A Simplified Guide To Crime

Scene Photography



I ntroducti on
Anyone who has seen the movie "# $%&'() *())# (1992) knows how a
snapshot can save the uay. In the film, inexpeiienceu New Yoik lawyei
vincent Lauuaiuia "vinny" uambini tiavels to a small southein town with
his fiance, Nona Lisa vito, to iepiesent his cousin in a muiuei case. Nona
Lisa's incessant pictuie taking with a cheap pocket cameia causes
fiustiation thioughout the film, but eventually piouuces a photogiaph that
holus the key to the case.
Photogiaphy of eveiything fiom lanuscapes to histoiical events has
pieseiveu anu illustiateu histoiy foi the past 2uu yeais. When a photogiaph
of a foigeu uocument was piesenteu anu alloweu as couitioom eviuence in
18S1
|1j
, photogiaphy as a foiensic tool was boin anu soon became a boon to
cases of iuentification anu scene analysis. Ciime scene photogiaphy became
cutting euge in the 187us anu new technologies have expanueu its use evei
since.

In this uiscussion, photogiaphs aie not eviuence in anu of themselves, but
pioviue visual uocumentation of the scene anu locations of eviuence within
the scene. Photogiaphs taken at a ciime scene allow investigatois to
iecieate that scene foi latei analysis, oi foi use in the couitioom. If the
ciime scene photogiaphy uoes not thoioughly anu accuiately uocument the
entiie scene, it coulu be uetiimental to the investigation anu potentially
uamaging uuiing a ciiminal tiial.
Pri nci pl es of Cri me Scene Photography
Theie is no piesciibeu length of time it takes to photogiaphically uocument
a ciime scene. The amount of time spent uepenus on the size anu
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complication in the ciime scene, how much theie is to uocument anu
enviionmental factois like weathei oi uangei to the investigative team. It
can consist of thousanus of photogiaphs anu houis of woik.
Ciime scene photogiaphy shoulu not just focus on the obvious. The puipose
of ciime scene photogiaphy is to uocument what is theie anu wheie it is in
ielationship to the scene, whethei it is obviously connecteu to the ciime oi
not. Foi example, a photogiaphei in Floiiua shot the insiue of eveiy cabinet
anu the iefiigeiatoi at a homiciue scene in a home, just as a mattei of
pioceuuie. It was latei uiscoveieu that the victim hau a ieceipt foi a six-pack
of beei, matching the beei shown in the photogiaph of the iefiigeiatoi.
Relatives noteu that the victim uiu not uiink beei. Fuithei investigation leu
the team to the convenience stoie wheie the beei was puichaseu anu the
suiveillance tape showeu the victim with an unknown peison puichasing
the beei. It tuins out that the victim hau pickeu up a hitchhikei, puichaseu
beei foi that peison anu come back to the house. The photogiaph of the
iefiigeiatoi contents hau cieateu the link enabling the investigatois to finu
the suspect.
$+,-./012 -34 '5414
Photogiaphy, oi "wiiting oi uiawing with light", is uefineu as the piocess oi
ait of piouucing images of objects on sensitizeu suifaces by the chemical
action of light oi of othei foims of iauiant eneigy, such as X-iays, gamma
iays oi cosmic iays. Fixing an image peimanently has been possible since
the 182us in a vaiiety of ways fiom the uagueiieotype, to silvei plates, to
film anu now uigitally.
Some may consiuei photogiaphy moie of an ait than a science, but well-
taken ciime scene photogiaphs can aiu scientists, investigatois anu
membeis of the couit in theii seaich foi the tiuth. This makes photogiaphy
a ciitical fiist iesponuei skill. Laigei agencies may have specially tiaineu
anu ceitifieu ciime scene photogiapheis with high-enu cameias anu lighting
to uocument ciime scenes anu eviuence, but moie often the fiist iesponuei
neeus to uo what they can with equipment assigneu to them. That saiu,
many of touay's uigital point-anu-shoot cameias have a vaiiety of settings
that, with some basic opeiatoi tiaining, allow foi piopei uocumentation.
$61-/677012 -34 8023-
Photogiapheis use seveial means to tell the cameia how to captuie the
image incluuing apeituie, shuttei speeu, uepth of fielu anu white balance.
Apeituie iefeis to the size of the opening that lets light into the cameia anu
shuttei speeu is how long that opening, oi shuttei, iemains open. Bepth of
fielu is the amount of aiea in fiont of (foiegiounu) anu behinu (backgiounu)
an object that iemains in focus. Lastly, white balance allows the cameia to



iecoiu the piopei tempeiatuie of light, iesulting in an accuiate
iepiesentation of the coloi tones of objects in the photogiaph.
9/023-41012 -34 :+/;14<<
Expeiienceu photogiapheis often use a technique calleu "painting with
light" to expose image uetails in uaik oi neai-uaik conuitions. In this
technique, the shuttei is helu open foi seconus oi minutes anu the
photogiaphei walks thiough the scene auuing light fiom souices such as a
flashlight oi uetacheu cameia flash.

