
and Aperture
Aperture Gain
Gain
Two factors to Diversity Gain:
1. Aperture Gain: Combining signals from separate
antenna inputs to improve Rx gain
2. De-correlation Gain: Based on amount of multi-path
de-correlation

Configuration Two Branch

Aperture Gain 3.0 dB
De-correlation Gain 0.5 to 1.5 dB
Total Potential Gain 3.5 to 4.5 dB

• De-correlation gain is a function of and multi-path environment.

• De-correlation gain is only realized when fade margin is part of the link budget.
• Only aperture gain is typically factored into a link budget.
Ó 2005 ®

76
Diversity
Diversity Gain
Gain and
and the
the Environment
Environment

Example:
Base Station with
two-branch diversity
viewed from above

Signals arriving at each branch

constantly vary in strength due
changes in the environment and
mobile orientation and motion
Ó 2005 ®

77
 Space
Space Diversity
Diversity Reception
Reception
MOST
MOST COMMON
COMMON DIVERSITY
DIVERSITY TECHNIQUE
TECHNIQUE
• Physical separation requirements: >1/2 l
• Required separation increases with mounting height
• Diversity gain is greatest in the directions perpendicular to the
plane of the antennas

Viewed from Above

Maximum
Example: 2-branch Diversity Diversity Reception

> 1/2 l
Minimum Minimum
Diversity Reception > 1/2 l Diversity Reception

Maximum
Diversity Reception

Antenna Platform
Ó 2005 ®

78
Diversity
Diversity Combining
Combining Techniques
Techniques
BENEFITING
BENEFITING FROM
FROM SIGNAL
SIGNAL DE-CORRELATION
DE-CORRELATION

® Switched Diversity
w Compares multiple inputs and selects best S/N
w Common on microwave P-P systems
w Simple to implement
® Equal Gain Combining
w Co-phases and sums inputs from multiple
antenna elements
® Maximal Ratio Combining
w Co-phases, weights and sums inputs from
multiple antenna elements
w Most complex of the diversity approaches
w Typically provides the best performance

Ó 2005 ®

79
Simple
Simple Diversity
Diversity Techniques
Techniques
Switched Diversity Equal Gain Maximal Ratio
Combining Combining

F F
Signal Detector
Phase Detector Phase Detector

Selector Switch

S S
Receiver
Receiver Receiver

Complexity and Performance

Ó 2005 ®

80
 Advanced
Advanced Antenna
Antenna Systems
Systems
ENHANCING
ENHANCING WiMAX
WiMAX PERFORMANCE
PERFORMANCE

® MIMO (Multiple Input, Multiple Output) Systems

and Variants
w Space - Time Diversity Coding (Matrix A)
w Spatial Multiplexing (Matrix B)
w SIMO vs. MISO
w Collaborative MIMO
® Adaptive Arrays

Ó 2005 ®

Multiple Input: Input to the RF channel (to the air interface)

Multiple Output: Output from the RF channel (into the receiver)

81
 Multi-antenna
Multi-antenna Terminology
Terminology
Number of Antennas

Input (Tx) Output (Rx)

Single In Single Out
SISO
Single In Multiple Out
SIMO

AIR INTERFACE
Multiple In Single Out
MISO
Multiple In Multiple Out
MIMO

Ó 2005 ®

SISO provides no benefit from decorrelation and is used only as a baseline for antenna system
performance improvement.

82
 MIMO
MIMO Antenna
Antenna Systems
Systems
BENEFITING
BENEFITING FROM
FROM MULTI-PATH
MULTI-PATH

® Space-Time Diversity Coding

w Codes, interleaves and distributes the
same symbol over multiple antennas
w Antennas transmit on co-channels
® Spatial Multiplexing
w Codes, interleaves and distributes
different symbols over multiple antennas
w Antennas transmit on co-channels

Ó 2005 ®

83
 MIMO:
MIMO: Benefiting
Benefiting from
from Multi-path
Multi-path
SPACE-TIME
SPACE-TIME DIVERSITY
DIVERSITY CODING
CODING WITH
WITH MIMO
MIMO
Using Space-Time Diversity Coding in a multi-path environment
increases Rx signal strength, increasing distance.

MIMO Tx (4 antennas) RF Channel

Sub-streams 0 Coding/
Modulation
Tx
Serial
Tx data 0 Coding/
Tx
Stream 1:N Modulation

0110 ÷ 0 Coding/
Modulation Tx
MIMO Rx

0 Coding/
Modulation Tx

Distributing the same data over co-channels on spatially

displaced antennas, provides a temporally displaced set of sub-
streams to be seen by the receiver.
Ó 2005 ®

84
MIMO
MIMO Space-Time
Space-Time Diversity
Diversity Coding
Coding
SPACE-TIME
SPACE-TIME BLOCK
BLOCK CODING:
CODING: MATRIX
MATRIX AA

1. Increased Range: Combining multiple

time-displaced copies of the same symbol
increases the S/N ratio, increasing range
2. Increased Data Rate: Due to the improved
S/N, spectrally efficient modulation schemes
(16 and 64-QAM) will have increased range
3. Reduced # of Base Stations: Due to increased
range and data rate, BS count is reduced

Ó 2005 ®

85
MIMO:
MIMO: Benefiting
Benefiting from
from Multipath
Multipath
SPATIAL
SPATIAL MULTIPLEXING
MULTIPLEXING WITH
WITH MIMO
MIMO
In a multipath environment, the data rate increase due
to MIMO is equal to the number of MIMO antennas!

MIMO Tx (4 antennas) RF Channel

Sub-streams 0 Coding/
Modulation
Tx
Serial
Tx data 1 Coding/
Modulation
Tx
Stream
Demux
0110 1 Coding/
Modulation Tx
MIMO Rx

0 Coding/
Modulation Tx

Distributing data over co-channels on spatially displaced antennas,

in a multi-path environment provides a temporally displaced set of
sub-streams to be seen by the receiver. Ó 2005 ®

86
MIMO
MIMO Spatial
Spatial Multiplexing
Multiplexing
SPATIAL
SPATIAL MULTIPLEXING:
MULTIPLEXING: MATRIX
MATRIX B
B

1. Increased Range: BPSK with four MIMO

antennas is the equivalent of 16-QAM with
one antenna
2. Increased Data Rate: 64-QAM with four
MIMO antennas provides 4X the data rate
3. Reduced # of Base Stations: Due to increased
range and data rate, BS count is reduced

Ó 2005 ®

87
 SIMO vs. MISO
SIMO vs. MISO
Common to the Uplink SIMO example:
Two Rx antennas used
for diversity reception

Single
antenna
client

SIMO is Diversity Reception!

Base Station

Deployed on the Downlink MISO example:

Two antennas sending the
same data on co-channels,
providing transmit diversity

Single
antenna
client

MISO employs Space-Time Coding

(Matrix A) to improve C/N at a client Base Station
even with one antenna!
Ó 2005 ®

88
 Collaborative
Collaborative MIMO
MIMO
SPATIAL
SPATIAL DE-MULTIPLEXING
DE-MULTIPLEXING (MATRIX
(MATRIX B)
B)
Scenario:
The Base Station assigns the same uplink time slot and sub-channels to spatially
separate users with single antennas. The Base Station uses Matrix B capability to
separate the individual traffic streams. The users are unaware of the process.

This approach has the potential to increase

the capacity of a Base Station even with
client equipment that does not have
MIMO capability.

This is also referred

to as “Virtual MIMO”
Ó 2005 ®

There are currently several uses for the terms “Virtual MIMO” and “Cooperative MIMO”.
Different equipment manufacturers may apply these terms to different approaches, so use
caution in your interpretation.

89
Smart
Smart Antennas
Antennas for
for WIMAX
WIMAX

® Adaptive Antenna Systems

w Multiple antenna element arrays
w Individual user signal on each element is
correlated to provide gain towards user
w Requires a feedback mechanism for phase
adjustment

Ó 2005 ®

90
 Adaptive
Adaptive Arrays
Arrays
MOBILE
MOBILE AND
AND FIXED
FIXED WiMAX
WiMAX SERVICES
SERVICES

Mobile Rx Example:
Beam tracking as users move
through the coverage area Multi-element
Antenna Array
F F F F Phasing Network
(one for each beam)
F F F F
Rx 1 Rx 2
Ó 2005 ®

91
 Enhancing
Enhancing performance
performance
POTENTIAL
POTENTIAL FOR
FOR ADAPTIVE
ADAPTIVE ARRAYS
ARRAYS
Spatial Filtering for Interference Reduction (SFIR) Space Division Multiple Access (SDMA)

® Multiple co-channel stations on adjacent cells ® Simultaneous access of multiple co-channel stations
® Extreme, dynamic sectorization ® Statistical reduction of intra-cell co-channel interference
® Allows for lower mobile station Tx power ® Increased site capacity
® Increased battery life for mobile stations ® Complex approach relative to SFIR
® Increased system capacity
® Statistical reduction of inter-cell co-channel interference
Ó 2005 ®

92
 Lesson
Lesson 2/3
2/3 Review/Quiz
Review/Quiz
1. According to Harry Nyquist, the minimum bandwidth required for a
4 _____
signaling rate of ___ Mega- Baud is 2 MHz.
2. Shannon’s Law states that the bit rate of a channel is a function of
bandwidth and the ________.
the __________ SNR
29 dBm.
3. Convert 800 mW to _____
4. Given values of a channel: C/N = 15 dB, the C/I = 15 dB
12 dB
What is the C/(I+N) of the channel? _____
bandwidth efficient than 16-QAM.
5. QPSK is less ___________
6. As the number of constellation points of a modulation scheme
baud increases and the free distance
increases, the bits per ______
decreases
__________.
7. A 10 MBaud signaling rate using 16-QAM and 1/2 rate FEC can
provide a maximum bit rate of _____
20 Mbps.
0.1 meters
8. Given a frequency of 3 GHz, what is the wavelength? ______
7.86 dBd gain antenna.
9. A 10 dBi gain antenna is equivalent to a _____

Ó 2005
°
®

93
 Lesson 4:

RF Design
considerations
for wimax

Ó 2005 ®

94
 Lesson
Lesson Objectives
Objectives

At the end of this lesson, you should be able to:

® Describe sources of noise, based on bandwidth
and operating frequency of the channel
® Determine the system noise floor based on
bandwidth and Noise Figure
® Determine system performance based on C/N
and C/(I+N)

Ó 2005 ®

95
RF
RF Link
Link Considerations
Considerations

® Operating Band
® Amount of Allocated Spectrum
® Channel Bandwidth
® Duplexing Technique
® Sources of Noise: External vs. Internal
® Sources of Interference
® System Limiting Factors

Ó 2005 ®

96
 RF
RF Spectrum
Spectrum Issues
Issues
LOSS
LOSS vs.
vs. FREQUENCY
FREQUENCY
Considerations
Material Type Building Penetration Loss

Building/Terrain Roughness Scattering Loss

Region, Drop Size, Polarization Rain Loss

Humidity Level Atmos. Loss

UHF SHF
300 MHz 700 MHz 3 GHz 30 GHz
WiMAX LOS
e
t ur WiMAX NLOS
Fu
Ó 2005 ®

97
 Thermal
Thermal Noise
Noise
Definition:
Noise generated by thermal agitation of electrons in a conductor.
The noise generated is independent of frequency and proportional
to temperature.

Fading carrier
Faded Receive Sensitivity
Fade Margin

Static Receive Sensitivity Static carrier

C/N
Min. C/N

System Noise Floor

NFdB
Thermal Noise Floor

Ó 2005 ®

98
Quantifying
Quantifying Thermal
Thermal Noise
Noise Power
Power
USE
USE DECIBELS,
DECIBELS, IT’S
IT’S EASY
EASY
Where:
k = Boltzmann’s Constant
Nt = k × T0 × B
T = Ambient temperature (in Kelvins)
B = Bandwidth (in Hz)

( )
NdB = 10 × log 1.3803 × 10 -23 W/K/Hz + 10 × log(290K ) + 10 × log(B)

NdB = -198.6 dBm/K/Hz + 24.6 dBK + dBHz

= - 174 dBm/Hz + dBHz
Exercise:
Given the following, determine the thermal noise power:
• Ambient temperature = 290 K (Warm Earth)
• Bandwidth
1. 3.5 MHz
2. 10 MHz

-108.5 dBm
1. Noise power = ________
-104 dBm
2. Noise power = ________
Ó 2005
°
®

Overview:
When determining the thermal noise floor of a receive system, the common approach is to add
the decibel form of the values.

In decibels:
Boltzman’s Constant = -198.6 dBm/K/Hz or -228.6 dBW/K/Hz

Reference temperature = 24.6 dBK

Bandwidth = 10 · log10(Bandwidth [in Hz])

Instructions:
Using decibels, determine the noise power for the stated bandwidths.

99
 Thermal
Thermal Noise
Noise Floor
Floor
COMPARING
COMPARING CELLULAR
CELLULAR AND
AND WIMAX
WIMAX
Thermal Noise and Bandwidth
-98
WiMAX (NLOS)
-100
-102
Thermal Noise Floor (dBm)

-104
-106
-108 W-CDMA

-110
-112
CDMA 2000
-114

-116
-118

-120
GSM
-122
0.1 0.5 1.25 2.5 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28

Bandwidth (MHz)

Ó 2005 ®

Narrow band signals, such as GSM (200 KHz wide), allow for greater path loss and lower signal
levels due to the lower noise floor. Wide bandwidth channels require a higher absolute signal
level for the same C/N ratio of a lower bandwidth signal.

100
 Receive
Receive System
System Noise
Noise Figure
Figure
The Base Station Noise Figure is a function of the
design configuration and component parameters:
® Cable losses
® Duplexer losses (FDD systems)
® Combiner losses (multi-cxr systems)
® Splitter losses
® Amplifier gains
® Receiver NFdB

System Noise Floor = Thermal Noise Floor + NFdB

Ó 2005 ®

101
 Noise
Noise Factor
Factor and
and Noise
Noise Figure
Figure

Converting to Noise Figure:

S in
N in NFdB = 10 × log10 (NF)
NF =
S out Converting to Noise Factor:
N out T = To = 290K
æ NFdB ö
ç ÷
NF = 10 è 10 ø

Example: An amplifier
Signal input = 400 pW Signal output = 400 μW Exercise (from example values):
Noise input = 5 pW Noise output = 25 mW
1. 7 dB
Convert the noise factor (5) to NFdB _____

2. 19 dB
What is the input C/N? ______
400 80 4. 12 dB
What is the output C/N? ______
NF = 5
= =5
400
25 16
Ó 2005
°
®

Instructions:
Convert the linear value of 5 to its decibel equivalent.
Use the input ratio in the noise factor example to determine the S/N and convert to decibels.
Use the input ratio in the noise factor example to determine the S/N and convert to decibels.

Notice that subtracting the Output S/N (in decibels) from the input S/N (in decibels) equal the
NFdB.

102
 Average
Average Man-made
Man-made Noise
Noise

50
Urban
Man-made Natural and Man-made noise can
be ignored at higher frequencies
F0 (in dB) Above k T0 B

40

30
Suburban
Man-made
20 Typical Receiver

10

2 4 6 8 2 4 6 8 2 4 6 8
100 1000 10000
k = Boltzman’s constant Frequency (in MHz)
T0 = 290 K Ó 2005 ®

When deploying systems using spectrum below 1 GHz in urban areas the dominant source of
noise becomes man-made noise. This must be factored into the receiver performance
calculations. At the higher frequencies, the dominant noise source is the internal noise
generated by the equipment, but other sources of interference must be considered.
The accompanying chart is based on the “ITT Reference Data for Radio Engineers”, 5th edition.
Notice that as the frequency increases, the amount of man-made and natural noise decrease.
Typically, around 2 GHz and higher, the system thermal noise floor is greater than the man-
made and natural noise generated. These higher frequency systems are typically considered to
be thermal noise limited.

103
 Limiting
Limiting Factors
Factors

RF Link Performance Limitations

® Uplink limited vs. Downlink limited
® Bandwidth limited vs. Power limited
® Noise limited vs. Interference limited

Ó 2005 ®

104
 Uplink
Uplink Limited
Limited vs.
vs.
Downlink
Downlink Limited
Limited
Downlink: Base to CPE

Uplink: CPE to Base

CPE

CPE
CPE
Base
Good News: CPE
Bad News:
High power output—D/L Low power output—U/L
High Rx sensitivity—U/L Low gain antenna—U/L and D/L CPE
High gain antenna—D/L and U/L
Potential diversity system—U/L Good News:
High Rx sensitivity—D/L
Bad News: May be less susceptible to interference—D/L
Susceptible to reuse interference from both
CPE and co-channel BS in TDD systems—U/L Ó 2005 ®

The uplink is typically the limiting link, due to customer premises equipment (CPE) performance.
This is not always the case, however, due to other considerations.

105
 Bandwidth
Bandwidth Limited
Limited Site
Site vs.
vs.
Power
Power Limited
Limited Site
Site

“I’m transmitting at maximum power.

Power
Limited Can I get more capacity or coverage by using
more bandwidth?”

“I’m using all of my bandwidth.

Bandwidth
Limited Can I get more capacity or coverage by
transmitting at higher power?”

® Users of licensed spectrum are often Bandwidth Limited

® Users of unlicensed spectrum are often both Power Limited
and Bandwidth Limited

Ó 2005 ®

106
Noise-Limited
Noise-Limited Receiver
Receiver Sensitivity
Sensitivity
A receiver is considered “Noise Limited” when there is no interference,
or interference is significantly below the thermal noise floor. LOS
point-to-point microwave links are typically noise limited. At higher
frequencies, margin must be allowed for rain fade.

Fading carrier
Faded Receive Sensitivity

Fade Margin
Static carrier
Static Receive Sensitivity

C/N
Min. C/N

System Noise Floor

NFdB
Thermal Noise Floor

Ó 2005 ®

A typical terrestrial* communications antenna “sees” the “warm Earth”. This is considered to be
290 K (Kelvins). The antenna is considered to be a loss-less device, so in a noise limited system
the output of the antenna to the receive system will be a carrier level (C) and a noise level (N).
The thermal noise floor is based on the amount of the “warm Earth” seen, which is a function of
the receive bandwidth.

*This is not the case in satellite communications since the antenna element is partially shielded
from the “warm Earth” by a non-resonant reflector that also provides gain by focusing a signal at
the antenna element.

107
 Interference-Limited
Interference-Limited Receiver
Receiver
Sensitivity
Sensitivity
Mobile WiMAX systems can suffer interference from co-channels and
adjacent channels due to frequency re-use. Since Mobile WiMAX
implementations are NLOS, fade margin must also be added.

Fading carrier
Faded Receive Sensitivity
Log-Normal
Fade Margin
Static carrier
Static Receive Sensitivity

C/(I+N)
Min. C/(I+N)

Total Interference + Noise

Interference

Equipment Noise Floor

NFdB
Thermal Noise Floor

NLOS = Non Line-of-Site Ó 2005 ®

Since the receive system will accept any signal (or noise) within the receiver pass-band,
interference from man-made and natural sources, as well as distant co-channels all combine
with the thermal noise to increase the total noise and interference floor seen by the receiver.

Unlike the “warm earth”, interference comes from a specific direction. This means that it is
important to consider the gain of the antenna in the direction of the interference when calculating
its effect.

108
 What
What the
the Receiver
Receiver Sees
Sees
REFERENCE
REFERENCE POINTS
POINTS FOR
FOR C/I
C/I and
and C/N
C/N
gain
TDD
ntenna
gy, Rx a
lo
rpho
nce, Mo
ta
, Dis
C/I EIRP FDD/TDD Co-channel
I Base Station

EIR
P,
Dis Noise bandwidth
t an
C ce,
Nloss Mo
r ph
olo
gy,
R
NWE xa
nt e
nna
gai CPE
Base n
Station
CPE
Nint = NF
CPE
C/N
CPE

C = Carrier I = Co-channel Interference NWE = Noise from Warm Earth (290 K)

Nloss = Noise due to Ohmic loss
Ó 2005
Nint = Rx noise contribution from internal components
®

When determining the C/I, the antenna gain towards the interferer must be considered. An
uncoordinated co-channel is a channel on the same frequency that is asynchronously
transmitting, instead of taking turns with other units. Notice that the implementation
illustrated is a Time Division Duplex (TDD) scheme. There are three (3) implementation
types that could be employed:
1. Synchronized TDD Co-channels—taking turns transmitting to avoid interference.
2. Employing OFDM (more later) simultaneous transmission using different tones.
3. A frequency reuse pattern with no adjacent co-channels.

Option 3 provides the greatest potential throughput, but requires more spectrum and co-channel
interference analysis.

109
Exercise:
Exercise: Noise
Noise and
and Interference
Interference
When multiplying linear values (gain), add decibels!
When dividing linear values (loss), subtract decibels!

Remember, when adding actual power values, in decibels:

1. Convert to linear values (or ratios)
2. Add linear values together
3. Convert back to decibels Log-Normal
Fade Margin

C Min. C/(I+N)
C/(I+N)

Total Interference + Noise

I+N Interference

Equipment Noise Floor

I NFdB
Thermal Noise Floor
N

1. Measured Rx thermal noise floor = -107 dBm, interference level

-104.5 dBm
(measured at Rx input) = -108 dBm. Total N+I = _______
2. The carrier level at the receiver input = -82 dBm, receiver thermal noise
floor = -100 dBm, interference at receiver input = -102 dBm
15.9 dB
The C/(I+N) = ______
Ó 2005
°
®
IRL = Isotropic Receive Level

Instructions:
1. Determine the combined N + I by performing the three steps shown above.
2. Combine N + I (same process as Question 1), convert back to dBs, then subtract from C.

110
 Lesson
Lesson 4
4 Review/Quiz
Review/Quiz

wavelength
1. Losses due to scattering are inversely proportional to __________.
2. The noise power seen by a Rx antenna in 10 MHz of bandwidth,
-104 dBm.
operating at 5 GHz, is _______
6
3. A Noise Factor of 4 is equal to a Noise Figure of ______ dB.
3.981,072 MHz
4. A bandwidth of 66 dB-Hz = __________
5. Man-made and natural noise and interference are more prevalent
below GHz.
_______1
6. The noise power at a receiver input is 10 pW and the interference
-77 dBm.
power is 10 pW. The N+I = ____

Ó 2005
°
®

111
 Lesson
Lesson 5:
5:

Performing a
wimax Link Budget

Ó 2005 ®

112
 Lesson
Lesson Objective
Objective

® At the end of this lesson, you will perform a simple

link budget to determine the MAPL:
MAPL = Tx out + gains - losses (w/margin) - Rx sensitivity

® You will need to follow these steps:

1. Gather relevant equipment spec info (antenna,
coax, receiver sensitivity)
2. Estimate margins
a. Line of Sight: Crane Model (Rain loss)
b. NLOS: Lognormal Fade (WiMAX Area/Edge)
MAPL = Maximum Allowable Path Loss Ó 2005 ®

113
 Base
Base Stations
Stations and
and CPE
CPE
TYPICAL
TYPICAL WiMAX
WiMAX COMPONENTS/CONFIGURATIONS
COMPONENTS/CONFIGURATIONS

Antenna Antenna Antenna

Coaxial Coaxial
jumper jumper

ODU ODU
RF via
Coax Integral Antenna*

Baseband
or IF
Baseband
IDU
IDU IDU or
ODU

Ethernet/T-1 Interface Ethernet/T-1 Interface Ethernet/T-1 Interface Ethernet Interface

* May be a small omni or a directional high-gain antenna

IDU = Indoor Unit ODU = Outdoor Unit IF = Intermediate Frequency Ó 2005 ®

Different manufacturers provide different equipment configurations. The above are examples of
possible system component configurations.

114
 Antenna
Antenna Types
Types
BASED
BASED ON
ON COVERAGE
COVERAGE PATTERN
PATTERN

Omni-directional Sectored Highly-directional

Ó 2005 ®

Antennas provide gain by reducing the radiation in unwanted directions and focusing the energy
in the desired direction. This is typically referred to a “beam shaping”.
•Omni-directional gain is the result of vertically stacking phasing elements in order to
concentrate energy in the horizontal plane.
•Sectored antennas focus energy in a range typically from 60° to 120°. The beam width of these
antennas is defined by the ½ power, or 3 dB, points. Notice the mechanical down-tilt adjustment
for modifying the coverage area.
•Highly-directional antennas typically consist of a parabolic reflector focusing energy into a
beam ranging from 10° to less than 1°, based on the aperture size and operating frequency.
Parabolic reflectors come in solid form and open, low wind resistance, form.

115
 Antenna
Antenna Manufacturer
Manufacturer Specs.
Specs.
AN
AN EXAMPLE
EXAMPLE

Important Parameters
® Vertical/Horizontal Pattern
® Front-to-Back Ratio
® Polarization
® Gain (dBi or dBd)
® Operating Frequency Range

Ó 2005 ®

Typical antenna specification provide all of the data required for a link budget analysis.

116
 Front-to-Back
Front-to-Back Ratio
Ratio
Definition:
The ratio of the gain in the main lobe of an antenna
to the gain in its back lobe.
0 dBi

-10 dBi
15 dBi

Example:
Antenna gain = 15 dBi
Front-to-back ratio = 25 dB
Back lobe gain = 15 dBi – 25 dB = -10 dBi
Ó 2005 ®

117
 Antenna
Antenna Beamwidth
Beamwidth
Definition:
The angle at which the antenna gain pattern is 3 dB
lower (half power) than the center of the main beam.
3 dB down point

This is an antenna with a

90° beam width! This
illustrates why you don’t use
120° beam width antennas
in a 3-sector deployment!

90°

Ó 2005 ®

118
 Transmission
Transmission Lines:
Lines:
COAXIAL
COAXIAL CABLE
CABLE
Coaxial cable considerations:
® Type—LMR-XXX, RG-XX
® Characteristic Impedance (Z)
® Attenuation per length @ operating frequency
® Construction
w Dielectric Typical Cable Types Attenuation/100ft @ 2.4 GHz
w Rigid RG-58/LMR-195 18.6 dB
w Semi-rigid RG-8/LMR-240 12.6 db
w Flexible
RG-214/LMR-400 6.61 dB
® Ratings
w Plenum cable LMR-600 4.4 dB

w Buriable cable
w Maximum power
w Percent shielding
Ó 2005 ®

119
 WiMAX
WiMAX Deployment
Deployment TYPES
TYPES (1)
(1)
POINT-TO-POINT
POINT-TO-POINT LOS
LOS

Deployment: Usage:
High gain antennas Backhauls
Unobstructed Path High Usage Customer

Good News: Bad News:

Maximum throughput Minimum Customers

Tx Rx
Ó 2005 ®

Point-to-point systems are typically deployed to provide high data rates for backhauling of traffic
from point-to-multipoint systems and for satisfying a high data rate requirement, like T-3
replacement, for a commercial customer. Because this type of deployment requires a high
reliability, given the amount of traffic affected, high gain antennas are used to provide a large
fade margin (typically around 40 dB). The use of these highly directional antennas also reduces
interference from other sources.

