Minerals Engineering, Vol. 7, No. 7, pp.

839- 849, 1994

Elsevier Science Lid
t ] [ ~r l gar l l on Printed in Great Britain
0892-6875/ 94 $7. 00+0. 00
0892-6875(94)E0028-A
THE FLOTATI ON OF GOLD BEARI NG ORES - A REVI EW
C. T. O' CONNOR and R. C. DUNNE' ~
Depar t ment Of Chemi cal Engi neeri ng, Uni ver si t y Of Cape Town, Rondebos ch, 7700, Sout h Afri ca
i" Newer es t Mi ni ng Li mi t ed, 179 Great East ern Hi ghway, Bel mont , WA 6104, Aust ral i a
(Received 16 November 1993; accepted 5 Janualy 1994)
ABS T RACT
The practice of the flotation of pure gold and gold-bearing ores such as tellurides,
aurostibite, kerogen, pytqte, pyrrhotite, copper-goM ores and mixed sulphMes is reviewed.
The factors which itfluence the choice of collectors, pH and Eh, are discussed as well as
the application of differential flotation. The importance of proper conditioning is
highlighted and applications of valqous flotation cells attd circuits briefly discussed.
Ke y wo r d s
Fl ot at i on, Gol d- bear i ng or es
I NT R ODUC T I ON
Gol d is a rel at i vel y rare metal and t he aver age cont ent in the ear t h' s crust is about 3ppb. The average
gol d gr ade o f a l ow gr ade deposi t is onl y some 3ppm and this l ow abundance makes the expl or at i on,
sampl i ng, assayi ng and pr ocessi ng o f gol d beari ng or es di ffi cul t . Gol d occur s mai nl y in its nat i ve f or m
and t o a l esser degr ee as gol d compounds o f t el l uri de, ant i mony and sel eni um cont ai ned wi t hi n sul phi de
(especi al l y pyr i t e and, to a l esser degree, ar senopyr i t e and pyrrhot i t e), silicate, car bonat e and oxi de
mi neral s [ 1, 2, 3] . Si l ver is the most common metal to al l oy wi t h gol d.
The best pr ocessi ng met hod f or r ecover i ng gol d is ul t i mat el y det ermi ned by the mi neral ogy and part i cl e
si ze di st r i but i on o f t he gol d. Gol d part i cl es var y in size f r om large nugget s to part i cl es l ocked in the
cryst al l at t i ce o f certain sul phi de minerals [4]. These gol d part i cl es or component s occl uded t ypi cal l y in
a sul phi de or quart z matrix are usual l y l i berat ed aft er milling to bet ween 60 and 80% smal l er than 75 p.m.
Gr i ndi ng or es fi ner than this is usual l y uneconomi c unl ess the or e has a ver y hi gh gol d cont ent . Oft en t he
gol d beari ng or es are r ef r act or y due to the smal l ness o f the gol d grai ns and concent rat i on by fl ot at i on is
r equi r ed, f ol l owed by ei t her roast i ng, bacterial leaching or pressure leaching to l i berat e t he gol d pr i or to
cyani dat i on [ 1, 4, 5, 6] . A not abl e except i on to this is the treatment o f car bonaceous gol d beari ng sul phi de
or es o f t he Carl i n Tr end, Nevada, wher e t he fi nel y di ssemi nat ed nat ure o f the minerals does not al l ow
f or any pr econcent r at i on [7].
The cyani de leaching pr ocess can be i nhi bi t ed by the presence o f a number o f minerals such as pyr r hot i t e,
marcasi t e, ar senopyr i t e and st i bni t e whi ch cons ume oxygen and cyani de in var yi ng degr ees dependi ng
on their act i vi t y in sol ut i ons, act i ve car bonaceous material whi ch behaves l i ke act i vat ed car bon and
adsor bs gol d f r om cyani de sol ut i ons [8], and cert ai n copper minerals whi ch cons ume l arge quani t i es o f
cyani de resul t i ng in hi gh operat i ng cost s or l ow gol d leach rates and recoveri es. Envi ronment al and capital
const rai nt s have l ed to gol d t reat ment ci rcui t s whi ch i ncor por at e fl ot at i on and cyani dat i on o f onl y t he
concent r at e [9, 10].
