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P R
SI 100
R =
P R
SI 100
Activity
Ask the students to cut out newspaper advertisements of different banks
offering loans. Pin these up on the classroom soft board and compare the
offers.
ASSOCIATION / RECALL
It is important that students do a lot of mixed worksheets on ratios,
percentages, profit and loss, and simple interest sums. This will help them
sort through the data and apply the right formula to solve the sums.
26
SUGGESTED TIME LIMIT
By taking the activities into account, this topic should not take more than
4 lessons.
Chapter 15 Introduction to Algebra
This is an introductory chapter on algebra which is an important topic
in mathematics. Not only is it a transition from arithmetic, but the
arithmetic is also enhanced with algebraic knowledge.
METHODOLOGY
The fact that in algebra quantities are replaced with letters and symbols,
is an important point. This could be introduced with the help of an
activity where the resources are some fruit.
Example
Take 4 apples and 5 oranges. If we use x to represent apples and y to
represent oranges, and the total number of fruit as z, we can write this in
an algebraic expression as given below:
x + y = z or
4 + 5 = 9
Now if the apples cost Rs 2 each and the oranges Rs 3 each, what would
the total cost z of the fruit be?
2x + 3y = z is the expression for the cost of apples and oranges, where x
and y are known and so the cost of the fruit can be calculated.
KEYWORDS / TERMINOLOGIES
The following terms are introduced in this chapter.
Variables: these represent quantities or objects as mentioned earlier.
Coefficient: this is the number with a variable. It is always placed before
the variable.
Constant: this is a number without a variable.
Terms: a variable, with its coefficient, forms a term. Terms can be like
or unlike.
Algebraic expression: this means the combination of terms and a constant.
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Example
4x + 3y + 7
4 and 3 are coefficients.
x and y are variables.
7 is the constant.
Exercise 15
Give exercises 15.1 and 15.2 to the students before they are introduced
to key algebraic terminologies. Exercise 15.3 should follow as they test
the students comprehension skills.
BACKTRACK
The teacher can give algebraic expressions and ask the students to make
statements.
SUGGESTED TIME LIMIT
This chapter should not need more than 2 lessons.
Chapter 16 Operations Using Algebra
RULES AND LAWS
The first and foremost rule in algebra is that only like terms (having the
same symbols or letters) can be added or subtracted. Unlike terms are
left just as they are.
Example
4xy and 5xy are like terms and can be added: 4xy and 5xy = 9xy
4x and 5y are unlike terms and cannot be added as the variables x and y
are different.
4x
2
and 5x
3
are also unlike terms and cannot be added as the variables,
although the same, have different powers.
Once the students are able to identify like and unlike terms, they can
apply the four operation rules introduced earlier in the number line
chapter.
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ASSOCIATION
Rules for addition and subtraction are the following:
a. + and + = addition with the + sign a + 2a + 6a = 9a
b. and = addition with the sign 6b 4b = 10b
c. + and = subtraction with the sign of the
bigger term 7c 5c = 2c or
7c + 5c = 2c
Please make the student understand that the absence of a minus sign
before a variable means that there is a + sign.
These rules have been introduced earlier using the number line.
Similarly, the brackets are attempted in the sum in the order: ( ), { }, and
[ ]. The vinculum a b +
^ h
, which is a horizontal bar above the term, has
to be attempted before the brackets.
A minus sign before the brackets signifies that the entire term has to be
subtracted from the term before it. In algebra, whenever a term or
expression has to be subtracted, the signs change. So if the sign before a
term is +, it becomes minus and vice versa.
Examples 1 to 5 on pages 104 to 106 and examples 1 and 2 on pages 108
and 109, respectively, should be solved by the teacher on the class
board.
Activity
This chapter cannot be done with materials, so one can make it fun and
interactive by doing a quiz on the board. The class can be divided into 3
to 4 groups and sums solved by the students on the board. By adapting
this method, the teacher will be using peer learning and teaching.
Students tend to grasp concepts quickly while working in groups.
Exercises 16a, 16b, and 16c
These exercises are based on all the rules mentioned above. Additional
reinforcement exercises could be given as homework.
FREQUENTLY MADE MISTAKES
Students often forget to change the signs of the entire expression when
subtracting.
They sometimes forget the order of the brackets thereby completely
changing the expression. Identification of like terms is quite easy until
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powers are introduced. The students should be able to differentiate that
the same powers and not the same coefficients, identify like terms.
