Communication Theory

(Prepared and compiled from various sources)

Dr.D.Jude Hemanth
Communication Theory
Lecture 1
1) Definition of Communication
2) Communication System- block diagram
3) Types of Signal
4) Spectrum of signal
Definition
Communication engineering is the transfer of
useful information for a longer distance with
less amount of noise.
a) useful unknown information
b)Engineering is not necessary for short
distance communication
c) Less amount of noise clarity should be high
Block Diagram
Parts of a communication system




Source:
The source is the originator of the information. The
source may be a human voice, music, digital data
from a computer, etc.

Source
Info.
Transmitter
Transmitted
signal
User
Received
signal
Receiver
Received
info.
Noise
Channel
Block Diagram-contd..
Information:
Data which the user did not possess prior to
communicating with the source.
Transmitter:
Amplification
- Increasing the amplitude of the signal
- To escape from noise which usually affects the amp.
Modulation
- To make the signal travel for longer distance.
Encoding
- To change the data into another format
- Security



Block Diagram-contd..
Channel:
The channel is the physical transmission medium over
which the communication is sent.
It may be wires, radio airwaves, fiber optics, etc.
All channels have physical limitations which will distort
and attenuate the transmitted signal and which will add
noise to the transmitted signal.
Thus, the received signal will not be an exact duplicate
of the transmitted signal.



Block Diagram-contd..
Receiver:
The receiver attempts to translate the received signal
back into the original information sent by the source.
This involves basically two steps:
1) Amplification
2) Demodulation (or) Detection
Receiver performs the reverse process of transmitter

User:
The user is the recipient of the information




Signals
Types of Signals:
Analog (Continuous time)
Digital (Discrete time-Discrete amplitude)
Discrete (Discrete time Non-Discrete amplitude)
Spectrum of Signals:
Spectrum = frequency spectrum
The frequency spectrum of a time domain signal is a
representation of that signal in the frequency domain.
The frequency spectrum can be generated via a Fourier
transform of the signal, and the resulting values are usually
presented as amplitude plotted versus frequency.
Communication Theory
Lecture-2
1) Need for modulation
2) Types of modulation
Need for modulation
Modulation is the method of increasing the frequency of
the message signal by mixing it with the carrier signal.
Long distance communication:
1) Distance is directly proportional to velocity
2) Velocity = meter/second
3) Thus, distance = 1/second=1/time
4) f=1/time and hence frequency is directly
proportional to the distance.
If the frequency of the signal is increased, it will travel for a
longer distance

Need for modulation
Antenna height:


where is antenna height. Hence, to minimize the height of
antenna, frequency must be high.
Hardware Limitations:


The use of L is mandatory in oscillators. But, the size of L must
be low for minimizing the circuit complexity. As per the above
equation, the frequency must be high for low values of L.

c
f =
LC
f
t 2
1
=
Need for modulation
Interference minimization:
Suppose you have two signals with frequencies 21 Hz
and 22 Hz respectively. If you transmit as such, both the
signals will mix with each other and information is lost.
So, modulate 21 Hz with 100 KHz and modulate 22 Hz
with 1000 KHz. So, now the o/p of 1
st
signal becomes
100.21 KHz(100+21) and the o/p of 2
nd
signal becomes
1000.22 KHz (1000+22).
Now, if these signals are transmitted, they will not mix
with each other. Thus, by modulating message signals with
different carrier frequencies, interference can be
minimized.
Need for modulation
Channel characteristics:
If a 20 Hz message signal is to be transmitted by optical
communication (or any other communication), its frequency
must be translated to suit the channel of that specific
communication. Hence modulation is necessary.
Adjustment of bandwidth (BW):
BW is directly proportional to Signal to noise ratio (SNR).
BW is also dependent on frequencies
Thus, increasing the frequencies (by modulation) increases
the BW which in turn increases the SNR.
SNR is the measure of the quality of the signal and thus the
quality is improved by modulation

