[ , ]

. .

2004

 22.15
515.14
70

70

( 02-01-14081).

. .
.
.: , 2004. 352 c. ISBN 5-94057-072-0
, , .
,
- ,
,
.
, . .
,
( ) ,
.
.
.
.
. 150. . 149 .
22.15

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: . .

: . .

01335 24.03.2000 . 5.04.2004 .

60 90 1/16. . . . . 22. 1000 .


119002, , ., 11. . 241-05-00.
.
119099, , ., 6.
,
., . 11 . 241-72-85. E-mail: biblio@mccme.ru

ISBN 5-94057-072-0

. . , 2004.
, 2004.


. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
I. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1. . .
1.1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.2. . . .
1.3.
1.4. k- . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.5. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2. . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.1. . . . . . . . .
2.2. 1- . . . . . . .
2.3. . . . . .
3. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.1. . . . . . . . . . . .
3.2. . . . . . . . .
3.3. . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.4. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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II. . . . . . . . . .
4. . . . . . . . .
4.1. . . . . . . . . . . .
4.2. . . . . . . .
4.3. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.4. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.2. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.3. ,
6. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.2. . .
6.3. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.4. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

17
17
17
27
30
32
35
41
41
46
51
57
59
61
62
64
66
66
66
67
70
73
75
75
78
81
83
83
88
91
96

III. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
7. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98

7.1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.2. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.3. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.4. . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.1. . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.2. . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.3. . . . . . . .
8.4. . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.5. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.6. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.7. . . .
8.8. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.9. . .
9. CW - . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9.1. . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9.2. CW - . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9.3. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9.4. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9.5. CW - . . . . .
10. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10.1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10.2. , . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10.3. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10.4. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
IV. . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11.1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11.2.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11.3.
11.4. . . . . . . .
12. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
12.1. . .
12.2. . . . . . . . . . . . .
12.3. . . . . . . . . . . . .

98
102
104
106
112
113
114
115
117
122
123
125
128
130
132
132
134
138
142
144
145
145
146
147
151
154
154
154
156
161
164
164
165
166
168


12.4. . . . . . . . . .
13. .
13.1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
13.2. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
13.3. . . . . . . . . . .
14. . . . . . . . . .
14.1. . . . . . . . . . .
14.2. . . . . . . . . . . . .
14.3. . .
14.4. . .
14.5. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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171
173
173
175
177
178
178
183
185
190
193

V. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
15. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
15.1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
15.2. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
15.3. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
15.4. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
15.5. : . . . . . . .
16. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
16.1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
16.2. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
16.3. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
16.4. . . . .
17. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
17.1. . . . . . . . . . .
17.2. . . . . . . . .
17.3. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
17.4. . . . . . . . .
17.5. . . . . . . . . . .
18. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
18.1. . . . . . . . . . . . . .
18.2. . . . . . . . . .
18.3. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
18.4. . . . . . .
18.5. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
18.6.
19. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
19.1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
19.2. .
19.3. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

197
197
198
201
204
205
210
217
220
221
224
224
227
228
230
233
236
239
241
241
246
253
255
257
259
261
261
267
273

VI. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
20. CW - . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
20.1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
20.2. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
20.3. SO(n) . . .
21. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
21.1. . . . . . . . . . . . . .
21.2. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
21.3. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
21.4. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
22.
22.1. . . . . .
22.2. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
22.3. . . . . . . . . . .

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282
282
282
284
288
292
292
294
298
302
304
305
308
314

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 316
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 338
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 345


X Y X Y ;
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int A A;
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Kn n ;
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n n- ;
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P 2 ;
T 2 ;
S 2 # nP 2 nP 2 n ;
S 2 # nT 2 nT 2 n ( n );
K 2 ;
kx yk x, y Rn ;
kvk v Rn ;
d(x, y) x, y;
inf ;
X t Y X Y ( X Y );
supp f = {x | f(x) 6= 0} f ;
X Y X Y ;
SPn (X) X;
f : (X, Y) (X1 , Y1) , Y X Y1 X1 ;
1 (X, x0) X
x0 X;

n (X, x0) n- X x0 X;
deg f f ;
rank f(x) f x;
G(n, k) ;
GLk (R) k
;
U(n) n;
SU(n) n 1;
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SO(n) n 1;
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TMn ;
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16





. 1.

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18

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20

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 1.

21

1.3. K3,3 K5 .
. K3,3
, x1 x2 x3 x4 x5 x6 ,
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(. [91]).
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22

I.

. 6. K3,2

, , K3,3 K5 .
G .
1. G xy. x y ( ) G x y,
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G/xy

. 7. G K3,3 K5

 1.

23

G 0 . , G 0
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.
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24

I.



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 1.

25






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yu,
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.

26

I.

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x y, x y.
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2
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 1.

27

4 6 . G 3
4 6. G 10
K5 , 6 . G
6 , , . 12.
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H.
2

1.2.

( ) : v , e f , v e + f = 2. , ,
:
, , .

. , .

28

I.

1.6 ( ). G ,
s , . , , v G, e
. G
f , , f = 1 + s v + e.
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1 . ,
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.
2
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n. n 6 5 . , ,
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5 , ,
.

 1.

29

, G ,
5. v, 5.
G, v,
, G K5 . v1 v2 G, v .
G 0 , G v . G 00 ,
G 0 , v1 v2 .
v1 v vv2 , G 00 . , G 00 .
G 000 , n 2. 5 . G 0 ,
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v ,
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([27] [29])
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30

I.
P
i

(4 i)vi +

P
j

(4 j) f j = 4(1 + s) > 8, s

G.
P
P
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P ). ,
P
f j = f . ,
vi = v
i

X
i

(4 i)vi +

X
j

(4 j) f j = 4v 2e + 4f 2e =

= 4(v e + f) = 4(1 + s),

s G.
2
. 4-, 3v1 + 2v2 + v3 > 8.
.
1.9. , n(v 2)

n , e 6
.
n2
. nv ne + nf > 2n 2e > nf .
2
1.5. 1.9,
K5 K3,3 .

1.3.

.
. , , . ,
(t, t 2 , t 3), , , . , t1 , t2 , t3 , t4
,


1 t1 t12 t13 



2
3
1 1 t2 t2 t2 

 6= 0;
6 1 t3 t32 t33 


1 t4 t 2 t 3 
4

, .
R3 K6 ,
, . K6
C1 , -

 1.

31

, C2 , .
R3 K6 (C1 , C2)
2 , C1
C2 . , (C1 , C2) = lk(C1 , C2) (mod 2), lk . , (C1 , C2) = (C2 , C1) (

[17]).
P

(K
)
=

(C
,
C
i
j),
6
 

1
2

6
3

= 10

.
1.10 ([116] [48]). K6
(K6) 1 (mod 2). ,
.
. K6
R3 , ,
(. 13).
K6 R3 ,
, . 14.
, (K6)
ei e j . (C p , Cq)
, ei C p e j Cq
( e j C p ei Cq). - . 13. K6
C p Cq ,
ei e j , ,
ei e j .
ei e j : ei ,
ei e j . ,
P
lk(Ci , C j) ,

. 14. ( )

32

I.




. 15. K6

P
2. (K6) = lk(Ci , C j) (mod 2)
K6 .
2
1. R3
.
(. [89]). K6 ,
. 15.
134 256
. , , . ,
. Ci C j
, (Ci , C j) = 0. 134 256 . 2
2. RP 2
R3 .
. R3
D 2 . .
C S 1 = D 2 , C D 2 ,
.
2

1.4.

k-

, x y,
, ,
x y.
k-) , k + 1
k .
1.11 ( ). G, k + 1 , k- ,
)

 1.

33

k 1 (
) .
(. [100]). , , p(G, x, y)
x y, q(G, x, y) , x y , x y ,
p(G, x, y) = q(G, x, y).
p(G, x, y) > q(G, x, y) .
, 1 , . . . , p x y; x1 , . . . , xq
( x y), x y
. 1 , . . . , p ,
x1 , . . . , xq .
, x y x1 , . . . , xq ,
p > q.
, G ,
p(G, x, y) = q(G, x, y). p =
= p(G, x, y) < q(G, x, y) = q. G , xy. , G , A = G/ , G
G , G
A
. G G
G, A x, y) = q(G,
A x, y), ,
p(G, x, y) = q(G, x, y) p(G,
A x, y) < q.
q(G, x, y) = p(G, x, y) 6 p(G, x, y) = p < q; q(G,
A
, G G I J ,
x y q .
J J G, x y.
|J| 6 |J | + 1 |J| > q. , |J| = |J| + 1. ,
J.
Hx z I J, G
x z, I J; Hy
. x y G
J, , ,
I J. Hx ,
Hy . Hx Hy
x y G, , |Hx | > q |Hy | > q.
z Hx Hy . G x z z y, I J, z.
x y.
I J, , z. ,
, ,

34

I.

J. , G ,
, I.
z. , J;
z. , z I J, . . Hx Hy I J.

|Hx | + |Hy | = |Hx Hy | + |Hx Hy | 6 |I J| + |I J| = |I| + |J|,

, |Hx | > q, |Hy | > q, |I| < q |J| = q. 2

. G1 G2 k-
. |G1 G2 | > k, G1 G2 k-.
.
k 1 G1 G2 G1 G2
. G1 G2 ,
, G1 G2 . 2
n- , n- .
n-,
() Rn .
1.12 ( [31]). n-
n-.
. P n Rn , . , A1 , . . . , An1 ,
. V , A1 , . . . , An1 . .
1. V P n .
V P n = F1k P n . H1
P n , F1k , H2
, H1 , F2l = P n H2 . A P n , A1 , . . . , An1 , A
H1 ,
H2 , , ,
A1 , . . . , An1 .
B F2l = P n H2 . , F2l
.
2. V P n .
V n 2. H, V
An P n , V . H1 H2

 1.

35

P n , H.
, 1, , A,
A1 , . . . , An1 , An ,
A1 , . . . , An1 .
H1
H2 . ,
An ,
, An .
2

1.5.

( ) 3- ( 1.12 . 34). , , :
. , 3-
, , .
1.13 ( [123]). )
, 3- .
(. [35]). , 3- , 4
( 1.11 . 32). 3-
, ,
3- n n 3/2 . , 3- K4 ,
.
3- . : K4 ,
6 . :
1) 3- G,
6 , 3- G 0 .
2) P 0 ,
G 0 , P,
G.
G e.
e . G e, ,
)

, , .

36

I.

. 16. e

2,
, . . ,
(. 16).
, :
.
1. 3- G, 6, e, , 3-
G 0 .
, ,
. 3- ,
1.
= {0 , . . . , n } G. G 1- G ,
. G
G, i ,
G, i .
G i ,
G .
. G 3- .
{0 , . . . , n }, (k) = {0 , . . . , k }, 1 6 k 6 n,
:
1) G(k) 3- ;
2) G(1) = K4 ;
3) G(n) = G;
4) k = 1, . . . , n 1 k+1 G(k) , k+1 .
. {i } G
. , 3- G , K4 . x y
G. 1 , 2 3 x
y. .

 1.

37

2 3 z2 z3 ,
x y. x y ,
z2 z3 , x y.
2 3 , ,
2 3 v 2 w 3 . x, y, v, w , 1 , 2 , 3
, K4 .
G, K4 , T , G.
x, y, v, w . 0 vw,
1 vxwy. G(1) = K4 .
, 0 , . . . , k G(k) 6= G.
:
) z G,
G(k) , G(k) ;
) ) , z G(k) ,
G, G(k) .
, G , G G(k) , G,
G(k) , .
) e G(k) , z.
z1 z2 e, z 0 G(k) ,
z1 z2 . 3- G , z
z 0 , z1 z2 . G
e (
) G(k) , G(k) , . k+1 ,
G.
) G(k) G. G , z
G(k) G(k) .
0 , . . . , k ,
G. z G,
z. k+1 ,
G.
) ;
3- .
) u ,
u v
uv. ,

38

I.












. 17.

, u v, . u ,
u. 3-
2- .
3-.
, k+1 ,
.
2
1 .
{0 , . . . , n } 3- G,
6 . K4 , n > 1. G
2, n G.
3- G(n1) ,
.
2

P 0 , G 0 , P, G. G , . 17.
; .
, F1 F2 ,
( P 0 , P ).
:
n- , n > 4, ,
. ,
, . 18, F1 ,

 1.

39





. 18. F1 F2

F2 , ,
A B. , ,
A B. ,
,
, .
,
, F1 , F2 , c, d
) . ,
,
F1 F2 , ,
, . ,
. p < 3 , 3 p
.
2. 3-
G ,
.
, ,
, .
, G
h G G,
h , G. G
, (. 19).
) ( ); A
F , A F .

40

I.

h
. 19. G

h , G

. h
k1 , k2 , k3 k4 , G.
h
G 4-,
h
1.8 (. . 30). , G
8 3 ( 1 2 ,
h 3,
, ). , G
k1 , k2 , k3 k4 .
kn ( n
h K(n) , G
h
G).
kn .
, kn , kn1 , . . . , km ,
, K(n), K(n 1), . . . , K(m). m > 5,
km1 K(m 1).
k1 , k2 , k3 k4 , .
, 2.
K(m) 1,
km1 .
K(m) 2, .
1. K(m) ,
k1 , k2 , k3 k4 , .
K(m) k1 , k2 , k3 k4 .
1.8

 2.

41

3.
km1 .
2. K(m) k1 , k2 ,
k3 k4 ki , i > 5.
k1 , k2 , k3 k4
3, 2v2 + v3 7.
, , K(m) 3,
k1 , k2 , k3 k4 . km1 .
K(m 1) K(m) km1 .
2

2.

2.1.

(1- )
, .
f0 , f1 : X Y , F : X [0, 1] Y , F(x, 0) =
= f0 (x) F(x, 1) = f1 (x). , f0 f1
ft : X Y , 0 6 t 6 1,
t.
, f0 f1 . f0 f1 f0 ' f1 .
, . , f ' g g ' h, f ' h,
( 0.1
. 14).
2.1. ) f , g : GL(n, R) GL(n, R)
GL(2n, R)




AB 0
A 0
.
, g(A, B) =
f(A, B) =
0 1
0 B
, f ' g.
, , .
) , m n,
: Rmn ( Cmn ,
) .

42

I.

X Y
,
f : X Y g : Y X, f g g f Y X, .
X Y X Y .
, .
1. , Rn .
X ,
x0 x1 , . .
f I = [0, 1] X, f(0) = x0
f(1) = x1 .
2. ,
.
2.2. , : )
n ; ) SO(n),
n 1;



) U(n),
n;
) SU(n),
n
1.

X Y , , x0 X
x1 Y ,

X Y = X Y/{x0 , y0 },

X Y . , X Y
. 20.
x0 y0 . -
X Y X Y ,
(x, y), x = x0 y = y0 .
X1 , . . . , Xn x1 , . . . , xn
X1 . . . Xn = X1 . . . Xn /{x1 , . . . , xn }. n
. 20.
2.1. 1-
.

 2.

43

. , A 1- X . A ,
, ft : A A, f0 = idA
f1 : A A. , X X/A .
ft : A A
Ft : X X, F0 = idX . ,
(A I) (X {0}) X I
X I.
. B
A. B I; . 21
, - . 21. .
, P,
(
). ( ) B
A, ( )
.
, A B, . .
p : X X/A . F1 : F1 (A) = A. () q : X/A A, F1 = q p. X X/A , q p idX p q idX/A . Ft F1 = q p F0 = idX . Ft (A) A
t, p Ft = qt p, qt ,
q0 = idX/A q1 = p q.
1- X 1-
X/A 1- , .
.
2
, 1- , n0
n1 , n1 n0 + 1
. , , . .
, .
P0 Sn , n = 1, 2, . . . ,
, P0
n .

44

I.

Sn+1 Sn ,
(. 22). .
n0 1 , .
1- n1 n0 + 1
, . . n1 n0 + 1 .
X x0
1 (X, x0).
X x0 , . . f : I X
I = [0, 1] , f(0) = f(1) = x0 .
1 (X, x0) .
(
f1 (2t)
0 6 t 6 1/2,
f1 f2 (t) =
f2 (2t 1) 1/2 6 t 6 1.
,
f1 ,
f2 .
, f : I x0 . ,
f(t), , g(t) = f(1 t).
,

x0
0 6 t 6 s/2,

f(2t s)
s/2 6 t 6 1/2,
Fs (t) =

f(2 2t s) 1/2 6 t 6 1 s/2,

x0
1 s/2 6 t 6 1
(. 23) F0 = fg F1 : I x0 .






. 22.

 2.

45




























. 23.







. 24.

. 24 ,
f1 (f2 f3) (f1 f2) f3 .
X x1 x2 ; f
x1 . 1 f x2 .
, f 7 1 f
1 (X, x1) 1 (X, x2).
, 1 1 (X, x1). , 1 f 1 f , f( 1) ( 1) f .
X ,
1 (X, x0) = 0 x0 X; 1 (X, x1) = 0
x1 X.
f : X Y f : 1 (X, x0) 1 (Y , y0), y0 = f(x0). , (t), ,  

f( (t)). , (fg) = f g .
2.2. ft ,
f0 , f1 : X Y .

(f1) : 1 (X, x0) 1 (Y , f1 (x0)) 

(f0) : 1 (X, x0) 1 (Y , f0 (x0))
1 (Y , f0 (x0)) 1 (Y , f1 (x0)),


(t) = ft (x0),
f0 (x0) f1 (x0).
. h
. 25.
X
x0 . , f1 (h(t)) 1 f0 (h(t))
. F : I I Y ,

46

I.

F(s, t) = fs (h(t)). , . 25,

, f1 h 1 (f0 h). 2
2.3. .
. , X Y .
f : X Y g : Y X, fg idY
gf idX . 2.2 g f : 1 (X, x0)
1 (X, gf(x0)) f g : 1 (Y , y0) 1 (Y , fg(y0)) , . . .

f (1)

f (2)

1 (Y , fgf(x0)).
1 (X, x0)
1 (Y , f(x0)) 1 (X, gf(x0))

(1)

(2)

( f f
, f .)
(1)
g f , g . f(2) g , g . , g .
2
2.1 2.3 , 1-
. , 1- , n0 n1 , n1 n0 + 1 .

2.2.

1-

Xh X (, 1- ). p : Xh X
h = X x X , p(X)
U, p 1 (U) U D,
D , p
p 1 (U) U D U (. 26).
Xh , X
. D n ,
, n-. x0 X
x0 . n- n .
2.3. ) Kn n , p : Kn
G . ,
.

 2.

h

47

 

. 26. 1-



. 27.

. 28.

) , p : Kn G
.
1- .
R 1-
. exp: R S 1 ,
t R exp(2it) S 1 ,
(. 27).
h p(h
(t) X h (t) X,
(t)) =
1
= (t) t. x0 (t), x 1 p (x0), (t) x 1 . exp ,
(. 28). p : Xh X p : 1 (Xh , x 0) 1 (X, x0), x0 = p(x 0). (t)
h x 0) 1 (X, x0)
X x0 p 1 (X,
, x 0 . x 1 x0 , h x 1) .
G0 = p 1 (Xh , x 0) G1 = p 1 (X,
1
h
, G1 = G0 , X,

x0 x1 . G0 G1 , x 0 ,
x 1 . ,
x0
x0 . -

48

I.

x0 , x0 ,
,
1 G0 = G0 1 (X, x0), . .
p 1 (Xh , x 0) 1 (X, x0).
p .
. 29. -
. 30.

h x 0) 1 (X, x0). ,
p : 1 (X,
p . , h0 h1 x 0
. 29. - 0 1 ,
h0 h1 . s (t) ,

0 1 . t = t0 (s, t0) = s (t0), 0 (t0)
1 (t0).
h (s, t0) h0 (t0)
(. 31).

. 30.

h (s, t) h , 1 ,
( ) h x 0 . h h1 ,
, hs (t) =
h (s, t) , h0 h1 .
h x 0) 1 (X, x0) =

H = p 1 (X,

= G Hgi , gi G. Hg1 Hg2 h
h  , g g 1 H, ,



1 2

 h
1
g
g

6
H.

1
2


Hgi p 1 (x0) .
 


 

, p 1 (x0)
, , x 0 .
. 31.
X x0

x 0 .
G p 1 (x0). ,

 2.

49

p 1 (x0). h1 h2 x 0 1 2 .
h1 h2 ,
h1 h21 x0 , . . h1 h21 H. ,
G p 1 (x0)
p 1 (x0). , x 1 p 1 (x0) 1 (X, x0), Xh
x 0 x 1 ; X
x0 . , .
2.4. p : Xh X p(x 0) = x0 , h x 0) p 1 (x0).
1 (X, x0) / p 1 (X,

. ,
Hg Hg 1 , g G
HgHg 1 = H, . . gHg 1 = H. , H G, . . p . , H
, Hg1 Hg2 = Hg1 g2 , g1 H = Hg1 .
, p , G/H, p 1 (x0), . ,
x 0 p 1 (x0), p 1 (x0) . , 1 (X, x0) / p 1 (Xh , x 0). ,
G/H p 1 (x0) Aut(p):
G/H Aut(p) p 1 (x0).
Aut(p) p, .
f : Xh Xh
h y = f(x),
= p(x)
x X.
p(y)
=
p : Xh X, p(f(x))
= p(x),

= p(f(x))
.
2.5. .
. , p : Xh X h
f : Xh X,
x0 Xh x 1 Xh . y 0 Xh . h0 , x 0 y 0 . = ph
0
h0 , h1 x 1 . f h0 h1 , , f(y 0) = y 1 . ,

50

I.

f . , f ,
x 0 x 1 , ,
y 1 y 0 , . .
x 1 x 0
.
2
3. , ,
. 29, .
2.6. ) p : Xh X , Aut(p)
p 1 (x0), . . .
) p : Xh X Aut(p) 1 (X, x0) / p 1 (Xh , x 0).
. ) p x 1 , x 2
p 1 (x0). g Aut(p), x 1 x 2 .
y 1 Xh ; h1 x 1 y 1 ;
= ph
; h2 x 2 . g(y 1) = y 2 , y 2 h2 . g
, . . y 2 h1 . , p , h1 h10
, p(h
1 h10 )
.
, Aut(p)
p 1 (x0).
x 1 p 1 (x0) g , x 1 x 2 . g
p x 2 . , g .
) X x0 , [] 1 (X, x0)
, . []
g p. x 0 p 1 (x0) , y 0 Xh . x 0 y 0
h = ph
. g (y 0) = y 1 , y 1
x 0 .
h x 0).
1 (X, x0) Aut(p) 1 (X,
. , x i
p 1 (x0) i ,
x 0 x i . i , x 0 x i .
, x 0 x i , .
2
h = 0,
1. p : Xh X 1 (X)
Aut(p)
= 1 (X).
2. p : Xh X A =
= Aut(p), X = Xh /A p : Xh Xh /A.

 2.

51

2.4. , f : S 1 S 1
, f f = f1 f2 ,
f1 : R S 1 f2 : S 1 R.

2.3.

1- . S 1 .
2.7. 1 (S 1) = Z.
.
p : R S 1 , t R exp(it) S 1 .
R , 1 (R) = 0. 1 2.6 , 1 (S 1)
p.
g Aut(p) 0 R. , g(0) = 2n g , n g Z.
g(t) = t + 2n g , , hg(t) = t + 2 (nh + n g). ,
Aut(p)
= Z. n t 7 t + 2n,
, n S 1 .
2
, 1-
(. . 46).
. , n Fn a1 , . . . , an , , . . Fn ai11 . . . aikk ,
l = 1, , ( , ai a
i ).
2.8. n n .
. 1 , . . . , n G =
n
W
= 1 ( Si1),
i=1

S11 , . . . , Sn1 . , 1 , . . . , n G. , .
,
i11 . . . ikk .
n
W
Tn
Si1
i=1

Tn ; n = 2

52

I.

. 32.

Tn . 32. Tn ,
i11 . . . ikk
.
2
4. i11 . . . ikk
k- ,
.
h x 0) 1 (X, x0)
p : Xh X , p : 1 (X,
(. . 48). , Xh X. , .
2.9. X 1- G = 1 (X, x0).
H G p : Xh X,
h x 0) = H.
p 1 (X,
. 1 2
x0 , 1 21
H. U , H, U1 = U, . . . , Ui , . . .
. Xi X. X T ;
Xi Ti . Ti , Xi

 2.

53





















. 33.

. s X,
T ; s 1 (X, x0).
Ui s = U j , si Ai Bi s j
A j B j Ai B j A j Bi (. 33).
h
Xi X,
h
h x 0) = H.
p : X X. , Xh p 1 (X,
h
X ,
Ui U j i j , Ui i j = U j . ,
p 1 (Xh , x 0) = H. x 0 X1 . e1 . . . en , e1 , . . . , en X, h x 0)
p 1 (X,
, x 0 . ,
( x 0) e1 . . . en , Ue1 . . . en . ,
Ue1 . . . en = U, . . e1 . . . en H. 2
G = 1 (X, x0) : . , X, :
.
.
2.10. X 1- , G = 1 (X, x0).
, , pi : Xhi X (i = 1, 2) ,
Hi G ( Hi = (pi) 1 (Xhi , x i) pi (x i) = x0).
p : Xh1 Xh2 , p(x 1) = x 2 p2 p = p1 ,
, H1 H2 .
. p1 = p2 p, (p1)
(p2) , . . H1 H2 . , H1 H2 . y 1 Xh1 , h1 x 1
y 1 , = p1 h1 h1 . p(y 1) = y 2 , y 2
x 2 . p
, :
h1 , h2 . , -

54

I.

H1 , H2 . ,
p .
2
. H1 = H2 , 1- Xh1 Xh2
.
. p

H2 /H1 . H1 = H2 , p . 2
H1 = 0, Xh1 , X. ; p : Xh1 X . 1- .
1- ; .
R = {r1 , . . . , rm }
Fn a1 , . . . , an ; N , R, . . , R. G = Fn /N , a1 , . . . , an r1 , . . . , rm .
2.11. G , n
m . n , G.
. n Fn . 2.9 N Fn ,
N. N , .
Fn /N = G. 2
2.5. : ) Z; ) Zn ; ) Z Z;
) Z2 Z3 .
1- . .
2.6. ) , G .
) , H G
[G : H] = k < , rk H = (rk G 1)k + 1.
2.7. , 2
n (
).

 2.

55

G (
) R(G), . , G V1 , . . . , Vn , v Vi ( j = 1, . . . , n),
V j ( , v Vi
, v Vi).
. V10 , . . . , Vk0 ,
. ,
Vi0 ,
, V j0 .
, .
R(G) n n; ri j
, v Vi V j .
. , . 34,
,

0 0 4
. R(G) = 0 3 1.
4 2 0
h G.
2.12. ) G
h
R(G) = R(G); ,
, .
) G R(G).
. ) Vh1 , . . . , Vhn h ,
G
h
h
V1 = p(V1), . . . , Vn = p(Vn) h G ).
G ( p : G
) , , , R(G).
2










. 34. R(G)

56

I.

2.12 .
2.13 (. [86]). G G 0
.
, . . H, G G 0 .
. 2.12 R(G) = R(G 0) = R =
= (ri j). V1 , . . . , V V10 , . . . , V0
G G 0 . G G 0 ,
, .
ni = |Vi | i, mi j i j
G. s mi j
i, j. ai = s/ni bi j = s/mi j ( mi j = 0, bi j
). , mi j = ni ri j
ai bi j . , mi j = m ji , bi j = b ji .
ai bi j ,
R, . . G G 0
. , ,
fi = ni /n1 R. , ri1 6= 0,
fi =

mi1 /ri1
r
= 1i , mi1 = m1i . , , ,
m1i /r1i
ri1

ri1 = 0.
1 = j1 , j2 , . . . , jhi = i, r jl jl+1 6= 0 l = 1, 2, . . . , hi 1 (
hQ
i 1


G). fi =
r jl jl+1 /r jl+1 jl . ai bi j
l=0

, :

1
1
a1 = n1
1 (mi j ) = n1 (ni ri j) = n1 (fi n1 ri j) = (fi ri j),
ai = s/ni = a1 n1 /ni = a1 / fi , bi j = ai /ri j .

i j, v Vi , 0 ri j 1; g(v, e) e .
g 0 (v 0 , e 0) G 0 .
H .
H (i, v, v 0 , p), 1 6 i 6 , v Vi , v 0 Vi0 0 6 p < ai .
H (i, j, e, e 0 , q), 1 6 i, j 6 , e e 0
i j G G 0 , 0 6 q < bi j . (i, v, v 0 , p) (k, j, e, e 0 , q) , i = k, v
e, v 0 e 0 , q = [p/ri j ] g(v, e) g 0 (v 0 , e 0) p
(mod ri j); (i, v, v 0 , p) (j, k, e, e 0 , q) , i = k, v e, v 0 e 0 ,

 3.

57

q = [p/ri j ] g(v, e) g 0 (v 0 , e 0) p (mod ri j), e e 0 e

e 0 .
, ai = ri j bi j , , (i, j, e, e 0 , q) . ,
x g(v, e) g 0 (v 0 , e 0) (mod ri j) 0 6 x < ri j . p = qri j + x. , 0 6 p < ai = ri j bi j , q = [p/ri j ] , 0 6 q < bi j p g(v, e)
g 0 (v 0 , e 0) (mod ri j) p.
(i, j, e, e 0 , q) (i, v, v 0 , p). ,
(i, v, v 0 , p) (j, k, e, e 0 , q) ,
(j, k, e, e 0 , q) = (k, j, e, e 0 , q).
.
, b jk = bk j .
, H
.
p : H G :
(j, k, e, e 0 , q) H e G; ,
(i, v, v 0 , p) v. ,
, (i, v, v 0 , p),
, v. e i j, v. G 0
e 0 i j, v 0
g 0 (v 0 , e 0) g(v, e) p (mod ri j). e
, (i, v, v 0 , p), ,
(i, j, e, e 0 , q), q = [p/ri j ] .
(i, j, e, e 0 , q) = (j, i, e, e 0 , q)
e, p : H G
() G,
.
p1 : H G1 .
H ,
.
2

3.

,
.
e G. , G e e , G e G/e, . , -

58

I.

e , G e = G/e. , , . . e1 e2
G, (G/e1) /e2 = (G/e2) /e1 , (G e1) e2 = (G e2) e1
(G/e1) e2 = (G e2) /e1 .
, G1 G2 ,
h : G1 G2 , . ,
G1 G2 ,
,
, .

, .
; ,
, .

F(G) = aF(G/e) + bF(G e),

(1)

a b ( ).
: (1) e ( ), (1) e, .
Kn , n ( Kn). (1) e, F Kn
. (1) , ,
F ,
,
.
(1) :
, , .
,
F(G) .
3.1. F(G) .

 3.

59

. e1 e2 G.
aF(G/e1) + bF(G e1) =

= a2 F((G/e1) /e2) +abF((G/e1) e2) +abF((G e1) /e2) +b 2 F(G e1 e2) =

= a2 F((G/e2) /e1) +abF((G/e2) e1) +abF((G e2) /e1) +b 2 F(G e1 e2) =

= aF(G/e2) +bF(G e2).

,
.
2
, G1 G2 , , ,
, F(G1) = F(G2), . . F . F
.
a b F Kn ( , ), F .
.

3.1.

P(G, t)
P(G, t) = P(G/e, t) + P(G e, t),

e. P(G, t)
G, n , t n .
3.2. t , P(G, t) G t , .
h (G, t) . t N P
G t . , G
h (G, t) = 0 ( ,
, P
). G n ,
h (G, t) = t n = P(G, t). , e
P
h (G, t) = P
h (G/e, t) + P
h (G e, t).
G, P
, e . v1 v2
e. G e
h (G/e, t), v1 v2 P
h (G, t). P
h (G e, t) = P
h (G, t) + P
h (G/e, t),
v1 v2 P
.

60

I.

h (G, t) = 0
, e . P
h
h
P (G/e, t) = P (G e, t), G/e G e . 2
. G t t.
1. , Kn n , P(Kn , t) = t(t 1) . . . (t n + 1).
3.3 ( [142]). G n ,
.
P(G, t) = t n a1 t n1 + a2 t n2 a3 t n3 + . . . , ai > 0.

. G
, P(G, t) = t. {e1 , . . . , ek }
G.
P(G) = P(G e1) P(G/e1) =
= P(G e1 e2) P((G e1) /e2) P(G/e1);

G/e1 (G e1) /e2 n 1 . ,

G e1 e2 . . . ek = Kn , n .
P(G) = P(Kn) g1 . . . gk = t n g1 . . . gk ,

g1 , . . . , gk ,
n 1 .
2
3.4 ( [142]).
:
X
P(G, t) =
(1) e(H) t c(H) ,
H G

H G,
G;
e(H) , c(H) .
.
X
h (G, t) =
P
(1) e(H) t c(H) .
H G

G = Kn H, G, , H = G = Kn . e(H) = 0
c(H) = n.
X
h (G, t) =
P
(1) e(H) t c(H) = t n = P(G, t).
H G

 3.

61

h (G, t) = P
h (G/e, t) + P
h
, P
P(G Pe, t). h
h
. +
P (G, t) P (G, t) =
e6H
eH
P
P
h (G e, t);
h (G/e, t)
=P
= P
,
eH

e6H

- , H/e ,
H.
2

3.2.

[101] f(G; t, x, y), f(G) = xf(G/e) + yf(G e) ( e,

) Kn t n .
2. ) , G , n , f(G) = t(x + ty) n .
) , G n, f(G) = t(x + ty) n +
+ (t 1)x n .
f .
3.5. G , v e .
e X
v
X
f(G) =
bi j t j x ei y i ,
i=0 j=1

bi j i- Y G, G ,
Y , , j
.
. f , .
G X Y . X
, Y . t j x ei y i . f ,
Y . 2
1. f .
2. K H ,
f(K H) = f(K) f(H).
3. K H
, f(K H) = t 1 f(K) f(H).

62

I.

. Y1 Y2
K H. , K H , Y1 Y2 , , j1 j2
. K H ,
Y1 Y2 , , j1 + j2 1
( K H
).
2
3 f(G). , K H K
H. , f(G) . ,
f(G).
3.6. u1 u2 K , v1 v2
H. , G1
K H u1 v1 , u2 v2 , G2
K H u1 v2 , u2 v1 .
f(G1) = f(G2).
. K H
X1 X2 .
Gi , i = 1, 2. G1 ,
v1 v2 , X = X1 X2 ,
X G2 . G1 G2
, X,
.
2

3.3.

R(G, t)
R(G, t) = R(G/e, t) R(G e, t),

(2)

e, .
R , n
, (t 1) n ; R
.
3. , R(G, 1) = 0.
.
3.7. G , H
, H H G (. . ,
G, H;

 3.

63

H , G). H
. b1 (H) .
X
(3)
R(G, t) =
(1) e(H) t b1 (H) ,
H G

e(H) H;
, .
. G . m,
R(G, t) =

m X
X

i=0 |H |=i

i mi

(1) t

m  
X
m
i=0

(1) i t mi = (t 1) m .

(3). R(G)
P
P
P
= R(G/e)
. ,
+
R(G) =
e6H
eH
e6H
P
= R(G e). , e 6 H; e H.
eH

e , H H/e ,
, b1 (H) = b1 (H/e). e H, . . H = H1 {e}.
e(H) = e(H1) + 1, , (1) e(H) = (1) e(H1) . , H G H1 G e.
2
3.8. G G1 G2 ,
,
. R(G) = R(G1)R(G2).
. (3).
H H = H1 H2 , Hi Gi .
e(H) = e(H1) + e(H2) b1 (H) = b1 (H1) + b1 (H2), H1 H2 H G1 G2 . R(G) = R(G1)R(G2).
2
1. G (. .
, ),
R(G) = 0.
. , G1
, R(G1) = 0. G
G1 G2 , G1 . R(G) = R(G1)R(G2) = 0. 2
2. G , R(G) = t 1.
. e G. G e
, R(G e) = 0. G/e

64

I.

. , G
, R(G) = t 1.
2
, ,
, . .
.
3.9. .
. G G 0
, G G 0 ,
: e v e e1 e2
v. , G 0
G , R(G 0) = R(G). e1 , R(G 0) = R(G 0 /e1) R(G 0 e1). G 0 e1
e2 , R(G 0 e1) = 0. , G 0 /e1
G.
2
[143] , R(G). [39]
,
1- R(G).
[136] .

3.4.

g(G) . g , V -) ,
:
1) g() = 1;
2) e , g(G) = g(G/e) + g(G e);
3) G
K H, g(G) = g(K) g(H).
, .


X
Q(G, t, z) =
z b1 (H) t c(H) ,
H G

 3.

65

H G,
G; b1 (H)
H (: H ; b1 (H) ), c(H)
H.
3.10. .
. 1 .
P
P .
+
2, Q(G) =
eH
e6H
P
P
,
= Q(G e);
= Q(G/e) ,
e6H

eH

b1 (H) = b1 (H/e) c(H) = c(H/e). 3 ,

b1 c .
2
e v1 v2 G. e , G v1 v2 e. [128]
T(G, x, y), 3
, e ,
. , T(G, x, y)
:
) G , T(G, x, y) = x ,
, T(G, x, y) = y ,
;
) e G, , ,
T(G, x, y) = T(G e, x, y) + T(G/e, x, y);
) e , T(G, x, y) = xT(G/e, x, y), e ,
T(G, x, y) = yT(G e, x, y).
, G. ,
:
X
T(G, x, y) =
(x 1) c(H)c(G) (y 1) e(H)v(G)+c(H) ,
H G

H G,
G.

 II

4.

4.1.

A Rn . x Rn d(x, A) = inf kx ak aA

x A.
4.1. ) f(x) = d(x, A)
A Rn .
) A , f(x) = d(x, A)
x 6 A .
. ) x, y Rn . d(x, A) =
= inf kx ak 6 kx yk + inf ky ak = kx yk + d(y, A), . .
aA

aA

d(x, A) d(y, A) 6 kx yk. , d(y, A)

d(x, A) 6 kx yk. , |f(x) f(y)| 6 kx yk,
f .
) A , Rn \ A . x0 Rn \ A > 0, x0 Rn \ A.
d(x, A) > > 0.
2
. 4.1 . .
4.2.
A, B Rn . d(A, B) =
= inf ka bk A B.
aA, bB

4.2. A Rn ,
C Rn .
c0 C, d(A, C) = d(A, c0). A , a0 A, d(A, C) =
= d(a0 , c0).

 4.