SUGGESTED TIME LIMIT
This chapter should take at least 5 to 6 lessons for the students to
understand the topic thoroughly.
Chapter 17 Linear Equations
This chapter finally links algebra to other areas of mathematics. Forming
equations is an important step which is needed in both arithmetic and
geometry.
METHODOLOGY
The students need to understand that in an equation, the left hand side
is equal to the right hand side.
LHS = RHS
Similarly, being able to translate the English language to mathematical
language is important.
Example
Ali is 12 years older than Myra.
If Alis age is represented by x and Myras by y then:
x = 12 + y
In order for the ages of Myra and Ali to be made equal, 12 years was
added to Myras age.
This can also be written as this:
x 12 = y
The 12 on LHS is with a minus sign and on the RHS, it has a + sign.
This example will help the teacher to explain the concept of transposing
in later classes.
Rules
After explaining the concept of balancing equations, the teacher should
summarize the topic with the following rules:
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A + (plus) term transposes to the other side as a (minus) sign term.
A coefficient in the numerator will go on the other side as a
denominator.
All variable terms are always collected on the LHS and the constants
on the RHS.
Example
4x + 6 = 7 (Transposing)
4x + 6 6 = 7 6
4x = 1 (Transposing)
4x
4
1
= 1
4
1
x =
4
1
Answer
Exercise 17
This exercise involves making equations and solving them, and it also
includes word problems related to real-life situations. The students should
not face a problem provided the earlier two stages are done
systematically.
SUGGESTED TIME LIMIT
5 to 6 lessons would be required for this topic.
Chapter 18 Basic Concepts of Geometry
This chapter introduces a very important mathematical concept: the
spatial and geometrical aspects of mathematics. The teacher will be
required to do a lot of hands-on activities in the class with the students.
The first and foremost step would be to introduce the students to the
instruments of the geometry box.
KEYWORDS / TERMINOLOGIES
The terms mentioned in this chapter are line segment, line and ray, plane,
collinear points, point of concurrency, and point of intersection
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METHODOLOGY
In order to introduce the concepts in this chapter, the teacher should
employ hands-on material. Once the concepts are introduced, the teacher
should encourage the students to use geometrical instruments for work
in their exercise books. They should be able to draw diagrams and label
them.
Activity
To explain the difference between a line, a ray, and a line segment, the
teacher can use a thread with knots at each end to represent a line
segment; for a ray, the teacher can hold the thread and tell the students
to observe that it continues indefinitely at the other end. Similarly, a line
can be represented with a knot on one end and the thread going
indefinitely from the other end.
Now moving on to work in the exercise books, the students are asked to
draw lines, rays, and line segments with a ruler and a pencil. The pencil
must be sharp as the end-point has to be the smallest point possible. Tell
the students not to make big dots for end-points.
When introducing planes, ask the students to point out any object
resembling a cube or a cuboid in the classroom. For example, a textbook
can represent a cuboid. Planes are defined as flat surfaces; it may be
pointed out that surfaces can also be curved like that of a cylinder or
a sphere.
LAWS AND PROPERTIES
Proper definitions and properties should be noted in the exercise books
by the students for future use. The properties are written in bold in the
textbook on pages 122, 123, 124, and 125.
Exercise 18
Before doing this exercise, the teacher should ensure that the students
have learnt the definitions and properties well. This can be done by
5-minute pop quizzes before the beginning of each class. Also, reinforce
the importance of making good diagrams as this is the basis of formal
geometry.
32
SUGGESTED TIME LIMIT
Although the concepts are not too many, the students need to be given
enough time to develop new skills of drawing diagrams. 5 to 6 lessons
should be enough to familiarize the students with this chapter.
Chapter 19 Construction of Line Segments
This chapter deals with basic construction of line segments. The
geometrical instruments were introduced in the previous chapter. Recall
the instruments so that the students are able to identify the instruments
by their names.
The handling of these instruments is very important. The teacher should
observe each student and guide them to the correct way of using the
instruments.
Stress should be laid on the fact that the diagrams must be neat, clear,
and well-labelled drawings.
METHODOLOGY
Construction of line segments and adding or subtracting measures of line
segments are the topics explained in this chapter. After attempting the
mentioned skills, congruency of line segments is introduced.
Activity
If we replace the ruler with a measuring tape and ask the students to
measure the dimensions of their classroom desks, it will be an interesting
activity. Give them a scale to start with.
