Destiny Escamilla

6/22/14
Understanding Macronutrients Project
Carbohydrates

Carbohydrates and fats are the preferred choice of energy for the body. The
digestion of carbohydrates begins in the mouth. When an individual begins to chew
it arouses the discharge of saliva, which holds salivary amylase that hydrolyzes
starch into maltose and shorter polysaccharides. The polysaccharides are shorter
due to the loose of two glucoses that turned into maltose. Swallowing allows the
food bolus to be transported to the stomach. Its here where the salivary amylase is
denatured by the acidic surrounding and can no longer work. Carbohydrates
digestion does not take place in the stomach. The pancreas reaction to eating is its
ejection of pancreatic amylase into the small intestine where it waits for the
appearance of chyme from the stomach. Once the chyme is gradually released into
the small intestine the pancreatic amylase hydrolyzes any starch into maltose. At the
brush border maltose is digested by maltose to generate glucose. The glucose is then
absorbed by the enterocytes allowing it to now enter the bloodstream. Other
monosaccharides, fructose, and galactose are also absorbed by the enterocytes
allowing them to enter the bloodstream as well. They all make their way to the liver
however along the way cells may chose to utilize some to use as a source of energy.
If the trip is made to the liver, fructose and galactose are transformed into glucose to
be transported to cells to be used for energy. This is our primary source of energy. A
specific amount of glucose is required to stay in the blood to keep blood glucose
levels. Surplus of glucose can be kept as glycogen in the liver and muscle cells.
Glycogen is also stored in a very small portion by glial cells in the brain. Not all
carbohydrates are absorbed like fiber that then has to move to the large intestine.
Bacteria are capable of breaking down several of the soluble fibers however the
lingering fiber leaves the body in the feces. Humans are not able to digest fiber due
to the lack of enzymes crucial to do so.
Destiny Escamilla
6/22/14
Fats

As soon as an individual begins to chew a food that has fat the salivary glands
generate lingual lipase that is able to digest several triglycerides. Once the food is
swallowed and reaches the stomach its mixed and broken into fat droplets. The
leading cells of the stomach discharge gastric lipase and digest some of the
triglycerides. Up to this point though the amount of fat digestion is extremely small.
The gallbladder discharges bile into the small intestine. Chyme from the stomach
that holds fat molecules is transported gradually into the small intestine. The biles
job is not to digest fat in the way of hydrolysis but rather to combine it.
Emulsification is the process of breaking down fat droplets into smaller ones that
possess more surface region that can be hydrolyzed by pancreatic lipases into free
fatty acids and monoglycerides. The latter contains only a single fatty acid
connected to glycerol and is the biggest fat molecule that can be absorbed by the
enterocytes. Micelles then escort the free fatty acids to the mucosal cells for
engrossment. Triglycerides are too large causing them to be unable to pass through
cell membranes. After entering a cell the two fatty acids are linked to the
monoglyceride recreating a triglyceride, which is useful for energy or for generating
lipid-holding compounds. They can be kept either in the liver or muscle cells.
Chylomycrons are able to release fat into cells with help from lipoprotein lipase
(LPL). When chylomicrons come into contact with adipose cells, LPL breaks apart
the triglycerides into individual fatty acids. If the body is in need of energy the fatty
acids are transported to the mitochondria for immediate energy use. If the body
does not need energy, the fatty acids are recreated into triglycerides and stored in
adipose cells for later use. For people who exercise a lot, the extra fat will stored in
muscles and are easily available for energy the next time you work out.