839
840 C. T. O'CONNOR and R. C. DuI~NE
In the following sections the effect of chemical and physical variables on the flotation of gold bearing ores
will be discussed. In view of the wide scope of the subject the treatment will rather attempt to emphasize
those factors considered to be of greatest importance. The ores on which the discussion will focus are free
gold, tellurides, aurostibite, kerogen, pyrite, arsenopyrite, pyrrhotite, copper-gold ores and mixed
sulphides. The paper will conclude with a discussion of the effects of conditioning and flotation cells and
circuits.
CHEMI CAL EFFECTS
In the flotation process the main chemical effects are reagent type and pH. Recently the need to operate
circuits at moderate pH levels, to improve separation efficiencies when treating complex, low grade ores,
to reduce costs of reagents, to develop reagents which are stable over a wide pH range, and to take
advantage of the role of synergism in the use of mixtures of collectors has led to ever-increasing research
to develop new collectors for the flotation of gold bearing ores.
COLLECTORS
Gol d
Native gold surfaces are normally hydrophobic due to contamination by organics in nature [1 I]. Thus
floatability, especially of fine gold, is the antithesis of gravity separation. Untarnished gold of the
appropriate size can be readily floated with only a frother [11,12]. Xanthates are normally used on gold
flotation plants in conjunction with other collectors (promoters] to enhance gold recoveries. The recovery
of gold is activated by sulphide ions and depressed by ferric ions [13]. Amines are also used commercially
to recover gold [5,14].
Selectivity for gold in the presence of pyrite has been found to be enhanced in the case of alkoxy or
phenoxy carbonyl alkyl thionocarbamates and thioureas, dialkyl or diaryl monothiophosphates and
monothiophosphinates, glyoxalidine and anainothiophenols [ 15,16]. Monothiophosphorous acids have been
shown to be able to float gold selectively from base metal sulphides [9,17].
Tel l uri de
The limited information available [18-22] shows that gold tellurides are easily floated and in practice only
a frother is required. The addition of a collector results in unselective flotation of telluride and other
sulphides, usually pyrite, that are present in ores where tellurides are present. At the Wright-Hargreaves
Mine in Ontario, Canada, telluride was floated with only a frother in the presence of lime and cyanide
to depress the pyrite [22].
A u r o s t i b i t e - S t i b n i t e
No fundamental flotation information is available on the flotation response of aurostibite and it is assumed
that its flotation characteristics are similar to those of stibnite. Lager and Forssberg have recently
reviewed the processing of antimony bearing ores [23,24]. Stibnite is not an easily floated mineral and
in most instances requires an activator for reasonable flotation recovery. It will float without an activator
with the higher homologous series of xanthates but even then reasonable quantities of collector are
required [25]. It floats well only in acid or neutral circuits.
Kerogen And Active Carbonaceous Mat eri al
Kerogen (thucolite) is a uraniferous carbonaceous ore [1] with gold concentrations of up to 300g/t and
may contain as much as 30% of the gold in the feed to a flotation plant [26]. Although it ought to float
readily it is thought that it is often occluded in the pyrophyllite agglomerates tbrmed when guar
The f l otation o f g ol d bearing or e s - - a revi ew 841
depr essant s are used. The use o f di spersant s and ker osene col l ect or s have been r epor t ed to i ncrease t he
r ecover y under such ci rcumst ances [27]. Act i ve car bon component s in gol d or es are known t o fl oat bet t er
when a fuel oi l i s us ed i n conj unct i on wi t h a frot her [14]. Ho we v e r a coconut based car bon added t o
r educe gol d sol ut i on l oss on a gol d t reat ment pl ant was not easi l y fl oat ed i n t he downs t r eam pyr i t e
fl ot at i on pl ant [28].
