!"#$ &' (&)*+,-.

$/
01'.+.+2 3*1$$ 4*115&/ .+ #61
0.2.#,- !21

78 (&$6 9#1,*+$
:"#&;1* <=>?

















!"#$ &'() *+,,-$$-'. /0$1 +2 3+4#'"5-1,

1he rlse of professlonal [ournallsm ln Lhe 20Lh cenLury helped creaLe a cerLaln lmage of reporLers. 1hls
lmage, whlch Lhe lndusLry lLself relnforced, asserLed LhaL only professlonal" [ournallsLs engaged ln
[ournallsm. 8uL LhaL wasn'L always LhaL case, and Lhe rlse of dlglLal Lechnology and Lhe democraLlzlng
power of Lhe lnLerneL have fundamenLally challenged LhaL lmage.

1oday, more people Lhan ever are parLlclpaLlng ln [ournallsm. eople are breaklng news on 1wlLLer,
coverlng Lhelr communlLles on lacebook, llvesLreamlng, dlsLrlbuLlng news vla emall and wrlLlng ln-depLh
blogs on lssues of clvlc and communlLy slgnlflcance. Some of Lhese people are whaL we'd conslder
LradlLlonal" [ournallsLs worklng on new plaLforms, buL many are noL.

As more and more people commlL acLs of [ournallsm, Lhe llnes beLween who ls and who lsn'L a [ournallsL
geL blurrler - and Lhe dlsLlncLlon becomes less useful:

nlneLeen-year-old karlna vargas was on her way home one nlghL when she sLepped off her Lraln Lo see
pollce arresLlng a group of young men aL Lhe lrulLvale sLaLlon ln Cakland, Callf. 1he pollce seemed Lo be
uslng excesslve force, so vargas pulled ouL her cellphone and began recordlng. As Lhe confllcL escalaLed,
vargas walked closer. She was abouL 13 feeL away when pollce shoL Cscar CranL ln Lhe back. Cfflcers
Lrled Lo conflscaLe vargas' camera afLer Lhe shooLlng buL she refused. Per fooLage was used by Lhe local
C8S sLaLlon and ln Lhe evenLual courL case agalnsL Lhe offlcer.
1


!ersey Shore Purrlcane news ls a lacebook-only news slLe LhaL has become a crlLlcal source for local
[ournallsm, wlLh more followers on lacebook Lhan Wn?C and !"#!$%&'() comblned. 1he slLe ls run by
!usLln Auclello, an urban planner wlLh no [ournallsm background, buL a deep commlLmenL Lo hls
communlLy. Pls work has been recognlzed by Lhe WhlLe Pouse and ls relled on by [ournallsLs across Lhe
sLaLe and naLlon.
2


Lee 8oy Chapman ls an amaLeur hlsLorlan ln 1ulsa, Ckla., whose research led hlm Lo a sLory no
malnsLream medla ouLleL ln Lhe sLaLe would Louch. AfLer years of dlgglng Lhrough publlc records, a
search LhaL Look hlm from Cklahoma Lo new ?ork ClLy, he uncovered a Lerrlble hlsLory of vlolence and
raclsm LhaL surrounded 1aLe 8rady, Lhe founder of 1ulsa. A new [ournallsm sLarLup, +,'- .)/0 !"1--,
publlshed Chapman's work and forever changed Lhe way Lhe people of Cklahoma vlewed 8rady.
3


1here are hundreds of sLorles llke Lhls. Around Lhe counLry people are commlLLlng acLs of [ournallsm
LhaL are servlng Lhelr communlLles, lnfluenclng naLlonal debaLes and changlng Lhe face of [ournallsm. As
barrlers Lo enLry erode, experlmenLs ln clLlzen-drlven sLoryLelllng are expandlng.

1
8ead more abouL karlna vargas aL ?ouLh 8adlo (youLhradlo.org/news/arLlcle/oscar-granL-eyewlLness-karlna-
vargas) and new Amerlca Medla
(newamerlcamedla.org/news/vlew_arLlcle.hLml?arLlcle_ld=0a328d6a244268cf99a62d3a44668da1)

2
!ournallsLs of Lhe !ersey Shore: Pow a novlce 8eporLer 8ullL a news neLwork from ScraLch," nleman !ournallsm
Lab, SepL. 12, 2013: nlemanlab.org/2013/10/[ournallsLs-of-Lhe-[ersey-shore-how-a-novlce-reporLer-bullL-a-news-
neLwork-from-scraLch/

3
Who, WhaL, When, Where, Why, and Pow: WhaL ls !ournallsm lor?"2#&$3%') 4#$"/)&'-3 516'17, SepL. 3, 2013:
c[r.org/cover_sLory/who_whaL_when.php?page=all

/*67 &8 3&9:;/<=7>
2


We already see news organlzaLlons collaboraLlng and crowdsourclng research and reporLlng pro[ecLs
wlLh Lhelr audlences and communlLles. 8uL whaL proLecLlons, lf any, do we afford Lhose clLlzen
collaboraLors?

