INTRODUCTION

Week 1
Lecture 1.1
Grading
Each week:
Video lectures
PDF reading material
Quizzes and peer-graded problems
There will be a final exam.
Videos are stand-alone: you can do this class without the
PDF material, but in this case you can only get 80% on
your final score.
Passing grade is 60%. This is what you need to get your
certificate.
What we will learn this week:
What is the purpose of functional analysis?
What is a topology?
What is an open set and a closed set?
What is convergence?
Convergence?
u
n
= 1/n

u
1
= 1
u
2
= 1/2
u
3
= 1/3
u
4
= 1/4

u
10
= 1/10



1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
1
Convergence?
!
Convergence?


f
n
defined from R to R by

f
n
(x) = sin
n
(x)
What we will learn this week
What is the point of functional analysis?
What is a topology?
What is an open set, a closed set?
What is convergence?
What is continuity?
What is the final topology?
Trick your calculus instructor: every function can
be continuous!
WHAT IS THE PURPOSE OF
FUNCTIONAL ANALYSIS?
Week 1
Lecture 1.2
OPEN SETS & TOPOLOGY
Week 1
Lecture 1.3
Definition: Topology
Let X be a set and T be a family of subsets of X.
T is called a topology on X if:
i. The empty set and X are elements of T
ii. Any union of elements of T is in T
iii. Any finite intersection of elements of T is in T
(X,T) is a topological space.
Elements of T are called open sets.
In-video Quiz
X = { 1 , 2 , 3 , 4, 5 }

T = { {1,2} , {3,4} }

Is T a topology?
In-video Quiz
X = { 1, 2 , 3 , 4 , 5 }

Which ones are topologies?
T = { , {1,2} , {3,4} , {1,2,3,4}, X }
T = { , {1,2} , {2,3} , {1,2,3,4}, X }
T = { , {1,2} , {2,3} , {2}, X }
T = { , {1,2} , {2,3} , {2}, {1,2,3}, X }

Let us answer this more general question
How do you turn a family of sets F into a topology?
(while adding the fewest possible sets)

Add and the whole space to F.
Add to F all finite intersections of elements of F
Add to F all unions of elements of (new) F
F is now stable by unions
It can be proved F is stable by finite intersections.
Construction of a Topology
Note: 2 and 3 cannot be permuted!
Definition: Topology
A set X is always a topological space!
The trivial topology: T = {,X}
The discrete topology: T = {all subsets of X}

Given two topologies on X: T
1
and T
2
with T
1
T
2
.
T
1
is coarser (or weaker or smaller) than T
2
T
2
is finer (or stronger or larger) than T
1

If T is a topology then T
t
T T
d

d
t
In-Video Quiz
X = { 1 , 2 , 3 , 4, 5 }
T
1
= { , {1,2} , {1,2,3,4}, X }
T
2
= { , {1,2} , {5} , {1,2,5} , {1,2,3,4} , X }

Which one is true?
T
1
is coarser than T
2
T
2
is coarser than T
1
None of the above


Definition: Usual Topology on R
X = R

T = { sets O s.t.
for every x in O, there exists ">0,
]x-",x+"[ O }

Examples:
]1,2[ is open
[1;2[ is not


1 2 x
1 2 x=
Definition: Closed sets
Complements of open sets are called closed sets.

Example:
X = { 1 , 2 , 3 , 4 , 5 }
T = { , {1,2} , {2,3} , {2} , {1,2,3} , X }

{1,2} is an open set
{3,4,5} is a closed set because {3,4,5} = X \ {1,2}

Definition: Neighborhood
Let X be a topological space
Let x ! X.

The set U is called a neighborhood of x if
There exists an open set V s.t.
i. x ! V
ii. V U
The set of neighborhoods of x is noted V(x).
Definition: Compactness
Let X be a topological space.

We say that K X is compact if
K is not empty and
for any arbitrary open sets U
i
K (i ! I)
whose union contains K,
one can find a finite number of these open sets
such that their union contains K.