Types of Modulation









Analog = both message and carrier are analog
Digital = both message and carrier are digital
Pulse = one signal is analog and other is digital
Analog M Digital M Pulse M (Hybrid)
Amplitude M (DSBFC) Angle M
FM PM DSBSC SSBSC VSB ISBSC
ASK FSK
PSK PAM PPM
PWM PCM
TYPES
Types of Modulation
AM =Amplitude Modulation
DSBFC= Double side band Full carrier
DSBSC = Double side band Suppressed carrier
SSBSC= Single side band suppressed carrier
VSB = Vestigial side band
ISBSC = Independent side band suppressed carrier
FM = Frequency Modulation
PM = Phase modulation
ASK = Amplitude shift keying
FSK = Frequency shift keying
PSK = Phase sift keying
PAM =Pulse amplitude modulation
PPM= Pulse position modulation
PWM = Pulse width modulation
PCM =Pulse code modulation



Communication Theory
Lecture-3
1) Amplitude Modulation-Theory

Amplitude Modulation (AM)
Definition of modulation:
It is the process by which any one of the
characteristics (Amplitude, frequency and phase) of
the carrier signal is changed in accordance with the
amplitude of the message signal. The message signal
is also called as modulating signal.
Definition of AM:
Repeat
Carrier signal = high frequency signal
Message signal = low frequency signal
Amplitude Modulation
AM waveforms:

Amplitude modulation- Derivation
Let the carrier signal be

Let the message signal be

The output modulated signal is given by


t w E e
m m m
sin =
t w E e
c c c
sin =
( ) t w t w E E e
c m m c
sin sin
mod
+ =
t w t w E t w E
c m m c c
sin sin sin + =
( ) ( )t w w
E
t w w
E
t w E
m c
m
m c
m
c c
+ + = cos
2
cos
2
sin
Amplitude modulation- Derivation
Let m= Em/Ec


AM wave consists of 3 terms:
a) The carrier component
b) Lower side band (LSB)
c) Upper side band (USB)
Modulation index (m):
It is the measure of mixing of the carrier signal and message signal
Its value varies from 0 to 1. 1 means over modulation. So, proper
selection of m is necessary
Formula:
(i) m= Em/Ec
(ii) m=(Emax-Emin)/(Emax+Emin)

( ) ( )t w w
mE
t w w
mE
t w E e
m c
c
m c
c
c c
+ + = cos
2
cos
2
sin
mod
Amplitude Modulation
Derivation for m:






Amplitude Modulation
Frequency spectrum of AM wave:



Bandwidth of AM wave:

Vector representation:


Communication Theory
Lecture-4
1) Power relations in AM wave

Power relations
Total power of AM wave:

Power relations
Total power of AM wave:






For m=1; Ptotal =1.5Pc

In terms of current,
Power relations
Power Analysis:
Psb/Ptotal =
For 100% modulation (m=1), Psb/Ptotal = 1/3.
Since the information is available only in sidebands, only one-third
of the power is useful and the rest of the power is wasted.
Hence, AM is inefficient in terms of power consumption
For modulation with many sine waves



( )
2 2
2 / m m +
Problems..

Need for suppression of carriers
Carriers are suppressed to save the power in AM
signal
Power saving formula:
% of power saving = ((Ptotal Psideband)/Ptotal)*100
If the carrier alone is suppressed (DSBSC), the power
saving is 66.66%
If the carrier and one of the sidebands (SSBSC) is
suppressed, then the power saving is 83.33%
Types of Suppressed carrier systems:
1) DSBSC
2) SSBSC


Communication Theory
Lecture-5
1) Generation of AM signals (DSBFC, DSBSC & SSBSC)
1.1) Square law diode modulation (DSBFC)
1.2) Balanced Modulator (DSBSC)

Square law diode modulation (DSBFC)
Used for generating DSBFC signal
Circuit Diagram:


Square law diode modulation (DSBFC)
Derivation:
Diode is a non-linear device which satisfies power
law.
Power law :
But power law is practically non-feasible due to the
infinite series and hence limited to the first 3 terms
which is called as square law:
Using this law, AM signal can be generated
Let
Substitute in square law equation and find the
output i keeping a0, a1 and a2 as constant.


