Tips on Grammar, Usage, and Style

2004 by Megan McInnis

www.thescarletpen.com

Grammar and Usage


Among usage experts there are those called purists and those called permissivists.
Permissivists are open to the changeability of the language and freely accept that
many words have acquired a great number of meanings, some of them
contradictory (see livid, below). Purists are thought by some to be nitpickers
whose purpose is only to pounce on those who use words incorrectly. This may
be true of some of them. However, others are driven by the importance of
preserving the expressiveness of the language by adhering to the unique definition
of every word. For example, transpire once meant leak out or become known, but
it is now used as a synonym for happen or occur. We already have the words
happen and occur, but there is no other word for transpire, and if we allow words
like this to lose their strict definitions, well have fewer ways to express ourselves.

The words in this guide are so commonly misused that dictionaries have changed
their definitions to include the misuse in addition to the correct use. One could
argue that what is acceptable to dictionaries cant be wrong; however, when words
attain too many meanings, they lose their precision and potency. Usage guides
exist to keep words from diffusing into meaninglessness, so that when we
communicate, well really be saying something.

For more details, or with any other questions, please email
megan@thescarletpen.com.


a lot of, lots of
In formal writing, replace these phrases with many, much, or considerable:

Many celebrities were present, wearing much makeup, and considerable
fuss was made over their garb.

ability vs. capacity
Some grammarians reserve capacity for volumes and amounts, as in the capacity
of the container, and argue that people do not have capacities but abilities. Others,
including me, unflinchingly use capacity for people, but with these limits: ability
can be acquired, but capacity is innate.

If you have the capacity to learn art, you can acquire the ability to paint.

about
This word should be used to mean concerning or regarding, and it should refer to
linguistic activities (think about, talk about, write about, read about):

Deadly Persuasion is a book about the addictive power of advertising.

It can also mean approximately, but aside from that, it should not be used to refer
to non-linguistic matters (non-thinking, talking, writing, or reading). The following
uses are considered slang: Rebellion is what Im all about. (Should be, Rebellion is
my credo, or Rebellion is my most distinctive characteristic.) / The American Way
is about pride. (Should be, Pride is the distinguishing American value.) / Love for
ones enemies is what Jesus was about. (Should be, The essence of Jesus
philosophy was loving ones enemies.)

About can also be used in reference to films, because they contain words and can
be spoken of, and even to symphonies. The following examples are correct:

Symphonie Fantastique by Berlioz is about an artist who attempts suicide with
opium but only has hallucinations.

The last movement of Beethovens second symphony is about the composers
own gastrointestinal disorder.

These are acceptable because the symphonies are metaphorical; they have story
lines that can be put into words. A way to test whether youre using about
correctly is to see whether the sentence can be reworded beginning, The subject
of X is . . . For example, The subject of Symphonie Fantastique by Berlioz is an
artist who attempts suicide with opium but only has hallucinations.

about vs. around
In the sense of approximately, about is preferred.

Violent, aggressive driving contributes to about two thirds of all traffic deaths.

above
Just as you would not say in the below example, you should avoid saying in the
above example. Instead say, in the example above.

absent
Absent means away or missing. It should not be used as in the following: Hutch
left Rosemarys apartment absent one glove. Either replace absent with in the
absence of or without, or write the sentence differently:

Hutch reached into his coat pockets and found that one glove was absent.

absolutely, positively, definitely, totally, immensely, incredibly, utterly
Like exclamation points, these words should be kept at a minimum or they will lose
their potency. Just as good actors limit raising their voices and singers limit the
number of times they gesture or close their eyes with feeling, writers can make
their words more powerful by reducing their use of intensifiers. These words can
be replaced with slightly less common adverbs such as decidedly, emphatically,
clearly, indisputably, certainly, assuredly, far and away, hands down, beyond
argument, wholeheartedly or undoubtedly, or, when appropriate, they can be
simply omitted. Using this kind of restraint can have surprising impact. See also
really, very.

absolutes
Some usage experts contend that certain words express absolute conditions which
logically cannot exist in degreesso, for example, absolutely perfect is redundant
and more perfect, impossible. (Our founders would have been more accurate
saying in order to form a more nearly perfect union.) Not everyone agrees with
this argument (most dictionaries do not), but, for the record, here are just a few
words that you might want to think twice about before modifying:

absolute
adequate
complete
consensus
discomfit (this word means to wholly undo; to defeat)
equal
eternal
fatal
final
incomparable
panacea
perfect
simplistic
supreme
total
unanimous
unique
unqualified

academe, academia
Academe (from Greek) and academia (from Latin) denote institutions of higher
learning as a collectivity or an abstraction. Plato taught in a grove in Athens
considered sacred to the Greek hero Academos, and Platonic philosophy came to
be called the Academy (capital A). As Erik Wensberg points out in Modern
American Usage, 1998, To call universities collectively academe is equivalent to
calling them John Harvard. He goes on to say that academia is preferred to
academe, but he considers both words affected, noting that we dont use familia
for families in general or biblioteca for the collectivity of libraries. He recommends
using the simple English words the academy (small a).

accept
This word should not be followed by to or that, as in these sentences: He could not
accept to lose. (Should be, He could not accept losing.) / I accept that you dont
like my children. (Should be, I accept your not liking my children, or I recognize
that you dont like my children.) Instead, accept should be followed by a noun,
including a gerund (a verb made into a noun by the suffix ing) or the pronoun it:

I will not accept lies from you.
I will not accept your lying.
I do not accept it as my duty to tolerate your lies.

acquiesce
This word is different from agree and assent, which are followed by to, in that it
implies silent, tacit, or quiet compliance. It should be followed by in:

He was afraid, and acquiesced only halfheartedly in the plan.

address, speak to
People, in speech and in writing, address and speak to other people:

That statement was addressed to the rest of the class, not to you.
I need to speak to you in my office.

It is legalistic to use these words figuratively and abstractly, as in the following:
The candidate promised to address the problem of overtaxing the poor. (Should be
. . . see to/tend to the problem . . .) / The new program doesnt speak to the
needs of Native Americans. (Should be . . . account for/consider the needs . . .) /
Bergs opera really spoke to me. (Should be . . . really meant something to me.)

adherence vs. adhesion
Adherence is used in the figurative sense, adhesion in the literal sense:

My adherence to animal rights keeps me from supporting 3M, the makers of
Scotch tape, Post-It Notes, and other products used for adhesion.

admit
This word should only be used when a charge has been made:

Yes, I admit that I used your black silk scarf for a Batman cape.

It should not be used in sentences such as this: He admitted to having read the
complete works of Shakespeare. This false modesty is like answering a
compliment with, Guilty . . . as charged!

admonishment
Admonition means the same thing and is preferred.

advancements
Advances is preferred.

adverse vs. averse
Both words mean opposed or hostile, but averse describes the subjects opposition
to a thing, and adverse describes something opposed to the subject:

Im not averse to trying the drug, as long as it doesnt have any adverse
effects.

advise
This word should be used to mean recommend or suggest. When substituted for
tell or inform, it often comes across as condescending.

If you need to leave early, please tell/inform your supervisor.

affect vs. effect
As verbs, affect means influence, cause, or have an effect on, and effect means
bring about, accomplish, or execute:

The medication did not affect me.
I had hoped that it would effect a change in me.

As nouns, affect (with the stress on the first syllable) is a psychological term
meaning feeling or emotion, and effect means result:

The patients description of her mood was contradicted by her affect.
Lius plea for mercy in the aria Signore, ascolta has no effect on Calaf.

agenda
Although this word is the Latin plural for the singular agendum, Theodore
Bernstein contests in The Careful Writer, 1965, that it has departed from its
original meaning of things to be done, and now means a program of things to be
done. The singular force is so strongly felt that the word has developed its own
pluralagendas. Data, on the other hand, has retained its meaning of things or
facts. See also data.

aggravate
The two most common senses of this wordto worsen and to irritate or
exasperateappeared almost simultaneously in the early 17
th
century, but because
the first sense is closer to the etymological meaning, it is preferred by
grammarians:

Katerina was heartbroken when Sergei gave her stockings to Sonetka, but
her pain was aggravated when Sonetka bragged about how warm she was.

ahold
This word is colloquial, like ascared, and should be avoided in formal writing. It is
sometimes correct to use the two-word phrase a hold, but for other instances,
simply use hold:

I couldnt get a hold on the smooth cliff face.
I called her all day but never got hold of her.

You can determine when to use the two-word phrase by whether it would work to
insert an adjective, as in, I couldnt get a firm hold.

all ready vs. already
All ready means completely prepared; already means by now:

I was all ready to go with them, but they had already left.

Note: there is only one spelling for all right. A common misspelling is alright.

all together vs. altogether
All together means in unison; altogether means entirely:

I had altogether forgotten that wed planned to go all together.

allusion vs. illusion vs. delusion
An allusion is an indirect reference, an illusion is a deceptive appearance, and a
delusion is a false and often perilous belief:

In Mendelssohns Overture to A Midsummer Nights Dream, measures 199 to
205 are an allusion to the braying of Bottom as an ass.

First, Macbeth sees the illusion of Banquos ghost, and later his wife thinks
she sees blood on her hands that wont wash off.

Oedipus has the delusion that he has escaped the fate of marrying his
mother and killing his father.

alternate vs. alternative (the adjectives)
The first means one after the other, the second, one or the other:

He and I work on alternate days of the week.
The alternative would be working together.

Road signs instructing you to Use alternate route are incorrect.

alternative vs. choice (nouns)
Because alternative derives from the Latin alter, meaning other of two, strict
grammarians reserve it for choices between only two possibilities, but most allow
for its use with more than two. Alternative connotes a mandatory decision,
whereas choice does not:

Your only alternative is to fight or to die.
You may have your choice of desserts.

amount vs. number
Use amount with singular nouns, number with plurals:

Food Not Bombs provides a large amount of food to a great number of people.

and/or
Most grammarians detest this construction, some calling it a mental and visual
abomination, others a monstrosity of legalese. Logicians insist that or means
and/or, and that if a brochure says You can swim or play tennis, the implication
is that you are free to do both. However, even logicians admit that menus offering
soup or salad really do mean one or the other. Though most stylists prefer
concision whenever possible, all seem to agree that and/or is not an acceptable
way of condensing a sentence. They prefer the following:

You will receive a thousand-dollar fine, four weeks in jail, or both.

anticipate vs. expect
Both mean look toward, but anticipate requires performing some preparatory
action, no matter how slight. To expect a good meal is to believe that youll be
well fed; to anticipate a good meal is to set the table, try not to spoil your
appetite or, at the very least, feel your mouth watering.

Desdemona expects that Othello will still be angry when he comes to bed.
She anticipates her death by singing her own funeral song.

anxious vs. eager
Anxious means nervous or worried and is followed by about or for; eager means
looking forward and is followed by to:

Cressida is anxious about becoming a prisoner of the Greeks.
She is eager to meet in secret with Troilus.

any, other, else
Its correct to say, She was stronger than any man, but when comparing likes,
add other or else. (She was stronger than anyone would mean that she was
stronger even than herself.)

She was stronger than any other woman.
She was stronger than anyone else.

any more vs. anymore
Any more means any additional amount; anymore means any longer, and is used
in questions and in negative sentences:

Im stuffed; I dont think Ill eat any more.
Hes wasting away; he just doesnt eat anymore.
Do you ever cook your own meals anymore?

Note: anymore is correct only in the negative and, occasionally, the interrogative
(as in the last two sentences). An incorrect colloquialism is a declarative such as,
Anymore, I do all my shopping online.

anyways, anywheres
The correct words are anyway and anywhere.

appreciate
The root of this word is value or appraise, and it once meant to evaluate truly
(even if negatively), but now means only be grateful for, value highly (or increase
in value, as in stocks). It is commonly used to mean understand or realize,
especially when the speaker wants to seem level-headed during an argument or in
preparation for refusing a request. This can come across as condescending.

I appreciate your hard work.
I understand your position but Im not going to let you out.
I realize that the handcuffs are uncomfortable.

apt vs. likely vs. liable
Likely means probable and apt means probable because of a natural tendency.
Liable can either mean in danger of or legally responsible:

Hes apt to cry when lightning strikes, even though it isnt likely to hit him.
Youre liable to trip on that wet floor, and then the owner of the store will
be held liable.

Also note: it is unidiomatic to say, We will likely go to the food bank tomorrow.
Instead say most likely, very likely, or quite likely.

as vs. while vs. because
Substituting as for while or because can cause confusion, as in the sentence As
youre busy fixing the tire, Im going to stretch my legs. Instead, say one of the
following:

Because/Since youre busy fixing the tire, Im going to stretch my legs.
While youre busy fixing the tire, Im going to stretch my legs.

See also since.

as bad or worse, as good or better
Be careful with these words because they require different conjunctions; its
incorrect to say as bad or worse than, or as good or better than. Instead, say as
bad as or worse than, as good as or better than. Even better, reword as follows:

Hes as bad as she is, or worse.

as far as
One use of this phrase causes no problems:

Each year, competitors in the 26-mile New York Marathon will run as far as
Pheidippides ran on his journey from Marathon to Athens.

But when used in another sense, the phrase can be problematic. Its incorrect to
say, As far as physical fitness, he was a champion. The following sentence is
correct:

As far as physical fitness goes/is concerned, he was a champion.

as to vs. about
As to is considered stuffy by many people; instead, use about:

Reagan claimed no recollection about the details of the Iran-Contra affair.