67

. f(x) = d(x, A) C,
c0 C. A ,
g(x) = d(c0 , x) A
a0 A.
2
4.1. , d(A, C) 6 d(A, B) + d(B, C)?
,
, .
A, B Rn . T , t, :
a A b B ka bk 6 t;
b B a A ka bk 6 t.
dH (A, B) = inf t
tT

A B.
4.2. , dH (A, C) 6 dH (A, B) + dH (B, C).

4.2.

f : A Y , A X,
X Y .
, X = Rn Y = R. ,
.
4.3 ( [20]). A B Rn .
f : Rn [1, 1] , f(A) = {1}
f(B) = {1}.
. x Rn
A B. A B ,
d(x, A) > 0, d(x, B) > 0.
d(x, A) + d(x, B) > 0,
f(x) =

d(x, A) d(x, B)
d(x, A) + d(x, B)

x Rn .
d(x, A) d(x, B) f(x). ,
f(A) = {1} f(B) = {1}. , x

68

II.

1 6

d(x, A) d(x, B)
d(x, A)
d(x, B)
6
6
6 1.
d(x, A) + d(x, B)
d(x, A) + d(x, B)
d(x, A) + d(x, B)

. A B
Rn . U A V B,
.
. f : Rn [1, 1]
, f(A) = {1}
h f(B)
 = {1}. i U V
1

1,

,1 .
2
2
2
, , .
4.4 (). X Rn , f : X [1, 1] .
F : Rn [1, 1] , X
f .
 
. rk =

1
2

2
3

, k = 1, 2, . . .

3r1 = 1 rk 0 k .
f1 , f2 , . . . X
g1 , g2 , . . . Rn . f1 = f .
f1 , . . . , fk .
Ak = {x X | fk (x) 6 rk }

Bk = {x X | fk (x) > rk }.

gk : Rn [rk , rk ] , gk (Ak) = {rk }

gk (Bk) = {rk }. Ak fk gk ,
3rk rk ; Bk , rk 3rk ; X
, rk rk .
fk+1 = fk gk |X . fk+1 X |fk+1 (x)| 6 2rk = 3rk+1
x X.
g1 ,

P
g2 , . . . Rn . |gk (y)| 6 rk y Rn .
rk =

1 P
=
2 k=1

k=1
 

P
2 k
,
gk (x) Rn
3
k=1

 4.
F(x) =

69

gk (x).

k=1

(g1 + . . . + gk)|X = (f1 f2) + (f2 f3) + . . . + (fk fk+1) =

= f1 fk+1 = f fk+1 .
lim fk+1 (y) = 0 y Rn , F(x) = f(x)
k

x X. ,

|F(x)| 6
=

|gk (x)| 6

k=1

X

1
3

k=0

2
3

k

rk =

k=1

 k

X
1 2
2

k=1
1

2
1
1
3
3

= 1.

.
X Rn
,
f : X R .
F : Rn R, X  f . 

. g : R , ,
2 2
g(x) = arctg(x). g(f(x)) G Rn , |G(x)| 6 /2 x Rn .
A = {y Rn | |G(x)| = /2}. ,
A X = ,
: Rn [0, 1] , (A) = {0} (X) = {1}.
F(y) = tg((y)G(y)). x X, F(x) = tg(arctg f(x)) = f(x).
, (y)G(y) < /2 y Rn , F
.
2
Rm ;
.

. .
4.5. Rm+n = Rm Rn A Rm {0} B {0} Rn . Rm+n \ A Rm+n \ B .
. fa : A B fb : B A
.
Fa : Rm Rn Fb : Rn Rm .
Fa , Fb : Rm Rn Rm Rn ,
Fa (x, y) = (x, y Fa (x)),

Fb (x, y) = (x Fb (y), y).

70

II.

. , Fa1 (x, y) = (x, y + Fa (x)).

, Fa Fb
X = {(x, y) Rm+n | x A, y = fa (x)} = {(x, y) Rm+n | y B, x = fb (y)}
A B . Rm+n \ A Rm+n \ X Rm+n \ B. 2
. (Rm {0}) \ A ({0} Rn) \ B . R3 \ S 1 R3 \ K ,
S 1 R3 , K . (.
. 117).

4.3.

U A Rn .
U
> 0, B A, ) , U (. .
, U).
4.6 (). A
Rn , U
.
. U {U1 , . . . , Uk }. fi (x) = d(x, A \ Ui) f = max(f1 , . . . , fk).
f . , a A, f(a) > 0.
, a Ui i, fi (a) > 0,
A \ Ui . , A
f : A R ,
0. d(0, f(A)) > 0, ,
> 0, f(a) > a A. ,
fi (a) > i, . . A
a Ui .
B A, ,
Ui .
2
4.3. ,
f A Rn
.
X Rn . U
X . U
)
.

 4.

71

m, x X m U x X
m U. ,
X Rn
k, k ,
: > 0
X ,
k + 1.
4.7 (). n-
n n.
( [122]). ,
U n
, U n + 1.
0n1 , . . . , nn1 (n 1)- n , ai n , in1 .
n n \ in1 .
, n . > 0
. , U n ,
U n + 1. U = {U0 , . . . , Um }.
, U j , , U j
n \ in1 , . . U j
in1 . ai U j .
U j n .
n1
Ui (i)
,
Ui . : {0, ..., m} {0, ..., n}.
k = 0, . . . , n Ak Ui , m
n
S
S
Ui = n , ak Ak Ak kn1 = .
Ak =
(i) = k. ,
k=0

i=0

( Ak) (. . 92) , Ak x.
, n :
k Ak ,
. p-
n
. x p . {x p } {x pq }.
x = lim x pq Ak . ,
q

Ak ,

72

II.

x pq ,
q .
n
, n + 1.
(m + 1)- n .
m- , n-
(m + 1)- .
. ,
. n + 1 ,
.
2

. ,
, . .
.
4.8. X Y
.
.
. X Y
kX kY . h : X Y .
> 0 Y
X h.
X. X U1 , . . . , Um , kX + 1. {h(U1), . . . , h(Um)} Y , kX + 1. , kY 6 kX . ,
kX 6 kY .
2
[43] .
4.9 (). m 6= n, U Rm V Rn .
. h : U V . U m- m .
h(m) Rn m. h(m) n . n
, n,

 4.

73

h(m) ,
n. m 6 n. m > n.
2

4.4.

x [0, 1] x = a1 31 + a2 32 +
+ . . . , ai = 0, 1 2 ( x).
C [0, 1] , ,
1. , 1 31 =
= 2 32 + 2 33 + 2 34 + . . . C.
Ck x [0, 1] ,
h
i
i h 1

0 2 k- . , C1 = 0,
,1 .
3
3

T
Ck C =
Ck , C
k=1
.
4.10. A C C, . . r : C A, A .
. A [0, 1] ,
c C a A,
d(c, A) = d(c, a). a .
, c C a1 a2 ,
a1 < a2 . a1 < c < a2 . C
, y 6 C , a1 < y < c < a2 .
x C [a1 , y) r(x) = a1 ,
x C (y, a2 ] r(x) = a2 . r c C, d(c, A) = d(c, a1) = d(c, a2).
,
(a1 , a2) A, , [a1 , a2 ]
c [a01 , a02 ] c 0 6= c .
, c C , r
. a A,
d(c, A) = d(c, a). r(c) = a.
a A r
, , r(a) = a.
2
4.10 .
4.11 ( [1]).
X Rn C
.

74

II.

. U1 , U2 , . . .
X. c C 0, c1 c2 c3 . . . , 1 ( ).

T
c P(c) =
i (c),
i=1

i (c) =

Ui ,
X \ Ui ,

ci = 0;
ci = 2.

, P(cx)
. , a, b X a 6= b. i,
a Ui b 6 Ui . i (c) = Ui , b 6 i (c), i (c) = X \ Ui ,
a 6 i (c). P(c)
a b.
P(c) ,
 g(c) = P(c).
 
T
g A = c C  i (c) 6= .
i=1

, g : A X .
, x X
(
0, x Ui ,
ci =
2, x 6 Ui .

c = 0, c1 c2 . . . C g(c) = x.
, g .
c = 0, c1 c2 . . . A (ci 6= 1) > 0. Uk ,
g(c) Uk Uk . a = 0, a1 a2 . . . A (ai 6= 1), |c a| < 32k .
|c a| < 32k , ck = ak . g(a) k (a) = k (c) = Uk .
, k g(a) g(c)k < , , g
c.
, , A C, . .

T
S
C \ A C. c C \ A.
i (c) = , . .
(X \ i (c)) =
i=1

i=1

= X. X \ i (c) X.
,
m
m
S
T
(X \ i (c)) = X m > 1.
i (c) = .
i=1

i=1

a C , |c a| < 32m .
m
T
i (a) = , . . a C \ A.
ai = ci i = 1, . . . , m.
i=1

, C \ A .

 5.

75

g : A X, A C . 4.10
g
r
r : C A. C A X
.
2
(). I k- I k .
. f : C I k . C ,
f
F : I I k.
2

5.

5.1.

C S 1 f : S 1 R2 . ,
f(x1) 6= f(x2) x1 6= x2 . [77]
, R2 \ C
( ).
. [134] .
, C
(. . 19). 


, C . [129] .

, [126] , 


, ,
K3,3 ( 1.3 . 21;

, -
. 35.
). , K
3,3
.
5.1. C ,
R2 \ C .
. C A1 A2 , C. C, A1 A2 , B1 B2 ,

76

II.

B1 B2 C (. 35); ,
, , , .
B1 B2 A3 . A3 B3
, C,
K3,3 , .
2
: .
5.2. A , . . I f : I R2 . R2 \ A .
. x, y R2 \ A. A , d , x y A 3d. f , A A1 , . . . , Ak ( Ai ai ai+1) , ai Ai d ( i = 1, . . . , k).
Ai A j , 1 6 i 6 j 2 6 k 2,
d 0 . , d 0 6 d. Ai Ai1 , . . . , Aiki
( Ai j ai j ai, j+1) , ai j
Ai j d 0 /4. Gi ,
ai j ; d 0 /2. Gi G j ,
|i j| 6 1.
G = G1 . . . Gk ,
F . A
- , A F .
, , x, y F .
, x G. G 2-, G C,
x. C , Gi Gi+1 . . . G j , j i . ,
j i 6 1. , j i > 2. ,
C, G j1 , . C
G j2 G j ( , G j1).
, G j1
C. , C , G j1 .
, G j1 .

 5.

77

C . x .
, G j1 ,
, C. .
, x Gi Gi+1 .
, x 3d
ai , Gi G j+1 .
, x
G. y , x y
, R2 \ A.
2
, .
.
5.3. C
,
C.
. , C , c
C. C , c, A = C \ .
x y,
, , A.
C, . , x ( ). ,
C, ,
C, .




,
2
R \ C 2. ,
x1 , x2 , x3 1 , 2 , 3
R2 \ C. 1 , 2 , 3 C.
1 x1 1j
. 36.
j . , 11 , 12 13 x1 .
, . 36.
x2 x3 2i 3i .
i j , i, j = 1, 2, 3, i , K3,3
, .
2

78

5.2.

II.

S 1 = {e 2is | s R} : S 1 R2 ,
. . (s) = (x(s), y(s)), x y d (s)

s v(s) =
6= 0 s R. )
ds
v(s) s 0 1.
,
.
. 37.
, 0 1 ,
t ,

t [0, 1] ( , t = 0




= 
=
t = 0 t = 1 t = 1).
t , (s, t) 7 t (s)

=
[0, 1] [0, 1] R2 .
5.4 (
[145]). 0 1 ,




.
= 
= 
. . 37. - 0 1

Nt t . ,
Nt , Nt t. Nt N0 = N1 .
, 0 1 , N. 0 1
1, 0 (0) = 1 (0) = (0, 0)
00 (0) = 10 (0) = (1, 0). , s [0, 1]
, . . k00 (s)k = k10 (s)k = 1 s.
0 1 v0 (s) = e i0 (s)
v1 (s) = e i1 (s) , 0 (0) = 1 (0) = 0 0 (1) = 1 (1) = 2N.
t (s) = (1 t)0 (s) + t
Z 1 (s) ht
vt (s) = e it (s) : ht (s) =

e it () d . t 6= 0, 1 ht

)
, .

 5.

79

, Z s
Z 1
it ()
t (s) = ht (s) sh
t (1) =
e
d s
e it () d .
0

(1) = t (0)
(s) 6= 0.
, t , . .
ds t
ds
ds t
Z 1
d
,
t (s) = e it (s)
e it () d = vt (s) ht (1). ds

s = 0 s = 1 , vt (0) = vt (1),
t (0) = 0 t (1) = 2N. , vt (s) 6= ht (1),

,
t (1)k < 1, kh
t (1)k =
Z
 Z kvt (s)k = 1, kh
 1

1



e it ()  d 6 1, e it ()
=
e it () d  6
 0

0
.
2
. ,
.
, : 1)
; 2) ( ).
, ()
. ,
,
,
0 , .
.
, .
, ,
, , .
5.5 (. [137] [73]).
1.
( [73]).
1
,
1 : S =
d
= {e 2is } R2 , = 1 s [0, 1] . T
ds
x y, 0 6 x 6 y 6 1.
f : T S 1 ,

(y) (x)

, 0 < y x < 1;

k (y) (x)k
f(x, y) = 0 (x),
x = y;

0
(0),
x = 0 y = 1.

80

II.

(, x = y, 0 (x) = 0 (y), x = 0 y = 1,
0 (0) = 0 (1).) p : R1 S 1 ,
p(s) = e 2is , f , . .
F : T R1 , pF = f . 2 deg = F(1, 1) F(0, 0) = [F(1, 1)
F(0, 1)] + [F(0, 1) F(0, 0)] .
F(1, 1) F(0, 1) (1)
(x) = (0) (x) = v(x) x 0 1 (
T). (0)
- (. 38),
( deg ). F(0, 1) F(0, 0)


(y) (0) = v(y)
y 0 1.


,


deg , v v . 38. (0)
.
2
: S 1 R2
, .
x0 , .
xi i Wi . x0 ,
.
xi , v1 , ;
, v2 . (v1 , v2) , Wi = 1, P
, Wi = 1. W(, x0) = Wi ,
.
5.6 ( [145]). deg ,
W(, x0) , deg = W(, x0) 1.










. 39.

 5.

81

. ,
5.5. ,
. x0
, , , (
). , . 39.
1 , x0 , 2 .
, deg W(, x0) = deg 1 W(1 , x0), . . deg
deg 1 = W(, x0) W(1 , x0) = Wi , Wi = 1 , , .
,
v1 v2 . ,
deg = deg 1 + deg 0 . , deg 0 = Wi .
2

5.3.

R2 , ,
. D()
F() . , , . .
, .
, , . .
.
: (. 40).
I() , II()
.
F()
.
5.7 (. [53]). II() I() = D() +
2
. , . . . a -

   

 




. 40.

82

II.

l, a. a l
l+ , ,
l , .
a ,
. a N+ l+ ( a). N .
N+ N , a , ,
l , . . a
.


a
, N+ 1, N
1.
:

,
, (. 41).

e1 , e2 , e3 .
i1 , i2 , i3 .

,
. 41. e1 (, i1) .

N+
(, ) 2,
N (, ) 2.
e2 (, i2)
N+ (, ) 2.
e3 (, i3)
N (, ) 2.
N+ 2e1 + 4e2 2i1 + 4i2 + 2D() + F() (
, ). N+ ,
2e1 + 4e2 = 2i1 + 4i2 + 2D() + F(). ,
N , , 2e1 + 4e3 = 2i1 + 4i3 + 2D() + F().
, 4(e1 + e2 + e3) 4(i1 + i2 + i3) = 4D() +
+ 2F(), . . 4II() 4I() = 4D() + 2F().
2

 6.

83

,
:
. [32] [54] .

II() I() = D() +

F()
2

(1)

,
, . . , F() = 0,
, I() = II() = 0, (1) , I() = II(). F() 6= 0, (1) ,
(. [65]). , F() = 0, I() 6 D() 2 D() I()
(. [103]).

6.

6.1.

:
D n = {x Rn | kxk 6 1} ();
S n = {x Rn | kxk = 1} D n .
f : X X . x X
f , f(x) = x.
6.1 ().
f : D n D n .
. [42] .
, , [106] [36] . .
A X. r : X A , r|A = idA , . . r(a) = a a A.
r : X A, A X.
6.1. , A X
, f : A Y
X.

84

II.

6.2. , X , A
.
6.2. r : D n S n1 .
, 6.2 .
, , f : D n D n
. x D n f(x), x. r(x) ,
S n1 . , r D n S n1 .
, r : D n S n1 . i : S n1
S n1 , , i(x) = x. ir : D n S n1 D n .
6.2 .
6.3. v(x) D n , v(x) = x x S n1 . v(x) = 0 x D n .
, r : D n S n1 , v(x) =
= r(x) D n , .
v(x) D n , v(x) = x x S n1
v(x) 6= 0 x D n , x 7

v(x)

kv(x)k

.
6.16.3. D n
S n1 . ,
.
. , , r : D n S n1 . ,
r : D n S n1 . kxk = 1,
r(x) = x. 1 > 0 > 0,
kr(x) xk 6 1 1 6 kxk 6 1. f : Rn Rn , k f(x) (r(x) x)k 6 1
kxk 6 1, (t), 0 6 (t) 6 1 0 6 t 6 1,
(1) = 0 1 2 6 (t) t 2 6 1 . g(x) = x + (x) f(x),
(x) = (kxk2). kxk 6 1 ,
k g(x)k = kx + (x) f(x)k =
= kr(x) + (x) [f(x) r(x) + x] + ((x) 1) (r(x) x)k >

> kr(x)k (x)k f(x) r(x) + xk (1 (x))kr(x) xk >

 6.

85

> 1 1 1 2 2 = 1 1 22 .

1 6 kxk 6 1,

k g(x)k = kx + (x) f(x)k =

= kx + (x) [f(x) r(x) + x] + (x) (r(x) x)k >

> kxk (x)k f(x) r(x) + xk (x)kr(x) xk >

> 1 1 1 1 1 = 1 21 .

1 0, 0. , 1 , 2 , 6 1/4.
k g(x)k > 1/4 > 0 x D n . kxk = 1, (x) =
= 0 g(x) = x. r : D n S n1
r (x) = g(x) /k g(x)k.

, ,
( ). ,
, . 93.

( [70]).
, r : D n S n1 , a S n1 r. r 1 (a)
, r 1 (a) S n1 . r 1 (a) , .
, r 1 (a)
. r 1 (a) S n1
a. .
2
. , Mn W n1 ,
r : Mn W n1 .

.
, r : D n S n1 .
= x1 dx2 . . . dxn .
Z

r d =

r(S n1)

S n1

Dn

r =

d =

S n1

r(D n)

dr =

Dn

S n1

d = 0.

86

II.
,
Z
Z
=
d = (D n) > 0.
S n1

Dn

(. [113]).
, f : D n S n1 . x D n 0 6 t 6 1
g(x) = f(x) x,
ft (x) = x + tg(x) = (1 t)x + tf(x).

g , c, k g(x) g(y)k 6 ckx yk

x, y D n . ft 0 6 t < 1/c.
, ft (x) = ft (y), kx yk = ktg(x) tg(y)k 6 tckx yk. 0 6 t < 1/c kx yk = 0.
g ,




f
ft
, ..., t
x1
xn

= In +

g
g
, ...,
x1
xn

(1)

t . , ft
t 6 t0 int D n ( D n)
Gt . e D n \ Gt . e Gt b,
Gt . ft (D n) , b = ft (x) x D n .
b 6 Gt = ft (int D n), x 6 int D n , . . x S n1 . b = x
e = b = x S n1 . , ft int D n
int D n . , ft S n1 S n1 ,
, ft D n D n . ft
D n D n ( t 6 t0).

 Z



Z
Z
ft
ft
f
I(t) =
= ...
, . . . , t dx1 . . . dxn .
det
det
Dn

x1

Dn

x1

xn

0 6 t 6 t0 D n .
(1) , I(t) t. I(t)
0 6 t 6 1.
, f1 (x) = f(x) S n1 , f1 (x) f1 (x) = 1, ,

f
f1
f = 0 i = 1, . . . , n. 1 xi 1
xi

 6.

87


ft
f
, ..., t
, det
x1
xn

= 0. -

I(1) = 0. .
2
F (f) f : D n
D n . . ,
. ,
D n
.
6.4 (. [111]). F D n .
f : D n D n , F (f) = F .
. x D n d(x, F) =
= inf kx yk. D n (yF

x F). f : D n D n :

x d(x, F) x x0
kx x0 k
f(x) =
x
0

x 6= x0 ;
x = x0 .

f F (f) = F .
2

. .
6.5. f : D n D n , f(S n1) S n1 . :
) f |S n1 , Im f = D n .
) f |S n1 ,
Im f = D n .
. , Im f 6= D n . O D n \ Im f . r : D n \ O S n1 D n \ O
S n1 O. r .
O 6 Im f , rf : D n S n1 .
) rf , .
) rf : D n S n1 D n . Im(rf) S n1 , S n1 rf
.
2
6.6.
,
.
, .

88

II.

. (s) = (1 (s), 2 (s)) (t) = (1 (t),

2 (t)), s, t [0, 1] .
I 2 x1 x2 , |xi | 6 1, i = 1, 2. , 1 () = 2 () = ,
= 1.
, (s) 6= (t) s, t [0, 1] . N(s, t) =
= max{|i (s) i (t)|}. F : I 2 I 2 ,
i=1,2

F(s, t) =

1
1 (t) 1 (s), 2 (s) 2 (t) .
N(s, t)

I 2 D 2 ,
F (s0 , t0).
F (1, t) (s, 1),
s0 = 1 t0 = 1. ,


N(s, t)F(1, t) = 1 (t) 1, 2 (1) 2 (t) ,


N(s, t)F(s, 1) = 1 (1) 1 (s), 2 (s) 1 .

I 2 , |1 (t)| 6 1
|2 (s)| 6 1. , 1 ,
1 (t) 1 2 (s) 1. ,
N(s, t) > 0.
2

6.2.

. , [90] . ,
. 7577.
6.6,
. ,

( 4.4 . 68).
, C , R2 \ C .
C. ,
R2 \ C .
1. R2 \ C .
. C , a, b C, .
, a = (1, 0) b = (1, 0). R,

 6.

89





. 42.

|x| 6 1 |y| 6 2, C
R C
a b (. 42).
a b R.
n s .
6.6 [n, s] C. l n
. a b C . Cn
, l, Cs . m
n Cn [n, s] . [m, s]
Cs , , n l ,
l m Cn , , m s ,
Cs , 6.6. p
s Cs [m, s] , z0 [m, p] .

90

II.

, R2 \ C,
z0 , . , z0
, R. w
R, .
w = a w = b, , w
a b. , w
R (. . s, n).
n s, n l ,
l m Cn , m z0 , z0 w
, , w s R,
a b. Cs ,
6.6.
2
2. R2 \ C
C.
. U
R2 \ C, U U, U = U \ U U.
U W , W U W = . ,
U C. , U 6= C. U
A C. , .
1 R2 \ C
, z0 . U
, z0 U. D 2 z0 , C, S 1 = D 2 .
S 1
R2 \ C. A [0, 1] ,
A A
f : D 2 A. g : D 2 D 2
. U ,
(
f(z) z U ;
g(z) =
z
z D 2 \ U.
U ,
(
z
z U ;
g(z) =
f(z) z D 2 \ U.
U D 2 \ U A,
A f , g
. , z0
g S 1 g

 6.

91

. g D 2 S 1
z0 D 2 S 1 , .
2
3. R2 \ C
.
. ,
1 (. . 42). , U,
z0 , W . , W R. q s
Cs [n, s] . , n l ,
l m Cs , m p , p q Cs ,
, q s . , W
a b. a b,
. 1 W
a b,
a1 b1 , W . a a1 ,
a1 b1 , W , , ,
b1 b .
, 6.6.
2

6.3.

. .
, ,
.
, . [80] .
P n
n
R . P n n-
,
k- ,
, . , ,
. 43, .
. 43. k-

0, 1, . . . , k. , , 0, 1, . . . , k
(
).

92

II.

,
.
6.7.
P n 0, 1, . . . , n.
P n
,
P n .
. n- ,
(n 1)-
. n,
(n 1)-
, 0 n 1,
. n-
2 ,
n- (n 1)-
. , (n 1)-
, P n , n- , (n 1)-
n- .
2 (n 1)-
.
2
6.8 ( [122]). , n- , ,
. n- . , .
. , , n-
. 6.7 ,
(n 1)-
. , (n 1)-
(n 1)- .
n-
(n 1)- . n = 0
.
2
. X A0 . . . An . -

 6.

93

X
(x0 , . . . , xn), xi
XA0 . . . Ai1 Ai+1 . . . An A0 . . . An . ,
x0 , . . . , xn 1. xi X A0 . . . Ai1 Ai+1 . . . An ,
X .
. D n n- n , ,
f : n n . n . (x0 , ..., xn)
X n , (y0 , ..., yn) f . X j, j , y j 6 x j 6= 0.
. ,
Ai0 . . . Aik ,
i0 , . . . , ik .
M n , Mi i- .
n ,
M, Mi n 1 i- (i = 0, 1, . . . , n). n . d n ,
n
d. ,

n+1

v1 ,

v1 + v2
,
2

v1 + v2 + v3
,
3

v1 + . . . + vn+1
,
n+1

...,

v1 , . . . , vn+1 n . ,


v p+1 + . . . + v p+q
v1 + . . . + v p+q
v + . . . + vp
v + . . . + vp
q
1
=
1
=
p+q

p +q
q
=
(a b),
p +q

a b n . ,
p +q 1
1
n
q
6
= 1
6
,
p+q
p +q
p+q
n+1

p + q 6 n + 1.
n-

94

II.

. X1 . , . .
.
n-
X2 . X3 , . . {Xi }
{Xik }. ,
X = lim Xik .
k

(x0k , . . . , xnk) (y0k , . . . , ynk)

l
l
l
l
Xik , (x0k
, . . . , xnk
) (y0k
, . . . , ynk
)
, Xik , .
,
j = 0, . . . , n y ljk 6 x ljk l.
ik k , lim x ljk = lim x jk = x j , (x0 , . . . , xn) k

X. , (y0 , . . . , yn)
P
P X, y j 6 x j , j = 0, 1, . . . , n. x j = 1 = y j ,
x j = y j j = 0, 1, . . . , n. , X .
2

,
.
[47] . 1-
().
, .
.

01010 . . . 101.
2k + 1, k (
).
,
n- , n > 1. (n + 1)- n-
. (n + 1)- :
0) 0, 1, . . . , n;
n- 0;
1) ; n- 1;

 6.

95

2) 0, 1, . . . , n,
; n-
2.
2 , n-
. 1 n- . (
).
( (n + 1)-
), n- ,
n- (
). ,
(n + 1)-
n- , (
). . 2
.
6.9 (. [44]).
. , )
, 1 , .
.
: 01010 . . . 101
k + 1, k ( k
).
,
n- , n > 1. (n + 1)- . (n + 1)-
n-
. n +
. n , , 0, 1, . . . , n,
(n + 1)- , ( (n + 1)-
, ).
)

, .

96

II.

n , +,
, . n
(n + 1)- 1n+1 2n+1 . n , ,
0, 1, . . . , n, 1n+1
2n+1 . n 1n+1 2n+1
. ,
, ,
:
1) (n + 1)- ,
2) n-
, n-
,
3) (n + 1)- n-
, .

(n + 1)-
n- , n-
.
2

6.4.

n ,
, . .
-, x 7 (x) n ,
(x) . -, , .
, .
, lim xi = x0 (xi) i

yi , lim yi = y0 , y0 (x0). ,
i

. . x n (x) ,
.
6.10 ( [78]).
, x n
(x) n .
x0 n , x0 (x0).

 6.

97

. m- n , v
w (v). m- , m : n n .
xm , m (xm) = xm .
{xm } {xmi }. ,
x0 = lim xmi , . . x0 (x0).
i

nm n- m-
, xm (
, ). , , v0,m , . . . ,
n
P
vn,m nm . lim v j,mi = x0 xm =
j,m v j,m ,
i

j,m > 0

n
P

j=0

j,m = 1. w j,m = m (v j,m).

j=0

m , xm = m (xm) =

n
P

j,m w j,m , ,

j=0

w j,m (v j,m).

n
P

j,m w j,m

j=0

n + 1 , I n .
{xmi } {xm0i }
, j,m0i w j,m0i j = 0, 1,
m
P
j w j = x0 . . . . , n. lim j,m0i = j lim w j,m0i = w j .
i

j=0

, , lim v j,m0i = x0 ,
i

w j,m0i (v j,m0i ) lim w j,m0i = w j , , w j (x0).

i
m
P
j w j (x0), (x0) . x0 =
j=0

.
2
, ,
.

 III

7.

7.1.

X ,
x, y X
U 3 x V 3 y.
. [22] . X ()
,
: X .
1. , .
2. X , x1 , . . . ,
xn . ,
U1 , . . . , Un x1 , . . . , xn .
( )
. X , G . G X G X X ( (g, x)
g(x) X), :
1) g(h(x)) = (gh) (x);
2) e(x) = x, e G.

G, , (g, h) 7 gh g 7 g 1 .
. ,
G X X .
x X G(x) = {g(x) X | g G} x G.
3. , G(x) G(y)
x, y X , .

 7.

99

X/G , G. x X G(x),
p : X X/G. X/G : U X/G
, p 1 (U) . X/G .
1. X = S 1 S 1 ( ), G = R a
. t G (e i , e i) X t(e i , e i) =
= (e i(+t) , e i(+at) ). a , X/G .
. a ,
.
2
2. X = Matn (C) n
, G = GLn (C) Matn (C) . A X B G B(A) = BAB 1 . n > 2
X/G .
    . n = 2.
0
1

O1 O2 ,
0
0


s
s 6= 0 O2 .
0

 

s
0
lim
=
,
0
s0 0

O1 O2 .
2
. , X
x y U 3 x,
y. , U 3 x V 3 y
, U X \ V . X \ V , U X \ V , , U V = .
7.1. C X x X \ C. x C
.
. c C V ,
x.
C, n
S
Ui . C V x 6 V , . . V
U1 , . . . , Un . V =
i=1

X \ V C x.

100

III.

1. C
X .
. x X \ C, x , C. , X \ C . 2
2.
A B X .
. a A , B. A
U1 , . . . , Un .
n
S
A B V =
Ui X \ V .
2
i=1

7.1. , C K .
7.2. f : X Y X Y . f .
. Y X
f , Y
. C
X , f(C) Y . Y , f(C)
Y . f(C) C
f 1 , f 1 .
2
4.
[0, 1) S 1 . ( 7.2 X.)
5. , .

X/G G .
.
7.3. G () X, X/G .
. G(x)
G G G {x} G(x),
G(x) . G(x) G(y)
, 7.1 x U, G(y). -

 7.

101

p(U) (X/G) \ p(U) ,

X/G, G(x)
G(y).
2
7.2.* [82] ) ,
X X H : X X H , : Y f : X Y , f H : X H Y ,
f H = f .
) X/G 2 . 99. ,
(X/G) H Cn .
) , f : Matn (C) C,
f(BAB 1) = A B GLn (C),
f(A) = F(c1 (A), . . . , cn (A)), c1 (A), . . . , cn (A)
det(A + I) F : C Cn .
X ,
x X () Ux 3 x,
.
7.4. X
. U 3 x
Ux 3 x , Ux U.
. Wx 3 x, , K
K 0 = int(Wx U). C = K \ K 0 x. 7.1 x C
Ux UC . Ux
.
2
7.5. K
X X U, K , X V , K V V U, V .
. x K Ux 3 x, Ux U, Wx 3 x,
Wx . Vx , Vx = Ux Wx , ,
Wx . K , x1 , . . . , xn K , K V = Vx1 . . . Vxn .
V = Vx1 . . . Vxn V Ux1 . . . Uxn U.
2

102

III.

X . X
X + = X {},
X U X + , X + \ U X. ( ,
, X.) , X + . ,
X
X + X. ,
X + .

, . ,
X + . U .

X \ U, . , X +
, X .
U X + . , U . U U. X \ U , U
.
, X ,
, X + .
, x X . x Vx , . U = (X \ Vx) {}
, Vx .

7.2.

X ,

A, B X
U V , A B.
1 2 7.1 , .
6. ,
.

 7.

103

, Rn (. . 67),
.
.
7.6 ( ). A B X.
f : X [0, 1] ,
f(A) = 0 f(B) = 1.
. V X, U
X, U V . W ,
U W W V . , W
, U
X \ V .
U = A V = X \ B A1 ,
A A1 X \ B,

(1)

A A01 A1 A2 X \ B

(2)

A1 X \ B. A01 A2 ,
.
(1) f1 : X
[0, 1] :

x A;
0
f1 (x) = 1/2 x A1 \ A;

1
x X \ A1 .
(2) f2 : X
[0, 1] :

0
x A;

1
4
x A01 \ A;
/
f2 (x) = 1/2 x A1 \ A01 ;

3/4 x A2 \ A1 ;

1
x X \ A2 .

, (2), f3 (x), . .

104

III.

, f2 (x) > f1 (x). fn+1 (x) > fn (x), lim fn (x) = f(x). , f(x) = 0 x A f(x) = 1
n

x B. , f(x) .
n-
A A1 . . . Ar X \ B,

Ai Ai+1 . ( fn). A0 = int A A, A1 = Ar+1 = X. Ai+1 \ Ai1 , i = 0, 1, . . . , r. ,

X=

r
[

i=0

(Ai \ Ai1)

r
[

i=0

(Ai+1 \ Ai1) ,

Ai+1 \ Ai1 X.
Ai+1 \ Ai1 fn (x) ,
P
1/2n . , |f(x) fn (x)| 6
1/2k = 1/2n .
k=n+1

x X
Ai+1 \ Ai1 . Ai+1 \ Ai1 (f(x) , f(x) + ), > 1/2n . n ,
, f .
2

.
7.7 (). Y
X Y , f : X [1, 1]
.
F : Y [1, 1] , X f .
, Y = Rn
( 4.4 . 68). Rn Y
Rn Y . 4.4 .

7.3.

X.

supp() = {x X | (x) 6= 0}.
{U } X.
, {U }, -

 7.

105

: X [0, 1] ,
:
1) , . .
x X V(x), P
supp();
2)
(x) = 1 x X;
3) supp() U .
{U } { } .
,
, supp() U .
7.8 ( [124]). X . {Ui } {i },
.
([93] [56]). U1 , . . . , Un . fi (x) = d(x, X \ Ui)
n
P
(. . 66), F(x) =
fi (x) i=1

. x X Ui .
fi (x) > 0, , F(x) > 0 x X.


1
F(x), 0 .
gi (x) = max fi (x)
n+1

supp(gi) = {x | fi (x) > F(x) / (n + 1)} {x | fi (x) > F(x) / (n + 1)}

{x : fi (x) > 0} {x | fi (x) > 0} = Ui .

,
n
X

gi (x) >

i=1

n 
X
i=1

1
fi (x)
F(x)
n+1

= F(x)

n
F(x)
F(x) =
> 0.
n+1
n+1

, i (x) =
P

n
gi (x) .
= gi (x) /
i=1

U0 , U1 ,
U2 . . . fi : X [0, 2i ]
:


fi (x) = min d(x, X \ Ui), 2i .

106

III.

fi (x) > 0 x Ui fi (x) = 0 x 6 Ui . F

P
2i fi (x). , {Ui } , ,
-: F(x) =
i=0

F(x) > 0 x X. F(x) ,

N
P

2i fi (x) > 0 N

i=0

2i fi (x) < , fi (x) 6 2i .

o
n
1
gi (x) = max fi (x) F(x), 0 . , 3
, , supp(gi) Ui .
, {gi } . x X.
F ,
V(x) x, > 0 F(y) >
y V(x). i0 , 2i0 < /3. y X
fi (y) 6 2i . y V(x) i > i0 ,
,

i=N +1

1
3

fi (x) F(x) 6 2i
, gi (y) = 0.
, ,

i=0

6 2i0 < 0,
3
3

gi (x) > 0 x X, . .

x X i, gi (x) > 0. , f j (x) > 0

j fn (x) 6 2n , , sup f j (x) = fi0 (x) jN

i0 , fi0 (x) > 0. F ,

F(x) =

2i fi (x) 6

i=0

gi0 (x) > fi0 (x)

2i fi0 (x) = 2fi0 (x).

i=0

2fi0 (x)
fi (x)
= 0
> 0.
3
3

, i (x) =

P

gi (x) .
2
= gi (x) /
i=1

7.4.

U = {U } V = {V }
X. , V U,
V U .

 7.

107

V = {V } ,
x X ,
V .
X ,
U
V, U.

, .
7.9 7.10, . , ,
.
. X Rn ( ) .
. {U } X. U U0 Rn , U = U0 X.
Xk = {x X | kxk < k}, k = 1, 2 . . . Xk X,

S
Xk .
Xk , Xk Xk+1 X =
k=1

Xk \ Xk1
z Xk \ Xk1 Rn Vz0 , Vz0 U0
, , Vz0 X = Vz Xk+1 Vz Xk2 = .
Vz0 Xk \ Xk1 , Vz , Xk \ Xk1 .
k ,
{U }.
2
7.9 ( [51]). .
. , X , . . x X x.
U x X. X , y X \ U Uy 3 y Wy 3 x. Uy (
y X \ U) U U
X,
V, U.
V , x W ,
V. V1 , . . . , Vn ,

108

III.

U. Vi Uyi ,
yi X \ U.
Z = W Wy1 . . . Wyn ,

C = Z.

Z x Z, x W x Wy y X \ U. , C U.
T ,
V, U.
T W V1 . . . Vn Uy1 . . . Uyn .

, Z W ,

Z T W Wy1 . . . Wyn Uy1 . . . Uyn .

Wy Uy = ,

W Wy1 . . . Wyn Uy1 . . . Uyn = ,

, Z T = , . . Z X \ T . X \ T , C = Z X \ T .
X \ U V, U. X \ U T , . . X \ T U (
, X = T U).

X. A B X. a A
X \ B, a Za ,
Ca = Za X \ B. Za ( a A)
X \ A U X,
V, U. U
V, X \ A. U ,
A. V , B U. V
Vb b B. ,
b B Wb 3 b,
V. Y1 , . . . , Yn
, X \ A. Yi Zai , ai A.