120
 WIMAX
WIMAX Deployment
Deployment Types
Types (2)
(2)
POINT-TO-MULTIPOINT
POINT-TO-MULTIPOINT LOS
LOS
Deployment: Usage:
Omni/Sectored BS antennas Higher Frequencies
Directional CPE antenna Open Areas
Unobstructed Path
Bad News:
Good News: Limited Range
Good throughput Limited Environments
External CPE antenna

Base CPE
Ó 2005 ®

When higher frequencies ( > 6 GHz) are used on point-to-multi-point systems, line-of-sight is
required in order to provide a reasonable amount of coverage. This means that the base station
must have an omni or sectored antenna and the CPE must use an externally mounted high gain
(uni-directional) antenna. This type of deployment requires an installation crew for
implementation. The level of installation required is similar to satellite TV installations.

121
 WiMAX
WiMAX Deployment
Deployment Types
Types (3)
(3)
POINT-TO-MULTIPOINT
POINT-TO-MULTIPOINT NLOS
NLOS
Deployment: Usage:
Omni/Sectored BS antennas Lower Frequencies
Possibly MIMO All Morphologies
Integral CPE antenna Fixed or Mobile
Obstructed Path
Good News: Bad News:
Maximum Customers Limited Range
Modular CPE Lower Capacity (sharing)

Base CPE
Ó 2005 ®

Point-to-point NLOS allows for user installation of the CPE. This can be a big plus when
deploying a new system. It can also be the cause of uplink-limited performance.

122
 LOS
LOS Link
Link Margin
Margin
RAIN
RAIN FADE
FADE MARGIN
MARGIN
® Rain Fade considerations:
® Raindrops smaller than a wavelength absorb the wave’s energy
® Raindrops close to a wavelength in size scatter the wave
® Polarization discrimination is lost
® Due to the shape of the raindrops, horizontally polarized waves are
attenuated more than vertically polarized waves

Example:
Use the provided Crane method spreadsheet to determine the required
margin for a 10 km, vertically polarized 11 GHz link in a D3 region.

29.6 dB
Fade margin for 99.999% link availability = ______
Crane
Method

Ó 2005
°
®

There are two basic rain fade methods:

1. Crane method
2. ITU-R method
Both of these methods employ rain rate and regional maps along with calculations.

Instructions:
1. Open the provided spreadsheet (Crane Method).
2. Input region code, distance, polarization and frequency data (yellow cells).
3. Fill-in required margin for the required link availability.

123
 NLOS
NLOS Coverage
Coverage Margin
Margin
FIXED
FIXED AND
AND MOBILE
MOBILE WIMAX
WIMAX
Coverage Objective:
Provide ___% area reliability and ___% edge reliability
for the intended coverage area terrain and morphology.
Should it be like
rain fade margins?

Typical Coverage Area Clutter Types:

Dense Urban: The dense business district of a metropolitan
area. Building are generally 10 to 20 stories and higher.
Urban: Building structures are typically 5 to 10 stories high.
Suburban: A mix of residential and business. Buildings range
from 1 to 5 stories, but 1 and 2 story buildings predominate.
Rural: Generally open areas with structures not exceeding 2
stories. Sparsely populated areas with trees and foliage.

Ó 2005 ®

The USGS land use/land coverage (LU/LC) defined 31 categories. The four shown above are
common to cellular implementations.

124
 Lognormal
Lognormal Fading
Fading Probability
Probability
NLOS
NLOS EDGE
EDGE AND
AND AREA
AREA COVERAGE
COVERAGE MARGINS
MARGINS
1é æ 1 - 2ab öæ 1 - ab öù
Fu = ê1- erf(a) + expç ÷ç 1 - erf ÷
2ë è b
2
øè b øúû
Suburban Environment
Where: 2.5 GHz, 30 dBm Power Amp,
15 dBi antenna, 30 m AGL
a=
(x 0 - α ) b = 10n log10 ç
æ e ö
and ÷
σ 2 èσ 2 ø
Fu = fraction of useful service area within a circle
x0 = minimum receivable signal strength at subscriber
α = signal strength at mobile unit for radius r
σ = standard deviation of possible signal values
n = propagation constant (path loss exponent)
Threshold = -90 dBm
Example: Approx. 87% total coverage @ 1 km
Given a path loss exponent of 3.5, a minimum signal level
of -94 dBm and a standard deviation of 10 dB, what is the
margin required for an area coverage probability of 90%?
Lognormal fade
8 dB
______

Ó 2005
°
®

When deploying NLOS implementations, shadow fading (due to path obstructions) must be considered.
Measurements have shown that for any distance from a base station, the path loss at different locations is
random and has a log-normal distribution. Over a large number of measurement locations having the
same distance between subscriber unit and base station, the random shadowing effects are described by a
log-normal distribution. This is often referred to as Log-normal Shadowing ( or fading).
A common approach is to calculate the lognormal probability of adequate signal strength in a coverage
area. The probability is a function of the path loss exponent and the standard deviation of signal values for
a given environment. The amount of margin determined from the environmental values is based on
coverage objectives for a given implementation. Mobile radio (cellular) prioritizes the area service
objective, while fixed wireless services may consider margin for area or edge coverage.

The propagation constant (n), also called the path loss exponent, accounts for the distance-dependent
mean of the signal level based on the propagation environment. The standard deviation (σ) statistically
describes the path loss variability for arbitrary locations with the same distance between subscriber unit
and cell site.
The ratio of σ/n is used to determine the amount of margin required to satisfy an area reliability objective.

A high σ/n requires more margin due to the higher variability of shadow fading within a coverage area.
A low σ/n will require less margin due to the more consistent propagation environment, but edge reliability
will decrease.

125
Coverage
Coverage Vs.
Vs. Performance:
Performance: Your
Your Design
Design
should
should match
match the
the morphology
morphology
Dense
Urban
Urban
ST Dev @ 10 to 12 dB

Suburban
ST Dev @ 8 to 10 dB

ST Dev @ 6 to 8 dB
Clutter

Rural

ST Dev @ 4 to 6 dB

Customer Density/Performance Requirements

Ó 2005 ®

A coverage area is commonly defined by its clutter and terrain characteristics. The greater the
clutter for a given terrain, the greater the path loss. Satisfying coverage and performance (user
bit rate) requirements typically means more base stations (cells) per square km (or square mile)
in heavy clutter areas. A dense urban environment will not only have significant amount of
clutter, but customers (mainly commercial) will have a higher expectation of performance than a
home-based customer located in suburban and rural areas. These factors must be considered
when providing service in different coverage areas.
The ST Dev values shown above are typical for each clutter type.

126
 Design
Design For
For Performance
Performance near
near the
the
Base
Base Station;
Station; Design
Design For
For Coverage
Coverage
Farther
Farther Away
Away
High Performance Links:
• High usage commercial
customers in Urban area
• Backhauling

Implementation Issues:
• Highest Modulation Level
• High-gain antennas
• Line-of-Sight 64-QAM
• Reduced coverage area
• Reduced customers 16-QAM

QPSK

BPSK
You are here. Sorry!
Ó 2005 ®

Wireless voice systems, such as modern cellular radio, consider coverage only. You are
connected or dropped based on coverage patterns. Wireless data services provide a multi-tiered
service capability. Subscribers with a strong signal will have a high data rate. Those with a
lower signal level will still have access to the network, but will have a lower data rate based on a
more power efficient (less bandwidth efficient) modulation scheme and increased error
correction overhead. More bad news, the lowest performance levels typically encompass the
greatest area of coverage, increasing the number of subscribers competing for access!

127
Calculating
Calculating Rx
Rx Performance
Performance

In order to determine the BS Rx sensitivity, the

following must be known:
® Required C/(I+N)—based on performance
® Thermal Noise
® External Noise (lower frequencies)
® Reuse Noise (co-channel and adjacent channel)
® System Noise Figure

Ó 2005 ®

128
Finding
Finding RX
RX system
system Noise
Noise Figure
Figure
CASCADE
CASCADE FORMULA
FORMULA
F2 - 1 F3 - 1 F4 - 1
FRX = F1 + + + +K
G1 G1 × G2 G1 × G2 × G3
Where:
Gx = Gain (ratio, not dB)
Fx = Noise Factor

Example: 4 dB NF
7 dB loss 8 dB NF
3 dB loss
30 dB
Coax amp ÷4 WiMAX Rcvr
1 2 3 4
NFdB Reference Point

2.5 - 1 5 -1 6.3 - 1
F1 = 2 G1 = 0.5 FRX = 2 + + +
F2 = 2.5 G2 = 1000 0.5 0.5 × 1000 0.5 × 1000 × 0.2
F3 = 5 G3 = 0.2 = 2 + 3 + 0.008 + 0.053 = 5.061
F4 = 6.3 NFdB = 10 × log10 (5.061) = 7 dB Ó 2005 ®

When using the Cascade formula, the noise figure reference point can be assigned at any point
before the first active (amplifier) component. The first system component will have the greatest
influence, meaning that the system NFdB can’t be better than the NFdB of the first component, on
the system NFdB. Stages after an amplifier have progressively less impact on total system NFdB.

129
Exercise:
Exercise: Converting
Converting Gain
Gain and
and NF
NFdB
dB
Instructions: Convert the gain and noise figure values to actual ratios.

Component Parameters (dB) Parameters (ratio)

Loss (NF) = 5.5 dB 3.5481

Loss (NF) = ______
Coax Gain = -5.5 dB 0.2818
Gain = _______

Gain = 33 dB 2000
Gain = _______
NF = 5 dB 3.1623
NF = ________

WiMAX Rcvr NF = 12 dB NF = 15.8489

Ó 2005
°
®

Instructions:
Convert gains and Noise Figures (or losses) to linear ratios.

130
 Exercise:
Exercise: Receive
Receive System
System NF
NFdb
db
BASED
BASED ON
ON SYSTEM
SYSTEM CONFIGURATION
CONFIGURATION
Instructions: Given the values shown, determine the NFdB for the systems below.

C/N 7 dB loss
4 dB NF 8 dB NF
3 dB loss
30 dB Rx System 1:
Coax amp ÷4 WiMAX Rcvr 7.05 dB
NFdB = ______

System NFdB
1 2 3 4

C/N

4 dB NF 7 dB loss 8 dB NF
3 dB loss
30 dB Rx System 2:
amp Coax ÷4 WiMAX Rcvr 4.11 dB
NFdB = _____

1 2 3 4
System NFdB

F2 - 1 F3 - 1 F4 - 1
FRX = F1 + + +
Cascade Formula

G1 G1 × G2 G1 × G2 × G3 Ó 2005
°
®

Instructions:
Use the “Cascade Formula” spreadsheet to determine the NFdB of “Rx System 2” (“Rx System 1”
is given).

131
 WiMAX
WiMAX Link
Link Budgets
Budgets
SIMPLE
SIMPLE COMPARED
COMPARED TO
TO CELLULAR
CELLULAR
Cellular implementations use a range of vendor equipment
and configurations. This requires a detailed link budget
analysis for each equipment configuration! Antenna
• Gain (dBi)
Antenna • Frequency
• Gain (dBi)
• Frequency Modular
CPE
Transceiver
• Power output
Coax/WG • Rx Sensitivity
• Length
• Loss/distance WiMAX implementations are more modular,
allowing for a simpler link budget analysis.

Modular BS Transceiver
• Power output
Transceiver • Rx Sensitivity
Ó 2005 ®

Modular systems allow for simple system implementations, but they are not as flexible as
systems that are assembled from individual system components from different manufacturers.

132
Receive
Receive System
System Reference
Reference Points
Points
Rx C/N C/N
Antenna

Modular System WiMAX

Coax Rcvr
System NFdB System NFdB = Receiver NFdB

C/N
Rx
Antenna

TTA System TTA Coax ? WiMAX

Rcvr

System NFdB

C/N
Rx C/N
Antenna

LNA System Coax LNA ? WiMAX

Rcvr
System NFdB
System NFdB
Ó 2005 ®

133
 Link
Link Budget
Budget
FIX
FIX MOST
MOST VARIABLES,
VARIABLES, SOLVE
SOLVE FOR
FOR ONE
ONE UNKNOWN
UNKNOWN
What might you solve for, if given all other values?
® Determine Maximum Allowable Path Loss (MAPL)
® Determining System Gain (manufacturer’s specifications)
® Determine required net antenna gain for TX and RX
® Determine coverage based on type of link and morphology

System Gain = EIRP– Required IRL

MAPL = System Gain – Environmental Margin

Power out

TX losses RX

Sensitivity

Ó 2005 ®

The link budget formula has (perhaps) a dozen variables. The formula allows us to specify a
value for all variables but one, and solve for that one. For example, we can enter all values for
transmitter system characteristics and receiver system characteristics, and the formula will tell
us the maximum allowable path loss between the two. Or we can enter the known path loss for
a link, and the receive sensitivity, and we can determine the minimum gain setting at the
transmitter that assures a reliable link. Or we could use the formula to determine the right
antennas to use at the transmitter and receiver. Or we can use the formula to determine the
coverage based on the link and topology.

The most common unknown to be determined in a link budget analysis is the maximum
allowable path loss (MAPL).

134
What
What is
is the
the Maximum
Maximum Allowable
Allowable
Path
Path Loss
Loss (MAPL?)
(MAPL?)
® MAPL: Difference between Effective Isotropic Radiated Power (EIRP),
and Receiver Sensitivity at the receive antenna input, plus margin
(based on environment)
® MAPL estimates the transmitter to receiver loss that a system can
tolerate
EΙRPdBm = PΑ out dBm - Cable LossdB + Ant gaindBi = 36 dBm
Required IRL = RX sensitivity dBm - Rx Ant gaindBi = - 92 dBm

12 dBi System Gain = EIRP– Required IRL 12 dBi

MAPL = System Gain – Environmental Margin

TX 2 dB loss Exercise (based on example values): RX

128 dB
1. Determine the system gain _______
2. Assuming 8 dB of fade margin, determine
120 dB
the MAPL ______
Power output = 26 dBm
Sensitivity = -80 dBm

Ó 2005
°
®

Maximum Allowable Path Loss (MAPL): The difference between Effective Isotropic Radiated
Power, and the Receiver sensitivity at the receive antenna input, plus link margin based on
environmental factors. Maximum allowable path loss estimates the loss that a system can
tolerate from estimated path loss plus any clutter, rain, or other fading effects that occur between
the transmitter and receiver along the propagation path. Cellular system consider link balance
when determining the MAPL. This is due to the requirement for a symmetrical talk-back path
from the subscriber.
Once determined, the MAPL is combined with a path loss model for a specific environment to
predict the coverage distance allowed for a specific equipment configuration in a given
environment.

135
 Link
Link Balance
Balance is
is less
less critical
critical for
for
W
WIIMAX
MAX than
than for
for Cellular
Cellular
Coax Tx Ant Path Rx Ant Coax Coax Rx Ant Path Tx Ant Coax
loss gain loss gain loss loss gain loss gain loss
+50 +50
+40 +40
+30
D/L U/L +30
+20 +20
+10 +10
0 0
-10 -10
-20 -20
-30 -30
dBm

dBm
-40 -40
-50 -50
-60 -60
-70 -70
-80 -80
-90 -90
-100 -100
-110 -110
Tx Amp Tx Ant Tx Ant Rx Ant Rx Ant Rx Rx Rx Ant Rx Ant Tx Ant Tx Ant Tx Amp
out in out in out in in out in out in out
Ó 2005
°
®

A balanced link is important in the cellular world, especially for voice calls. This is because the
mobile-to-base (uplink) is usually the weak link and if the mobile subscriber can’t make a call or
talk back during a call the service is considered to be bad! The MAPL is often based on the
performance of the weaker link as the limiting factor in cellular systems.
Wireless digital data systems can allow for an imbalance of the uplink and downlink for some
customers. The typical home-based customer uses the access in an asymmetrical manner,
pulling down large amounts of data and making small requests on the uplink. Since digital data
will fall back to a more power efficient modulation scheme, rather than be dropped (as with
cellular voice service), the path can tolerate some imbalance.

136
WIMAX
WIMAX Link
Link Budget
Budget Analysis
Analysis
® General link budgets and basic parameters
Good News are often provided by WiMAX equipment
manufacturers
® Noise limited link budget is simplified
® Many WiMAX equipment parameters are
Bad News still difficult to obtain (NFdb, C/I+N, MIMO
improvement) from manufacturers
® Interference limited link budgets are more
difficult than noise limited link budgets

Determine System Gain (use manufacturer’s specs.)

Example:
Tx power = 20 dBm
Rx sensitivity = -90 dBm
110 dB
System Gain = 20 dBm - (-90 dBm) = ________
Ó 2005 ®

137
 Link
Link Budgets
Budgets
PRE-WIMAX
PRE-WIMAX MANUFACTURER’S
MANUFACTURER’S SPECIFICATIONS
SPECIFICATIONS

We’d like to use real

WiMAX specifications,
but they’re hard to get
without an NDA.
Besides, these are
reasonable numbers.

Ó 2005 ®

The above chart is typical of the specifications provided by manufacturers of Pre-WiMax and
WiMax equipment. When deploying a single site, these parameters are adequate for performing
a link budget. When deploying multiple sites with frequency reuse, more data is required.

138
Exercise:
Exercise: A
A Simple
Simple Link
Link Budget
Budget
Libra 5800 RD
Base Station

Libra 5800 CPE

Instructions: Determine the following,

using data from previous slide
Ethernet
Modulation Rate Max. Allowable Path Loss
BPSK 147 dB Ethernet
Router
QPSK 144 dB
16-QAM 138 dB
Customer
Assume a Rx NF of 8 dB. Determine the following: PC
12 dB
BPSK min. C/N _______
Internet 15 dB
QPSK min. C/N _______
21 dB
16-QAM min. C/N _______ Ó 2005
°
®

Instructions for MAPL:

1. Determine the EIRP, based of the provided data.
2. Subtract the Rx antenna gain from the receiver sensitivity to determine the Required IRL.
3. Subtract the Required IRL from the EIRP to find the MAPL for each modulation scheme.

Instructions for min. C/N:

1. Find the thermal noise floor, based on the bandwidth.
2. Add the NFdB (assume 8 dB) to find the receiver noise floor.
3. Subtract the receiver noise floor from the receiver sensitivity for each modulation scheme to
find the C/N.

139
 Lesson
Lesson 55 Review/Quiz
Review/Quiz

lower
1. Typically _________ operating frequencies are required for NLOS
than for LOS.
rain margin and NLOS systems
2. LOS systems consider _______
shadow fade margin.
consider _______
larger standard deviation, for a given path loss exponent, will
3. A _______
require more fade margin.
easier to determine than interference.
4. Thermal noise is typically _________
5. Given a PA output of 40 dBm and a receive sensitivity of -95 dBm,
135 dB.
the system gain is _______
6. An important receiver parameter that is typically not provided in
Noise _______.
manufacturer’s specifications is the _______ Figure

Ó 2005
°
®

140
 Lesson 6:

WiMAX Path Loss

Modeling

Ó 2005 ®

In the last lesson, we learned how to calculate the MAPL for a system.

In this lesson, we’ll look at the Path Loss. We’ll look at several impairments to our signal that
introduce loss between the transmitter and the receiver.

With the MAPL and the Path Loss model, we’re able to determine how far our signal will
propagate – and therefore know more about our system coverage.

141
 Lesson
Lesson Objective:
Objective: Calculate
Calculate
Path
Path Loss
Loss for
for a
a WiMAX
WiMAX Signal
Signal
At the end of this lesson, you will be able to
® Calculate the path loss for a WiMAX signal,
given the distance and type of path impairments
® Or, Calculate the serving distance (range) of a
WiMAX signal, given the MAPL and type of path-
loss impairments
® For both LOS and NLOS systems
® Choose the appropriate propagation model
w Free Space, Power Law, Hata, 802.16 SUI

Ó 2005 ®

This section is all about the Path Loss, which occurs between the transmitter and the receiver.

When we understand the contributors to path loss, we’ll be able to calculate either the loss for a
given distance, or the distance for a given MAPL.

We’ll look at the path loss impairments, which will differ between LOS and NLOS systems. We’ll
hear about multipath, reflections, scattering, and Fresnel zones. We’ll learn why OFDM is a
solution to NLOS multipath.

And we’ll look at several RF propagation models for path loss in various conditions: Free Space
Path Loss, the Power Law model, the Hata Model and the 802.16 Stanford University Interim
model are several examples.

142
Basic
Basic propagation
propagation mechanisms
mechanisms

Refraction

Diffraction

Reflection

Absorption Scattering

Ó 2005 ®

143
the
the propagation
propagation environment
environment
Direct
Base Reflection
Station
Diffraction
Absorption
Scattering

Ó 2005 ®

The physical environment determines the primary propagation mode:

•Line-of-Sight (LOS) Propagation Environment
•A consistently unobstructed path between transmit and receive sites
•Distance to the radio horizon is based on refraction of the signal through the
troposphere
•Path obstructions are clear of the first Fresnel zone
•Non-Line-of-Sight (NLOS) Propagation Environment
•A multi-path rich environment
•Combination of LOS and NLOS signal components
•High signal level variability over a coverage area due to obstructions

144
Path
Path Loss
Loss and
and the
the RF
RF Channel
Channel
® Line-of-Sight (LOS)
w Simple path loss modeling
w Path loss mainly due to dispersion loss
w Potential multi-path fading (path clearance)
w Potential rain fading (operating frequency)
® Non-Line-of-Sight (NLOS)
w Path loss based on several components
w Dispersion loss
w Reflection and scattering
w Shadowing
w Penetration loss (absorption)
w Multi-path Issues
w Flat fading (narrow-band channel)
w Frequency-selective fading (wideband channel)
w Inter-symbol interference (wideband channel)
Ó 2005 ®

An accurate channel model is critical to accurately predicting the performance of a wireless link.
A line-of-sight (LOS) requires a direct, unobstructed path between transmitter and receiver. This
means that a LOS link must clear most of the 1st Fresnel zone (more later). It also means that
height above the terrain is critical for both ends of the link. The higher, the better.

Non-line-of-sight (NLOS) links will have a greater amount of attenuation, all other factors being
equal, than a LOS link. NLOS systems may have a direct path component, but mostly consist of
multiple reflected, diffracted and scattered paths. The multiple paths, of different lengths, taken
by a signal between the transmitter and receiver causes multiple copies of the signal to arrive at
the receiver at different times. The receiver will simultaneously detect all of these signals at
different amplitudes and phases. This leads to fading (deep signal attenuation), caused by
cancellation of out-of-phase signals, and inter-symbol interference (ISI) in wide-band channels.

145
 Determining
Determining LOSLOS Path
Path Clearance
Clearance
AVOIDING
AVOIDING THE
THE FRESNEL
FRESNEL ZONES
ZONES

a b
r1

d1 d2
F1
F2
F3
F4

Exercise:

n l d 1d 2 Frequency = 3.5 GHz

rn = 0.0857 m or_____
Wavelength = _______ 3.37 inches
d1 + d 2 Path length = 8 km
Determine path mid-point 1st Fresnel
rn = nth Fresnel Zone Radius 13.1 m
zone radius, in meters. _______

Ó 2005
°
®
1 meter = 39.37 inches

We can think of Fresnel zones as a set of ellipsoids containing the propagated energy in the RF
wave. The radius of each Fresnel zone (rn) defines an excess path length (a + b) equal to n·l/2.
The volume enclosed by the 1st ellipsoid is called the 1st Fresnel zone, which adds an excess
path length of l/2. Successive Fresnel zones tend to be in phase opposition, causing them to
interfere in a destructive manor.

146
 Satisfying
Satisfying Fresnel
Fresnel
Zone
Zone Clearance
Clearance for
for los
los
When implementing a point-to-point link a minimum
Fresnel zone clearance of 0.6 F1 is typically used

F1

0.6 F1

Actual clearance requirement from previous exercise = 0.6 · 13.1 m = 7.86 m

Ó 2005
°
®

In practice, it has been found that a clearance of 60% of the 1st Fresnel zone is adequate for
point-to-point radio links.

147
 Reflection
Reflection andand Scattering
Scattering
AA FUNCTION
FUNCTION OF
OF WAVELENGTH
WAVELENGTH

Scattering Base Station

Reflection
Base Station

5 GHz 2 GHz
l (cm)
hR =
8 × sin( g 0 )
Where:
hR = degree of roughness (cm)
g 0 = angle of incidence
Ó 2005
°
®

Reflections along a point-to-point LOS path can cause signal level variations due to adding or
canceling of signal at the receiver. Higher frequencies are less apt to cause this problem due to
scattering of energy rather than reflecting it.
In a NLOS environment, surface roughness (terrain, buildings, etc.) for higher frequencies
reduces the received signal level due to scattering instead of reflecting off of objects in the path.
The high level of scattering and increased penetration loss makes the use of higher frequencies
(> 6 GHz) a bad idea for NLOS systems.

If the average terrain height is greater than the critical height, then the signal will scatter.

Alternatively, if the average terrain height is less than the critical height, then the signal will
reflect.

148
 The
The Basic
Basic Propagation
Propagation Model
Model
FREE
FREE SPACE
SPACE PATH
PATH LOSS
LOSS MODEL
MODEL
® Physical model
® Simplest path loss model
® Based on Spreading Loss
® Assumes an uncluttered direct Tx/Rx Line-of-Sight

2 2
æ 4 pr ö æ 4 pr f ö
LF = ç ÷ = ç ÷
è l ø è c ø
Ó 2005 ®

Analytical (also called physical) models rely on basic principles of the physics of E-M field
propagation. Another group of models, called empirical models use the the outcome of
experiments at specific frequencies in different environments to predict propagation in similar
environments.
The basic analytical model is the Free Space Path Loss model. It is based on the inverse
square law of wave propagation, commonly called spreading loss or dispersion loss.