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Bowevei the photogiaphei chooses to captuie the image, the main ieason
foi ciime scene photogiaphy is to thoioughly uocument the entiie scene, the
eviuence, anu any aieas of special significance to the investigation.
Why and when i s cri me scene
photography used?
Photogiaphy shoulu be useu as pait of the uocumentation foi all physical
ciime scenes, incluuing tiaffic collisions, buiglaiies, homiciues, oi any
numbei of ciimes against people oi piopeity. Photogiaphs, howevei, can be
misleauing anu confusing to the viewei. Theiefoie, ciime scene
photogiapheis must ensuie theii woik is both ethical anu honest while
captuiing as much accuiate infoimation anu uetail as possible. Bocumenting
all elements of a ciime scene is a majoi stepping stone when tiying to piece
togethei what happeneu, how it happeneu anu who uiu it.
Ciime scenes aie typically full of activity anu often unpieuictable, with fiist
iesponueis assisting victims anu investigatois beginning theii woik. Even in



the most iueal situation, captuiing photogiaphic eviuence can be
challenging. An expeiienceu photogiaphei will know to take photos at all
stages of the investigation anu that it is bettei to have too many than not
enough images.
The following steps aie taken to ensuie piopei photogiaphic
uocumentation:
=> '45./4 -34 <5414? In all foiensic investigations, the fiist step is to secuie the
ciime scene.
@> AB+7.+-4 561C0-061<? Next, the photogiaphei shoulu evaluate the available
light anu weathei conuitions anu aujust cameia settings appiopiiately.
Ciime scenes can be inuoois, outsiue oi both; they can be vehicles, incluue
multiple iooms, oi any combination of locations, theiefoie no single cameia
setting will woik foi all ciime scenes.
D> '366- -34 <5414? The photogiaphei shoulu take photogiaphs befoie
anything is uistuibeu, piogiessively woiking thiough the scene fiom outsiue
to close-up pictuies. Nany shots shoulu be taken, fiom the entiie scene, to
meuium shots to show the ielationship of eviuence to the oveiall scene.
}ust like a television piogiam will show the viewei the outsiue of a builuing
to establish wheie the chaiacteis aie going, the ciime scene photogiaphei
shoulu captuie the whole scene fiist using wiue-angle shots coveiing the
entiie scene fiom the appioach anu thiough eveiy aiea. Close-up images of
eviuence can be taken out of context, so establishing the scene fiist with
wiue anu meuium shots is ciitical.




In auuition, photogiaphs shoulu be taken looking up fiom the scene to
captuie eviuence oi enviionmental factois that may be above the scene.
E> F36-62/+,3 -34 B05-0G<? The next seiies of shots shoulu incluue victims (if
piesent) to show locations, injuiies anu conuition.
H> F36-62/+,3 -34 4B0C4154? Then each piece of eviuence shoulu be
photogiapheu to illustiate wheie it was founu. This establishes the
ielationships of the eviuence to the victim, the victim to the ioom anu so on.
These photogiaphs shoulu be taken fiom stiaight above oi stiaight on at
iight angles, eliminating potential uistance uistoitions. Each piece of
eviuence shoulu be photogiapheu with a scale to inuicate size anu without a
scale.


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I> AB0C4154 G+/;4/<? Photogiaphs shoulu be taken befoie eviuence maikeis
aie placeu, then again aftei. These initial shots aie impoitant to piove that
no one has tampeieu with the ciime scene.
J> K4L<366- M6/ 14N 4B0C4154? If investigatois maik new eviuence, the whole
seiies of shots shoulu be iepeateu, incluuing all eviuence shots. These
photos shoulu incluue the entiie piece of eviuence anu a scale to inuicate
size.