Vb = Wb (X \ Ca1) . . . (X \ Can).
Vb b Vb , B X \ Ca . ,
U Wb Y1 . . . Yn Za1 . . . Zan Ca1 . . . Can ,

 7.
Vb U = . , V =
V U = .

109
S

bB

Vb , B V
2

. , , , . , ,
. 7.9 [4]
(. IX, 4.4, . 4).
7.10.
U = {U | A} X , .
.
V = {V | A} X, V U A. , ,
(, , [5]).
A , , . A . ,
A P ,
, A, P,
P ( , A P). A P. , A, P, , 0 .
, 0 , P,
0 P. .
, < 0 V , V U 1 < 0 V , 6 1 ,
U , > 1 , X. V0 , V0 U0 V ,
6 0 , U , > 0 ,
X.
, V , < 0 , U , > 0 , X.
U.
x X U1 , . . . , Un , 1 , . . . , n .
n > i , i = 1, . . . , n 1. n > 0 , x U ,
= n > 0 . n < 0 , -

110

III.

V , 6 n , U , > nS
, S
X. x 6 U > n , x
V .
V
<0
n

  6
 S
S
U V
, W =
<0

>0

U0 X, X \ U0 W . X \ U0 X \ W , X ,
Z X \ U0 T X \ W . ,
X \ U0 Z Z X \ T W.

V0 = X \ Z. V0
. , V0 = X \ Z U0 V0 W = X, Z W .
, U. U V, V U . , V
. X , W , V W W U . g : X [0, 1] , g (X \ W) = 0, . . supp gP
W U g (V) = 1.
g (x) > 0 x X.
V V X,
A
P
V ,
g (x)
A

.
,
 P

g (x) .
2
(x) = g (x) /
A

7.9 7.10. X .
. U = {U | A} X, V = {V | B} X, U. A : B A, V UA() . 7.9 X , 7.10
{P
}, V. A =
. ,
A()=
S
supp V V . C =
supp .
A()=

 7.

111

, . , C U
(x) = 0 x 6 C . supp C U .
, {C } .
, x X W ,
V; V1 , . . . , Vk . W C ,
6 {A(1), . . . , A(k)}. , {supp }
{supp } ,
 X
X
X X
(x) =
(x) =
(x) = 1.
2
A

A()=

(. . 105),
.
.
7.11 ( [124]). .
(. [115]). U = {U | A} X d.
, A .
x X r > 0 Dx,r = {y X | d(x, y) < r}.
A n N V,n Dx,2n
x X, :
1) Dx,32n U ;
2) x 6 U < ;
3) x 6 V, j j < n.
V,n n = 1 ( ), n = 2, . .
, V,n X. x X
B = { A | x U }. B. n
, Dx,32n U . x 6 V, j j < n, x
13, x V,n . , x
V, j , j 6 n.
, {V,n } .
x X
B = { A | x V,n n}.
B x V,n . j N ,
Dx,2j V,n . , Dx,2jn -

112

III.

V,i .
, V,i i > n + j
V,i i < n + j.
, i > n + j > n. V,i
2i , 13. , (3) , y
, y 6 V,n . Dx,2j V,n , d(x, y) > 2 j .
, n + j > j + 1 i > j + 1, 2 jn + 2i 6 2 j , ,
Dx,2jn Dy,2i = .
, i < n + j, p Dx,2jn V,i q Dx,2jn
V,i , 6= . < .
, , p V,i q V,i ,
< , d(p, q) > 2 jn+1 . y z Dy,2i Dz,2i ,
p Dy,2i V,i q Dz,2i V,i . 1
Dy,32i U , 2 z 6 U . d(y, z) > 3 2i ,
,
d(p, q) > d(y, z) d(p, y) d(q, z) > 32i 2i 2i = 2i > 2n j+1 . 2

8.

Rn . ( , CW -, )
. CW -
, . , , . ,
.
( ,
).
K Rn ,
:
K K ;
K
( ,
1 );

 8.

113

, K ,
, K .
K
.
K ,
.
.
K |K | ,
K ; Rn .
. 93 . K , K .
8.1. , n
n .

8.1.

k
Rk , Ax 6 b , ,
k- k-
.
k k, k- ()
Rn , n > k.
K
Rn , :
K K ;
K
;
|K | , K ( |K |
, K).

.
K 0 K , |K | = |K 0 | K 0
K .
n K n- ;

114

III.

K n . K n, n- n- .
8.1. K1 K2 , |K1 | = |K2 |. K1 K2 L.
. , . L
c1 c2 , c1 K1 , c2 K2 . L , |L| = |K1 | = |K2 | c1 c2 L
c1 K1 c2 K2 .
2
,
.
8.2. K , .
. n = dim K . 6 1 , n 6 1
. , (m 1)-
K L, . m- c m
K M , M,
, c m .
K , .
2
. M
c m , c m .
,
.

8.2.

K1 K2 . f : |K1 |
|K2 | , 1
K1 2 K2 f 1 , . .
f

X

 X
i vi =
i f(vi),

(1)

 8.

115

P
vi 1 ,
i = 1 i > 0. K1 (. . 0- ) K2 . f 0-
f 0 : K10 K20 . (1) , f f 0 . f 0 : v0 , . . . , vn K1 ,
f 0 (v0), . . . , f 0 (vn) K2 (
f 0 (v0), . . . , f 0 (vn) ). 0- , , . 0- K10 K20 |K1 | |K2 |. K1 K2 .
1. , .
2. , k- k- .
8.3. f : K K , 0
K . f(0) = 0 , f 0 .
. 0
K , 0 .
0 ,
v0 0 , [v0 , v1 ] (
, , 0), [v0 , v1 , v2 ] . .
,
.
f(0) = 0 , f
. , , , . . f(0) 6= 0 . f 0 .
2

8.3.

K , |K |.
|K |,
Rn , ,
.
Rn , K

116

III.

{v } ,
( k + 1 k-
); K
K .
K |K | .
vi1 , . . . , vik+1 , k- .
v1 , . . . , v p v1 , . . . , v p v1 , . . . , v p ,
v p+1 , . . . , vq . |K |
: U |K | , U .
K : K 0 L0 , L0 0- L Rn , : v1 , . . . , vk K ,
L (v1), . . . , (vk).
|K | |L|.
K .
8.4. n- 2n + 1.
. K
v1 , . . . , vk .
t1 , . . . , tk R2n+1 (vi) = (ti , ti2 , ti3 , . . . , ti2n+1),
i = 1, . . . , k. K vi1 , . . . , vim
(vi1), . . . , (vim ).
, ,
, .
n, . . n + 1.
2n + 2. , (t, t 2 , t 3 , . . . , t 2n+1)
2n + 2 , () . 2n + 2 , 

1
1
. . . 12n+1 

1
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6= 0.


(2n + 1)! 
2n+1 
1 2n+2 . . . 2n+2

 8.

117

2n + 2 .
2
. x1 , . . . , xk RN ,
, m + 1
(m 1)- m 6 N.
n-
( v1 , . . . , vk) R2n+1 , x1 ,
. . . , xk R2n+1 .
, 8.4,
, , . x1 x2 RN . x3 , x1 x2 . x4 ,
x1 x2 x3 , . . x1 , . . . , xN +1 .
N
xN +2 , .
N
, .
L K ,
: L,
K ,
L.
8.2. , L K
, :
K L, L.
8.3. L K , L0
0
K L K . ,
L0 K 0 .

8.4.

, . ,
K L K L. ,
. , ,
K L .
,
.
,
.

118

III.

K L , f : |K | |L| . x |K | f(x) |L|.

f(x) L,
. ,
: K L f ,
x |K | (x) , f(x).
8.5. f f .
. ft (x) ,
t : (1 t) (x) f(x). ft , f0 = f1 = f .
2
,
. K , K .
K , . x |K | K , x.
st , x st x.
8.6. : K L
f : |K | |L| , f(st v) st (v)
v K .
. , f v K .
x st v. K v,
x, L , f(x).
, (x) (K ) (v),
, (x) L .
L (K ) 3 (v), , f(x) int L st (v).
, v K f(st v) st (v). x |K | v0 , . . . , vn
K , x.
!
n
n
n
\
\
\
f(st vi)
st (vi) = int ().
f(x) f
st vi
i=0

i=0

i=0

() ,
f(x). , (x) (), x .
2
. : K L : L M
f : |K ||L| g : |L||M|.
gf .

 8.

119

K , K (n) n- . , n
K (n) (. . 93).
8.7 ( ). ) K
L , K ,
f : |K | |L| .
n > 0 : K (n) L, f .
) f K1 K ,
, f K1 .
. ) L |L|. f U |K | .
( 4.6 . 70)
> 0, B |K |, ,
U.
n , K (n)
/2. : K (n) L
. v K (n) . st v , f(st v)
st w, w L. (v) = w (
w ,
). 0- . , , . . v1 , . . . , vk
K (n) , (v1), . . . , (vk)
L. , v1 , . . . , vk
k
T
,
st vi = st 6= .
v1 , . . . , vk K

(n)

i=1
k
T

i=1

k
T

i=1

f(st vi) 6= .

k
T

i=1

st (vi)

k
T

i=1

st vi 6= , -

f(st vi) 6= ,

(v1), . . . , (vk) L .
8.6 , : K (n) L
f .
) v K1 . f(v) = w L. K (n) (. . n ),
f(st v) st w, (v) = w. 2

120

III.

.
8.8. f : S n S m ,
n < m, (. . ).
. , f , . , (x) 6= 0 S m x S n ,
t (x) =

t(x) (1 t)0
kt(x) (1 t)0 k

, S n 0 S m .
S n K ,
n- (n + 1)- . S m L.
f : |K | |L| : K (N) L. ,
n- L.
f 8.5.
2
. K n- L v0 , v1 , . . . , vn . , K
0, 1, . . . , n. : |K | |L|, a K vi , i a.
|K | |K | = |L| , , , . . a,
L, .
(
: 6.9 . 95),
.
8.9 ( [85]).
K n- L, : K L , i i- i K ,
i (i), ) . 0 1 + 2 . . . +
+ (1) n n = 1.
) i (i) , ,
, . , i (i),
(i) , i .

 8.

121












. 44. K1

. v0 , v1 , . . . , vn L, m , ai , m
[ai , vi ] |ai m| = k|mvi |, k > 0 . k , L = [v0 , . . . , vn ] [a0 , . . . , an ] .
K1 , a0 , . . . , an K (, K
L); K1 K ,
ai ,
K , [v0 , . . . , v i , . . . , vn ] .
K1 n = 2 . 44. : K1 L ,

K K1 ai vi . a K1 , i vi = (a).


, n = 1. ,
n
  
n = 0 1 + 2 . . . + (1) n .

n = 2 (. 45). vi K1 ,


i,
[vi , a j , ak ] K1 .
. 45. (. . , [a0 , a1 , a2 ]).
[x, y] K1 p q 1 ,
[v p , vq ] . [x, y] [x, y, ar ] , r 6= p, q, .
[x, y] [v p , vq ] ,
[a0 , a1 ] [v0 , v1 ]
( , -

122

III.

). ,
[x, y, z] K1 2 , . [x, y, z] [v0 , v1 , v2 ]
[a0 , a1 , a2 ] , [v0 , v1 , v2 ]
[a0 , a1 , a2 ] .
n .
- , [vi0 , vi1 , . . . , vik ] [ai0 , ai1 , . . . , aik ]
k k.
2

8.5.

U = {U } X
N = N(U), {v }
{U }, v0 , . . . , vk
, U0 . . . Uk 6= . X
U ( ), N
U.
. K {v },
U = st v v , . .
, v . {U } K .
. v0 , . . . , vk
k , st v0 . . . st vk = st k 6= .
2
U X , U0 . . . Uk . X. ,
.
8.10. U = {U } X.
N = N(U) X.
. .
, U X. XU .
U0 . . . Un = U0 ...n U0 ...n n0 ...n , n0 ...n 0 , . . . ,
n . : (x, y),

 8.

123

x U0 ...n y [0 . . . i . . . n ] n0 ...n ,
n1
U0 ... i ...n
; ,
0 ... i ...n
U0 ...n U0 ... i ...n .
1. X , X XU .
p : XU X ,
U0 ...n n0 ...n U0 ...n . ,
1
U .

P p (x)
P
t x , t > 0,
t = 1 x = x U 3 x.

, .
X , { }, {U }, . . supp P
U . s : X XU : s(x) = (x)x ;
, (x) = 0,
, (x) 6= 0, x U x = x. ,
p s = idX . , s p idXU . x U0 , . . . , U
n

P
P
U . y = t x s p(y) = x x0 , . . . , xn .

:

y s p(y) s p(y) y.
2. U , XU |N(U)|.
XU .
U , [, ]
U, , [, , ] U,, . .
|N(U)|.
2

8.6.

K n- , :
: K n- ;
: (n 1)- K n- ;
: n- na
n
b n1 = na , n2 , . . . , nk = nb ,
ni ni+1 (n 1)- .
(n 1)- n- Mn , n-

124

III.

, Mn . Mn = , Mn . Mn (n 1)-
n- .
n Rn Rn n .
n > 0 .
, ,
.
n n1
n . x n1
, n 1 n1 , n . ,
n1 n 1 , .
Mn ,
n- ,
, (n 1)- ,
. ,
,
. Mn
.
. (. 46).
R5 ( 8.4 . 116), .
. Mn Rm (,
). Rm Rm+1 Rm+1 \ Rm a. [a, x] , x Mn , (n + 1)-
. Mn
Mn .

. 46.

 8.

125

. ( ) Mn
, Mn . , , .
, Mn (Mn) n2 (n 2)-
, Mn \ (Mn) n2 , . .
2.
. 2- ,
. 47, 3- , ( . 47.

).

8.7.

Mn n.
f : Mn Rm , f ( ). Mn Rm
0- (Mn) 0 ,
(Mn) 0 Rm Mn Rm .
f : Mn Rn (
). y Rn f , y (n 1)- Mn . Rn
.
Mn , f : Mn Rn
y f .
f y
X
deg(f , y) =
sgn J f (x),
x f 1 (y)

sgn J f (x) f x, . . sgn J f (x) = 1,

n , x, f(n) Rn ;
sgn J f (x) = 1.

126

III.

8.11. Mn , f : Mn Rn , y1 y2
f . y1 y2

Rn \ f(Mn), deg(f , y1) = deg(f , y2).
. (n 2)- Mn Rn , (n 2)-
Rn Rn . Rn L y1 y2 , (n 2)-
, f(Mn) (n 1)-
a1 , . . . , ak . f 1 (ai)
, 6 n 2, f 1 (ai) ,
(n 1)- ,
n- ,
(n 1)- .
f 1 (ai) Mn = ,
(n 1)- , n-
n- .
, ai

: . . 48 ();
, .
, ,

(. 48 ()). .
2
8.12. Mn , f , g : Mn Rn ,
Mn . , y
f g. deg(f , y) = deg(g, y).





. 48.

 8.

127

. ft =
= (1 t) f + tg. , f0 = f , f1 = g ft
Mn t.
X Rn \ ft (Mn), y ( X t, ft (Mn)
t). X ,
ft . , ft yt X. 8.11 deg(ft , yt)
yt X, (t) = deg(ft , yt).
yt X ft
> 0, : (t , t + )
[0, 1] yt f f1 (yt )
. , yt
n- Rn ,
yt
. , (t)
Ut = (t , t + ) [0, 1] . {Ut }, t [0, 1] ,
[0, 1] .
, , (t)
[0, 1] , (0) = (1), . . deg(f , y1) = deg(f , y0).
2
8.12 , ( 6.9 . 95). 2- , ( n-
[130]).
(. 49). ,






. 49.

128

III.

; . .
f
Rn ( i
i). f , (
) 1. f

.
.

8.8.

1933 . . [38] , . .
8.13 ( ). f : S n Rn . f(x) = f(x) x S n .
x x ,
.
g : S n Rn , , g(x) = g(x). ,
.
8.14. g : S n Rn .
g(x) = 0 x S n .
, f : S n Rn ,
g(x) = f(x) f(x) , f(x) = f(x) g(x) = 0. , g : S n Rn
, g(x) = g(x) x S n . , g(x) = g(x), g(x) = 0.
8.14 .
8.15. h : D n Rn , S n1 = D n . h(x) = 0
x D n .
8.14 8.15, D n
D n+1 ( S n) ,
, h D n
g.
8.15. D n n- I n , I = [1, 1] . . ,

 8.

129

h : I n Rn I n 0 6 h(I n). h(I n) , 0. r

.
h , I n
< r. v h (v) = h(v) h
. x I n -
, h(x) h (x)
, , kh(x) h (x)k 6 .
I n , . h (x) I n . , kh(x) h (x)k 6
, 0 6 h (I n).
, : I n Rn , I n h deg(, 0) . ,
deg(h , 0) = 0; , 8.12
deg(, 0) = deg(h , 0).
, : I n Rn 0 , deg(, 0) . ,
1 (0)
P
0 (x, x),
1
.
. , h , Rn . v I n
(v) = h (v). .
: 0
, 0 = (0) .
0 .
W 0. ,
W I n = . v W (v) = v. |W
,
W . ,
I n , , 0 Rn
.
2
,
.
8.16. m > n > 1. f : S m S n .

130

III.

, m > n > 1, S m S n S m S n Rn+1 \ {0} Rm \ {0}.

8.16. ,
S m Rm \ {0} S m S m1 .
.
[95] . 8.15
[61] .
8.4.* ) ( [127]) n- I n , I n . , 1, 2, . . . , n, v I n
, v v ,
0. , (. . ) , ,
0.
) .
. [16] .

8.9.

. [38] ,
.
[9, . 26] .
8.17 ( ). S n F1 , . . . , Fn+1 .
.
. Fi , Fi . , Fi (Fi) =
i = 1, . . . , n, Fn+1 (Fn+1) 6= .
(. . 67) F1 F1 , Rn+1 , 1 : S n [0, 1] , 1 (F1) = 0
1 (F1) = 1 ( f , f(F1) = 1
f(F1) = 1; 1 = (1 + f) /2). 2 , . . . , n . : S n Rn , (x) = (1 (x), ..., n (x)). x0 S n , (x0) = (x0). x Fi ,
i = 1, . . . , n, i (x) i (x) = 1, i (x) 6= i (x). -

 8.
, x0 6

n
T

i=1

Fi x0 6

n
T

i=1

(Fi) =

131
n
T

i=1

Fi . x0 Fn+1

x0 Fn+1 .
2
8.18. F1 , . . . , Fn
Rn . ,
Fi .
. x S n1 Rn S n1
. c R
c (x) = {y Rn | (y, x) = c}.
, x S n1 c R, c (x) F1
. 1 (x) = c. x x ,
F1 , . , c (x) = c (x),
1 (x) = c. 2 , . . . , n : S n1 Rn1 ,


(x) = n (x) 1 (x), . . . , n (x) n1 (x) .

, (x) = (x). x0 S n1 , (x0) = 0, . . 1 (x0) = 2 (x0) = . . . =

= n (x0) = c. c (x0) . 2
, S m 2 ( ,
, , ). .
8.5.* [34] S n S m , : S n
S m . , n-
(S n) n- S n .
, :
A Rn n + 2 ,
A B C
, .
, A n + 2 ,
: f : n+1 Rn . n+1 ,
. ,
f -

132

III.

f . , ,
.
8.6.* [33] ) P (. . (n + 1)- ) Rn+1 ,
f : P Rn . , ) P, .
) , f : n+1 Rn
n+2
T
n1 , . . . , nn+2 n- n+1 ,
f(ni) 6= .
i=1

9.

CW-

CW -, [140] . CW - D n D n = S n1 .
.

9.1.

X Y
: A Y , A X, .
X t Y X Y .
X t Y : a (a)
a A.
Y X.
Y Y X , X Y X , : A Y ; X \ A
.
U Y X () , () X Y
p : X t Y Y X.
. X = R, A = {x R | x < 0}, Y = R : A Y
, . . (x) = x x A (. 50).
Y X : 0 X 0 Y Y X
, .
) n,
.

 9. CW -

133


. 50.

, 9.1, ,
.
9.1. X Y
, A X : A Y
. Y X .
. ,
c Y X . c p(X \ A)
c p(Y) \ p(A), p 1 (c) ( X
Y). c p(A), c Y c,
c X 1 (c), ,
.
C1 C2 Y X. C = C1 C2
f : C I, C1 0, C2 1, . ,
f : C I, C Y X ,
Y X.
C Y X , f : C I
. CX = p 1 (C) X CY =
= p 1 (C) Y . f
p

fX : CX C I fY : CY C I. fY
FY : Y I. A FY

fA : A Y Y I. CX A
fX fA ,
fXA : CX A I.
A.
fXA ,
CX A, CX . A , CX A .
fXA FX : X I. x A,
FX (x) = FY ((x)). FX FY F
Y X. FX FY

134

III.

F . F |C = f , . . F
f .
2

9.2.

CW-

X CW -,
S
X =
X i , X 0 X i+1
i=0

i

F i+1 X D
(i + 1)-
A
F i
:
S X i , Si = Di+1 . A

(c) (w), .
Di+1 int Di+1 X i+1
X, ,
i + 1. (c) (w), , :
(c) ;
(w) C X ,
C .
, , (c) (w) .
(c) (w) closure finite weak
topology.
X.
X i i- CW - X.
CW - X n n, X n- CW -.
i+1
i+1
i+1
X : D X
.
. X 0 = S 1 = D 2 ; X 1 =
= X 0 , X 2 = X D 2 X 0
S 1 S 1 . X
(w), (c).
. Sn1 1/n

S
(0, 1/n), X =
Sn1 (. 51); X
n=1

R2 .
f : X Y , Y CW - 0- -

 9. CW -

135

( ) Dn1 , n = 1, 2, . . . f
.
. Sn1 xn , . F X,
xn , n = 1, 2, . . . F
, lim xn = (0, 0) 6 F .
n

, f(F) ,
1-
.
2
CW - , - . 51.
, , - CW -
, . f : X Y CW -, f 1 (C) ,
.
A X, X CW -, , A X .
CW -.
S n CW - 0- n- . S n CW - 0 n.
: S n1 S n
.
RP n
Rn+1 \ {0} : x x R \ {0}. R C, CP n .
(x1 , . . . , xn+1) Rn+1 \ {0} (x1 : . . . : xn+1)
RP n ; x1 , . . . , xn+1 RP n . CP n .
(x1 : x2) 7 x1 /x2 RP 1 \ {(1 : 0)}
R1 , RP 1 S 1 . , CP 1 S 2 .
RP n CW -, f : D n RP n ,
q


f(x1 , . . . , xn) = x1 : . . . : xn : 1 x12 . . . xn2 .

136

III.

S n1 D n
RP n1 = {(x1 : . . . : xn : xn+1) RP n : xn+1 = 0}.
, f int D n
RP n \ RP n1 ;
(x1 : . . . : xn+1) 7 (1 x1 xn+1 , . . . , 1 xn xn+1),
2
2 = xn+1
(x12 + . . . + xn2), > 0. , RP n
RP n1 n.
, CP n CP n1 2n. ,

D 2n = {(z1 , . . . , zn) Cn | |z1 |2 + . . . + |zn |2 6 1}.

f : D 2n CP n ,
q


f(z1 , . . . , zn) = z1 : . . . : zn : 1 |z1 |2 . . . |zn |2 .

CP n \ CP n1

(z1 : . . . : zn+1) 7 (1 z1 zn+1 , . . . , 1 zn zn+1),

2 = |zn+1 |2 (|z1 |2 + . . . + |zn |2), > 0. , CP n CW -, 2i,
i = 0, 1, . . . , n.
9.1. , CP n D 2n Cn D 2n = S 2n1 : x x C, || = 1.
, CW - S n , RP n CP n , CW - S , RP
CP .
9.2. , S .
CW - .
, CW - (
, , [13] [19]). CW -, .
CW -, I = [0, 1] , f(x) = x sin( /2x) x > 0, f(0) = 0
(. 52); I f [y1 , 1] .
I 2 R3 (x, y) 7 (x, xy, f(y))
(. 53). x = 1 f .
x = c, 0 < c 6 1, , c

 9. CW -

137


=
 

. 52. f

. 53.

y. , x = 0
(0, 0, z), z [y1 , 1] .
CW - X, 0-
I 2 (0, 0, y1), 1-
z 0 y1 , 2- .
, CW - X , . . X CW -. , X , , X,
. , (0, 0, yi),
yi f , , X. .
. 54 ().



. 54. yi



138

III.

; . 54 ().

9.3.

CW -
: CW - (
) ; CW -
, CW -
; CW - .
CW -.
9.2. CW - X
.
. , X n . n = 0 :
X 0 . 9.1.
X. C X , f : C I . f C X 0 f0 , F0
X 0 . f F0 (C X 1) X 0
f1 , X 1 , . . F : X I, ,
, . (w) ,
F .
2
9.3. ,
CW - .
CW - , CW - .
9.3. ) CW - X , 1- X 1 .
) CW - ,
.
. ) n > 2, D n
n1
X
S n1 X n1
. , n > 2 S n1 , . , D n .

 9. CW -

139

, CW - X , X n
n > 1. X n , CW - X
.
) 1- CW -
. ) , n > 2
S n1 D n .
2
X ,
x X U 3 x
V , x V U
( V ,
V V V x). .
9.4. CW - X .
. V , V U.
x X
int em int Dm , x. int em U
X m . Vm x
, Vm int em U; ftm : Vm Vm ,
Vm x.
, n > m Vn X n
ftn . Vn+1
X n+1 ftn+1 .
0


:
D n+1 X n+1


000000000000

000
0+
.



000

00

000+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
Vn0 = 1 (Vn)
S n D n+1 , U 0 = 1 (U) ( D n+1)
D n+1 , Vn0 U 0 , Vn U.
Vn0 ,
(0, 1)
0
Vn+1
= {tv | 1 6 t 6 1, v Vn0 }

U 0 (. 55).
0
Vn+1
= {tv | 1 < t 6 1, v Vn0 }

. 55. 0
Vn+1

0
D n+1 Vn+1
. 0
0
, Vn+1
Vn+1

140

III.

0
Vn+1
Vn0 .
0
Vn+1 (n + 1)- ,
Vn+1 X n+1 , Vn+1 U; , , Vn+1 Vn+1
Vn+1 Vn , Vn . ftn ftn+1 .

S
V =
Vn X ftn n=0

, V V
V x.
2
9.5. CW - X .
. U = {U | A} CW - X. V = {V | B},
U, X n , n = 0, 1, . . .
, n- {V,n } X n ;

S
V,n . B
V,0 V,1 . . . V =
n=0

n: n- Bn (
V,n , ,
X n \ X n1).
n = 0 B0 = X 0 ; B0 V,0 X 0 . B0 () A , U() .
, n > 0 B0 , . . . , Bn , V,n , B0 . . . Bn .
V,n+1 . -,
B0 . . . Bn V,n V,n+1 ,
V,n+1 X n+1 U() .
X n+1 \ X n
V,n+1 . , X n+1 ,
V,n+1 , Bn+1 , ,
U() . ,
V,0 = V,1 = . . . = V,n = Bn+1 .
V,n . : D n+1 X n+1 0
(n + 1)- , V,n
=
S
1
0
1
0
0
= (V,n) U() = (U() ). U = U()
D n+1 , D n+1 \ U 0 . , S n = D n+1 U 0 . , (0, 1) {tv | 1 6 t 6 1, v S n } U 0 .

 9. CW -

141

, , = 1/2.
0
0
V,n+1
= {tv | 1/2 < t 6 1, v V,n
}.

V,n+1
0
(V,n+1
) (n + 1)- . , V,n V,n+1 U()
V,n+1 X n+1 .
V,n+1 .
, , = 1/2. , ,
B = {tv | 0 6 t < 3/4, v S n }, D n+1 \ B 0
0
V,n+1
, V,n
.
1
B. int (U) B, 1 , . . . , k , int 1 (Ui ), i = 1, . . . , k, B. Vi ,n+1 = (B 1 (Ui )), i = 1, . . . , k.
(n + 1)- .
, V X n = V,n , V .
, Bn V,n U() , V U() .
, V = {U | B} .
n, Vn = {U,n | B0 . . . Bn }
X n . n = 0 .
6 n. x X n+1 . : D n+1 X n+1
, x.
, x (n + 1)-
, . . x X n .
X n Wn 3 x,
V,n .
0
Wn+1
= {tv | 3/4 < t 6 1, v 1 (Wn)}.
0
Wn+1 (Wn+1
)
(n + 1)- , x. Wn+1
X n+1 V,n+1 ,
Bn+1 ( t < 3/4).
, x (n + 1)-
0
: D n+1 X n+1 . x , Wn+1
=
n
0
= {tv | 0 < t < 1/2, v S } Wn+1 = (Wn+1); Wn+1 V,n+1 , B0 . . . Bn .
x , x 0 x S n
. X n

142

III.

Wn 3 x 0 , V,n . 0
0
Wn+1
= {tv | 0 < t < 1, v 1 (Wn)} Wn+1 = (Wn+1
).
Wn+1 V,n+1 , B0 . . . Bn ,
Wn V,n 6= . (n + 1)-
V,n+1
Bn+1 . Wn+1
V,n+1 .
, x X n- .

Wn Wn+1 . . . m > n, x Wm
Wm X m . , Wm V,m , Wn V,n 6= .

S
Wm X V ,
W=
m=n

Wn V,n 6= . .

9.4.

X Y CW -. f : X Y
, f(X n) Y n .
9.6 ( ). X Y
CW -, A X (, A = ), f : X Y
, A .
g : X Y , f , A
.
. g n X, ,
. g, em Y , m > n, n em , int em
f .
. f : D n Y : D m Y , m > n;
f(S n1) Y \ int (D m).
g : D n Y , :
1) f(x) 6 int (D m), g(x) = f(x);
2) g f ,
int (D m);
3) g(D n) Y \ int (D m).

 9. CW -

143

1. g : D n Y ,
1 2
y int (D m).
Dm = {x Rm | kxk 6 } ( , D m = D1m).
0 < < 1 Dm (Dm) Y .
, Dm (Dm) Y .
f 1 (D3m/4) f ,
> 0 , x, y f 1 (D3m/4) D n kx yk < ,
k f(x) f(y)k < 1/4.
D n ( n- ),
. f S1m1
= D1m/2 ,
/2
m
m
D3/4 \ D1/4 .
D n
:
) S1m1
;
/2
) S1m1
;
/2
) S1m1
.
/2
g
. g(x) = f(x) . g(v) = f(v) , . , ,
, S1m1
/2
(
), .
g(v) = f(v). 1- ,
.
. 2- g , .
2 [m, x] , m 2 , x 2 . x g
. g(m) = f(m)
[m, x] (. 56).
3- , . .
k D n . , g(k)
f(k). f(k) D1m/4 . ,
, f(k) 1/4 y0 ,
y0 f(k) S1m1
/2
D1m/4 .

144

III.









. 56.

ft , f g, . f(x) = g(x), ft (x) = f(x) x.

f(x) 6= g(x), f(x) g(x) D m ;
ft (x) = (1 t) f(x) + tg(x).
D1m/4 g
n < m, D1m/4 y,
g.

2.

g1 : D n Y , 1, 2 3.
1 f g0 ,
. 57.

y int (D m). g0 y (. 57). g1
3 g0 ;
gt = (1 t) g0 + tg1 .
2

9.5.

CW-

X CW -.
i : X Rn , i X
i(X).
9.7. CW - X n R (n+1) (n+2) /2 .
. CW - X , 7.2 (. . 100)
X RN .

 10.

145

n = dim X. n = 0 .
, (n 1)- X n1
in1 : X n1 RN . , 0 6 in1 (X n1). in : X n1 RN Rn R .
x X n1
in (x) = (in1 (x), 0, 0) RN Rn R.

n- (Dn ), = 1, . . . , k. Dn tx , 0 6 t 6 1 x Sn1 = Dn , . .
kx k = 1. x in1 ( (x)),
in1 (x). tx Dn
(
(0, tx , )
t 6 1/2;


in (tx) =
(2t 1)in1 (x), (1 t)x , 2(1 t)
t > 1/2;
t = 1/2 .
, in . in (t1 x) = in (t2 x).
t1 6 1/2 t2 > 1/2 , in (x) 6= 0.
t1 , t2 6 1/2 t1 = t2 , x = x = . t1 , t2 > 1/2
(1 t1)x = (1 t2)x , t1 = t2 (,
kx k = kx k = 1), x = x = .
2
. : CW - n R2n+1 . [8] .

10.
, , , ,
. , .
, ,
( ), . . ( CW -) ( CW -).

10.1.

, X Y ,
X Y

146

III.

X Y . pX (x, y) = x pY (x, y) = y
.

, . 8.2 (. . 114) ,
, . . . ,
.
X Y CW -, X Y . ,
: (D p , S p1) (X p , X p1) : (D q , S q1) (X q , X q1). ,
D p D q D p+q
S p+q1 D p+q (D p D q) (D p D q).

(D p+q , S p+q1) (X p Y q , X p Y q1 X p1 Y q).
X Y .
X Y CW -, X Y
(c) (w), . . X Y CW -.
CW - (w) .
10.1. S p S q = (S p {}) ({} S q) S p S q .
, S p S q /S p S q S p+q .

10.2.

I = [0, 1] , X . X
X I.
X X I/ (X {1});
x1 {1}
x2 {1} x1 , x2 X. X CX.
X
X = X I/ (X {1} X {0}) = CX/ (X {0}).
1. , CS n D n+1 S n S n+1 .
X CW - A , X/A CW -. CX X CW -. , ,
.

 10.

10.3.

147

X Y X Y X I Y : (x1 , t1 , y1) (x2 , t2 , y2), t1 = t2 = 0 x1 = x2 ,

t1 = t2 = 1 y1 = y2 . X Y , X, Y Rn ,
[x, y] , x X, y Y , . ,
X Y [x, y] .
2. , D p D q D p+q+1 .
3. , D 0 X CX S 0 X X.
( D 0 , S 0 .)
4. x S p , y S q , t [0, 1] . ,



t
t
(x, t, y) 7 cos x, sin y
2

S p S q S p+q+1 .
a0 , . . . , a p , b0 , . . . , bq R p+q+1 .
a0 , . . . , a p b0 , . . . , bq
a0 , . . . , a p , b0 , . . . , bq . ,

A B , A,
B. (,
.)
10.1. X, Y Z
. (X Y) Z X (Y Z).
. X, Y Z Rn ,
{x }, {y } {z } .
(X Y) Z X (Y Z)
xi0 , . . . , xi p , y j0 , . . . , y jq , zk0 , . . . , zkr ,
p, q, r > 0.
2
K , p N 2 6 j 6 p.
J jp (K) . p-
J p (K) = K . . . K ; (1 , . . . , p) K .
, j .
p
J j (K).
k- n skk n ; n
.

148

III.

, J22 , , skn 2n+2 R2n ,

. . skn 2n+2 R2n .
, 8.4 116 n- R2n+1 .
, skn 2n+2 R2n ,
[131] [57] . [64] .
, K , f : K R2n
( |K | K).
CK K . f
f : CK R2n , K f(K) f(CK \ K) = .
CK CK K , CK ,
K . : K J22 (K).
, K


t1 x1 + (1 t1)v, t2 x2 + (1 t2)v , v CK , x1 , x2 1 , 2 K
t1 t2 1.

t
t1 = 1;

hx1 , 2 , x2 i
2
t1 x1 + (1 t1)v, t2 x2 + (1 t2)v =
hx1 , 1 t2 , x2 i t2 = 1.
2

K J22 (K) (a, b)

(b, a) hx1 , t, x2 i hx2 , 1 t, x1 i.
.
f f : K R2n+1 , f (a, b) = f(a) f(b). , . . f (a, b) = f (a, b). f (a, b) 6= 0 (a, b) K .
, (a, b) K f(a) = f(b). f(a) = f(b) f(K), a, b K . a, b K ,
f(K) f(CK \ K) = . , a = b, f
K . a b
.
, J22 (K) S 2n+1 ,
, K R2n . , K R2n ,

 10.

149

g : S 2n+1 R2n+1 \ {0},

g(x) = g(x) x S 2n+1 .
.

10.2. J22 (skn 2n+2)
2n+1
S
,
.
. n = 0

. 58.


sk0 2 a, b, c;
a, b, c. ,



a b c . . ,

.
n - . 58.
.
skn 2n+2 n-
R2n+2 v0 , . . . , v2n+2 . . v0 , . . . , v2n+2 , .
skn 2n+2 n-
v0 , . . . , v2n+2 .
J22 (skn 2n+2) .
v0 , . . . , v2n+2 v0 , . . . , v2n+2 n + 1
, . ; (2n + 1)-
. ,
.
,
P
0. ,
i vi = 0 , i ,
,
vi .
e R2n+2 . , {e : > 0}

P .
,

e
=
i vi ,
P
P
P 0 6 1 6 . . . 6
6 2n+2 . e = e k+1 vi = (i k+1)vi = i vi , i 6 0
k
P
0 6 i 6 k, k+1 = 0 i > 0 k+ 2 6 i 6 2k+ 2. 0 = i ,
00 =

2k+2
P

i=k+2

i=0

i = 0 + 00 ; 0 00 ,

150

III.

e 6= 0.
k
0 X

i=0

i
0

(vi) +

2k+2
00 X i
e
v =

0 i

i=k+2

( 0 = 0
00 = 0, ).
vi y P
y = Pi vi , i 6 0
0 6 i 6 k, k+1 = 0, i > 0 k + 2 6 i 6 2k + 2 |i | = 1. , y, > 0,

P
P
. y = i vi ,
|i | = 1 i
k + 1 k + 1 . ,
2k+2
X
i=0

vi = y

y
= 0,

i i / , . .
i = (i ). > 0, 0 6 . . . 6 k+1 = < 0, < 0,
2k+2 > . . . > k+1 = > 0. ,
i k + 1 k +P1 .
P
, = 0, . . i = i . > 0
|i | = |i | = 1,
= 1.
, {e | > 0}
. ,
S 2n+1
P
P.
, ,
i vi ,
|i | = 1
i n + 1 n + 1 , . , (2n + 1)- .
2
.
p
10.3 (. [119]). J j (n) J n+1 (sk j2 p1).
. n = 0, n = ( ) p
J j (n) (1 , . . . , p), j 1
i ,
. sk j2 p1 = J 1 (sk j2 p1).
, A B
, J jp (A B) J jp (A) J jp (B). ,
A B (
A = B). , a b = , ak1 bl1 , . . . , ak j bl j ,
ak1 . . . ak j = bl1 . . . bl j = .

 10.

151

, n J n+1 (0),


p
p
p
J j (n) J j (0 . . . 0) J n+1 J j (0) J n+1 (sk j2 p1).

1. J p (n) J n+1 (S p2) S (n+1) (p1)1 .

2. J jp (n) (n + 1) (j 1) 1.

10.4.