149
 Dispersion
Dispersion (Spreading)
(Spreading) Loss
Loss
THE
THE SPHERICAL
SPHERICAL WAVE
WAVE FRONT
FRONT

Sphere Sarea = 4 π r 2 1 meter

Isotropic Source

r (meters)

Example: LS (dB) = 10 × log10 4 p r 2 ( )

Source power = 30 dBm
Distance = 20 km
5,026,548,246 m2
Surface area = _______________
-97 dBW/m2
PFD = _____

Ó 2005
°
®

Dispersion loss is frequency independent. Dispersion loss is based on an isotropic source

radiating energy in the form of a spherical wave front. Loss is a function of the ratio of 1m 2 to the
total surface area of a sphere at a given distance.
Assigning a transmit power to an isotropic source at the center of the sphere yields the Power
Flux Density (in dBW/m 2) at a distance from the source equal to r. PFD is commonly used in
satellite communications as a statement of the amount of power in 1m 2 of area at the satellite.

150
 Free
Free Space
Space Loss
Loss Calculation
Calculation
SPREADING
SPREADING LOSS
LOSS PLUS
PLUS FREQUENCY
FREQUENCY
Assumptions:
· Unobstructed Line of Site (LOS)—0.6 of 1st Fresnel zone
· Based only on operating Frequency and Distance
· Path Loss Exponent = 2
· Signal attenuation is a function of Inverse Square Law
e 4r
is tan c
ve D
2 e la ti 3r
æ 4p rf ö
R
2r
LF = ç ÷ r
è c ø
Where: 4p × r 2
f = Frequency (in Hz) 1/4
r = Distance (in meters) R e la
tiv e 1/
c = speed of light (in meters/sec) Le v e 9
l
1/16
Ó 2005 ®

Free Space loss is based on the spreading of a signal as it propagates. The path loss exponent
of 2 describes the rate of signal spreading in free space. The spreading of the signal is a
function of the square of the distance, the inverse square law:
•Doubling the distance, increases the free space loss by 4
•Quadrupling the distance, increases the free space loss by 16

151
 Free
Free Space
Space Loss
Loss
CONVERTED
CONVERTED TO
TO DECIBEL
DECIBEL FORM
FORM
2 2
æ 4p r ö æ 4p r f ö
LF = ç ÷ = ç ÷
è l ø è c ø
So, use the decibel form of
1. Convert constants to dBs the formula . . . Its easier!!

20 log(4p) = 21.99 dB
20 log(c) = 20 log (300,000 km) = 109.54 dB
2. Subtract 20 log(c) from 20 log(4p) = -87.55 dB
3. Convert frequency from Hz to MHz
20 log(1,000,000) = 120 dB
4. Add constants together
120 dB + (-87.558 dB) = 32.45

LF (dB) = 20 × log10 [d (Km)] + 20 × log10 [f (MHz)] + 32.45

Ó 2005 ®

The bottom formula is commonly used for free space path loss. When using miles, instead of
kilometers, add 4.13 dB (20*log (miles/kilometers)) to the 32.45 dB. Add 60 dB to the 32.45 dB
to use GHz instead of MHz.

152
 Exercise:
Exercise: Point-to-Point
Point-to-Point Link
Link
DATA
DATA FOR
FOR EXERCISE
EXERCISE

Data:
® Operating Freq. = 23 GHz
® Ant. Gain = 38 dBi
® PA output = 18 dBm
® Rx threshold = -65 dBm

Once again, we’d like to

use some WiMAX
equipment specifications for
a LOS link, but there are no
802.16-2001 profiles.
Nobody is making it!

Use this antenna

Ó 2005 ®

This is the data sheet to use in the point-to-point link exercise on the next slide.

153
 Exercise:
Exercise: Point-to-Point
Point-to-Point Link
Link
Distance = 5 km

IRLdBm = EIRPdBm - Path Loss dB

1. 133.7 dB
Path Loss = _________
2. -77.7 dBm
Isotropic Rx Level (IRL) = _______
3. 25.3
Link Margin = ________ dB
Ó 2005
°
®

Instructions:
Given the equipment specification information provided on the previous slide, and the free-space
path loss model, fill in the blanks.

154
Where
Where Free
Free Space
Space Loss
Loss is
is Valid
Valid

® Basis for other propagation models

® Point-to-Point LOS microwave systems
® Satellite communications links

Ó 2005 ®

Many analytical and empirical models use free space loss as the basis for the model. Free
space path loss is also used for systems having a clear line-of-sight between transmit and
receive. Satellite systems have the clearest line-of-sight, but other factors affecting total path
loss are also considered, such as atmospheric absorption, scintillation and Faraday rotation.

155
Multipath
Multipath in
in the
the nlos
nlos Environment
Environment

Base Station with

Diversity Antennas

Signal impairments specific

to multipath propagation:
• Flat fading
• Frequency-selective fading
• Inter-symbol Interference (ISI)
Ó 2005 ®

156
 Narrow-band
Narrow-band Channel:
Channel:
FLAT
FLAT FADING
FADING DUE
DUE TO
TO MULTI-PATH
MULTI-PATH
The small number of frequency components in a
narrow-band channel can cause a dramatic drop
in signal strength when time-displaced copies
arrive out-of-phase. This causes the signal level
to change rapidly, in a mobile environment.

Distance
7” @ 800 MHz

= =

Ó 2005 ®

One problem cause by multi-path in a NLOS environment is flat fading of narrow-band signals.
This is often referred to as fast fading.

157
 Wide
Wide Band
Band Channel:
Channel:
FREQUENCY
FREQUENCY SELECTIVE
SELECTIVE FADING
FADING DUE
DUE TO
TO MULTI-PATH
MULTI-PATH
Unfaded channel showing frequency components

Frequency

Channel with faded portion—Selective Fade

Frequency
Ó 2005 ®

Due to the large number of frequency components in a wide-band channel, only a portion will be
received out-of-phase. This is called frequency selective fading. Since WiMAX is considered to
be a wide-band channel, the ability to compensate for this problem is provided by the use of pilot
tones. More later.

158
The
The Multipath
Multipath Environment
Environment
DELAY
DELAY SPREAD
SPREAD
Delay spread is a measure of the arrival time delta between a primary
signal and significant reflected signals in a multi-path environment

Delay Spread

Notes:
1. Significance of reflected signals Signal

Power
is a function of their level above Arrives
a threshold. Threshold
2. RF propagates at a rate of 1ft/ns.

Time (ns)

Ó 2005 ®

Multiple copies of the original signal traveling over different paths, in a multi-path environment,
causes the received signals to be displaced in time. The amount of time displacement of the
signals that can cause significant degradation is called the “Delay Spread”. Delay spread is
based on the difference in arrival time of the first signal to arrive (shortest path) and the last
signal copy of significance to arrive. Signals below a threshold value will have little or no effect
on the ability of the receiver to recover information. The threshold value is typically between 10
and 20 dB below the first signal level.

159
 Typical
Typical Delay
Delay Spread
Spread Values
Values
DIFFERENT
DIFFERENT MULTI-PATH
MULTI-PATH ENVIRONMENTS
ENVIRONMENTS

LOS systems using highly directional antennas

do not suffer from delay spread due to multi-path.
NLOS implementations must use technologies that
can mitigate the effects of multi-path

Environment Typical RMS Delay Spread

Indoors 10 – 50 nsec
Open Area < 200 nsec
Suburban < 1 μsec
Urban 1 – 3 μsec
Hilly Area 3 – 10 μsec

Ó 2005 ®

Notice that outdoor environments have greater delay spread than indoor environments. This
means that if wide bandwidth, high data rate channels are to be deployed in outdoor
environments, technologies must be used that are capable of mitigating the effects of delay
spread due to multi-path. Two technologies are currently in use that can perform this
function:
1. Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA) using RAKE receivers to correlate multi-path
signals.
2. Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing (OFDM) using multiple narrow bandwidth sub-
carriers.

160
 Narrowband
Narrowband or
or Wideband?
Wideband?
Channel Bandwidth:
If the RMS Delay Spread is significant relative to the symbol
duration, the channel is assumed to be wideband.

Example Channel: Example Environments:

Bandwidth = 2 MHz • Indoor
Maximum symbol rate = 2 Msps RMS Delay Spread = 50 nsec
Symbol duration = 0.5 μsec • Outdoor
RMS Delay Spread = 1.2 μsec

Indoor Example Outdoor Example

0.5 μsec 0.5 μsec

Ó 2005 ®

161
 Coherence
Coherence Bandwidth
Bandwidth (B
(Bcc))
Coherence Bandwidth:
The range of frequencies over which two frequency
components have a high amplitude correlation potential.

Formula used to approximate BC

1
Bc »
2p t RMS
Example:
Calculating coherence bandwidth of the
2 MHz wide carrier from the previous slide.
1. Indoors = 3.183 MHz
2. Outdoors = 132,629 KHz

Ó 2005 ®

162
 Inter-Symbol
Inter-Symbol Interference:
Interference:
AN
AN EXAMPLE
EXAMPLE
Sending high-speed data (50 MBaud) in a multi-path
environment, using a single carrier—symbol duration 20 ns

Single high-speed carrier

Primary and multi-path

20 ns Delta
combine in the receiver

10 ft

Ó 2005 ®

Let’s look at the effect of delay spread. What we’re really doing with this slide is setting up the motivation for a multicarrier modulation
scheme like Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing. We want to study a single-carrier modulation method, so we can compare it to
multi-carrier on the next slide.

Let’s try to send 50 Mb/s on a single carrier, using a simple modulation scheme like BPSK. Each symbol carries one bit, and we need to
send 50 million symbols per second to carry 50 Mb/s. So each symbol has a duration of 20 nanoseconds.

Our client in the picture is receiving a direct-path signal, and then a strong second-path signal that travels 10 feet to the back wall and
then 10 feet plus the distance from the transmitter to the client – for a total of 20 feet farther than the direct path. Since radio signals
propagate at about 1 foot/nanosecond, the 20 feet of extra distance has delayed the receipt of the second-path signal by 20
nanoseconds. We illustrate that 20 nanosecond delay spread by the compared square waves above the picture.

Note that the symbol duration is 20 nsec, and the delay of 20 nsec means that each symbol of the direct path is overlaid by the previous
symbol of the second-path signal. In many cases, these symbols will cancel each other. So what we learned was that delay spreads that
are about the same length as symbol durations will kill our signals. It’s easy to see in the indoor case, but the result applies to the
outdoor case as well.
Our solutions might be to a) do something about the multipath – which is probably not controllable, or b) slow down the symbol rate.

Now if we want to slow down the symbol rate, without reducing our total data rate, there is one way to do that: Abandon single-carrier
solutions. Instead of sending one carrier modulated with 50 million bits every second, we might send 50 carriers, each transporting 1
million bits per second.

We essentially need Frequency Division Multiplexing.

Now if each of those 50 carriers needed a guard band, to reduce adjacent-channel interference, we’d be in trouble – the guard bands
would eat up our bandwidth allocation. The channel size would be huge. But if we can find a way to pack ~50 carriers tightly into a small
channel, then we get the benefit of tolerating the delay spread while conserving our licensed bandwidth.

And the way to pack our ~50 carriers into a small channel is by placing them in precise locations, so they don’t cause mutual adjacent
channel interference. They need to be orthogonal to each other.Which is why we need Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing. The
next slide shows OFDM.

163
 OFDM*
OFDM* for
for NLOS
NLOS WiMAX
WiMAX
MITIGATING
MITIGATING THE
THE EFFECTS
EFFECTS OF
OF DELAY
DELAY SPREAD
SPREAD
OFDM: Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing
1. Data is distributed across an orthogonal group of narrow-band sub-carriers (tones)
2. An IFFT is performed at the transmitter, creating a composite waveform
3. The composite waveform modulates an RF carrier at the operating frequency
4. Individual phase and amplitude characteristics are recovered using an FFT

Orthogonal Sub-carriers

OFDM Power Spectrum Symbol period = T

Sub-carrier frequency separation = 1/T

1/T

f0 - 4/T f0 - 3/T f0 - 2/T f0 - 1/T f0 f0 + 1/T f0 + 2/T f0 + 3/T f0 + 4/T

Ó 2005
°
®
*Refer to the “OFDM” spreadsheet on student CD for an illustration of OFDM.

OFDM is a multi-carrier approach. It packs multiple carriers, each of which carry a small portion
of the entire data stream, into a small channel.
Because the carriers are precisely placed with separation of 1/T (where T is the symbol period),
each of the carriers has a null at the center frequencies of all adjacent carriers. In other words,
we have made them orthogonal – and the result is that we don’t need to separate them with
guard bands. We get the efficiency of a good modulation scheme with the longer symbol times
that can tolerate the typical delay spreads.

In fixed WiMAX systems, we’re going to use OFDM systems with 256 carriers. In mobile
WiMAX, we’re going to use a Scalable OFDM with (typically) 1024 carriers.

These systems are easy enough to build because we’re not modulating each carrier
independently. Instead, we’re going to use an Inverse Fast Fourier Transform (IFFT) to convert
(digitally) our data bits into the composite modulated radio signal, and we’re going to use a Fast
Fourier Transform (FFT) in the receiver to decompose the composite radio signal into its
constituent parts (and recover the data bits).

164
 Inter-Symbol
Inter-Symbol Interference:
Interference:
AN
AN EXAMPLE
EXAMPLE WITH
WITH OFDM
OFDM
Sending high-speed data (50 MBaud) in a multi-path
environment, using 50 tone OFDM—symbol duration 1000 ns

OFDM 50 tone approach

Primary and multi-path

20 ns Delta combine in the receiver

10 ft

Ó 2005 ®

So here we illustrate the advantage of using a multicarrier modulation scheme. Same

transmitter and receiver, with the same 20 nsec delay spread between the direct path and the
bothersome second path.

However, our 50 Mb/s is split among 50 carriers, then each carrier transports 1 million bits per
second.

And modulated carrier has a symbol time of 1000 nanoseconds.

And the 20 nsec delay spread doesn’t prevent the receiver from interpreting the symbol.

Of course, we do need the equivalent of 50 transmitters and 50 receivers working in parallel. But
the complexity of that is minimized by use of the IFFT at the transmitter and the FFT at the
receiver.

165
Ofdm
Ofdm Pilots
Pilots for
for signal
signal estimation
estimation
COMPENSATING
COMPENSATING FOR
FOR FREQUENCY-SELECTIVE
FREQUENCY-SELECTIVE FADES
FADES

Before:
OFDM receiver detects pilot
tone level variations due to
a frequency-selective fade.

Frequency

After:
Relative pilot tone levels
are equalized, causing all
frequency components
to be adjusted across
the operating bandwidth.

Frequency
Ó 2005 ®

166
 WIMAX
WIMAX Pilot
Pilot Power
Power Boosting
Boosting
TWO
TWO SCHOOLS
SCHOOLS OF
OF THOUGHT
THOUGHT

1. Put more power into the Pilots to improve

signal estimation!

Nulls Nulls

2. Put more power into the data tones to improve

C/N performance for data.

Nulls Nulls

Ó 2005 ®

Since there is a finite amount of power to be distributed across all of the tones, putting more
power into one set of tones robs power from other tones.

167
 Determining
Determining OFDM
OFDM Bit
Bit Rate
Rate
DIFFERENT
DIFFERENT FROM
FROM AA SINGLE
SINGLE CARRIER
CARRIER
The complex OFDM carrier is comprised of a set of
tones (sub-carriers) performing different functions.
Fixed WiMAX
1. Overhead tones ® 8 Pilot Tones

• Pilot tones for signal estimation ® 56 Nulls

® 192 Data Tones
• Null tones--unused tones
2. Data tones for higher level overhead and user information

The OFDM bit rate is based on the number of

data tones, not just the channel bandwidth.
Pilots Unused

Nulls Nulls

Ó 2005 ®

So for WiMAX, we want to figure out the total bit rate capacity of our OFDM channel. How do we
do that?

In truth, we typically take the vendor’s word for it. We just ask them to tell us the max bit rate
that their equipment supports at various modulation levels. But mathematically, we can figure
out that bit rate by understanding the nature of the OFDM usage.

The OFDM signal will be comprised of multiple carriers (tones). Not all of the carriers will
transport data bits. Some are required to carry known pilot signals for the receiver’s use at
estimating the channel performance. Some will be nulled out (to zero power) to create guard
bands at the edges of our WiMAX channels. The tones that remain are used for transmission of
the data bits. So to calculate the bit rate of the WiMAX channel, we need to know the number of
data carriers, the symbol time, and the modulation scheme used (number of bits per symbol).

168
 Exercise:
Exercise: FIXED
FIXED WIMAX
WIMAX Bit
Bit Rate
Rate
Assumptions:
Channel bandwidth (BW) = 20 MHz Pilots Unused
Sampling frequency* » 1.14 · BW
Total number of tones = 256 Nulls Nulls
Number of data tones = 192
Guard time** = 1/8th symbol time
Modulation scheme (best case) = 64-QAM
FEC rate (best case) = 3/4

1. 22.8 MHz
Determine the sampling frequency (channel bandwidth · 1.14) _________
2. Determine the bandwidth of each tone (sampling frequency/# of tones) 89,062.5
___________
Hz
3. Determine the useful symbol time (1/tone bandwidth) 11.228 µsec
____________
4. Determine the guard time (1/8 · useful symbol time) 1.404 µsec
___________
5. Determine the total symbol time (guard time + useful symbol time) 12.632 µsec
____________
6. Determine the Baud rate for each tone (1/total symbol time)79,166.67 Baud
_______________
7. Determine the raw bit rate of each tone (bits per Baud · Baud rate) ___________
475 Kbps
8. 356.25 Kbps
Factor overhead for FEC (FEC rate · raw bit rate) ____________
9. Multiply the per tone bit rate times the number of data tones

Maximum bit rate for the given OFDM carrier = _____

68.4 Mbps

°
*Sampling frequency will vary slightly for different channel bandwidths.
**Guard time could be as small as 1/32 nd symbol time. Ó 2005 ®

Instructions:
From the given input, follow the steps to calculate the maximum bit rate of the OFDM carrier in
the 20 MHz WiMAX channel.

169
 Guard
Guard time
time and
and Delay
Delay Spread
Spread
The 802.16 standard allows for a range of Guard Time (Cyclic Prefix)
configurations based on a fraction of the symbol period:
® 1/4 Symbol period
® 1/8 Symbol period
® 1/16 Symbol period
® 1/32 Symbol period

The Guard Time is used to eliminate symbol time overlap, due to

delay spread, in a multipath environment.

Good News:
The greater the guard time, the greater the amount of delay spread
that can be tolerated.

Bad News:
The greater the guard time, the lower the WiMAX data rate.

Exercise:
Determine the guard time fraction that has a duration at least Fixed WiMAX
twice as long as an RMS delay spread of 1.2 msec for a 5 MHz Data Rates
Fixed WiMAX OFDM channel. ______ 1/16
Ó 2005
°
®

Instructions:
1. Open the spreadsheet provided on the Student CD.
2. Input values shown.
3. Select cyclic prefix that is at least twice as long as the stated delay spread.

170
 Building
Building and
and Foliage
Foliage Losses
Losses
SOME
SOME AVERAGE
AVERAGE VALUES
VALUES FROM
FROM DIFFERENT
DIFFERENT SOURCES
SOURCES
Frequency Building Material Loss Frequency Foliage Type Loss
2.30 GHz Stone Faced Bldg 12.8 dB 5.85 GHz Small Deciduous tree 3.5 dB

2.40 GHz University Bldg 20 dB 5.85 GHz Large Deciduous Tree 10.7 dB

2.57 GHz Suburban Houses 9.1 dB 5.85 GHz Large Conifer Tree 13.7 dB

5.85 GHz Brick House 12.5 dB 9.60 GHz Single Conifer Tree 15.0 dB

5.85 GHz Wood Siding House 8.8 dB 28.8 GHz Single Conifer Tree 15.9 dB

5.85 GHz Concrete Wall House 22.0 dB 28.8 GHz Single Deciduous Tree 7.0 dB

5.85 GHz Interior Plaster Walls 4.7 dB

These values are presented to illustrate
9.60 GHz 2 dry ¾” plywood sheets 4.0 dB the wide range of possible values. Local
knowledge is still critical to successful
deployment!!
9.60 GHz 2 wet ¾” plywood sheets 39.0 dB

28.8 GHz 2 dry ¾” plywood sheets 6.0 dB

28.8 GHz 2 wet ¾” plywood sheets 46.0 dB

Ó 2005 ®

Foliage loss is a function of absorption and scattering. Building loss is primarily absorption loss.
Notice the dramatic increase in penetration loss for higher frequencies with a wet surface.

171
 Some
Some Common
Common propagation
propagation Models
Models

Empirical Models Physical Models

® Power Law ® Free Space
® Okumura-Hata ® Free Space + RMD
® COST 231 Hata ® TIREM
® Walfish-Ikagami ® Longley-Rice
® Lee ® Anderson 2D
® IEEE 802.16

Empirical Model Comparison

RMD = Reflections and Multiple Diffractions Ó 2005 ®

TIREM = Terrain Integrated Rough Earth Model

Empirical models are mathematical models that are created to fit measured data.
Okumura was an engineer who drove around Tokyo taking empirical RF measurements. He
tabulated the values and drew reference curves. Hata constructed mathematical formulae to fit
Okumura’s reference curves.

Walfish-Ikagami is considered to be a semi-deterministic empirical model.

We’ll first learn a bit more about a couple of these models. In the WiMAX design exercise, we’ll
tabulate which models are best in which situations.

172
 Power
Power Law
Law Model
Model

® Empirical Model
® The basis for some other empirical models
® Free Space Loss for a reference distance

Reference Distance

Ó 2005 ®

The reference distance used in the power law model is based on free space loss. The path loss
exponent beyond the reference distance is a range of values based on the propagation
environment. Many other empirical models use the Power Law model as a base, such as the
Lee model and 802.16 (SUI) model.

173
 Power
Power Law
Law Calculation
Calculation

æ d ö
L = 10n × log 10 çç ÷÷ + Lref
Where:
è d ref ø
n = path loss exponent
dref = reference distance
d = path distance
Lref = predicted loss* at the reference distance
Environment Path Loss Exponent
Free Space 2
Coverage Reference Distance Urban 2.7 to 3.5
Indoors 1 meter Shadowed Urban 3 to 5
Microcell 100 meters In-building (LOS) 1.6 to 1.8
Macrocell 1 km In-building (NLOS) 4 to 6

Packetwave Link Evaluator Ó 2005 ®

* Based on Free space path loss.

The basic Power Law model is considered to be the simplest of the empirical models. Antenna
height is not considered in the calculation.

174
 Exercise:
Exercise: Power
Power Law
Law Model
Model
Assumptions:
• Operating Freq. = 3.5 GHz
• Base Station PA output = 27 dBm
• Base Station coax loss to antenna = 2 dB
• Base Station omni antenna gain = 12 dBi
• CPE omni antenna gain = 3 dBi
• Minimum Levels (BER 10-6):
• QPSK = -92 dBm 0.6 km
• 16-QAM = -84 dBm
• 64-QAM = -76 dBm
A
• Path loss exponent = 3
• Reference Distance = 100 m
• Penetration losses:
• House = 6 dB
• Building = 12 dB

1. What is the expected loss to an in-building 2 km B

118.7 dB
customer located at site A? _______
16-QAM modulation.
2. Site A customers receive using _________
Power Law
3. The customer at site B (house) has a signal strength
QPSK modulation.
allowing for _______
Ó 2005
°
®

Instructions:
1. Determine the in-building loss at site A using the power law model and provided data.
2. Determine the in-building receive level and select the appropriate modulation scheme.
3. Use the house penetration loss to determine the modulation scheme for a customer at site
B.

175
 IEEE
IEEE 802.16
802.16 Model
Model (SUI
(SUI Model)
Model)
æd ö
L = A + 10 g × log10 çç ÷÷ + X f + X h + s
è d0 ø
Where: It’s such a simple
looking formula
æ 4 p d0 ö without all that
A = 20 × log10 ç ÷
è l ø stuff!

a- b× hb + c
γ=
hb
æ Freq( MHz ) ö
X f = 6 × log10 ç ÷
è 2000 ΜΗz ø
æ CPE Height ö
X h = -10.8 × log10 ç ÷
è 2 meters ø
s = lognormal fade
SUI = Stanford University Interim Ó 2005 ®

The 802.16 Stanford University Interim (SUI) model is an empirical model based on
measurements at 2 GHz.

When 802.16 was standardized for frequencies above 2 GHz, RF engineers realized that a new
empirical model was needed. The COST 231 and Okumura-Hata models were based on
empirical measurements below 2 GHz, and are not accurate enough above 2 GHz. Stanford
University’s engineers did some empirical measurements and created the 802.16 SUI model.

The 802.16 SUI model is accurate for frequencies between 2 GHz and 4 GHz, because that is
where the empirical measurements were taken.
Correction factors Xf and Xh are used to compensate for other frequencies and CPE heights.

Notice that, like the Power Law model, the 802.16 model uses Free Space path loss (A) for the
reference distance loss.

The 802.16 SUI model is recommended for Fixed WiMAX. The COST 231 Hata model is
recommended for Mobile WiMAX.

176
IEEE
IEEE 802.16
802.16 Categories
Categories
Model constant Terrain A Terrain B Terrain C hb = 10 m – 80 m
a 4.6 4.0 3.6 d0 = 100 m
b 0.0075 0.0065 0.005

c 12.6 17.1 20

Model Classifications
SUI model Terrain type Delay spread k factor Doppler

1 C Low High Low

2 C Low High Low
3 B Low Low Low

4 B Moderate Low High

5 A High Low Low

6 A High Low High

Ó 2005 ®

177
 Lesson
Lesson 6
6 Review/Quiz
Review/Quiz

higher
1. All other factors being equal, __________ frequencies will scatter
lower
more than __________ frequencies.
2. The impact of time dispersal is a function of the propagation
environment and the channel ___________.
bandwidth
3. The amount of required WiMAX OFDM guard time is a function of
bandwidth and ______
channel ___________ delay ________.
spread
4. The acceptable level of Fresnel zone clearance for a LOS link
0.6
is _______ Fresnel zone(s).
spherical wave front.
5. Dispersion loss is based on an expanding ____________
Flux Density is a measure of the amount of power in 1m2.
6. Power ________
empirical model.
7. The Power Law model is a(n) ___________
8. The 802.16 SUI model uses a correction factor for frequencies
2
other than ______ GHz.