As our undersLandlng of [ournallsm changes, so Loo musL our undersLandlng of press freedom. AL Lhe
same Llme LhaL [ournallsm ls undergolng Lremendous change, Lhose who pracLlce lL are faclng
momenLous aLLacks.

vargas faced real and dlrecL LhreaLs from pollce ln Lhe course of her efforLs. Many oLher [ournallsLs have
faced pressure from powerful governmenL or corporaLe lnLeresLs. CorporaLlons llke koch lndusLrles, for
example, have mounLed aggresslve campalgns agalnsL [ournallsLs Lhey dlsagree wlLh.

More Lroubllng, Lhough, ls Lhe facL LhaL Lhe same Lools LhaL are democraLlzlng medla maklng have also
expanded governmenL survelllance. 1he pasL year has exposed a range of new LhreaLs Lo press freedom
ln Lhe unlLed SLaLes, from Lhe nSA's masslve survelllance program and Lhe !usLlce ueparLmenL's secreL
selzure of AssoclaLed ress phone records Lo resLrlcLlons on press credenLlals and laws LhaL llmlL Lhe
llrsL AmendmenL rlghL Lo record.

1hese LhreaLs have lnsplred new calls Lo sLrengLhen press freedom proLecLlons. resldenL Cbama
ordered ALLorney Ceneral Lrlc Polder Lo revlse hls deparLmenL's guldellnes for deallng wlLh Lhe press,
and he called on Congress Lo pass a new shleld law proLecLlng [ournallsLs' sources.
4


ln response, members of Congress have lnLroduced Lhe lree llow of lnformaLlon AcL, whlch [usL passed
ouL of Lhe SenaLe !udlclary CommlLLee.
3
1he blll ls awalLlng a full voLe ln Lhe SenaLe, and Lhe Pouse has
yeL Lo begln debaLe on lLs own verslon of Lhe leglslaLlon. 1hese efforLs have sparked a renewed lnLeresL
ln quesLlons abouL who ls a [ournallsL - and lmbued Lhem wlLh a helghLened sense of urgency.

ln Loday's cllmaLe, lL makes no sense for press freedom proLecLlons Lo apply only Lo a narrow class of
professlonals. Lveryday Amerlcans are cenLral Lo Lhe fuLure of [ournallsm as news consumers,
dlsLrlbuLors and creaLors. We need Lo push for pollcles LhaL proLecL Lhese new parLlclpanLs. lL's noL
enough Lo proLecL LradlLlonal [ournallsLs, we musL proLecL )&& acLs of [ournallsm.

uebaLes abouL press freedom are already happenlng ln courLrooms and on CaplLol Plll, buL for Lrue
change we need Lo engage communlLles and culLure. CulLural crlLlc !eff Chang has argued LhaL culLure

4
Charlle Savage, CrlLlclzed on Selzure of 8ecords, WhlLe Pouse ushes news Medla Shleld Law," Lhe 817 9#":
+'31-, May 13, 2013: nyLlmes.com/2013/03/16/us/pollLlcs/under-flre-whlLe-house-pushes-Lo-revlve-medla-shleld-
blll.hLml?_r=0

3
A small group of senaLors pushed Lo dramaLlcally llmlL who Lhe blll would cover. 1he deflnlLlon of a [ournallsL ln
Lhe blll now overly emphaslzes employmenL sLaLus as a deflnlng facLor, buL also exLends ellglblllLy Lo all acLs of
[ournallsm as deflned by a [udge. 1he blll as currenLly wrlLLen ls an lmprovemenL over earller verslons buL ls sLlll far
from ldeal. lL seLs up a Lwo-Llered sysLem for Lhls lmporLanL press safeguard and lncludes a broad excepLlon LhaL
leaves many naLlonal securlLy [ournallsLs unproLecLed. 1here's noL a naLlonal securlLy reporLer LhaL l can flnd who
supporLs Lhe shleld law, because lL won'L proLecL us," sald longLlme lnvesLlgaLlve [ournallsL ScoLL ArmsLrong.We're
golng Lo geL exempLed ouL of lL one way or anoLher."
/*67 &8 3&9:;/<=7>
3

change ls Lhe dress rehearsal for pollLlcal change. Pe polnLs Lo clvll rlghLs and gay rlghLs as examples
where we saw culLural shlfLs precede pollLlcal shlfLs.
6
1hls ls no dlfferenL for press rlghLs.

Parvard legal scholar ?ochal 8enkler has argued LhaL A counLry's consLlLuLlonal culLure ls made up of
Lhe sLorles we Lell each oLher abouL Lhe klnd of naLlon we are."
7
lf we wanL Lo proLecL all acLs of
[ournallsm, we need Lo change Lhe sLorles we Lell abouL press freedom.
ress freedom Loday ls noL [usL abouL uanlel Lllsberg and ueep 1hroaL, lL's also abouL karlna vargas and
!usLln Auclello. ress freedom Loday musL be concelved as a broad seL of rlghLs appllcable Lo all
Amerlcans.
!"#$ 6?+) / @#+?-'. *+'1('141

Across Lhe [ournallsm landscape, Lhere ls a growlng awareness LhaL any aLLempL Lo deflne who counLs as
a [ournallsL could have Lroubllng consequences. A slgn of Lhls emerglng consensus came aL Lhls year's
annual meeLlng of Lhe SocleLy of rofesslonal !ournallsLs.