X . X n = X . . . X Sn : (x1 , . . . , xn) =
= (x(1) , . . . , x(n) ). X n Sn
n- X SPn (X).
5. , SP2 (R) {(x, y) R2 | y > 0}.
10.4. SPn (S 2) SPn (CP 1) CP n .
.
(a1 : b1), . . . , (an : bn) CP 1

n
n
Q
P
k nk
(ai x bi y) =
ck x y
. (ai : bi) (ai : bi)
i=1

k=0

ck n ,


(a1 : b1), . . . , (an : bn) 7 (c0 : . . . : cn)

CP 1 . . . CP 1 CP n .
(a1 : b1), . . . , (an : bn) (c0 : . . . : cn) ,
h : SPn (CP 1) CP n .
C
n
P
.
ck x k y nk ,
ck ,

k=0
n
Q

i=1

(ai x bi y),

i ai bi . ,
h . h
,
. , h .
, h : SPn (S 2) CP n . SPn (S 2) , S 2 . . . S 2
. CP n , CW -. 7.2 (. . 100)
h .
2

152

III.

10.5. ) SPn (C) Cn .

) SPn (C \ {0}) Cn1 (C \ {0}).
. ) b 7 (1 : b) C CP 1 S 2 . SPn (C)
SPn (CP 1) CP n . (b1 , . . . , bn) SPn (C) n
Q

(x bi), SPn (C) Cn CP n .
i=1

SPn (C) Cn
SPn (CP 1) CP n . ( SPn (C) Cn [67] .)
) , b1 , . . . , bn C \ {0},
n
Q

(x bi) ,
i=1

Cn1 (C \ {0}). , x n + cn1 x n1 + . . . + c0

, c0 6= 0. n
Q

(x bi), , i=1

.
2
10.6. SPn (RP 2) RP 2n .
. RP 2 S 2 . S 2 z z 1 ( 0 ), . . (a : b) (b : a) CP 1 .
n RP 2
f(x, y) =

n
Y
i=1

(ai x bi y) (bi x ai y).

(1)

(ai : bi) (ai : bi) (bi : ai);

f ||2 1. , f
,
.
,
f(y, x) = (1) n f(x, y).

(2)

, 2n, (2), (1),

(a : b), (b : a).
n
P
f(x, y) =
ck x nk y n+k (2) k=n

, ck = (1) k ck . , f(x, y) -

 10.

153

c0 c1 , . . . , cn .
( , ). , f ,
, , RP 2n .
h :
SPn (RP 2) RP 2n . SPn (RP 2) ,
RP 2n , h .
2
.
h : SPn (RP 2) RP 2n [2] .

SPn (S 1). S 1 D n ,
I D n (0, x) (1, h(x)), h : D n D n
,
( h ,
). SPn (S 1) S 1 D n1 n SPn (S 1) S 1 D n1
n. [98] .
6. , SP2 (S 1) .

 IV

. .
.
11.
11.1.

M2 , , D 2 .
X, M2 , ,
.
1. ,
, . 59,
, .
, M2 , , , , D 2 , a, ,
,
2
D+
= {(x, y) R2 | x 2 + y 2 < 1, y > 0},

2
a (0, 0) D+
.
, , .

. 59. ,

 11.

155

11.1. h : M2 N 2 , .
h(M2) = N 2 .
. , a
M2 \ M2 , h(a) 6 N 2 . a M2 \ M2 U, D 2 . , b = h(a) N 2 .
2
b V , D+
, b
2
(0, 0) D+ . W = U h1 (V)
2
a. U D 2 V D+
,
2
2
2
h W D R h(W) D+
R2 , h(0, 0) = (0, 0).
> 0 W
z R2 , kz ak 6 . S 1 a (. 60). h(S 1)
2
R2 D+
. , b = h(a)
, S 1 , . , R2 = {(x, y) R2 : y < 0}
2
D+
, R2 h(S 1),
, b . 2
M2 ,
2, , D 2 , ,
1, , 2
D 2 D+
. , , M2 ,
. v M2 . , M2 v m ,
, . 61 (), n ,
, . 61 (). v
n + m 

 





. 60.

156

IV. . . ...





. 61.

. ,
2
D 2 D+
. M2
, m + n = 1 v, . . v ,
. 61 (), , . 61 ().

11.2.

X X |K |, K .
K X.
X ,

. , , .62 ()
(), . . 62 (); .
. 63 ( , ). 










. 62.

 11.

157






  










    



   


. 63.

, 8.4 . 116 5.
, , : . 64 () , . ,
,
. 64 ().






















!

. 64.

158

IV. . . ...

. 65.

. 65 , D 2 , .
T 2 , K 2 P 2 , , . 63. , , p, q r
. S 2 #
# pT 2 # qK 2 # rP 2 .
S 2 , p + q + r
, . p
p
T 2 \ 2 , 2 T 2 ; K 2 P 2 . ,
S 2 .
M2 # N 2 M2 N 2 .
, S 2 # M2 M2 M2 .
11.2. S 2 # 2P 2 K 2 .
. S 2 # 2P 2
S 2 I, .
K 2 ,
: . 66 .
2
11.3. T 2 # P 2 K 2 # P 2 .

. 66.

 11.

159





. 67. T 2 # P 2 K 2 # P 2

. T 2 # P 2 K 2 # P 2
. 67.
c b.
2
11.2 11.3 , S 2 # pT 2 #
# qK 2 # rP 2 S 2 # mT 2 S 2 # nP 2 ;
mT 2 nP 2 (, m > 0
n > 0).
M2 ; v , e
, f . M2 (M2) = v e + f .
11.4. M2
mT 2 nP 2 . m n
(M2) = 2 2m (M2) = 2 n.
(. [126]). M2
.
;
, .
,
. ,
1. ,
v v 1 ; 1.

+
, 2, v e + f 6 2.
, , .
, 2 v + e f > 0 . , v . -

160

IV. . . ...

. 68.

, ,
. M2 .
A M2 p; AA1 A2 , AA2 A3 ,
. . . , AA p A1 . p = 3, M2 ,
h 2 , M2 A
M
AA1 A2 , AA2 A3 AA3 A1 A1 A2 A3 . M2
, M2 S 2 (M2) = 2. ,
M2 , p > 4.
, i Ai Ai+2
. M2 , Ai Ai+1
Ai Ai+2 . 2 v + e f v, .
M2 , Ai Ai+2
.
M2 AA1 , A1 A3 AA3 , AA1 A3
, p > 4. M2 AA1 , A1 A3 AA3 . , 6
6 , 2.
, ,
(. 68).
,
( ).
h 2 . f = f + 2,
M
e = e + 2 v = v + 3,
v e + f = v e + f + 2;

(1)

 11.

161

v e + f = v e + f + 1.

(2)

2 v + e f M2
h 2 , M2 ,
M
2
h
M , ,
h 2 m0 T 2
M

h 2 n0 P 2 .
M

(3)

h 2 M2 M
2
2
h
h 2 # K 2 (
. M M # T 2 M2 M
h 2 # P 2.
, ). M2 M

M2 mT 2 M2 nP 2 .
(4)

h 2) = 2 2m0 (M
h 2) = 2 n0 (
, (M
0
0
m n (3)), (M2) = 2 2m
(M2) = 2 n ( m n (4)).
(1) (2), ,
h 2 # T 2) = (M
h 2 # K 2) = (M
h 2) 2 (M
h 2 # P 2) = (M
h 2) 1.
(M
2

11.3.

, .
11.5. S 2 , mT 2 , m = 1, 2, . . . , nP 2 , n =
= 1, 2, . . . , .
. M21 M22
, h : M21 M22 . , (M21) = (M22).
M22 , , G2 , M22 ,
G1 , M21 . v1 , e1 f1
, G1 M22 ; v2 ,
e2 f2 G2 . , G1 , -
G2 .
G = G1 G2 . v, e f , G
M22 . , v e + f = v2 e2 + f2 .
G2 (. . 2- M22). v , e f , G,
. v e + f = 1
( 1 2, , ). v

162

IV. . . ...

e v = v0 + v00 e = e0 + e00 , v0 e0
, , v00 e00
. , v0 = e0 , v00 e00 + f = 1.
, ,
, . v0 = e0
, ,
G2 ; .
, v e + f = v2 e2 + f2 . G
M21 , v e + f = v1 e1 + f1 , ,
v1 e1 + f1 = v2 e2 + f2 , . . (M21) = (M22).
,
, , (S 2) = 2, (T 2) = 0 (P 2) = 1.
, (M2 # N 2) = (M2) + (N 2) 2. ,
(mT 2) = 2 2m (nP 2) = 2 n. mT 2 2mP 2 . ,
( m > 1).
S 2 T 2 , mT 2 .
, P 2 


. ,


P 2 abca, . 69 ,

 (2- 23
). nP 2 ,

n > 1,


( 6 ),
6 . . 69. , nP 2 (n > 1) , .

,
, . .
, .
M2 , : I = [0, 1] M2
. M2 Ui , -

 11.

163

R2 . x Ui ,
Ui ;
x.
1 (Ui)
I. W1 , . . . , Wn . , 0 W1 , W j W j+1 6=
1 Wn . x (W j) ,
(W j). ,
(W j) (W j+1) 6= ,
(W j+1).
(0) (1). ,
{ 1 (Ui)}. , Ui R2
, Ui = R2 . U j Ui
R2 .
(U j Ui) U j
, R2 .
M2 , , . .
. , ,
, , . , ,
nP 2
mT 2 .
2
2. , nT 2 mP 2
4n- 2m-, ,
. 70.
11.1. ) , nP 2
, .

















. 70.

 

164

IV. . . ...

) , n ,
, n .
11.2. M21 M22 . M22 I M21 I ?

11.4.

M2 . , M2
p C1 , . . . , C p
, M2 \ (C1 . . . C p)
, p + 1 M2 .
M2 p.
, p
g M2 . , ,
p > g (. . 71). , M2
C1 , . . . , C p , M2 , p 6 g.
C1 , . . . , C p . , 2p
. .
h 2 , M
2
h 2) 6 2, p 6 g.
(M ) + 2p = 2 2g + 2p. (M

. 71.

11.3. , nP 2 n
, n + 1 .

12.

, -

 12.

165

.
.


,
.
, , .
, . , .
. , , .
, , . 2.9 . 52 . , ;
.
,

.

12.1.

, p : Xh X , h = 0.
1 (X)
T 2 , (x + m, y + n) (x, y)
m, n.
p : R2 T 2 .
g , g > 2,
.

. G
H 2 4g-
2g

, ,
4g-. 4g- G . p : H 2 H 2 /G
M2g g M2g .

166

IV. . . ...

(
[18] .)
M2g
[81] .
12.1. ) , R2 , , R2 .
S
i j . ) i j = {(z1 , . . . , zn) Cn | zi = z j } = Cn \
i6= j

, Cn .

12.2.

H 1 (X, x0). h x 0) = H,
p : Xh X, p 1 (X,
h
, X.
1 2 X x0 x, h1 h2
x 0 . h1 h2
, 1 21 H.

Xh . X
x0 X, 1 (X, x0) H.
X x0 . 1 2 , 1 21 H. Xh
; Xh
. p : Xh X
.
X , p
.
. X
, . . x X U 3 x
V U, . ,
X .
, X
. ,
X.

 12.

167

h X.
h
X, .
x Xh U X , p x U. x
.
( x0), .

h 
U, x (U, x) X,




,
U. , (U, x) . ,

x


: x 2 (U, x 1),
(U, x 2) = (U, x 1). ,
. 72. 1 1
x1 = p x 1 x2 = p x 2 .
x1 x2 ,
U (. 72). , 1 1 , x1 x0 , , U.
1 1 , 1 , x0 x2 , 1 , U. 1 1 1 ,
1 7 1 1 (U, x 1) (U, x 2).
Xh
,
(U, x).
h Vh ,
. , x U
h
h
h

U = (U, x 1) V = (V , x 2). W = U V W = (W , x).
h =U
h Vh W
h .
W
p. U (
) ,
.
h x
X.
h
X, . . . (t) X. s (t) = (st), 0 6 s, t 6 1.
h
s x (s) X.
h

X, x (0) = x 0 x (1) = x.
U
. p : (U, x)

p (U, x),
U

168

IV. . . ...

. U
p, U
p. p, V U.

(U, x).
h x 0) p H.
i (X,
X x0 , h
h x 0) x 0 . p 1 (X,
, h .
h ,
x 0 , . . H.

12.3.

p 1 (Xh , x 0) 1 (X, x0) X; . .
. q : Y Y , f : X Y
() , X
. f 1 (X, x0) q 1 (Y , y 0),
f : X Y f
( , q f = f f (x0) = y 0).
. X, x0 x. f f . h f
y h . ,
y 0 . f (x) = y,
y . , 1 2
x0 x, , 1 2 ,
f y 0 Y . ,
f q 1 (Y , y 0). ,
f 1 (X, x0) q 1 (Y , y 0). .
f .
X. x X
U,
y = f (x). y = q(y)
h
. U
1

p (U), y.
f , f 1 (U) V
x. X ,

 12.

169

h,
, V . f (V) U
1 h

. . V f (U). , x1 V
x , V . f U,
h . ,
f , U
f (y) = y U
h.
2
. ,
pi : Xhi X (i = 1, 2)
X, (p1) 1 (Xh1 , x 1) (p2) 1 (Xh2 , x 2).
h : Xh1 Xh2 , p2 h = p1 h(x 1) = x 2 .
h p1 ,
h1 p2 .
, f X. X , f
. .
(). X R2 , AB I1 , I2 , . . . ,
A, B (. 73). Xh1 Xh2 ,
. pi : Xhi X . Xhi
X, ,
.
(p1) 1 (Xh1) = (p2) 1 (Xh2) = 2Z Z = 1 (X),
p1 h, p2 h = p1 .
h




h



. 73.

170

IV. . . ...

, h (
h), h
P Q, p11 (B).
12.2. , mn- p : Xh X

p1
p2
Xh Y X,

p1 m- p2 n- , , p 1 (x)
x X m- I1 , . . . , In ,
X ,
Ii , I j .
,
, .
12.1. m > n > 1. g : RP m RP n , .
. pm : S m RP m pn : S n RP n
. f : S m S n ,
gpm = pn f . x0 S m ,
pn1 g(x0) y0 , x0 x S m ,
gpm y0 g(x) = y,
y .
, S m , m > 2.
gpm = pn f , f(x) = f(x). . m n 1 (RP m)
1 (RP n) ( , 1 (RP 1) = Z 1 (RP m) = Z2
m > 2). , , g m = kn ( k Z2 n > 2 k Z
n = 1). f(x) = (1) k f(x), kn , x x, gpm .
, g : RP m RP n ,
g m = n , f : S m S n ,
f(x) = f(x).
2
, f : S m S n , f(x) = f(x), g : RP m RP n ,
{x, x} 7 {f(x), f(x)}. g m = kn , k . n > 2, n Z2 ,
g . n = 1, g

 12.

171

Z2 Z, .
S 2 R2 .

12.4.

f : X Y , x X U, f(U)
Y f U .
. .
, . f : X Y ,
.
12.2 (. [71]). X Y , Y .
f : X Y
.
. y Y . f ,
f 1 (y) . , f , ,
f 1 (y) . f 1 (y) = {x1 , . . . , xn }.
X xi x j (i 6= j)
T Ui j . xi Ui
Ui j 3 xi U ji 3 x j . Ui =
j6=i
Ui U j = i 6= j.
xi Vi , f(Vi) Y f Vi
. Wi = Ui Vi f
Wi y.
n
T
W =
f(Wi). , f , i=1
n
S
, W
f(Wi).
i=1

, , , n
y, . . Y
. Y . y1 , y2 Y , : [0, 1] Y (0) = y1 (1) = y2 . , f .
Y = ([0, 1]) Y . Xh = f 1 (Y)
h Y
f f X.

172

IV. . . ...

Xh f
. y Y
h i ,
W
Wi y Y .
!
!
n
n
\
[
h =
h i) \ f Xh \
hi .
W
f (W
W
i=1

i=1

h ( , f , , W
n
S
hi.
h
W
) y f 1 W
i=1 S
n
n
T
h i) f 1 (y)
h i , y W
h.

y
f (W
W
i=1

i=1

n
n
hi.
h i , . . x S W
h , x 6 Xh \ S W
W
f (x)
i=1

i=1

h , . .
, , W


n
S
h i . Y , f
f Xh \
W
i=1

. , Xh = f 1 (Y)
n
S
h i
W
, Xh \


i=1
n
S
h i . f Xh \
W
i=1

Y ,
.
2
12.2 ,
,
.
12.3 (. [72]). X Y . f : X Y () ,
f f : 1 (X, x0) 1 (Y ,
f(x0)) x0 X.
. . ,
. , f
.
1. f .
y0 f(X), y1 Y , : I = [0, 1] Y
, y0 y1 . f , f 1 ((I)) , , f(X) (I) =

 13. .

173

= f f 1 ((I)) (I). , , f , , f(X) Y , , f(X) (I) (I). , f(X) (I) =
= (I). , y1 f(X).
2. f .
12.2 f .
f : 1 (X, x0) 1 (Y , f(x0))
f 1 (X, x0) 1 (Y , f(x0)). f . , f ,
. . f .
2
. X Y
, 1 (Y) = 0. f : X Y ()
, f .

13. .

13.1.

K3,3 K5 ( 1.3 . 21).

, R2
, S 2 . S 2 , . ,
K6 P 2 , K7
K4,4 (. 74).

   








   



. 74. K6 , K7 K4,4

174

IV. . . ...

13.1 ( [83]). ) G
M2 .
) G , M2
, , G M2 ,
.
. ) , . ,
. ,
(. 75).
) , G .
U1 , . . . , Um , G
M2 . G
,
. 75. - Ui . Ui
,
D 2 Ui ( ) S 2 . ,
Ui . M2 Ui D 2 , G
h 2 , M2 .
M
M2 .
2
1.
M2 , M2 # P 2 .
2. G M2 , M2 .
, , .
,
G, . G
g(G).
13.2. G
, v e .
g(G) >

v
e
+ 1,
6
2

G 3,
g(G) >

v
e
+ 1.
4
2

 13. .

175

. , , G M2 , .
2 2g(M2) = v e + f , f , G
M2 . n
, nf 6 2e,



v
2
n2
1
2
e + 1.
2v+e 1
=
g(G) > g(M ) >
2

2n

G . ,
n > 3, . . (n 2) /2n > 1/6. G 3,
n > 4, . . (n 2) /2n > 1/4.
2
. g(Kn) >

(n 3) (n 4)
.
12

. Kn

g(Kn) >

n(n 1)
, 2

n(n 1)
n
n2 7n + 12
(n 3) (n 4)
+1=
=
.
12
2
12
12

(m 2) (n 2)

. g(Km,n) >
.
4
. Km,n m + n,
mn. , Km,n 3.

g(Km,n) >

(m 2) (n 2)
mn m + n

+1=
.
4
2
4

Kn Km,n .
, Kn (, Km,n) ,
,
(m 2) (n 2)

(n 3) (n 4)
(,
12

). >
4
, Kn . Kn
[109] , [110] [94] .
Km,n [108] .
[63] .

13.2.

, M2 n , ( ), -

176

IV. . . ...

M2 , n , , , . , M2 ,
, , (. 76).
,
.
13.3 ( [69]).

p

 g > 0
7+

1 + 48g
2

.
e
G,
. 76. G
G e.

, .
, ,
G M2g . 2e(G) = 3f(G),
v(G) e(G) + f(G) = 2 2g , e(G) = 3v(G) + 6g 6.
, G 2e(G),

2e(G)
12(g 1)
= 6+
.
v(G)
v(G)

(1)

, n , g n 1 (,
n = 7 + 12(g 1) ).
, g
n . ,
G v, n 1,
, n , G
n ( v
).
n(g) ,
g ( n(g) ,
g 7 + 12(g 1)
). G, n(g)
, , (1). , v(G) > n(g),

 13. .

177

g > 1,
n(g) 6 7 +

12(g 1)
12(g 1)
6 7+
.
v(G)
n(g)

( , .)
n(g) 2 7n(g) 6 12g 12 n(g) > 0,
.
2
n(g) 2 7n(g) 6 12g 12
g>

(n(g) 3) (n(g) 4)
.
12

g(Kn) >

(n 3) (n 4)
.
12

, Kn g,
n(g) > n, Kn n .
Kn , , ,
p


7 + 1 + 48g
.
n(g) >
2

,
p


7 + 1 + 48g
n(g) =
.
2

, g = 0 .

13.3.

K
j
|K K |, i ,
j

i K . K
CW -.
n2 n, n K .
G, ,
1-
. . , 2- CW -. ,
G .

178

IV. . . ...

13.4. ) G ( ) , G
vi v j , ,
, . . vk 6 {vi , v j }, , vi v j .
) G 2- (. . ), .
. ) vk 6 {vi , v j }
vk v p1 , . . . , vk v ps , v p1 , . . . , v ps 6 {vi , v j }.
G vk vi v j vk v p vi v j , = 1,
. . . , s. , s = 2 {vi , v j , vk }.
) vi v j v p vq
. p 6= j, vi v j v p v j , v p v j v p vq . vi v j v j vi ,
vk 6 {vi , v j } vi v j vk v j , vk v j
vk vi , vk vi v j vi .
2
13.4 K5 K3,3 .
.
13.1. [120] ,
K3,3 , K5
.
13.2. ,
.

14.
F
. F ,

.
,
.

14.1.

(E, B, F , p), E, B F , p : E B
, :

 14.

179

x B U, p 1 (U)
U F;
U F p 1 (U) p, . .

// p 1 (U)
U 7F
77

77

77  p
 
U
( U F U ).
E, B F , ,
, ; p .
p : E B.
. p : Xh X
F = p 1 (x), x X.
. p : B F B . .
p1 : E1 B p2 : E2 B ,
h : E1 E2 , p1 = p2 h. , , .
14.1 ().
I k .
k
k1
.

I
h ,
i
h I i= I
1

k
k
I
= I k1 0,
I+
= I k1 , 1 ,
2
2
,
I k . , k
k
h (I
) F I
, ,
h : p 1 (I k) F I k , . , y p 1 (x),
h(y) = (f , x), f F . h
k
x : p 1 (x) F , x I. p 1 (I
) k
h h , . . , x = x, x I
.
n o
1
k
k
k1
1
a I I+ = I

p (x) F ,

, a,+ a, . a = a, (a,+) 1 : F
k
F x x I+

k
. a(x) x I+
n1o
n1o
k1
I

. x = a(x) x,+ . x = a I k1
2
2
, a a,+ =

180

IV. . . ...

= a, (a,+) 1 a,+ = a, . , x x, ,
h : p 1 (I k) F I k , .
. , , I k
, .
I k . ,
.
. . , , . , x0 . x0 , .
, . .
2
p : E B , f : X B
. , f : X E
f , f ,
p f = f .
, .
, ,
.
14.2 ( ). p : E B
, X CW -, X 0 X
. , :
h : X E;

H : X I B h = p h;
0
0
h
H : X I E, X 0 I
H h : X {0} E, X 0 {0}.
h : X I E, H
H h 0 h : X {0} E.
H
. , , . . E = B F p(b, f) = b.
h : B F . H
B H,
F . , .

 14.

181

(). X CW -, X 0 X . , f : X Y F 0 : X 0 I Y f 0 = f |X 0 .
f .
. . x0 X 0 , . . x0 . x0 X 0 ,
{x0 } I Y , x0 6 X 0 , {x0 } I
f(x0). ,
X n , n > 0.
(n + 1)- , S n I D n+1 {0};


D n+1 I.
D n+1 I Rn+2 

O
(. 77). x 7 (x) O . (x) ; x
. 77.
.
2
, X = D n , p : E B .
H : D n I B. p1 : E1 Y = D n I,
E1 = {(e, y) E Y | p(e) = H(y)}
p1 (x, y) = p(x). , . ,
h 0 , H, X 0 D n H
0
0
h
h 0 (y) = (H
h 0 (y), y);
H1 : X I E1 , H
1
0
0
h
h
p H (y) = H(y) , H H.
p1 D n+1 . D n+1 . h 0 : D n I E1 ,
H
1
0
h
H1 , .
h 0 H
h 0 H
1
E1 E.
, , , p : E B
(X, X 0) . .
0- ,
.

182

IV. . . ...

(n 1)- n- D n , D n . .
2
14.1. , Y X , X/Y X.
14.2. , n- CW - CW -,
k- , 1 6 k 6 n.
14.3. , CW - X ,
k- , 1 6 k 6 n, n-.
14.4. A B CW - a0 b0 . , A B (A B), A B =
= A B/A B A B = ({a0 } B) (A {b0 }).
14.5. X n- CW -, Y m- CW - ( ). , :
) X (n + 1)- ;
) X Y (n + m + 1)- ;
) X Y (n + m + 2)- .
14.6. ) , (S 1 S 1) S 2 S 2 S 3 .
) , X Y CW -, (X Y)
X Y (X Y).
,
p : E B B,
a b, p 1 (a) p 1 (b),
. . Fa = p 1 (a).
14.2, X = Fa , X 0 = , h = idX H(x, t) = (t). h : Fa I E,
14.2 H
H h : Fa {0} E.
h (x, t) = (t). , p H
h (x, 1) = (1) = b, . .
p H
h
h (x, 1).
p H (x, 1) Fb . x 7 H
h
H. , h0 H
h 1 , 0 1 ,
H
h
h 1 (x, 1) .
x H0 (x, 1) x H
14.2. :
t , (t).

) = y
X = Fa I , X 0 Fa {0} Fa {1}, h(y,
0
h
I y Fa , H(y, , t) = (t). , H (y, 0, t) = H0 (y, t)
h 0 (y, 1, t) = H1 (y, t). 14.2
H
h
H (y, , t), H
h 0 h : X {0} E.
H
h (y, , 1).
G : Fa I Fb G(y, ) = H

 14.

14.2.

183

n (X, x0)
1 (X, x0). n (X, x0) n > 0,
n > 1.
S n s0
(S n , s0) (X, x0) ,
( ht : S n X, ht (s0) = x0
t [0, 1]). n (X, x0)
. , 0 (X, x0) X.
(S n , s0) (X, x0) n- ;
(I n , I n) (X, x0) (D n , D n) (X, x0).
, I n /I n D n /D n S n .
n (X, x0) , f , g : (S n , s0) (X, x0) fg : (S n , s0) (X, x0). , . 78 ;
(I n , I n) (X, x0).
n > 2 ,
f g, , fg gf .
, . 79.



. 78.

184

IV. . . ...

. 79.

f : (I n , I n) (X, x0) f : (I n , I n) (X, x0), f f .

f , , . I n I n = I n1 [1, 1] f (x, s) = f(x, s).
f f , f f (x, s) =

=
f f (x, s) (. . 80). 

(

f f (x, s) |s| > t;


gt (x, s) =
f f (x, t) |s| 6 t.
, g0 = f f g1 .
1. ) ,
f f1 g g1 , fg f1 g1 .
) , f(gh) (fg)h.
n (X, x0), n > 1,
, X .
n (X, x0) n (X, x1) , : x0 x1 . ,
x0 x1 , n (X, x0) n (X, x1)
. f : (S n , s0) (X, x0).
S n S n I,
s0 ,
, I;
s0
I (. 81).
. 80.







. 81.



 14.

185

S n I X, S n f , I , n (X, x1).
f
( ).
, 1
. , x0 ,
n (X, x0).
1 (X, x0), .
1 (X, x0)
n (X, x0), X n-.
X n-, n (X, x)
x X ,
n (X).
14.7. X CW -, X n n- .
, i : X n X
i : k (X n , x0) k (X, x0) k < n k = n.
,
n (S n) = Z n N (. . 256).
14.8. , n > 2 n (S n S 1 , x0) ()
.
14.9. , S n S 1
n-.

14.3.

p : E B
B. b0 B. p
p : n (E, e0) n (B, b0), e0 p 1 (b0).
i : F E F p 1 (b0)
p 1 (b0) E. i i : n (F , e0)
n (E, e0); F p 1 (b0).
: n (B, b0)
n1 (F , e0). .
f : (S n , s0) (B, b0) t : (S n1 , s0)
(B, b0), 0 , 1 : S n1 b0
(. 82). t : S n1 E, 0 (S n1) = e0 , t (s0) = e0 p t = t
(. 83). , 1 (S n1) p 1 (b0) = F , 1 (S n1) = b0 .
f

186

IV. . . ...

. 82.

1 : (S n1 , s0) (F , e0). ,
, . . f f 0 1 01 . ,
.
,


i

i1

. . . Gi Gi1 Gi2 . . .




, Ker i1 = Im i ,
Ker i1 = {g Gi1 | i1 (g) = 0} ( i1) Im i = {i (g) | g Gi } ( i).
14.3.

n (E, e0)
. . . n (F , e0)

n1 (F , e0) . . .
n (B, b0)

.
.
Im i Ker p ,

Ker p Im i . .

. ,
,
. 83.

.
1) Im i Ker p . , Im i ,
f : S n E, F . pf
, f Ker p .


 14.

187

2) Ker p Im i . , Ker p ,
f : S n E, pf : S n B . H : S n I B, pf h : S n I E, , H
f f1 . pf1 , . . f1 F . ,
f1 Im i .
3) Im p Ker . f = p f , f : S n E ,
f t . 1
, , f = 0.
4) Ker Im p . f : S n B t : S n1 B. t , 1 : S n1 F . t
F 1 .

i
h
1

2t
;
t 0,
2
t =
h1 i

2t1 t , 1 .
2

t g : S n1 F ,
g = p g f . f Im p .
5) Im Ker i . f : S n+1 B t : S n B t . 0
, t D n+1 B. , 1 : S n F E
.
6) Ker i Im . f : S n F , E. f g : S n+1 B. g = f .
2
. E ,
0 (E, e0) 0 (B, b0) . 0 (F , e0) 1 (B, b0) / Im p (
Im p 1 (B, b0) , ).
. n (S 1) = 0 n > 2.
. R S 1 . F n1 (F) = 0
n > 2. ,
n (S 1) = n (R1) = 0 n > 2.
2
. 2 (S 2) = Z n (S 2) = n (S 3) n > 3.

188

IV. . . ...

. C2 z w S 3 , |z|2 + |w|2 = 1. S 3 S 1 = {e i } ( z w e i).

CP 1 (z : w). , p : S 3 S 3 /S 1 CP 1
( ).
CP 1 U1 U2 , CP 1 (1 : 0) (0 : 1). ,
p
S 1 . S 3
(ae i , be i), a b , a2 + b 2 = 1.
hi : p 1 (Ui) Ui S 1 , ,




a i() i
b i() i
h1 (ae i , be i) =
, h2 (ae i , be i) =
e
,e
e
,e .
b

:
p

. . . 2 (S 3) 2 (S 2)
1 (S 1)
1 (S 3) . . .
, k (S n) = 0 k < n ( 8.8 . 120). 2 (S 2) = 1 (S 1) = Z.
:

. . . n (S 1)
n (S 3) n (S 2)
n1 (S 1) . . .

n > 3, n (S 1) = n1 (S 1) = 0, p : n (S 3) n (S 2)
.
2
, ; , S 3 . CP 1

D12 U1 D22 U2 ,
=

a > b a 6 b.

=

hi : p 1 (Di2) Di2 S 1
.
S 3 . 84. D12 S 1 D22 S 1 .
D12 S 1 = const,
= const (. 84); ,

 14.

189

, . . a/b = 1. = const, a/b = const.

D12 S 1 ,
- = const,
= const.
, 2 , (. 85). , ,
= const (. 86).
, . 87.
D22 S 1 . 85.
. D12 S 1 D22 S 1 ,
.
(. 88).
.
, S 3 z = w,
, C.
14.10.
 
x1 x2
, x12 + x22 + x32 + x42 = 1. ,
x3 x4
.


=


=
 
=
 

. 86.

. 87.

. 88.

190

IV. . . ...

14.11. p : S 3 CP 1 . , D 4 p CP 1 = CP 2 ( , S 3 = D 4).
14.12. , r : CP 2
CP 1 . ( , CP 1 CP 2
.)
S 3 S 2 S 1 . . S 2n+1 R2n+2
= Cn+1 (z1 , . . . , zn+1) S 2n+1
C, || = 1. S 2n+1 CP n ,
S 1 . , H.
S 4n+3 HP n S 3 . , n = 1
S 7 S 4 S 3 .
.

14.4.

X A a0 A n > 1
n-
f : (D n , D n , s0) (X, A, a0);
, . . , f(D n) A f(s0) = a0 . f0 f1 ,
ft , ft (D n) A ft (s0) = a0 .
n (X, A, a0), n > 1, n- . 1 (X, A, a0)
. ,
1 (X, A, a0) a0 a A.
a0
(. 89). 1 (X, A, a0) ,
.
.
x2
A
a1
a0 a2
X
x1
. 89. 1 (X, A, a0)

. 90.

 14.

191

n > 2 n (X, A, a0) .

I n = {(x1 , . . . , xn) | 0 6 xi 6 1}. D n
I n ,
I n / (I n \ I n1), I n1 xn = 0. f : I n X, f(I n) A
f(I n \ I n1) = a0 .
f , g : I n X :

1
f(2x1 , x2 , . . . , xn)
0 6 x1 6 ;
2
fg(x1 , x2 , . . . , xn) =
g(2x 1, x , . . . , xn) 1 6 x 6 1.
1

. 90 , fg a0 ( n = 2).
n = 2 , n (X), f : I 2 X I 1 I 2 ( . 90 I 1 ).
n > 3 , ,
f : I n X I n1 .
.
14.4. f : (D n , D n , s0)
(X, A, a0) n (X, A, a0)
, ht , h0 = f h1 ,
h1 (D n) A, S n1 .
. ,


ht . gt (s) = h1 (1 t)s + ts0 . h1 D n a0 .
gt (S n1) A , h1 (D n) A.
, ft : (D n , D n , s0)
(X, A, a0), f0 = f D n a0 . ht , S n1 .



s

f
0 6 ksk < 1 t/2;
t
1 
t/2 
ht (s) =
s

1 t/2 6 ksk 6 1.
f22ksk
ksk

192

IV. . . ...

, h0 = f0 = f ; h1 (D n) A; s S n1 , ht (s) = f0 (s).
2
i : A X i : n (A, a0) n (X, a0).
(D n , s0) (X, a0) (D n , S n1 , s0) (X, A, a0), S n1 a0 A. , p : n (X, a0) n (X, A, a0). , : n (X, A, a0) n1 (A, a0),
(D n , S n1 , s0) (X, A, a0) (S n1 , s0); ,

.
14.5 ( ).
i

n1 (A, a0) . . .

n (X, a0) n (X, A, a0)

. . . n (A, a0)

.
. 1) Im i Ker p . 14.4 , f(D n) A, n (X, A, a0).
2) Ker p Im i . f : I n X, I n1 A I n \ I n1 a0 ,
F : I n I X ,
a0 . I n+1 = I n I txn + (1 t)xn+1 = 0, t [0, 1] , I n .
F .
. t = 0 xn+1 = 0,
f . t = 1 xn = 0,
A.
3) Im p Ker . f : D n X D n
a0 .
4) Ker Im p . f : I n X,
I n1 a0
( I n1 A). gt : I n1 A , f |I n1 .
ft : I n X, gt I n1
I n \ I n1 a0 . f .
, f
, I n a0 .

 14.

193

5) Im Ker i . f : I n1 A g : I n X I n1 =
= I n1 {0} I n , g
gt : I n1 X f X, .
6) Ker i Im . gt : I n1 X g0 : I n1 A
g1 : I n1 a0 g : I n X, I n1 g0 .
2
14.13. , n1 (X)
= n (CX, X) n > 2.
,
.
14.6. p : E B , e0 E , b0 = p(e0) F = p 1 (e0).
p : n (E, F , e0) n (B, b0)
n > 1.
. h : D n E ,
h = p h
n (B, b0). H : D n I B, h ( , S n1 b0).
h : D n I E,
H
H h 0 : {s0 } I e0 E. H
h
H

h


. p .

h : S n B .

H : S n1 I B, S n1 b0 B (
. 82 . 186). . 91.
h : S n1 I E ,
H
H h : {s0 } I e0 E. H
h H
n

h : D E (. 91).
, p .
2
h = p h,

14.5.

, CW - X Y , ,

194

IV. . . ...

.
, Y
.
.
14.7. X CW -, x0 .
, n (X, x0) = 0 n > 0. X .
. f0 = idX f00 f0 X 0
(0- X). 0 (X, x0) = 0 ,
x X 0 x x0 . F00 (x) = (t)
, f00 X 0 x0 .
F0 (x, t) X.
F0 (x, 0) = f0 (x)
F0 (x, 1) = f1 (x), X 0 x0 .
f10 f1 X 1 . 1 (X, x0) = 0 ,
F10 , f10 X 1 x0 . X,
F1 , f1 f2 ,
X 1 x0 .
, n (X, x0) = 0, Fn , fn fn+1 , fn+1
X n x0 .
dim X < , . dim X = ,
F , idX X x0 ,
. tn =

2n 1
2n

F(x, tn) fn (x), tn tn+1 F

Fn . , F X n I n,
F .
2
A X X,
ft : X X, t [0, 1] , : ft |A = idA t, f0 = idX f1 (X) A. r = f1 : X A :
ri = idA ir idX ( i : A X
). ,
A X X. , r : X A i : A X. ir ' idX
ri = idA .
14.14. m > 1 n > 1. ,
S m S n = (S m {x0 }) ({y0 } S n), x0 S n y0 S m , -

 14.

195

, S m S n
, S m S n .
14.7 .
14.8. X CW -, A
, a0 A. , n (X, A, a0) =
= 0 n > 1. A X.
. , n > 1 gn : X X
, gn (X n1) A gn |A = idA . 14.4 n (X, A, a0) = 0 , , A, gn |X n A
0
gn+1
: X n A A.
X, gn+1 .
g1 .
x X 0 \ A0 a0 g10 (x) = a0 . , g10 : X 0 A X idX 0 A .
X, g1 .
2

.
14.9 (). X Y CW -, x0 X y0 Y . ,
f : (X, x0) (Y , y0) f : n (X, x0) n (Y , y0)
X
n > 1. f x
.
. C f ,
X I Y
f
Y
X {0} = X
Y (. 92). C f
f .
f(x)
C f C f g : C f Y C f , - . 92. Y .
C f Y .
i
f X

g
i

Cf
Y , i X = X {1} C f . i g g , i .
(C f , X):
i

. . . n (X)

n (C f ) n (C f , X)
n1 (X)

n1 (C f ) . . .