;+$",2/'< $6 D/#E< +1,2/,A +FGA @B*C+>
Special imaging techniques anu lighting shoulu be useu to captuie things like
fingeipiints, inuentations, shoe anu tiie tiack impiessions, vehicle
iuentification numbeis (vIN) anu veiy small pieces of eviuence. Techniques
may incluue:
O P7-4/1+-4 7023- <6./54< QP8'R - such as laseis, blue oi gieen lights anu
coloieu filteis that help uetect piocesseu latent fingeipiints oi othei hiuuen
eviuence anu illuminate foi photogiaphing

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O %S70T.4 +1274 7023-012 - using a flashlight, cameia flash oi ALS at a veiy
low angle to cast shauows that allow an impiint oi impiession to be
photogiapheu

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O "+5/6 741<4< - can take veiy close-up images (1:1 oi 1:2) of small items
such as tool maiks oi tiace eviuence

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Photogiaphs shoulu accuiately uocument the lighting conuitions at the
scene. Aftei those photos aie taken, if necessaiy, a photogiaphei will auu
aitificial light, like a flash, to compensate foi a cameia's limitations in
captuiing the visible iange of light unuei ceitain conuitions.
U> '366- M+<-? Sometimes enviionmental factois such as iain, snow oi tiaffic
can make conuitions uifficult foi photogiaphy. The photogiaphei must woik
quickly to captuie as much visual uocumentation as possible fiom a
ueteiioiating scene.
V> F36-62/+,3 -34 B05-0G 7+-4/? If a victim must be moveu oi iequiies
tieatment, the photogiaphei can go back to uocument the victim's injuiies.
vaiious techniques using special lighting anu coloieu filteis can highlight
injuiies (biuising, scaiiing) anu healing status.
How I t s Done
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0nce woiking copies of all the photogiaphs have been cieateu, investigatois
can select images foi analysis anu enhancement. This is noimally uone by
the photogiaphei oi, if available, within the auuiovisual uepaitment in the
laboiatoiy. As with all eviuence, uetaileu iecoius shoulu be kept iegaiuing
who accesses oi woiks with the files anu what techniques weie useu to
enhance oi otheiwise mouify the files.
The Inteinational Association foi Iuentification (IAI) has a Ceitifieu Foiensic
Photogiaphei (CFPB)
(3--,?YYNNN>-340+0>6/2Y54/-0M05+-061<Y0G+2012Y01C4Z>,3,) piogiam,
establisheu in 2uu1. The CFPB piocess is accieuiteu by the Foiensic
Specialties Accieuitation Boaiu. This piogiam iequiies specific tiaining oi
couisewoik anu testing that incluues both wiitten anu piactical
assessments. Eviuence Photogiapheis Inteinational Council (EPIC)
(3--,?YYNNN>4B0C4154,36-62/+,34/<>56GY) foimeily pioviueu specific
ceitification foi eviuence photogiapheis.
Nany times, the images aie taken by a membei of the investigative team that
is iesponsible foi many ciime scene uuties that also incoipoiates
photogiaphy. Bepenuing on the size of the agency anu suppoit fiom theii
local laboiatoiy, moie expeiienceu photogiapheis may be available foi
majoi cases.



[6N +1C W34/4 AB0C4154 F36-62/+,3< +/4 F/654<<4C
All photogiaphs taken aie saveu as oiiginally captuieu, enteieu into
eviuence inventoiy anu tiackeu. Selecteu photogiaphs of paiticulai eviuence
oi paits of a scene may neeu auuitional enhancement. This can be uone
within the uepaitment if the appiopiiate softwaie is available oi may be
sent to a iegional specialist. The most common enhancements incluue
ciopping, biightness anu contiast aujustments anu coloi piocessing.
Potential photogiaphic enhancements follow the same iules as news
jouinalism. An image may be lighteneu anu uaikeneu, cioppeu oi the coloi
enhanceu. The white balance can be aujusteu, but auuing oi iemoving
infoimation is unacceptable. When submitteu foi couitioom use, the
oiiginal photogiaph must be available foi compaiison anu the technician oi
examinei must be able to show anu uesciibe any enhancements that weie
uone, anu why.
When images aie piesenteu, they must be cleaily iuentifieu as a woiking
anuoi enhanceu veision. The oiiginal cameia sequential numbeiing system
shoulu be ietaineu to show that images aie in oiuei anu none have been
iemoveu. The woiking images shoulu not be ienameu until iuentifieu oi
selecteu foi use, anu oiiginal files shoulu not be ienameu at all.
\X,4 6M AT.0,G41- &<4C
Investigatois anu technicians photogiaphing a ciime scene shoulu have
access to a goou quality cameia that is capable of manual oveiiiue anu has
inteichangeable lenses, off-cameia flash, cable ielease, anu a tiipou mount.
With these tools anu a wiuely attainable level of tiaining anu piactice, goou
quality photogiaphs can be taken in a bioau iange of scenaiios incluuing
low light, highly ieflective suifaces anu tight spaces.
That saiu, many fiist iesponueis aie equippeu with basic, consumei-level
point-anu-shoot cameias. Since they may be in the best position to captuie
impoitant eviuence, basic knowleuge of how to captuie an image anu use
the cameia they have is veiy impoitant. Even with simple equipment, a fiist
iesponuei with intiouuctoiy photogiaphy tiaining can piouuce images of
sufficient quality to suppoit an investigation.
Cell phones anu othei peisonal electionic uevices with integiateu cameias
aie not iecommenueu unless theii use is an opeiational necessity. An
example woulu be if a muuuy shoe piint is founu neai a ciime scene but it is
iaining. The shoe piint may uisappeai quickly, so if a cell phone cameia is
the only cameia available, then it woulu be opeiationally necessaiy to use it.