20 cm is equivalent to 1 cm.
The students can then measure the dimensions and convert to the scale
and reproduce a drawing of the rectangular plane of the desks.
This gives a hands-on experience to the students when they can correlate
the concepts learnt, to practical life.
The teacher can then teach the concept of congruency with the two sets
of line segments drawn to form a rectangle. Similarly it can be emphasized
that line segments were used to construct the plane in the above activity
as they had definite measurements and end-points.
33
Exercise 19
This exercise is an extension of the activity on page 32. Please emphasize
the use of correct symbols as there are different symbols for the line
segment, line, and ray.
FREQUENTLY MADE MISTAKES
Students tend to use unsharpened pencils and therefore get their
measurements incorrect by a few millimetres. Remind them to always use
a well-sharpened pencil.
SUGGESTED TIME LIMIT
This chapter should not take more than 4 lessons.
Chapter 20 Angles
Angles have been introduced to the students in earlier classes. The fact
to stress upon now is that two rays form an angle when they meet at a
point. This point of intersection is called the vertex of the angle.
A B
C
Rays AB and AC form an angle. The point of intersection is at A. A is
thus the vertex of BAC.
METHODOLOGY
This chapter deals with the construction and measurement of angles.
Various types of angles are also mentioned.
Activity
It would be interesting if the teacher could engage the students in
identifying angles in different real-life objects.
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Examples
The length and breadth of a table forms right angles.
The upper and lower jaws of a crocodile form an angle when it opens
its mouth to catch its prey.
The door of the classroom when open, forms an angle with its frame.
A pair of scissors when open to cut something, forms an angle.
The leaf stalk, forms an angle with the stem.
Ask the students to make a list of examples they can think of and then
share with the class.
KEYWORDS / TERMINOLOGIES
Acute, obtuse, right, reflex, straight, and complete angles
The teacher should make the students write the correct definitions in
their exercise books.
Pairs of angles: linear, adjacent, complementary, supplementary, and
vertically opposite angles. It is important that students make diagrams to
match these definitions in their exercise books.
FREQUENTLY MADE MISTAKES
Students tend to read the degrees from the wrong end of the protractor,
thus it should be emphasized that the reading should be done from the
side that the ray of the angle lies on. Also, if the students make a mistake
they should immediately be able to identify it. For example, an acute
angle would be drawn as an obtuse angle or the other way around.
Exercises 20a, 20b, 20c
All these exercises need to be done one at a time, with the teacher
explaining the requirements carefully. This might be a relatively easy
concept to teach, but it is important that students develop construction
skills as early as possible.
SUGGESTED TIME LIMIT
Each exercise should take at least 2 lessons. Supplementary exercises
could be given for homework as some students may be slow in
construction and therefore practice would help them.
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Chapter 21 Triangles
ASSOCIATION
This chapter is a continuation of the earlier chapters. The students should
be able to easily follow this concept after completing the topics of line
segments and angles.
METHODOLOGY
The teacher should highlight the definition of a triangle and its parts, e.g.
3 line segments and 3 angles. There are three types of triangles according
to the length of the sides, and three according to the measurement of the
angles.
KEYWORDS / TERMINOLOGIES
Scalene, isosceles, and equilateral angles are classified according to the
length of the sides. Acute, right, and obtuse-angled triangles are classified
according to measurement of the angles. Exterior and opposite-interior
angles are terminologies that the students not only have to be well-versed
with, but also be able to identify them.
Activity
An interesting activity for students would be to ask them to make cut-
outs of the 6 types of triangles from a graph paper and paste these in their
exercise books.
The property, that the sum of the angles of a triangle equals 180, can be
proved by simply asking the students to take a triangle and cut out its
end-vertices and paste them on a line; they will clearly form a 180
angle.
80
50 50
Cut here.
36
80
50 50
They can repeat this activity with the second property; the exterior angles
equal the sum of the two opposite-interior angles. The exterior angle can
be cut out and then the two interior angles pasted on top of it. When the
students observe these properties practically they are able to understand
them better.
Similarly, the triangle-inequality property can also be done practically
and easily verified by the students. They can measure any two sides and
prove them to be larger than the third side. This property can be extended
by pointing out that the longer side is always across the larger angle and
vice versa.
C
10 cm
A B
6 cm 5 cm
Exercise 21a
This exercise deals with the different types of triangles and their
properties. Exercises 21a.4 and 21a.5 are interesting as they deal with
composite shapes.