196

IV. . . ...

, n (C f , X) = 0. , Ker p = Im i = n (C f ),
p = 0. , Im = Ker i = 0, = 0, . .
n (C f , X) = Ker . Ker = Im p = 0.
14.8 X
C f , . . C f C f r : C f X C f , X.
f 0 = rj : Y X. f 0 f = rjgi r(idC f )i = idX ff 0 = girj g(idC f ) j =
= idY .
2

15.
X , x X
,
Rn . ( . 132 , , , .)
( 4.9
. 72) ,
. , , U 3 x
V 3 x X, Rn Rm , , n 6= m.
U V Rn , Rm ,
.
Mn n.
(U, ), U Mn : U (U)
Rn , ,
. (x) = 0,
, (U, )
x.
M A {(U , ) | A},
:
1) U M;
2) U U 6= , 1
;
3) A , (U, ) 1 1
(U U 6= )
, (U, ) A.
M, A0 ,

198

V.

1 2. , 3 ,
A0 . , M 2,
.
M , . (
, .)
. RP n
.
. RP n Ui = {(x1 : . . . : xn+1) RP n : xi 6= 0}, i = 1, . . . , n + 1.
i : Ui Rn


xi1 xi+1
xn+1
x1
i (x1 : . . . : xn+1) =
.
, ...,
,
, ...,
xi

xi

xi

xi

, j 1
i ,
i (Ui U j), . , ,
i = 1 j = 2. Ui U j x1 x2 6= 0.



xn+1
x2 x3
1 (x1 : . . . : xn+1) =
= (y1 , y2 , . . . , yn).
, , ...,
x1 x1

x1

2 1
1 (y1 , y2 , . . . , yn) = 2 (x1 : . . . : xn+1) =

 

xn+1
x1 x3
1 y2
yn
=
=
.
, , ...,
, , ...,
x2 x2

x2

y1 y1

y1

y1 6= 0, 2 1
2
1 .
1. , CP n .

15.1.

,
: U (U), (U) Rn+ = {(x1 , ..., xn) Rn | x1 > 0}.

, 2 :

 15.

199

2) U U 6= , f f Rn ,
1
1
.
n
M . , x Mn
, : U (U) Rn+ ,
(x) Rn+ = {(x1 , . . . , xn) Rn | x1 = 0};
, . . .
Mn .
, x Mn ,
: U (U), (U) Rn ;
. ,
, .
15.1 ( ). f : U V n
R


 ,
x U

fi
x j

h U,
x U
h Rn f | h : U
h f(U)
h f(U)
U
. (f |Uh ) 1 .
. f f =
= (f1 , . . . , fn), f1 , . . . , fn . B
, f , y, z B. [0, 1] i (t) = fi (ty + (1 t)z). ,
X f
di
i
fi (y) fi (z) = i (1) i (0) =
(ti) =
(wi) (yi zi),
(1)
dti

x j

ti (0, 1) wi = ti y + (1 ti)z B.
2

 n J(w1 , . . . , wn) =

= det

fi
(w ) ,
x j i

w1 , . . . , wn U.

J(x, . . . , x) 6= 0. ,
n
w1 , . . . , wn Dx,
, J(w1 , . . . , wn) 6= 0. n
(1) , y, z Dx,
y 6= z, f(y) 6= f(z).
, f
n
Dx,
Rn .
.
h = int D n . , f | h : U
h
U
x,
U
h . , f(U)
h
f(U)

200

V.

h . ,
Rn . u U
f(u)
h D n (y) = k f(y) f(u)k f(U).
x,

n
f(u) 6 f(Dx,
). ,
n
k f(y) f(u)k > 2 y Dx,
. ,
h ,
f(u) f(U).
n
k f(u) zk < . y Dx,
,
k f(y) zk > k f(y) f(u)k k f(u) zk > 2 = .

n
Dx,
(w) = k f(w) zk2 (
2 , u 2). a
n
Dx,
.
X f

i
=2
(a) (fi (a) zi).
0=
x j
x j
 f

i
n
, a Dx,
, J(a, . . . , a) = det
(a) 6= 0. x j
h .
z = f(a) f(U),
: (f |Uh ) 1


h , det fi (y) 6= 0,
. y U

x j

h f 1 .
U
h .
, f 1 U
2
n
. M ,
.
. Mn
, , f : U V f : V U
Rn , :
1) 0 U, 0 V f(0) = g(0) = 0;
2) U U 0 , 0,
f(U 0) Rn+ .
, f

 0
, , det

fi
(0)
x j

6= 0. 0

h U, f(U)
h Rn
U
h
h
f |Uh : U f(U) . h U 0) Rn 0.
, f(U
h U 0) f(U
h 0) Rn+ .
, f(U
2

 15.

201

. : Rn+ 0
Rn . n = 2 11.1 . 155.
.
.
N Mn k- ,
x N (U, ), U N =


= 1 Rk (U) , Rk Rn (. .
, n k 0).
2. ) Mn . , .
) Mn . , ,
.
3. ,
.
15.1. Mn , N n ( ). ,
N n , N n = Mn .

15.2.

Mm N n A =
= {(U , )} B = {(V , )}. f : Mm N n
, f 1
. 1
f 1

1
(V)) Rm ;

(U f
n
R .
f : Mm N n g : N n Mm , f , Mm N n . , Mm N n ,
m = n.
f : Mm N n ,
x Mm .

x f(x),



fi
(x) .
x j

.
f x; rank f(x).
f : Mm N n . rank f(x) = m,
f , , x,

202

V.

rank f(x) = n, f . f , x Mm (),

(). f ,
Mm f(Mm) N n
.
15.2. ) f : Mm N n , a,
Rm Rm Rnm . ,
, . . f(a).
) f : Mm N n ,
a,
Rn Rmn Rn . , , . . a.
. (Ua , ) (V f(a) , ) a Mm f(a) N n ;
, f(Ua) V f(a) . f , . . f = f 1 . f 

fi
(x) . f ,
J =
x j

J m, f ,
n. i1 , . . . , im {1, . . . , n},
j1 , . . . , jn {1, . . . , m} ,

f 1
f1
f i1
fi1
.
.
.
x jn
x j1
x1 . . . xm

det . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6= 0 det . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6= 0.

f
f n
f n
f im
im
...
...
x1

xm

x j1

x jn

, , ik = k (, jk = k).

J 



J1 J2
J1 0

, I |n m|.
0 I
J2 I
Fh ,
. ,
Fh (x1 , . . . , xm , y1 , . . . , ynm) =
= (f 1 (x), . . . , f m (x), f m+1 (x) + y1 , . . . , f n (x) + ynm),

 15.

203

Fh (x1 , . . . , xm , y1 , . . . , ymn) = (f (x, y), y1 , . . . , ymn);
Fh (x, y) = f (x) + (0, y)
Fh (x, y) = (f (x, y), y).
Fh , Fh Fh 1 .
Fh 1 ( ,
f).
f
:
1

f
x
7 f (x) = Fh (x, 0) 7 Fh 1 (x, 0).

Fh ( ,
f).
f
:
(f (x, y), y) 7 Fh 1 (x, y) 7 f 1 f (x, y),

. . (x 0 , y) 7 x 0 , x 0 = f (x, y). , y x 7 f (x, y)

,
.
2
15.2 .
15.3. f : Mm N n ,
k
X N n . , f
f 1 (X k).
f 1 (X k) Mm k + m n.
. a f 1 (X k). f(a)
x = (u, v), u Rk v Rnk ,
, X k v = 0.
a f , 15.2 a
(x, y), x Rn y Rmn , , , a f(a), f (x, y) 7 x, . .
(u, v, y) 7 (u, v). f 1 (X k) v = 0. ,
f 1 (X k) k + m n.
2

204

V.

15.3 , , .
. S n .
. f : Rn+1 R1 , 2
f(x1 , . . . , xn+1) = x12 + . . . + xn+1
. 1
f (1) J = (2x1 , . . . , 2xn+1) 1,
f 1 (1) = S n Rn+1 .
2

15.3.

{U , A} Mn .
{ , B}, , ,
.
15.4. ) {U , A}
Mn
{ , B}.
) A ,
, B = A supp U A.
. ) ,
Xk Mn (k = 1, 2, . . .) , Xk ,

S
Xk Xk+1 Mn =
Xk .
k=1

Mn , . W1 , W2 , . . .
Mn . ,
x Mn U(x), .
U(x) ;
, . x Wi
i.
X1 = W1 . X1
{Wi }, X1 Wi1 . . . Wi p , i1 < i2 < . . . < i p .
X2 = W1 W2 Wi1 . . . Wi p . X3 , X4 , . . .
.
V,1 V,2 V,3
. Drn = {x Rn | kxk < r}. z Xk \ Xk1
Vz,3 , Vz,3 U ,
Vz,3 Xk+1 Vz,3 Xk2 = ; , z : Vz,3 D3n .
Vz,1 = z1 (D1n)
Xk Xk+1 , Vz,1 , Xk Xk+1 . k

 15.

205

{V,1 }; V,2 V,3 . ,

{} ; , {V,1 } Mn
{V,3 } {U }.
, , e 1/t t > 0 0
t 6 0, .
(
e 1/ (1t) t < 1;
(t) =
0
t > 1
, , h (x) = (kxk2 /4)
Rn ;
D2n .

(
h ( (x)) x V,3 ;
g (x) =
0
x 6 V,3
P
g (x). h ,
h(x) =

{V,3 } . {V,1 } Mn g (x) > 0, x V,1 . h(x) > 0

x Mn . = g /h , supp V,3 U .
) U1 , U2 , . . . 1 , 2 , . . . , supp i U j j = j(i).
i k , supp k Ui supp k 6 U j
j < i. k
i supp i Ui .
2

15.4.

,
. , X Rn (n > 1)
, > 0 X
, .
, ;
. , R0
.
Mn . , X Mn , Mn i : Ui Rn , i (X Ui) Rn

206

V.

.
.
1.
Rn .

S
. X =
Xi Rn i=1

Xi . Xi ,
/2i . X
, (1/2 + 1/4 + 1/8 +
+ . . .) = .
2
2. f : Rn Rn , X
Rn . f(X) Rn
.
. Rn
, ,
X I n . ,



f
k f(u) f(v)k 6 max  i (x) ku vk
x [u,v]

xj



f

( (1) . 199). K = maxn  i (x) .
xI

xj

u, v I n , k f(u) f(v)k 6 K ku vk. f r, I n , Kr. , X ,

, f(X) ,
K n .
2
4. ) m < n Mm N n .
, Mm N n .
) m < n f : Mm N n . ,
f(Mm) N n .

.
15.5 (). C Rn
, xn = a
. C .
. n = 1, C = . , n > 2. C ,
C Rn1 [a, b] . t [a, b] Ct Rn1 :
Ct {t} = C (Rn1 {t}) = C {(x1 , . . . , xn) Rn | xn = t}.

 15.

207

Ct Rn1 . > 0
n1
n1
Ct (n 1)- It,1
, It,2
, . . .,

S
It,n1
, . Jtn1 =
j
j=1

C \ (Jtn1 [a, b]) , , .

= (t) > 0 , (t , t + ) = It
C Jtn1 It . ,
|xn t| C \ (Jtn1 It) ; , x C |xn t|
, x Ct . ,
It x C , |xn | < , x 6 C \ (Jtn1 [a, b]),
,
x (Jtn1 [a, b]) C Jtn1 It .

It [a, b] .
It1 , . . . , Itk
Iti = (, ) Ii = [, ] [a, b] . Itn1
Ii i,j
C, L,
L Ii .
3. I = [a, b]
Ii = [ai , bi ] I. ,
2(b a).
. , I1 , . . . , In , . . Ii I.
I1 , . . . , In , a1 6 a2 6 . . . 6 an . ,
b1 6 b2 6 . . . 6 bn . , ,
bk < ak+2 , [ak , bk ] [ak+2 , bk+2 ]
[ak+1 , bk+1 ] . ,
I1 , I3 , . . ., I2 , I4 , . . . b a. 2
3 , [a, b] I1 , . . . , Ik
, L < 2(b a). .
2
f : Mm N n . x Mm
, rank f(x) < min(m, n). x
. y N n , y = f(x), x .
15.6 ( [118]). .
.
f : U Rn , U Rm -

208

V.

. m. m = 0 :
n = 0, , n > 1, Rn , , . , V Rn ,
V Rm1 .
C f : U Rn ,
Ci x U,
f i. , C
C1 C2 . . .
1. f(C \ C1) .
n = 1, C1 = C. , n > 2.
c C \ C1 .

fi
(c) 6= 0 i, j. ,
x j

i = j = 1. h : U Rm ,
h(x1 , . . . , xm) = (f1 (x), x2 , . . . , xm).

,
0
I
I . c h . , V c, h (. 93). g = fh1 ;
f1
(c)

x
, h c
1

g(x1 , . . . , xm) = (x1 , g2 (x), . . . , gn (x)).

, g ({t} Rm1) h(V) {t} Rn1 ;
g t g . , ({t} Rm1) h(V)
y1

x1
g
h1
f

V
R

. 93. g

Rn

 15.

209

g t , g. ,



1  0 
gi
git .
=
x j

x j

g t {t} Rn1 . , h(V C)
( , V C
f ).
, f(V C) .
V C
, f(V C) .
.
, c C \ C1 V , f((C \ C1) V) f(C V) . C \ C1
,
f(C \ C1) .
2. f(Ck \ Ck1) k > 1.
1. c Ck \ Ck1 .
k+1 fi
(c) 6= 0 i, j1 , . . . , jk+1 . ,
x j1 . . . x jk+1
k f1
(x). w(c) = 0,
i = j1 = 1. w(x) =
x j2 . . . x jk+1

c Ck ,

w
k+1 fi
(c) 6= 0.
(c) =
x1
x j1 . . . x jk+1

h : U Rm ,
h(x1 , . . . , xm) = (w(x), x2 , . . . , xm).

, 1.
,
h ((Ck \ Ck+1) V ) ({t} Rm1)

g, , g t .
3. f(Ck) k (, k > (m/n) 1).

210

V.

, U = (0, 1) m ,
f [0, 1] m . , U , .
c Ck U. f(c + h)
k + 1. K , c + h U, k f(c + h) f(c)k 6 K khkk+1 .
U = (0, 1) m l m 1/l , Ck .
f Kd k+1 ,

d = n/l .
f(U Ck) , K 0 l m (d k+1) n = K 00 l m(k+1)n . m < (k + 1)n, . .
k > (m/n) 1, lim l m(k+1)n = 0.
2
l

15.5.

G(n, k), k- Rn . . v1 , . . . , vk Rn .
(v1 , . . . , vk) X Rn . . .
. . . Rn = Rnk . X . G(n, k) X
: , ,
, . G(n, k)
. , U G(n, k)
, k- , U.
X

k (R). , (v1 , . . . , vk)
GL
v11 . . . v1n
. . . . . . . . . . . . ., vk1 . . . vkn
vi . A GLk (R) (w1 , . . . , wk),
W = AV .
, G(n, k)
, , . ,
,

 15.

211

, .
G(n, k)
: G(n, k)
O(k). , , , G(n, k)
.
- G(n, k) ,
, . x Rn G(n, k) dx , x G(n, k).
. , k- 1 2 , x , x 1 x 6 2 .
dx (1) = 0 dx (2) 6= 0.
15.7. G(n, k) ( ) k(n k).
. G(n, k)
v1 , . . . , vk
V = V(), .
I = {i1 , . . . , ik }, 1 6 i1 < . . . < ik 6 n,
VI ,
V i1 , . . . , ik .
v1 , . . . , vk , I, det VI 6= 0.
(VI ) 1 V .
i1 , . . . , ik k.

w1 , . . . , wk . W = AV , A GLk (R), WI = AVI .
, (WI ) 1 W = (VI ) 1 A1 AV = (VI ) 1 V . ,
(VI ) 1 V
I; I . J IJ . ,
II . I .
I UI G(n, k),
G(n, k), det VI 6= 0.
UI G(n, k). ,
UI . , det VI 6= 0,
V
V 0 , det VI0 6= 0.
UI I , n k ,
I. I : UI Rk(nk) .

212

V.

, I J , J 1
I , I (UI UJ ),
.
J 1
. x Rk(nk)
I
I
, n k x, ( I)
. I V ,
(VI ) 1 V = I . , V
J = (VJ ) 1 V = (VJ ) 1 VI I .
V , , VI .
X = I (XJ ) 1 X,
, J.
XJ ,
.
2
5. ,
G(n, k)
G(n, n k).
6. , G(n, 1) RP n1 .
Rn
, k-  

n
k

xI , -

. . v1 , . . . , vk V ,
.
 I
xI = det VI .

n
,
k

 
n

.
k

. , , V AV , A GLk (R).
det A.
15.8 ( ).
n

i : G(n, k) RP k 1 .
. , i
G(n, k) i(G(n, k)). ,
i , .
v1 , . . . , vk Rn ,
c1 , . . . , cnk Rn . -

 15.

213

 
V
,

C
.
  X
V
det
=
aI det VI ,
C
 
V
=
C
= 0 , , v1 , . . . , vk c1 , . . . , cnk , . ,
P k-

aI xI = 0 , , c1 , . . . , cnk , .
, k-
Rn (n k)- , ,
.
, i . UI
, .
,
, UI 1 0 0 x1 x4
I 0 1 0 x2 x5 . i 0 0 1 x3 x6
I
k = 3.
, k 1
- , ,
UI i

aI , C. , det

1 0
0 1
0 0

0 x1
0 x2
1 x3

x4
x5 7 (1, x1 , x2 , x3 , x4 , x5 , x6 , . . .).
x6

1. , UI
, . .
. ,

2

G(n, k).
n

. G(n, k) RP k 1
,
. . [15, 30] .

214

V.

k- Rn k- Cn .
,
. ,
G+ (n, k), k-
. ,
k- ,
.
7. , G+ (n, k) G(n, k).
8. ,
n

G+ (n, k) S k 1 .
15.2. ) , G+ (n, k) .
) , G(n, k) , n .
15.3. , G+ (4, 2) S 2 S 2 .
15.4. , CP n1 , z12 + . . . + zn2 = 0, G+ (n, 2). ,

.
.
k- Rn ai = dim( Ri), i = 0, 1, . . . , n. , Ri (x1 , . . . , xi , 0, . . . , 0). ,
ai+1 = ai ai + 1; a0 = 0 an = k. ai = (1 , . . . , k),
1 6 1 < . . . < k 6 n dim( R j ) = j
dim( R j 1) = j 1.
.
,
v1 , . . . , vk , , , :

... 1 0 ... 0 0 0 ... 0 0 0 ... 0 0 0 ...

. . . 0 . . . 1 0 . . . 0 0 0 . . . 0 0 0 . . .

. . . 0 . . . 0 0 . . . 1 0 . . . 0 0 0 . . . ;

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
... 0 ... 0 0 ... 0 ... 1 0 ...

 15.

215

1 , . . . , k ;
.
v1 , . . . , vk .
. R1 v1 = (x1 , . . . , x1 , 0, . . . , 0). dim( R1 1) = 0
, x1 6= 0. , x1 = 1;
v1 .
R2 v1 v2 = (y1 , . . . , y2 , 0, . . . , 0). dim( R2 1) = 1
, y2 6= 0. , y2 = 1.
v2 v2 + v1 .
1 y1 + .
, ,
. v2 .
.
2

e(). e() G(n, k)
d() = (1 1) + (2 2) + . . . + (k k) .

.
e() ,
v1 , . . . , vk , vi =
= (vi1 , . . . , vii , 0, . . . , 0), vii > 0. e()
, v1 , . . . , vk , vi = (vi1 , . . . , vii ,
0, . . . , 0), vii > 0. , v1 , . . . , vk
.
, : D d() e() G(n, k), :
int D d()
e();
(D d() )
e(), d() < d().
k. : k = 1.
1 d() = 1 1.
e() 1- , (v11 , . . . , v11 , 0, . . . , 0), v11 > 0. : D d() e() . D d()
x12 + . . . + x2 1 = 1, x1 > 0, (x1 , . . . , x1)
1- , (x1 , . . . , x1 , 0, . . . , 0).

216

V.

, int D d() e() (D d() ) , (x1 , . . . , x1 1 , 0, . . . , 0);

(x1 , . . . , x1 , 0, . . . , 0), x1 = 1 1 < 1 .
k > 2, Rn ,
u v
, u v. R(u, v) u 6= v; . ,
R(u, v)x = x

(u + v, x)
(u + v) + 2(u, x)v
1 + (u, v)

( , u v,
, u v, v , u v). , R(u, v)x
u, v, x. , u, v , x
R(u, v)x .
, : D d() e() = (1 , . . . , k) k. 0 = (1 , . . . , k , k+1) k + 1 ( ,
0
1 6 1 < 2 . . . < k < k+1 6 n). 0 : D d( ) e( 0)
( ) : e()
0
D d( )d() e( 0). 0

id

D d( ) D d() D d( )d() e() D d( )d() e( 0);

d( 0) d() = k+1 k 1.
e()
v1 , . . . , vk , vi = (vi1 , . . . , vii , 0, . . . , 0), vii > 0.
e1 , . . . , en Rn .
R = R(ek , vk) . . . R(e2 , v2) R(e1 , v1).
, R ei = vi i = 1, . . . , k. ,
R(e1 , v1), . . . , R(ei1 , vi1) ei , v1 , . . . , vi1 e1 , . . .,
ei1 . R(ei , vi) ei vi .
R(ei+1 , vi+1), . . . , R(ek , vk) vi , vi+1 , . . . , vk ei+1 , . . . , ek .

 16.

217

D k+1 k1
w = (w1 , . . . , wk+1 , 0, . . . , 0), wk+1 > 0 wi = 0
0
i = 1, . . . , k. : e() D d( )d() e( 0) . (v1 , . . . , vk , w) (v1 , . . . , vk , R w).
, , v1 , . . . , vk ,
R w, e( 0). w R w Rk ,
R w = (, . . . , , wk +1 , . . . , wk+1 , 0, . . . , 0).
v1 , . . . , vk , R w , (vi , R w) = (R ei , R w) =
= (ei , w) = wi = 0 (R w, R w) = (w, w) = 1.
, 1 1 (v1 , ..., vk , vk+1) = (v1 , ..., vk , R 1 vk+1).
v1 , . . . , vk , vk+1
, k- ;
R v1 , . . . , vk
, . , w = R 1 vk+1
. :
w = (w1 , . . . , wk+1 , 0, . . . , 0), wk+1 = vk+1,k+1 > 0;
wi = (ei , w) = (R ei , R w) = (vi , vk+1) = 0 i = 1, . . . , k;
(w, w) = (R 1 vk+1 , R 1 vk+1) = (vk+1 , vk+1) = 1.
1 , , int D d() d(),
0
, 0 int D d( ) d( 0),
d(0)d()
d(0)d()
) = e() int D
.
int(e() D

16.
x Mn
, .
, .
.
x Mn ,
(U, ) x v = (v1 , . . . , vn) Rn ; (V , )
w = (w1 , . . . , wn),
wi =

X (1)
x j

(0)v j .

(1)

218

V.

, w v
1 .
, .
. , .
.
v Rn : (1, 1)
d

Rn , (0) = 0
(0) = v. (U, ) dt
x M, (t)
h = 1 Mn ; h (0) = x. x M h : (1, 1) Mn , h (0) = x. h1
h2 ,
(U, ) x


d(h
1 (t)) 
d(h
2 (t)) 
=
.


dt

dt

t=0

t=0

(V , ) x,



X (1)
d(h
(t)) j 
d(1 h
(t)) i 
d(h
(t)) i 
i

=
=
(0)



dt

t=0

dt

t=0

x j

dt

.
t=0

, -,

 , -,
d(h
(t)) i 


dt
t=0
(1).
.
(U, ) x Mn , v Rn
f , x.
P (f 1)
f
(0)vi ,
i

xi

f v. (V , ) v
P (1) i
w wi =
(0)v j , f
j

x j

 16.

219

X (f 1)
i, j

xi

(0)

X (f 1)
(1) i
(0)v j =
(0)v j .
x j
x j
j

, , f ,
.
v x Mn
v : C (Mn) R ( C (Mn) C (U), U
x; v(f)
f x). :
1) (v + w) (f) = v(f) + w(f);
2) v(fg) = f(x)v(g) + g(x)v(f).
,

(fg)
f
g
=g
+f
.
xi
xi
xi

1. 2, v(c) = 0, c
.
1 2 v

x Mn . ,
, . . v : C (Rn) R , P f
(0)vi
v(fg) = f(0)v(g) + g(0)v(f), v(f) =
i

xi

v1 , . . . , vn Rn . .
. f C (U), U Rn
, f(0) = 0.
P
f
g1 , . . . , gn C (U), f(x) = xi gi (x) gi (0) =
(0).
. ,
Z
Z 1
df(tx)
f(x) = f(x) f(0) =
dt =
0

gi (x) =

dt

xi

xi

f(tx)
dt,
xi

f(tx)
dt.
xi

P .
, f(x) f(0) = xi gi (x),
X
X
X f
(0)vi ,
v(f) =
0 v(gi) +
gi (0)v(xi) =
xi

vi = v(xi).

220

V.

x Mn . x Tx Mn .
P

2. J = {f C (Rn) | f(0) = 0}, J 2 =
fi gi |
fi , gi J ( ), (J/J 2)
J/J 2 , V 0 Rn .
) , v V f J 2 , v(f) = 0. ,
v (J/J 2) .
) l (J/J 2) . vl (f) = l(f(x) f(0)). ,
vl 2 x = 0.
) , . V (J/J 2)
(J/J 2) V .

16.1.

f : Mm N n , v Tx Mm
. df(v) T f(x) N n . ,
v (t), df(v) f( (t)).
v ,
df(v) df(v) () = v(f); ,
C (U f(x) ), f C (Vx).
df : Tx Mm T f(x) N n ; f x.
3. , d(f g) = df dg.
, f () x, ,
f x ()
. , f
().
2
. Rn n Rn(n+1) /2 ,
f(X) = X T X. f 1 (In), In
, f . ( 15.3 f 1 (In) = O(n) .)
. U O(n), . . U T U = In .
(t) + U + tA. f In + t(UAT + AU T ) + o(t),
A UAT + (UAT ) T . , X + X T X

 16.

221

X = UAT . U
f .
2
4. ,
U(n) .
5. , f : U(n) S 1 ,
f(U) = det(U), . ,
f 1 (1) = SU(n) .

16.2.

TMn =

Tx Mn -

xMn

. (U, )
Mn . x Mn
((x), v), v = (v1 , . . . , vn) .
[
Tx Mn (U) Rn R2n .
T : TU =
xU

TU TMn . , T
, TMn
. (TU, T ) . TMn Mn .
16.1. , TS n
Cn+1 ,
2
z12 + . . . + zn+1
= 1.
v Tx Mn x, p : TMn Mn . p .
f : Mm N n
df : TMm TN n ( f).
Mn
p, . . s : Mn TMn , ps = idMn .
s x Mn v Tx Mn .
s , (U, )
P

, ai
ai
xi

(Ui).
x Mn s : Mn
TMn , s(x) = 0.

222

V.

. S 2n+1
.
. (t) = x + ty + . . . S m y Rm+1 , (x, y) = 0. , k (t)k = 1 ,
kxk2 + t(x, y) + . . . = 1, (x, y) = 0. ,
, , y Rm+1 ,
(x, y) = 0,
x S m .
2n + 1
2n + 2. , x :
x = (u1 , v1 , . . . , un+1 , vn+1). y = (v1 , u1 , . . . , vn+1 , un+1).
S 2n+1 . 2
16.2. , S 4n+3 , x S 4n+3 .
16.3. ) , f , g : S 2n+1 S 2n+1 ,
f(x) = x g(x) = x, .
) , f , g : S 2n S 2n ,
f(x) = x g(x0 , x1 , . . . , x2n) = (x0 , x1 , . . . , x2n), .
16.1. S 2n
.
(. [96]). , v(x) S m , . . v : S m Rm+1 , v(x) 6= 0 (x, v(x)) = 0 x S m .
v(x) v(x) /kv(x)k, , .
v Rm+1 \ {0}, v(rx) = rv(x)
r > 0, x S m . t R ft : Rm+1 \ {0} Rm+1 ,
ft (x) = x + tv(x). kxk = r, k ft (x)k = 1 + t 2 r,
m
. . f(Srm) S
, Srm r 1+t 2 r
.
ft (x) I + tJ(x), I , J(x) v(x). ,
t ft m
. t f(Srm) S
.
2
1+t r

m
, f(Srm) , , S

1+t 2 r

m
S

1+t 2 r

m
, f(Srm) = S

1+t 2 r

 16.

223

0 < a < b. A = {x Rm+1 | a 6 kxk 6 b}.

t ,
p
p


ft (A) = x Rm+1 | 1 + t 2 a 6 kxk 6 1 + t 2 b .

, , ft (A) A

m+1
1 + t2
.
ft (A) A
-. , t ft A . A v(x) , c, kv(x) v(y)k 6 ckx yk
x, y A. x, y A ft (x) = ft (y). x y = t(v(x)
v(y)), , kx yk 6 c|t| kx yk. |t| < c 1 x = y.
ft (x) det(I + tJ(x)) =
= 1 + t1 (x) + . . . + t m+1 m+1 (x), 1 , . . . , m+1 .
t ft A ft (A), ft (A)
a0 + a1 t + . . . + am+1 t m+1 , a0 A
Z
Z
ak = . . . k (x) dx1 . . . dxm+1 .
a6kxk6b

, ( 1 + t 2) m+1 t m + 1.
, m + 1 . , m = 2n, . . m + 1 .
2
. , S 2n , .
.
( 18.6 . 250); 19.4 . 267 19.3 . 273.
16.4. ) f : S 2n S 2n . , x S 2n , f(x) = x.
) f : RP 2n RP 2n . ,
.
16.5.* [25] K : K K
K (. . v 6= 0 w 6= 0, (v, w) 6= 0)
e (. . (e, v) = v = (v, e) v K).
, dim K > 2, K , C.

224

16.3.

V.

Mn Tx Mn (u, v).
, f : TMn R, f(v) = (v, v), . :
X Y Mn (X, Y)
Mn .
16.2. Mn .
. Mn
i : Ui Rn {fi }, supp fi Ui .
x Ui ( , ) i Tx Mn . v, w Tx Mn
(Ui , i) (v1 , . . . , vn) (w1 , . . . , wn). (v, w) i = v1 w1 + . . . + vn wn .
x Mn v, w Tx Mn .
(v, w) =

fi (x) (v, w) i .

i=1

: (v, w) i ,
x 6 Ui , , fi (x) = 0; fi (x) (v, w) i = 0.

x 1 A1 + . . . + k Ak ,
P
i > 0,
i = 1 Ai
. .
2

16.4.

x Mn Tx Mn ;
S n
Tx Mn . T Mn =
Tx M
xMn

, TMn .
, (U, )
x, v Tx Mn l Tx Mn .
v (v1 , . . . , vn) l(v) = l1 v1 + . . . + ln vn ,
l1 , . . . , ln . ,
(l1 , . . . , ln) l .
, TMn .

 16.

225

f : Mm N n df : TMm TN n , , f . f , . . f : T N n T Mm . , f f(l) (v) = l(df(v)).

, l T f(x)
N n T N n , f(l) Tx Mm T Mm .
n
kx MS
k- Tx Mn . kx Mn k Mn =
xMn

. k- Mn p : k Mn Mn , . .
s : Mn k Mn , ps = idMn .
k Mn
=

i1 <...<ik

ai1 ...ik dxi1 . . . dxik ,

dxi (v) = vi (i- v ).

Mn ,
{U , | A}, Mn ,
1

, A.
.
6. , .
16.6. f Mn =
= {x Rn | 0 < kxk < 1} , f(tu) = (1 t)u,
u 0 < t < 1. , f .
16.3. Mn , n- ,
.
. ,
Mn . {U , } Mn . n- n- ;
Rn = dx1 . . . dxn . U
= ().
f : Rn Rn , ( f) = J(x), J(x)
f . ( 1
) = ,
(U U). ,

226

V.

(1
) ( ) = , , = () = () () = ,
(x) = ( (x)) U U .
, {U } . f
,
{U }, supp f U
P
. =
f . , .
, n- Mn
. {U , } , = dx1
. . . dxn Rn . (), U ,
, () = ,
U . , > 0 < 0
U ( , U ).
< 0, , Rn Rn ,
(x1 , x2 , . . .) 7 (x2 , x1 , . . .). ,
() = ()dx1 dx2 . . . dxn =

= ()dx2 dx1 . . . dxn = = ,

= > 0.
,
1
1
1
( 1
) = ( ) ( ) = ( ) ( ) = .

, Mn ,
nx Mn .
h n n Mn . M
n n
x M , x h n Mn
. , p : M
. h n Mn , M
.
.
h n
16.4. ) M
n
, M .
h n .
) M
h n ,
. ) M
n- , . , n- ,
(x) /k(x)k
h n.
M

 17.

227

h n n- (x)
) x M
n
h n Mn p(x) M . p : M
, (x)
h n.
M
2
7. , 1 (Mn) = 0, Mn .
h n
M
( x Mn , Tx Mn).
h n
Mn M
.
.
i : Ui Rn , Ui . i Tx Mn x Ui
. [a, b] Ui , ,
a, b.
8. ,

.

17.
,
, . , n- R2n+1 .
. 17.1.
. 17.2 , .
. , n > 2m, Mm Rn
. . 17.3 ,
. 17.4 , n R2n+1 .
[144] .
, , ,
n- , n > 2, R2n1 ,
n- R2n . [24] .

228

17.1.

V.

, Mn R2n+1 . . ,
Mn RN , N . ,
Mn RN , N > 2n + 1, Mn
RN 1 .
17.1. Mn RN , N .
. Mn i : Ui Rn , i = 1, . . . , k, :
1) i (Ui) 2
;
2) i Mn ; Vi .
: Rn R,
(
1 kyk 6 1;
(y) =
0 kyk > 2;
, 0 < (y) < 1 2 > kyk > 1.

(
0
x 6 0;
(x) =
e 1/x x > 0.
(t) = (x 1)(2 x); (1, 2). , ,
,Z
Z 2
2
() =
(t)dt
(t)dt

(y) = (kyk).
i (x) = (i (x)). i (x)i (x)
Mn ( x 6 Ui , i (x) = 0). , f : Mn R (n+1)k ,


x 7 1 (x), 1 (x)1 (x), . . . , k (x), k (x)k (x) ,
. , x1 Ui . x2 Ui ,
i (x1) = i (x2) = 1, i (x1)i (x1) = i (x2)i (x2) i (x1) = i (x2), . . x1 = x2 . x2 6 Ui ,
i (x1) = 1, i (x2) < 1.

 17.

229

Ui x 7 i (x)i (x) . , x Ui , i (x) = 1, x 7 i (x)

. f : Mn
R (n+1)k . , Mn R (n+1)k .
2
17.2. ) f : Mn RN .
N > 2n, f
RN 1 RN .
) Mn f : Mn RN . N > 2n + 1, f RN 1 RN .
. ) RN RvN 1 , v, , v. f RvN 1 x Mn
, v
df
Tx Mn T f(x) RN
= RN .

, S N 1
R . df , .
Mn
g : T1 Mn S N 1 , T1 Mn .
, T1 Mn 2n 1. , . n
TM
R, 1 R
n
. T1 M 1 R.
g , 2n 1 <
< N 1, . , v S N 1 , g.
f RvN 1 .
) , N > 2n, v S N 1 f RvN 1 . , N > 2n + 1, v S N 1 f RvN 1 N

230

V.

. g : (Mn Mn) \ S N 1 ,

g(x, y) =

f(x) f(y)
.
kf(x) f(y)k

= {(x, y) Mn Mn | x = y} . g
, x 6= y, f(x) 6= f(y) . (Mn Mn) \ 2n,
N > 2n + 1, g . ,
v S N 1 g,
1
f RN
v
.
, 1
Mn RN
v
.
2

17.2.

Mn . , [45] ,
Mn , . . Mn |K |, K
. ,
Mn RN . x Mn RN
, x, , Tx Mn Nx Mn ,
Tx Mn . ,
r y Mn x, y Nx Mn
ky xk = r.
. Mn RN r > 0 , r, Mn , Mn , .
. , M1 R2 .
y = f(x)

2
2
2
2
2
x + (y r) = r (x0 , r r x0)
,
. . f 0 (0) = 0.
Z

f 00 (t)dt 6 C (

, max f 00 (t) = C. f 0 () =
t [0,x]

t [0, x])

Z
p
r 2 x02 = f(x0) =

x0

f 0 () d 6

Cx02
.
2

 17.

231

, x0
(0, r] ,
p
r

r 2 x02

x02

>

1
1
, C > .
2r
r

, r , [0, r] ,
f , , 1/r.
Mn RN . Mn Ui ,
x Ui pi,x : Ui Txi Mn 0
Ui,x
= pi,x (Ui), , Ui
0
i,x : Ui,x
Nxi Mn .
r, Mn x Ui , Ui ,
x, C > 1/r i,x .
, Ui , Ui .
Mn x Ui ,
Ui , U j , j 6= i.
,
r1 , r2 , . . ., Mn x1 , x2 , . . . Mn
y1 , y2 , . . . rk 0. , , x1 , x2 , . . . Ui
xk x Ui . , , rk
, yk
Ui . yk x Ui ; , yk
Mn \ Ui .
2
> 0 a1 , . . . , am Mn ,

n (ak , ) = Mn {y Rn | kak yk < }
Mn . r, 17.2,
< r/2 , n (ak , )
int D n ,
n (ak , ), Tak Mn /4. , , n (ak , ) Tak Mn
.
ckn = {x Mn | kx ak k 6 kx ai k, i = 1, . . . , m} Mn . ckn n (ak , ), x Mn kx ak k > ,

232

V.

kx ai k < i. ckn
Mn RN ,
kx ak k 6 kx ai k, i = 1, . . . , m. Lki , kx ak k = kx ai k. Lki
Nak Mn y, ky ak k y
Mn ak Mn ai ,
ky ak k > r > 2.

(1)

Tak Mn ak . Nak Mn H
N n + 1. H
n (ak , ) Mn ; Tak Mn .
Lki . , Lki
, Lki .
( Lki ,
ckn ,
. 94.) , Lki
. l . 94. , n
ck
. n (ak , ), n
l Tak M 6 /4 (
). l n (ak , ),
ak l . ,
6 /4, (. . 95):

kak yk 6 / cos 6 / cos( /4) = 2.

(1).
Nak Mn

ak

Tak Mn
l

. 95. , H

 17.