FAQs
W3+- +/4 -34 70G0-+-061< 6M 5/0G4 <5414 ,36-62/+,3X]
The majoiity of eviuence photogiaphy is now uone using uigital cameias
anu equipment. Limitations in photogiaphy aie twofolu: limitation of the
cameia in geneial anu lack of expeiience oi tiaining of the photogiaphei.
Cameias cannot piouuce the same view that the human eye sees; it is the
photogiaphei's use of the cameia settings that can affect what can oi cannot
be seen in a photogiaph. A tiaineu photogiaphei will iecognize uifficult
lighting situations anu aujust the cameia settings accoiuingly. 0ften, moie
than one photo will be taken of the same view, in oiuei to piopeily expose
foi wiuely vaiying conuitions in a single view.
The use of uigital cameias allows a ciime scene photogiaphei to instantly
ieview theii photos anu make changes to the cameia settings if neeueu to
captuie the best possible image while still on the scene. Ciitical thinking
skills anu analysis aie constantly applieu uuiing the scene uocumentation
piocess. An inexpeiienceu photogiaphei will often foigo the ieview piocess,
ielying on theii cameia to "make the iight uecisions" foi settings.
[6N 0< T.+70-X 561-/67 +1C +<<./+154 ,4/M6/G4C]
To ensuie the most accuiate captuie, piocessing anu analysis of ciime scene
photogiaphs, the management of ciiminal justice agencies anu foiensic
laboiatoiies puts in place policies anu pioceuuies that govein facilities anu
equipment, methous anu pioceuuies, anu peisonnel qualifications anu
tiaining. These Stanuaiu 0peiating Pioceuuies (S0Ps) aie intenueu to
maintain anu uemonstiate the integiity of the images anu infoimation
captuieu at a ciime scene anu its aumissibility in couit. Ciime scene
photogiaphy S0Ps ensuie unifoim piocesses aie useu by photogiapheis anu
the infoimation iepiesenteu in the images accuiately iepiesents objects anu
conuitions at the scene as they aie founu.
The Scientific Woiking uioup on Imaging Technology (SWuIT) woiks to set
quality guiuelines foi the captuie, stoiage, piocessing, analysis,
tiansmission, output anu aichiving of images. These guiuelines pioviue goou
geneial piactice stanuaius foi ciime scene photogiapheis anu othei
inuiviuuals peifoiming photogiaphy within the ciiminal justice system.
SWuIT guiuelines aie available ( 3--,<?YYNNN><N20->6/2YC65.G41-<).