AL Lhe meeLlng, Lhe 100-year-old organlzaLlon debaLed a proposal Lo change Lhe organlzaLlon's name Lo
Lhe SocleLy for rofesslonal 4#$"/)&'-3.
8
1he resoluLlon Lo change S!'s name dldn'L pass, buL Lhe
organlzaLlon voLed Lo supporL a resoluLlon LhaL re[ecLs any aLLempLs Lo deflne a [ournallsL ln any way
oLher Lhan someone who commlLs acLs of [ournallsm." 1he resoluLlon called Lhe efforLs Lo resLrlcL who
counLs as a [ournallsL as an affronL Lo [ournallsm and Lo llrsL AmendmenL rlghLs of a free press."
9


1he SocleLy of rofesslonal !ournallsLs' acLlon follows a long llne of lnfluenLlal [ournallsm organlzaLlons,
professors, edlLors and reporLers who have made Lhe case for proLecLlng all acLs of [ournallsm. Larller
Lhls year, 23 scholars from Amerlca's Lop [ournallsm and law schools released a paper LhaL explored Lhe
shlfLlng roles and ldenLlLles of [ournallsLs. ln Lhe end, Lhe professors, who were afflllaLed wlLh Lhe
AssoclaLlon of LducaLors for !ournallsm and Mass CommunlcaLlons (AL!MC), called Lo deflne [ournallsLs
ln Lerms of funcLlon, noL afflllaLlon."

1hose whose goal ls Lo faclllLaLe Lhe free flow of lnformaLlon," Lhey concluded, are deservlng of
whaLever prlvlleges are necessary Lo fulflll LhaL role."
10


6
!amllah klng, !eff Chang: lL's 8lgger 1han ollLlcs, Lhe 8eal ShlfL ls CulLural," Colorllnes.com, nov. 4, 2010:
colorllnes.com/archlves/2010/11/[eff_chang_lnLervlew.hLml

7
?ochal 8enkler, 1he uangerous Loglc of Lhe 8radley Mannlng Case," +,1 817 51;$%&'(, March 1, 2013:
newrepubllc.com/arLlcle/112334

8
!lm 8omenesko, SocleLy for rofesslonal !ournallsLs Conslders Changlng lLs name Lo SocleLy for rofesslonal
!ournallsm," !lm8omenesko.com: [lmromenesko.com/2013/08/30/socleLy-of-professlonal-[ournallsLs-conslders-
changlng-lLs-name-Lo-socleLy-of-professlonal-[ournallsm/

9
SocleLy of rofesslonal !ournallsLs, S! 8esoluLlons from Ll!13," S!'s Lxcellence ln !ournallsm Conference:
el[news.org/2013/08/26/sp[-resoluLlons-from-el[13/

10
1heodore Classer and 1lmoLhy Cleason, lreedom of Lhe ress ln Lhe 1wenLy-llrsL CenLury: An Agenda for
1houghL and AcLlon," AssoclaLlon for LducaLlon ln !ournallsm and Mass CommunlcaLlon, AugusL 2013:
ae[mc.org/home/wp-conLenL/uploads/2013/08/AL!MC_SummlL_8eporL.pdf

/*67 &8 3&9:;/<=7>
4


1he 2#&$3%') 4#$"/)&'-3 516'17 (C!8) recenLly surveyed nearly 40 leadlng Lhlnkers ln [ournallsm, and
Lhe vasL ma[orlLy agreed LhaL we should focus on proLecLlng acLs of [ournallsm. 1hls ldea flnds favor
across Lhe pollLlcal specLrum. ln 245, Chrls Payes of MSn8C argued LhaL [ournallsm ls much more a
Lhlng LhaL someone does, Lhan [ournallsL ls a Lhlng LhaL someone ls." 51)-#/ LdlLor-ln-Chlef MaLL Welch
puL lL Lhls way: !ournallsm ls an acLlvlLy, noL a professlon."
11


llnally, ln lLs new reporL on Lhe Cbama admlnlsLraLlon's LreaLmenL of Lhe press, Lhe CommlLLee Lo
roLecL !ournallsLs (C!) recommended Lhe broadesL posslble deflnlLlon of '[ournallsL' or '[ournallsm' ln
any federal shleld law."
C! wroLe LhaL any federal shleld law should proLecL Lhe newsgaLherlng process, raLher Lhan
professlonal credenLlals, experlence, or sLaLus, so LhaL lL cannoL be used as a means of de facLo
governmenL llcenslng."
12
And we need more Lhan [usL a shleld law. C! resldenL !oel Slmon has argued
LhaL [ournallsLs should work Lo defend freedom of expresslon for all people, noL [usL [ournallsLs.
13


!"#$ 6?+) 6A( <(."5 8+4'B"$-+' 2+# /0$1 +2 3+4#'"5-1,

When our founders drafLed Lhe 8lll of 8lghLs, Lhe u.S. dld noL have a professlonal press. 1he publlshers lL
dld have- mosLly pamphleLeers - had more ln common wlLh Loday's bloggers Lhan wlLh [ournallsLs aL
Lhe 817 9#": +'31-.