However, its fine to begin a sentence with as to when you want to give immediate
attention to an element that otherwise would appear further on in the sentence:

As to his conduct as president of the Screen Actors Guild, he remembered
even less.

ASAP
This abbreviation isnt so bad in the sentence below:

Ill fix the sink ASAP.

Here, at least, one could assume that the writer was in such a hurry to get to the
leaky faucet that she didnt have time to write out the whole phrase. However, it
can sound rude in the following sentence: Get this report done ASAP. If the
person who needs the report expects you to finish the job immediatelyand, its
assumed, thoroughlythen theres no excuse for her not to show you equal
respect by writing out as soon as possibleor, at least, right away.

average, number, total
These words are given plural verbs when preceded by a or an, singular when
preceded by the:

The number of people killed in the US each year by environmental tobacco
smoke is greater than the number killed by all illicit drugs combined.
The total killed in the US each year by ETS is about 50,000.
In addition, an average of four million children are treated yearly for diseases
caused by ETS.

awhile vs. a while
Awhile is an adverb; a while is a noun:

Take off your coat and stay awhile.
Take off your coat and stay for a while.

bad vs. badly
Bad is an adjective and can therefore be used as a subject complement (describing
a condition or a passive verb); badly is an adverb (used to describe an active
verb):

He felt bad that he couldnt help, but his legs ached badly.

In the sentence above, felt is a linking verb, requiring a complement (adjective)
rather than an adverb. Therefore, it would have been just as wrong to say He felt
badly as to say He felt sadly/gladly/madly. Other examples of passive verbs or
linking verbs are looked, seemed, sounded, tasted, and smelled:

He looked bad, smelled bad, and sang badly.

The following sentences demonstrate when to modify feel in the usual waywith a
complementand when to use an adverb:

Now that Ive been lifting weights for three months, I feel strong.
I feel strongly about the importance of exercise.

See also fine, and good vs. well.

behalf
In behalf of means for the benefit of; on behalf of means in place of:

Would you sign this petition in behalf of the homeless?
Certainly. And may I also sign on behalf of my husband?

better vs. had better
Better is not sufficient to mean ought to; for that purpose, it must be preceded
with had: You had better stop.

biannually, bimonthly, biweekly
These words used to mean every two years/months/weeks, but have also come to
mean twice a year/month/week. Some usage experts prefer that the latter sense
be expressed with the prefix semi-, but since not everyone agrees, its best to say
every two years or twice a year, for claritys sake.

McSweeneys is bimonthly, so I only get to read it six times a year.

blame on
This phrase should not be used in formal writing; therefore, avoid such wording as
this: The Situationists blamed the deadly diversion of the force of life in favor of
an empty heaven on the Catholic Church. Instead say the following:

The Situationists blamed the Catholic Church for the deadly diversion of the
force of life in favor of an empty heaven.

Another option is to use the first (incorrect) sentence and replace blame . . . on
with attribute . . . to.

blatant vs. flagrant
The first definition of blatant is brazenly obvious; the second is offensively noisy;
obnoxiously loud. Flagrant means openly evil, glaringly wicked, notorious, or
scandalous.

He blatantly honked his horn in blatant disrespect for his date and for the
entire neighborhood.

Though the tobacco industry denies that they must addict three thousand
children a day to replace those smokers who die or quit in the US alone, their
flagrant use of cartoons to sell cigarettes gives them away.

briefly
People often use this word as shorthand meaning to be brief, but it can make for
some odd sentences, such as, Briefly, I was detained for three hours. The proper
use of the word is as follows:

Aeneas stayed briefly with Dido before going on to found Rome.

For the first sense, either say to be brief or leave off the word altogether and get
right to your story. Thats the briefest solution.

but
Because this word implies negation, using it with not produces a double negative.
Therefore, instead of, It wont take but a minute, say one of the following:

It will take but a minute.
It wont take more than a minute.

See also cant help but.

but rather
This phrase is redundant; the proper usage follows:

Then must you speak
Of one that lovd not wisely, but too well.

Othello, V.ii.346-7

callus vs. callous
Callus is a noun and callous, an adjective:

Callous to the calluses on her feet, the officers made Katerina keep walking.

cannot
This is nearly always one word; the following sentences show its two uses:

He cannot drive a car.
She can not only drive a car, but fly a plane.

In the second sentence, can is an auxiliary not only for drive but for fly, so it needs
to be separated from not. You can observe that by rewording the sentence without
the word not: She can drive a car and fly a plane.

cant help but
Some usage guides suggest replacing cant help but wish/think/notice with cant
but wish/think/notice; others say (and I agree) that help is not the problem in that
phrase; while cant help wishing makes perfect sense, cant but wish is still a
double negative. The archaic version is I can but wish; its logical, but awkward to
the modern ear. Another option is can only wish:

I cant help wishing the pain would go away.
I can only hope the pain goes away.

careen vs. career
These verbs are often confused. Keeping in mind that careen rhymes with lean,
you can remember that it means to lean, sway, or tilt. Career means to move
rapidly, especially at full speed:

Careering out of control, the sailboat began to careen.

carat vs. karat vs. caret
Both carat and karat are used as measurements for the fineness of gold (pure gold
being 24 karats), but carat, which equals 200 milligrams, can also refer to
gemstones, and karat cannot. On the other hand, a caret is a small V shape used
in math to indicate is greater than (>) or is less than (<), and, when inverted (^),
used by proofreaders to indicate where a letter, word, phrase, or punctuation mark
is to be inserted.

celebrant vs. celebrator
A celebrant participates in a public religious rite; a celebrator celebrates:

The celebrants were disturbed by the shouts of drunken celebrators outside
the church.

censor vs. censure
Censor means cut or prohibit; censure means criticize, reproach, or formally
reprimand:

When CBS announced they would censor advertisements by PETA and
MoveOn.org, they were censured by thousands of viewers, who refused to
watch the Superbowl.

centers around
Centers on is more logical than, and preferable to, centers around. Other options
are revolves/rotates/clusters around, concerns, and is about.

chord vs. cord
A chord is an emotion, as in struck a chord of pity, or a combination of three or
more musical notes. A cord is a rope or a cable, or a cordlike structure, as in spinal
cord, vocal cords, and umbilical cord.

classic vs. classical
Both these words are misused. Aside from the slang use of classic meaning
priceless or unforgettable, as in The look on his face was classic, or
quintessential, as in That was classic Tarantino, the word means of the highest
class or standard. Therefore, it makes some sense to say a classic Seinfeld or
classic rock (just dont make the mistake of saying classical rock), but this use in
reference to popular culture tends to cheapen the word. In formal writing, it should
be reserved for instances such as the classic method of teaching art or a classic
novel. (The classics are books which, over time, have been recognized for their
outstanding literary and cultural merit.)

Classical music can mean one of two things: loosely, it is art music, concert music,
or opera (as opposed to jazz, folk, or popular music); specifically, it refers to
compositions of the late eighteenth century, particularly by Mozart, Haydn, and
early Beethoven. (That is distinct from some other forms of art music, including
Baroque and Romantic.) In addition, classic and classical both refer to the art and
culture of the ancient Greeks and Romans, who were the inspiration for Mozart and
his contemporaries.

He read Stephen King; I read the classics. He liked classic rock and I
preferred classical music. He called these classic examples of our
differences.

community
A community cannot be planned; it can only come about. Therefore, the now-
common phrases used by developers to advertise their apartment communities or,
more ridiculously, their one- and two-bedroom communities are absurd. A
community is not a building or even a set of buildings, but a social group who not
only share a neighborhood or village but, often, have a common cultural and
historical heritage. They dont necessarily share a government (though they
might), but, for goodness sake, they have to share something other than a
general locality.

When divorce left him a single father, he found practical and moral support
from his community.

complected
The correct word is complexioned:

He was fair complexioned and freckled easily.

complement vs. compliment
To complement is to add to or complete; to compliment is to praise:

He complimented the way Tonys green sweater complemented his red hair.

comprise
Since the 15
th
century, this word has meant consist of or contain:

Gandhis possessions comprised a bowl, a pair of glasses, and the dhoti he
wore.

Since the late 18
th
century, it has also been used to mean compose:

A bowl, a dhoti, and a pair of glasses comprised his possessions.

All but one usage guide I consulted frowned on the latter meaning, and even that
one agreed that comprised of was incorrect, as in, His possessions were
comprised of a bowl [etc.]. For that sense, use composed or made up.

Note: include is not a proper synonym for comprise, because include suggests an
incomplete list of components, whereas comprise denotes the kit and caboodle.

conditions
This word should be reserved to mean requirements. Weather conditions, traffic
conditions, and housing conditions can be shortened to weather, traffic, and
housing.

connote vs. denote
To denote is to mean or to symbolize; to connote is to imply:
During wartime, displaying your countrys flag denotes support for the war.
The truck-sized flag in his yard connotes jingoism.

contagious vs. infectious
Contagious comes from a Latin word meaning a touching; therefore, a contagious
disease is one communicated by touch. An infectious disease is communicated by
air or water, and may or may not be contagious:

He slapped my arm and laughed his infectious laugh; I only hoped he wasnt
contagious.

continuously vs. continually
Continuously means incessantly; continually means repeatedly (with breaks in
between):

Add eggs, beating continuously.
Simmer ten minutes, stirring continually.

converse vs. contrary vs. opposite vs. reverse
Converse denotes oppositeness and declares a transposition of the important parts
of a proposition or statement:

premise: All Christians love their enemies.
converse: The enemy loves all Christians.
contrary: Not all Christians love their enemies.
opposite: No Christians love their enemies.

The most general of the words denoting oppositeness is reverse, which can
include all the others.

convince vs. persuade
To convince is to change [someones] mind; to persuade is to move [someone] to
action. Therefore, convince should be followed by of or that, whereas persuade
may be followed by of, that, or to:

Once Id convinced him that his rights were at stake, I persuaded him to
join the union.

could care less
To say could care less indicates that you do care to some degree; the proper
expression is couldnt care less.

could of, should of
People used to hearing the contractions couldve and shouldve often write them as
could of and should of. Instead, use have in conjunction with could, should, would,
must, might, and may:

I could have and I should have; if you had let me, I would have.

councilor, counselor
A councilor is a member of a council. A counselor gives counsel.

couple
Some of the rules for the use of this word are contradictory; for instance, it is
considered bad English to say a couple drinksit should be a couple of drinksbut
when you add an adjective of degree, you drop the of, so that its a couple more
drinks and a couple too many drinks.

Another oddity concerns whether the word is plural or singular. It is plural when it
is followed by a (necessarily plural) noun:

A couple of birds were trapped in the garage.

It is singular when it stands alone:

The couple was hiking in the mountains.

But the last rule changes in certain sentences, such as the following:

The couple lost their place in line.

That is because the alternative, its place, would be even stranger.

criteria
As a plural noun (the singular being criterion) , this word requires a plural verb:

Their criteria are strict.

cultivatable
This word can be found in the dictionary, but the preferred word is cultivable.

data
Some authorities point out that data is plural and should therefore require a plural
verb, but others argue that, like agenda, erotica, insignia, opera, and other
technically plural Latin and Greek nouns, we should give it a singular verb. When
the authorities disagree, it becomes a matter of preference.

The data show/shows that, in the US, more people die annually from
cigarettes than from alcohol, cocaine, heroin, fires, car crashes, homicide,
suicide, and AIDS combined.

See also agenda and media.

deadly vs. deathly
The first means lethal, the second, resembling death or indicating death:

Claudius poured a deadly poison into King Hamlets ear.
When the king returned as a ghost, he had a deathly complexion.

debut
Some grammarians prefer that this word be used only as a noun. For the
intransitive verb sense, they would prefer appear, begin, come out, commence, or
start. For the transitive verb sense, as in Burts Bees will debut a new sunscreen,
they would prefer introduce, and for the awkward past tense, debuted, they would
prefer just about anything else.

decimate
This word originally described a Roman punishment for mutinous troops in which
every tenth soldier was ordered to step forward and be stabbed. You no longer
need to use it so specifically, but you should never use it to mean annihilate;
instead it should only mean partly destroy. Also, it should be reserved for
destruction that can be reckoned in numbersnot The forest was decimated by
fire, but the following:

The population was decimated by plague.

denouncement
Denunciation is preferred.

deprecate vs. depreciate
To deprecate is to express earnest disapproval of; protest against; to depreciate is
to reduce in value, decline in value, undervalue, or belittle. Depreciate is the
opposite of appreciate; deprecate comes from precari and literally means to pray
against. The proper term for self-deprecating is technically self-depreciating, but
the former has almost completely replaced the latter in use, and is now the
preferred term in dictionaries.

deserts vs. desserts
Deserts, as opposed to desserts, are things deserved, whether punishments or
rewards:

The kittens who lost their mittens got their deserts: no dessert.

deter
Because this word is derived from the Latin terrere, to frighten, it conveys the
notion of preventing or discouraging through fear and therefore applies only to
people and animals, not to things. Plans cannot be deterred, but people can be
deterred from carrying out their plans.

diagnose
A condition is diagnosed, not a patient. Instead of He was diagnosed with cancer,
say, His disease was diagnosed as cancer.

different from vs. different than
The correct phrase is different from:

Humans are different from animals in their ability to empathize, but that
doesnt stop them from vivisecting cats, dogs, rabbits, and mice.