Ó 2005
°
®

178
 Lesson
Lesson 7:
7:

Frequency Reuse in
Fixed and Mobile
WiiMAX Networks

Ó 2005 ®

In this lesson, we cover a short introduction to Frequency Reuse concepts, and discuss your
options for designing a frequency-reuse plan in Fixed and Mobile WiMAX networks.

179
 Lesson
Lesson Objective
Objective
At the end of this lesson, you will be able to
® Design the frequency reuse plan for your
WiMAX network
w Primarily by working with your equipment
vendor, using their recommendations
w But with a knowledge of the basis of the
theory of frequency reuse
w And with a knowledge of the prevalent
options in the WiMAX industry
® Discuss the reuse proposals for mobile
WiMAX

Ó 2005 ®

180
Will
Will your
your WiMAX
WiMAX Network
Network
be
be a
a Single-Site,
Single-Site, or
or Multiple
Multiple
overlapping
overlapping sites
sites ??

Single Site Multiple Overlapping Sites

Ó 2005 ®

181
 Many
Many Small
Small Sites
Sites vs.
vs. One
One Big
Big Site
Site
THE
THE CELLULAR
CELLULAR CONCEPT
CONCEPT OF
OF REUSE
REUSE

Single large site using all spectrum Multiple small sites re-using all spectrum

D
C E
A
B F
G

MTS/IMTS Cellular
(pre-cellular) (AMPS)

Ó 2005 ®

Original mobile phone service:

The MTS (Mobile Telephone System) and the IMTS (Improved Mobile Telephone System) used
all of the spectrum in one master site covering a large area (typically up to 50 mile radius). This
limited the number of customers that could be provided with mobile phones service. It also
required high powered (50 – 100 Watts) radios mounted in vehicles.

Cellular took all of the allocated spectrum and distributed it among a group of reuse clusters,
relying on the terrain and clutter to reduce interference among co-channels at a distance. The
distance between co-channels is based on the reuse factor (k).
Original AMPS (Advanced Mobile Phone System)
•12.5 MHz allocated (in the U.S.) for deployment
•30 KHz voice channels
•Approximately 420 channels for entire system
•Using 7-cell reuse clusters provides 60 channels per cell

182
 Frequency
Frequency Reuse
Reuse and
and the
the K-Factor
K-Factor

The frequency reuse factor, k-factor, is

the number of cells in a reuse cluster.
k=7
k=3
D
C E
1
A
1 6
B 2
F
7
G
3 5 3
2 4

Ó 2005 ®

The reuse factor (k) is a balance between site capacity and C/I performance. The greater the k-
factor, the better the C/I performance, but the lower the individual site capacity. No matter what
the reuse factor is, there are always six (6) co-channel sites causing interference.

183
Reuse
Reuse Requires
Requires Symmetry
Symmetry
REUSE
REUSE CELLS
CELLS MUST
MUST BE
BE EQUIDISTANT
EQUIDISTANT

k = (i + j) - i × j 2

Where i and j =0,1, 2, etc.

i j k-factor
0 1 1
0 2 4
0 3 9
1 1 3
1 2 7
2 2 12

Ó 2005 ®

184
 Frequency
Frequency Reuse
Reuse Distance
Distance
D/R ratio: The ratio of co-channel distance to cell radius.

D R
= 3k
R
Where:
D = Reuse Distance Example: k = 3
R = Cell Radius
k = Reuse Factor

Ó 2005 ®

Typical reuse factors (k): 1, 3, 4, 7, 12, 21.

•k = 1 is used in CDMA networks—all sites are co-channels
•k = 3 is common to 802.11b/g implementations—only 3 non-overlapping channels available
•k = 4 is used in GSM networks
•k = 7 the old AMPS system and Nextel’s iDEN networks
•k = 9 and 12 also used in iDEN networks

Higher reuse factors provide lower co-channel interference, but require more channels.
Sectored implementations further reduce co-channel interference relative to omni antennas, but
require even more channels.
Example: A reuse factor of seven (7) requires 7 channels with omni sites, but 21 channels using
3-sector cells.

185
 D/R
D/R and
and C/I
C/I

C/I and D/R

30 7
= D/R ratio
6
25
5

D/R ratio
C/I (dB) 20 4

15 3
red
S ecto 2
10
O mn i 1

5 0
3 4 7 9 12
Re use Factor (k)

Ó 2005 ®

The ratio of Distance to radius is directly correlated to the ratio of Carrier to Interference (where
the interference is caused by the other transmitters reusing the same frequency). As the reuse
factor increases, the distance to the co-channel interferers increases, and the interference from
those co-channel interferers decreases.

186
 WiMAX
WiMAX Frequency
Frequency Reuse
Reuse
CONSIDERATIONS
CONSIDERATIONS
® MIMO antenna systems to increase
per carrier capacity allowing for
allocated spectrum to be divided
into smaller channels
® Adaptive Arrays to reduce co-channel
interference, allowing tighter reuse
® Omni vs. 3, 4, or 6-sector sites
® Divide frequency allocation into
a few large channels
® Extra channels may be used as overlays in
OFDMA?
high-capacity sectors
® OFDMA’s sub-carriers (tones) may be reused
in different ways, in various cells and sectors

Ó 2005 ®

Here we list the WiMAX Frequency reuse considerations with a bit more specificity. These
considerations are all covered in this course – some already covered, and some in the next few
slides.

187
 Some
Some Fixed
Fixed WiMAX
WiMAX Ideas
Ideas
LIMITED
LIMITED SPECTRUM,
SPECTRUM, GREAT
GREAT ANTENNAS
ANTENNAS
® Two channels ® Two channels
® Four sectors ® Six sectors

A
A
B B
B B
A A
A B

Ó 2005 ®

If you are planning a WIMAX network with a single hotzone, the frequency reuse plan is fairly
simple. You want to multiply the use of your channels, so you should consider a multi-sector
antenna system.

However, if you are constructing a single-site hotzone (perhaps for a campus or a small
community), you won’t need to coordinate the reuse of your channels among your multiple sites.
So dividing your frequency allocation into two channels is sufficient, and you’ll reuse those two
channels in alternating sectors.

The sectorization suggestions assume antennas with high front-to-back ratios and low side-
lodes. The environment will also play a role in the antenna’s performance. Due to reflections in a
cluttered environment, even antennas that can satisfy the performance requirements for this type
of sectorization may not perform as expected.

188
 Example:
Example: Reuse
Reuse with
with Six
Six Channels
Channels
FIXED
FIXED OR
OR MOBILE
MOBILE WiMAX
WiMAX
5
6 6

® Six channels 3 5 5 3
4 4 6 4 4
® Six sectors
3 3 1 3 3
® 3 cell reuse 4
3/7
2 2 4
® 2 sector reuse 5 1 1 5
5/7
6 6 2 6 6

5 5 3 5 5
6 4
4/7 4 6
A 7th overlay channel can be
added to high traffic sectors 3 3
4

Ó 2005
°
®

If you have enough bandwidth allocated to use six or more channels, you will have some
flexibility in how you design a frequency-reuse plan. While three channels is sufficient for most
mobile-WiMAX systems, six channels provide even more distance between the co-channel
interferers.

In this example, we show six-sector antennas. Each base station is assigned two of the six
channels in a traditional three-cell reuse approach. As before, adjacent sectors of the same
base station use alternate channels.

If you have a seventh channel, you may choose to allocate it in specific sectors where you have
spots of higher demand.

This is why most mobile WiMAX systems need at least 30 MHz of spectrum. And more is
always better.

That concludes our simple discussion of frequency reuse in WiMAX networks. The remainder of
this section introduces OFDMA-based subcarriers and their sophisticated impact on frequency
reuse.

189
 What
What is
is OFDMA
OFDMA ??
ORTHOGONAL
ORTHOGONAL FREQUENCY
FREQUENCY DIVISION
DIVISION MULTIPLE
MULTIPLE ACCESS
ACCESS

Like OFDM A technique employing multiple “tones”

A technique for mitigating multi-path
Unlike OFDM A multiple access technique
A method of creating sub-channels for
greater gain or sophisticated frequency-
reuse plans

Ó 2005 ®

Mobile WiMAX requires a type of modulation named Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiple
Access, or OFDMA. Fixed WiMAX networks may support OFDMA as well.

Like OFDM, OFDMA is a technique that employs multiple “tones” or sub-carriers, with the first
benefit that we mitigate multipath interference.

But OFDMA adds a twist. The sub-carriers may be used by different transmitters at the same
time, which we illustrate in the next few slides. And what results from the OFDMA operation has
an impact on frequency reuse plans.

So in the next few slides, we’ll look at OFDMA, sub-carriers, and the partial use of sub-carriers
for extra gain and frequency reuse efficiencies.

190
 OFDM
OFDM vs..
vs OFDMA
OFDMA
Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing (OFDM)

T f
Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing Access (OFDMA)

T f
User 1 User 2 User 3
Ó 2005 ® 509022

We understand OFDM by now. With OFDM, a transmitter takes a serial data stream and
converts it to a parallel stream, using it to modulate multiple sub-carriers. The transmitter
generates and transmits many modulated sub-carriers simultaneously. The signal is robust in
the face of multipath interference.

Note that in OFDM, all of the sub-carriers, or tones, are used by a single transmitter in a symbol
period. In the next symbol period, a second transmitter may use all sub-carriers.

In OFDMA, we allow different transmitters to use subsets of the OFDM tones for different
transmissions during the same symbol period. With WiMAX, an Uplink Map (or Downlink Map)
will assign each user a set of sub-carriers to use in a specified symbol period.

It should be fairly obvious that OFDMA allows a lot of flexibility to allocate fine amounts of
bandwidth to each client, by varying the number of sub-carriers that a client is assigned to use.

191
 Let’
Let’SS Compare
Compare OFDM
OFDM to
to OFDMA
OFDMA
OFDM:
OFDM: WiMAX
WiMAX TDD
TDD FRAME
FRAME STRUCTURE
STRUCTURE
Example: 5 ms Frame with 48 Symbols
Symbol

P
R
E T
A T
M G
B
L
E

D/L Sub-frame U/L Sub-frame

= Overhead = Data

Ó 2005 ®

We illustrate the assignment of OFDMA sub-carriers in the next slides.

For comparison, this slide shows a frame of a WiMAX transmission, using OFDM. The next slide will introduce
OFDMA.

The WiMAX standard allows a transmitter to choose its frame duration, between 1 msec and 10 msec. Most equipment
operates with a 5 msec frame (WiMAX Forum default), so we show that option here.

A frame is comprised of a number of OFDM symbols in sequence. The number of symbols per frame will vary with
bandwidth, but here we show 48 symbols in a frame as our example to make our point. In our graphic, time is the x-
axis, with the first symbols of the frame shown on the left, and the last symbol of the frame on the right.

The first few symbols contain a preamble and overhead that is transmitted from the base station to the clients. Notably,
the overhead will provide maps to the assigned symbols in the frame: Which clients should listen to which symbols,
and when are they allocated bandwidth to sent their data in the uplink?

In a time-division-duplex operation of WiMAX, a frame carries both downlink data from base station to clients, and
uplink data from clients to base station. The base station may choose what percent of the frame is used for uplink vs
downlink on a frame-by-frame basis. Our graphic suggests that this frame is mostly downlink, with quite a few downlink
symbols early in the frame, and only a few uplink symbols late in the frame.

When deploying with TDD, the is a period of time between the downlink symbols and the uplink symbols that is used to
switch from transmit to receive. This unused portion of time is known as the Transmit/Receive Transition Gap (TTG).
The uplink to downlink time is referred to as the Receive/Transmit Transition Gap (RTG)

Each symbol is comprised of multiple sub-carriers, of course. These sub-carriers are illustrated on the left of the
graphic.

With OFDM, all sub-carriers of a given symbol are assigned to a single transmit/receive pair. The first several symbols
may carry data for client 1, and then several succeeding symbols carry data for client 2.

192
 OFDMA
OFDMA in
in a
aWWiiMAX
MAX System
System
WiMAX
WiMAX TDD
TDD FRAME
FRAME STRUCTURE
STRUCTURE WITH
WITH OFDMA
OFDMA
Symbol 5 ms Frame with 48 Symbols
Logical Sub-channel

Tones

P
R
E T
A T
M G
B
L
E

D/L Sub-frame U/L Sub-frame

= Overhead = Data Sub-channels

Source: WiMAX Forum, “Mobile WiMAX Part 1: A Technical Overview
and Performance Evaluation”, August 2006.
Ó 2005 ®

In OFDMA, the sub-carriers are grouped into sub-channels, which are grouped into slots.
A sub-channel, therefore, is a collection of sub-carrier sets that may be assigned to a single
client within one or more symbol periods.

In our graphic, we suggest that the sub-carriers which comprise sub-channels are adjacent.
That may be the case (AMC permutation zone—used with adaptive arrays), but there are
actually advantages (fade resistance) to creating a sub-channel from sub-carriers that are non-
adjacent. The 802.16 and 802.16e specifications detail which sub-carriers are assembled into
each sub-channel.
So for clarity, we show adjacent sub-carriers as comprising a sub-channel, but we label it as a
“logical sub-channel”, to suggest the tones are not really adjacent at the physical level.

Now that we have divided our sub-carriers into sub-channels, we can start to assign them to
users.

193
 Allocating
Allocating Sub-channels
Sub-channels to
to Users
Users
USER
USER TRAFFIC
TRAFFIC MAY
MAY BE
BE ASSIGNED
ASSIGNED MULTIPLE
MULTIPLE SUB-CHANNELS
SUB-CHANNELS
OVER
OVER MULTIPLE
MULTIPLE SYMBOL
SYMBOL PERIODS
PERIODS
Symbol 5 ms Frame with 48 Symbols

User
Tones
Logical Sub-channel

User 4
P 1 User
R 5
E T
A T
M G
B
L User User
E 3 2

D/L Sub-frame U/L Sub-frame

= Overhead = Data Sub-channels

Source: WiMAX Forum, “Mobile WiMAX Part 1: A Technical Overview

and Performance Evaluation”, August 2006.
Ó 2005 ®

Here we illustrate OFDMA and its sub-channels.

Note that in the downlink part of the sub-frame, we have allocated blocks of sub-channels over
several symbol times to User 1, User 2, User 3, User 4 and User 5. A Downlink Map in the
frame overhead details for the clients which sub-channels and which symbols carry the data for
which users.

So one key point is that with OFDMA, different sub-channel sets (slots) carry data for different
users over multiple symbol periods.

The uplink will also use sub-channel sets. The WIMAX specifications allow significant flexibility
in the sub-channel use in the uplink and downlink directions. Note that our graphic suggests
different allocation of sub-carriers to sub-channels in the uplink and downlink (by illustrating a
different number of sub-carriers per sub-channel).

194
Partial
Partial Usage
Usage and
and OFDMA
OFDMA Gain
Gain
IT’s
IT’s ALL
ALL ABOUT
ABOUT POWER
POWER SPECTRAL
SPECTRAL DENSITY
DENSITY
Power Spectral Density (PSD) is the amount of power
contained in a unit of bandwidth (typically 1 Hz).

Total Bandwidth of SOFDMA Channel

User 1 User 2 User 3 User 4

OFDM: Each user must burst on the uplink using all of the tones!
OFDMA: Users burst using a fraction of the tones!

Advantage of OFDMA: User can concentrate the relatively small

amount of transmit power into a small set of tones, providing an
increase in power on the uplink. This improves the C/(I+N)
performance in an interference environment.
Ó 2005 ®

Why would we prefer a client to send (or receive) their data in an OFDMA sub-channel, rather
than using all of the sub-carriers of an OFDM symbol?

One reason is an OFDMA gain. If a user can concentrate its allowed transmit power into a small
number of tones on the uplink, that provides an increase of power per tone. This increases the
carrier-to-noise-and-interference ratio. We will illustrate that on the next slide.

195
 An
An Example
Example of
of OFDMA
OFDMA Gain
Gain
IMPROVING
IMPROVING U/L
U/L PERFORMANCE
PERFORMANCE
Total Bandwidth of SOFDMA Channel
Example:
• Bandwidth = 480 KHz
• Total user tones = 48
• CPE Max. Power Output = 200 mW User 1 User 2 User 3 User 4
• User transmits on 12 of the 48 tones

Powertotal 200 mW
PSDtotal = = = 417 nW/Hz
BWtotal 480 KHz

Powertotal 200 mW
PSDfraction = = = 1.667 μW/Hz Fractional
BWfraction 120 KHz User 4
æ PSDfraction ö æ 1.667 μW ö
GainOFDMA = 10 × log10 çç ÷÷ = 10 × log10 ç ÷ = 6 dB
è PSDtotal ø è 417 nW ø

In other words, 1/4 of the tones means 4 times the power (6 dB)
Ó 2005 ®

Here we calculate the 6dB gain that results from a client transmitting on one-quarter of the tones.

196
 OFDMA
OFDMA Gain
Gain
OFDMA gain increases uplink performance,
but at the cost of the uplink data rate

Usage Ratio Uplink Power Gain

1/16 12 dB
1/8 9 dB
1/4 6 dB
1/2 3 dB

Ó 2005 ®

So if an OFDMA sub-channel is comprised of one-quarter of the OFDM tones, then we receive a

6dB gain. As another example, if the OFDMA sub-channel is comprised of one-sixteenth of the
OFDM tones, then we receive a 12 dB gain.

We have a small decrease in the uplink data rate. However, if there is a system imbalance and
we need more gain in the uplink, the OFDMA gain in the uplink can be very helpful.

So one difference between the link budget calculations for WiMAX and the similar calculations
for other technologies is the OFDMA gain that we can employ.

Now that we are introduced to OFDMA and its sub-channels, we’re ready for one of the most
interesting concepts in WiMAX frequency reuse. It’s the reuse of some of these OFDMA sub-
channels, in Partial Usage of Sub-carriers (PUSC).

197
 Mobile
Mobile WiMAX
WiMAX and
and
Frequency
Frequency Reuse
Reuse

® Since Mobile WiMAX uses OFDMA, we

can think about reuse of sub-channels,
in addition to reuse of channels
® It’s a sophisticated approach, with
tricky vocabulary:
w Scalable OFDMA
w Sub-carriers and Sub-channels
w PUSCs and FUSCs

Ó 2005 ®

This slide introduces the next several slides, in which we will discuss Partial Usage Sub-
channels (PUSCs), Full Usage Sub-channels (FUSCs), their use and reuse in Mobile WiMAX.
This is a hot area of mobile WIMAX system design.

Many current white papers define PUSC or FUSC using either Sub-Channels or Sub-Carriers.
This is not considered an issue of great importance in this course. Tomato/Tomato—Semantics.

198
 Scalable
Scalable OFDMA
OFDMA
AA BALANCING
BALANCING ACT
ACT
Problem:
Narrow band OFDM tones are needed to mitigate ISI, but may be
susceptible to Doppler shift in a mobile environment.

Wide band OFDM tones are needed to mitigate the effect of Doppler
shift in a mobile environment, but may be susceptible to ISI.

Solution:
Select a tone bandwidth that is
narrow enough to mitigate ISI,
but wide enough to reduce the
effect of Doppler shift!

Ó 2005
°
®

Scalable OFDMA is a key attribute of Mobile WiMAX, which distinguishes it from fixed WIMAX.
Mobile WiMAX requires Scalable OFDMA because moving devices must account for and
overcome a Doppler shift.

Scalable OFDMA is a compromise between the effects of Doppler shift and inter-symbol
interference. If we use an OFDMA tone bandwidth of 10.94 kHz bandwidth, we can manage
both.

That doesn’t yet describe why we call the 10.94 KHz bandwidth “scalable” – but it’ll be clear on
the next slide.

199
 Doppler
Doppler Spread
Spread

Original
Bandwidth

v
Doppler
Bandwidth

v f ×v
fd = cosa = c cosa Example:
l c Given the following, what is the total Doppler spread?
fc = 2.5 GHz
v = 100 kph (27.778 mps)
Where:
fd = Doppler shift a = 40°
v = velocity of motion
fc × v 27.778
a = angle of arriving signal fd = cosa = 2.5 × 10 9 × × 0.77 = 178.2 Hz
fc = operating frequency c 3 × 10 8
l = wavelength
Ó 2005 ®

200
 Coherence
Coherence Time
Time (T
(TCC))
AA FUNCTION
FUNCTION OF
OF DOPPLER
DOPPLER SPREAD
SPREAD
Coherence Time:
The time over which a channel can be assumed to be constant.
Signals that have less than the coherence time of the channel
are received undistorted by the effects of Doppler spread.

Formula used to approximate TC in digital communications Example:

Given the following, determine fm and TC?
fc = 3.5 GHz
9 0.423 v = 100 kph (27.778 mps)
TC » »
16π × fm2 fm fc × v 27.778
fm = = 3.5 × 109 × = 324 Hz
c 3 × 10 8
Where: 0.432 0.423
TC » » » 1322 ms
fm = Doppler spread @ a = 0 fm 324
= maximum Doppler spread
Symbol duration* for SOFDMA » 102 µs
fc × v
fm = The TC is the maximum undistorted symbol duration
c
Ó 2005 ®
* Useful symbol time plus ~ 8/7 cyclic prefix (guard time)

201
 Scalable
Scalable OFDMA
OFDMA
® WiMAX allows various channel sizes
® Fixed WiMAX: sub-carrier spacing varies depending
on the FFT and channel size
® Mobile WiMAX: S-OFDMA requires fixed sub-carrier
spacing of 10.94 kHz, but varies the FFT size
® S-OFDMA balances ISI and Doppler

Channel Bandwidth (MHz) 1.25 5 10 20

FFT Size (# of tones) 128 512 1024 2048
Number of Sub-channels 2 8 16 32
Number of OFDMA symbols per 48
5 ms frame
Ó 2005 ®

If we’re determined to use a 10.94 KHz bandwidth for our OFDMA tones, then what happens to
the number of those tones when we double the size of the WiMAX channel? The quick answer
is we double the number of the tones.

That’s the scalability of Scalable OFDMA, used in mobile WiMAX.

Note that in fixed WiMAX, if we use 256 tones and double the size of the channel, the number of
tones remained constant but the bandwidth of each tone doubled. Not so with Mobile WiMAX –
that effect would ruin our compromise between ISI and Doppler solutions.

Note also that when you double the amount of bandwidth in a channel and double the number of
tones, you double the number of OFDMA subchannels in a system.

Mobile WiMAX fixes 48 OFDMA symbols in a 5 msec frame. 10 MHz channels seem to be
emerging as a popular design choice (or the WiBRO approach of an 8.76 MHz channel within a
10 MHz channel spacing).

Finally, note that 1024 tones that are spaced 10.94KHz apart really exceed the bandwidth of a
10 MHz channel. However, we’ll filter off the tones at the top and bottom of the channel to make
it fit. That discussion is covered in DoceoTech’s course on the 802.16 standard, but is beyond
the scope of this design course.

202
 FUSC:
FUSC: Full
Full Usage
Usage of
of Sub-channels
Sub-channels
SHOWN
SHOWN LATE
LATE IN
IN THE
THE D/L
D/L SUB-FRAME
SUB-FRAME
Symbol 5 ms Frame with 48 Symbols
Tones
Logical Sub-channel

User User
P 4 8
R
E T
A T
M G
B User 5
L
E
User User
6 7

D/L Sub-frame U/L Sub-frame

FUSC

= Overhead = Data Sub-channels

Source: WiMAX Forum, “Mobile WiMAX Part 1: A Technical Overview

and Performance Evaluation”, August 2006.
Ó 2005 ®

A FUSC Zone is simply the part of the OFDMA frame during which the transmitter uses all of the
sub-channels. Unlike PUSCs, the sub-carriers distributed across the entire channel bandwidth.
All of the allocation slots may be assigned to different users.

203
 PUSC:
PUSC: Partial
Partial Usage
Usage ofof Sub-channels
Sub-channels
SHOWN
SHOWN EARLY
EARLY IN
IN THE
THE D/L
D/L SUB-FRAME
SUB-FRAME
Symbol 5 ms Frame with 48 Symbols
Tones
Logical Sub-channel

User 2
User User User
P
1 User 4 8
R 3
E T
A T
M G
B User 5
L Unassigned
E In this sector User User
6 7

U/L Sub-frame
PUSC FUSC

= Overhead = Data Sub-channels

Source: WiMAX Forum, “Mobile WiMAX Part 1: A Technical Overview

and Performance Evaluation”, August 2006.
Ó 2005 ®

Partial usage of sub-channels (PUSC) is an allocation of just a subset of the sub-channels for
use at a particular time in each frame. There are 14 tones per sub-channel cluster. The
minimum allocation slot is 2 sub-channels over 2 symbol periods. In this illustration, the
transmitter is allowed to send on the “upper set” (in frequency) of sub-channels during the latter
part of the downlink sub-frame.

This allows the PUSCs to be part of a frequency-reuse plan. One transmitter may be given a
PUSC segment for some sub-channels, while an adjacent transmitter is given a different PUSC
segment at the same time. Since they are not transmitting on the same frequencies at the same
time, they cause little or no co-channel interference.

204
 WiMAX
WiMAX Frequency
Frequency Reuse
Reuse
TERMINOLOGY
TERMINOLOGY
The Frequency Reuse Triplet*: c, s, n
Where:
c = Sites per cluster (k-factor)
s = Sectors per site
n = number of unique RF channels

Example:
GSM (200 KHz channels) with 12.5 MHz of available spectrum
in 4-cell frequency reuse clusters having 3 sectors per cell.
c, s, n = 4, 3, 62

Older cellular terminology: 4/12 = 4 cell reuse clusters with 12

total sectors (3 sectors/cell), so divide total available spectrum
by 12 (4 · 3)!
Ó 2005
*WiMAX frequency reuse ®

205
 W
WiiBro
Bro Reuse
Reuse with
with PUSC
PUSC
33 SITES,
SITES, 33 SECTORS,
SECTORS, 33 CHANNELS,
CHANNELS, 33 SEGMENTS
SEGMENTS

Total Bandwidth of SOFDMA Channel A Reuse Triplet: 3, 3, 3

A1 A2 A3 A2 A3 C2 C3

Total Bandwidth of SOFDMA Channel B

A1 C1

B1 B2 B3 B2 B3
Total Bandwidth of SOFDMA Channel C

B1

C1 C2 C3
Ó 2005 ®

WiBRO (the pre-certified mobile WiMAX system in Korea that is now proposed as the first Mobile
WiMAX certification profile) uses three channels of 8.75 MHz in a three-cell reuse plan. In
addition, they use three PUSC segments in their three sectors of each cell.