(< -34/4 +1X-3012 47<4 +S6.- 5/0G4 <5414 ,36-62/+,3X
-3+- N6.7C S4 0G,6/-+1- -6 -34 161L<5041-0<-^ 6/ +1X
56GG61 G0<56154,-061< /42+/C012 -30< -6,05]
A common misconception is that uigital images can be changeu moie easily
than film piints anu uone to misleau the couit. Photogiaphs cieateu in a
uaikioom fiom film can also be alteieu by a skilleu photogiaphei using a
wiue vaiiety of techniques, so they aie not necessaiily moie accuiate than
uigital images. While uigital softwaie exists that can make uiastic changes to
a uigital image, a compaiison of the alteieu image with the oiiginal makes
any changes obvious. This is why piopei chain-of-custouy pioceuuie anu
woikflow is necessaiy.
Accoiuing to the SWuIT guiuelines: "Bocumenting image enhancement
steps shoulu be sufficient to peimit a compaiably tiaineu peison to
unueistanu the steps taken, the techniques useu, anu to extiact compaiable
infoimation fiom the image."
Similai to scientific ieseaich being uocumenteu to allow othei scientists to
peifoim the same steps anu get the same iesults, image enhancement
uocumentation shoulu be specific anu in oiuei. The SWuIT guiuelines
incluue examples of uocumentation anu uiaft S0Ps
(3--,<?YYNNN><N20->6/2Y,CMYK456GG41C4C _.0C47014< M6/ :4B476,012
'-+1C+/C %,4/+-012 F/654C./4<]C65(:`HV)(PBF uownloau) foi agencies
to customize.
Anothei misconception may be ieinfoiceu by television ciime uiamas, anu
that is the iuea that eveiy ciime scene unit anuoi investigatoi has high-enu
cameia equipment anu is thoioughly tiaineu in ciime scene photogiaphy.
Though many aie, it shoulu be claiifieu that equipment, tiaining anu
pioceuuies vaiy wiuely among agencies.
Common Terms
Teiminology in photogiaphy has changeu slightly since the iise of
piofessional uigital cameias to incluue infoimation on uigital equipment
such as light sensois, as well as techniques foi using computei softwaie to
enhance images. The uefinitions below iepiesent common teims useu in
geneial anu ciime scene photogiaphy. Foi auuitional glossaiy teims see the
SWuBE anu SWuIT Bigital & Nultimeuia Eviuence ulossaiy
(3--,<?YYNNN><N20->6/2Y,CMY'W_:A +1C 'W_(\ :020-+7 +1C
".7-0G4C0+ AB0C4154 _76<<+/X]C65(:`Ia) oi the All Things Photogiaphy
(3--,?YYNNN>+77L-3012<L,36-62/+,3X>56GYC020-+7LC05-061+/X>3-G7)
website.



PGS041- 8023- - Light alieauy existing in an inuooi oi outuooi setting that
is not causeu by any illumination supplieu by the photogiaphei.
P,4/-./4 - opening in the cameia that lets in the light.
P<,45- K+-06 - The iatio of wiuth to height in photogiaphic piints; a iatio of
2:S in SS mm pictuies piouuces photogiaphs most commonly measuiing
S.S S inches oi 4 6 inches.
$+G4/+ P1274< - vaiious positions of the cameia (high, meuium, oi low;
anu left, iight, oi stiaight on) with iespect to the subject, each giving a
uiffeient viewpoint, peispective oi visual effect.
$+,-./4 - The piocess of iecoiuing uata, such as an image, viueo sequence,
oi auuio stieam.
$676/ $6//45-061 - To coiiect oi enhance the colois within an image.
$61-/+<- - The uiffeience in uaikness oi uensity between one tone oi
anothei.
$/6,,012 - Removing poitions of an image that aie outsiue the aiea of
inteiest.
:4,-3 6M b047C - The aiea between the neaiest anu faithest points fiom the
cameia that aie acceptably shaip in the focuseu image.
AB0C4154 c.+70-X F36-6< - Images of sufficient size anu quality to allow
compaiison anu examination by a qualifieu foiensic expeit.
AZ,6<./4 - The quantity of light alloweu to act on photogiaphic mateiial; a
piouuct of the intensity (contiolleu by the lens opening) anu the uuiation
(contiolleu by the shuttei speeu) of light stiiking the film oi sensoi.
bL<-6, - Lens setting numbei inuicating the size of the apeituie that allows
light into the cameia. It is an inveisely piopoitionate numbei, so that f1.8
inuicates a laigei opening than fS.6.
b07-4/ - A coloieu piece of glass oi othei tianspaient mateiial useu ovei the
lens to emphasize, eliminate, oi change the coloi oi uensity of the entiie
scene oi ceitain aieas within a scene.
('% ',44C - The sensitivity of a given film oi sensoi to light, inuicateu by a
numbei such as IS0 2uu. The highei the numbei, the moie sensitive oi fastei
the film oi sensoi.
841< ',44C - The laigest lens opening at which a lens can be set. A fast lens
tiansmits moie light anu has a laigei opening than a slow lens. Foi example,