However, many editors accept different than when the alternative would be
monstrously wordy, as in, You have moved me in a different way from the way
in which you ever did before. Instead, they would prefer the following:

You have moved me in a different way than ever before.

dilemma
In keeping with the prefix di-, this word should be used to describe a choice
between two alternativesboth of them distasteful. Otherwise, use problem,
predicament, question, quandary, plight, difficulty, or pickle.

While Americans face the dilemma of whether to starve or remain overweight,
other people dont have to choose.

direct vs. directly
Direct can be either an adverb or adjective; directly is only an adverb. To mean
immediately, use directly:

He was ordered to go directly to his room.

Also use directly to convey a certain degree:

He was held directly responsible for the death of Afghani civilians.

In other instances, direct is acceptable and has a crisper sound:

Youll get a better price by going direct to the publisher.

There are some other adverbs that can be used with or without an ly, but in these
cases the meaning is the same in both forms: slow and slowly, quick and quickly,
sharp and sharply, cheap and cheaply, right and rightly. The shorter form of each
word is normally confined to brief commands (Drive slow) and comparisons
(quick as a wink).

dis-
The following words can be replaced by their less cumbersome counterparts:

disassociate: dissociate
disenfranchise: disfranchise
disembark: debark
disenthrone: dethrone
disenravel: unravel
disentwine: untwine

discomfit vs. discomfort
Discomfit means to wholly undo, to defeat, to thwart the plans of, or to foil. To
discomfort is to make uneasy:

Mr. Burns was discomforted when his plans to block out the sun were
discomfited.

discreet vs. discrete
Discreet means tactful or unobtrusive; discrete means distinct:

Phil Knight is discreet about his use of sweatshops to produce Nikes.
Calculus is used to organize indiscrete data.

disinterested vs. uninterested
Disinterested means impartial; uninterested means lacking interest:

Only a disinterested judge can rule fairly.
The judge was yawning and seemed uninterested.

doubtful vs. dubious
People are doubtful about things that are dubious:

His argument is dubious; I doubt hes telling the truth.

dove (the verb, not the bird)
Like proven and woken, this word is rapidly gaining acceptance, but dived is
preferred:

She dived as she had never dived before.

due to
The following uses of this phrase are incorrect: I was absent due to illness, and
Due to snow, the schools were closed. Due to means caused by or resulting
from, not because of; therefore, it should be preceded by a noun or noun phrase
and, usually, some form of to be:

My absence was due to illness.
The schools closure was due to snow.
The damage due to moths made the sweater unwearable.

Most usage guides recommend avoiding the phrase altogether in favor of caused
by or a result ofor an entirely different wording such as I was absent because of
illness. Due to at the start of a sentence often presages incorrect usage, and Due
to the fact that can always be replaced with Because.

each other vs. one another
Though a few strict grammarians reserve each other for two and one another for
three or more, other strict grammarians declare these phrases interchangeable.
Each is generally considered a singular pronoun, requiring a singular verb (for
more information, see Agreement of Verbs and Pronouns with Indefinite
Pronouns). However, each other and one another are considered plural, and in
the possessive they are equivalent to their:

The two kittens licked each others faces.
The six groomsmen straightened one anothers cummerbunds.

-ed
When nouns are made into adjectives, it is sometimes necessary to add ed and
sometimes not. There is no rule for itits a matter of custombut some examples
follow of words with and without the added ed and words that can go either way
(in which case ed or d is shown in parentheses):

backhanded
barefoot
birdbrained (the noun being birdbrain)
boldface(d) (the noun being boldface)
bucktoothed (the noun being bucktooth)
closed-captioned (note the d ending on both words)
closed-minded (same as above)
cloven-hoofed
cold-blooded
college-ruled
corn(ed) beef
cross-eyed
double-breasted
even-handed
foul-mouthed
five-string
four-leaf
four-legged
full-size(d)
fun-size
gray-haired
hardback
hard-surface(d)
-headed (tow-headed, two-headed, bareheaded, bullheaded, hard-headed)
hash browns/hash-brown(ed) potatoes
high-minded
hobnailed
honey-color(ed)
horn-rim(med)
ice(d) tea
ill-fated
ill-omened
king-size(d)
lantern-jawed
left-handed
lily-livered
longhair(ed) (the noun being longhair)
long-sleeve(d)
loose-leaf
mashed potatoes
mealy-mouthed
medium-size(d)
middle-size(d)
off-key
old-fashioned
paperback
peglegged (the noun being peg leg)
pigeon-toed
pinstriped (the noun being pinstripe)
queen-size(d)
red-winged
soft-hearted
spoon-size
star-crossed
starry-eyed
stocking(ed) (as in feet)*
teenage(d)
thin-skinned
three-room
three-ring (circus or binder)
twelve-tone
twin-size(d)
two-bedroom
two-engine(d)
two-faced
two-tone(d)
underhand(ed)
up-tempo
whip(ped) cream
white-tailed
warm-blooded
white-wall
yellow-bellied

*Some argue that stocking feet emphasizes the lack of shoes whereas stockinged
feet calls attention to the stockings.

effete
This word is often misused to mean weak, soft, or effeminate. (That weakness and
softness are equated with femininity is another question altogether.) Its true
meanings are degenerate, decadent, barren, infertile, exhausted, spent:

Overuse had rendered the once-powerful metaphor effete.

emote
This word is a back formation, derived from the word emotion. It means to show or
pretend emotion, especially exaggeratedly or ineptly. It is considered jocose and
should be used only in jest:

With all his emoting, no one could guess what he was really feeling.

enormity vs. enormousness
Though dictionaries allow for the use of enormity to indicate size, usage guides
direct that it be reserved for outrageousness or atrociousness. For size, use
enormousness or immensity:

Orwell found himself thinking that the enormity of shooting the elephant was
magnified by the enormousness of the beast.

ensure vs. insure
Ensure means make certain; insure means the same but is generally used for legal
matters:

Being insured against fire does not ensure that your house wont burn down.

enthused
This word is a back formation from the word enthusiasm and is considered
colloquial. For the adjective, enthusiastic is preferred; for the verb enthuse, try
rave, gush, or rhapsodize.

envy vs. jealousy
Envy is covetousness; jealousy is suspicion of rivalry or unfaithfulness:

Envious of Cassios appointment as lieutenant, Iago tricks Othello into being
jealous of Cassio and Desdemona.

envisage vs. envision
Envisage, borrowed from the French in the 19
th
century, originally meant to look in
the face of; now it is often used synonymously with envision. In 1926, Fowler
dismissed envisage as an undesirable Gallicism, preferring face, confront,
contemplate, recognize, realize, view, and regard. In 1965 Gowers called it a
pretentious substitute for the preceding words as well as for imagine, intend, and
visualize. Some usage guides find envision equally pretentious, but they favor it
over envisageat least in America. The Brits prefer envisage.

-er, -est, more, most
Use -er and more when comparing two items, -est and most when comparing
three or more.

The US is the smaller of the two nations but consumes more.
Though the US isnt the biggest of all nations, it consumes most.

An exception to the rule is idioms such as Put your best foot forward. Those can
and should be left alone.

When combining more or most with adjectives ending in er or est, put more or
most second:

It was the biggest, most obnoxious display of greed ever witnessed.

One reason for this is that if more or most came first, it could be thought to carry
over to the second adjective; in other words, most obnoxious, biggest display
could be taken to mean most obnoxious, most biggest display. The other reason is
that, rhetorically and aesthetically, it is good form to build from the shorter phrase
to the longer.

etc.
This abbreviation is fine in technical writing as long as the sampling from the
preceding list makes clear what is being left out. However, in other forms of
writing, the use of the term may suggest either a laziness to supply the missing
items or an uncertainty about what they are. It should especially be avoided in
literary writing.

every day vs. everyday
Use every day to indicate how often something takes place; use everyday as an
adjective:

Every day I try to do something that scares me.
Running from the police is not your everyday experience.

evoke vs. invoke
To evoke is to elicit or draw forth; to invoke is to pray for or appeal to:

The medium tried to evoke the spirits of the dead but all he evoked were
giggles from the audience.
After 9/11, bumper stickers and reader boards across the US invoked Gods
blessings.

the fact that
This can often be shortened to that:

That the illegalization of drugs causes crime was shown during Prohibition.

fail
You can only fail if you try; therefore, its wrong to say, King Lear failed to
perceive the insincerity of Regan and Goneril. The following is correct:

Kent failed to persuade King Lear that Cordelia was blameless.

farther vs. further
Though dictionaries declare these words interchangeable (except in such instances
as to further your education), strict grammarians use farther for distances and
further for time:

I cant run any farther; my legs wont hold out any further.

feasibly vs. possibly
Something feasibly can be done; something possibly can happen:

Possibly, it will rain.
Feasibly, we can make room for the guests indoors.

feel
Reserve this word for emotional and tactile sensations rather than thoughts or
beliefs. In other words, feel should not be used in the following sentence:

I believe/think there should be a maximum wage.

For more information about the word feel, see bad vs. badly.

fewer vs. less
Although less has been used before plural nouns for centuries, modern usage
guides limit it to singular nouns, and modify plural nouns with fewer:

Now that I have less money I find that I have fewer needs.

However, less should modify plural nouns when they represent a unit or sum:

Im glad we have less than ten miles to go because we have less than
two gallons of gas and less than three dollars between us.

fine
This word should be used as an adjective, as in fine food. Its use as an adverb (Im
doing fine) is considered dialectal, and here it should be replaced with well.
However, youre free to say that you feel fine, because feel is a linking verbone
that requires a complement (adjective) rather than an adverb. For more details
about feel, see bad vs. badly.

Im in love with her and I feel fine.

first or last vs. former or latter
Use first or last when referring to three or more items, and restrict former and
latter to lists of two:

Parents hear much about the dangers of alcohol, marijuana, and ecstasy, but
the first poses the greatest risk to children.
Alcohol and tobacco are more dangerous than most illegal drugs; in fact, the
latter is the only product advertised that is fatal when used as intended.

Some usage guides prefer using first and second to former and latter. And most
agree that all these words should be avoided because they force the reader to look
back; two options follow:

He uses tobacco and heroin; tobacco is the more dangerous of the two.
He uses heroin and, whats more dangerous, tobacco.

firstly, secondly
Trim these to first and second.

flammable, inflammable
These words are identical in meaning. Inflammable is the older by about 200
years, but flammable is often used in warnings on containers and vehicles carrying
combustibles for fear that some might interpret the prefix in- to mean non- (as in
words such as inactive and incapable), instead of realizing that inflammable comes
from the word inflame.

Anything labeled flammable or inflammable should be kept away from
flames.

flounder vs. founder
To founder is to fill with water and sink; to flounder is to stumble or to thrash
about awkwardly:

Prospero and Miranda watched as passengers from the foundering ship
floundered in the ocean.

flout vs. flaunt
Flout means defy or ignore; flaunt means show off:

She continued wearing miniskirts after theyd gone out of style, flouting
fashion in order to flaunt her legs.

for free
Because free (in one sense) is synonymous with for nothing, the phrase for free is
redundant.

Buy this 200-page magazine and get 300 pages of advertisements free.

forceful vs. forcible
Forceful means vigorous, strong, or effective; forcible means having or using force:

The woman convicted of forcible entry spoke forcefully in her own defense.

forecasted
This word is acceptable, but forecast (for present and past tense) is preferred.

forego vs. forgo
To forego is to precede; to forgo is to give up or go without:

In one paragraph he writes that he is forgoing all dangerous drugs, but in
the foregoing paragraph he mentioned hed just bought a pack of cigarettes.

formulate vs. form
People often use formulate when they mean form. Formulate should be used to
mean work out as a formula:

He felt two ways about it and had trouble forming an opinion.
Vegans formulate recipes for cakes and cookies without eggs or butter.

fortuitous vs. fortunate
Fortuitous means by chance or by fortuneeither good or bad. Fortunate means
lucky.

Fortuitously, I ran into an old schoolmate at the drug store; fortunately,
he didnt recognize me.

fraction
This word should not be used to mean a small portion, as in only a fraction. A
fraction can be ninety-nine one hundredths.

fulsome
Fulsome once meant disgusting, obsequious, nauseating, insincere, repulsive,
odious, grossly excessive, and overdone, but more and more it has come to mean
abundant, copious, lavish, or enthusiastic. Most grammarians agree that our
language is impoverished by the loss of the words true sense.

Baby Jane is flattered by Edwins fulsome praise.

furthermore
Perhaps the only thing wrong with this word is that its so often used when listing
complaints. If you need a sentence-linking conjunction and want to avoid sounding
haughty or petulant, try in addition or moreover:

Moreover, I gravely doubt how much of the damage was caused by me.

got vs. gotten
About 300 years ago, the British removed the ancient word gotten from their
writing and speech, and now say has got, have got, and had got. In America,
gotten is still correct:

He hadnt yet gotten up when the doorbell rang.

However, got in all its participles is considered informal. Though many usage
experts prefer it to the stuffier received, acquired, obtained, and became, even
they recommend avoiding it in the most formal writing, and in the sentence above,
would substitute awakened or risen or climbed out of bed for gotten up.

The sentence I have got a camel is ambiguous; it could mean I just acquired a
camel or I own a camel. For the first case, delete have; for the second, delete
got:

I got a camel for Christmas; now I have a camel.

Avoid substituting got for was or were, as in was killed. (Of course, with slang, got
is appropriate: got nailed.) But even in formal writing, was doesnt always do the
trick. Notice how its meaning differs from got in the following sentence:

I knew she was married, but I dont know when she got married.