The teacher should not help the students on these two questions and let
them take their time in identifying them. Generally, the smarter students
are quick to identify the triangles, thus robbing the other students of
discovering it themselves.
Exercise 21b
This exercise involves recall of the concept of ratio as the angles in
exercises 21b.5 and 21b.6 are given in the form of ratios. It may be
suggested that the students are given extra practice by drawing triangles
on the board and engaging them in oral class quizzes.
37
SUGGESTED TIME LIMIT
This chapter has a lot of properties related to triangles and many
relevant hands-on activities. The teacher should spend at least 4 lessons
on this chapter.
Chapter 22 Circles
This is a relatively easier chapter than the previous one. The students
must learn the parts of a circle, and how to construct it, using a
compass.
METHODOLOGY
The steps given for the construction of a circle are relatively simple. The
teacher should make sure that the students hold the compass by its tip
and not its arms. The terminologies of the parts of the circle could be
new for the students. They could create a section of keywords in their
exercise books for easy reference.
KEYWORDS / TERMINOLOGIES
Parts of a circle are simple to understand and the difference between a
chord, diameter, and radius should be explained well. A radius touches
the circumference of the circle only at one point whereas a diameter does
so at the two opposite ends. An arc is a portion of the circumference of
a circle between any two points.
diameter
chord
radius
A
B C
D E
F
Radius touches the circle at F.
Chord touches the circle at B and C.
Diameter touches the circle at D and E.
Arc is between the points B and D, C
and E, E and F, etc.
arc
The radius and diameter are constant values as the radius is the measure
from the centre to the circumference of the circle whereas the diameter
is the measure of the circle across. The chord touches the circumference
at any two points but does not pass through the centre.
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A semicircle is half a circle formed by a diameter, and a quadrant is
quarter of a circle formed by two radii. An arc and two radii form major
or minor sectors. The sectors are a certain fractional value of the entire
circle.
The circumference of a circle is actually its perimeter and the circular
measure of its boundary.
semicircle
quadrant
sector
Exercise 22a
This exercise should be done in the exercise books in class. Supplementary
work must be given for homework.
Exercise 22b
This exercise deals with the bisection of a line segment, angle, and
perpendicular lines. Steps of construction given in the textbook should
be followed by the students though they need not write them after every
construction. They can copy it once in their exercise books.
SUGGESTED TIME LIMIT
This chapter can be covered in 4 lessons.
Chapter 23 Mensuration: Area
This chapter is a transition from one-dimensional figures to two- and
three- dimensional figures. The teacher must help the students make a
shift from geometry to mensuration. The chapter deals with the
concept of measurement of shapes.
39
EQUATIONS / RULES
This chapter deals with the area of squares and rectangles.
Area = length breadth
A = L B
Similarly, the area of square is
Area = Side Side
A = S S
A = S
2
These formulae are quite simple and once the students learn them, they
can manipulate them easily to find various unknown quantities.
Example
L =
B
A
Activity
Area of irregular shapes does not have a formula; instead, a graph paper
is used to count the squares to get the area. An interesting activity could
be to ask the students to create shapes of given areas. They can be asked
to make irregular polygons etc.
Assign objects present in the classroom to groups of students. They
measure the dimensions in centimetres with a measuring tape and note
the values and find the area of each object; the objects can be anything
like tables, blackboard, chairs, etc.
Ask the students to find the area of all the faces of the object and find
the total surface area. This activity will also lead to advanced concepts to
be taught in higher classes.
Exercise 23a and 23b
Exercise 23a.1 can be done in the textbook; the remaining questions are
to be done in the exercise books.
The conversion table on page 163 is a must for the students to learn. The
teacher has to make sure that the students write this in their exercise
books and learn it by heart.
The length and breadth of a square or a rectangle should be in the same
units for any formula to work.
40
Example
Find the area of a rectangle with the following dimensions:
Length 5 cm; breadth 2 m
We cannot put different units into the formula; we must first covert m
into cm.
Therefore breadth = 2 100 = 200 cm
A = LB
A = 5 200 = 1000 cm
2
AREA OF BORDERS
This concept extends the concept of area. If we have to find the border
area, we have to find the external and the internal area.
Area of the border = external Area internal Area
The external area is found by using the outer dimensions and the internal
area is found by using the inner dimensions.