233

, Lki
. ckn
Tak Mn ,
Lki , ckn . (, Lki ,
ckn , Tak Mn ;
Nak Mn y, kak yk 6 .
, Lki ckn
Tak Mn
ak .) . 96. c n k
ckn -
, i- ckn Lki . ckn
, 2- ,
3- . .
Mn Mn
. h n , Mn
M
h n RN . . M
n
n
h
17.2 M M r > 0 ,
.
1 < r/2 2 < r/2 , h n Mn , . = min{1 , 2 }
M
a1 , . . . , am Mn ,
h n.
am+1 , . . . , am+k Mn M

17.3.

:
Mn ( ) R2n ;
, 2m 6 n, f : Mm Rn
.

. Mn,m
a11 . . . a1m
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . ;
an1 . . . anm
Rm Rn . Mn,m

234

V.

Rmn . Mn,m = Rmn

Mn,m,k , k.
17.3. k 6 min(m, n), Mn,m,k
k(m + n k).
. Mn,m,k .
 , ,
A0 B0

, A0 k.
C0 D0
> 0 , A k, A A0 ,
. ,


A B
Mn,m,k D = CA1 B.
C D
,



Ik
A B
= rank
rank
C D
CA1

0
Ink



A
C

B
D



= rank


A
0


B
.
D CA1 B

A
, D CA1 B =

 0.
A0 B0
Mn,m,k Rmn

C0 D0
U : U Rmn ,

 

A
B
A B
7
.
C D
C D CA1 B

;

 

A
B
A B
7
.
C X
C X + CA1 B


, U Mn,m,k = 1 Rk(m+nk) (U) ,
A B
Rk(m+nk) Rmn
.
2
C 0
, Mm Rm . , , .
17.4. U Rm , f : U
Rn . n > 2m,

 17.

235

A : Rm Rn g : U Rn , g(x) = f(x) + Ax, .

. Fk : Mn,m,k U
Mn,m , Fk (X, x) = X df(x). 17.3
Mn,m,k U k(n + m k) + m. m n k(n + m k)
k < (m + n) /2 > 3m/2 > m. k 6 m 1,
k(n + m k) + m 6 (m 1) (n + 1) + m = (2m n) + mn 1.
2m 6 n, dim(Mn,m,k U) < dim Mn,m . Fk . , X df(x), X Mn,m,k (k = 1, . . . , m 1),
, . . A
A + df(x) m x U.
2
.
17.5. f : Mm Rn
n > 2m. > 0
g : Mm Rn , k f(x) g(x)k < x Mm .
. Ui,1 Ui,2 Ui,3 , {Ui,1 } Mm Ui,k =
m
m
m
m
m
= 1
i (Dk ), Dk = {x R | kxk 6 k} i : Ui,3 D3 R
; , {Ui,3 } . g , i-
fi1 fi , :
1) k fi (x) fi1 (x)k < /2i x Mm ;
2) fi Ui,1 m;
3) Ui,2 fi1 ;

 i1
S
4) Ci = Ui,2
U j,1 j=1

fi m.
f0 = f g(x) = lim fi (x),
i

; g
{Ui,3 }.
fi . : Rm R, (
:
1 kyk 6 1;
(y) =
0 kyk > 2.
( . 228.) fi fi (x) = fi1 (x) + (i (x))Ai (x).

236

V.

3 . ,
, i : Ui,3 Rm .
, , fi D3m Rm Rn
fi (y) = fi1 (y) + (y)Ay. x Ui,1 , y = i (x) D1m ,
(y) = 1. fi (y) = fi1 (y) + Ay. 17.4
A fi m.
1 2.
4.

 i1
S
U j,1
Ci = Ui,2
j=1

fi1 m. A , fi (y) = fi1 (y) + (y)Ay m

y Ci ( a(y) =
min
max |ai j | A : rank fi (y)6m
Ci ).
2

17.4.

, n-
R2n+1 .
, .

.
f : Mm N n ,
Mm f(Mm) .
Mm ,
. (. . 97).
17.6. f : Mm Rn n > 2m + 1. > 0 . 97.
- g : Mm Rn , k f(x) g(x)k < x Mm .
,
.

17.5, g .
Ui,1 Ui,2 Ui,3
: Rm R. , f
Ui,3 ( f ). fi
fi1 (x) + (i (x))vi , vi Rn . ,
vi , , kvi k < /2i .

 17.

237

fi fi1
Ui,2 , fi1 vi
, fi .
fi (x) = fi (y) fi1 (x) + (i (x))vi =
= fi1 (y) + (i (y))vi . (i (x)) 6= (i (y)),
vi =

fi1 (x) fi1 (y)

.
(i (x)) (i (y))

(1)

Mm Mm N, (x, y), (i (x)) 6= (i (y)), N Rn ,

(1). N 2m < n,
. ,
vi , (1)
(x, y) N. fi (x) = fi (y) fi1 (x) = fi1 (y) (i (x)) = (i (y)). , x Ui,1
fi (x) = fi (y), (i (x)) = (i (y)) = 1, , y Ui,1 . fi1 Ui,1 , x = y.
i
S
, fi
U j,1
j=1

.
2
, , , , {f(xn)} , {xn } .
{f(xn)} L(f).
1. , f , L(f) = .
17.7. f : Mm Rn
, L(f) f(Mm) = .
. f : Mm
Rn ,
f 1 : f(Mm) Mm .
, f 1 .
lim f(xk) = y y f(Mm), lim xk = f 1 (y). L(f) f(Mm) = .
k

, f 1 . y f(Mn)
yk y, {xk = f 1 (yk)} . {xk } , x = f 1 (y).
, xki x 0 6= x, yki f(x 0) 6= y. -

238

V.

{xk } ,
.
2
.
17.8. Mm
f : Mm Rn , n = 2m + 1. ,
, f(Mm) Rn .
. ,
f1 : Mm R, L(f1) = .
Ui,1 Ui,2 Ui,3 : Rm R
, 17.5; i : Ui,3 Rm

P
. f1 (x) =
i(i (x)). x Ui,1 ,
i=1

(i (x)) = 1, f(x) > 1. {Ui,3 } , f1 , x 6 Ui,3 ,

(i (x)) = 0.
, {xk } . N k(N) ,
k > k(N), xk 6 U1,1 . . . UN ,1 . xk Ui,1 , i > N,
, f1 (xk) > i > N. {f1 (xk)}
.
f2 : Mm R2m+1 , f2 (x) =
= (f1 (x), 0, . . . , 0). 17.5 > 0 f3 : Mm R2m+1 , k f2 f3 k < , 17.6
f : Mm R2m+1 , k f3 f k < .
, L(f) = ( ). , {xk }, xk Mm , . N k(N) , k > k(N), f1 (xk) > N.
k f(xk) f2 (xk)k < 2 , {f(xk)} .
, f(Mm) .
.
. f(Mm) Rn
, L(f) f(Mm).
. ,
f(Mm) y L(f). y = lim f(xk), xk Mm , k
, y f(Mm).
, L(f) f(Mm). y
f(Mm). {xk }, xk Mm , f(xk) y.
{xk } x, xki x.

 17.

239

y = lim f(xki ) = f( lim xki ) = f(x) f(Mm). i

{xk } , y L(f) f(Mm).

2
f L(f) ,
f(Mm) .
2

17.5.

, n Rn+1 .
,
. .
X Y , W Y . , f : X Y W x X, :
) f(x) 6 W ;
) f(x) W T f(x) W + (df) x (Tx X) = T f(x) Y .
f W x X, , f W .
. dim X + dim W < dim Y , f : X Y W , f(X) W = .
17.9. Mn ( ), f : Mn N n+1 , f(Mn)
. N n+1 ,
Mn .
(. [117]). , Mn . Mn ,
. Mn .
Mn ,
, Mn .
h ,
Mn . ,
.
h N n+1
g : D 2 N n+1 , D 2 h . g . f g, f(Mn)
g(D 2) . n > 3 g(D 2)
, f(Mn) g(D 2)
,
h ; -

240

V.

. n = 2
. ,
;
,
. f(Mn)
g(D 2). f(Mn)
g(D 2) ,
.
h . , ,
Mn h .
2
. n Rn+1 .
, , S 3 , , , RP 3 . ,
RP 3 RP 2 . RP 2 , RP 3 ,
. RP 3
.
17.10 (. [40]).
RP 3 .
(. [49]). , M2 , RP 3 . ,
(M2) . : S 3 S 3 , . . (x) = x, p : S 3 RP 3 = S 3 /
. S 3 S 2 , RP 3
RP 2 = p(S 2). M2 , , M2 RP 2 . M2 RP 2 , , M2
, N 2 ,
N 2 RP 2 . , N 2 (M2) (N 2) (mod 2). ,
M2 RP 2 .
, p 1 (M2) S 2 .
1
p (M2) S 3 , ( 17.9). p 1 (M2)
, p 1 (M2) . ,
S 3 . S 3 \ p 1 (M2) . S 2 \ p 1 (M2) -

 18.

241

M2
RP 2

. 98.

M2g

S 3 \ p 1 (M2),
S 2 \ p 1 (M2) . ,
S 2 \ p 1 (M2) .
M2 RP 2 . p 1 (M2) S 2
, . . S 2 \ p 1 (M2)
. , S 2 \ p 1 (M2) . S 2 \ p 1 (M2)
. , p 1 (M2) S 2 , . . p 1 (M2) S 2 S 1 .
, RP 3 D 3 S 2 = D 3 . p : D 3 RP 3 D 3 \ S 2 ,
p S 2 - .
D 3 = DR3 = {x R3 | kxk 6 R}. > 0 ,
3
DR3 \ DR
M2
p 1 (M2) S 2 [R , R] , . . S 1 I.
RP 3 .
3
; M2 . 2 DR
2
2
M
(. 98). , 2 ; RP 2 .
2 M2 . ,
D 3 ( 17.9). g . (M2) + (2) = (RP 2) + 2 2g, ,
(M2) (RP 2) 1 (mod 2).
2

18.
18.1.

f : Mn N n
n. , Mn N n

242

V.

, .
, f y N n .
x f 1 (y). df(x) : Tx Mn Ty N n , x y ,
Mn N n ,
sgn J f (x) f x.
f y
X
deg(f , y) =
sgn J f (x).
x f 1 (y)

, f 1 (y) . , , f 1 (y)
. Mn , xi f 1 (y), i N,
x0 . f(x0) = y
x0 U, y. , (U \ {x0 }) f 1 (y) = . .
, f 1 (y) , deg(f , y) = 0.
. S 1 = {z C | |z| = 1}.
f : S 1 S 1 , f(z) = z n , n Z. n 6= 0,
deg(f , w) = n w S 1 . ( n = 0,
w = 1.)
f , g : Mm N n . ,
f g , F : Mm I N n , F(x, 0) = f(x) F(x, 1) = g(x)
x Mm .
18.1. f , g : Mn N n

,
y N n .
deg(f , y) = deg(g, y).
. f 1 (y) = {x1 , . . . , xk }.
x1 , . . . , xk U1 , . . . , Uk ,


V1 , . . . , Vk y.
T
S
V = Vi \ f(M \ Ui).
y. y 0 V
k x10 , . . . , xk0 , sgn J f (xi0) = sgn J f (x). deg(f , y) =
= deg(f , y 0). y g .
W 3 y, z W -

 18.

243

f g, deg(f , y) = deg(f , z)
deg(g, y) = deg(g, z).
, F : Mn I N n
W z. ,
deg(f , z) = deg(g, z). 15.3 (.
. 203) F 1 (z) 1- Mn I.
, ; Mn {0} Mn {1},
(. 99). F 1 (z)
. Mn I. - . 99. w F 1 (z) z , F 1 (z)
F
(x1 , . . . , xn , xn+1) 7 (x1 , . . . , xn). F 1 (z) w xn+1 .
F 1 (z), . Mn {0} Mn {1},

I, , (. 100).
f = F |Mn {0} g = F |Mn {1} w F 1 (z)
F 1 (z) w I.
, f g,
, (f g). , deg(f , z) = deg(g, z).
2

. 100. F 1 (z)

244

V.

W n+1 = Mn I. W n+1
Mn {0} Mn {1}. 18.1
.
18.2. W n+1 W n+1 (
), N n ,
f : W n+1 N n , y
f |W n+1 . deg(f |W n+1 , y) = 0.
18.2 , 18.1. , W n+1 . ,
, . :
2. 2, 18.2
W n+1 .
18.3. f : Mn N n
, N n . x, y N n f , deg(f , y) = deg(f , x).
. h : N n N n .
x N n f , h(x) hf . h , , deg(f , x) = deg(hf , h(x)). , h : N n N n ,
:
) h ;
) h(x) = y;
) hf f .
, y
f hf , deg(hf , y) = deg(f , y).
h0 h1 ,
, ht . , ( ), ,
. .
( ). N n
. x, y N n
h : N n N n , x y.

 18.

245

. : Rn R , (x) > 0 kxk < 1 (x) = 0 kxk > 1.

dx
= (x)c, c Rn
dt

. Ft (x)
F0 (x) = x. , Ft+s = Ft Fs , Ft
, . Ft
c. kxk < 1 kyk < 1.
c = y x. t > 0 Ft
x y
.
h : N n N n , x, y N n
: U Rn , (U) .
x, y N n ,
, x y.
,
. N n . ,
.
2
18.3 , N n (
Mn N n ),
deg f f : Mn N n , deg(f , x)
x.
. ,
Mn N n
( ,
1 1 (mod 2)). 18.1, 18.2 18.3
.
18.1. M2 g , g > 1. ,
f : S 2 M2 .
18.2. , deg(fg) = (deg f) (deg g).
18.3. P(z) n. ,
C C, z 7 P(z), CP 1 CP 1 . .
18.4. R(z) , m n. , ,
z 7 R(z),
CP 1 CP 1 . .

246

V.

18.5. f : S n S n
f : S n S n , S n {t} S n {t} f t.
, deg f = deg f .
18.6. S 2n1 Cn
(r1 e i1 , . . . , rn e in).
f : S 2n1 S 2n1 ,
(r1 e i1 , . . . , rn e in) 7 (r1 e ik1 1 , . . . , rn e ikn n),

k1 , . . . , kn .
18.7. f : SO(n) SO(n), n > 2,
f(A) = A2 . ?

18.2.

Mn , v : Mn TMn Mn . x Mn
v, v(x) = 0. x ,
.
U Rn , v : U Rn x0 U. r > 0 kx x0 k 6 r .
kx x0 k = r ,
x 7 v(x) /kv(x)k.
x0 . , , r
(, kx x0 k 6 r );
r.
x0 Mn v
.
: U Rn , x0 U Rn .
v Rn d(v) (x0). (x0)
d(v) x0 v.
. ,
: U Rn ) , ,
(x0) d (v) (x0) d(v). f = 1 : Rn Rn y = (x), w(y) = d(v(x)) y0 = (x0). .
) , U . ,
v x0 , U .

 18.

247

1. y0 w, f : Rn Rn .
y0 w f(x0)
df(w).
1 , , , .
.
2. f : Rn Rn ,
, .
. a Rn x 7 a +
+ f(x) . t
ft (x) = (t 1) f(0) + f(t) . f1 = f
f0 (0) = 0. , , f(0) = 0. P . 219 f
f(x) = xi gi (x), g1 , . . . , gn , gi (0) =
=

f
(0).
xi

F(x, t) = x1 g1 (tx) + . . . + xn gn (tx).

, f

F(x, 0) = x1

f
f
(0) + . . . + xn
(0).
x1
xn

, , , . SU, S , U . S
, . U
,

 -

cos sin
. 1
sin cos
S U
.
2
1. ,
f : Rn Rn . ft ,
f .
ft (y0) dft (w) t,

248

V.

t = 1 t = 0.
.
, f .
s(x1 , x2 , . . . , xn) = (x1 , x2 , . . . , xn)
x1 = 0. sf .
, w ds(w)
x0 s(x0) . w(x) = (w1 , w2 , . . . , wn),
ds(w(s(x))) = (w1 , w2 , . . . , wn) = sw(x).
W : S n1 S n1 , W(x) =
= w(x) /kw(x)k, W 0 = sWs 1 .
deg s = 1 deg W 0 = (deg s) 2 deg W = deg W .
18.8 (). , v C
i e ,
C . ,
1 + (i e) /2.
18.9. f . ,
v = grad f 1, 0, 1, 2, . . .
.
, Mn RN : U Mn
RN U Rn (U) Mn .

(x) x = (x1 , . . . , xn) U. ei (x) =

xi
P
n
T(x) M , v((x)) = vi (x)ei (x), vi . e j (x)
P (x1 , . . . , x j + t, . . . , xn). v
vi (. . . , x j + t, . . .)ei (. . . , x j + t, . . .).
X v
X
e
i
(x)ei (x) +
vi (x) i (x).
i

x j

x j

, (x) v,
,
e1 (x), . . . , en (x). , dv v .
y v ,
dv : Ty Mn Ty Mn .
18.4. y
v 1;
dv : Ty Mn Ty Mn .

 18.

249

.
y v Rn Rn . , U
, . ( , , , U .)
U Rn , v : Rn Rn .
,
det(dv) > 0. 2 . 247 v : Rn Rn ,
, .
1. v
, . S n1 S n1 1,
1.
2
, .
, .
18.5 ( ). Mn , f : Mn Rm . ,
, M Rm , f(Mn)
. > 0 ,
y M y = x + ,
x Mn Tx Mn .
. N (x, ), x Mn
, Tx Mn Rm . N
m .
Mn (u1 , . . . , un)
x
1 , . . . , mn , Tx Mn ; ,
i x. (x, ) (u1 , . . . , un , 1 , . . . , mn), = 1 1 + . . . + mn mn .
, (x, ) 7 x + ,
(u1 , . . . , un , 1 , . . . , mn) 7 x(u1 , . . . , un) + 1 1 + . . . + mn mn Rm ,
x(u1 , . . . , un) Mn Rm ,
(u1 , . . . , un).


X
X
k k , 1 , . . . , mn ,
e1 +
k k , . . . , en +
u1

ei =

un

x
, i = 1, . . . , n, ,
ui

250

V.

Tx Mn . ,
.
e1 , . . . , en Tx Mn ,
1 , . . . , mn . = 0 (x, ) 7 x +
. Mn > 0
, F N = {(x, ) N | kk 6
6 } . F : N Rm , F
. , M = F (N) . y M
y = x + , x Mn Tx Mn .
2
18.6 ( ).
Mn .
.

f : Mn Rm . , v Mn
(
). 18.5. v
M . y M y = x +
v (y) = v(x) + . , v(x) = 0 ,
y Mn . v ,
v. 18.4 ,
v ,
v ( d v dv
).
. v
M S m1 ,

y = x + 7 . , v.
. Ty (M),
y = x + , , .
v(x) , (v (y), ) = (, ) > 0.
t [0, 1] y M wt (y) = t v (y) + (1 t).
(wt (y), ) = t(v (y), ) + (1 t) (, ) > 0; , wt (y) 6= 0. , M S m1 ,
y 7 wt (y) /kwt (y)k, t. , ,
M S m1 ,
y 7 v (y) /kv (y)k,

v (y).

(1)

 18.

251

M D1m , . . . , Dkm ,
. M0 M S1m1 . . . Skm1 . Sim1 , M0 , ,
Dim . ,
Sim1 M0 ,
Sim1 Sim1 , (1), i- ,
.
(1) M0 ,
18.2
. , M S m1
Sim1 Sim1 ,
, . . .
2
, v . v , , v Rn . y0
v, : Rn [0, 1] R , 1 U 3 y0 0
V . , V , , V ,
y0 . , , v0 v : U Rn .
v 0 (y) = v(y) (y)v0 . V \ U
kv(y)k > 0. v0 , kv0 k < (, v(U)
v(y0) = 0). v 0 (y) 6= 0 y V \ U. y U,
(y) = 1 v 0 (y) = v(y) v0 .
v 0 , U, v0 v : U Rn ; .
, y0 v,
v 0 , U, U S n1 ,
y 7 v(y) /kv(y)k.
2
. ( ) g 2 2g.
. g 1 2g
1 (. 101).
2
18.7. Mn N n ,
p : Mn N n k- . -

252

V.

. 101. g

N n , Mn k.
. v N n . p , Mn
v = d(p 1) (v); ,
v (y) d(p 1) (v(p(y))), p 1 ,
y p(y).
v k
v .
2
. nP 2 2 n.
. nP 2 (n 1)T 2 .
2
. (M2)
M2 .
1-

, , , . M2 (. 102).

. 102. - - . , ,

1, , , 1. n- . 1-

 18.

253

,
k- l- k > l.
18.8. .
.
v v . , f : S n1 S n1 d,
f (1) n d. , x 7 x (1) n . n
(. . . , xi1 , xi , xi+1 , . . .) 7 (. . . , xi1 , xi , xi+1 , . . .),
1.

18.3.

, f , g : Mn N n
, deg f = deg g ( 18.1 18.3). [74]
, N n = S n , .
18.9 (). Mn .
) f , g : Mn S n ,
.
) m
f : Mn S n m.
. )
, n > 2; n = 1
, . S 1 S 1 , ,
n > 2.
, y0 S n f 1 (y0) g 1 (y0)
| deg f | = | deg g| .
g g1 , f 1 (y0) =
= g11 (y0); f g1 y0 . , ,
{a1 , . . . , ak } {b1 , . . . , bk } Mn ,
, bi
ai . , b1 a1 ,
( . 244). Mn

254

V.

. 103.

a1 ( n > 2)
. .
, f 1 (y0) = g 1 (y0) = {a1 , . . . , ak }
a1 , . . . , ak f g
. Ui 3 ai .


k
S
f Mn \
Ui y0 , i=1

f f1 ,
:


k
S
Ui = y1 , y1 S n , f1 M n \
i=1

y0 ;
f1 f Vi Ui
ai .
Vi , f .
f1 f2 , Vi Rn S n \ {y1 } Rn . 2
. 247 , Rn Rn ,
, , . f g .
, ,
y0 .
. Mn I
Ui I, S n .
y0
( f g)
(. 103). , ( n > 2 ).

 18.

255

S n , .
y1 .
) U1 , . . . ,
U|m| Mn S n \ {y1 }, y1 . , m. Mn
y1 ( m = 0, Mn
y1).
2
.
, . [107] .
18.10. , Mn , f , g : Mn S n , 2 .

18.4.

Mm N n
.
, N n .
[23] .
Mm Rn . Rn
, n = 1.
18.10. Mm , f :
m
M R . > 0
g : Mm R, |f(x) g(x)| 6
x Mm .
. x Mm
Ux , |f(x) f(y)| 6 y Ux . Ux1 , . . . , Uxk , Mn , {i }, P
.
g(x) = f(x1)1 (x) + . . . + f(xk)k (x).
i (x) = 1
,
X
X


f(x) g(x) = f(x)
f(xi)i (x) =
i (x) f(x) f(xi) .
.
x 6 Uxi , i (x) = 0.
x Uxi , |f(x) f(y)| 6 P
|i (x) f(x) f(xi) | 6 i (x), |f(x) g(x)| 6 i (x) =
= .
2

256

V.

( 18.5 . 249)
f : Mm N n
. g1 : Mm N n RN , k g1 (x) f(x)k < , . g1 (x) = g(x) + (x), g(x) N n , (x)T g(x) N n
k (x)k 6 . g : Mm N n k g(x) f(x)k 6
6 k g1 (x) f(x)k+k (x)k < 2.
18.11. Mm N n .
: ) f : Mm N n
g : Mm N n ; ) f , g : Mm N n .
. ) N n RN > 0 , . g : Mm N n RN ,
k f(x) g(x)k < . f(x) g(x)
. ,
t : (1 t), N n .
) [0, 1] S 1 .
f g Mm S 1 N n . . ,
f1 g1 , f1 g1 f g.
, f f1 ( g g1)
. , ).
2
, .
(.
. 244). , y
y0 , N n N n , y y0 , , y.
H : Mm I N n ,
H(x0 , t) = y0 , H 0 ,
H 0 (x0 , t) = y0 .
, n (S n) = Z n > 2.
, f , g : S n S n ,
f(x0) = g(x0) = y0 , , ,
x0 y0 . .
, f g H . H(x0 , t)

 18.

257

U S n (
n = 1 ). F(x, t) ,
y0 y0 , S n S n
, U y0 . t (x) = F(f(x), t)
t (x) = F(g(x), t) f g f 0
g 0 , H 0 (x, t) = F(H(x, t), 1) f 0 g 0 .
18.11. ,
Mn 0, Mn
.
PMn Mn ,
v v, ; p : PMn Mn .
PMn .
p Mn .
, Mn , x Mn
1- Tx Mn ,
x.
18.12. , Mn
, Mn
.

18.5.

n (S n) .
n+k (S n), k > 0 n > 2.
Mk Rn+k , x Mk v1 (x), . . . , vn (x), Tx Mk ; vi (x)
x. Mk ;
k.
k.
Mk0 Mk1 , Rn+k+1 W k+1 , :
) W k+1 0 6 xn+k+1 6 1;
) W k+1 Mk0 Mk1 , , , xn+k+1 = 0 xn+k+1 = 1;
) W k+1 ;

258

V.

) W k+1
, , Mk0 Mk1 .
k Rn+k kfr (n + k). kfr (n + k)
.
, , n+k
n+k
R+
R
, .
, .
, (, v1 (x) v1 (x)). ,
,
,
.
0- Rn m+ , , m , . 0fr (n)
m+ m . 0fr (n)
= n (S n)
n > 2. ( , n = 1, n = 1 , n > 2.)
18.12 (). k > 0 n > 2 kfr (n + k)
n+k (S n).
. Mk Rn+k
f : S n+k S n .
( 18.5 . 249)
> 0P, Mk Rn Rn+k ,
(x, a) 7 x + ai vi (x), kak < Mk Dn
- Mk Rn+k . x0 S n+k y0 S n
. S n+k \ {x0 } Rn+k , S n \ {y0 } Dn .
Rn+k , - Mk , y0 , - Mk Mk Dn Dn = S n \ {y0 }.
Mk0 Mk1 , W k+1 S n+k I S n , , f0 , f1 : S n+k S n .
f : S n+k S n Mk Rn+k . f g.
y1 S k , y0 = g(x0).
Mk = g 1 (y1). Mk .
y1 Rn = S n \ {y0 } e1 , . . . , en -

 18.

259

k


vi (x) M x , dg vi (x) = ei . , ,
,
Mk
y1 .
kfr (n + k) n+k (S n) .
2
18.13. , p : S 3 S 2 3 (S 2)
= Z, 1fr (3).

18.6.

p > 1 , q1 , . . . , qn , n > 2, p. S 2n1 Cn

Z p . Z p .


(z1 , . . . , zn) = exp(2iq1 / p)z1 , . . . , exp(2iqn / p)zn .

, .
L p (q1 , . . . , qn) .
: S 2n1 L p (q1 , . . . , qn) p-

Z p . 1 L p (q1 , . . . , qn) = Z p .
k p, L p (q1 , . . . , qn) = L p (kq1 , . . . , kqn),
Z p k, ,
. n = 2 (. . ) ,
L p (q1 , q2) = L p (1, q11 q2), . . L p (1, q).
L p (1, q) L ( p, q).
18.13. L p (q1 , . . . , qn)
L p (q10 , . . . , qn0 ) , q1 . . . qn kn q10 . . . qn0 (mod p) k. .
. , k p. L p (q10 , . . . , qn0 ) = L p (kq10 , . . . , kqn0 ) = L p (q100 , . . . , qn00), q100 . . . qn00 =
= kn q10 . . . qn0 . , , q1 . . . qn
q100 . . . qn00 (mod p), L p (q1 , . . . , qn) L p (q100 , . . . , qn00). , q 00j = q 0j .

260

V.

k j , k j q j q 0j (mod p), f : S 2n1 S 2n1 ,

f (r1 e i1 , . . . , rn e in) = (r1 e ik1 1 , . . . , rn e ikn n).
18.6 f k1 . . . kn .
k j q j q 0j (mod p) , f
f : L L0 , L = L p (q1 , . . . , qn) L0 = L p (q10 , ..., qn0 ).
, f
0
r j e i j e (2iq j p) r j e ik j j e (2iq j p) , k j q j q 0j
(mod p). , , , , 0 .
f f , . . deg f =
= k1 . . . kn .

f 0

id(deg=d)

L L S 2n1 L S 2n1 L0
. , L
. L, S 2n1 S 2n1 S 2n1 d. L f , S 2n1
0 : S 2n1 L0 . g : L L0 . , deg g = deg f + dp = k1 . . . kn + dp. k1 . . . kn
q10 q11 . . . qn0 qn1 1 (mod p), d ,
deg g = 1. , d .
g 0 : L0 L. ,
. ( 14.9 . 195) , g : n (L) n (L0)
n > 1. S 2n1 ,
n = 1 , f : 1 (L) 1 (L0)
.
S 2n1

f 0


L

// S 2n1


// L0

// S 2n1


// L.

 19.

261

, f 0 f , f 0 f . ,
f : 1 (L) 1 (L0) .
n > 2. : S 2n1
L,
S 2n1

// S 2n1
0


L


// L0 .

g, 1. g,
, g , . , g : n (S 2n1) n (S 2n1)
n. n > 2 : n (S 2n1) n (L)
0 : n (S 2n1) n (L0) , g : n (L) n (L0) .
2
L(p, q) 18.13 .
18.14. L(p, q) L(p, q 0),
q k2 q 0 (mod p), .
, L(p, q) = L p (1, q), . . q1 = 1 q2 = q. q = k2 q 0 q1 q2 = k2 q10 q20 .

19.
19.1.

Mn f : Mn R . x Mn ,
rank f(x) = 0, . . df : Tx Mn R .
(x1 , . . . , xn) ,

f
(x) = 0 i = 1, . . . , n.
xi

x f ,
 2

f
, ,
(x) . xi x j

, (y1 , . . . , yn)

262

V.

:

J =

xi
y j

2 f
(x)
yi y j

=J

2 f
(x)
xi x j

J,


.

f : Mn R ,
.
P
,
ai j xi x j , (ai j), .
( R)
2
y12 . . . yq2 + yq+1
+ . . . + yn2 .
q.
,
.
x f
f x.
2
1. f(x) = x12 . . . xq2 + xq+1
+ . . . + xn2 .
, x0 = (0, . . . , 0) ,
q.
19.1 ( ).
q ,
2
f f(x1 , . . . , xn) = f(0) x12 . . . xq2 + xq+1
+ . . . + xn2 .
. , f(0) = 0
Rn .
. 219 g1 , . . . , gn ,
P
f
(0). 0 f(x) = xi gi (x) gi (0) =

xi
f
, . .
(0) = 0. ,
xi


P
2 f
(0), . . hi j (0) f(x) = xi x j hi j (x), hi j (0) =
xi x j


1
hi j (x) + h ji (x)
f . hi j (x)
2

, hi j (x) ,
, h11 (0) 6= 0. , , h11 (x) /h11 (0) > 0
x .
y1 = x1 +

h12 (x)
h (x)
x + . . . + 1n xn ,
h11 (x) 2
h11 (x)

yi = xi i > 2.

 19.

263

(x1 , . . . , xn) 7
7 (y1 , . . . , yn) (,
). ,
X
X
yi y j h i j (x).
xi x j hi j (x) = h11 (x)y12 +
i, j>2

p
z1 = y1 |h11 (x)|, zi = yi i > 2,
n 1
. .
2
.
.
,
. ,
. ,
; . .
, , f , {x Mn | f(x) 6 c} ;
.
19.2. Mn .
1. g : Mn R (, ). f , g, 17.5 (. . 235). Ui,1 Ui,2 Ui,3 ,
i : Ui,3 Rn : Rn R , . g ,
Ui,1 ,
.
1. U Rn f : U
R .
A : Rn R f + A .
. F : U Rn ,


f
f
(x) .
(x), . . . ,
F(x) =
x1

xn

x0 F , f x0 .

264

V.

, f(x) a1 x1 . . . an xn x0 , , F(x0) = (a1 , . . . , an)

x0 F , . . (a1 , . . . , an) F .
.
2
1 , gi1 Mn , A(x) = a1 x1 + . . . + an xn
ai ,
gi (y) = gi1 (y) + (i (y))A(i (y))
Ui,1 ( 1 U =
= Ui,2 Ui,1 ; , (i (y)) = 1 y Ui,1).
gi1 Ui,1 .
, . ,
gi1 i1
S
U j,1 ; , gi

j=1

. gi1 Ui,2 ;

 i1
S
Ui,2
U j,1 .
j=1

2. f , g : U R U Rn , f
K U. > 0, f g K
, g K
.
.
X  f 2   2 f 2
F=
+ det
xi

xi x j

f ,
K F . ,
X  f 2 X  g 2

< /2
xi

det

2 f
xi x j

2

xi

  2 2
g
det
< /2,
xi x j

 19.

265

X  g 2
xi

  2 2
g
> 0,
+ det
xi x j

, g K . 2
a1 , . . . , an , (x) (a1 x1 + . . . + an xn) .
gi , 2.
2. Mn Rm , a Rm f(x) = kx ak2 x Mn .
u1 , . . . , un Mn xi (u1 , . . . , un),
i = 1, . . . , m, (u1 , . . . , un) Rm . xi ,
f . a ,
f .
,

2 f
f
= 2(xi ai)
= 2i j .
xi
xi x j
m

X f x
X
f
x
k
=
=2
(xk ak) k ;
ui
xk ui
ui

f
=
ui u j

k=1
m
X

k=1

k,l=1
m 
X

=2

k=1

ei =

X f 2x
f xk xl
k
+
=
xk xl ui u j
xk ui u j
2

k=1

xk xk
2 xk
+ (xk ak)
ui u j
ui u j

x1
xm
, i = 1, . . . , n,
, ...,
ui
ui

Tx Mn , x Mn
f , = x a
Tx Mn . , gi j + (, li j), gi j = (ei , e j)

 2
x1
2 xm
, . gi j li j
, ...,
li j =
ui u j

ui u j

x Mn ( ).
. 250 m- N, (x, ), x Mn , Tx Mn Rm .
, (x, ) N
(x, ) 7 x Rn ,
gi j + (, li j) . , f(x) = kx ak2
Mn , a (x, ) 7 x . -

266

V.

a Rm f(x) =
= kx ak2 .
(x, ) 7 x + (.
. 249); (x, ) 7 x , J


X
X
k
k
e1 +
k
, 1 , . . . , mn .
, . . . , en +
k
u1

un

e1 , . . . , en Tx Mn ,
1 , . . . , mn . , A = (e1 , . . . , en , 1 , . . . , mn) , , J




P k
0
g

e
,

i
k
.
u j
AT J = i j

Imn
 P

k
2x
, ei ,
k
= (, li j), li j =
. u j
ui u j




k x
2x
,
=
,
k ,


ui u j
u j ui

x
x
. .
= ei ,
k ,
= 0. k
u j

ui

ui

(k , ei) = 0.
. Mn Rm
, f(x) = kx ak2 ,
{x Mn |f(x) 6 c} .
f ,
.
19.3. Mn .
. x1 , ..., xn f : Mn R. Ui 3 xi Vi 3 xi ,
i : Mn R, 1 Vi
0 Ui . g(x) = f(x) + 1 1 (x) +


 f 2
+ . . . + k k (x). Ui \ Vi 
 +...+


x1
 f 2
+
 , i xn

, g(x) , Ui \ Vi . g ,
1 , . . . , k g(xi) = f(xi) + i .
2

 19.

19.2.

267

f Mn . Mn , f
grad f , :
v Mn
(grad f , v) = v(f), v(f) f v. Mn = Rn



, grad f =

f
f
, ...,
x1
xn

, grad f f ,
.
19.4. x0 grad f (1) i ,
i x0 f .
. ,
grad f .
(v, w) 0 (v, w) 1 Mn .
(v, w) t = t(v, w) 0 + (1 t) (v, w) 1 , t [0, 1] , .
grad f (
) t ,
t .
2
f(x) = x12 . . . xi2 + xi+1
+ . . . + xn2 Rn
grad f
2(x1 , . . . , xi , xi+1 , . . . , xn). (1) i (. 18.8
. 253).
2
. f n
P
Mn .
(1) i ci , ci
i=1

i,
f .
.
grad f ,
.
2
Mn

f . .

268

V.

Ma = {x Mn | f(x) 6 a}
f 1 (a).
. , a ,
Ma .
19.5. , [a, b] f Mn . Ma Mb ; ,
f 1 (a) f 1 (b) . ,
f 1 ([a, b]) f 1 (a) [a, b] .
. > 0 ,
[a , b + ] f . (s)
, 1 s [a, b] 0 s 6 [a , b + ] .
f(x) [a , b + ] , grad f/k grad f k
( , Mn ).
Mn

v(x) =

(f(x)) grad f
.
kgrad f k

v(x) = 0, f(x) 6 [a , b + ] .
v Mn
(x, t)

= v( (x, t)).
(x, t), (x, 0) = x
t
, (x, t)
(x, t + ) v( (x, t)). , g : Mn R
,  x Mn v g( (x, t)) 
g
 . ,
t
t=0


g( (x, t)) 
= v(g) = (v, grad g).

t

t=0

g f . ,
f(x) [a, b] ,



f( (x, t)) 
grad f
=
,
grad
f
= 1.
(1)

2
t

t=0

kgrad f k

t : Mn Mn , t (x) =
= (x, t). t :
0 = idMn t+s = t s . , t . (1) , ba (Ma) = Mb .
f 1 (a) [a, b]
f 1 ([a, b]) (x, t) 7 (x, t a).
2

 19.

269

19.5 , , ( ).
19.6. , Mn f , . Mn ) S n .
. fmax fmin f . ,
f f(x1 , . . . , xn) = fmax x12 . . . xn2 .
> 0 , f 1 (fmax )
S n1 , f(x) > fmax , D n . , , .
fmin + fmax f , 19.5 [fmin + , fmax ]
S n1 I. Mn S n1
I D n 1 : S n1 S n1 2 : S n1 S n1 . , S n . ,
1 = 2 = idS n1 , . ,
: S n1 S n1
: D n D n . x D n
(
x(x/kxk) x 6= 0;
(x) =
0
x = 0.
0 , .
2
, f 1 (a)
f 1 (b) .
19.7. , x0 i f [a, b] =
= [f(x0) , f(x0) + ] .
Mb ,
Ma D i
D i Ma .
. 19.5 ,
:
f , Ma Mb .
)

[10] , Mn S n .

270

V.

x0 , f(x1 , . . . , xn) = f(x0) x12 . . .