Strict grammarians would say I dont know when she married, but got is gaining
wide acceptance.

good vs. well
Good is an adjective and well nearly always an adverb:

Youre a good writer; you write very well.

However, well can be an adjective meaning healthy: You look well means You
dont look sick. When you want to compliment someones attractiveness, say,
You look good. When speaking of your health, say I feel well; if you mean
that youre happy, say I feel good. For details about when feel takes a
complement (adjective) rather than an adverb, see bad vs. badly.

graduate
It is incorrect to say, She graduated college. It is acceptable (though rare) to say
She was graduated from college, but most acceptable is She graduated from
college.

grow
Trees grow. Flowers grow. Cancers grow. Even businesses growand you can
make your business grow. But you cant grow your business, any more than you
can thrive it.

Guess what?
This sentence is not a question but a command (albeit a lighthearted one);
therefore, it does not take a question mark but a period or an exclamation point.

historic vs. historical
Historic means figuring in history; historical means pertaining to history:

Historical novels would have you believe that romance figured into every
historic event.

hoi polloi
Perhaps confusing this term with hoity-toity (pretentious; haughty), some people
use hoi polloi for the elite, but it means the opposite: the masses. In Greek, hoi
means the and polloi means many; its therefore redundant to say the hoi polloi.

hopefully
Hopefully is an adverb meaning with hope:

Claudius poisoned the wine and waited hopefully for Hamlet to drink it.

Some object to its use as a modifier of whole sentences: Hopefully, the two sides
will reach an agreement. The Random House Unabridged Dictionary, 2
nd
Edition,
and the Merriam-Webster New Collegiate Dictionary argue that this usage has been
fully standard since the 1930s, and is parallel with certainly, frankly, curiously,
regrettably, presumably, and fortunately. More and more grammarians are coming
to agree with this, but be aware that many people still disagree with the use of the
word as a sentence modifier.

Richard Marius in A Writers Companion, 4
th
Edition, 1999, has this to add: The
main objection to hopefully is that it makes something abstract that is personal.
Hope does not float in the air like nitrogen. Hope is an emotion we feel as persons,
and we ought to locate its source and identify the people who have it. He prefers
that writers and speakers use I hope. When that doesnt work, you can substitute
one hopes or it is hopedor, if you want to color your speech, use the German
word hoffentlich; it means what so many of us want hopefully to mean.

how
This adverb means in what way or manner; it should not be used to mean that, as
in I told him how Id just seen the movie Rosemarys Babyunless the speaker
really means that she explained which chair she had sat in and what she had
snacked on during the show. The sentence below is correct, as demonstrated by
the sentence following it:

Jean Kilbourne explains how the media sells audiences to advertisers.
She points out that a TV program only succeeds if it attracts enough viewers
aged 18 to 49 living in or near a city: the group most likely to buy what is
advertised in the commercials.

I vs. me
I is the subject:

Chris and I visited them.

You should technically use I (or he or she) even when the subject comes at the
end of the sentence (as in, It is I). However, it is now standard to use me (or
him or her) in the following phrases:

Its me. (Thats her.)
Me, too.
Woe is me.

But, for the most part, me should only be used as the object:

They visited Chris and me.
Thats between him and me.

(As to the last sentence, some people argue that Shakespeare wrote in The
Merchant of Venice, All debts are cleard between you and I. Theodore Bernstein
suggests in The Careful Writer, 1965, that perhaps Shakespeare made the
mistake because he was preoccupied, or because he was negligent, or because he
had in mind a reason that is obscure to his readers now, or merely because he had
a bellyache.)

-ics
When words such as economics, statistics, and politics are used to refer to a
subject, a science, a profession, or a system, give them singular verbs:

Economics was his worst subject.

Otherwise, treat them as plurals:

Statistics show that second-hand smoke kills more people each year than do
all illicit drugs combined.

i.e. vs. e.g.
I.e. is short for the Latin id est, meaning that is (or in other words). E.g. is short
for the Latin exempli gratia, which means for example. Each abbreviation should
normally be preceded and succeeded by a comma.

Government subsidies for big business, i.e., corporate welfare, cost taxpayers
far more than does ordinary welfare.
Corporate welfare, e.g., the savings and loan bailout, costs taxpayers far more
than does government aid to single mothers.

Note: Style guides recommend avoiding abbreviations in formal writing and instead
using that is (or in other words), or for example. They also recommend and others
for et al., as well as and so on for etc.

the idea that
This phrase adds wordiness and can often be cut; instead of, Hes open to the
idea that we could give up television, try, Hes open to giving up television.

if vs. in case
People often say if when they mean in case, as in, If you want dessert, I bought
some ice cream. That implies that if you dont want dessert, I didnt buy ice
cream. The proper sentence is, I bought ice cream in case you wanted dessert.

if vs. though
Substituting if for though can cause confusion. The sentence I expect well have a
delightful visit, if brief could mean that the visit will be delightful in spite of or on
the condition of its brevity. Instead, say one of the following:

I expect well have a delightful visit, though brief.
I expect well have a delightful visit, as long as its brief.

if vs. whether
Most usage guides prescribe the use of if to precede a conditional phrase and
whether to express an alternative:

Cinderella can go to the ball if she gets all her work done.
I dont know whether shell find a dress to wear.

However, the use of if to mean whether dates at least as early as the King James
Bible of 1611:

Also he sent forth a dove from him, to see if the waters were abated from off
the face of the ground.

Genesis 8:8

Use your own discretion, but be careful not to obscure your meaning, as in the
following sentence:

Let me know if you need a break.

That could mean or Let me know when you need break or Let me know whether
you need a break now.

if not
This phrase can have contrary meanings, as in the following sentence: I find her
brilliant, if not ingenious. In speech, you can make yourself clear by either
emphasizing ingenious or de-emphasizing if not ingenious (and maybe rolling your
eyes or shrugging to demonstrate your doubt of her ingenuity). In writing, its best
to substitute other words for if not:

I find her brilliant, though not ingenious.
I find her brilliant, perhaps [or even] ingenious.

impact
For centuries, impact was used only as a noun. The verb sense is a back formation
of the adjective impacted, which means tightly or immovably wedged in (and once
meant constipated). As both a noun and a verb, its once-powerful meaning has
been diluted by those who substitute it for influence or affect/effect, as in Your
consistent tardiness impacts everyone in the carpool. That use is considered by
some to be pretentious and jargonistic. Try to reserve the word for forceful
contact; collision:

My hand was throbbing from the impact with his jaw.

imply vs. infer
To imply is to indicate or suggest (without explicitly stating); to infer is to gather,
derive or conclude:

Are you inferring that I dont know the correct usage?
No, Im implying it.

important vs. importantly
Usage experts are divided about the use of importantly. Some would reserve it to
mean in an important matter, as in the following sentence:

Wearing his lab coat and glancing impatiently at his watch, he bustled
importantly down the hall.

As a sentence modifier, they would prefer important:

Animals may be unable to reason, but they can feel fear and, more
important, pain.

Others prefer more importantly, pain. Knowing that the second use is so
controversial, you may wish to substitute whats more important.

indicate vs. prove
When you want to avoid sounding accusatory (a good idea even when youre sure
the other person is wrong), use indicate instead of prove:

The minor scratch on my car indicates how little damage I might have done
to his truck.

indefinitely
Just as stores use any day now to imply that your special order will arrive
tomorrow, when it could just as easily be next month, they boast that a product
will last indefinitely as if that meant practically forever. When a publisher declares
a book out of stock indefinitely, booksellers know that its more or less out of print.
Try to restrict the use of indefinitely to time frames which are merely unknown, not
impressively long.

interment vs. internment
The first is burial (from terra, meaning earth); the second, confinement, as in a
prison camp:

There was no ceremony held over the vagrants interment.
Three fourths of the 110,000 who suffered internment for three years
during World War II were Niseichildren born in the US of Japanese parents
and therefore American citizens.

individual
This word should be used to refer to a single person as opposed to a group, or to
stress uniqueness:

Other cultures value the welfare of the community over that of the
individual.
Soft drink ads claim that your choice of cola sets you off as an individual.

It should not be used simply to mean person, as in The individual was seen
entering the building at 5 P.M.

into vs. in
In denotes a static state; into denotes action:

She had a stun gun in her pocket.
She reached into her pocket.

into vs. in to
Into is a preposition used to describe the attainment of a position inside a thing;
the word in followed by to has a different meaning:

Reach into the bag, then go take a cookie in to your sister.

You can determine when to use in to by seeing whether it works to omit in:

Reach into the bag, then go take a cookie to your sister.
Roman and Raphaelson, in Writing that Works, 1981, cite a headline which
mistook one use for the other: MURDER SUSPECTS TURN THEMSELVES INTO
POLICE.

intrigue (the verb)
Though this word is used as a synonym for interest, its meaning is stronger.
Derived from the French to perplex, it means to arouse the curiosity or interest of
by unusual, new, or otherwise fascinating or compelling qualities; appeal strongly
to; captivate (Random House Unabridged Dictionary, 2
nd
Edition, 1987).
Synonyms include mystify, captivate, fascinate, pique, compel, excite, and
enchant.

The strangers smella combination of alcohol, sweat, and Middle Eastern
spicesso intrigued me that I was overwhelmed with joyful sorrow, and a
longing for something I couldnt name.

intuitive
Only in the computer world could a word be so abused. Intuitive means perceptive
when applied to people, or innate when applied to knowledge. The computer
industry has created a new meaning for the word, which is something along the
lines of easily figured out, as if through your own intuition. Apparently, they were
tired of user-friendly. A less jargonistic term than either one would be self-
explanatory, or simple.

This computer program is simple, even for those who arent very intuitive.

ironic vs. coincidental
Ironic means contrary to expectation; coincidental means by chance, and often
refers to two events which, surprisingly, occur to the same people, in the same
circumstance, or at the same time:

Ironically, using the ironing board as a shield from the crumbling ceiling
caused the iron to fall on his head.
Coincidentally, the same thing was just then happening to his sister.

irregardless
The proper word is regardless.

is when, is where
Avoid these phrases. Instead of, In television, a jolt is when/is where something
interrupts . . . use the following format:

In television, a jolt is something that interrupts the flow of sound or
imagesa gunshot, shift in camera angle, or cut to a commercial.

it, that, this, which
When using these words, make sure there is no question about the antecedent
(what the words are referring to). There is special danger when two or more nouns
or ideas have been mentioned and the pronoun could be referring to just one of
them or, as in the example of this, below, to everything previously mentioned.
The following are examples of potentially confusing sentences followed by clearer
versions:

Confusing: The leopard ran through the snow and it was beautiful.
Clear: The beautiful leopard ran through the snow.
Clear: The leopard ran through the beautiful snow.
Clear: The sight of the leopard running through the snow was beautiful.

Confusing: Most womens magazines rely on advertisements of diet aids.
Women with eating disorders are steadfast consumers of diet products.
That is why these magazines fuel a paradoxical obsession with binging and
thinness by juxtaposing dessert recipes and photos of fattening foods with
diets and pictures of thin models.
Clear: Most womens magazines rely on advertisements of diet aids. Because
women with eating disorders are steadfast consumers of diet
products, these magazines fuel a paradoxical obsession with binging and
thinness by juxtaposing dessert recipes and photos of fattening foods with
diets and pictures of thin models.

Confusing: TV programs are filler for the space between commercials, and
cannot do anything that their sponsors find controversial. This is why CBS
canceled Ed Asners series after Vidal Sassoon and Kimberly Clark withdrew
their sponsorship because of Asners involvement in Medical Aid for El
Salvador.
Clear: That TV programs are fillers for the space between commercials
and cannot do anything that their sponsors find controversial became
evident when CBS canceled Ed Asners series after Vidal Sassoon and
Kimberly Clark withdrew their sponsorship because of Asners involvement in
Medical Aid for El Salvador

Confusing: Many children are a captive audience for the commercials on
Channel One, which gives video equipment to desperate schools in
exchange for the right to broadcast a news program riddled with ads to
students every morning.
Clear: Many children are a captive audience for the commercials on Channel
One, a marketing program that gives video equipment to desperate . . .
Confusing: Many children are a captive audience for the commercials on
Channel One, which allows advertisers to manipulate them into craving
soft drinks and revering fashion when they should be studying arts and
sciences.
Clear: That many students are a captive audience for the commercials
on Channel One allows advertisers to manipulate them into craving . . .

its vs. its
Its is a contraction for it is; its is the possessive form of the pronoun it:

Its better to die on your feet than to live on your knees.
Each method has its advantages.

iterate
Because reiterate means say or do again or repeatedly, some people think that
iterate must simply mean say or do. On the contrary, the two words mean the
same thing, both dating to around 1530. The shorter word is preferable, and
should never be used as a synonym for say.

kind of, sort of
In formal writing, avoid these phrases in favor of somewhat and rather. For the
sense type of, avoid saying What kind of a movie was it? or What kinds of movie
do you like? Instead, in both cases, say What kind of movie . . .

lack vs. absence
Just as you cannot fail unless you try, you cannot lack a thing that is useless.
Therefore, its wrong to say, Thousands of readers choose Ms. because of its lack
of advertisements. Two correct sentences follow:

Thousands of readers choose Ms. because of its absence of advertisements.
Magazines with ads lack integrity, and their articles lack credibility.

lady vs. woman
The word lady is properly used only where you would otherwise say gentleman (or
lord). In other words, Ladies and gentlemen is a proper salute to an audience, but
the restroom signs Ladies and Men are, as Marilyn French pointed out in The
Womens Room, unparallel to say the least. Not only is lady often used as the
opposite of what is intended, as in, Hey, lady, learn how to drive! but it implies
that all women should be ladies, whereas few people think that all men should be
gentlemen. So reserve lady for phrases such as ten lords a-leaping, nine ladies
dancing, but otherwise use woman.

leave vs. let
As is true of nearly every pair of words in this usage guide, these two are
considered interchangeable by dictionaries. However, for precision, use leave alone
for abandon or leave in solitude, and let alone for refrain from disturbing:

Dont leave me alone with your relativesthey wont let me alone!

leery
Though gaining wide acceptance, leery is considered by some to be slang.
Alternatives are wary, distrustful, and hesitant:

Hamlet is not so much indecisive as wary of taking the advice of a ghost.

lend vs. loan
For impeccable grammar, use loan only as a noun, and lend for the verb:

Friends, Romans, countrymen, lend me your ears.
Thats not the kind of loan you can pay back.

lie vs. lay
Lie is an intransitive verb (one that requires no direct object) meaning recline, and
becomes lay or lain only in the past tense:

Are you just going to lie there?
I asked him to move, but he simply lay there.
For all I knew, he had lain there all day.