P y r i t e
Whe n t he sur f ace o f pyr i t e is free o f oxi dat i on pr oduct s it is ol eophi l i c [29] but it is nevert hel ess
necessar y t o us e a col l ect or t o fl oat pyri t e. Thi ol col l ect or s are most c ommonl y us ed [30-32]. The
fundament al s o f fl ot at i on o f sul phi de mi neral s usi ng thiol col l ect or s cont i nues to be t he subj ect o f i nt ensi ve
research ( e. g. 31- 34] . At pHs o f appr oxi mat el y 4 all t hi ol s are ef f ect i ve as col l ect or s but t he i nst abi l i t y o f
xant hat es at t hese pHs l eads t o a pr ef er ence for mer capt obenzot hi azol e and di t hi osphosphat e. The
xant hat es are most wi de l y us ed at al kal i ne pHs . Recent l y col l ect or s such as di t hi ocar bamat es and
t hi onocar bamat es and mi xt ures o f t hese wi t h xant hat es and mer capt obenzot hi azol es have al so been
successf ul l y us ed [4]. The mechani sm o f adsor pt i on o f xant hat es on pyr i t e surfaces has been t he subj ect
o f a number o f st udi es and has been ext ensi vel y r evi ewed [ e. g. 31, 34, 35] .
Di t hi ophosphat es, usual l y us ed as a secondar y col l ect ors, are r epor t ed to be sel ect i ve against pyr i t e and
to a l esser ext ent agai nst ar senopyr i t e. Ami ne based col l ect or s have been r epor t ed to be capabl e o f fl oat i ng
cyani ded pyr i t e wi t hout t he us e o f aci d pr econdi t i oni ng [36]. Thi onocar bamat es, t hi ocarbamat es and
t hi oureas have been f ound t o be st abl e over a wi de pH range. It has al so recent l y been r epor t ed that t he
addi t i on o f hydr ol yzed pol yacr yl ami de reduces t he nonpr oduct i ve consumpt i on o f but yl xant hat e when
fl oat i ng gol d bear i ng pyr i t e [37].
Whe n t he maj or pur pos e o f floating gol d beari ng pyr i t e is to pr oduce sul phuri c acid by t he roast i ng o f
t he concent r at e and t he cat al yt i c oxi dat i on o f t he resultant sul phur di oxi de, a suf f i ci ent l y hi gh grade o f
about 32 % is requi red to sat i sfy t he aut ot hermal nat ure o f t he roast i ng pr ocess [38]. Thi s const rai nt resul t s
in decr eased gol d r ecover i es, in s ome cases o f onl y 50 %, when floating pyr i t e f r om cyani de resi dues.
Ar s e n o p y r i t e
Ar s enopyr i t e has ver y si mi l ar pr oper t i es to pyr i t e and t he fl ot at i on condi t i ons f or its r ecover y are si mi l ar
t o pyr i t e [23]. Whe n t he ar senopyr i t e needs to be separat ed f r om pyri t e, t he f or mer is usual l y depr essed
and this is di scussed bel ow.
P y r r h o t i t e
Pyr r hot i t e fl oat s readi l y in aci d and neutral pH ranges [39]. Surface coat i ngs in t he al kal i ne regi ons
resul t s in l ower r ecover y and col l ect or regi mes are similar to t hose for pyr i t e [40].
Co p p e r - g o l d Or e s And Mi x e d Sul phi de Or e s
Si nce cyani de l eachi ng o f gol d beari ng copper or es and por phr y copper ores, whi ch usual l y cont ai n onl y
small quant i t i es o f gol d, e. g. 0. 5 g/ t , is uneconomi c, t hese are treated so as t o yi el d a bul k copper - gol d
concent r at e whi ch is fed t o smel t ers [41, 42]. Thi s fl ot at i on is carri ed out usi ng xant hat es and a pr omot er
and it is f r equent l y necessar y to add a sul phi di ser such as Na2S [ 5, 43, 44] .