f1.8 woulu set a laigei opening than fS.6 anu woulu, theiefoie, be a fastei
lens.
K+N b074 - The uata captuieu by a uigital cameia sensoi befoie it is
conveiteu into an image file by softwaie, eithei insiue the cameia oi on a
stanu-alone computei.
K4<67.-061 - In a uigital photogiaph, the numbei of pixels which make up
the image.
'5+74 - The ielative size of an object as compaieu to othei objects in geneial
pioximity. Also iefeis to a measuiing uevice oi set of maiks to inuicate
object size in a photogiaph.
'3.--4/ - Blaues, a cuitain, plate, oi some othei movable covei in a cameia
that contiols the time uuiing which light ieaches the film.
W6/;012 $6,X - A copy oi uuplicate of a iecoiuing oi uata that can be useu
foi subsequent piocessing anuoi analysis.
Addi ti onal Resources
You can leain moie about this topic at the websites anu publications listeu
below.
K4<6./54<
Eviuence Photogiapheis Inteinational Council (EPIC)
3--,?YYNNN>4B0C4154,36-62/+,34/<>56GY
Scientific Woiking uioup on Imaging Technology (SWuIT)
3--,?YYNNN><N20->6/2
Piofessional Photogiapheis Association (PPA) 3--,?YYNNN>,,+>56G
Stanfoiu 0niveisity Bepth of Fielu
(3--,?YY2/+,305<><-+1M6/C>4C.Y56./<4<Y5<=JUL=aY+,,74-<YC6M>3-G7)
Stanfoiu 0niveisity vaiiables That Affect Exposuie
(3--,?YY2/+,305<><-+1M6/C>4C.Y56./<4<Y5<=JUL
==Y+,,74-<Y4Z,6<./4>3-G7)
Ciime Scene Resouices Ciime Scene anu Eviuence Photogiaphy
(3--,?YYNNN>5/0G4L<5414L01B4<-02+-6/>14-Y5<0L,36-6>3-G7)



K4M4/4154<
Robinson, E. $K("A '$A)A F[%\%_KPF[#^ 'A$%): A:(\(%), Elseviei
Acauemic Piess, Builington, NA (2u1u).
Law Enfoicement & Emeigency Seivices viueo Association (LEvA)(accesseu
}une 27, 2u12). 3--,?YYNNN>74B+>6/2
National Centei foi Auuio & viueo Foiensics (NCAvF) (accesseu }une 27,
2u12). 3--,?YYNNN>15+BM>56G
BSLR Cameia Simulatoi CameiaSim, SLR Photogiaphy Bemystifieu.
(accesseu }une 27, 2u12) 3--,?YY5+G4/+<0G>56GY5+G4/+L<0G.7+-6/Y
Levoy, Naic; Auams, Anuiew; Bektai, Katie; Willett, Noia. vaiiables that
Affect Exposuie, 2u11. Flash applets on some technical aspects of
photogiaphy (Stanfoiu 0niveisity CS 179 - Bigital Photogiaphy). (accesseu
}une 27, 2u12) 3--,?YY2/+,305<><-+1M6/C>4C.Y56./<4<Y5<=JUL
==Y+,,74-<Y4Z,6<./4>3-G7
NcBugh, Sean. 0nueistanuing Bepth of Fielu. Cambiiuge in Coloi. (accesseu
}une 27, 2u12) 3--,?YYNNN>5+GS/0C24015676./>56GY-.-6/0+7<YC4,-3L6ML
M047C>3-G (accesseu }une 27, 2u12)
P5;16N74C2G41-<
The authois wish to thank the following foi theii invaluable contiibutions to
this foiensic guiue:
945;X $+/-4/^ $AF^ National Foiensic Science Technology Centei
:410<4 W402+1C, B$,/0'-# K0&/'2-312$,, Pasco County Sheiiff's Bepaitment
:+11X )05367<, National Foiensic Science Technology Centei