Lay is a transitive verb (one that requires a direct object) meaning put or place,
and becomes laid only in the past tense:

Please dont lay that dreadful thing on the table.
She ignored me and laid it there anyway.
I was just glad she hadnt laid it on the bed.

light-year
This term is a measure of distance: how far light travels in a year. Some
dictionaries condone its use as a measurement of time, as in Its been light-years
since Ive seen my childhood friends. Though even the strictest grammarians
must admit that languages evolve and that, ultimately, use governs meaning, they
could point out that learn is sometimes used to mean teach (My pa learned me to
spit when I was a youngun). Most English speakers would call that usage
colloquialeven illiteratebut at least learn and teach both refer to education,
whereas distance and time are entirely different subjects. With that in mind, feel
free to use light-year as an exaggerationof distance. For exaggerations of time,
use ages or eons.

Its been years/ages/eons since hes seen the dentist.
When I felt my stomach turn, we were light-years away from a restroom.

likes of
This phrase is colloquial and should be avoided in formal writing. Either make it
singularlike ofor, if possible, omit it:

Edgar told Gloucester hed seen a huge-eyed fiend with whelked horns and a
thousand noses, the like of which hed never seen before.

like vs. as
Because its a preposition, like should not be used before a complete clause (a
subject and verb); instead use as or as if. Below are examples of the correct uses
of these words:

He eats like a pig.
He eats as a pig eats.
He eats as if he were a pig.

The rule need not be followed for casual writing; go ahead and say, She walked in
like she owned the place and He drinks coffee like its going out of style.

like vs. such as
Strictly speaking, like should be used to compare two subjects and such as to
introduce an example:

He ate like a pig.
Certain things about him annoyed me, such as his eating habits.
Some grammarians still adhere to the rule; others have adopted like for both
cases.

like so
When giving a formal demonstration, avoid saying, Line the bag with tinfoil, like
so. Instead, say like this.

limited
Advertisers want us to think this word means brief, so that when a special offer
lasts for a limited time only, well sell our cars to take advantage of the sale.
Limited should be used to mean within bounds, no matter how wide those bounds.

literally vs. figuratively
Literally means actually (by the letter); figuratively means metaphorically (and
doesnt usually need to be said):

Using a grapple, the burglar was literally climbing the walls.
Waiting for Adam Ants appearance, the crowd was [figuratively] climbing
the walls.

live
Just as its incorrect to say, This is a good house to live, its also wrong to say,
This is a good place to live. Instead, say, This is a good place/house to live in,
or This is a good place/house in which to live.

livid
This word has acquired so many meanings that no one will know what youre
talking about if you say it. You could mean the first definitiondiscolored or
grayish-blue, as from bruisingor any one of its newer definitions: enraged;
strangled with emotion; reddish or flushed; pale or ashen:

Livid, she choked him until he turned first livid, then livid, and, finally,
livid. (By then, he no longer livd.)

loath vs. loathe
Loath is an adjective meaning reluctant or unwilling; loathe is a verb meaning to
hate, despise, or detest:

Im not crazy about him, but Im loath to say that I loathe him.

may vs. might
Use may for probable contingencies, might for improbable ones:

It may rain.
It might rain Jgermeister.

Also use might for the past tense of may:

We thought it might rain.

may be vs. maybe
May be is a verb and maybe an adverb:

You may be right.
Maybe youre right.

Some consider this word colloquial and, except in conversation, prefer perhaps.

media
Although the use of media with a singular verb is gaining acceptance, it is
technically plural (the singular being medium), and many authorities prefer that it
be given a plural verb and pronoun:

Because the media rely on advertising, they are far from impartial.

See also data.

medium
Medium (the adjective) should not be used in a list with small and large; it should
be medium-size(d):

Goldilocks ate from the large bowl, the medium-sized bowl, and then the
small bowl.

For the informal example above, middle-sized would also work.

minuscule
This word is so often misspelled that miniscule has made it into dictionaries, but
minuscule is still preferred. It derives from the word minus.

misanthrope, misogynist, misandrist
Most people know that a misanthrope hates humankind and a misogynist hates
women, but few people knowand even my Spell Check doesnt knowthat a
misandrist hates men.

militate vs. mitigate
Militate comes from the Latin militare, meaning to serve as a soldier, and means to
have a substantial effect or weigh heavily; it is normally followed by against.
Mitigate comes from the Latin mitis meaning soft, gentle, mild, and means to
soften, moderate, make less severe:

Her felony charge militated against her, and there was no way to mitigate it.

moot
This word is most often used to mean irrelevant, hypothetical, or academic, and it
has recently acquired those synonyms in dictionaries, but the first definition is to
the contrary: doubtful, arguable; open to debate.

Whether to vote for the candidate most likely to beat Bush or to split the
vote by exercising your true democratic rights and going with the best
possible candidate is a moot question.

more than one
Though technically plural, more than one requires a singular verb when it modifies
a singular noun:

More than one necklace was stolen.

When it modifies a plural noun, its verb is plural:

More than one of the necklaces were stolen.
More necklaces than one were stolen.

multiply vs. times
It is wrong to say, Times the number by five; the word needed is multiply.

Six times five equals thirty.
Multiply six by five to get thirty.

mutual vs. common
This word refers to simultaneous reciprocal feelings, as in mutual respect. It can
also be used for words exchanged, as in mutual criticism, but not for actions or
concrete things; you would not say mutual punches. In 1658 the English writer
George Starkey referred to our mutual friend, and much later Charles Dickens
published his novel with that title. The word is still acceptably used for shared
friends and acquaintances, but is more correctly used as in Shakespeares Measure
for Measure, when Claudio speaks of sex as our most mutual entertainment. Two
people who like Big Band do not have a mutual interest; they have a shared or
common interest.

Our marriage is based on mutual love and on common concerns.

myriad
This word originally meant ten thousand but now means numerous. Avoid a myriad
of:

Wealthy children will receive myriad gifts this Christmas while other
children starve.

nature
This word can often be cut; instead of Elephants are gentle in nature, try,
Elephants are gentle.

nauseous vs. nauseated
Though the two definitions of nauseouscausing nausea and affected with
nauseaappeared almost simultaneously in the early 17
th
century, many prefer
that the word be used only in the first sense. (However, for that sense nauseating
has become more common.) So while its acceptable to say The fumes made me
nauseous, you may need a dictionary close-by to defend yourself from sticklers.

He had the nauseating habit of correcting people for saying they felt
nauseous when, in his opinion, they really meant nauseated.

noisome
This word means offensive or disgusting, especially in regard to smells. Unrelated
to the word noisy, it is a variation of annoy:

I asked my noisome neighbors to empty their trash.

nominal
Nominal does not mean small; it means in name only. As Bergan Evans says in
Comfortable Words, 1962, a nominal fee is not merely a low fee, but one so
low . . . that it can be regarded merely as a token payment. If a charge, however
small, is a reasonable charge for what is done or given, it is not nominal.
She never writes to me personally, but includes me on her mass e-mailings
of office humor, dire warnings, and Bushisms. Shes a nominal friend.

nowhere near
This phrase is colloquial and therefore inappropriate in formal writing; substitute
not nearly or far from:

Television features arent nearly as important to broadcasters as
commercials, for which the programs are merely filler.

number of
In formal writing, avoid using a number of, a large number of, and a small number
of; instead use some, many, several, few, or the actual number. Also, instead of
twice the number of layoffs try twice the layoffs.

observance vs. observation
An observance is a taking note or a celebration according to custom; an
observation is a viewing, regarding, or perceiving:

We found a good vantage point high on a hill for observation of the
fireworks in observance of Independence Day.

occur vs. take place
Occur should be used for things that happen spontaneously or accidentally, take
place for prearranged events:

The solar eclipse occurred when his execution was set to take place.

See also transpire.

off of
Avoid using off of; instead say off or from:

Make the cat get off the table.
She jumped from the train to the back of the running horse.

OK vs. O.K. vs. okay
All three spellings are correct (although this word is colloquial and should be
avoided in formal writing); however, the original spelling is O.K. Though it had
been used before this, it was popularized in 1840 when supporters of the
Democratic candidate Martin Van Buren named their organization the O.K. Club,
referring to the initials of his nickname Old Kinderhook, derived from his
birthplace, Kinderhook, New York.

on vs. upon
Upon is considered by some to be stuffy; unless you need a formal effect, use on.

on account of
This phrase should only be followed by a noun or noun phrase, not a verb phrase.
Therefore, its wrong to say, She died on account of she was exposed to second-
hand smoke. The following is correct:
In the US, over a thousand people die every day on account of cigarette-
related diseases.

one of
In phrases such as one of the chickens, the verb is plural, not singular, because
the subject is not one but is the prepositional phrase of the chickens. Therefore,
its incorrect to say, One of the chickens who lives; it should instead be as
follows:

Kathleen is one of the chickens who live at my aunts house.

You can test this by reversing the order of the sentence:

Of the chickens who live at my aunts house, Kathleen is one.

onto vs. on to
Onto is a preposition used to describe the attainment of a position on top of a
thing; on followed by to has a different meaning:

Climb up onto the horse, then hold on to the reins!

You can tell when to use on to by whether it works to leave off the indirect object:

Climb up onto the horse, then hold on!

optimistic
Because this word describes a general tendency to view things in a positive light, it
is inaccurate to use it for single instances, as in, Were optimistic about the results
of the surgery. The following sentences are correct:

Were hopeful about the results of the surgery.
Susans optimistic attitude is hastening her recovery.

or, nor
When parts of a subject are joined by or or nor, the verb and any corresponding
nouns or pronouns agree with the closer part. This is simple when both are plural
or both are singular:

Is Hector or Achilles the better fighter?
Either Paris or Menelaus has to give up his claim to Helen.
Neither the Greeks nor the Trojans care about Helen any longer.

When one part is plural and one is singular, keeping the verb in agreement with
the closer part can sound awkward in the following example:

Neither the Trojans nor Helen thinks Paris is a good fighter.

To avoid this awkwardness, place the plural part closer so that the verb is plural:

Neither Helen nor the Trojans think Paris is a good fighter.

Another awkwardness arises when I is used in conjunction with you or they, or
with she or he. When using the rule stated abovethat the verb should correspond
with the closer partwe come up with sentences such as the following:

Either you or I am responsible.
Either they or he is responsible.

These sentences are correct, but sound strange, so you can reword them as
follows:

Either you are responsible or I am.
Either they are responsible or he is.

Another problem follows. Some authorities believe the first sentence is correct,
others, the second sentence:

It all happened before you or I was born.
It all happened before you or I were born.

This example is a little different in that here, or does not serve to separate the
subjects but rather to join them (before I was born and before you were born).
This is why some authorities favor the plural verb, and, because it sounds so much
more natural, I agree.

oral, spoken, verbal, written
Although verbal is commonly used to mean spoken, it also includes written words;
therefore, a verbal agreement may be either voiced or notarized. To avoid
confusion, use oral or spoken for spoken and written for written. Undoubtedly
there are uses for the word verbal, but most of them may be in the negative, as in
non-verbal communication, meaning gestures, facial expressions, or fisticuffs.

orientate, disorientate
The proper words are orient and disorient.

overly
As an adverb, the correct word is over. It is often a part of the word it modifies, as
in overdone and overwrought. Some people think that adverbs must always end in
-ly, but those who write overly careful are being overcareful.

party
A party is a group and should not be used in reference to individuals except in
legal documents.

A table is now available for the Wilde party.

patron
So many businesses have insisted on calling their customers patrons that some
dictionaries now give customer as the words first definition. However, in the
hearts of strict grammarians a patron will always be one who supports an artist,
event, institution, or charity with money, gifts, efforts, or endorsements. The use
of patron for customer was once considered snooty, but is now scarcely noticed.

per
Though some stylists recommend reserving per for technical writing and,
elsewhere, using an English equivalent ($10 an hour, twenty miles to the gallon,
three acres for each person) others find the word acceptable in general writing.
However, all seem to seem to agree that its no substitute for according to, as in
per your request (or, more awkwardly, as per your request). That use is
considered business jargon, and often comes off as stiff and impersonal. The
following is preferred:

Ive enclosed my pay stubs according to your request.

percent vs. per cent vs. %
All are correct, but in formal writing the words are preferred to the symbol, and
percent (one word) is preferred to per cent:

The Oscar ceremony commands one million dollars for a thirty-second
commercial because it delivers over sixty percent of the nations women to
advertisers.