It is normal pract i ce to regri nd t he r ougher and scavenger concent rat e be f or e refl oat i ng in t he cl eaner [44]
a pract i ce not us ed on gol d pyr i t e plants. In a recent appl i cat i on chal copyr i t e was separat ed f r om
pyr i t e/ ar senopyr i t e wi t hout t he us e o f cyani de to depr ess t he latter. In this wa y t he copper concent r at e earl
be t reat ed separat el y by smel t i ng and t he pyr i t e/ ar senopyr i t e by bact eri al l eachi ng [36].
842 C . T . O' CoNNoR and R. C. DUNNE
PROMOTERS
These are collectors added in smaller quantities than those of the primary collector and their addition
results in overall better flotation recoveries. The term "synergism" is often applied to this phenomenon.
The order of addition of reagents can also be important and it has been suggested, for example, that when
weaker collectors are added first, they adsorb on the strong sites, followed by the stronger adsorbing
collector which then adsorbs on the weak sites [45]. Dithiophosphates are probably the most widely used
promoters in gold flotation [5,46].
FROTHERS
The strength and stability of the froth is important when floating free gold. There appears to be a
preference for polyglycol-ether based frothers on most gold plants in conjunction with another frother.
When selectivity is required or, in the case of copper gold ores, where a copper concentrate is sold to a
smelter, a weaker frother such as MIBC is used [47,48].
ACTI VATORS
In gold flotation these are soluble base metal salts where the metal ion adsorbs onto the mineral surface
thus changing its surface chemical properties. In this way the pH range of flotation for the mineral can
be extended, the rates of flotation increased and selectivity improved.
The role of copper sulphate, which is widely used as an activator in the flotation of gold bearing pyrite
[49], is still not entirely clear. It has been generally shown that when copper sulphate is used as a flotation
modifier, better grades and recoveries are obtained for gold [50], telluride [22], stibnite [25], pyrite
[39,40], pyrrhotite [40] and arsenopyrite [51].
It has been suggested that activation with copper sulphate increases the flotation of coarse pyrite and the
overall rate of flotation [6]. The adsorption of copper onto pyrite and pyrrhotite is pH dependent [39,40],
smaller quantities being adsorbed at alkaline conditions. Adding xanthate to copper sulphate, under
conditions where no precipitate forms, increased the adsorption of copper onto pyrrhotite but decreased
its adsorption on pyrite [40].
A survey of plant operations has shown that copper sulphate addition appears to influence mainly the froth
stability and that there is an optimum dosage - too little resulting in high slime recoveries and too much
resulting in froth instability [52]. Lead sulphate or nitrate is often used in preference to copper sulphate
for the activation of stibnite [25].
DEPRESSANTS FOR SI LI CATES AND CARBONATES
A number of depressants such as guar gums, starch and carboxymethylcellulose are used in gold flotation
circuits to counteract the adverse effects of talc [49], carbonaceous, aluminous, iron oxide and manganese
slimes [49], pyrophyllite [5] and carbonates [53]. Selection of the correct depressant type and dosage is
critical as overdosage results in both loss of free gold [49] and sulphides that contain gold [54]. The
combination of collector and depressant is also important since in the flotation of pyrite, for example, guar
gum will have a more adverse effect when used with mercaptobenzothiazole than with xanthate [54].
Alternatively small quantities of frother are sometimes added to the pulp and the talcaceous minerals such
as pyrophyllite are floated in the rougher cells with a richer bulk sulphide concentrate being floated after
this. The talc concentrate which contains 30-40 % of the gold is cyanided separately or recombined with
the sulphide tailing prior to cyanidation [5]. Tannic acid has been shown to be reasonably successful in
depressing chlorite [55].
The flotation of gold bearing ores--a review 843
Ores containing a high level of carbonates are often problematic in downstream bio-oxidation processes
since their presence in the concentrate influences the subsequent acid requirement for maintaining the
correct pH. Lignin sulphonate has been shown to be an efficient depressant for the carbonates [36].