1he ldea LhaL press freedom ls abouL proLecLlng [ournallsLs," 8ebecca 8osen wrlLes ln Lhe <=&)/='(, ls
anachronlsLlc, someLhlng we have pasLed onLo an older ldea." She noLes LhaL when 1homas !efferson
wroLe abouL press freedom, hls ldeas were moLlvaLed by Lhe dual legacles of llcenslng and
censorshlp."
14


lndeed, ln 1972, Lhe Supreme CourL referenced Lhe vlslon of a lonely pamphleLeer" ln >")/?%$"@ 6A
B)C1-,
13
acknowledglng Lhe LradlLlonal docLrlne [of] llberLy of Lhe press ls Lhe rlghL of Lhe lonely
pamphleLeer who uses carbon paper or a mlmeograph [usL as much as of Lhe large meLropollLan
publlsher."
16



11
Who, WhaL, When, Where, Why, and Pow: WhaL ls !ournallsm lor?" 2#&$3%') 4#$"/)&'-3 516'17, SepL. 3,
2013: c[r.org/cover_sLory/who_whaL_when.php?page=all

12
Leonard uownle, 1he Cbama AdmlnlsLraLlon and Lhe ress," Lhe CommlLLee Lo roLecL !ournallsLs, CcLober
2013: cp[.org/reporLs/2013/10/obama-and-Lhe-press-us-leaks-survelllance-posL-911.php

13
!oel Slmon, ldenLlLy Crlsls," 2#&$3%') 4#$"/)&'-3 516'17, SepL. 3, 2013: c[r.org/cover_sLory/ldenLlLy_crlsls.php

14
8ebecca 8osen, Why We Should SLop Asklng WheLher 8loggers Are !ournallsLs," +,1 <=&)/='(, uec. 13, 2011:
LheaLlanLlc.com/Lechnology/archlve/2011/12/why-we-should-sLop-asklng-wheLher-bloggers-are-
[ournallsLs/249864/

13
408 u.S. 663 (1972).

16
D0A aL 704.

/*67 &8 3&9:;/<=7>
3

1oday's pamphleLeers use lhones and blogs lnsLead of carbon paper, buL Lhelr acLs of [ournallsm sLlll
deserve proLecLlon. An expandlng body of case law backs up Lhls ldea. 1hls case law ls lmporLanL ln parL
because lf Lhe SenaLe verslon of Lhe lree llow of lnformaLlon AcL becomes law, Lhe [udlclal-dlscreLlon
porLlon of Lhe blll wlll rely on Lhese prlor declslons.

And Lhese cases are where many of Lhe debaLes over who ls a [ournallsL have occurred. 1he debaLes and
declslons represenLed ln Lhese cases examlne Lhe lnLenLlons of our founders ln llghL of currenL shlfLs ln
medla and culLure. And Lhey conLaln some of Lhe mosL compelllng and lmporLanL argumenLs abouL Lhe
naLure of press freedom Loday.

?ochal 8enkler has examlned whaL Lhe Lrade-off from paper Lo plxels means for press freedom ln Lhe
dlglLal age. 8enkler's analysls of federal appellaLe declslons shows LhaL courLs have been relucLanL Lo
draw a llne beLween who quallfles as a [ournallsL for Lhe purposes of lnvoklng Lhe reporLer's prlvllege or
shleld-law proLecLlons.
17


As an example, 8enkler clLes Lhe u.S. CourL of Appeals for Lhe 2nd ClrculL's declslon ln 6#/ >$&#7 6A 6#/
>$&#7.
18
1he case cenLered on a paralegal who was noL allowed Lo wlLhhold her source because Lhe
courL declded a person who gaLhered lnformaLlon for prlvaLe use, wlLhouL lnLenL Lo publlsh lL, wasn'L
ellglble for shleld proLecLlons.

Powever, ln comlng Lo Lhls declslon, Lhe 2nd ClrculL noLed LhaL an lndlvldual successfully may asserL Lhe
[ournallsL's prlvllege lf he ls lnvolved ln acLlvlLles LradlLlonally assoclaLed wlLh Lhe gaLherlng and
dlssemlnaLlon of news, even Lhough he may noL ordlnarlly be a member of Lhe lnsLlLuLlonallzed press."
19


ln addlLlon, Lhe courL decllned Lo llmlL Lhe [ournallsL's prlvllege Lo any speclflc Lype of publlcaLlon: 1he
lnLended manner of dlssemlnaLlon may be by newspaper, magazlne, book, publlc or prlvaLe broadcasL
medlum, handblll or Lhe llke, for 'Lhe press ln lLs hlsLorlc connoLaLlon comprehends every sorL of
publlcaLlon whlch affords a vehlcle of lnformaLlon and oplnlon.'"
20
1he 3rd and 9Lh ClrculLs followed Lhls
reasonlng ln subsequenL cases.
21
ln each case, Lhe deflnlng characLerlsLlc of [ournallsm Lurns on Lhe
lnLenL Lo gaLher and dlssemlnaLe lnformaLlon for Lhe publlc, noL on Lhe plaLform or model of publlcaLlon.

1hls ls parLlcularly lmporLanL Loday, as Lhe means of publlcaLlon and plaLforms used for newsgaLherlng
shlfL wlLh Lhe launch of every new soclal neLwork. 1haL's why, when Sen. uurbln argues LhaL noL every

17
?ochal 8enkler, A lree lrresponslble ress: WlklLeaks and Lhe 8aLLle Cver Lhe Soul of Lhe neLworked lourLh
LsLaLe," worklng drafL, benkler.org/8enkler_Wlklleaks_currenL.pdf

18
811 l.2d 136 (2d Clr. 1987).