When comparing percentages, use numerals followed by %:

Because 10% of drinkers consume over 60% of alcohol sold, advertisers
spend millions on psychological research to learn how to best take
advantage of alcoholics.

personally
Personally, like no offense, is often used just before an offensive statement. (A
similar phrase is but thats just my opinion.) At best, these words sound
apologetic; at worst, they add annoyance to injury. If you sincerely wish not to
offend (and not to be redundant), you need to go further than starting a sentence
with Personally, I think:

I hope I dont sound rude when I say that television insults the intellect.

Otherwise, say what you mean without apology:

Television insults the intellect.

playwright
A playwright engages in playwriting. The suffix wright is not another spelling for
write; it designates someone who fashions or constructs something, as a
wheelwright or shipwright.

pleaded vs. pled
Both are correct, but pleaded is preferred: She pleaded guilty.

pls.
Some people consider this abbreviation rude, as if the writer didnt want to take
the time to write out please. Of course, on a Post-It, there may not be room for
the three extra lettersbut thats no excuse for the word thanx.

See also ASAP.

possible
A common mistake in speeches is to thank a benefactor for making this affair
possible. The affair was always possible; the benefactor helped to make it
happen.

practicable vs. practical
What is practicable can be done; what is practical can be done to good end.

It would be practicable to dig up our floor and convert it into a garden, but
it wouldnt be practical.

precede vs. proceed
Precede means come before; proceed means move on:

She allowed him to precede her as they proceeded into her office.

preceding vs. previous
Previous means coming before; preceding means coming immediately before:

Chips in the paint revealed all the different colors the walls had been painted
by previous tenants.
Were still getting mail addressed to the preceding tenant.

presently
This word has two meanings: the first is soon and the second is now. The second is
100 years older (dating to the 15
th
century), but is the one more objected to in
usage guides. Although the tense of the verb makes clear which sense is meant

I am presently unemployed.
Presently Ill be living in my car.

this word is characteristic of official jargon. Its best to substitute soon or now.

preventative
This word is not incorrect, but preventive is preferred:
No moisturizer in the world can erase wrinkles; instead, use sunscreen as a
preventive.

principal vs. principle
Most of us remember the proper spelling for chief official because our teachers
insisted that the principal was our pal. However, its less commonly known that
this word is short for principal official; principal is an adjective meaning foremost
(the noun being principle). Principal is also the spelling for capital sum (as
distinguished from interest or profit).

The principal said that her principal reason for quitting was simply a
matter of principle.

promise
Reserve promises for the future; you can promise not to jump on the bed, but you
cant promise that you werent jumping on the bed. For that sense, use assure.

proportions
The word proportions expresses a relationship of one part to another, or of parts to
the whole. Rather than saying a building of huge proportions, say a building of
huge dimensions/size, or a huge building.

protagonist
This word comes from the Greek protos, for first, and agonistes, for actor. In any
play, film, or novel, there can be only one protagonist. Perhaps unfortunately for
the protagonist, there may be any number of antagonists.

(My husband is doubtful that there can be only one protagonist. He says, What
about the Magnificent Seven, or the Three Musketeers? Thats an excellent
question. With this in mind, I think perhaps there can be a single group of
protagonists.)

providing vs. provided
The use of providing in place of provided was once frowned upon but is now widely
accepted. Just be sure that your meaning is clear; if you say, Ill go, providing
that she come, too, youre inadvertently saying that your going will allow for her
coming. Instead say, Ill go, provided that she come, too.

psychological terms
Psychologists and psychoanalysts use, as a sort of shorthand, certain terms by
themselves that should be followed by a preposition and an object or by a reflexive
pronoun (myself, herself, etc.). This is jargon and should be avoided in popular
writing and speech. Below are some examples, along with the words that should
follow them:

adapt (oneself to)
adjust (to)
belong (in or to)
communicate (with)
cope (with)
identify (with)
relate (to)

purposely vs. purposefully
Purposely means on purpose; intentionally. Purposefully means with purpose;
with a goal in mind:

She strode purposefully from the house, purposely leaving the door wide
open.

quality
This word, as an adjective, is too often used to mean high quality. In that way, its
like the word luck, which when used alone nearly always means good luck rather
than bad. Say what kind of quality you meanand, in doing so, you may be able
to drop quality altogether: instead of, We give professional-quality service, say,
We give professional service.

quotation vs. quote
Quote is the verb, quotation the noun:

I always want to quote Thoreau but never remember the exact quotation.

If quotation is too cumbersome for your sentence, you can replace it with passage,
excerpt, or remark. Note: writers, editors, and printers often substitute the word
quotes for quotation marks, just as espresso vendors substitute whip for whipped
cream. As long as they dont start substituting foam for whipped cream, I wont
complain.

quotation marks
In America, punctuation normally goes inside quotation marks rather than outside:

The woman said, Who is it?
The parrot said, Its the plumber. Hes come to fix the sink.

The exception is with question marks and exclamation points. If they are part of
the quotation, they go inside; if not, they go outside:

Did Mona Simpson write Red Ant House?
Nothat was Ann Cummins! Mona Simpson wrote Lawns!

Colons and semicolons go outside as well:

Robert Butler wrote Jealous Husband Returns in Form of Parrot; I just read it.
I know the author of Little, Little Big Man: its Heidi Julavits.

rack vs. wrack
Racked means tortured, strained, or punished (as if on the medieval torture
device). Wracked means destroyed, and is related to wrecked. The proper spellings
for common phrases using these words are wrack and ruin, nerve-racking, racked
with guilt, and rack your brains.

The Turkish ships were wracked in the surge.
Because of Iagos devious implications, Othello was racked with jealousy.

rarely ever, seldom ever
Drop ever, unless you want to say rarely, if ever or seldom, if ever:

A study found that preschool boys were rarely told to be quiet even though
they were noisier than girls, who were shushed three times as often.

Anti-drug literature seldom, if ever admits that cigarettes kill more Americans
each year than do alcohol, cocaine, heroin, fires, car crashes, homicide, suicide,
and AIDS combined.

rather than
This phrase is redundant when preceded by prefer or more. Instead of I prefer
books rather than movies, say, I prefer books to movies. Instead of Im more
interested in reading books rather than watching movies, say, Im more
interested in reading books than in watching movies.

reaction
This word refers to a reverse movement or tendency, and comes from scientific
observations such as the following:

For every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction.

(This could even be considered redundant, and could be shortened to . . . there is
an equal reaction.) Because it technically describes a mechanical response to a
stimulus rather than a considered one, it shouldnt be thought of as
interchangeable with the more thoughtful words response, reply, opinion, attitude,
feeling, impression, and view.

really, very
These words are so overused that, instead of working as intensifiers, they often
merely add syllables. One way to limit their use is to choose a more intense
adjective. Instead of This book was really good, say, This book was
outstanding/disturbing/remarkable/life-changing/chilling. If youre already using a
strong adjective, consider how your sentence would sound without really or very.
Instead of Youre very beautiful, say, Youre beautiful, and see how much
stronger it sounds.

Similarly, in French, the phrase Je laime bien means, word for word, I love him
well, but is used to mean merely I like him. When the French want to say I love
him, they leave out the bien (well) and say only, Je laime.

reason . . . is because
Either use reason with that or use because alone; do not use reason with because:

The reason Im late is that there was traffic.
Im late because of traffic.

reason why vs. reason that
Reason why is incorrect; say reason that or simply reason:

Hes the reason [that] I hate this song.

refute
This word means disprove, and should not be confused with deny, dispute,
counter, contest, or reject.

He couldnt refute my argument that the illegalization of drugs, as in
Prohibition, was what led to crimenot the drugs themselves.

regretfully vs. regrettably
Regretfully is an adverb meaning full of regret; regrettably is a sentence modifier
meaning to be regretted:

Regretfully, she declined the invitation, saying, Regrettably, I cant go.

Those who object to the use of hopefully as a sentence modifier should perhaps
lobby for a new word, such as hopably, which would do the same thing as
regrettably.

reign vs. rein
As a noun, a reign is a period of sovereignty (the reign of Queen Elizabeth) or a
dominating power (the reign of law); a rein is one of two leather straps used to
control a horses movements, or any means of curbing or restraining. Contrarily, to
give rein to is to indulge freely (give rein to your imagination).

As a verb, to reign is to possess or exercise sovereignty, or to rule or influence in
any way; to rein is to control (a horse) with reins, or to curb or restrain in any
way.

He reigned the kingdom well but couldnt rein his addiction to opium; instead
he gave rein to his habit, submitting to the reign of the drug.

rob
To rob is to steal from. Therefore, you cant rob money; you can only rob a person,
bank, or store of money.

robber, thief, burglar
A robber steals by force or threat of force, a thief by stealth. A burglar enters a
building with intent to steal. Thus, a shoplifter acting on impulse is a thief, but one
who premeditates his crime is a burglar (and will be tried as a felon).

round
Omit the apostrophe. In the phrases year round and round-the-world tour, for
example, round is not a contraction of around but is a preposition.

said
Young students are often taught to avoid monotony in their dialogue by replacing
each said with query, affirm, respond, reply, assert, declare, iterate, laugh, smile,
grin, or state. However, usage experts agree that these words draw much more
attention to themselves than does the repetition of said, which is hardly more
noticeable than a period. The occasional asked is unobtrusive, but otherwise, if you
really want to avoid the word said, the best way is to leave off he said and she said
entirely. That works especially well when there are only two characters and youve
already established which one started the dialogue.

See also iterate.

sanction
This word has always had two nearly opposite meanings: approval and penalty.
The Latin root is sancio, which means consecrated, holy, sacred, but also the
clause in a law which defines the penalty. And these are only two of the meanings;
there are many others. For clarity, substitute sanctify; bless; approve; permit or
penalize; prohibit.

savings
This word is incorrectly used in the singular, as in, Buy now for a savings of
10%. The following are correct:

Buy now for savings of 10%.
Buy now for a saving of 10%.

senior citizens
This is a euphemism and, like all euphemisms, implies that theres something
unspeakably wrong with what the term replacesin this case, old people. Other
euphemisms are even more degrading, including golden-aged and, worse, young
at heart. (But the very most insulting is the phrase ninety years young.) Plainer
words are the aged, the old, and the elderly.

sensual vs. sensuous
Sensual refers to gratification of the carnal senses, especially gustatory and
sexual; sensuous implies a more refined sensory experience, such as listening to
music, watching a sunset or smelling flowers:

Having renounced all sensual pleasures, the nuns indulged themselves
readily in sensuous delights.`

she/her
When speaking of countries, ships, motorcycles, and other inanimate objects, use
it and its. There is only one exception to this: Thar she blows.

shop
This word should be followed by at; instead of Shop Good Will, say, Shop at
Good Will.

since
A few strict grammarians discourage the use of since to mean because, but that
use has been around for 500 years. The only time to avoid it is when it could cause
confusion: Since you left, Ive cut my hair could mean that Ive cut my hair
because you left, or merely in the time that has elapsed since then.

situation
This word can often be omitted, as in the sentences, The situation is that weve
run out of food, and Were faced with an emergency situation:

Weve run out of food; were faced with an emergency.

The same is true for the word behavior. A team of two sociologists once voluntarily
committed themselves to a mental hospital as an experiment, and they were
treated as patients. While one of the sociologists recorded his observations in a
notebook, the staff described him as engaging in writing behavior.

slight of hand
The proper spelling is sleight of hand. Sleight comes from an Old Norse root
meaning crafty or clever; sleight of hand denotes deceptive manual dexterity.

snuck
This word is colloquial; sneaked is preferred.

so, such
When so and such are used as intensifiers, they should be followed by that:

Hes so rich that he spends more money on hair cuts than I spend on
my rent.
Hes such a spendthrift that he goes through $300 a day.

sometime vs. some time
Sometime means at some time in the future, or, archaically, previous; former.
Some time means a span of time:

I asked my sometime boyfriend to come up and see me sometime, but
he said he would be busy for quite some time.

speak vs. talk
These words are almost identical, but speak is more formal and one-sided. For this
reason, speak is better followed by to; talk can be followed by to or with.

spittin image
The correct, though redundant, phrase is spit and image. The word spit once
denoted an exact likeness, so someone who resembled her cousin was said to be
the spit of her cousin (as if she had been spit from her cousins mouth), or the
image of her cousin, or the spit and image.

stick up for
This phrase is a casualism. In formal and semiformal writing, it should be replaced
with defend, champion, or side with.

straightjacket
This spelling has made it into dictionaries, but the proper spelling is straitjacket.
It doesnt refer to a jacket thats straight but one that is strait, meaning confining.

supposably, undoubtably
The correct words are supposedly and undoubtedly.

suppose to
It is incorrect to say You are suppose to; it should be You are supposed to.

sure and, try and
The correct forms of these phrases are sure to and try to:

Be sure to come to the union meeting.
Try to get there on time.

than vs. then
Than is a conjunction used to compare things; then is an adverb used to announce
a subsequent event, or the result of a contingency:

If youre taller than this pole, then you can ride the Ferris wheel.

that vs. which vs. who
That introduces a restrictive clause (one that is necessary to the meaning of the
sentence). Which can introduce both restrictive and nonrestrictive clauses, but
some grammarians, going by a suggestion made by Fowler in 1906 (which was
championed by Strunk and White), reserve it for nonrestrictive clauses. Who can
be used indisputably for both kinds of clauses. Nonrestrictive clauses should be set
off by commas, dashes, or parentheses.