206
 OFDMA
OFDMA with
with
Frequency
Frequency Reuse
Reuse of
of One
One
® Frequency Reuse of One means that every cell
uses the same RF channel
® If we reuse all frequencies all of the time with
WiMAX, co-channel interference at cell edge
degrades the signal
® But OFDMA has sub-channels!
w Use all sub-channels some of the time in all
cells, for subscribers who are not at the
edge (i.e., little co-channel interference)
w For subscribers at the cell edge, assign
sub-channels according to a traditional
reuse plan and transmit at a different time
Ó 2005 ®

The most intriguing proposal for Mobile WiMAX frequency reuse is the combination of PUSCs
and FUSCs in a system, which usually carries the name “Frequency Reuse of One.”

It’s essentially a way to use all frequencies in all sectors of all cells for a portion of the time of
each frame.

However, if we reused all frequencies in all sectors of all cells for the entire frame, then we’d
have excessive co-channel interference at the edges of our cells. (OFDMA doesn’t have the
interference rejection characteristics of CDMA.)

So we don’t use all frequencies in all sectors of all cells all of the time. Instead, we use all
frequencies in all sectors of all cells for a fraction of the time, serving clients who are NOT at the
cell edge, but instead are close to the base station and can receive signals at low power, with
reduced co-channel interference. Let’s illustrate how it works.

207
 WiMAX
WiMAX Frequency
Frequency Reuse
Reuse Modes
Modes
DEPLOYMENT
DEPLOYMENT MODES
MODES PER
PER 802.16M*
802.16M*

® 1, 3, 1: Frequency reuse of (1,1) with 3 sectors/site, all

sectors are assigned the same frequency
® 1, 3, 3: Frequency reuse of (1,3) with 3 sectors/site,
each sector is assigned a unique frequency channel
® 1, 6, 3: Frequency reuse of (1,3) with 6 sectors/site
® 1, 4, 2: Frequency reuse of (1,2) with 4 sectors/site
® 1, 4, 1: Frequency reuse of (1,1) with 4 sectors/site
® 1, 6, 1: Frequency reuse of (1,1) with 6 sectors/site

*Per IEEEC802.16m-07/-20 – Advanced Air Interface TG (02-23-2007 Ó 2005 ®

208
 Possible
Possible Reuse
Reuse with
with PUSC
PUSC
1,
1, 3,
3, 1:
1: 11 SITE,
SITE, 33 SECTORS,
SECTORS, 11 CHANNEL
CHANNEL

3 PUSC Segments: F1, F2, F3

F2 F3

Total Bandwidth of SOFDMA Channel

F1

F1 F2 F3

Ó 2005 ®

So there are several possible frequency reuse plans that feature PUSCs. Here is a simple one
to get us started, and we’ll show other PUSC plans in the succeeding slides.

This approach uses ONLY PUSCs. It’s really quite similar to an approach where one might use
three-sectored antennas and three channels.

209
OFDMA
OFDMA Allocation
Allocation Hierarchy
Hierarchy
Frame
Complete Transmission Set (D/L or U/L)
Zone
Complete Logical Portion of a Frame

PUSC Zone FUSC Zone

Burst
Two Dimensional (time and frequency) Allocation of Slots
Sub-channel
Symbol Frequency Domain
Time Domain FUSC = 48 Tones
PUSC = Two - 14 Tone Clusters

Slot
Minimum Data Allocation Unit

PUSC D/L Slot FUSC D/L Slot

2 Symbols x 1 Sub-channel 1 Symbol x 1 Sub-channel

Ó 2005 ®

When deploying Mobile WiMAX, users are allocated capacity in the form of slots. The slots are
made up of sets of tones. How the tones sets are assembled is a function of the Zone. PUSC
Zones use clusters of tones to create sub-channels, FUSC Zones distribute the tones over the
entire channel bandwidth—no clusters.

210
 OFDMA
OFDMA with
with Frequency
Frequency Reuse
Reuse of
of one
one
PERMUTATION
PERMUTATION ZONES
ZONES
® Sub-carrier Permutations:
® Fully Used Sub-carriers (FUSC)
w Coverage close to site
w Uses all sub-carriers during a F1 F2
portion of the frame PUSC Permutation Zone PUSC Permutation Zone

® Partially Used Sub-carriers (PUSC)

w Edge coverage (higher FUSC FUSC
interference) Permutation Zone Permutation Zone

w Uses a partial set of non-

overlapping sub-carriers
Total Bandwidth of SOFDMA Channel

FUSC
Permutation Zone
PUSC F1 PUSC F2 PUSC F3
Full Usage Sub-carrier, used in all cells PUSC Permutation Zone
F3

t Ó 2005 ®

Although the PUSC sub-channels are shown as adjacent tone sets in the above illustration, they
are actually formed into clusters of tones and distributed across the channel bandwidth in a non-
contiguous manner. We will show two methods of mixing PUSCs and FUSCs on the next two
slides.

This approach is featured in the WiMAX Forum’s white papers on Mobile WiMAX. All cells
nominally use the same 10 MHz channel, so it is nominally “Frequency Reuse of One.”

In this approach, we use omnidirectional antennas. The FUSC will be used towards the end of
each frame to serve subscribers who are close to the base station. Even though adjacent cells
use the same frequencies, Co-channel interference is minimized by reducing the transmit power.

We use PUSC Zones at an earlier time of each frame, using the most bandwidth efficient
modulation schemes for users at the edge of coverage. The three adjacent base stations, shown
above, are assigned three different PUSC segments. Since their neighbors use different PUSC
segments, there is reduced co-channel interference.

This is essentially a plan where we have three-cell reuse during part of a frame (the PUSC part),
and use one-cell reuse during another part of the frame (the FUSC part).

211
OFDMA
OFDMA with
with Frequency
Frequency Reuse
Reuse of
of one
one
AN
AN ALTERNATE
ALTERNATE APPROACH
APPROACH
® Fully Used Sub-carriers (FUSC)
w Coverage close to site
w Uses all sub-carriers during a
portion of the frame
PUSC3 PUSC1 PUSC3 PUSC1
® Partially Used Sub-carriers (PUSC)
w Edge coverage (higher
interference)
FUSC
w Uses a partial set of non- FUSC

overlapping sub-carriers
PUSC2 PUSC2
Total Bandwidth of SOFDMA Channel
PUSC3 PUSC1

PUSC 1 PUSC 2 PUSC 3 FUSC

Full Usage Sub-carrier, used in all sectors

PUSC2

t Ó 2005 ®

Another proposed use of PUSC and FUSC and Frequency Reuse of One is shown here.

In this approach, all base stations use sectored antennas. All sectors are allowed to send on all
sub-channels (FUSC) during some portion of each frame (towards the end), to serve clients that
are close to the base station. PUSC Zones are used earlier in the frame, from the sectored
antennas, to serve clients at the edge.

All of these plans are being tested at this stage of the Mobile WiMAX lifecycle. Most vendors
and carriers who run these expensive field tests are keeping their key design results very quiet,
as proprietary design information that they have paid dearly to acquire.

212
 1,
1, 3,
3, 11 pUsc/fusc
pUsc/fusc Frame
Frame
Interference Mitigation PUSC Zone
with PUSCs!
Sector 3

High potential 3-b FUSC Zone

Inter-sector
Interference
in FUSC Zone! 1-b 3-c
3-a
Sector 1 1-c
2-c
1-a
2-b

2-a Sector 2

1-a 1-b

2-a
2-b
1-c 2-c 3-c
3-a 3-b

Ó 2005 ®

The actual PUSCs at the coverage edge are not contiguous as shown in the illustration. They
are pseudo-randomly distributed across the channel bandwidth. The illustration shows three
sectors on the same channel, transmitting simultaneously.

213
 Example
Example Mobile
Mobile WiMAX
WiMAX System
System
GENERAL
GENERAL ASSUMPTIONS
ASSUMPTIONS

Source: WiMAX Forum, “Mobile WiMAX Part 1: A Technical Overview

and Performance Evaluation”, August 2006. Ó 2005 ®

The WiMAX Forum has published several white papers on Mobile WiMAX. These white papers
reside on the WiMAX Forum web site for free download, and also reside on the WiMAX Network
Designer certification boot camp companion CD.

The white papers model a Mobile WiMAX network, and study its performance. In the model,
they assume the parameters that are tabulated here.

We include these tables as one specific example of one specific design of a mobile WiMAX
network.

214
 Mobile
Mobile WiMAX
WiMAX
EXAMPLE
EXAMPLE LINK
LINK BUDGET
BUDGET

Mobile WiMax Link

Budget--Downlink

Source: WiMAX Forum, “Mobile WiMAX Part 1: A Technical Overview

and Performance Evaluation”, August 2006. Ó 2005 ®

Here are some of the specifications of the WiMAX-Forum modeled mobile WiMAX network.

Instructions:
Open the spreadsheet and observe the details of the Mobile WiMAX link budget.

215
 Need
Need More
More on
on
Frequency
Frequency Reuse
Reuse ??

® The topic of frequency reuse

planning for mobile WiMAX
is a very hot research topic
® Vendors will test alternate PUSC
designs, and keep their results secret
® The WiMAX Forum Carrier Working
Group is a good source of public
information

Ó 2005 ®

The topic of frequency reuse planning for mobile WiMAX is a very hot research topic. Vendors
are doing field tests to gather empirical information on the effectiveness of the PUSC options.

Vendors will compete to distinguish themselves with proprietary designs in the early going, so
public information will be scarce. However, if you work closely with a vendor, and sign a non-
disclosure agreement, you may be able to get that vendor’s design information.

The WiMAX Forum Carrier Working Group is a good source of public information.
Additional discussion on this point is beyond the scope of this course.

216
 Lesson
Lesson 77 Review/Quiz
Review/Quiz

4.58
1. The D/R ratio for a reuse factor (k) of 7 is_______.
2. Given a CPE with 100 mW output, using 128 of the
9 dB.
1024 tones, the OFDMA gain is _____
3. Using SOFDMA, increasing the bandwidth
number of the tones.
increases the ________
28 PUSC sub-
4. One downlink sub-channel contains ___
48 FUSC sub-carriers.
carriers or ___
reduce the data rate and
5. Uplink PUSCs _________
increase the C/I performance at cell edge.
________

Ó 2005
°
®

217
 Lesson
Lesson 8:
8:

Timing
Timing And
And Synchronization
Synchronization
For
For WiMAX
WiMAX Networks
Networks

Ó 2005 ®

218
 Lesson
Lesson Objectives
Objectives

® At the end of this lesson, you should be able to:

w Provide an overview of general network timing
architectures
w Describe the unique aspects of timing in a
WiMAX network
w Compare per site GPS deployment to the IEEE
1588 standard approach

Ó 2005 ®

219
The
The Need
Need For
For Accurate
Accurate Timing
Timing

® Time Domain Accuracy

w Maintain Data Stream Synchronization
w Inter-site Handoff Timing
w Transition Timing (TDD)
® Frequency Domain Accuracy
w Maintain Frequency Stability
w Avoid Long-term Frequency Drift

Both are required for WiMAX Implementation

Ó 2005 ®

220
 Reference
Reference Sources
Sources
THE
THE CLOCKING
CLOCKING HIERARCHY
HIERARCHY

Stratum Accuracy
Pull-in-Range Stability
Level Range
1 1 x 10-11 Free-Running by Definition NA
Must be capable of synchronizing to
2 1.6 x 10-8 clock with accuracy of ± 1.6 x 10-8 1 x 10-10/day
Must be capable of synchronizing to
3E 1 x 10-6 clock with accuracy of ± 4.6 x 10-6 1 x 10-8/day
Must be capable of synchronizing to
3 4.6 x 10-6 clock with accuracy of ± 4.6 x 10-6 3.7 x 10-7/day
Must be capable of synchronizing to
4E 32 x 10-6 clock with accuracy of ± 32 x 10-6
Same as Accuracy

Must be capable of synchronizing to

4 32 x 10-6 clock with accuracy of ± 32 x 10-6
Same as Accuracy

Ó 2005 ®

221
 Clocking
Clocking System
System EXAMPLE
EXAMPLE
DESPOTIC
DESPOTIC STRATUM
STRATUM 11

Link Failure Stratum 1

Holdover Mode Stratum 2 Stratum 2

(Free-running)

Stratum 3 Stratum 3 Stratum 3 Stratum 3

® Higher Stratum Clocks discipline lower Stratum Clocks via a synchronization chain
® The synchronization chain is based on TDM core networks distributing clocking
® Lower Stratum clocks free-run when the chain is temporarily broken

Problem:
Modern core networks (such as WiMAX) are moving to All-IP, typically
over Ethernet. This causes the synchronization chain to be broken!
Ó 2005
°
®

222
 Accurate
Accurate Clocking
Clocking For
For WiMAX
WiMAX
IMPORTANT
IMPORTANT FOR
FOR FDD,
FDD, CRITICAL
CRITICAL FOR
FOR TDD
TDD
Downlink Uplink Downlink Uplink Downlink

Site 1

Frequency
Site 2 T R T R T
T T T T T
G G G G G

Site 3

Site 4
Time
Burst Guard Times
Illustration: Four Co-channel Sites

Need for Accurate clocking:

Frequency
® Sites must time-align D/L and U/L bursts
to reduce co-channel interference
® OFDM requires accurate/stable frequency
in order to recover the transmitted data
Ó 2005 ®

Without an accurate clocking source to discipline the Base Stations and Remotes, both timing
and frequency would drift over time.

223
 Frequency
Frequency Offset
Offset Example
Example
REQUIREMENT:
REQUIREMENT: LESS
LESS THAN
THAN 2%
2% OFFSET
OFFSET
Maximum Frequency Offset between Subscriber and Base Station
1. Determine the tone bandwidth (Channel BW/ # of tones)
2. Determine maximum tone frequency offset (2% · sub-carrier BW)
3. Determine maximum frequency offset (max. tone freq. offset/Operating frequency)

Example: 256 OFDM, 7 MHz BW @ 3.5 GHz

Required frequency accuracy @ 0.156 ppm
OFDM Power Spectrum

Base Station Rx Frequency Subscriber Tx Frequency

f0 - 4/T f0 - 3/T f0 - 2/T f0 - 1/T f0 f0 + 1/T f0 + 2/T f0 + 3/T f0 + 4/T

Ó 2005
°
®

OFDM is a multi-carrier approach. It packs multiple carriers, each of which carry a small portion
of the entire data stream, into a small channel.
Because the carriers are precisely placed with separation of 1/T (where T is the symbol period),
each of the carriers has a null at the center frequencies of all adjacent carriers. In other words,
we have made them orthogonal – and the result is that we don’t need to separate them with
guard bands. We get the efficiency of a good modulation scheme with the longer symbol times
that can tolerate the typical delay spreads.

In fixed WiMAX systems, we’re going to use OFDM systems with 256 carriers. In mobile
WiMAX, we’re going to use a Scalable OFDM with (typically) 1024 carriers.

These systems are easy enough to build because we’re not modulating each carrier
independently. Instead, we’re going to use an Inverse Fast Fourier Transform (IFFT) to convert
(digitally) our data bits into the composite modulated radio signal, and we’re going to use a Fast
Fourier Transform (FFT) in the receiver to decompose the composite radio signal into its
constituent parts (and recover the data bits).

224
 Timing
Timing Requirements
Requirements
MAJOR
MAJOR WIRELESS
WIRELESS TECHNOLOGIES*
TECHNOLOGIES*

System Frequency Time Accuracy

Accuracy
CDMA2000 5 x 10-8 1 ms GPS (10 ms holdover)
GSM 5 x 10-8 N/A
UMTS (FDD) 5 x 10-8 N/A
UMTS (TDD) 5 x 10-8 2.5 ms
WiMAX (FDD) 8 x 10-6 N/A
WiMAX (TDD) 8 x 10-6 1 ms GPS (25 ms holdover)

Ó 2005 ®
*Table values from Symmetricom application brief

225
Clocking
Clocking Techniques
Techniques For
For WiMAX
WiMAX
GETTING
GETTING ACCURATE
ACCURATE TIMING
TIMING TO
TO BASE
BASE STATIONS
STATIONS

1. Place a station clock with built-in GPS receiver at each

Base Station
w GPS Discipline provides Stratum 1 accuracy
w Significant deployment cost per site
w Line-of-Sight to GPS satellites required
2. Use a master clock and provide timing to Base Stations
via IEEE 1588
w Reduced deployment cost
w Not as accurate as GPS
w New standard—may not be ready for prime time

Ó 2005 ®

226
 GPS
GPS Disciplined
Disciplined Station
Station Clock
Clock
CURRENT
CURRENT WIMAX
WIMAX NETWORK
NETWORK ARCHITECTURE
ARCHITECTURE
GPS Satellite

GPS
Receiver
Ethernet

Station Clock

GPS To Core Network

Receiver Layer 2
Switch

Station Clock

GPS
Receiver

Station Clock

Ó 2005 ®

227
IEEE
IEEE 1588:
1588: Precision
Precision Timing
Timing Protocol
Protocol
FEEDING
FEEDING CLOCK
CLOCK OVER
OVER ASYNCHRONOUS
ASYNCHRONOUS LINKS
LINKS

® A new standard for maintaining clocking discipline

clocking over Packet-based core networks
® Still in draft form at this time
® Eliminates the need for GPS receivers at each
Base Station
® Defines a set of system components:
w IEEE 1588 Grandmaster Clock (Network Core)
w IEEE 1588 Slave Clock (Base Station)

Ó 2005 ®

228
IEEE
IEEE 1588
1588 Clock
Clock Distribution
Distribution
NETWORK
NETWORK ARCHITECTURE
ARCHITECTURE

Ethernet

IEEE 1588
Slave Clock

Layer 2
Switch

IEEE 1588
Slave Clock
GPS
Receiver

Layer 2
IEEE 1588
Slave Clock Switch
IEEE 1588
Grandmaster Clock

To Core Network
Ó 2005 ®

229
 Lesson
Lesson 9:
9:

WiMAX PERFORMANCE
AND COVERAGE
CONSIDERATIONS

Ó 2005 ®

230
 Lesson
Lesson Objectives
Objectives
At the end of this lesson, you should be able to:
® Explain and follow each step of DoceoTech’s WiMAX
Three-Phase Network Design process
® List eight WiMAX-specific network design considerations
® Model a flat-earth WiMAX network with the DoceoTech
Design spreadsheet, and determine sensitivity of the
estimated economic payback to changes in market and
technical factors
® Determine cell density required for a desired level of
service, performance, and coverage.
® Determine site selection criteria
® Choose backhaul options to support throughput
requirements

Ó 2005 ®

231
 W
WiiMax
Max Network
Network Design
Design (1)
(1)
WIMAX-SPECIFIC
WIMAX-SPECIFIC CONSIDERATIONS
CONSIDERATIONS

Partially Used
Additional gain in link budget
Sub-carriers (PUSC)
Affects user throughput in at
Adaptive Modulation
various coverage distances;
and Coding
affects capacity plan
Adaptive per frame Capacity planning in each sector
Uplink/Downlink based on total, rather than
boundary separate, UL/DL needs
AAS and MIMO AAS: Added gain in link budget
antenna systems MIMO: Added gain and capacity

Ó 2005 ®

You may have experience with non-WiMAX fixed-network design, or with cellular system design.
You may wonder what are the specific differences when designing a WiMAX network. These
two slides summarize the WIMAX specific network design considerations.

(Some, like AAS and MIMO, are technologies that are not truly unique to WiMAX, but they
happen to be deployed in volume first in WiMAX networks. Others, like Adaptive Modulation and
Coding, are used in other cellular networks, but WiMAX is the first fixed-wireless network to use
them in volume.)

We won’t teach these network design features while presenting these two slides. We will explain
each approach in more detail elsewhere in this lesson or in the course. But the two slides do
provide a good summary of the WIMAX-specific network design considerations.

232
 WiMax
WiMax Network
Network Design
Design (2)
(2)
WIMAX-SPECIFIC
WIMAX-SPECIFIC CONSIDERATIONS
CONSIDERATIONS

Flexibility in channel
Many options to consider when
sizes, sector counts
planning reuse
and reuse plans
Could have extensive future
Quality of Service
impact on network design

Automatic Repeat Better receive sensitivity in link

Request (ARQ) budget

OFDMA reuse factor of Interesting channel planning for

One mobile WiMAX

Ó 2005 ®

You may have experience with non-WiMAX fixed-network design, or with cellular system design.
You may wonder what are the specific differences when designing a WiMAX network. These
two slides summarize the WIMAX specific network design considerations.

(Some, like AAS and MIMO, are technologies that are not truly unique to WiMAX, but they
happen to be deployed in volume first in WiMAX networks. Others, like Adaptive Modulation and
Coding, are used in other cellular networks, but WiMAX is the first fixed-wireless network to use
them in volume.)

We won’t teach these network design features while presenting these two slides. We will explain
each approach in more detail elsewhere in this lesson or in the course. But the two slides do
provide a good summary of the WIMAX-specific network design considerations.

233
 THE
THE DoceoTech
DoceoTech®® THREE-
THREE- PHASE
PHASE
DESIGN
DESIGN APPROACH
APPROACH
Pure theoretical design based on “flat earth”
homogeneous design
First
phase - Useful for understanding system
performance, impact of changes, and
financial analysis
Use theoretical design inputs to begin looking
Second at real world issues
phase

Final system coverage and capacity design

Third based on terrain, morphology, and high-
phase resolution demographics

Ó 2005 ®

DoceoTech recommends a three-phase approach to WiMAX Network Design.

We will follow this approach for the next 12 hours of the course, following a few case studies
from beginning to end.

In the first phase, we try a rough-cut, flat-earth theoretical design for your market. We ignore
topology, terrain, and other considerations in order to do a simple analysis. The output of phase
1 is an understanding of the scale and scope of your network design, and a quantified estimate
of the economics of your network, including a payback on your investment. At the end of phase
1, you will decide whether the network opportunity is promising enough for you to continue to the
second and third phase – versus whether you should stop and try to improve the financial
situation before you proceed.

The phase 1 analysis is performed with a spreadsheet.

In the second phase, you will adjust the spreadsheet, flat-earth model to consider real-world
issues. You will look at available mounting assets, terrain, foliage, and refine your design
approach. You will consider your frequency and channel plans.

In the third phase, you will complete a thorough RF analysis and design, choosing specific
mounting or construction sites, channels assignments for each site and sector, and model the
network thoroughly with an RF design tool.

234
 PHASE
PHASE ONE
ONE

Develop an understanding of system needs

through a high level “spreadsheet” design

Spreadsheet: Spreadsheet:
Coverage-Capacity—Power Law DoceoTech Design

Ó 2005 ®

For the next few hours, we’re going to use the DoceoTech Design spreadsheet to perform the
flat-earth analysis of the proposed WiMAX network. This analysis gives us tremendous insight
to the high-level WiMAX network design. It also tells you whether the WiMAX opportunity is
financially attractive enough to bother performing phase 2 and phase 3 analysis.

The “Doeceotech Design” spreadsheet is a complex tool with many tabs. So, we will introduce
many of the features of this tool through the use of the “Coverage-Capacity—Power Law”
spreadsheet before moving to the “Doeceotech Desogn” spreadsheet.

235
Flat
Flat earth:
earth: inputs
inputs and
and outputs
outputs

Spreadsheet Inputs

DoceoTech Design DoceoTech Design DoceoTech Design DoceoTech Design

Link Budgets Tab Financial Inputs Tab Network Inputs Tab Market Inputs Tab

® Base Station Equipment ® CAPEX ® BS and CPE HAAT ® Penetration Rate

® Customer Premises Equipment ® OPEX ® Operating frequency ® Market coverage
® Equipment Configuration ® Capacity ® Oversubscription
® Link margin assumptions ® Mobility issues ® Monthly Service fees

Spreadsheet Outputs

DoceoTech Design DoceoTech Design DoceoTech Design DoceoTech Design

End of Plan End of Plan End of Plan Payback Analysis
Coverage Sites Capacity Sites Total Sites

® Sites required to satisfy Sites required to satisfy Combination of coverage Breakeven point for
coverage, based on inputs demand, based on inputs and capacity sites system
® Based on COST 231 model

Ó 2005 ®

236
Research
Research Topics
Topics for
for Phase
Phase One
One

® Regulated Spectrum
® Equipment
® Area to be served
® Customer requirements
® Customer demographics
® Customer count
® Budget for network

Ó 2005 ®

237
 SPECTRUM
SPECTRUM

® Operating frequency determines coverage

w Higher frequencies propagate less distance,
all other variables remaining constant
w Unlicensed frequencies are both power and
interference-limited
® Amount of spectrum determines capacity
w Total spectrum/reuse plan = spectrum per
site or sector
DoceoTech Design
Network Inputs Tab

Ó 2005 ®

Overview:
The provided spreadsheet is a tool used to perform a top-down analysis of a system design.
The inputs come from marketing and engineering groups. The primary output is the payback
period on investment.

The operating frequency and HAAT will provide a coverage estimate for a given homogenous
propagation environment. The bandwidth and modulation scheme will provide a capacity
estimate for a given coverage area.

Instructions:
Open “DoceoTech Design” spreadsheet found in Student CD.
Select “Network Inputs” Tab.
Input the following:
Carrier Frequency = 2600 MHz
Leave other variables at current values, for now.

238
 DEFINE
DEFINE SYSTEM
SYSTEM OPERATING
OPERATING
PARAMETERS
PARAMETERS
® Base Station (BS) power
® CPE power
® Antenna System Gain
® CPE location
® Fade margin
® Building attenuation margin
® Throughput requirements
® System Balance DoceoTech Design
Link Budgets Tab

Ó 2005 ®

Overview:
A link budget must now be performed, based on manufacturer's equipment specifications and
system configuration. An important output at this point is the is the Balanced Path Loss.