PREFERENTI AL DEPRESSION-FLOTATION
Many gold bearing ores consist of mixtures of sulphides and hence it is often necessary to carry out a
differential flotation which may involve the selective depression of one or more ores.
Pyrite-Arsenopyrite
It is often found that gold is associated with arsenopyrite in a pyrite-arsenopyrite system [56,57,58].
Although the arsenopyrite is usually depressed, there is considerable interest in selectively floating the
arsenopyrite from the pyrite in order to produce a concentrate for treatment by pressure oxidative or
bacterial leaching. Bacterial oxidation subsequent to flotation is however sensitive to the presence of
residual flotation reagents and hence it is critical to establish the toxicity of the reagents prior to use.
Bacterial leaching also removes the constraint which roasting places on minimum sulphur grade. Bacteria
will often adhere to the mineral surface and the high gold concentrations sometimes observed in the
troublesome bacterial leach reactor froths suggest that the bacteria may play a collecting role depending
on the hydrophobie nature of the particular bacteria surfaces [59,60].
Regulating the oxidation state of the pyrite and arsenopyrite by the addition of oxidants or reductants is
the key to selective separation [56]. Potassium permanganate is the preferred oxidant and when used as
an arsenopyrite depressant is coupled with control of the redox potential at between 400 and 500mV [61 ].
When potassium peroxodisulphate is used it not only depresses the arsenopyrite but may also activate the
pyrite [57]. Modifiers such as sodium metabisulphite, hydrazinium sulphate and magnesia can significantly
enhance this separation [56]. Proper addition of copper sulphate has also resulted in better separations.
A two stage process has been recently been reported which yields recoveries of arsenopyrite and pyrite
of about 60 % and 20 % respectively using mixtures of dithiophosphates and dithiocarbamates [51].
Pyrrhot i t e - Pyrite/arsenopyrite
The selective removal of pyrrhotite to reduce cyanide and oxygen consumption in the gold leaching
process has been successfully applied. Preaeration of the pulp before flotation results in a selective
flotation of pyrite and arsenopyrite from pyrrhotite [12]. Conditioning with potassium permanganate in
an alkaline circuit has also been also successfully tested [62]. Dithiophosphates, usually used as a
secondary collector, are reported to be selective against pyrite and to a lesser extent against arsenopyrite
[ 5 1 1 .
S t i b n i t e - P y r i t e / a r s e n o p y r i t e
Gold bearing ore deposits that contain stibnite (and possibly aurostibite) have arsenopyrite and pyrite
present and significant amounts of gold are often associated with the latter minerals. Since antimony
causes problems in the cyanide leaching process, its separation from the other sulphides is desirable. This
may be achieved by floating at a higher pH, depressing the stibnite and activating the arsenopyrite/pyrite
using copper sulphate [25]. Conversely, a bulk sulphide flotation at neutral pH with the addition of lead
nitrate activates the stibnite. The stibnite is then separated from the other sulphides by adding sodium
hydroxide and floating the copper activated arsenopyrite/pyrite [63].
C o p p e r - Pyrite/arsenopyrite/pyrrhotite
When it is necessary to separate copper gold bearing ores from a mixed sulphide ore it is usual to depress
the other sulphides by addition of cyanide and operation of the plant at high pH. In this way a selective
gold bearing copper concentrate can be produced for smelting.
844 C. T. O'CoNNoR and R. C. DUNNE
p H
Control of pH is of paramount importance in flotation. The zeta potential of pyrite is dependent on pH
but the values quoted in the literature are variable mainly due to the fact that the pyrite surface is very
susceptible to oxidation and thus can vary from a sulphur surface to an iron oxide surface depending on
the past history of the mineral [64,65]. In general it is desirable to use collectors which are not highly
sensitive to pH changes since pH is difficult to control accurately. Often however the pH of flotation is
dependent on the immediate upstream process. For example, when flotation follows uranium leach or acid
leaching of cyanide residues, a low or neutral pH will be chosen. The gangue components will also
influence the pH of choice. Pyrophyllite, for example, floats readily in the pH range 5-9 and thus a value
outside this range is usually chosen. At high pH values flotation of talcaceous minerals such as
pyrrophyllite is not favoured and hence this pH is desirable since it precludes the need to use expensive
depressants. However pyrite flotation is not favoured at this pH and the addition of more collector and
copper sulphate is required. Copper bearing sulphides are usually floated at alkaline pHs.