Creon decreed that anyone who buried Polyneices would be killed.

Antigone, who honored Zeuss laws over those of men, defied her uncle and
buried her brother.

Her punishment, which Creon announced dispassionately, was live
entombment.

Afterward, Haemon wrenched away the stones that blocked her cave, only to
find that she had hanged herself.

Please note that some ways of using which, though grammatically correct, are
confusing. The sentence, He never wore designer clothes, which his friends hated
can be cleared up by substituting one of the following sentences:

His friends hated that he never wore designer clothes.
He never wore designer clothes because his friends hated them.

that vs. who
Use that for objects and most animals. Use who for people, and for animals with
names:

Medea is the woman who killed and dismembered her brother to aid her
escape
with Jason and the Golden Fleece.

The garments that she gave to Jasons new bride set the maiden on fire.

Cerberus is the three-headed dog who guards the entrance of hell.

The dog that bit me was just a regular dog.

Some grammarians also condone the use of that for people.

theirselves
The correct word is themselves.

their women
To say, They slaughtered the Trojans and raped their women implies that the
Trojans were made up of men and that the women were their possessions.
Instead, try one of the following:

They slaughtered the Trojans and raped the women.
They raped and slaughtered the Trojans.

then
Its considered slang to say my then boss. Instead, say My former boss or my
boss at the time.

there
When this word introduces a series of nouns, use are or were if the first in the
series is plural:

On the glistening street, there were parked cars, lamp posts, and a rabbit in a
long coat.

If the first noun in the series is singular, you may use either a singular or a plural
verb:

On the table, there are/were a glass of water, a spoon, and a tiny pig in a
bowl of soup.

thusly
The correct word is thus.

till
In the past, till has been spelled both til and til, but these are obsolete and have
been replaced with the modern spelling. Till and until are equally correct.

Parting is such sweet sorrow
That I shall say good night till it be morrow.

Shakespeare, Romeo and Juliet, II.ii, 185-6

too
Avoid using too as an intensifier without giving the consequences of the excessive
quality:

He was too self-involved to care.

tools
This is often used as business jargon for capability or means. Try to reserve it to
mean implements:

He doesnt have the means to fix the leak. (He lacks experience.)
She doesnt have the tools to fix the leak. (She lacks a wrench.)

tortuous vs. torturous
Tortuous means winding or crooked; torturous means painful:

The tortuous, rocky trail through the mountains was torturous to the
prisoners bare feet.

toward vs. towards
Toward is preferred in American, towards in Britain.

tragic
According to Aristotle, a person or character is tragic only if he meets three
requirements: his fate is prophesied from his birth and therefore unavoidable; his
fate results at least in part from a flaw in his character; and everything he does
throughout his life leads in some way to the event that is his undoing.

Most scholars now believe that this is too restrictive a definition, and say that a
tragic person or character need only be a great human beingoften a herowho is
brought down by forces beyond his controlespecially by some inherent fault.
Achilles, Agamemnon, Orestes, Medea, Pentheus, Oedipus, and Antigone all could
be said to be tragic. So could Hamlet, Macbeth, King Lear, Othello, Antony and
Cleopatra, Marcus Brutus, Coriolanus, Timon of Athens, and perhaps Romeo and
Juliet. But in most cases, when a person dies or is seriously wounded, it is
devastating, unfortunate, or sad. When a village is killed in an earthquake, it is
disastrous or calamitous. When a village is set on fire by soldiers, the act is
heinous. When a truck crashes into a bus, killing all the passengers, it is a terrible
accident.

transpire
The original meaning of this word is to emit as a vapor or to escape through pores.
By extension, it means to be revealed; to leak out; to become known. It is often
used as a synonym for happen, occur, take place, and come to pass, but to use it
this way is to risk losing forever its proper meaning, for which there is no other
word.

It transpired that Bush had information that could have prevented the 9/11
attacks.

See also occur vs. take place.

trio
This word is often used by journalists to refer to a group of three people whether
or not they have anything to do with each other: The mugger was stopped by a
trio of bystanders. It should not be used in such a statement, nor in The young
blond met up with a trio of bears. Instead, the word should refer to a group
either a musical group or some other kind of organization. The same can be said of
duo, which is well used in the phrase Dynamic Duo describing Batman and Robin.

type
It is incorrect to say that type person; instead say that type of person, or,
preferably, that kind of person, or a person like that.

unknown
This word isnt always accurate. The sentence below is correct:

What happens after we die is unknown.

In the following sentences, the boldfaced words are more accurate than unknown
would have been:

She receives her money from undisclosed sources.
She was seen speaking to an unidentified woman.

use of
This phrase often adds wordiness; instead of, I smashed in the window with the
use of a hammer, say one of the following:

I used a hammer to smash in the window.
I smashed in the window with a hammer.

use to vs. used to
It is incorrect to say I use to; the correct phrase is used to:

I used to be a punk.

Use to is correct with did or didnt:

Did you use to have such a hairy neck?
No, and you didnt use to be so rude; you used to be tactful.

The reason is that did use is another way of saying used, just as did run is
another way of saying ran. Saying didnt used to would be like saying didnt ran.

use vs. utilize
Use means employ or make use of; utilize means make especially good use of or
turn to profitable account, as in, They utilized the stream to power their mill.
However, use is just as correct in these cases. Utilize often appears in the writing
of those who wish to sound educated or professional, and can therefore sound
stilted. When in doubt, choose use. See also use of.

via
This word means by way of (geographically), not by means of. Therefore, its
wrong to say, They went to Paris via plane, but right to say, They flew to Paris
via London.

virus
A virus is not a disease in itself; therefore, rather than describing someones illness
by saying He has a virus, say He has a viral infection.

was vs. were
When using the subjunctive mood (often expressed in clauses following wish, or
the conditional, if), replace was with were:

If Chris were here, he would tell the boss what were all afraid to say.
I wish I were as brave as he is.

This rule applies only to statements contrary to fact; if theres a chance that they
are (or could have been) true, use the indicative mood (let was remain was):

If I was there, I dont remember it.
If he was rude, he probably didnt mean it.

when vs. in which
Its incorrect to say, One of the best scenes is when . . . Instead say one of the
following:

One of the best scenes occurs when Marc Antony turns the crowd against
Brutus by repeating, Brutus is an honorable man.

One of the best scenes is that in which Marc Antony turns the crowd . . .

where vs. in which
Where should not be substituted for in which:

Capitalism is a system in which the success of the upper class depends on
the failure of the laboring class.

who vs. whom
Many Grammarians have been pushing for an end to the word whom for quite
some time. In 1975, Theodore Bernstein wrote an article for The New York Times
Magazine arguing for the banishment of whom, saying that its use was as outdated
as the rules not to split infinitives and not to end sentences with prepositions. He
cited Noah Webster as having denounced whom as useless more than 150 years
earlier. In 1992 another syndicated columnist noted the fading of the word in his
article For Whom the Bell Tolls. And in 1925, H. L. Mencken said in The American
Language that whom was disappearing even from educated writing and speech,
not only in America but also in England. However, no one will consider you wrong if
you use the word, as long as you use it correctly.

Who is the subject and whom the object:

Who is calling?
Whom did you call?

Some grammarians who still insist on whom as an object allow for the substitution
of who if it begins a sentence or clause:

Who did you call?

Another case for confusion arises when who begins a clause within a sentence.
Some people would write, Give my remains to whomever wants them, but it
should be to whoever wants them. That is because the entire clause whoever
wants them is the object of to, and within that clause, whoever is the subject of
wants. Similarly, its wrong to say, He introduced us to the woman whom he said
had saved his life. The following sentences are correct:

To whom did he introduce you?
He introduced us to the woman who he said had saved his life.

If he said is causing confusion, mentally delete it and note that the sentence still
makes sense. The indirect object of introduced is woman; who is the subject of the
clause had saved his life.

And, again, if any of this seems too confusing, forget it and use only who; many
usage experts will be on your side.

whole nother
This mistake may be exclusive to speech. Instead of saying, Youre thinking of a
whole nother book or She ate a whole nother pizza, say the following:

Youre thinking of a whole other book.
She ate another whole pizza.

whos vs. whose
Whos is the contraction of who is; whose is the possessive form of who:

Whos that nibbling on my house?
Whose house is this, anyway?

woken
Woken is incorrect; the correct form of wake in past perfect and present perfect is,
shockingly, waked:

Last night I woke from a horrible dream.
The night before, I had waked from the same dream.
I have waked many times from that dream.

If, like many people, you think that sounds awkward, you can substitute awakened
or wakened; both work with had and have. Incidentally, its fine to follow wake in
all its forms with up.

would have vs. had
In clauses beginning with if, use had in place of would have. Instead of the phrase,
If you would have, say one of the following:

If you had invited me, I would have come.
Had you invited me, I would have come.

wrought havoc
This phrase is incorrect; wrought means shaped, molded, or fashioned. The proper
phrase is wreaked havoc, wreaked meaning inflicted or afflicted.

ye vs. ye
These are two archaic words spelled the same but with different meanings. Ye as
in you is pronounced the way it looksyeebut ye as in the (Ye Old Curiosity
Shoppe) is pronounced the. The reason is this: in Old and Middle English the first
character of ye meaning the was called the thorn and looked somewhat like a
lowercase p but was pronounced th. Early printers mistakenly substituted a y for
the thorn, causing our current confusion. The y in ye meaning you has always been
a y; that is why that one is pronounced as it looks.

your vs. youre
Your is the possessive form of you; youre is the contraction of you are:

Youre right that your rights are in danger.


Agreement of Verbs and Pronouns with Indefinite Pronouns

Some indefinite pronouns require singular verbs, some plural, and some depend on
the case. Here are some examples of correct writing:

Singular indefinite pronouns
The boldfaced pronouns in the sentences below require singular verbs and singular
personal pronouns, shown in italics:

Did anyone lose her purse?
If someone forgets his tie, theyll make him wear one of theirs.
If either of the boys disobeys, he will be sent home.
Each of the girls brings an apple in her lunch.*
No one is at ease with her boyfriends parents.
Everyone dislikes finding a hair in his or her food.

*However, each is not always the subject; it is sometimes an adjective modifying a
plural noun subjectand the subject, not the adjective, determines the number of
the verb and the personal pronoun:

They each bring apples in their lunches.

One way to determine whether each is being used as an adjective is whether you
could leave it out. In both sentences above, each could be deleted and the
sentences would keep their meanings. See also each other vs. one another.

Plural indefinite pronouns
The boldfaced pronouns below require plural verbs and personal pronouns, also in
boldface.

Both of the men make their own soap.
Few of the elephants attack their captors.

Indefinite indefinite pronouns
The following pronouns are either plural or singular depending on the word they
refer to:

Most advertising affects its viewers.
Most advertisers affect their viewers.

Any woman who lives in todays world is judged by her appearance.
Any women who love their bodies have defied the attempts of the media.

All television programming caters to its sponsors.
All television programs cater to their sponsors.

She has drawn what appears to be a giant hand.
She has drawn what appear to be giant ants.

Note: When what is the subject of two verbs in the same sentence, the verbs must
both be plural or both singular:

What irritates Monica is an animal wearing clothes.
What irritate Monica are monkeys in clothes.

One more of these indefinite pronouns is none. For a long time the rule was that it
should always be singular because it was thought to mean not one, but now most
usage guides agree that it sometimes means not any. Like the pronouns above, it
depends on the word it refers to, except when it means not one, as in None of the
passengers was injured. Because that sounds awkward, in such cases its best
just to substitute not one.

Not one of the passengers was injured.
None of the food was vegetarian.
None of the women were happy about their bodies after seeing the model.

See also more than one, above.



Style

Below are two tips for making your writing more lively, effective and immediate.

Avoiding It and There

There are times when it would be very awkward to keep from starting a sentence
or clause with it or there. (Times occur when awkwardness would arise from
starting a sentence . . .) However, starting with either word postpones the subject
and adds bulk, often making writing less emphatic. I dont suggest replacing
Theres a hole in the bucket with the sentence A hole is in the bucket. Just be
aware that there are alternativesor, rather, alternatives exist.

Postponed Subject:
There was a spider crawling down his shirt.

Alternatives:
A spider was crawling down his shirt.
A spider crawled down his shirt.

Postponed Subject:
Its futile to resist.

Alternative:
Resistance is futile.

Postponed Subject:
There are so many people smoking that its painful to breathe.

Alternative:
So many people are smoking that breathing is painful.


Active Voice vs. Passive Voice

Because the passive voice de-emphasizes the subject (or omits it entirely), it can
make writing less forceful and vigorous, and sometimes vague or confusing. The
style has its usesfor example, when the subject is unknown or irrelevant (Our
car has been towed), or when you want to give the subject special emphasis
(That building was designed by Gaudi). However, in most cases the active voice
is stronger and clearer. Below are more examples of the passive and active voices.

Passive Voice:
He was killed by you.

Active Voice:
You killed him.

In Nazi Germany, police officials filed reports in a style that could be described as
doubly passive; instead of writing, We arrested five hundred people or even Five
hundred people were arrested, they said only, Five hundred arrests were made.
That style of writing, by eliminating people, frees the writer from having to think
about the human lives affected in the actions described.