Forensi c Evi dence Admi ssi bi l i ty and
Expert Wi tnesses
Bow oi why some scientific eviuence oi expeit witnesses aie alloweu to be
piesenteu in couit anu some aie not can be confusing to the casual obseivei
oi a laypeison ieauing about a case in the meuia. Bowevei, theie is
significant pieceuent that guiues the way these uecisions aie maue. 0ui
uiscussion heie will biiefly outline the thiee majoi souices that cuiiently
guiue eviuence anu testimony aumissibility.
\34 !"#$ '-+1C+/C d '5041-0M05 AB0C4154 +1C -34
F/0150,74 6M _414/+7 P554,-+154
In 192S, in B,</ &) (0-2/I *212/'
|1j
, the Bistiict of Columbia Couit iejecteu the
scientific valiuity of the lie uetectoi (polygiaph) because the technology uiu
not have significant geneial acceptance at that time. The couit gave a
guiueline foi ueteimining the aumissibility of scientific examinations:
L"'2 84/0 1 '#-/02-6-# 7,-0#-79/ $, I-'#$&/,< #,$''/' 24/ 9-0/ =/28//0 24/
/M7/,-./0219 10I I/.$0'2,1=9/ '213/' -' I-66-#"92 2$ I/6-0/) *$./84/,/ -0 24-'
28-9-342 N$0/ 24/ /&-I/02-19 6$,#/ $6 24/ 7,-0#-79/ ."'2 =/ ,/#$30-N/IA 10I
84-9/ 24/ #$",2' 8-99 3$ 1 9$03 81< -0 1I.-22-03 /M7/,-./0219 2/'2-.$0<
I/I"#/I 6,$. 1 8/99O,/#$30-N/I '#-/02-6-# 7,-0#-79/ $, I-'#$&/,<A 24/ 24-03
6,$. 84-#4 24/ I/I"#2-$0 -' .1I/ ."'2 =/ <.MM05041-7X 4<-+S70<34C -6 3+B4
2+014C 2414/+7 +554,-+154 -0 24/ 71,2-#"91, 6-/9I -0 84-#4 -2 =/9$03')
Essentially, to apply the "B,</ Stanuaiu" a couit hau to ueciue if the
pioceuuie, technique oi piinciples in question weie geneially accepteu by a
meaningful piopoition of the ielevant scientific community. This stanuaiu
pievaileu in the feueial couits anu some states foi many yeais.
b4C4/+7 K.74< 6M AB0C4154^ K.74 Ja@
In 197S, moie than a half-centuiy aftei B,</ was ueciueu, the Feueial Rules
of Eviuence weie auopteu foi litigation in feueial couits. They incluueu iules
on expeit testimony. Theii alteinative to the B,</ Stanuaiu came to be useu
moie bioauly because it uiu not stiictly iequiie geneial acceptance anu was
seen to be moie flexible.


|1j 29S Feu. 1u1S (192S)



The fiist veision of Feueial Rule of Eviuence 7u2 pioviueu that a witness
who is qualifieu as an expeit by knowleuge, skill, expeiience, tiaining, oi
euucation may testify in the foim of an opinion oi otheiwise if:
a. the expeit's scientific, technical, oi othei specializeu knowleuge will help the
tiiei of fact to unueistanu the eviuence oi to ueteimine a fact in issue;
b. the testimony is baseu on sufficient facts oi uata;
c. the testimony is the piouuct of ieliable piinciples anu methous; anu
u. the expeit has ieliably applieu the piinciples anu methous to the facts of the
case.

While the states aie alloweu to auopt theii own iules, most have auopteu oi
mouifieu the Feueial iules, incluuing those coveiing expeit testimony.
In a 199S case, ?1"=/,2 &) P/,,/99 ?$8 G41,.1#/"2-#19'A K0#)A the 0niteu
States Supieme Couit helu that the Feueial Rules of Eviuence, anu in
paiticulai Feu. R. Eviu. 7u2, supeiseueu B,</Q' "geneial acceptance" test.
\34 &'()$"* '-+1C+/C d $6./- P554,-+154 6M AZ,4/-
\4<-0G61X
In ?1"=/,2 anu latei cases
|2j
, the Couit explaineu that the feueial stanuaiu
incluues geneial acceptance, but also looks at the science anu its application.
Tiial juuges aie the final aibitei oi "gatekeepei" on aumissibility of eviuence
anu acceptance of a witness as an expeit within theii own couitiooms.
In ueciuing if the science anu the expeit in question shoulu be peimitteu, the
juuge shoulu consiuei:
What is the basic theoiy anu has it been testeu.
Aie theie stanuaius contiolling the technique.
Bas the theoiy oi technique been subjecteu to peei ieview anu
publication.
What is the known oi potential eiioi iate.
Is theie geneial acceptance of the theoiy.
Bas the expeit auequately accounteu foi alteinative explanations.
Bas the expeit unjustifiably extiapolateu fiom an accepteu piemise
to an unfounueu conclusion.