2
+ . . . + xn2 . . . . xi2 + xi+1
f(x) = f(x0) , i , i- x12 + . . . + xi2 6 ; Di . f(x) = f(x0) + , , 2
xi+1
+ . . . + xn2 6 2; (n i)-
ni
D2 ( . 104 n = 2; i = 1). ,
ni
, Di D2

U 3 x0 .
r : Mb A, A =
= Ma Di ( Ma Di = Di ). ,
(x1 , . . . , xn) (x , x+), x =
= (x1 , . . . , xi) x+ = (xi+1 , . . . , xn). x2
ni
Di D2
Mb r n

i
n

i
n

i
n

i
n

i
n

i
n

i
n

i
n

i
n

i
D
D
D2222222
D
D
D
. 2222
ni
u (x , x+) Di D2
Mb
(0, x+). x i
D x
u,
1
x (. 104).
U r 1

v(x) = grad f(x). 2

, x U, v(x) = (x , x+).
r
Mb , ni
, u Di D2
v U.
ni
n
: M [0, 1] , 0 Di D2
1 U. x U w(x) = ((x)x , x+); x 6 U
w(x) = v(x). w , x+ ,
f(x) = f(x0) ( , Mb , Ma
ni
).
Di D2
, idMb r : Mb A Mb , . x Mb
x r(x) t : (1 t).
2

. 104.

 19.

271

19.5 19.7 ,
CW -.
19.8. f Mn , ci i (i = 0, 1,
. . . , n). Mn CW -, ci i.
. x0 i,
[a, b] = [f(x0) , f(x0) + ]
. , Ma
CW - X, Mb
X D i , : S i1 = D i X
.
19.7 Mb
Ma D i , : S i1 Ma . h : Ma
X . h : S i1 X. ( Ma Y).
. ) 0 , 1 : S i1 X ,
X 0 D i X 1 D i .
) : S i1 Y h : Y X
, Y D i
X h D i .
. ) t ,
0 1 . : X0 = X 0 D i X 1 D i = X1
. x X (x) = x. X0
u S i1 0 (u) ,
(u) = (0 (u)) = 0 (u). t [0, 1/2] u S i1
(tu) = 2tu. X1 u S i1 1 (u) , (u/2) = u = 1 (u).
(u/2) = 1 (u) (u) = 0 (u), t [1/2, 1]
u S i1 (tu) = 22t (u).
: X1 X0 .
(u/2) = 0 (u) (u) = 1 (u),
t [1/2, 1] u S i1 (tu) = 2t1 (u).
, idX0 idX1 . ,

t [0, 1/4] ;
4tu
((tu)) = 4t1 (u) t [1/4, 1/2] ;

22t (u) t [1/2, 1] .

272

V.

. [0, 1/4]
[0, 1] , .
k(t)
(1s)k(t) , s [0, 1] ( 0 ;
s = 1).
.
) g : X Y , h. H : Y D i X h D i G : X h D i Y gh D i
: H|Y = h, H|D i = idD i G|X = g, G|D i = idD i .
, gh idY , , gh . ) : Y gh D i Y D i . , GH . ,
G H , GH(y) = y y Y
(
2tu
t [0, 1/2] , u S i1 ;
GH(tu) =
22t (u) t [1/2, 1] , u S i1 ;
t , gh idY .
GH
, ).
, ,
[0, 1] .
( , [0, 1/2])
. :

h
i
1+s
2 tu
t 0,
, u S i1 ;
1
+
s
2
i
h
s (tu) =
1+s

, 1 , u S i1 ;
t
22t+s (u)
2

2 2t + s , 1

t=

1+s
.
2

, GH id. , HG id,
, . ,
GH (GH) = (GH) id .

HG (HG)HG = H(GH)G HG id .

 19.

273

GH id HG id , H G ; , H . 2
19.1. ) , Y
CW - X, . . Y X . , X/Y X Y .
) S m S n , m < n. , S n /S m S n S m+1 .

19.3.

. T n
R /2Zn . T n
n , 2 .
. c1 , . . . , cn . f(x1 ,
n
. . . , xn) = c1 sin x1 + . . . + cn sin xn
  T
n

, c1 , . . . , cn 6= 0.
k
k.
f
f
.
= ...=
= 0 ,
x1

xn

c1 cos x1 = . . . = cn cos xn = 0. ci 6= 0, xi = + 2m.

2
, ci = 0, f
. c1 , . . . , cn 6= 0,


f2
= diag(c1 sin x1 , . . . , cn sin xn) = diag(1 c1 , . . . , n cn),
xi x j

xi = i + 2m.
2
i, i ci < 0. k k i, i ci < 0.
2
, S 1 CW -
n
0- 1-, T 
=S 1 . . . S 1 CW -,

n
k

k.

19.3 .

. S n Rn ,
2
x12 + . . . + xn+1
= 1.
. f(x1 , . . . , xn+1) = xn+1 S n 0 n.
. S n 2(n + 1) ,
xi > 0 xi < 0;

274

V.

(x1 , . . . , xi1 , xi+1 , . . . , xn+1).

i 6= n + 1, f
. xn+1 > 0 f 1 x12 . . . xn2 ;
x12 + . . . + xn2 < 1 .

f
f
= 0
= ...=
x1
xn
 2 
f

(x1 , . . . , xn) = (0, . . . , 0);

xi x j

In . , (x1 , . . . , xn , xn+1) = (0, . . . , 0, 1) S n

n.
xn+1 < 0 ,
(0, . . . , 0, 1) In , . . 0.
2
. c1 , . . . , cn+1 .
2
f(x1 , . . . , xn+1) = c1 x12 + . . . + cn+1 xn+1
S n
, c1 , . . . , cn+1 .

0, 1, 2, . . . , n.
. xn+1 > 0 xn+1 < 0 f
, ,
f = c1 x12 + . . . + cn xn2 + cn+1 (1 x12 . . . xn2) =

= (c1 cn+1)x12 + . . . + (cn cn+1)xn2 + cn+1 .

(x1 , . . . , xn) =
= (0, . . . , 0). ,
c1 , . . . , cn cn+1 ; c1 , . . . , cn , cn+1 .
(x1 , . . . , xn) = (0, . . . , 0) xn+1 > 0 xn+1 < 0
(x1 , . . . , xn , xn+1) = (0, . . . , 0, 1) S n .
xi > 0
xi < 0. ,
c1 , . . . , cn+1 . ,
k = 0, 1, . . . , n i, k
c1 , . . . , ci1 , ci+1 , . . . , cn+1 ci .
2
. RP n , S n x x.
f S n , ,
f(x) = f(x). f
RP n , .

 19.

275

RP n S n
.
2
f(x1 , . . . , xn+1) = c1 x12 + . . . + cn+1 xn+1

, .
2
. f(x1 , . . . , xn+1) = c1 x12 + . . . + cn+1 xn+1
n
RP , c1 , . . . , cn+1
.
0, 1, 2, . . . , n.
.
CP n (z1 : . . . : zn).
. c1 , . . . , cn+1
.
f(z1 : . . . : zn+1) =

c1 |z1 |2 + . . . + cn+1 |zn+1 |2

|z1 |2 + . . . + |zn+1 |2

CP n .
0, 2, . . . , 2n.
. CP n n + 1
, zk 6= 0.
zn+1 6= 0 wk = zk /zn+1 ,
k = 1, . . . , n ( , wk
). f
f(w1 , . . . , wn) =

c1 |w1 |2 + . . . + cn |wn |2 + cn+1

.
|w1 |2 + . . . + |wn |2 + 1

uk = wk /
+ . . . + |wn |2 . ,

p
kwk2 + 1, kwk2 = |w1 |2 +

kwk2
1
= 1
= 1 |u1 |2 . . . |un |2 ,
2
kwk + 1
kwk2 + 1

f(u1 , . . . , un) = (c1 cn+1)|u1 |2 + . . . + (cn cn+1)|un |2 + cn+1 .

uk = xk + iyk |uk |2 = xk2 + yk2 .
, 19.3.
, |uk |2 = xk2 + yk2 .
2

276

V.

SO(n) U(n).
SO(n) U(n), [7] . ,
SO(n) U(n) X, XX = In
, X = X T ( ). ,
X + t t (X + t) (X + t ) = In , X + X = 0. X = In
+ = 0, . .
( ).
;
SO(n) U(n). ,
+ X = 0 + = 0. = X X
, , X + X = 0,
.
. n, 2
Rn .
(A, B) = tr(AB ). SO(n) U(n) X
1

( X X).
2
. , X = In .
() () .
-

1
1
1
( + ) + ( ). ( )
2
2
2
1
, ( + ) 2

: =

.
X .
In : 7 X 1 = X .
X .

1
(X X ). , 2
1
1
1
: (X X ) 7 (X X )X = ( X X).
2
2
2
2

. SO(n) U(n) fA (X) =

= Re tr(AX), A . X , A = XAX.
. a pq = pq + i pq x pq = u pq + iv pq .
P
fA (X) = ( pq uq p pq vq p), grad f = A
.

pq

 19.

277

,
grad f . 19.3

1
(A XAX).
2

. A = diag(a1 , . . . , an), 0 6 a1 < . . . < an .

fA (X) SO(n) U(n).
. 19.3 X
, A = XAX. A = (XAX) =
= X 1 AX 1 . A2 = (XAX) (X 1 AX 1) = XA2 X 1 , . .
A2 X . A
. , X
(. [15, 39.1, ]). X ,
X = diag(1, . . . , 1); 1.
fA . ,
.
In , . . + = 0, X0 =
= diag(1 , . . . , n), i = 1, . 7 X0 e ,
X0 .

fA (X) fA (X0) = Re tr A(X X0) = Re tr AX0 (e In) =


1 2
= Re tr AX0 + + . . . =
2


X
1X
apppp +
a p p p j jp + . . . .
= Re
p

p p ,
. , p j = jp , P
(a p p + aq q)| pq |2 + . . .
fA (X) fA (X0) =
16 p6q6n

aq > a p > 0 q > p, sgn(a p p + aq q) = sgn(aq q)

q > p. , p 6 q, | pq |2 , q . , fA (X)
.
2
. , . 15.5, .

278

V.

= (1 , . . . , k), 1 6 1 < . . . < k 6 n,

d() = (1 1) + (2 2) + . . . + (k k),
e().
,
.
x . G(n, k)
n

RP k 1 .
e , ,
. . e = (0 : 0 : . . . : 0 : 1 : 0 : . . . : 0), , . , e
e().
n

P
. f(x) = c x2 , c R, RP k 1
n

P 2
(,
x = 1), i : G(n, k) RP k 1
. c , fi
G(n, k) i 1 (e)
d(). ( c ;
.)
. c , n

19.3 f RP k 1 e . i 1 (e)
fi. , fi
i 1 (e).
U G(n, k),
i 1 (e) .
. x ,
1 , . . . , k , 1 , . . . , k
, y1 , . . . , yk(nk) . , x y1 , . . . , yk(nk) , 1 , . . . , k , 1 , . . . , k ( x = 1).
P c x2
2
x

x . ( k) ,
k 1 . , , x = yi . i (i), .

 19.

279

f c .
P
P
(c c)x2 (y)
c + c x2 (y)
c =
.
f(y) c =
P 2
P
1 + x (y)
1 + x2 (y)

, , f(y) c ,
k(nk)
P
(c (i) c)x2 (i) (y); i=1

(i), . c ,
i 1 (e) ;
(i), , c (i) < c .
: ,
< , k = k , k1 = k1 , . . . , i+1 = i+1 , i < i . c , c < c < . ,
,
, d(). ,
i . , , , i
1 , . . . , i1 ; i i.
, c i 1 (e) d(). ,
fi .
k- ;
. v1 , . . . , vk , vi =
= (vi1 , . . . , vii 1 , 1, 0, . . . , 0) vi j = 0 j < i. ,
vi , vis 6= 0
s < i ( vii = 1 ). ,
6= i 1 (e), . . v1 , . . . , vk
. vi ;
i .
t , v1 , . . . ,
vi1 , vi+1 , . . . , vk
vi (t) = ((1 + t)vi1 , . . . , (1 + t)vii 1 , 1, 0, . . . , 0).
, fi, t = 0 (t) = fi(t ), ,
0 (0) 6= 0.
V(t) ,
v1 , . . . , vi1 , vi (t), vi+1 , . . . , vk ; V (t) , 1 , . . . , k V(t). t x (t) det V (t).

280

V.

(t) =

0 (0) =

P

c x0 x

P

c x2 (t) /

x2 (t),

 P
P

x2
c x2
x0 x

P

x0

x0 (0).

x2

2

x = x (0)
=
i = k.
k V (t) .
k < k , V (t) V(t) 1 + t.
x (t) = (1 + t)x (0) x0 (t) = x0 (0).
k = k , V (t) 0, . . . , 0, 1. x (t) = const x0 (t) = 0.
k > k , V (t) .
x (t) = 0.
, x0 6= 0 k < k x 6= 0 k 6 k .
= , k
= , k ( ), 0 (0)
 X
 X

X
2
2
2
c,k x,k
x ,k +
x ,k
,k <k

,k <k

 X

2
c,k x,
k

,k <k

,k <k ;

c ,k x2 ,k

,k <k ;
,k <k

 X

,k <k

x2 ,k


.

2
c,k x,
x 2
k ,k

2
(c,k c ,k)x,
x2 .
k ,k

c , k < k , c,k < c ,k .

2
x 2 = 0
0 (0) = 0 , x,
k ,k
, k < k . , k = , x ,k = x = 1. x,k = 0
, k < k . , j 1 , . . . , k1 , x = vk j , vk j ,
j < k , . .
, i < k. ,
i , . . vi , vi+1 , . . . , vk (

 19.

281

v j j = 1 ). x (t) 6= 0 , i 6 i , i+1 = i+1 , . . . , k = k , x0 (t) 6= 0 ,

i < i , i+1 = i+1 , . . . k = k ; x0 (0) = x (0).

= (1 , . . . , i , i+1 , . . . , k) = (1 , . . . , i , i+1 , . . . , k)
, i , = (1 , . . . , i1); i+1 , . . . , k .
0 (0) , ;
, k < k k < k
i < i i < i .
2
. [146] . [66] ;
[26] . [7] ,
.

 VI

.2.1 1 (X, x0) X x0 .
,

.

20. CW-
, 2.1 . 42, , CW -
CW - (0- ) e 0 .
CW - X ,
e 0 . , e 0
( ;
7 1 , ).

20.1.

X , . , 1- , 2- . . X 1
, 1 (X 1 , e 0) 1 , . . . , k , k 1- X. 2- 2i : D 2 X
i : D 2 X 1 X. S 1 s. i
1 (X 1 , i (s)).
1 (X 1 , e 0), i (s) e 0 . , i-

 20. CW -

283

1 (X 1 , e 0). i ; i . ,
i : S 1 X
1 (X, i (s)). . 105.
i
X
X 1 X - s
1
0
1 , . . . , k 1 (X , e )
a1 , . . . , ak 1 (X, e 0). i
1
. 105.
1
1 , . . . , k .
1
bi a1

1 , . . . , ak
1 (X, e 0), . .
1
bi = 1, bi a1
1 , . . . , ak .
bi = 1 abi a1 = 1 , i .
20.1. 1 (X, e 0) a1 ,
. . . , ak b1 , . . . , bl . ( ,
1
1
b a1
1
1 , . . . , k
1 , . . . , ak ,
0
1 (X, e ), N,
N 1 (X 1 , e 0), 1 , . . . , l .)
. S 1 CW - 0- 1- ; 0-
s. (S 1 , s) (X, e 0) (S 1 , s) (X 1 , e 0). X 1 X 1 (X 1 , e 0) 1 (X, e 0), . .
a1 , . . . , ak 1 (X, e 0).
,
X 2 X . , X 1 X
, , X 1 ( e 0) X, X 2 . X X 1
H : I 2 X. I 2 CW - 4
, 4 2- . H I 2 , H H 0 : I 2 X 2 ,
I 2 . H 0 X 2 .

284

VI.

. 106. p1

, 1 (X 1 , e 0) 1 (X 2 , e 0),
X 1 X 2 , N.
p1 : Xh1 X1 , N 1 (X 1 , e0);
, p1 1 (Xh 1 , e 0) = N, e 0 p 1 (e0). , X 2
, X 1 1- ( ), p1
, . 106.
N , p1 .
p1 i : (S 1 , s) (X 1 , e 0)
e 0 . p1 ,
i j i e 0j p11 (e 0) .
i j
i j : D 1j Xh 1 . Xh 1 i j 2-
, CW - Xh 2 . p1 p2 : Xh 2 X 2 .
: (S 1 , s) (X 1 , e 0),
X 2 . , Xh 2 ; Xh 1 .
Xh 1 e 0 . ,
N, .
2
. 1 (X, e 0) 1 (X 2 , e 0), . . CW -
2- .

20.2.

. 1 (CP n) = 0.
. CP n CP 1 S 2 . 2
. 1 (nT 2) a1 , b1 , . . . , an ,
n
Q
1
bn ,
(ai bi a1
i bi ) = 1.
i=1

. . 70 . 163.

 20. CW -

285

. 1 (nP 2) a1 , . . . , an ,
a21 . . . a2n = 1.
, S 2 , T 2 , 2T 2 , . . . , P 2 , 2P 2 , . . .
( 11.5 . 161). . ,
G G 0 , aba1 b 1 , a, b G.
xaba1 b 1 x 1 = xax 1 a1 a(xb)a1 (xb) 1 xx 1
, G 0 G . , G/G 0 .
1. ) , G =1 (nT 2), G/G 0
=Z2n .
2
0 n1
) , G = 1 (nP ), G/G = Z
Z2 .
, Zn1 Z21 Zn2 Z22 , i = 0 1,
, n1 = n2 1 = 2 .
20.1. ) , 1 (nT 2) 1 (mT 2) m
m 1 n 1.
) , 1 (nP 2)
1 (mP 2), m 2 n 2, 1 (mT 2),
2(m 1) n 2.
. nT 2 ,
k > 1 , 2n + k 1.
. a1 , b1 , . . . , an , bn

c1 , . . . , ck , n


Q


1 1

(ai bi ai bi ) = 1
c1 . . . ck




i=1

(. 107). ck 




, 


.
2

. nT 2 ,




k > 1 ,




2n + k 1 . (
, . 107. ,

.)
. nP 2 ,
k > 1 , n + k 1.

286

VI.

,
, S 1 = D 2 D 2 . , ,
i
r
r : D 2 S 1 . A
X
A ,
.
i

1 (A) ,

1 (X)
1 (A)
1 (A) = Z 1 (X) = 0.
. , . 85
, .
20.2. X , A . ,
A X.
20.3. ) X T 2 , D 2 . , A = D 2 X.
) , T 2 g
.
20.4. X ,
D 2 . , A = D 2 X.
.
.
(. [59]). M3g g . 1 (M3g)
a1 , . . . , a g , b1 , . . . , b g , c,
g
Q
1
22g
(ai bi a1
.
: ai c = cai , bi c = cbi
i bi ) = c

i=1

. M2g = gT 2
.
, D 2 M2g .
M2g

2 2g, D 2 S 1 , x 7 v(x) /kv(x)k, 2 2g. D 2 S 1

.
D 2 \ D2 , D2
D 2 .
M2g \ D2 , ;

 20. CW -

287

, D 2 :
v(x) 2 2g
, .
D2 (
).
v M3g 1 2 . M2g 4g-
. , D2
D2 ,
v ,



(. 108).
v0
v . 0- M3g
( D2 , v0). 1-. 108.
:
( D2 , w 6= v0);
( x, v(x)), x i- 4g-.
, (0, 1) M3g [0, 1] 0- .
2- . 4g- (4g + 1)-,

. 109.

288

VI.

(. 109); , , .
(4g + 1)- M3g v. , 0- ; x (x, v(x));
D2 ; 1- .
2- 2- , 4g-.
,
2- 3- . ,
4g-, x
, v(x).
4g- (0, 1).
a1 , ..., a g , b1 , ..., b g 4g-. c 1- g
Q
1
22g
D2 .
(4g + 1)-
(ai bi a1
i bi ) = c
i=1

( 1- 1
c 2 2g). ai ca1
= 1 bi cbi1 c 1 = 1
i c
4- .
2
20.5. , M30 RP 3 . ( M30
S 2 .)

20.3.

SO(n)

. .
. 1 (SO(n)) = Z2 n > 3.
1 (SO(n)) .
. Rn+1 e
SO(n + 1) S n , A Ae.
SO(n).
:
2 (S n) 1 (SO(n)) 1 (SO(n + 1)) 1 (S n).

 20. CW -

289

n > 3, 2 (S n) = 1 (S n) = 0, 1 (SO(n))
= 1 (SO(n + 1)).
, SO(3) RP 3 (. 20.5) 1 (RP 3) = Z2 .
RP 3 D 3 ,
SO(3) RP 3 . D 3
1 (RP 3), S 3 RP 3
. SO(n) SO(n + 1)

,
.
2
. , 1 (SO(3)) = Z2 , .
20.2 ( [79]). S 2 = {u R3 | kxk = 1}
f : S 2 R . R3
u1 , u2 , u3 , f(u1) = f(u2) = f(u3).
. e1 ,
e2 , e3 : SO(3) R3 ,
(A) = (f(Ae1), f(Ae2), f(Ae3)). , (A) l, x = y = z.
, (SO(3)) .
x + y + z = 0 (
l).
,

S 1 .
: SO(3) S 1 .
S 1 SO(3), l.
, (S 1). t S 1 ( l). t = 2 /3
e1 , e2 , e3 e2 , e3 , e1 . x + y + z = 0 (x, y, z) 7 (y, z, x). ,
2 /3. , (x, y, z) (y, z, x), z = x y,
xy (x + y) 2
1
= . (S 1) 2
(x + y) 2

x2 + y2

. t 0 2 /3 (x0 , y0 , z0)
(y0 , z0 , x0). , t 2 /3 4 /3, 2 /3.
2 /3. (S 1)

290

VI.

. t 0 2 /3 (t)
2

+ 2k, k . 3
t 0 2 (t) 2 (3k + 1) 6= 0.
, : SO(3) S 1 1 (SO(3)) 1 (S 1). Z2 Z . 2
. K R3 .
. u R3
K , u.
f(u) . f
, .
2
. n > 3, 1 (SO(n)) = Z2 . ,
SO(n) . Spin(n). , SO(n),
. Spin(n), ,
.
Cn , e1 , . . . , en ,
ei2 = 1 ei e j + e j ei = 0 i 6= j. Rn Cn , e1 , . . . , en .

2
P
P
,
xi ei = xi2 ,
Rn Cn . ,
S n1 Rn Cn . Cn S n1 ;
pin(n). Spin(n)
pin(n). , ,
Cn Cn0 Cn1 ,
Cni e j1 . . . e j2k+i ; Cn0 Cn1 ,
ei2 = 1 ei e j + e j ei = 0
, . Spin(n)
pin(n), Cn0 . - :
Spin(n) u1 u2 . . . u2k , ui S n1 .
Spin(n) SO(n), , Cn , ei1 . . . eik 7 eik . . . ei1 ; ei2 ei e j + e j ei ,
Cn . u 7 u . , (u) = u (uv) = v u .

 20. CW -

291

u pin(n) (u) : Rn Rn ,
(u)x = uxu . ,
uxu Rn , . . e1 , . .P
. , en .
P n1
,

S
.

u
=
u
e

x
=
xi ei .
i
i
P
P
ui x j ei e j . uxu = uxu ,
ux = ui xi +
i6= j

Rn .
P
ui x j uk ei e j ek ,
. ei e j ek = ek e j ei , .
, , (u) .
, u = u1 . . . uk , ui S n1 , u u = uu = (1) k .

2
P
P
, ,
xi ei = xi2 = kxk2 .

k(u)xk2 = uxu uxu = (1) k ux 2 u = (1) k kxk2 uu = kxk2 .

20.3. : pin(n) O(n) . 1 (SO(n)) = Spin(n) Ker |Spin(n) =
= {1, 1}.
. , (uv)x = uvx(uv) = uvxv u =
= (u)(v)x. .
, u S n1 , (u) , u. x u + w,
wu. , (u)x = u + w. (u)x = u(u + w)u =
= uuu + uwu = u + uwu . ,
P uwu = w
P

ui wi = 0
u2i = 1,
P
P 2 u = u).
P
uwu = ui w j ui ei e j ei = ui w j e j = w j e j = w.
i, j

i, j

, . ,

, . 1 (SO(n)) = Spin(n).
, u Spin(n) (u)x = x x. , , uei u = ei , uei u u = ei u. u u = 1 u Spin(n). ,
uei = ei u. , uei = ei u i u P
Spin(n), (u)x = x
x.
,

u
=
ai1 ...i2k ei1 . . . ei2k ,
P
ei uei1 = ei uei = (1) (i) ai1 ...i2k ei1 ...ei2k , (i) = 0, i
/ {i1 , ..., i2k },
(i) = 1, i {i1 , . . . , i2k }. u Cn0
ei u = uei i , u = 1,
R. , Ker |Spin(n) = {1, 1}.
2
, Spin(n) SO(n). , , . . Spin(n) .

292

VI.

, Spin(n) ,
1 1.
(e1 cos t + e2 sin t) (e1 cos t e2 sin t) = cos 2t e1 e2 sin 2t,

t [0, /2] .

21.

21.1.

, X
U1 U2 , U1 U2 . x0 U1 U2 1 (U1 U2 , x0), 1 (U1 , x0) 1 (U2 , x0).
, S, S1 , S2
R, R1 , R2 .
. i : Ui X si Si
i si 1 (X, x0), 1 (X, x0) () 1 S1 2 S2 ; i : 1 (Ui , x0) 1 (X, x0) i Si . s S 1 (Ui , x0)
i : U1 U2 Ui . i s Si , i i s i Si .
1 (X, x0) 1 1 s = 2 2 s,

1 1 = 2 2 (
U1 U2 X).
, 1 (X, x0)
1 S1 2 S2 ,
1 R1 , 2 R2 1 1 s = 2 2 s,


s S. G,
1 S1 , 2 S2 1 R1 , 2 R2 1 1 s = 2 2 s, s S. , G

1 (X, x0). ( ),
. 110.
;
X = S 1 (. . 110).
, . , 1931 . [121] , ,
U1 U2 , 1933 .

 21.

293

[133] , , U1 U2
X.
( CW -)
20.1 . 283, : 1-
, 2- . ,
, G, .
G0 , G1 , G2 , S, S1 , S2
R, R1 , R2 . G

G1 A
AAA1
|==
|||
G0 B
>> G.
BB
}}
}
}
!
!
2
2
G2
1

, G 0
G1 C 0
CC 1
|==
|
|
!!
|
0
G
G0 B
== .
{
BBB
{
{{0
2 !!
2
G2
1

,
: G G 0 , i = i0 . F 1 S1 2 S2 ; N F ,
1 R1 , 2 R2 1 1 s(2 2 s) 1 , s S.
si Si i si = i0 si . F , : F G 0 . (N) = 1,
: G G 0 ,
i = i0 . , (N) = 1 (
, 1 S1 2 S2
G). ri Ri , i ri = i0 ri = 1, ri Gi . s S, i i s = i0 i s,
10 1 = 0 = 20 2 , 1 1 s = 2 2 s.

294

VI.

G1 @
@@1
|==
@
|||
G0 B
>> G
BB
~~
~
~
!
!
2
2
G2
1

1 2 . G,
, G1 G2 G0 ( 1 2),
: G 0 , , : G G 0 , i = i0 .
G, ,
.
G G 0 . : G G 0 0 : G 0 G, i = i0 0 i0 = i . 0 : G G.
: 0 i = 0 i0 = i . G G, , . , ,
0 = idG . 0 = idG 0 , , .

21.2.

21.1 ( ). U1 U2 X = U1 U2 ,
U1 U2 .
1 (U1)
MM1
1 q88
MM&&
qqq
1 (X),
1 (U1 U2)
MMM
q88
q
M
q
q 2
2 &&
1 (U2)
( x0 U1 U2).
1 (X) 1 (U1) 1 (U2) 1 (U1 U2) 1 2 .

 21.

295

, ; ,
.
(. [50]).
1 (U1) 0
II1
u::
II
u
uu
$$
1 (U1 IU2)
:: H.
II
uuu
I
u
u
$
$
2
0
1 (U2) 2
1

,
: 1 (X) H, i = i0 .
.
1 (). 1 (U1) 2 (U2) 1 2 1 (X).
: [0, 1] X
x0 . [0, 1] 1 (U1)
1 (U2). . [0, 1] 0 = t1 < t2 < . . . < tn+1 = 1 , tk+1 tk < .
[tk , tk+1 ]
U1 U2 . ( ) 1 2 . . . n , k
[tk , tk+1 ] . , (tk) Ui x0 k ,
Ui ; (tk) U1 U2 , k
U1 U2 . , k Ui ,
k1 k k+1 Ui , k1 k k+1
1 (Ui) i .
1
n1 n ,
1 2 , 21 3 3 , . . . , n1
1
n n .
. n
Q
, 1 (X) =
i(k) k ,
k=1

0
k 1 (Ui(k) ). i = i0 , i(k) k = i(k)
k .

n
Y

k=1

0
i(k)
k .

(1)

296

VI.

(1) .
n
Q
0
i(k)
k
, , . . =
k=1

k=1

n
Q
=
i(k) k .

x0

2 ().
n
Q
i(k) k = 1,
k 1 (Ui(k) )

k=1
n
Q
0
i(k) k = 1.
k=1
n
Q
i(k) k = 1

k=1

,
f : I 2 X,
:
f I 2 n
Q
i(k) k ;

. 111.

k=1

f I 2 x0 (. 111).
I 2 f 1 (U1) f 1 (U2). I 2 ,
.
,
n (, i ; ,
x0).
U1
U2 . a .
f(a) x0 a . ,
a Ui , a Ui ( , a U1 U2 , a U1 U2),
a = x0 , a = x0 ( ).
. 12 , 23 , 34 ,
41 (. 112). , X
12 23 34 41 , pq = 1
p f( pq)q , . , S 1 X D 2 X. D 2 X . D 2 , (. 113). -

 21.

34

297
f(34)

w4
23

41

w3
x0

f(41)
w1

12

f(23)
w2

f(12)

. 112.

f , X p .
1 (X), pq , pq . pq U1 U2 ,
pq = i i , i 1 (Ui). 0pq = i0 i H. . ,
pq U1 U2 . pq = 1 1 = 2 2 , 1 = 1
2 = 2 1 (U1 U2). ,
10 1 = 20 2 . 10 1 = 20 2 ; ,
10 1 = 10 1 = 20 2 = 20 2 .
U1 U2
pq , 12 , 23 , 34 , 41 ,
pq = i pq , pq 1 (Ui), i
. 12 23 34 41 ,
12 23 34 41 ; X Ui .
,
0
0
0
0
12
23
34
41
= (i0 12) (i0 23) (i0 34) (i0 41) = i0 (12 23 34 41) = i0 (1) = 1.

. () , I 2 , H, , 0
0
0
0
, 12
23
34
41
= 1. -

. 113.

298

VI.

, H,
, 1. 0 (. 114).
n
0
0
0
0
12
23
34
41
= 1 , .
, n
1
2
.
1
0 = 1 , 1
H,
0
. (, . 114. - , ,
i
x0 ,
.) 1 = 2 , . . . ,
n1 = n . x0 , n = 1.
2
. n > 3, 1 (Mn)
= 1 (Mn \ {x}), x Mn .
. . , K
Mn . , x n K . Mn \ {x} , K n . n > 3, 2-
n- .
. U1 x, Rn ; Mn
Mn \ {x} U1 \ {x}.
{x} , U2 = Mn \ {x} . ,
U1 U2 = Rn \ {x} S n1 . n > 3, 1 (U1 U2) = 1.
, 1 (U1) = 1. , 1 (Mn) 1 (Mn \ {x})
.
2

21.3.

f : S 1 R3 , K 1 (R3 \ K , x0),
x0 R3 \ K . K ,
f -

 21.

299



. 115. U1 U2

S 1 ={e i }. K , f

grad f =

x y z
,
,

( ) K . ,
S 1 R3 ; , S 1 R2 R3 .
. 1 (R3 \ S 1) = Z.
. U1 U2
R3 \ S 1 , . 115. ,
U1 U2 S 1 S 1 Ui S 1 . 1 (U1 U2) a b, 1 (U1) 1 (U2)
1 2 , . 116; 1 2
. i : 1 (U1 U2) 1 (Ui)
a b i .
1 (R3 \ S 1) 1 1 2 2 , 1 1 = 2 2 . ,
.
2
21.1. , R3 \ S 1 S 2 S 1 .
,
:
;

. 116.

300

VI.

. 117.

. 118.

;
( , )
, , .
,
.
,
.
, .
, ,
(. 117).
K K 0 ,
K , ,
,
(. 118). , K K 0 , R3 \ K R3 \ K 0 .
,
, K 0 .
, . 117.


.
.

x y,
. 119. U1 U2
xyx = yxy.
. U1 U2 R3 \ K , . 119. Ui
n , n

 21.

301














. 120.

. ,
, Ui n . , U1 U2
2n .
1 (U1), 1 (U1 U2)
1 (U2) , . 120 (
1 (U1) 1 x2
). , 1 x1 = x. . 120, ,
1 x2 = yzy 1 . U2 : 1 x1 = 1 x2 = x.
1 x = 1 x 1 (yzy 1) = 1 x. , x, y z,
x = yzy 1 , y = zxz 1 z = xyx 1 .
z x y.
, , yxy = xyx. 2
.
21.2. K
(
, ;
a a1).
x = yzy 1 (. . 121). ,
, K .

z
. 121.

302

VI.

.
Z.
. yz = zy, x = yzy 1 = z.
, x z, .
2
,
, R3 \ K1 R3 \ K2 ,
K1 K2 , .
. K , R3 \ K R3 \ S 1 .
. G . , x y,
xyx = yxy. , S3
(12) (23)
(12) (23) (12) = (13) = (23) (12) (23).
, h : G S3 , h(x) =
= (12) h(y) = (23).
(12), (23) (13), h . S3 , G . , G 6= Z.
2
21.2. p q , K (p, q), . .
, p q
. , K x y, x p = y q .

21.4.

X R3 ,
D 3 R3 \ X
R3 \ D 3 . X .
B0 D 3 . B0 D 2 I (. 122);
X0 . , B1 .
,
(. 123). X1 . ,
B2 . ,
, . . B2 .
X2 . . , X0 X1 X2 . . .,
. . D 2 I
.

 21.

303

X0

X1

B1
B0
. 122.
X0

. 123.
X1

, hn : Bn Bn+1 , kx hn (x)k 6 1/2n .

lim hn hn1 . . . h0 = h, h .
n

, h : B0 h(B0) , h ( 7.2 . 100). ,

T
Xn = h(B0) D 3 .
X =
n=0

1 (R3 \ X).

S
Yn = R3 \ Xn . Y0 Y1 . . . R3 \ X =
Yn . ,
n=0

1 (Y0) = Z, X0 R3 .
, 1 (Y1) = F2
1 2 , Y0 Y1 1 (Y0)
1 (Y1), 1 (Y0)
[1 , 2 ] .
Y1 Y0 A, A . 124. , ,
Y0 Y00 = Y0 Z, Z
S 1 I A. .
, A (,

A
. 124.

304

VI.

. 125.

) , . 1 (A)
1 2 , ,
.
1 (Y0) , , . 125. 1
1 2 1
1 2 . ,
1 (Y1) , 1 2 , = [1 , 2 ] .
Yn+1 Yn , 2n
A. ,
1 (Yn+1) 2n+1 ,
1 (Yn) 1 (Yn+1), Yn Yn+1 ,
.
R3 \ B , Yn .
S
1 (Yn).
. 1 (R3 \ B) G =
n=0

R3 \ D 3 , G
, , .
R3 \ X R3 \ D 3 .
, G ,
.

22.

C CP 2 , P(x, y, z) = 0, P n > 1; n C. C
, P = P1 P2 , P1 P2 -

 22. 305
. C ,
grad P = 0.
1 (CP 2 \ C) ,
[147] , [148] , [149] [132] .
, C
CP 2 . ,
P .

22.1.



n
S
li , l1 , . . .,
1 CP 2 \
i=1

ln CP 2 . , .
. , CP 2 C2 ,
CP 2 \

n
[

i=1

li C2 \

n1
[

l i ,

i=1

C2 = CP 2 \ ln l i = li C2 . , n CP 2
n 1 () C2 .
. l1 , . . . , ln CP 2


n
S
li = Fn1 ( n 1 ).
, 1 CP 2 \
i=1

. C2 = CP 2 \ ln l 1 , . . .,
ln1 ,
z w , l i = {(z, w) | w = ci }, ci .
C2 \

n1
[
i=1

l i C \ {c1 , . . . , cn1 }

n1
_

Si1 .

i=1

. l1 , l2 , l3 CP 2 

3
S
, 1 CP 2 \
li = Z Z.
i=1

. C2 = CP 2 \ l3 l 1 l 2
, z w ,
z = 0 w = 0. C2 \ (l 1 l 2), S 3 = {(z, w) C2 | |z|2 + |w|2 = 1}

306

VI.

C2 = R4 , ,
, C2 \ (l 1 l 2) S 3 (C2 \ (l 1 l 2)).
S 3 , , S 3 z = 0 w = 0.
3
(. . 298). S 3
R3 \ (K1 K2), K1 K2 . ( K1 , . . . , Kn S 1 R3 , K1 . . . Kn R3 n- .) R3 \ (K1 K2) , (. . 300). ,
K1 K2 ,
S 3 Re w = 0 (0, 1). K1 Im w = 0
, K2
z = 0. K1 K2
, . 126. 1 (R3 \ (K1 K2)) a b, b = aba1 , . . ab = ba
( ).
2
, ab = ba
. a w = w0 , b
z = z0 .
b, a (. 127).
. , z0 = w0 = 1.
x(t) = (1, e it ) b.
b
w
a
z
b
a
. 126. K1 K2

. 127.

 22. 307
t , x0 = (1, 1)
x(t), (e is , e it ), t = const,
x(t) x0 . b (. .
t = 2) bab 1 ; a.
22.1. L = K1 . . . Kn ,
n ( n- ). , R3 \ L
n S 2 S 1 .
22.2. L = K1 K2 , . 126. , R3 \ L T 2 S 2 .
. l 1 , . . . , l n C2 , 

n
T
l i . 1 CP 2 \
i=1

1 , . . . , n ,

1 2 3 . . . n = 2 3 . . . n 1 = 3 . . . n 1 2 = . . . n 1 2 . . . n1 .
. n = 2 22.1.
n = 3 4. , 22.1,

, . 128 (
).
n = 3 bi = ai+2 ai a1
i+2 ,
1
ai = ai+1 bi ai+1 .
b1 , b2 , b3 a1 , a2 , a3 ,
.
, a1 ,
a2 a3 , a1 a2 a3 = a2 a3 a1 = a3 a1 a2 .