19
D0A aL 142.

20
D0. aL 144.

21
E,#1/ 6A E,#1/, 3 l.3d 1289, 1293 (9Lh Clr. 1993) (noLlng LhaL Lhe [ournallsL's prlvllege was deslgned noL Lo
proLecL a parLlcular [ournallsL, buL Lo proLecL Lhe acLlvlLy of 'lnvesLlgaLlve reporLlng' more generally"), -11 )&-# D/
"1 F)001/, 131 l.3d 123, 130 (3d Clr. 1998).

/*67 &8 3&9:;/<=7>
6

blogger, LweeLer or lacebook user ls a '[ournallsL,'" he mlsses Lhe polnL LhaL )&& of Lhem have Lhe
poLenLlal Lo engage ln [ournallsm.
22


More recenL legal oplnlons drlve Lhls home. ln 2006, ln GHI")0C 6A E$;1"'#" 2#$"=,
23
Apple Lrled Lo force
bloggers who had wrlLLen abouL forLhcomlng producLs Lo dlsclose Lhe source of Lhose leaks. Apple
argued LhaL bloggers are noL [ournallsLs, and Lhus were noL proLecLed by Lhe sLaLe's shleld law.
Powever, a Callfornla courL ruled LhaL Lhe sLaLe's shleld law proLecLed Lhe bloggers ln quesLlon because
Lhey were engaged ln acLs of [ournallsm. 1he courL wroLe:

We decllne Lhe lmpllclL lnvlLaLlon Lo embroll ourselves ln quesLlons of whaL consLlLuLes
leglLlmaLe [ournalls[m]."1he shleld law ls lnLended Lo proLecL Lhe gaLherlng and dlssemlnaLlon
of /17-, and LhaL ls whaL peLlLloners dld here. We can Lhlnk of no workable LesL or prlnclple LhaL
would dlsLlngulsh leglLlmaLe" from llleglLlmaLe" news. Any aLLempL by courLs Lo draw such a
dlsLlncLlon would lmperll a fundamenLal purpose of Lhe llrsL AmendmenL, whlch ls Lo ldenLlfy
Lhe besL, mosL lmporLanL, and mosL valuable ldeas noL by any soclologlcal or economlc formula,
rule of law, or process of governmenL, buL Lhrough Lhe rough-and-Lumble compeLlLlon of Lhe . . .
markeLplace.
24


1he federal u.S. CourL of Appeals for Lhe 1sL ClrculL recenLly reafflrmed Lhe prlnclple LhaL Lhe llrsL
AmendmenL rlghL Lo gaLher news belongs Lo everyone. 1he case, I&': 6A 2$//'JJ1,
23
arose afLer 8osLon
pollce arresLed a law sLudenL, Slmon Cllk, whlle he was recordlng a vlolenL arresL on 8osLon Common.
Cllk sued Lhe ClLy of 8osLon for vlolaLlng hls clvll rlghLs and Lhe courL ruled ln hls favor, concludlng LhaL
u.S. resldenLs have a llrsL AmendmenL rlghL Lo record Lhe pollce ln publlc.

ln lLs oplnlon, Lhe courL explalned why Lhe changlng dlglLal landscape necesslLaLes an expanslve
undersLandlng of llrsL AmendmenL proLecLlons for all lndlvlduals:

Changes ln Lechnology and socleLy have made Lhe llnes beLween prlvaLe clLlzen and [ournallsL
exceedlngly dlfflculL Lo draw. 1he prollferaLlon of elecLronlc devlces wlLh vldeo-recordlng
capablllLy means LhaL many of our lmages of currenL evenLs come from bysLanders [and] and
news sLorles are now [usL as llkely Lo be broken by a blogger aL her compuLer as a reporLer aL a
ma[or newspaper. Such developmenLs make clear why Lhe news-gaLherlng proLecLlons of Lhe
llrsL AmendmenL cannoL Lurn on professlonal credenLlals or sLaLus.
26


1he shleld law and clLlzens' rlghL Lo record are only Lwo lssues among many LhaL make up Lhe larger
unlverse of press freedom. 8uL Lhey've helped hlghllghL crlLlcal challenges abouL how we percelve Lhe

22
Sen. ulck uurbln, lL's 1lme Lo Say Who's a 8eal 8eporLer," 2,'()@# E$/ +'31-, !une 26, 2013:
sunLlmes.com/news/oLhervlews/20978789-432/sen-dlck-durbln-lLs-Llme-Lo-say-whos-a-real-reporLer.hLml

23
44 Cal. 8pLr. 3d 72 (Cal. CL. App. 2006).

24
D0A aL 97.

23
663 l.3d 78 (1sL Clr. 2011).

26
D0A aL 84.

/*67 &8 3&9:;/<=7>
7

role of Lhe press ln our democracy. 1he declslons ln Lhe cases dlscussed above are noL only lmporLanL ln
and of Lhemselves buL also because of Lhe precedenL Lhey wlll seL on a range of lssues.