Instructions:
Select the “Link Budgets” Tab.
Input the following parameters (other parameters remain the same):
Output Power = 10 Watts (Base Station), 1 Watt (CPE)
No cable loss
BS Antenna gain = 20 dBi
Rx sensitivity = -93 dBm (BPSK), -87 dBm (QPSK), -81 dBm (16-QAM)
Uplink Diversity Gain = 6 dB
Building loss = 10 dB
Fade Margin = 6 dB

239
 SYSTEM
SYSTEM BALANCE
BALANCE
® WiMAX is a two-way system
w Base Station power greatly exceeds CPE power
w CPE power limited by
w Regulatory rules and human SAR (Specific
absorption rate) limits
w Battery-power limitations in computer or
handheld device
w Generally, a licensed service BS can operate at
up to 2 KW, while a CPE can operate at less
than 1 Watt
® The base station power must be set at a level
that provides coverage commensurate
with the CPE’s ability to talk back
DoceoTech Design
Link Budgets Tab

Ó 2005 ®

Path balance is an important parameters when designing for symmetrical link, such as T-carrier
replacement. Residential broadband access allows for asymmetrical links with higher speed on
the downlink.

240
 AREA
AREA TO
TO BE
BE SERVED
SERVED

<single BS coverage,
Single small area or >single BS coverage

Multiple small areas Acceptable for fixed systems

Large contiguous area Necessary for mobility

Ó 2005 ®

The inputs from a Marketing department are, or should be, based on a business plan for the
system to be deployed.

What type of area are you serving?

241
 CUSTOMER
CUSTOMER REQUIREMENTS
REQUIREMENTS
® What service is customer expecting?
w Digital Subscriber Line equivalent
w Multi megabit
w Mobile
® Overbooking tolerance
w Like Erlang tables in a voice network,
overbooking describes the peak vs.
average capacity of the network
w No system is designed for 100% use
by 100% of customers simultaneously

DoceoTech Design
Market Inputs Tab

Ó 2005 ®

Instructions:
Observe the Service Level hierarchy and service pricing schedule, from high speed access @
1.5 Mbps to the low end of service @ 384 Kbps.
Observe the five-year Coverage Objectives, for Dense Urban, Urban, Suburban and Rural.
Input an “Overbooking Factor” of 20. (Oversubscription of the backhaul facilities in the network
to accommodate for bursty traffic.)

242
 CUSTOMER
CUSTOMER DEMOGRAPHICS
DEMOGRAPHICS
® Used to identify what constitutes a customer
w Can include income, households, businesses,
vehicular counts, population count, etc.
® The above is weighted into a representative
customer
w This weighting can then be applied to census
or other demographic data to determine
potential customers per area

DoceoTech Design
Demographics Tab

Ó 2005 ®

Demographic data provides the information required by Marketing to estimate “Market

Penetration”. The “ Area and Demographics” Tab provides a listing of the top 100 Metropolitan
Service Areas (MSAs). The information is current as of the 2000 census.

The current spreadsheet takes some census data on population of each city it models, and
representation of the percent of each city that is urban, suburban, and rural.

Instructions: Please open the “Demographics” tab on the spreadsheet and observe the data, but
do not change any of the data at this time.

243
 SYSTEM
SYSTEM USE
USE DICTATES
DICTATES WEIGHTING
WEIGHTING OF
OF
DEMOGRAPHIC
DEMOGRAPHIC VARIABLES
VARIABLES

® Households or businesses,
depending on served segment
Fixed
® Income or revenue
system
® Standard Industrial Classification Code

® Vehicle miles
Mobile ® Population
system ® Businesses
® Households

Ó 2005 ®

Your marketing organization may be able to purchase fine demographic information. They will
be interested in different types of information for fixed vs. mobile networks.

244
 CUSTOMER
CUSTOMER COUNT
COUNT
® Demographic weighting indicates the location
and total number of subscribers
® % Market penetration indicates how many
customers are planned each year
w Each will use a portion of the system
capacity

DoceoTech Design
Market Inputs Tab

Ó 2005 ®

Overview:
The Marketing department will evaluate demographic data, attempting to define the target
customer based on the demographic variables previously discussed. The output of their efforts
will be an estimation of market penetration over a specific period of time.

Instructions:
Input the “Fifth Year Market Penetration” provided by Marketing: 2.5%

245
 DETERMINE
DETERMINE BASE
BASE STATION
STATION
CAPACITY
CAPACITY AND
AND COVERAGE
COVERAGE
Coverage and Capacity are dependent on:
w Operating parameters
w Frequency
w Antenna heights
w Amount of spectrum Coverage
capacity

w Reuse requirements
w Selected modulation
w Higher order modulation lowers
coverage but increases capacity
w Demand per user DoceoTech Design
Network Inputs Tab

Ó 2005 ®

Some typical Height Above Average Terrain (HAAT) values:

Dense Urban Tower – 30m
Urban Tower – 30m
Suburban Tower – 45m
Rural Tower – 80 m
CPE
mobile – 1m
indoor 1 st floor – 2m
outdoor residential – 8m
commercial outdoor – 5m and up

Instructions:
Input the “Edge of Coverage Throughput” values
BPSK – 2500 Kbps
QPSK – 5000 Kbps
16-QAM – 15000 Kbps

246
 Let’s
Let’s do
do some
some What
What If’s:
If’s:
MODULATION
MODULATION vs.vs. COVERAGE
COVERAGE
AND
AND CAPACITY
CAPACITY
® High order modulations require greater C/I+N,
thus requiring more power or reduced coverage
distances
® Since WiMAX supports adaptive modulation
users may experience different throughput
depending on location
C 64-QAM
Frequency: 2.6 GHz to 3.5 GHz
Go back to 2.6 GHz 16-QAM
HAAT: 2 m to 5 m QPSK DoceoTech Design
Go back to 2 m BPSK Network Inputs Tab

I+N Ó 2005
°
®

Instructions:
Change the frequency from 2600 MHz to 3500 MHz. What is the effect on coverage and
capacity?
Change value back to 2600 MHz.
Change the CPE HAAT to 5 meters. Again, what happens to coverage and capacity?
Change HAAT back to 2 meters.

247
 COVERAGE
COVERAGE WILL
WILL BE
BE HIGHLY
HIGHLY
DEPENDENT
DEPENDENT ON
ON CPE
CPE LOCATION
LOCATION

Externally mounted CPE provides greater

range than indoor CPE
w Indoor CPE:
w Typically lower elevation
w Building attenuation loss CPE

w Poor antenna performance

w Outdoor CPE:
w Requires a truck-roll
w Increases CPE cost
w May reduce market penetration
Ó 2005 ®

Indoor installations:
Good News: Indoor CPE allows for self-installation of terminal equipment.
Bad News: Indoor equipment has poor antenna performance and wall penetration loss.

Outdoor installations:
Good News: Outdoor installations increase coverage area.
Bad News: Outdoor installations require an outdoor antenna to be installed, increasing cost of
CPE deployment.

248
 Exercise:
Exercise: outdoor
outdoor vs.
vs. indoor
indoor CPE
CPE
Instructions:
1. Record payback period (“Payback Analysis” tab) for Los Angeles with current configuration
2. Save this spreadsheet as “Indoor2outdoor Design.xls”
3. Modify the system values (shown below) for an outdoor antenna implementation
4. Record payback period for Los Angeles with new configuration
5. Close this spreadsheet and return to the original Doceotech Design spreadsheet

(54) months
Payback period for Los Angeles using indoor equipment: _______

DoceoTech Design DoceoTech Design DoceoTech Design DoceoTech Design

Link Budgets Tab Financial Inputs Tab Network Inputs Tab Market Inputs Tab

® CPE Antenna gain = 15 dBi
® Building loss = 0 dB
® CPE cable loss = 1 dB
® Increase CPE cost to $350
® Add truck-roll: $150
® CPE height = 5m ® Reduce monthly fees
® 1500 Kbps =
$75
® 768 Kbps = $50
® 512 Kbps = $40
® 384 Kbps = $25

62 months
Payback period for Los Angeles using outdoor equipment: _______

Ó 2005
°
®

Instructions: Change the CPE to an outdoor antenna system.

1. Select the “Link Budgets” tab. Change the CPE antenna gain to 15 dBi, change building loss
to 0 dB and add 1 dB of cable loss to the CPE.
2. Select the “Financial Inputs” tab. Increase the CPE cost by an extra $100 to account for the
external antenna and mounting hardware. Add an additional $150 for installation.
3. Select the “Network Inputs” tab and change the CPE height to 5 meters.
4. Select the Market Inputs” tab and reduce the monthly fees for service:
• 1500 Kbps = $75
• 768 Kbps = $50
• 512 Kbps = $40
• 384 Kbps = $25
5. Determine the payback period for the stated location.
6. Make sure that you restore to original values. The spreadsheet will be used later in a case
study.

249
 TOTAL
TOTAL SITES
SITES REQUIRED
REQUIRED
TO
TO COVER
COVER AREA
AREA
® Area to be covered is known
® Average coverage of each site is known
® The total sites required to cover the area is
simply Area/site coverage
w Example
w1000 sq miles to be covered
w10 sq mi covered per site
w100 sites are required to cover area

DoceoTech Design
Coverage Sites Tab

Ó 2005 ®

After all parameters associated with equipment performance (transmit receive characteristics
giving rise to max path loss) and average system deployment (tower and CPE height and
location) are entered, the model uses this information to calculate the number of sites required to
cover the area (specified as the percentage of area to be covered in the market inputs
worksheet).
The number of sites required for coverage will be smaller for less complex modulations, because
these less complex modulations require less S/N+I, thus have greater range.
The model determines the coverage achievable by a site in each morphology, and calculates the
area covered by this radius. It then divides the area to be covered by the per site coverage, and
determines how many sites are required to meet coverage objectives. (see example on the
slide).
The model output is shown on the coverage sites worksheet. The number of sites by
morphology and modulation is calculated and totaled.
The smallest site count will ALWAYS be achieved with the simplest modulation! In the case of
the model, BPSK will always result in the smallest site count.

250
 COVERAGE
COVERAGE ADDRESSES
ADDRESSES ONLY
ONLY
HALF
HALF THE
THE DESIGN
DESIGN

In order to determine if the covered area has

sufficient capacity to serve the user base
within, several factors must be considered:
® Coverage area per BS
® Capacity per BS
® Customer demand
® Overbooking ratio
® Number of users per area

Ó 2005 ®

However, coverage is only one aspect of system design. The designer must assure that the
system can provide sufficient capacity to serve the customers in the covered area.

251
 DESIGNING
DESIGNING FOR
FOR CAPACITY
CAPACITY
® Covering an area is insufficient to guarantee
service quality
® The capacity in an area must be engineered to
meet the demand in the covered area
® Capacity may be met by allocating more channels
to a site (if available) or by reducing the coverage
of a site and adding additional sites to the network
w New sites must both add back lost coverage and
add capacity in appropriate places

DoceoTech Design
Capacity Sites Tab

Ó 2005 ®

In the Los Angeles market, for example, coverage of the defined area can be achieved by 1809
sites operating at BPSK. However to support the customer demand (capacity) required of the
network, 3494 BPSK sites would be required.

Note that fewer sites are required to provide capacity at QAM and 16QAM modulation rates. In
fact, capacity needs are met with only 582 sites operating at 16QAM. Unfortunately, these 582
sites cover only a small fraction of the area to be served.

In the LA example, the best compromise between coverage and capacity occurs using QAM
modulation. Here the number of capacity sites is larger than the number of sites required for
coverage, thus assuring complete area coverage and providing sufficient capacity to meet user
demand.

The model does this analysis and reports the results on the next worksheet tab.

252
 COVERAGE
COVERAGE OR
OR CAPACITY
CAPACITY LIMITED?
LIMITED?
Coverage Area 1 Coverage Area 2

Coverage Limited Capacity Limited

Lower customer density than Higher customer density than
required by deployment! required by deployment!
Result: No ROI Result: Low Throughput
Fix: Less Base Stations/km Fix: More Base Stations/km

Ó 2005
°
®

Analyzing the number of sites required for coverage and capacity can be informative. The
optimal system is one where the coverage requirements and capacity needs within the area
covered result in an identical number of sites. If the number of sites required for coverage
exceeds the number of sites required for capacity, the system is “Coverage Limited”. This
means that the system as deployed for covering the area will have excess (unused) capacity.
Unused capacity costs capital and expense $$, but does not generate income. In this case it
would be prudent to increase the subscriber count or usage, resulting in more demand and a
higher revenue stream.
A system that requires more sites for capacity than coverage is “Capacity Limited” meaning the
demand on the system exceeds the capacity it can provide. This is generally a preferable
situation, because the deployed facilities are being efficiently used and generate maximum
revenue.
Along these same conceptual lines, it can be important to look at the number of
coverage/capacity sites by morphology. If any area seems ‘out of kilter” it may indicate that the
area defined for coverage is too large or small. This can occur easily in rural areas where if the
defined area is too large for the demand generated by a small population base, the system
cannot be economic. Changing the %area covered may cure the problem.

253
 SYSTEM
SYSTEM ECONOMICS
ECONOMICS
® Effective system design results in a
profitable system
® CAPEX/OPEX vs. Revenue
® Breakeven point must be consistent
with goals of business plan: 24 – 36
months

DoceoTech Design
Payback Analysis Tab
Summaries Tab
Market Inputs Tab
Financial Inputs Tab

Effective Design Poor Design

Ó 2005 ®

Instructions:
Look first at the Financial Inputs worksheet. This sheet shows the cost variables that must be
included in the model in order to generate the information on the Capex and Opex tabs.

System Revenue is the result of the subscriber usage and pricing information in the Marketing
Inputs worksheet.

Finally, select the “Payback Analysis” Tab.

Notice that the current system configuration is an economic failure.

254
 SPREADSHEET
SPREADSHEET MODEL
MODEL
WHAT
WHAT IT
IT DOES
DOES

• Estimates Engineering Requirements

• Validates Marketing Assumptions
• Evaluates Economic Viability
• Optimizes Solution
• Provides Starting Point for Real-world Modeling

Now It’s Your Turn!

Ó 2005
°
®

Instructions:
Perform a case study using the “Case Study 1” handout in the exercise workbook. (This is the
Orlando, Florida system, that uses the DoceoTech Design spreadsheet.)

Answer the questions on the handout.

255
 Case
Case Study
Study 1:
1: Orland0
Orland0
DoceoTech
DoceoTech Design
Design Spreadsheet
Spreadsheet
15 months
1. How many months to achieve payback?__________
2. What happens to payback interval if we achieve only 5%
Increases to 25 months for QAM
penetration? __________________________
3. What happens to the payback interval if the building
attenuation is 10 dB, rather than the assumed 7 dB?
Increases to 19 months
____________________
4. What happens to the Payback interval if the
Increases to 22 months
oversubscription rate is 10? _____________________
5. What are some causes of variability in payback interval?
Geography, population, pop density, morphology
_________________________________________

Ó 2005
°
®

256
 Modeling
Modeling for
for Mobility
Mobility
® Mobility-specific factors
w Additional loss margins for mobile fading (Short term fast fading)
w Design for overlapping cells
w Design for capacity loss due to extra retransmissions and handoff
® Parameters that must be considered for mobility:
w Frequency reuse factor
w Mobile antenna height of 1.5m, gain of 0dBi
w Base station smart (or MIMO) antenna gain
w Mobile unit output power
w Body loss of operator (3-4dB)
w Oversubscription DoceoTech Design
Payback Analysis Tab
w Any change to economic factors? Summaries Tab
Market Inputs Tab
Financial Inputs Tab

Ó 2005 ®

Instructions:

Start with the completed spreadsheet from the Orlando Case Study 1.
Let’s make some changes that model a mobile WiMAX network.

Additional Loss Margin for mobile fading: On the Link Budget tab, increase the fade margin to 8 dB. Note
that the fades can be much deeper for mobile WiMAX in dense urban areas. The Hata Model corrections
used in the spreadsheet already model 10 dB worse fade margin in urban areas than in rural, and 13 dB
margins in dense urban areas than in rural; even these factors should be drive-tested in your environment
to see if the correction factors and additional fade margin are sufficient for your desired level of service.

Additional Site Overlap: On the Network Inputs tab, change from 0% to 5%.
Capacity loss due to retransmissions and handoff: On the Network Inputs tab, change from 100% to 95%
On the Network Inputs tab, change Average Channels per site to 3, and the CPE or Mobile Height to 1.5
On the Network Inputs tab, change the Carrier Frequency to 2500 MHz
On the Link Budgets tab, set Transmitter Antenna Gain Uplink to 0 dBi, Transmitter Antenna Gain downlink
to 16 dBi, mobile output power to 0.25W, and body loss to 3 dB
On the Link Budgets tab, set Building Loss to 0 dB (providing mobile service to outdoor devices only; we
will change this on the next slide).
On the Marketing tab, set oversubscription factor to 40. (Applications for mobile devices are likely to
generate shorter transaction bursts, and tolerate more oversubscription.)

257
 Case
Case Study
Study 2:
2: Mobile
Mobile WiMAX
WiMAX
DoceoTech
DoceoTech Design
Design Spreadsheet
Spreadsheet
46 months
1. How many months to achieve payback?____________
2. What modulation scheme has positive payback?
________
BPSK Skip
3. What happens to the Payback interval if a MIMO
antenna system yields 25 dBi gain, but the cost of
the base station equipment increases 50%, and
tower lease costs increase 100%?
_______________________
Decreases to 21 months
4. With the MIMO system, what happens to the Payback
interval if the service goal changes to serve in-building
subscribers with building penetration loss of 7 dB?
___________________
Increases to 48 months
Ó 2005
°
®

MIMO consideration:
On the Link Budget tab, change the Downlink antenna gain to 25 dBi.
On the Financial (CAPEX and OPEX) tab, change the base station equipment cost (cell C6) from
$80,000 to $120,000 to model the extra cost of MIMO antenna equipment. And change the Site
Lease cost (cell H30) from $2000 per month to $4000 per month to model the extra cost of
leasing tower space for the larger MIMO antenna complex. What happens to the Payback
interval?

258
 PHASE
PHASE TWO:
TWO:
MOVING
MOVING FROM
FROM AA SPREADSHEET
SPREADSHEET
TOWARD
TOWARD AA REAL
REAL SYSTEM
SYSTEM

® The Spreadsheet tells average behavior of

a uniform system
® You now have to start moving the average
coverage and capacity to a map of the area
w Account for actual location of users
w Account for morphology
w Account for actual tower or building
locations

Ó 2005 ®

Phase 1 is now complete. You have modeled the network, and learned a lot about the
approximate number of sites you need, the approximate spacing of the sites, the approximate
cost, etc.

But all of these are helpful approximations. In Phase 2, we move from the spreadsheet to a real
system design. And of course, the spreadsheet did not quantify the effects of real user locations,
morphology, and building data.

259
 DEVELOP
DEVELOP A
A NETWORK
NETWORK GRID
GRID

® A network grid is an idealized

starting point for system design
w Composed of hexagons, sized
appropriate to coverage of BS
w Can be overlaid on a map and aligned to give
best fit to subscriber density in covered area
or to available site locations
w Each hexagon can naturally be subdivided
into smaller hexagons to identify optimal
position for new capacity sites
w Can be used as a starting point for
developing a reuse plan
Ó 2005 ®

Based on the spreadsheet model in phase 1, you have an approximate idea of the coverage
area of each base station. A helpful phase 2 step is to overlay a series of cells of that
approximate coverage area on your service territory.

We use hexagons as the first-approximation shape of our cell coverage areas. In phase 3 of the
design, we’ll let the RF planning tool tell us the real shape of each cell.

260
 SITE
SITE LOCATION
LOCATION GRID
GRID OVER
OVER MAP
MAP
1. Layout grid
2. Locate potential sites
3. Adjust grid

Ó 2005
°
®

You may lay out the site location grid over your coverage area map and it will provide some idea
of the ideal base station locations. Of course, you don’t have ideal mounting assets at the center
of each grid cell. So you’ll want to locate the preferred mounting assets, and adjust the grid for a
next-cut estimate of base station locations.

261
 ADD
ADD DEMOGRAPHIC
DEMOGRAPHIC DATA
DATA

= Businesses/km2

= Households/km2
Ó 2005 ®

Once you have a candidate grid placed, you’ll want to add real demographic and location data to
see where you are coverage limited vs where you are capacity limited.

262
 IDENTIFICATION
IDENTIFICATION OF
OF
AVAILABLE
AVAILABLE BS
BS LOCATIONS
LOCATIONS
® Tower companies
w American Tower
w Spectrasite
w Global Signal
w Crown Castle
w Local Players
® Each of the major entities has an extensive
list of available sites on line
® An alternative is to build to suit, though this
is often fraught with local zoning delays
Ó 2005 ®

263
 COVERAGE
COVERAGE SITE
SITE
SELECTION
SELECTION

Start by selecting sites as close to

the center of each grid point as possible
® It is acceptable to shift grid for improved
alignment with available sites
® Several alternatives should be identified
® Final selection will be based on actual
coverage (based on modeling or empirical
results), cost, and availability

Ó 2005 ®

264
COVERAGE
COVERAGE SITE
SITE OPTIMIZATION:
OPTIMIZATION:
AN
AN ITERATIVE
ITERATIVE PROCESS
PROCESS
Identify Site in
Coverage Area

No
Available No
Available Antenna/Equipment
for Lease? Space

Yes Yes
No Can Site
No
RF Coverage
Adequate? be Zoned?

Yes No Yes

Interconnect
No Use Radio Lease Cost
No
Available? Interconnect? Acceptable?

Yes Yes Yes

Acceptable Site

Ó 2005 ®

265
CAPACITY
CAPACITY SITE
SITE OPTIMIZATION:
OPTIMIZATION:
MORE
MORE ITERATION
ITERATION
Is capacity
sufficient?

No
No Identify new sites
Can channels Return to
be added? coverage flowchart

Yes
No
Space available?

Yes No

Interconnect No Use Radio

Available? Interconnect?

Yes Yes

Acceptable Site

Ó 2005 ®

266
 BACKHAUL

®Each site must be connected to the system

common equipment and to the world
®The capacity of the backhaul need be
commensurate with the capacity of the site
wCan be accomplished through:
wLeased Telco facilities
wLeased microwave facilities
wOwned microwave facilities

Ó 2005 ®

Once your preliminary base station sites are nominated, you’ll want to consider your backhaul
plan to bring the traffic from those sites into the core of your network.

267
 BACKHAUL
BACKHAUL OPTIONS
OPTIONS
® Once a site is implemented, it must
connect its traffic back to a central point
or to the world
1
Point-to-Point M/W

Core Network
3
Point-to-Multipoint M/W
2
Leased Facilities

® Selection of a backhaul method is driven

by numerous considerations
Ó 2005 ®

268
 BACKHAUL
BACKHAUL PROS
PROS AND
AND CONS
CONS

Good News Bad News

Limited capacity and/or high

Leased Telco Can be acquired
recurring cost (T/ E carriers,
facilities most anywhere
SDH/SONET, Ethernet)

Leased Can provide over

microwave 100 MBPS of Not commonly available
facilities capacity

Owned ® Capital Cost

® Capacity
microwave ® Must determine
facilities ® Reliability under availability of path
YOUR control
® Maintenance costs

Ó 2005 ®

The higher sector data rates provided by WiMAX can provide a short break-even time for buying
M/W vs. leasing Telco facilities. As the requirement for leased backhaul facilities moves to DS-
3s, E-3s, SONET and Metro-Ethernet, the recurring cost increase makes M/W facilities an
attractive alternate.

269
 PHASE
PHASE THREE:
THREE:
MOVING
MOVING THE
THE THEORETICAL
THEORETICAL DESIGN
DESIGN
TO
TO THE
THE REAL
REAL WORLD
WORLD

Real world coverage is irregular:

® Based on terrain
® Based on morphology
® This phase uses a propagation model
which accounts for terrain,
morphology, and demographics
® Ideal vs. real world

Ó 2005 ®

Phase 2 is now complete. In phase 1, you modeled the network without much real-world
consideration. In Phase 2, you added some real-world data about your demographics, mounting
assets, and backhaul plans. But you’re still dealing in theoretical propagation models.

You are ready for Phase 3, which uses the RF planning tool to model the real RF propagation.

270
THE
THE SYSTEM
SYSTEM GRID
GRID AND
AND IDENTIFIED
IDENTIFIED SITES
SITES
MUST
MUST NOW
NOW BE
BE ASSESSED
ASSESSED BASED
BASED ON
ON REAL
REAL
PROPAGATION
PROPAGATION
The selected sites must be modeled for actual
coverage and demand using a propagation
prediction model.

Ó 2005 ®

271
 Lesson
Lesson 10:
10:

Coverage and
Performance Planning
with Modeling Tools

Ó 2005 ®

272
 Lesson
Lesson Objectives
Objectives

At the end of this lesson, you should be able to:

® Employ a modeling tool to prepare an RF plan for
your network
® Complete a three-part case study
® Import terrain and clutter databases
® Illustrate the effect of frequency, power, terrain,
clutter and CPE location on coverage

Ó 2005 ®

273
 Data
Data Required
Required in
in
Coverage
Coverage Planning
Planning

w Demographic
Databases
w Terrain
w Clutter (Land Use)
w Buildings

w Base Station Equipment

Equipment Lists
w Customer Premises Equipment
w Antennas
w Transmission Lines

Ó 2005 ®

Databases range in cost.

274
 Demographic
Demographic Data
Data
Demographic data is used to forecast market
penetration and usage, based on:
® Household concentration
® Business concentration
® Vehicular miles (mobile)
® Occupation
® Income
® Marital Status
® Age

Demographic data is also

useful for determining base
station locations, based on
target customer areas.
Ó 2005 ®

275
 Terrain
Terrain Data
Data

Terrain is shown with a partially transparent overlay map.

Ó 2005 ®

Terrain data consists of an X (latitude), Y (longitude), Z (elevation) matrix that shows elevation at
different points in the market area. Propagation models use this data, along with clutter, to
predict signal loss from a base station the a subscriber. It is also used when evaluating sites for
base station placement.