Passive Voice:
Mistakes were made.

Active Voice:
I made some mistakes.

The above examples show how use of the passive voice can deflect responsibility
and therefore come across as cowardly. Who wants to hear an apology in which
the speaker doesnt even admit who made the mistakes?


Away with Words: Avoiding Wordiness and Redundancy

Sometimes extra words add needed emphasis, as in I did pay on time or I made
it myself. Sometimes they add friendliness and charm, as in Should we have a
bite to eat? in place of Shall we dine? And imagine how much less powerful Dr.
Kings speech would have been if instead of I have a dream he had only said, I
dream.

However, sometimes extra words just add fat. When youre looking to trim the fat,
bear in mind that the phrases below in red can often be replaced by the
alternatives that follow them. Note: this is not always the case. For example,
whether or not can be shortened to whether in the sentence, He asked me
whether I wanted to go, but not in the sentence, Im going to go whether or not
he wants me to. This list is not intended as a strict admonishment of anyone who
uses the longer phrase in any situation; sometimes more words are necessary.

a maximum of: at most
a minimum of: at least
at all times: always
at that particular time: then
at the present time: now
at this point in time: now
be tolerant of: tolerate
because of the fact that: because
bring to a close: close
bring to an end: end
by means of: by
by virtue of the fact that: because
considering the fact that: because
due to the fact that: because
during the course of: during
except for the fact that: except that
feelings of happiness/envy/anger, etc.: happiness/envy/anger, etc.
for the purpose of: for or to
for the reason that: because
give a definition of: define
give an indication of: indicate
have a tendency: tend
have an effect on: affect
have an impact on: affect
hold a meeting: meet
I have no knowledge of: I dont know about
in an effort to: to
in close proximity to: near
in connection with: concerning/about
in excess of: over/more than
in many instances: often/frequently
in order to: to
in regard to: regarding
in terms of: about/of/concerning/in
in that time frame: then
in the course of: in/at/during
in the event that: if
in the final analysis: finally
in the nature of: like
in the near future: soon/shortly
in the neighborhood of: about/approximately
in the vicinity of: near
in this day and age: now/today/nowadays
in spite of the fact that: although
in the course of: in/during/while
in the majority of instances: in most cases/usually
in the midst of: amid/inside/within
in view of the fact that: because
indebtedness: debt
inside of: inside
insofar as: because
is confusing to me: confuses me
is an indication of: indicates
is in a position to: can
is instrumental in: helps
it appears that: apparently
legislative process: legislation
make a decision: decide
make a donation: donate
make a payment: pay
make changes in: change
make contact with: contact
next one: next
on a daily basis: daily
on a regular basis: regularly
on a yearly basis: annually/yearly
on account of: because of
on the part of: by
one of the reasons: one reason
outside of: outside
owing to the fact that: because
previous to: before
prior to: before
production process: production
providing that: if
put an end to: end/stop
reach a conclusion: conclude
self-composed: composed
self-confessed: confessed
so as to: to
subject matter: subject
subsequent to: after
take action: act
take into consideration: consider
the examples she gives: her examples
the fact that: that
the question of whether: whether
these ones/ those ones: these/those
to the best of my recollection: I think
until such time as: until
up until: until
voiced the opinion: said
was able to: could
whether or not: whether
will take steps to: will
with the exception of: except (for)
you would be well advised: I advise you

The phrases below in red are redundant and can be replaced with the words that
follow them:

and etc.: etc.
absolute perfection: perfection
absolutely unique: unique
advance notice: notice
advance planning: planning
advance warning: warning
agree with each other: agree
aid and abet: aid/abet
at least fifty or more: at least fifty
basic essentials: essentials
betwixt and between: betwixt/between
biography of her life: biography
bisect in two: bisect
bits and pieces: bits/pieces
both agree: agree
but nevertheless: but/nevertheless
but yet: but or yet
but rather: but
cease and desist: cease/desist
close scrutiny: scrutiny
completely annihilate: annihilate
completely demolish: demolish
completely destroy: destroy
component parts: parts
conclusions reached: conclusions
consensus of opinion: consensus
constantly nag: nag
continue on: continue
cooperate together: cooperate
diametrically opposed: opposed
each and every: each/every
each individual: each
end result: result
equally as: equally/as
estimated to be about: estimated at
expedite quickly: expedite
few in number: few
fair and square: fair/square
final outcome: outcome
first and foremost: first/foremost
for free: free
free rein: freedom or rein
from hence/from whence: hence/whence
frank and honest: frank/honest
free gift: gift
fully complete: complete
future plans: plans
habitual custom: habit/custom
HIV virus: HIV (human immunodeficiency virus.)
hopeful optimism: optimism
in the past was: was
ISBN number: ISBN (international standard book number)
join together: join
leaps and bounds: leaps/bounds
lo and behold: lo/behold (look)
located in: in
mass exodus: exodus
matinee performance: matinee
maximum amount: maximum
minimum amount: minimum
mix together: mix
new initiative: initiative
new innovation: innovation
new record: record
now pending: pending
null and void: null/void
off of: off
old adage: adage
one and only: one/only
part and parcel: part/parcel
past history: history
personal friend: friend
pick and choose: pick/choose
PIN number: PIN (personal identification number.)
plan ahead: plan
possible suspect: suspect
prior experience: experience
prototype model: prototype
prove conclusively: prove
recorded history: history
repeat again: repeat
return again: return
revert back: revert
round in shape: round
situated in: in
skirt around: skirt
small in size: small
spell out the details of: spell out
sufficiently adequate: sufficient/adequate
sum total: sum or total
surrounding circumstances: circumstances
sweeping generalizations: generalizations
there were in the past: there were
there will be in the future: there will be
think to myself: say to myself/think
time period: time/period
true facts: facts
universal panacea: panacea
wander aimlessly: wander
ways and means: ways/means
whether or not: whether
will in the future: will
wrack and ruin: wrack/ruin

Some words are internally redundant, and although they have made their ways
into dictionaries, they should be avoided. Examples include the following:

coequal: equal
forefront: front
forewarn: warn
handcrafted: crafted
1

irregardless: regardless
preconditions: conditions
predestined: destined
predisposed: disposed
prefabricated: fabricated
premanufactured: manufactured
preplan: plan
recopy: copy
reconfirm: confirm
reconvert: convert
redouble: double
reduplicate: duplicate
reiterate: iterate
2

retouch: touch (up)
revamp: vamp/refurbish

1
Even items labeled handcrafted are often made by machine in sweatshops. The
justification for the term is that someone operated the machine by hand.

2
Both words mean say or do again or repeatedly.


When Repetition Is Better than the Alternative

Some writers will do anything to avoid repeating themselves. At the second
mention, spiders become arachnids, beer becomes amber liquid, and write
becomes author, pen, or scribe. The practice is common in journalismwhere its
most noisome, because the substituted phrases are often arduously alliterated:
Pope becomes pious potentate, and Jesus, the crucified Christ or the sacrificed
savior. Sometimes its fine to just repeat yourself.


Fad Words

Excuse me, but "proactive" and "paradigm"? Aren't these just
buzzwords that dumb people use to sound important? . . . Im fired,
arent I?

David S. Cohen, The Simpsons, Production code 4F12, 2/9/97


In writing intended for general reading the use, whether by a specialist
or by a layman, of jargon terms that are not commonly understood
smacks of pedantry. If the writer believes that it is imperative to use
such a term, he should at least explain it when it is introduced. It must
never be forgotten that the function of writing is communication.

Theodore M. Bernstein, The Careful Writer, 1965


When writing for the public, its good practice to examine your word choice and
avoid using fad words, including jargon and other forms of inside talk. Please
note: Most of the words below have several meanings, many of them legitimate;
the alternatives I offer apply only to their faddish meanings. Please also note: In
many cases, the suggested alternatives are not proper definitions; they are what is
really meant when these terms are used as slang.

Avoid saying: When you mean to say:

accession (verb) buy/obtain/acquire
addicted to fond of
allergic averse
ASAP right away
bottom line deciding factor/result/consequence/point
community housing development/ nursing home/customer base
complex (psych.) mental disturbance
concept thought/idea
concern problem
concerned annoyed
de-accession (verb) sell
doable/viable practical/workable/possible
downsizing mass firing
exhibitionist (psych.) show-off
factor component/ingredient/element/part/cause
feedback reaction/response
fixation (psych.) obsession/preoccupation
formulate form
grow increase/enlarge/help to grow
guesstimate guess/estimate
heads-up alert
human resources employees/soldiers
impact affect/effect/influence/consequence/significance/result
implement execute/carry out/fulfill/make/accomplish/achieve
indicate state/say
input opinions/ideas
interface interact/communicate/meet with/cooperate with
intuitive/user-friendly self-explanatory/simple
kudos
1
congratulations
marginal small/little
market (verb) advertise/sell
materialize happen/occur/develop
network make contacts/schmooze
optimal best
paradigm example/model/pattern
parameters perimeters/limits/boundaries/elements/qualities/parts
phase out gradually reduce
presently now
prior to before
proactive active
quantum sudden/significant
recommends (noun)
2
recommendations
savvy (noun) understanding/intelligence/common sense/expertise/skill
step up accelerate/intensify
streamlined compact/modernized/shorter/more efficient
target goal/audience
task force committee/panel
thrust essence/point/substance/gist
tools capability/means
transition (verb) transfer/transform
trigger cause/produce/signal/start/begin
vocalize/voice express/state/say
worst-case scenario at worst

1
This comes from the Greek word for glory and entered English in the 19
th
century
as slang. It should be avoided in formal writing, but if you use it, note that it is
singular. Yes, kudo can be found in the dictionary. Ignore it.

2
This word may be exclusive to bookstore personnel, in reference to books on
the recommended reading table.


Choosing the Specific over the General

Your writing will be clearer, more effective, and, often, less pompous if you choose
specific words over general ones. Below in red are examples of generalities
followed by possible alternatives. Some of these general words and phrases are
euphemisms, but others are quite appropriate for certain situations. For example,
vehicle is the word to choose when you mean all types of vehicles. It only sounds
awkward (and impersonal) when the sentence is, Remain inside the vehicle!
spoken to someone who is clearly in a car.

air support: bombing
collateral damage: killing of bystanders
contact: call/write/e-mail/find/meet/tell/touch
device: nuclear bomb
drugs: aspirin/caffeine/alcohol/nicotine/marijuana/heroin
facilities: school buildings/factories/warehouses/bathroom
family planning*: birth control/sterilization/abortion
female/male (the nouns): woman/man
keeping the peace: occupying/terrorizing
injured: scratched/blinded/paralyzed
manhood: penis
positive reward training (of lab animals): food deprivation
preemptive strike: attack
search and clear: search and destroy/seek out and kill
terminate: end/kill
unavoidable stress (of lab animals): pain
vehicle: car/truck/motorcycle

* Using this euphemism to avoid offending the opposition implies your agreement
that birth control is unethicalso unethical that it cant even be mentioned.


Outdated Rules

Avoiding Contractions
Contractions used to be forbidden in nearly all forms of writing, but they are now
considered appropriate in casual and even semiformal prose. In fact, most
teachers accept contractions in college papersespecially personal essays. For the
most formal writing, they are best avoided.

Ending a Sentence with a Preposition
An 18
th
century grammar guide by the English clergyman Robert Lowth forbade
ending sentences with prepositions; instead of saying the world we live in, we
were directed to say, the world in which we live. Though both of these are better
than Paul McCartneys the world in which we live in, neither is more correct than
the other. The only time its wrong to end a sentence with a preposition is when
the preposition is unnecessary: Wheres Moose at? should be Wheres Moose?

There is a rumor that Winston Churchill was corrected for having ended a
sentence with a preposition. No one seems to know his exact reply, or whether it
was even Churchill who said it, but one variation is, This is the sort of bloody
nonsense up with which I will not put.

Forming Possessives of Nonliving Things
According to an old custom, it was wrong to give inanimate objects a possessive
form with s. That is no longer true; it is just as correct to say the pens tip as to
say the tip of the pen. It is also correct to say the pen whose tip I smashed.

Split ting Infinitives
Its commonly believed that, in English, infinitives are verbs beginning with to, as
in to see, to hear, to touch, to kiss, to die. However, to is neither part of the
infinitive nor always necessary with it. The sentence I helped him escape is just
as correct as I helped him to escape, and in each case, escape is just as much an
infinitive.

In the mid-19
th
century, Henry Alfords Plea for the Queens English begged its
readers not to split infinitives, as in to boldly go. But since an infinitive is only
one word, it would be just as hard to split one as to split an atomand far less
deadly.

Splitting Parts of a Verb Phrase
Some people believe that its wrong to split a verb phrase, such as has been. That
has never been true.

Starting a Sentence with And or But
Sometimes a sentence has gone on long enoughyouve made several points, and
perhaps inserted a parenthetical phraseand you just have to end it. But that
doesnt mean youre done with the subject. Its appropriate, in these cases, to
begin the next sentence with And or But. All usage guides seem to agree that,
especially in formal writing, the practice should not be overdone. But that could be
said of any stylistic technique.

Using Sentence Fragments
Not only is it now acceptable to begin a sentence with But or And, but even shorter
sentence fragments have gained acceptance. Like this one. Though best used in
casual writing, even in semiformal prose the occasional sentence fragment can be
powerful. As long as its not overused.

Using I: See I vs. Me.
Using Whom: See Who vs. Whom.