E h AND CONTROLLED SULPHI DI ZATI ON
Ralston [64] has reviewed extensively the role of E h in the flotation of sulphides and has shown that when
Eh data is used intelligently in conjunction with other information such as size by size recovery curves,
flotation rate constants, solution and surface chemical analyses, the net information can substantially aid
the identification of new, as well as lead to the improvement of existing, processing strategies. Controlled
potential sulphidization has been successfully applied on plant scale to improve overall recovery of
sulphides from copper-gold bearing ores [66].
PHYSI CAL PARAMETERS
A number of physical factors influence the efficiency of the flotation of gold bearing ores. These include
particle size, bubble size, temperature, pulp density, aeration, agitation speed and residence time in the
flotation cell. Since the effects of these factors are common to most flotation systems only those features
which are peculiar to the flotation of gold bearing ores will be discussed in this section.
Part i cl e Size
Studies have been carried out to determine the influence of gold particle size on the flotation of gold from
gold/quartz mixtures and ores [11,49,67,68]. The recovery of sub-12 ~m gold can be as high as 80% in
plants treating milled ore. Lower recoveries in the case of tailings treatment plants is mainly due to poor
recoveries of coarse "chatted" (i.e. composite gangue-pyrite) grains of pyrite as these particles contain
proportionately large quantities of gold. There is usually no free gold present in current residues whilst
in old residues the free gold is normally fine having largely originated via the precipitation of gold from
solution. The presence of fine pyrophyllite influences the grade but not the the flotation response of the
gold [6]. The control of aeration, agitation speed and pulp density in the flotation cells has also been
shown to be crucial in the flotation of gold. The upper size of gold recovered efficiently under turbulent
conditions has been reported to be as high as 0. 71mm at > 80% recovery [67]. In practice it has been
found that the coarser the auriferous pyrite, within the limitations of bubble levitation and liberation, the
higher the rate of flotation and the higher the grade due to less gangue entrainment [1].
Te mp e r a t ur e
The effect of temperature on the flotation of pyrite has been reported [69,70]. An increase in temperature
up to 50C results in an increase in the rate and grades of flotation as a result of the reduced viscosity
of the water draining back and cleaning the froth of gangue particles. At temperatures above 60C
flotation performance decreased possibly due to collector desorption. Temperature control of the flotation
pulp has been applied on some gold plants to maintain performance especially during the winter months
[71,72]. The temperature is usually maintained above 25oc.
The flotation of gold bearing ores--a review 84.5
Re s i d e n c e T i me
Because flotation is often a rate controlled process it is important to optimize the cell residence time. It
has been reported that the rate of gold and pyrite flotation is greater from plants treating coarse milled
ores than from those treating finer ores or tailings. Thus shorter flotation residence times [less cell volume
or greater throughput and consequently lower capital) and fewer cleaning stages are required for coarsely
milled flotation feeds. Pulp densities are usually 30 - 40% solids by mass [5].
CONDITIONING PROCEDURES
The manner in which the ore is conditioned or pretreated is of great importance in the flotation of gold
bearing ores. Factors such as the grinding media, pre-aeration, reagent concentration and sequence of
addition, oxygen, nitrogen or sulphur dioxide conditioning, acid leaching and conditioning time all play
a role in improving the flotation efficiency. It has been reported [73,74,75] that an increase in the energy
input into the pulp by increased conditioning time and impeller speeds leads to an increase in the recovery
and rate of flotation of pyrite. In the treatment of current or aged cyanide residue material it is necessary
to acid condition the ore with sulphur dioxide or sulphuric acid in order to remove the oxidized surface
layer from the gold or pyrite particles [50]. This can also sometimes be achieved by a short grind prior
to flotation. The surface chemistry of the interactions between xanthate and oxidised pyrite surfaces has
been studied and it is well known that it is necessary to acid treat aged pyrite ore prior to flotation
[33,76].