!"#$ 6A#(() C(2-'-'. /0$1 +2 3+4#'"5-1,

1he debaLe over Lhe shleld law helps us undersLand Lhe rlsks of llmlLlng who counLs as a [ournallsL. And
Lhere's more aL sLake Lhan [usL proLecLlng sources. 8y narrowlng Lhe deflnlLlon of who ls a [ournallsL, we
rlsk undermlnlng Lhe fourLh esLaLe and Lhe fundamenLal noLlon of an lnformed publlc.

lndependenL, freelance and clLlzen [ournallsLs and Lhe new generaLlon of governmenL Lransparency and
whlsLleblowlng slLes don'L flL Lhe old ldea of whaL professlonal [ournallsLs look llke.

!ournallsLs who work for blg lnsLlLuLlons wlll conLlnue Lo have beLLer proLecLlons - noL because of laws
LhaL proLecL Lhem buL because of Lhe legal power Lhelr companles can buy," 8ebecca 8osen wrlLes ln Lhe
<=&)/='(. 8uL, for everyone else, we should hope LhaL we haven'L leglslaLed non-[ournallsLs ouL of Lhe
proLecLlons Lhe llrsL AmendmenL seeks."
27


lndeed, aL a Llme when well-known [ournallsLs aL ma[or lnsLlLuLlons spend more Llme reporLlng on Mlley
Cyrus Lhan on Syrla, havlng speclflc proLecLlons Lurn on professlonal afflllaLlons noL only seems odd, buL
also excludes some of Lhe mosL lmporLanL reporLlng ouL Lhere Loday. !ournallsm rofessor !eff !arvls has
wrlLLen LhaL any aLLempL Lo creaLe a legal deflnlLlon of a [ournallsL ls LanLamounL Lo llcenslng Lhe
[ournallsL, and LhaL ls a permlsslon governmenL should noL granL, for LhaL glves governmenL Lhe power
Lo resclnd lL."
28


lL's noL enough Lo argue agalnsL deflnlng who ls a [ournallsL. We need Lo engage [ournallsLs,
pollcymakers and Lhe publlc ln a meanlngful conversaLlon abouL how Lo proLecL )(=- of [ournallsm. 1he
LhreaLs faclng [ournallsm Loday demand lL.

lf Lhe ulLlmaLe ldea ls Lo proLecL newsgaLherlng acLlvlLles," [ournallsL Marcy Wheeler wroLe earller Lhls
year, Lhen why noL esLabllsh whaL Lhose acLlvlLles are and Lhen acLually proLecL Lhem, regardless of
wheLher Lhey are Lled Lo a cerLaln klnd of lnsLlLuLlon?"
29


Whlle Lhere ls an emerglng consensus on proLecLlng acLs of [ournallsm, how we deflne Lhose acLs ls
conLesLed Lerraln. lL ralses quesLlons abouL wheLher Lhere ls lndeed an acL of [ournallsm we can
dlfferenLlaLe from oLher acLs. Clven how much flux exlsLs ln Lhe [ournallsm world, how can we creaLe
boundarles around an ldea whlle leavlng enough flexlblllLy Lo accounL for an unknown fuLure?


27
8ebecca 8osen, Why We Should SLop Asklng WheLher 8loggers Are !ournallsLs,"+,1 <=&)/='(, uec. 13, 2011:
LheaLlanLlc.com/Lechnology/archlve/2011/12/why-we-should-sLop-asklng-wheLher-bloggers-are-
[ournallsLs/249864/

28
!eff !arvls, Who ls a !ournallsL? Mannlng 1rlal oses CuesLlon of vlLal ubllc lnLeresL," Lhe I$)"0')/, !uly 11,
2013: Lheguardlan.com/global/2013/[ul/11/who-ls-[ournallsL-bradley-mannlng-Lrlal?ln1CM=S8CP

29
Marcy Wheeler, Why 'Members of Lhe news Medla' Should Welcome a Shleld for Lhe AcL of !ournallsm,"
LmpLywheel, !uly 14, 2013: empLywheel.neL/2013/07/14/why-members-of-Lhe-news-medla-should-welcome-a-
shleld-for-Lhe-acL-of-[ournallsm/
/*67 &8 3&9:;/<=7>
8

Whlle lL's LempLlng Lo lnvoke former Supreme CourL !usLlce oLLer SLewarL's obscenlLy LesL when
deflnlng [ournallsm - l know lL when l see lL" - Lhere are a loL of proposals LhaL are worLh explorlng.
1he debaLe breaks down around quesLlons of wheLher Lhe deflnlLlon should be rooLed ln a person's
eLhlcs, behavlor or lnLenL.