. 128.



308

VI.

1
n = 4 bi = ai+1 ai a1
i+1 , ci = ai+2 bi ai+2
1
ai = ai1 ci ai1 . {bi } {ai };
{ci } {ai }. ,
ai = ai1 ci a1
i1 . a1 a4 a3 a2 = a4 a3 a2 a1 = a3 a2 a1 a4 = a2 a1 a4 a3 .
1 = a1 , 2 = a4 , 3 = a3 4 = a2 .
2

22.2.

1929 . [147] , 1 (CP 2 \ C). ,

,
( ,
). 1951 . ,
.
1 (CP 2 \ C) [132] . 1 (CP 2 \ C)
, ( 21.1
. 294).
.
1 (CP 2 \ C) [46] .
C P = 0, P = P1 P2 . , ,
C1 C2 , P1 = 0 P2 = 0.
grad P = P1 grad P2 + P2 grad P1 , C
C1 C2
C1 C2 .
, C n P = 0, P = P1 . . . Pk Pi . Ci , Pi = 0.
C Ci
.
x0 CP 2 \ C . , , x0 , C n ( ,
). C1 , . . . , Ck ,
, . , C1 , . . . , Ck ,
C n , Ci ni , ni Ci .

 22. 309

Ci . Ci ni ,
Ci .
Ci
( Ci). .
l, x0 C n . l a,
x0 C. a
l0 , l1 , . . . , ls , C n
. a , l0 , l1 , . . . , ls .
, x0 m, l,
a0 , a1 , . . . , as , l0 , . . . , ls m (. 129). m ,
C li , . . ,
ai C.
E = CP 2 \ (C l0 . . . ls) B = m \ {a0 , . . . , as }. a m p : E B.
. p : E B F , C n .
. , x B U 3 x, p U . m
x 0 6= x CP 2 ax 0 . , C2 , m
CP 2 , a. a

l0

l1

l2

l3

x0
a0

a1

a2

a3

. 129. C m

310

VI.

a m (z, w) 7 (z, 0).

U B , C w = i z + i , i = 1, . . . , n. z = const
, C.
wi = i z + i U ,
C. C
U B
w = ci , i = 1, . . . , n. , ,
p 1 (U) U (C \ {c1 , . . . , cn }), p.
2
B = m \ {a0 , . . . , as } s . 1 (B, x0)
h1 , . . . , hs , ai ,
i = 1, . . . , s; ,
h0 , a0 ,
h0 h1 . . . hs = 1.
1 (F , x0) g1 , . . . , gn ,
, C.
, ,
CP 1 , a ( F
CP 1 ,
a n C).
, a
g1 . . . gn = 1.
1 (E, x0),

2 (B, x0)
1 (F , x0)
1 (E, x0) 1 (B, x0)
0 (F , x0).

F , 0 (F , x0) = 1. , B
, .
2 (B, x0) = 1.
i

1 1 (F , x0)
1 (E, x0) 1 (B, x0) 1.

1 (F , x0), g1 , . . . , gn ,
1 (E, x0).
1 (F , x0) G = i 1 (F , x0) 1 (E, x0). 1 (B, x0)
h1 , . . . , hs .
B E, 1 (E, x0)
, , -

 22. 311
h1 , . . . , hs 1 (B, x0); 1 (E, x0)
.
1 (E, x0) ,
1 (B, x0) . ,
()
. : 1 (B, x0) 1 (E, x0), (hi) = hi .
H = 1 (B, x0) 1 (E, x0) 1 (B, x0),
p = id1 (B,x0) p |H = idH .
1 (E, x0)
= gh, g G h H. , h = p () g = 1 h. ,
(gh) (g 0 h0) = (ghg 0 h1)hh0 , hg 0 h1 G.

1 (E, x0) G H H G: h(g) = hgh1 G. ,

1 (E, x0) g1 , . . . , gn , h1 , . . . , hs h j gi h1
j = i j (g1 , . . . , gn), i j (g1 , . . . , gn)
1
h j gi h j G g1 , . . . , gn .
1 (E, x0). 1 (E 0 , x0),


E 0 = CP 2 \ (C l0) = E E 0 (l1 . . . ls) .

E 0 (l1 . . . ls)
2 E 0 , E E 0
1 (E, x0) 1 (E 0 , x0). ,
li
E 0 ,
l1 , . . . , ls . , 1 (E 0 , x0)
g1 , . . . , gn ,
hi
h1 , . . . , hs ,
x
.
0
, E 0 hi
(. 130),
hi = 1, i = 1, . . . , s. , - . 130.
. E 0
x0 .
, l1 , . . . , ls .
,
, a1 , . . . , as

312

VI.
 0

li

k(s)



. 131.

ai

ai
. 132. ai a0i

p, p a m.
: I 2 E 0 :
l1 . . . ls
I 2 ( x0
; l1 , . . . , ls).
, U \ li ,
U a0i li \ C, E , ai ,
m \ {a0 } (. 131); S 1 E, . .
. k(s) li \ {a}, a0i ai li C (. 132).
. C2 = CP 2 \ l0
a m \ {a0 } (z, w) 7 (z, 0). ai = (z0 , 0) a0i = (z0 , w0).
U \ li , 0 (t) = (z(t), w(t)),
00 (t) = (z(t), w0). , 00 , k(s) li C ,
, > max |z(t) z0 |. s (t) = (z(t), k(s)) E 0 = 00 1 ,
m \ {a0 }. 1
ai .
, ai .

x0 . s (t) 0 (t) 1 (t), ()

 22. 313



x0

. 133.

. 134.

x0 0 (0), (s) = s (0) 0 (0) 1 (0).

0 1 1 1 1 (. 133).
, . 311.
E
Q
, E 0 ,
k k 1
k ,
k li(k) ;
. 134. , ,
Q
1 (E 0 , x0),
k k 1
k ,
1 (E, x0);
,
( ). , k k 1
k E 0k hri(k) (0k) 1 , hi(k) , h1 , . . . , hs , r . ,
0 r
0 1
k k 1
, k k hi(k) (k)
1 (E, x0). , hi(k) = 1 , 0k hri(k) (0k) 1 = 1. ,
1 (E 0 , x0), = 1
1 (E, x0) h1 = 1, . . . , hs = 1.
1 (CP 2 \ C), CP 2 \ C =
= E 0 (l0 \ C). (. . 310),
a l0 \ C g1 . . . gn = 1. , , ,
.
. , i j (g1 , . . . , gn) . 311.
22.1 ( [132]). C n CP 2 , a CP 2 \ C , l0 , l1 , . . . , ls ,
a
C ,
C. 1 (CP 2 \ C, x0)

314

VI.

g1 , . . . , gn ns + 1 g1 . . . gn = 1, gi = i j (g1 , . . . , gn),
i = 1, . . . , n, j = 1, . . . , s.

22.3.

1 (CP 2 \ C, x0). i j (g1 , . . . , gn).
,
i j (g1 , . . . , gn).
i j (g1 , . . . , gn) 1 (F , x0), F
x0 . F C n .
g1 , . . . , gn ,
( ). B C
s ; h1 , . . . , hs . h j gi h1
j
, F . h j gi h1
j
g1 , . . . , gn i j (g1 , . . . , gn).
h j gi h1
j (. . 135).
gi h j (,
h j ).
a j x0
. i j (g1 , . . . , gn).
. C2 CP 2 (,
z12 + z22 + z32 = 0). 1 (CP 2 \ C2) = Z2 .
. a 6 C2 C2 (. 136). 1 (CP 2 \ C2) g1 g2 , g1 g2 = 1
gi = i1 (g1 , g2), i = 1, 2.
gj

aj
x0

hj
hj

. 135. h j gi h1
j

 22. 315













. 137.

. 136.

: z = 0, z = w 2 C2 . z = e i ,
w = e i/2 , w = 0 w(z) , z = const
(. 137). , 11 (g1 , g2) = g2 21 (g1 , g2) = g1 , . .
g1 = g2 .
2
. Cn CP 2 , z1n +
+ z2n + z3n = 0. 1 (CP 2 \ Cn) = Zn .
. CP 2
z3 = 0 a = (0 : 0 : 1) (z1 : z2 : z3) 7 (z1 : z2 : 0).
(z1 : z2 : 0), Cn , n
, z1n + z2n 6= 0. , z1 : z2 = k ,
nk = 1, , , n-
( n ). n- , w = 0
w(z), z = w n .
z = 0 2 /n.

g1 = g2 , g2 = g3 , . . . , gn1 = gn , gn = g1 . , g1 g2 . . . gn = 1. , g
g n = 1.
2
22.3.* [102] p q , p > 2 q > 2. CP 2 C p,q ,
p

(z1 + z2 ) q + (z1 + z2 ) p = 0.
, 1 (CP 2 \ C p,q) a b
a p = 1 b q = 1.


0.1. S n+m1 \ S n1 (x1 , . . . , xn+m) Rn+m ,
2
x12 + . . . + xn2 < 1 x12 + . . . + xn+m
= 1. (x1 , . . . , xn+m)
n+m1
n1
S
\S
(y1
, . . . , yn+m), y1 = x1 , . . . , yn = xn , yn+1 = xn+1 /a,
. . . , yn+m = xn+m /a a = 1 x12 . . . xn2 . ,
2
2
yn+1
+ . . . + yn+m
=

2
2
xn+1
+ . . . + xn+m

1 x12 . . . xn2

= 1,

S n+m1 \ S n1 D n S m1 , D n ; Rn .


0.2. F : K R, F(x) = x, f(x) .
x0 .
F(x0) =
0, x0
. ,
F(x0) = d > 0.




F f(x0) = f(x0), f(f(x0)) < x0 , f(x0) = d. .
1.1. , . . 138.
1.2. , ,
.
. . , ,
2,
, 2 .
, . 0.
1.3. ) , ,
.
. 1.2 , -

. 138. K3,3 K5

 22. 317
, 0.
, , .
, , n n .
) K3,3 K5 , ),
. , . 1. ,
.
1.4. ) , G C .
C .
C, C . C, n1 , , n2 ,
n1 + n2 , . . . .
, .
.
) ,
, .
G, . (
; k- , 2k .)
1.5. K5 3 ,
e 6 3v 6, e = 10 v = 5. K3,3
4 , e 6 2v 4, e = 9 v = 6.
2.1.
ht (A, B) =

A
0

0
1



cos t
sin t

sin t
cos t



1
0

0
B



cos t
sin t

sin t
cos t

0 6 t 6 /2.
2.2. , In . ) )
(. . 244). ,
e i .
e it , t [0, 1]. SU(n)
, e i1 . . . e in = 1, e i1 t . . . e in t = 1.
2.3. ) , p : Kn G 2m. v G 2m v1 , . . . , v2m
Kn K2m , m(2m 1) .
v. -

318

VI.

. 139. Z

. 140. Zn

. 141. Z Z

. 142. Z2 Z3
l . 2m
, 2ml = m(2m 1), . . l = (2m 1) /2, .
) p : K2m+1 G, G m ,
.
2.4. , f . x0 S 1 y0 = f(x0). (t) = x0 exp(2it) x0 . f
h (t). z0 R, exp(2iz0) = y0 , (t)

h (t) z0 .
h (t) , (t) .
, f2 ( (t)) = (t) f2 : S 1 R.
f1 (t) = exp(2it).
2.5. . 139142; ,
, .
2.6. rk G , . . 1-
rk G . , H. H h Xh ,
X.
H .
k-, Xh k k(rk G)
. Xh k 1 , -

 22. 319
1- ,
k(rk G) (k 1) = (rk G 1)k + 1 .
H.
2.7. Fn F2 , Sa1 Sb1 , S11 . . . Sn1 . ,
, . S21 , . . . , Sn1
S11 (. 143); S31
S21
S11 . . . Sn1 .
S11
S11 (n 1)- Sa1 ,
S21 , . . . , Sn1
Sb1 .
Fn F2
S41
. x1 , . . . , xn
Fn , a b F2 . x1 7 an1 , x2 7 b, x3 7 aba1 , . 143.
x4 7 a2 ba2 , . . . , xn 7 an2 ban2 . F
: xk 7 ak bak .
4.1. , . , , A = {0}, B = [0, 1] C = {1}.
d(A, B) = d(B, C) = 0 d(A, C) = 1.
4.2. dH (A, B) = dH (B, C) = . a A b B , ka bk 6 + ( > 0). b B
c C , kb ck 6 + . ka ck 6 + +
+ 2. c C a A , ka ck 6
6 + + 2.
4.3. > 0. x f(A)
n
n
Ux = A f 1 (Dx,/2
), Dx,/2
/2 x.
A.
> 0 . a1 , a2 A |a1 a2 | < ,
a1 , a2 Ux x. f(a1) f(a2)
/2 x, |f(a1) f(a2)| < .
6.1. r : A X , f : A Y
. fr f X. ,
f : A Y X,
, , idA : A A
r : A X. .
6.2. f : A A . 6.1 F : X A X.
F x0 . x0 = F(x0) A
f(x0) = F(x0) = x0 .
7.1. {U } C; U0 K , U = U0 C. U0 U = K \ C K .
U10 , . . . , Un0 , U. , U1 , . . . , Un C.

320

VI.

7.2. ) X :
x1 x2 , x1 x2 X
. X H = X/ X X/ .
) Matn (C) Cn , A det(A + I), I . , c : X/G Cn . c c H : (X/G) H Cn .
A B , c H (A) = c H (B) ,
A B .

1 . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . .
0 . . . n
m = diag(1, m, m2 , . . . , mn1) .
lim m A1
m = diag(1 , . . . , n).

(X/G) H , A diag(1 , ... , n)

.
) f f : X/G C. f
F : (X/G) H = Cn C.
8.1. v0 , v1 , . . . , vn n .
, x0 > x1 > . . . > xn .
: v0 , [v0 , v1 ], [v0 , v1 , v2 ], . . .
8.2. , , . , K , L,
L. K
L. L. 2-
L . .
8.3. n K 0
0 1 . . . n K ( n ). , n L0 . , , n L0 . , n
L. n n , L0 .
8.4. ) [139] , I = [1, 1]. I n
(x1 , . . . , xn), |xi | 6 1 i xi = 1 i.

(I n) n1
= {(x1 , . . . , xn) I n | xi = +1 i}.
+

 22. 321
n
, ((I n) n1
+ ) (x1 , . . . , xn) I ,
n n2
xi = +1 x j = 1. (I ) + (n 2)- , xi = +1 x j = 1 i < j.
j
(I n) n
(n j)- , +
xa1 = +1, xa2 = 1, xa2 = +1, . . . , xa j = (1) j+1
j
n n j1
1 6 a1 < a2 < a3 < . . . < a j 6 n. , ((I n) n

+ ) = (I ) +
n n j1
((I ) +
).
Sk (i0 , i1 , . . . , ik) k-
i0 , . . . , ik , (I n) k+ . S1 (i, j) S0 (i),
N(i) ,
1- , (I n) 1+ , i > 1.
1- , (I n) 1+ .

X
N(i) = 2S1 (i, i) + S1 (i, i) +
(S1 (i, j) + S1 (i, j));
(1)
j6=i, j>1

S1 (i, i) = 0 . , (I n) 1+ .
N(i) = 2K + S0 (i) + S0 (i),

(2)

(I n) 1+

K
i. , (I n) 1+ (I n) 0+ (I n) 0+ ; v (I n) 0+
k, v (I n) 0+ k. (1)
(2) i 1 n,
X

16i< j6n

(S1 (i, j) + S1 (i, j))

n
X

(S0 (i) + S0 (i)) (mod 2);

i=1

S1 (i, j) ,
:
j.
P i, n
,
(S0 (i) + S0 (i)) = 1, (I ) 0+ (+1, 1, +1, . . .).
2.
(I n) 2+ , 2- 1-
i j, 1 6 i < j. 2-
. ( 2)
X
(S2 (i, j, k) + S2 (i, j, k)).
k6=i, j,k>1

1- i j,
S1 (i, j) + S1 (i, j);
1- 2 . -

322

VI.

i < j. 2
X
X
(S2 (i0 , i1 , i2) + S2 (i0 , i1 , i2)) =
(S1 (i, j) + S1 (i, j)) =
16i0 <i1 <i2

16i< j

(S0 (i) + S0 (i)) = 1.

16i6n

Sn1 (1, 2, . . . , n) + Sn1 (1, 2, . . . , n) 1 (mod 2).

(3)

, ia ia+1
, Sk (i0 , . . . , ia , ia+1 , . . . , ik) .
, I n ,
n- (n 1)-
1, 2, 3, . . . , n.
1, 2, 3, . . . , n, i i.
, 1, 2, 3, . . . , n .
( ,
n- ). ,
, (n 1)- 1, 2, 3, . . . , n, , (3). .
) , f : I n I n , I n .
I n , I n , v1 v2 , kf(v1) f(v2)k < 2; ,
. 1, 2, . . . , n : v I n
, f(v); , i i.
, i i.
.
8.5. , n 6 m. (m + 1 n)- Rm+1 S m . ,
(S n) . , p : Rm+1 .
p : S n
= Rn ,
x S n , p((x)) = 0, . . (x) .
(x) = (x) , (x) 6= 0, (x) S m .
(m + 1 n)- Rm
(n + 1)- , . .
Rn+1 Rm S n .
, (m + 1 n)- (S n) , S n . , n-
(S n) , n- S n .
Gm+1n (Rm) (m + 1 n)-

 22. 323
Rm

Z
m
X S
|X | d. X Gm+1n (Rm)

n- , n-
X.
8.6. a)
, , P, P ,
. P
. ,
Q = {x = z w | z, w P}.
, Q , .
h : Q P . z = (z1 , . . .
0
. . . , zn+1) z 0 = (z10 , . . . , zn+1
). , z > z 0 , z1 = z10 , . . . , zk1 =
0
0
= zk1 zk > zk ( k = 1).
h(x) = max {z | x = z w, z, w P}.

h . x = z w, z = x + w
x + P, h(x) P (x + P).
:
z1 ,
z2 , . .
, x = h(x) h(x). , x = h(x) w0 ,
w0 = h(x) x P (x + P) x = (x + P) P. , h(x)
P (x + P), , w0 (x + P) P.
, h . xn Q lim xn =
n

= x Q. xn xn = zn wn , zn = h(xn). zni . wni

. z = lim zni w = lim wni . x = z w, i

z 6 h(x). , z < h(x). z 0 = zni + (h(x) z)

w 0 = wni + (h(x) w), > 0. , h(x) h(x) = x = z w, , z 0 w 0 = zni wni = xni . , z > zni , h(x) z > 0
> 0. , > 0 ni , z 0 , w 0 P.
z P > 0 , kz vk 6 v , z t P, v P. C
v. > 0 , kh(x) zk 6 /2, ni ,
kzni zk 6 /2. zni z + (h(x) z) C/2 . C/2 ,
C/2 , z 0 = zni + (h(x) z) C P.
w 0 P. z 0 , w 0 P z 0 w 0 = xni , z 0 6 h(xni ) = zni ,

324

VI.

z 0 > zni . , z = h(x).

, zn h(x). P, zn , ,
h(x)
zn . lim zn = h(x), . . h .
n

a 6= 0 max (a, x) = (a, x0).

xQ

x0 = h(x0) h(x0) ,

(a, h(x0)) + (a, h(x0)) = (a, x0) = max (a, x) =

xQ

= max (a, z w) = max (a, z) max (a, w).

z,wP

zP

wP

(a, h(x0)) = max (a, z) (a, h(x0)) = max (a, w). ,

zP

wP

h(x0) h(x0)
P. , h(x0) h(x0) P.

g(x) = f(h(x)). , x0 Q,
g(x0) = g(x0). x0 Q, a 6= 0, max (a, x) = (a, x0).
xQ

z = h(x0) w = h(x0)
P
f(z) = f(h(x0)) = g(x0) = g(x0) = f(h(x0)) = f(w),

.
) B C n+1 ,
f(B) f(C) 6= . ni n+1 .
B C,
B ni C ni ( B, C ni), , f(ni) f(B) f(C).
1. f : n+1 Rn , ) .
,
. , , .
2. 8.6
[87].
9.1. f : D 2n CP n , . 136. int D 2n int D 2n
CP n \ CP n1 . ,
S 2n1 CP n1 .
9.2. , S x = (x1 , x2 , .P
. .) R ,
xi2 = 1.
(x) = (0, x1 , x2 , . . .) ht (x) = (1 t)x + t(x). , ht (x) 6= 0
x 6= 0. x 7 ht (x) /kht (x)k , -

 22. 325

M21

M22

. 144. M21 M22

idS |S . , ,
gt (x) = (1 t)(x) + (t, 0, 0, . . .). gt (x) 6= 0 x 6= 0.
x 7 gt (x) /kgt (x)k , |S
(1, 0, 0, . . .).
9.3. K
int en , xn K int en . ,
T = {xn } .
(c) ,
,
T 0 T , ,
. (w) , T 0 T
, , T . , T
. ,
.
10.1. S n CW - 0- n- . S p S q
CW - 0, p, q p + q.
0, p q S p S q .
CW - 0 p + q, . .
(p + q)- .
11.1. ) n , nP 2

n1

n2 2
T # 2P 2 , n , nP 2
2

T 2 # P 2 . 2P 2 P 2 ,
2
.
) , nP 2 , n
, n .
.
, S 1 I,
, D 2 . ( ). ,
1.

326

VI.

11.2. , . M21 M22 , . 144, , M21 ,

M22 . M22 I M21 I ,
.
11.3. nP 2 S 2 , n n ;
.
, nP 2 p . ,
. M2 ,
(nP 2) + p = 2 n + p. (M2) 6 2,
k 6 n.
12.1. )
, . 145. ,
.
() .
) fa1 ...an : C C \ {a1 , . . . , an } . (w1 , . . . , wn) 7 (z1 , . . . , zn),
z1 = w1 ,

z2 = fz1 w2 ,

z3 = fz1 z2 w3 ,

z4 = fz1 z2 z3 w4 ,

...

C .
12.2. p p = p2 p1 ,
I1 = p11 (y1), . . . , In = p11 (yn), {y1 , . . . , yn } = p21 (x), .
, X, Y
yi y j . Xh
Ii I j .
, I1 = {t11 , . . . , t1m }, . . . , In = {tn1 , . . . , tnm } p 1 (x), . x1 X
, x x1 , Jk
Ik . Jk ,

. 145.

 22. 327
. , ,
0 Ik Jk , Jl ,
l 6= k. 0 1 Ik
Ik , Il , l 6= k. .
Jk . p1 : Xh Y . p2 .
13.1. K3,3 K5 . , . 2e = 4f . v n2 n,
n . v = 30
K3,3 v = 20
D n+2
K5 . f
. f = 36 K3,3 f = 30
Sn
K5 .
D n+1
, K3,3 K5 . ,
, 36 . 146.

, 30. ,
. -
.
, , ;
(. 146).
K3,3 K5 S 3 . K5 ( n = 1)
10.2 . 149. K3,3 , , (.
10.3 . 150). , K3,3
sk0 2 sk0 2 , J22 (K3,3) = J22 (sk0 2 sk0 2) = J22 (sk0 2) J22 (sk0 2)
S 1 S 1 S 3 , J22 (sk0 2) S 1 .
, K3,3 K5 S 3 .
S 3 ( 17.9
. 239).
13.2. , i j j i .
, i j .
,
.
14.1. idY Y y0 . X f0 = idX , Y , idY

328

VI.

Y y0 . ft ,
. f1 : X X,
idX , f1 (Y) = y0 .
q : X/Y X, qp = f1 , p : X X/Y .
, qp = f1 idX . , pq idY .
ft (Y) Y . , ft gt : X/Y X/Y .
g0 = idY g1 = pq.
14.2. , n- CW - X
k- , 1 6 k 6 n 1 ( n = 0
). n-
X. : S n X n- X. n- X ,
: D n+1 X. ( n = 0 ,
: S 0 X S 0 x0 ,
xi X; x0
xi .) , S n S n+1 = D n+2 ,
D n+1 S n+1 (. 147). D n+1 X
. CW - X Y , X ( n = 0 . 148 Y ). Y
Y 0 ,
D n+1 ( . 148 ).
14.1 (X Y) /Y 0 X Y X. , CW - (X Y) /Y 0
n- ( ).
n = 0 , CW -
.
14.3.
S n X S n X n X, n-
X n .
14.4. (A B) A B
CA CB {a0 } {b0 } I (. 149). ,
CA CB ( ,
). 14.1 AB AB/ (CACB) (AB).

D n+2

x3

x0

Sn

x2

D n+1
x1
. 147. D n+1

. 148. Y

 22. 329

. 149.
14.5. ) 14.2 X X 0 , X 0 CW - x0 k- , 1 6 k 6 n. , X X 0 .
X/x0 X 0 1 n + 1.
14.3 (n + 1)-.
) , X Y ,
n m. CW - X Y , X Y , p q ,
p > n + 1 q > m + 1; X Y X Y 0-
. , X Y k- ,
1 6 k 6 n + m + 1.
) 14.4 X Y (X Y). ) ).
14.6. ) ).
).
X Y X Y ;
CX CY . CX CY , (X Y). ,
X Y CX CY (X Y).
x0 X y0 Y . X Y Z, {x0 } Y X {y0 }. Z ,
Z [x0 , y0 ] , . ,
X Y CX CY Z,
X Y (X Y).
14.7. S k X,
k 6 n, S k X n X, , x0 X n . k 6 n1 S k I X,
,

330

VI.

. 150.
f0 , f1 : S k X, S k I X n X, t = 0 1
f0 f1 .
14.8. n > 2 S n S 1 R,
n- (. 150). n- .
n > 2 n .
14.9. n (S n S 1 , x0) k , k Z.
1 (S n S 1 , x0) k k1 , . . .
14.10. x1 = u1 + u2 , x4 = u1 u2 , x2 = u3 + u4 ,
x3 = u3 u4 . 1
2

u21 + u22 + u23 + u24 = . x1 x4 x2 x3 = 0

u21 u22 u23 + u24 = 0, . . u21 + u24 = u22 + u23 .

14.11. . 136 , CP 2 D 4 = {(z1 , z2) C2 | |z1 |2 + |z2 |2 6 1} CP 1 = {(z1 : z2 : z3) CP 1 | z3 = 0}
f : S 3 CP 1 , f(z1 , z2) = (z1 : z2). f p.
14.12. 14.11 , r : CP 2 CP 1
r : D 4 CP 1 , r(x) = p(x) x S 3 . r
D 4 p, . . p .
p p : 3 (S 3) 3 (S 2), 3 (S 3) = Z
(. . 256), .
14.13.
n (CX) n (CX, X) n1 (X) n1 (CX),
CX .
14.14. S m S n I m /I m I n /I n . S m S n I n+m , I n+m ; I n+m S m S n .
a I n+m \ I n+m . I n+m \ {a} I n+m

 22. 331
. S m S n
S m S n .
15.1. N n Mn ( N n )
( N n N n
Mn). Mn .
15.2. ) G+ (n, 1) S n1 , G+ (3, 2) G+ (3, 1).

, k > 2 n > 4. 1 G(n, k)
20.1. 2- G(n, k).

1 0 0 0
,
2- :
0 t 1 0

 

1 0 0 0
x 1 0 0
; ,

0 x y 1
y 0 1 0
, . ,
2-
1-
   ,

1
0
0 0
1 0 0 0
2

RP . x, y
0 x/y 1 0
0 x y 1

 
 

x 1 0 0
x
1
0 0
1
0
0 0

.
y 0 1 0
0 y/x 1 0
0 y/x 1 0

2-

1- .
, 1 G(n, k) ,
2
= 1 ( 2- ). , 1 G(n, k) = Z2 .


G+ (n, k) G(n, k), 1 G+ (n, k) =
= 0. G+ (n, k).
) k < n k Rn
k Rn SO(n),
SO(n) G(n, k), . . k-
k Rn k- SO(n).
k G(n, k),


, k , O(k) O(n k) SO(n). , , k , k
(k) .
k G(n, k)
G(n, k) SO(n). ,
k .
U1 O(k) U2 O(n k). (U1 , U2)
(Ik , X), Ik k, X k (n k),
: (Ik , X) 7 (U1 , XU2) (Ik , U11 XU2). , X,

332

VI.

X 7 U11 XU2 . U2T (U11) T = A, (det U2) k (det U11) nk (. [15, . 172]).
, U1 U2 SO(n), . .
1. , det U1 = det U2 = 1. det U1 =
= det U2 = 1, det A = 1. detU1 = detU2 = 1, detA = (1) k (1) nk =
= (1) n . n , n
. n ,
. ,
SO(n) (t) In U1 U2 , U1 O(k) U2 O(n k)
1. (t)k G(n, k).
.
15.3.

 (v11 , v12 , v13 , v14) (v21 , v22 , v23 , v24)
v1i v1 j 
, i < j. , xi j = 
v2i v2 j 
. :
x12 x34 x23 x14 + x13 x24 = 0.

(1)

(1) 5- P 2 ,

xi j = 1 S 2 S 2 .
y1 , . . . , y6 : 2x12 = y1 + y4 ,
2x34 = y1 y4 , 2x23 = y2 + y5 , 2x14 = y2 y5 , 2x13 = y3 + y6 , 2x24 = y3 y6 .
2
2
2
2
2
2
(1)
Py12 + y2 + y3 = y4 + y5 + y6 , 5-
yk = 2. : y12 + y22 + y32 = 1, y42 + y52 + y62 = 1.
S 2 S 2 .
15.4. 2 G+ (n, 2) Rn .
v1 v2 , |v1 | = |v2 |, v1 v2 v1 , v2 . 2 C, v1 , v2
.
v1 , v2 v1 + iv2 Cn ,
CP n1 . G+ (n, 2) CP n1 . ,
, P
z12 + . . . + zn2 = 0.
P
vP
(xk + iyk) 2 = xk2
1 = (x1 , . . . , xn) v2 = (y1 , . . . , yn).
P
yk2 + 2i xk yk = 0, . .P
v1 + iv2 . , zk = xk + iyk zk2 = 0, v1 = (x1 , ... , xn) v2 = (y1 , ... , yn)
.
v1 , v2 v1 , v2 .
, .
16.1. TS n x, y Rn+1p
,

(x, x) = 1
1 + kyk2 + iy Cn+1 .
(x, y) = 0. x

 22. 333
p


zk = xk
1 + kyk2 + iyk .
q
q
X
X
X 2
X 2


xk
1+kyk2 +iyk) 2 = (1+kyk2)
xk +2i 1+kyk2
xk yk
yk = 1,

P 2
P

xk = 1
xk yk = 0.
P
, u + iv Cn+1 ,
(uk + ivk) 2 = 1, . .
2
2
kuk kvk = 1 (u, v) = 0. u + iv
x=p

1 + kvk2

y = v. kxk2 =

kuk2
= 1 (x, y) = 0.
1 + kvk2

16.2. v0 = (x1 , x2 , x3 , x4) S 3 . v1 = (x2 , x1 , x4 , x3), v2 =

= (x3 , x4 , x1 , x2) v3 = (x4 , x3 , x2 , x1). (vi , v j) = 0 i 6= j. , v1 , v2 , v3 , S 3 v0 .
S 4n+3 :
n + 1 ,
.
16.3. ) v(x) S 2n+1 . , kv(x)k = 1. H(t, x) = (cos t)x + (sin t)v(x).
kH(t, x)k = 1, . . H(t, x) S 2n+1 . H(0, x) = f(x) H(1, x) = g(x).
) x2k+1 (t) = x2k+1 cos t + x2k+2 sin t x
2k+2 (t) = x2k+1 sin t +
+x2k+2 cos t. H(t, x) = x0 , x1 (t), . . . , x2n (t) . H(0, x) = g(x)
H(1, x) = f(x).
16.4. ) f(x)
x S 2n . f(x) 6= x x,
S 2n , .
) x RP 2n x S 2n .
x f(x). f 1,2 : S 2n S 2n ( f 2 = f 1), f : S 2n S 2n ,
S 2n S 2n . ,
1 (S 2n) = 0.
f , f 1 , f 1 (x) 6= x x S 2n . )
.
16.5. [105] , K , , Rn . , n . Rn e
e (t), 0. (t)
A (t) : x 7 x, (t) . e e In In , det In = 1
det(In) = (1) n . , n . det(In) = 1. , det(A (t) ) 6= 0 t.
det(A (t) ) > 0, det(A (t) ) > 0. .
n
n


v R \ {0} f(v) R \ {0},
v, f(v) = e. v = e f(v) = e. , f -

334

VI.

Rn \ {te}, t R, . , f tv, t > 0,

tf(v), t > 0, f(tv) = t 1 f(v) t 6= 0.
f : S n1 \ {e} S n1 \ {e}, v
tf(v), t > 0, S n1 . ,
g : S n2 S n2 , v S n2 ,
, e, ,
e f (v).
n 2 , 16.4 g(v) = v v S n2 . ,
f(v) = v + e, , R 6= 0.


e = v, f(v) = (v, v + e) = (v, v) + v,
(v, v) = 1 e 1 v. , ,
e v, . , ,
, . . .
, 2,
C.
16.6. S n1 = {x Rn : kxk = 1/2}
f ( ) , S n1 .
18.1. f ,
2 (M2) = 0. , deg f = 0.
18.2. x0 fg, f 1 (x0) = {a1 , ... , ak },
1
g (ai) = {bi1 , . . . , bil(i) }, i = sgn J f (ai), i j = sgn J g (bi j). 1 +... +
k = deg f
P
P
i1 + . . . + il(i) = deg g i = 1, . . . k. deg(fg) = i i j =
= i (deg g) = (deg f) (deg g).
18.3. P(z) = an z n + an1 z n1 + . . . + a0 , an 6= 0. z 7 P(z)
A : CP 1 CP 1 ,
P
(z : w) 7 (an z n + an1 z n1 w + . . . + a0 w n : w n).

A
(u0 : 1) P.
A
P .
(u0 : 1), . . z0 , . . . , zk , P(z j) = u0 . ,
P(z j) 6= 0. P(z) u0 , . . k = n.
z j z 7 
P(z).

a
b
0
P (z j) = a + bi, z j
.
b a
a2 + b 2 > 0, z1 , . . . , zn
. , n.
18.4. R(z) = P(t) /Q(t), deg P = m deg Q = n. CP 1 CP 1


(z : w) 7 w m+n P(z/w) : w m+n Q(z/w) .
18.3, , .
P(z) = cQ(z) max {m, n}.

 22. 335
18.5. S n S n+1 . S n+1 S n = S n {1/2} x0 f ;
f.
 , J f
J 0
1
y0 f (x0),
f .
0 1
18.6. , deg f = k1 . . . kn . k1 , . . . , kn
, . , k1 . . . kn 6= 0.
(r1 e i1 , . . . , rn e in ) |k1 . . . kn |


r1 e i(1 +2l1)/k1 , . . . , rn e i(n +2ln)/kn ,

0 6 li 6 |k1 | 1. , f
k1 . . . kn .
18.7. f(A) = f(A) , f .
f .
18.8. , C . v C w, v (cos , sin ) . , v
C, w
90 . , ind v = ind w + 1, , 2 ind w = i e.
C
w, 90 . , w
. , . .
, 90 . (
) (i e) /2.
18.11. n = 1 , , n > 2.
Mn v .
, . ,
2 ( ).
x+ x 1 1. , . - .
, D n , x+ x .
, v(x),
x , . S n1 ,
x 7 v(x).
x+ x , . . . , S n1
.
w ,
v. ,
v w . 2

336

VI.

, v. ,
.
18.12. , Mn , Mn
. , Mn .
Mn 1-
.
h n , 2- Mn
M
h n ,
. ( M
n
, M .) Mn . 18.7 . 251
h n 2. M
h n
M
, 2 = 0, , = 0. 18.11
, Mn .
18.13. 14.3 . 187 , p : S 3 S 2
3 (S 2)
= Z.
1fr (3), S 2 .
, .
S 1
. R3 , S 1 ( , S 1 R3 ,
- S 1 , S 1
). e1
(ke1 k = );
e2 S 1 e1 .
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Y X. ,
19.2 S i1 Y , D i CY .
f , g : Y X , X f CY X g CY . f : Y X
g : Y x0 X. X f CY = X CY ,
X g CY = X Y .
) S k S k+1 . n > m S m , S n , S n .
).
20.2. , i : 1 (A) 1 (X)
a 7 2a, a 1 (A) 1 (X). r i
.
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, i : 1 (A) 1 (X) a 7 1 1 , a 1 (A),
1 (X). ,
. r i
.

 22. 337
) i : 1 (A) 1 (X) a 7
1
1 1
7 1 1 1
1 1 . . . g g g g . .
20.4. , i : 1 (A)
1 (X), a 7 21 + 22 + . . . + 2 g . r i .
20.5. x S n1 Rn x. M30 e1 , e2 R3 .
e1 , e2 , e3 . M30 SO(3).
SO(3) RP 3 .
SO(3) , l, .
e3 R3 , 0 < 6 ,
e3 ; , e1 , e2 , e3 ,
e1 , e3 , e2 e1 ,
.
. D 3
SO(3).
.
21.1. R3 \ S 1 S 2 I, I S 2 . I1 , I.
S 2 I (S 2 I) /I1 S 2 S 1 .
22.1. R3 \ L n
D 3 \ S 1 , S 1 D 3 ( ). 21.1 D 3 \ S 1 S 2 S 1 .
22.2.
S 3 T1 = D12 S 1 T2 = D22 S 1 .
{0} S 1 , , . , R3 = S 3 \ , , R3 \ L
T1 {0} S 1
. T 2 S 2 .


1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
22.
23.

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278
290
304
17
78
125, 242
2 245
151
105, 111
197
122
42
202
183
190

130
64
65
73
34
128, 170
83

72
294
75, 88
- 19
294
96, 289
174
21
71

351
70
130
32
142
180
28

119
249
29
128
199
75
258
250
131
207
105, 111
68, 104
195
179
206
324
176
253
109
35
68, 104
98
71
197
13
98
14
13
15
15
98
302
199
207
83
305
207

352
117
186
192
185, 193
239
109
15
91, 230
156
98
307
179
299
300

298
299
298
302
299
298
300
80
54
54, 165
67, 103

16
179
225
120
27
28
206

44
262
266

159
134
67
98
324
176
188, 190
253
59

109
17
146
195

70
80

92, 120, 127

35
215
214
278

27
28
159

186