Destiny Escamilla
6/22/14
Proteins

The human body can synthesize several amino acids making them
nonessential however nine amino acids cannot be synthesized so its necessary to
acquire them through ones diet. The nine essential amino acids are histidine,
isoleucine, leucine, lysine, methionine, phenylalanine, threonine, tryptophan, and
valine. Proteins are created out of amino acids, which are joined by a dehydration
synthesis reaction where water is removed in order to form a peptide bond. Once an
individual begins chewing it squashes the proteins that the food contained and its
dampened by saliva. Swallowing takes the proteins to the stomach were the
digestion begins when the hydrochloric acids launch the denaturation procedure.
The proteins are further digested by pepsin into smaller peptides and amino acids.
Its essential to break down proteins into amino acids so they can be able to be
absorbed. The acidic chyme from the stomach gradually passes into the small
intestine and is attacked by pancreatic proteases that hydrolyze it into only one
amino acid that can be absorbed by the mucosal cells. The amino acids flow into the
bloodstream where they can be picked up by cells on their route to the liver. Amino
Acids are taken to the liver through the portal vein. Protein cannot be stored and the
liver is believed to watch absorbed amino acids and regulate the rate of their
breakdown according to the demands of the body. Since it cannot be stored there is
a clutter of amino acids traveling throughout the body and theyre used according to
the guidelines in ones DNA. The amino acids can be in the blood and lymph or
within cells.
ALL TOGETHER:
The digestive process begins with the cephalic phase. This cephalic phase is
when hunger and appetite stimulates the nervous system to releases digestive juices
in preparation of food entering the body. When food enters the mouth mechanical
digestion of chewing breaks down the food. The salivary glands secrete saliva which
moistens the food and now begins the process of chemical digestion for
Destiny Escamilla
6/22/14
carbohydrates. Salivary amylase from the saliva starts carbohydrate digestion which
breaks down starch into shorter polysaccharides and maltose.
The food has now been chewed and moistened in the mouth and is now
called the bolus. The bolus is swallowed and is propelled to the stomach by
peristalsis through the esophagus. Before the food enters the stomach, the brain
sends signals causing gastric juices to be secreted. Gastric juices contain
hydrochloric acid (HCl), pepsin, gastric lipase, and other compounds. As gastrin
causes the stomach to churn the food into chyme, the digestion of fats and proteins
begin. No carbohydrates digestion occurs in the stomach. HCl in the stomach keeps
the environment very acidic, which kills a lot of bacteria that may have entered with
the food and also deactivates salivary amylase. HCl starts to denature proteins and
also converts inactive pepsinogen into the active enzyme pepsin. Pepsin breaks
down proteins into smaller polypeptides and single amino acids. Fats are mixed and
broken down into smaller droplets in the stomach. The gastric lipase initiates fat
digestion by digesting some triglycerides. The stomach then stores and periodically
releases chyme into the small intestine.
The small intestine is composed of three parts the duodenum, jejunum, and
ileum and is where most digestion and absorption of fats, proteins and
carbohydrates occur. As chyme enters the duodenum from the stomach, the
presence of fats and proteins causes CCK to be released. The presence of CCK signals
the gall bladder to contract and release bile into the duodenum. The bile is
produced by the liver from cholesterol, stored in the gall bladder, and reduces the
fat into smaller droplets so they are more accessible to digestive enzymes. At the
same time, the pancreas secretes bicarbonate into the duodenum which neutralizes
acidic chyme so that pancreatic enzymes work better and prevents the duodenum
lining from eroding. The pancreas also secretes pancreatic lipase, pancreatic
amylase, and protease into the small intestine.
The release of pancreatic lipase from the pancreas into the small intestine
allows for further breakdown of the smaller fat droplets by breaking the fatty acids
away from the glycerol backbone. Lipid digesting enzymes break dietary cholesterol
esters and phospholipids into their components and also break triglycerides into
one monoglyceride and two fatty acids. Short and medium chain fatty acids are
more readily transported in the body so it is important for long fatty acids to be
broken down. These broken down fats are then transported into the mucosal lining
of the small intestine with the help of micelles, which can trap free fatty acids and
monoglycerides. Fats are not soluble in water so they can not freely be transported
into the blood stream. To compensate for this fatty acids are reformed back into
triglycerides and then packaged into lipoproteins called chylomicrons. The
chylomicrons are water soluble and are able to transport the dietary fat through the
lymphatic system and finally into the blood.
The dietary fat filled chylomicrons are now either used immediately as
energy, made into lipid containing compounds, or stored in muscle or adipose tissue
as triglycerides for later use. Chylomycrons are able to release fat into cells with
help from lipoprotein lipase (LPL). When chylomicrons come into contact with
adipose cells, LPL breaks apart the triglycerides into individual fatty acids. If the
body is in need of energy the fatty acids are transported to the mitochondria for
Destiny Escamilla
6/22/14
immediate energy use. If the body does not need energy, the fatty acids are
recreated into triglycerides and stored in adipose cells for later use. For people who
exercise a lot, the extra fat will stored in muscles and are easily available for energy
the next time you work out.
The pancreatic amylase released from the pancreas continues the digestion
of carbohydrates by breaking down the remaining starch into maltose in the small
intestine. Since carbohydrates needs to be broken down into monosaccharides in
order to be absorbed, additional enzymes in the small intestine break down
disaccharides into monosaccharides. The maltose is broken down into glucose by
the enzyme maltase. The sucrose is broken down into glucose and fructose by
sucrase and lactose is broken down into glucose and galactose by lactase. These
monosaccharides are absorbed by enterocytes in the mucosal cells lining the small
intestine and enter the blood stream. Once in the blood stream, the
monosaccharides travel to the liver and fructose and galactose are converted to
glucose. If the body needs energy, glucose is released immediately in to the blood
stream and transported to cells. Excess glucose is stored in the liver or muscles as
glycogen. Depending on the needs of the body, liver and muscles have enzymes that
are able to combine glucose molecules into glycogen by using an anabolic building
process and are also able to breakdown glycogen into glucose by using a catabolic or
destructive process. Glycogen stored in the liver help maintain glood glucose levels
and support the energy needs of our brain, spinal cord, and red blood cells. Glycogen
stored in mucles proved enery during intense exercies and constantly provides
energy to muscles. Glycogen is also stored in a very small portion by glial cells in the
brain. Some undigestibale carbohydrates such as fiber pass through the small
intestine into the large intestine or colon undigested due to the lack of enzymes.
Bacteria can ferment some of the carbohydrates causing gas and a few short chain
fatty acids. The remaining fibers stay in the colon and are released as feces.
Protease (trypsin, chymotrypsin) released by the pancreas into the small
intestine further digests polypeptides into smaller oligopeptides, tripeptides,
dipeptides, and single amino acids. The intestinal wall produces peptidase which
continue to split the remaining polypeptides into smaller amino acids. These smaller
units are transported into enterocytes. In the enterocyte, other peptidases digest
everything into single amino acids for absorption into the blood stream. Majortiy of
the amino acids are absorbed into the blood stream but few remain in the
enterocytes and are used to make new cless and enzymes. Proteins must be broken
down into single amino acids as absorption of whole proteins can cause severe
allergic reactions. Amino acids in the bloodstream are transported via the portal
vein into the liver. Depending on what the body needs, the amino acids in the liver
can be used for energy, transported to other cells, converted to fat or glucose, or
used to build new proteins.