4#$"/)&'-3 D- 5##=10 '/ K=,'(-

ln a forum Lhe 817 9#": +'31- hosLed on deflnlng whaL a [ournallsL ls, Lllyn AngeloLLl of Lhe oynLer
lnsLlLuLe remlnded readers LhaL Lhe llrsL AmendmenL affords all Amerlcans Lhe rlghL Lo unfeLLered
speech."8uL she sald LhaL Lhose who seek press freedom proLecLlons should be [udged accordlng Lo an
evolvlng seL of sLandards and pracLlces."
30


1homas kenL, depuLy managlng edlLor and sLandards edlLor aL Lhe AssoclaLed ress, has proposed a
seven-polnL eLhlcal LesL" Lo assess acLs of [ournallsm.
31
Pe suggesLs asklng:

ls Lhe person's producL lnLended for Lhe general publlc?
ls Lhe work creaLlve and analyLlcal raLher Lhan a slmple relay of raw lnformaLlon?
ls Lhe reporLlng based on facLs raLher Lhan fabrlcaLlons? Are sLaLlsLlcs honesL, lmages
unmanlpulaLed, quoLaLlons correcL?
uoes Lhe producL convey mulLlple polnLs of vlew?
uoes Lhe person or hls organlzaLlon guard agalnsL confllcLs of lnLeresL LhaL could affecL Lhe
producL? lf confllcLs are unavoldable, are Lhey publlcly acknowledged?
uoes Lhe person reveal hls or her ldenLlLy and conLacL lnformaLlon?
uoes Lhe person publlcly correcL errors?

ln her own aLLempL Lo deflne [ournallsm, 817 9#": +'31- ubllc LdlLor MargareL Sulllvan puLs forward a
slmpler LesL: WhaL ls Lhe auLhor's relaLlonshlp Lo governmenL?

A real [ournallsL," she wrlLes, ls one who undersLands, aL a cellular level, and doesn'L shy away from,
Lhe adversarlal relaLlonshlp beLween governmenL and press."
32


8uL many commenLers polnLed ouL LhaL [ournallsLs do much more Lhan hold @#61"/31/= accounLable,
Lhey also hold corporaLe leaders, clvlc leaders and oLhers Lo accounL. !ournallsLs should be deflned more
by whaL Lhey do Lhen by who Lhelr adversarles are.



30
Lllyn AngeloLLl, A 8roader ueflnlLlon of '!ournallsL,'" Lhe 817 9#": +'31-, uec. 12, 2011:
nyLlmes.com/roomfordebaLe/2011/12/11/are-all-bloggers-[ournallsLs/we-need-a-broader-deflnlLlon-of-
[ournallsL?gwh=833C86L9CC2L9C38lA34A06l1011AC82

31
1homas kenL, Who's a !ournallsL? Closlng ln on a ueflnlLlon," Lhe B$JJ'/@=#/ !#-=, CcL. 3, 2013:
hufflngLonposL.com/Lhomas-kenL/whos-a-[ournallsL-closlng_b_4033836.hLml

32
MargareL Sulllvan, Who's a !ournallsL? A CuesLlon WlLh Many laceLs and Cne Sure Answer," Lhe 817 9#":
+'31-, !une 29, 2013: publlcedlLor.blogs.nyLlmes.com/2013/06/29/whos-a-[ournallsL-a-quesLlon-wlLh-many-faceLs-
and-one-sure-answer/
/*67 &8 3&9:;/<=7>
9

4#$"/)&'-3 D- B#7 L1 >1,)61

lf [ournallsm ls an acL, Lhen perhaps we should be [udged on how we acL. Maklng Lhe case LhaL Lhe
aklsLanl man who llve-LweeLed Lhe rald LhaL kllled Csama 8ln-Laden ls a clLlzen [ournallsL, SLeve Myers,
wrlLlng aL oynLer, ouLllnes flve quallLles he sees as cenLral Lo an acL of [ournallsm:

Pe answered quesLlons from oLhers seeklng lnformaLlon.
Pe acLed as a condulL for lnformaLlon, sharlng whaL he knew as he learned lL.
Pe soughL reporLs from news sources and shared Lhem.
Pe Lraded whaL he had heard wlLh oLhers Lo flgure ouL whaL was golng on.
Pe analyzed whaL was happenlng.

oynLer calls Lhls klnd of [ournallsm a flfLh esLaLe" made up of people who aren'L Lralned as
[ournallsLs, buL underLake [ournallsLlc endeavors."
33
Myers' llsL ls useful, buL Lhe separaLlon lnherenL ln
Lhe Lerm flfLh esLaLe" ls problemaLlc. lL's beLLer Lo grapple wlLh Lhe way changes ln [ournallsm are
reshaplng Lhe fourLh esLaLe Lhan Lo deflne a separaLe klnd of pracLlce.

4#$"/)&'-3 D- ) E1"6'(1

A number of Lhe courL cases dlscussed focus on Lhe lnLenL of Lhe person who has gaLhered news and
lnformaLlon. ln Lhese cases, Lhe courLs exLended proLecLlons Lo anyone lnLendlng Lo gaLher and
dlssemlnaLe lnformaLlon Lo Lhe publlc.

ln her reporL on Cpen !ournallsm," longLlme edlLor Melanle Slll argues LhaL we musL reorder Lhe
fundamenLal processes of [ournallsm Loward Lhe goal of servlng communlLles [and] maklng quallLy
[ournallsm a collecLlve endeavor."

Slll also hlghllghLs Lhe need Lo Lransform [ournallsm from a producL drlven by facLory processes Lo a
servlce drlven by audlence needs."
34
ln her model, [ournallsm ls rooLed ln collecLlng and organlzlng
lnformaLlon ln ways LhaL empower clLlzens.