.. ..........
3
1 3
2
1 2 1 1 0
e a e a e a a i + + + =
2
1 2 1 1 0
e a e a a i + + =
t E t E e
m m c c
e e sin sin
1
+ =
Square law diode modulation (DSBFC)
Derivation:
After expansion, the equation becomes:

Now, using the tuned circuit, select only the frequencies
which are available in AM signal. Thus the output becomes,

( ) { ( ) } t t E E a t E a t E a t E a t E a a i
m c m c m c m m c c m m c c
e e e e e e e e + + + + + + = cos cos sin sin sin sin
2
2
2
2
2 1 1 0
( ) ( ) { } t t E E a t E a i
m c m c m c c c
e e e e e + + = cos cos sin
2 1
Balanced Modulator (DSBSC)
Used for generating DSBSC signal
Block Diagram:






Balanced Modulator (DSBSC)
Derivation:








After tuning the load (tuned circuit) to the desired components
(2
nd
and 3
rd
in the output), DSBSC can be generated
2
2
cv
2
bv a
2
i and
2
1
cv
1
bv a
1
i by given current Assume + + = + + =
( )
m C
v v v Input + =
1
1
( )
m C
v v v Input =
2
2
( ) ( )
) 1 ( 2
2 2
2
1
+ + + + + =
+ + + + =
m c m C m C
m C m C
v cv cv cv bv bv a
v v c v v b a i
( ) ( )
) 2 ( 2
2 2
2
2
+ + + =
+ + =
m c m C m C
m C m C
v cv cv cv bv bv a
v v c v v b a i
| | t V v and t V v If
v cv bv i have we and ng substituti and i i i then
m m m C C C
m C m o o
e e sin sin
4 2 ) 2 ( ) 1 (
2 1
= =
+ = =
( ) ( )( ) ( ) ( ) | |
( ) ( )t cos k t cos k t sin k
t cos t cos V cV
2
4
t sin bV 2 t sin V t sin V c 4 t sin V b 2 i
m C 2 m C 2 m 1
m C m C m C m m m m C C m m o
e e e e e
e e e e e e e e
+ + + =
+ + = + =
Communication Theory
Lecture-6
1) Ring modulator (DSBSC)
2)SSBSC systems
3) VSB systems

Ring modulator (DSBSC)
Used for generating DSBSC signal
Block Diagram & waveforms:


37
Ring Modulator
At positive signal cycle
diode A = carrier + signal current
diode B = open
diode C = open
diode D = carrier - signal current
as A conduct more than D it will produce unbalanced current in the two
windings of output transformer.
Unbalanced current = different magnitude current but opposite in phase
OUTPUT IS AVAILABLE
38
Ring Modulator
At negative signal cycle
as D conduct more than A it will
produce unbalanced current in the
two windings of output transformer
OUTPUT IS AVAILABLE
Carrier current alone will cause balanced current at output transformer
Balanced current = same magnitude current
output =difference between these currents
Hence, carrier is suppressed at the output
At Zero points of the message signal
diode D = carrier + signal current
diode C = open
diode B = open
diode A = carrier signal current
Single sideband suppressed carrier systems
(SSBSC)
Generation of SSBSC signals:






Advantages of SSBSC:
Power saving



Superior detected signal-to-noise ratio compared to that of AM
SSB has one-half the bandwidth of AM or DSB-SC signals
Vestigial Side Band (VSB)
Points to remember:

41
Vestigial-Sideband AM
The stringent-frequency response requirements on the
sideband filter in an SSB-AM system can be relaxed by
allowing vestige, which is a portion of the unwanted sideband,
to appear at the output of the modulator
Thus, we simplify the design of the sideband filter at the cost
of a small increase in the channel bandwidth required to
transmit the signal
The resulting signal is called vestigial-sideband (VSB) AM
This type of modulation is appropriate for signals that have a strong
low-frequency component, such as video signals
That is why this type of modulation is used in standard TV
broadcasting
42
Vestigial-Sideband AM
To generate a VSB-AM signal, we generate a DSB-SC AM
signal and pass it through a sideband filter with the
frequency response H( f ), as shown in below
Generation of vestigial-sideband AM signal.
Communication Theory
Lecture-7
1) Square law detector
2) Envelope detector
Square law detector
Block diagram and waveforms:
Square law detector
Derivation:
The diode characteristic is of the form i(t) = av + bv2 + cv3 + ..., where
Envelope detector
Also called as linear detectors (or) non-coherent detectors
It follows the outer envelope of the input signal.
Block diagram and waveforms:
Envelope detector
Operation:
1) During positive half cycle, capacitor will charge and forms
the output
2) During negative half cycle, capacitor will discharge and
forms the output.
3) Charging rising waveform and discharging -falling
waveform
The rising and falling must be in such a way that the output
closely follows the envelope
5) This rising and falling is based on the values of R and C
which is called as time constant.
6) Proper values of R and C will satisfy this condition .
7) Improper values of R and C leads to negative clipping (or)
diagonal clipping

Envelope detector
Waveforms:




Negative clipping:
If the time constant is either slow (or) fast, the
output may either delay or skip the envelope of the
input.
To avoid this, the time constant must be



( )
2
1
m
w m
m
RC

+
s
Communication Theory
Lecture-8
1) Synchronous detection
Synchronous detection
It is used to retrieve the message signal from the
modulated signal.
It is used for detection only if the two input signals
are in phase.
Used for detecting the AM (DSBFC) signal, DSBSC and
SSBSC signal.
Block diagram:

S
m
(

t

)
S
c
(

t

)
S

(

t

)

Multiplier
Low-pass
filter
S
demod
(

t

)
Synchronous detection
Derivation for AM signal:

( ) ( ) | | ( ) t f t S A t S
c m c
t 2 cos + =
( ) ( ) | | ( ) ( )
( ) | | ( )
( ) | | ( ) | |
( ) ( ) | | ( ) t f t S A A t S
A A
t f t S A A
t f t S A A
t f t f t S A A t S
c m c
c
m
c
c
c m c
c
c m c
c
c c m c
c
demod
t
t
t
t t
4 cos
2
1
2 2
2 2 cos 1
2
1
2 cos
2 cos 2 cos
2
2
+ + + =
+ + =
+ =
+ =
( ) ( ) | | o o 2 cos 1
2
1
cos
2
+ =
( ) ( ) t S
A
t S
m
c
demod
=
2
2
DSBSC detection
Block diagram and derivation (DSBSC)
Multiplier
Low pass
filter
Message signal
DSB-SC
Local oscillator
c(t) = cos e
c
t
t t t m t y
c c
e - e = cos ] cos ) ( [ ) (
t t m t m
t t m t y
c
c
e + =
e + =
2 cos ) ( ) (
] 2 cos 1 [ ) ( ) (
2
1
2
1
2
1
) ( ) (
2
1
t m t v =
Condition:
Local oscillator has the same
frequency and phase as that of the
carrier signal at the transmitter.
SSB-SC - DETECTION
Synchronous detection
Multiplier
Low pass
filter
Message signal
SSB-SC
Local oscillator
c(t) = cos e
c
t
Condition:
Local oscillator has the same
frequency and phase as that of the
carrier signal at the transmitter.
t t
mE
t y
c m c
c
e e e cos ) ( cos
2
) ( - + =
t
mE
t
mE
t y
m c
c
m
c
) 2 ( cos
4
) ( cos
4
) ( e e e + + =
t
ME
t v
m
c
e = cos
4
) (