Exercise 23c
Help the students complete these exercises.
SUGGESTED TIME LIMIT
This chapter should take at least 6 lessons. It lays the foundation to major
mensuration concepts. Students generally find this topic difficult to
understand in the later classes; therefore it is important that they are able
to visualize the spatial concept well.
Chapter 24 Mensuration: Volume
This chapter deals with the concept of the volume of cubes and cuboids.
METHODOLOGY
Before giving the formulae to the students, the teacher should make the
students feel the dimensions of the cubes and cuboids and identify the
edges, faces, and vertices of the objects. This will then lead to the length
and breadth of the cubes and cuboids. The difference between a
2-dimensional and 3-dimensional figure is the height. The moment a
rectangular / square face acquires depth or height it becomes a
3-dimensional figure.
41
All 3-dimensional figures occupy space. Cubes and cuboids can be
brought to the class to show that they can be both, solid or hollow. The
hollow space can be used to hold any other material like water or salt and
can be used as containers.
L
B
H
L
B
H
Cube
Te length, breadth, and
height are all equal
L = B = H
Cuboid
Length, breadth, and
height are not equal
L B H
CONCEPT LIST
The conversion table on page 173 is important and the students should
learn it and also the conversion of cubic metres to litres:
1 cubic metre = 1000 litres
1 litre = 1000 cubic centimetre.
Volume of a cuboid = length breadth height
Total surface area of a cuboid = 2 LB + 2 BH + 2 LH
Volume of a cube = L B H
Since all dimensions of a cube are uniform, breadth and height are
replaced with length.
Therefore, volume of a cube = L
3
Total surface area of a cube = 6L
2
Activity
The identification of dimensions is very important as the students need
to substitute the values in the formulae. The best way to ensure that the
students understand this is to make net diagrams of cube and cuboid.
The teacher should make the net diagrams on a worksheet and ask the
students to cut and fold them to form the shapes.
42
Cube (Net diagram)
Since all sides are equal,
the faces are all equal in
area and dimensions.
Cuboid (Net diagram)
Since dimensions are dierent,
2 faces each are the same in area
and dimensions.
Exercise 24
This exercise is quite easy as it tests the students knowledge of the
formulae and substitution of the values in the formula.
FREQUENTLY MADE MISTAKES
The teacher should ensure that the students do the correct conversions
of units and then put the values in.
Example
If the volume is in litres, it should first be changed to cm
3
. The students tend
to put in the centimetre value with it, which of course tends to go wrong.
SUGGESTED TIME LIMIT
The formulae given in this chapter must be taught one at a time and the
lesson should not take more than six lessons.
Chapter 25 Graphs
This chapter takes the students to a separate branch of mathematics called
Statistics. It deals with the collection, organization, and interpretation of
data.
43
METHODOLOGY
At this level the students need not know the different ways of data
collection. The text in the book restricts itself to pictograms and bar
graphs. This chapter is more fun and play than mathematical
calculations.
CONCEPT LIST
The students should be explained what pictograms and bar graphs are,
and how to represent information on a scale. Symbols are important while
representing data on a pictograph.
Example
Suppose there is a data about 500 cars. You would not draw 500 cars.
Instead, a single car drawn can represent 500 cars. Half a car drawn would
be 250 cars. If two and a half cars are drawn, it would mean 1250 cars.
Bar graphs can be both horizontal and vertical. Again the concept of scale
is important. A better way of explaining scale would be to link it with
RATE. If 2 writing tables cost Rs 5000, then one writing table would cost
Rs 2500. A centimetre in a bar graph can represent a grading of Rs 2500.
7500
5000
2500
1 2 3
Number of writing tables
A
m
o
u
n
t
i
n
R
s
The key point that should be stressed is that the bars are always of equal
width and the gaps between them are also uniform.
Exercise 25
At this level, the students should only be tested on their ability to
understand graphs, and Exercise 25 serves this purpose.
44
Activity
The teacher could measure the heights of a group of students and then
represent the findings on a bar graph on the board. Other groups should
then be formed, given different sets of data and each asked to draw a bar
graph collectively on a chart paper.
The teacher should give the students a home assignment of finding out
the weights of their family members representing this on a bar graph in
their exercise books.
SUGGESTED TIME LIMIT
This chapter can be completed in 3 lessons but the teacher should extend
this chapter to a week so as to allow enough practice and also to begin
the revision work simultaneously.