When flotation follows cyanidation significant amounts of lime and cyanide may be present. Return water
from dams can also contain cyanide. Cyanide is inherently a pyrite depressant and even traces can have
a significant effect on flotation. Both of these factors require that the feed must be conditioned at acid or
neutral pH in the presence of copper sulphate in order to destroy the effect of lime and cyanide [77].
However amine based collectors may be capable of floating cyanided pyrite without the use of acid
pre-conditioning [23,14].
Laboratory conditioning of pyrite prior to flotation using oxygen, nitrogen ,r sulphur dioxide has been
reported [65,78,79,80]. These gases will all influence the E h of the pulp which in turn has an effect on
the flotation of sulphides [64,81]. In general the use of oxygen rich gas improves the flotation of pyrite
under controlled conditions. These effects can be related to the redox potential of the pulp and
conditioning can be controlled by monitoring this potential [79,64]. An increase in the concentration of
oxygen in the pulp enhances the adsorption of xanthates [65], increases the redox potential of the pulp
and improves the condition of the froth [82]. The selectivity of pyrite flotation in the presence of other
sulphide minerals can be enhanced by pretreatment with nitrogen [78]. This may imply that the other
minerals are depressed more than pyrite. Bubbling sulphur dioxide through the pulp to acidify it has also
been reported to increase the sulphur grade at 85% recovery from 12% to 19% [80]. Moreover SO 2
addition to cyanide residues has been shown to result in precipitation of the remaining gold in solution
lost during filtration. This gold was recovered subsequently in the bulk pyrite flotation circuit [71,72].
When using E h as a control parameter the proper value will depend on the oxidizing or reducing nature
of the pulp. This topic has been reviewed by Poling [35].
Grinding media also affect the flotation of sulphide minerals [83,84]. Unlike other sulphide minerals, the
effect of using stainless steel or autogeneous media for milling pyrite is not significant. Since pyrite is the
most readily oxidized of the common sulphide minerals it is possible that the reducing conditions created
during grinding in mild steel mills have little effect on the subsequent behaviour of pyrite.
FLOTATION CELLS AND CIRCUITS
The most interesting and important application of new flotation cells for gold flotation is the Skim Air
[Flash] flotation cells especially in a flotation plant where the tailings are not cyanide leached (e.g.
846 c . T . O'CONNOR and R. C. DUNNE
copper-gold ores). The high relative density of gold and some gold minerals means that they are recycled
in the grinding-classification circuit until they are of sufficiently small size to exit the cyclone classifier.
The small particle size presents problems as with any other mineral resulting in slow flotation rates.
Flotation recoveries of free gold have improved dramatically with the installation of the Skim Air flotation
cells in the grinding circuit [85,86,87]. Some modifications have had to be made to circuits where
viscosity is a problem. Reagent additions are relatively low and the flotation rates fast. Froth level control
is important because froth stability is reduced due to the high bubble loadings and the coarse nature of
the concentrate. Column cells have recently shown potential for improving gold recovery as its relatively
quiescent pulp phase may enable selective collectors to be used more efficiently. They also have the
potential to enable the more efficient use of conditioning gases such as nitrogen and sulphur dioxide [61].
The use of various flotation circuits has been reviewed elsewhere [ 1,5]. Flotation circuit configuration can
be divided into two categories, viz. open circuits with no cleaning at all, and open and closed circuits with
single and two stage cleaning. Open circuits have the advantage of avoiding the feedback of non-steady
state effects. Closed and open circuit cleaning is used on plants where high grade concentrates are
required for roasting and smelting. Cleaning circuit design depends on the sulphide particle size and the
presence or absence of floatable gangue components.
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2.
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14.
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