!eff !arvls echoes Slll, argulng LhaL we should deflne [ournallsm ln Lerms of Lhe servlce lL provldes.
!ournallsm helps communlLles organlze Lhelr knowledge so Lhey can beLLer organlze Lhemselves," he
wroLe recenLly ln Lhe I$)"0')/.So anyLhlng LhaL rellably serves Lhe end of an lnformed communlLy ls
[ournallsm."

!arvls noLes LhaL hls deflnlLlon ls more an ldeal Lhan a worklng model for leglslaLlon. 1haL's noL a
compllcaLed deflnlLlon," he says, buL lL ralses no end of compllcaLlons, especlally ln a seL of laws LhaL ls
bullL for lnsLlLuLlons, noL neLworks."
33


33
SLeve Myers, Why Lhe Man Who 1weeLed Lhe Csama bln Laden 8ald ls a ClLlzen !ournallsL," oynLer, May 3,
2011: poynLer.org/laLesL-news/maklng-sense-of-news/131133/why-Lhe-man-who-LweeLed-bln-laden-rald-ls-a-
clLlzen-[ournallsL/

34
Melanle Slll, 1he Case for Cpen !ournallsm now," uSC Annenberg School for CommunlcaLlon & !ournallsm:
annenberglnnovaLlonlab.org/Cpen!ournallsm/overvlew

/*67 &8 3&9:;/<=7>
10


1he LruLh ls LhaL acLs of [ournallsm embody elemenLs of each of Lhese deflnlLlons ln complex and
lnconslsLenL ways. 1hls ls why lL's been so hard Lo Lurn Lhe consensus on acLs of [ournallsm lnLo concreLe
leglslaLlve language. Lawmaker concerns abouL leaks and naLlonal securlLy and varylng ldeas abouL Lhe
approprlaLe balance beLween press freedom and securlLy furLher compllcaLe Lhe leglslaLlve debaLe.

1haL Lenslon anlmaLed Lhe debaLes ln Lhe SenaLe, and wlll no doubL shape Lhe way Lhe Pouse blll moves
forward. Powever, Lhe Pouse verslon lncludes a falr and useful deflnlLlon of [ournallsm. 1he blll deflnes
[ournallsm as Lhe gaLherlng, preparlng, collecLlng, phoLographlng, recordlng, wrlLlng, edlLlng, reporLlng
or publlshlng of news or lnformaLlon LhaL concerns local, naLlonal or lnLernaLlonal evenLs or oLher
maLLers of publlc lnLeresL for dlssemlnaLlon Lo Lhe publlc."
36


1hls very funcLlonal deflnlLlon may lack poeLry, buL lL provldes a flexlble llLmus LesL by whlch Lo [udge
acLs of [ournallsm and lnvokes many of Lhe Lhemes menLloned above. !ournallsm and llrsL AmendmenL
scholar Morgan Welland has argued LhaL lawmakers should slmply drop Lhe deflnlLlon of covered
persons" ln boLh Lhe Pouse and SenaLe bllls and rely lnsLead on Lhe Pouse deflnlLlon of [ournallsm.
37

1haL ldea would allgn wlLh Lhe growlng consensus ln Lhe [ournallsm lndusLry.

Much of pollcymaklng hlnges on flndlng compromlse soluLlons Lo challenglng pollLlcal quesLlons, buL
Lhere are lnsLances where we shouldn'L compromlse. As Lhe shleld law moves Lhrough Lhe leglslaLlve
process, we musL ensure LhaL any evenLual law proLecLs )&& acLs of [ournallsm. 1he SenaLe blll geLs us
close, buL ln a convoluLed way.

So far, Lhe debaLe over who quallfles as a [ournallsL has Laken place prlmarlly among [ournallsLs and
pollcymakers, wlLh llLLle or no publlc lnvolvemenL. lL's Llme Lo move Lhls debaLe ouL of Lhe pages of
academlc [ournals and lnLo Lhe publlc sphere. eople everywhere have a deep sLake ln Lhls debaLe, boLh
as medla makers and as news consumers, and we should engage Lhem ln Lhese conversaLlons more
deeply. 1hey are noL [usL our audlence, buL also our allles ln Lhe flghL ahead.





33
!eff !arvls, Who ls a !ournallsL? Mannlng 1rlal oses CuesLlon of vlLal ubllc lnLeresL," Lhe I$)"0')/, !uly 11,
2013: Lheguardlan.com/global/2013/[ul/11/who-ls-[ournallsL-bradley-mannlng-Lrlal?ln1CM=S8CP

36
1he lree llow of lnformaLlon AcL," opencongress.org/blll/113-h1962/LexL?verslon=lh&nld=L0:lh:31

37
Morgan Welland, Congress and Lhe !usLlce ueparLmenL's uangerous ALLempLs Lo ueflne '!ournallsL' 1hreaLen Lo
Lxclude 8loggers," LlecLronlc lronLler loundaLlon, !uly 23, 2013: eff.org/deepllnks/2013/07/congress-and-[usLlce-
depLs-dangerous-aLLempLs-deflne-[ournallsL-LhreaLen-exclude


+,1 )$=,#" 7#$&0 &':1 =# =,)/: 2,'- !)&31" J#" ,'- "1-1)"(, )--'-=)/(1A