Some sources of Terrain data:

USGS (United States Geological Survey)
EDX
MSI Planet®

276
 Terrain
Terrain Database
Database Resolution
Resolution
DISTANCE
DISTANCE BETWEEN
BETWEEN SAMPLE
SAMPLE POINTS
POINTS
30 arc sec 3 arc sec 0.7 arc sec

Earth Circumference @ 40,087 km

30 arc sec resolution @ 928 meters
10 arc sec resolution @ 309 meters
3 arc sec resolution @ 92.8 meters
1 arc sec resolution @ 30.9 meters
0.7 arc sec resolution @ 21.65 meters
Ó 2005 ®

The resolution values shown above are typical values for terrain elevation databases. The
greater terrain detail provided by higher resolution databases increases accuracy of propagation
models, but can cost also cost more than lower resolution databases.

277
 Clutter
Clutter Data
Data
ALSO
ALSO CALLED
CALLED “MORPHOLOGY”
“MORPHOLOGY” AND
AND “LAND
“LAND USE”
USE”

Suburban (Residential)

Mixed Use

Commercial (Urban)

Ó 2005 ®

Clutter (also called Land Use) is based on land type and usage data for a market area. The
data is used in propagation models to adjust predicted signal levels for each clutter type:
Heavy Urban (Commercial/Industrial)
Urban (Mixed)
Suburban (Residential)
Rural (Open, Agricultural, Forest, Range land)

Clutter data defines an adjustment (correction factor) to each type of land use.
Propagation models can use their own database or import different types of clutter databases:
MapInfo MIF
MSI Planet
USGS GIRAS Wizard (GIRAS—Geographic Information Retrieval and Analysis System)

278
 Building
Building Data
Data

Ó 2005 ®

Accurate clutter data is critical to the accuracy of coverage mapping, but building data can
provide much greater coverage accuracy. This is especially true in the “Urban Canyons” of a
busy city where clutter can only provide limited coverage information.

Building data accurately depicts structure locations and heights in a given area. This allows for
more accurate estimates of signal levels in city “canyons”. The location, material types, and
building dimensions that are detailed in building data are extremely useful for estimating
microcell coverage.

It is also expensive!

279
 Antenna
Antenna and
and Transmission
Transmission
Line
Line Data
Data
Example: Maxrad 5.8 GHz Panel Antenna
Antenna Data: Gain = 13 dBi

• Manufacturer
• Antenna type
• Physical parameters
• Radiation patterns
Elevation Azimuth

Transmission Line Data:

• Manufacturer
• Type
• Physical Characteristics
• Electrical Characteristics
• Loss per length
Ó 2005 ®

Many antenna manufacturers provide antenna pattern information in a format suitable for
importing into a modeling tool. Modeling tools also allow for the creation of antenna patterns
based on manufacturer’s specifications.
A basic list of general coaxial cable characteristics is typically provided in a modeling tool.
Additional cable types can be added to the list, based on manufacturer's specifications.

280
 Propagation
Propagation Model
Model
Considerations
Considerations
Questions when selecting a propagation model:
® Type—Empirical or Physical
® Coverage
w Macrocell
w Microcell
w Indoor
® Accurate Frequency Range
® Necessary Data
w Terrain
w Clutter Type
w Clutter Height
w Clutter Loss
Ó 2005 ®

An appreciation of propagation model parameters is critical to the proper selection and use of a
model for a given environment.

281
 Typical
Typical Propagation
Propagation Models
Models
LIMITATIONS
LIMITATIONS
Minimum Frequency Minimum Ant.
Propagation Model Distance Range (MHz) Height

Free Space + RMD -- 30 – 60,000 --

Okumura - Hata 1 km 100 – 1500 30 m

COST 231 1 km 1500 – 2000 30 m

Walfisch - Ikegami 0.02 km 800 – 2000 4m

Longley - Rice -- 30 – 20,000 --

Anderson 2D -- 30 – 60,000 15 m

IEEE 802.16 (SUI) 100 m 1000 – 4000 --

Ó 2005 ®
RMD = Reflections and Multiple Diffractions

Propagation models may be specific to coverage area size. Okumura – Hata is an example of a
popular macro-cell model. Notice that the minimum distance stated for this model is 1 km.
Micro-cell models are typically based on ray-tracing and require detailed information regarding
the short range propagation environment. An example of a micro-cell model is the Walfisch –
Ikagami model. This model requires details such as average building height, average street
width, building separation and street orientation relative to the direct radio path.

Free Space + RMD: Provides excess path loss due to terrain obstacle and clutter factors.
Appropriate for microwave path design.
Okumura – Hata: Commonly used for cellular systems. Uses clutter categories for path loss.
COST 231: An extension of Okumura – Hata for PCS frequencies.
Walfisch – Ikagami: Commonly used for micro-cells (Shot-range cells).
Longley – Rice: Takes into account detailed terrain features.
Anderson 2D: Similar to free space + RMD model. Uses ray techniques for path loss
calculations. Used for LOS and NLOS path loss.
IEEE 802.16: Empirical data is derived from suburban areas, no correction factors for urban
areas.

282
 Typical
Typical Propagation
Propagation Models
Models
CONTROL
CONTROL DATA
DATA
Clutter Clutter Pass-through
Propagation Model Terrain Buildings
Loss Height Loss

Free Space + RMD X X X X X

Okumura - Hata X -- -- -- --

COST 231 X X -- -- --

Walfisch - Ikegami -- -- -- -- --

Longley - Rice X X -- -- X
Anderson 2D X X X X X
IEEE 802.16 (SUI) -- X -- -- --

X = Improves model prediction

-- = Not used by model
RMD = Reflections and Multiple Diffractions Ó 2005 ®

There are several parameters that can be used by propagation models to improve accuracy of
the prediction. It is important to state that not all models benefits from or even consider these
parameters.
Okumura – Hata is an example of a model that does not benefit from extra information regarding
clutter. This empirical model is based on the type of clutter only! Further information regarding
the clutter is ignored by Okumura – Hata.
Analytical models, such as the Anderson 2D model, can improve the accuracy of the prediction
when extra environmental information is provided.

283
 Approaches
Approaches to
to W
WiiMax
Max
Planning
Planning
Fast-to-Market Contiguous Coverage
Medium
Fast

Considerations: Considerations:
• Individual Sites • Reuse
Slow • Coverage Overlaps
• Varied Coverage
• Rate = 1/Distance
Ó 2005 ®

When deploying WiMax systems, it may not be possible to provide the overlapping coverage
required for mobile radio (cellular) systems. The problems of allocated spectrum, frequency
reuse and the performance requirements may limit initial implementations to isolated base
stations deployed to cover a specific market.

284
 RF
RF Network
Network Design
Design Overview
Overview
Collect Project Data and Setup the Modeling Tool
Local Knowledge is Critical!

Forecast Market Penetration for the Chosen Area

Based on Demographic Data

Determine Optimum Location for the Anchor Site

Based on Customer Forecast and Available Facilities

Use a Modeling Tool to Determine Expected Coverage

Based on Terrain and Clutter

Perform Drive Test to Verify the Propagation Model

Data can be used to Optimize the Model

Ó 2005 ®

The design overview above is a high-level view of a typical “Green Field” implementation.

285
 Modeling
Modeling with
with EDX
EDX
SignalPro
SignalProââ

Ó 2005 ®

There are several excellent modeling tools on the market:

SignalPro® from EDX
Wizard ® from Optimi
Planet ® from Marconi

All of these modeling tools perform the same basic functions necessary for design, deployment
and optimization of various wireless systems. The modeling tool companies can also provide
many of the databases required by these modeling tools.

286
 Using
Using EDX
EDX SignalPro
SignalPro
OVERVIEW
OVERVIEW
Studies and Propagation Models Equipment Configuration Database Type and Location

Select Zoom Area

Define Study Area

Create New Link

Zoom in/out

Run Area Study

Center

Layers

Run Link Study

Add a Site
Run Point Study
Legend

Ó 2005 ®

287
 Using
Using a
a Propagation
Propagation Modeling
Modeling Tool Tool
SETTING
SETTING UP
UP AA PROJECT
PROJECT IN
IN EDX SignalProââ
EDX SignalPro
1. Assemble and Organize Data 2. Create a New Project
q Terrain a. Open SignalPro
q Clutter b. Select “File” > “New Project”
q Buildings c. Name the Project
q Demographic d. Select the type of project
e. Input Geographic location
f. Select “Databases” menu
g. Specify locations of study files
h. Select “Map” > “Map Layers”
i. Add data layers for study

3. Define Equipment Lists

a. Select “RF Systems” > “RF Equipment List”
b. Specify locations of equipment lists
• Antennas
• CPE
• Base Stations
c. Modify/Add equipment list

Ó 2005 ®

The above is a high-level overview of the process of setting up a modeling tool. Although we will
be using EDX SignalPro, the process is similar for other propagation tools.

288
 Starting
Starting a
a New
New Project
Project

Project Name

Ó 2005
°
®

There are two approaches for providing a demo copy of propagation software:
Limited time, usually a 30-day trial, with full functionality.
Limited region, allowing for performing all functions, but in a specific geographic area.

EDX provides a geographically-limited copy of their software. The Eugene, Or. Area is the only
location allowed, but there is no time limit on the software. This allows for a proper evaluation
and the ability to learn propagation modeling.

289
 SignalPro
SignalProââ New
New Project
Project Screen
Screen

Study Area

Ó 2005
°
®

It is common with propagation modeling software to stipulate a study area. This will reduce the
number of calculations required to develop a prediction of propagation characteristics.

290
 Project
Project Templates
Templates

Template Name

Templates:
• Based on Manuf. Specs.
• Simplify Equip. Config.
Ó 2005
°
®

Templates are commonly employed by modeling tools to minimize errors from iterative inputs of
typical system characteristics. Equipment-specific parameters need only be input once. Other
site-specific factors, such as operating frequency, antenna gain and pattern and cable losses can
then be modified on a site-by-site basis as necessary.

291
 Selecting
Selecting Databases
Databases

Ó 2005
°
®

Before creating the propagation environment, the proper databases must be chosen and their
directory location defined.
Most propagation models require terrain information. There are several sources, other than the
software provider, that provide this information. The greater the resolution of the data, the higher
the price!

292
 Displaying
Displaying Layers
Layers

Ó 2005
°
®

Many software tools implement “layers”. In the case of propagation modeling, the layers may be
calculated without being shown. They may also be on at the same time, selecting higher layers
and defining layer transparency.

Important!!!
Before adding a database, such as Terrain or Clutter, to a layer you must first select the proper
database and then define the specific directory location for the database (previous slide).

293
 Adding
Adding Layers
Layers

Ó 2005
°
®

Once database type and location have been set up, you can add them to the project by selecting
the database type and clicking “OK”. In order to add an image to the project layer, click on the
“Add image file” button, select the proper file and click “OK”..

294
 Terrain
Terrain Data
Data

Ó 2005 ®

Modern terrain elevation data is based on a fixed grid digital elevation model (DEM). A DEM is
made up of a matrix of elevation points with fixed spacing. How the data is presented in the
study is mostly a function of personal preference. The above terrain data is presented as a
“shaded relief”.

295
 Adding
Adding a
a Map
Map Image
Image

Map image placed

over terrain data
and set to ~ 70%
transparent.

Ó 2005 ®

A map image of the area of interest can be laid over a terrain map as a way of adding local
details. The map is a Geocoded TIF file. The software allows for geocoding of maps, such a
Google Earth. The map can be used with building drawing software to create a detailed set of
buildings for increased accuracy using some propagation models. Or, you can buy the building
data from a 3rd party.

296
 The
The Clutter
Clutter Database
Database

Ó 2005
°
®

Clutter databases only show clutter (land use) areas. This is useful information for clutter-based
empirical models that make assumptions regarding clutter attenuation.

297
 Clutter
Clutter Attenuation
Attenuation

Clutter Attenuation:
• A local process
• No standards
• Not for all Models
• Measurements help
Please do not change these parameters in class, as it
will corrupt your in-class case study. Ó 2005 ®

Clutter databases are typically based on a grid matrix. Each grid is assigned a clutter type.
Since there is not standard for referencing a particular clutter category, one man’s Urban may be
another man’s Dense Urban!
Using measurement data enhances the accuracy of the clutter database (shown above) when
used with a propagation model that uses clutter attenuation, instead of a model that makes
assumptions regarding attenuation based only on the clutter type.

298
 Adding
Adding Clutter
Clutter

Ó 2005 ®

Type of clutter data is used by most propagation models to augment terrain data, improving the
accuracy of calculations. The USGS LULC (land use/land clutter) defined 31 types of land use.
Modeling tools typically define up to 10 categories.

299
 Establishing
Establishing BS
BS Parameters
Parameters (1)
(1)

Ó 2005
°
®

The parameters defined are based on equipment specifications.

300
 Establishing
Establishing BS
BS Parameters
Parameters (2)
(2)

Rename template!

Ó 2005
°
®

When modifying a template, you may want to rename it. That will make it easier to select when
you create several templates for a project.

301
 Establishing
Establishing BS
BS Parameters
Parameters (3)
(3)
SETTING
SETTING UP
UP THE
THE TEMPLATES
TEMPLATES

Transmit and Receive of the Base Station! Ó 2005

°
®

This menu shows the current configuration of the site. This example shows only one sector, but
there may be many. The current sector may be deleted or modified. More sectors may be
added, as well.

Important!
Once a site has been placed, modifying the template will have no effect on the site. Only new
sites will be affected by the template modification. So, add sites after you have set up your
template.

302
Establishing
Establishing BS
BS Parameters
Parameters (4)
(4)
Tx
Tx AND
AND Rx
Rx SITE
SITE PARAMETERS
PARAMETERS
Rx

Tx
Ó 2005 ®

These are the transmit and receive menus for the base station.

For the in-class case study,

You will select transmit antenna type “DA” (directional antenna), and you will browse to the
student CD to import the Stella Doradus antenna pattern.

On the Base Station Receiver Parameters form, you may select

“Set receive antenna and transmission systems same as Tx”

303
 Placing
Placing a
a Base
Base Station
Station
Select

1st_site

Ó 2005
°
®

304
 Adjusting
Adjusting BS
BS Parameters
Parameters (1)
(1)

1st_site

Ó 2005 ®

The single sector base station had a default azimuth of 0°. Notice the rotation of the pattern to
320°.

305
 Adjusting
Adjusting BS
BS Parameters
Parameters (3)
(3)

1st_site

Ó 2005 ®

Once the base station TX parameters have been configured, the base station RX parameters
must be configured. This can be individually done or, in the case of the antenna and
transmission line, just click to set the RX parameters to the TX parameters. The RX side of the
base station is where the bandwidth and receiver sensitivity values must also be configured.

306
 Adjusting
Adjusting CPE
CPE Parameters
Parameters

Ó 2005 ®

You are finished entering information about the base station.

Now, please enter specs for the CPE.

In order to determine the level of coverage and performance, the CPE equipment parameters
and configuration must also be input.

Note that the “Transmitter Max ERPi” field is not a PA output. It is PA output less cable loss plus
antenna gain.
(In the minimum ERPi field, please enter a number that is 10dB below the MAX ERPi value.)

When performing an area coverage study, the level shown in the study is the level at the input to
the receiver, not the level at the RX antenna!

307
 Setting
Setting up
up Propagation
Propagation Model
Model

Ó 2005 ®

You have entered the Base station specs, and CPE specs.

Now, choose a propagation model.

If you are looking for the 802.16 SUI model, you need to change the Model category from “Basic”
to “Broadband”

You may add margin on this form, if you want to be cautious in your modeling.

You may leave the Environment parameters unchanged for the in-class case study, but you must
check the boxes for terrain, “add clutter loss”, “include ground reflection” and “include Fresnel
zone loss”.

308
 Performing
Performing an
an Area
Area Coverage
Coverage Study
Study

Ó 2005
°
®

You have set up your environment,

You have set up your equipment,
You have chosen your propagation model.

You may now perform a study!

A Received Power at Remote study will look at what the receiver will receive, with its antenna
gain added.

A shadow map will show you all of the dead zones.

Click “add study”

309
 Selecting
Selecting a
a Type
Type of
of Study
Study

Ó 2005 ®

For the in-class case study:

Select “Area Study Type” = Received power at remote

Enter your value for Signal level threshold
On the Mobile/Remote Unit ID, select “ReceiveUnit1”

You may leave the rest of the settings at default – including the “Noise and Interference
selections” set at “Use noise and predicted Interference”

310
 List
List of
of Study
Study Types
Types

Ó 2005
°
®

We have clicked on the drop-down menu for “Area study types”.

311
 Running
Running the
the Study
Study

Click on the Start Study Button

Point Study

Point-to-Point Study

Route Study

Area Study We’re doing this one!

Link Study
Ó 2005
°
®

Point Study: Propagation characteristics between a single transmitter and a single point on the
map.
Multipoint Study: Detailed analysis of a channel between a hub site and customer locations.
Route Study: Defines a series of points along a user-defined route for signal analysis.
Area Study: Produces a map of coverage, loss, interference and other information for predicting
system performance.
Link Study: Provides a path profile for point-to-point links.

312
Output
Output of
of Area
Area Coverage
Coverage Study
Study

Study Range: 10 km

Ó 2005 ®

Since there can be a variety of colors defined for an analysis, as well as database information.
The legend allows you to keep track of what you are observing.

The slide shows the Area Coverage Study report on a single sector of a single site operating at
700 MHz. The study was set up to perform out to 10 km.

313
 Adding
Adding Building
Building Data
Data

Ó 2005
°
®

We have added buildings to our study, to show you the impact of buildings.

NOTICE!!!!
You will not use building data in the in-class case study.

314
 Close-up
Close-up of
of Buildings
Buildings

Ó 2005 ®

Note the shadows of poor coverage behind the buildings

315
 Adjusting
Adjusting Site
Site Parameters
Parameters
INCREASING
INCREASING OUTPUT
OUTPUT POWER
POWER

Increase output power

by 10 dB

Right-click on site

Ó 2005 ®

Suppose that the study shows poor coverage. What can you do to improve the system?

There are several TX parameters that can be adjusted. In this example, the output power have
been increased from 0 dBW to 10 dBW.

Once any parameters have been modified, the study must be run again to recalculate using the
new values.

316
 Increased
Increased Coverage
Coverage Area
Area
After 10 dB increase
in output power.

Remember, increasing
power only helps the
downlink! Next we will
change to an omni
antenna.

Before (EIRP = 12 dBW)

Ó 2005
°
®

Click on the Area Study button to recalculate coverage. Notice the increase in coverage due to a
10 dB increase in the base station output power.

317
Replace
Replace Directional
Directional Antenna
Antenna
Use an Omni antenna
with the same gain.

1 km

2 km

3 km

Before (90° Sectored)

Ó 2005
°
®

Alternatively, you could change the antenna pattern or antenna gains.

318
 Try
Try a
a WiMax
WiMax operating
operating band
band
Change the operating
frequency to 2.5 GHz.

1 km 1 km

2 km 2 km

3 km 3 km

Before (700 MHZ)

Ó 2005
°
®

319
Now
Now It’s
It’s Your
Your Turn
Turn

Ó 2005 ®

320
 Exercise:
Exercise: Loading
Loading EDX
EDX
SignalPro
SignalProââ
Do this!

Install Software Create Project Directory

Windows Laptop Leave SignalPro

Place CD in drive.
Go to “Windows Explorer”
It will automatically start.

Define a directory location

Follow installation steps
for your project

Ó 2005 ®

Instructions:
Following the flowchart above, load EDX SignalPro software.

321
 Case
Case Study:
Study: Eugene,
Eugene, OrEgON
OrEgON
Project:
Design and implement a broadband wireless network
in Eugene, Oregon

Design Process:
® Select design tools Ö SignalProâ
® Define design priorities Ö (see map)
® Select network components Ö (see slides)
® Determine location of anchor site Ö (see map)
® Perform preliminary link budget
® Determine coverage pattern
® Add sites to satisfy design priorities

Ó 2005
°
®

You will now use the EDX SignalPro software to help you design a network for Eugene, Oregon.

This slide gives an overview of the process.

The case study will have two parts.

The first part is required for all students: Serve the commercial area of town with adequate
coverage for commercial subscribers to have symmetric links at the highest possible bit rates.

The second part is optional, and can be completed by students who have time: Serve the
residential areas of Eugene Oregon with adequate coverage at minimum cost.

322
 Design
Design objectives
objectives for
for each
each
Coverage
Coverage Area
Area
Design Objectives:
Commercial / Industrial = Capacity
Residential = Coverage
Mixed Urban / Suburban = Coverage

Total Coverage Area

Anchor Site

Ó 2005 ®

Overview:
When adding sites, consider priorities. Coverage means edge coverage defined by minimum
data rate. Capacity means coverage edge is defined by the threshold for the maximum data rate
modulation scheme. Capacity sites are the priority for this exercise. Coverage-based sites are
an option for this case study.

Instructions:
Add capacity sites where required—Commercial/Industrial.
Run a study to verify coverage of capacity sites.
Option: Add coverage sites where required—Residential and Mixed Urban/Suburban.
Run a study to verify coverage of coverage sites.

Remember! A coverage site can also provide capacity over a limited coverage area.

323
 Required
Required Case
Case Study:
Study:
CAPACITY-BASED
CAPACITY-BASED SYSTEM
SYSTEM FOR
FOR
COMMERCIAL
COMMERCIAL AREA
AREA
Spectrum:
® 3.5 GHz operating band
® 3.5 MHz channels

System Components:
® Base and CPE—Alvarion BreezeMax 3500
® Base Antenna—Stella Doradus 35 9008
® Remote Antenna—Stella Doradus 35 3030

Base Configuration:
® 3-sector
® Non-redundant (depot spares)
Ó 2005 ®

This is the equipment that you will be using in the case study. The required specifications are on
your student CD.

324
 Market
Market Requirements
Requirements for
for
Required
Required Case
Case Study:
Study:
COMMERCIAL
COMMERCIAL AREAS
AREAS

1. Commercial customers require symmetrical links

2. Commercial customers require the highest
achievable bit rates

For simplification in this RF case study, we are not

providing specific traffic demand loading in specific
commercial areas

Ó 2005 ®

325
 Optional
Optional Part
Part 2
2 case
case study:
study:
COVERAGE
COVERAGE FOR
FOR RESIDENTIAL
RESIDENTIAL AREA
AREA
® Spectrum:
5800 MHz
w Operating band ________
w Channel BW 10 MHz
_______

® System Components:
Wi-Me GenTech5800
w Base and CPE ___________________
w Base Antenna _________________
11 dBi omni
w Remote Antenna _________________
21 dBi 10° Plate

® Base Configuration:
w Single Sector Omni
w Non-redundant (depot spares)
Ó 2005
°
®

This second case study is optional, based on time available. The case study is also printed at the
back of your book.

326
 Market
Market Requirements
Requirements for
for
Optional
Optional Case
Case Study:
Study:
RESIDENTIAL
RESIDENTIAL AREAS
AREAS
1. Residential customers do not require
symmetrical links
2. Residential customers do not require the
highest achievable bit rates
3. It may cost too much to serve everyone

For simplification in this RF case study, we are not

providing specific traffic demand loading in
specific residential areas
Ó 2005 ®

327
 Create
Create Project
Project in
in SignalPro
SignalProââ

Open SignalPro and Add image file to layers Select Terrain database, add
start a New Project and adjust the view: to layers and adjust style

Location:
Project Name: Location:
Sample Data\
Eugene--Alvarion Sample Data\map_images\
Sample_Terrain_Data
Salem250.tif
EDX U.S. 3 arc sec…

Select Clutter database, add

to layers and adjust style
Define Study Area Modify Templates

Location: Center:
SignalPro Evaluation\Sample Data\ N 44° 2’, W 123° 5’
Sample_Clutter Area:
15 km x 15 km

Ó 2005 ®

Instructions:
Follow the flow chart to add the necessary databases.

328
 Modify
Modify Equipment
Equipment Templates
Templates
Select “Manage new project Select “RF Systems”
Select “Add Template”
templates” Top menu

Template Name: Select “Transmitter/Base…”

Eugene_Case Study Submenu

Select “Edit Transmitter Group”

Submenu

Select “RF Systems” Select “Edit Group”

Top menu Button

Select “Mobile/Remote Unit…” Select “Edit Site Template”

Submenu Button

Add Site Edit “Mobile 1” using

Alvarion BreezeMax 3500 data ** Edit “3-sector” site using
Alvarion BreezeMax 3500 data *
* Edit a different site template for the coverage sites (the optional case study)
** Configure “Mobile 2” for coverage sites (the optional case study) Ó 2005 ®

Overview:
When modifying equipment templates, the actual propagation model to be used does not need to
be input. The Global Model must be selected (in this case Global Model 1 for capacity sites), but
the propagation model may be changed later in the process. When modifying a temple for
coverage sites, remember to select a different Global Model.

Instructions:
Modify “Site Template” using data from Alvarion BreezeMax 3500 spec sheets on CD.
Use the Stella Doradus 35 9008 16 dBi antenna pattern file (on CD) for base station.
Use the Stella Doradus 35 3030 18 dBi antenna pattern file (on CD) for customer site.
Use a default height of 30m for all of the base station antennas and 10m antenna height for
remote units.
Select capacity site locations that will provide a high degree of capacity in the commercial area.

Location options and height data for coverage sites will be provided later.

Note:
It is not necessary to add a template for this project. A current template could be modified later,
before adding sites. By adding a new template for this project, the template will now be available
for future projects.

329
 Place
Place the
the Anchor
Anchor Site
Site
Residential = Coverage
Mixed Urban / Suburban = Coverage
Commercial / Industrial = Capacity

Total Coverage Area

Anchor Site
N 44° 2’ 36”
W 123° 4’ 40”

Coverage and Capacity

for Case Study

Ó 2005 ®

Instructions:
Once the base station and remote site templates have been completed, add a base station,
using the modified template, at the location shown above.
Hold down the “Shift” key while clicking on the site to select “properties” and verify site
parameters.

Important!
Once a site has been placed using the template, modifying the template will have no effect on
the existing site. Site parameters may be individually modified by accessing the site properties
(step 2): antenna type, power out, losses, bandwidth, etc. Modifying the site template will only
effect future sites.

330
 Run
Run an
an Area
Area Study
Study

®Study: Received Power at Remote

®Model Category: Fixed Broadband
®Propagation Model: 802.16 (SUI)
w Terrain Type: C
w Model SUI-1
® Databases:
w Terrain
w Clutter
Ó 2005 ®

The area coverage study for capacity-based sites will employ the 802.16 empirical model. Use
the default values for any parameters not stated above. A different model will be used for the
capacity sites.