The ?1"=/,2 Couit also obseiveu that conceins ovei shaky eviuence coulu
be hanuleu thiough vigoious cioss-examination, piesentation of contiaiy
eviuence anu caieful instiuction on the buiuen of pioof.


|2j The "Baubeit Tiilogy" of cases is: :P&9AK\ *> "AKKA88 :%W F[PK"P$A&\($P8', _A)AKP8
A8A$\K($ $%> *> e%()AK anu f&"[% \(KA $%> *> $PK"($[PA8.



In many states, scientific expeit testimony is now subject to this ?1"=/,2
stanuaiu. But some states still use a mouification of the B,</ stanuaiu.
W36 5+1 <4/B4 +< +1 4Z,4/- M6/41<05 <504154 N0-14<< +-
56./-]
0vei the yeais, eviuence piesenteu at tiial has giown incieasingly uifficult
foi the aveiage juioi to unueistanu. By calling on an expeit witness who can
uiscuss complex eviuence oi testing in an easy-to-unueistanu mannei, tiial
lawyeis can bettei piesent theii cases anu juiois can be bettei equippeu to
weigh the eviuence. But this biings up auuitional uifficult questions. Bow
uoes the couit uefine whethei a peison is an expeit. What qualifications
must they meet to pioviue theii opinion in a couit of law.
These questions, too, aie auuiesseu in b4C> K> AB0C> Ja@. It only allows
expeits "qualifieu . by knowleuge, skill, expeiience, tiaining, oi euucation."
To be consiueieu a tiue expeit in any fielu geneially iequiies a significant
level of tiaining anu expeiience. The vaiious foiensic uisciplines follow
uiffeient tiaining plans, but most incluue in-house tiaining, assessments anu
piactical exams, anu continuing euucation. 0ial piesentation piactice,
incluuing moot couit expeiience (simulateu couitioom pioceeuing), is veiy
helpful in piepaiing examineis foi questioning in a tiial.
Noimally, the inuiviuual that issueu the laboiatoiy iepoit woulu seive as the
expeit at couit. By issuing a iepoit, that inuiviuual takes iesponsibility foi
the analysis. This peison coulu be a supeivisoi oi technical leauei, but
uoesn't necessaiily neeu to be the one who uiu the analysis. The opposition
may also call in expeits to iefute this testimony, anu both witnesses aie
subject to the stanuaiu in use by that couit (B,</A ?1"=/,2, Feu. R. Eviu 7u2)
iegaiuing theii expeitise.
Each couit can accept any peison as an expeit, anu theie have been
instances wheie inuiviuuals who lack piopei tiaining anu backgiounu have
been ueclaieu expeits. When necessaiy, the opponent can question potential
witnesses in an attempt to show that they uo not have applicable expeitise
anu aie not qualifieu to testify on the topic. The aumissibility uecision is left
to the juuge.
PCC0-061+7 K4<6./54<
F.S705+-061<?
Safeistein, Richaiu. $K("()P8('\($'? P) ()\K%:&$\(%) \% b%KA)'($
'$(A)$A, Peaison Euucation, Inc., 0ppei Sauule Rivei, N} (2uu7).
NcCluie, Baviu. Repoit: Focus uioup on Scientific anu Foiensic Eviuence in
the Couitioom (online), 2uu7,



3--,<?YYNNN>15g/<>26BY,CMM074<=Y10gY2/+1-<Y@@aIV@>,CM (accesseu }uly
19, 2u12)
P5;16N74C24G41-<
The authois wish to thank the following foi theii invaluable contiibutions to
this guiue:
K6S01 W30-74X, +4-/6 ?/7"2<, Appellate Bivision, Benvei Bistiict Attoiney's
0ffice, Seconu }uuicial Bistiict
:4S/+ b02+/4770, ?@R C/#40-#19 P1013/,, National Foiensic Science
Technology Centei, Inc.
About Thi s Proj ect
This pioject was uevelopeu anu uesigneu by the National Foiensic Science
Technology Centei (NFSTC) unuei a coopeiative agieement fiom the Buieau
of }ustice Assistance (B}A), awaiu #2uu9-B1-BX-Ku28. Neithei the 0.S.
Bepaitment of }ustice noi any of its components opeiate, contiol, aie
iesponsible foi, oi necessaiily enuoise, the contents heiein.
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