CONVERGENCE &
CONTINUITY
Week 1
Lecture 1.4
Definition: Converging Sequences
Let X be a topological space
and (x
n
) be a sequence of elements of X.
We say that (x
n
) converges to l if

(x
n
) may converge to several elements of X


!V"V(l), #N " N, n $ N %x
n
" V
A topological space X is a Hausdorff space
(or a T
2
space or a separated space) if:
Given two distinct points in X
one can find two open disjoints sets,
each containing a point


In a Hausdorff space,
the limit of a sequence is unique.
Hausdorff Spaces
Definition: Converging Sequences
Let X be topological a space
and (x
n
) be a sequence of elements of X.
We say that (x
n
) converges to l if

(x
n
) may converge to several elements of X
If the topology on X is stronger (larger/finer),
it is harder for (x
n
) to converge.
If X is equipped with the discrete topology,
only sequences that become constant converge.
!V"V(l), #N " N, n $ N %x
n
" V
Definition: Continuous Mappings
Let X and Y be topological spaces
A mapping f : X#Y is continuous if
the inverse image of an open set is an open set.

If the topology on X is finer (larger/stronger),
it is easier for f to be continuous.
If X is equipped with the discrete topology,
any mapping is continuous.
Continuous Mappings and Sequences
The chosen definitions work well:

Proposition
Let X and Y be two topological spaces
Let f : X#Y is be a continuous mapping
Let (x
n
) be a sequence in X converging to l
Define y
n
= f(x
n
)
Then (y
n
) converges to f(l) in Y
Continuous Mappings and Sequences
Proof
Let W be any neighborhood of f(l).
Then there exists an open set U such that
f(l) ! U and U W
Since f is continuous, f
-1
(U) is open
(thanks to the definition of continuity)
Since f(l) ! U, we have l ! f
-1
(U)
We always have f
-1
(U) f
-1
(W)
f
-1
(W) is a neighborhood of l
Continuous Mappings and Sequences
Proof
Let W be any neighborhood of f(l).
Since (x
n
) converges to l:

V = f
-1
(W) is a neighborhood of l
Thus, there exists N ! N s.t. n $ N implies x
n
! f
-1
(W)
n $ N implies y
n
= f(x
n
) ! W. Hence:

So (y
n
) converges to f(l).



V x N n N, N (l), V
n
! " # ! $ ! % V
W y N n N, N (f(l)), W
n
! " # ! $ ! % V
QED
FINAL TOPOLOGY
Week 1
Lecture 1.5
Definition: Final Topology
Let X and Y
i
be topological spaces (i ! I)
Let f
i
: X#Y
i
be given mappings.

We can equip X with a topology that makes every f
i
continuous. If everything else fails, the discrete
topology will work!

We call final topology the coarsest one that works.
We note it "(X, {f
i
, i ! I}).
Example
Let X=R, Y=R and f be defined by
f(x) = 0 if x#0
f(x) = 1 if x>0

Equip Y with the usual topology.
What is the final topology on X for f?
"(X,{f}} = { } , ]-$,0] , ]0, +$[ , ]-$,+$[
Final Topology and Sequences
Proposition
Let X be a set.
Let Y
i
be topological spaces (i ! I, finite or not).
Let f
i
: X#Y
i
be given mappings.
Let (x
n
) be a sequence of X.

In the topology "(X, {f
i
, i ! I}),
(x
n
) converges to x if and only if
for all i ! I, f
i
(x
n
) converges to f
i
(x) in Y
i

Final Topology and Sequences
Proof
Direct statement:
Mappings f
i
are continuous for topology "(X,{f
i
,i!I})
We proved earlier that if (x
n
) converges to l then
f
i
(x
n
) converges to f
i
(x).
Final Topology and Sequences
Proof
Converse:
Let U be a neighborhood of x. We can suppose
U is a finite intersection of inverse images of V
i
where V
i
is a neighborhood of f
i
(x) in Y
i
.
There exist N
i
! N s.t. n $ N
i
implies f
i
(x
n
) ! V
i
.
Let N be the largest N
i
(there is a finite number of N
i
)
Then n $ N

implies x
n
! U.
QED
WHAT A TOPOLOGY SEES
AND DOES NOT SEE
Week 1
Lecture 1.6
The eyes of a Topology
X = { 1 , 2 , 3 , 4, 5 }
T = { , {1,2} , {5} , {1,2,5} , {1,2,3,4} , X }

1 2 3 4 5

The topology does not distinguish between 1 and 2
nor between 3 and 4.