331
 Some
Some Other
Other Useful
Useful
Area
Area Studies
Studies
® Received Power at Base
® Areas with Signal Levels Above both
Base and Remote Thresholds Study
® Shadow Study
® Path Loss Study
® C/(I+N) Ratio Study (set focus site)

Ó 2005 ®

To view the symmetry of your customer’s throughput, you must run the “Areas with Signal Levels
Above both Base and Remote Thresholds Study”. By default, symmetric links are yellow, and
asymmetric links are red.

When providing high-capacity commercial service, a primary consideration is path balance. The
commercial implementations typically replace T1 and E1 carriers, providing voice and data
service access. The expectation for these services is a symmetrical access link. Therefore the
threshold in both directions for a given modulation scheme must be satisfied in order to
accommodate customer requirements.

332
 Add
Add Sites
Sites to
to Satisfy
Satisfy
COMMERCIAL
COMMERCIAL Area
Area Capacity
Capacity
Implementation Priorities:
1. Commercial / Industrial = Capacity
2a. Residential = Coverage
2b. Mixed Urban / Suburban = Coverage

Total Coverage Area

Anchor Site

Case study objective is Capacity in commercial area

Optional extension case study covers residential Ó 2005 ®

Overview:
When adding sites, consider priorities. Coverage means edge coverage defined by minimum
data rate. Capacity means coverage edge is defined by the threshold for the maximum data
rate modulation scheme.

Instructions:
1. Select locations for capacity sites and add where required—Commercial/Industrial.
2. Run a study to verify coverage of capacity sites.
3. Verify symmetrical coverage for capacity sites in commercial area before selecting coverage
sites in suburban area.

Option: Select locations for coverage and add where required—Residential and Mixed
Urban/Suburban.
Run a study to verify coverage of coverage sites.

Remember!
Since this is not a mobile implementation, sites do not necessarily require overlapping coverage
in order to satisfy system requirements.

333
 What
What do
do II tweak
tweak if
if my
my first-cut
first-cut
design
design doesn’t
doesn’t satisfy
satisfy the
the
required
required capacity
capacity and
and coverage
coverage ??
Change sector azimuth Click on the site to open a Sector
Parameters menu, change “Az.
(sectored only) Orient.”
Change antenna height
Edit the Base Station Parameters
(Not in our case study)
Hold Shift key, hold left click to
Move a site
select and drag a site
Add a site See slide “Placing a Base Station”

Change equipment
Edit the equipment forms
(Not in our case study)
Ó 2005 ®

334
 Case
Case Study:
Study: Results
Results
A good solution should consist of at least:
® Symmetrical capacity in the Commercial areas
® Thresholds based on highest modulation
scheme in Commercial areas
® Small footprint in commercial areas to satisfy
capacity requirements
® Large footprint in Residential areas providing
various access speeds and potentially
asymmetrical access

Now, who wants to show off their design?

Ó 2005
°
®

335
 Adding
Adding a
a Backhaul
Backhaul
Backhaul Options:
® Leased Facilities
w T-1, DS-3, OC-1, OC-3
w E-1, E-2, E-3, STM-1
® Wireless
w Licensed*—6 GHz, 11 GHz, 18 GHz, 23 GHz, 38 GHz
w Unlicensed*—5.8 GHz, 24 GHz, 60 GHz

Add a Point-to-Point Link

* Varies from country to country! Ó 2005 ®

The process of building and modeling a point-to-point link in SignalPro is similar to the process
for adding sites.

336
Establishing
Establishing Link
Link Parameters
Parameters (1)
(1)

Ó 2005
°
®

337
 Establishing
Establishing Link
Link Parameters
Parameters (2)
(2)
MODIFYING
MODIFYING LINK
LINK TEMPLATE
TEMPLATE

Establishing a Link:
1. Select the “new link” icon
2. Click between two points
Ó 2005
°
®

The process of modifying the link template is similar to the process for modifying a site template.
In order to perform a Link study, the “Focus” site must be selected.
Since the LOS link will require an LOS propagation model, this is the next step.

338
 The
The Link
Link Propagation
Propagation Model
Model

LOS PtP Model

Local/Regional Variables

Ó 2005 ®

Since there can be multiple radio systems, there must be multiple propagation models. In order
to use different models in the same project, at the same time, select a “Global” model that is not
currently in use. Local/Regional variables require local knowledge.

339
Add
Add a
a Point-to-Point
Point-to-Point Link
Link
1

1. Click the “New Link” button.

2. Move to link site 1 and click.
3. Move to link site 2 and click. 2
4. Select proper template.

4
3

Ó 2005 ®

340
 Link
Link Study:
Study: Path
Path Profile
Profile
Link 1 Study

Running a Link Study:

1. Select the “Focus” link
2. Click on the “Link Study” icon

Ó 2005 ®

The “Focus Link” is selected by checking the appropriate box in the “Link Details” menu. The
link study output is shown above.
When performing link studies for backhaul facilities it can be useful to hide the area coverage
studies to reduce visual clutter.

341
 Case
Case Study:
Study: Eugene,
Eugene, Or.
Or.
Project:
Connect capacity sites in Eugene, Oregon to core
network via wireless backhaul facilities

Design Process:
® Select design tools (SignalProâ)
® Determine backhaul architecture (Point-to-Point)
® Select backhaul components (DragonWave Airpair 24 GHz UL)
® Determine location of backhaul site (see map)
® Perform preliminary link budget (99.999% availability)
® Verify LOS for each backhaul link
® Run Link Study to determine margin

Ó 2005 ®

342
Modify
Modify Link
Link Equipment
Equipment Template
Template
Select “RF Systems”
Top menu

Select “Link Systems”

Submenu

Select “Link Group”

Submenu

Select “Edit Group”

Button

Select “Edit Link Template” Select “Propagation Model”

Button Button

Select a template to edit

Use DragonWave 24 GHz UL
Select “Global Model 2” Add Link

Ó 2005 ®

Overview:
When modifying equipment templates, the actual propagation model to be used does not need to
be input. The Global Model must be selected (in this case Global Model 1 for capacity sites), but
the propagation model may be changed later in the process. When modifying a template for link
sites, remember to select a different Global Model.

Instructions:
Modify “Link Template” using data from Airpair spec sheets on student CD.
Use the “a000001.pat” antenna pattern file (on CD) for each end of the link.
Use a default height of 30m for all of the base station antennas and 40 meter antenna height for
core access site.

343
 Adding
Adding a
a Link
Link

Total Coverage Area

Anchor Site

Backhaul Site

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344
 Run a Link Study
GLOBAL
GLOBAL MODEL
MODEL 22

® Model Category: Basic

® Propagation Model: Free Space + RMD
® Atmospheric absorption: dry 02, vapor
density = 2.5 gm
® Climate type: Continental temperate
® Databases:
w Terrain
w Clutter
Ó 2005 ®

The link study for capacity sites will employ the Free Space + RMD. Use the default values for
any parameters not stated above.

345
Link
Link Case
Case Study:
Study: Results
Results
A good solution should consist of at least:
® Rain fade margins are satisfied
® Fresnel zone clearance is satisfied
® Cross-polarization isolation is used to reduce
interference between adjacent channels

Any Questions ?

Ó 2005 ®

346
 Lesson
Lesson 11:
11:

Capacity design, and

Oversubscription

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347
 Lesson
Lesson Objectives
Objectives

® At the end of this lesson, you should be able to:

w Mathematically relate oversubscription and
subscriber quality of service in a WiMAX
Network
w Validate WiMAX vendor design rules for
capacity planning

Ó 2005 ®

348
 Oversubscription
Oversubscription
SOME
SOME TYPICAL
TYPICAL RATIOS
RATIOS
Service Category Oversubscription Ratio
Web Surfing 10:1 to 25:1
VOIP 5:1 to 10:1
Multicast/Unicast
1:1
Video/Audio Services
Video Conferencing 1:1 to 2:1
Internet Gaming 5:1 to 10:1

Ó 2005 ®

Service oversubscription is the over commitment of bandwidth to a user or service. The traffic
generated by a large group of sources is random in nature. In a statistical access network, traffic
engineering rules allow for oversubscription of shared capacity. Service oversubscription should
be based on peak period traffic rather than average network usage.

349
 Oversubscription
Oversubscription of
of Shared
Shared
Capacity
Capacity
Example: Service is provided to 200 customers, each accessing at 1 Mbps.
The oversubscription ratio is 10. Therefore, 20 Mbps of capacity is required.

Daily Traffic Profile

20
Business Traffic Residential Traffic
Peak period of the day
16
Peak Residential period
Actual Traffic (Mbps)

12

0
0

00

00

00

00

00

00

00

00

00

00
00

00

00

00

00
80

90

10

11

12

13

14

16

18

20

22

24
15

17

19

21

23
Start of sample period (1/2 hour increments)

Ó 2005 ®

Oversubscription is possible for the following reasons:

Total capacity is shared, not dedicated
Staggered Busy Periods—time of day, day of week
Multiple sources generating random amounts of traffic throughout the day
Only a percentage of all subscribers are generating traffic during the Busy Period

Dedicated capacity cannot be oversubscribed!

350
Traffic
Traffic Utilization
Utilization and
and Capacity
Capacity
in
in a
a random
random access
access network
network
Bandwidth requirements for each access and distribution
network link can be calculated from the following factors:

® # of Subscribers accessing at peak period

® Estimated offered load of each subscriber
® Networking and Transport Overhead
® Traffic Engineering Rules / Oversubscription Ratios
® Link Utilization (Traffic Intensity)

Ó 2005 ®

351
 Link
Link Utilization
Utilization and
and
System
System Delay
Delay
System Delay is a direct result of system utilization at the
network choke point. Most likely this will occur at an over-the-
air access or backhaul link. Thus, we should understand traffic
utilization models to help us understand potential service
delays.
Traffic Sources

Shared Link

1. Users independently generate traffic.

2. Traffic is scheduled for transmission.
3. Traffic is concentrated over the shared link.
Ó 2005 ®

Let’s examine the effects of your network engineering on link utilization and system delay.

352
 Some
Some Basics
Basics for
for Delay
Delay Systems
Systems
LINK
LINK UTILIZATION
UTILIZATION (r)
(r)
Traffic Generated The units of Traffic Generated:
ρ=
Link rate* • bits per second (bps)
• frames per second (fps)
• cells per second (cps)
• packets per second (pps)

Questions:
1. What is the total Busy Period bps?
Scenario:
• Sector with 20 SOHO users 1.6 Mbps
• User access rate = 1 Mbps each 2. What is the Link Utilization?
• Average Peak Period pps per user =
20 80%
• Average Packet Size = 500 Octets
Ó 2005
°
®
• Sector bit rate = 2 Mbps

353
 Delay
Delay as
as a
a Function
Function ofof
Link
Link Utilization
Utilization (r)
(r)
Only Deterministic systems can perform well at 100% Link Utilization!

In Statistical access systems, such as WiMax, delay increases

exponentially as utilization increases. As utilization approaches 100%,
delays become infinite.

Delay vs. Server Utilization

An improperly provisioned network 1.0000

0.9000
will manifest high link utilization in 0.8000
the form of noise and long delays on 0.7000

voice calls. Data traffic will have low 0.6000

Delay
throughput due to packet delays. 0.5000
0.4000
TCP traffic will continue to increase 0.3000
due to acknowledgement timeouts 0.2000

and retransmissions. 0.1000

0.0000
10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90% 99%
% Utilization

Ó 2005 ®

The one problem with sharing capacity is the requirement for constantly monitoring facility
utilization. Over utilization of facilities leads to instabilities and poor service.

354
 Some
Some Effects
Effects of
of Delay
Delay
® Lower throughput with protocols requiring acknowledgements
® Poor Response with interactive applications
® Unstable performance of All traffic
Example: Poorly dimensioned network with high levels of congestion

In other words, Loss of Transparency!

Ó 2005 ®

Remember, TCP is a delay-limited protocol. The requirement for segment acknowledgements

can drastically effect throughput over high-delay links.

355
 Service
Service time
time (T
(Tss)) for
for a
a link
link
Link Service Time = Link Serialization Time

Traffic from multiple sources is Traffic from multiple Sectors is

concentrated over a Sector link concentrated over a Backhaul link
Se cto
r Link

k
aul Lin
B a c kh

bits/PDU
Ts =
bit rate
Example: Example:
Sector link rate = 5 Mbps Backhaul link rate = 20 Mbps
Average packet size = 576 octets Average packet size = 576 octets
Average Link Service* Time = 921.6 μsec Average Link Service* Time = 230.4 μsec

Ó 2005 ®
* Serialization

356
 Shared
Shared link
link capacity
capacity
OFDM
OFDM VS.
VS. OFDMA
OFDMA
OFDM Shared Link
One Channel
OFDM
Traffic sources are assigned the
total capacity of the channel for
short periods of time—only one
traffic source allowed at a time!

OFDMA Shared Link

OFDMA Multiple Sub-channels
Traffic sources are assigned a
portion of the total capacity of
the channel for short periods of
time—multiple simultaneous
traffic sources allowed!

Ó 2005 ®

357
 Modeling
Modeling Traffic
Traffic
delay
delay probability
probability
® Fixed WiMAX using OFDM
w Random arrivals and random service times
w Single traffic server
w M/M/1 traffic model (Kendal Notation)
w Traffic model: Little’s Law
® Fixed or Mobile WiMAX using OFDMA
w Random arrivals and random service times
w Multiple traffic servers (sub-channels)
w M/M/n traffic model (Kendal Notation)
w Traffic model: Erlang C
Ó 2005 ®

Service time is a fixed delay. Delay due to congestion (high utilization) is a variable delay that
can be estimated using a traffic model. Traffic model selection is based on several factors, but
the most common factors employed are the following:
•Traffic Arrival rate—smooth, random or peaked
•Traffic Service time—deterministic or random
•Number of servers—one or more

When the number of traffic sources is large, the traffic arrival rate is assumed to be random in
nature. Service time, whether for voice or packet data is typically considered to be random. The
number of servers can be one, in the case of a serial link (T-carrier, E-carrier, SONET or
OFDM), or greater than one for parallel servers such as OFDMA.

358
 Little’
Little’ss Law
Law
ONE
ONE OF
OF THE
THE PILLARS
PILLARS OF
OF QUEUING
QUEUING THEORY
THEORY

Queuing System:
Time in System (TQ) = Waiting Time (TW) + Service Time (TS)
Number in System (LQ) = Number Waiting (LW) + Number Being Served (LS)

LITTLE’S LAW

LQ = l×TQ

So

LW = l×TW and LS = l×TS

Ó 2005 ®
l = Arrival Rate

Over subscription is based on shared capacity. Sharing capacity is based on queuing theory.
Queuing theory allows for quantifying delay expectation in statistical systems. One of the
primary laws of queuing is Little’s Law. It is a simple statement of time in system as a function of
arrival rate, waiting (queuing) time and service time.

359
 Little:
Little: Time
Time in
in System
System
OFDM
OFDM AND
AND SERIAL
SERIAL LINKS
LINKS
LQ = λ × TQ LW = λ × TW LS = λ × TS
LQ

LW LS

l Server l

TW TS

TQ
Ó 2005 ®
l = Arrival Rate

A system is defined as a buffer for traffic awaiting service and a server. Traffic coming into a
queuing system is either processed (served) or, if arriving while others are being served, waiting
for service. Stable systems can be described as systems in which time in system is
approximately equal to service time. At the peak period of a queuing system some waiting will
occur. How much time is spent waiting is a function arrival rates and service times.

360
 Some
Some Little
Little formulas
formulas
M/M/1
M/M/1
bits/PDU
1. Average Service Time (Ts) Ts =
bit rate

2. Utilization (r) ρ = L S = λ × TS

3. Delay Probability (D) D=ρ

TS × ρ
4. Average Time in Queue (TW) TW =
1- ρ

Ó 2005 ®

M/M/1 (Kendall Notation) = Random arrivals/Exponential service times/One Server

The formulas are presented to show relationships.

361
 More
More Little
Little formulas
formulas
M/M/1
M/M/1
TS
5. Average Time in System (TQ) TQ =
1- ρ

ρ2
6. Average Number in Queue (LW) LW =
1- ρ

ρ
7. Average Number in System (LQ) LQ =
1- ρ

Ó 2005 ®

362
 exercise:
exercise: Link
Link Utilization
Utilization
and
and System
System Delay
Delay
During the peak traffic period of the day on a WiMax sector, 40 sources
each generate an average of 15 pps at 1 Mbps. The average packet
size is 576 (w/OH) octets. Assume a sector access data rate of
5 Mbps over the entire coverage area.

Determine the following:

1. 8
Overbooking Rate ______
2. Avg. Service Time 0.92 ms
______
3. Sector Utilization ______
55.3 %
4. Delay Probability 55.3 %
______
5. Avg. Time in Queue______1.14
ms
6. 2.06 ms
Avg. Time in System ______
M/M/1 Delay
7. Avg. # in Queue ______
0.7 packets
8. Avg. # in System ______
1.2 packets Ó 2005
°
®

Instructions:
Determine the overbooking rate from the information provided.
Use the “M/M/1 Delay” spreadsheet and fill-in the rest of the blanks.

363
 Modeling
Modeling and
and Simulation
Simulation

M/M/1 Simulation

Ó 2005 ®

Instructions:
Using the provided spreadsheet,
1. Select the “Inputs” tab and input the data from the previous exercise.
2. Select the “Simulation Outputs” tab and observe the variations in “Time in System” while
pressing the “F9” key.
3. Increase the number of pps (“Inputs”) to a utilization rate of 90-95 % and observe outputs while
pressing “F9” key.

364
 Some
Some Real-World
Real-World Profiles
Profiles

1. ATM E-3
Daily traffic average

2. ATM T-1
Weekly traffic average
with 5 minute average

Avg Out Avg In 5 min Out 5 min In

Ó 2005 ®

Examples of traffic profiles downloaded from the Internet.

365
 Erlang
Erlang C
C for
for multiple
multiple servers
servers
OFDMA
OFDMA SUB-CHANNELS
SUB-CHANNELS (N>1)
(N>1)

a ×n n

n!×(n - a)
P(a, n) = n-1 i
a an × n
i=0 i!
+ å
n!×(n - a)
Where:
a = Traffic Intensity (arrival rate · service time)
n = Number of Servers (sub-channels)
Ó 2005 ®

The Erlang C model assumes random arrival and random service times and more than one
server. Although OFDMA allows for more flexibility of service provisioning, potentially multiple
sub-channel assignments for a single user, it can be used to illustrate the performance difference
between a single server (such as OFDMA) and multiple parallel servers (OFDMA).

366
 Associated
Associated Erlang
Erlang C
C Formulas
Formulas
M/M/N
M/M/N

bits/msg
1. Average Service Time (Ts) Ts =
bit rate

N ×B*
2. Delay Probability (C) C=
N - A(1 - B)

3. Average Time in Queue (Tq) Ts × C

Tq =
N- A

* Erlang B Blocking Probability

Ó 2005 ®

Erlang C is based on the probability of requests for service being blocked. Erlang C is unlike
blocking probability models that assume when a request for service is blocked, the traffic will be
lost. Erlang C assumes that blocked requests for service will wait until a server becomes
available. In other words, blocked traffic is queued. Because of this assumption, Erlang C can
be simplified into a set of formulas starting with the Erlang B blocking model to determine the
probability of initial blocking of service requests.

367
 More
More Erlang
Erlang C
C Formulas
Formulas
M/M/N
M/M/N

4. Average Time in System (T) T = Ts + Tq

A ×C
5. Average Number in Queue (Q#) Q# =
N- A

æ (N- A )t ö
-çç ÷÷
è TS ø
6. Probability of Delay > Target [P(>t )] P(> t) = C × e

Ó 2005 ®

368
 exercise:
exercise: Erlang
Erlang c
c for
for a
a
mobile
mobile wimax
wimax sector
sector
During the peak traffic period of the day on a Mobile WiMax sector, 40
sources each generate an average of 15 pps at 1 Mbps. The average
packet size is 576 (w/OH) octets. Assume that there are eight (8)
sub-channels for the entire sector. The data rate of each sub-channel
is 625 Kbps.

Determine the following:

1. 8
Overbooking Rate ______
2. 7.373 ms
Avg. Service Time ______
3. 55.3 %
Sector Utilization ______
4. Delay Probability ______
9.59 %
5. Avg. Time in Queue______0.2ms
6. Avg. Time in System ______
7.57 ms
OFDMA Delay
7. Avg. # in Queue 0.12 packets
______ for WiMAX

Ó 2005
°
®

Remember, Erlang C assumes that only one server can be accessed, by a traffic source, at a
time. OFDMA allows for a single source to utilize multiple sub-channels (servers)
simultaneously. This allows for a lower potential service time.

Instructions:
Determine the overbooking rate from the information provided.
Use the “Erlang C for OFDMA” spreadsheet and fill-in the rest of the blanks.

369
 Lesson
Lesson 10
10 Review/quiz
Review/quiz
Scenario:
During the busy period of the day, a site provides access for
100 users. Each user generates 10 pps @ 2 Mbps with an
average packet length of 450 octets. The backhaul rate is 10
Mbps.

1. 20:1
The oversubscription rate is _____.
2. 36 %.
The utilization rate of the backhaul is ____
3. 360 μsec.
The average serialization time of the backhaul is _____
4. 202.5 μsec.
The average waiting time is ______

Ó 2005
°
®

370
 Review/Test
Review/Test Time
Time

1. Open discussion and review

2. Practice Test
3. Review Practice Test
4. Testing Opportunity for Certification

Ó 2005 ®

371
 Calculator
Keystroke slides

Ó 2005 ®

372
 TI-30XA
TI-30XA 10
x

IMPORTANT
IMPORTANT KEYS
KEYS 2nd LOG

= ·10x p 1/x x2 Öx ÷
EE x
Example: STO 7 8 9
5 GHz = 5 · 109 Hz -
RCL 4 5 6
Key Strokes: +
1 2 3
5 EE 9
0 . + - =
Ó 2005
°
®

373
 Some
Some dB
dB Exercise
Exercise Key
Key Sequences
Sequences
a. Convert 400 mW to dBm c. Convert 14 dBm to milliWatts
14
10 × log10 ( 400 mW/1 mW) = 26 dBm 10 10 = 25.1 mW

4 0 0 LOG 1 4

x 1 0 ÷ 1 0 = 1.4
x
10
= 26 2nd LOG 25.1
b. Convert 0.0004 µW to dBm
10 × log10 (0.0004 μW/1mW) = - 64 dBm

. 0 0 0 4 EE + - 3
* LOG
x 1 0

= -64 * µW = 10-3 mW Ó 2005

°
®

374
 Wavelength
Wavelength and
and
Frequency
Frequency
1. Solve for Frequency
l= 0.15 m 3 EE 8

÷ . 1 5

= 2,000,000,000

2. Solve for Wavelength

Frequency = 5.8 GHz 3 EE 8

÷ 5 . 8 EE 9

= 0.0517
Ó 2005
°
®

375
Finding
Finding the
the Thermal
Thermal Noise
Noise Floor
Floor
Nt = k × T0 × B
Question 1
Given the following, determine the thermal noise power:
• Boltzman’s Constant = 1.3803 · 10-23 W/K-Hz
• Ambient temperature = 290 K (Warm Earth)
• Bandwidth = 3.5 MHz

1 . 3 8 0 3 EE + - 2 3

x 2 9 0

x 3 . 5 EE 6

= 1.40 · 10-14 Watts

Ó 2005 ®

376
 Decibels:
Decibels: Adding
Adding Powers
Powers (1)
(1)
C/N
C/N == 16
16 dB,
dB, C/I
C/I == 20
20 dB
dB
Step 1a 1 6 + - Step 1b 2 0 + -

÷ 1 0 = ÷ 1 0 =
x x
10 10
2nd LOG 2nd LOG

STO 1 STO 2
*
Step 2 RCL 1 Step 3 . 0 3 5 1/x
x
10
+ LOG

RCL 2
x 1 0
= 0.035
= 14.559
* Input not necessary if still in display Ó 2005 ®

377
 Decibels:
Decibels: Adding
Adding Powers
Powers (2)
(2)
22
22 dBm
dBm ++ 30
30 dBm
dBm
Step 1a 2 2 Step 1b 3 0

÷ 1 0 = ÷ 1 0 =
x x
10 10
2nd LOG 2nd LOG

STO 1 STO 2

*
Step 2 RCL 1 Step 3 1 1 5 8 . 5
x
10
+ LOG

RCL 2 x 1 0
= 1158.5 = 30.64
* Input not necessary if still in display Ó 2005 ®

378
 Rx
Rx System
System 2
2
SYSTEM
SYSTEM NOISE
NOISE FIGURE
FIGURE
C/N

4 dB NF 7 dB loss 8 dB NF
3 dB loss
30 dB
amp Coax ÷4 WiMAX Rcvr
1 2 3 4
System NFdB

F2 - 1 F3 - 1 F4 - 1
FRX = F1 + + +
G1 G1 × G2 G1 × G2 × G3
2 -1 5 -1 6.3 - 1
FRX = 2.5 + + +
1000 1000 × 0.5 1000 × 0.5 × 0.2
= 2.5 + 0.001 + 0.008 + 0.053 = 2.562
NFdB = 10 × log10 (2.562) = 4.1 dB
Ó 2005 ®

379
 Network
Network inputs
inputs tab
tab
Confirm that you have the same
Coverage and Capacity values
as shown below!
2600

Instructions:
Change the carrier frequency
to 2600 MHz.

Ó 2005
°
®

380
 Link
Link budgets
budgets tab
tab

Instructions:
Confirm that you have the same
Change
MAPL themodulation
for each current equipment
parameters
scheme as showntobelow!
those provided.

Ó 2005
°
®

381
 Marketing
Marketing inputs
inputs tab
tab

No other changes will be

seen on this worksheet.

Instructions:
20
Change the Overbooking
Factor to 20.

Ó 2005
°
®

382
 Marketing
Marketing inputs
inputs tab
tab
2.5% No other changes will be
seen on this worksheet.

Instructions:
20
Change the Fifth Year
Market Penetration
to 2.5%.

Ó 2005
°
®

383
 Network
Network inputs
inputs tab
tab
Confirm that you have the same
Coverage and Capacity values
as shown below!

Instructions:
Change the Throughput for each
modulation to the bit rate provided.

Ó 2005
°
®

384